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 LIBRARY  OF  THE  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 
 
 PRINCETON.     N.    J. 
 The       Ste|3hen        Collins        Donation 
 
 vision. .:..J^..lZ~'^ 
 
 Divi. 
 
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CLASSICAL    DICTIONARY: 
 
 CONTAINING     AN     ACCOUNT     OF 
 
 THE    PRINCIPAL    PROPER    NAMES 
 
 MENTIONED      IN 
 
 ANCIENT    AUTHORS, 
 
 AND 
 
 INTENDED    TO    ELUCIDATE    ALL    THE    IMPORTANT    POINTS   CONNECTED    WITH    THE 
 GEOGRAPHY,    HISTORY,    BIOGRAPHY,    MYTHOLOGY,    AND    FINE    ARTS 
 
 OF  THE 
 
 GREEKS    AND     ROMANS. 
 
 TOGETHER   WITH 
 
 AN  ACCOUNT  OF  COINS,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES, 
 
 WITH  TABULAR  VALUES  OF  THE  SAME. 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES   A  NT  HON,   LL.D., 
 
 JAY-PROFESSOR    OF    THE    GREEK    AND    LATIN   LANGUAGES    IN    COLUMBIA    COLLEGE, 
 NEW-YORK,   AND    RECTOR    OF    THE    GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. 
 
 "Hue  undique gaza." — Viro. 
 
 NEW-YORK: 
 
 PUBLISHED     BY     HARPER     &     BROTHERS, 
 
 NO.       82      CLIFF-STREET. 
 184  8. 
 
Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1841,  by 
 
 Charles  Anthon,  LL.D., 
 Li  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Southern  District  of  New-York 
 
TO 
 
 JOHN    A  N  T  H  O  N,    ESQ., 
 
 COUNSELLOR    AT    LAW,    &c., 
 
 WHO,    AJIID    THE    DUTIES    OF    A    LABORIOUS    PROFESSION,    CAN    STILL    FIND    LEISURE 
 
 FOR    HOLDING    CONVERSE    WITH    THE    PAGES    OF   ANTIQUITY,    AND    IN    WHOJI 
 
 LEGAL    ERUDITION    IS    SO    HAPPILY    BLENDED    WITH    THE    LIGHTER 
 
 GRACES    or    ANCIENT    AND    MODERN    LITERATURE, 
 
 THIS    WORK 
 
 IS 
 AFFECTIONATELY      INSCRIBED, 
 
 AS    A    FEEBLE    RETURN    FOR    MANY    ACTS    OF    FRATERNAL    KINDNESS,    AND    (IF   A    BROTHER 
 
 MAY    BE    ALLOWED    TO    EXPRESS    HIMSELF    IN    THIS    WAYJ    AS    A    TESTIMONIAL 
 
 OF    FOND    REGARD    FOR    EMINENT    ABILITIES    IN    UNISON 
 
 WITH    EMINENT    INTEGRITY    AND    AVORTH 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO  THE    FOURTH    EDITION. 
 
 In  laying  the  result  of  his  labours  before  the  public,  the  author  wishes  it  to  be  distinctly 
 understood,  that  the  present  volume  is  not,  as  some  might  perhaps  imagine,  merely  an  im- 
 proved edition  of  the  Classical  Dictionary  of  Lempriere,  but  a  vv^ork  entirely  new,  and  re- 
 sembling its  predecessor  in  nothing  but  the  name.  The  author  owes  it,  in  fact,  to  himself  to 
 be  thus  explicit  in  his  statement,  since  he  would  feel  but  poorly  compensated  for  the  heavy 
 toil  expended  on  the  present  work,  were  he  regarded  as  having  merely  remodelled,  or  given 
 a  new  arrangement  to,  the  labours  of  another.  So  far  from  this  having  been  done,  there 
 are,  in  truth,  but  few  articles,  and  those  not  very  important  ones,  wherein  any  re- 
 semblance can  be  traced  between  Lempriere's  work  and  the  present.  In  evdry  other  re- 
 spect, the  Classical  Dictionary  now  offered  to  the  public  will  be  found  to  be  as  diff'erent 
 from  Lempriere's  as  the  nature  of  the  case  can  possibly  admit. 
 
 It  cannot  be  denied  that  Lempriere's  Classical  Dictionary  was  a  very  popular  work  in  its 
 day.  The  numerous  editions  through  which  it  ran  would  show  this  very  conclusively, 
 without  the  necessity  of  any  farther  proof.  Still,  however,  it  may  be  asserted  with  equal 
 safety,  that  this  same  popularity  was  mainly  owing  to  the  circumstance  of  there  being  no 
 competitor  in  the  field.  Considered  in  itself,  indeed,  the  work  put  forth  but  very  feeble 
 claims  to  patronage,  for  its  scholarship  was  superficial  and  inaccurate,  and  its  language  was 
 frequently  marked  by  a  grossness  of  allusion,  which  rendered  the  book  a  very  unfit  one  to 
 be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  young.  And  yet  so  strong  a  hold  had  it  taken  of  public  favour 
 both  at  home  and  in  oiu:  own  country,  that  not  only  were  no  additions  or  corrections  made 
 in  the  work,  but  the  very  idea  itself  of  making  such  was  deemed  altogether  visionary.  The 
 author  of  the  present  volume  remembers  very  well  what  surprise  was  excited,  when,  on 
 having  been  employed  to  prepare  a  new  edition  of  Lempriere  in  1825,  he  hinted  the  pro- 
 priety of  making  some  alterations  in  the  text.  The  answer  received  from  a  certain  quarter 
 was,  that  one  might  as  well  think  of  making  alterations  in  the  Scriptures  as  in  the  pages  of 
 Dr.  Lempriere  !  and  that  all  an  editor  had  to  do  was  merely  to  revise  the  references  con- 
 tained in  the  English  work.  When,  however,  several  palpable  errors,  on  the  part  of  Lem- 
 priere, had  been  pointed  out  by  him,  and  the  editor  was  allowed  to  correct  these  and  others 
 of  a  similar  kind,  he  still  felt  the  impossibility  of  presenting  the  work  to  the  American  pub- 
 lic in  that  state  in  which  alone  it  ought  to  have  appeared,  partly  from  the  undue  estimation 
 in  which  the  labours  of  Dr.  Lempriere  were  as  yet  generally  held,  and  partly  from  a  con- 
 sciousness of  his  own  inability,  through  the  want  of  a  more  extended  course  of  reading,  to 
 do  justice  to  such  a  task.  With  all  its  imperfections,  however,  the  edition  referred  to  was 
 well  received  ;  and  when  a  second  one  was  soon  after  called  for,  the  publisher  felt  himself 
 imboldened  to  allow  the  editor  the  privilege  of  introducing  more  extensive  improvements, 
 and  of  making  the  work,  in  every  point  of  view,  more  deserving  of  patronage. 
 
 The  republication  of  this  latter  edition  in  England,  and  the  implied  confession,  connected 
 with  such  a  step,  that  the  original  work  of  Lempriere  stood  in  need  of  improvement,  now 
 broke  the  charm  which  had  fettered  the  judgments  of  so  many  of  om-  own  countrymen,  and 
 it  then  began  to  be  conceded  on  all  sides  that  the  Classical  Dictionary  of  Dr.  Lempriere 
 was  by  no  means  entitled  to  the  claim  of  infallibility ;  nay,  indeed,  that  it  was  defective 
 throughout.  When  the  ownership  of  the  work,  therefore,  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
 Messrs.  Carvill,  and  a  new  edition  was  again  wanted,  those  intelligent  and  enterprising 
 publishers  gave  the  editor  permission  to  make  whatever  alterations  and  improvements  he 
 might  see  fit ;  and  the  Classical  Dictionary  now  appeared  in  two  octavo  volumes,  enriched 
 with  new  materials  derived  from  various  sources,  and  presenting  a  much  fairer  claim  than 
 before  to  the  attention  of  the  student. 
 
 This  last-mentioned  edition  became,  in  its  turn,  soon  exhausted,  and  a  new  one  Avas  de- 
 manded ;  when  the  copyright  of  the  work  passed  from  the  Messrs.  Carvill  to  the  Brothers 
 Harper.     To  individuals  of  less  liberal  spirit,  and  more  alive  to  the  prospect  of  immediate 
 
^  PREFACE. 
 
 aclvantafe,it  would  have  appeared  sufTicient-to  republish  merely  the  edition  in  two  volumes, 
 without  any  farther  improvement.  The  Messrs.  Harper,  however,  thought  differently  on 
 the  subject.  They  wished  a  Classical  Dictionary  in  as  complete  and  useful  a  form  as  it 
 could  possibly  be  made  ;  and,  with  this  view,  notwithstanding  the  large  amount  which  had 
 been  expended  on  the  purchase  of  the  work,  the  stereotype  plates  were  destroyed,  though 
 still  perfectly  serviceable,  and  the  editor  was  employed  to  prepare  a  work,  Avhich,  while  it 
 should  embrace  all  that  was  valuable  in  the  additions  that  had  from  time  to  time  been  made 
 by  him,  was  to  retain  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the  old  matter  of  Lempriere,  and  to  supply 
 its  place  with  newly-prepared  articles.  This  has  now,  accordingly,  been  done.  A  7iew 
 work  is  the  result ;  not  an  improved  edition  of  the  old  one,  but  a  Avork  on  Avhich  the  patient 
 labour  of  more  than  two  entire  years  has  been  faithfully  expended,  and  which,  though  com- 
 prised in  a  single  volume,  will  be  found  to  contain  much  more  than  even  the  edition  of 
 Lempriere  in  two  volumes,  as  published  by  the  Messrs.  Carvill.  Whatever  was  worth 
 preserving  among  the  additions  previously  made  by  the  editor,  he  has  here  retained  ;  but, 
 in  general,  even  these  are  so  altered  and  improved  as,  in  many  instances,  to  be  difficult  of 
 recognition ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  all  the  old  articles  of  Lempriere,  excepting  a  few, 
 have  been  superseded  by  new  ones. 
 
 Such  is  a  brief  history  of  the  present  work.  It  remains  now  to  give  a  general  idea  of 
 the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  executed.  The  principal  heads  embraced  in  the  volume 
 are,  as  the  title  indicates,  the  Geography,  History,  Biography,  Mythology,  and  Fine  Arts 
 of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  subject  of  Archaeology  is  only  incidentally  noticed,  as  it 
 is  the  intention  of  the  author  to  edit,  Avith  all  convenient  speed,  a  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
 Roman  Antiquities,  which  will  contain  an  abstract  of  all  the  valuable  matter  connected  with 
 ihese  subjects  that  is  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  the  most  eminent  German  philologists. 
 Only  a  few,  therefore,  of  the  more  important  topics  that  have  a  bearing  on  Archaeology,  are 
 introduced  into  the  present  volume,  such  as  the  Greek  Theatre,  and  theatrical  exhibitions 
 in  general,  the  national  games  of  Greece,  the  dictatorship  and  agrarian  laws  of  the  Romans, 
 and  some  other  points  of  a  similar  kind. 
 
 If  the  author  were  asked  on  what  particular  subject,  among  the  many  that  are  discussed 
 in  the  present  volume,  the  greatest  amount  of  care  had  been  expended,  he  would  feel 
 strongly  inclined  to  say,  that  of  Ancient  Geography.  Not  that  the  others  have  been  by  any 
 means  slighted,  and  the  principal  degree  of  labour  concentrated  under  this  head.  Far  from 
 it.  But  the  fact  is,  that  in  a  work  like  the  present,  the  articles  which  relate  to  Ancient 
 Geography  are  by  far  the  most  numerous,  and,  in  some  respects,  the  most  important,  and 
 require  a  large  portion  of  assiduous  care.  In  what  relates,  therefore,  to  the  Geography  of 
 former  days,  the  author  thinks  he  can  say,  without  the  least  imputation  of  vanity,  that  in  no 
 work  in  jhe  English  language  will  there  be  found  a  larger  body  of  valuable  information  on 
 this  mosc  mi  cresting  subject,  than  in  that  which  is  here  offered  to  the  American  student.  In 
 connexion  with  the  geography  of  past  ages,  various  theories,  moreover,  are  given  respecting 
 the  origin  and  migration  of  different  communities,  and  some  of  the  more  striking  legends  of 
 antiquity  are  referred  to  concerning  the  changes  which  the  earth's  surface  has  from  time  to 
 time  undergone.  Some  idea  of  the  nature  of  these  topics  may  be  formed  by  consulting  the 
 following  articles  :  j^gyptus,  Atlantis,  Gallia,  Grcecia,  Lcctonia,  Mediterraneum  Mare,  Me' 
 roe,  Ogyges,  Pelasgi,  and  Plmnicia.  Nor  is  this  all.  Books  of  Travels  have  been  made 
 to  contribute  their  stores  of  information,  and  the  student  is  thus  transported  in  fancy  to  the 
 scenes  of  ancient  story,  and  wanders,  as  it  were,  amid  the  most  striking  memorials  of 
 the  past. 
 
 The  Historical  department  has  also  been  a  subject  of  careful  attention.  Here,  again,  the 
 origin  of  nations  forms  a  very  attractive  field  of  inquiry,  and  the  student  is  put  in  possession 
 of  the  ablest  and  most  recent  speculations  of  both  German  and  English  scholarship.  The 
 Argonautic  expedition,  for  example,  the  legend  of  the  Trojan  Avar,  events  dimly  shadoAved 
 forth  in  the  distant  horizon  of  "  gray  antiquity  ;"  the  origin  of  Rome,  the  early  movements 
 of  the  Doric  and  Ionic  races  among  the  Greeks  ;  or,  Avhat  may  prove  still  more  interesting 
 to  some,  the  origin  of  civilization  in  India  and  the  remote  East ;  all  these  topics  Avill  be 
 found  discussed  under  their  respective  heads,  and  will,  it  is  hoped,  teach  the  young  stu- 
 dent that  history  is  something  more  than  a  mere  record  of  dates,  or  a  chronicle  of  Avars  and 
 crimes. 
 
 Particular  attention  has  also  been  paid  to  the  department  of  Biography.  This  subject 
 will  be  found  divided  into  several  heads  :  biographical  sketches,  namely,  of  public  men,  of 
 individuals  eminent  in  literature,  of  scientific  characters,  of  physicians,  of  philosophers,  and 
 
PREFACE.  ^i 
 
 also  of  persons  distinguished  in  the  early  history  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  literary 
 biographies,  in  particular,  will,  it  is  conceived,  be  found  both  attractive  and  useful  to  the 
 student,  since  we  have  no  work  at  present  in  the  English  language  in  which  a  full  view  is 
 given  of  Grecian  and  Roman  literature.  The  sketches  of  ancient  mathematicians,  and  of 
 other  individuals  eminent  for  their  attainments  in  science,  will  not  be  found  without  inter- 
 est even  in  our  own  day.  Nor  will  the  medical  man  depart  altogether  unrewarded  from  a 
 perusal  of  those  biographies  which  treat  of  persons  distinguished  of  old  in  the  healing  art. 
 In  the  accounts,  morecvar,  that  are  given  of  the  philosophers  and  philosophic  systems  of 
 antiquity,  although  half-learned  sciolists  have  passed  upon  these  topics  so  sweeping  a  sen- 
 tence of  condemnation,  much  curious  information  may  nevertheless  be  obtained,  and  much 
 food  for  speculation,  too,  on  what  the  mind  can  effect  by  its  own  unaided  powers  in  relation 
 to  subjects  that  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  us  all.  The  ecclesiastical  biographies  will 
 also  be  found  numerous,  and,  it  is  hoped,  not  uninteresting.  None  of  them  fall  properly,  it 
 is  true,  within  the  sphere  of  a  Classical  Dictionary,  yet  they  could  not  well  have  been 
 omitted,  since  many  of  the  matters  discussed  in  them  have  reference  more  immediately  to 
 classical  times. 
 
 The  subject  of  Mythology  has  supplied,  next  to  that  of  Ancient  Geography,  the  largest 
 number  of  articles  to  the  present  work.  In  the  treatment  of  these,  it  has  been  th?  chief 
 aim  of  the  author  to  lay  before  the  student  the  most  important  speculations  of  the  two  great 
 schools  (the  Mystic  and  anti-Mystic)  which  now  divide  the  learned  of  Europe.  At  the 
 head  of  the  former  stands  Creuzer,  whose  elaborate  work  (Symholik  und  Mythologie  der 
 alien  Volker)  has  reappeared  under  so  attractive  a  form  through  the  taste  and  learning  of 
 Guigniaut.  The  champion  of  the  anti-Mystic  school  appears  to  be  Lobeck,  although  many 
 eminent  names  are  also  marshalled  on  the  same  side.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author  to 
 give  a  fair  and  impartial  view  of  both  systems,  although  he  cannot  doubt  but  that  the  for- 
 mer will  appear  to  the  student  by  far  the  more  attractive  one  of  the  two.  In  the  discussion 
 of  mythological  topics,  very  valuable  materials  have  been  obtained  from  the  excellent  work 
 of  Keightley,  who  deserves  the  praise  of  having  first  laid  open  to  the  English  reader  the 
 stores  of  German  erudition  in  the  department  of  Mythology.  The  author  will,  he  trusts,  be 
 pardoned  for  having  intruded  some  theories  of  his  own  on  several  topics  of  a  mythological 
 character,  more  particularly  under  the  articles  ^mazones,  Jisi^  lo,  Odinus,  and  Orpheus. 
 It  is  a  difficult  matter,  in  so  attractive  a  field  of  inquiry  as  this,  to  resist  the  temptation  of 
 inflicting  one's  own  crude  speculations  upon  the  patience  of  the  reader.  In  preparing  the 
 mythological  articles,  the  greatest  care  has  been  also  taken  to'  exclude  from  them  everything 
 offensive,  either  in  language  or  detail,  and  to  present  such  a  view  of  the  several  topics  con- 
 nected with  this  department  of  inquiry  as  may  satisfy  the  most  scrupulous,  and  make  the 
 present  work  a  safe  guide,  in  a  moral  point  of  view,  to  the  young  of  either  sex. 
 
 The  department  of  the  Fine  Arts  forms  an  entirely  new  feature  in  the  present  work. 
 The  biographies  of  Artists  have  been  prepared  Avith  great  care,  and  criticisms  upon  their 
 known  productions  have  been  given  from  the  most  approved  authorities,  both  ancient  and 
 modern.  The  information  contained  under  this  head  will,  it  is  conceived,  prove  not  unac- 
 ceptable either  to  the  modern  artist  or  the  general  reader. 
 
 In  a  work  like  the  present,  the  materials  for  which  have  been  drawn  from  so  many 
 sources,  it  would  be  a  difficult  task  to  specify,  within  the  limits  of  an  ordinary  preface,  the 
 different  quarters  to  which  obligations  are  due.  The  author  has  preferred,  therefore,  ap- 
 pending to  the  volume  a  formal  catalogue  of  authorities,  at  the  risk  of  being  thought  vain  in 
 so  doing.  A  few  works,  however,  to  which  he  has  been  particularly  indebted,  deserve  to 
 be  also  mentioned  here.  These  are  the  volumes  of  Cramer  on  Ancient  Geography ;  the 
 historical  researches  of  Thirlwall ;  and  the  work  of  Keightley  already  referred  to.  From 
 the  Encyclopsedia  also,  published  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge, 
 numerous  excellent  articles  have  been  obtained,  which  contribute  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
 value  of  the  present  publication.  In  every  instance  care  has  been  taken  to  give  at  the  end 
 of  each  article  the  main  authority  from  which  the  materials  have  been  drawn,  a  plan  gen- 
 erally pursued  in  works  of  a  similar  nature,  and  which  was  followed  by  the  author  in  all  the 
 editions  of  Lempriere  prepared  by  him  for  the  press.  A  fairer  mode  of  proceeding  cannot 
 well  be  imagined.  And  yet  complaint  has  been  made  in  a  certain  quarter,  that  the  articles 
 taken  from  the  Encyclopsedia  just  mentioned  are  not  duly  credited  to  that  work,  and  that 
 the  title  of  the  work  itself  has  been  studiously  changed.  Of  the  fallacy  of  the  first  charge, 
 any  one  can  satisfy  himself  by  referring  to  the  pages  of  the  present  volume  where  those  ar- 
 ticles appear ;  while,  with  regard  to  the  second,  the  author  has  merely  to  remark,  that  in 
 
^jj  PREFACE. 
 
 substituting  the  title  of  "  Encyclopsedia  of  Useful  Knowledtre"  for  the  more  vulgar  one  of 
 "  Penny  Cyclopaedia,"  he  always  conceived  that  he  was  doing  a  service  to  that  very  pub- 
 lication itsell".  At  all  events,  the  change  of  title,  if  it  were  indeed  such,  appears  to  have 
 been  a  very  proper  one,  since  it  met  with  the  tacit  approbation  of  certain  so-called  critics, 
 who  would  never  have  allowed  this  opportunity  of  gratifying  personal  animosity  to  have 
 passed  unheeded,  had  they  conceived  it  capable  of  furnishing  any  ground  of  attack. 
 
 The  account  of  Coins,  Weights,  and  Measures,  which  accompanied  the  edition  of  Lem- 
 priere  in  two  volumes,  has  been  appended  to  the  present  work  in  a  more  condensed  and 
 convenient  form.  It  is  from  the  pen  of  Abraham  B.  Conger,  Esq.,  formerly  one  of  the 
 Mathematical  instructers  in  Columbia  College,  but  at  present  a  member  of  the  New- York 
 bar.  The  very  great  clearness  and  ability  which  characterize  this  Essay  have  been  fully 
 acknowledged  by  its  republication  abroad  in  the  Edinburgh  edition  of  Potter's  Grecian  An- 
 tiquities, and  it  will  be  found  far  superior  to  the  labours  of  Arbuthnot,  as  given  in  the  Dic- 
 tionary of  Lempriere. 
 
 Before  concluding,  the  author  must  express  his  grateful  obligations  to  his  friend,  Francis 
 Adams,  Esq.,  of  Banchory  Ternan,  near  Aberdeen  (Scotland),  for  the  valuable  contributions 
 furnished  by  him  under  the  articles  A'p.tius,  Alexander  of  Tralles,  AretcRus,  Celsus,  Dios- 
 corides^  Galenus,  Hippocrates,  Jficander,  Oribasius,  Paulus  ^gineta,  and  many  other 
 medical  biographies  scattered  throughout  the  present  work.  Mr.  Adams  is  well  known 
 abroad  as  the  learned  author  of  "  Hermes  Philologicus,"  and  the  English  translator  of  "  Paul 
 of  iFgina."  Whatever  comes  from  his  pen,  therefore,  carries  with  it  the  double  recom 
 raendation  of  professional  talent  and  sound  and  accurate  scholarsliip. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  typographical  execution  of  the  present  volume,  the  author  need  say 
 but  little.  The  whole  speaks  for  itself,  and  for  the  unsparing  liberality  of  the  publishers. 
 In  point  (f  accuracy,  the  author  is  sure  that  no  work  of  its  size  has  ever  surpassed  it ;  and 
 for  this  accuracy  he  is  mainly  indebted  to  the  unremitting  care  of  his  talented  young  friend, 
 Mr.  Henry  Drisler,  a  graduate  of  Columbia  College,  and  one  of  the  Instructers  in  the  Col- 
 lege-school, of  whose  valuable  services  he  has  had  occasion  to  speak  in  the  preface  to  a 
 previous  work. 
 
 Coiiimhia  College,  August  1,  1842. 
 
 In  preparing  the  present  edition  for  the  press,  the  greatest  care  has  been  taken  to  correct 
 any  typographical  errors  that  may  hitherto  have  escaped  notice,  and  to  introduce  such  other 
 alterations  as  the  additional  reading  of  the  author,  and  new  materials,  furnished  by  works  of 
 a  similar  nature,  have  enabled  him  to  make.  In  furtherance  of  this  view,  he  has  appended 
 a  Supplement  to  the  present  volume,  containing  all  that  appeared  to  him  important  in  the 
 first  number  of  the  new  Classica'l  Dictionary,  now  in  a  course  of  publication  from  the  Lon- 
 don press,  as  well  as  in  the  numbers,  which  have  thus  far  appeared,  of  Pauly's  "  Real-En- 
 cyclopcidie  der  Classischen  Alterthumsivissenschaft"  which  constitutes,  in  fact,  the  principal 
 source  of  supply  from  which  the  authors  of  the  new  Classical  Dictionary  have  drawn  their 
 materials.  The  articles  contained  in  the  Supplement  will  be  found  referred  to  in  the  body 
 of  the  work  under  their  respective  heads,  thus  enabling  the  reader  to  ascertain,  at  a  glance, 
 what  additions  have  been  actually  made. 
 
 Columbia  College,  March  1,  1843. 
 
LIST    OF    WORKS, 
 
 EXCLUSIVE    OF    THE    CLASSICS, 
 
 FORMING    PART    OF    THE   AUTHOr's    PRIVATE    COLLECTION,    AND    WHICH    HAVE    BEEN    CONSULTED     FOR 
 THE    PURPOSES    OF    THE    PRESENT    EDITION. 
 
 A. 
 
 Abiilfedse  Descriptio  ^gypti,  Arabice  et  Latine,  ed.  Mi- 
 
 chaelis,  Gotting.,  1776,  8vo. 
 Ackerman,  Numismatic  Manual,  Lond.,  1840,  8vo. 
 Adagia  Velerum,  Antv.,  1629,  fol. 
 Adelon,  Physiologie  de  I'Homme,  3vols.8vo,  Paris,  1829. 
 Adelung,   Glossarium   mediae  et  infimffi   Latinitatis,  6 
 
 vols.  8vo,  Hala;,  1772-84. 
 ,  Mithndates,  oder  allgemeine  Sprachenkunde, 
 
 4  vols.  8vo,  Berlm,  1806-17. 
 Adrichomius,  Theatrum  Terras   Sanctae,  Col.  Agripp., 
 
 1628,  fol. 
 Ahmedis    Arabsiadse  Vits  et  rerum  gestarum  Timuri, 
 
 &c.,  Historia,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1636. 
 Alphabetum  Brammhanicum,  seu  Indostanum,  Univer- 
 
 sitatis  Kasi,  12mo,  Romae,  Congr.  de  Propag.  Fid.,  1771. 
 Alphabeta  Indica,  id  est,  Granthamicum  seu  Samscrdam- 
 
 icoMalabaricum,   Indostanum   sive   Vanarense,   Na- 
 
 garicum    Vulgare    et    Talinganicum,   12mo,   Romae, 
 
 Congr.  de  Propag.  Fid.,  1791. 
 Alphabetum   Barmanorum,   seu   regni   Avensis,   12mo, 
 
 Romas,  Congr.  de  Propag.  Fid.,  1787. 
 Alphabetum  Tangutanmn  sive  Tibetanum,  12mo,  Romae, 
 
 Congr.  de  Propag.  Fid.,  1773. 
 Alphabetum  J^thiopicum,  sive  Gheer  et  Ampharicum, 
 
 J2mo,  Romae,  Congr.  de  Propag.  Fid.,  1789. 
 Alphabetum  Coptum,  12mo,  Romae,  Congr.  de  Propag. 
 
 Fid. 
 Alphabetum  Persicum,  12mo,  Romae,  Congr.  de  Propag. 
 
 Fid.,  1783. 
 American  Quarterly  Review. 
 Arndt,  Ueber  den  Ursprung  der  Europaischen  Sprachen, 
 
 8vo,  Frankfurt,  1827. 
 Arnold's  History  of  Roine,  Lond.,  1838,  1st  vol.  8vo. 
 Arundell,  Visit  to  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  8vo, 
 
 London,  1828. 
 ,  Discoveries  in  Asia  Minor,  Lond.,  1834, 2  vols. 
 
 8vo. 
 Asiatic  Researches,  5  vols.  4to,  London,  1799. 
 Ast,  Grundriss  der  Philologie,  8vo,  Landshut,  1808. 
 — ,  Platen's  Leben  und  Schriften,  8vo,  Lips.,  1816. 
 Attisches   Museum,  7  vols.  8vo,  Zurich  (Neues  Att. 
 
 Mus,,  3  vols). 
 Aurelius,  De  Cognominibus  Deorum,  12mo,  Franq.,  1696. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bahr,  Geschichte  der  Romischen  Literatur,  2  vols.  Svo, 
 
 Carlsruhe,  1832-6. 
 Bailly,  Lettres  sur  I'A tlantide  de  Platon,  &c.,  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1779. 
 
 ,  Lettres  sur  I'Origine  des  Sciences,  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1777. 
 Balbi,  Atlas  Ethnographique  du  Globe,  fol.,  Paris,  1826. 
 ,  Introduction  a  I'Atlas  Ethnographique,  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1826. 
 
 ,  Abrege  de  Geographie,  Svo,  Paris,  1833. 
 
 Balduinus  de  Calceo  Antiquo,  12mo,  Lips.,  1733. 
 Banier,  Mythology  of  the  Ancients,  4  vols.  Svo,  London, 
 
 1739. 
 Barailon,  Recherches  sur  plusieurs  Monumens  Celtiques 
 
 et  Romains,  Paris,  1808,  Svo. 
 Barth,  Ueber  die  Druiden  der  Kelten,8vo,  Erlang.,  1816. 
 Barihelemy,  Voyage  du  jeune  Anacharsis,  7   vols.    Svo, 
 
 Paris,  1810. 
 Bayle,  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  (Eng.  trans.), 
 
 fol.,  10  vols.,  1734-41. 
 Beaufort,  Uncertainty  of  early  Roman  History,  12mo, 
 
 London,  1740. 
 Beck,  Allgemeines  Repertorium,  8vo,  15  vols.,  1828-33. 
 Beckmann,  History  of  Inventions  and  Discoveries,  4  vols. 
 
 Svo,  London,  1814. 
 Bell,  Pantheon,  4to,  2  vols.,  London,  1790. 
 
 Beloe,  Anecdotes  of  Literature,  6  vols.  Svo,  Lond.,  ]Sl4 
 Bentley,  Dissertation  on  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris,  &c., 
 
 edited  by  Dyce,  2  vols.  Svo,  London,  1836. 
 
 ,  Life  of,  by  Monk,  4to,  London,  1830. 
 
 Berlier,  Precis  Historique  de  I'ancienne  Gaul,  Svo,  Brux 
 
 elles,  1822. 
 Berwick,  Life  of  Scipio  Africanus,  ]2mo,  London,  1817. 
 Bibliotheca  Critica,  3  vols.  Svo,  Amstelod.,  1779-1808. 
 Bibliotheca  Critica  Nova,  5  vols.  Svo,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1S25- 
 
 30. 
 Bilhon,  Du  Gouvernement  des  Romaines,  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1807. 
 ,  Principes  D' Administration  et  D'Economie  Po- 
 litique, des  Anciens  Peuples,  Svo,  Paris,  1S19. 
 Biographie  Universelle,  Ancienne  et  Modenie,  52  vols. 
 
 Svo,  1811-28. 
 Bischoff  und  Moller,  Worterbuch  der  Geographie,  Svo, 
 
 Gotha,  1829. 
 Blair,  Enquiry  into  the  State  of  Slavery  among  the  Ro 
 
 mans,  12mo,  Edinburgh,  1833. 
 Blondell,  Des  Sibylles,  &c.,  4to,  Charenton,  1649. 
 Blum,  Einleitung  in  Rom's  alte  Geschichte,  12mo,  Ber- 
 lin, 1828. 
 Blume,  Iter  Italicum,  12mo,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1824. 
 Bobrik,  Geographie  des  Herodot,  Svo,  Konigsberg,  183S, 
 
 nebst  einem  Atlasse  von  zehn  Karten,  fol. 
 Bochart,  Opera  Omnia,  fol,  2  vols.,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1692. 
 Bockh,  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Graecarum,  fol.,  Berol., 
 
 1825. 
 ,  Die  Staatshaushaltung  der  Athener.  2  vols.  Svo, 
 
 Berlin,  1817. 
 ,  Public  Economy  of  Athens,  2  vols.  Svo,  London, 
 
 1828. 
 ,  Metrologische  Untersuchungen  iiber  Gewichte, 
 
 Miinzfiisse,  und  Masse  des  Alterthums,  Svo,  Berlin, 
 
 1838. 
 Bode,  G.  H.,  Geschichte  der  Hellenischen  Dichtkunst, 
 
 3  vols.  Svo,  Leipzig,  1838-9. 
 ,  Qusestiones  de  antiquissima  carminum  Orphicorum 
 
 aetate,  &c.,  4to,  Gottingae,  1838,  2d  edit. 
 Bohmen,  Heidnische  Opferplatze,  Svo,  Prague,  1836. 
 Bottiger,  C.  A.,  Archaeologie  und  Kunst,  vol.   1,  Svo, 
 
 Breslau,  1828. 
 , ,  Andeutungen,  &c.,  iiber  Archaeologie, 
 
 Svo,  Dresden,  1806. 
 , ,  Sabina,  oder  Morgenszenen  im  Putz- 
 
 ziminer  einer  reichen  Romerin,  12mo,  2  vols  ,  1806. 
 , ,  Amalthea,  oder   Museum  dei    Kunst 
 
 mythologie,  &c.,  Svo,  3  vols..  Lips.,  1820-5. 
 , ,  Ideen  zur  Kunst-mythologie,  Svo,  Dres- 
 den, 1826. 
 
 ,  W.,  Geschichte  der  Carthager,  Svo,  Berlin,  1827. 
 
 Bohlen,  Das  alte  Indien,  mit  besonderer  Riicksicht  auf 
 
 iEgypten,  Svo,  2  vols,,  Konigsb.,  1830. 
 Bondelmonti,  Insulse  Archipelagi,  ed.  De  Sinner,  8vo, 
 
 Lips  ,  1824. 
 Bonucci,  Pompei  descritta,  Svo,  Napoli,  1827. 
 Bopp,  Vergleichende  Grammatik  des  Sanskrit,  Zend, 
 
 Griech.,  Latein.,  Litthau.,  Altslawisch.,  Gothischen, 
 
 und  Deutschen,  3  pts.,  4to,  Berlin,  1833-7. 
 Bouillet,  Dictionnaire  Classique  de  I'Antiquite,  2  vols. 
 
 Svo,  1826. 
 Braunschweig,  Geschichte  des  politischen  Lebens  iin 
 
 Alterthume,  &c.,  vol.  1,  Svo,  Hamburg,  1830. 
 Bredow,  Haiidbuch  der  alten  Geschichte,  Svo,  Altona, 
 
 1816. 
 Brouerius,  De  Adorationibus,  Amstelod.,  1713. 
 Brucker,  Historia  Critica  Philosophia;,  4to,6vols.,Lips., 
 
 1767. 
 Brunet,  Manuel  du  Libraire,  4  vols.  Svo,  Bruxelles,  1838 
 Bryant,  Dissertation  concerning  the  V'ar  of  Troy,  4to, 
 
 London,  1799. 
 
2 
 
 LIST  OF  WORKS,  ETC 
 
 Bryant,  New  System  of  Mythology,  6  vols.  8vo,  London, 
 
 1807. 
 Bucke,  Ruins  of  Ancient  Cities,2vols.  ISnio,  Lond  ,1840. 
 Buckingham's  Travels  in  Assyria,  Media,  and  Persia, 
 
 8vo,  2  vols.,  London,  1830. 
 Budseus,  I)e  Asse,  Venet.  ap   Aldum,  1522. 
 Bulfoii,  flistoire  Naturelle,  l8mo,  70  vols.,  Paris. 
 Bulengor,  De  Conviviis,  Lugduni,  1G27. 
 Bulwer's  Athens,  &c.,  2  vols.  12tno,  New-York,  1837. 
 Bunsen,  De  jure  hereditario  Atheniensium,  4to,  Got- 
 
 fing.,  1813. 
 Burgess,  Description  of  the  Circus  on  the  Via  Appia, 
 
 &c.,  12nio,  London,  1828. 
 ,  Topography  and  Antiquities  of  Rome,  2  vols. 
 
 8vo,  London,  1831. 
 Burney,  History  of  Music,  4to,  4  vols.,  Lond.,  1776-89. 
 Burnoufif,  Essai  sur  le  Pali,  8vo,  Paris,  1826. 
 Buttmann,  Mythologus,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1828. 
 
 C. 
 
 Calmet,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  4to,  5  vols.,  Charles- 
 town,  1812. 
 Cambden,  Britannia,  4to,  London,  ICOO. 
 Cardwell,  Lectures  on  Coins,  8vo,  Oxford,  1832. 
 Carion-Nisas,  Histoire  de  I'Art  Militaire,  8vo,  2  vols., 
 
 Paris,  1824. 
 Carli,  Lettres  Americanes,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1788. 
 Cams,  Ideen  zur  Geschichte  der  Menscheit,  8vo,  Leipz., 
 
 1809. 
 ,  Ideen    zur  Geschichte   der   Philosophie,  8vo, 
 
 Leipz.,  1809. 
 
 ,  Geschichte  der  Psychologie,  8vo,  Leipz.,  1809. 
 
 Casaubon,  De  Poesi  Satyrica,  8vo,  Hal.,  1774. 
 Cavriani,  Delle  Scienze,  &c.,  del  Komani,  8vo,  2  vols., 
 
 Mantova,  1822. 
 Cellarius,  Notitia  Orbis  Antiqui,  ed.  Schwartz,  4to,  2 
 
 vols  ,  Lips.,  1773. 
 
 ,  Histona  Universalis,  12mo,  2  vols.,  Jenae,  1702. 
 
 Champollion,  Precis  du  Systeme  Hieroglyphique,  8vo, 
 
 2  vols.,  Paris,  1824. 
 Chardin,  Voyage  en  Perse,  &c.,  11  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1811. 
 Chesnow,  Introduction  a  I'etude  de  I'histoire  du  Moyen 
 
 Age,  8vo,  Baveux,  1827. 
 Clarke,  E.  D.,  Travels,  8vo,  11  vols.,  London,  1816-24 
 
 (4tli  edition). 
 ,  A.,  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  12mo,  8  vols., 
 
 Liverpool,  1802. 
 Classical  Journal,  8vo,  40  vols  ,  London,  1810-29. 
 
 Manual,  8vo,  London,  1827. 
 
 Clinton,  Fasti  Hellenici,  4to,  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1827-30. 
 Cluverius,  Introductio  in  Universam  Geographiam,  8vo, 
 
 Amst.,  1682. 
 Coleridge,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Greek  Clas- 
 sic Poets,  r2ino,  pt.  1,  Philad.,  1831. 
 CoUectio  Dissertationum  rarissiinarum,cura  Grsevii,  4to, 
 
 Traj.  Batav.,  1716. 
 Constant,  De  ia  Religion,  8vo,  5  vols.,  Paris,  1826-31. 
 ,  Melanges  de  Litterature  et  de  Politique,  8vo, 
 
 Paris,  1829. 
 Conversations-Lexicon,  12mo,  14  vols.,  Leipz.,  1824-26. 
 Court  de  Gebelin,  Monde  Primitif,  4to,  9  vols.,  Paris, 
 
 1787. 
 Crabb,  Historical  Dictionary,  4to,  2  vols.,  London,  1825. 
 Cramer,  J.  A.,  Description  of  Ancient  Greece,  8vo,  3 
 
 vols.,  Oxford,  1828. 
 ,  Description  of  Ancient  Italy,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Ox- 
 ford, 1826. 
 ,  Description  of  Asia  Minor,  2  vols.  8vo,  Oxford, 
 
 1832. 
 .and  Wickham,  Dissertation  on  the  Passage  of 
 
 Hannibal  over  the  Alps,  8vo,  London,  1828. 
 ,  Geschichte  der  Erziehung  und  des  Unterrichts 
 
 im  Alterthume,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Elberfeld,  1832-8. 
 Creuzer,  bymbolik  und   Mythologie  der  alten  Volker, 
 
 8vo,  4  vols.,  Leipz.,  1819. 
 ,   Abriss    der    RiJmischen    Antiquitaten,    8vo, 
 
 Leipz.,  1829. 
 
 ,  Dionysus,  sive  Commentationes  Academicae 
 
 de  Rerum  Bacchicatum  Orphicarumque  Originibus  et 
 
 Causis,  4to,  Heidelb.,  1809. 
 ,  Commentationes  Herodoteae,  8vo,  pt.  1,  Lips., 
 
 1819. 
 ,  Symbolik,  im  Auszugevon  Moser,8vo,  Leipz., 
 
 1822. 
 .  ein  alte  Athenischen  Gefass,  12mo,  Leipzig, 
 
 1832. 
 
 Crevier,  Histoire  des  Empereurs  Remains,  Bvo,  6  vols. 
 Pans,  18)8. 
 
 Crusius,  Lives  of  the  Roman  Poets,  12mo,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
 don, 1733. 
 
 Cudworth,  Intellectual  System  of  the  Universe,  4  vols., 
 London,  1820. 
 
 Cuvier,  Discours  sur  les  Revolutions  de  la  surface  du 
 Globe,  8vo,  Pans,  1828,5th  edition. 
 
 ,  Theory  of  the  Earth,  by  Jameson,  8vo,  Edinb., 
 
 1827. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dankovsky,  Die  Griechen  als  Stamm  und  Sprachver- 
 
 wandte  der  Slaven,  8vo,  Presburg,  1828. 
 D'Anville,  Ancient  Geography,  2  vols.  8vo,  N.  York,  1814. 
 ,  Antiquite  Geographique  de  I'lnde,  8vo,  Paris, 
 
 1775. 
 D'Arc,  Histoire  des  Conquetes  des  Normands  en  Italic, 
 
 &c.,  Pans,  1830. 
 Davies,  Celiic  Researches,  8vo,  London,  1804. 
 Dean,  J.  B.,  On  the  Worship  of  the  Serpent,  Bvo,  Lon- 
 don, 1830. 
 De   Ballu,  Histoire  Antique  de   I'Eloquence  chez  les 
 
 Grecques,  2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1813. 
 De  Chazelle,  Etudes  sur  I'histoire  des  Arts,  8vo,  Paris, 
 
 1834. 
 Degerando,  Histoire  comparee  des  Syst^mes  de  Philoso 
 
 phie,  4  vols.  8vo,  Pans,  1823. 
 De  la  Bergerie,  Histoire  de  I'Agriculture  Ancienne  des 
 
 Grecs,  2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1830. 
 Delia  Valle,  Voyages  dans  la  Turquie,  &c.,  7  vols.  8vo, 
 
 Rouen,  1745. 
 Delambre,  Histoire  de  I'Astronomie  Ancienne,  2  vols.  4to, 
 
 Pans,  1817. 
 Demosthenes  als  Staatsmann  und  Redner,  von  A.  G. 
 
 Becker,  8vo,  Halle  und  Leipz.,  1815. 
 De  Maries,  Histoire  generale  de  I'lnde,  8vo,  6  vols.. 
 
 Pans,  1828. 
 De  Pauvv,  Recherches  Philosophiques,  7  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
 
 1795. 
 Derham,  Physico-Theology,  12mo,  2  vols.,  Lond.,  1749. 
 Descnzione  di  Roma  Antica,  12mo,  Rom.,  1697. 
 Deuber,    Geschichte    der    Schiti'ahrt    im    Atlantischen 
 
 Ocean,  12mo,  Bamberg,  1814. 
 D'Hancarville,  Antiquites  Etrusques,  Grecques  et  Ro 
 
 maines,  4to,  5  vols..  Pans,  1787. 
 Dibdm,  Introrluction  to  the  Greek  and  Latin  Classics, 
 
 8vo,  2  vols.,  1827,  4th  edition. 
 Dictionnaire  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  17  vols.  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1822-31. 
 Historique  des  Cultes   Religieux,  Svo,  4 
 
 vols.,  Versailles,  1820. 
 Diderot,  Essai  sur  les  regnes  de  Claude  et  de  Neron,ou 
 
 Vie  de  8eueque  le  Philosophe,  Svo,  2  vols  ,  Pans,  1823. 
 Dillon,  Viscount,  the  Tactics  of  .(Elian,  containing  the 
 
 Military  System  of  the  Grecians,  4to,  London,  1814. 
 Dodwell,  Classical  and  Topographical  Tour  through 
 
 Greece,  4to,  2  vols.,  London,  1819. 
 Donkin,  Dissertation  on  the  Course,  &c.,  of  the  Niger, 
 
 Svo,  London,  1829. 
 Drummond,  Origines,  Svo,  2  vols.,  London,  1826. 
 Dubois,   Descnpiion  of  the   Character,   Manners,   and 
 
 Customs  of  the  People  of  India  (Eng.  trans.),  8vo,  ?. 
 
 vols.,  Philad.,  1818. 
 Ducaurroy,  Institutes  de  Justinien,  4  vols.  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1836. 
 Du  Choul,  Discours  de  la  Religion  des  Anciens  Ro- 
 
 mams,  Svo,  Lyon,  1580. 
 Dulaure,  Histoire  des  Cultes,  2  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1825. 
 Duinbeck,  Geographia  pagorum  German.  Cis-Rhenan., 
 
 Svo,  Berol.,  1818. 
 Dunbar,  Inquiry  into  the  Structure  and  Affinity  of  the 
 
 Greek  and  Latin  Languages,  Svo,  Edinburgh,  1827. 
 Dunlop,  History  of  Roman  Literature,  Svo,  3  vols.,  Lon 
 
 don,  1823-28. 
 Dupuis,  Ongine  de  tous  les  Cultes,  7  vols.  Svo,  Pans,  1822. 
 Dureau  de  la  Malle,  Geographie  Physique  de  la  Mer 
 
 Noire,  &c.,  Svo,  Paris,  1807. 
 ,  Reclierches  sur  la  topographie  de  Carthage, 
 
 Svo,  Paris,  1835. 
 Dutens,   Ongine  des  decouvertes  attribuees  aux  mo- 
 
 dernes,  3me  edit.,  a  Londres,  1796,  4to. 
 
 E. 
 
 Ebn-Haukal,  Oriental  Geography,  translated  by  Sir  W 
 Ouseley,  4to,  London,  1800. 
 
LIST  OF  WORKS,  ETC. 
 
 3 
 
 Edinburgh  Review,  8vo,  72  vols. 
 
 Edwards's  and  Park's  Selections  from  German  Litera- 
 ture, 8vo,  Andover,  1839. 
 
 Eichhoff,  Vergleichung  der  Sprachen  von  Europa  und 
 Indien  iibers.  von  Kaltschmidt,  8vo,  Leipzig,  1810. 
 
 ,  Farallele  des  langues  de  I'Europe  et  de  I'Inde, 
 
 4to,  Paris,  183G. 
 
 Eichhorn,  Weltgeschiclite,  8vo,  5  vols.,  Gottingen,  1817. 
 
 Eichwald,  Alte  Geographie  des  Kaspischen  Meeres, 
 &c.,  8vo,  Berlin,  1838. 
 
 Eisendecher,  Biirgerrecht  im  alten  Rom,  8vo,  Hamburg, 
 1829. 
 
 Elgm  Marbles,  2  vols.  12mo;  London,  1833. 
 
 Elines,  Dictionary  of  the  Fine  Arts,  8vo,  London,  1826. 
 
 Elton,  History  of  the  Koman  Emperois,  r2mo,  London, 
 1835. 
 
 Encyclopedia  of  Useful  Knowledge,  17  vols.  8vo,  Lon- 
 don, 1833-40. 
 
 Encyclopasdia  Americana,  8vo,  13  vols..  Philadelphia, 
 1830-3. 
 
 Enfield,  History  of  Philosophy,  8vo,  2  vols.Lond,  1819. 
 
 Ephemerides  Universelies,  8vo,  7  vols.,  Paris,  1828-30. 
 
 Erasmus,  Adagiorum  Chiliades,  fol.,  Paris,  1558. 
 
 Eschenberg,  Handbuch  der  Classischen  Literatur,  8vo, 
 Berlm.  1816 
 
 Essais  sur  I'AUegoire,  &c  ,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1798. 
 
 Etudej  aur  les  poetes  Latms  de  la  decadence,  par  Ni- 
 sard,  3  vols.,  Bru.xelles,  1834. 
 
 Eusebii  Chronica,  ed.  Maius  et  Zohrabus,  4to,  Mediol., 
 1818. 
 
 Demonstratio  Evangelica,  fol..  Colon.,  1688. 
 
 Prasparatio  Evangelica,  fol.,  Colon.,  1088. 
 
 Eustace,  Classical  Tour  through  Italy,  8vo,  4  vols.,  Lon- 
 don, 1815  (3d  edition). 
 
 Faber,  Origin  of  Pagan  Idolatry,  4to,  3  vols.,  Lond.,  1816. 
 
 ,  Dissertation  on  the  Mysteries  of  the  Cabiri,  8vo, 
 
 2  vols.,  Oxford,  1803. 
 
 Fabricius,  Menologiuin,  sive  Libellus  de  Mensibus  cen- 
 tum circiter  populorum,  &c.,  12mo,  Hamburg,  1712. 
 
 Fanner,  Essay  on  the  Demoniacs  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, 12mo,  London,  1818. 
 
 Fanriel,  Histoire  de  la  Gaule  Meridionale,  4  vols.  8vo, 
 Pans,  1836. 
 
 Fee,  Flore  de  Virgile,  8vo,  Paris,  1822, 
 
 Fellows,  Tour  m  Asia  Minor,  4to,  London,  1839. 
 
 Felton,  Dissertation  on  the  Classics,  12ino,  Lond.,  1718. 
 
 F^tes  et  Courtisanes  de  la  Grece,  4  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
 1821. 
 
 Fla,\man,  Lectures  on  Sculpture,  8vo,  London,  1829. 
 
 Folard,  Histoire  de  Polybe,  4to,  6  vols  ,  Pans,  1727. 
 
 Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  8vo,  25  vols  ,  Lond.,  1827-40. 
 
 Foreign  Review,  8vo,  5  vols.,  London,  1828-30. 
 
 Fraser,  Journal  of  a  Tour  to  the  Himala  Mountains,  4to, 
 London,  1820. 
 
 Fuhrmann,  Handbuch  der  Classischen  Literatur,  8vo,  2 
 vols..  Rudolstadt,  1809. 
 
 Funccius,  De  Origine,  &c.,  Linguas  Latinas,  4to,  Mar- 
 burg, 1735. 
 
 Fuss,  Roman  Antiquities,  translated  by  Street,  Oxford, 
 1840,  8vo. 
 
 Gail,  Cartes,  &c.,  relatives  a  la  Geographie  d'Herodote, 
 
 &c.,  4to,  Paris,  1822. 
 Garve,  Die  Politik  des  Aristoteles,  12ino,  2  vols.,  Dres- 
 
 lau,  1799. 
 Gell,  Geography  and  Antiquities  of  Ithaca,  4to,  London. 
 
 1807. 
 
 ,  Itinerary  of  Argolis,  4to,  London,  1807. 
 
 ,  Pompeiana,  2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1832. 
 
 ,  Rome  and  its  Vicinity,  London.  1834,  8vo,  2  vols. 
 
 Gesenius,  Geschichte  der    Hebraischen    Sprache   und 
 
 Schrift,  8vo,  Leipz.,  1815. 
 J  Scnpturaj  Linguaeque  Phneniciae  quotquot  su- 
 
 persunt  Monumenta,  4to,  Lipsiae,  1837. 
 Gibbon,  Miscellaneous  Works,  5  vols.  8vo,  Lond.,  1814. 
 ,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  8vo,  12 
 
 vols  ,  London,  1818. 
 Gieseler,  Te.xt-book  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  3  vols 
 
 8vo,  Philad.,  1836. 
 Goller,  De  situ  et  origine  Syracusarum,  8vo,  Lips.,  1818. 
 Gorres,  Das  Heidenbuch  voa    ran,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Berlin, 
 
 ]820. 
 
 Gorres,  Mythengeschichte  der  Asiatischen  Welt,  8vo,  2 
 
 vols.,  Heidelb.,  1810. 
 Goguet,  Origin  of  Laws,  &c,,  8vo,  3  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
 
 1775. 
 Good,  Book  of  Nature,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Boston,  1826. 
 Gorton,  Biographical  Dictionary,  2  vols.  8vo,  Lond,,  1828. 
 Gossellin,  Kecherches  sur  la  Geographie  des  Anciennes, 
 
 4to,  4  vols.,  Paris. 
 Gray,  Connexion  between   the  Sacred  Writings,  &c., 
 
 and  Heathen  Authors,  8vo,  2  vols.,  London,  1819  (2d 
 
 edition). 
 Greaves,  .Miscellaneous  Works,  2  vols.  8vo,  Lond.,  1737. 
 Greppo,  Essay  on  the  Hieroglyphic  System,  r2ino,  Bos- 
 ton, 1830. 
 Grotefend,   Rudimenta   Linguae   Unibrics,  8   pts.,  4to, 
 
 Hannov.,  1835-9. 
 ,  Raoimenta  Linguas   Oscae,   4to,   Hannov., 
 
 1839. 
 Gruber,  Worterbuch  der  aUclassischen  Mythologie,  8vo, 
 
 3  vols.,  Weimar,  1811. 
 Gruchius,  de  Comitiis  Romanorum,  8vo,  Venetiis,  1559. 
 Guigniaut,  Religions  de  I'Antiquite,  8vo,  6  vols  ,  Paris, 
 
 l«2.5-39. 
 
 ,  Serapis  et  son  Origine,  8vo,  Paris,  1829. 
 
 Guilletier,    Lacedemone    Ancienne   et    Nouvelle,  8vu, 
 
 Paris,  1689. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hale,  Analysis  of  Chronology,  8vo,  4  vols.,  London, 
 
 1830  (2d  edition). 
 Halina,  Traite  de  Geographie  de  Claude  Ptolemee,  4to, 
 
 Pans,  1828. 
 Hamaker,  Miscellanea  Phoenicia,  sive  Commentarii  de 
 
 rebus  Phoenicum,  4to,  Lugd.  Bat  ,  1828. 
 Hannibal's  Passage  of  the  Alps,  by  a  member  of  the 
 
 University  of  Cambridge,  London,  1830. 
 Hades,  Notitia  Literaturae  Romanae,  12mo,  Lips.,  1789 
 ,  Supplementa  in  Notitiain  Lit.  Rom,  12ino,  3 
 
 vols..  Lips.,  1799. 
 — — — ,  Notitia  Literaturae  Graecae,  12mo,  Lips.,  1812. 
 Hase,  Public  and  Private  Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks, 
 
 12mo,  London,  1840. 
 Hasse,  Entdeckuugen  im  Felde  der  iiitesten   Erd-und 
 
 Menschengeschichte,  8vo,  Halle,  1801. 
 Heeren,   Geschichte    der  Kiinsle   und    Wissenchaften 
 
 &c.,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Gottingen.  1797. 
 
 ,  Ideen,  8vo,  G  vols.,  Gottingen,  1824-26. 
 
 ,  Handbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Staaten  des  Al 
 
 terthums,  8vo,  Gottingen,  1821. 
 ,  Historical  Researches,  Asiatic  Nations,  3  vola 
 
 8vo,  Oxford,  1833. 
 — , ,  African  Nations,  3  vols. 
 
 8vo,  Oxford,  1832. 
 
 ,  Ancient  History,  8vo,  Northampton,  1828. 
 
 Hegewisch,   Gliicklichsle    Epoche    in  der   Romischen 
 
 Geschichte,  8vo,  Hamburg,  1800. 
 ,  Geschichte  der  Gracchischen  Unruhen,  8vo, 
 
 Hamburg,  1801. 
 Heineccius,  Antiquitatum  Romanarum  Syntagma,   ed. 
 
 Haubold,  Svo,  Francof ,  1822. 
 Heinecke,  Homer  und  Lycurg,  Leipzig,  1833. 
 Hennequin,  Esprit  de  i'Encyclopedie,  15  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
 
 1822. 
 Henry,  Lettre  a  ChampoUion  le  Jeune,  &c.,  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1828. 
 Herbert,  Edward,  Lord,  Ancient  Religion  of  the  Gen- 
 tiles, London,  1705. 
 Herder,  Sammtliche  Werke,  8vo,  16  vols.,  Carlsruhe, 
 
 1820. 
 Hermann,  G.,  Opuscula,  8vo,  7  vols..  Lips.,  1827-39. 
 ,  C  F.,  Geschichte  und  System  der  Platonis- 
 
 chen  Philosophie,  1  vol.,  3  pts  ,  Heidelberg,  18.J8-9. 
 , ,  Manual  of  Political  Antiquities  of  An- 
 cient Greece,  Oxford,  1836. 
 Hethenngton's  History  of  Rome,  reprinted  from  the  En- 
 
 cyclopaetlia  Brilannica,  Edinburgh,  1839,  8vo^ 
 Heyne,  Opuscula  Academica,  Svo,   6  vols.,   GottingOB, 
 
 1785. 
 ,  Sammlung  Antiquarischer  Aufsatze,2  vols.  Svo, 
 
 Leipzig,  1778. 
 ,  Beschreibung  der  Ebene  von  Troja,  Svo,  Leip 
 
 zig,  1792. 
 Higgins,  Celtic  Druids,  4to,  London,  1827. 
 Hirt,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst  bei  den  Alten,  4to    2 
 
 vols  ,  Berlin,  1822. 
 Histoire  du  Ciel,  &c.,  2  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1757 
 
LIST  OF  WORKS,  ETC. 
 
 Hoare,  Classical  Tour  through  Italy  and  Sicily,  8vo,  2 
 
 vols.,  London,  1819. 
 Hobhouse,  Journey  through  Albania,  &c.,  8vo,  2  vols., 
 
 PhiUuidpliia,  1817. 
 Hock,  Kreta,  8vo,  3  vols.,  Gottingen,  1823. 
 Hollinann,  Grammatica  Syriaca,  4to,  Halas,  1827. 
 ,  S.  F.  G.,  Lexicon  Biiihographicuin,  3  vols. 
 
 8vo,  Leipzig,  1832-36. 
 Hooper's  Essay  on  Ancient  Measures,  London,  1721. 
 Horapollo  Niloiis,  translated  by  Cory,  12ino,  London, 
 
 1840. 
 Home,  Introduction  to  the  Scriptures,  8vo,  4  vols.,  Phil- 
 adelphia, 1826. 
 Horschelinann,  Geschichte,  &c.,  der  Insel  Sardinien, 
 
 8vo,  Berlin,  1828. 
 Hoskins'  Travels  in  ^Ethiopia,  4lo,  London,  1835. 
 Hug,  Die  Eriindung  der  Buchstabensclirift,  4to,  Ulm, 
 
 1801. 
 Hughes,  Travels  in  Sicily,  Greece,  and  Albania,  4to,  2 
 
 vols.,  London,  1820. 
 Hiillinann,    Geschichte    des    By^antischen    Handels, 
 
 12mo,  Frankfort,  1808. 
 . ,  VVurdigung  des  Delphischen  Orakels,  8vo, 
 
 Bonn,  1837. 
 Humboldt,  Monumens  Americains,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Paris, 
 
 1816. 
 ,  Tableaux  de  la  Nature,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Paris, 
 
 1828. 
 Hunter's  Observations  on  Tacitus,  8vo,  London,  1752. 
 Hutton,  History  of  the  Roman  Wall,  8vo,  London,  1802. 
 Hyde,  Syntagma  Disserlationum,  4to,  Oxon.,  1767. 
 
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 Identity  of  the  Religions  called  Druidix-al  and  Hebrew, 
 
 12mo,  London,  1829. 
 Ideler,  Untersuchung  iiber  den  Ursprung  und  die  Be- 
 
 rieutung  der  Sternnamen,  8vo,  Berhn,  1809. 
 ,  Astrunomische  Beobachtungen  der  Alton,  8vo, 
 
 Berlin,  1806. 
 
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 Jablonskii  Opuscula,  ed.,  &c.,  T.  G.  Te  Water,  Lugd. 
 
 Bat.,  4  vols.  8vo,  1804-13. 
 Jiikel,   Der   Germanische   Ursprung  der    Lateinischen 
 
 Sprache  und  des  Romischen   Volkes,  8vo,   Breslau, 
 
 1830. 
 Jahn,  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,  Svo,  New- 
 York,  1827. 
 ,  History  of  the  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  &c.,  8vo, 
 
 Andiiver,  1S28. 
 . ,  Biblical  Archasology,  translated  by  Upham,  An- 
 
 dover,  1823,  Svo. 
 Jainieson,  Hermes  Scythicus,  8vo,  Edinh.,  1814. 
 Jones,  Sir  William,  Poesis  Asiatica,  Svo,  London,  1774. 
 Journal  Asialique,  Svo,  Paris. 
 Junius,  De  pictura  veterum,  folio,  Rotterdam,  1694. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kawi-Sprache  auf  der  Insel  Java,  von  Wilhelin  Von 
 
 Humboldt,  3  vols.  4to,  Berlin,  1836. 
 Keightley's  Mythology  of  Ancient  Greece  and  Italy,  Svo, 
 
 London,  1838,  2d  edition. 
 Kennedy,  Researches  into  the  Origin  and  Affinity  of  the 
 
 principal  Languages  of  Asia  and  Europe,  4to,  Lond., 
 
 1828. 
 Kennel's  Lives  and  Characters  of  the  Ancient  Greek 
 
 Poets,  8vo,  London,  1697. 
 Klaproth,  Asia  Polyglotta,  4to,  Paris,  1823. 
 ,  Menioires  lelatils  a  I'Asie,  3  vols.  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1826. 
 ,  Tableaux  Historiques  de  I'Asie,  depuis  la  mo- 
 
 narchie  de  Cyrus  jusqu'a  nos  jours,  4to,  Paris,  1826. 
 Klausen,  De  Carmine  ^'ralruin  Arvalium,  12mo,  Bonn, 
 
 1836. 
 ,  iEneas  und  die  Penaten,  1st  vol.  Svo,  Hamburg, 
 
 1839. 
 Klemm,  Handbuch  der  Germanischcn  Alterthumskun- 
 
 de,  Svo,  Dresden,  1830. 
 Knight,  Analytical  Essay  on  the  Greek  Alphabet,  4to, 
 
 London,  1791. 
 ,   Inquiry  into   the   Symbolical   Language,  &c. 
 
 (Class.  Journal). 
 ,  Prolegomena  ad  Homerum,  edidit  Ruhkopf,  Svo, 
 
 Lipsiae,  1816. 
 Koppen,  Nordische  Mythologie,  12mo,  Berlin,  1837. 
 ,  Erkliirende  Anmerkungen  zum   Homer,  he- 
 
 rausgegeben  von  Ruhkopf,  Spitzner,  und  Krause,  7 
 
 vols.  J2mo,  Hannover,  1794-1823. 
 Kriiger,  Leben  des  Thukydides,  4to,  Berlin,  1832. 
 Kriise,  Archiv   fiir   alte  Geographic,  Geschichte,  &c., 
 
 12mo,  Leipzig,  1822. 
 ,  Hellas,  oder  Darstellung  des  alten  Griechenlan 
 
 des,  &c.,  3  vols,  Svo,  Leip.,  1825. 
 ,  Deutsche  Alterthiimer,  r2ino,   4  vols.,  Halle 
 
 1827. 
 Kiihner,  R.,  Ciceronis  in  Philosophiam  ejusque  partes 
 
 merita,  Svo,  Lipsiffi,  1825. 
 
 Lanzi,  Saggio  di  Lingua  Etrusca,  Svo,  3  vols.,  Firenze 
 
 1824  (2d  edition). 
 ,  Noiizie  della  Scultura  degli  Antichi,  &c.  Svo 
 
 Fiesole,  1824. 
 Larcher,  Histoire  d'Herodote,  &c.,  Svo,  9  vols.,  Paris 
 
 1802. 
 Lassen,  Die  Alt-PersischenKeil-Inschriften  von  Persep 
 
 oils,  Svo,  Bonn,  1836. 
 ,  Geschichte  der  Griechische  und  Indo-Skythis 
 
 chen  Konige  im  Baktrien,  Kabul,  und  Indien,  Svo, 
 
 Bonn,  1838. 
 Laurent,  Ancient  Geography,  Svo,  Oxford,  1830. 
 Lawrence,  Lectures  on  Physiology,  &ic.,  Svo,  Salem, 
 
 1828. 
 Leake,  Travels  in  the  Morea,  Svo,  3  vols.,  Lond.,  1830. 
 
 ,  Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  Svo,  London,  1824. 
 
 Le  Beau,  Histoire  du  Bas-Empire,  Svo,  13  vols.,  Paris, 
 
 1819-20. 
 Le  Clerc,  Des  Journaux  chez  les  Romains,  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1838. 
 Legis,  Fundgruben  des  alten  Nordens,  Svo,  Leipz  ,  1829. 
 Leipzig  Literatur-Zeitung,  4to. 
 Lelewel,  Die  Entdeckuiigen  der  Carthager  und  Oriechen 
 
 auf  dem  Atlantischen  Ocean,  Svo,  Berlin,  1831. 
 Lenoir,    Description  Historique   et  Chronologique   des 
 
 Monumens  de  Sculpture,  7th  edit.,  Svo,  Pans.  1803. 
 Leo,  Geschichte  der  Italienischen  Staaten,  3  vols.  Svo, 
 
 Hamburg,  1829. 
 ,  Entwickelung  der  Verfassung  der  Lombardischen 
 
 Stadte,  Svo,  Hamburg,  1824. 
 Lersch,  De  versu  quern  vocant  Saturnio,  Svo,  Bonn,  1838, 
 Levesque,  Histoire  Critique  de  la  Republique  Romaine 
 
 Svo,  3  vols..  Pans,  1807. 
 Lipsii  Miscellanea,  Svo,  4  vols.,  Vesal.,  1675. 
 Lobeck,  Aglaophamus,  sive  de  Theologia?  Mysticae  Gras 
 
 corum  Causis,  Svo,  2  vols  ,  Regimont.  Pruss.,  1829. 
 LoLooz,  Recherches  d'Antiquites  Militaires,  &c.,  4to, 
 
 Pans,  1770. 
 Luden,  Allgemeine  Geschichte,  Svo,  Jena,  1824. 
 Lyell's  Geology,  4  vols.  12mo,  London,  1837. 
 
 M. 
 Maetzner,  De  Jove  Homeri,  BeroL,  Svo,  1839. 
 Magnier,  Analyse  Critique  et  Literaire  de  I'Eneide,  2 
 
 vols.  12mo,  Paris,  1828. 
 Magnusen,  Borealium  Mythologiae  Lexicon,  4to,  Hav- 
 
 nise,  1828. 
 Maizeroi,  Institutes  Militaires  de  I'Empereur  Leon,  2 
 
 vols.,  Pans,  1770. 
 Maiden's  History  of  Rome,  Lib.  Use.  Knowl.,  5  parts, 
 
 London,  18.30-33,  Svo. 
 Malkin,  Classical  Disquisitions,  8vo,  London,  1825. 
 Malte-Brun,  Dictionnaire  Geographique  portatif,  &c.,  2 
 
 vols.  12ino,  1827. 
 ,  Precis  de  la  Geographie  Universelle,  Svo, 
 
 4  vols.,  Bruxelles,  1830. 
 ,  Universal  Geography  (English  trans.),  Svo, 
 
 8  vols.,  Boston,  1824-31. 
 Mannert,  Geschichte  der  alten   Deutschen,  &,c.,  Svo, 
 
 Stultgan,  1829. 
 ,  Geograohie  der  Griechen  und  Romer,  Svo,  10 
 
 vols.,  1799-1825. 
 ,  Handbuch  der  alten  Geschichte,  Svo,  Berlin, 
 
 1818. 
 Mansford,  Scripture  Gazetteer,  Svo,  London,  1829. 
 Manso,  Sparta,  5  vols.  Svo,  Leipzig,  1800. 
 Manteil's  Wonders  of  Geology,  2  vols.  12mo,  Lond.,  1838. 
 Manuel  du  Libraire,  &c.,  Svo,  2  vols..  Pans,  1824. 
 Manuel  de  Literature  Classique  Ancienne,  Svo,  2  vols., 
 
 1802. 
 Manwaring  on  the  Classics,  Lond.,  1737,  Svo. 
 Marcoz,  Astronomic  Solaire  d'Hipparque,  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1828. 
 
LIST  OF  WORKS,  ETC. 
 
 Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities,  7  vols.  8vo,  London,  1806. 
 Mayo,  System  of  Mythology,  8vo,  4  vols.,  Philadelphia, 
 
 1815. 
 M'Culloch,  Researches  concerning  the  Aboriginal  His- 
 tory of  America,  8vo,  Baltimore,  1829. 
 Menard,  Antiquites  da  la  viUe  de  Nismes,  8vo,  Nismes, 
 '       1829. 
 Menzel,  Geschichte  der  Teutschen,  4to,  Stuttgard,  1837. 
 Mercy,  Traitesd'Hippocrate,    &c.,  12mo,  Paris,  1818. 
 Merian,  L'Etude  comparative  des  Langues,  8vo,  Paris, 
 
 1828. 
 Micali,  L'ltalia  avanti   il  dominio  dei  Romani,  8vo,  4 
 vols.,  Firenze,  1821. 
 
 ,  Storia  degli  antichi  Popoli  Italiani,  3  vols.  8vo, 
 
 Firenze,  1832. 
 Michaelis,  Spicilegium  Geographiae  Hebraeorum  extera;, 
 
 4to,  2  vols.,  Gottingaj,  1769. 
 Michelet,  Histoire  Romaine,  3  vols.  12mo,  Brux.,  1835. 
 Middleton's  Life  of  Cicero,  2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1823. 
 Milman,  History  of  the  Jews,  12mo,  3  vols.,  New-York, 
 
 1831. 
 Milner,  History  of  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  8vo, 
 
 London,  1832. 
 Miscellanea  Dramatics,  8vo,  Cambridge,  1828. 
 Mitchell,  Comedies  of  Aristophanes,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
 don, 1820-22. 
 Mitford,  History  of  Greece,  8  vols.  8vo,  Boston,  1823. 
 Mohnike,  Geschichte  der  Literatur  der  Griechen  und 
 
 Romer,  8vo,  vol.  1,  Greifsvvald,  1813. 
 Mone,  Geschichte  des  Heidenthums  in  Nordlichen  Eu- 
 
 ropa,  2  vols.  8vo,  Leipzig,  1823. 
 Montesquieu,  CEuvres  de,  8vo,  8  vols.,  Paris,  1822. 
 Monumenta  Paderbornensia,  4to,  Franco!'.,  1713. 
 Moore,  Lectures  on  the  Greek  Language  and  Literature, 
 I2mo,  New-York,  1835. 
 
 ,  Ancient  Mineralogy,  12mo,  New-York,  1834. 
 
 Moreri,  Grand  Dictionnaire  Historique,  fol.,6  vols.,  1724. 
 
 Moritz,  Gotterlehre,  12mo,  Berlin,  1825. 
 
 Moss,  Manual  of  Classical  Biography,  2  vols.  8vo,  1837, 
 
 2d  edit. 
 Miiller,  C.  O.,  Die  Etrusker,  2  vols.  8vo,  Breslau,  1828. 
 
 ,  Geschichte   hellenischer   Stamme,  &c., 
 
 8vo,  3  vols.,  Breslau,  1828. 
 
 t  Vol.  1,  Orchomenos  und  die  Minyer; 
 }      vols.  2  and  3,  Die  Dorier. 
 
 ,  De  Phidiae  Vita  et  Operibus,  4to,  Gottin- 
 
 gae,  1827. 
 
 ,  Prolegomena  zu  einerwissenschaftlichen 
 
 Mythologie,  8vo,  Gotting.,  1835. 
 ,  Dorians,  translated  by  Tuffnell  and  Lew- 
 is, 2  vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1830. 
 
 ,  Archa3oIogiederKunst,8vo,  Breslau,  1835. 
 
 ,  History  of  Greek  Literature,  prepared  for 
 
 the  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge,  vol.  1,  London,  8vo, 
 1835-40. 
 
 ,  C,  ^gineticorum  Liber,  12mo,  Berol.,  1817. 
 
 ,  P.  E.,  Sagaenbibliothek  des  Scandinavischen 
 
 Alterlhums,  8vo,  Berlin,  1816. 
 
 ,  Ueber  die  achtheit  der  Asalehre,  12mo, 
 
 Kopenhagen,  1811. 
 
 • ,  J.  G.,  Allgemeine  Geschichte,  3  vols.  8vo,  Tii- 
 
 bingen,  1817. 
 
 ,  W.,  Homerische  Vorschule,  8vo,  Leipzig,  1836. 
 
 Munter,  Religion  der  Karthager,  8vo,  Copenhagen,  1816. 
 
 Muratori,  Storia  d'ltalia,  4to,  12  vols.,  Monaco,  1761-4. 
 
 Murray,  A  ,  History  of  European  Languages,  2  vols. 
 8vo,  Edinburgh,  1823. 
 
 ,  H.,   Historical   Account  of    Discoveries  and 
 
 Travels  in  Africa,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1818. 
 
 Museum  Criticum,  or  Cambridge  Classical  Researches, 
 8vo,2  vols.,  1814. 
 
 Museum  der  Alterthumswissenschaft,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Ber- 
 lin, 1807. 
 
 -Museum  Antiquitatis  Studiorum,  8vo,  Berol.,  1808. 
 
 N. 
 Neapels  Antike  Bildwerke,  8vo,  vol.  1,  Stuttgart,  1828. 
 Nibby,  Viaggio  Antiquario  ne'  contorni  di  Roma,  2  vols. 
 
 8vo,  Rom.,  1819. 
 Niebuhr,  Romische  Geschichte,  3  vols.  8vo,  Berlin,  1828- 
 32. 
 
 ,  Kleine  Schriften,  8vo,  Bonn.,  1828. 
 
 .  Brief  an  einen  jungen  Philologen,  8vo,  Leip- 
 zig, 1839.  b     '       ,       y 
 .  History  of  Rome,  abridged  by  Twiss,  8vo,  Ox- 
 ford, 1836. 
 
 Niebuhr,  Roman  History  (Cambridge  trans.),  2   vols. 
 
 8vo,  1828-32. 
 , (Walter's  trans.),  2  vols.  8vo, 
 
 London,  1827. 
 ,  Dissertation  on  the  Geography  of  Herodotus, 
 
 8vo,  Oxford,  1830. 
 Neugriechische,   oder  sogenannte  Reuchlinische  Aus- 
 
 sprache  der  Hellenischen  Sprache  ;  aus  dem  Danis- 
 
 chen  iibersetzt  von  P.  Friedrichsen,  8vo,  Parchim, 
 
 1839. 
 Nieupoort,  Historia  Romana,  12mo,  2  vols.,  Traj ,  1723. 
 ,  Rituum  Romanorum  Explicatio,  12mo,  Trai., 
 
 1734. 
 Nitzsch,  Bescbreibung  des  Zustandes,  &c.,  der  Griech- 
 en, 12mo,  4  vols.,  Erfurt,  1806. 
 ,  Beschreibung  des  Zustandes,  &c.,  der  Romer, 
 
 vol.  1,  12mo,  Erfurt,  1807. 
 ,  Eiitwurf  der  alten  Geographie,  ed.  Mannert, 
 
 12mo,  Leipzig,  1829. 
 ,  G.  W.,  De  Historia  Homeri,  4to,  fasc.  1,  2, 
 
 Han.,  1830-7. 
 ,   Anmerkungen    zu   Homer's  Odyssee, 
 
 8vo,  2  vols.,  Hannov.,  1826-31. 
 Noel,  Dictionnaire  de  la  Fable,  2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1803. 
 Notitia  Utraque  Dignitatum,  cum  Orientis,  turn  Occi 
 
 dentis,  fol.,  Lugd.,  1608. 
 Notitia  Dignitatum,  cura  Ed.  Bocking,  3  vols.  8vo,  Bonn, 
 
 1839. 
 Numismatique  Ancienne,  Grecque  et  Romaine,  2  vols. 
 
 8vo,  Pans,  1825. 
 Numismatique  du  Voyage  du  Jeune  Anacharsis,  8vo, 
 
 Paris,  1823. 
 Numismata  Reguin  et  Imperatorum  Romanorum,  fol.. 
 
 Col.  Brandenb.,  1700. 
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 Mythologie,  12mo,  Copenhagen,  1816. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oracula  Sibyllina,  ed.  Gallaeus,  4to,  2  vols.,  Amstelod., 
 
 1689. 
 Orellius,  Inscriptiones  Latins  Selectae,  2  vols.  8vo,  Tu- 
 
 rici,  1828. 
 Origenis  Hexaplorum  quas  supersunt,  ed.  Bahrdt,  8vo,  2 
 
 vols  ,  Lips  ,  1769. 
 Osiander,  De  Asylis  Hebraeorum,  Gentilium,  Christiano- 
 
 rum,  12mo,  Tubing.,  1673. 
 Ouvaroff,  Essai  sur  les  Mysteres  d'EIeusis,  8vo,  Paris, 
 
 18i6. 
 
 Pacho,  Voyage  dans  la  Marmarique,  &c.,  4to,  Paris,  1 828. 
 
 Pancirolius,  Res  Memorabiles,  2  pts.  4to,  Francof ,  1629- 
 31. 
 
 Panckoucke,  La  Germanie  de  Tacite,  8vo,  Paris,  1824 
 
 Parall^le  des  Religions,  4to,  6  vols  ,  Paris,  1792. 
 
 Paschalius,  De  Coionis,  8vo,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1681. 
 
 Passerii  Paralipomena,  fol.,  Luc»,  1767. 
 
 Patterson,  National  Character  ol  the  Athenians,  Edinb., 
 8vo,  1828. 
 
 Pauly,  Real-Encyclopadie  dtr  Classischen  Alterthums 
 wissenschaft,  vols.  1,  2,  8vo,  Stuttgart,  1839-40. 
 
 Pelloutier,  Histoire  des  Celtes,  2  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1771. 
 
 Penn,  Primary  argument  of  the  Iliad,  8vo,  Lond.,  1821. 
 
 Peritsol,  Cosmographia,  ed.  Hyde,  Oxon,  1691. 
 
 Perizonius,  Origmes  Bahylonics  et  ^gypiiacx,  12mo, 
 2  vols.,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1711. 
 
 Peyrard,  Les  Q^uvres  d'Euclide,  3  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1814. 
 
 Pezron,  Antiquities  of  Nations  (Eng.  trans.),  8vo,  Lon 
 don,  1706. 
 
 Pfister,  Geschichte  der  Teutschen,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Ham- 
 burg, 1829. 
 
 Philological  Museum,  8vo,  Cambridge,  1831-33,  5  Nos. 
 
 Picot,  Tablettes  Chronologiques,  &c.,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Ge- 
 neve, 1808. 
 
 Pictet,  De  I'affinite  des  langues  Celtiques  avec  le  San- 
 scrit, 8vo,  Paris,  1837. 
 
 Pierer,    Universal- Lexikon,  26    vols.   8vo,    Altenburg, 
 1835-6. 
 
 Pinkerton,  Dissertation  on  the  Scythians  or  Goths,  8vo, 
 London,  1787. 
 
 Plass,  Vor-und  Ur-Geschichte  der  Helener,  2  vols.  8vo, 
 Leipz.,  1832. 
 
 Platonische  ^E.sthetik  von  A.  Ruge,  8vo,  Halle,  1832. 
 
 Phne,  Histoire  Naturelle,  annotee  par  plusieurs  savans, 
 20  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1829-33. 
 
 Pott,  Etymologische  Forschungen,  Svo,  Lemgo,  1833. 
 
LIST  OF  WORKS,  ETC. 
 
 Ponqueville,  Voyage  de  la  Grfece,  6  vols.  8vo,  Paris.  1826. 
 Prcscott,  Homer  the  Sleeper  in  Horace,  8vo,  Camb.,  1773. 
 Prichard,   Physical  History  of  Mankind,  8vo,  2  vols., 
 
 London,  182G. 
 ,  Analysis  of  Egyptian  Mythology,  8vo,  Lend., 
 
 1819. 
 
 ,  Origin  of  the  Celtic  Nat'ons,  8vo,  Oxf.,  1831. 
 
 Prideaux,  Connexions,  &c.,  2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1831 
 
 C20th  ed,). 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quarterly  Review,  8vo,  66  vols. 
 
 Journal  of  Education,  8vo,  London. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabelleau,  Histoire  des  Hebreux,  2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1828. 
 Raoiil-Rochette,  Cours  d'Arch6ologie,  8vo,  Paris,  1828. 
 Rasche,  Lexicon  Universas  rei  numariae  veleruin,  8vo, 
 
 12  vols.,  Lipsias,  1775-1802. 
 Reichard,  kleiae  geographische  Schriften,  8vo,  Giins, 
 
 1836. 
 Reinganim,  Das  alte  Megaris,  12mo,  Berlin,  1825. 
 
 Reisig,  Vorlesiingen    iiber   Lateinische    Sprachwissen- 
 schaft,  8vo,  Leipzig,  1839. 
 
 Relandi,  Palastina,  ex  monumentis  veteribus  illustrata, 
 4to,  Noriinb  ,  1716. 
 
 Rernusat,  Melanges  Asiatiques,  2  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1825. 
 
 — — ,  Nouveaux  Melanges  Asiatiques,  8vo,  2  vols., 
 
 Paris,  1829. 
 
 Rennell,  Geography  of  Herodotus,  8vo,  2  vols.,  London, 
 1830. 
 
 ,  Geography  of  Western  Asia,  Svo,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
 don, 1831  (with  atlas). 
 
 ,  Illustrations  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  4to,  Lon- 
 don, 1816. 
 
 ,  Observations  on  the  Topography  of  the  Plain 
 
 of  Troy,  4to,  London,  1814. 
 
 Repertorium  liir  Biblische  und  Morgenlandische  Litera- 
 tur,  18  vols,  in  5,  Svo,  Leipzig,  1777-85. 
 
 Retrospective  Review,  16  vols.  8vo,  London,  1820-28. 
 
 Rheinisches  Museum,  Svo,  Bonn,  1827. 
 
 Rhode,  Die  heilige  Sage,  &c.,  der  alten  Baktrer,  Meder, 
 &c.,  Svo,  Frankfurt,  1820. 
 
 ,  Die  religiose  Biidung,  &c.,  der  Hindus,  Svo,  2 
 
 vols  ,  Leipzig,  1827. 
 
 Rich,  Journey  to  the  Site  of  Babylon,  &c.,  Svo,  London, 
 1839. 
 
 Richerand,  Nouveanx  Elemens  de  Physiologic,  Svo,  2 
 vols.,  Paris,  1825  (9th  edition). 
 
 Rio,  L'Histoire  do  I'Esprit  Humain  datis  I'Antiquite,  2 
 vols.  Svo,  Paris,  1829. 
 
 Ritter,  C,  Die  Erdkunde,  &c.,  2  vols.  Svo,  Berlin,  1817. 
 
 , ,  vol.  1,  Berlin,  1822  (2d 
 
 edition). 
 
 ,  Die  Stupa's  (Topes)  und  die  Colosse  von  Ba- 
 
 miyan,  12mo,  Berlin,  1838. 
 
 ,  Die  Vorhalle  Europaischer  Volkergeschich- 
 
 ten,  &c  ,  Svo,  Berlin,  1820. 
 
 ,  H.,  Geschichte  der  Philosophic,  Svo,  4  vols., 
 
 Hamburg,  1830-39,  2d  edit. 
 
 ,  Geschichte  der  Pythagorischen   Philoso- 
 phic, Svo,  Hamburg,  1826. 
 
 ,  History  of  Ancient  Philosophy,  translated 
 
 by  Morrison,  3  vols.  Svo,  Oxford,  1838-9. 
 
 Rolle,  Recherches  sur  le  Cultede  Bacchus,  Svo,  3  vols., 
 Paris,  1824. 
 
 ,  Religions  de  la  Gr^ce,  Svo,  vol.  1,  Chatillonsur- 
 
 Seine,  1828. 
 
 RoUin,  Histoire  Romaine,  3  vols.  Svo,  Paris,  183S. 
 
 ,  Ancient  History,  Svo,  New-York,  1839. 
 
 Romanelli,  Viaggio  a  Pompei,  &c.,  12mo,  2  vols  ,  Na- 
 poli,  1817. 
 
 Rome  m  the  Nineteenth  Century,  12mo,  2  vols.,  New- 
 York,  1827. 
 
 Rosenkranz,  Handbuch  einer  Geschichte  der  Poesie,  2 
 vols.  Svo,  Halle,  1832. 
 
 Rosenmiiller,  Biblical  Geography  of  Central  Asia,  trans- 
 lated by  N.  Morren,  2  vols.  12ino,  Edinburgh,  1836. 
 
 ,  Scholia  ill  Vetus  Testamentum,  18  vols. 
 
 Svo,  Lipsiae,  1822. 
 
 • ,  Scholia  in  Novum  Testamentum,  Svo,  5 
 
 vols.,  Norimbergae,  1808. 
 
 Rosini,  Antiquitates  Romanae  cura  Dempster,  4to,  Am- 
 slel.,  1085. 
 
 Rotteck,  Allgemeine  Geschichte,  9  vols.  Svo,  Freyburg, 
 1832-4. 
 
 Rougier,  Considerations  generales  sur  I'Histoire,  Svo, 
 
 ■   Pans,  1829. 
 
 ,  L'Agriculture  Ancienne  des  Grecs,  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1830. 
 
 — -^ ,  L'Agriculture  des  Gaulois,  Svo,  Paris,  1829. 
 
 Riidemann,  von  den  Sa^culum,  12mo,  Copenhagen,  1099 
 Ruhnken,  Opuscula,  2  vols.  Svo,  Lugd.  Bat,,  1823 
 Rubs,  Die  Edda,  8vo,  Berlin,  1812. 
 Russell,  View  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Egypt,  12mo, 
 
 Edinburgh,  1831. 
 
 SainteCroix,   Examen  des  historiens  d'Alexandre  le 
 
 Grand,  4to,  Paris,  1810  (2d  edition). 
 ,  Recherches  sur  les  .Mysteresdu  Paganis 
 
 me,  Svo,  2  vols.,  Pans,  1817  (2d  edition). 
 Salverte,  Des  Sciences  Occultes,  &c.,2vols.  Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1829. 
 ,  Essai  Historiqueet  Philosophique  sur  les  Noms 
 
 d'Hommes,de  Peuples,etde  Lieux,2  vols.Svo,  Paris, 
 
 1824. 
 Sartorius,  Geschichte  der  Ostgothen,  Svo,  Leipz.,  1830. 
 Schaalf,  Encyclopaedie  der  Classischen  Allerthumskun- 
 
 de,  Svo,  2  vols.,  Magdeburg,  1820. 
 Schelling,  Die  Gottheiten  von  Samothrace,  Svo,  Stutt- 
 gart, 1817. 
 Schlegel,  F.,  Geschichte  der  Alten  und  neuen  Littera- 
 
 tur,  Svo,  2  vols.,  Wien,  1815. 
 ,  Die  Sprache  und  Weisheit  der  Indier,  12mo, 
 
 Heidelburg,  1808. 
 ,  Sammfliche   Werke,  Svo,  8  vols.,  Wien, 
 
 1822. 
 ,  A.  W.,  Ueber  Dramatische  Kunst  und  Litter- 
 
 atur,  12mo,  3  vols.,  Heidelb.,  1817. 
 ,  A.  G.,  Lemons  sur  I'Histoire  et  la  Theorie  des 
 
 Beaux  Arts,  Svo,  Paris,  1830. 
 Schleiermacher,   Plalons  Werke,  Svo,  5  vols.,  Berlin, 
 
 1817-26. 
 
 ,  Introduction  to  the  Dialogues  of  Plato, 
 
 translated  by  Dobson,  Svo,  London,  1836. 
 Schlichthorst,  Geographia  Africa;  Herodotea;,  12mo,  Got- 
 
 tingffi,  1788. 
 Schniieder,  Lehrbuch  der  alten  Erdbeschreibung,  12mo, 
 
 Berlin,  1802, 
 Scholl,  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque,  Svo,  8  vols., 
 
 Paris,  1823-25. 
 ,  Histoire  abregee  de  la  Litterature  Romaine,  Svo, 
 
 4  vols  ,  Paris,  1815. 
 ,  Histoire  abregee  de  la  Litterature  Grecque  sa- 
 
 cree,  Svo,  Paris,  1832. 
 ,  Geschichte  der  Griechischen  Lilteratur,  aus  deni 
 
 Franzosischen  iibersetzt  von  Schwarze  und  Pinder,  3 
 
 vols.  Svo,  Leipzig,  1828-30. 
 Schwenck,  Etymologisch  Mythologische  Andeutungen, 
 
 &c.,  Svo,  Elberfeld,  1823. 
 Selden,  De  anno  civili  veterum  Judasorum,  ]2mo,  Lugd. 
 
 Bat.,  1683. 
 Seyfarth,  Rudimenta  Hieroglyphices,  4to,  Lipsis,  1826. 
 
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 ,  Beitriige  zur  Kenntniss  der  Litteratur,  &c., 
 
 des  alten  ^gypten,  4to,  heft.  1,  Leipzig,  1826. 
 Sharp,  Early  History  of  Egypt,  4to,  London,  1830. 
 
 ,  History  of  the  Ptolemies,  4to,  London,  1838. 
 
 Sidharubam,  seu  Grammaiica  Samscrdamica,  cui  acce- 
 
 dit  Dissertatio  Historico-Critica  in  Linguam  Samscrd- 
 
 amicam,  4to,  Romae,  Congr.  de  Prop.  Fid.,  1790. 
 Sigonius,  Fasti  Consulares,  12mo,  Oxonii,  1801. 
 Sillig,  Dictionary  of  the  Artists  of  Antiquity,  translated 
 
 by  Williams,  Svo,  London,  1837. 
 Simon,   Die   Bewohner  des  linken   Rheinufers,  Koln, 
 
 Svo,  1833. 
 Sismondi,  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Svo,  Philad  ,  1835. 
 Spaiigenberg,  de  veteris  Latii  religionibus  domesticis, 
 
 4to,  Gotting.,  1800. 
 Spanheim,  Introductio  ad  Geographiam  Sacram,  12mo, 
 
 Ultrajecti,  1696. 
 
 ,  Orbis  Romanus,  Svo,  London,  1703. 
 
 Spence,  Origin  of  the  Laws  and  Institutions  of  Modern 
 
 F-urope,  Svo,  London,  1826. 
 Spohn,  Commentatio  de  extrema  Odysseae  parte,  Svo, 
 
 Lips.,  1816. 
 Sprengel,  Histoire  de  la  Medecine,  Svo,  9  vols.,  Paris, 
 
 1815. 
 Stahr,  Aristotelia  2  vols.  Svo,  Halle,  1833. 
 Stieglitz,  Archaeologische  Unterhaltungen,Svo,  Leipzig 
 
 1820. 
 
LIST  OF  WORKS,  ETC. 
 
 Stradae  P/oIusiones  Academicae,  8vo,  Oxon.,  1745. 
 
 Stuart  and  Reveit's  Antiquities  of  Athens,  &c.,  abridg- 
 ed, 12mo,  London,  1837. 
 
 ,  Dictionary  of  Architecture,  3  vols.  8vo,  London. 
 
 Systema  Brahmanicum,  Liturgicum  Mythologicum  ci- 
 vile, ex  monumentis  Indicia  Musei  Borgiani  Velitris, 
 4to,  Koma?,  1791. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tennemann,  Geschichte  der  Philosophic,  8vo,  vol.  1, 
 
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 ,  Geschichte  der  Philosophie,  8vo,  11  vols., 
 
 Leipzig,  1798-1819. 
 ,  Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  Philosophie, 
 
 8vo,  Leipzig,  1829  (5th  edit.). 
 
 ,  System  der  Platonischen  Philosophie,  8vo, 
 
 4  vols.,  Leipzig,  1792-94, 
 
 -,  Manual  of  the  History  of  Philosophy,  trans- 
 
 lated by  Johnson,  8vo,  Oxford,  1832. 
 Terpstra,  Antiquitas  Homerica,  8vo,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1831. 
 Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  8vo,  Cambridge,  1830  (3d  edit.). 
 . ,  by  Donaldson,  8vo,  Cambridge, 
 
 1836  (4th  edit). 
 Thierry,  Histoire  des  Gaulois,  3  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1828. 
 Thirlwrall,  History  of  Greece,  7  vols.  12mo,  Lond.,  1835- 
 
 40. 
 Tiraboschi,  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana,  8vo,   20 
 
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 Tissot,  Etudes  sur  Virgile,  3  vols.  8vo,  Bruxelles,  1826- 
 
 28. 
 Tittmann,  Darstelhmg  der  Griechischen  Staatsverfas- 
 
 sungen,  8vo,  Leipzig,  1822. 
 Tofanelli,  Description  des  objets  de  Sculpture  et  de 
 
 Pemture  au  Capitol,  12mo,  Rome,  1825. 
 Tolken,  Ueber  das  Basrelief,  12mo,  Berlin,  1815. 
 Toulotte,  Barbaric  et  Lois  au  Moyen  Age,  8vo,  3  vols., 
 
 Paris,  1829. 
 Tournefort,  Voyage  du  Levant,  3  vols.  8vo,  Lyon,  1717. 
 Townley  Gallery,  2  vols.  12mo,  London,  1836. 
 Trapp's  Praelectiones  Poeticas,  8vo,  3  vols.,  Oxon.,  1711- 
 
 19. 
 Turner,  Tour  in  the  Levant,  3  vols.  8vo,  London,  1820. 
 Twining,  Translation  of  Aristotle's  Poetics,  with  notes, 
 
 4to,  London,  1789. 
 Tzchirner,  Der  Fall  des  Heidenthums,  8vo,  vol.  1,  Leip- 
 zig, 1829. 
 
 U, 
 Ukert,  Geographic  der  Griechen  und  Romer,  2vols.  8vo, 
 
 Weimar,  1816. 
 Usserius  (Usher),  De  Macedonum  et  Asianorum  Anno 
 
 Solari,  12mo,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1683. 
 
 V. 
 
 Valery,  Voyage  Hlstorique  et  Litteraire  en  Italie,  8vo, 
 
 Brux.,  1835. 
 Van  Heusde,  Initia  philosophise  Platonicas,  5  parts  8vo, 
 
 Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1827-36. 
 ,  Characterismi  principum   philosophorum 
 
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 dam, 1839. 
 Viaggi  di  Petrarca,  in  Francia,  in  Germania,  ed  in  Italia, 
 
 8vo,  5  vols.,  Milano,  1820. 
 Vico,  Principes  de  la  philosophie  de  I'Histoire,  2  vols. 
 
 12mo,  Brux.,  1835. 
 Vincent,  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  Ancients, 
 
 &c.,  4to,  2  vols.,  London,  1807. 
 
 <  Vol.  1,  Voyage  of  Nearchus. 
 1  Vol.  2,  Periplus. 
 Virey,  Histoire  Naturelle  du  Genre  Humain,  12mo,  3 
 
 vols  ,  Bruxelles,  1827. 
 Visconti,  E.  Q.,  Iconografia  Greca,  8vo,  7  vols.,  Milano, 
 
 1823. 
 ,  Iconografia  Romana,3  vols.  8vo,  Milano, 
 
 1818. 
 
 ,  Museo  PioClcmentino,  8vo,  3  vols., 
 
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 ,  Opere  Varie,  3  vols.  8vo,  Milano,  1817. 
 
 ,  F.  A.,  Museo  Charamonti,  8vo,  Milano,  1820. 
 
 Volcker,  iiber  Homerische  Geographic  und  Weltkunde, 
 
 8vo,  Hannov.,  1830. 
 ,  Myihische  Geographic  der  Griecher.  ond  R6 
 
 mer,  8vo,  Hannov.,  1830. 
 ,    Mythologle    des    lapetischen    Geschleclites, 
 
 12mo,  Giessen,  1824. 
 VoUmer,  Worterbuch  der  Mythologie,  8vo,   Stuttgard, 
 
 1836. 
 Voss,  J.  H.,  Mythologische  Briefe,  12ino,  5  vols.,  Stutt 
 
 gart,  1827-34. 
 
 ,  Anti-Symbolik,2vols.  12mo,  Stuttgart,  1824. 
 
 Vossius,  De  Historicis  Graecis,  ed.  Westermann,  Svo, 
 
 Lips.,  1838. 
 Voyage  a  Pompei,  12mo,  Paris,  1829. 
 Vyacarana,  seu  locupletissima   Samscrdamicae  linguaB 
 
 Institutio,  4to,  Romae,  1804. 
 Vyse,  Pyramids  of  Gizeh,  2  vols.  4to,  London,  1840. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wachler,  Handbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Litteratur,  Svo. 
 
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 Wachsmuth,  Hellenische  Alterthumskunde,  4  vols.  8vo, 
 
 Halle,  1826-30. 
 ,  Historical  Antiquities  of  the  Greeks,  trans- 
 lated by  Woolrich,  2  vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1837. 
 Wagner,  Die  Tempel  und  Pyramiden  der  Urbewohner, 
 
 auf  dem  rechten  F.lbufer,  Svo,  Leipzig,  1828. 
 Wahl,  Vorder  und  Mittei  Asien,  Svo,  Leipzig,  1795. 
 Waich,  Historia  Critica  Linguae  Latinas,  12mo,  Lips., 
 
 171G. 
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CLASSICAL    DICTIONARY, 
 
 &c.  &c.  &c. 
 
 ABA 
 
 AB-E,  I.  a  city  of  Phocis,  near  and  to  the  right  of 
 Elatea,  towards  Opus.  The  inhabitants  had  a  tradition 
 that  they  were  of  Argive  descent,  and  that  their  city 
 was  founded  by  Abas,  son  of  Lynceus  and  Hypermnes- 
 tra,  grandson  of  Danaus  (Paus.  10,35).  It  was  most 
 probably  of  Thracian,  or,  in  other  words,  Pelasgic  ori- 
 gin. AbEB  was  early  celebrated  for  its  oracle  of  Apol- 
 lo, of  greater  antiquity  than  that  at  Delphi  {Steph. 
 B.).  In  later  days,  the  Romans  also  testified  respect 
 for  the  character  of  the  place,  by  conceding  important 
 privileges  to  the  Abceans,  and  allowing  them  to  live 
 under  their  own  laws  {Pans.  I.  c).  During  the  Persian 
 invasion,  the  army  of  Xerxes  set  fire  to  the  temple,  and 
 nearly  destroyed  it ;  soon  after  it  again  gave  oracles, 
 though  in  this  dilapidated  state,  and  was  consulted  for 
 that  purpose  by  an  agent  of  Mardonius  {Herod.  8,  134). 
 In  the  Sacred  war,  a  body  of  Phocians  having  fled  to  it 
 for  refuge,  the  Thebans  burned  what  remained  of  the 
 temple,  destroying,  at  the  same  time,  the  suppliants 
 {Diod.  S.  16,58).  Hadrian  caused  another  temple  to  be 
 built,  but  much  inferior  in  size.  This  city  possessed  also 
 a  forum  and  a  theatre.  Ruins  are  pointed  out  by  Sir 
 W.  Gell  (Ian.  260)  near  the  modern  village  of  Exar- 
 cho. 
 
 AfliEtTs,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  derived  from  the  town 
 of  Abs  in  Phocis,  where  the  god  had  a  rich  temple. 
 (Hesych.,  s.  v.  "A.6ai. — Herod.  8,  33.) 
 
 AB.tc^NUM,  a  city  of  the  Siculi,  in  Sicily,  situated 
 on  a  steep  hill  southwest  of  Messana.  Its  ruins  are 
 supposed  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of  Tripi.  Being  an  ally 
 of  Carthage,  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  wrested  from  it 
 part  of  the  adjacent  territory,  and  founded  in  its  vicin- 
 ity the  colony  of  Tyndaris  {Diod.  S.  14,  78,  90). 
 Ptolemy  calls  this  city  'AOuKaLva,  all  other  writers 
 'XtaKoivov.  According  to  Bochart,  the  Punic  appel- 
 lation was  Abacin,  from  Abac,  "  cztollcre,^'  in  refer- 
 ence to  its  lofty  situation.  (Cluver.  Sic.  Ant.  2,  386.) 
 Ab.Ilus.  Vid.  Basiiia. 
 
 Ab.vntes,  an  ancient  people  of  Greece,  whose  origin 
 is  not  ascertained  ;  probably  they  came  from  Thrace, 
 and  having  settled  in  Phocis,  built  the  city  AbiE. 
 From  this  quarter  a  part  of  them  seem  to  have  remo- 
 ved to  Eubcea,  and  hence  its  name  Abantias,  or  Aban- 
 tis  {Strabo,  444).  Others  of  them  left  Euboea,  and  set- 
 lied  for  a  time  in  Chios  {Paus.  7,  4) ;  a  third  band, 
 returnuig  with  some  of  the  Locri  from  the  Trojan  war, 
 were  driven  to  the  coast  of  Epirus,  settled  in  part  of 
 Thesprotia,  inhabited  the  city  Thronium,  and  gave 
 the  name  Abantis  to  the  adjacent  territory  {Paus.  5, 
 22).  The  Thracian  origin  of  the  Abantes  is  contest- 
 ed by  Mannert  (8,  246),  though  supported,  in  some  de- 
 gree, by  Aristotle,  as  cited  by  Strabo.  They  had  a 
 custom  of  cutting  off  the  hair  of  the  head  before,  and 
 suffering  it  to  grow  long  behind  (//.  2,  542).  Plutarch 
 <yit.  Thes.  5)  states,  that  they  did  this  to  prevent  the 
 enemy,  whom  thev  alwavs  boldly  fronted,  from  seizing 
 B 
 
 ABA 
 
 them  by  the  fore  part  of  their  heads  The  truth  is,  they 
 wore  the  hair  long  behind  as  a  badge  of  valour,  and  so 
 the  scholiast  on  Homer  means  by  uvdpeia^  ;^a.piv. 
 The  custom  of  wearing  long  hair  characterized  many,  if 
 not  all  of  the  warlike  nations  of  antiquity  ;  it  prevailed 
 among  the  Scythians,  who  were  wont  also  to  cut  off  the 
 hair  of  their  captives  as  indicative  of  slavery  [Hesych. 
 — Bayeri  Mem.  Scyth.  in  comment.  Acad.  P'ctr.  1732, 
 p.  388) ;  and  also  among  the  Thracians,  Spartans 
 Gauls  {Gain  comati),  and  the  early  Romans  {intonsi 
 Romani).  As  to  the  origin  of  this  custom  among  the 
 Spartans,  Herodotus  ( 1 ,  82)  seems  to  be  in  error,  in  da  • 
 ting  it  from  the  battle  of  Thyrea,  since  Xenophon  {Lac. 
 Pol.  11,  3)  expressly  refers  it  to  the  time  of  Lycur- 
 gus  {Plut.  Vit.  Lys.  1).  The  practice  of  scalping, 
 which,  according  to  Herodotus  (4,  64),  existed  among 
 the  ancient  Scythians  {Casaub.  ad  Athen.  524),  ana 
 is  still  used  by  the  North  American  Indians,  appears 
 to  owe  its  origin  to  this  peculiar  regard  for  the  hair  of 
 the  head.  The  greatest  trophy  for  the  victor  to  gain, 
 or  the  vanquished  to  lose,  would  be  a  portion  of  what 
 each  had  regarded  as  the  truest  badge  of  valour,  and  the 
 skin  of  the  head  would  be  taken  with  it  to  keep  the 
 hair  together.  On  the  other  hand,  shaving  the  head 
 was  a  peaceful  and  religious  custom,  directly  opposed 
 to  that  just  mentioned.  It  was  an  indispensable  rite 
 among  the  priests  of  Egypt  {Herod.  2,  36) ;  and  even 
 the  deities  in  the  hieroglyphics  have  their  heads  with- 
 out hair.  Hence,  too,  may  be  explained  what  is  said 
 of  the  Argippaei,  or  Bald-headed  Scythians  {Herod.  4, 
 23).  No  one  offered  violence  to  them  ;  they  were  ac- 
 counted sacred,  and  had  no  warlike  weapons.  Were 
 they  not  one  of  those  sacerdotal  colonies  which,  mi- 
 grating at  a  remote  period  from  India,  spread  them- 
 selves over  Scythia,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  farther 
 regions  of  the  West  1 
 
 Abantiades,  a  masculine  patronymic  given  to  the 
 descendants  of  Abas,  king  of  Argos,  such  as  Acrisius, 
 Perseus,  &c.     (Ovid,  Met.  4,  673.) 
 
 AB.\NTiAs,  I.  one  of  the  ancient  names  of  Eubcea. 
 {Vid.  Abajites.)  Strabo  (444)  calls  it  Abantis — II.  A 
 l^emale  patronymic  from  Abas,  as  Danae,  Atalanta,  &c. 
 
 Abantidas,  a  tyrant  of  Sicyon,  in  the  third  cen- 
 tury B.C.  He  seized  upon  the  sovereign  power, 
 after  having  slain  Clinias,  who  was  then  in  charge  of 
 the  administration.  Clinias  was  the  father  of  the  cele- 
 brated Aratus,  and  the  latter,  at  this  time  only  seven 
 years  of  age,  narrowly  escaped  sharing  the  fate  of  his 
 parent.     {Plut.  Vit.  Arat.  2.) 
 
 Abantis.      Vid.  Abantias  II. 
 
 Abaris,  I.  a  Scythian,  or  Hyperborean,  mentioned 
 by  several  ancient  writers.  lamblichus  states  that 
 Abaris  was  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  and  performed 
 many  wonders  with  an  arrow  received  from  Apollo 
 {Vit.  Pythaff.,p.  28,  ed.  Kuster.)  Herodotus  informs 
 us  (4,  36)  that  he  was  carried  on  this  arrow  over  the 
 
ABA 
 
 ABD 
 
 whole  earth  without  tasting  food.  But  there  are  strong 
 doubts  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  text  given  by  Wes- 
 seUng  and  Valckcnaer.  The  old  editions  read  wf  tov 
 oltTTov  7TFpu(p£f)e  oMev  (n.Te6fj.evo^,  which  agrees  with 
 the  account  given  in  the  Fragment  of  Lycurgus  cited 
 by  Eudocia  {ViUois.  Anccd.  1,  20),  where  he  is  said 
 to  have  traversed  all  Greece,  holding  an  arrow  as  the 
 symbol  of  Apollo.  The  time  of  his  arrival  in  Greece 
 IS  variously  given  {Bend.  Phal.  95).  Some  fi.x  it  in  the 
 ;ld  Olympiad  (Harpocr. — Suid.), otUers  in  the  21st, 
 others  much  lower.  One  authority  is  weighty  :  Pin- 
 dar, as  cited  by  Harpocration,  slates  that  Abaris  came 
 10  Greece  while  Croesus  was  king  of  Lydia.  An  ex- 
 traordinary occasion  caused  his  visit.  The  whole  earth 
 was  ravaged  by  a  pestilence  ;  the  oracle  of  Apollo, 
 being  consulted,  gave  answer  that  the  scourge  would 
 only  cease  when  the  Athenians  should  offer  up  vows 
 lor  all  nations.  Another  account  makes  him  to  have 
 left  his  native  country  during  a  famine  {Villois.  Anecd. 
 I.  c).  He  made  himself  known  throughout  Greece  as 
 a  performer  of  wonders  ;  delivered  oracular  responses 
 {Clem.  Alex.  Sir.  399) ;  healed  maladies  by  charms 
 or  exorcisms  {Plato,  Charm.  1,  312,  Bckk.) ;  drove 
 away^storms,  pestilence,  and  evils.  His  oracles  are 
 said  to  have  been  left  in  writing  (Apollon.  Hist.  Com- 
 ment, c.  4.  Compare  Schol.  Aristoph.  p.  331,  as 
 emended  by  Scaliger).  The  money  obtained  for  these 
 various  services,  Abaris  is  said  to  have  consecrated,  on 
 his  return,  to  Apollo  (Iambi.  V.  P.  19),  whence  Bayle 
 concludes,  that  the  collecting  of  a  pious  contribution 
 formed  the  motive  of  his  journey  to  Greece  (Diet. 
 Hist,  et  Crit.  1,  4).  He  formed  also  a  Palladium  out 
 of  the  bones  of  Pelops,  and  sold  it  to  the  Trojans  {Jul. 
 Finniais, IG).  Modern  opinions  vary  :  Bracker  {Hist. 
 Phil.  1,355. — Enfield,  I,  115)  regards  him  as  one  who, 
 like  Empcdocles,  Epimcnides,  Pythagoras,  and  others, 
 went  about  imposing  on  the  vulgar  by  false  preten- 
 sions to  supernatural  powers  ;  and  Lobeck  {Aglaoph. 
 vol.  i.,  p.  313,  scq.)  is  of  the  same  opinion.  Creuzer 
 {Sijmb.  2,  1,  267)  considers  Abaris  as  belonging  to  the 
 curious  chain  of  connexion  between  the  religions  of 
 the  North,  and  those  of  Southern  Europe,  so  distinctly 
 indicated  by  the  customary  offerings  sent  to  Delos 
 from  the  country  of  the  Hyperboreans.  The  same 
 writer  then  cites  a  remarkable  passage  from  the  Hial- 
 marsaga:  "From  Greece  came  Abor  and  Samolis, 
 with  many  excellent  men ;  they  met  with  a  very  cor- 
 dial reception  ;  their  servant  and  successor  was  Herse 
 of  Glisisvalr."  The  allusion  here  is  evidently  to 
 Abaris  and  Zamolxis  ;  and  if  this  passage  be  authen- 
 tic, Abaris  would  have  been  a  Druid  of  the  North,  and 
 the  country  of  the  Hyperboreans  the  Hebrides.  The 
 doctrines  of  the  Druids,  as  well  as  those  of  Zamolxis, 
 resemble  the  tenets  of  the  Pythagorean  school,  and 
 in  this  way  we  may  explain  that  part  of  the  story  of 
 Abaris  which  connects  him  with  Pythagoras  {Origen. 
 Fhilos.  892,  906,  cd.  dc  la  Rtic.—'Chardon  de  la  Ro- 
 c%eUc,  Mclang.  dc  Crit.  vol.  i.,  p.  58).  Unfortunate- 
 ly, the  Saga  of  Hialmar  is  by  the  ablest  critics  of  the 
 North  considered  a  forgery  {MiXllers  Sagahihl.  2,  663). 
 Still,  other  grounds  have  been  assumed  for  making  Ab- 
 aris a  Druidical  priest ;  and  the  opinion  is  maintained 
 by  several  writers  {TolaiuVs  Misc.  Works,  1,  181. — 
 Higgins'  Celtic  Dncids,  123. — Southern  Rev.  7,  21.) 
 One  argument  is  derived  from  Himcritis  {Phot.  Bill. 
 vol.  ii.,  p.  374,  ed.  Bckkcr),  that  he  travelled  in  Celtic 
 costume  ;  in  a  plaid  and  pantaloons.  Creuzer,  after 
 some  remarks  on  this  history,  indulges  in  an  inge- 
 nious speculation,  by  which  Abaris  becomes  a  personi- 
 fication of  writing,  and  the  doctrines  communicated  by 
 it,  as  well  as  the  advantages  resulting  from  these  doc- 
 trines, and  from  science  or  wisdom  in  general.  As 
 the  Runic  characters  of  the  North  are  here  referred  to, 
 a  part  of  his  argument  rests  on  the  etymology  of  "  Vm- 
 mc,"  rinncn,riincn,  "  to  run."  "to  move  rapidly  along." 
 This,  toffcther  with  the  arrow-like  form  of  most  of 
 10 
 
 them,  will  make  Abaris,  travelling  on  his  arrow,  to  be 
 him  that  moves  rapidly  along,  Rima,  the  scribe,  prophet, 
 deliverer  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  personification  of 
 writing,  as  the  source  of  all  knowledge,  and  of  safety  to 
 man.  Thus  the  legend  of  Abaris  may  mark  the  prop- 
 agation of  writing  from  the  summits  of  Caucasus,  fol 
 spreading  civilization  as  well  to  the  Greeks,  as  the  na- 
 tions of  the  North.  For  other  speculations,  compare 
 Miiller  {Doner,  1,  364)  and  Schwenk  {Etymol.-Myth. 
 Andeiit.  358),  who  see  in  Abaris  the  god  himself,  Apol- 
 lo 'A<papEV^  or  'A(l>aioQ,  "luminous,"  under  the  Macedo- 
 nian form  'AGapic,  become  his  own  priest  {Creuter,'2, 1, 
 269). — H.  A  city  of  Egypt,  called  aho  Avaris  {'AGaptg, 
 or  Avapic).  Manetho  places  it  to  the  east  of  the  Bu- 
 bastic  mouth  of  the  Nile,  in  the  Saitic  Nome  {Joseph, 
 c.  Ap.  1,  14).  Mannert  identifies  it  with  what 'was 
 afterward  called  Pelusium  ;  for  the  name  Abaris  dis- 
 appeared, when  the  shepherd-race  retired  from  Egypt, 
 and  the  situation  of  Pelusium  coincides  sufficiently 
 with  the  site  of  Abaris,  as  far  as  authorities  have 
 reached  us.  Manetho,  as  cited  by  Josephus,  says,  that 
 Salatis,  the  first  shepherd-king,  finding  the  position 
 of  Abaris  well  adapted  to  his  purpose,  rebuilt  the  city, 
 and  strongly  fortified  it  with  walls,  garrisoning  it  with 
 a  force  of  240,000  men.  To  this  city  Salatis  repaired 
 in  summer  time,  in  order  to  collect  his  tribute,  and 
 to  pay  his  troops,  and  to  exercise  his  soldiers  with  the 
 view  of  striking  terror  into  foreign  states.  Manetho 
 also  informs  us,  that  the  name  of  the  city  had  an  an- 
 cient theological  reference  {naT^ov/ievrjv  6'  utto  rtvog 
 upxaiag  ■&eo\oylag  Avapn>).  Other  writers  make  the 
 term  Abaris  denote  "  a  pass,"  or  "  crossing  over,"  a 
 name  well  adapted  to  a  stronghold  on  the  borders. 
 Compare  the  Sanscrit  tipari  (over,  above),  the  Gothic 
 ufar,  the  Old  High  German  ubar,  the  Persian  cber, 
 the  Latin  super,  the  Greek  insp,  &c. 
 
 Ab.\rnis,  or  -us,  I.  a  name  given  to  that  part  of 
 Mysia  in  which  Lampsacus  was  situate.  Venus,  ac- 
 cording to  the  fable,  here  disowned  {u—riovi/aaro)  her 
 offspring  Priapus,  whom  she  had  just  brought  forth, 
 being  shocked  at  his  deformity.  Hence  the  appella- 
 tion. The  first  form  Aparnis,  was  subsequently  altered 
 to  Aharnis  {Stcph.  B.). — II.  A  city  in  the  above-men- 
 tioned district,  lying  south  of  Lampsacus  (.S/^/jA.  B.). 
 
 Abas,  L  or  Abus,  a  mountain  of  Armenia  Major  ; 
 according  to  D'Anville,  the  modern  Ahi-dag,  according 
 to  Mannert  (5,  196),  Ararat ;  giving  rise  to  the  south- 
 ern branch  of  the  Euphrates.  {Vid.  Arsanias.) — H.  A 
 river  of  Albania,  rising  in  the  chain  of  Caucasus,  and 
 falling  into  the  Caspian  Sea.  Ptolemy  calls  it  Albanus. 
 On  its  banks  Pompcy  defeated  the  rebellious  Albanians 
 {PhU.  Vit.  Pomp.  35).— IIL  The  12th  king  of  Ar- 
 gos.  {Vid.  Supplement.) — IV.  A  son  of  Metaneira, 
 changed  by  Ceres  into  a  lizard  for  having  mocked  the 
 goddess  in  her  distress.  Others  refer  this  to  Ascala- 
 phus. — V.  A  Latin  chief  who  assisted  .-Eneas  against 
 Turnus,  and  was  killed  by  Lausus.  {JEn.  10,  170,  &c.) 
 — VL  A  soothsayer,  to  whom  the  Spartans  erected  a 
 statue  for  his  services  to  Lysander,  before  the  battle 
 of  ^gospotamos.  He  is  called  by  some  writers  Ha- 
 gias  ('Ayi'ar). 
 
 Abasc.\ntus.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Abasitis,  a  district  of  Phrygia  Epictetus,  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  Mysia  ;  in  it  was  the  citv  of  Ancyra,  and  here, 
 according  to  Strabo  (576),  the  Macestus  or  Megistus 
 arose. 
 
 Abatos.      Vid.  Philae. 
 
 Abdaloni.mus,  one  of  the  descendants  of  the  kings 
 of  Sidon,  so  poor  that,  to  maintain  himself,  he  worked 
 in  a  garden  When  Alexander  took  Sidon,  he  made 
 him  king,  and  enlarged  his  possessions  for  his  disin- 
 terestedness. {Justin,  11,  10. — Curt.  4,  1.)  Diodo- 
 rus  Siculus  (17,  46)  calls  him  Ballonymus,  a  corrup- 
 tion of  the  true  naine  as  given  by  Curtius  and  Justin. 
 Wesseling(o(/  Diod  S.  I.  c.)  considers  the  word  equiv- 
 alent, in  the  Phoenician  tongue,  to  Abd-al-anim,  "jSer- 
 
ABE 
 
 A  BI 
 
 mis  Dei  pradaforis,"  and  thinks  that  the  latter  part  of 
 the  compound,  amm,  may  be  traced  in  the  name  of  the 
 god  Anammelech  (2  Kings,  1 7,  3 1 ).  Gesenius  {Gesch. 
 der  Hebr.  Sprachc  und  Schnft,  228)  makes  Abdalon- 
 imus,  as  an  appellation,  the  same  with  Abd-alonim, 
 "  Servant  of  the  gods." 
 
 Abdera,  I.  a  city  of  Thrace,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
 Nestus  :  Ephorus  {Stcph.  B.)  wrote  in  sing.  'X6^ripov, 
 but  the  plural  is  more  usual,  ra  'A66r]pa.  The  Clazo- 
 mei'.ian  Timcsius  commenced  founding  this  place,  but, 
 m  consequence  of  the  Thracian  inroads,  was  unable  to 
 complete  it ;  soon  after,  it  was  recolonized  by  a  large 
 body  of  Teians  from  Ionia,  who  abandoned  their  city, 
 when  besieged  by  Harpagus,  general  of  Cyrus  (Herod. 
 1,  168).  Many  Teians  subsequently  returned  home  ; 
 yet  Abdera  remained  no  inconsiderable  city.  There 
 are  several  other  accounts  of  the  origin  of  this  place,  but 
 the  one  which  we  have  given  is  most  entitled  to  credit. 
 The  city  of  Abdera  was  the  birthplace  of  many  distin- 
 guished men,  as  Anaxarchus,  Democritus,  Hecataeus, 
 aad  Protagoras  ;  the  third,  however,  must  not  be  con- 
 founded with  the  native  of  Miletus.  {Crcuzer,  Hist. 
 Antiq.  Gr.  Fragm.  9,  28.)  But,  notwithstanding  the 
 celebrity  of  some  of  their  fellow-citizens,  the  people  of 
 Abdera,  as  a  body,  were  reputed  to  be  stupid.  In  the 
 Chiliads  of  Erasmus,  and  the  Adagia  Vcterum,  many 
 sayings  record  this  failing ;  Cicero  styles  Rome,  from 
 the  stupidity  of  the  senators,  an  Abdera  {Ep.  ad  Alt. 
 •I,  16);  Juvenal  calls  Abdera  itself,  "the  native  land 
 of  blockheads"  {vcrvecum  palriam,  10,  50  ;  compare 
 Martial,  10,  25  ;  ^^  Abdcritana.pectoraphbis''^).  Much 
 of  this  is  exaggeration.  Abdera  was  the  limit  of  the 
 Odrysian  empire  to  the  west  {Thuc.  2,  29).  It  after- 
 ward fell  under  the  power  of  Philip  ;  and,  at  a  later 
 period,  was  delivered  up  by  one  of  its  citizens  to  Eume- 
 nes,  king  of  Pergamus  {Diod.  S.  Fragm.  30,  9,  413, 
 Bip.).  Under  the  Romans  it  became  a  free  city  {Abde- 
 ra libera),  and  continued  so  even  as  late  as  the  time  of 
 Pliny  (4,  II).  It  was  famous  for  mullets,  and  other 
 fish  {Dorio,  ap.  Athcn.  3,  37. — Archestr.  ap.  eund.  7, 
 124).  In  the  middle  ages  Abdera  degenerated  into  a 
 very  small  town,  named  Polystylus,  according  to  the 
 Byzantine  historian,  Curopalate  {Wassc,  ad  Thuc.  2, 
 97).  Its  ruins  exist  near  Cape  Balonslra.  {French 
 Strabo,'^,  180,  ()  3.) — II.  A  town  of  Hispania  Bsctica, 
 east  of  Malaca,  in  the  territory  of  the  Bastuli  Poeni, 
 lying  on  the  coast ;  Strabo  calls  the  place  A.i)6?jpa 
 (157).  Ptolemy  "A66apa,  Stcph.  B.  'A66f]pa,  a  coin 
 of  Tiberius  Abdera  {Vai/lant,  col.  I,  p.  63, — Rasche's 
 Lex.  Rci  Num.  1,  23).  It  was  founded  by  a  Phoeni- 
 cian colony,  and  is  thought  to  correspond  to  the  mod- 
 ern Adra.     {Ukcrl's  Geugr.  2,  351.) 
 
 Abderus,  a  Locriaii,  armour-bearer  of  Hercules; 
 torn  to  pieces  by  the  mares  of  Diomedes,  which  the 
 hero,  warring  against  the  Bistones,  had  intrusted  to 
 his  care.  According  to  Philostratus  {Icon.  2,  35), 
 Hercules  built  the  city  of  Abdera  in  memory  of  him. 
 
 Abdias.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Abella,  a  town  of  Campania,  northeast  of  Nola, 
 founded  by  a  colony  from  Chalcis,  in  Eubosa,  according 
 to  Justin  (20,  1 ).  Its  ruins  still  exist  in  Avclia  Vccchia. 
 Small  aswas  Abella,  it  possessed  a  republicai'  govern- 
 ment, retaining  it  until  subdued  by  the  Romans  ;  the 
 inhabitants  Ahcilimi,  are  frequently  mentioned  by  an- 
 cient writers ;  the  only  fact  worthy  of  record  is,  that 
 their  territory  produced  a  species  o^  n\ii,nvx  Abellana 
 or  Avf'llana,  apparently  the  same  with  what  the  Greek 
 writers  call  Kupvov  Hovtikov,  "ilpaic?uei(jTiK6v  or  ylfTr- 
 Tov  {Diosror.  1,  179. — A  then.  2,  42).  The  tree  it- 
 self is  the  Kapva  HovriKfj,  and  corresponds  to  the 
 corylus  of  Virgil,  and  the  con/lus  Avellana  of  Lin- 
 nsus,  class  21.     {Fee,  Flore  dc  Virgile,  223.) 
 
 Abellinum,  I.  now  Ahcllino,  a  city  of  the  Hirpini, 
 in  Samnium ;  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  called, 
 for  distinction'sake,  Ahellinates  Protropi  {Plin.  3,  2. — 
 P'-ol.  67). — II.  A  city  of  Lucania,  near  the  source  of 
 
 the  Aciris  ;  called  .\bellinum  Marsicum.  It  is  thought 
 by  (,'luver  {Ital.  Ani.iq.  2,  1280)  and  D'Anville  {Geogr. 
 Anc.  57)  to  accord  with  Marsico  Vetera. 
 
 Abellio.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Abgarus,  I.  a  name  common  to  many  kings  of  Edes- 
 sa,  in  Mesopotamia  ;  otherwise  written  Abagarus,  Ag- 
 barus,  Augarus,  &c.  The  first  monarch  of  this  name 
 {Euseb.  H.  E.  1,  13)  wrote  a  letter  to  our  Saviour, 
 and  received  a  reply  from  him  {vid.  Edessa).  The 
 genuineness  of  these  letters  has  been  much  disputed 
 among  the  learned.  {Cave's  Lit.  Hist.  1,  2. — Lard- 
 nefs  Cred.  7,  22.) — II.  The  name,  according  to  some 
 authorities,  of  the  Arabian  prince  or  chieftain  who 
 perfidiously  drew  Crassus  into  a  snare,  which  proved 
 his  ruin ;  called  'A/cfiapof  by  Appian  {B.  P.  34), 
 'Apidfivijc  {Plut.  Crass.  21),  Aijyapog  {Dio  Cass.  40, 
 20). 
 
 AuiA,!  the  southernmost  city  of  Messenia,  on  the 
 eastern  shore  of  the  Messenian  Gulf  Pausanias  (4, 
 30)  identifies  it  with  Ire,  'Ip?/,  one  of  the  places  offer- 
 ed by  Agamemnon  to  Achilles  (//.  9,  292).  Abia,  to- 
 gether with  the  adjacent  cities  of  Thuria  and  Phera;, 
 separated  from  Messenia,  and  became  part  of  the 
 Achaean  confederacy  ;  afterward  they  again  attached 
 themselves  to  the  Messenian  government.  At  a  later 
 period,  Augustus,  to  punish  the  Messenians  for  having 
 favoured  the  party  of  Antony,  annexed  these  three 
 cities  to  Laconia.  But  this  arrangement  continued 
 only  for  a  short  time,  since  Ptolemy  and  Pausanias 
 include  them  again  among  the  cities  of  Messenia. — II. 
 Nurse  of  Hyllus,  in  honour  of  whom  Cresphontes  chan- 
 ged the  name  of  Ire  to  Abia.     {Pans.  4,  30,  1.) 
 
 Abii,  a  Scythian  nation,  supposed  by  the  earlier 
 Greeks  to  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Tanais.  Homer  is 
 thought  to  allude  to  them,  II.  1 3,  6,  where  for  uyavuv, 
 some  read  'ABiuv  te.  By  others  thev  are  supposed  to 
 be  identical  with  the  Macrobii.  '^fhe  name  "AdioL  is 
 thought  by  Heyne  {ad.  II.  I.  c.)  to  allude  to  their  living 
 on  lands  common  to  the  whole  nation,  or  to  their  hav- 
 ing a  community  of  goods,  or  perhaps  to  their  pov- 
 erty, and  their  living  in  wagons.  Curlius  (7,  6)  states, 
 that  these  Abii  sent  ambassadors  to  Alexander  with 
 professions  of  obedience.  But  the  Macedonians  en- 
 countered no  Abii  ;  they  only  believed  that  they  had 
 found  them.  The  name  they  probably  had  learned 
 from  Homer,  and  knew  that  they  were  a  people  to  the 
 north,  forming  part  of  the  great  Scythian  race.  Sup- 
 posing themselves,  therefore,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ta- 
 nais, they  gave  the  name  Abii  to  the  people,  who  had 
 sent  ambassadors,  merely  because  they  had  heard  that 
 the  Abii  dwelt  on  that  river. 
 
 Abila,  or  Abyla,  I.  a  mountain  of  Africa,  opposite 
 Calpe  {Gibraltar),  supposed  to  coincide  with  Cape  Ser- 
 ra.  It  is  an  elevated  point  of  land,  forming  a  peninsula, 
 of  which  a  place  named  Ceuta  closes  the  isthmus. 
 Of  the  two  forms  given  to  the  name  of  this  mountain 
 by  ancient  writers,  that  of  Ahijla  is  the  more  common. 
 The  name  is  written  by  Dionysius  {Perieg.  336), 
 'AMOfj.  According  to  Avienus  {Ora  Mant.  345), 
 Abila  is  a  Carthaginian  or  Punic  appellative  for  "any 
 lofty  mountain."  This  name  appears  to  have  passed 
 over  into  Europe,  and  to  have  been  applied,  with  slight 
 alteration  of  form,  to  the  opposite  mountain,  the  rock 
 of  Gibraltar.  Eustathius  {ad  Dionys.  P.  04)  informs 
 us  that  in  his  time  the  latter  mountain  was  named 
 Calpe  by  the  Barbarians,  but  Aliha  by  the  Greeks  ;  and 
 that  the  true  Abila,  on  the  African  side,  was  called 
 Abenna  by  the  natives,  by  the  Greeks  YLvvTjyi^riKij. 
 At  what  time  the  present  Gibraltar  began  to  be  call- 
 ed Calpe,  is  difficult  to  determine ;  probably  long  an- 
 tecedent to  the  age  of  Eustathius.  Calpe  itself  is 
 only  Aliba  shortened,  and  pronounced  with  a  strong 
 Oriental  aspirate.  In  the  word  Aliba  we  likewise  de- 
 tect the  root  of  Alp,  or,  rather,  the  term  itself,  which 
 may  be  traced  directly  to  the  Celtic  radical  Alh.  The 
 situation  of  Abila  gave  it,  with  the  opposite  Calpe,  a 
 
 U 
 
ABO 
 
 ABS 
 
 conspicuous  place  in  the  Greek  mythology.    (Vid.  Her- 
 culis  Columnar,  and  Mediterranciim  Mare  ) — II.  A  city 
 of  Pnleslinc.  12  miles  east  of  Gadara  {Eimcb.  v.  'A6eA 
 'Afini'.:uv).      Ptolemy  is  supposed  to  refer  to  it  under 
 the  name  Ahida,  an  error  probably  of  copyists.     {Man- 
 nert,  6,  1,  323.) — III.  A  city  of  Ccelesyria,  now  Beth- 
 lias,  in  a  mountainous  country,  about  18  miles  north- 
 west of  Damascus.     Ptolemy  gives   it   the   common 
 name   'ACi'Aa.      Josephus    calls    it  'A6e?.a,    and   also 
 'A6e?i/xaxia,  the  latter  coming  from  the  Hebrew  name 
 Abel  Beth  Maacha,  or  Malacha  {Rcland,  Falest.,  520). 
 Abilenk,  a  district  of  Coelesyria.    (Vid.  Abila  III.) 
 Abisakes.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 Abitianus.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 Ablabius.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 Abnoba,  according  to  Ptolemy  (2,  11),  a  chain  of 
 mountains   in    Germany,  which   commenced   on    the 
 banks  of  the  Moenus,  now  Mayne,  and,  running  be- 
 tween what  are  now  Hcs.<ie  and  Westphalia,  terminated 
 in  the  present  Duchy  of  Paderborn.    Out  of  the  north- 
 eastern part  of  this  range,  springs,  according  to  the 
 same  authority,  the  Amisus,  now  Ems.     Subsequent 
 writers,  however,  seem  to  have  limited  the  name  Abno- 
 ba to  that  portion  of  the  Black  Forest  where  the  Dan- 
 ube commences  its  course,  and  in  this  sense  the  term 
 is  used  by  Tacitus.     A  stone  altar,  with  ABNOBA 
 itiscnbed,  was  discovered  in  the  Black  Forest  in  1778  ; 
 and  in   1784,  a  pedestal  of  white  marble  was  found 
 in  the  Duchy  of  Baden,  bearing  the  words  DIANAE 
 ABNOBAE.     These  remains    of   antiquity,  besides 
 tending  to  designate  more  precisely  the  situation  of 
 the  ancient  Muns  Abnoba,  settle  also  the  orthography 
 of  the  name,  which  some  commentators   incorrectly 
 write  Arnoba.     (Compare  La  Germanie  de  Tacite,  far 
 Panckouke,  p.  4,  and  the  Atlas,  Planche  deuxieme.) 
 
 Abon'itichos,  a  small  town  and  harbour  of  Paphla- 
 gonia,  southeast  of  the  promontory  Carambis.  It  was 
 the  birthplace  of  an  impostor,  who  assumed  the  char- 
 acter of  ..Esculapius.  Lucian  {Pseud.  58)  states, 
 that  he  petitioned  the  Roman  emperor  to  change  the 
 name  of  his  native  city  to  lonopolis,  and  that  the  re- 
 quest of  the  impostor  was  actually  granted.  The 
 modern  name  Ineboli  is  only  a  corruption  of  lonopolis. 
 {Marcian,Peripl.,  p.  72. — Steph.  B.) 
 
 Aborigixes,  a  name  given  by  the  Roman  writers 
 to  the  primitive  race,  who,  blending  with  the  Siculi, 
 founded  subsequently  the  nation  of  the  Latins.  The 
 name  is  equivalent  to  the  Greek  avrnxOove^,  as  indi- 
 cating an  indigenous  race.  According  to  the  most 
 credible  traditions,  they  dwelt  originally  around  Mount 
 Velino,  and  the  Lake  Fucinus,  now  Celano,  extending 
 as  far  as  Carseoli,  and  towards  Reate.  This  was 
 Cato's  account  {Dionys.  H.  2,  49) ;  and  if  Varro, 
 who  enumerated  the  towns  they  had  possessed  in 
 those  parts  {Id.  1,  14),  was  not  imposed  on,  not  only 
 were  the  sites  of  these  towns  distinctly  preserved,  as 
 well  as  their  names,  but  also  other  information,  such 
 as  writings  alone  can  transmit  through  centuries. 
 Their  capital,  Lista,  was  lost  by  surprise  ;  and  exer- 
 tions of  many  years  to  recover  it,  by  expeditions  from 
 Reate,  proved  fruitless.  Withdrawing  from  that  dis- 
 trict, they  came  down  the  Anio  ;  and  even  at  Tibur,  An- 
 temniE,  Ficulea,  Tellena,  and  farther  on  at  Crustume- 
 rium  and  Aricia,  they  found  Siculi,  whom  they  sub- 
 dued or  expelled.  The  Aborigines  are  depicted  by 
 Sallust  and  Virgil  as  savages  living  in  hordes,  without 
 manners,  law,  or  agriculture,  on  the  produce  of  the 
 chase,  and  on  wild  fruits.  Thi.s,  however,  does  not 
 agree  with  the  traces  of  their  towns  in  the  Apen- 
 nines ;  but  the  whole  account  was,  perhaps,  little  else 
 than  an  ancient  speculation  on  the  progress  of  man- 
 kind from  rudeness  to  civilization.  The  Aborigines 
 are  said  to  have  revered  Janus  and  Saturn.  The  latter 
 taught  them  husbandry,  and  induced  them  to  choose 
 settled  habitations,  as  the  founders  of  a  better  way  of 
 jfe.  From  this  ancient  race,  as  has  already  been  re- 
 12 
 
 marked,  blending  with  a  remnant  of  the  Siculi,  spran<r 
 the  nation  of  the  Latins  ;  and  between  Saturn  and 
 the  time  assigned  for  the  Trojan  settlement,  only  three 
 kings  of  the  Aborigines  are  enumerated,  Picus,  Fau- 
 nus,  and  Latinus.  {Niebuhr,  Rom.  Hist.  1,  62,  Cambr.) 
 As  to  the  name  of  this  early  race,  the  old  and  genu- 
 ine one  seems  to  have  been  Casci  or  Cassci  {Saufcius 
 in  Serv.  ad  JEn.  1,  10) ;  and  the  appellation  of  Abo- 
 rigines was  only  given  them  by  the  later  Roman  wri- 
 ters. {Heyne,  Excurs.  4,  ad  JEn.  7.)  Cluver,  and 
 others,  have  maintained  the  identity  of  the  Aborigines 
 and  Pelasgi,  a  position  first  assumed  by  Dionysius  of 
 Halicarnassus.  Mannert  (9,  436)  thinks,  that  the 
 Pelasgi  were  a  distinct  race,  who,  on  their  arrival  in 
 Italy,  united  with  the  people  in  question,  and  that 
 both  became  gradually  blended  into  one  race,  the 
 Etrurian.  Some  are  in  favour  of  writing  Aherrigines, 
 and  refer  to  the  authority  of  Festus,  who  so  styles  them 
 as  having  been  wanderers  {ab,  erro),  when  they  took 
 possession  of  that  part  of  the  country  where  they  sub- 
 sequently dwelt.  Li  this  Festus  is  supported  by  the 
 author  of  the  Origin  of  the  Romans,  but  the  opinion 
 is  an  incorrect  one. 
 
 Abokras.  Vtd.  Chaboras. 
 
 ABRAD.iTAS,  a  king  of  Susa,  who  submitted,  with 
 his  army,  to  Cyrus,  when  he  learned  that  his  wife  Pan- 
 thea,  who  had  been  made  prisoner  by  the  latter,  was 
 treated  by  him  with  great  kindness  and  humanity. 
 He  was  subsequently  siain  in  fighting  for  Cyrus.  His 
 wife,  unable  to  survive  his  loss,  slew  herself  upon  his 
 corpse.  Cyrus  erected  a  monument  to  their  memory. 
 {Xen.  Cyrop.  5,  6,  &c.) 
 
 Abrincatui,  a  nation  of  Gaul,  situate,  according  to 
 the  common  opinion,  on  the  western  coast,  north  of 
 the  Liger,  or  Loire,  and  whose  capital,  Ingena,  is  sup- 
 posed to  coincide  with  Avranches  {D^An.  Geogr.  Anc. — 
 Cellar.  Geogr.  Ant.  1,  161,  Schxo.).  If  we  follow  Ptol- 
 emy, this  people  rather  seem  to  have  occupied  what 
 would  now  correspond  to  a  part  of  Eastern  Nor- 
 mandy, in  the  district  of  Ouche,  and  stretching  from 
 the  vicinity  of  the  Rille  to  the  banks  of  the  Seine 
 {Mannert, 2,  167). 
 
 Abro,  I.  an  Athenian,  who  wrote  on  the  festivals 
 and  sacrifices  of  the  Greeks.  His  work  is  lost. 
 {Steph.  B.  s.  V.  Bar?/.) — IT.  A  grammarian  of  Rhodes, 
 who  taught  rhetoric  at  Rom.e  in  the  reign  of  Augus- 
 tus. He  was  a  pupil  of  Tryphon.  {Suid.  s.  v.) — III. 
 A  grammarian,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  Theocritus, 
 now  lost. — IV.  An  Athenian,  son  of  the  orator  Lycur- 
 gus.  {Plut.  Vit.  X.  Oral.) — V.  An  Argive  of  most 
 luxurious  and  dissolute  life,  who  gave  rise  to  the 
 proverb,  'Adpcjvog  j3ioc  {Abronis  vita).  {Erasm.  Chil. 
 p.  487.) 
 
 Abroc6mas,I  a  son  of  Darius,  by  Phrataguna,  daugh- 
 ter of  Otanes.  He  accompanied  Xerxes  in  his  Gre- 
 cian expedition,  and  was  slain  at  Thermopylae.  {He- 
 rod. 7,  224.) — II.  A  satrap.     {Vid.  Supplement.) 
 
 Abron  or  Habron.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Abronius,  Silo,  a  Latin  poet  of  the  Augustan  age, 
 and  the  pupil  of  Porcius  Latro.  He  wrote  some  fables, 
 now  lost.  {Scncc.  Siiasor.  2.  23.)  Vossius  says  there 
 were  two  of  this  name,  father  and  son. 
 
 Abronychus.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 .Abrostola,  a  town  of  Galatia,  on  the  frontiers  oi 
 Phrygia,  and,  according  to  the  Itinerary,  twenty- four 
 miles  from  Pcssinus.  It  is  recognised  by  Ptolemy 
 (p.  120),  who  assigns  it  to  Phrygia  Magna. 
 
 Abrota,  the  wife  of  Nisus,  king  of  Megaris.  As 
 a  memorial  of  her  private  virtues,  JNisus,  alter  her 
 death,  ordered  the  garments  which  she  wore  to  be- 
 come models  of  female  attire  in  his  kingdom.  Hence, 
 according  to  Plutarch,  the  name  of  the  Megarian  robe 
 d^dfipu^a.     {Quest.  Grac.  p.  294.) 
 
 Ahrotonum,  a  town  of  Africa,  near  the  Syrtis  Mi- 
 nor, and  identical  with  Sabrata.     {Vid.  Sabrata.) 
 
 Absinthh.     Vid.  Apsynlhii. 
 
AB  Y 
 
 A  BY 
 
 Absyrtides,  islands  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  in 
 the  Sinus  Flanaticus,  Gulf  of  Quarncro ;  named,  as 
 tradition  reported,  from  Absyrtus  the  brother  of  Me- 
 dea, who,  according  to  one  account,  was  killed  here. 
 {Hi/fftn.  23.—Strabo,3l5.—Mcla,2,  7.—Flimj,3,  26.) 
 Apollonius  Hhoduis  (4,  3.50)  calls  them  Brygeides, 
 and  states  {v.  470)  that  there  was  m  one  of  the  group 
 a  temple  erected  to  the  Brygian  Diana.  Probably 
 the  name  given  to  these  islands  was  a  corruption  oJ 
 some  real  apellation,  which,  though  unconnected  with 
 the  fable,  stdl,  frorn  similarity  of  sound,  induced  the 
 poets  to  connect  it  with  the  name  of  Medea's  brother. 
 The  principal  island  is  Absorus,  with  a  town  of  the 
 same  name.  {Piol.  63.)  These  four  islands  are,  in 
 modern  geography,  Cherso,  Osero  (the  ancient  Abso- 
 rus), Ferosina,  Chao.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  1,  137.) 
 Absyktos,  a  river  falling  into  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
 near  which  Absyrtus  was  murdered.  The  more  cor- 
 rect form  of  the  name,  however,  would  seem  to  have 
 been  Absyrtis,  or,  following  the  Greek,  Apsyrtis 
 ('AipvpTig).  Consult  Grotius  and  Corte,  ad  Luc. 
 Pharsal.  3,  190. 
 
 Absyrtus  {"AipvpToc),  a  son  of  ^etes,  and  brother 
 of  Medea.  According  to  the  Orphic  Argonautica  {v. 
 1027),  Absyrtus  was  despatched  by  his  father  with  a 
 large  force  in  pursuit  of  Jason  and  Medea,  when  their 
 flight  was  discovered.  Medea,  on  the  point  of  falling 
 into  the  hands  of  the  young  prince,  deceived  him  by 
 a  stratagem,  and  the  Argonauts,  having  slain  him, 
 cast  his  body  into  the  sea.  The  corpse,  floating  about 
 for  some  time,  was  at  last  thrown  up  on  one  of  the 
 islands,  thence  called  Absyrtides.  According  to  Apol- 
 lomus  Rhodius  (4,  207),  Absyrtus,  having  reached  the 
 Adriatic  before  the  Argonauts,  waited  there  to  give 
 them  battle.  Mutual  fear,  however,  brought  about  a 
 treaty,  by  which  the  Argonauts  were  to  retain  the 
 fleece,  but  Medea  was  to  be  placed  in  one  of  the 
 neighbouring  islands,  until  some  monarch  should  de- 
 cide whether  she  ought  to  accompany  Jason,  or  return 
 with  her  brother.  Medea,  accordingly,  was  placed  on 
 an  island  sacred  to  Diana,  and  the  young  prince,  by 
 treacherous  promises,  was  induced  to  meet  his  sister 
 by  night  in  order  to  persuade  her  to  return.  In  the 
 midst  of  their  conference  he  was  attacked  and  slain 
 by  .lason,  who  lay  concealed  near  the  spot,  and  had 
 concerted  this  scheme  in  accordance  with  the  wishes 
 of  Medea.  The  body  vvas  interred  in  the  island. 
 Both  these  accounts  differ  from  the  common  one, 
 which  makes  Medea  to  have  taken  her  brother  with 
 her  in  her  flight,  and  to  have  torn  him  in  pieces  to 
 stop  her  father's  pursuit,  scattering  the  limbs  of  the 
 yo\ing  prince  on  the  probable  route  of  her  parent. 
 This  last  account  makes  the  murder  of  Absyrtus  to  have 
 taken  place  near  Torni,  on  the  Euxine,  and  hence  the 
 name  given  to  that  city,  from  the  Greek  to/it},  sectio ; 
 just  as  Absyrtus,  or  Apsyrtus,  is  said  to  have  been  so 
 called  from  utto  and  mpu.  {Hygin.  23. — Apollod.  1, 
 9,  24.— C/c.  N.  D.  3,  19.— O^^.Trw/.  3,  9,  11.— 
 Hajne,ad  Apollod.  I.  c.)  According  to  the  Orphic 
 Poem,  Absyrtus  was  killed  on  the  banks  of  the  Pha- 
 sis,  in  Colchis. 
 Abui.ites.  Vid.  Supplement. 
 Aburia  Gens.  Vid  Supplement. 
 Aburnus  Valens.  Vid.  Supplement. 
 A  BUS.  a  river  of  Britain,  now  the  Humber.  Cam- 
 den (Rril  .  p.  634)  derives  the  ancient  name  from  the 
 old  British  word  Aber,  denoting  the  mouth  of  a  river, 
 or  an  estuary.  The  appellation  will  suit  the  Humber 
 extremely  well,  as  it  is  rendered  a  broad  estuary  by 
 the  waters  of  the  Ouse. 
 
 Abvdenus,  I.  a  pupil  of  Berosus,  flourished  268 
 B.C.  He  wrote  in  Greek  an  historial  account  of  the 
 Chaldeans,  Babylonians,  and  Assyrians,  some  frag- 
 ments of  which  have  been  preserved  for  us  by  Euse- 
 bius,  Cyrill,  and  Syncellus.  An  important  fragment, 
 which  clears  up  some  difficulties  in  Assyrian  history, 
 
 has  been  discovered  in  the  Armenian  translation  of  the 
 Chronicon  of  Eusehius  — H.  A  surname  of  Palaepha- 
 tus.     {Vid.  Patephatus,  IV.) 
 
 Abydos,  1.  a  celebrated  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  north- 
 west of  Diospolis  Parva.  Strabo  (813)  descr!b(;s  it  as 
 once  next  to  Thebes  in  size,  though  reduced  in  his 
 days  to  a  small  place.  The  same  writer  mentions  the 
 palace  of  Memnon  in  this  city,  built  on  the  plan  of  the 
 labyrinth,  though  less  intricate.  Osiris  had  here  a 
 splendid  temple,  in  which  neither  vocal  nor  instru- 
 mental music  was  allowed  at  the  commencement  of 
 sacrifices.  Plutarch  {de  Is.  et  Os.  359,  471,  Wy'.t.) 
 makes  this  the  true  burial-place  of  Osiris,  an  honour 
 to  which  so  many  cities  of  Egypt  aspired  ;  he  also  in- 
 forms us  that  the  more  distinguished  Egyptians  fre- 
 quently selected  Abydos  for  a  place  of  sepulture. 
 {Zo'ega,de  Obel.  284. — Crenzcr's  Comment.  Herod.  1, 
 97.)  All  this  proves  the  high  antiquity  of  this  city, 
 and  accounts  for  the  consideration  in  which  it  was  held. 
 Ammianus  Marcellinus  states  (19,  12)  that  there  was 
 a  very  ancient  oracle  of  the  god  Besa  in  this  place,  to 
 which  applications  were  wont  to  be  made  orally  and 
 in  writing.  (Compare  Eiiscb.  H.  E.  6,  41.)  Abydos 
 is  now  a  heap  of  ruins,  as  its  modern  name,  Madfune, 
 implies.  The  ancient  appellation  has  been  made  to 
 signify,  by  the  aid  of  the  Coptic,  "  abode,  or  habita- 
 tion, common  to  many."  {Crcuzcr,l.  c.,],  100.) — II. 
 An  ancient  city  of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  founded  by 
 the  Thracians,  and  still  inhabited  by  them  after  the 
 Trojan  war.  Homer  (//.  2,  837)  represents  it  as  un- 
 der the  sway  of  prince  Asius,  a  name  associated  with 
 many  of  the  earliest  religious  traditions  of  the  ancient 
 world  {vid.  Asia).  At  a  later  period  the  Milesians 
 sent  a  strong  colony  to  this  place  to  aid  their  com 
 merce  with  the  shores  of  the  Propoutis  and  Euxine. 
 {Strabo,^9l. — Thuc.  8,  62.)  Abydos  was  directly  on 
 the  Hellespont,  in  nearly  the  narrowest  part  of  the 
 strait.  This,  together  with  its  strong  walls  and  safe 
 harbour,  soon  made  it  a  place  of  importance.  It  is  re- 
 markable for  its  resistance  against  Philip  the  Younger, 
 of  Macedon,  who  finally  took  it,  partly  by  force,  partly 
 by  stratagem.  {Polyb.  16,  31.)  In  this  quarter,  too, 
 was  laid  the  scene  of  the  fable  of  Hero  and  Leander. 
 Over  against  Abydos  was  the  European  town  Sestos  ; 
 not  directly  opposite,  however,  as  the  latter  was  some- 
 what to  the  north.  The  ruins  of  Abydos  are  still  to  be 
 seen  on  a  promontory  of  low  land,  called  Nagara-Bor- 
 nou,  or  Pesquies  Point.  {Hobhouse'' s  Jour.  2,217,  Am. 
 ed.)  Wheeler  has  rectified  in  this  particular  the  mis- 
 take of  Sandys ( Voyage,l,  74),  who  supposed  the  mod- 
 ern castle  of  Natolia  to  be  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 Abydos.  The  castles  Chanak-Kalessi,  or  Sultanie- 
 Kalessi,  on  the  Asiatic  side,  and  Chelit-Baiori,  or  Ke- 
 lidir-Bahar,  on  the  European  shore,  are  called  by  the 
 Turks  Bogaz-Hcssarleri,  and  by  the  Franks  the  old 
 castles  of  Natolia  and  Roumelia.  'I'he  town  of  Cha- 
 nak-Kalessi, properly  called  Dardanelles,  has  extend- 
 ed its  name  to  the  strait  itself  {Hobhouse,  215).  Over 
 the  strait  between  Abydos  and  Sestos,  Xerxes  caused 
 two  bridfres  to  be  erected  when  marching  against 
 Greece,  and  it  was  here  that,  seated  on  an  eminence, 
 where  a  throne  had  been  erected  for  him,  ho  surveyed 
 his  fleet,  which  covered  the  Hellespont,  while  the 
 neighbouring  plains  swarmed  with  his  innumerable 
 troops.  {Herod.  7, 4:4:.)  The  intelligent  traveller  above 
 quoted  remarks  :  "  The  Thracian  side  of  the  strait, 
 immediately  opposite  to  Nagara,  is  a  strip  of  stony 
 shore,  projecting  from  behind  two  cliffs  ;  and  to  this 
 spot,  it  seems,  the  European  extremities  of  Xerxes' 
 bridges  must  have  been  applied,  for  the  height  of  the 
 neighbouring  cliffs  would  have  jtrevented  the  Persian 
 monarch  from  adjusting  them  to  any  other  position. 
 There  is  certainly  some  ground  to  beheve,  that  this 
 was  the  exact  point  of  shore  called  from  that  circum- 
 stance Apohathra  {Strabo,  591),  since  there  is,  within 
 any  probable  distance,  no  other  flat  land  on  the  Thra- 
 
 13 
 
A  C  A 
 
 AC  A 
 
 cian  side,  except  at  the  bottom  of  deep  bays,  the 
 choice  of  which  would  have  doubled  the  width  of  the 
 passage.  Scsio.s  was  not  opposite  to  the  Asiatic  town, 
 nor  was  the  Hellespont  in  this  place  called  the  Straits 
 of  Sestos  and  Abydos,  but  the  Straits  of  Abydos. 
 Sestos  was  so  much  nearer  the  Propontis  than  the 
 other  tcwn,  that  the  ports  of  the  two  places  were  30 
 stadia,  or  more  than  3  1-2  miles  from  each  other. 
 The  bridges  were  on  the  Propontic  side  of  Abydos, 
 but  on  the  opposite  quarter  of  Sestos  ;  that  is  to  say, 
 they  were  on  the  coasts  between  the  two  cities,  but 
 nearer  to  the  first  than  to  the  last."  {Hothouse,  I.  c.) 
 The  ancient  accounts  make  the  strait  in  this  quarter 
 seven  stadia,  or  875  paces,  broad,  but  to  modern  trav- 
 ellers it  appears  to  be  nowhere  less  than  a  mile 
 across. 
 
 AcACAi.Lts.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcACEsiuM,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  situate  on  a  hill  call- 
 ed Acacesius,  and  lying  near  Lycosura,  in  the  south- 
 western angle  of  the  country.  Mercury  Acacesius 
 was  worshipped  here  {Paus.  8,  36).  Some  make  the 
 epithet  equivalent  to  fir/Sevo^  icaKov  napalrioc,  nullius 
 medi  aurtor,  ranking  Mercury  among  the  dei  averrunci 
 {Spanh.  ad  Callim.  H.  in  D.  143. — Heyne,ad  II.  16, 
 185), 
 
 AcAcius,  I.  a  disciple  of  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Caesa- 
 rea,  whom  he  succeeded  in  338  or  340.  He  was  sur- 
 nained  M.ov6<j>da?ifiog  (Luscus),  and  wrote  a  Life  of 
 Eusebius,  not  extant;  17  volumes  of  Commentaries 
 on  Ecclesiastcs  ;  and  6  volumes  of  Miscellanies.  Aca- 
 cius  was  the  leader  of  the  sect  called  Acacians,  who 
 denied  the  Son  to  be  of  the  same  substance  as  the 
 Father.  {Socr.  Hist.  2,  i.—Epiph.  Hcer.  72.— Fabr. 
 Bibl.  Gr.  5,  \9.— Cave's  Lit.  Hist.  1,  206.)— H.  A 
 patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  471,  who  established 
 the  superiority  of  his  see  over  the  eastern  bishops. 
 He  was  a  favourite  with  the  Emperor  Zeno,  who  pro- 
 tected him  against  the  pope.  Two  letters  of  his  are 
 extant,  to  Petrus  Trullo,  and  Pope  Simplicius.  {Theo- 
 dor.  5,  23. — Cave,\,  417.) — HI.  A  bishop  of  Beroea,  as- 
 sisted at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in  381.  {The- 
 odor.  5,  32.) — IV.  A  bishop  of  Melitene,  in  Armenia 
 Minor,  present  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431,  and 
 has  left  in  the  Councils  (vol.  3)  a  Homily  against 
 Nestorius  {Nicephor.  16,  17. — Cave  1,  417). — V.  A 
 bishop  of  Amida,  distinguished  for  piety  and  charity 
 in  having  sold  church-plate,  iSic,  to  redeem  7000  Per- 
 sian prisoners  on  the  Tigris,  in  Mesopotamia.  His 
 death  is  commemorated  in  the  Latin  church  on  April 
 9th.     {Socr.  7,  21.— Fabr.  Bibl.  Gr.  5,  19.) 
 
 AcACUs.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcADEMiA,  a  public  garden  or  grove  in  the  suburbs  of 
 Athens,  about  6  stadia  from  the  city,  named  from  Acad- 
 emus  or  Hecademus,  who  left  it  to  the  citizens  for  gym- 
 nastics {Paus.  1,  29).  It  was  surrounded  with  a  wall 
 by  Hipparchus  {Suid.) ;  adorned  with  statues,  temples, 
 and  sepulchres  of  illustrious  men  ;  planted  with  olive 
 and  plane  trees ;  and  watered  by  the  Cephissus.  The 
 olive-trees,  according  to  Athenian  fables,  were  reared 
 from  layers  taken  from  the  sacred  olive  in  the  Erech- 
 theum  {Schol.  (Ed.  Col.  730.— Paus.  1,  30),  and  af- 
 forded the  oil  given  as  a  prize  to  victors  at  the  Pana- 
 thensean  festival  {Schol.  I.  c. — Suid.  v.  Mopiai)  The 
 Academy  suffered  severely  during  the  siege  of  Athens 
 by  Sylla ;  many  trees  being  cut  down  to  supply  tim- 
 ber for  machines  of  war  {Appian,  B.  M.  30).  Few 
 retreats  could  be  more  favourable  to  philosophy  and 
 the  Muses.  Within  this  enclosure  Plato  possessed,  as 
 pan  of  his  humble  patrimony,  a  small  garden,  in  which 
 he  opened  a  school  for  the  reception  of  those  inclined 
 to  attend  his  instructions  {Diog.  L.  Vit.  Plat.).  Hence 
 arose  the  Academic  sect,  and  hence  the  term  Academy 
 has  descended,  though  shorn  of  many  early  honours, 
 even  to  our  own  times.  The  appellation  Academia  is 
 frequently  used  in  philosophical  writings,  especially  in 
 Cicero,  as  indicative  of  the  Academic  sect.  In  this 
 14 
 
 sense,  Diogenes  Laertius  makes  a  threefold  division  of 
 the  Academy,  into  the  Old,  the  Middle,  and  the  New. 
 At  the  head  of  the  Old  he  puts  Plato,  at  the  head  of 
 the  Middle  Academy,  Arcesilaus,  and  of  the  New,  La- 
 cydes.  Sextus  Empiricus  enumerates  five  divisions  of 
 the  followers  of  Plato.  He  makes  Plato  founder  of 
 the  1st  Academy;  Arcesilaus  of  the  2d  ;  Carneades  of 
 the  3d  ;  Philo  and  Charmides  of  the  4th  ;  Antiochus  of 
 the  5th.  Cicero  recognises  only  two  Academies,  the 
 Old  and  New,  and  makes  the  latter  commence  as  above 
 with  Arcesilaus.  In  enumerating  those  of  the  Old 
 Academy,  he  begins,  not  with  Plato,  but  Democritus, 
 and  gives  them  in  the  following  order:  Democritus, 
 Anaxagoras,  Empedocles,  Parmenides,  Xenophanes, 
 Socrates,  Plato,  Speusippus,  Xenocrates,  Polemo, 
 Crates,  and  Crantor.  In  the  New,  or  Younger,  he 
 mentions  Arcesilaus,  Lacydes,  Evander,  Hegesinus, 
 Carneades,  Clitomachus,  and  Philo.  {Acad.  Quasi. 
 4,  5.)  If  we  follow  the  distinction  laid  down  by  Di- 
 ogenes, and  alluded  to  above,  the  Old  Academy  will 
 consist  of  those  followers  of  Plato  who  taught  the 
 doctrine  of  their  master  without  mixture  or  corruption  ; 
 the  Middle  will  embrace  those  who,  by  certain  inno- 
 vations in  the  manner  of  philosophizing,  in  some  meas- 
 ure receded  from  the  Platonic  system  without  entirely 
 deserting  it ;  while  the  Neio  will  begin  with  those  who 
 relinquished  the  more  obnoxious  tenets  of  Arcesilaus, 
 and  restored,  in  some  measure,  the  declining  reputa- 
 tion of  the  Platonic  school. — II.  A  Villa  of  Cicero 
 near  Puteoli  {Pliny,3l,  2).  As  to  the  quantity  of  the 
 penult  in  Academia,  Forcellini  {Lex.  Tot.  Lat.)  makes 
 it  common.  Bailey  cites  Dr.  Parr  in  favour  of  its  being 
 always  long  in  the  best  writers.  Maltby  (in  MorelVs 
 Thes.)  gives  'Ana^rifiia,  and  'AKaSr/fieca.  Hermann 
 {adAristoph.  Nub.  1001)  makes  the  penult  oi'AKaSrjfiia 
 short  by  nature,  but  lengthened  by  the  force  of  the  ac- 
 cent, as  the  term  was  in  common  and  frequent  use. 
 (Compare  the  remarks  of  the  same  scholar,  in  his 
 work  de  Metris,  p.  36,  Glasg.) 
 
 AcADEMUs,  an  ancient  hero,  whom  some  identify 
 with  Cadmus.  According  to  others  {Plut.  Thes.  32), 
 he  was  an  Athenian,  who  disclosed  to  Castor  and 
 Pollu.x  the  place  where  Theseus  had  secreted  their 
 sister  Helen,  after  having  carried  her  ofT  from  Sparta ; 
 and  is  said  to  have  been  highly  honoured,  on  this  ac- 
 count, by  the  Laceda?monians.  From  him  the  garden 
 of  the  Academia,  presented  to  the  people  of  Athens, 
 is  thought  to  have  been  named  {vid.  Academia). 
 
 AcALANDRUs,  or  AcALYNDRus,  a  river  of  Magna 
 Graecia,  falling  into  the  Bay  of  Tarentum.  Pliny  (3, 
 2)  places  it  to  the  north  of  Heraclea,  but  incorrectly, 
 since,  according  to  Strabo  (283),  it  flowed  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  Thurii.  The  modern  name,  according  to 
 D'Anville,  is  the  Salandrella ;  but,  according  to  Man- 
 nert(9,  2,  231),  the  Roccanello. 
 
 AoAMANTis,  I.  a  name  given  to  the  island  of  Cy- 
 prus, from  the  promontory  Acamas.  {Slcph.  B.) — II. 
 An  Athenian  tribe. 
 
 Ac.Xmas,  I.  a  promontory  of  Cyprus,  to  the  north- 
 west of  Paphos.  It  is  surmounted  by  two  sugarloal 
 summits,  and  the  remarkable  appearance  which  it  thus 
 presents  to  navigators  as  they  approach  the  island  on 
 this  side,  caused  them,  according  to  Pliny  (5,  31),  to 
 give  the  name  of  Acamantis  to  the  whole  island. — II. 
 A  son  of  Theseus  and  Phsedra.  He  was  deputed  to 
 accompany  Diomede,  when  the  latter  was  sent  to  Troy 
 to  demand  Helen.  During  his  stay  at  Troy  he  became 
 the  father  of  Munitus  by  Laodicea,  one  of  the  daugh- 
 ters of  Priam.  He  afterward  went  to  the  Trojan  war, 
 and  was  one  of  the  warriors  enclosed  in  the  wooden 
 horse.  On  his  return  to  Athens,  he  gave  name  to  the 
 tribe  Acamantis.  {Paus.  10,  26. — Quitit.  Sm.  12. — 
 Hygin.  108.) 
 
 AcAMPsis,  a  river  of  Colchis,  running  into  the  Eux- 
 ine  ;  the  Greeks  called  it  Acampsis  from  its  impetuous 
 ,  course,  which  forbade  approach  to  the  shore,  a,  non, 
 
AC  A 
 
 ACC 
 
 Kdfiipic,  mflectio.  Th's  name  more  particularly  applied 
 to  its  rnouili  ;  the  true  appellation  in  the  interior  was 
 Boas.   {Arnan,Per.  M.  Eux.  119,  Blanc.) 
 
 Acanthus,  I.  a  city  near  Mt.  Athos,  founded  by  a 
 colonv  of  Andrians,  on  a  small  neck  of  land  connect- 
 ing the  promontory  of  Athos  with  the  continent.  Stra- 
 bo  {Epit.  I.  7,  330)  places  it  on  the  Singiticus  Sinus, 
 as  does  Ptolemy  (p.  82),  but  Herodotus  distinctly  fixes 
 it  on  the  Strymonicus  Sinus  (6,  44  ;  7,  23),  as  well  as 
 Scymnus  {v.  646)  and  Mela  (2,  3),  and  their  opinions 
 must  prevail  against  the  two  authors  above  mentioned. 
 Mannert  (7,  451)  supposes  the  city  to  have  been  pla- 
 ced on  the  Singiticus  Sinus,  the  harbour  on  the  Sinus 
 Strymonicus.  On  the  other  hand,  Gail  {Gcogr. 
 d'Herod.  2,  280. — Atlas,  Lid.  2. — Anal,  des  Cartes, 
 p.  21)  makes  two  places  of  this  name  to  have  existed, 
 one  on  the  Strymonicus,  the  other  on  the  Singiticus 
 Sinus.  Probably  Erissos  is  the  site  of  ancient  Acan- 
 thus. Ptolemy  speaks  of  a  harbour  named  Panormus, 
 probably  its  haven  (p.  82. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  1, 
 263. —  WalpoWs  Collect.  1,  225.)  The  Persian  fleet 
 despatched  under  Mardonius,  suffered  severely  in 
 doubling  the  promontory  of  Athos  ;  and  Xerxes,  to 
 guard  against  a  similar  accident,  caused  a  canal  to  be 
 dug  through  the  neck  of  land  on  which  Acanthus  was 
 situated  ;  through  this  his  fleet  was  conducted.  {He- 
 rod. 7,  22.)  From  the  language  of  Juvenal  (10,  173), 
 and  the  general  sarcasm  of  Pliny  (5,  1,  '■^ portcntosa 
 Gracitz  mendacia"),  many  regard  this  account  of  the 
 canal  as  a  fable,  invented  by  the  Greeks  to  magnify  the 
 expedition  of  Xerxes,  and  thus  increase  their  own  re- 
 nown. But  vestiges  of  the  canal  were  visible  in  the 
 time  of  ^lian  (if.  A.  13,  20) ;  modern  travellers  also 
 discover  traces  of  it  {Choiseid-Gouffier,  Voy.  Pitto- 
 resque  2,  2,  148. —  Walpole,  I.  c). — II.  A  city  of 
 Egypt,  the  southernmost  in  the  Memphitic  Nome. 
 Ptolemy  gives  it  a  plural  form,  probably  from  the 
 thorny  thickets  in  its  vicinity,  uKavdat  :  Strabo  (809) 
 adopts  the  singular  form,  as  does  also  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus  (1,  97).  Ptolemy  places  this  city  15  minutes  dis- 
 tant from  Memphis.     It  is  the  modern  Dashur. 
 
 AcARNAN.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcARNANiA,  a  country  of  Greece  Proper,  along  the 
 western  coast,  having  ^Etolia  on  the  east.  The  natu- 
 ral boundary  on  the  .^tolian  side  was  the  Acheloiis, 
 but  it  was  not  definitely  regarded  as  the  dividing  limit 
 until  the  period  of  the  Roman  dominion.  {Strab.  450.) 
 Acarnania  was  for  the  most  part  a  productive  country, 
 with  good  harbours  {Scylax  13).  The  inhabitants, 
 however,  were  but  little  inclined  to  commercial  inter- 
 course with  their  neighbours  ;  they  were  almost  con- 
 stantly engaged  in  war  against  the  ^tolians,  and  con- 
 sequently remained  far  behind  the  rest  of  the  Greeks 
 in  culture.  Hence,  too,  wc  find  scarcely  any  city  of 
 importance  within  their  territories;  for  Anactorium 
 and  Leucas  were  founded  by  Corinthian  colonies,  and 
 formed  no  part  of  the  nation,  though  they  engrossed 
 nearly  all  its  traffic.  Not  only  Leucadia,  indeed,  but 
 also  Cephalenia,  Ithaca,  and  other  adjacent  islands, 
 were  commonly  regarded  as  a  geographical  portion  of 
 Acarnania,  though,  politically  considered,  they  did  not 
 belong  to  it,  being  inhabited  by  a  different  race.  (Man- 
 nert,8,  33.)  The  Acarnanians  and  jflEtolians  were  de- 
 scended from  the  same  parent-stock  of  the  Leleges  or 
 Curetcs,  though  almost  constantly  at  variance.  The 
 most  important  event  for  the  Acarnanians  was  the  ar- 
 rival among  them  of  Alcmxon,  son  of  Amphiaraus, 
 who  came  with  a  band  of  Argive  settlers  a  short  time 
 previous  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  united  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  land  and  his  own  followers  into  one  nation. 
 His  new  territories  were  called  Acarnania,  and  the 
 people  Acarnanians.  The  origin  of  the  name  Acar- 
 nania, however,  is  uncertain.  It  was  apparently  not 
 used  in  the  age  of  Homer,  who  is  silent  about  it, 
 though  he  mentions  by  name  the  .^tolians,  Curetes, 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  Echinades,  and  the  Teleboans 
 
 or  Taphians.  According  to  some,  it  was  derived  from 
 Acarnas,  son  of  Alcma.'on  (Strabo,  'i62.—Apollod.  3. 
 7,  7.—Thuc.  2,  102.— Pa7is.  8,  24).  But  the  remark 
 just  made  relative  to  the  silence  of  Homer  about  the 
 Acarnanes  seems  to  oppose  this.  More  likely  the  ap- 
 pellation was  grounded  on  a  custom,  common  to  the 
 united  race,  of  wearing  the  hair  of  the  head  cut  eery 
 short,  uKapfi^,  a  intens.,  and  Kcipu,  in  imitation  of  the 
 Curetes,  who  cut  their  hair  close  in  front,  and  allowed 
 it  to  grow  long  behind  (vid.  Abantcs).  The  ^to- 
 lians  and  Acarnanians  were  in  almost  constant  hostil- 
 ity against  each  other,  a  circumstance  adverse  to  the 
 idea  of  a  common  origin.  It  is  curious,  however,  that 
 the  .itEtolians  appear  to  have  had  no  other  ol)ject  in 
 view,  in  warring  on  their  neighbours,  than  to  compel 
 them  to  form  with  them  one  common  league  ;  which 
 they  would  scarcely  have  done  towards  persons  of  a 
 different  race.  (Mannert, 8,  46.)  This  constant  and 
 mutual  warfare  so  weakened  the  two  countries  event- 
 ually, that  they  both  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  Macedo- 
 nians, and  afterward  to  the  Romans.  The  latter  peo- 
 ple, however,  amused  the  Acarnanians  in  the  outset 
 with  a  show  of  independence,  declaring  the  country  to 
 be  free,  but  soon  annexed  it  to  the  province  of  Epirus. 
 The  dominion  of  the  Romans  was  far  from  beneficial 
 to  Acarnania  ;  the  country  soon  became  a  mere  wil- 
 derness ;  and  as  a  remarkable  proof,  no  Roman  road 
 was  ever  made  through  Acarnania  or  ^Etolia,  but  the 
 public  route  lay  along  the  coast,  from  Nicopolis  on  the 
 Ambracian  Gulf  to  the  mouth  of  the  Achelous.  (Man- 
 nert,8,  60.)  The  present  state  of  Acarnania  (now 
 Carnia)  is  described  by  Hobhouse  (Journ.  174,  Am. 
 ed.)  as  a  wilderness  of  forists  and  unpeopled  plains. 
 The  people  of  Acarnania  were  in  general  of  less  re- 
 fined habits  than  the  rest  of  the  Greeks  ;  and  from 
 Lucian's  words  (Dial.  Mcretr.  8,  227.,  Bip.),  xoiptoKot, 
 'AKapvdviog,  their  morals  were  generally  supposed  tP 
 be  depraved.  Independently,  however,  of  the  injus- 
 tice of  thus  stigmatizing  a  people  on  slight  grounds, 
 considerable  doubt  attaches  to  the  correctness  of  the 
 received  reading,  and  the  explanation  commonly  as- 
 signed to  it.  Guyetus  conjectures  'Axapvevg,  and 
 Erasmus,  explaining  the  adage,  favours  this  correction. 
 (Compare  Bayle,  Diet.  Hist.  1,  40.)  The  Acarnani- 
 ans, according  to  Censorinus  (D.  N.  19),  made  the  year 
 consist  of  but  six  months,  in  which  respect  they  re- 
 sembled the  Carians  ;  Plutarch  (Num.  19)  states  the 
 same  fact.     (Compare  Fahricii  Menol.  p.  7.) 
 
 Acarnas  and  Amphoti;rus,  sons  of  Alcmaeon  and 
 Callirhoe.  Alcma!on  having  been  slain  by  the  brothers 
 of  Alphesiboea,  his  former  wife,  Callirhoij  obtained  from 
 Jupiter,  by  her  prayers,  that  her  two  sons,  then  in  the 
 cradle,  might  grow  up  to  manhood,  and  avenge  their 
 father.  On  reaching  man's  estate,  they  slew  Pronous 
 and  Agcnor,  brothers  of  Alphesiboea,  and,  soon  after, 
 Phegeus  her  father.  x\carnas,  according  to  some,  gave 
 name  to  Acarnania  ;  but  vid.  Acarnania.   (Patis.  8,  24.) 
 
 AcASTUs,  son  of  Pclias,  king  of  lolcos  in  Thessaly. 
 Peleus,  while  in  exile  at  his  court,  was  falsely  accused 
 by  Astydamia,  or,  as  Horace  calls  her,  Hippolyte,  the 
 wife  of  Acastus,  of  improper  conduct.  The  monarch, 
 believing  the  charge,  led  Peleus  out,  under  the  pre- 
 tence of  a  hunt,  to  a  lonely  part  of  Mount  Pelion,  and 
 there,  having  deprived  him  of  every  means  of  defence, 
 left  him  exposed  to  the  Centaurs.  Chiron  came  to 
 his  aid,  having  received  for  this  purpose  a  sword  from 
 Vulcan,  which  he  gave  to  Peleus  as  a  means  of  de- 
 fence. According  to  another  account,  his  deliverer 
 was  Mercury.  Peleus  returned  to  lolcos,  and  slew 
 the  monarch  and  his  wife.  There  is  some  doubt, 
 however,  whether  Acastus  suffered  with  his  queen  on 
 this  occasion.  He  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been 
 merely  driven  into  exile.  (Ov.  Met.  8,  306. — Heroid, 
 13,  25.—Apollod.  1,  9,  &c.—SchoL  ad  Apoll.  Rh.  I 
 224.) 
 
 AccA    Laukentia,    I.    more    properly   Larentu 
 
 15 
 
ACE 
 
 ACE 
 
 (Hems,  ad  Ovid.  Fast.  3,  55),  the  wife  of  Faustulus, 
 shepherd  of  king  Numitor's  flocks.  She  became  fos- 
 ter-mother of  Romulus  and  Kcmus,  who  had  been 
 found  by  her  husband  while  exposed  on  the  banks  of 
 •.he  Tiber  and  suckled  by  a  she-wolf  Some  explain 
 •he  tradition  by  making  Lupa  ('•  she-wolf")  to  have  been 
 t  name  given  by  the  shepherds  to  Larentia,  from  her 
 mmodest  character  {Plut.  Rom.  4) ;  a  most  improba- 
 »le  solution.  We  have  here,  in  truth,  an  old  poetic 
 legend,  in  which  the  name  Larentia  (Lar),  and  the  an- 
 imals .said  to  have  supplied  the  princes  with  sustenance 
 (vid.  Romulus),  point  to  an  Etrurian  origin  for  the  fa- 
 ble. When  the  milk  of  the  wolf  failed,  the  wood- 
 pecker, a  bird  sacred  to  Mars,  brought  other  food  ;  oth- 
 er birds,  too,  consecrated  to  auguries  by  the  Etrurians, 
 hovered  over  the  babes  to  drive  away  the  insects. 
 {Nkbuhr's  Rom.  Hist.  1,  185.)— II.  The  Romans 
 yearly  celebrated  certain  festivals,  called  Larentalia. 
 a  foolish  account  of  the  origin  of  which  is  given  by 
 Plutarch  (Quccst.  Rom.  272).  There  is  some  resem- 
 blance between  Plutarch's  story  and  that  told  by  He- 
 rodotus (2,  122)  of  Rhampsinitus,  king  of  Egypt,  and 
 the  goddess  Ceres  ;  and  it  may,  therefore,  like  the  lat- 
 ter, have  for  its  basis  some  agricultural  or  astronomical 
 legend.     (Consult  Bachr,  ad  Herod.  I.  c.) 
 
 AcciA,  or,  more  correctly,  Atia,  the  sister  of  Julius 
 Caesar,  and  mother  of  Augustus.  Cicero  {Phil.  3,  6) 
 gives  her  a  high  character.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
 M.  Atius  Balbus.     {Cic.  I.  c. — Suet.  Aug.  4.) 
 
 Accius,  I.  (Vid.  Supplement.)  —  II.  Accius  T., 
 a  native  of  Pisaurum  in  Umbria,  and  a  Roman  knight, 
 was  the  accuser  of  A.  Cluenlius,  whom  Cicero  defend- 
 ed, B.C.  66.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Hermagoras,  and  is 
 praised  by  Cicero  for  accuracy  and  fluency.  {Brut. 
 23.) 
 
 Acco,  a  general  of  the  Gauls,  at  the  head  of  the 
 confederacy  formed  against  the  Romans  by  the  Se- 
 nones,  Carnutes,  and  Treviri.  Caesar  {B.  G.  6,  4,  44), 
 by  the  rapidity  of  his  march,  prevented  the  execution 
 of  Acco's  plans ;  and  ordered  a  general  assembly  of 
 the  Gauls  to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of  these  nations. 
 Sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  on  Acco,  and  he 
 was  instantly  executed. 
 
 Ace,  a  seaport  town  of  Phoenicia,  a  considerable 
 distance  south  of  Tyre.     On  the  gold  and  silver  coins 
 of  Alexander   the   Great,  struck  in   this    place   with 
 Phoenician  characters,  it  is  called  Aco.     The  Hebrew 
 Scriptures  {Judges,  1,31)  term   it   Accho,  signifying 
 "straitened"    or    "confined."      Strabo   calls   it  'Akt] 
 (758).     It  was  afterward  styled  Plolcmais,  in  honour 
 of  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  who  long  held  part  of  south- 
 ern  Syria  under  his  sway.     The  Romans,  in  a  later 
 age,  appear  to  have  transformed  the  Greek  accusative 
 Ptolemaida  into  a  Latin  nominative,  and  to  have  des- 
 ignated the  city  by  this  name  ;  at  least  it  is  so  writ- 
 ten in  the  Ilin.  Antonin.  and  Hierosol.     The  Greeks, 
 having  changed  the  original   name    before   this  into 
 'Ak?/,  connected  with  it  the  fabulous  legend  of  Her- 
 cules having  been  bitten  here  by  a  serpent,  and  of  his 
 having  cured  {aKEo/iat)  the  wound  by  a  certain  leaf. 
 {Steph.  B.  V.  TlToXruat^.)    The  compiler  of  the  Elym. 
 Magn.  limits  the  name  of  'Akt/  to  the  citadel,  but  as- 
 signs a  similar  reason  for  its  origin.     (Compare  the 
 learned  remarks  of  Reland,  on  the  name  of  this  city, 
 in  his  Palest.,  p.  535,  seq.)     Accho  was  one  of  the 
 cities  of  Palestine,  which  the  Israelites  were   unable 
 to  take  {Judges,  1,  31).     The  city  is  now  called  Acre, 
 more  properly  Acca,  and  lies  at  the  northern  angle  of 
 the  bay,  to  v/hich  it  gives  its  name,  which  extends,  in 
 a  semicircle  of  three  leagues,  as  far  as  the  point  of 
 Carmcl.     During  the  Crusades   it   sustained  several 
 sieges.    After  the  expulsion  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John, 
 it  fell  rapidly  to  decay,  and  was  almost  deserted  till 
 Sheikh   Daher,  and,  after  him,  Djezzar  Pasha,  by  re- 
 pairing the  town  and  harbour,  made  it  one  of  the  first 
 places  on  the  coast.     In  modern  times  it  has  been 
 16 
 
 rendered  celebrated  for  the  successful  stand  which  it 
 made,  with  the  aid  of  the  British,  under  Sir  Sidney 
 Smith,  against  the  French,  under  Bonaparte,  who  was 
 obliged  to  raise  the  siege  after  twelve  assaults.  The 
 strength  of  the  place  arose  in  part  from  its  situation. 
 The  port  of  Acre  is  bad,  but  Dr.  Clarke  {Travels, G, 
 89)  represents  it  as  better  than  any  other  along  the 
 coast.  All  the  rice,  the  staple  food  of  the  people,  en- 
 ters the  country  by  Acre  ;  the  master  of  which  city, 
 therefore,  is  able  to  cause  a  famine  over  all  Syria. 
 This  led  the  French  to  direct  their  efforts  towards  the 
 possession  of  the  place.  Hence,  too,  as  Dr.  Clarke 
 observes,  we  find  Acre  to  have  been  the  last  position 
 in  the  Holy  Land  from  which  the  Christians  were  ex- 
 pelled. 
 
 AcELUM,  a  town  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  among  the  Eu- 
 ganei,  north  of  Pataviuin,  and  east  of  the  Medoacus 
 Major,  or  Brenta.  It  is  now  Asola.  {Plin.  3,  19.— 
 Ptol.  63.) 
 
 AcERBAS,  a  priest  of  Hercules  at  Tyre,  who  mar 
 ried  Dido,  the  sister  of  Pygmalion  the  reigning  mon 
 arch,  and  his  own  niece.  Pygmalion  murdered  him 
 in  order  to  get  possession  of  his  riches,  and  endeav- 
 oured to  conceal  the  crime  from  Dido  ;  but  the  shade 
 of  her  husband  appeared  to  her,  and  disclosing  to  her 
 the  spot  where  he  had  concealed  his  riches  during 
 life,  exhorted  her  to  take  these  and  flee  from  the  coun- 
 try. Dido  instantly  obeyed,  and  leaving  Phoenicia, 
 founded  Carthage  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  {Vid.  Dido.) 
 Virgil  calls  the  husband  of  Dido  Sichcfus ;  but  Servi 
 us,  in  his  commentary,  informs  us,  that  this  appella 
 tion  of  Sichccu.t  is  softened  down  from  Sicharbes. 
 Justin  (18,  4)  calls  him  Accrbas,  which  appears  to  be 
 an  intermediate  form.  Gescni\is  {Phcen.  Mon.,  p.  414) 
 makes  Sicharbas  come  from  Lncharbas  ("vir  gladii'M 
 or  Masicharbas  ("  opus  gladii,"  i.  e.,  qui  gladio  omnia 
 sua  debet).  If  we  reject  the  explanation  of  Servius 
 the  name  Sichaus  may  come  from  Zachi,  "  purus, 
 Justus." 
 
 AcF.RRAE,  I.  a  town  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  west  of  Cre 
 mona  and  north  of  Placentia  ;  supposed  to  have  oc 
 cupied  the  site  of  Pizzighetone ;  called  by  Polybius 
 (2,  3t)  'Ax^p^ai,  and  regarded  as  one  of  the  strong- 
 holds of  the  Insubres.  It  must  not  be  confounded  with 
 another  Celtic  city,  Acara  {'AKopa,  Strabo,  216),  or 
 Acerrce  {Plin.  3,  14),  south  of  the  Po,  not  far  from  Fo- 
 rum Lepidi  and  Mutina  {Mannert,^,  170) :  Tzschucke 
 incorrectly  reads  'Axepai  for  'AKapa,  making  the  two 
 places  identical.  {T'zsch.  ad  Strab.  I.  c.) — H.  A  city 
 of  Campania,  to  the  cast  of  Atella,  called  by  the 
 Greeks  'Axtp^ai,  and  made  a  Municipium  by  the  Ro- 
 mans at  a  very  early  period  {Liry,8,  14).  It  remain- 
 ed faithful  when  Capua  yielded  to  Hannibal,  and  was 
 hence  destroyed  by  that  commander.  It  was  subse- 
 quently rebuilt,  and  in  the  time  of  Augustus  received 
 a  Roman  colony,  but  at  no  period  had  many  inhabi- 
 tants, from  the  frequent  and  destructive  inundations  of 
 the  Clanius.  {Frontmus,  de  Col.  102. —  Virg.  G.  2, 
 225,  et  Schol.)  The  Modern  Acerra  stands  nearly  on 
 the  site  {Manncrt,  9,  780). 
 
 AcERSECoMEs,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  signifying  "  un- 
 shoi'U,"  i.  e.,  ever  young  {Juv.  8,  128).  Anodier  form 
 is  uKEipEKo/iric.  Both  are  compounded  of  a  priv., 
 KEipu,  fut.,  JEol.  Ktpau,  to  cut,  and  kS/jt],  the  hair  of 
 the  head.  The  term  is  applied,  however,  as  well  to 
 Bacchus  as  to  Apollo.  (Compare  the  Lat.  intonsus. 
 and  Ruperti,ad  Juv.  I.  c.) 
 
 Aces,  a  river  of  Asia,  on  the  confines,  accoiding  to 
 Herodotus  (3,  117),  of  the  Chorasmians,  Hyrcani&ns, 
 Parthians,  Sarangeans,  and  Thamaneans.  The  terri- 
 tories of  all  these  nations  were  irrigated  by  it,  through 
 means  of  water-courses  ;  but  when  the  Persians  con- 
 quered this  part  of  Asia,  they  blocked  up  the  outlets 
 of  the  stream,  and  made  the  reopening  of  them  a 
 source  of  tribute.  The  whole  story  is  a  very  improb- 
 able one.     Rennell  thinks  that  there  is  some  allusion 
 
A  CH 
 
 A  C  H 
 
 in  il  \o  the  Oxus  or  Oclius,  both  of  which  rivers  have 
 utidergone  considerable  changes  in  their  courses. 
 
 AcESANDER.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcESAS.      Vid.  .Supplement. 
 
 AcEsiAS.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcKsiNEs,  a  large  and  rapid  river  of  India,  falling 
 into  the  Indus.  It  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  the 
 Ravei,  but  Rennell  makes  it,  more  correctly,  the  Je- 
 naub.     (  Vincents  Comm.  and  Nav.  of  the  Anc  ) 
 
 AcEsius,  I.  a  surname  of  Apollo,  under  which  he 
 was  worshipped  in  Elis,  where  he  had  a  splendid  tem- 
 ple in  the  agora.  This  surname  is  the  same  as  'A?.£^c- 
 KaKoc,  and  means  the  averter  of  evil. —  II.  (Vjd.  Sup- 
 plement.) 
 
 AcEsTEs.      Vid.  iEgestes. 
 
 AcESToDORUs.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcESTOR.  I.  an  ancient  statuary  mentioned  by  Pausa- 
 nias  (6,  7,  2).  He  was  a  native  of  Cnossus,  or  at  least 
 exercised  his  art  there  for  some  time,  and  was  the  fa- 
 ther of  that  Amphion  who  was  the  pupil  of  Ptolichus 
 of  Corcyra.  Ptolichus  lived  about  Olyinp.  80,  82, 
 and  Acestor  must  have  been  his  contemporary.  {Sillig, 
 Did.  of  Anc.  Artists.) — IT.      Vid  Supplement. 
 
 AcH^A,  'Axaia,  a  surname  of  Pallas.  Her  temple 
 among  the  Daunians,  in  Apulia,  contained  the  arms  of 
 Diomede  and  his  followers.  It  was  defended  by  dogs, 
 which  fawned  on  the  Greeks,  but  fiercely  attacked  all 
 other  persons  {Aristot.  de  Mirah.). — 11.  Ceres  was 
 also  called  Acha;a,  from  her  grief  (a;i'Of)  at  the  loss  of 
 Proserpina  {Pltit.  in  Is.  et  Os.).  Other  explanations  are 
 given  by  the  scholiast  {ad  Aristoph.  Acharn.  674).  Con- 
 sult also  Kustcr  and  Brunch, ad  loc,  and  Suidas,  s.v. 
 
 AcH.(Ei,  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  great  .iHo- 
 lic  race.  ( Vtd.  Achaia  and  Grajcia,  especially  the  latter 
 article.) 
 
 AcH^MENEs,  the  founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy, 
 according  to  some  writers,  who  identify  him  with  the 
 Giem  Schid,  or  Djemschid,  of  the  Oriental  historians 
 {vid.  Persia).  The  genealogy  of  the  royal  line  is  giv- 
 en by  Herodotus  (7,  11)  from  Acha?menes  to  Xerxes. 
 The  earlier  descent,  as  given  by  the  Grecian  writers, 
 and  according  to  which,  Perses,  son  of  Perseus  and 
 Andromeda,  was  the  first  of  the  line,  and  the  individual 
 from  whom  the  Persians  derived  their  national  appella- 
 tion, is  purely  fabulous,  .^schylus  (Pers.  762)  makes 
 the  Persians  to  have  been  first  governed  by  a  Mede, 
 who  was  succeeded  by  his  son  ;  then  came  Cyrus, 
 succeeded  by  one  of  his  sons  ;  next  Merdis,  Maraphis, 
 Artaphernes,  and  Darius ;  the  last  not  being,  howev- 
 er, a  lineal  descendant.  For  a  di-scussion  on  this  sub- 
 ject, consult  Stanley,  ad  loc. :  Larcher,  ad  Herod.  7, 
 11,  and  Schiitz,  Excurs.  2,  ad  JEsch.  Pcrs.  I.  c. 
 
 AcH^MENiDEs,  I.  a  branch  of  the  Persian  tribe  of 
 PasargadoK,  named  from  Achsmenes,  the  founder  of 
 the  line.  From  this  family,  the  kings  of  Persia  were 
 descended  {Herod.  1,  126).  Cambyses,  on  his  death- 
 bed, entreated  the  Achsmenides  not  to  suffer  the  king- 
 dom to  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  Medes  (3,  65). — II. 
 A  Persian  of  the  royal  line,  whom  Ctesias  (32)  makes 
 the  brother,  but  Herodotus  (7,  7)  and  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus  (11,  74)  call  the  uncle  of  Artaxerxcs  I.  The  lat- 
 ter styles  him  Achsemenes.  {Baehr,  ad  Ctcs.  I.  c. — 
 Wessel.  ad  Herod.  I.  c.) 
 
 AcH^oRu.M  STATio,  I.  a  placc  on  the  coast  of  the 
 Thracian  Chcrsonesus,  where  Polyxena  was  sacrificed 
 to  the  shade  of  Achilles,  and  where  Hecuba  killed 
 Polymnestor,  who  had  murdered  her  son  Polydorus. — 
 II.  The  name  of  Achceorum  Portus  was  given  to  the 
 harbour  of  Corone,  in  Messenia. 
 
 AcH^EUs,  I.  a  son  of  Xuthus.  {Vid.  Graecia,  rela- 
 tive to  the  early  movements  of  the  Grecian  tribes.) — 
 II.  A  tragic  poet,  born  at  Eretria,  B.C.  484,  the  very 
 year  ^Eschyhis  won  his  first  ])rizc.  We  find  him  con- 
 tending with  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  B.C.  447. 
 With  such  competitors,  however,  he  was,  of  course, 
 not  very  successful.  He  gained  the  dramatic  victory 
 0 
 
 only  once.  Athena?us,  however  (6,  p.  270),  accuses 
 Euripides  of  borrowing  from  (his  poet.  "^I'lie  number 
 of  plays  composed  by  him  is  not  correctly  ascertained. 
 Suidas  {s.  V.)  gives  three  accounts,  according  to  one 
 of  which  he  exhibited  44  plays ;  according  to  another, 
 30  ;  while  a  third  assigns  to  him  only  24.  Most  of 
 the  plays  ascribed  to  him  by  the  ancients  are  suspected 
 by  Casaubon  {dc  Sat.  Poes.  1,  .5)  to  have  been  satyric. 
 The  titles  of  seven  of  his  satyrical  dramas,  and  of  tcB 
 of  his  tragedies,  are  still  known.  The  extant  fragments 
 of  his  pieces  have  been  collected  and  edited  by  Urlichs, 
 Bonn,  1834.  He  should  not  be  confounded  with  a  la- 
 ter tragic  writer  of  the  same  name,  who  was  a  native 
 of  Syracuse. — III.  A  river,  which  falls  into  the  Euxine 
 on  the  eastern  shore,  above  the  Promonlorium  Heracle- 
 um.  The  Greek  form  of  the  name  is  'Ajatoif,  -ovvto^. 
 {Arrian,  Per.  Mar.  Eux.  130,  Blanc.) — IV.  An  his- 
 torian mentioned  by  the  scholiast  on  Pindar  (0/.  7,  42). 
 Vossius  {Hist.  Gr.  4.  p.  501)  supposes  him  to  be  the 
 same  with  the  Achaeus  alluded  to  by  the  scholiast  on 
 .\ratus  {v.  171)  ;  but  Boeckh  throws  very  great  doubt 
 on  the  whole  matter.  {Boeckh,  ad  Schol.  Pind.  I.  c  , 
 vol.  il.,  p.  166. — V.  A  general  of  Antiochus  the  Great. 
 ( Vid.  Supplement.) 
 
 AcH.AiA,  I.  a  district  of  Thessaly,  so  named  from  the 
 Acha^i  {vid.  Gra;cia).  It  embraced  more  than  Phthiotis, 
 since  Herodotus  (7,  196)  makes  it  comprehend  the 
 country  along  the  Apidanus.  Assuming  this  as  its 
 western  limit,  we  may  consider  it  to  have  reached  as 
 far  as  the  Sinus  Pelasgicus  and  Sinus  Maliacuson  the 
 east.  {Mannert,  7,  599.)  Larcher  {Hist.  d'Herod. 
 8,  7,  Table  Gcogr.)  regards  Melitaea  as  the  limit  on 
 the  west,  which  lies  considerably  east  of  the  Apida- 
 nus. That  Phthiotis  formed  only  part  of  Achaia,  ap- 
 pears evident  from  the  words  of  Scymnus  {v.  604). 
 ''Encif  'Axaioi  -irapuliot  (tdiuTiKoi  {Gail,  ad  loc.) 
 Homer  (7Z.  3,  258)  uses  the  term  'Axauda,  sc.  x'^po-v, 
 in  opposition  to  Argos,  "A.pyog,  and  seems  to  indicate 
 by  the  former,  according  to  one  scholiast,  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus ;  according  to  another,  the  whole  country  oc- 
 cupied by  the  Hellenes  {Tr]v  nuaav  'ETi'Aijvuv  y^v, 
 Schol.  II.  3,  75). — II.  A  harbour  on  the  northeastern 
 coast  of  the  Euxine,  mentioned  by  Arrian,  in  his  Peri- 
 plus  of  the  EiLtine  (131,  Blanc),  and  called  by  him 
 Old  Achaia  (-/;r  TVtt?.atuv  'Axaiav).  The  Greeks,  ac- 
 cording to  Strabo  (416),  had  a  tradition,  that  the  inhab- 
 itants of  this  place  were  of  Grecian  origin,  and  natives 
 of  the  Boeotian  Orchomenus.  They  were  returnintr, 
 it  seems,  from  the  Trojan  war,  when,  missing  their 
 way,  they  wandered  to  this  quarter.  Appian  {B.  M. 
 67,  102,  Schw.)  makes  them  to  have  been  Achceans, 
 but  in  other  respects  coincides  with  Strabo.  Miiller 
 {Gesch.  llcllen.  Siamme,  &c.,  1,  282)  supposes  the 
 Greeks  to  have  purposely  altered  the  true  name  of  the 
 people  in  question,  so  as  to  make  it  resemble  Achmi 
 {'Axaiol),  that  they  might  erect  on  this  superstructure 
 a  mere  edifice  of  fable. — HI.  A  country  of  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus, lying  along  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus,  north  of 
 Elis  and  Arcadia.  A  number  of  mountain-streams, 
 descending  from  the  ridges  of  Arcadia,  watered  this  re- 
 gion, but  they  were  small  in  size,  and  many  mere  winter- 
 torrents.  The  coast  was  for  the  most  part  level,  and 
 was  hence  exposed  to  frequent  hiundations.  It  had 
 few  harbours  ;  not  one  of  any  size,  or  secure  for  ships. 
 On  this  account  we  find,  that  of  the  cities  along  the 
 coast  of  Achaia,  none  became  famous  for  mariiime  en- 
 terprise. In  other  respects,  Achaia  mav  be  ranked,  a? 
 to  extent,  fruitfulness,  and  population,  among  the  mid- 
 dling countries  of  Greece.  Its  principal  productions 
 were  like  those  of  the  rest  of  the  Peloj)onnesus,  name- 
 ly, oil,  wine,  and  corn.  {Mannert,  8,  3S4. — Hceren's 
 Idcen,  &c.,  3,  27.)  The  most  ancient  name  of  this 
 region  was  ^gialea  or  jEgialos,  AiyiaXog,  "  sea' 
 shore,"  derived  from  its  peculiar  situation.  It  em 
 braced  originally  the  territoiy  of  Sicyon,  since  here 
 stood  the  early  capital  of  the  .^gialii  or  ^gialenses 
 
 17 
 
ACHAIA. 
 
 AC  H 
 
 The  ori<Tin  of  the  ^gialii  appears  to  connect  them 
 with  the^great  Ionic  race.  Ion,  son  of  Xuthiis,  came 
 from  Attica,  according  to  the  received  accounts,  set- 
 tled in  this  quarter  (/-"aws.  7,  1. — .SVr«io,383),  obtain- 
 ed in  marriatre  the  daughter  of  King  Schnus,  and  from 
 this  period  the  inhabitants  were  denominated  ^Egia- 
 lean  lonians.  Pausanias,  however,  probably  from  other 
 sources  of  information,  makes  Xuthus,  not  Ion,  to 
 have  settled  here.  The  Pelascri  appear  also  to  have 
 spread  over  this  region,  and  to  have  gradually  blended 
 with  the  primitive  inhabitants  into  one  community, 
 under  the  name  of  Pelasgic  J:^gialeans  (Herod.  7,  94). 
 Twelve  cities  now  arose,  the  capital  being  Helice, 
 founded  by  Ion.  At  the  period  of  the  Trojan  war, 
 these  cities  were  subject  to  the  Achteans,  and  ac- 
 knowledced  the  sway  of  Agamemnon  as  the  head  of 
 that  race.  Matters  continued  in  this  state  until  the 
 Dorian  invasion  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  Achasans, 
 driven  by  the  Dorians  from  Argos  and  Lacedtemon, 
 took  refuge  in  ^gialea,  under  the  guidance  of  Tisa- 
 menos,  son  of  Orestes.  The  lonians  gave  their  new 
 visiters  an  unwelcome  reception  ;  a  battle  ensued,  the 
 lonians  were  defeated,  and  shut  up  in  Helice  ;  and  at 
 last  were  allowed  by  treaty  to  leave  this  city  unmolest- 
 ed, on  condition  of  removing  entirely  from  their  former 
 settlements.  They  migrated,  therefore,  into  Attica 
 (Pans.  7,  1),  but  soon  after  left  this  latter  country  for 
 Asia  Minor  (trid.  lones  and  Ionia).  The  Achaearis  now 
 took  possession  of  the  vacated  territory,  and  changed 
 its  name  to  Achaia.  Tisamenos  having  fallen  in  the 
 war  with  the  lonians,  his  sons  and  the  other  leaders 
 divided  the  land  among  themselves  by  lot,  and  hence 
 the  old  division  of  twelve  cantons  or  districts,  as  well 
 as  the  regal  form  of  government,  continued  until  the 
 time  of  Ogygus  or  Gygus.  (.SVraJo,  384. — Paus.  7, 
 6. — Pohjb.  2,  41.)  After  this  monarch's  decease, 
 each  city  assumed  a  republican  government.  The 
 Dorians,  from  the  very  first,  had  made  several  attempts 
 to  drive  the  Achasans  from  their  newly-acquired  pos- 
 sessions, and  had  so  far  succeeded  as  to  wrest  from 
 them  Sicyon,  with  its  territory,  which  was  ever  after 
 recrarded  as  a  Dorian  state.  All  farther  attempts  at 
 conquest  were  unsuccessful,  from  the  defence  made 
 by  the  Achajans,  and  the  aid  afforded  to  them  by  their 
 Pelasgic  neighbours  in  Arcadia.  The  result  of  this 
 was  an  aversion  on  the  part  of  the  Achaeans  to  every- 
 thing Dorian.  Hence  they  took  no  part  with  the  rest 
 of  the  (jreeks  against  Xerxes ;  hence,  too,  we  find 
 them,  even  before  the  Peloponnesian  war,  in  alliance 
 with  the  Athenians;  though,  in  the  course  of  that  war, 
 they  were  forced  to  remain  neutral,  or  else  at  times, 
 from  a  consciousness  of  their  weakness,  to  admit  the 
 Dorian  fleets  into  their  harbours.  (Thucyd.  I,  111 
 and  115.— 7i.  2,  9.— Id.  8,  3.— Id.  2,  84.)  The 
 Achaeans  preserved  their  neutrality  also  in  the  wars 
 raised  by  the  ambition  of  Maccdon  ;  but  the  result 
 proved  most  unfortunate.  The  successors  of  Alex- 
 ander seemed  to  consider  the  cities  of  Achaia  as 
 fair  booty,  and  what  they  spared  became  the  prey  of 
 domestic  tyrants.  Even  after  the  Peloponnesus  had 
 ceased  to  be  the  theatre  of  war,  and  a  Macedonian 
 garrison  was  merely  kept  at  the  Isthmus,  the  public 
 troubles  seemed  only  on  the  increase.  The  whole 
 country,  too,  began  to  be  infested  by  predatory  bands, 
 whose  numbers  were  daily  augmented  by  the  starving 
 cultivators  of  the  soil.  At  length,  four  of  the  princi- 
 pal cities  of  Achaia,  viz.,  Patra^,  Dyme,  Tritaia,  and 
 Pharae,  formed  a  mutual  league  for  their  common  safe- 
 ty. (Polyb.  2,  41.)  The  plan  succeeded,  and  soon 
 ten  cities  were  numbered  in  the  alliance.  About 
 twenty-five  years  after,  Sicyon  was  induced  to  join 
 the  league  by  the  exertions  of  Aratus,  and  he  himself 
 was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the  confederacy. 
 All  the  more  important  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus 
 gradually  joined  the  coalition.  Sparta  alone  kept  aloof, 
 and,  in  endeavouring  to  enforce  her  compliance,  Ara- 
 18 
 
 tus  was  defeated  by  the  Lacedaemonian  monarch  Cle- 
 omenes.  The  Achsan  commander,  in  an  evil  hour, 
 called  in  the  aid  of  Macedon  ;  for  though  he  succeeded 
 by  these  means  in  driving  Cleomencs  from  Sparta,  vet 
 the  Macedonians  from  this  time  remained  at  the  head 
 of  the  league,  and  masters  of  the  Peloponnesus. 
 Aratus  himself  fell  a  victim  to  the  jealous  policy  ol 
 Philip.  The  troubles  that  ensued  gave  the  Komans 
 an  opportunity  of  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  Greece, 
 and  at  last  Corinth  was  destroyed,  and  the  Achsan 
 league  annihilated  by  these  new  invaders.  (Vid.  JCXo- 
 lia  and  Corinth.)  Mummius,  the  Roman  general, 
 caused  the  walls  of  all  the  confederate  cities  to  be  de- 
 molished, and  the  inhabitants  to  be  depnvtd  of  every 
 warlike  weapon.  The  land  was  also  converted  into  a 
 Roman  province,  under  the  name  of  Achaia,  embra- 
 cing, besides  Achaia  proper,  all  the  rest  of  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus, together  with  all  the  country  north  of  the 
 isthmus,  excepting  Thessaly,  Epirus,  and  Macedonia. 
 (Vid.  Epirus  and  Macedonia.)  The  dismantled  cities 
 soon  became  deserted,  with  the  exception  of  a  few, 
 and  m  what  had  been  Achaia  proper  only  three  remain- 
 ed in  later  times,  ..Egium,  ^gira,  and  Patrae.  In  our 
 own  days,  the  last  alone  survives-,  under  the  name  of 
 Patras.  The  entire  coast  from  Corinth  to  Patras 
 shows  only  one  place  that  deserves  the  name  of  a  city, 
 or,  rather,  a  large  village  ;  this  is  Vosti/za,  near  the 
 ruins  of  the  ancient  ^gium.     (Manncrt.,8,  392.) 
 
 AcHAicus,  a  philosopher,  whose  time  is  unknown. 
 He  wrote  a  work  on  Ethics.     (Diog.  Lacrt.  6,  99.) 
 
 AcHARN./^:,  'Axapvat  (or,  as  Stcpnanus  Byzantinus 
 writes  the  name,  'Axupva),  one  of  the  most  important 
 boroughs  of  Attica,  lying  northwest  of  Athens  and 
 north  of  Eleusis.  It  furnished  3000  heavy-armed  men 
 as  its  quota  of  troops,  which,  on  the  supposition  that 
 slaves  are  not  included,  will  make  the  entire  popula- 
 tion about  15,000.  (Thucyd.  2,  20.—3Iannert,8,  330.) 
 This  large  number,  however,  did  not  all  dwell  in  vil- 
 lages, but  were  scattered  over  the  borough,  which 
 contained  some  of  the  finest  and  most  productive  land 
 in  Attica.  From  a  sarcasm  of  Aristophanes  (Acharn. 
 213. — Id.  ibid.  332,  seqq.)  we  learn,  that  many  of  the 
 Acharnenses  (^ kxapveic)  followed  the  business  of  char- 
 coal-burning. This  borough  belonged  to  the  tribe 
 ffineis  (Ohytg),  and  was  distant  60  stadia  from  Athens. 
 (Thucyd.  2,  21.) 
 
 Achates,  a  friend  of  ^'Eneas,  whose  fidelity  was  so 
 exemplary,  that  Fidus  Achates  became  a  proverb. 
 (Virg.  JEn.  1,  312.) 
 
 AcHEi.oinEs,  a  patronymic  given  to  the  Sirens  as 
 daughters  of  Achelous.  (Ovid,  Met.  5,  fab.  15. — 
 Gierig,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Achelous,  I.  a  river  of  Epirus,  now  the  A.ipro 
 Potamo,  or  "  White  River,"  which  rises  in  Mount  Pin- 
 dus,  and,  after  dividing  Acarnania  from  ..Etolia  (Strab. 
 450),  falls  into  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus.  It  was  a  large 
 and  rapid  stream,  probably  the  largest  in  all  Greece, 
 and  formed  at  its  mouth,  by  depositions  of  mud  and 
 sand,  a  number  of  small  islands  called  Echinades. 
 The  god  of  this  river  was  the  son  of  Oceanus  and 
 Tethys,  or  of  the  Sun  and  Terra.  Fable  speaks  of  a 
 contest  between  Hercules  and  the  river  god  for  the 
 hand  of  Dcianira.  The  deity  of  the  Acheloiis  assu- 
 med the  form  of  a  bull,  but  Hercules  was  victorious 
 and  tore  off  one  of  his  horns.  His  opponent,  upon 
 this,  having  received  a  horn  from  Amalthea,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Oceanus,  gave  it  to  the  victor,  and  obtained  his 
 own  in  return.  Another  account  (Ovid,  Met.  9,  03) 
 makes  him  to  have  first  assumed  the  form  of  a  serpent, 
 and  afterward  that  of  a  bull,  and  to  have  retired  in 
 disgrace  into  the  bed  of  the  river  Thoas,  which  thence- 
 forward was  denominated  Acheloiis.  A  third  version 
 of  the  fable  states,  that  the  Naiads  took  the  horn  of 
 the  conquered  deity,  and,  after  filling  it  with  the  vari- 
 ous productions  of  the  seasons,  gave  it  to  the  goddess 
 of  plenty,  whence  the  origin  of  the  cornu  copia.    They 
 
ACH 
 
 A  CH 
 
 who  pretend  to  see  in  history  an  explanation  of  this  le- 
 gend, make  the  river  Achelous  to  have  laid  waste,  by 
 its  frequent  inundations,  the  plains  of  Calydon.  This, 
 introducing  confusion  among  the  landmarks,  became 
 the  occasion  of  contnmal  wars  between  the  .Etolians 
 and  Acarnanians,  whose  territories  the  river  divided 
 as  above  stated,  until  Hercules,  by  means  of  dikes,  re- 
 strained its  ravages,  and  made  the  course  of  the  stream 
 uniform.  Hence,  according  to  this  explanation,  the 
 serpent  denoted  the  windings  of  the  stream,  and  the 
 bull  its  swellmgs  and  impetuosity,  while  the  tearmg  off 
 of  the  horn  refers  to  the  turning  away  of  a  part  of  the 
 waters  of  the  river,  by  means  of  a  canal,  the  result  of 
 which  draining  was  shown  in  the  fertility  that  succeed- 
 ed. {Diod.  Sic.  4,  35.)  The  Achelous  must  have 
 been  considered  a  river  of  great  antiquity  as  well  as 
 celebrity,  since  it  is  often  introduced  as  a  general  rep- 
 resentative of  rivers,  and  is  likewise  frequently  used 
 for  the  element  of  water.  {Eustatk,  ad  II.  21,  194. — 
 Eunp.  Bacch.  625. — Id.  Androm.  167. — Aristoph. 
 Lysisir.  381. — Htyne,  ad  II.  21,  194.)  The  reason 
 of  this  peculiar  use  of  the  term  will  be  found  in  the 
 remarks  of  the  scholiast.  The  Achelolis  was  the  lar- 
 gest river  in  Epirus  and  ^Etolia,  in  which  quarter  were 
 the  early  settlements  of  the  Pelasgic  race,  from  whom 
 the  Greeks  derived  so  much  of  their  religion  and  my- 
 thology. Hence  the  frequent  directions  of  the  Oracle 
 at  Dodona,  "  to  sacrihce  to  the  Acheloiis,"  and  hence 
 the  name  of  the  stream  became  associated  with  some 
 of  their  oldest  religious  rites,  and  was  eventually  used 
 in  the  language  of  poetry  as  an  appellation,  Kar  i^oxrjv, 
 for  the  element  of  water  and  for  rivers,  as  stated  above 
 {^kxeTiCiov  TTui'  TTTjyalov  vdup). — H.  There  was  an- 
 other river  of  the  same  name,  of  which  nothing  farther 
 is  known,  than  that,  according  to  Pausanias  (8,  38),  it 
 flowed  from  Mount  Sipylus.  Homer,  in  relating  the 
 story  of  Niobe  {II.  24,  615),  speaks  of  the  desert 
 mouiiiams  in  Sipylus,  where  are  the  beds  of  the  god- 
 dess-nymphs, who  dance  around  the  Acheloiis. — HI. 
 A  river  of  Thessaly,  flowing  near  Lamia.  \Slrah.  434.) 
 AcHERnus,  a  borough  of  the  tribe  Hippothoontis,  in 
 Attica.     {Sleph.  B. — Aristoph.  Ecclcs.  3<i0.) 
 
 Acheron,  I.  a  river  of  Epirus,  rising  in  the  mount- 
 ains to  the  west  of  the  chain  of  Pind\is,  and  falling 
 into  the  Ionian  sea  near  Glykys  Limen  {T/\.vkv(:  At/i/iv). 
 In  the  early  part  of  its  course,  it  forms  the  Palus 
 Acherusia  (^ kx^povaia  Aifiv?/),  and,  after  emerging 
 from  this  sheet  of  water,  disappears  under  ground, 
 from  which  it  again  rises  and  pursues  its  course  to  the 
 sea.  Strabo  (334)  makes  mention  of  this  stream  only 
 after  its  leaving  the  Palus  Acherusia,  and  appears  to 
 have  been  unacquainted  with  the  previous  part  of  its 
 course.  Thucydides,  on  the  other  hand  (1,  46),  would 
 seem  to  have  misunderstood  the  information  which  he 
 had  received  respecting  it.  His  account  is  certainly  a 
 confused  one,  and  has  given  rise  to  an  inaccuracy  in 
 D'Anville's  map.  The  error  of  D'Anville  and  others 
 consists  in  placing  the  Palus  Acherusia  directly  on  the 
 coast,  and  the  city  of  Ephyre  at  its  northeastern  ex- 
 tremity ;  in  the  position  of  the  latter  contradicting  the 
 very  words  of  the  writer  on  whom  they  rely.  No 
 other  ancient  authority  places  the  Palus  Acherusia  on 
 the  coast.  Pausanias  (1,  17)  makes  the  marsh,  the 
 river,  and  the  city,  to  have  been  situated  in  the  interior 
 uf  Thesprotis  ;  and  he  mentions  also  the  stream  Co- 
 cytus  (which  he  styles  i'Scop  urepWEaraTOv),  as  being  in 
 the  same  quarter.  He  likewise  states  it  as  his  opin- 
 ion, that  Homer,  having  visited  these  rivers  in  the 
 course  of  his  wanderings,  assigned  them,  on  account 
 of  their  peculiar  nature  and  properties,  a  place  among 
 the  rivers  of  the  lower  world.  The  poets  make  Ache- 
 ron to  have  been  the  son  of  Sol  and  Terra,  and  to 
 have  been  precipitated  into  the  infernal  regions  and 
 there  changed  into  a  river,  for  having  supplied  the 
 Titans  with  water  during  the  war  which  they  waged 
 with  Jupiter.     Hence  its  waters  were  muddy  and  bit- 
 
 ter ;  and  it  was  the  stream  over  which  the  souls  of  the 
 dead  were  first  conveyed.  The  Acheron  is  rc[)resent- 
 ed  under  the  form  of  an  old  man  arrayed  in  a  humid 
 vestment.  He  reclines  upon  an  urn  of  a  dark  col- 
 our. In  Virgil  and  later  poets  Acheron  sometimes 
 designates  the  lower  world.  —  II.  A  river  of  Brut- 
 tium,  flowing  into  the  Mare  Tyrrhenum  a  short  distance 
 below  Pandosia.  Alexander,  king  of  Epirus,  who  had 
 come  to  the  aid  of  the  Tarentines,  lost  his  life  in  pass- 
 ing this  river,  being  slain  by  a  Lucanian  exile.  He  had 
 been  warned  by  an  oracle  to  beware  of  the  Acherusian 
 waters  and  the  city  Pandosia,  but  supposed  that  it  re- 
 ferred to  Epirus  and  not  to  Italy.  (Justin,  12,  2. — 
 Liv.  8,  24.)— III.  A  river  of  Elis,  which  falls  into  the 
 Alpheus.  On  its  banks  were  temples  dedicated  to 
 Ceres,  Proserpina,  and  Hades,  which  were  held  in  high 
 veneration.  (Strah.  344.) — IV.  A  river  of  Biihynia, 
 near  the  cavern  Acherusia,  and  in  ).he  vicinity  of  He- 
 raclea.     (Apollon.  Rhod.  2,  745.) 
 
 AcHERONTiA,  I.  a  town  of  Bruttium,  placed  by  Pliny 
 on  the  river  Acheron  (Plin.  3,  5.) — II.  A  city  of 
 Lucania,  now  Acerenza,  on  the  confines  of  Apulia. 
 It  was  situated  high  up  on  the  side  of  a  mountain,  and 
 from  its  lofty  position  is  called  by  Horace  7iidus  Ache- 
 rontia,  "  the  nest  of  Acherontia."  Procopius  speaks 
 of  it  as  a  strong  fortress  in  his  days.  {Horat.  Od.  3, 
 4,  14,  et  sc/iol.  ad  loc. — Procop.  3,  23.) 
 
 Acherusia,  I.  a  lake  in  Epirus,  into  which  the 
 Acheron  flows.  {Vtd.  Acheron.) — II.  According  to 
 some  modern  expounders  of  fable,  a  lake  in  Egypt, 
 near  Memphis,  over  which  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were 
 conveyed,  previous  to  their  being  judged  for  the  ac- 
 tions of  their  past  lives.  The  authority  cited  in  sup- 
 j  port  of  this  is  Diodorus  Siculus  (1,  92).  A  proper 
 examination  of  the  passage,  however,  will  lead  to  the 
 following  conclusions  :  1st,  that  no  name  whatever  is 
 given  by  Diodorus  for  any  particular  lake  of  this  kind  ; 
 and,  2dj  that  each  district  of  Egypt  had  its  lake  for  the 
 purpose  mentioned  above,  and  that  there  was  not  mere- 
 ly one  for  the  whole  of  Egypt.  (Diod.  Sic.  1,  92,  et 
 Wessclins:,  ad  loc.) — III.  A  cavern  in  Bithynia,  neat 
 the  city  of  Heraclea  and  the  river  Oxinas,  probably  on 
 the  very  spot  which  Arrian  {Pcripl.  Mar.  Eux.,  p 
 125,  cd.  Blancard)  calls  Tyndarids.  Xenophon  {An- 
 ah.  G,  2)  names  the  whole  peninsula,  in  which  it  lies, 
 the  Acherusian  Promontory.  This  cavern  was  two 
 stadia  in  depth,  and  was  regarded  by  the  adjacent  in- 
 habitants as  one  of  the  entrances  into  the  lower  world. 
 Through  it  Hercules  is  said  to  have  dragged  Cerberus 
 up  to  the  light  of  day  ;  a  fable  which  probably  owed 
 its  origin  to  the  inhabitants  of  Heraclea.  {Diod.  Sic. 
 14,  31. — Dionys.  Perieir.  790,  et  Eustath.  ad  loc.) 
 Apollonius  Rhodius  (2,  730)  places  a  river,  with  the 
 name  of  Acheron,  in  this  quarter.  This  stream  was 
 afterward  called,  by  the  people  of  Heraclea,  Soonautes 
 {"LouvavTTji;),  on  account  of  their  fleet  having  been 
 saved  near  it  from  a  storm.  {Apollon.  Rhod.  2,  746, 
 et  schol.  ad  loc.)  Are  the  Acheron  and  the  Oxinas 
 the  same  river] 
 
 Achillas,  I.  a  bishop  of  Alexandrea  from  A.D.  311 
 to  321.  His  martyrdom  is  commemorated  on  the  7th 
 of  November. —  II.  An  Alexandrean  priest,  bainslied 
 with  Arius,  319  A.D.  He  fled  to  Palestine. —  III. 
 (  Vid.  Supplement  ) 
 
 Achillea,  an  island  near  the  mouth  of  tiie  Borys 
 thenes,  or,  more  properly,  the  western  part  of  the  DrO' 
 nius  Achillis  insulated  by  a  small  arm  of  the  sea.  {Vid. 
 Dromus  Achillis  and  Leuce.) 
 
 AcHiLLEis,  a  poem  of  Stalius,  turning  on  the  story 
 of  Achilles.     {Vid.  Statins.) 
 
 Achilles,  I.  a  son  of  the  Earth  {yvyevTic).  unto 
 whom  Juno  fled  for  refuge  from  the  pursuits  of  Jupi- 
 ter, and  who  persuaded  her  to  return  and  marry  that 
 deity.  Jupiter,  grateful  for  this  service,  promised  him 
 that  all  who  bore  this  name  for  the  time  to  com 
 should    be    illustrious   personages.      {Plol.  Hcphast 
 
 19 
 
ACHILLES. 
 
 apud  Photium,  Btblioth.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
 — n.  The  preceptor  of  Chiron  {Id.). 
 
 152,  cd.  Bekker.) 
 preceptor  ot  Uhiron  {Id.). — III.  The  invent- 
 or of  the  o.stracisin  (/(/.). — IV.  A  son  of  Jupiter  and 
 Lamia.  IIis  beauty  was  so  perfect,  that,  in  the  judg- 
 ment of  Pan,  he  bore  away  the  prize  from  every  com- 
 petitor. Venus  was  so  offended  at  this  decision,  that 
 she  inspired  Pan  with  a  fruitless  passion  for  the  nymph 
 Echo,  and  also  wrought  a  hideous  change  in  his  own 
 person  {Id.). — V.  A  son  of  Galatus,  remarkable  for 
 his  light  coloured,  or,  rather,  whitish  hair  {Id.). — VI. 
 The  son  of  Peleus,  king  of  Phthiotis  in  Thcssaly. 
 His  mother's  name  appears  to  have  been  a  matter  of 
 some  dispute  among  the  ancient  expounders  of  my- 
 thology {Schol  ad  Apoll.  Khod.  1,  558),  although  the 
 more  numerous  authorities  are  in  favour  of  Thetis, 
 one  of  the  sea-deities.  According  to  Lycophron  {v. 
 178),  Thetis  became  the  mother  of  seven  male  chil- 
 dren by  Peleus,  six  of  whom  she  threw  into  the  fire, 
 because,  as  Tzetzes  informs  us  in  his  scholia,  they 
 were  not  of  the  same  nature  with  herself,  and  the 
 treatment  she  had  received  was  unworthy  of  her  rank 
 as  a  goddess.  The  scholiast  on  Homer,  however  {11. 
 16,  37),  states,  that  Thetis  threw  her  children  into  tlie 
 fire  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  they  were  mortal  or 
 not,  the  goddess  supposing  that  the  fire  would  consume 
 what  was  mortal  in  their  natures,  while  she  would 
 preserve  what  was  immortal.  The  scholiast  adds, 
 that  si.iL  of  her  children  perished  by  this  harsh  e.xperi- 
 ment,  and  that  she  had,  in  like  manner,  thrown  the 
 seventh,  afterward  named  Achilles,  into  the  flames, 
 when  Peleus,  having  beheld  the  deed,  rescued  his  off- 
 sprincT  from  this  perilous  situation.  Tzetzes  {ubi  su- 
 pra) assigns  a  different  motive  to  Thetis  in  the  case 
 of  Achilles.  He  makes  her  to  have  been  desirous  of 
 conferring  immortality  upon  him,  and  states  that  with 
 this  view  she  anointed  him  (evp'ev)  with  ambrosia 
 during  the  day,  and  threw  him  into  fire  at  evening. 
 Peleus,  having  discovered  the  goddess  in  the  act  of 
 consigning  his  child  to  the  flames,  cried  out  with 
 alarm,  whereupon  Thetis,  abandoning  the  object  she 
 had  in  view,  left  the  court  of  Peleus  and  rejoined  the 
 nymphs  of  the  ocean.  Dictys  Cretensis  makes  Peleus 
 to  have  rescued  Achilles  from  the  fire  before  any  part 
 of  his  body  had  been  injured  but  the  heel.  Tzetzes, 
 following  the  authority  of  ApoUodorus,  gives  his  first 
 name  as  Ligi/ron  {Aiyvpuv),  but  the  account  of  Aga- 
 mestor,  cited  by  the  same  scholiast,  is  more  in  ac- 
 cordance with  the  current  tradition  mentioned  above. 
 Agamestor  says,  that  the  first  name  given  to  Achilles 
 was  Pi/risotis  {Uvpiaooc),  i.  e.,  "  saved  from  the  fire." 
 W^hat  "has  thus  far  been  stated  in  relation  to  Achilles, 
 with  the  single  exception  of  the  names  of  his  parents, 
 Peleus  and  Thetis,  is  directly  at  variance  with  the  au- 
 thority of  Homer,  and  must  therefore  be  regarded  as 
 a  mere  posthomeric  fable.  The  poet  makes  Achilles 
 say,  that  Thetis  had  no  other  child  but  himself;  and 
 though  a  daughter  of  Peleus,  named  Polydora,  is  men- 
 tioned in  a  part  of  the  Iliad  (16,  175),  she  must  have 
 been,  according  to  the  best  commentators,  only  a  half 
 sister  of  the  hero.  {Compure  Hcijnc, ad  loc.)  Equally 
 at  variance  with  the  account  given  by  the  bard,  is  the 
 more  popular  fiction,  that  Thetis  plunged  her  son  into 
 the  waters  of  the  Styx,  and  by  that  immersion  render- 
 ed the  whole  of  his  body  invulnerable,  except  the  heel 
 by  which  she  held  him.  On  this  subject  Homer  is  al- 
 together silent ;  and,  indeed,  such  a  protection  from 
 danger  would  have  derogated  too  much  from  the  char- 
 acter of  his  favourite  hero.  There  are  several  passa- 
 ges in  the  Iliad  which  plainly  show,  that  the  poet  does 
 not  ascribe  to  Achilles  the  possession  of  any  peculiar 
 physical  defence  against  tlie  chances  of  battle.  (Com- 
 pare 7/.  20,  262:  id.  288:  and  especially,  21,  106, 
 where  Achilles  is  actually  wounded  by  Asteropaeus.) 
 ^^he  rare  of  his  education  was  intrusted,  according  to 
 .he  common  authorities,  to  the  centaur  Chiron,  and  to 
 Pha-nix,  son  of  Amyntor.  Homer,  however,  mentions 
 50 
 
 ACHILLES. 
 
 Phoenix  as  his  first  instructer  {II.  9,  481,  seqq.),  while 
 from  another  passage  {II.  11,  831)  it  would  appear, 
 that  the  young  chieftain  merely  learned  from  the  cen- 
 taur the  principles  of  the  healing  art.  Those,  how- 
 ever, who  pay  more  regard  in  this  case  to  the  state- 
 ments of  other  writers,  make  Chiron  to  have  had 
 charge  of  Achilles  first,  and  to  have  fed  him  on  (lie 
 marrow  of  wild  animals ;  according  to  Libanius,  on 
 that  of  lions,  but  according  to  the  compiler  of  tlie 
 E/ymol.  Mag.,  on  that  of  stags.  (Compare  Baylc, 
 Did.  Hist.  1,  53.)  Chiron  is  said  to  have  given  him 
 the  name  of  Achilles  ('A_^'i/Afiif),  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  his  food  being  unlike  that  of  the  rest  of  men 
 {a  priv.,  and  x^^^/j  "fructiis  quihus  vcscunlur  homi- 
 nes'''). Other  etymologies  are  also  given  ;  but  most 
 likely  none  are  true.  (Compare,  on  this  part  of  our 
 subject,  the  Etymol.  Mag. — I'Lol.  Hcphcist.  apud 
 Photium,  Biblioth.,  vol.  i.,  p.  152,  ed  Behker. — Hcyne, 
 ad  II.  1,  1. —  Wassc7iberg,  ad  schol.  in  II.  1,  p.  130.) 
 Calchas  having  predicted,  when  Achilles  had  attained 
 the  age  of  nine  years,  that  Troy  could  not  be  taken 
 without  him,  Thetis,  well  aware  that  her  son,  if  he 
 joined  that  expedition,  was  destined  to  perish,  sent 
 him,  disguised  in  female  attire,  to  the  court  of  Lycom- 
 edes,  king  of  the  island  of  Scyros,  for  the  purpose 
 of  being  concealed  there.  A  difficulty,  however,  arises 
 in  this  part  of  the  narrative,  on  account  of  the  early 
 age  of  Achilles  when  he  was  sent  to  Scyros,  which 
 can  only  be  obviated  by  supposing,  that  he  remained 
 several  years  concealed  in  the  island,  and  that  the 
 Trojan  war  occupied  many  years  in  preparation.  (Com- 
 pare the  remarks  of  Heync,  ad  Apullod.,l.  c,  p.  316, 
 and  Gruher,  Worterbuch  der  altclassischen  Mythologie 
 und  Religion,  vol.  i.,  p.  32.)  At  the  court  of  Lycom- 
 edes,  he  received  the  name  of  Pyrrha  {Ylvppu,  "  Ru- 
 fa"),  from  his  golden  locks,  and  became  the  father  ol 
 Neoptolemus  by  Deidamia,  one  of  the  monarch's 
 daughters.  {Apollod.  I.  c.)  In  this  stale  of  conceal- 
 ment Achilles  remained,  until  discovered  by  Ulysses, 
 who  came  to  the  island  in  the  disguise  of  a  travelling 
 merchant.  The  chieftain  of  Ithaca  offered,  it  seems, 
 various  articles  of  female  attire  for  sale,  and  mingled 
 with  them  some  pieces  of  armour.  On  a  sudden  blast 
 being  given  with  a  trumpet,  Achilles  discovered  him- 
 self by  seizing  upon  the  arms.  {Apollod.  I.  c. — Sta- 
 tins, Achill.  2,  201.)  The  young  warrior  then  joined 
 the  army  against  Troy.  This  account,  however,  ol 
 the  concealment  of  Achilles  is  contradicted  by  the  e.v 
 press  authority  of  Homer,  who  represents  him  as  pro- 
 ceeding directly  to  the  Trojan  war  from  the  court  oi 
 his  fatlier.  (7/.  9,  439.)  As  regards  the  forces  which 
 he  brought  with  him,  the  poet  makes  them  to  have 
 come  from  the  Pelasgian  Argos,  from  Alus,  Alopc,  and 
 Trachis,  and  speaks  of  them  as  those  who  possessed 
 Phthia  and  Hellas,  and  who  w-ere  called  Myrmidones, 
 Hellenes,  and  Achai.  (7/.  2,  681,  seqq.)  Hence, 
 according  to  Heyne,  the  sway  of  Achilles  extended 
 from  Trachis,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Qilta,  as  far  as  the 
 river  Enipous,  where  Pharsalus  was  situated,  and 
 thence  to  the  Pcneus, — The  Greeks,  having  made 
 good  their  landing  on  the  shores  of  I'roas,  proved  so 
 superior  to  the  enemy  as  to  compel  them  to  seek  shel- 
 ter within  their  walls.  {Thucyd.  1,  11.)  No  soonei 
 was  this  done  than  the  Greeks  were  forced  to  turn 
 their  principal  attention  to  the  means  of  supporting 
 their  numerous  forces.  A  part  of  the  army  was  there- 
 fore sent  to  cultivate  the  rich  vales  of  the  Thracian 
 Chersonese,  then  abandoned  by  their  inhabitants  on 
 account  of  the  incursions  of  the  barbarians  from  the 
 interior.  {Thucyd.  ubi  supra.)  But  the  Grecian  ar- 
 my, being  weakened  by  this  separation  of  its  force, 
 could  no  longer  deter  the  Trojans  from  again  taking 
 the  field,  nor  prevent  succours  and  supplies  from  being 
 sent  into  the  city.  Thus  the  siege  was  protracted  to 
 the  length  of  ten  years.  During  a  great  part  of  this 
 time,  Achilles  was  employed  in  lessening  the  resources 
 
ACHILLES. 
 
 ACHILLES. 
 
 of  Priam  by  the  reduction  of  the  tributary  cities  of 
 Asia  Minor.  With  a  fleet  of  eieven  vessels  he  rav- 
 aged the  coasts  of  Mysia,  mad*^  frequent  disembarca- 
 tions  of  his  forces,  and  succeeded  eventually  in  de- 
 stroying eleven  cities,  among  which,  according  to 
 Strabo  (584),  were  Hypoplacian  Thebe,  Lyrnessus, 
 and  Pedasus,  and  ni  laying  waste  the  island  of  Lesbos. 
 (Compare  Homer,  II.  9,  328.)  Among  the  spoils  of 
 Lvrnessus,  Achilles  obtained  the  beautiful  Briseis, 
 while,  at  the  taking  of  Thebe,  Chryseis  the  daughter 
 of  Chryses,  a  priest  of  Apollo  at  Chrysa,  became  the 
 prize  of  Agamemnon.  A  pestilence  shortly  after  ap- 
 peared in  the  Grecian  camp,  and  Calchas,  encouraged 
 by  the  proffered  protection  of  Achilles,  ventured  to 
 attribute  it  to  Agamemnon's  detention  of  the  daughter 
 of  Chryses,  whom  her  father  had  endeavoured  to  ran- 
 som, but  in  vain.  The  monarch,  although  deeply  of- 
 fended, was  compelled  at  last  to  surrender  his  captive, 
 but.  as  an  act  of  retaliation,  and  to  testify  his  resent- 
 ment, he  deprived  Achilles  of  Briseis.  Hence  arose 
 "  the  anger  of  the  son  of  Peleus,"  on  which  is  based 
 the  action  of  tlie  Iliad.  Achilles  on  his  part  withdrew 
 his  forces  from  the  contest,  and  neither  prayers,  nor 
 entreaties,  nor  direct  offers  of  reconciliation,  couched 
 in  the  most  tempting  and  flattering  terms  (//.  9,  119, 
 ..leqq.),  could  induce  him  to  return  to  the  field.  Among 
 other  things  the  monarch  promised  him,  if  he  would 
 forget  the  injurious  treatment  which  he  had  received, 
 the  hand  of  one  of  his  daughters,  and  the  sovereignty 
 of  seven  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus.  {II.  9,  142  and 
 149.)  The  death  of  his  friend  Patroclus,  however, 
 by  the  hand  of  Hector  (7/.  16,  821,  seejq.),  roused  him 
 at  length  to  action  and  revenge,  and  a  reconciliation 
 having  thereupon  taken  place  between  the  two  Grecian 
 leaders,  Briseis  was  restored.  {II.  19,  78,  serjq. — Id. 
 246,  seqq.)  As  the  arms  of  Achilles,  having  been 
 worn  by  Patroclus,  had  become  the  prize  of  Hector, 
 Vulcan,  at  the  request  of  Thetis,  fabricated  a  suit  of 
 impenetrable  armour  for  her  son.  {II.  18,  468,  scr/(7.) 
 Arrayed  in  this,  Achilles  took  the  field,  and  after  a 
 great  slaughter  of  the  Trojans,  and  a  contest  with  the 
 god  of  the  Scamander,  by  whose  waters  ho  was  nearly 
 overwhelmed,  met  Hector,  chased  him  thrice  around 
 the  walls  of  Troy,  and  finally  slew  him  by  the  aid  of 
 Minerva.  {II.  22,  136,  seqq.)  According  to  Homer 
 {11.  24,  14,  seqq.),  Achilles  dragged  the  corpse  of  Hec- 
 tor, at  his  chariot-wheels,  thrice  round  the  tomb  of 
 Patroclus,  and  from  the  language  of  the  poet,  he 
 would  appear  to  have  done  this  for  several  days  in 
 succession.  Virgil,  however,  makes  Achilles  to  have 
 dragged  the  body  of  Hector  thrice  round  the  walls  of 
 Troy.  In  this  it  is  probable  that  the  Roman  poet  fol- 
 lowed one  of  the  Cyclic,  or  else  Tragic,  writers.  {Hcyne, 
 Excurs.  18,  ad  Mn.  1.)  The  corpse  of  the  Trojan 
 hero  was  at  last  yielded  up  to  the  tears  and  supplica- 
 tions of  Priam,  who  had  come  for  that  purpose  to  the 
 tent  of  Achilles,  and  a  truce  was  granted  the  'I'rojans 
 for  the  performance  of  the  funeral  obsequies.  (//.  24, 
 599. — Id.  669.)  Achilles  did  not  long  survive  his  il- 
 lustrious opponent.  Some  accounts  make  him  to  have 
 died  the  day  after  Hector  was  slain.  The  common 
 authorities,  however,  interpose  the  combats  with  Pen- 
 thcsilea  and  Memnon  previous  to  his  death.  (Com- 
 pare Heyne,  Excurs.  19,  ad  JEu.  1. — Quint.  Smijrn. 
 1,  21,  seqq.)  According  to  the  more  received  account, 
 35  it  IS  given  by  the  scholiast  on  Lycophron  {v.  269), 
 and  also  by  Dictys  Cretensis  and  Dares  Phrygius, 
 Achilles,  having  become  enamoured  of  Polyxena,  the 
 daughter  of  Priam,  signified  to  the  monarch  that  he 
 would  become  his  ally  on  condition  of  receiving  her 
 hand  in  marriage.  Priam  consented,  and  the  parties 
 having  come  for  that  purpose  to  the  temple  of  the 
 Thymbraan  Apollo,  Achilles  was  treacherously  slain 
 by  Paris,  who  had  concealed  himself  there,  being 
 wounded  by  him  with  an  arrow  in  the  heel.  Another 
 tradition,  related  by  Arctinus,  makes  him  to  have  been 
 
 slain  (in  accordance  with  Hector's  prophecy,  //.  21, 
 4.'i2),  in  the  Sca3an  gate,  while  rushing  into  the  city. 
 Hyginus  states  that  .Achilles  went  roiMid  the  walls  of 
 Troy,  boasting  of  his  exploit  in  having  slam  Hector, 
 until  Apollo,  in  anger,  assumed  the  form  of  Paris,  and 
 slew  him  with  an  arrow  {Hi/nin.  fah.  107),  but,  with 
 surprising  inconsistency,  he  mentions  in  another  place 
 {/ah.  110),  that  he  was  slain  by  Deiphobus  and  Alex- 
 ander or  Paris.  The  scholiast  on  Lycophron,  cited 
 above,  says  that  the  Trojans  would  not  give  up  the 
 corpse  of  Achilles  until  the  Greeks  had  restored  the 
 various  presents  with  which  Priam  had  redeemed  the 
 dead  body  of  Hector.  The  ashes  of  the  hero  were 
 mingled  in  a  golden  urn  with  those  of  Patroclus,  and 
 the  promontory  of  Sigccum  is  said  to  mark  the  place 
 where  both  repose.  A  tomb  was  here  erected  to  his 
 memory,  and  near  it  Thetis  caused  funeral  games  to 
 be  celebrated  in  honour  of  her  son,  which  were  after- 
 ward annually  observed  by  a  decree  of  the  oracle  of 
 Dodona  {vid.  Sigsum).  It  is  said,  that,  after  the  ta- 
 king of  Troy,  the  ghost  of  Achilles  appeared  to  the 
 Greeks,  and  demanded  of  them  Polyxena,  who  was 
 accordingly  sacrificed  on  his  tomb  by  his  son  Neo])to- 
 lemus,  or  Pyrrhus.  {Eurip.  Hec.  3.5,  seqq. — Sencc. 
 Troad.  191.— OpjV/,  Met..  13,  441,  seqq.—Q.  Calab. 
 14.)  Another  account  makes  the  Trojan  princess  to 
 have  killed  herself  through  grief  at  his  loss.  {Tze/zes, 
 ad  Lyciiphr.  323. — Philostralus,  Heroica.,  p.  714, ed. 
 Morelliis.)  The  I'hessalians,  in  accordance  with  the 
 oracle  just  mentioned,  erected  a  temple  to  his  memory 
 at  Sigaium,  and  rendered  him  divine  honours.  Every 
 year  they  brought  thither  two  bulls,  one  white  and  the 
 other  black,  crowned  with  garlands,  and  along  with 
 them  some  of  the  water  of  the  Sperchius.  {Gruher. 
 Wortcrhuch  der  altclassischen  Mythologie,  vol.  i.,  p  48.) 
 Another  and  still  stranger  tradition  informs  us,  that 
 Achilles  survived  the  fall  of  Troy  and  married  Helen  ; 
 but  others  maintain  that  this  union  took  place  after  his 
 death,  in  the  island  of  I^euce,  where  many  of  the  an- 
 cient heroes  lived  in  a  separate  elysiuin  {vxd.  I.eiice). 
 When  Achilles  was  young,  his  mother  asked  him 
 whether  he  preferred  a  long  life  spent  in  obscurity,  or 
 a  brief  existence  of  military  glory.  He  decided  in 
 favour  of  the  latter.  (Compare  B.  9,  410,  seqq.) 
 Some  ages  after  the  Trojan  war,  Alexander,  in  the 
 course  of  his  march  into  the  East,  ofi'ered  sacrifices  on 
 the  tomb  of  Achilles,  and  expressed  his  admiration  as 
 well  of  the  hero,  as  of  the  bard  whom  he  had  found  to 
 immortalize  his  name.  {Plutarch,  Vil.  Alexajid.  15.) 
 — VII.  Tatius,  a  native  of  Alexandrea,  commonly  as- 
 signed to  the  second  or  third  century  of  the  Christian 
 era.  The  best  critics,  however,  such  as  Huet,  Char- 
 don  la  Rochettc,  Coray,  and  Jacobs,  make  him  to  have 
 flourished  after  the  time  of  Heliodorus,  since  they  have 
 discovered  in  him  what  they  consider  manifest  imita- 
 tions of  the  latter  writer.  Nay,  if  it  be  true  that  Mu- 
 sa3us,  whom  he  has  also  imitated,  composed  his  poem 
 of  Hero  and  Leander  before  430  or  450  of  our  era, 
 we  must  then  place  Achilles  Tatius  even  as  low  as  the 
 middle  of  the  5th  century.  {SchoeJl,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr. 
 6,  231.)  According  to  Suidas,  he  became,  towards  the 
 end  of  his  life,  a  Christian  and  bishop.  But  as  the 
 lexicographer  makes  no  mention  of  his  episcopal  see, 
 and  as  Photius,  who  speaks  in  three  different  places  of 
 him,  is  silent  on  this  head,  it  may  be  permitted  us  to 
 do\ibt  the  accuracy  of  Suidas's  statement.  {I'holii 
 Bihliothec,  vol.  i.,  p.  33,  ed.  Bekker.—Id.  ilnd.,  p.  50.— 
 Id.  ibid.,  p.  66.)  Equally  unworthy  of  reliance  would 
 appear  to  be  another  remark  of  the  same  lexicographer, 
 that  Achilles  Tatius  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  sphere. 
 If  this  were  correct,  we  ought  to  put  him  one  or  two 
 centuries  earlier,  inasmuch  as  Firmicus,  a  Latin  writer 
 of  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  cites  the  "  Sphere 
 of  Achilles."  {Astron.  4,  10.)  Suidas,  however, 
 who  is  not  accustomed  to  discriminate  very  nicely  be 
 tween  persons  bearing  the  same  name,  here  confo'inds 
 
 21 
 
ACHILLES. 
 
 A  CI 
 
 •iim  with  the  author  of  the  "  Introduction  to  the  Phae- 
 iiomcna  of  Aratus"  (rid.  No.  VIII.).  Achilles  Tatius 
 IS  the  author  of  a  romance,  entitled,  Ta  Kara  Aev- 
 K'nzTZfjv  not  K/.iro(puvTa,  "  The  loves  of  Leucippe  and 
 Clitophori,''  as  it  is  commonly  translated.  Some  crit- 
 ics, such  as  Huet  and  Saumaiso,  have  preferred  it  to 
 the  work  of  Heliodorus  ;  but  Villoison,  Coray,  Wyt- 
 tenbach,  Passow,  Villemain,  and  Schocll,  restore  the 
 pre-eminence  to  the  latter.  {Schoell,  Hist.  Litl.  Gr., 
 vol.  vi.,  p.  2:53. — Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  No.  9,  p. 
 131.)  "The  book,"  says  Villemain,  "is  written  under 
 an  influence  altogether  pagan,  and  in  constant  allusion 
 to  the  voluptuous  fables  of  mythology,"  The  remark 
 is  perfectly  correct.  Pictures  of  the  utmost  licen- 
 tiousness, and  traces  of  everything  that  is  infamous  in 
 ancient  manners,  are  seen  throughout.  Unchaste  in 
 imagination,  and  coarse  in  sentiment,  the  author  has 
 made  his  hero  despise  at  once  the  laws  of  morality 
 and  those  of  love.  Clitophon  is  a  human  body,  unin- 
 formed by  a  human  soul,  but  delivered  up  to  all  the 
 instincts  of  nature  and  the  senses.  He  neither  com- 
 mands respect  by  his  courage  nor  affection  by  his 
 constancy.  Struggling,  however,  in  the  writer's  mind, 
 some  finer  ideas  may  be  seen  wandering  throucrh  the 
 gloom,  and  some  pure  and  lofty  aspirations  contrastino- 
 strangely  with  the  chaos  of  animal  instincts  and  de- 
 sires. His  Leucippe  glides  like  a  spirit  among  actors 
 of  mere  flesh  and  blood.  Patient,  high-minded,  re- 
 signed, and  firm,  she  endures  adversity  with  grace  ; 
 preserving,  throughout  the  helplessness  and  temptations 
 of  captivity,  irreproachable  purity,  and  constancy  un- 
 changeable. The  critics,  while  visiting  with  proper 
 6everity  the  sins  both  of  the  author  and  the  man,  do 
 not  refuse  to  render  full  justice  to  the  merits  of  the 
 work.  It  possesses  interest,  variety,  probability,  and 
 eitnplicity.  "  The  Romance  of  Achilles  Tatius,"  says 
 Villemain,  "purified  as  it  should  be,  will  appear  one 
 of  the  most  agreeable  in  the  collection  of  tiie  Greek 
 Romances.  The  adventures  it  relates  present  a  preg- 
 nant variety  ;  the  succession  of  incidents  is  rapid  ;  its 
 wonders  are  natural ;  and  its  style,  althoucrh  some- 
 what affected,  is  not  wanting  in  spirit  and  effect." 
 Photius  also,  as  rigorous  in  morals  as  a  bishop  should 
 be,  praises  warmly  the  elegance  of  the  style,  observ- 
 ing that  the  author's  periods  are  precise,  clear,  and  eu- 
 phonous.  {Foreign  Quarterly  Revicu\  No.  9,  p.  131.) 
 Saumaise  was  of  opinion,  that  Achilles  Tatius  had 
 given  to  the  world  two  several  editions  of  his  romance, 
 and  that  some  of  the  manuscripts  which  remain  be- 
 long to  the  first  publication  of  the  work,  while  others 
 supply  us  with  the  production  in  its  revised  state.  Ja- 
 cobs, however,  in  the  prolegomena  to  his  edition,  has 
 shown  that  the  variations  in  the  manuscripts,  which 
 gave  rise  to  this  opinion,  are  to  be  ascribed  solely  to 
 the  negligence  of  copyists,  as  they  occur  only  in  those 
 words  which  have  some  resemblance  to  others,  and  in 
 which  it  was  easy  to  err.  Few  works,  moreover,  were 
 as  often  copied  as  this  of  Achilles  Tatius.  The  best 
 -dition  is  that  of  Jacobs,  2  vols.  8vo,  Lips.,  1821,  in 
 «vhich  may  be  seen  a  very  just,  though  unfavourable, 
 critique  on  the  editions  of  Saumaise  and  Baden,  the 
 former  of  which  appeared  in  1640,  12mo,  Lvo-d.  Bat., 
 and  the  latter  in  1776,  8vo,  Lips.  A  French  version 
 of  the  work  is  given  in  the  "  CoUectian  des  Romans 
 Grecs,  traduits  en  Fran^ais  ;  avec  des  notes,  par  MM. 
 Courier,  Larcher,  at  autres  Hellenistes,"  14  vols 
 IBmo,  Paris,  1822-1828.— VIII.  Tatius,  an  astro- 
 aomical  writer,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first  half 
 )f  the  fourth  century,  since  he  is  quoted  by  Firmicus 
 [Asiron.  4,  10),  who  wrote  abo\it  the  middle  of  the 
 «ame  century.  Suidas  confounds  him  with  the  indi- 
 Tidual  mentioned  in  No.  VII.  We  possess,  under  the 
 •itle  of  Eiaaytjyrj  eic  tu  'Apurov  ^aivofin'a,  "  Intro- 
 duction to  the  Phenomena  of  Aratus,"  a  fragment  of 
 lis  work  on  the  sphere.  This  fragment  is  given  in  the 
 Uranologia  of  Pctavius  (Petau),  Pans,  1630,  fol. 
 22 
 
 AcHii.LEUM,  a  town  on  the  Cimmerian  Bosforuu, 
 where  anciently  was  a  temple  of  Achilles.  It  lav  near 
 the  moiicm  Buschik.     {Manncrt,i,d2(i.) 
 
 AcHii-LEUs,  I.  a  relation  of  Ztnobia,  invested  with 
 the  purple  by  the  people  of  Palmyra,  when  they  revolt- 
 ed from  Aurelian.  (  Vopisc.)  Zosimus  calls  him  Au- 
 tiochus  (I,  60). — II.  A  Roman  commander,  in  the 
 reign  of  Dioclesian,  who  assumed  the  purple  in  Eg}'pt. 
 The  emperor  marched  against  him,  shut  birn  up  in 
 Alexandrea,  and  took  the  place  after  a  siege  of  eicht 
 months.  Achilleus  was  put  to  death,  having  been  ex- 
 posed to  lions,  and  Alexandrea  was  given  up  to  pil- 
 lage.    (Oros.  7,  25. — Aurel.  Vict,  de  Ca-s.  c.  39.) 
 
 AcHivi,  properly  speaking,  the  name  of  the  Achsean 
 race  ('Ajnfo/)  Latinized.  Its  derivation  through  the 
 ^Eolic  dialect  is  marked  by  the  digammatcd  sound  of 
 the  letter  v  {'AxaiFol).  This  appellation  was  gener- 
 ally applied  by  the  Roman  poets,  especially  Virgil,  as 
 a  name  for  the  whole  Greek  nation,  in  imitation  of  the 
 Homeric  usage.  In  legal  strictness  it  should  have 
 been  confined  by  the  Romans  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 province   of  Achaia. 
 
 AcHLYS.      Vtd.  Supplement. 
 
 AcHMET.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcHOLius.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcicHORius,  a  general  with  Brennus  in  the  expe- 
 dition which  the  Gauls  undertook  against  Paeonia. 
 (Paus  10,  19.)  He  was  chosen  by  Brennus  as  his 
 lieutenant,  or,  rather,  as  a  kind  of  colleague,  which  of- 
 fice the  name  itself,  in  the  original  language  of  the 
 Gauls,  is  said  to  designate.  Thus  the  true  Gallic  ap- 
 pellation was  Kikhomaour,  or  Akihhou'iaour,  which 
 the  Greeks  softened  into  Kix<^pior(Diod.  Sic.  frag.  lib. 
 22  —  vol.  ix.,  p.  301,  ed.  Bip.)  and  'Anixupioc  (Paus. 
 10,  19),  and  which  they  mistook  for  a  proper  name. 
 (Compare  Thierry,  Histoire  des  Gaulois,  vol.  i.,  p.  145, 
 and  Otcen^s  Welsh  Dictionary,  s.  v.  C'l/civ'iaivr.)  Dio- 
 dorus  Siculus  (Z.  c.)  makes  Cichorius  to  have  succeed- 
 ed Brennus. 
 
 AciDALiA,  a  surname  of  Venus,  from  a  fountain  of 
 the  same  name  at  Orchomenus,  in  Boeotia,  sacred  to 
 her.     The   Graces   bathed  in  this    fountain. 
 
 AciDiNUs.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AoilTa,  I.  gens,  a  plebeian  family  of  Rome,  of  whom 
 many  medals  are  extant.  (Rasche,  Lex.  Rei  Num., 
 vol.  i.,  col.  47.)  The  name  of  this  old  and  distinguish- 
 ed line  occurs  five  times  in  the  consular  fasti,  during 
 the  time  of  the  republic,  and  twelve  times  in  those  of 
 the  empire,  down  to  the  reign  of  Constantine.  (Sigon. 
 Fast.  Cons.)  The  two  most  celebrated  branches  of 
 the  house  were  those  of  .\cilius  Glabrio  and  Acilius 
 Balbus. — II.  Lex,  a  law  introduced  by  Acilius  the 
 tribune,  A.U.C.  556,  for  the  planting  of  five  colonies 
 along  the  coast  of  Italy,  two  at  the  mouths  of  the  Vnl- 
 turnus  and  Liternus,  one  at  Putcoli,  one  at  Salernum, 
 and  one  at  Buxentum.  (Lfc.  32,  29.) — III.  Calpiir 
 nia  Lex  {intTodaced  A.U.C.  686),  excluded  from  the 
 senate,  and  from  all  public  employments,  those  who 
 had  been  guilty  of  bribery  at  elections.  Cicero  calls 
 it  merely  Calpnrnia  Lex,  but  others  Aciha  Calpurma 
 Lex.  {Erncsti,  Ind.  Leg.) — IV.  Lex,  a  law  introdu- 
 ced A.U.C.  683,  by  the  consul  Manius  Acilius  Gla- 
 brio, relative  to  actions  de  penmi/s  repcfumlis.  It 
 determined  the  forms  of  proceeding,  and  the  penalties 
 to' be  inflicted.     (Compare  Emesti,  Ind.  Leg.) 
 
 Acilius,  I.  a  Roman,  who  wrote  a  work  in  Greek 
 on  the  history  of  his  country,  and  commentaries  on 
 the  twelve  tables.  He  lived  B.C.  210,  and  was  aeon- 
 temporary  of  Cato's.  His  history  was  translated  into 
 Latin  by  an  individual  named  Claudius,  and  was  enti- 
 tled, in  this  latter  language,  Annales  Adlitrtses.  { Vos.'i. 
 Hist.  Gr.  1,  10.) — II.  Quintus,  appointed  a  commis- 
 sioner, about  200  B.C.,  for  distributing  among  the  new 
 colonists  the  conquered  lands  along  the  Po. — HI.  A 
 tribune,  author  of  the  law  respecting  the  maritime  col- 
 onies.    {Vid.  Acilia  II.) — IV.  Glabrio  M.,  a  consid 
 
ACR 
 
 ACR 
 
 with  P.  Corn.  Scipio  Nasica,  A.U.C.  561,  and  the 
 conqueror  of  Anticx^hus  at  Thermopylae.  {Liv.  35, 
 24. — Id.  36,  19.) — V.  Glabrio  M.,  son  of  the  prece- 
 ding, a  decemvir.  He  built  a  temple  to  Piety,  in  ful- 
 filment of  a  vow  which  his  father  had  made  when 
 fighting  against  Antiochus.  He  erected  also  a  gilded 
 statue  tislatuam  auratam)  to  his  father,  the  first  of  the 
 kind  ever  seen  at  Rome.  ( Val.  Max.  2, 5. — Liv.  40,  34. 
 Compare  Hase,  ad  Im.) — VI.  A  consul,  A.U.C.  684, 
 ap})omted  to  succeed  Lucullus  in  the  management 
 of  the  Mithradatic  war.  {Cic.  in  Verr.  7,  61.) — VH. 
 Aviola  Manius,  a  lieutenant  under  Tiberius  in  Gaul, 
 A.D.  19,  and  afterward  consul.  He  was  roused  from 
 a  trance  by  the  flames  of  the  funeral  pile,  on  which  he 
 h;;d  been  laid  as  a  corpse,  but  could  not  be  rescued. 
 (Pirn.  7,  53.— Ta^.  Max.  1,  8.)— VIII.  Son  of  the 
 preceding,  consul  under  Claudius,  A.D.  54. — IX.  A 
 consul  with  M.  Ulpian  Trajanus,  the  subsequent  em- 
 peror. He  was  induced  to  engage  with  wild  beasts 
 in  the  arena,  and,  proving  successful,  was  put  to  death 
 by  Domilian,  who  was  jealous  of  his  strength. 
 
 AciRis,  now  the  Agri,  a  river  of  Lucania,  rising 
 near  AbaelHnum  Marsicum,  and  falling  into  tlie  Sinus 
 Tarentinus.     Near    its    mouth   stood    Heraclea. 
 AciNDYNOs.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 Acis,  a  Sicilian  shepherd,  son  of  Faunus  and   the 
 aymph  Simsethis.     He  gained  the  affections  of  Gala- 
 laca,  but  his  rival  Polyphemus,  through  jealousy,  crush- 
 ed  him  to  death  with  a  fragment  of  rock,  which  he 
 hurled  upon  him.     Acis  was  changed  into  a  stream, 
 which  retained  his  name.     According  to  Scrvius  (ad 
 Virg.  Eclog.  9,  39)  it  was  also  called  Acilius.    Cluve- 
 rius  places  it  about  two  miles  distant  from  the  modern 
 CasUllo  di  Acci.     Fazellus,  however,  without  much 
 reason,  assigns  the  name  of  Acis  to  the  Fiitmc  Frecldo, 
 near  Taormina.      Sir   Richard   Hoare    describes   the 
 Acis  of  Cluvertus  as  a  limpid  though  small  stream. 
 The  story  of  Acis  is  given  by  Ovid  {Met.  13,  750,  scq.) 
 AcofeTEs.      Yid.  Supplement. 
 Aco.MiNATUs.      Vid.  Nicetas. 
 
 AcoNTius,  a  youth  of  Cea,  who,  when  he  went  to 
 Deles  to  sacrifice  to  Diana,  fell  in  love  with  Cydippe, 
 a  beautiful  virgin,  and,  being  unable  to  obtain  her,  by 
 reason  of  his  poverty,  had  recourse  to  a  stratagem. 
 A  sacred  law  obliged  every  one  to  fulfil  whatever 
 promise  they  had  made  in  the  temple  of  the  goddess  ; 
 and  Acontius  having  procured  an  apple  or  quince, 
 wrote  on  it  the  following  words  :  "  I  swear  by  Diana 
 I  will  wed  Acontius."  I'his  he  threw  before  her.  The 
 nurse  took  it  up,  and  handed  it  to  Cydippe,  who  read 
 aloud  the  inscription,  and  then  threw  the  apple  away. 
 Alter  some  time,  when  Cydippe's  father  was  about  to 
 give  her  in  marriage  to  another,  she  was  taken  ill  just 
 before  the  nuptial  ceremony.  Acontius  thereupon  has- 
 tened to  Athens,  and,  the  Delphic  oracle  having  decla- 
 red that  the  illness  of  Cydippe  was  the  punishment  of 
 her  perjury,  the  parties  were  united. 
 AcoKis.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcRA,  I.  a  village  on  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus. 
 {Si I  ah.,  p.  494.)-- II.  A  promontory  and  town  of  Scyth- 
 ia  Minor,  now  Ekcrne  or  Cavarna. 
 
 AcHRADiNA,  one  of  the  five  divisions  of  Syracuse, 
 and  deriving  its  name  from  the  wild  pear  trees  with 
 which  it  once  abounded  {axfjac,  a  wild  pear-tree).  It 
 is  sometimes  called  the  citadel  of  Syracuse,  but  in- 
 coriectly,  although  a  strongly  fortified  quarter.  It  was 
 very  thickly  inhabited,  and  contained  many  fine  build- 
 ings, yielding  only  to  Ortygia.  {Laporte  Du  Theil, 
 ad  S/rab.,  vol  2,  p  a.58,  riot.  3,  French  Iransl.)  As 
 regards  the  situation  of  .4chradina,  and  its  aspect  in 
 more  modern  times,  compare  Swinbiirn,  Traccls  in 
 the  Two  Sicilies,  3,  382  {French  Iransl.),  and  Gollcr, 
 de  Situ  cl  Origine  Syracusarum,  p.  49,  scqq. 
 AcRMk       Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcR^PHNiA,  a  city  of  BoBotia,  situate  on  Mount 
 Ptous,  towards  the  northeast  extremity  of  the  Lake  Co- 
 
 pais.  It  was  founded  either  by  Athamas,  or  by  Acrae- 
 pheus,  a  son  of  Apollo.  Pausanias  calls  the  place 
 Acraephnium  (9,  23. — Compare  Steph.  Byz.  s.  v.). 
 
 AcRAGALLiD^.  vid.  CrauallidsB. 
 
 AcKAGAs,  I.  the  Greek  name  of  Agrigentum. — II. 
 A  river  in  Sicily,  on  which  Agrigentum  was  situate. 
 It  gave  its  Greek  name  to  the  city.  The  modern 
 name  is  San  Blasio.  {Mannert,  9,  2,  354.) — III.  An 
 engraver  on  silver,  whose  country  and  age  are  both 
 uncertain.  He  is  noticed  by  Pliuy  (33,  12,  55),  who 
 speaks  of  cups  of  his  workmanship,  adorned  with 
 sculptured  work,  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Bacchus 
 at  Rhodes.  His  hunting  pieces  on  cups  were  very 
 famous.     {Sillig,  Diet.  Art.  s.v.) 
 
 AcR.vTUs,  a  freedman  of  Nero,  sent  into  Asia  to 
 plunder  the  temples  of  the  gods,  which  commission  he 
 executed  readily,  being,  according  to  Tacitus  {Ann. 
 15,45),  "  cuicumque  Jlagitio  promptus."  Secundus 
 Carinas  was  joined  with  him  on  this  occasion,  whom 
 Lipsius  {ad  Tac.  I.  c.)  suspects  to  be  the  same  with 
 the  Carinas  sent  into  exile  {Dio  Cassius,  59,  20)  by 
 the  Emperor  Caligula,  for  declaiming  against  tyrants. 
 Compare  Juvenal,  7,  204. 
 
 AcRiD0PH.\Gi,  an  Ethiopian  nation,  who  fed  upon 
 locusts.  Diodorus  Siculus  (3,  28)  says,  that  they 
 never  lived  beyond  their  40th  year,  and  that  they  then 
 perished  miserably,  being  attacked  by  swarms  of  winged 
 lice  {TVTEpuTol  <j)bdpE<;),  which  issued  forth  from  their 
 skin.  The  account  given  of  their  diet  is  much  more 
 probable.  The  locust  is  said  to  be  a  very  common  and 
 palatable  food  in  many  parts  of  the  East,  after  having 
 been  dried  in  the  sun.  This  is  thought  by  some  to  have 
 constituted  the  food  of  the  Israelites  on  the  occasion 
 mentioned  in  Exodus  (16,  14).  Wesseling  (a(i  Dwd. 
 Sic.  3,  28)  is  of  this  opinion.  But  the  salvim  of  Mo- 
 ses evidently  mean  quails,  as  the  received  version  has 
 rendered  the  word. 
 
 AcRioN,  a  Locrian,  was  a  Pythagorean  philosopher: 
 he  is  mentioned  by  Valerius  Maximus  (8,  7)  under  the 
 name  of  Arion,  which  is  a  false  reading  instead  of  Ac- 
 rion.     {Cic.  Fin.  5,  9) 
 
 AcRisioNEis,  a  patronymic  appellation  given  to 
 Danae,  as  daughter  of  Acrisius.  {Virg.  JEn.  7,  410, 
 and  Scrvius, ad  loc.) 
 
 AcRisioN'iADEs,  a  patronymic  of  Perseus,  from  his 
 grandfather  Acrisius.     {Ovid,  Met.  5,  v.  70.) 
 
 AcRisius,  son  of  Abas,  king  of  Argos,  by  Ocalea, 
 daughter  of  Mantineus.  He  was  born  at  the  same 
 birth  as  Proetus,  with  whom  it  is  said  that  he  quarrel- 
 led even  in  his  mother's  womb.  After  many  dissen- 
 sions, Proetus  was  driven  from  Argos.  Acrisius  had 
 Danae  by  Eurydice,  daughter  of  Lacedajmon  ;  and  an 
 oracle  having  declared  that  he  should  lose  his  life  by 
 the  hand  of  his  grandson,  he  endeavoured  to  frustrate 
 the  prediction  by  the  imprisonment  of  his  daughter,  in 
 order  to  prevent  her  becoming  a  mother  {vid.  Danae). 
 His  efforts  failed  of  success,  and  he  was  eventually 
 killed  by  Perseus,  son  of  Danae  and  Jupiter.  Acrisi- 
 us, it  seems,  had  been  attracted  to  Larissa  by  the  re- 
 ports which  had  reached  him  of  the  prowess  of  Per- 
 seus. At  Larissa,  Perseus,  wishing  to  show  his  skill 
 in  throwing  a  quoit,  killed  an  old  man  who  proved  to 
 be  his  grandfather,  whom  he  knew  not,  and  thus  the 
 oracle  was  fulfilled.  Acrisius  reigned  about  31  years. 
 {Hygin.  fab.  63.— Oiwd.  Met.  4:,fah.  16.— Horat.  3. 
 od.  IQ.—Apollod.  2,  2,  &c.—Paus.  2,  16,  &c.—  Vid 
 Danae,  Perseus,  Polydcctes.) 
 
 AcRiTAS,  a  promontory  of  Mcssenia,  in  the  Pelopon- 
 nesus.    {PI in.  4,  5. — Mela,2,  3.)     Now  Cape  Gallo 
 
 AcROATHos,  or  AcROTHouM.  Thc  name  Acroathos 
 properly  denotes  the  promontory  of  the  peninsula  of 
 Athos,  now  Cape  Monte  Santo.  It  is  the  lower  one 
 of  the  two,  the  upper  one  being  called  Nymphsum 
 (Promontorium).  By  Acrothoum  (or  Acrothoi)  is 
 meant  a  town  on  the  peninsula  of  Athos,  situate  some 
 I  distance  up  the  mountain,  and  of  which  Mela  observes 
 
 23 
 
ACR 
 
 ACT 
 
 (2,  y),  that  the  inliabitants  were  supposed  to  live  be- 
 yond the  usual  time  allotted  to  man.  (Compare  T/iu- 
 cyd.  4,  109. — Scyldx,  p.  26. — Sleph.  Byz.  s.  v.  "AOi^q. 
 —Strab.  epit.  lib.  7,  331.) 
 
 AcKOCEKAUNiA,  or  AcR0CEK.\UNn  Monies,  vid.  Ce- 
 raunia. 
 
 AcRocoRiNTHus,  a  high  hill,  overhanginir  the  city  of 
 Corinth,  on  which  was  erected  a  citadel,  called  also  by 
 the  same  name.  'I'his  situation  was  so  important  a 
 one  as  to  be  styled  by  Philip  the  fetters  of  Greece. 
 The  fortress  was  surprised  by  Anligonus,  but  recover- 
 ed in  a  brilliant  maimer  by  Aratus.  {Strab.  8,  380. — 
 Fans.  2,  A.—Plut.  Vtt.  Arat.—Stat.  Thcb.  7,  v.  106.) 
 "  The  Acrocorinthus,  or  Acropolis  of  Corinth,"  ob- 
 serves Dodwell,  "  is  one  of  the  finest  objects  in 
 Greece,  and,  if  properly  garrisoned,  would  be  a  place 
 of  great  strength  and  importance.  It  abounds  with 
 excellent  water,  is  in  most  parts  precipitous,  and  there 
 is  only  one  spot  from  which  it  can  be  annoyed  with  ar- 
 tillery. This  is  a  pointed  rock,  at  a  few  hundred  yards 
 to  the  southwest  of  it,  from  which  it  was  battered  by 
 Mohammed  II.  Before  the  introduction  of  artillery, 
 it  was  deemed  almost  impregnable,  and  had  never  been 
 taken  except  by  treachery  or  surprise.  Owing  to  its 
 natural  strength,  a  small  number  of  men  was  deemed 
 sufficient  to  garrison  it ;  and  in  the  time  of  Aratus, 
 according  to  Plutarch,  it  was  defended  by  400  soldiers, 
 50  dogs,  and  as  many  keepers.  It  was  surrounded 
 with  a  wall  by  Cleomenes.  It  shoots  up  majestically 
 from  the  plain  to  a  considerable  height,  and  forms  a 
 conspicuous  object  at  a  great  distance  :  it  is  clearly 
 seen  from  Athens,  from  which  it  is  not  less  than  forty- 
 four  miles  in  a  direct  line.  Strabo  affirms  that  it  is 
 3  1-2  stadia  in  perpendicular  height,  but  that  the  ascent 
 to  the  top  is  30  stadia  by  the  road,  the  circuitous  in- 
 flections of  which  render  this  no  extravagant  computa- 
 tion. The  Acrocorinthus  contains  within  its  walls  a 
 town  and  three  mosques.  Athenaeus  commends  the 
 water  in  the  Acrocorinthus  as  the  most  salubrious  in 
 Greece.  It  was  at  this  fount  that  Pegasus  was  drink- 
 ing when  taken  by  Bellcrophon."  {Dodwdl,  vol.  2, 
 p.  187.)  All  modern  travellers  who  have  visited  this 
 spot,  give  a  glowing  description  of  the  view  obtained 
 from  the  ridge.  Consult,  in  particular,  Clarke's  Trav- 
 els, vol.  6,  p.  750. 
 
 AcRON,  I.  a  king  of  the  Creninenses,  whom  Romu- 
 lus slew  in  battle,  after  the  affair  of  the  Sabine  women. 
 His  arms  were  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Fcretrius,  and  his 
 subjects  were  incorporated  wrth  the  Roman  people. 
 {Plat.    Vit.   Rom.)     Propertius   styles   him    Caninus 
 Acron,  from  the  name  of  his  city  and  people  (4,  10,  7), 
 and  also  Herculeus  (4,  10,  9),  from  the  circumstance 
 of  all  the  Sabine  race  tracing  their  descent  from  Her- 
 cules or  Sancus. — II.   A  celebrated  physician  of  Agri- 
 gentum    in    Sicily,    contemporary    with    Empedocles 
 {Diog.  Lar.rt.  8,  65).      Plutarch  speaks  of  his  having 
 been  at  Athens  during  the  time  of  the  great  plague, 
 which  occurred  B.C.  430.     He  aided  the  Athenians 
 on  that  occasion,  by  causing  large  fires  to  be  kindled 
 in  their  streets.     (Plitt.  Is.  et  Os.  383.)     Acron  is 
 generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Em- 
 pirics  or   Experimentalists  {Pseud.  Gal.    Isafr.  372). 
 As  this  school  of  medicine,  however,  had  a  much  la- 
 ter date,  it  is  probable  that  he  was  merely  one  of  the 
 class  of  physicians  called   irepiof^evrai,  who  did  not 
 confine   themselves   to  mere   theory,  but  went  round 
 and  visited  patients.     His  contempt  for  the  mysterious 
 charlatanism  of  Empedocles  drew  uj)on  him  the  hatred 
 of  that  philosopher.     At  least  it  is  fair  to  suppose  that 
 this  was  the  cause  of  their  enmity.      Acron  wrote,  ac- 
 cording to  Suidas,  a  treatise  in  Doric  Greek,  on  the 
 healing  art,  and  another  on  diet.      He  appears  also, 
 from  the  words  of  the  lexicographer,  to  have  turned 
 his  attention  in  some  degree  to  the  influence  of  cli- 
 mate.    (Consult  Sprengel,  Hist.  Med.  1,  273.) — III. 
 ■Helenius  Acron,  an  ancient  commentator.    The  period 
 24 
 
 when  he  lived  is  uncertain  :  he  is  thought,  however,  to 
 have  been  later  than  Servius.  Acron's  scholia  on 
 Horace  have  descended  to  us  in  part,  or  at  least  only 
 a  part  was  ever  ])ublished.  They  are  valuable  on  ac-^ 
 count  of  their  containing  the  remarks  of  C.  ^^milius, 
 Julius  Modestus,  and  Q.  Terentius  Scaurus,  the  oldest 
 commentators  on  Horace.  Acron  also  wrote  scholia 
 on  Terence,  which  are  cited  by  Charisius,  but  they 
 have  not  reached  us.  Some  critics  ascribe  to  him  the 
 scholia  which  we  have  on  Pcrsius.  {Schucll,  Hist. 
 Lilt.  Rom.  3,  326.) 
 
 Acropolis,  in  a  special  sense,  the  citadel  of  Athens, 
 an  account  of  which  will  be  given  under  the  article 
 AthcnoE. 
 
 AcRopoLiTA.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcROTATUs,  I.  son  of  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta, 
 died  before  his  father,  leaving  a  son  called  Areus,  who 
 contended  for  the  crown  with  Cleonymus  his  uncle, 
 and  obtained  it  through  the  suffrages  of  the  senate. 
 Cleonymus,  in  his  disappointment,  called  in  Pyrrhus 
 of  Epirus.  {Pans.  3,  0. — Plut.  vif.  Pyrrh. — Pans. 
 1,  13.)— II.  A  king  of  Sparta,  son  of  Areus,  and 
 grandson  of  the  preceding.  He  reigned  one  year: 
 Before  ascending  the  throne,  he  distinguished  himself 
 by  courageously  defending  Sparta  against  Pyrrhus. 
 {Plut.  vit.  Pyrrh.) 
 
 AcROTHouM.      Vid.  Acroathos. 
 
 Acta  or  Acte,  strictly  speaking,  a  beach  or  shore 
 on  which  the  waves  break,  from  uyu,  "  to  break." 
 According  to  Apollodorns  {Sfcph.  B.  s.  v.  'A/cr//),  the 
 primitive  name  of  Attica  was  'Akt;/  {Acte),  from  the 
 circumstance  of  two  of  its  sides  being  washed  by  the 
 sea.  The  name  is  also  applied  by  Thucydides  to  that 
 part  of  the  peninsula  of  Athos  which  is  below  the  city 
 of  Sane  and  including  it.  Besides  Sane,  the  historian 
 mentions  five  other  cities  as  being  situate  upon  it. 
 {Thucyd.  4,  109.) 
 
 AcT.EON,  a  celebrated  hunter,  son  of  Ariststis  and 
 Autonoe  the  daughter  of  Cadmus.  Having  inadver- 
 tently, on  one  occasion,  seen  Diana  bathing,  he  was 
 changed  by  the  goddess  into  a  stag,  and  was  hunted 
 down  and  killed  by  his  own  hounds.  {Ov.  Met.  3,  155, 
 seqq.)  The  scene  of  the  fable  is  laid  by  the  poets  at 
 Gargaphia,  a  fountain  of  Boeotia,  on  Mount  Cithae- 
 ron,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  Platoea.  From  a 
 curious  passage  in  Diodorus  Siculus  (4,  81),  a  suspi- 
 cion arises,  that  the  story  of  Action  is  a  corruption  of 
 some  earlier  tradition,  respecting  the  fate  of  an  intru- 
 der into  the  mysteries  of  Diana.  Wesseling's  expla- 
 nation does  not  appear  satisfactory,  although  it  may 
 serve  as  a  clew  to  the  true  one.  ( Wcsscling,  ad  Died. 
 Sic.  I.  c.) 
 
 AcT^ns,  the  first  king  of  Attica,  according  to  the 
 ancient  writers.  He  was  succeeded  by  Cecrops,  to 
 whom  he  had  given  one  of  his  daughters  in  marriage. 
 {Paus.  1,  2. — Clem.  Alex.  1,  321.)  He  is  called  by 
 some  Actaeon.  {Strab.  397. — Harpocr.  s.  v.  'Akttj. 
 — Consult  Sicbelis,  ad  Paus.  I.  c.) 
 
 AcTtc,  a  freed  woman  of  Asiatic  origin.  Suetonius 
 {Vit.  Ncr.  28)  informs  us,  that  Nero,  at  one  time,  was 
 on  the  point  of  making  her  his  wife,  having  suborned 
 certain  individuals  of  consular  rank  to  testify,  under 
 oath,  that  she  was  descended  from  Attalus.  From  a 
 passage  in  Tacitus  {Ann.  14,  2)  it  would  appear,  that 
 Seneca  introduced  this  female  to  the  notice  of  the 
 tyrant,  in  order  to  counteract,  by  her  means,  the  dread- 
 ed ascendency  of  Agrippina.  (Compare  Dio  Cass. 
 61,  7.) 
 
 AcTiA,  games  renewed  by  Augustus  in  commem- 
 oration of  his  victory  at  Actium.  They  are  also  styled 
 Ludi  Actiaci  by  the  Latin  writers,  and  were  celebrated 
 in  the  suburbs  of  Nicopolis.  Strabo  makes  them  to 
 have  been  quinquennial.  Previously,  however,  to  the 
 iiattle  of  Actium  they  occurred  every  three  years. 
 {Strab.  7,  325.) 
 
 AcTis,  one  of  the  Heliades,  or  offspring  of  the  Sud, 
 
ACT 
 
 ADD 
 
 who,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (5,  57),  migrated 
 from  Rhodes  into  Egypt,  founded  HeUopolis,  and 
 taught  the  Egyptians  astrology.  The  same  writer 
 states,  that  the  Greeks,  having  lost  by  a  deluge  nearly 
 all  their  memorials  of  previous  events,  became  ignorant 
 of  their  claim  to  the  invention  of  the  science  in  ques- 
 tion, and  allowed  the  Egyptians  to  arrogate  it  to  them- 
 selves. Wcsseling  considers  this  a  ineie  fable,  based 
 on  the  national  vanity  of  the  Greeks,  who,  it  is  well 
 known,  inverted  so  many  of  the  ancient  traditions,  and 
 '11  this  case,  for  example,  made  that  pass  from  Greece 
 into  Egvpt,  which  came  in  reality  from  Egypt  to  Greece. 
 (lVcA-5.  ad  Diod.  Sic.  I.  c.) 
 
 AcTisANEs,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (1,  60), 
 a  king  of  ^Ethiopia,  who  conquered  Egypt  and  de- 
 throned Amasis.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  modera- 
 tion towards  his  new  subjects,  as  well  as  for  his  jus- 
 tice and  equity.  All  the  robbers  and  malefactors,  too, 
 were  collected  from  every  part  of  the  kingdom,  and, 
 having  had  their  noses  cut  off,  were  established  in 
 Khinocolura,  a  city  which  he  had  founded  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  receiving  them.  We  must  read,  no  doubt, 
 vvith  Stephens  and  Wesseling,  in  the  text  of  Diodorus, 
 'Afifiuaig  instead  of  'kiiaoLq,  for  the  successor  of 
 Apries  cannot  here  be  meant.  Who  the  Actisanes  of 
 Diodorus  was,  appears  to  be  undetermined.  Accord- 
 ing to  Wcsseling  {ad  loc),  Strabo  is  the  only  other 
 writer  that  makes  mention  of  him.     {Strabo,  759  ) 
 
 AcTiuM,  originally  the  name  of  a  small  neck  of 
 land,  called  also  Acle  {'Akt/'/),  at  the  entrance  of  the 
 Sinus  Ambracius,  on  which  the  inhabitants  of  Anacto- 
 rium  had  erected  a  small  temple  m  honour  of  Apollo. 
 On  the  outer  side  of  this  same  promontory  was  a  small 
 harbour,  the  usual  rendezvous  of  vessels  which  did  not 
 wish  to  enter  the  bay.  Scylax  (p.  13)  calls  this  har- 
 bour Acte.  Thucydides,  however,  applies  this  name 
 to  the  temple  itself.  Polybius  (4,  63)  makes  mention 
 of  the  temple,  under  the  appellation  of  Actium,  and 
 speaks  of  it  as  belonging  to  the  Acarnanians.  Actium 
 became  famous,  m  a  later  age,  for  the  decisive  victory 
 which  Augustus  gained  in  this  quarter  over  the  fleet  of 
 Marc  Antony.  From  the  accounts  given  of  it  by  the 
 Roman  writers,  Actium  appears  to  have  been,  about 
 the  time  of  this  battle,  nothing  more  than  a  temple  on 
 a  height,  with  a  small  harbour  below.  The  conqueror 
 beautified  the  sacred  edifice,  and  very  probably  a  num- 
 ber of  small  buildings  began  after  this  to  arise  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  the  temple.  (Strab.325. — Sueton.  Vit.  Aug. 
 n.—  Cic.  ep.  ad  fam.  16,  9.)  Hence  Strabo  (451) 
 applies  to  it  the  epithet  of  ;^-(jpioz'.  It  never,  however, 
 became  a  regular  city,  although  an  inattentive  reader 
 would  be  likely  to  form  this  opinion  from  the  language 
 of  Mela  (2,  3)  and  Pliny  (4,  1).  Both  these  writers, 
 however,  in  fact  confound  it  with  Nicopolis.  There 
 are  no  traces  of  the  temple  at  the  present  day,  but 
 Pouquevillc  found  some  remains  of  the  Hippodrome 
 and  Stadium.  More  within  the  Sinus  Ambracius 
 {Gulf  nf  Aria)  lies  the  small  village  oi  Azio.  Hence 
 probably,  according  to  Manncrt,  originated  the  error 
 of  D'Anville,  who  places  Actium,  in  contradiction  to 
 all  ancient  authorities,  at  some  distance  within  the  bay. 
 {Vid.  Nicopolis,  and  compare  Ma?inert,  S,  70. — 
 Pouquemllc,  3,  445.) 
 
 AcTius,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  from  Actium,  where 
 he  had  a  temple.    {Virg.  ^En.  8,  v.  704.) 
 AcTiui  Navius.  Vtd.  Attus  Navius. 
 Actor,  the  father  of  Mencetius,  and  grandfather  of 
 Patroclus,  who  is  hence  called  Actorides.     The  birth 
 of  A(  tor  is  by  some  placed  in  Locris,  by  others  in 
 Thessaly.     As  a  Thessalian,  he  is  said  to  have  been 
 the  son  of  Myrmidon  and  Pisidia,  the  daughter  of  JEo- 
 lus,  and  husband  of  yEgina,  daughter  of  the  Asopus  ; 
 and  to  have  conceded  his  kingdom,  on  account  of  the 
 rebellion  of  his  sons,  to  Peleus.    (0».  Tnst.    1,9.) 
 Consult,  on  the  different  individuals  of  this  name,  the 
 remarks  of  Hcync,  ad  Apollod.  3,  13. 
 D 
 
 Actorides,  I.  a  patronymic  given  to  Patroclus, 
 grandson  of  Actor.  {Ovid,  Met.  \3,  fab.  1.)— H.  The 
 sons  of  Actor  and  Molione.     {Vid.  Molionides.) 
 
 AcTORius.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AcTUARius.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Acui.Eo.      Vid.  Supplement.  / 
 
 AcuMENUs.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Acusii.AUs,  a  Greek  iiistonan,  born  at  Argos,  and 
 who  lived,  according  to  Josephus  {cojiir.  Ap.  1,2),  a 
 short  time  previous  to  the  Persian  invasion  of  Greece, 
 being  a  contemporary  of  Cadmus  of  Miletus.  He 
 wrote  a  work  entitled  "  Genealogies,^''  in  which  lie 
 gave  the  origin  of  the  principal  royal  hnes  among  his 
 countrymen.  He  made  historic  times  commence  with 
 Phoroneus,  son  of  Inachus,  and  he  reckoned  1020 
 years  from  him  to  the  first  Olympiad,  or  776  B.C. 
 We  have  only  a  few  fragments  of  his  work,  collected 
 by  Sturz,  and  placed  by  him  at  the  end  of  those  of 
 Pherecydes,  published  at  Gera,  2d.  ed.,  1824. 
 
 AcuTicus,  M.,  an  ancient  comic  writer,  author  ol 
 various  pieces,  entitled.  Leaves,  Gemini,  Baotia, 
 &c.,  and  ascribed  by  some  to  Plautus.  (Foas.  de 
 Fact.  Lat.  c.  1.) 
 
 Ad  Aquas,  ad  Aquilas,  &c.,  a  form  common  to 
 very  many  names  of  places.  The  Roman  legions,  on 
 many  occasions,  when  stopping  or  encamping  in  any 
 quarter,  did  not  find  any  habitation  or  settlement  by 
 which  the  place  in  question  might  be  designated,  and 
 therefore  selected  for  this  purpose  some  natural  object, 
 or  some  peculiar  feature  in  the  adjacent  scenery.  Thus 
 Ad  Aquas  indicated  a  spot  near  which  there  was  water, 
 or  an  encampment  near  water,  &,c.  Another  form  of 
 common  occurrence  is  that  which  denotes  the  number 
 of  miles  on  any  Roman  road.  Thus,  Ad  Quarlum, 
 "at  the  fourth  mile-stone,"  supply  lapidcm.  So  also, 
 Ad  Quinlum,  Ad  Dccimum.  ckc. 
 
 Ada,  the  sister  of  Artemisia.  She  married  Hi- 
 drieus,  her  brother  (such  unions  being  allowed  among 
 the  Carians),  and,  after  the  death  of  Artemisia,  as^ 
 cended  the  throne  of  Caria,  and  reigned  seven  years 
 conjointly  with  her  husband.  On  the  death  of  Hi- 
 drieus  she  reigned  four  years  longer,  but  was  then 
 driven  from  her  dominions  by  Pixodarus,  the  youngest 
 of  her  brothers,  who  had  obtained  the  aid  of  the  satrap 
 Orontobates.  Alexander  the  Great  afterward  restored 
 her  to  her  throne.  She  was  the  last  queen  of  Caria. 
 {Quint.  Curt.  2,  8.) 
 
 Adap,  an  Assyrian  deity,  supposed  to  be  the  sun. 
 Macrobius  {Sat.  1,  23)  states,  that  the  name  Adad 
 means  "  One"  {U?ius),  and  that  the  goddess  Adargalis 
 was  assigned  to  this  deity  as  his  spouse,  the  former  rep- 
 resenting the  Sun,  and  the  latter  the  Earth.  He  also 
 mentions,  that  the  effigy  of  Adad  was  represented  with 
 rays  inclining  downward,  whereas  they  extend  upward 
 from  that  of  Adargatis.  Selden  {de  Diis  Syris,  c.  6, 
 synt.  1)  thinks  that  Macrobius  must  be  in  error  when 
 he  makes  Adad  equivalent  to  "  One,^^  and  that  he  must 
 have  confounded  it  with  the  word  Chad,  which  has  that 
 meaning. 
 
 Ad^cs.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Adamant^a,  Jupiter's  nurse  in  Crete,  who  sus- 
 pended him  in  his  cradle  from  a  tree,  that  he  might  be 
 found  neither  on  the  earth,  the  sea,  nor  in  heaven.  To 
 drown  the  infant's  cries,  she  caused  young  boys  to 
 clash  small  brazen  shields  and  spears  as  they  moved 
 around  the  tree.  She  is  probably  the  same  as  Amal- 
 thea. 
 
 AdamantIus.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 AdIna,  a  city  of  Cilicia,  southeast  of  Tarsus,  on 
 the  Sarus,  or  Sihon.  It  was  at  one  time  a  large  and 
 well-known  place,  and  was  said  to  have  been  founded 
 by  Adanus,  son  of  Uranus  and  Ga;a.     {Stcph.  B.) 
 
 Addija,  now  Adda,  a  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  rising 
 in  the  Rhcetian  Alps,  traversing  the  Lacus  Larius,  and 
 falling  into  the  Po  to  the  west  of  Cremona.  In  the 
 old   editions   of  Strabo,  it  is  termed  in  one  passage 
 
 25 
 
ADM 
 
 ADO 
 
 (501)  the  Adula  ((5  'ASovlac),  but  this  is  an  error  of 
 the  copyists,  arising  probably  from  the  name  of  Mount 
 Adula,  which  precedes.  Tzschucke  restores  6  'Ad- 
 do  va^. 
 
 AnKs,  or  Hades,  an  epithet  originally  of  Pluto,  the 
 monarch  of  the  shades  ;  afterward  applied  to  the  lower 
 worhl  itself.  The  term  is  derived  by  most  etymolo- 
 gists from  a  privative,  and  e'Su,  vidro,  alluding  to  the 
 darkness  supposed  to  prevail  in  this  abode  of  the  dead. 
 That  this  is  the  true  derivation,  indeed,  will  appear  from 
 what  the  poets  tell  us  of  the  helmet  of  Pluto  (Kvvf/ 
 'AWot'),  which  had  the  power  of  rendering  the  wearer 
 invisible.  {Horn.  H.  5.  845.)  For  farther  remarks  on 
 the  Hades  of  the  Greeks,  vid.  Tartarus. 
 
 Adgandestrius,  a  prince  of  the  Catti,  who  wrote 
 ft  letter  to  the  Roman  senate,  in  which  he  promised  to 
 destroy  Arminius,  if  poison  should  be  sent  him  for  that 
 
 {lurpose  from  Rome.  The  senate  answered,  that  the 
 lomans  fought  their  enemies  openly,  and  never  used 
 perfidious  measures.     [Tacit.  Ann.  2,  c.  88.) 
 
 Adherbal,  son  of  Micipsa,  and  grandson  of  Masi- 
 nissa,  was  besieged  at  Cirta,  and  put  to  death  by  Ju- 
 gurtha,  after  vainly  imploring  the  aid  of  Rome,  B.C. 
 112.  {Salhist,  Jng.  5,  7,  &c.)  According  to  Ge- 
 senius  {Pkccn.  Mon.,  p.  399,  seq),  the  more  Oriental 
 form  of  the  name  is  Alhcrhal,  signifying  "  the  wor- 
 shipper of  Baal."  I'rom  this  the  softer  form  Adherbal 
 arose.  The  MSS.  of  Sallust  often  give  A/herbal,  with 
 which  we  mav  compare  the  Greek  'ArupCiac.  (Diod. 
 Sic.  lib.M,f'ragm.—\o\.  10,  p  132,  cd.  Bip.—Polyb. 
 1,  4G,  &c.) 
 
 AniABiJNE.  a  region  in  the  northern  part  of  Assyria, 
 and  to  the  east  of  the  Tigris.  During  the  Macedonian 
 sway,  it  comprised  all  the  country  between  the  Zabus 
 Major  and  Mirior.  Under  the  Parthian  sway  it  com- 
 prehended the  country  as  far  as  the  Euphrates,  inclu- 
 ding what  was  previously  Aturia.  It  was  afterward 
 the  seat  of  a  kingdom  dependant  on  the  Parthian  power, 
 which  disappeared  from  history,  however,  on  the  rise 
 of  the  second  Persian  empire.    (Plin.  5,  12,  &c.) 
 
 AniATORix.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 /vDiMANTUs.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Admiste,  I.  (Vul.  Supplement.)  —  H.  A  daughter 
 of  Oceanus  and  Tetiivs,  whom  Hyginus,  in  the  preface 
 to  his  fables,  calls  Admeto,  and  a  daughter  of  Pontus 
 and  Thalassa,  which  last  was  the  offspring  of  yEther 
 and  Hemera.  {Ham.  Hymn,  in  Ccrerem,  421. — He- 
 siad.  Thcog.  349  ) 
 
 Admetus,  I.  son  of  Pheres,  king  of  Pherae  in  Thes- 
 saly,  and  who  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne.  He 
 married  Theone,  daughter  of  Thestor,  and,  after  her 
 death,  Alcestis,  daughter  of  Pelias,  so  famous  for  her 
 conjugal  heroism.  It  was  to  the  friendship  of  Apollo 
 that  he  owed  this  latter  union.  The  god  having  been 
 banished  from  the  sky  for  one  year,  in  consequence 
 of  his  killing  the  Cyclopes,  tended  during  that  period 
 the  herds  of  Admetus.  Pelias  had  promised  his 
 daughter  to  the  man  who  should  brmg  him  a  chariot 
 drawn  by  a  lion  and  a  wild  boar,  and  Admetu«  suc- 
 ceeded in  this  by  the  aid  of  Apollo.  The  god  also 
 obtained  from  the  Fates,  that  Admetus  should  not  die 
 if  another  person  laid  down  his  or  her  life  for  him,  and 
 Alcestis  heroically  devoted  herself  to  death  for  her 
 husband.  Admetus  was  so  deeply  affected  at  her  loss, 
 that  Proserpina  actually  relented  ;  but  Pluto  remained 
 inexorable,  and  Hercules  at  last  descended  to  the 
 fha<les  and  bore  back  Alcestis  to  life.  Admetus  was 
 one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  was  also  present  at  the  hunt 
 of  the  Calvdonian  boar.  Euripides  composed  a  tragedy 
 on  the  story  of  Alcestis,  which  has  come  down  to  us. 
 [Apollod.  i,  S.—TihuU.  2,  3.—Hygm.  fab.  50,  51, 
 &c.) — II.  A  king  of  the  Molossi,  to  whom  Themisto- 
 cles,  when  banished,  fled  for  protection.  {Vid.  The- 
 mistocles.)  —  III.  A  Greek  epigrammatic  poet,  who 
 lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  second  century  after 
 Christ. 
 
 26 
 
 AnMO,  an  engraver  on  precious  stones  in  the  time 
 of  Augustus.  His  country  is  uncertain.  An  elegant 
 portrait  of  Augustus,  engraved  by  him,  is  described  by 
 Movgcz,  Icon.  Rom.  tab.  18,  n.  6. 
 
 Adonia,  a  festival  in  honour  of  Adonis,  celebrated 
 both  at  Byblus  in  Phcpiiicia,  and  in  most  of  the  Gre- 
 cian cities.  Lucian  {dc  Syria  Den. — vol.  9,  p.  88, 
 seqq.,  ed.  Bip.)  has  left  us  an  account  of  the  manner  in 
 which  it  was  held  at  Byblus.  According  to  this  writer, 
 it  lasted  during  two  days,  on  the  first  of  which  every- 
 thing wore  an  appearance  of  sorrow,  and  the  death  of  the 
 favourite  of  Venus  was  indicated  by  public  mourning. 
 On  the  following  day,  however,  the  aspect  of  things 
 underwent  a  complete  change,  and  the  greatest  joy  pre- 
 vailed on  account  of  the  fabled  resurrection  of  Adonis 
 from  the  dead.  During  this  festival  the  priests  of  Byb- 
 lus shaved  their  heads,  in  imitation  of  the  priests  of  Isis 
 in  Egypt.  In  the  Grecian  cities,  the  manner  of  holding 
 this  festival  was  nearly,  if  not  exactly,  the  same  with 
 that  followed  in  Phrenicia.  On  the  first  day  all  the  citi- 
 zens put  themselves  in  mourning,  coffins  were  exposed 
 at  every  door;  the  statues  of  Venus  and  Adonis  were 
 borne  in  procession,  with  certain  vessels  full  of  earth,  in 
 which  the  worshippers  had  raised  corn,  herbs,  and  let- 
 tuce, and  these  vessels  were  called  the  gardens  of  Ado- 
 nis ('A(56n'i(5of  KT/TTOi).  After  the  ceremony  was  over 
 they  were  thrown  into  the  sea  or  some  river,  where  they 
 soon  perished,  and  thus  became  emblems  of  the  pre- 
 mature death  of  Adonis,  who  had  fallen,  like  a  young 
 plant,  in  the  flower  of  his  age.  {Histoire  du  Cuke 
 d^ Adonis :  Mem.  Acad,  des  Inscrip,  &c.,  vol.  4,  p. 
 136,  scqq. — Dxtpuis,  Origine  de  Cnltes,  vol.  4,  p. 
 118,  seqq.,  ed.  1822. —  Valckc7iaer,  ad  Theoc.  'AfSoiv^dC 
 in  Arg. )  The  lettuce  was  used  among  the  other  herbs 
 on  this  occasion,  because  Venus  was  fabled  to  have  de- 
 posited the  Jead  body  other  favourite  on  a  bed  of  let- 
 tuce. In  allusion  to  this  festival,  the  expression  'Adw- 
 vuhg  KjjTTOi  became  proverbial,  and  was  applied  to 
 whatever  perished  previous  to  the  period  of  maturity. 
 (Adagia  Veteriim,  p.  410.)  Plutarch  relates,  in  his 
 life  of  Nicias,  that  the  expedition  against  Syracuse  set 
 sail  from  the  harbours  of  Athens,  at  the  very  time  when 
 the  women  of  that  city  were  celebrating  the  mournful 
 part  of  the  festival  of  Adonis,  during  which  there  were 
 to  be  seen,  in  every  quarter  of  the  city,  images  of  the 
 dead,  and  funeral  processions,  the  women  accompany- 
 ing them  with  dismal  lamentations.  Hence  an  unfa- 
 vourable omen  was  drawn  of  the  result  of  the  expedi- 
 tion, which  the  event  but  too  fatally  realized.  Theoc- 
 ritus, in  his  beautiful  Idyll  entitled  'Ai^uvt'l^ovcai, 
 has  left  us  an  account  of  the  fiart  of  this  grand  anniver- 
 sary spectacle  termed  t]  ei'peatr,  "  the  Jindivg,"  i  e., 
 the  resurrection  of  Adonis,  the  celebration  of  it  having 
 been  made  by  order  of  Arsinoe,  queen  of  Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus.  Boettiger  {Sabma,  p.  265)  has  a  very 
 ingenious  idea  in  relation  to  the  fruits  exhibited  on  this 
 joyful  occasion.  He  thinks  it  impossible,  that  even  so 
 powerful  a  queen  as  Arsinoe  should  be  able  to  obtain 
 in  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  this  festival  was  always 
 celebrated,  fruits  which  had  attained  their  full  maturity 
 {upia).  He  considers  it  more  than  probable  that  they 
 were  of  wax.  This  conjecture  will  also  furnish  anoth- 
 er, and  perhaps  a  more  satisfactory,  explanation  of  the 
 phrase  ^A('iuvi6og  kt/ttoi,  denoting  things  whose  exterior 
 promised  fairly,  while  there  was  nothing  real  or  sub- 
 stantial within.  Adonis  was  the  same  deity  with  the 
 Syrian  Tammuz,  whose  festival  was  celebrated  even 
 by  the  Jews,  when  they  degenerated  into  idolatry 
 (Ezcf:iel,8,  14);  and  Tammuz  is  the  proper  Syriac 
 name  for  the  Adonis  of  the  Greeks.  (Creuzer^s  Sym- 
 bolik,  vol.  ii.,  p.  86.)    {Vid.  Adonis.) 
 
 AroNis,  I.  son  of  Cinyras,  by  his  daughter  Myrrha 
 {vid.  Myrrha),  and  famed  for  his  beauty.  He  was  ar- 
 dently attached  to  the  chase,  and  notwithstanding  the 
 entreaties  of  Venus,  who  feared  for  his  safety  and  lo-ed 
 him  tenderly,  he  exposed  himself  day  after  day  iu  the 
 
ADR 
 
 ADR 
 
 hunt,  and  at  last  lost  his  life  by  the  tiisk  of  a  wild 
 boar  whom  he  had  wounded.  His  blood  produced  the 
 anemone,  according  to  Ovid  (Met.  10,  735) ;  but  ac- 
 cording to  others,  the  adonium,  while  the  anemone 
 arose  from  the  tears  of  Venus.  {Bion,  Epitaph.  Ad.  66.) 
 The  goddess  was  inconsolable  at  his  loss,  and  at  last 
 obtained  from  Proserpina,  that  Adonis  should  spend  al- 
 ternately six  months  with  her  on  earth,  and  the  remain- 
 ing six  m  the  shades.  This  fable  is  evidently  an  alle- 
 gorical allusion  to  the  periodical  return  of  wmter  and 
 summer.  {Apnllod.  3,  14. — Ov.  I.  c. — Binn,  I.  c. — 
 Virs^.  Ed.  10,  18,  &c.)  "  Adonis,  or  Adonai,"  ob- 
 serves R.  P.  Knight,  "was  an  Oriental  title  of  the 
 sun,  signifying  Lord  ;  and  the  boar,  supposed  to  have 
 killed  him,  was  the  emblem  of  v^'inter;  during  which 
 the  productive  powers  of  nature  being  suspended,  Ve- 
 nus was  said  to  lament  the  loss  of  Adonis  until  he  was 
 again  restored  to  life  ;  whence  both  the  Syrian  and  Ar- 
 give  women  annually  mourned  his  death  and  celebra- 
 ted his  renovation;  and  the  mysteries  of  Venus  and 
 Adonis  at  Byblus  in  Syria  were  held  in  similar  esti- 
 mation with  those  of  Ceres  and  Bacchus  at  Eleusis, 
 and  Isis  and  Osiris  in  Egypt.  Adonis  was  said  to 
 pass  six  months  with  Proserpina  and  six  with  Venus  ; 
 whence  some  learned  persons  have  conjectured  that 
 the  allegorv  was  invented  near  the  pole,  where  the  sun 
 disappears  during  so  long  a  time  ;  but  it  may  signify 
 merely  the  decrease  and  increase  of  the  productive 
 powers  of  nature  as  the  sun  retires  and  advances.  The 
 Vishnoo  or  Juggernaut  of  the  Hindus  is  equally  said 
 to  lie  in  a  dormant  state  during  the  four  rainy  months 
 of  that  climate  :  and  the  Osiris  of  the  Egyptians  was 
 supposed  to  he  dead  or  absent  forty  davs  in  each  year, 
 during  which  the  people  lamented  his  loss,  as  the  Sy- 
 rians did  that  of  Adonis,  and  the  Scandinavians  that  of 
 Frey  ;  though  at  Upsal,  the  great  metropolis  of  their 
 worship,  the  sun  never  continues  any  one  day  entirely 
 below  their  horizon."  An  Inquiry  into  the  Si/mhol- 
 ical  Languao;e  of  Ancient  Art  and  Mythologxi  ( Class. 
 Journal,  vol.  2.5,  p.  42.) — II.  A  river  of  PhcEnicia, 
 which  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  below  Byblus.  It 
 is  now  called  Nahr  Ibrahim.  At  the  e^iniversary  of 
 the  death  of  Adonis,  which  was  in  the  rair.y  season,  its 
 waters  were  tinged  red  with  the  ochrous  particles  from 
 the  mountains  of  Libanus,  and  were  fabled  to  flow  with 
 his  blood.  But  Dupuis(4,  p.  121),  with  more  proba- 
 bility, supposes  this  red  colour  to  have  been  a  mere  ar- 
 tifice on  the  part  of  the  priests. 
 
 Adr  \MYTTiuM,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  coast  of 
 Mysia,  and  at  the  head  of  an  extensive  bay  (Sinus  Ad- 
 ramyttenus)  facing  the  island  of  Lesbos.  Strabo  (605) 
 makes  it  an  Athenian  colony.  Stephanus  Byzantmus 
 follows  Aristotle,  and  mentions  Adramys,  the  brother 
 of  Croesus,  as  its  founder.  This  last  is  more  proba- 
 bly the  true  account,  especially  as  an  adjacent  district 
 bore  the  name  of  Lydia.  According,  however,  to  Eu- 
 stathius  and  other  commentators,  the  place  existed  be- 
 fore the  Trojan  war,  and  was  no  other  than  ihe  Peda- 
 sus  of  Homer  (Plin.  5,  32).  This  city  became  a  place 
 of  importance  under  the  kings  of  Pergamus,  and  con- 
 tinued so  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  power,  although 
 it  suffered  severely  during  the  war  with  Mithradates. 
 (Strab.  605.)  Here  the  Conventus  Juridicus  was 
 held.  The  modern  name  is  Adramyl,  and  it  is  repre- 
 sented as  being  still  a  place  of  some  commerce.  It 
 contains  1000  houses,  but  mostly  mean  and  miserably 
 built.  Adramyttium  is  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the 
 Apostles  (ch.  27,  2). 
 
 AoR.ixA,  a  river  in  Germany,  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Catti,  and  emptying  into  the  Visuigis.     Now  the  Eder. 
 
 Adrantus.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Adkanus.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 ADKASTi^A  i'A.6pu(7Tei.a),  I.  a  region  of  Mysia,  in 
 Asia  Minor,  near  Priapus,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Pro- 
 ponlis,  and  containing  a  plain  and  city  of  the  same 
 name.     The  appellation  was  said  to  have  been  derived 
 
 from  Adrastus,  who  founded  in  the  latter  a  temple  to 
 Nemesis.  (Strab.  588. — Steph.  B.  s.  v.)  This  ety- 
 mology, however,  appears  very  doubtful.  A  more  cor- 
 rect one  is  given  under  No.  II.  The  city  had  origi- 
 nally an  oracle  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  which  was  af- 
 terward removed  to  Parium  in  its  vicinity.  Homer 
 makes  mention  of  Adrastea,  but  Pliny  is  in  error  (5, 
 32)  when  he  supposes  Parium  and  Adrastea  to  have 
 been  the  same. — II.  A  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Neces- 
 sity, so  called,  not  from  Adrastus,  who  is  said  to  have 
 erected  the  first  temple  to  her,  but  from  the  impossi- 
 bility of  the  wicked  escaping  her  power  :  u  privative, 
 and  dpuu,  '■^  to  jlcc."  She  is  the  same  as  Nemesis. — 
 HI.  A  Cretan  nymph,  daughter  of  Melisseus,  to  whom 
 the  goddess  Rhea  intrusted  the  infant  Jupiter  in  the 
 Diclaean  grotto.  In  this  office  Adrastea  was  assisted 
 liy  her  sister  Ida  and  the  Curetes  (ApoUod.  1,1,6; 
 Callim.  Hymn,  in  Jov.  47),  whom  the  scholiast  on  Cal- 
 limachus  calls  her  brothers.  Apollonius  Rhodius  (3, 
 132,  seqq.)  relates  that  she  gave  to  the  infant  Jupiter  a 
 beautiful  globe  {a(paipa)  to  play  with,  and  on  some  Cre- 
 tan coins  Jupiter  is  represented  sitting  on  a  globe, 
 {Spanheim  ad  Callim.  I.  c.) 
 
 Adrastus,  I.  a  king  of  Argos,  son  of  Talaus  and 
 Lysimache.  (Vid.  Supplement.) — II.  A  son  of  the 
 Phrygian  king  Gordius,  who  had  unintentionally  killed 
 his  brother,  and  was,  in  consequence,  expelled  by  his 
 father,  and  deprived  of  everything.  He  took  refuge  as 
 a  suppliant  at  the  court  of  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  who 
 received  him  kindly  and  purified  him.  After  some 
 time  he  was  sent  out  as  guardian  of  Atys,  the  son  of 
 Croesus,  who  was  to  deliver  the  country  around  the 
 Mysian  Olympus  from  a  wild  boar  which  had  made 
 great  havoc  in  it  Adrastus  had  the  misfortune  to  kill 
 the  young  prince  Atys  while  throwing  his  javelin  at 
 the  wild  beast :  Croesus  pardoned  the  unfortunate  man, 
 as  he  saw  in  this  accident  the  will  of  the  gods  and  the 
 fultilment  of  a  prophecy  ;  but  Adrastus  could  not  en- 
 dure to  live  longer,  and  accordingly  killed  himself  or. 
 the  tomb  of  Atys.  (Herod.,  1,  3.'5-45.)— HI.  A  Per- 
 i|)atetic  philosopher,  born  at  Aphrodisias  in  Caria,  and 
 who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
 tury of  our  era.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on 
 the  arrangement  of  Aristotle's  writings  and  his  sys- 
 tem of  philosophy,  quoted  by  Simplicius  (Prafat.  in 
 viii.  hb.  phys.),  and  by  Achilles  Talius  (p  82).  Some 
 commentaries  of  his  on  the  Timseus  of  Plalo  are  also 
 quoted  by  Porphyry  (p.  270,  in  Harm.  Ptol),  and  a 
 treatise  on  the  categories  of  Aristotle  by  Galen.  None 
 of  these  have  come  down  to  us,  but  a  work  on  Har- 
 monics (nepl  ' kpfioviKuv)  is  preserved  in  manuscript 
 in  the  Vatican  library. — IV.  Father  of  Eurydice,  and 
 grandfather  of  Laomedon.  (Apollod.  3,  12,  3.) — V. 
 Son  of  the  soothsayer  Merops  of  Percote.  He  went 
 to  the  Trojan  war  with  his  brother,  against  the  will  of 
 his  father,  and  was  slain  by  Diomede. 
 
 Adria,  Atria,  or  Hadria,  I.  in  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
 mans a  small  city  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  on  the  river  Tar- 
 tarus, near  the  Po.  Its  site  is  still  occupied  by  the 
 modern  town  of  Atri.  In  the  ages  preceding  the  Ro- 
 man power,  Adria  appears  to  have  been  a  powerful 
 and  flourishing  commercial  city,  as  far  as  an  opinion 
 may  be  deduced  from  the  circumstance  of  its  having 
 given  name  to  the  Adriatic,  and  also  from  the  numer- 
 ous canals  which  were  to  be  found  in  its  vicinity. 
 (Compare  Lie.  5,  33.—Strab.  218.— Jns/tn,  20,  1.-- 
 Hlin.  3,  16. ■)  It  had  been  founded  by  a  colony  of 
 Etrurians,  to  whose  labours  these  canals  must  evi- 
 dently be  ascribed,  the  name  given  to  them  by  the 
 Romans  (fossiones  Philistina)  proving  that  they  were 
 not  the  work  of  that  people.  (Compare  Mailer,  Etnisk., 
 vol.  1,  p.  228,  in  notis.)  The  fall  of  Adria  was  ow- 
 ing to  the  inroads  of  the  Galhc  nations,  and  the  conse- 
 quent neglect  of  the  canals.  Livy,  Justin,  and  most 
 of  the  ancient  historians,  write  the  name  of  this  city 
 Adria;  the    geographers,  on  the  other   hand,  prefer 
 
 27 
 
ADR 
 
 A  DU 
 
 Atna.  Tn  Stralio  alone  the  rcadiiifr  is  doubtful.  Ma- 
 nutius  and  Cellarnis,  on  the  authority  of  inscriptions 
 and  conis,  j.rive  the  preference  to  the  form  Hadria. 
 Berkel  (.ad  ^/cjik.  By'anl  ,  v.  'AtSp/a)  is  also  in  favour 
 of  it.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  Adria  is 
 found  on  coins  as  well  as  the  aspirated  form.  (Rasche, 
 Lex  Rei  Num.,  vol.  4,  col.  9. — Ccllarius,  Gcosr. 
 Ant.  1,  riOQ.) — II.  A  town  of  Picenum,  capital  of  the 
 Praetutii,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic.  Here  the  fam- 
 ily of  the  Emperor  Adrian,  according  to  his  own  ac- 
 count, took  its  rise.  The  modern  nam.e  of  the  place 
 is  Adri  or  Alii. 
 
 Adrianopolis,  or  HAnRiANOPoi.is,  I.  one  of  the 
 most  important  cities  of  Thrace,  founded  by  and  named 
 after  the  Emperor  Adrian  or  Hadrian.  Being  of  com- 
 paratively recent  date,  it  is  consequently  not  mentioned 
 by  the  old  geographical  writers.  Even  Ptolemy  is 
 silent  respecting  it,  since  his  notices  are  not  later  than 
 the  reign  of  Trajan.  The  site  of  this  city,  however, 
 was  previously  occupied  by  a  small  Thracian  settle- 
 ment named  Uskudama ;  and  its  very  advantageous 
 situation  determined  the  emperor  in  favour  of  erecting 
 a  large  city  on  the  spot.  {Ammian.  Marcell.  14,  11. 
 — Eutrop.  6,  8.)  Adrianopolis  stood  on  the  right  bank 
 of  the  Hebrus,  now  Mantza,  which  forms  a  junction  in 
 this  quarter  with  the  Arda.  or  Ardiscus,  now  Arda, 
 and  the  Tonzus,  now  Tundscha.  (Compare  Zosimvs, 
 2,  22. — Lamprid.  Elagab.  7.)  This  city  became  fa- 
 mous in  a  later  age  for  its  manufactories  of  arms,  and 
 in  ihe  fourth  century  succeeded  in  withstanding  the 
 Goths,  who  laid  siege  to  it  after  their  victory  over  the 
 Emperor  Valens.  {Ammian.  Marcdl.2t\,\^.)  Hier- 
 ocles  (p.  635)  makes  it  the  chief  city  of  the  Thracian 
 province  of  Haemimontins.  The  inhabitants  were  prob- 
 ably ashamed  of  their  Thracian  origin,  and  borrowed 
 therefore  a  primitive  name  for  their  city  from  the  my- 
 thology of  the  Greeks.  {Vid.  Orostias.)  Mannert 
 (7,  263)  thinks  that  the  true  appellation  was  Odrysos, 
 which  they  thus  purposely  altered.  The  modern  name 
 of  the  place  is  Adrianople,  or  rather  Edrinch.  It  was 
 taken  by  the  Turks  in  1360  or  1363,  and  the  Em- 
 peror Amurath  made  it  his  residence  It  continued 
 to  be  ihe  imperial  city  until  the  fall  of  Constantinople  ; 
 but,  though  the  court  has  been  removed  to  the  latter 
 place,  Adrianople  is  still  the  second  city  in  the  empire, 
 and  very  important,  in  case  of  invasion  by  a  foreign 
 power,  as  a  central  point  for  collecting  the  Turkish 
 strength.  Its  present  population  is  not  less  than 
 100,000  souls. — H.  A  city  of  Bithynia  in  Asia  Minor, 
 founded  by  the  Emperor  Adrian.  D'Anville  places  it 
 in  the  southern  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Mariandyni, 
 and  makes  it  correspond  to  the  modern  Boli. — ^III. 
 Another  city  of  Bithynia,  called  more  properly  Adriani 
 or  Hadriani  {'\(^piuvot).  It  is  frequently  mentioned 
 in  ecclesiastical  writers,  and  by  Hierocles  (p.  693),  and 
 there  are  medals  existing  of  it,  on  which  it  is  styled 
 Adriani  near  Olympus.  Hence  D'Anville,  on  his 
 map,  places  it  to  the  southwest  of  Mount  Olympus,  in 
 the  district  of  Olympena,  and  makes  it  the  same  with 
 the  modern  Edrenos.  Mannert  opposes  this,  and  places 
 it  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  river  Rhvndacus. — 
 IV.  A  city  of  Epirus,  in  the  district  of  Thesprotia, 
 situate  to  the  southeast  of  Antigonea,  on  the  river  Ce- 
 lydnus.  Its  ruins  are  still  found  upon  a  spot  named 
 Drinopolis,  an  evident  corruption  of  its  earlier  name. 
 (Hhohes'  Travels,  2,  236.)-— V.  A  name  given  to  a 
 part  of  Athens,  in  which  the  Emperor  Adrian  or  Ha- 
 drian had  erected  many  new  and  beautiful  structures. 
 {Gruter,  Inscrip  ,  p.  177.) 
 
 Adkianus,  a  Roman  emperor.     {Vid.  Hadrianus.) 
 
 AoKLi.Nus.      Vid  Supplement. 
 
 Adrias,  the  name  properly  of  the  territory  in  which 
 the  city  of  Adria  in  Cisalpine  Gaul  was  situated. 
 Herodotus  (5,  9)  first  speaks  of  it  under  this  appella- 
 tion (<j  'ASpiag),  which  is  given  also  by  many  subse- 
 quent Greek  writers.  (Compare  Scylax,  p.  5.)  Most 
 23 
 
 of  them,  however,  considered  it  very  probably  a  name 
 for  the  Adriatic.  Strabo  (123,)  certainly  uses  it 
 in  this  sense  ('O  6'  'loviog  kuAttoc  ptpor  iaTi  toU 
 vvv  'Aiipiov  ?.eyo/[ia'ov).  More  careful  writers,  how- 
 ever, and  especially  Polybius,  give  merely  6  'A<)piag, 
 without  any  mention  of  its  referring  to  the  Adriatic. 
 The  latter  author,  although  acquainted  with  the  form 
 Adriaticus  {tuv  'AdpiaTiKov  fJ-vxov,  2,  16),  yet,  when 
 he  wishes  to  designate  the  entire  gulf,  has  either  6 
 Kartj.  Tov  'A6plav  koXttoc  (2,  14),  or  tj  Kara  tov  'A6pi- 
 av  ■duXarra  (2,  16).  So,  in  speaking  of  the  mouths 
 of  the  Po,  he  uses  the  e.'cpression  oi  kutu  tov  'A6piav 
 Ko/iTToi  (2,  14).  Hence  both  Casaubon  and  Schwei- 
 ghcEUser,  in  their  respective  editions  of  Polybius,  are 
 wrong,  in  translating  6  'Adpiac  by  Mare  Adriahcum 
 and  Sinus  Adnalicus. 
 
 Adriaticum  (or  Hadriaticum)  mare,  called  also 
 Sinus  Adriaticus  (or  Hadriaticus),  the  arm  of  the  sea 
 between  Italy  and  the  opposite  shores  of  lUyricum, 
 Epirus,  and  Greece,  comprehending,  in  its  greatest  ex- 
 tent, not  only  the  present  Gulf  of  Venice,  but  also 
 the  Ionian  Sea.  Herodotus,  in  one  passage  (7,  20), 
 calls  the  whole  extent  of  sea  along  the  coast  of  Illyri- 
 cum  and  Western  Greece,  as  far  as  the  Corinthiau 
 Gulf,  by  the  name  of  the  Ionian  Sea  {'luviog  TvovTo^f. 
 In  another  passage  he  styles  the  part  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Epidamnus,  the  Ionian  Gulf  (6,  127).  Scylax  makes 
 the  Ionian  Gulf  the  same  with  what  he  calls  Adrias 
 {to  6e  avTo  'Adpiag  mrl,  koI  '\uvlo^,  p.  11),  and  places 
 the  termination  of  both  at  Hydruntum  {Ai/jtiv  'T()povc 
 km  Tip  TOV  'Adpiov  7}  rip  tov  'luviov  ko'/^'kov  CTOjiaTi, 
 p.  5).  He  is  silent,  however,  respecting  the  Ionian 
 Sea,  as  named  by  Herodotus.  Thucydides,  like  He- 
 rodotus, distinguishes  between  the  Ionian  Gulf  and 
 Ionian  Sea.  The  former  he  makes  a  part  of  the  latter, 
 which  reaches  to  the  shores  of  Western  Greece.  Thus 
 he  observes,  in  relation  to  the  site  of  Epidamnus, 
 'ETTiJa/iTOf  toTi  TTo'Mg  iv  Se^lcI  tan'kiovTL  tov  'Wvwv 
 koXttov  (1,  24).  These  ideas,  however,  became  changed 
 at  a  later  period.  The  limits  of  what  Scylax  had  styled 
 'Af5p/af,  and  made  synonymous  with  'Wvloq  Kolinog, 
 were  extended  to  the  shores  of  Italy  and  the  western 
 coast  of  Greece,  so  that  now  the  Ionic  Gulf  was  re- 
 garded only  as  a  part  of  'Adpiac,  or  the  Adriatic. 
 Eustathius  informs  us,  that  the  more  accurate  writers 
 always  observed  this  distinction  {oi  Ss  uKpiOEGTepoi 
 TOV  '\<l)VL0v  /itpoc  TOV  'ASplov  (iciGi.  Eustath.  ad  Di- 
 onys.  Pcrieg.  v.  92).  Hence  we  obtain  a  solution  of 
 Ptolemy's  meaning,  when  he  makes  the  Adriatic  ex- 
 tend along  the  entire  coast  of  Western  Greece  to  the 
 southern  extremity  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  Mare 
 Superum  of  the  Roman  writers  is  represented  on  clas- 
 sical charts  as  coinciding  with  the  Sinus  Hadriaticus, 
 which  last  is  made  to  terminate  near  Hydruntum,  the 
 modern  Otranlo.  By  Mare  Superum,  however,  in  the 
 strictest  acceptation  of  the  phrase,  appears  to  have 
 been  meant  not  only  the  present  Adriatic,  but  also  the 
 sea  along  the  southern  coast  of  Italy,  as  far  as  the  Si- 
 cilian straits,  which  would  make  it  correspond,  there- 
 fore, very  nearly,  if  not  exactly,  to  the  6  'A(^piag  of  the 
 later  Greek  writers. 
 
 Adrumetum.  Vid.  Hadrumetum. 
 
 Aduatucum,  a  city  of  Gaul,  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Tungri,  who  appear  to  have  been  the  same  with  the 
 Aduatuci  or  Aduatici  of  Caesar  (B.  G.  2,  29),  unless 
 the  former  appellation  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  general 
 one  for  the  united  German  tribes,  of  whom  ihe  Aduat- 
 uci formed  a  part.  (Compare  Tacitus,  dc  vior.  Germ. 
 c.  2.)  This  city  is  called  ' Atovukovtov  by  Ptolemy, 
 and  Aduaca  Tongrorum  in  the  Itincrarium  Anton 
 and  Tab.  Peuti7ig.  At  a  later  period  it  took  the  name 
 of  Tongri  from  the  people  themselves.  Mannert  makes 
 it  the  same  with  the  modern  Tojigres,  and  D'Anville 
 with  Falais  on  the  Mehaigne.  The  former  of  these 
 geographers,  however,  thinks  that  it  must  have  been 
 distinct  from  the  Aduatuca  Castellum  mentioned  by  Ce- 
 
^  AC 
 
 ^DI 
 
 ear  {B.  G.  6,  32),  which  he  places  nearer  the  Rhine. 
 {Manner!,  2,  200.) 
 
 AdoatGci  or  Aduatici,  a  German  nation,  who  ori- 
 ginally formed  a  part  of  the  great  invading  army  of 
 the  Teutones  and  Cimbri.  They  were  left  behind  in 
 Gaul,  to  guard  a  part  of  the  baggage,  and  finally  set- 
 tled there.  Their  territory  extended  from  the  Scaldis, 
 or  ScheU,  eastward  as  far  as  Mosa>  Pons,  or  McEstricht. 
 {Manncrt,  2,  199.) 
 
 AnuLis,  called  by  Pliny  (6,  29)  Oppidum  Aduhta- 
 rnm,  the  principal  commercial  city  along  the  coast  of 
 .Ethiopia.  It  was  founded  by  fugitive  slaves  from 
 Egypt,  but  fell  subsequently  under  the  power  of  the 
 neighbouring  kingdom  of  Au.xume.  Ptolemy  writes 
 the  name  'ASov/.tj,  Strabo  'A(hv?.el,  and  Stephanus 
 Byzantiiius  'A^ovXtc-  Adulis  has  become  remarkable 
 on  account  of  the  two  Greek  inscriptions  found  in  it. 
 Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  as  he  is  commonly  called,  was 
 the  first  who  gave  an  account  of  them  (/.  2,  p.  140, 
 apud  Monlfauc).  One  is  on  a  kind  of  throne,  or  rather 
 armchair,  of  white  marble,  the  other  on  a  tablet  of 
 touchstone  (anb  jSaaavirov  Xidov),  erected  behind  the 
 throne.  Cosmas  gives  copies  of  both,  and  his  MS. 
 has  also  a  drawing  of  the  throne  or  chair  itself  The 
 inscription  on  the  tablet  relates  to  Ptolemy  Euergetcs, 
 and  his  conquests  in  Asia  Minor,  Thrace,  and  Upper 
 Asia.  It  is  imperfect,  however,  towards  the  end  ;  al- 
 though, if  the  account  of  Cosmas  be  correct,  the  part 
 of  the  stone  which  was  broken  off  was  not  large,  and, 
 consequently,  but  a  small  part  of  the  inscription  was 
 lost.  Cosmas  and  his  coadjutor  Menas  believed  that 
 the  other  inscription,  which  was  t6  be  found  on  the 
 throne  or  chair,  would  be  the  continuation  of  the  for- 
 mer, and  therefore  give  it  as  such.  It  was  reserved 
 for  Salt  and  Buttmann  to  prove,  that  the  inscription  on 
 the  tablet  alone  related  to  Ptolemy,  and  that  the  one 
 on  the  throne  or  chair  was  of  much  more  recent  origin, 
 jirobably  as  late  as  the  second  or  third  century,  and 
 made  by  some  native  prince  in  imitation  of  the  former. 
 One  of  the  principal  arguments  by  which  they  arrive  at 
 this  conclusion  is,  that  the  inscription  on  the  throne 
 speaks  of  conquests  in  ^^thiopia  which  none  of  the 
 Ptolemies  ever  made.  ( Museum  dcr  Altcrthums-  Wis- 
 nenschaft.  vol.  2,  p.  105,  seqq.) 
 
 Advrmachid.e,  a  maritime  people  of  Africa,  near 
 Egypt.  Ptolemy  {Uh.  4,  c.  5)  calls  them  Adyrmach- 
 ites,  but  Herodotus  (4,  168),  Pliny  (5,  6),  and  Silius 
 Italicus  (3,  279),  make  the  name  to  be  Adyrmachidae 
 {'KSvpjinxLda.L).  Hence,  as  Larcher  observes  {Histone 
 d'Herodolc,  vol.  8,  p.  10,  Table  Geogr.),  the  te.xt  of 
 Ptolemy  ought  to  be  corrected  by  these  authorities. 
 The  AdyrmachidaB  were  driven  mto  the  interior  of 
 the  country  when  the  Greeks  began  to  settle  along  the 
 coast. 
 
 JEk,  the  city  of  king  ^etes,  said  to  have  been  situate 
 on  the  river  Phasis  in  Colchis.  The  most  probable 
 opinion  is,  that  it  existed  only  in  the  imaginations  of 
 the  poets,     (i^fanr^£r^  4,  397.) 
 
 .liilACKS,  a  tyrant  of  Samos,  deprived  of  his  tyranny 
 by  Aristagoras,  B  C.  500.  He  fled  to  the  Persians, 
 and  induced  the  Sarnians  to  abandon  the  other  lonians 
 in  the  sea-fight  with  the  Persians.  He  was  restored 
 by  the  Persians  m  the  year  B.C.  494.  (Herodotus, 
 4,  13S.) 
 
 wEacides,  I.  a  patronymic  of  the  descendants  of  ^a- 
 cus,  such  as  Achilles,  Peleus,  Pyrrhus,  &c.  {Virg. 
 JEii.  1,  99,  &.C.)  The  line  of  the  --Eacidae  is  given 
 as  follows  :  .-Eacus  became  the  father  of  Telamon  and 
 Peleus  by  his  wife  Endeis.  {Tzctzes,  ad  Lijcophr.  v. 
 175,  calls  her  Deis,  Atjic.)  From  the  Nereid  Psam- 
 athe  was  born  to  him  Phocus  {Heswd.  Theog.  1003, 
 seqq.),  whom  he  preferred  to  his  other  sons,  "and  who 
 became  more  conspicuous  in  gymnastic  and  naval  ex- 
 ercises than  either  Telamon  or  Peleus.  {Miiller, 
 JEgintl.,  p.  22.)  Phocus  was,  in  consequence,  slain 
 by  his  brothers,  who  thereupon  fled  from  the  vengeance 
 
 of  their  father.  (Dorotheus,  apud  Plut..  ParnJl.  25, 
 277,  W.—Heync,  ad  Apollod.  12,  6,  6.)  Telamon 
 took  refuge  at  the  court  of  Cychreus  of  Salamia,  Pe- 
 leus retired  to  Phthia  in  Thessaly.  (^Apollod.  I.  c. — 
 Fhcrecyd.  apud  T:ctz.  in  Lijcophr.  v.  175.)  From 
 Peleus  came  Achilles,  from  Telamon  Ajax.  Achilles 
 was  the  father  of  Pyrrhus,  from  whom  came  the  line 
 of  the  kings  of  Epirus.  P^om  Tcucer,  the  brother  of 
 Ajax,  were  descended  the  jjrinces  of  Cyprus  ;  while 
 from  Ajax  himself  came  some  of  the  most  illustrious 
 \ihenian  families.  {Miiller,  JEgniet.,  p.  23.) — II. 
 The  son  of  .\rymbas,  king  of  Epirus,  succeeded  to  the 
 throne  on  the  death  of  his  cousin  .\lexander,  who  was 
 slain  in  Italy.  (Livy,  28,  24.)  ^'Eacides  married 
 Phthia,  the  daughter  of  Menon  of  Pharsalus,  by  whom 
 he  had  the  celebrated  Pyrrhus,  and  two  daughters, 
 Dcidamea  and  Troias.  In  B.C.  317,  he  assisted  Po- 
 ly sperchon  ir!  restoring  Olympias  and  the  young  Alex- 
 ander, who  was  then  only  five  years  old,  to  Macedonia. 
 In  the  following  year  he  marched  to  the  assistance  of 
 (Jlympias,  who  was  hard  pressed  by  Cassander.  But 
 the  E[)irotes  disliked  the  service,  rose  against  ^Eaci- 
 des,  and  drove  him  from  his  kingdom.  Pyrrhus,  who 
 was  then  only  two  years  old,  was  with  difficulty  saved 
 from  destruction  by  some  faithful  servants.  But,  be- 
 coming tired  of  the  Macedonian  rule,  the  Epirotes  re- 
 called ^acides  in  B.C.  313.  Cassander  immediately 
 sent  an  army  against  him  under  Philip,  who  conquer- 
 ed him  the  same  year  in  two  battles,  in  the  last  of 
 which  he  was  killed.     {Pausan.  1,  11.) 
 
 ^E.icus.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Almk,  a  name  given  to  Circe,  because  born  at  .^Ea. 
 {Vug.  JEn.  3,  386.) 
 
 ^Eanteum,  a  small  settlement  on  the  coast  of  Troas, 
 near  the  promontory  of  Ilhoeteum.  It  was  founded  by 
 the  Khodians,  and  was  remarkable  for  containing  the 
 tomb  of  Ajax,  and  a  temple  dedicated  to  his  memory. 
 The  old  statue  of  the  hero  was  carried  away  by  An- 
 tony to  Egypt,  but  was  restored  by  Augustus.  {Stra- 
 bo,595.)  in  Pliny's  time  this  place  had  ceased  to  ex- 
 ist, as  may  be  inferred  from  his  expression,  "  FnU  et 
 JEanteuni"  (5,  30).  Mannert  assens,  that  Lecheva- 
 lier  is  wrong,  in  placing  the  mound  of  Ajax  on  the  sum- 
 mit of  the  hill  by  Inlepe. 
 
 ^'Eantides,  I.  one  of  the  Tragic  Pleiades.  {Vid. 
 Alexandrina  Schola.)  He  lived  in  the  time  of  the 
 second  Ptolemy. — II.  The  tyrant  of  Lampsacus,  to 
 whom  Hippias  gave  his  daughter  Archedice. 
 
 /Eas,  a  river  of  Epirus,  tho\ight  to  be  the  modern 
 Vajussa,  falling  into  the  Ionian  Sea.  Isaac  Vossius, 
 in  his  commentary  on  Pomponius  Mela  (2,  3,  extr), 
 charges  Ovid  with  an  error  in  geography,  in  making 
 this  river  fall  into  the  Pcneus  {Met.  1,  577).  But 
 Vossius  was  wrong  himself  in  making  the  verb  con- 
 veniuut,  as  used  by  Ovid,  in  the  passage  in  question, 
 equivalent  to  ingrediuntur.  Ovid  only  means  that 
 the  deities  of  the  river  mentioned  by  him  met  together 
 in  the  cave  of  the  Peneus. 
 
 .Edepsus,  a  town  of  Euboea  in  the  district  Histiaeo- 
 tis,  famed  for  its  hot  baths,  which  even  at  the  present 
 day  are  the  most  celebrated  in  Greece.  The  modern 
 name  of  the  place  is  Dipso.  But,  according  to  Sib- 
 thorpe  ( WalpoWs  Coll.,  vol.  2,  p.  71),  Lipso.  In  Plu- 
 tarch {Syrnpos.  4,  4),  this  place  is  called  (^alepsus 
 {TnlrjTlio^),  which  many  regard  as  an  error  o(  tlie  copy- 
 ists. If  the  modern  name  as  given  by  Sibthorpe  bo 
 correct,  it  appears  more  likely  that  Lipso  is  a  corrup- 
 tion of  Galepsus,  and  that  the  latter  was  only  anothei 
 name  for  the  place,  and  no  error. 
 
 .Edesia.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 .^^DESius,  a  Cappadocian,  called  a  Platonic,  or  per- 
 haps, more  correctly,  an  Eclectic  philosopher,  who  liv- 
 ed in  the  4th  century,  and  was  the  friend  and  most 
 distinguished  scholar  of  lamblichus.  After  the  death 
 of  his°master,  the  school  of  Syria  was  dispersed,  and 
 .^desius,  fearino  the  real  or  fancied  hostility  of  the 
 
 29 
 
Christian  emperor  Constantine  to  philosophy,  took  ref- 
 uge in  divinatioti.  An  oracle  in  hexameter  verse  rep- 
 resented a  pastoral  life  as  his  only  retreat ;  but  his  dis- 
 ciples, f»erhaps  calming  his  fears  by  a  metaphorical  in- 
 terpretation, compelled  him  to  resume  his  instructions. 
 He  settled  at  Pergamus,  where  he  numbered  among 
 his  pupils  the  Emperor  Julian.  After  the  accession  of 
 the  latier  to  the  imperial  purple,  he  invited  /Edesius  to 
 continue  his  instructions,  but  the  latter,  being  unequal 
 to  the  task  through  age,  sent  in  his  stead  Chrysanlhes 
 and  Eusebius,  his  disciples.     {Eunap.  Vit.  JEdcs.) 
 
 yEoEssA.     Vid.  Edessa. 
 
 Aedon.      Vtd.  Philomela. 
 
 ./Edoi,  a  powerful  nation  of  Gaul.  Their  confeder- 
 ation embraced  all  the  tract  of  country  comprehended 
 between  the  Allier,  the  middle  Loire,  and  the  Saone, 
 and  extending  a  little  beyond  this  river  towards  the 
 south.  The  proper  capital  was  Bibracte,  and  the  sec- 
 ond city  in  importance  Noviodunum.  The  political 
 influence  of  the  yEdui  extended  over  the  Manduhes  or 
 Mandubii,  whose  chief  city  Alesia  traced  its  origin  to 
 the  most  ancient  periods  of  Gaul,  and  passed  for  a 
 work  of  the  Tyrian  Hercules.  {Diod.  Sic.  4,  19.) 
 This  same  influence  reached  also  the  Ambarri,  the  In- 
 subres,  and  the  Segusiani.  The  Bituriges  themselves, 
 who  had  been  previously  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
 nations  of  Gaul,  were  held  by  the  /Edui  in  a  condition 
 approaching  that  of  subjects.  {Thierry,  Histoire  des 
 Gaulois,  2,  31.)  When  Ctesar  came  into  Gaul,  he 
 found  that  the  JEdui,  after  having  long  contended  with 
 the  Arverni  and  Sequani  for  the  supremacy  in  Gaul, 
 had  been  ( vercome  by  the  two  latter,  who  called 
 in  Ariovistus  and  the  Germans  to  their  aid.  The 
 arrival  of  the  Roman  commander  soon  changed  the 
 aspect  of  afl'airs,  and  the  ^dui  were  restored  by  the 
 Roman  arms  to  the  chief  power  in  the  country.  They 
 became,  of  course,  valuable  allies  for  Caesar  in  his  Gal- 
 lic conquests.  Eventually,  however,  they  embraced 
 the  party  of  Vercingetorix  against  Rome  ;  but,  when 
 the  insurrection  was  quelled,  they  were  still  favourably 
 treated  on  account  of  their  former  services.  ( Cces.  B. 
 G.  1,  31,  seqq.) 
 
 jEeta,  or  w?Eetes,  king  of  Colchis,  son  of  Sol,  arid 
 Perseis,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus,  was  father  of  Medea, 
 Absyrtus,  and  Chalciope,  by  Idyia,  one  of  the  Oceani- 
 des.  He  killed  Phryxus,  son  of  Athamas,  who  had 
 fled  to  his  court  on  a  golden  ram.  This  murder  he 
 committed  to  obtain  the  fleece  of  the  golden  ram.  The 
 Argonauts  came  against  Colchis,  and  recovered  the 
 golden  fleece  by  means  of  Medea,  though  it  was  guard- 
 ed by  bulls  that  breathed  fire,  and  by  a  venomous  drag- 
 on. (Vid.  Jason,  Medea,  and  Phryxus.)  He  was 
 afterward,  according  to  Apollodorus,  deprived  of  his 
 kingdom  by  his  brother  Perses,  but  was  restored  to  it 
 by  Medea,  who  had  returned  from  Greece  to  Colchis. 
 (Apollod.  1,  9,  28. — Heyne,  ad  Apollod.  I.  c. — Ov. 
 Met.  7.  11,  seqq.,  &c.) 
 
 /Eetias,  .^Eetis,  and  ^etIne,  patronymic  forms 
 from  ^ETEs,  used  by  Roman  poets  to  designate  his 
 daughter  Medea.     {Ovid,  Met.  7,  9,  296.) 
 
 .(Ega.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 JEgx,  I.  a  small  town  on  the  western  coast  of 
 Euboea,  southeast  of  iCdepsus.  It  contained  a  tem- 
 ple sacred  to  Neptune,  and  was  supposed  to  have  giv- 
 en name  to  the  .-fEgean.  {Sirah.  386.) — II.  A  city 
 of  Macedonia,  the  same  with  Edessa. — III.  A  town 
 of  Achaia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Crathis.  It  appears 
 to  have  been  abandoned  eventually  by  its  inhabitants, 
 who  retired  to  ..Egira.  The  cause  of  their  removal  is 
 not  known.  {Slraho,  386.) — IV.  A  town  and  sea- 
 port of  Cilicia  Campestris,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Py- 
 ramus,  and  on  the  upper  shore  of  the  Sinus  Issicus. 
 The  modern  village  of  Ayas  occupies  its  site.  {Strab. 
 G76.—Plui.  5,  27.— Lucan,  3,  225  ) 
 
 JEgje\,  I.  a  city  of  Mauritania  Cssariensis.  {Ptol ) 
 — II.  A  surname  of  Venus,  from  her  worship  in  the 
 30 
 
 ^E  GE 
 
 islands  of  the  .<Egaean  Sea.     {Statius,  Thebais,  8,  4, 
 
 7,  8  ) 
 
 ^Eg.«;on,  I.  one  of  the  fifty  sons  of  Lycaon,  whom 
 Jupiter  slew.  {Apullod.  3,  8,  1.) — II.  A  giant,  son  of 
 Uranus  by  Ga;a.     {Vtd.  Supplement.) 
 
 .<Eg.*:um  MARE,  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  lying 
 between  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  It  is  now  called  the 
 Archipelago,  which  modern  apjiellation  appears  to  be 
 a  corruption  of  Egw  Pelago,  itself  a  modern  Greek 
 form  for  Alyaiov  Tri'/iajo^.  Various  etymologies  are 
 given  for  the  ancient  name.  The  most  common 
 is  that  which  deduces  it  from  .^ilgeiis,  father  of 
 Theseus  ;  the  most  plausible  is  that  which  derives  it 
 from  ^gae  in  Euboea.  {Strab.  386.)  In  all  proba- 
 bility, however,  neither  is  correct.  The  .^gean  was 
 accounted  particularly  stormy  and  dangerous  to  navi- 
 gators, whence  the  proverb  tov  klyalov  ttaeI  {scil. 
 KoTiTTov).    {Erasm.  Chil.  Col.  632.) 
 
 JEgmvs,  a  surname  of  Neptune,  given  him  as  an 
 appellation  to  denote  the  god  of  the  waves.  Compare 
 MiiUer,  Gcschkhte,  &.c.  {Die  Dorier),  vol.  2,  p.  238, 
 in  notis. 
 
 yEcALEos,  a  mountain  of  Attica,  from  the  summit 
 of  which  Xerxes  beheld  the  battle  of  Salamis.  {Her- 
 od. 8,  90.)  According  to  Thucvdides  (2,  19),  it  was 
 situate  to  the  left  of  the  road  from  Athens  to  Eleusis. 
 Mount  ^Egaleos  seems  indeed  to  be  a  continuation  of 
 Corydallus,  stretching  northward  into  the  interior  of 
 Attica.  The  modern  name  is  Skaramanga.  {Cra- 
 Tiier's  Greece,  2,  355.) 
 
 .(Egates,  or  .EgusfB,  three  islands  off  the  western 
 extremity  of  Sicily,  between  Drepana  and  Lilybaeuin. 
 The  name  .^Egusa  {kh/ovaa)  properly  belonged  to  but 
 one  of  the  number.  As  this,  however,  was  the  prin- 
 cipal and  most  fertile  one  (now  Favignana),  the  ap- 
 pellation became  a  common  one  for  all  three.  The 
 Romans  corrupted  the  name  into  ^gades.  {Mela, 
 2,  7. — Flvrus,  2,  2.)  Livy,  however  (21,  10,  &c.), 
 uses  the  form  Agates.  The  northernmost  of  these 
 islands  is  called  by  Ptolemy  Phorbantia  {^opSavTia), 
 i.  e.,  the  pasture-island,  which  the  Latin  writers  trans- 
 late by  Bucina,  i.  e.,  Oxen-island,  it  being  probably 
 uninhabited,  and  used  only  for  jjasturing  cattle.  This 
 island  is  very  rocky,  and  bears  in  modern  times  the 
 name  of  Leranzo.  The  third  and  westernmost  island 
 was  called  Hiera  ('Ifpd),  which  Pliny  converts  into 
 Hieronesus,  i.  e.,  Sacred  island.  At  a  later  period, 
 however,  the  Romans  changed  the  name  into  Mariti- 
 ma,  as  it  lay  the  farthest  out  to  sea.  Under  this  ap- 
 pellation the  Itin.  Marit.  (p.  492)  makes  mention  of 
 it,  but  errs  in  giving  the  distance  from  Lilybseum  as 
 300  stadia,  a  computation  which  is  much  too  large. 
 The  modern  name  is  Marctimo.  Off  these  islands  the 
 Roman  fleet,  under  Lutatius  Catulus,  obtained  a  de- 
 cisive victory  over  that  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  which 
 put  an  end  to  the  first  Punic  war.  {Liv.  21,  10. — Id. 
 ibid.  il.—Id.  22,  54.) 
 
 .JSgesta,  an  ancient  city  of  Sicily,  in  the  western 
 extremity  of  the  island,  near  Mount  Eryx.  The  Greek 
 writers  name  it,  at  one  time  ^gesta  {Alyeara).  at  an- 
 other Egesta  {'Eyeara).  The  cause  of  this  slight  va- 
 riation would  seem  to  have  been,  that  the  city  was  one 
 not  of  Greek  origin,  and  that  the  name  was  written 
 from  hearing  it  pronounced.  In  a  later  age,  when  the 
 inhabitants  attached  themselves  to  the  Roman  power, 
 they  called  their  city  Segesta,  and  themselves  Seges- 
 tani,  according  to  Festus  {s.  v.  Srgesla),  who  states, 
 that  the  alteration  vvas  made  to  obviate  an  improper 
 ambiguity  in  the  term.  {Praposita  est  ei  S.  litera  ne 
 obsceno  nomine  appellaretur.)  It  is  more  probable, 
 however,  that  the  Romans  caused  it  to  be  done  on  ac- 
 count of  the  ill-omened  analogy  in  sound  between 
 .(Egesta  or  Egesta,  and  the  Latin  term  egestas,  "  want." 
 Thucvdides  (6,  2)  states,  that  after  the  destruction 
 of  Troy,  a  body  of  the  fugitives  found  (heir  way  to 
 this  quarter,  and,  uniting  with  the  Sicani,  whom  they 
 
^GE 
 
 ^GI 
 
 tbunJ  settled  here,  formed  with  them  one  people,  under 
 the  name  of  Elymi.  In  the  course  of  time  their  num- 
 bers were  still  farther  increased  by  the  junction  of 
 some  wandering  AchaRi.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
 generally-received  idea  among  the  Greeks,  respecting 
 the  origin  of  the  Elymi  and  ^gestaei.  Its  improba- 
 bility, however,  is  apparent  even  at  first  view.  When 
 the  Romans  became  masters  of  these  parts,  after  the 
 fust  Punic  war,  they  readily  adopted  the  current  tra- 
 dition respecting  the  people  of  ^Egcsta,  as  well  as  the 
 idea  of  an  affinity,  through  the  line  of  ^Eneas,  between 
 themselves  and  the  latter,  and  the  legend  is  interwoven 
 also  with  the  subject  of  the  -Eneid  (5,  36,  seqq. —  Vvi. 
 yEo-estes).  From  the  circumstance  of  the  Romatis 
 having  recognised  the  afhnity  of  the  ^gesteans  to 
 themselves,  we  find  them  styled,  in  the  Duilian  in- 
 scription, "  the  kinsmen  of  the  Roman  people."  COC- 
 NATI  P.  R.  (Ciacconius,  de  Col.  Rosir.  Duil.,  Lugd. 
 Bat.  1597.)  Cicero,  too  {in  Verrcm.  4,  33),  adopts 
 the  current  tradition  of  the  day.  Whatever  our  opin- 
 ion may  be  relative  to  the  various  details  of  these  le- 
 gends, one  thing  at  least  very  clearly  appears,  which 
 is,  that  ^Ejresta  was  not  of  Grecian  origin.  Thucyd- 
 ides  (7,  58),  in  enumerating  the  allies  of  Syracuse, 
 speaks  of  the  people  of  Himera  as  forming  the  only 
 Grecian  settlement  on  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily  ; 
 and  in  another  part  (7,  57),  expressly  classes  the 
 ..•Egestaeans  among  Barbarians  (Bnpfiupuv  ''EyecTaloi). 
 The  origin  of  ^Egesta,  therefore,  may  fairly  be  as- 
 cribed to  a  branch  of  the  Pelasgic  race,  the  Trojans 
 themselves  being  of  the  same  stock.  {Vid.  ^neas.) 
 Previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  Romans  in  Sicily,  the 
 jEgestaeans  were  engaged  in  a  long  contest  with  the 
 inhabitants  of  Selinus.  Finding  themselves,  however, 
 the  weaker  party,  they  solicited  and  obtained  the  aid 
 of  Athens.  The  unfortunate  issue  of  the  Athenian 
 expedition  against  Syracuse,  compelled  the  .^gesta?- 
 ans  to  look  for  new  allies  in  the  Carthaginians.  These 
 came  to  their  aid,  and  Selinus  fell  ;  but  ^-Egesta  also 
 shared  its  fate,  and  the  city  remained  under  this  new 
 control,  until,  for  the  purpose  of  regaining  its  freedom, 
 it  espoused  the  cause  of  Agathocles.  The  change, 
 however,  was  for  the  worse  ;  and  the  tyrant,  offended 
 at  their  unwillingness  to  contribute  supplies,  murdered 
 a  part  of  the  inhabitants,  drove  the  rest  into  exile,  and 
 changed  the  name  of  the  city  to  Dicasopolis,  settling  in 
 it  at  the  same  time  a  body  of  deserters  that  had  come 
 over  to  him.  (Polyb.  20,  7\.)  The  death  of  Agatho- 
 cles very  probably  restored  the  old  name,  and  brought 
 back  the  surviving  part  of  the  former  inhabitants,  since 
 we  find  the  appellation  .-Egesta  reappearing  in  the 
 first  Punic  war  (Poli/b.  1,  24),  and  since  the  ^Egestas- 
 ans.  during  that  same  conflict,  after  slaughtering  a  Car- 
 thaginian garrison  which  had  been  placed  within  their 
 walls,  were  able  to  declare  themselves  the  kinsmen  of 
 the  Roman  people.  (Zonaras,  8,  4.)  It  was  this  pre- 
 tended affinity  between  the  two  communities  that  pre- 
 served Jilgesta  from  oblivion  after  it  had  fallen  be- 
 neath the  Roman  sway,  and  we  find  Pliny  (3,  8)  na- 
 ming the  inhabitants  among  the  number  of  those  who 
 enjoyed  the  jus  Latinum.  The  ruins  of  the  place  are 
 found,  at  the  present  day,  near  the  modern  Alcamo. 
 (Manncrt,  9,  2,  393,  sct/q. — Hoarc's  Classical  Tour, 
 2,61.) 
 
 ^■Egkstes,  .■Egestus,  or,  as  Virgil  writes  it,  Acestes, 
 a  son  of  the  river-god  Crimisus,  by  a  Trojan  mother, 
 according  to  one  account,  while  another  makes  both 
 his  parents  to  have  been  of  Trojan  origin.  Laomcdon, 
 it  seems,  had  given  the  daughters  of  a  distinguished 
 person  among  his  subjects  to  certain  Sicilian  mariners, 
 to  carry  away  and  expose  to  wild  beasts.  They  were 
 brought  to  Sicily,  where  the  god  of  the  Crimisus  uni- 
 ted himself  to  one  of  them,  and  became  father  of  .^Egcs- 
 tes.  This  is  the  first  account  just  alluded  to.  The 
 other  one  is  as  follows  :  A  young  Trojan,  of  noble 
 birth,  being  enamoured  of  one  of  the   three  females 
 
 already  mentioned,  accompanied  them  to  Sicily,  ai?d 
 there  became  united  to  the  object  of  his  affection. 
 The  offspring  of  this  union  was  ^■Egestes.  {Dion. 
 Hal.  1,  52.)  Both  accounts,  of  course,  are  pureJy 
 fabulous.  In  accordance,  however,  with  the  popular 
 legend  respecting  him,  Virgil  makes  ^gestcs,  whom 
 he  calls,  as  already  stated,  Acestes,  to  have  given 
 .^neas  a  hospitable  reception,  when  the  latter,  as  tha 
 poet  fables,  visited  Sicily  in  the  course  of  his  wander« 
 ings.     {Vid.  ^gesta.) 
 
 ^ii^GEUs,  I.  a  kingof  Athens,  son  of  Pandion.  His 
 legitimacy,  however,  was  disputed  ;  and  when,  aftei 
 the  death  of  Pandion,  he  entered  Attica  at  the  head  of 
 an  army,  and  recovered  his  patrimony,  he  was  still  the 
 object  of  jealousy  to  his  three  brothers,  although  he 
 shared  his  newly-acquired  power  with  them.  As  he 
 was  long  childless,  they  began  to  cast  a  wishful  eye 
 towards  his  inheritance.  But  a  mysterious  oracle 
 brought  him  to  Troezene,  where  fate  had  decreed  that 
 the  future  hero  of  Athens  should  be  born.  iEihra,  the 
 daughter  of  the  sage  King  Pittheus,  son  of  Pelops, 
 was  his  mother,  but  the  Trcezenian  legend  called  Nep- 
 tune, not  JEgcvs,  his  father.  ..(Egeus,  however,  re- 
 turned to  Athens,  with  the  hope  that,  in  the  course  of 
 years,  he  should  be  followed  by  a  legitimate  heir.  At 
 parting  he  showed  iEthra  a  huge  mass  of  rock,  under 
 which  he  had  hidden  a  sword  and  a  pair  of  sandals : 
 when  her  child,  if  a  boy,  should  be  able  to  lift  the  stone, 
 he  was  to  repair  to  Athens  with  the  tokens  it  con- 
 cealed, and  to  claim  jEgeus  as  his  father.  From  this 
 deposite,  ^Ethra  gave  her  son  the  name  of  Theseus 
 {QijGevg,  from  i9eu,  -dijau,  to  deposite  or  place).  When 
 Theseus  had  grown  up  and  been  acknowledged  by  his 
 father  {vid.  Theseus),  he  freed  the  latter  from  the  cruel 
 tribute  imposed  by  Minos  {vid.  Minotaurus) ;  but,  on 
 his  return  from  Crete,  forgot  to  hoist  the  white  sails, 
 the  preconcerted  signal  of  success,  and  iEgeus,  think- 
 ing his  son  had  perished,  threw  himself  from  a  high 
 rock  into  the  sea.  {Apollod.  3,  15,  5,  seqq. — Plut. 
 Vtl.  Thes.,  &c.)  The  whole  narrative  respecting 
 .52geus  is  a  figurative  legend.  He  is  the  same  as 
 Neptune ;  his  name  Alyaiof,  indicating  "  the  god  of 
 the  waves,"  from  ah/ec:,  the  waves  of  the  sea,  and 
 hence  the  Troezenian  legend  makes  Neptune  at  once 
 to  have  been  the  father  of  The.seus.  Theseus  himself, 
 moreover,  appears  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  mythic 
 personage.  He  is  merely  the  type  of  the  cslabUshment 
 of  the  worship  of  Neptune  {Orjoevg,  from  ■&eu,  i^?/o-(j,  to 
 place  or  establish).  Even  his  mother's  name,  iEthra, 
 would  seem  to  allude  figuratively  to  the  pure,  clear  at- 
 mosphere of  religious  worship  connected  with  the  rites 
 of  Neptune,  when  firmly  established.  {kWpa,  i.  e., 
 aiGpa,  pure,  clear  air.)  So,  also,  the  contest  between 
 Theseus  and  the  Pallantides  {vid.  Pallantides),  would 
 seem  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  religious  contest  be- 
 tween the  rival  systems  of  Neptune  and  Minerva. 
 The  worship  o(  Neptune  prevailed  originally  in  the 
 Ionian  cities  {Miiller,  Dorians,  1,  266),  and  the  legend 
 of  Theseus  is  an  Ionian  one  ;  whereas  the  worship  o 
 Minerva,  at  Athens,  dates  back  to  the  time  of  Ce- 
 crops. — II.  An  eponymic  hero  at  Sparta,  con  of  .Pol- 
 lens.    {Vid.  Supplement.) 
 
 Ji^GiALEA,  I.  according  to  the  common  account,  a 
 daughter  of  Adrastus,  but  more  probably  the  daughtei 
 of  his  son  JSgialeus.  {Heyne,  ad  Apollod.  1,  86.) 
 She  was  the  wife  of  Diomede,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
 guilty  of  the  grossest  incontinence  during  her  husband's 
 absence  in  the  Trojan  war.  {Apollod.  I.  c.  —  Ov.  lb. 
 350,  &c.)  The  beautiful  passage  in  the  Iliad,  how 
 ever  (5,  412,  seqq.),  where  mention  is  made  of  her, 
 strongly  countenances  the  idea  that  the  story  of  hei 
 improper  conduct  is  a  mere  posthomeric  or  cyclic  fable. 
 —II.  An  island  of  the  ^Egean,  between  Cythera 
 and  Crete,  now  Cerigolto.  Bondclmonti  {Ins.  Arch. 
 10,  65)  calls  it  Siclulus  or  Scquilus,  a  corruption, 
 probably,  from  the  modern  Greek  eig  Aiyvllav.     {Dc 
 
^GI 
 
 JE  GI 
 
 Sinner,  ad  lnc.)—UL  The  earliest  name  for  the  coun- 
 try along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Peloponnesus. 
 {Vid.  Achaia,  III.) 
 
 ^■Egku-eus,  son  of  Adrastus,  by  Amphithca,  daugh- 
 ter of  Pronax,  and  a  member  of  the  expedilion  led  by 
 the  Epigoni  against  Thebes,  lie  was  the  only  leader 
 slain  in  "this  war,  as  his  father  had  been  the  only  one 
 that  survived  the  previous  contest.  (Vid.  Epigoni.) 
 Compare  the  scholiast,  ad  I'ind.  I'yfh.  8,  68. 
 
 .Egides,  a  patronymic  of  Theseus.  {Homer,  II.  1, 
 263.) 
 
 ..^GiL.\,  a  lown  in  Laconia,  where  Ceres  had  a  tem- 
 ple. Aristomenes,  the  Messcnian  leader,  endeavoured 
 on  one  occasion  to  seize  a  party  of  Laconian  females 
 ■who  were  celebrating  here  the  rites  of  the  goddess. 
 The  attempt  failed,  through  the  courageous  resistance 
 of  the  women,  and  Aristomenes  himself  was  taken 
 prisoner.  He  was  released,  however,  the  same  night, 
 by  Archidamca,  the  priestess  of  Ceres,  who  had  before 
 this  cherished  an  aflection  for  him.  She  pretended 
 that  he  had  burned  off  his  bonds,  by  moving  himself  up 
 towards  the  fire,  and  remaining  near  enough  to  have 
 them  consumed.     {Pans.  4,  17.) 
 
 ^GUiius,  a  king  of  the  Dorians,  reigning  at  the 
 time  in  Thessaly,  near  ihe  range  of  Pindus.  {Heync, 
 ad  Apollod.  2,  7,  7.)  He  aided  Hercules,  according 
 to  the  Doric  legend,  in  his  contest  with  the  Lapitha;, 
 and  received,  as  a  reward,  the  territory  from  which 
 they  were  driven.  {Apollod.  I.  c.)  ^gimius  is  a  con- 
 spicuous name  among  the  founders  of  the  Doric  line, 
 and  mention  is  made  by  the  ancient  writers  of  an  epic 
 poem,  entitled  A.lyi/iior,  which  is  ascribed  by  some  to 
 Hesiod,  by  others  to  Cecrops  the  Milesian.  {Heync, 
 I.  c.)  The  posterity  of  J%gimius  formed  part  of  the 
 expedition  against  the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  Doric 
 institutions  of  ^gimius  are  spoken  of  by  Pindar  (Py^A. 
 
 1,  124),  as  forming  the  rule  or  model  of  government 
 for  the  Doric  race.     (Compare  Mixller,  Dorians,  vol. 
 
 2,  p.  12.) 
 
 Jl^GiMURUs,  a  small  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Carthage. 
 There  were  two  rocks  near  this  island,  called  Arm 
 JEgimuri,  which  were  so  named,  because  the  Romans 
 and  Carthaginians  concluded  a  treaty  on  them.  The 
 modern  Zowamoore  is  the  /Egimurus  of  antiquity. 
 
 yEiiiMUs.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 ^^Egina,  I.  a  daugnter  of  the  river  Asopus,  carried 
 away  by  Jupiter,  under  the  form  of  an  eagle,  from 
 Phlius  to  the  island  of  CEnone.  (Compare  Spanheim, 
 ad  Callim.  Hymn,  in  Del.  v.  77. — Heync,  ad  Apollod. 
 
 3,  12,  6. — Sturz,  ad  Hellanic,  p.  50.— 7rf.  ad  Phcre- 
 cyii.,  p.  178.)  She  gave  her  name  to  the  island.  Some 
 authorities  make  Jupiter  to  have  assumed,  on  this  oc- 
 casion, the  appearance  of  a  flame  of  fire  ;  but  this  evi- 
 dently is  corrupted  from  another  part  of  the  same  fable, 
 which  states  that  Asopus  was  struck  with  thunder  by  the 
 god  for  presuming  to  pursue  him.  {Apollod.  3,  12,  6.) 
 The  Asopus  here  alluded  to,  is  the  Sicyonian  stream 
 which  flowed  hv  the  walls  of  Plilius.  It  must  not  be 
 confounded  with  the  Boeotian  river  of  the  same  name. 
 (Compare  Pindar,  New.  9,  9. — Arislarch.  ad  N.  3,  1. 
 ■ — Pausan.  2,  5,  2.) — II.  An  island  in  the  Sinus  Sa- 
 ronicus,  near  the  coast  of  Argolis.  The  earliest  ac- 
 counts given  by  the  Greeks  make  it  to  have  been 
 originallv  uninhabited,  and  to  have  been  called,  while 
 in  this  state,  by  the  name  of  G'^none  ;  for  such  is  evi- 
 dently the  mp^'iing  of  the  fable,  which  states,  that  Ju- 
 piter, in  ord  to  gratify  iEacus,  who  was  alone  there, 
 chancrcd  a  s-.varm  of  ants  into  men,  and  thus  peopled 
 the  island.  {Vul.  yEacus,  Myrinidoncs,  and  compare 
 Pavsan.  2,  29,  and  Apollod.  3,  13,  7.)  It  afterward 
 look  the  name  of  yEgina,  from  the  daughter  of  the 
 Asopus.  {Vid.  ^gina,  I.)  But,  whoever  may  have 
 been  the  earliest  settlers  on  the  island,  it  is  evident 
 that  its  stony  and  unproductive  soil  must  have  driven 
 them  at  an  early  period  to  engage  in  maritime  affairs. 
 Hence  they  arc  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  coined 
 
 32 
 
 money  for  the  purposes  of  commerce,  and  used  regu- 
 lar measures,  a  tradition  which,  though  no  doubt  un- 
 true, still  jjoints  very  clearly  to  their  early  conuncrcial 
 habits.  {Strabo,  375. — .^7/rtn,  Var.  Hist.  12,  10. — 
 Vid..  Phidon.)  It  is  more  than  probable,  that  their 
 commercial  relations  caused  the  people  of -Egina  to  he 
 increased  by  colonies  from  abroad,  and  Sirabo  ex- 
 pressly mentions  Cretans  among  the  foreign  inhabitanta 
 who  had  settled  there.  After  the  return  of  the  Herac- 
 lidse,  this  island  received  a  Dorian  colony  from  Epi- 
 daurus  {Pausan.  2,  29. — Tzetz.  ad  Lye.  176),  and 
 from  this  period  the  Dorians  gradually  gained  the  as- 
 cendency in  it,  until  at  last  it  became  entirely  Doric, 
 both  in  language  and  form  of  government.  ^'Egina,  for 
 a  time,  was  the  maritime  rival  of  Athens,  and  the  com- 
 petition eventually  terminated  in  open  hostilities,  in 
 which  the  Athenians  were  only  able  to  obtain  advan- 
 tages by  the  aid  of  the  Corinthians,  and  by  means  of 
 intestine  divisions  among  their  opponents.  {Herod. 
 8,  46,  and  5,  83.)  When  Darius  sent  deputies  into 
 Greece  to  demand  earth  and  water,  the  people  of /Egina, 
 partly  from  hatred  towards  the  Athenians,  and  partly 
 from  a  wish  to  protect  their  extensive  commerce  along 
 the  coasts  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  gave  these  tokens 
 of  submission.  {Herod.  6,49.)  For  this  conduct  they 
 were  punished  by  the  Spartans.  In  the  war  with 
 Xerxes,  therefore,  they  sided  with  their  countrymen, 
 and  acted  so  brave  a  part  in  the  battle  of  Salamis  as 
 to  be  able  to  contest  the  prize  of  valour  with  the  Athe- 
 nians themselves,  and  to  bear  it  off,  as  well  by  the 
 universal  suffrages  of  the  confederate  Greeks  {Herod. 
 8,  93),  as  by  the  declaration  of  the  Pythian  oracle. 
 {Id.  7bid.  122  :  compare  Plut.  Vit.  Thcmist.)  After 
 the  termination  of  the  Persian  war,  however,  the 
 strength  of  Athens  proved  too  great  for  them.  Their 
 fleet  of  seventy  sail  was  annihilated  in  a  sea-fight  by 
 Pericles,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  w-ere  driven 
 from  the  island,  while  the  remainder  were  reduced  to  } 
 the  condition  of  tributaries.  The  fugitives  settled  at ' 
 Thyrea  in  Cynnria,  under  the  protection  of  Sparta 
 {Thucyd.  1,  105,  and  108.— /(/.  2,  21.— Id.  4,  57), 
 and  it  was  not  until  after  the  battle  of /Egos  Potamos, 
 and  the  fall  of  Athens,  that  they  were  able  to  regain 
 possession  of  their  native  island.  {Xen.  Hist.  Gr.  2, 
 2,  5. — Strabo,  8,  p.  376.)  They  never  attained, 
 however,  to  their  former  prosperity.  The  situation  of 
 .^gina  made  it  subsequently  a  prize  for  each  succeed- 
 ing conqueror,  until  at  last  it  totally  disappeared  from 
 history.  In  modern  times  the  island  nearly  retains 
 its  ancient  name,  being  called  Egma,  or  with  a  slight 
 corruption  Engia,  and  is  represented  by  travellers  as 
 being  beautiful,  fertile,  and  well  cultivated.  As  far 
 back  as  the  time  of  Pausanias,  the  ancient  city  would 
 appear  to  have  been  in  ruins.  That  writer  makes 
 mention  of  some  temples  that  were  standing,  and  of 
 the  large  theatre  built  after  the  model  of  that  in  Epi- 
 daurus.  The  most  remarkable  remnant  of  antiquity 
 which  this  island  can  boast  of  at  the  present  day,  is  the 
 temple  of  Jupiter  Panhellenius,  situated  on  a  mount 
 of  the  same  name,  about  four  hours'  distance  from  the 
 port,*  nd  which  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most  an- 
 cient temples  in  Greece,  and  one  of  the  oldest  speci- 
 mens of  the  Doric  style  of  architecture.  Mr.  Dodwell 
 pronounces  it  the  most  picturesque  and  interesting  ruin 
 in  Greece.  For  a  full  account  of  the  ^gina  marbles, 
 consult  Quarterly  Journal  of  Sciences,  No.  12,  p. 
 327,  seqq.,  and  No.  14,  p.  229,  seqq. 
 
 ^GiNiiTA  Paulus,  I.  or  Paul  of  ^Egina,  a  cele- 
 brated Greek  physician,  born  in  the  island  of  JEgiua. 
 He  appears  to  have  lived,  not  in  the  fourth  century,  as 
 Rene  Moreau  and  Daniel  Leclerc  (Clericus)  have  as- 
 serted, but  in  the  time  of  the  conquests  of  the  Calif 
 Omar,  and,  consequently,  in  the  seventh  century.  We 
 have  very  few  particulars  of  his  life  handed  down  to 
 '  us.  We  know  merely  that  he  pursued  his  medical 
 studies  at  Alexandrea  some  time  before  the  taking  ol 
 
2E  GI 
 
 ^  GL 
 
 this  city  by  Amrou,  and  that,  for  the  purpose  of  adding 
 to  his  stock  of  professional  knowledge,  he  travelled  not 
 only  through  all  Greece,  but  likewise  in  other  countries. 
 Paul  of  Jjgina  closes  the  list  of  the  classic  Greek 
 physicians,  for  after  him  the  healing  art  fell,  like  so 
 many  others,  into  neglect  and  barbarism,  and  did  not 
 reirain  any  portion  of  its  forn^er  honours  until  towards 
 the  twelfth  century.  As  Paul  made  himself  very  able 
 in  surgery,  and  displayed  great  skill  also  in  accouche- 
 ments,  the  Arabians  testified  their  esteem  for  him  by 
 styling  him  the  accoucheur.  Though  he  cannot  be 
 regarded  as  altogether  original,  since  he  abridged  Ga- 
 len, and  obtained  many  materials  from  Aetms  and 
 Oribasus,  yet  he  frequently  lays  down  opinions  of  his 
 own,  differing  from  those  of  Galen,  and  more  than  once 
 has  the  courage  to  refute  the  positions  of  flippocrates. 
 His  descriptions  of  maladies  are  short  and  succinct, 
 but  e.xact  and  complete.  He  frequently  assumes,  as 
 the  basis  of  his  explanations,  the  Galenian  theory  of 
 the  cardinal  humours.  It  is  in  surgery  particularly 
 that  Paul  of  xEgina  appears  to  advantage,  not  only  be- 
 cause he  had  acquired  more  experience  than  any  other 
 Greek  physician  in  this  branch  of  his  art,  but  also  be- 
 cause he  does  not  servilely  copy  his  predecessors.  In 
 this  respect  some  authors  place  him  by  the  side  of 
 Celsus,  and  on  certain  points  even  give  him  the  pref- 
 erence. One  of  the  most  curious  chapters  in  that 
 part  of  his  writings  which  relates  to  surgery,  is  the  one 
 which  treats  of  the  various  kinds  of  arrows  used  among 
 the  ancients,  and  of  the  wounds  inflicted  by  them. 
 The  work  of  this  physician,  which  has  come  down  to 
 us,  is  entitled  An  Abridgment  of  All  Medicme,  and 
 consists  of  seven  books,  compiled  from  the  writings 
 of  the  more  ancient  physicians,  with  his  own  observa- 
 tions subjoined.  It  has  passed  through  many  editions, 
 of  which  the  following  are  the  principal  ones.  The 
 Greek  text  merely,  Venet.  ap.  Aid.,  1528,  and  Basil., 
 1538, /o/.  This  latter  edition  is  much  superior  to  the 
 former,  as  it  was  corrected  by  Gemusaeus,  and  contains 
 his  learned  annotations.  Latin  editions  :  Basil.,  1532 
 and  1546, /o/. :  Col.  A<rr.,  1534  and  1548, /oi. ;  Pans, 
 1532, /o/. ;  Vcnet.,  1553  and  1554,  8vo  :  Litffd.,  1562 
 and  1567,  8vo.  This  last  is  the  best  of  the  Latin 
 editions,  since  it  contains  the  notes  and  commenta- 
 ries of  Gonthier,  D'Andernach,  Gornarius,  J.  Goupil, 
 and  Dalechamp.  An  Arabic  edition  was  published 
 also  by  Honain,  a  celebrated  Syrian  physician.  Parts 
 of  the  work  have  also  been  printed  separately  at  various 
 times,  and  particularly  the  first  book,  under  the  title 
 of  PrcEccpla  Saluhria  {Paris,  1510,  ap.  Hair.  Stcph., 
 4to. — Argent.,  1511,  4to,  &c.).  A  French  translation 
 of  the  surgical  writings  of  Paul  of  yEgina  was  given  in 
 1539,  from  the  Lyons  press,  in  12mo,  by  Pierre  Tolet. 
 The  excellent  version,  however,  by  F.  Adams,  Esq., 
 of  Banchory-Ternan,  Aberdeen,  will  supersede  all 
 others.  Only  one  volume  has  thus  far  been  published. 
 {Biogr.  Umv.,  vol.  33,  p.  186,  scgq. — SchoU,  Hist. 
 Lilt.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  256.)— II.  A  modeller  of  JEg'ma, 
 adverted  to  by  Pliny  (35,  11).  There  is  some  doubt 
 whether  JEgincta  was  his  own  name,  or  merely  an 
 epithet  designating  the  place  of  his  birth.  The  former  is 
 the  more  probable  opinion,  atid  is  advocated  by  Midler 
 {.Egin.  107.— Sillig,  Diet.  Art.  s.  v.). 
 
 Jr^GiocHus,  or  "  ^^gis  bearer"  (from  alyic  and  ^^'cj), 
 a  poetical  appellation  of  Jove.    ( Vid.  -Egis.) 
 
 ^•Eoip.^N,  a  poetical  appellation  of  Pan,  either  from 
 his  having  the  legs  of  a  goat,  or  as  the  guardian  of 
 goats.  Plutarch  (ParalL,  p.  311)  makes  it  analogous 
 to  the  Latin  Silvanus. 
 
 .•Egira,  a  city  of  Achaia,  near  the  coast  of  the 
 Sinus  Corinthiacus,  and  to  the  northwest  of  Pellene. 
 It  was  a  place  of  some  importance,  and  the  population 
 js  supposed  to  have  been  from  8  to  10,000.  Polybius 
 (4,  57)  makes  the  distance  from  the  sea  seven  stadia  ; 
 Pausanias,  however  (7,  26),  removes  the  harbour 
 twelve  stadia  from  the  city.     There  is  no  contradic- 
 
 tion m  this,  as  the  harbour  lay,  not  directly  north,  but 
 northeast  from  the  city.  In  the  middle  ages,  JEgha 
 took  the  name  of  Volstitza.  {Georg.  Phra.nza,  2,  9.) 
 It  is  now  Vostica,  a  deserted  place  to  the  east  of 
 Vostilza,  the  ancient  yEgium.  {Mamiert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  8,  p.  396.) 
 
 yEois,  the  shield  of  Jupiter,  made  for  him  by  Vul- 
 can (//.  15,  310),  and  borne  also  by  Apollo  (//.  15,  229) 
 and  Minerva  (5,  738).  It  inspired  terror  and  dismay, 
 and,  by  its  movements,  darkness,  clouds,  thunder  and 
 lightning  were  collected.  (//.  17,  594.)  Hence,  in 
 later  poets,  it  has  also  the  meaning  of  a  storm  or  hurri- 
 cane. {JEsch.  Cho'eph.  584. — Eurip.  Ion,  996.)  Ac- 
 cording to  some,  Minerva  had  an  aegis  of  her  own,  dis- 
 tinct from  Jupiter's,  and  she  placed  in  the  centre  of  it 
 the  head  of  Medusa  ;  but  the  Gorgon's  head  appears 
 also  on  Jupiter's  shield.  {Eustalh.  ad  II.  5,  741. — 
 Hcy7ie,  ad  Apollod.  2,  43.)  As  Minerva  typifies  the 
 mind  or  wisdom  of  Jove,  there  is  a  peculiar  propriety 
 in  her  wielding  the  same  aegis  with  her  great  parent. — 
 The  etymology  of  the  term  alyig  is  disputed.  The 
 common  derivation  makes  it  come  from  al^,  alyoq, 
 "  a  goat,''''  and  to  have  been  so  named  from  its  being 
 covered  with  the  skin  of  the  goat  that  had  suckled  the 
 infant  Jove.  This  derivation,  however,  appears  to  be 
 based  entirely  on  an  accidental  resemblance  between 
 alyl^  and  al^,  alyoc,  and  is  evidently  the  invention  of 
 later  writers  and  fabulists.  The  true  etymology  is 
 from  utaau),  at^cj,  "  to  move  rapidli/,'"  "  to  rush,'"  "  to 
 arouse,'"  &c.,  and  comports  far  better  with  the  idea 
 of  brandishing  to  and  fro  a  terror-inspiring  shield. — 
 The  meaning  of  a  coat  of  mail,  or,  rather,  leathern 
 tunic,  with  or  without  plates  of  metal,  belongs  to  an- 
 other alylc,  which  is  correctly  deduced  from  Cff. 
 (Compare  Herod.  4,  189.) 
 
 yEoisTHUs,  son  of  Thyestes  by  his  own  daughter 
 Pelopea.  (F/tZ.  Atreus.)  Having  been  left  guardian 
 of  Agamemnon's  kingdom  when  that  monarch  sailed 
 for  Troy,  he  availed  himself  of  his  absence  to  gain  the 
 affections  of  Glytemneslra  his  queen,  and,  when  Ag- 
 amemnon returned  from  the  war,  caused  him  to  be 
 slain.  (Vid.  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra.)  On 
 the  death  of  the  monarch  he  usurped  the  throne,  and 
 reigned  seven  years,  when  he  was  slain,  together  with 
 Clytemnestra,  by  Orestes,  the  son  of  Agamemnon. 
 {Vid.  Orestes.  —  Hygin.  fab.  87,  scq. — Paus.  3,  16. 
 — Soph.  Electr. — Aisch.  Again. — Eurip.  Orcst.,  6fc.) 
 
 jEgitium,  a  town  of  ^Etolia,  northeast  of  Naupac- 
 tus,  and  about  eighty  stadia  from  the  sea.  It  occupied 
 an  elevated  situation  in  a  mountainous  tract  of  coun- 
 try. {Thucijd.  3,  97.)  .^gitium  is  perhaps  ^Egaj 
 {klyai),  which  Stephanus  Byzantinus  places  in  ^toiia 
 
 .'Egium,  a  city  of  Achaia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Sinus 
 Corinthiacus,  and  northwest  of  ^gira.  After  the 
 submersion  of  Helice  it  became  the  chief  place  in 
 the  country,  and  here  the  deputies  from  the  states  of 
 Achaia  long  held  their  assemblies,  until  a  law  was 
 made  by  Philopcemen,  ordaining  that  each  of  the  feder- 
 al cities  should  become  in  its  turn  the  place  of  rendez- 
 vous. {Liv.  38,  7,  and  30. — Compare  Polybius,  3, 
 54,  and  4,  7.)  According  to  Strabo  (3S5,  387),  these 
 meetings  were  convened  near  the  town,  in  a  spot  call- 
 ed ^Enarium,  where  was  a  grove  consecrated  to  Ju- 
 piter. Pausanias  (7,  24)  affirms,  that  in  his  time  the 
 Achfeans  still  collected  together  at  ^Egiuin,  as  the 
 Amphictyons  did  at  Delphi  and  ThermopyliE.  Ac- 
 cording to  Strabo,  Ji]gium  derived  its  name  from  the 
 goat  (aif)  which  was  said  to  have  nourished  Jupiter 
 here.  The  modern  town  of  Vostitza  lies  in  the  im- 
 mediate neighbourhood. 
 
 yEcLE.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 vEgleis.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 J^GLEs,  a  Samian  wrestler,  born  dumb.  Seeing 
 some  unlawful  measures  pursued  in  a  contest,  which 
 would  deprive  him  of  the  prize,  his  indignation  gava 
 him  on  a  sudden  the  powers  of  utterance  which  haj 
 
 S3 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 been  denied  him  from  his  birth,  and  he  ever  after  spoke 
 with  ease.     {Vai  Max.  1,  8,  A.—Atd.  Gell.  5,  9.) 
 
 /Egletes,  a  surname  of  Apollo  as  the  god  of  day. 
 (Alyh'jTi/c,  from  alyTiTj,  "  hrightness")  In  the  legend 
 given  by  Apollodorus  (1,9,  26)  respecting  the  island 
 of  Atiaphe,  the  epithet  .Egletes  appears  to  point  to 
 Apollo  as  the  darter  of  the  lightning  also  {Apollo  Ful- 
 gurator).  Compare  Heyne,  ad  Apollod.  1,9,  26,  not. 
 crit. 
 
 ^GOBOLUs,  an  appellation  given  to  Bacchus  at  Pot- 
 nias  in  Boeotia,  because  he  had  substituted  a  goat  in 
 the  place  of  a  youth,  who  was  annually  sacrificed 
 there.  («if,  and /3«A^(j.)  Compare  Pausanias  9,  8, 
 where  Kuhn,  however,  proposes  kljotjupov  for  klyo- 
 66hw. — By  MgohoUum,  on  the  other  hand,  is  meant 
 a  species  of  mystic  purification.  The  catechumen  was 
 placed  in  a  pit,  covered  with  perforated  boards,  upon 
 which  a  goat  was  sacrificed,  so  as  to  bathe  him  in  the 
 Dlood  that  flowed  from  it.  Sometimes,  for  a  goat,  a 
 bull  or  ram  was  substituted,  and  the  ceremony  was 
 then  called,  in  the  first  case,  Taurobolium,  in  the  sec- 
 ond Criobolium.     (Knight,  Inquiry,  &c.,  ij  168.) 
 
 JRgos  potamos,  i.  e.,  the  gnats  river,  called  also 
 ^gos  Potamoi,  and  by  the  Latin  writers  Mgos  Flu- 
 men,  a  small  river  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  and 
 south  of  Callipolis,  which  apparently  gave  its  name  to 
 a  town  or  port  situate  at  its  mouth.  {Herod.  9,  119. 
 • — Stcph.  Byz.  s.  V.  AlydrUoTa/iol.)  Mannert  thinks, 
 that  the  town  just  mentioned  was  the  same  with  that 
 called  Cressa  by  Scylax  (p.  28),  and  Cissa  by  Pliny 
 (4,  9).  But  consult  Gail, ad  Scyl.  I.  c.  as  regards  the 
 meaning  of  the  phrase  firof  klybr  Trorafiov,  employed 
 by  Scylax.  {Geogr.  Gr.  Min.  1,  439,  rd.  Gail.)  At 
 jEgos  Potamos  the  Athenian  fleet  was  totally  defeat- 
 ed by  the  Spartan  admiral  Lysander,  an  event  which 
 completely  destroyed  the  power  of  the  former  state, 
 and  finally  led  to  the  capture  of  Athens.  (Xen.  Hist. 
 Gr.  2,  19.— Died.  Sic.  13,  105.— P/w/.  Vif.  Alcib  — 
 Corn.  Nep.  Vit.  Alcib.)  The  village  of  Galata  prob- 
 ably stands  on  the  site  of  the  town  or  harbour.  ( CVo- 
 mcr^s  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  330.) 
 
 .^GOSAG^,  a  Gallic  nation,  who  served  in  the  army 
 of  Altalus  on  one  of  his  expeditions.  He  afterward 
 assigned  them  a  settlement  along  the  Hellespont. 
 {Folyb.  5,  77,  scq.)  Casaubon,  in  his  Latin  version 
 of  Polybius,  has  "  JEgosagcs  {sive  ii  sunt  Tcctosa- 
 ges)."  Schweighaeuser,  misled  by  this  conjecture, 
 introduces  TsKToaayaQ  into  the  Greek  te.xt  of  the  his- 
 torian in  place  of  Alyoaayar,  the  common  readiug. 
 In  his  annotations,  however,  he  acknowledges  his  pre- 
 cipitancy. Compare  the  Historical  and  (Geographical 
 mde.x  to  his  edition  of  Polybius  (vol.  8,  pt.  i.,  p.  198), 
 in  which  he  conjectures  that  'PiySauyec,  which  occurs 
 in  another  passage  of  Polybius  (5,  53),  ought  to  be 
 written  Alyoaayec  also. 
 
 ^GYs,  a  town  of  Laconia,  on  the  borders  of  Arca- 
 dia, and  contiguous  to  Belmina.     {Polyb.  2,  54.) 
 
 ^GYPsus,  or  more  correctly  jEgyssus,  a  city  of 
 McEsia  Inferior,  in  the  region  called  Parva  Scythia,  and 
 situate  on  the  bank  of  the  Danube,  not  far  above  its 
 mouth.  It  is  mentioned  by  Ovid  {Fp.  ex.  Pont.  1,  8, 
 13).  Near  this  place,  according  to  D'Anville,  Darius 
 Hystaspis  constructed  his  bridge  over  the  Danube,  in 
 his  expedition  against  the  Scythians.  (As  regards  the 
 true  reading,  consult  Cellarius.  Geogr.  2,  468.) 
 yEGYPTii,the  inhabitants  of  Egypt.  Vid.  ^gyptus. 
 .iEgyptium  mare,  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
 which  is  on  the  coast  of  Egypt. 
 
 J^^GYPTUs.  I.  a  son  of  Belus,  and  brother  of  Danaus. 
 He  received  from  his  parent  the  country  of  Arabia  to 
 rule  over  ;  but  subsequently  conquered  the  land  of 
 "  the  black-footed  race"  (Me?ia/<;7oJ(jr),  and  gave  it 
 his  name.  jEgyptus  was  the  father  of  50  sons,  and 
 Danaus,  to  whom  Libya  had  been  assigned,  of  50 
 daughters.  Jealousy  breaking  out  between  Danaus 
 and  the  sons  of  /Egyptus,  who  aimed  at  depriving  him 
 S4 
 
 of  his  dominions,  the  former  fled  with  his  50  dautrh- 
 ters,  and  settled  eventually  in  Argolis.  The  sons  oi 
 ^gyptus  came,  after  some  interval  of  time,  to  Argos, 
 and  entreated  their  nncle  to  bury  in  oblivion  all  enmi- 
 ty,  and  to  give  them  their  cousins  in  marriage.  Da- 
 naus, retaining  a  perfect  recollection  of  the  injuries  thej 
 had  done  him,  and  distrustmg  their  promises,  con 
 sented  to  bestow  his  daughters  upon  them,  and  divided 
 them  accordingly  by  lot  among  the  suitors.  But  on 
 the  wedding  day  he  armed  the  hands  of  the  brides  witK 
 daggers,  and  enjoined  upon  them  to  slay  in  the  night 
 their  unsuspecting  bridegrooms.  All  but  Hvperm- 
 nestra  obeyed  the  cruel  order,  while  she,  relenting, 
 spared  her  husband  Lynceus.  Her  father  at  first  put 
 her  in  close  confinement,  but  afterward  forgave  her,  and 
 consented  to  her  union  with  Lynceus.  {Vid.  Danaus, 
 Danaides,  c^c.  —  Apollod.  2,  1,  5.,  scqq. — Hygin. 
 fab.  168,  170.— Oy.  Heroid.  14,  &c.)-II.  An  exten- 
 sive country  of  Africa,  bounded  on  the  west  by  part 
 of  Marmarica  and  by  the  deserts  of  Libya,  on  the 
 north  by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  east  by  the  Sinus 
 Arabicus  and  a  line  drawn  from  Arsinoe  to  Khinocolu- 
 ra,  and  on  the  south  by  ^Cthiopia.  Egypt,  properly 
 so  called,  may  be  described  as  consisting  of  the  long 
 and  narrow  valley  which  follows  the  course  of  the  Nile 
 from  Syene  (or  Assooan)  to  Cairo,  near  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  Memphis.  To  the  Nile,  Egypt  owes  its  ex- 
 istence as  a  habitable  country,  since,  without  the  rich 
 and  fertilizing  mud  deposited  by  the  river  in  its  annual 
 inundations,  it  would  be  a  sandy  desert.  At  three 
 different  places,  previous  to  its  entering  Egypt,  this  no- 
 ble stream  is  threatened  to  be  interrupted  in  its  course  by 
 a  barrier  of  mountains,  and  at  each  place  the  barrier  is 
 surmounted.  The  second  cataract,  in  Turkish  Nubia, 
 is  the  most  violent  and  unnavigable.  The  third  is  at 
 Syene,  and  introduces  the  Nile  into  Upper  Egypt. 
 From  Syene  to  Cairo  the  river  flows  along  a  valley 
 about  eight  miles  broad,  between  two  mountain  ridges, 
 one  of  which  extends  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  other 
 terminates  in  the  deserts  of  ancient  Libya.  The  river 
 occupies  the  middle  of  the  valley  as  far  as  the  strait 
 called  Jebel-el-Silsili.  This  space,  about  forty  miles 
 long,  has  very  little  arable  land  on  its  banks.  It  con- 
 tains some  islands,  which,  from  their  low  level,  easily 
 admit  of  irrigation.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Jebel-cl-Sil- 
 sili  {Girard,  Mem.  sur  VEgyple,  vol.  3,  p.  13),  the 
 Nile  runs  along  the  right  side  of  the  valley,  which  in 
 several  places  has  the  appearance  of  a  steep  line  of 
 rocks  cut  into  peaks,  while  the  ridge  of  the  hills  on 
 the  left  side  is  always  accessible  by  a  slope  of  various 
 acclivity.  These  last  mountains  begin  near  the  town 
 of  Sioo't,  the  ancient  Lycopolis,  and  go  down  towards 
 Faioom,  the  ancient  Arsinoitic  Nome,  diverging  grad- 
 ually to  the  west,  so  that  between  them  and  the  culti- 
 vated valley  there  is  a  desert  space,  becoming  grad- 
 ually wider,  and  which  in  several  places  is  bordered 
 on  the  valley-side  by  a  line  of  sandy  downs  lying  nearly 
 south  and  north.  The  mountains  which  confine  the 
 basin  of  the  Nile  in  Upper  Egypt  are  intersected  by 
 defiles,  which  on  one  side  lead  to  the  shores  of  the 
 Red  Sea,  and  on  the  other  to  the  Oases.  These  nar- 
 row passes  might  be  habitable,  since  the  winter  rains 
 maintain  for  a  time  a  degree  of  vegetation,  and  form 
 springs  which  the  Arabs  use  for  themselves  and  their 
 flocks.  The  strip  of  desert  land  which  generally  ex- 
 tends along  each  side  of  the  valley,  parallel  to  the 
 course  of  the  Nile  (and  which  must  not  be  confound- 
 ed with  the  barren  ocean  of  sand  that  lies  on  each  side 
 of  Ecrypt),  now  contains  two  very  distinct  kinds  of 
 land  ;  the  one  immediately  at  the  bottom  of  the  mount- 
 ain, consists  of  sand  and  round  pebbles ;  the  other, 
 composed  of  light  drifting  sand,  covers  an  extent  of 
 around  formerly  arable.  If  a  section  of  the  valley  is 
 made  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  its  direction,  the 
 surface  will  be  observed  to  decline  from  the  margins 
 of  the  river  to  the  bottom  of  the  hills,  a  circumstance 
 
tEGYPTUS. 
 
 iEGYPTUS. 
 
 also  remarked  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Po, 
 part  of  the  Borysthenes.  and  some  other  rivers.  Near 
 Beni-sooef,  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  already  much  widen- 
 ed on  the  west,  has  on  that  side  an  opening,  through 
 ■which  a  view  is  obtained  of  the  fertile  plauis  of  Fai- 
 oom.  These  plains  form  properly  a  sort  of  table-land, 
 separated  from  the  surrounding  mountains  on  the 
 north  and  west  by  a  wide  valley,  of  which  a  certain 
 proportion,  always  laid  under  water,  forms  what  the 
 inhabitants  calf  Birkcl-el-Karoon.  {Vid.  Mosris.) 
 Near  Cairo,  the  chains  which  limit  the  valley  of  the 
 Nile  diverge  on  both  sides.  The  one,  under  the  name 
 o(  Jibbcl-al- Nation,  runs  northwest  towards  the  Med- 
 iterranean :  the  other,  called  Jibhel-al-Attaka,  runs 
 straight  east  of  Suez.  In  front  of  these  chains  a  vast 
 plain  extends,  composed  of  sands,  covered  with  the 
 mud  of  the  Nile.  At  the  place  called  Batu-el-Baha- 
 ra,  near  the  ancient  Cercasorus,  the  river  divides  into 
 two  branches  ;  the  one  of  which  flowing  to  Rosctia, 
 rear  the  ancient  Ostium  Bolbitinum,  and  the  other  to 
 Damiclta,  the  ancient  Tamiathis,  at  the  Ostium  Phat- 
 reticum,  contain  between  them  the  present  Delta. 
 But  this  triangular  piece  of  insulated  land  was  in  for- 
 mer times  much  larger,  being  bounded  on  the  east  by 
 the  Pelusian  branch,  which  is  now  choked  up  with 
 sand  or  converted  into  marshy  pools  ;  while  on  the 
 west  it  was  bounded  by  the?  Canopic  branch,  which  is 
 now  partly  confounded  with  the  canal  of  Ale.xandrca, 
 and  partly  lost  in  Lake  Elko.  But  the  correspondence 
 of  the  level  of  the  surface  with  that  of  the  present 
 Delta,  and  its  depression  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
 adjoining  desert,  together  with  its  greater  verdure  and 
 fertility,  still  mark  the  limits  of  the  ancient  Delta,  al- 
 though irregular  encroachments  are  made  by  shifting 
 banks  of  drifting  sand,  which  are  at  present  on  the 
 increase.  Egypt  then,  in  general  language,  may  be 
 described  as  an  immense  valley  or  longitudinal  basin, 
 terminating  in  a  Delta  or  triangular  plain  of  alhivial 
 formation  ;  being  altogether,  from  the  heights  of  Sycne 
 to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  about  600  miles  in 
 length,  and  of  various  width.  {MaJte-Brun,  Gcogr. 
 vol.  4,  p.  21,  scqq.) 
 
 1 .    Fcrlility  of  Egypt. 
 
 Almost  the  whole  of  the  productive  soil  of  Egypt 
 consists  of  mud  deposited  by  the  Nile  ;  and  the  Delta, 
 as  in  all  similar  tracts  of  country,  is  entirely  composed 
 of  allnvial  earth  and  sand.  To  ascertain  the  de])th  of 
 this  bed,  the  French  .sarans,  who  accompanied  the  mil- 
 itary expedition  into  Eixypt,  sank  several  wells  at  dis- 
 tant intervals  ;  and  from  their  observations  have  been 
 obtained  the  following  results.  Frrst,  that  the  surface 
 of  the  soil,  as  already  mentioned,  descends  more  or 
 less  rapidly  towards  the  foot  of  the  hills,  which  is  the 
 reverse  of  what  occurs  in  most  valleys  :  secondly,  that 
 the  depth  of  the  bed  of  mud  is  unequal,  being  in  gen- 
 eral about  five  feet  near  the  river,  and  increasing  grad- 
 ually as  it  recedes  from  it  :  thirdly,  that  beneath  the 
 mud  there  is  a  bed  of  sand  similar  to  that  always 
 brought  down  by  the  river.  The  first-mentioned  pe- 
 culiarity is  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  absence  of 
 rain,  which,  in  other  countries,  washes  down  the  soil 
 from  the  hills,  and,  carrying  it  to  the  stream  in  the 
 bottom  of  the  valley,  forms  a  basin,  the  sides  of  which 
 have  a  concave  surface  ;  whereas,  in  Egypt,  the  soil  is 
 conveyed  by  the  inundation  from  the  river  into  the 
 valley,  and  the  deposites,  therefore,  will  be  greatest 
 near  its  banks.  The  more  rapid  the  current,  also,  the 
 smaller  will  be  the  quantity  of  mud  deposited.  The 
 bed  of  quartzose  sand  upon  which  it  rests  is  about 
 thirty-six  fret  in  depth,  and  is  superposed  on  the  cal- 
 careous rock  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  lower  coun- 
 try. The  waters  of  the  river  filter  through  this  bed  of 
 sand,  and  springs  are  found  as  soon  as  the  borer  has 
 reached  any  considerable  depth.  Ancient  Egypt  was 
 remarkable  for  its  fertility.     The  staple  commodity 
 
 was  its  grain,  the  growth  of  which  was  so  abundant 
 as  to  afford  at  all  times  considerable  supplies  to  thfe 
 neighbouring  countries,  particularly  Syria  and  Arabia  ; 
 and  in  times  of  scarcity  or  famine,  which  were  fre- 
 quently felt  in  those  countries,  Egypt  alone  could  save 
 their  numerous  population  from  starving.  Egyp^,  in 
 fact,  unlike  every  other  country  on  the  globe,  brought 
 forth  its  produce  independent  of  the  seasons  and  the 
 skies  ;  and  while  continued  drought  in  the  neighbour- 
 ing countries  brought  one  season  of  scarcity  after  an- 
 other, the  granaries  of  Egypt  were  full.  Hence,  too, 
 Egypt  became  regarded  as  one  of  the  granaries  of 
 Rome.  {Aiircl.  Vtclor.,  Epil.  c.  1.)  Tiie  Rev.  Mr. 
 Jewett  has  given  a  striking  example  of  the  extraordi- 
 nary fertility  of  the  soil  of  Egypt.  "  I  picked  up  at 
 random,"  says  he,  "  a  few  stalks  out  of  the  thick  corn- 
 fields. We  counted  the  number  of  stalks  which  sprout- 
 ed from  single  grains  of  seed  ;  carefully  pulhiig  to 
 pieces  each  root,  in  order  to  see  that  it  was  but  one 
 plant.  The  first  had  seven  stalks  ;  the  next  three  ; 
 the  next  nine  ;  then  eighteen  ;  then  fourteen.  Each 
 stalk  would  have  been  an  ear."  Numerous  canals 
 served  to  carry  the  waters  of  the  Nile  to  some  of  those 
 parts  which  the  inundation  could  not  reach,  while  ma- 
 chinery was  emploved  to  convey  the  means  of  irriga- 
 tion to  others.  Many  of  these  canals  still  exist,  many 
 have  long  since  disappeared,  and  not  a  few  tracts  of 
 sandy  country  have  displayed  themselves  in  modern 
 times  where  formerly  all  was  smiling  and  fertile. 
 Nearly  the  whole  extent  from  the  southern  confines  to 
 the  neighbourhood  of  Thebes  is  one  barren  and  sandy 
 waste.  Assigning  to  Upper  Egypt  an  average  breadth 
 often  miles,  and  allowing  for  the  lateral  valleys  stretch- 
 ing out  from  the  Delta,  it  is  sup])osed  that  the  portion 
 of  territory,  at  the  present  day,  in  Egypt,  capable  ot 
 cultivation,  may  amount  to  about  16,000  square  miles, 
 or,  in  round  numbers,  ten  millions  of  acres.  The  total 
 population  is  estimated  at  about  two  millions  ard  a 
 half,  which  would  give  about  156  to  every  square  mile. 
 Nearly  one  half  of  this  territory,  it  is  supposed,  is  either 
 periodically  inundated,  or  capable  of  artificial  irrigation. 
 The  remaining  part  requires  a  more  laborious  cultiva- 
 tion, and  yields  a  more  scanty  produce.  The  inunda 
 ted  lands,  though  they  have  successively  borne  one 
 crop,  and  frequently  two,  year  after  year,  without  in- 
 termission, for  more  than  3000  years,  still  retain  theii 
 ancient  fertility,  without  any  perceptible  impoverish- 
 ment, and  without  any  farther  tillage  than  the  adventi- 
 tious top-dressing  of  black,  slimy  mould  by  the  over- 
 flowing of  the  river.  Where  the  inundation  does  not 
 reach,  the  crops  are  very  scanty  ;  wheat  does  not  yield 
 above  five  or  six  for  one  ;  but  for  maize  and  millet 
 the  soil  is  particularly  adapted,  and  these,  with  rice, 
 lentils,  and  pulse,  constitute  the  principal  food  of  nine 
 tenths  of  the  inhabitants,  allowing  the  exportation 
 of  the  greater  part  of  the  wheat  produced.  Taking, 
 then,  into  consideration  the  quantity  of  land  once  arable, 
 which  is  now  covered  with  sand,  the  double  harvest, 
 and,  of  some  productions,  more  than  semi-annual  crops, 
 the  smaller  quantity  of  food  which  is  requisite  to  sus- 
 tain life  in  southern  latitudes,  and  the  extent  to  which 
 the  more  barren  soil  was  formerly  rendered  available 
 by  the  cultivation  of  the  olive,  the  fig-tree,  the  vine, 
 and  the  date-palm,  we  shall  no  longer  be  at  a  loss  to 
 account  for  the  immense  fertility  and  populoiisness  of 
 ancient  Egypt,  a  country  said  to  have  contained  in 
 former  days  7,500,000  souls. — One  of  the  most  cele- 
 brated productions  of  Egypt  is  the  latu.i.  The  plant 
 usually  so  denominated  is  a  species  of  water-lily 
 {vymphcra  lotus),  called  by  the  Arabs  nuphar,  which, 
 on  the  disappearance  of  the  inundation,  covers  all  the 
 canals  and  pools  with  its  broad  round  leaves,  amid 
 which  the  flowers,  in  the  form  of  cups  of  bright  white 
 or  azure,  expand  on  the  surface,  and  have  a  most 
 elegant  appearance.  Sonnini  says,  that  its  roots  form 
 a  tubercle,  which  is  gathered  when  the  waters  of  the 
 
 35 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 wiEGYPTUS. 
 
 Nile  subside,  and  is  boiled  and  eaten  like  potatoes, 
 which  it  somewhat  resembles  in  taste.  Herodotus 
 (2,  92)  states,  that  the  Egyptians  not  only  ate  the  root, 
 but  made  a  sort  of  bread  of  the  seed,  which  resembled 
 that  of  the  po))py.  He  adds,  that  there  is  a  second 
 species,  the  root  of  which  is  very  grateful,  either  fresh 
 or  dried.  The  plant  which  was  chiefly  eaten  by  the 
 ancient  Egyptians,  and  which  is  so  frequently  carved 
 on  the  ancient  monuments,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
 nymphcEa  nelumho,  or  nelutnhium  speciosum,  the  "  sa- 
 cred bean"  of  India,  now  found  only  in  that  country. 
 Its  seeds,  which  are  about  the  size  of  a  bean,  have  a 
 delicate  flavour  resembling  almonds,  and  its  roots  also 
 are  edible.  The  lotus  of  Homer,  however,  the  fruits 
 of  which  so  much  delighted  the  companions  of  Ulysses, 
 is  a  very  different  plant,  namely,  the  ziziphus  lotus 
 {rhamnus),  or  jujube,  which  bears  a  fruit  the  size  of  a 
 sloe,  with  a  large  stone,  and  is  one  of  the  rtany  plants 
 which  have  been  erroneously  fi.xed  on  by  learned  com- 
 mentators as  the  diulaim  (mandrakes)  of  the  sacred 
 writings.  The  papyrus,  not  less  celebrated  in  ancient 
 times  than  the  lotus,  and  which  is  believed  to  have 
 disappeared  from  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  has  been  re- 
 discovered in  the  cypcrus  papyrus  of  Linnaeus.  The 
 colocasium  is  still  cultivated  in  Egypt  for  its  large  es- 
 culent roots.  The  banks  of  the  river  and  the  canals 
 sometimes  present  coppices  of  acacia  and  mimosa,  and 
 (here  are  groves  of  rose-laurel,  willow,  cassia,  and  other 
 shrubs.  Faioom  contains  impenetrable  hedges  of  cac- 
 tus, or  Indian  fig.  But,  though  so  rich  in  plants,  Egvpt 
 is  destitute  of  timber,  and  all  the  firewood  is  imported 
 from  Caramania.  {Maltc-Brun,  Gcogr.,\o\.  4,  p.  38, 
 scqq. — Modern  Traveller  (Egypi),  p.  18,  scqq.) 
 
 2.  Animal  Kingdom. 
 
 The  animal  kingdom  of  Egypt  will  not  detain  us 
 long.  The  want  of  meadows  prevents  the  multiplica- 
 tion of  cattle.  They  must  be  kept  in  stables  during 
 the  inundation.  The  Mamelukes  used  to  keep  a  beau- 
 tiful race  of  saddle-horses.  Asses,  mules,  and  camels 
 appear  here  in  all  their  vigour.  There  are  also  nu- 
 merous herds  of  buffaloes.  In  Lower  Egypt  there  are 
 sheep  of  the  Barbary  breed.  The  large  beasts  of  prey 
 find  in  this  country  neither  prey  nor  cover.  Hence, 
 though  the  jackal  and  hvena  are  common,  the  lion  is 
 but  rarely  seen  in  pursuit  of  the  gazelles  which  traverse 
 the  deserts  of  the  Thebaid.  The  crocodile  and  the  hip- 
 popotamus, those  primeval  inhabitants  of  the  Nile, 
 seem  to  be  banished  from  the  Delta,  but  are  still  seen  in 
 Upper  Egypt.  The  islands  adjoining  the  cataracts  are 
 sometimes  found  covered  with  crocoddes,  which  choose 
 these  places  for  depositing  their  eggs.  The  voracity 
 of  the  hippopotamus  has,  by  annihilating  his  means  of 
 support,  greatly  reduced  the  number  of  his  race.  Ab- 
 «loIlatif,  with  some  justice,  denominates  this  ugly  ani- 
 mal an  enormous  water-pig.  It  has  been  long  known 
 that  the  ichneumon  is  not  tamed  in  Upper  Egypt,  as 
 Buffon  had  believed.  The  ichneumon  is  the  same  an- 
 imal which  the  ancients  mention  under  that  name,  and 
 which  has  never  been  found  e.xcept  in  this  country. 
 It  possesses  a  strong  instinct  of  destruction,  and,  in 
 searching  for  its  prey,  e.xterminates  the  young  of  many 
 noxious  reptiles.  The  eggs  of  crocodiles  form  its  fa- 
 vourite food  ;  and  in  addition  to  this  its  favourite  repast, 
 it  eagerly  sucks  the  blood  of  every  creature  which  it  is 
 able  10  overcome.  Its  body  is  about  a  foot  and  a  half 
 in  length,  and  its  tail  is  of  nearly  equal  dimensions. 
 Its  general  colour  is  a  grayish  brown ;  but,  when 
 closely  inspected,  each  hair  is  found  annulated  with  a 
 paler  and  a  darker  hue.  Zoology  has  lately  been  en- 
 riched with  several  animals  brougiit  from  Egypt,  among 
 which  are  the  coluber  haje,  an  animal  figured  in  all  the 
 hieroglyphical  tables  as  the  emblem  of  Providence  ; 
 and  the  coluber  vipera,  the  true  viper  of  the  ancients. 
 The  Nile  seems  to  contain  some  singular  fishes  hith- 
 erto unknown  to  systematic  naturalists.  Of  this  the 
 36 
 
 Polyptere  hichir,  described  by  GeofTroy-Saint-Hilaire 
 {Annalcs  du  Musium,  vol.  1,  p.  57),  is  a  very  remarka- 
 ble example.  That  able  naturalist  observes,  in  genera., 
 that  the  birds  of  Egypt  differ  not  much  from  those  of 
 Europe.  He  saw  the  Egyptian  swan,  represented  in 
 all  the  temples  of  Upper  Egypt,  both  in  sculptures  and 
 in  coloured  paintings,  and  entertains  no  doubt  that  this 
 bird  was  the  chenalopex  {vulpanser)  of  Herodotus,  to 
 which  the  ancient  Egyptians  paid  divine  honours,  and 
 had  even  dedicated  a  town  in  Upper  Egypt,  called  by 
 the  Greeks  Chenohoscium.  It  is  not  peculiar  to  Egypt, 
 but  is  found  all  over  Africa,  and  almost  all  over  Eu- 
 rope. The  Ibis,  which  was  believed  to  be  a  destroyer 
 of  serpents,  is,  according  to  the  observations  of  Cuvier, 
 a  sort  of  curlew,  called  at  present  Aboohannes.  Gro- 
 bert  and  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire  have  brought  home 
 mummies  of  this  animal,  which  had  been  prepared  and 
 entombed  with  much  superstitious  care.  {Memoirc  sur 
 ribis,  par  M.  Cuvier. — Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p. 
 45,  seqq.) 
 
 3.  Name  of  Egypt. 
 
 The  name  by  which  this  country  is  known  to  Euro- 
 peans comes  from  the  Greeks,  some  of  whose  writers 
 inform  us  that  it  received  this  appellation  from  /Egyp- 
 tus,  son  of  Belus,  having  been  previously  called  Ae- 
 ria.     (Compare   Eusebius,,  Chro7i.,  lib.  2,  p.  284,  ed. 
 Mali  et  Zohrab.)     In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  it  is  styled 
 Milsraim,  and   also   Alatsor,   and  harets    Cham :    of 
 these  names,  however,  the  first  is  the  one  most  com- 
 monly employed.     The  Arabians  and  other  Orientals 
 still  know  it  by  the  name  of  Mesr  or  Mizr.     Accord- 
 ing to  general   opinion,  Egypt  was  called   Mitsraim 
 after  the  second  son  of  Ham.     Bochart,  however,  op- 
 poses this  {Geogr.  Sacr.  4,  24),  and  contends  that  the 
 name  of  Mitsraim,  being  a   dual   form,  indicates   the 
 two  divisions  of  Egyjjt  into  Upper  and  Lower.     Cal- 
 met  (Diet.,  art.  Misraim)  supposes,  that  it  denotes  the 
 people  of  the  country   rather  than  the  father  of  the 
 people.     Josephus  {Ant.  Jiid.  1,  6)  calls  Egypt  3Ies- 
 Ira  ;  the  Septuagint  translators,  Metsraim  ;  Eusebius 
 and  Suidas,  Mestraia.     The  Coptic  name  of  Old  Cairo 
 is  still  Mislraim  ;  the  Syrians  and  Arabs  call  it  Masra 
 or  Masscra.     The  other  appellation,  Matsor,  as  given 
 above,  Bochart  has  clearly  proved  to  mean  a  fortress  ; 
 and,  according  to  him,  Egypt  was  so  called,  either  from 
 its  being  a  region  fortified  by  nature,  or  from  the  word 
 fsor,  which  signifies  -narrow,  and  which  he  thinks  suf- 
 ficiently descriptive  of  the  valley  of  L^pper  Egy.pt.     Sir 
 W.  Drummond  {Origines,  2,  55)  inclines  to  the  first 
 of  these  two  etymologies,  because  Diodorus  Siculus 
 (1,  30)  and  Strabo  (803)  remark,  that  Egypt  was  a 
 country  extremely  difficult  of  access;  and  Diodorus, 
 speaking  of  the  Upper  Egypt,  observes,  that  it  seems 
 not  a  little  to  excel  other  limited  places  in  the  kingdom, 
 by  a  natural  fortification  {6xvp6r7iTi  (pvcnKij)  and  by 
 the  beauty  of  the  country.     The  third  appellation  men- 
 tioned   above,   namely,    harets   Cham,   "  the   land  of 
 Ham,"  seems  to  have  been  the  poetical  name  for  Egypt 
 among  the  Hebrews,  and  accordingly  it  occurs  only  in 
 the  Psalms.     It  is  a  tradition,  at  least  as  old  as  the  time 
 of  St.  Jerome,  that  the  land  of  Ham  was  so  named 
 after  the  son  of  Noah.     (QucEst.  in  Genesin. — Drum- 
 mend's  Origines,  2,  45,  scqq.)     There  may,  however, 
 be  reason  to  think,  that  the  patriarch  was  named  after 
 the  country  v^'here  it  is  supposed  he  finally  settled,     ]u 
 Hebrew,  cham  signifies  "  calidus  ;"  and  chom,  "  fuscus," 
 "  niger."    In  Egyptian  we  find  several  words  which  are 
 nearly  the  same  both  in  sound  and  sense.     Thus  Xf^o/^t 
 chmom,  signifies  ^^  calor,'"  and  x'^l'-^i  ehame,  ^^  niger." 
 The  Egyptians  always  called  their  country  Chemia  or 
 Chame,  probably  from  the  burned  and  black  appearance 
 of  the  soil.     (Compare  Plut.  de  Is.  et  Os.,  p.  364. — 
 Shatcc's  Travels,  fol.  cd.,  p.  432. — CalmeCs  Diet.,  art. 
 Ham.)     The  name  A'eria  has  a  similar  reference,  and 
 would  seem  to  have  been  a  translation  of  the  native 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 word,  the  primitive  (n)p  denoting  obscurity,  duskiness. 
 Thus,  the  scholiast  on  Apollonius  Rhodius  (1,  580) 
 says,  that  Thessaly  was  called  'Hcpia,  according  to  one 
 explanation,  on  account  of  the  dark  colour  of  its  soil  ; 
 and  adds  that  Egypt  was  denominated  'Hepia  for  a 
 similar  reason.  Bryant  (6,  149),  who  cites  this  pas- 
 sage of  the  scholiast,  represents  it  as  a  vulgar  error ; 
 but  his  reasoning  is,  as  usual,  unsatisfactory.  The 
 etymology  of  the  word  Egypt  has  occupied  the  atten- 
 tion and  baffled  the  ingenuity  of  many  learned  writers. 
 The  most  common  opinion  is,  that  Kh/VKTo^  is  com- 
 posed of  a<a  (for  yaia),  land,  and  yiVrof,  or  rather  kott- 
 TOi\  and  that,  consequently,  Egypt  signifies  the  land  of 
 Kopt,  ox  the  Koplic  land.  Others  derive  it  from  aia,  and 
 yvil),  the  black  vulture,  the  colour  of  that  bird  (whence 
 the  Latin  subvul/urius,  "  blackish"')  being,  according 
 to  them,  characteristic  of  the  soil  or  its  inhabitants. 
 Mede  conceives  the  primitive  form  to  have  been  Aia 
 Cuphti,  the  land  of  Cuphti ;  while  Bruce  says,  that 
 Y  Gijpt,  the  name  given  to  Egypt  in  Ethiopia,  means 
 the  country  of  canals.  Eusebius,  who  is  supposed  to 
 have  followed  Manetho,  the  Egyptian  historian,  states, 
 that  Ramses,  or  Ramesses,  who  reigned  in  Egvpt 
 (according  to  Usher)  B.C.  1577,  was  also  called 
 ^gyptus,  and  that  he  gave  it  his  name,  as  has  already 
 been  m«^iiiioned.  {Euseb.  Chron.  2,  p.  284,  ed.  Maii 
 ct  Zohrab.) 
 
 4.  Divisions  of  Egypt. 
 
 In  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs,  Egypt  was  divided  into 
 the  Thebais,  Middle,  and  Lower  Egypt.  The  Thebais 
 extended  from  Syene,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  Phi- 
 lae,  as  far  as  Abydos,  and  contained  ten  districts,  juris- 
 dictions, or,  as  the  Greeks  called  them,  names  (N6/xol. 
 Herod.  2,  164).  The  Coptic  word  is  Plhosch.  ( Cliani- 
 pollion,  VEgypte  sous  les  Pharaons,  1 ,  66.)  To  these 
 succeeded  the  sixteen  nomes  of  Middle  Egvpt  {Strabo, 
 787),  reaching  to  Cercasorus,  where  the  Nile  began  to 
 branch  off.  Then  came  the  ten  nomes  of  Lower  Egypt, 
 or  the  Delta,  extending  to  the  sea.  The  whole  num- 
 ber of  nomes  then  was  thirty-six,  and  this  arrangement 
 is  said  by  Diodorus  Siculus  (1,  50)  to  have  been  in- 
 troduced by  Sesostris  (Sethosis-Ramesses)  previous  to 
 his  departure  on  his  expedition  into  Asia,  in  order  that, 
 by  means  of  the  governors  placed  over  each  of  these 
 nomes,  his  kingdom  might  be  the  better  governed  du- 
 ring his  absence,  and  justice  more  carefully  administer- 
 ed. It  is  more  than  probable,  however,  that  this  divis- 
 ion was  much  older  than  the  time  of  Sesostris  {Cham- 
 potlion,  VEgypte,  &c  ,  1,  71),  and  the  account  given 
 by  Strabo.  respecting  the  halls  of  the  labyrinth,  would 
 seem  to  confirm  this.  The  geographer  informs  us,  that 
 the  halls  of  this  structure  coincided  with  the  number 
 of  the  nomes,  and  the  building  would  seem  to  have  oc- 
 cupied a  central  position  with  respect  to  these  various 
 districts,  having  eighteen  nomes  to  the  north,  and  as 
 many  to  the  south,  and  thus  answering  a  civil  as  well 
 as  a  religious  purpose.  {Ritler,  Erdkunde,  2d  cd.,  1, 
 704.)  Under  the  dynasty  of  the  Ptolemies  the  nuni- 
 ber  of  the  nomes  became  enlarged,  partly  by  reason  of 
 the  new  and  improved  state  of  things  in  that  quarter 
 of  Egypt  where  Alexandrea  was  situated,  partly  by  the 
 addition  of  the  Oases  to  Egypt,  and  partly  also  by  the 
 alterations  which  an  active  commerce  had  produced 
 along  the  borders  of  the  Arabian  Gulf  A  change  also 
 took  place,  about  this  same  period,  in  the  three  main 
 divisions  of  the  land.  Lower  Egypt  now  no  longer 
 confined  itself  to  the  limits  of  the  Delta,  but  had  its 
 extent  enlarged  by  an  addition  of  some  of  the  neigh- 
 bouring nomes.  In  like  manner.  Upper  Egypt,  or  the 
 Thebais,  received  a  portion  of  what  had  formerly  been 
 included  within  the  limits  of  Middle  Egypt,  so  that 
 eventually  but  seven  nomes  remained  to  this  last-men- 
 tioned section  of  country,  which  therefore  received  the 
 name  of  Hcptanomis.    {Mannert,  Geogr.  10,  1,303.) 
 
 Under  the  Roman  dominion,  Thebais  alone  was  re- 
 garded as  a  separate  division  of  the  country  ;  all  the 
 rest  of  the  land  obtained  no  farther  division  than  that 
 produced  by  its  nomes.     Hence   Pliny  (5,  9),  after 
 mentioning  eleven  nomes   as  forming  the  district  of 
 Thebais,  speaks  of  the  country  around  Pelusium  as 
 consisting  of  four  others,  and  then,  without  any  other 
 division,  enumerates  thirty  nomes  in  the  rest  of  Egypt. 
 At   this  time,  then,  the  nomes    had    increased   to  45. 
 They  became  still  farther   increased,  at  a  subsequent 
 period,  by  various    subdivisions   of  the   older  ones. 
 Hence  we  find  Ptolemy  enumerating  still  more  nomes 
 than  Pliny,  while  he  omits  the  mention  of  others  re- 
 corded by  the  latter,  which  probably  existed  no  longer 
 in  his  own  days.     At  a  still  later  period  we  hear  little 
 more  of  the  nomes.     A  new  division  of  the  country 
 took  place,  under  the  Eastern   empire.     An  imperial 
 Prefect  exercised  sway  over  not  only  Egypt,  but  also 
 Libya  as  far  as  Gyrene,  while  a  Comes  Mditaris  had 
 charge  of  the  forces.     The  power  of  the  latter  extend- 
 ed over  all  Egypt  as  far  as  Ethiopia,  but  a  Dux,  who 
 was  dependant    on  him,   exercised  particular   control 
 over  the  Thebais.      This  arrangement  seems  to  have 
 been  introduced  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Thcodo- 
 sius,  as   appears  from  the  language  of  the   Notiiia. 
 From  this  time,  the  whole  of  Middle  Egypt,  previously 
 named  Heptanomis,  bore  the  name  of  Arcadia,  in  hon- 
 or of  Arcadius,  eldest    son  of  Theodosius.     A  new 
 province  also   had   arisen  a  considerable  time  before 
 this,  named  Auguslaninica,  from  its  lying  chiefly  along 
 the  Nile.     It  comprised  the  eastern  half  of  the  Delta, 
 together  with  a  portion  of  Arabia  as  far  as  the  Arabian 
 Gulf,  and  also  the  cities  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  as 
 far  as  the  Syrian  frontier.      Its  capital  was  Pelusium 
 The  name  of  this  province  is  mentioned  by  the  eccle- 
 siastical writers  as  early  as  the  time  of  Constantine, 
 and  it  occurs  also  in  the  history  of  Ammianus  Marccl- 
 linus  (23,  16).     About  the  time  of  Justinian,  in   the 
 sixth  century,  the  position  of  the  various  archbishop- 
 rics and  bishoprics,  all    subject  to  the  patriarchate  of 
 Alexandrea,  gave  rise  to  a  new  distribution  of  provin- 
 ces.     The  territory  of  Alexandrea,  with  the  western 
 portion  of  the  Delta  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Ostium  Ca- 
 nopicum,   was    called  "  The   First  Egypt,"  and   the 
 more  eastern  part,  as  far  as  the  Ostium  Phatneticum, 
 was  termed  "The  Second  Egypt."     The  northeast- 
 ern quarter  of  the  Delta,  on  the  Pelusiac  arm  of  the 
 Nile,  together  with  the  eastern  tract  as  far  as  the  Ara- 
 bian Gulf,  received  the  appellation  of  "  The  First  Au- 
 gustamnica,"  and  had  Pelusium  for  its  capital.      The 
 inner  part  of  the  western  Delta,  as  far  as  the  Ostium 
 Phatneticum,  was   named    "  The  Second  Augustam- 
 nica."     Its  capital  was  Leontopolis.     Thus  the  Delta, 
 with  the  country  immediately  adjacent,  embraced  four 
 small  provinces.     Middle  Egypt  still  retained  a  large 
 part  of  its  previous  extent,  under  the  name  of  Middle 
 Egypt   or    Arcadia     (Megtj    AlyvrtTor,   fj  'ApKadia). 
 Memphis  belonged  to  it  as  the  northernmost  state  ; 
 but  it  was  by  this  time   greatly  sunk  in  importance, 
 and  Oxyrynchus  had  succeeded  it  as  the  metropolis. 
 Amid  all  these  changes,  the  Thebais  was  continually 
 regarded  as  a  separate  district.     It  now  received  new 
 accessions  from  the  north,  and  a  double  appellation 
 arose.     The  northern  and  smaller  portion,  which  had 
 originally  formed  a  part  of  Middle  Egypt,  was  called 
 "  The  First  Thebais."     To  it  was  appended  the  Oa- 
 sis Magna,  and  its  Metropolis  was  Anta-ojiolis,     U'he 
 southern  regions  as  far  as  Phils  and  Thatis,  including 
 a  small  part  of  ^Ethiopia,  formed  "  The  Second  The- 
 bais."    Its  capital  was  Coptos.      It  seems  unnecessary 
 to  pursue  the  subsequent  changes  that  gradually  en- 
 sued, especially  as  they  are  of  no  peculiar  importance 
 either  in   point  of  history  or  geography.      (Compare 
 Hierocles,   Synekdemos ;  in  ^^'esseling's   Rnin.  Itin.. 
 Amst.,  1735,  4to. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  10,  1, 305,  seqq.) 
 
 37 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 5.  ropulation  of  Egypt. 
 DioJorus  Siculus  (1,  31)  states,  on  the  authority  of 
 the  ancient  Eirypti""!  records,  that  the  land  contained, 
 in  the  time  ol  the  Pharaohs,  more  than  18,000  cities 
 and  villacres.  The  same  writer  informs  us,  that,  in 
 the  time'of  the  first  Ptolemy,  the  number  was  above 
 30,000.  In  this  latter  statement,  however,  there  is  an 
 evident  exaggeration.  Theocritus  {Idyll.  17,  82,  scqq.) 
 assigns  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  the  sovereignty  over 
 33,333  cities.  In  this  also  there  is  exaggeration,  but 
 not  of  so  offensive  a  character  as  in  the  former  case, 
 since  the  sway  of  Philadelphus  did,  in  fact,  extend 
 over  othei  countries  besides  Egypt ;  such  as  Syria, 
 Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  Pamphylia,  Caria,  &c.  Pomponius 
 Mela  (1,  9),  and  Pliny  (5,  9),  who  frequently  copies 
 him,  confine  themselves  with  good  reasor^  to  a  more 
 moderate  number.  According  to  them,  the  Egyptians 
 occupied,  in  the  time  of  Amasis,  20,000  cities.  This 
 number  is  borrowed  from  Herodotus  (2,  77),  and  may 
 be  made  to  correspond  with  that  first  given  from  Dio- 
 dorus  Siculus,  if  we  take  into  consideration  that  Ama- 
 sis had  extended  his  sway  over  Cyrenaica  also,  and 
 that  this  may  serve  to  swell  the  number  as  given  by 
 Herodotus,  Mela,  and  Pliny,  leaving  about  18,000  for 
 E<jypt  itself.  Diodorus  Siculus  {I  c.)  gives  the  an- 
 cient population  of  the  country  as  seven  millions,  an 
 estimate  which  does  not  appear  excessive,  when  com- 
 pared with  that  of  other  lands.  The  number  would 
 seem  to  have  been  somewhat  increased  during  the 
 reiirnof  the  Ptolemies,  and  to  have  continued  so  under 
 the  Roman  sway,  since  we  find  Josephus  {Bell.  Jud. 
 2,  16)  estimating  the  population  of  Egypt,  in  the  time 
 of  Vespasian,  at  7,500,000,  without  counting  that  of 
 Alexandrea,  which,  according  to  Diodorus  (17,  52), 
 was  300,000,  exclusive  of  slaves.  When  we  read, 
 however,  in  the  same  Diodorus  (1,  31),  that  in  his 
 days  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  amounted  to  "  not  less 
 than  three  millions''^  {ovk  e'AuTvovc  dvai  Tfiianoaiuv  sc. 
 fivpid6cjv).  we  must  regard  this  number  as  the  interpo- 
 lation of  a  scribe,  and  must  consider  Diodorus  as  mere- 
 ly wishing  to  convey  this  idea,  that,  in  more  ancient 
 times,  the  population  was  said  to  have  been  seven  mil- 
 lions, and  that  in  his  own  days  it  was  not  inferior  to  this. 
 (Toy  de  avf.nvavToc  Xaov  to  uev  Tra?Mi6v  (paac  yeyovivat 
 iTEpl  enraKoaiag  fivpiuSag,  Kal  Kad'  yfiac  6e  ovk  e?iu.T- 
 Tovc  elvu  [TpiaKoaiuv].  Compare  Wesseimg-,  ad 
 lac. — Mannert,  10,  2,  309,  scgq.) 
 
 6.   Complexion  and  Physical  Structure  of  the 
 Egyptians. 
 
 A  few  remarks  relative  to  the  physical  character  of 
 this  singular  people,  may  form  no  uninteresting  prel- 
 ude to  their  national  history.  There  are  two  sources 
 of  information  respecting  the  physical  character  of  the 
 ancient  Egyptians.  These  are,  first,  the  descriptions 
 of  their  persons  incidentally  to  be  met  with  in  the  an- 
 cient writers ;  and,  secondly,  the  numerous  remains 
 of  paintings  and  sculptures,  as  well  as  of  human  bodies, 
 preserved  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  Egypt.  It  is  not 
 easy  to  reconcile  the  evidence  derived  from  these  dif- 
 ferent quarters.  The  principal  data  from  which  a 
 iudgment  is  to  be  formed  are  as  follows  :  1.  Accounts 
 given  by  the  ancients.  If  we  were  to  judge  from  the 
 remarks  in  some  passages  of  the  ancient  writers  alone, 
 we  should  perhaps  be  led  to  the  opinion  that  the  Egyp- 
 tians were  a  woolly-haired  and  black  people,  like  the 
 negroes  of  Guinea.  There  is  a  well-known  passage 
 ofllerodotus  (2,  104),  wiiich  has  often  been  cited  to 
 this  purpose.  The  authority  of  this  historian  is  of  the 
 more  weight,  as  he  had  travelled  in  Egypt,  and  was, 
 therefore,  well  acquainted,  from  his  own  observation, 
 with  the  appearance  of  the  people  ;  and  it  is  well 
 known  that  he  is  in  general  very  accurate  and  faithful 
 in  relating  the  facts  and  describing  the  objects  which 
 fell  under  his  personal  observation.  In  his  account 
 38 
 
 of  the  people  of  Colchis,  he  says,  that  they  were  a 
 colony  of  Egyptians,  and  he  supports  his  opinion  bv  this 
 argument,  that  they  were  [ie'/Myxpoe^  kcli  ovkoTpixeg, 
 or,  "  black  in  complexion,  and  woolly-haired."  These 
 are  exactly  the  words  used  in  the  description  of  ui»- 
 doubled  negroes.  The  same  Colchians,  it  may  be 
 observed,  are  mentioned  by  Pindar  {Pylh.  4,  377) 
 as  being  black,  with  the  epithet  of  «£/la(.vtJ7ref,  on 
 which  passage  the  scholiast  observes,  that  the  Col- 
 chians were  black,  and  that  their  dusky  hue  was  at- 
 tributed to  their  descent  from  the  Egyptians,  who  were 
 of  the  same  complexion.  Herodotus,  in  another  place 
 (2,  57),  alludes  to  the  complexion  of  the  Egyptians, 
 as  if  it  was  very  strongly  marked,  and,  indeed,  as  if 
 they  were  quite  black.  After  relating  the  fable  of  the 
 foundation  of  the  Dodonean  oracle  by  a  black  pigeon, 
 which  had  fled  from  Thebes  in  Egypt,  and  uttered  its 
 prophecies  from  the  oaks  at  Dodona,  he  adds  his  con- 
 jecture respecting  the  true  meaning  of  the  tale.  He 
 supposes  the  oracle  to  have  been  instituted  by  a  female 
 captive  from  the  Thebaid,  who  was  enigmatically  de- 
 scribed as  a  bird,  and  subjoins,  that,  "  by  representing 
 the  bird  as  black,  they  marked  that  the  woman  was  an 
 Egyptian."  Some  other  writers  have  left  us  expres- 
 sions equally  strong,  .^schylus,  in  the  Supplices 
 (y.  722,  scqq.),  mentions  the  crew  of  an  Egyptian 
 bark,  as  seen  from  an  eminence  on  shore.  'I'he  per- 
 son who  espies  them  concludes  them  to  be  Egyptians 
 from  their  black  complexion  : 
 
 TTperrovai  6'  uvSpeg  vf/ioi.  peXayxi/J-Oig 
 
 yViOLGL  7\.£VkC)V  EK   TTE'K^.U/lU.TUl'  IdEll'. 
 
 There  are  other  passages  in  ancient  writers,  in 
 which  the  Egyptians  are  mentioned  as  a  swarthy  peo- 
 ple, which  might  with  equal  propriety  be  applied  to  a 
 perfect  black,  or  to  a  brown  or  dusky  Nubian.  We 
 have,  in  one  of  the  dialogues  of  Lucian  (Navigium  sen 
 Vota. — vol.  8,  157,  ed.  Bip.),  a  ludicrous  description 
 of  a  young  Egyptian,  who  is  represented  as  belong- 
 ing to  the  crew  of  a  trading  vessel  at  the  Pirasus.  It 
 is  said  of  him,  that,  "besides  being  black,  he  had  pro- 
 jecting lips,  and  was  very  slender  in  the  legs,  and  that 
 his  hair  and  the  curls  bushed  up  behind  marked  him 
 to  be  of  servile  rank."  The  words  of  the  original  are, 
 ovToc  Se  Trpof  ru  /ueXuyxpovg  elvai,  Kal  iTp6xEL?a>g  ia- 
 
 Ti,  Kal  AenTog  uyav  Tolv  ckeXoIv, »/  k6j.i7j  6e, 
 
 Kal  eg  TovTviau  6  w?i6Ka/j.og  avvEaTZEipajiivog,  ovk  iXev- 
 Bipiov  (j)7jCTi.v  avTov  eivai.  The  expression,  howevei, 
 which  is  here  applied  to  the  hair,  seems  rather  to 
 agree  with  the  description  of  the  bushy  curls  worn  by 
 the  Nouba,  than  with  the  woolly  heads  of  negroes. 
 Mr.  Legh,  in  speaking  of  the  Barabras,  near  Syene, 
 says,  "The  hair  of  the  men  is  sometimes  frizzled  at 
 the  sides,  and  stiffened  with  grease,  so  as  perfectly  to 
 resemble  the  extraordinary  projection  on  the  head  of 
 the  Sphinx.  But  the  make  of  the  limbs  corresponds 
 with  the  negro."  {Legh^s  Travels  in  Egypt,  p.  98.) 
 In  another  physical  peculiarity  the  Egyptian  race  is 
 described  as  resembling  the  negro.  iElian  (Hist. 
 Anim.  7,  12)  informs  us,  that  the  Egyptians  used  to 
 boast  that  their  women,  immediately  after  they  were 
 delivered,  could  rise  from  their  beds,  and  go  about  their 
 domestic  labour.  Some  of  these  passages  are  very 
 strongly  expressed,  as  if  the  Egyptians  were  negroes ; 
 and  yet  it  must  be  confessed,  that  if  they  really  weie 
 such,  it  is  singular  we  do  not  find  more  frequent  allu- 
 sion to  the  fact.  The  Hebrews  were  a  fair  people, 
 fairer  at  least  than  the  Arabs.  Yet,  in  all  the  inter- 
 course they  had  with  Egypt,  we  never  find  in  the  sa- 
 cred history  the  least  intimation  that  the  Egyptians 
 were  neoroes ;  not  even  on  the  remarkable  occasion 
 of  the  marriage  of  Solomon  with  the  daughter  of  Pha- 
 raoh. Were  a  modern  historian  to  record  the  nuptials 
 of  a  European  monarch  with  the  daughter  of  a  negro 
 king,  such  a  circumstance  would  surely  find  its  place. 
 And  since  Egypt  was  so  closely  connected,  first  with 
 
-EGYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 Gwcian  affairs  when  under  the  Ptolemies,  and  after- 
 ward with  the  rest  of  Europe  when  it  had  become  a 
 Roman  province,  it  is  very  singular,  on  the  supposition 
 that  this  nation  was  so  remarkably  different  from  the 
 rest  of  mankind,  that  we  have  no  allusion  to  it.  We 
 seldom  find  the  Egyptians  spoken  of  as  a  very  peculiar 
 race  of  men.  These  circumstances  induce  us  to  hes- 
 itate m  explaining  the  expressions  of  the  ancients  in 
 that  very  strong  sense  in  which  they  at  first  strike  us. 
 — 2.  The  second  class  of  data,  from  which  we  may 
 form  a  judgment  on  this  subject,  are  Paintings  in 
 Temples,  and  other  remains.  If  we  may  judge  of  the 
 complexion  of  the  Egyptians  from  the  numerous  paint- 
 ings found  in  the  recesses  of  temples,  and  in  the  tombs 
 of  the  kings  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  which  the  colours  are 
 preserved  in  a  very  fresh  state,  we  must  conclude  that 
 the  general  complexion  of  this  people  was  a  ciiocolate, 
 or  a  red  copper  colour.  This  may  be  seen  in  the 
 coloured  figures  given  by  Belzoni,  and  in  numerous 
 plates  in  the  splendid  "  Description  de  TEgypte." 
 This  red  colour  is  evidently  intended  to  represent  the 
 complexion  of  the  people,  and  is  not  put  on  in  the  want 
 of  a  lighter  paint  or  flesh  colour :  for  when  the  limbs 
 or  bodies  are  represented  as  seen  through  a  thin  veil, 
 the  tint  used  resembles  the  complexion  of  Europeans. 
 The  same  shade  might  have  been  generally  adopted 
 if  a  darker  one  had  not  been  preferred,  as  more  truly 
 representmg  the  natural  complexion  of  the  Egyptian 
 race.  (Compare  Belzoni  s  Remarks,  p.  239.)  Female 
 figures  are  sometimes  distinguished  by  a  yellow  or 
 tawny  colour,  and  hence  it  is  probable  that  the  shade 
 of  complexion  was  lighter  in  those  who  were  protected 
 from  the  sun.  A  very  curious  circumstance  in  the 
 paintings  found  in  Egyptian  temples  remains  to  be 
 noticed.  Besides  the  red  figures,  which  are  evidently 
 meant  to  represent  the  Egyptians,  there  are  other  fig- 
 ures which  are  of  a  black  colour.  Sometimes  these 
 represent  captives  or  slaves,  perhaps  from  the  negro 
 fcountries  ;  but  there  are  also  paintings  of  a  very  dif- 
 ferent kind,  which  occur  chiefly  in  Upper  Egypt,  and 
 particularly  on  the  confines  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia.  In 
 these  the  black  and  the  red  figures  hold  a  singular  re- 
 lation to  each  other.  Both  have  the  Egyptian  costume, 
 and  the  habits  of  priests,  while  the  black  figures  are 
 represented  as  conferring  on  the  red  the  instruments 
 and  symbols  of  the  sacerdotal  office.  "  This  singular 
 representation,"  says  Mr.  Hamilton,  "  which  is  often 
 repeated  in  all  the  Egyptian  temples,  but  only  here  at 
 Philas  and  at  Elephantme  with  this  distinction  of  col- 
 our, may  very  naturally  be  supposed  to  commemorate 
 the  transmission  of  religious  fables  and  the  social  in- 
 stitutions from  the  tawny  Ethiopians  to  the  compara- 
 tively fair  Egyptians."  It  consists  of  three  priests, 
 two  of  whom,  with  black  faces  and  hands,  are  repre- 
 sented as  pouring  from  two  jars  strings  of  alternate 
 sceptres  of  Osiris  and  cruces  ansala  over  the  head  of 
 another  whose  face  is  red.  There  are  other  paintings 
 which  seem  to  be  nearly  of  the  same  purport.  In  the 
 temple  of  Phils,  the  sculptures  frequently  depict  two 
 persons  who  equally  represent  the  characters  and  sym- 
 bols of  Osiris,  and  two  persons  equally  answering  to 
 those  of  Isis  ;  but  in  both  cases  one  is  invariably  much 
 older  than  the  other,  and  appears  to  be  the  superior 
 divinity.  Mr.  Hamilton  conjectures  that  such  figures 
 represent  the  communication  of  religious  rites  from 
 Ethiopia  to  Egypt,  and  the  inferiority  of  the  Egyptian 
 Osiris.  In  these  delineations  there  is  a  very  marked 
 and  positive  distinction  between  the  black  figures  and 
 those  of  fairer  complexion  ;  the  fornier  are  most  fre- 
 quently conferring  the  symbols  of  divinity  and  sov- 
 ereignty on  the  other.  Besides  these  paintings  de- 
 scriiicd  by  Mr.  Hamilton,  there  are  frequent  repetitions 
 of  a  very  singular"  representation,  of  which  different 
 examples  may  be  seen  in  the  beautiful  plates  of  the 
 *'  Description  de  I'Egypte."  In  these  it  is  plain,  that 
 the  idea  meant  to  be  conveyed  can  be  nothing  else  than 
 
 this,  that  the  red  Egyptians  were  connected  by  kindred, 
 and  were,  in  fact,  the  descendants  of  a  black  race,  prob- 
 ably the  Ethiopian.    (Compare  plate  92  of  the  work  just 
 alluded  to,  and  also  plates  84  and  86.)    In  the  same 
 volume  of  the  "  Description  de  I'Egypte"  is  a  plate 
 representing  a  painting  at  Eilithyia.     Numerous  fig- 
 ures of  the  people  are  seen.     It  is  remarkable  that 
 their  hair  is  black  and  curled.     "  Lcs  cheveux  noirs 
 et  frises,  sans  etre  court  ct  crepus  comme  ceux  des 
 Negres."     This  is  probably  a  correct  account  of  the 
 hair  of  the  Egyptian  race.— 3.  The  t/nrd  class  of  data 
 for    the    present  investigation    is   obtained  from   the   ^ 
 form  of  the  scull.     In  reference  to  the  form  of  the 
 scull  among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  their  osteologi- 
 cal  characters  in  general,  there  is  no  want  of  informa- 
 tion.    The  innumerable  muminies,  in  which  the  whole 
 nation  may  be  said  to  have  remained  entire  to  modern 
 times,  aflbrd  sufficient  means  of  ascertaining  the  true 
 form  of  the  race  and  all  its  varieties.    Blumenbach,  who 
 has  collected  much  information  on  everything  relating 
 to  the  history  of  muminies,  in  his  excellent  "  Beytraae 
 zur  Naturgeschichte,"  concludes  with  a  remark  that 
 the  Egyptian  race,  in  his  ojiinion,  contains  three  varie- 
 ties.    These  are,  first,  the  Ethiopian  form  ;  secondly, 
 the  "  Plindus-artige,"  or  a  figure  resembling  the  Hin- 
 dus ;    and,   thirdly,  the  "  Berber-ahnliche,"  or,  more 
 properly,  Berberin-ahnliche,  a   form    similar   to    that 
 of  the  Berbers  or  Berberins.     It  must  be  observed, 
 however,  that  Blumenbach  has  been  led  to  adopt  this 
 opinion,  not  so  much  from  the  mummies  he  has  e.xam- 
 ined,  as  from  the  remains  of  ancient  arts  and  from 
 historical    testimonies.     As  far  as   their  osteological 
 characters  are  concerned,  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
 Egyptians  differed  very  materially  from    Europeans. 
 They  certainly  had  not  the  character  of  the  scull  which 
 belonged  to  the  negroes  in  the  western  parts  of  Africa  ; 
 and    if  any  approximation  to  the  negro  scull  existed 
 among  them,  it  must  have  been  rare  and  in  no  o-reat 
 degree.     Sommering  has  described  the  heads  of  four 
 mummies  seen  by  him  ;  two  of  them  differed  in  nothing 
 from  the  European  formation  ;  the  third  had  only  one 
 African  character,  viz.,  that  of  a  larger  space  marked 
 out  for  the  temporal  muscle  ;    the  characters  of  the 
 fourth  are  not  particularized.     Mr.  Lawrence,  in  whose 
 work  {Lectures  on  Physiology,  p.  299,  Am.  ed.)  the 
 above  evidence  of  Sommering  is  cited,  has  collected 
 a  variety  of  statements  respecting  the  form  of  the  head 
 in  the  mummies  deposited  in  the  museums  and  other 
 collections  in  several  countries.     He    observes,  that 
 in  the  mummies  of  females  seen  by  Denon,  in  those 
 from  the    Theban    catacombs  engraved   in  the  great 
 French  work,  and  in  several  sculls  and  casts  in  the 
 possession  of  Dr.  Leach,  the  osteological  character  is 
 entirely  European  ;  lastly,  he  adduces  the  strong  evi- 
 dence of  Cuvier,  who  says,  that  he  has  examined  in 
 Paris,  and  in  the  various  collections  of  Europe,  more 
 than  fifty  heads  of  mummies,  and  that  not  one  among 
 them  presented  the  characters  of  the  negro  or  Hot- 
 tentot.    {Lawrence's  Lectures,  p.  301. — Observations 
 sur  le  cadavre  de  la  Venus  Hottentotte,  -par  M.  Cuvier, 
 Mem.  du   Museum  d'Hist.    Nat.,  3,    173,   scqq.)     It 
 could  therefore  be  only  in  the  features,  as  far  as  they 
 depend  on  the  soft  parts,  that  the  Egyptians  bore  any 
 considerable  resemblance  to  the  negro.     And  the  same 
 thing  might  probably  be  afhrmed  of  several  other  na- 
 tions, who  must  be  reckoned  among  the  native  Afri- 
 cans.   Particularly  it  might  be  asserted  of  the  Berberins 
 or  Nubians  already  mentioned,  and  of  some  tribes  of 
 Abyssinians.     A  similar  remark  might  be  made  of  the 
 Copts.     In  neither  of  these  races  is  it  at  all  probable 
 that  the  scull  would  exhibit  any  characteristic  of  the 
 negro.     It  is  here,  then,  that  we  are  to  look  for  the 
 nearest  representatives  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  and 
 Ethiopians,  and  particularly  to  the  Copts,  who  are  de- 
 scended from  the  former,  and  to  the  copper-coloured 
 races  resembling  the  Berberins  or  Nubians.     Denon 
 
 39 
 
iEGYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 makes  mention  of  the  resemblance  which  the  Copts 
 bear  to  the  human  figures  painted  or  scul[)tured  among 
 the  ruins  of  ancient   Egypt.     He  adds  the  following 
 remarks.      "  As  to  the  character  of  the  human  figure, 
 as  the  Egyptians  borrowed  nothing  from  other  nations, 
 they  could  only  copy  from  their  own,  which  is  rather 
 delicate  than  fine.     The  female  forms,  however,  re- 
 sembled the  figures  of  beautiful  women  of  the  present 
 day;  rojnd  and  voluptuous;  a  small  nose,  the  eyes 
 long,  half  shut,  and  turned  up  at  the  outer  angle  like 
 those  of  all  persons  whose  sight  is  habitually  fatigued 
 ^»by  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun  or  the  dazzling  white- 
 ness of  snow  ;    the  cheeks  round  and   rather  thick, 
 the  lips  full,  the  mouth  large,  but  cheerful  and  smiling  ; 
 disjilaying,  in  short,  the  African  character,  of  which 
 the  negro  is  the  exaggerated  picture,  though  perhaps 
 the  original  type."     The  visages  carved  and  painted 
 on  the  heads  of  the  sarcophagi  may  be  supposed  to 
 give  an  idea  of  an  Egyptian  countenance.     In  these 
 there  is  a  certain  roundness  and  flatness  of  the  features, 
 and  the  whole  countenance,  which  strongly  resembles 
 the  description  of  the  Copts,  and  in  some  degree  that 
 of  the  Berberins.     The  colour  of  these  visages  is  the 
 red  coppery  hue  of  the  last-mentioned  people,  and  is 
 nearly  the  same,  though  not  always  so  dark,  as  that 
 of  the  figures  painted  in  the  temples  and  catacombs. 
 The  most  puzzling  circumstance  in  this  comparison 
 refers  to  the  hair.     The  Copts  are  said  to  have  frizzled 
 or  somewhat  crisp,  though  not  woolly,  hair.     The  old 
 Egyptians,  as  well  as  the  Ethiopians,  are  termed  by 
 the  Greeks  oii/toT-pi^ef-     But  the  hair  found  in  mum- 
 mies is  generally,  if  not  always,  in  flowing  ringlets, 
 as  long  and  as  smooth  as  that  of  any  European.     Its 
 colour,  which  is  often  brown,  may  depend  on  art,  or 
 the  substance  used  in  embalming.     But  the  texture  is 
 different  from  what  we  should  expect  it  to  be,  either 
 from  the  statements  of  ancient  writers,  or  from  the 
 description  of  the  races  now  existing  in  the    same 
 countries. — Conclusion.    From    what    has   been    ad- 
 duced, we  may  consider  it  as  tolerably  well  proved, 
 that  the  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians  were  nations  of  the 
 same  race,  whose  abode,  from  the  earliest  periods  of 
 history,    were    the    regions    bordering    on   the    Nile. 
 These  nations  were  not  negroes,  such  as  the  negroes 
 of    Guinea,  though  they  bore  some  resemblance   to 
 that    description    of   men,  at    least    when    compared 
 with  the  people  of  Europe.     This  resemblance,  how- 
 ever, did  not  extend  to  the  shape  of  the  scull,  in  any 
 great  degree  at  least,  or  in  the  majority  of  instances. 
 It  perhaps  only  depended  on  a  complexion  and  physi- 
 ognomy similar  to  those  of  the  Copts  and   Nubians. 
 These  races  partake,  in  a  certain  degree,  of  the  Afri- 
 can countenance.     The    hair   in  the  Ethiopians  and 
 Egyptians  must  sometimes  have  been  of  a  more  crisp 
 or  bushy  kind  than  that  which  is  often  found  in  mum- 
 mies ;   for  such  is  the  case  in  respect  to  the  Copts, 
 and  the  description  of  the  Egyptians  by  all  ancient 
 writers  obliges  us  to  adopt  this  conclusion.     In  com- 
 plexion it  seems  probable  that  this  race  was  a  coun- 
 terpart of  the  Foulahs,  in  the  west  of  Africa,  nearly  in 
 the  same  latitude.      The  blacker  Foulahs  resemble  in 
 conijilexion  the  darkest  people  of  the  Nile  ;    they  are 
 of  a  deep  brown  or  mahogany  colour.     The  fairest  of 
 the  Foulahs  are  not  darker  than  the  Copts,  or  even 
 than  some  Europeans.     Other  instances  of  as  great 
 a  variety  may  be  found  among  the  African   nations, 
 within  the  limits  of  one  race,  as  in  the  Bishuane  Kaf- 
 fers,  who  are  of  a  clear  brown  colour,  while  the  Kaf- 
 fers  of  Natal  on  the  coast  are  of  a  jet  black.      From 
 some  remarks  of  Diodorus  and  Plutarch,  it  would  ap- 
 pear that  the  birth  of  fair,  and  even  red-haired  indi- 
 viduals, occasionally  happened  in  the  .Egyptian  race. 
 Both  these  writers  say,  that  Typhon  was  irvpf^oq,  or 
 red-haired  ;   the  former  adds  that  a  few  of  the  native 
 Egyptians  were   of  that  appearance  :    h'kiyov^  tivu(;. 
 (Diod.   Sic.   1,  88.—Plut.   de  Is.  et   Os.,  p.  363.— 
 40 
 
 Prrchard''s  Physical  History  of  Mankind,  1,316,  geqq., 
 2d  ed.) 
 
 7.  Origin  of  Egyptian  Civilization. 
 The  question  that  now  presents  itself  is  one  of  a 
 singularly  interesting  character.  Whence  arose  the 
 arts  and  civilization  of  Egvpt  1  Were  they  indioenous 
 or  did  they  come  to  her  as  the  gift  of  another  land? 
 Everything  seems  to  countenance  the  idea  that  civil- 
 ization came  gradually  down  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
 from  the  borders  of  Ethiopia  to  the  shores  of  the  Med- 
 iterranean. It  would  appear,  that  when  the  arts  of  civ- 
 ilized life  were  first  introduced  into  Upper  Egypt,  the 
 lower  section  of  the  country  formed  merely  a  vast  mo- 
 rass or  gulf  of  the  sea,  and  that  they  followed  in  their 
 progressive  developement  the  course  of  the  stream. 
 (Compare  Herodotus,  2,  4. — /(/.  iLid.  .5. — Id.  ibid.  11, 
 seq(j. — Diod.  Stc.  1,  34  ; — and  the  memoirs  of  Girard, 
 Andriossy,  &c.,  in  the  Description  de  VEgypte.  Com- 
 pare also  the  remarks  in  the  present  volume  under  the 
 article  Delta.)  Monuments,  tradition,  analogies  of 
 every  kind,  are  here  in  accordance  with  natural  prob- 
 abilities. There  was  a  period  when  the  names  of 
 Ethiopia  and  Egypt  were  confounded  together,  when 
 the  two  nations  were  thought  to  form  but  a  single 
 people.  (Compare  the  proofs  of  this  assertion,  as  col- 
 lected and  discussed  by  Creuzer,  Commcntat.  Hcrodot., 
 p.  178,  seqq.,  in  opposition  to  Champollion  the  youn- 
 ger;  and  also  the  remarks  in  the  present  volume,  un- 
 der the  articles  Ethiopia  and  Meroe.)  In  all  the  re- 
 citals and  legends  of  the  earliest  antiquity  the  Egyp- 
 tians are  associated  with  the  Ethiopians,  and  to  the  lat- 
 ter is  assigned  a  distinguished  character  for  wisdom, 
 knowledge,  and  piety,  which  testifies  to  their  priority 
 in  the  order  of  civilization.  (Compare  Hccren,  Ideen, 
 2,  1,  314,  405,  &c.)  We  see  also  the  common  tradi- 
 tions of  the  two  nations  referring  to  Meroe  the  origin 
 of  most  of  the  cities  of  Upper  Egypt,  and,  among  oth- 
 ers, of  Thebes.  It  is  to  Meroe,  its  ancient  metropolis, 
 that  Thebes  attaches  itself,  when,  for  the  purpose  of 
 extending  their  commercial  interests,  they  send  a  col- 
 ony to  found,  in  the  midst  of  the  deserts,  a  new  city 
 of  Ammon.  (Herod.  2,  A2.—Diod.  Sic.  2,  3.)  The 
 same  institutions,  a  similar  religion,  language,  and 
 mode  of  writing,  together  with  manners  most  strongly 
 resembling  one  another,  attest  the  primitive  connexion 
 that  subsisted  between  these  three  sacred  cities,  though 
 so  widely  apart.  It  appears,  then,  that  a  sacred  caste, 
 established  from  a  remote  period  on  the  borders  of  the 
 Nile,  in  the  island,  or,  rather,  peninsula  formed  by  the 
 Astapus  and  Astaboras,  sent  forth  gradually  its  sacer- 
 dotal colonies,  carrying  with  them  agriculture  and  the 
 first  arts  of  civilized  life,  along  the  regions  to  the  north, 
 and  that  these,  proceeding  slowly  onward,  passed 
 eventually  the  cataract  of  Syene,  and  entered  upon  the 
 valley  of  Egypt.  Placing  commerce  under  the  safe- 
 guard of  religion,  and  subjugating  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 regions  to  which  they  came,  more  by  the  benefits  they 
 conferred  than  by  any  exercise  of  force,  these  stran- 
 gers became  at  last  the  controlling  power  of  the  land, 
 and  laid  the  foundation  of  that  brilliant  character  in 
 the  annals  of  civilization  which  has  acquired  for  Egypt 
 so  imperishable  a  name.  (Compare  Hccren,  Idccn.  2, 
 1,  363,  seqq. — Id.  ibid.  2,  532,  seqq. — Gnerres,  My- 
 thengeschichte,  2,  331,  seqq. —  Creuzer,  Commen/aC 
 Hcrodot., -p.  178,  seqq. — Id.  SymboUk,  par  Guignmut, 
 1,  2,  778,  seqq  )  But  whence  came  the  civilizatior. 
 of  Meroe  "! — This  question  will  be  considered  in  a  dif 
 ferent  article.     (  Fic?.  Meroe.) 
 
 8.  Egyptian  History, 
 The  Egyptians,  like  the  Hindus  and  Persians,  had 
 allegorical  traditions  among  thenT  respecting  the  in- 
 troduction of  agriculture  and  the  first  beginnings  of 
 civilization  in  their  country.  Such  were  the  Songs  of 
 Isis,  whose  high  antiquity  is  attested  by  Plato  {de  Leg. 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 2.—Pt.  3,  vol.  2,  p.  239,  ed.  Bckker).     They  had,  in 
 the  second  place,  epic  traditions,  a  kind  of  poetic  chron- 
 icles, embracing  the  succession  of  high   priests,  and 
 the  dynasties  of  the   Pharaohs,   or  monarchs   of  the 
 country.     Such  were  the  volumes  of  papyrus,  which 
 the  priests  unrolled  to  satisfy  the  questions  of  Herod- 
 otus (2,  100).     We  would  err  greatly,  however,  were 
 we  to  suppose  that  these  were  actual  histories.     They 
 weie  rather  a  species  of  heroic  tales,  intermingled  with 
 religious  legends,  and  where  allegory  still  played  the 
 chief  part,  as  in  the  Ramayan  and  Mahahharat  of  the 
 Hindus,    the    Schahnarnch  of  the   Persians,  and  the 
 traditions  of  the  Greeks  previous  to  the  return,  or  in- 
 vasion, of  the  Heraclidae.     These  originals  are  unfor- 
 tunately lost  for  us.     In  their   stead  we   have  the  sa- 
 cred books  of  the  Hebrews,  which  offer  a  great  number 
 of  recitals  on  this  subject,  but  fragmentary  in  their  na- 
 ture, without  developcinent,  and  often  extremely  vague. 
 Hence  it  is  difficult  to  conciliate  these  recitals  with 
 those  of  the  Greeks,  which  are  in  general  more  cir- 
 cumstantial and  extended.     Some  time  before  Herod- 
 otus, Hippys  of    Rhegium  and  other  travellers    had 
 visited  Egypt.     Among  these  Hecataeus  of  Miletus  is 
 the  most  conspicuous.     He  travelled  thither  about  the 
 59th  Olympiad,  and  described  particularly  the    upper 
 part  of  Egypt,   bestowing  especial  attention   on  the 
 state  or  city  of  Thebes,  and  the  history  of  its  kings. 
 Hence  the  reason  why  Herodotus  says  so  little  on  these 
 points.     {Creuzer,  fragni.  Hist.  Grac.  aniiquissim., 
 p.   16,  seqq. — Sch'oll,  Hist.   Lit.  Gr.  2,   135,   segq.) 
 About  the   same   period,    Hcllanicus  of  Lesbos  also 
 gave  a  description  of  Egypt.     {HcUanici  fragm.,  ed. 
 ISturz.,  p.  39,  seqq.)  Herodotus  succeeded.     Visiting 
 the  country  about  seventy  years  after  its  conquest  by 
 the  Persians,  he  traversed  its  whole  extent,  and  con- 
 signed to  his  great  work  all  that  he  had  seen,  all  that 
 he  had  heard  from  the  priests,  as  well  with  regard  to 
 the  monuments  as  the  history  of  Egypt,  and  added  to 
 these  his  own  opinions  on  what  had  passed  under  his 
 view  or  been  related  to  him  by  others.     (Herod  , lib. 
 2  et  3.)     The  state  or  city  of  Memphis  is  the  princi- 
 pal subject  of  his  narrative.     After  him  came  Theo- 
 pompus  of  Chios,  Ephorus  of  Cumae  {Fragm..ed.  Marx., 
 p.  213,  seqq.),  Eudo.xus  of  Cnidus,  and  Philistus  of 
 Syracuse.     But  their  works  have  either  totally  perish- 
 ed, or  at  best  only  a  few  fragments  remain.     At  a  la- 
 ter period,  and  subsequent  to  the  founding  of  Alexan- 
 drea,  Hecataeus  of  Abdera  travelled  to  Thebes.     This 
 took  place  under  the  first  Ptolemy.     {Creuzer ,  fragm. , 
 &c.,  p.  28,  seqq. — Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.  3,  21 1,  seqq.) 
 In  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  two  centuries 
 and  a  half  before  the  Christian  era,  Manetho,  an  Egyp- 
 tian priest,  of  Heliopolis  in  Lower  Egypt,  wrote,  by 
 order  of  that  prince,  the  history  of  his  own  country  in 
 the  Greek  language,  translating  it,  as  he  states  himself, 
 out  of  the  sacred  records.     His  work  is,  most  unfor- 
 tunately, lost ;  but  the   fragments   which  have  been 
 preserved  to  us   by  the  writings  of  Josephus,  in  the 
 first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  as  well  as  by  the 
 Christian  chronographists,  are,  if  entitled  to  confidence, 
 of  the  highest  historical  value.     What  we  have    re- 
 maining of  the  work  of  Manetho  presents  us  with  a 
 chronological  list  of  the  successive  rulers  of  Egypt, 
 from  the  first  foundation  of  the  monarchy  to  the  time 
 of  Alexander  of  Macedon,  who  succeeded  the  Per- 
 sians.    This  list  is  divided  into  thirty  dynasties.     It 
 originally  contained  the  length  of  reign  as  well  as  the 
 name  of  every  king  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  successive 
 transcriptions,  variations  have  crept  in,  and  some  few 
 omissions  also  occur  in  the  record,  as  it  has  reached 
 us   through  the  medium  of  different   authors.     The 
 chronology  of  Manetho,  adopted  with  confidence  by 
 some,  and  rejected  with  equal  confidence  by  others 
 (his  name  and  his  information  not  being  even  noticed 
 by  some  of  the  modern  systematic  writers  on  Egyptian 
 history),  has  received   the  most  unquestionable  and 
 
 decisive  testimony  of  his  general  fidelity  by  the  inter- 
 pretation of  the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  on  the  exist- 
 ing monuments  ;  so  much  so,  that,  by  the  accordance 
 of  the  facts  attested  by  these  monuments  with  the  rec- 
 ord of  the  historian,  we  have  reason  to  expect  the  en- 
 tire restoration  of  the  annals  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy 
 antecedent  to  the  Persian  conquest,  and  which,  indeed, 
 is  already  accomplished  in  part.  {Quarterly  Jovtnal 
 of  Science,  Neiv  Series,  vol.  1,  p.  180.)  The  next 
 authority  after  Manetho  is  Eratosthenes.  lie  was 
 keeper  of  the  Alexandrean  library  in  the  reign  of  Ptol- 
 emy Euergetes,  the  successor  to  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
 phus. Among  the  few  fragments  of  his  works  which 
 have  reached  us,  transmitted  through  the  Greek  histo- 
 rians, is  a  catalogue  of  thirty-eight  or  ihiity-nine  kings 
 of  Thebes,  commencing  with  Menes  (who  is  mentioned 
 by  the  other  authorities  also  as  the  first  monarch  of 
 Egypt),  and  occupying  by  their  successive  reigns  1055 
 years.  {Foreign  Quarter!}/,  No.  24,  p.  358.)  These 
 names  are  stated  to  have  been  compiled  from  original 
 records  existing  at  Thebes,  which  city  Eratosthenes 
 visited  expressly  to  consult  them.  The  names  of  the 
 first  two  kings  of  the  first  dynasty  of  Manetho  are  the 
 same  with  those  of  the  first  two  kings  in  the  catalogue 
 of  Eratosthenes ;  but  the  remainder  of  the  catalogue 
 presents  no  farther  accordance,  either  in  the  names  or 
 in  the  duration  of  the  reigns.  Next  to  Herodotus, 
 Manetho,  and  Eratosthenes,  the  most  important  author- 
 ity, in  relation  to  Egypt  and  its  institutions,  is  Diodo- 
 rus  Siculus,  who  lived  under  Caesar  and  Augustus,  and 
 who,  independent  of  his  own  observations  and  his  re- 
 searches on  the  spot,  refers  frequently,  in  this  part  of 
 his  work,  to  the  old  Greek  historians,  and  particularly 
 to  Hecataeus  of  Miletus,  after  whom  he  describes  the 
 ancient  kingdom  of  Thebes,  and  gives  an  account  of 
 the  monuments  of  this  famous  city,  with  surprising 
 fidelity.  (Description  dc  l''Egyptc,  2,  59,  seqq. — Com- 
 pare Hcyne,  de  fontihus  Dtod.  Sic.  in  Comment.  Sac. 
 Gott.  5,  104,  seqq.)  Strabo,  the  celebrated  geogra- 
 pher, visited  Egypt  in  the  suite  of  JHlius  Gallus,  about 
 the  commencement  of  our  era.  He  does  not  content 
 himself,  however,  with  merely  recounting  what  fell 
 under  his  own  personal  observation,  but  frequently  re- 
 fers to  the  earlier  writers.  Plutarch,  in  many  of  his 
 biographies,  and  especially  in  his  treatise  on  Isis  and 
 Osiris  ;  Philostratus,  in  his  life  of  Apollonius  ;  Por- 
 phyry, lamblichus,  Horapollo,  and  many  other  writers, 
 have  preserved  for  us  a  large  number  of  interesting 
 particulars  relative  to  the  antiquities  and  the  religion 
 of  Egypt. — We  have  already  alluded  to  the  quarter 
 whence  the  germe  of  Egyptian  civilization  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  derived.  The  first  impression  having 
 been  one  of  a  sacerdotal  character,  we  find  the  begin- 
 nings of  Egyptian  history  partaking,  in  consequence, 
 of  the  same.  Hence  the  tradition,  emanating  from 
 the  priests  of  Egypt,  according  to  which  the  supreme 
 deities  first  reigned  over  the  country  ;  then  those  of  the 
 second  class  ;  after  these  the  inferior  deities  ;  then  the 
 demigods  ;  and,  last  of  all,  men.  The  first  deity  that 
 reio-ned  was  Kncph :  this  embraces  the  most  ancient 
 period,  of  an  unknown  duration.  To  Kneph  succeed- 
 ed Fhtha,  who  has  for  his  element,  fire,  and  whose 
 reign  it  is  impossible  to  calculate.  Next  came  the 
 Sun,  his  offspring,  who  reigned  thirty  thousand  years. 
 After  him,  Cronos  (Saturn)  and  the  other  gods  occu- 
 py, by  their  respective  rules,  a  period  of  three  thou- 
 sand nine  hundred  and  eighty-four  years.  Then 
 succeeded  the  Cabiri,  or  planetary  gods  of  the  second 
 class.  After  these  came  the  demigods,  to  the  number 
 of  eight,  of  whom  Osiris  was  probably  regarded  as  the 
 first.  After  the  gods  and  demigods  appeared  human 
 kings  and  the  first  dynasty  of  Thebes,  composed  of 
 thirty-seven  kings,  who  succeeded  one  another  for  the 
 space  of  fourteen  hundred  years,  or,  according  to  oth- 
 ers, one  thousand  and  fifty-five.  (Compare  Chron. 
 ^gypt.,  ap.Euseb.  Thes.  Temp.  2,  p.  7,  and  Manetho, 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 ap.  Syncell.)  Gorres  thinks  that  these  thirty-seven 
 kings,  who  are  given  as  so  many  mortals,  may  have 
 been  nothing  else  but  the  thirty-seven  Decans,  with 
 Menes  at  their  Ijcad  ;  so  that,  by  rejecting  this  dynasty 
 as  a  continuation  of  the  divine  dynasties,  those  of  a 
 strictly  human  nature,  and,  with  them,  tiie  historical 
 times  of  Egypt,  wdl  have  commenced,  according  to 
 the  calculations  of  this  ingenious  and  profound  writer, 
 2712  years  before  the  Christian  era.  {Gorres,  My- 
 thengeschichte,  vol.  2,  p.  412. — Compare  Crcuzcr, 
 SymboUk,  I,  469,  seqq.,  and  GuigniauCs  note,  1,  2, 
 841.)  Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  the  common  ac- 
 count makes  Menes  to  have  been  the  first  human  king 
 of  Egypt,  and  his  name  begins  the  dynasties  of  Thebes, 
 of  This,  and  of  Memphis.  Menes  completed  the 
 work  of  the  gods,  by  perfecting  the  arts  of  life,  and 
 dictating  to  men  the  laws  he  had  received  from  the 
 skies.  This  Menes,  or  Menas,  or  Mines  (a  name 
 which  Eratosthenes  makes  equivalent  to  Dwmos,  i.  e., 
 Jovialis),  can  hardly  be  an  historical  personage.  He 
 resembles  a  sort  of  intermediate  being  between  the 
 gods  and  the  human  kings  of  the  lands,  a  divine  type 
 of  man,  a  symbol  of  intelligence  descended  from  the 
 skies,  and  creating  human  society  upon  earth  ;  similar 
 to  the  MenoR  or  Manou  of  India,  the  Minos  of 
 Crete,  &c.  He  is  a  conqueror,  a  legislator,  and  a 
 benefactor  of  men,  like  Osiris-Bacchus  ;  like  him,  he 
 perishes  under  the  blows  of  Typhon,  for  he  was  killed 
 by  a  hippopotamus,  the  emblem  of  this  evil  genius  ; 
 like  him,  moreover,  he  has  the  ox  for  his  symbol,  Mne- 
 vis  the  legislator  being  none  other  than  the  bull  Mne- 
 vis  of  Heliopolis.  (Compare  Volncy,  Rcchcrches  sur 
 VHist.  Anc.  3,  282,  scqq. — Prichard's  Analysis  of 
 Egyptian  Mythology,  p.  381. — Greuzer's  Symbolik, 
 par  Gu.igniaiU,  1,  2,  780.)  The  successor  of  Menes 
 was  Thoth,  or  Atholhes,  to  whom  is  ascribed  the  in- 
 vention of  writing,  and  many  other  useful  arts.  We 
 have  in  the  fragments  of  Manetho  a  full  list  of  two  dy- 
 nasties seated  at  This,  at  the  head  of  the  first  of  which 
 we  find  these  two  names.  These  two  dynasties  in- 
 clude fifteen  kings,  and  may  therefore  have  continued 
 about  400  years  ;  the  duration  assigned  to  their  col- 
 lective reigns,  in  Eusebius's  version  of  Manetho,  is 
 554  years,  but  this  is  probably  too  long,  as  it  is  a  sum 
 that  far  exceeds  what  would  be  the  result  of  a  similar 
 series  of  generations  of  the  usual  length.  From  the 
 time  of  Menes  to  that  of  Moeris,  Herodotus  leaves  us 
 entirely  in  the  dark.  He  states  merely  (2,  100)  that 
 the  priests  enumerated  between  them  330  kings. 
 Diodorus  Siculus  (1,  45)  counts,  in  an  interval  of  1400 
 years  between  Menes  and  Busiris,  eight  kings,  sev- 
 en of  whom  are  nameless,  but  the  last  was  Busiris 
 H.  This  prince  is  succeeded  by  eight  descendants, 
 six  of  whom  are  in  like  manner  nameless,  and  the 
 seventh  and  eigluh  are  both  called  Uchoreus.  From 
 Uchoreus  to  Moeris  he  reckons  twelve  generations. 
 Manetho,  on  the  other  hand,  reckons  between  Menes 
 and  the  time  at  which  we  may  consider  his  history 
 as  becoming  authentic,  sixteen  dynasties,  which  in- 
 cludes nearly  three  thousand  years.  But,  whatever 
 opinion  we  may  form  relative  to  these  obscure  and 
 conflicting  statements,  whether  we  regard  these  early 
 dynasties  as  collateral  and  contemporary  reigns  {Crcu- 
 zers  Symbolik,  par  Guigniaiit,  1,  2,  780),  or  as  be- 
 longing merely  to  the  fabulous  periods  of  Egyptian 
 history,  the  following  particulars  may  be  regarded  as 
 toleratdy  authentic.  Egypt,  during  this  interval,  liad 
 undergone  numerous  revolutions.  She  had  detached 
 herself  from  Ethiopia  ;  the  government,  wrested  from 
 the  priestly  caste,  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
 military  order  ;  Thebes,  now  become  powerful  in  re- 
 sources, and  asserting  her  independence,  had  com- 
 menced under  a  line  probably  of  native  princes,  her  ca- 
 reer of  conquests  and  brilliant  undertakings.  On  a  sud- 
 den, in  the  time  of  a  king  called,  by  Manetho,  Timaos, 
 but  who  does  not  appear  among  the  names  in  his  list  of 
 42 
 
 dynasties,  a  race  of  strangers  entered  from  the  east 
 into  Egypt.  {Josephus,  contra  Ap.  1,  14. — Compare 
 Eusebius,  PrcBp.  Ev.  10,  13.)  Everything  yielded 
 to  these  fierce  invaders,  who,  having  taken  Klemphis, 
 and  fortified  Avaris  (or  Abaris),  afterward  Pelubium, 
 organized  a  species  of  government,  gave  themselves 
 kings,  and,  if  we  believe  certain  traditions,  founded 
 On  (the  city  of  the  Sun  ;  Heliopolis),  to  the  east  of 
 the  apex  of  the  Delta.  {Juba,  cited  by  Pliny,  6,  34. 
 Compare  Volncy,  Rcchcrches  snr  VHist.  Anc.  3,  247, 
 scqq. — PricharcCs  Analysis  of  Egyptian  Mytholo- 
 gy, p.  66,  Append. — Creuzer,  Conirncntat.  Hcrodot., 
 p.  188,  scqq.)  More  than  two  centuries  passed  under 
 the  dominion  of  this  race.  They  are  commonly  called 
 the  shepherd  race,  and  their  dynasty  that  of  the  Hycsos, 
 or  Shepherd-kings.  The  sway  of  these  invaders  is 
 said  by  Manetho  to  have  been  tyrannical  and  cruel. 
 They  exercised  the  utmost  atrocity  towards  the  native 
 inhabitants,  putting  the  males  to  the  sword,  and  redu- 
 cing their  wives  and  children  to  slavery.  The  con- 
 quest of  Egypt  by  the  Shepherds,  as  they  are  called, 
 dates  in  the  vear  2082  B.C.  Their  dynasty  continued 
 to  rule  at  Memphis  200  years,  and  their  kings,  six  in 
 number,  were  Salatis,  Bceon,  Apachnas,  Apophis,  Ja- 
 nias,  and  Asseth.  It  was  during  the  rule  of  the  shep- 
 herd race  that  Joseph  was  in  Egypt.  I'hus  we  have 
 it  at  once  explained  how  strangers,  of  whom  the  Egyp- 
 tians were  so  jealous,  should  be  admitted  into  power ; 
 how  the  king  should  be  even  glad  of  new  settlers,  oc- 
 cupying considerable  tracts  of  his  territory  ;  and  how 
 the  circumstance  of  their  being  shepherds,  though  odi- 
 ous to  the  conquered  people,  would  endear  them  to  a 
 sovereign  whose  family  followed  the  same  occupation. 
 After  the  death  of  Joseph,  the  Scripture  tells  us  that  a 
 king  arose  who  knew  not  Joseph.  This  strong  ex- 
 pression could  hardly  be  applied  to  any  lineal  succes- 
 sor of  a  monarch  who  had  received  such  signal  benefits 
 from  him.  It  would  lead  us  rather  to  suppose,  that  a 
 new  dynasty,  hostile  to  the  preceding,  had  obtained 
 possession  of  the  throne.  Now  this  is  exactly  the 
 case.  For  a  few  years  later,  the  Hycsos,  or  Shepherd- 
 kings,  were  expelled  from  Egypt  by  Amosis,  called  on 
 monuments  Amenophtiph,  the  founder  of  the  eigh- 
 teenth, or  Diospolitan  dynasty.  He  would  naturally 
 refuse  to  recognise  the  services  of  Joseph,  and  would 
 consider  all  his  family  as  necessarily  his  enemies  ; 
 and  thus,  too,  we  understand  his  fears  lest  they  should 
 join  the  enemies  of  Egypt,  if  any  war  fc-ll  out  with 
 them.  {Exod.  1,  10.)  For  the  Hycsos,  after  their 
 expulsion,  continued  long  to  harass  the  Egyptians  by 
 attempts  to  recover  their  lost  dominion.  {Rosclli- 
 ni,  p.  291.)  Oppression  was,  of  course,  the  means 
 employed  to  weaken  first,  and  then  extinguish,  the 
 Hebrew  population.  The  children  of  Israel  were 
 employed  in  building  up  the  cities  of  Egypt.  It  has 
 been  observed  by  Champollion,  that  many  of  the  edi- 
 fices erected  by  the  eighteenth  dynasty  are  upon  the 
 ruins  of  older  buildings,  which  had  been  manifestly 
 destroyed.  {2de  Lett"  p.  7,  10,  17.)  This  circum- 
 stance, with  the  absence  of  older  monuments  in  the 
 parts  of  Egypt  occupied  by  the  Hycsos,  confirms  the 
 testimony  of  historians,  that  these  conquerors  destroyed 
 the  monuments  of  native  princes  ;  and  thus  was  an 
 opportunity  given  to  the  restorers  of  a  native  sover- 
 eignty to  em))loy  those  whom  they  considered  their  en- 
 emies' allies  in  repairing  their  injuries.  To  this  pe- 
 riod belong  the  magnificent  edifices  of  Karnac,  Luxor, 
 and  Medinet-Abou.  At  the  same  time  we  have  the 
 express  testimony  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  that  it  was  the 
 boast  of  the  Egyptian  kings  that  no  Egyptian  had  put  his 
 hand  to  the  work,  but  that  foreigners  had  been  com- 
 pelled to  do  it  (1,  56).  "With  regard  to  the  opinion 
 entertained  by  many  learned  men,  that  the  children  of 
 Israel  were  themselves  the  shepherd  race,  it  may  be 
 sufficient  to  remark  that  the  Hycsos,  as  represented 
 on  monuments,  have  the  features,  colour,  and  olhct 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 distinctives,  not  of  the  Jewish,  but  of  the  Scythian 
 tribes.  It  was  under  a  king  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
 that  the  Israelites  went  out  from  Egypt,  namely,  Ram- 
 ses v.,  the  16th  monarch  of  the  line.  We  have  here, 
 in  this  eicrhteenth  dynasty,  the  commencement  of  what 
 may  be  properly  termed  the  second  period  of  Egyptian 
 history.  The  names  of  the  monarchs  are  given  as  fol- 
 lows by  the  aid  of  Chainpollion's  discoveries  :  1. 
 Thoutmosis  I.,  of  whom  there  is  a  colossal  statue  in 
 the  museum  at  Turin.  2.  Thoulmusis  II.  {Amon- 
 Miu),  whose  name  appears  on  the  most  ancient  parts 
 of  the  palace  of  Karnac.  3.  His  daughter  AmcJisi, 
 who  governed  Egypt  for  the  space  of  twenty-one  years, 
 and  erected  the  greatest  of  the  obelisks  of  Karnac. 
 This  vast  monolith  is  erected  in  her  name  to  the  god 
 Ammon,  and  the  memory  of  her  father.  4.  Thout- 
 mosis III.,  surnamed  Men,  the  Mocris  of  the  Greeks. 
 The  remaining  monuments  of  his  reign  are  the  pilaster 
 and  granite  halls  of  Karnac,  several  temples  in  Nubia, 
 the  great  Sphinx  of  the  Pyramids,  and  the  colossal  ob- 
 elisk now  in  front  of  the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran 
 at  Rome.  5.  His  successor  was  ^»ne«op/r/.s  I.,  who 
 was  succeeded  by,  6.  Thoutmosis  IV.  This  king 
 finished  the  temples  of  the  Wady  Alfa  and  Arnada,  in 
 Nubia,  which  Amenoph  had  begun.  7.  Amc7iophis 
 II.,  whose  vocal  statue,  of  colossus  size,  attracted  the 
 notice  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  {Vid.  Memnon, 
 and  Memnonium.)  The  most  ancient  parts  of  the  pal- 
 ace at  Lu.xor,  the  temple  of  Cnouphis  at  Elephantine, 
 the  Memnonium,  and  a  palace  at  Sohled,  in  Nubia,  are 
 monuments  of  the  splendour  and  piety  of  this  monarch. 
 8.  Horns,  who  built  the  grand  colonnade  of  the  palace 
 at  Luxor.  9.  Queen  Amcnchcres,  or  Tmau-Mol,  com- 
 memorated in  an  inscription  preserved  in  the  museum 
 at  Turin.  10.  Ramses  I.,  who  built  the  hypostyle 
 hall  at  Karnac,  and  excavated  a  sepulchre  for  himself 
 at  Beban-el-Moulouk.  11  and  12.  Two  brothers 
 Mandoaeli  and  Ousirei.  They  have  left  monuments 
 of  their  existence,  the  last  in  the  grand  obelisk  now  in 
 the  Piazza  del  Popolo  at  Rome  ;  the  first,  in  the  beau- 
 tiful palace  at  Kourna,  and  the  splendid  tomb  discov- 
 ered by  Belzoni.  13.  Their  successor  caused  the  two 
 great  obelisks  at  Luxor  to  be  erected.  This  was  the 
 secQn<\  Ramses.  14.  Ramses  \\l.  Of  this  king  dedi- 
 catory inscriptions  are  found  in  the  second  court  of 
 the  palace  of  Karnac,  and  his  tomb  still  exists  at 
 Thebes.  15.  Ramses  IV.,  surnamed  Mci-Amoun, 
 built  the  great  palace  of  Medinet- Abou,  and  a  temple 
 near  the  southern  gate  of  Karnac.  The  magnificent 
 sarcophagus  which  formerly  enclosed  the  body  of  this 
 king,  has  been  removed  from  the  catacombs  of  Beban- 
 el-Moulonk,  and  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre. 
 He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  16.  Ramses  V.,  sur- 
 named Amcnophis,  who  is  considered  as  the  last  of 
 this  dynasty,  and  who  was  the  father  of  Sesostris. 
 The  acts  of  none  of  the  kings  of  this  dynasty  are  com- 
 memorated by  the  Greek  historians,  with  the  exception 
 of  Moeris.  He  is  celebrated  by  them  for  a  variety  of 
 useful  labours,  and  appears  to  have  done  much  to  pro- 
 mote the  prosperity  of  Egypt,  particularly  bv  form- 
 ing a  lake  to  receive  the  surplus  waters  of  the  Nile 
 during  the  inundation,  and  to  distribute  them  for  ag- 
 ricultural purposes  during  its  fall.  {Vid.  Moeris.) 
 The  reign  of  Ramses  Amenophis  is  the  era  of  the  Ex- 
 odus. The  Scripture  narrative  describes  this  event  as 
 connected  with  the  destruction  of  a  Pharaoh,  and  the 
 chronological  calculation  adopted  by  Rossellini  would 
 make  it  coincide  with  the  last  year  of  this  monarch's 
 reign.  Wilkinson  and  Greppo,  however,  maintain  that 
 we  need  not  necessarily  suppose  the  death  of  a  king  to 
 coincide  with  the  exit  from  Egypt,  as  the  Scripture 
 speaks,  with  the  exception  of  one  poetical  passage,  of 
 the  destruction  of  Pharaoh's  host  rather  than  of  the 
 monarch's  own  death.  But  in  Rossellini's  scheme,  this 
 departure  from  the  received  interpretation  is  not  want- 
 ed.    Wilkinson  makes  the  exodus  to  have  taken  place 
 
 in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Thothmes  III.  {Mat. 
 Ilierog.,  p.  4. — Manners  and  Customs,  &c.,  vol.  l,p. 
 54.)  Vast,  however,  as  was  the  glory  of  this  line  of 
 kings,  it  was  eclipsed  by  the  greater  reputation  of  the 
 chief  of  the  next,  or  nineteenth  dynasty,  P«amses  VI., 
 the  famed  Sesostris  (called  also  Sesoosis  or  Selhos 
 and  likewise  Aigyptus,  or  Ramesscs  the  Great. — Com 
 pare  Champolli07t,  Sijst.  Hierogl.,  p.  224,  seqq.).  Ss- 
 soslris  regenerated,  in  some  sense,  his  country  and  na- 
 tion, by  chasing  from  it  the  last  remnant  of  the  stran- 
 ger-races which  had  dwelt  within  the  borders  of  Egypt, 
 by  giving  to  (he  Egyptian  territory  certain  fixed  limits, 
 by  dividing  it  into  nomes,  and  by  giving  a  powerful 
 impulse  to  arts,  to  commerce,  and  to  the  spirit  of  con« 
 quest.  One  may  see  in  Herodotus  and  Diodorus  what 
 a  strong  remembrance  his  various  exploits  in  Africa^ 
 Asia,  and  perhaps  even  Europe,  had  left  behind  them. 
 His  labours  in  Egypt  are  attested  by  numerous  monu- 
 ments, not  only  from  the  Mediterranean  to  Syene,  but 
 far  beyond,  in  Ethiopia,  which  at  this  time  probably 
 formed  a  portion  of  Egypt.  {ChampolHon,  Syst.  Hie- 
 rogi,  p.  239,  391.)  The  result  of  his  military  expe- 
 ditions was  to  enrich  his  country  with  the  treasures  ot 
 Etliiopia,  Arabia  Felix,  and  India,  and  to  establish  a 
 communication  with  the  countries  of  the  East  by  means 
 of  fleets  which  he  equipped  on  the  Red  Sea.  That 
 the  history  of  his  conquests  has  been  exaggerated  by 
 the  priests  of  Egypt,  whose  interests  he  favoured,  can- 
 not be  denied.  Equally  apparent  is  it  that  his  history 
 bears  some  resemblance  to  the  legends  of  Osiris. 
 These  assimilations,  however,  of  their  heroes  to  their 
 gods,  were  familiar  to  the  priests  of  the  land.  {Vid. 
 Sesostris.)  This  nineteenth  dynasty,  at  the  head  of 
 which  stands  Sesostris,  consisted  of  six  kings,  all  of 
 whom  bear,  upon  monuments,  the  name  of  Ramses, 
 with  various  distinguishing  epithets.  I'he  last  of  these 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary  with  the  Tro- 
 jan war,  and  to  be  the  one  called  Polybus  by  Homer. 
 The  twentieth  dynasty  of  Manetho  also  took  its  title 
 from  Thebes.  Their  names  may  still  be  read  upon 
 the  temples  of  Egypt ;  but  the  extracts  from  Manetho 
 do  not  give  their  epithets.  In  the  failure  of  his  testi- 
 mony, ChampoUion  Figeac  has  had  recourse  to  the  list 
 given  by  Syncellus.  I'he  chief  of  this  dynasty  is  cel- 
 ebrated, under  the  name  of  Remphis,  or  Rempsinitus, 
 for  his  great  riches.  Herodotus  gives  him,  for  his  suc- 
 cessor, Cheops,  the  builder  of  the  largest  of  the  Pyra- 
 mids. The  same  authority  places  Cephrenes,  the  build- 
 er of  the  second  Pyramid,  next  in  order ;  and,  after 
 him,  Mycerinus,  for  whom  is  claimed  the  erection  of 
 the  third  Pyramid.  The  researches  of  the  two  Cbam- 
 pollions  have  not  discovered  any  confirmation  of 
 this  statement  of  the  father  of  profane  history.  The 
 next  dynasty,  the  twenty-first  of  Manetho,  derived  its 
 name  from  Tanis,  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt.  It  was 
 composed  of  seven  kings,  thefirst  of  whom  wasthe  Men- 
 dcs  of  the  Greek  historians,  the  Smendis  of  Manetho, 
 whose  name  Champollion  reads,  upon  the  monument 
 of  his  reign,  Mu7idoulhcph.  He  was  the  builder  of  the 
 fabric  known  in  antiquity  by  the  name  of  the  labyrinth. 
 The  other  kings  of  this  family  are  also  commemorated. 
 The  account  which  has  reached  us  of  the  building  of 
 the  labyrinth,  throws  great  light  upon  the  state  of  the 
 government  of  Egypt  during  the  reign  of  Mcndes  and 
 his  successors.  It  was  divided  into  as  many  separate 
 compartments  as  there  were  nomes  in  Egypt,  and  in 
 them,  at  fixed  periods,  assembled  deputations,  from 
 each  of  these  districts,  to  decide  upon  the  most  impor- 
 tant questions.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that,  in  the  change 
 of  dynasty,  the  Egyptians  had  succeeded  in  the  estab- 
 lishment of  a  limited  monarchy,  controlled  like  the  con- 
 stitutional governments  of  Europe,  if  not  by  the  im- 
 mediate representatives  of  the  people,  at  least  by  the 
 expression  of  the  opinion  of  the  notables.  The  ruins 
 of  Bubastis,  in  turn,  present  memorials  of  the  reigna 
 of  the  Bubastite  kings.     {Bulletin  des  Sciences  Hist., 
 
 43 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 -<EGYPTUS. 
 
 7,  472.)  These  succeeded  the  first  dynasty  of  Ta- 
 nitcs  ;  and  we  find  Egypt  again  immediately  connect- 
 ed with  Judea,  and  its  history  with  that  of  the  Scrip- 
 tures. Sesorichis,  the  head  of  this  dynasty,  was  the 
 conqueror  of  Rehoboam,  the  son  of  Solomon,  and  the 
 plunderer  of  the  treasures  of  David.  This  king,  the 
 ScAoJi:  of  the  second  Book  of  Kmgs,  built  the  great 
 tcni|ile  of  Bubastis,  which  is  described  by  Herodotus, 
 and  likewise  the  first  court  of  the  palace  of  Karnac  at 
 Thebes.  His  son  Osorchon  (Zorocli),  who  also  led 
 an  army  into  Syria,  continued  the  important  works  com- 
 menced by  his  father.  But  their  successor  Takclliothis, 
 is  only  known  to  us  by  a  simple  funereal  picture,  con- 
 secrated to  the  memory  of  one  of  his  sons.  This  paint- 
 ing has  been  broken,  and  one  half  is  preserved  in  the 
 Vatican,  while  the  other  forms  a  part  of  the  royal  col- 
 lection at  Turin.  Various  buildings  are  found  among 
 the  ruins  of  Heliopolis,  and  still  more  among  those  of 
 Tanis,  constructed  in  the  reigns  of  the  Pharaohs  of 
 the  second  Tanite  dynasty.  {Bulletin  des  Sciences 
 Hist.,  7,  472.)  Upon  these  the  names  of  three  of  them 
 have  been  decijjhcred,  Fetubaslcs,  Osorlhos,  and 
 Psammos.  Champollion  considers  them  as  having 
 immediately  preceded  the  great  Ethiopian  invasion, 
 which  gave  to  Egypt  a  race  of  kings  from  that  country. 
 Manetho,  however,  places  Bocchoris  between  these  two 
 races,  forming  his  twenty-fourth  dynasty  of  one  Saite. 
 The  yoke  of  these  foreign  conquerors  does  not  appear 
 to  have  been  oppressive,  as  is  evident  from  the  number 
 of  monuments  that  exist,  not  only  in  Ethiopia,  but  in 
 Egypt,  bearing  dedications  made  in  the  name  of  the 
 kings  of  this  race,  who  ruled  at  the  same  time  in  both 
 countries.  The  names  inscribed  on  these  monuments 
 are  Schabak,  Sevckolhcph,  Tahrak,  and  Amcnasa,  all 
 of  whom  are  mentioned,  either  by  Greek  or  sacred  his- 
 torians, under  the  names  of  Sahacon,  Scvcchus,  Tha- 
 raca,  ^nd.  Ammeris.  {Bulletin  des  Sciences  Hist.,  uli 
 supra.)  No  more  than  three  of  these  kings  are  men- 
 tioned in  the  list  of  Manetho  as  belonging  to  this  dy- 
 nasty, the  last  being  included  in  that  which  follows. 
 On  the  departure  of  the  Ethiopians,  the  affairs  of  Egypt 
 appear  to  have  fallen  into  great  disorder.  This  civil 
 discord  was  at  last  composed  by  Psammilicus  I.  Me- 
 morials of  his  reign  are  found  in  the  obelisk  now  on 
 Monte  Litorio  at  Rome,  and  in  the  enormous  columns 
 of  the  first  court  of  the  palace  of  Karnac  at  Thebes. 
 {Bulletin  des  Sciences  Hist.,  vol.  7,  p.  471.)  The 
 rule  of  Nechao  II.  is  commemorated  by  several  stelcE 
 and  statues.  It  was  this  monarch  that  took  .Jerusalem, 
 and  carried  King  Jehoahaz  into  captivity.  On  the  isle 
 of  Phila3  are  found  buildings  bearing  the  legend  of 
 Psammiticus  H.,  as  well  as  of  Apries  (the  Hophra  of 
 Scripture).  An  obelisk  of  his  reign  also  exists  at  Rome. 
 The  greater  part  of  the  fragirients  of  sculpture,  scatter- 
 ed among  the  ruins  of  Sais,  bear  the  royal  legend  of 
 the  celebrated  Amasis,  and  a  monolith  chapel  of  rose 
 granite,  dedicated  by  him  to  the  Egyptian  Minerva,  is 
 in  the  museum  of  the  Louvre.  Psammenitus  was  the 
 last  of  this  dynasty  of  Saites.  Few  tokens  of  his  short 
 reign  are  e.\tant,  besides  the  inscription  of  a  statue  in 
 the  Vatican.  He  was  defeated  and  dethroned  by  Cam- 
 byses  :  nor  did  he  long  survive  his  misfortune.  With 
 him  fell  the  splendour  of  the  kingdom  of  Egypt ;  and 
 from  this  date  (525  B.C.),  the  edifices  and  monu- 
 ments assume  a  character  of  far  less  importance.  Still, 
 however,  we  find  materials  for  history.  Even  the  fe- 
 rocious Camhyses  is  commemorated  in  an  inscription 
 on  the  statue  of  a  priest  of  Sais,  now  in  the  Vatican. 
 The  name  of  Darius  is  sculptured  on  the  columns  of 
 the  great  temple  of  the  Oasis ;  and  in  Egypt  we  still 
 read  inscriptions  dated  in  different  years  of  the  reigns 
 of  Xerxes  and  Arlaxcrxes.  {Bulletin  des  Sciences 
 Hist.,  7,  471.)  During  the  reigns  of  the  last  three 
 kings,  a  constant  struggle  was  kept  up  by  the  Egyptians 
 for  their  independence.  The  Persian  yoke  was  for  a 
 moment  shaken  off  by  Amyrtaus  and  Nephcreus.  Two 
 44 
 
 Sphinges  in  the  Louvre  bear  the  legend  of  Nephercug 
 and  his  successor  ^cAor/s,  who  are  also  commemorated 
 by  the  scul[)turcs  of  the  temple  of  Elythya.  In  the  In- 
 stitute of  Bologna  there  is  a  statue  of  the  Mendesian 
 Nepherites ;  and  the  names  of  the  two  Nectanebi,  who 
 succeeded  him  in  the  conduct  of  this  national  war,  are 
 still  extant  on  several  buildings  of  the  isle  of  Phil*,  and 
 at  Karnac,  Kourna,  and  Saft.  Darius  Ochus,  in  spite 
 of  the  valiant  resistance  of  these  last  kings,  again  re- 
 duced Egypt  to  the  condition  of  a  Persian  province ; 
 but  his  name  is  nowhere  to  be  found  among  the  re- 
 mains yet  discovered  in  Egypt.  Thus,  then,  the  re- 
 searches of  Champollion  have  brought  to  our  view  an 
 almost  complete  succession  of  the  kings  of  Egvpt,  from 
 the  invasion  of  the  Hycsos  to  the  linal  conquest  by  the 
 Persians,  whose  empire  fell  to  Alexander  in  332  B.C. 
 It  tallies  throughout,  in  a  remarkable  manner,  with  the 
 remains  of  the  historian  Manetho  ;  and,  by  the  aid  of 
 his  series  of  dynasties,  the  gaps  still  left  by  hieroglyphic 
 discoveries  may  be  legitimately  filled  up.  Before  the 
 former  era  all  is  dark  and  obscure  ;  in  the  next  part 
 we  have  little  but  a  list  of  names  ;  but,  from  the  reign 
 of  Psammiticus  I.,  ample  materials  exist  in  the  histo- 
 ries of  Herodotus  and  Diodorus ;  and  from  the  reign 
 of  Darius  Ochus,  the  annals  of  Egypt  become  incorpo- 
 rated with  those  of  Greece.  Any  farther  reference, 
 therefore,  to  the  history  of  Egypt  becomes  superfluous 
 in  this  place.  {Vid  Ptolemajus.)  With  regard,  how- 
 ever, to  the  discoveries  of  Champollion,  the  following 
 interesting  particulars  may  be  stated.  Philip  Aridce.- 
 us,  the  brother  of  Alexander,  is  commemorated  at  Kar- 
 nac, and  on  the  columns  of  the  temple  at  Aschmonneim. 
 The  name  of  the  other  Alexander,  the  son  of  the  con- 
 queror by  Roxana,  is  engraved  on  the  granite  propylaea 
 at  Elephantine.  Ptolemy  Safer,  and  his  son  Ptolemy 
 I'hiladclphus,  have  left  the  remembrance  of  their  pros- 
 perous reigns  in  various  important  works.  EuergeJ.es 
 I.  not  only  ruled  over  Egypt,  but  rendered  his  name 
 celebrated  by  his  military  expeditions,  both  in  .Africa 
 and  Asia.  His  titles  are,  therefore,  not  only  inscribed 
 on  the  edifices  constructed  during  his  reign  in  Egypt, 
 but  are  to  be  met  with  in  Nubia,  particularly  on  the 
 temple  of  Dakkhe  ;  and  the  basso  relievos,  on  a  tri- 
 umphal gate  constructed  by  him  at  Thebes,  may  be  ad- 
 mired even  among  the  ancient  relics  of  the  magnifi- 
 cence of  the  eighteenth  dynasty.  The  temple  of  An- 
 tEBopolis  dates  from  the  reign  oi Ptolemy  Philopator  and 
 Arsinoe  his  wife.  In  his  reign,  too,  the  ancient  palaces 
 of  Karnac  and  Luxor,  at  Thebes,  were  repaired.  Ptole- 
 my Epiphanes,  and  his  wife  Cleopatra  of  Syria,  dedi- 
 cated one  of  the  many  temples  of  Phila3,  as  well  as  the 
 temple  of  Edfou.  Of  the  Roman  emperors  we  find  in- 
 scribed in  hieroglyphics  the  names  and  titles  of  .4m- 
 gits/us,  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius,  Nero,  Vespa- 
 sian, Titus,  Domitian,  Ncrva,  Trajan,  Adrian,  Mar- 
 cus Aurclius,  Lucius  Verus,  and  Commodus.  This 
 last  name  is  to  be  read  four  times  among  the  inscrip- 
 tions of  the  temple  of  Esn6  ;  which,  before  this  discov- 
 ery, was  considered  to  have  been  erected  in  an  age  fax 
 more  remote  than  is  reached  by  any  of  our  histories. 
 So  far  from  this,  it  is,  in  truth,  with  but  one  exception, 
 the  most  modern  of  all  the  edifices  yet  discovered  in 
 the  Egyptian  style  of  architecture.  Thus,  then,  as  far 
 down  as  the  year  180  of  our  present  era,  the  worship 
 of  the  ancient  Egyptian  deities  was  publicly  exercised, 
 and  preserved  all  its  external  splendour ;  for  the  tem- 
 ples of  Dendera,  Esnt,  and  others  constructed  under 
 the  Roman  rule,  are,  for  size  and  labour,  if  not  for  their 
 style  of  art,  well  worthy  of  the  ages  of  Egyptian  inde- 
 pendence. Previous  to  these  discoveries,  it  had  be- 
 come a  matter  of  almost  universal  belief,  that  the  arts, 
 the  writing,  and  even  the  ancient  religion  of  Egypt, 
 had  ceased  to  be  used  from  the  time  of  the  Persian  con- 
 quest. {American  Quarterly  Rev.,  No.  7,  p.  34,  segq. 
 —  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science,  &c.,  New  Series,  1 
 183,  seqq.) 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 9.  Egyptian  Writing. 
 In  writing  their  language,  the  ancient  Egyptians  em- 
 ployed three  different  kinds  of  characters.  First :  fig- 
 ura.'-'re  ;  or  representations  of  the  objects  themselves. 
 Secondly :  symbolic ;  or  representations  of  certain 
 physical  or  material  objects,  expressing  metaphorically, 
 or  conventionally,  certain  ideas  ;  such  as,  a  people 
 obedient  to  their  king,  figured,  metaphorically,  by  a 
 bee  ;  ihe  universe,  conventionally,  by  a  beetle.  Third- 
 ly ;  phonetic,  or  representative  of  sounds,  that  is  to  say, 
 strictly  alphabetical  characters.  The  phonetic  signs 
 were  also  portraits  of  physical  and  material  objects  ; 
 and  each  stood  for  the  initial  sound  of  the  word  in  the 
 Egyptian  language  which  expressed  the  object  por- 
 trayed :  thus  a  lion  was  the  sound  L,  because  a  lion 
 was  called  Labo  ;  and  a  hand  a  T,  because  a  hand 
 was  called  Tot.  The  form  in  which  these  objects 
 were  presented,  when  employed  as  phonetic  charac- 
 ters, was  conventional  and  definite,  to  distinguish 
 them  from  the  same  objects  used  either  figuratively  or 
 symbolically.  Thus,  the  conventional  form  of  the 
 phonetic  T  was  the  hand  open  and  outstretched.  In 
 any  other  form  the  hand  would  be  either  a  figurative  or 
 a  symbolic  sign.  The  number  of  distinct  characters 
 employed  as  phonetic  signs  appears  to  have  been  about 
 120  ;  consequently,  many  were  homophones,  or  hav- 
 ing the  same  signification.  The  three  kinds  of  char- 
 acters were  used  indiscriminately  in  the  same  writing, 
 and  occasionally  in  the  composition  of  the  same  word. 
 The  formal  Egyptian  writing,  therefore,  such  as  we 
 see  it  still  existing  on  the  monuments  of  the  country, 
 was  a  series  of  portraits  of  physical  and  material  ob- 
 jects, of  which  a  small  proportion  had  a  symbolical 
 meaning,  a  still  smaller  proportion  a  figurative  mean- 
 ing, but  the  great  body  were  phonetic  or  alphabetical 
 signs  :  and  to  these  portraits,  sculptured  or  painted 
 with  sufficient  fidelity  to  leave  no  doubt  of  the  object 
 represented,  the  name  of  hieroglyphics  or  sacred  char- 
 acters has  been  attached  from  their  earliest  historic, 
 notice.  The  manuscripts  of  the  same  ancient  period 
 make  us  acquainted  with  two  other  forms  of  writing 
 practised  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  both  apparently 
 distinct  from  the  hieroglyphic,  but  which,  on  careful 
 examination,  are  found  to  be  its  immediate  derivatives  ; 
 every  hieroglyphic  having  its  corresponding  sign  in  the 
 hieratic,  or  writing  of  the  priests,  in  which  the  funeral 
 rituals,  forming  a  large  portion  of  the  manuscripts,  are 
 principally  composed  ;  and  in  the  demotic,  called  also 
 the  enchorial,  which  was  employed  for  all  more  ordi- 
 nary and  popular  usages.  The  characters  of  the  hie- 
 ratic are,  for  the  most  part,  obvious  running  imitations 
 or  abridgments  of  the  corresponding  hieroglyphics  ; 
 but  in  the  demotic,  which  is  still  farther  removed  from 
 the  original  type,  the  derivation  is  less  frequently  and 
 kss  obviously  traceable.  In  the  hieratic,  fewer  figu- 
 rative or  symbolic  signs  are  employed  than  in  the  hie- 
 roglyphic ;  their  absence  being  supplied  by  means  of 
 the  phonetic  or  alphabetical  characters,  the  words  be- 
 ing spelt  instead  of  figured  ;  and  this  is  stdl  more  the 
 case  in  the  demotic,  which  is,  in  consequence,  almost 
 entirely  alphabetical.  After  the  conversion  of  the 
 Egyptians  to  Christianity,  the  ancient  mode  of  writing 
 their  language  fell  into  disuse  ;  and  an  alphabet  was 
 adopted  in  substitution,  consisting  of  the  twenty-five 
 Greek  letters,  with  six  additional  signs  expressing  ar- 
 ticulations and  aspirations  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  the 
 characters  for  which  were  retained  from  the  demotic. 
 This  is  the  Coptic  alphabet,  in  which  the  Egyptian  ap- 
 pears as  a  written  language  in  the  Coptic  books  and 
 manuscripts  preserved  in  our  libraries  ;  and  in  which, 
 consequently,  the  language  of  the  inscriptions  on  the 
 monuments  may  be  studied.  The  original  mode  in 
 which  the  language  was  written  having  thus  fallen  into 
 disuse,  it  happened  at  length  that  ihe  signification  of 
 the  characters,  and  even  the  nature  of  the  system  of 
 
 writing  which  they  formed,  became  entirely  lost,  suck 
 notices  on  the  subject  as  existed  in  the  early  histori- 
 ans being  either  too  imperfect,  or  appearing  too  vague, 
 to  furnish  a  clew,  although  frequently  and  carefully 
 studied  for  the  purpose.  The  repossession  of  this 
 knowledge  will  form,  in  literary  history,  one  of  the  most 
 remarkable  distinctions,  if  not  the  principal  one,  of  the 
 age  in  which  we  live.  It  is  due  primarily  to  the  dis- 
 covery by  the  French,  during  their  possession  of  Egypt, 
 of  the  since  well-known  monument,  called  the  Roseita 
 Stone,  which,  on  their  defeat  and  expulsion  by  the 
 British  troops,  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  victors, 
 was  conveyed  to  England,  and  deposited  in  the  Brit- 
 ish Museum.  On  this  monument  the  same  inscription 
 is  repeated  in  the  Greek  and  in  the  Egyptian  language, 
 being  written  in  the  latter  both  in  hieroglyphics  and  in 
 the  demotic  or  enchorial  character.  The  words  Ptole- 
 my and  Cleopatra,  written  in  hieroglyphics,  and  recog- 
 nised by  means  of  the  corresponding  Greek  of  the 
 Rosetta  inscription,  and  by  a  Greek  inscription  on  the 
 base  of  an  obelisk  at  Phdae,  gave  the  phonetic  charac- 
 ters of  the  letters  which  form  those  words  :  by  their 
 means  the  names  were  discovered,  in  hieroglyphic  wri- 
 ting, on  the  monuments  of  all  the  Grecian  kings  and 
 Grecian  queens  of  Egypt,  and  by  the  comparison  of 
 these  names  one  with  another,  the  value  of  all  the  pho- 
 netic characters  was  finally  ascertained.  The  first  step 
 in  this  great  discovery  was  made  by  a  distinguished 
 scholar  of  England,  the  late  Dr.  Young  ;  the  key  found 
 by  him  has  been  greatly  improved,  and  applied  with 
 indefatigable  perseverance,  ingenuity,  and  skill  to  the 
 monuments  of  Egypt,  by  the  celebrated  Champollion. 
 {Quarterly  Journal  of  Science,  &c.,  Ncxo  Series,  vol. 
 1,  p.  176,  scqq. — Compare  Edinburgh  Bevicw,  Nos. 
 89  and  90. — American  Quarterly  Review,  No.  2,  p. 
 438,  scqq. — Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  No.  8,  p.  438, 
 seqq.,  and  the  Supplement  to  the  Encyclopccdia  Bri- 
 tannica,  vol.  4,  pt.  1,  s.  v.  Egypt. —  Wiseman's  Lec- 
 tures, p.  255,  seqq.) 
 
 10.  Animal  Worship. 
 There  was  no  single  feature  in  the  character  and 
 customs  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  which  appeared  to 
 foreigners  so  strange  and  portentous  as  the  religious 
 worship  paid  to  animals.  The  pompous  processions 
 and  grotesque  ceremonies  of  this  celebrated  people  ex- 
 cited the  admiration  of  all  spectators,  and  their  admi- 
 ration was  turned  into  ridicule  on  beholding  the  object 
 of  their  devotions.  It  was  remarked  by  Clemens 
 (Padag.  lib.  3)  and  Origen  {adv.  Cels.  3,  p.  121),  that 
 those  who  visited  Egypt  approached  with  delight  its 
 sacred  groves,  and  splendid  temples,  adorned  with  su- 
 perb vestibules  and  lofty  porticoes,  the  scenes  of  many 
 solemn  and  mysterious  rites.  "  The  walls,"  says  Cle- 
 mens, "  shine  with  gold  and  silver,  and  with  amber,  and 
 sparkle  with  the  various  gems  of  India  and  Ethiopia  ; 
 and  the  recesses  are  concealed  by  splendid  curtains. 
 But  if  you  enter  the  penetralia,  and  inquire  for  the 
 image  of  the  god  for  whose  sake  the  fane  was  built, 
 one  of  the  Pastophori,  or  some  other  attendant  on  the 
 temple,  approaches  with  a  solemn  and  mysterious  as- 
 pect, and,  putting  aside  the  veil,  suflfers  vou  to  peep  in 
 and  obtain  a  glimpse  of  the  divinity.  There  you  be- 
 hold a  snake,  a  crocodile,  or  a  cat,  or  some  other  beast, 
 a  fitter  inhabitant  of  a  cavern  or  a  bog  than  a  temple." 
 The  devotion  with  which  their  sacred  animals  were  re- 
 garded by  the  Egyptians,  displayed  itself  in  the  most 
 whimsical  absurdities.  It  was  a  capital  crime  to  kill 
 any  of  them  voluntarily  {Herod.  2,  65);  but  if  an 
 ibis  or  a  hawk  were  accidentally  destroyed,  the  unfor- 
 tunate author  of  the  deed  was  often  put  to  death  by 
 the  multitude,  without  form  of  law.  In  order  to  avoid 
 suspicion  of  such  an  impious  act,  and  the  speedy  fate 
 which  often  ensued,  a  man  who  chanced  to  meet  with 
 the  carcass  of  such  a  bird  began  immediately  to  wail 
 and  lament  with  the  utmost  vociferation,  and  to  protest 
 
 45 
 
iEGYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS, 
 
 that  he  found  it  already  dead.  (Diodorus  Siculus, 
 I,  83.)  Wiien  a  house  happened  to  be  set  on  fire,  the 
 chief  alarm  of  the  Egyptians  arose  from  the  propensity 
 of  the  cats  to  rush  into  the  flames  over  tiic  heads  or 
 between  the  legs  of  the  spectators  :  if  this  catastrophe 
 took  place,  it  excited  a  general  lamentation.  At  the 
 death  of  a  cat,  every  inmate  of  the  house  cut  off  his 
 eyfehrows ;  but  at  the  funeral  of  a  dog,  he  shaved  his 
 head  and  whole  body.  {Herod.  2,66.)  The  carcasses 
 of  all  the  cats  were  salted,  and  carried  to  Bubastus  to 
 be  interred  {Herod.  2,  67);  and  it  is  said  that  many 
 Egyptians,  arriving  from  warlike  expeditions  to  foreign 
 countries,  were  known  to  bring  with  them  dead  cats 
 and  hawks,  which  ihcy  had  met  with  accidentally,  and 
 had  salted  and  prepared  for  sepulture  with  much  pious 
 grief  and  lamentation.  {Diod.  Sic.  \,83.)  In  ihe  ex- 
 tremity of  famine,  when  they  were  driven  by  hunger 
 to  devour  each  other,  the  Egyptians  were  never  ac- 
 cused of  touching  the  sacred  animals.  Every  nome  m 
 Egvpt  paid  a  particular  worship  to  the  animal  that  was 
 consecrated  to  its  tutelar  god  ;  but  there  were  certain 
 species  which  the  whole  nation  held  in  great  reverence. 
 These  were  the  ox  {vid.  Apis),  the  dog,  and  the  cat ; 
 the  hawk  and  the  ibis  ;  and  the  fishes  termed  oxyrhyn- 
 chus  and  lepidotus.  {Straho,  812.)  In  each  nome 
 the  whole  species  of  animals,  to  the  worship  of  which 
 it  was  dedicated,  was  held  in  great  respect ;  but  one 
 favoured  individual  was  selected  to  receive  the  adora- 
 tion of  the  multitude,  and  supply  the  place  of  an  image 
 of  the  god.  Perhaps  this  is  not  far  from  the  sense  in 
 which  Strabo  distinguishes  the  sacred  from  the  divine 
 animals.  Thus,  in  the  nome  of  Arsinoe,  where  croc- 
 odiles were  sacred,  one  of  this  species  was  kept  in  the 
 temple  and  wor.shippcd  as  a  god.  He  was  tamed  and 
 watched  with  great  care  by  the  priests,  who  called  him 
 "  Suchos,"  and  he  ate  meat  and  cakes  which  were  of- 
 fered to  him  by  strangers.  {Straho.,  811.)  In  the 
 Bame  neighbourhood  there  was  a  pond  appropriated  to 
 the  feeding  of  crocodiles,  with  which  it  was  filled,  the 
 Arsinoites  carefully  abstaining  from  hutiting  any  of 
 them.  Sacred  bulls  were  kept  in  several  towns  and 
 villages,  and  nothing  was  spared  that  seemed  to  con- 
 tribute to  the  enjoyment  of  these  horned  gods,  which 
 were  pampered  in  the  utmost  luxury.  Among  insects, 
 the  cantharus,  scarabaeus,  or  beetle,  was  very  celebra- 
 ted as  an  object  of  worship.  Plutarch  says  it  was  an 
 emblem  of  the  sun  ;  but  HorapoUo  is  more  particu- 
 lar, and  informs  us  that  there  were  three  species  of 
 sacred  beetles,  of  which  one  was  dedicated  to  the  god 
 of  Heliopolis,  or  the  Sun  ;  another  was  sacred  to  the 
 Moon  ;  and  a  third  to  Hermes  or  Thoth.  The  reasons 
 he  assigns  for  the  consecration  of  this  insect  are  de- 
 rived from  the  notions  entertained  respecting  its  mode 
 of  reproduction  and  its  habits,  in  which  the  Egyptians 
 traced  analogies  to  the  movements  of  the  heavenly 
 bodies.  It  was  believed  that  all  these  insects  were  of 
 the  male  sex.  The  beetle  was  said  to  fecundate  a 
 round  ball  of  earth,  which  it  formed  for  the  purpose. 
 In  this  they  saw  a  type  of  the  sun,  in  the  office  of  dem- 
 iurgus,  or  as  forming  and  fecundating  the  lower  world. 
 {HorapolL  Hieroglyph.  1,  10. — Plut.  de  Is.  et  Os.,  p. 
 355. — torphyr.  de  Abstin.,  lib.  4. — Euseb.  Prcpp. 
 Evang.  3,  4.)  Nor  was  the  adoration  of  the  Egyptians 
 confined  to  animals  merely.  Many  plants  were  re- 
 garded as  mystical  or  sacred,  and  none  more  so  than 
 the  lotus,  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made,  in 
 the  section  that  treats  of  the  fertility  of  Egypt.  In 
 the  lotus,  or  nymphaea  nclumbo,  which  throws  its  flow- 
 ers above  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  Egyptians  fo\md 
 an  allusion  to  the  sun  rising  from  the  surface  of  the 
 ocean,  and  it  is  on  the  blossom  of  this  plant  that  the 
 infant  Harpocrates  is  represented  as  reposing.  The 
 peach-tree  was  also  sacred  to  Harpocrates  ;  and  to  him 
 the  first  fruits  of  lentils  and  other  plants  were  of- 
 fered, in  the  month  Mesori.  It  is  well  known,  too,  that 
 the  Egyptians  worshipped  the  onion.  Plutarch  refers 
 46 
 
 this  superstition  to  a  fancied  relation  between  this  plant 
 and  the  moon.  Leeks  also,  and  various  leaumina, 
 were  held  in  similar  veneration.  {Minutius  Felix,  p. 
 278.)  The  acacia  and  the  heliotrope  are  said  to  have 
 been  among  the  number  of  those  plants  that  were  con- 
 secrated to  the  sun.  (Compare  Kircher's  Qi^drpus,  3, 
 2.)  The  laurel  was  regarded  as  the  most  noble  of  all 
 plants.  \Vc  learn  from  Clemens  Alexandrinus  that 
 there  were  thirty-six  plants  dedicated  to  the  thirty-six 
 genii,  or  decans,  who  presided  over  their  portions  of 
 the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac.  {Prickard's  Analysis 
 of  Egyptian  Mythology,  p.  301,  seqq.) 
 
 11.  Explanation  of  Animal  Worship. 
 The  origin  of  animal  worship,  and  the  reasons  or 
 motives  which  induced  the  Egyptians  to  represent  their 
 gods  under  such  strange  forms,  or  to  pay  divine  hon- 
 ours to  irrational  brutes,  and  even  to  the  meanest  ob- 
 jects in  nature,  is  an  inquiry  which  has  occupied  the 
 attention  of  the  learned  in  various  times.  Herodotus 
 pretended  to  be  in  possession  of  more  information  on 
 this  subject  than  he  chose  to  make  public.  It  has  been 
 conjectured  that  he  was  desirous  of  concealing  his  ig- 
 norance under  a  cloak  of  mystery.  The  later  Greek 
 writers  seem  to  have  been  more  intent  on  offering  ex- 
 cuses for  the  follies  of  the  Egyptians,  than  on  unfold- 
 ing the  real  principles  of  their  mythology  ;  and  we  find 
 various  and  contradictory  opinions  maintained  with 
 equal  confidence.  It  appears,  indeed,  that  the  Egyp- 
 tian priests  themselves,  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies, 
 and  at  the  era  of  the  Roman  conquest,  were  by  no 
 means  agreed  on  this  subject.  To  endeavour  to  ex- 
 plain it  by  a  reference  to  the  metamorphoses  which  the 
 gods  underwent,  when  they  fled  from  Typhon  and 
 sought  concealment  under  the  forms  of  animals,  is  to 
 account  for  an  absurdity  by  a  fable.  To  go  back,  as 
 some  do,  to  the  standards,  or  banners,  borne  by  the  dif- 
 ferent tribes  or  communities  that  formed  the  compo- 
 nent parts  of  the  earlier  population,  is  to  invert  the  or- 
 der of  ideas.  A  people  may  choose  for  a  standard  the 
 representation  of  an  object  which  they  adore  ;  but  they 
 will  not  be  found  to  adore  any  particular  object  be- 
 cause they  may  have  chosen  it  for  a  standard  or  ban- 
 ner. The  opinion,  on  the  other  hand,  which  refers  an- 
 imal worship  to  the  policy  of  kings,  and  to  their  seek- 
 ing to  divide  their  subjects  by  giving  them  different 
 objects  of  religious  veneration,  is  an  awkward  applica- 
 tion of  the  system  of  Euhenierus,  according  to  which 
 all  religions  were  nothing  in  effect  but  civil  institu- 
 tions, the  offspring  of  skilful  legislators.  Fetichism 
 has  been  anterior  to  all  positive  law.  Favoured  by  the 
 interests  of  a  particular  class,  it  has  been  enabled,  it  is 
 true,  to  prolong  itself  during  a  state  of  civilization  and 
 by  the  force  of  authority  ;  but  it  must  spring  originally 
 and  freely  from  the  very  bosom  of  barbarism.  Equally 
 untenable  is  the  position,  which  supposes,  that  the 
 Egyptians  were  induced  to  pay  divine  honours  to  ani- 
 mals, out  of  gratitude  for  the  benefits  which  they  de- 
 rived from  them  ;  to  the  cow  and  the  sheep,  for  the 
 clothing  and  sustenance  which  they  afford  ;  to  the  dog, 
 for  his  care  in  protecting  their  houses  against  thieves  ; 
 to  the  ibis,  for  delivering  their  country  from  serpents  ; 
 and  to  the  ichneumon,  for  destroying  the  eggs  of  the 
 crocodile.  This  conjecture  is  refuted  by  the  well- 
 known  fact,  that  a  variety  of  animals  which  are  of  no 
 apparent  utility,  and  even  several  species  which  are 
 noxious  and  destructive,  and  the  natural  enemies  of 
 mankind,  received  their  appropriate  honours,  and  were 
 rccrarded  with  as  much  reverence  as  the  more  obvious- 
 ly useful  members  of  the  animal  creation.  The  shrew- 
 mouse,  the  pike,  the  beetle,  the  crow,  the  hawk,  the 
 hippopotamus,  can  claim  no  particular  regard  for  the 
 benefits  they  are  known  to  confer  on  the  human  race  ; 
 still  less  can  the  crocoddc,  the  lion,  the  wolf,  or  the 
 venomous  asp  urge  any  such  pretension.  Yet  we 
 have  seen  that  all  these  creatures,  and  others  of  a  sim- 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 iEGYPTUS. 
 
 fiar  description,  were  worshipped  by  the  Egyptians 
 with  the  most  profound  devotion  :  nay,  mothers  even 
 rejoiced  when  their  children  were  devoured  by  croco- 
 diles. It  ma.v  be  farther  observed,  that  some  of  those 
 animals  which  afford  us  food  and  raiment,  and  which 
 are,  on  that  account,  among  the  most  serviceable,  were 
 rendered  of  little  or  no  utility  to  the  Egyptians  on  ac- 
 count of  this  very  superstition.  They  regarded  it  as  un- 
 lawful to  kill  oxen  for  the  sake  of  food,  and  not  only  ab- 
 stained from  slaughtering  the  sheep,  but  likewise,  un- 
 der a  variety  of  cu'cumstanccs,  from  wearing  any  gar- 
 ment made  of  its  wool,  which  was  regarded  as  impure, 
 and  defiling  the  body  that  was  clothed  with  it.  These 
 considerations  seem  to  prove,  that  the  adoration  of  an- 
 imals among  the  Egyptians  was  not  founded  on  the 
 advantages  which  mankind  derive  from  them.  An- 
 other attempt  at  explaining  this  mystery,  which  re- 
 ceives greater  countenance  from  the  general  character 
 of  the  Egyptian  manners  and  superstition,  is  the  con- 
 jecture of  Lucian.  {De  Astrolog. — cd.  Bip.,  vol.  5,  p. 
 218.)  This  writer  pretends,  that  the  sacred  animals 
 were  only  types  or  emblems  of  the  asterisms,  or  of 
 those  imaginary  figures  or  groups  into  which  the  an- 
 cients had,  at  a  very  early  period,  distributed  the  stars  ; 
 distinguishing  them  by  the  names  of  living  creatures 
 and  other  terrestrial  objects.  According  to  Lucian, 
 the  worshippers  of  the  bull  Apis  adored  a  living  image 
 of  the  celestial  Taurus  ;  and  Anubis  represented  the 
 Dog-star  or  the  constellation  of  Sirius.  This  hypoth- 
 esis has  received  more  attention  than  any  other  among 
 modern  writers.  Dupuis  has  made  it  the  basis  of  a 
 very  ingenious  attempt  to  explain  the  mythologue  of 
 Isis  and  Osiris,  and  several  other  fables  of  antiquity, 
 which  this  author  resolves  into  astronomical  figments, 
 or  figurative  accounts  of  certain  changes  in  the  posi- 
 tions of  the  heavenly  bodies.  {Originc  de  Ions  Ics 
 Ciiltes,  2,  270,  seqq.,  id.  1822.)  The  hypothesis  of 
 Lucian,  however,  will  not  endure  the  test  of  a  rigid 
 scrutiny.  For  if  we  examine  the  constellations  of  the 
 most  ancient  spheres,  we  find  but  few  coincidences 
 between  the  zodia  or  celestial  images,  and  that  exten- 
 sive catalogue  of  brute  creatures  which  were  adored  as 
 divmities  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  Where,  for  ex- 
 ample, shall  we  discover  the  ibis,  the  cat,  the  hippopot- 
 amus, or  the  crocodile  l  Besides,  if  we  could  trace 
 the  whole  series  of  deified  brutes  in  the  heavens,  it 
 would  still  remain  doubtful,  whether  the  Egyptian 
 animals  were  consecrated  subsequently  to  the  forma- 
 tion of  the  sphere,  as  types  or  images  of  the  constella- 
 tions ;  or  the  stars  distributed  into  groups,  and  these 
 groups  named  with  reference  to  the  quadrupeds,  birds, 
 and  fishes  that  were  already  regarded  as  sacred.  There 
 are,  indeed,  many  circumstances  which  might  render 
 the  latter  alternative  the  more  probable.  But  the  rela- 
 tion between  the  animals  of  the  sphere  and  those  of 
 the  Egyptian  temples  are  by  far  too  limited  to  warrant 
 any  such  speculation  ;  and  Lucian,  moreover,  is  an  au- 
 thor who  is  by  no  means  deserving  of  much  credit  on 
 a  subject  of  this  nature.  Porphyry,  in  his  conjectures, 
 approaches  nearer  the  truth.  The  divinity,  according 
 to  him,  embraces  all  beings  ;  he  resides,  therefore,  in 
 animals  also,  and  man  adores  him  wherever  he  is  found. 
 Li  other  words,  the  worship  of  animals  was  intimately 
 connected,  according  to  this  writer,  with  the  doctrine 
 of  emanation.  {Porphyr.  de  Ahstimntia,  4,  9.— Com- 
 pare Eiisehius,  Pntp.  Evang.  3,  4.)  This  explana- 
 tion, however,  does  not  go  far  enough.  It  takes  no 
 notice  of  that  peculiar  combination  by  which  the  wor- 
 ship of  animals  is  made  to  assume  a  regular  form,  and 
 to  continue  itself  long  after  man  has  placed  the  deity 
 far  above  the  limits  of  physical  existence. — The  dis- 
 covery of  a  mode  of  worship  among  certain  savage 
 tribes  in  our  own  days,  perfectly  analogous  to  the  sv°s- 
 tem  of  animal  adoration  which  prevailed  among  the 
 Egyptians,  furnishes  us  with  a  certain  clew  amid  these 
 conflicting  hypotheses,  and  that  clew  is  Fetichism.    We 
 
 perceive,  remarks  Heeren  (Hcen,  vol.  2,  p.  664),  thfi 
 worship  of  animals  from  Ethiopia  to  Sewegal,  among 
 nations  completely  uncivilized.     Why,  then,  seek  for  a 
 different  origin  among  the  Egyptians  1     Place  among 
 the  African  negroes  of  the  present  day  corpora iiojis  of 
 priests  arrived  at  the  knowledge  of  the  movement  of 
 the  heavenly  bodies,  and  preserving  in  their  satictuary 
 this  branch  of  human  science  screened  from  the  cmi- 
 osity  of  the  uninitiated  and  profane.     These  sacerdo- 
 tal corporations  will  never  seek  to  change  the  objects 
 of  vulgar  adoration  ;   on  the  contrary,  they  will  conse- 
 crate the  worship  that  is  paid  them,  and  will  give  that 
 worship  more  of  pomp  and  regularity.    They  will  seek, 
 above  all,  to  make  the  intervention  of  the  sacerdotal 
 caste  a  necessary  requisite  in  every  ceremony  ;  they 
 will  then  attach,  in  a  mystic  sense,  these  material  ob- 
 jects of  worship  to  their  hidden  science  ;  and  the  re- 
 sult will  be  a  system  of  religion  precisely  similar  to 
 that  of  Egypt,  with  Fetichism  for  its  basis,  the  worship 
 of  the  heavenly  bodies  for  its  outward  characteristic, 
 and    within,  a  science  founded  on  astronomy,  and  by 
 the  operation  of  which  the  fetichs,  that  serve  as  gods 
 for  the  peo()le,  become  merely  symbols  for  the  priests. 
 It  was  thus  that  the  priests  of  Meroe,  in  sending  forth 
 their  sacerdotal  colonies,  carefully  observed  the  rule 
 of  attaching  to  themselves  the  natives  among  whom 
 they  chanced  to  come,  by  adopting  a  part  of  their  ex- 
 ternal worship,  and  by  assigning  to  the  animals  which 
 these  natives  adored  a  place  in  the  temples  erected  by 
 them,  which  thence  became  the  common  sanctuaries 
 and  the  centres  of  religion  for  all.     To  invert  the  or- 
 der to  which  we  have  just  alluded  is  a  palpable  error. 
 M'hat  had  been  for  a  long  time  acknowledged  for  a 
 sign  or  symbol,  could  not,  on  a  sudden,  be  transformed 
 into  a  god  ;  but  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how  that  which 
 passes  for  a  god  with  the  mass  of  the  people  may  be- 
 come an  allegory  or  emblem  with  a  more  enlightened 
 caste.     Apis,  for  example,  owed  to  certain  spots,  at 
 first  fortuitous,  afterward  renewed  by  art,  the  honoui 
 of  being  one  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac.     The  salacity 
 of  the  goat  made  it  a  type  of  the  great  productive  pow- 
 er in  nature.     The  cat  was  indebted  to  its  glossy  fur, 
 and  the  ibis  to  its  equivocal  colour,  which  appeared,  as 
 it  were,  something  intermediate  between  the  night  and 
 the  day,  for  being  symbols  of  the  moon  ;  the  falcon 
 became  one  of  the  year,  and  the  scaraboeus  of  tlie  sun. 
 The  case  was  the  same  with  trees  and  plants,  fetichs 
 no  less  highly  revered  than  animals.     The  leaves  of 
 the  palm,  the  longevity  of  which  tree  seemed  a  special 
 privilege  from  on  high,  adorned  the  couches  of  the 
 priests,  because  this  tree,  putting  forth  branches  every 
 month,  marks  the  renewal  of  the  lunar  cycle.     {Diod. 
 Sic.    1,  34.— P/m.  13,  17.)     The  lotus,  known  also 
 as  a  sacred  plant  to  the  people  of  India,  the  cradle  of 
 Brahma  {Maurice,  Hist,  of  Indost.   1,  60),  as  well  as 
 that  of  Harpocrates  ;  the  persea,  brought  from  Ethio- 
 pia by  a  sacerdotal  colony  {Diod.  Sic.  I.  c. — Schol.  in 
 Nicandr.  Therapeut.  v.  764) ;  the  amoglossum,  whose 
 seven  sides  recall  to  mind    the    seven  planets  ;  and 
 which  was  styled,  on  this  account,  the  glory  of  the 
 skies  {Kircher,  (Ed.  JEgypt.  3,  2) ;   the  onion,  whose 
 pellicles  were  thought  to  resemble  so  many  concentric 
 spheres,  and  which  was  therefore  viewed  as  a  vegeta- 
 ble image  of  the  universe,  always  different  and  yet  al- 
 ways  the  same,  and  where  each  part  served  as  the  rep 
 resentative  of  the  whole  ;  all  these  became  so  many 
 symbols  having  more  or  less  connexion  with  astronom- 
 ical science.     In  them  the  people  beheld  the  objects 
 of  ancient  adoration,  and  the  priests  characteristics  that 
 enabled  them  to  mark  out  and  perpetuate  their  scien 
 tific  discoveries.     To  these  elements  of  worship  was 
 added,  without  doubt,  the  influence  of  localities,  that 
 at  one  time  disturbed  by  partial  differences  the  uni- 
 formity which  the  sacred  caste  were  desirous  of  estab- 
 lishing, and  at  another  associated  with  the  rites,  that 
 had  reference  to  the  general  principles  of  astronomical 
 
 47 
 
VEGYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 tcience,  certain  practices  which  resulted  merely  from 
 peculiarity  of  situation.  Hence,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
 diversity  of  animals  adored  by  the  communities  of 
 Egypt.  Had  these  been  merely  pure  symbols,  would 
 the  priests,  w  ho  sought  to  impart  a  uniform  character  to 
 their  institutions,  have  ever  introduced  them  I  These 
 varieties  in  the  objects  of  worship  are  only  to  be  ex- 
 plained by  the  yielding,  on  the  [)art  of  a  sacerdotal  or- 
 der, to  the  antecedent  habits  of  ihe  people.  (  Vogel, 
 Rcl.  dcr  Jig;  p.  97,  scqrj.)  Hence,  too,  on  the  other 
 hand,  those  numerous  allegories,  heaped  up  together 
 without  being  connected  by  any  common  bond,  and 
 forming,  if  the  expression  be  allowed,  so  many  layers 
 of  fable.  Apis,  for  example,  at  first  the  manitou-pro- 
 totype  of  his  kind,  afterward  the  depository  of  the 
 soul  of  Osiris,  is  found  to  have  a  third  meamng,  which 
 holds  a  middle  place  between  the  other  two.  He  is 
 the  symbol  of  the  Nile,  the  fertilizing  stream  of  Egypt ; 
 and  while  his  colour,  the  spots  of  white  on  his  front, 
 and  the  duration  of  his  existence,  which  could  not  ex- 
 ceed twenty-five  years,  have  a  reference  to  astronomy, 
 the  festival  of  his  reappearance  was  celebrated  on  the 
 day  when  the  river  begins  to  rise.  The  result,  then, 
 of  what  we  have  here  advanced,  is  simply  this :  The 
 animal- worship  of  the  Egyptians  originated  in  fetichism. 
 The  sacerdotal  caste,  in  allowing  it  to  remain  unmo- 
 lested, arrayed  it  in  a  more  imposing  garb,  and,  while 
 they  permitted  the  mass  of  the  people  to  indulge  in  this 
 gross  and  humiliating  species  of  adoration,  reserved  for 
 themselves  a  secret  and  visionary  system  of  pantheism 
 or  emanation.  (Constant,  de  la  Religion,  3,  62,  seqq. 
 — Pilchard's  Analysis  of  Egyptian  Mythology,  p.  330, 
 scgq.) 
 
 12.  Egyptian  Castes. 
 
 Among  the  institutions  of  Egypt,  none  was  more 
 important  in  its  influence  on  the  character  of  the  na- 
 tion, than  the  division  of  the  people  into  tribes  or  fam- 
 ilies, who  were  obliged  by  the  laws  and  superstitions 
 of  the  country  to  follow,  without  deviation,  the  profes- 
 sions and  habits  of  their  forefathers.  Such  an  institu- 
 tion could  not  fail  of  impressing  the  idea  of  abject  ser- 
 vility on  the  lower  classes  ;  and,  by  removing  in  a  great 
 measure  the  motive  of  emulation,  it  must  have  created, 
 in  all,  an  apathy  and  indifference  to  improvement  in  their 
 particular  professions.  Wherever  the  system  of  castes 
 has  existed,  it  has  produced  a  remarkably  permanent 
 and  uniform  character  in  the  nation  ;  as  in  the  example 
 furnished  by  the  natives  of  Hindustan.  These  people 
 agree  in  almost  every  point  with  the  description  given 
 of  them  by  Megasthenes,  who  visited  the  court  of  an 
 Indian  king  soon  after  the  conquest  of  the  East  by  the 
 Macedonians.  We  have  no  very  accurate  and  cir- 
 cumstantial account  of  the  castes  into  which  the  Egyp- 
 tian people  were  divided,  and  of  the  particular  customs 
 of  each.  It  appears,  indeed,  that  innovations  on  the 
 old  civil  and  religious  constitution  of  Egypt  had  begun 
 to  be  introduced  as  early  as  the  time  of  Psamraetichus, 
 when  the  ancient  aversion  of  the  people  to  foreigners 
 was  first  overcome.  The  various  conflicts  which  the 
 nation  underwent,  between  that  era  and  the  time  when 
 Herodotus  visited  Egypt,  could  not  fail  to  break  down 
 many  of  the  fences,  which  ancient  priestcraft  had  es- 
 Ublished  for  maintaining  the  influence  of  superstition. 
 Herodotus  is  the  earliest  writer  who  mentions  the 
 castes  or  hereditary  classes  of  the  Egyptians,  and  his 
 dccount  appears  to  be  the  result  of  his  personal  obser- 
 vation only.  Had  this  historian  understood  the  native 
 language  of  the  people  ;  had  he  been  able  to  read  the 
 books  of  Hermes,  in  which  the  old  sacerdotal  institu- 
 tions were  contained,  we  might  have  expected  from 
 him  as  correct  and  ample  a  description  of  the  distribu- 
 tion of  the  castes  in  Egypt,  as  that  which  modern  wri- 
 ters have  gained  in  India  from  the  code  of  Menu,  re- 
 specting the  orders  and  subdivisions  of  the  community 
 in  Hindustan.  Diodorus,  who  had  more  favourable 
 48 
 
 opportunities  of  information,  and  who  seems  to  have 
 made  a  very  diligent  use  of  them,  may  be  supposed  to 
 be  more  accurate,  in  what  refers  to  the  internal  polity 
 of  this  nation,  than  Herodotus.  Strabo  has  mentioned, 
 in  a  very  summary  manner,  the  division  of  the  Egyp- 
 tians into  classes.  He  distinguishes  the  two  higiier 
 ranks,  namely,  the  sacerdotal  and  the  military  classes, 
 and  includes  all  the  remainder  of  the  community  under 
 the  designation  of  the  agricultural  class,  to  whom  he 
 assigns  the  employments  of  agriculture  and  the  arts. 
 Diodorus  subdivides  this  latter  class.  After  distin- 
 guishing from  it  the  sacerdotal  and  military  orders,  he 
 observes,  that  the  remainder  of  the  community  is  dis- 
 tributed into  three  divisions,  which  he  terms  Herds- 
 men, Agriculturists,  and  Artificers,  or  men  who  la- 
 boured at  trades.  Herodotus  very  nearly  agrees  in  his 
 enumeration  with  that  of  Diodorus.  His  names  for 
 the  different  classes  are  as  follows  :  ].  Priests,  ox  \.\\e 
 sacerdotal  class.  2.  Warriors,  or  the  military  class. 
 3.  Cowherds.  4.  Swineherds.  5.  Traders.  6.  In- 
 terpreters. 7.  Pilots.  In  this  catalogue  the  third  and 
 fourth  classes  are  plainly  subdivisions  of  the  third  of 
 Diodorus,  whom  that  writer  includes  under  the  gener- 
 al title  of  herdsmen.  The  caste  of  interpreters,  as  well 
 as  that  of  pilots,  must  have  comprised  a  very  small 
 number  of  men,  since  the  Egyptians  had  little  inter- 
 course with  foreigners,  and,  until  the  time  of  the  Greek 
 dynasty,  their  navigation  was  principally  confined  to 
 sailing  up  and  down  the  Nile.  The  pilots  were  proba- 
 bly a  tribe  of  the  same  class  with  the  artificers  or  la- 
 bouring artisans  of  Diodorus.  The  traders  of  Herod- 
 otus must  be  the  same  class  who  are  called  agricul- 
 turists by  Diodorus.  Thus,  by  comparing  the  differ- 
 ent accounts,  we  are  enabled  to  arrange  the  sevenil 
 branches  of  the  Egyptian  community  into  the  follow- 
 ing classes.  1 .  The  Sacerdotal  order.  2.  The  Mil- 
 itary. 3.  The  Herdsmen.  4.  The  Agricultural  and 
 Commercial  class.  5.  The  Artificers,  or  labouring 
 artisans.  The  employments  of  all  these  classes  were 
 hereditary,  and  no  man  was  allowed  by  the  law  to  en- 
 gage in  any  occupation  different  from  that  in  which  he 
 had  been  educated  by  his  parents.  It  was  accounted 
 an  honourable  distinction  to  belong  either  to  the  sacer- 
 dotal or  the  military  class.  The  other  orders  were 
 considered  greatly  inferior  in  dignity,  and  no  Egyptian 
 could  mount  the  throne  who  was  not  descended  from 
 the  priesthood  or  the  soldiery.  {Priehard's  Analysis 
 of  Egyptian  Mythology,  p.  373,  seqq.)  After  death, 
 however,  no  grade  was  regarded,  and  every  good  soul 
 was  supposed  to  become  united  to  that  essence  from 
 which  it  derived  its  origin.  ( Wilkinson,  Manners  and 
 Customs,  &c.,  I,  245.) 
 
 13.  Egyptian  Priesthood. 
 
 The  inquiry  respecting  the  sacerdotal  caste  of 
 Egypt  is  rendered  a  difficult  one  principally  on  the 
 following  account,  because  the  writers,  from  whose 
 statements  we  obtain  our  information,  lived  in  an  age 
 when  the  Egyptian  priesthood  had  already  suffered 
 many  and  important  alterations,  and  had  been  deprived 
 of  a  large  portion  of  their  former  consideration  and  in- 
 fluence. Each  successive  revolution  in  the  state  must 
 have  had  a  direct  bearing  upon  them,  or,  rather,  they 
 must  have  been  the  first  with  whom  it  came  in  con- 
 tact. Their  political  influence,  therefore,  must  have 
 been  gradually  diminished,  and  their  sphere  of  action 
 circumscribed.  Under  the  Persian  sway,  in  particu- 
 lar, their  power  must  have  been  reduced  to  within  but 
 narrow  limits,  and  our  only  wonder  is,  when  we  con- 
 sider the  strong  hostility  displayed  by  these  conquer- 
 ors towards  the  sacerdotal  or  ruling  caste,  that  it  did 
 not  fall  entirely  to  the  ground.  Herodotus  then,  and 
 still  more  the  writers  from  whom  Diodorus  Siculus  has 
 received  his  information  on  this  subject,  saw  merely 
 the  shadow  of  that  extensive  power  and  influence 
 which  the  priests  of  Egypt  had  formerly  possessed. 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 And  yet,  even  in  the  statements  which  we  obtain  from 
 this  quarter,  traces  may  easily  be  found  of  what  the 
 Egyptian  hierarchy  once  was ;  so  that  from  these, 
 when  taken  together,  we  are  enabli'd  to  form  a  tolera- 
 bly accurate  idea  of  the  earlier  power  which  this  re- 
 markable order  had  enjoyed.  The  sacerdotal  caste 
 was  spread  over  the  whole  of  Egypt ;  their  chief  places 
 of  abode,  however,  were  the  great  cities,  which,  at  one 
 time  or  other,  had  been  the  capitals  of  the  land,  or  else 
 had  held  a  high  rank  among  the  other  Egyptian  cities. 
 These  were  Thebes.  Memphis,  Sais,  Heliopolis,  &c. 
 Here,  too,  were  the  chief  temples,  whic-ii  are  so  often 
 mentioned  in  the  accounts  of  Herodotus  and  other 
 writers.  Every  Egyptian  priest  had  to  belong  to  the 
 service  of  some  particular  deity,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
 be  attached  to  some  temple.  The  number  of  priests 
 for  any  deity  was  never  detcrmmed  ;  nor  could  it  m- 
 deed  have  been  subjected  to  any  regulations  on  this 
 head,  since  priesthood  was  hereditary  in  families,  and 
 these  must  have  been  more  or  less  numerous  accord- 
 ing to  circumstances.  Not  only  was  the  priestly  caste 
 hereditary  in  its  nature,  but  also  the  priesthoods  of  in- 
 dividual deities.  The  sons,  for  example,  of  the  priests 
 of  Vulcan  at  Memphis,  could  not  enter  as  members 
 into  the  sacerdotal  college  at  Heliopolis  ;  nor  could 
 the  offspring  of  the  priests  of  Heliopohs  belong  to  the 
 college  of  Memphis.  Strange  as  this  regulation  may 
 appear,  it  was  nevertheless  a  natural  one.  Each  tem- 
 ple had  e.xtensive  portions  of  land  attached  to  it,  the 
 revenues  of  which,  belonging  as  they  did  to  those 
 whose  forefathers  had  erected  the  temple,  were  receiv- 
 ed by  the  priests  as  matters  of  hereditary  right,  and 
 made  those  who  tilled  these  lands  be  regarded  as  their 
 dependants  or  subjects.  Hence,  as  both  the  temple- 
 lands  and  revenues  were  inherited,  the  sacerdotal  col- 
 leges had  of  consequence  to  be  kept  distinct.  The 
 priesthood,  moreover,  of  each  temple  was  carefully 
 organized.  They  had  a  high-priest  over  them,  whose 
 office  was  likewise  hereditary.  It  need  hardly  be  re- 
 marked, that  there  must  have  been  gradations  also 
 among  the  various  high-priests,  and  that  those  of 
 Thebes,  Memphis,  and  the  oiherchief  cities  of  the  coun- 
 try, must  have  stood  at  the  head  of  the  order.  These 
 were,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  species  of  hereditary  princes, 
 who  stood  by  the  side  of  the  monarchs,  and  enjoyed  al- 
 most equal  privileges.  Their  Egyptian  title  was  Pi- 
 romis,  which  Herodotus  translates  by  naTibg  KuyaOoc, 
 i.  e.,  "  noble  and  good,"  and  which  points  not  so  much 
 to  moral  excellence  as  to  nobility  of  origin.  (Com- 
 pare Wclker,  ThcognkUs  RdiquiiE,  p.  xxiv.)  Their 
 statues  were  placed  in  the  temples.  Whenever  they 
 are  mentioned  in  the  history  of  the  country,  they  ap- 
 pear as  the  first  persons  in  the  state,  even  in  the  Mo- 
 saic age.  When  Joseph  was  to  be  elevated  to  power, 
 he  had  to  connect  himself  by  marriage  with  the  sacer- 
 dotal caste,  and  was  united  to  the  daughter  of  the 
 high-priest  at  On,  or  Heliopolis.  The  organization  of 
 the  inferior  priesthood  was  ditferent  probably  in  differ- 
 ent cities,  according  to  the  situation  and  wants  of  the 
 surrounding  country.  They  formed  not  only  the  ru- 
 ling caste,  and  supplied  from  their  number  all  the  of- 
 fices of  government,  but  v^ere  in  possession  likewise  of 
 all  the  learning  and  knowledge  of  the  land,  and  the  ex- 
 ercise of  this  last  had  always  immediate  reference  to 
 the  wants  of  the  adjecent  population.  Wc  must  ban- 
 ish the  idea,  then,  that  the  priests  of  Egypt  were 
 iterciy  the  ministers  of  religion,  or  that  rehgious  ob- 
 servances constituted  their  principal  employment. 
 They  were,  on  the  contrary,  judges  also,  physicians, 
 astronomers,  architects  ;  in  a  word,  they  had  charge  of 
 every  department  that  was  in  any  way  connected  with 
 learning  and  science.  It  appears,  from  the  whole  ten- 
 cur  of  Egyptian  history,  that  each  of  the  great  cities  of 
 the  land  possessed  originally  one  chief  temple,  which, 
 in  process  of  time,  became  the  head  temple  of  the  sur- 
 rounding district,  and  the  deity  worshipped  in  it  the 
 
 local  or  patron  deity  of  the  adjacent  country.  The 
 priests  of  Memphis  were  always  styled  (according  to 
 the  nomenclature  of  the  Greeks)  priests  of  Vulcan ; 
 those  of  Thebes,  priests  of  the  Theban  Jove  ;  those  ot 
 Sais,  priests  of  the  Sun,  &c.  These  head-temples 
 mark  the  first  settlements  of  the  sacerdotal  colonies  as 
 they  gradually  descended  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  The 
 number  of  deities  to  whom  temples  were  erected,  in 
 Upper  Egypt  at  least,  seem  to  have  been  always  very 
 limited.  In  this  quarter  we  hear  merely  of  the  tem- 
 ples of  Amnion,  Osiris,  Isis,  and  Typhon.  In  Middle 
 and  Lower  Egypt,  the  number  appears  to  have  been 
 gradually  enlarged. — The  next  subject  of  inquiry  has 
 reference  to  the  revenues  of  the  sacerdotal  order.  Here 
 also  we  must  dismiss  the  too  common  opinion,  that  the 
 priests  of  Egypt  were  a  class  supported  by  the  mon- 
 arch or  the  state.  They  were,  on  the  contrary,  the 
 principal  landholders  of  the  country,  and,  besides  them, 
 the  right  of  holding  lands  was  enjoyed  only  by  the  king 
 and  the  military  caste.  Changes,  of  course,  must 
 have  ensued  amid  the  various  political  revolutions  to 
 which  the  state  has  been  subject,  in  this  important 
 branch  of  the  sacerdotal  power,  yet  none  of  such  a 
 nature  as  materially  to  affect  the  right  itself;  and 
 hence  we  find  that  a  large,  if  not  the  largest  and  fair- 
 est, portion  of  the  lands  of  Egypt,  remained  always  in 
 the  hands  of  the  priests.  To  each  temple,  as  has  al- 
 ready been  remarked,  were  attached  extensive  do- 
 mains, the  common  possession  of  the  whole  fraternity, 
 and  their  original  place  of  settlement.  These  lands 
 were  let  out  for  a  moderate  sum,  and  the  revenue  de- 
 rived from  them  went  to  the  common  treasury  of  the 
 temple,  over  which  a  superintendent,  or  treasurer,  was 
 placed,  who  was  also  a  member  of  the  sacerdotal  body. 
 From  this  treasury  were  supplied  the  wants  of  the  va- 
 rious families  that  composed  the  sacred  college.  They 
 had  also  a  common  table  in  their  respective  temples, 
 which  was  daily  provided  with  all  the  good  things,  not 
 excepting  imported  wines,  that  their  rules  allowed. 
 So  that  no  part  of  their  private  property  was  required 
 for  their  immediate  support.  For  that  they  possessed 
 private  property  is  not  only  apparent  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  their  marrying  and  having  families,  but  it  ia 
 also  expressly  asserted  by  Herodotus.  From  all  that 
 has  been  said  then,  it  follows,  that  the  sacerdotal  fam- 
 ilies of  Egypt  were  the  richest  and  most  distinguished 
 in  the  land,  and  that  the  whole  order  formed,  in  fact, 
 a  highly  ■privileged  7iobiUty.  The  priests  of  Egypt 
 were  distinguished  for  great  cleanliness  of  person  and 
 peculiarity  of  attire.  It  cannot  be  doubted  but  that 
 the  nature  of  the  climate  and  the  character  of  the 
 country  exercised  a  great  influence,  not  only  on  these 
 points,  but  also  on  their  general  mode  of  life;  though, 
 independent  of  this,  they  would  seem  to  have  been 
 well  aware  how  important  agents  general  cleanliness 
 and  frequent  ablutions  become  in  producing  and  es- 
 tablishing the  blessings  of  health,  both  in  individuals 
 and  communities.  Hence  the  conspicuous  example  of 
 external  cleanliness  which  they  made  a  point  of  show- 
 ing the  lower  orders.  They  wore  garments  of  linen, 
 not,  as  some  think,  of  fine  cotton  {Schmidt,  de  Sa- 
 ccrdolibus  JEgypt.,  p.  26),  fresh  washed,  taking  particu- 
 lar care  to  have  them  always  clean.  They  shaved  all 
 parts  of  their  body  once  in  three  days.  They  wore 
 shoes  made  of  byblus,  bathed  themselves  twice  in  cold 
 water  by  day  and  twice  by  night,  and  entirely  rejected  • 
 the  use  of  woollen  garments.  {Heeren's  Ideen,  2,  2, 
 125,  seqq.) 
 
 14.  Motives  for  Embalming  Bodies. 
 It  has  often  been  observed,  that  the  practice  of  em- 
 balming the  dead,  and  preserving  them  with  so  much 
 care  and  in  so  costly  a  manner,  seems  to  indicate  some 
 peculiarity  in  the  opinions  of  the  Egyptian  philosophers 
 respecting  the  fate  of  the  soul.  On  this  subject  we 
 have  no  precise  and  satisfactory  information.  The  an- 
 ^  49 
 
.EGYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 cient  writers  have  left  us  only  a  few  hints,  more  or  less 
 obscure,  which  scarcely  afford  anything  beyond  a  mere 
 foundation  for  conjectures.  The  President  de  Gogiiet, 
 relyinii  on  a  statement  of  Servius,  supi)Oses  that  the 
 Eofypiians  embalmed  their  dead  for  tlie  sake  of  main- 
 taininif  the  connexion  between  the  soul  and  the  body, 
 and  preventing  the  former  from  transmigrating.  {Ori- 
 gin  of  Laws,  &c.,  vol.  3,  p.  68,  E/ig.  transl.)  Ac- 
 cording to  the  Egyptian  doctrine  of  transmigration,  as 
 explained  by  Herodotus  (3,  127),  the  soul  of  a  man 
 passed  through  the  bodies  of  living  creatures,  and  re- 
 turned to  inhabit  a  human  form  at  tlie  expiration  of 
 three  thousand  years.  The  cycle,  however,  does  not 
 commence  until  the  body  begins  to  perish,  and  the  sec- 
 ond human  habitation  of  the  soul  is  a  new  one.  The 
 pains  and  torments,  therefore,  of  passing  through  this 
 cycle  of  three  thousand  years,  and  through  animals  in- 
 numerable, might  be  reserved  for  those  whose  actions 
 in  life  did  not  entitle  them  to  be  made  into  mummies, 
 and  whose  bodies  would  therefore  be  exposed  to  de- 
 cay. In  a  second  trial  in  the  world,  the  unfortunate 
 penitent  might  avoid  his  former  errors.  Hence,  say 
 the  advocates  for  this  opinion,  the  body  of  a  father  or 
 ancestor  was  often  given  as  a  pledge  or  security,  and  it 
 was  one  that  was  valued  more  highly  than  any  other. 
 It  was  the  most  sacred  of  all  the  obligations  which  a 
 man  could  bind  himself  by,  and  the  recovery  of  the 
 pledge,  by  performing  the  stipulated  condition,  was  an 
 indispensable  duty.  {Long^s  Anc.  Geogr.,  p.  61.) 
 Others  have  imagined,  that  the  views  with  which  the 
 Egyptians  embalmed  their  dead  bodies  were  more 
 akin  to  those  which  rendered  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
 so  anxious  to  perform  the  usual  rites  of  sepulture  to 
 their  departed  warriors,  namely,  an  idea  that  these  so- 
 lemnities expedited  the  journey  of  the  soul  to  the  ap- 
 pointed region,  where  it  was  to  receive  judgment  for 
 its  former  deeds,  and  to  have  its  future  doom  fixed  ac- 
 cordingly. This,  they  maintain,  is  implied  by  the  pray- 
 er, said  to  have  been  uttered  by  the  embalmers  in  the 
 name  of  the  deceased,  entreating  the  divine  powers  to 
 receive  his  soul  into  the  regions  of  the  gods.  {Por- 
 phyr.  de  Abslinent.,  4,  10. — Prichard's  A?ialysis  of 
 Egyptian  Mythology,  p.  200.)  Perhaps,  however,  the 
 practice  of  embalming  in  Egypt  was  the  result  more  of 
 necessity  than  of  choice,  and,  like  many  other  of  the 
 customs  of  the  land,  may  have  been  identified  by  the 
 priests  with  the  national  religion,  in  order  to  ensure  its 
 continuance.  The  rites  of  sepulture  in  Egypt  grew 
 out  of  circumstances  peculiar  to  that  country.  The 
 scarcity  of  fuel  precluded  the  use  of  the  funeral  pile  ; 
 the  rocks  which  bounded  the  valley  denied  a  grave  ; 
 and  the  sands  of  the  deserts  afforded  no  protection  from 
 outrage  by  wild  beasts  ;  while  the  valley,  regularly  in- 
 undated, forbade  it  to  be  used  as  a  charnel-house,  un- 
 der penalty  of  pestilence  to  the  living.  Hence  grew 
 the  use  of  antiseptic  substances,  in  which  the  nation 
 became  so  skilled,  as  to  render  the  bodies  of  their  dead 
 inaccessible  to  the  ordinary  jirocess  of  decay. 
 
 15.  Arts  and  Manufactures  of  the  Egyptians. 
 
 The  topics  on  which  we  intend  here  to  touch,  derive 
 no  small  degree  of  elucidation  from  the  paintings  dis- 
 covered in  the  tombs  of  Egypt.  Weaving  appears  to 
 have  been  the  employment  of  a  large  majority  of  the 
 nation.  According  to  Herodotus  (2,  35),  it  was  an 
 occupation  of  the  men,  and,  therefore,  not  merely  a  do- 
 mestic employment,  but  a  business  carried  on  also  in 
 large  establishments  or  manufactories.  The  process 
 of  weaving  is  frequently  the  subject  of  Egyptian  paint- 
 jigs.  It  is  depicted  in  the  most  pleasing  manner  in 
 •,he  drawing  given  by  Minutoli  (pi.  24,  2)  from  the 
 tombs  of  Bern  Hassan.  The  loom  is  here  of  very 
 simple  construction,  and  is  fastened  to  four  props  or 
 supports  driven  into  the  ground.  The  finished  pa^-t  of 
 the  work  is  checkered  green  and  yellow,  the  byssus 
 being  generally  dyed  before  weaving.  Even  as  early 
 50 
 
 as  the  time  of  Moses,  this  class  of  manufactures  bad 
 attained  a  very  great  perfection  (Goguet,  Origin  of 
 Laws,  &,c.,  vol.  2,  p.  86,  seqq.) ;  and,  at  a  still  more 
 distant  period,  the  time  of  Joseph  (Genesis,  4^,  22), 
 fine  vestments  were  among  the  articles  most  usually 
 bestowed  as  presents.  We  have  no  necessity,  how- 
 ever, to  go  back  to  these  authorities ;  the  monuments 
 speak  a  language  that  cannot  be  misunderstood.  Both 
 in  the  plates  accompanying  the  great  French  work 
 on  Egypt,  as  well  as  the  drawings  obtained  by  Belzoni 
 from  the  tombs  of  the  kings  at  Thebes,  and  those  given 
 by  Minutoli,  we  see  these  vestments  in  all  their  gay 
 colours,  and  of  various  degrees  of  fineness.  Some  are 
 so  fine  that  the  limbs  appear  through  them.  (Compare, 
 in  particular,  the  vestment  of  the  king,  aa  given  in  the 
 Description  de  VEgypt,  Planches,  vol.  2,  pi.  31,  and 
 Belzoni's  plates.)  Others,  on  the  contrary,  are  of  a 
 thicker  texture.  The  kings  and  warriors  commonly 
 wear  short  garments  ;  the  agricultural  and  working 
 classes,  merely  a  kind  of  white  apron.  The  priests 
 have  long  vestments,  sometimes  white,  at  other  times 
 with  white  and  red  stripes :  sometimes  adorned  with 
 stars,  at  other  times  with  flowers,  and  again  glittering 
 with  all  the  colours  of  the  East.  Whether  silk  vest- 
 ments can  be  found  among  them  remains  still  unde- 
 cided. (Heerc7i^s  Ideen,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  368,  seqq.) 
 The  Egyptians,  from  a  most  remote  era,  were  cele- 
 brated for  their  manufacture  of  linen.  The  quantity, 
 indeed,  that  was  manufactured  and  used  in  Egypt  was 
 truly  surprising ;  and,  independently  of  that  made  up 
 into  articles  of  dress,  the  great  abundance  used  for  en- 
 veloping the  mummies,  both  of  men  and  animals,  show 
 how  large  a  supply  must  have  been  kept  ready  for  the 
 constant  demand  at  home,  as  well  as  for  that  of  the 
 foreign  market.  That  the  bandages  employed  in 
 wrapping  the  dead  are  of  linen,  and  not,  as  some  have 
 imagined,  of  cotton,  has  been  ascertained  by  the  most 
 satisfactory  tests.  (Wilkinson,  vol.  3,  p.  115.)  That 
 the  skill  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  application  of  colours 
 kept  pace  with  that  displayed  in  the  art  of  weaving,  is 
 evident  from  what  has  already  been  remarked.  We 
 find  among  them  all  colours  ;  white,  yellow,  red,  blue, 
 green,  and  black.  What  the  colouring  materials  them- 
 selves were,  how  far  they  were  obtained  from  Egypt, 
 or  to  what  extent  they  were  brought  from  Babylonia 
 and  India,  cannot  be  clearly  determined.  That  the 
 Tyrians  had  a  share  in  these  will  appear  more  than 
 probable,  when  we  call  to  mind  that  they  were  per- 
 mitted to  have  an  establishment  or  factory  at  Memphis. 
 Pliny  (35, 42)  extols  the  beautiiul  pigments  of  the  Egyp- 
 tians, and  the  testimony  of  all  modern  travellers  is  in 
 full  accordance  with  his  statements.  The  Egyptians 
 mixed  their  paint  with  water,  and  it  is  probable  that  a 
 little  portion  of  gum  was  sometimes  added,  to  render  it 
 more  tenacious  and  adhesive.  In  most  instances  we 
 find  red,  green,  and  blue  adopted  ;  a  union  which, 
 for  all  subjects  and  in  all  parts  of  Egypt,  was  a  par- 
 ticular favourite.  When  black  was  introduced,  yellow 
 was  added  to  counteract  or  harmonize  with  it ;  and,  in 
 like  manner,  they  sought  for  every  hue  its  congenial 
 companion.  The  following  analysis  of  Egyptian  col- 
 ours, that  were  brought  by  Wilkinson  from  Thebes, 
 is  given  by  Dr.  Ure.  "  The  colours  are  green,  blue, 
 red,  black,  yellow,  and  white.  1.  The  green  pigment, 
 scraped  from  the  painting  in  distemper,  resists  the  sol- 
 vent action  of  muriatic  acid,  but  becomes  thereby  of  a 
 brilliant  blue  colour,  in  consequence  of  the  abstraction 
 of  a  small  portion  of  yellow  ochreous  matter.  The 
 residuary  blue  powder  has  a  sandy  texture  ;  and,  when 
 viewed  in  the  microscope,  is  seen  to  consist  of  small 
 particles  of  blue  glass.  On  fusing  this  vitreous  matter 
 with  potash,  digesting  the  compound  in  diluted  muri- 
 atic acid,  and  treating  the  solution  with  water  of  am- 
 monia in  excess,  the  presence  of  copper  becomes 
 manifest.  A  certain  portion  of  precipitate  fell,  which, 
 being  dissolved  i:i  muriatic  acid  and  tested,  proved  to 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ^GYPTUS. 
 
 be  the  oxyde  of  iron.  We  may  hence  conclude,  that 
 the  green  pigment  is  a  mixture  of  a  hltle  ochre,  with  a 
 pulverulent  glass,  made  by  vitrifying  the  oxydes  of  cop- 
 per and  iron  with  sand  and  soda.  2.  The  blue  pigment 
 is  a  pulverulent  blue  glass,  of  like  composition,  without 
 the  ochreous  admixture,  brightened  with  a  little  of  the 
 chalky  matter  used  in  the  distemper  preparation.  3. 
 The  red  pigment  is  merely  a  red  earthy  bole.  4.  The 
 black  is  bone  black,  mixed  with  a  little  gnm,  and  con- 
 taining some  traces  of  iron.  5.  The  white  is  nothing 
 but  a  very  pure  chalk,  containing  hardly  any  alumina, 
 and  a  mere  trace  of  iron.  6.  The  yellow  pigment  is 
 a  yellow  iron  ochre."  {^Wilkinson,  vol.  3,  p.  301.) 
 Next  in  importance  to  weaving  must  be  ranked  Metal- 
 lurgy. As  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  colour,  which 
 is  always  green,  brass  seems  to  have  been  constantly 
 employed  where  in  other  nations  iron  would  be.  The 
 war-chariots  appear  to  be  entirely  of  the  former  metal. 
 Their  green  colour,  as  well  as  their  shape,  and  the 
 lightness  and  elegance  of  their  wheels,  are  thought 
 clearly  to  indicate  this.  The  arms,  moreover,  of  the 
 Egyptians  appear  to  be  nearly  all  of  brass,  and  not 
 only  the  swords,  but  the  bows  also,  and  quivers  are 
 made  of  it.  These,  together  with  the  instruments  for 
 cvitting  that  are  found  depicted  among  the  hieroglyph- 
 ics, are  always  green.  In  the  infancy  of  the  arts  and 
 sciences,  the  difficulty  of  working  iron  might  long 
 withhold  the  secret  of  its  superiority  over  copper  or 
 bronze ;  but  it  cannot  reasonably  be  supposed  that  a 
 nation  so  far  advanced,  and  so  eminently  skilled  in  the 
 art  of  working  metals  as  the  Egyptians,  should  have 
 remained  ignorant  of  its  use,  even  if  we  had  no  evi- 
 dence of  its  having  been  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
 other  people  ;  and  the  constant  employment  of  bronze 
 arms  and  implements  is  not  a  sufficient  argument 
 against  their  knowledge  of  iron,  since  we  find  the 
 Greeks  and  Romans  made  the  same  things  of  bronze, 
 long  after  the  period  when  iron  was  universally  known. 
 If  we  reject  this  view  of  the  question,  we  must  come 
 at  once  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Egyptians  possessed 
 an  art  of  hardening  copper  and  bronze  which  is  now 
 lost  to  the  world.  The  skill  of  the  Egyptians  in  com- 
 pounding metals  is  abundantly  proved  by  the  vases, 
 mirrors,  arms,  and  implements  of  bronze  discovered  at 
 Thebes  ;  and  the  numerous  methods  they  adopted  for 
 varying  the  composition  of  bronze  by  a  judicious 
 mixture  of  alloys,  are  shown  in  the  many  qualities 
 of  the  metal.  T'hey  had  even  the  secret  of  giving  to 
 bror)ze  or  brass  blades  a  certain  degree  of  elasticity, 
 as  may  be  seen  in  the  dagger  of  the  Berlin  museum. 
 Another  remarkable  feature  in  their  bronze  is  the  re- 
 sistance it  offers  to  ihe  effects  of  the  atmosphere  ; 
 some  continuing  smooth  and  bright,  though  buried  for 
 ages,  and  since  exposed  to  the  damp  of  European 
 climates.  {Wilkinson,  vol.  3,  p.  253.)  Other  lost 
 arts  in  metallurgy  may  be  evidenced  by  the  well-known 
 fact,  that  the  Hebrew  legislator  inferentially  ascribes 
 to  the  Egyptian  chemists  the  art  of  making  gold  liquid, 
 and  of  retainmg  it  in  that  state.  This  we  have  not 
 the  power  to  do.  Still,  however,  it  must  be  confessed, 
 that  the  Egyptians  cannot  properly  be  considered  as  at 
 any  lime  acquainted  with  the  science  of  chemistry  ; 
 though  they  were  early  made  aware  of  various  chemi- 
 cal facts,  and  many  and  indubitable  proofs  of  this  have 
 been  collected  in  one  or  two  not  inconsiderable  works 
 devoted  to  the  subject.  Their  progress  in  the  manu- 
 facture of  not  only  white  but  coloured  glass  may  also 
 be  instanced.  Seneca  informs  us  that  they  made  arti- 
 ficial gems  of  extraordinary  beauty.  {Epist.,  90.) 
 They  had  a  method  of  purifying  natron,  and  of  ex- 
 tracting potash  from  cinders.  They  prepared  lime  by 
 the  calcination  of  calcareous  stones,  and  had  an  inti- 
 mate knowledge  of  the  uses  to  which  it  may  be  applied, 
 a,s  also  that  it  renders  the  carbonate  of  soda  caustic. 
 Litharge,  together  with  the  vitriolic  and  many  other 
 
 salts,  were  perfectly  known  to  them.  They  made 
 wine,  vinegar,  and  even  beer.  Their  method  of  em- 
 balming, whatever  it  was,  may  be  reckoned  among 
 the  evidences  of  their  chemical  knowledge.  The 
 statements  on  this  subject  by  Herodotus  and  Diodorus 
 Siculus  are  very  unsatisfactory  ;  and  there  is  reason 
 to  believe,  as  it  was  the  object  of  the"  embalmers  to 
 shroud  their  art  in  mystery,  that  those  writers  were 
 either  totally  deceived,  or,  at  least,  that  the  mummi- 
 fying drug  was  artfully  concealed  from  their  knowledge. 
 Another  important  branch  of  the  domestic  arts  vvas 
 Pottery,  in  which  the  Egyptians  displayed  a  skill  not 
 at  all  inferior  to  that  of  the  Greeks  ;  and  they  who  sup- 
 pose that  graceful  forms  in  pottery,  porcelain,  bronze, 
 or  even  more  precious  materials,  were  indigenous 
 to  Greece  alone,  will  find  many  things  to  undeceive 
 them  in  the  paintings  of  Egypt.  The  country  pos- 
 sessed' a  species  of  clay  extremely  well  adapted  to 
 this  purpose,  and  which  is  still  found  there.  {Rcy- 
 nier,  Economies  des  Egypt.,  p.  274.)  Copfos  was 
 the  chief  seat  of  this  branch  of  industry,  as  Kcft 
 (or  Kuft),  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  is  at  the  present 
 day.  The  vases  thus  manufactured  served  for  hold- 
 ing the  water  of  the  Nde,  to  which  they  were  believed 
 to  impart  an  agreeable  coolness,  an  opinion  that  pre 
 vails  even  in  modern  times.  Besides,  however,  being 
 applied  to  household  purposes,  they  were  used  also  for 
 the  purpose  of  holding  the  mummies  of  the  sacred 
 animals,  such  as  the  ibis  and  others.  The  vases 
 depicted  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt  are  sometimes 
 adorned  with  the  most  brilliant  colours.  As  to  the 
 elegance  of  form  and  ornament  in  domestic  and  other 
 articles,  the  Egyptians  can  stand  comparison  with  any 
 other  nation  of  antiquity,  the  Greeks  not  excej)ted. 
 Their  couches  and  seats  might  serve  as  patterns  even 
 for  our  own  ;  their  silver  tripods,  beautiful  baskets, 
 and  distaffs,  as  we  see  them  in  paintings,  were  known 
 even  in  the  days  of  the  Odyssey  (4,  128),  and  their 
 musical  instruments  exceed  those  of  modern  times  in 
 the  beauty  and  variety  of  their  shape.  Those  who 
 wish  to  examine  more  fully  into  this  branch  of  our 
 subject  are  referred  to  Rossellini's  great  work,  or  the 
 more  accessible  one  of  Wilkinson.  The  productions 
 of  the  goldsmiths  and  silversmiths  of  Thebes  are  ex- 
 hibited by  Rossellini,  and  they  fully  demonstrate  the 
 high  pitch  of  refinement  to  which  they  had  brought 
 the  working  of  the  precious  metals.  Pie  exhibits  gold 
 and  silver  tureens,  urns,  vases,  banqueting  cups,  &c., 
 of  the  most  exquisitely  beautiful  workmanship,  and  of 
 the  most  tasteful  as  well  as  elegant  forms.  In  sur- 
 veying them,  the  classical  reader  will  be  convinced 
 that  Homer  drew  jitile  on  his  imagination  in  describing 
 the  gift  of  plate  made  to  Helen  by  the  wife  of  the 
 Egyptian  king  Thone.  But  Homer  ascribes  still 
 more  extraordinary  wonders  to  the  goldsmiths  of,  the 
 same  time.  They  must  have  succeeded  in  uniting  the 
 most  skilful  mechanical  clockwork  with  the  workman- 
 ship of  gold  ;  for  he  describes  golden  statues,  thrones, 
 and  footstools  moving  about  as  if  instinct  with  life. 
 It  would  appear,  indeed,  that  we  had  made,  at  the 
 present  day,  little  or  perhaps  no  improvement  on  the 
 forms  of  the  vases  and  vessels  to  which  we  have  above 
 referred,  and  that  an  Egyptian  buffet  or  sideboard,  with 
 all  its  details,  not  excluding  dishes,  plates,  knives,  and 
 spoons,  near  four  thousand  years  ago,  bore  a  striking 
 resemblance  to  the  sideboards  of  modem  palaces  and 
 villas.  Still  farther,  a  survey  of  the  trades  and  manu- 
 factures of  Egypt,  as  afforded  by  the  ancient  paintings, 
 exhibits,  in  a  great  degree,  the  same  tools,  implements, 
 and  processes,  as  are  employed  in  workshops  and 
 manufactories  at  the  present  day.  The  whole  process 
 of  manufacturing  silk  and  cotton,  with  all  its  details  of 
 reeling,  carding,  weaving',  dying,  and  patterning,  may 
 be  more  especially  named.  [Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
 view,  No   32,  p.  308,  seqq.) 
 
 51 
 
.5:gyptus. 
 
 JSGYPTUS. 
 
 16.    Trade  of  Egypt. 
 
 Nature  has  desiined  Egypt,  by  its  products,  its  gen- 
 eral character,  and  its  geographical  position,  for  one  of 
 the  principal  trading  countries  of  the  globe.     Neither 
 the  des])otism  under  which  it  has  groaned  for  centu- 
 ries, nor  the  bloody  feuds  and  wars  of  which  it  has  so 
 often  been  the  scene,  have  operated,  for  any  length  of 
 time,  to  deprive  it  of  these  advantages  ;   the  purposes 
 of  Nature  may  be  impeded,  but  they  cannot  be  wholly 
 destroyed.     The  situation  of  Egypt,  a  fertile  district, 
 aboundmg  in  the  first  necessaries  of  life,  between  the 
 aiid  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  has  in  all  ages  given 
 It  a  value  which,  in  another  position,  it  could  not  have. 
 From  the  time  of  Jacob  to  the  present  day,  it  has  been 
 the  granary  of  the  less  fertile  neighbouring  countries. 
 The  natural  facilities  for  internal  communication  were, 
 at  an  early  period,  increased  by  the  formation  of  canals, 
 which  united  the  various  arms  of  the  river  that  bound 
 or  flow  through  the  Delta.     From  Syene  to  about  lat. 
 31°    N.  there  is  one  uninterrupted   boat-navigation, 
 which  is  seldom  impeded    for  want  of  water.     The 
 conveyance  of  articles  up  the  stream  is  favoured  at  cer- 
 tain seasons  by  the  steady  winds  from  the  north.     A 
 description  of  the  Nile-boat,  called  Baris,  is  given  by 
 Herodotus  (2,  96).     One  of  the  great  national  festivals, 
 that  of  Artemis  at  Bubastis,  was  celebrated  during  the 
 annual  inundation  :  the  people,  in  boats,  sailed  from 
 one  town  to  another,  and  their  numbers  were  increased 
 by  the  inhabitants  of  every  town  that  was  visited.     As 
 it  was  an  idle  time  for  the  agriculturists,  like  the  winter 
 of  other  climates,  it  was  spent  in  carousing  and  drunk- 
 enness.   The  quantity  of  wine  consumed  was  immense, 
 and  the  whole  of  it  was  procured  by  giving  in  exchange 
 Egyptian  commodities.     The  Egyptians  were  never  a 
 nation  of  sailors,  for  their  country  furnished  no  mate- 
 rials for  building  large  vessels.     Till  the  time  of  Psam- 
 motichus,  foreigners,  though  allowed  to  trade  there, 
 were    subject   to   many   strict  regulations,  and   were 
 regarded    as    suspicious    persons.      Egypt,    being    a 
 grain-country,  would  be  more   likely  to  receive   the 
 visits  of  foreigners,  than  to  make,  herself,  any  active 
 commercial  speculations.     The  later  Pharaohs,  after 
 Psammetichus,  as  also  the  Ptolemies,  could  only  then 
 build  fleets  when  the  woods  of  Phoenicia  were  under 
 their  control ;  and  it  is  well  known  what  bloody  wars 
 were  carried  on  for  the  possession  of  these  regions  be- 
 tween the  Ptolemies  and  Seleucida;.      It  may  be  easily 
 imagined,  too,  that  the  Tyrians  and  Sidonians  were 
 never  anxious  to  make  the  Egyptians  a  maritime  peo- 
 ple, even  if  the  latter  had  possessed  the  inclination  to 
 become  such.     The  true  reason  why  the  Egyptians 
 forbade  all  foreigners  to  approach  their  coast,  is  to  be 
 found  in   the  peculiar  character  of   early  commerce. 
 All  the  nations  that  trafficked  on  the  Mediterranean 
 were   at   that   time  pirates,  with  whom   the  carrying 
 away  the  inhabitants  from  the  coasts  and  selling  them 
 for  slaves  had  become  a  lucrative  branch  of  commerce. 
 It  was  natural,  then,  that  a  people  who  had  no  ships 
 of  their  own  to  oppose  to  such  visitants,  should  forbid 
 them,  under  any  pretext,  to   approach    their   coasts. 
 Passages   occur,   it  is   true,   in    the  ancient    writers, 
 which  render  it  doubtful  whether  there  were  not  some 
 exceptions  to  what  has  just  been  remarked.     Homer 
 makes  Menelaus  to  have  sailed  to  Egypt,  and  Diodo- 
 rus  Siculus  mentions  a  maritime  city,  named  Thonis, 
 t3  which  he  assigns  a  great  antiquity.     The  colonies, 
 too,  that  are  said  to  have  sailed  from  Egypt  to  Greece, 
 as,  for  example,  those  of  Danaus  and  Cecrops.  supj)ose 
 an  acquaintance  with  the  art  of  navigation.     The  ques- 
 tion, however,  admits  of  a  serious  consideration,  wheth- 
 er the  Phoenicians  were  not  in  these  cases  the  agents  of 
 commerce  and  transportation.     The  reign  of  Psam- 
 metichus and  his  successors  changed  the  character  of 
 the  Egyptians,  or  at  least  altered  the  old  and  settled 
 pol'ty  f«f  the  country.     Foreign  merchants  were  sub- 
 5% 
 
 ject  to  fewer  restraints ;  the  exchange  of  Egyptian 
 commodities  was  extended  ;    and,  as  Herodotus  ex- 
 pressly   remarks,    agriculture    and    individual    wealth 
 were  never  so  much  improved  in  Egypt  as  under  this 
 system  of  free  trade.     The  Egyptian  kings  now  ac- 
 quired a  fleet,  the  materials  for  which,  or  the  vessels 
 themselves,  they  could  procure  from  the  Phoenicians  or 
 the  Greeks.     Neco,  the  successor  of  Psammetichus, 
 and  the  conqueror  of  Jerusalem  {Herod.,  2,  159, — Com- 
 pare Kings,  book  2,  ch.  23,  and  Jeremiah,  ch.  46), 
 formed  the  project  of  uniting  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea 
 by  a  canal  :   this  canal  was  not  completed  till  the  time 
 of  Darius  I.,  the  Persian  king.     The  object  of  the  Pha- 
 raohs and  the  monarchs  of  Persia  was  to  facilitate  the 
 transportation  of  commodities  from  the  Red  Sea  to 
 Egypt ;  for  the  Egyptians  had  long  been  accustomed 
 to  receive  the  products  of  India  and  Arabia  up  this 
 gulf.     This  artificial    channel  was  neglected    on  ac- 
 count of  the  difficulty  of  navigating  the  northern  part 
 of  the  Red  Sea;  it  existed  under  the  Ptolemies,  but 
 a  land  communication  was  also  formed  between  Cop- 
 tos  and  the  ports  of  Myos-hormos  and  Berenice  on  the 
 gulf,  and  this  remained  for  a  longtime  the  great  com- 
 mercial road  between  the   western   and  the   eastern 
 world.     In  Upper  Egypt,  the  city  of  Thebes  was  once 
 the  centre  of  commerce  for  Africa  and  Arabia  :  under 
 its  colossal  porticoes  and  market-houses,  the  wares  of 
 southern  Africa,  and  the  products  of  Arabia  and  India, 
 were  collected.     Its  fame  had  spread,  probably  through 
 the  Phoenician  traders,  as  far  as  the  country  of  the  Ho- 
 meric poems  (7^,  9,  381).     A  modern  traveller,  Denon, 
 standing  amid   the  ruins   of  Thebes,  could  feel   and 
 comprehend  the  advantages  of  its  situation  :  he  could 
 compute  the  number  of  days'  journey  which  separated 
 him  from  the  towns  of  Arabia,  the  emporium  of  Me- 
 roe,  and  the  cities  of  central  Africa.     In  the  mount- 
 ains east  of  Thebes,  the  precious  metals  were  once 
 found  :  the  mines  were  worked  by  prisoners  of  war 
 or   by   slaves.     Agatharchides,    a   Greek   geographer 
 {Geogr.  Gr.  Mm.,  vol.  1,  p.  212,  cd.  Hudson),  in  the 
 time  of  the  sixth    Ptolemy,  visited    these   mines,  of 
 which  he  has  given  a  most  exact  description.     Thus 
 Thebes  possessed,  in  the  precious  metals,  one  of  those 
 articles  of  commerce  which  invite  strangers.     Mem- 
 phis, in  Lower  Egypt,  was  the  centre  of  commerce 
 when  Herodotus  visited  Egypt.     The  gold,  the  ivory, 
 and  the  slaves  of  Africa,  the  salt  of  the  desert,  wine 
 imported  from  Greece  and  Phoenicia  twice  a  year,  with 
 the  products  of  India  and  Yemen,  were  collected  in 
 this  market.     In  exchange,  the  merchants  received  the 
 precious  metals,  grain,  and  linen  (or  perhaps  cotton) 
 cloths,  which  Herodotus  compares  with  those  of  Col- 
 chis.    Amasis,  who  was  a  usurper,  and  a  prince  fond 
 of  foreign  luxuries,  did  not  scruple  to  make  great  in- 
 novations.    He  admitted  foreigners  more  freely  into 
 Lower  Egypt,  and  appointed  Naucratis,  on  the  Cano- 
 pic  branch,  as  the  residence  of  the  Greek  merchants. 
 He  carried  his  liberality  so  far  as  to  permit  non-resi- 
 dent Greeks  to  build  temples  to  their  national   gods, 
 and  use  the  precincts  as  market-places  :  several  Ionian 
 and  Dorian  cities  of  Asia,  together  with  the  town  of 
 Mytilene,  built  a  noble  temple,  calied  the  Hellenium, 
 and,  by  their  joint  votes,  appointed  the  superintendents 
 of    the    market    and    the    commercial   establishment. 
 Some  other  Greek  towns  also  followed  their  example. 
 {Long^s  Ave.  Geogr.,  p.  64,  seqq. — Hcercns  Ideen, 
 vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  373,  seqq.) 
 
 17.  Style  of  Egyptian  Art. 
 
 The  same  veneration  for  ancient  usage  and  the  stem 
 recrulations  of  the  priesthood,  which  forbade  any  inno- 
 vation in  the  form  of  the  human  figure,  particularly  in 
 subjects  connected  with  religion,  fettered  the  genius 
 of  the  Egyptian  artists,  and  prevented  its  developement. 
 The  same  formal  outline,  the  same  attitudes  and  pos- 
 tures of  the  body,  the  same  conventional  mode  of  rep- 
 
^GYPTUS. 
 
 ifiGYPTUS. 
 
 resenting  the  different  parts,  were  adhered  to  at  the 
 latest  as  at  the  earliest  periods.  No  improvements, 
 resulting  from  experience  and  observation,  were  admit- 
 ted in  the  mode  of  drawing  the  figure  ;  no  attempt  was 
 made  to  copy  nature,  or  to  give  proper  action  to  the 
 limbs.  Certain  rules,  certain  models,  had  been  estab- 
 lished by  law,  and  the  faulty  conceptions  of  earlier 
 times  were  copied  and  perpetuated  by  every  successive 
 artist.  Egyptian  bas-relief  appears  to  have  been,  in 
 Its  origin,  a  mere  copy  of  painting,  its  predecessor. 
 The  first  attempt  to  represent  the  figures  of  the  gods, 
 sacred  emblems,  and  other  subjects,  consisted  in  paint- 
 ing simple  outlmes  of  them  on  aflat  surface,  the  details 
 being  afterward  put  in  with  colour.  But,  in  process  of 
 time,  these  forms  were  traced  on  stone  with  a  tool,  and 
 the  intermediate  space  between  the  various  figures 
 being  afterward  cut  away,  the  once  level  surface  as- 
 sumed the  appearance  of  a  bas-relief.  It  was,  in  fact^ 
 a  pictorial  representation  on  stone,  which  is  evidently 
 the  character  of  all  the  bas-reliefs  on  Egyptian  monu- 
 ments, and  which  readily  accounts  for  the  imperfect 
 arrangement  of  their  figures.  Deficient  in  conception, 
 and,  above  all,  in  a  proper  knowledge  of  grouping,  they 
 were  unable  to  form  those  combinations  which  give 
 true  expression.  Every  picture  was  made  up  of  iso- 
 lated parts,  put  together  according  to  some  general 
 notions,  but  without  harmony  or  preconceived  effect. 
 The  human  face,  the  whole  body,  and  everything  they 
 introduced,  were  composed,  in  the  same  manner,  of 
 separate  members,  placed  together  one  by  one,  accord- 
 ing to  their  relative  situations  :  the  eye,  the  nose,  and 
 other  features,  composed  a  face  ;  but  the  expression 
 of  feelings  and  passions  was  entirely  wanting  ;  and  the 
 countenance  of  the  king,  whether  charging  an  enemy's 
 phalanx  in  the  heat  of  battle,  or  peaceably  offering  in- 
 cense in  a  sombre  temple,  presented  the  same  outline, 
 and  the  same  inanimate  look.  The  peculiarity  of  the 
 front  view  of  an  eye,  introduced  in  a  profile,  is  thus  ac- 
 counted for  ;  it  was  the  ordinary  representation  of  that 
 feature  added  to  a  profile,  and  no  allowance  was  made 
 for  any  change  in  the  position  of  the  head.  It  was  the 
 same  with  drapery.  The  figure  was  first  drawn,  and 
 the  drapery  was  then  added,  not  as  a  part  of  the  whole, 
 but  as  an  accessory.  They  had  no  general  conception, 
 no  previous  idea  of  the  effect  required  to  distinguish 
 the  warrior  or  the  priest,  beyond  the  impression  re- 
 ceived from  costume,  or  from  the  subject  of  which  they 
 formed  a  part ;  and  the  same  figure  was  dressed  accord- 
 ing to  the  character  it  was  intended  to  perform.  Every 
 portion  of  a  picture  was  conceived  by  itself,  and  in- 
 serted as  it  was  wanted  to  complete  the  scene  ;  and 
 when  the  walls  of  a  buildmg,  where  a  subject  was  to 
 be  drawn,  had  been  accurately  ruled  with  squares,  the 
 figures  were  introduced,  and  fitted  to  this  mechanical 
 arrangement.  The  members  were  appended  to  the 
 body,  and  these  squares  regulated  their  form  and  dis- 
 tribution, in  whatever  posture  they  might  be  placed. 
 In  the  paintings  of  the  tombs,  greater  license  was  al- 
 lowed in  the  representation  of  subjects  relating  to  pri- 
 vate life,  the  trades,  or  the  manners  and  occupations 
 of  the  people  ;  and  some  indications  of  perspective  in 
 the  position  of  the  figures  may  occasionally  be  ob- 
 served ;  but  the  attempt  was  imperfect,  and,  probably, 
 to  an  Egyptian  eye,  unpleasing ;  for  such  is  the  force 
 of  habit,  that,  even  where  nature  is  copied,  a  conven- 
 tional style  is  sometimes  preferred  to  a  more  accurate 
 representation.  In  the  battle  scenes  on  the  temples 
 of  Thebes,  some  of  the  figures  representing  the  mon- 
 arch pursuing  the  flying  enemy,  despatching  a  hostile 
 chief  with  his  sword,  and  drawing  his  bow,  as  his 
 horses  carry  his  car  over  the  prostrate  bodies  of  the 
 slain,  are  drawn  with  much  spirit ;  but  still  the  same 
 imperfections  of  style  and  want  of  truth  are  observed  : 
 there  is  action,  but  no  sentiment,  no  expression  of  the 
 passions,  or  life  in  the  features.  In  the  representation 
 of  animals  they  appear  not  to  have  been  restricted  to 
 
 the  same  rigid  style  ;  but  genius  once  cramped  can 
 scarcely  be  expected  to  make  any  great  effort  to  rise, 
 or  to  succeed  in  the  attempt ;  and  the  same  union  of 
 parts  into  a  whole,  the  same  preference  for  profile,  are 
 observable  in  these  as  in  the  human  figure.  It  must, 
 however,  be  allowed,  that,  in  general,  the  character  and 
 form  of  animals  were  admirably  portrayed  ;  the  parts 
 were  put  together  with  greater  truth  ;  and  the  same 
 license  was  not  resorted  to  as  in  the  shoulders  and 
 other  portions  of  the  human  body.  ( Wilkinson,  vol.  3, 
 p.  263,  scqq.) 
 
 18.  Egyptian  Architecture. 
 The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Egypt  appear  to  have 
 been  of  Troglodytic  habits,  or,  m  other  words,  to 
 have  inhabited  caves.  The  mountain  ranges  on  either 
 side  of  the  stream  would  easily  supply  them  with 
 abodes  of  this  kind.  From  the  site  of  ancient  Mem- 
 phis, until  we  ascend  the  Nile  beyond  Thebes,  these 
 mountains  are  composed  of  stratified  limestone,  full  of 
 organic  remains.  Such  rocks,  it  is  well  known,  abound 
 in  natural  caverns  in  all  eastern  countries  ;  and  although 
 no  cavities  are  now  found  in  Egypt  that  do  not  bear 
 marks  of  human  skill,  we  have  no  right  to  assert  that 
 it  was  not  in  many  cases  merely  called  in  for  the  aid 
 of  nature,  to  smooth  and  embellish  abodes  originally 
 provided  by  her.  Much  of  this  rock,  too,  was  of  a 
 highly  sectile  and  friable  nature,  and  easily  worked, 
 therefore,  by  the  hand  of  man.  When  the  natural 
 caverns  then  became  insufficient  for  the  growing  pop- 
 ulation, the  artificial  formation  of  others  would  be  no 
 difficult  task.  With  the  demand,  the  skill  of  work- 
 manship would  naturally  increase  ;  harder  limestone 
 would  be  worked,  then  the  flinty  but  friable  sandstones 
 of  the  quarries  of  Selseleh,  and,  finally,  the  hard  and 
 imperishable  rock  that  siill  bears  the  name  of  the  city 
 of  Syene.  To  understand  fully  the  causes  which  led 
 to  the  erection  of  such  enormous  works  by  the  Egyp- 
 tians, as  still  astonish  and  have  for  ages  astonished  the 
 world,  we  must  investigate  other  circumstances  besides 
 4hose  of  climate  and  position.  The  government  of 
 Egypt  was  monarchical  from  the  very  earliest  date  ; 
 and  a  monarchical  and  despotic  government,  if  it  be 
 only  stable,  is  incontestibly  more  favourable  to  the  ex- 
 ecution of  magnificent  structures  than  one  more  free. 
 Hence  one  cause  for  the  vast  structures  of  Egypt. 
 The  population,  too,  of  the  country  was  probably  re- 
 dundant beyond  any  modern  parallel.  Considered  as 
 a  grain  country  alone,  it  was  capable  of  supporting  a 
 population  three  times  as  great  as  one  of  equal  extent 
 in  a  less  favoured  climate.  It  produces,  besides,  those 
 tropical  plants  which  yield  more  fruit  on  a  given  space 
 of  ground  than  any  of  the  vegetables  of  the  temperate 
 zone,  and  which  grow  where,  from  the  aridity  of  the 
 soil,  the  cereal  gramina  cannot  vegetate.  Domestic 
 animals,  too,  multiply  with  great  rapidity,  and  the  pro- 
 lific influence  of  the  waters  of  the  Nile  is  said  to  extend 
 to  the  human  race.  With  a  population  created  and 
 supported  by  such  causes,  we  cannot  wonder  that  a 
 government,  commandmg  without  fear  of  accountabil- 
 ity the  whole  resources  of  the  country,  could  project 
 and  execute  works,  at  which  the  richest  and  most  pow- 
 erful nations  of  modern  times  would  hesitate.  Many 
 causes  must  have  conspired  to  induce  the  abandonment 
 of  the  cavern  habitations  of  the  early  inhabitants.  Be- 
 sides the  necessity  which  existed  of  providing  recep- 
 tacles for  the  embalmed  bodies  of  the  dead,  and  for 
 which  purpose  these  caverns  would  admirably  answer, 
 a  growing  and  improving  people  could  not  long  endure 
 to  be  shut  up  in  rocky  grottoes  during  the  inundation, 
 or  to  pursue  their  agricultural  labours  at  other  seasons, 
 far  from  a  fixed  abode.  A  remedy  for  these  incon- 
 veniences was  found  in  the  erection  of  mounds  in  the 
 plain,  and  quays  upon  the  banks  of  the  river,  exceeding 
 in  elevation  its  utmost  rise,  and  extended  with  the  in- 
 crease of  population  until  they  could  contain  important 
 
 53 
 
JEGYPTUS. 
 
 JE  LI 
 
 cities.  Such  artificial  mounds  are  still  to  be  seen 
 formintJ  the  basis  of  all  the  important  ruins  that  exist. 
 When  we  consider  the  remarkable  skill  exhibited  by 
 the  Eiryptians  m  the  art  of  stone-cutting,  manifested, 
 too,  at  the  most  remote  period  to  which  we  can  trace 
 them  historically,  we  cannot  but  ascribe  tliis  charac- 
 teristic taste  to  something  in  their  original  habits. 
 The  first  necessities  of  their  ancestors  must  have  given 
 this  impulse  to  the  national  genius,  and  determined  the 
 character  which  their  architecture  manifests,  down  to 
 the  latest  period  of  their  existence,  not  merely  as  an 
 independent  nation,  but  as  a  separate  people.  In  the 
 same  way  that  the  Tyriaiis,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Pal- 
 estine, owed  to  their  cedar  forests  their  taste  and  skill 
 in  the  workmanship  of  wood,  the  Egyptians  derived 
 from  their  original  mode  of  life,  from  their  abundant 
 quarries,  and  Iron,  the  facility  they  found  in  excavating 
 the  rocks  into  dwellings,  the  taste  for  the  workmanship 
 of  stone  which  distinguishes  them  ;  and  this  taste  ex- 
 plains the  high  degree  of  perfection  they  attained  in 
 this  art.  In  niquiring  into  the  origin  and  principles  of 
 Egyptian  architecture,  certain  prominent  characters 
 strike  us  at  once  that  cannot  be  mistaken.  The  plans 
 and  great  outlines  of  their  buildings  are  remarkable 
 for  simplicity  and  sameness,  however  diversified  they 
 may  be  in  decoration  and  ornament.  Openings  are 
 extremely  rare,  and  the  interior  of  their  temples  is  as 
 dark  as  the  primitive  caverns  themselves  ;  so  that, 
 when  within  them,  it  is  diliicult  to  distinguish  between 
 an  excavation  and  a  building ;  the  pillars  are  of  enor- 
 mous diameter,  and  resemble  in  their  proportions  the 
 masses  lelt  to  support  the  roofs  of  mines  and  quarries. 
 Nay,  their  hypostvle  halls  are  almost  similar  in  appear- 
 ance to  this  kind  of  excavation  ;  the  portals,  porticoes, 
 and  doors  are  enclosed  in  masses,  in  such  a  way  as  to 
 present  the  appearance  of  the  entrance  of  a  cave  ;  and 
 the  roofs  of  vast  stones,  lying  horizontally,  could  have 
 been  imitated  from  no  shelter  erected  in  the  open  air. 
 All  the  buildings  yet  existing  between  Denderah  and 
 Syene  are  constructed  of  a  kind  of  sandstone,  furnished 
 in  abundance  by  the  quarries  of  the  adjacent  country,  o 
 This  stone  is  composed  of  quartzose  grains,  usually 
 united  by  a  calcareous  cement.  Its  colours  are  gray- 
 ish, yellowish,  or  even  almost  white  ;  some  have  a 
 slight  tinge  of  rose  colour,  and  others  various  veins  of 
 different  shades  of  yellow.  But  when  forming  a  part 
 of  the  mass  of  a  building,  they  produce  an  almost  uni- 
 form eflect  of  colour,  namely,  a  light  gray.  One  great 
 advantage  connected  with  this  species  of  stone  is  the 
 ease  with  which  it  can  be  wrought ;  and  the  mode  of 
 its  aggregation,  and  the  uniformity  of  its  structure,  so 
 far  from  resisting,  ofler  the  greatest  facilities  for  the  ex- 
 ecution of  hieroglyphic  and  symbolic  sculptures.  The 
 obelisks  and  statues,  on  the  other  hand,  which  adorned 
 the  approaches  and  entrances  of  the  sandstone  struc- 
 tures, were  made  of  a  more  costly  and  enduring  sub- 
 stance, the  granite  of  Syene,  the  Cataracts,  and  Ele- 
 phantine. 'Jhe  most  important  of  the  rocks  of  this 
 species  is  the  rose-granite,  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
 of  its  colours,  the  large  size  of  its  crystals,  its  hardness 
 and  durability.  A  part  of  the  monuments  which  have 
 been  made  of  it  have  been  preserved  almost  uninjured 
 for  many  centuries.  •  The  mode  of  building  among  the 
 Egyptians  was  very  peculiar.  They  placed  in  their 
 columns  rude  stones  upon  each  other,  after  merely 
 smoothincr  the  surfaces  of  contact,  and  tlie  figure  of 
 the  column,  with  all  its  decorations,  was  finished  after 
 it  was  set  up.  In  their  walls,  the  outer  and  inner 
 surfaces  of  the  stones  were  also  left  unfinished,  to  be 
 reduced  to  shape  by  one  general  process,  after  the 
 whole  mass  had  been  erected.  Of  the  private  archi- 
 tecture of  the  Egyptians,  but  few  remains  have  come 
 down  to  us.  It  was  composed  chiefly  of  perishable 
 materials,  namely,  of  bricks  dried  in  the  sun  ;  those 
 burned  in  a  kiln  being  rarely  employed,  except  in  damp 
 situations.  The  arch  appears  to  have  been  known  to 
 54 
 
 the  Egyptians  at  a  very  early  period.  It  consisted  Oi 
 brick,  as  appears  from  monuments,  as  far  back  as  th< 
 year  1540  before  our  era,  and  of  stone  in  B.C.  600. — ■ 
 Before  concluding  this  head  it  may  not  be  unimportant 
 to  remark,  that  the  Greek  orders  of  architecture,  nixe 
 especially  the  Doric  and  Corinthian,  can  all  be  traced 
 to  Egyptian  originals.  (Descriplwn  de  VE^yj)tc,\.  1, 
 2,  3,  &c. — Quairemere  de  Quincy,  de  I'Archileciii'-e 
 E>rypticnne. — Americaji  Quarlciiy  Rev.,  No  9,  p.  1, 
 setjij. —  Wtlkmson,  vol.  2,  p.  95,  se(jq. ;  vol.  3,  p.  316, 
 scqq.) 
 
 ^i.iA,  I.  Gens,  a  celebrated  Plebeian  house,  of  which 
 there  were  various  branches,  such  as  the  I'ati,  Lamia, 
 Tubcrones,  Galii,&i.c. — II.  The  wife  of  Sylla.  {Plut. 
 Vit.  Syll.) — III.  Paiina,  of  the  family  of  the  Tuberos, 
 and  wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudius.  She  was  repudi- 
 ated, in  order  to  make  way  for  Messahna.  {Suclon. 
 Claud.,  26.) — IV.  Lex,  a  law  proposed  by  the  tribune 
 ^•Ehus  Tubero,  and  enacted  A.U.C.  559,  for  sending 
 two  colonies  into  Bruttium.  (ii/t).,34,  53.) — V.  An- 
 other, commonly  called  Lex  Mlia  el  Fusia.  These 
 were,  in  fact,  two  separate  laws,  though  they  are  some- 
 times joined  by  Cicero.  The  jlrst  (Lex  JEi(a)  was 
 brought  forward  by  the  consul  Q.  .'Elius  Psetus,  A.U.C. 
 586,  and  ordained,  that,  when  the  comitia  were  to  be 
 held  for  passing  laws,  the  magistrates,  or  the  augurs 
 by  their  authority,  might  take  observations  from  the 
 heavens,  and,  if  the  omens  were  unfavourable,  might 
 prevent  or  dissolve  the  assembly.  And  also,  that  any 
 other  magistrate  of  equal  or  greater  authority  than  he 
 who  presided,  might  declare  that  he  had  heard  thunder 
 or  seen  lightning,  and  in  this  way  put  off  the  assembly 
 to  some  other  time. — Tlie  second  {Lex  Furia  or  Fusia), 
 proposed  either  by  the  consul  Furius,  or  by  one  Fusius 
 or  Fufius,  was  passed  A.U.C.  617,  and  ordained  that 
 it  should  not  be  lawful  to  enact  laws  on  any  dies  fasivs. 
 — VI.  Scntia  Lex,  brought  forward  by  the  consuls 
 iElius  and  Sentius,  and  enacted  A.U.C.  756.  It  or- 
 dained that  no  slave  who  had  ever,  for  the  sake  of  a 
 crime,  been  bound,  publicly  whipped,  tortured,  or  brand- 
 ed in  the  face,  although  freed  by  his  master,  should  ob- 
 tain the  freedom  of  the  city,  but  should  always  remain 
 in  the  class  of  the  dcdititii,  who  were  indeed  free,  but 
 could  not  aspire  to  the  advantages  of  Roman  citizens. 
 (Suet.  Aug.,  40.) — VII.  A  name  given  to  various  cities, 
 either  repaired  or  built  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  whose 
 family  name  was  .^lius — VIII.  Capitolina,  a  name 
 given  to  Jerusalem  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  when  he 
 rebuilt  the  city,  from  his  own  family  title  iElius,  and 
 also  from  his  erecting  within  that  city  a  temple  to  Ju- 
 piter Capitolinus.    (Vid.  Hicrosolyma.) 
 
 ^Li.iNiis,  I.  a  Greek  writer,  who  flourished  about 
 the  middle  of  the  second  century  of  our  era.  He  com- 
 posed a  treatise  on  military  tactics,  which  he  dedica- 
 ted to  the  Emperor  Hadrian."  The  best  edition  is  that 
 of  Arcerius  and  Meursius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1613,  4to. — II. 
 Claudius,  a  native  of  Pra;neste,  who  flourished  during 
 the  reigns  of  Heliogabalus  and  Alexander  Severus 
 (218-235  A.D.).  Although  born  in  Italy,  and  of  Latin 
 parents-  and  almost  constantly  residing  within  the  lim- 
 its of  his  native  country,  he  nevertheless  acquired  so 
 complete  a  knowledge  of  the  language  of  Greece,  that 
 Phdostratus,  if  his  testimony  be  worth  quoting,  makes 
 him  worthy  of  being  compared  with  the  purest  Atticists, 
 while  Suidas  states  that  he  obtained  the  appellations 
 of  Me;i(^^oy70c  ("Honey-voiced"),  and  MeliyAuacoc 
 ("  Honey-tongued").  He  appears  to  have  been  a  man 
 of  extensive  reading  and  considerable  information.  His 
 "  Various  History,"  Uoiki?.?/  'laropia,  in  fourteen 
 books,  is  a  collection  of  extracts  from  different  works, 
 themes  very  probably  which  he  composed  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  exercising  himself  in  the  Grecian  tongue,  and 
 which  his  heirs  very  indiscreetly  gave  to  the  world. 
 These  extracts  may  be  regarded  as  the  earliest  on  the 
 list  of  Ava.  The  Various  Hisiorv-  of  ^lian  evinces 
 neither  taste,  judgment,  nor  powers  of  critical  discrim- 
 
^MI 
 
 .EMI 
 
 inalion.  Its  chief  claim  to  attention  rests  on  its  having 
 preserved  from  oblivion  some  fragments  of  authors,  the 
 rest  of  whose  works  are  lost.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
 /Elian,  instead  of  giving  these  extracts  in  the  language 
 of  the  writers  themselves,  has  thought  fit  to  array  them 
 in  a  garb  of  his  own.  .^lian  composed  also  a  pretend- 
 ed history  of  animals,  Jlrpl  t^diuv  ISioTrjTog,  in  seven- 
 teen books,  each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  small  chap- 
 ters. This  zoological  compilation  is  full  of  absurd  sto- 
 ries, intermingled  occasionally  with  interesting  notices. 
 To  this  same  writer  are  also  ascribed  twenty  epistles 
 on  rural  affairs  {'AypoiKCKal  l-KLUTo'kal)  which  possess 
 very  little  interest.  .Elian  led  a  life  of  celibacy,  and 
 died  at  the  age  of  60  years  or  over.  The  best  editions 
 of  the  Various  History  are,  that  of  Gronovius,  Amst., 
 4to,  1731,  2  vols.,  and  that  of  Kuhnius,  Lins.,  8vo, 
 1780,  2  vols.  The  best  edition  of  the  History  of  Ani- 
 mals IS  that  of  F.  Jacobs,  Lips.,  8vo,  1784. — HI.,  IV. 
 {Vid.  Supplement.) 
 
 iEt.ius,  a  name  common  to  many  Romans,  and  marK- 
 ing  also  the  plebeian  house  of  the  JElii.  {Vid.  yElia, 
 I.)  The  most  noted  individuals  that  bore  this  name 
 were,  I.  Publius,  a  quasstor,  A.U.C.  346,  the  first  year 
 that  the  plebeians  were  admitted  to  Ihis  office.  {Lw., 
 4,  54.) — II.  C.  Stalenus,  a  judge,  who  suffered  him- 
 self to  be  corrupted  by  Statius  Albius.  {Cic.  pro  Scxt., 
 81.) — III.  Sextus  Julius  Catus,  an  eminent  Roman 
 lawyer,  who  lived  in  the  si.xth  century  from  the  founda- 
 tion of  the  city.  He  filled  in  succession  the  offices  of 
 sdile,  consul,  and  censor,  and  gave  his  name  to  a  part 
 of  the  Roman  law.  When  Cneius  Flavins,  the  clerk 
 of  Appius  Claudius  Cascus,  had  made  known  to  the 
 people  the  forms  to  be  observed  in  prosecuting  law- 
 suits, and  the  days  upon  which  actions  could  be  brought, 
 the  patricians,  irritated  at  this,  contrived  new  forms  of 
 process,  and,  to  prevent  their  being  made  public,  ex- 
 pressed them  in  writing  by  certain  secret  marks. 
 These  forms,  however,  were  subsequently  published 
 by  yElius  Catus,  and  his  book  was  named  Jus  jElia- 
 num,  as  that  of  Flavins  was  styled  Jus  Flaviumim. 
 Ennius  calls  him,  on  account  of  his  knowledge  of  the 
 civil  law,  egrcgie  cordalns  homo,  "  a  remarkably  wise 
 man."  {Cic.  de  Orat.,  1,  45.)  Notwithstanding  the 
 opinions  of  Grotius  and  Bertrand,  ^lius  must  be  re- 
 garded as  the  author  of  the  work  entitled  Tripar/ita 
 Jj^lii,  which  is  so  styled  from  its  containing,  1st.  The 
 text  of  the  law.  2d.  Its  interpretation.  3d.  The  Ic- 
 gis  actio,  or  the  forms  to  be  observed  in  going  to  law. 
 /Elius  Catus,  on  receiving  the  consulship,  became  re- 
 markable for  the  austere  simplicity  of  his  manners,  eat- 
 ing from  earthen  vessels,  and  refusing  the  silver  ones 
 which  the  ..Etolian  deputies  offered  him.  When  cen- 
 sor, with  M.  Cethegus,  he  assigned  to  the  senate  at 
 the  public  games  separate  seats  from  the  people.— IV. 
 Lucius,  surnamed  Lamia,  the  friend  and  defender  of 
 Cicero,  was  driven  out  of  the  city  by  Piso  and  Ga- 
 binius.  (Cic.  in  Pis.,  27.) — V.  Gallus,  a  Roman 
 knight,  and  the  friend  of  Strabo,  to  whom  Virgil  dedi- 
 cated his  tenth  eclogue.  ( Vid.  Gallus,  III.) — VI.  Seja- 
 nus.  [vid.  Sejanus.) — VII.  An  engraver  on  precious 
 stones,  who  lived  in  the  first  century  of  our  era.  A  gem 
 exhibiting  the  head  of  Tiberius,  engraved  by  him,  is  de- 
 scribed by  Bracci,  lab.  2. — VIII.  Promolus,  an  ancient 
 physician.  {Vid.  Supplement.)  —  IX.  Gordianus,  an 
 emmei;t  lawyer,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus. — X. 
 Serenitnus^  a  lawyer,  and  pupil  of  Papinian.  He  flour- 
 ished during  the  reign  of  Severus,  and  is  highly  praised 
 by  Lampricl-ius.     {Lampr.  Vit.  Sev.) 
 
 Akli.o  {'A.eXX<j),  one  of  the  Harpies.  {Vid.  Har- 
 pyiae.)  Her  name  is  derived  from  uella,  a  tempest, 
 the  rapidity  of  her  course  being  compared  to  a  stormy 
 wind.  Compare  Hcsiod,  Thcog.,  267,  and  Schol.  ad 
 loc. 
 
 ^Emathia.      Vid.  Emathia. 
 
 ^Emathion.      Vid.  Euiathion. 
 
 Emilia  lei,  I.  a  law  of  the  dictator  Mamercus 
 
 .Emilius,  A.U.C.  309,  ordaining  that  the  censors 
 should  be  elected  as  before,  every  five  years,  but  that 
 their  power  should  continue  only  a  year  and  a  half. 
 {Liv.,  4,  24. — Id.,  9,  33.) — II.  Sumluaria,  vel  abana, 
 a  sumptuary  law,  brought  forward  by  M.  ^milius  Le- 
 pidus,  and  enacted  A.U.C.  675.  It  limited  the  kind  and 
 quantity  of  meats  to  be  used  at  an  entertainment.  (Ma- 
 crob.  Sat.,  2,  \2.—Aul.  GelL,  2,  24.)  Pliny  ascribes 
 this  law  to  M.  Scaurus  (8,  57). 
 
 .Emilia,  1.  Gens,  the  name  of  a  distinguished  Ro- 
 man family  among  the  patricians,  originally  written 
 AiMiLiA.  (Vid.  Supplement.)— H.  The  third  daugh- 
 ter of  L.  ^milius  Paullus,  who  fell  m  the  battle  of 
 Cannae.  She  was  the  wife  of  the  eider  Africanus,  and 
 the  mother  of  the  celebrated  Cornelia.  She  was  of  a 
 mild  disposition,  and  long  survived  her  husband.  Her 
 property,  which  was  large,  was  inherited  by  her  adopt- 
 ed grandson  Africanus  the  Younger,  who  gave  it  to  his 
 own  mother  Papiria,  who  had  been  divorced  by  his  own 
 father  L.  yEmilius. — HI.  Lepida.  (Vid.  Lepida,  I.) 
 — IV.  A  part  of  Italy,  extending  from  Arimmum  to 
 Placentia.  It  formed  one  of  the  later  subdivisions  of 
 the  country. — V.  Via  Lcpidi,  a  Roman  road.  There 
 were  two  roads,  in  fact,  of  this  name,  both  branch- 
 ing off  from  Mediolauum  (Milan)  to  the  eastern  and 
 southern  extremities  of  the  province  of  Cisalpine  Gaul; 
 the  one  leading  to  Verona  and  Aquileia,  the  latter  to 
 Placentia  and  Arirninum.  The  same  name,  howev- 
 er, of  Via  ^Emilia  Lepidi,  was  applied  to  both.  They 
 were  made  by  M.  ^milius  Lepidus,  who  was  con- 
 sul A.U.C.  567,  in  continuation  of  the  Via  Flamin- 
 ia,  which  had  been  carried  from  Rome  to  Arirni- 
 num.— VI.  Via  Scauri,  a  Roman  road,  a  continuation 
 of  the  Aurelian  way,  from  Pisa  to  Dertona.  (Strab., 
 217.) 
 
 yEMiLT.iNUS,  I.  the  second  agnomen  of  P.  Cornelius 
 Scipio  Africanus  the  younger,  which  he  received  as 
 being  the  ifon  of  Paulus  yEmilius.  His  adoption  by 
 the  elder  Africanus  united  the  houses  of  the  Scipios 
 and  ^milii. — II.  A  native  of  Mauritania,  who  was  gov- 
 ernor of  Pannonia  and  Moesia  under  Hostilianus  and 
 Gallus.  Some  successes  over  the  barbarians  caused 
 him  to  be  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  soldiers.  Gallus 
 marched  against  him,  but  was  murdered,  together  with 
 his  son  Volusianus,  by  his  own  soldiers,  who  went 
 over  to  the  side  of  .Emilianus.  The  reign  of  the  lat- 
 ter, however,  was  of  short  duration.  Less  than  four 
 months  intervened  between  his  victory  and  his  fall. 
 Valerian,,  one  of  the  generals  of  Gallus,  who  had  been 
 sent  by  that  emperor  to  bring  the  legions  of  Gaul  and 
 Germany  to  his  aid,  met  .-Emilianus  in  the  plains  of 
 Spoletum,  where  the  latter,  like  Gallus,  was  murdered 
 by  his  own  troops,  who  thereupon  went  over  to  Vale- 
 rian. (Zosimus,  21,  p.  25,  seqq. — Aiircl.  Vrct. — Eu- 
 trap.,  9,  6.) — III.  A  prefect  of  Egypt,  in  the  reign  of 
 Gallienus.  He  assumed  the  imperial  purple,  but  was 
 defeated  by  Theodotus,  a  general  of  the  emperor's,  who 
 sent  him  prisoner  to  Rome,  where  he  was  strangled. 
 (Treb.  Gall.  Tr.  Tyr.,  22.—Eiiscb.  Hist.  Eccles.,7.) 
 — IV.   Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 .^EmilIus,  I.  Censorinus,  a  cruel  tyrant  of  Sicily.  A 
 person  named  Aruntius  Paterculus  having  given  him 
 a  brazen  horse,  intended  as  a  means  of  torture,  was 
 the  first  that  was  made  to  suffer  by  it.  Compare  the 
 story  of  Phalaris  and  his  brazen  bull.  (Phd.  de  Foit. 
 Rom.,  315.) — II.  L.,  three  times  consul,  and  the  con- 
 queror of  the  Volsci,  A.U.C.  273.  (Lw.,  2,42.)— IIL 
 Mamercus,  once  consul  and  three  times  dictator,  ob- 
 tained a  triumph  over  the  Fidenates,  A.U.C.  329. 
 (Liv.  4,  16.) — IV.  Paulus,  father  of  the  celebrated 
 Paulus  ^milius.  He  was  one  of  the  consuls  slain 
 at  Canns.  (Lnv,  23,  49.)— V.  Paulus  Maccdonicus. 
 (Vid.  Paulus  I.)— VI.  Scaurus.  (Vid.  Scauru3.)-VII. 
 Lepidus,  twice  consul,  once  Censor,  and  six  times  Pon- 
 tifex  Maximus.  He  was  also  Princeps  Senatus,  and 
 guardian  to  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  in  the  name  of  the 
 
 55 
 
.ENEAS. 
 
 iENEAS. 
 
 Roman  people.  It  was  this  individual  to  whom  a 
 civic  crown  was  given  when  a  youth  of  15,  for  having 
 saved  the  Hfe  of  a  citizen,  an  allusion  to  which  is  made 
 on  the  medals  of  the  ^i^milian  family.  {Lw.,  41,  42. 
 — Epit.  48.) — VIII.  Lepidus,  the  triumvir.  (F«(f.Le- 
 pidus.) 
 
 ^Mom.K.Vid.  Hsmonia. 
 
 iENAKiA  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Campania,  at  the 
 entraike  of  the  Bay  of  Naples.  Properly  speaking, 
 there  are  two  islands,  and  hence  the  plural  form  of  the 
 name  which  the  Greeks  ap[)lied  to  them,  al  IlidijKov- 
 aat  (Puhccusce).  This  latter  appellation,  according  to 
 Pliny  (3,  6),  was  not  derived  from  the  number  of  apes 
 (nidi/Koi)  which  the  islands  were  supposed  to  contain, 
 but  from  the  earthen  casks  or  barrels  (mduKtov,  dolio- 
 lum)  which  were  made  there.  The  Romans  called 
 the  largest  of  the  two  islands  Mnaria,  probably  from 
 the  copper  which  they  found  in  it.  JSnaria  was  a 
 volcanic  island,  and  Virgil  {/En.,  9,  716)  gives  it  the 
 name  of  Inarime,  in  accordance  with  the  old  traditions 
 which  made  the  body  of  Typhoeus  to  have  been  placed 
 under  this  island  and  the  Phlegraean  plain.  Homer, 
 however  (//.,  2,  783),  describes  Typhoeus  as  lying  in 
 Ariina  {elv  'Apifioig).  The  modern  name  of  ..^naria  is 
 Ischia. 
 
 JEtiEA  or  ^Eneia,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Smus  Thermaicus,  northwest  from  Olyn- 
 thus,  and  almost  due  south  from  Thessalonica.  It  was 
 founded  by  a  colony  of  Corinthians  and  Potidseans. 
 The  inhabitants  themselves,  however,  affected  to  be- 
 lieve that  ^Eneas  was  its  founder,  and  consequently 
 offered  to  him  an  annual  sacrifice,  ^nea  was  a  place 
 of  some  importance  in  the  war  between  the  Macedoni- 
 ans and  Romans.  Soon  afterward,  however,  it  dis- 
 appeared from  history.  {Scymmis,  75.627. — Liy.,  40, 
 4,  ivii  44,  10. — Strabo,  epil.  7.) 
 
 J£,t\RlT)M,  I.  the  companions  of  .iEneas,  a  name 
 given  them  in  Virgil.  {JEn.,  1,  157,  &c.) — II.  The 
 descendants  of  yEneas,  an  appellation  given  by  the 
 poets  to  the  whole  Roman  nation.  Hence  Venus  is 
 called  by  Lucretius  (1,  1),  JEncadum  genctrix. 
 
 .^NEAs,  a  celebrated  Trojan  warrior,  son  of  Anchi- 
 ses  and  Venus,  whose  wanderings  and  adventures  form 
 the  subject  of  Virgil's  /Eneid,  and  from  whose  final 
 settlement  in  Italy  the  Romans  traced  their  origin. 
 He  was  born,  according  to  the  poets,  on  Mount  Ida, 
 or,  as  some  legends  stated,  on  the  banks  of  the  Simois, 
 and  was  nurtured  by  the  Dryads  until  he  had  reached 
 his  fifth  year,  when  he  was  brought  to  Anchises.  The 
 remainder  of  his  early  life  was  spent  under  the  care  of 
 his  brother-in-law  Alcathous,  in  the  city  of  Dardanus, 
 his  father's  place  of  residence,  at  the  foot  of  Ida.  He 
 first  took  part  in  the  Trojan  war  when  Achilles  had  de- 
 spoiled him  of  his  flocks  and  herds.  Priam,  however, 
 gave  him  a  cold  reception,  either  because  the  great 
 Trojan  families  were  at  variance  with  each  other, 
 from  the  influence  of  ambitious  feelings,  or,  what  is 
 more  probable,  because  an  oracle  had  declared,  that 
 yEneas  and  his  posterity  should  rule  over  the  Trojans. 
 Hence,  although  he  married  Creusa,  the  daughter  of 
 Priam,  he  never  lived,  according  to  Homer  (IL,  13, 
 460),  on  very  friendly  terms  with  that  monarch.  yEneas 
 was  regarded  as  the  bravest  and  boldest  of  the  Trojan 
 leaders  after  Hector,  and  is  even  brought  by  Homer 
 in  contact  with  Achilles.  (//.,  20,  175,  scqq.)  Ho 
 was  also  conspicuous  for  his  piety  and  justice,  and  was 
 therefore  the  only  Trojan  whom  the  otherwise  angry 
 Neptune  protected  in  the  fight.  The  posthomeric 
 bards  assign  him  a  conspicuou.s  part  in  the  scenes  that 
 look  place  on  the  capture  of  Troy,  and  Virgil,  taking 
 these  for  his  guides,  has  done  the  same  in  his  ^neid. 
 ^neas  fought  manfully  in  the  midst  of  the  blazing 
 eity  until  all  was  lost,  and  then  retired  with  a  large 
 number  of  the  inhabitants,  accompamcd  by  their  wives 
 and  children,  to  the  neighbouring  mountains  of  Ida. 
 It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he  signalized  his  piety,  by 
 56 
 
 bearing  away  on  his  shoulders  his  aged  parent  Anchi- 
 ses. His  wife  Creusa,  however,  was  lost  in  the  hur- 
 ried flight.  From  this  period  the  legends  resjiecting 
 yEneas  differ.  While,  according  to  one  tradition,  of 
 which  there  are  traces  even  in  the  Homeric  poems,  he 
 remained  in  Troas,  and  ruled  over  the  remnant  of  the 
 Trojan  population,  he  wandered  from  his  nativ.3  land 
 according  to  another  account,  and  settloil  i:::  VAt.j. 
 This  latter  tradition  is  adopted  by  the  Roman  wiilefs, 
 who  trace  to  him  the  origin  of  their  nation,  and  it  forma 
 the  basis  of  the  .Eneid,  in  which  poem  his  various 
 wanderings  are  related,  until  he  is  brought  to  the  Ital- 
 ian shores.  Following  the  account  of  Virgil  and  the 
 poets  from  whom  he  has  copied,  as  far  as  any  remains 
 of  these  last  have  come  down  to  us,  we  find  that 
 yEneas,  in  the  second  year  after  the  destruction  of 
 Troy,  set  sail,  with  a  newly-constructed  fleet  of  twenty 
 vessels,  from  the  Trojan  shores,  and  visited,  first 
 Thrace,  and  then  the  island  of  Sicily.  From  this  lat- 
 ter island  he  proceeded  with  his  ships  for  Italy,  in  the 
 seventh  year  of  his  wanderings,  but  was  driven  by  a 
 storm  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  near  Carthage.  After  a 
 residence  of  some  time  at  the  court  of  Dido,  he  set  sail 
 for  Italy,  and  reached  eventually,  after  many  dangers 
 and  adventures,  the  harbour  of  Cumce.  From  CuinsB 
 he  proceeded  along  the  shore  and  entered  the  mouth 
 of  the  Tiber.  After  a  war  with  the  neighbouring  na- 
 tions, in  which  he  proved  successful,  and  slew  Tur- 
 nus,  the  leader  of  the  foe,  .Elneas  received  in  marriage 
 Lavinia,  the  daughter  of  King  Latinus,  and  built  the 
 city  of  Lavinium.  The  Trojans  and  native  inhabitants 
 became  one  people,  under  the  common  name  of  Lati- 
 ni.  The  flourishing  state  of  the  new  community  ex- 
 cited, however,  the  jealousy  of  the  neighbouring  na- 
 tions, and  war  was  declared  by  them  against  the  sub- 
 jects of  yEneas,  Mezentius,  king  of  Etruria,  being 
 placed  at  the  head  of  the  coalition.  The  arms  of 
 yEneas  proved  successful,  but  he  lost  his  life  in  the 
 conflict.  According  to  anotljer  account,  he  was 
 drowned  during  the  action  in  the  river  Numicus. 
 Divine  honours  were  paid  him  after  death  by  his  sub- 
 jects, and  the  Romans  also  in  a  later  age  regarded  him 
 as  one  of  the  Dii  Indigctes.  The  tale  of  ^Eneas  and 
 his  Trojan  colony  is  utterly  rejected  by  Niebuhr,  but 
 he  thinks  it  a  question  worth  discussion,  whether  it 
 was  domestic  or  transported.  Having  shown  that 
 several  Hellenic  poets  had  supposed  -Eneas  to  have 
 escaped  from  Troy,  and  that  Stesichorus  had  even  ex- 
 pressly represented  him  as  having  sailed  to  Hcsperia, 
 i.  e  ,  the  west  ;  and  then  noticed  the  general  l)elief 
 among  the  Greeks,  of  Trojan  colonies  in  different 
 parts,  he  still  regards  all  this  as  quite  insufficient  to 
 account  for  the  belief  in  a  Trojan  descent  becoming  an 
 article  of  state- faith,  with  so  proud  a  people  as  the  Ro- 
 mans. The  fancied  descent  must  have  been  domes- 
 tic, like  that  of  the  Britons  from  Brute  apd  Troy,  the 
 Hungarians  from  the  Huns,  &c.,  all  of  which  have 
 been  related  with  confidence  by  native  writers.  The 
 only  difficulty  is  to  account  for  its  origin,  on  which 
 Niebuhr  advances  the  following  hypothesis  :  Every- 
 thing contained  in  mythic  tales  respecting  the  aflSnity 
 of  nations  indicates  the  affinity  between  the  Trojans 
 and  those  of  the  Pelasgian  stem,  as  the  Arradians, 
 E[)irotes,  CEnotrians,  and  especially  the  Tyirhenian 
 Pelasgians.  Such  tales  are  those  of  the  wanderings 
 of  Dardanus  from  Corythus  to  Samothrace  and  thence 
 to  the  Simois,  the  coming  of  the  Trojans  to  Latiuni, 
 of  the  Tyrrhenians  to  Lemnos.  Now,  that  the  Pe- 
 nates at  Lavinium,  which  some  of  the  Lavinians  told 
 Timseus  were  Trojan  images,  were  the  Samothracian 
 gods,  is  acknowledged,  and  the  Romans  recognised  the 
 affinity  of  the  people  of  that  island.  From  this  nation- 
 al as  well  as  religious  unity,  and  the  identity  of  lan- 
 guage, it  may  have  happened  that  various  branches  of 
 the  nation  may  have  been  called  Trojans,  or  have 
 claimed  a  descent  from  Troy,  and  have  boasted  the 
 
^.NEAS. 
 
 ^NO 
 
 possessions  of  relics  which  iEneas  was  reported  to 
 have  saved.  Long  after  the  original  natives  of  Italy 
 had  overcome  them,  Tyrrhenians  may  have  visited 
 Samothrace  ;  Herodotus  may  there  have  heard  Cres- 
 tonians  and  Placianians  conversing  together ;  and  La- 
 vinians  and  Gergithians  may  have  met  there,  and  ac- 
 counted for  their  affinity  by  the  story  of  JDneas. 
 "  We  have,"  the  L»vinians  may  have  said,  "  the  same 
 language  and  religion  with  you,  and  we  have  clay 
 images  at  home,  just  like  these  here."  "  Then," 
 may  the  others  have  replied,  "  you  must  be  descended 
 from  ^Eneas  and  his  followers,  who  saved  the  relics  in 
 Tro},  and  sailed,  our  fathers  say,  away  to  the  west 
 with  them."  And  it  requires  but  a  small  knowledge 
 of  human  nature  to  perceive  how  easily  such  reason- 
 ing as  this  would  be  embraced  and  propagated.  (Nie- 
 huhr's  Rom.  Hist.,  2d  cd.,  vol.  1,  p.  150,  scqq.,  Cam- 
 bridge transl. — Foreign  Quarterly  Rcvieiv,  No.  4,  p. 
 533.) — II.  Silvius,  a  son  of  .^Eneas  and  Lavinia,  said 
 to  have  derived  his  name  from  the  circumstance  of  his 
 having  been  brought  up  in  the  woods  {in  silvis), 
 whither  his  mother  had  retired  on  the  death  of  Jilneas. 
 {Vid.  Lavinia.)  Virgil  follows  the  account  which 
 makes  him  the  founder  of  the  Alban  line  of  kings. 
 {JEn.,  6,  766.)  According  to  others,  he  was  the  son 
 and  successor  of  Ascanius.  Others  again  give  a  dif- 
 ferent statement.  (Compare  Liu.,  1,3. — Aurel.  Vict., 
 16,  U.—Dion.  Hal.,  1,  70.— Ovid,  Fast.,  4,  41,  and 
 consult  Hcyne,  ad  Virg.,  I.  c.) — III.  An  ancient  writer, 
 surnamed  Tacticus.  By  sonic  he  is  supposed  to  have 
 flourished  about  148  B  C.  ;  others,  however,  make 
 him  anterior  to  Alexander  the  Great.  Casaubon  sus- 
 pects that  he  is  the  same  with  yEneas  of  Stymphalus, 
 who,  according  to  Xenophon  {Hist.  Gr.,  7,  3),  was 
 commander  of  the  Arcadians  at  the  time  of  the  battle 
 of  Manlinea,  about  360  B.C.  (Compare  Sax.  Onom., 
 1,  p.  73.)  Of  his  writings  on  the  military  art  {I,TpaTr]- 
 yiKu  (iidTiLa)  there  remains  to  us  a  single  book,  enti- 
 tled   TaKTLKOV    TE    KOL   Tlo7\.lQpK7}TLKOV  Vn6/ll>7}/xa,   &C. 
 
 This  work  is  not  only  of  great  value  on  account  of  the 
 number  of  technical  terms  which  it  contains,  but  serves 
 also  to  elucidate  various  points  of  antiquity,  and  makes 
 mention  of  facts  which  cannot  elsewhere  be  found. 
 The  best  edition  is  that  of  Orellius,  Lips.,  1818,  8vo, 
 published  as  a  supplement  to  Schweighaeuser's  edition 
 of  Polybius. — IV.  A  native  of  Gaza,  a  disciple  of 
 Hierocles,  who  flourished  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
 5th  century  of  our  era,  or  about  480  A.C.  He  ab- 
 jured paganism,  and  was  an  eyewitness  of  the  perse- 
 cution which  Huneric.  king  of  the  Vandals,  instituted 
 against  the  Christians,  484  A.C.  Although  a  Chris- 
 tian, he  professed  Platonism.  We  have  a  dialogue  of 
 his  remaining,  entitled  Oeocppaarog,  which  treats  of 
 the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  resurrection  of  the 
 body.  The  interlocutors  are  ./Egyptus  an  Alexan- 
 drean,  Axitheus  a  Syrian,  and  Theophrastus  an  Athe- 
 nian. .(Eneas  exhibits  and  illustrates  the  Christian 
 doctrines  in  the  person  of  Axitheus,  and  Theophras- 
 tus conducts  the  argument  for  the  heathen  schools, 
 while  .(Egyptus  now  and  then  interrupts  the  grave  dis- 
 cussion by  a  specimen  of  Alcxandrean  levity,  ^neas 
 defends  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  resurrec- 
 tion of  the  body  against  the  philosophers  who  deny  it. 
 He  explains  how  the  soul,  althojugh  created,  may  be- 
 come immortal,  and  proves  that  the  world,  being  ma- 
 terial, must  perish.  In  conducting  this  chain  of  argu- 
 ment, he  mingles  the  Platonic  doctrine  of  the  Logos 
 and  Anima  mundi  with  that  of  the  Christian  Trinity. 
 He  then  refutes  the  objections  urged  against  the  res- 
 urrection of  the  body  :  this  leads  him  to  speak  of  holy 
 men  who  have  restored  dead  bodies  to  life,  and  to  re- 
 late as  an  eyewitness  the  miracle  of  the  confessors, 
 who,  after  having  had  their  tongues  cut  out,  were  still 
 able  to  speak  distinctly.  This  piece  is  entitled  to 
 high  praise  for  the  excellence  of  the  design,  and  the 
 general  ability  with  which  the  argument  is  sustained  ; 
 H 
 
 although,  as  the  author  was  of  the  school  of  Plato, 
 there  is  something  in  it,  of  course,  that  savours  of  the 
 Academy.  (An  able  analysis  of  its  contents  is  given 
 in  the  N.  Y.  Churchman,  vol.  9,  No.  4,  by  an  anony- 
 mous writer.)  There  also  remain  of  his  writings  twen  ■ 
 ty-five  letters.  These  last  are  contained  in  the  epis- 
 tolary collections  of  Aldus  and  Cujas.  The  latest  edi 
 tion  is  that  of  Bath,  Lips.,  1655,  4to. 
 
 /Eneia.  Vid.JEnea.. 
 
 ^Eneis,  the  celebrated  epic  poem  of  Vircril,  com- 
 memorating the  wanderings  of  Jineas  after  the  fall  of 
 Troy,  and  his  final  settlement  in  Italy.  {Vid.  Virgil- 
 ius  ) 
 
 .(Enesidemus,  a  philosopher,  born  at  Gnossus  in 
 Crete,  but  who  lived  at  Alexandrea.  He  flourished, 
 very  probably,  a  short  period  subsequent  to  Cicero, 
 ^nesidemus  revived  the  scepticism  which  had  been 
 silenced  in  the  Academy,  with  the  view  of  making  it 
 aid  in  re-introducing  the  doctrines  of  Heraclitus.  For, 
 in  order  to  show  that  everything  has  its  contrary,  we 
 must  first  prove  that  opposite  appearances  are  present- 
 ed in  one  and  the  same  thing  to  each  individual.  To 
 strengthen,  therefore,  the  cause  of  scepticism,  he  extend- 
 ed its  limits  to  the  utmost,  admitting  and  defending 
 the  ten  Topics  attributed  to  Pyrrho,  to  justify  a  sus- 
 pense of  all  positive  opinion.  He  wrote  eight  books 
 on  the  doctrines  of  Pyrrho  {Uvppuviuv  Xoyoi  ?'/),  of 
 which  extracts  are  to  be  found  in  Photius,  cod.  212. 
 {Tennemann,  Gesch.  Phil.,  ed.  Wendt,  p.  196.; 
 
 ^NiANEs,  or  Enienes,  a  Thessalian  tribe,  appa- 
 rently of  great  antiquity,  but  of  uncertain  origin,  whose 
 frequent  migrations  have  been  alluded  to  by  more  than 
 one  writer  of  antiquily,  but  by  none  more  than  Plu- 
 tarch in  his  Greek  Questions.  He  states  them  to  have 
 occupied,  in  the  first  instance,  the  Dotian  plain  (compare 
 Gell's  Itinerary,  p.  242) ;  after  which  they  wandered 
 to  the  borders  of  Epirus,  and  finally  settled  in  the  up- 
 per valley  of  the  Sperchius.  Their  antiquity  and  im- 
 portance are  attested  by  the  fact  of  their  belonging  to 
 the  Amphictyonic  council.  {Pausan.,  10,8. — Harpo- 
 crat.,s.  V.  'kiKpLKTvoveg. — Herod.,  1,  l98.)  At  a  later 
 period  we  find  them  joining  other  Grecian  states  against 
 Macedonia,  in  the  confederacy  which  gave  rise  to  the 
 Lamiac  war.  {Diod.  Sic.,  17,  111.)  But  in  Strabo's 
 time  they  had  nearly  disappeared,  having  been  almost 
 exterminated,  as  that  author  reports,  by  the  .^tolians 
 and  Athamanes,  upon  whose  territories  they  bordered. 
 {Strabo,  427.)  Their  principal  town  was  Hypata,  on 
 the  river  Sperchius. 
 
 ..(Eniochi.  vid.  Heniochi. 
 
 .Enobakbus,  or  Ahenobarbus,  the  surname  of  L. 
 Domitius.  When  Castor  and  Pollux  acquainted  him 
 with  a  victory,  he  discredited  them  ;  upon  which  they 
 touched  his  chin  and  beard,  which  instantly  became  of 
 a  copper  colour,  whence  the  surname  given  to  himself 
 and  his  descendants.  This  fabulous  story  is  told  by 
 Plutarch,  m  his  life  of  Paulus  ^Emilius  {c.  25) ;  by 
 Suetonius,  in  his  biography  of  Nero  (c.  1),  that  emper- 
 or being  descended  from  .(Enobarbus  ;  by  Livy  (45, 
 1) ;  and  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (6,  13).  Many 
 of  the  descendants  of  iEnobarbus  arc  said  to  have  been 
 marked  by  beards  of  a  reddish  hue.  {Sucton.,  I.  c.) 
 The  victory  mentioned  above  was  that  at  the  Lake  Rc- 
 gillus.  For  an  account  of  the  members  of  this  family, 
 vid.  Supplement. 
 
 ^Enos,  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  at  the  mouth 
 of  the  estuary  formed  by  the  river  Hcbrus  ;  and  where 
 it  communicates  by  a  narrow  passage  with  the  sea. 
 Scymnus  of  Chios  ascribes  its  foundation  to  Mytilene. 
 {Scymn.,  v.  696. — Compare  Eustath.,  ad  Dionys.  Pe- 
 ricg.,  V.  538,  and  Gail,  ad  Scymn.,  I.  c.)  Steplianus 
 Byzantinus,  however,  makes  Cums  to  have  been  the 
 parent-city.  Apollodorus  (2,  5,  9)  and  Strabo  (319) 
 inform  us,  that  its  more  ancient  name  was  Poltyobria 
 ("  City  of  Poltys"),  from  a  Thracian  leader.  The  ad- 
 jacent country  was  occupied  by  the  Cicones,  whom 
 
 57 
 
JEOLES. 
 
 iEOLES, 
 
 Homer  enumerates  among  the  allies  of  the  Trojans. 
 Virgil  supposes  yEneas  to  have  landed  on  this  coast  af- 
 ter quilting  Troy,  and  to  have  discovered  here  the  tomb 
 of  the  murdered  Polydorus  (A'«.,  3,  22,  scqq.):  he 
 also  intimates  that  he  founded  a  city  in  this  quarter, 
 which  was  named  after  himself.  Pliny  (4,  11)  like- 
 wise states,  that  the  tomb  of  Polydorus  was  at  iEnos. 
 But  it  is  certain,  that,  according  to  Homer  {II.,  4,  520), 
 the  city  was  called  Mnos  before  the  siege  of  Troy. 
 ./Enos  first  makes  its  appearance  in  history  about  the 
 time  of  the  Persian  war.  It  fell  under  the  power  of 
 Xer.^es,  and,  after  his  expulsion  from  Greece,  was  al- 
 ways tributary  to  that  statevvhich  chanced  to  have  the 
 ascendency  by  sea.  The  Romans  declared  it  a  free 
 city.  This  place  is  often  mentioned  by  the  Byzantine 
 writers.  The  modern  town,  or,  rather,  village  of  Eno 
 occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  but  the  harbour  is 
 now  a  mere  marsh.  The  climate  of  iEnos,  it  seems, 
 was  peculiarly  ungenial,  since  it  was  observed  by  an 
 ancient  writer,  that  it  was  cold  there  during  eight 
 months  of  the  year,  and  that  a  severe  frost  prevailed 
 for  the  other  four.  (AlhencBiis,  8,  44 — *ol.  3,  p.  295, 
 ed.  Schwcigh.) — II.  A  small  town  in  Thessaly,  near 
 Mount  Ossa,  situate  on  a  river  of  the  same  name. 
 {Stcpk.  Byz.,  s.  V.  Alvog.) 
 
 ^Nus.  Vid.  CEnus. 
 
 ^oLEs,  or  ^olii,  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the 
 great  Hellenic  race  {vid.  Hellenes),  who  are  said  to 
 have  derived  their  name  from  ^Eolus,  the  eldest  son 
 of  Hellen.  The  father  reigned  over  Phthiotis,  and 
 particularly  over  the  city  and  district  then  called  Hel- 
 las. To  these  dominions  ^olus  succeeded,  and  his 
 brothers  Dorus  and  Xuthus  were  compelled  lo  look  for 
 settlements  elsewhere.  {Straho,  383. — Conon,  Nar- 
 rat.,  27.—Pausan.,  7,  1. — Herod.,  1,  56.)  According  to 
 Apollodorus  (1,7,  2),  ^olus  ruled  over  all  Thessaly  ; 
 this,  however,  is  contradicted  by  the  authority  of  He- 
 rodotus, from  whom  it  appears  (1,  56)  that  the  Dori- 
 ans held  Histiaeotis  under  their  sway.  From  ^olus, 
 the  Hellenes,  in  Hellas  properly  so  called,  and  the 
 Phthiotic  Pelasgi,  who  became  blended  with  them  into 
 one  common  race,  received  the  appellation  of  ^Eolians. 
 (Compare  Herod.,  1,  57.— Id.,  7,  95.)  The  sons  and 
 later  descendants  of  .^olus  spread  the  name  of  ^o- 
 lia  beyond  these  primitive  seats  of  the  ^olic  tribe. 
 Cretheus,  the  eldest  son  of  yEolus,  reigned  at  first  over 
 the  territories  of  his  parents,  Phthiotis  and  Hellas  ; 
 subsequently,  however,  he  led  a  colony  to  lolcos 
 {ApoUod.,  1,  9,  11),  and  from  this  latter  place,  Pheres, 
 his  son,  colonized  Pherae,  on  the  Anaurus.  {ApoUod., 
 1,  9,  14.)  Magnes,  the  second  son  of  iEolus,  found- 
 ed Magnesia  (Apo/ZofZ.,  1,  9,  6),  and  his  own  sons  Poly- 
 dectes  and  Dictys  led  a  colony  to  Seriphus.  Another 
 son,  Pierus,  settled  in  Pieria.  {ApoUod.,  I.  c.)  Sisy- 
 phus, the  third  son  of  ^olus,  founded  Corinth  {Apol- 
 lod.,\,  9,  13),  whose  ^Eolic  population,  previous  to  the 
 irruption  of  the  Dorians  into  the  Peloponnesus,  is  ac- 
 knowledged even  by  Thucydides  (4,  42).  Athamas 
 led  an  ^olic  colony  into  Boeotia(/l/)oZ/orf.,  1,9,  1),  and, 
 as  Pausanias  informs  us,  to  Orchomenus,  and  to  the 
 district  where  Haliartus  and  Coronea  were  afterward 
 built.  (PrtJtsdM.,  9, 34.— Compare  the  scholiast  onApol- 
 lonius  Rhodius,  2,  1190,  who  calls  the  Orchomenians 
 unoiKoi  Tu>v  OeaaaXCiv.)  Hence  Apollodorus  calls 
 Orchomenus  an  yEolic  city,  although  it  existed  long 
 before  this,  in  the  time  of  Ogyges,  under  the  name  of 
 Athenas.  {Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'Kdi'ivai.)  Thucydides 
 mentions  the  ^olic  origin  of  the  Boeotians  ( Thiicyd.,  3, 
 2. — Id.,  7,  67),  and  we  see  from  Pausanias  (9,  22),  that 
 thelanouage  of  the  Bceotians  was  more  ^Eolic  than  Do- 
 ric. The  name  of  Athamas  may  be  traced  in  that  of 
 the  Athamantian  field,  between  Mount  Acra'phnium 
 and  the  sea  {Pausan.,  9,  24),  and  which  was  called  af- 
 ter the  Athamantian  field,  in  the  primitive  JEo\\c  set- 
 tlements in  Thcssalv,  where  Athamas  had  killed  his 
 own  son.  {Etym.  Mag.,  s.  v.  'kda^iuvTiov. — Raoul- 
 5S 
 
 Rochette,  Col.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  26,  calls  this"un  canton 
 de  la  Boeotic"  merely,  but  the  words  of  the  etymolo- 
 gist are  express :  ioTL  6i  7re(5«df  kv  Qtaaa'kia  kqaov- 
 fiivri  'AOa/xavTia,  6lu  to  EK£lae,K.  t.  X.)  Even  Thebes 
 itself,  built  at  the  foot  of  the  Phffinician  mountain  Cad- 
 mea,  would  seem,  from  the  remark  of  the  scholiast  on 
 Pindar  {Nem.,  3,  127),  and  from  the  analogy  between 
 its  name  and  that  of  Phthiotic  Thebes,  to  have  been 
 an  .^olian  settlement.  From  the  sons  of  Athamas 
 the  city  of  Schoenus  and  Mount  Ptous  received  their 
 appellations.  {Steph.  Byz.,s.v.l,xoivovg. — Pausan., 
 9,  23.)  The  name,  too,  of  the  BcEotian  national  god- 
 dess, the  Itonian  Minerva,  at  Orchomenus,  is,  most 
 probably,  not  to  be  derived  from  a  fabulous  hero  Itonus 
 {Steph.  Byz.,s.  v.  ' AawlijSuv . — Pausaji.,  9,  34),  but 
 from  the  city  of  Itonus,  in  the  primitive  settlements  of 
 the  .lEolic  Boeotians.  Aspledon  also  was  founded  by 
 the  same  Cohans  who  had  settled  in  Orchomenus. 
 {Steph.  Byz.,  I,  c.)  An  ^olic  colony,  according  to 
 Apollodorus  (1,  9,  4),  was  also  led  into  Phocis,  under 
 Deion,  the  fifth  son  of  iEolus,  and  where  Phocus,  a 
 later  descendant  of  Sisyphus,  gave  his  name  to  the  race. 
 {Pausan.,  2,22.)  The  sixth  son  of  .^olus,  called  by 
 Hesiod  the  "  lawless  Salmoneus,"  remained  for  a  long 
 time  in  Thessaly  {ApoUod.,  1,  9,  7,  and  8),  where  his 
 daughter  Tyro  married  Cretheus.  His  departure  from 
 this  country  coincides,  very  probably,  with  the  expul- 
 sion of  Cretheus  from  the  primitive  settlements  of  the 
 Hellenes.  He  migrated  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and  set- 
 tled in  the  district  of  Elis,  which  had  not,  as  yet,  been 
 occupied  by  Phrygian  colonists.  He  built  Salmonea, 
 and  is  called  by  Hesiod  the  "  lawless,"  from  his  at- 
 tempt to  imitate  Jove  while  hurling  the  thunderbolt. 
 {Serv.,  ad  Virg.,  6,  585.)  Among  his  posterity  we  may 
 name  Neleus,  who  founded  Pylos  in  the  adjacent  re- 
 gion of  Messenia  (yl;?o//orf.,  1,  9,  9. — Paj.san.,A,  36), 
 and  is  said  to  have  renewed,  in  conjunction  with  his 
 brother  Pelias,  the  Olympic  games.  {Pausan.,  5,  1,  8.) 
 So  also  Perieres,  king  of  Messenia,  is  made  a  son  of 
 yEolus  {Hesiod,  fragm.,  v.  75. — ApoUod.,  1,  9,  3),  al- 
 though the  Spartans  claimed  him  as  a  descendant  of 
 the  royal  line  of  Laconia,  and  a  son  of  Cy nortas.  {Apol- 
 lod.,  1,  9,  3.)  Besides  these  sons  of  ^olus,  respect- 
 ing whose  origin  the  ancient  mythographers  in  gener- 
 al agree,  and  who  spread  the  yEolic  race  over  middle 
 Greece,  there  are  also  mentioned,  as  sons  of  JEo- 
 lus,  Cercaphus  {Demetrius  Seeps.,  ap.  Strab.,  9, 
 p.  438),  whose  son  founded  Ormenium,  on  the  Si- 
 nus Pagasaeus  {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  %i.  'Iw/l/cof ),  and  Maced- 
 nus  or  Maccdo  {HcUamcus,  ap.  Const.  Porpk.  Them., 
 2,2. — Evstalh.,  ad  Dioriys.  Perieg.,v.  427),  whose 
 descent  from  Thyia,  a  daughter  of  Deucalion,  is  alluded 
 to  by  Hesiod  {Hcs.,  ap.  Const.  Porph.  Them.,  2,  2). 
 The  posterity  of  ^olus  spread  the  dominion  and  name 
 of  the  -'Eolic  race  still  farther.  ^Etolus,  who  was 
 compelled  to  fly  from  the  court  of  his  father  Endymion 
 (a  son-in-law  of  jS^olus)  at  Elis,  retired  to  the  land  of 
 the  Curetes,  and  gave  name  to  yEtolia.  {Vid.  Acar- 
 nania.)  His  sons  Pleuron  and  Calydon  founded  there 
 two  cities,  called  after  them,  and  established  two  petty 
 principalities.  {ApoUod. ,1,7,7.)  Epeus,  another  son 
 of  Endymion,  gave  to  the  Eleans  the  name  of  Epei 
 {Pausan.,  5,  1,  1),  while  Paeon,  the  third  son,  settled, 
 with  his  .(Eolian  followers,  on  the  banks  of  the  Axius, 
 and  gave  to  the  united  race  of  Cohans  and  Pelasgi  in 
 this  quarter,  the  name  of  Paeonians.  In  the  Trojan  war, 
 these  Pajonians  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Trojans  {Horn. 
 II.,  2,  848) ;  whence  we  may  infer,  that,  although  the 
 tribes  around  the  Axius  were  Hellenized,  yet  the  Pe- 
 lasgic  population  still  retained  the  numerical  superior- 
 ity. During  this  time  Pelops  had  taken  possession  of 
 Pisa,  and  had  driven  the  Epei  from  Olympia.  {Pau- 
 san., 5,  1,  1.)  Eleus,  however,  the  son-in-law  of  En- 
 dymion, had  received  the  kingdom  in  place  of  the  fugi- 
 tive ^tolus,  and  from  him  the  Epei  were  now  called 
 Elei,  or,  according  to  the  ^olic  mode  of  writing,  Falei, 
 
^OL 
 
 ^OL 
 
 FAAEIOI.  (Compare  Bockh,  Corp.  Tnscript.  Grac, 
 fasc.  1,  p.  28.)  Among  the  sons  of  iEtolus  was  Lo- 
 crus  {Euslalh.yad  Horn.  IL,  2,  531),  from  whom  the 
 Locri  Ozolse,  on  the  borders  of  JEtolia,  are  supposed  to 
 have  derived  their  name.  The  /Eohc  branch  of  Sisy- 
 phus, in  Corinth,  spread  itself  through  Ornythion 
 {Sc/inl.,  ad  Horn.  li,  3,  517,  ed.  Villois.),  and  his  son 
 Phocus,  over  Phocis  (Pausan.,  2,  1),  a  name  first  ap- 
 plied to  the  country  around  Delphi  and  Tithorea.  The 
 latter  of  these  places  was  the  primitive  settlement  of 
 Phocus  (Pausan.,  2,  4),  while  Hiampolis  was  the  early 
 colony  of  Ornythion.  (SchoL.  ad  Eurip.,  cited  by  Kuhn, 
 ad  Pausan.,  I.  c.)  The  farther  settling  of  Phocis  is 
 ascribed  by  some  to  another  Phocus,  who  is  said  to  have 
 led  an  /Eolic  colony  to  this  quarter  from  the  island  of 
 .^gina.  (Compare  Pausan.,  2,  29. — Id.,  10,  1. — Eits- 
 tatk.,  ad  IL,  2,  522.— SchoL,  ad  ApoL  Rhod.,  1,  507.) 
 Raoul-Rochette,  however,  correctly  remarks,  that  the 
 murder  of  the  young  Phocus  by  Telamon  and  Pe- 
 leus  contradicts  this  tradition.  (CoL  Gr.,  vol.*  2,  p. 
 56.)  The  ^olic  branch  of  Cretheus  finally  spread  it- 
 self through  Amythaon,  the  son  of  Cretheus,  over  Mes- 
 senia  {Apollod.,  1,  9,  11),  and  through  Melampus  and 
 Bias,  sons  of  Amythaon,  over  the  territory  of  Argos, 
 and  also  over  Acarnania,  through  Acarnan,  a  descend- 
 ant of  Melampus. — From  the  enumeration  through 
 which  we  have  gone,  it  would  appear  that  the  Hellenic- 
 ^olic  stem,  before  the  Trojan  war,  was  spread,  in 
 northern  Greece,  over  almost  all  Thessaly,  over  Pieria, 
 Pffionia,  and  Athamania  :  in  Middle  Greece,  over  the 
 greater  part  of  Bceotia,  Phocis,  Locris,  ^tolia,  and 
 Acarnania  :  in  southern  Greece,  or  the  Peloponnesus, 
 over  Argos,  Elis, and  Messenia.  It  would  appear,  also, 
 that,  during  this  period,  Leleges,  Curetes,  Pelasgi,  Hy- 
 antes,  and  Lapithoe  became  intermingled  with  the  Hel- 
 lenic-zEolic  tribes,  and  that  a  close  union  was  formed 
 likewise  between  the  latter  and  the  Phoenician  Cad- 
 maeans  in  Bceotia.  The  state  of  things  which  has  here 
 been  described,  continued  until  the  Trojan  war  and 
 the  subsequent  invasion  of  the  Peloponnesus,  by  the 
 Dorians,  produced  an  entire  change  of  affairs,  and  sent 
 forth  numerous  colonies  both  to  the  eastern  and  west- 
 ern quarters  of  the  world.  For.  some  account  of  these 
 movements,  consult  the  following  articles  :  Achata, 
 jEo/(a,  Doris,  Gracia,  Hellenes,  and  Ionia. 
 
 ^-EoLn,  or  jEolis,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor,  deriving 
 Its  name  frofti  the  ^-Eolians  who  settled  there.  The 
 ./Eolians  were  the  first  great  body  of  Grecian  colo- 
 nists that  established  themselves  in  Asia  Minor,  and, 
 not  long  after  the  Trojan  war,  founded  several  towns 
 on  different  points  of  the  Asiatic  coast,  from  Cyzicus 
 to  the  river  Hermus.  But  it  was  more  especially  in 
 Lesbos,  which  has  a  right  to  be  considered  as  the  seat 
 of  their  power,  and  along  the  neighbouring  shores  of 
 the  Gulf  of  Elea,  that  they  finally  concentrated  their 
 principal  cities,  and  formed  a  federal  union,  called  the 
 .^olian  league,  consisting  of  twelve  states,  with  sever- 
 al inferior  towns  to  the  number  of  thirty.  The  ^o- 
 lian  colonies,  according  to  Strabo,  were  anterior  to  the 
 Ionian  migrations  by  four  generations.  He  stales,  that 
 Orestes  had  himself  designed  to  lead  the  first ;  but  his 
 death  preventing  the  execution  of  the  measure,  it  was 
 prosecuted  by  his  son  Penthilus,  who  advanced  with 
 h<s  followers  as  far  as  Thrace.  This  movement  was 
 contemporary  with  the  return  of  the  Heraclidae  into  the 
 Peloponnesus,  and  most  probably  was  occasioned  by 
 it.  After  the  decease  of  Penthilus,  Archela'us,  or  Eche- 
 latus,  his  -son,  crossed  over  with  the  colonies  into  the 
 territory  of  Cyzicus,  and  .settled  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Dascylium.  Gras,  his  youngest  son,  subsequently 
 advanced  with  a  detachment  as  far  as  the  Granicus, 
 and  not  long  after  crossed  over  to  the  island  of  Lesbos 
 and  took  possession  of  it.  Some  years  after  these 
 events,  another  body  of  adventurers  crossed  over  from 
 Locris,  and  founded  Cyme,  and  other  towns  on  the  Gulf 
 of  Elea.     They  also  took  possession  of  Smyrna,  which 
 
 became  one  of  the  twelve  states  of  the  league.  BuJ 
 this  city  having  been  wrested  from  them  by  the  loni. 
 ans,  the  number  was  reduced  to  eleven  in  the  time  ol 
 Herodotus.  These,  according  to  that  historian  (1, 149), 
 were  Cyme,  Lari.ssa,  Neontichos,  Temnus,  Cilia,  No- 
 tium,  .^giroessa,  Pitane,  iEgaeae,  Myrina,  and  Gry- 
 nea.  ^Eolis  extended  in  the  interior  from  the  Hermus 
 on  the  south,  to  the  Caicus,  or  perhaps,  to  speak  more 
 correctly,  as  far  as  the  country  around  Mount  Ida.  On 
 the  coast  it  reached  from  Cyme  to  Pitane.  All  the 
 ^olian  cities  were  independent  of  each  other,  and  had 
 their  own  constitutions,  which  underwent  many  chan- 
 ges. An  attempt  was  frequently  made  to  restore  quiet, 
 by  electing  arbitrary  rulers,  with  the  title  of  iEsymne- 
 ts,  for  a  certain  time,  even  for  life,  of  whom  Pittacus, 
 in  Mytilene,  the  contemporary  of  SapphoandAlcaeus,  is 
 best  known.  The  ^olians,  in  common  with  the  oth- 
 er Greek  colonies  of  Asia,  excepting  those  established 
 in  the  islands,  had  become  subject  to  Crcesus  ;  but,  on 
 the  overthrow  of  the  Lydian  monarch  by  Cyrus,  they 
 submitted,  along  with  many  of  the  islanders,  to  the  arms 
 of  the  conqueror,  and  were  thenceforth  annexed  to  the 
 Persian  empire.  They  contributed  sixty  ships  to  the 
 fleet  of  Xerxes.  Herodotus  observes  of  .^Eolis,  that 
 its  soil  was  more  fertile  than  that  of  Ionia,  but  the  cli- 
 mate inferior  (1,  149).  In  the  time  of  Xenophon, 
 ^olis  formed  part  of  the  HellesponUne  satrapy  held  by 
 Pharnabazus,  and  it  appears  to  have  comprised  a  con- 
 siderable portion  of  the  country,  that  was  known  at  an 
 earlier  period  by  the  name  of  Troas.  {Hell.,  3,  18.) 
 Wrested  by  the  Romans  from  Antiochus,  it  was  an- 
 nexed to  the  dominions  of  Eumenes.  (Liv.,  33,  38,  &c.) 
 For  an  account  of  the  ^Eolic  movements  in  Lesbos, 
 consult  the  description  of  that  island,  «.  v.  Lesbo.s. 
 
 JEoiAJE,  seven  islands,  situate  off  the  northern  coast 
 of  Sicily,  and  to  the  west  of  Italy.  According  to  .Mela 
 (2,  7),  their  names  were  Lipara,  Osteodes,  Heraclca, 
 Didyme,  Phoinicusa,  Hiera,  and  Strongyle.  Pliny  (3, 
 9)  and  Diodorus  (5,  7),  however,  give  them  as  follows : 
 Lipara,  Didyme,  Pkocniciisa,  Hiera,  Strongyle,  Eri- 
 cusa,  and  Euonymus.  They  are  the  same  with  Ho- 
 mer's THayKTal,  or  "wandering  islands."  {Od.,  12,  68, 
 &c.)  Other  names  for  the  group  were  Hcphcrsliades 
 and  VulcanicB  InsulcE,  from  their  volcanic  character ; 
 and  LiparecE,  from  Lipara,  the  largest.  The  appella- 
 tion of  JEolicE  was  given  them  from  their  having  form- 
 ed the  fabled  domain  of  ^Eolus,  god  or  ruler  of  the 
 wind.  The  island  in  which  he  resided  is  said  by  some 
 to  have  been  Lipara,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  ancient 
 authorities  are  in  favour  of  Strongyle,  the  modern 
 Stromboli.  (Heyne,  Excitrs.  ad  JEn.,  1,51.)  A  pas- 
 sage in  Pliny  (3,  9,  14)  contains  the  germe  of  the  whole 
 fable  respecting  J2olus,  wherein  it  is  stated  that  the 
 inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  islands  could  tell  from  the 
 smoke  of  Strongyle  what  winds  were  goino  to  blow  for 
 three  days  to  come.  ( Vid.  Lipara,  Strongyle,  and  .^Eo- 
 lus.) 
 
 u^oi.iDEs.  a  patronymic  applied  to  various  individ- 
 uals. I.  Athamas,  son  ofzEolus.  {Ov.  Mct.,4:,bl\.) 
 — II.  Cephalus,  grandson  of  ^^olus.  {Id.  ibid.,  6, 
 681.) — III.  Sisyphus,  son  of  ,Eolus.  {Id.  ibid.,  13,  26.) 
 — IV.  Ulysses,  to  whom  this  patronymic  appellation 
 was  given,  from  the  circumstance  of  his  mother,  .-^nti- 
 clea,  having  been  pregnant  by  Sisyphu.s,  son  of  .Eolus, 
 when  she  married  Laertes.  ( Vng.  JEn.,  6,  529,  and 
 Heyne,  in  Var.  Led.,  ad  loc.) — V.  Misenus,  the  trum- 
 peter of  JEneas,  called  ^Eolides,  figuratively,  from  his 
 skill  in  blowing  on  that  instrument.  Consult,  however, 
 Heyne,  Excurs.,  ad  JEn.,  6,  162. 
 
 yEoLus,  I.  the  god  or  ruler  of  the  winds;  son  of  Hip- 
 potas  and  Melanippe  daughter  of  Chiron.  Pie  reicrn- 
 ed  over  the  ^Eolian  islands,  and  made  his  residence  at 
 Strongyle,  the  modern  5/rowiio/i.  {Vid.  JEoWm.)  Ho- 
 mer calls  him  "^olus  Hippotades  (i.  e.,  son  of  Hip- 
 polas),  dear  to  the  immortal  gods,''  from  which  passage 
 we  might  perhaps  justly   infer,  that  ..Eolus   was  not 
 
 59  ' 
 
^  P  Y 
 
 ^RI 
 
 properly  speaking,  himself  a  god.  (Od,  10,  2.)  His 
 island  was  entirely  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  brass,  and 
 by  smooth  precipitous  rocks  ;  and  here  he  dwelt  in 
 continual  joy  and  festivity,  with  his  wife  and  his  six 
 sons  and  as  many  daughters.  The  island  had  no  oth- 
 er tenants.  The  sons  and  daughters  were  married  to 
 each  other,  after  the  fashion  set  by  Jupiter  {kuO'  o  nal 
 6  Zei'f  avvuKEL  ry  "Hpa,  Euslath  ,  ad  loc),  and  are  no- 
 thing more  than  a  poetic  type  of  the  twelve  months  of 
 the  year.  (Compare  Euslalh.,  ad  loc.)  The  office  of 
 directing  and  ruling  the  winds  had  been  conferred  on 
 yEolus  by  Jupiter  {Od.,  10,  21,  secjq. —  Virg.  JEn.,  1, 
 65)  ;  hut  his  great  protectress  was  i\ino  {Virg.  ^En., 
 1,  78,  stqq.),  which  accords  very  well  with  the  ideas 
 of  the  earlier  poets,  who  made  Juno  merely  a  type  of 
 the  atmosphere,  the  movements  of  which  produce  the 
 winds. — Ulysses  came  in  the  course  of  his  wanderings 
 to  the  island  of  /Eolus,  and  was  hospitably  entertained 
 there  for  an  entire  month.  On  his  departure,  he  receiv- 
 ed from  ^-Eolus  all  the  winds  but  Zephyrus,  tied  up  in  a 
 bagof  ox-hide.  Ze[)hyrus  was  favourable  for  his  passage 
 homeward.  During  nine  days  and  nights  the  ships  ran 
 merrily  before  the  v.ind  :  on  the  tenth  they  were  with- 
 in sight  of  Ithaca  ;  when  Ulysses,  who  had  hitherto 
 held  the  helm  himself,  fell  asleep  :  his  comrades,  who 
 fancied  that  ^olus  had  given  him  treasure  in  the  bag, 
 opened  it  :  the  winds  rushed  out,  and  hurried  them 
 back  to  ^Eolia.  Judging,  from  what  had  befallen  them, 
 that  they  were  hated  by  the  gods,  the  ruler  of  the  winds 
 drove  them  with  reproaches  from  his  isle.  {Keightlcy's 
 Mythology,  p.  240.) — The  name  iEolus  has  been  de- 
 rived from  ato/lof,  ^^ varying,"  '^unsteady,'"  as  a  de- 
 scriptive epithet  of  the  winds. — II.  A  son  of  Hellen, 
 father  of  Sisyphus,  Cretheus,  and  Athamas,  and  the 
 mythic  progenitor  of  the  great  ^olic  race. — III.  A 
 son  of  Neptune  and  the  nymph  Arne.  {Euslath.,  ad 
 Od.,  10,  2.) 
 
 ^oNEs  {aluvE^),  or  ^ons,  a  term  occurring  fre- 
 quently in  the  philosophical  speculations  of  the  Gnos- 
 tics. The  Gnostics  conceived  the  emanations  from 
 Deity  to  be  divided  into  two  classes;  the  one  com- 
 prehended all  those  substantial  powers  which  are  con- 
 tained within  the  Divine  Essence,  and  which  complete 
 the  infinite  plenitude  of  the  Divine  Nature  :  the  other, 
 existing  externally  with  respect  to  the  Divine  Essence, 
 and  including  all  finite  and  imperfect  natures.  With- 
 in the  Divine  Essence,  they,  with  wonderful  ingenuity, 
 imagined  a  long  series  of  emanative  principles,  to 
 which  they  ascribed  a  real  and  substantial  existence, 
 connected  with  the  first  substance  as  a  branch  with 
 its  root,  or  a  solar  ray  with  the  sun.  When  they  be- 
 gan to  unfold  the  mysteries  of  this  system  in  the 
 Greek  language,  these  Substantial  Powers,  which  they 
 conceived  to  be  comprehended  within  the  TrA^/aw/ia, 
 or  Divine  Plenitude,  thev  called  aluvEC,  .^ons.  {En- 
 fieWs  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  2,  p.  142.) 
 
 JEiVEk,  or  /Epeia,  a  town  in  the  island  of  Cyprus. 
 Vid.  Soloe. 
 
 ^poi-i.iNUs,  an  engraver  on  precious  stones,  who 
 flourished  in  the  second  century  of  our  era.  One  of  his 
 gems,  with  the  head  of  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  is 
 still  extant.  {Bracci,  P.  1,  tab.  3.—Sillig,  Diet.  Art., 
 *.  V.) 
 
 .^PYTUS,  I.  king  of  Messenia,  and  son  of  Cres- 
 phon(es.  His  father  and  his  two  brothers  were  put 
 to  death  by  Polyphonies,  who  usurped,  upon  this,  the 
 throne  of  the  country.  JEpytus,  however,  was  saved 
 by  his  mother,  Merope,  who  had  been  compelled  to 
 marry  the  murderer  of  her  husband,  and  was  sent  by 
 her  to  the  court  of  her  father  Cypselus,  king  of  Arca- 
 dia, to  be  there  brought  up.  On  attaining  to  manhood, 
 he  slew  Polyphontes,  and  recovered  the  throne.  His 
 descendants  were  called  ^Epytidre.  {Apollod..  2,8,5. 
 — Hcync,  ad  Apollod.,  I.  c.) — II.  A  king  of  Arcadia, 
 and  son  of  Elatus.  He  was  killed,  in  hunting,  by  a 
 sraallspeciesof serpent, called a/iip.  {Pausan., 8, 4, 4.) 
 60 
 
 — III.  A  king  of  Arcadia,  son  of  Hippothous,  and 
 contemporary  with  Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon,  who, 
 in  obedience  to  the  Delphic  oracle,  migrated  into  Ar- 
 cadia from  MycenjB  during  this  monarch's  reign,  .^p- 
 ytus  having,  on  one  occasion,  boldly  entered  the  tem- 
 ple of  Neptune,  near  Mantinea,  which  no  mortal  was 
 allowed  to  do,  is  said  to  have  been  deprived  of 
 sight  by  a  sudden  eruption  of  salt  water  from  the  sanc- 
 tuary, and  to  have  died  soon  after.  {Pausan.,  8,  10.) 
 This  story,  if  true,  points  of  course  to  some  artifice  on 
 the  part  of  the  priests  of  the  temple.  The  "  salt  wa- 
 ter'' was  probably  some  strong  acid.  (Compare  Sal' 
 verte.  Sciences  Occultcs,  vol.  1,  ch.  15.) — IV.  A  mon- 
 arch who  i;uled  in  the  Southern  part  of  Arcadia,  and 
 who  brought  up  Evadne,  daughter  of  Neptune  and  the 
 Laconian  Pitane.  {Pind.  01.,  6,  54. — Compare  Bockh, 
 ad  loc.) 
 
 ^Qui  or^QuicuLi,  a  people  of  Italy,  distinguished 
 in  history  for  their  early  and  incessant  hostility  against 
 Rom^,  more  than  for  the  extent  of  their  territory  or 
 their  numbers.  Livy  himself  (7,  12)  expresses  his 
 surprise,  that  a  nation,  apparently  so  small  and  insig- 
 nificant, should  have  had  a  population  adequate  to  the 
 calls  of  a  constant  and  harassing  warfare,  which  it  car- 
 ried on  against  the  city  of  Rome  for  so  many  years. 
 But  it  is  plain,  from  the  narrow  limits  which  must  be 
 assigned  this  people,  that  their  contests  with  Rome 
 cannot  be  viewed  in  the  light  of  a  regular  war,  but  as 
 a  succession  of  marauding  expeditions,  made  by  these 
 hardy  but  lawless  mountaineers  on  the  territory  of  that 
 city,  and  which  could  only  be  effectually  checked  by 
 the  most  entire  and  rigid  subjection.  {Liv.,  10,  1.) 
 The  .iEqui  are  to  be  placed  next  to  the  Sabines,  and 
 between  them  and  the  Marsi,  chiefly  in  the  upper  val- 
 ley of  the  Anio,  which  separated  them  from  the  Latins. 
 They  are  said  at  one  time  to  have  been  possessed  of 
 forty  towns  ;  but  many  of  these  must  certainly  have 
 been  little  more  than  villages,  and  some  also  were 
 subsequently  included  within  the  boundaries  of  La- 
 tium.  The  only  cities  of  note,  which  all  geographers 
 agree  in  assigning  to  the  iEqui,  are  Varia  and  Carse- 
 oli,  on  the  Via  Valeria.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  322.)  "Almost  inseparable  from  the  Volscians  in 
 Roman  story,"  observes  Niebuhr  {Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  58,  Cambridge  transL),  "we  find  the  /Equi  or 
 JEquiculi,  who  are  described  as  an  ancient  people, 
 and  threatening  Rome.  They  are  so  often  confound- 
 ed with  the  Volscians,  that  the  fortress  on  the  Lake 
 Fucinus,  which  the  Romans  took  in  the  year  of  the 
 city  347,  may  with  probabilitv  be  called  .^quian  ;  and 
 when  Livy  says  that  the  Volscian  wars  had  lasted  from 
 the  time  of  Tarquinius  Superbus  for  more  than  two 
 hundred  years,  he  considers  the  Volscians  and  ^Equi  as 
 one  people."  This  remark  of  Niebuhr's,  however, 
 admits  of  some  modification,  as  will  appear  from  what 
 precedes.  The  ^qui  and  A^olsci  should  undoubtedly 
 be  kept  distinct,  though  originating  evidently  from  the 
 same  parent-race. 
 
 ^QuiMELiuM,  a  place  at  Rome,  in  the  Vicus  Juga- 
 rius,  at  the  base  of  the  Capitoline  Hill,  where  once 
 had  stood  the  mansion  of  Spurius  Melius.  This  indi- 
 vidual, having  aspired  to  supreme  power,  was  slain  by 
 Ahala,  master  of  the  horse  to  the  dictator  Cincinna- 
 tus,  and  his  dwelling  was  razed  to  the  ground.  Hence, 
 according  to  Varro  (L.  L  ,  4,  32), the  etymology  of  the 
 term  ^Equimelium,  "  quod  solo  <Tr/uata  sit  Melii 
 domus."  (Compare  Liv.,  4,  16.)  (Jicero  and  Vale- 
 rius Maximus,  however,  assign  another,  but  less  cor- 
 rect, derivation,  from  the  just  nature  of  the  punish- 
 ment inflicted  upon  Melius  ("ex  aqua  seu  justo  sup- 
 plicio  Mehi." — Consult  Cic.  pro  Dom.,  c.  38,  and 
 Val.  Max,  6,  3). 
 
 ^KiAS,  an  ancient  king  of  Cyprus,  who  built  the 
 temple  of  Venus  at  Paphos.  A  later  tradition  made 
 this  temple  to  have  been  founded  by  Cinyras.  {Tacit. 
 Hist.,  2,  3.) 
 
iE  S  A 
 
 ^SCHINES. 
 
 Aerope,  I.  daughter  of  Catreus,  king  of  Crete,  and 
 granddaughter,  on  the  father's  side,  of  Minos.  She 
 and  her  sister  Clymene,  having  been  guilty  of  incon- 
 tinence, were  delivered  over,  by  their  father,  into  the 
 hands  of  Nauplius  of  Euboea,  to  be  conveyed  by  him 
 to  foreign  lands,  and  there  sold  into  slavery.  Nau- 
 plius, however,  married  Glyinene,  and  sold  merely 
 Atirope.  She  was  purchased  by  Plisthenes,  son  of 
 Atreus,  and  became  by  him  the  mother  of  Agamem- 
 non and  Menelaus.  Plisthenes,  however,  dying  young, 
 Atreus,  his  father,  took  Aerope  to  wife,  and  brought  up 
 Agamemnon  and  Menelaus  as  his  own  sons.  Aerope 
 subsequently  was  seduced  by  Thyestes,  brother  of 
 Atreus,  an  act  which  was  punished  so  horridly  by  the 
 injured  husband.  (Viil.  Atreus  and  Thyestes.)  Ac- 
 cording to  some  authorities,  Aerope  was  cast  into  the 
 sea  by  Atreus.    (Apollod.,  3,  2,  3. — Heyne,  ad  Apollod., 
 
 1.  c.—  Schol.  in  JEiirip.  Oresl.,  812. — Brunch,  ad  Soph. 
 Aj.,  1255.) — II.  Daughter  of  Cepheus,  became  the 
 mother  of  Aeropus  by  the  god  Mars.  She  died  in 
 giving  birth  to  her  offspring.     {Pausaii.,  8,  44.) 
 
 Aeropus,  I.  son  of  Mars  and  Aerope.  (  r?(i.  Aerope, 
 II.) — II.  Son  of  Temenus,  who,  with  his  two  brothers, 
 left  Argos,  and  settled  in  Macedonia.  Perdiccas,  the 
 youngest  of  the  three,  was  the  founder  of  the  Mace- 
 donian royal  line.    (/fcro^Z.,  8,  137.  Compare  Thucyd., 
 
 2,  99,  and  consult  the  article  Macedonia.) — III.  A 
 king  of  Macedonia,  who  succeeded,  while  yet  an  in- 
 fant, his  father  Philip  the  First.  The  liiyrians  having 
 made  an  inroad  into  Macedonia,  and  having  proved 
 successful  at  first,  were  afterward  defeated  by  the 
 Macedonians,  the  infant  king  being  placed  in  his  cra- 
 dle in  the  rear  of  their  line.  {Justin,  7,  2.) — IV. 
 A  regent  of  Macedonia  during  the  minority  of  Orestes, 
 son  of  Archelaus.  He  usurped  the  supreme  power, 
 and  held  it  six  years,  from  400  B.C.  to  394  B.C.— 
 V.  A  mountain  of  Epirus,  now  Mount  Trcheeshna, 
 near  the  defile  anciently  called  Siena  Aoi,  or  "  Gorge 
 of  the  Aous."  On  one  of  the  precipices  of  this  mount- 
 ain stands  the  fortress  of  Clissura.  (Consult  Hughes'' 
 Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  272.) 
 
 .lEsACUs,  according  to  Ovid  (Met.,  11,  762,  seqq.), 
 a  son  of  Priam  and  Alexirrhoe,  who  at  an  early  age 
 quitted  his  father's  court  and  retired  to  rural  scenes. 
 He  became  enamoured  of  the  nymph  Hesperia ;  but 
 she  treated  his  suit  with  disdain,  and,  in  endeavouring 
 on  one  occasion  to  escape  from  him,  lost  her  life  by 
 the  bite  of  a  serpent.  ^Esacus,  in  despair,  threw 
 himself  headlong  from  a  rock  into  the  sea  ;  but  Tethys, 
 pitying  his  fate,  suspended  his  fall,  and  changed  him 
 into  a  cormorant. — .\  different  account  is  given  by 
 Apollodorus.  According  to  this  writer,  -^sacus  was 
 the  son  of  Priam,  by  his  first  wife  Arisba,  and  mar- 
 ried Asterope,  who  did  not  long  survive  her  union  with 
 him.  His  grief  for  her  loss  induced  him  to  put  an  end 
 to  his  existence.  iEsacus  was  endued  by  his  grand- 
 mother Merope  with  the  gift,  of  prophecy  ;  and  he 
 transmitted  this  art  to  his  brother  and  sister,  Helenus 
 and  Cassandra.  Priam,  having  divorced  Arisba  that 
 he  might  espouse  Hecuba,  and  the  latter  havincr 
 dreamed  that  she  had  brought  forth  a  blazing  torch, 
 which  wrapped  in  flames  the  whole  city,  iEsacus  pre- 
 aicted  that  the  offspring  of  this  marriage  would  oc- 
 casion the  destruction  of  his  family  and  country.  On 
 this  account,  the  infant  Paris,  immediately  after  his 
 birth,  was  exposed  on  Mount  Ida.  {Apollod.,  3,  12,  5, 
 seqq.,  and  Heyne,  ad  he.) 
 
 iEs.tR,  an  Etrurian  word,  equivalent  to  the  Latin 
 Deus.  {Siuton.  Vit.  Aug. ,97.)  The  lightning,  having 
 struck  a  statue  of  Augustus  at  Rome,  effaced  the  let" 
 ter  C  from  the  name  CESAR  on  the  pedestal.  The 
 augurs  declared  that,  as  C  was  the  mark  of  a  hundred, 
 and  .^SAR  the  same  as  Deus,  the  emperor  had  only 
 a  hundred  days  to  spend  on  earth,  after  which  he 
 would  be  taken  to  the  gods.  The  death  of  Augustus, 
 soon  after,  was  thought  to  have  verified  this  prediction. 
 
 {Suelon.,  ;.  c.—Dio  Cass.,  56,  29.)  Casaubon  de- 
 rives the  Etrurian  term  just  referred  to  from  the 
 Greek  Aiaa,  ''fate;"  and  Dickinson  {Delph.  Fhcemm., 
 c.  11)  from  the  Hebrew,  comparing  it  also  with  the 
 Arabic  asara,  ''to  create."  Lanzi  (Saggio  di  Line. 
 Etrusc.,  vol.  3,  p.  708),  after  quoting  Casaubon'.s 
 etymology,  suggests  the  Greek  form  aloi,  the  same 
 with  -dEoi,  as  the  root.  The  Asi  (or,  more  correctly, 
 Msir)  of  Scandinavian  mythology  will  furnish,  how- 
 ever, a  more  obvious  and  satisfactory  ground  of  com- 
 parison. The  term  As  is  equivalent  to  "  Deus''  or 
 "  God,"  and  the  plural  form  is  iE>»-,  "  Gods."  Hence 
 Asgard,  or  Asa-gard,  the  old  northern  term  for  "  heav- 
 en." It  is  curious  to  observe,  that  Os  in  Coptic  like- 
 wise signifies  "  God"  or  "  Lord,"  with  which  we  may 
 compare  the  Greek  oa-ioc,  "  holy."  So,  also,  the  ear- 
 lier term  for  "  altar"  in  the  Latin  language  was  asa. 
 {Terent.  Scaur.,  p.  2252,  2258.)  In  Berosus,  more- 
 over, the  gods  are  termed  Isi ;  and  good  deities  or 
 geniuses  were  called  by  the  ancient  Persians  hed. 
 {Muller,  Etrusker,  vol.  2,  p.  81. — Kanne,  System  der 
 Ltdi.tchen  Mythen,  p.  228. 
 
 ^Es.Xra.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 ^SARUs,  a  river  of  Bruttium,  on  which  Crotona  was 
 situate.  It  formed  a  haven,  which,  however  incom- 
 modious compared  with  those  of  Tarentum  and  Brun- 
 disium,  was  long  a  source  of  great  wealth  to  this  city, 
 as  we  are  assured  by  Polybius  {Frag.,  10,  1).  The 
 modern  name  is  the  Esaro.  (Compare  Theocritus, 
 Id.,  4,  17.) 
 
 ^scHiNEs,  I.  an  Athenian  philosopher,  of  mean  birth 
 and  indigent  circumstances,  styled  the  Socratic  (6  2u/c- 
 pariKog)  for  distinction'  sake  from  the  orator  of  the 
 same  name  mentioned  below.  He  flourished  during 
 the  fourth  century  B.C.,  and  obtained  instruction  from 
 Socrates,  who  honoured  his  ardent  zeal  for  knowledge, 
 and  held  him  in  high  estimation.  {Diog.  Laert.,  2, 
 60. —  Senec.  de  Bene/.,  1,  8.)  When  /Eschines  ad- 
 dressed himself  to  the  sage  for  the  purpose  of  becoming 
 his  disciple,  it  was  in  the  following  words  :  "  I  am  poor, 
 but  I  give  myself  up  entirely  to  you,  which  is  all  I  have 
 to  give."  The  reply  of  Socrates  was  characteristic  : 
 "  You  know  not  the  value  of  your  present."  After  the 
 death  of  his  master,  he  endeavoured  to  better  his  world- 
 ly condition,  and,  having  borrowed  a  sum  of  money, 
 became  a  perfumer.  It  appears,  however,  that  he  did 
 not  succeed  in  this  new  vocation  ;  and,  not  paying  the 
 interest  of  the  sum  he  had  borrowed,  he  was  sued  for 
 the  debt.  Athenasus  (13,  p.  611,  d)  has  preserved  for 
 us  part  of  a  speech  delivered  by  ].,ysias  on  this  occa- 
 sion, in  which  he  handles  ^Eschines  with  considerable 
 severity,  and  charges  him  with  never  paying  his  debts, 
 with  defrauding  a  certain  individual  of  his  property, 
 corrupting  his  wife,  &c.  Not  being  able  to  live  any 
 longer  at  Athens,  he  betook  himself  to  Sicily,  and 
 sought  to  win  the  favour  of  the  tyrant  Dionysius.  Ac- 
 cording to  Lucian  {de  Parasit. — cd.  Bip.,  vol.  7,  p. 
 127),  he  accomplished  his  object  by  reading  one  of  his 
 dialogues,  entitled  Miltiades,  to  the  tyrant,  who  liberal- 
 ly rewarded  him.  Plutarch  {de  Discr.  amic.  et  adiilat. 
 — cd.  Ilciske,  vol.  6,  p.  24S)  informs  us,  that  he  had 
 been  strongly  recommended  to  Dionysius  by  Plato,  in 
 a  conversation  which  they  had  together  subsequent  to 
 the  arrival  of  ..Eschines,  in  which  Plato  complained  to 
 the  tyrant  of  his  neglecting  a  man  who  had  come  to 
 him  with  the  most  friendly  intention,  that  of  improving 
 him  by  philosophy.  The  statement  of  Diogenes  Laer- 
 tins,  however,  is  directly  opposite  to  this,  for  he  in- 
 forms us  that  ^Eschines  was  slighted  by  Plato,  and  in- 
 troduced to  the  prince  by  Aristippus.  He  remained  m 
 Sicily  till  the  expulsion  of  Dionysius,  and  then  return- 
 ed to  Athens.  Here,  not  daring  to  become  a  public 
 rival  of  Plato  or  Aristippus,  he  taught  philosophy  in 
 private,  and  received  payment  for  his  instructions.  He 
 also  composed  orations  and  pleadings  for  others.  Be- 
 sides orations  and  epistles,  ^Eschines  wrote  seven  So- 
 
 61 
 
^SCHINES. 
 
 iESCHINES. 
 
 cratic  dialogues  in  tlie  true  spirit  of  his  master,  on 
 temperance,  moderation,  humanity,  integrity,  and  other 
 virtues.  Their  titles  were,  Mi?i.Tui6ric,  KaXMac,  'Aft'o- 
 Xog,  'Aa-aata,  'K7^Kt6id6Tir,  TijiTiavyyr,  and  'Pivuv. 
 Of  these  none  remain.  We  have,  indeed,  three  dia- 
 logues e.xtant,  which  go  under  the  name  of  ^-Eschines, 
 but  the  fust  and  second  are  not  his,  and  very  probably 
 the  third  also  was  never  composed  by  him.  {Meiners, 
 JutUcium  dc  quihnsdam  Socralicorum  rcUquiis. —  Com- 
 ment. Sac.  Goctt.,  vol.  5,  p.  45,  1782.— Fischer,  ad 
 JEsch.  Dial,  p.  23,  49,  107,  ed.  1786.)  Their  titles 
 are:  I.  Tl^pl'kperrig,  el  Su^aKTov.  "  Concerning  vir- 
 tue, and  whether  it  can  be  communicated  by  instruc- 
 tion." 2.  'Epv^iar,  fj  TTEpl  tt'Aovtov.  "  Eryxias,  or 
 concerning  riches."  3.  'A^Loxog,  ij  irepl  ■&av6.Tov. 
 "  Axiochus,  or  concerning  death."  This  last  is  attrib- 
 uted by  some  to  Xenocrates  of  Chalcedon,  and,  what 
 makes  it  extremely  probable  that  Xenocrates  Was  the 
 author  of  the  piece,  is  the  circumstance  of  its  contain- 
 ng  the  word  aleKTpvovoTpodoc,  for  which  Pollux  cites 
 the  Axiochus  of  this  very  philosopher.  Diogenes  Laer- 
 tius,  moreover,  informs  us,  that  Xenocrates  wrote  a 
 work  on  death,  but  the  manner  in  which  he  speaks  of 
 this  production  does  not  seem  to  indicate  that  it  had 
 the  form  of  a  dialogue.  A  letter,  ascribed  to  xEschi- 
 nes,  is.  in  like  manner,  supposed  to  be  the  production 
 of  another  writer,  ^schines  pretended  to  have  re- 
 ceived his  dialogues  from  Xanthippe,  the  wife  of  Soc- 
 rates ;  and  Diogenes  Laertius  states  that  Aristippus, 
 when  reading  them,  called  out,  nodev  aot,  Tiycrra,  ravra  ; 
 "where  did  you  get  these  from,  you  thief?"  Little 
 reliance,  however,  can  be  placed  on  either  of  these  ac- 
 counts. The  three  dialogues  ascribed  to  .^schines 
 are  found  in  the  old  editions  of  Plato,  since  that  of  Al- 
 dus, 1513.  The  Axiochus  is  given  by  Wolf,  in  the 
 collection  entitled  Doctrina  recte  vivendi  ac  moncndi, 
 Sasil.,1577  and  158G,  8vo.  Le  Clerc  first  published 
 these  dialogues  separately,  at  Amsterdam,  1711,  in  8vo. 
 Horrceus  gave  a  new  edition  and  a  new  Latin  version 
 at  Leuwarde,  1718,  in  8vo.  Fischer  published  four 
 editions  successively  at  Leipsic,  in  1758,  176G,  1786, 
 and  1788,  8vo.  The  last  contains  merely  the  text 
 with  an  Index,  so  that  the  third  is  the  most  useful  to 
 the  student.  Fischer's  editions  are  decidedly  the  best. 
 The  letter  mentioned  above  was  published  by  Sammet, 
 in  his  edition  of  the  letters  of  .lEschines  the  orator. — IL 
 An  Athenian  orator,  born  397  B.C.,  sixteen  years  be- 
 fore Demosthenes.  According  to  the  account  which 
 .^schines  gives  of  his  own  parentage,  his  father  was 
 of  a  family  that  had  a  community  of  altars  with  the  race 
 of  the  Eteobutadaj.  Having  lost  his  property  by  the 
 calamities  of  war,  he  turned  his  attention,  as  the  son 
 tells  us,  to  gvmnastic  exercises  ;  but,  being  subsequent- 
 ly driven  out  by  the  thirty  tyrants,  he  retired  to  Asia, 
 where  he  served  in  a  military  capacity,  and  greatly  dis- 
 tinguished himself  He  contributed  afterward  to  the 
 restoration  of  the  popular  power  in  Athens.  One  of 
 the  orator's  brothers  served  under  Iphicrates,  and  held 
 a  command  for  tliree  years,  while  another,  the  youngest, 
 was  sent  as  ambassador  from  the  republic  to  the  King 
 of  Persia.  Such  is  the  account  of  lEschines  himself 
 {de  male  ffcs/a  leg.,  p.  47  and  48,  ed.  Stcph.).  That 
 given  by  Demosthenes,  however,  in  his  oration  for  the 
 crown,  is  widclv  different.  According  to  the  latter, 
 the  father  of  ^schines  was  originally  a  slave  to  a 
 schoolmaster,  and  his  first  name  was  Tromes,  which, 
 upon  gaining  his  freedom,  he  changed  to  Atrometus,  in 
 accordance  with  Athenian  iisage.  His  mother  was  at 
 first  named  Empusa,  an  appellation  which  Demosthenes 
 informs  us  was  given  to  her  on  account  of  her  habits 
 of  life,  she  being  a  common  courtesan.  This  name 
 was  afterward  changed  to  Glaucothea.  {Dcmnsth.  dc 
 corona,  p.  270,  ed.  Reiske.)  The  statement  of  De- 
 mosthenes, coming  as  it  does  from  the  lips  of  a  rival, 
 might  well  be  suspected  of  exaggeration  ;  and  as  ^Es- 
 chi.ies  did  not  rcf.y  to  the  speech  of  his  opponent,  we 
 62 
 
 know  not  how  he  might  have  met  these  disnrracelul 
 charges.  If,  however,  any  inference  is  to  be  drawr 
 from  the  feeble  manner  in  which  he  replies  to  similar 
 charges,  made  by  the  same  orator  on  a  different  occa- 
 sion, we  should  be  led  to  suspect  that  they  were,  in 
 some  degree,  based  upon  the  truth.  Nor,  indeed,  is 
 it  probable,  that,  with  all  the  license  allowed  the  ancient 
 orators,  Demosthenes  would  have  ventured  to  make 
 such  assertions  in  the  presence  of  the  Athenian  peo- 
 ple if  unsupported  by  facts.  Suidas  calls  the  mother 
 of  ^schines  re/leorpm,  a  retainer  to  the  female  priest- 
 hood in  initiations.  Photius  {Bibliolh.,  vol.  1,  p.  20, 
 ed.  Bekker)  says,  that  she  was  lepein,  ''  a  priestess;" 
 while  another  authority  (LMC7a?i,  m  Somn. — vol.  l,ci. 
 Bip.,  p.  13)  makes  her  to  have  been  rvfiTraviarpia,  a 
 kind  of  minstrel,  who  beat  the  tabour  in  the  feasts  of 
 Cybel#.'  From  all  that  we  can  learn  of  the  early  life 
 of  ^schines,  it  would  appear,  that,  after  having  aided 
 his  father  in  the  management  of  a  school,  he  became 
 clerk  to  one  of  the  lower  class  of  magistrates.  Tired 
 of  this  station,  he  attached  himself  to  a  company  of  tra- 
 gedians, but  was  intrusted  merely  with  third-rate  char- 
 acters. It  is  said  that,  on  one  occasion,  when  person- 
 ating Qilnomaus,  he  chanced  to  fall  upon  the  stage,  a 
 circumstance  which  occasioned  his  disgraceful  dismis- 
 sion from  the  troop.  Hence  the  name  of  CEiiomaus, 
 which  Demosthenes,  in  ridicule,  applies  to  him.  (De- 
 mosth.  de  corona,  307,  ed.  Reiske.)  On  the  other 
 hand,  ^schines  himself  states,  that  from  early  life  he 
 followed  the  profession  of  arms,  served  on  many  occa* 
 sions  with  distinction,  and  had  a  crown  decreed  him  by 
 the  people  for  his  meritorious  exertions.  It  is  more 
 than  probable  that  .^Eschines  here  selects  the  fairest 
 parts  of  his  career,  and  Demosthenes,  on  the  contrary, 
 whatever  was  calculated  to  bring  him  into  contempt. 
 Some  ancient  writers  make  him  to  have  been  a  disciple 
 of  Isocrates  and  Plato,  but  others,  with  far  more  proba- 
 bility, assign  him  Nature  alone  for  an  instructress,  and 
 affirm  that  the  public  tribunals  and  the  theatre  were  his 
 only  places  of  initiation  into  the  precepts  of  the  oratori- 
 cal art.  ^schines  must  have  possessed  strong  natu- 
 ral talents  to  become  as  eminent  as  he  did,  and  to  be 
 able  to  contest  the  prize  of  eloquence  with  so  powerful 
 a  competitor  as  Demosthenes.  It  was  a  long  time, 
 however,  before  ho  became  much  known  as  a  public 
 speaker,  and  he  was  already  advanced  in  life  when  he 
 commenced  taking  part  in  the  politics  'of  the  day. 
 (Rccherches  sur  la  vie  et  sur  les  outrages  d'Eschine, 
 par  VAhhe  Vat.ry. — Mem.  Acad,  drs  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol. 
 14,  p.  87.)  When  .iEschines  began  his  public  career, 
 the  Athenians  were  engaged  in  a  war  with  Philip  of 
 Macedon.  The  orator  showed  himself,  at  first,  one  of 
 the  most  violent  opposers  of  this  monarch,  and  pro- 
 posed sending  ambassadors  throughout  Greece,  in  or- 
 der to  raise  up  enemies  against  him.  He  himself  went 
 in  this  capacity  to  Megalopolis,  to  confer  with  the 
 general  council  of  Arcadia.  When  the  Athenians  sent 
 ten  ambassadors  to  negotiate  a  peace  with  Philip,  who 
 had  been  at  war  with  them  on  account  of  Amphipolis, 
 jEschines,  who  was  thought  to  be  devoted  to  the  pub- 
 lic good,  was  one  of  the  number.  Demosthenes  was 
 a  colleague  of  his  on  this  occasion,  and  we  have  the  ax- 
 press  testimony  of  the  latter,  in  favour  of  the  correct- 
 ness and  integrity  which  on  this  occasion  marktd  the 
 conduct  of  his  rival.  A  change,  however,  soon  took 
 place,  .^schines,  on  his  return,  after  having  at  first 
 strenuously  opposed  the  projected  peace,  on  the  inor 
 row  as  earnestly  advised  it.  The  gold  of  Macedon  had, 
 beyond  a  doubt,  been  instrumental  in  producing  this  rev- 
 olution in  his  sentiments,  and  vvc  find  him  ever  after 
 w'ard  a  warm  partisan  of  Philip's,  and  blindly  second 
 ing  all  his  ambitious  designs.  From  this  period  JEs 
 chines  and  Demosthenes  became  open  antagonists. 
 The  latter,  in  concert  with  Timarchus,  having  medi- 
 tated an  impeachment  of  his  rival  for  his  conduct  on 
 another  embassy,  when  he  and  four  colleagues  purposi. 
 
.ESCHINES. 
 
 ^SCHYLUS. 
 
 iy  wasted  time  in  Macedonia,  while  Pliilip  was  prose- 
 cuting his  conquests  in  Thrace,  /Eschines  anticipated 
 their  attaclt  by  an  accusation  of  Tiniarchus  himself',  and 
 spoke  with  so  much  energy,  that  the  latter  either  hung 
 himself  in  despair,  or,  according  to  another  authority, 
 was  condemned,  and  deprived  of  his  rights  as  a  citizen. 
 Demosthenes,  however,  not  intimidated  by  the  blow, 
 preferred  his  original  charge  against  .^schines,  and, 
 according  to  Photius  {Biblioth.,  vol.  1,  p.  20,  ed.  Bck- 
 ker),  came  so  near  accomplishing  the  object  he  had  in 
 view,  that  his  rival  was  only  saved  by  the  active  inter- 
 ference of  a  wealthy  citizen  named  Eubulus,  an  open 
 enemy  of  Demosthenes,  and  by  the  judges  rising  from 
 their  seats  before  the  accusation  was  brought  to  a  close. 
 After  many  subsequent  collisions,  ^Eschines  was  com- 
 pelled to  yield  to  the  patriotism  and  eloquence  of  his 
 adversary.  Their  most  famous  controversy  was  that 
 which  related  to  the  croum.  A  little  after  the  battle 
 of  Cheronsea,  Demosthenes  was  commissioned  to  re- 
 pair the  fortifications  of  Athens.  He  expended,  in  the 
 performance  of  this  task,  thirteen  talents,  ten  of  which 
 he  received  from  the  public  treasury,  while  the  remain- 
 ing three  were  generously  given  from  his  own  private 
 purse.  As  a  mark  of  public  gratitude  for  this  act  of 
 liberality,  Ctesiphon  proposed  to  the  people  to  decree 
 a  crown  of  gold  to  the  orator.  .'Eschines  immediately 
 preferred  an  impeachment  against  Ctesiphon,  alleging 
 that  such  a  decree  was  an  infringement  of  the  estab- 
 lished laws  of  the  republic,  since  Demosthenes  still  held 
 some  public  offices,  and  his  accounts  had  not  therefore 
 been  settled,  and  besides,  since  he  was  not  such  a  friend 
 to  the  state  as  Ctesiphon  had  represented  him  to  be, 
 who  had,  therefore,  put  upon  record  documents  of  a 
 false  and  erroneous  character.  Demosthenes,  on  whom 
 the  attack  was  virtually  made,  appeared  in  defence  of 
 the  accused.  This  celebrated  cause,  after  having  been 
 delayed  for  some  time  in  consequence  of  the  troubles 
 attendant  on  the  death  of  Philip,  was  at  last  brought 
 to  a  hearing.  Ability  and  eloquence  was  displayed  on 
 both  sides,  but  the  palm  was  won  by  Demosthenes  ; 
 and  his  rival,  being  found  guilty  of  having  brought  an 
 unjust  accusation,  was  obliged  to  undergo  the  punish- 
 ment he  had  intended  for  Ctesiphon,  and  was  banished 
 from  his  country.  It  is  stated  by  Photius  (Biblio/h., 
 vol.  2,  p.  493,  ed.  Bckker),  that  .^Eschines,  when  he 
 left  Athens,  was  followed  and  assisted  by  Demosthe- 
 nes, and  that,  upon  the  latter's  offering  him  consolation, 
 he  replied,  "  How  shall  I  be  able  to  bear  my  e.xile 
 from  a  city,  in  which  I  leave  behind  me  enemies  more 
 generous  than  it  is  possible  to  find  friends  in  any  other." 
 Plutarch,  however,  ascribes  this  very  answer  to  De- 
 mosthenes, when  his  opponents  made  a  similar  offer  to 
 him  as  he  was  departing  from  Athens  into  exile,  ^s- 
 chines  retired  to  Asia  with  the  intention  of  presenting 
 himself  before  Alexander  ;  but  the  death  of  that  mon- 
 arch compelled  him  to  change  his  views,  and  take  up 
 his  residence  at  Rhodes.  Here  he  opened  a  school  of 
 eloquence,  and  commenced  his  lectures  by  reading  the 
 two  orations  which  had  been  the  occasion  of  his  banish- 
 ment. His  hearers  loudly  applauded  his  own  speech  ; 
 but  when  he  came  to  that  of  Demosthenes,  they  were 
 thrown  into  transports  of  admiration.  "  Wliat  would 
 you  have  said,"  exclaimed  iEschines,  according  to  the 
 common  account.  "  had  you  heard  Demosthenes  him- 
 self pronounce  this  oration  1"  The  statement  of  Pho- 
 tius, however,  is  different  from  this,  and  certainly  more 
 probable.  The  auditors  of  .^schines  at  Rhodes  ex- 
 pressed, as  he  informs  us,  their  surprise  that  a  man  of 
 so  much  ability  should  have  been  overcome  by  De- 
 mosthenes :  "  Had  you  heard  that  wild  bca^i  {rov  -d-rj- 
 plov  kKEivov),"  exclaimed ^Eschines,  "you  would  have 
 ceased  to  be  at  a  loss  on  this  head."  (et  I'/KOvaaTe  rov 
 ■Qripiov  EKEivov  ovK  uv  vfjiv  TovTO  j/TrSfjjjTO.  Phot. 
 Biblioth.,  vol.  l,p.  20,  ed.  Bckkrr.)  He  subsequently 
 transferred  his  school  from  Rhodes  to  Samos,  where 
 he  died  at  the  age  of  73  years.     Y^c  have  only  three 
 
 orations  of  ^schines,  and  it  would  seem  that  these 
 were  his  sole  remaining  productions,  even  at  an  early 
 period,  since  Photius  stales,  that  it  was  customary  to 
 designate  these  speeches  by  the  name  of  "  the  Graces 
 of  yEschines."  The  most  celebrated  of  these  ha- 
 rangues is  the  one  ostensibly  directed  against  Ctesi- 
 phon, but  in  reality  against  Demosthenes.  It  is  re- 
 markable for  order,  clearness,  and  precision,  and  was 
 selected  by  Cicero  to  be  translated  into  Latin. — The 
 Abbe  Barthelemy  makes  the  eloquence  of  yEschines  to 
 be  distinguished  by  a  happy  flow  of  words,  by  an  abun- 
 dance and  clearness  of  ideas,  and  by  an  air  of  great 
 ease,  which  arose  less  from  art  than  nature.  The  an- 
 cient writers  appear  to  agree  in  this,  that  the  manner 
 of  ^schines  is  softer,  more  insinuating,  and  more  del- 
 icate than  that  of  Demosthenes,  but  that  the  latter  is 
 more  grave,  forcible,  and  convincing.  The  one  has 
 more  of  address,  and  the  other  more  of  strength  and 
 energy.  The  one  endeavours  to  steal,  the  other  to 
 force,  the  assent  of  his  auditors.  In  the  harmony  and 
 elegance,  the  strength  and  beauty  of  their  language, 
 both  are  deserving  of  high  commendation,  but  the  fig- 
 ures of  the  one  are  finer,  of  the  other  bolder.  In  De- 
 mosthenes we  see  a  more  sustained  effort,  in  .^schi- 
 nes  vivid,  though  momentary,  flashes  of  oratory. — Be 
 sides  the  speeches  above  mentioned,  twelve  epistle* 
 are  attributed  to  .^schines,  which  he  is  supposed  to 
 have  written  from  Rhodes.  Photius  makes  the  num- 
 ber only  nine,  and  states  that  they  were  called,  from 
 this  circumstance,  the  Muses  of  .Sschines.  One  of 
 the  best  editions  of  ^schines  is  that  of  Wolf,  con- 
 taining also  the  orations  of  Demosthenes.  It  was  first 
 printed  at  Basle  by  Oporinus,  afterward  at  the  same 
 place  in  1549  and  1572,  at  Venice  in  1550,  and  at 
 Frankfort  in  1604.  The  orations  of  .(Eschines  are  also 
 contained  in  Reiske's  excellent  edition  of  the  Greek 
 Orators,  Lips.,  1770,  &c.,  12  vols.  8vo,  and  in  the  val- 
 uable London  edition,  recently  published,  of  the  works 
 of  Demosthenes  and  ^schines,  10  vols.  8vo,  1827.  To 
 these  may  be  added  the  edition  of  Foulkes  and  Friend, 
 Oxon.,  1696.  8vo,  and  that  of  Stock,  Dvbl'in,  1769,  2 
 vols.  8vo.  These  last  two  editions,  however,  contain 
 merely  the  orations  of  ..-Eschines  and  Demosthenes  re- 
 specting the  crown.  The  epistles  were  published  sep- 
 arately by  Sammet,  Lijis.,  1771,  8vo. — III.  The  au- 
 thor of  a  harangue  entitled  Dcliaca,  which  some  have 
 attributed  to  the  orator  ^schines.  {Diog.  Laert.) — 
 IV.  An  Arcadian,  a  disciple  of  Isocrates.  (Id) — V.  A 
 'Mytilenean,  surnamed  the  scourge  of  orators,  ^Tjropo- 
 /lucTTiS.  (Id.) — VI.  A  native  of  Ncapolis,  and  member 
 of  the  Academic  sect,  about  B.C.  109. — VII.  A  na- 
 tive of  Miletus,  and  orator,  whose  style  of  speaking  is 
 represented  by  Cicero  as  of  the  florid  and  Asiatic  kind. 
 {Cic.  Brut.,  c.  95.) — VTII.  An  Athenian  physician  who 
 cured  the  quinsy,  affections  of  the  palate,  cancers,  &c., 
 by  employing  the  cinders  of  excrements.  (Pliii.,  28,  4.) 
 — IX.  A  distinguished  individual  among  the  Erctrians, 
 who  disclosed  to  the  Athenians  the  treacherous  designs 
 of  some  of  his  countrymen,  when  the  former  had  march- 
 ed to  their  aid  against  the  Persians.  {Herod.,  6,  100.) 
 
 ^scHRioN,  I.  a  Mytilenean  poet,  intimate  with 
 Aristotle.  He  accompanied  Alexander  in  his  Asiatic 
 expedition.  Consult  Vossius  de  Poet.  Grcrc. — II.  An 
 Iambic  poet  of  Samos.  He  is  mentioned  by  Athenseus 
 (7,  296,  e,  and  8,  335,  c),  and  also  by  Tzetzes,  in  his 
 scholia  on  Lycophron  {v.  688-9).  Some  of  his  verses 
 arc  preserved  by  Athencsus  and  in  the  Anthology. 
 (Compare  Jacobs,  ad  Afithol.,  vol.  1,  part  1,  p.  385.) 
 — HI.  A  physician,  preceptor  to  Galen.  (Firf.  Sup 
 plement.) — IV.  A  Greek  writer,  who  composed  a  work 
 on  husbandry,  &c.,  which  is  cited  by  Pliny,  and  also 
 by  Varro,  K.  R.,  1,  1. 
 
 ^scHYLUs,  I.  a  celebrated  tragic  writer,  son  of  Eu- 
 phorion,  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Eleusis  in  Attica, 
 in  the  fourth  year  of  the  sixty-third  Olympiad,  B.C. 
 oZ^.     (Couipire  Yit.  Anciii/m  given  in  Sfanlcj/'.'i  ed., 
 
 63 
 
.ESCHYLUS. 
 
 ^SCHYLUS. 
 
 and  the  /If  u-mkl  Marbles. )  Pausaiiias  (1, 14)  records 
 a  story  oi  inis  boyhood,  professedly  on  the  authority  of 
 the  poel  himself,  that,  having  fallen  asleep  while  walch- 
 inor  the  clusters  of  grapes  in  a  vineyard,  Bacchus  ap- 
 peared to  him,  and  bade  him  turn  his  attention  to  tragic 
 composition.  This  account,  if  true,  shows  that  his 
 mind  was,  at  a  very  early  period,  enthusiastically 
 struck  with  the  exhibitions  of  the  infant  drama.  An 
 impression  like  this,  acting  upon  his  fervid  imagination, 
 would  naturally  produce  such  a  dream  as  is  described. 
 To  this  same  origin  must,  no  doubt,  be  traced  the 
 common  account  relative  to  JEschylus,  that  he  was 
 accustomed  to  write  under  the  influence  of  wine  ;  and 
 in  confirmation  of  which  Lucian  {Dcmoslh.  Encom. — 
 ed.  Bip. — vol.  9,  p.  144)  cites  the  authority  of  Callis- 
 thenes,  and  Athenaus  (10,  33)  that  of  Chameleon. 
 The  inspiration  of  Bacchus,  in  such  a  case,  can  mean 
 nothing  more  than  the  true  inspiration  of  poetry. 
 {Mohnike,  Lift,  der  Gr.  und  Rom.,  vol.  1,  p.  359.) 
 At  the  age  of  twenty-five,  jEschylus  made  his  first 
 public  attempt  as  a  tragic  author,  in  the  70th  Olympiad, 
 B.C.  499.  {Suid.  in  Alax- — Cliiitmi's  Fasti  Hcllen- 
 ici,  p.  21,  2d  ed.)  The  next  notice  which  we  have  of 
 hiin  is  in  the  third  year  of  the  72d  Olympiad,  B.C.  490, 
 when,  along  with  his  two  celebrated  brothers  Cynaegi- 
 rus  and  Aniinias,  he  was  graced  at  Marathon  with  the 
 praises  due  to  pre-eminent  bravery,  being  then  in  his 
 35th  year.  {Mann.  Arund.,  No.  49. —  Vit.  Anmiym.) 
 Six  years  after  that  memorable  battle,  he  gained  his 
 first  tragic  victory.  Four  years  after  this  was  fought 
 the  battle  of  Salamis,  in  which  ^schylus  took  part 
 with  his  brother  Aminias,  to  whose  extraordinary  valour 
 the  upicmla  were  decreed.  {Herod.,  8,  93. — Mlian, 
 Var.  Hist.,  5,  19  )  In  the  following  year  he  served  in 
 the  Athenian  troops  at  Plata;a.  Eight  years  afterward 
 (Argument,  ad  Pers.)  he  gained  the  prize  with  a  te- 
 tralogy, composed  of  the  Pcrsa,  the  Phineus,  the 
 Glaucus  Potnien.sis,  and  the  Prometheus  Igmfer,  a 
 satyric  drama  (or,  to  give  their  Greek  titles,  the  Ilfp- 
 caL,  <^LVEVq,  TT^avKog  UvTvisvg,  and  n.po/i7/6evc  TTvpfo- 
 pog).  The  latter  part  of  the  poet's  life  is  involved  in 
 much  obscurity.  (Coinpare  Blomfield,  ad  Pers.  fraf., 
 p.  xxii. — Id.  ad  Arg.  inAgamem.,  p.  xix.  et  xx. — Bbckh, 
 de  Grtzc.  Trag.  Princip.,  c.  4,  seqq.)  That  he  quitted 
 Athens  and  died  in  Sicily,  is  agreed  on  all  hands,  but 
 the  time  and  cause  of  his  departure  are  points  of 
 doubt  and  conjecture.  It  seems  that  ^schylus  had 
 laid  himself  open  to  a  charge  of  profanation,  by  too 
 boldly  introducing  on  the  stage  something  connected' 
 with  the  mysteries.  According  to  Clemens  Alexan- 
 drimis,  he  was  tried  and  acquitted  of  the  charge  {kv 
 'ApEiu  TTuyCj)  Kpcdelg,  ovTug  cKpeiadi],  eniSei^ag  avrbv 
 fiff  /le/LLvrj/iiEvov. —  Clem.  Alex.  Strom.,  2).  The  more 
 romantic  narrative  of  yElian  ( Var.  Hist.,  5, 19)  informs 
 us,  that  the  Athenians  stood  ready  to  stone  him  to 
 death,  when  his  brother  Aminias,  who  interceded  for 
 him,  dexterously  dropped  his  robe  and  showed  the  stump 
 of  his  own  arm  lost  at  the  battle  of  Salamis.  This  act  of 
 fraternal  affection  and  presence  of  mind  had  the  desired 
 effect  on  the  quick  and  impulsive  temper  of  the  Athe- 
 nians, and  ^Eschylus  was  pardoned.  But  the  peril 
 which  he  had  encountered,  the  dread  of  a  multitude 
 ever  merciless  in  their  superstitions,  indignation  at  the 
 treatment  which  he  had  received,  joined,  in  all  likeli- 
 hood, to  feelings  of  vexation  and  jealousy  at  witnessing 
 the  preference  occasionally  given  to  young  and  aspi- 
 ring rivals,  were  motives  sufliciently  powerful  to  induce 
 the  proud-spirited  poet  to  abandon  his  native  city,  and 
 seek  a  retreat  it)  the  court  of  the  munificent  and  lite- 
 rary Hiero,  prince  of  Svracuse.  {Vit.  Anonym. — 
 Pausan.,  ],  2.—Plut.  de  Extl.,  Op., vol.  8,  p.  385,  ed. 
 Rciske.)  This  must  have  been  before  the  second  year 
 of  the  78th  Olympiad,  B.C.  4fi7,  for  in  that  year  Hiero 
 died.  The  author  of  the  anonymous  life  of  ^Eschylus, 
 which  has  come  down  to  us,  mentions,  among  other 
 reasons  for  his  voluntary  banishment,  a  victory  obtained 
 64 
 
 over  him  by  Simonides,  in  an  elegiac  contest ;  and, 
 what  is  more  probable,  the  success  of  Sophocles,  who 
 carried  off  from  him  the  tragic  prize,  according  to  the 
 common  account,  in  the  7Sth  Olympiad,  B.C.  468. 
 Plutarch,  in  his  life  of  Cimon,  confirms  the  latter 
 statement.  If  so,  .^schylus  could  not  have  been  more 
 than  a  year  in  Sicily  before  Hiero's  death.  The  com- 
 mon account,  relative  to  the  cause  which  drove  the  poet 
 from  his  country,  is  grounded  upon  an  obscure  allusion 
 in  Aristotle's  Ethics,  explained  by  Clemens  Alcxandri- 
 nus  and  .(Elian.  In  Sicily,  /Eschylus  composed  a 
 drama,  entitled  JEtna,  to  gratify  his  royal  host,  who 
 had  recently  founded  a  city  of  that  name.  ,  During  the 
 remainder  of  his  life,  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  ever  re- 
 turned to  Athens.  If  he  did  not,  those  pieces  of  his, 
 which  were  composed  m  the  interval,  might  be  exhibit- 
 ed on  the  Athenian  stage  under  the  care  of  some  friend 
 or  relation,  as  was  not  unfrequently  the  case.  Among 
 these  dramas  was  the  Orestean  tetralogy  {Argument, 
 ad  Agamem. — Schol.  ad  Aristopk.  Ran.,  1155).  which 
 won  the  prize  in  the  second  year  of  the  80th  Olympiad, 
 B.C.  458,  two  years  before  his  death.  At  any  rate, 
 his  residence  in  Sicily  must  have  been  of  considerable 
 length,  as  it  was  sufficient  to  affect  the  purity  of  his 
 language.  We  are  told  by  Athenaeus,  that  many  Si- 
 cilian words  are  to  be  found  in  his  later  plays.  /Es- 
 chylus certainly  has  some  Sicilian  forms  in  his  extant 
 dramas  :  thus  Treddpaiog,  neSaixiJ-ioi,  Treduopoi,  fiua- 
 ao)v,  fia,  &c.,  for  fiETapaiog,  /xeraixfJ-ioi,  /leTtupoi, 
 p.EiL,(dv,  fifjTEp,  &c.  (Comp.  Blomfield,  Prom.  Vinct., 
 277,  Gloss.,  and  Bockh,  de  Trag.  Grcrc,  c.  5.)  The 
 poet  died  at  Gela,  in  the  69th  year  of  his  age,  in  the 
 81st  Olympiad,  B.C.  456.  His  death,  if  the  common 
 accounts  be  true,  was  of  a  most  singular  nature.  Sit- 
 ting motionless,  in  silence  and  meditation,  in  the  fields, 
 his  head,  now  bald,  was  mistaken  for  a  stone  by  an 
 eagle,  which  happened  to  be  flying  over  hmi  with  a 
 tortoise  in  her  claws.  The  bird  dropped  the  tortoise  to  ' 
 break  the  shell ;  and  the  poet  was  killed  by  the  blow.  ' 
 It  is  more  than  probable,  however,  that  this  statement 
 is  purely  fabulous,  and  that  it  was  invented  in  order  to 
 meet  a  supposed  prophecy,  that  he  would  receive  his 
 death  from  on  high.  The  Geloans,  to  show  their  re- 
 spect for  so  illustrious  a  sojourner,  interred  him  with 
 much  pomp  in  the  public  cemetery. — ^Eschylus  is  said 
 to  have  composed  seventy  dramas,  of  which  five  were 
 satyric,  and  to  have  been  thirteen  times  victor.  The 
 account  of  Pausanias,  however,  would  almost  imply  a 
 larger  proportion  of  satyric  dramas.  In  fact,  consid- 
 erable discrepance  exists  respecting  the  number  of 
 plays  ascribed  to  ^Eschylus.  Only  seven  of  his  trage- 
 dies remain,  together  with  fragments  of  others  pre- 
 served in  the  citations  of  the  grammarians,  and  two 
 epigrams  in  the  Anthology.  The  titles  of  the  dramas 
 which  have  reached  us  are  as  follows:  1.  Jlpo/^riOevg 
 Ssafj-uTTjc  {Prometheus  Vinctus).  2.  'Ettto  ettI  Qijijag 
 {Scptem  contra  Thebas).  3.  JlEpaat  {Persce).  4. 
 'Aya/2E/ivuv  {Agumcmno7i).  5.  Xoj](p6poi  {Clw'epho- 
 rce).  6.  Ev/iEVi.6£g{Eumc7iidcs).  7.  'iKETideg  (Sup- 
 plices).  A  short  accotmt  of  each  of  these  will  be 
 given  towards  the  close  of  the  present  article.  This 
 great  dramatist  was  the  author  of  the  fi.fth  form  of 
 tragedy.  ( F2(Z.  Theatrum.)  He  added  a  second  actor 
 to  the  locutor  of  Thespis  and  Phrynichus,  and  thus  in- 
 troduced the  dialosue.  He  abridged  the  immoderate 
 length  of  the  choral  odes,  making  them  more  subservient 
 to  the  main  interest  of  the  plot,  and  expanded  the  short 
 episodes  into  scenes  of  competent  extent.  To  these 
 iiriprovements  in  the  economy  of  the  drama,  he  added 
 the  decorations  of  art  in  its  exhibition.  A  regular 
 stage  (Vitruv.  Prcef.,lib.7),  with  appropriate  scenery, 
 was  erected  ;  the  actors  were  furnished  with  becoming 
 dresses,  and  raised  to  the  stature  of  the  heroes  repre- 
 sented by  the  thick-soled  cothurnus  (Horat.,  Ep.  ad 
 Pis.,  280) ;  while  the  face  was  brought  to  the  heroic 
 cast  by  a  mask  of  proportionate  size  and  strongly- 
 
^SCHYLUS. 
 
 ^SCHYLUS. 
 
 marked  character,  which  was  also  sc  contrived  as  to 
 give  power  and  distinctness  to  the  voice.  He  paid 
 great  attention  to  the  choral  dances,  and  invented  sev- 
 eral figure-dances  himself.  Among  his  other  improve- 
 ments, is  mentioned  the  introduction  of  a  practice, 
 which  subsequently  became  established  as  a  fixed  and 
 essential  rule,  the  removal  of  all  deeds  of  bloodshed 
 and  murder  from  the  public  view  {P/iilostr.,  Vit. 
 Apollon.,  6,  11),  a  rule  only  violated  on  one  occasion, 
 namely,  by  Sophocles  in  his  play  of  the  Ajax.  In 
 short,  so  many  and  so  important  were  the  alterations 
 and  additions  of  .-Eschylus,  that  he  was  considered  by 
 the  Athenians  as  the  Father  of  Tragedy  {Philostr.,  I. 
 c),  and,  as  a  mark  of  distinguished  honour  paid  to 
 his  merits,  they  passed  a  decree,  after  his  death,  that 
 a  chorus  should  be  allowed  to  any  poet  who  chose  to 
 re-exhibit  the  dramas  of  ^schylus.  {Philostr.,  I.  c.) 
 Aristophanes  alludes  to  this  custom  of  re-exhibiting 
 the  plays  of /Eschylus  in  the  opening  of  the  Acharni- 
 ans  (p.  9,  seqq.).  Quintilian,  however  (10,  1),  assigns 
 a  very  different  reason  for  this  practice,  and  makes  it 
 to  have  been  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  presenting 
 these  dramas  in  a  more  correct  form  than  that  in  which 
 they  were  left  by  the  author  himself.  What  authority 
 he  had  for  such  an  assertion,  does  not  now  appear. 
 In  philosophical  sentiments,  .-Eschylus  is  said  to  have 
 been  a  Pythagorean.  {Cic.  Tusc.  Disp.,  2,  9.)  In  his 
 extant  dramas  the  tenets  of  this  sect  may  occasionally 
 be  traced  ;  as,  deep  veneration  in  what  concerns  the 
 gods  {Agamcm.,  371),  high  regard  for  the  sanctity  of 
 an  oath  and  the  nuptial  bond  {Eumcn.,  217),  the  im- 
 mortahty  of  the  soul  {Choeph.,  321),  the  origin  of 
 names  from  imposition  and  not  from  nature  (^o-a??i£m., 
 682. — From.  Vinct.,  84,  742),  the  importance  of  num- 
 bers {Prom.  Vinct.,  468),  the  science  of  physiognomy 
 {Agamem.,  797),  the  sacred  character  of  suppliants 
 {SSuppl,  351. — Eumcn.,  233),  &c.  Eschylus,  ob- 
 serves Schlegel(i)ra??i.  Lit.,  p.  135,  sfg^.),  must  be  con- 
 sidered as  the  creator  of  tragedy  ;  it  sprang  forth  from  his 
 head  in  complete  armour,  like  Minerva  from  the  brain 
 of  Jove.  He  clothed  it  as  became  its  dignity,  and  not 
 only  instructed  the  chorus  in  the  song  and  the  dance, 
 but  came  forward  himself  as  an  actor.  {Athcnceus,  ], 
 22.)  He  sketches  characters  with  a  few  bold  and 
 powerful  strokes.  His  plots  are  extremely  simple. 
 He  had  not  yet  arrived  at  the  art  of  splitting  an  action 
 into  parts  numerous  and  rich,  and  distributing  their 
 complication  and  denouement  into  well-proportioned 
 steps.  Hence  in  his  writings  there  often  arises  a  ces- 
 sation of  action,  v^'hich  he  makes  us  feel  still  more  by 
 his  unreasonably  long  choruses.  But,  on  the  other 
 hand,  all  his  poetry  displays  a  lofty  and  grave  disposi- 
 tion. No  soft  emotions,  but  terror  alone  remains  in 
 him  ;  the  head  of  Medusa  is  held  up  before  the  petrified 
 spectators.  His  method  of  considering  destiny  is  ex- 
 tremely harsh  ;  it  hovers  over  mortals  in  all  its  gloomy 
 magnificence.  The  buskin  of  Eschylus  has,  as  it 
 were,  the  weight  of  brass ;  on  it  none  but  gigantic 
 forms  stalk  before  us.  It  almost  seems  to  cost  him 
 an  effort  to  paint  mere  men  ;  he  frequently  brings  gods 
 on  the  stage,  particularly  the  Titans,  those  ancient 
 deities  who  shadow  forth  the  dark  primeval  powers  of 
 nature,  and  who  had  long  been  driven  into  Tartarus, 
 beneath  a  world  governed  in  tranquillity.  In  con- 
 formity with  the  standard  of  his  dramatis  personae,  he 
 seeks  to  swell  out  the  language  which  they  employ  to 
 »  colossal  size ;  hence  there  arise  rugged  compound 
 words,  an  over-multiuide  of  epithets,  and  often  an  ex- 
 treme intricacy  of  syntax  in  the  choruses,  which  is  the 
 cause  of  great  obscurity.  He  is  similar  to  Dante  and 
 Shakspeare  in  the  peculiar  strangeness  of  his  imagina- 
 tions and  expressions,  yet  these  images  are  not  deficient 
 in  that  terrible  grace  which  the  ancients  particularly 
 praise  in  .-Eschylus.  The  poet  flourished  exactly  when 
 the  freedom  of  Greece,  rescued  from  its  enemies,  was 
 in  Its  first  strength,  with  a  consciousness  of  which  he 
 
 seems  to  be  proudly  penetrated.  He  had  lived  to  be 
 an  eyewitness  of  the  greatest  and  most  glorious  event 
 of  which  Greece  could  boast,  the  defeat  and  destruction 
 of  the  enormous  hosts  of  the  Persians  under  Darius  and 
 Xerxes,  and  had  fought  with  distinguished  valour  in 
 the  combats  of  Marathon  and  Salamis.  In  the  PerscE, 
 and  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  he  pours  forth  a  warlike 
 strain  ;  the  personal  inclination  of  the  poet  for  the  life 
 of  a  hero  beams  forth  in  a  manner  which  cannot  be 
 mistaken.  The  tragedies  of  .Eschylus  are,  on  tha 
 whole,  one  proof  among  many,  that  in  art,  as  in  nature, 
 gigantic  proportions  precede  those  of  the  ordinary 
 standard,  which  then  grow  less  and  less,  till  they  reach 
 meanness  and  insignificance  ;  and  also  that  poetry,  on 
 its  first  ajipearance,  is  always  next  to  religion  in  esti- 
 mation, whatever  form  the  latter  may  take  among  the 
 race  of  men  then  existing.  The  tragic  style  of  iEs- 
 chylus  is  far  from  perfect  (compare  Porson,  Pralect. 
 in  Eurip  ,  p.  6),  and  frequently  deviates  into  the  Epic 
 and  the  Lyric,  elements  not  qualified  to  harmonize 
 with  the  drama.  He  is  often  abrupt,  disproporlioned, 
 and  harsh.  It  was  very  possible  that  more  skilful 
 tragic  writers  might  compose  after  him,  but  he  must 
 always  remain  unsurpassed  in  his  almost  superhuman 
 vastness,  since  even  Sophocles,  his  more  fortunate 
 and  more  youthful  rival,  could  not  equal  him  in  this. 
 The  latter  uttered  a  sentiment  concerning  him  by 
 which  he  showed  himself  to  have  reflected  on  the  art 
 in  which  he  excelled.  "  .Eschylus  does  what  is  right, 
 but  without  knowing  it."  Simple  words,  which,  how- 
 ever, exhaust  all  that  we  nnderstand  by  a  genius  which 
 produces  its  effects  unconsciously.  {Theatre  of  the 
 Greeks,  p.  114,  seqq.,  2d  cd.) — It  only  remains  to 
 give  a  brief  account  of  the  tragedies  of  .(Eschylus 
 which  have  reached  us  entire.  1.  JlpojirjOev^  deap-u- 
 TTic  ("  Prometheus  in  chains").  All  the  personages 
 of  this  tragedy  are  divinities,  and  yet  the  piece,  not- 
 withstanding, carries  with  it  an  air  of  general  interest, 
 for  it  involves  the  well-being  of  the  human  race.  The 
 subject  is  Prometheus,  punished  for  having  been  the 
 benefactor  of  men  in  stealing  for  them  the  fire  from 
 the  skies  ;  or,  to  express  the  same  idea  in  a  moral 
 point  of  view,  it  is  strength  and  decision  of  character 
 struggling  against  injustice  and  adversity.  In  this 
 drama,  which  stands  alone  of  its  kind,  we  recognise, 
 amid  strength  and  sublimity  of  conception,  a  wild  and 
 untutored  daring,  which  betrays  the  rudeness  of  early 
 tragedy,  and  the  infancy  of  the  art.  The  scenery  is 
 awfully  terrific  :  the  lonely  rock  frowning  over  the 
 waves,  the  stern  and  imperious  sons  of  Pallas  and 
 Styx  holding  up  Prometheus  to  its  rifted  side  while 
 Vulcan  fixes  his  chains,  Oceanus  on  his  hippogriff,  the 
 fury  of  the  whirlwind,  the  pealing  thunder,  and  Prome- 
 theus himself  undismayed  amid  the  warfare  of  the  ele- 
 ments, and  bidding  defiance  even  to  the  monarch  of 
 the  skies,  present  a  picture  pregnant  with  fearful  in- 
 terest, and  worthy  the  genius  of  ,E]schylus.  This 
 drama  was  translated  into  Latin  by  the  poet  Attius, 
 some  fragments  of  whose  version  are  preserved  for  us 
 by  Cicero  {Tusc.  Quast.,  2,  10).  The  question  rela- 
 tive to  the  remaining  pieces  of  the  Tetralogy,  of  which 
 this  play  formed  a  part,  may  be  seen  discussed  in 
 Schiitz's  edition  of /Eschvlus  (vol.  5,  p.  '[20,scqq.). — 
 2.  'Err-a  £7rt  &7/6ac  ("The  Seven  Chiefs  against 
 Thebes").  The  subject  of  the  piece  is  the  siege  o{ 
 Thebes,  by  the  seven  confederate  chieftains,  who  had 
 espoused  the  cause  of  Polynices  against  his  brother 
 Eteoclcs.  It  is  said  that  .Eschylus  particularly  valued 
 himself  on  this  tragedy,  and  certainly  not  without  rea- 
 son, both  as  regards  the  animation  of  the  scenes  that 
 are  portrayed,  the  sublimity  of  the  dialogue,  and  the 
 strong  delineations  of  character  which  it  contains. 
 This  drama  has  the  additional  merit  of  having  given 
 birth  to  the  Antigone  of  Sophocles,  the  Phoeni.ssae  of 
 Euripides,  and  th'e  Thebaid  of  Statius.  Besides  the 
 Siege  of  Thebes,  ^Eschylus  wrote  three  tragedies  also 
 
 65 
 
j::schylus. 
 
 AESCULAPIUS. 
 
 on  the  events  wliich  preceded  it,  viz.,  the  "Laius,"  the 
 "Qildipus,"  and  ihc  "  Sphinx."  Some  critics,  how- 
 ever, make  the  last  to  have  been  a  satyric  drama. — 
 — 3.  Urpacu  ("The  Persians").  This  piece  is  so 
 called  because  the  chorus  is  composed  of  aged  Per- 
 sians. The  subject  is  purely  an  historical  one  :  it  is 
 the  defeat  of  the  naval  armament  of  Xerxes.  This 
 play  was  performed  eight  years  after  the  battle  of  Sal- 
 amis,  and  it  has  been  considered  by  some  a  defect 
 that  so  recent  an  event  should  have  been  represented 
 on  the  stage.  But,  as  Racine  has  remarked  in  the 
 preface  to  Bajazet,  distance  of  place  supplies  the  want 
 of  distance  of  time.  'J'hc  scene  is  laid  at  Susa,  be- 
 fore the  ancient  structure  appropriated  to  the  great 
 council  of  state,  and  near  the  tomb  of  Darius.  The 
 shade  of  this  monarch  comes  forth  from  the  sepulchre, 
 for  the  purpose  of  counselling  Xerxes  to  cease  from 
 the  war  against  a  people  whom  the  gods  protect.  The 
 piece  contains  great  beauties  ;  every  instant  the  trouble 
 of  the  Persians  increases,  and  the  interest  augments. 
 By  some  it  has  been  supposed  to  have  been  written 
 with  a  political  intent,  the  poet  endeavouring,  by  an 
 animated  description  of  the  pernicious  effects  of  an 
 obstinate  pride,  and  by  filling  the  spectators  with  a 
 malignant  compassion  for  the  vanquished  Xerxes,  in- 
 directly disposing  them  to  break  off  the  war  which 
 Themistocles  wished  to  prolong.  —  4.  'Aya/irfivcov 
 ("Agamemnon").  This  prince,  returning  from  the 
 siege  of  Troy  with  his  female  captive  Cassandra,  is  as- 
 sassinated by  Clylemnestra  and  ^gisthus.  The  part 
 of  Cassandra,  who  predicts  the  woes  that  are  about  to 
 fall  upon  the  house  of  Agamemnon,  forms  the  chief 
 interest  of  the  piece,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  that  has 
 ever  been  conceived.  The  commenceinent  of  this 
 tragedy  is  somewhat  languid,  but  as  the  play  proceeds 
 all  is  movement  and  feeling. — 5.  Xo7?^6poi("TheChoe- 
 phorffi").  This  drama  is  so  entitled,  because  the  cho- 
 rus, composed  of  female  Trojan  captives,  slaves  of 
 Clytemnestra,  are  charged  with  the  oflice  of  bringing 
 the  liquor  for  making  libations  at  the  tomb  of  Agamem- 
 non (xoTJ,  a  blalimi,  and  ^f'pw,  lo bring-).  The  subject  of 
 the  piece  is  Orestes  avenging  the  death  of  Agamemnon 
 on  Clytemnestra  and  her  paramour.  When  this  horri- 
 ble deed  has  been  accomplished,  the  parricide  is  deliv- 
 ered over  to  the  Furies,  who  disturb  his  reason. 
 "  The  spirit  of  .^schylus,"  observes  Potter,  "  shines 
 through  this  tragedy ;  but  a  certain  softening  of  grief 
 hangs  over  it,  and  gives  it  an  air  of  solemn  magnifi- 
 cence." The  characters  of  Orestes  and  Electra  are 
 finely  supported. — 6.  'EvjdvideQ  ("  The  Eumenides," 
 or  "  Furies").  This  play  derives  its  name  from  the 
 circumstance  of  the  chorus  being  composed  of  Furies 
 who  pursue  Orestes.  The  latter  pleads  his  cause  be- 
 fore the  Areopagus,  and  is  acquitted  by  the  vote  of 
 Minerva.  This  drama  is  remarkable  for  its  violation 
 of  the  unity  of  place,  the  scene  being  first  laid  at  Del- 
 phi and  afterward  at  Athens.  Miiller  has  written  a 
 very  able  work  on  the  scope  and  character  of  this  pro- 
 duction, in  which  he  discusses  incidentally  some  of 
 the  most  important  points  connected  with  the  Greek 
 drama.  As  regards  the  object  which  the  poet  had  in 
 view  when  composing  the  piece,  he  considers  it  to  be 
 a  political  one.  .^schylus  was  a  zealous  partisan  of 
 Aristides,  and  opponent  of  Themistocles,  and  evident 
 symptoms  of  this  partiality  are  to  be  found  in  some  of 
 his  plays.  As  an  Athenian  citizen  and  patriot,  the 
 poet  on  every  occasion  recommends  to  his  countrymen 
 temperance  and  moderation  in  their  enjoyment  of  dem- 
 ocratic liberty,  and  in  their  ambitious  schemes  against 
 the  rest  of  Greece.  The  party  of  Themistocles  had 
 made  themselves  obnoxious,  in  these  respects,  to  the 
 patriotic  feelings  of  ^Eschylus  ;  and  a  demagogue 
 named  Ephialtcs,  having  attacked  the  authority  of  the 
 venerable  court  of  the  Areopagus,  the  poet  in  this  play 
 of  the  Eumenides  appeared  in  its  defence,  and  strove 
 to  save  this  excellent  institution,  though  ineffectually, 
 66 
 
 from  the  levelling  doctrines  of  the  day.  Pollux  ir?fonns 
 us,  that  the  tragic  chorus,  up  to  the  time  when  this 
 play  was  first  represented,  consisted  of  fifty  persons, 
 but  that  the  terror  occasioned  by  a  chorus  ol  fifty  furies 
 caused  a  law  to  be  passed,  fixing  the  tragic  chorus,  for 
 the  time  to  come,  at  fifteen,  and  the  comic  chorus  at 
 twenty-four.  (7«/.  Po/.,  4,  1 10.)  Pollux  evidently  is 
 in  error  here.  'I'he  number  of  choreuta;  for  the  whole 
 tetralogy  consisted  of  fifty  (originally,  as  Miiller  thinks, 
 of  forty-eight),  and  these  choreuta,-  it  was  the  poet's 
 business  to  distribute  into  choruses  for  the  individual 
 tragedies  and  satyric  drama  composing  the  tetralogy. 
 Pollux,  therefore,  in  all  probability,  misconceived 
 something  which  he  had  learned  relative  to  the  number 
 of  choreutae  for  the  whole  tetralogy,  of  which  number 
 at  least  three  fourths  were  on  the  stage  at  the  end  of 
 the  Eumenides  But  this  was  done  in  order  to  afford 
 the  people  a  splendid  and  expressive  spectacle  ;  neither 
 were  the  choreutse  thus  combined  all  habited  as  furies. 
 {Miiller,  Eumenides,  p.  52,  seqq.) — With  regard  to 
 the  number  of  the  tragic  chorus  in  each  particular 
 play,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  Sophocles  first  brought 
 in  fifteen,  the  previous  number  having  been  twelve, 
 and  that  .^schylus  employed  only  twelve  in  more  than 
 one  of  his  dramas,  although  in  others  very  possibly  he 
 adopted  the  number  so  extended  by  Sophocles.  (Con- 
 sult the  remarks  of  Miiller,  Eumcn.,  p.  58.) — This  play 
 did  not  prove,  at  first,  very  successful.  It  was  altered 
 by  the  poet,  and  reproduced  some  years  after,  during 
 his  residence  in  Sicily,  when  it  carried  off"  the  prize. 
 — 7.  'iKfTiJff  ("  The  Female  Suppliants").  Danaiis 
 and  his  daughters  solicit  and  obtain  the  protection  of 
 the  Argives  against  ^gyptus  and  his  sons.  This  play 
 forms  one  of  the  feeblest  productions  of  .(Eschylus. 
 It  possesses  one  remarkable  feature,  that  the  chorus 
 acts  the  principal  part.  The  scene  is  near  the  shore, 
 in  an  open  grove,  close  to  the  altar  and  the  images  of 
 the  gods  presiding  over  the  sacred  games,  with  a  view 
 of  the  sea  and  the  ships  of  /Egyptus  on  one  side,  and 
 of  the  towers  of  Argos  on  the  other  ;  with  hills,  and 
 woods,  and  vales,  a  river  flowing  between  them. — We 
 have  no  good  edition,  as  vet,  of  all  the  plavs  of  ^schy- 
 lus.  That  of  Schijtz,  Hala,  1S08-21,'5  vols.  Svo, 
 although  useful  in  some  respects,  is  not  held  in  very 
 high  estimation  ;  neither  is  that  of  Butler,  Canlub., 
 1809,  8  vols.  Svo,  regarded  with  a  very  favourable  eye 
 by  European  scholars.  Wcllauer's  edition,  also,  Lips., 
 1823-1831,  3  vols.  Svo,  though  highly  lauded  by  some, 
 is  far  from  being  satisfactory  to  all.  The  edition  by 
 Scholefield,  Cantab.,  1828,  Svo,  is  a  useful  one.  Th© 
 best  text  is  that  given  by  W.  Dindorf,  Lips.,  1827. 
 The  best  editions  of  the  se|)arate  plays  are  those  of 
 Blomfiold,  as  far  as  they  extend,  comprising,  namely, 
 the  Prometheus,  Scptem  contra  Thebas,  Agamemnon, 
 Perscc,  and  Cho'ephorcB.  His  edition  of  the  Pcrsce, 
 however,  was  very  severely  handled  by  Seidler,  in  one 
 of  the  German  reviews,  though  the  edge  of  the  critique 
 was  in  a  great  measure  blunted  by  the  personal  feeling 
 visible  throughout.  The  editions  of  Dr.  Blomfield  ap- 
 peared originally  from  the  Cambridge  press.  There 
 are  good  editions  of  the  Agamemnon  and  Choephorae 
 by  Klausen  and  I^eile.  MiJllcr's  edition  of  the  Eumen- 
 ides, appended  to  the  dissertations  above  alluded  to,  is 
 an  excellent  and  scholar-like  performance,  though  it 
 provoked  the  ire  of  Hermann  and  his  school,  having 
 been  severely  criticised  by  him  and  one  of  his  disci[)les. 
 A  translation  of  it  appeared  from  the  Cambridge  press 
 in  1835. — II.,  HI.  {V'ui.  Supplement.) 
 
 ^scur.Ai'i'iis,  son  of  Apollo  and  the  nymph  Coronis, 
 and  god  of  the  healing  art.  Pausanias  <2,  26)  gives 
 three  different  accounts  of  his  origin,  on  which  our  lim- 
 its forbid  us  to  dwell.  The  one  of  these  that  has  been 
 followed  by  Ovid,  makes  Coronis  to  have  been  unfaith- 
 ful to  Apollo,  and  to  have  been,  in  consequence,  put  to 
 death  by  him,  the  offspring  of  her  womb  having  been 
 first  taken  from  her  and  spared.     Apollo  received  the 
 
jESCULAPIUS. 
 
 ^SCULAPIUS. 
 
 WiJormation  respecting  the  unfaithfulness  of  Coronis, 
 from  a  raven,  and  the  angry  deity  is  said  by  ApoUodo- 
 rus  to  have  changed  the  colour  of  the  raven  from  white 
 to  black,  as  a  punishment  for  his  unwelcome  olficious- 
 ness.     As  Coronis,  in  Greek,  signifies  a  crow,  hence 
 another  fable  arose  that  J^scuiapius  had  sprung  from 
 an  egg  of  that  bird,  under  the  figure  of  a  serpent.     The 
 first  of  the  accounts  given  by  Pausanias  makes  the 
 birthplace  of  ^Esculapius  to  have  been  on  the  borders 
 of  the  Epidaurian  territory  ;  the  second  lays  the  scene 
 in  Thessaly  ;  the  third  in  Messenia.     ^-Esculapius  was 
 placed,  at  an  early  age,  under  the  care  of  the  centaur 
 Chiron.     Being  of  a  quick  and  lively  genius,  he  made 
 such  progress  as  soon  to  become  not  only  a  great  phy- 
 sician, but  at  length  to  be  reckoned  the  god  and  invent- 
 or of  medicine,  though  the  Greeks,  not  very  careful  of 
 consistency  in  the  history  of  those  early  ages,  gave  to 
 Apis,  son  of  Phoroneus,  the  glory  of  having  invented 
 the  healing  art.     JDsculapius  accompanied  Jason  in 
 his  expedition  to  Colchis,  and  in  his  medical  capacity 
 was  of  great  service  to  the  Argonauts.     He  married 
 Epione,  whom  some  call  Lampetia,  by  whom  he  had 
 two  sons,  Machaon  and  Podalirius,  and  four  daughters, 
 Hygiea,  JEg\e,  Panacea,  and  laso,  of  whom  Hvgiea, 
 goddess  of  health,  was  the  most  celebrated.    In  the  fab- 
 ulous traditions  of  antiquity,  iEscuiapius  is  said  to  have 
 restored  many  to  life.     According  to  Apoliodorus  (8. 
 10,  3),  he  received  from  Minerva  the  blood  that  flow- 
 ed from  the  veins  of  Medusa,  and  with  that  which  pro- 
 ceeded from  the  veins  on  the  left,  he  operated  to  the 
 destruction  of  men,  while  he  used  that  which  was  ob- 
 tained from  the  veins  on  the  right  for  the  benefit  of 
 his  fellow-creatures.     (Compare  Hcijilc,  ad  Apol/od., 
 I.  c.)     With  this  last  he  brought  back  to  the  light  of 
 day  Capaneus  and   Lycurgus,  according  to  some,  or 
 Eriphyle  and  Hippolytus  according  to  others,  or,  as 
 other  ancient  authorities  state,  Hymenaeus,  and  Glau- 
 cus  the  son  of  Minos.     Jupiter,  alarmed  at  this,  and 
 fearing,  says  Apoliodorus,  lest  men,  being  put  in  pos- 
 session of  the  means  of  triumphing  over  death,  might 
 cease  to  render  honour  to  the  gods,  struck  yEsculapius 
 with  thunder.     The  common  account  makes  this  to 
 have  been  done  on  the  complaint  of  Pluto.     Apollo, 
 enraged  at  the  loss  of  his  son,  destroyed  the  Cyclopes 
 who  had  forged  the  thunderbolts  of  Jove,  for  which 
 offence  the  monarch  of  the  skies  was  about  to  hurl 
 him  into  Tartarus,  but,  on  the  supplication  of  Latona, 
 banished  him  for  a  season  from  Olympus,  and  compel- 
 led   him  to  serve  with  a  mortal  {vid.  Admetus  and 
 Amphrysus). — Thus  far  we  have  traced  the  Greek  ac- 
 counts respecting  vEsculapius.     If.  however,  a  careful 
 inquiry  he  instituted,  the  result  will  be  a  decided  con- 
 viction that  the  legend  of  /Esculapius  is  one  of  Orient- 
 al origin.     According   to  Sanchoniatho,  .Esculapius 
 was  the  same  with  the  Phosnician  Esmun,  the  son  of 
 Sydyk,  called  "  the  just,"  and  the  brother  of  the  seven 
 Cabiri.    {Sanchon  ,  frag.,  ap   Euscb.,Pr<£p.  Evang  , 
 p.  39. — Cory's  Ancient  Fragmoirs,  p.  13  )     Hence 
 the  meaning  of  Esmun,  which  signifies  '•  the  eighth." 
 (Compare  the  Schmoun,  or  Mendes,  of  Egy]jt.)     The 
 seven  Cabiri  are  the  seven  planets  ;  and,  in  the  Egyp- 
 tian mythology,  Phtha  is  added  to  them  as  the  cighlh. 
 Phtha  and  .Esculapius,  then,  are  identical,  and  the  lat- 
 ter, like  the  former,  though  added  to  the  number  of  the 
 Cabiri,  becomes  in  a  mysterious  sense  their  parent  and 
 guide.     {Creuzer's  SymhoUk,  vol.  2,  p.  285  and  336.) 
 In  Esmun-.-Esculapius,  then,  we  have  a  solar  deity, 
 personified  in  his  beauty  and  his  weakness,  for  he  is 
 the  same  with  the  youth  of  Bcrytus,  who  mutilated 
 himself  and  was  placed  in  the  number  of  the  gods,  and 
 in  this  quality  he  receives  the  name  of  Ps^an  or  Pa;on, 
 "  the  physician."    He  becomes  identified  also  with  the 
 beauteous  Apollo,  for  whose  son  he  passes  among  the 
 Greeks  ;  while,  as  a  mutilated  deity,  he  is  the  same 
 with  the  Phrygian  Atys,  the  fair  Adonis,  and  the  chain- 
 ed Hercules  of  the  Tyrians,  all  varied  forms  of  the 
 
 same  idea.     He  is  the  sun,  without  strength  at  the 
 close  of  autumn.     In  all  these  different  points  of  view, 
 we  find  Jilsculapius  corresponding  to  the  Egyptian  di- 
 vinities ;  to  Horus,  to  Harpocrates,  to  Sem,  and  to  the 
 god  of  the  earth,  Serapis.     Egypt  was  always  famed 
 for  the  knowledge  possessed  by  its  priests  of  the  heal- 
 ing art ;  and  it  always  represented  its  great  deities,  the 
 symbols  of  the  power  of  nature,  as  endued  with  a  heal- 
 ing influence.     {Crcuzcr's  8ymbohk,par  Guigniaut, 
 vol.  2,  p.  337  and   170,  seqq.)     Isis  receives,  in  in- 
 scriptions, the  epithet  of  "salutary."     (Gintei;  p.  83. 
 — Fabrclt.,  p.  470. — Rcincs,  col.  1,  n.  132  )     Serapis, 
 whose  name  frecfaently  occurs  by  the  side  of  that  of  his 
 spouse,  had,  at  Canopus,  a  city  already  famous  by  its 
 temple  of  Hercules,  a  sanctuary  no  less  renowned  for 
 the  wonderful  cures  performed  within  it,  and  of  which 
 a  register  was  carefully  preserved.     {Strabo,  801. — 
 ('ompare  Crcuzer,  Dionys.,  1,  p.  122,  and  Guigniaul's 
 dissertation  on  the  god  Serapis,  "  Sur  le  Dicu  Serapis 
 et  soil  origine,"  p.  20  and  22.)     Both  of  these  divin- 
 ities, in  the  scenes  figured  on  the  monumenis,  bear  ser- 
 pents, or  agathodemons,  as  the    emblems  of  health : 
 they  carry  also  the  chalice,  or  salutary  cup  of  nature, 
 surrounded  by  serpents,  and  which  formed,  perhaps,  the 
 most  ancient  idol  connected  with  their  worship.  ( Creu- 
 zer's  SymboUk,  par  Guigniaul,  vol.  1,  p.  818,  scqq.) 
 One  thing  at  least  is  certain,  that  these  sacred  ser- 
 pents were  nourished  in  their  temjjles  as  living  images 
 of  these  deities  of  health.     {Guigniaut'' s  Serapis,  p. 
 19,  seqq.)     The  nurture  of  these  national  fetichs  con- 
 sisted in  cakes  of  honey,  and  such  was  also  the  food 
 of  the  serpents  consecrated  to  the  powers  beneath  the 
 earth,  the  divinities  of  the  dead.     In  fact,  the  god  of 
 medicine  is,  at  the  same  time,  a  telluric  power ;  and 
 it  is  he  that  causes  the  mineral  waters,  the  sources  of 
 health,  to  spring  from  the  bosom  of  the  earth.     ^Escu- 
 lapius, then,  is  identical,  in  his  essence,  with  the  Ca- 
 nopic  Serapis  :  like  him,  he  has  for  a  symbol  a  vase 
 surrounded   by  serpents,  and    he  was  originally  this 
 same  vase,  the  sacred  Canopus.     (Compare  Creuzer, 
 D2onys.,p.  220. — Symbolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  l.p. 
 415   and  818,  seqq)     It  is    curious    to    observe  the 
 strong  analogy  that  e.vists  between  the  Oriental  wor- 
 ship of  Serapis,  and  the  Grecian  ideas,  rites,  and  usa- 
 ges in  the  case  of  .Esculapius.     At  /Egium,  in  Achaia, 
 near  the  ancient  rcmple  of  Ilithyia,  were  to  be  seen  the 
 statues  of  the  god  and  goddess  of  health.  Asclepius 
 (/Esculapius)  and  Hygiea.     (Pai/srtw.,  7,  23.)     At  Ti- 
 tane,  a  city  of  Sicyonia.  the  first  settler  of  which  was, 
 according  to  tradition.  Titan,  brother  of  the  Sun,  Alcx- 
 anor,  the  son  of  Machaon  and  grandson  of /Esculapius, 
 had  erected  a  temple  to  this  deity.     His  statue,  at  this 
 place,  was  almost  entirely  enveloped  in  a  tunic  of  white 
 wool,  with  a  mantle  thrown  over  it,  so  that  the  face, 
 and  the  extremities  of  the  hands  and  feet,  alone  appear- 
 ed to  view.     ^Esculapius  was  carried,  it  is  said,  from 
 Epidaurus  to  Pergamus  ;  and  we  are  also  told  that,  in 
 this  Asiatic  city,  the  Acesius  of  Epidaurus  took  the 
 name  of  Telesphorus.     {Pausan.,'2,,  \\.)     Now  Te- 
 lesphorus  indicates  the  autumnal  season,  the  sun  that 
 has  come  to  his  maturity  together  wiih  the  productions 
 of  the  earth,  and,  consequently,  verging  to  his  decline. 
 Hence  the  Arcadians  gave  to  /Esculapius  a  nurse  na- 
 med Trygon,  an  appellation  derived  probably  from  the 
 Greek  Tpvyy  or  rpvydcj,  and  referring  to  the  labours  of 
 harvest.     .(Esculapius,  moreover,  according  to  a  tradi- 
 tion preserved  in  Attica,  oflTered  himself  on  the  eighth 
 day  for  admission  into  the  Elcusinian  mysteries,  and 
 was  accordingly  initiated.    {Philostrat.,  Vrt.  Apollon., 
 4,  18  )     He  is,' in  this  point  of  view,  the  tardy  one,  the 
 last  comer  assisting  at  the  festival  of  autumn  and  the 
 harvest.     The  subterranean  powers  and  the  deities  of 
 death,  are  also  the  divinities  of  sleep.    Such,  too,  is  the 
 case  with  ^Esculapius.     He  gives  slumber  and  repose, 
 and  by  their  means  bestows  health.     {Lyd.  de  Mens., 
 p.  78,  ed.  Schow.)     Hence  the  custom  of  going  to  his 
 
 67 
 
^SCULAPIUS. 
 
 ^SE 
 
 temple  at  Epidaiirus  for  the  purpose  of  sleeping  there- 
 in, and  recovering  health  by  the  means  which  the  god 
 of  health  would  mdicate  in  a  dream  to  the  invalids. 
 (Compare  Sprcngel,  Gesch.  dcr  Mcdicin.,  vol.  1,  p.  107, 
 scqq.)  The  ancient  yEsculapius,  introduced  at  an 
 early  period  into  the  religion  of  Samothrace,  appeared 
 at  first  in  Greece  under  a  form  closely  assimilated  to 
 that  of  the  vase-gods,  dwarfs,  or  pigmies,  that  were 
 accustomed  to  be  enveloped  in  garments,  and  to  which 
 was  attributed  a  magic  influence.  {Creuzer's  Sym- 
 bolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  2,  p.  310,  scqq.)  In  these 
 mysterious  idols,  the  richness  of  hidden  meaning  was 
 as  great  as  the  mode  of  decking  the  exterior  was  whim- 
 sical. The  spirit  of  the  old  Pelasgic  belief  would 
 seem,  however,  to  have  been  continually  employed  in 
 decomposing,  as  it  were,  this  body  of  ideas  united  in 
 one  particular  symbol,  and  in  individualizing  each  for 
 itself.  It  was  thus  that,  by  degrees,  there  arose  round 
 the  god  of  medicine  a  cortege  of  genii,  of  both  se.xes, 
 regarded  either  as  his  wives,  or  as  his  sons  and  daugh- 
 ters, or  even  as  his  grandchildren.  In  the  sculptured 
 representations  of  ^-Esculapius,  to  which  the  develope- 
 ment  of  Grecian  art  had  subsequently  given  birth,  we 
 find  the  figure  of  Jove,  a  little  modified,  becoming  the 
 model  of  this  deity.  And  yet,  though  the  Grecian 
 perception  of  the  beautiful  led  them  to  deviate,  in  gen- 
 eral, from  the  grosser  representations  of  the  Pelasgic 
 worship,  we  find  them,  in  the  present  case,  still  re- 
 taining an  attachment  for  the  ancient,  and,  at  the  same 
 time,  more  significant  and  mysterious  images.  Hence, 
 by  the  side  of  the  new  deity  is  placed  one  of  his  per- 
 sonified attributes,  under  the  figure  of  an  enveloped 
 dwarf.  In  every  quarter,  where  the  Asclepiades  {oid. 
 that  article)  taught  the  principles  of  the  healing  art,  or 
 •'ired  diseases  in  the  temples  of  their  master  and  re- 
 nuted  father,  iEsculapius  and  his  good  genii  were  cel- 
 ebrated as  saving  divinities,  on  votive  tablets,  inscrip- 
 tions, medals,  and  gems.  The  Romans,  too,  in  the 
 year  of  their  city  461,  in  order  to  be  delivered  from  a 
 pestilence,  sent  a  solemn  embassy  to  Epidaurus  to  ob- 
 tain the  sacred  serpent  nourished  at  that  place  in  the 
 temple  of  ^sculapius.  A  temple  was  likewise  erect- 
 ed to  this  deity  on  an  island  in  the  Tiber,  where  the 
 sacred  reptile  had  disappeared  among  the  reeds.  (  Val. 
 Max.,  1,  8,  2.)  Not  content  with  this,  however,  they 
 resolved  to  have  also  a  family  of  Asclepiades,  and  they 
 pretended  to  have  found  it  in  the  house  of  Acilius. — 
 The  principal  and  most  ancient  temples  of  ^^sculapi- 
 us  {'A(yK?.jj7vieta),  vk-ere  those  at  Titane  in  Sicyonia 
 {Pausan.,  2, 1 1) ;  at  Tricca  in  Thessaly  {Strabo,  438) ; 
 at  Tilhorca  in  Phocis,  where  he  was  revered  under  the 
 name  of  Archegetcs  {JPausan.,  10,  32) ;  at  Epidaurus 
 {Pausan.,  2,  26) ;  in  the  island  of  Cos  {Siraho,  657) ; 
 at  Megalopolis  {Pausan.,  8,  32) ;  at  Cyllcne  in  Elis 
 {Pausan.,  6,  26) ;  and  at  Pergamus  in  Asia  Minor 
 (Pausan.,  2,  26).  Among  all  these  temples,  that  of 
 Epidaurus  was  at  first  the  most  celebrated,  for  it  was 
 from  this  city  that  the  worship  of  JEsculapius  was  car- 
 ried into  Sicyonia,  and  also  to  Pergamus  and  Cyllcne. 
 {Pausan.,  2,  10.)  It  appears,  however,  that  the  tem- 
 ple of  Cos  became  in  lime  the  most  famous  of  all,  since 
 the  Epidaurians,  on  one  occasion,  sent  de[)ntics  thither. 
 {Pausan.,  3,  23.)  At  a  more  recent  period,  ^gea,  in 
 Cilicia,  could  boast  of  a  temple  of  ./Esculapius  which 
 was  held  in  high  repute.  It  was  here  that  ApoUonius 
 of  Tyana  practised  many  of  his  impostures.  {Philoslr., 
 Vit.  ApoUon.,  1,  7.)  Constantino  destroyed  this  tem- 
 ple in  his  zeal  for  Christianity.  {Euscb.,  Vit.  Con- 
 stant,ed.  Reading,  S,  50.)  Almost  all  these  edifices 
 were  regarded  as  sanctuaries,  which  none  of  the  pro- 
 fane could  approach  except  after  repeated  purifications. 
 Epidaurus  was  called  the  sacred  country  {Pausan.,  2, 
 26),  a  name  which  also  appears  on  its  medals.  {Eclc- 
 kel,  Doclr.  Num.  Vet.,  vol.  2,  p.  290. —  ViUoison, 
 Prole gom.,"^.  Lii.)  The  temple  at  Asopus  took  the 
 appellation  of  Hyperleleaton,  as  if  it  concealed  within 
 68 
 
 its  walls  the  most  sacred  mysteries.  {Pausan.,  3,  22.) 
 The  statue  of  Hygiea,  at  ^gium  in  Achaia,  could  only 
 be  viewed  by  the  priests.  {Pausan.,  7,  24.)  No  fe- 
 male was  allowed  to  be  delivered,  and  no  sick  persons 
 were  permitted  to  die,  within  the  environs  of  the  tem- 
 ple at  Epidaurus.  {Pausan. ,2,  27.)  The  temple  at 
 Tilhorea  was  surrounded  by  a  hedge,  in  the  vicinity  of 
 which  no  edifice  could  be  erected.  The  hedge  was 
 forty  stadia  from  the  building  itself  {Pausan.,  10,  32.) 
 Most  of  these  temples  stood  in  healthy  situations.  That 
 of  Cyllene,  for  example,  was  situate  on  Cape  Hyrmine, 
 in  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  smiling  countries  of  the 
 Peloponnesus  ;  while  that  of  Epidaurus,  erected,  liko 
 the  former,  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  sea, 
 was  surrounded  by  hills  covered  with  the  thick  foliage 
 of  groves.  {Pausan.,  2,  27. — Compare  Villoison, 
 Prolcgom.,p.  Liii.,and  Chandler's  Travels,  ch.  53,  p. 
 223.)  Others  again  were  built  near  rivers,  or  in  the 
 vicinity  of  mineral  springs  ;  and  it  would  appear  from 
 Xcnophon  {Mem.,  3,  13),  that  the  temple  of  ^-Esculapi- 
 us  at  Athens  contained  within  it  a  source  of  warm  v\a- 
 tcr.  The  worship  rendered  to  -Esculapius  had  for  its 
 object  the  occupying  the  imaginations  of  the  sick  by 
 the  ceremonies  of  which  they  were  witnesses,  and  the 
 exciting  them  to  a  sufTicient  degree  in  order  to  produce 
 the  desired  result.  For  an  account  of  these  ceremo- 
 nies, and  the  mode  of  curing  that  was  generally  adopt- 
 ed, consult  Sprcngel,  Hist,  de  la  Medicine,  vol.  1,  p. 
 154,  seqq. — .Esculapius  was  sometimes  represented 
 either  standing,  or  sitting  on  a  throne,  holding  in  one 
 hand  a  staff,  and  grasping  with  the  other  the  head  of  a 
 serpent :  at  his  feet  a  dog  lay  extended.  {Pausan.,  2, 
 27. — Compare  Montfaucon,  Antiquile  cxpliq.,  vol.  1, 
 pt.  2,  pi.  187,  188.)  At  Corinth,  Megalopolis,  and 
 Ladon,  the  god  was  represented  under  the  form  of  an 
 infant,  or  rather,  perhaps,  a  dwarf,  holding  in  one  hand 
 a  sceptre,  and  in  the  other  a  pine-cone.  {Pausan.,  2, 
 10.)  Most  generally,  however,  he  appeared  as  an  old 
 man  with  a  flowing  beard.  {Pausan.,  10,  32.)  On 
 some  ancient  monuments  we  see  him  with  one  hand 
 applied  to  his  beard,  and  having  in  the  other  a  knotted 
 staff"  encircled  by  a  serpent.  {Minucius  Felix,  cd.  El- 
 menhorst.,  p.  14.)  He  oftentimes  hears  a  crown  of  lau- 
 rel {Anlichita  d'ErcoL,  vol.  5,  p.  264,  271. — Maffei, 
 Gemm.  ant.,  2,  n.  55),  while  at  his  feet  are  placed,  on 
 one  side,  a  cock,  and,  on  the  other,  the  head  of  a  ram  ; 
 on  other  occasions,  a  vulture  or  an  owl.  Frequently 
 a  vase  of  circular  form  is  seen  below  his  statues  {Eriz- 
 zo,  Discorso,  &lc.,  p.  620),  or,  according  to  others,  a 
 serpent  coiled  up.  {Buonarotti,  Osservazioni,  &.c.,p. 
 201.)  At  other  times  he  has  his  body  encircled  by  an 
 enormous  serpent.  {Thcodoret.  affect,  curat,  disp. — 
 Op.  cd.  Shuhe,  vol  4  and  8,  p.  906.)  Among  all 
 the  symbols  with  which  -'Esculapius  is  adorned,  the 
 serpent  plays  the  principal  part.  The  gems,  medals, 
 and  other  monuments  of  antiquity,  connected  with  the 
 worship  of  this  deity,  most  commonly  bear  such  an 
 emblem  upon  them.  {Spanheim,  Epist.  4,  ad  MorclL, 
 p.  217,  218,  er/.  Lips.,  1695. — Compare  Knight's  In- 
 quiry into  the  Symbolical  language  of  Ancient  Art 
 and  Mythology,  ()  25. — Class.  Joiirn.,  vol.  23,  p.  13.) 
 
 yEsEPUS,  a  river  of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  rising  in 
 Mount  Cotylus,  and  falling,  after  a  course  of  500  sta- 
 dia, into  the  Propontis,  to  the  east  of  the  Granicus. 
 Strabo  (582)  conceives,  that  Homer  extended  the 
 boundaries  of  Priam's  kingdom  to  this  river.  Chishul) 
 {Travels  in  Turkey,  p.  59)  makes  the  modern  nam* 
 to  be  the  Boklu,  but  Gossellin gives  it  as  the  Sataldere 
 {French  Strabo,  vol.  4,  p.  187,  not.) 
 
 ^-EsERNiA,  a  city  of  Samnium,  in  the  northern  par* 
 of  the  country,  and  not  far  from  the  western  confines 
 It  was  situate  about  twelve  miles  northwest  of  Bovi- 
 anum,  and  is  mentioned  by  Livy  {Epit.,  16)  as  havinj 
 been  colonized  about  the  beginning  of  the  first  Punio 
 war.  The  same  writer  (27,  10)  speaks  of  it  as  ona 
 of  those  colonies  which  distinguished  themselves  by 
 
iESOPUS. 
 
 ^SOPUS. 
 
 their  firm  adherence  to  the  Roman  power  during  the 
 war  with  Hantabal.  It  was  subsequently  recotonized 
 by  Augustus  and  Kero  {Front,  dc  Col.),  but  Straho 
 (239  and  249)  makes  it  a  very  inconsiderable  place, 
 having  suffered  materially  in  the  Marsic  war.  The 
 modern  Iscrriii  is  supposed  to  represent  ^sernia. 
 yEsioN.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 iEsoN,  son  of  Cretheus  and  Tyro.  He  succeed- 
 ed his  father  in  the  kingdom  of  lolchos,  but  was  de- 
 throned by  his  half-brother  Pelias.  ^Eson  became  the 
 father,  by  Alcimede,  of  the  celebrated  Jason,  the  Icad- 
 ei  of  the  Argonauts.  Through  fear  of  the  usurper, 
 Jnson  was  intrusted  to  the  care  of  the  centaur  Chiron, 
 and  brought  up  at  a  distance  from  the  court  of  Pelias. 
 On  his  arriving  at  manhood,  however,  he  came  to  lol- 
 chos, according  to  one  account,  to  claim  his  inherit- 
 ance ;  but,  according  to  another,  he  was  invited  by  Pe- 
 lias to  attend  a  sacritice  to  Neptune  on  the  seashore. 
 The  result  of  the  interview,  whatever  may  have  been 
 the  cause  of  it,  was  an  order  from  Pelias  to  go  in  quest 
 of  the  golden  tleece.  (F/(i.  Jason.)  During  the  ab- 
 sence of  Jason  on  this  well-known  expedition,  the  tyr- 
 anny of  Pelias,  according  to  one  version  of  the  story, 
 drove  ^Eson  and  Alcimede  to  self-destruction  ;  an  act 
 of  cruelty,  to  which  he  was  prompted  by  intelligence 
 havini"  been  received,  that  all  the  Argonauts  had  perish- 
 ed, and  by  a  consequent  wi.sh  on  his  part  to  make  him- 
 self doubly  secure,  by  destroying  the  parents  of  Jason. 
 He  put  to  death  also  their  remaining  child.  {Apollod., 
 1,9,  \G,sciiq.—Diod.  &k.,4,  50. — Hygm.,2i.)  Ovid, 
 however,  gives  a  quite  ditferent  account  of  the  latter 
 days  of  .Eson.  According  to  the  poet  {Met.,  7,  297, 
 seqq.),  Jason,  on  his  return  with  Medea,  found  his 
 father  ^Eson  still  alive,  but  enfeebled  by  age  ;  and  the 
 Colchian  enchantress,  by  drawing  the  blood  from  his 
 veins  and  then  filling  them  with  the  juices  of  certain 
 herbs  which  she  had  gathered  for  the  purpose,  restored 
 him  to  a  manhood  of  forty  years.  The  daughters  of 
 Pelias  having  entreated  Medea  to  perform  the  same 
 operation  on  their  aged  father,  she  embraced  this  op- 
 portunity of  avenging  the  wrongs  inflicted  on  Jason 
 and  his  parents  by  the  death  of  the  usurper.  {Vid. 
 Pelias.) 
 
 ^EsoNiDES,  a  patronymic  of  Jason,  as  being  de- 
 scended from  ^Eson. 
 
 jEsopus,  I.  a  celebrated  fabulist,  who  is  supposed 
 to  have  flourished  about  620  B.C.  {Larcker,  Hist, 
 d' Herod.,  Table  ChronoL,  vol.  7,  p.  539.)  Much  un- 
 certainty, however,  prevails  both  on  this  point,  as  well 
 as  in  relation  to  the  country  that  gave  him  birth. 
 Some  ancient  writers  make  him  to  have  been  a  Thra- 
 cian.  (Compare  Mohnikc,  Gcsch.  Litt.  Gr.  und  R., 
 vol.  1,  p.  291.)  Suidas  states  that  he  was  either  of 
 Samos  or  Sardis  ;  but  most  authorities  are  in  favour 
 of  his  having  been  a  Phiygian,  and  born  at  Cotyoeum. 
 All  ap|)car  to  agree,  however,  in  representing  him  as 
 of  servile  origin,  and  owned  in  succession  by  several 
 masters.  The  first  of  these  was  Demarchus,  or,  ac- 
 cording to  the  readmg  of  the  Florence  MS.,  Timar- 
 chus,  who  resided  at  Athens,  where  .^sop,  conse- 
 quently, must  have  had  many  means  of  improvement 
 within  his  reach.  From  Demarchus  he  came  into  the 
 possession  of  Xanthus,  a  Samian,  who  sold  him  to 
 ladmon.  a  philosopher  of  the  same  island,  under  whose 
 roof  he  had  for  a  fellow-slave  the  famous  courtesan 
 Ilhodope.  {Herod.,  2,  134.)  ladmon  subsequently 
 gave  him  his  freedom,  on  account  of  the  talents  which 
 ho  displayed,  and  ^sop  now  turned  his  attention  to 
 foreign  travel,  partly  to  extend  the  sphere  of  his  own 
 knowledge,  and  partly  to  communicate  instruction  to 
 others.  The  vehicles  in  which  this  instruction  was 
 conveyed  were  fables,  the  peculiar  excellence  of  which 
 has  caused  his  name  to  be  associated  with  this  pleas- 
 ing branch  of  composition  through  every  succeeding 
 period,  ^sop  is  said  to  have  visited  Persia,  Egypt, 
 Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  in  the  last  of  which  countries 
 
 his  name  was  rendered  peculiarly  famous.  The  re^ 
 utation  for  wisdom  which  he  enjoyed,  induced  (Jrce, 
 sus,  king  of  Lydia,  to  invite  him  to  his  court.  Tht 
 fabulist  obeyed  the  call,  but,  after  residing  some  time 
 at  Sardis,  again  journeyed  into  Greece.  At  the  period 
 of  his  second  visit,  the  Athenians  are  said  to  have  been 
 oppressed  by  the  usurpation  of  Pisistratus,  and  to  con- 
 sole them  under  this  state  of  thino-s,  .^sop  is  related 
 to  have  invented  for  them  the  fable  of  the  frogs  peti- 
 tioning Jupiter  for  a  king.  The  residence  of  .iEsop 
 in  Greece  at  this  time  would  seem  to  have  been  a  long 
 one,  if  any  argument  for  such  an  opinion  may  be 
 drawn  from  a  line  of  Phredrus  (3,  14),  in  which  the 
 epithet  of  sciicx  is  applied  to  the  fabulist  during  the 
 period  of  this  his  stay  at  Athens.  He  returned,  how- 
 ever, eventually  to  the  court  of  the  Lydian  monarch. 
 Whether  the  well  known  conversation  between  .lEsop 
 and  Solon  occurred  after  the  return  of  the  former  from 
 his  second  journey  into  Greece,  or  during  his  previous 
 residence  with  Croesus,  cannot  be  satisfactorily  ascer- 
 tained :  the  latter  opinion  is  most  probably  the  more 
 correct  one,  if  we  can  believe  that  the  interview  be- 
 tween Solon  and  Croesus,  as  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
 (1,  30,  seqq.),  ever  took  place.  It  seems  that  Solon 
 had  offended  Cra'sus  by  the  low  estimation  in  which 
 he  held  riches  as  an  ingredient  of  happiness,  and  was, 
 in  consequence,  treated  with  cold  indifference.  {He- 
 rod., 1,  33.)  -Esop,  concerned  at  the  unkind  treat- 
 ment which  Solon  had  encountered,  gave  him  the  fol- 
 lowing advice:  "A  wise  man  should  resolve  eithC 
 not  to  converse  with  kings  at  all,  or  to  converse  witN 
 them  agreeably."  To  which  Solon  replied,  "Nay,  he 
 should  either  not  converse  with  them  at  all,  or  con- 
 verse with  them  usefully."  {Pint.,  Vit.  Sol.,  28.)  The 
 particulars  of  ^Esop's  death  are  stated  as  follows  by 
 Plutarch  {de  sera  numinis  vindicia,  p.  556. — Op.  ed. 
 Rciskc,  vol.  8,  p.  203.)  Croesus  sent  him  to  Delphi 
 with  a  large  amount  of  gold,  in  order  to  offer  a  mag- 
 nificent sacrifice  to  Apollo,  and  also  to  present  four 
 mincB  to  each  inhabitant  of  the  sacred  city.  Having 
 had  some  difference,  however,  with  the  people  of  Del- 
 phi, he  offered  the  sacrifice,  but  sent  back  the  money  to 
 Sardis,  regarding  the  intended  objects  of  the  king's 
 bounty  as  totally  unworthy  of  it.  The  irritated  Del- 
 phians,  with  one  accord,  accused  him  of  sacrilege,  and 
 he  was  thrown  down  the  rock  Hyampea.  Suidas 
 makes  him  to  have  been  hurled  from  the  rocks  called 
 Phoedriades,  but  the  remark  is  an  erroneous  one,  since 
 these  rocks  were  too  far  from  Delphi,  and  the  one  from 
 which  he  was  thrown  was,  according  to  Lucian,  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  that  city.  {Phalaris  prior. —  Op. 
 ed.  Bip.,  vol.  5,  p.  46. — Compare  Larcher,  Hist,  d' He- 
 rod., vol.  7,  p.  539.)  Apollo,  offended  at  this  deed, 
 sent  all  kinds  of  maladies  upon  the  Delphians,  who,  in 
 order  to  free  themselves,  caused  proclamation  to  be 
 made  at  all  the  great  celebrations  of  Greece,  that  if 
 there  was  any  one  entitled  so  to  do,  who  would  de- 
 mand satisfaction  from  them  for  the  death  of  .^sop, 
 they  would  render  it  unto  him.  In  the  third  genera- 
 tion came  a  Samian,  named  ladmon,  a  descendant  of 
 one  of  the  former  masters  of  the  fabulist,  and  the  Del- 
 phians, having  made  atonement,  were  delivered  from 
 the  evils  under  which  they  had  been  suffering.  Such 
 is  the  narrative  of  Plutarch.  And  we  are  also  in- 
 formed, that,  to  evince  the  sincerity  of  their  repent- 
 ance, they  transferred  the  punishment  of  sacrilege,  for 
 the  time  to  come,  from  the  rock  Hyampea  to  that 
 named  Nauplia.  Other  accounts,  however,  inform  us, 
 that  ^sop  offended  the  people  of  Delphi  by  compa- 
 ring them  to  floating  sticks,  which  appear  at  a  dis- 
 tance to  be  something  great,  but,  on  a  near  approach, 
 dwindle  away  into  insignificance,  and  that  he  was  ac- 
 cused, in  consequence,  of  having  carried  off  one  of  the 
 vases  consecrated  to  Apollo.  The  scholiast  on  Aris- 
 tophanes (Ffsj!?.,  1486)  informs  us,  that  JEso^  had  ir- 
 ritated the  Delphians  by  remarking  of  them,  that  they 
 
 69 
 
^SOPUS. 
 
 ^ST 
 
 had  no  land,  like  Jther  people,  on  the  produce  of  which 
 to  support  ihcinsolves,  but  were  compelled  to  depend 
 for  subsistence  on  the  remains  of  the  sacrifices.  De- 
 termined to  be  revenged  on  him,  they  concealed  a 
 tonsecratcd  cup  amid  his  baggage,  and,  when  he  was 
 BOme  distance  from  their  city,  pursued  and  arrested 
 him.  The  production  of  the  cup  sealed  his  fate,  and 
 he  was  thrown  from  the  ro'.k  Hyampea,  as  already 
 mentioned.  A.**  they  were  leading  him  away  to  exe- 
 cution, he  is  said  to  have  recited  to  them  tlie  fable  of 
 the  eagle  and  beetle,  but  without  producing  any  eflect. 
 The  memory  of  ,-Esop  was  highly  honoured  through- 
 out Greece,  and  the  Athenians  erected  a  statue  to  him 
 {Flmdrus,  2,  EpiL,  2,  seqq.),  the  work  of  the  cele- 
 brated Lysippus,  which  was  placed  opposite  those  of 
 the  seven  sages.  It  must  be  candidly  confessed, 
 however,  that  little,  if  anything,  is  known  with  cer- 
 tainty respecting  the  life  of  the  fabulist,  and  what  we 
 have  thus  detailed  of  him  appears  to  rest  on  little  more 
 than  mere  tradition,  and  the  life  which  Planudes,  a 
 monk  of  the  fourteenth  century,  is  supposed  to  have 
 given  to  the  world  ;  a  piece  of  biography  possessing 
 few  intrinsic  claims  to  our  belief  Hence  some  wri- 
 ters have  doubted  whether  such  an  individual  as  yEsop 
 ever  existed.  (Compare  Visconli,  Iconografui  Greca, 
 vol.  1,  p.  154,  where  the  common  opinion  is  advoca- 
 ted.) But,  whatever  we  may  think  on  this  head,  one 
 point  at  least  is  certain,  that  none  of  the  fables  which 
 at  present  go  under  the  name  of  /Esop  were  ever 
 written  by  him.  They  appear  to  have  been  preserved 
 for  a  long  time  in  oral  tradition,  and  only  collected  and 
 reduced  to  writing  at  a  comparatively  late  period. 
 Plato  {Phc£don.—Op.,  pt.  2,  vol.  3,  p.  9,cd.  bekkcr) 
 informs  us,  that  Socrates  amused  himself  in  prison,  to- 
 wards the  close  of  his  life,  with  versifying  some  of 
 these  fables.  (Compare  Flut.  de  Aud.  Poet.,  p.  16,  c, 
 and  WyLtcnhach,  ad  loc.)  His  example  found  numer- 
 ous imitators.  A  collection  of  the  fables  of  yEsop, 
 as  they  were  called,  was  also  made  by  Demetrius 
 Phalereus  {Dioff.  Laert.,  5,  80),  and  another,  between 
 150  and  50  B.C.,  by  a  certain  Babrius.  (Compare 
 Tyrwhiti,  Dissert.  dcBabrio,  bond.,  1776,  8vo  )  The 
 former  of  these  was  probably  in  prose  ;  the  latter  was 
 in  choliambic  verse  {vid.  Babrius).  But  the  bad  taste 
 of  the  grammarians,  in  a  subsequent  age,  destroyed  the 
 metrical  form  of  the  fables  of  Babrius,  and  reduced 
 them  to  prose.  To  them  we  owe  the  loss  of  a  large 
 portion  of  this  collection.  Various  collections  of  ^so- 
 pian  fables  have  reached  our  times,  among  which  six 
 have  attained  to  a  certain  degree  of  celebrity.  Of 
 these  the  most  ancient  is  not  older  than  the  thirteenth 
 century ;  the  author  is  unknown.  It  is  called  the 
 collection  of  Florence,  and  contains  one  hundred  and 
 ninety-nine  fables,  together  with  a  puerile  life  of  the 
 fabulist  by  Planudes,  a  Greek  monk  of  the  fourteenth 
 century.  The  second  collection  was  made  by  an  un- 
 known hand  in  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century. 
 The  monk  Planudes  formed  the  third  collection.  The 
 fourth,  called  the  Heidelberg  collection,  together  with 
 the  fifth  and  sixth,  styled,  the  former  the  Augsburg 
 collection,  the  latter  that  of  the  Vatican,  are  the  work 
 of  anonymous  compilers.  These  last  three  contain 
 many  of  the  fables  of  Babrius  reduced  to  bad  jirose. 
 Besides  the  collections  which  have  just  been  enumer- 
 ated, we  ])Ossess  one  of  a  character  totally  distinct 
 from  the  rest.  It  is  a  Greek  translation,  executed  in 
 the  fifteenth  century  by  Michael  Andreopulus,  from  a 
 Syriac  original,  which  would  appear  itself  to  have  been 
 nothin"  more  than  a  translation  from  the  Greek,  by  a 
 Persian  named  Syntifa.  {Schbll,  Hisl.  Lilt.  Gr,  vol. 
 1,  p.  253.) — As  regards  the  question,  whether  the  fa- 
 bles of  the  Arabian  Lokman  have  served  as  a  proto- 
 type for  those  of  ^Esop,  or  otherwise,  it  may  be  re- 
 marked, that,  in  the  opinion  of  Do  Sacy  {Biof;raphic 
 Vnivcrsellc,  vol.  24,  p.  631,  5.  v.  Lokman),  the  apo- 
 logues of  the  Arabian  fabulist  are  nothing  more  than 
 70 
 
 an  imitation  of  some  of  those  ascribed  to  JEso^p,  and 
 that  they  in  no  respect  bear  the  marks  of  an  Arabian 
 invention.  (Compare  the  observations  of  Erpenius, 
 in  the  preface  to  his  edition  of  Lokman,  1615  ) — With 
 respert  to  the  ))erson  of  -(Esop,  it  has  been  generally 
 supposed  tliat  the  statement  of  Planudes,  which  makes 
 him  to  have  been  exceedingly  deformed,  his  head  of  a 
 conical  shape,  his  belly  protuberant,  his  limbs  distort- 
 ed, &c.,  was  unworthy  of  credit.  Visconti,  however, 
 supports  the  assertions  of  Planudes  in  this  particular, 
 from  the  remains  of  ancient  sculpture.  (Icvnograjia 
 Greca,  vol.  1,  p.  155.) — 1'he  best  editions  of  yEsop 
 are  the  following:  that  of  Heusinger,  Lips.,  1741, 
 8vo ;  that  of  Ernesti,  Lips.,  1781,  8vo  ;  that  of  Co- 
 ray,  Paris,  1810,  8vo  ;  and  that  of  De  Furia,  Lips., 
 1810,  8vo. — II.  An  eminent  Roman  tragedian,  and 
 the  most  formidable  rival  of  the  celebrated  Koscius, 
 though  in  a  difi'erent  line.  Hence  Quintilian  (11,  3) 
 remarks,  "  Rosciiis  citatior,  JEsopns  gravior  fuit, 
 quod  Ulc  comadias,  hie  tragadias  egit."  His  surname 
 was  Clodius,  probably  from  his  being  a  frecdman  o) 
 the  Clodian  or  Claudian  family.  He  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  born  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century 
 of  Rome,  since  Cicero,  in  a  letter  written  A.U.C.  699 
 {Ep.  ad  Fam.,  7,  1),  speaks  of  him  as  advanced  in 
 years.  Some  idea  of  the  energy  with  which  he  acted 
 his  parts  on  the  stage  may  be  formed  from  the  anec- 
 dote related  by  Plutarch  ( Vit.  Cic.,  5),  who  informs  us, 
 that  on  one  occasion,  as  iEsopus  was  performing  the 
 part  of  Atreus,  at  the  moment  when  he  is  meditating 
 vengeance,  he  gave  so  violent  a  blow  with  his  sceptre 
 to  a  slave  who  approached,  as  to  strike  him  lifeless  tt 
 the  earth.  A  circumstance  mentioned  by  Valerius 
 Maximus  (8,  10,  2),  shows  with  what  care  .iEsopus 
 and  Roscius  studied  the  characters  which  they  repre 
 sented  on  the  stage.  Whenever  a  cause  of  any  im 
 portaiice  was  to  be  tried,  and  an  orator  of  any  emi 
 nence  was  to  plead  therein,  these  two  actors  wert 
 accustomed  to  mix  with  the  spectators,  and  carefull) 
 observe  the  movements  of  the  speakers  as  well  as  the 
 expression  of  their  countenances.  yEsopus,  like  Ros 
 cius,  lived  in  great  intimacy  with  Cicero,  as  may  be 
 seen  in  various  passages  in  the  correspondence  of  the 
 latter.  He  appeared  for  the  last  time  in  public  on 
 the  day  when  the  theatre  of  Pompey  was  dedicated, 
 A.U.C.  699,  but  his  physical  powers  were  unequal  to 
 the  effort,  and  his  voice  failed  him  at  the  very  begin- 
 ning of  an  adjuration,  "  Si  scie7is  fallo."  {Cic.,  Ep. 
 ad  Fain.,  7,  1.)  He  amassed  a  very  large  fortune, 
 which  his  son  squandered  in  a  career  of  the  most  ridic- 
 ulous extravagance.  It  is  this  son  of  whom  Horace 
 (Sat.,  2,  3,  239)  relates,  that  he  dissolved  a  costly  pearl 
 in  vinegar,  and  drank  it  off.  Compare  the  statement 
 of  Pliny  (9,  59). — III.  An  engraver,  most  prob- 
 ably of  SigRum.  The  time  when  he  lived  is  uiKer- 
 tain.  In  connexion  with  some  brother-artist,  he  made 
 a  large  cup,  with  a  stand  and  strainer,  dedicated  by 
 Phanodicus,  son  of  Hermocrates,  in  the  Prytaneum  at 
 Sigsuin.  (Consult  the  remarks  of  Hermann,  iiber 
 Bockh's  Behandlung  dtr  Grieeh.  Inschnft.,  p.  216- 
 219.)— IV.  Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 yEsTii,  a  nation  of  Germany,  dwelling  aloiog  the 
 southeastern  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  Hence  the 
 origin  of  their  name,  from  the  Teutonic  Est,  "  east," 
 as  indicating  a  community  dwelling  in  the  eastern  part 
 of  Germany.  (Compare  the  English  Essex,  i.  e., 
 jEstsexia.)  They  carried  on  a  traffic  in  amber,  whick 
 was  found  in  great  abundance  along  their  shores. 
 This  circumstance  alone  would  lead  us  to  place  them 
 in  a  part  of  modern  Prussia,  in  the  country  probably 
 beyond  Dantzic.  Tacitus  calls  their  position  "  the 
 right  side  of  the  Suevic"  or  Baltic  "Sea."  It  is  incor- 
 rect to  assign  them  to  modern  Esthonia.  Either  this 
 last  is  a  general  name  for  any  country  lying  to  the 
 east,  or  else  the  Esthians  of  Esthonia  came  originatlj 
 from  what  is  now  Prussia.     The  .^Estii  worshipped 
 
^TH 
 
 ETHIOPIA. 
 
 ttccoiirmg  to  Tacitus,  the  mother  of  the  gods,  Hertha, 
 and  the  symbol  of  her  worship  was  a  wild  boar.  Now, 
 as  this  animal  was  sacred  to  Freya,  the  Scandinavian 
 Venus,  and  as  Freya  is  often  confounded  with  Frigga, 
 the  rnotherof  the  gods  in  the  Scandinavian  mythology, 
 Tacitus  evidently  fell  into  a  similar  error,  and  misun- 
 derstood his  informers.  {Tacit.,  M.  G.,  45. — Pmk- 
 trton.  Diss,  on  Scy/hmns,  &c.,  p.  168.) 
 
 ^soLA,  a  town  of  Latium,  the  site  of  which  remains 
 undiscovered.  Horace  {Od.,  3,  29,  6)  speaks  of  it  in 
 the  same  line  with  Tibur,  whence  it  is  naturally  sup- 
 posed to  have  stood  in  the  vicinity  of  that  place.  Pliny 
 (3,  5)  enumerates  /Esula  among  the  Latin  towns,  which 
 tio  longer  existed  in  his  time.  Velleius  Paterculus 
 (1,  14)  calls  the  place  ^Esulum,  and  reckons  it  among 
 the  colonies  of  Rome.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  3, 
 p.  66.) 
 
 jEsyetes,  a  Trojan  prince,  supposed  by  some  to 
 have  been  the  parent  of  Antenor  and  Ucalegon,  while 
 others  make  him  to  have  been  descended  from  a  more 
 ancient  Ucalegon,  who  had  married  Ilios,  the  daughter 
 of  Laomedon.  Homer  (//.,  13,427)  mentions  Alcath- 
 ous  as  the  son  of  ..Esyetes,  and  the  son-in-law  of  An- 
 chises,  who  had  given  him  his  eldest  daughter  Hippo- 
 damia  in  marriage.  {Hcyne,  ad  IL,  2,  793.)  The 
 tomb  of  ^syetes  is  alluded  to  by  Homer  (//.,  2,  793), 
 and  is  said  by  Strabo  (599)  to  have  been  five  stadia  dis- 
 tant fronr  Troy,  and  on  the  road  leading  to  Ale.xandrea 
 Troas.  It  afforded  a  very  convenient  post  of  observa- 
 tion in  the  Trojan  war.  Dr.  Clarke  gives  the  follow- 
 ing account  of  it  {Travels,  &c.,  vol.  3,  p.  92,  scqq., 
 Eng.  ed):  "Coming  opposite  to  the  bay,  which  has 
 been  considered  as  the  naval  station  used  by  the  Greeks 
 during  the  Trojan  war,  and  which  is  situate  on  the 
 eastern  side  of  the  embouchure  of  the  Mender,  the  eye 
 of  the  spectator  is  attracted  by  an  object  predomina- 
 ting over  every  other,  and  admirably  adapted,  by  the 
 singularity  of  its  form,  as  well  as  by  the  peculiarity 
 of  its  situation,  to  overlook  that  station,  together 
 with  the  whole  of  the  low  coast  near  the  mouth  of  the 
 river.  This  object  is  a  conical  mound,  rising  from  a 
 line  of  elevated  territory  behind  the  bay  and  the  mouth 
 of  the  river.  It  has,  therefore,  been  pointed  out  as  the 
 tomb  of  /Esyetes,  and  is  now  called  Udjek  Tepc.  If 
 we  had  never  heard  or  read  a  single  syllable  concern- 
 ing the  war  of  Troy,  or  the  works  of  Homer,  it  would 
 have  been  impossible  not  to  notice  the  remarkable  ap- 
 pearance presented  by  this  tvimihis,  so  peculiarly 
 placed  as  a  post  of  observation  commanding  all  ap- 
 proach to  the  harbour  and  river."  In  another  part  (p. 
 198),  the  same  intelligent  traveller  observes:  "The 
 tumulus  of  -Esyetes  is,  of  all  others,  the  spot  most  re- 
 markably adapted  for  viewing  the  Plain  of  Troy,  and 
 it  is  visible  in  almost  all  parts  of  Troas.  From  its  top 
 may  be  traced  the  course  of  the  Scamander  ;  the  whole 
 chain  of  Ida,  stretcliing  towards  Lectum  ;  the  snowy 
 heights  of  Gargarus,  and  all  the  shores  of  the  Helles- 
 pont near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  with  Sigceum,  and 
 the  other  tumuli  upon  the  coast."  Bryant  endeavours 
 to  show,  that  what  the  Greeks  regarded  as  the  tombs  of 
 princes  and  warriors,  were  not  so  in  reality,  but  were, 
 for  the  most  part,  connected  with  old  religious  rites 
 and  customs,  and  used  for  religious  purposes.  {My- 
 thology, vol.  2,  p.  167,  seqq.)  Lechevalier,  however, 
 successfully  refutes  this. 
 
 J^'svMNisTEs.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 ^thai.Ia.  vid.  Ilva. 
 
 yJ/nnunK.s,  a  son  of  Mercury,  and  herald  of  the  Ar- 
 gonauts, who  obtained  from  his  father  the  privilege  of 
 being  among  the  dead  and  the  living  at  stated  limes. 
 Hence  he  was  called  irfi>f/fie(io<:  Kj/pv^,  from  his  spend- 
 ing one  day  in  Hades,  and  the  next  upon  earth,  alter- 
 nately. It  is  said  also  that  his  soul  underwent  various 
 transmigrations,  and  that  he  appeared  successively  as 
 Euphorbus,  son  of  Panthfis,  Pyrus  the  Cretan,  an  Elean 
 whose  name  is  not  known,  and  Pythagoras      {Schol. 
 
 JEther  {kWfip),  a  personified  idea  of  the  mythical 
 cosmogonies.     {Vid.  Supplement.) 
 
 -^THicEs,  aThessalian  tribe  of  uncertain  but  ancient 
 origin,  since  they  are  mentioned  by  Homer  {II. ,  2,  744), 
 who  states  that  the  Centaurs,  expelled  by  Pirithous  from 
 Mount  Pelion,  withdrew  to  the  yEtliices.     Strabo  (327 
 and  434)  says,  that  they  inhabited  the  Thessalian  side 
 of  Pindus,  near  the  sources  of  the  Peneus,  but  that  their 
 possession  of  the  latter  was  disputed  by  the  Tymphxi, 
 who  were  contiguous  to  them  on  the  Epirotic  side  of 
 the  mountain.     Marsyas,  a  writer  cited  by  Stephanas 
 Byzantinus  {s.  v.  AlOiKia),  described  the  ^ihices  as  a 
 most  daring  race  of  barbarians,  whose  sole  object  was 
 robbery  and  plunder.     Lycophron  {v.  802)  calls  Poly- 
 sperchon  AWikuv  Trpupiog.     Scarcely  any  trace  of  this 
 people  remained  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 
 ^THicus.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 ^Ethiopia,  an  extensive   country  of  Africa,  to  the 
 south  of  Egypt,  lying  along  the   Sinus  Arabicus  and 
 Mare  Erythra;um,  and  extending  also  far  inland.     An 
 idea  of  its  actual  limits  will  best  be  formed  from  a  view 
 of  the  gradual  progress  of  Grecian  discovery  in  relation 
 to  this  region.     /Ethiops  {A.l6ioip)  was  the  expression 
 used  by  the  Greeks  for  everything  which  had  contract- 
 ed a  dark  or  swarthy  colour  from  exposure  to  the  heat 
 of  the  sun  {aWu,  "  to  burn,"  and  uxjj,  "  the  visage"). 
 The  term  was  applied  also  to  men  of  a  dark  complexion, 
 and  the  early  Greeks  named  all  of  such  a  colour  ^thi- 
 opcs,  and  their  country  .Ethiopia,  wherever  situated. 
 It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  Greeks  obtained  their 
 knowledge  of  the  existence  of  such  a  race  of  men  from 
 the  Phoenicians  and  Egyptians,  and  that  this  knowledge, 
 founded  originally  on  mere  report,  was  subsequently 
 confirmed  by  actual  inspection,  when  the  Greek  colo- 
 nists along  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor,  in  their  commer- 
 cial intercourse  with  Sidon  and  Egypt,  beheld  there 
 the  caravans  which  had  come  m  from  Southern  Africa. 
 Homer  makes  express  mention  of  the  .Ethiopians  in 
 many  parts  of  his  poems,  and  speaks  of  two  divisions 
 of  them,  the  Eastern  and  Western.     The  explanation 
 given  by  Eustathius  and  other  Greek  writers  respect- 
 ing these  two  classes  of  men,  as  described  by  the  poet, 
 cannot  be  the  true  one.     They  make  the  Nile  to  have 
 been  the  dividing  line  (Z?i^5/a/A.,  p.  13S6,  ad  Horn,  Od., 
 1,  23);  but  this  is  too  refined  for  Homer's  geographi- 
 cal acquaintance  with  the  interior  of  Africa.     By  the 
 Eastern  Ethiopians  he  means  merely  the  imbrowned 
 natives  of  Southern  Arabia,  who  brought  their  wares 
 to  Sidon,  and  who  were  believed  to  dwell  in  the  imme- 
 diate vicinity  of  the  rising  sun.    The  Egyptians  were  ac- 
 quainted with  another  dark-coloufed  naiion,  the  Libyans. 
 These,  although  the  poet  carefully  distinguishes  their 
 country  from  that  of  the  Ethiopians  {Od.,  4,  84),  still 
 become,  in  opposition  to  the  Eastern,  the  poet's  West- 
 ern Ethiopians,  the  more  especially  as  it  remained  un- 
 known how  far  the  latter  extended   to  the  west   and 
 south.     This  idea,  originating  thus  in  early  antiquity, 
 respecting  the  existence  of  two  distinct  classes  of  dark- 
 coloured  men,  gained  new  strength  at  a  later  period. 
 In  the  immense  army  of  Xerxes  were  to  be  seen  men 
 of  a  swarthy  complexion  from  the  Persian  provinces  in 
 the  vicinity  of  India,  and  others  again,  of  similar  visage, 
 from  the  countries  lying  to  the  south  of  Egypt.     With 
 the  exception  of  colour,  they  had  nothing  in  common 
 with  each  other.     Their  language,  manners,  physical 
 make,  armour,  &c.,  were  entirely  different.     Notwith- 
 standing  this,  however,  they  were  both  regarded  as 
 Ethiopians.     (Compare  Herodotus,  7,  69,  seqq.,  and  3, 
 94,  seqq.)     The  Ethiopians  of  the  farther  east  disap- 
 peared gradually  from  remembrance,  while  a  more  in- 
 timate intercourse  with  Egypt  brought  the  Ethiopians 
 of  Africa  more  frequently  mto  view,  and  it  is  to  these, 
 therefore,  that  we  now  turn  our  attention. — Ethiopia, 
 according  to  Herodotus,  includes  the  countries  above 
 Egypt,  the  present  Nubia  and  Abyssinia.     Immediate- 
 ly above  Syene  and  Elephantine,  remarks  this  writer 
 
 71 
 
.ETHIOPIA. 
 
 .ETHIOPIA. 
 
 (2,  29),  the  .Ethiopian  races  begin.  As  far  as  the  town 
 and  island  of  Tachoinpso,  seventy  or  eighty  miles  above 
 Syene,  these  are  mixed  with  Egyptians,  and  higher  up 
 dwell  ,t]thiopians  alone.  The  Jilhiopians  he  distin- 
 guishes into  the  inhabitants  of  Meroe  and  the  Macrobii. 
 In  Strabo(800)and  Pliny  (6,29)  we  find  other  tribes  and 
 towns  referred  to,  but  the  most  careful  division  is  that 
 by  Agatharchides,  whose  work  on  the  Red  Sea  is  unfor- 
 tunately lost,  with  the  exception  of  some  fragments. 
 Af^atharchides  divides  them  according  to  their  way  of 
 life.  Some  carried  on  agricult(n-e,  cultivating  the  mil- 
 let ;  others  were  herdsmen  ;  while  some  lived  by  the 
 chase  and  on  vegetables,  and  others,  again,  along  the 
 sea-shore,  on  fish  and  marine  animals.  The  rnde  tribes 
 who  lived  on  the  coast  and  fed  on  fish  are  called  by 
 Agatharchides  the  Ichlliijophagi.  Along  both  banks  of 
 the  Astaboras  dwelt  another  nation,  who  lived  on  the 
 roots  of  reeds  growing  in  the  neighbouring  swamps  : 
 these  roots  they  cut  to  pieces  with  stones,  formed  them 
 inio  a  tenacious  mass,  and  dried  them  in  the  sun.  Close 
 to  these  dwelt  the  Hylophagi,  who  lived  on  the  fruits 
 of  trees,  vegetables  growing  in  the  valleys,  &c.  To 
 the  west  of  these  were  the  hunting  nations,  who  fed 
 on  wild  beasts,  which  they  killed  with  the  arrow.  There 
 were  also  other  tribes,  who  lived  on  the  flesh  of  the  ele- 
 phant and  the  ostrich,  the  EUphanlophdgi  and  Struth- 
 ophaoi.  Besides  these,  he  mentions  another  and  less 
 populous  tribe,  who  fed  on  locusts,  which  came  in 
 swarms  from  the  southern  and  unknown  districts. 
 {Agatharch.,de  Ruhr.  Mar.  —  Gcograph.  Gr.  Min.,e<l. 
 Hudson,  vol.  1,  p.  37,  seqq.)  The  accuracy  with  which 
 Acratharchides  has  pointed  out  the  situation  of  these 
 tribes,  does  not  occasion  much  difliculty  in  assimilating 
 them  to  the  modern  inhabitants  of  J-^thiopia.  Accord- 
 ing to  him,  they  dwelt  along  the  banks  of  the  Astabo- 
 ras, which  separated  tliem  from  Meroe ;  this  river  is 
 the  Allar,  or,  as  it  is  also  called,  the  Tacazzc ;  they 
 must,  consequently,  have  dwelt  in  the  present  Shaji- 
 galla.  The  mode  of  life  with  these  people  has  not  in 
 the  least  varied  for  2000  years  ;  although  cultivated 
 nations  are  situate  around  them,  they  have  made  no 
 progress  in  improvement  themselves.  Their  land  be- 
 ing unfavourable  both  to  agriculture  and  the  rearing  of 
 catile,  they  are  compelled  to  remain  mere  hunters. 
 Most  of  the  different  tribes  mentioned  by  Agatharchi- 
 des subsist  in  a  similar  manner.  The  Dobcnahs,  the 
 most  powerful  tribe  among  the  SItavgallus,  still  live 
 on  the  elephant  and  the  rhinoceros.  The  Baasa,  in 
 the  plains  of  Snc,  yet  eat  the  flesh  of  the  lion,  the 
 wild  hog,  and  even  serpents  :  and  farther  to  the  west 
 dwells  a  tribe,  who  subsist  in  the  summer  on  the  locust, 
 and  at  other  seasons  on  the  crocodile,  hippopotamus,  and 
 fish.  Diodorus  Siculus  (3,  28)  reinaiks,  that  almost  all 
 these  people  die  of  verminous  diseases  produced  by  this 
 food  ;  and  Bruce  {Travels,  2d  cd.,  vol  5,  p.  83)  makes 
 the  same  observation  with  respect  to  the  WmIo,  on  the 
 Lake  Dambca,  who  live  on  crocodiles  and  other  Nile 
 animals.  Besides  these  inhabitants  of  the  plains,  .'Ethi- 
 opia was  peopled  by  a  more  powerful,  and  somewhat 
 more  civilized,  shepherd-nation,  who  dwelt  in  the  caves 
 of  the  neighbouring  mountains,  namely,  the  Troglo- 
 dyfcB.  A  chain  of  high  mountains  runs  along  the  Afri- 
 can shore  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  which  in  Egypt  are  com- 
 posed of  granite,  marble,  and  alabaster,  but  farther  south 
 of  a  softer  kind  of  stone.  At  the  foot  of  the  gulf  these 
 mountains  turn  inward,  and  bound  the  southern  portion 
 of  Abvssinia.  This  chain  was,  in  the  most  ancient 
 times,' inhabited  by  these  Troglodyte,  in  the  holes  and 
 grottoes  formed  by  nature  but  enlarged  by  human  la- 
 bour. These  people  were  not  hunters  ;  they  were 
 herdsmen,  and  had  their  chiefs  or  princes  of  the  race. 
 Remains  of  the  Troglodytcz  still  e.\ist  in  the  Hhpo, 
 Hazor/a,  &c.,  mentioned  by  Bruce  (vol.  4,  p.  266). 
 A  still  more  celebrated  .iilhiopian  nation,  and  one 
 which  has  been  particularly  described  to  us  by  Herod- 
 utus  (3,  17,  seqq.),  was  the  Macrobii,  for  an  account  of 
 72 
 
 whom,  and  of  the  state  and  city  of  Meroe,  the  stt7dent 
 is  referred  to  these  articles  respectively.  Under  the 
 latter  of  these  heads  some  remarks  will  also  be  ofl'ered 
 respecting  the  trade  of  .'Ethiopia — The  early  and  cu- 
 rious belief  respecting  the  Ethiopian  race,  that  they 
 stood  highest  in  the  favour  of  the  gods,  and  that  the 
 deities  of  01ymj)us,  at  stated  seasons,  enjoyed  among 
 them  the  festive  hospitality  of  the  banquet,  would  seeiu 
 to  have  arisen  from  the  peculiar  relation  in  which  Me- 
 roe stood  to  the  adjacent  countries  as  the  parent  city 
 of  civilization  and  religion.  Piety  and  rectitude  were 
 the  first  virtues  with  a  nation  whose  dominion  was 
 founded  on  religion  and  commerce,  not  on  oppression. 
 The  active  imagination,  however,  of  the  early  Greeks, 
 gave  a  different  turn  to  this  feature  in  the  -Ethiopian 
 character,  and,  losing  sight  of  the  true  cause,  or,  per- 
 haps, never  having  been  acquainted  with  it,  they  sup- 
 posed that  a  race  of  men,  who  could  endure  such  in- 
 tense heat  as  they  were  thought  to  encounter,  must  be  a 
 nobler  order  of  beings  than  the  human  family  in  gen- 
 eral ;  and  that  they  who  dwelt  so  near  the  rising  and 
 setting  of  the  orb  of  day,  could  not  but  be  in  closer 
 union  than  the  rest  of  their  species  with  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  skies.  (Compare  Ma7!;i€r/,  10, 103.) — The  .-Ethi- 
 opians were  intimately  connected  with  the  Egyptians 
 in  the  early  ages  of  their  monarchy,  and  iEihiopian 
 princes,  and  whole  dynasties,  occupied  the  throne  of 
 the  Pharaohs  at  various  times,  even  to  a  late  period 
 before  the  Persian  conquest.  The  .Ethiopians  had 
 the  same  religion,  the  same  sacerdotal  order,  the 
 same  hieroglyphic  writing,  the  same  rites  of  sepul- 
 ture and  ceremonies  as  the  Egyptians.  Religious 
 pomps  and  processions  were  celebrated  in  common 
 between  the  two  nations.  The  images  of  the  gods 
 were  at  certain  times  conveyed  up  the  Nile,  from  their 
 Egyptian  temples  toothers  in  yEthiopia  ;  and,  after  the 
 conclusion  of  a  festival,  were  brought  back  again  into 
 Egypt.  (Diod.  Sic,  1,  23.— Eustaih.,  ad  11.,  1,  423.) 
 The  ruins  of  temples  found  of  late  in  the  countries 
 above  Egypt  {vid.  Meroe),  and  which  are  quite  in  the 
 Egyptian  style,  confirm  these  accounts  ;  they  were, 
 doubtless,  the  temples  of  the  ancient  .Ethiopians.  It 
 is  nowhere  asserted  that  the  Ethiopians  and  Egyptians 
 used  the  same  language,  but  this  seems  to  be  implied, 
 and  is  extremely  probable.  We  learn  from  Diodorus, 
 that  the  /Ethiopians  claimed  the  first  invention  of  the 
 arts  and  philosophy  of  Egypt,  and  even  pretended  to 
 have  planted  the  first  colonies  in  Egypt,  soon  after  that 
 country  had  emerged  from  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  or 
 rather  of  the  Mediterranean,  by  which  it  was  tradition- 
 ally rejiorted  to  have  been  covered.  The  Ethiopians, 
 in  later  times,  had  political  relations  with  the  Ptole- 
 mies, and  Diodorus  saw  ambassadors  of  this  nation 
 in  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Caesar,  or  Augustus.  An 
 Ethiopian  queen,  named  Candace,  made  a  treaty  with 
 Augustus,  and  a  princess  of  the  same  name  is  men- 
 tioned by  St.  liuke  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Hov* 
 far  the  dominion  of  the  Ethiopian  princes  extended 
 is  unknown,  but  they  probably  had  at  one  period  pos» 
 sessions  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  relations 
 with  Arabia.  After  this  we  find  no  farther  mention  of 
 the  ancient  Ethiopian  empire.  Other  names  occur  in 
 the  countries  intervening  between  Egypt  and  Abys- 
 sinia ;  and  when  the  term  .Ethiopian  is  again  met  with 
 in  a  later  age,  it  is  found  to  have  been  transferred  to 
 the  princes  and  people  of  Habesh.  Such  is  the  his- 
 tory of  .'I'^thiopia  among  the  profane  writers.  By  the 
 Hebrews  the  same  people  are  mentioned  frequently 
 under  the  name  of  Cush,  which  by  the  Septuagint 
 translators  is  always  rendered  klOions^,  or  yEihiopians. 
 The  Hebrew  term  is,  however,  applied  sometimes  to 
 nations  dwelling  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Red  Sea, 
 and  hence  a  degree  of  ambiguity  respecting  its  mean- 
 ing in  some  instances.  This  subject  has  been  amply 
 discussed  by  Boehart  andMichaehs.  Among  the  He- 
 brews of  later  times,  the  term  Cush  clear.y  helo)   s  to 
 
.ETHIOPIA. 
 
 ^TH 
 
 the  ^Ethiopians.  The  ^Ethiopians,  who  were  con- 
 nected with  tiie  Egyptians  by  affinity  and  intimate  po- 
 litical relations,  arc  by  the  later  Hebrew  historians 
 termed  Cush.  Thus  Tizhakah,  the  Cushite  invader  of 
 Jud;<h,  is  evidently  Tearchon  the  Ethiopian  leader 
 mertioned  by  Slrabo,  and  the  same  who  is  termed 
 Tarakos,  and  is  set  down  by  Manetho,  in  the  well- 
 known  tables  of  dynasties,  as  an  ^Ethiopian  king  of 
 Eo-ypt.  In  the  earlier  ages  the  term  Cush  belonged 
 apparently  to  the  same  nation  or  race  ;  though  it  would 
 appear  that  the  Cush  or  .^Ethiopians  of  those  times  oc- 
 cupied both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  Cush  men- 
 tioned by  Moses  arc  pointed  out  by  him  to  be  a  nation 
 of  kindred  origin  with  the  Egyptians.  In  the  Toldoth 
 Eotii  Noach,  or  Archives  of  the  sons  of  Noah,  which 
 Michaelis  {Spicileg.  Geogr.  Hebr.  Ext.)\\&s  proved  to 
 contain  a  digest  of  the  historical  and  geographical 
 knowledge  of  the  ancient  world,  it  is  said,  that  the  Cush 
 and  the  Misraim  were  brothers,  which  means,  as  it  is 
 generally  allowed,  nations  nearly  allied  by  kindred. 
 It  is  very  probable,  that  the  first  people  who  settled  in 
 Arabia  were  Cushite  nations,  who  were  afterward  ex- 
 pelled or  succeeded  by  the  Beni  Yoktan  or  true  Arabs. 
 In  the  enumeration  of  the  descendants  of  Cush  in  the 
 Toldoth  Beni  Noach,  several  tribes  or  settlements  are 
 mentioned  in  Arabia,  as  Saba  and  Havila.  When  the 
 author  afterward  proceeds  to  the  descendants  of  Yok- 
 tan, the  very  same  places  are  enumerated  among  their 
 settlements.  That  the  Cush  had  in  remote  times 
 possessions  in  Asia,  is  evident  from  the  history  of  Nim- 
 rod,  a  Cushite  chieftain,  who  is  said  to  have  possessed 
 several  cities  of  the  Assyrians,  among  which  was  Ba- 
 bel, or  Babylon,  in  Shinar.  Long  after  their  departure 
 the  name  of  the  Cush  remained  behind  them  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  probable  that  the  name 
 of  Cush  continued  to  be  given  to  tribes  which  had  suc- 
 ceeded the  genuine  Cushitcs  in  the  possession  of  their 
 ancient  territories  in  Arabia,  after  the  whole  of  that 
 people  had  passed  into  Africa,  just  as  the  English  are 
 termed  Britons,  and  the  Dutch  race  of  modern  times 
 Belgians.  In  this  way  it  happened,  that  people,  re- 
 mote in  race  from  the  family  of  Ham,  are  yet  named 
 Cush,  as  the  Midianites,  who  were  descended  from 
 Abraham.  The  daughter  of  Jethro,  the  Midianite,  is 
 termed  a  Cushite  woman.  Even  in  this  instance,  the 
 correspondence  of  Cush  and  ^Ethiopia  has  been  pre- 
 served. We  iind  the  word  rendered  JElhiopissa  by 
 the  Septuagint  translators,  and  in  the  verses  of  Eze- 
 kiel,  the  Jewish  Hellenistic  poet,  Jethro  is  placed  in 
 Africa,  and  his  people  are  termed  .Ethiopians.  On  the 
 whole,  it  may  be  considered  as  clearly  established, 
 that  the  Cush  are  the  genuine  ^Ethiopian  race,  and 
 hat  the  coiuury  of  the  Cush  is  generally  in  Scripture 
 that  part  of  .Africa  which  lies  above  Egypt.  In  support 
 of  these  positions  may  be  cited,  not  only  the  authority 
 of  the  Septuagint,  and  the  writers  already  mentioned, 
 but  the  concurring  testimony  of  the  Vulgate,  and  all 
 other  ancient  versions,  with  that  of  Philo,  Josephus, 
 Eupolemus,  and  all  the  Jewish  commentators  and 
 Christian  fathers.  There  is  only  one  writer  of  anti- 
 quity on  the  other  side,  and  he  was  probably  misled 
 by  the  facts  which  we  have  already  considered.  This 
 single  dissentient  is  the  writer  of  Jonathan's  Targum, 
 and  on  this  authority  the  learned  Bochart,  supported  by 
 some  doubtful  passages,  maintains  that  the  land  of  Cush 
 was  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Arabian  Gulf. 
 It  has  been  satisfactorily  shown,  however,  by  the  au- 
 thors of  the  Universal  History,  and  by  Michaelis,  that 
 many  of  these  passages  require  a  different  version,  and 
 prove  that  the  land  of  Cush  was  /Ethiopia.  {Prich- 
 ard's  Physical  History  of  Man,  2d  ed.,  vol.  1,  p.  289, 
 seq(/.)— As  regards  the  physical  character  of  the  ancient 
 ^•thiopians,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  Greeks  com- 
 monly used  the  term  /Ethiopian  nearly  as  we  use  that  of 
 negro  :  they  constantly  spoke  of  the  Ethiopians,  as 
 we  sneak  of  the  negroes,  as  if  they  were  the  blackest 
 K 
 
 people  known  in  the  world.  "  To  wash  the  vEthiopjan 
 white,"  was  a  proverbial  expression  applied  to  a  hope- 
 less attempt.  It  may  be  thought  that  the  term  Ethiopi- 
 an was  perhaps  used  vaguely,  to  signify  all  or  many  Af- 
 rican nations  of  dark  colour,  and  that  the  genuine  Ethi- 
 opians may  not  have  been  quite  so  black  as  others. 
 But  it  must  be  observed,  that  though  other  black  na- 
 tions may  be  called  by  that  name  when  taken  in  a 
 wider  sense,  this  can  only  have  happened  in  consi - 
 quence  of  their  resemblance  to  those  from  whom  the 
 term  originated.  It  is  improbable  that  the  Ethiopians 
 were  destitute  of  a  particular  character,  the  possession 
 of  which  was  the  very  reason  why  other  nations  parti- 
 cipated in  their  name,  and  came  to  be  confounded  with 
 them.  And  the  most  accurate  writers,  as  Strabo,  foi 
 example,  apply  the  term  Ethiopian  in  the  same  way, 
 Strabo,  in  the  15th  book  (686),  cites  the  opinion  of 
 Theodectes,  who  attributed  to  the  vicinity  of  the  sun 
 the  black  colour  and  woolly  hair  of  the  Ethiopians. 
 Herodotus  expressly  affirms  (7,  70),  that  the  Ethiopi- 
 ans of  the  west,  that  is,  of  Africa,  have  the  most  woolly 
 hair  of  all  nations  :  in  this  respect,  he  says,  they  dif- 
 fered from  the  Indians  and  Eastern  Ethiopians,  who 
 were  likewise  black,  but  had  straight  hair.  Moreover, 
 the  Hebrews,  who,  in  consequence  of  their  intercourse 
 with  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,  could  not  fail  to  know 
 the  proper  application  of  the  national  term  Cush,  seem 
 to  have  had  a  proverbial  expression  similar  to  that  of 
 the  Greeks,  "  Can  the  Cush  change  his  colour,  or  the 
 leopard  his  spots'?"  {Jeremiah,  13,  23.)  This  is 
 sufficient  to  prove,  that  the  Ethiopian  was  the  darkest 
 race  of  people  known  to  the  Greeks,  and,  in  earlier 
 times,  to  the  Hebrews.  The  only  way  of  avoiding 
 the  inference,  that  the  Ethiopians  were  genuine  ne- 
 groes, must  be  by  the  supposition,  that  the  ancients, 
 among  whom  the  foregoing  expressions  were  current, 
 were  not  acquainted  with  any  people  exactly  resem- 
 bling the  people  of  Guinea,  and  therefore  applied  the 
 terms  woolly -haired,  flat-nosed,  &c.,  to  nations  who 
 had  these  characters  in  a  much  less  degree  than  those 
 people  whom  we  now  term  negroes.  It  seems  possi- 
 ble, that  the  people  termed  Ethiopians  by  the  Greeks, 
 and  Cush  by  the  Hebrew  writers,  may  either  of  them 
 have  been  of  the  race  of  the  Shangalla,  Shilluk,  or 
 other  negro  tribes,  who  now  inhabit  the  countries 
 bordering  on  the  Nile,  to  the  southward  of  Sennaar  ;  or 
 they  may  have  been  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Nouba 
 or  Barabra,  or  of  people  resembling  them  in  descrip- 
 tion. The  chief  obstacle  to  our  adopting  the  supposi- 
 tion that  these  Ethiopians  were  of  the  Shangalla  race, 
 or  of  any  stock  resembling  them,  is  the  circumstance, 
 that  so  near  a  connexion  appears  to  have  sul)sisted  be- 
 tween the  former  and  the  Egyptians  ;  and  we  know 
 that  the  Egyptians  were  not  genuine  negroes.  Per- 
 haps, after  all,  however,  we  would  be  more  correct  in 
 considering  the  Bedjas,  and  their  descendants  the 
 Abadbd  and  Bisharein,  as  the  posterity  of  the  ancient 
 Ethiopians.  Both  the  Ababde  and  Bisharein  belong 
 to  the  class  of  red,  or  copper-coloured  people.  The 
 former  are  described  by  Belzoni  (Travels,  p.  310), 
 and  the  latter  by  Burckhardt  [Travels  in  Nulla.) 
 
 ^Ethlius.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Eti^r.i,  daughter  of  Pittheus,  king  of  Trcezcne,  and 
 mother  of  Theseus  by  Egeus.  ( Vid.  Egeus  )  She 
 was  betrothed,  in  the  first  instance,  to  Bellerophon ; 
 but  this  individual  being  compelled  to  fly,  in  conse- 
 quence of  having  accidentally  killed  his  brother,  Ethra 
 remained  under  her  father's  roof.  When  Egeus  came 
 to  consult  Pittheus  respecting  an  obscure  oracle  which 
 the  former  had  received  from  the  Delphic  shrine,  Pit- 
 theus managed  to  intoxicate  him,  and  give  him  the 
 company  of  his  daughter.  From  this  intercourse  sprang 
 Theseus.  (FiVi.  Egeus.)  Ethra  was  afterward  taken 
 captive  by  Castor  and  Pollux,  when  these  two  came  in 
 quest  of  Helen,  whom  Theseus  had  carried  off,  and 
 made  themselves  masters  of  Athens.     She  accompa- 
 
 73 
 
AETIUS. 
 
 AETIUS. 
 
 nied  Helen  to  Troy  when  the  latter  was  abducted  by 
 Paris,  and,  on  the  fall  of  Troy,  she  was  restored  to 
 her  home  by  Acamas  and  Dcmophoon,  her  grandsotis, 
 and  the  sons  of  Theseus.  {Apollod.,  3,  15,  4. — Id., 
 3,  10,  7. — Hcync,  ad  Apollod.,  l.  c.) 
 
 AetIov,  I.  a  famous  painter,  who  lived  in  the  time 
 of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  executed  a  painting  of 
 the  nuptials  of  Aie.Kander  and  Ro.xana  ;  and  the  piece 
 was  so  much  admired  at  the  Olympic  Games,  whither 
 the  artist  had  carried  it  for  e.vhibilion,  tliat  the  presi- 
 dent of  the  games  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage. 
 Such  is  Lucian's  account  {Her.,  5),  who  saw  this 
 painting  in  Italy.  In  another  passage,  likewise,  he 
 refers  to  this  production  of  Aetioirs,  and  bestows  the 
 highest  praises  on  the  lips  of  Ro.xana.  {Imag.,  7.) 
 Raphael  is  said  to  have  traced,  from  Lucian's  descrip- 
 tion of  this  work  of  art,  one  of  his  most  brilliant  com- 
 positions.— II.  A  sculptor,  who  flourished  about  the 
 middle  of  the  third  century  before  the  Christian  era, 
 and  who  is  known  from  Theocritus  {Epigr.,  7.)  At 
 the  request  of  Nicias,  then  a  celebrated  physician  at 
 Miletus,  he  made  a  statue  of  ^Esculapius  out  of 
 cedar.  (As  regards  the  reading  'Aeriuvi,  for  the  com- 
 mon 'HetIuvi,  consult  Kiesslmg,  ad  loc.) — III.  An 
 engraver  on  precious  stones,  whose  age  is  uncertain. 
 {Bracci,  18.— Siliig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Aetius,  I.  an  heresiarch  of  tne  fourth  century,  sur- 
 named  by  his  adversaries  the  Atheist.     He   was  the 
 son  of  a  common  soldier,  and  born  at  Antioch.     His 
 poverty  compelling  him  to  live  by  the  labour  of  his 
 hands,  he   commenced  by  being  a   vine-dresser,  and 
 was  afterward,  in  succession,  a  coppersmith  and  jew- 
 eller.    Being  forced  to  abandon  this  latter  calling,  for 
 having  substituted  a  bracelet  of  gilt-copper  for  one  of 
 gold,  he  followed  the  trade  of  an  empiric,  or  charlatan, 
 with  some  success,  but  was  at  last  driven  from  Anti- 
 och, and  went  to  study  logic  at  Ale.xandrea.     As  he 
 never  attained  any  great  skill  in  this  latter  science,  and 
 was.  at  the  same  time,  but  little  versed  in  the  sacred 
 writings,  he  easily  fell  into  the  new  religious  errors  of 
 the  day,  to  which  he  added  many  others  of  his  own. 
 Epiphanius  has  preserved  forty-seven  erroneous  prop- 
 ositions,   selected   from    his   works,  which  contained 
 more  than  three  hundred.     The  principal  ones  con- 
 sisted in  teaching,  that  the  Son  of  God  was  not  like 
 the  Father;   in  pretending  to  know  God  by  himself; 
 in  regarding  the  most  culpable  actions  as  the  wants  of 
 nature  ;  in  rejecting  the  authority  of  the  prophets  and 
 apostles  ;  in  rebaptizing  in  the  name  of  the  uncreated 
 God,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit  procreated  by  the  created 
 Son  ;  in  asserting  that  faith  is  sufficient  without  works, 
 &c.     His  other  errors  were  nothing  more  than  mere 
 sophisms  founded  on  verbal  equivocations.      He  was 
 ordained  deacon  by   Leontius,  an   Arian  bishop,  who 
 was  soon  compelled  to  forbid  him  the  exercise  of  his 
 ministerial  functions.     After  a  succession  of  stormy 
 conflicts,  he   was  exiled   by   Constantius   to   Cilicia. 
 Julian  recalled  him,  and  assigned  him  lands  nearMyt- 
 ilene,   in  the  island  of  Lesbos.      He  was  even  ordained 
 bishop ;    and,  having   escaped   punishment,  which   he 
 was  afterward  on  the  point  of  undergoing  for  his  at- 
 tachment to  the  cause  of  the  Emperor  Vaiens,  he  died 
 at  Constantinople  A.D.  3tjfi,  and  was  honoured  with  a 
 splendid  funeral.     {S.  Alhanas.,  de  Synod. — Socrat., 
 Hist.  Ecdes.,  1,  28. — August.  Hczr. — Baron.,  Annal. 
 Ann.,  356.) — It.  A  celebrated  Roman  general,  born 
 at  Dorostolus,  in  Moesia.     His  father  Gaudentius,  a 
 Scythian,  attained  to  the  highest  military  employments, 
 and  was  killed  in  Gaul  during  a  mutiny  of  the  soldiers. 
 Aetius,  brought  up  among  the  imperial  body-guards, 
 and  given  at  an  early  period  as  a  hostage  to  the  formida- 
 ble Alaric,  learned  the  art  of  war  under  this  conqueror, 
 and  profited  by  his  stay  among  the  barbarians  to  secure 
 the  attachment  of  a  people  whom  he  was  destined  to 
 have  alternately  as  enemies  and  allies.  In  A.D.  424,  the 
 usurper  John  wishing  to  seize  the  sceptre  of  the  west, 
 74 
 
 Aetius  undertook  to  procure  for  him  the  assistance  of 
 the  Huns.     John,  however,  was  conquered,  and  Aetius 
 immediately  submitted  to  Valentinian,  who  reigned  in 
 the  west  under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother  I'lacid- 
 ia.      Eagerly  desirous  of  the  imperial  favours,  and  jeal- 
 ous of  the  credit  of  Count  Boniface,  Aetius  formed  a 
 treacherous  scheme  against  him,  the  result  of  which 
 was  the  revolt  of  Boniface,  who  invited  Genseric  and 
 the  Vandals  into  Africa.     A  subsequent  explanation 
 between  Boniface  and  Placidia  came  too  late  to  save 
 Africa,  but  it  served  to  e.xpose  the  intrigues  of  Aetius, 
 who  at  this  time  was  crushing  the  Franks  and  Bur- 
 gundians  in  Gaul.     Placidia  did  not  dare  to  punish 
 him,  but  she  bestowed  new  honours  upon  Boniface. 
 Rendered  furious  by  this,  Aetius  flew  hack  to  Italy 
 with  a  few  troops,  encountered  and  gave  battle  to  his 
 rival,  was  conquered,  but  with  his  own  hand  wounded 
 Boniface,  who  died  shortly  after,  A.D.  433.     Placidia 
 was  desirous  of  avenging  his  death,  but  Aetius  retired 
 among  the  Huns,  and  reappeared  subsequently  at  the 
 head  of  sixty  thousand  barbarians  to  demand  his  par- 
 don.    Placidia  restored  to  him  his  charges  and  hon- 
 ours, and  Aetius  returned  to  Gaul  to  serve  the  empire, 
 which  he  defended  with  great  valour  as  long  as  his 
 own  ambitious  views  permitted  this  to  be  done.     His 
 most  brilliant  feat  in  this  quarter  was  the  overthrow 
 of  Attila,  who  had  crossed  the  Rhine  and  Seine  with 
 his  Huns,  and  laid  siege  to  Orleans.     Aetius  marched 
 against  him  with  a  powerful  army,  and  met  his  adver- 
 sary, who  had  raised  the  siege  of  Orleans  and  recross- 
 ed  the  Seine,  in  the  Catalaunian  plains,  near  the  mod- 
 ern Chalons.     The  contest  was  bloody  but  decisive, 
 and  three   hundred   thousand  men  fell  on  both  sides. 
 Notwithstanding,  however,  this  brilliant  achievement, 
 Aetius,  in  his  turn,  became  the  victim   of  court  in- 
 trigue, and  being  sent  for  by  Valentinian,  and  having 
 approached  him  without  distrust,  was  on   a  sudden 
 stabbed  to  the  heart  by  that  suspicious  and  cowardly 
 emperor.     His  death  happened  A.D.  4.54.     {Procop., 
 de  Jieb.  Goth.,  5. — Jornandcs,  de  liegn.  Success  ,  c. 
 19. — Piiul  Dtacon.,  Hist.  Miscell,  19,  16. — Biogra- 
 phic Universelk,  vol.   1,  p.  267.) — III.   A   physician 
 of  Amida,  in  Mesopotamia,  who  flourished  at  the  close 
 of  the  fifth  century  and   the   beginning  of  the  sixth. 
 The  works  of  Aetius  are  a  valuable  collection  of  med- 
 ical facts  and  opinions,  being  deficient  only  in  arrange- 
 ment ;  since  on  several  subjects  their  merit  is  trans- 
 cendent.     For  example,  the  principles  of  the  Materia 
 Medico  are  delivered  with  admirable  precision  in  the 
 beginning  of  the  first  book.     Of  all  the  ancient  trea- 
 tises on  fever,  that  contained  in  the  fifth  book  of  Ae- 
 tius may  be  instanced  as  being  the  most   complete  ; 
 and  it  would  not  be  easy  perhaps,  at  the  present  day, 
 to  point  out  a  work  so  full  on  all  points,  and  so  correct 
 in  practice.     Of  contagion,  as  an  exciting  cause   of 
 fever,  he  makes  no  mention  ;  and  as  his  silence,  and 
 that  of  the  other  medical  authors  of  antiquity,  has  often 
 been  thought  unaccountable,  it  may  be  proper  to  say  a 
 few  words  in  explanation.      Palladius,  who  has  given 
 a  most  comprehensive  abstract  of  the  doctrines  of  Ga- 
 len and  his  successors  on  the  subject  of  fever,  enu- 
 merates the  following  exciting  causes  of  fevers:  )st. 
 The  application  of  a  suitable  material ;  as  when  things 
 of  a  caleficicnt  nature,  such  as  pepper,  mustard,  and 
 the  like,  arc  taken  immoderately  by  a  person  of  a  hot 
 temperament :  2d.  Motion  ;  which  may  be  either  men- 
 tal or  corporeal :  3d.   Constriction  of  the  pores  of  the 
 skin,  occasioned   either  by  the  thickness  of  the  hu- 
 mours, or  the  coldness  and  dryness  of  the  surround- 
 ing atmosphere.     (This,  by-the-by,  accords  with  Dr. 
 CuUen's  Theory  of  spasm  of  the   extreme  vessels) : 
 4th.   Putrefaction  of  the  fluids  :  5th.  The  application 
 of  heat,  such  as  by  exposure  of  the  head  to  the  sun. — 
 Epidemical  fevers  the  ancients  considered  as  being  oc- 
 casioned by  a  depraved  state  of  the  atmosphere,  ari- 
 sing from  putrid  miasmata,  or  similar  causes.    With- 
 
AETIUS. 
 
 ^TNA, 
 
 out  doubt,  in  cases  of  malignant  fevers,  they  were 
 aware  that  the  effluvia  from  the  bodies  of  those  afflict- 
 ed with  them  contaminated  the  surroimding  atmo- 
 sphere, and  that  the  fevers  were  propagated  in  this 
 manner.  Hence  Galen,  Calius  Anrelianus,  Khazes, 
 and  Avicenna,  rank  the  plague  among  those  complaints 
 which  pass  from  one  person  to  another :  and  Isidorus 
 deHnes  the  plague  thus:  "  Pcslilcntia  est  contagiiim, 
 quod,  dam  urmm  apprchenderit,  cdcnter  ad  plures 
 Iransit."  At  the  same  time,  as  they  did  not  ascribe 
 the  origin  and  propagation  of  these  disordcis  to  a  pe- 
 culiar virus,  they  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  treat  of 
 contagion  as  a  distinct  cause  of  fever,  because,  in  this 
 view  of  the  matter,  it  is  clearly  rcferrible  to  some  one 
 of  the  general  causes  enumerated  above.  Thus,  the 
 atmosphere  of  the  ill-ventilated  apartment  of  a  patient 
 in  fever  becoming  vitiated,  and  being  inhaled  by  a  per- 
 son in  health,  might  occasion  fever,  either  by  produ- 
 cing constriction  of  the  pores  of  the  skin,  or  putrefac- 
 tion of  the  fluids,  and  accordingly  would  be  referred 
 either  to  the  3d  or  the  4th  class  of  general  causes.  In 
 a  word,  the  opinions  of  the  ancients  upon  this  subject 
 seem  to  have  corresponded  very  much  with  those  oi 
 the  more  reasonable  Macleanites  of  the  present  day, 
 who,  although  they  deny  that  fever,  strictly  speaking, 
 is  contagious,  admit  that  it  is  containinative. — Aetius 
 is  the  first  medical  author  who  has  given  a  distinct  ac- 
 count of  the  Dracunculus,ot  Vermis Medinensis,  now 
 commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Guinea- worm.  He 
 treats  of  this  disease  so  fully,  that  Rhazes  and  Avicen- 
 na have  supplied  but  little  additional  information,  nor 
 have  the  moderns,  in  any  considerable  degree,  im- 
 proved upon  the  knowledge  of  the  ancients.  The 
 method  of  treating  Aneurism  at  the  elbow-joint  is  de- 
 serving of  attention,  as  being  a  near  approximation  to 
 the  improved  method  of  operating  introduced  by  John 
 Hunter  and  Abernethy.  He  directs  the  operator  to 
 make  a  longitudinal  incision  along  the  inner  side  of  the 
 arm,  three  or  four  fingers'  breadth  below  the  armpit, 
 and  having  laid  hare  the  artery,  and  dissected  it  from 
 the  surrounding  parts,  to  raise  it  up  with  a  blind  hook, 
 and,  introducing  two  threads,  to  tie  them  separately 
 and  divide  the  artery  in  the  middle.  Had  he  stopped 
 here,  his  method  would  have  been  a  complete  antici- 
 pation of  the  plan  of  proceeding  now  practised  ;  but, 
 unfortunately,  not  having  sufficient  confidence  in  the 
 absorbing  powers  of  the  system,  he  gives  directions  to 
 open  the  tumour  and  evacuate  its  contents.  Many 
 nice  operations  upon  the  eye  and  surrounding  parts 
 are  accurately  described  by  him. — On  the  obstetrical 
 department  of  surgery  he  is  fuller  than  any  other  an- 
 cient writer. — He  has  also  given  an  account  of  many 
 pharmaceutical  preparations  which  are  not  noticed  else- 
 where. The  work  of  Aetius,  divided  by  the  copyists 
 into  four  Tetrabibli,  and  each  Tctrahiblus  into  four 
 discourses,  consisted  originally  of  sixteen  books.  The 
 first  eight  only  were  printed  in  Greek  at  Venice,  by 
 the  heirs  of  Aldus  Manutius,  fol.,  1534.  The  others 
 have  remained  in  MS.,  in  the  libraries  of  Vienna  and 
 Paris.  Various  editions  have  been  published  of  the 
 Latin  translation  of  the  entire  work  by  Janus  Corna- 
 rius,  under  the  title  of  ContractcB  ex  veferibus  Mcdi- 
 civce  Ictrnhiblis,  at  Venice,  1543,  in  8vo  ;  at  Basle, 
 1542,  1549,  in  fol.;  another  at  Basle,  153.'),  fol.,  of 
 which  the  first  seven  and  the  last  three  books  were  trans- 
 lated by  Montanus  ;  two  at  Tyons,  1549,  fol.,  and  1560, 
 4  vols.  12mo,  with  notes  of  but  little  value,  by  Hugo  de 
 Solcriis  ;  and  one  at  Paris,  1567,  fol  ,  among  the  Med- 
 ■  icce  Artis  Principcs. — IV.  Sicanus,  or  Siculus,  a  phy- 
 sician, and  native  of  Sicily,  as  is  commonly  supposed, 
 to  whom  is  ascribed  a  treatise  on  Melancholy.  The 
 truth  is,  however,  that  the  treatise  in  question  is  no- 
 thing more  than  a  selection  from  the  second  discourse 
 of  the  second  Tctrahiblus  of  Aetius  of  Amida ;  so 
 that  Aetius  the  Sicilian  becomes  a  mere  nonentity. 
 (Scholt,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  7,  p.  253  ) 
 
 .^Etna,  T.  a  celebrated  volcano  of  Sicily,  now  Jitnn, 
 or  Monte  Gibcllo  (shortened  into  Mongibello),  the  lat- 
 ter of  these  modern  appellations  being  adopted  from 
 the  Arabic  Gibcl,  "  a  mountain,"  given  to  jTiltna  on 
 account  of  its  vast  size,  and  recalling  the  remembrance 
 of  the  Arabian  conquests  in  Sicily.  (Compare  the 
 Map  of  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  accompanying  the 
 "  Histoire  dcs  Conquctes  des  Normavds,'"  by  D\irc, 
 where  the  Arabic  names  are  given.)  This  volcano,  so 
 immense  in  size,  that  Vesuvius,  in  comparison,  seems 
 merely  a  hill,  rises  on  the  eastern  side  of  Sicily.  It 
 is  180  miles  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  attains 
 by  a  gradual  ascent  to  the  height  of  10,954  feet  above 
 the  level  of  the  sea.  From  Catania  (the  ancient  Ca- 
 tana),  which  stands  at  the  foot,  to  the  summit,  is  30 
 miles,  and  the  traveller  passes  through  three  distinct 
 zones,  called  the  cultivated,  the  woody,  and  the  desoit. 
 The  lowest,  or  cultivated  zone,  extends  through  an 
 interval  of  ascent  of  16  miles,  and  it  contains  numer- 
 ous small  mountains  of  a  conical  form,  about  300  or 
 400  feet  high,  each  having  a  crater  at  the  top,  from 
 which  the  lava  flows  over  the  surrounding  country. 
 The  fertility  of  this  region  is  wonderful,  and  its  fruits 
 are  the  finest  in  the  island.  The  u-nody  region  forms 
 a  zone  of  the  brightest  green  all  around  the  mountain, 
 and  reaches  up  the  side  about  eight  miles.  In  the 
 desert  region  vegetation  entirely  disappears,  and  the 
 surface  presents  a  dreary  expanse  of  snow  and  ice. 
 The  summit  of  the  mountain  consists  of  a  conical  hill, 
 containing  a  crater  above  two  miles  in  circumference. 
 — The  silence  of  Homer  respecting  the  fires  of  ^Etna 
 has  given  rise  to  the  opinion,  that  the  mountain  in  his 
 time  was  in  the  same  state  of  repose  as  Vesuvius  in 
 the  days  of  Strabo.  The  earliest  writers  who  make 
 mention  of  ^Etna,  and  its  eruptions,  are  the  author  of 
 the  Orphic  poems  {Argonaut.,  v.  12),  and  more  par- 
 ticularly Pindar  {Pyth.,  1,  21,  .'scgrj.,  ed.  Bocckh. 
 Compare  Aldus  Gcllius,  17,  10),  whose  description, 
 in  its  fearful  sublimity,  bears  with  it  all  the  marks 
 of  truth,  and  points  evidently  to  some  accurate  ac- 
 counts of  the  volcano,  as  received  by  the  bard,  per- 
 haps from  King  Hiero.  Thucydides  (3,  116)  is  next 
 in  order.  He  speaks  of  the  stream  of  lava,  which,  in 
 his  time  {01.  88,  3,  B.C.  420),  desolated  the  territory 
 of  Catana  ;  he  asserts,  that,  fifty  years  before,  a  similar 
 flow  of  lava  had  taken  place,  and,  without  any  farther 
 chronological  reference,  makes  mention  also  of  a  third. 
 These  were  the  only  three  eruptions  with  which  the 
 Greeks  had  become  acquainted  since  their  settlement 
 in  Sicily.  That  ^tna,  however,  had,  at  a  much  ear- 
 lier period,  given  proof  of  its  volcanic  character,  is 
 evident  from  the  narrative  of  Diodorus  Siculus  (5,  6), 
 where  w-e  are  informed,  that  the  Sicani  were  compell- 
 ed to  retire  to  the  western  parts  of  the  island,  by  rea- 
 son of  the  devastation  and  terror  which  the  fiery  erup- 
 tions from  the  mountain  had  occasioned.  The  ac- 
 count which  Strabo  gives  (274)  of  the  state  of  things 
 on  the  summit  of  ^Etna,  accords  pretty  accurately  with 
 the  narratives  of  modern  travellers.  The  geographer 
 informs  us,  that  those  who  had  lately  ascended  the 
 mountain  found  on  the  top  a  crater,  or,  as  he  terms  it, 
 a  level  plain  {ttei^'ov  ofialov),  about  twenty  stadia  in 
 circumference,  enclosed  by  a  bank  of  cinders  having 
 the  height  of  a  wall.  In  the  middle  of  the  plain  was 
 a  hill  of  an  ashy  colour,  like  the  surface  of  the  plain. 
 Over  the  hill  a  column  of  smoke  hung  suspended,  ex- 
 tending about  two  hundred  feet  in  height.  Two  of 
 the  party  from  whom  Strabo  received  his  information 
 undertook  to  descend  the  banks  and  enter  upon  the 
 plain,  but  the  hot  and  deep  sand  soon  compelled  them 
 to  retrace  their  steps.  The  geographer,  after  this 
 statement,  then  proceeds  to  contradict  the  common 
 story  respecting  the  fate  of  Empedocles,  the  party  as- 
 suring him  that  the  crater,  or  opening  into  the  bowels 
 of  the  mountain,  could  neither  be  seen  nor  approached. 
 — The  whole  number  of  eruptions  on  record,  in  the 
 
 75 
 
iETOLIA. 
 
 .ETOLIA. 
 
 case  of  ^tna,  is  said  to  be  eighty-one,  of  which  the 
 following  may  be  regarded  as  an  accurate  enumeration. 
 Those  ineiiiioticd  by  Thucydides  amount  to  three. 
 In  122  13.0.  there  was  one.  In  44  A.D.  one.  In 
 252  A.D.  one.  During  the  12th  century,  two  hap- 
 pened. During  the  13th,  one.  During  the  14th,  two. 
 During  the  15th, /owr.  During  the  16ih, /oiir.  Du- 
 ring the  I7th,  twcniy-two.  During  the  18th,  thirty- 
 two.  Since  the  commencement  of  the  19th,  nine. 
 (Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p.  293,  Brussels  ed.) 
 That  the  Greeks  did  not  suffer  this  mountain  to  re- 
 aiain  unemployed  in  their  mythological  legends  may 
 easily  be  imagined,  and  hence  the  fable  that  ^tna 
 lay  on  part  of  the  giant  form  of  Typhon,  enemy  of  the 
 gods.  {Pindar,  I'yth.,  I.  c. — Compare  JEschylus, 
 Prom.  Vinct.,  v.  3(55. — Hyginus,  c.  152. — Apollod., 
 1,  6,  3,  and  Hcyne,  ad  !oc.,  where  the  different  tradi- 
 tions respecting  Typhon  are  collected.)  According 
 to  Virgil  {.En.,  3,  578),  Enceladus  lay  beneath  this 
 mountain.  Another  class  of  my  thographers  placed  the 
 Cyclopes  of  Homeric  fable  on  /Etna,  though  the  poet 
 never  dreamed  of  assigning  the  island  Thrinakia  as  an 
 abode  for  his  giant  creations.  {Mannert,  vol.  3,  p.  9, 
 seqq.)  When  the  Cyclopes  were  regarded  as  the  aids 
 of  Vulcan  in  the  labours  of  the  forge,  they  were  trans- 
 lated, by  the  wand  of  fable,  from  the  surface  to  the 
 bowels  of  the  mountain,  though  the  Lipari  islands 
 were  more  commonly  regarded  as  the  scene  of  Vul- 
 can's art.  {Manncrt,  9,  pt.  2,  p.  297.) — II.  A  small 
 city  on  the  southern  declivity  of  /Etna.  The  first 
 name  of  the  place  was  Inessa,  or  Inessos,  and  Thucyd- 
 ides (6,  94)  speaks  of  the  inhabitants  under  the  ap- 
 pellation of  Inessffii  {'Ivriaaaioi).  The  form  of  the 
 name,  therefore,  as  given  by  Strabo  (268),  namely,  In- 
 nesa  {'Ivi'T/aa),  as  well  as  that  found  in  Diodorus  Sic- 
 ulus  (14,  14),  Ennesia  {'Evvijala),  are  clearly  errone- 
 ous. The  name  of  the  place  was  changed  to  Ailna. 
 by  the  remains  of  the  colony  which  Hiero  had  settled 
 at  Catana,  and  which  the  Siculi  had  driven  out  from 
 that  place.  Hiero  had  called  Catana  by  the  name  of 
 /Etna,  and  the  new-comers  applied  it  to  the  city  which 
 now  furnished  them  with  an  abode.  1'his  migration 
 to  Inessa  happened  01.  79,  4.  At  a  subsequent  pe- 
 riod (01.  94,  2)  we  find  the  elder  Dionysius  master  of 
 the  place,  a  possession  of  much  importance  to  him, 
 since  it  commanded  the  road  from  Catana  to  the  west- 
 ern parts  of  the  island.  The  ancient  site  is  now 
 marked  by  ruins,  and  the  place  bears  the  name  of  Cas- 
 tro.    (Mannert,  10,  pt.  2,  p.  291,  seqq.) 
 
 .EroLi.i,  a  country  of  Greece,  situate  to  the  east  of 
 Acarnania.  The  most  ancient  accounts  which  can  be 
 traced  respecting  this  region,  represent  it  as  formerly 
 possessed  by  the  Curetes,  and  from  them  it  first  re- 
 ceived the  name  of  Curetis.  (.S/raft.,  465.)  A  change 
 was  subsequently  efiected  by  ^tolus,  the  son  of  En- 
 dymion,  who  arrived  from  Elis  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
 at  the  head  of  a  band  of  followers,  and,  having  defeat- 
 ed the  Curetes  in  several  actions,  forced  them  to  aban- 
 don their  country  {vid.  Acarnania),  and  gave  the  ter- 
 ritories which  they  had  left  the  name  of  .^tolia. 
 (Ephor.,  ap.  Strab.,  463, — Fausan.,  5,  1.)  Homer 
 represents  the  .^tolians  as  a  hardy  and  warlike  race, 
 engaged  in  frequent  conflicts  with  the  Curetes.  He 
 informs  us,  also,  that  they  took  part  in  the  siege  of 
 Troy,  under  the  command  of  Thoas  their  chief,  and 
 often  alludes  to  their  prowess  in  the  field.  (//.,  9, 
 527. — 2,  638,  &c.)  Mythology  has  conferred  a  de- 
 gree of  celebrity  and  interest  on  this  portion  of  Greece, 
 from  the  story  of  the  Calydonian  boar,  and  the  exploits 
 of  Meleager  and  Tydeus,  with  those  of  other  ^Etolian 
 warriors  of  the  heroic  age  ;  but,  whatever  may  have 
 contributed  to  give  renown  to  this  province,  Thucydi- 
 des (1,5)  assures  us,  that  the  ^tolians,  in  general, 
 like  most  of  the  northwestern  clans  of  the  Grecian 
 continent,  long  preserved  the  wild  and  uncivilized 
 habits  of  a  barbarous  age.  The  more  remote  tribes 
 76 
 
 were  especially  distinguished  for  the  uncouthness  of 
 their  language  and  the  lerocity  of  their  habits.  {Thu- 
 cyd.,  3,  94  )  In  this  historian's  time  they  had  as  yet 
 made  no  figure  among  the  leading  republics  of  Greece, 
 and  are  seldom  mentioned  m  the  course  of  the  war 
 which  he  undertook  to  narrate.  From  him  we  learn 
 that  the  ^■Etolians  favoured  the  interests  of  the  Lace- 
 daemonians, probably  more  from  jealousy  of  the  Athe- 
 nians, whom  they  wished  to  dislodge  from  Naupacliis, 
 than  from  any  friendship  they  bore  to  the  former.  Tho 
 possession  of  that  important  place  held  out  induce- 
 ments to  the  .Athenians,  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  war 
 to  attempt  the  occupation,  if  not  the  ultimate  conquest, 
 of  all  iLtolia  :  the  expedition,  however,  though  ably 
 planned,  and  conducted  by  Demosthenes  himself,  pro- 
 ved signally  disastrous.  We  scarcely  find  any  subse- 
 quent mention  of  the  .^tolians  during  the  more  im- 
 portant transactions  which,  for  upward  of  a  century, 
 occupied  the  different  states  of  Greece.  We  may 
 collect,  however,  that  they  were  at  that  time  engaged 
 in  perpetual  hostilities  with  their  neighbours  the  Acar- 
 nanians.  On  the  death  of  Philip  and  the  accession  of 
 Ale.xander,  tho  yEtolians  exhibited  symptoms  of  hos- 
 tile feelings  towards  the  young  monarch  {Diod.  Sic  , 
 17,  3),  which,  together  with  the  assistance  they  afford- 
 ed to  the  confederate  Greeks  in  the  Lamiac  war,  drew 
 upon  them  the  vengeance  of  Antipater  and  Craterus, 
 who,  with  apowerful  army,  invaded  their  country,  which 
 they  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword.  The  yEtolians, 
 on  this  occasion,  retired  to  their  mountain-fastnesses, 
 where  they  intrenched  themselves  until  the  ambitious 
 designs  of  Perdiccas  forced  the  Macedonian  generals 
 to  evacuate  their  territory.  {Diod.  Sic.,  18,  25.)  If 
 the  accounts  Pausanias  has  followed  are  correct, 
 Greece  was  afterward  mainly  indebted  to  the  .^Eto- 
 lians  for  her  deliverance  from  a  formidable  irruption  of 
 the  Gauls,  who  had  penetrated  into  Phocis  and  .^Eto- 
 lia.  On  being  at  length  compelled  to  retreat,  these 
 barbarians  were  so  vigorously  pursued  by  the  .^to- 
 lians,  that  scarcely  any  of  them  escaped.  {Pausan., 
 10,  23. — Polyh.,  9,  30.)  From  this  time  we  find 
 ^■Etolia  acquiring  a  degree  of  importance  among  the 
 other  states  of  Greece,  to  which  it  had  never  aspired 
 during  the  brilliant  days  of  Sparta  and  Athens  ;  but 
 these  republics  were  now  on  the  decline,  while  north- 
 ern Greece,  after  the  example  of  Macedonia,  was  train- 
 ing up  a  numerous  and  hardy  population  to  the  prac- 
 tice of  war.  It  is  rarely,  however,  that  history  has  to 
 record  achievements  or  acts  of  policy  honourable  to 
 the  .zCtolians  :  unjust,  rapacious,  and  without  faith  ox 
 religion,  they  attached  themselves  to  whatever  side  the 
 hope  of  gain  and  plunder  allured  them,  which  they 
 again  forsook  in  favour  of  a  richer  prize  whenever  the 
 temptation  presented  itself  {Polyb.,  2,  43  and  46. — 
 Id.,  4,  67.)  We  thus  find  them  leagued  with  Alex- 
 ander of  Epirus,  the  son  of  Pyrrhus,  for  the  purpose 
 of  dismembering  Acarnania,  and  seizing  upon  its  cities 
 and  territory.  {Polyb.,  2,  45. — Id.,  9,  34.)  Again 
 with  Clcomenes,  in  the  hope  of  overthrowing  the 
 Achtean  confederacy.  {Polyb.,  2,  45.)  Frustrated, 
 however,  in  these  designs  by  the  able  counsels  of  Ara- 
 tus,  and  the  judicious  and  liberal  policy  of  Antigonus 
 Doson,  they  renewed  their  attempts  on  the  death  of 
 that  prince,  and  carried  their  arms  into  the  Pelopon- 
 nesus ;  which  gave  rise  to  the  social  war,  so  ably  de- 
 scribed by  Polybius.  This  seems  to  have  consisted 
 rather  in  predatory  incursions  and  sudden  attacks  on 
 both  sides,  than  in  a  regular  and  systematic  plan  of 
 operations.  The  ^tolians  suffered  severely;  for. 
 Philip,  the  Macedonian  king,  whose  youth  they  had  de- 
 spised, advanced  into  the  heart  of  Ji]tolia  at  the  head 
 of  a  considerable  force,  and  avenged,  by  sacking  and 
 plundering  Thermus,  their  chief  city,  the  sacrilegious 
 attack  made  by  them  on  Dodona,  and  also  the  capture 
 of  Dium  in  Macedonia.  {Polyb.,  5,  7,  seqq.)  When 
 the  Romans,  already  hard  pressed  by  the  second  Pu- 
 
^TOLIA. 
 
 AFE 
 
 nic  war,  then  raging  in  Italy,  found  themselves  threat- 
 ened on  the  side  of  Greece  by  the  secret  treaty  con- 
 fluded  hy  the  King  of  Macedon  with  Hannibal,  they 
 saw  the  advantage  of  an  alliance  with  the  /Etolians  in 
 order  to  avert  the  storm  ;  and,  though  it  might  reflect 
 but  little  credit  on  their  policy,  in  a  moral  point  of 
 view,  to  form  a  league  with  a  people  of  such  question- 
 able character,  the  soundness  of  judgment  which  dic- 
 tated the  measure  cannot  be  doubted  ;  since  they  were 
 thus  enabled,  with  a  small  fleet  and  an  army  under  the 
 ccmmand  of  M.  Valerius  Ltevinus,  to  keep  in  check 
 the  wliole  of  the  Macedonian  force,  and  effectually  to 
 preclude  Philip  from  aflfording  aid  to  the  Carthagin- 
 ians in  Italy.  (Livy,  26,  24.)  The  jEtolians  also 
 proved  very  useful  allies  to  the  Roman:?  in  the  Mace- 
 donian war,  during  which  they  displayed  much  zeal 
 and  activity,  particularly  in  the  battle  of  Cynoscepha- 
 lag,  where  their  cavalry  greatly  distinguished  itself,  and 
 contributed  essentially  to  that  decisive  victory.  {Liv., 
 33,  7.)  On  the  conclusion  of  peace,  the  ^Etolians  flat- 
 tered themselves  that  their  exertions  in  favour  of  the 
 Romans  would  be  rewarded  with  a  share  of  the  prov- 
 inces taken  from  the  enemy.  But  the  crafty  Romans 
 considered  ^-Etolia  already  sufficiently  powerful  to  ren- 
 der any  considerable  addition  to  its  territory  impolitic, 
 and  even  dangerous.  The  .^tolians  were,  at  this 
 time,  no  longer  confined  within  the  narrow  limits 
 which  the  early  history  of  Greece  assigns  to  them,  but 
 had  extended  their  dominions  on  the  west  and  north- 
 west as  far  as  Epirus,  where  they  were  in  possession 
 of  Ambracia,  leaving  to  Acarnania  a  few  towns  only 
 on  the  coast  :  towards  the  north,  they  occupied  the  dis- 
 tricts of  Amphilochia  and  Aperantia,  a  great  portion  of 
 Dolopia,  and,  from  their  connexion  with  Athamantia, 
 their  influence  in  that  direction  was  felt  even  to  the 
 borders  of  Macedonia.  On  the  side  of  Thessaly  they 
 had  made  themselves  masters  of  the  country  of  the 
 .-Enianes,  a  large  portion  of  Phthiotis,  with  the  can- 
 tons of  the  Melians  and  Trachinians.  On  the  coast 
 they  had  gained  the  whole  of  the  Locrian  shore  to  the 
 Cri.sssean  Gulf,  including  Naupactus.  In  short,  they 
 wanted  but  little  to  give  them  the  dominion  over  the 
 whole  of  Northern  Greece.  The  Romans,  therefore, 
 satisfied  with  having  humbled  and  weakened  the  Ma- 
 cedonian prince,  still  left  liim  power  enough  to  check 
 and  curb  the  arrogant  and  ambitious  projects  of  this 
 people.  The  ^Etolians  appear  to  have  keenly  felt  the 
 disappointment  of  their  expectations.  {Liv.,  33,  13 
 and  31.)  They  now  saw  all  the  consequences  of  the 
 fault  thev  had  committed,  in  opening  for  the  Romans 
 a  way  to  Greece  ;  but,  too  weak  of  themselves  to  eject 
 these  formidable  intruders,  they  turned  their  thoughts 
 towards  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  whom  they  induced 
 to  come  over  into  that  country,  this  monarch  having 
 been  already  urged  to  the  same  course  by  Hannibal. 
 {Liv.,  35,  33.)  With  the  assistance  of  this  new  ally, 
 they  made  a  bold  attempt  to  seize  at  once  the  three 
 important  towns  of  Demetrias,  Lacedoemon,  and  Chal- 
 cis,  in  which  they  partly  succeeded  ;  and,  had  Antio- 
 chus prosecuted  the  war  as  vigorously  as  it  was  com- 
 menced, Greece,  in  all  probability,  would  have  been 
 saved,  and  Italy  might  again  have  seen  Hannibal  in 
 her  territories  at  the  head  of  a  victorious  army  ;  but  a 
 single  defeat  at  Thermopvlne  crushed  the  hopes  of  the 
 coalition,  and  drove  the  feeble  Antiochus  back  into 
 Asia.  {Luj.,  36,  19.)  The  J^tolians,  deserted  by 
 their  ally,  remained  alone  e.xposed  to  the  vengeance  of 
 the  foe.  Hcraclea,  Naupactus,  and  Ambracia  were 
 in  turn  besieged  and  taken  ;  and  no  other  resource  be- 
 ing left,  they  were  forced  to  sue  for  peace.  This  was 
 granted  A  IJ.G.  563  ;  but  on  conditions  that  for  ever 
 humbled  their  pride,  crippled  their  strength,  and  left 
 them  but  the  semblance  of  a  republic.  {Liv.,  38,  11. 
 —  Pohjh.,  frag.,  22,  13.)— The  iEtolian  polity  appears 
 to  have  consisted  of  a  federal  government,  somewhat 
 similar  to  the  Achaean  league.     Deputies  from  the 
 
 several  states  met  in  a  common  assembly,  called  Pan- 
 setolium,  and  formed  one  republic  under  the  adminis- 
 tration of  a  pra;tor.  This  officer  was  chosen  annually  ; 
 and  upon  him  devolved  more  especially  the  direction 
 of  military  affairs,  subject,  however,  to  the  authority 
 of  the  national  assembly.  Besides  this,  there  was 
 also  a  more  select  council  called  Apocleti.  In  addi- 
 tion to  the  chief  magistrate,  we  hear  of  other  ofEcers, 
 such  as  a  general  of  cavalry  and  a  public  secretary. 
 {Lw.,  31,  29.—rolyb.,  ^,'b.—Id., frag.,  22,  15.— 
 TiUma7in,  Gricchisch.  Staatsverfass.,  p.  386,  seqq.) 
 — The  following  are  the  limits  of  .lEtolia,  according  lo 
 Strabo  (450).  "^I'o  the  west  it  was  separated  from  Acar- 
 nania by  the  Achelous  ;  to  the  north  it  bordered  on  the 
 mountain  districts  occupied  by  the  Athamanes,  Dolo- 
 pes,  and  .-Enianes  ;  to  the  east  it  was  contiguous  to 
 the  country  of  the  Locri  Ozolas,  and,  more  to  the 
 north,  to  that  of  the  Dorians  ;  on  the  south  it  was 
 washed  by  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  The  same  geogra- 
 pher informs  us,  that  it  was  usual  to  divide  the  country 
 within  these  boundaries  into  .(Etolia  Antiqua  and 
 Epictclus.  The  former  extended  along  the  coast  from 
 the  Achelous  to  Calydon  ;  and  included  also  a  con- 
 siderable tract  of  rich  champaign  country  along  the 
 Achelous  as  far  as  Stratus.  This  appears  to  have 
 been  the  situation  chosen  by  .lEtolus  for  his  first  set- 
 tlement. The  latter,  as  its  name  implies,  was  a  ter- 
 ritory subsequently  acquired,  and  comprehended  the 
 most  mountainous  and  least  fertile  parts  of  the  prov- 
 ince, stretching  towards  the  Athamanes  on  the  north 
 side,  and  the  Locri  Ozolas  on  the  eastern.  {Cramer^s 
 Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  60,  seqq.)  ^Etolia  was,  in 
 general,  a  rough  and  mountainous  country.  (Compare 
 Hothouse,  Journey,  &c.,  Letter  16,  vol.  1,  p.  189, 
 Am.  ed. — Pouqueville,  Voyage,  &c.,  vol.  3,  p.  231. J 
 Some  parts,  however,  were  remarkable  for  their  fertil 
 ity  ;  such  as,  1.  The  large  yEtolian  field.  {klruXuv 
 TiEdiov  fieya. — Dionys.,  Perieg.,  v.  4^32.)  2.  Parach- 
 eloitis,  or  the  fruitful  region  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ache- 
 lous, formed  from  the  mud  brought  down  by  the  river, 
 and  drained,  or,  according  to  ihe  legend,  torn  by  Her- 
 cules from  the  rivergod.  (F«Z.  Achelous).  3.  The  Le^ 
 lantian  field,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Evenus.  {Kriisc, 
 Hellas,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  189,  seqq.) 
 
 ^Toi.us,  son  of  Endymion  (the  founder  of  Elis), 
 and  of  Nei's,  or,  according  to  others,  Iphianassa.  Hav- 
 ing accidentally  killed  Apis,  son  of  Phoroneus,  he  fled 
 with  a  band  of  followers  into  the  country  of  the  Cu- 
 retes,  which  received  from  him  the  name  of  .^tolia. 
 {Apollod.,  I,  7,  5.—  Vid.  .E:tolia.) 
 
 JEx,  I.  a  rocky  island  between  Tenos  and  Chios, 
 deriving  its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  a  goat 
 (a/f).  It  is  said  by  some  to  have  given  the  appella- 
 tion of  "^gean"  {A.iyaT.ov)  to  the  sea  in  which  it 
 stood.  {Plin.,  4,  II.) — II.  The  goat  that  suckled 
 Jupiter,  changed  into  a  constellation. 
 
 Afer,  Cn.  Domitius,  an  orator  during  the  reigns 
 of  Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero.  He  was 
 born  at  Nemausus  {Nisrnes),  B.C.  15  or  16,  of  ob- 
 scure parents,  and  not,  as  some  maintain  {Faydit,  Re- 
 marqucs  stir  Virgilc),  of  the  Domilian  line.  After 
 receiving  a  good  education  in  his  native  city,  he  re- 
 moved, at  an  early  age,  to  Rome,  where  he  subse- 
 quently distinguished  himself  by  his  talents  at  the  bar, 
 and  rose  to  high  honours  under  Tiberius.  His  ser- 
 vices as  an  informer,  however,  most  of  all  endeared 
 him  to  the  reigning  prince,  and  in  this  infamous  trade 
 he  numbered  among  his  victims  Claudia  Pulchra,  the 
 cousin  of  Agrippiiia,  and  Q  Varus,  son  of  the  former. 
 A  skilful  flatterer,  he  managed  to  preserve  all  his  fa- 
 vour under  the  three  emperors  who  came  after  Tibe- 
 rius, and  finally  died  of  intemperance  under  the  last  of 
 the  three,  Nero,  A.D.  59.  He  was  the  preceptor  of 
 Quintilian,  who  has  left  a  very  favourable  account  of 
 his  oratorical  abilities.  {Tacitus,  Ann.,  4,  52. — Id. 
 ibid.,  14, 19.— Quintil.,  5,  7.) 
 
 77 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 AfRXNIA.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Afrani*  Gens.      Vid.  .Supplement. 
 
 Afran[us,  I.  a  Latin  comic  poet,  who  flourished 
 aboul  100  B.C.  Cicero  {Brut.,  45)  says,  that  he  irnit* 
 ted  C.  Titins,  and  praises  him  for  acutencss  of  percep- 
 tion, as  welt  as  for  an  easy  style.  ("  Hoinopcmrgutus, 
 infiiliidis  qmdcm  ctiam,  ill  scilis,  discrtus.")  Horace 
 Bpealvs  of  him  as  an  imitator  of  Menander.  (EpisL, 
 2,  I,  57. — Compare  Cic,  de  Fin.,  1,  3.)  Afranius 
 himself  admits,  in  his  Compitnks,  that  he  derived 
 many  even  of  his  plots  from  Menander  and  other 
 Greek  writers.  In  other  instances,  however,  he  made 
 the  manners  and  customs  of  his  own  country  the  hasis 
 of  his  pieces.  Qnintilian  (10,  1,  100)  praises  the  tal- 
 ents of  Afranius,  but,  censures  him,  at  the  same  time, 
 for  his  frequent  and  disgusting  obscenities.  Of  all  his 
 works,  only  some  titles,  and  266  verses  remain,  which 
 are  to  be  found  in  the  Corpus  Po'elarum  of  Ma  ttaire, 
 and  have  also  been  published  by  Bothe  and  Neukirch. 
 (fifi/ir,  Gcsck.  Klim.  LH.,vo\.  1,  p.  III.— Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Rom.,  vol  1,  p.  139.) — II.  Nepos,  a  commander 
 who  had  served  \inder  Pompey,  and  was  named  by  him 
 consul,  A.U.C.  69i,  a  period  when  Pompey  was  be- 
 ginning to  dread  the  power  and  ambition  of  Csesar. 
 Afranms,  however,  performed  nothing  remarkable  at 
 this  particular  time,  having  a  distaste  for  public  afl'airs. 
 Fourteen  years  later,  when  Pompey  and  Ca;sar  had 
 come  to  an  open  rupture,  Afranius  was  in  Spain,  as  the 
 lieutenant  of  the  former,  along  with  Petreius,  who  held 
 a  similar  appointment.  Cfesar  entered  the  country  at 
 this  period,  and  the  two  lieutenants,  uniting  their  for- 
 ces, awaited  his  approach  in  an  advantageous  position 
 near  Ilerda  (the  modern  Lerida).  Caesar  was  defeat- 
 ed in  the  first  action,  and  two  days  afterward  saw 
 himself  blockaded,  as  it  were,  in  his  very  camp,  by  the 
 Budden  rise  of  the  two  rivers  between  which  it  was 
 situate.  His  genius,  however,  triumphed  over  every 
 obstacle,  and  he  eventually  compelled  the  two  lieu- 
 tenants of  Pompey  to  submit  without  a  second  encoun- 
 ter. They  disbanded  their  troops  and  returned  to  It- 
 aly, after  having  promised  never  to  bear  arms  against 
 Casar  for  the  future.  Afranius,  however,  either  for- 
 getful of  his  word,  or  having  in  some  way  released 
 himself  from  the  obligation  he  had  assumed,  took  part 
 with  Pompey  in  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  being  intrust- 
 ed with  the  command  of  the  right  wing,  although  his 
 capitulation  in  Spain  had  laid  him  open  to  the  charge 
 of  having  hplraycd  the  interests  of  his  chief.  After  the 
 battle  oi"  '["hapsus,  Afranius  and  Faustus  Sylla  moved 
 alonif  the  coast  of  Africa,  with  a  small  body  of  troops, 
 in  the  design  of  passing  over  to  Spain,  and  joining  the 
 remains  of  Pompey's  party  in  that  quarter.  They  were 
 encountered,  however,  by  Sitlius,  one  of  the  partisans 
 of  Cfpsar.  who  defeated  and  made  them  prisoners.  It 
 was  the  intention  of  Sittius  to  have  saved  their  lives, 
 but  they  were  both  massacred  by  his  soldiers.  {C<es., 
 Bell.  Civ.,  1,  38.— C;c.,fp.  ad  Alt.,  1,  18.— Pint.,  Vit. 
 Pomp.—Sueton.,  Vit.  Ctcs, 34 — Floras,  4,  2  )— III. 
 Potitus,  a  plebeian,  in  the  reign  of  Caligula,  who,  in  a 
 spirit  of  foolish  flattery,  bound  himself  by  an  oath,  that 
 he  would  depart  from  existence  in  case  the  emperor 
 recovered  from  a  dangerous  malady  under  which  he 
 was  labourmg.  Caligula  was  restored  to  health,  and 
 Potitus  compelled  to  fulfd  his  oath.  {Dio  Cass.,  59, 
 g. — Compare  the  remarks  of  Rcimar,  ad  loc,  on  the 
 belief  prevalent  throughout  the  ancient  world,  that  the 
 life  of  an  individual  could  be  prolonged,  if  another 
 world  lay  down  his  own  in  its  stead.) 
 
 Africa,  one  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  ancient 
 world,  known  to  history  for  upward  of  three  thousand 
 years;  yet,  notwithstanding  its  ancient  celebrity,  and 
 notwithstanding  its  vicinity  to  Europe,  still  in  a  great 
 measure  eluding  the  examination  of  science.  Modern 
 observation  and  discoveries  make  it  to  be  a  vast  penin- 
 sula, 5000  miles  in  length,  and  almost  4600  in  breadth, 
 presenting  in  an  area  of  nearly  13,430,000  square  miles, 
 78 
 
 few  long  or  easily-navigated  rivers. — The  Greeks 
 would  seem  to  have  been  acquainted,  from  a  very  ear- 
 ly period,  with  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  this  coun- 
 try, since  every  brisk  north  wind  would  carry  their 
 vessels  to  its  shores.  Hence  we  find  Homer  already 
 evincing  a  knowledge  of  this  portion  of  tlie  continent. 
 (Od.,  4,  84.)  A  tawny-coloured  population  roamed 
 along  this  extensive  region,  to  whom  the  name  of  Lih- 
 yaiis  {Al6ve()  was  given  by  the  Greeks,  a  corruption, 
 probahly,  of  some  native  term  ;  while  the  country  oc- 
 cupied by  them  was  denominated  Libya  (y  AiCvrj). 
 To  this  same  coast  belonged,  in  strictness,  the  lower 
 portion  of  Egypt ;  but  the  name  of  this  latter  region 
 had  reached  the  Greeks  as  early  as,  if  not  earlier  than, 
 that  of  Libya,  and  the  two  therefore  remained  always 
 disunited.  Egypt,  in  consequence,  was  regarded  as  a 
 separate  country,  until  the  now  tirmly-established  idea 
 of  three  continents  superinduced  the  necessity  of  at- 
 taching it  to  one  of  the  three.  By  some,  therefore,  it 
 was  considered  as  a  part  of  Asia,  while  others  made 
 the  Nile  the  dividing  limit,  and  assigned  part  of  Libya 
 to  Egypt,  while  the  portion  east  of  the  Nile  was  made 
 to  belong  to  the  Asiatic  continent.  As  regarded  the 
 extent  of  Libya  inland,  but  little  was  at  that  time  known. 
 Popular  belief  made  the  African  continent  of  small  di- 
 mensions, and  su[)posed  it  to  be  washed  on  the  south 
 by  the  great  river  Oceanus,  which  encircled  also  the 
 whole  of  what  was  then  supposed  to  be  the  flat  and 
 circular  disk  of  the  earth.  In  this  state,  or  very  nearly 
 so,  Herodotus  found  the  geographical  knowledge  and 
 opinions  of  his  contemporaries.  The  historian  oppo- 
 ses many  of  the  speculations  of  the  day  on  this  subject 
 (4,  36,  scqq.) ;  he  rejects  the  earth-encompassing  Uce- 
 anus,  as  well  as  the  idea  that  the  earth  was  round  as 
 if  made  by  a  machine.  He  condemns  also  the  division 
 into  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  on  account  of  the  great 
 disproportion  of  these  regions.  Compelled,  however, 
 to  acquiesce  in  the  more  prevalent  opinions  of  the  day, 
 he  recognises  Libya  as  distinct  from  Egypt,  or,  more 
 properly  speaking,  makes  the  Nile  the  dividing  line, 
 though,  from  his  own  private  conviction,  it  is  easy  to 
 perceive  that  he  himself  takes  for  the  eastern  limit  of 
 Africa,  what  is  regarded  as  such  at  the  present  day. 
 None  of  the  later  geographers,  down  to  the  time  of 
 Ptolemy,  appear  to  have  disturbed  this  arrangement. 
 Eratosthenes,  Timosthenes,  and  Artemidorus,  all  adopt 
 it ;  Strabo  also  docs  the  same,  though  he  considers 
 the  Arabian  Gulf,  with  the  isthmus  to  the  north,  as  af- 
 fording the  far  more  natural  boundary  on  the  east.  As 
 Alexandrca,  however,  was  built  to  the  west  of  the 
 mouths  of  the  Nile,  the  canal  which  led  off  to  this  city 
 was  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
 continent,  and  hence  we  find  the  city  belonging  on  one 
 side  to  Libya,  and  on  the  other  to  Asia.  (Hicrocles, 
 Bcllum  Alcxandr.,  c.  14.)  The  Romans,  as  in  most 
 of  their  other  geographical  views,  followed  here  also 
 the  usages  of  the  Greeks,  and  hence  Mela  (1,  1)  re- 
 marks, "  Quod  Icrrarum  jar.et  a  /reload  Nilum,  Af- 
 ricam  vocamus."  As,  however,  in  their  subdivisions 
 of  territory,  the  district  of  Marmarica  was  added  to  the 
 government  of  Africa,  they  began  gradually  to  contract 
 the  limits  of  Libya,  and  to  consider  the  Catabathmus 
 Magnus  as  the  dividing  point.  Hence  we  find  the 
 same  Mela  remarking  (1,  8),  "  Catabathmus,  vallis 
 dcvcxa  in  JEgyplum,  fimt  Africam.'"  In  consequence 
 of  this  new  arrangement,  Egypt  on  both  sides  of  tho 
 Nile  befan  to  be  reckoned  a  part  of  the  continent  of 
 Asia.  (•'  JEgyplus  Asict  prima  pars,  inter  Calabath- 
 imim  ct  Arabas." — Me.la,l,  9.)  Ptolemy  laid  aside, 
 in  his  day,  all  these  arbitrary  points  of  separation,  and, 
 assuming  the  Arabian  (lulf  as  the  true  and  natural  di- 
 vidincr  line  on  the  east,  made  Egypt  a  part  of  Africa, 
 and  added  to  the  same  continent  the  whole  western 
 coast  of  the  same  gulf,  which  had  before  been  regard- 
 ed as  an  appendage  of  Arabia.  (Mannert,  10.  pt.  2, 
 p.  1,  seqq.)— The  name  of  Africa  seems  to  have  been 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 originally  applied  by  the  Romans  to  the  country  around 
 Carthage,  the  first  part  of  the  continent  with  which 
 they  became  acquainted,  and  the  appellation  is  said  to 
 have  been  derived  from  a  small  Carthaginian  district 
 on  the  northern  coast,  called  Fngi.  (Rittcr,  Enlkun- 
 de,  1,  p.  955,  2d  cd.)  Hence,  even  when  the  name 
 had  become  applied  to  the  whole  continent,  there  still 
 remained,  in  Roman  geography,  the  district  of  Africa 
 Proper,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  corresponding  to 
 the  ii;odern  kingdom  of  Tunis,  with  part  of  that  of  Trip- 
 oli. The  term  Libya,  on  the  other  hand,  though  used 
 by  the  Greeks  to  designate  the  entire  country,  became 
 limited  with  the  Romans  to  a  part  merely  ;  and  thus 
 we  have  with  the  latter,  the  region  of  Libya,  extending 
 along  the  coast  from  the  Greater  Syrtis  to  Egypt,  and 
 stretching  inland  to  the  deserts. — The  knowledge 
 which  Herodotus  possessed  of  this  continent  was  far 
 from  extensive.  He  considered  Africa  as  terminating 
 north  of  the  equinoctial  line  ;  and,  even  in  these  nar- 
 row limits,  Egypt  alone,  ranking  it  as  a  part  of  Africa  in 
 tact,  is  clearly  described.  If  we  exclude  Egypt,  the 
 acquaintance  possessed  by  the  historian  relative  to  the 
 other  parts  of  the  continent,  and  which  is  founded  on 
 the  information  imparled  by  others,  follows  merely 
 three  lines  of  direction  :  one  proceeds  along  the  Nile, 
 and  reaches  probably  the  limit  of  modern  discoveries 
 in  that  quarter  ;  another,  leaving  the  temple  and  Oasis 
 of  Ammon,  loses  itself  in  the  great  desert ;  while  a 
 third  advances  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  as  far  as 
 the  environs  of  Carthage.  {Maltc-Brun,  1,  p.  26, 
 Brussels  cd.)  The  nati\es  of  Africa  are  divided  by 
 Herodotus  into  two  races,  the  Africans,  or,  to  adopt 
 the  Greek  phraseology,  Libyans,  and  the  Ethiopians  ; 
 one  possessing  the  northern,  the  other  the  southern 
 part  (4,  197).  By  these  appear  to  be  meant  the 
 Moors,  and  the  Negroes,  or  the  darker-coloured  nations 
 of  the  interior.  'I'he  common  boundary  of  the  Afri- 
 cans and  ^Ethiopians  in  ancient  times  may  be  placed 
 at  the  southern  border  of  the  Great  Desert.  Hanno 
 found  the  ^Ethiopians  in  possession  of  the  western 
 coast,  about  the  parallel  of  19°  ;  and  Pliny  (5,  31) 
 places  them  at  five  journeys  beyond  Cerne.  At  pres- 
 ent the  negroes  are  not  found  higher  up  than  the  Sen- 
 egal river,  or  about  17°,  and  that  only  in  the  inland 
 parts.  {Rcrmcll,  Geography  of  Herodotus,  p.  427, 
 scqq.)  Nothing,  however,  can  be  more  indeterminate 
 than  the  terms  Ethiopia  and  Ethiopian  ;  and  it  is 
 certain  that  many  distinct  races  were  included  under 
 the  latter  denomination.  ( Vid.  Ethiopia.)  The  whole 
 of  Africa,  except  where  it  is  joined  to  Asia,  was  known 
 by  the  ancients  in  general  to  be  surrounded  by  the  sea  ; 
 bill  of  its  general  figure  and  extension  towards  the  south 
 they  had  no  accurate  knowledge.  There  is  strong  rea- 
 son, however,  to  believe,  that,  at  an  era  anterior  to  the 
 earliest  records  of  history,  the  circumnavigation  of  Af- 
 rica was  accomplished  by  the  Phoenicians  in  the  ser- 
 vice of  Necho,  king  of  Egypt.  Herodotus,  to  whom 
 we  are  indebted  for  the  knowledge  of  this  interesting 
 fact,  speaking  of  the  peninsular  figure  of  the  continent 
 of  Africa,  says  (4,  42):  ''This  discovery  was  first 
 made  by  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  as  far  as  we  are  able 
 to  judge.  When  he  had  desisted  from  opening  the 
 canal  that  leads  from  the  Nile  to  the  Arabian  Gulf,  he 
 sent  certain  Phoenicians  in  ships,  with  orders  to  pass 
 by  the  Columns  of  Hercules  into  the  sea  that  lies  to 
 the  north  of  Africa,  and  then  to  return  to  Egypt. 
 These  Plioenicians  thereupon  set  sail  from  the  Red 
 Sea,  and  entered  into  the  Southern  Ocean.  On  the 
 approach  of  autumn,  they  landed  in  Africa,  and  planted 
 some  grain  in  the  quarter  to  which  they  had  come  : 
 when  this  was  ripe  and  they  had  cut  it  down,  they  put 
 to  sea  again.  Having  spent  two  years  in  this  way, 
 they  in  the  third  passed  the  Columns  of  Hercules,  and 
 returned  to  Egypt.  Their  relation  may  obtain  credit 
 from  others,  but  to  me  it  seems  impossible  to  be  be- 
 lieved ;  for  they  affirmed,  that,  as  they  sailed  around 
 
 the  coast  of  Africa,  they  had  the  sun  on  their  nght 
 hand."  The  report  which  Herodotus  thought  so  slrancfe 
 as  to  throw  discredit  on  the  whole  narrative,  namely, 
 that  in  passing  round  Africa  the  navigators  had  the 
 sun  to  the  right,  affords  to  us,  as  has  been  well  re- 
 marked, the  strongest  presumption  in  favour  of  its  tiutb, 
 since  this  never  could  have  been  imagined  in  an  age 
 when  astronomy  was  yet  in  its  infancy.  The  Phoeni- 
 cians must  of  course  have  had  the  sun  on  their  right  after 
 having  passed  the  line.  {Larcher,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c. — 
 vol.  3,  p.  458. — Compare  Keimcll,  Geography  of  He- 
 rodotus, p.  718.)  Many  writers,  however,  have  la- 
 boured to  prove  that  the  voyage,  in  all  probability, 
 never  took  place  ;  that  the  time  in  which  it  is  said  to 
 have  been  performed  was  too  short  for  such  an  enter- 
 prise at  that  early  day  ;  in  a  word,  thai  the  underta- 
 king was  altogether  beyond  any  means  which  nav- 
 igation at  that  era  could  command.  (^Gosscllin,  Re- 
 chcrchcs,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p.  199,  segq. — Mannert,  1,  p. 
 21,  seqq. — Malte-Brun,  1,  p.  30.)  But  the  learn 
 ed  arguments  of  Rennell  impart  to  the  tradition  a 
 strong  aspect  of  probability.  (Rennell,  Geography 
 of  Herodotus,  p.  672,  scqq. — Compare  Lareher,  ad 
 Herod.,  I.  c,  vol.  3,  p.  458,  seqq. — Murray,  Account 
 of  discoveries  ■in  Africa,  1,  p.  10,  seqq.)  The  date 
 of  this  first  circumnavigation  of  Africa  is  supposed  to 
 be  about  600  B.C.  In  that  rude  stage  of  the  art  of 
 navigation,  however,  the  knowledge  of  a  passage  by 
 the  Southern  Ocean  was  as  unavailable  for  any  mer- 
 cantile or  practical  purposes,  as  the  discovery  of  a  north- 
 west passage  in  modern  days.  The  precarious  and 
 tardy  nature  of  the  voyage,  as  well  as  the  great  expense 
 attending  it,  would  necessarily  preclude  its  being  made 
 the  channel  of  a  regular  commerce  ;  nor  was  there  any 
 sufficient  inducement  for  repeating  the  attempt,  as  the 
 articles  of  merchandise  most  in  request  were  to  be  had 
 much  nearer  home.  Exaggerated  representations, 
 moreover,  of  the  frightful  coast,  and  of  the  stormy  and 
 boundless  ocean  into  which  it  projected,  would  natu- 
 rally concur  in  intimidating  future  adventurers.  Ac- 
 cordingly, we  are  informed  by  Herodotus  (4,  43),  that 
 Sataspes,  a  Persian  ncbltman,  who  was  condemned  by 
 Xerxes  to  be  impaled,  had  his  sentence  commuted  for 
 the  task  of  sailing  round  the  African  continent.  He 
 made  the  attempt  from  the  west,  passing  the  Col- 
 umns of  Hercules,  and  sailing  southward  along  the 
 western  coast  for  several  months  ;  till  baffled  probably 
 by  the  adverse  winds  and  currents,  or  finding  himself 
 carried  out  into  an  immense  and  apparently  boundless 
 sea,  he  in  despair  abandoned  the  enterprise  as  imprac- 
 ticable, and  returned  by  the  way  of  the  Straits  to  Egypt ; 
 upon  which  the  monarch  ordered  the  original  sentence 
 to  be  executed  upon  him.  These  attempts  to  circum- 
 navigate Africa  were  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
 most  powerful  monarchs  of  the  age  ;  the  next  was  un- 
 dertaken by  a  private  adventurer.  We  are  informed 
 by  Strabo  (98),  who  cites  Posidonius  as  his  authority, 
 that  a  certain  Eudoxus,  a  native  of  Cyzicus,  having 
 been  deputed  by  his  fellow-citizens  to  convey  their  sol- 
 emn offering  to  the  Isthmian  celebration  at  Corinth, 
 went,  after  having  executed  this  commission,  to  Egypt, 
 and  had  several  conferences  with  the  reigning  monarch, 
 Euergetes  II.,  and  also  with  his  ministers,  respecting 
 various  topics,  but  particularly  concerning  the  naviga- 
 tion of  the  Nile  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course.  This 
 man  was  an  enthusiast  in  topographical  researches,  and 
 not  wanting  in  erudition.  It  happened  that,  about  this 
 same  time,  the  guard-vessels  on  the  coast  of  the  Ara- 
 bian Gulf  picked  up  an  Indian,  whom  they  found  alone 
 in  a  bark  and  half  dead.  He  was  brought  to  the  king ; 
 but  no  one  understanding  his  language,  the  monarch 
 ordered  him  to  be  instructed  in  Greek ;  and  when  he 
 could  speak  that  tongue,  the  Indian  stated  that,  having 
 set  sail  from  the  coast  of  India,  he  had  lost  his  way, 
 and  had  seen  all  his  companions  perish  through  famine. 
 He  promised,  if  the  king  would  send  him  back,  to  show 
 ^  79 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 the  way  to  India  to  those  whom  the  monarch  should 
 charge  with  this  commission.  Eiiergotes  assented,  and 
 Eudo.xus  was  one  of  those  directed  to  go  on  this  er- 
 rand. He  sailed  with  a  cargo  of  various  articles  calcu- 
 lated for  presents,  and  brought  back  in  exchange  aro- 
 tnatics  and  precious  stones.  He  was  disappointed, 
 however,  in  the  expectations  of  profit  which  he  had  en- 
 tertained, since  the  king  appropriated  all  the  return- 
 cargo  to  himself.  After  the  death  of  Euergetes,  Cleo- 
 patra, his  widow,  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  and 
 «ct)t  Eudoxus  on  a  second  voyage  to  India  with  a  rich- 
 er supply  of  merchandise  than  before.  On  his  return, 
 he  was  carried  by  the  winds  to  the  coast  of  J^lhiopia, 
 where,  landing  at  several  points,  he  conciliated  the  na- 
 tives by  distributing  among  them  corn,  wine,  and  dried 
 figs,  things  of  which  until  then  they  had  been  ignorant. 
 He  received  in  exchange  water  and  guides.  He  noted 
 down  also  some  words  of  their  language  ;  and  found, 
 moreover,  in  this  quarter,  the  extremity  of  a  ship's  prow, 
 carved  in  the  shape  of  a  horse's  head.  This  fragment, 
 he  was  told,  had  belonged  to  a  shipwrecked  vessel  that 
 came  from  the  west.  Having  reached  Egypt,  he  found 
 the  son  of  Cleopatra  on  the  throne,  and  he  was  again 
 despoiled  of  the  fruits  of  his  voyage,  being  charged 
 with  having  converted  many  things  to  his  own  use. 
 As  regards  the  fragment  of  the  shipwrecked  vessel 
 Drought  home  with  him,  he  exposed  it  in  the  market- 
 place for  the  examination  of  pilots  and  masters  of  ves- 
 sels, who  informed  him  that  it  must  have  belonged  to 
 a  ship  from  Gades  (Cadiz).  The  grounds  of  their  be- 
 lief were  as  follows  :  the  traders  of  Gades,  according 
 to  them,  had  large  vessels  ;  but  the  less  wealthy,  small- 
 er ones,  which  they  called  horses,  from  the  ornament 
 on  their  prows,  and  which  they  used  in  fishing  along 
 the  coasts  of  Mauritania  as  far  as  the  river  Lixus. 
 Some  shipmasters  even  recognised  the  fragment  as  hav- 
 ing belonged  to  a  certain  vessel  of  this  class,  which, 
 with  many  others,  had  attempted  to  advance  beyond 
 the  Lixus,  and  had  never  after  been  heard  of.  From 
 these  statements  Eudoxus  conceived  the  possibility  of 
 circumnavigating  Africa.  He  returned  home,  disposed 
 of  all  his  effects,  and  put  to  sea  again  with  the  money 
 thus  obtained,  intending  to  attempt  the  enterprise  in 
 question.  Having  visited  Dicearchia,  Massilia,  and 
 other  commercial  cities,  he  everywhere  announced  his 
 project,  and  collected  funds  and  adventurers.  He  was 
 at  length  enabled  to  equip  one  large  and  two  small  ves- 
 sels, well-stored  with  provisions  and  merchandise,  man- 
 ned chiefly  by  volunteers,  and  carrying,  moreover,  a 
 pompons  train  of  artisans,  physicians,  and  young  slaves 
 skilled  in  music.  Having  set  sail,  he  was  carried  on  his 
 way  at  first  by  favourable  breezes  from  the  west.  The 
 crews,  however,  became  fatigued,  and  he  was  compell- 
 ed, though  reluctantly,  to  keep  nearer  the  shore,  and 
 soon  experienced  the  disaster  which  he  had  dreaded, 
 his  ship  grounding  on  a  sandbank.  As  the  vessel  did 
 not  immediately  go  to  pieces,  he  was  enabled  to  save 
 the  cargo  and  great  part  of  her  timbers.  M'ith  the 
 latter  he  constructed  another  vessel  of  the  size  of  one 
 of  fifty  oars.  Resuming  his  route,  he  came  to  a  part 
 inhabited  by  nations  who  spoke  the  same  language,  as 
 he  thought,  with  those  on  the  eastern  coast  whom  he 
 had  visited  in  his  second  voyage  from  India,  and  of 
 whose  tongue  he  had  noted  down  some  words.  Hence 
 he  inferred  that  these  were  a  part  of  the  great  .Ethio- 
 pian race.  The  smallness  of  his  vessels,  however,  in- 
 duced him  at  length  to  return,  and  he  remarked  on  his 
 way  back  a  deserted  island,  well  supplied  with  wood 
 and  water.  Having  reached  Mauritania,  he  sold  his 
 vessels  and  repaired  to  the  court  of  Boci:hus,  and  ad- 
 vised that  king  to  send  out  a  fleet  of  discovery  alonn- 
 the  coast  of  .Africa.  The  monarch's  friends,  however, 
 inspired  him  with  the  fear  that  his  kingdom  might,  in 
 this  way,  become  gradually  exposed  to  the  visits  and 
 incursions  of  strangers.  He  made  fair  promises,  there- 
 fore, to  Eudoxus,  but  secretly  intended  to  have  him 
 80 
 
 left  on  some  desert  island  ;  and  the  latter,  having  dis- 
 covered this,  escaped  into  the  Roman  province,  and 
 thence  passed  over  into  Spain.  Here  he  constructed 
 two  vessels,  one  intended  to  keep  near  the  coast,  the 
 other  to  sail  in  deep  water  ;  and,  having  taken  on  board 
 agricultural  implements,  various  kinds  of  grain,  and 
 skilful  artificers,  he  set  sail  on  a  second  voyage,  resolv- 
 ing, if  the  navigation  became  too  long,  to  winter  in  the 
 island  which  he  had  previously  discovered.  At  this 
 point,  unfortunately,  the  narrative  of  Posidonius,  as 
 detailed  by  Strabo,  stops  short,  leaving  us  totally  in  the 
 dark  as  to  the  result.  Pomponius  Mela  (3,  9,  10)  tells 
 us,  on  the  alleged  authority  of  Cornelius  Nepos,  that 
 Eudoxus  actually  made  the  circuit  of  Africa,  adding 
 some  particulars  of  the  most  fabulous  description 
 respecting  the  nations  whom  he  saw.  But  no  dc- 
 pendance  can  be  placed  on  this  doubtful  authority  ; 
 whereas  the  narrative  of  Posidonius  bears  every  mark 
 of  authenticity.  (Compare  Murray,  1,  p.  \3,  se/jq., 
 and  Maltc-Brun,  1,  p.  68,  where  the  voyage  of  Eudoxus 
 is  defended  against  the  remarks  of  Gossellin  in  his  Re- 
 cherches,  &c.,  1,  p.  217,  seqq.)  These  are  the  onlv 
 instances  on  record  in  which  the  circumnavigation  of 
 Africa  was  either  performed  or  attempted  by  the  an- 
 cients. Other  voyages  were,  however,  undertaken 
 with  a  view  to  the  exploration  of  certain  pans  of  its 
 unknown  coasts.  The  most  memorable  is  that  per- 
 formed along  the  western  coast  by  Hanno,  about  .570 
 years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  Carthaginians 
 fitted  out  this  expedition  with  a  view  partly  to  coloni- 
 zation and  partly  to  discovery.  The  armament  con- 
 sisted of  sixty  ships,  of  fifty  oars  each,  on  board  of  which 
 were  embarked  persons  of  both  sexes  to  the  number  ot 
 30,000.  After  two  days'  sail  from  the  Columns  ol 
 Hercules,  they  founded,  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive 
 plain,  the  city  of  Thymiaterium.  In  two  days  more 
 they  came  to  a  wooded  promontory,  and,  after  sailing 
 round  a  bay,  founded  successively  four  other  cities  ' 
 They  then  passed  the  mouth  of  a  great  river,  called  the 
 Lixus,  flowing  from  lofty  mountains  inhabited  by  in- 
 hospitable /Ethiopians,  who  lived  in  caves.  Thence 
 they  proceeded  for  three  days  along  a  desert  coast  to  a 
 small  island,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Cerne, 
 and  where  they  founded  another  colony  ;  and  afterward 
 sailed  southward  along  the  coast,  till  their  farther  prog- 
 ress was  arrested  by  the  failure  of  jirovisions.  {Hunn. 
 PeripL,  in  Geogr.  Gi .  Mm.,  cd.  Gail.,  1,  p.  113, 
 seqq.)  With  regard  to  the  extent  of  coast  actually  ex- 
 plored by  this  expedition,  the  brief  and  indistinct  nar- 
 rative affords  ample  room  for  learned  speculation  rmd 
 controversy.  According  to  Rennell  {Gcogr.  of  Herod., 
 p.  719,  seqq.),  the  island  of  Cerne  is  the  modern  Ar- 
 guin,  the  Lixus  is  the  Senegal,  and  the  voyage  extend- 
 ed a  little  beyond  Sierra  Leone.  M.  Gossellin.  on  the 
 other  hand  {Rechcrches,  &c.,  1,  p.  61,  seqq.),  contends 
 that  the  whole  course  was  along  the  coast  of  Maurita- 
 nia ;  that  the  Lixus  w-as  the  modern  Lucos,  Cerne  was 
 Fcdala,  and  the  voyage  extended  little  beyond  Cape 
 Nun.  Malte-Brun  (1,  p-  33,  Brussels  ed.)  carries 
 Hanno  as  far  as  the  bays  called  the  Gulf  dos  Mcdaios, 
 and  the  Gulf  of  Gonzalode  Cintra,  on  the  shore  of  the 
 desert :  and  he  is  induced  to  assume  this  distance,  in 
 some  degree,  from  the  fact  of  Himilco,  another  Car- 
 thaginian, having  advanced  in  the  same  direction  as 
 far  to  the  north  as  the  coasts  of  Britain,  a  voyage  much 
 longer  and  more  perilous  than  that  said  to  have  been 
 performed  by  Hanno  along  the  African  coast.  (Flirt., 
 7^  67. — Fesf..  Avien.  Ora  Marit.,  v.  80,  seqq.)  A 
 translation  of  the  Periplus,  however,  will  be  found  un- 
 der the  article  Hanno,  from  which  the  student  mav 
 draw  his  own  conclusions. — At  a  much  later  period 
 this  part  of  the  coast  excited  the  curiosity  of  the  Ro- 
 man conquerors.  Polybius,  the  celebrated  historian, 
 was  sent  out  by  Scipio  on  an  exploratory  voyage  in 
 the  same  direction  ;  but,  from  the  meager  account  pre- 
 served by  Pliny,  M.  Gossellin  infers  that  he  did  not 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 sail  quite  so  far  as  the  Carthaginian  navigator  had  done. 
 — Let  us  now  turn  our  attention,  for  a  moment,  to  the 
 interior  of  the  country.     We  have  already  alluded  in 
 general  terms  to  the  knowledge  possessed  by  Herodo- 
 tus of  Africa.     To  what  we  have  stated  on  this  sub- 
 ject may  be  added   the   following  curious    narrative, 
 which  we  receive  from  the  historian  himself  (2,  32), 
 "  I  was  also  informed,"  says  Herodotus,  "  by  some 
 Cyreneans,  that  in  a  journey  they  took  to  the  oracle  of 
 Ammoii,  they  had  conferred  with  Etearchus,  king  of 
 the  Ammonians ;  and  that,  among  other  things,  dis- 
 coursing with  him  concerning  the  sources  of  the  Nile, 
 as  of  a  thing  altogether  unknown,  Etearchus  acquaint- 
 ed them,  that  certain  Nasamones,  a  nation  of  Libya  in- 
 habiting the  Syrtis,  and  a  tract  of  land  of  no  great  ex- 
 tent eastward  of  the  Syrtis,  came  into  his  country,  and, 
 being  asked  by  him  if  they  had  learned  anything  touch- 
 ing the  Libyan  deserts,  answered  that  some  petulant 
 young   men,  sons   to  divers   persons   of  great   power 
 among  them,  had,  after  many  extravagant  actions,  re- 
 solved to  send   five  of  their  number  to  the  coast  of 
 Libya,  to  see  if  they  could  make  any  farther  discov- 
 eries than  others  had  done.     The  young  men  chosen 
 by  their  companions  to  make  this  expedition,  having 
 furnished  themselves  with  water  and  other  necessary 
 provisions,  first  passed  through  the  inhabited  country  ; 
 and  when  they  had  likewise  traversed  that  region  which 
 abounds  in  wild  beasts,  they  entered  the  deserts,  ma- 
 king their  way  towards  the  west.     After  they  had  trav- 
 elled many  days  through  the  sands,  they  at  length  saw 
 some  trees  growing  in  a  plain,  and  they  approached, 
 and  began  to  gather  the  fruit  which  was  on  them  ;  and 
 while  they  were  gathering,  several  little  men,  less  than 
 men  of  middle  size,  came  up,  and,  having  seized  them, 
 carried  them  away.     The  Nasamones  did  not  at  all 
 understand  what  they  said,  neither  did  they  understand 
 the  speech  of  the  Nasamones.    However,  they  conduct- 
 ed them  over  vast  morasses  to  a  city  built  on  a  great  river 
 running  from  the  west  to  the  east,  and  abounding  in 
 crocodiles  ;  where  the  Nasamones  found  all  the  inhab- 
 itants black,  and  of  no  larger  size  than  their  guides. 
 To  this  relation  Etearchus  added,  as  the  Cyreneans 
 assured  me,  that  the  Nasamones  returned  safe  to  their 
 own  country,  and  that  the  men  to  whom  they  had  thus 
 come  were  all  enchanters."     (Compare  the  remarks 
 under  the   article  Nasamones.)     Rennell  {Geogr.  of 
 Herod.,  p.  432)  observes,  that  it  is  extremely  probable 
 that  the  river  seen  by  the  Nasamones  was  that  which, 
 according  to  the  present  state  of  our  geography,  is 
 known  to  pass   by   Tomhucloo,  and   thence  eastward 
 through  the  centre  of  Africa  (in  effect,  the  river  com- 
 monly known  by  the  name  of  Niger).     What  is  called 
 the  inhabited  country  in  this  narrative,  he  makes  the 
 same  with  the  modern  Fczzan,  in  which  also  he  finds 
 the  sandy  and  desert  region  traversed  by  the  Nasa- 
 mones.   It  appears  certain  to  him,  as  well  as  to  Larcher, 
 that  the  city  in  question  was  the  modern  Tomhuctoo. 
 Malte-Brun.  however  (1,  p.  28,  Brussels  cd.),  thinks  it 
 impossible  that  Tomhuctoo  can  be  the  place  alluded 
 to,  since  it  is  separated  from  the  country  of  the  Nasa- 
 mones by  so  many  deserts,  rivers,  and  mountains. — In 
 the  days  of  Slrabo,  the  knowledge  possessed  by  the 
 ancients  of  Africa  was  little,  if  at  all,  improved.      The 
 Mediterranean  coast  and  the  banks  of  the  Nile  were 
 the  only  parts  frequented  by  the  Greeks.     Their  opin- 
 ion respecting  the  continent  itself  was  that  it  formed 
 a  trapezium,  or  else  that  the  coast  from  the  Columns 
 of  Hercules  to  Pelusium  might  be  considered  as  the 
 base  of  a  right-angled  triangle  (.SVrafto,  17,  p.  825,  ed. 
 Casmih),  of  which  the  Nile  formed  the  perpendicular 
 side,  extending  to  ^Ethiopia  and  the  ocean,  while  the 
 hypothenuse  was  the  coast  comprehended  between  the 
 extremity  of  this  line  and  the  straits.     The  apex  of  the 
 triangle  reached   beyond  the  limits  of  the  habitable 
 world,  and  was  consequently  regarded  as  inaccessible  : 
 hence  Strabo  declares  his  inability  to  assign  anv  precise 
 
 length  to  the  continent  in  question.     His  knowledge 
 of  the  western  coast  is  far  from  extensive  or  accurate. 
 In  passing  the  straits,  we  find,  according  to   him,  a 
 mountain  called  by  the  Greeks  Atlas,  and  by  the  bar- 
 barians  Dyris  :  advancing   thence   towards  the  west, 
 we  see  Cape  Cotes,  and  afterward  the  city  of  Tinga, 
 situate  opposite  to  Gades  in  Spain.     To  the  south  of 
 Tinga  is  the  Sinus  Emporicus,  where  the  Phamicians 
 used   to   have   establishments.     After  this   the  coast 
 bends  in,  and  proceeds  to  meet  the  extremity  of  the 
 perpendicular  line  on   the   opposite   side.      'U'e  may 
 pardon  Strabo  for  too  lightly  rejecting  the  discoveries 
 of  the  Carthaginians  along   the  wesiern  coast,  since 
 nothing  proves  him  to  have  read  the  periplus  of  Hanno. 
 An  error,  however,  which  cannot  be  excused,  is  that 
 of  placing  Mount  Atlas  directly  on  the  straits,  since  he 
 might  have  learned  from  the  account  of  Polybius,  that 
 this  mountain  was  situate  far  beyond,  on  the  western 
 coast,  and  giving  name  to  the  adjacent  ocean.     With 
 regard  to  the  eastern  shores  of  Africa,  Strabo  cites  a 
 periplus   of   .Artemidorus,   from   the    Straits   of   Diraj 
 (Bab-cl-Mandcb)  to  the  Southern  Horn,  which,  from 
 a  comparison  of  distances  as  given  by  Ptolemy  and 
 Marinus  of  Tyre,  answers  to  Cape  Bandellans,  to  the 
 south  of  Cape  Gardafui.    {Gossellin,  Recherchcs,  vol. 
 1,  p.  177,  seqq.)     Here  a  desert  coast  for  a  long  lime 
 arrested  the  progress  of  maritime  discovery  on   the 
 part  of  the  Greeks. — The  knowledge  of  the  day  then, 
 respecting  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  Africa, 
 appears  to  have  extended  no  farther  than    12°   north 
 latitude,  or  perhaps    12°    30'.     The   two   sides  were 
 supposed  to  approximate,  and  between  the  Hesperii 
 JEthiopcs  to  the  west,  and   the  Cinnamomifera  regio, 
 to  the  east,  the  distance  was  supposed  to  be  compara- 
 tively small.     {Strabo,  119.)     This  intervening  space 
 was  exposed  to  excessive  heats,  according  to  the  com- 
 mon belief,  and  which  forbade  the  traveller's  penetra- 
 ting within  its  precincts  ;  while,  at   a  little   distar.r,:e 
 beyond,  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans  were  thought 
 to  unite.     The  hypothesis  which  we  have  here  stated 
 made  Africa  terminate  at  about  one  half  of  its  true 
 length,  and  represented  this  continent  as  much  smallcj 
 than   Europe.     {Plin.,   2,    108.— Id.,  6,  33.— Pomp. 
 Mela,   1,  4.)     Still  it  was   the  one  generally  adopt- 
 ed  by   the   Alexandrean    school.     (Eratostheries,  ap. 
 Sirab.,  passim. — Crates,  ap.  Gerrim.,Elem.  Astron., 
 c.    13. — Aratus,    Phanom.,  v.   537. — Cleanthcs,  ap. 
 Gemin.,  I.  c. —  Cleomedcs,  Meteor.,   1,   6,  &c.)     On 
 the  other  hand,  the  opinion  of  Hipparchus,  which  united 
 eastern  Africa  to  India  {Hipp.,  ap  Strab.,  G),  remained 
 for  a  long  period  contemned,  until  Marinus  of  Tyre 
 and  Ptolemy  had  adopted  it.     This  adoption,  however, 
 did  not  prevent  the  previous  hypothesis  from  keeping 
 its  ground,  in  some  measure,  in  the  west  of  Europe 
 {Macrob.,  Somn.  Scip.,  2,  9. — Isidor.,  Orig.,   14,  5), 
 where  it  contributed  to  the  discovery  of  the  route  by 
 the   Cape   of  Good   Hope.     {Maltc-Brun,   1,   p.   67, 
 seqq.,  Brussels   cd.) — Africa,  according  to  Pliny  (6, 
 33),  is  three  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty-eight  Ro- 
 man miles  from  east  to  west.     This  measure,  estima- 
 ted in  stadia  of  seven  hundred  to  a  degree,  would  seem 
 to  represent  the  length  of  the  coast  from  the  valley  of 
 the  Catabathmus  to  Cape  Nun,  which  was  also   the 
 limit  of  the  voyage  of  Polybius,  accordincr  to  Gossellii  . 
 {Rccherches,  1,  p.  117,  seqq.)     The  length  of  the  in- 
 habited part  of  Africa  was  supposed  nowhere  to  exceed 
 two    hundred   and    fifty   Roman   miles.     In   passing, 
 however,  from   the  frontiers  of  Cyrcnaica  across  the 
 deserts  and  the  country  of  the  Gararnanles,  Agrippa 
 {Plin.,  I.  c.)  gave  to  this  part  of  the  world  nine  hun- 
 dred and  ten  miles  of  extent.     This  measure,  which 
 we  owe,  without  doubt,  to  the  expedition  against  the 
 Garamantes,  conducts  us  beyond  the  Agades  and  Bor- 
 nou,  but  does  not  reach  the  Niger.     Whatever  may  be 
 the  discussions  to  which  the  very  corrupt  state  of  the 
 Roman  numerals  in  the  pages  of  Pliny  are  calculated 
 
 81 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 A  F  R 
 
 to  give  rise,  one  thing  is  sufficiently  evident,  that  the 
 Romans  knew  only  a  third  part  of  Africa.  Pliny, 
 moreover,  gives  us  an  account  of  two  Roman  expedi- 
 tions into  the  interior  of  Africa.  The  first  is  that  of 
 Suetonius  Paulinus.  (Pltn.,  5,  1.)  This  officer,  hav- 
 ing set  out  from  the  river  Lixus  witli  some  Roman 
 troops,  arrived  in  ten  days  at  Mount  Atlas,  passed  over 
 some  miles  of  the  chain,  and  met,  in  a  desert  of  black 
 sand,  with  a  river  called  Ger.  This  appears  to  have 
 been  the  Gyr  of  Segelmcssa.  The  second  expedition 
 was  that  of  Cornelius  Balbus.  "  We  have  subdued," 
 says  Pliny  (5,  5),  "  the  nation  of  the  Phazanii,  together 
 with  their  cities  Alclc  and  (Jillaba  :  and  likewise  Cyd- 
 amus.  From  these  a  chain  of  mountains,  called  the 
 Black  by  reason  of  their  colour,  extends  in  a  direction 
 from  east  to  west.  Then  come  deserts,  and  afterward 
 Matelgae,  a  town  of  the  Garamantes,  the  celebrated 
 fountam  of  Debris,  whose  waters  are  hot  from  midday 
 to  midnight,  and  cold  from  midnight  to  midday  ;  and 
 also  Garama,  the  capital  of  the  nation.  All  these 
 countries  have  been  subjugated  by  the  Roman  arms, 
 and  over  them  did  Gornehus  Balbus  triumph."  Pliny 
 then  enumerates  a  large  crowd  of  cities  and  tribes, 
 whose  names  were  said  to  have  adorned  the  triumph, 
 Malte-Brun,  after  a  fair  discussion  of  this  subject,  is 
 of  opinion  that  Balbus  mi.st  have  penetrated  as  far  as 
 Bornou  and  Dongala,  which  appear  to  coincide  with 
 the  Boin  and  Daunagi  of  Pliny.  The  black  mountains 
 were  probably  those  of  Tibcsti.  {Malte-Brun,  1,  p. 
 85,  Brussels  ed.) — Marinusof  Tyre,  who  came  before 
 Ptolemy,  pretended  to  have  read  the  itinerary  of  a  Ro- 
 man expedition  under  Septimius  Flaccus  and  Julius 
 Malernus.  {Ptol.,  1,  8,  skgq.)  These  officers  set 
 out  from  Leptis  Magna  for  Garama,  the  capital  of  the 
 Garamantes,  which  they  found  to  be  5400  stadia  from 
 the  former  city.  Septimius,  after  this,  marched  di- 
 rectly south  for  the  space  of  three  months,  and  came 
 to  a  country  called  Agyzimba,  inhabited  by  negroes. 
 !\Iarinus,  after  some  reasoning,  fixes  the  position  of 
 this  country  at  24°  south  of  the  equator.  A  strict 
 application  of  the  laws  of  historical  criticism  will  con- 
 sign to  the  regions  of  fable  this  Roman  expedition,  un- 
 known even  to  the  Romans  themselves.  How  can  we 
 possibly  admit,  that  a  general  executed  a  march  more 
 astonishing  than  even  that  of  Alexander,  and  that  no 
 contemporary  writer  has  preserved  the  least  mention 
 of  it  1  At  what  epoch,  or  under  what  reign,  are  we 
 10  place  this  event  1  How,  moreover,  could  an  army, 
 in  three  months,  traverse  a  space  equal  to  eleven  hun- 
 dred French  leagues^  (MaUe-Brun,  1,  p.  128,  Brus- 
 sels ed.) — The  form  of  Africa  was  totally  changed  by 
 Ptolemy.  We  have  seen  that  Sirabo  and  Pliny  re- 
 garded this  part  of  the  world  as  an  island,  terminating 
 within  the  equinoctial  line.  'I'he  Atlantic  Ocean  was 
 thought  to  join  the  Indian  Sea  under  the  torrid  zone, 
 the  heats  of  which  were  regarded  as  the  most  powerful 
 barrier  to  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa.  Ptolemy, 
 who  did  not  admit  the  communication  of  the  Atlantic 
 with  the  Erythrean  or  Indian  Sea,  thought,  on  the 
 contrary,  that  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  after  having 
 formed  a  gulf  of  moderate  depth,  which  he  calls  Hcs- 
 ■pcrirMs  {'EaTrepiKuc;),  extended  indefinitely  between 
 south  and  west,  while  he  believed  that  the  eastern 
 coast,  after  Cape  Prasum,  proceeded  to  join  the  coast 
 of  Asia  below  Catigara.  {Plot.,  7,  3  )  This  opinion, 
 which  made  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans  only  large 
 basins,  separated  the  one  from  the  other,  had  been 
 supported  by  Hipparchus.  The  interior  of  Africa  pre- 
 sents, in  the  pages  of  Ptolemy,  a  mass  of  confused  no- 
 tions. And  yet  he  is  the  first  ancient  writer  that  an- 
 nounces with  certainty  the  existence  of  the  Niger,  ob- 
 scurely indicated  by  Pliny.  The  most  dilTicult  point 
 to  explain  in  the  Central  Africa  of  Ptolemy,  is  to  know 
 what  river  he  means  by  the  Gyr.  {Ptol.,  4,  6.)  Some 
 are  in  favour  of  the  river  of  Bornon,  or  the  Bahr-al- 
 Gazel.  {D'Anvillc,  Mem.  sur  Ics  jleuvcs  dc  rinte- 
 82 
 
 ruur  dc  VAfriquc,  Acad,  des  Inscr.,  vol.  26,  p.  64.) 
 Others  declare  for  the  Bahr-cl-Misselad.  {Uennell. 
 Gcogr.  of  Herod.,  p.  418.)  Neither,  however,  of 
 these  rivers  suits  the  description  of  Claudian  {Laud. 
 Stilich.,  1,».  253),  reproducing  the  image  of  the  Nile  by 
 the  abundance  of  its  waters  :  ''  simili  menlilus  gurgite 
 Nilum."  In  the  midst  of  so  many  contradictions,  an»l 
 in  a  region  still  almost  unknown,  the  boldness  of  igno- 
 rance may  hazard  any  assertion,  and  j)retevid  to  decide 
 any  point,  while  the  modesty  of  true  science  resigns 
 itself  to  doubt. 
 
 AFRic.iNtis,  I.  Sextus  Julius,  a  native  of  Palestine, 
 belonging  to  a  family  that  had  come  originally  from 
 Africa.  He  lived  under  the  Emperor  Heliogabalus, 
 and  fixed  his  residence  at  Emmaiis.  This  city  hav- 
 ing been  ruined,  he  was  deputed  to  wait  on  the  em- 
 peror and  obtain  an  order  for  rebuilding  it,  in  which 
 mission  he  succeeded,  and  the  new  city  took  the  name 
 of  Nicopolis.  {Chron.  Paschale,  ami.  223  )  About 
 A.D.  231,  Julius  Africanus  visited  Alexandrca  to  hear 
 the  public  discourses  of  Heraclas.  He  had  been 
 brought  up  in  paganism,  but  he  subsequently  embraced 
 the  Christian  faith,  attained  the  priesthood,  and  died 
 at  an  advanced  age.  He  was  acquainted  with  the 
 Hebrew  tongue,  applied  himself  to  various  branches 
 of  scientific  study,  but  devoted  himself  particularly  to 
 the  perusal  and  investigation  of  the  sacred  writings,  on 
 which  he  published  a  commentary.  The  work,  how- 
 ever, that  most  contributed  to  his  reputation,  was  a 
 Chronography  in  five  books  {Il£VTu6i6?.tov  xpovo/^o- 
 yuiov),  commencing  with  the  Creation,  which  he 
 fixes  at  5499  B.C.,  and  continued  down  to  A.D.  221. 
 This  calculation  forms  the  basis  of  a  particular  era,  of 
 which  use  is  made  in  the  Eastern  Church,  and  which 
 is  styled  the  Historical  Era,  or  that  of  the  Historians 
 of  Alexandrea.  Fragments  of  this  work  are  preserved 
 by  Eusebius,  Syncellus,  Joannes  Malala,  Theophanes, 
 Cedrenus,  and  in  the  Chronicon  Paschale.  Photius 
 says  of  this  production,  that,  though  concise,  it  omits 
 nothing  important.  {Bihliolh.,  vol,  1,  p-  7,  ed.  Bckker.) 
 Eusebius  has  most  profited  by  it,  and,  in  his  Chronog- 
 raphy, often  copies  him.  He  has  preserved  for  us 
 also  a  letter  of  Africanus,  addressed  to  Aristidcs,  the 
 object  of  which  is  to  reconcile  the  discrepance  between 
 St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  on  the  question  of  our  Sa- 
 viour's genealogy.  We  have  also  another  letter  of 
 his,  addressed  to  Origen,  in  which  he  contests  the  au- 
 thenticity of  the  story  of  Susanna.  Africanus  likewise 
 composed  a  large  work  in  nine,  or,  according  to  others, 
 in  fourteen,  or  even  twenty-four  books,  entitled  Kiaroi, 
 "  Cestuses."  This  name  vvas  given  it  by  the  author, 
 because,  like  the  Cestus  of  Venus,  his  collection  con- 
 tained a  mingled  variety  of  pleasing  things  selected 
 from  numerous  works.  In  it  were  discussed  questions 
 of  natural  history,  medicine,  agriculture,  chemistry, 
 &c.  In  the  part  that  principally  remains  to  us,  and 
 which  appears  to  have  been  extracted  from  the  mam 
 work  in  the  eighth  century,  the  art  of  war  forms  the 
 topic  of  consideration.  It  is  printed  in  the  Malhemat- 
 ici  vetcrcs,  Paris,  1693,  fol.,  and  also  in  the  seventh 
 volume  of  the  works  of  Meursius,  Florence,  1746.  It 
 has  also  been  translated  by  Guischardt  in  his  Menwires 
 MiUtaircs  des  Grecs  etdcs  Roma  ins,  1758,  4?o.  From 
 some  scattered  fragments  of  other  portions  of  the  same 
 work,  it  would  aj)pear  to  have  been,  in  general,  of  no 
 very  valuable  character.  For  example,  in  order  to 
 prevent  wine  from  turning,  we  are  directed  to  write  on 
 the  bottom  of  the  vessel  the  words  of  the  psalmist, 
 "Taste  and  see  how  sweet  is  the  Lord  !"  Again,  in 
 order  to  drink  a  good  deal  of  wine  with  impunity,  we 
 must  repeat,  on  taking  the  first  glass,  the  170th  verse 
 of  the  8th  book  of  the  Iliad,  "  Jove  thundered  thrice 
 from  the  summits  of  Olympus."  He  gives  us  also 
 other  precepts  for  things  less  useful  than  curious  in 
 their  natures,  and  which  may  serve  to  amuse  an  agri- 
 culturist ;  as,  for  example,  how  to  force  fruits  to  as- 
 
AGAMEMNON. 
 
 AGAMEMNON. 
 
 snme  the  shape  of  any  animal,  or  even  the  form  of  the 
 human  visage  ;  how  to  produce  pomegranates  without 
 seeds,  figs  of  two  colours,  &c.  (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  205,  and  5,  269. —  Biographic  Univer- 
 selle,  vol.  1,  p.  274.) — II.  The  surname  of  ihe  Scipios, 
 from  their  victories  in  .\frica  over  the  Carthaginians. 
 {Vid.  Scipio,)— III.,  IV.,  V.  {Vid.  Supplement.) 
 
 Agaclytus.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Agallis.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Agamede.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Agamedes  and  Trofhonius,  two  architects  and 
 brothers,  who  built  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi, 
 when  erected  for  the  fourth  time.  {Bockh,  ad  Find., 
 fragin.,  vol.  3,  p.  570.)  According  to  Plutarch,  they 
 were  informed  bv  the  god,  when  asking  him  for  a  rec- 
 ompense, that  they  would  receive  one  on  the  seventh 
 day  from  that  time,  and  were  ordered  to  spend  the  in- 
 tervening period  in  festive  indulgence.  They  did  so, 
 and  on  the  seventh  night  were  found  dead  in  their  beds. 
 {Plut.,  ConsoL,  ad  Ap. — Op.,  ed.  Reiskc,  vol.  6,  p.  413, 
 seq.)  Cicero  relates  the  same  story,  but  makes  the 
 two  brothers  ask  Apollo  for  that  which  was  best  for 
 man  {"  quod  cssct  optimum  homini"  where  Plutarch 
 merely  has  aiTEiv  fiiaOov),  and  also  gives  the  prescri- 
 bed time  as  three  days.  {Cic,  Tusc.  Quasi.,  1,  47.) 
 A  very  different  version,  however,  is  found  in  Pausa- 
 nias.  This  writer  informs  us,  that  Agamedes  and  Tro- 
 phonius  were  the  sons  of  Erginus,  monarch  of  Orchom- 
 enus,  or  rather  that  Trophonius  was  the  son  of  Apol- 
 lo, and  Agamedes  of  the  king.  When  they  had  at- 
 tained to  manhood,  they  became  very  skilful  in  build- 
 ing temples  for  the  gods,  and  palaces  for  kings. 
 Among  other  labours,  they  constructed  a  temple  for 
 Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  a  treasury  for  Hyrieus.  ( Vid. 
 Hyricus.)  In  the  wall  of  this  building  they  placed  a 
 stone  in  such  a  manner  that  they  could  take  it  out 
 whenever  they  pleased  ;  and,  in  consequence  of  this, 
 they  carried  away  from  time  to  time  portions  of  the 
 deposited  treasure.  Agamedes  was  at  last  caught  in 
 a  trap  placed  so  as  to  secure  the  robber,  whereupon 
 his  brother  cut  off  his  head  in  order  to  prevent  discov- 
 ery. After  this,  Trophonius  was  swallowed  up  in  an 
 opening  of  the  earth,  in  the  grove  of  Lebedea.  The 
 whole  story  appears  to  wear  a  figurative  character. 
 Erginus  is  the  protector  of  labour  {kpylvo^,  ipyov)  ; 
 Trophonius  is  the  ^'  nourisher'"  (rpe^u,  Tpo<i>6<;)  ;  and 
 Agamedes  is  the  '' very  prudent  one^'  (wyav  and/i/}rfof). 
 Trophonius,  even  after  he  has  descended  to  the  lower 
 world,  makes  his  voice  to  be  heard  from  those  profound 
 depths.  He  rules  over  the  powers  of  the  abyss,  be- 
 comes Jupiter-Trophonius,  and  gives  counsel  to  those 
 who  hqve  the  courage  to  descend  into  the  cave  at  Le- 
 bedea. He  is  Hades,  the  wise  and  good  deity,  as 
 Plato  calls  him  {PhcBdon,  ^  68).  He  is  therefore,  also, 
 the  supreme  intelligence  that  rules  in  the  lower  world, 
 which  serves  as  a  guide  to  the  souls  of  the  departed, 
 and  accompanies  them  in  their  migrations.  In  the 
 name  Hyrieus,  moreover,  we  see  "  a  keeper  of  bees," 
 a  "bee-master"  ('TpifiJf,  from  vpov,  vptov,  "a  bee- 
 hive"\  and  the  bee  was  connected  with  the  mysteries 
 of  Ceres,  and  also  the  transmigration  of  souls.  There 
 is,  moreover,  a  strong  analogy  between  the  story  as 
 here  told,  and  that  related  of  the  Egyptian  monarch 
 Rhumpsinitus.  Both  fables  appear  to  be  allegorical 
 illustrations,  connected  with  agriculture.  {Crcuzcr, 
 i^i/mholik,  vol.  2,  p.  381. — Guigniaut,\o\.  2,  p.  330.) 
 Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenoe  and  commander  of 
 ihe  Grecian  forces  against  Troy.  He  was  brother  to 
 Menelaus,  and  was,  according  to  most  authorities,  the 
 son  of  Plisthenes.  As,  however,  Plisthenes  died 
 young,  and  his  widow  Aerope  was  taken  in  marriao-e 
 by  Atreus,  the  sons  of  Plisthenes,  Agamemnon  and 
 Menelaus  namely,  were  brought  up  by  their  grand- 
 father, now  become  their  stepfather,  and  were  called 
 Atridae,  as  if  they  had  been  his  own  sons.  {Apollod., 
 3,  2,  2.—Hci/ne,  ad  loc.—Schol.,  ad  II.,  2, 249.)     On 
 
 the  murder  of  Atreus,  {vid.  Atreus,  J^gisthus)  and  tha 
 accession  of  his  uncle  Thyestes  to  the  vacant  throne, 
 Agamemnon  fled  to  Sparta,  accompanied  by  his  brother 
 Menelaus,  after  having  previously   found  an   asylum, 
 first  with  Polyphides,  king  of  Sicyon,  and  then  with 
 Oeneus,  king  of  Calydon.     Tyndarus  was  reigning  at 
 Sparta,  and  had  married  his  daughter  Clytemnestra  to 
 a  son  of  Thyestes  ;  but,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  al- 
 liance, he   stipulated  with  Agamemnon  to  aid  him  in 
 recovering  the  kingdom  of  Atreus,  provided  he  would 
 carry  off  Clytemnestra  and  make  her  his  queen.     This 
 stipulation  was  agreed  to  ;  and   the  plan  having  suc- 
 ceeded,  Agamemnon  married    the   daughter  of  Tyn- 
 darus, and  became  the  father  of  Orestes,  Iphigenia  (or 
 Iphianassa),  Laodice  (or  Electra),  and  Chrysothemis. 
 Agamemnon  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  princes  of 
 his  time,  and  on  this  account   was  chosen   command- 
 er-in-chief of  the   Greeks   in  their  expedition   against 
 Troy.     The  Grecian  fleet  being  detained  by  contrary 
 winds  at  Aulis,  owing  to  the  wrath  of  Diana,  whom 
 Agamemnon  had  offended  by  killing  one  of  her  favour- 
 ite deer,  Calchas,  the  soothsayer,  was  consulted,  and 
 he  declared,  that,  to  appease  the  goddess,  Iphigenia, 
 the  monarch's    eldest   daughter,  must   be    sacrificed. 
 She  was  accordingly  led  to  the  altar,  and  was  about  to 
 be  offered  as  a  victim,  when  (contrary  to  the  statement 
 of    Virgil  that  she   was   actually  immolated)    she   is 
 generally  said  to  have  suddenly  disappeared,  and  a  stag 
 to  have  been  substituted  by  the  goddess  herself.     ( Vid. 
 Iphigenia.) — The  dispute  of  Agamemnon  with  Achil- 
 les, before  the   walls  of  Troy,  respecting  the  captive 
 Chryseis  ;  the  consequent  loss  to   the  Greeks  of  the 
 services  of  Achilles ;  his  return  to  the  war,  in  order 
 to   avenge  the  death  of  Patroclus  ;    and   his    victory 
 over  Hector,    form  the  principal  subject  of  the  Iliad. — 
 In  the  division  of  the  captives  after  the  taking  of  Troy, 
 Cassandra,  one  of  the  daughters  of  Priam,  fell  to  the 
 lot  of  Agamemnon.     She  was  endued  with  the  gift  of 
 prophecy,  and  warned  Agamemnon  not  to  return  to 
 Mycenfe  ;  but  from  the  disregard  with  which  her  pre- 
 dictions were  generally  treated  {vid.    Cassandra),  he 
 was  deaf  to  her  admonitory  voice,  and  was  consequent- 
 ly, upon  his  arrival  in  the  city,  assassinated,  with  her 
 and  their  two  children,  by  his  queen  Clytemnestra  and 
 her  paramour  JEgisthus.     (  Vid.  Clytemnestra,  /Egis- 
 thus.)     The  manner  of   Agamemnon's    death   is  va- 
 riously given.     According  to  the  Homeric   account, 
 the  monarch,  on  his  return  from  Troy,  was  carried  by  a 
 storm   to    that  part  of    the   coast    of   Argolis   where 
 yEgisthus,  the  son  of  Thyestes,  resided.     During  his 
 absence,  ^Egisthus  had  carried  on  an  adulterous  in- 
 tercourse with  Clytemnestra,  and  he  had  set  a  watch- 
 man, v^'ith  a  promise  of  a  large  reward,  to  give  him  the 
 earliest  tidings  of  the  return  of  the  king.     As  soon  as 
 he  learned  that  he  was  on  the  coast,  he  went  out   to 
 welcome  him,  and  invited  him  to  his  mansion.     At  the 
 banquet  in  the  evening,   however,  he  placed,  with  the 
 participation  of  Clytemnestra,  twenty  men  in  conceal- 
 ment, who  fell  on  and  slaughtered  him,  too-ether  with 
 Cassandra  and  all  his  companions.     They  died  not, 
 however,  unavenged,  for  /Egisthus  alone  was  left  alive. 
 {Od.,A,  512,  scqq. — Od.,  [I,  4:05,  scqq.)     The  post- 
 homeric    account,    followed    by    the    Tragic    writers, 
 makes  Agamemnon  to  have  fallen  by  the  hands  of  his 
 wife,  after  he  had  just  come  forth  from  the  bath,  and 
 while  he  was  endeavouring  to  put  on  a  garment,  the 
 sleeves  of  which  had  been  sewed  together,  as  well  as 
 the  ojiening  for  the  head,  and  by  which,  of  course,  all 
 his  movements  were  obstructed,  and,  as  it  were,  fetter- 
 ed.   {Srhol.  ad  Eurip.,  Hec,  1277.— Compare  Eurip., 
 Orcst.,    25. — Ai.sch.,    Agam.,    1353. — id.,    Eumcn., 
 631.)     His  death  was  avenged    by  his  son  Orestes. 
 {Vid.  Orestes.)     Before  concluding  this  article,  it  may 
 not  be  amiss  to  remark,  that  Homer  knows  nothing  of 
 Plisthenes  as  the  father  of  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus  : 
 he  calls  them  simply  the  offspring  of  Atreus.     Accord- 
 
 83 
 
AGA 
 
 AG  A 
 
 ing  to  this  view  of  the  case,  Atreus,  who,  as  eldest 
 son,  had  succeeded  Pelops,  left  on  his  deathbed  Aga- 
 memnon and  Mcnelaus,  still  under  age,  to  the  guar- 
 dianship of  his  brother  Thyestes,  who  resigned  the  king- 
 dom to  his  nephews  when  they  had  reached  maturity. 
 The  variations  introduced  into  this  story,  therefore, 
 v'juld  seem  to  be  the  work  of  later  poets,  especially 
 Oi'  the  Tragic  writers,  from  whom  the  grammarians 
 and  scholiasts  borrowed.  {Hfyne,ad  II.,  2,\.  106. — 
 Suppl.  et  Emend.— \o\.  4,  p.  685.)  With  respect 
 to  the  extent  of  Agamemnon's  sway,  we  are  informed 
 by  Homer  {II.,  2,  108)  that  he  ruled  over  many  isl- 
 ands and  over  all  Argos  (7ToA?Si(n  vi/aoiGL  kol  'hpyd 
 ■jravTi)  By  Argos  appears  to  be  here  meant,  not  the 
 city  of  that  name,  for  this  was  under  the  sway  of  Dio- 
 mede,  but  a  large  portion  of  the  Peloponnesus,  in- 
 cluding particularly  the  cities  of  Mycenas  and  Tiryns. 
 {Hcyne,  Excurs.  1,  ad  II.,  2.)  The  islands  to  which 
 the  poet  alludes  can  hardly  be  those  of  the  Sinus  Ar- 
 golicus,  which  are  few  in  number  and  small.  Homer 
 himself  says,  that  Agamemnon  possessed  the  most 
 powerful  fleet,  and  from  this  it  would  appear  that  he 
 held  many  islands  under  his  sway,  though  we  are  un- 
 acquamte'd  with  their  names.  (Hnjne,  I.  c. —  Thucyd., 
 \^  9  ) — Thus  much  for  Agamemnon,  on  the  supposi- 
 tion that  such  an  individual  once  actually  existed.  If 
 we  follow,  however,  the  theory  advocated  by  Hermann 
 and  others,  and  make  not  only  the  Trojan  war  itself  to 
 have  been  originally  a  mere  allegory,  but  the  names 
 of  the  leading  personages  to  be  also  allegorical,  and 
 indicative  of  their  respective  stations  or  characters, 
 Agamemnon  becomes  the  ''permanent,'"  or  "  general 
 leader  of  the  host"  (u}'6j  and  /j.t/ivu),  the  termination 
 t)v  strengthening  the  idea  implied  by  the  two  compo- 
 nent words  from  which  the  appellation  is  derived,  and 
 denoting  collection  or  aggregation.  The  name  Aga- 
 memnon is  also  connected  with  the  early  religion  of 
 Greece,  for  we  find  mention  made  of  a  Zevg  'Ayafiifi- 
 vu)v.  {Meurs.  Miscell.  Lacon.,  1,4. — Eiistath.,  ad  II., 
 2,  p.  168. — Consult  Hermann  und  Creuzer,  Briefe 
 i/ber  Horn,  und  Hes.,  p.  20,  and  Creuzer,  Symholtk, 
 vol.  2,  p.  450.) 
 
 AcMiEMNONins,  an  epithet  applied  to  Orestes,  a 
 son  of  Agamemnon.     {Virg.,  JEn.,  4,  v.  471.) 
 
 Ag.\nippe,  a  celebrated  fountain  of  Bceotia,  on 
 Mount  Helicon.  The  grove  of  the  Muses  stood  on 
 the  summit  of  the  mountain,  and  a  little  below  was 
 Aganippe.  The  source  Hippocrene  was  some  dis- 
 tance above.  These  two  springs  supplied  the  small 
 rivers  Olmius  and  Permessus,  which,  after  uniting  their 
 waters,  flowed  into  the  Copaic  lake  near  Hahanus. 
 (S/jflAo,  407  and  411.)  Pausanias  (9,  31)  calls  the 
 former  Lemnus.  Aganippe  was  sacred  to  the  Muses, 
 who  from  it  were  called  Aganippides.  Ovid  (Fast.,  5, 
 7)  has  the  expression  ''fontcs  Agamppidos  Hippo- 
 crenes,^''  whence  some  are  led  to  imagine  that  he  makes 
 Atranippe  and  Hippocrene  the  same.  This,  however, 
 is  incorrect :  the  epithet  Aganippis,  as  used  by  the 
 poet,  being  equivalent  here  merely  to  "■Musis  sacra." 
 — H.  A  nymph  of  the  fountain. 
 
 Ag.\penor,  the  son  of  Ancaeus,  and  grandson  of  Ly- 
 curgus,  who  led  the  Arcadian  forces  in  the  expedition 
 against  Troy,  and.  after  the  fall  of  that  city,  was  car- 
 ried by  a  storm,  on  his  return  home,  to  the  island  of 
 Cyprus,  where  he  founded  the  city  of  Paphos. 
 Ag.i\petus.      Vid.  Sujiplemeiit. 
 Agar,  a  town  of  Africa  Propria,  in  the  district  of 
 Byzacium,  and  probably  not  far  from  Zella. 
 Agapius.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Agara,  a  city  of  India  intra  Gangem,  on  the  south- 
 ern bank  of  the  lomanes  [V.ichumna),  and  northwest 
 of  Palibothra.  It  is  now  Agra.  {Bischojfund  Mbllcr, 
 Wortcrb.  der  Geogr.,  s  v.) 
 
 Agari  {'Ayupov  noTitc,  or  'Apydpov  nnTiic,  Ptol. — 
 
 Argari  Urbs,  Tab.  Pent.),  a  city  of  India  intra  Gangem, 
 
 on  the  Sinus  Argaricus.     It  is  thought  to  correspond  to 
 
 84 
 
 the  modern  Arlingari.  {Bischoff  und  Mbllcr,  Wor- 
 terb.  der  Geogr.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Aoarista,  I.  a  daughter  of  Hippocrates,  who  married 
 Xanthi[)pus.  She  dreamed  thai  she  had  brought  forth 
 a  lion,  and  a  few  days  after  was  delivered  of  Pericles. 
 — II.  (Vtd.  Supplement.) 
 
 AcAsiASjOr  Hegesias,  I.  a  sculptor  of  Ephesus,  to 
 whose  chisel  we  owe  the  celebrated  work  of  art  called 
 the  Borghese  Gladiator.  This  is  indicated  by  an  in- 
 scriplioTi  on  the  pedestal  of  the  statue.  This  statue 
 was  found,  together  with  the  Apollo  Belvidere,  on  the 
 site  of  ancient  Anlium,  the  birthplace  of  Nero,  and 
 where  that  emperor  had  collected  a  large  number  of 
 chefs-d'auvre,  which  had  been  carried  off  from  Greece 
 by  his  freedman  Acratus.  It  is  maintained  by  more 
 lecent  antiquarians,  that  the  statue  in  question  does 
 not  represent  a  gladiator  ;  it  appears  to  have  belonged 
 to  a  group,  and  the  attention  and  action  of  the  fig\ire 
 are  directed  towards  some  object  more  elevated  than 
 itself,  such,  for  example,  as  a  horseman  whose  attack 
 it  is  sustaining.  With  regard  to  the  form  of  the  name, 
 it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  .^olic  and  vulgar  form 
 was  Agcstas ;  the  Doric,  Agasias ;  and  the  Ionic, 
 Hcgcsias.  This  Ionic  form  was  adopted  by  the  Attic 
 writers. — II.  Another  Ephesian  sculptor,  who  exercised 
 his  art  in  the  island  of  Delos,  while  it  was  under  the 
 Roman  sway.     (Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Agassi,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  supposed  by  Mannert 
 (7,  470)  to  be  the  same  with  the  JEgasa.  of  Ptolemy, 
 which  he  places  to  the  south  of  Beroea.  {Plot.,  p. 
 84.)  It  was  given  up  to  plunder  by  Paulus  JGmilius, 
 for  having  revolted  to  Perseus  after  its  surrender. 
 {Liv.,  45,  27.)  There  are  ruins  near  the  modern  Co- 
 jani,  which,  in  all  probability,  mark  the  site  of  the  an- 
 cient place. 
 
 Ac.isus,  a  harbour  of  Apulia,  near  the  Promontorium 
 Garganum.  {Plin.,  3,  11.)  It  is  supposed  to  answer 
 to  the  modern  Porto  Greco.  {Cluver,  Ital.  Ant.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  1212.) 
 
 Agatharchides,  I.  or  Agatharchus,  a  native  of  Cni- 
 dus,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  VI.  (Philometor)  and  his 
 successor.  Pholius  states  {Biblioth.,  vol.  1,  p.  171, 
 cd.  Bekker),  that  he  had  read  or  was  acquainted  with 
 the  following  geographical  productions  of  this  writer. 
 
 1 .  A  work  on  Asia  (Tu  Kara  tt/v  'Aaiav),  in  ten  books  : 
 
 2.  A  work  on  Europe  (Tu  sard  tijv  Ei'ptJTr/;!'),  in 
 forty  books :  and,  3.  A  work  on  the  Erythraean  Sea 
 {Tlepl  rijg  'EpvOpug  ^aT^uaar]^).  The  patriarch  adds, 
 that  there  existed  the  following  other  works  of  the  same 
 writer.  1.  An  abridged  description  of  the  Erythraean 
 Sea  {''Ent-ojii]  tuv  Trepi  ttjc  'EpvOpug  ■d.iluaaijg),  in  one 
 book  ;  2.  An  account  of  the  Troglodytes  {Tlepl  Tpuy- 
 AodvTuv),  in  five  books  :  3.  An  abridgment  of  the 
 poem  of  Antimachus,  entitled  Lyde  {'HmTOfiT/  rf/g 
 'AvTL^mXov  Ainh/g) :  4.  An  abridgment  of  a  work  on 
 extraordinary  winds  {'HiTiTOfi?/  tuv  nepl  avvayuyf/c 
 ■&avfiaaiuv  uvi/iuv)  :  5.  An  abridged  history  {'EkXo- 
 yal  loTopiuv) :  and,  6.  A  treatise  on  the  art  of  living 
 happily  with  one's  friends.  Photius  passes  a  high  eu- 
 logium  on  this  writer,  and  makes  him  to  have  imitated 
 the  manner  of  Thucydides.  The  patriarch  has  also 
 preserved  for  us  some  extracts  from  the  first  and  fifth 
 books  of  the  work  of  Agatharchides  on  the  Erythraean 
 Sea,  in  which  some  curious  particulars  are  found 
 respecting  the  Sabseans  and  other  nations  dwelling 
 alon<T  the  coasts.  Here  also  we  have  an  account  of 
 the  mode  of  hunting  elephants,  of  the  method  em- 
 ployed by  the  Egyptians  in  extracting  gold  from  mar- 
 ble, where  nature  had  concealed  it ;  while  the  whole 
 is  intermingled  with  details  appertaining  to  natural 
 history.  The  valuable  information  furnished  by  Aga- 
 tharchides respecting  the  people  of  Ethiopia,  has  already 
 been  alluded  to  under  that  article.  The  fragments  of 
 Agatharchides  were  published,  along  with  those  of  Cte 
 sias  and  Memnon,  by  H.  Stephens,  Paris,  1557,  8vo. 
 They  are  given,  however,  in  a  more  complete  form  by 
 
AG  A 
 
 A  G  A 
 
 Hudson,  in  his  edition  of  the  minor  Greek  geographers. 
 {SchiJll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  391.)— U.  A  native 
 of  Pamos,  whose  TiepcnKu  is  cited  by  Plutarch  in  his 
 Parallels.  He  is  otherwise  entirely  unknown,  and 
 hence  some  have  supposed  him  to  be  identical  with 
 Agatharchides  of  Cnidus,  and  the  TiepcnKu  to  be  merely 
 a  section  of  the  work  on  Asia  by  this  writer.  (Sclto/l, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Ag.vtharchus,  I.  an  Athenian  artist,  mentioned  by 
 Vitruvius  (lih.  7,  jiraf),  and  said  by  him  to  have  in- 
 vented scene-painting.  He  was  contemporary  with 
 .^•Eschylus,  and  prepared  the  scenery  and  decorations 
 for  his  theatre.  SUlig  {Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.)  maintains, 
 that  the  words  of  Vitruvius,  in  the  passage  just  referred 
 to,  namely,  '■  sccnani  fcctt,''^  merely  mean,  that  Aga- 
 tharchus  constructed  a  stage  for  -■Eschylus,  since,  ac- 
 cording to  Aristotle  {Poet., 4),  Sophocles  first  brought 
 in  the  decorations  of  scenery  {aKrjvoypaipia).  But  the 
 language  of  Vitruvius,  taken  in  connexion  with  what 
 follows,  evidently  refers  to  perspective  and  scene- 
 painting,  and  Bentley  also  understands  them  in  this 
 sense.  {Diss.  Phal.,  p.  286.)  Nor  do  the  words  of 
 Aristotle  present  any  serious  obstacle  to  this  opinion, 
 since  Sophocles  may  have  completed  what  Agatharchus 
 began. — H.  A  painter,  a  native  of  Samos,  and  con- 
 temporary with  Zeu.xis.  "W^e  have  no  certain  state- 
 ment respecting  the  degree  of  talent  which  he  pos- 
 sessed. Sillig  {Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.)  thinks  it  was  small, 
 and  cites  in  support  of  his  opinion  the  language  of  An- 
 docides  {Orat.,  c.  Alcih.,  ^  17).  Plutarch,  however, 
 informs  us,  that  .\lcibiades  confined  Agatharchus  in 
 his  mansion  until  he  had  decorated  it  with  paintings, 
 and  then  sent  him  home  with  a  handsome  present. 
 {Vtt.  Alcib.,  16.)  Andocides  charges  Alcibiadcs  with 
 detaining  Agatharchus  three  whole  months,  and  com- 
 pelling him  during  that  period  to  adorn  his  mansion 
 with  the  pencil.  And  he  states  that  the  painter  es- 
 caped to  his  house  only  in  the  fourth  month  of  his  du- 
 ress. Sillig  thinks  that  this  was  done  in  order  to  cast 
 ridicule  upon  the  artist,  an  inference  far  from  probable, 
 though  it  would  seem  to  derive  some  support  from  the 
 remark  of  the  scholiast  on  Demosthenes  (c.  Mid.,  p. 
 360).  as  to  the  nature  of  the  provocation  which  Aga- 
 tharchus had  given  to  Alcibiades.  Bentley  makes 
 onlv  one  artist  of  the  name  of  Agatharchus,  but  is 
 silent  as  to  the  difTiculty  which  would  then  arise  in  re- 
 lation to  this  artist's  being  contemporaneous  with  both 
 .-Eschylus  and  Zeuxis.  Agatharchus  prided  himself 
 upon  his  rapidity  of  execution,  and  received  the  famous 
 retort  from  Zeuxis,  that  if  the  former  executed  his 
 works  in  a  short  time,  he,  Zeuxis,  painted  "  for  a  long 
 time,"  i.  e.,  for  posterity. 
 
 Agathesierus,!.  aGreek  geographer.  The  period 
 when  he  flourished  is  not  known  ;  it  is  certain,  how- 
 ever, that  he  came  after  Ptolemy  ;  and  very  probably 
 he  lived  during  tlie  third  century  of  our  era.  The  only 
 work  by  which  he  is  known  is  an  abridgment  of  geog- 
 raphy, entitled  'TiiOTijTvcjaic  rF/g  yeuypaipiag,  kv  ettlt- 
 ojirj,  in  two  books.  This  little  production  appears  to 
 have  reached  us  in  a  very  imperfect  state.  It  is  a 
 series  of  lessons  dictated  to  a  disciple  named  Philo,  to 
 serve  hiiu  as  an  outline  for  a  course  of  mathematical 
 and  physical  geography.  In  the  first  chapter  he  gives 
 a  sketch  of  history  and  geography,  and  names  the  most 
 useful  writers  in  these  departments.  He  gives  us 
 here  some  particulars  worthy  of  notice  that  we  might 
 search  in  vain  for  in  Strabo.  In  the  chapters  that  fol- 
 low, A  gatheinerus  treats  of  the  divisions  of  the  earth, 
 of  winds,  seas,  islands,  &c.  After  the  sixteenth  chap- 
 ter comes  an  extract  from  Ptolemy.  The  second  book 
 is  only  a  confused  repetition  of  the  first,  and  is  the  work, 
 probably,  of  some  ignorant  disciple.  The  first  edition 
 of  Agathemerus  is  that  of  Tennulius,  in  Greek  and 
 Latin,  Amsl.,  1671,  8vo.  It  is  to  be  found  also  in 
 the  collection  of  ancient  geographical  writers,  by  Gro- 
 novius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1679  and  1700,  4to,  and  in  Hud- 
 
 son's collection.     {SrMll,   Hist    Litt.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p. 
 324.) — II.   A  physician.     (  KjcZ.  Supplement.) 
 
 Agathi.^s,  a  poet  and  historian,  born  at  Myrina,  m 
 ^olis,  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  probably  about  536 
 A.U.     He  studied  at  xAlexandrea,  and  went  in  the  year 
 554  to   Constantinople.     He  possessed   some   talent 
 for  poetry,  and  wrote  a  variety  of  amorous  effusions, 
 which  he  collected  in   nine  books,  under  the  title  of 
 "Daphniaca."      A   collection  of  epigrams,  in   seven 
 books,  was  also  made  by  him,  of  which  a  irreat  number 
 are  still   extant,  and   to   be   found  in   the  Anthology. 
 His  princijial  production,  however,  is  an  historical  work, 
 which  he  probably  wrote  after  the  deaih  of  the  Emperor 
 Justinian.     It  contains,  in  five  books,  an  account  of  his 
 own  times,  from   the  wars  of  Narses  to   the  death  of 
 Chosroes,  king  of  Persia.     His  work  is  of  great  impor- 
 tance for  the  history  of  Persia.     According  to  his  own 
 account,  he  would  appear  to  have  been  conversant  with 
 the  Persian  language,  since  he  states  that  he  compiled 
 his  narrative  from   Persian  authorities  (f/c  tuv  nana 
 a<piaLV  kyyeypa/jfifpuv,  p.  125).     He  writes,  perhaps, 
 with  more  regard  for  the  truth  than  poets  are  wont  to 
 do  ;   but  his  style  is  pompous  and  full  of  affectation, 
 and  his  narrative  continually  interspersed  with  com- 
 monplace  reflections.     The   mediocrity  of  a  bastard 
 time  is  clinging  fast  to  him,  and  the  highest  stretch  of 
 his  ambition  seems  to  have  been  to  imitate  the  ancient 
 writers.     By  faith   he  was  undoubtedly  a  Christian, 
 and  probably  prided  himself  upon  his  orthodoxy  ;  for 
 when  he  mentions  that  the  Franks  were  Christians, 
 he  adds,  Kal  rrj  opOoruTri  xP'^[^£vol  So^tj.     His  remi- 
 niscences of  the  Homeric  poems  supplied  him  with  a 
 large  stock  of  epic  words,  which  swim  on  the  smooth 
 surface  of  his  narrative  like  heavy  logs  upon  stagnant 
 water.    The  work  of  Agathias  may  be  regarded,  in  point 
 of  learning  and  diction,  as  a  fair  specimen  of  the  age  in 
 which  he  lived  ;  few  men  at  Alexandrea  or  Constantino- 
 ple may  have  surpassed  him  as  a  writer.     {Foreisn  Re- 
 view, No.  2,  p.  575.)    The  best  edition  is  that  published 
 in  1828,  as  Part  HI.  in  the  collection  of  Byzantine  his- 
 torians, at  present  publishing  at  Bonn. 
 Agathinus.      Vid'.  Supplement. 
 Ag.Xtho,  an  Athenian  tragic  writer,  the  contempo 
 rary  and  friend  of  Euripides.     At  his  house  Plato  lays 
 the  scene  of  his   Symposmm,  given   in  honour  of  a 
 tragic  victory  won  by  the  poet.     Agatho  was  no  mean 
 dramatist.     He  is  called  'kyuduv  6  K?ieiv6^  by  Aris- 
 tophanes.    {Thcsmoph.,  29.)     The  same  writer  pays 
 a  handsome  tribute  to  his  memory  as  a  poet  and   a 
 man,  in  the  Ronce  {v.  84),  where  Bacchus  calls  him 
 uyadoc   TTot7]T7]c  Kal    TrodEivbg   roTc   (piXoig.     In    the 
 Thcsmophoriazusce ,  however,  which  was  exhibited  six 
 years  before  the  i?a7i<^,  Agatho,  then  alive,  is  introduced 
 as  the  friend  of  Euripides,  and  ridiculed  for  his  effem- 
 inacy.    His  poetry  seems  to  have  corresponded  with 
 his  personal  appearance;   profuse  in  trope,  inflexion, 
 and   metaphor ;    glittering  with   sparkling   ideas,  and 
 flowing  softly  on  with  harmonious  words  and  nice  con- 
 struction, but  deficient  in  manly  thought  and  vigour. 
 Agatho  may,  in  some  degree,  be  charged  with  having 
 begun  the  decline  of  true  tragedy.     It  was  he  who  first 
 commenced  the  practice  of  inserting  choruses  between 
 the  acts  of  the  drama,  which  had  no  reference  whatever 
 to  the  circumstances  of  the  piece  ;  thus  infringing  the 
 law  by  which  the  chorus  was  made  one  of  the  actors. 
 {Arislot.,  Poet.,  18,  22.)     He  is  blamed  also  by  Aris- 
 totle {Poet ,  18,  17)  for  want  of  judgment,  in  selecting 
 too  extensive  subjects.     He  occasionally  wrote  pieces 
 with   fictitious   names   (a  transition  towards  the  new 
 comedy),  one  of  which  was  called  the  Flon-n;  and  was 
 probably,  therefore,  neither  seriously  afi'ecting  nor  ter- 
 rible, but  in  the  style  of  the  Idyl.      [Schlcgel,  Dram. 
 Litt.,  vol.  1,  p.  189.)     One  of  Agatho's  tragic  victo- 
 ries is  recorded,  01.  91,  2,  B.C.  416.     He  too.  like 
 Euripides,  left  Athens  for   the   court   of  Archelaus. 
 Agathoclea.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 85 
 
AGATHOCLES. 
 
 A  G  A 
 
 Aqathoci.es,  I.  one  of  the  boldest  adventurers  of 
 antiquity.  His  history  is  principally  drawn  from  Dio- 
 dorus  Siculus  (liooks  nineteen  and  twenty,  and  frag- 
 ments of  book  twenty-one),  and  from  Justin  (books 
 twenty-iwo  and  twenty-three).  They  derived  their 
 accounts  from  different  sources,  and  differ,  therefore, 
 especially  in  the  history  of  his  youth.  Agathocles 
 was  the  son  of  Carcinus,  who,  havmg  been  expelled 
 from  Rhegium,  resided  at  Thcrina?  in  Sicily.  On  ac- 
 count of  a  mysterious  oracle,  he  was  exposed  in  his 
 infancy,  but  was  secretly  brought  up  by  his  mother. 
 At  the  age  of  seven  years  the  boy  vvas  again  received 
 by  his  repentant  father,  and  sent  to  Syracuse  to  learn 
 the  trade  of  a  potter,  where  he  continued  to  reside, 
 being  admitted  by  Timoleon  into  the  number  of  the 
 citizens.  He  was  drawn  from  obscurity  by  Damas,  a 
 noble  Syracusan,  to  whom  his  beauty  recommended 
 hun,  and  was  soon  placed  at  the  head  of  an  army  sent 
 against  Agrigeutum.  By  a  marriage  with  the  widow 
 of  Damas  he  became  one  of  the  most  wealthy  rnen  of 
 Syracuse.  Under  the  dominion  of  Sosistratus,  he  was 
 obliged  to  fly  to  Tarentum,  but  returned  after  the  death 
 of  the  latter,  usurped  the  sovereignty,  in  which  he  es- 
 tablished himself  by  the  murder  of  several  thousand  of 
 the  principal  inhabitants,  and  conquered  the  greater 
 part  of  Sicily  (317  B.C.).  He  maintained  his  power 
 twenty-eight  years,  till  289  B.C.  To  strengthen  his 
 authority  in  his  native  country,  and  to  give  employment 
 to  the  people,  he  endeavoured,  like  Dionysius,  to  drive 
 the  Carthaginians  from  Sicily.  Having  been  defeated 
 by  them,  and  besieged  in  Syracuse,  he  boldly  resolved 
 to  pass  over  into  Africa  with  a  portion  of  his  army. 
 Here  he  fought  for  four  years,  till  307,  generally  with 
 success.  Disturbances  in  Sicily  compelled  him  to 
 leave  his  army  twice,  and  at  his  second  return  into 
 Africa  he  found  it  in  rebellion  against  his  son  Archa- 
 gathus.  He  appeased  the  commotion  by  promising 
 the  troops  the  booty  they  should  win  ;  but,  being  de- 
 feated, he  did  not  hesitate  to  give  up  his  own  sons  to  the 
 vengeance  of  his  exasperated  soldiery,  and  expose  these 
 latter,  without  a  leader,  to  the  enemy.  His  sons  were 
 murdered  ;  the  army  surrendered  to  the  Carthaginians. 
 He  himself  restored  quiet  to  Sicily,  and  concluded  a 
 peace  306  B.C.,  which  secured  to  both  parties  their 
 former  possessions.  He  then  engaged  in  several  hos- 
 tile expeditions  to  Italy,  where  he  vanquished  the 
 Briittii  and  sacked  Crotona.  His  latter  days  were 
 saddened  by  domestic  strife.  His  intention  was,  that 
 his  youngest  son,  Agathocles,  should  inherit  the  throne. 
 This  stimulated  his  grandson  Archagathus  to  rebellion. 
 He  murdered  the  intended  heir,  and  persuaded  Majnon, 
 a  favourite  of  the  king's,  to  poison  him.  This  was  done 
 by  means  of  a  feather,  with  which  the  king  cleaned  his 
 teeth  after  a  meal.  His  mouth,  and  soon  his  whole 
 body,  became  a  mass  of  corruption.  Before  he  was 
 entirely  dead  he  was  thrown  upon  a  funeral  pile.  Ac- 
 cording to  some  authors,  he  died  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
 two  years  ;  according  to  others,  at  that  of  ninety-five. 
 Before  his  death,  his  wife  Texena  and  two  sons  were 
 sent  to  Egypt.  His  son-in-law,  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epi- 
 rus,  inherited  his  influence  in  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy. 
 Agathocles  possessed  the  talents  of  a  general  and  a 
 sovereign.  He  was  proud  of  his  ignoble  descent. 
 His  cruelty,  luxury,  and  insatiable  ambition, however, 
 accelerated  his  ruin.  {Jvslm,  22,  1,  seqr/. — Id.,  23, 
 1,  seqq.—Polyk,  12,  15.—/,/.,  15,  35.— /</.,  9,  23, 
 &,c.) — II.  A  son  of  Lysimaclnis,  taken  prisoner  by 
 the  Getae.  He  was  ransomed,  and  married  Lysandra, 
 daughter  of  Ptolemy  Lagus.  His  father,  in  his  old 
 age,  married  Arsinoe,  the  eldest  sister  of  Lysandra, 
 who,  fearful  lest  her  offspring  by  Lysitiiachus  might,  on 
 the  death  of  the  latter,  come  under  the  power  of  Agath- 
 ocles and  be  destroyed,  planned,  and  succeeded  in 
 bringing  about,  the  death  of  tlws  prince.  After  the 
 destruction  of  Agathocles  she  fled  to  Seleucus.  An- 
 other account  makes  Agathocles  to  have  lost  his  life 
 86 
 
 through  the  resentment  of  Arsinoe,  in  consequence 
 of  his  refusing  to  listen  to  certain  dishonourable  pro- 
 posals made  by  her.  (Fausan.,  1,  9. — Id.,  1,  10.) — 
 III.  A  brother  of  Agaihoclea,  and  minister  of  Ptolemy 
 I'hilopator.  {Vid.  Agathoclea.)— IV^  A  Greek  histo- 
 rian, a  native  of  Samos,  who  wrote  a  work  on  the  gov- 
 ernuient  of  Pessinus.  (Vossius,  de  Hisl.  Giac,  3,  p. 
 158 — Erncsli,  Clav.  Cic.  Ind.  Hist,  s.  •».)— V.  An 
 drchon  at  Athens,  01.  105,  at  the  period  when  the  Pho- 
 cians  undertook  to  plunder  Delphi. — VI.  An  historian. 
 ( Vid.  Supplement.) 
 
 AgathodxEmon,  or  the  Good  Geimis,  I.  a  name  ap- 
 plied by  the  Greeks  to  the  Egyptian  Cneph,  as  indic- 
 ative of  the  qualities  and  attributes  assigned  to  him 
 in  the  mythology  of  that  nation.  (Compare  Eusehius, 
 Prap.  Ev.,  1,  10,  p.  41. — Jahlonski,  Fanlli.  JEgypt., 
 1,  p.  86.)  It  is  the  same  with  the  Ntii}f,  and  Poeman- 
 der,  of  the  Alexandrean  school ;  and  the  hieroglyphic 
 which  represents  this  deity  is  the  circle,  or  disk,  hav- 
 ing in  the  centre  a  serpent  with  a  hawk's  head,  or  elsa 
 a  globe  encircled  by  a  serpent,  the  symbol  of  the  spir- 
 it, or  eternal  principle,  male  and  female,  that  animates 
 and  controls  the  world,  as  well  as  of  the  light,  which 
 illumines  all  things.  {Crcuzcr's  Symholik,jiar  Gvig- 
 niaut,  vol.  I,  p.  824.) — II.  A  name  applied  by  the 
 Greeks  to  the  serpent,  as  an  image  of  Cneph,  the  good 
 genius.  {Plut.,de  Is.  et  Os.,  p.  418.)  'I'he  serpent 
 here  meant  is  of  a  harmless  kind,  and  was  also  called 
 Urccus  (Ovpatog),  or  the  royal  serpent  \Zocga,  Num. 
 JEgypt.,  p.  400.— /(/.,  de  Obelise,  p.  431, 7i.  41),  and 
 hence  it  is  also  the  symbol  of  royalty,  and  appears  on 
 the  heads  of  kings  as  well  as  of  gods.  (Compare  re- 
 marks under  the  article  Cleopatra.)  The  term  Agatho- 
 dasmon  is  said  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  translation  of 
 the  Egyptian  term  Cneph.  (Jahlonski,  Voce,  p.  112. 
 —  Ouvaroff,  Essai  sur  les  Myst.  d'Eleusis,  p.  106, 
 seqq. — Crcuzcr's  Symbolik,  vol.  1,  p.  505,  of  the  Ger- 
 man work. — Cham-pollion,  Precis,  &c.,  p.  91.) — III. 
 A  name  given  by  the  Greek  residents  in  Egypt  to  the 
 Canopic  arm  of  the  Nile.  (PloL,  4,  5.)  The  native 
 appellation  was  Schctnouphi,  i.  e.,  "the  good  arm  of 
 the  river;"  from  Schct,  "the  arm  of  a  river,"  and 
 nouphi,  "  good,"  and  was  used  in  opposition  to  the 
 Phatnetic,  or  evil  arm  of  the  Nile.  {Champollion, 
 VEgyple  sous  les  Pharaons,  vol.  2,  p.  23.)  The  words 
 Cneph  (Cnuphi)  and  Canobus  (Canopus)  were,  in 
 fact,  the  same  ;  and  we  have  in  the  following,  also, 
 merely  different  forms  of  the  same  appellation  ;  Chno- 
 phi,  Anuhis,  Mncvis,  &c. — III.  {Vtd.  Supplement.) 
 
 Agathotycus.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Agathon,  I.  (FzVi.  Agatho.) — II.,  III.  (FhI  Sup- 
 plement.) 
 
 Agathyrna,  or  Agathyrnum,  a  city  of  Sicily,  on  the 
 northern  coast,  between  Tyndaris  and  Calacta.  It  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  originally  a  settlement  of  the  Siculi, 
 and,  owing  to  this  circumstance  probably,  as  well  as 
 to  its  remote  position,  would  seem  to  have  escaped 
 the  notice  of  the  Greek  geographers.  Its  name  ap- 
 pears, for  the  first  time,  in  the  history  of  the  second 
 Punic  war,  where  Livy  (26,  40)  states,  that  the  Ro- 
 man consul  La'vinus  carried  away  from  the  place  a 
 motley  rabble,  four  thousand  in  number,  consisting  of 
 abandoned  characters,  and  brought  them  to  the  coast 
 of  Italy  near  Rhegium,  the  people  of  which  place  want- 
 ed a  band  trained  to  robberies,  for  the  purpose  of  rav- 
 aging Bruttium.  Livy  writes  the  name  Agathyrna,  ol 
 the  first  declension  :  the  more  common  form  is  Aga- 
 thyrnum {'kyadvpvov).  The  modern  St.  Agatha  stands 
 near  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  (Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  411.) 
 
 Agathyrsi,  a  nation  respecting  whom  the  accounts 
 of  ancient  writers  are  greatly  at  variance.  (Compare 
 Vossius,  Annol.  in  Hudson,  Geog.  Min  ,  vol.  1,  p. 
 79.)  Herodotus  (4,  49^  places  them  in  the  vicinity 
 of  the  Maris,  the  modern  Marosch,  in  what  is  now 
 Transylvania,  and  most  writers  agree  in  placing  them 
 
AGE 
 
 AGE 
 
 m  this  country  and  in  npper  Hungary.  (Compare 
 Rmncll,  Gcogr.  of  Herod.,  p.  83,  seqq. — Mntmert,  4, 
 p.  102.— Niehyhr  Verm.  Schrift .  1,  p.  377,  &c.) 
 Scyninys  of  Chios,  nowever,  makes  tiicm  to  have  dwelt 
 on  the  Palus  Msotis.  The  name  perhaps,  after  all,  is 
 a  mere  appeUative,  and  may  have  been  applied  by  dif- 
 ferent authors  to  dilTereiit  tribes.  What  serves  to 
 strenothen  this  opinion  is  the  fact,  that  the  latter  half 
 of  the  term  Agathyrsi  frequently  occurs  in  other  na- 
 tional designations,  such  as  Idaitlhyrsi,  Thyrsagc(<E, 
 ThyssagcUB,  Thyrsi,  &.c.  The  reference  probably  is 
 to  the  god  Tyr,  another  name  for  the  sun.  What 
 Herodotus  (4,  104)  states  respecting  this  race,  that 
 they  were  accustomed  to  array  themselves  in  very 
 handsome  attire,  to  wear  a  great  number  of  golden  or- 
 naments, to  have  their  women  in  common,  and  to  live, 
 in  consequence  of  this  last-mentioned  arrangement, 
 like  brethren  and  members  of  one  family,  is  received 
 with  great  incredulity  by  many.  (Compare  Valcke- 
 naer,  Herod.,  ed.  WesscL,  p.  328,  w.  31.)  All  this, 
 however,  clearly  shows  their  Asiatic  origin,  and  con- 
 nects them  with  the  nations  in  the  interior  of  the  east- 
 ern continent.  The  community  of  wives  seems  to  have 
 been  a  remnant,  in  some  degree,  of  an  early  Buddhis- 
 tic system.  l"he  civilized  habits  of  the  Agathyrsi  are, 
 at  all  events,  worthy  of  notice,  and  favour  the  theory 
 of  those  who  see  in  them  a  fragment  of  early  civiliza- 
 tion, emanating  from  some  highly  cultivated  race,  and 
 subsequently  shattered  by  the  inroads  of  the  Scythians 
 and  other  barbarous  tribes.  (Killer,  Vorhal.,  286,  seqq.) 
 Agaue  {' kyavi'i),  or,  with  the  lleuchlinian  pronun- 
 ciation, Ag.vve,  I.  daughter  of  Cadmus,  and  wife  of 
 Echion,  by  whom  she  had  Pentheus.  Her  son  suc- 
 ceeded his  grandfather  in  the  government  of  Thebes. 
 While  he  was  reigning,  Bacchus  came  from  the  east, 
 and  sought  to  introduce  his  orgies  into  his  native  city. 
 The  women  all  gave  enthusiastically  into  the  new  re- 
 ligion, and  Mount  Citha-ron  rang  to  the  frantic  yells  of 
 the  Bacchantes.  Pentheus  sought  to  c-heck  their  fury  ; 
 but,  deceived  by  the  god,  he  went  secretly  and  ascend- 
 ed a  tree  on  Cithceron,  to  be  an  ocular  witness  of  their 
 revels.  While  here,  he  was  descried  by  his  mother 
 and  aunts,  to  whom  Bacchus  made  him  appear  to  be  a 
 wild  beast,  and  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  them.  This 
 adventure  of  Pentheus  has  furnished  the  groundwork 
 of  one  of  the  finest  dramas  of  Euripides,  his  Baccha;. 
 {ApuUod.,  3,  4,  i.—Id.,  3,  5,  I.— Ovid,  Met.,  3,  514, 
 seqq. — Hygin.,  f,  184. — Kcightlei/s  Mythology,  p. 
 298.) — II.  A  tragedy  of  Statius,  now  lost.  {Juv.,7, 
 87.) — III.  A  daughter  of  Danaus.  She  slew  her  hus- 
 band Lycus,  in  obedience  to  her  father's  orders.  (Apol- 
 kd.,  2,  1,  5.)— IV.  A  Nereid.     (Apollod.,  1,  2,  7.) 
 
 Agdestis,  I.  a  genius  or  deity  mentioned  in  the 
 legends  of  Phiygia,  and  connected  with  the  mythus  of 
 Cybele  and  Atys.  An  account  of  his  origin,  as  well 
 as  other  particulars  respecting  him,  may  be  obtained 
 from  Pausanias(7,  17).  He  was  an  androgynous  de- 
 ity, and  appears  to  be  the  same  with  the  Adagoiis  of 
 the  ancient  writers.  {Creuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  2,  p. 
 tS. — Compare  the  note  of  Guigniaut.) — II.  One  of 
 the  summits  of  Mount  Dmdymus  in  Phiygia,  on  which 
 Atys  was  said  to  have  been  Innied.  {I'aiisan.,  1,  4  ) 
 AGEi.AnAS,  I.  an  excellent  statuary,  and  illustrious 
 also  as  having  been  the  instructer  of  Phidias,  Poly- 
 cletus,  and  Myron.  His  parents  were  inhabitants  of 
 Argos,  according  to  Pausanias  (34,  8),  and  he  himself 
 was  born  there,  probably  about  B.C.  540.  The  par- 
 ticular time,  however,  when  he  lived,  has  given  rise 
 to  much  discussion.  Sillig,  after  a  long  and  able  ar- 
 gument, comes  to  the  conclusion  that  Agoladas,  the 
 instructor  of  Phidias,  attained  the  height  of  his  renown 
 about  Olymp.  70,  or  500  B.C.  {Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) — II. 
 Another  artist,  probably  a  nephew  of  the  former,  as- 
 signed by  Pliny  to  Olymp.  87,  or  432  B.C.,  which  can 
 hardly  be  correct.  He  was  thinking,  perhaps,  of  the 
 elder  Ageladas.     (Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Agei.astus  {'Ayt-^aaroc),  an  appellation  given  toM. 
 Crassus,  father  of  the  celebrated  orator,  and  grandfa- 
 ther of  Crassus  the  rich,  from  his  extraordinary  gravity. 
 Lucilius  said  of  him,  that  he  laughed  only  once  in  the 
 course  of  his  life,  while  Pliny  informs  us  that  he  was 
 reported  never  to  have  laughed  at  all.  Hence  the 
 name  'AytAaaTog.  "  one  that  does  not  laugh,"  or  "  that 
 never  laughs."  (Cic,  dc  Fin.,  5,  30. — Douza,  ad  Lu- 
 cil.,fragm.,  p.  20. — Plin.,  7,  18.) 
 
 AcEL.ius,  I.  a  king  of  Corinth,  son  of  Ixion. — IP. 
 A  son  of  Hercules  and  Omphale,  from  whom  Croesus 
 was  descended.  (Apol/od.,  2,  7,  8.)  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus  (4,  31)  gives  the  name  of  this  son  as  Lamus. 
 Herodotus,  on  the  other  hand,  deduces  the  royal  line 
 of  Lydia  from  a  son  of  Hercules  and  a  female  slave 
 belonging  to  .lardanus,  the  father  of  Omphale.  {He- 
 rod., 1,7.)  This  last  is  generally  considered  to  be  the 
 more  correct  opinion.  (Consult  Bahr,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c. 
 —  Creuzer,  His/.  Grczc.  antiquiss.,&ic.,  p.  186.) — HI 
 A  servant  of  Priam,  who  preserved  Paris  when  expo- 
 sed on  Mount  Ida.  {Vid.  Paris. — Apollod., Z,  12,  5, 
 and  Heyne,  ad  loc.,  not.  cr.) 
 
 Agendicum,  Agedincum,  or  Agedicum  {' kyTjdiKov, 
 PtoL),  a  city  of  Gaul,  the  metropolis  of  Senonia,  or 
 Lugdunensis  Quarta.  Its  later  name  was  Senones, 
 now  Sens.  {Gees.,  B.  G.,6,  extr. — Eutrop.,  10  7. — 
 Amm.  Mar  cell.,  15,  27.) 
 
 Agenor,  I.  a  son  of  Neptune  and  Libya,  king  of 
 PhcEnicia,  and  twin-brother  of  Belus  {Apollod.,  2,  I, 
 4) ;  he  married  Telephassa,  by  whom  he  became  the 
 father  of  Cadmus,  Phoenix,  Cylix,  Tharsus,  Phineus, 
 and,  according  to  some,  of  Europa  also.  {Schol.  ad 
 Eurip.,Phayn.,  ^.—Ht/gin.,  Fab.,  [78.— Pans.,  5,  25, 
 1.— Schol,  ad  Apoll.  Rhod.,  2,  178;  3,  1185.)  Af- 
 ter his  daughter  Europa  had  been  carried  oft'  by  Jupi- 
 ter, Agenor  sent  out  his  sons  in  search  of  her,  and  en- 
 joined on  them  not  to  return  without  their  sister.  As 
 Europa  was  not  to  be  found,  none  of  them  returned, 
 and  all  settled  in  foreign  countries.  {Apollod.,^,  1,  1. 
 —Hygin.,  Fab.,  178.)  Virgil  {JEn.,  1,  338)  calls  Car- 
 thage the  city  of  Agenor,  by  which  he  alludes  to  the 
 descent  of  Dido  from  Agenor.  Buttniann  {Mytholog., 
 I,  p.  232,  seq.)  points  out  that  the  genuine  Phoenician 
 name  of  Agenor  was  Cnas,  which  is  the  same  as  Ca- 
 naan, and  upon  these  facts  he  builds  the  hypothesis, 
 that  Agenor  or  Cnas  is  the  same  as  the  Canaan  in  the 
 Books  of  Moses — II.  A  son  of  lasus,  and  father  of 
 Argus  Panoples,  king  of  Argos.  {Apollod.,  2,  1,  2.) 
 Hellanicus  {Fragm.,  p.  47,  ed.  Slurz.)  states  that  Age- 
 nor was  a  son  of  Phoroneus,  and  brother  of  lasus  and 
 Pelasgus,  and  that,  after  their  father's  death,  the  two  el- 
 der brothers  divided  his  dominions  between  themselves 
 in  such  a  manner,  that  Pelasgus  received  the  country 
 about  the  river  Eracinus,  and  built  Larissa,  and  lasus 
 the  country  about  Elis.  After  the  death  of  these  two, 
 Agenor,  the  youngest,  invaded  their  dominions,  and 
 thus  became  King  of  Argos. — HI.  The  son  and  suc- 
 cessor of  Triopas  in  the  kingdom  of  Argos.  He  be- 
 longed to  the  house  of  Phoroneus,  and  was  father  of 
 Crotopus.  {Paiis.,  2,  16,  I.— Hygin.,  Fab.,  145.) — 
 IV.  A  son  of  Pleuron  and  Xanthippe,  and  grandson  of 
 ^tolus.  Epicaste,  the  daughter  of  Calydon,  became, 
 by  him  the  mother  of  Porthaon  and  Dcmonice.  {Apol- 
 lod., 1,  7,  7.)  According  to  Pausanias  (3,  13,  5), 
 Thestius,  the  father  of  Leda,  is  likewise  a  son  of  this 
 Agenor. — V.  A  son  of  Phegeus,  king  of  Psophis,  in 
 Arcadia.  He  was  b.other  of  Pronous  and  Arsinoe, 
 who  was  married  to  Alcinion,  but  was  abandoned  by 
 him.  When  Alcmason  wanted  to  give  the  celebrated 
 necklace  and  pephis  of  Harmonia  to  his  second  wife, 
 Callirrhoe,  the  daughter  of  Achelous,  he  was  slain  by 
 Agenor  and  Pronous  at  the  in.?tigation  of  Phegeus. 
 But  when  the  two  brothers  came  to  Delphi,  where  they 
 intended  to  dedicate  the  necklace  and  peplus,  they  were 
 killed  by  Amphoterus  and  Acarnan,  the  sons  of  Alc- 
 maeon  and  Callirrhoe.     {Apollod.,  3,  7,  5.)     Pausanias 
 
 87 
 
AGE 
 
 AGESILAUS. 
 
 (8,  24,  4),  who  relates  the  same  story,  calls  the  chil- 
 dren of  Phegeiis  Temeiius,  Axion,  and  Aljihesiboea. 
 — VI.  A  son  of  ihe  Trojan  Antenor,  and  of  Theano,  a 
 priestess  of  .Minerva.  (//  ,  (>,  29S  )  He  appears  as 
 one  of  the  bravest  of  the  Trojans,  and  as  leader  in  the 
 storming  of  the  Grecian  encampment.  He  hastens 
 with  otiier  Trojans  to  the  assistance  of  Hector  when 
 prostrated  by  Ajax,  and,  being  encouraged  by  Apollo, 
 he  engages  in  combat  with  Achilles,  whom  he  wounds. 
 As,  however,  danger  threatened  him  in  this  conflict, 
 Apollo  assumed  Agenor's  form,  in  order  that,  while 
 Achilles  turned  against  the  god,  the  Trojans  might  be 
 able  to  escape  to  the  city.  (IL,  21,  sub  Jin. — Hygin., 
 Fab.,  112.)  According  to  Pausanias  (10,  27,  1),  Age- 
 nor  was  slain  by  Neoptolcnius,  the  son  of  Achilles, 
 and  was  represented  by  Polygnotus  in  the  great  paint- 
 ing in  the  Lesche  of  Delphi. 
 
 Agenorides,  a  patronymic  of  Agenor,  designating  a 
 descendant  of  an  Agenor,  such  as  Cadmus,  Phineus, 
 and  Perseus. 
 
 Ages.\nder,  I.  or  AoEsiL.ius,  from  uyeiv  and  uv^p 
 or  Tiao^,  a  surname  of  Pluto  or  Hades,  describing  him 
 as  the  god  who  carries  away  all  men.  {Callim.,  Hymn, 
 in  Pallad.,  130. — Spanh.,  ad  loc. — Hcsych.,  s.  v. — 
 ..Escliyl.  ap.  Athcn.,  3,  p.  99  )  Nicander  {ap.  Alhcn., 
 15,  p.  684;  uses  the  form  'HyecT^'Aaof. — H.  A  sculp- 
 tor, a  native  of  the  island  of  Rhodes.  His  name  oc- 
 curs in  no  author  except  Pliny  (//.  N.,  36,  5,  4),  and 
 we  know  of  but  one  work  which  he  executed  ;  it  is  a 
 work,  however,  which  bears  the  most  decisive  testi- 
 mony to  his  surpassing  genius.  In  conjunction  with 
 Apollodorus  and  Athenodorus,  he  sculptured  the  group 
 of  Laocoon.  (  Vid.  Laocoon  )  This  celebrated  group 
 was  discovered  in  the  year  1506,  near  the  baths  of  Ti- 
 tus on  the  Esquiline  Hill :  it  is  now  preserved  in  the 
 Museum  of  the  Vatican.  A  great  deal  has  been  writ- 
 ten about  the  age  when  Agesander  flourished,  and  vari- 
 ous opinions  have  been  formed  on  the  subject.  Winck- 
 clinann  and  Midler,  forming  their  judgment  from  the 
 style  of  art  displayed  iii  the  work  itself,  assign  it  to  the 
 age  of  Lysippus.  Miiller  thinks  the  intensity  of  suf- 
 fering depicted,  and  the  somewhat  theatrical  air  which 
 pervades  the  group,  show  that  it  belongs  to  a  later 
 age  than  that  of  Phidias.  Lessing  and  Thiersch,  on 
 the  other  hand,  after  subjecting  the  passage  of  Pliny 
 to  an  accurate  examination,  have  come  to  the  conclu- 
 sion, that  Agesander  and  the  other  two  artists  lived  in 
 the  age  of  Titus,  and  sculptured  the  group  expressly 
 for  that  emperor;  and  this  opinion  is  pretty  generally 
 acquiesced  in.  Thiersch  has  written  a  great  deal  to 
 show  that  the  plastic  art  did  not  decline  so  early  as  is 
 generally  supposed,  but  continued  to  flourish  in  full 
 vigour  from  the  time  of  Phidias  uninterruptedly  down 
 to  the  reign  of  Tilus.  Pliny  was  deceived  in  saying 
 that  the  group  was  sculptured  out  of  one  block,  as  the 
 lapse  of  time  has  discovered  a  join  in  it.  It  appears  from 
 an  inscription  on  the  pedestal  of  a  statue  found  atiVe^ 
 tuno  (the  ancient  Antium),  that  Athenodorus  was  the 
 son  of  Agesander.  This  makes  it  not  unlikely  that 
 Polydorus  also  was  his  son,  and  that  the  father  execu- 
 ted the  figure  of  Laocoon  himself,  his  two  sons  the  re- 
 maining two  figures.  (Lcssimr^  Laokoon. —  Winckel- 
 maiin,  Gesch.  de  Kunsl,  10,  1,  10. — Thiersch,  Epochen 
 der  Bildkunst,  p.  318,  &.c. — Mullcr,  Archaol.  der 
 Kunst,  p.  152.) 
 
 Agesi.Xnax,  a  Greek  poet,  of  whom  a  beautiful  frag- 
 ment, descriptive  of  the  moon,  is  preserved  in  Plutarch 
 {De  facie  in  orb.  Luna,  p.  920).  It  is  uncertain  wheth- 
 er the  poem  to  which  this  fragment  belonged  was  of 
 an  epic  or  didactic  character. 
 
 Agesias,  one  of  the  lambidse,  and  an  hereditary  priest 
 of  Jupiter  at  Olympia.  He  gained  the  victory  there  in 
 the  mule-race,  and  is  celebrated  on  that  account  by 
 Pindar  in  the  6th  Olympic  Ode.  Bockh  places  his 
 victory  in  the  78th  Olympiad. 
 
 Agesidamus,  son  of  Archestratus,  an  Epizephyrian 
 88 
 
 Locrian,  who  conquered,  when  a  boy,  in  boxing  m  the 
 Olympic  games.  His  victory  is  celebrated  by°Pnidar 
 in  the  10th  and  1 1th  Olympic  Odes.  The  scholiast  pla- 
 ces his  victory  in  the  74th  Olympiad.  He  should  nol 
 be  confounded  with  Agesidamus  the  father  of  Chiomi- 
 us,  who  is  mentioned  in  the  Nemean  Odes  (1,42  ;  9, 
 99). 
 
 Agesil.^us,  I.  son  of  Doryssus,  sixth  king  of  the 
 Agid  line  of  Sparta,  excluding  Aristodemus,  accord- 
 ing to  Apollodorus,  reigned  44  years,  and  died  886 
 B.C.  Pausanias  makes  his  reign  a  short  one,  but  con- 
 temporary with  the  legislation  of  Lycurgus.  {Paiisan., 
 3,  2,  S.— Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  1,  p.  "^35.)— II.  Son  by 
 his  second  wife,  Eupolia,  of  Archidamus  II.,  succeed- 
 ed his  half-brother,  Agis  H.,  as  nineteenth  king  of  the 
 Eurypontid  line;  excluding,  on  the  ground  of  spurious 
 birth,  and  by  the  interest  of  Lysander,  his  nephew,  Le- 
 otychides.  {Vid.  Leotychides.)  His  reign  extetids 
 from  398  to  361  B.C.,  both  inclusive;  during  most  of 
 which  time  he  was,  in  Plutarch's  words,  "as  good  as 
 thought  commander  and  king  of  all  Greece,"  and  was 
 for  the  whole  of  it  greatly  identifled  with  his  country's 
 deeds  and  fortunes.  The  position  of  that  country, 
 though  internally  weak,  was  externally,  in  Greece, 
 down  to  394,  one  of  supremacy  acknowledged  :  the 
 only  field  of  its  ambition  was  Persia  ;  from  394  to  387, 
 the  (!;orinthian  or  first  Theban  war,  one  of  supremacy 
 assaulted  :  in  387  that  supremacy  was  restored  over 
 Greece,  in  the  peace  of  Antalcidas,  by  the  sa«rrifice  of 
 Asiatic  prospects;  and  thus,  more  confined  and  more 
 secure,  it  became  also  more  wanton.  After  378,  when 
 Thebes  regained  her  freedom,  we  find  it  again  assailed, 
 and  again  for  one  moment  restored,  though  on  a  lower 
 level,  m  371  ;  then  overthrown  forever  at  Leuctra,  the 
 next  nine  years  being  a  struggle  for  existence  amid 
 dangers  within  and  without. 
 
 Of  the  youth  of  Agesilaus  we  have  no  detail,  beyond 
 the  mention  of  his  intimacy  with  Lysander.  On  the 
 throne,  which  he  ascended  about  the  age  of  forty,  we 
 first  hear  of  him  in  the  suppression  of  Cinadon's  con- 
 spiracy. In  his  third  year  (396),  he  crossed  into  Asia, 
 and  after  a  short  campaign,  and  a  winter  of  preparation, 
 he  in  the  next  overpowered  the  two  satraps,  Tissapher- 
 nes  and  Pharnabazus  ;  and  in  the  spring  of  394  was 
 encamped  in  the  plain  of  Thebe,  preparing  to  advance 
 into  the  heart  of  the  empire,  when  a  message  arrived 
 to  summon  him  to  the  war  at  home.  He  calmly  and 
 promptly  obeyed,  expressing,  however,  to  the  Asiatic 
 Greeks,  and  doubtless  himself  indulging,  hopes  of  a 
 speedy  return.  Marching  rapidly  by  Xerxes'  route,  he 
 met  and  defeated  at  Coroneia  in  Bceotia  the  allied  for- 
 ces. In  393  he  was  engaged  in  a  ravaging  invasion 
 of  Argolis ;  in  392  in  one  of  the  Corinthian  territory  ; 
 in  391  he  reduced  the  Acarnanians  to  submission  ;  but 
 in  the  remaining  years  of  the  war  he  is  not  mentioned. 
 In  the  interval  of  peace,  we  find  him  declining  the  com- 
 mand in  Sparta's  aggression  on  Mantineia ;  but  head- 
 ing, from  motives,  it  is  said,  of  private  friendship,  that 
 on  Phlius,  and  openly  justifying  Phcebidas's  seizure  of 
 the  Cadmeia.  Of  the  next  war,  the  first  two  years  he 
 commanded  in  Boeotia,  more,  however,  to  the  enemy's 
 gain  in  point  of  experience  than  loss  in  any  other  ;  from 
 the  five  remaining  he  was  withdrawn  by  severe  illness. 
 In  the  congress  of  371  an  altercation  is  recorded  be- 
 tween him  and  Epaminondas ;  and  by  his  advice 
 Thebes  was  peremptorily  excluded  from  the  peace, 
 and  orders  given  for  the  fatal  campaign  of  Leuctra.  In 
 370  we  find  him  engaged  in  an  embassy  to  Mantineia, 
 and  reassuring  the  Spartans  by  an  invasion  of  Arcadia  ; 
 and  in  369  to  his  skill,  courage,  and  presence  of  mind, 
 is  to  be  ascribed  the  maintenance  of  the  unwalled  Spar- 
 ta, amid  the  attacks  of  four  armies,  and  revolts  and 
 conspiracies  of  Helots,  Periceci,  and  even  Spartans. 
 Finally,  in  362,  he  led  his  countrymen  into  Arcadia; 
 by  fortunate  information  was  enabled  to  return  in  time 
 to  prevent  the  surprise  of  Sparta,  and  was,  ii  seems. 
 
AGESILAUS. 
 
 AGESIPOLIS. 
 
 joint,  if  not  sole  commander  at  the  battle  of  Mantineia. 
 To  the  ensuing  winter  must  probably  be  referred  his 
 embassy  to  the  coast  of  Asia,  and  negotiations  for  mon- 
 ey with  the  revolted  satraps,  alluded  to  in  an  obscure 
 passage  of  Xenophon  (Agesilaus,  2,  26,  27) ;  and,  in 
 performance,  perhaps,  of  some  stipulation  then  made,  he 
 crossed,  in  the  spring  of  3fil,  with  a  body  of  Lacedse- 
 monian  mercenaries,  into  Egypt.  Here,  after  display- 
 ing much  of  his  ancient  skill,  he  died,  while  preparing 
 for  his  voyao-e  home,  in  the  winter  of  361-60,  after  a 
 life  of  above  eighty  years,  and  a  reign  of  thirty-eight. 
 His  body  was  embalmed  in  wax,  and  splendidly  buried 
 at  Sparta. 
 
 Referring  to  our  sketch  of  Spartan  history,  we  find 
 Agesilaus  shining  most  u\  its  first  and  last  period,  as 
 commencing  and  surrendering  a  glorious  career  in 
 Asia,  and  as,  in  extreme  age,  maintaining  his  prostrate 
 country.  From  Coroneia  to  Leuctra  we  see  him  part- 
 ly unemployed,  at  times  yielding  to  weak  motives,  at 
 times  joining  in  wanton  acts  of  public  injustice.  No 
 one  of  Sparta's  great  defeats,  but  some  of  her  bad  pol- 
 icy belongs  to  him  In  what  others  do,  we  miss  him  ; 
 in  what  he  does,  we  miss  the  greatness  and  consisten- 
 cy belonging  to  unity  of  purpose  and  sole  command. 
 No  doubt  he  was  hampered  at  home ;  perhaps,  too, 
 from  a  man  withdrawn,  when  now  near  fifty,  from  his 
 chosen  career,  great  action  in  a  new  one  of  any  kind 
 could  not  be  looked  for.  Plutarch  gives,  among  nu- 
 merous apophthegmata,  his  letter  to  the  ephors  on  his 
 recall:  "We  have  reduced  most  of  Asia,  driven  back 
 the  barbarians,  made  arms  abundant  in  Ionia.  But 
 since  you  bid  me,  according  to  the  decree,  come  home, 
 I  shall  follow  my  letter,  may  perhaps  be  even  before  it. 
 For  my  command  is  not  mine,  but  rny  country's  and 
 her  allies'.  And  a  commander  then  commands  truly 
 according  to  right  when  he  sees  his  own  commander 
 in  the  laws  and  ephors,  or  others  holding  office  in  the 
 state."  Also,  an  exclamation  on  hearing  of  the  battle 
 of  Corinth  :  "  Alas  for  Greece  !  she  has  killed  enough 
 of  her  sons  to  have  conquered  all  the  barbarians."  Of 
 his  courage,  temperance,  and  hardiness,  many  instan- 
 ces are  given  :  to  these  he  added,  even  in  excess,  the 
 less  Spartan  qualities  of  kindliness  and  tenderness  as 
 a  father  and  a  friend.  Thus  we  have  the  story  of  his 
 riding  across  a  stick  with  his  children  ;  and,  to  gratify 
 his  son's  affection  for  Cleonymus,  son  of  the  culprit, 
 he  saved  Sphodrias  from  the  punishment  due,  in  right 
 and  policy,  for  his  incursion  into  Attica  in  378.  So, 
 too.  the  appointment  of  Pisander.  (  Fiti.  Pisander.)  A 
 letter  of  his  runs,  "  If  Nicias  is  innocent,  acquit  him 
 for  that ;  if  guilty,  for  my  sake  ;  any  how,  acquit  him." 
 From  Spartan  cupidity  and  dishonesty,  and  mostly, 
 even  in  public  life,  from  ill  faith,  his  character  is  clear. 
 In  person  he  was  small,  mean-looking,  and  lame,  on 
 which  last  ground  objection  had  been  made  to  his  ac- 
 cession, an  oracle,  curiously  fulfilled,  having  warned 
 Sparta  of  evils  awaiting  her  under  a  ''  lame  sovereign- 
 ty." In  his  reign,  indeed,  her  fall  took  place,  but  not 
 through  Inm.  Agesilaus  himself  was  Sparta's  most 
 perfect  citizen  and  most  consummate  general ;  in  many 
 ways,  perhaps,  her  greatest  man.  (Xen.,  Hell.,  3,  3,  to 
 the  end  ;  Agesilatta.—Dwd.,  14,  15. — Pans  ,  3,  9,  10. 
 — Pint,  and  C  Ncpos,  in  Vita. — Plut.,  Apophthegm.) 
 — III.  A  Greek  historian,  who  wrote  a  work  on  the 
 early  history  of  Italy  ('Ira/ltAra),  fragments  of  which 
 are  preserved  in  Plutarch  (Parallda,  p.  312)  and  Sto- 
 hffius.  (Florileg.,  9,  27.  54,  49,  65,  10,  ed.  Gaisf  )— 
 IV.  A  brother  of  Themislocles,  who  went  into  the  Per- 
 sian camp,  and  stabbed  one  of  the  body-guards  instead 
 of  Xer.tes,  whom  he  intended  to  assassinate,  but  knew 
 not.  UfKtn  being  arraigned  before  Xerxes,  he  thrust 
 his  hand  into  the  fire,  and  informed  the  monarch  that 
 a!}  his  countrymen  were  prepared  to  do  the  same.  Plu- 
 tarch cites  this  incident  on  the  authority  of  Agalhar 
 chides,  in  his  Parallels.  {Op.,  ed.  Reiske,  vol  7,  p. 
 217.)     If  the  story  be  true,  it  shows  the  source  whence 
 
 the  Roman  fable  of  Mucius  Scaevola  was  borrowed. 
 {Vid.  Agatharchides,  II.) 
 
 Agesipolis,  I.  king  of  Sparta,  the  twenty-first  of  the 
 Agids  beginning  with  Euryslhenes,  succeeded  his  fa- 
 ther Pausanias,  while  yet  a  minor,  in  B.C.  394,  and 
 reigned  fourteen  years.  He  was  placed  under  the 
 guardianship  of  Aristodemus,  his  nearest  of  kin.  He 
 came  to  the  crown  just  about  the  time  that  the  confed- 
 eracy (partly  brought  about  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Per- 
 sian satrap  Tithraustes),  which  was  formed  by  Thebes, 
 Athens,  Corinth,  and  Argos,  against  Sparta,  rendered 
 it  necessary  to  recall  his  colleague,  Agesilaus  11.,  from 
 Asia  ;  and  the  first  military  operation  of  his  reiirn  was 
 the  expedition  to  Corinth,  where  the  forces  of  the  con- 
 federates were  then  assembled.  The  Spartan  army 
 was  led  by  Aristodemus,  and  gained  a  signal  victory 
 over  the  allies.  (Xcn.,  Hell.,  4,  2,  ^  9.)  In  the  year 
 B.C.  390,  Agesipolis,  who  had  now  reached  his  major- 
 ity, was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  an  army  for  the 
 invasion  of  Argolis.  Having  procured  the  sanction  of 
 the  Olympic  and  Delphic  gods  for  disregarding  any  at- 
 tempt which  the  Argives  might  make  to  stop  his  march, 
 on  the  pretext  of  a  religious  truce,  he  carried  his  rava- 
 ges still  farther  than  Agesilaus  had  done  in  B.C.  393  ; 
 but,  as  he  suffered  the  aspect  of  the  victims  to  deter 
 him  from  occupying  a  permanent  post,  the  expedi- 
 tion yielded  no  fruit  but  the  plunder.  (Xen.,  Hell., 
 4,  7, 1)  2-6.— Paws..  3,  5,  <^  8.)  In  B.C.  385  the  Spar- 
 tans, seizing  upon  some  frivolous  pretexts,  sent  an  ex- 
 pedition against  Mantineia,  in  which  Agesipolis  under- 
 took the  command,  after  it  had  been  declined  by  Ages- 
 ilaus. In  this  expedition  the  Spartans  were  assisted 
 by  Thebes,  and  in  a  battle  with  the  Mantineans,  Epam- 
 inondas  and  Pelopidas,  who  were  fighting  side  by  side, 
 narrowly  escaped  death.  He  took  the  town  by  divert- 
 ing the  river  Ophis,  so  as  to  lay  the  low  grounds  at  the 
 foot  of  the  walls  under  water.  The  basements,  being 
 made  of  unbaked  bricks,  were  unable  to  resist  the  ac- 
 tion of  the  water.  The  walls  soon  began  to  totter,  and 
 the  Mantineans  were  forced  to  surrender.  They  were 
 admitted  to  terms  on  condition  that  the  population 
 should  be  dispersed  among  the  four  hamlets,  out  of 
 which  it  had  been  collected  to  form  the  capital.  The 
 democratical  leaders  were  permitted  to  go  into  exile. 
 {Xe7i.,  Hell.,  5,  2,  ^  1-7.— Pans.,  8,  8,  ^  b.—Diod., 
 15,  5,  (fee. — Pint.,  Pelop.,  4. — Isocr.,  Paneg.,  p.  67, 
 a,  De  Pace,  p.  179,  c.) 
 
 Early  in  B.C.  382,  an  embassy  came  to  Sparta  from 
 the  cities  of  Acanthus  and  Apollonia,  requesting  as- 
 sistance against  the  Olynthians,  who  were  endeavour- 
 ing to  compel  them  to  join  their  confederacy.  The 
 Spartans  granted  it.  but  were  not  at  first  very  success 
 ful.  After  the  defeat  and  death  of  Teleutias  in  the 
 second  campaign  (B.C.  381),  Agesipolis  took  the  com- 
 mand. He  set  out  in  381,  but  did  not  begin  opera- 
 tions till  the  spring  of  380.  He  then  acted  with  great 
 vigour,  and  took  Torone  by  storm  ;  but  in  the  midst 
 of  his  successes  he  was  seized  with  a  fever,  which  car- 
 ried him  off  in  seven  days.  He  died  at  Aphytis,  in 
 the  peninsula  of  Pallene.  His  body  was  immersed 
 in  honey,  and  conveyed  home  to  Sparta  for  burial. 
 Though  Agesipolis  did  not  share  the  ambitious  views 
 of  foreign  conquest  cherished  by  Agesilaus.  his  loss 
 was  deeply  regretted  by  that  prince,  who  seems  to  have 
 had  a  sincere  regard  for  him.  (Xcn  ,  Hell.,  5,  3,  <J  8-9, 
 \8-19.—Diod.,  15,  22.—  Thirlwall,Hist.  of  Greece,  4, 
 p.  405,  428,  &c.  ;  5,  p.  5,  &c.,  20.)— II.  Son  of  Cle- 
 ombrotus,  was  the  23d  king  of  the  Agid  line.  He  as- 
 cended the  throne  B  C.  371,  and  reigned  one  year. 
 (Pans.,  3,  6,  (}  I.— Died.,  15,  60  )— III.  The  31st  of 
 the  Agid  line,  was  the  son  of  Agesipolis,  and  grandson 
 of  Cleombrolus  II.  After  the  death  of  Cleomenes  he 
 was  elected  king  while  still  a  minor,  and  placed  under 
 the  guardianship  of  his  uncle  Cleomenes.  {Polyb.,  4, 
 35.)  He  was,  however,  .soon  deposed  by  his  colleague 
 Lvcurcrus,  after  the  death  of  Cleomenes.  We  hear  of 
 •^      °  89* 
 
AGI 
 
 AGIS. 
 
 him  next  in  B.C.  195,  when  he  was  at  the  head  of  the 
 I.iaced£inotiian  exiles,  who  joined  Fiamininus  in  his 
 attack  upon  Nabis,  the  tyrant  of  Lacedaetnon.  (Liv., 
 34,  26.)  He  formed  one  of  an  embassy  sent  about 
 B.C.  183  to  Rome  by  the  Lacedaemonian  e.xiles,  and, 
 with  his  companions,  was  intercepted  by  pirates  and 
 killed      {rolyh.,  24,  11.) 
 
 AcKsisTR.VrE.  Vid.  Agis,  IV. 
 Agetor  {'A-/7'/Tup),  a  surname  given  to  several  gods  : 
 for  instance,  to  Juj)itcr  at  Laccdaemon  {Slob.,  Serm., 
 42) :  the  name  seems  to  describe  Zeus  as  the  leader 
 and  ruler  of  men  ;  but  others  ihmk  that  it  is  synony- 
 mous with  Agamenwion  {Vid.  Agamemnon):  to  Apol- 
 lo (Eurip.,  Med  ,  42fi),  whore,  however,  Elmsley  and 
 others  prefer  uyr/Tup  :  to  Mercury,  who  conducts  the 
 souls  of  men  to  the  lower  world.  Under  this  name 
 -Mercury  had  a  statue  al  Megalopolis.  {Paus.,  8,  31, 
 9  4) 
 
 Aggenus  Urbicus,  a  writer  on  the  science  of  the 
 Agrimensores,  {Dicf  of  Ant  ,  p.  38  )  It  is  uncertain 
 when  he  lived  ;  but  he  appears  to  have  been  a  Chris- 
 tian, atid  it  is  not  improbable,  from  some  expressions 
 which  he  uses,  that  he  lived  at  the  latter  part  of  the 
 fourth  century  of  our  era.  The  extant  works  ascribed 
 to  him  are  :  "  Aggeni  Urbici  in  Julium  Frontinum  Com- 
 mentarius,"  a  commentary  upon  the  work  "  De  Agro- 
 rum  Qualitate,"  which  is  ascribed  to  Frontinus  ;  "  In 
 Julium  Frontinum  Cotnmeniariorum  Liber  secundus 
 qui  Diazographus  diciiur;"  and  "  Commentariorum  de 
 Controversiis  Agrorum  Pars  prior  et  altera."  The 
 last-named  work  Niebuhr  su[)poses  to  have  been  writ- 
 ten by  Frontinus,  and  in  the  time  of  Domitian,  since  the 
 author  speaks  of  "  pra>stantissimus  Domitianus  ;"  an 
 expression  which  would  never  have  been  applied  to 
 this  tyrant  after  his  death.  {Hist,  of  Rome,  vol.  2,  p. 
 621.) 
 
 Aggrammes,  called  Xanprames  (SQ:i'(5pa^?7f)by  Di- 
 odorus,  the  ruler  of  the  GanoaridEE  and  Prasii  in  India, 
 was  said  to  be  the  son  of  a  barber,  whom  the  queen 
 had  married.  Alexander  was  preparing  to  march 
 against  him,  when  he  was  compelled  by  his  soldiers, 
 who  had  become  tired  of  the  war,  to  ^ive  up  farther 
 conquests  in  India.  {Curt  ,  5,  2. — Diod.,  17.  93,  94. 
 — Arrian.  Anab.,  5,  25,  &c  — Plut.,  Alex  ,  60  ) 
 
 AgIas  ('Ari'af),  I.  a  Greek  poet,  whose  name  was 
 formerly  written  Augias,  through  a  mistake  of  the  first 
 editor  of  the  Excerpla  of  Prochis.  It  has  been  cor- 
 rected by  Thiersch  in  the  Acta  I'hilol.  Monac,  2,  p 
 584,  from  the  Codex  Monacensis,  which  in  one  pas- 
 sage has  Agi;is,  and  in  another  Hagias  The  name 
 itself  does  not  occur  in  early  Greek  writers,  unless  it 
 be  supposed  that  Egias  or  Hegias  ('Hy/fif )  in  Clemens 
 Alexandrinus  {Strom  ,  6,  p.  622)  and  Pausanias  (1, 
 2,  ^  1)  are  only  difTerent  forms  of  the  same  name. 
 He  was  a  native  of  Troezen,  and  the  time  at  which  he 
 wrote  appears  to  have  been  about  the  year  B  C.  740. 
 His  poem  was  celebrated  in  antiquity,  under  the  name 
 ofNocrrot,  t.  c  ,the  history  of  the  return  of  the  Acha?an 
 heroes  from  Troy,  and  consisted  oftive  books.  The 
 poem  began  with  the  cause  of  the  misfortunes  which 
 befell  the  Achaaans  on  their  way  home  and  after  their 
 arrival,  that  is,  with  the  outrage  committed  upon  Cas- 
 oandra  and  the  Palladium  ;  and  the  whole  poem  filled 
 up  the  space  which  was  left  between  the  work  of  the 
 poet  Arctinus  atid  the  Odyssey.  'I'he  ancients  them- 
 selves appear  to  have  been  uncertain  about  the  author 
 of  this  poem,  for  they  refer  to  it  simply  by  the  name 
 of  NoGTOi,  and  when  they  moniion  the  author,  they 
 only  call  him  6  rov^  Noorovf  yprnjia^.  (Alhcn.,  7,  p. 
 iSi.—Paus.,  10,  28,  M;  29,  i)  2,  30,  ^  2 —Apol- 
 lod.,  2,  1,  ^  !S.—Schol.,  ad  Odyss  ,  4,  V2.—Sc}wl.,  ad 
 Aristoph.,  Equit.,  1332. — Lur.mn,  De  Sal/at..  46.) 
 Hence  some  writers  attributed  the  Noarot  to  Homer 
 {Suid.,  s.  V.  voaroi. — AnIhoL  Planvd.,  4,  30),  while 
 others  call  its  author  a  (3olophonian.  {Enslath  ,  ad 
 Odyss.,  16,  118.)  Similar  poems,  and  with  the  same 
 90* 
 
 title,  were  written  by  other  poets  also,  such  as  Eume- 
 lus  of  Corinth  {SchoL,  adPind  ,  01. ,  13,  31),  Anticlei- 
 des  of  Athens  [Athen.,  4,  p.  157;  9,  p.  466),  Cleide- 
 mus  {Athen.,  13,  p.  609),  and  Lysimachus.  {Athcn., 
 4,  p.  \m.— SchoL,  adApollon.  Mod.,  i.,  558.)  Where 
 the  Noaroi  is  mentioned  without  a  name,  we  have  gen- 
 erally to  understand  the  work  of  Agias. — II.  A  comic 
 writer.  {Pollux,  3,  '.iG.—Memekc,  Hist.  Comic.  Grac, 
 p.  404,  416.)  He  is  by  some  considered  as  the  same 
 person  with  the  writer  of  ihc'ApyoliKu.  mentioned  be- 
 low. Casaubon,  however,  in  his  remarks  on  Athenas- 
 us,  thinks  that  this  is  an  error.  {Ad  Athen.,  3,  10,  p. 
 169.) — III.  The  author  of  a  work  on  Argolis  {'Apjok- 
 iKu,  Athen.,  3,  p.  86,  f ),  mentioned  in  connexion  with 
 Dercylus.  Clemens  of  Alexandrea  quotes  him  undei 
 the  name  of  Aigias  {Strom.,  1,  p.  236),  which  is  writ 
 ten  Agis  in  Eusebius,  who  has  also  given  Kerkylus  in- 
 correctly lor  Dercylus.  {Casavb.,  ad  Aihen.,  lib.  3, 
 c.  10,  p.  169.)  He  is  called  o  jiovgiko^  in  another 
 passage  of  Athenaeus  (14,  p.  626,  f).  but  the  musician 
 may  be  another  person. — IV.  Brother  of  Tisamenus, 
 the  renowned  seer  of  the  Spartans,  who  took  part  in 
 the  battle  of  Plalaea.  Both  of  these  were  of  the  race 
 of  the  lamida;,  and  received  the  right  of  citizenship  at 
 Sparta.  Another  Agias,  son  of  Agelochus,  grandson 
 of  Tisamenus,  was  the  seer  of  Lysander,  and  predict- 
 ed the  victory  of  that  commander  over  the  Athenians 
 at  ^gospotaini.  {Pans.,  3,  11,  9  5,  6  ) — V.  The  Ar- 
 cadian, one  of  the  Grecian  commanders  in  the  army 
 of  Cyrus  the  Younger,  when  he  marched  against  his 
 brother  Artaxerxes.  He  was  entrapped,  along  with  the 
 other  Grecian  leaders,  by  Tissaphernes,  and  put  to  death 
 by  that  treacherous  satrap,  together  with  his  fellow-of- 
 ficers. Xenophon  praises  his  courage  and  fidelity. 
 {Anab.,  2,  5,  31  ;  2,  6,  30.) 
 
 Agiatis.      Vid.  Agis,  IV. 
 
 Agidje,  or  Eurysthenidae,  descendants  of  Agis,  king 
 of  Sparta  and  son  of  Eurysthenes.  This  family  sha- 
 red the  throne  of  Lacedaemon  along  with  the  Proclidae, 
 or,  as  they  were  more  commonly  called,  the  Eurypon- 
 tidae.  According  to  Pausanias,  the  line  of  the  Agidae 
 became  extinct  in  the  person  of  Leonidas,  son  of  Cle- 
 omenes.     {Pansan.,  3,  2.— Id.,  3,  G.—Id.,  3,  7.) 
 
 Aginnum  or  Aginum,  also  written  Agcnnum  {Hie- 
 ron.,  De  Script.  Eccles.  in  Scebadio,  al.  Phabadio),  a 
 city  of  the  Nitiobriges,  who  were  the  same  as  the  Agin- 
 nenses,  in  Gallia  Aquitania.  It  lay  on  the  river  Ga- 
 ronne, between  Fines  and  Excisum..  {Ptol.,  Itin  ,  p. 
 461.— Tai.,  Pent.  Scgm.,  \.—Auson.,Ep.,  24,  79.) 
 There  was  a  road  leading  from  this  city  to  Lactura, 
 which  was  situated  at  the  distance  of  15  miles,  men- 
 tioned in  the  Itiner.  Antonini,  for  an  account  of  which 
 consult  the  remarks  of  Chaiidruc  de  Crazanes,  1.  1.,  p. 
 392.  Numerous  remains  of  ancient  works  of  art,  in- 
 scriptions, &c.,  have  been  found  at  this  place,  which 
 are  described  in  a  dissertation  published  in  the  Mk- 
 moires  de  la  Socicte  Royale  dcs  Antiq.  dc  France,  torn. 
 
 2,  p.  368.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Jos.  Scahger,  who 
 has  written  about  it  in  his  Led.  Auson  ,  1.  2,  c.  10. 
 
 Agis  ('Ay^f),  I.  king  of  Sparta,  son  of  Eurysthenes, 
 began  to  reign,  it  is  said,  about  B  C.  1032.  {M-ullcr, 
 Dor.,  vol.  2,  p.  511,  transl.)  .\ccording  to  Eusebius 
 {Chron.,  1.  p.  166),  he  reigned  only  one  year;  accord- 
 ing to  Apollodorus,  as  it  appears,  about  31  years  Du- 
 ring the  reign  of  Eurysthenes,  the  conquered  people 
 were  admitted  to  an  equality  of  political  rights  with 
 the  Dorians.  Agis  deprived  them  of  these,  atid  redu- 
 ced them  to  the  condition  of  subjects  to  the  Spartans. 
 The  inhabitants  of  the  town  of  Helos  attempted  to 
 shake  off  the  yoke,  but  they  were  subdued,  and  gave 
 rise  and  name  to  the  class  called  Helots.  {Ephor^,  up. 
 Slrah.,  8,  364.)  To  his  reign  was  referred  the  colony 
 which  went  to  Crete  under  Pollis  and  Delphu.«.  (Co' 
 non.,  Narr.,  36.)  From  him  the  kings  of  that  line 
 were  called 'A y»5rt«.    His  colleague  was  Sous.    {Pans., 
 
 3,  2,  i)  1.)— II.  The  17th  of  the  Eurypontid  line  (be- 
 
AGIS. 
 
 AGIS. 
 
 ginning  with  Procles),  succeeded  his  father  Archida- 
 mus  B.C.  427,  and  reigned  a  little  more  than  28  years. 
 In  the  summer  of  BC.  426,  he  led  an  army  of  Pelo- 
 ponnesians  and  their  allies  as  far  as  tlie  isthmus,  with 
 the  mtention  of  invading  Atiica ;  but  they  were  deterred 
 fro(n  advancing  farther  by  a  succession  of  earthquakes 
 which  happened  when  they  had  got  so  far.  (Thiiajd., 
 3,  89.)  In  the  spring  of  the  following  year  he  led  an 
 army  into  Attica,  but  quitted  it  fifteen  days  after  he 
 had  entered  it.  {Thucyd.,  4,  2,  6.)  In  B.C.  419,  the 
 Argives,  at  the  instigation  of  Alcibiades,  attacked  Epi- 
 daurus  ;  and  Agis,  with  the  whole  force  of  Laceds- 
 mon,  set  out  at  the  same  time,  and  marched  to  the 
 frontier  city,  Leuctra.  No  one,  Thucydides  tells  us, 
 knew  the  purpose  of  this  expedition.  It  was  probably 
 to  make  a  diversion  in  favour  of  Epidaurus.  (Thirl- 
 wall,  vol.  3,  p.  342.)  At  Leuctra  the  aspect  of  the 
 sacrifices  deterred  him  from  proceeding.  He  therefore 
 led  his  troops  back,  and  sent  round  notice  to  the  allies 
 to  be  ready  for  an  expedition  at  the  end  of  the  sacred 
 month  of  the  Carnean  festival ;  and  when  the  Argives 
 repeated  their  attack  on  Epidaurus,  the  Spartans  again 
 marched  to  the  frontier  town,  Carya^,  and  again  turned 
 back,  professedly  on  account  of  the  aspect  of  the  vic- 
 tims. In  the  middle  of  the  following  summer  (B.C. 
 418),  the  Epidaurians  being  still  hard  pressed  by  the 
 Argives,  the  Lacedtemonians,  with  their  whole  force 
 and  some  allies,  under  the  command  of  Agis,  invaded 
 Argolis.  By  a  skilful  manoeuvre,  he  succeeded  in  in- 
 tercepting the  Argives,  and  posted  his  army  advanta- 
 geously between  them  and  the  city.  But  just  as  the 
 battle  was  about  to  begin,  Thrasvllus,  one  of  the  Ar- 
 give  generals,  and  Alciphron  came  to  Agis,  and  pre- 
 vailed on  him  to  conclude  a  truce  for  four  months. 
 Agis,  without  disclosing  his  motives,  drew  off  his  army. 
 On  his  return  he  was  severely  censured  for  having  thus 
 thrown  away  the  opportunity  of  reducing  Argos,  espe- 
 cially as  the  Argives  had  seized  the  opportunity  afford- 
 ed by  his  return,  and  taken  Orchomenos.  It  was  pro- 
 posed to  pull  down  his  house,  and  inflict  on  him  a  fine 
 of  100,000  drachmae.  But,  on  his  earnest  entreaty, 
 they  contented  themselves  with  appointing  a  council 
 of  war,  consisting  of  10  Spartans,  without  whom  he 
 was  not  to  lead  an  army  out  of  the  city.  (Thucyd., 
 5,  54,  57,  &c.)  Shortly  afterward  they  received  in- 
 telligence from  Tegea,  that,  if  not  promptly  succoured, 
 the  party  favourable  to  Sparta  in  that  city  would  be 
 compelled  to  give  way.  The  Spartans  immediately 
 sent  their  whole  force  under  the  command  of  Agis. 
 He  restored  tranquillity  at  Tegea,  and  then  marched 
 to  Mantineia.  By  turning  the  waters  so  as  to  flood 
 the  lands  of  Mantineia,  he  succeeded  in  drawing  the 
 army  of  the  Mantineans  and  Athenians  down  to  the 
 level  ground.  A  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Spartans 
 were  victorious.  This  was  one  of  the  most  important 
 battles  ever  fought  between  Grecian  states.  (Thucyd., 
 5,  71-73.)  In  B  C.  417,  when  news  reached  Sparta 
 of  the  counter-revolution  at  Argos,  in  which  the  oli- 
 garchical and  Spartan  faction  was  overthrown,  an  army 
 was  sent  there  under  Agis.  He  was  unable  to  restore 
 the  defeated  party,  but  he  destroyed  the  long  walls 
 which  the  Argives  had  begun  to  carry  down  to  the  sea, 
 and  took  Hysiae.  (Thunjd.,  5,  83.)  In  the  spring  of 
 B  C.  413,  Agis  entered  Attica  with  a  Peloponnesian 
 army,  and  fortified  Deceleia,  a  steep  eminence  about 
 15  miles  northeast  of  Athens  (Thucyd.,  7,  19,  27); 
 and  in  the  winter  of  the  same  year,  after  the  news  of 
 the  disastrous  fate  of  the  Sicilian  expedition  had  reach- 
 ed Greece,  he  marched  northward  to  levy  contributions 
 on  the  allies  of  Sparta,  for  the  purpose  of  constructing 
 a  fleet.  While  at  Deceleia  he  acted  in  a  great  meas- 
 ure independently  of  the  Spartan  government,  and 
 received  embassies  as  well  from  the  disaffected  al- 
 lies of  the  Athenians  as  from  the  Boeotians  and  other 
 allies  of  Sparta.  (Thucyd.,  8,  3,  5.)  He  seems  to 
 have  remained  at  Deceleia  till  the  end  of  the  Pelopon- 
 
 nesian war.  In  411,  during  the  administration  of  the 
 Four  Hundred,  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on 
 Athens  itself  (Thucyd.,  8,  71.)  In  B.C.  401,  the 
 command  of  the  war  against  Elis  was  intrusted  to 
 Agis,  who  in  the  third  year  compelled  the  Eleans  to  sue 
 for  peace.  As  he  was  returning  from  Delphi,  whither 
 he  had  gone  to  consecrate  a  tenth  of  the  spoil,  he  fell 
 sick  at  Hersea  in  Arcadia,  and  died  in  the  course  af  a 
 few  days  after  he  reached  Sparta.  (Xen.,  Hell.,  3,  2., 
 ij  21,  &c.  ;  3,  ij  1-4.)  He  left  a  son,  Leotychides, 
 who,  however,  was  excluded  from  the  throne,  as  there 
 was  some  suspicion  with  regard  ta  his  legitimacy. 
 While  Alcibiades  was  at  Sparta  he  made  Agis  his  im- 
 placable enemy.  Later  writers  (Justin.  5,  2. — Plut., 
 Alcib.,  23)  assign  as  a  reason,  that  the  latter  suspect- 
 ed him  of  having  dishonoured  his  queen  Timjea.  It 
 was  probably  at  the  suggestion  of  Agis  that  orders 
 were  sent  out  to  Astyochus  to  put  him  to  death.  Al- 
 cibiades, however,  received  timely  notice  (according  to 
 some  accounts,  from  Timaea  herself),  and  kept  out  of 
 the  reach  of  the  Spartans.  (Thucyd.,  8,  12,  45. — 
 Plut.,  Lysand.,  22. — Agesil ,  3.) — III.  The  eldest  son 
 of  Archidamus  III.,  was  the  20ih  king  of  the  Eurypon- 
 tid  line.  His  reign  was  short,  but  eventful.  He  suc- 
 ceeded his  father  in  B.C.  338.  In  B.C.  333,  we  find 
 him  going  with  a  single  trireme  to  the  Persian  com- 
 manders in  the  Mgeau,  Pharnabazus  and  Autophrada- 
 tes,  to  request  money  and  an  armament  for  carrying 
 on  hostile  operations  against  Alexander  in  Greece. 
 They  gave  him  30  talents  and  10  triremes.  The  news 
 of  the  battle  of  Issus,  however,  put  a  check  upon  their 
 plans.  He  sent  the  galleys  to  his  brother  Agesilaus, 
 with  instructions  to  sail  with  them  to  Crete,  that  he 
 might  secure  that  island  for  the  Spartan  interest.  In 
 this  he  seems  in  a  great  measure  to  have  succeeded. 
 Two  years  afterward  (B.C.  331),  the  Greek  states 
 which  were  leagued  together  against  Alexander  seized 
 the  opportunity  of  the  disaster  of  Zopyrion  and  the  re- 
 volt of  the  Thracians,  to  declare  war  against  Macedo- 
 nia. Agis  was  invested  with  the  command,  and  with 
 the  Lacedsemonian  troops,  and  a  body  of  8000  Greek 
 mercenaries,  who  had  been  present  at  the  battle  of  Is- 
 sus, gained  a  decisive  victory  over  a  Macedonian  army 
 under  Corragus.  Having  been  joined  by  the  other  for- 
 ces of  the  league,  he  laid  siege  to  Megalopolis.  The 
 city  held  out  till  Anti|)ater  came  to  its  relief,  when  a 
 battle  ensued,  in  which  Agis  was  defeated  and  killed. 
 It  happened  about  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Arbela. 
 (Arrian,  2,  l3.—Diod.,  16,  63,  68;  17,  62.— ^sch., 
 c.  Ctesiph.,  p.  77.— Ctirt.,  6,  1. — histin,  12,  1.)— IV. 
 The  elder  son  of  Eudamidas  II  ,  was  the  24th  king  of 
 the  Euryponlid  line.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  B.C 
 244,  and  reigned  four  years.  In  B.C.  243,  after  the 
 liberation  of  Corinth  by  Aratus,  the  general  of  the 
 Achaean  league,  Agis  led  an  army  against  him,  but  was 
 defeated.  (Paus.,  2,  8,  (}  4.)  The  interest  of  his 
 reign,  however,  is  derived  from  events  of  a  different 
 kind.  Through  the  influx  of  wealth  and  luxurv,  with 
 their  concomitant  vices,  the  Spartans  had  greatly  de- 
 generated from  the  ancient  simplicity  and  severity  of 
 manners.  Not  above  700  families  of  the  genuine 
 Spartan  stock  remained,  and,  in  consequence  of  ihe 
 innovation  introduced  by  Epitadeus,  who  procured  a 
 repeal  of  the  law  which  secured  to  every  Spartan  head 
 of  a  family  an  equal  portion  of  land,  the  landed  prop- 
 erty had  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  few  individuals,  of 
 whom  a  great  number  were  females,  so  that  not  above 
 100  Spartan  families  possessed  estates,  while  the  poor 
 were  burdened  with  debt.  Agis,  who  from  his  earliest 
 youth  had  shown  his  attachment  to  the  ancient  disci- 
 pline, undertook  to  reform  these  abuses,  and  re-estab- 
 lish the  institutions  of  Lycurgus.  For  this  end  he  de- 
 termined to  lay  before  the  Spartan  senate  a  proposition 
 for  the  abolition  of  all  debts  and  a  new  partition  of  the 
 lands.  Another  part  of  his  plan  was  to  give  landed 
 estates  to  the  Periceci.     His   schemes  were  warmly 
 
 91* 
 
AGIS. 
 
 AGIS. 
 
 seconded  by  the  poorer  classes  and  the  young  men, 
 and  as  strenuously  oj)posed  by  the  wealthy.  He  suc- 
 ceeded, however,  in  gaining  over  three  very  influen- 
 tial persons — his  uncle  Agesilaus  (a  man  of  large  prop- 
 erty, but  who,  being  deeply  involved  in  debt,  hoped  to 
 profit  bv  the  innovations  of  Agis),  Lysaiider,  and  Man- 
 drocleides.  Having  procured  Lysander  to  be  elected 
 one  of  the  ephors,  he  laid  his  plans  before  the  senate 
 He  proposed  that  the  Spartan  territory  should  be  divi- 
 ded mto  two  portions,  one  to  consist  of  4500  equal 
 lots,  to  be  divided  among  the  Sfiartans,  whose  ranks 
 were  to  be  filled  up  by  the  admission  of  the  most  re- 
 spectable of  the  Perioeci  and  strangers  ;  the  other  to 
 contain  15,000  equal  lots,  to  be  divided  among  the 
 Perioeci.  The  senate  could  not,  at  first,  come  to  a  de- 
 cision on  the  matter.  Lysander,  therefore,  convoked 
 the  assembly  of  the  people,  to  whom  Agis  submitted 
 his  measure,  and  offered  to  make  the  first  sacrifice,  by 
 giving  up  his  lands  and  money,  telling  them  that  his 
 mother  and  grandmother,  who  were  possessed  of  great 
 wealth,  with  all  his  relations  and  friends,  would  follow 
 his  example.  His  generosity  drew  down  the  applauses 
 of  the  multitude.  The  opposite  party,  however,  head- 
 ed by  Leonidas,  the  other  king,  who  had  formed  his 
 haiiits  at  the  lu.\urious  court  of  Seleucus,  king  of  Syria, 
 got  the  senate  to  reject  the  measure,  though  only  by 
 one  vote.  Agis  now  determined  to  rid  himself  of  Le- 
 onidas. Lysander,  accordingly,  accused  him  of  having 
 violated  the  laws  by  marrying  a  stranger  and  living  m 
 a  foreign  land.  Leonidas  was  deposed,  and  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  his  son-in-law,  Cleomhrotus,  who  co-opera- 
 ted with  Agis.  Soon  afterward,  however,  Lysander's 
 term  of  office  expired,  and  the  ephors  of  the  following 
 year  were  opposed  to  Agis,  and  designed  to  restore 
 Leonidas.  Thev  brought  an  accusation  against  Ly- 
 sander and  Mandrocleides,  of  attempting  to  violate  the 
 laws.  Alarmed  at  the  turn  events  were  taking,  the 
 two  latter  prevailed  on  the  kings  to  depose  the  ephors 
 by  force,  and  appoint  others  in  their  room.  Leonidas, 
 who  had  returned  to  the  city,  fled  to  Tegea,  and  in  his 
 flight  was  protected  by  Agis  from  the  violence  medi- 
 tated against  him  by  Agesilaus.  The  selfish  avarice 
 of  the  latter  frustrated  the  plans  of  Agis,  when  there 
 now  seemed  nothing  to  oppose  the  execution  of  them. 
 He  persuaded  his  nephew  and  Lysander  that  the  most 
 etfiectual  wav  to  secure  the  consent  of  the  wealthy  to 
 the  distribution  of  their  lands,  would  be  to  begin  by 
 cancelling  the  debts  Accordingly,  all  bonds,  registers, 
 and  securities  were  piled  up  in  the  market-place  and 
 burned.  Agesilaus,  having  secured  his  own  ends, 
 contrived  various  pretexts  for  delaying  the  division  of 
 (he  lands.  Meanwhile,  the  Achoeans  applied  to  Sparta 
 for  assistance  against  the  .-Etolians.  Agis  was  accord- 
 ingly setit  at  the  head  of  an  army.  The  cautious  move- 
 ments of  Aratus  gave  Agis  no  opportunity  of  distin- 
 guishing himself  in  action,  but  he  gained  great  credit 
 by  the  excellent  discipline  he  preserved  among  his 
 troops.  During  his  absence  Agesilaus  so  incensed  the 
 poorer  classes  by  his  insolent  conduct  and  the  contin- 
 ued postponement  of  the  division  of  the  lands,  that  they 
 made  no  opposition  when  die  enemies  of  .^gis  openly 
 brought  back  Leonidas  and  set  him  on  the  throne. 
 Agis  and  (31eoinhrotns  fled  for  sanctuary,  the  former 
 to  the  temple  of  Athene  Chalciipcns.  the  latter  to  the 
 temple  of  Poseidon.  Cleomhrotus  was  suffered  to  go 
 into  exile.  Agis  was  entrapped  by  some  treacherous 
 fnenJs  and  thrown  into  prison.  Leonidas  immediate- 
 ly came  with  a  band  of  mercenaries,  and  secured  the 
 prison  without,  while  the  e[)hors  entered  it,  and  went 
 through  the  mockery  of  a  trial  When  asked  if  he  did 
 not  repent  of  what  he  had  attempted,  .Agis  replied  that 
 he  should  never  repent  of  so  glorious  a  design,  even  in 
 the  face  of  death.  He  was  condemned,  and  precipi- 
 tately executed,  the  ephors  fearit;g  a  rescue,  as  a  great 
 concourse  of  people  had  assembled  round  the  prison 
 gates.  Affis,  observing  that  one  of  his  executioners  was 
 "92* 
 
 moved  to  tears,  said,  "  Weep  not  for  me ;  suffering, 
 as  I  do,  unjustly,  I  am  in  a  happier  case  than  my  mur- 
 derers." His  mother,  Agesistrate,  and  his  grandmoth- 
 er were  strangled  on  his  body  Agis  was  the  first 
 king  of  Sparta  who  had  been  put  to  death  by  the 
 ephors.  Pausanias,  vv'ho,  however,  is  undoubtedly 
 wrong,  says  (8,  10,  ^  4  ;  27,  l)  9)  that  he  fell  in  battle. 
 His  widow,  Agiatis,  was  forcibly  married  by  Leonidas 
 to  his  son,  Cleomenes,  but,  nevertheless,  they  enter- 
 tained for  each  other  a  mutual  affection  and  esteem. 
 (I  lularch,  Agis,  Cleomenes,  Aratus.  —  Pans.,  7,  7,  ^ 
 2.) — V.  A  Greek  poet,  a  native  of  Argos,  and  a  con- 
 temporary of  Alexander  the  Great,  whom  he  accompa- 
 nied on  his  Asiatic  expedition.  Curtiiis  (8,  5),  as  well 
 as  Arrian  {Anah.,  4,  9)  and  Plutarch  (De  adulat.  et 
 amic.  discrrm  ,  p.  60),  describe  him  as  one  of  the  basest 
 flatterers  of  the  king.  Curtius  calls  him  "  pessimo* 
 rum  carminum  post  Choerilum  conditor,"  which  proba- 
 bly refers  rather  to  their  flattering  character  than  to 
 their  worth  as  poetry.  The  Greek  Anthology  (6,  153) 
 contains  an  epigram,  which  is  probably  the  work  of  this 
 flatterer.  (Jacobs,  AnthoL,  3,  p.  836. —  Zimmermann, 
 Zekschnfl  fur  die  Alterth.,  1841,  p   164  ) 
 
 AlhenoBus  (12,  p.  516)  mentions  one  Agis  as  the 
 author  of  a  work  on  the  art  of  cooking  {b'ijjapTVTiKn). 
 
 Agisimba,  a  district  of  .iEihiopia,  the  most  southern 
 with  which  the  ancients  were  acquainted.  It  is  sup- 
 posed to  correspond  to  Asben  in  Nigritia.  {Bischof 
 U7ul  Mollcr,  Worierb.  der  Geogr.,  s.  v.)  It  is  some- 
 times written  Agizymba. 
 
 Aglaia,  I.  one  of  the  Graces,  called  sometimes  Pas- 
 iphae.  (PoMsan.,  9,  35. —  Vid.  Charites.) — II.  Daugh- 
 ter of  Thcspius,  and  mother,  by  Hercules,  of  Antiades. 
 (Apollod.,  Biblioth.,  2,  7,  '^  8.)— III.  The  wife  of  King 
 Charopus,  and  mother  of  Nireus,  who  came  with  three 
 vessels  and  a  small  band  of  followers  from  the  island 
 of  Syme  against  Troy.  {Horn,  11,  2,  R7\.—Diod. 
 Sic.,  5,  53.)  Homer  says  nothing  farther  about  him 
 than  that  he  was  the  most  beautiful  man  in  the  Gre- 
 cian army  after  Achilles  (vid.  Nireus) ;  his  story,  how- 
 ever, was  related  at  length  in  the  ('yclic  bards.  (Vid. 
 Heynii  Annot.  ad  Horn.,  II. ,  2,  671-3.)  Lucian  has 
 ironically  represented  him  as  contesting  the  palm  of 
 personal  beauty  with  Thersites  in  the  lower  world. 
 (Dial.  Mort.,  25.) 
 
 Aglacpheme  (^  kylao(l>ijftj}),  one  of  the  Sirens.  (Vid. 
 Sirepes.) 
 
 Aglaonice,  a  Thcssalian  female,  who  prided  herself 
 on  her  skill  in  predicting  eclipses,  &c.  She  boasted 
 even  of  her  power  to  draw  down  the  moon  to  earth. 
 Hence  the  Greek  adage,  ttjv  aeX/jvr]i>  KaraaTTg,,  "  She 
 draws  down  the  moon,'''  applied  to  a  boastful  person. 
 (Erasm.  ChiL,  col.,  853.) 
 
 Agi.aophon,  1.  a  painter  of  the  isle  of  Thasos,  who 
 flourished  in  the  70lh  Olympiad,  500  B.C.  He  was 
 the  father  and  master  of  Polygnotus  and  Aristophon. 
 Quintilian  (12,  10)  speaks  of  his  style  in  common  with 
 thai  of  Polygnotus,  as  indicating,  by  its  simplicity  of 
 colouring,  the  early  stages  of  the  art,  and  yet  being  pref- 
 erable, by  its  air  of  nature  and  truth,  to  the  cflorts  of 
 the  great  masters  that  succeeded — -11.  A  son  of  Aris- 
 tophon, and  grandson  of  the  preceding,  also  distinguish- 
 ed as  a  painter.  He  celebrated,  bv  his  productions,  the 
 victories  of  Alcibiades.     (Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,s.  v.) 
 
 Aoi.AUROs.    Vid.  Agraulos. 
 
 Agi.aus,  a  native  of  Psophis,  and  the  poorest  man 
 in  all  Arcadia,  but  still  pronounced,  by  the  Delphic  or- 
 acle, a  happier  man  than  Gyges,  monarch  of  Lydia. 
 (V.il.  Max,  7.  1.) 
 
 Agna,  or  Hagna,  a  female  in  the  time  of  Horace, 
 who,  though  troubled  with  a  polypus  in  the  nose,  and 
 havinc  her  visage,  in  consequence,  greatly  deformed, 
 yet  found,  on  this  very  account,  an  admirer  in  one  Dal- 
 binns.  The  commentators  make  her  to  have  been  a 
 frecd-woman  and  a  native  of  Greece.  (Hurat.,  Scrm. 
 1,  3,  40.) 
 
AGO 
 
 AGR 
 
 Agnodice,  an  Athenian  virgin,  who  disguised  her 
 sex  to  learn  medicine,  it  being  ordained  by  the  Athe- 
 nian laws,  that  no  slave  or  female  should  learn  the  heal- 
 ing art.  She  was  taught  by  Hierophilus  the  art  of  mid- 
 wifery, and  when  employed,  always  discovered  her  sex 
 to  her  patients.  This  brought  her  into  so  much  prac- 
 tice, that  the  males  of  her  profession,  who  were  now 
 out  of  employment,  accused  her  before  the  Areopagus 
 of  corrupt  conduct,  '' quod  dicer  cut  cum  glabra  m  esse, 
 et  rorruptorcm  carum,  ct  lUas  srinulare  mihccillitulem." 
 Ao-nodice  was  about  to  be  condemned,  when  she  dis- 
 covered her  sex  to  the  judges.  A  law  was  immedi- 
 ately passed  authorizing  all  freeborn  women  to  learn 
 the  healing  art.     (Hygin.,  fab.,27i.) 
 
 AoNON,  I.  son  of  Nicias,  was  present  at  the  taking  of 
 Samos  by  Pericles,  having  brought  re-enforcements  from 
 Athens.  After  the  Peloponnesian  war  had  oroken  out, 
 he  and  Cleopoinpus,  both  colleagues  of  Pericles,  were 
 despatched  with  the  forces  which  the  last-mentioned 
 commander  had  previously  led,  to  aid  in  the  reduction 
 of  Potidaja.  The  expedition  was  frustrated,  however, 
 by  sickness  among  the  troops.  Agnon  was  also  the 
 founder  of  Amphipolis  ;  but  the  citizens  of  that  place, 
 forgetful  of  past  services,  opened  their  gates  to  Brasi- 
 das,  the  Spartan  general,  and  when  the  body  of  this  com- 
 mander was  subsequently  interred  within  Amphipolis, 
 they  threw  down  every  memorial  of  Agnon.  ( Thvcyd., 
 1,  117.— W.,  2,  58.)— II.      KztZ.  Supplement. 
 
 AcNONinES,  an  orator,  and  popular  leader  at  Athens, 
 who  accused  Phocion  of  treason  for  not  having  opposed 
 with  more  activity  the  movements  of  Nicanor.  After 
 the  death  of  Phocion,  and  when  the  people,  repenting 
 of  (heir  conduct  towards  him,  were  doing  everything  to 
 honour  his  memory,  Agnonides  suffered  ca})ilal  pun- 
 ishment, by  a  decree  passed  for  that  special  purpose. 
 (Plut.,  Vit.  Phoc,  c.  33,  38.) 
 
 Agonalia  and  Agonia,  a  festival  at  Rome  in  hon- 
 our of  Janus,  celebrated  on  the  ninth  of  January,  the 
 20lh  of  May,  and  the  10th  of  December.  (FnZ.  Dic- 
 tionary of  Antiquities.) 
 
 Agonius  {'AyuviOQ),  a  surname  or  epithet  of  sever- 
 al gods.  iEschylus  {Agavi.,  513)  and  Sophocles 
 {Track.,  26)  use  it  of  Apollo  and  Jupiier,  and  appa- 
 rently in  the  sense  of  helpers  in  struggles  and  contests. 
 But  It  is  more  especially  used  as  a  surname  of  Mercu- 
 ry, who  presides  over  all  kinds  of  solemn  contests. 
 
 AnoNES  Capitoli.m,  contests  instituted  by  Domitian 
 in  honour  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and  celebrated  every 
 fifth  year  on  the  Capitoline  Hill.  According  to  Sue- 
 tonius {Domit.,  4),  they  were  of  a  threefold  character  : 
 musical,  which  included  poetic  contests,  equestrian,  and 
 gymnastic.  Prizes  were  awarded  also  for  the  best  speci- 
 nrens  of  Greek  and  Latin  prose  composition.  Censori- 
 nus  informs  us,  that  they  were  instituted  in  the  twelfth 
 consulship  of  Domitian  and  Dolabella  (A.U.C.  839). 
 It  was  at  these  contests  that  the  poet  Statins  was  de- 
 feated. {Ccns.,  c.  18. —  Crusius,  ad  Suet.,  I.  c.) 
 Games  similar  to  these  had  been  previously  instituted 
 by  Nero.      {Siiel..,Ner.,  12  ) 
 
 Agoracritus,  a  statuary  of  Faros,  and  the  favourite 
 pupil  of  Phidias,  who,  according  to  Pliny  (26,  5),  car- 
 ried his  attachment  so  far  as  even  to  have  inscribed  on 
 some  of  his  own  works  the  name  of  his  young  disciple. 
 The  same  writer  informs  us,  that  Agoracritus  contend- 
 ed with  Alcamenes,  another  pupil  of  Phidias,  and  a 
 nativeof  Athens,  in  making  a  statue  of  Venus,  and  had 
 the  mortification  to  see  his  rival  crowned  as  victorious, 
 in  consequence  of  the  prejudice  of  the  Athenians  in  fa- 
 vour of  their  countryman.  Full  of  resentment,  he  sold 
 his  statue  to  the  inhabitants  of  Rhamnus,  a  borough 
 of  Attica,  on  condition  that  it  sliould  never  reent'er 
 within  the  walls  of  Athens.  Pliny  add.s,  that  Agoracri- 
 tus named  this  statue  Nemesis,  and  that  Varro  regarded- 
 it  as  the  finest  specimen  of  sculpture  that  he  had  ever 
 seen.^  Pausanias  (1,  33)  gives  an  entirely  different 
 account ;  for,  without  mentioning  the  name  of  Agorac- 
 M 
 
 ritus,  he  says  that  the  statue  of  the  Rhamnusian  Nem* 
 esis  wa.s  the  work  of  Phidias.  Strabo,  again,  differs 
 from  both  Pliny  and  Pausanias,  for  he  asserts  that  the 
 celebrated  statue  in  question  was  ascribed  to  bo'.h  Ago. 
 racntus  and  Diodotus  (the  latter  of  whom  is  not  men- 
 tioned in  any  other  passage),  and  that  it  was  not  at  aij 
 inferior  to  the  works  of  Phidias.  (.SVr«6.,  396.)  It  is 
 difficult  to  reconcile  these  conflicting  statements.  Per- 
 haps the  statue  was  by  Phidias,  and  the  name  of  his 
 favourite  pupil  was  inscribed  upon  it  by  the  artist 
 Equally  difficult  is  it  to  conceive  how  a  statue  of  Ve- 
 nus could  be  so  modified  as  to  be  transformed  into  one 
 of  the  goddess  of  Vengeance,  for  such  was  Nemesis. 
 Sillig  endeavours  to  explain  this,  but  with  little  suc- 
 cess.    {Diet.  Art.,s.  V.) 
 
 AGOKAN6Mi,'A)'opai'6|UOi,  sometimes  called  Aoytffraf, 
 ten  Athenian  magistrates,  five  of  whom  officiated  in 
 the  city,  and  five  in  the  Pirteus.  To  them  a  certaii. 
 toll  or  tribute  was  paid  by  those  who  brought  anything 
 into  the  market  to  sell.  They  had  the  care  of  all  sale- 
 able commodities  in  the  market  except  corn,  and  they 
 were  employed  in  maintaining  order,  and  in  seeing  that 
 no  one  defrauded  another,  or  took  any  unreasonable  ad- 
 vantage in  buying  and  selling.  {Wachsmuth,  Alter- 
 thums.,  vol.  2,  p.  65.) 
 
 Agragas,  or  Acragas,  I.  a  small  river  of  Sicily, 
 running  near  Agrigentum.  It  is  now  the  San  Blasio. 
 {Maimert,  9,  pt.  2,  p.  354  ) — II.  The  Greek  name 
 of  Agrigentum.     (  Vid.  Agrigentum.) 
 
 Agragian^,  or  AcRAGiANiE,  PoRT^,  gatcs  of  Syr- 
 acuse. There  were  in  this  quarter  a  great  number  of 
 sepulchres,  and  here  Cicero  discovered  the  tomb  of 
 Archimedes.  {Tusc.  Qucest.,  5,  23.)  The  name  of 
 these  gates  has  given  great  trouble  to  the  commenta- 
 tors. Dorville  {ad  Charit.,  p.  193)  reads  Agraganti- 
 nas  in  the  passage  of  Cicero  just  referred  to,  because 
 the  gates  in  question  looked  towards  Agrigentum  and 
 the  south,  according  to  the  Anlonin.  Iltn.,  p.  95. 
 Schiitz  gives  Achradinas  in  his  edition  of  Cicero, 
 which  is  superior  to  Aeradinas,  the  reading  of  H.  Ste- 
 phens and  Davis,  though  the  last  is  adopted  by  Goller. 
 {Syracus.,  p.  64.)  The  argument  in  its  favour  turns 
 upon  the  circumstance  of  a /lor/a^c/irarfirtabeingmen- 
 tioned  among  the  gates  of  Syracuse,  but  not  a  porta 
 Agraganlma.  Thus  we  have  in  Diodorus  Siculus, 
 (13,  7.5),  rcj  /card  t)jv  'kxpa^tvijv  ttv/mvi,  and  (13, 
 1 13),  TTpoc  ~vv  ttvXj/v  rfiQ'AxpafhviJc.  The  preferable 
 reading,  therefore,  in  Cicero  (/.  c.)\sportas Achradinas, 
 as  indicating  gates  in  that  quarter  of  Syracuse  termed 
 Achradina.    {Vid.   Achradina.) 
 
 Agrari.*;  leges,  laws  enacted  in  Rome  for  the  di- 
 vision of  public  lands.  In  the  valuable  work  on  Roman 
 history  by  Niebuhr  (vol.  2,  p.  129,  seqq.,  Cambr. 
 transL),  it  is  satisfactorily  shown,  that  these  laws, 
 which  have  so  long  been  considered  as  unjust  attacks 
 upon  private  property,  had  for  their  object  only  the 
 distribution  of  lands  which  were  the  property  of  the 
 state,  and  that  the  troubles  to  which  they  gave  rise 
 were  occasioned  by  the  opposition  of  persons  who  had 
 settled  on  these  lands  without  having  acquired  any  title 
 to  them.  These  laws  of  the  Romans  were  so  intimate- 
 ly connected  with  their  system  of  establishing  colonies 
 in  the  different  parts  of  their  territories,  that,  to  attain 
 a  proper  understanding  of  them,  it  is  necessary  to  be- 
 stow a  moment's  consideration  on  that  system. — Ac- 
 cording to  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  their  plan  of 
 sending  out  colonics  or  settlers  began  as  early  as  the 
 time  of  Romulus,  who  generally  placed  colonists  from 
 the  city  of  Rome  on  the  lands  taken  in  war.  The  same 
 policy  was  pursued  by  the  kings  who  succeeded  him ; 
 and,  when  the  kings  were  expelled,  it  was  adopted  by 
 the  senate  and  the  people,  and  then  by  the  dictators. 
 There  were  several  reasons  inducing  the  Roman  gov 
 ernment  to  pursue  this  policy,  which  was  continued  for 
 a  long  period  without  any  intermission ;  first,  to  have 
 a  check  on  the  conquered  people  ;  secondly,  to  have 
 
 89 
 
AGRARIiE  LEGES. 
 
 AGRARIJE  LEGES. 
 
 &  protection  against  th"  incursions  of  an  enemy  ;  third- 
 ly, to  augment  their  popnlation  ;  fourthly,  to  free  the 
 city  of  Rome  from  an  excess  of  inhabitants  ;  fifthly,  to 
 quiet  seditions  ;  and,  sixthly,  to  reward  their  veteran 
 soldiers.     These  reasons  abundantly  appear  in  all  the 
 best  ancient  authorities.     In  the  later  periods  of  the 
 republic,  a  principal  motive  for  establishing  colonies 
 was  to  have  the  means  of  disposing  of  soldiers,  and  re- 
 warding them  with  donations  of  lands  ;  and  such  col- 
 onies were,  on  this  account,  denominated  militari/  co\- 
 onies.     Now,  for  whichever  of  these  causes  a  colony 
 was  to  be  established,  it  was  necessary  that  some  law 
 respecting  it  sliould  be  passed  either  by  the  senate  or 
 people.     This  law  in  either  case  was  called  lex  agra- 
 ria,  an  agrarian  law,  which  will  now  be  explained. — 
 An  agrarian  law  contained  various  provisions  ;  it  de- 
 scribed the  land  which  was  to  be  divided,  and  the  class- 
 es of  people  among  whom,  and  their  numbers,  and  by 
 whom,  and  in  what  manner,  and  by  what  bounds,  the 
 territory  was  to  be  parcelled  out.     The  mode  of  divi- 
 ding tlie  lands,  as  fjr  as  wc  now  understand  it,  was  two- 
 fold ;  either  a  Roman  population  was  distributed  over 
 the  particular  territory,  without  any  formal  erection  of 
 a  colony,  or  general  grants  of  land  were  made  to  such 
 citizens  as  were  willing  to  form  a  colony  there.     The 
 lands  which  were  thus  distributed  were  of  different  de- 
 scriptions, which  we  must  keep  in  mind  in  order  to  have 
 a  just  conception  of  the  operation  of  the  agrarian  laws. 
 They  were  either  lands  taken  from  an  enemy,  and  not 
 actually  treated  by  the  government  as  public  property ; 
 or  public  lands  which  had  been  artfully  and  clandestine- 
 ly taken  possession  of  by  rich  and  powerful  individuals  ; 
 or,  lastly,  lands  which  were  bought  with  money  from 
 the  public  treasury,  for  the  purpose  of  being  distributed. 
 Now  all  such  agrarian  laws  as  comprehended  either  lands 
 of  the  enemy,  or  those  which  were  treated  and  occu- 
 pied as  public  property,  or  those  which  had  been  bought 
 with  the  public  money,  were  carried  into  effect  with- 
 out any  public  commotions  ;  but  those  which  operated 
 to  disturb  the  rich  and  powerful  citizens  in  the  posses- 
 sion of  the  lands  which  they  unjustly  occupied,  and  to 
 place  colonists  (or  settlers)  on  them,  were  never  pro- 
 mulgated  without  creating  great  disturbances.     'J'he 
 first  law  of  this  kind  was  proposed  by   Spurius  Cas- 
 sius  ;  and  the  same  measure  was  afterward  attempted 
 by  the  tribunes  of  the  commons  almost  every  year, 
 but  was  as  constantly  defeated  by  various  artifices  of 
 the  nobles  ;  it  was,  however,  at  length  passed.     It  ap- 
 pears, both  from  Dionysius  and  Varro,  that,  at  first, 
 Romulus  allotted  two  jugera  (about   l\  acres)  of  the 
 public  lands  to  each  man  ;  then  Niima  divided  the  lands 
 which  Romulus  had  taken  in  war,  and  also  a  portion 
 of  the  other  public  lands  ;   afterward  Tullus   divided 
 those  lands  which  Romulus  and  Numa  had  appropria- 
 ted to  the  private  expenses  of  the  regal  government ; 
 then  Servius  distributed  among  those  who  had  recent- 
 ly become  citizens,  certain  lands  which  had  been  taken 
 from  the  Veientcs,  the  Cairitcs  and  Tarquinii  ;  and, 
 upon  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  it  appears  that  the 
 lands  of  Tarquinius  Superbus,  with  the  exception  of 
 the  Campus  Martins,  were,  by  a  decree  of  the  senate, 
 granted  to  the  people.     After  this  period,  as  the  re- 
 public, by  means  of  its  continual  wars,  received  con- 
 tinual accessions  of  conquered  lands,  those  lands  were 
 either  occupied  by  colonists  or  remained  public  prop- 
 erty, until  the  period  when  Spurius  Cassius,  twenty- 
 four  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  proposed 
 a  law  (already  mentioned)  by  which  one  part  of  the 
 land  taken  from  the  Hernici  was  allotted  to  the  Latins, 
 and  the  other  part  to  the  Roman  people  ;  but  as  this 
 law  comprehended  certain  lands  which  he  accused  pri- 
 vate persons  of  having  taken  from  the  public,  and  as 
 the  senate  also  opposed  him,  he  could  not  accomplish 
 the  passage  of  it.     This,  according  to  Livy,  was  the 
 first  proposal  of  an  agrarian  law,  of  which,  he  adds,  not 
 one  was  ever  proposed,  down  to  the  period  of  his  re- 
 90 
 
 '  membrance,  without  very  great  public  commotions 
 Dionysius  informs  us,  farther,  that  this  public  land,  by 
 the  negligence  of  the  magistrates,  had  been  suffered  to 
 fall  into  the  possession  of  rich  men  ;  but  that,  notwith- 
 standing this,  a  division  of  the  lands  would  have  taken 
 place  under  this  law,  if  Cassius  had  not  included  among 
 the  receivers  of  the  bounty  the  Latins  and  the  Hernici, 
 whom  he  had  but  a  little  while  before  made  citizens. 
 After  much  debate  in  the  senate  on  this  subject,  a  de- 
 cree was  passed  to  the  following  effect :  that  commis- 
 sioners, called  dtccmvirs  (fen  in  number),  appointed 
 from  among  the  persons  of  consular  rank,  should  mark 
 out,  by  boundaries,  the  public  lands,  and  should  desig- 
 nate how  much  was  to  be  let  out,  and  how  much  was 
 to  be  distributed  among  the  common  people  ;  that,  if 
 any  land  had  been  acquired  by  joint  services  in  war,  it 
 should  be  divided,  according  to  treaty,  with  those  al- 
 lies who  had  been  admitted  to  citizenship;  and  that 
 the  choice  of  the  commissioners,  the  appointment  of 
 the  lands,  and  all  other  things  relating  to  this  subject, 
 should  be  committed  to  the  care  of  the  succeeding  con- 
 suls. Seventeen  years  after  this,  there  was  a  vehe- 
 ment contest  about  the  division,  which  the  tribunes 
 proposed  to  make,  of  lands  then  unjustly  occupied  by 
 the  rich  men  ;  and,  three  years  after  that,  a  similar  at- 
 tempt on  the  part  of  the  tribunes,  would,  according  to 
 Livy,  have  produced  a  ferocious  controversy,  had  it 
 not  been  for  Quintus  Fabius.  Some  years  after  this, 
 the  tribunes  proposed  another  law  of  the  same  kind,  by 
 which  the  estates  of  a  great  part  of  the  nobles  would 
 have  been  seized  to  the  public  use  ;  but  it  was  slopped 
 in  its  progress.  Appian  says,  that  the  nobles  and  rich 
 men,  jiartly  by  gettmg  possession  of  the  public  lands, 
 partly  by  buying  out  the  shares  of  indigent  owners,  had 
 made  themselves  owners  of  all  the  lands  in  Italy,  and 
 had  thus,  by  degrees,  accomplished  the  removal  of  the 
 common  people  from  their  possessions.  This  abuse 
 stimulated  Tiberius  Gracchus  to  revive  the  Licinian 
 law,  which  prohibited  any  individual  from  holding 
 more  than  500  jugera,  or  about  350  acres  of  land  ; 
 and  would,  consequently,  compel  the  owners  to  relin- 
 quish all  the  surplus  to  the  use  of  the  public  ;  but 
 Gracchus  proposed  that  the  owners  should  be  paid  the 
 value  of  the  lands  relinquished.  The  law,  however, 
 did  not  operate  to  any  great  extent,  and,  after  having 
 cost  the  Gracchi  their  lives,  was  by  degrees  rendered 
 wholly  inoperative.  After  this  period,  various  other 
 Agrarian  laws  v^'ere  attemj)tcd,  and  with  various  suc- 
 cess, according  to  the  nature  of  their  provisions  and 
 the  temper  of  the  times  in  which  they  were  proposed. 
 One  of  the  mobt  remarkable  was  that  of  RuUus,  which 
 gave  occasion  to  the  celebrated  oration  against  him  by 
 Cicero,  who  prevailed  upon  the  people  to  reject  the 
 law. — From  a  careful  consideration  of  these  laws,  and 
 the  others  of  the  same  kind,  on  which  we  have  not 
 commented,  it  is  apparent  that  the  whole  object  of  the 
 Roman  agrarian  laws  was,  the  lands  belonging  to  the 
 state,  the  public  lands  or  national  domains,  which,  as 
 already  observed,  were  acquired  by  conquest  or  treaty, 
 and,  we  may  add  also,  by  confiscations  or  direct  sei- 
 zures of  private  estates  by  different  factions,  either  for 
 lawful  or  unlawful  causes  ;  of  the  last  of  which  we 
 have  a  well-known  example  in  the  time  of  Sylla's  pro- 
 scriptions. The  lands  thus  claimed  by  the  public  be- 
 came  naturally  a  subject  of  extensive  speculation  with 
 the  wealthy  capitalists,  both  among  the  nobles  and 
 other  classes.  In  our  own  times,  we  have  seen,  dn- 
 rinor  the  revolution  in  France,  the  confiscation  of  the 
 lands  belonging  to  the  clergy,  the  nobility,  and  emi- 
 grants, lead  to  similar  results.  The  sales  and  pur- 
 chases of  lands  by  virtue  of  the  agrarian  laws  of  Rome, 
 under  the  various  complicated  circumstances  which 
 must  ever  exist  in  such  cases,  and  the  attempts  by  the 
 government  to  resume  or  regrant  such  as  had  been 
 sold,  whether  by  right  or  by  wrong,  especially  after  a 
 purchaser  had  been  long  in  possession,  under  a  title 
 
AGR 
 
 AGR 
 
 which  he  supposed  the  existing  laws  gave  him,  nat- 
 urally occasioned  great  heat  and  agitation  ;  the  sub- 
 ject itself  benig  intrinsically  one  of  great  difFiculty, 
 even  when  the  passions  and  interests  of  the  parties 
 concerned  would  permit  a  calm  and  deliberate  exam- 
 ination of  their  respective  rights. — From  the  commo- 
 tions which  usually  attended  the  proposal  of  agrarian 
 laws,  and  from  a  want  of  exact  attention  to  their  true 
 object,  there  has  been  a  general  impression,  among 
 readers  of  the  Koman  history,  that  those  laws  were  al- 
 ways a  direct  and  vioierit  infringement  of  the  rights  of 
 private  property.  Even  such  men,  it  has  been  ob- 
 served, as  Macbiavelli,  Montesquieu,  and  Adam  Smith, 
 have  shared  in  this  misconception  of  them.  This  er- 
 roneous opinion,  however,  has  lately  been  exposed  by 
 the  genius  and  learning  of  Niebuhr  in  his  Roman  his- 
 tory above  mentioned,  a  work  which  may  be  said  to 
 make  an  era  in  that  department  of  learning,  and  in 
 which  he  has  clearly  shown  that  the  original  and  pro- 
 fessed object  of  the  agrarian  laws  was  the  distribution 
 of  the  public  lands  only,  and  not  those  of  private  citi- 
 zens. Of  the  Licinian  law,  enacted  about  376  B.C., 
 on  which  all  subsequent  agrarian  laws  were  modelled, 
 INiebulir  enumerates  the  following  as  among  the  chief 
 provisions  :  1.  The  limits  of  the  public  land  shall  be 
 accurately  defined.  Portions  of  it,  which  have  been 
 encroached  on  by  individuals,  shall  be  restored  to  tlie 
 state.  2.  Every  estate  in  the  public  land,  not  greater 
 than  this  law  allows,  which  has  not  been  acquired  by 
 violence  or  fraud,  and  which  is  not  on  lease,  shall  be 
 good  against  any  third  person.  3.  Every  Roman  cit- 
 izen shall  be  competent  to  occupy  a  portion  of  newly- 
 acquired  public  land,  within  the  limits  prescribed  by 
 this  law,  provided  this  land  be  not  divided  by  law 
 among  the  citizens,  nor  granted  to  a  colony.  4.  No 
 one  shall  occupy  of  the  public  land  more  than  five 
 hundred  jugcra,  nor  pasture  on  the  public  commons 
 more  than  a  hundred  head  of  large,  nor  more  than  five 
 hundred  head  of  small,  stock.  5.  Those  who  occujiy 
 the  public  land  shall  pay  to  the  state  the  tithe  of  the 
 produce  of  the  field,  the  fifth  of  the  produce  of  the 
 fruit-tree  and  the  vineyard,  and  for  every  head  of  large 
 stock,  and  for  every  head  of  small  stock  yearly.  6. 
 The  public  lands  shall  be  farmed  by  the  censors  to 
 those  willing  to  take  them  on  these  terms.  The  funds 
 hence  arising  are  to  be  applied  to  pay  the  army.-^The 
 foregoing  were  the  most  important  permanent  provis- 
 ions of  the  Licinian  law,  and,  for  its  immediate  effect, 
 it  provided  that  all  the  public  land  occupied  by  indi- 
 viduals, over  five  hundred  jugera,  should  be  divided 
 by  lot  in  portions  of  seven  jugera  to  the  plebeians. — 
 But  we  must  not  hastily  infer,  as  some  readers  of 
 Niebuhr's  works  have  done,  that  these  agrarian  laws 
 did  not  in  any  manner  violate  private  rights.  This 
 would  be  quite  as  far  from  the  truth  as  the  prevailing 
 opinion  already  mentioned,  which  is  now  exploded. 
 Besides  the  argument  we  might  derive  from  the  very 
 nature  of  the  case,  we  have  the  direct  testimony  of 
 ancient  writers  to  the  injustice  of  such  laws,  and  their 
 violation  of  private  rights.  It  will  suffice  to  refer  to 
 that  of  Cicero  alone,  who  says  in  his  De  OJfidis  (3,  21), 
 "Those  men  who  wish  to  make  themselves  popular, 
 and  who,  for  that  purpose,  either  attempt  agrarian 
 laws,  in  order  to  drive  people  from  their  possessions, 
 or  who  maintain  that  creditors  ought  to  forgive  debt- 
 ors what  they  owe,  undermine  the  foundations  of  the 
 state  ;  they  destroy  all  concord,  which  cannot  exist 
 when  money  is  taken  from  one  man  to  be  given  to 
 another  ;  and  they  set  aside  justice,  which  is  always 
 violated  when  every  man  is  not  suffered  to  retain 
 what  is  his  own  ;"  which  reflections  would  not  have 
 been  called  forth,  unless  the  laws  in  question  had  di- 
 rectly and  plainly  violated  private  rights.  {Encyclo- 
 fadia  Americana,  vol.  1,  p.  100,  scan.) 
 
 AcRAULi.i,  a  festival  celebrated  at  Athens   in  hon- 
 our of  Agraulos,  the  daughter  of  Cecrops,  and  priest- 
 
 ess of  Minerva.  The  Cyprians  also  honoured  hex 
 with  an  annual  festival,  in  the  month  Aphiodisius,  at 
 which  they  offered  human  victims.  {Rvbinson'' a  An- 
 tiquities of  Greece,  2d  ed.,  p.  276.) 
 
 Agraulos,  I.  the  daughter  of  Aclaus,  king  of  At- 
 tica, and  the  wife  of  Cecrops.  She  became  by  him  the 
 mother  of  Erysichthon,  Agraulos,  Herse,  and  Pandro- 
 sos. — II.  A  daughter  of  Cecrops  and  Agraulos,  and 
 mother  of  Alcippe  by  Mars.     (Vnl.  Supplement.) 
 
 Agkesphon,  a  Greek  grammarian  mentioned  by  Sui- 
 das  (s.  v.  'ATToZAuviof).  He  wrote  a  work,  Ilepl  'Q/i- 
 (jvvfLuv  (concerning  persons  of  the  same  name).  He 
 cannot  have  lived  earlier  than  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  as 
 in  his  work  he  spoke  of  an  Apollonius  who  lived  in  the 
 time  of  that  emperor. 
 
 Agreus,  the  hunter,  an  epithet  of  Pan. 
 
 Agrianes,  I.  a  small  river  of  Thrace,  running  into 
 the  Hebrus.  It  is  now  the  Ergene. — II.  A  Thracian 
 tribe  dwelling  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  Agrianes. 
 {Herod.,  5,  16.) — III.  A  people  of  Illyria,  on  the  fron- 
 tiers of  lower  McBsia.  They  were  originally  from 
 Thrace,  and  very  probably  a  branch  of  the  Thracian 
 Agrianes. 
 
 Agkiasp^,  a  nation  of  Asia,  mentioned  by  Quintus 
 Curtius  (7,  3).  Some  difference  of  opinion,  however, 
 exists  with  regard  to  the  true  reading  in  this  passage. 
 Most  editors  prefer  ArimaspcE,  while  others,  and  evi- 
 dently with  more  correctness,  consider  Ariaspce  the 
 proper  lection.  (Compare  ScJimiedvr,  ad  Quint.  Curt., 
 L  c,  and  vid.  Ariasps  ) 
 
 Agkicola,  Cneius  Julius,  an  eminent  Roman  com- 
 mander, born  A.D.  40,  in  the  reign  of  Caligula,  by 
 whom  his  father  Julius  Gro'cinus  was  put  to  death  for 
 nobly  refusing  to  plead  against  Marcus  Silanus.  His 
 mother,  to  whom  he  owed  his  excellent  education,  was 
 Julia  Procilla,  unhappily  murdered  on  her  estate  in 
 Eiguria  by  a  descent  of  freebooters  from  the  piratical 
 fleet  of  Otho.  The  first  military  service  of  Agricola 
 was  under  Suetonius  Paulinus  in  Britain  ;  and,  on  his 
 return  to  Rome,  he  married  a  lady  of  rank,  and  was 
 made  qusestor  in  Asia,  where,  in  a  rich  province,  pe- 
 culiarly open  to  official  exactions,  he  maintained  the 
 strictest  integrity.  He  was  chosen  tribune  of  the 
 people,  and  prastor,  under  Nero,  and,  unhappily,  in 
 the  commotion  which  followed  the  accession  of  Galba, 
 lost  his  mother  as  above  mentioned.  By  Vespasian, 
 whose  cause  he  espoused,  he  was  made  a  patrician, 
 and  governor  of  Aquitania,  which  post  he  held  for 
 three  years.  The  dignity  of  consul  followed,  and  in 
 the  same  year  he  married  his  daughter  to  the  historia)i 
 Tacitus.  He  was  soon  afterward  made  governor  of 
 Britain,  where  he  subjugated  the  Ordovices,  in  North 
 Wales,  and  reduced  the  island  of  Mona,  or  Anglcsea. 
 He  adopted  the  most  wise  and  generous  plans  for  civ- 
 ilizing the  Britons,  by  inducing  the  nobles  to  assume 
 the  Roman  habit,  and  have  their  children  instructed  in 
 the  Latin  language.  He  also  gradually  adorned  the 
 country  with  magnificent  temples,  porticoes,  baths, 
 and  public  edifices,  of  a  nature  to  excite  the  admira- 
 tion and  emulation  of  the  rude  people  whom  he  gov- 
 erned. With  these  cares,  however,  he  indulged  the 
 usual  ambition  of  a  Roman  commander,  to  add  to  the 
 limits  of  the  Roman  territory,  by  extending  his  arms 
 northward  ;  and  in  the  succeeding  three  years  he 
 passed  the  river  Tuesis,  or  Tweed,  subdued  the  coun- 
 try as  far  as  the  Frith  of  Tay,  and  erected  a  chain  of 
 protective  fortresses  from  the  Clota,  or  Clyde,  to  the 
 Boderia  ^Esluarium,  or  Frith  of  Forth.  He  also  sta- 
 tioned troops  on  the  coas'  of  Scotland  opposite  to  Ire- 
 land, on  which  island  he  entertained  views  of  con- 
 quest ;  and,  in  an  expedition  to  the  eastern  part  of 
 Scotland,  beyond  the  Frith  of  Forth,  was  accompanied 
 by  his  fleet,  which  explored  the  inlets  and  harbours, 
 and  hemmed  in  the  natives  on  every  side.  His  seventh 
 summer  was  passed  in  the  same  parts  of  Scotland,  and 
 the  Grampian  Hills  became  the  scene  of  a  decisive  en- 
 
 91 
 
A  GR 
 
 AGRIPPA. 
 
 gagemcnt  with  the  Caledonians  under  their  most  able 
 leader  Galgacus.  The  latter  made  a  noble  stand,  but 
 was  at  last  obliged  to  yield  to  Roman  valour  and  dis- 
 cipline ;  and,  having  taken  hostages,  Agricola  gradual- 
 ly withdrew  his  forces  into  the  Roman  limits.  In  the 
 mean  time,  Domiiian  had  succeeded  to  the  empire,  to 
 whose  mean  and  jealous  nature  the  brilliant  character 
 and  successes  of  Agricola  gave  secret  uneasiness. 
 Artfully  spreading  a  rumour  that  he  intended  to  make 
 the  latter  governor  of  Syria,  he  recalled  him,  received 
 hmi  coldly,  and  allowed  him  to  descend  into  private 
 life.  The  jealousy  of  the  tyrant  still  pursued  him  ; 
 and  as,  after  he  had  been  induced  to  resign  his  pre- 
 tension to  the  proconsulship  of  Asia  or  Africa,  he  was 
 soon  seized  with  an  illness  of  which  he  died,  Domi- 
 tian,  jx)ssibly  without  reason,  has  been  suspected  of  a 
 recourse  to  poison.  Agricola  died  A.U.  93,  in  his 
 fifty- fourth  year,  leaving  a  widow,  and  one  daughter, 
 the  wife  of  Tacitus.  It  is  this  historian  who  has  so 
 admirably  written  his  life,  and  preserved  his  high  char- 
 acter for  the  respect  of  posterity.  (Tac,  Vit.  Agric.) 
 Agrigentum,  a  celebrated  city  of  Sicily,  about  three 
 miles  from  the  southern  coast,  in  what  is  now  called 
 the  valley  of  Mazura.  The  Greek  form  of  the  name 
 was  Acragas  {'AKpaya^),  derived  from  that  of  a  small 
 stream  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  primitive  name 
 was  Camicus,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  this  was  the 
 appellation  of  an  old  city  of  the  Sicani,  situate  on  the 
 summit  of  a  mountain,  which  afterward  was  regarded 
 merely  as  the  citadel  of  Agrigentum.  The  founding 
 of  Camicus  is  ascribed  to  Dwdalus,  who  is  said  to  have 
 built  it,  after  his  flight  from  Crete,  for  the  Sicanian 
 prince,  Cocalus.  In  the  first  year  of  the  56th  Olym- 
 piad, 556  B.C.,  a  colony  was  sent  from  Gela  to  this 
 quarter,  which  founded  Agrigentum,  on  a  neighbour- 
 ing height,  to  the  southeast.  Its  situation  was,  indeed, 
 peculiarly  strong  and  imposing,  standing  as  it  did  on  a 
 bare  and  precipitous  rock,  IIUO  feet  above  the  level  of 
 the  sea.  To  this  advantage  the  city  added  others  of 
 a  commercial  nature,  being  near  to  the  sea,  which  af- 
 forded the  means  of  an  easy  intercourse  with  the  ports 
 of  Africa  and  the  south  of  Europe.  The  adjacent  coun- 
 try, moreover,  was  very  fertile.  From  the  combined 
 operation  of  all  these  causes,  Agrigentum  soon  became 
 a  wealthy  and  powerful  city,  and  was  considered  in- 
 ferior to  Syracuse  alone.  According  to  Diodorus  Sic- 
 uluw  (13,  81,  seqq.),  it  drew  on  itself  the  enmity  of  the 
 Carthaginians  (406  B.C.),  by  refusing  to  embrace  their 
 alliance,  or  even  to  remain  neutral.  It  was  according- 
 ly besieged  by  their  generals  Hannibal  and  Hamilcar. 
 The  former,  with  many  of  his  troops,  died  of  a  pestilential 
 disorder,  derived  from  the  putrid  cfHuvia  of  the  tombs, 
 which  were  opened  and  destroyed  for  the  sake  of  the 
 stone.  But,  from  want  of  timely  assistance  and  scar- 
 city of  provisions,  the  Agrigentines  were  obliged  to 
 abandon  their  city,  and  fly  for  protection  to  Gela, 
 whence  they  were  transferred  to  the  city  of  the  Leon- 
 tines,  which  was  allotted  to  them  by  the  republic  of 
 Syracuse.  The  conqueror  Hamilcar  despoiled  Agri- 
 gentum of  all  its  riches,  valuable  pictures,  and  statues. 
 Among  the  trophies  sent  to  Carthage  was  the  celebra- 
 ted bull  of  Phalaris,  which,  two  hundred  and  sixty  years 
 afterward,  on  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  was  restored 
 to  the  Agrigentines  by  Scipio.  At  a  subsequent  pe- 
 riod, when  a  general  peace  had  taken  place  01.  96,  1. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  14,  78),  wc  find  the  Agrigentines  return- 
 ing to  their  native  city  ;  though,  from  a  passage  in  Di- 
 odorus (13,  113), it  would  seem  that  the  place  had  not 
 been  entirely  destroyed  by  the  foe,  and  that  many  of 
 its  previous  inhabitants  might  have  come  back  at  an 
 earlier  date.  {01.  93,  4.)  Agrigentum  soon  recover- 
 ed its  importance,  but  the  tyranny  of  Phintias  havina 
 induced  the  inhabitants  to  call  in  the  aid  of  Carthage, 
 the  city  once  more  fell  under  that  ))ower.  Not  lon^ 
 after,  it  revolted  to  Pyrrhus  {Diod.  Sic,  22,  cxc,  14), 
 but,  on  his  departure  from  the  island,  was  compelled  to 
 92 
 
 return  to  its  former  masters.  On  the  commencement  of 
 the  Punic  wars,  x\grigentum  was  one  of  the  most  impor- 
 tant strongholds  which  the  Carthaginians  possz-ssed  in 
 the  island.  It  sufl'ered  severely  during  these  conliicts, 
 being  alternately  in  the  hands  of  either  party  {Diod. 
 Sic,  23,  l.—Polyb.,  1,  17,  scqq.—Diod.  Sic.  23,  9. 
 — Id.,  23,  14),  but  it  eventually  fell  under  the  Rom.an 
 power,  and,  notwithstanding  its  losses,  continued  for 
 a  long  period  a  flourishing  place,  though  it  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  confined,  after  it  came  permanently  un- 
 der the  Romans,  to  the  limits  of  the  ancient  Camicus, 
 with  which  the  modem  Girgenti  nearly  corresponds. 
 Diodorus  states  the  population,  in  its  best  days,  to  have 
 been  not  less  than  120,000  persons.  (Manncrt,  9,  pt. 
 2,  p.  353,  scgq. — Hoare's  Classical  Tour,  vol.  2,  p. 
 90,  seqq.) 
 
 Agrionh,  annual  festivals  in  honour  of  Bacchus, 
 generally  celebrated  in  the  night.  They  were  insti- 
 tuted, as  some  suppose,  because  the  god  was  attended 
 with  wild  beasts.  The  appellation,  however,  should 
 rather  be  viewed  as  referring  back  to  an  early  period, 
 when  human  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Bacchus. 
 Hence  the  terms  'i2//?;(Tr?/f  and  'Aypiuviog  applied  to 
 this  deity.  {Crcuzer's  Symholik,  vol.  3,  p.  334.) 
 Plutarch  even  speaks  of  a  human  sacrifice  to  this  god 
 as  late  as  the  days  of  Themistocles  {Vit.,  13),  when 
 three  Persian  prisoners  were  offered  up  by  him  to  Bac- 
 chus, at  the  instigation  of  the  diviner  Eurantides.  The 
 same  writer  elsewhere(F2^^72^.,  24)  uses  both 'i2//??o-- 
 Tt'j^  and  'Aypiuviog,  in  speaking  of  Bacchus  ;  where 
 Reiske,  without  any  necessity,  proposes  'AypiuXioc 
 (from  67.7.vi-a)  as  an  emendation. — In  celebrating  this 
 festival,  the  Grecian  women,  being  assembled,  sought 
 eagerly  for  Bacchus,  who,  they  pretended,  had  fled 
 from  them  ;  but,  finding  their  labour  ineffectual,  they 
 said  that  he  had  retired  to  the  Muses  and  concealed 
 himself  among  them.  The  ceremony  being  thus  end- 
 ed, they  regaled  themselves  with  an  entertainment. 
 {Plut.,  Sympos.,  8,  1.)  Has  this  a  figurative  reference 
 to  the  suspension  of  human  sacrifices,  and  the  conse- 
 quent introduction  of  a  milder  form  of  worship  I  Cas- 
 tellanus,  however  {Syritagm.  de  Festis  Gracor.,  s.  v. 
 Agrionia),  makes  the  festival  in  question  to  have  been 
 a  general  symbol  of  the  progress  of  civilization  and  re- 
 finement. (Compare  Rollc,  Rechcrches  sur  le  Ciille  de 
 Bacchus,  vol.  3,  p.  251.) 
 
 Agrippa  {' AypiTTTrac:),  I.  a  skeptical  philosopher,  only 
 known  to  have  lived  later  than  .^nesidemus,  the  con- 
 teinporary  of  Cicero,  from  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  fifth  in  descent.  He  is  quoted  by  Diogenes 
 Laertius,  who  probably  wrote  about  the  time  of  M.  An- 
 toninus. The  "five  grounds  of  doubt"  (of  Trivre  rpo- 
 TTOi),  which  are  given  by  Sextus  Empiricus  as  a  sum- 
 mary of  the  later  skepticism,  are  ascribed  by  Diogenes 
 Laertius  (9,  88)  to  Agrippa. 
 
 1.  The  first  of  these  argues  from  the  uncertainty  of 
 the  rules  of  common  life,  and  of  the  opinions  of  philos- 
 ophers. 2.  The  second  from  the  "  rejectio  ad  infini- 
 tum :"  all  proof  requires  some  farther  proof,  and  so  on 
 to  infinity.  3.  All  things  are  changed  as  their  rela- 
 tions become  changed,  or  as  we  look  upon  them  in  dif- 
 ferent points  of  view.  4.  The  truth  asserted  is  merely 
 an  hypothesis  ;  or,  5.  Involves  a  vicious  circle.  {Sex- 
 tus Empiricus,  Pyrrhon.  Hypot.,  1,  15.) 
 
 With  reference  to  these  ttevte  rponoi,  it  need  only 
 be  remarked,  that  the  first  and  third  are  a  short  summa- 
 ry of  the  ten  original  grounds  of  doubt  which  were  the 
 basis  of  the  earlier  skepticism.  The  three  additional 
 ones  show  a  progress  in  the  skeptical  system,  and  a 
 transition  from  the  common  objections  derived  from  the 
 fallibility  of  sense  and  opinion,  to  more  abstract  and  met- 
 aphysical grounds  of  doubt.  They  seem  to  mark  a  new 
 attempt  to  systematize  the  skeptical  philosophy,  and 
 adapt  it  to  the  spirit  of  a  later  age.  {Hitter,  Geschichte 
 der  Philosophie,  12,  4.)— II.  M.  Asinius,  consul  A.D. 
 25,  died  A.D.  26,  was  descended  from  a  family  mora 
 
AGRIPPA. 
 
 AGRIPPA. 
 
 illustrious  than  ancient,  and  did  not  disgrace  it  by  his 
 mode  of  life.  (7ac.,  Ann.,  4,  34,  61.')— III.  Agrif.pa 
 Castor,  about  A. D.  135,  praised  as  an  historian  by  Eu- 
 sebiu.-,  and  for  his  learning  by  St.  Jerome  (de  Vins  II- 
 lusir.,  c.  21);  lived  m  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  He  wrote 
 against  the  twenty-four  books  of  the  Alexandrian  Gnos- 
 tic, Basilides,  on  the  Gospel.  Quotations  are  made 
 from  his  work  by  Eusebius.  {Hist.  Eccles.,  4,  7. — 
 See  Godlandi's  Biblioihcca  Palrum,  vol.  1,  p.  330.) — 
 
 IV.  Fonteius,  one  of  the  accuseis  of  Libo,  A.D.  10, 
 is  again  mentioned  in  A.D.  19,  as  ottering  his  daugh- 
 ter for  a  vestal  virgin.      (Tac,  Ann.,  2,  30,  8(5.)— 
 
 V.  Probably  the  son  of  the  preceding,  commanded  the 
 province  of  .\sia  with  proconsular  power,  A.D.  69,  and 
 was  recalled  from  thence  by  Vespasian,  and  placed 
 over  Moesia  in  A.D.  70.  He  was  shortly  afterward 
 killed  111  battle  by  the  Sarinatians.  (Tac,  Hist.,  3, 
 46. — hseph,  B.  Jud,  7,  4,  s*"  3.)— VI.  Herodes  I. 
 ('Hpcjd?;f  'Ajpimrac),  called  by  Josephus  {A7it.  Jud  , 
 17,  2,  1^  2)  "  Agrippa  the  Great,"  was  the  son  of  Aris- 
 tobulus  and  Berenice,  and  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great. 
 Shortly  befotf  the  death  of  his  grandfather  he  came 
 to  Rome,  where  he  was  educated  with  the  future  em- 
 peror Claudius,  and  Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius.  He 
 squandered  his  property  in  giving  sumptuous  enter- 
 tainments to  gratify  his  princely  friends,  and  in  bestow- 
 ing largesses  on  the  freedmen  of  the  emperor,  and  be- 
 came so  deeply  involved  in  debt  that  he  was  compelled 
 to  fly  from  Rome,  and  betook  himself  to  a  fortress  at 
 Malatha  in  Iduma?a.  Through  the  mediation  of  his 
 wife  Cypros,  with  his  sister  Herodias,  the  wife  of  He- 
 rodes Antipas,  he  was  allowed  to  take  up  his  abode  at 
 Tiberias,  and  received  the  rank  of  aedile  in  that  city, 
 with  a  small  yearly  income.  But,  having  quarrelled 
 with  his  brother-in-law,  he  fled  to  Flaccus,  the  pro- 
 consul of  Syria.  Soon  afterward  he  was  convicted, 
 through  the  information  of  his  brother  Aristobulus,  of 
 having  received  a  bribe  from  the  Damascenes,  who 
 wished  to  purchase  his  influence  with  the  proconsul, 
 and  was  again  compelled  to  fly.  He  was  arrested,  as 
 he  was  about  to  sail  for  Italy,  for  a  sum  of  money 
 which  he  owed  to  the  treasury  of  Caesar,  but  made  his 
 escape,  and  reached  Alexandrea,  where  his  wife  suc- 
 ceeded in  procuring  a  supply  of  money  from  Alexan- 
 der the  Alabarch.  He  then  set  sail,  and  landed  at  Pu- 
 teoli.  He  was  favouiably  received  by  Tiberius,  who 
 intrusted  him  with  the  education  of  his  grandson,  Ti- 
 berius. He  also  formed  an  intimacy  with  Caius  Ca- 
 ligula. Having  one  day  incautiously  expressed  a  wish 
 that  the  latter  might  soon  succeed  to  the  throne,  his 
 words  were  reported  by  his  freedman  Eutychus  to  Ti- 
 berius, who  forthwith  threw  him  into  prison.  Calig- 
 ula, on  his  accession  (.\.D.  37),  set  him  at  liberty,  and 
 gave  him  the  tetrarchies  of  Lysanias  (Abilene)  and 
 Phihppus  (Batanrea,  Trachonitis,  and  Auranitis).  He 
 also  presented  him  with  a  golden  chain  of  equal  weight 
 with  the  iron  one  which  he  had  worn  in  prison.  In 
 the  following  year  Agrippa  took  possession  of  his  king- 
 dom, and,  after  the  banishment  of  Herodes  Antipas,  the 
 t«trarchy  of  the  latter  was  added  to  his  dominions. 
 
 On  the  death  of  Caligula,  Agrippa,  who  was  at  the 
 time  in  Rome,  materially  assisted  Claudius  in  gaining 
 possession  of  the  empire.  As  a  reward  for  his  servi- 
 ces, Judasa  and  Samaria  were  annexed  to  his  domin- 
 ions, which  were  now  even  more  extensive  than  those 
 of  Herod  the  Great.  He  was  also  invested  with  the 
 consular  dignity,  and  a  league  was  publicly  made 
 with  him  by  Claudius  in  the  forum.  At  his  request, 
 the  kingdom  of  Chalcis  was  given  to  his  brother  He- 
 rodes (.\.D.  41).  He  then  went  to  Jerusalem,  where 
 he  oflfered  sacrifices,  and  suspended  in  the  treasury  of 
 ihe  temple  the  golden  chain  which  Caligula  had  giv- 
 en him.  His  government  was  mild  and  gentle,  and 
 he  was  exceedingly  popular  among  the  Jews.  In  the 
 city  of  Berytus  he  built  a  theatre  and  amphitheatre, 
 baths  and  porlicotis.     The  suspicions  of  Claudius  pre- 
 
 vented him  fr  jm  finishing  the  impregnable  fortifications 
 with  winch  he  had  begun  to  surround  Jerusalem.  His 
 friendship  was  courted  by  many  of  the  neighbouring 
 kings  and  rulers.  It  was  probably  to  increase  his  pop- 
 ularity with  the  Jews  that  he  caused  the  apostle  James, 
 the  brother  of  John,  to  be  beheaded,  and  Peter  to  be 
 cast  into  prison  (A.D.  44. — Ads,  12.)  It  was  not, 
 however,  merely  by  such  acts  that  he  strove  to  win 
 their  favour,  as  we  see  from  the  way  in  which,  at  the 
 risk  of  his  own  life,  or,  at  least,  of  his  liberty,  he  in- 
 terceded with  Caligula  on  behalf  of  the  Jews,  when 
 that  emperor  was  attempting  to  set  up  his  statue  in  the 
 Temple  at  Jerusalem.  The  manner  of  his  death,  which 
 took  place  at  Cassarea  in  the  same  year,  as  he  was  ex- 
 hibiting games  in  honour  of  the  emperor,  is  related  in 
 Ads,  12,  and  is  confirmed  in  all  essential  points  by 
 Josephus,  who  repeats  Agrippa's  words,  in  which  he 
 acknowledged  the  justice  of  the  punishment  thus  in- 
 flicted on  him.  After  lingering  five  days,  he  expired, 
 in  the  lifty-fourth  year  of  his  age. 
 
 By  his  wife  Cypros  he  had  a  son  named  Agrippa, 
 and  three  daughters,  Berenice,  who  first  married  her 
 uncle  Herodes,  king  of  Chalcis,  afterward  lived  with 
 her  brother  Agrippa,  and  subsequently  married   Pola- 
 mo,  king  of  Cilicia  ;   she  is  alluded  to  by  Juvenal  {Sat., 
 6,  156);  Mariamne  and  Drusilla,  who  married  Felix, 
 the  procurator  of  Judsea.     {Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  17,  1, 
 I)  2;   18,  5-8;   19,  i-S.—Bell.  Jud.,  1,  28,  ^  1  ;  2, 
 9,   11. — Dion  Cass.,  60,  8. — Euscb  ,  Hist.  Eccles., 
 2,  10.) — VII.   Herodes  II.,  the  son  of  Agrippa  I.,  was 
 educated  at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  and  at 
 the  time  of  his  father's  death  was  only  seventeen  years 
 old.     Claudius,  therefore,  kept  him  at  Rome,  and  sent 
 Cuspius  Fadus  as  procurator  of  the  kingdom,  which 
 thus  again  became  a  Roman  province.     On  the  death 
 of  Herodes,  king  of  Chalcis  (A.D.  48),  his  little  prin- 
 cipality, with  the  right  of  superintending  the  Temple 
 and   appointing  the  high- priest,  was  given  to  Agrippa, 
 who  four  years  afterward  received  in  its  stead  the  te- 
 trarchies formerly  held   by  Philip  and  Lysanias,  with 
 the  title  of  king.     In  A.D.  55,  Nero  added  the  cities 
 of  Tiberias  and  Taricheae  in  Galilee,  and  Julias,  with 
 fourteen  villages  near  it,  in  Perrea.     Agrippa  expend- 
 ed large  sums  in  beautifying  Jerusalem  and  other  cit- 
 ies, especially  Berylus.     His  partiality  for  the  latter 
 rendered  him   unpopular  among  his  own  subjects,  and 
 the  capricious  manner  in  which  he  appointed  and  de- 
 posed the  high-priests,  with    some   other  acts  which 
 were  distasteful,  made  him  an  object  of  dislike  to  the 
 Jews.     Before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  the  Ro- 
 mans, Agrippa  attempted  in  vain  to  dissuade  the  peo- 
 ple from  rebelling.     When  the  war  was  begun  he  si- 
 ded with  the  Romans,  and  was  wounded  at  the  siege 
 of  Gamala.      After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  he  went 
 with  his  sister  Berenice  to  Rome,  where  he  was  in- 
 vested with  the   dignity  of  prtetor.     He  died  in  the 
 seventieth  year  of  his  age.  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign 
 of  Trajan.     He  was  the  last  prince  of  the  house  of  the 
 Herods.     It  was  before  this  Agrippa  that  the  apostle 
 Paul  made  his  defence  (A.D.  m.—Acts,  25,  26.)    He 
 lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  historian  Josephus, 
 who  has  preserved  two  of  the  letters  he  received  from 
 him.     {Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  17,  5,  H  ;    19,  9.  ^  2  ;  20, 
 1,1^3,5;  1^2,7;  «^  1,8;  ^and  11.9,  ^  A.— Bell.  Jud., 
 2,  11,  (J  6.  12;  (i  1,  16,   17;   M.  4,  1  ;  ^  3.—Vit.,  s. 
 54  —Phot.,  Cod.,  33.)— VIII.  MenenTus.     {Vid.  Me- 
 nenius.) — IX.    Posthuinus,  a  posthumous  son  of  M. 
 Vipsanius  Agrippa,  by  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus, 
 was  born  in  B.C.  12.      He  was  adopted  by  Augustus, 
 together  with  Tiberius,  in  A  D.  4,  and  he  assumed  the 
 tooa  virilis  in  the  foUowiirg  year,  A.D.  5.     {Suet.,  Oc- 
 lav.,  64,  Qb.—Dwn  Cass.,  liv.  29,  53.  22.)     Notwith- 
 standing his  adoption,  he  was  afterward  banished  by 
 Augustus  to  the  island   of  Plaiiasia,  on  the  coast  of 
 Corsica  :  a  disgrace  which  he  incurred  on  account  of  his 
 savase  and  intractable  character,  but  he  was  not  guilty 
 
 93* 
 
AGRIPPA. 
 
 AGRIPPA. 
 
 of  any  crime.  There  he  was  under  the  surveillance 
 of  soldiers,  and  Augustus  obtained  a  seiiatus  consultum, 
 by  which  he  banishment  was  legally  confirnied  for  the 
 tunc  of  n:s  lUe.  The  property  of  Agrippa  was  assign- 
 ed by  Augustus  to  the  treasury  of  the  army.  It  is  said 
 that  during  his  cai)tivity  he  received  the  visit  of  Au- 
 gustus, who  secretly  went  to  Planasia,  accompanied  by 
 Fabius  Maxunus.  Augustus  and  Agrippa,  both  deep- 
 ly affected,  shed  tears  when  they  met,  and  it  was  be- 
 lieved that  Agrippa  would  be  restored  to  liberty.  But 
 the  news  of  this  visit  reached  Livia,  the  mother  of  Ti- 
 berius, and  Agrippa  remained  a  captive.  After  the  ac- 
 cession of  Tiberius,  in  A  D.  14,  Agrippa  was  murder- 
 ed by  a  centurion,  who  entered  his  prison  and  killed 
 tim  after  a  long  struggle,  for  Agrippa  was  a  man  of 
 great  bodily  strength  When  the  centurion  afterward 
 went  to  Tiberius  to  give  him  an  account  of  the  execu- 
 tion, the  emperor  denied  having  given  any  order  for  it, 
 and  it  is  very  probable  that  Livia  was  the  secret  au- 
 thor of  the  crime.  There  was  a  rumour  that  Augus- 
 tus had  left  an  order  for  the  execution  of  Agrippa,  but 
 this  is  positively  contradicted  by  Tacitus.  (Tac,  Ann., 
 1,  3-6.— Dion  Cass.,  55,  32;  57,  3.— Suet.,  I.  c, 
 Tib  ,  22.— Vellei.,  2,  104,  112.) 
 
 After  the  death  of  Agrippa,  a  slave  of  the  name  of 
 Clemens,  who  was  not  informed  of  the  murder,  landed 
 on  Planasia  with  the  intention  of  restoring  Agrippa  to 
 liberty  and  carrying  him  off  to  the  army  in  Germany. 
 When  he  heard  of  what  had  taken  place,  he  tried  to 
 profit  by  his  great  resemblance  to  the  murdered  cap- 
 tive, and  he  gave  himself  out  as  Agrippa.  He  landed 
 at  Ostia,  and  found  many  who  believed  him,  or  affect- 
 ed to  believe  him,  but  he  was  seized  and  put  to  death 
 by  order  of  Tiberius.     {Tar,.,  Ann.,  2,  39,  40.) 
 
 The  name  of  Agrippa  Caesar  is  found  on  a  medal  of 
 Corinth. — IX.  M.  Vipsanius,  was  born  in  B  C.  63. 
 He  was  the  son  of  Lucius,  and  was  descended  from  a 
 very  obscure  family.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  studied 
 at  Apollonia  in  Illyria,  together  with  young  Oclavius, 
 afterward  Ociavianus  and  Augustus.  After  the  mur- 
 der of  J.  Csesar  in  B.C.  44,  Agrippa  was  one  of  those 
 intimate  friends  of  Octavius  who  advised  him  to  pro- 
 ceed immediately  to  Rome.  Octavius  took  Agrippa 
 with  him,  and  charged  him  to  receive  the  oath  of  fidel- 
 ity from  seveial  legions  which  had  declared  in  his  fa- 
 vour. Having  been  chosen  consul  in  B.C.  43,  Octa- 
 vius gave  to  his  friend  Agrippa  the  delicate  commis- 
 sion of  prosecuting  C.  Cassius,  one  of  the  murderers 
 of  J.  Caesar.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Perusinian  war 
 between  Octavius,  now  Octavianus,  and  L.  Antonius, 
 ir^  B.C.  41,  Agrippa,  who  was  then  pr»lor,  command- 
 0:*  ;-art  of  the  forces  of  Octavianus,  and,  after  distin- 
 guishing himself  bj  skilful  manoeuvres,  besieged  L.  An- 
 tonius m  Perusia.  He  took  the  town  in  B.C.  40,  and 
 towards  the  end  of  the  same  year  retook  Sipontum, 
 which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  M.  Antonius.  In 
 B.C.  38,  Agrippa  obtained  fresh  success  in  Gaul,  where 
 he  quelled  a  revolt  of  the  native  chiefs  ;  he  also  pene- 
 trated into  Germany  as  far  as  the  country  of  the  Catti, 
 and  transplanted  the  Ubii  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ; 
 whereupon  he  turned  his  arms  against  the  revolted 
 Aquitani,  whom  he  soon  brought  to  obedience.  His 
 victories,  especially  those  in  Aquitania,  contributed 
 much  to  securing  the  power  of  Octavianus.  and  he 
 was  recalled  by  him  to  undertake  the  command  of  the 
 war  against  Sextus  Pompeius,  which  was  on  the  point 
 of  breaking  out,  B.C.  37.  Ociavianus  offered  him  a 
 triumph,  which  Agrippa  declined,  but  accepted  the 
 consulship,  to  which  he  was  promoted  by  Octavianus 
 in  B.C.  37.  Dion  Cassius  (48.  49)  seoms  to  say  that 
 he  was  consul  when  he  went  to  Gaul,  but  the  words 
 VKiiTcve  (5f  fisTu  AovKiov  Tu'Ahn>  seem  to  be  suspi- 
 cious, unless  they  are  to  be  inserted  a  little  higher, 
 after  the  passage  rcj  (V  'Aypimin  t/jv  roi'  vavriKov  Trap- 
 aaKEvijv  iyxfipi'^ag,  which  refer  to  an  event  that  took 
 place  during  the  consulship  of  .Agrippa.  For,  imme- 
 94* 
 
 diately  after  his  promotion  to  this  dignity,  he  was  char 
 ged  by  Ociavianus  with  the  construction  of  a  fleet, 
 which  was  the  more  necessary,  as  Sextus  Pompey  was 
 master  of  the  sea. 
 
 Agrippa,  in  whom  thoughts  and  deeds  were  never 
 separated  {Vellei.,  2,  79),  executed  this  order  with 
 prompt  energy.  The  Lucrine  Lake,  near  Baiae,  was 
 transformed  by  him  into  a  safe  harbour,  which  he  call- 
 ed the  Julian  port  in  honour  of  Octavianus,  and  where 
 he  exercised  his  sailors  and  mariners  till  they  were  able 
 to  encounter  the  experienced  sailors  of  Pompey.  In 
 B.C.  36,  Agrippa  defeated  Sextus  Pompey  first  at 
 Myla3,  and  afterward  at  Naulochus  on  the  coast  of  Si- 
 cily, and  the  latter  of  these  victories  broke  the  naval 
 supremacy  of  Pompey.  He  received,  in  consequence, 
 the  honour  of  a  naval  crown,  which  was  first  conferred 
 upon  him;  though,  according  to  other  authorities,  M. 
 Varro  was  the  first  who  obtained  it  from  Pompey  the 
 Great.  {Vellei.,  2,  81.— Liv.,  Eptt.,  129.— Dion 
 Cass.,  49,  li.—Plin.,  H.  N.,  16,  3,  s.  i.—Virg., 
 Mn.,  8,  684  ) 
 
 In  B.C.  35,  Agrippa  had  the  command  of  the  war  in 
 Illyria,  and  afterward  served  under  Octavianus,  when 
 the  latter  had  proceeded  to  that  country.  On  his  re- 
 turn, he  voluntarily  accepted  the  aedileship  in  B.C.  33, 
 although  he  had  been  consul,  and  expended  immense 
 sums  of  money  upon  great  public  works.  He  restored 
 the  Appian,  Marcian,  and  Anienian  aqueducts,  con- 
 structed a  new  one,  fifteen  miles  in  length,  from  the 
 Tepula  to  Rome,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  the 
 Julian,  in  honour  of  Octavianus,  and  had  an  immense 
 number  of  smaller  water-works  made,  to  distribute  the 
 water  within  the  town.  He  also  had  the  large  cloaca 
 of  Tarquinius  Priscus  entirely  cleansed.  His  various 
 works  were  adorned  with  statues  by  the  first  artists  of 
 Rome.  These  splendid  buildings  he  augmented  in 
 B.C.  27,  during  his  third  consulship,  by  several  others  ; 
 and  among  these  was  the  Pantheon,  on  which  we  still 
 read  the  inscription,  "  M.  Agrippa  L.  F.  Cos.  Terti- 
 um  fecit."  {Dion  Cass.,  49,  43  ;  53,  27.— Plin.,  H. 
 N.,  36,  15,  s.  24,  ^  S.—Strab.,  5,  p.  2Zb.—Fronttn  , 
 De  Aquad.,  9.) 
 
 When  the  war  broke  out  between  Octavianus  and 
 M.  Antonius,  Agrippa  was  appointed  commander-in- 
 chief  of  the  fleet,  B.C.  32.  He  took  Methone  in  the 
 Peloponnesus,  Leucas,  Patrse,  and  Corinth  ;  and  in  the 
 battle  of  Actium  (B.C.  31),  where  he  commanded,  the 
 victory  was  mainly  owing  to  his  skill.  On  his  reinrn  to 
 Rome  in  B.C.  30,  Octavianus,  now  Augustus,  reward- 
 ed him  with  a  "  vexillum  caeruleum,"  or  sea-green  flag. 
 
 In  B.C.  28,  Agrippa  became  consul  for  the  second 
 time  with  Augustus,  and  about  this  time  married  Mar- 
 cella,  the  niece  of  Augustus,  and  the  daughter  of  his 
 sister  Octavia.  His  former  wife,  Pomponia,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  T.  Pomponius  Alticus,  was  either  dead  or  di- 
 vorced. In  the  following  year,  B.C.  27,  he  was  agaiu 
 consul  the  third  time  with  Augustus. 
 
 In  B.C.  25,  Agrippa  accompanied  Augustus  to  the 
 war  against  the  Cantabrians.  About  this  time  jeal- 
 ousy arose  between  him  and  his  brother-in-law,  Mar- 
 cellus,  the  nephew  of  Augustus,  and  who  seemed  to  be 
 destined  as  his  successor.  Augustus,  anxious  to  pre- 
 vent differences  that  might  have  had  serious  conse- 
 quences for  him,  sent  Agrippa  as  proconsul  to  Syria. 
 Agrippa,  of  course,  left  Rome,  but  he  stopped  at  Myt- 
 ilene  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  leaving  the  governmenl 
 of  Syria  to  his  legate.  The  apprehensions  of  Augus- 
 tus were  removed  by  the  death  of  Marcellus  m  B.C. 
 23,  and  Agrippa  immediately  returned  to  Rome,  where 
 he  was  the  more  anxiously  e.xpectrd,  as  troubles  had 
 broken  out  during  the  election  of  the  consuls  in  B.C. 
 21.  Augustus  resolved  to  receive  his  faithful  friend 
 into  his  own  family,  and,  accordingly,  induced  hini  to 
 divorce  bis  wife  Marcelia,  and  marry  Julia,  the  vvid«>4V 
 of  Marcellus  and  the  daughter  of  Augustus  bj  his  tiiijxi 
 wife,  Scrjbonia  (B.C.  21). 
 
AGRIPPA. 
 
 AGRIPPINA. 
 
 In  B.C.  19,  Agrippa  went  into  Gaul.  He  pacified 
 the  turbulent  natives,  and  constructed  four  great  pub- 
 lic roads  and  a  splendid  aqueduct  at  Neinausus  (Ni- 
 mes).  From  thence  he  proceeded  to  Spain,  and  sub- 
 dued the  Cantabrians  after  a  short  but  bloody  and  ob- 
 stinate struggle  ;  but,  in  accordance  with  his  usual 
 prudence,  he  neither  announced  his  victories  in  pom- 
 pous letters  to  the  senate,  nor  did  he  accept  a  triumph 
 which  Augustus  offered  him.  In  B.C.  18,  he  was  in- 
 vested with  the  tribunician  power  for  five  years  togeth- 
 er with  Augustus;  and  in  the  following  year  (B.C. 
 17),  his  two  sons,  Caius  and  Lucius,  were  adopted  by 
 Augustus.  At  the  close  of  the  year,  he  accepted  an 
 invitation  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  went  to  Jerusalem 
 He  founded  the  military  colony  of  Berytus  (Beyrout)  ; 
 thence  he  proceeded,  in  B  C.  16,  to  the  Pontus  Euxi- 
 nus,  and  compelled  the  Bosporani  to  accept  Polemo 
 for  their  king,  and  to  restore  the  Roman  eagles  which 
 had  been  taken  by  Mithradates  On  his  return  he  stay- 
 ed some  time  in  Ionia,  where  he  granted  privileges  to 
 the  .Jews,  whose  cause  was  pleaded  by  Herod  (Joseph., 
 Antiq.  Jud.,  16,  2),  and  then  proceeded  to  Rome, 
 where  he  arrived  in  B.C.  13.  After  his  tribunician 
 power  had  been  prolonged  for  five  years,  he  went  to 
 Pannonia  to  restore  tranquillity  to  that  province.  He 
 returned  in  B.C.  12,  after  having  been  successful  as 
 usual,  and  retired  to  (Campania.  There  he  died  unex- 
 pectedly, in  the  month  of  March,  B.C.  12,  in  his  51st 
 year.  His  body  was  carried  to  Rome,  and  was  buried 
 in  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  who  himself  pronoun- 
 ced a  funeral  oration  over  it. 
 
 Dion  Cassius  tells  us  (52.  1,  &c.),  that  in  the  year 
 B.C.  29  Augustus  assembled  his  friends  and  counsel- 
 lors, Agrippa  and  Maecenas,  demanding  their  opinion 
 as  to  whether  it  would  be  advisable  for  him  to  usurp 
 monarchical  power,  or  to  restore  to  the  nation  its  for- 
 mer republican  government.  This  is  corroborated  by 
 Suetonius  (Oclav.,  28),  who  says  that  Augustus  twice 
 deliberated  upon  that  subject.  The  Speeches  which 
 Agrippa  and  Mascenas  delivered  on  this  occasion  are 
 given  by  Dion  Cassius  ;  but  the  artificial  character  of 
 them  makes  them  suspicious.  However,  it  does  not 
 seem  likely,  from  the  general  character  of  Dion  Cas- 
 sius as  an  historian,  that  these  speeches  are  invented  by 
 him  ;  and  it  is  not  improbable,  and  such  a  supposition 
 suits  entirely  the  character  of  Augustus,  that  those 
 speeches  were  really  pronounced,  though  preconcerted 
 between  Augustus  and  his  counsellors  to  make  the 
 Roman  nation  believe  that  the  fate  of  the  Republic 
 was  still  a  matter  of  discussion,  and  that  Augustus 
 would  not  assume  monarchical  power  till  he  had  been 
 convinced  that  it  was  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the 
 nation.  Besides,  Agrippa,  who,  according  to  Dion 
 Cassius,  advised  Augustus  to  restore  the  Republic, 
 was  a  man  whose  political  opinions  had  evidently  a 
 monarchical  tendency. 
 
 Agrippa  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  and  im- 
 portant men  of  the  age  of  Augustus.  He  must  be  con- 
 sidered as  a  chief  support  of  the  rising  monarchical  con- 
 stitution, and  without  Agrippa  Augustus  could  scarce- 
 ly have  succeeded  in  making  himself  the  absolute  mas- 
 ter of  the  Roman  Empire.  Dion  Cassius  (54,  29,  &c.), 
 Velleius  Patercuhis  (2,  79),  Seneca  (Ep.,  94),  and 
 Horace  {Od  ,  1,  6)  speak  with  equal  admiration  of  his 
 merits. 
 
 Pliny  constantly  refers  to  the  "  Commentarii"  of 
 Agrippa  as  an  authority  {Eknchus,  3,  4,  5,  6,  comp. 
 3,  2),  which  may  indicate  certain  official  lists  drawn 
 up  by  him  in  the  measurement  of  the  Roman  world 
 under  Augustus  {vid.  ^thicus),  in  which  he  may  have 
 taken  part. 
 
 Agrippa  left  several  children.  By  his  first  wife, 
 Pomponia,  he  had  Vipsania,  who  was  married  to  Tibe- 
 rius Caisar,  the  successor  of  Auo-ustus.  By  his  sec- 
 ond wife,  Marcella,  he  had  several  children,  who  are 
 not   mentioned  ;    and  by  his  third  wife,  Julia,  he  had 
 
 two  daughters,  Julia,  married  to  L.  .53inilius  Paullus, 
 and  Agrippina,  married  to  Germanicus,  and  three  sons, 
 Caius  (vid.  Csesar,  (1),  Lucius  {vid.  Csesar,  L.),  and 
 xAgrippa  Postumus.  {Dion  Cass  ,  lib.  45-54. — Liv., 
 Epit.,  \\l-\m.—Appian,  Bell.  Civ  ,  \\h.  b.—Suet., 
 Octav. — Frandsen,  M  Vipsanms  Agrippa,  einc  histo- 
 rische  Unler.iuchung  iiber  dessen  Leben  und  Wirktn, 
 Altona,  1836.)  There  are  several  medals  of  Agrip- 
 pa, on  one  of  which  he  is  represented  with  a  naval 
 crown  ;  on  the  reverse  is  Neptune  indicating  his  suc- 
 cess by  sea. 
 
 AgkippIna,  I.  the  youngest  daughter  of  M.  Vipsa- 
 nius  Agrippa  and  of  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus, 
 was  born  some  time  before  B  C.  12  She  married 
 Caesar  Germanicus,  the  son  of  Drusus  Nero  Germani- 
 cus, by  whom  she  had  nine  children.  Agrippina  was 
 gifted  with  great  powers  of  mind,  a  noble  character, 
 and  all  the  moral  and  physical  qualities  that  constituted 
 the  model  of  a  Roman  matron  :  her  love  for  her  hus- 
 band was  sincere  and  lasting,  her  chaslity  was  spot- 
 less, her  fertility  was  a  virtue  in  the  eyes  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, and  her  attachment  to  her  children  was  an  emi- 
 nent feature  of  her  character.  She  yielded  to  one  dan- 
 gerous passion,  ambition.  Augustus  showed  her  par- 
 ticular attention  and  attachment.     (Siicton.,  Calig.,  8.) 
 
 At  the  death  of  Augustus  in  A.D.  14,  she  was  on 
 the  Lower  Rhine  with  Germanicus,  who  commanded 
 the  legions  there.  Her  husband  was  the  idol  of  the 
 army,  and  the  legions  on  the  Rhine,  dissatisfied  with 
 the  accession  of  Tiberius,  manifested  their  intention 
 of  proclaiming  Germanicus  master  of  the  state.  Ti- 
 berius hated  and  dreaded  Germanicus,  and  he  showed 
 as  much  antipathy  to  Agrippina  as  he  had  love  to  her 
 elder  sister,  his  first  wife.  In  this  perilous  situation, 
 Germanicus  and  Agrippina  saved  themselves  by  their 
 prompt  energy  ;  he  quelled  the  outbreak,  and  pursued 
 the  war  against  the  Germans.  In  the  ensuing  year  his 
 lieutenant,  Cfpciiia,  after  having  made  an  invasion  into 
 Germany,  returned  to  the  Rhine.  The  campaign  was 
 not  inglorious  for  the  Romans,  but  they  were  worn 
 out  by  hardships,  and,  perhaps,  harassed  on  their  march 
 by  some  bands  of  Germans.  Thus  the  rumour  was 
 spread  that  the  main  body  of  the  Germans  was  ap- 
 proaching to  invade  Gaul.  Germanicus  was  absent, 
 and  it  was  proposed  to  destroy  the  bridge  over  the 
 Rhine.  (Compare  Sirab  ,  4,  p.  194.)  If  this  had 
 been  done,  the  retreat  of  Cajcina's  army  would  have 
 been  cut  off,  but  it  was  saved  by  the  firm  opposition 
 of  Agrippina  to  such  a  cowardly  measure.  When  the 
 troops  approached,  she  went  to  the  bridge,  acting  as  a 
 general,  and  receiving  the  soldiers  as  they  crossed  it ; 
 the  wounded  among  them  were  presented  by  her  with 
 clothes,  and  they  received  from  her  own  hands  every- 
 thing necessary  for  (he  cure  of  their  wounds.  {Tac, 
 Ann.,  1,  69  )  Germanicus  having  been  recalled  by 
 Tiberius,  she  accompanied  her  husband  to  Asia  (A.D. 
 17),  and  after  his  death,  or,  rather,  murder  (vid.  Ger- 
 manicus), she  returned  to  Italy.  She  stayed  some 
 days  at  the  island  of  Corcvra  to  recover  from  her  grief, 
 and  then  landed  at  Brundisium,  accompanied  by  two 
 of  her  children,  and  holding  in  her  arms  the  urn  with 
 the  ashes  of  her  husband  At  the  news  of  her  arrival, 
 the  port,  the  walls,  and  even  the  roofs  of  the  houses 
 were  occupied  by  crowds  of  people  who  were  an.xiotis 
 to  see  and  salute  her.  She  was  solemnly  received  by 
 the  officers  of  two  prstorian  cohorts,  uhich  Tiberius 
 had  sent  to  Brundisium  for  the  purpose  of  accompany- 
 ing her  to  Rome  ;  the  urn  containing  the  ashes  of  Ger- 
 manicus was  borne  by  tribunes  and  centurions,  and  the 
 funeral  procession  was  received  on  its  march  by  the 
 magistrates  of  Calabria,  Apulia,  and  Campania;  by 
 Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius  ;  Claudius,  ihe  brother  of 
 Germanicus  ;  ov  the  other  children  of  Germanicus  ■ 
 and,  at  last,  in  the  environs  of  Rome,  by  the  cons-.-^ 
 the  senaie.  and  crowds  of  the  Roman  people.  (Tcu 
 Ann.,  5,  i,  <!cc.) 
 
 95* 
 
AGRIPPINA. 
 
 AGRIPPINA. 
 
 During  some  years  Tiberius  disguised  his  hatred  of 
 Agrippina,  but  she  soon  becarne  exposed  to  secret  ac- 
 cusations and  intrigues.  She  asked  the  emperor's  per- 
 mission to  choose  another  husband,  but  Tiberius  nei- 
 ther refused  nor  consented  to  the  pro[)ositi()n.  Seja- 
 nus,  who  exercised  an  unbounded  influence  over  Ti- 
 oenus,  then  a  prey  to  mental  disorders,  persuaded 
 Agrippina  that  the  emperor  intended  to  poison  her. 
 Alarmed  at  such  a  report,  she  refused  to  eat  an  apple 
 which  the  emperor  offered  her  from  his  table,  and  Ti- 
 oerius,  in  his  turn,  complained  of  Agrippina  regarding 
 him  as  a  poisoner.  According  to  Suetonius,  all  this 
 was  an  intrigue  preconcerted  between  the  emperor  and 
 Sejanus,  who,  as  it  seems,  had  formed  the  plan  of  lead- 
 ing Agrippina  into  false  steps.  Tiberius  was  extreme- 
 ly suspicious  of  Agrippina,  and  showed  his  hostile  feel- 
 ings by  allusive  words  or  neglectful  silence.  There 
 were  no  evidences  of  ambitious  plans  formed  by  Agrip- 
 pina, but  the  rumour  having  been  spread  that  she  would 
 fly  to  the  army,  he  banished  her  to  the  island  of  Pan- 
 dataria  (A.D.  30),  where  her  mother,  Julia,  had  died 
 in  exile.  Her  sons,  Nero  and  Drusus,  were  likewise 
 banished,  and  both  died  an  unnatural  death.  She  liv- 
 ed three  years  on  that  barren  island  ;  at  last  she  refu- 
 sed to  take  any  food,  and  died,  most  probably,  by  vol- 
 untary starvation.  Her  death  took  place  precisely  two 
 years  after,  and  on  the  same  date,  as  the  murder  of  Se- 
 janus, that  is,  in  A.D.  33.  Tacitus  and  Suetonius  tell 
 us  that  Tiberius  boasted  that  he  had  not  strangled  her. 
 {Sneton.,  Tib.,  53.  — Tac,  Ann.,  6,  25.)  The  ashes 
 of  Agrippina,  and  those  of  her  son  Nero,  were  after- 
 ward brought  to  Rome  hy  order  of  her  son,  the  Em- 
 peror Caligula,  who  struck  various  medals  in  honour 
 of  his  mother.  In  one  of  these  the  head  of  Caligula 
 is  on  one  side,  and  that  of  his  mother  on  the  other. 
 The  words  on  each  side  are  respectively,  c.  CyEs.\R. 
 
 AVG.   GER.   P.M.   TR.    POT.,   and   .1GR1PPINA.    MAT.   C.   CJES. 
 
 AVG.  GERM.  {Tac,  Ann  ,  1-6. — Suelon.,  Octav.,  64  ; 
 Tib.,  I.  c;  Calig.,  I.  c.—Dion  Cass.,  57,  5,  6;  58, 
 22.1 — II.  The  daughter  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina 
 the  elder,  daughter  of  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa.  She  was 
 born  between  AD.  13  and  17,  at  the  Oppiduin  Tlbio- 
 rum,  afterward  called,  in  honour  of  her,  Colonia  Agrip- 
 pina. now  Cologne,  and  then  the  headquarters  of  the 
 legions  commanded  by  her  father.  In  A.D.  28,  she 
 married  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  a  man  not  unlike 
 her,  and  whom  she  lost  in  A.D.  40.  After  his  death 
 she  married  Crispus  Passienus,  who  died  some  years 
 afterward  ;  and  she  was  accused  of  having  poisoned 
 hira,  either  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  his  great  for- 
 tune, or  for  some  secret  motive  of  much  higher  impor- 
 tance. She  was  already  known  for  her  scandalous 
 conduct,  for  her  most  perfidious  intrigues,  and  for  an 
 unbounded  ambition.  She  was  accused  of  having  com- 
 mitted incest  with  her  own  brother,  the  Emperor  Ca- 
 ius  Caligula,  who,  under  the  pretext  of  having  discover- 
 ed that  she  had  lived  in  an  adulterous  intercourse  with 
 M.  .^inilius  Lepidus,  the  husband  of  her  sister  Drusil- 
 !a,  banished  her  to  the  island  of  Pontia,  which  was  sit- 
 uated in  the  Sinus  Syrticus  Major,  on  the  coast  of  Lib- 
 ya. Her  sister  Drusilla  was  likewise  banished  to  Pon- 
 tia, and  it  seems  that  their  exile  was  connected  with 
 the  punishment  of  Lepidus,  who  was  put  to  death  for 
 having  conspired  against  the  emperor.  Previously  to 
 her  exile,  Agrippina  was  compelled  by  her  brother  to 
 carry  to  Rome  the  ashes  of  Lepidus.  This  happened 
 in  A.D.  39.  Agrippina  and  her  sister  were  released 
 in  AD.  41,  hy  their  uncle,  Claudius,  immediately  af- 
 ter his  accession,  although  his  wife,  Mcssalina,  was  the 
 mortal  enemy  of  Agrippina.  Mcssalina  was  put  to 
 death  by  order  of  Claudius  in  A.D.  48  ;  and  in  the  fol- 
 lowing year,  A.D.  49,  .\grippina  succeeded  in  marry- 
 ing the  emperor.  Claudius  was  her  uncle,  but  her  mar- 
 riage was  legalized  by  a  senatus  consultum,  by  which 
 the  marriage  of  a  man  with  his  brother's  daughter  was 
 declared  valid  ;  this  senatus  consultum  was  afterward 
 96* 
 
 abrogated  hy  the  Emperors  Constantinc  and  Consfans 
 In  this  intrigue  .rtgnppina  displayed  ihe  qualitits  of  an 
 accomplished  courtesan,  and  such  was  the  influence 
 of  her  charms  and  supe  ior  talents  over  the  old  emper- 
 or, that,  in  prejudice  of  his  own  son,  Britannicus,  he 
 adopted  Domitius,  the  son  of  Agrippina  by  her  lirst 
 husband,  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus  (A.D.  51).  Agrip- 
 pina was  assisted  in  her  secret  plans  by  Pallas,  the  [)er- 
 fidious  confidant  of  Claudius.  By  her  intrigues,  L. 
 Junius  Silanus,  the  husband  of  Octavia,  the  dau|L'hter 
 of  Claudius,  was  put  to  death,  and  in  A.D.  ^3  Octa- 
 via was  married  to  young  Nero.  Lollia  Paullma,  once 
 the  rival  of  Agrippina  for  the  hand  of  the  emperor,  w'as 
 accused  of  high  treason  and  condemned  to  death,  but 
 she  put  an  end  to  her  own  life.  Domitia  Lcpida,  th* 
 sister  of  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  met  with  a  simi 
 lar  fate.  After  having  thus  removed  those  whose  ri 
 valship  she  dreaded,  or  whose  virtues  she  envied,  Acrip- 
 pina  resolved  to  get  rid  of  her  husband,  and  to  govern 
 the  empire  through  her  ascendency  over  her  son  Nero, 
 his  successor.  A  vague  rumour  of  this  reached  the 
 emperor  ;  in  a  state  of  drunkenness,  he  forgot  prudence, 
 and  talked  about  punishing  his  ambitious  wife.  Hav- 
 ing no  time  to  lose,  Agrippina,  assisted  by  Locus-ta  and 
 Xenophon,  a  Greek  physician,  poisoned  the  old  emper- 
 or, in  A.D.  54,  at  Smuessa,  a  watering-place  to  which 
 he  had  retired  for  the  sake  of  his  health.  Nero  was  pro- 
 claimed emperor,  and  presented  to  the  troops  by  Bur- 
 rus,  whom  Agrippina  had  appointed  praefectus  prfetorio. 
 Narcissus,  the  rich  freedman  of  Claudius,  M.  Junius 
 Silanus,  proconsul  of  .\sia,  the  brother  of  Lucius  Junius 
 Silanus,  and  a  great-grandson  of  Augustus,  lost  their 
 lives  at  the  instigation  of  Agrippina,  who  would  have 
 augmented  the  number  of  her  victims  but  for  the  op- 
 position of  Burrus  and  Seneca,  recalled  by  Agrippina 
 from  his  exile  to  conduct  the  education  of  Nero. 
 Meanwhile  the  young  emperor  took  some  steps  to  shake 
 off  the  insupportable  ascendency  of  his  mother.  The 
 jealousy  of  Agrippina  rose  from  her  son's  passion  foi 
 Acte,  and,  after  her,  for  Poppaea  Sabma,  the  wife  of 
 M.  Salvius  Otho.  To  reconquer  his  affection,  Agrip- 
 pina employed,  but  in  vain,  most  daring  and  most  re- 
 volting means.  She  threatened  to  oppose  Brilannicuu 
 as  a  rival  to  'he  emperor;  but  Britannicus  was  poi- 
 soned hy  Nero  ;  and  she  even  solicited  her  son  to  an 
 incestuous  intercourse.  At  last  her  death  was  resolv- 
 ed upon  by  Nero,  who  wished  to  repudiate  Ociavia 
 and  marry  Poppaja,  but  whose  plan  was  thwarted  by 
 his  mother.  Thus  petty  feminine  intrigues  brcame 
 the  cause  of  Agrippina's  ruin.  Nero  invited  her,  un- 
 der the  pretext  of  a  reconciliation,  to  visit  him  at  Baiie, 
 on  the  coast  of  Campania.  She  went  thither  by  sea. 
 In  their  conversation  hypocrisy  was  displayed  on  both 
 sides.  She  left  Baiae  by  the  same  way  ;  but  the  ves- 
 sel was  so  contrived  that  it  was  to  break  to  pieces 
 when  out  at  sea.  It  only  partly  broke,  and  Agri[)pina 
 saved  herself  by  swimming  to  the  shore;  her  attend- 
 ant, Acerronia,  was  killed.  Agrippina  fled  to  her  villa 
 near  the  Lucrine  Lake,  and  informed  her  son  of  her 
 happy  escape.  Now  Nero  charged  Burrus  to  murder 
 his  mother  ;  but  Burrus  declining  it,  Anicetus.  the 
 commander  of  the  fleet,  who  had  invented  the  strata- 
 gem of  the  ship,  was  compelled  by  Nero  and  Burrus  to 
 undertake  the  task.  Anicetus  went  to  her  villa  with 
 a  chosen  hand,  and  his  men  surprised  her  in  her  bed- 
 room. "Ventrem  feri,"  she  cried  out,  after  she  was 
 but  slightly  wounded,  and  immediately  afterward  ex- 
 pired under  the  blows  of  a  centurion  (AD.  GO).  {Tur., 
 Ann.,  14,  8.)  It  was  told  that  Nero  went  to  the  villa, 
 and  that  he  admired  the  beauty  of  the  dead  body  of  his 
 mother :  this  was  believed  hy  some,  doubted  by  others 
 (14,  9).  Agrippina  left  commentaries  roncerniiig  her 
 history  and  that  of  her  family,  which  Tacitus  consult- 
 ed, according  to  his  own  statement.  {lb..  4,  54. — • 
 Compare  PHn.,  Hist.  Nat.,  7,  6,  s.  8  ;  Elenchus,  7, 
 &c.) 
 
AGR 
 
 AGR 
 
 There  are  several  medals  of  Agrippina,  which  are 
 distinguishable  from  those  of  her  moiiier  by  the  title  of 
 Augusta,  which  those  of  her  mother  never  have.  On 
 some  of  her  medals  she  is  represented  with  her  hus- 
 band Claudius,  in  others  with  her  son  Nero.  {Tac, 
 Ann.,  lib.  12,  13,  H.—Dion  Cass.,  lib.  59-61.— Su- 
 eton.,  Claud.,  43,  44;  Nero,  5,  6.)  — III.  Vipsania, 
 daughter  of  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa  and  Pomponia,  the 
 daughter  of  T.  Pomponius  Alticus,  his  first  wife.  She 
 wjs  married  to  Tiberius,  afterward  emperor,  by  whom 
 she  had  Drusus.  Tiberius  was  much  attached  to  her, 
 and  with  great  reluctance  divorced  her  when  com- 
 manded by  Augustus,  that  he  might  marry  Julia,  the 
 daughter  of  the  emperor.  She  now  married  Asinius 
 Gallus,  the  son  of  the  celebrated  Asinius  PoUio,  and 
 bore  him  several  children.  This  gave  rise  to  a  feeling 
 of  hatred  in  the  breast  of  Tiberius  against  Asinius, 
 which  ultimately  proved  his  ruin.  {Vid.  Asinius,  II.) 
 The  children  of  Agrippina  by  Asinius  were,  C.  Asinius 
 Saioninus,  Asinius  Gallus,  Asinius  Pollio,  consul 
 A.U.C.  776,  Asinius  Agrippa,  consul  A.U.C.  778,  and 
 Asinius  Celer.  Agrippina  died  A.U.C.  773,  and,  ac- 
 cording to  Tacitus  {Ann.,  3,  19),  she  was  the  only  one 
 of  all  the  children  of  Agrippa  that  died  a  natural  death. 
 (Tac,  Ann.,  I,  12;  3,  19;  3,75;  4,  1,  Si.— Sue- 
 ton.,  Tib.,  ch  7.— Id.,  Claud.,  ch.  13.)— IV.  Coi.o- 
 NiA.  also  called  Colonia  Agnppinensis  {Tac,  Hist., 
 1,  .57;  4,  55),  and  on  inscriptions  Colonia  Claudia 
 Augusta  Agrippinensium,  or  simply  Agrippina  {Amm. 
 Marc.  15,  8,  11),  originally  the  chief  town  of  the  Ubii, 
 and  called  Oppidum  JJbiorum.  These  are  mentioned 
 by  Cffisar  as  a  German  nation,  dwelling  on  the  right 
 bank  of  the  Rhine,  who  were  afterward  transferred  to 
 the  left,  or  Gallic  side,  by  Agrippa.  At  this  town 
 Agrippina,  daughter  of  Germanicus,  was  born  ;  and, 
 when  she  had  attained  to  the  dignity  of  empress  by 
 marriage  with  Claudius,  she  sent  hither  a  military  col- 
 ony, A.C.  50,  and  caused  the  place  to  be  named  after 
 herself.  It  soon  became  large  and  wealthy,  and  was 
 adorned  with  a  temple  of  Mars.  The  inhabitants  re- 
 ceived the  jus  Itahcum.  It  answers  to  the  modern 
 Koln  or  Cologne.  {Tac,  Ann.,  1,  35  ;  12,  27.— Id., 
 Hist.,  4,  28  ;  1,  57;  4,  55.— Dion  Cassius,  48,  49.) 
 Agrippinus,  bishop  of  Carthage,  of  venerable  mem- 
 ory, but  known  for  being  the  first  to  maintain  the  neces- 
 sity of  rebaptlzing  all  heretics.  {Vincent.  Lirin.,  Com- 
 monit.,  1,  9.)  St.  Cyprian  regarded  this  opinion  as  the 
 correction  of  an  error  {St.  Augustin.,  De  Baptismo,  2, 
 7,  vol.  9,  p.  102,  ed.  Bencd.),  and  St.  Augustine  seems 
 to  imply  he  defended  his  error  in  writing.  (Epist.,  93, 
 c.  10.)  He  held  the  council  of  seventy  bishops  at 
 Carthage,  about  A.D.  200  {Vvlg.  A.D.  215,  Maiis. 
 A.D.  217),  on  the  subject  of  Baptism.  Though  he  er- 
 red in  a  matter  yet  undefined  by  the  Church,  St.  Au- 
 gustine notices  that  neither  he  tior  St.  Cyprian  thought 
 of  separating  from  the  Church.  {Dc  Baptismo,  3,  2, 
 p.  109.) — II.  Paconius,  whose  father  was  put  to  death 
 by  Tiberius  on  a  charge  of  treason.  {Suet.,  Tib.,  61.) 
 Agrippinus  was  accused  at  the  same  time  as  Thrasea, 
 A.D.  67,  and  was  banished  from  Italy.  {Tac,  Ann., 
 16,  28,  29,  33  )  He  was  a  Stoic  philosopher,  and  is 
 spoken  of  with  praise  by  Epictetus  {ap.  Stob.,  Serm., 
 7),  and  Arrian  (1,  1). 
 
 Agrius  ('Ayp(Of),  I.  a  son  of  Porthaon  and  Euryte, 
 and  brother  of  CEneus,  king  of  Calydon,  in  ^Etolia, 
 Alcathous,  Melas,  Leucopeus,  and  Sterope.  He  was 
 father  of  six  sons,  of  whom  Thersites  was  one.  These 
 sons  of  Agrius  deprived  CEneus  of  his  kingdom,  and 
 gave  it  to  their  father;  but  all  of  them,  with  the  ex- 
 ception of  Thersites,  were  slain  by  Diomedes,  the 
 grandson  of  ffineus.  {Apollod.,\,7,  ()  \0,8  ;  <Si5,  &c.) 
 ApoUodorus  places  these  events  before  the  expedition 
 of  the  Greeks  against  Troy,  while  Hyginus  {Fab.,  175  : 
 compare  242,  and  Antonin.  Lib.,  37)  states  that  Diome- 
 des, when  he  heard,  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  of  the  mis- 
 fortunes of  his  grandfather  Gi]neus,  hastened  back  and 
 
 expelled  Agrius,  who  tlien  put  an  end  to  his  own  h'fe; 
 according  to  others,  Agrius  and  his  sons  were  slain  by 
 Diomedes.  (Compare  Fausan.,  2,  25,  ^  2  • — Ov.,  He- 
 roid.,  9,  153.)  In  the  mythic  history  of  the  Greeks  we 
 find  several  Agrii,  and  in  almost  all  the  allusion  appears 
 to  be  a  symbolical  one.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  case 
 of  the  one  first  mentioned,  Agrius  is  the  "  Wild  man," 
 the  "Man  of  the  fields,"  while  ffineus,  on  the  other 
 hand,  is  the  "  \^'ine-man,"  the  "  cultivator  of  the  vine." 
 (Compare  Crcuzcr,  SymboUk,  vol.  4,  p.  372. — Apol- 
 lod.,  1,  8,  6. — Anton.  Lib.,  Fab.,  37. —  Verheyk,  ad. 
 Anton.  Lib  ,  Fab  ,  21,  p.  136.)  In  the  case  of  the 
 father  of  Thersites,  the  name  Agrius  may  be  intended 
 as  a  figurative  allusion  to  the  rude  and  lawless  manners 
 of  the  son. — II.  According  to  Hesiod  {Theog.,  1013), 
 a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe,  and  brother  of  Latinus  and 
 Telegonus,  "  who,  afar  in  the  recess  of  the  Holy  Isles, 
 ruled  over  all  the  renowned  Tyrsenians."  He  is  the 
 same,  in  all  probability,  with  the  god  or  hero  called 
 Agrius  by  the  Arcadians  (a  term  to  be  derived  from  'Ay- 
 por,  ager),  and  whose  most  solemn  festival  the  Parrhasii 
 introduced  into  the  island  of  Ceos,  one  of  the  Cycla- 
 des.  There  was  a  deity  of  the  same  name  in  Thessa- 
 ly,  whence  his  worship  was  carried  to  Cyrene  in  Afri- 
 ca. There  was  an  Agrius  also  in  Bceotia,  whose  name 
 appears  in  the  Cadmean  genealogy.  The  mythology 
 connected  with  this  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe  appears 
 in  Italy  under  a  new  form,  and  he  is  there  to  be  iden- 
 tified with  the  Arcadian  Evander  of  the  Latins,  while 
 his  mother,  Circe,  seems  to  be  the  same  with  Carnien- 
 ta,  a  name  equivalent  to  the  Latin  Maga.  (Compare 
 Lixy,  1,  7.)  This  Agrius  is  mentioned  also  by  the 
 scholiast  on  Apollonius  (3,  200),  and  by  Eustathius 
 {ad  Horn.,  II.,  p.  1796) ;  nor  should  it  be  omitted  here 
 that  there  was  among  the  Romans  a  gens  Agria.  ( Var- 
 ro,  Dc  Re  Rust.,  1,  2.— CVc,  Flacc,  13.)  Gottling, 
 a  recent  editor  of  Hesiod,  has  a  very  learned  note  on 
 the  subject  of  Agrius,  in  which  he  appears  to  favour 
 the  reading  of  TpaiKov  t' 7/6e  Aarlvov  in  place  of'Ay- 
 ptov  7/de  Aarlvov  as  occurriteg  in  Hesiod  {Theog., 
 1013). 
 
 Agrcecius  or  Agrcetius,  a  Roman  grammarian,  the 
 author  of  an  extant  work  "  De  Orlhographia  et  Differ- 
 entia Sermonis,"  intended  as  a  supplement  to  a  work 
 on  the  same  subject,  by  Flavius  Caper,  and  dedicated 
 to  a  bishop,  Euchetius.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
 in  the  middle  of  the  5ih  century  of  our  era.  His  work 
 is  printed  in  Putschius's  "  Grammaticae  Latins  Auc- 
 lores  Antiqui,"  p.  2266-2275. 
 
 Agrcet.4s  {' AypoiTac),  a  Greek  historian,  who  wrote 
 a  work  on  Scythia  {"LkvOiku),  from  the  thirteenth  book 
 of  which  the  scholiast  on  Apollonius  (2,  1248)  quotes, 
 and  one  on  Libya  {AlCvko),  the  fourth  book  of  which 
 is  quoted  by  the  same  scholiast  (4,  1396).  He  is  also 
 mentioned  by  Stcphanus  Byz.  {s.  v.  "AjiTteTio^). 
 
 Agroira,  the  early  name  of  Attalea,  a  city  of  Lyd- 
 ia,  on  the  Hermus,  northeast  of  Sardis.  Major  Kep- 
 pel  {Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  335)  remarks,  "It  is  on  the 
 right  bank  of  the  Hermus,  which  flows  at  the  base  of 
 a  rocky  mountain,  through  a  chasm  of  which  it  disap- 
 pears. The  passage  here  is  rather  dangerous.  Tht 
 direct  road  from  Cassaba  to  Adala  (Agroira)  is  twelve 
 hours.  No  vestiges  of  antiquity  were  observed  here  : 
 there  are  coins,  however,  of  Attalea."  {Sestini,  p. 
 106. —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  v.  1,  p.  435.) 
 
 Agron  {'AypG)v),  I.  the  son  of  Ninus,  the  first  ofj 
 the  Lydian  dynasty  of  the  Heracleidae.  The  tradition 
 was,  that  this  dynasty  supplanted  a  native  race  of  kings, 
 having  been  originally  intrusted  with  the  government 
 as  deputies.  The  names  Ninus  and  Belus,  in  their 
 genealogy,  render  it  probable  that  they  were  either  As- 
 syrian governors,  or  princes  of  Assyrian  origin,  and 
 that  their  accession  marks  the  period  of  an  Assyrian 
 conquest.  {Herod.,  1,  7.)— II.  The  son  of  Pleuratus, 
 a  king  of  Illyria.  In  the  strength  of  his  land  and  naval 
 forces  he  surpassed  all  the  preceding  kings  of  that  coun- 
 
 93 
 
AGR 
 
 A  JA 
 
 try.  When  ihe  iEtolians  attempted  to  compel  the 
 Mediotiians  to  join  their  confederacy,  Agron  undertook 
 to  [irolcct  them,  having  been  induced  to  do  so  by  a 
 large  bri!)0  which  he  received  from  Demetrius,  the  fa- 
 ther of  I'hilip.  He  accordingly  sent  to  ihcir  assistance 
 a  force  of  5000  Illyriaiis,  who  gained  a  decisive  victory 
 over  the  Ji^tolians.  Agron,  overjoyed  at  the  news  ol 
 ihis  success,  gave  himself  up  to  feasting,  and,  in  con- 
 sequence <}{  his  excess,  contracted  a  pleurisy,  of  which 
 he  died  (BO.  231).  He  was  succeeded  in  the  gov- 
 enmieiit  by  his  wife  Teuta.  Just  after  his  death,  an 
 embassy  arrived  from  the  Romans,  who  had  sent  to 
 mediate  m  behalf  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Issa, 
 who  had  revolted  from  Agron,  and  placed  themselves 
 under  the  protection  of  the  Romans.  By  his  first  wife, 
 TnteuU,  whom  he  divorced,  he  had  a  son  named  Pin- 
 nes,  or  Pinneus,  who  survived  him,  and  was  placed  un- 
 der the  guardianship  of  Demetrius  Pharius,  who  mar- 
 ried his  mother  after  the  death  of  Teuta.  {Dio7i  Cass., 
 34,  46,  [5l.—Polyb,2,  1i-4:.—Appiari,IU.,7.—Flor., 
 2,  5.— P/m.,  H.  N.,  34,  6.)— III.  Son  of  Eumelus, 
 grandson  of  Merops,  lived  with  his  sisters,  Byssa  and 
 Meropis,  in  the  island  of  Cos.  They  worshipped  the 
 earth,  as  the  giver  of  the  fruits  of  harvest,  without  pay- 
 ing regard  to  any  other  deity.  When  they  were  invi- 
 ted to  the  festival  of  Minerva,  the  brother  replied  that 
 the  black  eyes  of  his  sisters  would  not  please  the 
 blue-eyed  goddess,  and  that,  for  himself,  the  owl  was 
 an  object  of  aversion.  If  desired  to  ofler  sacrifice  to 
 Mercury,  he  declared  that  he  would  show  no  honour 
 to  a  thief.  At  the  sacrifices  of  Diana  he  did  not  ap- 
 pear, because  that  goddess  roamed  abroad  the  whole 
 night  long.  Provoked  at  this  conduct,  Minerva,  Diana, 
 and  Mercury  came  to  their  dwelling,  the  latter  as  a 
 shepherd,  the  two  goddesses  as  maidens,  to  invite  Eu- 
 melus and  Agron  to  a  sacrifice  to  Mercury,  and  the  sis- 
 ters to  the  grove  of  Minerva  and  Diana.  When,  how- 
 ever, Mcropis  reviled  Minerva,  she  and  her  sisters  were 
 changed  into  birds,  together  with  Agron,  who  attempt- 
 ed to  seize  upon  the  divinities,  and  Eumelus,  who 
 heaped  reproaches  upon  Mercury  for  the  metamorpho- 
 sis of  his  son.  The  legend  makes  Meropis  to  have  been 
 changed  into  a  small  bird  of  the  owl  kind  :  Byssa  re- 
 tained her  name,  and  became,  as  a  species  of  sea-fowl, 
 the  bird  of  Leucothea:  Agron  became  the  bird  Chara- 
 drius.     (Anion.  Lib.,  15.) 
 
 Agrolas,  surrounded  the  citadel  of  Athens  with 
 walls,  except  that  part  which  was  afterward  repaired  by 
 Cimon.  {Pansan.,  1,  28.)  We  have  here  one  of  the 
 old  traditions  respecting  the  Pelasgic  race.  Agrolas 
 was  aided  in  the  work  by  his  brother  Hyperbius,  both 
 of  them  Pela.^gi.  According  to  Pausanias  {I.  c),  they 
 came  originally  from  Sicily.  It  is  more  than  proba- 
 ble, however,  that  the  names  in  question  are  those  of 
 two  leaders  or  two  tribes,  and  that  the  work  was  e.x- 
 ecuted  under  their  orders.  The  wall  erected  on  this 
 occasion  was  styled  Pelargicon,  and  the  builders  of  it 
 would  seem  to  have  erected  also  a  town  or  small  set- 
 tlement for  themselves,  which  afterward  became  part 
 of  the  Acropolis.  (Compare  Sicbclis,  ad  Pavsan.,  1, 
 28. — Muller,  Gesch.  Hcllcn.  Stdmmc,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 440  ) 
 
 Agrotera,  I.  an  annual  festival,  celebrated  at 
 Athens  to  Diana  Agrotera  ('Apre/iuU  'AjpoTepa).  It 
 was  instituted  by  Callimachus  the  polemarch,  in  con- 
 sequence of  a  vow  made  by  him  before  the  battle  of 
 Maratlion,  that  he  would  sacrifice  to  the  goddess  as 
 many  yearling  she-goats  ^-^//a/paf)  as  there  might  be 
 enemies  slain  in  the  approaching  conflict.  (SchoL,  ad 
 Ari.'<toph.,Eijiiit.,  657  ~Xen.,  Anab.,  3,  2,  11.)  The 
 number  of  the  Persians  who  fell  was  so  great,  that  a 
 sufficient  amount  of  victims  could  not  be  obtained. 
 Every  year,  therefore,  500  goats  were  slain,  in  order 
 to  make  up  the  requisite  number,  until,  at  last,  the 
 whole  thing  grew  into  a  regular  custom.  ^Elian  (  V. 
 H;  3,  25)  makes  the  vow  in  question  to  have  been 
 94 
 
 oflfered  up  by  Miltiadcs,  and  the  number  of  annual  vic- 
 tims 300. — II.  The  name  Agrotera  ('A ;/5on'/;a)  is  also 
 sometimes  ajiplied  to  Diana  herself.  In  this  usage  it 
 is  equivalent  to  icvvr/yeriKi/,  -&i/pevTLK^,  "  the  hun- 
 tress." Its  primitive  meaning,  however,  is  the  same 
 as  fj  upeia,  "  she  that  frequents  the  mountains." 
 (Compare  Hcync,  ad  Horn.,  11.,  21,  471.) 
 
 Agvikus,  an  appellation  given  to  Apollo.  The 
 term  is  of  Creek  origin  CAjvievc),  and,  if  the  com- 
 mon derivation  he  correct,  denotes  "  the  guardian 
 deity  of  streets'^  (from  uyvid,  "  a  street "),  it  l)eing 
 the  custom  at  Athens  to  erect  small  conical  cippi,  in 
 honour  of  Apollo,  in  the  vestibules  and  before  the 
 doors  of  their  houses.  Here  he  was  invoked  as  the 
 Averter  of  evil  ()?fof  UTroTpoTtaioQ,  "  Dcus  avcrrun- 
 cus  "),  and  the  worship  here  offered  him  consisted  in 
 burning  perfumes  before  these  pillars,  in  adorning 
 them  with  myrtle  garlands,  hanging  fillets  upon  them, 
 &c.  We  must  not  suppose,  however,  that  this  -us- 
 tom  originated  in  Athens.  It  appears  to  have  betn 
 borrowed  from  the  Dorians,  and  introduced  into  this 
 city  in  obedience  to  an  oracle.  (SchoL ,  in  Aristoph 
 Vesp.,  870.— Pausan.,  8,53. — Milllcr,  Gcsch.  Helloi. 
 Sldmme,  &c.,  vol.  2,  p.  299,  scqq.)  As  respects  the 
 pillars  erected  at  Athens,  the  ancients  seem  to  have 
 been  at  a  loss  whether  to  regard  them  as  altars,  or  as 
 a  species  of  statues.  (Compare,  on  this  point,  the 
 scholiast  on  Aristophanes,  Vcsp.,  870,  and  Thcsm., 
 496. — Harpocration,  s.  v. — Suidas,  s.  v. — Helladhis, 
 ap.  Phot.,  rod.,  279,  vol.  2,  p.  535,  ed.  Bckker.— 
 Plaulus,  Merc.,  4,  1,  9. — Zotga,  de  Oheliscis,  p. 
 210.)  Miiller  states,  that  this  emblem  of  Apollo  ap- 
 pears on  coins  of  Apollonia  in  Epirus,  Aptera  in  Crete, 
 Megara,  Byzantium,  Oricum,  Ambracia,  &c.  (Mul- 
 ler, Gcsch.  Hellen.  Stamme,  I.  c.) 
 
 Agylla.     Vid.  Caere. 
 
 Agvrium,  a  city  of  Sicily,  northeast  of  Enna,  and 
 in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  Syma-thus.  It  would  seem 
 to  have  been  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  of  the  Sic- 
 uli,  and  was  remarkable  for  the  worship  of  a  hero, 
 whom  a  later  age  confounded  with  the  Grecian  Her- 
 cules. (Dind.  iSic,  4,  25  )  The  place  is  noted  aa 
 having  given  birth  to  Diodorus  Siculus.  The  modern 
 town  of  San  Filippo  d'Argiro  is  supposed  to  corre- 
 spond to  the  ancient  city  ;  the  site  of  the  latter,  how- 
 ever, would  appear  to  have  been  two  miles  farther  east. 
 (Manncrt,  vol.  9,  pt   2,  p.  418.) 
 
 Agyrrhius.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Ahai.a.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Ahenobarbus.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Ajax  (Aiflf),  I.  son  of  Telamon  by  Periboga,  daughter 
 of  Alcalhous,  was,  ne.xt  to  Achilles,  the  bravest  of  all 
 the  Greeks  in  the  Trojan  war,  but,  like  him,  of  an 
 imperious  and  ungovernable  spirit.  In  other  pecu- 
 liarities of  their  history,  there  was  also  a  striking  re- 
 semblance. At  the  birth  of  Ajax,  Hercules  is  said  to 
 have  wrapped  him  in  the  skin  of  the  Nemean  lion, 
 and  to  have  thus  rendered  him  invulnerable  in  every 
 part  of  his  body,  except  that  which  was  left  exposed  by 
 the  aperture  in  the  skin,  caused  by  the  wound  which 
 the  animal  had  received  from  Hercules.  This  vulner- 
 able part  was  in  his  breast,  or,  as  others  say,  behind 
 the  neck.  (Lycophr.,  454. — Tzelz.,  ad  loc. — SchoL, 
 ad  II.,  23,  821.)  To  Ajax  fell  the  lot  of  opposing 
 Hector,  when  that  hero,  at  the  instigation  of  Apollo 
 and  Minerva,  had  challenged  the  bravest  of  the  Greeks 
 to  sino-le  combat.  The  glory  of  the  antagonists  was 
 equal  in  the  engagement  ;  and,  at  parting,  they  ex- 
 changed arms,  the  baldric  of  Ajax  serving,  most  sin- 
 gularly, as  the  instrument  by  which  Hector  was,  after 
 his  fail,  attached  to  the  car  of  Achilles.  In  the  games 
 celebrated  by  Achilles  in  honour  of  Patroclus,  Ajax 
 (as  commentators  have  remarked)  was  unsuccessful, 
 although  he  was  a  competitor  on  not  less  than  three 
 occasions  :  in  hurling  the  quoit ;  in  wrestling  ;  and  in 
 single  combat  with  arms.     After  the  death  of  Achilles, 
 
AID 
 
 AL^ 
 
 Ajax  and  Ulysses  disputed  their  claim  to  the  arms  of 
 the  hero.  When  they  were  given  (o  the  latter,  Ajax 
 became  so  infuriated,  that,  in  a  fit  of  delirium,  he 
 slaughtered  all  the  sheep  in  the  camp,  under  the  delu- 
 sion that  his  rival  and  the  Atrids,  who  had  favoured 
 the  cause  of  the  former,  were  the  objects  of  his  attack. 
 When  reason  returned,  Ajax,  from  rnortitication  and 
 despair,  put  an  end  to  his  existence,  by  stabbing  him- 
 self to  the  heart.  The  sword  which  he  used  as  the 
 instrument  of  his  death  had  been  received  by  him  from 
 Hector  in  exchange  for  the  baldric,  and  thus,  by  a  sin- 
 gular fatality,  the  present  mutually  conferred  contrib- 
 uted to  their  mutual  destruction.  The  blood  which 
 ran  to  the  ground  from  the  wound  produced  the  flower 
 hyacinthus,  of  a  red  colour,  and  on  the  petal  of  which 
 may  be  traced  lines,  imitating  the  form  of  the  letters 
 AI,  the  first  and  second  of  the  Greek  name  AIAS 
 {Aja.i).  The  flower  here  meant  appears  to  be  iden- 
 tical with  the  LHium  Martagon  ("Imperial  Martagon"), 
 and  not  the  ordinary  hyacinth.  (Fee,  Flo7-c  de  Virgile, 
 p.  Ixvii.) — Some  authorities  give  a  different  account 
 of  the  cause  of  his  death,  and  make  the  Palladium  to 
 have  been  the  subject  of  dispute  between  Ajax  and 
 Ulysses,  and  state  also  that  Ulysses,  in  concert  with 
 Agamemnon,  caused  Ajax  to  be  assassinated.  The 
 Greeks  erected  a  tomb  over  his  remains  on  the  pro- 
 montory of  Rhceteum,  which  was  visited  in  a  later 
 age  by  Alexander  the  Great.  Sophocles  has  made  the 
 death  of  Ajax  the  subject  of  one  of  his  tragedies.  Ac- 
 cording to  the  plot  of  this  piece,  the  rites  of  sepulture 
 are  at  lirst  refused  to  the  corpse  of  Ajax,  but  afterward 
 allowed  through  the  intercession  of  Ulysses.  Ajax  is 
 the  Homeric  type  of  great  valour,  unaccompanied  by 
 any  corresponding  powers  of  intellect.  Ulysses,  on 
 the  other  hand,  typifies  great  intellect,  nnaccompanied 
 by  an  equal  degree  of  heroic  valour,  although  he  is 
 far,  at  the  same  time,  from  being  a  coward.  (Horn.,  11 , 
 passlm.—ApolIod.,  3,  12,  7.— Ovid,  Met.,  13,  1, 
 seqq.) — II.  The  son  of  Oileus,  king  of  Locris,  was 
 surriamed  Locrian,  in  contradistinction  to  the  son  of 
 Telamon.  The  term  Niinjdan  was  also  applied  to 
 him  from  his  birthplace,  the  Locrian  town  Narycium, 
 or  Naryx.  He  went  with  40  ships  to  the  Trojan  war, 
 as  being  one  of  Helen's  suiters.  Homer  describes 
 him  as  small  of  size,  particularly  dexterous  in  the  use 
 of  the  lauce,  hut  as  remarkable  for  brutality  and  cru- 
 elty. The  night  that  Troy  was  taken,  he  offered  vio- 
 lence to  Cassandra,  who  had  fled  into  Minerva's  tem- 
 ple ;  and  for  this  offence,  as  he  returned  home,  the 
 goddess,  who  had  obtained  the  thunders  of  Jupiter, 
 and  the  power  of  tempests  from  Neptune,  destroyed 
 his  ship  in  a  storm.  Ajax  swam  to  a  rock,  and  said 
 that  he  was  safe  in  spite  of  all  the  gods.  Such  im- 
 piety ofl'ended  Neptune,  who  struck  the  rock  with  his 
 trident,  and  Ajax  tumbled  into  the  sea  with  part  of 
 the  rock,  and  was  drowned.  His  body  was  afterward 
 found  by  the  Greeks,  and  black  sheep  offered  on  his 
 tomb.  According  to  Virgil's  account,  Minerva  seized 
 him  in  a  whirlwind,  and  dashed  him  against  a  rock, 
 where  he  expired  consumed  by  the  flame  of  the  light- 
 ning. (Hum.,  II.,  2,  527,  &c.—  Virg.,  JEn.,  1,  43, 
 scqq.—Hygm.,  fah.,  116,  &c.) 
 
 AiDoNEus  ('AaJwvei'f),  I.  a  surname  of  Pluto.  It 
 is  only  another  form  for  '\i(h]r,  "  the  invisible  one." 
 — II.  A  king  of  the  Thesprotians  in  Epirus,  who  de- 
 feated the  forces  of  Theseus  and  Pirithous,  when  the 
 two  latter  had  marched  against  him  for  the  purpose 
 of  carrying  off  his  wife  Proserpina.  Pirithous  was 
 torn  to  pieces  by  Cerberus,  the  monarch's  dog,  while 
 Theseus  was  made  prisoner  and  loaded  with  fetters. 
 Hence,  according  to  Pausanias  (1,  17),  who  relates 
 this  story,  arose  the  fable  of  the  descent  of  Theseus 
 and  Pirithous  to  the  lower  world.  This  explanation 
 has  met  with  the  approbation  of  many  of  the  learned, 
 and,  among  the  rest,  of  Wesseling  and  Perizonius. 
 But  it  is  quite  untenable.     (Consult  Crcuzer,   Sym- 
 
 bolil;  vol.  4,  p.  168.)     Plutarch  calls  Aidoneus  king 
 of  the  Molossians  in  Epirus.     (Vit.  Thes.,  30.) 
 
 Aius  LocuTius,  a  deity  to  whom  the  Romans  erect- 
 ed an  altar  from  the  following  circumstance  ;  one  of 
 the  common  people,  called  Ceditius,  informed  the  tri- 
 bunes, that,  as  he  passed  one  night  through  one  of  the 
 streets  of  the  city,  a  voice  more  than  human,  issuing 
 from  above  Vesta's  temple,  told  him  that  Rome  wouW 
 soon  be  attacked  by  the  Gauls.  His  information  waa 
 neglected,  but,  as  its  truth  was  subsequently  confirmed 
 by  the  event  itself,  Camillus,  after  the  departure  of  ihe 
 Gauls,  built  a  temple  to  that  supernatural  voice  which 
 had  given  Rome  warning  of  the  approaching  calamity, 
 under  the  name  of  Aius  Locutius.  {Lvp.,  5,  50. — 
 Pint.,  VU.  CamilL,  30.)  Thus  much  for  the  story  it- 
 self. We  have  here  an  instance  of  the  imposiiion 
 practised  by  the  patricians,  the  depositaries  of  religion, 
 upon  the  lower  orders  of  the  state.  The  commonly- 
 received  narrative  respecting  the  Gallic  invasion  and 
 the  taking  of  Rome,  is  abundantly  supplied  with  the 
 decorations  of  fable,  the  work  of  the  higher  classes. 
 The  object  of  the  patricians,  in  the  various  legends 
 which  they  invented  on  this  point,  seems  to  have  been 
 a  wish  to  impress  on  the  minds  of  the  people  the  coi]- 
 viction,  that  divine  vengeance  had  armed  itself  against 
 them,  for  having  dared  to  injure  an  individual  of  sen- 
 atorian  rank.  It  was  to  avenge  the  banishment  of  Ca- 
 millus that  the  gods  had  brought  the  Gauls  to  Rome, 
 and  to  Camillus  alone  did  they  assign  the  honour  of 
 removing  these  formidable  visitants.  (Compare  Lc- 
 vesque.  Hist.  Crit.  de  la  Rep.  Komainc.  vol.  1,  p.  287.) 
 
 Alabanua,  a  city  of  Caria,  one  of  the  most  impor- 
 tant of  those  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  It  was 
 situate  a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  the  Maeander. 
 Strabo(14,  p.  660,  cd.  Casrt?<6.)  describes  its  position 
 between  two  hills,  and  compares  the  appearance  thus 
 presented  to  that  of  a  loaded  ass.  He  speaks  of  the 
 inhabitants  as  addicted  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table 
 and  a  luxurious  life.  From  Pliny  (5,  29)  we  learn 
 that  it  was  a  free  city,  and  the  seat  also  of  a  Conven- 
 fus  Jundtcus.  Hierocles  incorrectly  names  the  place 
 Alapunda.  This  city  was  said  to  have  obtained  its 
 appellation  from  the  hero  Alabandus,  its  founder,  who 
 was  deified  after  death,  and  worshipped  within  its 
 walls.  (Cic,  N.  D.,  3,  19.)  Stephanus  Byzantinus, 
 however,  speaks  of  another  Alabanda,  commonly  call- 
 ed Antwchia  ad  Maandrnm,  and  makes  this  one  to 
 have  been  founded  by  Alabandus,  son  of  Enippus ; 
 while  he  assigns  as  a  founder  to  the  other  city.  Car, 
 a  son  of  whose  received  the  name  of  Hipponicus,  from 
 his  having  conquered  in  an  equestrian  conflict  ;  which 
 appellation,  according  to  Stephanus,  was  the  same  with 
 Alabandus  in  the  Carian  tongue,  Ala  denoting  "  a 
 horse,"  and  Banda  "  a  victory."  From  this  son, 
 Alabanda,  as  he  states,  took  its  name.  (Compare  the 
 remarks  of  Berkel,  ad  loc,  p.  86,  and  Adclung,  Gloss. 
 Man.,  vol.  1,  p.  555  )  The  remains  of  Alabanda  were 
 discovered  by  Pococke  (vol.  3,  book  2,  c.  5,)  and,  af- 
 ter him,  by  Chandler  (c.  59),  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
 the  village  of  Karpusler  or  Karpuseli.  The  inhabi- 
 tants of  this  place  were  called  'AA«6avf5«f,  and  by  the 
 Roman  writers  Alabandenses.  The  name  of  the  city 
 is  given  by  the  latter  as  neuter,  but  by  Strabo  and  Ste- 
 phanus as  feminine.  {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3, 
 p.  278,  seqq.) 
 
 Alabandus,  I.  a  son  of  Enippus,  and  the  founder  of 
 Antiochia  ad  Maandmm.  (FnZ.  Alabanda  )— II.  A 
 son  of  Car,  who  was  otherwise  called  Hipponicus,  and 
 who  gave  name  to  Alabanda.     {V^d.  Alabanda.) 
 
 Ai,a:a  {'Klaia  or  'AAfm),  a  surname  of  Minerva, 
 by  which  she  was  worshipped  at  Tegea  in  Arcadia. 
 There  was  also  a  festival  celebrated  here  in  honour  of 
 the  goddess,  and  called  by  the  same  name.  (Paiisan., 
 8,  46.)  Creuzer  traces  a  connexion  between  the  festival 
 termed  Aloea  and  the  solar  worship.  [SymboUk,  vol. 
 2,  p.  779.) 
 
 95 
 
ALA 
 
 ALli 
 
 Ai.agovTa,  a  town  of  Messenia,  distant  about  thirty 
 etadia  from  Gerenia.  Paiisanias  (3,  ^6)  notices  its 
 temples  of  Bacciius  and  Diana. 
 
 Alala,  an  appellation  given  to  Bellona,  the  goddess 
 of  war  at}d  sister  of  Mars.  It  appears  to  be  nothing 
 more  than  the  battle-cry  personified,  and  occurs  in  what 
 a|ipoars  to  be  a  fragment  of  an  old  war-song.  {Plut., 
 de  Frat.  Am..,  p.  483,  c.) 
 
 Ac.AUcoMEN^,  I.  a  city  of  Bneotia,  near  the  Lake 
 Copais,  and  to  the  southeast  of  Gha^ronea.  It  was 
 celebrated  for  the  worship  of  Minerva,  thence  surna- 
 nicd  Alalcomencis.  (S/rai,  410  and 413. — Compare 
 He.ynr.,  ad  Hum.,  IL,4:,  8,  and  Midler,  Gcsch.  Hcllcn. 
 S/iimmc,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p.  70.)  The  temple  of  the  god- 
 dess was  plundered  and  stripped  of  its  statues  by  Sylla. 
 (Paiisan.,  9,  33.)  It  is  said,  that  when  Thebes  was 
 taken  by  the  Epigoni,  many  of  the  inhabitants  retired 
 to  Alalcomenae,  as  benig  held  sacred  and  inviolable. 
 {Strah.,  413.  —  Sleph.  Bi/z.,  s.  v.'A?m'Xko/ieviov.)  The 
 rums  of  this  place,  according  to  Sir  W.  Gcll  {Itin.,  p. 
 IG3).  are  observable  near  the  village  of  Sichnara,  on 
 a  projecting  knoll,  on  which  there  is  some  little  appear- 
 ance of  a  small  ancient  establishment  or  town  ;  and 
 higher  up  may  be  discovered  a  wall  or  peribohis,  of 
 ancient  and  massive  polygons,  founded  upon  the  solid 
 rock.  This  is  probably  the  site  of  the  temple  of  the 
 Alalcomcnian  Minerva.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Greeee,  vol.  2, 
 p.  236.) — II.  A  town,  situate  on  a  small  island  off  the 
 coast  of  Acarnania,  between  Ithaca  and  Cephallenia. 
 The  name  of  the  island  was  Asteris,  and  it  is  the  place 
 where  Homer  describes  the  suiters  as  lying  in  wait 
 for  Telemachus  on  bis  return  from  Sparta  and  Pylos. 
 (Horn.,  Od.,  4,844. — Compare  Slrabo,456.)  Plutarch, 
 however,  speaks  of  Alalcomena;  as  being  in  Ithaca. 
 (Islr.  Alex.,  ap.  Plut.,  QiuEs/..  Gnec.)  Stephanus  By- 
 zantinus   writes    it    Alcomenae. 
 
 Alalcomenia.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Alalia,  a  city  of  Corsica.      Vid.  Aleria. 
 
 Alamanni.      Vid.  Alemanni. 
 
 Alani,  a  Scythian  race,  occupying  the  regions  be- 
 tween the  Rha  and  the  Tanais.  Their  name  and  man- 
 ners, however,  would  appear  to  have  been  also  diffused 
 over  the  wide  extent  of  their  conquests.  (Compare 
 Balbi,  Inlroduetion  a  V Atlas  Efhnographiquc,  vol.  1, 
 p.  116.)  The  Agathyrsi  and  Geloni  were  numbered 
 among  their  vassals.  Towards  the  north  their  power 
 extended  into  the  regions  of  Siberia,  and  their  southern 
 inroads  were  pushed  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Persia 
 and  India.  They  were  conquered  eventually  by  the 
 Huns.  A  part  of  the  vanquished  nation  thereupon  took 
 refuge  in  the  mountains  of  Caucasus.  Another  band 
 advanced  towards  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  associated 
 themselves  with  the  northern  tribes  of  Germany,  and 
 shared  the  spoil  of  the  Roman  provinces  of  Gaul  and 
 Spain.  But  the  greatest  pan  of  the  Alani  united  with 
 their  conquerors,  the  Huns,  and  proceeded  along  with 
 ^hein  to  invade  the  limits  of  the  Gothic  empire.  (Amm. 
 Marccll,  21,  19— /(/.,  23,  4:.—Ptol.,  6,  14.) 
 
 Alaricus,  in  German  Al-ric,  i.  e.,  all  rich,  king  of 
 the  Visigoths,  remarkable  as  being  the  first  of  the  bar- 
 barian chiefs  who  entered  and  sacked  the  city  of  Rome, 
 and  tlie  first  enemy  who  had  appeared  before  its  wails 
 since  tlie  time  of  Hannibal.  His  first  appearance  in 
 history  is  in  A.D.  394,  when  he  was  invested  by  The- 
 odosius  with  the  command  of  tlie  Gothic  auxiliaries  in 
 his  war  with  Eugenius.  In  396,  [lartly  from  anger  at 
 beiniJ  refused  the  command  of  the  armies  of  the  East- 
 ern Empire,  partly  at  the  instigation  of  Rufinus,  he  in- 
 vaded and  devastated  Greece,  till  by  the  arrival  of  Stil- 
 icho,  in  397,  he  was  compelled  to  escajje  to  Epirus. 
 He  was  elected  king  by  his  countrymen  m  398,  hav- 
 ing been  previously,  by  the  weakness  of  Arcadius,  ap- 
 pointed prefect  of  Eastern  Illyncum.  The  rest  of  his 
 life  was  spent  in  the  two  invasions  of  Italy.  The  first 
 (400-403;,  apparently  unprovoked,  brought  him  only 
 to  Ravenna,  and,  after  a  bloody  defeat  at  PoUentia,  in 
 96 
 
 which  his  wife  and  treasures  were  taken,  and  a  mas- 
 terly retreat  to  Verona,  was  ended  by  the  treaty  with 
 Stil'cho,  which  transferred  his  services  from  Arcadius 
 to  Honorius,  and  made  him  prefect  of  the  V\'estern  in- 
 stead of  the  Eastern  Illyncum.  I'he  second  invasion 
 (408-10)  was  occasioned  by  delay  in  fulfilling  his  de- 
 mands for  pay,  and  for  a  western  province  as  the  fu- 
 ture home  of  his  nation,  as,  also,  by  the  massacre  of 
 the  Gothic  families  in  Italy  on  Siihcho's  death.  It  is 
 marked  by  the  three  sieges  of  Rome,  in  408,  409,  and 
 410.  I'he  first  of  these  was  raised  by  a  ransom  ;  the 
 second  ended  in  the  unconditional  surrender  of  the  city, 
 and  in  the  disposal  of  the  empire  by  Alaric  to  Atta- 
 ins, till,  on  discovery  of  his  incapacity,  he  restored  it 
 to  Honorius.  The  third  was  ended  by  the  treacherous 
 opening  of  the  Salarian  Gale,  on  August  24th,  and  the 
 sack  of  the  city  for  s\x  days.  It  was  immediately  fol- 
 lowed by  the  occupation  of  the  south  of  Italy,  and  the 
 design  of  invading  Sicily  and  Africa.  Thisintention, 
 however,  was  frustrated  by  his  death,  after  a  short  ill- 
 ness, at  Consentia,  where  he  was  buried  in  the  bed  of 
 the  adjacent  river  Busentinus,  and  the  place  of  his  in- 
 terment was  concealed  by  the  massacre  of  all  the  work- 
 men employed  on  the  occasion.  The  few  personal 
 traits  that  are  recorded  of  him  are  in  the  true  savage 
 humour  of  a  barbarian  conqueror.  But  the  impression 
 left  upon  us  by  his  general  character  is  of  a  higher  or- 
 der. The  real  military  skill  shown  in  his  escape  from 
 Greece,  and  in  his  retreat  to  Verona  ;  the  wish  at  Ath- 
 ens to  show  that  he  adopted  the  use  of  the  .bath,  and 
 the  other  e.xternal  forms  of  civilized  life  ;  the  modera- 
 tion and  justice  which  he  observed  tovvards  the  Ro- 
 mans in  time  of  peace;  the  humanity  which  distin- 
 guished him  during  the  sack  of  Rome,  indicate  some- 
 thing su[)erior  to  the  mere  craft  and  lawless  ambition 
 which  he  seems  to  have  possessed  in  common  with 
 other  barbarian  chiefs.  So,  also,  his  scruples  against 
 fighting  on  Easter-day  when  attacked  at  PoUentia,  and  ) 
 his  reverence  for  the  churches  during  the  sack  of  the  • 
 city,  imply  that  the  Christian  faith  had  laid  some  hold 
 at  least  on  his  imagination. 
 
 Al.azon,  a  river  of  Albania,  rising  in  Mount  Cauca- 
 sus, and  flowing  into  the  Cyrus.  Now  the  Alozon  or 
 Alason.     (Plin.,  6,  10.) 
 
 Alba,  I.  Sylvius,  one  of  the  pretended  kings  of  Alba, 
 said  to  have  succeeded  his  father  Latinus,  and  to  have 
 reigned  30  years. — II.  Lo.\ga,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
 cities  of  Latium,  the  origin  of  which  is  lost  in  conjec- 
 ture. According  to  the  common  account,  the  place 
 was  built  by  Ascanius,  B.C.  1152,  on  the  S[iot  where 
 ^Eneas  found,  in  conformity  with  the  prediction  of 
 Helenus  ( Viro-.,  JEn.,  3,  390.  seqq.)  and  of  the  god  of 
 the  river  {JEn.,  8,  43),  a  v^hllc  sow  with  thirty  young 
 ones.  Many,  however,  have  been  led  to  conjecture, 
 that  Alba  was  founded  by  the  Siculi,  and,  after  the  mi- 
 gration of  that  people,  was  occupied  by  the  Aborigines 
 and  Pclasgi.  (Compare  yjzo?i.  i/a/.,  2,  2.)  The  word 
 Alba  appears  to  be  of  Celtic  origin,  for  we  find  severai 
 places  of  that  name  in  Liguria  and  ancient  Spain  ;  and 
 it  is  observed,  that  all  were  situated  on  elevated  spots; 
 from  which  circumstance  it  is  inferred  that  Alba  is  de- 
 rived from  Alp.  (Bardrtti  dell.  Lvig.  dci  Prim.  Abit, 
 &c.,  p.  109.)  As  Albd  was  entirely  destroyed  by 
 Tullus  Hostilius  {Lw.,  1,  29),  and  no  vestiges  of  it 
 are  now  remaining,  its  e.\act  position  has  been  much 
 discussed  by  modern  topographers.  If  we  take  Strabo 
 for  our  guide,  we  shall  look  for  Alba  on  the  slope  of  the 
 Mount  Albanus,  and  at  a  distance  of  twenty  miles  from 
 Rome.  (Strab  ,229.)  This  position  cannot  evidently 
 agree  with  the  modern  town  of  Albano,  which  is  at  the 
 foot  of  the  mountain,  and  only  twelve  miles  from 
 Rome.  Dionysius  also  informs  us  (1,  66),  that  it  was 
 situated  on  the  declivity  of  the  Alban  Mount,  midway 
 between  the  summit  and  the  lake  of  the  same  name, 
 which  protected  it  as  a  wall.  This  description  and  that 
 of  Strabo  agree  sufficiently  well  with  the  position  of 
 
ALBA. 
 
 ALB 
 
 Falazzolo,  a  village  belonging  to  the  Colonna  family, 
 on  the  eastern  side  of  the  lake,  and  some  distance 
 above  its  margin.  {Cramcr''s  Aiic.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 37.  seqq.)  "The  site,"  observes  Niebuhr,  "where 
 Alba  stretched,  in  a  long  street,  between  the  upper  part 
 of  the  mountain  and  the  lake,  i.s  still  distinctly  marked; 
 along  this  whole  extent  the  rock  is  cut  away  under  it 
 down  to  the  lake.  These  traces  of  man's  ordering 
 hand  are  more  ancient  than  Rome.  The  surface  of  the 
 lake,  as  it  has  been  determined  by  the  tunnel,  now  lies 
 far  beyond  the  ancient  city  :  when  Alba  was  stand- 
 in<r,  and  before  the  lake  swelled  to  a  ruinous  height  in 
 consequence  of  obstructions  in  clefts  of  the  rock,  it 
 must  have  Iain  yet  lower;  for  in  the  age  of  Diodorus 
 and  Dionysius,  during  extraordinary  droughts,  the  re- 
 mains of  spacious  buildings  might  be  seen  at  the  bot- 
 tom, taken  by  the  common  people  for  the  palace  of 
 an  mipious  king  which  had  been  swallowed  up."  {Nie- 
 buhr's  Rom  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  168,  seqq.,  Cambridge 
 transi.) — The  line  of  tlie  Alban  kings  is  given  as  fol- 
 lows :  1.  Ascanius,  reigned  8  years  ;  2.  Sylvius  Post- 
 humus,  29  years;  3.  Jilneas  Sylvius,  31  years;  4. 
 Latinus,  5  years  ;  5.  Alba  Sylvius,  36  years;  6.  Atys 
 or  Capetus,  26  years  ;  7.  Capys,  28  years  ;  8.  Calpe- 
 tus,  13  years  ;  9.  Tiberinus,  8  years  ;  10.  Agrippa, 
 33  years;  11.  Remulus,  19  years;  12.  Aventmus,  37 
 years;  13.  Procas,  13  years ;  14.  Numitor  and  Amu- 
 lius.  The  destruction  of  Alba  took  place,  according 
 to  the  common  account,  665  B.C.,  when  the  inhabitants 
 were  carried  to  Rome.  "  The  list  of  the  Alban  kings," 
 remarks  Niebuhr,  "  is  a  very  late  and  extremely  clum- 
 sy fabrication  ;  a  medley  of  names,  in  part  quite  un- 
 Italian,  some  of  them  repeated  from  earlier  or  later 
 times,  others  framed  out  of  geographical  names  ;  and 
 having  scarcely  anything  of  a  story  connected  with 
 them.  We  are  told  that  Livy  took  this  list  from  L. 
 Cornelius  Alexander  the  Polyhistor  {Sen.,  ad  Vug., 
 Mri.,  8,  330) ;  hence  it  is  probable  that  this  client  of 
 the  dictator  Sylla  introduced  the  imposture  into  his- 
 tory. Even  the  variations  in  the  lists  are  not  very 
 important,  and  do  not  at  all  prove  that  there  were  sev- 
 eral ancient  sources.  Some  names  may  have  occur- 
 red in  older  traditions  :  kings  of  the  Aborigines  were 
 also  mentioned  by  name  (Stercenius,  for  instance,  un- 
 less it  be  a  false  reading. — Serv.,  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  11, 
 850),  entirely  different  from  those  of  Alba.  In  the 
 case  of  the  latter,  even  the  years  of  each  reign  are  num- 
 bered ;  and  the  number  so  exactly  fills  up  the  interval 
 between  the  fall  of  Troy  and  the  founding  of  Rome, 
 according  to  the  canon  of  Eratosthenes,  as  of  itself  to 
 prove  the  lateness  of  the  imposture."  [Niebiihr's 
 Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p  170,  Cambridge  transi.) — III. 
 Docilia,  a  city  of  Liguria,  now  Albizzola. — IV.  Fucen- 
 tia  or  Fucensis,  a  city  of  the  Marsi,  near  the  northern 
 shore  of  the  Lake  Fucinus,  whence  its  name.  It  was 
 a  strong  and  secluded  place,  and  appears  to  have  been 
 selected  by  the  Roman  senate,  after  it  became  a  colony 
 of  Rome,  A.U.C.  450,  as  a  fit  place  of  residence  for 
 captives  of  rank  and  consequence,  as  well  as  for  noto- 
 rious offenders.  {Strab.,^M. —  Compare  Liv.,  10,  1, 
 and  Veil.  Patcrc.,  1,  14.)  Syphax  was  long  detained 
 here,  though  finally  he  was  removed  to  Tibur  {Liv., 
 30,  45) ;  as  were  also  Perses,  king  of  Macedon,  and 
 his  son  Alexander.  {Liv.,  45,  52. — Veil.  Paterc.,  1, 
 11. — Val.  Max.,  5,  1.)  At  the  time  of  Cassar's  in- 
 vasion of  his  country,  we  find  Alba  adhering  to  the 
 cause  of  Pompey  (Cds.,  Bell.  Ctv.,  1,  15),  and  subse- 
 quently repelhng  the  attack  of  Antony  ;  on  which  oc- 
 casion it  obtained  a  warm  and  eloquent  eulogium  from 
 Cicero.  {Phil,  3,  3.—Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  3,  45.) 
 The  ruins  of  tliis  city,  which  are  said  to  be  considera- 
 ble {Romanelli,  vol.  3,  p.  211),  stand  about  a  mile 
 from  the  modern  Alba  {Cramcr''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p. 
 330.) — V.  Pompeia,  a  city  of  Liguria,  on  the  river 
 Tanarus,  now  Alba.  It  probably  owed  its  surname  to 
 Pompeius  Strabo,  who  colonized  several  towns  in  the 
 N 
 
 north  of  Italy.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  Emperor 
 Pertinax.  {Dio  Cass.,  83. — Zon.  Ann.,  2.)— VI.  A 
 city  of  Spain,  in  the  territory  of  the  Varduli,  eight  ge- 
 ographical miles  to  the  west  of  Pamplona,  and  as  many 
 to  the  east  of  the  Iberus.  It  was  about  two  geograph- 
 ical miles,  therefore,  to  the  west  of  the  modern  Esiel- 
 la.  {Manncrt,  vol.  1,  p.  375.) — VII.  Augusta,  a  city 
 of  the  Helvii,  in  Gaul,  near  the  Rhone,  and  answering 
 to  the  modern  Aps.  Pliny  (14,  3)  names  the  place 
 Alba  Helvorum,  and  praises  the  skill  of  the  inhabitants 
 in  the  cultivation  of  the  vine. — VIII.  Gra;ca,  a  city  of 
 Dacia  Ripensis,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Danube  and 
 the  Saavus,  or  Saave.     It  is  now  Belgrade. 
 
 Albania,  a  country  of  Asia,  between  the  Caspian 
 Sea  and  Iberia,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  chain  of 
 Caucasus,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Cyrus  and  an  arm 
 of  the  Araxes.  The  Romans  were  best  acquainted 
 with  the  southern  part,  which  Strabo  describes  as  a 
 kind  of  paradise,  and  in  fertility  and  mildness  of  cli- 
 mate gives  it  the  preference  to  Egypt.  Trajan's  ex- 
 peditions made  the  northern  and  mountainous  part  bet- 
 ter known.  The  inhabitants  approached  nearer  a  bar- 
 barous than  a  civilized  race.  They  cultivated  the  soil, 
 it  is  true,  but  with  great  carelessness,  and  yet  it  af- 
 forded them  more  than  sufficed  for  their  wants.  The 
 forces  of  the  nation  were  respectable,  and  they  brought 
 into  the  field  against  Pompey  an  army  of  60,000  in- 
 fantry and  22,000  horse.  As  regards  the  origin  of  this 
 people,  all  is  uncertainty.  The  common  account  is 
 unworthy  of  a  moment's  attention,  according  to  which 
 they  were  from  Alba  in  Latium,  having  left  that  place, 
 under  the  conduct  of  Hercules,  after  the  defeat  of  Ge- 
 ryon.  {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  15. — Justin,  42,  3,  4.)  It  is 
 more  likely  that  they  belonged  to  the  great  race  which 
 occupied  the  whole  extent  of  the  Tauric  range  along 
 the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian.  Mannert  makes 
 them  Alani,  and  progenitors  of  the  European  Alani. 
 (Vol.  4,  p.  410.) — What  was  ancient  Albania  is  now 
 divided  into  innumerable  cantons,  but  which  modern 
 geography  comprehends  under  two  denominations, 
 Daghestan,  which  includes  all  the  declivities  of  Cau- 
 casus towards  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  Lcsghistan,  con- 
 taining the  more  elevated  valleys  towards  Georgia  aa<l 
 the  country  of  the  Kistes.  {Malte-Brun,  vol.  2,  p.  23, 
 Brussels  ed.)  The  Lesghians  appear  to  be  the  same 
 with  the  LesE  of  the  ancients.  {Malte-Brun,  I.  c  — 
 Reineggs,  \,  183.) 
 
 Albanije  PortyE.     Vid.  Pyl^,  L 
 
 Albanus,  I.  Mons,  a  mountain  of  Latium,  about 
 twelve  miles  from  Rome,  on  the  slope  of  which  stood 
 Alba  Longa.  It  is  now  called  Monte  Cava.  This 
 mountain  is  celebrated  in  history,  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  its  being  peculiarly  dedicated  to  Jove,  under 
 the  title  of  Latialis.  {Lucan,  1,  198. —  Cic.pro  Mil., 
 31.)  It  was  on  the  Alban  Mount  that  the  Feriaj  Lati- 
 nae,  or  holydays  kept  by  all  the  cities  of  the  Latin 
 name,  were  celebrated.  The  Roman  generals  also  oc- 
 casionally performed  sacrifices  on  this  mountain,  and 
 received  there  the  honours  of  a  triumph  when  refused 
 one  at  home.  This  appears,  however,  to  have  occur- 
 red only  five  times,  if  we  may  credit  the  Fasti  Capito- 
 lini,  in  which  the  names  of  the  generals  are  recorded. 
 {Vulp.  Vet.  Lat.,  12,  4.)  Some  vestiges  of  the  road 
 which  led  to  the  summit  of  the  mountain  are  still  to  be 
 traced  a  little  beyond  Albano. — -II.  Lacus,  a  lake  at 
 the  foot  of  the  Alban  Mount.  (Compare  remarks  un- 
 der the  article  Alba.)  This  lake,  which  is  doubtless 
 the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  is  well  known  in  his- 
 tory from  the  prodigious  rise  of  its  waters,  to  such  an 
 extent,  indeed,  as  to  threaten  the  whole  surrounding 
 country,  and  Rome  itself,  with  an  overwhelming  in- 
 undation. The  oracle  of  Delphi,  being  consulted  on 
 that  occasion,  declared,  that  unless  the  Romans  con- 
 trived to  carry  off  the  waters  of  the  lake,  they  would 
 never  take  Veii,  the  siege  of  which  had  already  lasted 
 for  nearly  ten  years.     This  led  to  the  construction  of 
 
 97 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 that  wonderful  subterraneous  canal,  or  emissario,  as  the 
 Italians  call  it,  which  is  to  be  seen  at  this  very  day,  in 
 remarkable  preservation,  below  the  town  of  Caslel 
 Gandolfo.  This  channel  is  said  to  be  carried  through 
 the  rock  for  the  space  of  a  mile  and  a  half,  and  the  wa- 
 ter which  It  discharges  unites  with  the  Tiber  about  five 
 miles  below  Rome.  {Cic.,de  Div.,  1,  44. — Lie.,  5, 
 15._Fa/.  Max.,\,6. — Plut.,  Vit.  CamiH.)  Near  this 
 opening  are  to  be  seen  considerable  ruins  and  various 
 foundations  of  buildings,  supposed  by  some  to  have 
 belonged  to  the  palace  of  Domitian,  to  which  Martial 
 and  Statius  frequently  allude.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  40.) — III.  A  river  of  Albania,  falling  into 
 the  Caspian,  to  the  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Cyrus, 
 or  Kur.  It  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same  with 
 the  Samure.  Mannert,  however,  is  in  favour  of  the 
 Bilhana. 
 
 Albici,  a  people  of  Ganl,  of  warlike  character,  oc- 
 cupying the  mountains  above  Massilia,  or  Marseilles. 
 Strabo  places  them  to  the  north  of  the  Salyes,  and 
 there  Ptolemy  also  makes  them  to  have  resided,  on  the 
 southeast  side  of  the  Druentia,  or  Durance.  This 
 latter  writer  is  blamed,  without  any  reason,  by  those 
 who  suppose,  that  he  here  means  the  Helvii,  and,  con- 
 sequently, places  them  too  far  to  the  east.  Strabo  calls 
 the  Albici,  'A/I6<«f  and  'A?^6coiKoi,  Ptolemy  'EXiku- 
 KOI,  and  Pliny  Alcbeci.  Their  capital,  according  to 
 Pliny,  was  named  Alebece,  now  Kiez.  (Ca.s.,  Bell. 
 Civ.,  1,  57  and  34:.—Strabo,  203.— Plin.,  3,  4.— 
 Compare  Mannert,  vol.  2,  p.  105.) 
 
 Albigaunum.      Vid.  Albium  Ingaunum. 
 
 Albinovanus,  I.  Celsus,  a  young  Roman,  and  ac- 
 quaintance of  Horace.  He  formed  one  of  the  retinue 
 of  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero,  when  the  latter  was  march- 
 ing to  Armenia,  under  the  orders  of  Augustus,  in  order 
 to  replace  Tigranes  on  the  throne.  Horace  alludes  to 
 him  in  Epist.,  1,  3,  15,  and  addresses  to  him  Epist., 
 1,  8.  He  appears  to  have  been  of  a  literary  turn,  but 
 addicted  to  habits  of  plagiarism. — II.  Pedo,  a  Roman 
 poet,  the  friend  of  Ovid,  who  has  inscribed  to  him  one 
 of  the  Epistles  from  Ponlus  (10th  of  4th  book).  He 
 distinguished  himself  in  heroic  versification,  but  only 
 a  few  fragments  of  his  labours  in  this  department  of 
 poetry  have  reached  our  times.  In  epigram  also  he 
 would  appear  to  have  done  something.  (Martial,  5, 
 5.)  As  an  elegiac  poet,  he  composed,  according  to 
 Joseph  Scaliger  and  many  others,  the  three  follow- 
 ing pieces  which  have  descended  to  us  :  1.  "Conso- 
 latio  ad  Liviam  Augustam  de  morte  Drusi."  (^Fa- 
 bric., Bibl.  hat.,  1,  12,  4  11,  8,  p.  376,  seqq.)  2. 
 "De  Obitu  Mscenatis."  {Fabric.,  I.  c,  1,  12,  <5  11, 
 7,  p.  376. — Burmann,  Anthol.  Lat.,  2,  ep.  119. — 
 Lion,  Maccnatiana,  Gutting.,  1824,  c.  1.)  3.  "  De 
 Maecenate  moribundo."  (Burmann,  I.  c,  2,  ep.  120.) 
 Of  these  elegies,  the  first  has  been  ascribed  by  many 
 to  Ovid,  even  on  MS.  authority,  and  printed  in  the 
 works  of  that  poet.  (Compare  Fabric, I.  c. — Passer- 
 At.  in  Prafai.,  vol.  4,  p.  220,  ed.  Burnt. — Ainar,  ad 
 Ov.  Carm.,ed.  Lemaire,  vol.  1,  p.  399,  seqq.,  and  on 
 the  opposite  side,  Jos.  Scaliger,  and  Burmann,  vol.  1, 
 p.  796.)  The  grounds  on  which  the  claim  of  Pedo 
 rests  are  not  by  any  means  satisfactory  :  the  piece  in 
 question,  however,  would  seem  to  have  been  the  pro- 
 duction of  the  Augustan  age.  Still  weaker  are  the  ar- 
 guments which  seek  to  establish  the  claim  of  Pedo  to 
 the  other  two  elegies,  which,  according  to  Wernsdorff 
 (Poet.  Lat.  Min.,  vol.  3,  p.  112,  seqq.),  are  unworthy 
 of  him,  and  must  be  regarded  as  the  productions  of 
 some  late  scholastic  poet. — III.  P.  Tullius.  ( Vid.  Sup- 
 plement.) 
 
 Albintemelium.     Vid.  Albium  Intemelium. 
 
 Albinus,  I.  Decimus  Claudius,  a  Roman  general, 
 born  at  Adrumetum  in  Africa,  and  surnamed  Albinus 
 from  the  e.xtreme  whiteness  of  his  skin  when  brought 
 into  the  world.  He  made  at  first  some  progress  in  lit- 
 erary pursuits,  and  wrote  a  Treatise  on  Agriculture, 
 .98 
 
 together  with  some  Tales  after  the  manner  of  Ibosa 
 denominated  Milesian.  An  invincible  attachment  t« 
 arms,  however,  caused  him  to  embrace,  at  an  early  pe- 
 riod, the  military  profession,  in  which  he  soon  attained 
 distinction.  In  the  year  175  of  the  present  era,  and 
 the  15lh  of  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  he  prevented 
 the  army,  which  he  commanded  in  B'lthynia,  from  join- 
 ing the  rebel  Avidius  Cassius.  For  this,  according  to 
 some,  he  was  rewarded  with  the  consulship ;  though 
 his  name  does  not  appear  at  this  epoch  in  the  Fasti  ■ 
 Consulares.  Governor  of  Gaul  under  Commodus,  he 
 defeated  the  Frisii,  and  afterward  had  intrusted  to  him 
 the  command  of  Britain.  The  death  of  Commodus 
 brought  forward  Severus,  Julian,  and  Pescennius  Ni- 
 ger, as  candidates  for  the  vacant  throne.  The  first  of 
 these  competitors  made  overtures  to  Albinus,  and  of- 
 fered him  the  title  of  Caesar,  which  the  latter  accepted, 
 and  declared  for  his  cause.  But  Severus  had  only 
 contributed  to  the  elevation  of  Albinus  in  order  to  di- 
 minish the  number  of  his  own  opponents.  When  he 
 had  conquered  his  other  rivals,  he  resolved  to  rid  him- 
 self of  Albinus  by  the  aid  of  assassins.  The  latter, 
 however,  suspected  his  odious  projects,  and  his  sus- 
 picions were  confirmed  by  the  arrest  and  confession  of 
 Severus's  emissaries.  Albinus  immediately  took  up 
 arms  to  dispute  the  imperial  power  with  his  enemy. 
 He  gained  several  successes  in  Gaul,  but  was  at  last 
 defeated  in  a  decisive  battle  in  the  same  country,  near 
 Lugdunum  (Lyons),  A.D.  198.  Finding  himself  on 
 the  point  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  foe,  he  put  an 
 end  to  his  own  existence.  His  head  was  brought  to 
 Severus,  who  ordered  it  to  be  cast  into  the  Rhone. 
 The  details  of  this  last-mentioned  conflict  are  variously 
 given.  The  armies  are  said  to  have  consisted  each  of 
 150,000  men  ;  and  the  victory  is  reported  to  have  been 
 for  a  long  time  doubtful :  at  last  the  left  wing  of  Al- 
 binus was  totally  defeated  and  his  camp  pillaged  ; 
 while  his  right  wing,  on  the  other  hand,  proved  so  de- 
 cidedly superior  to  the  foe,  that  Severus,  according  to 
 Herodian  (3,  7,  7),  was  compelled  to  fly,  after  having 
 thrown  aside  the  badges  of  his  rank.  Spartianus  (c. 
 11)  adds,  that  Severus  was  wounded,  and  that  his 
 army,  believing  him  to  have  been  slain,  were  on  the 
 point  of  proclaiming  a  new  emperor.  Dio  Cassius 
 (75,  21)  states,  that  he  had  his  horse  killed  under  him, 
 and  that,  having  thrown  himself,  sword  in  hand,  into 
 the  midst  of  his  flying  soldiers,  he  succeeded  in  bring- 
 ing them  back  to  the  fight  and  gaining  the  day.  Some 
 writers  inform  us  that  Albinus  was  slain  by  his  own 
 troops  ;  others  relate  that  he  was  dragged,  mortally 
 wounded,  into  the  presence  of  Severus,  who  beheld 
 him  expire.  The  account  of  his  death,  which  we  have 
 given  above,  is  from  Dio  Cassius,  and  seems  entitled 
 to  the  most  credit.  According  to  Capitolinus  (c.  10, 
 seqq.),  Albinus  was  severe,  gloomy,  and  unsocial,  in- 
 temperate in  wine,  and  remarkable  for  his  voracious 
 gluttony.  This  account,  however,  must  be  received 
 with  caution.  If  we  form  an  idea  of  Albinus  from  his 
 life  and  actions,  we  must  pronounce  him  a  brave  war- 
 rior, a  talented  man,  but  deficient  in  stratagem  and 
 address.  (Biographic  Universellc,  vol.  1,  p.  431,  seqq. 
 — Compare  Crevicr,  Hist,  des  Emp.  Rom.,  vol.  5,  p. 
 153,  seqq  ) — II.  A  Platonic  philosopher,  who  resided 
 at  Smyrna,  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  and  was 
 the  preceptor  of  Galen.  He  is  the  author  of  an  In- 
 troduction to  the  Dialogues  of  Plato,  which  Fabricius 
 has  inserted  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Bibliotheca 
 Grceca.  It  is  also  given  in  Etwal's  edition  of  three 
 of  the  dialogues  of  Plato,  Oxon.,  1771,  8vo.— III.  The 
 name  of  Albinus  was  common  to  a  great  number  of 
 individuals  belonging  to  the  Gens  Postkumia,  for  an 
 account  of  whom  vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Albion,  I.  a  giant,  the  son  of  Neptune,  who,  togeth- 
 er with  his  brother  Bergion,  endeavoured  to  prevent 
 Hercules  from  passing  the  Rhone.  When  the  weap- 
 ons of  the  latter  failed  him  in  this  conflict,  he  prayed 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 to  Jove  for  aid,  and  that  deity  destroyed  the  two  broth- 
 ers by  a  shower  of  stones.  The  battle-ground  was 
 called,  from  the  appearance  which  it  presented,  the 
 Campus  Laptdcu^,  or  "  Stony  plain"  (Mela,  2,  5),  and 
 lay  between  Massilia  and  the  Rhone.  Apollodorus 
 (2,  5,  10)  calls  the  brothers  Alebion  and  Dercynus 
 ('A?if  6i'ui'  re  koi  AspKvvo^),  and  lays  the  scene  in  Li- 
 guiia  (Aiyx'iTi).  This,  however,  as  Vossius  (ad  Mel., 
 I.  c.)  remarks,  should  not  have  misled  Salrnasius  (Sau- 
 maise),  since  Liguria  and  the  Ligures  once  extended 
 even  to  the  Rhone.  (Compare  Heyne.ad  Apollud.,l. 
 c.)  To  Albion  is  ascribed  by  some,  if  indeed  so  ridicu- 
 lous an  etymology  be  worth  mentioning,  one  of  the 
 names  of  Britain. — If.  The  earlier  name  of  the  island 
 of  Great  Britain,  called  by  the  Romans  Britannia  Ma- 
 jor, from  which  they  distinguished  Britannia  Minor, 
 the  modern  French  province  of  Bretagne.  Agatheme- 
 rus  (II,  4),  speaking  of  the  British  islands,  uses  the 
 names  Hibernia  and  Albion  for  the  two  largest ;  Ptol- 
 emy (2,  ;i)  calls  Albion  a  British  island  ;  and  Pliny 
 (4,  16)  says,  that  the  island  of  Britain  was  formerly 
 called  Albion,  the  name  of  Britain  being  common  to 
 all  the  islands  around  it.  ("  Britannia  insula Al- 
 bion ipsi  nomen  fuit,  cum  BritanniccE  vocarenUr  om- 
 we«.")  The  etymology  of  the  name  is  uncertain 
 Some  writers  derive  it  from  the  Greek  uT^pov  (the 
 neuter  of  d?i(p6^),  "white,"  in  reference  to  the  chalky 
 cliffs  on  the  coasts  ;  others  have  recourse  to  the  He- 
 brew albcti,  "  while  ;"  and  others  again  to  the  Phoeni- 
 cian alp  or  aipin,  "  high,"  and  "  high  mountain  ;"  from 
 the  height  of  the  coast.  Sprengel  thinks  it  of  Gallic 
 origin,  the  same  with  Albin,  the  name  of  the  Scotch 
 highlands.  It  appears  to  him  the  plural  of  Alp  or  Ailp, 
 which  signifies  '•  Rocky  Mountains,"  and  to  have  been 
 given  to  the  island,  because  the  shore,  which  looks 
 towards  France,  appears  like  a  long  row  of  rocks.  The 
 term  evidently  comes  from  the  same  source  with  the 
 word  Alpes,  and  conveys  the  associate  ideas  of  a  high 
 and  chalky,  or  whitish,  coast.  ( Vid.  Alpes,  and  com- 
 pare Adehmg,  Mithrada/es,vo\.2,  p.  42,  scqq.)  The 
 ancient  British  poets  call  Britain  Inis  Wen,  "  the  white 
 island."     (Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  32,  seqq.) 
 
 Albis,  a  river  of  Germany,  now  the  Elbe.  It  is 
 called  Albios  by  Dio  Cassius  (55,  1).  This  was  the 
 easternmost  stream  in  Germany  with  which  the  Ro- 
 mans became  acquainted  in  the  course  of  their  e.xpedi- 
 tions :  and  they  knew  it,  moreover,  only  in  the  north- 
 ern part  of  its  course.  Tacitus  learned  that  the  Her- 
 munduri  dwelt  near  its  sources.  (Germ.,  41.)  Ptol- 
 emy also  was  acquainted  with  the  quarter  where  it 
 rose,  on  the  east  side  of  his  Sudetes,  near  the  confines 
 of  the  modern  Moravia.  The  only  Roman  who  passed 
 this  stream  with  an  army  was  L.  Domitius  Ahenobar- 
 bus,  A.U.C.  744  ;  and  though  he  made  no  farther 
 progress,  the  passage  of  the  Albis  was  deemed  worthy 
 of  a  triumph.  (Plin,  4,  14.— Fc/Z.  Paterc,  2,  106. 
 — Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  59. — Id.  ib.,  13,  sub  Jin. — Flav. 
 Vopisc.  Prob.,  13.) 
 
 Albium,  I.  Ingaunum,  a  city  of  Liguria,  on  the 
 coast,  some  distance  to  the  southwest  of  Genua.  It 
 was  the  capital  of  the  Ingauni,  and  answers  to  the 
 modern  Albenga.  (Strab.,  202.— Plin  ,  3,  5.) — II. 
 Intemelium,  a  city  of  Liguria,  on  the  coast,  to  the 
 southwest  of  the  preceding.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
 Intemelii,  and  corresponds  to  the  modern  Vintimiglm. 
 {Slrabo,  2Q2.~Plin.,  3,  5.)  From  Tacitus  (Hist.,  2, 
 13),  we  learn  that  it  was  a  municipium.  '' 
 
 Albijl.^,  the  more  ancient  name  of  the  Tiber.  Man- 
 ner! considers  Albula  the  Latin,  and  Tiberis  the  Etru- 
 rian, name  for  the  stream  ;  which  last  became  in  the 
 course  of  time  the  prevailing  one.  Vid.  Tiberis. 
 {Geogr.,  vol.  9,  p.  607.) 
 
 Albijl^  AQii.E,  a  name  given  to  some  cold  mephitic 
 springs,  about  sixteen  miles  from  Rome,  which  issued 
 from  a  small  but  deep  lake,  and  flowed  into  the  neigh- 
 bouring river  Anio.     They  were  highly  esteemed  %y 
 
 the  Romans  for  their  medicinal  properties,  and  wera 
 used  both  for  drinking  and  bathing.  (Vitruv.,  8,  3. — 
 Plm.,  31,  11.) 
 
 Albunea,  the  largest  of  the  springs  or  fountains 
 which  formed  the  Albuls  Aquas.  It  proceeded,  like 
 the  rest,  from  a  small  but  deep  lake,  and  flowed  with 
 them  into  the  Anio.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
 fountain  was  a  thick  grove,  in  which  were  a  temple 
 and  oracle  of  Faunus.  (Virg.,  JEn  ,  7,  82,  seqq. — 
 Heyne,  ad  Virg.,  I.  c.)  Both  the  grove  and  fountain 
 were  sacred  to  the  nymph  or  sibyl  Albunea,  who  was 
 worshipped  at  Tibur,  and  whose  temple  still  remains 
 on  the  summit  of  the  cliff,  and  overhanging  the  cas- 
 cade. "This  beautiful  temple,"  observes  a  recent 
 traveller,  "  which  stands  on  the  very  spot  where  the 
 eve  of  taste  would  have  placed  it,  and  on  which  it  ever 
 reposes  with  delight,  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  fea- 
 tures of  the  scene,  and  perhaps  gives  to  Tivoli  its 
 greatest  charm."  (Rome  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
 vol.  2,  p.  398,  Am.  ed.)  Varro,  as  cited  by  Lactan- 
 tius  (de  Falsa  Rel.,  1,  6),  gives  a  list  of  the  ancient 
 sibyls,  and  among  them  enumerates  the  one  at  Tibur, 
 surnamed  Albunea,  as  the  tenth  and  last  Suidas 
 also  says,  Aekutt;  ?/  TiBovpria,  ovSfiart  'A?^6ovvaia. 
 (Compare  Hor.,  Od.,  1,  7,  12,  and  Mitschcrhch  and 
 Fra,  ad  loc  — Consult  also  Creuzer,  Symbohk,  vol.  2, 
 p.  975,  and  vol.  4,  p.  27.) 
 
 Alburnus,  a  ridge  of  mountains  in  Lucania,  near 
 the  junction  of  the  Silarus  and  Tanager,  and  between 
 the  latter  river  and  the  Calor.  It  is  now  called  Monte 
 di  Posligltone,  and  sometimes  Alburno.  Near  a  part 
 of  the  ridge,  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Sinus  Paestanus, 
 was  a  harbour  of  the  same  name  (Alburnus  Portus), 
 where  the  Silarus  emptied  into  the  sea.  (  Virg.,  Georg., 
 3,  146. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  376.) 
 
 Albus,  I.  PoRTUs,  a  harbour  on  the  coast  of  Syria, 
 supposed  by  Gail  to  be  the  harbour  of  Laodicea  to 
 which  Appian  alludes  (koI  kg  to  TreAnyof  exovaa  opfxov. 
 Bell.  Civ.,  4,  60),  and  placed  by  him  to  the  west  of 
 the  promontory  of  Ziaret.  (Gail,  ad  Anon.  Stadiasm. 
 Mans  Mag  —Geogr.  Gr.  Min.,  vol.  2,  p.  538.)— II. 
 Vicus  (Tj  Aeii/c//  Ku^u?;),  a  harbour  in  Arabia,  from  which 
 Gallus  set  out  on  his  expedition  into  the  interior. 
 (Strab.,  781.)  It  is  supposed  by  Mannert  to  be  the 
 same  with  the  modern  harbour  of  lambo.  (Geogr., 
 vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  50. — Compare  Pcripl.  Mar.  Erylhr., 
 p.  11. — Geogr.   Gr.  Mm.,  ed.  Hudson,  vol.  1.) 
 
 Albutius,  I.  a  wealthy  Roman,  remarkable  for  his 
 severity  towards  his  slaves.  According  to  an  ancient 
 scholiast,  he  even  punished  them  sometimes  before 
 they  had  committed  any  offence,  "  lest,"  said  he,  "  I 
 should  have  no  time  to  punish  them  when  they  do  of- 
 fend." (Hor(it.,Serm.,  2,  2,  Gl.—Schoi,  ad  Horat.,  I. 
 c.)  Porphyrion  (ad  Hor.,  I.  c.)  styles  him,  "  et  avarus, 
 etelegans  convwwrum  apparator."  The  epithet  a«a- 
 rus,  however,  must  evidently  be  thrown  out,  as  con- 
 tradicting what  follot\'s. — II.  T.,  a  Roman  of  the  Epi- 
 curean school.  He  was  educated  at  Athens,  and  ren- 
 dered himself  ridiculous,  on  his  return  home,  by  his 
 excessive  attachment  to  the  language  and  manners  of 
 Greece.  About  A.U.C.  648,  he  was  sent  as  praetor 
 to  Sardinia.  For  some  unimportant  services  ren- 
 dered here,  he  believed  himself  entitled  to  a  triumph. 
 The  senate,  however,  rejected  his  application,  and  he 
 was  accused,  on  his  return,  by  the  augur  Mucins 
 Sc£Bvola,  of  extortion  in  his  government.  Being  con- 
 demned, he  went  into  exile  at  Athens,  where  he  con- 
 soled himself,  amid  his  disgrace,  by  philosophical  in- 
 vestigations, and  by  composing  satires  in  the  style  o.f 
 Lucilius.  (Cic.,  Brut.,  3b.— Id.,  dc  Fin.,  1,  S.—Id., 
 Orat.,  U.—Id.,  in  Pis.,  38.— Id.,  Brut.,  2  6— Id., 
 Tusc.  Qnast.,  5,  37.)— III.  C.  Silus,  a  rhetorician  in 
 the  age  of  Augustus.  He  was  a  native  of  Novaria  in 
 Cisalpine  Gaul,  where  he  exercised  for  a  time  the  func 
 tions  of  ffidile.  Being  grossly  insulted,  however,  by 
 some  individuals  against  whom  he  was  pronouncing  9 
 
 99 
 
ALC 
 
 ALC 
 
 decision,  and  being  dragged  by  the  feet  from  his  tri- 
 bunal, he  left  his  native  city  and  came  to  Rome,  where 
 he  soon  attained  to  distinction  as  a  pleader.  A  sin- 
 gular adventure  induced  him  to  leave  the  bar  Intend- 
 ing, on  one  occasion,  merely  to  employ  a  rhetorical 
 figure,  he  said  to  the  opposite  party,  who  was  accused 
 of  impiety  towards  his  parctits,  "  Swear  by  the  ashes 
 of  thy  father  and  mother"  (and  thou  shalt  gain  thy 
 cause).  The  defendant  immediately  accepted  the  con- 
 dition, and,  though  Albutius  protested  that  he  merely 
 employed  a  figure  of  rhetoric,  the  judges  admitted  the 
 oath,  and  the  defendant  was  acquitted.  In  his  old  age 
 Albutius  returned  to  Novaria,  where  he  assembled  his 
 fellow-ciiizens,  and  represented  to  them  that  his  age 
 and  tlie  maladies  under  which  lie  was  labouring  ren- 
 dered life  insupportable.  When  he  had  finished  his  ha- 
 rangue he  retired  to  his  dwelling,  and  starved  himself. 
 — IV.  Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Alc^us,  I.  a  celebrated  poet  of  Mytilene,  in  Les- 
 bos, and  the  contemporary  of  Sappho,  Pittacus,  and 
 Stesichorus.  {Clinton'' s  Fast.  Hell.,\o\.  1,  p.  5,  2dcd.) 
 He  was  famed  as  well  for  his  resistance  to  tyranny  and 
 his  unsettled  life,  as  for  his  lyric  productions.  Having 
 aided  Pittacus  to  deliver  his  country  from  the  tyrants 
 which  oppressed  it,  he  quarrelled  with  this  friend, 
 when  ihe  people  of  Mytilene  had  placed  uncontrolled 
 power  in  the  hands  of  the  latter,  and  some  injurious 
 verses,  which  he  composed  against  Pittacus,  caused 
 himself  and  his  adherents  to  be  driven  into  exile.  An 
 endeavour  to  return  by  force  of  arms  proved  unsuc- 
 cessful, and  Alcaeus  fell  into  the  power  of  his  former 
 friend,  who,  forgetting  all  that  had  passed,  generously 
 granted  him  both  life  and  freedom.  In  his  odes  Al- 
 csEus  treated  of  various  topics.  At  one  time  he  in- 
 veighed against  tyrants  ;  at  another  he  deplored  the 
 misfortunes  which  had  attended  him,  and  the  pains  of 
 exile  :  while,  on  other  occasions,  he  celebrated  the 
 praises  of  Bacchus  and  the  goddess  of  love.  He  wrote 
 in  the  .■Eolic  dialect.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
 speaks  in  high  commendation  of  the  lofty  character  of 
 his  compositions,  the  conciseness  of  his  style,  and  the 
 clearness  of  his  images.  His  productions,  indeed, 
 breathed  the  same  spirit  with  his  life.  A  strong, 
 manly  enthusiasm  for  freedom  and  justice  pervaded 
 even  those  in  which  he  sang  the  pleasures  of  love  and 
 wine.  But  the  sublimity  of  hi.s  nature  shone  brightest 
 when  he  praised  valour,  chastised  tyrants,  described 
 the  blessings  of  liberty,  and  the  misery  and  hardships 
 of  exile.  His  lyric  muse  was  versed  in  all  the  forms 
 and  subjects  of  poetry,  and  antiquity  attributes  to  him 
 hymns,  odes,  and  songs.  A  few  fragments  only  are 
 left  of  all  of  them,  and  a  distant  echo  of  his  poetry 
 reaches  us  in  some  of  the  odes  of  Horace.  Alcsus 
 was  the  inventor  of  the  metre  that  bears  his  name,  one 
 of  the  most  beautiful  and  melodious  of  all  the  lyric 
 measures.  Horace  has  employed  it  in  many  of  his 
 odes.  As  regards  the  personal  cHaracter  of  the  poet, 
 it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  charge  of  cowardice 
 which  some  have  endeavoured  to  fasten  upon  him,  for 
 his  misfortune  in  having  lost  his  shield  durintr  a  con- 
 flict between  the  Mytileneans  and  Athenians  for  the 
 possession  of  Siga?um,  would  seem  to  be  anything  but 
 just.  Equally  unjust  is  the  same  charge,  as  brouo-ht 
 against  Horace  for  hi«  conduct  at  Philippi.  (Cons^ult 
 the  work  of  Van  Ommeren,  Hora:  aU-  Afc?isch  und 
 Burger  von  Rom  ,  (kc,  Aus  dcm  Holland  ,  von  L. 
 Walch.) — The  fragments  that  remain  to  us  of  the  po- 
 etr)'  of  Alcaeus,  are  to  be  found  in  the  collections  of 
 H.  Stephens  and  Fulvius  Ilrsinus.  Jani,  one  of  the 
 editors  of  Horace,  publislicd,  from  1780  to  1782,  three 
 Prolusiones,  containing  those  fragments  of  AIca;us 
 which  the  Latin  poet  had  imitnLcd.  In  1812,  Stange 
 united  these  opiiscula  in  a  volume  which  appeared  at 
 Halle,  under  the  title  of  '^Alccei  poctce  lyrici  Jragnioi- 
 *<i"  The  most  complete  and  accurate  collection,  how- 
 ever, is  that  by  Matthiae,  Lips.,  1827.  A  collection 
 100 
 
 was  also  made  by  Blomfield  in  the  Museum  Criticom, 
 1,  p.  421,  &:c.,  Cainb.,  1826,  reprinted  in  Gaisfo.-d'* 
 Poetae  Grseci  Minores.  Additional  fragments  have 
 been  printed  in  the  Rhenish  Museum  for  1829,  18:33, 
 and  183.5  ;  in  Jahn's  Jahrbiich.  fiir  Philolog  for  1830  ; 
 and  in  Cramer's  Anecdota  Graeca,  O.\oii.,  1835. 
 {Schbll,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  204.-— ZJw/e,  Gcsch. 
 der  Lynschen  Dicktkunst  der  Hcllcnen,  2,  p.  378.  scqq.) 
 — II.  An  epigrammatic  poet.  (Vid.  Supplement.) 
 — III.  A  comic  poet  of  Athens,  contemporary  with 
 Aristophanes.  Some  of  his  contemporaries  are  cited  by 
 Athenaius  (3,  p.  107. — Vol.  l,p.  418,  cd.  Schuagh.), 
 and  others.  (Compare  Casmibon,  ad  Athcn.,  I.  c. — 
 CHnton's  Fasti  Hellcmci,  vol.  1,  p.  101.) — IV.  An 
 Athenian  tragic  poet,  whom  some,  according  to  Sui- 
 das,  made  to  have  been  the  fir.st  writer  in  trap-edy. 
 (Compare  Casauhon,  ad  Athen.,3,p.  107,  and  the  re- 
 marks of  Schwcighauscr,  vol.  9,  p.  14.) — V.  A  son 
 of  Perseus,  and  father  of  Amphitryon,  from  whom 
 Hercules  has  been  called  .Alcides.  {Apollod.,  2,  4, 
 12. — Compare  Heyne,.ad  loc.) 
 
 Alcamisnes,  I.  ninth  king  of  Sparta,  and  one  of  the 
 AgidK  (vid.  Agidae),  succeeded  his  father  A.M.  3235 
 B  C.  769,  and  reigned  thirty-seven  years,  in  which 
 time  there  was  a  rebellion  of  the  Helots.  Plutarch 
 cites  some  of  his  apophthegms.  (I'lut.,  Apoph.  La- 
 con.,  32. — Pavsan.,  3,  2. — Mcnrsivs,de  Reg.  Lacon., 
 9.) — II.  Astatuaryand  sculptor  of  Athens,  who  flourish- 
 ed about  448  B.C.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Phidias,  and 
 adorned  his  country  with  numerous  specimens  of  his 
 superior  skill,  a  skill  which  almost  equalled  that  of  his 
 master.  {Qumtil,  12,  10. —  Diojiys.  Hal.,  de  De- 
 mosth.  Acum..  pt.  6,  p.  1108,  cd.  Reiske.)  The  most 
 celebrated  of  his  productions  was  his  statue  of  Venus, 
 commonly  styled  rj  'A(ppoStT?]  hv  toi^  Kr/noi^,  and 
 sometimes  simply  Kf/noi.  It  is  said  to  have  received 
 its  last  polish  from  the  hand  of  Phidias  himself,  and  is 
 spoken  of  in  high  terms  by  Lucian  and  others.  {Luc. 
 Imag.,  4  c<  6. )  "Whether  this  was  the  statue  of  Venus, 
 by  which  Alcamenes  obtained  his  victory  over  Agora- 
 critus  {vid.  Agoracritus),  cannot  be  determined  with 
 certainty  from  the  words  of  Pliny.  If  we  suppose  it 
 to  have  been  the  same,  we  have  this  difficulty,  that  all 
 ancient  writers  pronounce  the  Venus  Iv  kj'/ttoic:  of  Alca- 
 menes, one  of  the  highest  productions  of  the  art,  while 
 Pliny  asserts,  that  the  artist  was  indebted  for  his  suc- 
 cess, in  the  contest  just  mentioned,  not  to  the  superi- 
 ority of  his  performance,  but  to  the  spirit  of  party  which 
 influenced  the  umpires.  Another  highly  celebrated 
 work  of  his  was  the  rear  jiediment  of  the  temfile  of 
 Jupiter  at  Olympia,  of  which  Pausanias  has  left  ns  a 
 description  (5,  10).  On  it  was  represented  the  conflict 
 between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithse.  Cicero  {N.  D., 
 1,  30)  speaks  of  a  statue  of  Vulcan  by  this  artist,  and 
 Valerius  Maximus  (8,  11,  3)  informs  us.  that  although 
 the  god  was  exhibited  as  lame,  yet  the  lameness  was 
 in  a  great  measure  concealed  by  the  drapery  and  posi- 
 tion. The  distinguished  merit  of  Alcamenes  obtained 
 for  him  the  honour  of  being  placed  in  a  bas-relief  on 
 the  temple  at  Eleusis.  {Flin.,  34,  8. — ]d.  ibid.,  36, 
 5. — Pausan.,  1,  19.) — III.  An  artist  whose  name  oc- 
 curs on  some  Roman  embossed  work,  described  by 
 Zoega.  {Bass.  Ant.,  &c.,  tav.  23 — Consult  Sillig, 
 Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.)  He  is  called  a  duumvir,  and  it  has 
 been  conjectured  that,  besides  being  raised  to  civil  hon- 
 ours in  the  municipal  state  to  which  he  belonged,  he 
 also  obtained  his  livelihood  by  exercising  the  art  of 
 modelling.     {Sillig,  uhi  sxtpra.) 
 
 Alcander,  a  Lacedrnmonian  youth,  of  hasty  tem- 
 per, but  not  otherwise  ill-disposed,  who,  during  a  pop- 
 ular tumult,  struck  out  one  of  the  eyes  of  Lycurgus, 
 The  people  were  so  moved  with  shame  and  sorrow  at 
 the  outrage,  that  they  surrendered  Alcandcr  into  his 
 hands,  to  do  with  him  as  he  pleased.  Lycurgus  took 
 him  to  his  own  home,  and  so  won  upon  him  by  mild 
 treatment,  that  Alcander  became  one  of  his  warmest 
 friends  and  an  excellent  citizen.    {Plut.,  Vit.  Lye,  11.) 
 
ALC 
 
 ALC 
 
 ALCATH6ui=,  I.  a  son  of  Pelops,  who,  being  suspect- 
 ed of  murdering  his  broiher  Chrysippus,  came  to  Me- 
 gara,  where  he  killed  a  lion,  which  had  destroyed  the 
 king's  son.  The  monarch  had  promised  the  hand  of 
 his  daughter,  and  the  succession  to  the  throne,  unto 
 ■him  who  should  succeed  in  destroying  the  wild  beast. 
 AJcall  oils,  therefore,  gained  both  of  these  prizes,  and 
 succeeded  in  the  course  of  time  to  the  kingdom  of  Me- 
 gara.  In  commemoration  of  him,  festivals,  called  Al- 
 cathoia,  were  instituted  at  Megara.  {Pausan.,  I,  41, 
 d:c.) — II.  One  of  the  two  citadels  of  Megara,  so  called 
 from  its  founder  Alcathous.     {Pausan.,  1,  40  and  42.) 
 
 Ai.CE,  a  town  of  the  Celtiheri,  in  Hispania  I'arra- 
 conensis,  called  also  Alcaratiuin.  It  answers  to  the 
 modern  Alcaraz,  in  New  Castile,  on  the  river  Guardn- 
 tticna.     {Liv  ,  40,  47,  scqq.) 
 
 Ai.cENOR,  an  Argive,  who,  along  with  Chronius, 
 survived  on  his  side,  the  battle  between  300  of  his 
 countrymen  and  300  Laced.tmonians.  {Vid.  Othrya- 
 des.—  Herodoi,  1,  82.) 
 
 Ai.cESTis,  daughter  of  Pelias  and  wife  of  Admetus. 
 Her  father  had  offered  to  give  her  in  marriage  to  this 
 prince,  on  condition  of  his  previously  yoking  lions  and 
 boars  to  a  chariot,  and  Admetus  successfully  accom- 
 plished this  through  the  aid  of  Apollo.  This  same  deity, 
 who  was  then  serving  with  Admetus,  in  accordance 
 with  the  sentence  that  had  been  passed  against  him 
 (vid.  ^sculapius,  Amphrysus,  and  Cyclopes),  obtained 
 from  the  fates,  that  when  Admetus  should  be  about 
 to  end  his  existence,  his  life  would  be  spared  and  pro- 
 longed, provided  another  willingly  died  in  his  stead. 
 When  the  day  came,  Alcestis  heroically  devoted  her- 
 self for  her  husband,  but  was  rescued  from  the  lower 
 world  and  restored  to  the  regions  of  day  by  Hercules. 
 According  to  another  version  of  the  legend,  she  was 
 sent  back  again  to  life  by  Proserpina.  Euripides  has 
 founded  upon  this  story  of  Alcestis  one  of  his  most 
 beautiful  tragedies.  (ApoUod.,  1,  9,  14.)  This  same 
 legend  is  also  given  in  a  different  and  more  historical 
 form,  as  follows  :  when  Medea  had  prevailed  upon  the 
 daughters  of  Pelias  to  cut  their  father  in  pieces,  in  ex- 
 pectation of  seeing  him  restored  to  youth,  and  thev 
 were  pursued  by  their  brother  Acastus,  Alcestis  fled 
 for  protection  to  her  cousin  Admetus.  This  prince 
 refusing  to  deliver  her  up,  Acastus  marched  against 
 him,  took  him  prisoner,  and  threatened  to  put  him  to 
 death,  when  Alcestis  heroically  surrendered  herself 
 into  her  brother's  hands,  and  saved  the  life  of  Adme- 
 tus. It  happened,  however,  that,  just  at  this  time,  Her- 
 cules came  that  way  with  the  horses  of  Diomede,  and 
 was  hospitably  entertained  by  Admetus.  On  learning 
 from  him  what  had  taken  place,  the  hero  was  fired  with 
 indignation,  attacked  x\castus,  destroyed  his  army,  and 
 rescued  Alcestis,  whom  he  restored  in  safety  to  his 
 royal  host.  (Eudocia,  Ion.  ap.  VtUoison.,  Anccd.  GrcRc, 
 vol.  1,  21,  -"cqq.) 
 
 Alcetas,  I.  a  king  of  Epirus,  descended  from  Pyr- 
 rhus,  the  son  of  Achilles,  and  an  ancestor  of  Pyrrhus, 
 king  of  Epirus.  He  was  driven  by  his  subjects  from 
 the  throne,  but  regained  his  power  by  the  aid  of  Dio- 
 nysius  the  elder,  of  Syracuse. — II.  King  of  Epirus, 
 son  of  Arymbae.  and  grandson  of  the  preceding.  His 
 sntijccts  strangled  him,  together  with  his  two  sons, 
 B.C/.  312. — \\\.  The  eighth  king  of  Macedonia,  son 
 of  .'Eropus,  and  father  of  Amyntas  I.  He  reigned  29 
 years,  from  576  to  547  B.C.— IV^  A  general  of  Al- 
 exander the  Great,  and  brother  of  Perdiccas.  He  slew 
 himself  after  a  defeat  by  Antigonus,  during  the  contests 
 that  ensued  after  Alexander's  decease. — V.  An  his- 
 torian who  wrote  an  account  of  the  offerings  at  Delphi, 
 TTfpt  Tuv  Iv  Ae2.(j>ul^  avaQrifiuTov.  (Athenaus,  13,  p. 
 591,  c.) 
 
 AfxiBiADEs,  a  celebrated  Athenian  commander,  son 
 of  Clinias,  nephew  lo  Pericles,  and  hneally  descended, 
 as  was  said,  from  the  Telamcnian  Ajax.  He  was 
 born  B.C.  450.     Conspicuous  for  beauty,  and  for  an 
 
 insinuating  and  graceful  demeanour,  he  made  himself 
 still  more  conspicuous  for  his  extravagant  expenditures, 
 his  contempt  of  order,  and  his  dissolute  mode  of  life. 
 The  lessons  and  the  example  of  Socrates,  who  num- 
 bered him  for  some  time  amonghis  disciples,  0[)erated 
 but  feebly  in  checking  the  vicious  propensities  of  the 
 young  Athenian,  or  in  restraining  his  bold  and  ambi- 
 tious designs.      He  took  Pericles  as  his  model  in  pub- 
 lic life,  and  resolved  to  tread  in  the  footsteps  of  that 
 illustrious  statesman,  and  succeed,  if  possible,  to  the 
 authority  which  he  had  enjoyed.     The  Athenians,  in 
 tiie  time  of  Pericles,  had  entertained  a  strong  desire  of 
 becoming  masters  of  Sicily,  and  Alcibiades,  after  the 
 death  of  his  uncle,  succeeded  in  prevailing  upon  them 
 to  send  an  armament  for  that  purpose.     This  was  du- 
 ring the  Peloponnesian  war.     The  expedition  was  di- 
 rected against  Syracuse,  and  Alcibiades,  with  Niciaa 
 and  Lamachus,  received  the  command.      A  short  time, 
 however,  before  the  departure  of  the  fleet,  the  Hernias 
 or  images  of  Mercury,  placed  throughout  Athens,  were 
 all  mutilated  in  the  course  of  one  night,  and  suspicion 
 fell  upon  Alcibiades,  who  was  supposed  to  have  been 
 guilty  of  this  act  of  profanation  during  a  drunken  ca- 
 rousal with  some  of  his  young  friends.     After  having 
 been  allowed  to  sail  with  the  expedition,  he  was  soon 
 sent  for,  and  summoned  to  stand  trial  for  this  and  other 
 alleged  acts  of  impiety.     Avoiding,  however,  a  return 
 to  Athens,  he  took  refuge,  first  in  Argos,  and   after- 
 ward at  Sparta,  at  which  latter  place  he  excited  very 
 friendly  feelings  towards  himself  by  the  important  ad- 
 vice he  gave  respecting  the  future  movements  of  the 
 war,  and  became  an  object  of  wonder  by  the  ease  with 
 which  he  adopted  the  plain  and  austere  manners  of 
 the  Spartans,  so  directly  at  variance  with  his  previous 
 mode  of  life.     Distrusting,  however,  at  last,  the  sin- 
 cerity of  the  Lacedemonians,  he  betook  himself  to  Tis- 
 saphernes,  satrap  of  the  King  of  Persia,  and  soon  at- 
 tained to  great  favour.     Not  long  after  this,  he  was 
 restored,  by  a  strange  turn  of  fortune,  to  the  good-will 
 of  his  countrymen  ;  the  sentence  of  banishment  that 
 had  been  passed  against  him  was  revoked,  he  was 
 appointed  to  a  command,  and,  after  a  career  of  brill- 
 iant success,  returned  in  triumph  to  Athens.     His  pop- 
 ularity, however,  was  of  short  continuance.     Lysander, 
 the  Spartan  admiral,  defeated  the  Athenian  fleet,  and 
 slew  Antiochus,  to  whom  Alcibiades  had  left   it  in 
 charge,  when  departing   for  Caria,  in  order   to  raise 
 money  for  the  war  ;  and  Alcibiades  soon  found  himself 
 compelled  to  solicit  once  more  the  protection  of  the 
 Persians.     Pharnabazus,  the  satrap,  allowed  him  for  a 
 while  a  safe  residence  in  Phrygia,  but  finally,  through 
 the   solicitations  of  Lysander,  he  caused  Alcibiadet 
 to  be  slain,  by  an  armed  party,  at  his  place  of  abode, 
 in  a  small  village.     This  remarkable  man  died  in  his 
 46th  year.  B.C.  404.    If  the  Athenians  had  only  known 
 how  to  retain  among  them  an  individual  of  so  rare  merit 
 both  as  a  civilian  and  a  soldier,  they  might  easily  have 
 given  the  law  to  all  Greece.     And  yet  impartial  his- 
 tory, while  it  awards  him  the  highest  praise  for  his  tal- 
 ents as  a  statesman,  and  his  skill  and  intrepidity  as  a 
 commander,  cannot  but  condemn,  in  the  most  unequiv- 
 ocal manner,  the  licentiousness  of  his  private  life,  the 
 versatility  and  chameleon-like  character  of  his  princi- 
 ples of  action,  and  his  traitorous  conduct,  on  more 
 than  one  occasion,  to  the  best  interests  of  his  country. 
 {Plut.,  Vit.  Alcib.—Corn.  Nep.,  Vit.  Alnb.) 
 
 Alcidamas,  a  Greek  rhetorician.  {Vid.  Supple- 
 ment.) 
 
 Ar-ciDAs.  a  naval  commander  of  Sparta  m  the  timo 
 of  the  Peloponnesian  -^var,  B.C.  428.  He,  on  one  oc- 
 casion, lost,  in  consequence  of  his  habitual  caution,  the 
 opportunity  of  following  up  a  victory  gamed  by  him 
 over  the  Athenians  and  Corcyreans. 
 
 Alcidks,  I.  a  name  of  Hercules,  either  from  his 
 strength,  uUj),  or  from  his  grandfather  Alcsus  —II. 
 A  surname  of  Mmerva  in  Macedonia.     {Lit.,  42,  51.) 
 
ALC 
 
 ALCMiEON. 
 
 For  Alcidem  in  the  passage  of  Livy  here  quoted,  we 
 should  no  doubt  read,  according  to  Turnebus  {Advcrs., 
 30,  57),  Aktdcmnm,  "the  people's  strength." 
 
 Alcimachus,  a  painter.     {Vid.  Supplement.) 
 
 Alcimedon,  I.  an  Arcadian  hero.  (Vid.  Supple- 
 ment.)—  II.  An  embosser  or  chaser  spoken  of  by  Vir- 
 gil (T'^cloff.,  3,  37,  44),  who  mentions  some  goblets  of 
 his  workmanship.  Sillig  thinks  he  was  a  contempo- 
 rary of  the  poet's. 
 
 Ai-ciMENEs.      Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Alcimus.      Vtd.  Supplement. 
 
 Alcinous,  1.  a  son  of  Nausithous,  king  of  Phseacia, 
 praised  for  his  love  of  agriculture.  He  kindly  enter- 
 tained Ulysses,  who  had  been  shipwrecked  on  his  coast. 
 The  gardens  of  Alcinous  are  beautifully  described  by 
 Homer,  and  have  afforded,  also,  a  favourite  theme  for 
 succeediniT  jioets.  The  island  of  the  Phteacians  is 
 called  by  Homer  Schcria.  Its  more  ancient  name 
 was  Drepane.  After  the  days  of  Homer  it  was  called 
 CoTcyra.  Now  Corfu.  (  Kni  Corcyra. — Homer,  Od., 
 7.—0rph.,  in  Argon.— Virg.,  G.,  2,  87.— Stat.,  1.— 
 Sylv.,  3,  81.)— II.  A  Platonic  philosopher.  (Vid. 
 Supplement.) — III.  A  son  of  Hippothoon,  who,  in  con- 
 junction with  his  father  and  eleven  brothers,  expelled 
 Icarion  and  Tyndareus  from  Lacedaemon,  but  was  af- 
 terward killed,  with  his  father  and  brothers,  by  Hercu- 
 les.    (Apollod.,  3.  10.  5.1 
 
 Ai-ciPHRON,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Greek 
 epistolary  writers.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life,  and 
 even  his  era  is  uncertain.  Some  critics  place  him  be- 
 tween Lucian,  whom  he  has  imitated,  and  Aristaene- 
 tus,  to  whom  he  served  as  a  model ;  in  other  words, 
 between  the  years  170  and  350  of  the  present  era. 
 Others,  however,  are  inclined  to  transfer  him  to  the 
 fifth  century.  Neither  side  have  attended  to  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  there  being  among  the  letters  of  Aris- 
 taenetus  a  kind  of  correspondence  between  Lucian 
 and  Alciphron.  This  correspondence,  it  is  true,  is 
 fictitious ;  yet  it  indicates,  at  the  same  time,  that  Aris- 
 taenetus  regarded  these  two  writers  as  contemporaries, 
 and  we  have  no  good  reason  to  accuse  him  of  any  er- 
 ror in  this  respect.  Though  a  contemporary,  Alciph- 
 ron might  still  have  imitated  Lucian  :  it  is  much  more 
 probable,  however,  that  the  passages  which  appear  to 
 us  to  be  imitations  are  borrowed  ov  tnese  two  writers 
 from  some  ancient  comic  poets.  Tne  .etters  of  Al- 
 ciphron are  1 1 6  in  number,  lorming  tnree  oooks.  They 
 are  distinguished  for  Duritv.  clearness,  and  simolicitv, 
 and  are  important  as  givmg  us  a  representation  of. 
 Athenian  manners,  drawn  irom  aramatio  ooets  wnose 
 writings  are  now  lost.  Tne  oe.st  portion  o.  tne  worii 
 is  the  2d  book,  containing  the  letters  oi  tne  netaerse.  or  [ 
 courtesans  ;  and,  among  these,  that  of  Menanaer  to  : 
 Glycerion,  and  that  of  Glycerion  to  Menander.  Tne  ; 
 principal  editions  are,  that  of  Bergler,  Lips.,  1715,  8vo, 
 with  an  excellent  commentary  ;  that  of  Wagner,  Lips., 
 1778,  2  vols.  8vo,  containing  a  corrected  text,  a  Latin 
 version,  the  commentary  of  Bergler,  and  the  editor's 
 own  notes  ;  and  that  of  Boissonade,  Paris,  1822,  8vo. 
 Wagner  had  been  furnished  by  Bast  with  the  readings 
 of  two  Vienna  MSS.,  but,  according  to  the  Critical 
 Epistle  of  the  last-mentioned  scholar,  did  not  make  all 
 the  use  of  these  collated  readings  which  he  might  have 
 done.  Among  the  papers  of  Bast,  after  his  decease, 
 were  found  various  readings  of  the  Letters  of  Alciph- 
 ron, derived  from  four  Paris  MSS.,  two  of  the  Vat- 
 ican, and  one  of  Heidelberg.  Many  of  these  were 
 preferable  to  the  received  readings.  Along  with  them 
 were  found  various  unedited  fragments,  and  even  en- 
 tire letters,  which  had  never  yet  been  printed.  These 
 papers  arc  now  in  England,  and  were  used  by  Bois- 
 sonade in  his  edition  (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 4,  p.  313,  seqq. —  Wachler,  Handbuch  der  Gesch.  der 
 Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  241.) 
 
 AiAippE,  I.  a  daughter  of  the  god  Mars,  by  Agrau- 
 los. — II.  The  daughter  of  CEnomaus. 
 102 
 
 Alois,  a  snmame  of  Minerra,  and  the  nanoe  of  a 
 deity  among  the  Naharvali.      (Vtd.  Supplcmciit.) 
 
 Alcithoe,  a  Theban  female,  who,  together  with  ber 
 sisters,  contemned  and  ridiculed  the  orgies  of  Bac- 
 chus, and,  while  these  rites  were  getting  celebrated 
 without,  employed  themselves  at  home  with  the  dj.<*laff, 
 and  beguiled  the  lime  by  recounting  poetic  legends. 
 They  were  changed  into  bats,  and  the  sjiindles  and 
 yarn,  with  which  they  worked,  into  vines  and  ivy.  (Op., 
 Met.,  A,  \,seqq. — Id.  ib.,3H9,  seqq.)  As  regards  the 
 terms  Minyeias  and  Minycia  proles,  which  Ovid  ap 
 plies  to  the  sisters,  consult  Gicng,  ad  loc. 
 
 Alcm^on,  I.  a  son  of  Amphiaraus  and  Eriphyle, 
 and  a  native  of  Argos.  When  his  father  went  to  the 
 Theban  war,  where  he  knew  he  was  to  perish,  AIc- 
 moeon  was  directed  by  him,  when  he  should  hear  of  his 
 death,  to  kill  Eriphyle  who  had  betrayed  him.  ( Vid. 
 Eriphyle.)  The  son  obeyed  the  father's  injunctions, 
 and  was  pursued,  in  consequence,  by  the  furies,  the 
 avengers  of  parricide.  According  to  another  account, 
 being  chosen  chief  of  the  seven  Epigoni,  he  took  and 
 destroyed  Thebes,  and,  after  this  event,  put  his  moth- 
 er to  death,  in  obedience  to  an  oracle  of  Apollo. 
 (Apollod.,  3,  7,  5.)  While  in  the  state  of  phrensy  which 
 was  sent  upon  him  as  a  punishment  for  this  deed,  he 
 came  first  to  Arcadia,  to  Oicleus,  and,  from  the  resi- 
 dence of  this  his  paternal  grandfather,  went  subsequent- 
 ly to  the  city  of  Psophis,  to  Phegeus,  its  king.  Being 
 purified  of  the  murder  by  Phegeus,  he  married  Arsinoe, 
 the  daughter  of  the  latter,  and  gave  to  her,  as  a  bridal 
 present,  the  fatal  collar  and  robe  (tuv  re  upfiov  koI  tov 
 KETv'Aov)  which  his  mother  Eriphyle  had  received  to  be 
 tray  his  father.  The  country,  however,  becoming  bar- 
 ren, in  consequence  -f  his  residing  in  it  (6l'  avrov),  he 
 was  directed  by  an  ■iLi.z<e,  as  the  only  means  of  es- 
 caping the  vengeaucj  ji'  the  furies,  to  find,  and  dwell 
 in,  a  land  which  was  not  in  existence  when  he  slew  his 
 parent.  (Pausan.,  8,  24. — Compare  Heyne,  ad  Apol- 
 lod., I.  c.)  He  at  last  found  rest,  lor  a  short  time,  on 
 an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Achelous,  formed  by  the 
 alluvial  deposites  of  that  stream.  (Vid.  Echinades.) 
 Here  he  married  Callirhoe,  the  daughter  of  the  river- 
 god,  after  repudiating  his  former  Cvife  Arsinoe.  But 
 he  did  not  long  enjoy  repose.  At  the  request  of  his 
 wife,  he  attempted  to  recover  from  his  former  father- 
 in-law  the  collar  and  robe  which  he  had  presented  to 
 his  daughter,  and,  as  a  pretext  for  obtaining  them, 
 stated  that  he  had  been  directed  by  an  oracle,  as  the 
 on.T  means  of  freeing  himself  from  the  furies,  to  con 
 secrate  tne  articles  in  question  to  Apollo  at  Delphi. 
 Pnegeus  gave  mem  up.  but  the  imposition  being  made 
 Known  CO  mm  ov  an  attendant,  he  ordered  his  sons  to 
 wav.a.y  and  aesirov  Aicmcson,  which  was  accordingly 
 Qone.  A.cmaeon  s  aeatn  was  avenged  by  the  two  sons 
 wnom  he  had  bv  Callirhoe.  Their  mother  entreated 
 oi  Jupiter  tnat  tney  mignt  speedily  attain  to  manhood, 
 and  retaliate  on  their  father's  murderers.  The  prayer 
 was  heard  ;  tney  oecame  on  a  suooen  men  in  tne  pnme 
 of  life,  and  slew  not  only  the  two  sons  of  Phegeus,  du; 
 the  monarch  himself  and  bis  wife.  The  sons  of  Alc- 
 maeon  by  Callirhoe  were  Amphoterus  and  Acaman, 
 and  are  said  to  have  settled  subsequently  in  Acarna- 
 nia,  the  latter  giving  name  to  the  country.     (Apollod., 
 
 I.  c.)  Pausanias  calls  Arsinoe  by  the  name  of  Alphe- 
 siboea  (vid.  Alphesibcea),  and,  in  other  parts  of  his  nar- 
 rative also,  differs  from  Apollodorus.  On  tliese  and 
 other  variations,  consult  Heyne,  ad  Apollod.,  I.  c. — 
 
 II.  The  founder  of  an  illustrious  family  at  Athens,  call 
 ed  after  him  Alcmneonidas.  He  was  the  son  of  Stilus, 
 and  great  grandson  of  Nestor  ;  and,  being  driven  from 
 Messenia,  with  the  rest  of  Nestor's  family,  by  the  Herac- 
 lida>,  settled  at  Athens.  (Pimsn?}.,  2,  IS. — Compare 
 the  note  of  Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  1,  p.  299,  2d  ed., 
 where  he  disproves  the  assertion  of  Larcher.  od  Herod., 
 6,  125,  who  makes  the  Alcmasonidae  to  have  been  de- 
 scended from  Melanthus.) — IH.  A  son  of  Megacle^ 
 
ALC 
 
 ALC 
 
 Raving  shovsm  much  kindness  and  lattention  to  the 
 {[«rsot»s  whom  Cnajsus  had  sent  to  Delphi  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  consuUing  the  oracle,  that  monarch  invited 
 him  to  Sardis,  and  gave  him  permission  to  carry  from 
 the  re>3'al  treasury  as  much  gold  as  he  could  bear  off 
 with  hiiH  at  one  visit.  Herodotus  (6,  125)  gives  an 
 accou:'tof  the  mode  in  which  he  availed  himself  of 
 the  royal  oifer,  filling  with  gold  his  arras,  the  folds  of 
 his  habit,  his  large  shoes  worn  expressly  for  the  occa- 
 sion, and  having  not  only  his  hair  powdered  with  gold- 
 dust,  but  his  mouth  full  of  it.  To  these  Croesus  even 
 added  other  valuable  presents  ;  and  to  this  source  He- 
 rodotus traces  the  wealth  of  the  family.  We  must  not, 
 however,  regard  this  Alcmseon  as  the  founder  of  the 
 tine.  (Compare  Alcmason,  H.) — IV.  The  last  of  the 
 perpetual  archons  at  Athens,  was  succeeded  by  Cha- 
 rops,  the  son  of  .lEschyius,  as  decennial  archon. 
 Bueckh  {Explic.  ad  Puid.,  Pytk.,  7,  p.  301)  makes  him 
 not  to  have  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Alcmsonidoe 
 proper,  but  to  have  been  reckoned  among  the  Alcina;on- 
 idw  merely  because  his  mother  belonged  to  that  house. 
 — V.  A  natural  philosopher.     {Vtd.  Supplement.) 
 
 Alcm^onid^,  a  noble  family  of  Athens,  descended 
 from  Alcmajon.  (Fh^.  Alcmason,  H.)  When  driven 
 from  Athens  by  the  tyranny  of  the  Pisistratids,  they 
 first  endeavoured  to  return  by  force  of  arms  ;  but  hav- 
 ing met  with  a  serious  check  at  Lipsydrion,  in  the 
 Pa;onian  borough  of  Attica,  they  turned  their  atten- 
 tion to  a  surer  and  more  pacific  mode  of  operation. 
 The  temple  at  Delphi  having  been  burned,  and  having 
 remained  in  ruins  for  some  considerable  time,  the  Alc- 
 niaeonidaB,  after  their  defeat,  engaged  with  the  Am- 
 phictyonic  council  to  rebuild  the  structure  for  the 
 sum  of  300  talents.  They  finished  the  work,  however, 
 in  a  much  more  splendid  manner  than  the  terms  of 
 their  contract  required,  and  attained,  in  consequence,  to 
 great  popularity.  By  dint  of  the  favour  with  which 
 they  were  now  regarded,  as  well  as  by  means  of  a 
 large  sum  of  money,  they  prevailed  upon  the  Pytho- 
 ness, whenever  application  of  a  public  or  private  na- 
 ture was  made  from  Lacedaemon  to  the  god  at  Delphi, 
 to  conclude  the  answer  of  the  oracle,  whatever  it  might 
 be,  with  an  admonition  to  the  Lacedajmonians  to  give 
 liberty  to  Athens.  This  artifice  had  the  desired  effect ; 
 and,  though  iSparta  was  in  friendly  relations  with  the 
 Pisistratida;,  it  was  determined  to  invade  Attica, 
 which  was  accordingly  done,  and  the  result  was,  that 
 the  Spartans  expelled  Hippias,  and  restored  the  Alc- 
 msomd«  (B.C.  510).  'I'he  restored  family  found 
 themselves  in  an  isolated  position,  between  the  nobles, 
 "vho  appeared  to  have  been  opposed  to  them,  and  the 
 popular  party,  which  had  been  hitherto  attached  to  the 
 Pisistratidas  Clisthenes,  now  the  head  of  the  Alc- 
 maeonidiE,  joined  the  latter  party,  and  gave  a  new  con- 
 stitution to  Athens.  He  abolished  the  four  ancient 
 tribes,  and  made  a  fresh  geographical  division  of  Atti- 
 ca into  ten  new  tribes,  each  of  which  bore  a  name  de- 
 rived from  some  Attic  hero.  The  ten  tribes  were  sub- 
 divided into  districts  of  various  extent  called  denies  or 
 boroughs,  each  containing  a  town  or  village  as  its  chief 
 place.  The  constitution  o(  Clisthenes  had  the  effect 
 ol  transforming  the  commonalty  into  a  new  body.  The 
 whole  Irame  of  the  slate  was  reorgaiuzed  to  corre- 
 spond with  the  new  division  of  the  country.  To  Clis- 
 thenes, also,  is  ascribed  the  formal  institution  of  the 
 ostracism. 
 
 Alcman.     Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Alcmena,  was  daughter  of  Electryon,  king  of  My- 
 cens.  and  Anaxo,  whom  Plutarch  calls  Lysidice,  and 
 Diodorus  Siculus  Eurymede.  She  was  engaged  in 
 marriage  to  her  cousin  Amphitryon,  son  of  Akasus, 
 when  an  unexpected  event  caused  the  nuptials  to  be 
 deferred.  Electryon  had  undertaken  an  expedition 
 against  the  Teleboans,  or  subjects  of  Taphius,  in  or- 
 d'T  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  sons,  whom  the  sons  of 
 Ta.  'nus  had  slain  in  a  combat.     Returning  victorious, 
 
 he  wasmet  by  Amphitryon,  andwas  killed  by  an  acci- 
 dental blow.  This  deed,  though  involuntary,  lost  Am- 
 phitryon the  kingdom,  which  he  would  otherwise  have 
 enjoyed  in  right  of  his  wife.  Sthenelus,  the  brother  ot 
 Alcmena,  availing  himself  of  the  public  odium  against 
 Amphitryon,  drove  him  from  Argolis,  and  seized  upon 
 the  vacant  throne,  the  possession  of  which  devolved, 
 at  his  death,  upon  his  son  Eurystheus.  Amphitryon 
 fled  to  Thebes,  where  he  was  purified  by  Creon  ;  but 
 when  he  expected  that  Alcmena,  w  ho  had  accompanied 
 him  hither,  would  have  given  him  her  hand,  she  de- 
 clined, on  the  ground  that  she  was  not  satisfied  with 
 the  punishment  inflicted  by  her  father  on  the  Tele- 
 boans,  and  intended  to  give  her  hand  to  him  who 
 should  make  war  upon  them.  Amphitryon,  in  conse- 
 quence of  this,  made  an  alliance  with  Creon  and  other 
 neighbouring  princes,  and  ravaged  the  isles  of  the  Te- 
 leboans.  While  Amphitryon  was  absent  on  this  ex- 
 pedition, Jupiter,  who  had  become  enamoured  of  Alc- 
 mena, assumed  the  form  of  Amphitryon,  related  to 
 her  all  the  events  of  the  war,  his  success  over  the  foe, 
 and  finally  persuaded  her  to  a  union.  Amphitryon, 
 on  his  return,  was  surprised  at  the  indifference  with 
 which  he  was  regarded  by  Alcmena ;  but,  on  coming  to 
 an  explanation  with  her,  and  consulting  Tiresias,  the 
 famous  diviner  of  Thebes,  he  discovered  that  it  was 
 no  less  a  personage  than  Jove  himself,  who  had  as- 
 sumed his  form.  Alcmena  brought  forth  twins,  Her- 
 cules the  son  of  Jupiter,  and  Iphicles  the  progeny  of 
 her  mortal  lord.  According  to  the  ancient  poets, 
 Juno  retarded  the  birth  of  Hercules  until  the  mother 
 of  Eurystheus  was  delivered  of  a  son,  unto  whom,  by 
 reason  of  a  rash  oath  of  Jupiter's,  Hercules  was  made 
 subject.  It  seems  that  the  day  on  which  Alcmena 
 was  to  be  delivered  in  Thebes,  Jove,  in  exultation, 
 announced  to  the  gods  that  a  man  of  his  race  was  that 
 day  to  see  the  light,  who  would  rule  over  all  his  neigh- 
 bours. Juno,  pretending  incredulity,  exacted  from  him 
 an  oath  that  what  he  had  said  should  be  accomplish- 
 ed. Jupiter,  unsuspicious  of  guile,  gave  it,  and  Juno 
 hastened  down  to  Argos,  where  the  wife  of  Sthene- 
 lus, the  son  of  Perseus,  was  seven  months  gone  of  a 
 son.  The  goddess  brought  on  a  premature  labour,  and 
 Eurystheus  came  to  light  that  day,  while  she  checked 
 the  parturition  of  Alcmena,  and  kept  back  Lucina. 
 {Vid.  Galanthis.)  The  oath  of  Jove  was  not  to  be 
 recalled,  and  his  son  was  fated  to  serve  Eurystheus. 
 (Horn.,  II.,  19,  101,  scqq.—  Ovid,  Met.,  9,  285,  scqq.— 
 Anion.  Lib.,  c.  29.  —  Keighllci/'s  Mythology,  p.  310, 
 scqq.)  According  to  Phcrecydes  (np.  Anion.  Lib.,  c. 
 33),  when  Alcmena,  who  long  survived  her  son,  died, 
 and  the  Heraclidas  were  about  to  bury  her  at  Thebes, 
 Jove  directed  Mercury  to  steal  her  away,  and  convey 
 her  to  the  islands  of  the  blessed,  where  she  should  es- 
 pousc  Rhadamanthus.  Mercury  obeyed,  and  placed 
 a  stone  instead  of  her  in  the  coffin.  When  the  Herac- 
 lidae  went  to  carry  her  forth  to  be  buried,  they  were 
 surprised  at  the  weight,  and,  on  opening  the  coffin, 
 found  the  stone,  which  they  took  out,  and  set  it  up 
 in  the  grove  where  her  Hcroum  stood  at  Thebes  i 
 udiTrep  icTLV  to  ripoiov  tu  rfj^  'A?.i(/ojv7]c  iv  Qifiaiq. 
 
 Alcon,  I.  a  statuary,  who  made  an  iron  statue  ot 
 Hercules,  kept  at  Thebes.  Pliny  assigns  the  reason  for 
 the  choice  of  this  metal,  when  he  says,  "  Laborum 
 dci  paticnlm  inductus."  (35,14). — II.  A  surgeon  un- 
 der Claudius.  (Vid.  Supplement.)  —  III.  A  son  of 
 Erechtheus,  king  of  Athens,  and  father  of  Phalerus- 
 
 Alcyone,  or  Halcvone,  I.  daughter  of  J3olus, 
 married  Ccyx,  who  was  drowned  as  he  was  going  to 
 consult  the  oracle.  The  gods  apprized  Alcyone  in  a 
 dream  of  her  husband's  fate  ;  and  when  she  found,  on 
 the  morrow,  his  body  washed  on  the  seashore,  she 
 threw  herself  into  the  sea.  To  reward  their  mutual 
 affection,  the  gods  metamorphosed  them  into  halcyons, 
 and,  according  to  the  poets,  decreed  that  the  sea 
 should  remain  calm  while  these  birds  built  their  nests 
 
 103 
 
ALE 
 
 A  LE 
 
 opon  It.  The  halcyon  was,  on  this  account,  though  a 
 querulous,  lamenting  bird,  regarded  by  the  ancients  as 
 a  symbol  of  tranquillity  ;  and,  from  living  principally 
 on  the  water,  was  consecrated  to  Thetis.  According 
 to  Pliny  (10,  47),  the  halcyons  only  showed  them- 
 selves at  the  setting  of  the  Pleiades  and  towards  the 
 •winter-solstice,  and  even  then  they  were  but  rarely 
 seen.  They  made  their  nests,  according  to  the  same 
 writer,  during  the  seven  days  immediately  preceding 
 the  winter-solstice,  and  laid  their  eggs  during  the  seven 
 days  that  follow.  These  fourteen  days  are  the  "  dies 
 halcyonii,'''  or  "  halcyon-days,"  of  antiquity.  He  de- 
 scribes their  nests  as  resembling,  while  they  float  upon 
 the  waters,  a  kind  of  ball,  a  little  lengthened  out  at  the 
 top,  with  a  very  narrow  opening,  and  the  whole  not 
 unlike  a  large  sponge.  A  great  deal  of  this  is  pure 
 fable.  The  only  bird  in  modern  times  at  all  resem- 
 bling either  of  the  two  kinds  of  halcyons  described  by 
 Aristotle  (8,  3),  is  the  Alccdo  Isjnda,  or  what  the 
 French  call  martin-peckcur.  All  that  is  said,  too, 
 about  the  nest  floating  on  the  water,  and  the  days  of 
 calm,  is  untrue.  What  the  ancients  took  for  a  nest 
 of  a  bird,  is  in  reality  a  zoophyte,  of  the  class  named 
 halcyonium  by  Linneeus,  and  of  the  particular  species 
 called  giodie  by  Lamarck.  The  martm-pccheur  makes 
 its  nest  in  holes  along  the  shore,  or,  rather,  it  deposites 
 its  eggs  in  such  holes  as  it  finds  there.  Moreover,  it 
 lays  its  egt;s  in  the  spring,  and  has  no  connexion 
 whatever  with  calm  weather.  (G.  Cuvier,  ad  Plin., 
 I.  c.) — IL  A  daughter  of  Atlas,  and  one  of  the  Pleia- 
 des. {Vid.  Plei&iles. —Apollod.,  3,  10.)— III.  An  ap- 
 pellation given  to  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  Idas  and 
 Marpessa  The  mother  had  been  carried  off,  in  her 
 younger  days,  by  Apollo,  but  had  been  rescued  by  her 
 husband  Idas,  and  from  the  plaintive  cries  which  she 
 uttered  while  being  abducted,  resembling  the  lament 
 of  the  halcyon,  the  appellation  Alcyone  was  given  as 
 a  kind  of  surname  to  her  daughter  Cleopatra.  (Horn., 
 II.,  9,  553,  seg/].) 
 
 AlcyonTa,  Palus,  a  pool  in  Argolis,  not  far  from 
 the  Lernean  marsh.  Nero  attempted  to  measure  it  by 
 means  of  a  plummet  several  stadia  in  length,  but  could 
 discover  no  bottom.     {Pausayi  ,  2,  37.) 
 
 Ai.cYONiuM  MARE,  a  name  given  to  an  arm  of  the  Si- 
 nus Corinthiacus,  or  Gulf  of  Lcpanfo,  which  stretched 
 between  the  western  coast  of  Boeotia,  the  northern  coast 
 of  Megaris,  and  the  northwestern  extremity  of  Corin- 
 thia,  as  far  as  the  promontory  of  Oliniae.  ( Strab.,  33G.) 
 AlduXbis.      Vid.  Dubis. 
 
 Alea,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  near  the  eastern  confines, 
 and  to  the  northeast  of  Orchomcnus.  It  had  three 
 famous  tein[)les,  that  of  the  Ephesian  Diana,  of  Miner- 
 va Alea,  and  of  Bacchus.  The  feast  of  Bacchus,  call- 
 ed Skiria,  was  celebrated  here  every  third  year,  at 
 which  time,  according  to  Pausanias,  the  women  were 
 scourged,  in  obedience  to  a  command  of  the  oracle  at 
 Delphi.      {Faiisan.,  8,  23.) 
 
 Alebion  and  Dercynus,  sons  of  Neptune.  {Vid. 
 Albion,  I.) 
 
 Alecto,  one  of  the  Furies.  The  name  is  derived 
 from  a,  priv,  and  Xriyu,  '^  to  cease,^'  from  her  never 
 ceasing  to  pursue  the  wicked.  {Vid.  Eumenides.) 
 Ai.ECTOR.  Vid.  Supplement. 
 Alectryon,  a  youth  whom  Mars,  during  his  meet- 
 ing with  Venus,  stationed  at  the  door  to  watch  against 
 the  approach  of  the  sun.  He  fell  asleep,  and  Apollo 
 came  and  discovered  the  guilty  pair.  Mars  was  so 
 incensed  that  he  changed  Alectryon  into  a  cock,  who, 
 still  mindful  of  his  neglect,  announces,  say  the  an- 
 cient writers,  at  early  dawn,  the  approach  of  the  sun. 
 {Lucian,  Somn.  scu.  Gall.,  3.) 
 
 Alectus,  a  military  prefect  and  usurper  in  Britain, 
 who  slew  Carausius,  but  was  in  turn  slain  by  Asclepio- 
 dotus,  a  general  under  Constantius  Chlorus.  He  died 
 AD.  296.  {Euvien.  paneg.  Const.  Cczs. —  Crevier, 
 Hist,  des  Emp.  Rom.,  6,  p.  202,  seqq.) 
 104 
 
 Ai.Eius  Campus  {'XatjIov  vMov),  a  tract  in  Cilicia 
 Campestris,  to  the  east  of  the  river  Sarus,  between 
 Adana  and  the  sea.  The  poets  fabled  that  Bellero- 
 phon  wandered  and  perished  here,  afier  having  been 
 thrown  from  the  horse  Pegasus.  The  name  comes 
 from  a'Kdoiiai,  ''■to  icandcr.''  {Homer,  11.,  6,  201.— 
 Dionys.    Pcrieg.,  87i.—Omd,  ling,  259.) 
 
 Ai.EMANNi,  or  Alamanni,  a  name  assumed  by  a 
 confederacy  of  German  tribes  situate  between  the 
 Neckar  and  the  Upper  Khinc,  who  united  to  resist  the 
 encroachments  of  Roman  power.  According  to  Man- 
 ner! {Gcogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  235,  seqq),  the  shattered  re- 
 mains of  the  army  of  Ariovistus  retired,  after  the  de- 
 feat and  death  of  their  leader,  to  the  mountainous 
 country  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  (Compare,  however, 
 Pfistcr,  Gtsch.  der  Teutschen.,  vol.  1,  p.  179,  seqq., 
 where  a  different  account  is  given  of  tl^e  origin  of  the 
 Alemanni.)  Their  descendants  in  after  days,  in  order 
 to  oppose  a  barrier  to  the  continued  advance  of  the 
 Roman  arms,  united  in  a  common  league  with  the 
 German  tribes  which  had  originally  settled  on  the  left 
 bank  of  the  Rhine,  but  had  been  driven  across  by  their 
 more  powerful  opponents.  The  members  of  this  union 
 styled  themselves  Alemanni  or  all-men,  i.  e  ,  men  of 
 all  tribes,  to  denote  at  once  their  various  lineage  and 
 their  common  bravery.  They  first  appeared  in  a  hos- 
 tile attitude  on  the  banks  of  the  Mayn,  but  were  de- 
 feated by  Caracalla,  who  was  hence  honoured  with  the 
 surname  of  Ahmannicus .  In  the  succeeding  reigns, 
 we  find  them  at  one  time  ravaging  the  Roman  territo- 
 ries, at  another,  defeated  and  driven  back  to  their  na- 
 tive forests.  At  last,  after  their  overthrow  by  Clovis, 
 king  of  the  Salian  Franks,  they  ceased  to  exist  as  one 
 nation,  and  were  dispersed  over  Gaul,  Switzerland, 
 and  northern  Italy. 
 
 Ai.ERiA,  a  city  of  Corsica,  on  the  eastern  coast.  It 
 was  founded  by  the  Phocaeans,  under  the  name  of  Ala- 
 lia ('AAa/lia),  and  about  twenty  years  after  its  first 
 settlement,  was  much  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  those 
 of  the  inhabitants  of  Phocsa,  who  fled  from  the  sway 
 of  Cyrus.  {Vid.  Phocsea  )  Its  rapid  advance  in  mari- 
 time power,  subsequent  to  this  increase  of  numbers, 
 excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Etrurians  and  Carthagin 
 ians.  A  naval  contest  ensued,  in  which  the  people  oi 
 Alalia,  though  victorious,  suffered  so  severely,  as  to  be 
 convinced  of  the  impossibility  of  long  withstanding  the 
 united  strength  of  their  foes.  They  migrated,  there- 
 fore, once  more,  and  settled  on  the  southwestern  coast 
 of  Italy  {Herod.,  1,  165),  where  they  founded  the  city 
 of  Hyela,  or  Velia.  A  portion  of  them,  however,  weni 
 to  the  Phocaean  colony  of  Massilia.  {Seneca,  dc  Con 
 soL,adHelv.  matr.,8.)  The  history  of  Alalia,  after  thia 
 event,  remains  for  a  long  period  enveloped  in  obscuri- 
 ty. The  Carthaginians,  probably,  took  possession  of 
 the  place.  In  the  second  Punic  war,  it  fell,  together 
 with  the  whole  island,  under  the  Roman  sway  ;  at  least 
 Zonaras  (8,  11)  speaks  of  a  place  called  Valeria  as 
 the  most  important  city  in  the  island,  and  as  having 
 been  taken  by  Lucius  Scipio.  Alalia  remained  in 
 obscurity  under  its  new  masters  also,  until  Sylla  sent 
 thither  a  Roman  colony,  as  Marius  had  done  a  short 
 time  previous  to  the  same  island,  founding  m  it  the 
 colony  of  Mariana.  From  this  period  Alalia  was  known 
 under  the  name  of  Aleria,  and  the  earlier  appellation 
 fell  into  disuse.  When,  and  under  what  circumstances, 
 this  city  was  finally  destroyed,  is  not  ascertained.  Its 
 ruins  are  to  be  found  a  short  distance  below  the 
 mouth  of  the  river  Tarignano.  (Manncrt,  9,  pt.  2, 
 p.  516,  seqq.) 
 
 Ales,  a  small  river  of  Ionia  in  Asia  Minor,  which  emp 
 ties  into  the  ^gean  near  Colophon.  {Paiisan.,  8,  28.) 
 Ai.ESA,  Ai.AESA,  or  Hales  A,  a  very  ancient  city  ot 
 Sicily,  built  by  Archonides,  B.C.  403.  It  stood  ncaj 
 the  modern  city  of  Cnronia,  on  the  river  Alasus,  oi 
 Fiume  di  Caronia.  The  inhabitants  were  exempted 
 by  the  Romans  from  taxes.     {Diod.  Sic,  14,  16.) 
 
ALE 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 Ar-EsiA  or  Alexia,  a  famous  and  strongly  fortified 
 city  of  the  Mandubii,  in  Gallia  Cellica.  It  was  so  an- 
 cient a  city,  that  Diodorus  Siculus  (4,  19)  ascribes 
 the  building  of  it  to  Hercules.  (Compare  the  learned 
 and  ingeiHous  remarks  of  Ritter,  in  his  Vorhalle,  p. 
 378.  on  the  subject  of  the  Celtic  Hercules.)  It  was 
 situate  on  a  high  hill,  supposed  to  be  Mount  Auxois, 
 near  the  sources  of  the  Sequana  or  Seinr,  and  washed 
 on  two  sides  by  the  small  rivers  Lutosa  and  Ozera, 
 now  Lose  and  Ozeram.  Alesia  was  taken  and  destroy- 
 ed by  Cffisar  after  a  famous  siege,  but  was  rebuilt,  and 
 became  a  place  of  considerable  consequence  under  the 
 Roman  emperors.  It  was  laid  in  ruins  in  the  9th 
 century  by  the  Normans.  At  the  foot  of  Mount  Auxois 
 s  a  village  called  Alise  (Depart.  Cote  d'Or),  with 
 several  hundred  inhabitants.  {Fior.,  3,  10. — Ca:s., 
 B.  G.,  7,  69.) 
 
 AlesIum,  a  mountain  in  the  vicinity  of  Mantinea,  on 
 which  was  a  grove  dedicated  to  Ceres ;  also  the  tem- 
 ple of  the  equestrian  Nejitune,  an  edifice  of  great  an- 
 tiquity, which  had  been  originally  built,  according  to 
 tradition,  by  Agamedes  and  Trophonius,  but  was  af- 
 terward enclosed  within  a  new  structure  by  order  of 
 Hadrian.  The  mountain  was  said  to  have  taken  its 
 name  from  the  wanderings  of  Rhea  {to  bpog  to  'KTitj- 
 710V,  6iu  Tr/v  uXjjv,  wf  <pa(7i,  KaXo6fj.evov  tijv  'Viag. 
 Pausan.  8,  10). 
 
 Aletes  ('A/l?;r^f),  a  son  of  Hippotes,  and  descend- 
 ant of  Hercules  in  the  fifth  degree.  He  is  said  to  have 
 taken  possession  of  Corinth,  and  to  have  expelled  the 
 Sisyphida;  thirty  years  after  the  first  invasion  of  the 
 Peloponnesus  by  the  Heraclida?.  His  family,  some- 
 times called  the  Aletidai,  maintained  themselves  ai 
 Corinth  down  to  the  time  of  Bacchis.  (Pans.,  2,  4, 
 3;  5,  18,  2.— .SYra6,  8,  p.  '399.— Callim.,  Frag.,  103. 
 —PuuL,  Olym.  13,  17.)  Velleius  Patcrculus  (1,  3) 
 calls  hiin  a  descendant  of  Hercules  in  the  sixth  de- 
 gree. He  received  an  oracle  promising  him  the  sov- 
 ereignty of  Athens,  if  during  the  war  which  was  then 
 going  on  its  kmgs  should  remain  uninjured.  This 
 oracle  became  known  at  Athens,  and  Codrus  sacrifi- 
 ced hicn.»elf  for  his  country.  {Vul.  Codrus. — Canon., 
 Narrat.,  26  )  Other  persons  of  this  name  are  men- 
 tioned in  ApolloiL,  3,  10,  6;  Hygin  ,  Fab.,  122;  and 
 Virgil.  Mn.,  1,  121  ;  9,  463. 
 Ai.EUAD^.  Vid.  Supplement. 
 Aleuas.      Vid,  Supplement. 
 
 Ai-EXAME.NUs,  I.  a  native  of  Teos.  {Vid.  Supple- 
 ment ) — II.  A  general  of  the  ^tolians,  who,  with  a  body 
 of  his  countrymen,  slew  Nabis,  tyrant  of  Sparta.  He 
 had  been  sent  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  auxiliaries,  by  the 
 .-Etolians,  ostensibly  to  aid  Nabis,  but  in  reality  to  o-et 
 possession  of  Lacedaemon.  The  inhabitants,  however, 
 rallied  after  the  fall  of  the  tyrant,  defeated  the  Ji]toli- 
 ans,  who  were  scattered  throughout  the  city  and  plun- 
 dering it,  and  slew  Alexamenus.  {Liv.,  35,  34,  scqq.) 
 Alexander,  a  name  of  very  common  occurrence, 
 as  designating  not  only  kings,  but  private  individuals. 
 We  will  classify  the  monarchs  by  countries,  and  then 
 come  to  private  or  less  conspicuous  personages. 
 
 1.  Kings  of  Macedonia. 
 Alexander  I.,  son  of  Amyntas,  and  tenth  king  of 
 Macedon.  He  ascended  the  throne  497  B.C.,  and 
 reigned  43  years.  It  was  he  who,  while  still  a  youth, 
 slew,  in  company  with  a  party  of  his  young  friends, 
 habited  in  female  attire,  the  Persian  ambassadors  at 
 his  father's  court,  having  been  provoked  to  the  act  by 
 their  immodest  behaviour  towards  the  females  present 
 at  a  ban(iuct.  With  this  prince  the  glory  of  Macedon 
 may  be  said  to  have  commenced.  He  enlarged  his 
 territories,  partly  by  conquest,  and  partly  by  the  gift 
 which  Xerxes  bestowed  upon  him,  of  all  the  country 
 from  Mount  Olympus  to  the  range  of  Hsmus.  {Herod., 
 5,  18,  seqq. — Justin,  7,  3.) 
 Alexander  II.,  son  of  Amyntas  II.  He  was  treach- 
 0 
 
 erously  slain  by  Ptolemy  .'\lorites,  after  having  reigned 
 from  B.C.  369  to  B.C.  367,  and  not,  according  to  the 
 common  account,  for  one  year  merely.  Ptolemy  Al- 
 orites,  however,  who  slew  him,  was  neither  king  jior 
 the  son  of  Amyntas,  although  called  so  by  Diodo- 
 rus (15,  71).  It  seems  probable,  from  a  compari- 
 son of  ^schines  {de  Fuls  Leg.,  p.  32)  with  a  frag- 
 ment in  Syncellus  {Dcxippus,  up.  SyncelL,  p.  263,  B.), 
 that  Ptolemy  was  appointed  regent  in  a  regular  way, 
 during  the  minority  of  Perdiccas  ;  that  he  afterward 
 abused  his  trust,  and  was,  in  consequence,  cut  off  by 
 Perdiccas.  The  duration  of  his  admmis.tration,  three 
 years,  is  mentioned  by  Diodorus  (15,  77). 
 
 Alexander  III.,  surnamed  the  Great,  son  of  Philip 
 of  Macedon,  was  born  in  the  city  of  Pella,  B.C.  366. 
 His  mother  was  Olympias,  the  daughter  of  Neoptole- 
 mus,  king  of  Epirus.  Leonnatus,  a  relation  of  his 
 mother's,  an  austere  man,  and  of  great  severity  of 
 manners,  was  his  early  governor,  and  at  the  age  of 
 eight  years,  Lysimachus,  an  Acarnanian,  became  his 
 instructer.  Plutarch  gives  this  individual  an  unfa- 
 vourable character,  and  insinuates  that  be  was  more 
 desirous  of  ingratiating  himself  with  the  royal  family, 
 than  of  effectually  discharging  the  duties  of  his  office. 
 It  was  his  delight  to  call  Philip,  Peleus ;  Alexander, 
 Achilles  ;  and  to  claim  for  himself  the  honorary  name 
 of  Phoenix.  Early  impressions  are  the  strongest,  and 
 even  the  pedantic  allusions  of  the  Acarnanian  might 
 render  the  young  prince  more  eager  in  after  life  to  im- 
 itate the  Homeric  model.  In  his  fifteenth  year,  Alex- 
 ander was  placed  under  the  immediate  tuition  of  the 
 celebrated  Aristotle.  The  philosopher  joined  his  royal 
 pupil  B.C.  342,  and  did  not  finally  quit  him  until  he 
 came  to  the  throne.  The  master  was  worthy  of  the 
 scholar,  and  the  scholar  of  his  master.  The  mental 
 stores  of  Aristotle  were  vast,  and  all  arranged  with 
 admirable  accuracy  and  judgment ;  while,  on  the  other 
 hand,  Alexander  was  gifted  with  great  quickness  of 
 apprehension,  an  insatiable  desire  of  knowledge,  and 
 an  ambition  not  to  be  satisfied  with  the  second  place 
 in  any  pursuit.  At  a  distance  from  the  court,  this 
 great  philosopher  instructed  him  in  all  the  branches  of 
 human  knowledge,  especially  those  necessary  for  a 
 ruler,  and  wrote,  for  his  benefit,  a  work  on  the  art  of 
 government,  which  is  unfortunately  lost.  As  Mace- 
 don was  surrounded  by  dangerous  neighbours,  Aris- 
 totle sought  to  cultivate  in  his  pupil  the  talents  anil 
 virtues  of  a  military  commander.  With  this  view  he 
 recommended  to  him  the  reading  of  the  Iliad,  and  re- 
 vised this  poem  himself.  The  poet,  as  Aristotle  em- 
 phatically names  Homer,  was  the  philosopher's  insep- 
 arable companion  :  from  him  he  drew  his  precepts  and 
 maxims  ;  from  him  he  borrowed  his  models.  The  pre- 
 ceptor imparted  his  enthusiasm  to  his  pupil,  and  the 
 most  accurate  copy  of  the  great  poem  was  prepared  by 
 Aristotle,  and  placed  by  Alexander  in  a  precious  cas- 
 ket which  he  found  among  the  spoils  of  Darius.  The 
 frame  of  the  young  prince  was,  at  the  same  time, 
 formed  by  gymnastic  exercises.  He  gave  several 
 proofs  of  manly  skill  and  courage  while  very  young ; 
 one  of  which,  the  breaking  in  of  his  fiery  courser  Bu- 
 cephalus, which  had  mastered  every  other  rider,  is 
 mentioned  by  all  his  historians  as  an  incident  that  con- 
 vinced his  father  Philip  of  his  future  unconquerable 
 spirit.  When  he  was  sixteen  years  old,  Philip,  set- 
 ting out  on  an  expedition  against  Byzantium,  delega- 
 ted the  government  to  him  during  his  absence.  Two 
 years  later  (B.C.  338),  he  performed  prodigies  of  val- 
 our in  the  battle  at  Chseronea,  where  he  obtained  great 
 reputation  by  conquering  the  sacred  band  of  the  The- 
 bans.  "My  son,"  said  Philip,  after  the  battle,  em- 
 bracing him,  "  seek  another  empire,  for  that  which  I 
 shall  leave  you  is  not  worthy  of  you."  The  father 
 and  son,  however,  quarrelled  when  Philip  repudiated 
 Olympias.  Alexander,  who  took  the  part  of  his  moth- 
 er, was  obliged  to  flee  to  Epirus  to  escape    the  ven- 
 
 105 
 
ALEXANDER. 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 prance  of  his  Hither,  but  he  soon  obtained  pardon  and 
 returned.  He  afterward  accomj)anied  Philip  on  an 
 expedition  against  the  Triballi,  and  saved  his  hfe  in  a 
 battle.  Philip,  having  been  elected  chief  commander 
 of  the  Greeks,  was  preparing  for  a  war  against  Persia, 
 when  he  was  assassinated,  B.C.  336.  This  occur- 
 rence, at  an  eventful  crisis,  excited  some  suspicion 
 against  Alexander  and  Olympias  ;  but  as  it  was  one 
 of  his  first  acts  to  execute  justice  on  those  of  his  fa- 
 ther's assassins  who  fell  into  his  hands,  several  of  the 
 nobility  being  implicated  in  the  plot,  this  imputation 
 rests  on  little  beyond  surmise.  It  is  more  than  prob- 
 able that  the  conspirators  were  in  correspondence  with 
 the  Persian  court,  and  that  ample  promises  of  protec- 
 tion and  support  were  given  to  nu^n  undertaking  to 
 deliver  the  empire  from  the  impending  invasion  of  the 
 captain-general  of  Greece.  Alexander,  who  succeed- 
 ed without  opposition,  was  at  this  time  in  his  twentieth 
 year  ;  and  his  youth,  in  the  first  instance,  excited  sev- 
 eral of  the  states  of  Greece  to  endeavour  to  set  aside 
 the  Macedonian  ascendency.  By  a  sudden  march  into 
 Thessaly  he,  however,  soon  overawed  the  most  active  ; 
 and  when,  on  a  report  of  his  death,  chiefly  at  the  in- 
 stigation of  Demosthenes  and  his  party,  the  various 
 states  were  excited  to  great  commotion,  he  punished 
 the  open  revolt  of  Thebes  with  a  severity  which  ef- 
 fectually prevented  any  imitation  of  its  example.  In- 
 duced to  stand  a  siege,  that  unhappy  city,  alter  being 
 mastered  with  dreadful  slaughter,  was  razed  to  the 
 ground,  with  the  ostentatious  exception  of  the  house 
 of  the  poet  Pindar  alone  ;  while  the  unfortunate  sur- 
 viving inhabitants  were  stripped  of  all  their  posses- 
 sions and  sold  indiscriminately  into  slavery.  Intimi- 
 dating by  this  cruel  policy,  the  Macedonian  party 
 gained  the  ascendency  in  every  state  throughout 
 Greece,  and  Athens  particularly  disgraced  itself  by 
 the  meanness  of  its  submission.  Alexander  then  pro- 
 ceeded to  Corinth,  where,  in  a  general  assembly  of 
 the  states,  his  office  of  superior  commander  was  rec- 
 ognised and  defined  ;  and  in  the  twenty-second  year 
 of  his  age,  leaving  Antipater,  his  viceroy,  in  Macedon, 
 he  passed  the  Hellespont,  to  overturn  the  Persian  em- 
 pire, with  an  army  not  exceeding  four  thousand  five 
 hundred  horse  and  thirty  thousand  foot.  To  secure 
 the  protection  of  Minerva,  he  sacrificed  to  her  on  the 
 plain  of  Ilium,  crowned  the  tomb  of  Achilles,  and  con- 
 gratulated this  hero,  from  whom  he  was  descended 
 through  his  mother,  on  his  good  fortune  in  having  had 
 such  a  friend  as  Patroclus,  and  such  a  poet  as  Homer 
 to  celebrate  his  fame.  The  rapid  movements  of  Alex- 
 ander had  evidently  taken  the  Persian  satraps  by  sur- 
 prise. They  had,  without  making  a  single  attempt  to 
 molest  his  passage,  allowed  him,  with  a  far  inferior 
 fleet,  to  convey  his  troops  into  Asia.  They  now  re- 
 solved to  advance  and  contest  the  passage  of  the  river 
 Granicus.  A  force  of  twenty  thousand  cavalry  was 
 drawn  up  on  the  right  bank  of  the  stream,  while  an 
 equal  number  of  Greek  mercenaries  crowned  the  hills 
 in  the  rear.  Unintimidated,  however,  by  this  array, 
 Alexander  led  his  army  across,  and,  after  a  severe  con- 
 flict, gained  a  decisive  victory.  The  loss  on  the  Per- 
 sian side  was  heavy,  on  that  of  their  conquerors  so 
 extremely  slight  (only  eighty-five  horsemen  and  thirty 
 foot- soldiers)  as  to  lead  at  once  to  the  belief,  that  the 
 general,  who  wrote  the  account  of  Alexander's  cam- 
 paigns, mentioned  the  loss  of  only  the  native-born 
 Macedonians.  Splendid  funeral  obsequies  were  per- 
 formed in  honour  of  those  of  his  army  who  had  fallen  ; 
 various  privileges  were  granted  to  their  fathers  and 
 children  ;  and  as  twenty-five  of  the  cavalry  that  had 
 been  slain  on  the  Macedonian  side  belonged  to  the 
 royal  troop  of  the  "  Companions,"  these  were  honour- 
 ed with  monumental  statues  of  bronze,  the  workman- 
 ship of  the  celebrated  Lysippus.  The  immediate  con- 
 sequence of  this  victory  was  the  freedom  and  restora- 
 tion of  all  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor,  and  its  sub- 
 106 
 
 sequent  results  were  shown  in  the  reduction  of  almost 
 the  whole  of  that  country.  A  dangerous  sickness, 
 however,  brought  on  by  bathing  in  the  Cydnus,  check- 
 ed for  a  time  his  career.  He  received  a  letter  from 
 Parmenio,  saying  that  Philip,  his  physician,  had  been 
 bribed  by  Darius  to  poison  him.  Alexander  gave  the 
 letter  to  the  physician,  and  at  the  same  time  drank  the 
 potion  which  the  latter  had  prepared  for  him.  Scarcely 
 was  he  restored  to  health  when  he  advanced  towards 
 the  defiles  of  Cilicia,  whither  Darius  had  imprudently 
 betaken  himself  with  an  immense  army,  instead  of 
 awaiting  his  adversary  on  the  plains  of  Assyria.  The 
 second  battle  took  place  near  Issus,  between  the  sea 
 and  the  mountains,  and  victory  again  declared  for  the 
 Macedonian  monarch.  The  Macedonians  conquered 
 on  this  day,  not  the  Persians  alone,  but  the  united  ef- 
 forts of  southern  Greece  and  Persia ;  for  the  army  of 
 Darius,  besides  its  eastern  troops,  contained  thirty 
 thousand  Greek  mercenaries,  the  largest  Greek  force 
 of  that  denomination  mentioned  in  history.  It  was 
 this  galling  truth  that,  among  other  causes,  rendered 
 the  republican  Greeks  so  hostile  to  Alexander.  All 
 the  active  partisans  of  that  faction  were  at  Issus,  nor 
 were  the  survivers  disjiirited  by  their  defeat.  Agis, 
 king  of  Sparta,  gathered  eight  thousand  who  had  re- 
 turned to  Greece  by  various  ways,  and  fought  with 
 them  a  bloody  battle  against  Antipater,  who  with  dif- 
 ficulty defeated  the  Spartans  and  their  allies.  With- 
 out taking  these  facts  into  consideration,  it  is  impos- 
 sible duly  to  estimate  the  difficulties  surmounted  by 
 Alexander.  After  the  defeat  at  Issus,  the  treasures 
 and  family  of  Darius  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
 queror. The  latter  were  treated  most  magnanimous- 
 ly. Alexander  did  not  pursue  the  Persian  monarch, 
 who  fled  towards  the  Euphrates,  but,  in  order  to  cut 
 him  off  from  the  sea,  turned  towards  Coelc- Syria  and 
 Phcenicia.  Here  he  received  a  letter  from  Darius, 
 proposing  peace.  Alexander  answered,  that  if  he 
 would  come  to  him  he  would  restore,  not  only  his 
 mother,  wife,  and  children,  without  ransom,  but  also 
 his  empire.  This  reply  produced  no  effect.  The 
 victory  at  Issus  had  opened  the  whole  country  to  the 
 Macedonians.  Alexander  took  possession  of  Damas- 
 cus, which  contained  a  large  portion  of  the  royal  treas- 
 ures, and  secured  all  the  towns  along  the  Mediterra- 
 nean Sea.  Tyre,  imboldened  by  the  strength  of  its 
 insular  situation,  resisted,  but  was  taken,  after  seven 
 months  of  incredible  exertion,  and  destroyed.  The 
 capture  of  Tyre  was  perhaps  the  greatest  military 
 achievement  of  the  Macedonian  monarch  ;  but  it  was 
 tarnished  by  his  cruel  severity  towards  the  conquered, 
 thirty  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  having  been  sold  by 
 him  as  slaves.  Some  excuse,  however,  may  be  found 
 in  the  excited  feelings  of  the  Macedonian  army,  oc- 
 casioned by  numerous  insults  on  the  part  of  the  Tyri- 
 ans  ;  by  acts  of  cruelty  towards  some  of  their  Mace- 
 donian captives  ;  and  also  by  the  length  and  obstinacy 
 of  the  siege  ;  for  more  men  were  slain  in  winning 
 Tyre,  than  in  achieving  the  three  great  victories  over 
 Darius.  Alexander  continued  his  victorious  march 
 through  Palestine,  where  all  the  towns  surrendered 
 except  Gaza,  which  shared  the  fate  of  Tyre.  Egypt, 
 wearied  of  the  Persian  yoke,  received  him  as  a  deliv- 
 erer. In  order  to  confirm  his  power,  he  restored  the 
 former  customs  and  religious  rites,  and  founded  Alex- 
 andrea,  which  became  one  of  the  first  cities  of  ancient 
 times.  Hence  he  went  through  the  desert  of  Libya, 
 to  consult  the  oracle  of  Jupiter  Amnion,  an  adventure 
 resembling  more  the  wildness  of  romance  than  the  so- 
 berness of  history,  and  which  has  on  this  very  account 
 been  regarded  by  some  with  an  eye  of  incredulity. 
 It  rests,  however,  on  too  firm  a  basis  to  be  invalidated. 
 After  having  been  acknowledged,  say  the  ancient  wri- 
 ters, as  the  son  of  the  god  (vid.  Ammon),  Alexander, 
 at  the  return  of  spring,  marched  against  Darius,  who 
 in  the  mean  time  had  collected  an  army  in  Assyria, 
 
ALEXANDER. 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 and  rejected  the  proposals  of  Alexander  for  peace. 
 A  battle  was  fought  at  Gaugamela,  not  far  from  Arbe- 
 la,  B.C.  331.  Arrian  estimates  the  army  of  Darius  at 
 1,000,000  of  infantry  and  40,000  cavalry  ;  while  that 
 of  Alexander  consisted  of  only  40,000  infantry  and 
 7000  horse.  On  the  Persian  side,  moreover,  were 
 some  of  the  bravest  and  hardiest  tribes  of  upper  Asia. 
 Notwithstanding  the  immense  numerical  superiority  of 
 his  enemy,  Alexander  was  not  a  moment  doubtful  of 
 victory.  At  the  head  of  his  cavalry  he  attacked  the 
 Persians,  and  routed  them  after  a  short  conflict.  One 
 great  object  of  his  ambition  was  to  capture  the  Per- 
 sian monarch  on  the  field  of  battle  ;  and  that  object 
 was  at  one  time  apparently  within  his  grasp,  when  he 
 received,  at  the  instant,  a  message  from  Parmenio  that 
 the  left  wing,  which  that  general  commanded,  was  hard 
 pressed  by  the  Sacae,  Albanians,  and  Parthians,  and  he 
 was  compelled,  of  course,  to  hasten  to  its  relief  Dari- 
 iis  fled  from  the  field  of  battle,  leaving  his  army,  bag- 
 gage, and  immense  treasures  to  the  victor.  Babylon 
 and  Susa,  where  the  riches  of  the  East  lay  accumula- 
 ted, opened  their  gates  to  Alexander,  who  directed  his 
 march  to  Persepolis,  the  capital  of  Persia.  The  only 
 passage  thither  was  defended  by  40,000  men  under 
 Ariobarzanes.  Alexander  attacked  them  in  the  rear, 
 routed  them,  and  entered  Persepolis  triumphant. 
 From  this  time  the  glory  of  Alexander  began  to  decline. 
 Master  of  the  greatest  empire  in  the  world,  he  became 
 a  slave  to  his  own  passions ;  gave  himself  up  to  arro- 
 gance and  dissipation  ;  showed  himself  ungrateful  and 
 cruel,  and  in  the  arms  of  pleasure  shed  the  blood  of 
 his  bravest  generals.  Hitherto  sober  and  moderate, 
 this  hero,  who  strove  to  equal  the  gods,  and  called 
 himself  a  god,  sunk  to  the  level  of  vulgar  men.  Per- 
 sepolis, the  wonder  of  the  world,  he  burned  in  a  fit  of 
 intoxication  Ashamed  of  this  act,  he  set  out  with  his 
 cavalry  to  pursue  Darius.  Learning  that  Bessus,  sa- 
 trap of  Bactriana,  kept  the  king  prisoner,  he  hastened 
 his  march  with  the  hope  of  saving  him.  But  Bessus, 
 when  he  saw  himself  closely  pursued,  caused  Darius 
 to  be  assassinated  (B  C.  330),  because  he  was  an  im- 
 pediment to  his  flight.  Alexander  beheld  on  the  fron- 
 tiers of  Bactriana  a  dying  man,  covered  with  wounds, 
 lying  on  a  chariot.  It  was  Darius.  The  Macedonian 
 hero  could  not  restrain  his  tears.  After  interring  him 
 with  all  the  honours  usual  among  the  Persians,  he  took 
 possession  of  Hyrcania  and  Bactriana,  and  caused 
 himself  to  be  proclaimed  King  of  Asia.  He  was  form- 
 ing still  more  gigantic  plans,  when  a  conspiracy  broke 
 out  in  his  own  camp.  Philotas,  the  son  of  Parmenio, 
 was  implicated.  Alexander,  not  satisfied  with  the 
 blood  of  the  son,  caused  the  father  also  to  be  put  to 
 death.  This  act  of  injustice  excited  general  displeas- 
 ure. At  the  same  time,  his  power  in  Greece  was  threat- 
 ened ;  and  it  required  all  the  energy  of  Antipater  to  dis- 
 solve, by  force  of  arms,  the  league  formed  by  the 
 Greeks  against  the  Macedonian  authority.  In  the 
 mean  time,  Alexander  marched  in  the  winter  through 
 the  north  of  Asia  as  far  as  it  was  then  known,  check- 
 ed neither  by  Mount  Caucasus  nor  the  Oxus,  and 
 reached  the  Caspian  Sea,  hitherto  unknown  to  the 
 Greeks.  Insatiable  of  glory  and  thirsting  for  conquest, 
 he  -spared  not  even  the  hordes  of  the  Scythians.  Re- 
 turning to  Bactriana,  he  hoped  to  gain  the  affections  of 
 the  Persians  by  assuming  their  dress  and  manners  ;  but 
 this  hope  was  not  realized.  The  discontent  of  the 
 army  gave  occasion  to  the  scene  which  ended  in  the 
 death  of  Clitus.  Alexander,  whose  pride  he  had  offend- 
 ed, killed  him  with  his  own  hand  at  a  banquet.  Clitus 
 had  been  one  of  his  most  faithful  friends  and  brave  of- 
 ficers, and  Alexander  was  afterward  a  prey  to  the 
 keenest  remorse.  In  the  following  year  he  subdued 
 the  whole  of  Sogdiana.  Oxyantes%ne  of  the  leaders 
 of  the  enemy,  had  secured  his  family  in  a  castle  built 
 on  a  lofty  rock.  The  Macedonians  stormed  it.  Rox- 
 ana,  the  daughter  of  Oxyanies,  one  of  tne  most  beau- 
 
 tiful virgins  of  Asia,  was  among  the  prisoners.  Al- 
 exander fell  in  love  with  and  married  her.  Upon  tho 
 news  of  this,  Oxyantes  thought  it  best  to  submit,  and 
 came  to  Bactria,  where  Alexander  received  him  with 
 distinction.  Here  a  new  conspiracy  was  discovered, 
 at  the  head  of  which  was  Ilermolaus,  and  among  the 
 accomplices  Callisthencs.  All  the  conspirators  were 
 condemned  to  death  except  Calhsthenes,  who  was 
 mutilated  and  carried  about  with  the  army  in  an  iron 
 cage,  until  he  terminated  his  torments  by  poison.  Al- 
 exander now  formed  the  idea  of  conquering  India,  the 
 name  of  which  was  scarcely  known.  He  passed  the 
 Indus,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Taxilus,  the  ruler 
 of  the  region  beyond  this  river,  who  assisted  him  with 
 troops  and  130  elephants.  Conducted  by  Taxilus,  he 
 marched  towards  the  river  Hydaspes,  the  passage  of 
 which,  Porus,  another  king,  defended  at  the  head  of 
 his  army.  Alexander  conquered  him  in  a  bloody  bat- 
 tle, took  him  prisoner,  but  restored  him  to  his  king- 
 dom. He  then  marched  victoriously  on,  established 
 Greek  colonies,  and  built,  according  to  Plutarch, 
 seventy  towns,  one  of  which  he  called  Bucephala,  after 
 his  horse,  which  had  been  killed  on  the  Hydaspes. 
 Intoxicated  by  success,  he  intended  to  advance  as  far 
 as  the  Ganges,  and  was  preparing  to  pass  the  Hypha- 
 sis,  when  the  discontent  of  his  army  obliged  him  to 
 terminate  his  progress  and  return.  Previous  to  turn- 
 ing back,  however,  he  erected  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Hyphasis  twelve  towers,  in  the  shape  of  altars  ;  mon- 
 uments of  the  extent  of  his  career,  and  testimonials  of 
 his  gratitude  towards  the  gods.  On  these  gigantic  al- 
 tars he  offered  sacrifices  with  all  due  solemnity,  and 
 horse-races  and  gymnastic  contests  closed  the  festiv- 
 ities. When  he  had  reached  the  Hydaspes,  he  built 
 a  fleet,  in  which  he  sent  a  part  of  his  troops  down  the 
 river,  while  the  rest  of  the  army  proceeded  along  the 
 banks.  On  his  march  he  encountered  several  Indian 
 princes,  and,  during  the  siege  of  a  town  belonging  to 
 the  Malli,  was  severely  wounded.  Having  recovered, 
 he  continued  his  course  down  the  Indus,  and  thus 
 reached  the  sea.  Having  entered  the  Indian  Ocean 
 and  performed  some  rites  in  honour  of  Neptune,  he  left 
 his  fleet ;  and,  after  ordering  Nearchus,  as  soon  as  the 
 season  would  permit,  to  sail  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
 thence  up  the  Tigris,  he  himself  prepared  to  march  to 
 Babylon.  He  had  to  wander  through  immense  deserts, 
 in  which  the  greater  part  of  his  army,  destitute  of  wa- 
 ter and  food,  perished  in  the  sand.  Only  the  fourth 
 part  of  the  troops  with  which  he  had  set  out  relumed 
 to  Persia.  On  his  route  he  quelled  several  mutinies, 
 and  placed  governors  over  various  provinces.  In  Susa 
 he  married  two  Persian  princesses,  and  rewarded  those 
 of  his  Macedonians  who  had  married  Persian  women  ; 
 because  it  was  his  intention  to  unite  the  two  nations 
 as  closely  as  possible.  He  distributed  rich  rewards 
 among  his  troops.  At  Opis,  on  the  Tigris,  he  declared 
 his  intention  of  sending  the  invalids  home  with  pres- 
 ents. The  rest  of  the  army  mutinied  ;  but  he  persist- 
 ed, and  effected  his  purpose.  Soon  after,  his  favour- 
 ite, HephsBstioii,  died.  His  grief  was  unbounded,  and 
 he  buried  his  body  with  royal  splendour.  On  his  return 
 from  Ecbatana  to  Babylon,  the  magicians  are  said  to 
 have  predicted  that  this  city  would  be  fatal  to  him. 
 The  representations  of  his  friends  induced  him  to  de- 
 spise these  warnings.  He  went  to  Babylon,  where 
 many  foreign  ambassadors  waited  for  him,  and  was 
 encracTcd  in  extensive  plans  for  the  future,  when  he 
 became  suddenly  sick  after  a  banquet,  and  died  in  a 
 few  days.  B.C.  323.  Such  was  the  end  of  this  con- 
 queror, in  his  32d  year,  after  a  reign  of  12  years  and 
 8  months.  He  left  behind  him  an  immense  empire, 
 which  became  the  scene  of  continual  wars.  He  had 
 designated  no  heir,  and  being  asked  by  his  friends  to 
 whom  he  left  the  empire,  answered,  "  To  the  worthi- 
 est." After  many  disturbances,  the  generals  acknowl- 
 edged Aridaeus,  a  man  of  a  very  weak  mind,  the  son 
 ^  107 
 
ALEXANDER. 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 of  Philip  and  the  dancer  Philinna,  and  Alexander  the 
 posthumous  son  of  Alexander  and  Roxana,  as  kings, 
 and  divided  tiic  provinces  among  themselves,  under 
 the  name  of  satraptcs.  They  appointed  Perdiccas,  to 
 whom  Alexander,  on  his  deathbed,  had  given  his  ring, 
 prime  minister  of  the  two  kings.  The  body  of  Alex- 
 ander was  interred  by  Ptolemy  in  Alcxandrea,  in  a 
 golden  coffin,  and  divine  honours  were  paid  to  him, 
 not  only  in  Egypt,  but  also  in  other  countries.  The 
 sarcophagus  in  which  the  coffin  was  enclosed  has  been 
 in  tiie  British  Museum  since  1802.  The  English  na- 
 tion owe  the  acquisition  of  this  relic  to  the  exertions 
 of  Dr.  Clarke,  the  celebrated  traveller,  who  found  it  in 
 the  possession  of  the  French  troops  in  Egypt,  and  was 
 the  means  of  its  being  surrendered  to  the  English 
 army.  In  1805,  the  same  individual  published  a  dis- 
 sertation on  this  sarcophagus,  fully  establishing  its  iden- 
 tity.— No  character  in  history  has  afforded  matter  for 
 more  discussion  than  that  of  Alexander  ;  and  the  ex- 
 act quality  of  his  ambition  is  to  this  day  a  subject  of 
 dispute.  By  some  he  is  regarded  as  little  more  than 
 a  heroic  madman,  actuated  by  the  mere  desire  of  per- 
 sonal glory  ;  others  give  him  the  honour  of  vast  and 
 enlightened  views  of  policy,  embracing  the  consolida- 
 tion and  establishment  of  an  empire,  in  which  com- 
 merce, learning,  and  the  arts  should  flourish  in  com- 
 mon with  energy  and  enterprise  of  every  description. 
 Each  class  of  reasoners  find  facts  to  countenance  their 
 opinion  of  the  mixed  character  and  actions  of  Alexan- 
 der. The  former  quote  the  wildness  of  his  personal 
 daring,  the  barren  nature  of  much  of  his  transient  mas- 
 tery, and  his  remorseless  and  unnecessary  cruelty  to 
 the  vanquished  on  some  occasions,  and  capricious 
 magnanimity  and  leniiy  on  others.  The  latter  advert 
 to  facts  like  the  foundation  of  Alexandrea,  and  other 
 acts  indicative  of  large  and  prospective  views  of  true 
 policy  ;  and  regard  his  expeditions  rather  as  schemes 
 of  discovery  and  exploration  than  mere  enterprises  for 
 fruitless  conquest.  The  truth  appears  to  embrace  a 
 portion  of  both  these  opinions.  Alexander  was  too 
 much  smitten  with  military  glory,  and  the  common  self- 
 engrossment  of  the  mere  conqueror,  to  be  a  great  and 
 consistent  politician  ;  while  such  was  the  strength  of 
 his  intellect,  and  the  light  opened  to  him  by  success, 
 thai  a  glimpse  of  the  genuine  sources  of  lasting  great- 
 ness could  not  but  break  in  upon  him.  The  fate  of  a 
 not  very  dissimilar  character  in  our  days  shows  the 
 nature  of  this  mixture  of  lofty  intellect  and  personal 
 ambition,  which  has  seldom  effected  much  permanent 
 good  for  mankind  in  any  age.  The  fine  qualities  and 
 defects  of  the  man  were,  in  Alexander,  very  similar  to 
 those  of  the  ruler.  His  treatment  of  Parmenio  and  of 
 Clitus,  and  various  acts  of  capricious  cruelty  and  in- 
 gratitude, are  contrasted  by  many  instances  of  extra- 
 ordinary greatness  of  mind.  He  was  also  a  lover  and 
 favourer  of  the  arts  and  literature,  and  carried  with 
 him  a  train  of  poets,  orators,  and  philosophers,  although 
 his  choice  of  his  attendants  of  this  description  did  not 
 always  do  honour  to  his  judgment.  He,  however,  en- 
 couraged and  patronised  the  artists  Praxiteles,  Lysip- 
 pus,  and  Apelles  ;  and  his  munilicent  presents  to  Ar- 
 istotle, to  enable  him  to  pursue  his  inquiries  in  natural 
 history,  were  very  serviceable  to  science.  Alexander 
 also  exhibited  that  unequivocal  test  of  strong  intellect, 
 a  disposition  to  employ  and  reward  men  of  talents  in 
 every  department  of  knowledge.  In  person  this  extra- 
 ordinary individual  was  of  the  middle  size,  with  a  neck 
 somewhat  awry,  but  possessed  of  a  fierce  and  majestic 
 countenance. — It  may  not  be  amiss,  before  concluding 
 this  sketch,  to  consider  for  a  moment  the  circumstan- 
 ces connected  with  the  death  of  this  celebrated  leader. 
 His  decease  has  usually  been  ascribed  either  to  excess 
 in  drinking  or  to  poison.  Neither  of  these  suppositions 
 appears  to  be  correct.  The  fever  to  which  he  fell  a 
 victim  (for  the  Royal  Diary  whence  Arrian  has  copied 
 his  account  of  the  last  illness  of  Alexander,  speaks  ex- 
 108 
 
 pressly  of  a  violent  fever  having  been  the  cause  of 
 his  decease)  was  contracted  very  probably  in  Ins  visit 
 to  the  marshes  of  Assyria.  Tlie  thirst  which  subse- 
 quently comjielled  him,  on  a  ])ublic  day,  to  (put  his 
 military  duties,  proves  that  this  fever  was  raging  in  his 
 veins  before  it  absolutely  overcame  him.  The  carou- 
 sals in  which  he  afterward  indulged  must  have  seri- 
 ously increased  the  disease.  Strong  men  like  Alex- 
 ander have  often  warded  off  attacks  of  illness  by  in- 
 creased excitement;  but,  if  this  fail  to  produce  the  de- 
 sired effect,  the  reaction  is  terrible.  It  is  curious  to 
 observe,  in  Arrian's  account  of  Alexander's  last  illness, 
 that  no  physician  is  mentioned.  The  king  seems  to 
 have  trusted  to  two  simple  remedies,  abstinence  and 
 bathing.  His  removal  to  a  summer-house,  close  to  the 
 large  cold  bath,  shows  how  much  he  confided  in  the 
 latter  remedy.  But  the  extraordinary  fatigues  which 
 he  had  undergone,  the  exposure  within  the  last  three 
 years  to  the  rains  of  the  I'endjah,  the  marshes  of  the 
 Indus,  the  burning  sands  of  Gedrosia,  the  hot  vapours 
 of  Susiana,  and  the  marsh  miasma  of  the  Babylonian 
 Lakes,  proved  too  much  even  for  his  iron  constitution. 
 The  numerous  wounds  by  which  his  body  had  been 
 perforated,  and  especially  the  serious  injury  done  to  his 
 lungs  by  an  arrow  among  the  Malli,  must  in  some  de- 
 gree have  impaired  the  vital  functions,  and  enfeebled 
 the  powers  of  healthy  reaction.  {Piut.,  V it.  Alex. — 
 Arrian,  Exp.  Alex. —  Quinlus  Curtius. — Diod.  Sic, 
 17  et  18 — Encyclop.  Americ.,\o\.  1,  p.  \b\,scqq. — 
 Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  l,p.  19.5. —  Williams's  Life  of  AU 
 exandcr  the  Great,  p.  346,  &c..  Am.  ed.) — Alter  many 
 dissensions  and  bloody  wars  among  themselves,  the 
 generals  of  Alexander  laid  the  foundations  of  several 
 great  empires  in  the  three  quarters  of  the  globe  Ptol- 
 emy seized  Egypt,  where  he  firmly  established  him- 
 self, and  where  his  successors  were  called  Ptolemies, 
 in  honour  of  the  founder  of  their  empire,  which  sub- 
 sisted till  the  time  of  Augustus.  Seleucus  and  his 
 posterity  reigned  in  Babylon  and  Syria.  Antigonus 
 at  first  established  himself  in  Asia  Minor,  and  Aiitipa- 
 ter  in  Macedonia.  The  descendants  of  Antipater  were 
 conquered  by  the  successors  of  Antigonus,  who  reign- 
 ed in  Macedonia  till  it  was  reduced  by  the  Romans  in 
 the  time  of  King  Perseus.  Lysimachus  made  himselt 
 master  of  Thrace  ;  and  Leonatus,  who  had  taken  pos- 
 session of  Phrygia,  meditated  for  a  while  to  drive  An- 
 tipater from  Macedonia.  Eumenes  established  him- 
 self in  Cappadocia,  but  was  soon  overpowered  by  his 
 rival  Antigonus,  and  starved  to  death.  During  his 
 lifetime,  Eumenes  appeared  so  formidable  to  the  suc- 
 cessors of  Alexander,  that  none  of  them  dared  to  as- 
 sume  the  title  of  king. 
 
 Alexander  IV.,  son  of  Alexander  the  Great  and 
 Roxana.  He  was  born  after  his  father's  death,  and 
 was  proclaimed  king  while  yet  an  infant,  along  with 
 Philip  Aridaeus,  an  illegitimate  brother  of  Alexander 
 the  Great.  Soon  after,  however,  he  was  put  to  death, 
 together  with  Roxana,  by  Gassander,  who  thereupon 
 assumed  the  sovereign  power.     {Justin,  15,  2.) 
 
 Alexander  V.,  son  of  Gassander.  He  ascended 
 the  throne  of  Macedonia  along  with  his  brother  An- 
 tipater, B.C.  298.  Antipater,  however,  having  put  to 
 death  Thessalonica,  their  mother,  Alexander,  in  order 
 to  avenge  his  parent,  called  in  the  aid  of  Demetrius, 
 son  of  Antigonus.  A  reconciliation,  however,  having 
 taken  place  between  the  brothers,  Demetrius,  who  was 
 apprehensive  lest  this  might  thwart  his  own  views  on 
 the  crown  of  Macedon,  slew  Alexander  and  seized  upon 
 the  royal  authority.     (Justin,  16,  1.) 
 
 2.  Kings  of  Epirus. 
 Alexander  I.,  surnamed  Molossus,  was  brother  of 
 Olympias,  and  successor  to  Arybas.  He  came  into 
 Italy  to  aid  the  Tarentines  against  the  Romans,  and 
 used  to  say,  that  while  his  nephew,  Alexander  the 
 Great,  was  warring  against  women  (meaning  the  ef- 
 
ALEXANDER. 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 femmate  nations  of  the  east),  he  was  fighting  against 
 men.  {Justin,  17,  3.—Liv.,  8,  17,  et  27.)  As  re- 
 gards the  circumstances  connected  with  his  death,  vid. 
 Acheron,  II. 
 
 Ai.KXANnER  II.,  son  of  the  celebrated  Pyrrhus.  To 
 avenge  the  death  of  his  father,  who  liad  been  slain  at 
 Argos,  fighting  against  Antigonus,  he  seized  upon 
 Macedonia,  of  which  the  latter  was  king.  He  was 
 soon,  however,  driven  out.  not  only  from  Macedonia, 
 but  also  from  his  own  dominions,  by  Demetrius,  son  of 
 Antigonus.  Taking  refuge,  on  this,  among  the  Acar- 
 nanians,  he  succeeded,  by  their  aid,  in  regaining  the 
 throne  of  Epirus.  {Justin,  26,  3.— Id.,  28,  1.— 
 Plut.,  Vtt.Pyrr.,  34.) 
 
 3.  Kings  of  Syria. 
 
 Alexander  L,  surnamed  Bala  or  Balas,  a  man  of 
 low  origin,  but  of  great  talents  and  still  greater  auda- 
 city, who  claimed  to  be  the  son  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
 assumed  the  name  of  Ale.xander,  and  being  acknowl- 
 edged by  Ptolemy  PhUoinetor,  Ariarathes,  and  Attains, 
 seized  upon  the  throne  of  Syria.  He  was  afterward 
 defeated  and  driven  out  by  Demetrius  JNicator,  the 
 lawful  heir;  and,  having  taken  refuge  with  an  Arabian 
 prince,  was  put  to  death  by  the  latter.  {Justin,  35, 
 1,  scq.) 
 
 Alexander  II.,  surnamed  Zabina  the  Slave,  a 
 usurper  of  the  throne  of  Syria.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
 petty  trader  in  Alexandrea,  but  claimed,  at  the  instiga- 
 tion of  Ptolemy  VII.,  to  have  been  adopted  by  Anti- 
 ochus V'lll.  I'lolemy  aided  him  with  troops,  and  De- 
 metrius Nicator  was  defeated  at  Damascus,  and  driven 
 out  of  his  kingdom.  A  few  years  after,  however, 
 Alexander  was  himself  defeated  by  Antiochus  Grypus, 
 iided  in  his  turn  by  the  same  Ptolemy,  and  put  to  death. 
 Grypus  was  son  of  Demetrius  Nicator.  {Jusii7i,  39, 
 L    seq.) 
 
 4.  Fnnccs  of  Judaa. 
 
 Alexander  I.,  Jannsus,  monarch  of  Judaea,  son  of 
 Hyrcanus,  and  brother  of  Aristobulus,  to  whom  he  suc- 
 ceeded, B.C.  106.  He  was  a  warlike  prince,  and  dis- 
 played great  ability  in  the  different  wars  in  which  he 
 A'as  engaged  during  his  reign.  Driven  from  his  king- 
 dom by  his  subjects,  who  detested  him,  he  took  up 
 arms  against  them,  and  waged  a  cruel  warfare  for  the 
 space  of  six  years,  slaying  upward  of  .50,000  of  his 
 foes.  Having  at  last  re-entered  Jerusalem,  he  cruci- 
 fied, for  the  amusement  of  his  concubines,  800  of  his 
 revolted  subjects,  and  at  the  same  time  caused  their 
 wives  and  cluldren  to  be  massacred  before  their  eyes. 
 Being  re-established  on  the  throne,  he  made  various 
 conquests  in  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Idumea,  and  finally 
 died  of  intemperance  at  Jerusalem,  B.C.  76,  after  a 
 reign  of  27  years.     {Joscphus,  Ant  Jud.,  17,  22,  &c.) 
 
 Alexander  II.,  son  of  Aristobulus  II.,  was  made 
 prisoner,  along  with  his  father,  by  Pompey,  but  managed 
 to  escape  while  being  conducted  to  Rome,  raised  an 
 army,  and  made  some  conquests.  Hyrcanus,  son  of 
 Alexander  Jannseus,  being  then  on  the  throne,  solicited 
 the  aid  of  the  Romans,  and  Marc  Antony  being  sent  by 
 Gabinius,  defeated  Alexander  near  Jerusalem.  After 
 standing  a  siege  for  some  time  in  the  fortress  Alexan- 
 dreioM,  he  ol)taitied  terms  of  peace  ;  bu'  not  long  after, 
 having  taken  up  arms  for  Cssar,  who  had  released  his 
 father,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  Metellus  Scipio,  and 
 was  beheaded  at  Antioch.  {Joscphus,  Antiq.  Jud., 
 14,  13) 
 
 Alexander  III.,  son  of  Herod  the  Great,  put  to 
 death  by  his  father,  along  with  Aristobulus  his  brother, 
 on  false  charges  brought  against  them  by  Pheroras  their 
 uncle,  and  Salome  their  aunt.  {Joscphus,  AnCiq.  Jud., 
 16,  17.) 
 
 5.   Kings  of  Egypt. 
 Alkxander  I.,  II.,  \U.,vid.  Ptolemaeta  1' ,  X.,  XI. 
 
 6.  Individuals. 
 Alexander,  I.  tyrant  of  Pherae  in  Theesaly,  wha 
 seized  upon  the  sovereign  power,  B  C.  368.  He  waa 
 of  a  warlike  spirit,  but,  at  the  same  time,  cruel  and  vin- 
 dictive, and  his  oppressed  subjects  were  induced  to 
 supplicate  the  aid  of  the  Thebans,  who  sent  Pelopidas 
 v.'ith  an  army.  The  tyrant  was  compelled  to  yield; 
 but,  having  subsequently  escaped  from  the  power  of  the 
 Theban  commander,  he  reassembled  an  army,  and 
 Pelopidas  having  been  imprudent  enough  to  come  to 
 him  without  an  escort,  the  tyrant  seized  and  threw  him 
 into  prison,  whence  he  was  only  released  on  the  ap- 
 pearance of  Epaminondas  at  the  head  of  an  armed 
 force.  By  dint  of  negotiation,  he  now  obtained  a 
 truce,  but  renewed  his  acts  of  violence  and  cruelty  as 
 soon  as  the  Thebans  had  departed .  Pelopidas  marched 
 against  and  defeated  him,  but  lost  his  own  life  in  the 
 action.  Stripped  upon  this  of  all  his  conquests,  and 
 restricted  to  the  city  of  Pheras,  he  no  longer  dared  to 
 carry  on  war  by  land,  but  turned  his  attention  to  pira- 
 cy, and  had  even  the  audacity  to  pillage  the  Piraeus  or 
 main  harbour  of  Athens.  He  was  assassinated  at  last 
 by  his  wife  Thebe.  {Val.  Max.,  9,  13. —  Corn.  Ncp., 
 Vit.  Pclop. — Pausan.,  6,  5.) — II  Lyncestes,  was  ac- 
 cused of  being  one  of  the  conspirators  in  the  plot 
 against  Philip  of  Macedon,  which  resulted  in  the  death 
 of  that  monarch.  He  was  pardoned  on  account  of  his 
 having  been  the  first  to  salute  Alexander,  Philip's  son, 
 as  king.  Not  long  after,  however,  he  was  detected  in 
 a  treacherous  correspondence  with  Darius,  and  put  to 
 death.  {Justin,  11,  2.) — III.  Son  of  Polysperchon, 
 at  first  a  general  on  the  side  of  Antigonus,  after  the 
 death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  very  active  in  dri- 
 ving out  for  him,  from  the  Peloponnesus,  the  garrisons 
 of  Cassandcr.  He  afterward  went  over  to  Cassan- 
 der,  but  was  assassinated  by  some  Sicyonians,  after 
 no  long  interval  of  time,  at  the  siege  of  Dymas. — IV. 
 A  famous  impostor  of  Paphlagonia,  who  lived  in  the 
 time  of  Lucian,  under  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius. 
 By  his  artifices  he  succeeded  in  passing  himself  for  a 
 person  sent  by  .^Esculapius,  and  prevailed  upon  the 
 Paphlagonians  to  erect  a  temple  to  this  deity.  As  the 
 priest  and  projihet  of  the  god,  he  ran  a  long  career  of  de- 
 ception, a  lull  account  ol  which  is  given  in  the  Sup- 
 plement.— V.  Severus,  a  Roman  emperor.  {VuL  Se- 
 verus.) — VI.  An  Athenian  painter,  whose  portrait  ap- 
 pears on  a  marble  tablet  lound  at  Resina  in  1746,  and 
 stating  the  name  and  country  of  the  artist.  The  age 
 in  which  he  lived  is  not  known.— VII.  A  native  of  .Acar- 
 nania.  {Vid.  Supplement.) — VIII.  ,'Etolus.  {I'ld. 
 Supplement.) — IX.  A  commander  of  horse  in  the  army 
 of  Antigonus  Doson.  {Vul.  Supplement.) — X.  A  son 
 of  Marc  .Antony  and  Cleopatra.  (  Vid.  Supplement.) 
 — XI.  Brother  of  Molo.  {Vid.  Supplement.) — XII. 
 A  native  of  Cotyaeum,  in  Phrygia,  or,  according  to 
 Suidas,  of  Miletus,  who  fiourished  in  the  second  cen- 
 tury of  our  era.  He  took  the  name  of  Cornelius 
 Alexander,  from  his  having  been  a  slave  of  Corne- 
 lius Lentulus,  who  gave  bim  Ins  freedom,  and  made 
 him  the  mstructer  to  his  children  He  was  sur- 
 named Polyhistor,  from  the  variety  and  multiplicity 
 of  his  knowledge.  The  ancient  writers  cite  one  of 
 his  works  in  forty  books,  each  one  of  which  appears  to 
 have  contained  the  description  of  some  particular 
 country,  and  to  have  had  a  separate  title,  such  as 
 Ab/v-Ttam.  Kaptanu,  &c.  Pliny  often  refers  to  him. 
 It  is  probable  that  he  was  the  author  of  a  work  enti- 
 tled Oav/xaaiuv  avvuyuyfj,  "  A  collection  of  wonderful 
 things,"  of  which  Photius  speaks  as  the  production  of 
 an  individual  named  Alexander,  without  designating 
 him  any  fiirther.  This  work  contained  accounts  of 
 animals,  plants,  rivers,  &c.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lut.  Gr.. 
 vol.  5,  p.  276,  sf^.)— XIII.  A  native  of  Mgx  in  Achaia, 
 the  disciple  of  Xenocrates.  and,  a.^  is  thought,  of  Sosi- 
 genes.  He  was  one  of  the  instructers  of  the  Emperor 
 Nero      Some  critics  regard  him  as  the  author  of  the 
 
 109 
 
ALEXANDER. 
 
 ALEXANDREA. 
 
 commentary  on  Aristotle,  which  commonly  passes  un- 
 der the  name  o(  Alexander  of  Aphrodisia.  (Schbll, 
 Hist.  Ltd.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  156.)— XIV.  A  native  of 
 Aphrodisia  in  Caria,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning 
 of  the  third  century.  He  is  regarded  as  the  restorer 
 «f  the  true  doctrine  of  Aristotle,  and  he  is  the  princi- 
 pal peripatetic,  after  the  founder  of  this  school,  who 
 adopted  the  system  of  the  latter  in  all  its  purity,  with- 
 out intermingling  along  with  it,  as  Ale.xander  of  ^gse 
 and  his  disciples  did,  the  prece[)ts  of  other  schools. 
 He  was  surnarned,  by  way  of  compliment,  ''E^rjyTjT/'/r, 
 Exegctcs  ("  the  interpreter,"  or  "  expounder"),  and 
 became  the  head  of  a  particular  class  of  Aristotelian 
 commentators,  styled  "  Alexandreans."  He  wrote,  1. 
 A  treatise  on  Destiny  and  Free  Agency  (Tlepl  E'l/nap- 
 fievif^  Kod  Tov  ii^'  i/filv),  a  work  held  in  high  estima- 
 tion, and  which  the  author  addressed  to  the  emperors 
 Septimius  Severus  and  Antoninus  Caracalla.  In  it 
 he  combats  the  Stoic  dogma,  as  hostile  to  free  agency, 
 and  destructive,  in  consequence,  of  all  morality.  The 
 best  edition  of  this  work  is  that  printed  at  London,  in 
 1658,  12mo.  It  is  inserted  also,  with  new  corrections, 
 in  the  3d  vol.  of  Grotius's  Theological  Works,  AmsL, 
 1679,  fol.  3.  A  commentary  on  the  first  book  of  the 
 first  Analytics  of  Aristotle,  Gr.,  fol.,  Vcnet.,  1489,  and 
 4to.,  Fkirent.,  1521.  Translated  into  Latin  by  Feli- 
 cianus,  fol ,  Vcnet.,  1542,  1546,  and  1560.  3.  A  com- 
 mentary on  the  eight  books  of  the  Topica,  fol.,  Veiiet., 
 1513  and  1526.  A  Latin  translation  by  Dorotheus, 
 which  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  1524,  fol..  Vend., 
 has  been  often  reprinted.  In  1563,  a  translation  by 
 Rasarius  appeared,  fol  ,  Venet.,  which  is  preferable  to 
 the  other.  4.  Commentaries  on  the  Elenchi  sophistici 
 of  Aristotle,  Gr.,  fol.,  Venet.,  1520,  and  4to,  Florcnt., 
 1552.  Translated  into  Latin  by  Rasarius,  Vcnet., 
 1557.  5.  A  commentary  on  the  twelve  books  of  the 
 metaphysics  of  Aristotle.  The  Greek  text  has  never 
 been  prmted,  although  there  are  many  MS.  copies  in 
 the  Royal  Library  at  Paris,  and  other  libraries.  A 
 Latin  translation,  however,  by  Sepulveda,  appeared  at 
 Rome,  1527,  in  fol.,  and  has  been  often  reprmted.  6. 
 A  commentary  on  Aristotle's  work  De  Scnsu,  &c.,  Gr., 
 at  the  end  of  Simplicius's  commentary  on  the  work 
 of  Aristotle  respecting  the  Soul,  fol.,  Venet.,  1527. 
 7.  A  commentary  on  the  Meteorologica  of  Aristotle, 
 Gr. ,  fol.,  Vcnet.,  1527,  and  in  the  Latin  of  Alex.  Pi- 
 colomini,  fol.,  1540,  1548,  1575.  8.  A  treatise  ■Tvepl 
 ui^EG)^  (De  Mistione),  directed  against  the  dogma  of 
 the  Stoics  respecting  the  penetrability  of  bodies,  Gr., 
 with  the  preceding.  Two  Latin  translations  have  ap- 
 peared, one  by  Caninius,  Venet.,  1555,  fol ,  and  the 
 other  by  Schegk,  Tubing.,  1540,  4to.  9.  A  treatise 
 on  the  Soul,  in  two  books,  or,  more  correctly  speak- 
 ing, two  treatises  on  this  subject,  since  there  is  little 
 if  any  connexion  between  these  books.  Gr.,  at  the 
 end  of  Theimstius  ;  and  in  Latin  by  Donati,  Venet., 
 1.502,  fol.  10.  Physica  Scholia,  &c.  {^vgikCiv  oxo- 
 Tiiuv,  uTTopiuv,  Kal  2.vaeuv,  (iidXia  6'),  Gr.,  fol.,  Ve- 
 net., 1536,  and  m  Latin  by  Bagolimis,  Venet.,  1541, 
 1549,  1555,  1589.  11.  Problemata  Medica,  &c.,  the 
 best  Greek  edition  of  which  is  in  Sylburgius's  works 
 of  Aristotle  ;  this  is  attributed  by  some  to  Alexander 
 Trallianus.  12.  A  treatise  on  Fevers;  never  pub- 
 lished in  Greek,  but  translated  by  Valla,  and  inserted 
 in  a  collection  of  various  works,  Venet.,  1488. 
 For  medical  works  Vid.  Supplement.  — XV.  A 
 native  of  Myndus,  quoted  by  Athenaeus.  (Compare 
 Meurs.,BihL,  in  Thes.  Gronov.,  vol.  10,  p.  1208. 
 seqq.)  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same  with 
 the  writer  mentioned  by  Athena'us  under  the  name  of 
 Alexon.  {Schweigh.,  Index  Auct.  ad.  A/hen. — Op., 
 vol  9,  p.  24,  seqq.)—XVL  A  native  of  Tralles,  who 
 lived  in  the  sixth  century,  and  distinguished  himself  as 
 a  physician.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  medicine, 
 some  of  which  are  extant,  and  have  been  published 
 at  different  times  ;  namely,  a  Greek  edition,  fol.,  Paris, 
 110 
 
 11.548;  a  Latin  edition  among  the  "Medics  artis 
 Principes,"  fol.,  Faris,  1567,  &c.  Alexander  Tralli- 
 anus  is  a  most  judicious,  elegant,  and  original  author. 
 No  medical  writer,  wliether  of  ancient  or  modern  times, 
 has  treated  of  diseases  more  methodically  than  he  has 
 done  ;  for,  after  all  the  Nosological  systems  which 
 have  been  })roposed  and  tried,  we  can  name  none 
 more  advantageous  to  the  student  than  the  method 
 adopted  by  him,  of  treating  of  diseases  according  to 
 the  part  of  the  body  which  they  affect,  beginning  with 
 the  head  and  proceeding  downward.  The  same  plan 
 is  pursued  in  the  third  book  of  Paulus  ^f^gineta,  who 
 has  copied  freely  from  Alexander.  Of  the  ancient 
 medical  writers  subsequent  to  Galen,  Alexander  shows 
 the  least  of  that  blind  deference  to  his  authority  for 
 which  all  have  been  censured  :  nay,  in  many  instances 
 he  ventures  to  differ  from  him  ;  not,  however,  appa- 
 rently from  a  spirit  of  rivalship,  but  from  a  commenda- 
 ble love  of  truth.  In  his  eleventh  book,  he  has  given 
 the  fullest  account  of  the  causes,  symptoms,  and  treat 
 ment  of  gout  which  is  to  be  met  with  in  any  ancient 
 writer  ;  and  as  it  contains  many  things  not  to  be  met 
 with  elsewhere,  it  deserves  to  be  carefully  studied. 
 He  judiciously  suits  the  treatment  to  the  circumstances 
 of  the  case,  but  his  general  plan  of  cure  appears  to 
 have  consisted  in  the  administration  of  purgative 
 medicines,  either  cathartic  salts  or  drastic  purgatives, 
 such  as  scammony,  aloes,  and  hermodactylus.  The 
 last-mentioned  medicine  was  most  probably  a  species 
 of  Colchicum  Autumnale,  which  forms  the  active  in- 
 gredient of  a  French  patent  medicine  called  UEau 
 Medicitiale  d'Hyssop,  much  celebrated  some  years 
 ago  for  the  cure  of  gout  and  rheumatism.  Dr.  Haden 
 lately  published  a  small  pamphlet,  wherein  Colchicum 
 was  strongly  recommended  as  an  antiphlogistic  remedy 
 of  great  powers.  The  writers,  both  Greek  and  Ara- 
 bian, subsequent  to  Alexander  Trallianus,  repeat  the 
 praises  bestowed  by  him  upon  the  virtues  of  hermo- 
 dactylus. Demetrius  Pepagomenos  has  written  a  pro- 
 fessed treatise  to  recommend  this  medicine  in  gout. — ■ 
 The  style  of  Alexander,  although  less  pointed  than 
 that  of  Celsus,  and  less  brilliant  than  that  of  Aretaeus, 
 is  remarkable  for  perspicuity  and  elegance.  It  must 
 be  mentioned  with  regret,  however,  as  a  lamentable 
 instance  of  a  sound  judgment  being  blinded  by  super- 
 stition, that  our  author  had  great  confidence  in  charms 
 and  amulets.  Such  weakness  is  to  be  bewailed,  but 
 need  not  be  wondered  at,  when  we  recollect  that  Wise- 
 man, one  of  the  best  English  authorities  on  surgery, 
 had  great  confidence  in  the  royal  touch  for  the  cure 
 of  Scrofula. — XVII.  Isius.  (F»/.  Supplement.)  — 
 XVIII.  Lychnus.  (Vzd.  Supplement.)— XIX.  Myn- 
 dius.  (Vid.  Supfjiement.) — XX.  Noumemus.  (V-id. 
 Supplement)  —  XXI.  A  Greek  rhetorician.  (Vtd, 
 Supplement.)  —  XXII.  Philalethes.  (Vjd.  Supple- 
 ment.)— XXIII.  A  Roman  usurper.  (Vid.  Supple- 
 ment.)— XXIV.  Tiberius.     {Vid.  .Supplement.) 
 
 Ai.EXANDKEA  (less  correctly  Alexandria,  i^urmanw, 
 ad  Propert.,  3,  9,  33 — Ursin.,  ad  Ck.,  Ep.  ad  Fam., 
 4,  2,  10. — Fea,  ad  Horat.,  Od.,  4,  14,  35),  the  name 
 of  eighteen  cities,  founded  by  Alexander  during  his 
 conquests  in  Asia,  among  which  the  most  deserving  of 
 mention  are  the  following :  I.  The  capital  of  Egypt, 
 under  the  Ptolemies,  built  B.C.  332.  It  was  situate 
 about  12  miles  to  the  west  of  the  Canopic  mouth  of 
 the  Nile,  between  the  Lake  Mareotis  and  the  beauti- 
 ful harbour  formed  by  the  Isle  of  Pharos.  It  was  the 
 intention  of  its  founder  to  make  Alexandrea  at  once 
 the  seat  of  empire  and  the  first  commercial  city  in  the 
 world.  The  latter  of  these  plans  completely  succeed- 
 ed ;  and  for  a  long  period  of  years,  from  the  time  of 
 the  Ptolemies  to  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
 Hope,  the  capital  of  Egypt  was  the  link  of  connexion 
 between  the  commerce  of  the  east  and  west.  The 
 goods  and  other  articles  of  traffic  were  brought  up  the 
 Red  Sea,  and  landed  at  one  of  three  different  points 
 
ALEXANDREA. 
 
 ALE 
 
 Of  these,  the  first  was  at  the  head  of  the  western 
 pulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  the  canal  of  Neco  com- 
 menced, and  where  stood  the  city  of  Arsinoe  or  Cleo- 
 patris.  This  route,  however,  was  not  much  used,  on 
 account  of  the  dangerous  navigation  of  the  higher  parts 
 of  the  Red  Sea.  The  second  point  was  the  harbour 
 of  Myos  Hormus,  in  latitude  27°.  The  third  was 
 Berenice,  south  of  Myos  Hormus,  in  latitude  23°  30'. 
 "What  the  ships  deposited  at  either  of  the  last  two 
 places,  the  caravans  brought  to  Coptos  on  the  Nile, 
 whence  they  were  conveyed  to  Alexandrea  by  a  canal 
 connectincr  this  capital  with  the  Canopic  branch.  Be- 
 tween Coptos  and  Berenice  a  road  was  constructed  by 
 Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  258  miles  in  length.  Ptolemy, 
 the  son  of  Lagus,  who  received  Egypt  in  the  general 
 division,  improved  what  Alexander  had  begun.  On 
 the  long,  narrow  island  of  Pharos,  which  is  very  near 
 the  coast,  and  formed  a  port  with  a  double  entrance, 
 a  magnificent  tower  of  white  marble  was  erected,  to 
 serve  as  a  beacon  and  guide  for  navigators.  The  ar- 
 chitect was  Sostratus  of  Cnidus. — 'J'he  first  inhabi- 
 tants of  Alexandrea  were  a  mixture  of  Egyptians  and 
 Greeks,  to  whom  must  be  added  numerous  colonies  of 
 Jews,  transplanted  thither  in  336,  320,  and  312  B.C., 
 to  increase  the  population  of  the  city.  It  was  they 
 who  made  the  well-known  Greek  translation  of  the 
 Old  Testament,  under  the  name  of  Septuaginta,  or 
 the  Septuagint. — The  most  beautiful  part  of  the  city, 
 near  the  great  harbour,  where  stood  the  royal  palaces, 
 magnificently  built,  was  called  Bruchion.  There  was 
 the  large  and  splendid  edifice,  belonging  to  the  acad- 
 emy and  Museum,  where  the  greater  portion  of  the 
 royal  library  (400,000  volumes)  was  placed  ;  the  rest, 
 amounting  to  300,000,  were  in  the  Serapion,  or  temple 
 of  Jupiter  Serapis.  The  larger  portion  was  burned 
 during  the  siege  of  Ale.xandrea  by  Julius  Csesar,  but 
 was  afterward  in  part  replaced  by  the  library  of  Per- 
 gamus,  which  Antony  presented  to  Cleopatra.  The 
 Museum,  where  many  scholars  lived  and  were  sup- 
 ported, ate  together,  studied,  and  instructed  others,  re- 
 mained unhurt  till  the  reign  of  Aurelian,  when  it  was 
 destroyed  in  a  period  of  civil  commotion.  The  libra- 
 ry in  the  Serapion  was  preserved  to  the  time  of  The- 
 odosius  the  Great.  He  caused  all  the  heathen  tem- 
 ples throughout  the  Roman  empire  to  be  destroyed  ; 
 and  even  the  splendid  temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis  was 
 not  spared.  A  crowd  of  fanatic  Christians,  headed  by 
 tl.eir  archbishop,  Theodosius,  stormed  and  destroyed  it. 
 At  that  time,  the  library,  it  is  said,  was  partly  burned, 
 partly  dispersed  ;  and  the  historian  Orosius,  towards 
 the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  saw  only  the  empty 
 shelves.  The  common  account,  therefore,  is  an  erro- 
 neous one,  which  makes  the  library  in  question  to  have 
 been  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  at  the  command  of 
 the  Calif  Omar,  A.D.  642,  and  to  have  furnished  fuel 
 during  six  months  to  the  4000  baths  of  Alexandrea. 
 This  narrative  rests  merely  on  the  authority  of  the 
 historian  Abulpharagius,  and  has  no  other  proof  at  all 
 to  support  it.  But,  whatever  may  have  been  the  cause 
 of  this  disastrous  event,  the  loss  resulting  to  science 
 was  irreparable.  The  Alexandrean  library,  called  by 
 Ijivy  "  Ekgantia  regum  curcBqiie  egrcgium  opus" 
 embraced  the  whole  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  of 
 which  we  possess  but  single  fragments. — In  the  divis- 
 ion of  the  Roman  dominions,  Alexandrea,  with  the 
 rest  of  Egypt,  was  comprehended  in  the  Eastern  em- 
 pire. The  Arabs  possessed  themselves  of  it  in  640  ; 
 the  Calif  Motawakel,  in  845,  restored  the  library  and 
 academy  ;  but  the  Turks  took  the  city  in  868,  and  it 
 declined  more  and  more,  retaining,  however,  a  flour- 
 ishing commerce,  until,  as  has  already  been  remarked, 
 the  Portuguese,  at  the  end  of  the  15th  century, 
 discovered  a  way  to  the  East  Indies  by  sea. — The 
 modern  city,  called  in  Turkish  Scandcria,  does  not 
 occupy  the  site  of  the  old  town,  of  which  nothing  re- 
 mains except  a  portico  in  the  vicinity  of  the  gate  lead- 
 
 ing to  Rosetta,  the  southwestern  amphitheatre,  the 
 obelisk,  or  needle  of  Cleopatra,  and  Pompey's  pillar, 
 88  feet  6  inches  high,  which,  according  to  an  English 
 writer  ( Wulpolc's  Collection,  vol.  1,  p.  380),  waa  erect- 
 ed by  Pompeius,  governor  of  part  of  Lower  Egypt,  in 
 honour  of  the  Emperor  Diocle&ian.  The  equestrian 
 statue  on  the  top  is  no  longer  standing.  {Mannertf 
 10,  pt.  1,  p.  611,  segq. — Encyclop.  Americ,  vol.  I,  p. 
 162,  seqq.) — 11.  A  city  of  Sogdiana,  on  the  river  lax- 
 artes,  to  the  east  of  Cyropolis.  It  was  founded  by 
 Alexander  on  the  farthest  limits  of  his  Scythian  expe- 
 dition, and  hence  it  was  also  called  Alexandreschata 
 {' A'Ae^avdpeaxara,  i.  e.,  'ATie^uvSpeia  kffxuri}-  Alex- 
 andrea Ultima). —  III.  A  city  of  Arachosia,  neai  the 
 confines  of  India  ;  now  Scanderie  of  AroJ(hage,  ox 
 Vaihend. — IV.  A  city  of  India,  at  the  jujicticn  of  the 
 Indus  and  Acesincs  ;  now,  according  to  sosne.  Labor, 
 but,  according  to  others,  Veh. — V.  A  city  in  the  vicin- 
 ity of  the  range  of  Paropamisus,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
 Coas. — VI.  A  city  of  Aria,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
 Arius  ;  now  Corra. — VII.  A  city  of  Carmania,  near 
 Sabis. — VIII.  A  city  of  Gedrosia;now  Hormoz,  or 
 Houz. — There  were  several  other  cities  of  the  same 
 name,  called  after  Alexander,  though  not  founded 
 by  him.  Among  these  may  he  mentioned  the  follow- 
 ing.— IX.  Troas  {'A'XE^dvdpeia  7/  Tpuof),  a  city  on 
 the  western  coast  of  Mysia,  above  the  promontory  of 
 Lectum.  It  was  more  commonly  called  Alexandrea  ; 
 sometimes,  however,  Troas.  (Act.  Apost.,  16,  8. — 
 Itm.  Ant.,  p.  334.)  The  place  owed  its  origin  to 
 Antigonus,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Antigonia  Troas. 
 After  the  fall  of  Antigonus,  the  appellation  was  chan- 
 ged to  Alexandrea  Troas  by  Lysimachus,  in  honour  of 
 Alexander.  Antigonus  had  already  increased  its  pop- 
 ulation by  sending  thither  the  inhabitants  of  Cebrene, 
 Neandria,  and  other  towns ;  and  it  received  a  farther 
 increase  under  Lysimachus.  Under  the  Romans  it 
 acquired  still  greater  prosperity,  and  became  one  of 
 the  most  flourishing  of  their  Asiatic  colonies.  (Strab., 
 593. — Pliny,  5,  30.)  In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  it 
 is  simply  called  Troas,  and  it  was  from  its  port  that 
 St.  Paul  and  St.  Luke  set  sail  for  Macedonia  (16, 
 11).  We  are  informed  by  Suetonius  {Vit.  Cas.,  79), 
 that  Julius  Cffisar  once  had  it  in  contemplation  to 
 transfer  the  seat  of  empire  to  this  quarter  ;  a  plan  far 
 from  happy,  since  the  port  was  not  large,  and  the  fer- 
 tility of  the  surrounding  country  not  at  all  such  as  to 
 warrant  the  attempt.  The  same  idea,  however,  is 
 said  to  have  been  entertained  by  Augustus.  {Faher, 
 Epist.,  2,  43. — Compare  the  commentators  on  Ho- 
 race, Od.,  3,  3.)  In  a  later  age,  Constantino  actually 
 commenced  building  a  new  capital  here,  but  the  su- 
 perior situation  of  Byzantium  soon  induced  him  to 
 abandon  the  undertaking.  {Zosimus,  2,  30,  p.  151, 
 seqq.,  ed.  Reilemeier. — Compare  Zonaras,  13,  3.) 
 Augustus,  when  he  gave  over  the  design  just  alluded 
 to,  still  sent  a  Roman  colony  to  this  place,  and  hence 
 the  language  used  by  Strabo  (13,  p.  594,  ed.  Casaub.), 
 vvv  6e  Kal  'Fu/uaiuv  airoiKiav  dideKTai.  (Compare 
 Plin.,  5,  30. — Cains,  in  leg.  7,  dig.  de  Cens.) 
 The  ruins  of  this  city  are  called  by  the  Turks  Eski 
 (Old)  Stamboul.  {Mannert,  6,  pt.  3,  p.  473,  seqq.) — 
 X.  Ad  Issum  (Kara  "laaov),  a  city  of  Syria,  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Sinus  Issicus,  about  sixteen  miles  from 
 Issus  in  Cilicia.  The  founder  is  unknown.  The 
 Itin.  Hieros.  (p.  580)  gives  it  the  name  of  Alexandrea 
 Scabiosa.  (Compare  Chron.  Alexayidr.,  p.  170,  where 
 the  appellation  is  given  as  Gabiosa.)  The  modern 
 Scanderoon,  or  Alexandretta,  occupies  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  city. 
 
 Alexandrka  ultima.      Vid.  Alexandrea,  II. 
 
 Alexandri  ar^,  according  to  some,  the  limits  of 
 Alexander's  victories  near  the  Tanais.  This,  however, 
 is  all  a  mere  fable  of  the  ancients,  who  made  Alexan- 
 der to  have  crossed  the  Tanai's,  and  approached  what 
 they  considered  the  limits  of  the  world  in  that  quarter. 
 
 Ill 
 
ALEXANDRINA  SCHOLA. 
 
 ALEXANDRINA  SCHOLA. 
 
 [Manneit,  4,  p.  159  and  256.)  For  the  true  Alexan- 
 dri  Arae,  vid.  Hyphasis. 
 
 Ai.BXANi>Ki  c ASTRA  (?/  'A?^e^i.iv6pov  nape/iSoXr/),  a 
 place  in  Marmarica,  at  the  Oasis  of  Ainrnon,  where 
 the  Macedonian  forces  were  encamped  while  Alexan- 
 der was  consulting  the  oracle.     (I'lol.) 
 
 At.EXANDRi  iNsL'i.A,  an  island  in  the  Sinus  Persi- 
 cus,  on  the  Persian  coast,     (l-'tol. — Flin.,  6,  25.) 
 
 Ai-EXANORi  PORTUS,  a  harbour  of  Gedrosia,  where 
 the  fleet  of  Nearchus  was  detained  four  weeks  by  ad- 
 verse winds.  (Arriatu  Indic,  22.)  It  was  in  the 
 immediate  vicinity  of  Eirus  Promontorium,  or  Cape 
 Monzc.  (Compare  VincenCs  Commerce  of  the  An- 
 cients, vol.  1,  p.  197.) 
 
 Alexandrine  AQii.rE,  baths  in  Rome,  built  by  the 
 Emperor  Ale.fander  Scverus. 
 
 Ai.EXANDKiNA  SCHOLA.  When  the  flourishing  pe- 
 riod of  Greek  poetry  was  past,  study  was  called  in  to 
 supply  what  nature  no  longer  furnished:  Alexandrea 
 in  Egypt  was  made  the  seat  of  learning  by  the  Ptole- 
 mies, admirers  of  the  arts,  whence  this  age  of  liter- 
 ature took  the  name  of  the  Alexandieari.  Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus  founded  the  famous  library  of  Alexan- 
 drea, the  largest  and  nmst  valuable  one  of  antiquity, 
 which  attracted  many  scholars  from  all  countries  ;  and 
 also  the  Museum,  which  may  justly  be  considered  the 
 first  academy  of  sciences  and  arts.  (  Vid.  Alexandrea.) 
 The  grammarians  and  poets  are  the  most  important 
 among  the  scholars  of  Alexandrea.  These  gramma- 
 rians were  philologists  and  literati,  who  explained 
 things  as  well  as  words,  and  may  be  considered  a  kind 
 of  encyclopedists.  Such  were  Zenodotus  the  Ephe- 
 sian,  who  established  the  first  grammar-school  in  Alex- 
 andrea, Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene,  Aristophanes  of  By- 
 zantium, Aristarchusof  Samothrace,  Crates  of  Mallus, 
 Dionysius  the  Thracian,  Apollonius  the  Sophist,  and 
 Zoilus.  Their  merit  is  to  have  collected,  examined, 
 reviewed,  and  preserved  the  existing  monuments  of 
 intellectual  culture.  To  them  we  are  indebted  for 
 what  is  called  the  Alexandrcan  Canon,  a  list  of  the 
 authors  whose  works  were  to  be  regarded  as  models 
 in  the  respective  departments  of  Grecian  literature. 
 The  names  composing  this  Canon,  with  some  remarks 
 upon  its  claims  to  attention,  will  be  given  at  the  close 
 of  the  present  article. — To  the  poets  of  the  Alexan- 
 drcan age  belong  Apollonius  the  Rhodian,  Lyco- 
 phron,  Arat.us,  Nicander,  Euphorion,  Callimachus, 
 Theocritus,  Philctas,  Phanocles,  Timon  the  Phliasian, 
 Scymnus,  Dionysius,  and  seven  tragic  poets,  who  were 
 called  the  Alexandrcan  Pleiades.  The  Alexandrean 
 age  of  literature  differed  entirely,  in  spirit  and  charac- 
 ter, from  the  one  that  preceded.  Great  attention  was 
 paid  to  the  study  of  language  ;  correctness,  purity, 
 and  elegance  were  cultivated  ;  and  several  writers  of 
 this  period  excel  in  these  respects.  But  that  which 
 no  study  can  give,  the  spirit  which  filled  the  earlier 
 poetry  of  the  Greeks,  is  not  to  be  found  in  most  of 
 their  works.  Greater  art  in  composition  took  its 
 place  ;  criticism  was  now  to  perform  what  genius  had 
 accomplished  before.  But  this  was  impossible.  Ge- 
 nius was  the  gift  of  only  a  few,  and  they  soared  far 
 above  their  contemporaries.  The  rest  did  what  may 
 be  done  by  criticism  and  study  ;  but  their  works  are 
 tame,  without  soul  and  life,  and  those  of  their  disci- 
 ples, of  course,  still  more  so.  Perceiving  the  want  of 
 originality,  but  appreciating  its  value,  and  slriviiig  af- 
 ter it,  they  arrived  the  sooner  at  the  point  where  poe- 
 try is  lost.  Their  criticism  degenerated  into  a  dispo- 
 sition to  find  fault,  and  their  art  into  sublilty.  They 
 seized  on  what  was  strange  and  new,  and  endeavoured 
 to  adorn  it  with  learning.  The  larger  part  of  the  Al- 
 exandreans,  commonly  granunarians  and  poets  at  the 
 same  time,  are  stiff  and  laborious  versifiers,  without 
 genius.— Besides  the  Alexandrcan  school  of  poetry, 
 one  of  philosophy  is  also  spoken  of,  but  the  expres- 
 sion is  not  to  be  understood  too  strictly.  Their  dis- 
 112 
 
 tinguishing  character  arises  from  this  circumstance, 
 that,  in  Alexandrea,  the  eastern  and  western  philoso- 
 phy met,  and  an  effort  took  place  to  unite  the  two 
 systems  ;  for  which  rea.'^on  the  Alexandrean  philoso- 
 phers have  often  been  called  Eclectics.  This  name, 
 however,  is  not  applicable  to  all.  The  New  Plalon- 
 ists  form  a  distinguished  series  of  philosophers,  who, 
 renouncing  the  skepticism  of  the  New  Academy,  en- 
 deavoured to  reconcile  the  philosophy  of  Plato  with 
 that  of  the  East.  The  Jew  Philo,  of  Alexandrea,  be- 
 longs to  the  earlier  New  Platonists.  Plato  and  Aris- 
 totle were  diligently  interpreted  and  compared  in  the 
 1st  and  2d  centuries  after  Christ.  Ammonius  the 
 Peripatetic  belongs  here,  the  teacher  of  Plutarch. 
 But  the  real  New  Platonic  school  of  Alexandrea  was 
 established  at  the  close  of  the  2d  century  after  Christ 
 by  Ammonius  of  Alexandrea  (about  193  A.D.),  whose 
 disciples  were  Plotinus  and  Origen.  Being  for  the 
 most  part  Orientals,  formed  by  the  study  of  Greek  learn- 
 ing, their  writings  are  strikingly  characterized,  e.  g., 
 those  of  Ammonius  Saccas,  Plotinus,  lamblicus,  Por- 
 phyrius,  by  a  strange  mixture  of  Asiatic  and  European 
 elements,  which  had  become  amalgamated  in  Alexan- 
 drea, owing  to  the  mingling  of  the  eastern  and  west- 
 ern race  in  its  population,  as  well  as  to  its  situation 
 and  commercial  intercourse.  Their  philosophy  had  a 
 great  influence  on  the  manner  in  which  Christianity 
 was  received  and  taught  in  Egypt.  The  principal 
 Gnostic  systems  had  their  origin  in  Alexandrea.  1'he 
 leading  teachers  of  the  Christian  catechetical  schools, 
 which  had  risen  and  flourished  together  with  the  ec- 
 lectic philosophy,  had  imbibed  the  spirit  of  this  phi- 
 losophy. The  most  violent  religious  controversies 
 disturbed  the  Alexandrean  church,  until  the  orthodox 
 tenets  were  established  in  it  by  Athanasius  in  the  con- 
 troversy with  the  Arians. — Among  the  scholars  of 
 Alexandrea  are  to  be  found  great  mathematicians,  as 
 Euclid,  the  father  of  scientific  geometry  ;  Apollonius  ,' 
 of  Pcrga  in  Pamphylia,  whose  work  on  Conic  Sections  ' 
 still  exists  ;  Nicomachus,  the  first  scientific  arithmeti- 
 cian :  astronomers,  who  employed  the  Egyptian  hiero- 
 glyphics for  marking  the  northern  henusphere,  and 
 fixed  the  images  and  names  (still  in  use)  of  the  con- 
 stellations ;  who  left  astronomical  writings  (e.  g.,  the 
 Phccnomcna  of  Aratus,  a  didactic  poem,  the  Sphcerica 
 of  Menelaus,  the  astronomical  works  of  Eratosthenes, 
 and  especially  the  Magna  Syntaxis  of  the  geographer 
 Ptolemy),  and  made  improvements  in  the  theory  of  the 
 calendar,  which  were  afterward  adopted  into  the  Ju- 
 lian calendar:  natural  philosophers,  anatomists,  as 
 Herophilus  and  ?>asistratus:  physicians  and  surgeons, 
 as  Demosthenes  Philalethes,  who  wrote  the  first  work 
 on  diseases  of  the  eye  ;  Zopyrus  and  Cratevas,  who 
 improved  the  art  of  pharmacy  and  invented  antidotes: 
 instructers  in  the  art  of  medicine,  to  whom  Asclepia- 
 des,  Soranus,  and  Galen  owed  their  education:  medi- 
 cal theorists  and  empirics,  of  the  sect  founded  by 
 Philirus.  All  these  belonged  to  the  numerous  asso- 
 ciations of  scholars  continuing  under  the  Roman  do- 
 minion, and  favoured  by  the  Roman  emperors,  which 
 rendered  Alexandrea  one  of  the  most  renowned  and 
 influential  scats  of  science  in  antiquity. — The  best 
 work  on  the  learning  of  Alexandrea  is  the  prize-essay 
 of  Jacob  Matter;  Essai  Historiquc  sur  VEcolc  d''Al- 
 txandrie,  Paris,  1819,  2  vols.  {Encychp.  Amenc, 
 vol.  1,  p.  164,  seqq.) — We  alluded,  near  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  present  article,  to  the  literary  Caiion. 
 settled  by  the  grammarians  of  Alexandrea.  We  will 
 now  proceed  to  give  its  details,  after  some  prefatory 
 remarks  respecting  its  merits.  The  canon  of  classical 
 authors,  as  it  has  been  called,  was  arranged  by  Aris- 
 tophanes of  Byzantium,  curator  of  the  Alexandrean 
 library,  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes  ;  and  his 
 celebrated  disciple  Aristarchus.  The  daily  increasing 
 I  multitude  of  books  of  every  kind  had  now  become  so 
 I  great,  that  there  was  no  expression,  however  faulty. 
 
ALE 
 
 ALI 
 
 for  which  precedent  might  not  be  found;  and  as  there 
 were  far  more  bad  than  good  writers,  the  authority 
 and  weight  of  numbers  was  likely  to  prevail  ;  and  the 
 language,  consequetitly,  to  grow  more  and  more  cor- 
 rupt. It  was  thought  necessary,  therefore,  to  draw  a 
 line  between  those  classic  writers,  to  whose  authority 
 an  appeal  in  matter  of  language  miglit  be  made,  and 
 the  comuion  herd  of  inferior  authors.  In  the  most  cul- 
 tivated modern  tongues,  it  seems  to  have  been  found 
 expedient  to  erect  some  such  barrier  against  the  in- 
 roads of  corruption ;  and  to  this  preservative  caution 
 are  we  indebted  for  the  vocabulary  of  the  Academi- 
 cians della  Crusca,  and  the  list  of  authors  therein  cited 
 as  affording  "  tcstt  di  lingua."  To  this  we  owe  the 
 Dictionaries  of  the  Royal  Academies  of  France  and 
 Spain,  of  their  respective  languages  ;  and  Johnson's 
 Dictionary  of  our  own.  But,  as  for  the  example  first 
 set  in  this  matter  by  the  Ale.xandrean  critics,  its  effects 
 upon  their  own  literature  have  been  of  a  doubtful  na- 
 ture. In  so  far  as  the  canon  has  contributed  to  pre- 
 serve to  us  some  of  the  best  authors  included  in  it,  we 
 cannot  but  rejoice.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  rea- 
 son to  believe,  that  the  comparative  neglect  into  which 
 those  not  received  into  it  were  sure  to  fall,  has  been 
 the  occasion  of  the  loss  of  a  vast  number  of  writers, 
 who  would  have  been,  if  not  for  their  language,  yet  for 
 their  matter,  very  precious  ;  and  who,  perhaps,  in  many 
 cases,  were  not  easily  to  be  distinguished,  even  on  the 
 score  of  style,  from  those  that  were  preferred.  {Moore's 
 Lectures,  p.  55,  scqq.)  The  details  of  the  canon  are 
 as  follows:  1.  Epic  Poets.  Homer,  Hesiod,  Pisan- 
 der,  Panyasis,  Antimachus.  2.  Iambic  Poets.  Ar- 
 chilochus,  Simonides,  Hipponax.  3.  Lyric  Poets. 
 Alcman,  Alcaeus,  Sappho,  Stesichorus,  Pindar,  Bac- 
 chylides,  Ibycus,  Anacreon,  Simonides.  4.  Elegiac 
 Poets.  Callinus,  Mimnermus,  Philctas,  Callimachus. 
 5.  Tragic  Poets.  (First  Class);  .■Eschylus,  Sopho- 
 cles, Euripides,  Ion,  Achscus,  Agathon.  (Second 
 Class,  or  Tragic  Pleiades):  Alexander  the  ^-Etolian, 
 Philiscus  of  Corcyra,  Sositheus,  Homer  the  younger, 
 yEantides,  Sosiphanes  or  Sosicles,  Lycophron.  6. 
 Comic  Poets.  (Old  Comedy) :  Epicharmus,  Cratinus, 
 Eupolis,  Aristophanes,  Pherecrates,  Plato.  (Middle 
 Comedy):  Antiphanes,  Alexis.  (New  Comedy) :  Me- 
 nander  Philippides,  Diphilus,  Philemon,  Apollodorus. 
 7.  Historians.  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Xenophon, 
 Theopompus,  Ephorus,  Philistus,  Anaximenes,  Cal- 
 listhenes.  8.  Orators.  (The  ten  Attic  Orators) 
 Antiphon,  Andocides,  Lysias,  Isocrates,  Issus,  ^s- 
 chines,  Lycurgus,  Demosthenes,  Hyperides,  Dinar- 
 chus.  9.  Philosophers.  Plato,  Xenophon,  yEschines, 
 Aristotle,  Theophrastus.  10.  Poetic  Pleiades.  (vSev- 
 en  poets  of  the  same  epoch  with  one  another)  Apol- 
 lonius  the  Rhodian,  Aratus,  Philiscus,  Homer  the 
 younger,  Lycophron,  Nicander.  Theocritus.  {Schbll, 
 Hist.    Lit.  'Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  186,  seqq. ) 
 
 Alexandropolis,  a  city  of  Parthia,  probably  east 
 of  Nisaea,  built  by  Alexander  the  Great.    (Pliii.,  6,  25.) 
 
 Alexarchus,  a  Greek  historian,  m't/.  StjppLEMENT. 
 
 AlexicIcus,  an  epithet  applied  to  various  deities, 
 particularly  to  Jupiter,  Apollo,  Hercules,  &c.  It  means 
 "an  avcrlcr  of  er,,l,"  and  is  derived  from  uAefo"),  "  to 
 avert,"  or  "  ward  off,"  and  kokov,  "  evil."  Another 
 (ireek  term  of  the  same  import  is  uKorponaio^,  and 
 analogous  to  both  is  the  Latin  avcrruncus.  (Consult 
 Fischer,  ad  Arisioph.,Plut.,  359.) 
 
 Alexias,  a  Greek  physician,  Vid.  Supplement. 
 
 Alexinus,  a  native  of  Elis,  the  disciple  of  Eubuli- 
 des,  and  a  member  of  the  Megaric  sect.  He  set  him- 
 self in  array  against  almost  all  of  his  contemporaries  that 
 were  in  any  wav  distinguished  for  talent,  such  as  Aris- 
 totle, Zeno,  Menedemus,  Slilpo,  and  the  historian 
 Ephorus,  and  from  his  habit  of  finding  fault  with  others 
 was  nicknamed  Elenxmus  ('EAeyfjvof),  or  "  the  fault- 
 finder." In  particular,  he  vented  the  most  calumni- 
 ous imputations  against  Aristotle,  and  wrote  a  work 
 
 containing  pretended  conversations  between  Philip  and 
 Alexander  of  Macedon,  in  which  the  character  of  the 
 Stagirite  was  very  rudely  assailed.  Full  of  vanity 
 and  self-conceit,  he  retired  to  Olympia  for  the  purpose, 
 as  he  gave  out,  of  establishing  a  sect  to  which  he 
 wished  to  give  the  appellation  of  Olympiac;  the  un- 
 healthy state  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  its  deserted 
 condition,  e.Kcept  at  the  period  of  the  games,  caused 
 his  disciples  to  abandon  him.  He  died  in  consequence 
 of  being  wounded  in  the  foot  by  the  point  of  a  reed,  as 
 he  was  bathing  in  the  Alpheus.  {Diog.  Lacrt.)  Alex- 
 inus and  his  preceptor  Eubulides  are  ot>ly  known  as 
 the  authors  of  certain  captious  questions  (u?.vTa) 
 which  thev  levelled  at  their  antagonists.  {Diog.  Laert., 
 2,  108,  scqq.—  Cic,  Acad.,  4,  29.) 
 
 Alexion,  a  physician,  intimate  with  Cicero.  {Cic, 
 ad  Att.,  13,  ep.  25.) 
 
 Alexis,  I.  a  comic  poet  of  Thurium,  uncle  on  the 
 father's  side  to  Menander,  and  his  instructer  in  the 
 drama.  {Prolcg.  Aristoph.,  p.  xxx.)  He  flourished 
 in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and,  according  to 
 Suidas,  wrote  245  pieces  for  the  stage  (ed/cSaff  Spufiara 
 Gfie).  Athenaeus  calls  him  6  ;^'ap/cif,  "the  gracefully 
 sportive,"  and  the  extracts  which  he  as  well  as  Sto- 
 baeus  give  from  the  productions  of  the  poet  appear  to 
 justify  the  appellation.  If  he  did  not  invent  the  char- 
 acter of  the  parasite,  he  at  least  introduced  it  more 
 frequently  into  his  comedies,  or  portrayed  it  more  suc- 
 cessfully than  any  of  his  predecessors.  The  titles  of 
 several  of  his  pieces  have  been  preserved,  besides  the 
 extracts  which  are  given  by  Athcnfeus  and  Stobaeus. 
 {Athen.,  2,  59,  i  —  Schweigh.,  ad  Alhen.,  I.  c.)  The 
 remains  of  this  poet  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  Ex- 
 cerpla  ex  Trag.  el  Comocd.  Gr.  of  Grotius,  Paris,  1626, 
 4to. — II.  An  artist  mentioned  by  Pliny  as  one  of  the 
 pupils  of  Polycletus,  but  without  any  statement  of  his 
 country  or  the  works  which  he  executed.  (Plin., 
 34,8.) 
 
 Alfenos,  or  PuBLius  ALrriNus  Varus,  a  barber  of 
 Cremona,  who,  growing  out  of  conceit  with  his  line  of 
 business,  quitted  it  and  came  to  Rome.  Here  he  at- 
 tended the  lectures  of  Servius  Sulpicius,  a  celebrated 
 lawyer  of  the  day,  and  made  so  great  proficiency  in  his 
 studies  as  to  become  eventually  the  ablest  lawyer  of 
 his  time.  His  name  often  occurs  in  the  Pandects. 
 He  was  advanced  to  some  of  the  highest  offices  in  the 
 empire,  and  was  at  last  made  consul,  A.U.C.  755. 
 (Compare  the  commentators  on  Horace,  Serm  ,  1,  3, 
 130.)  In  some  editions  of  Horace,  Alfenus  is  styled 
 Sutor,  "  a  shoemaker."  Bentley,  however,  on  the  au- 
 thority of  two  MSS.,  one  of  them  a  MS.  copv  of  Acron, 
 changes  the  lection  to  tensor,  "  a  barber.  \Iis  em- 
 endation has  been  very  generally  adopted. 
 
 Algidum,  a  town  of  Latium,  on  the  Via  Latina, 
 situate  in  a  hollow  about  twelve  miles  from  Rome. 
 Antiquaries  seem  to   agree   in  fixing  its  position  at 
 
 rOsteria  dell'  Aglio.     {Holstcin,  Adnot.,   p.   158. . 
 
 Vulp.  Lat.  Vet.,  15,  1,  p.  M8.—Nibby,  Viag.  Antiq., 
 vol.  2,  p.  62.) 
 
 Algidus,  a  chain  of  mountains  in  Latium,  stretching 
 from  the  rear  of  the  Alban  Mount,  and  running  parallel 
 to  the  Tusculan  Hills,  being  separated  from  them  by 
 the  valley  along  which  ran  the  Via  Latina.  The  neigh- 
 bourhood is  remarkable  for  the  numl)erless  conflicts 
 between  the  Roman  armies  and  their  unwearied  an- 
 tagonists the  .^qui  and  Volsci.  Mount  Algidus,  in 
 fact,  was  advantageously  placed  for  making  inroads  on 
 the  Roman  territory,  either  by  the  Via  Latina  or  the 
 Via  Lavicana.  The  woods  of  the  bleak  Algidus  aie 
 a  favourite  theme  with  Horace.  {Od.,  1,  21,  6 — 3, 
 23,  9. — 4,  4,  58. — Cramer's  And.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 48.)  This  mountainous  range  was  sacred  to  Diana 
 {Hor.  Carm.  Scec,  69)  and  to  Fortune.    {Liv.,  21,  62.) 
 
 Aliacmon.      Vid.  Haliacmon. 
 
 Aliartus.      Vid.  Haliartus. 
 
 Alienus  C.'EcixA.      Vid.  Ciecina. 
 
 113 
 
ALL 
 
 ALO 
 
 Alimentus,  C,  a  Roman  historian,  who  flourished 
 during  the  period  of  the  second  Punic  war,  of  which 
 he  wrote  an  account  in  Greek.  He  was  the  author 
 also  of  a  biographical  sketch,  in  Latin,  of  the  Sicihan 
 rhetorician  Gorgias  of  Leontini,  and  of  a  work  Dc  Re 
 Militari.  This  last-mentioned  production  is  cited  by 
 Aulus  Gellius,  and  is  acknowledged  by  Vegetius  as 
 Ihe  foundation  of  his  more  elaborate  commentaries  on 
 the  same  subject.  (Dunlop's  Roman  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 25,  in  notis.) 
 
 Alinda,  a  city  of  Caria,  southeast  of  Stratonicea. 
 It  was  a  place  of  some  note  and  strength,  and  was  held 
 by  Ada,  queen  of  Caria,  at  the  time  that  Alexander 
 undertook  the  siege  of  Halicarnassus.  (Arrian,  Exp. 
 AL,  1,  23. — Strab.,  657.)  The  site  has  been  iden- 
 tified by  many  antiquaries  with  the  modern  Moglah, 
 the  principal  town  of  modern  Caria,  but  on  what  au- 
 thority is  not  apparent.  Another  traveller,  from  the 
 similarity  of  names,  places  it  at  Aleina,  between 
 Moglah  and  Tshina.  {RcnneWs  Gcogr.  of  Western 
 Asia,  vol.  2,  p.  53. — Cramer''s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2, 
 p.  208.) 
 
 A  LI  PIUS.  Vid.  Alypius. 
 Alirrothios.  Vid.  Halirrothius. 
 Allectus,  a  praetorian  prefect,  who  slew  Carausius 
 in  Britain,  and  took  possession  of  his  throne,  holding 
 it  for  three  years,  from  294  to  297  A.D.  He  was  at 
 last  defeated  and  slain  by  Asclepiodotus,  a  general  of 
 Constantius  Chlorus,  who  landed  on  the  coast  of  the 
 island  with  an  army.     {Aurcl.  Vict.,  39.) 
 
 Ai.Li.i,  a  river  of  Italy,  running  down,  according  to 
 Jiivy,  from  the  mountains  of  Crustuinium,  at  the 
 eleventh  milestone,  and  flowing  into  the  Tiber.  It 
 was  crossed  by  the  Via  Salaria,  about  four  miles  beyond 
 the  modern  Marcigliano,  and  is  now  the  Aia.  Cluve- 
 rius  {Ital.  Ant.,  vol.  ],  p.  707)  is  mistaken  when  he 
 identities  the  AUia  with  the  Rio  di  Mosso,  as  that  riv- 
 ulet is  much  beyond  the  given  distance  from  Rome. 
 {Nibby,delle  Vie  degli  Antichi,p.  87.)  On  its  banks 
 the  Romans  were  defeated  by  the  Gauls  under  Bren- 
 nus,  July  17th,  B.C.  387.  Forty  thousand  Romans 
 were  either  killed  or  put  to  flight.  Hence  in  the  Ro- 
 man calendar,  "  Alliensis  dies"  was  marked  as  a  most 
 unlucky  day.  (L?w.,  5,  Zl.—Flor.,  1,  13.— P/m/!., 
 Vil.  Cam.)  The  true  name  of  the  river  is  Alia,  with 
 the  first  vowel  short.  Our  mode  of  pronouncing  and 
 writing  the  name  is  derived  from  the  poets,  who  length- 
 ened the  initial  vowel  by  the  duplication  of  the  con- 
 sonant. {Niebuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  291,  Wal- 
 ter''s  transL,  in  notis.) 
 
 Allieni  forum.  Vid.  Forum,  II. 
 Ai.LiF^,  a  town  of  Samnium,  northwest  of  the  Vul- 
 turnus,  the  name  of  which  often  occurs  in  Livy.  It 
 was  taken,  according  to  that  historian,  by  the  consul 
 Petilius,  A.U.C.  429  ;  and  again  by  Rutilius.  (Liv., 
 8,  25. — Id.,  9,  38.)  This  place  was  famous  for  the 
 large-sized  drinking-cups  made  there.  (Horat.,  Serm., 
 2,  8,  39.)  The  ancient  site  is  occupied  by  the  modern 
 Allife.  For  a  description  of  the  numerous  antiquities 
 existing  at  Allife,  consult  Trutta,  Diss.  sopr.  le  An- 
 tich.  Alif.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  233.) 
 
 Allobroges,  a  people  of  Gallia,  between  the  Isara 
 or  Isere,  and  the  Rhodanus  or  Rhone,  in  the  country 
 answering  to  Davphine,  Piedmont,  and  Savoy.  Their 
 chief  city  was  Vienna,  now  Vienne,  on  the  left  bank  of 
 the  Rhodanus,  thirteen  miles  below  Lugdunum  or 
 Lyons.  They  were  finally  reduced  beneath  the  Roman 
 power  by  Fabius  Maximus,  who  hence  was  honoured 
 with  the  surname  of  AUobrogicus.  (For  the  particulars 
 of  this  war,  consult  Thierry,  Hisloire  des  Ganlois, 
 vol.  2,  p.  168,  seqq  ,  and  the  authorities  there  cited.) 
 At  a  later  day  we  find  the  ambassadors  of  this  nation 
 at  Rome,  tampered  with  by  Catiline,  but  eventually 
 remaining  firm  in  their  allegiance.  {Sallust,  Cat.,iO, 
 seqq. —  Cic,  in  Cat.,  3,  3,  seqq.)  The  name  Allo- 
 broges means  "Highlanders,"  and  is  formed  from  Al, 
 114 
 
 "high,"  and  Broga,  "  land."    {Adelung^s  Mithridatea, 
 vol.  2,  p.  50.) 
 
 Allucius,  a  prince  of  the  Celtiberi  in  Spain,  whose 
 affianced  bride  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Scipio 
 Africanus,  was  restored  to  him  uninjured  by  the  Ro- 
 man commander ;  an  act  of  self-control  rendered  still 
 more  illustrious  by  reason  of  the  surpassing  beauty  of 
 the  maiden.     (Liv.,  26,  50.) 
 
 Almo,  a  small  river  near  Rome,  falling  into  the  Tiber. 
 It  is  now  the  Dachia,  a  corruption  of  Aqua  d'Aeto. 
 At  the  junction  of  this  stream  with  the  Tiber,  the 
 priests  of  Cybele,  every  year,  on  the  25th  March, 
 washed  the  statue  and  sacred  things  of  the  goddess. 
 Vid.  Lara.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  4,  3^1.—Lucan,  1,  600. 
 Compare  Vales,  et  Lindenbr.,  ad  Amnuan.  MarcelL, 
 23,  3.— Lucan,  ed.  Cort.  et  Weber,  vol.  1,  p.  157, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Ar-OA,  a  festival  at  Athens,  in  the  month  Posideon  (a 
 month  including  one  third  of  December  and  two  thirds 
 of  January),  in  honour  of  Ceres  and  Bacchus.  These 
 deities  were  propitiated  on  this  occasion,  as  by  their 
 blessing  the  husbandmen  received  the  recompense  of 
 their  toil  and  labour.  The  oblations,  therefore,  con- 
 sisted of  nothing  but  the  productions  of  the  earth. 
 Hence  Ceres  was  called  Albas  ('AAudf),  Alois  {'k.'ku- 
 (f),  and  Eualosia  {^va^Mala).  All  these  names  are  de- 
 rived from  the  Greek  aAuf,  "  a  threshing-floor."  Ac- 
 cording to  Philochorus  (p.  86,  Fragm.),  the  Aloa  was  a 
 united  festival  in  honour  of  Bacchus,  Ceres,  and  Pro- 
 serpina. (Compare  Corsini,  Fast  Alt.,  2,  p.  302.) 
 We  have  written  'AXudg,  &c.,  with  the  lenis  in  place 
 of  the  aspirate,  although  the  root  be  a/'.wf.  The  un- 
 aspirated  form  is,  in  fact,  the  earlier  of  the  two,  and 
 the  more  likely,  therefore,  to  be  retained  as  a  religious 
 appellation.  (Compare  the  remarks  of  Bergler,  ad  Al- 
 ciphron,  1,  ep.  33.)  Reitz,  however,  favours  the  op- 
 posite form,  though  less  correctly.  {Ad  Luc,  Dial, 
 Meretr.,  1.)  Creuzer  gives  'AZdia  for  the  name  of  the 
 festival,  as  we  have  done.  {Synihohk,  vol.  4,  p.  308.) 
 Aloeus,  I.  son  of  Apollo  and  Circe.  From  him, 
 through  his  son  Epopeus,  was  descended  the  Marathon, 
 after  whom  the  famous  plain  in  Attica  was  named. 
 {Suid.,  s.  V.  MapaOuv.)  Callimachus  applied  to  this 
 same  Marathon,  son  of  Apollo,  the  epithets  of  divypvg, 
 "  all  humid,"  and  tvvSpog,  "  dwelling  in  the  uwier" 
 {Suid.,  I.  c.),  a  remark  that  will  serve  as  an  introduc- 
 tion to  the  explanation  given  by  Creuzer  to  the  fable 
 of  the  Aloidae.  Vid.  Aloidfe. — II.  Son  of  Neptune 
 and  Canace.  He  married  Iphimedia,  the  daughter  of 
 his  brother  Triops  ;  but  Iphimedia  having  a  stronger 
 attachment  for  Neptune  than  for  her  own  husband,  be- 
 came by  the  former  the  mother  of  two  sons,  Otus  and 
 Ephialtes,  whom  Aloeus,  however,  brought  up  as  his 
 own  (Homer  makes  them  to  have  been  nurtured  by 
 Earth),  and  who  were  hence  called  Alo'ida.  Vid. 
 Aloida;.     {Horn.,  Od.,  11,  304,  seqq.) 
 
 ALoin^  {'AT^uelSai),  sons  of  Aloeus  in  name,  but  in 
 reality  the  offspring  of  Neptune  and  Canace.  {Vid. 
 Aloeus,  II.)  They  were  two  in  number,  Otus  and 
 Ephialtes,  and,  according  to  Homer  {Od.,  11,310, 
 seqq.),  were,  in  their  ninth  year,  nine  cubits  in  width 
 and  nine  fathoms  in  height.  At  this  early  age,  they 
 undertook  to  make  war  upon  heaven,  with  the  intention 
 of  dethroning  Jupiter  ;  and,  in  order  to  reach  the  heav- 
 ens, they  strove  to  place  Mount  Ossa  upon  Olympus, 
 and  Pelion  upon  Ossa;  but  they  were  destroyed  by 
 Apollo  before,  to  use  the  graphic  language  of  Homer, 
 "  the  down  had  bloomed  beneath  their  temples,  and 
 had  thickly  covered  their  chin  with  a  well-flowering 
 beard."  According  to  the  animated  narrative  of  the 
 same  bard,  they  would  have  accomplished  their  object 
 had  they  made  the  attempt,  not  in  childhood,  but  after 
 having  "reached  the  measure  of  youth."  {Od.,  I.  c.) 
 Such  is  the  Homeric  legend  respecting  the  Aloida;,  as 
 given  in  the  Odyssey.  In  the  Iliad  (5,  385)  they  are 
 said  to  have  bound  Mars,  and  kept  him  captive  for  the 
 
ALU 
 
 ALP 
 
 space  of  thirteen  months,  until  Mercury  "  stole  him 
 away"  (E^e.K?ietjjev).  Later  writers  add,  of  course, 
 many  other  particulars.  Apollodorus  makes  Ephialtes 
 to  have  aspired  to  a  union  with  Juno,  and  Otus  with 
 Diana.  (Compare  Nonnus,  Dionys.,  48,  402. — Hy- 
 gin.,  fab.,  28.)  He  farther  states,  that  Diana  effected 
 their  destruction  in  the  island  of  Naxos.  She  changed 
 herself,  it  seems,  into  a  hind,  and  bounded  between 
 the  two  brothers,  who,  in  their  eagerness  each  to  slay 
 the  animal,  pierced  one  another  with  their  weapons 
 (e^'  eavTov(  fjnovTiaav).  Diodorus  Siculus  (5,  51) 
 gives  an  historical  air  to  the  narrative,  making  the  two 
 brothers  to  have  held  sway  in  Naxos,  and  to  have  fallen 
 in  a  quarrel  by  each  other's  hand.  (Compare  Pind., 
 Pyth  ,  4,  88,  ed.  Bockh,  and  the  scholiast,  ad  loc.)  Vir- 
 gil assigns  the  Alo'idas  a  place  of  punishment  in  Tarta- 
 rus (.,£«.,  6, 582),  and  some  of  the  ancient  fabulists  make 
 them  to  have  been  hurled  thither  by  Jupiter,  others  by 
 Apollo.  So  in  the  Odyssey  (/.  c.)  they  are  spoken  of 
 as  inhabiting  the  lower  world,  though  no  reason  is  as- 
 signed by  the  poet  for  their  being  there,  except  what 
 we  may  infer  from  the  legend  itself,  that  they  were  cut 
 off  in  early  life,  lest,  if  they  had  been  allowed  to  attain 
 their  full  growth,  they  might  have  obtained  the  empire 
 of  the  skies.  (Hcyne,  ad  Apollod.,  I.  c.)  Pausanias 
 makes  the  Aloids  to  have  founded  Ascra  in  Boeotia, 
 and  to  have  been  the  first  that  sacrificed  to  the  Muses 
 on  Mount  Helicon  (9,  29).  Miiller  regards  the  Aloidae 
 as  the  mythic  leaders  of  the  old  Thracian  colonies,  he- 
 roes by  land  and  sea.  They  appear  in  Pieria  (at 
 Aloium,  near  Tempe)  and  at  Mount  Helicon,  and  in 
 both  quarters  have  reference  to  the  digging  of  canals 
 and  the  draining  of  mountain-dales.  {Orchomenus,  p. 
 387.)  Creuzer,  on  the  other  hand,  sees  in  the  fable 
 of  the  Alo'idffi  a  figurative  allusion  to  a  contest,  as  it 
 were,  between  the  water  and  the  land.  Aloeus  is 
 "  the  man  of  the  threshing-floor''''  {ulu^),  whose  efforts 
 are  all  useless  on  account  of  the  infidelity  of  his  spouse 
 (the  Earih,  "  the  very  iinse  one,''''  hpi  and  fif/do^).  She 
 unites  against  him  with  Neptune,  and  the  sea  there- 
 upon begets  the  mighty  energies  of  the  tempests  (Otus 
 and  Ephialtes),  which  darken  the  day  ('i2rof,  from 
 UTog,  '•  the  horned  owl,'"  the  bird  of  night),  which  brood 
 heavily  over  the  earth,  and  cause  the  waves  of  ocean 
 to  leap  and  dash  upon  the  cultivated  regions  along  the 
 shore  {''E(biu'?\,Tr]r,  from  etvi,  and  uAlofiai,  "  to  leap,"  as 
 indicatmg  "  the  one  that  attacks"  or  "  leaps  upon," 
 the  spirit  that  oppresses  and  torments,  "  the  night- 
 mare"). At  last  the  god  of  day  (Apollo)  comes  forth, 
 and  the  storm  ceases,  first  along  the  mountain-tops, 
 a!id  at  last  even  on  the  shore.  {Creuzer,  Symholik, 
 vol.  2,  p.  386.)  If  we  adopt  the  other  version  of  the 
 fable,  that  the  Aloidaa  were  destroyed  by  Diana,  the 
 storm  will  then  be  hushed  by  the  influence  and  chang- 
 ing of  the  moon. 
 
 Aloium,  a  town  of  Thessaly,  near  Tempe.    {Steph. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  'A?Miov.) 
 
 Alope,  I.  daughter  of  Cercyon,  king  of  Eleusis,  and 
 mother  of  Hippothoon  by  Neptune.  She  was  put  to 
 death  by  her  father,  and  her  tomb  is  spoken  of  by  Pau- 
 sanias (1,  29).  Hyginus  says  that  Neptune,  not  being 
 able  to  save  her  life,  changed  her  corpse  into  a  fountain 
 (fall.,  187).  The  son,  on  having  been  exposed  by  or- 
 derofits  mother,  was  at  first  suckled  by  amare  (tTTTrof), 
 whence  his  name  Hippothoon  ;  and  was  afterward  ta- 
 ken care  cf  and  brought  up  by  some  shepherds.  When 
 he  had  attained  to  manhood,  he  was  placed  on  his  grand- 
 father's throne  by  Theseus,  who  had  slain  Cercyon. 
 {Pausan.,  1,  5,  et  "i^.—Hygin.,  I.  c.)—\\.  A  town  of 
 Thessaly,  situate,  accordingto  Steph.  Byz.  {s.  v.  'A?io- 
 Kv),  between  Larissa  Cremaste  and  Echinus.  (Com- 
 pare Straho,  ^32.— Pomp.  Mel. ,2,  3.)  It  is  probably 
 the  same  with  the  Alitrope  noticed  by  Scylax  (p.  24),  and 
 retains  its  name  on  the  shore  of  the  Melian  Gulf,  be- 
 low Makalla. — III.  A  town  of  the  Locri  Ozolae,  ac- 
 cording to  Strabo  (427).     It  is,  perhaps,  no  other  than 
 
 the  Olpae  of  Thucydidcs  (3,  101).— IV.  A  town  of  the 
 Locri  Opuntii,  above  Daphnus.  It  was  here  that,  ac- 
 cording to  Thucydides,  the  Athenians  obtained  some 
 advantages  over  the  Locrians  in  a  descent  they  made 
 on  this  coast  during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  ( Thucyd., 
 2,  26.) 
 
 Alopece,  I.  an  island  in  the  Palus  Masotis,  near  the 
 mouth  of  the  Tanais.  Strabo  and  Ptolemy  call  it  Alo- 
 pecia ('A/lwTre/c/a),  but  Pliny  (4,  26)  names  it  Alopece. 
 — II.  An  island  in  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus,  near 
 Panticapsnm.  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (rfe  ff(/rn. 
 imp.,  c.  42)  calls  it  Atech  {'Atcx)- — HI.  A  borough  of 
 Attica,  north  of  Hymettus,  and  near  the  Cynosarges, 
 consequently  close  to  Athens.  According  to  Herodo- 
 tus (5,  63),  it  contained  the  tomb  of  Anchimolius,  a 
 Spartan  chief,  who  fell  in  the  first  expedition  underta- 
 ken by  the  Spartans  to  expel  the  Pisislratidae.  Ac- 
 cording to  yEschines(iw  Tjmarch.,\).  119),  it  was  not 
 more  than  eleven  or  twelve  stadia  from  the  walls  of  the 
 city.  This  was  the  borough  or  demus  of  Socrates  and 
 Aristides.  It  was  enrolled  in  the  tribe  Antiochis. 
 {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'Wuttekji).  Chandler  thought  that 
 he  passed  some  vestiges  belonging  to  it  in  his  journey 
 from  Athens  to  Hymettus.     {Travels,  vol.  2,  c.  30.) 
 
 Alopeconnesus,  a  town  on  the  northern  coast  of  the 
 Thracian  Chersonese.  It  was  an  ^ol;an  colony,  ac- 
 cording to  Scymnus();.  705),  and  it  is  mentioned  as  one 
 of  the  chief  towns  of  the  Chersonese  by  Demosthenes 
 {de  Cor.,  p.  256).  It  was  taken  by  Philip,  king  of 
 Maccdon,  towards  the  commencement  of  his  wars  with 
 the  Romans  {Liv.,  31,  16).  According  to  Athena?us 
 (2,  60),trufl[les  of  excellent  quality  grew  near  it.  The 
 site  of  the  ancient  town  still  retains  the  name  of  Alexi. 
 {Mannert,  7,  p.  197.) 
 
 A  LOS,  or  Halos,  I.  a  city  in  Thessaly,  situate  near 
 the  sea,  on  the  river  Amphrysus.  It  was  founded  by 
 Athamas.  whose  memory  was  here  held  in  the  highest 
 veneration.  {Strab.,  A'i2.—Hcrodol.,  7,  197.)  This 
 place  was  called  the  "  Phthiotic"  or  "  Achaean"  Alos, 
 to  distinguish  it  from  another  city  of  the  same  name 
 among  the  Locri. — II.   A  city  of  the  Locri  Opuntii. 
 
 Alpemis,  a  town  of  the  Locri  Epicnemidii,  south  of 
 Thermopyla;,  whence,  as  Herodotus  (7,  229)  informs 
 us,  Leonidas  and  his  little  band  drew  their  supplies.  It 
 is  also  called  Alpeni  {'AXmjvoi).  This  is  probably  the 
 same  town  which  ^-Eschines  names  Alponus,  since  he 
 describes  it  as  being  close  to  Thermopylae.  {Msch., 
 de  Fals.  Leg.,  p.  46.) 
 
 Alpes,  a  chain  of  mountains,  separating  Italia  from 
 Gallia,  Helvetia,  and  Germania.  Their  name  is  de- 
 rived from  their  height.  Alp  being  the  old  Celtic  ap- 
 pellation for  a  lofty  mountain.  {Adelung,  Mithndates, 
 vol.  2,  p.  42.— Compare  remarks  under  the  article  Al- 
 bion, II.)  They  extend  from  the  Sinus  Flanaticus,  or 
 Gulf  of  Camera,  at  the  top  of  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  and 
 the  sources  of  the  river  Colapis,  or  Kulpe,  to  Vada 
 Sabatia,  or  Savona,  on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa.  The  whole 
 extent,  which  is  in  a  crescent  form,  Livy  makes  only 
 250  miles,  Pliny  700  miles.  The  true  amount  is  near- 
 ly 600  Britii^^h  miles.  They  have  been  divided  by  both 
 ancient  and  modern  geographers  into  various  portions, 
 of  which  the  principal  are,  1.  The  Maritime  Alps  (Al- 
 pes Maritimai),  begmning  from  the  environs  of  Nice 
 (Nica?a),  and  extending  to  Mons  Vesulus,  3/o7?^c  Visa. 
 
 2.  The  Cottian  Alps  (Alpes  Cottis),  reaching  from  the 
 last-mentioned  point  io  Mont  Cenis.     {Vid.  Cottius.) 
 
 3.  The  GraianAljJS  (Alpes  Grai»),  lying  between  ilfow^ 
 Iseran  and  the  Little  St.  Bernard  inclusively.  The 
 name  Graia:  is  said  to  refer  to  the  tradition  of  Hercules 
 having  crossed  over  them  on  his  return  from  Spam  into 
 Italy  and  Greece.  4.  The  Pennine  Alps  (Alpes  Pen- 
 nine), extending  from  the  Great  St.  Bernard  to  the 
 sources  of  the  Rhone  and  Rhine.  The  name  is  deri- 
 ved from  the  Celtic  Pe.yin,  "a  summit,"  and  not,  as 
 Livy  and  other  ancient  writers,  together  \vith  some 
 modern  ones,  pretend,  from  Hannibal  having  crossed 
 
 115 
 
ALP 
 
 AL  P 
 
 into  Italy  by  this  palli,  and  who,  therefore,  make  the 
 orthotjraphy  Pocnincc,  from  Poenus.  5.  The  Rh»tic 
 or  Tridcnlinc  Alps  (Alpcs  RhajticsB  sive  Tridentina?), 
 from  the  Si.  Golhard,  whose  numerous  peaks  bore  the 
 name  of  Adula,  to  Mont  Brenner  in  the  Tyrol.  6. 
 The  Noric  Alps  (Alpes  NoricsB),  from  the  latter  point 
 to  the  head  of  the  river  Plavis,  or  la  Piave.  7.  The 
 Carnic  or  Julian  Alps  (Alpes  Carnics  sive  Julioe),  ter- 
 minating in  the  Mons  Albius  on  the  confines  of  Illyri- 
 cum. — It  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Augustus  that  the 
 Alps  became  well  known.  That  emperor  finally  sub- 
 dued the  numerous  and  savage  clans  which  inhabited 
 the  Alpine  valleys,  and  cleared  the  passes  of  the  ban- 
 ditti that  infested  them.  He  improved  the  old  roads 
 and  constructed  new  ones  ;  and  finally  succeeded  in 
 establishing  a  free  and  easy  communication  through 
 these  mountains.  {Strah.,  204.)  It  was  then  that 
 the  whole  of  this  great  chain  was  divided  into  the  seven 
 portions  which  have  just  been  mentioned.  Among  the 
 Pennine  Alps  is  Monl  Blanc,  14,676  feet  high.  The 
 principal  passes  at  the  present  day  are,  that  over  the 
 Great  St.  Bernard,  that  over  Mont  Simplon,  and  that 
 over  Mont  St.  Gothard.  The  manner  in  which  Han- 
 nibal is  said  to  have  effected  his  passage  over  these 
 mountains  is  now  generally  regarded  as  a  fiction. 
 {Vid.  Hannibal,  under  which  article  some  remarks  will 
 also  be  offered  upon  the  route  of  the  Carthaginian  com- 
 mander in  crossing  the  Alps.)  Besides  the  divisions 
 of  the  Alps  already  mentioned,  we  sometimes  meet 
 with  others,  such  as  the  Lepontine  Alps  (Alpes  Lepon- 
 tise),  between  the  sources  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Lacus 
 Verbanus  {Lago  Maggtorc) ;  the  Alpes  Summs 
 {Cas.,  B.  G.,  3,  1,  and  4,  10),  running  off  from  the 
 Pennine  Alps,  and  reaching  as  far  as  the  Lake  Verba- 
 nus, &c. 
 
 Ai-PHEsiBCE.^,  daughter  of  Phygeus,  or  Phegeus, 
 king  of  Psophis  in  Arcadia,  married  Alcmseon,  son  of 
 Amphiaraus,  who  bad  fled  to  her  father's  court  after 
 the  murder  of  his  mother.  She  received,  as  a  bridal 
 present,  the  fatal  collar  and  robe  which  had  been  given 
 to  Eriphyle,  to  induce  her  to  betray  her  husband  Am- 
 phiaraus. The  ground,  however,  becoming  barren  on 
 his  account,  Alcmaeon  left  Arcadia  and  his  newly- 
 married  wife,  in  obedience  to  an  oracle,  and  came,  first 
 to  Calydon  unto  king  CEneus,  then  to  the  Thesprotii, 
 and  finally  to  the  Achelous.  Here  he  was  purified  by 
 the  river-god  from  the  stain  of  his  mother's  blood,  and 
 married  Callirrhoe,  the  daughter  of  the  stream.  Cal- 
 lirrhoe  had  two  sons  by  him,  and  begged  of  him,  as  a 
 present,  the  collar  and  robe,  which  were  then  in  the 
 hands  of  Alphesiboea.  He  endeavoured  to  obtain  them, 
 under  the  pretence  that  he  wished  to  consecrate  them 
 at  Delphi;  but  the  deception  being  discovered,  he  was 
 slain  by  the  two  brothers  of  Alphesibcea,  who  had  lain 
 in  wait  for  him.  Alphesibosa,  showing  loo  much  sor- 
 row for  the  loss  of  her  former  husband,  was  conveyed 
 by  her  brothers  to  Tegea,  and  given  into  the  hands  of 
 Agapenor.  The  more  usual  name  by  which  Alphe- 
 sibcea is  known  among  the  ancient  fabulists,  is  Arsinoe. 
 (Apollod.,  3,  7. — Hnjnc,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Alphisus  and  Ai.pnijus  ('A/lc&fWf  and  'A7.6e6g,the 
 short  penult  marking  the  earlier,  the  long  one  the  later 
 and  more  usual,  pronunciation),  I.  a  river  of  Pelopon- 
 nesus, flowing  through  Arcadia  and  Elis.  It  rose  in 
 the  Laconian  border  of  Arcadia,  about  five  stadia  from 
 A  sea,  and  mingled  its  waters,  at  its  source,  with  those 
 of  the  Eurotas.  The  united  streams  continued  their 
 course  for  the  space  of  twenty  stadia,  when  they  dis- 
 appeared in  a  chasm.  The  Alpheus  was  seen  to  rise 
 again  at  a  place  called  Peg.-e  [Trrjyal)  or  "  the  sources,'''' 
 in  the  territory  of  Megalopolis,  and  the  Eurotas  in  that 
 of  Belmina,  in  Laconia.  Flowing  onward  from  this 
 quarter,  the  Alpheus  passes  through  the  intervening 
 part  of  Arcadia,  enters  Elis,  passes  through  the  plain 
 of  Olympia,  and  discharges  its  waters,  now  swelled  by 
 numerous  tributary  streams,  into  the  Sicilian  Sea. 
 116 
 
 The  modern  name  of  the  river  is  the  Rovphia. — There 
 are  few  streams  so  celebrated  in  antiquity  as  the  Al 
 pheus.  Its  pro.ximity  to  the  scene  of  the  Olympic 
 contests  connects  its  name  continually  w-ith  the  men 
 tion  of  those  memorable  games,  on  the  part  of  the  an- 
 cient poets,  and  gives  it,  in  particular,  a  conspicuous 
 place  in  the  verses  of  Pindar.  There  is  also  a  pleas- 
 ing legend  connected  with  the  stream.  According  to 
 the  poets,  the  god  of  the  Alpheus  became  enamoured 
 of  and  pursued  the  nymph  Arethusa,  who  was  only  sa- 
 ved from  him  by  the  intervention  of  Diana,  and  chang 
 ed  for  that  purpose  into  a  fountain.  This  fountain  she 
 placed  in  the  island  of  Ortygia,  near  the  coast  of  Sici- 
 ly, and  forming  in  a  later  age  one  of  the  quarters  of  the 
 city  of  Syracuse.  The  ardent  river-god,  however,  did 
 not  even  then  desist,  but  worked  a  passage  for  his 
 stream  amid  the  intervening  ocean,  and,  rising  up  agam 
 in  the  Ortygian  island,  commingled  its  waters  with  those 
 of  the  fountain  of  Arethusa.  Hence,  according  to  pop- 
 ular belief,  if  anything  were  thrown  upon  the  Alpheus 
 in  Elis,  it  was  sure  to  reappear,  after  a  certain  lapse 
 of  time,  upon  the  bosom  of  the  Ortygian  fountain. 
 (Pausan.,  5,  7.— Id.,  8,  bi.—Slrab.,  269.  et  343.— 
 Pind.,  Nem.,  1,  1,  seqq. — Moschus,  Id  ,  8. — Virg., 
 Mn.,  3,  692,  seqq.— Id.,  Georg.,  3,  ISO.— Nonnns,  in 
 Creuz.,  Mclet.,  1,  p.  78.)  According  to  another  ver- 
 sion, however,  of  the  same  legend,  it  was  Diana  her- 
 self, and  not  the  nymph  Arethusa,  whom  the  river-god 
 of  the  Alpheus  pursued,  and,  when  this  pursuit  had 
 ended  in  the  island  of  Ortygia,  the  fountain  of  Are- 
 thusa arose  there.  (Schol.  ad  Pmd.,  Nem.,  1,  3. — 
 vol.  2,  p.  428,  ed.  Bockh.)  The  account  last  given 
 will  afford  us  a  clew  to  the  true  meaning  of  the  entire 
 fable.  The  goddess  Diana  had,  it  seems,  a  common 
 altar  at  Olympia  with  the  god  of  the  Alpheu?.  {He- 
 rodotus, in  Schol.  ad  Pmd.,  Olymp.,  5,  10. — Pau- 
 san., 5,  14.)  To  the  saine  Diana  water  was  !tld  sa- 
 cred. {B'ockh,  ad  Pind.,  Nem.,  1. — Creuzei's  Sym- 
 holik,  vol.  2,  p.  182.)  This  part  of  the  worship  of 
 Diana  having  passed  from  the  Peloponnesus  into  Sici- 
 ly, the  worship  of  the  Alpheus  accompanied  it ;  or,  in 
 other  words,  a  common  altar  for  the  two  divinities  was 
 erected  by  the  Syracusans  in  Ortygia,  similar  in  its  at- 
 tendant rites  and  ceremonies  to  the  altar  at  Olympia. 
 For  in  the  island  of  Ortygia  all  water  was  held  sacred, 
 {Schol.  ad  Pind.,  Nem.,  1,  1.— 2,  p.  428,  ed.  Bockh), 
 and  Diana,  besides,  was  worshipped  at  the  fountain  of 
 Arethusa,  under  the  titles  of  TcoTa/xia  and  'Alcpeiom. 
 From  this  commingling  of  rites  arose,  therefore,  the 
 poetic  legend,  that  the  Al])heus  had  jiassed  through  the 
 ocean  to  Ortygia,  and  blended  its  waters  with  those  of 
 Arethusa,  or,  in  other  words,  its  rites  with  those  of 
 Diana.  {Bockh,  ad  Pind.,  Nem.,  I.  c.)— If.  An  engra- 
 ver on  gems,  who  executed  many  works  in  conne.xion 
 with  Arethon,  one  of  his  contemporaries.  A  head  of 
 Caligula,  engraved  by  him  when  a  young  man,  is  still 
 extant.     {Bracci,  pt.  1,  tab.  16.) 
 
 Alfhius  Avitus,  a  Roman  poet,  who  wrote  an  ac- 
 count of  illustrious  men,  in  two  volumes.  Terentia- 
 nus  Maurus  has  cited  some  verses  of  the  work,  having 
 reference  to  the  story  of  Camillus  and  the  schoolmas- 
 ter of  Falisci.  (Compare  Burmann,  Anthol.  Lat.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  452.) 
 
 Alpinus  (Cornelius),  a  wretched  poet,  ridiculed  by 
 Horace  {Serm.,  1,  10,  36,  seqq).  In  describing  Mem 
 non  slain  by  Achilles,  he  kills  him,  as  it  were,  accord- 
 ing to  Horace,by  the  miserable  character  of  his  own  de- 
 scription. So  also  the  same  poet  is  represented  by  the 
 Venusian  bard  as  giving  the  Rhine  a  head  of  mud. 
 Who  this  Alpinus  actually  was  cannot  be  exactly  as- 
 certained, and  no  wonder,  since  it  would  have  been 
 strange  if  any  particulars  of  so  contemptible  a  poet  had 
 escaped  oblivion.  Cruquius,  without  any  authority, 
 discovers  in  Al[)inus  the  poet  Cornelius  Callus,  the 
 friend  of  Virgil.  Nor  is  Bentley's  supposition  of  any 
 great  value.     According  to  this  latter  critic,  Horace 
 
ALT 
 
 ALT 
 
 alludes,  under  the  nalme  of  Alpinus,  to  Furius  Bibacu- 
 liis  ;  and  Bentley  thinks  that  the  appellation  was  given 
 him  by  Horace,  either  on  account  of  his  being  a  native  of 
 Gaul,  or  because  he  described  in  verse  the  Gallic  war, 
 or  else,  and  wl.-at  Bentley  considers  most  probable,  in 
 allusion  to  a  foolish  line  of  his  composition,  "  JupHcr 
 hibcrnas  cayia  nivc  conspuit  Alpes."  {Bend. , ad  Horat., 
 I,  10,  3G.) 
 
 At,p{s,  a  river  falling  into  the  Danube.  Manncrt 
 {Gcogr.,  xol.  3,  p.  510)  supposes  this  to  have  been  the 
 same  with  the  ^Enus,  oi  Inn.  It  is  mentioned  by  He- 
 rodotus (4,  29). 
 
 Alsiom,  a  maritime  town  of  Etruria,  southeast  from 
 Caere,  now  Palo.     {SU.  Iial,  8,  475.) 
 
 Alth.e.<,  daughter  of  Thestius  and  Eurythemis, 
 married  QEneus,  king  of  Galydon,  by  whom  she  had 
 many  children,  among  whom  was  Meleager,  consider- 
 ed by  some  to  be  the  son  of  Mars.  Seven  days  after 
 the  birth  of  Meleager,  the  Destinies  came  unto  Althaea, 
 and  announced,  that  the  life  of  Meleager  depended  upon 
 a  brand  then  burning  on  the  hearth,  and  that  he  would 
 die  when  it  was  consumed.  The  mother  saved  the 
 brand  from  the  flames,  and  kept  it  very  carefully  ;  but 
 when  Meleager  killed  his  two  uncles.  Althaea's  broth- 
 ers. Althaea,  to  revenge  their  death,  threw  the  piece  of 
 wood  into  the  fire,  and,  as  soon  as  it  was  burned,  Me- 
 leager expired.  She  was  afterward  so  deeply  griev- 
 ed for  the  loss  of  her  son,  that  she  made  away  with  her 
 own  existence.  (Apollod.,  1,  8,  1. — Ovid,  Met.,  8, 
 44H,  seqq  )  Another  version  of  the  story  is  also  given 
 {Apollod.,  I.  c),  which  appears  to  have  been  derived 
 from  Homer  (// ,  9,  551. — Compare  with  this  Anton. 
 Lib.,  c.  2,  and  Heyne,  ad  Apollod.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Althemenes  ('AXO)]iJ.Evric,  more  correct  than  Al- 
 thaemenes,  'A2,0aifif:vr]c,  the  common  form.  Heyne, 
 ad  Apollod.,  3,  2,  1,  7wt.  erit.),  son  of  Catreus,  king  of 
 Crete.  Hearing  that  either  he  or  his  brothers  were  to 
 be  their  father's  murderer,  he  tied  to  Rhodes,  where  he 
 made  a  settlement,  to  avoid  becoming  a  parricide,  and 
 built,  on  Mount  Atabyrus,  the  famous  temple  of  Jupi- 
 ter Atabyrius.  After  the  death  of  all  his  other  sons, 
 Catreus  went  after  his  son  Althemenes  :  when  he  land- 
 ed in  Rhodes,  the  inhabitants  attacked  him,  supposing 
 him  to  be  an  enemy,  and  he  was  killed  by  the  hand  of 
 his  own  son.  When  Althemenes  knew  that  he  had 
 killed  his  father,  he  entreated  the  gods  to  remove  him  ; 
 and  the  earth  immediately  opened,  and  swallowed  him 
 up.  {Apnllod.,  3,  2.)  According  to  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus,  however,  he  shunned  the  society  of  men  after  the 
 fatal  deed,  and  died  eventually  of  grief.  (Diod.  Sic, 
 5,  59.) 
 
 Altivum,  a  flourishing  city  near  Aquileia.  Accord- 
 ing to  Cluverius,  the  precise  site  of  the  ancient  Alti- 
 nmn  seems  uncertain.  D'Anville,  however,  asserts 
 i^Anal.  Geogr.  de  Vital.,  p.  84)  that  its  place  is  yet 
 marked  by  the  name  of  Allino,  on  the  right  bank  of 
 the  river  Silis  {Silc),  and  near  its  mouth.  According 
 to  Strabo  (314),  the  situation  of  Altiimm  bore  much 
 resemblance  to  that  of  Ravenna.  The  earliest  men- 
 tion of  it  is  in  Velleius  Paterculus  (2,  76).  At  a  la- 
 ter period  of  the  Roman  empire  it  must  have  become 
 a  place  of  considerable  note,  since  Martial  compares 
 the  appearance  of  its  shore,  lined  with  villas,  to  that 
 of  Baioe.  (Ep.,  4,  25.)  It  was  also  celebrated  for  its 
 wool.     {Martini,  Ep.,  14,  153.) 
 
 Av.Tis,  the  sacred  grove  of  Olympia,  on  the  banks 
 of  the  .\lpheus,  in  the  centre  of  which  stood  the  tem- 
 ple of  Jupiter.  It  was  composed  of  olive  and  plane- 
 trees,  a)i(l  was  surrounded  by  an  enclosure.  Besides 
 the  temple  just  mentioned,  the  grove  contained  those 
 of  .Juno  and  Lucina,  the  theatre,  and  the  prytaneum. 
 In  front  of  it,  or,  if  we  follow  Strabo,  within  its  pre- 
 cincts, was  the  stadium,  together  with  the  race-ground 
 or  hippodromus.  The  whole  grove  was  filled  with 
 monuments  and  statues,  erected  in  honour  of  gods, 
 beroes,  and  conquerors.    Pausanias  mentions  more  than 
 
 two  hundred  and  thirty  statues  ;  of  Jupiter  alone  he 
 describes  twenty- three,  and  these  were,  for  the  most 
 part,  works  of  the  first  artists.  {Fausan.,  5,  13.) 
 Pliny  (34,  17)  estimates  the  whole  number  of  these 
 statues,  in  his  time,  at  three  thousand.  The  Allis  con- 
 tained also  numerous  treasuries,  belongijig  to  different 
 Grecian  cities,  similar  to  those  at  Delphi.  These  wer3 
 situated  on  a  basement  of  Porine  stone,  to  the  north 
 of  the  temple  of  Juno.    (  Vid.  fJlytnpia.) 
 
 Aluntium,  a  town  of  Sicily,  on  the  northern  coast, 
 not  far  from  Calacta.    'Now  Alontio.    Cicero  {in  Vcrr., 
 
 4,  29)  calls  the  place  Haluntium. 
 
 Alyattes,  a  king  of  Lydia,  father  of  Crcesus,  suc- 
 ceeded Sadyaltes.  He  drove  the  Cimmerians  from 
 Asia,  and  made  war  against  Cya.xares,  kina  of  the 
 Medes,  the  grandson  of  Deioces.  He  died  after  a 
 reign  of  57  years,  and  after  having  brought  to  a  close 
 a  war  against  the  Milesians.  An  immense  barrow  or 
 mound  was  raised  upon  his  grave,  composed  of  stones 
 and  earth.  This  is  still  visible  within  about  five  miles 
 of  Sardis  or  Sort.  For  some  curious  remarks  on  the 
 resemblance  between  this  tomb,  as  described  by  He- 
 rodotus, and  that  said  to  have  been  erected  in  memory 
 of  Porsenna  {Varro,  ap.  Plin.,  36,  13),  and  which  af- 
 fords a  new  argument  in  favour  of  the  Lydian  orii^in 
 of  Etrurian  civilization,  consult  the  Excursus  of  Crcu- 
 zer,  ad.  Herod.,  1,  93  {ed.  Bdhr,  vol.  1,  p.  924). — It 
 is  also  related  that  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  terminated  a 
 battle  between  this  monarch  and  Cyaxares,  and  that 
 this  eclipse  had  been  predicted  by  Thales.  {Herod  , 
 1,  74 — B'dhr,  ad  lac.)  Modern  investigations  make 
 it  to  have  been  a  total  one.  {Ollmann,  Act.  Soc.  Be- 
 rolin.  Mathemal.,  1812.)  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  too, 
 that  this  same  eclipse  is  mentioned  in  the  Persian  poem 
 Schahnameh,  as  having  taken  place  under  kin<T  Kei- 
 kawus,  who  is  thought  to  have  been  the  Cyaxares  of 
 the  Greek  writers.  {Von  Hammer,  Wie.yirr  Jahrhuch., 
 9,  p.  13.)  For  remarks  on  the  chronology  of  this  reign, 
 consult  Clinton's  Fasti  Hell enici,  vol.  1,  2dcd.,  p  296 
 et  298,  and  also  Larcher,  Histoire  d'Hcrodote,  vol  7,  p. 
 537.     {Table  Chronol) 
 
 Alypius,  I.  a  philosopher  of  Alexandrea  in  Egypt, 
 contemporary  with  Jamblichus.  He  was  remarkably 
 small  of  size,  but  possessed,  according  to  Eunapius,  a 
 very  subtle  turn  of  mind,  and  was  very  skilful  in  dia- 
 lectics. Alypius  wrote  nothing;  all  his  instruction 
 was  given  orally.  Jamblichus  composed  a  life  of  this 
 philosopher.  {Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  1,  p.  657.) — II.  A 
 native  of  Alexandrea,  who  wrote  a  work  on  music,  en- 
 titled, Fdaayuy}/  fiovaiK//,  or  "  Introduction  to  Music." 
 He  divides  the  whole  musical  art  into  seven  portions : 
 1.    Sounds.     2.    Intervals.     3.    Systems.     4.  Kinds. 
 
 5.  Tones.  6.  Changes.  7.  Compositions.  He  treats, 
 however,  of  only  one  of  these,  the  fifth  ;  whence  Mei- 
 bomius  concludes,  that  only  a  fragment  of  his  work  ha? 
 reached  us.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as 
 to  the  period  when  Alypius  flourished.  Cassiodorus 
 {De  Musica,  sub  fin.)  believes,  that  he  was  anterior  to 
 Ptolemy,  and  even  to  Euclid.  De  la  Borde  {Essai  sur 
 la  Masique,  vol.  3,  p.  133)  places  him  in  the  latter 
 half  of  the  fourth  century  after  Christ.  Of  all  the  an- 
 cient writers  on  music  that  have  come  down  to  us,  be 
 is  the  only  one  through  whom  we  are  made  acquainted 
 with  the  notes  employed  by  the  Greeks  ;  so  that,  with- 
 out him,  our  knowledge  of  the  ancient  music  would  be 
 greatly  circumscribed.  {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 8,  p.  270.) — III.  A  native  of  Antioch.  an  architect  and 
 engineer,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Julian  the  apostate, 
 to  whom  he  dedicated  a  geographical  description  of  the 
 ancient  world.  This  production  is  considered  by  some 
 to  be  the  same  with  the  short  abridgment,  first  pub- 
 lished by  Godefroy  (Gothofredus),  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
 at  Geneva,  1628,  in  4to.  There  is,  however,  no  good 
 reason  whatever  to  suj)[)Ose  this  work  to  have  been 
 written  by  Alypius.  The  Greek  text  published  by 
 Godefroy  appears  r.ather  to  have  been  forged  after  the 
 
 117 
 
AM  A 
 
 AMA 
 
 Latin  version,  which  is  very  old  and  very  badly  done. 
 We  perceive,  from  the  letters  of  Julian  that  have  come 
 down  to  us,  that  Alypius  was  also  a  poet ;  and  that 
 he  had  commanded,  moreover,  in  Britain,  where  his 
 mildness  and  firmness  combined  had  gained  him 
 great  praise.  It  was  Alypius  whom  Julian  charged 
 with  the  cxocntion  of  his  order  for  rebuilding  the  tem- 
 ple of  Jerusalem  ;  a  work  that  was  broken  off,  in  so  re- 
 markable a  manner,  by  globes  of  fire  burstmg  forth 
 from  the  ground,  and  wounding  and  putting  to  flight 
 the  workmen.  {Bio^r.  Univ.,  vol.  1,  p.  657. — Con- 
 sult Salvcrte,  des  Sciences  OccuUcs,  vol.  2,  p.  224.) 
 
 Alypus,  a  statuary  of  Sicyon,  pupil  of  Naucydes, 
 the  Argive.  He  cast  in  brass  the  statues  of  certain 
 Lacedaemonians  who  fought  with  Lysander  in  the  bat- 
 tle of  .^gos  Potamos.     (Pausan.,  10,  9.) 
 
 Alyzia  {'A2.v^a),  a  town  of  Acarnania,  about  fif- 
 teen stadia  from  the  sea,  and,  as  Cicero  informs  us  in 
 one  of  his  letters  {ad  Fam.,  16,  2),  one  hundred  and 
 twenty  stadia  from  Leucas.  It  appears  to  have  been 
 a  place  of  some  note,  as  it  is  noticed  by  several  wri- 
 ters. The  earliest  of  these  are  Scylax  {Fcripl.,  p.  13) 
 and  Thucydides  (7,  31)  A  naval  action  was  fought 
 in  its  vicinity,  between  the  Athenians  under  Timothe- 
 us,  and  the  Lacedaemonians,  not  long  before  the  bat- 
 tle of  Leuctra.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  5,  4,  65.)  Belong- 
 ing to  Alyzia  was  a  port  consecrated  to  Hercules,  with 
 a  grove,  where  was  at  one  time  a  celebrated  group, 
 the  work  of  Lysippus,  representing  the  labours  of  Her- 
 cules ;  but  a  Roman  general  caused  it  to  be  removed 
 to  Rome,  as  more  worthy  to  possess  such  a  chef- 
 d'oeuvre.  (Slrabo,  459.)  This  port  appears  to  an- 
 swer to  the  modern  Porto  Candili.  {Cramer'' s  And. 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  18,  seqq.) 
 
 Amagetobki.\.      Vid.  Magetobria. 
 AmalthtEa,  I.  the  name  of  the  goat  that  suckled 
 Jupiter.     The  monarch  of  Olympus,  as  a  reward  for 
 ,his  act  of  kindness,  translated  her  to  the  skies,  along 
 vith  her  two  young  ones,  whom  she  had  put  aside  in  or- 
 ier  to  accommodate  the  infant  deity,  and  he  made  them 
 'iars  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  on  the  arm  of  Auriga. 
 Ths  whole  legend  appears  to  be  of  a  mixed  character, 
 Sknil  from  a  simple  origin,  adapted  to  the  rude  ideas  of 
 8n  sarly  race,  to  have  gradually  assumed  an  astronomi- 
 k:a!  >'haracter.     Thus,  according  to  the  legend,  the  in- 
 fant .'ove  was  nurtured  by  the  milk  of  the  goat,  while 
 the  v'lM-bees  deposited  their  honey  on  his  lips.     We 
 have  i.\'e  the  milk  and  the  honey  that  play  so  conspic- 
 uous a  vi/t  in  Oriental  imagery,  as  typifying  the  highest 
 degree  o.*^  human  felicity  and  abundance,  and,  there- 
 fore, woi5  -v.irthy  to  be  the  food  of  an  infant  deity  ap- 
 pearing in  I. Milan  form.     From  the  milk  and  honey, 
 moreover,  ^A  strly  fable,  come  the  ambrosia  and  nec- 
 tar of  a  later  .■\t,e,  since  nectar  was  regarded  as  a  quin- 
 tessence o{  hoi.  ©3',  .md  ambrosia  as  an  extract  from  the 
 purest  milk.     (i?o7i;'tT,  Amallhcia,    vol.    1,  p.  22.) 
 The  early  legend  gies  Mi  to  state,  that  the  infant  Jove, 
 when  playing  with  his  four-footed  foster  parent,  acci- 
 dentally broke  off  one  of  i^cr  horns.     This  was  made 
 at  first  to  serve  as  a  d'iuking  cup,  and  thus  recalls  the 
 custom  of  a  primitive  age,  wren  the  horns  of  animals 
 were  generally  employed  for  this  purpose  ;  the  horn- 
 cup  ajipearing  as  well  in  the  earliest  symposia  and  the 
 Bacchanalian  orgies  of  the  Greeks,  as  in  the  legends 
 of  the  vScandinavian  Edda  and  in  the  halls  of  Odin. 
 With  the  progress  of  ideas,  a  now  feature  was  added 
 to  the  fable.     Tho  horn  of  Amalth^a  is  no  longer  a 
 mere  cup.     This  u.^e  has  ended,  ani  Jupiter  now  or- 
 dains, that  it  shall  be  ever  full  to  ovcn\  wing  with  what- 
 ever its  possessor  si:ai'  wish.     (Apoi'tolms,  Cent.,  2, 
 86,  p.  30. — Comp.ire   Fischer,  ad  PaUcphaf.,  46,  p 
 179.)     Hence  arose  thfi  'oeai-tiful  fiction  of  the  horn 
 of  plenty,  the    Cortin  Cofic,  one  of  the  happiest  and 
 most  prolific  allegories  of  ihv"  plastic  art.     Jove  was 
 said,  in  this  later  version  of  th^  fable,  to  have  broken 
 off  the  horn,  filled  it  with  all  lh«.  i  chest  fruits,  and  flow- 
 118 
 
 ers,  and  teeming  productions  of  earth,  and  to  have  given 
 it  to  a  nymph,  Adrastea,  who  had  charge,  with  others, 
 of  his  earlier  years. — A  change  had  also  been  made  in 
 another  part  of  the  primitive  legend.  The  goat  Amal 
 thaea,  though  so  kind  to  the  infant  deity,  and  though 
 all  white  and  beautiful  of  form,  was  said,  nevertheless, 
 to  have  had  a  look  so  fearful  and  terror-inspiring,  that 
 the  Titans,  unable  to  endure  it,  entreated  the  earth  to 
 hide  the  animal  from  view.  (Eratosihcncs,  Calasler., 
 13,  p.  10,  seqq.,  ed.  Schaub. — Hygin.,  Poet.  Astron., 
 2,  13.)  We  have  here  a  clew  to  the  origin  of  the  whole 
 fable.  The  ancient  navigators  had  observed  that  the 
 constellations  of  the  She- Goat  and  ihe  Kids  {Capella 
 and  Hadi)  brought  stormy  and  rainy  weather,  and  they 
 were  therefore  regarded  as  inauspicious  for  mariners 
 and  dangerous  for  ships.  (Arat.  Phizn.,  156,  seqq. — 
 Schol.  ad  Arat.,  p.  46,  ed.  Buhle. — Voss.,  ad  Virg., 
 Georg.,  ] ,  205.)  Hence  probably  the  name  al^  was  ap- 
 plied to  the  constellation  of  the  She-Goat,  in  its  primi- 
 tive meaning  of  a  tempest,  a  primitive  meaning  which 
 afterward  disappeared  from  use,  while  the  secondary 
 one  of  a  she-goat  usurped  its  place.  {Bultmann,  ad 
 Idcler,  Stcnmamen,  p.  309.)  With  this  earlier  mean- 
 ing of  aif  is  connected  that  of  alyig,"  a  s/orm^'  01  '■'tem- 
 pest," subsequently  indicative  of  the  .^Egis  of  Jupiter, 
 which  he  was  believed  to  wield  amid  the  warfare  of 
 the  elements.  From  all  this  arose  the  early  legend. 
 The  bright  stars  in  the  constellation  of  Capella  become 
 the  fair,  white  she-goat  AmalthKa.  The  storms  and 
 clouds  which  the  constellation  brings  v\ith  it,  become 
 the  fear- inspiring  look  on  the  part  of  the  animal,  and, 
 by  the  rude  simplicity  of  early  times,  the  she-goat  is 
 made  the  foster-parent  of  Jove.  (Compare  Hock,  Gre- 
 ta, vol.  1,  p.  177,  seqq. — Creuzer,  Symholik,  vol.  2, 
 p.  424,  seqq.) — II.  A  daughter  of  Melisseus,  king  oif 
 Crete.  She  and  her  sister  Melissa  had  charge  of  the 
 infant  Jupiter,  and  fed  him  with  goat's  milk  and  honey. 
 This  is  merely  a  later  version  of  the  early  fable  men- 
 tioned under  Amalthea  I.  The  she-goat  and  bees  are 
 now  two  females.  {Diod.  Sic,  5,  70. — Compare  Bbt- 
 tiger,  Amalthcra,  vol.  1,  p.  24.) — III.  A  sibyl  of  Cumae, 
 called  also  Hierophile  and  Demophile.  She  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  the  same  who  brought  nine  books  of  proph- 
 ecies to  Tarquin,  king  of  Rome.      {Vid.  Sibylla;.) 
 
 A.MALTHEUM,  a  gymnasium,  or,  rather,  gymnasium 
 and  study  combined,  which  Atticus  had  arranged  in 
 his  villa  in  Epirus.  It  was  replete  with  all  ihat  could 
 amuse  or  instruct,  and  here,  too,  were  placed  the  statues 
 of  all  the  illustrious  men  by  whom  the  glory  of  the  Ro- 
 man state  had  been  advanced  to  its  proud  elevation, 
 just  as  Jupiter  had  been  nurtured  by  the  goat  Amal- 
 thsea.  Hence  its  name  Amaltheum  ('A/ia25«£>v). 
 {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Att.,  1,  16. — Compare  Eriiesti,  Clav. 
 Cic.,  hid.  Graco-hal  ) — Cicero  appears  to"  have  had 
 something  of  the  kind  in  his  villa  at  Arpinum,  and 
 which  he  calls  his  Amallhcea,  in  the  singular  (fern.). 
 {Ep.  ad  Att.,  2,  1.) 
 
 Amanus,  I.  a  continuation  of  the  chain  of  Mount 
 Taurus,  stretching  to  the  north  as  far  as  Melitene  and 
 the  Euphrates.  It  is  situate  at  the  eastern  extremity 
 of  the  Mediterranean,  near  the  Gulf  of  Issus,  and  sep- 
 arates Cilicia  from  Syria.  The  defile  or  pass  in  these 
 mountains  was  called  Portus  Amanicus,  or  PylsB  Syr- 
 isB.  Its  valleys  and  recesses  were  inhabited  by  wild 
 and  fierce  tribes,  who  lived  chiefly  by  plundering  their 
 neighbours,  though  they  boasted  of  their  freedom  un- 
 der the  sonorous  name  of  Eleuthero- Cilices,  or  Free 
 Cilicians.  The  modern  name  of  the  chain  is,  accord- 
 ing to  Mannert,  Almadag  ;  but,  according  to  D'An- 
 \n]e,Al-Lukan.  {Strab.,  521. — Uican,8,2U.—Cir., 
 Ep.  ad  Att.,  5,  20.—Plin.,  5,  27.}— II.  A  deity  wor- 
 shipped in  Pontus  and  Cappadocia,  and  also  called 
 Omanus  and  Anandatus.  (Compare  Tsckucke,  ed 
 Strab.,  11,  p.  512,  ed.  Casaub. — vol.  4,  p.  478.)  Bo- 
 chart  identifies  him  with  the  sun  (Geogr.  Sao-.,  p. 
 277),  and  others  with  the  Persian  Horn,  a  type  of  the 
 
AMA 
 
 AM  A 
 
 same  luminary.  {Crcu.zer,  Synibolik,  vol.  2,  p.  164.) 
 Mount  Amaniis  thu.s  becomes  the  mountain  of  the  sun, 
 even  as  Lebanon  appears  in  the  Phoenician  Cosmog- 
 ony of  Sanchoniathon. 
 
 Am.vracus,  a  son  of  Cynaras,  king  of  Cyprus,  who, 
 having  fallen  and  broken  a  vase  of  perfumes  which  he 
 was  carrying,  pined  away,  being  either  overpowered  bv 
 tne  strong  fragrance,  or  struck  with  grief  at  the  loss 
 he  had  sustained.  The  gods,  out  of  compassion,  chan- 
 ged him  into  the  amaracus,  or  sweet-marjoram.  Ser- 
 vius  {ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  1,  693),  gives  a  somewhat  differ- 
 ent account,  and  makes  Amaracus,  not  a  son,  but  an 
 attendant,  of  the  king's.  As  regards  the  plant  amara- 
 cus itself,  and  its  identity  with  the  adjnpvxov  of  the 
 Greeks,  consult  Fee,  Flore  de  Virgile,  p.  clxxxv. 
 
 Amardi,  a  nation  of  Asia.  Ptolemy  (5,  13)  places 
 them  in  the  greater  Armenia,  on  the  borders  of  Me- 
 dia ;  Nearchus,  Pliny  (6,  17),  and  Strabo,  in  the  mount- 
 ains of  Elymais,  in  Persia.  Others  assign  Margiana 
 as  the  country  in  which  they  lived.  It  is  possible 
 that  there  were  several  tribes  of  this  same  name 
 spread  over  different  countries,  or  perhaps  several  colo- 
 nies of  this  people.  Vossius  thinks  that  all  robbers 
 and  fugitives  inhabiting  the  mountains  were  called 
 Amardi  by  the  Persians.  {Voss.,  ad  Pomp.  Mel.  B., 
 5. — Compare  Pomp.  Mel.,  French  transl.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 202.) 
 
 A!«.\RVLt,is,  the  name  of  a  female  in  Virgil's  ec- 
 logues. Some  commentators  have  supposed  that  the 
 poet  spoke  of  Rome  under  this  fictitious  appellation, 
 but  this  supposition  is  a  very  improbable  one.  (Con- 
 sult Hei/ne,  ad  Virg.,  Eclog.,  1,  28,  towards  the  con- 
 clusion of  the  note.) 
 
 Amarvnthos,  a  town  of  Euboea,  seven  stadia  from 
 Eretria,  celebrated  for  the  temple  and  worship  of  Diana 
 Amarytithia.  {Strab.,  448. — Liv.,  35,  38. — Pausan., 
 1,31.) 
 
 Amasenus,  a  small  river  of  Latium,  crossing  the 
 Pontine  Marshes,  and  falling  into  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea, 
 now  La  Toppia.     (Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  685.) 
 
 Am  ASIA,  or  Amasea  {'kfidGEia,  by  the  later  Greeks 
 ^kjiaaia),  a  city  of  Pontus,  on  the  river  Iris,  the  ori- 
 gin of  which  is  not  ascertained.  It  was  the  birthplace 
 of  Mithradates  the  Great  and  of  Strabo  the  geogra- 
 pher. At  a  later  period,  when  under  the  Roman  sway, 
 it  became  the  capital  of  Pontus  Galaticus  (Hierocles, 
 p.  701),  and  bore  upon  its  coins  the  title  of  Metropo- 
 lis. Strabo  (560)  gives  us  a  particular  description  of 
 his  native  city.  The  modern  Amasyak  or  Amassia 
 is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Amasea. 
 (Mannert,  6,  pt.  2,  p.  461,  seqq  ) 
 
 Aw.iscs,  I.  a  king  of  Egypt,  of  one  of  the  earlier 
 dynasties.  He  rendered  himself  odious  to  his  subjects 
 by  his  violent  and  tyrannical  conduct,  and,  on  the  in- 
 vasion of  Egypt  by  Actisanes,  king  of  Ethiopia,  the 
 greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  went  over  to  the  latter. 
 Such  is  the  account  given  by  Diodorus  Siculus  (1,  60), 
 where  many  think  we  should  read  Amosis  for  Amasis. 
 (Consult  Sleph.  and  Wcsscling,ad  Died.,  I.  c.)  Jus- 
 tin Martyr  (Pttr««c*.,  p.  10)  makes  him  to  have  been 
 the  first  Pharaoh  of  the  18th  dynasty.  Eusebius 
 (Chron.)  asserts  that  he  was  the  same  king  durin"- 
 whose  reign  Jacob  died.  Olearius  {ad  Philoslr.,  Vu. 
 ApolL,  42)  maintains  that  he  was  monarch  of  Egypt 
 in  the  time  of  the  Exodus.  All  is  uncertainty  respect- 
 ing him. — 1[.  An  Egyptian,  who.  from  having  been  a 
 cominon  soldier,  became  king  of  Egypt.  He  succeed- 
 ed in  gaining  the  favour  of  king  Apries,  and  was  de- 
 spatched by  that  monarch  to  quell  a  sedition  which 
 had  broken  out.  As  he  was  endeavouring  to  dissuade 
 those  who  had  revolted  from  the  step  they  had  taken, 
 one  of  them  came  behind  him  and  put  a  helmet  on  his 
 head,  saymg  that  he  put  it  on  him  to  make  him  a  king. 
 Amasis  was  thereupon  proclaimed  king  by  the  insur- 
 gents, and  immediately  marched  against  and  defeated 
 bis  ""irmer  master,  B.C.  569.     He  governed  with  pru- 
 
 dence and  energy.  Under  his  reign  Egypt  enjoyed 
 for  many  years  uninterrupted  prosperity.  To  prevent 
 those  offences  which  an  idle  and  overflowing  popula- 
 tion might  commit,  he  ordained  that  every  one  of  his 
 subjects  should  yearly  give  an  account,  to  the  ruler  of 
 the  nome  or  district  in  which  he  resided,  of  the  means 
 of  subsistence  which  he  enjoyed,  and  the  manner  in 
 which  he  lived.  He  showed  also  an  enlightened  spirit 
 in  the  permission  which  he  granted  to  strangers,  and 
 particularly  to  the  Greeks,  to  visit  Egypt ;  he  gave 
 them  settlements  along  his  coasts,  and  permitted  them 
 to  erect  temples  there  for  the  performance  of  their  na- 
 tional worship.  Solon  was  one  of  those  who  visited 
 Egypt  during  the  reign  of  this  prince.  Amasis  es- 
 poused a  Grecian  female,  a  native  of  Cyrene  :  he  dis- 
 played his  attachment  to  the  Greeks  in  various  ways, 
 and  contributed  liberally,  not  only  to  the  rebuilding  of 
 the  temple  at  Delphi,  but  to  the  improvement  and  em- 
 bellishment of  many  cities  and  temples  of  Greece.  In 
 his  own  country  he  constructed  numerous  magnificent 
 works,  in  the  massy  and  gigantic  style  so  peculiar  to 
 Egypt.  He  subjected  also  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  and 
 made  it  tributary  to  his  crown.  The  prosperity  of 
 Amasis,  however,  was  disturbed,  at  last,  by  the  prep- 
 arations which  Cambyses,  king  of  Persia,  made  to  at- 
 tack his  kingdom.  The  Persian  monarch  had  demand- 
 ed the  daughter  of  Amasis  in  marriage  ;  but  the  father, 
 knowing  that  Cambyses  meant  to  make  her,  not  his 
 wife,  but  his  concubine,  endeavoured  to  deceive  him 
 by  sending  in  her  stead  the  daughter  of  Apries.  The 
 female  herself  disclosed  the  imposition  to  Cambyses, 
 and  the  latter,  in  great  wrath,  resolved  to  march  against 
 Egypt.  The  defection  of  Phanes,  moreover,  an  offi- 
 cer among  the  Greek  auxiliaries,  who  fled  to  Cam- 
 byses on  account  of  some  dissatisfaction  with  Ama- 
 sis, proved  a  serious  injury  to  the  Egyptian  prince. 
 The  Greek  informed  Cambyses  how  he  might  pass  the 
 intervening  deserts,  and  gave  him  also  very  important 
 information  respecting  the  kingdom  he  was  about  to 
 invade.  Amasis  escaped  by  death  the  perils  which 
 threatened  his  country.  He  died  B.C.  525,  after  a 
 reign  of  44  years,  and  the  whole  fury  of  the  storm  fell 
 upon  his  son  Psamineticus.  Cambyses,  however,  de- 
 termined not  to  be  disappointed  of  his  revenge,  caused 
 the  body  of  the  deceased  monarch  to  be  taken  from 
 the  royal  sepulchre  at  Sais  ;  and,  after  having  practised 
 various  indignities  upon  it,  commanded  it  to  be  burned, 
 an  order  equally  revolting  to  the  religious  feelings  of 
 both  the  Persians  and  Egyptians.  The  story  of  Ama- 
 sis and  Polycrales  is  well  known  {vid.  Polycrates), 
 though  the  reason  commonly  assigned  for  the  former's 
 refusing  to  continue  the  alliance  is  perhaps  less  worthy 
 of  credit  than  that  given  by  Diodorus  Siculus,  1,  15. 
 {Hcrodut.,  2,  162,  seqq. — Id.,  3,  1,  seqq.)  Athenasus 
 (15,  25. — vol.  5,  p.  479,  ed.  Schwctgh.)  informs  us, 
 that  Amasis  first  insinuated  himself  into  the  good 
 graces  of  Apries  by  a  chaplet  of  flowers  which  he  pre- 
 sented to  him  on  his  birthday.  The  king,  enchanted 
 with  the  beauty  of  the  chaplet,  invited  him  to  a  feast 
 which  he  gave  on  that  occasion,  and  received  him  among 
 the  number  of  his  friends. 
 
 Amastkts,  I.  a  daughter  of  the  brother  of  Darius 
 Codomannus.  Alexander  intended  giving  her  in  mar- 
 riage to  Craterus,  but,  in  the  confusion  and  political 
 changes  which  followed  the  death  of  the  conqueror, 
 the  plan,  of  course,  fell  to  the  ground,  and  she  became 
 the  wife  of  Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Heraclea  in  Pontus. 
 (Mcmnon,  c.  5.)  Dionysius,  at  his  death,  left  her  as 
 the  guardian  of  his  children,  on  account  of  the  in- 
 fluence she  enjoyed  among  the  Macedonians.  She 
 was  subsequently  married  to  Lysimachus,  and,  though 
 .some  time  after  separated  from  him  by  reason  of  the 
 political  movements  of  the  day,  continued  to  enjoy 
 high  consideration  and  respect.  She  founded  a  city  at 
 this  period,  and  called  it  after  her  name.  She  was  mur- 
 dered by  her  own  sons,  who  were  punished  by  Lysima- 
 
 119 
 
AMAZONES. 
 
 AMAZONES. 
 
 chus  for  the  unnatural  deed. — II.  A  city  on  the  coast 
 of  Paphlagonia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Parthenius.  It 
 was  founded  by  Amastris,  the  niece  of  Darius  Codo- 
 manniis,  and  wife  of  Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Heraclea, 
 who  gave  her  name  to  the  new  settlement.  The  ear- 
 lier town  of  Sesamus,  mentioned  by  Homer  (7/ ,  2, 
 853),  served  for  its  citadel.  It  is  praised  as  a  beauti- 
 ful city  by  both  the  younger  Pliny  (Ep.,  10,  99)  and 
 the  later  ecclesiastical  writers.  (Compare  Niccta, 
 Papli.  Or.,  hi  S.  Hijndnt.,  17.)  Amastris,  like  Sinope, 
 was  built  on  a  small  peninsula,  and  had,  in  conse- 
 quence, a  double  harbour.  {Strabo,  514;.)  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  Amastra.      {Mannert,  6,  pt.  3,  p.  25.) 
 
 AM.ir.i,  the  wife  of  King  Latinos,  and  mother  of 
 Lavinia.  She  hung  herself  in  despair,  on  finding  that 
 she  could  not  prevent  the  marriage  of  her  daughter 
 with  .Eneas.     (  Virg.,  jEn.,  12,  603.) 
 
 Am.ithus  (gen.  unlis),  a  city  on  the  southern  side 
 of  the  i.sland  of  Cyprus,  and  of  great  antiquity.  Ado- 
 nis was  worshipped  here  as  well  as  Venus.  Scylax 
 affirms  that  the  Amathusians  were  autochthonous  {Per- 
 ipl.,  p.  41) ;  and  it  appears  from  Hesychius  that  they 
 had  a  peculiar  dialect  (s.  v.  'F,Td?iai,  Kv6u66a,  Mu- 
 XiKa).  Amathus  was  celebrated  as  a  favourite  resi- 
 dence of  Venus.  {.En.,  10,  ^l.—  CatiiU.,  Ep.,  36.) 
 The  goddess,  as  an  author,  who  wrote  a  history  of 
 Amathus,  and  is  quoted  by  Hesychius  (s.  v.  'k(^p66i.- 
 toq),  reported,  was  represented  with  a  beard.  Ama- 
 thus was  the  see  of  a  Christian  bishop  under  the  By- 
 zantine emperors.  (HicrocL,  p.  706.)  Its  ruins  are 
 to  be  seen  near  the  little  town  of  Limmr.son  or  Lirn- 
 mcsol,  somewhat  to  the  north  of  Cape  Gatto.  {Cra- 
 mer's A.iia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  377,  seqq.) 
 
 Am.\z6nks,  a  name  given  by  the  ancient  writers  to 
 certain  female  warriors,  and  derived,  according  to  the 
 popular  opinion,  from  a,  priv.,  and  fiu^oQ,  "a  female 
 breast,''''  because  it  was  believed,  that  they  burned  off 
 the  right  breast  in  order  to  handle  the  bow  more  con- 
 veniently. The  men  among  them  were  held  in  an  in- 
 ferior, and,  as  it  were,  servile  condition,  attending  to  all 
 the  employments  which  occupy  the  time  and  care  of 
 females  in  other  nations,  while  the  Amazons  them- 
 selves took  charge  of  all  things  relating  to  government 
 and  warfare.  {Dwd.  Sic,  2,  45.-7^.,  3,  52.)  The 
 Greek  writers  speak  of  African  and  Asiatic  Amazons. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  I.  c)  The  Amazons  of  Africa  were  the 
 more  ancient,  and  were  also  the  more  remarkable  for 
 the  number  and  splendour  of  their  warlike  achieve- 
 ments. They  dwelt  in  the  western  regions  of  Africa, 
 occupyincT  an  island  in  a  lake  called  Tritonis,  and 
 which  was  near  the  main  ocean.  Diodorus  describes 
 this  island  as  beautiful  and  productive,  and  names  it 
 Hesperia.  Under  the  guidance  of  a  warlike  queen, 
 whom  he  calls  Myrina,  they  conquered  the  people  of 
 Atlantis,  their  neighbours,  traversed  a  large  portion  of 
 Africa,  established  friendly  relations  with  Horus,  son 
 of  Isis,  then  on  the  throne  of  Egypt,  subdued  Arabia, 
 Syria,  various  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  penetrated 
 even  into  Thrace.  After  this  long  career  of  conquest 
 they  returned  to  Africa,  and  were  annihilated  by  Her- 
 cules. At  this  same  time,  too,  the  Lake  Tritonis  dis- 
 appeared as  such,  and  became  part  of  the  ocean,  the 
 intervening  land  having  been  swallowed  up.  {Diod. 
 Sic,  3,  54.) — The  Amazons  of  Asia  are  described  by 
 the  same  writer  (2,  45)  as  having  dwelt  originally  on 
 the  banks  of  the  Therinodon  in  Pontus,  and  with  this 
 statement  the  ancient  poets  all  agree.  Herodotus 
 also  (9,  27)  places  the  Amazons  on  this  same  river, 
 and  he  affirms  that  it  was  from  thence  they  advanced 
 into  Greece  and  invaded  Attica.  He  likewise  speaks 
 of  an  expedition  undertaken  by  the  Greeks  against 
 these  warlike  females,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeat- 
 ed near  the  Therinodon  and  led  away  captive.  A  part 
 of  them,  however,  escaped  to  Scythia,  and  became  the 
 mothers  of  the  Sauromat*  (4,  110).  The  same  his- 
 torian adds,  that  the  Scythian  term,  which  answered 
 120 
 
 to  the  Greek  word  'Afiu^uv,  was  Oiorvata,  or  "  man 
 slayer."  We  have  here  what  are  sometimes  called  the 
 Scythian  Amazons,  making,  in  fact,  a  third  class. — Di 
 odorus  gives  an  account  of  the  victories  of  the  Asiatic 
 Amazons,  as  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  African. 
 He  makes  them  to  have  conquered  a  large  portion  of 
 Asia,  extending  their  victorious  arms  from  the  regions 
 beyond  the  Tana'fs  (or  Don)  as  far  as  Syria  (2,  46). 
 Other  accounts  tell  of  their  invasion  of  Attica,  in  or- 
 der to  recover  their  queen  x'\ntiope,  who  had  been  car- 
 ried off  by  Theseus  {Pint  ,  Vit.  Thcs.,  c.  26,  .se^q  )  ; 
 of  their  previous  wars  with  Hercules  ;  and  still  more 
 anciently  of  their  contest  with  Bacchus.     {Puiisan., 
 
 1,  15. — Id.,  7,  2.—Plut.,  Quczst.Gr.,  p.  541. — Justin, 
 
 2,  4.)  They  are  also  mentioned  by  Homer,  who  speaks 
 of  their  wars  with  the  kings  of  Phr)-gia  {II ,  3,  184), 
 and  of  their  defeat  by  Bcllerophon  (7/.,  6, 186).  They 
 are  said  also  to  have  been  among  the  allies  of  the  Tro- 
 jans in  the  war  with  the  Greeks,  and  their  queen  Pen- 
 thesilea  was  slain  by  Achilles.  {Hygin.,  fab.,  112. — • 
 Diet.  Crtt.,  4,  2,  3. — Tzetz.,  ad  Lycophron,  999. — 
 Diod.  Sic,  2,  46.)  They  make  their  appearance  again, 
 in  a  later  age,  in  the  history  of  Alexander's  expedition 
 into  Asia,  and  their  queen  Thaleslris  is  said  to  have 
 paid  a  visit  to  the  victorious  monarch,  having  come 
 for  that  purpose  from  the  vicinity  of  Hyrcania  ;  but 
 Quintus  Curtius,  who  gives  us  this  information,  deals, 
 as  usual,  in  the  marvellous,  and  with  his  wonted  igno- 
 rance of  geography,  places  the  plains  of  Themiscyra, 
 and  the  river  Therinodon  which  waters  them,  contigu- 
 ous to  the  country  of  the  Hyrcanians.  {Q.  Curt.,  6,  5, 
 25. — Compare  Freinshem,  adloc) — The  Amazons  are 
 described  as  armed  with  bow  and  arrows,  and  as  having 
 also  battle-axes  and  crescent  shields  {"peltte  lunatcc." 
 —  Virg.,  Mn.,  1,  490).  Some  writers,  differing  from 
 Diodorus,  as  cited  above,  make  the  Amazons  to  have 
 had  110  males  among  them,  but  to  have  merely  visited, 
 at  stated  times,  the  neighbouring  communities,  for  the 
 purpose  of  a  temporary  union  and  the  obtaining  of  off- 
 spring. They  farther  state,  that  the  female  children 
 thus  born  to  them  were  carefully  reared,  after  having  the 
 right  breast  seared  with  a  red-hot  iron,  but  that  all  the 
 male  ones  were  destroyed  immediately  after  birth. 
 Diodorus,  however,  informs  us,  in  speaking  of  the 
 Asiatic  Amazons,  that  they  merely  mutilated  {inrj- 
 povv)  the  legs  and  arms  of  the  male  children,  in  order 
 to  render  them  unfit  for  war.  About  the  treatment  of 
 tlie  male  offspring  among  the  African  Amazons  he  is 
 altogether  silent. — Thus  much  for  the  Amazons,  as 
 they  have  been  described  or  referred  to  by  the  ancient 
 writers.  Various  explanations,  as  may  well  be  sup- 
 posed, have  been  given  of  this  curious  legend.  Some 
 see  in  it  an  old  tradition,  founded,  in  a  measure,  on 
 historical  truth,  of  a  community  of  women,  who  ac- 
 tually formed  themselves  into  a  regular  state,  after 
 getting  rid  of,  or  subjugating  their  husbands.  This  is 
 too  improbable  to  need  any  serious  refutation.  K.  P 
 Knight  thinks  that  "  the  fable"  of  the  Amazons  (for  so 
 he  terms  it)  "  arose  from  some  symbolical  composition 
 of  an  androgynous  character,  and  which  sought  to  ex- 
 press the  blending  of  the  two  sexes  into  one  shape  ; 
 the  full,  prominent  form  of  the  female  breast  being 
 given  on  one  side,  and  the  fiat  form  of  the  male  on 
 the  other."  {Inquiry  into  the  Symbol.  Lang.,  &c  ,  ^ 
 50. —  Class,  journ.,  vol.  23,  p.  238.)  Creuzer  agrees 
 with  Knight  in  making  the  legend  a  religious  one,  but 
 he  sees  in  the  story  of  the  Amazons  evident  traces  of 
 some  accounts  that  must  have  reached  the  early  Greeks, 
 respecting  a  female  priesthood  of  a  warlike  character, 
 connected  with  the  worship  of  the  great  powers  of  na- 
 ture, and  on  whom,  as  a  part  of  that  worship,  either  a 
 periodical  or  perpetual  continence  was  enjoined.  The 
 change  of  vestments  and  of  characters,  so  common 
 in  this  same  class  of  Asiatic  religions,  was  indii;ated, 
 according  to  this  same  writer,  by  the  removal  of  one 
 of  the  breasts.    The  Amazons,  therefore,  according 
 
AMAZONES. 
 
 AMB 
 
 to  this  explanation,  will  be  a  band  of  warlike  priest- 
 esses or  Hicrodula',  who,  in  renouncing  maternity,  and 
 in  giving  themselves  up  to  martial  exercises,  songht 
 to  imitate  the  periodical  sterility  of  the  great  powers 
 of  light,  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  combats  in  which 
 these  were  from  time  to  time  engaged,  against  the 
 gloomy  energies  of  night  and  winter.  ( Crcuzer,  Sym- 
 bolik,  -par  Gaigniaut,  vol.  2,  p.  90,  xer/q.) — That  Uie 
 legend  of  the  Amazons  rests  on  a  rcligiou.s  basis,  we 
 readily  admit,  hut  that  any  Amazons  ever  existed, 
 even  as  warlike  priestesses,  we  do  not  at  all  believe. 
 The  first  source  of  error  respecting  them  is  the  ety- 
 mology commonly  assigned  to  the  name.  To  derive 
 this  from  the  negative  a  and  iJ.d(o^,  and  to  make 
 it  indicate  the  loss  of  one  of  the  breasts,  is,  we  think, 
 altogether  erroneous.  If  a  Greek  derivation  is  to  be 
 assigned  to  the  term  Amazon,  it  is  far  more  correct  to 
 deduce  the  word  from  the  intensive  a,  and  f-iu^oc,  and 
 to  regard  it  as  denoting,  not  the  absence  of  one  breast, 
 but  the  presence  of  many.  The  name  'Afiu^uv 
 (Amazon)  then  becomes  equivalent  to  the  Greek 
 nolvfiuaroc  {Poly mas tus)  and  the  Latin  Multimam- 
 mia,  both  of  which  epithets  are  applied  by  the  ancient 
 mythologists  to  the  Ephesian  Diana,  with  her  numer- 
 ous breasts,  as  typifying  the  great  mother  and  nurse 
 of  all  created  beings.  It  is  curious  to  connect  with 
 this  the  well-known  tradition,  that  the  Amazons  found- 
 ed the  city  of  Ephesus,  and  at  a  remote  period  sacri- 
 ficed to  the  goddess  there.  (Calhm.,  H.  in  Dian., 
 238. — Dwnys.  Perieg.,  828  )  But  how  does  the 
 view  which  we  have  just  taken  of  the  erroneous  nature 
 of  the  common  etymology,  in  the  case  of  the  name 
 Amazon,  harmonize  with  the  remains  of  ancient  sculp- 
 ture \  In  the  most  satisfactory  manner.  No  monu- 
 ment of  antiquity  represents  the  Amazons  with  a  mu- 
 tilated bosom,  but,  wherever  their  figures  are  given, 
 they  have  both  breasts  fully  and  plainly  developed. 
 Thus,  for  example,  the  Amazons  on  the  Phigaleian 
 frieze  have  both  breasts  entire,  one  being  generally  e.x;- 
 posed,  while  the  other  is  concealed  by  drapery,  but 
 still  in  the  latter  the  roundness  of  form  is  very  percept- 
 ible. Both  breasts  appear  also  in  the  fine  figure  of 
 the  Amazon  belonging  to  the  Lansdowne  collection  ; 
 and  so  again  in  the  basso-relievo  described  by  Wmckel- 
 matm  in  his  Monumcnti  Incditi.  The  authorities,  in- 
 deed, on  this  head  are  altogether  incontrovertible. 
 (  Winckdmann,  Gesch.  dcr  Kunst  dcs  Allerthums,  vol. 
 2.  p.  \Z\.—U.,Mon.  Incd.,  pt.  2,  c.  18,  p.  184.— 
 Mailer,  Arch'dologie  dcr  Kunst,  p.  530. — Elgin  and 
 Phigaleian  Marbles,  vol.  2,  p.  179. — Hcyne,  ad  Apol- 
 lod.,  2,  5,  9.)  The  first  Greek  writer  that  made  men- 
 tion of  females  who  removed  their  right  breast  was 
 Hippocrates  {Hept  uepuv,  k.  t.  X.,  (}  43).  His  remarks, 
 however,  were  meant  to  apply  merely  to  the  females 
 of  the  Sauromatae,  a  Scythian  tribe  ;  but  subsequent 
 writers  made  them  extend  to  the  fabled  race  of  the 
 Amazons. — It  appears  to  us,  then,  from  a  careful  ex- 
 amination of  the  subject,  that  the  term  Amazon  origi- 
 nally indicated,  neither  a  warlike  female,  nor  a  race  of 
 such  females,  but  was  merely  an  epithet  applied  to  the 
 Ephesian  Diana,  the  great  parent  and  source  of  nur- 
 ture, and  was  intended  to  express  the  most  striking 
 ot  her  attributes.  The  victories  and  conquests  of  the 
 Amazonian  race  are  nothing  more,  then,  than  a  figura- 
 tive allusion  to  the  spread  of  her  worship  over  a  large 
 portion  of  the  globe,  and  the  contests  with  Bacchus, 
 Hercules,  and  Theseus  refer  in  reality  to  the  struggles 
 of  this  worship  with  other  rival  systems  of  faith,  for 
 Bacchus,  Hercules,  and  Theseus  are  nothing  more 
 than  mythic  types  of  three  different  forms  of  belief 
 Hence  we  see  why  the  conflict  of  the  Amazons  with 
 Theseus,  who  was  nothing  more  than  the  symbol  of 
 the  establishment  of  the  Ionic  worship,  became  a  most 
 appropriate  ornament  for  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon, 
 the  temple  of  the  great  national  goddess  Minerva.  It 
 was,  in  fact,  a  delineation  of  the  downfall  of  a  rival  sys- 
 
 Q 
 
 tern  of  belief — Before  we  conclude,  it  may  not  ba 
 amiss  to  examine  more  closely  into  the  etymology  of 
 the  term  Amazon.  We  have  thus  far  regarded  the 
 word  as  of  Grecian  origin.  What  if,  after  all,  it  be 
 of  Oriental  birth,  and  have  reference  to  the  far-famed 
 Asi  of  Oriental  and  Scandinavian  mythology  1  Sal- 
 verte  sees  in  them  a  class  of  female  divinities,  the 
 spouses  of  the  Asi,  and  he  traces  the  first  part  of  the 
 name  to  the  Pchlvi  am,  denoting  "  a  mother,"  or  "  a 
 female"  generally.  {Essai  sur  les  Noms,  &c.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  178.)  Ritter  also  detects  in  the  name  an  allusion 
 to  the  Asi  (Vorhalle,  p.  465,  seqq.};  and,  in  connex- 
 ion with  this  view  of  the  subject,  we  may  state  that 
 the  name  of  Asia  (the  land  of  the  .4s?)  was  first  given 
 to  a  small  district  near  the  (^ayster,  and  in  the  very  vi- 
 cinity of  Ephesus,  the  city  which  the  Amazons  had 
 founded.  Ephesus,  moreover,  first  bore,  it  is  jaid,  the 
 name  of  Smyrna,  an  appellation  afterward  ^estowed 
 on  the  city  of  Smyrna,  which  was  founded  by  an  Ephe- 
 sian colony.  This  term  Smyrna  is  said  to  have  been 
 originally  the  name  of  an  Amazonian  leader.  Would 
 It  be  too  fanciful  to  deduce  it  from  Asa-Myrina,  and 
 thus  blend  together  the  name  of  the  African  Amazon 
 Myrina  with  the  sacred  appellation  of  the  Asi  1 
 
 AM.izoNius,  a  surname  of  Apollo  at  Pyrrhicus,  in  La- 
 conia,  from  the  protection  he  is  said  to  have  afforded 
 to  the  inhabitants  when  attacked  by  the  Amazons. 
 {Pausan.,  3,  25.) 
 
 Ambarri,  a  people  of  Gallia  Celtica,  situate  be 
 twecn  the  yEdui  and  Allobroges,  along  eitiier  bank  of 
 the  Arar  or  Saone.  Following  D'Anville's  authority, 
 we  would  place  them  in  the  present  Department  de 
 VAin.  Livy  enumerates  them  among  the  Gallic  tribes 
 that  crossed  the  Alps  in  the  time  of  Tarquinius  Pris- 
 cus.     (Lm.,  5,  M.  —  C(Bs.,  B.  G.,  1,  11,  et  14.) 
 
 Amb.4.rvai,i,\,  sacred  rites  in  honour  of  Ceres,  pre- 
 vious to  the  commencement;  of  reaping,  which  were 
 called  sacra  ambarvalia,  because  the  victim  was 
 carried  around  the  fields  {arva  ambiebat. —  Vid.  Ar- 
 vales). 
 
 Ambiani,  a  people  of  Gallia  Belgica,  whose  capital 
 was  Samarobriva,  afterward  called  Ambiani  or  Ambi- 
 anum,  now  Amiens.  Their  territory  corresponds  to 
 what  is  now  the  Department  de  la  Somme.  {Gas.,  B. 
 G.,  2,  'I.— Id.   tb.,7,  75.) 
 
 Ambiatinus  Vicus,  a  village  of  Germany,  where 
 the  Emperor  Caligula  was  born.  It  was  situate  be- 
 tween Confluentes  and  Baudobriga,  and  is  supposed 
 by  some  to  be  now  Capelle,  on  the  Rhine,  by  others 
 Konigstuhl.  Mannert,  without  fixing  the  modern  site, 
 thinks  it  lay  on  the  Moselle.  (Geogr.,  2,  p.  210. — 
 Siieton.,  Vit.  Calig.,  8.) 
 
 Ambio.Itus,  a  king  of  the  CeltEe,  in  the  time  of 
 Tarquinius  Priscus.  According  to  the  account  given 
 by  Livy  (5,  34),  he  sent  his  two  nephews,  Sigovesus 
 and  Bellovesus,  in  quest  of  new  settlements,  with  the 
 view  of  diminishing  the  overflowing  numbers  at  home. 
 The  two  chieftains  drew  lots  respecting  their  course, 
 and  Sigovesus  obtained  the  route  that  led  towards  the 
 Hercynian  forest,  Bellovesus  the  road  to  Italy.  What 
 is  here  stated,  however,  appears  to  be  a  mere  fable, 
 owing  its  origin  to  the  simultaneous  emigrations  of 
 two  hordes  of  Gallic  warriors.  (Compare  Thierry, 
 Htstoire  des  Gaulois,  vol.  1,  p.  39.) 
 
 Ambiorix,  a  king  of  one  half  of  the  Eburones  in 
 Gaul,  Cativolcus  being  king  of  the  other  half.  He 
 was  an  inveterate  foe  to  the  Romans,  and  after  in- 
 flicting several  serious  losses  upon,  narrowly  escaped 
 the  pursuit  of,  Caesar's  men,  on  being  defeated  by  that 
 commander.     {Cms.,  B.  G.,  5,  24,  et  26.— Id.,  6,  30.) 
 
 Ambivareti  and  Ambivareti  (for  we  have,  in  the 
 Greek  Paraphrase  of  Caesar,  b.  7,  c.  75,  'A^tfidaperuv, 
 and  at  c.  90,  'AfiOifjapf/rcjv).  a  Gallic  tribe,  ranked 
 among  the  clients  of  the  ^dui,  whence  Glareanus 
 and  Ciacconius  sus])pct  them  to  be  the  same  with 
 the  Ambarri.     Almost  all  the  MSS.  of  Caesar  call  there 
 
 121 
 
AMB 
 
 AMBROSrUS. 
 
 Amhluarett.     The   ancient  geographical  writers   are 
 silent  respecting  them. 
 
 Ambivariti,  a  tribe  of  Gallia  Belgica,  a  short  dis- 
 tance beyond  the  Mosa  or  Meuse.     {Cces.,  B.  G.,  4,  9.) 
 
 AmbracIa,  a  celebrated  city  of  Epirus,  the  capital 
 of  the  country,  and  the  royal  residence  of  Pyrrhus 
 and  his  descendants.  It  was  situate  on  the  banks  of 
 the  Aracthus  or  Arethon,  a  short  distance  from  the 
 waters  of  the  Ambracian  Gulf.  The  founders  of  the 
 place  were  said  to  have  been  a  colony  of  Corinthians, 
 headed  by  Tolgus  or  Torgus,  650  B.C.,  who  was 
 either  the  brother  or  the  son  of  Cypselus,  chief  of 
 Corinth.  {Strabo.  325. — Scymn.,  Ch.,  v.  452.)  It 
 early  acquired  some  maritime  celebrity,  by  reason  of 
 its  advantageous  position,  and  was  a  powerful  and  in- 
 dependent city  towards  the  commencement  of  the  Pe- 
 loponnesian  war,  in  which  it  espoused  the  cause  of  Co- 
 rinth and  Sparta.  At  a  later  period  we  find  its  in- 
 dependence threatened  by  Philip,  who  seems  to  have 
 entertained  the  project  of  annexmg  it  to  the  dominions 
 of  his  brother-in-law,  Alexander,  king  of  the  Molos- 
 sians.  (Dcmosth.,  PhiL,  3,  85.)  Whether  it  actually 
 fell  into  the  possession  of  that  monarch  is  uncertain, 
 but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  having  been  in  the 
 occupation  of  Philip,  since  Diodorus  Siculus  (17,  3) 
 asserts,  that  the  Ambraciots,  on  the  accession  of  Alex- 
 ander the  Great  to  the  throne,  ejected  the  Macedonian 
 garrison  stationed  in  their  city.  Ambracia,  however, 
 did  not  long  enjoy  the  freedom  which  it  thus  regained, 
 for,  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Pyrrhus,  we  are 
 told  that  It  was  selected  by  that  prince  as  his  usual 
 place  of  residence.  (Straho,  325. — Lw.,  38,  9  ) 
 Ovid  (Ibis,  V.  306)  seems  to  imply  that  he  was  inter- 
 red there.  Many  years  after,  being  under  the  domin- 
 ion of  the  ^tolians,  who  were  at  that  time  involved 
 in  hostilities  with  the  liomans,  this  city  sustained  a 
 siege  against  the  latter,  almost  unequalled  in  the  an- 
 nals of  ancient  warfare  #r  the  gallantry  and  perseve- 
 rance displayed  in  defence  of  the  place.  {Polyb.,  frag., 
 22,  13.)  Ambracia,  at  last,  opened  its  gates  to  the 
 foe,  on  a  truce  being  concluded,  and  was  stripped  by 
 the  Roman  consul,  M.  Fulvius  Nobilior,  of  all  the 
 statues  and  pictures  with  which  it  had  been  so  richly 
 adorned  by  Pyrrhus.  From  this  time  Ambracia  began 
 to  sink  into  a  state  of  insignificance,  and  Augustus, 
 by  transferring  its  inhabitants  to  Nicopolis,  completed 
 its  desolation.  (Strabo,  325. — I'ausan.,  5,  23.)  In 
 regard  to  the  topography  of  this  ancient  city,  most 
 travellers  and  antiquaries  are  of  opinion,  that  it  must 
 have  stood  near  the  town  of  Arta,  which  now  gives 
 its  name  to  the  gulf.  (^Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol. 
 1,  p.  145,  seqij.) 
 
 Ambracius  Sinus,  a  gulf  of  the  Ionian  Sea,  be- 
 tween Epirus  and  Acarnania.  Scylax  (Peripl.,  p.  13) 
 calls  it  the  Bay  of  Anactorium,  and  observes,  that  the 
 distance  from  its  mouth  to  the  farthest  extremity  was 
 one  hundred  and  twenty  stadia,  while  the  entrance  was 
 scarcely  four  stadia  broad.  Strabo  (325)  makes  the 
 whole  circuit  three  himdred  stadia.  ( Cram,cr''s  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  153.) 
 
 Ambrones,  a  Gallic  horde,  who  invaded  the  Roman 
 territories  along  with  the  Te\itones  and  Cimbri,  and 
 were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by  Marius.  The 
 name  is  thought  to  mean,  "  dwellers  on  the  Rhone" 
 (Amb-rones).  So  Ambidravii,  "dwellers  on  the 
 Draave ;"  Sigambri,  ''  dwellers  on  the  Sieg,"  &c. 
 (Compare  Pfister,  Gesch.  der  Tcutschen,  vol.  1,  p 
 35.) 
 
 Amrrosia,  the  celestial  food  on  which  the  gods 
 were  supposed  to  subsist,  and  to  which,  along  with 
 nectar,  they  were  believed  to  owe  their  immortality. 
 The  name  is  derived  from  ufifiporoc;,  "  immortal." 
 (Compare  Hcyne,  Excurs.  9,  ad  II.,  1. — 7^/  ,  Obs.  ad 
 Horn.,  II.,  1,  190).  There  is  a  striking  resemblance 
 between  the  Grecian  and  Hindoo  mythology  in  this 
 respect.  The  Amrita,  or  water  of  life,  recalls  imme- 
 122 
 
 diately  to  mind  the  Ambrosia  of  Olympus.  (Compare 
 Horn.,  Od.,  1,  359,  where  ambrosia  and  nectar  appear 
 to  be  used  as  synonymous  terms. — Hcyne,  Excurs. 
 9,  ad  II. ,  1,  and  consult  the  remarks  of  Buttmann  in 
 his  Lexilogus,  s.  v.  ''A/iOpocri.o^,  &,c.) 
 
 Ambrosius,  bishop  of  Milan  in  the  fourth  century, 
 and  one  of  the  latest  and  most  distinguished  of  what 
 are  denominated  !he  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 He  was  born  at  Arelate  (Aries),  then  the  metropolis 
 of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  according  to  some  authorities 
 A.D.  333,  according  to  others,  340.  His  father  was 
 the  emperor's  lieutenant  in  that  district,  and,  after  his 
 death,  Ambrose,  who  was  the  youngest  of  three  chil- 
 dren, returned  with  the  widow  and  family  to  Rome. 
 Here,  under  the  instructions  of  his  mother  and  his 
 sister  Marcellina,  who  had  vowed  virginity,  he  received 
 a  highly  religious  education,  and  that  bias  in  favour  of 
 Catholic  orthodoxy  by  which  he  was  subsequently  so 
 much  distinguished.  Having  studied  law,  he  pleaded 
 causes  in  the  court  of  the  prsetorian  prefect,  and  was 
 in  due  time  appointed  proconsul  of  Liguria.  He 
 thereupon  took  up  his  residence  at  Milan,  where  a 
 circumstance  occurred  which  produced  a  sudden  change 
 in  his  fortunes,  and  transformed  him  from  a  civil  gov- 
 ernor into  a  bishop.  Auxentius,  bishop  of  Milan,  the 
 Arian  leader  in  the  west,  died,  and  left  that  see  va- 
 cant, when  a  warm  contest  for  the  succession  ensued 
 between  the  Arians  and  Catholics.  In  the  midst  of  a 
 tumultuous  dispute,  Ambrose  appeared  in  the  midst 
 of  the  assembly,  and  exhorted  them  to  conduct  the 
 election  peaceably.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  address, 
 a  child  in  the  crowd  exclaimed,  "  Ambrose  is  bishop  !" 
 and,  whether  accidentally  or  by  management,  the  re- 
 sult throws  a  curious  light  upon  the  nature  of  the 
 times ;  for  the  superstitious  multitude,  regarding  the 
 exclamation  as  a  providential  and  miraculous  sugges- 
 tion, by  general  acclamation  declared  Ambrose  to  be 
 elected.  After  various  attempts  to  decline  the  epis- 
 copal office,  Ambrose  at  length  entered  upon  the  dis- 
 charge of  its  duties,  and  rendered  himself  conspicuous 
 by  his  decided  and  unremitting  oppositLon  to  the  tenets 
 of  Arianism.  To  his  zealous  endeavours  also  was 
 owing  the  failure  of  the  attempt  made  by  the  remains 
 of  a  pagan  party  to  re-establish  the  worship  of  pagan- 
 ism. The  strength  and  ability  of  Ambrose  were  such, 
 that,  although  opposed  to  him  on  ecclesiastical  points, 
 Valentinian  and  his  mother  respected  his  talents,  and 
 in  moments  of  political  exigency  required  his  assist- 
 ance. The  most  conspicuous  act  on  the  part  of  Am- 
 brose was  his  treatment  of  Theodosius  for  the  mas- 
 sacre at  Thessalonica.  The  emperor  was  consigned 
 to  a  retirement  of  eight  months,  and  not  absolved  ever 
 then  until  he  had  signed  an  edict,  which  ordained  that 
 an  interval  of  thirty  days  should  pass  before  any  sen- 
 tence of  death,  or  even  of  confiscation,  should  be 
 executed.  After  having  paid  the  funeral  honours  to 
 Theodosius,  who  died  soon  after  obtaining  peaceable 
 possession  of  the  entire  Roman  empire,  the  bishop 
 departed  from  this  world  with  a  composure  worthy  of 
 his  firm  character,  in  the  year  397.  It  is  evident,  that 
 Ambrose  was  one  of  those  men  of  great  energy  of 
 mind  and  temperament,  who,  in  the  adoption  of  a 
 theory  or  a  party,  hold  no  middle  course,  but  act  with 
 determination  towards  the  fulfilment  of  their  purposes. 
 Regarded  within  their  own  circles,  there  is  generally 
 something  in  such  characters  to  admire  ;  and,  beyond 
 that,  as  certainly  much  to  condemn.  It  must  be  con- 
 ceded, however,  that  men  resembling  Ambrose  effected 
 much  to  advance  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the 
 power  to  which  it  afterward  attained,  and,  by  necessary 
 sequence,  to  the  abuse  of  it  which  produced  the  Ref- 
 ormation. The  writings  of  this  father  are  numerous, 
 and  the  great  object  of  almost  all  of  them  was  to 
 maintain  the  faith  and  discipline  of  the  Catholic 
 Church,  while  some  of  them  are  written  to  recommend 
 celibacy  as  the  summit  of  Christian  perfection.     Hia 
 
AMI 
 
 A  MM 
 
 best  work  is  "  De  OJiciis,^'  intended  to  explain  the 
 duties  of  Clirislian  ministers.  Tiie  most  accurate 
 edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  the  Benedictines,  Paris, 
 2  vols,  fol.,  1682-90.  (^Gorton's  Biogr.  Diet.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  «7.) 
 
 Ambryssus,  a  city  of  Phocis,  said  to  have  been 
 founded  by  the  hero  Ambryssus,  situate  between  two 
 chains  of  mountains,  west  of  Lebedsa,  and  north- 
 west of  Anticyra.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Amphic- 
 tyons,  but  rebuilt  and  fortified  by  the  Thebans  before 
 the  battle  of  Cheronaea.  (Pausan.,  10,  3,  and  36.) 
 Its  ruins  were  first  discovered  by  Chandler,  near  the 
 village  of  Dyslomo.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol. 
 2,  p.  159.) 
 
 Ambubai^,  female  minstrels,  of  Syrian  origin,  who 
 exercised  their  vocation  at  Rome,  and  were  also  of 
 dissolute  lives.  {Acron,  ad  Horat.,  Serm.,  1,  2,  1. — 
 Nork,  Etymol.  Handwbrtcrbuch,  vol.  1,  p.  45,  seq.) 
 The  name  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Syriac 
 abub  or  anbub,  "  a  flute." 
 
 Ambuli,  a  surname  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  in  Sparta, 
 and  also  of  Jupiter  and  Minerva.  They  were  so 
 named,  it  is  said,  from  a/ifio/l;;,  delay,  because  it  was 
 thought  that  they  could  delay  the  approachof  death. 
 Some,  on  the  other  hand,  consider  the  term  in  ques- 
 tion to  be  of  Latin  origin,  and  derived  from  ambalare. 
 (Compare  the  remarks  of  Vollmer,  Wortcrb.  der  My- 
 thol.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Ameles,  a  river  of  the  lower  world,  according  to 
 Plato,  whose  waters  no  vessel  could  contain  :  tuv 
 'A/iiXj/ra  TTOTa/ibv,  ov  to  v6up  uyyslov  ov6ev  GTsyeiv. 
 (De  Rep.,  10,  vol.  7,  p.  229,  ed  Bckk.) 
 
 Amenanus,  a  river  of  Sicily,  near  Catania.  It  is 
 now  the  Judicello.  {Strabo,  360. — Ovid,  Met.,  15, 
 279.) 
 
 Ameria,  one  of  the  most  considerable  and  ancient 
 cities  of  Umbria.  It  lay  south  of  Tuder,  and  in  the 
 vicinity  of  the  Tiber.  According  to  Cato,  who  is 
 quoted  by  Pliny  (3,  14),  Ameria  could  boast  of  an 
 origin  greatly  anterior  to  that  of  Rome,  having  been 
 founded,  it  is  said,  964  years  before  the  war  with 
 Perseus,  or  1045  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Ci- 
 cero, in  his  defence  of  the  celebrated  Roscius,  who 
 was  a  native  of  Ameria,  has  frequent  occasion  to  speak 
 of  this  town.  From  him  we  learn  its  municipal  rank, 
 and  from  Frontinus,  that  it  became  a  colony  under 
 Augustus.  (Compare  Strabo,  228. — Fcstus,  s.  v. 
 Ameria.)  The  small  episcopal  town  of  Amelia  now 
 represents  this  ancient  city.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  273.) 
 
 Amestratos,  a  town  of  Sicily,  near  the  Halesus. 
 The  Romans  besieged  it  for  seven  months  when  in 
 the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians,  but  without  success. 
 It  was  taken,  however,  after  a  third  siege,  and  razed 
 to  the  ground,  the  surviving  inhabitants  being  sold  as 
 slaves  Steph.  Byz.  calls  the  place  Amestralus ;  Di- 
 odorus  Siculus,  Mystratum;  and  Polybius,  Myttistra- 
 tum.  {Diod.  Sic,  23,  eel.  9.—Polyb.,  1,  24.)  It  is 
 now  Mistrelta,    in  the  Val.  de  Demona. 
 
 Amestris,  queen  of  Persia,  and  wife  to  Xerxes. 
 Having  discovered  an  intrigue  between  her  husband 
 and  Artaynta,  and  imputing  all  the  blame  solely  to  the 
 mother  of  the  latter,  she  requested  her  from  the  king 
 at  a  royal  festival ;  and,  when  she  had  her  in  her 
 power,  cut  otf  her  breasts,  nose,  ears,  lips,  and  tongue, 
 and  sent  her  home  in  this  shocking  condition.  She 
 also,  on  another  occasion,  sacrificed  fourteen  Persian 
 children  of  noble  birth,  "to  propitiate,"  says  Herodo- 
 tus, "  the  deity  who  is  said  to  dwell  beneath  the 
 earth."     {Herodot.,  9,  110,  seqq.—Id.,  7,  114.) 
 
 Amid.i,  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  taken  and  destroy- 
 ed by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia.  It  was  repeopled  by  the 
 inhabitants  of  Nisibis,  after  Jovian's  treaty  wuh  the 
 Persians,  and  by  a  new  colony  which  was  sent  to  it. 
 It  was  called  also  Constantia,  ifrom  the  Emperor  Con- 
 etantius.     Its   ancient  walls,  constructed  with   black 
 
 stones,  have  caused  it  to  be  termed  by  the  Turks 
 Kara- Amid,  ("  black  Amid"),  although  it  is  morecom- 
 monly  denominated  Diar-Bekir,  from  the  name  of  its 
 district.  {Ammiayi.  MarcelL,  18,  22. — Procup.,  de 
 Bell.  Pers.,  1,  S.—Snlmas.,  Exercit.  Plin.,  p.  488.) 
 Amilcar.      Vtd.  Hamilcar. 
 
 Aminei,  a  people  of  Campania,  mentioned  by  Ma- 
 crobius  {Sat.,  2,  16)  as  having  occupied  the  spot, 
 where  was  afterward  the  Falernus  Ager.  The  Amin- 
 ean  wine  is  thought  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
 them.  (Consult,  however,  the  remarks  of  Hcync,  ad 
 Virg.,  Georg.,  2,  97,  Var.  Led.)  The  more  correct 
 opinion  appears  to  be,  that  the  Amlnean  wine  was  so 
 called,  because  made  from  a  grape  transplanted  into 
 Italy  from  Aminsum,  a  place  in  Thessaly.  Macro- 
 bius,  however,  asserts,  that  the  Falernian  wine  was 
 more  anciently  called  Aminean.  (Compare  Heyne, 
 ad  Virg.,  Georg  ,  2,  97.) 
 
 Amisenus  sinus,  a  gulf  of  the  Euxine,  east  of  the 
 mouth  of  the  Halys,  on  the  coast  of  Pontus,  so  called 
 from  the  town  of  Amisus. 
 
 Amisia,  now  the  Ems,  a  river  of  Germany,  falling 
 into  the  German  Ocean.  Strabo  (201)  calls  it  Ama- 
 sia  {' Afiaaia),  and  Pliny  (4,  14)  Amasis. 
 
 Amisus,  a  city  of  Pontus,  on  the  coast  of  the  Eux- 
 ine, northwest  from  the  mouth  of  the  Iris.  It  was 
 founded  by  a  colony  of  Milesians,  was  the  largest  city 
 in  Pontus  next  to  Sinope,  and  was  made  by  Pharnaces 
 the  metropolis  of  his  kingdom.  It  is  now  called  Sam- 
 souu.  {Strabo,  547. — Polyb.,  Exc.  de  legat.,  55. — 
 Mannert,  6,  pt.  2,  p.  448,  seqq.) 
 
 Amiternum,  a  city  in  the  territory  of  the  Sabines, 
 the  birthplace  of  Salliist  the  historian.  It  was  situate 
 a  short  distance  below  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
 Praetutii,  and  its  ruins  are  to  be  seen  near  S.  Vittorino, 
 a  few  miles  to  the  north  of  Aquila.  From  Livy  (10, 
 39)  we  learn,  that  this  town,  having  fallen  into  the 
 hands  of  the  Samnites,  was  recovered  by  the  consul 
 Sp.  Carvilius  (A.U.C.  459).  Under  the  Romans  it 
 became  successively  a  prccfectura  and  a  colony,  as  we 
 are  informed  by  Frontinus  and  several  inscriptions. 
 {Romanelli,  vol.  3,  p.  330.)  In  Ptolemy's  time,  Am- 
 iternum seems  to  have  been  included  among  the  cities 
 of  the  Vestini.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p. 
 319.) 
 
 Ammi.Inus.  Vid.  Marcellinus. 
 Ammochostus,  a  promontory  of  Cyprus,  whence  by 
 corruption  comes  the  modern  name  Famagosta,  or, 
 more  properly,  Amgnste :  now  the  principal  place  in  the 
 island.  {Ptol. — Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p  381.) 
 Ammon,  or  Ham.vion,  a  name  given  to  Jupiter,  as 
 worshipped  in  Libya.  When  Bacchus  was  conquering 
 Africa,  he  is  said  to  have  come  with  his  army  to  a  spot 
 called,  from  the  vast  quantity  of  sand  lying  around,  by 
 the  name  of  Hammodes  {'Apfi6dijc,  i.  e.,  sandy,  from 
 (i/ilioc,  "  sand,"  and  elSog,  "  aspect"  or  "  appearance"^). 
 Here  his  forces  were  in  great  danger  of  perishing  from 
 want  of  water,  when  a  ram  on  a  sudden  appeared,  and 
 guided  them  to  a  verdant  spot,  or  oasis,  in  the  midst 
 of  the  desert.  When  they  reached  this  place,  the  ram 
 disappeared,  and  they  found  an  abundant  supply  of 
 water.  Bacchus,  therefore,  out  of  gratitude,  erect- 
 ed on  the  spot  a  temple  to  Jupiter,  giving  him,  at  the 
 same  time,  the  surname  of  Ammon  or  Hammon,  from 
 the  Greek  ufifiog  or  a^ifioc,  '■'■  sa>id,"  in  allusion  to  the 
 circumstances  connected  with  his  appearance ;  and  the 
 statue  of  the  deity  had  the  head  and  horns  of  a  ram. 
 {Hygin.,  Poet.  Astron.,  2,  20.)  According  to  an- 
 other version  of  the  fable,  Bacchus,  in  his  extremity, 
 prayed  to  Jupiter  for  aid,  and  the  god,  appearing  under 
 the  form  of  a  ram,  indicated  the  place  of  the  fountain 
 with  his  foot,  the  water,  before  unseen,  immediately 
 bubbling  up  through  the  sand.— The  spot  to  which  the 
 fable  points  is  the  Oasis  of  Amnion  {vid.  Oasis),  and 
 the  fountain  is  the  famous  Fons  Sdis,  or  fountain  of 
 the  Sun,  which,  according  to  Herodotus  (4.  181),  waa 
 
 123 
 
AMMON. 
 
 AMM 
 
 tepid  at  dawn,  cool  as  the  day  advanced,  very  cool  at 
 noon,  ditninisliintr  in  coolness  as  the  day  declined,  warm 
 at  sunset,  and  boiling  hot  at  nnidnight.  Here  also  was 
 the  celebrated  oracle  of  Ammon,  which  Alexander  the 
 Great  visited,  in  order  to  obtain  an  answer  respecting 
 the  divinity  of  his  origin.  An  account  of  the  expedi- 
 tion is  given  by  Plutarch  ( Vit.  Alex.,  c.  26),  and,  as  may 
 well  be  expected,  the  answer  of  the  oracle  was  alto- 
 gether acceptable  to  the  royal  visitant,  though  the 
 credit  previously  attached  to  its  answers  was  seriously 
 impaired  by  the  gross  flattery  which  it  had  on  this  oc- 
 casion displayed.  The  temple  of  Ammon,  like  that  of 
 Delphi,  was  famed  for  its  treasures,  the  varied  offer- 
 ings of  the  pious  ;  and  these,  in  the  time  of  the  Per- 
 sian invasion  of  Egypt,  excited  so  far  the  cupidity  of 
 Cambyses  as  to  induce  him  to  send  a  large  body  of 
 forces  across  the  desert  to  seize  upon  the  place.  The 
 expedition,  however,  proved  a  signal  failure  ;  no  ac- 
 counts of  it  were  ever  received,  and  it  is  probable, 
 therefore,  that  the  Persian  troops  were  purposely  mis- 
 led on  their  route  by  the  Egyptian  guides,  and  that  all 
 perished  in  the  desert.  (  Vid.  Cambyses.) — Herodotus 
 (2,  54,  scqq.)  gives  us  two  accounts  respecting  the  or- 
 igin of  the  temple  of  Ammon.  One,  which  he  heard 
 from  the  priests  of  Jupiter  in  Thebes,  stated,  that  two 
 priestesses  had  been  carried  off  by  some  Phoenicians 
 from  Thebes,  and  that  one  of  them  had  been  conveyed 
 to  Libya  and  there  sold  as  a  slave,  and  the  other  to 
 Greece.  These  two  females,  according  to  them,  had 
 founded  oracles  in  each  of  these  countries.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  other  story,  which  he  heard  from  the  priest- 
 esses at  Dodona,  two  black  pigeons  had  flown 
 from  Thebes  in  Egypt ;  one  of  these  had  passed 
 into  Libya,  the  other  had  come  to  Dodona  in  Greece, 
 and  both  had  spoken  with  a  human  voice,  and  di- 
 rected the  establishment  of  oracles  in  each  of  these 
 places. — Thus  much  for  the  ordinary  narrative.  Am- 
 mon, says  Plutarch  {de  Is.  et  0.?.,p.354),  is  the  Egyp- 
 tian name  for  Jupiter.  This  god  was  particularly  wor- 
 shipped at  Thebes,  called  in  the  sacred  books  Harnmon- 
 no,  "  the  possession  of  Hammon,"  and  in  the  Septua- 
 gint  version  {Ezek.,c.20)  the  city  of  Ammon.  Jablon- 
 ski  derives  the  word  Ammon  from  Am-oein, "  shining." 
 According,  however,  to  Champoliion  the  younger,  the 
 term  in  question  {Amo)i  or  Amen)  denoted,  in  the 
 Egyptian  language,  "  secret,"  "  concealed,"  or  "  he 
 who  reveals  his  secret  powers."  It  is  sometimes  also, 
 as  the  satne  writer  informs  us,  united  with  the  word 
 Knepk,  another  appellation  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and 
 from  this  results  the  compound  Amencbis  (Amen-Neb) 
 which  is  found  on  a  Greek  inscription  in  the  greater 
 Oasis.  {Lefronne,  Kech.  sur  VEgyp.,  p.  237,  seqq.) 
 The  Greek  etymology  of  the  name  Ammon,  from  a/z/wf 
 or  -^Hififio^,  "sand,"  is  fanciful  and  visionary,  and  only 
 affords  another  proof  of  the  constant  habit  in  which  that 
 nation  indulged,  of  referring  so  many  things  to  them- 
 selves, with  which  they  had  not,  in  truth,  the  slightest 
 connexion.  From  all  that  has  been  said  by  the  ancient 
 writers,  it  would  appear  very  clearly,  that  the  allusion 
 in  the  legend  of  Ammon  is  an  astronomical  one.  This 
 is  very  apparent  from  the  story  told  by  Herodotus  (2, 
 42),  and  which  he  received  from  the  priests  of  Thebes. 
 According  to  this  narrative,  Hercules  was  very  desi- 
 rous of  seeing  Jupiter,  whereas  the  god  was  unwilling 
 to  be  seen  ;  until,  at  last,  Jupiter,  yielding  to  his  im- 
 portunity, contrived  the  following  artifice.  Having 
 separated  the  head  from  the  body  of  a  ram,  and  flayed 
 the  whole  carcass,  he  put  on  the  skin  with  the  wool, 
 and  in  that  form  showed  himself  to  Hercules.  Now, 
 if  Hercules  denote  the  sun,  and  anV.?  the  first  sign  of 
 the  zodiac,  the  whole  may  be  an  allegory  illustrative 
 of  the  opening  of  the  year. — As  regards  the  establish- 
 ment of  the  oracle  of  Ammon,  it  may  be  observed,  that 
 the  account  respecting  the  two  doves  or  pigeons,  which 
 is  criven  by  Herodotus,  and  has  already  been  alluded  to, 
 tame,  as  that  historian  informs  us,  from  the  priestess- 
 124 
 
 es  of  Dodona  ;  whereas  the  priests  of  Thebes  ascribed 
 the  origin  of  the  oracles  at  Dodona  and  in  the  Oasis  of 
 Ammon  to  the  two  Egyptian  females  connected  with 
 the  service  of  the  temple  at  Thebes,  and  who  had  been 
 carried  away  and  sold  into  slavery  by  certain  Phoeni- 
 cians. Herodotus,  with  no  little  plausibility,  seeks  to 
 reconcile  these  two  statements,  by  conjecturing  that 
 the  Dodoncans  gave  the  name  of  doves  or  pigeons 
 to  the  females  carried  off,  because  they  used  a  foreign 
 tongue,  and  their  speech  resembled  the  chattering  of 
 birds  ;  and  the  remark  of  the  same  Dodoneans,  that  the 
 pigeons  were  of  a  black  colour,  he  explains  by  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  these  females  being,  like  the  other  Egyp- 
 tians, of  a  dark  complexion.  It  is  very  evident  that 
 we  have  here  some  allusion  to  Egyptian  colonics,  and 
 to  the  influence  which  prophetic  females  would  exer- 
 cise in  such  colonies  recently  established.  The  only 
 difl^culty,  however,  is  how  to  connect  the  Pelasgic  shrine 
 of  Dodona  with  anything  of  an  Egyptian  character. 
 (Consult  the  remarks  of  Crcuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  4,  p. 
 151,  and  of  Hecren,  Ideen,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  486.) — 
 Browne,  an  English  traveller,  discovered  in  1792  the 
 site  of  the  temple  of  Ammon,  in  a  fertile  spot  called 
 the  Oasis  of  Siwah,  situated  in  the  midst  of  deserts, 
 five  degrees  nearly  west  of  Cairo.  In  1798,  Horneman 
 discovered  the  Pons  Solis.  In  1816  Belzoni  visited 
 the  spot,  and  found  the  fountain  situated  in  the  midst 
 of  a  beautiful  grove  of  palms.  He  visited  the  fountain 
 at  noon,  evening,  midnight,  and  morning.  He  had  un- 
 fortunately no  thermometer  with  him.  But,  judging 
 from  his  feelings  at  those  several  periods,  it  might  be 
 100°  at  midnight,  80°  in  the  morning  early,  and  at 
 noon  about  40°.  The  truth  appears  to  be,  that  no 
 change  takes  place  in  the  temperature  of  the  water,  but 
 in  that  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere  ;  for  the  well  is 
 deeply  shaded,  and  about  60  feet  deep.  The  account 
 of  Herodotus,  who  was  never  on  the  spot,  is  evidently 
 incorrect.  He  must  have  misunderstood  his  informer. 
 (Compare  RcnncWs  Gcagr.  of  Herod.,  p.  593,  seqq.) 
 
 Am.monii,  a  people  of  Africa,  occupying  what  is  now 
 the  Oasis  of  Siwah.  According  to  Herodotus  (2,  42), 
 the  Ammonians  were  a  colony  of  Egyptians  and  .Ethi- 
 opians, speaking  a  language  composed  of  words  taken 
 from  both  those  nations. — The  arable  territory  of  the 
 Oasis  of  Siwah  is  about  six  miles  long  and  four  broad. 
 The  chief  plantation  consists  of  date-trees  ;  there  are 
 also  pomegranates,  fig-trees,  olives,  apricots,  and  ba- 
 nanas. A  considerable  quantity  of  a  reddish-grained 
 rice  is  cultivated  here,  being  a  different  variety  from 
 that  which  is  grown  in  the  Egyptian  Delta.  It  also 
 produces  wheat  for  the  consumption  of  the  inhabitants. 
 Abundance  of  water,  both  fresh  and  salt,  is  found. 
 The  fresh-water  springs  are  mostly  warm,  and  are  ac- 
 cused of  giving  rise  to  dangerous  fevers  when  used  by 
 strangers.  The  population  of  Siivah  is  capable  of  fur- 
 nishing about  1500  armed  men.  {Make- Brun,  Gtogr., 
 vol.  4,  p.  173,  Am.  ed.)  For  remarks  on  the  celebra- 
 ted Fans  Solis,  consult  preceding  article  towards  its 
 close. 
 
 Ammonius,  I.  the  preceptor  of  Plutarch.  He  taught 
 philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Delphi,  and  lived  du- 
 ring the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  in  the  reign 
 of  Nero,  to  whom  he  acted  as  interpreter  when  that 
 monarch  visited  the  temple  at  Delphi.  Plutarch  makes 
 frequent  mention  of  him  in  his  writings,  and  particu- 
 larly in  his  treatise  on  the  inscription  of  the  Delphic 
 temple. — II.  Saccas,  or  Saccophorus  (so  called  because 
 in  early  life  he  had  been  a  sack-bearer),  a  celebrated 
 philosopher,  who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the 
 third  century.  He  was  born  at  Alexandrea,  of  Chris- 
 tian parents,  and  was  early  instructed  in  the  catechet- 
 ical schools  established  in  that  city.  Here,  under  the 
 Christian  preceptors,  Athenagoras,  Pantoenus,  and 
 Clemens  Alexandrinus,  he  acquired  a  strong  propen- 
 sity towards  philosophical  studies,  and  became  ex- 
 ceedingly desirous  of  reconciling  the  different  opinions 
 
AMMONIUS. 
 
 AMP 
 
 which  at  that  tune  subsisted  among  philosophers. 
 Porphyry  {ap.  Euscb.,  Hisl.  Ere,  6,  19)  relates,  that 
 Ammoiiius  passed  over  to  the  legal  establishment,  that 
 is,  apostatized  to  the  pagan  religion.  Eusebius  {I.  c, 
 p.  2til)  and  Jerome  {De  S.  E.,  c.  55,  p.  132),  on  the 
 contrary,  assert  that  Ammonius  continued  in  the  Chris- 
 tian faith  until  ihe  end  of  his  life.  But  it  is  probable 
 that  tliese  Christian  fathers  refer  to  another  Ammoni- 
 us, who,  in  the  third  century,  wrote  a  Harmony  of  the 
 Gospels,  or  to  some  other  person  of  this  name  ;  for 
 they  refer  to  the  sacred  books  of  Ammonius:  whereas 
 Ammonius  Saccas,  as  his  pupil  Longinus  attests,  wrote 
 nothing.  (Compare  Fabrtcius,  Bibl.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p, 
 160,  172.)  It  is  not  easy,  indeed,  to  account  for  the 
 particulars  related  of  this  philosopher,  but  upon  the 
 supposition  of  his  having  renounced  the  Christian  faith. 
 According  to  Hierocles  (De  Fato,  ap.  Phot.,  Bibl.,  vol. 
 8,  p.  461,  cd.  Bekker),  Ammonius  was  induced  to 
 adopt  the  plan  of  a  distinct  eclectic  school,  by  a  desire 
 of  putting  an  end  to  those  contentions  which  had  so 
 long  distracted  the  philosophical  world.  Ammonius 
 had  many  eminent  followers  and  hearers,  both  pagan 
 and  Christian,  who  all,  doubtless,  promised  themselves 
 much  illumination  from  a  preceptor  that  undertook  to 
 collect  into  a  focus  all  the  rays  of  ancient  wisdom. 
 He  taught  his  select  disciples  certain  sublime  doctrines 
 and  mystical  practices,  and  was  called  i?£oc5iJa/croc, 
 "  the  heaven-taught  philosopher."  These  mysteries 
 were  communicated  to  them  under  a  solemn  injunction 
 of  secrecy.  Porphyry  relates,  that  Plotinus,  with  the 
 rest  of  the  disciples  of  Ammonius,  promised  not  to  di- 
 vulge certain  dogmas  which  they  learned  in  his  school, 
 but  to  lodge  them  safely  in  their  purified  minds.  This 
 circumstance  accounts  for  the  fact  mentioned  on  the 
 authority  of  Longinus,  that  he  left  nothing  in  writing. 
 Ammonius  probably  died  about  the  year  243.  {En- 
 field's History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  2,  p.  58,  scgq. — 
 Compare  Sckoll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  119,  seqq.) 
 —  HI.  A  Christian  writer,  a  native  of  Alexandrea,  who 
 lived  about  250  A.D.  He  wrote  a  Harmony  of  the 
 Gospels,  which  Jerome  cites  with  commendation. — IV. 
 The  son  of  Hermias,  so  called  for  distinction'  sake 
 from  other  individuals  of  the  name,  was  a  native  of 
 Ale.i^andrea,  and  a  disciple  of  Proclus.  He  taught 
 philosophy  at  Alexandrea  about  the  beginning  of  the 
 si-tlh  century.  His  system  was  an  eclectic  one,  em- 
 bracing [irinciples  derived  both  from  Aristotle  and  Pla- 
 to. He  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  original  thinker:  he 
 was  very  strong,  however,  in  mathematics,  and  in  the 
 study  of  the  e.xact  sciences,  which  rectified  his  judg- 
 ment, and  preserved  him,  no  doubt,  from  the  extrava- 
 gances of  the  New  Platonism.  Ammonius  has  left 
 commentaries  on  the  Introduction  of  Porphyry  ;  on  the 
 Categories  of  Aristotle,  together  with  a  life  of  that  phi- 
 losopher ;  on  his  treatise  of  Interpretation  ;  and  scho- 
 lia on  the  first  seven  books  of  the  Metaphysics.  Of  the 
 commentaries  on  the  Introduction  of  Porphyry  we  have 
 the  following  editions  :  Venice,  1500,  fol  ,  Gr.  ;  Ven- 
 ice, 1546,  8vo,  ap.  Aid  ,  Gr.  ;  Venice,  1569,  fol.,  Lat. 
 transl. — Of  the  commentary  on  the  Categories,  and  of 
 that  on  the  treatise  of  Interpretation,  Venice,  1503,  fol. ; 
 Venice,  1546,  ap.  Aid.,  8vo.  Of  the  commentary  on 
 the  treatise  of  Interpretation  alone,  Venice,  1549,  8vo, 
 Gr.  et  Lat.  The  scholia  on  the  Metaphysics  have 
 never  been  edited.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p. 
 123,  seqf/.) — V.  A  priest  of  one  of  the  Egyptian  tem- 
 ples. He  was  one  of  the  literary  men  who  fled  from 
 Alexandrea  to  Constantinople  after  the  destruction  of 
 the  pagan  temples.  There  he  became,  together  with 
 Helladius,  one  of  the  masters  of  Socrates,  the  eccle- 
 siastical writer:  this  is  a  fact  which  appears  firmly  es- 
 tablished, and  the  reasons  alleged  by  Valckenaer  for 
 placing  him  in  the  first  or  second  century  have  been 
 generally  considered  insuflScient.  Ammonius  has  left 
 us  a  work  on  Greek  synonymes,  &c.,  under  the  title 
 riepl  duoiuv  Kai.  diaipopuv  Xi^euv.     It  is  a  production 
 
 of  very  inferior  merit.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
 Valckenaer,  Lugd.  Bat  ,  1739,  4to.  An  abridgment 
 of  this  edition  was  published  at  Erlang,  in  1787,  8vo, 
 under  the  care  of  Amnion.  Valckenaer's  edition  has 
 also  been  reprinted  entire,  but  in  a  more  portable  form, 
 at  Leipzig,  1822,  8vo,  under  the  care  of  SchsflTer, 
 who  has  added  the  inedited  notes  of  Kulencamp,  and 
 the  critical  letter  of  Segaar,  addressed  to  Valckenaer 
 and  published  at  Utrecht  in  1776,  Bvo.  We  have  also 
 a  treatise  of  Ammonius,  Uepl  uKvpoloyiag,  "  On  the 
 improper  use  of  words,"  which  has  neve?  been  printed. 
 — VI.  A  physician  of  Alexandrea,  surnamed  the  Li- 
 thotomist,  from  his  skill  in  cutting  for  the  stone ;  an  op- 
 eration which,  according  to  some,  he  first  introduced. 
 He  invented  an  instrument  for  crushing  the  larger  cal- 
 culi while  in  the  bladder.  He  was  accustomed  also  to 
 make  use  of  caustic  applications,  especially  red  arsf 
 nic,  in  hemorrhages.  {Sprengel,  Hist.  Med.,  vol.  1,  j 
 465.) 
 
 Amnisus,  a  port  of  Gnossus  in  Crete,  southeast  from 
 Gnossus,  with  a  small  river  of  the  same  name  in  its 
 vicinity.    (Horn.,  Od.,  19,  188.— Apoll.  Mod.,  3,  877.) 
 
 Amor,  the  son  of  Venus,  was  the  god  of  love.  ( Vid. 
 Cupido.) 
 
 Amorgos,  now  Amorgo,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  and 
 situate  to  the  east  of  Nicasia.  According  to  Scylax 
 {PeripL,  p.  22)  and  Stephanos  Byzantinus  {s.  v.  'Ajiiop 
 yog).  It  contained  three  towns,  Arcesine,  ^-Egialus,  and 
 Minoa.  The  former  yet  preserves  its  name,  and 
 stands  on  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island.  /Egia 
 lus  is  perhaps  Porto  S.  Anna.  Minoa  was  the  birth 
 place  of  Simonides,  an  iambic  poet,  mentioned  by 
 Strabo  (487)  and  others.  Amorgus  gave  its  name  to 
 a  peculiar  linen  dress  manufactured  in  the  island. 
 (Steph.  Byz.,  s.v.  'Ap-opyoQ. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p.  416.) 
 
 Ampelius,  Lucius,  the  author  of  a  work  that  has 
 reached  us,  entitled  Liber  Memorialis.  The  particular 
 period  when  he  lived  is  unknown.  Bahr  makes  him 
 to  have  flourished  after  Trajan,  and  before  Theodosius. 
 His  work  is  divided  into  fifty  small  chapters,  and  is 
 addressed  to  a  certain  .Macrinus.  It  contains  a  brief 
 account  of  the  world,  the  elements,  the  earth,  history, 
 &c.,  and  appears  to  be  compiled  from  previous  writers. 
 Marks  of  declining  Latinity  are  visible  in  it.  The 
 best  editions  are  that  of  Tzschucke,  Lips.,  1793.  8vo, 
 and  that  of  Beck,  Lrps.,  1826,  8vo.  {B'dhr,  Gesch. 
 Rom.  Lit  ,  vol.  I,  p.  454,  seqq.) 
 
 Ampelus,  I.  a  promontory  of  Crete,  on  the  eastern 
 coast,  south  of  the  promontory  of  Sammonium.  It  is 
 now  Cape  Sacro.  (Ptol.,  p.  91.)  Pliny  (4,  12)  as- 
 signs to  Crete  a  town  of  this  same  name  ;  and  there 
 are,  in  fact,  some  ruins  between  the  mouth  of  the  riv- 
 er Sacra  and  the  promontory.  {Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  372.) — II.  A  promontory  of  Mace- 
 donia, at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Si- 
 thonia,  and  forming  the  lower  termination  of  the  Sinus 
 Singiticus.  Livy  calls  it  the  Toronean  promontory 
 (31,  45). 
 
 AmfelusTa,  called  also  Cote  and  Soloe,  a  promon- 
 tory of  Africa,  on  the  coast  of  Mauritania,  and  form- 
 ing the  point  of  separation  between  the  Fretum  Her- 
 culeum  {Straits  of  Gibraltar)  and  the  shore  of  the 
 Western  Ocean.  It  is  now  Cape  Spartel.  The  an- 
 cient name  Ampelusia  refers  to  its  abounding  in  vines, 
 a  signification  which  Cote  is  said  to  have  had  in  the 
 Punic  or  Phoenician  tongue.  (Compare  t-lie  remarks 
 of  Hnmaker,  Misccll.  Phcenic,  p.  247,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1824,  4to.) 
 
 AMPiiiARAinEs,  a  patronymic  of  Alcmson,  as  being 
 son  of  Amphiaraiis.     {Orid,  Fast.,  2,  43  ) 
 
 Amphiaraus,  a  famous  soothsayer  and  warrior,  ac- 
 cording to  some  a  son  of  Oicleus,  according  to  others  of 
 Apollo.  So,  also,  one  account  makes  his  mother  to  ha  vc 
 been  named  Clytasmnestra  ;  another,  Hypermnestra, 
 daughter  of  the  .Etolian  king  Thestius.     He  appears 
 
 125 
 
AMP 
 
 AMPHICTYONES. 
 
 to  have  been  a  descendant  of  a  distinguished  augur 
 family,  his  grandfather  having  been  Antiphatcs,  and 
 his  great-grandfather  Melampus.     From  various  scat- 
 tered accounts  respecting  him  in  the  ancient  writers, 
 the  following  particulars  may  be  gleaned.     He  was,  in 
 his  youth,  at  the  famous  hunt  of  the  Calydonian  boar  ; 
 he  afterward  returned  to  Argos,  his  native  city,  and, 
 with  the  aid  of  his  brother,  drove  Adrastus  from  the 
 thione.     A  reconciliation,  however,  taking  place,  the 
 monarch  was  restored  to  his  kingdom,  and  gave  Am- 
 phiaraus  his  sister  Eriphyle  in  marriage.     The  offspring 
 of  this  union  were  two  sons,  Alcmaeon  and  Amphilo- 
 chus.     When  Adrastus,  at  the  request  of  Polynices, 
 resolved  to  march   against  Thebes,  Amphiaraus  was 
 unwilling  to  accompany  him,  for  he  knew  that  the  ex- 
 pedition would  prove  fatal  to  himself,  and  he  endeav- 
 oured also  to  dissuade  the  other  chieftains  from  going. 
 Polynices  thereupon  presented  Eriphyle  with  the  fa- 
 mous necklace  of  Harmonia,  to  induce  her  to  overcome 
 her  husband's  scruples,  and   she  not  only,  in  conse- 
 quence, made  known   his  place  of  concealment,  but 
 prevailed  upon  him  to  accompany  the  army.     Amphi- 
 araus thereupon,  previous  to  his  departure,  knowing 
 what  was  about  to  befall  him,  charged  his  son  Alcmaeon 
 to  kill  his  mother  the  moment  he  should  hear  of  his 
 father's  death.     The  Theban  war  proved  fatal  to  the 
 Argives,  and  Amphiaraus,  while  engaged  in  dangerous 
 conflict  with  Periclymenes,  was  swallowed  up  by  the 
 earth,  Jupiter  having  caused  the  ground  to  open  for 
 the  purpose  of  receiving  his  favourite  prophet,  and  sa- 
 ving him  from  the  dishonour  of  being  overcome  by  his 
 antagonist.     The  news  of  his  death  was  brought  to 
 Alcinaaon,  who  immediately  executed  his  father's  com- 
 mand, and  murdered  Eriphyle.     Amphiaraus  received 
 divine  honours  after  death,  and  had  a  celebrated  temple 
 and  oracle  at  Oropos  in  Attica.     His  statue  was  made 
 of  white  marble,  and  near  his  temple  was  a  fountain, 
 whose  waters  were  held  sacred.     They  only  who  had 
 consulted  his  oracle,  or  had  been  delivered  from  a  dis- 
 ease, were  permitted  to  bathe  in  it,  after  which  they 
 threw  pieces  of  gold  and  silver  into  the  stream.     Those 
 who  consulted  the  oracle  of  Amphiaraus,  sacrificed  a 
 ram  to  the  prophet,  and  spread  the  skin  upon  the  ground, 
 upon  which  they  slept,  in  expectation  of  receiving  in 
 a  dream   the   answer   of  which   they  were  in   quest. 
 (ApoUod.,  n,  6,  2.— Horn.,  Od.,  15,  243,  &c.—jEsch., 
 Sept.  c.  Theh. — Hygin.,  fab.,  70,  73,  &,c. — Pausati., 
 1,  34.) 
 
 Amphicrates,  I.  a  biographer,  who,  according  to 
 Diogenes  Laertius  {Vit.  Anstip.),  was  condemned  to 
 die  by  poison.  (Compare  Alhcnaus,  13,  5.) — H.  An 
 Athenian  orator,  who,  being  banished  from  his  country, 
 retired  to  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris,  and  took  up  his  resi- 
 dence there  under  the  protection  of  Cleopatra,  daugh- 
 ter of  Mithradates.  He  starved  himself  to  death,  be- 
 cause suspected  by  this  princess  of  treason.  Jonsius 
 {de  Script.  Hist.  Phil.,  2,  1.5)  thinks  that  this  is  the 
 same  with  the  preceding. — III.  An  artist,  mentioned 
 by  Pliny  (34,  8),  according  to  a  new  reading  proposed 
 by  Sillig  {Did.  Art.,  s.  v.). 
 
 Amphictyon,  a  mythic  personage,  son  of  Deucalion, 
 who  is  said  to  have  reigned  in  Attica  after  driving  out 
 Cranaus,  his  father-in-law,  and  to  have  been  himself 
 expelled  by  Erichthonius.  {ApoI!od.,3,  H,  6.)  The 
 establishment  of  the  Amphiclyonic  council  is  ascribed 
 to  him  by  some.     (Compare  Heyne,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Amphictyones,  the  deputies  of  the  cities  and  people 
 of  Greece,  who  represented  their  respective  nations  in 
 a  general  assembly  called  the  Amphictyonic  Council. 
 The  most  authentic  list  of  the  communities  thus  rep- 
 resented is  as  follows  :  Thessalians,  Boeotians,  Dorians, 
 lonians,  Perrhaz-bians,  Magnetei,  Locrians,  Qilta^ans 
 or  /Enianians,  Phihiotes  or  Achsans  of  Phthia,  Meli- 
 ans  or  Malians,  and  Phocians.  The  orator  -Eschines, 
 who  furnishes  this  list,  shows,  by  mentioning  the  num- 
 ber twelve,  that  one  name  is  wanting.  The  other  lists 
 126 
 
 supply  two  names   to   fill  up  the  vacant  place  ;    the 
 Dolopes  and  the  Delphians.     It  seems  not  improbable, 
 that  the  former  were  finally  supplanted  by  the  Delphi- 
 ans, who  appear  to  have  been  a  distinct  race  from  the 
 Phocians.      After  the   return  of  the    Heraclida;,   the 
 number  of  the  Amphictyonic  tribes,  then  perhaps  al- 
 ready hallowed  by  time,  continued  the  same  ;  but  the 
 geographical  compass  of  the  league  was  increased  by 
 all  that  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  which  was  occupied 
 by  the  new  Doric  states.     It  would  be  wrong  to  regard 
 this  council  as  a  kind  of  national  confederation.     The 
 causes  which  prevented  it  from  acquiring  this  charac- 
 ter will  be  evident,  when  we  consider  the  mode  in 
 which  the  council  was  constituted,  and  the  nature  of 
 Its  ordinary  functions.     The  constitution  of  the  Am- 
 phictyonic  Council  rested   on  the  supposition,  once, 
 perhaps,  not  very  inconsistent  with  the  fact,  of  a  perfect 
 equality  among  the  tribes  represented  by  it.     Each 
 tribe,  however  feeble,  had  two  votes  in  the  deliberation 
 of  the  congress :  none,  however  powerful,  had  more. 
 The  order  in  which  the  right  of  sending  representatives 
 to  the  council  was  exercised  by  the  various  states  in- 
 cluded in  one  Amphictyonic  tribe  was,  perhaps,  regula- 
 ted by  private  agreement ;  but,  unless  one  state  usurped 
 the  whole  right  of  its  tribe,  it  is  manifest  that  a  petty 
 tribe,  which  formed  but  one  community,  had  greatly 
 the  advantagp  over  Sparta  or  Argos,  which  could  only 
 be  represented  in  their  turn,  the  more  rarely  in  propor- 
 tion to  the  magnitude  of  the  tribe  to  which  they  be- 
 longed.— With   regard   to  other  details  less  affecting 
 the  general  character  of  the  institution,  it  will  be  suffi- 
 cient here  to  observe,  that  the  council  was  composed 
 of  two  classes  of  representatives,  called  Pxjlagorcz  and 
 Hieromnemoncs,  whose  functions  are  not  accurately 
 distinguished.     It   seems,   however,   that   the   former 
 were  intrusted  with  the  power  of  voting ;  while  the 
 office  of  the  latter  consisted  in  preparing  and  directing 
 their  deliberations,  and  carrying  their  decrees  into  ef- 
 fect.    At  Athens,  three  Pylagora  were  annually  elect- 
 ed, while  one  Hieromnemon  was  appointed  by  lot :  we 
 do  not  know  the  practice  in  other  states.     One  pe- 
 culiar feature  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council  was,  that 
 Its  meetings  were  held  at  two  different  places.     There 
 were  two  regularly  convened  every  year ;  one  in  the 
 spring,  at  Delphi,  the  other  hi  the  autumn,  near  the  lit- 
 tle town  of  Anthela,  within  the  pass  of  Thermopyla?, 
 at  a  temple  of  Ceres.     It  has  been  supposed,  in  at- 
 tempting to  account  for  this,  that  there  were  originally 
 two  distinct  confederations  ;  one  formed  of  inland,  the 
 other  of  maritime  tribes ;  and  that  when  these  were 
 united  by  the  growing  influence  of  Delphi,  the  ancient 
 places  of  meeting  were  retained,  as  a  necessary  con- 
 cession to  the  dignity  of  each  sanctuary.     A  constitu- 
 tion such  as  the  Amphictyonic  Council  appears  to  have 
 possessed,  could  not  have  been  suffered  to  last  if  any 
 important  political  interests  had  depended  on  the  de- 
 cision of  this  assembly.     The  truth  is,  the  ordinary 
 functions  of  the  Amphictyonic  Congress  were  chiefly, 
 if  not  altogether,  connected  with  religion,  and  it  was 
 only  by  accident  that  it  was  ever  made  subservient  to 
 political  ends.    The  original  objects,  or,  at  least,  the  es- 
 sential character,  of  the  institution,  seem  to  be  faith- 
 fully expressed  in  the  terms  of  the  oath  preserved  by 
 ^schines,  which  bound  the  members  of  the  league  to 
 refrain  from  utterly  destroying  any  Amphictyonic  city, 
 and  from  cutting  off  its  supply  of  water,  even  in  war, 
 and  to  defend  the  sanctuary  and  the  treasures  of  the 
 Delphic  god  from  sacrilege.     In  this  ancient  and  half- 
 symbolical  form  we  perceive  two  main  functions  as- 
 signed to  the  council  ;  to  guard  the  temple,  and  to  re- 
 strain the  violence  of  hostility  among  Amphictyonic 
 states.     There   is  no   intimation   of  any  confederacy 
 against  foreign  enemies,  except  for  the  protection  of 
 the  temple  ;  nor  of  any  right  of  interposing  between 
 members  of  the  league,  unless  where  one  threatens  the 
 existence  of  another.     A  review,  then,  o/  the  history 
 
AMP 
 
 AMPHIPOLIS. 
 
 of  this  council  shows  that  it  was  almost  powerless  for 
 crood,  except,  perhaps,  as  a  passive  instrument,  and 
 that  it  was  only  active  for  purposes  that  were  either 
 unimportant  or  pernicious.  Its  most  legitimate  sphere 
 of  action  lay  in  cases  where  the  honour  and  safety  of 
 the  Delphic  sanctuary  were  concerned,  and  in  these  it 
 might  safely  reckon  on  general  co-operation  from  all  the 
 Greeks.  A  remarkable  instance  is  afforded  by  the 
 Sacred  or  Crissa3an  war.  {Vid.  Crissa  and  Phocis.) 
 The  origin  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council  is  altogether 
 uncertain.  Acrisius  is  said  to  have  founded  the  one 
 at  Delphi,  Amphictyon  the  other  at  Thermopylee,  a  tra- 
 dition in  favour  of  the  opinion  above  advanced,  that  the 
 great  council  was  a  union  of  two.  Independently, 
 however,  of  these  two,  it  is  probable  that  many  Am- 
 phictyonics  (so  to  call  them)  once  existed  in  Greece, 
 all  trace  of  which  has  been  lost.  (ThirhvaWs  History 
 of  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  374,  seqq.) — The  name  of  this 
 confederation,  if  we  give  credit  to  Androtion,  as  cited 
 by  Pausanias  (10,  8),  was  originally  Aviphichones  {'Afi- 
 (piKTiove^),  and  referred  to  its  being  composed  of  the 
 tribes  that  dwelt  round  about.  An  alteration  took 
 place  when  Amphictyun,  the  son  of  Deucalion,  found- 
 ed a  temple  of  Ceres  at  Thermopylae,  one  of  the  places 
 of  assembling.  From  this  time,  we  are  informed,  the 
 confederation  took  the  name  of  Amphiclyoncs  {'Afi- 
 
 ^IKTVOVe^). 
 
 Amphidromi.*,  a  festival  observed  by  private  families 
 at  Athens,  the  fifth  day  after  the  birth  of  every  child. 
 It  was  customary  to  run  round  the  fire  with  a  child  in 
 their  arms  ;  thereby,  as  it  were,  making  it  a  member 
 of  the  family,  and  putting  it  under  the  protection  of  the 
 household  deities,  to  whom  the  hearth  served  as  an 
 altar.  Hence  the  name  of  the  festival,  from  afi^tdpa- 
 uelv,  ''to  run  around.'''      (Putter,  Gr.  Ant.,  4,  14.) 
 
 Amphigenia,  a  town  of  Messenia,  near  the  river 
 Ilypsoeis.  According  to  Homer  (/^,  2,  593),  it  be- 
 longed to  Nestor.  Some  critics  assigned  it  to  Triphy- 
 lia.     (Siraho,  349.) 
 
 Amphilochus,  I.  son  of  Amphiaraus  and  Eriphyle. 
 After  the  Trojan  war  he  left  Argos,  his  native  country, 
 retired  to  Acarnania,  and  built  there  Argos  Amphi- 
 lochium.  This  is  the  account  of  Thucydides  (2,  68); 
 but  vid.  Argos,  IV. — II.  An  Athenian  philosopher 
 who  wrote  upon  agriculture.     {Varro,  de  R.  R.,  1). 
 
 Amphinomus  and  Anapcjs,  two  brothers,  who,  when 
 Catana  and  the  neighbouring  cities  were  in  flames  by 
 an  eruption  from  Mount  Vesuvius,  saved  their  parents 
 upon  their  shoulders.  The  fire,  as  it  is  said,  spared 
 them  while  it  consumed  others  by  their  side  ;  and 
 Pluto,  to  reward  their  uncommon  piety,  placed  them 
 after  death  in  the  island  of  Leuce.  They  received  di- 
 vine honours  in  Sicily.  {Val.  Max.,  5,  4. — Sil.  I/aL, 
 14,  197.— Claud.,  Idyll.,  7,  41.) 
 
 Amphion,  I.  a  Theban  prince,  son  of  Antiope  and 
 Jupiter,  or,  rather,  of  Epopeus,  king  of  Sicyon.  An- 
 tiope, the  niece  of  Lycus,  king  of  Thebes,  having  be- 
 come the  mother  of  twins,  Amphion  and  Zethus,  ex- 
 posed them  on  Mount  Cithoeron,  vihere  they  were  found 
 and  brought  up  by  shepherds.  Having  learned,  on 
 reaching  manhood,  the  cruelties  inflicted  upon  their 
 mother  by  Lycus  and  Dirce  (vid.  Antiope),  the  twin 
 brothers  avenged  her  wrongs  by  the  death  of  both  the 
 oli'ending  parties  (rid.  Lycus  and  Dirce),  and  made 
 themselves  masters  of  Thebes,  where  they  reigned  con- 
 jouitly.  Under  their  rule  the  kingdom  of  Thebes  ac- 
 quired new  splendour,  and  the  arts  of  peace  flourished. 
 Amphion  ciiltivated  music  with  the  greatest  success, 
 having  received  lessons  in  this  art  from  Mercury  him- 
 self, who  gave  him  a  lyre  of  gold,  with  which,  it  is  said, 
 he  built  the  walls  of  Thebes,  causing  the  stones  to  take 
 their  respective  places  in  obedience  to  the  tones  of  his 
 instrument.  The  meaning  of  this  legend  is  supposed 
 to  be,  that  Amphion,  by  his  mild  and  persuasive  man- 
 ners, prevailed  upon  his  rude  subjects  to  build  walls 
 around  Thebes.     MuUer,  however,  sees  in  it  an  allu- 
 
 sion to  the  old  Dorian  and  ^olian  custom  of  erecting 
 the  walls  of  cities  to  the  sound  of  musical  instruments. 
 — Amphion,  after  ihis,  married  Niobe,  daughter  of  Tan- 
 talus, and  became  by  her  the  father  of  seven  sons  and 
 seven  daughters,  who  were  all  .slain  by  Apollo  and  Di- 
 ana. (Vul.  Niobe.)  According  to  one  account,  he 
 destroyed  himself  after  this  cruel  loss,  while  another 
 version  of  the  story  makes  him  to  have  fallen  in  a  se- 
 dition. (Horn.,  Od.,  11,  262,  segq. — Apollod.,  3,  5,  4, 
 seqq. — MiiUer,  Gcsch.  Hellen.  St'dmnie,  &c.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  267.) — II.  A  painter,  contemporary  with  Applies,  by 
 whom  he  was  highly  respected  as  an  artist,  and  who 
 yielded  to  him  in  the  grouping  of  his  pictures.  (Phn., 
 3,5,  10.) — III.  A  statuary  of  Cnossus,  and  pupil  of 
 Ptolichus.  (Pausan.,  10,  15.)  He  flourished  about 
 Olymp.  88. 
 
 Amphipolis,  a  city  of  Thrace,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
 Strymon.  It  was  founded  by  the  Athenians  in  the 
 immediate  vicinity  of  what  was  termed  'Evvia  'OSoi, 
 or  "  the  Nine  Ways,"  a  spot  so  called  from  the  num- 
 ber of  roads  which  met  here  from  diflferent  parts  of 
 Thrace  and  Macedon.  The  occupation  of  the  Nine 
 Ways  seems  to  have  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Thra- 
 cians,  which  led  to  frequent  rencounters  between  them 
 and  the  Athenian  colonists,  in  one  of  which  the  latter 
 sustained  a  severe  defeat.  (Thucyd.,  I,  IQO.)  After 
 a  lapse  of  twenty-nine  years,  a  fresh  colony  was  sent 
 out  under  the  command  of  Agnon,  son  of  Nicias,  which 
 succeeded  in  subduing  the  Edoni.  Agnon  gave  the 
 name  of  Amphipolis  to  the  new  city,  from  its  being 
 surrounded  by  the  waters  of  the  Strymon.  (TJmcyd., 
 4,  102. — Scylax,  p.  27.)  Amphipolis  soon  became  one 
 of  the  most  flourishing  cities  of  Thrace  ;  and  at  the 
 time  of  the  expedition  of  Brasidas  into  that  country,  it 
 was  already  a  large  and  populous  place.  Its  surrender 
 to  that  general  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  prosperity  and 
 good  fortune  of  the  Athenians  ;  and  we  may  estimate 
 the  importance  they  attached  to  its  possession,  from 
 their  displeasure  against  Thucydides,  who  arrived  too 
 late  to  prevent  its  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy 
 (Thucyd.,  4,  106);  and  also  from  the  exertions  they 
 afterward  made,  under  Cleon,  to  repair  the  loss.  The 
 attempt  proved  unsuccessful,  through  the  ignorance  and 
 rashness  of  the  Athenian  general,  who  was  slain  in  an 
 engagement.  Brasidas  fell  in  the  same  battle,  and  the 
 Amphipolitans  paid  the  highest  honours  to  his  memory, 
 resolving  thenceforth  to  revere  him  as  the  true  founder 
 of  their  city  ;  and  with  this  view  they  threw  down  the 
 statues  of  Agnon,  and  erected  those  of  Brasidas  in  their 
 stead.  Athens  never  regained  possession  of  this  im- 
 portant city  ;  for  though  it  was  agreed,  by  the  terms  oj 
 the  peace  soon  after  concluded  with  Sparta,  that  this 
 colony  should  be  restored,  that  stipulation  was  never 
 fulfilled,  the  Amphipolitans  themselves  refusing  to  ac- 
 cede to  it,  and  the  Spartans  expressing  their  inability 
 to  compel  them.  The  Athenians,  in  the  twelfth  year 
 of  the  war,  sent  an  expedition  under  Euetion  to  at- 
 tempt the  rcconquest  of  the  place,  but  without  success. 
 (Thucyd.,  7,  9.)  Mitford,  in  his  history  of  Greece, 
 affirms,  that  Amphipolis  was  restored  to  the  Athenians  ; 
 but  there  is  no  proof  of  this  fact.  Amphipolis,  at  a 
 later  period,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Philip  of  Macedon, 
 after  a  siege  of  some  duration.  It  became  from  that 
 time  a  Macedonian  town,  and,  on  the  subjugation  of 
 this  country  by  the  Romans,  it  was  constituted  the 
 chief  town  of  the  first  region  of  the  conquered  territory. 
 (Dexipp.,  ap.  Synccll,  Chron.,  p.  268.— L?i» ,  45,  29.) 
 During  the  continuance  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  it 
 seems  to  have  exchanged  its  name  for  that  of  Chrysop- 
 olis,  if  we  may  believe  an  anonymous  geograjiher,  in 
 Hudson's  Geogr.  Min.,  vol.  4,  p.  42.  The  spot  on 
 which  the  ruins  of  Amphipolis  arc  still  to  be  traced, 
 bears  the  name  of  Jenikevi.  The  position  of  Amphip- 
 olis, observes  Col.  Leake  (WaljioWs  Collection,  p 
 510),  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  Greece.  It 
 stands  in  a  pass  which  traverses  the  mountains  border- 
 
 127 
 
AMP 
 
 AMY 
 
 ing  the  Strymonic  Gulf;  and  it  commandf)  the  only 
 easy  coinirmnication  from  the  coast  of  that  gulf  into 
 the  great  Macedonian  plains,  which  extend  for  sixty 
 miles  from  beyond  Mdeniko  to  I'hilippi.  {Cramer's 
 Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  292,  scqq.) 
 
 Ampiiis,  a  Greek  comic  poet  of  Athens,  contempo- 
 rary with  Plato.  His  works  are  lost,  though  some  of 
 the  titles  of  his  pieces  have  reached  us.  (Consult 
 Sckirciok.,  ad  Athen  ,  vol.  9,  Index  Auct.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Amphissa,  I.  a  daughter  of  Macareus,  fabled  to 
 have  given  her  name  to  the  city  of  Amphissa. — II. 
 The  chief  city  of  the  Locri  OzoIe.  We  tind,  from 
 Suabo,  that  it  stood  at  the  head  of  the  Crissa^an  Gulf, 
 and  ^iischines  (/«  Ctes.,  p.  71)  informs  us,  that  its  dis- 
 tance from  Delphi  was  sixty  stadia  :  Pausanias  reck- 
 ons one  hundred  and  twenty.  Amphissa  was  said  to 
 have  derived  its  name  from  the  circumstance  of  its 
 being  surrounded  on  every  side  by  mountains.  (Aris- 
 tol.,  ap.  Harpocrat.  Lex. — Step/i.  Bi/z.,s.  v. ' Aficpiacra.) 
 Amphissa  was  destroyed  by  order  of  the  Amphictyons, 
 for  having  dared  to  restore  the  walls  of  Crissa,  and  to 
 cultivate  the  ground,  which  was  held  to  be  sacred  ;  and 
 lastly,  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  they  molest- 
 ed travellers  who  had  occasion  to  pass  through  their 
 territory.  {Slrabo,  419. — JEsehin.  in  Ctes.,  p.  71, 
 seqq.)  At  a  later  period,  however,  it  appears  to  have 
 somewhat  recovered  from  this  ruined  state  when  under 
 the  dominion  of  the  .'Etolians.  In  the  war  carried  on 
 by  the  Romans  against  this  people,  they  besieged  Am- 
 phissa, when  the  inhabitants  abandoned  the  town  and 
 retired  into  the  citadel,  which  was  deemed  impregna- 
 ble. {Liv.,  37,  5.)  It  is  generally  agreed,  that  the 
 modern  town  of  Salona  represents  the  ancient  Amphis- 
 sa. Sir  William  Gell  {Itinerary,  p.  196)  observes, 
 that  the  real  distance  between  Delphi  and  Amphissa  is 
 seven  miles.    {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  111.) 
 
 Amfhitheatrum,  an  edifice  of  an  elliptical  form., 
 used  for  exhibiting  combats  of  gladiators,  wild  beasts, 
 and  other  spectacles.  The  word  is  derived  from  ufitpl 
 »nd  -^iarpov,  from  the  spectators  being  so  ranged  as 
 to  see  equally  well  from  every  side.  The  first  dura- 
 ble amphitheatre  of  stone  was  built  by  Statilius  Taurus, 
 at  the  desire  of  Augustus.  The  largest  one  was  begun 
 by  Vespasian,  and  completed  by  Titus,  now  called 
 Colisaeum,  from  the  Colossus,  or  large  statue  of  Nero, 
 which  Vespasian  transported  to  the  square  in  front  of 
 it.  It  is  said  to  have  contained  87,000  spectators,  to 
 have  been  5  years  in  building,  and  to  have  cost  a  sum 
 equal  to  10  millions  of  crowns.  12,000  Jews  were 
 employed  upon  it,  who  were  made  slaves  at  the  con- 
 quest of  Jerusalem.  Its  magnificent  ruins  still  remain. 
 — There  are  amphitheatres  still  standmg,  in  various  de- 
 grees of  perfection,  at  several  other  places  besides 
 Rome.  At  Pola  in  Islria,  at  Nismes,  at  Aries,  Bour- 
 deaux,  and  particularly  at  Verona. — The  place  where 
 the  gladiators  fought  was  called  the  arena,  because  it 
 was  covered  with  sand  or  sawdust,  to  prevent  the  glad- 
 iators from  sliding,  and  to  absorb  the  blood. 
 
 Amphitrite,  a  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  and 
 the  spouse  of  Neptune.  She  for  a  long  time  shunned 
 the  addresses  of  this  deity  ;  but  her  place  of  conceal- 
 ment was  discovered  to  Neptune  by  a  dolphin,  and 
 the  god,  out  of  gratitude,  placed  this  fish  among  the 
 stars.  Amphitrite  had,  by  Neptune,  Triton,  one  of 
 the  sea-deities.  {Ovid,  Mclamorph.,  1,  14. — Hcsiod, 
 Theog.) 
 
 Amphitryon,  a  Theban  prince,  son  of  Alcseus  and 
 Hipponome.  His  sister  Anaxo  had  married  Electryon, 
 king  of  Mycenae,  whose  sons  were  killed  in  a  battle  by 
 the  Teleboans.    (Vid.  Alcmena.) 
 
 AMPHirRVONiADEs,  a  surname  of  Hercules,  as  the 
 supposed  son  of  Amphitryon.    {Vtrg.,  JEn.,  8,  103.) 
 
 Amphkysus,  a  river  of  Thessaly,  flowing  into  the 
 
 Sinus  Pagasaeus,  above  Phthiotic  Thebes.     Near  this 
 
 stream,  Ajiollo,  when  banished  from  heaven,  fed  the 
 
 flocks  of  King  Admetus.     Hence,  among  the  Latin 
 
 128 
 
 poets,  the  epithet  Amphrysius  becomes  equivalent  to 
 Apoliincus.     (Luean.,  6,  367. —  Virg.,  JEn.,  6,  398  ) 
 
 Ami's.Xgas,  a  river  of  Africa,  forming  the  boundary 
 between  Mauritania  C.-esariensis  and  Nuinidia,  and 
 falling  into  the  sea  to  the  east  of  Igilgilis,  or  Jigel.  f  )n 
 a  branch  of  it  stood  Cirta,  the  capital  of  Numidia. 
 The  modern  name  is  Wad-il-Kibir,  i.  e.,  the  Great 
 River.     {Ftol.—Mcla,  1,  Q.—Plin.,  5,  3.) 
 
 Amsanctus,  or  Amsancti  Vallis  et  Lacus,  a  cel- 
 ebrated valley  and  lake  of  Italy,  in  Samnium,  to  the 
 southwest  of  Trivicum.  Virgil  {JEn.,  7,  563)  has 
 left  us  a  fine  description  of  the  place.  The  waters  of 
 the  lake  were  remarkable  for  their  sulphureous  proper- 
 ties and  exhalations.  Some  antiquaries  have  confound- 
 ed this  spot  with  the  Lake  of  Cutilise,  near  Reate  ;  but 
 Servius,  in  his  commentary  on  the  passage  of  Virgil  just 
 referred  to,  distinctly  tells  us  that  it  was  situate  in  the 
 country  of  the  Hirpini,  which  is  also  confirmed  by  Cice- 
 ro {de  Die,  1)  and  Pliny  {H.  N.,  2,  93).  The  latter 
 writer  mentions  a  temple  consecrated  to  the  goddess 
 Mephitis,  on  thebanksof  this  sulphureous  lake,  of  which 
 a  good  description  is  given  by  Romanelli,  taken  from 
 a  work  of  Leonardo  di  Capoa.  {Romanelli,  vol.  2,  p. 
 351.)  The  lake  is  now  called  Mujiti,  and  is  close  to 
 the  little  town  of  Fricento.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  251.) 
 
 Amulius,  son  of  Procas,  king  of  Alba,  and  younger 
 brother  of  Numitor.  The  crown  belonged  of  right  to 
 the  latter,  but  Amulius,  dispossessed  him  of  it,  put  to 
 death  his  son  Lausus,  and  fearing  lest  he  might  be 
 dethroned  by  a  nephew,  compelled  Rhea  Sylvia,  the 
 daughter  of  Numitor,  to  become  a  vestal,  which  priest- 
 hood bound  her  to  perpetual  virginity.  Notwithstand- 
 ing, however,  all  these  precautions,  Rhea  became  the 
 mother  of  Romulus  and  Remus  by  the  god  Mars. 
 Amulius  thereupon  ordered  her  lo  be  buried  alive  for 
 having  violated  her  vow  as  a  priestess  of  Vesta,  and 
 the  two  children  to  be  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  They 
 were  providentially  saved,  however,  by  some  shep- 
 herds, or,  as  others  say,  by  a  she-wolf;  and,  when  they 
 attained  to  manhood,  they  put  to  death  the  usurper 
 Amulius,  and  restored  the  crown  to  their  grandfather 
 Numitor.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  3,  67. — Liv.,  1,  3,  scqq. — 
 Plut.,  Vit.  Rom.,  &c.) 
 
 Amyci  Portus,  a  harbour  on  the  Thracian  Bos- 
 porus, north  of  Nicopolis,  and  south  of  the  temple  of 
 Jupiter  Urius.  Here  Amycus,  an  ancient  king  of  the* 
 Bebryces,  was  slain  in  combat  with  Pollux.  His  tomb 
 was  covered,  according  to  some,  with  a  laurel,  and 
 hence  they  maintain  that  the  harbour  was  also  called 
 Daphnes  Portus.  Arrian,  however,  speaks  of  a  har- 
 bour of  the  insane  Daphne  near  this,  which  no  doubt 
 has  given  rise  to  the  mistake.  {Arrian,  Feripl.  Eux., 
 p.  25.— Plin.,  5,  43.) 
 
 Amycl^,  I.  a  city  of  Italy,  in  Latium,  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  Fundi  and  the  Caecubus  Ager.  It  was  said 
 to  have  been  of  Greek  origin,  being  colonized  from 
 the  town  of  Amyclse  in  Laconia.  Concerning  the  de- 
 struction of  Amycls,  in  Italy,  strange  tales  were  re- 
 lated. According  to  some  accounts,  it  was  infested 
 and  finally  rendered  desolate  by  serpents.  {Plin  ,  3, 
 5,  who  also  quotes  Varro  to  the  same  effect. — 7.5?- 
 gon.,  ap.  Sol.,  de  Mir.  Font.,  &c.)  Another  tradition 
 represented  the  fall  of  Amycla;  as  having  been  the  re- 
 sult of  the  silence  enjoined  by  law  on  Us  inhabitants, 
 in  order  to  put  a  stop  to  the  false  rumours  of  hostile  at- 
 tacks which  had  been  so  frequently  circulated.  'I'he 
 enemy  at  last,  however,  really  appeared  ;  and,  finding 
 the  town  in  a  defenceless  state,  it  was  destroyed. 
 This  account  is  in  general  acceptation  with  the  poets. 
 {Virg.,  JEn.,  10,  563. — ^'(7.  Ital.,  8,  528.  — Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  123.) — II.  One  of  the  most  an 
 cient  cities  of  Laconia,  a  short  distance  to  the  south 
 west  of  Sparta.  It  was  founded  long  before  the  ar- 
 rival of  the  Dorians  and  Heraclidae,  who  conquered 
 and  reduced  it  to  the  condition  of  a  small  town.     It 
 
A  MY 
 
 ANA 
 
 was,  however,  conspicuous,  even  in  Pausanias's  time, 
 for  the  number  of  its  temples  and  other  edifices,  many 
 of  which  were  richly  adorned  with  sculptures  and  other 
 works  of  art.  Its  most  celebrated  structure  was  the 
 temple  of  the  Amyclean  Apollo.  {Polyb.,  4,  9,  3  ) 
 Amvclre  is  mentioned  by  Homer  (//.,  2,  fiSl)  and 
 Pindar  (Pyth.,  1,  \22.—hthm.,  7,  18).  Polybius 
 states  that  Amyclae  was  only  twenty  stadia  from  Spar- 
 ta {Polyb  ,  5,  18);  but  Dodwell  observes,  that  Sclavo- 
 Chorto,  which  occupies  its  ancient  site,  is  nearly 
 double  that  distance.  (Classical  Tour,  vol.  2,  p 
 413. — Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  213.) 
 Polybius  describes  the  country  around  Amyclaj  as 
 most  beautifully  wooded  and  of  great  fertility  ;  which 
 account  is  corroborated  by  Dodwell,  who  says,  "  it 
 luxuriates  in  fertility,  and  abounds  in  mulberries,  ol- 
 ives, and  all  the  fruit-trees  which  grow  in  Greece." 
 
 Amyclas,  I.  son  of  Lacedsmon  and  Sparta,  built 
 the  city  of  Amyclae.  {Pausan,  3,  I.) — II.  The  name 
 which  Lucan  gives  to  the  master  of  the  small  twelve- 
 oared  vessel  in  which  Cssar  had  embarked  in  disguise, 
 for  the  purpose  of  sailing  to  Brundisium,  and  bringing 
 from  that  place  over  into  Greece  the  remainder  of  his 
 forces.  A  violent  wind  producing  a  rough  sea,  the 
 pilot  despaired  of  making  good  his  passage,  and  or- 
 dered the  mariners  to  turn  back.  Cffisar,  perceiving 
 this,  rose  up,  and  showing  himself  to  the  pilot  accord- 
 ing to  Plutarch,  but,  according  to  Lucan,  to  Amyclas 
 the  master  of  the  vessel,  exclaimed,  "  Go  forward,  my 
 friend,  and  fear  nothmg  ;  thou  carriest  Caesar  and 
 Caesar's  fortunes  in  thy  vessel."  The  effect  of  this 
 speech  was  instantaneous ;  the  mariners  forgot  the 
 storm  and  made  new  efforts  ;  but  they  were  at  length 
 permitted  to  turn  about  by  Cajsar  himself  (Plul.,  Vit. 
 Cces.)  The  noble  simplicity  of  Cssar's  reply,  as  given 
 •bove  by  Plutarch,  has  been  amplified  by  Lucan  into 
 tumid  declamation.     (Pharsal.,  5,  578,  scqq.) 
 
 A.M-fcus,  son  of  Neptune  by  Melia,  was  king  of  the 
 Bebryces.  He  was  famous  for  his  skill  in  boxing  with 
 the  cestus  or  gauntlets,  and  challenged  all  strangers  to 
 a  trial  of  strength.  After  destroying  many  persons  in 
 this  way,  he  was  himself  slain  in  a  contest  with  Pol- 
 lux, whom  he  had  defied  to  the  combat,  when  the  Ar- 
 gonauts, in  their  expedition,  had  stopped  for  a  season 
 on  his  coasts.  (Apoll.  Rhod.,  2,  1,  seqq. —  Vtrg.,  JEn., 
 5,  373.) 
 
 Amvmone,  T.  one  of  the  Danaides,  and  mother  of 
 Nauplius  by  Neptune.  The  god  produced  a  fountain, 
 by  striking  the  ground  with  his  trident,  on  the  spot 
 where  he  had  first  seen  her.  Vid.  Amymone,  II. 
 {Propert.,  2,  26,  A().—Hyi,nn.,fab.,169.)—il.  A  foun- 
 tain of  Argolis,  called  after  Amymone  the  daughter  of 
 Danaus.  It  was  the  most  famous  among  the  streams 
 which  contributed  to  form  the  Lernean  Lake.  {Eurip., 
 Phwn.,  195.  — Pausan.,  2,  37.) 
 
 Amynt.vs,  I.  was  king  of  Macedonia,  and  succeeded 
 his  father  Alcelas,  B.C.  547.  His  son  Alexander  mur- 
 dered the  ambassadors  of  Megabyzus,  for  their  improp- 
 er behaviour  to  the  ladies  of  his  father's  court.  Bu- 
 bares,  a  Persian  general,  was  sent  with  an  army  to  re- 
 venge the  death  of  the  ambassadors  ;  but  he  was  gain- 
 ed over  by  rich  presents,  and  by  receiving  in  marriage 
 the  hand  of  a  daughter  of  Amyntas,  to  whom  he  had 
 been  previously  attached.  {Herod.,  5,  19.— Justin, 
 7,  3.)— II.  Successor  to  Archclaus,  B.C.  299.  He 
 reigned  only  one  year,  and  performed  nothing  remark- 
 able— III.  The  third  of  the  name,  ascended  the  throne 
 of  Macedonia  B.C.  397,  after  having  dispossessed 
 Pausanias  of  the  regal  dignity.  He  was  expelled  by 
 the  Illyrians,  but  restored  by  the  Thessalians  and  Spar- 
 tans. He  made  war  against  the  Illyrians  and  Olyn- 
 thians,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  and 
 lived  to  a  great  age.  His  wife  Eurydice  conspired 
 against  his  life  ;  but  her  snares  were  seasonably  dis- 
 covered by  one  of  his  daughters  by  a  former  wife. 
 He  had  Alexander,  Perdiccas,  and  Philip  (father  of 
 
 Alexander  the  Great)  by  his  first  wife  ;  and  by  the  other 
 he  had  Archelaus,  Aridaeus,  and  Menelaus.  He  reign- 
 ed 24  years.  {Justin,  7,  4  et  9.) — IV.  Grandsoi°of 
 Amyntas  III.  He  was  yet  an  infant,  when  Per- 
 diccas his  father  and  his  uncle  Alexander  were  slain 
 by  the  orders  of  Eurydice  their  mother.  He  was,  of 
 course,  the  lawful  heir  to  the  crown  ;  but  Philip,  having 
 in  his  favour  the  wishes  of  the  nation,  ascended  the 
 throne  in  preference  to  him.  He  afterward  served  in 
 the  armies  of  both  Philip  and  Alexander.  Havino- 
 conspired  against  the  latter,  he  was  put  to  death. 
 {Justin,  7,  4,  seqq. — Id.,  12,  7.) — V.  One  of  the  dep- 
 uties sent  by  Philip  of  Macedon  to  the  Thebans,  B.C. 
 339,  to  induce  them  to  remain  faithful  to  his  interests. 
 — VI.  A  general  of  Alexander's,  B.C.  331,  sent  back 
 to  Macedonia  to  make  new  levies.  {Quint.  Curt.,  4, 
 6. — Id.,  5,  1.) — VII.  Another  officer  of  Alexander's, 
 who  went  over  to  Darius,  and  was  slain  in  attempting 
 to  seize  upon  Egypt.  {Quint.  Curt.,  3,  9.) — VIII. 
 Son  of  Arrhabcus,  commanded  a  squadron  of  cavalry 
 in  Alexander's  anny.  He  was  implicated  in  the  con- 
 spiracy of  Philotas,  but  acquitted.  {Quint.  Curt.,  i, 
 15,  &c.) — IX.  A  king  of  Galatia,  who  succeeded 
 Deiotarus.  He  was  the  last  ruler  of  this  country, 
 which  was  added  to  the  Roman  empire,  after  his 
 death,  by  Augustus. — X  A  geographical  writer,  au- 
 thor of  a  work  entitled  UTadfioi,  or  the  Encamp- 
 ments of  Alexander  in  his  conquest  of  Asia.  (Athen., 
 10,  422,  b.,  (kc.)     It  has  not  come  down  to  us. 
 
 Amyntor,  king  of  Ormenium,  a  city  of  the  Dolo- 
 pians.  He  put  out  the  eyes  of  his  son  Phcenix  on  a 
 false  charge  of  having  corrupted  one  of  the  royal  con- 
 cubines. He  was  slain  by  Hercules  on  attempting  to 
 oppose  the  passage  of  that  hero  through  his  territories. 
 {Apollod.,  2,  7.— Id.,  3,  13.— Compare  Homer,  II., 
 9,  448.) 
 
 Amyricus  Campus,  a  plain  of  Thessaly,  in  the  dis- 
 trict of  Magnesia,  near  the  town  and  river  of  Amyrus 
 It  was  famed  for  its  wines.     {Polyb.,  5,  99.) 
 
 AmyrtyEus,  an  Egyptian  leader  during  the  revolu- 
 tion under  Inarus.  He  succeeded  the  latter.  {Herod., 
 2,  140,  and  3,  15.— Thucyd.,  1,  llO.— Died.  Sic,  11, 
 74.)  Ctesias,  however,  makes  him  to  have  been  a 
 king  of  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Cambyses,  whereas  the 
 other  account  places  him  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes 
 Longimanus.  As  regards  this  discrepance,  consult 
 Bdhr,  ad  Ctes.,  p.  121. 
 
 Amyrus,  I.  a  river  of  Thessaly,  in  the  upper  part 
 of  the  district  of  Magnesia,  and  near  the  town  of  Me- 
 libosa.  {Apoll.  Rhod.,  1,  595.)— II.  A  city  of  Thes- 
 saly, near  the  river  of  the  same  name.  {ScJwl.  in 
 Apoll.  Rhod.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Amystis,  a  river  of  India  falling  into  the  Gano-es. 
 Mannert  makes  it  to  be  the  same  with  the  Pattcrea, 
 near  the  modern  city  of  Hurdwar.  (Gcogr.,  vol.  5  p 
 93.) 
 
 Amyth.\on,  a  son  of  Cretheus,  king  of  lolchos,  bv 
 Tyro.  He  married  Idomene,  by  whom  he  had  Bias 
 and  Melampus.  After  his  father's  death,  he  estab- 
 lished himself  in  Messenia.  He  is  said  to  have  given 
 a  more  regular  form  to  the  Olympic  games.  {Apol 
 lod.,  1,  9. — Hcyne,  ad  loc.) — Melampus  is  called  ^my 
 thaonius,  from  his  father  Amythaon.  {Virg,G.,  3, 
 550.) 
 
 Amytis,  I.  a  daughter  of  Astyages,  whom  Cyrus 
 married.  {Ctesias,  p.  91. — Consult  Bdhr,  ad  loc.} — 
 II.  A  daughter  of  Xerxes,  who  married  Megabyzus, 
 and  disgraced  herself  by  her  licentious  conduct. 
 
 An.Ices  or  Anactes,  a  name  given  to  Castor  and 
 Pollux.  Their  festivals  were  called  Anaceia  {'Ava- 
 KEia).  The  Athenians  applied  the  term  Anaces 
 ("Aia/ccf)  in  a  general  sense  to  all  those  deities  who 
 were  believed  to  watch  over  the  interests,  as  well  pub- 
 lic as  private,  of  the  city  of  Athens:  in  a  special  sense, 
 however,  the  appellation  was  given  to  the  Dioscuri,  on 
 account  of  the  peculiar  advantages  which  the  capital 
 
 129 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 of  Attica  had  derived  from  them.  (Compare  Tzetz., 
 ad  IL,p.  69.)  Spanheim  {ad  CaUim..,Hijmn.  in  Jov., 
 79)  and  SchelHng  (Samo^r.  Goltheit.,  p.  95)  derive 
 the  form  'AvuKeg  from  the  Hebrew  Enakrrn.  {Deu- 
 tcron.,  1,  28.)  The  Greek  grammarians,  on  the  other 
 hand,  have  sought  for  an  etymology  in  their  own  lan- 
 guage, and  make  the  term  in  question  come  from  avu, 
 "  above,"  as  expressive  of  the  idea  of  superiority  and 
 dominion.  They  attach  to  this  name  the  triple  sense 
 of  i9f Of , /3a(Tf /If iV,  and  oiKodsaTroTTjQ.  Hence  also  the 
 adverb  uvukcoq  {Herodot.,  1,  Hi.—  Thiicyd.,  8,  102), 
 which  the  scholiasts  explain  by  npovoT/TiKuc  Kal  (pv- 
 XaKTiKuc.  (Compare  Eustalh.,  ad  Od.,  1,  397. — 
 Creuzer^s  Symbolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  2,  p.  305,  in 
 notis.) 
 
 Anacharsis,  a  Scythian  philosopher,  who  flourish- 
 ed nearly  six  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  He 
 was  the  son  of  a  Scythian  prince,  who  had  married  a 
 native  of  Greece.  Early  instructed  by  his  mother  in 
 the  Greek  language,  he  became  desirous  of  acquiring 
 a  portion  of  Greek  wisdom,  and  obtained  from  the 
 king  of  Scythia  an  embassy  to  Athens,  where  he  ar- 
 rived in  the  year  592  B.C.,  and  was  introduced  to  So- 
 lon by  his  countryman  To.xaris.  On  sending  in  word 
 that  a  Scythian  was  at  the  door,  and  requested  his 
 friendship,  Solon  replied  that  friends  were  best  made 
 at  home.  "  Then  let  Solon,  who  is  at  home,  make 
 me  his  friend,"  was  the  smart  retort  of  Anacharsis; 
 and,  struck  by  its  readiness,  Solon  not  only  admitted 
 him,  but,  finding  him  worthy  of  his  confidence,  favour- 
 ed him  with  his  advice  and  friendship.  He  accord- 
 ingly resided  some  years  at  Athens,  and  was  the  first 
 stranger  whom  the  Athenians  admitted  to  the  honours 
 of  citizenship.  He  then  travelled  into  other  countries, 
 and  finally  returned  to  Scythia,  with  a  view  to  com- 
 municate to  his  countrymen  the  information  he  had  re- 
 ceived, and  to  introduce  among  them  the  laws  and  re- 
 ligion of  Greece.  The  attempt  was,  however,  unsuc- 
 cessful ;  for  the  Scythians  were  not  only  indisposed  to 
 receive  them,  but  it  is  said  that  Anacharsis  was  killed 
 by  an  arrow,  from  the  king,  his  brother's,  own  hand, 
 who  detected  him  performing  certain  rites  in  a  wood, 
 before  an  image  of  Cybele.  Great  respect,  however, 
 was  paid  to  him  after  death,  which  is  not  unusual. 
 Anacharsis  was  famous  for  a  manly  and  nervous  kind 
 of  language,  which  was  called,  from  his  country,  Scy- 
 thian eloquence.  The  apophthegms  attributed  to  him 
 are  shrewd,  and  better  worth  quoting  than  many  of  the 
 ancient  saws,  which  are  often  indebted  for  their  celeb- 
 rity much  more  to  their  antiquity  than  to  their  wisdom. 
 His  repartee  to  an  Athenian,  who  reproached  him  with 
 the  barbarism  of  his  country,  is  well  known:  "My 
 country  is  a  disgrace  to  me,  but  you  are  a  disgrace  to 
 your  country."  Strabo  tells  us,  from  an  old  historian, 
 that  Anacharsis  invented  the  bellows,  the  anchor,  and 
 the  potter's  wheel  :  but  this  account  is  very  doubtful, 
 as  Pliny,  Seneca  (£j/is/.,  90),  Diogenes  Laertius,  and 
 Suidas,  who  likewise  speak  of  the  inventions  ascribed 
 to  that  philosopher,  mention  only  the  last  two:  while 
 Strabo,  moreover,  remarks  that  the  potter's  wheel  is 
 noticed  in  Homer.  {Bcckman's  History  of  Inventioyis, 
 vol.  1,  p.  104. — Compare  Ritter's  Vorhalle,  p.  237 
 and  262.)  The  epistles  which  bear  the  name  of  Ana- 
 charsis, and  which  were  published  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
 at  Paris,  1552,  are  unequivocally  spurious.  They  are 
 supposed  to  have  been  produced  at  a  later  period,  in 
 the  school  of  the  sophists.  {Gorl07i's  Biogr.  Diet., 
 vol.  1,  p.  72. — Enfield'' s  History  of  Philosophy,  vol. 
 1,  p.  116,  seqq.) 
 
 Anacium  \' kvaKclov),  a  temple  at  Athens,  sacred 
 to  Castor  and  Pollux,  and  standing  at  the  foot  of  the 
 Acropolis.  It  was  a  building  of  great  antiquity,  and 
 contained  paintings  of  Polygnolus  and  Micon.  {Pau- 
 san.,  1,  18. — Harpocr.,  s.  v.  '\vaK£iov.) 
 
 Anacreon,  a  celebrated  Greek  poet,  of  whose  life 
 little  is  actually  known.     It  is,  however,  generally  ad- 
 130 
 
 mitted  that  he  was  born  at  Tens,  a  city  of  Ionia,  m 
 the  early  part  of  the  sixth  century  before  the  Christian 
 era,  and  that  he  flourished  in  the  sixtieth  01ymi)iad. 
 From  Abdera,  to  which  city  his  parents  had  fled  from 
 the  dominion  of  Crcesus,  the  young  Anacreon  betook 
 himself  to  the  court  of  Polycrates,  tyrant  of  Samos. 
 Here  he  was  received  with  great  distinction,  but  sub- 
 sequently retired  to  Athens,  where  he  remained  in 
 great  favour  with  Hipparchus,  who  then  possessed  the 
 power  which  Pisistratus  had  usurped.  The  death  of 
 his  patron  caused  him  to  return  to  his  native  city, 
 whence  he  retired  to  Abdera  on  the  breaking  out  of 
 the  disturbances  under  Histia;us.  He  attained  the 
 age  of  eighty-five  years.  The  time  and  manner  of 
 his  death  are  uncertain,  and  variously  reported  :  the 
 most  popular  opinion  is,  that  he  died  from  sufibcation, 
 in  consequence  of  swallowing  a  grape-stone  while  in 
 the  act  of  drinking.  The  bacchanalian  turn  of  his 
 poetry  is,  however,  and  not  without  some  appearance 
 of  reason,  supposed  by  many  to  be  the  sole  foundation 
 for  this  tradition.  In  the  poetry  generally  attributed 
 to  him,  a  great  difference,  as  to  quality,  is  easily  dis- 
 cernible, a  circumstance  which  has  contributed  not  a 
 little  to  strengthen  the  supposition  that  the  whole  is 
 not  genuine.  Indeed,  some  critics  have  not  hesitated 
 to  affirm,  that  very  few  of  the  compositions  which  go 
 under  his  name  are  to  be  ascribed  to  Anacreon.  The 
 fragments  collected  by  Ursinus,  with  a  few  others, 
 seem,  according  to  them,  to  be  his  most  genuine  pro- 
 ductions. To  decide  from  the  internal  evidence  con- 
 tained in  his  writings,  as  well  as  from  the  general  tcnour 
 of  the  meager  accounts  handed  down  to  us,  he  was 
 himself  an  amusing  voluptuary  and  an  elegant  profli- 
 gate. Few  Grecian  poets  have  obtained  greater  pop- 
 ularity in  modern  times,  for  which  in  England  he  is 
 indebted  to  some  excellent  translations,  in  part  by 
 Cowley,  and  altogether  by  Fav/kes,  not  to  mention  the 
 point  and  elegance  of  the  more  paraphrastic  version  of 
 Moore. — Of  the  editions  in  the  original  Greek,  the 
 most  celebrated  is  the  quarto,  printed  at  Rome  in 
 1781,  by  Spaletti  :  the  most  learned  and  useful  is  that 
 of  Fischer,  Lips.,  1754  (reprinted  in  1776  and  1793 
 with  additions),  in  8vo.  Other  editions  worthy  of  no- 
 tice are,  that  of  Brunck,  Argent.,  1778,  16mo  (re- 
 printed in  1786,  in  32mo  and  16mo) ;  that  of  Gail, 
 Pans,  1799,  4to,  with  a  French  version,  dissertations, 
 music,  &c.  ;  that  of  Moebius,  Halle,  1810,  8vo,  and 
 that  of  Mehlhorn,  Glogav.,  1825,  8vo. 
 
 AnactorIum,  the  first  town  on  the  northern  coast 
 of  Acarnania,  situate  on  a  low  neck  of  land  opposite 
 Nicopolis,  of  which  it  was  the  emporium.  (Strabo, 
 450.)  The  site  is  now  called  Punta,  which  many  an- 
 tiquaries, however,  have  identified  with  Actium :  but 
 this  is  evidently  an  error.  Thucydides  reports  (1, 
 55),  that  Anactorium  had  been  colonized  jointly  by 
 the  Corcyreans  and  Corinthians.  These  were  subse- 
 quently ejected  by  the  Acarnanians,  who  occupied  the 
 place  in  conjunction  with  the  Athenians.  {Thnajd., 
 4,  49,  and  7,  31. — Compare  Scymnus,  Ch.,  v.  459.) 
 Anactorium  ceased  to  exist  as  a  town  when  Augustus 
 transferred  its  inhabitants  to  Nicopolis.  {Pausan.,  7, 
 23.) 
 
 Anadyomene  {'kva6vo[dvii  scil.  'kc^poiVLTi]),  a  cele- 
 brated picture  of  Venus,  painted  by  Apelles,  which 
 originally  adorned  the  temple  of  -Esculapius  at  Cos. 
 It  represented  the  goddess  rising  out  of  the  sea  (ava- 
 Svo/xh'Tjv)  and  wringing  her  hair.  Augustus  transfer- 
 red it  to  the  temple  of  Julius  Csesar,  and  remitted  to 
 the  inhabitants  of  Cos  a  tribute  of  one  hundred  talents 
 in  return.  The  lower  part  of  the  figure  having  been 
 injured,  no  Roman  painter  could  be  found  to  supply  it. 
 {Plin,  35,  10.) 
 
 Anagnia,  the  principal  town  of  the  Hernici,  situate 
 about  thirty-six  miles  to  the  cast  of  Rome.  It  is 
 now  Anagni.  The  fertility  of  the  surrounding  coun- 
 try is  much  commended  by  Silius  Italicus  (8,  392). 
 
AN 
 
 ANA 
 
 Anagnia  was  colonized  by  Drusus.  {Front,  de  Col.) 
 From  Tacitus  {Hist.,  3,  62)  we  learn,  that  it  was  the 
 birthplace  of  Valens,  a  general  of  Vitellius,  and  the 
 chief  supporter  of  his  party.  The  Latin  way  was 
 joined  near  this  city  by  the  Via  Prsenestina,  which 
 from  that  circumstance  was  called  Compitum  Anag- 
 ninum.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  79,  seqq.) 
 Anaitis,  a  goddess  of  Armenia,  who  appears  to  be 
 the  same  with  the  Venus  of  the  western  nations. 
 She  is  identical  also  with  the  goddess  of  Nature,  wor- 
 shipped among  the  Persians.  {Creuzer,  Symholik, 
 vol.  2,  p.  27.)  The  temple  of  Anaitis,  in  Armenia, 
 stood  in  the  district  of  Acilisene,  in  the  angle  between 
 the  northern  and  southern  branches  of  the  Euphrates. 
 She  was  worshipped  also  in  Zela,  a  city  of  Pontus, 
 and  in  Comana.  {Creuzer,  I.  c.)  As  regards  the 
 origin  of  the  name  itself,  much  difference  of  opmion 
 exists.  Von  Hammer  {Fundgr.  dcs  Or.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 275)  derives  it  from  the  Persian  Anahid,  the  name 
 of  the  morning  star,  and  of  the  female  genius  that  di- 
 rects with  her  lyre  the  harmony  of  the  spheres.  Ack- 
 erblad,  on  the  other  hand  {Lettre  an  C/ieval.  Ilalinski, 
 &c.,  Rom.,  1817),  referring  to  Clemens  Alexandrinus, 
 {Protreptr.,  5,  p.  57)  and  Eustathius  {ad  Dionys. 
 Perieg.,  v.  845),  where  mention  is  made  of  an  'A.(j>po- 
 6iTrj  Tavat^,  and  a  TavaiTig,  and  also  to  the  Phoenician 
 TavuT,  asserts,  that  the  true  name  of  the  goddess  in 
 question  was  TavatrL^  (corrupted  in  most  passages 
 of  the  ancient  writers  into  'Avatric),  and  that  the  root 
 is  Tanat,  the  appellation  of  an  Asiatic  goddess,  who 
 is  at  one  time  confounded  with  Diana,  and  at  another 
 with  Minerva.  (Compare  also  the  Egyptian  Ncith 
 with  the  article  prefixed,  A-ncilh,  and  'Avetrig,  another 
 form  of  the  name  Anaitis,  as  appearing  in  Plutarch, 
 Vit.  Artaxerx.,  c.  27.)  Silvestre  de  8acy,  however 
 {Journal,  d.  Sav.  Juillet,  1817,  p.  439),  in  opposition 
 to  Ackerblad,  remarks,  that  the  Persians,  most  indu- 
 bitably, call  the  planet  Venus  Anahid  or  Nahid,  and 
 that  the  name  Anaitis  is  evidently  derived  from  this 
 source  ;  he  observes,  moreover,  that  TavaiTi^  is  it- 
 self a  false  reading. — The  temple  of  the  goddess  Anai- 
 tis had  a  large  tract  of  land  set  apart  for  its  use,  and 
 a  great  number  of  male  and  female  slaves  to  cultivate 
 it  (hp66ov'?ioi).  It  was  famed  for  its  riches,  and  it 
 was  from  this  sacred  edifice  that  An'.ony,  m  his  Par- 
 thian expedition,  carried  off  a  statue  of  the  goddess 
 of  solid  gold.  {Plin.,  33,  4.)  The  commercial  rela- 
 tions which  subsisted  belv^'een  the  Armenians  and 
 other  countries,  caused  the  worship  of  Anaitis  to  be 
 spread  over  other  lands,  and  hence  we  read  of  its  hav- 
 ing been  introduced  into  Persia,  Media,  Bactria,  &c. 
 (Compare  Slrabo,  535,  and  Hcyne,  de  Sacerdotw  Co- 
 manensi,  in  Noo.  Comment.  Soc.  Scient.  Gotting., 
 16,  p.  \\7,  scqq.)  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  first  that  introduced  the  worship  of  Anaitis 
 into  Susa,  Babylon,  and  Ecbatana.  {Clemens  Alex- 
 andr.,  Protreptr.,  p.  57,  cd.  Potter. — Creuzer's  Sym- 
 holik,  vol.  2,  p.  26,  seqq.) 
 
 Anam.vres,  a  Gallic  tribe,  in  Gallia  Cispadana,  to 
 the  south  of  the  Po,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines. 
 They  occupied  what  is  now  a  part  of  the  modern  Duchy 
 of  Parma.     {Pulyb.,  2,  32.) 
 
 An.Xphe,  one  of  the  Sporadcs,  northeast  of  Thera. 
 It  was  said  to  have  been  made  to  rise  by  thunder  from 
 the  bottom  of  the  sea,  in  order  to  receive  the  Argo- 
 nauts during  a  storm,  on  their  return  from  Colchis. 
 The  meaning  of  the  fable  evidently  is,  that  the  island 
 was  of  volcanic  origin.  ApoUonius  Rhodius,  however 
 (4,  1717),  gives  a  different  account,  according  to  which 
 the  island  received  its  name  from  Apollo's  having  ap- 
 peared there  to  the  Argonauts  in  a  storm.  A  temple 
 was  in  consequence  erected  to  him,  under  the  name 
 of  yEgletes  {klyly-rjc),  in  the  island.  {Strabo,  484.) 
 The  modern  name  of  the  island  is  Amphio. 
 
 Anapus.  I.  a  river  of  Epirus,  near  the  town  of  Stra- 
 tos,  mentioned  by  Thucydides  (2,  82). — II.  A  river 
 
 of  Sicily,  near  Syracuse,  now  Alfeo.  It  was  a  small 
 stream,  but  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the  poets. 
 They  fabled  that  the  deity  of  the  stream  fell  in  love 
 with  the  nymph  Cyane,  who  was  changed  into  a  fount- 
 ain. {Ovid,  Pont.,  2,  10,  2Q.—Met.,  5,  fab.,  5,  &,c.) 
 Anas,  a  river  of  Spain,  now  the  Guadiana.  The 
 modern  name  is  a  corruption  from  the  Arabic,  Wadi- 
 Ana,  i.  e.,  the  river  Ana.     {Plin.,  3,  1.) 
 
 Anaurus,  a  small  river  of  Thessaly,  near  the  foot 
 of  Pelion,  and  running  into  the  Onchestus.  In  this 
 stream  Jason,  according  to  the  poets,  lost  his  sandal. 
 {Apollon.  Mod.,  1,  48.) 
 
 Anaxagoras,  I.  a  monarch  of  Argos,  son  of  Ar- 
 geius,  and  grandson  of  Megapenthes.  He  shared  the 
 sovereign  power  with  Bias  and  Melampus,  who  had 
 cured  the  women  of  Argos  of  madness.  {Pausan., 
 2,  18.) — II.  A  Grecian  philosopher,  born  at  Clazom- 
 enae,  Olymp.  70,  according  to  Apollodorus  {Diog. 
 Laert.,  2,  7),  a  date,  however,  th.ot  is  inconsistent 
 with  his  reputed  friendship  with  Pericles.  The  state- 
 ment commonly  received  makes  him  a  scholar  of 
 Anaximenes,  which  the  widely  fluctuating  date  as- 
 signed to  the  latter  renders  impossible  to  refute  on 
 chronological  grounds  :  however,  the  philosophical  di- 
 rections they  respectively  followed  were  so  opposite, 
 that  they  cannot  consistently  be  referred  to  the  same 
 school.  From  Clazomenae  he  removed  to  Athens, 
 and  here  we  find  him  living  in  the  strictest  intimacy 
 with  Pericles,  to  the  formation  of  whose  eloquence 
 his  precepts  are  said  to  have  greatly  contributed.  As 
 scholars  of  Anaxagoras,  several  highly  distinguished 
 individuals  have  been  mentioned,  most  of  them  on  the 
 sole  authority  of  a  very  dubious  tradition  ;  and  only 
 of  Euripides  the  tragedian,  and  Archelaus  the  natural- 
 ist, is  it  certain  that  they  stood  with  hiin  in  the  closest 
 relation  of  intimacy.  His  connexion  with  the  mcst 
 powerful  Athenians,  however,  profited  him  but  little ; 
 for  not  only  does  he  seem  to  have  passed  his  old  age 
 in  poverty,  but  he  was  not  even  safe  from  the  persecu- 
 tion which  assailed  the  friends  of  Pericles  on  the  de- 
 cline of  his  ascendency.  He  was  accused  of  impiety 
 towards  the  gods,  thrown  into  prison,  and  eventually 
 forced  to  fly  to  Lampsacus.  Some  foundation  for  the 
 charge  of  impiety  was  probably  found  in  his  general 
 views,  which  undoubtedly  were  far  from  according 
 with  the  popular  notions  of  religion,  since  he  re- 
 garded the  sun  and  moon  as  consisting  of  earth  and 
 stone,  and  miraculous  indications  at  sacrifices  as  ordi- 
 nary appearances  of  nature.  He  also  gave  a  moral 
 exposition  of  the  myths  of  Homer,  and  an  allegorical 
 explanation  of  the  names  of  the  gods.  Anaxagoras 
 was  an  old  man  when  he  arrived  at  Lampsacus,  and 
 died  there  soon  after  his  arrival,  in  the  eighty-eighth 
 Olympiad,  or  thereabout.  His  memory  was  honoured 
 by  the  people  of  Lampsacus  with  a  yearly  festival. 
 In  addition  to  his  philosophical  labours,  Anaxagoras 
 is  said  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  several  other 
 branches  of  knowledge.  He  occupied  himself  much 
 with  mathematics  and  the  kindred  sciences,  especially 
 astronomy,  as  the  character  of  the  discoveries  attribu- 
 ted to  him  sufficiently  shows.  He  is  represented  as 
 having  conjectured  the  right  explanation  of  the  moon's 
 light,  and  of  the  solar  and  lunar  eclipses.  His  work 
 on  nature,  of  which  several  fragments  have  been  pre- 
 served, especially  by  Simplicius,  was  much  known  and 
 celebrated  in  ancient  times.  A  full  analysis  of  his 
 doctrines,  as  far  as  they  have  reached  us,  is  gi"en  by 
 Ritler,  in  his  History  of  Ancient  Philosophy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  281,  seqq.,  Oxford  transl. 
 
 Anaxanker,  son  of  Eurycrates,  and  king  of  Sparta. 
 He  was  of  the  family  of  the  Agid«.  The  second 
 Messenian  war  began  in  his  reign.  {Herodot.,  7, 
 204:.— Pausan.,  3,  3.) 
 
 Anaxandrides,  I.  son  of  Leon,  was  king  of  Sparta. 
 Being  directed  by  the  Ephori  to  put  away  his  wife  on 
 account  of  her  barrenness,  he  only  so  far  obeyed  as  to 
 
 131 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 take  a  second  wife,  retaining  also  the  first.  By  his 
 second  spouse  he  became  the  father  of  Cleomenes, 
 while  the  first  one,  hitherto  steril,  bore  to  him,  after 
 this,  Dorieus,  Leonidas,  andCleombrotus.  {Fausan., 
 3,  3.) — II.  A  comic  writer,  born  at  Camirus  in  Rhodes. 
 He  was  the  author  of  sixty-five  comedies.  Endowed 
 by  nature  with  a  handsome  person  and  fine  talents, 
 Anaxandrides,  though  studiously  elegant  and  effemi- 
 nate in  dress  and  manners,  was  yet  the  slave  of  passion. 
 It  is  said  {Athen<Tus,  9,  16)  that  he  used  to  tear  his 
 •jfi successful  dramas  into  pieces,  or  send  them  as  waste 
 paper  to  the  perfumers'  shops.  He  introduced  upon 
 the  stage  scenes  of  gross  intrigue  and  debauchery  ; 
 and  not  only  ridiculed  Plato  and  the  Academy,  but 
 proceeded  to  lampoon  the  magistracy  of  Athens.  For 
 this  attack  he  is  reported  by  some  to  have  been  tried 
 and  condemned  to  die  by  starvation.  {Theatre  of  the 
 Greeks,  2d  ed.,  p.  183.) 
 
 Anaxarchus,  a  philosopher  of  Abdera,  from  the 
 school  of  Democritus,  who  flourished  about  the  1 10th 
 Olympiad.  He  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  having  lived 
 with  Alexander  and  enjoyed  his  confidence.  {JElian, 
 Var.  Hist.,9,3.—Arria7i,  Exp.  Alex.,  A,  p.  %i.—Plut., 
 ad  Princ.  rndoct.)  It  reflects  no  credit,  however, 
 upon  his  philosophy,  that,  when  the  mind  of  the  mon- 
 arch was  torn  with  regret  for  having  killed  his  faithful 
 Clitus,  he  administered  the  balm  of  flattery,  saying, 
 "  that  kings,  like  the  gods,  could  do  no  wrong."  This 
 philosopher  addicted  himself  to  pleasure  ;  and  it  was 
 on  this  account,  and  not,  as  some  supposed,  on  ac- 
 count of  the  apathy  and  tranquillity  of  his  life,  that  he 
 obtained  the  surname  of  H-vSaifioviKog,  "  the  Fortu- 
 nate." A  marvellous  story  is  related  of  his  having 
 been  pounded  in  an  iron  mortar  by  Nicocreon,  king 
 of  Cyprus,  in  revenge  for  the  advice  which  he  had 
 given  to  Alexander,  to  serve  up  the  head  of  that  prince 
 at  an  entertainment ;  and  of  his  enduring  the  torture 
 with  invincible  hardiness.  But  the  tale,  for  which 
 there  is  no  authority  prior  to  the  time  of  Cicero,  is 
 wholly  inconsistent  with  the  character  of  a  man  who 
 had  through  his  life  been  softened  by  effeminate 
 pleasures.  The  same  story  is  also  related  of  Zeno  the 
 Eleatic.  {EnJieUVs  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p. 
 435.) 
 
 Anaxarkte,  a  young  female  of  Salamis,  beloved  by 
 Iphis,  a  youth  of  humble  birth.  She  slighted  his  ad- 
 dresses, and  he  hung  himself  in  despair.  Gazing  on 
 the  funeral  procession  as  it  passed  near  her  dwelling, 
 ,and  evincing  little  emotion  at  the  sight,  she  was  changed 
 into  a  stone.     {Ovtd,  Met.,  14,  698,  scqq.) 
 
 Anaxibia,  a  daughter  of  Bias,  brother  to  the  physi- 
 cian Melampus.  She  married  Pelias,  king  of  lolchos, 
 bv  whom  she  had  Acastus,  and  four  daughters,  Pisi- 
 dice,    Pelopea,  Hippothoe,   and   Alcestis.     {Apollod., 
 
 1,  9.) 
 
 Anaxidamhs,  succeeded  his  father  Zeuxidamus  on 
 the  throne  of  Sparta.     {Pausan.,  3,  7.) 
 
 ANAXii.AUs,aMessenian,  tyrant  of  Rhegium.  He 
 was  so  mild  and  popular  during  his  reign,  that  when  he 
 died,  476  B.C.,  he  left  his  infant  sons  to  the  care  of  one 
 of  his  slaves,  named  Micythus,  of  tried  integrity,  and 
 the  citizens  chose  rather  to  obey  a  slave  than  revolt 
 from  their  benevolent  sovereign's  children.  Micythus, 
 after  completing  his  guardianship,  retired  to  Tegea  in 
 Arcadia,  loaded  with  presents  and  encomiums  from  the 
 inhabitants  of  Rhegium.  {Justin,  4:,  2. — Diod.  Sic, 
 11  66  —Herod.,  7,  170. — Justin,  3,  2.— Pausan.,  4, 
 ^3.—Tlmeyd.,  6,  5.— Herod.,  6,  23.) 
 
 Anaximander,  a  native  of  Miletus,  who  first  taught 
 philosophy  in  a  public  school,  and  is  therefore  often 
 spoken  of  as  the  founder  of  the  Ionic  sect.  Ho  was 
 born  in  the  third  year  of  the  42d  Olympiad  (B.C.  610), 
 and  was  the  first  who  laid  aside  the  defective  method  of 
 oral  tradition,  and  committed  the  principles  of  natural 
 science  to  writing.  It  is  related  of  him  that  he  predict- 
 ed an  earthquake :  but  that  he  should  have  been  able,  in 
 132 
 
 the  infancy  of  knowledge,  to  do  what  is  at  this  day  be- 
 yond the  reach  of  philosophy,  is  incredible.  He  lived 
 64  years.  {Diog.  Lacrt.,  2,  1. — Cic.,  Acad.  Quasi., 
 4,  37.)  The  general  doctrine  of  Anaximander  con- 
 cerning nature  and  the  origin  of  things,  was,  that  infin- 
 ity, TO  dneipov,  is  the  fir.st  principle  of  all  things  ;  that 
 the  universe,  though  variable  in  its  parts,  as  one  whole 
 is  immutable  ;  and  that  all  things  are  produced  from 
 infinity  and  terminate  in  it.  What  this  philosopher 
 meant  by  "  infinity"  has  been  a  subject  of  much  con- 
 troversy. If  we  follow  the  testimony  of  Aristotle  and 
 Theophrastus,  it  will  appear  that  he  understood  by  the 
 term  in  question  a  mixture  of  multifarious  elementary 
 parts,  out  of  which  individual  things  issued  by  separa- 
 tion. Mathematics  and  astronomy  were  greatly  in- 
 debted to  him.  He  framed  connected  series  of  geo- 
 metrical truths,  and  wrote  a  summary  of  his  doctrine. 
 He  was  the  first  who  undertook  to  delineate  the  sur- 
 face of  the  earth,  and  mark  the  divisions  of  land  and 
 water  upon  an  artificial  globe.  The  invention  of  the 
 sundial  is  also  ascribed  to  him.  This,  however,  has 
 been  controverted  ;  but  even  if  the  invention  has  been 
 wrongfully  ascribed  to  him,  he  nevertheless  seems  to 
 have  been  the  first  among  the  Greeks  who  pointed  out 
 the  use  of  the  dial.  He  is  said  also  to  have  been  the 
 first  that  made  calculations  upon  the  size  and  distance 
 of  the  heavenly  bodies.  He  believed  that  the  stars 
 are  globular  collections  of  air  and  fire,  borne  about  in 
 their  respective  spheres,  and  animated  by  portions  of 
 the  divinity  ;  that  the  earth  is  a  globe  in  the  midst  of 
 the  universe,  and  stationary,  and  that  the  sun  is  28 
 times  larger  than  the  earth.  {EnfieUVs  History  of 
 Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  154,  seqq. — Rilter,  Hist.  Anc. 
 Phil.,  vol.  1,  p.  265,  scqq.,  Oxford  trans.) 
 
 Anaximenes,  I.  a  native  of  Miletus,  born  about  the 
 56tli  Olympiad  (B.C.  556).  He  is  usually  regarded 
 as  the  pupil  of  Anaximander,  but  this  is  controverted 
 by  Ritter,  who  sees  a  striking  resemblance  between 
 his  doctrines  and  those  of  Thales.  This  same  writer 
 rejects  the  birth-date  commonly  assigned  to  Anaxim- 
 enes, and  receives  that  given  by  Apollodorus,  namely, 
 Olymp.  63.  Anaximenes  taught  that  the  first  princi- 
 ple of  all  things  is  air,  which  he  held  to  be  infinite  or  im- 
 mense. "  Anaximenes,"  says  Simplicius  {ad  Physic, 
 1,  2),  "  taught  the  unity  and  immensity  of  matter,  but 
 under  a  more  definite  term  than  Anaximander,  calling 
 it  air.  He  held  air  to  be  God,  because  it  is  diffused 
 through  all  nature,  and  is  perpetually  active."  The  air 
 of  Anaximenes  is,  then,  a  subtile  ether,  animated  with 
 a  divine  [irinciple,  whence  it  becomes  the  origin  of  all 
 beings.  In  this  sense  Lactantius  (1,5)  understood  his 
 doctrine  ;  for,  speaking  of  Cleanthes  as  adopting  the 
 doctrine  of  Anaximenes,  he  adds,  "the  poet  assents 
 to  it  when  he  sings,  '  Turn  pater  omnipotens  fcecvndis 
 imhribus  a-ther," "  &c.  ( Virg:,  Genrg.,  2,  325.)  Anax- 
 imenes is  said  to  have  taught,  that  all  minds  are  air ; 
 that  fire,  water,  and  earth,  proceed  from  it,  by  rarefac- 
 tion or  condensation  ;  that  the  sun  and  moon  are  fiery 
 bodies,  whose  form  is  that  of  a  circular  plate ;  that  the 
 stars,  which  also  are  fiery  substances,  arc  fixed  in  the 
 heavens,  as  nails  in  a  crystalline  plane ;  and  that  the 
 earth  is  a  plane  tablet  resting  upon  the  air.  {Pint., 
 Plac.  Phil.,  1,  17,  and  2,  11.— C;c,  N.  D.,  1,  10.— 
 EnficWs  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  156.— 7^;/- 
 ter.  Hist  Anc  Phil.,  vol.  1,  p.  203,  scqq.,  Oxford 
 trans.) — II.  A  native  of  Lampsacus,  and  son  of  Aris- 
 tocles.  He  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  rhetoric,  and 
 was  the  disciple  both  of  Zoilus,  notorious  for  his  hy- 
 percriticisms  on  Homer,  and  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic. 
 Anaximenes  was  one  of  the  preceptors  of  Alexander 
 the  Great.  He  accompanied  his  illustrious  pupil  through 
 most  of  his  campaigns,  and  afterward  wrote  the  histo- 
 ry of  his  reign  and  that  of  his  father  Philip.  It  is  re- 
 corded tiiat,  during  the  Persian  war,  his  native  city 
 having  espoused  the  cause  of  Darius,  Alexander  ea- 
 pressed  his  determination  of  punishing  the  inhabitants 
 
ANC 
 
 ANC 
 
 by  laying  it  in  ashes.  Anaximenes  was  deputed  by 
 his  countrymen  as  a  mediator  ;  but  the  conqueror, 
 guessing  his  intention,  when  he  saw  him  entering  the 
 royal  tent  as  a  suppliant,  cut  short  his  anticipated  pe- 
 tition by  declaring  that  he  was  determined  to  refuse 
 his  request,  whatever  it  might  be.  Of  this  hasty  e.x- 
 pression  the  philosopher  availed  himself,  and  mimedi- 
 ately  unplored  that  Lampsacus  might  be  utterly  de- 
 stroyed, and  a  pardon  refused  to  its  citizens.  The 
 Btrataccm  was  successful  ;  Aie.xander  was  unwilling 
 10  break  his  promise  ;  and  the  presence  of  mind  ex- 
 hibited by  its  advocate  saved  the  town.  Ana.ximenes 
 was  also  the  author  of  a  history  of  Greece.  {Ptiusan., 
 6,  18.— Val.  Max.,  7,  3,  4.) 
 
 Anazaubus,  a  city  of  Cilicia  Campestris,  situate  on 
 the  river  Pyramus,  at  some  distance  from  the  sea,  and 
 taking  its  name  apparently  from  a  mountain  called  An- 
 azarbus,  at  the  foot  of  which  it  was  situate.  The  ad- 
 jacent territory  was  famed  for  its  fertility.  It  after- 
 ward took  the  appellation  of  Cajsarea  ad  Anazarbutn, 
 but  from  what  Roman  emperor  is  not  known,  though 
 prior  to  the  time  of  Pliny  (5,  27).  The  original  appel- 
 lation, however,  finally  prevaded,  as  we  find  it  so  desig- 
 nated in  Hierocles  and  the  imperial  Notitiae,  at  which 
 period  it  had  become  the  chief  town  of  Cdicia  Secunda. 
 It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  a  terrible  earthquake  under 
 Justinian.  Anazarbus  was  the  birthplace  of  Dioscor- 
 ides  and  Oppian.  The  Turks  call  it,  at  the  present  day, 
 Ain-Zerbch.     {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  354.) 
 
 Anc^us,  I.  the  son  of  Lycurgus  and  Cleophile,  or, 
 according  to  others,  Astypal«a,  was  in  the  expedition 
 of  the  Argonauts.  He  was  also  at  the  chase  of  the 
 Calydonian  boar,  in  which  he  perished.  {Apollod.,3, 
 9.— Id.,  1,8.— Hijgin.,  fab.,  173  et  248.)— II.  King 
 of  Samos,  and  son  of  Neptune  and  Astypalsa.  He 
 went  with  the  Argonauts,  and  succeeded  Tiphys  as  pi- 
 lot of  the  ship  Argo.  He  reigned  in  Ionia,  where  he 
 married  Samia,  daughter  of  the  Maeander,  by  whom  he 
 had  four  sons,  Perilas,  Enudus,  Samus,  Alithersus,  and 
 one  daughter  called  Parlhenope.  He  paid  particular 
 attention  to  the  culture  of  the  vine,  and  on  one  occa- 
 sion was  told  by  a  slave,  whom  he  was  pressing  with 
 hard  labour  in  his  vineyard,  that  he  would  never  taste 
 of  its  produce.  After  the  vintage  had  been  gathered 
 in  and  the  wine  made,  Ancsus,  in  order  to  falsify  the 
 prediction,  was  about  to  raise  a  cup  of  the  liquor  to  his 
 lips,  deriding,  at  the  same  time,  the  pretended  prophet 
 (who,  however,  merely  told  him,  in  reply,  that  there 
 were  many  things  between  the  cup  and  the  lip),  when 
 tidings  came  that  a  boar  had  broken  into  his  vineyard. 
 Throwing  down  the  cup,  with  the  untasted  liquor, 
 Ancs-Ms  rushed  forth  to  meet  the  animal,  and  lost  his 
 life  in  the  encounter.     Hence  arose  the  Greek  proverb. 
 
 lioXTiu  fteTa^i)  ■kDx.zl  KvkiKQq  /cat  xt'ikzoq  uKpov. 
 Multa  cadunt  inter  calicem  supremaque  labra. 
 
 The  Latin  translation  is  by  Erasmus,  who,  as  Dacier 
 thinks,  read  iri-ei  for  Ttt\ei,  a  supposition  not  at  all 
 probable,  since  "  caJ.unl''''  gives  the  spirit,  though  not 
 the  literal  meaning,  of  -rriTiei. — The  story  just  given  is 
 related  somewhat  differently  by  other  writers,  but  the 
 point  in  all  is  the  same.  (Eustath.,  ad.  U.,  p.  77,  cd. 
 Rom.—Fcslus,  «.  ■».  Manum — Aul.  GclL,  13,  17.— 
 Dacir.r,  ad  Fesl.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Anoalites,  a  people  of  Britain,  near  the  Atrebatii, 
 and  probably  a  clan  of  that  nation.  Ba.xter  supposes 
 them  to  have  been  the  herdsmen  and  shepherds  of  the 
 Atrebatii,  and  to  have  possessed  those  parts  of  Oxford- 
 shire and  Buckinghamshire  most  proper  for  pasturage. 
 Horslcy,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  their  country  corre- 
 spond to  the  modern  Berkshire.  But  it  is  all  uncer- 
 tainty.    (^Cces.,  Bell.  G  ,  5,  21.) 
 
 Anchemolus,  son  of  Rhoetus,  king  of  the  Marrubii 
 in  Italy,  was  expelled  by  his  father  for  criminal  con- 
 duct towards  his  stepmother.     He  fled  to  Turnus,  and 
 
 was  killed  by  Pallas,  son  of  Evander,  in  the  wars  o( 
 JEneas  against  the  Latins.     {Virg.,  JEn  ,  10,  389.) 
 
 Anchesmus,  a  mountain  of  Attica,  where  Jupiter 
 Anchesmius  had  a  statue.  It  is  now  Agios  Geori^nos, 
 taking  its  modern  name  from  a  church  of  St.  George, 
 which  has  displaced  the  statue.  (Leake's  Topogr.  of 
 Athens,  p   69.) 
 
 ANCHi.iLE,  a  city  of  Cilicia,  west  of  the  mouth  of 
 the  Cydnus,  and  a  short  distance  from  the  coast.  It 
 was  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  the  Greek  writers 
 assign  its  origin  to  Sardanapalus,  king  of  Assyria.  The 
 autliority,  however,  from  which  they  derive  their  infor- 
 mation, is  Aristobulus,  who  is  entitled  to  but  little  cred- 
 it in  general.  The  founder  was  said  by  them  to  have 
 been  buried  here,  and  they  speak  of  his  tomb's  still  ex- 
 isting in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  On  the 
 tomb  was  the  statue  of  a  man  in  the  act  of  clappino- 
 his  hands,  with  an  Assyrian  inscription  to  this  elfect, 
 '■  Sardanapalus,  the  son  of  Anacyndaraxes,  built  An- 
 cliiale  and  Tarsus  in  one  day  ;  but  do  thou,  oh  strano-er, 
 eat,  drink,  and  sport,  since  the  rest  of  human  things 
 are  not  worth  this,"  i.  e.,  a  clap  of  the  liands.  (Arrian, 
 Exp.  Alex.,  2,  5.)  It  is  more  than  probable,  suppo- 
 sing that  a  Sardanapalus  did  found  the  place,  that  we 
 are  to  regard  him,  not  as  the  last  king  of  that  name, 
 but  some  earlier  monarch  of  Assyria,  who  had  pushed 
 his  conquests  into  the  western  part  of  Asia.  The  sit- 
 uation of  Anchiale  was  bad  ;  it  had  no  harbour,  no 
 river,  no  great  road,  in  its  immcdatie  vicinity.  It  dis- 
 appeared, therefore,  at  last  from  history,  while  Tarsus, 
 more  favourably  placed,  continued  to  flourish.  Pliny 
 calls  the  name  Anchiales ;  and  Arrian,  Anchialos. 
 {Manncrt,  6,  pt.  2,  p.  66.) 
 
 Anchi.Xlus,  a  term  occurring  in  one  of  Martial's  epi- 
 grams (11,  94),  about  which  the  learned  are  greatly  di- 
 vided in  opinion.  Scaliger  thinks  that  it  comes  from 
 the  Hebrew  Chai  and  Alah,  and  is  equivalent  to  Vi- 
 vens  Deus. 
 
 Anchis^  Portus,  according  to  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
 carnassus  (Anl.  Rom.,  1,  32),  the  real  name  of  On- 
 chesmus  in  Epirus. 
 
 Anchises,  son  of  Capys,  by  Themis,  daughter  of 
 Ilus,  and  the  father  of  ^neas.  Venus  was  so  struck 
 with  his  beauty,  that  she  introduced  herself  to  his  no- 
 tice in  the  form  of  a  nymph,  on  Mount  Ida,  and  urged 
 him  to  a  union.  Anchises  no  sooner  discovered  that 
 he  had  been  in  the  company  of  a  celestial  being,  than 
 he  dreaded  the  vengeance  of  the  gods.  Venus  quiet- 
 ed his  apprehensions  ;  but,  for  his  imprudence  subse- 
 quently in  boasting  of  the  partiality  of  the  goddess, 
 Jupiter  struck  him  with  blindness,  or,  according  to 
 some,  enfeebled  and  maimed  him  by  a  stroke  of  thun- 
 der. The  offspring  of  his  union  with  Venus  was  the 
 celebrated  ^Eneas.  When  Troy  was  in  flames,  he  was 
 saved  from  the  victorious  Greeks  by  his  son,  who  bore 
 him  away  on  his  shoulders  from  the  burning  city.  He 
 afterward  accompanied  yEneas  in  his  voyage  to  Italy, 
 but  died  before  that  land  was  reached,  in  the  island  of 
 Sicily,  at  the  harbour  of  Drepanum,  and  was  buried  on 
 Mount  Eryx.  (Virg.,  .En.,  2,  647.— /(Z.  ?i  ,  3,  707. 
 — Heyne,  Excurs.,  17,  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  2,  &c.) 
 
 AnchisTa,  a  mountain  of  Arcadia,  on  which,  accord- 
 ing to  Pausanias,  was  the  tomb  of  Anchises.  This, 
 of  course,  is  different  from  the  common  account,  fol- 
 lowed by  Virgil,  which  makes  Anchises  to  have  been 
 buried  on  Mount  Eryx  in  Sicily.  At  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Anchisiatherewasaroad  leading  toOrchomenus,  which 
 city  lay  to  the  northwest.     {Pausan.,  8,  12.) 
 
 AnchisiXdes,  a  patronymic  of  .Eneas,  as  being  son 
 of  Anchises.     {Virg  ,  JEn.,  6,  348,  &c  ) 
 
 Anchoe,  a  place  in  Bosotia,  where  the  Cephissus, 
 or  rather  the  Lake  Copais,  issued  from  under  ground. 
 It  was  near  Larymna,  and  on  the  coast.  {Strabo, 
 404.) 
 
 Anchora.      Vid.  Nicaea,  II. 
 
 Anchurus,  a  son  of  Midas,  king  of  Phrygia,  who 
 
 133 
 
ANC 
 
 ANC 
 
 sacrificed  himself  for  the  good  of  his  country,  when 
 the  earth  had  opened  and  swallowed  up  many  buildings. 
 The  oracle  had  been  consulted,  and  gave  for  answer, 
 that  the  gulf  would  never  close  if  Midas  did  not  throw 
 into  it  whatever  he  had  most  precious.  Though  the 
 king  cast  in  much  gold  and  silver,  yet  the  gulf  contin- 
 ued open,  till  Anchurus,  thinking  nothing  more  precious 
 than  life,  and  regarding  himself,  therefore,  as  the  most 
 valuable  of  his  father's  possessions,  took  a  tender  leave 
 of  his  wife  and  family,  and  leaped  into  the  earth,  which 
 closed  immediately  over  his  head.  Midas  erected 
 there  an  altar  of  stone  lo  Jupiter,  and  that  altar  was 
 the  first  object  which  he  turned  into  gold  when  he 
 had  received  his  fatal  gift  from  the  gods.  Every  year, 
 when  the  day  came  round  on  which  the  chasm  had 
 been  first  formed,  the  altar  became  one  of  stone  again  ; 
 but,  when  ihis  day  had  passed  by,  it  once  more  changed 
 to  gold.     {Flul.,  FaralL,  p.  30G.) 
 
 Ancile,  a  sacred  shield,  which  fell  from  heaven  in 
 the  reign  of  Nuina,  when  the  Rojnan  people  laboured 
 under  a  pestilence.  Upon  the  preservation  of  this 
 shield  depended  the  fate  of  the  Roman  empire,  ac- 
 cording to  the  admonition  given  to  Numa  by  the  nymph 
 Egeria,  and  the  monarch  therefore  ordered  eleven  of 
 the  same  size  and  form  to  be  made,  that  if  ever  any 
 attempt  was  made  to  carry  them  away,  the  plunderer 
 might  find  it  difficult  to  distinguish  the  true  one. 
 They  were  made  with  such  exactness,  that  the  king 
 promised  Veturius  Mamurius,  the  artist,  whatever 
 reward  he  desired.  {Vid.  Mamurius.)  They  were 
 kept  in  the  temple  of  Vesta,  and  an  order  of  priests 
 was  chosen  to  watch  over  their  safety.  These  priests 
 were  called  Salii,  and  were  twelve  in  number  ;  they 
 carried  every  year,  on  the  first  of  March,  the  shields 
 in  a  solemn  procession  through  the  streets  of  Rome, 
 dancing  and  singing  praises  to  the  god  Mars.  {Vid. 
 Salii.)  This  sacred  festival  continued  three  days,  du- 
 ring which  every  important  business  was  stopped.  It 
 was  deemed  unfortunate  to  be  married  on  those  days, 
 or  to  undertake  any  expedition.  Hence  Suetonius 
 {0th.,  8)  states,  that  Otho  marched  from  Rome,  on 
 his  unsuccessful  expedition  against  Vitellius,  during 
 the  festival  of  the  Ancilia,  "  jiulla  rcligionum  cura,'^ 
 without  any  regard  for  sacred  ceremonies,  and  Tacitus 
 (Hist.,  1,  89)  remarks,  that  many  ascribed  to  this  cir- 
 cumstance the  unfortunate  issue  of  the  campaign.  The 
 form  of  the  ancile  occurs  in  ancient  coins.  Repre- 
 sentations of  it  are  also  given  by  modern  writers  on 
 Roman  Antiquities.  (Consult  Lipsius,  Mil.  Rom.  ; 
 Anal.,  lib.  3,  dial.  1.)  Plutarch,  in  explaining  their 
 shape,  remarks,  "they  are  neither  circular,  nor  yet, 
 like  the  pelta,  semicircular,  but  fashioned  in  two  crook- 
 ed indented  lines,  the  extremities  of  which,  meeling 
 close,  form  a  curve  (u.yKvXov).''^  According  to  this  ety- 
 mology, the  name  should  be  written  in  Latin  Ancyle. 
 Ovid  says  the  shield  was  called  ancile,  "  quod  ab  omni 
 ■parte  recisum  est,"  a  derivation  much  worse  than  Plu- 
 tarch's. The  name  is  very  probably  of  Etrurian  ori- 
 gin, and  the  whole  legend  would  appear  to  be  a  myth, 
 turning  on  the  division  of  the  Roman  year  into  twelve 
 months  by  the  fabulous  Numa.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Num.,  c. 
 13.— Ovid,  Fast.,  3,  377.) 
 
 Ancon.*,  a  city  of  Italy,  on  the  coast  of  Picenum, 
 which  still  retains  its  name.  The  appellation  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  of  Greek  origin,  and  to  express  the  angular 
 form  of  the  promontory  on  which  the  city  is  placed. 
 (Mela,  2,  A.—Frvcop.,  Rer.  Got.,  2.)  This  bold  head- 
 land was  called  Cumerium  Promontorium  ;  its  modern 
 name  is  Monte  Camera,  and  sometimes  Monte  Guusco. 
 The  foundation  of  Ancona  is  ascribed  by  Strabo  (241) 
 to  some  Syracusans,  who  were  fleeing  from  the  tyranny 
 of  Dionysius.  These  Syracusans  of  Strabo  are  by 
 many  critics  supposed  to  be  same  with  the  Siculi  of 
 Pliny,  to  whom  that  writer  attributes  the  origin  of  tliis 
 city.  (Plin.,  3,  13. — Compare  Solin.,  8.)  But,  on 
 the  other  hand,  it  is  contended,  that  the  foundation  of 
 134 
 
 Ancona  must  be  anterior  to  the  reign  of  Dioriysjus, 
 since  it  is  noticed  in  the  Periplus  of  Scylax  (p.  12)  as 
 belonging  to  the  Umbri ;  and,  therefore,  that  the  Siculi 
 of  Pliny  must  be  that  ancient  race  who  settled  in  Italy 
 at  a  very  remote  period,  and  afterward  passed  over  into 
 Sicily.  (Bardctti,  pt.  2,  c.  10. — Olimeri,  dellafond.  di 
 Pcsara  dissert.,  Y>.  13. — Gius.  Colucci,  Delle  Antichita 
 Ficene,  vol.  1,  diss.  1.)  Ancona  is  spoken  of  by  Livy 
 (41,  ])  as  a  naval  station  of  great  importance  in  the 
 wars  of  Rome  with  the  Illyrians.  (Compare  Tacit., 
 Ann.,  3,  9.)  It  was  occupied  by  Cffisar  soon  after  hi« 
 passage  of  the  Rubicon.  (Bell.  Civ.,  1,  11. —  Cic,  Ep. 
 ad  Fain.,  16,  12.)  It  continued  to  be  a  port  of  conse- 
 quence in  Trajan's  time,  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
 works  erected  by  that  emperor,  which  are  still  extant 
 there.     (Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol  1,  p.  280,  scqq.) 
 
 Angus  Makcius,  the  fourth  king  of  Rome,  was 
 grandson  to  Numa  by  his  daughter.  His  name  Ancus 
 was  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Greek  aj'/cwv,  because 
 he  had  a  crooked  arm,  which  he  could  not  stretch  out  to 
 its  full  length  ;  an  etymology  of  no  value  whatever, 
 the  term  in  question  being  very  probably  Etrurian. 
 Like  his  ancestors,  he  first  turned  his  attention  to  the 
 re-establishment  of  religion,  and  had  the  ritual  law 
 transcribed  on  tables,  that  all  might  read  it.  He  then 
 directed  his  arms  against  the  Latins  with  success,  and 
 carried  away  several  thousand  of  this  nation  to  Rome, 
 whom  he  settled  on  the  Aventine.  He  extended  his 
 conquests  into  Etruria,  and  along  both  banks  of  the 
 Tiber  to  the  seacoast,  where  he  founded  Ostia,  the 
 oldest  of  the  Roman  colonies,  as  the  harbour  of  Rome. 
 He  built  the  first  bridge  over  the  Tiber,  and  annexed 
 additional  defences  to  the  city.  The  oldest  remaining 
 monument  in  Rome,  the  prison  formed  out  of  a  stone 
 quarry  in  the  Capitoline  Hill,  is  called  the  work  of 
 Ancus.  It  was  on  the  side  of  the  hill  above  the  forum 
 (the  place  of  meeting  for  the  plebeians)  ;  and  until  an 
 equality  of  laws  was  introduced,  it  served  only  to  keep 
 the  plebeians  and  those  who  were  below  them  in  cus- 
 tody. The  original  common  law  of  the  plebs  was  re- 
 garded as  the  fruit  of  his  legislation,  in  the  same  man- 
 ner as  the  rights  of  the  three  ancient  tribes  were  looked 
 upon  to  be  the  laws  of  the  first  three  kings.  And  be- 
 cause all  landed  property,  by  the  principles  of  the  Ro- 
 man law,  proceeded  from  the  state,  and,  on  the  incor- 
 poration of  new  communities,  was  surrendered  by  them, 
 and  conferred  back  on  them  by  the  state,  the  assign- 
 ment of  public  lands  is  attributed  to  Ancus.  This 
 act,  being  viewed  as  a  parcelling  out  of  public  territo- 
 ries, was  probably  the  cause  which  led  the  plebeians 
 to  bestow  the  epithet  of  "good"  upon  him  in  the  old 
 poems.  The  new  subjects  could  not  be  admitted  into 
 a  new  tribe,  as  the  Luceres  had  been,  since  the  num- 
 ber of  tribes  was  completed.  They  constituted  a 
 ccmmunity,  which  stood  side  by  side  with  the  people 
 formed  by  the  members  of  the  thirty  cvritE,  as  the 
 body  of  the  Latin  towns  had  stood  in  relation  to  Alba. 
 This  was  the  beginning  of  the  plebs,  which  was  the 
 strength  and  the  life  of  Rome,  the  people  of  Ancus  as 
 distinguished  from  that  of  Romulus;  and  this  is  a 
 fresh  reason  for  Ancus  being  placed  in  the  middle  of 
 the  Roman  kings.  (Niehuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  p.  86, 
 Twiss's  abridgment.)  Ancus  reigned,  according  to  the 
 fabulous  Roman  chronology,  twenty-four  years.  (Lit., 
 1,  32,  seqq.—Florvs,  1,  4.— Dion.  //«/.,' 3,  9,  &c.) 
 
 Ancyba,  I.  a  city  of  Galatia,  west  of  the  Halys.  Ac- 
 cording to  Pausanias(2, 4).  it  was  founded  by  Midas,  and 
 the  name  was  derived  from  an  anchor  (uyKvpa)  which 
 was  found  here  and  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter. 
 This  city  was  greatly  enlarged  by  Augustus,  whence 
 the  grammarian  Tzetzes  is  led  to  style  him  the  founder 
 of  the  city,  and  under  Nero  it  was  styled  the  metropolis 
 of  Galatia.  Its  situation  was  extremely  well  adapted 
 for  inland  trade,  and  Ancyra  became  a  kind  of  staple- 
 place  for  the  commodities  of  the  East.  It  is  famous 
 also  as  having  been  the  spot  where  the  Momtmenivwti 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 Ancyranum  was  found  in  modern  times,  a  spurious  in- 
 scription on  a  temple  erected  in  honour  of  Augustus, 
 wtiich  gives  a  history  of  the  several  actions  and  pub- 
 lic merits  of  Augustus,  and  which  shows  also  that 
 he  had  been  a  great  patron  of  the  Ancyrani.  Ancyra 
 is  now  called  by  the  Turks  Angouri,  and  by  the  Eu- 
 ropeans A7igora,  and  is  the  place  whence  the  celebra- 
 ted shawls  and  hosiery  made  of  goats'  hair  were  ori- 
 ginally brought.  Near  this  place,  Bajazet  was  con- 
 quered and  made  prisoner  by  Timur,  or,  as  ihe  name 
 is  commonly,  though  incorrectly,  written,  Tamerlane. 
 {Manncrt.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  46,  scqq.) — II.  A  town  of 
 Phrygia,  on  the  confines  of  Mysia.  Strabo  (576) 
 places  it  in  the  district  of  Abasitis,  near  the  sources 
 of  the  river  Makestus,  which  flows  into  the  Rhyndacus. 
 {Mannert,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  111.) 
 
 Andabat^,  gladiators  who  fought  blindfolded, 
 whence  the  proverb  Andahatarum  more  pugnarc,  to 
 denote  rash  and  inconsiderate  measures.  4'he  name 
 cornes  from  the  Greek  uvaburai,  because  they  fought 
 in  chariots  or  on  horseback.  (Consult  Erasmus, 
 CkiL,  p.  461.) 
 
 AiVDANiA,  a  city  of  Messenia,  situate,  according  to 
 Pausanias  (4,  33),  at  the  distance  of  eight  stadia  from 
 Carnasium.  It  had  been  the  capital  of  Messenia  be- 
 fore the  domination  of  the  Heraclidae.  {Pausan.,  4, 
 3.)  Strabo  (360)  places  it  on  the  road  from  Messene 
 to  Megalopolis.  It  is  also  mentioned  by  Livy  (36,  31) 
 as  situated  betwen  these  tvi'o  cites.  Sir  W.  Gell 
 {Ilin.,  p.  69)  observed  its  ruins  between  Sakona  and 
 Krano,  on  a  hill  formed  by  the  foot  of  Mount  Tetrage. 
 (Cramer''s  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  147.) 
 
 ANnEcivi  or  Andes,  a  people  of  Gaul,  east  of  the 
 Namnetes,  and  lying  along  the  northern  bank  of  the 
 Liger  or  Loire.  Their  capital  was  Juliomagus,  now 
 Angers,  and  their  territory  corresponded  in  part  to 
 what  is  now  the  department  de  la  Mayenne.  {Cces., 
 B.  G.,  2,  35  ) 
 
 Andes,  I.  a  people  of  Gaul.  Vid.  Andecavi. — II.  A 
 village  near  Mantua,  where  Virgil  was  born.  (Compare 
 Hieron.,  Chron.  Euseb.,  2,  and  Sil.  Ilal.,  8,  594.) 
 Tradition  has  long  assigned  to  a  small  place,  now 
 named  Piclola,  the  honour  of  representing  this  birth- 
 place of  Virgil;  but  as  this  opinion  appears  to  derive 
 no  support  from  the  passages  in  which  the  poet  is  sup- 
 posed to  speak  of  his  own  farm,  the  prevailing  notion 
 among  the  learned  seems  to  contradict  the  popular  re- 
 port which  identifies  Andes  with  Pietola.  {Maffei, 
 Verona  Illustr.,  vol.  2,  p.  1. —  Viso,  Memorie  Istoriche, 
 vol.  1,  p.  31. — Bonelli,  Mem.  Manlor.,  vol.  1,  p.  120.) 
 It  may  be  observed,  however,  that  Virgil's  birthplace 
 and  his  farm  may  not  necessarily  have  been  one  and 
 the  sanie  :  in  this  case  it  would  seem  that  no  argument 
 could  be  objected  to  a  local  but  very  ancient  and  well- 
 established  tradition.  {Cramer''s  Ancient  Italy,  vol. 
 1,  p.  69,  scqq) 
 
 Andocides,  an  Athenian  orator,  son  of  Leogoras, 
 and  born  in  the  first  year  of  the  78th  Olympiad,  B.C. 
 468.  He  commanded  the  Athenian  fleet  in  the  war 
 between  the  Corinthians  and  Corcyreans,  and  was  af- 
 terward accused  of  having  been  concerned  in  mutila- 
 ting the  Hermai,  or  statues  of  Mercury,  a  crime  of 
 which  Alcibiades  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  authors. 
 Andocides,  having  been  arrested  for  this  sacrilege,  es- 
 caped punishment  by  denouncing  his  real  or  pretended 
 accomplices.  Photius  informs  us,  that  among  these 
 was  Leogoras,  but  that  Andocides  found  the  means  of 
 obtaining  his  father's  pardon.  {Phot.,  Bild  ,  vol.  2.  p. 
 488,  cd.  Bi:kk£r.)  The  same  author  mentions  various 
 other  incidents  in  the  life  of  this  orator,  which  com- 
 pelled him  at  last  to  quit  Athens.  He  returned  during 
 the  government  of  the  four  hundred,  and  was  cast  into 
 prison,  whence,  however,  he  succeeded  in  escaping. 
 He  returned  a  second  time  to  his  native  countrv  after 
 the  fall  of  the  thirty  tyrants.  Having  failed  in  an  em- 
 bassy to  Sparta,  which  had  been  confided  to  him,  he 
 
 no  longer  dared  to  show  himself  in  Athens,  but  died 
 in  e.xile.  Andocides  employed  his  abilities  as  an  orator 
 merely  in  his  own  affairs.  The  four  discourses  of  his 
 which  have  come  down  to  us  are  important  for  the 
 history  of  Greece.  The  first  has  reference  to  the 
 Mysteries  of  Eleusis,  which  he  had  been  accused 
 of  violating  (Uepl  UvGrripiuv).  The  second  (Ilept 
 KaOuSov),  treats  of  his  (second)  return  to  Athens. 
 The  third  (ITept  K'lpr/vrjg),  '•  Concerning  Peace,"  was 
 pronounced  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  95th  Olympiad, 
 on  occasion  of  the  peace  with  Sparta  ;  the  fourth  is 
 directed  against  Alcibiades  (Kara  'AXKifjiu6ov).  Tay- 
 lor, led  into  an  error  by  a  passage  of  Plutarch  {Vil. 
 Alcib.,  13. — Ed.  Reiske,  vol.  2,  p.  21),  thinks  that 
 this  discourse  was  delivered  by  Phajax,  one  of  the  an- 
 tagonists of  Alcibiades  ;  but  Ruhnken  has  shown  this 
 opinion  to  be  incorrect.  (Hist.  Crit.  Orat.  Gr. — p. 
 54,  of  the  edition  of  Rutilius  Lupus. — Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  205,  seqq.)  The  discourses  of 
 Andocides  are  given  in  Reiske's  edition  of  the  Greek 
 orators ;  in  that  of  Bekker,  and  in  the  edition  of  Dob- 
 son,  Loud.,  1828,  16  vols.  8vo. 
 
 Andom  ATis,  a  river  of  India,  falling  into  the  Ganges. 
 According  to  D'Anville,  the  modern  Sonn-sou.  (Vid. 
 Sonus.) 
 
 Andriclus,  a  mountain  of  Cilicia  Trachea,  north  of 
 the  promontory  Anemurium.     (Strab.,  670.) 
 
 Andriscus,  an  obscure  individual,  a  native  of  Adra- 
 myttium  in  Asia  Minor,  who,  from  his  strong  resem- 
 blance to  Philip,  son  of  Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Ma- 
 cedonia, was  induced  to  pass  himself  off  for  that  prince, 
 and  hence  received  the  name  of  Pseudophilippus,  or 
 "the  false  Philip."  Having  deceived  the  Macedoni- 
 ans, he  induced  them  to  revolt  against  the  Roman 
 power,  and  gained  at  first  some  advantages,  but  was  at 
 length  defeated  by  Cscilius  Metellus,  and  led  in  tri- 
 umph B.C.  148.     (Flor.,2,  U.—  Vell.  Patera.,  1,  11.) 
 
 Androcydes,  I.  a  painter  of  Cyzicus,  contemporary 
 with  Pelopidas  and  Zeuxis,  the  latter  of  whom  he  at- 
 tempted to  rival.  Two  of  his  productions  are  men- 
 tioned by  the  ancient  writers,  a  painting  of  a  battle  and 
 a  portrait  of  Scylla,  the  latter  being  celebrated  for  the 
 accuracy  with  which  the  fish  accompanying  the  monster 
 were  represented.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Pelop.,  25. — Plin.,  35, 
 10. — Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  u.)— II.  A  physician  in  the 
 time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who,  in  writing  to  the 
 king,  in  condemnation  of  the  use  of  wine,  observed,  to 
 quote  the  Latin  version  of  Pliny,  "  Vinum  poturus 
 rex,  memento  te  bibcre  sanguinem  terra :  cicuta  homi- 
 num  venerium  est,  cicutae  vinum."     (Plin..  14,  5.) 
 
 ANDhOGEUs,  son  of  Minos  and  Pasiphae.  He  was 
 famous  for  his  skill  in  wrestling,  and  overcame  every 
 antagonist  at  Athens  during  the  contest  at  the  Pan- 
 athenaic  festival,  and  .^Egeus,  through  envy,  sent  him 
 against  the  Marathonian  bull,  by  which  animal  he 
 was  destroyed.  According  to  another  account,  he 
 was  waylaid  and  assassinated  while  proceeding  to 
 Thebes  to  attend  the  games  of  Laius,  and  his  mur- 
 derers were  the  combatants  whom  he  had  conquered 
 at  Athens,  and  who  were  led  by  envy  to  perpetrate 
 the  deed.  Minos  declared  war  against  Athens  to  re- 
 venge the  death  of  his  son,  and  peace  was  at  last  re 
 established  on  condition  that  ..■Egcus  sent  yearly  seven 
 hoys  and  seven  girls  from  Athens  to  Crete,  to  be  de- 
 voured by  the  Minotaur.  (Vid.  Minotaurus  )  The 
 Athenians  established  festivals,  by  order  of  Minos,  in 
 honour  of  his  son,  and  called  them  Androgeia.  (Apol- 
 lod.,  3,  l^.—Hygm.,  fab.,4:\.—Virg..  .En.,  6,  20.) 
 The  whole  story  of  Androgens  is  an  allegorical  one, 
 and  has  an  agricultural  reference.  Androgeus  is  the 
 man  of  the  earth,  the  cultivator  ('AvSp6\£0)g).  The 
 Marathonian  bull,  by  whose  fire,  according  to  one  ac- 
 count (Serv.,ad  Virg.,  Mn.,  6,  20),  he  was  injured  in 
 the  conflict,  recalls  to  mind  the  fire-breathing  bulls  of 
 Colchis,  the  land  of  ^etcs,  the  first  man  of  the  earth. 
 A  new  field  of  exertion  now  opens  on   the    son    of 
 
 135 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 Minos,  and  a  new  name  is  given  him ;  Eurygye^ 
 (EvpvyvT)c),  "  the  far-plougher,"  or  "  the  possessor  of 
 wide-extciided  acres"  {evpvg  and  yvrj),  and  it  is  worth 
 noticing,  that,  after  having  been  slain,  and  previous 
 to  his  new  appellation,  he  was  reawakened  to  life  by 
 ^scnlapius,  or  the  sun.  (Compare  Hesyrh.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  13:32,  cd.  Albtrti,  and  Crcuzcrs  Symbolik,  vol.  4, 
 p.  107.) 
 
 Andromache,  a  daughter  of  Eetion,  king  of  Hy- 
 popla:ian  Thebe,  in  Mysia,  married  Hector,  son  of 
 I'riam,  and  became  the  mother  of  Astyanax.  She 
 was  equally  remarkable  for  her  domestic  virtues,  and 
 for  attachment  to  her  husband.  In  the  division  of  the 
 prisoners  by  the  Greeks,  after  the  taking  of  Troy, 
 Andromache  fell  to  the  share  of  Pyrrhus,  who  carried 
 her  to  Epirus,  where  she  became  the  mother  of  three 
 sons,  Molossus,  Pielus,  and  Pergamus.  Pyrrhus  sub- 
 sequently conceded  her  to  Helenus,  the  brother  of 
 Hector,  who  had  also  been  among  the  captives  of  the 
 prince.  She  reigned  with  Helenus  over  part  of  Epirus, 
 and  became  by  him  the  mother  of  Cestrinus.  (Homer, 
 II.,  6,  22  et  ■2'i.— Vug.,  JEn.,  3,  \Sb.—Hysin.,fah., 
 123.) 
 
 Androm.Xchus,  I.  an  opulent  Sicilian,  father  of  the 
 historian  Timaeus.  He  collected  together  the  inhabi- 
 tants of  the  city  of  Naxos,  which  Dmnysius  the  tyrant 
 had  destroyed,  and  founded  with  them  Tauromenium. 
 Andromachus,  as  prefect  of  the  new  city,  subsequent- 
 ly aided  Timoleon  in  restoring  liberty  to  Syracuse^ 
 (Dwd.  Sic,  16,  7  ct  68.)— n.  A  general  of  Alex- 
 ander, to  whom  Parmenio  gave  the  government  of 
 Syria.  He  was  burned  alive  by  the  Samaritans,  but 
 his  death  was  avenged  by  Alexander.  {Quhit.  Curl., 
 4,  5.) — ni.  A  brother-in-law  of  Seleucus  Callinicus. 
 — IV.  A  traitor,  who  discovered  to  the  Parthians  all 
 the  measures  of  Crassus,  and,  on  being  chosen  guide, 
 led  the  Roman  army  into  a  situation  whence  there  was 
 no  mode  of  escape. — V.  A  physician  of  Crete  in  the 
 agt  of  Nero  :  he  was  physician  to  the  emperor,  and 
 inventor  of  the  famous  medicine,  called  after  him, 
 Thcriaca  Ajidromachi.  It  was  intended  at  first  as  an 
 antidote  against  poisons,  but  became  afterward  a  kind 
 of  panacea.  This  medicine  enjoyed  so  high  a  repu- 
 tation among  the  Romans,  that  the  Emperor  Anto!ii- 
 nus,  at  a  later  period,  took  some  of  it  every  day,  and 
 had  it  prepared  every  year  in  his  palace.  It  consisted 
 of  61  ingredients,  the  principal  of  which  were  squills, 
 opium,  pepper,  and  dried  vipers  !  This  absurd  com- 
 pound was  in  vogue  even  in  modern  times,  as  late  as 
 17S7,  in  Paris.  (Galen,  de  Theriac,  p.  470.— 7fZ. 
 de  anlidot.,  lib.  1,  p.  4333. — Sprengel,  Hist.  Med., 
 vol.  2,  p.  56  ) 
 
 Andromed.^,  a  daughter  of  Cepheus,  King  of  Ethi- 
 opia, by  Cassiope.  She  was  promised  in  marriage  to 
 Phineus,  her  uncle,  when  Neptune  inundated  the  coasts 
 of  the  country,  and  sent  a  sea-monster  to  ravage  the 
 land,  because  (.'^assiope  had  boasted  herself  fairer  than 
 Juno  and  the  Nereides.  The  oracle  of  Jupiter  Am- 
 mon  bemg  consulted,  returned  for  answer  that  the 
 calamity  could  only  be  removed  by  exposing  Androm- 
 eda to  the  monster.  She  was  accordingly  secured  to 
 a  rock,  and  expected  every  moment  to  be  destroy- 
 ed, when  Perseus,  who  was  returning  through  the 
 air  from  the  conquest  of  the  Gorgons,  saw  her,  and 
 was  captivated  with  her  beauty.  He  promised  to  de- 
 liver her  and  destroy  the  monster  if  he  received  her 
 in  marriage  as  a  reward.  Cepheus  consented,  and 
 Perseus  changed  the  sea-monster  into  a  rock,  by  show- 
 ing him  Medusa's  head,  and  utibo\md  Andromeda. 
 The  marriage  of  Andromeda  with  Perseus  was  op- 
 posed by  Phineus,  but,  in  the  contest  that  ensued,  he 
 and  his  followers  were  changed  to  stone  by  the  head 
 of  the  Gorgon.  Andromeda  was  made  a  constellation 
 m  the  heavens  after  her  death.  Consult  remarks  un- 
 der the  article  Perseus  (Apoilod.,  2,  4. — Hygin., 
 fab.,  Gi.—Maml.,  5,  533.) 
 136 
 
 AndronIcos  Livius.     Vid.  Livius. 
 
 Anuronicus,  I.  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  a  native 
 of  Rhodes,  who  flourished  about  80  B.C.  He  arran- 
 ged and  published  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  which  had 
 been  brought  to  Rome  with  the  library  of  Apellicon. 
 He  commented  on  many  parts  of  these  writings  ;  but 
 no  portion  of  his  works  has  reached  us,  for  the  treatise 
 wrpl  TzadCjv,  and  the  Paraphrase  of  the  Nicomachcan 
 ethics,  which  have  been  published  under  his  name, 
 are  the  productions  of  another.  The  treatise  ■Kspl 
 ■jraduv  was  published  by  Hoesschel  in  1593,  in  8vo, 
 and  was  afterward  printed  conjointly  with  the  Para- 
 phrase, in  1617,  1679,  and  1809.  The  Paraphrase 
 was  published  by  Heinsius  in  1607,  4to,  at  Leyden, 
 as  an  anonymous  work  (Incerii  Auctoris  Paraphrasis, 
 &c.),  and  afterward  under  the  name  of  Andronicus  of 
 Rhodes,  by  the  same  scholar,  in  1617,  8vo,  with  the 
 treatise  nepl  TvaOuv  added  to  it.  The  two  works  were 
 reprinted  in  this  form  at  Camhndge,  in  1679,  8vo, 
 and  at  Oxford,  1809,  8vo. — II.  Cvrrhestes,  an  as 
 tronomer  of  Athens,  who  erected,  B.C.  159,  an  octag- 
 onal marble  tower  in  that  city  to  the  eight  winds.  On 
 every  side  of  the  octagon  he  caused  to  be  wrought  a 
 figure  in  relievo,  representing  the  wind  which  blew 
 against  that  side.  The  top  of  the  tower  was  finished 
 with  a  conical  marble,  on  which  he  placed  a  brazen 
 Triton,  holding  a  wand  in  his  right  hand.  This  Triton 
 was  so  contrived  that  he  turned  round  with  the  wind, 
 and  always  stopped  when  he  directly  faced  it,  pointing 
 with  his  wand  over  the  figure  of  the  wind  at  that  time 
 blowing.  Within  the  structure  was  a  water-clock, 
 supplied  from  the  fountain  of  Clepsydra.  Beneath  the 
 eight  figures  of  the  winds  lines  were  traced  on  the 
 walls  of  the  tower,  which,  by  the  shadov^'s  cast  upon 
 them  by  styles  fixed  above,  indicated  the  hour  of  the 
 day,  as  the  Triton's  wand  did  the  quarter  of  the  wind. 
 When  the  sun  did  not  shine,  recourse  was  had  to  the 
 water-clock  within  the  tower,  which  building  thus 
 supplied  both  a  vane  and  a  chronometer.  The  struc- 
 ture still  stands,  though  in  a  damaged  state.  To  the 
 correctness  of  the  sundials,  the  celebrated  Delambre 
 bears  testimony,  and  he  describes  the  series  as  "  the 
 most  curious  existing  monument  of  the  practical  gno- 
 monics  of  antiquity."  There  are  two  entrances,  fa- 
 cing respectively  to  the  northeast  and  northwest:  each 
 of  these  openings  has  a  portico  supported  by  two  col- 
 umns. When  Stuart  explored  this  building,  the  lower 
 part  of  the  interior  was  covered  to  a  considerable 
 depth  by  rubbish  ;  and  the  dervishes  who  had  taken 
 possession  of  the  building  performed  their  religious 
 rites  on  a  wooden  platform  which  had  been  thrown 
 over  the  fragments.  All  this,  hov^-ever,  he  was  per- 
 mitted to  remove,  and  he  found  manifest  traces  of  a 
 clepsydra  or  water-clock  carefully  channelled  in  the 
 original  floor.  (Stuart  and  Rcvctl''s  Athens  Abridged, 
 p.  8,  segq. —  Wordsworth'' s  Greece,  p.  146.) 
 
 Andros,  an  island  in  the  Egean  Sea,  one  of  the 
 Cyclades,  lying  to  the  southeast  of  the  lower  extremi- 
 ty of  Euboea.  It  bore  also  several  other  appellations, 
 enumerated  by  Pliny  (4,  12).  According  to  this  wri- 
 ter, it  is  ten  miles  from  the  promontory  of  GersBstus, 
 and  thirty-nine  from  Ceos.  The  Andrians,  as  we 
 learn  from  Herodotus  (8,  111  and  121),  were  com- 
 pelled to  join  the  armament  of  Xerxes  ;  and,  after  the 
 battle  of  Salamis,  they  wore  called  upon  by  Themis- 
 tocles,  at  the  head  of  an  Atheiiian  squadron,  to  pay  a 
 large  sum  of  money  as  a  contribution:  with  this  de- 
 mand they  declared  themselves  unable  to  comply,  ob- 
 serving that  they  were  close  beset  by  the  two  doilies, 
 Poverty  and  Want,  which  iiovcr  quitted  the  island,  and 
 Themistocles,  after  a  fruitless  attempt  to  reduce  them 
 by  force,  withdrew  to  Euboea.  We  learn,  howevev, 
 from  Thucydides  (2,  55,  and  4,  42),  that  the  island 
 was  subsequently  reduced  and  rendered  tributary  to 
 the  Athenians.  In  the  Macedonian  war,  Livy  relates 
 (31,  45),  that  the  town  of  Andros  was  taken  bv  Atla- 
 
ANI 
 
 ANN 
 
 lus  and  the  Eomans.  The  modern  name  of  the  island 
 is  the  same  with  the  ancient,  or  else  varies  from  it 
 only  in  dropping  the  final  letter.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  410.) 
 
 Anbmorea,  a  town  of  Phocis,  mentioned  by  Homer 
 (U.,  2,  521)  in  conjunction  with  Hyampohs,  and 
 doubtless  in  the  immediate  vicirnty  of  that  city,  with 
 which  it  was  even  sometimes  confounded.  (Compare 
 the  French  Strabo,  Ecclairciss.,  No.  34,  vol.  3,  Ap- 
 pend., p.  154  )  Strabo  affirms,  that  it  obtained  its 
 name  from  the  violent  gusts  of  wind  which  blew  from 
 Mount  Catopterius,  a  peak  belonging  to  the  chain  of 
 Parnassus.  He  adds  that  it  was  named  by  some  au- 
 thors Anemolea.  {Strabo,  423. —  Cramer's  Ancient 
 (ireece,  vol.  2,  p.  186.) 
 
 Angelion,  an  artist,  invariably  named  in  connexion 
 with  Tectaaus,  as  his  constant  associate.  It  is  uncer- 
 tain whether  they  e.Kcelled  chiefly  in  casting  brass  or 
 in  carving  marble.  They  are  supposed  by  Sillig  to 
 have  flourished  about  548  B.C.  Mention  is  made  in 
 particular,  by  the  ancient  writers,  of  a  statue  of  Apol- 
 lo by  these  artists.  According  to  Midler,  they  imi- 
 tated a  very  ancient  statue  of  the  Delian  Apollo, 
 made,  as  Plutarch  states,  in  the  time  of  Hercules. 
 (SiUig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Angli,  a  people  of  Germany  at  the  base  of  the  Cher- 
 sonesus  Cimbrica,  in  the  country  answering  now  to 
 the  northeastern  part  of  the  Duchy  of  Holstcin. 
 From  them  the  English  have  derived  their  name. 
 There  is  still,  at  the  present  day,  in  that  quarter,  a 
 district  called  Angeln.  {Taeit.,  Germ.,  40.  —  Yid. 
 Saxones.) 
 
 Angrus,  a  river  of  lUyricum,  pursuing  a  northern 
 course,  according  to  Herodotus,  and  joining  the  Bron- 
 gus,  which  flows  into  the  Danube.  (Hcrodot.,  4,  49.) 
 Anguitia,  or  Angitia,  a  grove  in  the  country  of  the 
 Marsi,  to  the  west  of  the  Lacus  Fucinus.  The  name 
 is  derived,  according  to  Solinus,  from  a  sister  of  Circe, 
 who  dwelt  in  the  vicinity.  It  is  now  Silva  d'Albi. 
 {Solin.,  S.—Serv.,  ad  V'lrg.,  Mn.,  1,  759.) 
 
 Anicetus,  I.  a  son  of  Hercules  by  Hebe,  the  god- 
 dess of  youth.  (Apollod.,  2,  7.) — II.  A  freedman  who 
 directed  the  education  of  Nero,  and  became  the  instru- 
 ment of  his  crimes.  It  was  he  who  encouraged  the 
 emperor  to  destroy  his  mother  Agrippina,  and  who 
 gave  the  first  idea  of  the  galley,  which,  by  falling  on  a 
 sudden  to  pieces,  through  secret  mechanism,  was  to 
 have  accomplished  this  horrid  purpose.  {Suet.,  Vit. 
 Ncr.) 
 
 Anicia,  Gens,  a  family  at  Rome,  which,  in  the  flour- 
 ishing times  of  the  republic,  produced  many  brave  and 
 illustrious  citizens. 
 
 An'icius  Gallus,  I.  triumphed  over  the  Illyrians 
 and  their  king  Gentius,  and  obtained  the  honours  of  a 
 triumph  A.U.C.  585.  He  obtained  the  consulship 
 A.U.C.  594,  BC.  1.50.— II.  Probus,  a  Roman  consul, 
 A.D.  371,  celebrated  for  his  humanity. 
 
 Anigros,  a  river  of  Elis,  in  the  district  of  Triphylia, 
 to  the  north  of  LeprsBum.  This  stream  formed  into 
 marshes  at  its  mouth,  from  the  want  of  a  fall  to  carry 
 off  the  water.  The  stagnant  pool  thus  created  ex- 
 haled an  odour  so  fetid  as  to  be  perceptible  at  the  dis- 
 tance of  twenty  stadia,  and  the  fish  caught  there  were  so 
 tainted  with  the  infection  that  they  could  not  be  eaten. 
 (St-aho,  346  )  Pansanias,  however,  affirms  (5,  5)  that 
 this  miasma  was  not  confined  to  the  marshes,  but  could 
 be  traced  to  the  very  source  of  the  river.  It  was  as- 
 cribed to  the  centaur's  having  washed  the  wounds  in- 
 flicted by  Hercnles's  envenomed  shafts  in  the  stream. 
 The  Anigrus  received  the  water  of  a  fountain  said  to 
 possess  the  property  of  curing  cutaneous  disorders. 
 This  source  issued  from  a  cavern  sacred  to  the  Nymphs, 
 called  Anigriades.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3, 
 p.  114.) 
 
 Anio,  a  river  of  Italy,  the  earlier  name  of  which  was 
 Amen,  whence  comes  the  genitive  Anienis,  which  is 
 
 '  joined  in  inflection  with  the  later  nominative  Amo.—~ 
 It  rose  in  the  Apennines,  near  the  Sabine  town  of  Tre- 
 ba,  and  pursued  its  course  at  first  to  the  northwest ;  it 
 then  turned  to  the  southeast,  and  joined  the  Tiber  three 
 miles  north  of  Rome.  It  is  not  so  full  a  stream  as  the 
 Nar,  but  was  considered,  however,  by  the  Romans  as 
 the  most  important  among  the  tributaries  of  the  Tiber, 
 and  hence  received  also  the  appellation  of  Tiberinus, 
 whence  comes  by  corruption  the  modern  name  Teverone. 
 The  Anio  was  regarded  as  the  boundarj'  between  La- 
 tium  and  the  country  of  the  Sabines  ;  not,  however,  in 
 a  very  strict  sense,  for  on  the  left  bank  lay  Antemns 
 and  CoUatia,  two  Sabine  towns,  while  the  Albani  and 
 other  Latins  had  founded  Fidens,  on  the  right  bank  of 
 the  Anio,  in  the  Sabine  territory.  {Manntrt,  vol.  9, 
 p.  517.)  The  Anio,  in  its  course,  passed  by  the  town 
 of  Tibur,  the  modern  Tivoli,  where  it  formed  some 
 beautiful  cascades,  the  admiration  of  the  present  as 
 well  as  of  former  times.  Of  late,  however,  the  scenery 
 has  been  marred  by  an  earthquake.  It  has  been  doubt- 
 ed by  some  writers  whether  there  was  always  a  fall  of 
 the  Anio  at  Tibur.  But,  without  pretending  to  examine 
 what  change  the  bed  of  the  river  may  have  undergone  in 
 remote  ages,  we  may  affirm  that,  since  the  days  of  Stra- 
 bo, no  alteration  of  consequence  has  taken  place  ;  for 
 that  geographer  (238)  talks  of  the  cataract  which  the 
 Anio,  then  navigable,  formed  there  :  so  also  Dionysius 
 of  Halicarnassus  (5, 37)  and  several  of  the  poets. 
 {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  64.) 
 
 Anistorgis,  a  city  of  Spain,  in  the  southern  part  of 
 Lusitania,  near  Pax  Julia,  called  also  Conistorgis. 
 {Mannert,  vol.  l,p.  343.)  Some  have  doubted,  how- 
 ever, whether  these  two  cities  were  the  same.  {Cel- 
 larius,  Geogr.  Ant.,  vol.  1,  p.  77. —  Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol 
 2,  p.  389.) 
 
 AnIus,  son  of  Apollo  and  Rhoeo  or  Rhoio.  He  was 
 high-priest  of  Apollo,  and  gave  .^neas  a  hospitable  re- 
 ception when  the  Trojan  prince  touched  at  his  island. 
 He  had  by  Dorippe  three  daughters,  CEno,  Spermo, 
 and  Elaia,  to  whom  Bacchus  had  given  the  power  of 
 changing  whatever  they  pleased  into  wine,  corn,  and 
 oil.  When  Agamemnon  went  to  the  Trojan  war,  he 
 wished  to  carry  them  with  him  to  supply  his  army  with 
 provisions ;  but  they  complained  to  Bacchus,  who 
 changed  them  into  doves.  Thus  far  we  have  given 
 Ov:d's  account.  {Met.,  13,  642. — Compare  Virg., 
 Mn.,  3,  80.)  Tzetzes,  however,  states,  that  Anius 
 endeavoured  to  prevail  upon  the  forces  of  Agamemnon 
 to  remain  with  him  nine  years,  and  told  them  that,  in 
 the  tenth  year,  they  would  take  Troy.  He  promised 
 to  nurture  them  also  by  the  aid  of  his  daughters. 
 Tzetzes  cites  as  his  authority  the  author  of  the  Cypri- 
 an epic  {ad  Lycoph.,  570).  Creuzer  sees  in  all  this 
 an  agricultural  myth,  Rhoeo  being  the  pomegranate, 
 or,  in  other  words,  a  new  Proserpina,  and  her  three 
 children  the  daughters  of  the  seed.  {Symbohk,  vol.  4, 
 p.  379.) 
 
 Anna,  a  goddess,  in  whose  honour  the  Romans  in- 
 stituted a  festival.  She  was,  according  to  the  com- 
 mon account,  Anna,  the  daughter  of  Belus,  and  sister  of 
 Dido,  who,  after  her  sister's  death,  gave  up  Carthage  to 
 larbas,  king  of  Gatulia,  who  had  besieged  the  place,  and 
 fled  to  Meiita,  now  Malta.  From  Melita  she  proceed- 
 ed to  Italy,  and  was  there  kindly  received  by  ^Eneas. 
 Lavinia,  however,  conceived  so  violent  a  jealousy 
 acrainst  her,  that  Anna,  warned  in  a  dream,  by  Dido, 
 of  her  danger,  took  flight  during  the  night,  and  threw 
 herself  into  the  Numicius,  where  she  was  transform- 
 ed into  a  Naiad.  The  Romans  instituted  a  festival, 
 which  was  always  celebrated  on  the  15th  of  March, 
 in  her  honour,  and  generally  invoked  her  aid  to  obtain 
 a  long  and  happy  life  ;  thence,  according  to  some,  the 
 explanation  of  the  epithet  Ati'ia  Perc7ina  assigned  to 
 her  alter  deification.  {Ovid,  Fast.,3,65S.—Sil.  Ilal., 
 8,  79,  &c.)  The  key  to  the  ditfcrcnt  legends  relative 
 to  Anna  Perenna  is  to  be  found  in  the  rites  and  cero- 
 
 137 
 
ANNA  COMNENA. 
 
 ANNALES. 
 
 monies  attending  her  festival.  It  was  a  feast  com- 
 memorative of  tlie  year  and  the  spring,  and  the  hymns 
 sung  on  this  occasion  hore  the  free  and  joyous  charac- 
 ter of  orgiastic  strains.  In  them  Anna  Perenna  was 
 entreated  to  make  the  entire  year  roll  away  in  health 
 and  prosperity  (■'  Ut  annare  percnnarcquc  commode 
 liccat.'''' — Macrob.,  Sat.,  1,  12).  Now,  this  new  year, 
 this  year  full  of  freshness  and  of  benefits  invoked,  is 
 no  other  than  Anna  herself,  a  personification  of  the  old 
 lunar  year.  (Compare  Hermann  und  Crcuzer,  Briefe, 
 &c.,p.  135.)  Anna  is  the  same  word,  in  fact,  as  an- 
 nus, or  atius  according  to  the  primitive  Roman  orthog- 
 raphy ;  in  Greek  evof  or  'ivoc,  whence  the  expression 
 ivTi  Kal  via,  proving  that  the  word  carries  with  it  the 
 accessory  idea  of  antiquity,  just  as  iro^  appears  analo- 
 gous to  vetus.  (Compare  Lcnncp,  Etymol.  Gr.,  p. 
 210,  seqq.  —  VaJckenacr,  ad  Amnion.,  p.  196,  197.) 
 Anna  Perenna  is  called  the  moon,  nar'  e^oxr/v,  and  it 
 is  she  that  conducts  the  moons  her  sisters,  and  who 
 at  the  same  time  directs  and  governs  the  humid  sphere : 
 thus  she  reposes  for  ever  in  the  river  Numicius,  and 
 runs  on  for  ever  with  it.  She  is  the  course  of  the  moons, 
 of  the  years,  of  time  in  general.  It  is  she  that  gives 
 the  flowers  and  fruits,  and  causes  the  harvest  to  ripen  : 
 the  annual  produce  of  the  seasons  {annona)  is  placed 
 under  her  protecting  care. — The  Anna  Perenna  of 
 the  Romans  has  been  compared  with  the  Anjia  Pourna 
 Devi,  or  Annnda,  of  the  Hmdu  mythology  ;  the  god- 
 dess of  abundance  and  nourishment,  a  beneficent  form 
 of  Bhavani.  The  characteristic  traits  appear  to  be  the 
 same.  (Compare  the  remarks  of  Patcrson  and  Colc- 
 brooke,  in  the  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  8,  p.  69,  segq., 
 and  p.  85. — Crcuzer''s  Symbolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol. 
 2,  p.  501,  seqq.) 
 
 Anna  Comnena,  a  Greek  princess,  daughter  of 
 Alexius  Comnenes  I.,  emperor  of  the  East.  She  was 
 born  A.D.  1083,  and  was  originally  betrothed  to  Con- 
 stantino Ducas  ;  but  his  death  preventing  the  engage- 
 ment from  being  ratified,  she  subsequently  married  Ni- 
 cephorus  Bryennius.  On  the  decease  of  her  father, 
 she  conspired  against  her  brother  John  (Calo- Johannes), 
 who  had  succeeded  him  in  the  empire,  and  when  the 
 design  was  prevented  by  the  fears  or  scruples  of  her 
 husband,  she  passionately  exclaimed  that  nature  had 
 mistaken  the  two  sexes,  and  had  endowed  Bryennius 
 with  the  soul  of  a  woman.  After  the  discovery  of  her 
 treason,  the  life  and  fortune  of  Anna  were  forfeited  to 
 the  laws  ;  the  former,  however,  was  spared  by  the 
 clemency  of  the  emperor.  After  the  death  of  her  hus- 
 band she  retired  to  a  convent,  where,  at  the  age  of  six- 
 ty years,  she  sought  to  relieve  the  disappointment  of 
 her  ambitious  feelings  by  writing  a  life  of  her  father. 
 The  character  of  this  history  does  not  stand  very  high, 
 either  for  authenticity  or  beauty  of  composition  :  the 
 historian  is  lost  in  the  daughter  ;  and  instead  of  that 
 simplicity  of  style  and  narrative  which  wins  our  belief, 
 an  elaborate  affectation  of  rhetoric  and  science  betrays 
 in  every  page  the  vanity  of  a  female  author.  {Gibbon  s 
 Decline  and  Fall,  c.  48.)  And  yet,  at  the  same  time, 
 her  work  forms  a  useful  contrast  to  the  degrading  and 
 partial  statements  of  the  Latin  historians  of  that  period. 
 The  details,  moreover,  which  she  gives  respecting  the 
 first  crusaders  on  their  arrival  at  Constantinople,  are 
 peculiarly  interesting  ;  and  we  may  there  see  the  im- 
 pression produced  by  the  simple  and  rude  manners  of 
 the  heroes  of  Tasso  on  a  polished,  enlightened,  and 
 effeminate  court.  The  work  of  .\nna  is  entitled  Alex- 
 ias, atid  is  divided  into  fifteen  books.  It  commences 
 with  A.D.  1069,  and  terminates  with  A.D.  1118.  The 
 first  edition  of  the  Alexias  appeared  in  1610,  4to,  by 
 HoeschA,  Argent.  It  contains  only  the  first  eight 
 books.  Some  copies  bear  the  date  of  1618.  A  com- 
 plete edition  was  published  in  1651,  Paris.  The  best 
 edition,  however,  will  be  the  one  intended  to  form 
 part  of  the  Byzantine  Historians  {Corpus  Scriptorum 
 Historic  Byzantincz),  at  present  in  a  course  of  publi- 
 138 
 
 cation  in  Germany.    {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p. 
 389,  seqq.) 
 
 Annales,  a  chronological  history  which  gives  an  ac- 
 count of  all  the  important  events  of  every  year  in  a  state, 
 without  entering  into  the  causes  which  produced  them. 
 The  atmals  of  Tacitus  may  be  considered  in  thi.s  light. 
 The  Romans  had  journalists  or  annalists  from  the  very 
 beginning  of  the  state.  The  Annals  of  the  Pontiffs 
 were  of  the  same  date,  if  we  may  believe  C'icero  {de 
 Oral.,  2,  13),  as  the  foundation  of  the  city  ;  but  others 
 have  placed  their  commencement  in  the  reign  of  Numa 
 {Vopiscus,  Vit.  Tacit.),  and  Niebuhr  not  till  after  the 
 battle  of  Regillus,  which  terminated  the  hopes  of  Tar- 
 quin.  {Romische  Gesch.,  vol.  1,  p.  367.)  In  order 
 to  preserve  the  memory  of  public  transactions,  the  Pon- 
 tifex  Maximus,  who  was  the  official  historian  of  the 
 republic,  annually  committed  to  writing,  on  wooden 
 tablets,  the  leading  events  of  each  year,  and  then  set 
 them  up  at  his  own  house  for  the  instruction  of  the  peo- 
 ple. {Cic.,  de  Oral.,  2,  13.)  The  Pontifex  Maximus 
 was  aided  in  this  task  by  his  four  colleagues,  down 
 to  A.U.C.  453,  and  after  that  period  by  four  addition- 
 al pontiffs,  created  by  the  Ogulnian  law.  {C\c.,de 
 Rep.,  2,  14.)  These  annals  were  continued  to  the 
 pontificate  of  Mucins,  A.U.C.  629,  and  were  called 
 Annales  Maximi,  as  being  periodically  compiled  and 
 kept  by  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  or  Puhlici,  as  record- 
 ing public  transactions.  Having  been  inscribed  on 
 wooden  tablets,  they  would  necessarily  be  short,  and 
 destitute  of  all  circumstantial  detail ;  and  being  an- 
 nually formed  by  successive  pontiffs,  could  have  no  ap- 
 pearance of  a  continued  history,  their  contents  would 
 resemble  the  epitome  prefixed  to  the  books  of  Livy,  or 
 the  Register  of  Remarkable  Occurrences  in  modern  al- 
 manacs. But  though  short,  jejune,  and  unadorned, 
 still,  as  records  of  facts,  these  annals,  if  spared,  would 
 have  formed  an  inestimable  treasure  of  early  history. 
 Besides,  the  method  which,  Cicero  informs  us,  was 
 observed  in  preparing  these  annals,  and  the  care  that 
 was  taken  to  insert  no  fact  of  which  the  truth  had  not 
 been  attested  by  as  many  witnesses  as  there  were  cit- 
 izens at  Rome,  who  were  all  entitled  to  judge  and  make 
 their  remarks  on  what  ought  either  to  be  added  or  re 
 trenched,  must  have  formed  the  most  authentic  body 
 of  history  that  could  be  desired.  The  memory  of 
 transactions  which  were  yet  recent,  and  whose  con 
 comitant  circumstances  every  one  could  remember, 
 was  therein  transmitted  to  posterity.  By  this  means 
 they  were  proof  agaist  falsification,  and  their  veracity 
 was  incontestably  fixed.  These  valuable  records,  how- 
 ever, were,  for  the  most  part,  consumed  in  the  confla- 
 gration of  the  city  consequent  on  its  capture  by  the 
 Gauls ;  an  event  which  was,  to  the  early  history  of 
 Rome,  what  the  English  invasion  by  Edward  I.  proved 
 to  the  history  of  Scotland.  The  practice  of  the  Pon- 
 tifex Maximus  in  preserving  such  records  was  discon- 
 tinued after  that  eventful  period.  A  feeble  attempt 
 was  made  to  revive  it  towards  the  end  of  the  second 
 Punic  war  ;  and  from  that  lime  the  custom  was  not 
 entirely  dropped  till  the  Pontificate  of  Mucius,  in  the 
 year  629.  It  is  to  this  second  series  of  Annals,  or  to 
 some  other  late  and  inefl'ectual  attempt  to  revive  the  an- 
 cient Roman  history,  that  Cicero  must  allude  when  he 
 talks  of  the  Great  Annals  in  his  work  De  Legibus 
 (1,  2),  since  it  is  undoubted,  that  the  pontifical  records 
 of  events  previous  to  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls 
 almost  entirely  perished  in  the  conflagration  of  the  city. 
 {Lrvy,  6,  1.)  Accordingly,  Livy  never  cites  these 
 records,  and  there  is  no  appearance  that  he  had  any 
 opportunity  of  consulting  them;  nor  are  they  men- 
 tioned by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  in  the  long  cata- 
 logue of  records  and  memorials  which  he  had  employ- 
 ed in  the  composition  of  his  Historical  Antiquities. 
 The  hooks  of  the  pontiffs,  some  of  which  were  re- 
 covered in  the  search  after  what  the  flames  had  spared, 
 are,  indeed,  occasionally  mentioned.     But  these  wexo 
 
A  N  l" 
 
 ANT 
 
 works  explaining  the  mysteries  of  religion,  with  in- 
 structions as  to  the  ceremonies  to  be  observed  in  its 
 practical  exercise,  and  could  have  been  of  no  more  ser- 
 vice to  Roman,  than  a  collection  of  breviaries  or  mis- 
 sals to  modern,  history.  {Dunlop's  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  97,  seqq.,  Lond.  ed. — Le  Clcrc,  des  Journaux  chez 
 les  Romains,  Introd.) 
 
 ANN.iLis  LEX,  setded  the  age  at  which,  among  the 
 Romans,  a  citizen  could  be  admitted  to  exercise  the 
 offices  of  the  state.  Originally  there  was  no  certain 
 age  ttxed  for  enjoying  the  different  offices.  A  law  was 
 first  made  for  this  purpose  (Lex  Annalis)  by  L.  Vil- 
 lius  or  L.  Julius,  a  tribune  of  the  commons,  A.U.C. 
 573,  whence  his  family  got  the  surname  of  Annales. 
 (Liv.,  40,  43.)  What  was  the  year  fixed  for  enjoying 
 each  office  is  not  ascertained.  It  is  certain  that  the 
 prai^torship  used  to  be  enjoyed  two  years  after  the  sedile- 
 ship  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  10,  25),  and  that  the  forty- 
 thu-d  was  the  year  fixed  for  the  consulship.  (Cic, 
 Phil.,  5,  17.)  If  we  are  to  judge  from  Cicero,  who 
 frequently  boasts  that  he  had  enjoyed  every  office 
 in  Its  proper  year,  the  years  appointed  for  the  differ- 
 ent offices  by  the  Lex  Viliia  were,  for  the  quaestor- 
 ship  thirty- one,  for  the  sedileship  thirty-seven,  for  the 
 prsBtorship  forty,  and  for  the  consulship  forty-tliree. 
 But  even  under  the  republic  popular  citizens  were  freed 
 from  tliese  restrictions,  and  the  emperors,  too,  granted 
 that  indulgence  to  whomsoever  they  pleased. 
 Annib.vl.     Vid.  Hannibal. 
 
 Anniuerbis,  a  philosopher  of  the  Cyrena'ic  sect,  and 
 a  follower  of  Aristippus.  He  so  far  receded  from  the 
 doctrine  of  his  master  as  to  acknowledge  the  merit  of 
 filial  piety,  friendship,  and  patriotism,  and  to  allow  that 
 a  wise  man  might  retain  the  possession  of  himself  in 
 the  midst  of  external  troubles  ;  but  he  inherited  so 
 much  of  his  frivolous  taste  as  to  value  himself  upon 
 the  most  trivial  accomplishments,  particularly  upon  his 
 dexterity  in  being  able  to  drive  a  chariot  twice  round 
 a  course  in  the  same  ring.  (Diog.  Laert.,  2,  87. — 
 Siiida.9,  s.  V. — Enfield's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  196.) 
 
 Anno.      Vid.  Hanno. 
 
 Anop^a,  a  mountain  of  Greece,  part  of  the  chain 
 of  CEta.  A  small  pass  in  this  mountain,  called  by  the 
 same  name,  formed  a  communication  between  Thes- 
 saly  and  the  country  of  the  Epicnemidian  Locri.  {He- 
 rodot.,  7,  216.) 
 
 Anser,  a  Roman  poet,  intimate  with  the  triumvir 
 Antony,  and  one  of  the  detractors  of  Virgil.  (Com- 
 pare Virg.,  Eclog.,  9,  36. — Servius,  ad  Virg.,  I.  c.) 
 Ovid  (Trist.,  2,  435)  calls  him  "  ■procax.''' 
 
 Ansibarii,  a  people  of  Germany,  mentioned  by  Taci- 
 tus {Ann.,  13,  55)  as  having  made  an  irruption,  du- 
 ring the  reign  of  Nero,  into  the  Roman  territories 
 along  the  Rhine.  Mannert  makes  them  to  have  been 
 a  branch  of  the  Cherusci.  The  same  writer  alludes 
 to  the  hypothesis  which  would  consider  their  name  as 
 denoting  "  dwellers  along  the  Ems,"  and  as  marking 
 this  for  their  original  place  of  settlement.  He  views 
 it,  however,  as  untenable.  {Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  p.  156, 
 scqq  ) 
 
 Ant.«op6lis,  a  city  of  Egypt  on  the  eastern  bank 
 of  the  Nile,  and  the  capital  of  the  nome  Anta?opolites. 
 It  derived  its  name  from  Antaeus,  whom  Osiris,  ac- 
 cording to  Diodorus  Siculus  (I,  17),  left  as  governor 
 of  his  Libyan  and  ^Ethiopian  possessions,  and  whom 
 Hercules  destroyed.  It  was  a  place  of  no  great  im- 
 portance. The  modern  village  of  Kau  (Qaou)  stands 
 near  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city.  {Mannert,  vol.  10, 
 pt.  2,  p.  388,  seqq. — Compare  Description  de  VEgyple, 
 vol.  4,  p.  111.) 
 
 Ant^.us,  I.,  a  monarch  of  Libya,  of  gigantic  dimen- 
 
 hero  lifted  him  up  in  the  air,  and  squeezed  him  to  death 
 in  his  arms.  {Apollod.,  2,  5.) — II.  A  governor  of 
 Libya  and  Ethiopia  under  Osiris.  (Died.  Sic,  1, 
 17.) — Both  these  accounts  are,  in  fact,  fabulous,  and 
 refer  to  one  and  the  same  thing.  The  legend  of  Her- 
 cules and  Antreus  is  nothing  more  than  the  triumph  of 
 art  and  labour  over  the  encroaching  sands  of  the  desert. 
 Hercules,  stifling  his  adversary,  is,  in  fact,  the  Nile 
 divided  into  a  thousand  canals,  and  preventing  the  arid 
 sand  from  returning  to  its  native  deserts,  whence 
 aoain  to  come  forth  with  the  winds  and  cover  with  its 
 waves  the  fertile  valley.  {Constant,  de  la  Religion, 
 vol.  2,  p.  416.)  The  very  position  of  Antaeopolis,  in- 
 deed, has  reference  to  the  identity  of  Antajus  with  the 
 sands  of  the  desert ;  for  the  place  was  situate  in  a  long 
 and  deep  valley  of  the  Arabian  chain,  where  the  most 
 fearful  hurricanes  and  sand-winds  were  accustomed  to 
 blow.  (Compare  Ritler,  Erdkunde,  2d.ed.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 779.) 
 
 Antagoras,  a  Rhodian  poet,  who  lived  at  the  court 
 of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  where  he  acquired  the  reputa- 
 tion of  a  gourmand.  He  composed  a  poem  entitled 
 Theba'is ;  and  the  Bceotians,  to  whom  he  read  it,  heard 
 him  with  yawns.  {Mich.  Apost.  Proverb.  Cent., 
 5,  82.)  We  have  one  of  his  epigrams  remaining. 
 {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Or.,  vol.  3,  p.  128.) 
 
 Antalcidas,  of  Sparta,  son  of  Leon,  was  sent  into 
 Persia,  where  he  made  the  well-known  peace  with 
 Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  The  terms  of  this  peace  were 
 as  follows  :  that  all  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  should  be- 
 long to  the  Persian  king,  together  with  the  island  of 
 Clazomens  (as  it  was  called)  and  that  of  Cyprus  :  that 
 all  other  Grecian  cities,  small  and  great,  should  be  in- 
 dependent, except  the  islands  of  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and 
 Scyros,  which  were  to  remain  subject  to  the  Atheni- 
 ans. {Xni.,  Hist.  Gr.,  5,  1.— Consult  Schneider, ad 
 loc.)  Polybius  (1,  6)  fixes  the  year  of  this  celebrated 
 peace,  and  Aristides  (vol.  2,  p.  286)  the  name  of  the 
 archon  {QeuSoToq  kf  ov  ij  eipi/vTi  hyiveTo).  The  treaty 
 seems  to  have  been  concluded  in  the  beginning  of  the 
 
 year  of  Theodotus,  about  autumn  ;  because  the  Man- 
 tinean  war,  which  was  carried  on  in  the  archonsbip  of 
 Mystichides,  was  in  the  second  ypar  after  the  peace  ; 
 and  because  the  restoration  of  Plaia>a,  accomplished 
 after  the  treaty,  took  place  nevertheless  m  the  year  of 
 the  treaty,  as  Pausanias  implies.  {Clmton's  Fasti 
 Hellenici,2d  eil,  p.  102.) 
 
 Antandkus,  a  city  of  Troas,  on  the  norihein  side 
 of  the  Gulf  of  Adramyttium.  Accordmg  to  Thucydi- 
 des  (8,  108),  It  was  founded  by  an  iEolian  colony, 
 which  had  probably  dispossessed  a  body  of  the  Pelasgi 
 in  this  quarter,  since  Herodotus  (7,  42)  names  the 
 place  the  Pelasgic  Antandrus.  If  we  follow  the  an- 
 cient mythology,  however,  we  will  find  different  ac- 
 counts of  its  origin.  These  are  given  by  Meia  (1,  18), 
 who  states  that  the  city  was  called  Antandrus  accord- 
 ing to  some,  because  Ascanius,  the  son  of  iEneas, 
 having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Pelasgi,  gave  them 
 up  this  city  as  a  ransom  ;  and  hence  Antandrus,  i^^e., 
 uvt'  dvSpoc  ("  in  the  stead,"  or  "  place,  of  a  man")  ; 
 while  others  maintain  that  it  was  founded  by  certain 
 inhabitants  of  Andros,  who  had  been  driven  from  home 
 by  civil  dissensions,  and  that  hence  the  city  was  called 
 Antandrus,  i.  e.,  "  instead  of  Andros,"  implying  that  it 
 was  to  them  a  second  country.  Pliny  (5,  30),  on  the 
 other  hand,  believes  that  its  first  name  was  Edunis,  and 
 that  it  was  subsequently  styled  Cvmmens.  During 
 the  Persian  times,  Antandrus,  like  many  other  parts 
 of  this  coast,  was  subject  to  Mytilene,  m  the  island  of 
 Lesbos.  The  Persians,  however,  held  the  citadel, 
 which  would  seem  to  have  stood  on  a  monntam  near 
 the  city.     This  mountain   is  probably  the  same  with 
 
 sions,  son  of  Neptune  and  Terra'.  He^vTas  famed  for  the  one  called  Alexandrea,  and  on  which,  according 
 his  strength  and  his  skill  in  wrestling,  and  engaged  in  to  Strabo  (606),  the  controversy  between  Juno,  Mi- 
 a  contest  with  Hercules.  As  he  received  new'strength  nerva,  and  Venus  was  decided  by  Pans.  {Mannert, 
 from  his  mother  as  often  as  he  touched  the  ground,  the  1  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  418.)  „ 
 
ANT 
 
 ANT 
 
 AntemnjE,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  territory  of  the  J 
 Sabines,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Anio  and  Tiber.  It 
 is  said  to  have  been  more  ancient  than  Rome  itself 
 We  are  told  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (2,  36), 
 that  Aiitcmiias  belonged  at  first  to  the  Sicnli,  but  that 
 afterward  it  was  conquered  by  the  Aborigines,  to 
 whom,  probably,  it  owes  its  Latin  name.  ( Varro,  de 
 Ltng,  Lat.,  4. — Fcstus,  s.  v.  Aniemna;.)  That  it 
 afterward  formed  a  part  of  the  Sabine  confederacy  is 
 evident  from  its  being  one  of  the  first  cities  which  re- 
 senicd  the  outrage  offered  to  that  nation  by  the  rape 
 of  their  women.  {Liv.,  1,  10. — Strabo,  226. —  Cra- 
 mcr's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  301.) 
 
 Antenor,  I.  a  Trojan  prince  related  to  Priam.  He 
 was  the  husband  of  Theano,  daughter  of  Cisseus,  king 
 of  Thrace,  and  father  of  nineteen  sons,  of  whom  the 
 most  known  were  Polybus  (//.,  11,  59),  Acamas  (//., 
 
 2,  823),  Agenor  (//.,  4,  533),  Polydamas,  Helicaon, 
 Archilochus  (//.,  2,  823),  and  Laodocus  {11,  4,  87). 
 He  is  accused  by  some  of  having  betrayed  his  country, 
 not  only  because  he  gave  a  favourable  reception  to 
 Diomedes,  Ulysses,  and  Menelaus,  when  they  came 
 to  Troy,  as  ambassadors  from  the  Greeks,  to  demand 
 the  restitution  of  Helen,  but  also  because  he  with- 
 held the  fact  of  his  recognising  Ulysses,  at  the  time 
 that  hero  visited  the  city  under  the  guise  of  a  mendi- 
 cant. (Orf.,  4,  335.)  After  the  conclusion  of  the  war, 
 Antenor,  according  to  some,  migrated  with  a  party  of 
 followers  into  Italy,  and  built  Patavium.  According 
 to  others,  he  went  with  a  colony  of  the  Heneti  from 
 Paphlagonia  to  the  shores  of  the  Hadriatic,  where  the 
 new  settlers  established  themselves  in  the  district 
 called  by  them  Venetia.  Both  accounts  are  fabulous. 
 (Lnv,  1,  l.—Plin.,  3,  l3.—  Virg.,jEn.,  1,  242.— 
 Tacit.,  16,  21.) — 11.  A  statuary,  known  only  as  the 
 maker  of  the  original  statues  of  Ilarmodius  and  Aris- 
 togiton,  which  were  carried  off  by  Xerxes,  and  restored 
 by  Ale.vander.  (Pausan.,  I,  S. — Arrian,  Exp.  Al.,3, 
 IQ.—Plm.,  34,  8.) 
 
 Antenoeides,  a  patronymic  given  to  the  sons  of 
 Antenor. 
 
 Anteros.  The  original  meaning  of  the  name  An- 
 teros  is  the  deity  who  avenges  slighted  love.  By 
 later  writers  it  is  applied  to  a  brother  of  Cupid,  but  in 
 constant  opposition  to  him  ;  and  in  the  palaestra  at 
 Elis  he  was  represented  contending  with  him.  The 
 signification  of  mutual  love  is  given  to  the  word  only 
 by  later  writers,  according  to  Bottiger.  {Schneider, 
 Worlerb.,  s.  v.—Pausan.,  I,  30.— Id.,  6,  23.— Plu- 
 tarch, Erot.,  20.) 
 
 Anthea,  one  of  the  three  towns  on  the  site  of  which 
 the  city  of  Patrse,  in  Achaia,  is  said  to  have  been  built. 
 The  other  two  were  Aroe  and  Messatis.  These  three 
 were  founded  by  the  lonians  when  they  held  posses- 
 sion of  the  country.     {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol. 
 
 3,  p.  66.) 
 
 Anthedon,  I.  a  city  of  Boeotia,  on  the  shore  of  the 
 Euripus,  and,  according  to  Dicoearchus,  about  seventy 
 stadia  to  the  north  of  Salganeus.  {Slat.  Grcec,  p. 
 19.)  The  same  writer  informs  us,  that  from  Thebes 
 to  Anthedon  the  distance  was  160  stadia  by  a  cross- 
 road open  to  carriages.  The  inhabitants  were,  for  the 
 most  part,  mariners  and  shipwrights  ;  at  least,  so  says 
 Dicaearchus  ;  and  the  fisheries  of  the  place  were  very 
 important.  The  wine  of  Anthedon  was  celebrated. 
 {Athcnaus,  1,  56.)  Pausanias  states  (9,  22)  that  the 
 Cabiri  were  worshipped  here;  there  was  also  a  tem- 
 ple of  Proserpina  in  the  town,  and  one  of  Bacchus 
 without  the  walls.  Near  the  sea  was  a  spot  called  the 
 leap  of  Giaucus.  {Strabo,  404. — Steiih.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 'kvdriduv.— Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  4,  7.)  Sir  \V.  Gell 
 reports,  that  the  ruins  of  this  city  are  under  Mount 
 Ktypa,  about  seven  miles  from  Portzumadi,  and  six 
 from  Egripo.  {Itin.,  p.  147.  —  Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  254.) — II.  A  town  of  Palestine, 
 called  also  Agrippias,  on  the  seacoast,  to  the  south- 
 140 
 
 ■west  of  Gaza.  Herod  gave  it  the  second  name  in 
 honour  of  Agrippa.     It  is  now  Daron.     {Plm,  4,  7.) 
 
 Anthele,  a  small  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  inter- 
 val between  the  river  Phoenix  and  the  Straits  of  Ther- 
 mopyla;,  and  near  the  spot  where  the  Asopus  flowa 
 into  the  sea.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  were  the  tem- 
 ples of  Ceres  Amphictyonia,  that  of  Amphictyon,  and 
 the  seats  of  the  Amphictyons.  It  was  one  of  the  two 
 places  where  the  Amphictyonic  council  used  to  meet, 
 the  other  being  Delphi.  The  place  for  holding  the  as- 
 sembly here  was  the  temple  of  Ceres.  {Vid.  Amphic- 
 tyones.  — //norfo^.,  7,  "iQO —Strabo,  428.) 
 
 Anthemus,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  to  the  northeast 
 of  Thessalonica,  and  which  Thucydides  seems  to  com- 
 prise within  Mygdonia.     {Thucyd.,  2,  99.) 
 
 Anthemusia,  I.  a  district  in  the  northern  part  of 
 Mesopotamia,  which  was  subsequently  incorporated 
 into  Osroene.  {Amm.  MarcelL,  14,  9. — Eutrop.,  8, 
 2.) — II.  The  capital  of  the  district  just  mentioned, 
 lying  east  of  the  Euphrates  and  west  of  the  city  of 
 Edessa.  It  is  also  called  Anthemus.  The  name  was 
 derived  from  the  Macedonian  city  of  Anthemus. 
 {Plin.,  6,  26.—Strab.,  514.) 
 
 Anthene,  a  town  of  Cynuria  in  Argolis,  once  oc- 
 cupied by  the  iKginetce  together  with  Thyrea.  {Pau- 
 san.,  2,  38  )  It  was  restored  to  the  Argives  after  the 
 battle  of  Amphipolis.     {Thucyd.,  5,  41.) 
 
 Anthermus,  a  Chian  sculptor,  son  of  Micciades, 
 and  grandson  to  Malas.  He  flourished  about  Olymp. 
 50,  and  was  the  father  of  the  two  artists  Bupalus  and 
 Athenis.  (Fz</.  Bupalus.)  As  the  name  Anthermus 
 is  not  Greek,  Brotier  reads  Archennus,  which  Sillig 
 follows.     {Plin.,  36,  5. — Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Anthesphoria,  a  festival  celebrated  by  the  people 
 of  Syracuse  in  honour  of  Proserpina,  who  was  carried 
 away  by  Pluto  as  she  was  gathering  flowers.  The  word 
 is  derived  from  utto  tov  cpepeiv  uvdea,  i.  e.,  from  car- 
 rying flowers.  The  Syracusans  showed,  near  their 
 city,  the  spot  where  Proserpina  was  carried  off,  and 
 from  which  a  lake  had  immediately  proceeded.  Around 
 this  the  festival  was  celebrated.  The  lake  in  question 
 is  formed  by  the  sources  of  the  Cyane,  whose  waters 
 join  the  Anapus.  (Compare  Miinier,  Nachricht  von 
 Neap,  und  Sicii,  p.  374.) — Festivals  of  the  same 
 name  were  also  observed  at  Argos  in  honour  of  Juno, 
 who  was  called  Antheia.     {Pollux,  Onom.,  1,  1.) 
 
 Anthesteria,  festivals  in  honour  of  Bacchus  among 
 the  Greeks.  They  were  celebrated  in  the  month  of 
 February,  called  Anthesterion,  whence  the  name  is 
 derived,  and  continued  three  days.  The  first  day  was 
 called  Uidotyia,  iind  tov  nidovc  otyeiv,  because  they 
 lapped  their  barrels  of  liquor.  The  second  day  was 
 called  Xr)f'f»  fro^i  the  measure  xoii,  because  every  in- 
 dividual drank  of  his  own  vessel,  in  commemoration  of 
 the  arrival  of  Orestes,  who,  after  the  murder  of  his 
 mother,  came,  without  being  purified,  to  Deniophoun, 
 or  Pandion,  king  of  Athens,  and  was  obliged,  with  all 
 the  Athenians,  to  drink  by  himself  for  fear  of  polluting 
 the  people  by  drinking  with  them  before  he  was  puri- 
 fied of  the  parricide.  It  was  usual  on  that  day  to  ride 
 out  in  chariots,  and  ridicule  those  that  passed  by.  The 
 best  drinker  was  rewarded  with  a  crown  of  leaves,  or 
 rather  of  gold,  and  with  a  cask  of  wine.  The  third 
 day  was  called  Xi'Tpot,  from  X^'''''P°->  a  vessel  brought 
 out  full  of  all  sorts  of  seed  and  herbs,  deemed  sacred 
 to  Mercury,  and  therefore  not  touched.  The  slaves 
 had  the  permission  of  being  merry  and  free  during 
 these  festivals;  and  at  the  end  of  the  solemnity  a  her- 
 ald proclaimed,  Gt'paCe,  Kupeg,  ovk  et'  'Avdcan'/pta, 
 i.  e..  Depart,  ye  Carian  slaves,  the  festivals  are  at  an 
 end.  {JElmn,  V.  H  ,  2,  41. — Potter,  Gr.  Antiq.,  vol. 
 l,p.  422,  SCJ7.)  Ruhnken  {Auct.  Emend., ad  Hesyrh., 
 vol.  2,  s.  V.  Aiovi'c)  makes  the  Athenians  to  have  cel- 
 ebrated three  festivals  in  honour  of  Bacchus  :  1.  Those 
 of  the  country,  in  the  month  Posideon  :  2.  Those  of 
 I  the  city,  or  the  greater  festivals,  in  the  month  Ela- 
 
ANT 
 
 ANT 
 
 phebolion  ;  and,  3.  The  Anthesteria  or  Lenaea,  in  the 
 month  Anthesterion.  These  last  were  celebrated 
 within  a  large  enclosure  called  Lenasuni,  and  in  a  quar- 
 ter of  the  city  termed  Limnae,  or  "  the  pools."  Meur- 
 sius  had  before  distinguished  the  Lentea  from  the  An- 
 thesteria {GrcEc.  Fer.,  vol.  3,  Op.  col.,  917  and 
 918  )  Bockh  also  regards  the  Lenasa  as  a  distinct 
 festival  from  the  Anthesteria.  ( Vom  Unterscheide  der 
 Attischen  Lenczen,  &c.,  Jahrg.,  1816,  1817,  p.  47, 
 scqq.)  Both  the  latter  opinions,  however,  are  incorrect. 
 (Compare  Creuzer,  SymhoUk,  vol  3,  p.  319,  seqq.) 
 Antheus,  I.  asonof  Antenor. — II.  One  of  the  com- 
 panions of  Ji^neas.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  1,  514.)— III.  A 
 statuary  mentioned  by  Pliny  (34,  8)  as  having  flour- 
 ished in  Olymp.  155,  and  as  approved  among  the  ar- 
 tists of  his  own  time.  In  some  editions  of  Pliny  the 
 name  is  written  Antasus.     {SiUig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Anthium,  a  town  of  Thrace,  afterward  called  Apol- 
 lonia.  The  name  was  subsequently  changed  to  Sozop- 
 olis,  and  is  now  pronounced  Sizcboli.     {ftin.,  4,  11.) 
 
 Anthores,  a  companion  of  Hercules,  who  followed 
 Evander,  and  settled  in  Italy.  He  was  killed  in  the 
 war  of  Turnus  against  vHneas.  {Virg.,  Ain.,  10,  778.) 
 ANTHROPOPH.iGT,  a  people  of  Scythia  that  fed  on  hu- 
 man flesh.  Herodotus  (4,  106)  calls  them  the  An- 
 drophagi,  and  states  that  they  lived  in  a  more  savage 
 manner  than  any  other  nation,  having  no  public  distri- 
 bution of  justice  nor  established  laws.  He  informs 
 us  also  that  they  applied  themselves  to  the  breeding 
 of  cattle,  clothed  themselves  like  the  Scythians,  and 
 spoke  a  peculiar  language.  Rennell  thinks  that  they 
 must  have  occupied  Polish  Russia,  and  both  banks  of 
 the  river  Prypetz,  the  western  head  of  the  Borysthe- 
 ncs.     {Rennell,  Gcogr.  of  Herod.,  p.  86,  4to  cd.) 
 
 Anthvlla,  a  city  of  Egypt  about  west  from  the 
 Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  and  northwest  from  Nau- 
 cratis.  It  is  supposed  by  Larcher  to  have  been  the 
 same  with  Gynscopolis.  (Compare  Manncrt,  Gcogr., 
 vol.  10,  p.  596.)  According  to  Herodotus,  it  furnish- 
 ed sandals  to  the  wife  of  the  Persian  satrap,  who  was 
 viceroy,  for  the  time  being,  over  Egypt.  'I'his  was  in 
 imitation  of  the  royal  custom  at  home,  in  the  case  of 
 the  queens  of  Persia.  {Herod.,  3,  98. — Consult  Bdhr, 
 ad  he.)  Athenaeus  says  it  supplied  girdles  (1,  p.  33. 
 — Compare  B'ahr,  ad  Ctcs.,  p.  209.) 
 
 Anti.a.  le.x,  was  made  for  the  suppression  of  lu.xury 
 at  Rome.  Its  particulars  are  not  known,  but  it  could 
 not  be  enforced.  The  enactor  was  Antius  Resto,  who 
 afterward  never  supped  abroad  for  fear  of  being  him- 
 self a  witness  of  the  profusion  and  extravagance  which 
 his  law  meant  to  destroy,  but  without  effect.  {Ma- 
 eroh.,  3,  17.) 
 
 Anti.vs,  a  name  given  to  the  goddess  Fortime,  from 
 her  splendid  temple  at  Antium,  where  she  was  par- 
 ticularly worshipped.     {Vid.  Antium.) 
 
 Anticlea,  a  daughter  of  Autolycus  and  Amphithea. 
 She  was  the  mother  of  Ulysses,  but  not,  it  is  said,  by 
 Laertes.  This  individual  was  only  the  reputed  fa- 
 ther of  the  chieftain  of  Ithaca,  and  the  actual  paternity 
 belonged  to  Sisyphus.  It  is  said  that  Anticlea  killed 
 herself  when  she  heard  a  false  report  of  her  son's 
 death.  {Homer,  Od.,  11,  19.— Hy gin.,  f ah.,  201,  243. 
 — }'a7isan.,  10,  29.) 
 
 Antici.ides,  a  Greek  historian,  a  native  of  Athens, 
 whose  works  arc  lost.  (Consult  Athenceus,  cd.  Schw. 
 — hid.  Auet.,  s.  v.,  vol.  9.) 
 
 Antickagus,  a  detached  chain  of  the  ridge  of  Mount 
 Cragus  in  Lycia,  running  in  a  northeast  direction  along 
 the  coast  of  the  Sinus  Glaucus.  It,  is  now  called 
 Soumboiirlou.  Captain  Beaufort  estimates  the  height 
 at  not  less  than  6000  feet.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor, 
 vol.  2,  p.  245.) 
 
 Anticrates,  a  Spartan,  who,  according  to  Plutarch, 
 stabbed  Epaminondas,  the  Theban  general,  at  the  bat- 
 tle of  Mantinea.  Great  honours  and  rewards  were 
 decreed  to  him  by   the   Spartans,  and  an  exemption 
 
 from  taxes  to  his  posterity.  {Flat.,  Vit.  Ages.,c.  35.; 
 There  were,  however,  other  claimants  for  this  honour. 
 The  Mantinoeans  asserted  that  one  of  their  citizens,  by 
 name  Machcerion,  gave  the  fatal  blow.  The  Athenians, 
 on  the  other  hand,  make  Epaminondas  to  have  fallen 
 by  the  hand  of  Gryllus,  son  of  Xenophon.  (Compare 
 Pausan.,  8,  11. — Id.,  9,  15;  and  Wesseling,  ad  Diod. 
 Sic.,  15,  87.) 
 
 Anticyra,  I.  a  town  of  Thessaly,  at  the  mouth  of 
 the  Sperchius.  {Herodot,  7,  198. — S/rabo,A28.)  Ii 
 was  said  to  produce  the  genuine  hellebore,  so  much 
 recommended  by  ancient  physicians  as  a  cure  for  in- 
 sanity. {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'AvTiKvpa.) — II.  A  town 
 of  Phocis,  on  the  isthmus  of  a  small  peninsula  in  the 
 Sinus  Corinthiacus.  It  was  celebrated,  in  common 
 with  the  one  already  mentioned,  for  Us  hellebore 
 {Scylax,  p.  14.  —  Thcophr.,  9,  10. — Strabo,  418.) 
 Pausania.s  affirms  (10,  36)  that  the  inhabitants  of  An- 
 ticyra were  driven  from  their  town  by  Philip,  the  son 
 of  Amyntas,  on  the  termination  of  the  Sacred  War. 
 At  a  later  period  it  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Ltevi- 
 nus,  the  Roman  praetor,  who  delivered  it  up  to  the 
 ^tolians.  {Liv.,  26,  26.)  And  subsequently,  in  tho 
 Macedonian  war,  it  was  occupied  by  Titus  Q.  Flam- 
 ininus,  on  account  of  the  facilities  which  its  harbour 
 presented  for  the  operations  of  the  Roman  fleet  in  the 
 Corinthian  Gulf.  {Lw.,  32,  l8.~Pavsan,  10,  36. — 
 Polyb.,  18,  28.— Id.,  27,  14.)  The  site  of  Anticyra 
 corresponds,  as  is  generally  believed,  with  that  of  As- 
 propiti,  in  a  bay  of  some  extent,  parallel  to  that  of  iS«- 
 lona.  "  Here  is  a  good  port,"  says  Sir  \V.  Gell  {Itin., 
 p.  174),  "  and  some  remains  of  antiquity."  Chand- 
 ler remarks,  that  "  the  site  is  now  called  Asprospitia, 
 or  the  white  houses  ;  and  some  traces  of  the  buildings, 
 from  which  it  was  so  named,  remain.  The  port  is 
 land-locked,  and  frequented  by  vessels  for  corn." 
 {Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  301.) — The  ancients  had  a  prov- 
 erb, Naviget  Anticyram,  applied  to  a  person  that  was 
 regarded  as  insane,  and  alluding  to  the  hellebore  pro- 
 duced at  cither  Anticyra.  (Compare  Erasmus,  ChiL, 
 1,  cent.  8,  52. — Naviget  Anticyras,  YD^evaeuv  elg 
 'AvTiKvpac.)  Horace  has  been  supposed  by  some  to 
 allude  to  three  places  of  this  name,  but  this  is  a  mis- 
 take ;  the  poet  merely  speaks  of  a  head  so  insane  as 
 not  to  be  cured  by  the  produce  of  three  Anticyras,  if 
 there  even  were  three,  and  not  merely  two.  {Ep.,  ad 
 Pis.,  300.) 
 
 Antidotus,  a  Greek  painter,  a  pupil  of  Euphranor. 
 He  flourished  about  364  B.C.  His  colouring  was  se- 
 vere, and  his  productions  were  remarkable  for  their 
 careful  execution  rather  than  their  number.  His  prin- 
 cipal pieces  were  a  Wrestler  and  a  Flute-player.  He 
 was  the  instructer  of  Nicias  of  Athens.  {Plin.,H.  N., 
 35,  W.—Biogr.   Univ.,yo\.  2,  p.  249.) 
 
 Aktigenes,  one  of  Alexander's  generals,  publicly 
 rewarded  for  his  valour.     {Quint.  Curt.,  5,  14.) 
 
 Antigenidas,  a  famous  musician  of  Thebes,  disci- 
 ple to  Philoxenus.  He  introduced  certain  innova- 
 tions in  the  construction  of  the  flute,  and  in  the  art  of 
 playing  upon  it.     {Cir..,  Brut.,  97.) 
 
 Antigone,  a  daughter  of  CEdipus,  king  of  Thebes, 
 by  his  mother  Jocasta.  After  the  death  of  CEdipus 
 and  his  sons  Eteocles  and  Polynices,  Antigone  repair- 
 ed to  Thebes,  in  order  to  effect  the  sepulture  of  her 
 brother  Polynices.  Creon,  monarch  of  Thebes,  her 
 maternal  uncle,  had  forbidden  the  interment  of  the 
 young  prince  under  the  penalty  of  death,  on  account 
 of  the  war  which  the  latter  had  waged  against  his 
 own  country.  Antigone,  however,  disregarding  all 
 personal  considerations,  succeeded  in  sprinkling  dust 
 three  times  on  her  brother's  remains,  which  was  equiv- 
 alent to  sepulture,  but  was  sebsequcntly  seized  by  the 
 guards  who  had  been  placed  to  watch  the  corpse  and 
 prevent  its  interment.  For  this  she  was  immured 
 alive  in  a  tomb,  where  she  hung  herself  Hnsmon, 
 the  son  of  Creon,  to  whom  she  had  been  betrothed 
 
 141 
 
ANTIGONUS. 
 
 ANT 
 
 effected  an  entrance  and  killed  himself  by  her  corpse, 
 and  his  mother  Eurydice  likewise  put  an  end  to  her 
 existence.  This  sad  story  forms  the  basis  of  one  oi 
 the  tragedies  of  Sophocles.    {Vid.  Sophocles.) 
 
 Antigonk.v,  I.  a  city  of  Epirus,  southwest  of  Apol- 
 lonia.     (Flm.,  4,  1.) — II.  One  of  Macedonia,  in  the 
 district  of  Mygdonia,  founded   by  Antigonus,  son  of 
 Gonatas.     (Id.,  4,    10.) — III.   One  in   Syria,   on   the 
 borders  of  the  Orontes,  built  by  Antigonus,  and  in- 
 tended as  the  residence  of  the  governors  of  Egypt 
 and  Syria,  but  destroyed   by  him  when  Seleucia  was 
 built,  and  the  inhabitants  removed  lo  the  latter  city. — 
 IV.  Anotiier  in  Asia  Minor.    {Vid.  Alexandrea,  IX.) 
 Antigonus,  I.  a  general  of  Alexander's,  and  one  of 
 those  who  played  the  most  important  part  after  the 
 death  of  that  monarch.     In  the  division  of  the  provin- 
 ces after  the  king's  death,  he  received  Pamphylia,  Ly- 
 cia,  and  Phrygia.     Two  years  after  tho  decease  of  Al- 
 exander, he  united  with  Antipater  and  Ptolemy  against 
 Perdiccas,  who  aimed   at  the  supremacy.     Perdiccas 
 having  died  ihis  same  year  (B.C.  322),  and  Antipater 
 being  placed  at  the  head  of  the  government,  Antigonus 
 was  named  commander  of  all  the  forces  of  the  empire, 
 and  marched  against  Eumenes.     After  various  con- 
 flicts, during  a   war  of  three  years,  he  succeeded  in 
 getting   Eumenes  into  his  power  by   treachery,  and 
 starved  him  to   death.     Become  now  all  powerful  by 
 the  death  of  this  formidable  rival,  he  ruled  as  king,  but 
 without  assuming  the  title,  over  all  Asia  Minor  and 
 Syria  ;  but  his  conduct  eventually  excited  against  him 
 a  formidable  league,  in  which  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  Ly- 
 simachus,  and  Gassander  arrayed  themselves  against 
 Antigonus,   and  the  celebrated    Demetrius,  his    son. 
 After  varied  success,  the  confederates  made  a  treaty 
 with  him,  and  surrendered  to  him  the  possession  of 
 the   whole  of  Asia,  upon   condition  that  the  Grecian 
 cities    should    remain    free.     This    treaty    was    soon 
 broken,  and  Ptolemy  made  a  descent  into  Lesser  Asia 
 and  on  some  of  the  Greek  isles,  which  was  at  first  suc- 
 cessful, but   he  was  defeated  in  a  seafight  by  Deme- 
 trius, the  son  of  Antigonus,  who  took  the  i.sland  of  Cy- 
 prus, made  16,000  prisoners,  and  sunk  200  of  his  ships. 
 After  this  famous  naval  battle,  which  happened    26 
 years  after  Alexander's  death,  Antigonus  and  his  son 
 assumed  the  title  of  kings,  and  their  example  was  fol- 
 lowed by  all  the  rest  of   Alexander's  generals.     From 
 this  period,  B.C.  306,  his  own   reign  in  Asia,  that  of 
 Ptolemy  in  Egypt,  and  those  of  the  other  captains  of 
 Alexander  in  their  respective  territories,  properly  com- 
 mence.    Antigonus  now  formed  the  design  of  driving 
 Ptolemy  from  Egypt,  but  failed.     His  power  soon  be- 
 came so  formidable  that  a  new  confederacy  was  formed 
 against  him  by  Cassander,  Lysimachus,  Seleucus,  and 
 Ptolemy.     The  contending  parties  met  in  the  plain  of 
 Ipsus  in  Phrygia,  B.C.  301.      Antigonus  was  defeated, 
 and  died  of  his  wounds ;  and  his  son  Demetrius  fled 
 from  the  field.     Antigonus  was   84   years  old    when 
 he  died.    {Vid.   Demetrius. — Pausa7i.,  1,  6,  &c. — 
 Justi7i,  13,  14,  et  1.5.— C.  Nep.,  Vit.  Eumen.—Plut., 
 Vit.  Demctr. — Eumen.  et  Arat.) — II.  Gonatas,  so  call- 
 ed from  Gonni  in  Thessaly,  the  place  of  his  birth,  was 
 the   son  of  Demetrius,  and    grandson  of  Antigonus. 
 He  made  himself  master  of  Macedonia  B.C.  277,  and 
 assumed  the  title  of  king.     In  the  course  of  his  reign, 
 he  defeated,  with  great  slaughter,  the  Gauls,  who  had 
 made  an  irruption  into  his  kingdom.     Having  refused 
 succours   to   Pyrrhus  of  Epirus,   he   was  driven  from 
 his  throne  by  that  warlike   monarch.     He    afterward 
 recovered  a  great    part   of  Macedonia,  and    followed 
 Pyrrhus  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Argos.      In  a  conflict 
 that  ensued  there,  Pyrrhus  was  slain.     After  the  death 
 of  Pyrrhus,  he  recovered  the  remainder  of  Macedonia, 
 and  died  after  a  reign  of  34  years,  leaving  his  son,  De- 
 metrius the  Second,  to  succeed,  B.C.  243.     (Justin, 
 «1  et  25.) — III.  The  guardian  of  his  nephew,  Philip, 
 the  son  of  Demetrius,  who  married  the  widow  of  De- 
 142 
 
 metrius,  and  usurped   the  kingdom.     He  was  called 
 Doson  ((iuauv,  "  ahout  to  give,"  i.  e.,  always  promis- 
 ing), from  his    promising   much  and   giving  nothing. 
 He  conquered  Cleomenes,   king  of  Sparta,  and  obli- 
 ged him  to  retire  into  Egypt,  because  he  favoured  the 
 yfitolians  against    the    Greeks.     He  died  B.C.  222, 
 after  a  reign  of  11   years,  leaving  his  crown    to   the 
 lawful  possessor,  Philip,  who  became  conspicuous  by 
 his  cruelties  and  the  war  he  made  against  the  Romans. 
 (Justin,  28  et  29. — Plut.,  Vit.  Clcom)—\V.  Son  of 
 Echecrates,  and  nephew  of  Philip,  the  father  of  Per- 
 seus.    He  was  the   only  one   of  the  Macedonian  no- 
 bles who  remained  faithful  when  Perseus  conspired 
 against  his  parents  ;    and   to  him,   moreover,   Philip 
 owed  the  discovery  of  the  plot.     Charmed  with   his 
 virtuous  and  upright  character,  the  monarch  intended 
 to  make  him  his  successor,  but  the  death  of  Philip  pre- 
 vented this  being  done.     Perseus  succeeded  his  lather, 
 and,  a  few  days  after,  put  Antigonus  to  death,  B.C. 
 179.     (L/i;  ,  40,  54,  &c.)— V.  Son  of  Aristobulus  II., 
 king  of  Judae,    was  conducted  to  Rome  along  with 
 his  father,  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey. 
 When  Caesar  became  dictator,  Antigonus  endeavoured, 
 but  in  vain,  to  get  himself  re-established  in  his  hered- 
 itary dominions,  and  at  last  was  compelled  to   apply 
 to  Pacorus,  king  of  the  Parthians.     Pacorus,  on  the 
 promise  of  1000  talents,  marched  into  Judaea  at  the 
 head  of  a  large  army,  and  replaced  Antigonus  on  the 
 throne;  but  Marc  Antony,  at  the  solicitation  of  Herod, 
 sent  Gabinius  against   him,  who  took  Jerusalem,  and 
 put  Antigonus  to  an  ignominious  death.     He  reigned 
 3  years  and  3   months.     (Justin,  20,  29,  &c.) — VI. 
 Carystius,  an  historian  in  the  age  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
 delphus,  who  wrote  the  lives  of  some  of  the  ancient 
 philosophers  :    also    a  heroic    poem,  entitled   "  Anti- 
 pater,"   mentioned  by  Athenaeus  ;  and   other   works. 
 The  only  remains  we  have  of  them  are  his  "  Collec- 
 tions of  wonderful  Stories"  concerning  animals  and 
 other  natural   bodies.     This  work  was  first  published 
 at  Basle,  1568,  and  was  afterward  reprinted  at  Ley- 
 den  by   Meursius,  1619,  in  4to.     It  forms  a  part  also 
 of  the  volume  entitled  Historiarum  Mirabilium  Auc- 
 tores  GrcEci,  printed  at  Leyden  in  1622,  in  4to. 
 
 Antilibanus,  a  ridge  of  mountains  in  Syria,  east 
 of,  and  running  parallel  with,  the  ridge  of  Libanus. 
 (Vid.  Libanus.  — jPZm.,  5,  20.) 
 
 Antilochus,  I.  the  eldest  son  of  Nestor  by  Euryd- 
 ice. He  went  to  the  Trojan  war  with  his  father,  and 
 was  killed  by  Memnon,  the  son  of  Aurora,  according 
 to  Homer  (0^.,  4,  187),  who  is  followed  by  Pindar 
 (Pyth.,  6,  28),  and  by  Hyginus  (fab.,  113).  Ovid, 
 on  the  contrary,  makes  him  to  have  been  slain  by  Hec- 
 tor (Her.,  1,  15).  We  must  therefore  alter  the  text 
 of  the  latter,  and  for  Aniilochum  read  either  Anchia- 
 lum  with  Muncker  (from  Horn.,  JL,  18,  185),  or  Am- 
 phimachum  with  Scoppa  (from  Dares  Phrygms,  c. 
 20). — II.  A  poet,  who  wrote  some  verses  in  praise  of 
 Lysander,  and  received  a  cap  full  of  silver  in  return. 
 (Plut.,  Vtt.  Lysandr.,  c.  18.) 
 
 Antim.Xchus,  I.  a  poet  of  Colophon,  and  pupil  of 
 Panyasis.  He  was  the  contemporary  of  Chosrilus, 
 and  flourished  between  460  and  431  B.C.  With 
 Antimachus  would  have  commenced  a  new  era  in  the 
 history  of  epic  verse,  if  that  department  of  poetry  had 
 been  capable  of  resuming  its  former  lustre.  In  com- 
 mon with  Chojrilus,  he  perceived  that  the  period  of 
 the  Homeric  epic  had  irrevocably  passed  ;  but  in  place 
 of  substi^ting  the  historic  epic,  as  the  former  did,  he 
 returned  to  mythological  subjects  ;  merely  treating 
 them,  however,  in  a  manner  more  in  accordance  with 
 the  taste  of  the  day.  The  success  which  he  obtained, 
 and  the  admiration  which  was  subsequently  testified 
 for  his  productions  by  the  Alexandrean  school,  prove 
 that  he  was  not  mistaken  in  the  judgment  he  had  formed 
 of  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  that  he  augured  well  re- 
 specting the  opinion  of  posterity.     The  Alexandrean 
 
ANT 
 
 ANT 
 
 critics  (according  to  Quintilian,  10,  1)  cited  his  The- 
 bais  as  a  work  worthy  of  being  compared  with  the 
 poems  of  Homer,  and  of  terminating  the  list  of  epic 
 poems  of  the  first  class.  They  extolled  the  grandeur 
 of  his  ideas  and  the  energy  of  his  style,  but  they  con- 
 fessed, at  the  same  time,  that  he  was  deficient  in  ele- 
 gance and  grace.  Antimachus  was  also  the  author 
 of  an  elegy  entitled  Lyde,  which  the  ancients  regarded 
 as  a  chef-d'osuvre.  It  is  now  entirely  lost.  The  An- 
 thology has  preserved  for  us  one  of  his  epigrams. 
 The  fragments  of  Antimachus  have  been  collected  and 
 published  by  Schellenberg,  under  the  title  "  Antimachi 
 Cvlophonii  fra^menia,  nunc  primum  conquisita,"  &c., 
 Halct,  1786,  8vo.  (Srh'oll,  Hist.  Ut.  Gr  ,  vol.  1,  p. 
 245,  and  2,  p.  126.) — II.  A  Trojan,  whom  Paris  bribed 
 to  oppose  the  restoring  of  Helen  to  Menelaus  and 
 Ulysses,  who  had  come  as  ambassadors  to  recover  her. 
 He  recommended  to  put  them  to  death.  His  sons, 
 Hippolochus  and  Pisander,  were  killed  by  Agamemnon. 
 (//.,  11,  122,  scqq.) 
 
 Antinoeia,  annual  sacrifices  and  quinquennial  games 
 in  honour  of  Antinous,  instituted  by  the  Emperor  Ha- 
 drian at  Mantinea,  where  Antinous  was  worshipped  as 
 a  divinity.  They  were  celebrated  also  at  Argos. 
 {Potter,  Gr.  Antiq.,  vol.  1,  p.  424.) 
 
 Antinoopolis  or  Antinoe,  a  town  of  Egypt,  built 
 in  honour  of  Antinous,  opposite  Hermopolis  Magna, 
 on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile.  It  was  previously  an 
 obscure  place  called  Besa,  but  became  a  magnificent 
 city.  {Vid.  Antinous.)  It  is  now  called  Ensene, 
 and  a  revered  sepulchre  has  also  caused  it  to  receive 
 the  name  of  Shek-Abadi.  (Ammian.  Marcellin.,  19, 
 l2.—Dio  Cass.,  69,  II.— Spartian.,  Vit.  Hadr.,  14. 
 — Description  de  VEgypte,  vol.  4,  p.  197,  seqq.) 
 
 Antinous,  I.  a  youth  of  Bithynia,  of  whom  the 
 Emperor  Hadrian  was  so  extremely  fond,  that  at  his 
 death  he  erected  temples  to  him,  established  a  priest- 
 hood for  the  new  divinity,  built  a  city  in  honour  of  him 
 {vid.  Antinoopolis),  and  caused  a  constellation  in  the 
 heavens  to  be  called  by  his  name.  According  to  one 
 account,  Antinous  was  drowned  in  the  Nile,  while 
 another  and  more  correct  statement  gives  the  occasion 
 of  his  death  as  follows  :  Hadrian,  consulting  an  oracle 
 at  Besa,  was  informed  that  he  was  threatened  with 
 great  danger,  unless  a  person  that  was  dear  to  him 
 was  immolated  for  his  preservation.  Upon  hearing 
 this,  Antinous  threw  himself  from  a  rock  into  the  Nile, 
 as  an  offering  for  the  safety  of  the  emperor,  who  built 
 Antinoopolis  on  the  spot.  Nor  was  this  all.  The 
 artists  of  the  empire  were  ordered  to  immortalize  by 
 their  skill  the  grief  of  the  monarch  and  the  memory 
 of  his  favourite.  Painters  and  statuaries  vied  with 
 each  other,  and  some  of  the  master-pieces  of  the  lat- 
 ter have  descended  to  our  own  times.  The  absurd 
 and  disgusting  conduct  of  Hadrian  needs  no  comment. 
 — II.  A  native  of  Ithaca,  son  of  Eupeithes,  and  one 
 of  Penelope's  suiters.  He  was  brutal  and  cruel  in  his 
 manners,  and  was  the  first  of  the  suiters  that  was  slain 
 by  Ulysses  on  his  return.     {Od.,  22,  8,  &c.) 
 
 Antiochi.*,  I.  a  city  of  Syria,  once  the  third  city 
 of  the  world  for  beauty,  greatness,  and  population. 
 It  was  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  in  memory  of  his 
 father  Antiochus,  on  the  river  Orontes,  about  20  miles 
 from  its  mouth,  and  was  equidistant  from  Constanti- 
 nople and  Alexandrea,  being  about  700  miles  from 
 each.  Here  the  disciples  of  our  Saviour  were  first 
 called  Christians,  and  the  chief  patriarch  of  Asia  re- 
 sided. It  was  afterward  known  by  the  name  of  Te- 
 trapolis,  being  divided,  as  it  were,  into  four  cities, 
 each  having  its  separate  wall,  besides  a  common  one 
 enclosing  all.  The  first  was  built  by  Seleucus  Nica- 
 tor, the  second  by  those  who  repaired  thither  on  its 
 being  made  the  capital  of  the  Syro-Maccdonian  empire, 
 the  third  by  Seleucus  Callinicus,  and  the  fourth  by 
 Antiochus  Epiphanes.  {Strabo,  750. — Compare  Man- 
 ncrt,  vol.  6,  part  1,  p.  468,  scqq.)     It  is  now  called 
 
 AnfaMa,  and  has  suffered  severely  by  a  late  earth- 
 quake. At  the  distance  of  four  or  five  miles  belov? 
 was  a  celebrated  grove,  called  Daphne ;  whence,  for 
 the  sake  of  distinction,  it  has  been  called  Antiochia 
 near  Daphne,  or  Antiochia  Epidaphnes  {'XvTtoxcia  t) 
 trpog  Au(pvT!V.  Hierocl.  Synecdem.,  p.  711. — Plm.,  5, 
 21.—A7itiochia  Epidaphnes,  vid.  Daphne.) — II.  A  city 
 of  Lycaonia,  near  the  northern  confines  of  Pisidia, 
 sometimes  called  Antiochia  of  Pisidia  ('Arrf^fwa 
 TlKJiSia^).  According  to  Strabo,  it  was  founded  by 
 a  colony  from  Magnesia  on  the  Meander.  This  prob- 
 ably took  place  under  the  auspices  of  Antiochus,  from 
 whom  the  place  derived  its  name.  It  became,  under 
 the  Romans,  the  chief  city  of  their  province  of  Pisidia, 
 which  extended  farther  to  the  north  than  Pisidia  proper. 
 (Hierocles,  p.  672.) — HI.  A  city  of  Cilicia  Trachea, 
 situate  on  a  rocky  projection  of  the  coast,  termed  Cra- 
 gus,  whence  the  place,  for  distinction'  sake,  was 
 called  'AvTiSxeia  km  Kpuytf).  {Strabo,  669.)  The 
 Byzantine  writers  call  it  the  Isavrian  Antiochia.  Hi- 
 erocles makes  mention  of  it  {Synecdem,  p.  708),  as 
 also  the  writers  on  the  Crusades,  under  the  name  of 
 Antioccta.  {Sanuli,  secrela  Jidelium,  I.  2,  p.  4,  c.  26. 
 — Mannert,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  84.) — IV.  A  city  at  the 
 foot  of  Mount  Taurus,  in  Comagene,  a  province  of 
 Syria.  {Mannert,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  497.)-— V.  A  city 
 of  Caria,  on  the  river  Maeander,  where  that  stream  was 
 joined  by  the  Orsinus  or  Massinus.  {Plin.,  5,  29.) 
 Steph.  Byz.  states,  that  it  was  founded  by  Antiochus, 
 son  of  Seleucus,  in  honour  of  his  mother.  It  had  been 
 previously  called  Pythopolis.  The  environs  abounded 
 in  fruit  of  every  kind,  but  especially  in  the  fig  called 
 "  triphylla."  The  ancient  site  corresponds  with  Jeni- 
 sher.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  209.) — VI.  A 
 city  of  Cilicia  Trachea,  in  the  district  of  Lamotis 
 {PtoL,  p.  129.) 
 
 Antiochis,  I.  the  name  of  the  mother  of  Antiochus, 
 the  son  of  Seleucus. — II.  A  tribe  of  Athens. 
 
 Antiochus,  I.  surnamed  Soler,  was  the  eldest  son 
 of  Seleucus,  the  first  king  of  Syria  and  Babylonia. 
 He  succeeded  his  father  B.C.  280.  When  still  young, 
 he  fell  into  a  lingering  disease,  which  none  of  his  fa- 
 ther's physicians  could  cure  for  some  time,  till  it  was 
 discovered  that  his  pulse  was  more  irregular  than  usual 
 when  Stratonice,  his  stepmother,  entered  his  room, 
 and  that  love  for  her  was  the  cause  of  his  illness. 
 This  was  told  to  the  father,  who  willingly  gave  Strat- 
 onice to  save  a  son  on  whom  he  founded  all  his  hopes. 
 When  Antiochus  came  to  the  throne,  he  displayed,  at 
 the  head  of  his  forces,  talents  worthy  of  his  sire,  and 
 gained  many  battles  over  the  Bithynians,  Macedonians, 
 and  Galatians.  He  attacked  also  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
 phus,  king  of  Egypt,  at  the  instigation  of  Magas,  who 
 had  revolted  against  this  prince,  but  without  success. 
 He  failed  also  in  an  expedition  which  he  undertook 
 after  the  death  of  Phileterus,  king  of  Pergamus,  with 
 a  view  of  seizing  on  his  kingdom,  and  he  was  van- 
 quished near  Sardis  by  Eumeiws,  the  successor  of 
 that  prince.  He  returned  after  this  to  Antioch,  and 
 died  not  long  subsequently,  having  occupied  the  throne 
 for  nineteen  years.  He  was  called  Soter  (2(j7;//i)  or 
 "  Preserver,"  for  having  preserved  his  subjects  from 
 an  irruption  of  the  Galatians  or  Gauls,  whom  he  de- 
 feated in  battle.  His  successor  was  Antiochus  Theos. 
 {Justin,  17,  2,  &c.) — II.  Son  of  Antiochus  Soter,  and 
 surnamed  Theos  {Qeog),  "  God,"  by  the  Milesians, 
 because  he  put  to  death  their  tyrant  Timarchus.  He 
 succeeded  his  father  B.C.  261,  and  at  the  instigation  of 
 his  sister  Apanica,  the  widow  of  Magas,  renewed  the 
 war  with  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt.  He 
 was  as  unsuccessful,  however,  as  his  father  had  been  ; 
 and,  being  compelled  to  sue  for  peace,  only  obtained 
 it  on  condition  of  repudiating  his  wife  Laodice,  and 
 espousing  Berenice  the  sister  of  Ptolemy.  The  male 
 issue,  moreover,  of  this  latter  marriage  were  to  inherit 
 the  crown.     It  was  during  this  war  that  he  lost  all  his 
 
 143 
 
antiochus. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS. 
 
 provinces  beyond  the  Euphrates  by  a  revolt  of  the 
 Parthiaiis  and  Bactrians.  Ptolemy  dying  two  years 
 after  this,  Antiochus  repudiated  Berenice  and  restored 
 I,aodicc.  The  latter,  resolving  to  secure  the  succes- 
 sion to  her  son,  poisoned  Antiochus  and  suborned  Ar- 
 t.cmon,  whose  features  were  similar  to  his,  to  represent 
 him  as  king.  Artemon,  subservient  to  her  will,  pre- 
 tended to  be  indisposed,  and,  as  king,  recommended 
 to  them  Seleucus,  surnamed  Callinicus,  son  of  Laodice, 
 as  his  successor.  After  this  ridiculous  imposture,  it 
 was  made  public  that  the  king  had  died  a  natural  death, 
 and  Laodice  placed  her  son  on  the  throne,  and  de- 
 spatched Berenice  and  her  son,  B.C.  246.  {Justin,  27, 
 1. — Appian.) — III.  Surnamed  //(Vrax  ('Ifpaf),  "  bird 
 of  prey,"  son  of  Antiochus  Theos  and  Laodice,  was 
 the  brother  of  Seleucus  Callinicus.  From  his  early 
 years  this  prince  was  devoured  by  ambition.  In  order 
 to  attain  to  power,  no  crime  or  evil  act  deterred  him  ; 
 his  thirst  for  rule,  as  well  as  his  wicked  and  turbulent 
 spirit,  obtained  for  him  the  appellation,  so  characteristic 
 of  his  movements,  which  we  have  mentioned  above. 
 Under  pretext  of  aiding  his  brother  against  Ptolemy 
 Euergetes,  he  attempted  to  dethrone  him.  Seleucus 
 having  marched  against  him  for  the  purpose  of  coun- 
 teractmg  his  ambitious  designs,  Hiera.x  defeated  him 
 near  Ancyra.  He  could  not,  however,  derive  any  ad- 
 vantage from  this  victory,  since  the  Gauls,  who  formed 
 the  principal  part  of  his  army,  revolted  and  declared 
 themselves  independent ;  and  it  was  only  by  paying 
 a  large  sum  of  money  that  Hierax  could  save  his  life. 
 Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  took  advantage  of  this 
 circumstance  to  rid  himself  of  an  unquiet  and  trouble- 
 some neighbour.  He  attacked  Hierax,  defeated  him, 
 and  compelled  him  to  take  refuge  with  his  brother-in- 
 law  Ariarathes,  king  of  Cappadocia.  Ariarathes  soon 
 became  tired  of  him,  and  formed  the  design  of  putting 
 him  to  death;  but  Hierax,  informed  of  his  design,  fled 
 into  Egypt.  He  was  thrown  into  prison  by  Ptolemy,  and 
 perislied  a  few  years  after  in  attempting  to  make  his 
 escape. — IV.  The  Great,  as  he  vvas  surnamed,  was  the 
 third  of  the  name  that  actually  reigned,  and  the  son 
 of  Seleucus  Ceraunus,  and  succeeded  his  father  223 
 B.C.  He  passed  the  first  years  of  his  reign  in  regu- 
 lating the  affairs  of  his  kingdom,  and  in  bringing  back 
 to  their  duty  several  of  his  officers  who  had  made  them- 
 selves iidependent.  Desirous  after  this  of  regaining 
 Syria,  ^'hich  had  been  wrested  from  Seleucus  Callini- 
 cus by  Ptolemy  Euergetes  of  Egvpt,  he  was  met  at 
 Raphia  and  defeated  by  Ptolemy  Philopater,  218  B.C., 
 and  wa'.'  compelled  to  surrender  the  whole  of  his  con- 
 quests m  Syria  which  he  had  thus  far  made.  He  was 
 more  successful,  however,  in  Upper  Asia,  where  he  re- 
 covered possession  of  Media,  and  made  treaties  with  the 
 kings  of  Parthia  and  Bactria,  who  agreed  to  aid  him  in 
 regaining  other  of  his  former  provinces,  if  their  respect- 
 ive kingdoms  were  secured  to  them.  He  crossed  over 
 also  into  India,  and  renewed  his  alliance  with  the  king 
 of  that  country.  After  the  death  of  Philopater,  he  re- 
 sumed his  plans  of  conquest,  and  Ptolemy  Epiphanes 
 being  yet  quite  young,  he  seized  upon  the  whole  of 
 Syria.  He  granted,  however,  peace  to  Ptolemy,  and 
 even  gave  hmi  his  daughter  Cleopatra  ui  marriage, 
 with  Syria  for  her  dowry.  Antiochus  then  turned  his 
 arms  against  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece  ;  but 
 these  cities  having  implored  the  aid  of  Rome,  the  sen- 
 ate sent  to  Antiochus  to  sununon  him  to  surrender 
 his  conquests.  E.xcited,  however,  by  Hannibal,  to 
 whom  he  had  given  an  asylum,  he  took  no  notice  of 
 this  order,  and  a  war  ensued.  The  plan,  however, 
 which  Hannibal  traced  out  for  him,  was  not  followed. 
 Defeated  at  Thermopyla;  by  Glabrio,  he  fled  into  Asia, 
 where  a  second  and  more  complete  defeat,  by  Scipio 
 Asiaticus,  at  Magnesia,  compelled  him  to  sue  for 
 peace,  which  he  obtained  only  on  the  hardest  condi- 
 tions. He  was  obliged  to  retire  beyond  Mount  Taurus. 
 All  his  territories  on  this  side  of  Taurus  became  Roman 
 144 
 
 provinces,  and  he  had  also  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute  o( 
 2000  talents.  Ilis  revenues  being  insufl^icient  for  this 
 heavy  demand,  he  attempted  to  plunder  the  treasures 
 of  the  temple  of  Belus  in  Susiana;  but  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  country  were  so  irritated  at  this  sacrilege,  that 
 they  slew  him,  together  with  his  escort,  B.C.  187.  He 
 had  reigned  thirty-six  years.  In  his  character  of  king, 
 Antiochus  vvas  humane  and  liberal,  the  patron  of  learn- 
 ing, and  the  friend  of  merit.  He  had  three  sons, 
 Seleucus  Philopater,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  Deme- 
 trius. The  first  succeeded  him,  and  the  two  others 
 were  kept  as  hostages  by  the  Romans.  {Jxisttn,  31  ct 
 32.— Lio.,  34,  59.— F/or.,  2,  l.—Appian,  Bell.  Syr.) 
 — V.  Surnamed  Epiphanes,  or  lUustrions,  was  king  of 
 Syria  after  the  death  of  his  brother  Seleucus  Philopa- 
 ter, having  ascended  the  throne  175  B.C.  He  was  the 
 fourth  of  the  name,  and  was  surnamed  Epiphanes 
 {'Enifavi/c;),  "  the  Illustrious,^''  and  reigned  eleven 
 years.  Taking  advantage  of  the  infancy  of  Ptolemy 
 Philometor,  he  seized  upon  Ccelosyria,  and  even  pen- 
 etrated into  Egypt,  where  he  took  Memphis,  and  ob- 
 tained possession  of  the  person  of  the  vouiig  king, 
 whom  he  kept  prisoner  for  many  years.  The  guardi- 
 ans of  the  young  Ptolemy,  however,  having  applied 
 for  aid  to  the  Romans,  the  senate  sent  Popihus  Laenas 
 unto  Epiphanes,  who  compelled  him  to  renounce  his 
 conquests  and  set  the  Egyptian  monarch  at  liberty. 
 The  Jews  having  revolted  during  the  reign  of  Epiph- 
 anes, he  marched  against  Jerusalem,  deposed  the  high- 
 priest  Onias,  profaned  the  temple  by  sacrifices  to  Ju- 
 piter Olympius,  plundered  all  the  sacred  vessels,  and 
 slaughtered,  it  is  said,  80,000  inhabitants  of  this  ill- 
 fated  city.  After  this  he  proceeded  into  Persia,  and, 
 while  traversing  Eiymais,  wished  to  plunder  the  tem- 
 ples that  were  there  ;  but  the  inhabitants  having  re- 
 volted, he  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Babylon.  There 
 he  learned  that  the  Jews,  commanded  by  Matathias 
 and  Judas  Maccabeus,  had  gained  several  victories 
 over  the  generals  whom  he  had  left  in  Judaea.  Trans- 
 ported with  fury  at  the  intelligence,  he  assembled  a 
 new  army,  and  swore  to  destroy  Jerusalem  ;  but,  at  the 
 moment  of  his  departure,  he  fell  from  his  chariot,  was 
 subsequently  seized  with  a  disgusting  malady,  and 
 died  in  the  most  agonizing  sufferings.  The  Persians 
 attributed  the  manner  of  his  death  to  his  impious  en- 
 terprise against  the  temple  of  Eiymais  ;  the  Jews  saw 
 in  it  the  anger  of  Heaven,  for  his  having  profaned  the 
 temple  of  Jerusalem.  He  died  B.C.  164.  Epiphanes 
 was  not  without  some  good  qualities.  He  was  gen- 
 erous, loved  the  arts,  and  displayed  considerable  abil- 
 ity in  the  wars  in  which  he  was  engaged  ;  but  his 
 vices  and  follies  tarnished  his  character.  (Justiti,  34, 
 5. — Macchah.,  1,  1,  &c.) — VI.  Eupator,  son  of  the 
 preceding  (from  ev  and  TtaTrjp,  "  born  of  an  lUHstrinus 
 sire"'),  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  nine  years. 
 The  generals  of  this  prince  continued  the  war  against 
 the  Jews,  and  Jerusalem  was  on  the  point  of  becoming, 
 for  the  second  time,  the  prey  of  the  Syrians,  when 
 Demetrius  Sotcr,  the  cousin-german  of  Eupator,  by  a 
 sudden  invasion,  seized  upon  the  capital  of  Syria. 
 The  generals  of  Eupator  made  peace  with  the  Jews, 
 and  marched  against  Demetrius;  but  the  soldiers, 
 ashamed  of  serving  a  mere  child,  went  over  to  the  in- 
 vader, who  put  Eupator  to  death  after  a  reign  of  about 
 eighteen  months. — VII.  (the  sixth  of  the  name)  Son 
 of  Alexander  i3ala,  took  the  surname  of  Thcos  ("  God''), 
 claiming  descent,  like  his  father,  from  iVntiochus  Thcos 
 already  mentioned.  To  this  surname  he  afterward 
 added  that  of  Epiphanes  {'■'■the  illustrious").  Deme- 
 trius Nicaior  having  disbanded  his  army,  and  being 
 entirely  without  apprehension  of  any  foe,  Tryphon  took 
 advantage  of  this,  and  having  brought  Antiochus  from 
 Arabia,  still  young  in  years,  caused  him  to  be  pro- 
 claimed king,  about  144  B.C.  The  attempt  succeed- 
 ed. Demetrius  was  defeated,  and  Antiochus  ascend- 
 ed the  throne.     He  reigned,  however,  only  in  name. 
 
ANTIOCHUS. 
 
 ANT 
 
 The  actual  monarch  was  Tryphon,  who  had  him  put  to 
 death  at  the  end  of  about  two  years,  and  caused  him- 
 self to  be  proclaimed  in  his  stead.  (Justin,  36,  1.) — 
 VIII.  Surnamed  Sidetes  (I,i67jT//r),  "  the  hunter,"  son 
 of  Demetrius  Soter,  ascended  the  throne  139  B.C. 
 He  drove  from  Syria  the  usurper  Tryphon,  made  war 
 on  the  Jews,  besieged  Jerusalem,  and  compelled  it  to 
 pay  a  tribute,  ile  then  marched  against  Phraates, 
 kmg  of  Parthia,  who  menaced  his  kingdom,  gained 
 three  victories  over  him,  and  obtained  possession  of 
 Babylon.  The  following  year  he  was  vanquished  in 
 turn  by  the  Parthian  king,  and  lost  his  life  in  the  con- 
 flict. He  was  a  prince  of  many  virtues,  but  he  tar- 
 nished all  by  his  habits  of  intemperance. — IX.  The 
 eighth  of  the  name,  surnamed  Grypus  (Fpi'Trof)  from 
 his  aquiline  nose,  was  son  of  Demetrius  Nicator  and 
 Cleopatra.  He  was  raised  to  the  throne  B.C.  123,  to 
 the  prejudice  of  his  brothers,  by  the  intrigues  of  his 
 mother,  who  hoped  to  reign  in  his  name.  When  he 
 was  declared  king,  the  throne  of  Syria  was  occupied 
 by  Alexander  Zebinas.  He  inarched  against  this  im- 
 j)Ostor,  defeated,  and  put  him  to  death.  He  then  mar- 
 ried Tryphena,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes  II., 
 which  ensured  peaceable  relations  between  Syria  and 
 Egypt.  After  having  for  some  time  yielded  to  the  au- 
 thority of  his  mother,  he  resolved  at  last  to  reign  in  his 
 own  name,  a  step  which  nearly  cost  him  his  life.  His 
 mother  prepared  a  poisoned  draught  for  her  son,  but, 
 being  suspected  by  him,  was  compelled  to  drink  it 
 herself.  A  bloody  war  soon  after  broke  out  between 
 this  prince  and  Antiochus  the  Cyzicenian,  his  brother, 
 in  which  the  latter  compelled  Grypus  to  cede  to  him 
 C(Blosyria.  They  thus  reigned  conjointly  for  some 
 time.  Grypus  was  at  last  assassinated  by  one  of  his 
 subjects,  B.C.  96.  {Justin,  39,  1. — Joseph.,  Ant. 
 Jud.) — X.  Surnamed  Cyzicenus,  from  his  having  been 
 brought  up  in  the  city  of  Cyzicus,  was  the  ninth  of 
 the  name.  He  was  son  of  Antiochus  Sidetes,  and  suc- 
 ceeded his  brother  Grypus,  after  having  reigned  over 
 Ccelosyria,  which  he  had  previously  compelled  his 
 brother  to  yield  to  him.  He  was  a  dissolute  and  indo- 
 lent prince,  and  possessed  of  considerable  mechanical 
 talent.  His  nephew  Seleucus,  son  of  Grypus,  de- 
 throned him,  B.C.  95. — XI.  The  tenth  of  the  name, 
 ironically  surnamed  Pius,  because  he  married  Selena, 
 the  wife  of  his  father  and  of  his  uncle.  He  was  the 
 son  of  Antiochus  IX.,  and  he  expelled  Seleucus,  the 
 son  of  Grypus,  from  Syria  ;  but  he  could  not  prevent 
 two  other  sons  of  Grypus,  namelv,  Philip  and  Deme- 
 trius, from  seizing  on  a  part  of  Syria.  He  perished 
 soon  after  by  their  hands.  (Apjnan. — Joseph.,  Atit. 
 Jud.,  13,  21.) — After  his  death,  the  kingdom  of  Syria 
 was  torn  to  pieces  by  the  factions  of  the  royal  family 
 or  usurpers,  who,  under  a  good  or  false  title,  under  the 
 name  of  Antiochus  or  his  relations,  established  them- 
 selves for  a  litlle  time  either  as  sovereigns  of  Syria,  or 
 Damascus,  or  other  dependant  provinces.  At  last  An- 
 tiochus, surnamed  Asiatiais,  the  son  of  Antiochus  the 
 ninth,  was  restored  to  his  paternal  throne  by  the  influ- 
 ence of  Luculhis,  the  Roman  general,  on  the  expulsion 
 of  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia,  from  the  Syrian  domin- 
 ions ;  but  four  years  after,  Pompey  deposed  him,  and 
 observed  that  he  who  hid  himself  while  a  usurper 
 sat  upon  his  throne,  ought  not  to  be  a  king.  From 
 that  time,  B.C.  65,  Syria  became  a  Roman  province, 
 and  the  race  of  Antiochus  was  extinguished. — There 
 were  also  otlier  individuals  of  the  same  name,  among 
 whom  the  most  deserving  of  mention  are  the  following  : 
 I.  A  native  of  Syracuse,  descended  from  an  ancient 
 monarch  of  the  Sicani.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Sicily, 
 which  was  brought  down  to  the  98th  Olympiad,  and 
 which  Diodorus  Siculus  cites  among  the  sources 
 whence  he  derived  aid  for  his  compilation.  He  com- 
 posed also  what  appears  to  have  been  a  very  curious 
 history  of  Italy,  some  fragments  of  which  are  pre- 
 served  by    Dionysius   of   Halicarnassus.      (Compare 
 
 Heyne,  de  Fontihus  Hist.  Diod. — vol.  I,  p.  Ixxxv., 
 ed.  Bip.) — II.  A  rhetorician  and  sophist  of  .^gasa, 
 the  pupil  of  Dionysius  of  Miletus.  Dio  Cassius  (77, 
 p.  878)  relates,  that,  in  order  to  rouse  the  spirits  of 
 the  Roman  army,  who  were  worn  out  with  fatiguing 
 marches,  he  assumed  the  character  of  a  cynic,  and 
 rolled  about  in  the  snow.  This  conduct  gained  for  him 
 the  favour  of  Septimius  Severus  and  Caracalla.  He  af- 
 terward went  over  to  Tiridates,  king  of  the  Parthians, 
 whence  Suidas  styles  him  A.vt6jio7\.o^,  or  "  the  desert- 
 er."— III.  A  native  of  Ascalon,  the  last  preceptor  of 
 the  Platonic  school  in  Greece.  He  was  the  disciple 
 of  Philo,  and  one  of  the  philosophers  whose  lectures 
 Varro,  Cicero,  and  Brutus  attended,  for  he  taught,  at 
 different  times,  at  Athens,  Alexandrea,  and  Rome. 
 He  attempted  to  reconcile  the  tenets  of  the  different 
 sects,  and  maintained  that  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics 
 were  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Plato.  Cicero 
 greatly  admired  his  eloquence  and  the  politeness  of  his 
 manners,  and  LucuUus  took  him  as  his  companion  into 
 Asia.  He  resigned  the  academic  chair  in  the  1 75th 
 Olympiad.  After  his  time  the  professors  of  the  Aca- 
 demic philosophy  were  dispersed  by  the  tumults  of 
 war,  and  the  school  itself  was  transferred  to  Rome. 
 {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol,  5,  p.  199,  segq. — En- 
 field's History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  258,  seqq.) 
 
 Antiope,  I.  daughter  of  Nycteus,  who  was  a  son  of 
 Neptune  and  king  of  Thebes,  received  the  addresses 
 of  Jupiter,  the  god  having  appeared  to  her  under  the 
 form  of  a  satyr.  Terrified  at  the  threats  of  her  father, 
 on  the  consequences  of  her  fault  becoming  apparent, 
 Antiope  fled  to  Sicyon,  where  she  married  Epopeus. 
 Nycteus,  out  of  grief,  put  an  end  to  himself,  having 
 previously  charged  his  brother  Lycus  to  punish  Epo- 
 peus and  Antiope.  Lycus  accordingly  marched  an 
 army  against  Sicyon,  took  it,  slew  Epopeus,  and  led 
 away  Antio])e  captive.  On  the  way  to  Thebes,  she 
 brought  forth  twins  at  Eleutherae.  The  unhappy  babes 
 were  exposed  on  a  mountain ;  but  a  shepherd  having 
 found  them,  reared  them  both,  calling  the  one  Zethus, 
 the  other  Amphion.  The  former  devoted  himself  to 
 the  care  of  cattle,  while  Amphion  passed  his  time  in 
 the  cultivation  of  music,  having  been  presented  with  a 
 lyre  by  Mercury.  Meanwhile,  Lycus  had  put  Antiope 
 in  bonds,  and  she  was  treated  with  the  utmost  cruelty 
 by  him  and  his  wife  Dirce.  But  her  chains  became 
 loosed  of  themselves,  and  she  fled  to  the  dwelling  of 
 her  sons  in  search  of  shelter  and  protection.  Having 
 recognised  her,  they  resolved  to  avenge  her  wrongs. 
 Accordingly,  they  attacked  and  slew  Lycus,  and  ty- 
 ing Dirce  by  the  hair  to  a  wild  bull,  let  the  animal 
 drag  her  until  she  was  dead.  {Vid.  Dirce,  Amphion, 
 Zethus.  —  Apollod.,  3,  5. — Kcightley's  Mythology,  p. 
 299.) — II.  A  queen  of  the  Amazons.  According  to 
 one  account,  Hercules,  having  taken  her  prisoner, 
 gave  her  to  Theseus  as  a  reward  of  his  valour.  The 
 more  common  tradition,  however,  made  her  to  have 
 been  taken  captive  and  carried  off  by  Theseus  himself, 
 when  he  made  an  e-xpedition  with  his  own  fleet  against 
 the  xAmazonian  race.  She  is  also  called  Hippolyta. 
 Justin  says  that  Hercules  gave  Hippolyta  to  Theseus, 
 and  kept  Antiope  for  himself.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Thes.,  27 
 — Justin,  2,  4.) 
 
 AntipXros,  a  small  island  in  the  JEgean,  ranked 
 by  Artemidorus  among  the  Cyclades,  but  excluded 
 from  them  by  Strabo  (10,  p.  484,  cd.  Cusauh.).  It 
 lay  opposite  to  Pares,  and  was  separated  from  this  lat- 
 ter island,  according  to  Heraclides  of  Pontus  {Sicph. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  'U?dapo(;),  bv  a  strait  eighteen  stadia  wide. 
 The  same  writer  affirms  {Plin.,  H.  N.,  4,  12),  that  it 
 had  been  colonized  by  Sidonians.  Its  more  ancient 
 name  was  Oliarus.  It  is  now  Antiparo.  This  island 
 is  famed  for  its  grotto,  which  is  of  great  depth,  and 
 was  believed  by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  communicate, 
 beneath  the  waters,  with  some  of  the  neighbouring 
 islands. 
 
 145 
 
ANTIPATER. 
 
 ANT 
 
 Antipater,  I.  son  of  lolaus,  a  Macedonian,  was 
 first  an  officer  under  Philip,  and  was  afterward  raised 
 to  the  rank  of  a  general  under  Alexander  the  Great. 
 When  the  latter  invaded  Asia,  Anti])atcr  was  appoint- 
 ed governor  of  Macedonia  ;  and  in  this  station  he  serv- 
 ed his  prince  with  the  greatest  fidelity.  He  reduced 
 the  Spartans,  who  had  formed  a  confederacy  against 
 the  Macedonians  ;  and,  having  thus  secured  the  tran- 
 quillity of  Greece,  he  marched  into  Asia,  with  a  pow- 
 erful reinforcement  for  Alexander.  After  that  mon- 
 arch's death,  the  government  of  Macedonia  and  of  the 
 other  European  provinces  was  allotted  to  Antipater. 
 He  was  soon  involved  in  a  severe  contest  with  the 
 Grecian  states;  was  defeated  by  the  Athenians,  who 
 came  against  him  with  an  army  of  30,000  men  and  a 
 fleet  of  200  ships,  and  was  closely  besieged  in  Lamia, 
 a  town  of  Thessaly.  But  Leosthenes,  the  Athenian 
 commander,  having  been  mortally  wounded  under  the 
 walls  of  the  city,  and  Antipater  having  received  as- 
 sistance from  Craterus,  his  son-in-law,  the  fortune  of 
 the  war  was  completely  changed.  The  Athenians 
 were  routed  at  Cranon,  and  compelled  to  submit  at 
 discretion.  They  were  allowed  to  retain  their  rights 
 and  privileges,  but  were  obliged  to  deliver  up  the  ora- 
 tors Demosthenes  and  Hyperides,  who  had  mstigated 
 the  war,  and  to  receive  a  Macedonian  garrison  into  the 
 Munychia.  Antipater  was  equally  successful  in  re- 
 ducing the  other  states  of  Greece,  who  were  making 
 a  noble  struggle  for  their  freedom  ;  but  he  settled  their 
 respective  governments  with  much  moderation.  In 
 conjunction  with  Craterus,  he  was  the  first  who  at- 
 tempted to  control  the  growing  power  of  Perdiccas  ; 
 and  after  the  death  of  that  commander  he  was  invest- 
 ed with  all  his  authority.  He  exercised  this  jurisdic- 
 tion over  the  other  governors  with  unusual  fidelity, 
 integrity,  and  impartiality,  and  died  in  the  80th  year 
 of  his  age,  B.C.  319.  At  his  death,  he  left  his  son 
 Cassander  in  a  subordinate  station  ;  appointed  Poly- 
 sperchon  his  own  immediate  successor ;  and  recom- 
 mended him  to  the  other  generals  as  the  fittest  person 
 to  preside  in  their  councils.  Antipater  received  a 
 learned  education,  and  was  the  friend  and  disciple  of 
 Aristotle.  He  appears  to  have  possessed  very  emi- 
 nent abilities,  and  was  peculiarly  distinguished  for  his 
 vigilance  and  fidelity  in  every  trust.  It  was  a  saying 
 of  Philip,  father  of  Alexander,  "I  have  slept  soundly, 
 for  Antipater  has  been  awake."  {Justin,  11,  12,  13, 
 &c — Diod.,  17,  18,  &c.) — n.  The  Idumrean,  was  the 
 father  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  was  the  second  son  of 
 Aniipas,  governor  of  Idumaea.  He  embraced  the  party 
 of  Hyrcanus  against  Aristobulus,  and  took  a  very  ac- 
 tive part  in  the  contest  between  the  two  brothers  re- 
 specting the  office  of  high-priest  in  Judsea.  Aristob- 
 ulus at  first,  however,  succeeded  ;  but  when  Pom- 
 pey  had  deposed  him  and  restored  Hyrcanus  to  the 
 pontificial  dignity,  Antipater  soon  became  the  chief 
 director  of  affairs  in  Judoea,  ingratiated  himself  with 
 the  Romans,  and  used  every  eflbrt  to  aggrandize  his 
 own  family.  He  gave  very  effectual  aid  to  Cssar 
 in  the  Alexandrean  war,  and  the  latter,  in  return,  made 
 him  a  Roman  citizen  and  procurator  of  Judsa.  In 
 this  latter  capacity  he  exerted  himself  to  restore  the 
 ancient  Jewish  form  of  government,  hut  was  cut  oft" 
 by  a  conspiracy,  the  brotlier  of  the  high-priest  having 
 been  bribed  to  give  him  a  cup  of  poisoned  wine.  Jo- 
 sephus  makes  him  to  have  been  distinguished  for  piety, 
 justice,  and  love  of  country.  {Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  14, 
 3.) — III.  A  son  of  Cassander,  ascended  the  throne  of 
 Macedonia  B.C.  298.  He  disputed  the  crown  with 
 his  brother  Philip  IV.,  and  caused  his  mother  Thes- 
 salonica  to  be  put  to  death  for  favouring  Philip's  side. 
 The  two  brothers,  however,  reigned  conjointly,  not- 
 withstanding this,  for  three  years,  when  they  were  de- 
 throned by  Demetrius  Poliorcctes.  Antipater  there- 
 upon retired  to  the  court  of  Lysimachus,  his  father  in- 
 law, where  he  ended  his  days."  {Justin.  26,  1.) — IV. 
 146 
 
 A  native  of  Tarsus,  the  disciple  and  successor  of  Dio- 
 genes the  Babylonian,  in  the  Stoic  school.  He  flour- 
 ished about  80  B.C.,  and  is  applauded  by  both  Cicero 
 and  Seneca  as  an  able  supporter  of  that  sect.  His 
 chief  opponent  was  Carneades.  {Cic.,de  OJf.,  3,  12. 
 —  Sen.,  Ep.,92.) — V.  A  nativeof  Cyrene,  and  one  of 
 the  Cyrenaic  sect.  He  was  a  disciple  of  the  first 
 Aristippus,  and  the  preceptor  of  Epitimides. — VT.  A 
 philosopher  of  Tyre,  who  wrote  a  work  on  Duty.  He 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  of  the  Stoic  sect.  Cicero 
 {de  Orat.,  3,  50)  speaks  of  him  as  an  improvisator. 
 Crassus,  into  whose  mouth  the  Roman  orator  puts  this 
 remark,  might  have  known  the  poet  when  he  was 
 quaestor  in  Macedonia,  the  same  vear  in  which  Cicero 
 was  born  (106  B.C.).  Pliny  relates  (7,  51)  that  he 
 had  every  year  a  fever  on  the  day  of  his  birth,  and 
 that,  without  ever  experiencing  any  other  complaint, 
 he  attained  to  a  very  advanced  age.  Some  of  his 
 epigrams  remain,  the  greater  part  of  which  fall  under 
 the  class  of  epitaphs  {EmTVfi6ia).  Boivin  {Mem.  de 
 I'Acad.  des  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  3)  states,  that  the  epi- 
 grams of  this  poet  are  written  in  the  Doric  dialect ; 
 the  remark,  however,  is  an  incorrect  one,  since  some 
 are  in  Ionic.  {Schell,  Hist.  Lit.  Or.,  vol.  4,  p.  45  ) — 
 VII.  A  poet  of^  Thessalonica,  who  flourished  towards 
 the  end  of  the  last  century  preceding  the  Christian 
 era.  "We  have  thirty-six  of  his  epigrams  remaining. 
 — VIII.  A  native  of  Hierapolis.  He  was  the  secre- 
 tary of  Seplimius  Severus,  and  Praefect  of  Bithynia. 
 He  was  the  preceptor  also  of  Caracalla  and  Geta,  and 
 reproached  the  former  with  the  murder  of  his  brother. 
 
 ANTip.\TRiA,  a  town  of  Illvricum,  on  the  borders  of 
 Macedonia.  It  was  taken  and  sacked  by  L.  Apustius, 
 a  Roman  officer  detached  by  the  consul  Sulpicius  to 
 ravage  the  territory  of  Philip,  in  the  breaking  out  of 
 the  war  against  that  prince.     {Liv.,  31,  27  ) 
 
 Antipatris,  or  Capharsaba,  a  town  of  Palestine, 
 situate  in  Samaria,  near  the  coast,  southeast  of  Apol- 
 lonias.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Herod  the  Great,  and  called 
 Antipatris,  in  honour  of  his  father  Antipater.  {Joseph  , 
 B.J.,  16,  1,  i.— Id., Ant.,  16,5,  and  3,  15.)  The 
 city  still  existed,  though  in  a  dilapidated  state,  in  the 
 time  of  Theophanes  (8th  century).  Its  site  is  at  pres- 
 ent unknown  :  the  modern  Arsuf  does  not  coincide 
 with  this  place,  but  rather  with  Apollonias.  {Alan- 
 ncrt,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  271,  seqq.) 
 
 Antiphanes,  I.  a  comic  poet  of  Rhodes,  Smyrna, 
 or  Carystus,  was  born  B.C.  408,  of  parents  in  the  low 
 condition  of  slaves.  This  most  prolific  writer  (he  is 
 said  to  have  composed  upward  of  three  hundred  dra- 
 mas), notwithstanding  the  meanness  of  his  origin,  was 
 so  popular  in  Athens,  that  on  his  decease  a  decree  was 
 passed  to  remove  his  remains  from  Chios  to  that  city, 
 where  they  were  interred  with  public  honours.  {Sui- 
 das,  s.  V. — Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  2d  ed.,  p.  183  ) — 
 II.  A  statuary  of  Argos,  the  pupil  of  Pericletus,  one 
 of  those  who  had  studied  under  Polycletus.  He  flour- 
 ished about  400  B.C.  Several  works  of  this  artist 
 are  mentioned  by  Pausanias  (10,  9).  He  formed 
 statues  of  the  Dioscuri  and  other  heroes  ;  and  he  made 
 also  a  brazen  horse,  in  imitation  of  the  horse  said  to 
 have  been  constructed  by  the  Greeks  before  Troy. 
 The  inhabitants  of  Argos  sent  it  as  a  present  to  Del- 
 phi. Other  imitations  performed  by  this  artist  are 
 enumerated  by  Heyne.  {Excurs.,  3,  ad  jEn.,  II. — 
 Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) — III.  A  poet  of  Macedonia 
 nine  of  whose  epigrams  are  preserved  in  the  Antholo- 
 gy. He  flourished  between  100  B.C.  and  the  reign  ol 
 .\ugustus.    (Consult  Jacobs,  Catal.  Fact.  Epig.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Antiphates,  a  king  of  the  Ljestrygones,  descended 
 from  Lamus.  Ulysses,  returning  from  Troy,  came 
 upon  his  coasts,  and  sent  three  men  to  examine  the 
 country.  Antiphates  devoured  one  of  them,  and  pur- 
 sued the  others,  and  sunk  the  fleet  of  Ulysses  with 
 stones,  except  the  ship  in  which  the  hero  himself  was. 
 {Od.,  10,  81,  seqq.) 
 
ANTIPHON. 
 
 ANT 
 
 AntiphTli  (oppidum),  a  town  and  harbour,  accord- 
 'ng  to  Ptolemy,  on  the  Sinus  Arabicus,  in  ^.gyptus 
 Inferior.  Others,  however,  place  it  in  ^Ethiopia,  to 
 the  north  of  Saba.     {Bisch.  und  Mdll.,Worterb.,  &c., 
 
 *.  V.) 
 
 AntipiiTlus,  I.  a  painter,  born  in  Egypt,  and  men- 
 tioned by  QuintiUan  (12,  10)  as  possessing  the  great- 
 est readiness  in  his  profession,  and  compared  by  many 
 to  the  most  eminent  artists,  Apelles,  Protogenes,  and 
 Lysippus.  He  is  twice  alluded  to  in  Pliny,  with  an 
 enumeration  of  his  most  remarkable  productions  (35, 
 10  and  11).  One  of  his  pictures  represented  a  boy 
 blowing  the  fire,  with  the  effect  of  the  light  on  the 
 boy's  countenance  and  the  surroundmg  objects  stri- 
 kingly delineated.  The  subject  of  another  and  very 
 famous  piece  was  a  satyr,  arrayed  in  a  panther's  skin. 
 He  rtounshed  during  the  ages  of  Ale.i;ander  the  Great 
 and  Ptolemy  I.  of  Egypt.  This  makes  him  a  con- 
 temporary of  Apelles,  whom,  according  to  Lucian,  he 
 endeavoured  to  rival.  {SiUig,  Diet.  Art ,  s.  v.) — II. 
 An  architect,  whose  age  and  country  are  uncertain. 
 In  connexion  with  Pothaeus  and  Megacles,  he  con- 
 structed, at  Olympia,  for  the  Carthaginians,  a  reposi- 
 tory for  their  presents.  {Pausan.,  6,  19. — Stllig, 
 Did.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Antiphon,  I.  a  tragic  poet,  who  lived  at  the  court 
 of  Dionysius  the  elder,  and  was  eventually  put  to  death 
 by  the  tyrant.  Aristotle  cites  his  Melcagcr,  Androm- 
 ache, and  Jason.  —  II.  A  native  of  Attica,  born  at 
 Rhamnus  about  479  B.C.  (Compare  Spaan,  de  A71- 
 tiphont.,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1765,  4to.  and  Ruhnkcn,  Dis- 
 sert, de  Anttph.  —  Oral.  Gr.,  ed.  Rciske,  vol.  7,  p.  795.) 
 He  was  the  son  of  the  orator  Sophilus,  who  was  also 
 his  preceptor  in  the  rhetorical  art.  He  was  a  pupil 
 also  of  Gorgias.  According  to  the  ancient  writers, 
 he  was  himself  the  inventor  of  rhetoric.  Their  mean- 
 ing, however,  in  making  this  assertion,  is  simply  as 
 follows :  Before  his  time,  the  Sicilian  school  had 
 taught  and  practised  the  art  of  speaking  ;  but  Anti- 
 phon  was  the  first  who  knew  how  to  apply  this  art  to 
 judiciary  eloquence,  and  to  matters  that  were  treated 
 before  the  assemblies  of  the  people.  Thus,  Henno- 
 genes  {de  Form.  Or.,  2,  p.  498)  says,  that  he  was  the 
 inventor  tov  tvtvov  noTiiTiKov.  Antiphon  exercised 
 his  art  with  great  success,  and  gave  instructions  also 
 in  a  school  of  rhetoric  which  he  opened,  and  in  which 
 Thucydides  formed  himself  If  reliance  is  to  be  pla- 
 ced on  the  statement  of  Photius,  Antiphon  put  up 
 over  the  entrance  of  his  abode  the  following  inscrip- 
 tion :  "Here  consolation  is  given  to  the  afflicted." 
 He  composed,  for  many,  speeches  to  be  delivered  by 
 accused  persons,  which  the  latter  got  by  heart  ;  and 
 also  harangues  for  demagogues.  This  practice,  which 
 he  was  the  first  to  follow,  exposed  him  to  the  satire  of 
 the  poets  of  the  day.  He  himself  only  spoke  once  in 
 public,  and  this  was  for  the  purpose  of  defending  him- 
 self against  a  charge  of  treason.  Antiphon,  during 
 the  Peloponnesian  war,  frequently  commanded  bodies 
 of  Athenian  troops  ;  he  equipped,  also,  at  his  own  ex- 
 pense, sixty  triremes.  He  had,  moreover,  the  prin- 
 cip;il  share  in  the  revolution  which  established  at 
 Athens  the  government  of  the  four  hundred,  of  which 
 ho  was  a  member.  During  the  short  duration  of  this 
 oligarchy,  Antiphon  was  sent  to  Sparta  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  negotiating  a  peace.  The  ill-success  of  this 
 embassy  overthrew  the  government  at  home,  and  An- 
 tiphon was  accused  of  treason  and  condemned  to 
 death,  According  to  another  account,  give!)  '-^v  Pho- 
 tius (Rildioth.,  2,  p.  486.  ed.  Bekker),  whicu,  i.uwever, 
 is  wholly  incorrect,  Antiphon  was  put  to  death  by 
 Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  either  for  having  criticised  the 
 tragedies  of  the  tyrant,  or  else  for  having  hazarded  an 
 unlucky  bonmot  in  his  presence.  Some  one  having 
 asked  Antiphon  what  was  the  best  kind  of  brass,  he 
 replied,  that  of  which  the  statues  of  Harmodius  and 
 Aristogiton  were  made. — The  ancient  writers  cite  a 
 
 work  of  Antiphon's  on  the  Rhetorical  Art,  Tf^v^ 
 f>7}T0piK^,  and  they  remark  that  it  was  the  oldest  work 
 of  the  kind  ;  which  means  merely  that  Antiphon,  as 
 has  already  been  remarked,  was  the  first  that  applied 
 the  art  in  question  to  the  business  of  the  bar.  They 
 make  mention  also  of  thirty-five,  and  even  sixty,  of 
 his  discourses,  that  is,  discourses  held  before  the  as- 
 sembly of  the  people  {'AoyoL  drj/iTiyopiKoi)  ;  judiciary 
 discourses  {6ikuvlkol),  &c.  We  have  fifteen  he.- 
 rangues  of  Antiphon  remaining,  which  are  all  of  the 
 class  termed  by  Hermogenes  Xoyot  (puviKoc,  that  is, 
 having  reference  to  criminal  proceedings.  Twelve  of 
 them,  however,  are  rather  to  be  regarded  as  so  many 
 studies,  than  discourses  actually  completed  and  pro- 
 nounced. Hermogenes  passes  the  following  judu- 
 ment  upon  Antiphon  :  "He  is  clear  in  his  expositions, 
 true  in  his  delineation  of  sentiment,  faithful  to  nature, 
 and,  consequently,  persuasive;  but  he  possesses  not 
 these  qualities  to  the  extent  to  which  they  were  car- 
 ried by  the  orators  who  came  after  him.  His  diction, 
 though  often  swelling,  is  nevertheless  polished :  in 
 general,  it  wants  vivacity  and  energy."  The  remains 
 of  Antiphon  are  given  in  Reiske's  edition  of  the  Greek 
 Orators,  in  that  of  Bekker,  Berol.,  1823,  5  vols.  8vo, 
 and  in  that  of  Dobson,  Land.,  1828.  16  vols.  8vo. 
 Three  of  his  discourses,  1.  KaT?/yopia  fapfiaKeiac, 
 Kara  rf/g  jirjTpviaQ :  2.  Tispl  tov  'Hpudov  cjx'n'ov  :  3. 
 Tlepl  TOV  ;\'opevToO,  deserve  the  attention  of  scholars, 
 as  giving  an  idea  of  the  form  of  proceeding  in  Athens 
 in  criminal  prosecutions.  {Schbll.  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  202,  seqq.) — II.  A  sophist  of  Athens.  Plutarch 
 and  Photius,  in  speaking  of  the  conversation  which 
 Socrates  had  with  this  individual,  and  of  which  Xeno- 
 phon  {Mem.  Socr.,  1,  6)  has  preserved  an  account, 
 confound  him  with  the  orator  of  the  same  name. 
 Hermogenes  ascribes  to  him  a  work  on  truth  {nepl 
 ' kTiTjOelag),  of  which  Suidas  cites  a  fragment  (*.  v. 
 'ASeTJrog),  wherein  the  sophist  speaks  of  the  Deity. 
 {Schbll  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  332.) 
 
 .\ntiphus,  brother  of  Ctymenus,  and  son  of  Ganyc- 
 tor  the  Naupactian.  He  and  Ctymenus  slew  the  poet 
 Hesiod,  for  a  supposed  connivance  in  an  outrage  per- 
 petrated upon  their  sister.     {Vid.  Hesiodus.) 
 
 Antipolis,  a  city  of  Gaul,  on  the  coast  of  the  Med- 
 iterranean, southeast  of  the  river  Varus,  built  and 
 colonized  by  the  Massilians,  It  is  now  Antibes. 
 {Strabo,  180.— LI.  ibid.,  p.  184.) 
 
 Antirrhium,,  a  promontory  of  yEtolia,  so  called 
 from  its  being  opposite  to  Rhium,  another  point  of 
 Achaia.  ,  It  was  sometimes  surnamed  Molycricum, 
 from  its  vicinity  to  the  town  of  Molycrium  {Thucyd., 
 2,  86),  and  was  also  called  Rhium  .4]tolicum  {Polyh., 
 5,  94).  Here  the  Crissaan,  or,  as  Scylax  terms  it, 
 the  Delphic,  Gulf  properly  commenced.  {PenpL,  p. 
 14.)  Thucydides  states  that  the  interval  between  the 
 two  capes  was  barely  seven  stadia ;  the  geographer 
 just  quoted  says  ten  stadia.  The  narrowness  of  the 
 strait  rendered  this  point  of  great  importance  for  the 
 passage  of  troops  to  and  from  .■Etolia  and  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus. {Holyb.,  4,  10  and  19.)  On  Antirrhium 
 was  a  temple  sacred  to  Neptune.  The  Turkish  for- 
 tress, which  now  occupies  the  site  of  Antirrhium,  is 
 known  by  the  name  of  Roumelia.  {GeU's  Itincr.,  p. 
 293.) 
 
 Antiss.^,  a  city  of  Lesbos,  between  the  promontorj 
 Sigeum  and  Methymne.  Having  offended  the  Ro- 
 mans, it  was  depopulated  by  Labeo,  and  the  inhabi- 
 tants were  removed  to  Methymne.  It  was  afterward 
 rebuilt,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  insulated  by  an 
 arm  of  the  sea  from  the  rest  of  the  island.  Hofice  the 
 name  Antissa,  it  being  opposite  to  Lesbos,  whose  more 
 ancient  name  was  Issa.  {Plin.,  5,  31. — LL,  2,  91. — 
 Lie.,  45,  31.  —  Lycophron,  v.  219.  —  Euslalh.,  ad 
 Horn.,  Ik,  2.  129.) 
 
 Antisthenes,  an  Athenian  philosopher,  founder  of 
 the  Cynic  sect,  born  about  430  B.C.,  of  a  Phrygian  or 
 
 147 
 
ANTISTHENES. 
 
 ANT 
 
 Thracian  mother.  In  his  youth  he  was  engaged  in 
 military  exploits,  and  acquired  fame  by  the  valour 
 which  he  displayed  in  the  battle  of  Tanagra.  His  first 
 studies  were  under  the  direction  of  the  sophist  Gorgias, 
 who  instructed  him  in  the  art  of  rhetoric.  Soon  grow- 
 ing dissatisfied  with  the  futile  labours  of  this  school, 
 he  sought  for  more  substantial  wisdom  from  Socrates. 
 Captivated  by  the  doctrine  and  tlic  manner  of  his  new 
 master,  he  prevailed  upon  many  young  men,  who  had 
 been  his  fellow-students  under  Gorgias,  to  accompany 
 him.  So  great  was  his  ardour  for  moral  wisdom,  that, 
 though  he  lived  at  the  Pirsus,  he  came  daily  to  Athens 
 to  attend  upon  Socrates.  Despising  the  pursuits  of 
 avarice,  vanity,  and  ambition,  Socrates  sought  the  re- 
 ward of  virtue  in  virtue  itself,  and  declined  no  labour 
 or  suflering  which  virtue  required.  This  noble  con- 
 sistency of  mind  was  the  part  of  the  character  of  Soc- 
 rates which  Antisthenes  chiefly  admired  ;  and  he  re- 
 solved to  make  it  the  object  of  his  diligent  imitation. 
 While  he  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  he  discovered 
 his  propensity  towards  severity  of  manners  by  the 
 meanness  of  his  dress.  He  frequently  appeared  in  a 
 threadbare  and  ragged  cloak.  Socrates,  who  had  great 
 penetration  in  discovering  the  characters  of  men,  re- 
 marking that  Antisthenes  took  pains  to  expose,  rather 
 than  to  conceal,  the  tattered  state  of  his  dress,  said  to 
 him,  "Why  so  ostentations'!  Through  your  rags  I 
 see  your  vanity."  While  Plato  and  other  disciples  of 
 Socrates  were,  after  his  death,  forming  schools  in 
 Athens,  Antisthenes  chose  for  his  school  a  public  place 
 of  exercise  without  the  walls  of  the  city,  called  the 
 Cynosarges,  whence  some  writers  derive  the  name  of 
 the  sect  of  which  he  was  the  founder.  Others  suppose 
 that  his  followers  were  called  Cynics  from  the  habits 
 of  the  school,  which,  to  the  more  refined  Athenians, 
 appeared  those  of  dogs  rather  than  of  men.  Here  he 
 inculcated,  both  by  precept  and  example,  a  rigorous  dis- 
 cipline. In  order  to  accommodate  his  own  manners 
 to  his  doctrine,  he  wore  no  other  garment  than  a  coarse 
 cloak,  suffered  his  beard  to  grow,  and  carried  a  wallet 
 and  staff  like  a  wandering  beggar.  Undoubtedly  this 
 was  nothing  more  than  an  expression  of  opposition  to 
 the  gradually  increasing  luxury  of  the  age  ;  his  wish 
 and  object  being  to  bring  men  back  to  their  original 
 simplicity  in  life  and  manners.  Thus  he  set  himself 
 directly  against  the  tendency  and  civilization  of  his 
 age,  as  is  clear  from  many  of  his  sayings,  which  are 
 tinctured  at  once  with  bitterness  and  wit.  And  al- 
 though this  was  scarcely  more  than  a  negative  resist- 
 ance, yet,  as  he  obstinately  placed  himself  in  opposition 
 to  the  circumstances  in  which  he  lived,  and  to  the  ad- 
 vancing progress  of  science,  his  position  must  naturally 
 have  reacted  upon  the  feelings  of  his  contemporaries 
 towards  himself.  We  consequently  find  that  his  school 
 met  with  little  encouragement,  and  this  so  annoyed 
 him  that  he  drove  away  the  few  scholars  he  had. 
 Diogenes  of  Sinope,  who  resembled  him  in  character, 
 is  said  to  have  been  the  only  one  that  remained  with 
 him  to  his  death.  The  doctrine  of  Antisthenes  was 
 mainly  confined  to  morals ;  but,  even  in  this  portion 
 of  philosophy,  it  is  exceedingly  meager  and  deficient, 
 scarcely  furnishing  anything  beyond  a  general  defence 
 of  the  olden  simplicity  and  moral  energy,  against  the 
 luxurious  indulgence  and  effeminacy  of  later  times. 
 Instead,  however,  of  being  duly  tempered  by  the  So- 
 cratic  moderation,  Antisthenes  appears  to  have  been 
 carried  to  excess  in  his  virtuous  zeal  against  the  luxury 
 of  the  age  ;  unless  we  suppose,  what  may  perhaps  be 
 true,  that  in  many  of  the  accounts  which  have  come 
 down  to  us  respecting  him,  his  doctrine  is  painted  in 
 somewhat  exaggerated  colours.  With  regard  to  his 
 religious  tenets,  it  may  be  observed  that  Antisthenes, 
 in  accordance  with  the  Socratic  doctrine,  maintained 
 that,  in  the  universe,  all  is  regulated  by  a  divine  intel- 
 ligence, from  design,  so  as  to  benefit  the  good  man, 
 who  is  the  friend  of  God.  For  the  sage  shall  possess 
 148 
 
 all  things.  This  doctrine  of  God,  therefore,  was  con 
 nected  with  his  ethical  opinions,  by  indicating  the 
 physical  conditions  of  a  happy  life.  It  led  him,  how- 
 ever, to  deviate  from  Socrates,  and  to  declare  that,  in 
 opposition  to  the  vulgar  polytheism,  there  is  but  one 
 natural  God,  but  many  popular  deities  ;  that  God  can- 
 not be  known  or  recognised  in  any  form  or  figure, 
 since  he  is  like  to  nothing  on  earth.  Hence  undoubt- 
 edly arose  his  allegorical  explanation  of  mythology, 
 and  his  doubts  respecting  the  demoniac  intimations  of 
 Socrates.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  the  gloomy 
 cast  of  his  mind  and  the  moroseness  of  his  temper  in- 
 creased to  such  a  degree,  as  to  render  him  troublesome 
 to  his  friends,  and  an  object  of  ridicule  to  his  enemies. 
 Antisthenes  wrote  many  books,  of  which  none  are  ex- 
 tant except  two  declamations  under  the  names  of 
 Ajax  and  Ulysses.  These  were  published  in  the  col- 
 lection of  ancient  orators  by  Aldus,  in  1513  ;  by  H. 
 Stephens,  in  1575;  and  by  Canter,  as  an  appendix  to 
 his  edition  of  Aristides,  printed  at  Basle  in  1506. — 
 For  some  remarks  on  the  Cynic  sect,  vid.  the  article 
 Diogenes.  {Enfield's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  299,  scqq. — Bitter's  Hist.  Anc.  Phil.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 108,  seqt].,  Oxford  trans.) 
 
 Antistius  Labe;o,  a  distinguished  lawyer  in  the 
 reign  of  Augustus,  who,  in  the  spirit  of  liberty,  fre- 
 quently spoke  and  acted  with  great  freedom  against 
 the  emperor.  According  to  most  commentators,  Hor- 
 ace {Scrm.,  1,  3,  82),  in  order  to  pay  his  court  to  the 
 monarch,  salutes  Labeo  with  the  appellation  of  mad 
 {Labconc  insanior,  &,c.).  But  it  has  been  well  ob- 
 served, in  opposition  to  this,  that,  whatever  respect  the 
 poet  had  for  his  emperor,  we  never  find  that  he  treats 
 the  patrons  of  liberty  with  outrage.  Nor  can  we  well 
 imagine  that  he  would  dare  thus  cruelly  to  brand  a 
 man  of  Labeo's  abilities,  riches,  power,  and  employ- 
 ments in  the  state,  and  to  whom  Augustus  himself  had 
 offered  the  consulship.  Bentley,  Wieland,  Wetzel, 
 and  other  critics  are  of  opinion,  therefore,  that  this  in- 
 dividual cannot  be  the  one  to  whom  Horace  alludes, 
 but  that  he  refers  to  some  other  personage  of  the  day, 
 whose  history  has  not  come  down  to  us.  Bentley  even 
 goes  so  far  as  to  suggest  Lahieno  for  Labeone  in  the 
 text  of  Horace,  and  cites  Seneca  in  support  of  his  con- 
 jecture {Praf,  ad.  lib.,  5,  Controv.),  according  to 
 whom,  Labienus  was  a  public  speaker  of  the  day,  so 
 noted  for  the  freedom  of  his  tongue  as  to  have  received 
 the  name  of  Rabicnus  in  derision.  Heindorff,  how- 
 ever, thinks  that  Horace  may  here  actually  refer  t 
 Antistius  Labeo,  not  for  the  reason  given  by  some  of 
 the  commentators,  but  in  allusion  to  his  earlier  years, 
 and  to  a  violent  and  impetuous  temperament  which 
 he  may  have  at  that  time  possessed  {ad  Hurat.,  I.  c). 
 
 Antit.iurus,  a  chain  of  mountains,  running  from 
 Armenia  through  Cappadocia  to  the  west  and  south- 
 west. It  connects  itself  with  the  chain  of  Mount  Tau- 
 rus, between  Cataonia  and  Lycaonia.  {Vid.  Taurus 
 and  Parvadres.  —  Manncrt,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  5  ) 
 
 Antium,  a  city  of  Italy,  on  the  coast  of  Latium, 
 about  32  miles  below  Ostia.  According  to  Xenagoras, 
 a  Greek  writer  quoted  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
 (1,  73),  the  foundation  of  Antium  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
 Anthias,  a  son  of  Circe.  Solinus  (c.  8)  attributes  it 
 to  Ascanius.  But,  whatever  may  have  been  its  ori- 
 gin, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Antium  was,  at  an 
 early  period,  a  maritime  place  of  considerable  note, 
 since  we  find  it  comprised  in  the  first  treaty  made  by 
 Rome  w-.h  Carthage  {Polyb.,  3,  22);  and  Strabo  re- 
 marks (23i;  that  complaints  were  made  to  the  Romans 
 by  Alexander  and  Demetrius,  of  the  piracies  exercised 
 by  the  Antiates,  in  conjunction  with  the  Tyrrhenians, 
 on  the^'  subjects  ;  intimating  that  it  was  done  with 
 the  connivance  of  Rome.  Antium  appears  also  to 
 have  been  the  most  considerable  city  of  the  Volsci ;  it 
 was  to  this  place,  according  to  Plutarch,  that  Coriola- 
 nus  retired  after  he  had  been  banished  from  his  coun- 
 
ANT 
 
 ANT 
 
 trv,  and  was  here  enabled  to  form  his  plans  of  ven- 
 geance in  conjunction  with  the  Volsciaii  chief  Tullus 
 Aulidius.  It  was  here,  too,  that,  after  his  failure,  he 
 met  his  death  from  the  hands  of  his  discontented  al- 
 lies. Antium  was  taken  for  the  first  time  by  the  con- 
 sul T.  Quintius  Capitolinus,  A.U.C.  286,  and  the  year 
 following  it  received  a  Roman  colony  This  circum-  '. 
 stance,  however,  did  not  prevent  the  Antiates  from  re- 
 volting frequently,  and  joniing  in  the  Volscian  and 
 Latin  wars  {Liv  ,  6,  6— Dion.  Ha!.,  10,  21),  till  they 
 were  finally  conquered  in  a  battle  near  the  river  As- 
 tura,  with  many  Latin  confederates.  In  consequence 
 of  this  defeat,  Antium  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors,  j 
 when  most  of  its  ships  were  destroyed,  and  the  rest  re- 
 moved to  Rome  by  Camillus.  The  beaks  of  the  former 
 were  reserved  to  ornament  the  elevated  seal  in  the  Fo-  j 
 rum  of  that  city,  from  which  orators  addressed  the  peo- 
 ple, and  which,  from  that  circumstance,  was  thenceforth 
 designated  by  the  term  rostra.  {Liv.,  8,  14. — Flor., 
 1,  11. — Plin.,  34,  5.)  Antium  now  received  a  fresh 
 supply  of  colonists,  to  whom  the  rights  of  Roman  cit- 
 izens were  granted.  From  that  period  it  seems  to 
 have  enjoyed  a  state  of  quiet  till  the  civil  wars  of  Ma- 
 rius  and  Sylla,  when  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the 
 former.  But  it  rose  again  from  its  ruins  during  the 
 empire,  and  attained  to  a  high  degree  of  prosperity 
 and  splendour ;  since  Strabo  reports,  that  in  his  time 
 it  was  the  favourite  resort  of  the  emperors  and  their 
 court  {Slrab.,  232),  and  we  know  it  was  here  that  Au- 
 gustus received  from  the  senate  the  title  of  Father  of 
 his  Country.  {Suet.,  Aug.,  50.)  Antium  becaine  suc- 
 cessively the  residence  of  Tiberius  and  Caligula  ;  it  was 
 also  the  birthplace  of  Nero  {Suet.,  Ner.,  6),  who,  having 
 recolonized  it,  built  a  port  there,  and  bestowed  upon  it 
 various  other  marks  of  his  favour.  Hadrian  is  also  said 
 to  have  been  particularly  fond  of  this  town.  {Philostrat., 
 Vit.  Apoll.  Tyan.,8,  8.)  There  were  two  temples  of 
 celebrity  at  Antium  ;  one  sacred  to  Fortune,  the  other 
 to  ^sculapius.  {Horat.,  Od.,  1,  35,  1. — Martial, 
 Ep.,  5,  \.—  Val.  Max.,  1,  8.)  The  famous  Apollo 
 Belviderc,  the  fighting  gladiator,  as  it  is  termed,  and 
 many  other  statues  discovered  at  Antinm,  attest  also 
 its  former  magnificence.  The  site  of  the  ancient  city 
 is  sufficiently  tnarked  by  the  name  of  Porto  d^Anzo 
 attached  to  its  ruins.  But  the  city  must  have  reached 
 as  far  as  the  modern  town  of  Nelluno,  which  derives 
 its  name  probably  from  some  ancient  temple  dedicated 
 to  Neptune.  {Cramer  s  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  86, 
 seqq.) 
 
 As'TONiA  i.Ex,  I.  was  enacted  by  Marc  Antony,  when 
 consul,  A  U.C.  708.  It  abrogated  the  lex  Atia,  and 
 renewed  the  le.t  Cornelia,  by  taking  away  from  the 
 people  the  privilege  of  choosing  priests,  and  restoring 
 it  to  the  college  of  priests,  to  which  it  originally  be- 
 longed. {Cic,  Phil.,  1,9.) — II.  Another  by  the  same, 
 A.U.C.  703.  It  ordained  that  a  new  decuria  of  judg- 
 es should  be  added  to  the  two  former,  and  that  they 
 should  be  chosen  from  the  centurions. — III.  Another 
 by  the  same.  It  allowed  an  appeal  to  the  people,  to 
 those  who  were  condemned  dc  majestate,  or  of  per- 
 fidious measures  against  the  state.  Cicero  calls  this 
 the  destruction  of  all  laws. — IV.  Another  by  the  same, 
 during  his  triumvirate.  It  made  it  a  capital  offence  to 
 propose,  ever  after,  the  election  of  a  dictator,  and  for 
 any  person  to  accent  of  the  office.  {Appian,  de  Bell. 
 Civ.,  3.) 
 
 Antonii,  I.  the  name  of  two  celebrated  Roman 
 families,  the  one  patrician,  the  other  plebeian.  They 
 Ijolh  pretended  to  be  descendants  of  Hercules. — II.  A 
 daughter  of  Marc  Antony,  by  Octavia.  She  married 
 Domifius  ..-Enobarbus,  and  was  mother  of  Nero  and 
 two  daughters.  {Tacit.,  A7>n.,  4,  44.) — III.  A  daugh- 
 ter of  Claudius  and  .^lia  Petina.  She  was  of  the 
 family  of  the  Tuberos',  and  was  repudiated  for  her 
 levity.  Nero  wished  after  this  to  marry  her,  but,  on 
 luir  refusal,  caused  her  to  be  put  to  death.    {Suet.,  Vit. 
 
 Ncr.,  35.) — IV.  A  daughter  of  Marc  Antony,  and  the 
 wiffe  of  Drusus,  who  was  the  son  of  Livia  and  brother 
 of  Tiberius.  She  became  mother  of  three  children, 
 Germanicus,  Caligula's  father  ;  Claudius  the  emperor; 
 and  Livia  Drusilia.  Her  husband  died  very  early,  and 
 she  never  would  marry  again,  but  spent  her  time  in  the 
 education  of  her  children.  Caligula  conferred  on  her 
 the  same  honours  that  Tiljerius  had  bestowed  upon 
 Livia,  but  is  thought  to  have  cut  her  off  subsequently 
 by  poison.  {Suet.,  Ciil.,  15  cl  23.)— V.  {Turrit)  » 
 fortress  of  Jerusalem,  founded  by  Hyrcanus,  and  er.- 
 larged  and  strengthened  by  Herod,  who  called  it  Ar^- 
 toiiia,  in  honour  of  Marc  Antony.  It  stood  alone  on  a 
 high  and  precipitous  rock,  at  the  northwest  angle  of 
 the  temple.  The  whole  face  of  the  rock  was  fronted 
 with  smooth  stone  for  ornament,  and  to  make  the  as- 
 cent so  slippery  as  to  be  impracticable.  Round  the 
 top  of  the  rock  there  was  first  a  low  wall,  rather  more 
 than  five  feet  high.  The  fortress  itself  was  70  feet  in 
 height ;  the  rock  on  which  it  stood,  90  feet.  It  had 
 every  lu.xury  and  convenience  of  a  sumptuous  palace, 
 or  even  of  a  city  ;  spacious  halls,  courts,  and  baihs. 
 It  appeared  like  a  vast  square  tower,  with  four  other 
 towers  at  the  corner  :  three  of  them  between  80  and 
 90  feet  high  :  that  at  the  corner  next  to  the  temple, 
 above  120.  This  famous  structure  was  taken  by  Ti- 
 tus, and  its  fall  was  the  prelude  to  the  capture  of  the 
 city  and  temple.  {Joseph.,  Bell.  Jud.,  5,  15. — Mil- 
 ma.yi's  History  of  the  Jens,  vol.  3,  p.  21.) 
 
 Antoninus,  I.  Pius  (or  Titus  Aurelius  Fui.vius 
 BoioNius  Antoninus),  was  born  at  Lanuvium  in  Italy, 
 A.D.  86,  of  a  highly  respectable  family.  He  was  first 
 made  proconsul  of  Asia,  then  governor  of  Italy,  and  in 
 A.D.  120,  consul;  in  all  which  employments  ho  dis- 
 played the  same  virtue  and  moderation  that  afterward 
 distinguished  him  on  the  imperial  throne.  "VN'hen  Ha- 
 drian, after  the  death  of  Verus,  determined  upon  the 
 adoption  of  Antoninus,  he  found  some  difficulty  in  per- 
 suading him  to  accept  of  so  great  a  charge  as  the  ad- 
 ministration of  the  Roman  empire.  This  reluctance 
 being  overcome,  his  adoption  was  declared  in  a  coun- 
 cil of  senators ;  and  in  a  few  months  afterward  he  suc- 
 ceeded by  the  death  of  his  benefactor,  who  had  caused 
 him,  in  his  turn,  to  adopt  the  son  of  Verus,  then  seven 
 years  of  age,  and  Marcus  Annius,  afterward  Aurelius, 
 a  kinsman  to  Hadrian,  at  that  time  of  the  age  of  sev- 
 enteen. The  tranquillity  enjoyed  by  the  Roman  em- 
 pire under  the  sway  of  Antoninus  aflfords  few  topics 
 for  history;  and,  in  respect  to  the  emperor  himself,  his 
 whole  reign  was  one  display  of  moderation,  talents, 
 and  virtues.  The  few  disturbances  which  arose  in  dif- 
 ferent parts  of  the  empire  were  easily  subdued  by  his 
 lieutenants  ;  and  in  Britain,  the  boundaries  of  the  Ro- 
 man province  were  extended  by  building  a  new  wall  to 
 the  north  of  that  of  Hadrian,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
 Esk  to  that  of  the  Tweed.  On  the  whole,  the  reign 
 of  Antoninus  was  uncommonly  pacific  ;  and  he  was 
 left  at  leisure  fully  to  protect  the  Roman  people  and 
 advance  their  welfare.  Under  his  reign  the  race  of 
 informers  was  altogether  abolished,  and,  in  conse- 
 quence, condemnation  and  confiscation  were  propor- 
 tionably  rare.  Though  distinguished  for  economy  in 
 the  distribution  of  the  public  revenues,  he  was  con- 
 scious, at  the  same  time,  of  the  necessity  of  adequate- 
 ly promoting  public  works  of  magnificence  and  utility  ; 
 and  it  is  thought  that  Nismes,  whence  his  family  ori- 
 ginally came,  was  indebted  to  him  for  the  amphithea- 
 tre and  aqueduct,  the  remains  oi  wnicn  so  amply  tes- 
 tify their  original  grandeur.  His  new  decrees  were 
 all  distinguished  for  their  morality  and  equity  ;  and  if 
 his  rescript  in  favour  of  the  Christians,  addressed  to 
 the  people  of  Asia  Minor,  be  authentic  (and  there  is 
 much  argument  in  its  favour),  no  better  proof  of  his 
 philosophy  and  justice,  on  the  great  point  of  religious 
 toleration,  can  well  be  afforded.  The  high  reputation 
 acquired  bv  Antoninus  for  vu-tue  and  wisdom  gave 
 
 ^  '  149 
 
ANTONINUS. 
 
 ANTONINUS. 
 
 him  great  influence,  even  beyond  the  bounds  of  the 
 Roman  empire  ;  and  neiglibouring  monarchs  sponta- 
 neously made  him  the  arbiter  of  their  differences. 
 His  jirivate  hfc  was  frugal  and  modest,  and  in  his 
 mode  of  living  and  conversing  he  adopted  that  air  of 
 equality  and  of  popular  manners  which,  in  men  of 
 high  station,  is  at  once  so  rare  and  attractive.  Too 
 much  indulgence  to  an  unworthy  wife  (Faustina)  is 
 the  only  weakness  attributed  to  him,  unless  we  include 
 a  small  share  of  ridicule  thrown  upon  his  minute  e.\- 
 actness  by  those  who  are  ignorant  of  its  value  in  com- 
 plicated business.  He  died  A.D.  IGl,  aged  seventy- 
 three,  having  previously  married  Marcus  Aurelius  to 
 his  daughter  Faustina,  and  associated  him  with  him- 
 self in  the  cares  of  government.  His  ashes  were  de- 
 posited in  the  tomb  of  Hadrian,  and  his  death  was  la- 
 mented throughout  the  empire  as  a  public  calamity. 
 The  sculptured  pillar  erected  by  Marcus  Aurelius  and 
 the  senate  to  his  memory,  under  the  name  of  the  An- 
 tonine  column,  is  still  one  of  the  principal  ornaments 
 of  Rome.  (Gortori's  Biogr.  Diet.,  vol.  4,  p.  87,  seqq.) 
 — II.  Makcus  Annius  Aurelius,  was  born  at  Rome 
 AD.  121.  Upon  the  death  of  Ceionius  Commodus, 
 the  Emperor  Hadrian  turned  his  attention  towards 
 Marcus  Aurelius ;  but  he  being  then  too  young  for  an 
 early  assumjition  of  the  cares  of  empire,  Hadrian 
 adopted  Antoninus  Pius,  on  condition  that  he  in  his 
 turn  should  adopt  Marcus  Aurelius.  His  father  dying 
 early,  the  care  of  his  education  devolved  on  his  pater- 
 nal grandfather,  Annius  Verus,  who  caused  him  to  re- 
 ceive a  general  education;  but  philosophy  so  early  be- 
 came the  object  of  his  ambition,  that  he  assumed  the 
 philosophic  mantle  when  only  twelve  years  old.  The 
 species  of  philosophy  to  which  he  attached  himself 
 was  the  stoic,  as  being  most  connected  with  morals 
 and  the  conduct  of  life  ;  and  such  was  the  natural 
 sweetness  of  his  temper,  that  he  exhibited  none  of  the 
 pride  which  sometimes  attended  the  artificial  eleva- 
 tion of  the  stoic  character.  This  was  the  more  re- 
 markable, as  all  the  honour  and  power  that  Antoninus 
 could  bestow  upon  him  became  his  own  at  an  early 
 periocj,  since  he  was  practically  associated  with  him 
 in  the  administration  of  the  empire  for  many  vears. 
 On  his  formal  accession  to  the  sovereignty,  his  first 
 act  was  of  a  kind  which  at  once  proved  his  great  dis- 
 interestedness, for  he  immediately  took  Lucius  Verus 
 as  his  colleague,  who  had  indeed  been  associated  with 
 him  by  adoption,  but  who,  owing  to  his  defects  and 
 vices,  had  been  excluded  by  Antoninus  from  the  suc- 
 cession, which,  at  his  instigation,  the  senate  had  con- 
 fined to  Marcus  Aurelius  alone.  Notwithstanding 
 their  dissimilarity  of  character,  the  two  emperors  reign- 
 ed conjointly  without  any  disagreement.  Verus  took 
 the  nominal  guidance  of  the  war  against  the  Parthians, 
 which  was  successfully  carried  on  by  the  lieutenants 
 under  him,  and,  during  the  campaign,  married  Lucilla, 
 the  daughter  of  his  colleague.  The  reign  of  Marcus 
 Aurelius  was  more  eventful  than  that  of  Antoninus. 
 Before  the  termination  of  the  Parthian  war,  the  Mar- 
 comanni  and  other  German  tribes  began  those  disturb- 
 ances which  more  or  less  annoyed  him  for  the  rest  of 
 his  life.  Against  these  foes,  after  the  termination  of 
 hostilities  with  Parthia,  the  two  emperors  inarched  ; 
 but  what  was  effected  during  three  years'  war  and  ne- 
 gotiation, until  the  death  of  Verus,  is  little  known. 
 The  sudden  decease  of  that  unsuitable  colleague,  by  an 
 apoplexy,  restored  to  Marcus  Aurelius  the  sole  domin- 
 ion ;  and  for  the  next  five  years  he  carried  on  the  Pan- 
 nonian  war  in  person,  without  ever  returning  to  Rome. 
 During  these  fatiguing  campaigns  he  endured  all  the 
 hardships  incident  to  a  rigorous  climate  and  a  militar)' 
 life,  with  a  patience  and  serenity  which  did  the  high- 
 est honour  to  his  philosophy.  Few  of  the  particular 
 actions  of  this  tedious  warfare  have  been  fully  descri- 
 bed ;  although,  owing  to  conflicting  religious  zeal,  one 
 of  them  .has  been  exceedingly  celebrated.  This  was 
 150 
 
 !  the  deliverance  of  the  emperor  and  his  army  from  im- 
 ^  minent  danger,  by  a  victory  over  the  Quadi,  in  conse- 
 I  quence  of  an  extraordinary  storm  of  rain,  hail,  and 
 lightning,  which  disconcerted  the  barbarians,  and  was, 
 by  the  conquerors,  regarded  as  miraculous.  The  em- 
 peror and  the  Romans  attributed  the  timely  event  to 
 Jupiter  Tonans  ;  but  the  Chri.stians  affirmed  that  God 
 granted  this  favour  on  the  supplications  oi  the  Chris- 
 tian soldiers  in  the  Roman  army,  who  are  said  lo  bave 
 composed  the  twelfth  or  Meletine  legion  ;  and,  as  a 
 mark  of  distinction,  we  are  informed  by  Eusebius  that 
 they  received  from  an  emperor  who  persecuted  Chris- 
 tianity the  title  of  the  "  Thundering  Legion."  Yet 
 this  account,  not  of  a  fact,  but  of  the  cause  of  one,  and 
 that  of  such  a  nature  as  no  human  testimony  can  ever 
 determine,  was  made  the  subject  of  a  controversy,  in 
 the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  between  Moyle  and 
 the  eccentric  Whiston,  the  latter  of  whom  elaborately 
 supported  the  genuineness  of  the  miracle.  The  date 
 of  this  event  is  fixed  by  Tillemont  in  A.D.  174.  The 
 general  issue  of  the  war  was,  that  the  barbarians  were 
 repressed,  but  admitted  to  settle  in  the  territories  of 
 the  empire  as  colonists  ;  and  a  complete  subjugation 
 of  the  Marcomanni  might  have  followed,  had  not  the 
 emperor  been  called  off  by  the  conspiracy  of  Avidius 
 Cassius,  who  assumed  the  purple  m  Syria.  This 
 usurper  was  quickly  destroyed  by  a  conspiracy  among 
 his  own  officers  ;  and  the  clemency  shown  by  the  em- 
 peror to  his  family  was  most  exemplary.  After  the 
 suppression  of  this  revolt,  he  made  a  progress  through 
 the  East,  in  which  journey  he  lost  his  wife  Faustina, 
 daughter  of  Antoninus  Pius,  a  woman  as  dissolute  as 
 she  was  beautiful,  but  whose  irregularities  he  never 
 seems  to  have  noticed  ;  a  blindness  or  insensibility  that 
 has  made  him  the  theme  of  frequent  ridicule.  While 
 on  this  tour  he  visited  Athens,  added  greatly  to  its 
 privileges,  and,  like  Hadrian,  was  initiated  in  the 
 Eleusinian  Mysteries.  His  return  to  Rome  did  not 
 take  place  until  after  an  absence  of  eight  years,  and 
 his  reception  was  in  the  highest  degree  popular  and 
 splendid.  After  remaining  in  the  capital  for  nearly 
 two  years,  and  effecting  several  popular  reforms,  he 
 was  once  more  called  away  by  the  necessity  of  check- 
 ing the  Marcomanni,  and  was  again  successful,  but 
 fell  ill,  at  the  expiration  of  two  years,  at  Vindobona, 
 now  Vienna.  His  illness  arose  from  a  pestilential  dis- 
 ease which  prevailed  in  the  army  ;  and  it  cut  him  of! 
 in  the  59lh  year  of  his  age,  and  19th  of  his  reign. 
 His  death  occasioned  universal  mourning  throughout 
 the  empire.  Without  waiting  for  the  usual  decree  on 
 the  occasion,  the  Roman  senate  and  people  voted  hiin 
 a  god  by  acclamation  ;  and  his  image  was  long  after- 
 ward regarded  with  peculiar  veneration.  Marcus  Au- 
 relius, however,  was  no  friend  to  the  Christians,  wlio 
 were  persecuted  during  the  greater  part  of  his  leign  ; 
 an  anomaly  in  a  character  so  universally  merciful  and 
 clement,  that  may  be  attributed  to  an  excess  of  pa- 
 gan devotion  on  his  part,  and  still  more  to  the  influ- 
 ence of  the  sophists  by  whom  he  was  surrounded.  In 
 all  other  points  of  policy  and  conduct  he  was  one  of 
 the  most  excellent  princes  on  record,  both  in  respect 
 to  the  salutary  regulations  he  adopted  and  the  tempev 
 with  which  he  carried  them  into  practice.  Comparel 
 with  Trajan  or  Antoninus  Pius,  he  possibly  fell  shor. 
 of  the  manly  sense  of  the  one,  and  the  simple  and  un- 
 ostentatious virtue  of  the  other  ;  philosophy  or  scholat- 
 ship  on  a  throne  always  more  or  less  assuming  the  ap- 
 pearance of  pedantry.  The  emperor  was  also  himself 
 a  writer,  and  his  "Meditations,"  composed  in  the 
 Greek  language,  have  descended  lo  posterity.  They 
 are  a  collection  of  maxims  and  thoughts  in  the  spirit 
 of  the  stoic  philosophy,  vihich,  without  much  connex- 
 ion or  skill  in  composition,  breathe  the  purest  senti- 
 ments of  piety  and  benevolence.  Marcus  Aurehus 
 left  one  son,  the  brutal  Commodus,  and  three  daugh- 
 ters.    Among  the  weaknesses  of  this  good  euipeioi^ 
 
ANT 
 
 ANTONIUS. 
 
 his  too  great  consideration  for  his  son  is  deemed  one 
 of  the  most  striliing ;  for  ahhough  he  was  unremit- 
 ting in  his  endeavours  to  reclaim  him,  they  were  ac- 
 companied by  much  erroneous  indulgence,  and  espe- 
 ciallv  by  an  early  and  ill-judged  elevation  to  titles  and 
 honours,  which  uniformly  operate  injuriously  upon  a 
 base  and  dissolute  character.  The  best  edition  of  the 
 Meditations  of  Antoninus  is  that  of  Gataker,  Cantab., 
 1652,  4to.  {Gorloii's  Biogr.  Diet.,  vol.  1,  p.  8S.) — 
 III.  Bassianus  Caracalla.  Vid.  Caracalla. — IV.  Two 
 works  have  come  down  to  us,  styled  Itincraria  Anto- 
 niiii,  which  may  be  compared  to  our  modern  books  of 
 routes.  They  give  merely  the  distances  between 
 places,  unaccompanied  by  any  geographical  remarks. 
 One  gives  the  routes  by  land,  the  other  those  by  sea. 
 They  have  been  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  produc- 
 tions of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  while  others 
 assign  them  to  a  geographical  writer  named  Antoni- 
 nus, whose  age  is  unknown.  Both  these  opinions  are 
 evidently  incorrect.  It  is  more  than  probable,  that  the 
 works  in  question  were  originally  compiled  in  the  cab- 
 inet of  some  one  of  the  Roman  emperors,  perhaps  that 
 of  Augustus,  and  were  enlarged  by  various  additions 
 made  during  successive  reigns,  according  as  new 
 routes  or  stations  were  established.  Some  critics, 
 however,  dissatisfied  wiih  this  mode  of  solving  the 
 question,  have  sought  for  an  ancient  writer,  occupied 
 with  pursuits  of  an  analogous  nature,  to  whom  the  au- 
 thorship of  these  works  might  be  assigned.  They 
 find  two  ;  and  their  suflrages,  consequently,  are  divided 
 between  them.  The  first  of  these  is  Julius  Hononus, 
 a  contemporary  of  Julius  Cajsar's,  of  whose  produc- 
 tions we  have  a  few  leaves  remaining,  entitled,  "  Ex- 
 cerpta,  qua  ad  Cosmographmm  pertinent."  The 
 other  writer  is  a  certain  ^Ethicus,  surnamed  Ister,  a 
 Christian  of  the  fourth  century,  to  whom  is  attributed 
 a  vvork  called  "  Cos niographia,''^  which  still  e.^ists. 
 Mannert  declares  himself  unconditionally  in  favour  of 
 -lElhicus.  {Introd.  ad  Tab.  Pact.,  p.  8,  seqq.)  Wes- 
 seling  is  undecided.  The  best  edition  of  the  Itinera- 
 ries is  that  of  Wesseling,  Amst.,  1735,  4to.  (Schdll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  258,  seqq.) — V.  Liberalis, 
 a  mythological  writer,  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
 age  of  the  Antonines,  and  to  have  been  a  freedman  of 
 one  of  them.  He  has  left  us  a  work  entitled  Mera- 
 fiop(j)o)ai'<Jv  ^vvayuy^,  "  A  Collection  of  Metamor- 
 phoses," in  forty-one  chapters ;  a  production  of  con- 
 siderable interest,  from  the  fragments  of  ancient  poets 
 contained  in  it.  An  idea  of  the  natvtre  of  the  work 
 may  perhaps  be  formed  from  the  following  titles  of 
 some  of  the  chapters :  Ctcsylla,  the  Melcagrides, 
 Cragakus,  Lamia,  the  Emalhides,  and  many  others 
 drawn  from  the  Hctcrammcna  of  Nicander;  Hierax, 
 JUgypius,  Anllnis,  Aedon,  &c.,  from  the  Ornilhogo- 
 nia  of  Bocus;  Cltnis  from  Simmias;  Baltas  from  the 
 Eocte  of  Hesiod  ;  Meliocha  and  Menippa  from  Corin- 
 na,  <fec.  There  e.vists  but  a  single  MS.  of  Antoninus 
 Liberalis,  which,  after  various  migrations,  has  returned 
 to  the  library  of  Heidelberg.  It  has  been  decried  by 
 Bast,  in  his  Critical  Epistle.  The  best  edition  of  this 
 writer  is  that  of  Verheyk,  Lugd.  Bat ,  1774,  8vo.  It 
 does  not,  however,  supply  ail  the  wants  of  the  scholar; 
 and  some  future  editor,  by  ascending  to  the  sources 
 whence  Antoninus  drew  his  materials,  and  taking  for 
 his  model  the  labour  bestowed  by  Heyne  and  Clavier 
 on  A  pollo<\orus,  may  have  it  in  his  power  to  supply  us 
 with  an  edtiio  opluna.  {SchiiU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 5,  p.  44  ) 
 
 ANTONiNOPOLie.  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  placed  by 
 D'Anville  on  the  northern  confines  of  the  country,  but 
 more  correctly,  by  Mannert,  in  the  vicinity,  and  to  the 
 northeast,  of  Charrss  and  Edessa.  {Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  5,  p.  304.)  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded 
 by  Severus  or  Caracalla,  and  named  after  the  emperor 
 Antoninus.  It  was  subsequently  called  Constantia, 
 firom  Conataiitine,  who  enlarged  and  strengthened  it. 
 
 Mannert  supposes  it  to  be  tlie  same  with  the  ruined 
 city  of  Uran  Schar,  mentioned  by  Niebuhr  (vol.  2,  p 
 390). 
 
 Antonicjs,  I.  M.  Antonius  Gnipho,  a  native  ot  Gaul, 
 instructed  in  Greek  literature  at  Ale.xandrea,  where  he 
 was  educated,  and  in  Latin  literature  at  Rome.  He 
 first  gave  instruction  in  grammar  at  this  latter  city, 
 in  the  paternal  mansion  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  was 
 then  very  young.  Afterward  he  opened  a  school  at 
 his  own  residence,  where  he  also  professed  rhetoric. 
 Cicero  attended  bis  lectures  when  praetor.  Gnipho 
 left  a  work  on  the  Latin  tongue,  in  two  volumes.  Ac- 
 cording to  Suetonius  (de  Illustr.  Gramm.,  7),  he  never 
 stipulated  with  his  pupils  for  any  fi.xed  compensation, 
 and  hence  obtained  the  more  from  their  liberality. 
 The  same  writer  informs  us  that  he  did  not  live  be- 
 yond his  50th  year. — II.  Marcus  Antonius,  a  Roman 
 orator,  and  the  most  truly  illustrious  of  the  Antonian 
 family,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  cen- 
 tury of  Rome.  After  rising  successively  through  the 
 various  offices  of  the  commonwealth,  he  was  made 
 consul  in  the  year  of  the  city  655,  and  then  governor 
 of  Cilicia,  in  quality  of  proconsul,  where  he  performed 
 so  many  valorous  exploits  that  a  public  triumph  was 
 decreed  to  him.  In  order  to  improve  his  talent  for 
 eloquence,  he  became  a  scholar  to  the  most  able  men 
 in  Rhodes  and  Athens.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest 
 orators  among  the  Romans  ;  and,  according  to  Cicero, 
 who  in  the  early  part  of  his  life  was  a  contemporary, 
 it  was  owing  to  him  that  Rome  became  a  rival  in  elo- 
 quence to  Greece.  The  same  great  authority  has 
 given  us  the  character  of  his  oratory,  from  which  it 
 appears  that  earnestness,  acuteness,  copiousness,  and 
 variety  formed  his  distinguishing  qualities  ;  and  that 
 he  excelled  as  much  in  action  as  in  language.  By 
 his  worth  and  abilities  he  had  rendered  himself  dear  to 
 the  most  illustrious  characters  of  Rome,  when  he  fell 
 a  sacrifice  in  the  midst  of  the  bloody  confusion  excited 
 by  Marius  and  Cinna.  Taking  refuge  at  the  house  of 
 a  friend  from  their  relentless  proscription,  he  was  ac- 
 cidentally discovered  and  betrayed  to  Marius,  who  im- 
 mediately sent  an  officer,  with  a  band  of  soldiers,  to 
 bring  him  the  orator's  head.  It  was  brought  accord- 
 ingly ;  and  that  sanguinary  leader,  after  making  it  the 
 subject  of  his  brutal  ridicule,  ordered  it  to  be  stuck 
 upon  a  pole  before  the  rostra,  and,  on  the  whole,  treat- 
 ed it  as  Marc  Antony,  the  worthless  grandson  o(  An- 
 tonius, treated  the  head  of  Cicero.  This  event  oc- 
 curred B.C.  87.  He  left  two  sons,  Marcus,  surnamed 
 Creticus,  and  Caius,  both  of  whom  discredited  their 
 parentage.  {Cic.,de  Orat.,  1,24. — Id.  ibid.,  2.  1. — 
 Gorton  s  Biogr.  Diet.,  vol  1,  p.  90. — Er7iesti,  Clav. 
 Cic.  Index  Hist.,  s.  v.) — III.  Marcus,  surnamed  Cret- 
 icus, elder  son  of  the  orator.  He  was  guilty,  while 
 praetor,  of  great  extortions  in  Sicily  and  other  quarters, 
 having  received  the  same  commission  which  Pompey 
 afterward  obtained,  for  importing  corn  and  extermina- 
 ting the  pirates.  He  afterward  invaded  Crete,  without 
 any  declaration  of  war,  but  was  deservedly  and  shame- 
 fully defeated,  whence  he  obtained,  in  derision,  the 
 surname  of  Creticus. — IV.  Caius,  brother  of  the  pre- 
 ceding, and  son  of  the  orator.  He  bore  arms  under 
 Sylla,  m  the  war  against  Mithradates,  and  raised  such 
 disturbances  in  Greece,  that  for  this  and  other  mal- 
 practices he  was  afterward  expelled  from  the  senate 
 by  the  censors.  Obtaining,  however,  the  consulship 
 with  Cicero,  at  a  subsequent  period,  through  the  aid 
 of  Crassus  and  Caesar,  he  was  appointed  to  head  the 
 forces  sent  against  Catiline.  A  pretended  attack  of 
 the  gout,  however,  caused  him  to  confide  the  army  of 
 the  republic,  on  the  day  of  battle,  to  his  lieutenant 
 Petreius.  He  was  afraid,  it  seems,  of  meeting  Cati- 
 line, with  whom  he  had  at  first  been  concerned  in  the 
 conspiracy,  lest  the  latter  might  taunt  him  with  un- 
 pleasing  reminiscences.  He  received,  as  proconsul, 
 the  province  of  Macedonia,  by  yielding  which  unto 
 
 151 
 
ANTONIUS. 
 
 ANTONIUS. 
 
 him,  Cicero  had  induced  him  to  prove  faithful  to  the 
 state  ;  but  he  governed  it  with  such  extortion  and  vio- 
 lence, that  he  was  tried,  convicted,  and  sent  into  ban- 
 ishment.— V.  Marcus,  son  of  Anlonius  Creticus, 
 grandson  of  the  orator,  and  well  known  by  the  histori- 
 cal title  of  the  Trnimvir.  Losinir  his  father  when 
 young,  he  led  a  very  dissipated  and  extravagant  life, 
 and  wasted  his  whole  patrimony  before  he  had  assu- 
 med the  manly  gown.  He  afterward  went  abroad  to 
 learn  the  art  of  war  under  Gabinius,  who  gave  him  the 
 command  of  his  cavalry  in  Syria,  where  he  signalized 
 his  courage  and  ability  in  the  restoration  of  Ptolemy, 
 king  of  Egypt.  He  also  distinguished  himself  on  oth- 
 er occasions,  and  obtained  high  reputation  as  a  com- 
 mander. From  Egypt  he  proceeded  to  Gaul,  where 
 he  remained  some  time  with  Cncsar,  and  the  latter  hav- 
 ing furnished  him  with  money  and  credit,  he  returned 
 upon  this  to  Rome,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  first 
 the  qusestorship,  and  afterward  the  ofTice  of  tribune. 
 In  this  latter  office  he  was  very  active  for  Caesar,  but 
 finding  the  senate  exasperated  against  this  commander, 
 he  pretended  to  be  alarmed  for  his  own  safety,  and  fled 
 in  disguise  to  Cwsar's  camp.  Caesar,  upon  this, 
 marched  immediately  into  Italy,  the  flight  of  the  trib- 
 unes giving  him  a  plausible  pretext  for  commencing 
 operations.  Caesar,  having  made  himself  master  of 
 Rome,  gave  Antony  the  government  of  Italy.  During 
 the  civil  contest,  the  laitcr  proved  himself  on  several 
 occasions  a  most  valuable  auxiliary,  and,  after  the  bat- 
 tle of  Pharsalia,  was  appointed  by  Caesar  his  master  of 
 the  horse.  After  the  death  of  Ca;sar  Antony  deliv- 
 ered a  very  powerful  address  over  his  corpse  in  the 
 forum,  and  inflamed  to  such  a  degree  the  soldiers  and 
 populace,  that  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  compelled  to 
 depart  from  the  city.  Antony  now  soon  became  pow- 
 erful, and  began  to  tread  in  Caesar's  footsteps,  and 
 govern  with  absolute  sway.  The  arrival  of  Octavius 
 at  Rome  thwarted,  however,  his  ambitious  views. 
 The  latter  soon  raised  a  formidable  party  in  the  sen- 
 ate, and  was  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  Cicero 
 to  his  cause.  Violent  quarrels  then  ensued  between 
 Octavius  and  Antony.  Endeavours  were  made  to  rec- 
 oncile them,  but  in  vain.  Antony,  in  order  to  have 
 a  pretence  of  sending  for  the  legions  from  Macedonia, 
 prevailed  on  the  people  to  grant  hiin  the  government 
 of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  which  the  senate  had  before  con- 
 ferred on  Decimiis  Brutus,  one  of  the  conspirators 
 against  Ctesar.  Matters  soon  came  to  an  open  rup- 
 ture. Octavius  offered  his  aid  to  the  senate,  who  ac- 
 cepted it,  and  passed  a  decree,  approving  of  his  con- 
 duct and  that  of  Brutus,  who,  at  the  head  of  three  le- 
 gions, was  preparing  to  oppose  Antony,  then  on  his 
 march  to  seize  Cisalpine  Gaul.  Brutus,  not  being 
 strong  enough  to  keep  the  field  against  Antony,  shut 
 himself  up  in  Mutina,  where  his  opponent  besieged 
 him.  The  senate  declared  Antony  an  enemy  to  his 
 country.  The  consuls  Hirtiiis  and  Pansa  took  the 
 field  against  him  along  with  Octavius,  and  advanced 
 to  Mutina  in  order  to  raise  the  siege.  In  the  first  en- 
 gagement, Antony  had  the  advantage,  and  Pansa  was 
 mortally  wounded,  but  he  was  defeated  the  same  day 
 by  Hirlius  as  he  was  returning  to  his  camp.  Tn  a 
 subsequent  engagement,  Antony  was  again  vanquish- 
 ed, his  lines  were  forced,  and  Octavius  had  an  oppor- 
 tunity of  distinguishing  himself,  Hirtius  being  slain  in 
 the  action,  and  the  whole  command  devolving  on  the 
 former.  Antony,  after  this  check,  abandoned  the  siege 
 of  Mutina,  and  crossed  the  Alps,  in  hopes  of  receiving 
 succours  from  his  friends.  This  was  all  that  Octavius 
 wanted  ;  his  intent  was  to  humble  Antony,  not  to  de- 
 stroy him,  foreseeing  plainly  that  the  republican  party 
 would  be  uppermost,  and  his  own  ruin  must  soon  en- 
 sue. A  reconciliation  was  soon  efTected  between  him 
 and  Antony,  who  had  already  gained  an  accession  of 
 strength  bv  the  junction  of  Lepidus.  These  three 
 leaders  had  an  interview  near  Bononia,  in  a  small 
 152 
 
 island  of  the  river  Rhenus,  where  they  came  to  an 
 agreement  to  divide  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire, 
 and  the  supreme  authority,  among  themselves  for  five 
 years,  under  the  name  of  triumvirs,  and  as  reforn-.ers 
 of  the  republic  with  consular  power.  Thus  was  form- 
 ed the  second  triumvirate.  The  most  horrid  part  of 
 the  transaction  was  the  cold-blooded  proscription  hi 
 many  of  their  friends  and  relatives,  and  Cicero's  head 
 was  given  in  exchange  by  Octavius  for  Antony's  un- 
 cle and  for  the  uncle  of  Lepidus.  Octavius  and  Anto- 
 ny then  passed  into  Macedonia,  and  defeated  Brutus 
 and  Cassius  at  Philippi.  After  this,  the  latter  passed 
 over  to  the  eastern  provinces,  where  he  lived  for  a 
 time  in  great  dissipation  and  luxury  with  the  famous 
 Cleopatra,  at  Alexandrea.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
 wife  Fulvia,  he  became  reconciled  to  Octavius,  against 
 whom  Fulvia  had  raised  an  army  in  Italy,  for  the  pur- 
 pose, it  is  supposed,  of  drawing  her  husband  away 
 from  Cleopatra,  and  inducing  him  to  come  to  the  lat- 
 ter country.  Octavius  gave  Antony  his  sister  Octa- 
 via  in  marriage,  and  a  new  division  was  made  of  the 
 empire.  Octavius  had  Dalmatia,  Italy,  the  two  Gauls, 
 Spain,  and  Sardinia;  Antony  all  the  provinces  east  of 
 Codropolis  in  lUyricum,  as  far  as  the  Euphrates ; 
 while  Lepidus  received  Africa.  On  returning  to  the 
 east,  Antony  once  more  became  enslaved  by  the 
 charms  of  Cleopatra.  An  unsuccessful  expedition 
 against  the  Parthians  ensued,  and  at  last  the  repudia- 
 tion of  Octavia  involved  him  in  a  new  war  with  Octa- 
 vius. The  battle  of  Actium  put  an  end  to  this  con- 
 test and  to  all  the  hopes  of  Antony.  It  was  fought  at 
 sea,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  Antony's  best  ofKcers, 
 and  chiefly  through  the  persuasion  of  Cleopatra,  who 
 was  proud  of  her  naval  force.  She  abandoned  him  in 
 the  midst  of  the  fight  with  her  fifty  galleys,  and  took  to 
 flight.  This  drew  Antony  from  the  battle  and  ruined 
 his  cause.  Besieged,  after  this,  in  Alexandrea,  by  the 
 conqueror,  abandoned  by  all  his  followers,  and  betray- 
 ed, as  he  thought,  even  by  Cleopatra  herself,  he  fell  by 
 his  own  hand,  in  the  56lh  year  of  his  age,  B.C.  30. 
 The  peculiar  events  connected  with  the  life  of  Marc 
 Antony  have  given  him  a  celebrity  which  one  would 
 never  have  expected  from  his  character.  Gifted  with 
 some  brilliant  qualities,  he  possessed  neither  sufficient 
 genius  nor  sufficient  strength  of  soul  to  entitle  him  to 
 be  ranked  among  great  men.  Neither  can  he  be  rank- 
 ed among  men  of  worth,  since  he  was  always  without 
 principle,  immoderately  attached  to  j)leasure,  and  often 
 cruel.  And  yet  few  men  had  more  devoted  friends 
 and  partisans,  for  many  of  his  actions  announced  a 
 generosity  of  disposition  far  preferable  to  the  cautious 
 prudence  and  cold  policy  of  his  rival  Octavius.  (Flut., 
 Vit.  Anl.') — VI.  lulus,  a  son  of  Marc  Antony  and 
 Fulvia.  He  stood  high  in  the  favour  of  Augustus, 
 and  received  from  him  his  sister's  daughter  in  mar- 
 riage. After  having  filled,  however,  some  of  the  most 
 important  offices  in  the  state,  he  engaged  in  an  intrigue 
 with  Julia,  the  daughter  of  the  emperor,  and  was  put 
 to  death  by  order  of  the  latter.  According  to  Velleius 
 Paterculus  (2,  100),  he  fell  by  his  own  hand.  It 
 would  appear  that  he  had  formed  a  plot,  along  with  the 
 notorious  female  just  mentioned,  against  the  life  of 
 Augustus.  (Compare  Lips.,  ad  Tacit  ,  Ann.,  1,  10.) 
 Acron  informs  us,  in  his  scholia  to  Horace  (Od.,  4,2, 
 33),  that  Antonius  had  distinguished  himself  by  an  epic 
 poem,  in  twelve  books,  entitled  Diomedeis. — VII. 
 Caius,  a  brother  of  Marc  Antony.  Having  fallen  into 
 the  hands  of  Brutus,  his  life  was  spared  until  that 
 commander  heard  of  Cicero's  end,  when  he  was  put  to 
 death  on  the  principle  of  retaliation.  (Consult  Erncsli, 
 Clav.  Cic,  s.  v.y — Lucius,  another  brother  of  Marc 
 Antony,  who  was  consul  A.U.C.  713.  Having  quar- 
 relled with  Octavius  during  his  continuance  in  this  of- 
 fice, he  was  besieged  in  Perusia,  and  compelled  to  sur- 
 render. The  conqueror  spared  his  life,  and  he  passed 
 the  rest  of  his  days  in  obscurity,     (Veil.  PaUrc.^  3 
 
A  ON 
 
 APA 
 
 74  ) — IX.  Felix,  a  freeJman  of  the  Emperor  Claudius, 
 appointed  governor  of  Judaea.  {Vid.  Felix)  —  X. 
 Musa,  a  celebrated  physician  in  the  time  of  Augustus. 
 {Vid.  Musa.) — XI.  Primus,  a  Roman  commander 
 whose  efforts  were  very  influential  in  gaining  the  crown 
 for  Vespaaian.  He  was  also  an  able  public  speaker, 
 and  had  a  turn  likewise  for  poetic  composition,  having 
 written  numerous  epigrams.  He  was  a  friend  of  the 
 poet  Martial.  {Tac,  Ann.,  14,  40.— /</.,  Hist.,  11, 
 86.) 
 
 Antorides,  a  painter,  who  flourished,  according  to 
 Phny  (35,  10),  about  Olympiad  110.  {Sxllig,  Diet. 
 Art.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Anubis,  an  Egyptian  deity,  the  offspring  of  Osiris, 
 and  of  Nephthys  the  sister  and  spouse  of  Typhon.  He 
 inherited  all  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  his  father, 
 but  possessed  the  nature  of  the  dog,  and  had  also  the 
 head  of  that  animal.  He  accompanied  Isis  in  her 
 search  after  the  remains  of  Osiris.  Jablonski  (Panih. 
 JEgypt.,  p.  19)  derives  the  name  from  the  Coptic 
 Notih,  "  gold."  In  this  he  is  opposed  by  Champoliion 
 {Precis,  p.  101,  seqq.),  who  denies  also  the  propriety 
 of  confounding  Anubis  with  Hermes.  Plutarch  says 
 {dc  Is.  cl  Os.,  p.  368  et  380),  that  some  of  the 
 Egyptian  writers  understood  by  Anubis  the  horizontal 
 circle  which  divides  the  invisible  from  the  visible  part 
 of  the  world.  Other  writers  tell  us  that  Anubis  pre- 
 sided at  the  two  solstitial  points,  and  that  two  dogs 
 (or,  rather,  two  jackals),  living  images  of  this  god, 
 were  supposed  to  guard  the  tropics  along  which  the 
 sun  rises  towards  the  north  or  descends  towards  the 
 south.  If  this  be  correct,  we  must  suppose  two  dei- 
 ties, an  Anuhis,  properly  so  called,  the  guardian  of  the 
 lower  hemisphere  and  of  the  darker  portion  of  the  year, 
 and  an  Hcrmanuhis,  the  guardian  of  the  luminous  por- 
 tion and  of  the  upper  hemisphere.  On  the  whole  sub- 
 ject of  Anubis,  however,  and  particularly  on  his  non- 
 identity  with  Thoth  and  Sirius,  consult  the  learned 
 annotations  of  Guigniaut  to  Creuzer^s  Symbolik  (vol. 
 2,  pt.  2,  p.  851,  seqq.). 
 
 Anxur,  the  Volscian  name  of  Terracina.  (Vid. 
 Terracina.)  La  Cerda  and  others  contend  for  the 
 Greek  derivation  of  the  name,  which  makes  Ju- 
 piter a^vpoi;  or  "  the  beardless,"  to  have  been  wor- 
 shipped here  ;  and  they  maintain  that,  in  conformity 
 with  this,  the  name  of  the  place  should  be  written 
 A.rur,  as  it  is  found  on  some  old  coins.  Heyne,  how- 
 ever, supposes  the  letter  ?«  to  have  been  sometimes 
 omitted,  in  consequence  of  its  slight  sound.  {Heyne, 
 ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  9,  799,  in  Var.  Lect.). 
 
 An  VTA,  a  poetess  of  Tegea,  who  flourished  about 
 300  B.C.  She  exercised  the  calling  of  Xprjafionoiog, 
 "  maker  of  oracles,"  that  is  to  say,  she  versified  the 
 oracles  of  .^sculapius  at  Epidaurus.  We  have  only 
 a  few  remains  of  her  productions,  namely,  twenty  epi- 
 grams, remarkable  for  their  great  simplicity.  {Schbll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  70.) 
 
 Anytus,  an  Athenian  demagogue,  who,  in  conjunc- 
 tion with  Melitus  and  Lycon,  preferred  the  charges 
 against  Socrates  which  occasioned  that  philosopher's 
 condemnation  and  death.  After  the  sentence  had  been 
 inflicted  on  Socrates,  the  fickle  populace  repented  of 
 what  had  been  done  ;  Melitus  was  condemned  to  death, 
 and  Anytus,  to  escape  a  similar  fate,  went  into  exile. 
 {jFjHiin,  V.  H.,  2,  13.) 
 
 Aon,  a  son  of  Neptune,  who  first  collected  together 
 into  cities,  as  is  said,  the  scattered  inhabitants  of  Eu- 
 biva  and  Bffiotia.  Hence  the  name  Aonians  given  to 
 the  earlier  inhabitants  of  Bneotia.     {Vtd.  Aones.) 
 
 Aones,  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  Boeotia.  They, 
 jointly  with  the  Hyantes,  succeeded  the  Ectenes.  On 
 the  arrival  of  Cadmus,  the  Hyantes  took  up  arms  to 
 oppose  him,  but  were  routed,  and  left  the  country  on 
 the  ensuing  night.  The  Aones,  however,  submitted, 
 and  were  incorporated  with  the  Phcenicians.  The 
 Muses  were  called  Aonicz,  from  Mount  Helicon  in  Boj- 
 U 
 
 otia.     {Paiisan.,  9,  5.— Ovid,  Met.,  3.  7,  10,   13.— 
 Virg.,  G.,  3,  11.) 
 
 AoNi^,  an  epithet  applied  to  the  Muses,  from 
 Mount  Helicon  in  Boeotia,  the  earlier  name  of  this 
 country  having  been  Aonia. 
 
 AoRNos,  or  AoRNis,  a  lofty  rock  in  India,  taken 
 by  Alexander.  It  was  situate  on  the  Suastus,  or  Sit- 
 vat.  The  Macedonians  gave  it  the  name  of  Aornos 
 {uopvoc)  on  account  of  its  great  height ;  the  appella- 
 tion implying  that  it  was  so  high  that  no  bird  could 
 fly  over  it  (a  priv.  et  opvtQ. — Curt.,  8,  11. — Arrmn, 
 4,  28.— Phil.,  Vit.  Alex.y—U.  Another  m  Bactriana, 
 east  of  Zariaspa  Bactria.  It  is  now  Telckan,  situate 
 on  a  high  mountain  called  Nork-Koh,  or  the  mountain 
 of  silver. 
 
 Aous,  or  Aeas,  a  river  of  Illyria,  now  Voioussa, 
 which  flowed  close  to  ApoUonia.  It  was  said  by  the 
 ancients  to  rise  in  that  part  of  the  chain  of  Pindus  to 
 which  the  name  of  Mount  Lacmon  was  given.  {He- 
 rod., 9,  94. — Strab.,  316.)  According  to  Polybius 
 and  Livy,  it  was  navigable  from  its  mouth  to  ApoUo- 
 nia.    {Polyh.,  5,  109.— Li);.,  24,  40.) 
 
 Apama,  I.  wife  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  mother  of 
 Antiochus  Soter.  {Slrab.,  578  ) — II.  Sister  of  An- 
 tiochus  Theos,  married  to  Magas.  After  her  hus- 
 band's death,  she  prevailed  upon  Antiochus  to  make 
 war  against  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. — III.  Wife  of 
 Prusias,  king  of  Biihynia,  and  mother  of  Nicomedes. 
 {Strab.,  563.) 
 
 Apamea,  I.  a  city  of  Phrygia,  built  by  Antiochus 
 Soter  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Cibotus,  and  called, 
 after  his  mother,  Apama.  The  name  of  the  earlier 
 place,  Cibotus,  is  thought  to  have  been  derived  from 
 KiScjTog,  an  ark  or  cofl'er,  because  it  was  the  mart  or 
 common  treasury  of  those  who  traded  from  Italy  and 
 Greece  to  Asia  Minor.  This  name  was  afterward 
 added,  for  a  similar  reason,  to  Apamea.  It  was  situ- 
 ate above  the  junction  of  the  Orgas  and  Meander,  and, 
 according  to  Mannert,  is  now  called  Aphwm  Kara- 
 Hisar,  or  the  black  castle  of  opium,  which  drug  is  col- 
 lected in  its  environs.  {Mannert,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  120, 
 seqq.)  The  more  correct  opinion,  however,  would 
 seem  to  be  in  favour  of  Ding/arc  or  Deenare.  {Po- 
 coeke,  Trav.,  vol.  3,  p.  2,  c.  15. — Arundell,  Visit,  &c., 
 p.  107,  seqq. —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  51, 
 seqq.) — II.  Another  in  Bithynia,  near  the  coast  of  the 
 Sinus  Cianus.  It  was  originally  called  Myrlea,  and 
 flourished  under  this  name,  as  an  independent  city,  for 
 several  years,  until  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Phil- 
 ip, father  of  Perses,  who  ceded  the  territory  to  Prusias, 
 sovereign  of  Biihynia,  his  ally.  This  prince  rebuilt  the 
 town,  and  called  it  Apamea,  after  his  queen.  (Sirnb., 
 563.)  The  ruins  of  Apamea  are  near  the  site  now 
 called  Modania,  about  six  hours  north  of  Broussa. 
 {Wheeler,  vol.  1,  p.  209.  — PococAe,  vol.  3,  b.  2, 
 c.  25.) — HI.  Another  in  Syria,  at  the  confluence  of 
 the  Orontes  and  Marsyas,  which  form  here  a  small 
 lake.  It  was  founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  called 
 after  his  wife.  It  is  now  Famieh.  Seleucus  is  said 
 to  have  kept  in  the  adjacent  pastures  500  war- ele- 
 phants. {Mannert,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  463.) — IV.  Another 
 in  Mesopotamia,  on  the  Tigris,  in  a  district  which  lay 
 between  the  canal  and  the  river,  whence  the  epithet 
 Messene  applied  to  this  city,  because  it  was  in  the 
 midst  of  that  small  territory  which  is  now  called  Digel. 
 {Mannert,  vol.  5,  pt.  2,  p.  271.)— V.  Another  onlho 
 confines  of  Media  and  Parthia,  not  far  from  Rag:e.  It 
 was  surnamed  Raphane.  {Mannert,  vol.  5,  pt.  2,  p. 
 179.) — VI.  Another  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tigris 
 and  Euphrates,  now  Koma.  {Mannert,  vol.  5,  pt.  2, 
 p.  361.) 
 
 Apaturia,  a  festival  at  Athens,  which  received  its 
 name,  according  to  the  common,  but  erroneous  account, 
 from  uTTurri,  deceit,  because  it  was  instituted  (say  the 
 etymologists  who  favour  this  derivation)  in  memory 
 of  a  stratagem  by  which  Xanlhus,  king  of  Boeotia,  was 
 
 153 
 
APE 
 
 APELLES, 
 
 killed  by  Melanthus,  king  of  Athens,  upon  the  follow- 
 ino-  occasion  :  when  a  war  arose  between  the  Boeotians 
 and  Athenians  about  a  piece  of  ground  which  divided 
 their  territories,  Xanthus  made  a  proposal  to  the 
 Atheniiin  king  to  decide  the  point  by  single  combat. 
 Thymcetes,  who  was  then  on  the  throne  of  Athens,  re- 
 fused, and  his  successor  Melanthus  accepted  the  chal- 
 lenore.  When  they  began  ihc  engagement,  Melanthus 
 exclauned  that  his  antagonist  had  some  person  behind 
 him  to  support  him  ;  upon  which  Xanthus  looked  be- 
 hind, and  was  killed  by  Melanthus.  From  this  suc- 
 cess, Jupiter  was  called  u-ar/jvup,  deceiver;  and 
 Bacchus,  who  was  supposed  to  be  behind  Xanthus, 
 was  called  M£?Mvaijtc,  clothed  in  the  skin  of  a  black 
 goat. — Thus  much  for  the  commonly  received  deri- 
 vation of  the  term  'AnarovpLa.  It  is  evident,  how- 
 ever, that  the  word  is  compounded  of  either  irarijp  or 
 TTuTpa,  which  expression  varies,  in  its  signification,  be- 
 tween jevo^  and  (j>paTpia,  and  with  the  lonians  coinci- 
 ded rather  with  the  latter  word.  Whether  it  was 
 formed  immediately  from  ■Karf/p  or  ndrpa,  is  difficult 
 to  determine  on  etymological  grounds,  on  account  of 
 the  antiquity  of  the  word :  reasoning,  however,  from 
 the  analogy  of  (pparrjp  or  <^puTup,  (pparopia  and  (^pdr- 
 pa,  the  most  natural  transition  appears  to  be  nariip 
 (in  composition  irarcop),  iraTopioc  (whence  -Karovpio^, 
 pTraTovpia),  Trurpa  ;  and,  accordingly,  the  'ATrarovpia 
 means  a  festival  of  the  paternal  unions,  of  the  Truropiai, 
 of  the  TTuTpat..  {Mullcr,  Dorians,  vol.  1,  p.  95.) — 
 The  Apaturia  was  peculiar  to  the  great  Ionic  race 
 The  festival  lasted  three  days  ;  the  first  day  was  called 
 dopneia,  because  suppers  {dupTTOi)  were  prepared  for 
 all  those  who  belonged  to  the  same  Fhratria.  The 
 second  day  was  called  uvuppvaic  (I'tno  tov  uvu  epveiv), 
 because  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Jupiter  and  Minerva, 
 and  the  head  of  the  victim  was  generally  turned  up 
 towards  the  heavens.  The  third  was  called  Kov- 
 ueoiric,  from  Kovpog,  a  youth,  because  on  that  day  it 
 was  usual  to  enrol  the  names  of  young  persons  of  both 
 sexes  on  the  registers  of  their  respective  phratrise  ;  the 
 enrolment  of  6r/fxoTrotr/TOL  proceeded  no  farther  than 
 that  of  assignment  to  a  tribe  and  a  borough,  and,  con- 
 sequently, precluded  them  from  holding  certain  offices 
 both  in  the  state  and  priesthood.  (Consult  Wach- 
 smufh,  Gr.  Ant.,  vol.  1,  ^  44.) — The  lonians  in  Asia 
 had  also  their  Apaturia,  from  which,  however,  Colo- 
 phon and  Ephesus  were  excluded  ;  but  exclusions  of 
 this  nature  rested  no  more  on  strictly  political  grounds, 
 than  did  the  right  to  partake  in  them,  and  the  celebra- 
 tion of  festivals  in  general.  A  religious  stigma  was, 
 for  the  most  part,  the  ground  of  exclusion.  ( Wach- 
 smuth,  vol.  1,  ^  22 — Compare  Herodotus,  1,  147. — 
 The  authorities  in  favour  of  the  erroneous  etymology 
 from  uTvuTTj  may  be  found  by  consulting  Fischer,  Ind. 
 ad  Tkreophrasl.  Charact,  s.  v.  'Anaroiipia.  —  Lar- 
 eher,  ad  Herod.,  Vit.  Horn.,  c.  29. — Schol ,  Plat.,  ad 
 Tim.,  p.  201,  ed.  Ttuhnken. — Schol.,  Anstid.,  p.  118, 
 seqq.,  ed.Jebh. — Ephori  franm.,  p.  120,  ed.  Marx.) 
 
 Apella,  a  word  occurring  in  one  of  the  satires  of 
 Horace  (1,  5,  100),  and  about  the  meaning  of  which  a 
 great  difference  of  opinion  has  existed.  Scaliger  is 
 undoubtedly  right  in  considering  it  a  mere  proper  name 
 of  some  well-known  and  superstitious  Jew  of  the  day. 
 Wieland  adopts  the  same  idea  in  his  German  version 
 of  Horace's  satires  :  "  Das  glaub'  Apella  dcr  Jvd, 
 ich  nicht !"  Bentley's  explanation  appears  rather 
 forced.  It  is  as  follows  :  "  Jiidcei  hahitahant  trans 
 Tiberim,  ct  mullo  maxirnam  partem  erant  hhertini,  lit 
 fatctur  Philo  in  legatione  ad  Caium.  Apella  autem 
 libertinorum  est  nomen  satis  frequens  in  rnscriplioni- 
 bus  velustis.  Itiique  credat  Jud*us  Apella,  quasi 
 tu  dicas,  credat  superstitiosus  aliquis  Judaeus  Transtib- 
 erinus."  {Ep.  ad  Mill.,  p.  520,  ed.  Lips.)  As  re- 
 gards the  opinion  of  those  who  make  Apella  a  con- 
 temptuous allusion  to  the  rite  of  circumcision,  it  is 
 sufficient  to  observe,  that  such  a  mode  of  forming  com- 
 154 
 
 pounds  (i.  e.,  half  Greek  and  half  Latin — a  pnv.  et 
 pdlis)  is  at  variance  with  every  principle  of  analogy, 
 and  cannot  for  a  moment  be  admitted. 
 
 Apem-es,  a  painter  in  the  age  of  Alexander  the 
 Great,  exalted  by  the  united  testimony  of  all  antiquity 
 to  the  very  highest  rank  in  his  profession,  so  that  the 
 art  of  painting  was  sometimes  termed  "  ars  Apellia," 
 as  by  Martial  (11,  9)  and  Statins  {Si/lv.,  1,  1,  100). 
 Ancient  writers  diflfer  as  to  the  country  of  Apelles. 
 Pliny  (35,  10)  and  Ovid  {A.  A.,  3,  401)  mention  the 
 island  of  Cos  ;  Suidas  contends  for  Colophon  ;  while 
 Strabo  (642)  and  Lucian  {Cahim.  non  tern  cred.,  2) 
 notice  him  as  an  Ephesian.  The  origin  of  this  last 
 opinion,  however,  is  sufficiently  accounted  for  in  the 
 remark  of  Suidas,  who  makes  him  to  have  been  an 
 Ephesian  by  adoption  merely.  Another  reason  for  his 
 being  called  by  some  an  Ephesian,  may  be  found  in 
 the  circumstance  of  his  having  been  instructed  at 
 Ephesus.  {Tolkcn,  ap.  Bottig.  Amalth,  3,  123.) 
 And  so,  in  modern  times,  Titian  is  sometimes  styled  a 
 Venetian,  though  born  at  Cadore  in  Fruili ;  and  Ra- 
 phael a  Roman,  though  his  native  place  was  Urbino. 
 There  can  be  no  question,  however,  as  to  the  period 
 in  which  Apelles  flourished,  because  it  is  universally 
 admitted  that  Alexander  the  Great  would  not  sufl'er 
 his  portrait  to  be  taken  by  any  other  artist.  Apelles 
 must  have  been  engaged  in  his  profession,  according 
 to  the  most  exact  calculation,  from  about  Olymp.  107 
 to  Olymp.  118.  His  instructers  were  Ephorus  the 
 Ephesian,  Pamphilus  of  Amphipolis,  and  Melanthius; 
 and  when  he  became  the  pupil  of  these  artists,  he  had 
 himself  acquired  some  distinction  by  his  paintings. 
 {Plut.,  Vit.  Arat.,  13.)  Athenseus  assigns  him  a 
 fourth  instructer,  named  Arcesilaus  (10,  p.  420).  The 
 most  important  passage  respecting  Apelles  occurs  in 
 Pliny  (35,  10),  and  this  passage  contains  an  enumera- 
 tion of  nearly  all  his  productions.  One  of  the  most 
 celebrated  of  these  was  the  Venus  Anadyomene,  or 
 Venus  rising  from  the  waves,  i.  e.,  the  sea-born. 
 This  famous  painting  was  subsequently  placed  by  Au- 
 gustus in  the  temple  of  Julius  Cassar.  The  lower  part 
 of  the  picture  becoming  injured  by  time,  no  artist  was 
 found  who  would  venture  to  retouch  it.  V^'hen  it 
 was  at  last  quite  destroyed  by  age,  the  Emperor  Nero 
 substituted  for  it  another  Venus  from  the  pencil  of 
 Dorotheus.  The  Venus  Anadyomene  was  univer- 
 sally regarded  as  the  masterpiece  of  Apelles.  {Pro- 
 perl.,  El.,  3,  7,  11  1  A  description  of  it  is  given  in 
 several  Greek  epigrams  (Antip.  Sidoti.,  in  Anthol. 
 Planiid.,  4,  12,  178,  &c. — Compare  Ilgen,  Opusc.,  1, 
 15,  34.)  Apelles  commenced  another  Venus,  repre- 
 sented in  a  sleeping  stale,  for  the  Coans,  which  ho 
 meant  should  surpass  his  previous  effort;  but  he  died 
 before  completing  it,  having  painted  merely  the  head 
 and  neck  of  the  figure,  which,  according  to  Cicero, 
 were  executed  with  the  utmost  skill.  (Cic,  Ep.  ad 
 Fam.,  1,  9. — Pli7i.,  35,  11.)  Another  famous  paint- 
 intr  of  this  artist's  represented  Alexander  holding  a 
 thunderbolt ;  and  Pliny  says  that  the  fingers  which 
 grasped  the  bolt,  as  well  as  the  bolt  itself,  appeared  to 
 project  from  the  canvass.  This  picture  was  purchased 
 for  twenty  talents  of  gold,  about  ^211,000,  and  hung 
 up  in  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  He  painted 
 also  a  horse  ;  and,  finding  that  his  rivals  in  the  art, 
 who  contested  the  palm  with  him  on  this  occasion, 
 were  abotit  to  prevail  through  unfair  means,  he  caused 
 his  own  piece  and  those  of  the  rest  to  be  shown  to 
 some  horses,  and  these  animals,  fairer  critics  in  this 
 case  than  men  had  proved  to  be,  neighed  at  his  painl- 
 ino-  alone.  The  name  of  Apelles,  indeed,  in  Pliny,  is 
 the  synonyme  of  unrivalled  and  unattainable  excel- 
 lence ;  but  the  enumeration  of  his  works  points  out 
 the  modification  which  we  ought  to  apply  to  that  su- 
 periority. It  neither  comprises  exclusive  sublimity  of 
 invention,  the  most  acute  discrimination  of  character, 
 the  widest  sphere  of  comprehension,  the  most  judicioun 
 
APELLES. 
 
 APE 
 
 and  best-balanced  composition,  nor  the  deepest  pathos 
 of  expression  ;  his  great  prerogative  consisted  more  in 
 the  unison  than  in  the  extent  of  his  powers  ;  he  knew 
 better  what  he  could  do,  what  ought  to  be  done,  at 
 what  point  he  could  arrive,  and  what  lay  beyond  his 
 reach,  than  any  other  artist.     Grace  of  conception  and 
 refinement  of  taste  were  his  elements,  and  went  hand 
 in  hand  with  grace  of  execution  and  taste  in  finish  ; 
 powerful  and  seldom  possessed  singly,  irresistible  when 
 united  :   that  he  built  both  on  the  firm  basis  of  the  for- 
 mer system,  not  on   its   subversion,  his  well-known 
 contest  of  lines  with  Protogenes  irrefragably  proves. 
 {Vid.  Protogenes.)     What   those   lines   were,  drawn 
 with  nearly  miraculous  subtlety  in  different  colours, 
 one   upon   the  other,  or,  rather,  within  each  other,  it 
 would  be  equally  unavailing  and  useless  to  inquire  ; 
 but  the  corollaries  we  may  deduce  from  the  contest  are 
 obviously  these,  that    the  schools   of  Greece  recog- 
 nised all  one  elemental  principle  ;  that  acuteness  and 
 fidelity  of  eye,  and  obedience  of  hand,  form  precision  ; 
 precision,  proportion  ;   proportion,  beauty  :  that  it  is 
 the  "  little  more  or  less,"  imperceptible  to  vulgar  eyes, 
 which  constitutes  grace,  and  establishes  the  superiority 
 of  one  artist  over  another ;  that  the  knowledge  of  the 
 degrees  of  things  or  taste  presupposes  a  perfect  knowl- 
 edge  of  the   things   themselves ;    that  colour,  grace, 
 and  taste  are  ornaments,  not  substitutes,  of  form,  ex- 
 pression,  and  character,   and,  when  they  usurp   that 
 title,  degenerate  into  splendid  faults.     Such  were  the 
 principles   on   which   Apelles   formed  his   Venus,  or, 
 rather,  the  personification  of  Female  Grace,  the  won- 
 der of  art,  tlie  despair  of  artists  ;   whose  outline  baffled 
 every  attempt  at  emendation,  while  imitation  shrunk 
 from  the  purity,  the  force,  the  brilliancy,  the  evanescent 
 gradations  of  her  tints.      {Fuseli^s  Lectures,  i.,  p.  62, 
 seyq.)     Apelles,  indeed,  used  to  say  of  his  contempo- 
 raries, that  they  possessed,  as  artists,  all  the  requisite 
 qualities  except  one,  namely,  grace,  and  that  this  was 
 his  alone.     On  one  occasion,  when  contemplating  a  pic- 
 ture by  Protogenes,  a  work  of  immense  labour,  and  in 
 which  exactness  of  detail  had  been  carried  to  excess, 
 he  remarked,  "  Protogenes  equals  or  surpasses  me  in 
 all  things  but  one,  the  knowing  when  to  remove  his 
 hand  from  a  painting."     Apelles  was  also,  as  is  sup- 
 posed, the  inventor  of  what  artists  call  glazing.      Such, 
 at  least,  is  the  opinion  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and 
 others.     {Reynolds  on  Dii  Fresnoy,  note  37,  vol.  3.) 
 The  ingredients  probably  employed    by  him  for  this 
 purpose  are  given  by  Jahn,  in  his  Malcrei  der  Allen, 
 p.  150  — The  modesty  of  Apelles,  says  Pliny,  equalled 
 his  talents.     He  acknowledged  the  superiority  of  Me- 
 lanthius  in  the  art  of  grouping,  and  that  of  Asclepio- 
 dorus  in  adjusting  on  canvass  the  relative  distances  of 
 objects.     Apelles  never  allowed  a  day  to  pass,  how- 
 ever much  he  might  be  occupied  by  other  matters, 
 without  drawing  one  line  at  least  in  the  exercise  of  his 
 art ;  and  from  this  circumstance  arose  the   proverb, 
 "  nulla  dies  sine  linca"  or.  as  it  is  sometimes  given, 
 ^'nidliim  hfldie  lineam  dnxi,"  in  Greek,  T///jepov  ovSe- 
 jiinv  ypajLjiijv  f/jayov.     He  was  accustomed  also,  when 
 lie  had  completed  any  one  of  his  pieces,  to  expose  it  to 
 the  view  of  passengers,  and  to  hide  himself  behind  it 
 in  order  to  hear  the  remarks  of  the  spectators.     On 
 one   of  these   occasions,    a   shoemaker  censured   the 
 painter  for  having  given  one  of  the  slippers  of  a  fig- 
 ure a  less  number  of  ties,  by  one,  than  it  ought  to 
 have  had.     The  next  day  the  shoemaker,  emboldened 
 by  the  success  of  his  previous  criticism,  began  to  find 
 fault  with  a  leg,  when  Apelles  indignantly  put  forth  his 
 head,  and  desired  him  to  confine  his  decisions  to  the 
 slipper,  "  7i€  supra  crepidam  judicaret."     Hence  arose 
 another  common  saying,  "  ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam.''' 
 (Erasmus,   ChiL,  p.  196.)     Apelles  is  said  to  have 
 possessed  great  suavity  of  manners,  and  to  have  been, 
 in  consequence,  a  favourite  of  Alexander  the  Great ; 
 and  the  monarch,  on  one  occasion,  paid  a  remarkable 
 
 homage  to  the  talents  of  the  artist.  Having  desired 
 the  latter  to  paint  a  likeness  of  Campaspe,  one  of  hia 
 concubines,  and  distinguished  for  her  beauty,  the  artist 
 became  enamoured  of  her,  and,  on  the  monarch's  dis- 
 covering this,  received  her  as  a  present  from  his  hands. 
 This  same  Campaspe,  according  to  Pliny,  served  as 
 the  prototype  for  the  Venus  Anadyomene. — H.  An 
 engraver  on  precious  stones.  {Bracci,  tab.  27. — Stl- 
 lig.  Diet.  Art.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Apellicon,  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  bom  at  Tecs, 
 in  Asia  Minor,  and  one  of  those  to  whom  we  owe  the 
 preservation  of  many  of  the  works  of  Aristotle.  The 
 Stagirite,  on  his  deathbed,  confided  his  works  to  The- 
 ophrastus,  his  favourite  pupil ;  and  Theophrastus,  by 
 his  will,  left  them  to  Neleus,  who  had  them  conveyed 
 to  Scepsis,  in  Troas,  his  native  city.  After  the  death 
 of  Neleus,  his  heirs,  illiterate  persons,  fearing  lest  ihey 
 might  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  King  of  Pergainus, 
 who  was  enriching,  in  every  v/ay,  his  newly-established 
 library,  concealed  the  writings  of  Aristotle  in  a  cave, 
 where  they  remained  for  more  than  130  years,  and 
 suffered  greatly  from  worms  and  dampness.  At  the 
 end  of  this  period  Apellicon  purchased  them  for  a 
 high  price.  His  wish  was  to  arrange  them  in  proper 
 order,  and  to  fill  up  the  lacunre  that  were  now  of  fre- 
 quent occurrence  in  the  manuscripts,  in  consequence 
 of  their  neglected  state.  Being,  however,  but  little 
 versed  in  philosophy,  and  possessing  still  less  judg- 
 ment, he  acquitted  himself  ill  in  this  difficult  task,  and 
 published  the  works  of  the  Stagirite  full  of  faults. 
 Subsequently,  the  library  of  Apelhcon  fell,  among  the 
 spoils  of  Athens,  into  the  hands  of  Sylla,  and  was  car- 
 ried to  Rome,  where  the  grammarian  Tyrannion  had 
 access  to  them.  From  him  copies  were  obtained  by 
 Andronicus  of  Rhodes,  which  served  for  the  basis  of 
 his  arrangement  of  the  works  of  Aristotle. — Ritter 
 thinks  that  too  much  has  been  built  upon  this  story. 
 On  its  authority  it  has  even  been  pretended  that  the 
 works  of  Aristotle  have  reached  us  in  a  more  broken 
 and  ill-arranged  shape  than  any  other  productions  of 
 antiquity.  He  thinks  the  story  arose  out  of  some  lau- 
 datory commendations  of  the  edition  of  Aristotle  by 
 Andronicus,  and  that  it  is  probable,  not  to  say  certain, 
 that  there  were  other  editions,  of  the  respective  merits 
 of  which  it  was  possible  to  make  a  comparison.  At 
 any  rate,  according  to  him,  the  acroamatic  works  of 
 Aristotle  have  not  reached  us  solely  from  the  library 
 of  Neleus,  and,  consequently,  it  was  not  necessary  to 
 have  recourse  merely  to  the  restoration  by  Apellicon, 
 either  to  complete  or  retain  the  chasms  resulting  from 
 the  deterioration  of  the  manuscripts. — To  return  to 
 .■Apellicon,  it  is  said  that  his  large  fortune,  indeed,  sup- 
 plied him  abundantly  with  the  means  of  gratifying  his 
 passion  for  books ;  but  that,  when  they  could  not  be 
 obtained  in  this  way,  he  made  no  scruple  of  gettiryg 
 possession  of  them  by  what  deserves  in  plainness  the 
 name  of  theft.  Thus,  he  carried  off  from  the  archives 
 of  the  Athenians  the  original  decrees  of  the  people,  and 
 was  compelled  to  flee  for  the  act.  Apellicon  is  said 
 to  have  written  a  work  in  defence  of  Aristotle.  Prob- 
 ably some  needy  author  wrote  it,  and  Apellicon  pur- 
 chased the  paternity  of  the  work.  {Rilttr,  Hist.  Anc. 
 Phil,  vol.  3,  p.  24,  scqq.) 
 
 Apenninus,  a  great  chain  of  mountains,  branching 
 off  from  the  Maritime  Alps,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
 Genoa,  running  diagonally  from  the  Ligurian  Gulf  to 
 the  Adriatic,  in  the  vicinity  of  Ancona  ;  from  thence 
 continuing  nearly  parallel  with  the  latter  gulf,  as  far  as 
 the  promontory  of  Garganus,  and  again  inclming  to  the 
 Mare  Inferum.  till  it  finally  terminates  in  the  promon- 
 tory of  Leucopetra  near  Rhegium.  (Polyh.,  2,  16. — 
 Strabo,  21 1. — Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  5. — 
 Compare  also  the  following  poetic  authorities  :  Lucan, 
 2.S96.—Rvtil.,  Itin.,  2,  27.— Claudwn.,  Paneg.,  6.— 
 Id.  Cons.  Hon.,  285.— Sil.  Ital.,  4,  742.—  Vvg.,  Mn., 
 12,  703.)     The  Apennines  may  be  equal  in  length  tc 
 
 165 
 
A  P  H 
 
 A  P  H 
 
 670  miles.  They  arc  divided  by  modern  geographers 
 into  three  parts  ;  the  Northern  Apennines  extend  iroin 
 the  neighbourhood  of  Urbirio  to  the  Adriatic  ;  the 
 Central  Apennines  terminate  near  the  banks  of  the 
 Saiigro ;  the  Soutticrn  Apennines,  situated  at  an 
 equal  distance  from  the  two  seas,  form  two  branches 
 near  Muro  ;  the  least  important  separates  the  territory 
 o{  Barri  from  that  of  Oiranto  ;  the  other,  composed  of 
 lofty  mountains,  traverses  both  (yalabnas,  and  termi- 
 nates near  AspromonCe. — The  etymology  of  the  name 
 given  to  these  mountains  must  be  traced  to  the  Celtic, 
 aid  appears  to  combine  two  terms  of  that  language 
 noarly  synonymous,  Alp  or  Ap,  "  a  high  mountain,"  and 
 Peritt,  "  a  summit."  Some  write  the  name  Apccriinus 
 (i.  e.,  Alpcs  Poenina^),  as  if  derived  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  Hannibal's  having  led  his  army  over  them, 
 PoenMs  meaning  "  Carthaginian."  This  etymology, 
 however,  is  altogether  erroneous  ;  nor  is  it  at  all  more 
 tenable  when  applied  to  the  Pennine  Alps. 
 
 Aper,  I.  Marcu.s,  a  Roman  orator,  who  flourished 
 during  the  latter  half  of  the  first  century  of  our  era. 
 He  was  a  native  of  Gaul,  but  distinguished  himself  at 
 Rome  by  his  eloquence  and  general  ability.  Aper  is 
 one  of  the  interlocutors  in  the  dialogue  on  the  causes 
 of  the  decline  of  oratory,  which  some  ascribe  to  Taci- 
 tus, others  to  Quintilian,  and  others  again  to  Aper 
 himself.  He  died  A.D.  85.  (Sclndze,  Prolegg.,  c. 
 2,  p.  xxi.,  seqq.) — H.  Flavius,  supposed  by  some  to 
 have  been  the  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  consul 
 AD.  130,  under  Hadrian.  (OberUn.,  ad  Dial,  de 
 causs.  corr.  eloq.,  c.  2.) — HI.  Arrius,  a  prefect  of  the 
 Prajtorian  guards  under  Cams,  and  afterward  under  his 
 successor  Numerianus.  Aspiring  to  the  purple,  he 
 took  advantage  of  a  violent  thunder-storm  that  arose, 
 assassinated  Cams,  who  was  lying  sick  at  the  time,  set 
 fire  to  the  royal  tent,  and  ascribed  the  death  of  the 
 prince  and  the  conflagration  to  lightning.  The  corpse 
 was  so  much  burnt  that  no  traces  of  the  murder  were 
 perceptible.  Numerianus,  son  of  Cams,  and  son-in- 
 law  of  Aper,  having  succeeded  to  the  empire,  contin- 
 ued the  latter  in  the  office  of  prefect ;  but  the  only  re- 
 turn that  Aper  made  was  to  poison  the  young  monarch, 
 after  he  had  reigned  about  eight  or  nine  months. 
 Suspicion  immediately  fell  upon  Aper,  and  he  was 
 slain  by  Dioclesian,  whom  the  army  had  elected  em- 
 peror. {Aiirel.  \lct.,c.'38. —  Vopiscus,  Car.,  c  8. — 
 Id.,  Numer.,  c.  12,  scq. — Compare  the  remarks  of 
 Crcvier,  Hist.  Emp.  Rom.,  vol,  6,  p.  140.) 
 
 Apesas,  a  mountain  of  Argolis,  near  Nemea,  on 
 which,  according  to  Pausanias  (2,  16),  Perseus  first 
 sacrificed  to  Jupiter  Apesantius.  It  is  a  remarkable 
 mountain,  with  a  flat  summit,  which  can  be  seen,  as 
 we  are  assured  by  modern  travellers,  from  Argos  and 
 Corinth.  {Chandler,  vol.  2,  ch.  56. — DodiccU,  Class. 
 Tour,\o\.  2,  p.  210  ) 
 
 Aphaca,  a  town  of  Syria,  between  Heliopolis  and 
 Byblus,  where  Venus  was  worshipped.  The  temple 
 is  said  to  have  been  a  school  of  wickedness,  and  was 
 razed  to  the  ground  by  Constantine  the  Great. 
 {Euseh.,  Vit.  Const.  Mag.,  3,  55.) 
 
 Aph^a,  a  name  of  Diana,  who  had  a  temple  in 
 .f^giua.  (Pausati.,  2,  30. — Consult  Heyne,  Excurs. 
 ad  Virg.,  Cir.  220. — Mu.llcr,  jEgine/ica,  p.  163,  seqq.) 
 Aphar,  a  city  of  Arabia,  situate  on  the  coast  of  the 
 lied  Sea,  not  far  north  from  the  Promontorium  Aro- 
 matum.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Homeritas,  and  is 
 supposed  to  correspond  to  Al-Fara,  between  Mecca 
 and  Medina.  The  ancient  name  is  more  commonly 
 given  as  Suphar.  {Piin.,  6,  23 — Ptol. — Arrian, 
 Penpl.  Mar.  Erythr.,  p.  154,  ed.  Blancard.) 
 
 Aphakeus,  I.  a  king  of  Messenia,  who  married 
 Arene,  daughter  of  ffibalus,  by  whom  he  had  three 
 sons,  {fausan.,  3,  1.)— II.  A  step-son  of  Isocrates, 
 who  produced  thirty-five  or  thirty-seven  tragedies,  and 
 was  four  times  victor.  He  began  to  exhibit  B.C.  341. 
 {Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  2d  ed.,  p.  158.) 
 156 
 
 Aphas,  a  river  of  Greece,  which  falls  into  the  bay 
 ofAinbracia.  D'Anville  calls  it  tht  Avas.  It  is  now 
 the  Vuvo.     {Plin.,  4,  1.) 
 
 Aphesas,  a  mountain  of  Argolis,  near  Nemea,  said 
 to  have  been  the  one  on  which  Perseus  first  sacrificed 
 to  Jupiter  Apesantius.  The  more  correct  form  of  the 
 name  is  Apesas.      {Vid.  Apesas.) 
 
 Aphet.^.,  a  city  of  Thessaly  at  the  entrance  of  the 
 Sinus  Pelasgicus,  or  Gulf  of  Volo,  from  which  the 
 ship  Argo  is  said  to  have  taken  her  departure  for  Col- 
 chis. {Apoll.  Rhud.,  1,  591.)  Herodotus  informs  us 
 (7,  193  and  196)  that  the  fleet  of  Xerxes  was  stationed 
 here  previous  to  the  engagement  off  Artemisium. 
 The  same  writer  makes  the  distance  between  Aphetae 
 and  Artemisium  about  eighty  stadia.  Aphetse  is  sup- 
 posed to  correspond  to  the  modern  Fetio.  ( Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  I,  p  411.) 
 
 Aphidna,  a  borough  of  Attica,  belonging  to  the 
 tribe  Leontis,  where  Theseus  is  said  to  have  secreted 
 Helen.  {Hcrodot.,  9,  73.—Plut.,  Vit.  Thes.)  De- 
 mosthenes reports  that  Aphidna  was  more  than  120 
 stadia  from  Athens.     {De  Cor.,  p.  238.) 
 
 Aphrodisia,  festivals  in  honour  of  Venus,  celebrated 
 in  different  parts  of  Greece,  but  chiefly  in  Cyprus. 
 
 Aphrodisias,  I.  a  city  of  Laconia,  to  the  west  of 
 Nymbaeum,  the  same  as  Boea.  {Strabo,  251. — Pliny, 
 4,  5. — Polyhius,  5,  19  ) — II.  A  city  in  the  Thracian 
 Chersonese,  between  Heraclea  to  the  east  and  Car- 
 dia  to  the  west.  {Procopnis,  JEdific.,  4,  10.) — III. 
 A.  city  of  Caria,  lying  south  of  the  Maeander  and 
 west  of  Cibyra.  In  the  time  of  Hierocles  it  was 
 the  capital  of  the  country  (p.  688).  Stephanus  in- 
 forms us,  that  it  was  founded  by  the  Pelasgi  Lele- 
 ges,  and  was  successively  called,  city  of  the  Leleges, 
 Megalopolis,  Ninoe,  and  Aphrodisias.  In  Slrabo's 
 time  it  appears  to  have  belonged  to  Phrygia  ;  Pliny, 
 however,  assigns  it  to  Caria,  and  styles  it  a  free 
 city  (5,  29. — Compare  Tacit.,  Ann.,  3,  62,  and  Bro- 
 tier,  ad  lac).  The  site  of  the  ancient  city  at  Geyra, 
 about  two  hours  from  Antiochia  on  the  Maeander,  was 
 discovered  by  Pococke.  (Vol.  2,  p.  2,  c.  12. —  Cra- 
 mcr^s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  210.) — IV.  A  city  and 
 promontory  of  Cilicia  Trachea,  east  of  Celenderis. 
 According  to  Livy,  it  was  a  place  of  some  conse- 
 quence in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  the  Great.  (Liv., 
 3.3,  20.— Compare  Diod.  Sic,  19,  61.)  The  ruins 
 found  by  Capt.  Beaufort,  at  the  northeast  corner  of  a 
 bay  west  of  Cape  Cavaliere,  appear  to  mark  the  site 
 of  the  ancient  city.  {Cravicfs  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p. 
 329  ) — V.  Another  name  for  the  Isle  of  Eryihea. — 
 VI.  An  island  sacred  to  Venus  and  Mercury,  on  the 
 coast  of  Carmania.  It  is  thought  by  some  to  have 
 been  identical  with  the  Cataa  of  Arrian.  {Plin.,  6, 
 25.) — VII.  An  island  on  the  coast  of  Cyrenaica,  in 
 the  vicinity  of  Apollonia.     {Herodot.,  4,  168  ) 
 
 ApHRonisiUM,  I.  a  city  on  the  eastern  parts  of  Cy- 
 prus, and  in  the  narrowest  part  of  the  island,  being 
 only  nine  miles  from  Salamis.  {Strabo,  682  ) — II. 
 One  of  the  three  minor  harbours  into  which  the  Pirsus 
 was  subdivided.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  middle 
 one  of  the  three.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  350.) 
 
 ApHRoniTE,  the  Grecian  name  of  Venus,  from 
 d(f>p6(;,  '^foam,"  because  Venus  is  said  to  have  been 
 born  from  the  froth  of  the  ocean.  This  is  the  account 
 given  by  Hesiod  {Theog.,  196).  Homer,  however, 
 as  well  as  the  Cretan  system  {Apollod.,  1,  3,  1,  and 
 Heyne,  ad  loc.),  made  her  the  daughter  of  Dione. 
 {Vid.  Venus,  where  some  remarks  will  be  offered  on 
 the  origin  of  the  Greek  name.) 
 
 ApHRODiTOPOLis,  I.  a  city  of  Egypt,  the  capital  of 
 the  36th  nome,  now  Alfieh. — II.  Another  in  the  same 
 country,  the  capital  of  the  42d  nome,  now  Lfu. — 
 III.  Another  in  the  same  country,  belonging  to  the 
 nome  Hermonthites,  now  Asf-un.  {Strab.,  566. — 
 Sleph.  By:.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Aphthonius,  a  rhetorician  of  Antioch,  who  lived 
 
A  P  I 
 
 A  p  r 
 
 Jn  the  third  or  fourth  century  of  our  era.  We  have 
 Iroin  him  a  work  entitled  trogymnasmata,  consisting 
 ofllhotorical  Exercises,  adapted  to  the  precepts  of  Her- 
 inogenes  ;  and  also  forty  fables.  Aphthonius,  accord- 
 ing to  Suidas,  labours  under  the  defect  of  having  neg- 
 lected to  treat  of  the  first  elements  of  rhetoric,  and  of 
 having  nowhere  attempted  to  form  the  style  of  those 
 whom  he  wished  to  instruct.  We  find  in  his  treatise 
 nothing  more  than  oratorical  rules,  and  the  application 
 of  these  rules  to  different  subjects.  The  Progymnas- 
 viata,  having  been  long  used  in  the  schools,  has  gone 
 thiougli  numerous  editions,  the  best  of  which  are 
 that  of  Scobarius  (Escobar),  1597,  8vo,  with  the  fa- 
 bles added  ;  and  that  of  D.  Heinsius,  Lvgd.  Bat., 
 1626,  Svo.  The  treatise  has  been  translated  into 
 Latin  with  most  ability  by  Escobar,  and  the  version 
 has  been  also  separately  printed.  Another  Latin  trans- 
 lation was  also  made  by  Rodolph  Agricola.  The  ver- 
 sion of  Escobar  was  first  published  at  Barcelona,  IGli, 
 in  Svo,  and  that  of  Agricola  was  given  from  the  Elzevir 
 press,  at  Amsterdam,  1642-1665,  in  12mo,  with  notes 
 by  Ijorichius.     {Biog.  Univ.,  vol.  2,  p.  305,  scqq.) 
 
 Aphyte,  or  ApHYTis,  a  city  of  Thrace,  in  the  pen- 
 insula of  Pallene,  on  the  Sinus  Thermaicus.  Here  was 
 n  celebrated  temple  of  Bacchus,  to  which  Agesipolis, 
 king  of  Sparta,  who  commanded  the  troops  before 
 Olynthus,  desired  to  be  removed  shortly  before  his 
 death,  and  near  which  he  breathed  his  last.  {Xen., 
 Hist.  Gr.,  5,  3,  19.)  According  to  Plutarch,  in  his 
 life  of  Lysander,  there  was  here  an  oracle  of  Jupiter 
 Ammon;  and  it  appears  ihut  Lysander,  when  besie- 
 ging Aphylis,  was  warned  by  the  god  to  desist  from  the 
 attempt.  Theophrastus  (3,  20)  speaks  of  the  wine  of 
 Aphylis.     {Cramer''s  Anc.  Gr.,  vol.  I,  p.  246.) 
 
 Api.\,  an  ancient  name  of  Peloponnesus,  which  it 
 is  said  to  have  received  from  King  Apis.     The  origin 
 of  the  name  Apia  {'Anlri  yf/),  as  applied  to  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus, was  a  subject  of  controversy  even  among 
 the  ancient  writers.     (Compare  Wassenherg,  ad  Par- 
 aphr.,  p.  42.)     According  to  Heyne  {ad  Horn.,  II.,  1, 
 270),  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  geographical, 
 but  a  poetical,  appellation  ;   and  the  meaning  would 
 seem  to  be  merely,  "  a  far-distant  land"  {'k.mrj  from 
 uKo),  as  used  by  the  Greeks  at  Troy  in  speaking  of 
 their  native  land,/«r  away  over  the  waters.     In  this, 
 however,  he   is  successfully   combated  by   Buttmann 
 {LcxiL,  !)  24,  s.  t'.),  who  shows  that  this  is  contrary  to 
 the  e.xprcss  testimony  of  the  geographers  and  gramma- 
 rians,and  even  of  ^schylus  himself.     Poetical  names, 
 particularly  all  the  oldest  ones,  are  purely  and   really 
 most  ancient  names,  which  poetry  has  preserved  to  us. 
 If  any  opinion  may  be  formed  on  this  subject,  it  would 
 be,  that  there  were  two  forms  of  the  same  name  in  use 
 among  the  Greeks  ;  one  the  appellative  uttIt],  derived 
 from  (1—6,  and  meaning  merely  "  distant ;"'  the  other  a 
 geographical   name,  deduced  from  that  of  the  mythic 
 Apis.     It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  appellative  utt'iti, 
 in  Homer,  has  the  initial  vowel  short,  whereas,  in  the 
 gpograjihical    name,    it    is    always    long.      (Compare 
 Soph.,  (Ed.   Col,  1303.— .E.vcA.,  Suppl,   275,  &c.) 
 The  former,  then,  of  these  will  be  a  Homeric  word,  the 
 latter  a  term  found  first  in  the  Tragic  writers,  and  based 
 on  an  old  legend  alluded  to  by  ^schylus  in  his  Sup- 
 pHces  (v.  275).     Those  grammarians,  therefore,  who 
 explain  'Am'?/  yala  {II.,  1,  270  ;    3,  49)  as  the  old  name 
 of  the  Peloponnesus,  are  in  error,  for  the  two  passages 
 of  the  Odyssey  (7,25. — 16,  18),  where  the  term  alone 
 occurs,  and  where  nothing  is  said  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
 plainly  show,  that  unt.o^  is,  as  above  stated,  an  old  ad- 
 jective, from  ano,  like  uvriog  from  uvti.     There  arc 
 many  traces  to  prove,  that  in  the  words  Apis  and  Apia 
 lie  the  original  name  of  a  most  ancient  people,  who  in- 
 habited the  European   coasts  of  the   Mediterranean. 
 Vid,   remarks   under  the  article  Opici.     {Battinann, 
 Lexil.,  I.  c. — p.  154,  Fishlake^s  trans.) 
 
 Apioat.*,  wife  of  Sejanuy,  by  whom  she  had  three 
 
 children.     She  was  repudiated  by  him.     Vid.  Sejanus. 
 {Tacit.,  Ann.,  4,  3.) 
 
 ApTcius.     There  were  three  patricians  of  this  name 
 at  Rome,  in  different  eras,  all  noted  for  their  gluttony, 
 to  which  the  second  of  the  three  added  almost  everr 
 other  vice. — I.  The  first  lived  in  the  time  of  the  dic- 
 tator Sylla.     According  to  Athensus  (4,  p.  168,  d.),  he 
 was  the  cause  of  Rutilms  Rufus  being  driven  into  ex- 
 ile.      (Compare    Casaubon,    ad  loc.—Erncsli,    Clav. 
 Ctc.  bid.  Hist.,  s.  V.  Rutilius.) — II.  The  second  lived 
 during  the  reigns  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius.     Athe- 
 najus  (I,  p.  7,  a.)  speaks  of  his  having  spent  immense 
 sums  on  the  luxuries  of  the  table,  and  also  of  various 
 kinds  of  cake  that  were  called  after  his  name  {'Anl- 
 Kia).      He  passed  most  of  his  time,  according  to  the 
 same  writer,  at  Minturnse,  on  account  of  the  excellent 
 shellfish  found  there.      He  even  went  on  a  voyage  to 
 Africa,  having  learned  that  the  shellfish  obtained  along 
 that  coast  were  superior  to  all  others  ;  but  when,  as  he 
 approached  the  land,  numerous  fishermen  came  off  to 
 the  vessel  with  what  they  declared  to  be  their  finest 
 fish,  perceiving  these  to  be  inferior  to  the  Italian,  he 
 ordered  the  pilot  to  put  about  immediately  and  return 
 home,  without  having  so  much  as  landed  on  the  shores 
 of  Africa.     Seneca '(£;).,  95— Df  Vit.  Beat.,  c.  11), 
 Juvenal  (4,  23),  Martial  {Ep.,  2,  69,  and  10,  63),  as 
 well  as  other  ancient  writers,  frequently  allude  to  his 
 epicurism,  of  which  he  formed  a  kind  of  school.     Fall- 
 ing, at  length,  into  comparative  poverty  and  merited 
 contempt,  he  is  reported  to  have  put  an  end  to  his  life 
 by  poison,  through  fear  of  ultimate  starvation  — III. 
 The  third  lived  under  Trajan,  and  was  in  possession 
 of  a  secret  for  preserving  oysters  ;  he  sent  some  of 
 them  perfectly  fresh  to  the  Emperor  Trajan  as  far  as 
 Parlhia.     {Allien.,  1,   p.   7,  d.) — To  which  of  these 
 three  we  are   to  ascribe  the  work  which   has  come 
 down  to  us,  on  the  culinary  art  {De  Re  Culinaria),  is 
 undetermined.     Most  assign  it  to  the  second  of  the 
 name,  ^L  Gavius  Apicius,  but  without  any  satisfactory 
 reason  for  so  doing.     It  is  more  than  probable  that  the 
 work  in   question  was  written  by  none  of  the  three. 
 The  compiler  of  this  collection  of  receipts,  wishing  to 
 give  his  labours  an  imposing  name,  would  seem   to 
 have  entitled  his  book  as  follows  :   "  Apicius,  sivc  de 
 Re  Culrnarta,  a  Ciclio,"  and   not  "  Cahus  Apicius, 
 sive  de  Re   Culmaria.'"     This  CkHus,  of  course,  is 
 some  unknown  person.     The  work  is  divided  into  ten 
 books,  each  of  which  has  a  Greek  title  that  indicates, 
 in  a  symbolical  manner,  the  subjects  treated  of  in  that 
 particular  division.     These  are  as  follows  ;   'ETTi/ieAr/i, 
 "  the  careful  one."      "ZapKoirrrj^,  "  the  carver."     Kr)- 
 TTovpiKu,  "  things  appertaining  to  gardening."     Ilai'- 
 denTijp,  "  the  all-rectpicnt.'"     'OanpLoc,  "  appertaining 
 to  pulse."     'AepoTTeryc,  "  of  flymg  things."     Tlo?a'- 
 TE?J,c,  '^  the  sumptuous."     Terpunovf,  "the  quadru- 
 ped."    OdXaaTa,  "  the  sea."     'kliev^,  "  the  fisher- 
 man."    Our  modern  gourmands  would  form  no  very 
 high  idea  of  the  state  of  gastronomic  science  among 
 the  Romans  from  the  perusal  of  this  work.     The  style, 
 moreover,  is  very  incorrect,  and  replete  with  barba- 
 risms.    The  best  edition  is  that  of  Alrneloveen,  Amst., 
 1709,  12mo.     We  have  also,  among  others,  the  edi- 
 tion of  Bernhohl,  Anshac,  1787  (1800),  and  that  of 
 Lister,  1705.  Lond.,  Svo.     {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.   3,   p.    242. — Bfthr,    Gesch.  Rom.    Lit.,  522. — 
 Funcc.  de  immin.  L.  L.  senect.,  10,  29,  seqq.) 
 
 Apidanus,  one  of  the  chief  rivers  of  Thcssaly,  rising 
 in  Mount  Othrvs,  and,  after  receiving  the  Enipeus 
 near  Pharsalus,' falling  into  the  Peneus  a  little  to  the 
 west  of  Larissa.  It  is  now  the  Salainpria.  {Phn., 
 4,  S.—Strab.,  297.)  .       .     . 
 
 AriNA,  a  city  of  Apulia,  destroyed  with  Trica,  in  its 
 neighbourhood,  by  Diomede  on  his  arrival  in  this  pari 
 of  Ftaly,  after  the' Trojan  war.  (/^//«.,  3,  11.)  Freret 
 supposes  that  the  towns  here  mentioned  were,  togethei 
 with  the  tribes  that  occupied  them  (the  Monades  and 
 
 1.57 
 
A  P  T 
 
 APIS. 
 
 Dardi),  of  Illvrian  origin.  {Mem.  dc  VAcad.  des  Inscr., 
 4c.,  vol.   18,' p.  75.) 
 
 ApIon,  r.  a  surname  of  Ptolemy,  one  of  the  descend- 
 ants of  Ptolemy  Lagus.  (Vid.  Ptolemfeiis,  XIV.) 
 — II.  A  graintnarian  and  historical  writer,  born  at 
 Oasis  Magna  in  Egypt,  during  the  first  century  of  the 
 Christian  era.  He  was  surnamed  Plistonices  (IlAiiff- 
 TOViKtic),  from  his  frequent  successes  over  his  literary 
 opponents,  but  called  himself  the  Ale.xandrean,  from  his 
 having  passed  a  part  of  his  life  in  the  ancient  capital 
 of  the  Ptolemies.  Apion  subsequently  travelled  into 
 Greece,  and  finally  established  himself  at  Rome,  where 
 he  taught  grammar,  or  philological  science,  during  the 
 reigns  of  Tiberius  and  Claudius.  He  attained  to  great 
 celebrity.  Although  unquestionably  a  man  of  learning 
 and  research,  he  was  in  many  respects  an  arrogant 
 boaster,  and  in  others  a  mere  pretender  ;  and  it  was 
 in  allusion,  no  doubt,  tc  his  vanity  and  noisy  assump- 
 tion of  merit,  that  the  Emperor  Tiberius  gave  him  in 
 derision  the  name  of  Cyinbalum  mundi.  He  is  re- 
 nowned for  much  trifling  on  the  subject  of  Homer,  in 
 order  to  trace  whose  family  and  covmtry  he  had  recourse 
 even  to  magic,  asserting  that  he  had  successfully  in- 
 voked the  appearance  of  shades  to  satisfy  his  curiosity, 
 whose  answers  he  was  not  allowed  to  make  public. 
 (Plin.,  30,  2. — Compare  Aulas  Gcllius,  Noct.  Att., 
 5,  14.)  These  pretensions,  silly  as  they  were,  made 
 him  very  popular  in  Greece,  although  something  might 
 be  owing  to  his  commentaries  on  the  same  great  poet, 
 which  are  mentioned  by  Eustatbius  and  Hesychius. 
 Pliny  malies  particular  mention  of  the  ostentatious 
 character  of  this  critic,  who  used  to  boast  that  he  be- 
 stowed immortality  on  those  to  whom  he  dedicated  his 
 works  ;  whereas  it  is  only  by  the  mention  of  others  that 
 these  works  are  now  known  to  have  actually  existed. 
 One  of  the  chief  of  them  was,  "  On  the  Anliguity  of 
 the  Jews,''''  to  which  people  he  opposed  himself  with 
 the  hereditary  resentment  of  an  Egyptian.  The  reply 
 of  Josephus,  "  Against  Ajtion"  has  survived  the  at- 
 tack, the  author  of  which  attack  showed  his  enmity  to 
 the  Jewish  people  by  other  means  besides  writing 
 against  them  ;  for  he  was  employed  by  his  fellow-citi- 
 zens of  Alexandrea  to  head  a  deputation  to  the  Emperor 
 Calicrula,  complaining  of  the  Jews  who  inhabited  that 
 city.  Apion  also  wrote  an  account  of  the  antiquities 
 of  Egypt,  in  which  work  he  is  supposed  to  have  treated 
 largely  on  the  Pyramids,  Pliny  quoting  him  as  the  prin- 
 cipal authority  on  the  subject.  After  having  ridiculed 
 the  rite  of  circumcision,  he  was  compelled  by  a  malady 
 to  submit  to  it,  and,  by  a  divine  punishment,  says  Jo- 
 sephus, died  soon  after  from  the  consequences  of  the 
 operation.  It  is  in  allusion  to  Apion  that  Bayle  ob- 
 serves, "  how  easily  the  generality  of  people  may  be 
 deceived  by  a  man  of  some  learning,  with  a  great  share 
 of  vanity  and  impudence."  Extracts  from  Apion's 
 commentary  on  Homer  are  given  in  the  Etymologicum 
 Gudianum,  published  by  Sturz.  (Joseph.,  eontr.  Ap. 
 — Sr.hdll,  Hist.  Ut.  Gr  ,  vol.  5,  p.  16,  seqq.) 
 
 Apis,  I.  one  of  the  earliest  kings  of  the  Peloponne- 
 sus, son  of  Phoroneus  and  Laodice,  and  grandson  of 
 Inachus.  He  is  said  to  have  reigned  in  .\rgos,  after  the 
 death  of  his  father,  about  1800  B.C.  Others  make 
 him  to  have  been  the  son  of  Apollo,  and  king  of  Sicyon. 
 He  chased  the  Telchines  from  the  Peloponnesus,  ac- 
 cording to  a  third  statement,  governed  tyrannically, 
 and  lost  his  life  in  consequence.  From  him  some  have 
 derived  the  old  name,  supjiosed  to  have  been  given  at 
 one  time  to  the  Peloponnesus,  namely  "Apian  land." 
 (Vid.  Apia.)  Apis,  in  fact,  is  one  of  those  mythologi- 
 cal personages,  to  whose  earlier  legend  each  succeed- 
 ing age  adds  its  quota  of  the  marvellous,  until  the  whole 
 becomes  one  mass  of  hopeless  absurdity.  Hence  we 
 find  Varro  and  St.  Augustine  gravely  maintaining,  that 
 the  Grecian  monarch  Apis  led  a  colony  into  Egypt, 
 gave  laws  and  civilization  to  that  country,  was  deified 
 after  death  under  the  form  of  an  ox,  and  was,  ol  course, 
 158 
 
 identical  with  the  Apis  of  Egyptian  worship.  (Pau- 
 san.,  2,  5. — Apollod.,  2,  1. — Augiislin.,  Civ.  D.,  18, 
 5.)  And  yet  there  is  reason  to  believe,  that  the  name 
 Apis  is  connected  with  that  of  a  very  early  people, 
 who  dwelt  along  the  European  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
 ranean, and  of  whom  tlie  Italian  Opici  formed  a  part. 
 (  Vid.  Apia.)— II.  The  same  with  Epaphus,  the  fa- 
 bled son  of  Jupiter  and  lo.  Such  at  lea.'it  is  the  state- 
 ment of  Herodotus,  6  Je  'Amr  Kara  ttjv  'EAA//kjv 
 yXibaadv  eart,  "ETra^Of  (2,  153).  Wesseling  is  in- 
 clined to  regard  the  passage  as  spurious,  but  consult 
 yElian  (Hist.  An.,  11,  10),  where  the  same  thing  is 
 stated.  Jablonski  makes  Epaphus  mean  "  giant"  (  Voc. 
 JEgypt.,  p.  65).  Zoega,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  it 
 the  force  of  "  to5  pater''''  (Num.  JEgypt.,  p.  81), 
 and  De  Rossi,  that  of  "  taurus  pracipuus."  (Etymol. 
 Aigypt.,  p.  15.)  It  is  more  than  probable,  however, 
 that  the  name  Epaphus  was  confounded  by  the  Greeks 
 with  Apophis,  one  of  the  Egyptian  appellations  forTy- 
 phon,  the  evil  genius,  and  hence  may  have  arisen  the 
 legend  which  made  the  Grecian  Apis  a  cruel  tyrant. 
 (Vid.  Epaphus.) — III.  A  sacred  bull,  worshipped  by 
 the  Egyptians.  Its  abode  was  at  Memphis,  near  the 
 temple  of  Phtha,  or  Vulcan,  and  it  was  in  this  city  that 
 peculiar  honours  were  rendered  it,  an  account  of  which 
 is  given  by  Herodotus,  Strabo,  Pliny,  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus,  Plutarch,  and  other  ancient  writers.  The  Apis 
 was  distinguished  from  other  animals  of  the  same  kind 
 by  the  following  characteristics.  He  was  supposed  to 
 be  generated,  not  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  but 
 by  a  flashing  from  on  high  ((Tt'Aaf  eK  tov  ovpavov. — 
 Herod.,  3,  27),  or,  according  to  others,  by  the  contact 
 of  the  moon  (lTra(j)]i  ri/^  aeh'/vTig. — Phit.,  Sympos.,  8, 
 p.  718).  As,  however,  this  evidence  of  his  divinity  was 
 rather  dubious,  several  external  marks  were  superad- 
 ded, to  satisfy  his  votaries  of  his  claims  to  adoration. 
 His  colour  was  black,  in  order  that  the  distinctive 
 marks  might  the  more  clearly  appear  ;  these  were  a 
 square  white  spot  on  the  forehead,  the  figure  of  an  ea- 
 gle on  the  back,  a  white  crescent  on  the  right  side, 
 the  mark  of  a  beetle  on  the  tongue,  and  double  hair 
 on  the  tail.  (Herod.,  3,  28.—Strab.,  80Q.—F'lin.,  8, 
 46. — Creuzer,  Comment.  Herod.,  p.  132,  seqi].)  The 
 marks  in  question,  which  thus  stamped  his  claims  to  di- 
 vinity, were  of  course  the  contrivance  of  the  priests, 
 though  of  this  the  people  were  kept  profoundly  igno- 
 rant. This  animal  was  regarded  with  the  highest  ven- 
 eration, and  more  than  regal  honours  were  rendered 
 him.  He  was  waited  upon,  also,  by  numerous  attend- 
 ants, a  particular  priesthood  were  set  apart  for  him, 
 stalls  were  provided,  furnished  with  every  convenience, 
 and  his  food  was  presented  to  him  in  vessels  of  gold 
 He  was  frequently  displayed  to  the  view  of  the  people, 
 while  strangers  could  also  behold  him  in  a  species  of 
 enclosed  court,  or  through  a  kind  of  window.  (Strab., 
 I.  c.)  He  also  gave  oracles,  and  the  mode  of  giving 
 them  was  as  follows.  The  priests,  having  led  him  forth 
 from  his  abode,  caused  food  to  be  offered  him  by  the 
 person  who  had  come  for  a  response.  If  he  received 
 what  was  thus  offered,  it  was  a  favourable  omen  :  if 
 otherwise,  an  unfavourable  one.  So  also,  after  the 
 food  had  been  offered  him,  he  was  allowed  to  go  into 
 one  or  the  other  of  two  stalls,  according  as  he  might 
 feel  inclined.  His  going  into  one  of  these  was  looked 
 upon  as  a  good  omen,  into  the  other  the  reverse.  Ger- 
 manicus,  when  in  Egypt,  consulted  in  this  way  the 
 sacred  Apis  ;  and  as  the  animal  refused  the  food  which 
 was  offered  him  by  the  Roman  prince,  this  circumstance 
 was  regarded  as  an  omen  of  evil,  that  was  subsc(iuent- 
 ly  verified  by  the  death  of  the  latter.  (Plin.,  8,  46. 
 —Amm.  MarcclL,  22,  14.)  The  annual  festival  of 
 Apis  was  celebrated  with  the  utmost  splendour.  It 
 always  began  with  the  rising  of  the  Nile,  and  present- 
 ed, for  seven  successive  days,  a  scene  of  uninterrupted 
 rejoicing  and  festivity.  The  Greeks  called  this  cele- 
 bration Theophania,  because  during  its  continuance 
 
A  P  I 
 
 A  P  O 
 
 the  god  Apis  was  displayed  to  the  view  of  the  people 
 arrayed  in  festal  attire,  his  head  surmounted  with  a 
 kind  of  tiara,  and  his  body  adorned  with  embroidered 
 coverings,  while  a  troop  of  boys  accompanied  him  sing- 
 ing hymns  in  his  praise.  These  boys,  becoming  on  a 
 sudden  inspired,  predicted  future  events.  During  the 
 continuance  of  this  festival,  the  crocodiles  in  the  Nile 
 were  harmless,  but  regained  their  ferocity  at  its  close  ! 
 (Fiin.,  L  c.)  Sacrifices  were  seldom  offered  unto  Apis  ; 
 when  this,  however,  was  done,  red  cattle  were  always 
 selected,  red  being  the  colour  of  Typhon,  the  enemy 
 of  Osiris.  So  also,  when  Apis  died,  a  red  sieer,  and 
 two  or  three  other  animals  that  were  deemed  sacred 
 to  Tvphon,  were  buried  along  with  him,  in  order  to 
 thwart  the  joy  which  the  evil  spirits  would  otherwise 
 have  fell  at  the  death  of  the  sacred  Apis.  When  Apis 
 died  a  natural  death,  the  whole  of  Egypt  was  plunged 
 in  mourning,  from  the  king  to  the  peasant ;  and  this 
 mourning  continued  until  a  new  Apis  was  found.  The 
 deceased  animal  was  embalmed  in  the  most  costly  man- 
 ner, and  the  priests  after  this  traversed  the  whole  land 
 in  quest  of  his  successor.  When  a  calf  was  found 
 with  the  requisite  marks,  all  sorrow  instantly  ceased, 
 and  the  most  unbounded  joy  prevailed.  Herodotus  al- 
 ludes to  one  of  these  scenes  in  his  account  of  the  Per- 
 sian Cambyses  (3,  27).  When  that  monarch  returned 
 to  Memphis,  from  his  unsuccessful  e.xpedition  against 
 the  Ethiopians,  he  found  the  Egyptians  giving  loose 
 to  their  joy  on  account  of  the  reappearance  of  Apis. 
 Irritated  at  this,  and  fancying  that  they  were  rejoicing 
 at  his  ill  success,  he  ordered  the  sacred  animal  to  be 
 brought  before  him,  wounded  it  in  the  thigh  with  his 
 dagger  (of  which  wound  it  afterward  died),  caused  the 
 priests  to  be  scourged,  and  commandinl  the  proper  of- 
 ficers to  kill  all  the  Egyptians  they  should  find  making 
 public  demonstrations  of  joy. — Whenever  a  new  Apis 
 was  obtained,  the  priests  conducted  him  first  to  Nilo- 
 polis,  where  they  fed  him  forty  days.  He  was  then 
 transported  in  a  magnificent  vessel  to  Memphis.  Du- 
 ring the  forty  days  spent  at  Nilopolis,  women  only  were 
 allowed  to  see  him  ;  but  after  this  the  sight  of  the  god 
 was  forbidden  them.  {Diod.  Sic,  1,  85.)— -It  is  wor- 
 thy of  remark,  that  although  so  much  joy  prevailed  on 
 the  finding  of  a  new  Apis,  and  so  much  sorrow  when 
 he  died  a  natural  death,  yet,  whenever  one  of  these  ani- 
 mals reached  the  age  of  25  years,  the  period  prescri- 
 bed by  the  sacred  books,  the  priests  drowned  him  as  a 
 matter  of  course,  in  a  sacred  fountain,  and  there  was 
 no  mourning  whatever  for  his  loss. — According  to  an 
 Egyptian  legend,  the  soul  of  Osiris  passed  on  his  death 
 into  the  body  of  Apis,  and  as  often  as  the  sacred  ani- 
 mal died.  It  passed  into  the  body  of  its  successor.  So 
 that,  accorduig  to  this  dogma.  Apis  was  the  perfect 
 image  of  the  soul  of  Osiris.  {Plut.,  dc  Is.  el  Os.,  p. 
 472,  ed.  Wytlenb.)  It  is  very  easy,  however,  to  see 
 in  the  worship  of  the  sacred  Apis  the  connexion  of 
 Egyptian  mythology  with  astronomy  and  the  great 
 movements  of  nature.  The  Egyptians  believed  that 
 the  rnoon,  making  her  total  revolution  in  309  luna- 
 tions, and  in  9125  days,  returned  consequently,  at  the 
 end  of  25  years,  to  the  same  point  of  Sothis  or  Siri- 
 ns.  Hence  the  life  of  Apis  was  limited  to  25  years, 
 and  hence  the  cycle  known  as  the  period  of  Apis,  with 
 reference,  no  doubt,  to  the  passage  of  the  moon  into  the 
 celestial  bull,  which  it  would  have  to  traverse  in  order 
 to  arrive  at  Sothis  In  worshipping  Apis,  therefore,  the 
 15gyptian  priesthood  worshipped,  in  fact,  the  great  fer- 
 tilizmg  principle  in  nature,  and  hence  we  see  why 
 females  alone  were  allowed  to  view  the  Apis  at  Nilo- 
 polis, that  the  sight  of  the  sacred  animal  might  bless 
 them  with  a  numerous  progeny.  (Compare  Guisni- 
 OH/,  1,  9()r).  —  Vollmer,  Wdrterb.  der  My/hnL,  p.  279.) 
 ^  Apitius  Galea,  a  celebrated  buffoon  in  Ihe  time  of 
 Tiberius.  {Schol.  ad  Juv  ,  5,  4.— Compare  Spalding, 
 ad  QmnliL,  6,  3,  21  .~Wcrnsdorf,i,i  Pod.  Lai.  Min., 
 vol.  6,  p.  418,  scq.) 
 
 Apollinares  ludi.      Vid.   Luni  Apollinares. 
 Apoli.inaris,  I.   Sidonius,  a  Christian  poet.      Vid. 
 SiDONius. — II.  Sulpitius,  a  grammarian.      Vid.   Sul- 
 
 PITIUS. 
 
 Apollinis  Promontorium,  was  situate  on  the 
 coast  of  Africa,  east  of  Utica,  and  north  of  Carthage. 
 It  is  now  Ras-Zcbid.  {Plm.,  5,  4. — Mela,  \,  7. — 
 Liv,  30,  24.) 
 
 Apollinopolis  Magna,  the  capital  of  the  52d 
 Egyptian  nome,  in  the  southern  part  of  Upper  Egypt, 
 about  twenty-five  miles  nearly  north  of  the  great  cata- 
 racts. It  is  now  Edfou.  (Plol. — Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 — Anton.  Itin — Mlian,  Hzsl.  A?i.,  10,  21.)  There 
 are  two  temples  at  Edfou,  in  a  state  of  great  preserva- 
 tion. One  of  them  consists  of  high  pyramidal  propyla, 
 a  pronaos,  portico,  and  sekos,  the  form  most  generaJiy 
 used  in  Egypt ;  the  other  is  peripteral,  and  is,  at  the 
 same  time,  distinguished  by  having  on  its  several  col- 
 umns the  appalling  figure  of  Typhon,  the  ennblcm  of 
 the  Evil  Principle.  The  pyramidal  propylon,  which 
 forms  the  principal  entrance  to  the  greater  temple,  is 
 one  of  the  most  imposing  monuments  extant  of  Egyp- 
 tian architecture.     (Russell's  Egypt,  p.  201.) 
 
 Apollinopolis  Parva,  a  city  of  Egypt  in  the  Nome 
 of  Coptos,  northwest  of  Thebes.  It  was  a  celebrated 
 place  of  trade,  and  lay  on  the  commercial  road  by  which 
 the  products  of  the  east  were  conveyed  to  Alexandres. 
 It  is  now  Kous,  and  displays  the  ruins  of  a  temple. 
 {Ptol.—Slcph.  Byz.—  Strabo,  561.) 
 
 Apollo,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  I.atona.  In  Ho- 
 mer he  is  the  god  of  archery,  prophecy,  and  music. 
 His  arrows  were  not  merely  directed  against  the  ene- 
 mies of  the  gods,  such  as  Otus  and  Ephialtes  (Horn., 
 Od.,  11,  318)  :  all  sudden  deaths  of  men  were  ascribed 
 to  his  darts  ;  sometimes  as  a  reward  (vid.  Agamedes), 
 at  other  times  as  a  punishment  (»uZ.  Niobe).  He  was, 
 by  bis  shafts,  the  god  of  pestilence,  and  he  removed  it 
 when  duly  propitiated.  At  the  banquets  of  the  gods 
 on  Olympus,  Apollo  played  on  his  lyre  {(pnpfiij^),  while 
 the  Muses  sang.  (Horn  ,  11,  I,  GOl.)  Eminent  bards, 
 as  Demodocus,  were  held  to  have  derived  their  skill 
 from  the  teaching  of  Apollo  or  the  Muses.  (Od.,  8, 
 488.)  Prophets  in  like  manner  were  taught  bv  him. 
 At  Delphi  he  himself  revealed  the  future.  (Od.,  8, 
 80.)  According  to  the  Homeric  hymn  to  the  Delian 
 Apollo,  the  birth  of  the  god  took  place  in  this  manner  : 
 Latona,  persecuted  by  Juno,  besought  all  the  islands 
 of  the  -Egean  Sea  to  afford  her  a  place  of  rest ;  but 
 all  feared  too  much  the  potent  queen  of  heaven  to  as- 
 sist her  rival.  Delos  alone  consented  to  become  the 
 birthplace  of  the  future  god,  provided  Latona  would 
 pledge  herself  that  he  would  not  contemn  her  humble 
 isle,  and  would  erect  there  the  temple  vowed  bv  his 
 mother.  Latona  assented  with  the  oath  most  binding 
 on  the  gods,  namely,  by  the  Styx,  and  the  friendly  isle 
 received  her.  (H.  in  ApolL,  83.)  All  the  goddesses 
 save  Juno  and  Lucina  (whom  the  art  of  Juno  kept  in 
 ignorance  of  this  great  event)  were  assembled  in  the 
 floating  isle  to  attend  the  delivery  of  Latona,  whose 
 labour  continued  for  nine  days  and  nights.  Moved 
 with  compassion  for  her  sufferings,  they  despatched 
 Iris  to  Olympus,  who  brought  Lucina  secretly  to  De- 
 los. Here  then  Apollo  sprang  to  light,  Earth  smiled 
 around,  and  all  the  goddesses  shouted  aloud  to  cele- 
 brate his  birth.  They  washed  and  swathed  the  infant 
 deity,  and  Themis  gave  him  nectar  and  ambrosia.  As 
 soon  as  he  had  tasted  the  divine  food,  his  bands  and 
 swaddling-clothes  no  longer  retained  him  :  he  sprang 
 up,  and  called  to  the  goddesses  to  give  him  a  lyre  and  a 
 bow,  adding  that  he  would  thenceforth  declare  to  men 
 the  will  of  Jove.  He  then,  to  the  amazement  of  the 
 assembled  goddesses,  walked  firmly  on  the  ground ; 
 and  Delos,  exulting  with  joy,  became  covered  with 
 golden  flowers.  A  somewhat  different  account  of  the 
 birth  of  Apollo  is  given  by  Calliinachus.  (Hymn,  in 
 AvoU.) — In  the  Homeric  hymn  to  Apollo,  the  man- 
 '    ^      '  159 
 
APOLLO. 
 
 APOLLO. 
 
 ner  of  his  first  getting  possession  of  Delphi  (UvOij)  is 
 thus  rclatrd  ;  When  Apollo  resolved  to  choose  the 
 site  of  his  (irst  temple,  he  came  down  from  Olympus 
 into  Picna  ;  he  sought  throughoni  all  'I'liessaly  ;  thence 
 went  to  Eubrca,  Attica,  and  Ba?olia ;  but  could  find  no 
 
 i)lace  to  his  mind.  The  situation  of  Tilphussa,  near 
 „ake  Copais,  in  Bffiotia,  pleased  him  ;  and  he  was  about 
 to  lay  the  foundations  of  his  temple  there,  when  the 
 nymph  of  the  stream,  afraid  of  having  her  own  fame 
 eclipsed  by  the  vicitiity  of  the  oracle  of  Apollo,  dis- 
 suaded him,  by  representing  how  much  his  oracle  would 
 be  disturbed  by  the  noise  of  the  horses  and  mules  com- 
 ing to  water  at  her  stream.  She  recommends  to  him 
 Crissa,  bennath  Mount  Parnassus,  as  a  quiet,  seques- 
 tered spot,  where  no  unseemly  sounds  would  disturb 
 the  holy  silence  demanded  by  an  oracle.  Arrived 
 at  Crissa,  the  solitude  and  sublimity  of  the  scene 
 charm  the  god.  He  forthwith  sets  about  erecting  a 
 temple,  which  the  hands  of  numerous  workmen  speed- 
 ily raise,  under  the  direction  of  the  brothers  Tropho- 
 nius  and  Agamedcs.  Meanwhile  Apollo  slays  with 
 his  arrows  the  monstrous  serpent  which  abode  there 
 and  destroyed  the  people  and  cattle  of  the  vicinity. 
 As  it  lay  e-xpiring,  the  e.xulting  victor  cried,  "  Now 
 rot  (Tziidev)  there  on  the  man-feeding  earth  ;"  and  hence 
 the  place  and  oracle  received  the  appellation  of  Pytho. 
 The  fane  was  now  erected,  but  priests  were  wanting. 
 The  god,  as  he  stood  on  the  lofty  area  of  the  temple, 
 cast  his  eyes  over  the  sea,  and  beheld  far  south  of  Pel- 
 oponnesus a  Cretan  ship  sailing  for  Pylos.  He  plunged 
 into  the  sea,  and,  in  the  form  of  a  dolphin,  sprang  on 
 board  the  ship.  The  crew  sat  in  terror  and  amazement ; 
 a  south  wind  carried  the  vessel  rapidly  along  ;  in  vain 
 they  sought  to  land  at  Taenarus  ;  the  ship  would  not 
 obey  the  helm.  When  they  came  to  the  bay  of  Cris- 
 sa, a  west  wind  sprang  up  and  speedily  brought  the 
 vessel  into  port ;  and  the  god,  in  the  form  of  a  blazing 
 star,  left  the  boat,  and  descended  into  his  temple. 
 Then,  quick  as  thought,  he  came  as  a  handsome  youth, 
 with  long  locks  waving  on  his  shoulders,  and  accosted 
 the  strangers,  inquiring  who  they  were  and  whence  they 
 came.  To  their  question  in  return,  of  what  that  place 
 was  to  which  they  were  come,  he  replies  by  informing 
 them  who  he  is  and  what  his  purpose  was  in  bringing 
 hem  thither.  He  invites  them  to  land,  and  says  that, 
 as  he  had  met  them  in  the  form  of  a  dolphin  (JtA^ic), 
 they  should  worship  him  as  Apollo  Delphinius  ;  and 
 hence,  according  to  the  fanciful  etymology  of  the  earli- 
 er poetry,  Dcl])hi  in  Phocis  derived  its  name.  They 
 now  disembark  ;  the  god,  playing  on  his  lyre,  precedes 
 them,  and  leads  them  to  his  temple,  where  they  become 
 his  priests  and  ministers. — A  god  so  beautiful  and  ac- 
 complished as  Apollo  could  not  well  be  supposed  to 
 be  free  from  the  influence  of  the  gentler  emotions  ;  yet 
 it  is  observable  that  he  was  not  remarkably  happy  in 
 his  love,  either  meeting  with  a  repulse,  or  having  his 
 amour  attended  with  a  fatal  termination.  ( Vjd.  Daph- 
 ne, Coronis,  &c.)  After  the  death  of  ^Esculapius  his 
 son,  who  fell  by  the  thunderbolt  of  Jove  for  having  ex- 
 tended his  skill  in  the  healing  art  so  far  as  to  bring 
 even  the  dead  to  life,  Apollo,  incensed  at  the  fate  of 
 his  otTspring,  slew  the  Cyclopes,  the  forgers  of  the  thun- 
 derbolts, and  was  for  this  deed  exiled  from  heaven. 
 Coming  down  to  earth,  he  took  service  as  a  herdsman 
 with  Admelus,  king  of  Pherae  in  Thessaly,  and  pas- 
 tured his  herds  on  the  banks  of  the  Amphrysus.  The 
 kindnesses  bestowed  by  him  on  Admetus  have  been 
 mentioned  elsewhere.  (  Vid.  Admetus,  and  Alcestis). 
 — Apollo,  it  is  said,  was  taught  divination  by  Pan. 
 For  his  lyre  he  was  indebted  to  the  invention  of  his 
 half-brother  Mercury,  and  the  triumph  of  this  instru- 
 ment over  the  tones  of  the  reed  is  recorded  in  the  le- 
 gend of  Marsyas.  (Vid.  Marsyas.)  The  Homeric 
 Apollo  is  a  personage  totally  distinct  from  Helius 
 ("H/liof)  or  the  Sun,  though,  in  all  likelihood,  original- 
 ly the  same.  When  mysteries  and  secret  doctrines 
 160 
 
 were  introduced  into  Greece,  these  deities  were  united, 
 or,  perhaps  we  might  say,  reunited.  Apollo,  at  the 
 same  period,  also  usurped  the  place  of  Paeon,  and  be- 
 came the  god  of  the  healing  art. — This  god  was  a  fa 
 vourite  object  of  Grecian  worship,  and  his  temples  w  ere 
 numerous.  Of  these  the  most  celebrated  were,  that 
 of  Delphi  in  Phocis,  of  Delos,  of  Patara  in  Lycia, 
 Claros  in  Ionia,  Gryniuin  in  vEolis,  and  Didymi  at 
 Miletus  ;  in  all  of  which  his  oracles  gave  revelations  of 
 the  future. — The  favourite  animals  of  Apollo  were  the 
 hawk,  the  swan,  the  cicada,  &c.  His  tree  was  the 
 bay.  He  himself  was  represented  in  the  perfection  of 
 united  manly  strength  and  beauty.  His  long  curling 
 hair  hangs  loose,  and  is  bound  behind  with  ihe  stro- 
 phium  ;  his  brows  are  wreathed  with  bay  ;  in  his  hands 
 he  bears  his  bow  or  lyre.  The  wonderful  Apollo  Bel- 
 videre  shows  at  the  same  time  the  conception  which 
 the  ancients  had  of  this  benign  deity,  and  the  high  de- 
 gree of  perfection  to  which  they  had  attained  in  sculp- 
 ture.— Few  deities  had  more  appellations  than  the  son 
 of  Latona.  He  was  called  Delian,  Delphian,  Patarre- 
 an,  Clarian,  &c.,  from  the  places  of  his  worship.  He 
 was  also  styled  :  1.  The  Loxian  god,  from  the  ambigu- 
 ity of  many  of  his  predictions  ;  2.  Herding,  as  keeping 
 the  flocks  and  herds  of  Admetus;  3.  Silver-bowed; 
 4.  Far- shooter  ;  5.  Light-producer;  6.  Well-haired; 
 7.  Gold-haired ;  8.  Gold-sworded,  &c.  {Keighlle.y''s 
 Mythology,  p.  87,  scqq.) — Proclus  assures  us,  that  the 
 Orphic  doctrine  recognised  the  identity  of  Apollo  and 
 the  Sun.  {Orph.,  Hymn.,  8.— Id.,  12.— Id.,  34.— 
 Fragm.,  28,  ed.  Herm. — JEschql  ,  in  Eratosth.  Ca- 
 tast..  p.  19,  ed.  Schauh.)  The  Oriental  origin  of  the 
 god  is  clearly  shown  even  in  his  very  name,  for  which 
 the  Greeks  so  often  and  so  vainly  sought  an  etymolo- 
 gy in  their  own  language.  The  Cretan  form  for  Helios 
 ("HAfor)  was  Ahelios  ('AfieAwf),  i.  e.,  'At'/itof,  wiln  the 
 digamma  inserted.  (Mailt.,  Dial.,  p.  185,  ed.  Sturz. 
 — Compare  the  Doric  'Ani/iXcjv  for  'AttoX'Adv,  Mait.t.,  ' 
 p.  206,  and  the  form  Apellincm  for  Apollinem.,  cited 
 by  Festus  )  We  have  here  the  Asiatic  root,  Bel  or 
 Hel,  an  appellation  for  the  sun  in  the  Semitic  languages. 
 {Crcuzer''s  Symbol ik,  par  Giagmaiu,  vol.  2,  p.  131. 
 — Compare  Seldcn,ic  D.  S.,  2,  1,  p.  144. —  Buttmanii, 
 Mythologiis,  vol.  1,  p.  167.) — A  very  striking  analogy 
 exists  between  the  Apollo  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Crish- 
 na  of  the  Hindus.  Both  are  inventors  of  the  flule. 
 (Compare  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  8,  p.  65  )  Crish- 
 na  is  deceived  by  the  nymph  Tulasi,  as  Apollo  is 
 by  Daphne,  and  the  two  maidens  are  each  changed 
 into  trees,  of  which  the  tulasi  is  sacred  to  Crishna,  as 
 the  bay-tree  is  to  Apollo.  The  victory  of  Crishna 
 over  the  serpent  Caliya-naga,  on  the  borders  of  the 
 Yamuna,  recalls  to  mind  that  of  Apollo  over  the  ser- 
 pent Python  :  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  van 
 quished  reptiles  respectively  participate  in  the  hom- 
 age that  is  rendered  to  the  victors.  Nor  docs  the  le- 
 gend of  Apollo  betray  a  resemblance  merely  with  the  fa- 
 bles of  India.  A  very  strong  affinity  exists,  in  this  re- 
 spect, between  the  religious  systems  also  of  Egypt  and 
 Greece.  We  find  the  same  animal,  the  wolf,  which, 
 by  its  oblique  course,  typified  the  ])ath  of  the  star  of 
 day,  consecrated  to  the  sun,  both  at  I^ycopolis  and 
 Delphi.  This  emblem  transports  into  the  Greek  tra- 
 ditions the  fables  relative  to  the  combats  of  Osiris. 
 The  Egvpcian  deity  comes  to  the  aid  of  his  son  Horns, 
 under  the  figure  of  a  wolf,  and  Latona  disguises  her- 
 self under  the  form  of  this  same  animal,  when  she  quits 
 the  Hyperborean  regions  to  take  refuge  in  Delos. 
 (Compare  Pausanias,  2,  10. — Diod.  Sic,  1,  88. — 
 Synes.  de  Provid.,  1,  116. — Eusch  ,  Prccp.  Ev..  1,  50. 
 — Aristot.,  Hist.  An.,  6,  35. — JElian.,  Hist.  An.,  4, 
 4.)  In  the  festival  of  the  Daphnephoria,  which  the 
 Thebans  celebrated  every  ninth  year  in  honour  of 
 Apollo,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  seeing  an  astro- 
 nomical character.  It  took  its  name  from  the  bay- 
 tree,  which  the  fairest  youths  of  the  city  carried  round 
 
AP  0 
 
 APOLLODORUS. 
 
 in  solemn  procession,  and  which  was  adorned  with 
 liowers  and  branches  of  oUve.  To  an  olive-tree,  dec- 
 orated in  its  turn  with  branches  of  bay  and  flowers 
 intertwined,  and  covered  with  a  veil  of  purple,  were 
 suspended  globes  of  different  sizes,  types  of  the  sun 
 and  planets,  and  ornamented  with  garlands,  the  num- 
 ber of  which  was  a  symbol  of  the  year.  On  the  altar, 
 too,  burned  a  flame,  the  agitation,  colour,  and  crack- 
 ling of  which  served  to  reveal  the  future,  a  species  of 
 divination  peculiar  to  the  sacerdotal  order,  and  which 
 prevailed  also  at  Olympia  in  Elis,  the  centre  of  most 
 of  the  sacerdotal  usages  of  the  day. — The  god  of  the 
 sun  became  also  the  god  of  music,  by  a  natural  allusion 
 to  the  movements  of  the  planets  and  the  mysterious 
 harmony  of  the  spheres  ;  and  the  hawk,  the  universal 
 type  of  the  divine  essence  among  the  Egyptians,  is, 
 with  the  Greeks,  the  sacred  bird  of  Apollo.  (.lE/ia/i, 
 Hisl.  An.,  10,  14.) — As  soon,  however,  as  this  Apollo, 
 whether  his  origin  is  to  be  traced  to  the  banks  of  the 
 Nile  or  to  the  plains  of  India,  assumes  a  marked  sta- 
 tion in  the  Grecian  mythology,  the  national  spirit  la- 
 bours to  disengage  him  of  his  astronomical  attributes. 
 Henceforward  every  mysterious  or  scientific  idea  disap- 
 pears from  the  Daphnephoria,  and  they  now  become  only 
 commemorative  of  the  passion  of  the  god  for  a  young 
 female,  who  turns  a  deaf  ear  to  his  suit.  A  new  deity, 
 Helios  ('H/liOf),  discharges  all  the  functions  of  the  sun. 
 This  god,  in  his  quality  of  son  of  Uranus  and  Terra,  is 
 placed  among  the  cosmogonical  personifications  ;  he 
 has  no  part  to  play  in  the  fables  of  the  poets,  and  he 
 is  only  twice  named  in  Homer,  once  as  the  father  of 
 Circe,  and  again  as  revealing  to  Vulcan  the  infidelity 
 of  liis  spouse.  He  has  no  priests,  no  worship  ;  no 
 solemn  festival  is  celebrated  in  his  praise.  Thereupon, 
 freed  from  every  attribute  of  an  abstract  nature,  Apol- 
 lo appears  in  the  halls  of  Olympus,  participates  in  the 
 celestial  banquets,  interferes  in  the  quarrels  of  earth, 
 becomes  the  tutelary  god  of  the  Trojans,  the  protec- 
 tor of  Paris  and  yEneas,  the  slave  of  Admetus,  and  the 
 lover  of  Daphne.  So  true  is  it,  that  all  these  changes 
 in  the  character  of  this  divinity  were  effected  by  the 
 transmuting  power  of  the  Grecian  spirit,  that  we  see 
 Apollo  preserve  in  the  mysteries,  which  formed  so 
 manv  deposites  of  the  sacerdotal  traditions,  the  astro- 
 nomical attributes  of  which  the  public  worship  had  de- 
 prived him  ;  and  at  a  later  period  we  find  the  New 
 Platonists  endeavouring  to  restore  to  him  these  same 
 attributes,  when  they  wished  to  form  an  allegorical  sys- 
 tem of  religious  science  and  philosophy  out  of  the  ab- 
 surdities of  polytheism.  But,  in  the  popular  religion, 
 instead  of  being  the  god  from  whom  emanate  fecundity 
 and  increase,  he  is  a  simple  shepherd,  conducting  the 
 herds  of  another.  Instead  of  dying  and  arising  again 
 to  life,  he  is  ever  young.  Instead  of  scorching  the 
 earth  and  its  inhabitants  with  his  devourinor  rays,  he 
 darts  his  fearful  arrows  from  a  quiver  of  gold.  Instead 
 of  announcing  the  future  in  the  mysterious  language  of 
 the  planets,  he  prophesies  in  his  own  name.  Nor  does 
 he  any  longer  direct  the  harmony  of  the  spheres  by  the 
 notes  of  his  mystic  lyre  ;  he  has  now  an  instrument, 
 invented  by  Mercury  and  perfected  by  himself.  The 
 dances,  too,  of  the  stars  cease  to  be  conducted  by  him  ; 
 for  he  now  moves  at  the  head  of  the  nine  Muses  (the 
 nine  strings  of  his  divine  cilhaia),  the  divinities  who 
 each  preside  over  one  of  the  liberal  arts.  {Constant, 
 Dc  la  Religwn,  vol.  2,  p.  93.) 
 
 Apoi.LonoRus,  I.  a  native  of  Phalerum,  one  of  the 
 intimate  friends  of  Socrates.  {Plat.,  Pha:d.)—U.  A 
 celebrated  painter  of  Athens,  who  brought  the  art  to 
 a  high  degree  of  perfection,  and  handed  it  in  this  state 
 to  his  pupil  Zeuxis.  Twoof  his  celebrated  productions 
 are  noticed  by  Pliny  (35,  9).  One  of  these  was  a  priest 
 at  the  altar ;  the  other  an  Ajax  struck  by  a  thunder- 
 bolt. These  two  chefs-d'ceuvre  still  existed  in  Pliny's 
 time  at  Pergamus,  and  were  highly  admired.  Apollo- 
 dorus  first  discovered  the  art  of  softenino-  and  degra- 
 
 ding, as  it  is  technically  termed,  the  colours  of  a  paint- 
 ing, and  of  imitating  the  exact  eflfect  of  shades.  Pliny 
 speaks  of  him  with  enthusiasm.  He  became  at  last 
 so  arrogant  as  to  style  himself  the  prince  of  painters, 
 and  never  to  go  forth  into  public  without  wearing  a 
 kind  of  tiara,  alter  the  fashion  of  the  Medes.  His  fame, 
 however,  was  eventually  eclipsed  by  Zeuxis,  who  per- 
 fected all  his  discoveries.  {Plm.,  I.  c. — Silltg,  Diet. 
 Art.,  s.  V.) — HI.  A  famous  sculptor,  whose  country  is 
 uncertain,  but  who  flourished  about  Olymp.  114.  He 
 possessed  great  acuteness  of  judgment,  but  exhibited 
 also,  on  many  occasions,  great  violence  of  temper  ;  so 
 much  so  as  frequently  to  break  to  pieces  his  own  works 
 when  they  chanced  not  to  please  him.  Silauion,  an- 
 other artist,  represented  him  in  bronze  during  one  of 
 these  fits  of  anger,  and  the  work  resembled,  according 
 to  Pliny,  not  a  human  being,  but  choler  itself  person- 
 ified. {Plin.,  34,  8.) — IV.  A  comic  poet  of  Athens, 
 who  flourished  about  300  B.C.  He  was  a  writer  of 
 much  repute  among  the  poets  of  the  New  Comedy. 
 Terence  copied  the  Hccyra  and  Fhonmo  from  two  of 
 his  dramas  ;  all  his  productions,  though  very  numerous, 
 are  now  lost,  except  the  titles  of  eight,  with  a  few  frag- 
 ments. He  was  one  of  the  six  writers  whom  the  an- 
 cient critics  selected  as  the  models  of  the  New  Come- 
 dy. The  other  five  were  Philippides,  Philemon,  Me- 
 nander,  Diphilus,  and  Posidippus.  {Theatre  of  the 
 Greeks,  2d  ed.,  p.  188.) — V.  A  comic  poet  of  Carys- 
 tus  in  Eubcea.  {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  80.) 
 — VI.  A  comic  poet  of  Gela  in  Sicily,  contemporar)- 
 with  Menander.  {Siudas,  s.  v.  'AttoA/IoJ. —  CUnto'ii's 
 Fasti  Hellcnici,  2d  cd.,  p.  xlvi.)— VII.  A  native  of 
 Athens,  and  disciple  of  Aristarchus,  Panaetius,  and 
 Diogenes  the  Babylonian.  He  flourished  about  146 
 B.  C,  and  was  celebrated  for  his  numerous  productions, 
 both  ill  prose  and  verse.  Of  the  former,  we  have, 
 with  the  exception  of  a  few  fragments,  only  the  work 
 entitled  BLC?iivH//K7}  {BMiothcca),  being  a  collection  of 
 the  fables  of  antiquity,  drawn  from  the  poets  and  other 
 writers,  and  related  in  a  clear  and  simple  style.  It  has 
 not  reached  us,  however,  in  a  perfect  state,  since  it 
 breaks  off'  with  the  history  of  Theseus ;  whereas  it 
 would  seem,  from  citations  made  from  it,  that  the  work 
 was  originally  carried  down  to  the  return  of  the  Greeks 
 from  the  Trojan  war.  Faber  (Le  Fevre),  one  of  the 
 editors  of  the  Ribliotheca,  pretends  that  we  merely 
 have  an  extract  from  the  original  work  of  Apollodorus  ; 
 while  another  editor.  Clavier,  maintains  that  Apollo- 
 dorus never  wrote  a  work  of  this  kind,  but  that  what 
 has  come  down  to  us  is  nothing  more  than  a  mere 
 abridgment,  extracted  most  probably  from  several  of 
 his  works,  especially  that  on  the  gods  (rrfpi  -dEuv), 
 which  consisted  of  at  least  20  books.  The  best  edi- 
 tion of  the  Bibliotheca  is  that  of  Heyne,  Gotling.,2  vols. 
 8vo,  1803.  The  edition  of  Clavier,  Pans,  ISO.'j,  2 
 vols.  8vo,  is  also  worthy  of  notice. — Of  the  poetical 
 works  of  Ajiollodorus,  the  most  remarkable  was  the 
 XpoviKU,  or  poetical  Chronicle,  which  is  unfortunately 
 lost.  It  was  divided  into  four  books,  and  contained, 
 according  to  Scyinnus  {v.  16-35,  and  45-49),  a  state- 
 ment of  all  the  remarkable  events,  famous  sieges,  mi- 
 grations, establishments  of  colonies,  treaties,  exploits, 
 &c.,  from  the  fall  of  Troy,  which  Apollodorus  fixed  at 
 1184  B.C.,  down  to  144  B.C.  It  was  written  in  a  brief 
 style,  in  iambic  trimeters.  We  are  indebted  to  this 
 work,  through  the  citations  of  other  writers,  for  the 
 knowledge  of  various  important  dates,  such  as  the  fall 
 of  Troy,  the  invasion  of  the  Heraclidse,  the  Ionian  emi- 
 gration, the  first  Olympiad,  &c.  That  part  of  the 
 Chronicle  which  gave  the  dates  when  the  various  great 
 men  of  antiquity  hved,  served  as  a  basis  for  the  Chron- 
 icle composed  by  Cornelius  Nepos,  but  which  is  also 
 lost.  Apollodorus  composed  also  a  Description  of  the 
 Earth  {Tr}c  -rrepiodoc),  in  iambic  verse,  which  gave 
 Scymnus  of  Chios  and  Dionysius  of  Charax  the  idea 
 of  their  respective  Periegeses.    {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 
APO 
 
 APO 
 
 vol.  4,  p.  57,  seqq. — Jd.,  5,  36. — Clavier,  in  Biogr. 
 Univ.,  vol.  2,  p.  313.) — VIII.  An  Epicurean  philos- 
 opher, supposed  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Ci- 
 cero.     He  governed,  as  chief,  the  school  of  Epicurus, 
 and  the  severity  of  his  administration  caused  him  to 
 receive  the  appellation  o{  KTjnoTvpavvoc  {ti/ranl  of  the 
 garden).     According  to  Diogenes  Laertius,  he  wrote 
 more  than  400  works,  and  among  them  a  life  of  Epi- 
 curus.    (Diog.  LacrL,  10,  2,  et  25. — Consah  Menage, 
 ad  loc.,  where  Gassendi's  e.x{)lanation  of  the  term  Krj- 
 TTOTvpavvo^  is  given.) — IX.  A  native  of  Damascus,  and 
 an  architect  of  great  ability  in  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and 
 Hadrian,  by  the  former  of  whom  he  was  employed  in 
 constructing  the  famous  stone  bridge  over  the  Ister  or 
 Danube,  A.D.  104.     Various  other  bold  and  magnifi- 
 cent works,  both  at  Rome  and  in  the  provinces,  con- 
 tributed to  his  high  reputation.     The  principal  of  these 
 were  the  Forum  of  Trajan,  in  the  middle  of  which  arose 
 the  Trajan  Column,  an  immense  library,  an  odeum, 
 the  Ulpian  basilica,  thermae,  aqueducts,  &c.     Falling 
 into  disgrace  with  Hadrian,  he  lost  his  life  through 
 that  emperor's  caprice.     The  occasion  is  variously  re- 
 lated ;  by  some  it  has  been  ascribed  to  an  old  grudge, 
 which  originated  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  when  Hadrian, 
 giving  an  ignorant  opinion,  in  presence  of  the  then  em- 
 peror, respecting  some  architectural  designs,  was  so 
 seriously  mortified  by  a  sarcastic  rebuke  from  Apollo- 
 dorus,  that  he  never  forgave  him.     This  old  offence 
 was  heightened  by  another  on  the  part  of  ApoUodorus, 
 when  Hadrian  had  ascended  the  imperial  throne.     The 
 emperor  pretended  to  submit  to  him,  for  his  opinion, 
 the  design  of  a  recently-built  temple  of  Venus.     The 
 plainness   of   speaking,   for  which    the   architect  was 
 famed,  got  the  better  of  his  policy,  and  drew  from  him 
 an  observation,  in  allusion  to  the  want  of  proportion 
 between  the  edifice  and  the  statue  it  contained,  that 
 if  "  the  goddess  wished  to  rise  and  go  out"  of  her  tem- 
 ple, it  would  be  impossible  for  her  to  accomplish  her 
 intention.     The  anger  of  the  monarch  knew  no  bounds. 
 ApoUodorus  was  banished  ;   and  finallv,  after  having 
 been  accused  of  various  crimes,  was   put   to  death. 
 {Xiph.,  Vit.  Hadr.) — X.  A  name  common  to  several 
 medical  writers.     The  most  distinguished  of  these  was 
 a  physician  and  naturalist,  born  at  Lemnos,  about  a 
 century  before    the   Christian   era.     He   lived    under 
 Ptolemy  Soter  and  Lagus,  to  one  of  whom,  accord- 
 ing to  Strabo,  he  dedicated  his  works.     The  scholiast 
 to  Nicander  states  that  he  wrote  also  on  plants.     He 
 is  mentioned  by  Pliny,  who  says  that  he  boasted  of 
 the  juice  of  cabbage  and  of  horseradish  as  a  remedy 
 against  poisonous  mushrooms.      Athenajus  often  cites 
 him.     He  wrote  also  on  venomous  animals,  and  there 
 is  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  from  this  work  that  Ga- 
 len derived  his   antidote  against   the  bite  of  vipers. 
 (Plin.,  14,  9.—Athen.,  15,  p.  675.  e.) 
 
 Apollom.\,  I.  a  festival  at  Sicyon,  in  honour  of 
 Apollo  and  Diana.  It  arose  from  the  following  cir- 
 cumstance. These  two  deities  came  to  the  river 
 Sythas,  in  the  vicinity  of  Sicyon,  which  city  was  then 
 called  .^Sgialea,  intending  to  purify  themselves  from 
 the  slaughter  of  the  serpent  Python.  They  were 
 frightened  away,  however,  and  fled  to  Crete,  ^gialea 
 being  visited  by  a  pestilence  soon  after  this,  the  inhab- 
 itants, by  the  advice  of  soothsayers,  sent  seven  boys 
 and  the  same  number  of  girls  to  the  Sythas,  to  entreat 
 the  offspring  of  Latona  to  return.  Their  prayer  was 
 granted,  and  the  two  deities  came  to  the  citadel.  In 
 commemoration  of  this  event,  a  temple  was  erected  on 
 the  banks  of  the  river  to  the  goddess  of  Persuasion, 
 JIelOu,  and  every  year,  on  the  festival  of  Apollo,  a 
 band  of  boys  conveyed  the  statues  of  Apollo  and  Di- 
 ana to  the  temple  of  Persuasion,  and  afterward  brought 
 them  back  again  to  the  temple  of  Apollo.  (Pausan., 
 2,  7.) — II.  A  celebrated  city  of  Illyricum,  near  the 
 mouth  of  the  river  Aous,  or  Aeas,  and  the  ruins  of 
 which  still  retain  the  name  of  Pollina.  It  was  found- 
 162 
 
 '  ed  by  a  colony   from  Corinth  and  Corcyra,  and,  ac- 
 cording to  .Strabo,  was  renowned  for  the  wisdom  of 
 its  laws,  which  appear  to  have  been  framed,  how-cver, 
 rather  on   the   Spartan   than    the    Corinthian   model. 
 ..'Elian  states,  that  decrees  to  the  exclusion  of  foreign- 
 ers were  enforced   here  as  at  Lacedsemon ;  and  Aris- 
 totle affirms,  that  none  could  aspire  to  the  offices  of 
 the  republic  but  the  principal  families,  and  those  de- 
 scended from  the  first  colonists.     {.El.,  V.  //.,  13,  6. 
 — Arist.,  Polil.,  4,  4.)     Apollonia  was  exposed  to  fre- 
 quent attacks  from  the  Illyrians,  and  it  was  probably 
 the  dread  of  these  neighbours,  and  also  of  the  Mace- 
 donians, that  induced  the  city  to  place  itself  under  the 
 protection  of  the  Romans  on  the  first  appearance  of 
 that  people  on  their  coast.     {Polyb.,'Z,\\.)     Through- 
 out the  war  with  Macedon   they  remained  faithful  to 
 the  interest  of  their  new  allies.     From  its  pro.ximily  to 
 Brundisium  and  Hydruntum  in  Italy,  Apollonia  was 
 always  deemed  an  important  station  by  the  Romans  ; 
 and  among  the  extravagant  projects  of  Pyrrhus,  it  is 
 said  he  had  contemplated  the  idea  of  throwing  over  a 
 bridge  to  connect  it  with  the  last-mentioned  place  ;  a 
 distance   not  less   than  fifty  miles!     {Plin.,  3,    11  ) 
 Augustus  spent  many  years  of  his  early  life  in  Apollo- 
 nia, which  were  devoted  to  the  study  of  literature  and 
 philosophy.     {Suet.,  Aug.,   10. — Cramer's  Anc.  Or., 
 vol.  1,  p.  56,  seqq.) — III.  A  town  in   the  interior  of 
 Chalcidice,  on  the  Egnatian  way.     {Scylax,  p.  27. — 
 Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  5,  2.)     Mention  is  made  of  it  in  the 
 Acts  of  the  Apostles  (17,  1),  St.  Paul  having  passed 
 through   it  on  his  way  from  Philippi  to  Thessalonica. 
 The  ruins  are  called  Pollina.     {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Gr., 
 vol.  1,  p.  264.) — IV.  A  city  of  Thrace,  at  the  mouih 
 of  the  river  Nestus.     {Mela,  3,  2 — Uv.,  38,  41.)     It 
 was  called,  in  a  later  age,  Sozopolis,  and  is  now  Sizc- 
 boli. — V.  A  city  of  Assyria,  to  the  northwest  of  Ctesi- 
 phon.     {Amm.  Marcell.,  23,  20.)     Hardouin  and  oth- 
 ers make  it  the  same  with  Antiochia  Assyria,  men- 
 tioned by  Pliny  (6,  27).— VI.  A  city  of  Palestine,  in 
 Samaria,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast.     It  lay  north- 
 west of  Sichem.    {Plin.,  5,  13. — Joseph.,  Amiq.  Jud., 
 13,  23.— M.,  Bell.,  1,  6.)— VII.  A  city  of  Phrygia,  to 
 the  southeast  of  Apamea,  on  the  road  to  Antioch  in 
 Pisidia.     Its    earlier   name  was   Margium.     {Sfrab., 
 576. — Stcph.    Byz.)     Colonel   Leake  is    inclined  to 
 place  it  at  Kclsi  Bourlou,  not  far  from  the  Lake  Bou- 
 dour. — VIII.   A  city  of  Lydia,  called  also  Apollonis, 
 about  300  stadia  from  Pergamus,  and  the  same  distance 
 from  Sardis.      It  was  named  after  the  wife  of  .Attains. 
 Cicero  often  alludes  to  it.     {Cic  ,  Oral,  pro  Place,  c. 
 21  et   32. — Ep.  ad    Quint.,  1,  2,  &c.)     Some  ruins 
 are  visible  near  a  small   hamlet  called  Bullene. — IX. 
 A  city  of  Mysia,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Lake 
 Apolloniatis,  and  near  the  point  where  the  Rhyndacus 
 issues  from  it.      Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  the  Turk- 
 ish town  of  Ahulliona.     {Slrah.,  575.) — X.  A  city  of 
 Cyrenaica,  regarded   as   the  harbour  of  Cyrcne.     It 
 was  the  birth])lace  of  the  geographer  Eratosthenes. 
 Under  the  lower  empire  this  place  took  the  name  of 
 Sozusa,  and  it  is  now  called  Marza  Susu,  or  Sosush. 
 {Mela,  1,  8.—Ptol.) 
 
 Apollonis,  wife  of  Attains  of  Pergamus.  She 
 was  a  native  of  Cyzicus,  and  of  obscure  family. 
 Apollonis  became  the  mother  of  Eumenes,  Attains, 
 Philetserus,  and  Athenaeus,  who  were  remarkable  for 
 fraternal  attachment  as  well  as  for  filial  piety.  After 
 the  death  of  their  mother  they  erected  a  temple  to  her 
 at  Cyzicus,  on  the  columns  of  which  were  placed  nine- 
 teen tablets,  sculptured  in  relief,  and  displaying  the 
 most  touching  incidents  in  history  and  mythology 
 relative  to  filial  attachment.  At  the  bottom  of  these 
 tablets  were  inscriptions  in  verse,  which  have  been 
 preserved  for  us  in  the  Vatican  manuscript  of  the 
 Greek  Anthology.  These  are  given  by  Jacobs,  at  the 
 end  of  his  edition  of  the  Anthology  {Paralipomena  ex 
 codice  Vaticayio),  and  were  previously  published  by 
 
APOLLONIUS. 
 
 APOLLONIUS. 
 
 him  in  the  2d  vol.  of  a  work  entitled  Excrcilatioyies 
 Crilica  in  Snriptorcs  Vetcrcs,  Lips.,  1797,  8vo. 
 
 APOLLONIUS,  I.  a  native   of  Perga  in  Pamphylia, 
 who  flourished  principally  under  Ptolemy  Philopator, 
 towards  the   close  of  the  second  century  before  the 
 Christian  era.     He  is  one  of  the  four  writers  v.'hom 
 we  ought  to  regard  as  the  fathers  of  mathematical  sci- 
 ence, smce  it  was  from  their  works  that  the  moderns 
 first  derived  an  accurate  acquaintance  with  this  de- 
 partment of  knowledge.     These  authors  are,  to  give 
 them   in    chronological    order,    Euclid,    Archimedes, 
 Apollonius,  and  Diophantus.     We  learn  from  Pappus, 
 that  Apollonius  studied  at  Alexandrea  under  the  suc- 
 cessors of  Euclid,  and  that  it  was  here  he  acquired  the 
 superior  skill  in  geometrical  science  which  rendered 
 his  name  so  famous.     The  same  author  gives  no  very 
 favourable  account  of  his  other  qualities.     He  repre- 
 sents him  {Coll.  Math.,  I.  7,  prcef.)  as   a   vain  man, 
 jealous  of  the  merit  of  others,  and  eagerly  seizing  every 
 occasion  to  depreciate  them.     Apollonius  was  one  of 
 the  cnost  prolific  and  profound  writers  in  mathematical 
 science.    His  works  alone  formed  a  considerable  part  of 
 those  which  the  ancients  regarded  as  the  source  of  the 
 true  geometrical  spirit.     His  treatise  on  Conies,  how- 
 ever, is  the  most  remarkable,  and  the  one  that  con- 
 tributed most  to  his  celebrity.     It  had  many  commen- 
 tators among  the  ancients,  such  as  Pappus  of  Alexan- 
 drea, Hypalia  daughter  of  Theon,  Eutocius  of  Asca- 
 lon,  iStc.     The  West  was  acquainted,  for  a  long  pe- 
 riod, in  modern  times,  with  only  the  first  four  books 
 of  the  Conies  of  Apollonius  ;  and  it  was  not  till  about 
 the  middle  of  the  17th  century  that  the  fifth,  sixth,  and 
 seventh  books  were  recovered  from  Arabic  versions. 
 A  magnificent  edition  of  the  whole  eight  books  was 
 published  by  Dr.  Hallcy,  at  Oxford,  in  1710,  the  eighth 
 book  being  in  a  measure  restored  by  him  from  the  in- 
 dications given    by   Pappus.     {Montucla,    Hint,    dcs 
 Math.,  vol.  1,  p.  245,  scqq. — Lucroix,  in  Biogr.  Univ  , 
 vol.  2,  p.  316,  seqq.)—U.   A  poet  of  Alexandrea,  gen- 
 erally called  Apollonius  of  Rhodes,  from   his  having 
 lived  for  some  time  there.     He  was  a  pupil  of  Callim- 
 achus,  but  renouncing  the  erudite  style  of  his  mas- 
 ter, he  endeavoured  to  follow  the  track  of  Homer.      It 
 appears  that  Callimachus  was  offended  with  this  act 
 of  rebellion  against  his  authority,  and  that  it  was  the 
 cause  of  the  enmity  wh:ch  subsisted  between  the  two 
 poets    until    the    death    of  the    former.     Apollonius, 
 having  read  at  Alexandrea  his  Homeric  poem  on  the 
 expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  was  hissed   by  a  party 
 •-vhich  had  been  formed  against  him  by  the  cabals  of 
 (is  master.     Mortified  at  this  treatment,  he  retired  to 
 Rhodes,  where  he  taught  rhetoric,  and   obtained  the 
 rights  of  citizenship.      At  a  subsequent  period,  under 
 Ptolemy  V.  (Epiphanes),  he  succeeded  as  librarian  at 
 Alexandrea  in  the  place  of  Eratosthenes,  who  had  be- 
 come enfeebled  by  age.     His  principal  production,  the 
 poem  on  the  Argonautic  expedition,  is  the  only  one  of 
 his  works  that  has  come  down  to  us.     It  is  divided 
 into  four  books.     The  subject  of  the  poem  is  the  de- 
 parture of  Jason  and  his  companions  in  quest  of  the 
 golden  fleece,  and  the  return  of  these  adventurers  to 
 their  native  shores  after  long  and  perilous  wanderings. 
 The  plan  is  very  simple  :   it  is  that  of  an  historian,  and 
 i.s  not  ada|)ted  to  poetic  composition.     There  is  no 
 unity  of  interest  in  the  poem  ;  for  .lason  is  not  the 
 oidy  hero  of  the  piece,  and  even  if  he  were,  his  char- 
 acter is  not  sufficiently  sustained    for    such  an  end. 
 The  poet  places  him  in  scenes  where  he  acts  without 
 probity  and  without  honour.     The  characters  of  Os-- 
 pheus  and  Hercules  are  better  drawn.     That  of  Medea 
 is  a  complete   failure :    the    passion    that   sways  her 
 breast  is  at  variance  with  both  modesty  and  filial  piety. 
 In  other  respects,  the  poem  contains  many  pleasing 
 descriptions.     A[iollonius  also  deserves  praise  for  not 
 yielding  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  indulging  in  those 
 learned  digressions  that  were  then  popular,  and  for 
 
 which  the  nature  of  his  subject  allowed  him  so  many 
 opportunities.  The  Argonautics  of  Apollonius  are  re- 
 markable for  the  purity  of  the  diction,  and,  with  some 
 exceptions,  the  beauty  of  the  versification  :  they  are, 
 in  this  respect,  a  happv  imitation  of  the  Iliad  and  Odys- 
 sey. Longinus  {dc  SuM.,  33)  calls  Apollonius  utttu- 
 Toc,  an  expression  that  is  well  elucidated  by  the  re- 
 marks of  Quintilian  (10,  I,  54)  on  the  same  writer : 
 "  Non  contemnendum  edidit  opus,  ccquali  quadam 
 mcdiocritate."  He  never  rises  to  the  sublime,  but,  at 
 the  same  time,  never  descends  to  the  vulgar  and  lowly. 
 The  Romans  appear  to  have  entertained  a  high  opin- 
 ion of  the  Argonautics  of  Apollonius.  The  poem  was 
 freely  translated  by  Varro  Atacinus,  and  was  imitated 
 by  Virgil  in  the  fourth  book  of  the  .-Eneid.  It  has 
 been  still  more  followed  by  Valerius  Flaccus,  who  bor- 
 rowed from  it  the  fable  of  his  own  poem  ;  but  it  must 
 be  confessed  that  the  Roman  poet  has  surpassed  his 
 model.  The  best  edition  of  Apollonius  is  that  of 
 Wellauer,  Lips.,  1828,  2  vols.  8vo.  Previous  to  the 
 appearance  of  this,  the  best  edition  was  that  of  Brunck, 
 Lrps.,  1910,  2  vols.  8vo,  with  the  additional  Greek 
 scholia,  curd  G.  H.  Schueffcr.  Brunck's  first  edition 
 appeared  in  1780,  2  vols.  8vo,  from  the  Strasburg 
 press. — III.  A  sophist,  son  of  the  grammarian  Archi- 
 bius,  lived  at  Alexandrea  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  ac- 
 cording to  the  common  opinion,  and  had  Apion  m  the 
 number  of  his  disciples.  Ruhnken,  however  {Pro:/, 
 ad  Hesych.,  vol.  2,  p.  5),  believes  him  to  have  been 
 much  later,  and  that  Apion  lived  long  before  him.  He 
 is  known  by  his  Homeric  Lexicon  {Ae^etc  'OfiTipiKai), 
 containing  a  list  of  the  principal  words  used  by  Ho- 
 mer, with  their  explanations.  It  is  a  very  useful  work, 
 though  much  interpolated.  Villoison  published  the 
 first  edition  of  this  Lexicon  in  1773,  Pans,  2  vols. 
 4to,  from  a  MS.,  which  he  supposed  to  be  of  the  tenth 
 century.  The  commentary  and  prolegomena  of  Vil- 
 loison are  full  of  erudition,  and  yet  he  was  but  twenty- 
 one  years  of  age  when  he  appeared  as  the  editor  of 
 Apollonius.  ToUius  produced  a  re])rint  of  Villoison's 
 edition,  at  Leyden,  in  1788,  8vo.  This  re-impression 
 is  considered  superior  to  the  original,  as  far  as  the  ex- 
 cellent notes  added  by  Tollius  are  concerned.  It  is 
 injured,  however,  by  the  retrenchment  of  Villoison's 
 prolegomena. — IV.  A  grammarian  of  .Mexandrea,  sur- 
 named  Dyscolus  (AvcrAoAof),  "  Ill-humoured."  or 
 "  Morose,"  on  account  of  his  unpleasant  disposition  ; 
 or  else,  as  some  suppose,  from  the  diflicult  questions 
 he  was  accustomed  to  propose  to  the  sarans  of  Alex- 
 andrea. He  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
 century  of  the  Christian  era,  and  passed  his  days  in 
 the  Bruchium,  a  quarter  of  the  city  where  many  learn- 
 ed men  were  supported  at  the  royal  expense.  (Vtd. 
 Alexandrea.)  He  is  the  first  that  reduced  the  subject 
 of  grammar  to  a  systematic  form.  Of  his  numerous 
 writings  in  this  department,  we  have  only  four  trea- 
 tises remaining.  IJepl  SuiTufewc  tuv  tov  ?Jjyov  fn^p- 
 (ji',  "  Of  the  Syntax  of  parts  of  speech  ;"  in  four 
 books  :  TlEpl  'AiTumyijaf,  "  Of  the  Pronoun  :"  Jlepi 
 "Evvdea/iuv,  "  Of  Conjunctions  :"  and  Uepl  'E-n-ippT/- 
 fiuTuv,  "Of  Adverbs."  To  him  is  also  ascribed  a 
 compilation,  entitled  'laTopiuv  Qavpacrioiv  (iiQ.iov, 
 "  A  collection  of  Wonderful  Histories,"  which  has 
 only  the  accidental  merit  of  containing  some  fragments 
 of  lost  writers.  This  last-mentioned  work  is  found 
 in  the  editions  of  Phlegon  given  by  Xylandcr  and 
 Meursius.  Teucher  produced  a  separate  edition  of 
 it  in  1792,  8vo,  from  the  Lcipsic  press.  The  trea- 
 tise on  Syntax  was  first  printed  by  the  elder  Aldu*, 
 in  his  Thesaurus  Clorinicopia},  Venet.,  1495,  fol.  ; 
 and  was  reprinted  by  Junta,  in  1515,  8vo,  Florcnt. 
 Both  these  editions  are  inaccurate.  Sylburg  pub- 
 lished a  new  edition  in  1590,  4to.  Francof.,  with  the 
 text  corrected  from  MSS.  The  best,  however,  is 
 that  of  Bekker,  Bcrolni.,  1817,  8vo.  To  Bekker  we 
 also  owe  editions  of  three  other  works  of  Apollo- 
 
 J  63 
 
APOLLONIUS. 
 
 APOLLONIUS. 
 
 ni'js,  which  had  previously  remained  unedited.  The 
 treatise  on  the  Pronoun  was  first  published  by  him  in 
 Wolf  and  Buttmann's  Museum  Anhq.  Stud.,  vol.  2, 
 BcroL,  1811,  and  the  treatises  on  Conjunctions  and 
 Adverbs  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Anecdota  Grseca. 
 (Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  27.)— V.  A  native 
 of  Alat)anda  in  Caria.  He  taught  rhetoric  at  Rhodes, 
 and  his  school  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  Cicero  and 
 Julius  Csesar  were  among  the  number  of  his  pupils. 
 He  was  remarkable  for  sending  away  those  who  he 
 was  convinced  could  not  become  orators,  instead  of 
 letting  them  waste  their  time  in  attending  on  his  in- 
 structions. His  surname  was  Molo,  or,  according  to 
 others,  Molonis  {son  of  Molo).  Cicero  often  alludes 
 to  him,  sometimes  under  the  name  of  ApoUonius,  on 
 other  occasions  under  that  of  Molo.  {Cic,  de  Orat., 
 1,  28. — Id.,  Brut.,  89.)— VI.  A  native  of  Tyana  in 
 Cappadocia,  of  an  ancient  and  wealthy  family,  born 
 about  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  and  fa- 
 mous in  the  annals  of  ancient  imposture.  Wonderful 
 stories  were  told  of  the  annunciation  made  to  his  mother 
 during  her  pregnancy,  as  well  as  of  the  circumstances 
 under  which  his  birth  took  place.  {Philostr.,  Vit. 
 ApolL,  1,  4.)  His  early  education  was  received  at 
 ^gsK,  a  town  of  Cilicia,  on  the  Sinus  Issicus,  where 
 he  attached  himself  to  the  tenets  and  discipline  of  the 
 Pythagorean  philosophy,  refraining  from  animal  food, 
 living  entirely  upon  fruits  and  herbs,  wearing  no  article 
 of  clothingmade  from  any  animal  substance,  going  bare- 
 foot, and  suffering  his  hair  to  grow  to  its  full  length. 
 He  spent  much  of  his  time  in  the  temple  of  ^i^sculapius 
 at  --Egw,  a  temple  rendered  famous  by  the  wonderful 
 cures  which  were  effected  there  ;  and  the  priests,  find- 
 ing him  possessed  of  talents  and  docility,  initiated  him 
 into  the  mysteries  of  the  healing  art.  His  medical 
 knowledge  proved  subsequently  a  valuable  auxiliary  to 
 him  in  imparting  force  to  his  moral  precepts.  After 
 having  acquired  great  reputation  at  ^gae,  ApoUonius 
 determined  to  qualify  himself  for  the  office  of  a  pre- 
 ceptor in  philosophy  by  passing  through  the  Pythago- 
 rean discipline  of  silence.  Accordingly,  he  is  said  to 
 have  remained  five  years  without  once  exercising  the 
 faculty  of  speech.  During  this  lime  he  chiefly  resided 
 in  Pamphylia  and  Cilicia.  When  his  term  of  silence 
 was  expired,  he  visited  Antioch,  Ephcsus,  and  other 
 cities,  declining  the  society  of  the  rude  and  illiterate, 
 and  conversing  chiefly  with  the  priests.  At  sunrising 
 he  performed  certain  religious  rites,  which  he  disclosed 
 only  to  those  who  passed  through  the  discipline  of  si- 
 lence. He  spent  the  morning  in  instructing  his  disci- 
 ples, whom  he  encouraged  to  ask  whatever  questions 
 they  pleased.  At  noon  he  held  a  public  assembly  for 
 j)opular  discourse.  His  style  was  neither  turgid  nor 
 abstruse,  but  truly  Attic,  and  marked  by  great  force 
 and  persuasion.  ApoUonius,  that  he  might  still  more 
 perfectly  resemble  Pythagoras,  determined  to  travel 
 through  distant  nations.  He  proposed  his  design  to  his 
 disciples,  who  were  seven  in  number,  but  they  refused 
 to  accompany  him.  He  therefore  entered  upon  his  ex- 
 pedition, attended  only  by  two  servants.  At  Ninus 
 he  took,  as  his  associate,  Damis,  an  inhabitant  of  that 
 city,  to  whom  he  boasted  that  he  v^as  skilled  in  all 
 languages,  though  he  had  never  learned  them,  and  that 
 he  even  understood  the  language  of  beasts  and  birds. 
 The  ignorant  Assyrian  worshijiped  him  as  a  god  ;  and, 
 resianing  himself  implicitly  to  his  direction,  accompa- 
 nied him  wherever  he  went.  At  Babylon  he  con- 
 versed with  the  magi,  and,  by  his  sage  discourses,  ob- 
 tained the  favour  and  admiration  of  the  king,  who  fur- 
 nished him  with  camels  and  provisions  for  his  journey 
 over  Caucasus.  He  was  equally  patronised  by  Phra- 
 Otes,  an  Indian  king,  and  after  four  months'  residence 
 with  the  Indian  sages,  returned  to  Babylon,  and  thence 
 into  Ionia.  Various  miracles  of  his  performance  in 
 the  cities  of  Greece  are  gravely  related.  Among 
 other  feats,  he  pretended  that  he  had  raised  the  shade 
 164 
 
 of  Achilles.  At  Athens  he  is  said  to  have  cast  out  a 
 demon,  which  at  its  departure  threw  down  a  statue  ; 
 at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  to  have  predicted  the  at- 
 tempt of  Nero  to  cut  through  it ;  and  in  the  island  »  f 
 Crete,  during  an  earthquake,  to  have  exclaimed  that 
 the  sea  was  bringing  forth  land  at  the  time  that  an  isl- 
 and was  rising  out  of  the  sea  between  Crete  and 
 Thera.  From  Crete  he  repaired  to  Home.  Just  be- 
 fore this  time,  however,  Nero  had  ordered  all  who  prac- 
 tised magic  to  be  driven  from  the  city.  The  friends 
 of  ApoUonius  apprized  him  of  the  hazard  vvhich  was  j 
 likely  to  attend  his  purposed  visit  to  Rome  ;  and  the 
 alarm  was  so  great,  that  out  of  thirty-four  persons  who 
 were  his  stated  companions,  only  eight  chose  to  ac- 
 company him  thither.  He  nevertheless  persevered  in 
 his  resolution,  and,  under  the  protection  of  the  sacred 
 habit,  obtained  admission  into  the  city.  The  next  day 
 he  was  conducted  to  the  consul  Telesinus,  who  was 
 inclined  to  favour  philosophers  of  eveiy  class,  and  ob- 
 tained permission  to  visit  the  temples  and  converse 
 with  the  priests.  From  Rome  ApoUonius  travelled 
 westward  to  Spain.  Here  he  made  an  unsuccessful 
 attempt  to  incite  the  procurator  of  the  province  of  Bae- 
 tica  to  a  conspiracy  against  Nero.  After  the  death  of 
 that  tyrant  he  returned  into  Italy  on  his  way  to  Greece  ; 
 whence  he  proceeded  to  Egypt,  where  Vespasian  was 
 making  use  of  every  expedient  to  establish  his  power. 
 That  prince  early  perceived  that  nothing  would  give 
 greater  credit  with  the  Egyptian  populace  than  to  have 
 his  cause  espoused  by  one  who  was  esteemed  a  fa- 
 voured minister  of  the  gods,  and,  therefore,  did  not 
 fail  to  show  him  every  kind  of  attention  and  respect. 
 The  philosojiher,  in  return,  adapted  his  measures  to 
 the  views  of  the  new  emperor,  and  used  all  his  influ- 
 ence among  the  people  in  support  of  Vespasian's  au- 
 thority. Upon  the  accession  of  Domitian,  ApoUonius 
 was  no  sooner  informed  of  the  tyrannical  proceedings 
 of  that  emperor,  and  particularly  of  his  proscriptions 
 of  philosophers,  than  he  assisted  in  raising  a  sedition 
 against  him,  and  in  favour  of  Nerva,  among  the  Egyp- 
 tians ;  so  that  Domitian  thought  it  necessary  to  issue 
 an  order  that  he  should  be  seized  and  brought  to  Rome. 
 ApoUonius,  being  informed  of  the  order,  set  out  im- 
 mediately, of  his  own  accord,  for  that  city.  Upon  his 
 arrival  he  was  brought  to  trial;  but  his  judge,  the 
 prsetor  .(Elian,  who  had  formerly  known  him  in  Egypt, 
 was  desirous  of  favouring  him,  and  so  conducted  the 
 process  that  it  terminated  in  his  acquittal.  ApoUonius 
 now  passed  over  into  Greece,  and  visited  various  parts 
 of  the  country,  gaining  new  followers  wherever  he  went. 
 He  finally  settled  at  Ephesus  in  Asia  Minor,  where  he 
 established  a  school  and  had  many  disciples.  Here 
 a  story  is  related  of  him,  which,  if  true,  implies  that 
 he  was  acquainted  with  the  conspiracy  against  Domi- 
 tian. At  the  moment  when  that  tyrant  was  cut  off' at 
 Rome,  ApoUonius  is  said  to  have  made  a  sudden 
 pause  in  the  midst  of  a  public  disputation  at  Ephesus, 
 and,  changing  his  tone,  to  have  exclaimed,  "  Well 
 done,  Stephen  !  take  heart :  kill  the  tyrant  ;  kill  him  ;" 
 and  then,  after  a  short  pause,  to  have  added,  "  the  ty- 
 rant is  dead  ;  he  is  killed  this  very  hour."  After  this 
 we  hear  little  of  him,  except  that  Nerva  wrote  to  him 
 on  his  accession  ;  but  it  is  very  probable  that  he  died 
 at  Ephesus  during  the  short  reign  of  that  emperor,  at 
 the  very  advanced  age  of  ninety-seven.  The  sources 
 of  information  concerning  this  extraordinary  man  are 
 very  uncertain.  His  life  by  Philostratus,  from  which 
 the  foregoing  sketch  is  principally  selected,  was  com- 
 piled two  hundred  years  after  his  death,  by  order  of 
 the  Empress  Julia,  widow  of  Severus,  which  prince 
 regarded  ApoUonius  as  a  divinely-inspired  personage, 
 and  is  said  to  have  associated  his  image  in  a  temple 
 with  those  of  Orpheus,  Abraham,  and  our  Saviour. 
 Philostratus.  a  mere  sophist,  received  as  materials  the 
 journal  of  Damis,  his  companion  and  disciple,  who 
 was  ignorant  and  credulous,  and  a  short  and  imperfect 
 
APOLLONIUS. 
 
 APO 
 
 memoir  by  Maxcntius  of  ^Egas,  now  lost.  All  sorts 
 of  fables  and  traditionary  tales  are  mixed  up  with 
 the  account  of  Philostratus,  who  only  merits  atten- 
 tion for  a  mere  outlme  of  the  facts  upon  which  he 
 must  necessarily  have  formed  his  marvellous  super- 
 structure. The  claim  of  the  whole  to  notice  rests 
 chiefly  on  the  disposition  of  the  pagans,  when  Chris- 
 tianity began  to  gain  ground,  to  assimilate  the  charac- 
 ter and  merits  of  Apollonius  with  those  of  the  Divine 
 Founder  of  the  rising  religion.  Something  is  also  due 
 to  a  life  so  singular  as  that  of  Apollonius,  who  certainly 
 contrived  to  pass  for  a  divinely-favoured  person,  not 
 only  in  his  own  days,  but  as  long  as  paganism  pre- 
 vailed. l"he  inhabitants  of  Tyana  dedicated  a  temple 
 to  his  name  ;  the  Ephesians  erected  a  statue  to  him 
 under  the  name  of  Hercules  Alexicacus,  for  delivering 
 them  from  the  plague  ;  Hadrian  collected  his  letters  ; 
 the  Emperor  Severus  honoured  him  as  already  de- 
 scribed ;  Caracalla  erected  a  temple  to  him  ;  Aurelian, 
 out  of  regard  to  his  memory,  refrained  from  sacking 
 Tyana ;  lastly,  Ammianus  Marcellinus  ranks  him 
 among  the  emuient  men,  who,  like  Socrates  and  Numa, 
 were  visited  by  a  demon.  All  these  prove  nothing  of 
 the  supernatural  attributes  of  Apollonius,  but  they  are 
 decisive  of  the  opinion  entertained  of  him.  At  the 
 same  time,  Dr.  Lardner  clearly  shows  that  the  life  of 
 Philostratus  was  composed  with  a  reference  to  the 
 history  of  Pythagoras  rather  than  to  that  of  our  Saviour. 
 (Compare  the  remarks  of  Mitchell,  in  the  Introduction 
 to  his  edition  of  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes,  p.  viii., 
 seqq.,  Land,  1838.)  On  the  whole,  as  his  correct 
 doctrines  appear  to  have  been  extremely  moral  and  pure, 
 it  may  be  the  fairest  way  to  rank  him  among  that  less 
 obnoxious  class  of  impostors,  who  pretend  to  be  di- 
 vinely gifted,  with  a  view  to  secure  attention  and  obe- 
 dience to  precepts,  which,  delivered  in  the  usual  way, 
 would  be  generally  neglected.  Of  the  writings  of 
 Apollonius,  there  remain  only  his  Apology  to  Domilian, 
 and  eighty-four  epistles,  the  brevity  of  which  is  in 
 favour  of  their  authenticity.  They  were  edited  by 
 Comelin  in  1601,  8vo,  and  by  Stephens,  in  his  Epistolae, 
 1577.  His  life  by  Philostratus  is  found  in  the  wri- 
 tings of  that  sophist,  the  best  edition  of  which  is  that 
 of  Olearius,  Lips.,  1709,  fol.  {Enfield's  History  of 
 Philosophy,  vol.  2,  p.  39,  seqq. — Muhaud,  Biogr. 
 Univ.,  vol  2,  p.  320,  seqq.) — -Vll.  A  stoic  philosopher, 
 born  at  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  or,  according  to  some,  at 
 Chalcedon  in  Bithynia.  His  high  reputation  induced 
 the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius  to  send  for  him  to  come 
 to  Rome  in  order  to  take  charge  of  the  education  of 
 Marcus  Aurelius.  On  his  arrival  at  the  capital,  the 
 emperor  sent  him  an  eager  invitation  to  repair  to  the 
 palace  ;  but  the  philosopher  declined  to  come,  observ- 
 ing that  the  pupil  ought  to  come  to  the  master,  not  the 
 master  to  the  pupil.  The  emperor,  on  receiving  this 
 answer,  observed,  with  a  smile,  "  It  was  then  easier, 
 ii  seems,  for  Apollonius  to  come  from  Chalcis  to  Rome, 
 than  from  his  residence  in  Rome  to  the  palace  in  the 
 s.aine  city!"  Antoninus,  however,  hastened  to  send 
 his  royal  pupil  to  him,  and  Aurelius  profited  in  no 
 small  degree  by  the  lessons  of  his  instructer.  The 
 Meditations  of  Aurelius  contain  a  eulogium  on  his 
 Ftoic  preceptor.  {Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  2,  p.  323.) — 
 VIH,  A  sculptor,  distinguished  by  a  statue  of  Hercu- 
 les, the  extant  part  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  Vati- 
 can Museum  at  Rome,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of 
 the  Belvidere  tomo.  He  was  a  native  of  Athens,  and, 
 .iLCcording  to  Winckclmann,  flourished  a  short  time 
 subsequent  to  Alexander  the  Great.  This  opinion  is 
 founded  principally  upon  the  form  of  the  letters  com- 
 posing the  Greek  inscription  sculptured  on  the  marble. 
 A  conjecture  of  this  kind,  however,  can  at  best  be  only 
 approximative.  The  famous  torso  of  the  Belvidere  Her- 
 cules has  been  the  admiration  of  all  artists.  Michael 
 .\ngelo  sketched  it  from  every  possible  point  of  view ; 
 and  when,  in  his  old  age,  he  was  deprived  of  sight, 
 
 the  enthusiastic  painter  caused  himself  to  be  conduct- 
 ed to  this  chefd'ceuvre  of  art,  and,  by  passing  his 
 hands  over  it,  sought  in  this  way  to  enjoy  those  feel- 
 ings of  delight  which  his  loss  of  vision  seemed  to  deny 
 him.  {La  Salic,  in  Biogr.  Unrc,  vol.  2,  p.  325.) — 
 IX.  A  sculptor,  who  made  the  head  of  a  young  satyr, 
 now  preserved  at  Egremont  House,  Petworth.  (Con- 
 sult 0.  Mailer,  Amalth.,  3,  2.52.)— X.  A  sculptor, 
 who,  in  connexion  with  his  brother  Tauriscus,  (on- 
 structed  a  celebrated  image  of  a  bull,  formerly  the 
 property  of  Asinius  Pollio.  This  image  is  generally 
 supposed  to  be  that  now  known  as  the  Farncsc  Hull, 
 though  artists  have  observed  several  things  in  the  lat- 
 ter performance  which  argue  it  to  be  of  a  later  date, 
 {Plin.,  36,  5. — Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 ApoNi.i.N'A,  an  island  near  Lilyba;um.  {Htrt.,  B. 
 Afnc.,  2.)  Cluverius  thinks  that  one  of  the  iEgusae 
 or  ^gades  is  here  meant.  Others  suppose  it  to  be 
 the  same  with  Paconia  of  Ptolemy.  In  one  MS.  the 
 name  is  given  as  Apononia.     {Cluv.,  Sicrl.,  2,  l^.) 
 
 Aponus  Fons,  a  fountain,  or,  more  correctly,  warm 
 mineral  springs  about  six  miles  to  the  south  of  Patavi- 
 um.  They  were  celebrated  for  their  healing  proper- 
 ties, and  hence  their  name,  from  o,  not,  and  Tzuvog,  the 
 anguish  or  pain  of  a  malady,  as  indicating  their  ])rop- 
 erty  of  lulling  or  removing  the  pains  of  sickness. 
 There  was  also  a  species  of  divination  connected  with 
 them,  by  throwing  articles  into  the  fountain.  {Lucan, 
 Phars.,  7,  193.— «uf<.,  Vit.  Tih.,  c.  14,  and  Cms., 
 ad  he.)  The  Aponus  Fons  was  the  principal  source 
 of  what  were  denominated  the  Aqu(t  Patarina.  The 
 name  of  Bagni  d'Abano,  by  which  these  waters  are  at 
 present  known,  has  evidently  been  formed  by  corrup- 
 tion from  Aponus.     {Pltn.,  2,  103.— W.,  31,  6.) 
 
 Apotheosis,  a  ceremony  observed  by  some  ancient 
 nations,  by  which  they  raised  their  kings,  heroes,  and 
 great  men  to  the  rank  of  deities.  Neither  the  Egyp- 
 tians nor  Persians  seem  to  have  adopted  this  custom. 
 The  Greeks  were  the  first  who  admitted  it.  The 
 Romans  borrowed  it  from  them.  Herodian  (4,  2)  has 
 left  us  an  account  of  the  apotheosis  of  a  Roman  em- 
 peror. After  the  body  of  the  deceased  was  burned,  a 
 waxen  image  of  it  was  placed  upon  a  tall  ivory  couch 
 in  the  vestibule  of  the  palace,  the  couch  being  decked 
 with  the  most  sumptuous  coverings.  The  image  rep- 
 resented the  emperor  as  pale  and  suffering  under  sick 
 ness.  This  continued  for  seven  days.  The  city  mean- 
 while was  in  sorrow.  For  the  greater  part  of  each 
 day  the  senate  sat  ranged  on  the  left  side  of  the  bed, 
 dressed  in  robes  of  mourning,  the  ladies  of  the  first  rank 
 sitting  on  the  right  side  in  white  robes,  without  any  or- 
 naments. During  the  seven  days  the  physicians  paid  reg- 
 ular visits  to  the  sick  person,  and  always  reported  that  he 
 grew  worse,  until  at  length  they  gave  out  that  he  was 
 dead.  When  the  death  was  announced,  a  band  consist- 
 ing of  the  noblest  members  of  the  equestrian  order,  and 
 the  most  distinguished  youths  of  senatorian  rank,  carried 
 the  couch  and  image,  first  to  the  Forum,  where  hymns 
 and  dirges  were  sung,  and  then  to  the  Campus  Mar- 
 tins. In  this  latter  place  a  large  pyramidal  edifice  of 
 wood  had  been  previously  constructed,  the  interior 
 being  filled  with  combustibles  of  all  kinds.  The 
 couch  was  placed  on  this,  with  abundance  of  aromatics 
 and  spices  The  equestrian  order  then  moved  in  sol- 
 emn array  around  the  pile,  imitating  by  their  evolu- 
 tions the  pyrrhic  dance  ;  and  chariots  were  also  driven 
 around,  having  the  persons  standing  in  them  arrayed 
 in  their  praetextas,  and  wearing  masks  which  recalled 
 the  features  of  the  most  celebrated  Romans  of  former 
 days.  The  new  emperor  then  applied  a  torch  to  the 
 pile,  and  fire  was  also  communicated  to  it  by  the  rest. 
 Meanwhile,  an  eagle  was  let  fly  from  the  summit  of 
 the  structure,  which  was  to  ascend  with  the  flames  to 
 the  heavens,  and  was  supposed  to  bear  with  it  from 
 earth  the  soul  of  the  deceaspd  emperor.  If  the  deified 
 person  was  a  female,  a  peacock,  not   an  eagle,  was 
 
 165 
 
APP 
 
 A  PP 
 
 sent  from  the  funeral  pile.  (Lydius,  de  Re  Mil.,  p. 
 93. — Innifch,  ad  Hcrodian.,  I.  c.) — Some  writers, 
 misled  by  the  language  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  have  as- 
 cribed the  introduction  of  the  apotheosis  into  Greece 
 to  Egyptian  colonies.  Diodorus,  however,  a  partisan 
 of  the  theory  of  Euhemerus,  only  saw  in  the  gods  of 
 every  religion  mere  deified  mortals.  Leibnitz  commits, 
 with  regard  to  the  Persians,  an  error  similar  to  that  of 
 Diodorus,  when  he  sees  in  the  myth  of  Arimanes  no- 
 thing more  than  the  apotheosis  of  the  chief  of  a  No- 
 madic tribe.  Mosheiiu  also  (Annot.  ad.  Cudworlh,  p. 
 2:18)  pretends  that  Mithras  was  only  a  deified  hunter, 
 because,  upon  the  monuments  that  have  reached  us,  he 
 is  represented  as  killing  a  bull,  and  being  followed  by  a 
 dog !  (Consult  Constant,  de  la  Religion,  vol.  2,  p. 
 446,  in  not.) 
 
 AipIa  via,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Roman  roads, 
 both  on  account  of  its  length,  and  the  difficulties  which 
 it  was  necessary  to  overcome  in  its  construction, 
 hence  called  the  "  Queen  of  the  Roman  Ways,"  Regina 
 Viarum.  {Stat.,  Si/lv.,  2,  2.)  It  was  made,  as  Livy 
 informs  us(9, 29),  by  the  censor  Appius  Ccecus,  A.U.C. 
 442,  and  in  the  first  instance  was  only  laid  down  as 
 far  as  Capua,  a  distance  of  about  a  thousand  stadia, 
 or  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles;  but  even  this  por- 
 tion of  the  work,  according  to  the  account  of  Diodorus 
 Siculus,  was  executed  in  so  expensive  a  manner,  that 
 it  exhausted  the  public  treasury  (20,  36).  From 
 Capua  it  was  subsequently  carried  on  to  Beneventuni, 
 and  finally  to  Brundisium,  when  this  port  became  the 
 great  place  of  resort  for  those  who  were  desirous  of 
 crossing  over  into  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  {Strata, 
 283.)  This  latter  part  of  the  Appian  Way  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  constructed  by  the  consul  Appius  Clau- 
 dius Pulcher,  grandson  of  Cscus,  A.U.C.  504,  and  to 
 have  been  completed  by  another  consul  of  the  same 
 family  thirty-six  years  after.  We  find  frequent  men- 
 tion made  of  repairs  done  to  this  road  by  the  Roman 
 emperors,  and  more  particularly  by  Trajan,  both  in  the 
 histories  of  the  time,  and  also  in  ancient  inscriptions. 
 This  road  seems  to  have  been  still  in  excellent  order  in 
 the  time  of  Procopius,  who  gives  a  very  good  account 
 of  the  manner  in  which  it  was  constructed.  He  says, 
 "  An  expeditious  traveller  might  very  well  perform  the 
 journey  from  Rome  to  Capua  in  five  days.  Its  breadth 
 is  such  as  to  admit  of  two  carriages  passing  each  oth- 
 er. Above  all  others,  this  way  is  worthy  of  notice  : 
 for  the  stones  which  were  employed  on  it  are  of  an  ex- 
 tremely hard  nature,  and  were  doubtless  conveyed  by 
 Appius  from  some  distant  quarry,  as  the  adjoining 
 country  furnishes  none  of  that  kind.  These,  when 
 they  had  been  cut  smooth  and  squared,  he  fitted  to- 
 gether closely,  without  using  iron  or  any  other  sub- 
 stance ;  and  they  adhere  so  firmly  to  each  other,  that 
 they  appear  to  have  been  thus  formed  by  nature,  and 
 not  cemented  by  art.  And  though  they  have  been 
 travelled  over  by  so  many  beasts  of  burden  and  car- 
 riages for  ages,  yet  they  do  not  seem  to  have  been  any 
 wise  moved  from  their  place,  or  broken,  nor  to  have 
 lost  any  part  of  their  original  smoothness."  {Procop., 
 Bell.  Got.,  3.)  According  to  Eustace,  such  parts  of 
 the  Appian  Way  as  have  escaped  destruction,  as  at 
 Fondi  and  Mnla,  show  few  traces  of  wear  and  decay 
 after  a  duration  of  two  thousand  years.  {Classical 
 Tour,  vol.  3,  p.  177.)  The  same  writer  states  the 
 average  breadth  of  the  Appian  Way  at  from  eighteen 
 to  twenty-two  feet. 
 
 Appi.iDEs,  a  name  given  to  the  five  deities,  Venus, 
 Pallas,  Vesta,  Concord,  and  Peace.  A  temple  was 
 erected  to  thein  near  the  Appias  Aquse,  in  the  vicinity 
 of  Julius  Cajsar's  forum.  Such  at  least  is  the  expla- 
 nation commonly  given  to  the  expression  Appiadcs 
 Dea,  as  occurring  in  Ovid  {A.  A.,  3,  452).  Bur- 
 mann,  however,  thinks  that  the  poet  refers  merely  to 
 the  nymphs  of  the  adjacent  fountain,  while  Heinsius, 
 altering  the  common  lection  of  Dea  to  sua,  under- 
 166 
 
 stands  females  of  loose  character,  remarking  as  fel- 
 lows :  "  Extra  urbem  plebs  suhmoeniana  et  meretn- 
 culce  habitabant,  maxiine  Via  Appia."  {Hems.,  ad 
 Ov.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Apfianus,  a  native  of  Alexandrea,  who  flourished 
 at  Rome  undei  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  Antoninus  Pms. 
 Here  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  forensic  abilities, 
 and  acquired  the  post  of  a  procurator  of  the  empire, 
 and,  according  to  some  authorities,  the  government  of 
 the  province  of  Egypt.  His  Roman  History  (Pu- 
 /uaiKu,  or  'laropia  'Pu/iaiK?'/),  in  twenty-four  books,  no 
 longer  exists  entire.  It  embraced  the  history  of  the 
 Republic  to  the  time  of  Augustus,  in  an  order  which 
 Appian  himself  explains  in  his  preface.  He  states, 
 that  in  reading  the  works  which  treated  of  Roman 
 History,  he  was  wearied  with  being  compelled  to  trans- 
 port his  attention  every  moment  from  one  province  to 
 another,  according  as  the  scene  of  events  changed  :  to 
 pass  from  Carthage  to  Spain,  from  Spain  to  Sicily, 
 from  Sicily  to  Macedonia,  and  from  this  latter  coun- 
 try again  to  Carthage.  To  remedy  this  inconve- 
 nience, inseparable  from  synchronism,  he  collects  to- 
 gether in  his  history  the  events  that  have  passed  in 
 each  particular  country  :  it  is  thus  that  the  several 
 books  of  his  history  arose,  in  which  the  facts  are  stated, 
 not  in  a  chronological  order,  nor  by  principal  epochs, 
 but  with  reference  to  the  country  in  which  they  took 
 place.  This  method,  which  has  been  sometimes  im- 
 itated in  modern  times,  and  especially  by  Gibbon,  pre- 
 sents certainly  some  advantages.  It  labours  under 
 the  serious  objection,  however,  of  turning  away  the  at- 
 tention of  the  reader,  in  too  great  a  degree,  from  the 
 main  subject  of  the  narrative.  It  is  difficult,  there- 
 fore, to  follow,  in  Appian,  the  progressive  greatness 
 and  downfall  of  the  state  of  which  he  treats.  Still, 
 however,  his  work  abounds  with  valuable  information 
 respecting  the  history  of  those  times,  and  on  many 
 points  of  ancient  geography.  Though  evidently  a 
 compilation,  it  is  not  the  less  important,  however,  on 
 this  account,  since  many  of  the  sources  whence  he  de- 
 rived his  information  are  completely  lost  to  us,  while 
 for  some  epochs  of  Roman  history  he  is  the  only  au- 
 thority we  possess.  The  details  into  which  be  enters, 
 on  the  events  of  the  wars  of  which  he  treats,  render  his 
 work  a  very  interesting  one  for  military  readers.  Set- 
 ting aside  the  defecti've  nature  of  the  plan,  Appian's 
 history  is,  in  other  respects,  wanting  neither  in  critical 
 views  of  the  subject,  nor  in  discernment.  The  gravest 
 reproach,  however,  to  which  he  is  exposed,  is  his  par- 
 tiality for  the  Romans,  which  makes  it  necessary  to 
 read  him  with  caution.  His  style  is  formed  on  that 
 of  Polybius,  but  he  is  inferior  to  his  model. — Of  the 
 first  five  books  of  Appian's  History  we  possess  merely 
 fragments.  The  first  book,  which  was  entitled  'Po- 
 fxaiKuv  (inaLkini],  contained  the  history  of  the  seven 
 Roman  kings  :  the  succeeding  four  were  entitled  re- 
 spectively, ^IraXiKi'},  "LaiiviTiKij,  KelrtKi'/,  and  2tj(e- 
 TiiKj/  Kal  'NijaiuTiK'n,  that  is,  the  wars  of  the  Romans 
 in  Italy,  with  the  Sammies,  with  the  Gauls,  and  in 
 Sicily  and  the  other  isles.  We  have  then  the  6th, 
 7th,  and  Sih  entire.  The  sixth  book,  entitled  'l&ijpiK^, 
 contains  the  history  of  the  wars  in  Spain  ;  the  seventh, 
 'Avi-c6a?uK/'/,  that  of  the  wars  with  Hannibal;  the 
 eighth,  AtCvKi'i,  Kapxv^ovLKij  Kal  KovjutdtKTj,  ihe  Pumc 
 Wars  ;  of  the  ninth,  ^laKedoviKTi,  which  contained  the 
 wars  with  Macedonia,  we  have  only  fragments  re- 
 maining ;  the  tenth, '  E/lAj^j't/i^  Kal  'luvixy,  containing 
 the  wars  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  is  entirely  lost ; 
 of  the  eleventh,  ^vpiaK//  kuI  JlapOiKT/,  the  first  part, 
 the  history  of  the  wars  in  Stpia,  alone  remains  ;  the 
 second  part,  the  wars  with  the  Farthians,  is  lost  :  this 
 lacuna,  in  truth,  is  supplied  in  the  MSS.  ;  the  part, 
 however,  thus  supplied,  was  not  written  by  Appian, 
 but  is  a  mere  compilation  from  Plutarch's  Lives  of 
 Crassus  and  Antony.  Indeed,  there  is  some  reason 
 to  think  that  a  history  of  the  wars  with  the  Parthian* 
 
A  P  P 
 
 APPIUS. 
 
 was  never  written  by  Appian.  (Consult  Schwcigk.,  ad 
 Hist.  Parlh.  Ajipiano  tern,  irib.,  p.  921,  vol.  3.) 
 The  twelfth  book,  MidpadariK^,  contains  the  history 
 of  the  wars  with  Milhradates.  In  the  nine  succeed- 
 ing books  (from  the  13th  to  the  21st  inclusive),  Appi- 
 an gave  the  history  of  the  civil  wars,  from  the  time  of 
 Marius  and  Sylla  to  the  battle  of  Actium  and  the 
 conquest  of  Egypt-  Of  these  nine,  the  first  five  re- 
 main :  they  coniaiu,  in  the  form  of  an  introduction, 
 the  history  of  all  the  troubles  that  disturbed  the  Roman 
 republic  from  the  secession  to  the  Moas  Sacer  down 
 to  the  defeat  of  Sextus  Pompeius.  The  twenty-sec- 
 ond book,  entitled  'F^KarovTaeTia,  contained  the  his- 
 tory of  the  first  handrcd  years  of  the  dominion  of  the 
 Caesars.  From  the  account  given  of  its  contents, 
 however,  by  Appian  himself  {Pmf.,  15),  as  well  as 
 from  other  sources  {Phol.,  Cod  ,  57),  it  appears  to  have 
 contained  what  we  should  call  at  the  present  day  a 
 statistical  account  of  the  Roman  empire  ;  the  loss  of 
 Ihis  is  much  to  be  regretted.  The  twenty-third  book, 
 'lA?i.vpiKi/,  or,  as  Photius  calls  it,  AaKiar'/,  contains  the 
 wars  of  Illj/ria  :  the  twenty-fourth  book,  'ApaCiK//, 
 treating  of  the  wars  of  Arabia,  is  lost.  From  this  list 
 it  results,  that,  regarding  the  eleventh  as  complete,  we 
 have  ten  books  remaining  of  the  History  of  Appian. — 
 The  best  edition  of  Appian  is  that  of  Schweighaeuser, 
 Lips  ,  1785,  3  vols.  8vo.  {Michaud,  in  Biogr.  Univ  , 
 vol.  2,  p.  329,  scqq. — Schweigh.,  ad  App. — Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  173,  scgij.) 
 
 AppIi  forum,  a  small  place  on  the  Appian  Way, 
 about  sixteen  miles  from  the  Tres  Tabernaj.  It  is 
 mentioned  by  St.  Paul  {Acts,2S,  15),  and  is  also  well 
 known  as  Horace's  second  resting-place  in  his  journey 
 to  Brundisium.  Holstenius  {Adnot.,  p.  210)  and  Cor- 
 radini  {Vet.  Lat.,  11,  p.  94)  agree  in  fixing  the  posi- 
 tion of  Forum  Appii  at  Casartllo  di  Santa  Maria. 
 But  D'Anville,  from  an  exact  computation  of  distances 
 and  relative  positions,  inclines  to  place  it  at  Borgo 
 Lungo,  near  Treponti,  on  the  present  road.  {Anal. 
 Gcogr.  de  riialie,  p.  186.)  It  would  appear,  that  this 
 opinion  of  D'Anville's  is  the  more  correct  one,  espe- 
 cially as  it  is  clear  from  Horace  {Serin.,  1,  5),  that 
 from  hence  it  was  usual  to  embark  on  a  canal,  which 
 ran  parallel  to  the  Appian  Way,  and  which  was  called 
 Decennovium,  its  length  being  nineteen  miles.  {Pro- 
 cop.,  Rer.  Got ,  1,  2.)  Vestiges  of  this  canal  may  still 
 be  traced  a  little  beyond  Borgo  Lungo.  {Cramer's 
 Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  93.)  As  regards  the  ancient 
 name,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  term  Forum  was 
 applied  to  places  in  the  country  where  markets  were 
 held  and  courts  of  justice  convened. 
 
 Appioi.iE.  a  city  of  Latiuiu,  in  the  territory  of  Setia 
 (Corraduii,  Vet.  Lat.,  2,  2),  taken  and  burnt  by  Tar- 
 quinius  Priscus.  It  is  said  to  have  furnished  from  its 
 spoils  the  sums  necessary  for  the  construction  of  the 
 Circus  Maximus.  (Dion.  Hal.,  3,  49. — Liv.,  1,  35. 
 — Slrabo,  231.)  According  to  Corradini  (/.  c),  the 
 name  of  Vallc  Apiok  is  given  in  old  writings  to  a  tract 
 of  country  situated  between  Sezza  and  Pipcrno.  (  Cra- 
 mcr'g  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  108  ) 
 
 Appius  C(.a.ui)ius,  I.  the  founder  of  the  Appian 
 family  at  Rome.  He  was  a  Sabine  by  birth,  a  native 
 of  llegillam,  and  his  original  name  is  said  to  have  been 
 Attns  Clausus.  In  the  year  of  the  city  260,  the  last 
 portion  of  what  Niebuhr  considers  the  mythical  age 
 of  Roman  History,  Attus  is  said  to  have  migrated  to 
 Rome,  with  the  tnemberg  and  clients  of  his  house  to 
 the  number  of  .5000.  This  {wwerful  accession  of 
 strength  ensured  him,  of  course,  a  favourable  recep- 
 tion ;  he  was  classed  among  the  patricians,  enrolled  in 
 the  senate,  and  assumed  the  more  Roman  name  of 
 Appius  Claudius.  His  motive  for  leaving  his  native 
 country  is  said  to  have  been  a  wish  to  live  on  friendly 
 terms  with  the  Romans,  with  whom  his  fellow-citi- 
 zens, notwithstanding  his  advice,  were  bent  on  making 
 war.     Lands  were  assigned  to  him  and  his  followers 
 
 across  the  Anio,  and  the  nucleus  was  thus  formed  of 
 what  afterward  became  the  Claudian  tribe.  Appius 
 was  a  man  of  harsh  and  stern  character,  and  frequently 
 brought,  on  this  account,  into  collision  with  the  lower 
 orders,  especially  in  the  controversies  between  cred- 
 itors and  debtors.  His  zeal  for  the  cause  of  the  patri- 
 cians knew  no  bounds  ;  and  so  much,  in  fact,  was  he 
 dreaded  by  the  plebeians,  that  when  the  latter  had  re- 
 fused on  one  occasion  to  enrol  themselves  for  the  war 
 against  the  Veientes,  the  mere  rumour,  spread  by  the 
 nobility,  that  Appius  was  about  to  be  appointed  dic- 
 tator, induced  the  multitude  immediately  to  yield. 
 {Liv.,  2,  16,  seqq.) — II.  Sabinus,  son  of  the  preceding, 
 rendered  himself  still  more  odious  to  the  people  than 
 even  his  father  had  been,  by  his  inflexible  and  despotic 
 character.  Being  elected  consul  A.U.C.  283,  he  op- 
 posed with  the  utmost  violence  the  passage  of  the 
 Publilian  law,  which  ordained  that  the  plebeian  magis- 
 trates should  be  chosen  at  the  Comitia  Tributa,  and 
 the  prudence  of  his  colleague  Quinctius  alone  prevent- 
 ed bloodshed.  Some  time  after  this  he  was  sent 
 against  the  Volsci  ;  but  his  soldiers,  indignant  at  his 
 haughtiness  and  severity,  refused  to  fight,  when  drawn 
 up  for  action,  and  fled  to  their  camp.  The  next  day, 
 on  his  marching  back  to  the  Roman  territory,  his  army 
 was  attacked  by  the  foe,  and  disgracefully  put  to  flight. 
 After  punishing  his  troops  by  decimation  he  returned 
 to  the  city  ;  but  the  next  year  he  was  cited  for  trial, 
 on  account  of  his  disgraceful  return  from  the  Volsci, 
 and  more  particularly  for  his  violation  of  the  tribuni- 
 tian  privileges,  and  his  opposition  to  the  Agrarian  law. 
 After  pleading  his  cause  in  person,  and  daunting  his  op- 
 ponents so  much  that  they  were  compelled  to  adjourn 
 the  case,  he  was  carried  ofTby  a  malady  before  a  second 
 hearing  could  be  had.  {Liv.,  2,  56,  seqq. —  Flor.,  1, 
 22.) — HI.  Crassinus,  a  member  of  the  patrician  fam- 
 ily of  the  Claudii.  Though  cruel  and  arrogant  like  his 
 ancestors,  he  was  hardly  appointed  consul,  B.C.  401, 
 when,  to  gain  the  favours  of  the  people,  he  supported 
 the  law  proposed  by  the  tribune  Terentillius  or  Teren- 
 tius,  which  had  for  its  object  a  change  in  the  form  of 
 government.  Instead  of  the  usual  magistrates,  de- 
 cemvirs were  appointed  to  compose  a  code  of  laws  for 
 Rome,  and  to  possess  sovereign  power  for  a  year. 
 ( Vid.  Decemviri.)  He  was  himself  chosen  decemvir  ; 
 and  when,  after  the  first  year,  this  office  was  prolonged 
 for  a  year  more,  he  was  the  only  one  who,  by  his  influ- 
 ence over  the  chief  men  among  the  people,  succeed- 
 ed in  being  again  chosen.  He  resolved  never  again 
 to  give  up  his  power,  and  conspired  with  his  col- 
 leagues for  the  accomplishment  of  this  plan,  but  the 
 affair  of  Virginia  put  an  end  to  their  odious  tyranny. 
 ( Vtd.  Virginia. )  The  decemviral  office  was  abolished, 
 and  the  previous  forms  of  magistracy  immediately  re- 
 stored. Appius  was  accused  and  thrown  into  prison, 
 where,  according  to  Livy  (3,  58V  he  died  by  his  own 
 hand.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  nowever,  leads  us 
 to  suppose  that  another  account  was  credited  by  some, 
 which  made  him  to  have  been  put  to  death  in  prison  by 
 the  tribunes.  {Ant.  Rom.,  11,49.)  As  regards  the 
 imprisonment  of  Appius,  consult  the  remarks  of  Nie- 
 buhr. {Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  369,  seqq.)— IV.  Caucus, 
 a  distinguished  Roman  of  the  Appian  family,  who  re- 
 ceived his  surname  from  his  blindness.  \Vhen  cen- 
 sor, he  constructed  that  part  of  the  Appian  Way  which 
 extended  from  Rome  to  Capua.  {Vid.  Appia  Via.) 
 He  built  also  the  first  aqueduct  at  Rome  It  was 
 through  his  advice  that  the  Politian  family  committed 
 the  charge  of  the  rites  of  Hercules  to  public  slaves  ; 
 the  consequence  of  this  was,  as  Livy  relates  (9,  29), 
 that  the  fiimily  in  question  were  all  cut  off  within  the 
 year,  and  Appius  himself  was  deprived  of  sight,  whence 
 his  cognomen  of  Ctccns,  "  the  Blind."  He  was  after- 
 ward consul,  and  also  iiiterrex,  and  was  very  success- 
 ful in  his  operations  against  the  Samnitcs.  {Liv.,  10, 
 31  ) — V     Herdonius   seized   the    capitol,  with   4000 
 
 167 
 
A  P  U 
 
 APULEIUS. 
 
 Slaves  and  exiles,  A.U.C.  292,  and  was  soon  after 
 overlhrovvii.  (Li«.,3,  15. — Flur.,3,  19.) — The  name 
 of  Appius  was  common  in  Rome,  particularly  to  many 
 consuls  whose  history  is  not  marked  by  any  uncom- 
 mon event. 
 
 Apiuks,  a  king  of  Egypt,  of  the  26th  dynasty,  and 
 called,  ill  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  Pharaoh  Hophra.  He 
 ascended  the  throne  after  his  father  Psammis,  B.C. 
 594.  Apries  distinguished  himself  by  foreign  con- 
 quest ;  he  took  Sidon,  conquered  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
 and  enjoyed  for  a  long  period  great  prosperity.  After 
 a  reign,  however,  of  twenty-six  years,  his  subjects  re- 
 volted in  favour  of  x\masis,  by  whom  he  was  over- 
 come and  put  to  death.  The  immediate  cause  of  the 
 revolt  was  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  the  peo- 
 ]i!c  of  Cyrene,  in  which  many  lives  were  lost ;  and 
 from  this  circumstance  we  may  readily  infer,  that  the 
 extravagant  projects  of  their  kings  were  but  little  in 
 innson  with  the  feelings  and  wishes  of  the  Egyptian 
 people.  (Herod.,  2,  161,  seq. — Compare  Hceren, 
 Idecn,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  404.) 
 
 ArsiNEs,  a  Greek  rhetorician  of  Gadara,  in  Phoe- 
 nicia, who  flourished  during  the  reign  of  Maximin, 
 aiiout  236  B.C.  We  have  from  him  a  treatise  on 
 Rhetoric,  and  also  a  work  on  the  questions  discuss- 
 ed in  the  schools  of  the  rhetoricians.  They  are  con- 
 tained in  the  Rhetores  Grmci  of  Aldus,  Vmice,  1508, 
 fol. 
 
 Apsynthii,  or  Absvnthii,  a  people  of  Thrace,  na- 
 med by  Herodotus  (6,  34,  and  9,  119)  as  bordering  on 
 the  Thracian  Chersonese,  and  having  overpowered  the 
 Dolonci.  (Vid.  Mithradates.)  Dionysius  Periegetes 
 (577)  speaks  of  the  river  Apsynthus. 
 
 Apsus,  a  river  of  Macedonia,  falling  into  the  Ionian 
 Sea  between  Dyrrhachium  and  Apollonia,  and  dividing 
 their  respective  territories.  It  has  been  rendered 
 memorable  from  the  military  operations  of  Caesar  and 
 Pompey  on  its  banks.  The  present  name  of  the 
 stream  is  Ergcnt  or  Beralino.  {Cas.,  B.  Civ.,  4, 
 l^.—Lucan,  5,  461  ) 
 
 ApTijR.i,  a  Cretan  city,  to  the  east  of  Polyrrhenia, 
 and  eighty  stadia  from  Cydonia.  {Sirabo,  479.)  Its 
 name  was  supposed  to  be  derived  from  a  contest  waged 
 by  the  Sirens  and  Muses  in  its  vicinity,  when  the  for- 
 mer, being  vanquished  in  the  trial  of  musical  excel- 
 lence, were  so  overcome  with  grief  that  their  wings 
 dropped  from  their  shoulders.  (Sicph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 'ATiTepa.)  Strabo  informs  us  that  Kisamus  was  the 
 naval  station  of  Aptera.  The  vestiges  of  Aptera  were 
 observed  by  Pococke  to  the  south  of  Kisamos,  and  they 
 are  laid  down  in  Lapie's  map  between  that  place  and 
 Jcrami  or  Cydonia.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol. 
 3,  p.  378.) 
 
 Apulei^  leges,  proposed  by  L.  Apuleius  Saturni- 
 nus,  A.U.C.  653,  tribune  of  the  commons  ;  about  di- 
 viding the  public  lands  among  the  veteran  soldiers, 
 .settling  colonies,  punishing  crimes  against  the  state, 
 and  furnishing  corn  to  the  poor  at  10-12ths  of  an  as  a 
 modius.  (Cic.,  pro  Balb,  21. — Id.,  de  leg.,  2,  6. — 
 Flor.,  3,  16.) 
 
 Afulfius,  a  Platonic  philosopher  of  the  second 
 century,  was  a  native  of  Madaura,  an  African  city  on 
 the  borders  of  Numidia  and  CTitulia.  His  family  was 
 respectable,  both  m  station  and  property,  his  father  be- 
 incr  chief  magistrate  of  Madaura.  He  received  the 
 early  part  of  his  education  at  Carthage,  where  he  im- 
 bibed his  first  knowledge  of  the  Platonic  philosophy, 
 and  thence  removed  in  succession  to  Athens  and  Rome. 
 Apuleius,  who  inherited  a  handsome  fortune,  began 
 life  with  that  contempt  for  riches  which  in  the  ancient 
 world  in  pariirular  so  frequently  distinguished  aspirants 
 after  learning  and  philosophy.  He  liberally  rewarded 
 all  those  who  had  any  share  in  his  instruction,  and  was 
 otherwise  so  generous  and  profuse,  that,  on  his  return 
 home  after  his  travels,  he  found  his  patrimony  exhaust- 
 ed ;  and,  being  exceedingly  desirous  of  entering  into 
 168 
 
 the  fraternity  of  Osiris,  was  obliged  to  part  with  his 
 clothes  to  pay  the  necessary  expenses  of  the  inaugural 
 ceremonies.  He  now  began  to  acquire  a  more  pru- 
 dent estimate  of  the  value  of  property,  and  undertook 
 the  profession  of  a  pleader,  in  which  he  obtained  con- 
 siderable fame  and  emolument.  Not  only  so,  he  em- 
 braced also  an  ojiportunity  which  offered  of  improving 
 his  condition  by  marrying  Pudentilla,  an  elderly  widow 
 of  considerable  property,  to  whom  his  youth  and  agree- 
 able qualities  had  strongly  recommended  him.  This 
 union  exceedingly  exasjierated  the  relations  ol  the  lady  ; 
 and  aEinilianus,  the  brother  of  her  former  husband,  in- 
 stituted a  suit  against  Apuleius,  before  the  proconsul 
 of  Africa,  for  employing  magical  arts  to  obtain  her  love. 
 The  apology  which  he  delivered  on  this  occasion  is 
 still  extant,  and  it  is  regarded  as  a  performance  of  con- 
 siderable merit.  It  was,  of  course,  successful  ;  for  it 
 was  not  very  difficult  to  convince  a  sensible  magistrate, 
 that  a  widow  of  thirteen  years'  standing  may  be  mduced 
 to  marry  a  handsome,  eloquent,  and  accomplished 
 young  man,  without  being  moved  thereto  by  filters 
 or  magic.  Of  the  remainder  of  the  life  of  Apuleius 
 nothing  is  known,  except  that  several  cities  honoured 
 him  with  statues  for  his  eloquence,  and  that  he  wrote 
 much  both  in  prose  and  verse.  Like  Apollonius  of 
 Tyana,  miracles  have  been  ascribed  to  him,  which  have 
 been  placed  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  gospel. 
 The  origin  of  these  reports,  which  did  not  circulate 
 until  after  his  death,  is  by  no  means  ascertained  ;  as, 
 with  the  exception  of  the  foregoing  foolish  accusation, 
 he  does  not  appear  to  have  been  charged  with  the  prac- 
 tice of  magic  in  his  lifetime  ;  although  it  is  not  im- 
 probable that  his  anxiety,  while  on  his  travels,  to  get 
 initiated  in  the  secret  mysteries  and  religious  cere- 
 monies of  the  different  places  which  he  visited,  might 
 have  laid  a  foundation  for  the  opinion  entertained  after 
 his  death  of  his  supernatural  acquirements.  Be  this 
 as  it  may,  Marcellinus,  in  the  fifth  century,  requested 
 of  St.  Augustin  to  exert  his  utmost  efforts  to  refute  the 
 assertions  of  those  who  falsely  declared  "that  Christ 
 did  nothing  more  than  what  was  done  by  other  men, 
 and  who  produced  their  Apollonius,  Apuleius,  and 
 other  masters  of  the  magical  art,  whose  miracles  they 
 assert  to  have  been  greater  than  his."  Perhaps  this 
 notion  has  been  grounded  on  a  misapprehension  of  his 
 story  of  "The  Golden  Ass,"  in  which  a  Milesian  fable, 
 invented  by  Lucius  of  Patra;,  and  abridged  from  him 
 by  Lucian,  is  enlarged  and  embellished.  This  hu- 
 morous production  was  by  many  believed  to  be  a  true 
 history,  and  among  the  rest  St.  Augustin  entertained 
 his  doubts,  while  Bishop  Warburton  deems  it  a  work 
 written  in  opposition  to  Christianity,  and  with  a  view 
 to  recommend  the  Pagan  religion  "  as  a  cure  for  all 
 vices."  The  same  learned  author  also  explains  the 
 beautiful  allegory  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,  which  makes 
 a  long  episode  in  the  "  Golden  Ass,"  upon  the  same 
 principles.  Dr.  Lardner  is  of  a  different  opinion  ; 
 and  probably  Bayle  comes  nearest  the  truth,  who  re- 
 gards this  eccentric  production  as  a  mere  satire  on  the 
 frauds  of  the  dealers  in  magical  delusion,  and  on  the 
 tricks  of  priests,  and  other  crimes,  both  of  a  violent 
 and  deceptive  character,  which  are  so  frequently  com- 
 mitted with  impunity.  Apuleius,  indeed,  appears, 
 from  the  greater  part  of  his  writings,  to  have  been 
 more  of  a  wit  than  a  philosopher,  in  the  ancient  ac- 
 ceptation of  the  character  ;  his  productions,  with  the 
 exception  of  his  view  of  the  doctrines  of  Plato,  being 
 too  florid,  oratorical,  sportive,  and  sometimes  even 
 wanton,  for  the  gravity  of  philosophy.  His  style  is  a 
 very  peculiar  one,  abounding  in  far-fetched,  tumid, 
 and  unusual  forms  of  expression,  and  by  no  means  re- 
 markable for  purity.  We  must  not,  however,  sup- 
 pose, as  some  have  done,  that  the  terms  thus  employed 
 by  him  are  of  his  own  coining,  since  the  greater  part 
 of  them  are  found  in  the  old  grammarians,  and  he  does- 
 not  seem,  therefore,  to  have  employed  any  of  l\«Hn 
 
A  P  U 
 
 A  Q  U 
 
 without  sufficient  authority.  (Ruhnken,  Praf.  ad  edit. 
 Oiidendorp,  p.  Ill,  scq.)  In  his  apology,  however, 
 which  was  intended  for  the  atmosphere  of  the  forum, 
 he  is  free  from  much  of  this  affectation  of  manner,  and 
 what  Ruhnken  calls  his  "  tumor  Africanus"  and  ex- 
 presses himself,  for  the  most  part,  with  clearness  and 
 precision.  His  printed  works  have  gone  through  up- 
 ward of  forty-three  editions.  The  first,  which  was  mu- 
 tilated by  tiie  Inquisition,  is  very  rare  ;  it  was  print- 
 ed at  Rome,  by  order  of  Cardinal  Bessarion,  1647. 
 Among  those  which  succeeded  may  be  mentioned  the 
 editions  of  H.  Stephens,  3vo,  1585  ;  of  Elmenhorst, 
 8vo,  1621  ;  of  Scriverius,  12mo,  1624;  that  in  Usum 
 Delphini,  2  vols.  4to,  1688.  The  best  edition,  how- 
 ever, is  that  of  Oudendorp,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1786-1823, 
 2  vols.  4to,  with  prefaces  by  Ruhnken  and  Boscha. 
 The  "  Golden  Ass,"  or,  to  give  its  Latin  title,  Meta- 
 morpkoseon,  sivc  de  Asino  Aureo,  Ubri  xi.,  has  been 
 translated  into  almost  all  the  modern  European  lan- 
 guages ;  and  of  the  episode  of  Psyche  there  have 
 been  many  separate  editions  and  translations.  Hol- 
 ier published  a  dissertation  on  the  life  and  writings 
 of  Apuleius,  Altdorff,  8vo,  1681.  A  list  of  all  his 
 productions  is  given  in  the  Bwgr.  Univ.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  343,  scqq. — Compare  Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  582. 
 
 Ai'Ui.iA,  a  country  of  Magna  Graecia,  lying  along 
 the  coast  of  the  Hadriatic.     We  are  led  to  infer,  from 
 Strabo's  account  of  the  ancient  coast  of  Italy,  that  the 
 name  of  Apulia  was  originally  ap])lied  to  a  small  tract 
 of  country  situate  immediately  to  the  south  of  the  Fren- 
 tani.      {Slrabo,  283.)     But  whatever  may  have  been 
 the  narrow  confines  of  the  portion  of  the  country  oc- 
 cupied by  the    Apuli,  properly  so  called,  we  know  that 
 in  the  reign  of  Augustus  the  term  Apulia  was  em- 
 ployed in  a  far  more  extended  sense,  including  indeed 
 the  territories  of  several  people  much  more  celebrated 
 in  history  than  the  obscure  tribe  above  mentioned,  but 
 who  sunk  in  proportion  as  this  common   name   was 
 brought  into  general  use.      It  may  be  remarked,  indeed, 
 as  a  singular  circumstance,  that  whereas,  under  the 
 Romans,  all  former  appellations  peculiar  to  the  different 
 people  who  inhabit  this  part  of  the  peninsula  were  lost  in 
 that  of  x'\pulia,  the  Greeks,  to  whom  this  name  was  un- 
 known, should  have  given  the  same  extension  to  that 
 of  lapygia,  with  which  the  Romans,  on  the  other  hand, 
 were  entirely  unacquainted.     The  term  lapygia  appears 
 to  have  been  confined  at  first  to  that  peninsula  which 
 closes  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum  to  the  southeast,  and  to 
 which  the  name  of  Messapia  was  likewise  sometimes  ap- 
 plied ;  but  we  find,  at  a  later  period,  that  Polybius  gives 
 to  lapygia  the  same  extensions  which  the  Roman  histo- 
 rians and  geographers  assign  to  Apulia.     The  bounda- 
 ries under  which  Apulia,  in  its  greatest  extent,  seems 
 to  have  been  comprehended,  were  as  follows  :   to  the 
 north  this  province  was  separated  from  the  AgerFren- 
 tanus  by  tiie  River  Tifernus  ;  to  the  west  it  may  be 
 conceived  as  divided  from  Samnium  by  a  line  drawn 
 from  that  river  to  the  Aufidus,  and  the  chain  of  Mount 
 Vultur ;  to  the  south,  and  on  the  side  of  Lucania,  it 
 was  bordered  by  the  river  Bradanus.     (Cluvcr.,  Ilal. 
 Ant.,  2,  p.  1219.)     Within  these  limits  then  we  must 
 place,  with  Polybius,   Strabo,  and  the  Latin  geogra- 
 phers, the  several  portions  of  country  occupied  by  the 
 Daunii,   Peucetii.   and   Messapii.     In  describing  the 
 boundaries  of  Apulia  Proper,  we  must  follow  the  au- 
 thority of  Strabo,  as  he  is  the  only  writer  who  has 
 noticed  the  existence  of  a  district  under  this  specific 
 name.     Ho  evidently  conceives  it  to  have  been  con- 
 tiguous to  the  Ager  Frentanus  on  the  one  side,  and  to 
 Daunia  on  the  other.     {Slrabo,  283  )     Pliny  likewise 
 seems  to  confirm  this  arrangement,  when  he  tells  us 
 (3,   11)  that   the   Apulian   Dauni  extended   from  the 
 river  Tifernus   to   the   Cerbalus ;  though  it  must   be 
 observed,  that  Strabo  appears  to  limit  these  Apuli    to 
 the  south  by  the  Lacus  Urianus,  now  Lago  Varano. 
 
 At  this  point,  therefore,  we  may  fix  the  confinf.'  of 
 the  Apuli  and  Dauni,  and  trace  those  of  the  latter 
 and  the  Peucetii  by  a  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of 
 the  Aufidus  to  Silviuin,  now  Garagnone,  in  the  Apen- 
 nines, so  as  to  include  Cannae  and  Canusium  within 
 the  Daunian  territory. — Apulia  was  famous  for  the 
 excellence  of  its  wool,  and  particularly  the  district  of 
 Luceria.  {Strabo,  284.— i/or.,  Od.,  3,  15.—Plin.,  3, 
 11. — PtoL,  p.  6.) — The  old  Latin  traditions  speak  of 
 Daunus,  a  king  of  the  Apulians,  who  was  expelled 
 from  Illyria,  and  retired  to  this  part  of  Italy.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  tradition  which  conducts  the  wandering  he- 
 roes of  the  Trojan  war  to  Italy,  Diomede  settled  in 
 Apulia,  was  supported  by  Daunus  in  a  war  with  the 
 Messapians,  whom  he  subdued,  and  was  afterward 
 treacherously  killed  by  his  ally,  who  desired  to  mo- 
 nopolize the  fruits  of  the  victory.  Roman  history 
 informs  us  of  no  other  Apulian  kings,  but  mentions 
 Arpi,  Luceria,  and  Arpinum,  as  important  cities.  The 
 Aufidus,  a  river  of  Apulia,  has  been  celebrated  by 
 Horace,  who  was  born  at  Venusia,  a  city  in  this  terri- 
 tory. The  second  Punic  war  vvas  carried  on  for  a  con- 
 siderable period  in  Apulia.  Puglia,  the  modern  name, 
 is  only  a  melancholy  relic  of  the  ancient  splendour  which 
 poets  and  historians  have  celebrated.  It  now  supports 
 more  sheep  than  men.  As  regards  the  early  settle- 
 ment of  Apulia,  compare  Nichuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  122,5^^17.,  Cambridge  transl. —  Wachsmulh's  Rom. 
 Hist.,  (}  61. — Micali,  Storia  degli  Anlichi  Popoli  Ital- 
 ians, vol.  1,  p.  339. —  Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2, 
 p.  264,  s£(]q. 
 
 Aqua,  a  term  joined  to  a  large  number  of  proper 
 names,  and  serving  to  indicate  the  sources  of  rivers, 
 small  streams,  water-courses,  aqueducts,  &c.  The 
 following  are  most  worthy  of  mention  : — I.  Antiqua, 
 near  the  modern  village  of  Altwasser  in  Silesia.  It 
 was  famed  for  its  chalybeate  properties. — II.  Belletta, 
 now  Aiguebellcttc,  or  AiguehcUe,  in  Savoy,  on  the 
 ^,co.— III.  Claudia,  an  aqueduct  built  by  the  Emper- 
 or Claudius,  A.U.C.  880,  and  conveying  water  from  the 
 Anio  to  Rome. — IV.  Crabra,  a  small  river  running 
 from  Tusculum  to  Rome,  and  emptying  into  the  Tiber, 
 to  the  east  of  the  Palatine  Hill. — V.  Marcia,  an  aque- 
 duct commenced  by  the  prajtor  Marcus  Titius,  about 
 608  A.U.C,  and  finished  by  Marcius  Rex  in  610.  It 
 passed  near  Tibur,  and  through  the  country  of  the  Pe- 
 ligni  and  Marsi,  and  supplied  Rome  with  its  best  water. 
 {Plin.,  31,  3.) — VI.  Tepula,  springs  near  Tusculum, 
 ten  miles  southeast  of  Rome.  Their  water  was  con- 
 veyed by  an  aqueduct  to  the  Capitoline  Hill,  about 
 627  A.U.C  ,  and  in  719  was  united  with  the  Aqua  Ju- 
 lia, a  small  river  near  the  modern  Marino,  by  Agrippa 
 — The  plural  form  AqitcB  is  also  frequently  joined  to 
 proper  names,  to  indicate  places  in  the  neighbourhood 
 of  warm  springs,  &c.  Thus  we  have,  I.  Aquse  Bade- 
 na^,  a  city  in  Germany,  now  Baden,  on  the  Rhine. — II. 
 Pannonicae,  a  city  in  Pannonia  Sujierior,  now  Baden 
 in  Austria,  on  the  river  Schwochat,  three  miles  south- 
 east of  Vienna. — III.  Allobrogum,  a  city  of  the  Allo- 
 broges  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  now  Aix.  in  the  depart- 
 ment of  Mont  Blanc,  two  miles  and  a  half  to  the  north 
 of  Chambery. — IV.  Bilbitanorum,  a  city  of  Hispania 
 Tarraconensis,  to  the  west  of  Bilbilis.  It  is  now  Al- 
 hama,  on  the  Xalon,  in  Aragon. — V.  Calentes,  a 
 town  of  the  Arverni  in  Gaul,  now  Chaudcs  Aigues. — 
 VI.  Calidae,  a  citv  of  the  Belga>,  in  Britain,  now  Bath 
 in  Somersetshire. — VII.  Flaviae,  a  town  in  Hispania 
 Tarraconensis,  supposed  to  have  been  situate  among 
 the  Callaici  Bracarii.  It  is  now  the  Portuguese  Villa 
 Chiavcs,  twelve  miles  from  Braganza. — VIII  Mat- 
 tiacae,  a  town  of  the  Mattiaci  in  Germany,  now  Wics- 
 haden,  the  chief  city  of  the  Duchy  of  Nassau. — IX. 
 Se.xtia?,  a  city  of  the  Salyes,  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  to 
 the  north  of  Massilia,  founded  by  the  consul  Sextius 
 Calvinius,  about  A.U.C.  630.  It  was  also  called  Co- 
 Ionia  Julia,  after  Julius  Caesar,  and  Colonia  Julia  Au- 
 
 169 
 
A  Q  U 
 
 A  Q  U 
 
 gusia,  after  Augustus.  It  is  now  Aix,  eight  miles 
 southeast  of  Avignon.  In  its  vicinity  Marias  defeat- 
 ed the  Ambrones  and  the  Teutones. 
 
 AcjuitnucTUs,  an  aqueduct.  Mention  of  these  is 
 freijuetuly  made  in  the  Roman  writers.  Some  of  them 
 brought  water  to  the  capital  from  more  than  the  dis- 
 tance of  sixty  miles,  through  rocks  and  mountains,  and 
 over  valleys,  supported  on  arches,  in  some  places  above 
 109  feet  high,  one  row  being  placed  above  another. 
 The  care  of  them  origuially  belonged  to  the  censors  and 
 aeddes.  Afterward  certam  officers  were  appointed  for 
 that  purpose  by  the  emperors,  called  curatores  aqua- 
 rum^  with  720  men  paid  by  the  public,  to  keep  them  in 
 repair.  These  persons  were  divided  into  two  bodies  ; 
 the  one  called  Familia  Puhlica,  first  mstituted  by  Agrip- 
 pa,  under  Augustus,  consisting  of  260  men  ;  the  other 
 Familia  Co'sans,  of  460,  instituted  by  the  Emperor 
 Claudius.  The  slaves  employed  ni  taking  care  of  the 
 waters  were  called  Aqiiarh.  The  construction  of 
 aqueducts  is  treated  of  by  Vitruvius  and  Pliny,  and 
 their  description  is  curious,  not  only  as  giving  the  meth- 
 ods used  by  the  ancients  in  those  stupendous  works, 
 but  as  indicating  a  knowledge  of  some  hydrodynami- 
 cal  laws,  the  discovery  of  which  is  usually  assigned  to 
 a  much  later  jieriod.  Frontinus,  also,  a  Roman  au- 
 thor, who  had  the  superintendence  of  the  aqueducts  in 
 the  reign  of  Nerva,  has  left  a  treatise  on  these  erections. 
 From  his  enumeration,  there  were  nine  aqueducts  which 
 brought  water  to  Rome  in  his  time.  The  water  of 
 these  varied  in  its  qualities,  that  of  some  being  pre- 
 ferred for  drinking,  of  others  for  bathing,  for  irrigating 
 the  gardens,  or  cleansing  the  sewers.  The  best  drink- 
 ing-water they  brought  into  Rome  was  the  Aqua  Mar- 
 cia,  being  most  highly  prized,  according  to  Pliny,  for 
 its  coldness  and  salubrity.  The  aqueduct  at  Nemau- 
 sus,  the  modern  Nismcs,  is  probably  one  of  the  earliest 
 constructed  by  the  Romans  out  of  Italy.  Its  origin  is 
 attributed  to  Agrippa.  Aqueducts,  however,  became 
 eventually  common  throughout  the  whole  Roman  em- 
 pire, and  many  stupendous  remains  still  e.xist  to  attest 
 their  former  magnificence.  (Consult  Sluart's  Diction- 
 ary of  Architecture,  vol.  1,  s   v.) 
 
 Aquila,  a  native  of  Sinope  in  Asia  Minor.  He  first 
 applied  himself  to  the  study  of  mathematics  and  archi- 
 tecture, and  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  according  to 
 Saint  Epiphanius,  made  him  a  superintendent  of  pub- 
 lic buildings,  and  gave  him  in  charge  the  restoration 
 and  enlargement  of  Jerusalem,  under  its  new  name  of 
 JElia  Capitolina.  This  commission  afforded  him  an 
 opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with  Christianity, 
 which  he  accordingly  embraced,  and  received  the  rite 
 of  baptism.  Becoming  subsequently  addicted,  how- 
 ever, to  judicial  astrology,  he  was  excommunicated, 
 and  then  attached  himself  to  Judaism.  Aquila  is  ren- 
 dered famous  by  his  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment, which  he  published  A.D.  138.  It  is  the  first 
 that  was  made  after  the  Septuagint  translation,  and 
 appears  to  have  been  executed  with  great  care,  not- 
 withstanding what  Buxtorf  urges  against  it,  who  de- 
 nies to  its  author,  on  very  feeble  grounds,  a  thorough 
 acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew  tongue.  Aquila's  meth- 
 od was  to  translate  word  for  word,  and  to  express,  as 
 far  as  this  could  conveniently  be  done,  even  the  ety- 
 mological meaning  of  terms.  Although  his  version 
 was  undertaken  with  the  view  of  opposing  and  super- 
 seding that  of  the  Septuagint,  of  which  last  the  church- 
 es made  use  after  the  example  of  the  apostles,  still 
 the  ancient  fathers  found  it  in  general  so  exact,  that 
 they  often,  in  preference,  drew  their  texts  from  it.  St. 
 Jerome,  who  had  at  first  censured  it,  afterward  praised 
 its  exactness.  The  Hellenistic  Jews  preferred  it  also 
 for  the  use  of  their  synagogues.  Some  fragments  of 
 it  are  preserved  in  the  Hexapla  of  Origen.  Aquila 
 joined  to  a  second  edition  of  his  version  some  Jew- 
 ish traditions  which  he  had  obtained  from  the  Rabbi 
 Akiba,  his  preceptor.  This  edition  was  still  more  fa- 
 170 
 
 vourably  received  by  the  Hellenistic  Jews  than  the  pre- 
 vious one  had  been.  The  Emperor  Justinian,  however, 
 interdicted  the  reading  of  it,  because  it  only  made  the 
 Jews  more  stubborn  in  their  error.  {Biogr.  Univ.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  345,  scq.) 
 
 Aquileia,  I.  a  celebrated  city  of  Italy,  in  the  terri- 
 tory of  Venetia,  between  the  Alsa  and  Natiso,  and 
 about  seven  miles  from  the  sea.  It  appears  to  have 
 been  first  founded  by  some  Transalpine  Gauls  about 
 187  B.C.  ;  but  being  soon  after  taken  possession  of  by 
 the  Romans,  it  was  made  a  Latin  colony  five  years  af- 
 ter its  establishment.  {Liv.,  39,  22;45,  54. — Id.,  40, 
 54.)  The  earliest  author  that  mentions  Aquileia  is 
 Polybius,  who,  in  a  fragment  preserved  by  Sirabo 
 (208),  speaks  of  it  as  having  some  valuaiile  gold-mines 
 in  its  neighbourhood.  Enstalhius,  in  his  commentary 
 on  Dionys.  Perieg.,  asserts  that  its  name  was  derived 
 from  the  Latin  word  Aquila,  as  denoting  the  legionary 
 standard  of  the  Romans,  who  had  been  encamped  here. 
 Aquileia  soon  became  the  bulwark  of  Italy  on  its  north- 
 eastern frontier,  it  was  already  an  important  military 
 post  in  the  time  of  Ctesar  (H.  Civ.,  1,  2),  and  contin- 
 ued to  increase  in  prosperity  and  consequence  till  the 
 fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  In  Strabo's  time  it  had  be- 
 come the  great  emporium  of  all  the  trade  of  Italy  with 
 the  nations  of  Illyna  and  Pannonia  ;  these  were  fur- 
 nished with  wine,  oil,  and  salt  provisions,  in  exchange 
 for  slaves,  cattle,  and  hides.  I'he  passage  of  Mount 
 Ocra,  the  lowest  point  of  the  Julian  or  Carnic  Alps, 
 was  easy  for  land-carriage  ;  and  at  Nauportus  on  the 
 other  side,  a  navigable  stream  conveyed  vessels  to  the 
 Saave,  and  from  that  river  inlo  the  Danube.  {S/rabo, 
 214:.— Id.,  207.— il/c/a,  2,  i.—Sueton.,  Ausf.,  20.— 
 Id.,  Tib.,  7.— Id.,  Vesp.,  6.—Tac.,  Hist.,  2,  46,  and 
 85,  &c.)  Ausonius  assigns  to  Aquileia  the  ninth  place 
 among  the  great  cities  of  the  empire.  It  withstood 
 successfully  a  severe  siege  against  Maximinus,  who, 
 being  unable  to  take  the  place,  was  slain  by  his  own 
 soldiers.  {Herodian,  8.)  But  it  could  not  hold  out 
 against  the  fury  of  Attila  ;  its  resistance  served  only 
 to  increase  the  savage  ferocity  of  the  conqueror,  who 
 caused  it  to  be  sacked  and  razed  to  the  ground.  {Cas- 
 siodor.,  Chron — Frocop,  Vand.  Rer.,  1. — Freculf, 
 Chro7i.)  The  port  of  Aquileia  was  situate  at  the  mouth 
 of  the  Natiso  (Plin.,  3,  18),  and  is  now  called  Forto 
 di  Grado.  The  modern  Aq.  'Ueia  stands  near  the  ruins 
 of  the  ancient  city.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  128  ) — II.  A  town  of  Etruria,  marked  in  the  ancient 
 Itineraries  as  the  first  stage  from  Florentia  or  Florence. 
 It  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
 of  Incisa.  {Cluv.,  Ital.  Ant.,  1,  570. —  Cramer's  An- 
 cient Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  214.) 
 
 Aquilius,  I.  Nepos,  Manius,  a  Roman  consul,  and 
 colleague  of  Marius,  who  was  intrusted  with  the  war 
 against  the  slaves  in  Sicily.  This  war  was  continued 
 during  the  succeeding  year,  when  Aquilius,  as  procon- 
 sul, still  held  the  command.  In  a  conflict  with  the 
 foe,  the  two  commanders,  it  is  said,  agreed  to  decide 
 the  affair  by  single  combat.  Aquilius,  being  a  man  of 
 great  strength,  laid  his  antagonist  dead  at  his  feet  by  a 
 single  blow  ;  and  the  Romans  thereupon  rushing  in, 
 gained  the  victory  after  a  severe  conflict.  Aquilius  was 
 honoured  with  an  ovation.  After  this  he  was  accused 
 of  extortion,  but  acquitted  on  account  of  his  successful 
 operations  in  Sicily.  Being  subsequently  sent  into  Asia 
 against  Mithradates, he  was  defeated  by  that  monarch 
 in  Bilhynia,  and,  having  been  afterward  treacherously 
 delivered  into  his  hands,  was  put  to  death  with  every 
 circumstance  of  ignominy.  Mithradates  is  said  to  have 
 even  poured  melted  gold  down  his  throat  in  token  of,  and 
 as  a  punishment  for,  his  cupidity.  (Liv.,  Epit.,  77. 
 —Appian,  Bell.  Mithrad.,2l.—Cic.,  Agrar.,  2.  30.) 
 — II.  Gallus,  a  Roman  lawyer,  who  flourished  about 
 65  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Scaevola's,  and  was  inti- 
 mate with  Cicero,  having  been  a  colleague  of  his  in 
 the  quaestorship.     Cicero  represents  him  as  a  man  of 
 
AR  A. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 acutcness,  and  of  ready  talent  in  replying  to  an  oppo- 
 nent. He  wrote  a  treatise,  "(ie  dulo  malo,"  which 
 Cicero  eulogizes  very  highly ;  another,  ^' de postumorum 
 instjtutione  ;''  a  third,  '■' de  shpulatione,"  &c.  (Cic, 
 Brut.,  i2.—Id.,  de  Off.,  3,  14,  &c.)— III.  Sabinus,  a 
 Roman  lawyer,  who  flourished  in  the  third  century  of 
 our  era.  His  wisdom  and  acquirements  gained  for  him 
 the  appellation  of  Cato.  He  was  elected  consul  A.U.C. 
 214,  and  acrain  in  216.  According  to  some,  he  was 
 the  father  or  brother  of  Aquilia  Scvera,  the  vestal  vir- 
 gin whom  Heliogabalus  compelled  to  become  his  wife. 
 None  of  his  works  have  reached  us.  {Lamprid.,  Vit. 
 Hchogal/. — Cassiod.,  Chroti. — Rvlil.,  in  Vit.  Juris- 
 cons.) 
 
 Ayuii.oNn,  I.  a  city  of  Samnium,  on  the  Volscian 
 frontier,  about  20  miles  from  Cominium,  and  the  same 
 distance  from  Bovianum.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by 
 the  little  town  of  Agnone,  near  the  source  of  the  Trig- 
 no.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  229.) — II.  An- 
 other city  of  Samnium,  in  the  territory  of  the  Hirpini, 
 nearly  midway  between  Beneventum  and  Venusia. 
 Its  site  corresponds  to  that  of  the  modern  Laccdogna. 
 {I'lin.,3,  n.—PtoL,  p.  67.) 
 
 Aquinom,  I.  a  town  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  south  of  Mu- 
 tina,  or  Modena.  {Plin.,  3,  15.)  It  is  placed  by  Clu- 
 vcrius  at  the  modern  Acqiiario. — II.  A  city  of  Latium, 
 on  the  Latin  Way,  a  little  beyond  the  place  where  the 
 road  crosses  the  Liris  and  Melfis.  It  is  now  Aquino. 
 Both  Strabo  (237)  and  Silius  Italius  (8,  404)  de- 
 scribe it  as  a  large  city.  Aquinum  was  the  birthplace 
 of  Juvenal,  as  that  poet  himself  informs  us.  {Sat.,  3, 
 318.)  Here  also  was  bom  the  Emperor  Pesccniiius 
 Niger,  and  in  modern  times  the  celebrated  Thomas 
 Aquinas.  The  place  was  famous  for  its  purple  dye. 
 (Horat.,  Ep.,  10,  26.) 
 
 Aqititani.\,  a  country  of  Gaul  between  the  Garum- 
 )ia  or  Garonne,  and  the  Pyrenees.  As  it  was  less  than 
 cither  of  the  other  two  divisions  of  Gaul,  Augustus  e.x- 
 tended  it  to  the  I, igeris  or  Lofre.  (Vid  Gallia.)  The 
 Aquitani,  according  to  Strabo  (190),  differed  from  the 
 Gallic  race  both  in  jihysical  constitution  and  in  lan- 
 guage. Thev  resembled,  he  tells  us,  the  Iberians  ra- 
 ther than  the  Gauls.  According  to  Caesar,  the  Aqui- 
 tani, besides  a  peculiar  idiom  of  their  own,  had  also 
 peculiar  institutions.  Now,  historical  facts  inform  us 
 that  these  institutions  bore,  for  the  most  part,  the  Ibe- 
 rian character ;  that  the  national  attire  was  Iberian  ; 
 that  there  were  the  strongest  ties  of  amity  and  alliance 
 between  the  Aquitanic  and  Iberian  tribes.  We  find, 
 then,  an  accordance  between  historical  proofs  and  those 
 deduced  from  an  examination  of  languages,  to  warrant 
 the  belief  that  the  Aquitani  were  of  Iberian  extraction. 
 (fJonsult  Thierry,  Hist,  dcs  Gaul.,  vol.  1,  p.  xxiii.,  In- 
 trod. — Id.,  vol.  2,  p.  11,  seqq.) 
 
 Ar.\  Lugdunensis,  an  altar  erected  to  Augustus, 
 at  the  confluence  of  the  Arar  and  Rhone,  near  the  city 
 of  Lugdunum  or  Lyons,  by  sixty  Gallic  communities. 
 It  was  reared  after  the  tumult  excited  in  Gaul  by  the 
 proclaiming  of  the  census  had  been  quelled  by  Drusus. 
 (Lio.,  E])it.,  137.— S/rai.,  192.)  The  spot,  became 
 (anions  under  Caligula  for  the  literary  contests  which 
 took  place  there.  A  crowd  of  orators  and  poets  flock- 
 ed 10  the  scene  from  the  remotest  quarters  of  the  em- 
 pire, notwithstanding  the  severity  of  the  regulations 
 which  are  said  to  have  prevailed  here.  The  vanquish- 
 ed were  com|)elled  to  bestow  rewards  upon  the  victors, 
 and  compose  pieces  in  their  praise  ;  while  those  whose 
 productions  showed  least  talent  were  obliged  to  eflace 
 their  own  writings  with  a  sponge  or  with  the  tongue, 
 or  else,  as  an  alternative,  to  submit  to  be  scourged,''and 
 then  cast  into  the  neighbouring  stream.  {SucUin.,  Ca- 
 lig.,  20.—Dio  Cass.,  54,  32.— Jz,«.,  Sat.,  1,  44.)  The 
 spot  was  called  by  the  writers  of  the  middle  ages  At- 
 t/iniinim,  and  is  now  the  point  of  Anjiai.  {Lemaire, 
 ad  Jan..  I.  c) 
 
 Akabi.\,  a  large  country  of  Asia,  forming  a  peninsu- 
 
 la between  the  Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs.  Its  length, 
 from  the  Cape  of  Babelmandcb  to  the  extreme  angle 
 on  the  Euphrates,  is  about  1800  British  miles,  and  its 
 mean  breadth  800.  The  Arabians  recognise  for  theii 
 ancestors  Joktan,  or  Khatau,  the  son  of  Eber,  and  Ish- 
 mael,  the  son  of  Abraham.  Arabia  was  called  by  the 
 inhabitants  of  Palestine,  the  Eastern,  and  by  the  Baby- 
 lonians, the  Western,  country.  Hence  the  Arabians 
 were  sometimes  denominated  Orientals,  and  some- 
 times the  people  of  the  West.  (2  Chron.,9,  14. — 
 Jer.,3,  2.)  The  derivation,  moreover,  commonly  as- 
 signed to  the  term  Arab  is  in  accordance  with  this  lat- 
 ter idea,  making  it  signify  an  inhabitant  of  the  West,  as 
 Arabia  lav  to  the  west  of  Upper  Asia.  (Consult,  how- 
 ever, Wahl,  Vorder  vnd  Mittcl  Asien,  vol  1,  p.  327, 
 in  not.,  where  other  explanations  are  given.) — The 
 Arabs  anciently  denominated  themselves,  and  do  to 
 this  day,  by  either  of  these  names.  Megastheiies  and 
 Ptolemy  divided  the  country  into  the  Happy,  Petrcea, 
 and  the  Deserted  ;  an  arrangement  unknown,  however, 
 to  the  inhabitants  of  the  east.  Arabia  Felix,  or  the 
 Happy,  derived  this  appellation  from  its  rich  produce. 
 This  tract  is  a  peninsula,  which  is  so  bordered  by  the 
 Red  Sea  (more  properly  called  the  Arabian  Gulf),  by 
 the  Mare  Erythraeum,  and  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  tliat  it 
 would  be  perfectly  surrounded,  were  a  line  drawn  from 
 the  inland  extremity  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to  port  Ailan 
 or  JEAan,  situate  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Red 
 Sea.  Arabia  Petrasa  was  so  called,  either  from  its 
 stony  character  {irirpa,  "  a  rock"  or  "  stone"),  or, 
 what  is  far  more  probable,  from  an  ancient  fortified  em- 
 porium, called  Petra.  It  was  bounded  on  the  east 
 by  Arabia  Deserta,  on  the  west  by  Egypt  and  the  Med- 
 iterranean, on  the  south  by  the  Red  Sea,  which  here 
 divides  and  runs  north  in  two  branches,  and  on  the 
 north  by  Palestine.  Idumaea,  otherwise  called  Seir, 
 is  the  northeastern  part  of  Arabia  Petrsea.  Arabia 
 Deserta  is  that  tract  which  has  Arabia  Felix  on  the 
 south.  Babylonia  and  the  Euphrates  on  the  easi,  the 
 Euphrates  and  Syria  on  the  north,  and  Gilead  on  the 
 west.  Instead,  however,  of  the  division  just  given, 
 the  more  natural  one  is  that  which  distinguishes  the 
 coast,  covered  with  aloes,  manna,  myrrh,  frankincense, 
 indigo,  nutmegs,  and  especially  coffee,  from  the  inte- 
 rior, consisting  of  a  desert  of  moving  sand,  with  thorns 
 and  saline  herbs.  The  climate  is  very  various.  Re- 
 gions where  it  rains  half  the  year  alternate  whh  others 
 where  dew  supplies  the  place  of  rain  for  the  whole  sea- 
 son. The  greatest  cold  prevails  on  high  places,  and 
 the  most  oppressive  heat  in  the  plains.  Damp  winds 
 succeed  to  the  dry  simoom,  which  is  as  dangerous  to 
 life  as  the  harmaltan  and  khamseen  in  Africa.  The 
 soil  consists  of  sandy  deserts  and  the  most  fruitful 
 fields.  Wheat,  millet,  rice,  kitchen  vegetables,  cof- 
 fee (which  grows  on  trees  in  Arabia,  its  home,  and  on 
 bushes  in  .America,  the  plants  being  kept  low  for  the 
 sake  of  gathering  their  fruit  more  easily),  manna,  su- 
 gar-cane, cotton,  tropical  fruits,  senna-leaves,  gums, 
 aloes,  myrrh,  tobacco,  indigo,  odorous  woods,  balsam, 
 &,c.,  are  the  rich  products  of  Arabia.  There  are  also 
 precious  stones,  iron,  and  other  metals  (gold  excepted, 
 which  the  ancients,  however,  seem  to  have  found  pure 
 in  rivers  and  in  the  earth).  The  animals  are  mules, 
 asses,  camels,  buffaloes,  horned  cattle,  goats,  noble 
 horses,  lions,  hyaenas,  antelopes,  foxes,  apes,  jerboas  ; 
 birds  of  all  sorts,  pelicans,  ostriches,  &c.  ;  esculent 
 locusts,  scorpions,  &c. — The  .Arabians  are  still,  as  in 
 the  most  ancient  times,  Nomades,  of  patriarchal  sim- 
 plicitv.  The  older  Arabian  historians  understand  by 
 Arabia  only  Ycme7i  (Arabia  Felix).  Hed.yaz  (the 
 rocky)  they  regard  as  belonging  partly  to  Egypt,  part- 
 ly to  Syria;  and  the  rest  of  the  country  they  call  the 
 Synan  Desert.  The  princes  (tchhai)  of  this  land  were 
 anciently  entirely  of  the  race  of  Khatan,  to  which 
 belonged  the  family  of  the  Homeyriies,  who  ruled 
 over  Yemen  two  thousand  years.     The  Arabians  of 
 
 171 
 
AR  A 
 
 AR  A 
 
 Yemen  and  a  part  of  the  desert  of  Arabia  lived  in 
 cities,  and  practised  agriculture  :  tliey  had  commerce 
 also  with  the  East  Indies,  Persia,  Syria,  and  Abys- 
 sinia. The  rest  of  the  population  then,  as  now,  led  a 
 v/andering  life  in  the  deserts. — The  religion  of  ihe  Ara- 
 bians, in  the  time  of  their  ignorance  (as  they  call  the 
 period  before  Mohammed),  was,  in  general,  adoration 
 of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  Sabaism  ;  varying  much, 
 however,  in  the  dilferent  tribes,  each  of  whom  select- 
 ed a  different  constellation  as  the  highest  object  of 
 worship. — For  a  thousand  years  the  Arabians  manful- 
 ly defended  the  freedom,  faith,  and  manners  of  their 
 fathers  against  all  the  attacks  of  the  Eastern  conquer- 
 ors, protected  by  deserts  and  seas,  as  well  as  by  their 
 own  arms.  Neither  the  Babylonian  and  x\ssyrian,  nor 
 the  Egyptian  and  Persian  kings,  could  bring  them  un- 
 der their  yoke.  At  last  they  were  overcome  by  Alex- 
 ander the  Great ;  but  immediately  after  his  death, 
 they  took  advantage  of  the  disunion  of  his  generals  and 
 successors  to  recover  their  independence.  At  this 
 period  the  northern  provinces  of  the  country  were  bold 
 enough  to  extend  their  dominion  beyond  the  limits  of 
 Arabia.  The  Arabian  Nomades,  especially  in  winter, 
 made  deep  inroads  into  the  fertile  Irak  or  Chaldaea. 
 They  finally  conquered  a  portion  of  it,  which  is  hence 
 still  called  Irak  Araby.  Thence  the  tribe  of  Hareth 
 advanced  into  Syria,  and  settled  in  the  country  of  Gas- 
 san,  whence  they  received  the  appellation  of  Gassan- 
 ides.  Three  centuries  after  Alexander,  the  Romans 
 approached  these  limits.  The  divided  Arabians  could 
 not  resist  the  Roman  arms  everywhere  successfully  ; 
 their  country,  however,  was  not  completely  reduced  to 
 a  province  ;  the  northern  princes,  at  least,  maintaining 
 a  virtual  independence  of  the  emperors.  The  old 
 Homeyrites  in  Yemen,  against  whom  an  unsuccessful 
 war  was  carried  on  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  preserved 
 their  liberty.  Their  chief  city,  Saba,  was  destroyed 
 by  a  flood.  With  the  weakness  of  the  Roman  gov- 
 ernment, tlis  struggle  for  absolute  independence  in- 
 creased, which  a  union  of  all  the  Arabian  tribes  would 
 have  easily  gained  ;  but,  weakened  and  scattered  as 
 they  were,  they  spent  several  centuries  in  this  contest, 
 during  which  the  mountainous  country  of  the  interior 
 (Nedschid)  became  the  theatre  of  those  chivalrous 
 deeds  so  often  sung  by  Arabian  poets,  till  a  man  of 
 extraordinary  energy  united  them  by  communicating 
 to  them  his  own  ardour,  and  union  was  followed  by 
 augmented  force. — Christianity  early  found  many  ad- 
 herents here,  nnd  there  were  even  several  bishops  who 
 acknowledged  as  their  metropolis  Bosro  in  Palestine, 
 on  the  borders  of  Arabia.  Yet  the  original  worship 
 of  the  stars  could  not  be  entirely  abolished.  The  for- 
 mer opposition  of  the  Arabians  to  the  despotism  of 
 Rome  drew  to  them  a  multitude  of  heretics,  who  had 
 been  persecuted  in  the  orthodox  empire  of  the  East, 
 especially  the  Monophysites  and  the  Nestorians,  who 
 were  scattered  through  all  the  East  ;  and  the  religious 
 enthusiasm  of  those  exiles  rekindled  the  flame  of  op- 
 position. The  Jews  also,  after  the  destruction  of  Je- 
 rusalem, became  very  numerous  in  tliis  country,  and 
 made  many  proselytes,  particularly  in  Yemen.  The 
 last  king  of  the  Homeyrites  (Hamjarites)  was  of  the 
 Jewish  faith,  and  his  persecutions  of  the  Christians, 
 A.D.  502,  involved  him  in  a  war  with  the  King  of  .Ethi- 
 opia, which  cost  him  his  life  and  his  throne.  To  the 
 inditfercnce  excited  by  so  great  a  variety  of  sects  is  to 
 be  referred  the  quick  success  of  Mohammed  in  es- 
 tablishing a  new  religion.  He  raised  the  Arabians  to 
 importance  in  the  history  of  the  world,  and  with  him 
 begins  a  now  epoch  in  the  history  of  this  peo|)le. 
 {lahii's  Bihl.  ArchcpoL,  p.  8,  Upham's  transl. — Ency- 
 clop.  Americ,  vol.  1,  p.  316,  seqq.). 
 
 Arabicus  sinus,  that  part  or  branch  of  the  Mare 
 
 Erythraeum  which  interposes  itself  between  Egypt  and 
 
 Arabia.     It  is  now  called  the /fc(/ Scrt.     The  meaning 
 
 of  this  modern  appellation  must  be  looked  for,  not  in 
 
 172 
 
 any  colour  of  its  waters  or  sands,  but  m  the  name  of 
 Idumea  (or  the  land  of  Edom),  whose  coasts  this  sea 
 touches  on  the  north.  Edom,  in  the  Hebrew  tongue, 
 signifies  red,  and  was  the  name  given  to  Esau  for  sell- 
 ing his  birthright  for  a  mess  of  red  pottage.  This 
 country,  which  his  posterity  possessed,  was  called  after 
 his  name,  and  so  was  the  sea  which  adjoined  it.  TJie 
 Greeks,  however,  not  understanding  the  reason  of  the 
 appellation,  translated  what  is  in  Hebrew  llie  Sea  of 
 Edom,  by  IpvHpu  ■&d7iaaaa.  Thence  comes  the  Laiir. 
 form  Mare  ruhruni,  and  the  modern  name  tied  Sea. 
 It  is  otherwise  called  Golfo  di  Mecca.  ((Jomparc 
 WcWs  Sacred  Geogr.,  1^0.  160. — CalmcCs  Dict.,\o\. 
 5,  p.  63,  Eng.  transl. — Bdhr,  ad  C/cs.,  p.  309.)  The 
 shores  of  this  gulf  consist  [)rincipally  of  limestone 
 rocks.  The  bottom  is  covered  with  a  carjiet  of  green- 
 ish coral,  and,  in  calm  weather,  when  it  comes  into 
 view,  is  not  unlike  a  series  of  verdant  submarine  for- 
 ests and  meadows.  The  coral,  however,  is  inferior  in 
 quality  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  (I'lin.,  32,  2.) 
 I'he  beautiful  /"^ci  attracted  the  admiration  of  antiquity 
 {Artemid.,  ap.  Strab.,  766),  and  procured  for  the  Arabi- 
 an Gulf  in  Hebrew  the  name  of  Hahr  Soopk,  i.  e.,  "  the 
 sea  of  alga.'"     {Malte-Iiru7i,2,8'l,  Brussels  ed.) 
 
 Arabius,  Ar.\bis,  or  Arbis,  a  river  of  Gcdrosia, 
 near  its  eastern  boundary,  running  into  the  Indian 
 Ocean,  now  the  Araba  or  ll-Mend.    (Arrian,  6,  21.) 
 
 Aracca  and  Arecca,  a  city  of  Susiana,  east  of  the 
 Tigris,  now  Wasit.  It  has  attracted  the  attention  of 
 the  learned  by  reason  of  the  affinity  of  its  name  with 
 that  of  i'rccA,  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  among 
 the  cities  constructed  by  Nimrod.  {Ammian.  Mnr- 
 eeli,  23,  21.— Bochart,  Gcogr.  Sacr.,  col.  236.— Mi- 
 chaelis,  Spicileg.,  vol.  1,  p.  220,  sc(/(j.) 
 
 ARACHN./EUS  MoNs,  a  chain  of  mountains  in  Argolis, 
 running  along  the  upper  coast  in  a  southeastern  direc- 
 tion. In  the  time  of  Inachus  it  was  called  Sapyselaton. 
 (Pausan.,  2,  25. — Compare  Sicbclis,  ad  loe.)  Hesy- 
 chius  reports  that  it  also  bore  the  name  of  Hysselinus 
 (s.  V.  "Taai'kLvov. — Compare  Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'Apax- 
 vaiov).  Mount  Arachnseus  is  mentioned  by  ^Eschyhis 
 (Again.,  299)  as  the  last  station  of  the  telcgraj)hic  fire 
 by  which  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Troy  was  trans- 
 mitted to  Mycenaj.  The  modern  name  is  Sophjco, 
 according  to  the  latest  maps.  Part  of  this  chain,  com- 
 municating with  the  mountains  of  Nemca  and  Phlius, 
 bore  the  name  of  Celossa.  (Sirabo,  382. —  Cramcr^s 
 Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  282.) 
 
 Arachne,  a  Masonian  maiden,  who  was  so  proud  of 
 her  skill  in  weaving  and  embroidering,  in  which  arts 
 Minerva  had  instructed  her,  that  she  ventured  to  deny 
 her  obligations  to  the  goddess,  and  even  challenged 
 her  to  a  trial  of  skill.  Minerva,  assuming  the  form  of 
 an  old  woman,  warned  her  to  desist  from  lier  boasting; 
 but,  when  she  found  tliat  her  admonitions  were  vain, 
 she  resumed  her  proper  form,  and  accepted  tlic  chal- 
 lenge. The  skill  of  Arachne  was  sucii,  and  the  subjects 
 she  chose  (the  love-transformations  of  the  gods)  were 
 so  ofl'ensive  to  Minerva,  that  she  struck  her  several 
 times  in  the  forehead  with  the  shuttle.  The  high- 
 spirited  maiden,  unable  to  endure  this  afl'roni,  hung 
 herself,  and  the  goddess,  relenting,  changed  her  into  a 
 spider  {upd\vi}). — The  name  of  this  insect,  most  proli- 
 ably,  gave  rise  to  the  fable,  though  the  story  itself  would 
 seem  to  be  of  Oriental  origin,  the  art  of  embroidering 
 having  come  into  Western  Asia  from  iJabvlonia  and 
 the  countries  adjacent.  {Orid,  fi.  1,  sr^/q.  —  Kcigbf- 
 IcT/'s  Mythology,  p  122. — Creuzcr,  Syiubolih,  vol.  2, 
 p.  749.) 
 
 Araliiosia.  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire,  lying 
 to  the  west  of  the  river  Indus,  and  north  of  Gedrosia. 
 The  Greek  writers  iisuallv  call  the  inhabitants  Ara- 
 cho/i  ('A/j«,Y''''""')'  sometimes  Arachbtir.  (WpnxCiTai 
 Dion.  I'encg.,  1 096).  .\racliosia  was  of  consider- 
 able iin|)Ortance  as  a  frontier  province,  and  had  al- 
 ways, therefore,  a  satrap  or  governor  of  its  own,  both 
 
AR^ 
 
 ARATUS. 
 
 before  and  after  the  time  of  Alexander.  Through  this 
 country,  moreover,  lay  the  nearest  and  safest  route  to 
 India.  Syburtius,  the  Greek  governor  after  Alexan- 
 der's death,  cultivated  friendly  relations  with  the  Indian 
 monarch  Sandrocottus,  and  Megasthenes  was  often 
 sent  by  him  to  the  court  of  the  latter.  {Arnim,  5,  6.) 
 The  ancient  Arachosia  answers  to  the  modern  Aro- 
 khage.     {Mannert,  5,  pt.  2,  p.  76.) 
 
 Arachot.*  and  Arachoti,  the  inhabitants  of  Ara- 
 chosia. {Vid.  Arachosia.)  They  are  styled  Alvox- 
 'AaivQi,  from  their  linen  attire.  {Dionys.  Perieg., 
 1096. — Compare  Euslath.,  ad  loc. — Arrian,  3,  23.) 
 
 Akachotus,  I.  or  Arachosia,  the  chief  city  of  Ara- 
 chosia, called  also  Cophe  (Kuijj;/),  and  said  to  have 
 been  built  by  Semiramis.  It  did  not  lie,  as  some  re- 
 mark, on  the  river  Arachotus,  but  a  considerable  dis- 
 tance east  of  it,  on  a  road  leading  in  a  northern  direction 
 towards  the  modern  Candahar.  {^Mannert,  5,  pt.  2,  p. 
 80.) — II.  A  river  of  Arachosia,  rising  in  the  hills 
 northeast  of  the  modern  Ga:ni,  and  losing  itself  in  a 
 marsh  about  four  miles  to  the  south  of  Candahar.  Its 
 modern  name,  according  to  Wahl,  is  Naodah.  D'An- 
 ville,  however,  makes  it  Kare.  {Isid.,  Charac.  ap. 
 Gcogr.  Gr.  Mm.,  vol,  2,  p.  S.—Plin.,  6,  23.) 
 
 Akachthus,  Ar^ethus,  or  Aketho.v,  a  river  of  Epi- 
 rus,  (lowing  from  that  part  of  the  chain  of  Pindus  which 
 belonged  to  the  ancient  Tymphsi,  and  running  by 
 Ambracia  into  the  Ambracian  Gulf.  Lycophron  (v. 
 409),  who  calls  it  Arajlhus  ("Apaiffof),  speaks  of  it  as 
 the  boundary  of  Greece  on  this  side.  Ambracia, 
 therefore,  being  always  accounted  a  city  of  Greece 
 Proper,  must  have  stood  on  its  left  bank.  We  cannot, 
 therefore,  admit,  Virith  Pouqueville,  that  this  city  occu- 
 pied the  site  of  Regous,  smce  that  ruined  fortress  is 
 situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Luro  river,  which 
 that  writer  considers  to  be  the  Arachlhus.  That  the 
 Arachthus  is  a  considerable  stream,  may  be  inferred 
 from  Livy,  who  relates  (43,  21)  that  Perseus,  king  of 
 Macedon,  was  detained  on  its  banks  by  high  floods,  on 
 his  way  to  Acarnania.  {^Cramer's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  151,  scqq.) 
 
 Aracvnthus,  1.  a  chain  of  mountains  in  ^tolia, 
 running  in  a  southeasterly  direction  from  the  Acheloiis 
 to  the  Evenus.  Its  present  name  is  Mount  Zigos. 
 Pliny  (4,  1)  and  other  writers,  with  less  propriety,  as- 
 cribe Aracynthus  to  Acarnania. — II.  A  mountain  of 
 BcEotia,  sacred  to  Minerva,  whence  this  goddess  re- 
 ceived the  appellation  of  Aracynthia.  (^Khian.,  ap. 
 Stcph.  Bi/z.,  s.  V.  Wf)UKVv6og.)  It  was  situate  not 
 far  from  Thebes. 
 
 A K Alius,  I.  a  city  on  an  island  of  the  same  name, 
 on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia.  According  to  Strabo,  it 
 was  founded  by  a  band  of  exiles  from  Sidon.  The 
 island  on  which  it  stood  was  a  mere  rock,  not  quite 
 seven  stadia  in  circumference  ;  and  hence,  as  the  pop- 
 ulation of  the  city  increased,  they  were  compelled  to 
 erect  edifices  many  stories  in  height,  to  make  amends  for 
 the  limited  area  of  the  place.  The  position  of  Aradus 
 was  well  adapted  for  commerce.  The  modern  name 
 of  the  island  is  Ruad,  according  to  Pococke  (vol.  2,  p, 
 294),  and  traces  still  remain  of  the  cisterns  anciently 
 cut  in  the  rock  to  hold  the  rain-water  for  the  use  of 
 the  inhabitants.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p. 
 398,  .scqq.) — II.  An  island,  according  to  some,  on  the 
 coast  of  Arabia,  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  supposed 
 to  mark,  in  part,  the  original  settlements  of  the  Phoe- 
 nicians [irevious  to  their  establishing  themselves  on 
 the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  Much  doubt  exists, 
 however,  with  regard  to  the  accuracy  of  this  statement ; 
 and  Mannert,  among  others,  thinks  that  the  name  Ara- 
 dus, as  designating  an  island  in  this  quarter,  is  indebt- 
 ed for  its  existence  to  the  love  of  theory  alone. 
 {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  1,54 — Compare, 
 however,  MichaiUs,  Spicileg.,  vol.  1,  p.  166,  seqq., 
 and  vid.  Phoenicia.) 
 
 Ar.e,     Vul.  iEsimurus. 
 
 ARiE  Phil^norum.     Vid.  Philaeni. 
 
 Arar,  a  very  slow,  smooth-running  river  of  Gaul. 
 It  rises  near  Mons  Vogesus,  and,  after  a  southern 
 course,  falls  into  the  Rhodanus  at  Lugdunum.  {C(£s., 
 B.  G.,  1,  12.— I'lin.,  3,4.)  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
 who  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  centur)' 
 of  our  era,  first  calls  the  .\rar  by  the  name  of  Saucona, 
 speaking  of  this  latter  as  a  common  appellation  on  the 
 part  of  the  inhabitants  in  that  quarier,  '■'■  Ararim,  guem 
 Sauconam  appellant"  {\^,  11).  Gregory  of  Tours,  at 
 a  later  period,  styles  it  Sauguna  ;  and  from  this  comes 
 the  modern  French  appellation  Sau7ic.  (Compare  Le- 
 maire,  hidcx  Geogr.,  ad  Cms.  Comm.,  p.  190.) 
 
 Aratea,  a  festival  celebrated  at  Sicyon,  upon  the 
 birthday  of  Aratus,  and  in  memory  of  that  distinguish- 
 ed patriot.     {Flut.,  Vit.  Aral.,  53.) 
 
 Aratus,  I.  a  Greek  poet,  born  at  Soli  (Pompeiopo- 
 lis)  in  Cilicia.     He  flourished  about  270  B.C.,  was 
 a  favourite  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  a  firm  friend 
 to  Antigonus  Gonatas,  son  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 
 He  was  also  a  contemporary  of  Theocritus,  who  makes 
 mention  of  him  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  Idyls,  and 
 was  on  very  friendly  terms  with  him.     At  the  instance 
 of  Antigonus,  Aratus  composed  an  astronomical  poem, 
 entitled  'S^aivofiEva,  "  Appearances,"  and  treating  of 
 the   heavenly    bodies,  their  names,   movements,  &c. 
 The  materials  for  this  production  he  is  said  to  have 
 principally  derived  from  the  works  of  Eudoxus  of  Cni- 
 dus,  who  wrote  two  treatises  on  the  celestial  bodies 
 and  phoanomena,  one  entitled  ''EvoiTTpov,  or  ^^  the  Mir- 
 ror," and    the    other   ^nivo^eva.     {Buhlc,   de  Arat. 
 Script.  Comment.,  p.  466.)     What  other  writers  he 
 followed  besides  Eudoxus,  cannot  now  be  ascertained. 
 Salmasius,  indeed,  insists  that  he  did  not  follow  Eu- 
 doxus at  all,  but  Phainus  or  Meton  {Salm.,  ad  Solin., 
 p.  822);   this  opinion,  however,  is  refuted  by  Petavius. 
 {Doctr.  Temp.,  6,  9  )     Aratus  was  the  author  also  of 
 another  poem,  entitled    Aioajjfida,   or   "■  Signs  fro7)i 
 Jove,"  the  materials  for  which  he  borrowed  from  He- 
 siod,  the  meteorological  writings  of  Aristotle,  and  The- 
 ophrastus  on  the  signs  of  the  winds.     Some  of  the  an- 
 cients, and  several  of  the  moderns,  too,  have  united 
 the  ^aivu^ieva  and  ALoar/fiela  into  one  poem,  probably 
 because,  in  the  latter,  he  draws  his  signs  indicative  of 
 changes  in  the  atmosphere  from  the  relative  positions 
 of  the  sun,  moon,  and  constellations  of  the  zodiac  as 
 regards  the  earth.     They  are,  however,  distinct  pro- 
 ductions, and  are  regarded  as  such  by  the  best  ancient 
 and  modern  authorities.     {Schol.    ad  Dioscm.  init. — 
 Schol.    ad  Arisloph.   Vac,   WdQ.—  Vilruv.,  9,  7. — 
 Buhlc,  ibid.,  p.  462  ) — In  the  two  poems  just  refer- 
 red to,  Aratus  gives  us,  in  correct  and  raiher  elegant 
 verse,  a  general  view  of  what  was  then  known  of  the 
 heavens,  with  their  signs,  appearances,  &:c,,  although  it 
 is  evident,  both  from  ancient  authority  as  well  as  from 
 the  poem  itself,  that  he  was  not  a  professed  astrono- 
 mer, or  even  very  accurately  acquainted  with  (he  prin- 
 ciples of  the  science.     {Cic,  dc  Oral.,  I,  16  — Buhlc, 
 p.  467.)     Ovid    passes  a  high  eulogium   on  Aratus, 
 '^  ctwi  sole  et  luna  semper  Aratus  eril"  {Amor.,  1,  15) ; 
 but  this  exaggerated  compliment,  and  the  admiration 
 of  Ovid,  were  very  probably  owing  to  the  circumstance 
 of  no  other  poet's  having  taken  the  astronomic  sphere 
 for  his  theme  prior  to  Aratus.     {Buhlc,  p.  471.)     'I'he 
 truth  is,  the  subject  matter  of  both  jioeins  is  far  from 
 being  congenial  to  poetry,  as  is  well  remarked  by  Quin- 
 tilian,  who   adds   of  Aratus   himself,   ^^  sufficU  tamcn 
 operi,  cui  se  parcm  credulit  (10,  1,  55).     As  one  proof 
 of  the  consideration  which  Aratus  enjoyed,  we  may 
 cite  the  monument  which  his  compatriots  erected  to 
 his  memory,  and  which  became  famous  by  reason  of  a 
 physical  phenomena  that  Mela  mentions.     {"  Juxta  in 
 parvo  tumulo  Arali  poclce  monumcnlum,  idea  referen- 
 dum quia,  ignotvm  quam  oh  cansam,  jacta  in  id  snxa 
 dissiliant,"   1,   13.)     Aratus,  moreover,  is  the  writer 
 to  whom  St.  Paul  refers  in  his  speech  before  the  Are- 
 
 173 
 
ARATUS. 
 
 ARA 
 
 opagiis  {Acts,  17,  28),  a  circumstance  which  entitled 
 the  poet  to  great  favour  among  the  fathers  of  the 
 church,  although  it  is  evident  that  the  Apostle  makes 
 no  allusion  to  his  poetic  merit.  M.  Delambre  re- 
 marks, in  speaking  of  Aratus,  that  he  "  has  transmitted 
 to  us  almost  all  that  Greece  at  that  time  knevk'  of  the 
 heavens,  or,  at  least,  all  that  could  be  put  into  verse. 
 The  perusal  of  Aulolycus  or  Euclid  gives  more  infor- 
 mation on  the  subject  to  him  who  wishes  to  become 
 an  astronomer.  Their  notions  are  more  precise  and 
 more  geometrical.  The  principal  merit  of  Aratus  is 
 the  description  he  has  left  us  of  the  constellations  ; 
 and  yet,  even  with  this  description  to  aid  us,  one 
 would  be  much  puzzled  to  construct  a  celestial  chart 
 or  globe."  (Ddamlre,  Hist,  de  I' Astronomic  An- 
 cienne,  vol.  1,  p.  74.) — The  two  poems  of  Aratus  were 
 thrice  translated  into  Latin  verse,  first  by  Cicero,  sec- 
 ondly by  Germanicus,  of  the  line  of  the  Caesars,  and 
 thirdly  by  Avienus.  Cicero's  translation  is  lost,  with 
 the  exception  of  some  fragments.  The  translation,  or, 
 rather,  imitation  of  the  Phenomena  by  Germanicus, 
 and  his  commencement  of  the  Diosemea,  as  well  as 
 the  version  of  Avienus,  remain  to  us.  Virgil,  also,  in 
 his  Georgics,  is  under  many  obligations  to  our  poet. 
 Although  Aratus  has  been  accused  of  possessing  but 
 a  slight  acquaintance  with  the  subject  on  which  he 
 treats,  still  a  number  of  mathematicians  united  them- 
 selves With  the  grammarians  in  commenting  on  his 
 work.  Many  of  these  commentaries  are  lost :  we  still 
 have,  however,  four  remaining  ;  one  by  Hipparchus  of 
 Nica?.a,  another  by  Achilles  Tatius  ;  the  other  two  are 
 anonymous,  for  those  are  in  error  who  attribute  one  of 
 them  to  Eratosthenes.  Aratus  wrote  many  other 
 works,  which  have  not  come  down  to  us.  They  treat- 
 ed of  physical,  astronomical,  grammatical,  critical, 
 and  poetic  themes,  and  a  list  of  them  is  given  by  one 
 of  his  editors,  Buhle  (vol  2,  p.  455,  seqq). — The  best 
 editions  of  this  poet  are,  that  of  Buhle,  Lips.,  1793- 
 1801,  2  vols.  8vo,  and  that  of  Matthias,  Francof., 
 1317-1818.  We  have  also  a  German  version  by  J. 
 H.  Voss,  Hadclb.,  1824,  published  with  the  Greek 
 text  and  illustrations. — II.  A  celebrated  Grecian  pa- 
 triot, born  at  Sicyon,  B.C.  273.  When  he  was  but 
 seven  years  of  age,  his  father  Clinias,  who  held  the 
 government  of  Sicyon,  was  assassinated  by  Abantidas, 
 who  succeeded  in  making  himself  absolute.  Aratus 
 took  refuge  in  Argos,  where  he  was  concealed  by  the 
 friends  of  the  family,  and  where  he  devoted  hnnself 
 with  great  success  to  physical  exercises,  gaining 
 the  prize  in  the  live  exercises  of  the  pentathlum. 
 After  some  revolutions  and  changes  of  rulers  at  Sicy- 
 on, the  government  came  into  the  hands  of  Nicocles, 
 when  Aratus,  then  hardly  twenty  years  of  age,  formed 
 the  project  of  freeing  his  country,  and,  having  assem- 
 bled some  exiles,  surprised  the  city  of  Sicyon.  The 
 tyrant  having  fled,  Aratus  gave  liberty  to  his  fellow- 
 citizens,  and  induced  them  to  join  the  Achrean  league, 
 still  as  yet  feeble,  and  only  in  the  twenty-fourth  year 
 of  its  existence.  The  return  of  the  exiles,  however, 
 occasioned  much  trouble  at  Sicyon ;  those  who  had 
 purchased  their  property  refused  to  restore  it,  and  Ara- 
 tus was  compelled  to  have  recourse  to  Ptolemy  Phil- 
 adelphus,  to  whom  he  had  rendered  some  services, 
 and  who  gave  him  150  talents,  with  which  he  indem- 
 nified the  new  possessors,  and  restored  their  property 
 to  his  fellow-exiles.  Being  chosen,  for  the  second 
 time,  Pra'tor  of  the  Acha-ans,  244  B.C.,  he  seized  by 
 surprise  on  the  citadel  of  Corinth,  which  Antigonus 
 had  guarded  with  great  care  as  one  of  the  keys  of  the 
 Peloponnesus,  and  prevailed  upon  the  Corinthians  to 
 join  the  confederacy.  Similar  success  attended  his 
 efforts  in  other  quarters,  and  many  of  the  most  impor- 
 tant states  and  cities  of  southern  Greece  became 
 through  his  means  members  of  the  league.  Some  time 
 after,  the  ^tolians,  jealous  of  the  prosperity  of  the 
 Achsans,  and  reckoning  on  the  aid  of  Anligonus,  the 
 174 
 
 guardian  of  Philip,  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Lace- 
 daemonians, the  natural  enemies  of  the  Acha;an  league. 
 Aratus  marched  to  the  aid  of  those  cities  of  Arcadia 
 which  belonged  to  the  confederacy,  and  which  were 
 menaced  by  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta  ;  but  he  waa 
 defeated  in  three  successive  engagements,  and  found 
 himself  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  Antigonus.  In 
 order  to  induce  this  prince  to  lend  aid,  he  surrendered 
 to  him,  on  his  expressly  requiring  it,  the  citadel  of  Cor- 
 inth ;  and  Antigonus,  on  having  come  with  an  army, 
 was  appointed  generalissimo  of  the  Achaean  troops. 
 Plutarch  pretends  that  Cleomenes  had  offered  peace  to 
 the  Achasans,  on  condition  of  being  appointed  com- 
 mander of  their  forces,  and  that  Aratus  opposed  him 
 through  jealousy  ;  and  he  even  reproaches  him  for  pre- 
 ferring a  barbarian  to  a  descendant  of  Hercules.  But 
 the  truth  was,  Aratus  could  not  hesitate  between  An- 
 tigonus, a  humane  prince,  and  a  religious  observer  of 
 his  oaths,  and  Cleomenes,  who  had  now  become  a 
 tyrant  over  his  own  country,  to  which  he  wished  to 
 make  all  the  Peloponnesus  subject.  The  aid  of  An- 
 tigonus changed  entirely  the  aspect  of  affairs  ;  and  this 
 prince  having  eventually  entered  into  Laconia,  com- 
 pelled Cleomenes,  after  a  defeat  at  Sellasia,  to  flee 
 from  the  country,  took  Sparta,  and  restored  to  it  the 
 laws  which  Cleomenes  had  abrogated.  Antigonus 
 always  showed  great  consideration  for  Aratus,  and 
 governed  himself  by  his  counsels  in  what  related  to  the 
 atfairs  of  Greece.  Philip,  his  nephew  and  successor, 
 did  the  same  during  the  early  part  of  his  reign  ;  but  in 
 process  of  time  a  less  friendly  feeling  arose  between 
 the  latter  and  Aratus,  as  the  evil  qualities  of  Philip 
 began  to  display  themselves,  and  the  Grecian  patriot 
 eventually  fell  a  victim  to  the  unprincipled  monarch, 
 who  had  caused  a  slow  poison  to  be  given  to  him. 
 Some  time  before  his  death,  Aratus  was  observed  by 
 one  of  his  friends  to  spit  blood,  and,  when  the  latter 
 expressed  his  surprise  at  this,  he  merely  exclaimed, 
 "  Such,  Ccphalon,  are  the  fruits  of  royal  friendship  /" 
 He  was  buried  with  distinguished  honours  by  his 
 countrymen,  and  a  festival,  called  Aratea,  was  celebra- 
 ted every  year  in  memory  of  him.  Aratus  wrote  Me- 
 moirs, now  lost,  which  Polybius  cites  with  eulogiums. 
 His  character  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words. 
 He  was  a  pure  and  ardent  patriot,  and,  in  addition  to 
 this,  a  statesman  of  no  small  degree  of  merit,  but  not 
 very  conspicuous  for  military  abilities.  Aratus  died 
 in  the  62d  year  of  his  agc,"B.C.  213.  {Plut.,  Vit. 
 Aral.) — III.  A  son  of  the  preceding,  nearly  of  the 
 same  age  with  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia.  He  was  on 
 intimate  terms  with  this  monarch,  a  circumstance,  how- 
 ever, which  did  not  prevent  the  latter  from  adminis- 
 tering a  potion,  that  threw  him  into  a  deplorable  state 
 of  idiocy,  so  that  his  friends  regarded  his  death,  which 
 occurred  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  as  a  blessing  rather 
 than  a  misfortune.     {Pint.,  Vit.  Aral,  ull.) 
 
 Aeausio,  the  chief  city  of  the  Cavares,  in  Gallia 
 Narbonensis,  to  the  north  of  Avenio.  It  is  now  Or- 
 ange, in  the  department  of  Vaucluse.  In  the  vicinity 
 are  some  remains  of  a  triumphal  arch,  erected  in  com- 
 memoration of  the  victory  of  Marius  over  the  Cimbri 
 and  Teutones.     (P/iw.,  3,  4.) 
 
 Araxks,  I.  a  river  of  Armenia  Major,  issuing  from 
 Mons  Abus,  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  whence  the 
 southern  arm  of  the  Euphrates  flows.  It  runs  east 
 until  it  meets  the  mountains  which  separate  Armenia 
 from  northern  Media,  when  it  turns  to  the  north,  and, 
 after  receiving  the  Cyrus,  falls  into  the  Caspian  Sea. 
 It  is  now  the  Arras.  {Plin.,  6,  O.—Slrah.,  363  — 
 I'lol.,  5,  13  ) — II.  Another  in  Persia,  running  by  Per- 
 sepolis,  and  falling  into  the  Mediis,  now  Bend-Emir. 
 — Xenophon  calls  the  Chaboras  by  the  name  of  Araxes 
 (vid.  Chaboras),  and  gives  the  name  of  Phasis  to  the 
 Armenian  Araxes.  (Xen.,  Anah.,  1,  4,  19. — Compare 
 the  Index  Nom.  to  the  edition  of  Zeune,  and  the  re- 
 marks of  Krugcr,  ad  Xen.,  Anab.,  4,  6,  4.) — IIL  A 
 
ARC 
 
 ARC 
 
 nver  of  Upper  Asia,  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (1)  202), 
 and  supposed  by  the  most  recent  inquirers  into  this 
 subject  to  be  the  same  with  the  modern  Volga. 
 {Baehr,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c. — Compare  the  remarks  of  the 
 same  editor,  in  the  note  to  the  Index  Rcnim,  vol.  4, 
 p.  454,  scqq.) — The  name  Araxes  ajjpears  to  have 
 been  originally  an  appellative  term  for  a  river,  in  the 
 earlier  language  of  the  East,  and  hence  we  find  it  ap- 
 plied to  several  streams  in  ancient  Oriental  geography. 
 (Compare  Hecren,  Ideen,  vol.  1,  p.  55. — Rittcr,  Erd- 
 kunde,  vol.  2,  p.  658.) 
 
 Arb.Icks,  a  Median  officer,  who  conspired  with 
 Belesis,  the  most  distinguished  member  of  the  Chal- 
 daean  sacerdotal  college,  against  Sardanapalus,  king  of 
 Assyria.  After  several  reverses,  he  finally  succeeded 
 in  his  object,  defeated  Sardanapalus  near  Nineveh, 
 took  this  city,  and  reigned  in  it  for  the  space  of  twen- 
 ty-eight years.  With  him  commenced  a  dynasty  of 
 eight  kings,  of  whom  Aspadas  or  Astyages  was  the 
 last.  The  empire  which  Arbaces  founded  was  a  fed- 
 erative one,  composed  of  several  sovereignties  which 
 had  arisen  from  the  ruins  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy. 
 The  kingly  power,  though  hereditary,  was  not  abso- 
 lute, the  monarch  not  having  the  power  to  change  any 
 of  the  laws  enacted  by  the  confederate  princes.  Chro- 
 nologists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  period  of  the  revolt 
 of  Arbaces.  Most  place  it  under  or  about  the  archon- 
 ship  of  Ariphron,  the  9th  perpetual  archon  of  Athens  ; 
 but  they  differ  again  about  the  precise  period  of  this 
 archon.ship,  some  assigning  it  to  917  B.C.,  others  to 
 898  B  C.  (Diod.  Sic,  2,  24— Fe//.,  Patera.,  1,  6. 
 — Justin,  1,  1. — Petav  ,  Doclr.  Temp.,  I.  9.) 
 
 Arbela,  a  city  of  Assyria,  in  the  province  of  Adi- 
 abene,  east  of  Ninus,  near  the  Za-hatvis,  or  Zab.  On 
 the  opposite  side  of  this  river,  near  Isbil,  was  fought 
 the  decisive  battle  of  Arbela,  between  Alexander  and 
 Darius,  October  2,  B.C.  331.  The  field  of  battle  was 
 the  plain  of  Gaugamela.  The  latter,  however,  being 
 an  obscure  place,  this  conflict  was  named  after  Arbela. 
 {Straho,  39d.—Diod.  Sic,  17,  ^3.—Arrian,  3,  6.) 
 
 Arbuscui.a,  an  actress  on  the  Roman  stage,  who, 
 being  hissed,  on  one  occasion,  by  the  lower  orders  of 
 the  people,  observed,  with  great  spirit,  that  she  cared 
 nothing  for  the  rabble,  as  long  as  she  pleased  the  more 
 enlightened  part  of  her  audience  among  the  equestrian 
 ranks.     {Horat.,  Scrm.,  1,  10,  77.) 
 
 Arcadi.\,  a  country  in  the  centre  of  the  Peloponne- 
 sus, and,  next  to  Laconia,  the  largest  of  its  six  prov- 
 inces. It  was  a  mountainous  region,  and  contained 
 the  sources  of  most  of  the  considerable  rivers  which 
 flow  into  the  seas  surrounding  the  Peloponnesus. 
 From  its  elevated  situation,  and  the  broken  face  of 
 the  country,  intersected  by  small  streams,  it  had  a  cold 
 and  foggy  climate  during  some  seasons  ;  in  the  j)lain 
 of  Argos,  only  one  day's  journey  from  the  centre  of 
 Arcadia,  the  sun  shines  and  the  violets  bloom,  while 
 snow  is  on  the  hills  of  Arcadia,  and  in  the  plain  of 
 Mantinea  and  Tegea.  The  most  fertile  part  was  to- 
 wards the  south,  where  the  country  sloped  off,  and 
 contained  many  fruitful  vales  and  numerous  streams. 
 This  account  of  the  land  may  serve  in  some  degree  to 
 explaiti  the  character  which  the  Arcadians  had  among 
 the  ancient  Greeks  :  some  of  those  who  now  occupy 
 this  district  seem  to  be  as  rude  as  many  of  the  former 
 possessors.  Their  country  is  better  adapted  to  pas- 
 turage than  cultivation,  and  the  Arcadians,  who  were 
 scarcely  a  genuine  Greek  race,  continued  their  pastoral 
 habits  and  retained  their  rude  manners  amid  their  na- 
 tive mountains.  To  their  pastoral  mode  of  life  may 
 be  ascribed  their  attachment  to  music  ;  and  hence  also 
 the  worship  of  Pan  as  the  tutelary  deity  of  Arcadia. 
 Nature,  observes  a  modern  writer,  has  'destined  this 
 country  for  herdsmen.  The  pastures  and  meadows  in 
 summer  are  always  green  and  unscorched  ;  for  the 
 shade  and  moisture  preserve  them.  The  country  has 
 n  appearance  similar  to  that  of  Switzerland,  and  the 
 
 Arcadians,  in  some  measure,  resemble  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  Alps.  They  possessed  a  love  of  freedom  and  a 
 love  of  money  ;  for  wherever  there  was  money,  you 
 might  see  Arcadian  hirelings.  But  it  is  chiefly  the 
 western  part  of  Arcadia  (where  Pan  invented  the 
 shepherd's  tlute)  which  deserves  the  name  of  a  pasto- 
 ral country.  Innumerable  brooks,  one  more  delightful 
 than  the  other,  sometimes  rushing  impetuously,  and 
 sometimes  gently  murmuring,  pour  themselves  down 
 the  mountains.  Vegetation  is  rich  and  magnificent ; 
 everywhere  freshness  and  coolness  are  found.  One 
 flock  of  sheep  here  succeeds  another,  till  the  w-ild 
 Taygetus  is  approached,  where  numerous  herds  of 
 goats  are  also  seen.  (Barlholdy,  Bruchsliicke  zu 
 ttahern  Kciintniss  Gr7echc?da7ids,]).  239,  setjq.)  The 
 inhabitants  of  Arcadia,  devoted  to  the  pastoral  life, 
 preferred,  therefore,  for  a  long  time,  to  dwell  in  the 
 open  country  rather  than  in  the  cities  ;  and  when  some 
 of  these,  particularly  Tegea  and  Mantinea,  became 
 considerable,  the  contests  between  ihem  destroyed 
 the  peace  and  liberties  of  the  people.  The  shepherd- 
 life  among  the  Greeks,  although  much  ornamented  by 
 the  poets,  betrays  its  origin  in  this,  that  it  arose  among 
 a  people  who  did  not  wander  like  the  Nomades,  but 
 were  in  possession  of  stationary  dwellings. — The  most 
 ancient  name  of  Arcadia  was  Drymotis  (the  woody 
 region),  from  Spvc,  "  a  tree."  The  Aroadians  them- 
 selves carried  their  origin  very  far  back,  and  gave 
 their  nation  the  name  of  ProscJcni  (before  the  moon). 
 They  seem  to  have  derived  the  first  rudiments  of  civil- 
 ization, if  not  their  origin  itself,  from  the  Pelasiji ;  and 
 hence  the  tradition  that  a  king,  named  Pelasgus, 
 taught  them  to  build  huts,  and  clothe  themselves  with 
 the  skins  of  animals.  Areas,  a  descendant  of  this  same 
 Pelasgus,  taught  them  the  art  of  baking  bread,  and  of 
 weaving.  From  this  second  benefactor  the  people 
 and  their  country  were  respectively  called  Arcades 
 and  Arcadia.  A  republican  form  of  government  arose 
 subsequently,  after  the  first  Messenian  war,  Aristoc- 
 rates  II.  having  been  stoned  to  death  by  the  Arca- 
 dians for  his  treachery  towards  the  Messenians.  Ar- 
 cadia eventually  attached  itself  to  the  Achaean  league, 
 and  fell  under  the  Roman  power— It  is  commonly 
 believed  that  a  colony  of  Arcadians  settled  in  Italy  in 
 very  early  times.  This,  however,  is  a  mere  fable,  and 
 is  contradicted  by  the  inland  nature  of  the  country, 
 and  by  the  Arcadians  never  having  been  a  maritime 
 people.  {Vid.  Pelasgi  and  Italy,  and  also  Evander  — ■ 
 Polyb.,  4,  20.— Dwd.  Sic,  4,'  Si.—Thucyd.,  7,  57. 
 —Plin.,  4,  b.—A])oU(id.,  2,  \.—Pausan.,  8,  4.) 
 
 Arcadius,  eldest  son  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  suc- 
 ceeded his  father  A.I).  395,  who,  at  his  death,  divided 
 the  empire  between  his  two  sons,  giving  Arcadius  the 
 eastern,  and  Honorius  the  western  division.  Arcadius 
 was  only  eighteen  years  of  age  when  he  ascended  the 
 throne,  and  he  only  occupied  it  to  become  the  vile 
 slave  of  the  ambitious,  who  each  in  turn  distracted  the 
 state  by  their  perfidies,  their  quarrels,  and  their  con- 
 nivance with  the  Goths,  Huns,  and  Vandals,  to  whom 
 they  surrendered  the  provinces  and  treasures  of  the 
 empire.  The  history  of  Arcadius,  in  fact,  is  that  of 
 one,  whose  weakness  and  vices  made  him  subservient 
 to,  and  excited  the  audacity  of,  a  Rufinus,  who,  char- 
 ged by  Theodosius  with  the  guidance  of  the  young 
 monarch,  wished  to  give  him  his  daughter  in  marriage, 
 and  become  his  colleague  in  the  empire,  and  who.  dis- 
 appointed in  his  ambitious  schemes,  invited  the  Huns 
 and  Goths  into  Asia  and  Greece  :  a  Eutropius,  a  vilo 
 eunuch,  who  attained  to  the  influence  of  a  Rufinus, 
 after  the  tragical  death  of  the  latter,  and,  still  mor( 
 unprincipled,  succeeded  by  his  violent  conduct  in  de- 
 grading and  discouraging  the  people  :  a  Gainas,  a  gen- 
 eral who  ravaged  instead  of  defending  the  empire,  but 
 who  contributed  nevertheless  to  the  ruin  of  Eutropius  : 
 and  an  Empress  Eudoxia,  at  one  moment  the  enemy,  at 
 another  the  support  of  the  ambitious,  and  who  perse- 
 
 175 
 
ARC 
 
 ARCESILAUS. 
 
 cutcd  the  virtuous  Chrysostom,  patriarch  of  Constan- 
 liiiojjk'.  Arcadius  was  in  succession  the  tool  of  all 
 thi'sc  designing  individuals.  He  saw,  with  ccjual  in- 
 difference, Alaric  ravaging  his  territories,  his  subjects 
 groatiing  under  oppression,  the  succours  brought  him 
 by  Stilicho,  general  of  Honorius,  rendered  of  no  avail 
 by  the  perfidy  of  his  own  ministers,  the  best  citizens 
 fulling  by  his  proscriptions,  and,  finally,  Arianism  dcs- 
 olatuig  the  religion  which  Chrysostom  in  vain  attempt- 
 ed to  defend.  Such  was  the  reign  of  this  prince, 
 which  lasted  for  fourteen  years.  He  died  A.D.  408, 
 at  the  age  of  thirty-one.  Nature  had  given  him  an 
 exterior  corresponding  to  his  character  ;  a  small,  ill- 
 niade,  disagreeable  person,  an  air  of  imbecility,  a  lazy 
 enunciation,  everything,  in  fact,  announcing  the  weak- 
 est and  most  cowardly  of  emperors.  He  had  by  his 
 wife  Eudoxia  a  son  named  Theodosius,  who  succeed- 
 ed him  as  the  second  of  that  name.  {Socrat.,  Hist. 
 Ecclcs.,  5. — Cassiod.,  Cliron.,  &c.) 
 
 Arc.vs,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Callisto.  {Vid.  Cal- 
 listo.)  The  fabulous  legend  relative  to  him  and  his 
 mother  is  given  by  the  ancient  writers  with  great  dif- 
 ference in  tlie  circumstances.  According  to  the  most 
 common  account,  Jupiter  changed  Callisto  into  a  bear, 
 to  screen  her  from  the  jealousy  of  Juno,  and  Areas 
 her  son  was  separated  from  her  and  reared  among 
 men.  When  grown  up,  he  chanced  to  meet  his  moth- 
 er in  the  woods,  in  her  transformed  state,  and  was  on 
 the  point  of  slaughtering  her,  but  Jupiter  interfered, 
 and  translated  both  the  parent  and  son  to  the  skies. 
 Areas,  previously  to  this,  had  succeeded  Nyctimus  in 
 tlie  government  of  Arcadia,  the  land  receiving  this 
 name  first  from  him.  He  was  the  friend  of  Triptole- 
 mus,  who  taught  him  agriculture,  which  he  introduced 
 among  his  subjects.  He  also  showed  ihem  how  to 
 manufacture  wool,  an  art  which  he  had  learned  from 
 Aristasus.      (ApoH.od.,  3,  8.—  0v.,  Met.,  2,  iO],scgq.) 
 
 A  ROE,  a  city  of  Phoenicia,  north  of  Tripolis,  and 
 eoulh  of  Antaradus.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Alexan- 
 der Severus,  the  Roman  emperor.  {Larnprid.,  Vit. 
 Alex.,  c.  5. — Plin.,  5,  18.)  The  name  is  sometimes 
 given  as  Arcae.     {Socrat.,  Hist.  Erxles.,  7,  36.) 
 
 Arcesjl.\us,  I.  son  of  Battus,  king  of  Cyrene,  was 
 driven  from  his  kingdom  in  a  sedition,  and  died  B.C. 
 575.  The  second  of  that  name  died  B.C.  550. 
 {Polyan  ,  8,  41. — Hcrodot.,  4,  159.)— H.  A  philoso- 
 pher, born  at  Pitane,  in  ^olis,  and  the  founder  of 
 what  was  termed  the  Middle  Academy.  The  period 
 ftf  his  birth  is  usually  given  as  316  B.C.,  while  ac- 
 cording to  Apollodorus,  as  cited  by  Diogenes  Laertius 
 (4,  45),  he  flouri-shed  about  B.C.  299.  If  these  num- 
 bers are  accurate,  he  must  have  had  an  early  reputa- 
 tion, as  he  would  at  the  latter  date  have  been  only 
 seventeen  years  of  age.  There  is  therefore  some  er- 
 ror here  in  the  remark  of  Apollodorus.  {Clinton's 
 Fasti  Hclletiici,  vol.  1,  p.  179,  and  367,  not.)  Arces- 
 ilans  at  first  applied  himself  to  rhetoric,  but  subse- 
 quently passed  to  tlie  study  of  jjhilosophy,  in  which 
 he  had  for  teachers,  first  Thcophrastus,  then  Grantor 
 the  Academician,  and  probably  also  Polemo.  {Diog. 
 Lacrt.,  4,  24,  29.—Cic.,  Acad.,  1,  9  )  The  state- 
 ment of  Numenius  (ap.  Eus.,  Pr.  Ev.,  14,  5),  that 
 Arcesilaus  was  the  disciple  of  Polemo  at  the  same 
 time  with  Zeno,  appears  to  be  ill-grounded,  and  to  in- 
 volve great  chronological  difficulties.  It  is  very  prob- 
 ably a  mere  fiction,  designed  to  suggest  some  outward 
 motive  for  the  controversial  relation  of  tie  Porch  and 
 the  Academy. — Besides  the  instructers  a:ove  named, 
 Arcesilaus  is  also  said  to  have  diligently  attended  the 
 lectures  of  the  Eretrian  Mcnedamus,  the  Megarian 
 Diodorus,  and  the  sceptic  Pvrrho.  His  love  for  the 
 philosophemes  of  these  individuals  has  been  referred 
 to  as  the  source  of  his  scepticism,  and  his  skill  in  re- 
 futing philosophical  principles.  At  the  same  time,  it 
 is  on  all  hands  admitted  that,  of  philosophers,  Plato 
 was  his  favourite.  He  seems  to  have  been  sincerely 
 176 
 
 of  opinion,  that  his  view  of  things  did  not  differ  from 
 the  true  spirit  of  the  Platonic  doctrine  ;  nay,  more,  that 
 it  was  perfectly  in  agreement  with  those  older  jjhiloso- 
 phemes,  from  which,  according  to  the  opinion  of  many, 
 Plato  had  drawn  his  own  doctrines,  namely,  those 
 of  Socrates,  Parmenides,  and  Heraclitus. — Upon  the 
 death  of  Crantor,  the  school  in  the  Academy  was 
 tarnsferred  by  a  certain  Socratides  to  Arcesilaus,  who 
 here  introduced  the  old  Socratic  method  of  teaching 
 in  dialogues,  although  it  was  rather  a  corruption  than 
 an  imitation  of  the  genuine  Socratic  mode.  Arcesi- 
 laus does  not  appear  to  have  committed  his  opinions 
 to  writing,  at  least  the  ancients  were  not  acquainted 
 with  any  work  which  could  confidently  be  ascribed  to 
 him.  Now,  as  his  disciple  Lacydes  also  abstained 
 from  writing,  the  ancients  themselves  appear  to  have 
 derived  their  knowledge  of  his  opinions  only  from  the 
 works  of  his  opponents,  of  whom  Chrysippus  was  the 
 most  eminent.  Such  a  source  must  naturally  be  both 
 defective  and  uncertain,  and  accordingly  we  have  little 
 that  we  can  confidently  advance  with  respect  to  his 
 doctrine.  According  to  these  statements,  the  results 
 of  his  opinions  would  be  a  perfect  scepticism,  expressed 
 in  the  formula  that  he  knew  nothing,  not  even  that 
 which  Socrates  had  ever  maintained  that  he  knew, 
 namely,  his  own  ignorance.  {Cic,  Acad.,  1,  12.) 
 This  e.xpression  of  his  opinion  implicitly  ascribes  to 
 Arcesilaus  a  full  consciousness  that  he  differed  in  a 
 most  importam  point  from  the  doctrine  of  Socrates 
 and  Plato.  But,  as  the  ancients  do  not  appear  to  have 
 ascribed  any  such  conviction  to  Arcesilaus,  it  seems 
 to  be  a  more  probable  opinion,  which  imputes  to  him 
 a  desire  to  restore  the  genuine  Platonic  dogma,  and 
 to  purify  it  from  all  those  precise  and  positive  deter- 
 minations which  his  successors  had  appended  to  it. 
 Indeed,  one  statement  expressly  declares,  that  the  sub- 
 ject of  his  lecture  to  his  most  accomplished  scholars 
 was  the  doctrine  of  Plato  (Cic,  I.  c.) ;  and  he  would 
 therefore  appear  to  have  adopted  this  formula  with  a 
 view  to  meet  more  easily  the  objections  of  the  dog- 
 matists. Now  if  we  thus  attach  Arcesilaus  to  Plato, 
 we  must  suppose  him  to  have  been  in  the  same  case 
 with  many  others,  and  unable  to  discover  in  the  wri- 
 tings of  Plato  any  fixed  and  determinate  principles  of 
 science.  The  ambiguous  manner  in  which  almost 
 every  view  is  therein  advanced,  and  the  results  of  one 
 investigation  admitted  only  conditionally  to  other 
 inquiries,  may  perhaps  have  led  him  to  regard  the 
 speculations  of  Plato  in  the  light  of  mere  shrewd  and 
 intelligent  conjectures.  Accordingly,  we  are  told,  that 
 Arcesilaus  denied  the  certainty,  not  only  of  intellec- 
 tual, but  also  of  sensuous  knowledge.  ( dr.,  dc  Oiat., 
 3,  18.)  For  his  attack  upon  the  former,  Plato  vioiild 
 furnish  him  with  weapons  enough  ;  and  it  is  against  it 
 principally  that  his  attacks  were  directed,  for  the  Stoics 
 were  his  chief  opjionents. — 1'he  true  distinction  be- 
 tween the  Sceptics  and  the  members  of  the  Middle 
 Academy,  at  its  first  formation  by  Arcesilaus,  apjiears 
 to  have  been  this.  The  former  made  the  end  of  life  to 
 be  the  attainment  of  a  perfect  equanimity,  and  derived 
 the  difference  between  good  and  bad,  as  presented  by 
 the  phajnomena  of  life,  from  conversion,  and  not  from 
 nature.  The  Academicians,  on  the  other  hand,  taught, 
 as  a  general  rule,  that,  in  the  pursuit  of  good  and  the 
 avoidance  of  evil,  men  must  be  guided  by  probabilities. 
 They  admitted  that  the  sage,  without  absolutely  mor- 
 tifying his  sensual  desires,  will  live  like  any  other  in 
 obedience  to  the  general  estimate  of  good  and  evil,  but 
 with  this  simple  difference,  that  he  does  not  believe 
 that  he  is  regulating  his  life  by  any  certain  and  stable 
 principles  of  science.  It  is  on  this  account  that  we  do 
 not  meet  with  any  statements  concerning  the  strange- 
 ness of  their  habits  of  life,  like  to  those  about  Pyrrho  ; 
 on  the  contrary,  Arcesilaus  is  usually  depicted  as  a 
 man  who,  in  the  intercourse  of  life,  observed  all  it.s 
 decencies  and  proprieties,  and  was  somewhat  disposed 
 
ARC 
 
 ARCHELAUS. 
 
 to  that  splendour  and  luxury  which  the  prevailing 
 views  of  morality  allowed  and  sanctioned.  His 
 doubts,  therefore,  as  to  the  possibility  of  arriving  at  a 
 knowledge  of  the  truth,  may  probably  have  had  no 
 higher  source  than  a  high  idea  of  science,  derived 
 perhaps  from  his  study  of  Plato's  works,  and  compared 
 with  which  all  human  thought  may  have  appeared  at 
 best  but  a  probable  conjecture. — Arcesilaus  continued 
 to  flourish  as  late  as  the  I34th  Olympiad,  B.C.  244. 
 {Clinton's  Fasti  Hcllcmci,  vol.  1,  p.  179. — Ritter's 
 History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  3,  p.  600,  scqg.) — III.  A 
 painter  of  Paros,  acquainted,  according  to  Pliny,  with 
 the  art  of  enamelling,  some  time  before  Aristides,  to 
 whom  the  invention  is  commonly  assigned.  He  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  contemporary  with  Polygnotus. 
 (Plin.,  35,  II.— SUHg,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.)— IV.  A 
 painter,  subsequent  to  the  preceding,  and  who  appears 
 to  have  flourished  about  the  128th  Olympiad,  B.C. 
 268.  {Plin.,  35,  11.— Sillig,  Diet.  Ait.,  s.  v.)—V. 
 A  sculptor  of  the  first  century  before  our  era.  His 
 country  is  uncertain.     {Plin.,  35,  12. — Id.,  36,  5.) 
 
 AucHEL.ius,  I.  a  king  of  Sparta,  of  the  line  of  the 
 AgidaR,  who  reigned  conjointly  with  Charilaus.  Du- 
 ring this  reign  Lycurgus  promulgated  his  code  of  laws. 
 {Pausan.,  3,  2.) — II.  A  king  of  Macedonia,  natural  son 
 of  Perdiccas,  who  ascended  the  throne,  after  making 
 away  with  all  the  lawful  claimants  to  it,  about  413 
 B.C.  He  proved  a  very  able  monarch.  Under  his  sway 
 Macedonia  flourished,  literature  and  the  arts  were  pat- 
 ronised, and  learned  men  and  artists  were  invited  to 
 his  court.  Euripides  and  Agatho,  the  two  tragic  poets, 
 spent  the  latter  part  of  their  days  there,  and  the  paint- 
 er Zeuxis  received  seven  talents  (about  8000  dollars) 
 for  adorning  with  his  pencil  the  royal  palace.  The  cele- 
 brated philosopher  Socrates  was  also  invited  to  come  and 
 reside  with  the  monarch,  but  declined.  Archelaus  died 
 after  a  reign  of  about  14  years.  Diodorus  Siculus 
 makes  him  to  have  lost  his  life  by  an  accidental  wound 
 received  in  hunting,  but  Aristotle  states  that  he  fell 
 by  a  conspiracy.  {Diod.  Sic,  13,  49. — Id.,  14,  37. — 
 Aristot.,  Polit.,  5,  10. — Compare  the  remarks  of  Wes- 
 seling,  ad  Diod.,  14,  37.) — III.  Son  of  Amyntas,  king 
 of  Macedonia.  He  was  put  to  death  by  his  half-broth- 
 er Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great.  {Justin, 
 7,  4.) — IV.  A  native  of  Cappadocia,  and  one  of  the 
 ablest  generals  of  Mithradates.  He  disputed  with  the 
 Romans  the  possession  of  Greece,  but  was  defeated  by 
 Sylla  at  Chsronea,  and  again  at  Orchomenus.  Arche- 
 laus,  convinced  of  the  superiority  of  the  Romans,  pre- 
 vailed u[)on  Mithradates  to  make  peace  with  them,  and 
 arranged  the  terms  of  the  treaty  along  with  Sylla,  whose 
 esteem  he  acquired.  Some  years  after  he  became  an 
 object  of  suspicion  to  Mithradates,  who  thought  that  he 
 had  favoured  too  much  the  interests  of  the  Roman  people. 
 Well  aware  of  the  cruelty  of  the  monarch,  Archelaus 
 fled  to  the  Romans,  who  gave  him  a  friendly  reception. 
 Plutarch  thinks  that  he  had  been  actually  unfaithful 
 to  Mithradates,  and  that  the  present  which  he  received 
 Irom  Sylla,  of  ten  thousand  acres  in  Euboea,  was  a 
 strong  confirmation  of  this.  He  informs  us,  however, 
 at  the  same  time,  that  Sylla,  in  his  commentaries,  de- 
 fended Archelaus  from  the  censures  which  had  been 
 cast  upon  him.  {['Int.,  Vit.  SylL,  c.  23  ) — V.  Son 
 of  the  preceding,  remained  attached  to  the  Romans 
 after  the  death  of  his  father,  and  was  appointed  by 
 Poinpey  high-ptiest  at  Comana.  As  the  temple  at 
 Comatia  had  an  extensive  territory  attached  to  it,  and 
 a  large  number  of  slaves,  the  high-priest  was  in  fact  a 
 kind  of  king.  This  tranquil  oflice,  however,  did  not 
 suit  his  ambitious  spirit;  and  when  Ptolemy  Auletes 
 had  been  driven  from  Egypt,  and  Berenice  his  daugh- 
 ter had  ascended  the  throne,  he  obtained  her  hand  in 
 marriage.  Ptolemy,  however,  was  restored  by  the  Ro- 
 man arms,  and  Archelaus  fell  in  battle,  bravely  defend- 
 ing his  new  dignity.  Marc  Antony,  who  had  been  on 
 friendly  terms  with  him,  gave  him  an  honourable  fune- 
 
 ral. {Die  Cass.,  39,  12,  seqq.—Id.,  39,  55— Ejnt. 
 Liv.,  105. — Pint.,  Vit.  Anton.,  c.  3.) — VI.  A  natural 
 son  of  the  preceding  by  Glaphyre.  He  is  called  by  Ap- 
 ^[dLTi  Sicinncs .  {Bell.  Civ. ,5,1. — Consult  6'i;Aw,'e;^/i., 
 ad  Inc.)  After  his  father's  death  he  succeeded  to  the 
 high-priesthood  at  Comana,  but  was  deposed  by  Julius 
 Caesar.  Some  years  after  (B.C.  36),  Antony  made 
 him  king  of  Cappadocia,  in  place  of  Ariarathes  X., 
 whom  he  deprived  of  the  throne.  Archelaus  took  part 
 with  Antony  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  but  was  pardon- 
 ed by  Augustus  The  emperor  even  subsequently 
 added  Armenia  and  Cilicia  Trachea  to  his  territories, 
 because  he  had  aided  Tiberius  in  restoring  Tigranes, 
 the  Armenian  king.  When  Tiberius  retired  to  Rhodes, 
 into  a  kind  of  exile,  Archelaus,  fearful  of  offending 
 Augustus,  treated  the  former  with  neglect.  In  con- 
 sequence of  this,  when  Tiberius  came  to  the  throne, 
 Archelaus  was  enticed  to  Rome  by  a  letter  from  Livia, 
 which  held  out  the  hope  of  pardon,  but  on  reaching  the 
 capital  he  was  accused  of  designs  against  the  state. 
 His  age,  however,  and  feeble  state  of  health,  together 
 with  the  imbecility  of  mind  which  he  feigned  on  the 
 occasion,  disarmed  the  anger  of  the  emperor.  He  died 
 at  Rome,  B.C.  17,  having  reigned  52  years.  After 
 his  death  Cappadocia  became  a  Roman  province.  {Dio 
 Cass.,  57,  n.-Taeit.,  Ann.,  2,  42. — Sueton.,  Tib., 
 37.)— VII.  A  son  of  Herod  the  Great.  His  father  in- 
 tended him  for  his  successor,  and  named  him  as  such 
 in  his  will ;  but  as  Philip  Antipas,  another  son  ol 
 Herod's,  had  been  designated  as  successor  to  the  throne 
 in  a  previous  will,  a  dispute  arose  between  the  two 
 brothers,  and  they  repaired  to  Rome  to  have  the  ques- 
 tion settled  by  Augustus.  The  emperor,  after  having 
 heard  both  parties,  gave  to  Archelaus,  under  the  title 
 of  tetrarch,  one  half  of  the  territories  of  his  father 
 Herod,  comprising  Judaea,  properly  so  called,  together 
 with  Idumaaa.  On  his  return  home,  Archelaus  in- 
 dulged in  the  hereditary  cruelty  of  his  family,  and  be- 
 ing complained  of  to  Augustus,  was  deposed  (B.C.  6), 
 and  sent  to  Vienna  ( Vicnne  in  Daiiphine)  as  an  exile. 
 This  happened  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign.  {Jo- 
 seph., Ant.  Jud.,  17,  c.  2. — Id.  ibid.,  c.  12,  seq. — Id., 
 Bell.  Jud.,  2,  4. — Noldiits,  de  Vita  et  Gcslis  Herodum, 
 p. 219, scqq.) — VIII.  A  philosopher,  a  native  of  Athens, 
 though  others,  with  less  probability,  make  him  to  have 
 been  born  at  Miletus.  {Simpl.  Phi/s  ,  fol.  6,  h.)  He 
 was  a  pupil  of  Anaxagoras,  whom  he  accompanied  in 
 exile  to  Lampsacus,  and  to  whom  he  succeeded  as 
 head  of  the  Ionic  sect.  After  the  death  of  this  philos- 
 opher, he  returned  to  Athens,  and  is  said  to  have  had 
 Socrates  and  also  Euripides  among  his  pupils  ;  but  as 
 to  the  former  of  the  two  this  is  very  doubtful.  Of  his 
 life  and  actions  we  have  very  scanty  information,  as 
 also  of  his  doctrines  ;  so  that  it  is  extremely  difficult 
 to  arrive  at  any  certain  result  with  respect  to  his  pe- 
 culiar views.  He  received  the  appellation  of  <i>vcr</cdf, 
 {Physicus,  i.  e.  "Natural  Philosopher"), because,  like 
 Anaxagoras,  he  directed  his  principal  attention  to  phys- 
 ical inquiries.  He  is  said  to  have  adopted  the  same 
 primal  substance  as  Anaxagoras  ;  but  to  have  aimed 
 at  giving  an  explanation  of  his  own  of  the  mode  in 
 which  the  universe  was  produced,  and  of  some  other 
 details.  {Simpl.  Phys.,  fol.  7,  a.)  His  mode  of  ac- 
 counting for  the  separation  of  the  elements,  and  of  con- 
 necting therewith  the  origin  of  men  and  animals,  indi- 
 cates in  the  most  remarkable  manner  the  aflinity  of 
 his  theory  with  that  of  Anaxagoras.  First  of  all,  he 
 taught,  fire  and  water  were  sepaiated,  and,  by  the  ac- 
 tion of  the  fire  on  the  water,  the  earth  was  reduced  to 
 a  slimy  mass,  which  was  afterward  hardened  ;  but 
 water,  by  its  motion,  gave  birth  to  air.  and  thus  was 
 the  earth  held  together  by  air,  and  the  air  by  fire. 
 While  the  earth  was  hardening  by  the  action  of  heat, 
 a  certain  mixture  of  warmth  with  cold  and  moist  par- 
 ticles was  effected,  of  which  animals  of  various  kind* 
 were  formed,  each  animal  diflTerent,  but  all  having  tht 
 
 177 
 
ARC 
 
 ARC 
 
 same  nourishment,  the  slime  in  which  they  were  born.  1 
 At  first  they  were  of  very  brief  duration,  and  subse- 
 quently only  acquired  tlie  faculty  of  propagating  their 
 species.  Men  were  distinct  from  the  other  kinds,  and 
 became  the  ruling  race.  Mmd,  however,  was  inborn 
 in  all  animals  alike,  and  all  have  a  body  for  use,  only 
 some  a  more  perishable,  others  a  more  durable  one. 
 The  fuiidameiual  principle  of  Archelaus  in  ethics  was 
 as  follows  :  "  Good  and  evil  are  not  by  nature,  but  by 
 convention."  (Diog.  Laert.,  2,  16. — Orig.  thiL,  9. — 
 Hitter's  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  1,  319,  seqq.) 
 
 Archemokus.      Vid.  0[)hcltes. 
 
 Archias,  I.  a  Corinthian,  leader  of  the  colony  that 
 founded  Syracuse.  Vid.  Syracuse. — II.  A  Greek  poet, 
 a  native  of  Antioch,  who  came  to  Rome  in  the  consul- 
 ship of  Marius  and  Catulus  (B.C.  102).  He  soon  be- 
 came intimate  with  the  most  distinguished  men  in  this 
 latter  city,  and  accompanied  LucuUus  to  Sicily,  and, 
 on  returning  with  him  to  that  province,  received  the 
 rights  of  Roman  citizenship  at  tlie  municipal  town  of 
 Heraclea,  in  southern  Italy.  A  conflagration,  how- 
 ever, having  destroyed  the  records  of  this  place,  a  cer- 
 tain Gratius  contested  judicially  his  title  to  the  rights 
 and  privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen.  Cicero,  his  friend 
 and  former  pupil,  defended  Archias  in  a  brilliant  ora- 
 tion, which  has  come  down  to  us,  and  which  contains 
 not  only  the  praises  of  his  old  instructer,  but  a  beauti- 
 ful eulogium  also  on  the  culture  of  letters.  The  poet 
 gained  his  cause.  Archias  before  this  had  composed 
 a  poem  on  the  war  with  the  Cimbri,  and  had  commen- 
 ced another  on  the  consulship  of  Cicero.  There  re- 
 main, however,  of  his  productions,  only  some  epigrams 
 in  the  Anthology.  It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  the  eu- 
 logiums  which  Cicero  heaps  on  Archias,  with  the  ex- 
 treme mediocrity  of  the  pieces  that  have  reached  us. 
 A  servile  imitator  of  Leonidas  the  Tarentine,  and  of 
 Antipater,  he  handles  the  same  themes  which  they  had 
 selected  before  him,  and  only  produces,  after  all,  un- 
 faithful ct)pies.  Two  or  three  pieces  are  somewhat 
 superior  to  the  rest,  but  still  we  must  take  it  for  grant- 
 ed that  his  poem  on  the  Cimbrian  war  was  a  very  dif- 
 ferent production  from  any  of  his  epigrams,  or  else 
 that  Cicero's  vanity  got  the  better  of  his  judgment,  and 
 that,  in  praising  Archias,  he  felt  he  was  praising  him- 
 self.    (Cic,  pro  Arch.) 
 
 AucHiD.iMus,  I.  son  of  Theopompus,  king  of  Spar- 
 ta, died  before  his  father. — II.  Another  king  of  Sparta, 
 son  of  Anaxidamus,  succeeded  by  Agasicles.  He  as- 
 cended the  throne  about  620  B.C. — III.  Son  of  Zeux- 
 idamus,  of  the  line  of  the  Proclida.  He  ascended 
 the  Spartan  throne  B.C.  476,  his  father  having  died 
 without  becoming  king.  Laconia  was  desolated  by  an 
 earthquake  about  the  12th  year  of  his  reign,  and  after 
 this  the  Messenians  revolted.  Archidamus  displayed 
 great  coolness  and  ability  amid  these  events,  and  finally 
 reduced  the  Messenians  to  submission,  having  taken 
 the  fortress  of  Ithome  after  a  siege  of  ten  years.  He 
 opposed  the  Peloponnesian  war ;  but,  his  counsel  not 
 having  been  followed,  he  took  the  command  of  the 
 confederate  armv,  and  made  many  invasions  of  Attica. 
 He  died  B.C.  428.— IV.  Son  of  Agesilaus,  of  the  line 
 of  the  Proclida;.  Before  coming  to  the  throne,  he  had 
 the  command  of  the  troops  which  the  Lacedemonians 
 sent  to  the  aid  of  their  countrymen  after  the  battle  of 
 Leuctra.  On  his  return  to  the  Peloponnesus,  he  gain- 
 ed some  advantages  over  the  Arcadians,  although  the 
 Thebans  had  come  to  their  aid.  Having  ascended  the 
 throne  (B  C.  361),  he  prevailed  upon  the  Lacedcemo- 
 nians  to  aid  the  Phocians,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
 their  behalf,  in  the  Sacred  war.  He  afterward  went 
 to  the  aid  of  the  Tarentines,  who  were  at  war  with 
 some  of  the  neighbouring  communities,  and  fell  in  bat- 
 tle there,  B.C.  338.  His  body  could  not  be  found 
 after  the  action,  which  some  ascribed  to  the  vengeance 
 of  Apollo,  who  thus  deprived  him  of  the  rites  of  burial 
 for  the  part  he  had  acted  in  the  Sacred  war. — V.  Son 
 178 
 
 of  Eudamidas,  was  king  of  Sparta  when  Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes  came  to  attack  that  city,  B.C.  293.  He 
 was  defeated  by  Demetrius,  in  the  very  view  of  Sparta 
 Itself,  and  the  city  would  have  been  taken  had  not  othei 
 events  called  the  victor  to  a  different  quarter  of  Greece. 
 The  rest  of  his  history  is  unknown.  Larcher  makes 
 his  reign  to  have  been  one  of  46  years,  but  docs  not 
 give  the  data  on  which  he  founds  this  opinion.  {Flat., 
 Vit.  Agid.— Larcher,  Bisl.  d'Herod.,  7,  509.) 
 
 Archioenes,  a  physician,  born  at  Apamea  m  Syria. 
 He  lived  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  Nerva,  and  Trajan. 
 Archigencs  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  among  his  con- 
 temporaries, and  for  some  generations  after.  He  is 
 regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Eclectic  school  of  Med- 
 icine, and  was  also  one  of  the  pneumatic  sect,  having 
 received  the  principles  of  the  latter  from  his  preceptor 
 Agalhinus.  He  wrote  on  the  pulse  (a  work  on  which 
 Galen  commented),  on  chronic  affections,  on  pharma- 
 cy, &c.  Galen  often  cites  him  with  eulogiums,  and 
 Juvenal,  his  contemporary,  makes  frequent  mention  of 
 him  in  his  satires.  Only  fragments  of  his  writings  re- 
 main. According  to  Suidas,  he  died  at  the  age  of  63  ; 
 but  Eudocia  makes  him  to  have  reached  83  years. 
 The  latest  edition  of  the  fragments  of  Archigenes  is 
 that  of  Harles,  Lips.,  1816, 4to. — {Galen,  de  diff.  puis., 
 2,  p.  26.— 7(Z.,  de  loc.  affect.,  2,  p.  262.  &c.— .SWrfas, 
 ,s.  V. — Eudocia,  ap.  Villoison,  Anecd.  Grac,  vol.  1, 
 p.  6.5. — Sprengel,  Hist,  de  la  Med.,  vol.  2,  p.  75.) 
 
 Archilochus,  a  Greek  poet,  a  native  of  Paros,  who 
 flourished  688  B.C.  His  mother  Enipo  was  a  slave, 
 but  his  father  Telesicles  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
 citizens  of  the  island.  The  particulars  which  the  an- 
 cients have  given  us  respecting  the  life  of  Archilochus 
 appear  to  be  in  a  great  measure  fabulous.  It  is  cer- 
 tain, however,  that,  while  still  young,  he  accompanied 
 his  father,  who,  in  obedience  to  a  Delphic  oracle,  led 
 a  colony  from  Paros  to  Thasos,  and  that  his  subse- 
 quent career  was  one  succession  of  misfortunes,  which 
 appear  to  have  exasperated  his  character,  and  given 
 to  liis  poetry  that  severe  cast  which  the  ancients  ascri- 
 bed to  it.  Among  the  various  tales  related  of  Archil- 
 ochus, the  one  most  commonly  mentioned  is  that  con- 
 cerning Neobule  and  her  parent.  {Vid.  Lycambes.) 
 This  story,  however,  appears  to  have  been  invented 
 after  the  poet's  time  ;  and  one  of  the  scholiasts  on 
 Horace  remarks,  that  Neobule  did  not  destroy  herself 
 on  account  of  any  injurious  verses  on  the  part  of  Ar- 
 chilochus, but  out  of  despair  at  the  death  of  her  father. 
 {Horat.,  Epod.,  6,  13.)  Archilochus  states  one  fact 
 relative  to  himself,  in  some  verses  that  have  come 
 down  to  us,  which  is,  that  in  a  battle  between  the  Tha- 
 sians  and  people  of  Thrace,  he  saved  himself  by  flight, 
 throwing  away  at  the  same  time  his  buckler.  This 
 act  of  weakness  or  cowardice  was  the  occasion  of  a 
 galling  afl'ront  which  he  afterward  received  :  for,  hav- 
 ing visited  Sparta,  he  was  ordered  by  the  magistrate 
 to  quit  the  city  immediately.  Dissatisfied  eventually 
 with  the  posture  of  affairs  at  Thasos,  which  the  poet 
 often  represents  as  desperate,  Archilochus  must  have 
 quitted  Thasos  and  returned  to  Paros,  since  we  are 
 informed,  by  credible  writers,  that  he  lost  his  life  in  a 
 war  between  the  Parians  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 neighbouring  island  of  Naxos.  The  ancients  ascribe 
 to  Archilochus  the  invention  of  a  great  number  of  po- 
 etic measures.  (Consult,  on  this  subject,  Victorinus, 
 lib.  4,  p.  2588,  cd.  Putsch  ;  and,  as  regards  the  Epodc, 
 which  he  is  also  said  to  have  invented,  compare  the 
 remarks  of  Vandenbourg,  in  his  edition  of  Horace,  vol. 
 2.)  With  respect  to  iambic  verse,  of  which  he  is,  in 
 like  manner,  named  as  the  author  [Hor.,  Ep.  ad  Pis., 
 79),  some  difference  of  opinion  seems  to  exist ;  and 
 it  has  been  thought  that  the  invention,  in  this  case, 
 relates  less  to  the  iambic  rhythm,  which  appears  so 
 natural  to  the  Greek  language,  than  to  a  particular  kind 
 of  versification.  (Compare  Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  199,  seqq.)    Archilochus  was,  in  general,  regard- 
 
ARC 
 
 ARCHIMEDES. 
 
 ed  by  the  ancients  as  one  of  the  greatest  poets  that 
 Greece  had  produced.  Cicero  classes  him  with  Homer, 
 Sophocles,  and  Pindar  {Oral.  1)  ;  and  in  an  epigram 
 in  the  Anthology  (vol.  2,  p.  286),  the  Emperor  Ha- 
 drian remarks,  that  the  Muses,  fearing  for  the  glory 
 of  Homer,  inspired  Archilochus  with  the  idea  of  com- 
 posing in  iambics.  One  production  of  this  poet's, 
 in  particular,  his  Hymn  in  honour  of  Hercules,  was 
 the  subject  of  high  eulogium  ;  this  piece  he  himself 
 sung  at  the  Olympic  games.  The  anniversary  of  his 
 birth  was  celebrated,  as  in  the  case  of  Homer  ;  and 
 the  rhapsodists  recited  his  verses  as  they  did  those  of 
 the  Iliad,  blame,  however,  attaches  itself  to  the  bit- 
 ter and  vindictive  spirit  that  characterized  his  verses, 
 as  well  to  the  indecency  which  pervaded  them  ;  and  it 
 IS  probably  to  this  latter  cause  that  we  must  ascribe 
 the  loss  of  his  poems,  of  which  we  possess  only  a  few 
 fragments,  preserved  as  citations  in  the  writings  of 
 Athensus,  St.  Clement  of  Ale.xandrea,  Stobaeus,  the 
 scholiasts,  &.c.  If  the  ancients  speak  of  the  Fables 
 of  Archilochus,  it  is  not  because  he  ever  published  any 
 collections  of  apologues,  but  because  he  was  accus- 
 tomed to  give  life  and  movement  to  his  iambics  by 
 introducing  into  them  occasionally  this  species  of  com- 
 position. The  fragments  of  Archilochus  were  publish- 
 ed by  H.  Stephens  and  Froben  in  their  respective 
 collections,  and  by  Brunck  in  his  Analccta.  An  edi- 
 tion of  them  by  Liebel,  with  a  critical  commentary, 
 appeared  from  the  Leipsic  press  in  1812,  and  also  in 
 an  enlarged  form,  in  1819,  8vo. 
 
 Archi.medes,  the  most  celebrated  mathematician 
 among  the  ancients,  a  native  of  Syracuse  in  Sicily, 
 and  related  to  King  Hiero.  He  flourished  about  250 
 B.C.  Under  what  masters  he  studied,  or  how  much 
 of  his  extraordinary  knowledge  he  acquired  from  his 
 predecessors,  is  not  known.  That  he  travelled  into 
 Egypt  appears  certain  ;  but  it  is  probable  that,  in  his 
 scientific  acquaintance  with  that  country,  he  commu- 
 nicated more  than  he  received,  and  that  he  owes  the 
 great  name  which  he  has  transmitted  to  posterity  to 
 his  own  vigorous  and  inventive  intellect.  He  was 
 equally  skilled  in  the  science  of  astronomy,  geome- 
 try, mechanics,  hydrostatics,  and  optics,  in  all  of  which 
 he  e.Kcelled,  and  produced  many  extraordinary  inven- 
 tions. His  ingenuity  in  solving  problems  had  in  Ci- 
 cero's days  become  proverbial;  and  his  singular  in- 
 genuity in  the  invention  and  construction  of  warlike 
 engines  is  much  dwelt  npon  by  Livy.  His  knowledge 
 of  the  doctrine  of  specitic  gravities  is  proved  by  the 
 well-known  story  of  his  discovery  of  the  mixture  of 
 silver  with  gold  in  King  Hiero's  crown,  which  fraud  he 
 detected  by  comparing  the  quantity  of  water  displaced 
 by  equal  weights  of  gold  and  silver.  The  thought  oc- 
 curred to  hiin  while  in  the  bath,  on  observing  that  he 
 displaced  a  bulk  of  water  equal  to  his  own  body  ;  when, 
 at  once,  perceiving  a  train  of  consequences,  he  ran 
 naked  out  of  the  bath  into  the  street,  exclaiming, 
 'EvpijKa,  "  I  have  found  it !"  This  part  of  the  story, 
 however,  is  regarded  by  some  as  a  mere  exaggeration. 
 {Bios;r.  Univ.,  vol.  2,  p.  379.)  To  show  Hiero  the 
 wonderful  effects  of  mechanic  power,  he  is  said,  by 
 the  help  of  ropes  and  pulleys,  to  have  drawn  towards 
 him,  with  perfect  ease,  a  galley  which  lay  on  the  shore 
 manned  and  loaded.  His  intimate  acquaintance  with 
 the  powers  of  the  lever  is  evinced  by  his  famous  decla- 
 ration to  the  same  monarch  :  Aof  ttou  crCb,  koL  tov 
 Kunnov  Ktvi'iau,  "  Give  me  where  I  may  stand,  and  I 
 will  move  the  world."  But  his  greatest  efforts  of  me- 
 chanic skill  were  displayed  during  the  siege  of  Syra- 
 cuse, when  he  contrived  engines  of  annoyance  of  the 
 most  stupendous  nature.  Among  other'  applications 
 of  science,  he  is  said  to  have  fired  the  Roman  fleet 
 by  means  of  reflecting  mirrors,  of  which  story,  long 
 treated  as  a  fable,  Buffon  has  proved  the  credibility'^ 
 {Mem.  dc  VAcad.  dcs  Sciences,  1747.)  There  are  not 
 wanting  persons,  however,  even  at  the  present  day, 
 
 who,  from  the  silence  of  Polybius,  Livy,  and  Plutarch 
 on  this  subject,  still  view  the  tale  with  an  eye  of  un- 
 belief (Compare  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  2,  p.  381. — For- 
 eign Review,  No.  1,  p.  305.)  Eminent  as  this  great 
 mathematician  was  for  his  knowledge  of  mechanics, 
 he  was  still  more  so  for  the  rare  talent  which  he 
 possessed  of  investigating  abstract  truths,  and  invent- 
 ing conclu-sive  demonstrations  in  the  higher  branches 
 of  geometry.  According  to  Plutarch  (  Vit.  MarcclL), 
 intellectual  speculations  of  this  nature  most  delighted 
 him  ;  and  he  did  not  deem  it  worth  his  while  to 
 leave  any  account  in  writing  of  his  mechanical  inven- 
 tions. We  have,  indeed,  no  precise  indication  of 
 any  works  in  which  they  are  described,  except  it  be 
 with  regard  to  a  sphere  representing  the  movements 
 of  the  stars,  of  which  Cicero  and  Claudian  make  men- 
 tion. Archimedes  prided  himself  on  the  discovery  of 
 the  ratio  between  the  cylinder  and  the  inscribed  sphere, 
 and  requested  his  friends  to  place  the  figures  of  a 
 sphere  and  cylinder  on  his  tomb,  with  an  inscrijition 
 expressing  the  proportion  between  them  ;  a  desire  that 
 afterward  led  to  its  discovery  by  Cicero.  The  Roman 
 orator,  when  he  was  quffistor  in  Sicily,  discovered  this 
 monument  in  ihe  shape  of  a  small  pillar,  and  showed 
 it  to  the  Syracusans,  who  did  not  know  that  it  was  in 
 being.  He  says  there  were  some  iambic  verses  in- 
 scribed upon  it,  the  latter  halves  of  which  were  almost 
 eaten  out  by  time  ;  and  that  there  were  likewise  to  bo 
 seen  (as  those  verses  asserted)  the  figures  of  a  cylinder 
 and  a  sphere.  From  the  death  of  this  great  mathema- 
 tician, which  happened  A.U.C.  542,  to  the  qusstorship 
 of  Cicero,  A.U.C.  678,  a  hundred  and  thirty-six  years 
 had  elapsed.  This  period,  though  it  had  not  effaced 
 the  cylinder  and  the  sphere,  had  put  an  end  to  the 
 learning  of  Syracuse,  once  so  respectable  in  the  repub- 
 lic of  letters.  (Cic.,Tusc.Qucp.st.,5,22)  Archime- 
 des's  sepulchre,  which  stood  near  one  of  the  city 
 gates,  was  almost  overgrown  with  thorns  and  briers, 
 and,  but  for  the  exertions  of  Cicero,  would  most  prob- 
 ably have  never  been  discovered.  Various  accounts 
 are  given  by  Plutarch  of  the  manner  of  Archimedes' 
 death.  The  period  when  it  occurred  was  during  the 
 capture  and  storming  of  Syracuse.  According  to  the 
 narrative  most  commonly  received,  Archimedes  was 
 engaged  in  study  when  the  city  fell ;  and  so  intent  was 
 he  upon  a  geometrical  figure  which  he  was  tracing  in 
 the  sand,  as  to  be  altogether  unconscious  of  the  con- 
 fusion around  him.  A  soldier  suddenly  entered  his 
 room,  and  ordered  him  to  follow  him  to  Marcellus,  the 
 Roman  general  having  given  particular  orders  to  spare 
 him.  Archimedes  refused  to  go  until  he  had  finished 
 his  demonstration,  whereupon  the  soldier,  in  a  passion, 
 drew  his  sword  and  killed  him.  The  Roman  com- 
 mander took  upon  himself  the  charge  of  his  funeral, 
 and  protected  and  honoured  his  relations. — Several 
 valuable  remains  of  this  celebrated  mathematician  are 
 preserved.  In  abstract  geometry  there  are  two  books 
 "  On  the  Sphere  and  Cylinder ;"  a  treatise  "  On  the 
 Dimensions  of  the  Circle  ;"  two  books  "  On  obtuse 
 Conoids  and  Spheroids  ;"  a  book  "  On  Spiral  Lines  ;" 
 and  another  "  On  the  Quadrature  of  the  Parabola." 
 Besides  these  geometrical  works,  he  wrote  a  treatise, 
 entitled  ^a^/it'rT^c  (Arenarius),  in  which  he  demon- 
 strates that  the  sands  of  the  earth  might  be  numbered 
 by  a  method  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  logarithms  In 
 mechanics  he  has  left  a  treatise  "  On  Equiponderants, 
 or  Centres  of  Gravity  ;"  and  in  hydrostatics,  a  treatise 
 "  On  bodies  floating  in  fluids."  Other  works  of  Ar- 
 chimedes are  mentioned  by  ancient  writers,  which  are 
 now  lost.  Of  those  that  remain  various  editions  have 
 appeared,  the  latest  of  which  was  issued  m  1792  from 
 the  Clarendon  press  in  Oxford,  with  a  new  Latin  trans- 
 lation, a  preface,  notes  by  Torrelli  of  Verona,  purchased 
 of  his  executor  Albertini,  and  with  various  readings. 
 The  edition  was  published  under  the  care  of  the  Rev. 
 A.  Robertson,  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  may  be 
 
 179 
 
ARC 
 
 ARC 
 
 regarded  as  the  first  truly  complete  one  of  the  works 
 of  Archimedes.  Translations  have  also  appeared  in 
 some  of  the  modern  languages.  That  of  Peyrard,  in 
 French  (1807,  4to,  and  1808,  2  vols.  8vo)'is  most 
 deserving  of  mention.  Uelambre  has  appended  to  this 
 version  a  memoir  on  the  Ariih.metic  of  the  Greeks  ;  a 
 subject  of  great  interest,  as  we  have  very  scanty  data 
 left  us  on  this  point.  A  review  of  this  translation  is 
 given  in  the  London  Quarterly,  vol.  3,  p.  89,  seqq. 
 (Compare  Hutlon's  Malh.  Diet. — Aikin's  G.  Diet. 
 — Saxii  Onomast. — Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  2,  p.  378, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Arciiippe,  a  city  of  the  Marsi,  destroyed  by  an 
 earthquake,  and  lost  in  I.iake  Fucinus.  It  is  thought 
 by  Holstenius,  on  the  authority  of  some  people  of  the 
 country  who  had  seen  vestiges  of  it,  to  have  stood  be- 
 tween the  villages  of  Transaqua  and  Orturxia,  on  the 
 spot  which  retains  the  name  of  Arciprete.  {Hoist., 
 Adnot.,  p.  154.) 
 
 Archippus,  I.  a  king  of  Italy,  from  whom  perhaps  the 
 town  of  Archippe  received  its  name.  He  was  one  of 
 the  allies  of  Turnus.  (Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  752.) — II.  An 
 Athenian  comic  poet,  who  gained  the  prize  but  once 
 (Olymp.  91),  according  to  Suidas.  For  some  of  the 
 titles  of  his  pieces  consult  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Gr.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  747,  and  Schweighaeuser's  Index  Auctorum  to 
 Athensus  (Animadv.,  vol.  9,  p.  47). 
 
 Archontes,  the  name  of  the  chief  magistrates  of 
 Athens.  At  first  the  archons  were  for  life,  and  on 
 their  death  the  office  descended  to  their  children. 
 This  arrangement  took  place  after  the  death  of  Codrus, 
 the  Athenian  state  having  been  previously  governed  by 
 itings.  The  first  of  these  perpetual  archons  was  Me- 
 don,  son  of  Codrus,  from  whom  the  thirteen  following 
 and  hereditary  archons  were  named  Medontids,  as  be- 
 ing descended  from  him.  In  the  first  year  of  the  sev- 
 enth Olympiad,  the  power  of  the  archons  was  curbed 
 by  their  being  allowed  to  hold  the  office  only  for  ten 
 years.  These  are  what  are  termed  decennial  archons. 
 Seventy  years  after  this  the  office  was  made  annual, 
 and  continued  so  ever  after. — These  annual  archons 
 were  nine  in  number,  and  none  were  chosen  but  such 
 as  were  descended  from  ancestors  who  had  been  free 
 citizens  of  the  republic  for  three  generations.  They 
 were  also  to  be  without  any  personal  defect,  and  must 
 show  that  they  had  been  dutiful  towards  their  parents, 
 had  borne  arms  in  the  service  of  their  country,  and  were 
 possessed  of  a  competent  estate  to  support  the  office 
 with  dignity.  They  took  a  solemn  oatii  that  they 
 would  observe  the  laws,  administer  justice  with  imjjar- 
 tiality,  and  never  suffer  themselves  to  be  corrupted. 
 If  they  ever  received  bribes  they  were  compelled  by 
 the  laws  to  dedicate  to  the  god  of  Delphi  a  statue  of 
 gold,  of  equal  weight  with  their  body.  (Plut.,  Vit. 
 Solon,  c.  19.— Pollux,  8,  9,  85.)  They  possessed 
 the  entire  power  of  punishing  malefactors  with  death. 
 The  chief  among  them  was  called  Archon  ;  the  year 
 took  its  denomination  from  him,  and  hence  he  was 
 also  called  e-6vvfio^.  He  determined  all  causes  be- 
 tween man  and  wife,  and  took  care  of  legacies  and 
 wills ;  he  provided  for  orphans,  protected  the  injured, 
 and  punished  drunkenness  with  uncommon  severity. 
 If  he  suffered  himself  to  be  into.xicated  during  the  time 
 of  his  office,  the  misdemeanor  was  punished  with  death. 
 The  second  of  the  archons  was  called  Basileus:  it 
 was  his  office  to  keep  good  order,  and  to  remove  all 
 causes  of  quarrel  in  the  families  of  those  who  were 
 dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  gods.  The  profane 
 and  the  impious  were  brought  before  his  tribunal;  and 
 he  offered  public  sacrifices  for  the  good  of  the  state. 
 He  assisted  at  the  celebration  of  the  Eleusinian  festi- 
 vals and  other  religious  ceremonies.  His  wife  was 
 to  be  a  citizen  of  the  whole  blood  of  Athens,  and  of  a 
 pure  and  unsullied  life.  He  had  a  vote  among  the 
 Areopagites,  but  was  obliged  to  sit  among  them  with- 
 180 
 
 out  his  crown.  The  Polemarch  was  another  archon 
 of  inferior  dignity.  He  had  the  care  of  all  foreigners; 
 and  provided  a  sufficient  maintenance,  from  the  public 
 treasury,  for  the  families  of  those  who  had  lost  their 
 lives  in  the  defence  of  their  country.  But  because 
 these  three  magistrates  were  often,  by  reason  of  their 
 youth,  not  so  well  skilled  in  the  laws  and  customs  of 
 their  country  as  might  have  been  wished,  that  they 
 might  not  be  left  wholly  to  themselves,  they  were  each 
 accustomed  to  make  choice  of  two  persons  of  age, 
 gravity,  and  reputation,  to  sit  with  them  on  the  bench, 
 and  assist  them  with  their  advice.  These  they  called 
 ndpeSpoi,  or  assessors,  and  obliged  them  to  undergo 
 the  same  probation  as  the  other  magistrates.  The  six 
 other  archons  were  indifferently  called  ThesmolhctcE, 
 and  received  complaints  against  persons  accused  of 
 impiety,  bribery,  and  ill  behaviour.  Indictments  be- 
 fore the  Thesmothetae  were  in  writing  ;  at  the  tribunal 
 of  the  Basileus,  they  were  by  word  of  mouth.  They 
 settled  all  disputes  between  the  citizens,  redressed 
 the  wrongs  of  strangers,  and  forbade  any  laws  to  be 
 enforced  but  such  as  were  conducive  to  the  safety  of 
 the  state.  After  some  time,  the  qualifications  which 
 were  required  to  be  an  archon  were  not  strictly  ob- 
 served, and,  when  the  glory  of  Athens  was  on  the  de- 
 cline, even  foreigners,  who  had  been  admitted  to  the 
 rights  of  citizenship,  were  created  archons.  Thus 
 Hadrian,  before  he  was  elected  emperor  of  Rome, 
 was  made  archon  at  Athens,  though  a  foreigner ;  and 
 the  same  honours  were  conferred  upon  Plutarch. — 
 Many  lists  of  the  Athenian  archons  have  been  published 
 in  various  works,  but  all  of  these  were  more  or  less 
 inaccurate  till  the  time  of  Corsini,  and  on  that  account 
 of  little  use  in  illustrating  ancient  history.  A  cata- 
 logue of  the  archons  is  given  in  Stanley's  "Lives  oj 
 the  Philosophers,"  p.  938,  seqq. ;  another  by  Du  Fres- 
 noy  {Tablcltes,  vol.  1,  p.  66,  seqq.),  and  a  third  by  Dr. 
 Hales  {Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  1,  p.  230,  seqq.}. 
 One  cause  of  the  incorrectness  of  these  lists  has  been, 
 the  not  adverting  to  a  peculiarity  of  the  Parian  mar- 
 ble ;  that  the  compiler  places  the  annual  archons,  who 
 preceded  the  Peloponnesian  war,  one  year  higher  re- 
 sj)eclively  than  the  Julian  year,  with  which  they  were 
 in  reality  connumerary.  Hence  two  archons  have  been 
 often  made  out  of  one.  Again,  those  who  have  used 
 this  document  did  not  always  distinguish  between  what 
 was  attested  by  the  marble,  and  what  was  supplied  by 
 conjecture  where  the  marble  was  defaced.  Hence 
 the  marble  is  often  quoted  for  that  which  was  only  in- 
 serted by  its  editors.  Various  forms  or  corruptions  of 
 the  name  of  an  archon  have  been  sometimes  admit- 
 ted as  the  names  of  different  archons.  From  these 
 causes,  the  catalogues  of  archons  are  not  as  correct 
 and  accurate  as  they  might  have  been  rendered. 
 {Clinton''s  Fasti  Hellcnici,  vol.  1,  p.  x..  Introduction.) 
 The  most  accurate  tables,  as  far  as  they  e.xtend,  are 
 those  given  by  Clinton,  in  the  work  which  has  just 
 been  quoted. 
 
 Archyt.\s,  a  native  of  Tarentum,  and  one  of  the 
 Pythagoric  preceptors  of  Plato.  He  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  eighth  in  succession  from  Pythagoras  ;  and 
 this  account  deserves  more  credit  than  the  assertion  of 
 lamblichus,  that  he  heard  Pythagoras  in  person  ;  for 
 the  father  of  this  sect  fiourished,  as  we  shall  see,  about 
 the  60th  Olympiad,  B.C.  540;  but  Archytas  con- 
 versed with  Plato  upon  his  first  visit  to  Sicily,  which 
 was  in  the  96th  Olympiad,  B.C.  396  ;  whence  it  ap- 
 pears, that  there  was  an  interval  of  above  a  century 
 between  the  time  of  Pythagoras  and  that  of  Archytas. 
 Such  was  the  celebrity  of  this  philosopher,  that  many 
 illustrious  names  appear  in  the  train  of  his  disciples, 
 particularly  Philolaus,  Eudoxus,  and  Plato.  To  these 
 Suidas,  and,  after  him,  Erasmus  {Chil.,  p.  550),  add 
 Empedocles ;  but  Empedocles  certainly  flourished 
 about  the  84th  Olympiad,  near  fifty  years  before  Ar- 
 
ARC 
 
 ARC 
 
 chytas. — So  high  was  his  character  for  moral  and  po- 
 htical  wisdom,  and  so  deservedly  did  he  enjoy  the  ua- 
 Umiled  confidence  of  his  fellow-citizens,  that,  contrary 
 to  the  usual  custom,  he  was  appointed  seven  different 
 times  to  tlie  responsible  office  of  general,  and  never 
 experienced  either  check  or  defeat.  {Diog.  Laert.,  8, 
 79. — Menage,  ad  loc. — A^lian  makes  it  six  times. 
 Var.  Hist.,  7,  H.)  Archytas  was  eminently  distin- 
 guished for  his  self-command  and  purity  of  conduct ; 
 and  as  uniting  with  a  rare  knowledge  of  mankind  such 
 a  childlike  feeling  of  universal  love,  and  such  simple- 
 ness  of  manners,  that  he  lived  with  the  inmates  of  his 
 house  a  real  father  of  a  family.  Amid  all  his  public 
 avocations,  however,  he  still  found  leisure  to  devote 
 to  the  most  important  discoveries  in  science,  and  to 
 the  composition  of  many  works  of  a  very  diversified 
 character.  His  discoveries  were  exclusively  in  the 
 mathematical  and  kindred  sciences.  He  was  occu- 
 pied not  merely  with  theoretical,  but  also  practical 
 mechanics  ;  and  his  inventions  in  this  department  of 
 study  imply  a  considerable  advance  in  their  cultivation. 
 He  also  published  a  musical  system,  which  was  re- 
 ferred to  by  all  succeeding  theoretical  students  of  the 
 art.  (Piolcm.,  Harm.,  I,  13. — Boelh.,  de  Mas.)  He 
 wrote,  moreover,  a  treatise  on  agriculture.  ( Varro,  de 
 R.R.,  1,  1. — Colum.,  1,  1.)  Of  his  philosophical  doc- 
 trines many  accounts  have  come  down  to  us ;  but  wher- 
 ever our  information  on  this  head  is  derived  exclusive- 
 ly from  writers  of  later  dale,  we  cannot  be  too  much 
 on  our  guard,  lest  we  should  adopt  anything  which 
 rests  merely  on  supposititious  writinjj,  since  nearly  all 
 the  fragments  attributed  to  him  are  spurious.  These 
 fragments  have  been  preserved  by  Stobaeus  and  others, 
 and  edited  from  him  by  Gale,  in  his  Opuscula  Mytholo- 
 gica  {Cantabr.,  1671,  12mo),  among  the  HvdayopEicjv 
 uTToaTTacifiuTia.  They  are  given,  however,  more  fully 
 and  correctly  by  Orellius,  in  his  Opuscula  Gracorum, 
 6lc.,  vol.  2,  p.  234,  scqq. — Aristotle,  who  was  an  in- 
 dustrious collector  from  the  Pythagoreans,  is  said  to 
 have  borrowed  from  Archytas  the  general  arrangements 
 which  are  usually  called  his  "  Ten  Categories." — The 
 t;um  of  the  moral  doctrines  of  Archytas  is,  that  virtue 
 is  to  be  pursued  for  its  own  sake  in  every  condition  of 
 life;  that  all  excess  is  inconsistent  with  virtue;  that 
 the  mind  is  more  injured  by  prosperity;  and  that  there 
 is  no  pestilence  so  destructive  to  human  happiness  as 
 pleasure.  It  is  probable  that  Aristotle  was  indebted 
 to  Archytas  for  many  of  his  moral  ideas  ;  particularly 
 for  the  notion  which  runs  through  his  ethical  pieces, 
 that  virtue  consists  in  avoiding  extremes.  Archytas 
 perished  by  shipwreck,  and  his  death  is  made  a  sub- 
 ject of  poetical  description  by  Horace,  who  cele- 
 brates him  as  a  geometer,  mathematician,  and  astron- 
 omer. (Od.,  1,  28. — Kilter,  History  of  the  Pythag. 
 Phibs.,  p.  67.— Id.,  Hist.Anc.  Phil,  vol.  1,  p.  350, 
 
 Arcitenens,  an  epithet  applied  to  Apollo,  as  bear- 
 ing a  bow  {arcus  and  fcnco).  The  analogous  Greek 
 expression  is  Tofo^opof.     (Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  75,  &c.) 
 
 Arctinus.  a  cyclic  bard,  born  at  Miletus.  He  was 
 confessedly  a  very  ancient  poet,  nay,  he  is  even  termed 
 a  disciple  of  Homer.  The  chronological  accounts 
 place  him  immediately  after  the  commencement  of  the 
 Olympiad.  Arctinus  composed  a  poem  consisting  of 
 9UtO  verses.  {Heercn,  Bihliothek  der  Alten  Lit.,  &c., 
 pt.  4,  P  fil)  It  opened  with  the  arrival  of  the  Ama- 
 zons at  Troy,  which  event  followed  immediately  after 
 the  death  of  Hector.  The  action  of  the  epic  of  Arcti- 
 nus was  connected  with  ihe  following  principal  events. 
 Achilles  kills  Penthesilea,  and  then,  in  a  fit  of  anger, 
 puts  to  death  Thersitcs,  who  had  ridiculed  him  for^his 
 love  of  her.  Ujion  this,  Memnon,  the  son  of  Aurora, 
 appears  with  his  Ethiopians,  and  is  slain  by  the  son  of 
 Thetis,  after  he  himself  has  killed  in  battle  Antilochus, 
 the  Patroclus  of  Arctinus.  Achilles  himself  falls  by 
 the  hand  of  Paris,  while  pursuing  the  Trojans  into  the 
 
 town.  Ajax  and  Ulysses  contend  for  his  arms,  and 
 the  defeat  of  Ajax  causes  his  suicide.  {Schvl.  Pind., 
 Isthm.,  3,  58.)  Arctinus  farther  related  the  story  ol 
 the  wooden  horse,  the  careless  security  of  the  Trojans, 
 and  the  destruction  of  Laocoon,  which  induced  ^tneas 
 to  fly  for  safety  to  Ida,  before  the  impending  destruc- 
 tion of  the  city.  In  this  he  is  quite  different  from  Vir- 
 gil, who,  in  other  respects,  has  in  the  second  book  of 
 the  yEneid  chiefly  followed  Arctinus.  The  sack  of 
 Troy  by  the  Greeks  returning  from  Tenedos,  and  is- 
 suing from  the  Trojan  horse,  was  described  so  far  as 
 to  dis[)lay  in  a  conspicuous  manner  the  arrogance  and 
 inercilessness  of  the  Greeks,  and  to  occasion  the  res- 
 olution of  Minerva,  already  known  from  the  Odyssey, 
 to  punish  them  in  various  ways  on  their  return  liome. 
 This  last  part,  when  divided  from  the  preceding,  was 
 called  the  Destruction  of  Troy  ('lAi'ov  nepau;);  the 
 former,  comprising  the  events  up  to  the  death  of  Achil- 
 les, was  termed  the  JEthiopis  of  Arctinus.  {ProcL, 
 Chrestom. — Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  169. — 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  p.  65,  i?i  Libr.  Us.  Knoxd.) 
 
 Arctophylax,  a  constellation  near  the  Great  Bear, 
 called  also  Boijtes.  The  term  is  derived  from  ufiicroi;, 
 "a  bear,"  and  (pv?^a^,  "a.  keeper  or  guard,"  for  the 
 position  of  the  constellation  on  the  celestial  sphere  is 
 such,  that  it  appears  tu  watch  over  the  Greater  and 
 Smaller  Bear.  Hence  Ovid  calls  it  "  Gustos  Ursa-y 
 {Trist.,  1,  10,  15),  and  Vitruvius  simply  ''  Gustos" 
 (9,  4. — Compare  Ideler,  Untcrsuch.,  &c.,  der  Sterrma- 
 men,  p.  47.— Czc,  de  Nat.  D  ,  2,  42). 
 
 Arctos,  two  celestial  constellations  near  the  north 
 pole,  commonly  called  Ursa  Major  and  Minor,  sup- 
 posed to  be  Areas  and  his  mother,  who  were  made 
 constellations.  Ovid  calls  them  Fera  conjointly  : 
 ^^  magna  minorqiie  Ferce"  {Trist..,  4,  3,  1).  Original- 
 ly, the  Greater  Bear  alone  had  the  name  oi  Arctos,  and 
 Homer  appears  merely  to  have  been  acquainted  with 
 this  constellation,  not  with  that  of  the  Smaller  Bear. 
 (//.,  18,  487. — Od.,  5,  275.)  The  discoverer  of  the 
 latter  constellation  is  said  to  have  been  Thales,  who 
 lived  at  least  two  centuries  after  Homer.  {Schol.  ad 
 11^  ;.  c. — AchM.  Tat  ,lsag.  in  Arat.,Phcen.,  c.  I. — 
 Hygin  ,  Poet.  Astron.,  2,  2.)  The  truth  is,  however, 
 that  Thales  merely  brought  the  knowledge  of  the 
 Smaller  Bear  from  the  East  into  Greece,  for  the  Phoe- 
 nicians were  acquainted  with  it  at  a  much  earlier  pe- 
 riod, and  hence  the  name  ^olvlkti,  Phoenice,  that  was 
 sometimes  given  to  it.  (Eratosth.,  Caf.,c.  2. — Schol. 
 ad  German.,  p.  89.)  Another  name  for  the  Greater 
 Bear  was  "Afia^a,  or  "  the  Wain,"  an  appellation 
 known  already  to  Homer  (iZ.,  I.  c).  Subsequently, 
 a  distinction  was  made  between  the  Greater  and  Small- 
 er Wain,  as  between  the  Greater  and  Smaller  Bears. 
 Hence  we  have,  in  Latin,  the  plural  form  Plavstra 
 applied  to  both  constellations  of  the  Wain.  (German., 
 V.  25. — Amen,  v.  103  )  The  more  common  Latin 
 expression,  however,  is  Scptem  Triones,  "  the  seven 
 ploughing  oxen,"  originally  applied  to  the  Greater 
 Bear,  but  afterward  to  both.  Hence  the  Latin  Sep- 
 tcmtrio,  as  indicating  the  north.  ( Varro,  L.  L.,  6, 4. — 
 Aul.  Gell ,  2,  21.— Virg.,  Mn.,  \,  748.)  Two  other 
 names  are  also  found  among  the  ancients  for  the  Bear, 
 namely,  'EMkt]  (Helice),  and  Kvt'oaovpa  (Cynositra). 
 The  first  of  these  is  derived  from  e^tf,  ^'■curled,"  and 
 has  reference  to  the  curved  or  s-like  position  of  the 
 stars  composing  the  Greater  Bear,  if  we  regard  what 
 is  commonly  called  the  Square  or  Quadrangle,  merely 
 as  a  semicircle  opening  towards  the  north.  {Butt- 
 mann,  as  cited  by  Ideler,  Untcrsuch.  iiher  die  Beohacht. 
 der  Alt.,  p.  376.)  The  term  Kvvoaovpa,  on  the  other 
 hand,  which  signifies  the  "  Dog's  tail,"  was  applied 
 by  the  ancients  to  the  constellation  of  the  Smaller 
 Bear,  because  this  animal  is  represented  on  the  celes- 
 tial planisphere  with  its  tail  bent  upward  like  that  of  a 
 dog,  or,  as  the  scholiast  on  Homer  remarks  (//.,  18, 
 487),  diu  TO  wf  Kvvbg  ixeiv  dvaKeKXaaiiivT/i'  ovpuv.     *  * 
 
 At 
 
A  RD 
 
 ARE 
 
 a  later  period,  however,  the  etymology  of  the  two  terms 
 was  forgotten  or  neglected,  and  Helice  and  Cynosura 
 appear  in  fable  as  two  nymphs,  the  nurses  of  Jove. 
 iAral,l'hi£n.,  30,  sc(/q. — Hygin.,  I'oet.  Astron.,  2,  2.) 
 The  name  Cynosura  is  sometimes  improperly  applied  by 
 the  moderns  to  the  Pole-star.  {Idtler,  Slcrnnamcn,  p. 
 H.) — The  ancient  name  of  the  Greater  liear  in  the  north 
 is  Kaiisoagn,  the  "Carle's,"  or  "Old  Man's  Wain." 
 The  Carle,  Magnusen  says,  is  Odin  or  Thor.  Hence 
 our  "  Charles's  Wain."  The  Icelanders  call  the  Bears 
 "  Stoii  (great)  Vagn,"  and  "Litli  V'agn."  {Edda  Sa- 
 mundar,  3,  304.) 
 
 Arcturus,  a  star  near  the  tail  of  the  Great  Bear, 
 the  rising  and  setting  of  which  was  generally  supposed 
 to  portend  tempestuous  weather.  It  belongs  to  the 
 con.slellation  Bootes  or  Arctophyla.x  and  forms  its 
 brightest  star.  Originally,  according  to  Erolianus  ( Ex- 
 pos.  voc.  Hippocr.),  the  term  Arcturus  was  synony- 
 mous with  Arctophylax,  being  derived  from  upKrog,  a 
 bear,  and  ovpoc;,  a  watch  or  guard.  Whether  Hesiod, 
 who  twice  makes  mention  of  Arcturus  (0/).  et  D  ,  566. 
 — Ibid.,  610),  means  the  star  or  the  constellation,  is  not 
 very  clear.  Even  some  later  writers,  such  as  Martia- 
 nus  Capella,  and  the  scholiast  to  Germanicus,  employ 
 the  term  as  indicating  the  constellation  itself.  The 
 common  derivation  of  the  name,  from  upsrog,  and  ov- 
 pd,  a  tail,  as  referring  to  the  situation  of  the  star  near 
 the  tail  of  the  bear,  is  condemned  by  Buttmann.  {Me- 
 ier, Stcrnnamen,  p.  47,  seqq.)  Arcturus,  observes 
 Dr.  Halley,  in  the  time  of  Columella  and  Pliny  rose 
 with  the  sun  at  Athens,  when  the  sun  was  in  I25  of 
 Virgo;  but  at  Rome  three  days  sooner,  the  sun  beinor 
 in  9^  of  Virgo,  the  autumnal  equinox  then  fallincr  on 
 the  24th  or  25th  of  September. 
 
 Ard.\lus,  a  son  of  Vulcan,  said  to  have  been  the 
 first  who  invented  the  pipe.  He  erected  a  temple  also 
 at  Troezene,  in  honour  of  the  Muses,  who  were  hence 
 called,  from  him,  Ardalides,  or  Ardaliotides.  (Pau- 
 san.,  2,  31. — Stcjifi.  Byz.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Aruea,  the  capital  of  the  Rutuli,  a  very  ancient  city 
 of  Italy,  founded,  as  tradition  reported,  by  Danae,  the 
 mother  of  Perseus.  (  Fzrjr.,  ^n.,  7,  408.)  Hence  the 
 boast  of  Turnus,  that  he  could  number  Inachus  and 
 Acrisius  among  his  ancestors.  Pliny  (3,  5)  and  Mela 
 (2,  4)  have  improperly  reckoned  Ardea  among  the 
 maritime  cities  of  Latium  ;  but  Strabo  (232)  and  Ptol- 
 emy (66)  have  placed  it  more  correctly  at  some  dis- 
 tance from  the  coast.  The  ruins  which  yet  bear  the 
 name  of  Ardea  are  situated  on  a  hill  about  three  miles 
 from  the  sea.  Though  the  early  accounts  of  this  an- 
 cient city  are  lost  in  obscurity,  we  are  led  to  infer  that 
 it  must  have  attained  to  a  considerable  degree  of  power 
 and  prosperity  at  a  remote  period,  if  it  be  true,  as  Livy 
 (21,  7)  asserts,  that  a  body  of  Ardealse  formed  part  of 
 the  Zacynthian  colony,  which  settled  Saguntum  in 
 Spain.  The  first  mention  which  occurs  of  this  city  in 
 the  history  of  Rome,  is  in  the  reign  of  Tarquinius 
 Snperbus.  We  are  told  that  it  was  during  the  siege 
 of  Ardea,  which  the  king  was  carrying  on,  that  the 
 memorable  circumstance  occurred  which  led  to  his  ex- 
 pulsion from  the  throne,  and  the  consequent  change 
 of  government  at  Rome.     {Liv.,  1,  57. — Dion.  Hal.  , 
 
 4,  64.)  The  Ardeats  had  the  honour  of  affording  an 
 asylum  to  Camillus  in  his  e.xile,  and,  under  the  con- 
 duct of  that  great  man,  were  enabled  to  render  a  signal 
 service  to  the  Romans  in  their  utmost  distress  (if  indeed 
 we  are  to  give  credit  to  Livy's  account  of  these  trans- 
 actions) ;  first  by  defeating  a  large  body  of  Gauls  who 
 had  advanced  towards  their  city  in  quest  of  booty  (Liv., 
 
 5,  45),  and  afterward  by  contributing  greatly  to  the 
 decisive  victory  which  freed  Rome  from  her  most 
 dangerous  enemies.  (Liu.  5,  49).  In  all  probability, 
 however,  this  story  is  merely  to  be  regarded  as  one  of 
 the  embellishments  of  the  false  legends  of  the  Fiirian 
 family.  (Compare  Arnold's  History  of  Rome,  vol.  1, 
 p.  393,  seqq.)     The  Ardeatse,  however,  did  not  always  ' 
 
 .182 
 
 ;  display  the  same  zeal  and  constancy  in  the  servce  of 
 the  republic.  In  the  second  Punic  war,  and  at  a  time 
 when  the  victories  of  Hannibal  had  exhausted  the  re- 
 sources of  the  state,  they  refused  to  furnish  any  farther 
 supplies  of  men  and  provisions.  Their  city  was  there- 
 fore included  in  the  vote  of  censure  which  the  Roman 
 senate  afterward  passed  on  several  refractory  colonies. 
 (Liv.,  27,  9.)  Another  curious  circumstance  in  the 
 history  of  Ardea  is  recorded  by  Varro  {R.  R.,  2,  2), 
 who  states,  that  the  era  in  which  barbers  were  first 
 introduced  into  Italy  from  Sicily  was  noted  in  the  ar- 
 chives of  this  city.  This  epoch  Varro  makes  to  coin- 
 cide with  4.54  A.U.C.  Strabo  (22)  informs  lis,  that 
 the  country  about  Ardea  was  marshy,  and  the  climate 
 consequently  very  unfavourable  ;  which  is  confirmed  by 
 Seneca  {Epist.  105)  and  Martial  {Ep.,  4,  60).  Some 
 warm  springs,  strongly  impregnated  with  sulphur, 
 noticed  by  Vitruvius  (8,  3)  in  the  vicinity  of  Ardea, 
 still  exist  under  the  name  of  la  Solforata,  near  the 
 Terre  di  S.  Lorenzo,  in  the  direction  of  Antium. 
 {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  21,  seqq.) 
 
 Ardericca,  I.  a  small  town  of  .Assyria,  north  of 
 Babylon,  on  the  Euphrates.  Herodotus  niforms  us 
 (i,  185)  that  Nitocris,  queen  of  Babylon,  in  order  to 
 render  her  territories  more  secure  against  the  Medes, 
 altered  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  and  made  it  so 
 very  winding,  that  it  came,  in  its  course,  three  times 
 to  Ardericca.  (Compare  Larcher,  ad  loc.,  where  a 
 diagram  is  given,  e.xplanatory  of  the  course  of  the 
 stream.)  Heeren  thinks  that  this  laborious  under- 
 taking had  also  another  object  in  view,  to  facilitate, 
 namely,  the  navigation  of  the  vessels  in  their  descent 
 from  the  higher  countries.  He  considers  it  probable 
 that  this  was  effected  by  a  series  of  sluices  and  flood- 
 gates, and  that  the  numerous  windings  of  the  canal 
 made  it  a  three  days'  voyage  to  pass  the  village  of  Ar- 
 dericca, the  canal  being  cut  in  a  zigzag  manner,  to 
 diminish  the  fall  occasioned  by  the  steeptiess  of  the 
 land.  The  name  Ardericca  has  led  to  the  cv  rjecture, 
 that  it  is  the  present  Akkercuf,  above  Bagdad.  Ak- 
 kcrcuf,  however,  lies  on  the  Tigris,  not  the  Euphrates. 
 {Heeren,  Ideen.,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  138,  seqq. — Porter's 
 Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  277.) — II.  A  village  in  Cissia, 
 about  two  hundred  and  ten  stadia  to  the  northeast  of 
 Susa.  {Herodotus,  6,  119. — Compare  Larcher  and 
 Bdhr,  ad  loc.)  It  was  here  that  the  Eretrian  captives 
 were  settled.     (  Fi(i.  Eretria.) 
 
 Ardisuus,  a  river  of  Thrace,  falling  into  the  Hebrus 
 at  Adrianopolis.      Now  the  Arda. 
 
 Arduenn.\,  now  Ardennes,  a  forest  of  Gaul,  llw 
 longest  in  that  country,  reaching,  according  to  Csesar, 
 from  the  Rhenus  and  the  territories  of  the  Treveri  to 
 those  of  the  Nervii,  upward  of  fifty  miles  in  length. 
 Others  make  the  extent  much  larger.  If  it  covr/ed 
 the  whole  of  the  intervening  space  between  the  coun- 
 tries of  the  Treveri  and  Nervii,  it  would  greatly  exceed 
 fifty  miles.  The  original  Gallic  name  would  seem  to 
 have  been  Ar-Denn,  i.  e.,  '•  the  profound,"  or  "  deep" 
 (forest).  Ar  is  the  article,  De7i  in  the  Kimrie,  Don  in 
 the  Bas- Breton,  and  Domhninn  in  Gaelic,  denote  re- 
 spectively "profound,"  "thick,"  &C.  (Thierry,  Hist, 
 des  Gaulois,  vol.  2,  p.  41,  *«  'notis  )  The  ground  is 
 now  in  many  places  cleared,  and  cities  built  upon  it. 
 It  is  divided  mto  four  districts.  Its  chief  town  is 
 Mezwres.  (Tacit.,  Attn.,  8,  A2.—C(Es.,  Bell.  Geli., 
 6,  29.) 
 
 Aroys,  a  son  of  Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  who  reigned 
 forty-nine  years,  took  Priene,  and  made  war  against 
 Miletus.  (Herodot.,  1,  16. — Compare  Cliaton^s  Fasti 
 Hellemci,  vol   2,  p.  296.) 
 
 Arel.^tum  {'ApKAuTov,  Piol.  :  'Aptlurai,  Strabo: 
 Arelate,  among  the  Latin  writers ;  and  sometimes 
 Arelas  by  the  poets),  a  town  of  the  Salyes  on  the  easJ 
 side  of  the  Rhodanus,  at  the  place  where  it  divides  into 
 three  branches,  not  far  from  its  mouth.  Stralio  speaks 
 of  it  as  a  conunercial   emporium,  and,  according  to 
 
ARE 
 
 ARE 
 
 Pomponius  Mela,  it  was  one  of  the  richest  cities  in 
 Gallia  Narbonensis.  It  was  also  called  Sextanorum 
 Colonia,  from  having  been  colonized  by  the  soldiers  of 
 the  sixth  legion,  conducted  thither  by  the  father  of 
 Tiberius.  It  is  now  Aries.  During  the  later  periods 
 of  the  Roman  empire,  Arelate  was  the  residence  of 
 some  of  the  emperors  ;  and  at  a  subsequent  date,  on 
 account  of  the  frequent  inroads  of  the  barbarians,  the 
 praetorian  headquarters  were  transferred  from  Trevcri 
 (Trcpcs)  to  this  place.  {Go's.,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  36. — 
 Melu,  2,  5.— Suet.,  Vit.  Tib.,  4.) 
 
 Arkmorica,  or  Armorica,  a  Celtic  term,  applied  in 
 strictness  to  all  parts  of  Gaul  which  lay  along  the  ocean. 
 As  the  Romans,  however,  before  Caesar's  time,  knew 
 no  other  part  of  the  coast  except  that  between  the 
 Pyrenees  and  the  mouth  of  the  Garumna,  the  name 
 with  them  became  restricted  to  this  portion  of  the 
 country.  (Mannert,  G^ears^r.,  vol.  2,  p.  112.)  The 
 appellation  is  derived  from  the  Gaiilic  ar,  "  upon,"  and 
 nioir,  "  sea."  (Compare  Thierry,  Hist,  des  Gaulois, 
 vol.  I,  Introd.,  p.  xxxix.,  in  notis.) 
 
 Aren.Xcqm,  a  fortified  place  on  the  Rhine,  in  the 
 territories  of  the  Batavi,  not  far  from  where  the  river 
 separates  to  form  the  Vahalis.  It  is  now,  according  to 
 D'Anville,  Aert  or  Aerth,  but  Mannert  is  in  favour  of 
 Arnhcim.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  a,  20. — Compare  Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  242.) 
 
 Areopagit/E,  the  judges  of  the  Areopagus,  a  seat 
 of  justice  on  a  small  eminence  at  Athens.  {Vid.  Are- 
 opagus.) The  time  in  which  this  celebrated  seat  of 
 justice  was  instituted  is  unknown.  Some  suppose  that 
 Cecrops,  the  founder  of  Athens,  first  estabhshed  it, 
 while  others  give  the  credit  of  it  to  Cranaus,  and  others 
 to  Solon.  The  constitution  and  form  under  which  it 
 appears  in  history,  is  certainly  not  more  ancient  than 
 the  time  of  Solon,  though  he  undoubtedly  appears  to 
 have  availed  himself  of  the  sanctity  already  attached 
 to  the  name  and  place,  to  ensure  to  it  that  influence 
 and  inviolability  which  were  essential  to  the  attain- 
 ment of  its  chief  object,  the  maintenance  of  the  laws. 
 Its  original  right  of  judging  all  cases  of  homicide  con- 
 tinued, though  evidently  the  least  important  part  of  its 
 duties,  since,  when  Ephialtes  had  deprived  it  of  all  but 
 that,  the  Areopagus  was  thought  to  be  annihilated. 
 {Demoslk.  adv.  Aristocr.,  p.  642. — Lex.  Rhcl.,  ap- 
 pended to  Parson's  Photius,  p.  .585,  cd.  Lips. — Her- 
 mann's Polit.  Anliq.,  p.  215,  not.  6.)  It  was  not  re- 
 stored to  its  dignity  of  guardian  of  the  laws  till  the 
 fall  of  the  thirty  tyrants.  Its  office  as  such  was,  in 
 principle,  directly  opposed  to  an  absolute  democracy, 
 and  must  have  appeared  the  more  formidable  to  the 
 partisans  of  that  form,  from  the  indefinite  and  arbitrary 
 nature  of  the  merely  moral  power  on  which  its  authority 
 was  founded,  and  which  rendered  it  impracticable 
 clearly  to  define  the  extent  of  its  influence.  In  later 
 times  it  was  found  particularly  active  as  a  censorship 
 of  morals,  and  in  several  respects  may  be  viewed  as  a 
 superior  court  of  police,  taking  cognizance  of  luxury 
 and  morals,  the  superintendence  of  public  buildings 
 and  public  health,  and,  in  particular,  making  it  its  busi- 
 ness to  direct  public  attention  to  men  who  might  en- 
 danger the  state,  though  its  own  power  to  inflict  pun- 
 ishment in  such  cases  was  very  limited.  {Hermann, 
 L  c.)  The  Areopagus,  when  originally  constituted, 
 was,  as  has  already  been  remarked,  merely  a  criminal 
 tribunal.  Solon,  guided  by  motives  which  cannot  now 
 be  easily  explained,  rendered  it  superior  to  the  Epheta?, 
 another  court  instituted  by  Draco,  and  greatly  enlarged 
 its  jurisdiction.— The  number  of  judges  composing  this 
 august  triUunal  is  not  clearly  ascertained.  It  was  prob- 
 ably about  ninety.  {Titlman,  Griech.  Stattsverf.,  p. 
 252.)  The  court  consisted  entirely  of  ex-archons  ;  and 
 every  archon,  on  laying  down  his  archonship,  became 
 a  member  of  it.  {Tttlmann,  I.  c. — Plat.,  Vit.  Sol.,  c. 
 19.)  It  was  expressly  provided,  however,  that  the 
 members  of  this  court  should  be  altogether  pure  and 
 
 blameless  in  their  lives,  and  it  was  even  required  that 
 their  whole  demeanour  should  be  grave  and  serious 
 beyond  what  was  expected  from  other  men.  The 
 dignity  of  a  judge  of  the  Areopagus  was  always  for  life, 
 unless  he  was  expelled  for  immoral  or  improper  con- 
 duct. The  Areopagites  took  cognizance  of  murders, 
 impiety,  and  immoral  behaviour,  and  particularly  of 
 idleness,  which  they  deemed  the  cause  of  all  vice. 
 They  watched  over  the  laws,  and  they  had  the  manage- 
 ment of  the  public  treasury  ;  they  had  also  the  liberty 
 of  rewarding  the  virtuous,  and  inflicting  severe  punish- 
 ment upon  such  as  blasphemed  against  the  gads,  or 
 slighted  the  celebration  of  the  holy  mysteries.  Hence 
 St.  Paul  was  arraigned  before  this  tribunal  as  "  a  setter 
 forth  of  strange  gods,"  because  he  preached  to  the 
 Athenians  of  Jesus  and  the  resurrection.  They  always 
 sat  in  the  open  air ;  because  they  took  cognizance  of 
 murder,  and,  by  their  laws,  it  was  not  permitted  for 
 the  murderer  and  his  accuser  to  be  both  under  the  same 
 roof.  {Vid.  Areopagus.)  This  custom  also  might 
 originate  from  the  persons  of  the  judges  being  sacred, 
 and  their  being  afraid  of  contracting  pollution  by  con- 
 versing in  the  same  house  with  men  who  had  been 
 guilty  of  shedding  innocent  blood.  They  always  heard 
 causes  and  passed  sentence  in  the  night,  that  they 
 might  not  be  prepossessed  in  favour  of  ihe  plaintiff  or 
 defendant  by  seeing  them.  Whatever  causes  were 
 pleaded  before  them  were  to  be  divested  of  all  oratory 
 and  fine  speaking,  lest  eloquence  should  charm  their 
 ears  and  corrupt  their  judgment.  Hence  arose  the 
 most  just  and  most  impartial  decisions  ;  and  their  sen- 
 tence was  deemed  sacred  and  inviolable,  and  the  plain- 
 tiflf  and  defendant  were  equally  convinced  of  its  justice. 
 The  Areopagites  generally  sat  on  the  27lh,  28th,  and 
 29th  day  of  every  month.  But  if  any  business  hap- 
 pened which  required  despatch,  they  assembled  in  the 
 royal  portico,  Baai?uKT]  S-ou.  This  institution  was 
 preserved  entire  until  the  time  of  Pericles,  who,  as  he 
 had  never  filled  the  office  of  archon,  could  not  be  ad- 
 mitted a  member  of  the  Areopagus,  and  therefore  em- 
 ployed all  his  power  and  influence  in  undermining  an 
 authority  which  was  incompatible  with  his  own.  The 
 earlier  strictness  too,  as  regarded  the  private  characters 
 of  the  judges,  began  now  to  be  relaxed,  and  eventually, 
 when  the  grandeur  of  Athens  was  on  the  decline,  men 
 of  vicious  and  profligate  lives  became  members  of  the 
 Areopagus. — As  regards  the  form  Arcopagita  and 
 Ariopagita,  consult  the  remarks  of  Bergman  {Prcef. 
 ad  Isocr.  Areopag.  init.). 
 
 Areopagus  (ApftoTrayof,  or  'Apeiog  Trayof,  i.  e., 
 "  the  hill  of  Mars"),  a  small  eminence  at  Athens,  a 
 little  distance  to  the  northwest  of  the  Acropolis  It 
 was  so  called  in  consequence,  as  it  was  said,  of  Mars 
 having  been  the  first  person  tried  there,  for  the  murder 
 of  Halirrhoihius,  son  of  Neptune.  {Vid.  AreopagitiE.) 
 This  celebrated  court  consisted  only  of  an  open  space, 
 in  which  was  an  altar  dedicated  to  Minerva  Areia,  and 
 two  rude  seats  of  stone  for  the  defendant  and  his  ac- 
 cuser. From  Vitruvius  we  learn  (2,  1. — Compare 
 Pull.,  8,  10),  that  at  a  later  period  this  space  was  en- 
 closed, and  roofed  with  tiles.  According  to  Herodotus 
 (8,  52),  the  Persians  were  stationed  in  the  Areopagus 
 when  they  made  their  attack  on  the  western  side  of  the 
 Acropolis.  (Consult,  as  regards  the  form  of  the  name, 
 the  remarks  of  Bergman,  Prerf.  ad  Lwcr.  Areopag. 
 init.) 
 
 Arestorides,  a  patronymic  given  to  the  hundred- 
 eved  Argus,  as  son  of  Arestor.     {Ovid,    il/ff  ,  1,  624.) 
 
 Aret.eus,  a  Greek  physician  of  Cappadocia,  who 
 is  sup()Osed  to  have  flourished  A.D.  SO.  We  have 
 two  productions  of  his  remaining:  Trepl  AItiuv  koI 
 'Lr^fieiuv  b^euv  Kal  xpoi'i(Jv  ttoBuv,  "  On  the  causes 
 and  symptoms  of  acute  and  chronic  maladies;  "and, 
 ne.pl  QepaTTeiag  o^euv  Kal  xpovliJV  naOCn;  "  On  the 
 cure  of  acute  and  chronic  maladies."  The  works  oi 
 this  most  elegant  writer,  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
 
 loo 
 
ARE 
 
 A  RG 
 
 are  so  truly  valuable  as  to  make  us  deplore  the  loss  we 
 have  sustained  by  the  mutilations  they  have  suffered. 
 His  language  is  in  the  highest  degree  retined,  and  his 
 descriptions  are  uncommonly  graphic  and  accurate. 
 For  example,  what  picture  could  be  truer  to  life  than 
 the  one  which  he  has  drawn  of  a  patient  in  the  last 
 stage  of  cons\nnption  !  atid  what  description  was  ever 
 more  poetically  elegant  than  that  which  he  gives  us  of 
 the  symptoms  attending  the  collaj)se  in  ardent  fever? 
 — Considering  that  most  probably  he  was  prior  to 
 Galen,  the  correctness  of  his  physical  views  cannot  but 
 excite  our  admiration.  Thus,  in  his  account  of  Paral- 
 ysis, he  alludes  to  the  distinction  between  the  Nerves 
 of  Sensation  and  those  of  Muscular  motion,  which 
 doctrine  is  treated  of  at  great  length  by  Galen,  in  his 
 work  De  Usu  Partium  {nspl  Xpslac;  rCiv  kv  avdpdnrov 
 aufiarL  jiopiuv).  He  enumerates  indigestion  among 
 the  exciting  causes  of  palsy,  which  seems  to  be  an 
 anticipation  of  a  late  pretended  discovery,  that  paralysis 
 of  the  limbs  is  sometimes  to  be  referred  to  derange- 
 meiit  of  the  stomach  and  bowels. —  In  speaking  of  epi- 
 lepsy, he  makes  mention  of  the  use  of  copper,  which 
 medicine  has  been  tried  of  late  years  in  this  complaint 
 with  manifest  advantage. — No  other  ancient  writer 
 that  we  are  acquainted  with  gives  us  so  correct  an  ac- 
 count of  ulcers  on  the  throat  and  tonsils.  His  descrip- 
 tion of  the  various  phenomena  of  mania  is  very  inter- 
 esting, and  contains  the  singular  case  of  a  joiner,  who 
 was  in  his  right  senses  while  employed  at  his  profession 
 at  work,  but  no  sooner  left  the  seat  of  his  employment 
 than  he  became  mad.  He  gives  an  interesting  ac- 
 count of  jaundice,  which  he  attributes,  probably  with 
 correctness,  to  a  variety  of  causes,  but  more  especially 
 to  obstruction  of  the  ducts,  which  convey  the  bile  to 
 the  intestinal  canal.  He  makes  no  mention,  indeed, 
 of  gall-stones,  nor  are  they  mentioned,  as  we  know,  by 
 any  ancient  writer  ;  only  Nonnius  recommends  Lithon- 
 triptics  for  the  cure  of  the  disease,  which  might  seem 
 to  imply  that  he  was  acquainted  with  the  existence  of 
 these  concretions. — Aretsus  was  fond  of  administering 
 hellebore,  and  concludes  his  work  with  a  glowing 
 eulogy  on  the  properties  of  this  medicine.  The  best 
 editions  of  Aretaeus  are,  that  of  Wigan,  Oxon.,  1723, 
 fol.,  and  that  of  Boerhave,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1731,  fol. 
 This  latter  one,  in  fact,  is  superior  to  the  former,  since 
 it  contains  all  that  is  given  in  Wigan's  edition,  together 
 with  the  commentary  of  Petit,  and  the  notes  and  em- 
 endations of  Triller.  The  edition  of  Aretaeus  given 
 in  Kuhn's  collection  of  the  Greek  medical  writers,  has 
 jiot  proved  very  satisfactory  in  a  critical  point  of  view. 
 {Pierer.,  Amial  Aug.,  p.  1041. — Hoffmann,  Lex. 
 Bill,  vol.  1,  p.  248.) 
 
 Akete,  a  daughter  of  the  philoso[)hor  Aristippus. 
 ^^lian,  however,  contrary  to  the  common  account, 
 makes  her  his  sister.  {Hist.  Ayi, 'i,  AO.)  Aristippus 
 taught  her  the  doctrines  of  his  school,  and  she  in  her 
 turn  became  the  instructress  of  her  own  son,  the 
 younger  Aristippus,  who,  on  this  account,  received 
 the  surname  of  Mctrodidactus  (Mi/rpoSidaKToc).  Her 
 attainments  in  philosof)hy  were  highly  celebrated. 
 (Aristoclcs,  ap.  Euseh.,  Preep.  Ev.,  14,  18. — Diog. 
 Laert.,  2,  86. — Cn.ianb.,  ad  Ding.,  I.  n.) 
 
 Arethusa,  T.  a  nymph  of  Elis,  daughter  of  Ocean- 
 us,  and  one  of  Diana's  attendants.  As  she  returned 
 one  day  from  hunting,  she  came  to  the  clear  stream  of 
 the  Alpheus,  and,  enticed  by  its  beauty,  entered  into 
 its  waters  to  drive  av^'ay  the  heat  and  fatigue.  She 
 heard  a  murmur  in  the  stream,  and,  terrified,  sprang 
 to  land.  The  river-god  rose  and  j)ursned  her.  The 
 nymph  sped  all  through  Arcadia,  till  with  the  approach 
 of  evening  she  felt  her  strength  failing,  and  saw  that 
 her  pursuer  was  close  upon  her.  She  then  prayed  to 
 Diana  for  relief,  and  was  immediately  dissolved  into  a 
 fountain.  Alpheus  resumed  his  aqueous  form,  and 
 Bought  to  mingle  his  waters  with  hers.  She  fled  on 
 under  the  earth,  however,  and  through  the  sea,  till  she 
 184 
 
 rose  in  the  island  of  Ortygia  at  Syracuse,  still  followed 
 by  the  stream  of  the  Alpheus.  In  proof  of  the  truth 
 of  this  fable,  it  was  asserted  that  a  cup  {^luAti)  which 
 fell  into  the  Alpheus  rose  in  the  fountain  of  Arethusa, 
 whose  pellucid  waters  also  became  turbid  with  the 
 blood  of  the  victims  slain  at  the  Olympic  games. 
 {Ovid,  Met.,  5,  572,  seqq.  —  Moschus,  Idyll,  7.^ 
 Kcightley's  Mythology,  "id  ed.,  p.  132.)  An  explana- 
 tion of  this  legend  will  be  found  under  the  article  Al- 
 pheus.— II.  A  lake  in  Armenia  Major,  through  which 
 the  Tigris  ran.  It  was  near  the  sources  of  thai  river, 
 and  exhaled,  according  to  Pliny,  nitrous  vapours. 
 {Plin.,  6,  27.) — III.  A  city  in  the  Macedonian  distrir; 
 of  Amphaxitis.  {Plin.,  4,  10.) — IV.  A  city  of  Syria, 
 on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Orontes.  It  was  either 
 built  or  restored  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  Arabians.  {Strab.,  518. 
 —Zosim.,  1,  b'i.—Theod.,  Hist.  Eccles.,  3,  7.)— V. 
 A  fountain  in  Eubcea,  near  Chalcis.  {Plin.,  4,  12.) — - 
 VI.  A  fountain  in  Bceolia,  near  Thebes.     {Plin  ,  4,  7.) 
 
 A  REUS,  I.  (two  syllables)  a  king  of  Sparta,  preferred 
 in  the  succession  to  Cleonymus,  son  of  Gleomenes, 
 who,  on  being  defeated  in  his  claim  upon  the  throne, 
 called  in  the  aid  of  Pyrrhus.  Areus  was  in  Crete 
 when  the  King  of  Epirus  marched  against  Sparta  ;  and 
 instantly  leaving  that  island,  whither  he  had  gone  to 
 aid  the  Gortynians,  he  returned  home  and  repulsed 
 Pyrrhus.  He  afterward  went  to  the  aid  of  Athens, 
 when  attacked  by  Antigonus  Gonatas,  and  lost  his  life 
 in  a  battle  with  this  prince  in  the  environs  of  Corinth, 
 B.C.  268.  {Pausan.,  3,  6.)— II.  (Areus,  'Apfwf)  a 
 native  of  Alexandrea,  and  member  of  the  Pythagorean 
 sect.  According  to  the  common  account,  he  was  one 
 of  the  masters  of  Augustus,  and  enjoyed  so  high  a  de- 
 gree of  favour  with  this  prince,  that  when,  after  the 
 defeat  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  Augustus  appeared 
 in  the  theatre  of  .Alexandrea,  he  had  his  old  instructor 
 on  his  right  hand,  and  conversed  familiarly  with  him, 
 declaring  that  one  of  the  causes  of  his  sparing  the  in- 
 habitants was  his  friendship  for  Areus.  {Die  Cassius, 
 51,  16. — Fabric,  ad  Dion.,  I.  c. —  Pint.,  Vit.  Anton., 
 80.)  The  eloquence  and  philosophy  of  Areus  were 
 so  persuasive,  that,  according  to  Seneca,  he  powerfully 
 contributed  to  console  Livia  for  the  loss  of  Augustus  ! 
 {Sencc,  Consol.  ad  Mar.,  4,  2.)  It  is  thought  by 
 some  that  Dioscorides  dedicated  to  him  his  work  on 
 the  Materia  Medica,  but  the  point  is  not  clearly  ascer- 
 tained.    {Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  2,  p.  407.) 
 
 Areva,  a  river  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  in  the 
 territory  of  the  Arevaci.  It  rose  southeast  of  Sala- 
 mantica,  and  flowed  into  the  Duriiis.  The  modern 
 name  is,  according  to  Harduin,  the  Arlunzo  {ad  Plin., 
 3,  4),  but  according  to  Florez,  more  correctly,  the 
 Ucero.     {Esp.  Sagr.,  5,  16,  39.) 
 
 Arevaci,  a  people  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  deri- 
 ving their  name,  according  to  Pliny  (3,  3),  from  the 
 river  Areva.  They  lay  between  the  Vaccaei  to  th6 
 north  and  the  Carpetani  to  the  south,  and  formed  one 
 of  the  most  powerful  branches  of  the  Celtibcri.  Ac- 
 cording to  some  authorities,  thoir  chief  city  was  Nii- 
 mantia.  {Strabo,  1G2.—Mefa,  2,  G.—Appian,  B. 
 Hisp.,  c.  91.)  Pliny,  however,  assigns  this  place  to 
 the  Pclendones  (3,  4).  Their  later  capita)  was  Se- 
 gobia  or  Segubia,  now  Segovia.  (Itin.  Ajtt.,  p.  435. 
 —Plol,  2,  6.) 
 
 AnojRVs,  a  mountain  of  Cappadocia,  covered  with 
 perpetual  snows,  and  so  lofty  that  from  its  summit, 
 according  to  the  ancient  writers,  both  the  Euxine  and 
 the  Mediterranean  Seas  might  be  seen,  although,  ac- 
 cording to  Strabo  (538),  there  were  very  few  who 
 could  boast  of  such  a  feat.  It  is  now  called  Argek- 
 dag,  and  at  its  foot  stood  Mazaca,  the  capital  of  Cap- 
 padocia, called,  in  the  time  of  Tiberius,  Ca-sarea  ad 
 .Argaeum,  and  now  Kaisariek.  Mr.  Kinneir  observes, 
 that  Mount  Arga>us  is  unquestionably  one  of  prodi- 
 gious elevation  ;  but  he  much  questions  whether  any 
 
A  RG 
 
 ARG 
 
 human  being  ever  reached  its  summit ;  and,  indeed, 
 he  was  positively  informed  that  this  was  quite  impossi- 
 ble. It  was  covered  for  some  miles  below  the  peak 
 with  snow,  which  was  said  to  be  eight  or  ten  feet  in 
 depth  in  the  month  of  October,  when  he  was  at.  Cjts- 
 area.  {Journey  through  Asia  Minor,  &c.,  p.  94,  note.) 
 Argathonius,  or  Argaiithonius,  a  king  of  Gades, 
 who,  according  to  one  account  {Herod.,  1,  163. — Cic, 
 dc  Scnecl.,  19),  lived  120  years,  and  reigned  80  years 
 of  this  number.  Plmy  (7,  48)  gives  150  years  as  the 
 period  of  his  existence ;  and  SiUus  Italicus  (3,  398), 
 by  poetic  license,  300  years. 
 
 A  RGBS,  a  son  of  Ccelus  and  Terra,  who  had  only 
 one  eye  in  his  forehead.     (  Vid.  Cyclopes.) 
 
 Argkus,  a  son  of  Perdiccas,  king  of  Macedonia, 
 who  obtained  the  kingdom  when  Amyntas,  father  of 
 Philip,  was  driven  out  for  a  season  by  the  lUyrians 
 (from  393  B.C.  to  390).  On  the  death  of  Perdiccas, 
 B.C.  360,  he  endeavoured,  but  in  vain,  to  remount 
 the  throne.     {Justin,  7,  1.) 
 
 Argi  {plur.  masc).  Vid.  Argos. 
 Argia,  I.  daughter  of  Adrastus,  married  Polynices, 
 whom  slie  loved  with  uncommon  tenderness.  When 
 he  was  killed  in  the  Theban  war,  atid  Creon  had  for- 
 bidden any  one  to  perform  his  funeral  obsequies,  Argia, 
 in  conjunction  with  Antigone,  disobeyed  the  mandate, 
 and  [ilaced  the  corpse  of  Polynices  on  the  funeral  pile. 
 Antigone  was  seized  by  the  guards  who  had  been  sta- 
 tioned near  the  dead  body,  but  Argia  escaped.  Vid. 
 Antigone.  {Hygin.,  fab.,69  and  72.) — II.  A.  country 
 of  Peloponnesus,  called  also  Argolis,  of  which  Argos 
 was  the  capital. — III.  The  wife  of  Inachus,  and  moth- 
 er of  lo.     {Hygin.,  fab.,  145.) 
 
 Argiletum,  a  street  at  Rome,  which  led  from  the 
 Vicus  Tuscus  to  the  Forum  Olitorium  and  Tiber. 
 The  origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain.  Some  accounts 
 derived  it  from  Argus,  a  guest  of  Evander's  {vid.  Ar- 
 gus, v.),  who  was  said  to  have  been  interred  there  ; 
 others  from  the  abundance  of  argilla,  or  clay,  found  in 
 the  vicinity.  {Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  32.)  This  street  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  chiefly  tenanted  by  booksellers 
 {Martial,  Ep.,  1,  4. — Id.,  1,  118),  and  also  by  tailors. 
 {Martial,  Ep.,  2,  17.)  Cicero  informs  us  {Ep.  ad 
 Alt.,  1,  14),  that  his  brother  Quintus  had  a  house  in  the 
 Argiletum.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  545.) 
 Argilus,  the  first  town  on  the  coast  of  Bisaltia  in 
 Thrace,  beyond  Bromiscus  and  the  outlet  of  the  Lake 
 Bolbe.  It  was  founded  by  a  colony  from  Andros,  ac- 
 cording to  Thucydides  (4,  102).  Herodotus  (7,  115) 
 says  it  was  the  first  town  which  Xerxes  entered  after 
 crossing  the  Strymon.  The  Argilians  espoused  the 
 cause  of  Brasidas  on  his  arrival  in  Thrace,  and  were 
 very  instrumental  in  securing  his  conquest  of  Am- 
 phipolis.     {Thucyd.,  4,  103.) 
 
 ArginOs^e,  small  islands  below  Lesbos,  and  lying 
 ofTthe  promontory  of  Cana  or  Coloni  in  yEoHs.  They 
 were  rendered  famous  for  the  victory  gained  near  them 
 by  the  Athenian  fleet  under  Conon,  over  that  of  the 
 Lacedffimonians,  in  the  26th  year  of  the  Peloponnesian 
 war,  B.C.  406.  Of  these  three  islands,  the  largest 
 had  a  town  called  Arginusa.  They  are  formed  of  a 
 white,  argillaceous  sofl,  and  from  that  circumstance 
 look  tlieir  names  {apycvoELQ,  shining  white,  feminine 
 upyLvoeaaa,  contracted  upyivovaa. — Compare  the  re- 
 marks o(  Hcusinger,  ad  Cic,  de  Off.,  1,  24,  9). 
 
 ARoipiioNTEs,  a  surname  given  to  Mercury,  because 
 he  killed  the  hundred-eyed  Argus,  by  order  of  Jupiter. 
 Cowper,  in  his  version  of  Homer,  renders  the  term  in 
 question  by  "  Argicide."  (Consult  remarks  under  the 
 article  lo.) 
 
 ARGiPtMU,  a  nation  among  the  Sauromatae,  born 
 bald,  with  flat  noses  and  long  chins.  They  lived  upon 
 the  fruit  of  a  tree  called  Ponticus,  from  which,  when 
 ripe,  they  made  a  thick  black  liquor  called  Aschy, 
 which  they  drank  clear,  or  mixed  with  milk.     Of  the 
 
 violence  to  this  people,  for  they  were  accounted  sacred, 
 and  had  no  warlike  weapon  among  them.  They  de- 
 termined the  diiTerences  between  their  neighbours, 
 and  whoever  fled  to  them  for  refuge  was  permitted  to 
 live  unmolested.  {Herodot.,  4,  23.)  Ritter  thinks 
 that  these  Argippasi  were  one  of  the  early  sacerdotal 
 colonies  from  India,  which  had  settled  in  the  wilds  of 
 Scythia,  and  whose  peaceful  and  sacred  character  had 
 secured  the  regard  of  the  neighbouring  barbarians. 
 Their  bald  heads  he  accounts  for  by  the  circumstance 
 of  the  priests  of  Buddha  being  accustomed  to  shave 
 the  head.  {Vorhulle,  p.  286.)  De  Guignes,  on  the 
 other  hand,  refers  the  description  of  Herodotus  to  the 
 SinEB.  {Mem.  dc  VAcad.  dcs  Inscr.,  vol.  35,  p  551.) 
 The  best  opinion,  however,  is  in  favour  of  the  Calmucs, 
 whose  peculiar  physiognomy  coincides  with  that  as- 
 cribed to  the  ancient  Argippsei.  {Malte-Brun,  Amial. 
 dcs  Voyag.,  vol.  1,  p.  372.)  The  Calmuc  priests, 
 moreover,  called  Ghclongs,  are  said  to  shave  the  entire 
 head,  and  to  do  this  also  in  the  case  of  infants  that  are 
 destined  for  the  priesthood.  (Compare  Ba.hr,  ad 
 Herod.,  I.  c. — Renncll,  Geogr.  of  Herodotus,  vol.  1, 
 p.  172,  seqq.) 
 
 Argi V  A,  a  surname  of  Juno,  as  worshipped  at  Ar- 
 gos.    {Virg.,  JEn,  3,  547.) 
 
 Argivi,  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Argos  and  the 
 neighbouring  country.  The  word  is  also  applied  by 
 Homer,  and,  in  imitation  of  him,  by  the  later  poets,  to 
 all  the  inhabitants  of  Greece. 
 
 Argo,  the  name  of  the  famous  ship  which  carried 
 Jason  and  his  fifty  companions  to  Colchis,  when  they 
 resolved  to  recover  the  golden  fleece.  Jason  having 
 applied  to  Argus  {vid.  Argus,  III.)  to  construct  a  ves- 
 sel for  the  expedition.,  Argus  built  for  him  a  fifty-oared 
 galley,  called  from  himself  the  Argo.  Minerva  aided 
 the  architect  in  its  construction,  and  set  in  the  prow  a 
 piece  of  timber  cut  from  the  speaking  oak  of  Dodona, 
 and  which  had  the  power  of  giving  oracles.  On  the 
 termination  of  the  voyage,  Jason  consecrated  the  ves- 
 sel to  Neptune  at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  more  popular  account,  however,  Minerva 
 translated  the  Argo  to  the  skies,  and  made  it  a  con- 
 stellation. {Apollod.,  1,  9,  16.— /(/.,  1,  9,  24.— /rf., 
 1,  9,  27.—Diod.  Stc,  4,  5'S.—Eratosth.,  Zb.— Hy- 
 gin., fab.,  24,  &,c.) 
 
 Argoi.icus  sinus,  a  bay  on  the  coast  of  Argolis,  be- 
 tween this  country  and  Laconia.  It  is  now  the  Gulf 
 of  Napoli. 
 
 Argolis,  a  country  of  Peloponnesus,  to  the  east  of 
 Arcadia.  It  is  properly  a  neck  of  land,  deriving  its 
 name  from  its  capital  city  Argos,  and  extending  in  a 
 southeasterly  direction  from  Arcadia  fifty-four  miles 
 into  the  sea,  where  it  terminates  in  the  promontory  of 
 Scilla;um.  Many  and  important  associations  of  the 
 heroic  age  are  connected  with  this  country.  Here 
 was  Tyrins,  from  which  Hercules  departed  at  the 
 commencement  of  his  labours  ;  here  wasMycenje,  the 
 royal  city  of  Agamemnon,  the  most  powerful  and  the 
 most  unhappy  of  kings ;  here  was  Nemea,  celebrated 
 for  its  games  instituted  in  honour  of  Neptune.  But 
 the  glory  of  its  early  history  does  not  seem  to  have 
 animated  Argos.  No  Themistocles,  no  Agesilaiis 
 was  ever  counted  among  its  citizens  ;  and  though  it 
 possessed  a  territory  of  no  inconsiderable  extent,  it 
 never  assumed  a  rank  among  the  first  of  the  Grecian 
 states,  but  was  rather  the  passive  object  of  foreign  pol- 
 icy. {Heercn's  Politics  of  Greece,  p.  19,  Bancroft's 
 tra7isl.)— Fox  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  Argolis,  vid. 
 Argos. 
 
 Argonauts,  a  name  given  to  those  ancient  heroes 
 who  went  with  Jason  on  board  the  ship  Argo  to  Col- 
 chis. The  expedition  arose  from  tlie  following  cir 
 cumstance.  Athamas,  king  of  Orchomenus  in  Bceotia, 
 married  Nephele,  by  whom  he  had  two  children,  a  sou 
 and  a  daughter,  named  Phrixus  and  Helle.     Havino 
 
 busks  they  prepared  a  kind  of  cake.     No  man  offered    subsequently  divorced  Nephele,  he  married  Ino,  daugh^ 
 A  A  ^        '  185 
 
ARGONAUT.E. 
 
 ARGONAUTiE. 
 
 tcr  of  Cadmus,  who  bofe  him  two  sons,  Learchus  and 
 Melicerta.  Ino,  feeling  the  usual  jealousy  of  a  step- 
 mother, resolved  to  destroy  the  children  of  Nephele. 
 For  this  purpose  she  persuaded  the  women  to  parch 
 the  seed-corn  unknown  to  their  husbands.  They  did 
 as  she  desired,  and  the  lands  consequently  yielded  no 
 crop.  Athamas  sent  to  Delphi  to  consult  the  oracle, 
 in  what  way  the  threatening  famine  might  be  averted. 
 Ino  persuaded  the  messenger  to  say  that  Apollo  di- 
 rected Phrixu.s  to  be  sacrificed  to  Jupiter.  Com- 
 pelled by  his  people,  Athamas  reluctantly  placed  his 
 sou  before  the  altar  ;  but  Nephele  snatched  away  both 
 her  son  and  her  daughter,  and  gave  them  a  gold-fleeced 
 ram  she  had  obtained  from  Mercury,  which  carried 
 them  through  the  air  over  sea  and  land.  They  pro- 
 ceeded safely  till  they  came  to  the  sea  between  Sigas- 
 um  and  the  Chersonese,  into  which  Helle  fell,  and  it 
 was  named  from  her  Hellespontus  {Hdle's  Sea). 
 Phri.xus  went  on  to  Colchis  to  iEetes,  the  son  of  He- 
 lios, who  received  him  kindly,  and  gave  him  in  mar- 
 riage his  daughter  Chalciope.  He  there  sacrificed  his 
 ram  to  Jupiter  Phyxius,  and  gave  the  golden  fleece 
 to  ^Eetes,  who  nailed  it  to  an  oak  in  tlie  grove  of  Mars. 
 It  is  thus  that  we  find  this  legend  related  by  ApoUodo- 
 rus  (1,  9,  I).  There  are,  however,  many  variations  in 
 the  tale.  Thus  it  is  said  that  Ino  was  Athamas's  first 
 wife,  and  that  he  put  her  away  by  the  dnection  of 
 Juno,  and  married  Nephele,  who  left  him  after  she 
 had  borne  two  children,  on  finding  that  he  stUl  retained 
 an  attachment  for  Ino.  When  the  response  of  the 
 oracle  came  to  Athamas,  he  sent  for  Phri.xus  out  of  the 
 country,  desiring  him  to  come,  and  to  bring  the  finest 
 sheep  in  the  flock  for  a  sacrifice.  The  ram  then  spoke 
 with  a  human  voice  to  Phrixus,  warning  him  of  his 
 danger,  and  offering  to  carry  him  and  his  sister  to  a 
 place  of  safety.  The  ram,  it  was  added,  died  at  Col- 
 chis. (Fhiloslephanus,  ap.  Schol.  ad.  11.,  7,  86. — 
 Compare,  for  another  account,  Hygin.,  Poet.  Aslron., 
 2,  20  )  Other  statements  again  are  given  by  the  tragic 
 poets,  it  being  well  known  that  they  allowed  them- 
 selves great  liberties  in  the  treatment  of  the  ancient 
 myths.  (Compare  Hygin.,  fab.,  4. — Nonnus,  9,  247, 
 seqg.)  Some  time  after  this  event,  when  Jason,  the  son 
 of  ^son,  demanded  of  his  uncle  Pelias  the  crown  which 
 he  usurped  (vid.  Pelias,  Jason,  yEson),  Pelias  said  that 
 he  would  restore  it  to  him,  provided  he  brought  him 
 the  golden  fleece  from  Colchis.  Jason  undertook  the 
 expedition,  and  when  the  Argo  was  ready  {vid.  Argo), 
 consulted  the  oracle,  which  directed  him  to  invite  the 
 greatest  heroes  of  the  day  to  share  in  the  dangers  and 
 glories  of  the  voyage.  The  call  was  immediately  re- 
 sponded to,  and  numerous  sons  of  gods  hastened  to 
 embark  with  him.  From  the  Peloponnesus  came  Her- 
 cules, Castor  and  Pollux,  sons  of  Jupiter;  Peleus  and 
 Telamon,  grandsons  of  that  god,  also  came  with  The- 
 seus ;  Erginos  and  Ancasus,  sons  of  Neptune,  Augeas, 
 son  of  Helms,  Zetes  and  Calais,  sons  of  Boreas.  There 
 were  likewise  Lynceus  and  Idas,  and  Meleagrus,  La- 
 ertes, Periclymcnus,  Nauplius,  Iphiclus,  Iphitus,  Ad- 
 inetus,  Acastus,  Butes,  Polyjihemus,  Atalanta,  and 
 many  others.  Idmon,  the  seer,  the  son  of  Apollo, 
 can»e  from  Argos  ;  Mopsus,  also  a  prophet,  from  Thes- 
 saly,  and  Orpheus,  the  son  of  the  muse  Calliope.  The 
 steersman  was  Ttphys,  son  of  Agnius,  from  Siphoe  in 
 Boeotia.  The  entire  number  was  fifty.  (Apollod.,  1, 
 9,  16. — Hey  lie,  ad  loc. —  Burmann,  Praf.  ad  Val. 
 Place,  11,  vol.  1,  p.  clxxiii.)  When  the  heroes  were 
 all  assembled,  Mopsus  took  auguries,  and  the  omens 
 being  favourable,  they  embarked.  The  joyful  heroes 
 grasped  each  his  oar  at  the  word  of  the  soothsayer ; 
 and,  while  Orpheus  struck  his  lyre  in  concert  with  his 
 voice,  their  oars  kept  time  to  the  harmony.  At  the 
 close  of  the  day  they  had  reached  the  mouth  of  the  bay 
 of  Pagasa?.  Here  they  remained  for  two  days,  and 
 then  rowed  along  the  coast  of  Magnesia  ;  and,  passing 
 the  peninsula  of  Pallene,  at  length  reached  the  Isle  of 
 186 
 
 Lemnos,  in  which  there  were  at  that  time  no  men, 
 Hypsipyle  the  daughter  of  Thoas  governing  it  as  queen. 
 For  the  Lemnian  women  had  murdered  their  husbands, 
 being  incensed  at  their  neglect.     (Vid.   Hypsipyle.) 
 The  Argonauts,  being  invited  to  land,  all  disembarked 
 with  the  exception  of  Hercules,  and  gave  themselves 
 up  to  joy  and  festivity,  until,  on  the  remonstrances  of 
 the  son  of  Alcmena,  they  tore  themselves  away  from 
 the  Lemnian  fair  ones,  and  once  more  handled  their 
 oars.     I'he  offspring  of  this  temporary  union  repeopled, 
 say  the  poets,  the  Island  of  Lemnos.     After  leaving 
 Lemnos  they  came  to  Samothrace,  and  thence  pur- 
 sued their  voyage  through  the  Hellespont  into  the  Pro- 
 pontis,  where  they  came  to  an  island  with  a  lofty  hill 
 in  it  named  the  Bears'  Hill,  inhabited  by  giants  with 
 six  arms.     The  adjacent  country  was  possessed  by  the 
 Dolionians,  whose  king  was  named  Cyzicus.     Having 
 been  hospitably  entertained  by  this  prince,  and  having 
 slain  the  giants  who  opposed  their  departure,  they  set 
 sail,  but  were  driven  back  by  adverse  winds.     It  was 
 in  the  night  that  they  returned,  and  the  Dolionians,  la- 
 king  them  to  be  their  enemies  the  Pelasgians,  attack- 
 ed  them  ;  and  several  of  the  Dolionians,  and  among 
 them  Cyzicus,  lost  their  lives.     "With  daylight  discern- 
 ing their  error,  the  Argonauts  shore  their  hair,  and, 
 shedding  many  tears,  buried  Cyzicus  with  solemn  mag- 
 nificence.    They  then  sailed  to  Mysia,  where  they  left 
 behind  them  Hercules  and  Polyjthemus  ;    for  Hylas, 
 a  youth  beloved  by  the  former,  having  gone  for  water, 
 was  seized   and   kept   by  the   nymphs  of  the  spring 
 into  which  he  dipped  his  urn.     Polyphemus,  hearing 
 him  call,  went  with  his  drawn  sword  to  aid  him,  sup- 
 posing him  to  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  robbers. 
 Meeting  Hercules,  he  told  him  what  had  happened, 
 and  both  proceeded  in  quest  of  the  youth.     Meantime 
 the  Argo  put  to  sea,  and  left  them  behind.     Polyphe- 
 mus settled  in  .Mysia,  and  built  the  city  of  Kios  :   Her- 
 cules returned  to  Argos.     ( Vid.  remarks  under  the  ar- 
 ticle Hylas.)     The  Argo  next  touched  on  the  coast  of 
 Bebrycia,  otherwise  called  Bithynia,  where  Pollux  ac- 
 cepted the  challenge  of  Amycus,  king  of  the  country, 
 in  the  combat  of  the  cestus,  and  slew  him.     They  were 
 driven  from  Bebrycia,  by  a  storm,  to  Salmydessa,  on 
 the  coast  of  Thrace,  where  they  delivered   Phineus, 
 king  of  the  place,  from  the  persecution  of  the  harpies. 
 Phineus   directed    them  how  to  pursue   their  course 
 through  the  Cyanean  rocks,  or  the  Symplegades  (i-id. 
 Cyaneae),   and  they  safely  entered   the   Euxine  Sea. 
 They  visited  the  country  of  the  Mariandynians,  where 
 Lycus  reigned.     Here  died  Idmon,  the  seer,  wounded 
 by  the  tusks  of  a  wild  boar.     Tiphys  also  dying  here, 
 Ancaeus  undertook  the  steerage  of  the  vessel.      They 
 now  kept  along  the  southern  coast  of  the  Euxine  till 
 they  came  to  the  Island  of  Aretias,  which  was  haunt- 
 ed by  birds  that  shot  feathers  sharp  as  arrows  from 
 their  wings.     These  they  drove  off  by  clattering  on 
 their  shields.     While  they  remained  in  this  isle,  the 
 sons  of  Phrixus,  who  were  on  their  way  to  Greece, 
 having  been  sent  by  -Eetes  to  claim  their  father's  king- 
 dom, were  cast  on  the  shores  of  Aretins  by  a  storm. 
 These  became  the  guides  of  the  Argonauts  to  Colchis, 
 and  conducted  them  to  ^Ea  the  capital.     Jason  explain- 
 ed the  causes  of  his  voyage  to  ^Eetes  ;   but  the  condi- 
 tions on  which  he  was  to  recover  the  golden  fleece 
 were  so  hard,  that  the  Argonauts  must  have  perished 
 in  the  attempt  had  not  Medea,  the  king's  daughter, 
 fallen  in  love  with  their  leader.     She  had  a  conference 
 with  Jason,  and,  after  mutual  oaths  of  fidelity,  Medea 
 pledged  herself  to  deliver  the  Argonauts  from  her  fa- 
 ther's hard  conditions,  if  Jason  married   her,  and  car- 
 ried her  with  him  to  Greece.     He  was  to  tame  two 
 bulls,  the  gifts  of  Vulcan  to  ^etes,  which  had  brazen 
 feet,  and  breathed  flame  from  their  throats.     When 
 he  had  yoked  these,  he  was  to  plough  with  them  a  piece 
 of  ground,  and  sow  the  serpent's  teeth  which  ^'etes 
 possessed  ;  for  Minerva  had  given  him  one  half  of  those 
 
ARGONAUTiE. 
 
 ARGONAUTS. 
 
 which  Cadmus  sowed  at  Thebes.     All  this  was  to  be 
 performed  in  one  day.     Medea,  who  was  an  enchant- 
 ress, gave  him  a   salve  to  rub  his  body,  shield,  and 
 spear.     The  virtue  of  this  salve  would  last  an  entire 
 day,  and  protect  alike  against  (ire  and  steel.     She  far- 
 ther told  him  that,  when  he  had  sown  the  teeth,  a  crop 
 of  armed  men  would  spring  up,  and  prepare  to  attack 
 him.      Among  these  she  desired  him  to  fling  stones, 
 and,  while  they  were  fighting  with  one  another  about 
 them,  each  imagining  that  the  other  had  thrown  these, 
 to  fall  on  and  slay  them.      The  hero  followed  the  ad- 
 vice of  the  princess  :  he  entered  the  sacred  grove  of 
 Mars,  yoked   the  bulls,  ploughed  the  land,  and  slaugh- 
 tered the  armed  crop  which  it  produced.     But  ^Eetes 
 refused  to  give  the  fleece,  and  meditated  burning  the 
 Argo  and  slaying  her  crew.     Medea,  anticipating  him, 
 led  Jason  by  night  to  the  golden  fleece  ;  with  her  drugs 
 she  cast  to  sleep  the  serpent  which  guarded  it ;  and 
 then,  taking  her  little  brother  Absyrtus  out  of  his  bed, 
 she  embarked  with  him  in  the  Argo,  and  the  vessel  set 
 sail  while  it  was  yet  night.     {Pherecydcs,  ap.  Schol. 
 ad  Apoll.  Kh  ,  4,  223. — Another  account  is  given  un- 
 der the  article  Absyrtus.)     .-Eetes,  on  discovering  the 
 treachery  and  flight  of  his  daughter,  got  on  shipboard 
 and  pursued  the  fugitives.     Medea,  seeing  him  gain 
 on  them,  cut  her  brother  to  pieces,  and  scattered  his 
 limbs  on  the  stream ;  an  event  that  was  afterward  trans- 
 ferred to  the  north  side  of  the  Euxine,  where  the  town 
 of  Tomi  {TOjioi,  cutlings)  was  said  to  have  derived  its 
 name  from  it.     {Apollod.,  1,  9,  24. — Ovid,  Trist.,  3, 
 9.)     While  ^Eetes  was  engaged  in  collecting  the  limbs 
 of  his  son,  the  Argo  escaped.     He  then  despatched  a 
 number  of  his  subjects  in  pursuit  of  the  Argo,  threat- 
 ening, if  they  did  not  bring  back  his  daughter,  to  inflict 
 oil  them  the  punishment  designed  for  her.     At  length 
 the  Argo   entered  the  western  sea,  and  came  to  the 
 Island  of  Circe.     The  belief  for  a  long  time  prevailed, 
 that  there  was  a  communication  between  the  Palus 
 Mffiotis  and  the  Oceanus  or  earth-encompassing  stream. 
 This  communication  the  old  poets  made  to  be  a  narrow 
 passage  or  strait,  but  later  writers  the  river  Tana'is. 
 The  writer  of  the  Orphic  Argonautics  makes  the  Ar- 
 gonauts pass  up  the  Phasis  into  the   Palus  Maeotis, 
 thence  into  the  main  Oceanus,  and  thence  directing 
 their  course  to  the  west,  to  come  to  the  British  Isles 
 and  the  Atlantic,  and  to  reach  at  last  the  Columns  of 
 Hercules.     Circe  performed  the  usual  rites  of  purifi- 
 cation to  remove  the  blood-guilt  of  the  death  of  Ab- 
 syrtus, and  the  heroes  then  departed.     Ere  long  they 
 came  to  the  Isle  of  the  Sirens,  charmed  by  whose  en- 
 chanting strains  they  were  about  to  land  on  that  fatal 
 shore,  when  Orpheus  struck  his  lyre,  and  with  its  tones 
 overpowered  their  voices.     Wind  and  wave  urged  on 
 the  Argo,  and  all  escaped  but  Butes,  who  flung  him- 
 self into  the  sea  to  swim  to  the  Flowery  Isle.     Venus, 
 to  save  him,  took  him  and  set  him  to  dwell  at  Lilybse- 
 um.     The  Argonauts  now  passed  Scylla  and  Charyb- 
 dis,  and  also  the  Wandering  Rocks  ;  over  these  they 
 beheld   flame  and  smoke  ascending,  but  Thetis  and 
 her  sister  Nereids  guided  them  through  by  the  com- 
 mand of  Juno.     Passing  Thrinakia,  the  Isle  of  the 
 Sun,  they  came  to  the  island  of  the  Phasacians.     Some 
 of  the  Colchians  who  were  in  pursuit  of  the  Argonauts, 
 arriving  here,  found  the  Argo,  and  requested  Alcinoiis 
 to  give  Medea  up  to  them.      He  assented,  provided 
 she  had  not  been  actually  married  to  Jason.      His  wife 
 Arete,  hearing  this,  lost  no  time  in  joining  the  lovers 
 in  wedlock  ;  and  the  Colchians,  then  fearing  to  return, 
 settled  in  the  island      Sailing  thence,  the  Argo  was 
 assailed  by  a  tremendous  storm,  which  drove  it  to  the 
 Syrtes,  on  the  coast  of  Libya.     After  being  detained 
 there  for  some  time,  they  proceeded  on  tlieir  home- 
 ward voyage,  and  came  to  Crete,  where  the  brazen 
 man,  Talus,  jirolubitcd  their  landing  ;   but  Medea,  by 
 her  art,  deprived  him  of  life.     On  teaving  Crete,' the 
 night  came  on  so  black  and  dark  that  they  knew  not 
 
 vAere  they  were  ;  but  Apollo,  taking  his  stand  on  the 
 rocks  called  the  Melantian  Rocks,  shot  an  arrow  into 
 the  sea  :  the  arrow  flashed  a  vivid  light,  and  they  be- 
 held an  island,  on  which  they  landed.  As  this  isle  had 
 appeared  (uve(l)'jvaTo)  so  une.xpectedly,  they  named  it 
 Anaphe.  Here  they  erected  an  altar  to  Apollo  ^Egletes 
 (the  Liglifener),  and  offered  sacrifices.  They  thence 
 proceeded  to  ..Egina,  where  they  watered  ;  and  they 
 finally  arrived  at  lolcos  after  an  absence  of  four  months. 
 — This  celebrated  voyage  formed  a  theme  for  several 
 ancient  poets,  and  is  noticed  more  or  less  by  many  other 
 writers.  Jason  and  the  Argo  are  mentioned  by  Ho- 
 mer (/;.,  7,  469.-76.,  21,  Ai).~Od.,  12,  69).  Hesiod 
 briefly  narrates  the  principal  events  {Thcng.,  992, 
 scf/q.) ;  it  is  the  subject  of  one  of  Pindar's  finest  odes 
 (Pylh.,  4),  and  of  the  epic  poem  of  Apollonius,  named 
 from  it.  It  is  narrated  in  detail  by  Apollodorus  and 
 Diodorus  Siculus.  Ovid  also  relates  a  large  part  of  it, 
 and  there  is  an  unfinished  poem  on  the  sutiject  by  the 
 Latin  poet  Valerius  Flaccus,  which  displays  genius 
 and  oricrinality.  We  have  also  the  Argonautics  of  the 
 pseudo-Orpheus,  a  poem  to  which  the  ablest  critics  as- 
 sign a  date  posterior  to  the  commencement  of  the  Chris- 
 tian era.  To  these  are  to  be  added  the  detached  no- 
 tices in  other  writers  and  in  the  various  scholia.  Of 
 the  dramas  composed  on  this  subject,  not  a  single  one 
 has  been  preserved,  except  the  Medea  of  Euripides. 
 (Keighilnfs  My/holooy,  2d  ed.,  p.  468.  scf/q.)—The 
 Argonautic  expedition,  observes  Thirlwall,  when  view- 
 ed in  the  light  in  which  it  has  usually  been  considered, 
 is  an  event  which  a  critical  historian,  if  he  feels  him- 
 self compelled  to  believe  it,  may  think  it  his  duty  to 
 notice,  but  which  he  is  glad  to  pass  rapidly  over,  as  a 
 perplexing  and  unprofitable  riddle.  For  even  when  the 
 ancient  legend  has  been  pared  down  into  an  historical 
 form,  and  its  marvellous  and  poetical  features  have  been 
 all  efTaced,  so  that  nothing  is  left  but  what  may  appear 
 to  belong  to  its  pith  and  substance,  it  becomes,  indeed, 
 dry  and  meager  enough,  but  not  much  more  intelligible 
 than  before.  It  still  relates  an  adventure,  incomprehen- 
 sible in  its  design,  astonishing  in  its  execution,  connect- 
 ed with  no  conceivable  cause,  and  with  no  sensible 
 effect.  Though  the  account  which  we  have  given  is 
 evidently  an  artificial  statement,  framed  to  reconcile 
 the  main  incidents  of  a  wonderful  story  with  nature 
 and  probability,  it  still  contains  many  points  which 
 can  scarcely  be  explained  or  believed.  It  carries  us 
 back  to  a  period  when  navigation  was  in  its  infancy 
 among  the  Greeks  ;  yet  their  first  essay  at  maritime 
 discovery  is  supposed  at  once  to  have  reached  the  ex- 
 treme limit,  which  was  long  after  attained  by  the  ad- 
 venturers who  gradually  explored  the  same  formidable 
 sea,  and  gained  a  footing  on  its  coasts.  The  success 
 of  the  undertaking,  however,  is  not  so  surprising  33 
 the  project  itself ;  for  this  implies  a  previous  knowl- 
 edge of  the  country  to  be  explored  which  it  is  very 
 difficult  to  account  for.  But  the  end  proposed  is  still 
 more  mysterious  ;  and,  indeed,  can  only  be  explained 
 with  the  aid  of  a  conjecture.  Such  an  explanation 
 was  attempted  by  some  of  the  later  writers  among  the 
 ancients,  who  perceived  that  the  whole  story  turned  on 
 the  golden  fleece,  the  supposed  motive  of  the  voyage, 
 and  that  this  feature  had  not  a  sufficiently  hisjorica! 
 appearance.  But  the  mountain  torrents  of  ('ojchis 
 were  said  to  sweep  down  particles  of  gold,  which  the 
 natives  used  to  detain  by  fleeces  dipped  in  the  streams. 
 This  report  suggested  a  mode  of  translating  the  fable 
 into  historical  language.  It  was  conjectured  that  the 
 Argonauts  had  been  attracted  by  the  metallic  treasures 
 of  the  country,  and  that  the  golden  fleece  was  a  poet- 
 ical description  of  the  process  which  they  had  observ- 
 ed, or  perhaps  had  practised  :  an  interpretation  cer- 
 tainly more  ingenious,  or,  at  least,  less  absurd  than 
 those  by  which  Diodorus  transforms  the  fire-breathing 
 bulls  which  Jason  was  said  to  have  yoked,  at  the  bid- 
 dimr  of  .Eetes,  into  a  band  of  Taunans  who  guarded 
 '       °  187 
 
ARGONAUTS. 
 
 ARG 
 
 the  fleece,  and  the  sleepless  dragon  which  watched 
 over  it,  into  their  commander  Draco  :  but  yet  not 
 more  satisfactory  ;  for  it  explains  a  casual,  immateri;il 
 circumstance,  while  it  leaves  the  essential  point  in  the 
 legend  wholly  untouched.  The  epithet  golden,  to 
 which  it  relates,  is  merely  poetical  and  ornamental, 
 and  signified  nothmg  more,  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
 fleece,  than  the  epithets  white  or  purple,  which  were 
 also  applied  to  it  by  early  poets.  (Schol.  ad  Apoll. 
 Kh.,  4,  177.)  According  to  the  original  and  genuine 
 tradition,  the  fleece  was  a  sacred  relic,  and  its  impor- 
 tance arose  out  of  its  connexion  with  the  tragical 
 story  of  Phrixus,  the  main  feature  of  which  is  the  hu- 
 man sacrifice  which  the  gods  had  required  from  the 
 house  of  Athamas.  This  legend  was  not  a  mere  po- 
 etic fiction,  but  was  grounded  on  a  peculiar  form  of 
 religion,  which  prevailed  in  that  part  of  Greece  from 
 which  the  Argonauts  are  said  to  have  set  out  on  their 
 expedition,  and  which  remained  in  vigour  even  down 
 to  the  Persian  wars.  Herodotus  informs  us,  that 
 when  Xerxes,  on  his  march  to  Greece,  had  come  to 
 Alus,  a  town  of  the  Thessalian  Achaia,  situate  near 
 the  Gulf  of  Pagasffi,  in  a  tract  sometimes  called  the 
 Athamantian  plain,  his  guides  described  to  him  the 
 rites  belonging  to  the  temple  of  the  Laphystian  Jupi- 
 ter, an  epithet  equivalent  to  that  under  which  Phrixus 
 is  said  to  have  sacrificed  the  ram  to  the  same  deity, 
 as  the  god  who  had  favoured  his  escape.  (Zevg 
 <Pv^ior. — Midler,  Orchomenus,  p.  164.)  The  eldest 
 among  the  descendants  of  Phrixus  was  forbidden  to 
 enter  the  council-house  at  Alus,  though  their  ancestor 
 Athamas  was  the  founder  of  the  city.  If  the  head  of 
 the  I'amily  was  detected  on  the  forbidden  ground,  he 
 was  led  in  solemn  procession,  covered  with  garlands, 
 like  an  ordinary  victim,  and  sacrificed.  Many  of  the 
 devoted  race  were  said  to  have  quitted  their  country  to 
 avoid  this  danger,  and  to  have  fallen  into  the  snare 
 when  they  returned  after  a  long  absence.  The  origin 
 assigned  to  this  rite  was,  that,  after  the  escape  of 
 Phrixus,  the  Achaeans  had  been  on  the  point  of  sac- 
 rificing Athamas  himself  to  appease  the  anger  of  the 
 gods  ;  but  that  he  was  rescued  by  the  timely  interfe- 
 rence of  Cytissorus,  son  of  Phrixus,  who  had  returned 
 from  the  Colchian  ^a,  the  land  of  his  father's  exile  : 
 hence  the  curse,  unfulfilled,  was  transmitted  for  ever 
 to  the  posterity  of  Phrixus.  This  story,  strange  as 
 it  may  sound,  not  only  rests  on  unquestionable  author- 
 ity, but  might  be  confirmed  by  parallel  instances  of 
 Greek  superstition  ;  and  it  scarcely  leaves  room  to 
 doubt,  that  it  was  from  this  religious  belief  of  the  peo- 
 ple, among  whom  the  Argonautic  legend  sprang  up, 
 that  it  derived  its  peculiar  character  ;  and  that  the  ex- 
 pedition, so  far  as  it  was  the  adventure  of  the  golden 
 fleece,  was  equally  unconnected  with  piracy,  com- 
 merce, and  discovery.  It  closely  resembled  one  of 
 the  romantic  enterprises  celebrated  in  the  poetry  of  the 
 middle  ages,  the  object  of  which  was  imaginary,  and 
 the  direction  uncertain.  And  so  Pindar  represents  it 
 as  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  back,  with 
 the  golden  fleece,  the  soul  of  Phrixus,  which  could 
 not  rest  in  the  foreign  land  to  which  it  had  been  ban- 
 ished.— But  the  tradition  must  also  have  had  an  his- 
 torical foundation  in  some  real  voyages  and  adventures, 
 without  which  it  would  scarcely  have  arisen  at  all,  or 
 become  so  generally  credited.  The  voyage  of  the  Ar- 
 gonauts must  no  doubt  he  regarded,  like  the  expedition 
 of  the  Tyrian  Hercules,  as  representing  a  succession  of 
 enterprises,  which  may  have  been  the  employment  of 
 several  generations.  And  this  is  perfectly  consistent 
 with  the  manner  in  which  the  adventurers  are  most 
 properly  described.  They  are  Minyans,  a  branch  of 
 the  Greek  nation  whose  attention  was  very  early 
 drawn  by  their  situation,  not  perhaps  without  some 
 influence  from  the  example  and  intercourse  of  the 
 Phoenicians,  to  maritime  pursuits.  The  form  which 
 the  legend  assumed  was  probably  determined  by  the 
 188 
 
 course  of  their  earliest  naval  expeditions.  They  were 
 naturally  attracted  towards  the  northeast,  first  by  the 
 islands  that  lay  before  the  Hellespont,  and  then  bv  the 
 shores  of  the  Propontis  and  its  two  straits.  Their 
 successive  colonies,  or  spots  signalized  either  by  hos- 
 tilities or  peaceful  transactions,  would  become  the 
 landing-places  of  the  Argonauts. — If,  however,  it 
 should  be  asked,  in  what  light  the  hero  and  heroine 
 of  the  legend  are  to  be  viewed  on  this  hypothesis,  it 
 must  be  answered  that  both  are  most  probably  purely 
 ideal  personages,  connected  with  the  religion  of  the 
 people  to  whose  poetry  they  belong.  Jason  was  per- 
 haps no  other  than  the  Samothracian  god  or  hero  Ja- 
 sion,  whose  name  was  sometimes  written  in  the  same 
 manner,  the  favourite  of  Ceres,  as  his  namesake  was 
 of  Juno,  and  the  protector  of  mariners,  as  the  Thes- 
 salian hero  was  the  chief  of  the  Argonauts.  Medea 
 seems  to  have  been  originally  another  form  of  Juno 
 herself,  and  to  have  descended,  by  a  common  transi- 
 tion, from  the  rank  of  a  goddess  into  that  of  a  heroine, 
 when  an  epithet  had  been  mistaken  for  a  distinct 
 name.  The  Corinthian  tradition  claimed  her  as  be- 
 longing properly  to  Corinth,  one  of  the  principal  seats 
 of  the  Minyan  race.  The  tragical  scenes,  which  ren- 
 dered her  story  there  so  celebrated,  were  commemo- 
 rated by  religious  rites,  which  continued  to  be  observ- 
 ed until  the  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans.  Ac- 
 cording to  the  local  legend,  she  had  not  murdered  her 
 children  ;  they  had  been  killed  by  the  Corinthians ; 
 and  the  public  guilt  was  expiated  by  annual  sacrifices 
 offered  to  Juno,  in  whose  temple  fourteen  boys,  chosen 
 every  twelvemonth  from  noble  families,  were  appoint- 
 ed to  spend  a  year  in  all  the  ceremonies  of  solemn 
 mourning.  The  historical  side  of  the  legend  seems  to 
 exhibit  an  opening  intercourse  between  the  opposite 
 shores  of  the  ^Egean.  If,  however,  it  was  begun  by 
 the  northern  Greeks,  it  was  probably  not  long  con- 
 fined to  them,  but  was  early  shared  by  those  of  Pelopon- 
 nesus. It  would  be  inconsistent  with  the  piratical 
 habits  of  the  early  navigators  to  suppose,  that  this  in- 
 tercourse was  always  of  a  friendly  nature  ;  and  it  may 
 therefore  not  have  been  without  a  real  ground  that 
 the  Argonautic  expedition  was  sometimes  represented 
 as  the  occasion  of  the  first  conflict  between  the  Greeks 
 and  the  Trojans.  ( ThitiwaW s  History  of  Greece,  vol. 
 1,  p.  142,  sefjq. — Mullcr,  Orchomenus,  p.  2.58,  scqq. 
 —Id.  ibid.,  p.  302,  357. — For  other,  but  far  less  sat- 
 isfactory theories  on  the  subject,  consult  BryanCs 
 Mythology,  vol.  3,  p.  362,  seqq. — Rittcr,  Vorhalle,  p. 
 420,  scqq. — Knight,  Inquiry,  &c.,  ^  220,  Class. 
 Journ.,  No.  53,  p.  75.  —  Plass,  Vor-,2ind  Urges- 
 chichte  der  Hcllcnen,  vol.  1,  p.  414,  seqq.)  Apollonius 
 Rhodius  gives  another  account,  equally  improbable. 
 He  says  that  they  sailed  from  the  Euxine  up  one  of 
 the  mouths  of  the  Danube,  and  that  Absyrtus  pursued 
 them  by  entering  another  mouth  of  the  river.  After 
 they  had  continued  their  voyage  for  some  leagues,  the 
 waters  decreased,  and  they  were  obliged  to  carry  the 
 ship  Argo  across  the  country  to  the  Adriatic,  upward 
 of  150  miles.  Here  they  met  with  Absyrtus,  who 
 had  pursued  the  same  measure,  and  conveyed  his  ship 
 in  like  manner  over  the  land.  Absyrtus  was  immedi- 
 ately put  to  death ;  and  soon  after,  the  beam  of  Do- 
 dona  {vid.  Argo)  gave  an  oracle,  that  Jason  should 
 never  return  home  if  he  was  not  previously  purified  of 
 the  murder.  Upon  this  they  sailed  to  the  island  of 
 JEa,  where  Circe,  who  was  the  sister  of  .(Eetes,  expi- 
 ated him  without  knowing  who  he  was.  There  is  a 
 third  tradition,  which  maintains,  that  they  returned  to 
 Colchis  a  second  time,  and  visited  many  places  of 
 Asia. 
 
 Argos  {sing.  ncut.  et  Aegi,  masc.  plur.),  I.  the 
 capital  of  Argolis,  situate  on  the  river  Inachus, 
 and  generally  regarded  as  the  most  ancient  city  of 
 Greece.  {Diod.  Sic,  1,  17.)  Its  early  prosperity 
 and  commercial  connexion  with  the  Phosnicians  are 
 
ARGOS. 
 
 ARGOS. 
 
 anestnd  by  Herodotus  (1,  1).  The  walls  of  the  city 
 were  constructed  of  massive  blocks  of  stone,  a  mode 
 of  building  which  was  generally  attributed  to  the 
 <;yclopes  {Euripides,  Troad.,  1087.  —  Li,  Here. 
 Far.,  15),  but  which  evidently  shows  the  Pelasgic 
 origin  of  the  place.  It  was  also  protected  by  two 
 citadels,  situated  on  towering  rocks,  and  surrounded 
 by  fortifications  equally  strong.  The  principal  one 
 was  named  Larissa.  {Sirabo,  370. — Livij,  34,  25.) 
 Tn  the  time  of  Strabo,  Argos  was  inferior  only  to 
 vS[)arta  in  extent  and  popu-lalion,  and  from  the  de- 
 scription of  Pausanias,  it  is  evident  that,  when  he  vis- 
 ited this  celebrated  town,  it  was  adorned  with  many 
 sumptuous  buildings  and  noble  works  of  art.  Argos 
 produced  some  of  the  first  sculptors  of  Greece,  among 
 whom  were  Ageladas,  the  master  of  Phidias,  and 
 Polycletus,  who  surpassed  all  the  artists  of  antiquity 
 in  correctness  of  design.  Music  also  was  highly  cul- 
 tivated in  this  city;  and,  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Da- 
 rius, the  Argives,  according  to  Herodotus,  were  ac- 
 counted the  first  musicians  of  the  age.  (Hcrodot.,  3, 
 131.) — Argos,  if  we  follow  the  common  tradition,  was 
 founded  by  Inachus,  B.C.  1856.  On  the  arrival  of 
 Danaiis,  who  is  said  to  have  come  from  Egypt,  the  in- 
 habitants changed  their  ancient  appellation  of  Pelasgi 
 to  that  of  Danai.  {Eurip.,  Archel.,  frag.  2. — Com- 
 pare Strabo,  371.)  At  that  time  the  whole  of  what 
 was  afterward  called  Argolis  acknowledged  the  au- 
 thority of  one  sovereign  ;  but,  after  the  lapse  of  two 
 generations,  a  division  took  place,  by  which  Argos  and 
 its  territory  were  allotted  to  Acrisius,  the  lineal  de- 
 scendant of  Danaus,  while  Tiryns  and  the  maritime 
 country  became  the  inheritance  of  his  brother  Pratus. 
 A  third  kingdom  was  subsequently  established  by  Per- 
 seus, son  of  the  former,  who  founded  Mycenae  ;  but 
 these  were  all  finally  reunited  in  the  person  of  At- 
 reus,  son  ofPelops  ;  who,  having  been  left  regent  by 
 his  nephew  Eurystheus,  during  his  expedition  against 
 the  Hcraclidas,  naturally  assumed  the  sovereign  power 
 after  his  death.  Atrcus  thus  acquired,  in  right  of  the 
 houses  of  Pelops  and  Perseus,  which  he  represented, 
 possession  of  nearlv  the  whole  of  Peloponnesus,  which 
 ample  territory  he  transmitted  to  his  son  Agamemnon, 
 who  is  called  by  Homer  sovereign  of  all  Argos  and  the 
 islands.  {II. ,  2,  107. — Compare  Thucyd.,  1,  9. — 
 Sirabo,  372.)  After  the  death  of  Agamemnon  the 
 crown  descended  to  Orestes,  and  subsequently  to  his 
 son  Tisamenes,  who  was  forced  to  evacuate  the  throne 
 by  the  invasion  of  the  Dorians  and  Heraclidse  eighty 
 years  after  the  siege  of  Troy.  {Pausan.,  2,  18  )  Te- 
 menus,  the  lineal  descendant  of  Hercules,  now  became 
 the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty  ;  but  the  Argives,  hav- 
 ing acquired  a  taste  for  liberty,  curtailed  so  much  the 
 power  of  their  sovereigns  as  to  leave  them  but  the 
 name  and  semblance  of  kings  :  at  length,  having  de- 
 posed Meltas,  the  last  of  the  Temenic  dynasty,  they 
 changed  the  constitution  into  a  republican  govern- 
 ment. {Paitsan.,  2,  19  )  As  regards  the  inward  or- 
 ganization of  this  government,  we  only  know,  that  in 
 Argos,  a  senate,  a  college  of  eighty  men,  and  niagis- 
 tr.ites,  stood  at  the  head.  In  the  time  of  the  Achsean 
 league  the  first  officer  of  the  state  appears  to  have 
 been  elected  by  the  people.  {Liv.,  32,  25.)  The 
 Argives,  after  the  establishment  of  their  republican 
 form  of  government,  were  engaged  in  frequent  hostil- 
 ities with  the  Spartans,  each  people  claiming  the  pos- 
 session of  the  small  district  of  Cynuria.  In  the  reign 
 of  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta,  the  Argives  met  with  a 
 total  defeat,  and  Argos  itself  was  only  saved  from  the 
 enemy  by  the  daring  courage  of  a  female,  Telesilla, 
 who  incited  the  rest  of  the  population,  and  even  those 
 of  her  own  sex,  to  take  up  arms  in  defence  of  their 
 city.  {Paunan.,  2,  20.)  Subsequently,  however,  the 
 slaves  of  Argos,  taking  advantage  of  the  enfeebled 
 state  of  the  country,  openly  rebelled,  and,  overturning 
 the  existing  government,  retained  the  sovereign  power 
 
 in  their  own  hands,  till  the  sons  of  their  former  mas- 
 ters, arriving  at  the  age  of  manhood,  expelled  them 
 from  the  city.  It  was  partly  owing  to  these  internal 
 commotions,  and  partly  also  to  the  jealousy  which  sub- 
 sisted between  the  Argives  and  the  Lacedaemonians, 
 that  the  former  took  no  part  in  the  Persian  war.  Not 
 long  after  the  termination  of  this  war,  the  Argives,  ac- 
 tuated by  motives  of  envy  against  the  Mycenaeans, 
 who  had  distinguished  themselves  at  Thermopyloe, 
 made  war  upon  that  peoj)le,  and,  after  taking  Myce- 
 nffi,  finally  destroyed  that  city,  B.C.  468.  "^  (Diorf. 
 Sic,  11,  65. — Pausan.,  2,  16.)  At  a  subsequent  pe- 
 riod, we  find  the  Argives  uniting  with  the  Athenians, 
 Corinthians,  and  other  powers  against  the  Spartans. 
 The  judicious  measures,  however,  pursued  by  Kincr 
 Agis  and  the  Spartan  allies,  frustrated  the  operations 
 of  their  Argive  foes,  and  had  the  LacedEemonian  king 
 pressed  his  advantage,  the  latter  must  have  been  to- 
 tally routed.  The  following  year,  the  hostile  armies 
 met  in  the  plains  of  Mantinea,  where  a  decisive  battle 
 was  fought,  whic  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Ar- 
 gives and  their  allies.  This  event  dissolved  the  con- 
 federacy against  the  Lacedaemonians  ;  and  the  Argives 
 not  only  made  peace  with  that  people,  but  were  even 
 persuaded  by  them  to  convert  their  hitherto  democrat- 
 ical  constitution  into  an  aristocracy.  {Thucyd.,  5, 
 65,  scq//.)  Not  long  after,  however,  a  counter-revo- 
 lution took  place,  when  the  people  revolted,  and,  after 
 overpowering  the  oligarchical  party,  entered  once 
 more  into  an  alliance  with  Athens.  Having  obtained 
 the  assistance  of  that  power,  they  now  erected  long 
 walls,  extending  from  the  city  to  the  sea,  whichensurcQ 
 to  them  a  constant  communication  with  their  allies  by 
 means  of  that  element.  {Thucyd.,  5,  82.)  The  Ar- 
 gives, induced  by  gratitude  for  the  interest  which  Al- 
 cibiades  had  taken  in  their  affairs,  joined  the  Sicilian 
 expedition  {Thucyd.,  6,  29);  and,  even  after  the  dis- 
 astroias  termination  of  that  enterprise,  they  continued 
 to  support  the  Athenian  cause,  till  the  defeat  tliey  sus- 
 tained near  Miletus  obliged  them  to  recall  their  forces. 
 Argos,  adhering  to  the  principle  of  opposing  the  ag- 
 grandizement of  Sparta,  joined  the  league  which  was 
 afterward  set  on  foot  against  that  power  by  the  influ- 
 ence of  Persia  ;  and  furnished  troops  for  the  battles  of 
 Nemea,  Coronea,  and  the  other  engagements  which 
 took  place  during  what  is  usually  termed  the  Corinthi- 
 an war,  which  was  concluded  by  the  peace  of  Antal- 
 cidas.  On  the  renewal  of  hostilities  between  the 
 Bffiotians  and  I>acedaemonians,  the  Argives  again 
 joined  the  former,  and  fought  at  the  battle  of  Manti- 
 nea. {Xcn.,  Hist.  Gr.,  7,  5.)  After  this  period,  no 
 event  of  interest  or  importance  occurs  in  the  history  of 
 Argos  until  the  unsuccessful  attempt  made  to  surprise 
 and  capture  that  city  by  Pyrrhus.  This  prince,  being 
 then  at  war  with  Antigonus  Gonatas,  who.m  he  had 
 driven  from  Macedonia,  having  failed  in  the  enterprise 
 he  meditated  against  Sparta,  marched  rapidly  on 
 Argos,  which  he  reached  during  the  night,  and  had 
 already  penetrated  into  the  town,  when  succours  ar- 
 rived from  Antigonus.  Pyrrhus  being  slain,  his  troops 
 were  all  destroyed  or  made  prisoners.  (Pint.,  Vit. 
 Pyrrh. — Pausamas,  1,  \2.— Strabo,  377.)  Argos, 
 like  other  Pcloponnesian  states,  became  afterward 
 subject  to  the  domination  of  a  tyrant ;  but  when,  by 
 the  talents  and  energy  of  Aratus,  Corinth  and  Sicyon 
 had  been  emancipated,  Aristomachus,  who  then  reign- 
 ed in  Argos,  voluntarily  abdicated  his  author- 
 ity, and  persuaded  the  Argives  to  join  the  Ach^an 
 league.  (Po/?//).,  2,  44.)  During  the  momentary  suc- 
 cess obtained  by  Cleomenes,  Argos  fell  into  the  hands 
 of  that  prince,  but  it  was  presently  recovered  by  the 
 Achaeans,  and  continued  to  form  part  of  their  confed- 
 eracy till  its  final  dissolution  by  the  Romans.  {Po- 
 lyb.,  2,  52,  seqq.— Strabo,  I.  c.)  The  population  of 
 Argolis  was  divided  into  three  classes.  Consisting  of 
 citizens,  inhabitants  of  the  country,  or  nepioiKoi,  and 
 
 189 
 
ARGOS. 
 
 A  RG 
 
 slaves  or  vassals,  called  yvftv^rec.  (Aristol.,  Rep.,  5,  '  body  (ApoHod.,  I.  c).  Ovid,  however,  gives  him  the 
 2,  8. — Pollux,  3,  83.)  The  number  of  the  first  class  poetic  number  of  a  hundred,  of  which  only  two  were 
 might  amount  to  16,000,  being  nearly  equal  to  that  of  ;  asleep  at  a  time.  {Met.,  1,  625.)  The  strength  of 
 the  Athenian  citizens.  (Lj/s.,  ap.  Dion.  Hal.,  p.  531.)  ,  Argus  was  prodigious  :  and  Arcadia  being  at  the  lime 
 The  free  part  of  the  population  may  therefore  be  esti-  ,  infested  with  a  wild  bull,  he  attacked  and  slew  the  ani- 
 
 mated at  65,000  souls,  to  which,  if  we  add  the  nepioi- 
 Kot  and  slaves,  we  shall  have  an  aggregate  of  nearly 
 110,000  persons.     {Clinton's  Fasti  HcUcnici,  2d  cd., 
 vol.  1,  p.  426. — Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  9,  p. 
 226,  scqq.) — II.   Pelasgicum,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  of 
 Pelasgic  origin,  as  its  name  indicates.     It  is  generally 
 supposed  to  have  been  identical  with  Larissa  on  the 
 Penens.     Strabo  (440)  informs  us  that  there  was  once 
 a  city  named    Argos   close   to    Larissa.      (Compare 
 Hcync,  ad  II.,  6,  457.) — III.  Oresticum,  a   city  of 
 Macedonia,  in  the  district  Orestis  and  territory  of  the 
 Or^sts.     Its  foundation  was  ascribed  by  tradition  to 
 Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon.     {Strabo,  326. — Com- 
 pare Tkeag.  Maced.,  ap.  Slepk.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'OpearaL, 
 cl  'kpyo^.) — IV.   A  city  of  Acarnania,  situate  at  the 
 southeastern  e.\tremity  of  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  in  the 
 territory  of  the  Amphilochi.     It  was  founded,  as  Thu- 
 cydides  reports  (2,  68),  by  Amphilochus,  son  of  Ain- 
 phiaraus,  on  his  return  from  Troy,  who  named  it  after 
 his  native  city,  the  more  celebrated  Argos  of  Pelopon- 
 nesus.    Ephorus,  however,  who   is  cited    by  Strabo 
 (326),  gave   a  somewhat  different   account,  affirmincr 
 that  Argos  in  Acarnania  owed  its  origin  to  Alcmaeon, 
 by  whom  it  was  named  Amphilochium,  after  his  brother 
 Arnphilochus.     (Compare  Apollod.,  3,  7. — Diccrarch., 
 Stat.  GrcEC,  v.  46.)     Argos  was  originally  by  far  the 
 largest  and  most  powerful  town  of  the  country  ;  but  its 
 citizens,  having  e.xperienced  many  calamities,  admit- 
 ted the  Atnbraciots,  their  neighbours,  into  their  socie- 
 ty, from  whom   they  acquired  the  knowledge  of  the 
 Grecian   language,   as   it   was   spoken   at    that   time. 
 The  Ambraciols,  however,  at  length  gaining  the  as- 
 cendency, proceeded  to  expel  the  original  inhabitants, 
 who,  too  weak  to  avenge  their  wrongs,  placed  them- 
 selves   under    the    protection    of    the    Acarnanians. 
 These,  with  the  aid  of  the  Athenians,  commanded  by 
 Phormio.  recovered   Argos  by  force,  and  reduced  to 
 slavery  all  the  Atnbraciots  who  fell   into  their  hands. 
 The  Ambraciots   made   several   attempts   to  retrieve 
 their  loss,  but  without  effect.     Many  years  subsequent 
 to  this  we  find  Argos,  together  with  Ambracia,  in  the 
 possession  of  the  yEtolians  ;  and,  on  the  surrender  of 
 the  latter  town  to   the  Romans,  we  are  informed  by 
 Livy,  that  the  consul  M.  Fulvius  removed  his  army  to 
 Argos,  where,  being  met  by  the  yEtolian  deputies,  a 
 treaty  was  concluded,  subject  to  the  approbation  of  the 
 senate.     (Liw.,  38,  9. — Polyb.,  fragm...22,  V3.)     Ar- 
 gos, at  a  later  period,  contributed  to  the  formation  of 
 the  colony  of  Nicopolis,  and  became  itself  deserted. 
 The  ruins  of  ihe  city  have  been  visited    by   several 
 travellers,  but  Dr.  Holland's   account  is  perhaps  the 
 most  circumstantial.     He  describes  them  as  situated 
 at  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Arta,  on 
 one  of  the  hills  which  form  an  insulated  ridge  runnintr 
 back   in   a  southeast  direction    from   the  bay.     The 
 walls,  forming  the  principal  object  in  these  ruins,  skirt 
 along  nearly  the  whole  extent  of  the  ridge,  including 
 an  oblong  irregular  area,  about  a  mile  in  its  greatest 
 length,  but  of  much  smaller  breadth.     The  structure 
 of  these  walls  is  Cyclopian  ;   they  are  of  great  thick- 
 ness, and  on   the  eastern  side,  where  built  with  the 
 most  regularity,  are  still  perfect  to  the  height  of  more 
 than  twenty  feet.     {Holland's  Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  224. 
 —  Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  10,  scqq.) 
 
 Argus,  I.  a  son  of  Arestor,  according  to  one  ac- 
 count {Asclep.,  ap.  Apollod.,  2,  1,  3),  and  hence  called 
 by  Ovid  Arcstorides.  {Met.,  1,  624.)  Others,  how- 
 ever, make  him  a  son  of  Inachus.  {Pherccyd.,  ap. 
 eund.)      Acusilaus    and   ^schylus   {Svpp.,    318 
 
 mal,  and  afterward  wore  its  hide.     He  also  killed  a 
 satyr,  who  carried  off  the  cattle  of  the  Arcadians  ;  and 
 watching  an  opportunity,  when  he  found  the  Echidna 
 (the  daughter  of  Tartarus  and  Earth)  asleep,  he  de- 
 prived her  of  life.     When  lo  had  been  changed  into  a 
 cow,  Juno  gave  the  charge  of  watching  her  to  Argus. 
 He  thereupon  bound  her  to  an  olive-tree  in  the  grove 
 of  Mycense,  and  kept  guard  over  her.     Jupiter,  pitying 
 her  condition,  sent  Mercury  to  steal  her  away  ;   but  a 
 vulture  always  gave  Argus  warning  of  his  projects,  and 
 the  god   found  it    impossible   to    succeed.     Nothing 
 then  remaining  but  open  force,  he  killed  Argus  with  a 
 stone,  and  hence  obtained  the  name  of  Argus-slayer, 
 or  Argicide  {'ApjEKpovTijC/-     Thus  far  Apollodorus. 
 Ovid,  however,  varies  the  fable  in  several  particulars, 
 and,  among  other  things,  makes  Mercury  to  have  slain 
 Argus  with  a  karpe,  or  short  curved  sword.     Accord- 
 ing to  the  same  poet   also,  Juno  transferred  the  eyes 
 of  Argus,  after  death,  to  the  tail  of  her  favourite  bird 
 the  peacock. — An  explanation  of  the  whole  legend  will 
 be  given  under  the  article  lo.    {Apollod.  I.  c. — Kcight- 
 leys  Mythology,  p.  406,  "id  cd.) — II.  A  son  of  Jupi- 
 ter and  Niobe  daughter  of  Phoroneus.     According  to 
 one  account  he  succeeded   Phoroneus  on  the  Argive 
 throne,  and  gave  the  name  of  Argos  to  the  whole  Pel- 
 oponnesus.    Another  statement,  however,  makes  him 
 to  have  been  the  successor  of  Apis.     {Apollod.,  2,  1, 
 1 . — Heyne,  ad  loc. — Schol.  ad  Eurip.,  Orcst.,  1247.) — 
 III.  The  builder  of  the  Argo.     His  parentage  is  dif- 
 ferently given  by  different  writers,  and  he  is  often  con- 
 founded with  Argus  the  son  of  Phrixus  (IV.).     Both 
 he  and  this  latter  were  in  the  number  of  the  Argo- 
 nauts.    (Consult  the  remarks  of  Burmann  in  the  list 
 of  the  Argonauts  appended  to  his  edition  of  Valerius 
 Flaccus,  s.  V.  Argus.) — IV.  Son  of  Phrixus  and  Chal- 
 ciope  daughter  of  .lEetes.     He  is  often   confounded 
 with  the  preceding,   for  example  by  Apollodorus  (1, 
 9,  16)  and  Pherecydes  {ap.  Schol.  ad  Apoll.  lih.,   1, 
 4).     He  and  his   brothers  were  found  by  the  Argo- 
 nauts on  the  island  of  Aretias,  in  the  Euxine,  having 
 been    cast   on  it  by  a  storm  when   on  their  way  to 
 Greece  to  claim  their  father's  kingdom  ;  and  he  gui- 
 ded the  Argonauts  to  Colchis.     {Schol.  ad  Apoll.  lih., 
 2,  309,  384.)     Valerius  Flaccus,  on  the  other  hand, 
 makes  the  Argonauts  to  have  found  Argus  in  Colchis, 
 at  the  palace  of  ^etes  (5,  461),  and  with  this  the  ac- 
 count of  the  pseudo-Orpheus  substantially  agrees  (v. 
 858,  seqq.).     Compare  the  remarks  of  Burmann,  as  ci- 
 ted in  the  previous  paragraph  (III.). — V.  A  guest  of 
 Evander's,  who  conspired  against  that  monarch,  and 
 was  slain  in  consequence  by  the  followers  of  the  latter 
 without  his  knowledge.     The  spot  where  he  was  in- 
 terred was  called,  according  to  some,  Argiletum.    (  Vid. 
 Argiletum. — Virg.,  JEn.,  8,  345. — .Sen).,  ad  loc.) — 
 VI.  A  hound  of  Ulysses',  that  recognised  its  master 
 after  an  absence   on  the  part  of  the   latter  of  nearly 
 twenty  years.     {Od.,  17,  301.) 
 
 Argvraspides,  a  name  given  to  the  troops  of  Alex- 
 ander, from  the  silver  plates  added  by  him  to  their 
 shields  when  about  to  invade  India.  (Compare  Quin- 
 tus  Curtius,  8,  5,  4,  and  Justm,  12,  7.)  There  is 
 some  doubt  whether  the  name  in  question  was  confi- 
 ned to  a  particular  corps  of  Alexander's  invading  army 
 or  to  the  whole.  The  latter  opinion  appears  to  be  the 
 more  correct  one.  (Consult  on  this  point  the  remarks 
 of  Schmieder,  ad  Curt.,  4,  13,  27,  and  8,  6,  4.) 
 
 Argyra,  a  town  of  Achaia,  a  little  to  the  southeast 
 of  PatrsB.  The  river  Selemnus  flowed  in  its  vicinity, 
 and  near  it  also  was  the  fountain  of  Argyra.    {Pausan., 
 
 Prom,  v.,  698)  call  him  Earth-born.     He  was  named  I  7,  23.)— II.  A  sea-nymph,  of  whom  Selemnus,  a  young 
 All-seeing  {navoTTTTjg),  as  having  eyes   all  over  his j  shepherd,  was  enamoured.     She  eventually  slightej 
 
A  R  I 
 
 A  R  I 
 
 his  love,  and  he  pined  away  until  Venus  changed  him 
 into  a  river.  The  Selemnus  thereupon,  like  the  Alpheus 
 in  the  case  of  Arethusa,  sought  to  blend  its  waters  with 
 those  of  the  fountain  Argyra,  over  which  the  incon- 
 stant nymph  presided.  According  to  another  legend, 
 however,  Venus,  again  moved  with  pity,  exerted  her  di- 
 vine power  anew,  and  caused  him  to  forget  Argyra. 
 The  waters  of  the  Selemnus  became,  in  consequence, 
 a  remedy  for  love,  inducing  oblivion  on  all  who  bathed 
 in  them.  {Pausan.,  7,  ?3  ) — III.  A  name  given  by  the 
 ancients  to  the  silver  region  of  the  East,  and  the  posi- 
 tion of  which  tract  of  country  varied  with  the  progress 
 of  geographical  discovery.  At  first  Argyra  was  an  isl- 
 and immediately  beyond  the  mouths  of  tlie  Indus. 
 When,  however,  under  the  first  Ptolemies,  the  naviga- 
 tion of  the  Greeks  extended  to  the  Ganges,  the  silver- 
 island  was  placed  near  this  latter  stream.  Afterward 
 another  change  took  jilace,  and  Argyra,  now  no  longer 
 an  island,  became  part  of  the  region  occupied  in  mod- 
 ern times  by  the  kingdom  of  Arracan.  {JPtoL,  7,  2. — 
 GossclHn,  Rccherchcs,  &lc.,  vol.  3,  p.  280.) 
 
 Argyripa,  the  more  ancient  name  of  Arpi.  {Vid. 
 Arpi.) 
 
 Aru,  the  name  given  to  a  country  of  large  extent, 
 answering  in  some  degree  to  the  present  Khorasin. 
 It  comprised  several  provinces,  and  was  bounded  on 
 the  west  by  Media,  on  the  north  by  Hyrcania  and  Par- 
 thia,  on  the  east  by  Bactria,  and  on  the  south  by  Car- 
 mania  and  Gedrosia.  The  capital  was  Artacoana,  now 
 Herat.  From  Aria,  however,  in  this  acceptation  of 
 the  term,  we  must  carefully  distinguish  another  and 
 much  earlier  use  of  the  name.  In  this  latter  sense 
 the  appellation  belongs  to  a  region  which  formed  the 
 primitive  abode  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  and  very 
 probably  of  our  whole  race.  It  appears  to  indicate  a 
 country  where  civilization  commenced,  and  where  the 
 rites  of  religion  were  first  instituted.  In  the  Schah- 
 narneh  it  is  called  Erman  (i.  e.,  Ariman),  and  in  the 
 Zend  hooks  Irma?i  or  Irau(i.  e.,  Arian).  Its  position 
 would  appear  to  coincide  in  some  degree  with  that  of 
 ancient  Bactria,  though  some  writers,  Rhode  for  ex- 
 ample, make  it  include  a  much  wider  tract  of  country. 
 The  name  of  Arii,  given  to  its  early  inhabitants,  is 
 said  by  Bohlen  to  be  equivalent  to  the  Latin  '■' vaie- 
 ranilt"  and  reminds  us  (with  the  change  of  the  liquid 
 into  the  sibilant)  of  the  far-famed  Asi,  who  play  so 
 conspicuous  a  part  in  the  early  Asiatic  as  well  as  in  the 
 Scandinavian  mythology.  From  these  data  we  may 
 account  for  the  statement  of  Herodotus  (7,  G2),  that  the 
 Medes  were  anciently  called  Arii  {'Apioi,  or  'Apeioi). 
 The  same  writer  places  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sog- 
 diana  a  people  whom  he  calls  Arii  {'ApeioL).  Diodo- 
 rus  Siculus  (1,  94)  makes  mention  of  this  same  people 
 under  the  name  of  Arnnaspi  ('Apifiaa-noi).  where  we 
 ought  to  read  Ariaspi  {'Apiaarcoi),  or  else  Ariani 
 {'Apetavoi).  He  also  speaks  of  their  lawgiver  Zath- 
 raustes,  meaning  evidently  Zoroaster  (i.  e.,  Zeretosch- 
 tre), — Consult  on  this  curious  subject  the  following 
 authorities:  Vo7i  Hammer  (Wicn.  Jahrb.,  vol.  9,  p. 
 33)— A'?«er  {Erdkumh,  vol.  2,  p.  21,  scqq. —  Vorhalle, 
 p.  303) — AnquctU  {Mim.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.,  vol. 
 31.  p  27C>)—Roh!c?i  {De  Orig.  ling.  Zend.,  p.  51)— 
 Bahr  {ad  Herod.,  7.  62). 
 
 Aki.uink,  daughter  of  Minos,  king  of  Crete,  by  Pasi- 
 phae.  She  fell  in  love  with  Theseus,  and  gave  him  a 
 dew  of  thread,  which  enabled  him  to  penetrate  the 
 windings  of  the  labyrinth  till  he  came  to  where  the 
 Minotaur  lay,  whom  he  caught  by  the  hair  and  slew. 
 Ariadne  thereupon  fled  with  Theseus  from  Crete.  Ac- 
 cording to  Homer  {Od.,\l,  323)  she  was  slain  by  Di- 
 ana when  they  had  reached  the  island  of  Dia  or  Na.tos, 
 on  their  way  to  Athens.  (Compare  Schol.  ad  loc.  as 
 to  the  reading  tKra  or  taxe.)  Another  legend,  how- 
 ever, makes  her  to  have  been  deserted  b>  Theseus  on 
 the  shores  of  this  same  island,  Minerva  havino-  ap- 
 peared to  him  as  he  slept,  and  having  ordered  him  to 
 
 leave  her  behind  and  make  sail  for  Athens.  While 
 Ariadne  was  weeping  at  this  abandonment,  Venus 
 came  and  consoled  her  by  the  assurance  that  she 
 should  be  the  bride  of  Bacchus.  The  god  then  pre- 
 sented himself,  and  gave  her  a  golden  crown,  which 
 was  afterward  placed  among  the  stars.  She  bore  him 
 a  son  named  Ginopion.  {Pherecyd.,  ap.  Sivrz.,  jr. 
 59.— Ovid,  A.  A.,  1,  5^7,scgq.—  CaluU.,  64,  76,  seqq. 
 —Keighllci/s  Mythology,  p.  457. — Vollmer,  Wbr- 
 terh.  dcr  MythoL,  p.  309,  scqq.) — Ariadne  evidently 
 belongs  to  the  mythology  of  Bacchus,  with  whom  he 
 was  associated  in  the  Naxian  worship.  The  Athe- 
 nians, always  ready  to  enlarge  their  own  narrow  cycle 
 at  the  expense  of  others,  seem  to  have  joined  her  with 
 their  Theseus,  and  it  was  thus  perhaps  that  she  be- 
 came the  daughter  of  Minos.  The  passage  in  the 
 Odyssey  would  be  decisive  on  this  point,  were  it  not 
 that  the  Athenians  were  such  tamperers  with  the  works 
 of  the  old  poets,  that  we  cannot  help  being  suspicions 
 of  all  passages  relating  to  them.  The  passage  of  the 
 Iliad  in  which  Ariadne  is  mentioned  is  justly  regard- 
 ed as  a  late  addition.  (//.,  18,  591. — Knight,  ad  loc. 
 — Keightlcy,  I.  c.) — Creuzei  gives  a  peculiar  version 
 to  this  ancient  legend.  He  sees  in  Ariadne,  as  rej)re- 
 sented  in  ancient  sculpture,  now  sunk  in  mournful 
 slumber,  and  again  awakened,  joyous,  and  raised  to 
 the  skies,  an  emblem  of  immortalUy.  But  Ariadne, 
 according  to  the  same  beautiful  conception  of  her 
 character,  is  not  merely  the  symbol  of  consolation  in 
 death;  the  clew  in  her  hand,  with  which  she  guided 
 Theseus  through  the  mazes  of  the  labyrinth,  ranks  her 
 also  among  the  class  of  the  Parcae.  She  is  Proserpi- 
 na-Venus. She  presides  over  the  death  and  the  birth 
 of  our  species.  She  guides  the  soul  through  the  wind- 
 ing labyrinth  of  life  :  she  leads  it  forth  again  to  free- 
 dom and  a  new  existence.  {Creuzer's  Symbolik, 
 vol.  4,  p.  116,  seqq  ) 
 
 Ari.«:us,  an  officer  in  the  army  of  Cyrus  the  Young- 
 er, the  next  in  command  to  that  prince  over  the  Asiatic 
 portion  of  his  forces.  After  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  the 
 Greeks  in  the  army  of  Cyrus  offered  to  place  him  on 
 the  throne  of  Persia,  but  he  declined  it,  and  went  over 
 to  Artaxerxes  with  his  troops.  {Xen.,  Anab.,  1,  8,  3.) 
 The  Eton  MS.  has  'Apioraio^  (Aristffus)  in  place 
 of  'AptaloQ {Aiieeus).  The  copyist  intended,  perhaps, 
 to  write  'ApiSucog  (Aridseus),  as  Diodorus  Siculus 
 (14,  22)  has  it.  (Compare  Wesselirig,  ad  Diod.,  I.  c, 
 and  Sti(.rz.,  Lex.  Xen.,  vol.  1,  p.  395,  s.  v.  'Apialoq.) 
 
 Ari.\ntas,  a  king  of  Scythia,  who,  in  order  to  as- 
 certain the  number  of  the  Scythians,  commanded  each 
 of  his  subjects,  on  pain  of  death,  to  bring  him  the 
 point  of  an  arrow.  So  great  a  number  was  collected, 
 that,  resolving  to  leave  a  monument  of  the  act,  he 
 caused  a  large  bowl  of  brass  to  be  made  out  of  them, 
 and  dedicated  this  in  a  spot  of  land  between  the  Bo- 
 rysthenes  and  the  Hypanis,  called  Exampsus.  {He- 
 rodot.,  4,  81.) — Ritter  ascribes  this  work  to  an  early 
 Cimmerian,  or  Buddhist  colony,  migrating  from  India 
 to  the  countries  of  the  West  He  sees  in  the  name 
 Ariantas,  moreover,  a  reference  to  Aria,  the  early  horrte 
 of  our  species,  and  the  native  country  of  the  Buddhist 
 faith.  In  confirmation  of  his  opinion,  he  indulges  in 
 some  very  learned  and  curious  speculations  concerning 
 the  early  usage,  among  both  Greeks  and  barbarians, 
 of  consecrating  colossal  bowls  or  caldrons  to  the  sun. 
 {Vorhalle,  p.  345,  seqq.) 
 
 Aki.\r.ithes,  a  name  common  to  many  kings  of 
 Cappadocia.  They  appear  to  have  been  originally  no- 
 thing more  than  satraps  of  Persia,  and.  according  lo 
 Diodorus,  in  a  passage  preserved  by  Photius  {Cod., 
 244,  p.  1 157),  were  descended  from  one  of  the  seven 
 conspirators  who  slew  the  false  Smerdis.  This  Per- 
 sian nobleman  was  named  Anaphus,  and  his  grandson 
 Datames  was  the  first  sovereign  of  the  Cappadociaa 
 dynasty.  After  him  and  his  son  Ariamnes,  wc  have  a 
 long  list  of  princes,  all  bearing  the  name  of  Ariarathes 
 
 191 
 
ARIARATHES. 
 
 ARI 
 
 for  several  generations.  (Compare  CyJinton's  Fasti 
 Helle-nici,  vol.  2,  Appendix,  p.  429.)  Although,  how- 
 ever, the  governors  or  satraps  of  Cappadocia  held  their 
 government  in  hereditary  succession,  and  are  dignified 
 by  Diodorus  with  the  title  of  kings,  yet  they  could 
 have  possessed  only  a  precarious  and  permitted  au- 
 thority till  the  death  of  Seleucus,  the  last  of  the  suc- 
 cessors of  Alexander,  in  January,  B.C.  281,  removed 
 the  power  by  which  the  whole  of  western  Asia  was 
 commanded.  {Clinton,  I.  c.) — I.  I'he  first  of  the 
 name  was  son  of  Ariamnes.  He  had  a  brother  named 
 Holophenies,  whom  he  advanced  to  the  highest  offi- 
 ces in  the  kingdom,  and  who  commanded  the  auxilia- 
 ries that  were  sent  from  Cappadocia  when  Ochus  made 
 his  expedition  into  Egypt,  B  C.  350.  Holophernes 
 acquired  great  glory  in  this  war,  and  on  his  return 
 home  lived  in  a  private  station,  leavmg  two  sons  at 
 his  death,  Ariarathes  and  Aruses.  Ariarathes,  the 
 reigning  monarch,  having  no  children  of  his  own, 
 adopted  the  former  of  these,  who  was  also  the  elder  of 
 the  two.  Ariarathes  was  on  the  throne  when  Alexan- 
 der invaded  the  Persian  dominions,  and  he  probably 
 fled  with  Darius,  since  we  learn  from  Arrian  that  the 
 Macedonian  prince  appointed  Sabictas  governor  of 
 Cappadocia  before  the  battle  of  Issus.  {Exp  Alex., 
 2,  4,  2.)  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Ariarathes, 
 then  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-two,  attempted  to 
 recover  his  dominions,  but  he  was  defeated  by  Perdic- 
 cas,  the  Macedonian  general,  and,  being  taken,  was  put 
 to  a  most  cruel  death.  {Diod.  Sic,  Exc,  18,  10. — 
 Arrian,  up.  Phot.,  Corf.,  92,  p.  217.)— II.  The  second 
 of  the  name  was  the  son  of  Holophernes,  and  was 
 adopted  by  his  uncle  Ariarathes  I.  He  recovered 
 Cappadocia  after  the  death  of  Eumenes,  and  during 
 the  contest  between  Antigonus  and  the  other  Mace- 
 donian chiefs.  He  was  aided  in  the  attempt  by  Ardo- 
 atus,  king  of  Armenia,  who  furnished  him  with  troops. 
 This  Ariarathes  transmitted  the  crown  to  his  son  Ari- 
 amnes. {Diod.  Sic,  ap.  Fhot.,  I.  c)- — III.  The  third 
 of  the  name  was  the  son  of  the  preceding  Ariamnes, 
 and  his  successor  on  the  throne.  Nothing  more  is  re- 
 corded of  him,  except  that  on  his  death  he  left  a  son 
 of  the  same  name  in  his  infancy.  {Diod.  Sic,  ap. 
 Phot.,  I.  c.) — IV.  The  fourth  of  the  name,  son  of  the 
 preceding  by  Stratonice  daughter  of  Antiochns  Theos, 
 was  a  child  at  his  accession.  He  married  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Antiochus  the  Great,  a  union  that  involved 
 him  in  a  political  alliance  with  that  sovereign,  and 
 consequent  hostility  with  the  Romans.  He  was  saved 
 from  dethronement  after  the  battle  of  Magnesia  by  a 
 timely  and  submissive  embassy  to  the  Consul  Man- 
 lius,  and  the  payment  of  600  talents.  Soon  after  we 
 find  him  allied  lo  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  who 
 married  his  daughter  ;  and  by  means  of  this  monarch 
 he  was  admitted  to  the  favour  and  friendship  of  the 
 Romans.  {Liv.,  38,  39  )  He  was  also  the  ally  of 
 Eumenes  against  Pharnaces,  B.C.  183-179.  After 
 a  reign  of  nearly  fifty-eight  years  he  transmitted  his 
 crown  to  his  son  Ariarathes  V. — V.  The  fifth  of  the 
 name,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  snrnamed  Philopator. 
 He  was  dethroned  by  Demetrius  Soter,  king  of  Syria, 
 who  brought  forward  Holophernes,  the  supposititious 
 son  of  Ariarathes  IV.  Being  driven  from  his  kingdom, 
 he  took  refuge  with  the  Romans,  by  whom  he  was  re- 
 stored ;  in  which  restoration  Attains  II.,  of  Pergamus, 
 assisted.  According  to  Appian  (Bell.  Syr.,  47),  the 
 Romans  appointed  Ariarathes  and  Holophernes  to 
 reign  conjointly.  This  joint  government,  however, 
 did  not  last  long,  since  Polybius,  about  B.C.  154,  de- 
 scribes Ariarathes  as  sole  king.  {Polyb..  ap.  Athen., 
 10,  p.  440,  b.—Id.,  33,  \^.  —  Id.,  fraom.  Vat.,  p.  440.) 
 In  return  for  this  service  he  devoted  himself  to  the  in- 
 terests of  the  Romans,  and  fell  in  the  war  they  were 
 carrying  on  against  Aristonicus,  the  pretender  to  the 
 throne  of  Pergamus.  {Justin,  37,  1.)  He  left  six 
 sons,  five  of  whom  were  murdered  by  his  wife,  the 
 192 
 
 cruel  and  ambitious  Laodice.  {Jvstin,  I.  c.) — VI. 
 The  sixth  of  the  name  was  the  only  one  of  the  sons  of 
 Ariarathes  V.  that  escaped  the  cruelty  of  his  mother 
 Laodice.  He  married  the  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
 Mithradates,  which  female  also  bore  the  name  of  Laod- 
 ice. Mithradates,  however,  caused  him  to  be  assas- 
 sinated by  an  illegitimate  brother,  upon  which  his 
 widow  Laodice  gave  herself  and  kingdom  to  Ni- 
 comedes,  king  of  Bithynia.  Mithradates  made  war 
 against  the  new  king,  and  raised  his  ne[)hew  to  the 
 throne.  The  young  king,  who  was  the  seventh  of  the 
 name  of  Ariarathes,  made  war  against  the  tyrannical 
 Mithradates,  by  whom  he  was  assassinated  in  the  pres- 
 ence of  both  armies,  and  the  murderer's  son,  a  child 
 eight  years  old,  was  placed  on  the  vacant  throne. 
 The  Cappadocians  revolted,  and  made  the  late  mon- 
 arch's brother,  Ariarathes  VIII.,  king  ;  but  Mithradates 
 expelled  him,  and  restored  his  own  son.  The  exiled 
 prince  died  of  a  broken  heart ;  and  Nicomedes  of 
 Bithynia  brought  forward  a  boy,  tutored  for  the  pur- 
 pose, who  he  pretended  was  a  third  son  of  Ariarathes 
 VI.  Laodice  aided  the  deception,  and  the  boy  was 
 sent  to  Rome  to  claim  his  father's  kingdom.  The 
 senate,  however,  caused  Ariobarzanes,  a  man  of  rank 
 in  Cappadocia,  to  be  elected  king  by  the  people. 
 {Justin,  38,  1.) — VII.  The  ninth  of  the  name  was 
 brother  and  successor  to  Ariobarzanes  II.  (Clinton 
 makes  him  his  son).  He  was  deposed  and  put  to 
 death  by  Antony,  in  the  consulship  of  Gellius  and 
 Nerva,  13. C.  36,  after  having  reigned  about  six  years. 
 Archelaijs,  son  of  Glaphyra,  was  appointed  in  his  stead. 
 {Dio  Cass.,  49,  32.— /</.,  49,  24— Fa/.  Max.,  9,  15, 
 2,  cxter7i.)  Archelaus  is  called  Sicinncs  by  Appian. 
 {Bell.  Civ.,  5,  7. — Consult  Schioeigh.,  ad  he.) 
 
 Arici.^,  a  city  of  Latium,  a  little  to  the  west  of 
 Lanuvium.  According  to  Strabo  (239),  Aricia  was 
 situated  on  the  Appian  Way,  but  its  citadel  was  placed 
 on  the  hill  above.  The  origin  of  this  city,  which  was 
 apparently  as  ancient  as  any  in  Latium,  is  enveloped 
 in  too  great  a  mythological  obscurity  to  be  now  as- 
 certained. Some  have  ascribed  its  foundation  to  a 
 chief  of  the  ^\c\\\\{Sulinvs,  c.  13) ;  others  to  Hippoly- 
 tus,  who,  under  the  name  of  Virbius,  was  worshipped 
 in  common  with  Diana  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this 
 town.  {V7rg.,  JEn.,!,!!^)  The  name  of  Aricia  of- 
 ten occurs  in  the  history  of  Rome,  and  as  early  as  the 
 reign  of  Tarquinius  Superbus.  It  must  have  been  no 
 mean  city  to  merit  the  splendid  character  which  Cice- 
 ro gives  of  it  in  the  third  Philippic.  What  rendered 
 this  city,  however,  more  particularly  celebrated  through- 
 out Italy,  was  the  worship  of  Diana,  whose  sacred  tem- 
 ple, grove,  and  lake  lay  at  no  great  distance  from 
 thence.  The  latter  is  now  known  by  the  name  of  La- 
 ffo  di  Nemi.  Strabo  tells  us  (239)  that  the  worship 
 of  Diana  resembled  that  which  was  paid  to  the  same 
 goddess  in  the  Tauric  Chersonese  ;  and  that  the  priest 
 of  the  temple  was  obliged  to  defend  himself  by  force 
 of  arms  against  all  who  aspired  to  the  ofUce  ;  for 
 whosoever  could  slav  him  succeeded  to  the  dignity. 
 This  barbarous  custom  seems  to  liave  afforded  a  sub- 
 ject of  diversion  to  Caligula.  {Suet.,  Vit.  Caltg., 
 35. —  Cramer's  Ave  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  31.) 
 
 Aricina,  a  surname  of  Diana,  from  her  temple  near 
 Aricia.     {Vid.  Aricia.) 
 
 Arid.«:us,  I.  a  commander  in  the  army  of  Cyrus 
 the  Younger,  otherwise  and  more  correctly  called 
 Arianis.  (FiVZ.  Ari.Tus  ) — II.  A  natural  son  of  Philip 
 of  Macedon,  and  Philinna  a  female  dancer  and  courte- 
 san of  Larissa.  He  showed  in  early  life  so  much 
 promise  of  ability,  that  Olympias,  fearing  lest  he  might 
 one  day  deprive  Alexander  of  the  crown,  stultified 
 him  by  means  of  secret  potions.  After  the  death  of 
 Alexander,  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  that  monarch, 
 with  the  proviso  that,  if  Roxana,  who  was  then  preg- 
 nant, should  be  delivered  of  a  son,  a  portion  of  th» 
 kingdom  should  be  given  to  the  latter      As  the  weako 
 
A  R  I 
 
 A  R  I 
 
 ness  of  mint]  under  which  Aridsus  laboured  unfitted 
 him  for  rale,  Perdiccas,  as  protector,  exercised  the  ac- 
 tual sway.  He  reigned  seven  years,  under  the  title 
 of  Philip  Aridffius,  and  was  then  put  to  death  with  his 
 wife  Eurydice  by  Olympias. — The  more  accurate  form 
 of  the  name  is  Arrhidffius,  from  the  Greek  'Appiduio^. 
 The  more  common  one,  however,  is  AridaRUs.  (Jus- 
 tin, 13,  2,  n.—Id.,  13,  3,  I.— Id.,  14,  5,  10.— 
 Quint.  Curt.,  10,  7,  2.—Dwd.  Sic,  17,  2.— Id.,  18, 
 3  —Arrian,  ap.  Phot.,  Cod.,  92.) 
 Akii.      Vid.  Aria. 
 
 Arim.a  (ra  'Apifia  oprj,  Arimi  Monies),  a  chain  of 
 mountams,  respecting  the  position  of  which  ancient 
 aiithorities  differ.  Some  place  it  in  Phrygia  {Diod. 
 Sic,  5,  71. — Compare  Wessclino^,  ad  loc),  others  in 
 Lydia,  Mysia,  Cilicia,  or  Syria.  They  appear  to  have 
 been  of  volcanic  character,  from  the  fable  connected 
 with  them,  that  they  were  placed  upon  Typhoeus  or 
 Typhon.  [Horn.,  II.,  2,  783.)  Those  who  are  in  fa- 
 vour of  Phrygia,  Lydia,  or  Mysia,  refer  to  the  district 
 called  Catacecaumene  {KaTaKSKav/ievii),  as  lying 
 parched  with  subterranean  fires.  Those  who  decide 
 for  Cilicia  or  Syria  agree  in  a  manner  among  them- 
 selves, if  by  the  Arimi  as  a  people  we  mean  the  Arainei 
 who  had  settled  in  the  former  of  these  countries. 
 (Compare  Hcync,  ad  Horn.,  II.,  2,  783,  and  consult 
 remarks  under  the  article  Inarime.) 
 
 Arimaspi,  a  people  of  Scylhia,  who,  according  to 
 Herodotus  (3,  1 16,  and  4,  27),  had  but  one  eye,  and 
 waged  a    continual    contest    with    the  griffons    {vid. 
 Grvphes),  that  guarded  the  gold,  which,  according  to 
 the  same  writer,  was  found  in  vast  quantities  in  the 
 vicinity  of  this  people.     The  name  is  derived  by  him 
 from  two   Scythian  words,  Ariina,  one,  and  Spu,  an 
 eye.       (Compare   JEschyi,   Prom.    V.,   809,   seqq. — 
 Mela,  2,  1,  15  —Pirn.,  4,  -Z&.—Dionys.   Peneg.,  31. 
 —Philustr.,  Vit.    Soph.,   vol.    2,  p.  584,   cd.    Orell.) 
 Modern  opinions,  of  course,  vary  with  regard  to  the 
 origin  of  this  legend.     De  Guignes  {Mem.  de  V Acad, 
 dcs    Inscr.,  vol.   35,  p.  562)  makes    the  Arimaspi  to 
 have  been  the  Hiong-nou,  of  whom  the  Chinese  his- 
 torians speak,  and  who  were  situate  to  the  north  of 
 them,  extending  from  the  river  Irtiscb,  in  the  country 
 of  the  Calmucs,  to  the  confines  of  eastern  Tartary. 
 Reichard  (Thes.  Top.,  p.  17)  contends,  that  the  name 
 of  the  Arimaspi   is  still  preserved  in  that  of  Arimas- 
 chcos  Kaia,  in  Asiatic  Russia,  in  the  Government  of 
 Perm.     Rennell  {Gcogr.  Herod.,  vol.  1,  p.  178)  places 
 this   people  in  the  region  of  Mount  Altai,  a  tract  of 
 country  containing  much  gold,  the  name  Altai  itself 
 being  derived,   according  to  some,  from  alta,  a  term 
 which    signifies   gold    in    the    Mongol    and    Calmuc 
 tongues.     With  this  opinion  of  Kennell's  the  specula- 
 tions of  Vblker  agree.     {Myth.  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  193, 
 seqq.)     Wahl  also  places  the  x\rimaspi  in  the  regions 
 of  Altai,  and  speaks  of  a  people  there  whose  heads 
 are  so  enveloped  against  the  cold  as  to  leave  but  one 
 opening  for  the  vision,  whence  he  thinks  the  fable  of  a 
 one-eyed  race  arose.     {Ostind.,  p.  409).     Rittertrans- 
 fers  the  Arimaspi,  along  with  the  Issedones  and  Mas- 
 sagetas,  to  the  southern  bank  of  the  Oxus,  in  ancient 
 Bactria,  making  them  a  noble  and  warlike  tribe  of  the 
 Medes  or  Cadusii.      {Vorhalle,   p.  282,   seqq.,  305). 
 Hailing  refers  the  term  Arimaspian  to  the  steed- mount- 
 ed forefathers  of  the  German  race  before  the  migrations 
 of  this  people  into  Europe,  and  he  deduces  the  name 
 from  the  Persian  Arim  and  esp,  the  latter  of  which 
 words    means    "a   horse."     {Wicji.,    Jahrb.,    69,   p. 
 190.)     Rhode,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  Arimasp  a 
 Zend  term,  though  his  explanation  of  it,  "  a  mounted 
 native   of  Aria,"  approaches  that  of  Hailing,  asp  in 
 Zend  meaning  "  a  steed."     {Hcilige  Sage,  &c.,  p.  66, 
 seqq.)     The  etymology  assigned  by  Herodotus  to  the 
 word  in  question,  and   which  is  given  at   the  com- 
 mencement of  this  article,  is  now  justly  rccrarded  as  of 
 no  value  whatever,  and  decidedly  erroneous,  unless, 
 B  B 
 
 with  Gatterer,  we  consider  the  words  which  form  the 
 derivation  in  the  Greek  text  to  be  a  mere  interpola- 
 tion.    {Comment.  Soc.  Gott.,  14,  p.  9.) 
 
 Arimasp.\s,  a  river  of  Scythia  with  golden  sands, 
 in  the  country  of  the  Arimaspi.      {Vid.  Arimaspi.) 
 
 Arimi,  according  to  some,  a  people  of  Syria.  ( Vid. 
 Arima,  towards  the  close  of  that  article.) 
 
 Ariminum,  a  city  of  Umbria  in  Italy,  at  the  mouth 
 of  the  river  Ariminus,  on  the  coast,  not  far  to  the 
 southeast  of  the  Rubicon.  It  was  founded  by  the 
 Umbri,  and  afterward  inhabited  partly  by  them  and 
 partly  by  the  Pelasgi.  It  was  taken  by  the  Galli  Se- 
 nones.  The  Romans  sent  a  colony  to  it  A.U.C.  485. 
 From  this  time  Ariminum  was  considered  as  a  most 
 important  place,  and  the  key  of  Italy  on  the  eastern 
 coast ;  hence  we  generally  find  a  Roman  army  sta- 
 tioned there  during  the  Gallic  and  Punic  wars. 
 {Polyb.,  2,  23 — Id.,  3,  77.)  In  this  place  Cssar  is 
 said  to  have  harangued  his  troops,  after  having  crossed 
 the  Rubicon  ;  and  here  the  tribunes  of  the  commons, 
 who  were  in  his  interest,  met  him.  It  is  now  called 
 Rimini.     {Cramer^s  Ana.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  255.) 
 
 Ariminus,  a  river  of  Italy,  rising  in  the  Apennine 
 mountains,  and  falling  into  the  sea  at  Ariminum.  It 
 is  now  the  Marccchia.     {Plin.,  3,  15.) 
 
 Ariob.-vrzanes,  I.  a  nobleman  of  Cappadocia,  elect- 
 ed king  after  the  two  sons  of  Ariarathes  VI.  had  died. 
 He  was  expelled  by  Mithradates,  but  was  restored  by 
 Sylla,  B.C.  92.  He  was  again  expelled  in  B.C.  88. 
 and  restored  at  the  peace  in  B.C.  84.  His  kingdom, 
 however,  was  again  occupied  by  Mithradates  in  B.C. 
 66.  He  was  restored  by  Pompcy,  and  resigned  the 
 kingdom  to  his  son.  {Cic,  pro.  Leg.  Man.,  c.  2. — 
 Id.  ibid.,  c.  b.—Appian,  Bell.  Mithr.,  c.  105.— /rZ., 
 Bell.  Civ.,  1,  103. —  Val.  Max  ,  5,  7,  2,  extern.) — II. 
 The  second  of  the  name,  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
 surnamed  Eusebes  and  also  PhilorhomcEus.  He  sup- 
 ported Pompey  against  Cssar.  {Appian,  Bell.  Civ., 
 2,  71,  where  he  is  called  by  mistake  Ariarathes.)  The 
 latter,  however,  forgave  him,  and  enlarged  his  territo- 
 ries. He  was  slain,  B.C.  42,  by  Cassius.  {Dio 
 Cass.,  47,  33. — Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  4,  63. — Clinton, 
 Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  2,  p.  437.)— III.  A  name  common 
 to  some  kings,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  satraps  ol 
 Pontus.  Ariobarzanes  I.  is  alluded  to  by  Xenophoi\ 
 {Cyrop..  8,  8,  4)  as  having  been  betrayed  by  his  son 
 Mithradates  into  the  hands  of  the  Persian  monarch. 
 (Consult  Aristot  ,  Polit.,  5,  10,  and  compare  Schnei- 
 der, ad  Xen.,  I.  c.) — IV.  The  second  of  the  name, 
 succeeded  the  Mithradates  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
 paragraph,  B.C.  363,  and  reigned  twenty-six  years. 
 In  the  course  of  this  reign  he  engaged  in  rebellion 
 against  Artaxerxes,  B.C.  362.  {Diod.  Sic,  15,90.) 
 Mention  is  made  of  him  by  Nepos,  in  his  account  of 
 Datanies  (c.  2. — lb.,  c.  5),  and  he  is  there  called  gov- 
 ernor of  Lydia,  Ionia,  and  the  whole  of  Phrygia. 
 (Compare  Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol  2,  p.  421.)— V. 
 The  third  of  the  name,  succeeded  Mithradates  III. 
 He  began  to  reign  B.C.  266.  This  prince,  as  we 
 learn  from  Memiion  {ap.  Phot.,  p.  720),  conquered  the 
 city  of  Amastris,  and  drove  from  the  country,  in  con- 
 junction with  the  Gallo-Grsc'i,  or  Galatae,  lately  ar 
 rived  in  Asia  Minor,  an  Egvptian  colony  sent  by  Ptol- 
 emy. {Apollod.,  ap.  Sicph.  Byz  ,  s.  v.  WjKvpa.) 
 He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Mithradates  IV.,  who 
 was  a  minor  when  his  father  died.  {Clinton,  Fast. 
 Hell.,  vol.  2,  p.  424.) — VI.  A  Persian  commander, 
 who  bravely  defended  against  Alexander  the  pass  in  the 
 mountains  of  Susiana.  {Diod.  Sic,  17,  68. —  Quint. 
 Curt.,  5,  3,  17.— Consult  Wesseling,  ad  Diod.,  loc. 
 cit.) 
 
 Arion,  I.  a  famous  lyric  poet  and  musician  of  Me- 
 thymna,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos.  His  age  is  stated  by 
 Suidas  as  Olymp.  38  ;  by  Eusebius,  Olymp.  40  (i.  e., 
 628  or  620  B.C.).  Though  by  birth  a  Methymna^an, 
 and  probably  a  disciple  of  Terpandcr,  Arion  chiefly 
 
ARION. 
 
 A  R  I 
 
 lived  and  wrote  in  the  Peloponnesus,  among  Dorian 
 r.ations.  Jt  was  at  Corinth,  in  the  reign  of  I'criander, 
 that  he  first  practised  a  cychc  chorus  in  the  perform- 
 ance of  a  dithyramb  ;  where  he  probably  took  advan- 
 tage of  some  local  accidents  and  made  beginnings, 
 which  alone  could  justify  Pindar  in  considering  C^o- 
 rinth  as  the  native  city  of  the  Dithyramb.  {Herod., 
 1,  23. — Compare  Hdlanic,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Aristoph. 
 Av.,  1403. — Arislot.,  ap.  Prod,  Chrcslovi.,  p.  382, 
 ed.  Gaisf. — Find.,  Olymp.,  13,  18.) — A  curious  fable 
 is  related  by  Herodotus  (/.  c.)  of  this  same  Arion. 
 He  was  accustomed  to  spend  the  most  of  his  time 
 with  Pcriander,  king  of  Cormih.  On  a  sudden,  how- 
 ever, feehng  desirous  of  visitmg  Italy  and  Sicdy,  he 
 sailed  to  those  countries,  and  amassed  there  great 
 riches.  He  set  sail  from  Tarentum  after  this,  in  or- 
 der to  return  to  Corinth,  but  the  marmers  formed  a 
 plot  against  him,  when  they  were  at  sea,  to  throw  him 
 overboard  and  seize  his  riches.  Arion,  having  ascer- 
 tained this,  offered  them  all  his  treasure,  only  begging 
 that  they  would  spare  his  life.  But  the  seamen,  being 
 inflcxililc,  commanded  him  either  to  kUl  himself,  that 
 he  might  be  buried  ashore,  or  to  leap  immediately  into 
 the  sea.  Arion,  reduced  to  this  hard  choice,  earnestly 
 desired  them  to  allow  him  to  dress  in  his  richest  appa- 
 rel, and  to  sing  a  measure,  standing  at  the  time  on  the 
 poop  of  the  ship.  The  mariners  assented,  pleased  with 
 the  idea  of  their  being  about  to  hear  the  best  singer  of 
 the  day,  and  retired  from  the  stern  to  the  middle  of  the 
 vessel.  In  the  mean  time,  Arion,  having  put  on  all  his 
 rohes,  took  his  harp  and  performed  the  Onhian  strain, 
 as  it  was  termed.  At  the  end  of  the  air  he  leaped  into 
 the  sea,  and  the  Corinthians  continued  their  voyage 
 homeward.  A  dolphin,  however,  attracted  by  the 
 music,  received  Arion  on  its  back,  and  bore  him  in 
 safety  to  Taenarus.  On  reaching  this  place,  his  story 
 was  disbelieved  by  Periander  ;  but  an  examination  of 
 the  seamen,  when  they  also  arrived,  removed  all  the 
 monarch's  suspicions  about  Arion's  veracity,  and  the 
 mariners  were  put  to  death.  In  commemoration  of 
 this  event,  a  statue  was  made  of  brass,  representing  a 
 man  on  a  dolphin's  back,  and  was  consecrated  at  Taena- 
 rus. Such  is  the  story  told  by  Herodotus.  Larcher's 
 explanation  is  a  very  tame  and  improbable  one.  He 
 thinks  that  Arion  threw  himself  into  the  sea  in  or  near 
 the  harbour  of  Tarentum  ;  that  the  Corinthians,  with- 
 out troubling  themselves  any  farther,  set  sail ;  that 
 Arion  gained  the  shore,  met  with  another  vessel  ready 
 to  depart,  which  had  the  figure-head  of  a  dolphin,  and 
 that  this  vessel  outstripped  the  Corinthian  ship.  (Lar- 
 chcr,  ad  lor,.)  The  solution  which  Midler  gives  is  far 
 more  ingenious,  though  not  much  in  accordance  with 
 the  simplicity  of  early  fable.  It  is  as  follows  ;  The 
 colony  which  went  to  Tarentum  under  Phalanthus, 
 sailed  from  Tajnarus  to  Italy,  with  the  rites  and  under 
 the  protection  of  Neptune.  The  mythic  mode  of  in- 
 dicating this  was  by  a  statue,  representing  Taras,  the 
 son  of  Neptune,  and  original  founder  of  the  place, 
 seated  on  a  dolphin's  back,  as  if  in  the  act  of  crossing 
 the  sea  from  Taenarus  to  Tarentum.  This  was  placed 
 on  the  Ta?narian  promontory.  In  process  of  time, 
 however,  the  legend  ceased  to  be  applied  to  Taras, 
 and  Arion  became  the  hero  of  the  tale,  the  order  of  the 
 voyage  being  reversed  ;  and  the  love  of  music,  which 
 the  dolphin  was  fabled  by  the  ancients  to  possess,  be- 
 came a  means  of  adding  to  the  wonders  of  the  story. 
 {Midler,  Dorier,  vol.  2,  p.  369,  not. — Plehn,  Lesbiac, 
 p.  166.) — II.  A  celebrated  steed,  often  mentioned  in 
 fable,  which  not  only  possessed  a  human  voice  ( Fro- 
 pert.,  2,  25,  37),  but  also  the  power  of  prophecy. 
 {Stat.,  Thch.,  6,  424.)  According  to  one  legend,  he 
 sprang  from  Ceres  and  Neptune,  the  goddess  having 
 fruitlessly  assumed  the  shape  of  a  mare,  in  order  to 
 avoid  the  addresses  of  Neptune,  who  immediately 
 transformed  himself  into  a  steed.  {Fausan.,  8,  25. — 
 Apoliod.,  3,  6,  8.)  Another  account  made  him  the 
 194 
 
 offspring  of  Neptune  and  Erinnys,  wno  had  in  like 
 manner  changed  herself  into  a  mare.  {ISchol.  ad  II., 
 23,  346.)  Others  again  related,  that  he  was  prod;iccd 
 from  the  ground  by  a  blow  of  Neptune's  trident,  in  the 
 contest  of  that  deity  with  Minerva  for  the  possession 
 of  Athens.  {Serv.  ad  Virg.,  Georg.,  1,12.)  Eusta- 
 thius  mentions  a  still  diflerent  origin  for  this  fabled 
 animal,  namely,  from  Neptune  and  one  of  the  Harpies. 
 {Eusla/h.  ad  II.,  I.  c.)  Quintus  Calaber  i4,  570), 
 from  one  of  the  Harpies  and  Zephyrus.  Arion  was 
 trained  up  by  Neptune  himself,  and  was  often  yoked 
 to  the  chariot  of  his  parent,  which  he  drew  over  the 
 seas  with  amaznig  swiftness.  (Stat.,  Thcb.,6,  303, 
 seqq.)  Neptune  gave  him  as  a  present  to  Copreus, 
 king  of  Haliartus,  in  Boeotia.  Haliartus  bestowed 
 him  on  Hercules,  who  distanced  with  him  Cycnus,  in 
 the  Hippodrome  of  the  Pagasean  Apollo,  and  after- 
 ward also  made  use  of  him  m  his  car  when  contend- 
 ing with  Cycnus  in  fight.  From  Hercules  he  came  to 
 Ardrastus,  who  was  alone  saved  by  his  means  from 
 the  Theban  war.  {Schol.  ad  11. ,  23,  346. — Hcswd, 
 Scut.  Here,  120,  sei/q. — Compare  Mullcr,  Dorier,  \o\. 
 2,  p.  480.) — The  name  of  this  fabled  animal  manifestly 
 relates  to  his  superiority  over  all  other  coursers 
 ('Ape((jv,  superior),  and  the  legend  itself  is  only  one 
 of  the  many  forms,  in  which  the  physical  fact  of  earth 
 and  water  being  the  cause  of  growth  and  increase  in 
 the  natural  world  has  been  enveloped  by  the  ancient 
 mythologists.     {Volckcr,  Myth,  der  Jap.,  p.  165,  seqq  ) 
 
 Ariovistus,  a  king  of  the  Germans,  who  invaded 
 Gaul,  conquered  a  considerable  part  of  the  country, 
 and  subjected  the  inhabitants  to  the  most  cruel  and  op- 
 pressive treatment.  Caesar  marched  against  him, 
 brought  him  to  an  action,  and  gained  so  complete 
 a  victory,  that  only  a  few  of  the  army  of  Ariovistus, 
 among  whom  was  the  king  himself,  effected  their 
 escape.  He  died  soon  after  in  Germany,  either  of  his 
 wounds,  or  through  chagrin  at  his  defeat.  The  name 
 is  probably  derived  from  the  German  words  Hcer,  an 
 army,  and  Fiirst,  a  leader  or  prince.  {Ctzs.,  Bell. 
 Gail.,  131,  seqq.~Id.  ibid.,  5,  29.) 
 
 Arisba,  I.  a  town  of  Lesbos,  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
 quake. {Plin.,  5,  39.)  Herodotus  states  that  it  was 
 conquered  by  the  people  of  Methymna  (I,  151. — 
 Compare  Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'Apiafj?/). — II.  A  city  of 
 Troas,  southeast  of  Abydus,  and  founded  by  a  colony 
 of  Mytilena;ans,  in  whose  island  there  was  a  town  of 
 the  same  name.  {Vid.  No.  I.)  Various  traditions 
 respecting  the  place  are  to  be  found  in  Siephanus  of 
 Byzantium.  Homer  makes  mention  of  the  place,  to- 
 gether with  the  river  Sellcis.  (//.,  2,  835.)  It  was 
 here,  according  to  Arrian  (1,  12),  that  Alexander  sta- 
 tioned his  army  immediately  after  crossing  the  Helles- 
 pont at  Abydus.  When  the  Gauls  passed  over  into 
 Asia,  some  centuries  after,  they  also  occupied  Arisba, 
 but  were  totally  defeated  by  King  Prusias.  {Folyb.f 
 5,  3.)  Its  ruins  are  supposed  to  be  those  at  Ganger- 
 lee.  {Walpole's  Turkey,  vol.  I,  p.  92. —  Cramer^s 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  71.) 
 
 Arist^netus,  a  Greek  writer,  a  native  of  Nicaea. 
 He  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  same  with 
 that  friend  of  Libanius  who  perished  in  the  earthquake 
 which  destroyed  the  city  of  Nicomedia,  A.D.  358,  and 
 to  whom  are  addressed  many  of  the  letters  of  this 
 sophist  that  remain  to  us.  If  this  opinion  be  ccrrcct, 
 it  must  be  confessed  that  the  work  of  Arista;netus, 
 which  we  at  presetit  possess,  does  not  justify  the  eulo- 
 giums  which  Libanius  passes  on  the  talents  of  his 
 friend  :  the  identity  of  the  two  individuals,  therefore, 
 appears  at  best  extremely  doubtful.  The  only  histor- 
 ical fact  that  occurs  in  Aristsenetus  seems  to  place 
 him  towards  tlie  close  of  the  fifth  century  :  it  is  a 
 eulogium  on  the  female  dancer  Panareta,  where  it  is 
 said  that  she  imitated  the  pantomime  Caramallus. 
 Now  this  Caramallus  lived  in  the  time  of  Sidonius 
 Apoliinaris,  who  died  A.D.  484.     A  third  view  of  the 
 
A  R  I 
 
 ARI 
 
 svtoject  would  seem  to  favour  the  supposition  that  the 
 author  of  the  work  in  question  never  bore  the  name 
 of  Aristaenetus  ;  this  being  the  appellation  given  by 
 the  writer  to  the  fictitious  personage  who  is  supposed 
 to  have  written  the  first  letter  in  the  collection.  And 
 It  may  so  have  happened,  that  the  copyists  mistook 
 this  name  for  that  of  the  author  himself.  This  last 
 opinion  has  been  adopted  by  Mercier,  Bergler,  Pauw, 
 and  Boissonade. — The  work  of  Arist«netus  is  a  col- 
 lection of  Erotic  Epistles,  entitled  'E-maTO/ial  epuTi- 
 Koi.  The  greater  part  of  these  pieces  are  only,  in 
 fact,  so  far  to  be  regarded  as  letters,  as  bearing  a  su- 
 perscription which  gives  them  somewhat  of  an  epis- 
 tolary form  ;  they  are,  in  truth,  a  species  of  tales,  or 
 exercises  on  imaginary  subjects.  In  one  of  them,  a 
 lover  draws  the  portrait  of  his  mistress  ;  in  another, 
 we  have  a  description  of  the  artifices  practised  by  a 
 coquet ;  in  a  third,  a  tale  after  the  manner  of  Boc- 
 cacio,  &c.  These  letters  are  divided  into  two  books, 
 of  which  the  first  contains  twenty-eight  pieces  ;  and 
 the  second,  which  is  not  complete,  twenty- two.  The 
 style  of  Aristajiietus,  which  is  almost  uniformly  of  a 
 declamatory  character,  is  frequently  wanting  in  nature 
 and  taste.  It  is  filled  with  phrases  borrowed  from 
 the  poets.  The  best  editions  of  this  writer  are,  that 
 of  Abresch,  Zionllas.,  3  vols.  12mo,  the  third  volume 
 containing  the  notes  and  conjectures  of  various  schol- 
 ars ;  and  that  of  Boissonade,  Fans,  1822,  8vo.  This 
 latter  edition  is,  on  the  whole,  the  better  one  of  the 
 two.  On  the  merits  of  Abresch's  edition  consult  the 
 remarks  of  Bast,  in  his  Specimen  ed.  nov.  Epist.  Ar- 
 istien  ,  p.  9,  seqq..  and  on  those  of  Boissonade's  the 
 observations  of  Hoffmann,  Lex.  BibL,  vol.  I,  p.  253. 
 (Compare  Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p.  248,  seqq.) 
 
 Arist^us,  son  of  Apollo  and  the  nymph  Gyrene, 
 was  born  in  the  part  of  Libya  afterward  named   from 
 his  mother,  and   brought  up  by  the  Seasons,  who  fed 
 him  on  nectar  and   ambrosia,  and  thus  rendered  him 
 immortal.     According  to  the  prediction  of  the  centaur 
 Chiron,  as  made  to  Apollo  respecting  him,  he  was  to 
 be  called  "  Jove,"  and  "  holy  Apollo,"  and  "  Agreus" 
 (Hunter),  and  "  Nomios"  (Herdsmaii) ;  and  also  Aris- 
 tsus.     {I'lnd.,  Pyth.,  9,  104,  seqq.)     I'he   invention 
 of  the  culture  of  the  olive,  and  of  the  art  of  managing 
 bees,  was  ascribed  to  hiin  ;  and  Aristotle  (ap.  Schol. 
 ad  Thcocr.,  5,  G3)  says  he  was  taught  them  by  the 
 nymphs  who  had  reared  him.     Tradition  also  related, 
 that  one  time,  when  the  isle  of  Ceos  was  afflicted  by 
 a  drought,  caused  by  the  e.xcessive  heat  of  the  dog- 
 days,  the  inhabitants  invited  Aristjeus  thither  ;   and, 
 on  hjs  erecting  an  altar  to  Jupiter  Icmajus  (the  Moist- 
 ener),  the  Etesian  breezes  breathed  over  the  isle,  and 
 the  evil  departed.     After  his  death  he  was  deified  by 
 the  people   of  Ceos.     (Apoll.    Rh.,  2,    506,  seqq. — 
 Schul.  ad  Apoll.  Rh.,  2,  498. — Serv.,  ad  Virg-.,  Georg., 
 1,  14.)     Virgil  has  elegantly  related  the  story  of  the 
 love  of  Aristaeus  for  Eurydice  the  wife  of  Orpheus, 
 his  pursuit  of  her,  and  her  unfortunate  death   by  the 
 sting  of  the  serpent  ;   on  which  the  Napa;an  nymphs 
 destroyed  all  his  bees  ;  and  the  mode  adopted  by  him, 
 on  the  advice  of  his  mother,  to  stock  once  more  his 
 hives.     (Georg.,  4, 282,  seqq. — Compare  Omd,  Fast., 
 I,  363,  seqq.)     Arisissus  married  Autonoe,  daughter 
 of  Cadmus,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Actseon. 
 (Ketghtley's  Mythology,  2d  ed,  p.  330.)     Thus  much 
 for  the  legend.     Aristaeus  would  seem  in  reality  to  have 
 been  an  early  deity  of  Arcadia,  whence  the  Parrhasii 
 carried  his  worship  into  the  island  of  Ceos;  of  Thes- 
 saly,  whence  the  same  worship  was  brought  to  Cyrene  ; 
 and  finally  of  Boeotia,  where  he  was  enrolled  'in  the 
 Cadmcan  genealogy.     He  appears  to  have  been  iden- 
 tical, originally,  with  Zsvc  'Kpiaroc,  and  subsequently 
 with  'AttoIauv  Nofuoc,  and  to  have  been  the  god  who 
 presided  over  flocks  and  herds,  over  the  propagation 
 of  bees,  the  rearing  of  the  olive,  &c.     (Muller   Or- 
 chom.,  p.  348.) 
 
 Aristagoras.  I.  a  writer  who  composed  a  history  of 
 Egypt,  and  who  lived  in  the  third  century  before  our  era. 
 (Flin.,36,  12.) — II.  A  son-in-law  and  nephew  of  His- 
 tJKus,  tyrant  of  Miletus,  who  revolted  from  Darius,  and 
 incited  the  Athenians  and  Eretrians  against  Persia. 
 An  expedition,  planned  though  not  commanded  by  him, 
 burned  the  city  of  Sardis.  This  so  exasperated  the 
 king,  that  every  evening,  before  supper,  he  ordered  his 
 attendants  to  remind  him  of  punishing  Aristagoras. 
 He  was  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Persians,  B.C. 
 499.     (Herodot.,  5,  30.— Id.,  5,  101,  seqq.) 
 
 Aristander,  a  statuary,  native  of  the  Island  of  Pa- 
 ros,  flourished  about  the  time  of  the  i)aitle  of  .I'Egos 
 Potamos,  in  Olmyp.  93,  4.  He  constructed  the 
 brazen  tripod,  which  the  Lacedaemonians  dedicated  at 
 Amyclaj,  out  of  the  spoils  taken  by  them.  (Fausan., 
 3,  18,  5.—Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Aristarchus,  I.  a  tragic  poet,  a  native  of  Tegea. 
 He  was  the  contemporary  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides, 
 and  lived  upward  of  a  hundred  years.  He  exhibited 
 seventy  tragedies,  but  was  only  twice  successful.  Of 
 all  these  seventy  plays  only  one  line  is  left  us.  Ac- 
 cording to  Festus,  his  Achilles  was  imitated  by  En- 
 nius,  and  also  by  Plautus  in  his  Fcenulus.  (Theatre 
 of  the  Greeks,  2d  ed.,  ]).  151.) — II.  A  native  of  Samo- 
 thrace,  and  preceptor  to  the  children  of  Ptolemy  VL 
 (Philometor).  He  is  regarded  as  the  most  celebrated 
 critic  of  all  antiquity.  The  number  of  pupils  formed 
 by  him  was  so  great,  that  at  one  time  forty  distin- 
 guished professors  or  grammarians  might  be  counted 
 at  Alexandrea  and  Rome,  who  had  been  trained  up  in 
 his  school.  All  these  disciples  vied  with  each  other 
 in  extolling  the  superiority  and  genius  of  their  com- 
 mon master  ;  and  hence  the  name  of  Aristarchus  was 
 not  only  perpetuated  in  the  classical  tongues,  but  has 
 passed  into  the  modern  languages,  as  indicative  of  an 
 accomplished  critic.  Aristarchus  quitted  Egypt  when 
 Euergetes  II  ,  his  pupil,  ascended  the  throne  and  be- 
 gan to  display  his  true  character  in  driving  men  of  let- 
 ters from  Alexandrea.  The  grammarian,  upon  this, 
 retired  to  Cyprus,  where  he  died  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
 two,  B.C.  157.  In  his  old  age  he  became  dropsical, 
 upon  which  he  is  said  to  have  starved  himself  to  death. 
 Aristarchus  was  the  author  of  a  new  recension  of  Ho- 
 mer, which,  though  altered  by  subsequent  gramma- 
 rians, is  nevertheless  the  basis  of  our  common  text  at 
 the  present  day.  It  is  this  primitive  recension  of  Ar- 
 istarchus' which  Wolf  undertook  to  restore  by  the  aid 
 of  the  scholia  that  Villoison  published.  To  Aris- 
 tarchus is  also  attributed  the  division  of  the  Iliad  and 
 Odyssey  into  twenty-four  cantos  or  books.  He  wrote 
 likewise  commentaries  on  Archilochus,  Alca?us,  Anac- 
 reon,  /Eschylus,  Sophocles,  Ion,  Pindar,  Aristophanes, 
 .Aratus,  and  other  poets;  and  composed  in  all,  it  is 
 said,  eight  hundred  different  works.  Of  all  the  pro- 
 ductions, however,  of  this  industrious  writer,  we  have 
 only  remaining  at  the  present  day  some  grammatical 
 remarks  cited  by  the  scholiasts.  (Schiill,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol  3,  p. '^188,  seqq.) — III.  An  astronomer  of 
 Samos,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  third 
 century  before  Christ.  He  is  well  known  to  have 
 maintained  the  modern  opinion  with  regard  to  the 
 motion  of  the  earth  round  the  sun,  and  its  revolution 
 about  its  own  centre  or  axis.  He  also  taught  that  the 
 annual  orbit  of  the  earth  is  but  a  point,  compared  with 
 the  distance  of  the  fixed  stars.  He  estimated  the  ap- 
 parent diameter  of  the  sun  at  the  720lh  part  of  the 
 zodiac.  He  found  also  that  the  diameter  of  the  moon 
 bears  a  greater  proportion  to  that  of  the  earth  than 
 that  of  43  to  108,  but  less  than  that  of  19  to  GO  ;  so 
 that  the  diameter  of  the  moon,  according  to  his  state- 
 ment, should  be  somewhat  less  than  a  third  part  of 
 the  earth.  The  only  one  of  his  works  now  extant  is  a 
 treatise  on  the  magnitudes  and  distances  of  the  sun 
 and  moon.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  M'^allis,  Oxon., 
 1688,  8vo.     The  following  work  may  also  be  consult- 
 
 195 
 
A  RI 
 
 ARISTIDES. 
 
 ed  with  advantage  in  relation  to  this  astronomer: 
 Htstoire  (V Arislarqiie  de  Samos,  suivie  dc  la  traduc- 
 tion de  son  ouvrai^e  sur  les  distances  du  soldi  de  la 
 lune,  &c.,  par  M.  de  F{ortia  d'' Urban).  Paris, 
 1810,  8vo. 
 
 AKisxiiAS,  I.  a  poet  of  Proconnesus,  who,  as  Herod- 
 otus relates,  appeared  seven  years  after  his  death  to 
 his  countrymen,  and  composed  a  poem  on  the  Arimas- 
 pians.  He  then  disappeared  a  second  time,  and,  after 
 the  lapse  of  three  hundred  and  forty  years,  ap[)eared 
 in  the  city  of  Metapontum  in  Magna  Gra;cia,  and  di- 
 rected the  inhabitants  to  erect  an  altar  to  Apollo,  and 
 a  statue  by  that  altar,  which  should  bear  the  name  of 
 Aristeas  the  Proconnesian.  He  informed  them  also 
 that  he  attended  this  god,  and  was  at  such  times  a 
 crow,  though  now  he  went  under  the  name  of  Aristeas. 
 Having  uttered  these  words  he  vanished.  {Herod., 
 4,  15. — Compare  the  somewhat  different  account  giv- 
 en by  Pliny,  7,  52.)  The  poem  alluded  to  above 
 was  epic  in  its  character,  and  in  three  books.  The 
 subject  of  it  was  the  wars  between  Griffons  and  Ari- 
 maspians.  Longinus  (^  10)  has  recorded  six  of  the 
 verses  of  Aristeas,  which  he  justly  considers  more 
 florid  than  sublime;  and  Tzetzes  {Chil.,  7,  688)  has 
 preserved  six  more.  {Larcher,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c.) — Rit- 
 ter  has  made  this  singular  legend  the  basis  of  some 
 profound  investigations.  He  sees  in  Aristeas  a  priest 
 of  the  Sun  (the  Koros  or  Buddha  of  the  early  nations 
 of  India) ;  and  he  compares  with  this  the  remark  of 
 Porphyry  {dc  Abstin.,  4,  p.  399,  cd.  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1620),  that,  among  the  magi,  a  crow  was  the  symbol 
 of  a  priest  of  the  sun.  He  discovers  also  in  the  ear- 
 lier name  of  that  part  of  Italy  where  Metapontum  was 
 situate,  namely,  Boltiaa,  an  obscure  reference  to  the 
 worship  of  Buddha.  Whatever  our  opinion  of  his 
 theory  may  be,  the  legend  of  Aristeas  certainly  in- 
 volves the  doctrines  of  the  metempsychosis.  {Pittcr, 
 Vorhallc,  p.  278,  seqq.) — II.  An  officer  under  Ptole- 
 my Philadelphus,  to  whom  is  ascribed  a  Greek  work 
 still  extant,  entitled,  "A  History  of  the  Interpreters  of 
 Scripture,"  giving  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
 the  Septuagint  was  written.  The  best  edition  is  that 
 printed  at  Oxford  in  1692,  in  8vo.  It  is  found  also, 
 with  a  very  learned  refutation,  in  a  work  entitled  Ho- 
 dii  dc  Bibliorum  textibus  originalibus  Itbriiv.,  Oxon., 
 1705,  fol.  ;  and  likewise  in  the  second  volume  of 
 Havercamp's  edition  of  Josephus  ;  and  at  the  end  of 
 Van  Dale's  Dissertation,  de  LXX.  Intcrpretibiis  super 
 Arislcam,  Amstelod.,  1705,  4to.  As  to  other  works 
 by  Aristeas,  consult  Schard  {Arg.,  sub  fin. — Joseph., 
 cd.  Hav.,  vol.  2.  p.  102). 
 
 Arister.\,  an  island  lying  to  the  southeast  of  the 
 peninsula  of  Argolis,  in  the  Sinus  Hermionicus.  {Pau- 
 san.,  2,  34). 
 
 Aristides,  I.  a  celebrated  Athenian,  son  of  Lysim- 
 achus,  and  a  contemporary  of  Tlieinistocles.  He 
 entered  upon  public  affairs  at  a  comparatively  early 
 age,  and  distinguished  himself  so  much  by  his  integ- 
 rity, that,  although  inclined  to  the  aristocracy,  he  nev- 
 ertheless received  from  the  people  the  remarkable  ap- 
 pellation of  the  Just.  His  conduct  at  Marathon  did 
 no  less  honour  to  his  military  talents  than  to  his  dis- 
 interestedness. Of  the  ten  Athenian  generals,  he 
 was  the  only  one  who  agreed  with  Miltiades  upon  the 
 propriety  of  risking  a  battle  ;  and,  renouncing  his  day  of 
 command  in  favour  of  this  commander,  he  prevailed 
 upon  the  other  generals  to  do  the  same.  After  ser- 
 vices so  important  as  these,  he  was,  nevertheless, 
 finally  banished  through  the  intrigues  of  Themistocles, 
 and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that  a  singular  circumstance 
 is  related  to  have  taken  place.  While  the  shells  were 
 getting  inscribed  at  the  assembly  that  passed  upon 
 him  the  sentence  of  ostracism,  a  peasant  approached 
 Aristides,  and  taking  him  for  a  person  of  ordinary 
 stamp,  requested  him  to  write  upon  his  shell  the  name 
 of  Aristides,  he  himself  being  too  illiterate  to  do  so. 
 196 
 
 Aristides,  without  betraying  who  he  was,  asked  the 
 peasant  what  harm  Aristides  had  done  him.     "  None," 
 replied  the  man,  "  7ior  do  I  even  know  htm;  but  I  am 
 tired  with  hearing  him  called  the  Just."     Aristides 
 quitted  his   native  city,  praying  the  gods  that  nothing 
 might  occur  to   induce  his  countrymen  to   regret  his 
 absence ;    but    this   very  thing   happened  during    the 
 sixth  year  of  his  exile,  when  Xerxes  invaded  Greece. 
 He  was  then  recalled,  and  was  associated  wiih  The- 
 mistocles in  the  command  of  the  Athenian  forces.     He 
 took  part  in   the  battle  of  Salamis,  and  also  shared 
 with  Pausanias  the  glory  of  the  field  of  Plala^a.     After 
 the  total  defeat  of  the  Persian  forces,  he  played  an  im- 
 portant part  in  the  affairs  of  Athens  and  Greece,  and 
 by  his  wise  counsels  and   successful  negotiations  he 
 secured  to  his  native  city  a  decided  pre-eminence  over 
 the   neighbouring  republics.     When  the  tJretk  con- 
 federacy were  to  have  the  quotas  regulated  which  they 
 paid  towards  a  common  fund  for  the  pur|ioses  of  de- 
 fence, Aristides  was  chosen  to  execute  this  commis- 
 sion, which  he  did  to  the  satisfaction  of  all.      Ahiiough 
 having  the   control  of  large   sums  of  money,  in  the 
 management  of  the  public  finances,  he  notwithstand- 
 ing died  so  poor,  that  the  people  had  to  pay  the  ex- 
 penses of  his  funeral,  and  furnish  marriage-portions  to 
 his  two  daughters.     The  Athenians,  on  one  occasion, 
 rendered  a  singular  homage  to  the  virtues  of  this  dis- 
 tinguished man.     During  the  representation  of  one  of 
 the  tragedies  of  ^Eschylus,  a  passage  occurred  hav- 
 ing reference  to  the  character  of  a  virtuous  and  up- 
 right man,  whereupon  the  whole  audience,  with  one 
 common  impulse,  turned  their  eyes  upon   Aristides, 
 and  applied  the  passage  to  him  alone  of  all  who  were 
 present.     When  he  sat  as  judge  in  a  certain  cause,  the 
 accuser  began  to  make  mention  of  injuries  which  had 
 been  done  by  the  accused  to  Aristides  himself.     "  Tell 
 me,"  exclaimed  the  upright  Athenian,  '■■  of  the  wrongs 
 which  he  has  done  to  you  ;  for  I  sit  here  to  dispense 
 justice  to  you,  not  unto  myself."     {Plut.,  in  Vit. — 
 Cwn.  Nep.,  in  Vit.) — II.  An  historian  of  Miletus,  (re- 
 quently  quoted   by   Plutarch  in  his   Parallels.      {Op., 
 cd.  Reiske,  vol.  7,  p.  216,  seqq.)     He  was  anterior  to 
 Sylla,  and  composed  a  history  of  Italy,  in  forty  books, 
 and  Sicilian  and  Persian  Annals.     He  was  the  invent- 
 or, also,  of  what  were  called  "  Milesian  Tales,''  in- 
 genious fictions,  but  too  free  in  their  character,  which 
 Lucian  and  Apuleius  imitated,  the  former  in  his  Lu- 
 cius sivc  Astnus,  and  the  latter  in  his  Asinus  Aureus. 
 The  Milesian  Tales  of  Aristides  were  translated   into 
 Latin  in  the  time  of  Sylla.     {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  4,  p.   157.)^III.  A  statuary,  one  of  the  pupils  o( 
 Polycletus,  celebrated  on  account  of  the  chariots  for 
 two  and  for  four  horses  which  he  constructed.   {Plin., 
 34,  8.) — IV.  A  very  celebrated   painter,  rather  older 
 than  Apelles,  but  contemporary  with  him.     He  was 
 a  native  of  Thebes.     The  refinements  of  the  art  were 
 a])plied    by    him    to    the   mind.       "  Primus   animum 
 pinxit,"  says   Pliny,   "  c/  scnsus  honunum   cxpressit, 
 quiE  vacant  Grceci  riOi],  item  perlurbalwnes"  (35,  10). 
 The  passions  which  tradition  had  organized  for  Timan- 
 thes,  Aristides  caught  as  ihey  rose  from  the  breast, 
 or  escaped  from  the  lips  of  Nature  herself.     His  vol- 
 ume vi'as  man,  his  scene  society  :  he  drew  the  subtile 
 discriminations  of  mind   in  every   stage  of  life,    the 
 whispers,  the  simple  cry  of  passion,  and  its  most  com- 
 plex accents.      Such,  as  history  informs  us,  was  his 
 suppliant,  whose  voice  you  seemed  to  hear ;   such  his 
 sick  man's  half-extinguished  eye  and  labouring  breast ; 
 such,  above  all,  the  half-slain  mother,  shuddering  lest 
 the  eager  babe  should  suck  the  blood  from  her  palsied 
 nipple.     This  picture  was  probably  at  Thebes  when 
 Alexander  sacked  that  town  ;   what  his  feelings  were 
 when  he  saw  it,  we  may  guess  from  his  sending  it  to 
 Pella.     {Fuscli,  Lectures  on  Painting,  vol.  i  p.  64.) 
 Attains  is  said  to  have  given  a  hundred  talents  for  a 
 single  painting  by  this  artist.     (Plin.,  I.  c.)     Some  o'. 
 
A  R  I 
 
 A  R  I 
 
 the  ancients  assigned  to  Aristiiles  the  invention  of 
 painting  on  wax.  {SiUig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) — IV.  A 
 Greek  orator,  born  at  Hadrianopolis  in  Bithynia,  about 
 A.D.  129,  according  to  the  common  opinion  ;  but  more 
 correctly  in  A.D.  117.  After  having  applied  himself, 
 with  extraordinary  ardour,  to  the  study  of  eloquence, 
 he  travelled  in  Asia,  Greece,  and  Egypt,  leaving  be- 
 lund  hitn  everywhere  a  high  opinion  of  his  talents  and 
 virtues.  Many  cities  erected  statues  to  him,  one  of 
 which  is  still  preserved  in  the  Vatican.  On  finishing 
 his  travels,  he  look  up  his  residence  at  Smyrna,  where 
 he  continued  to  live  until  his  death,  holding  a  station 
 in  a  temple  of  yEsculapius.  Arislides,  by  a  diligent 
 perusal  of  Demosthenes  and  Plato,  was  able  to  avoid 
 the  errors  of  the  declaimers  of  his  time.  His  com- 
 patriots ranked  hiin  equal  to  the  Athenian  orator ;  an 
 honour,  however,  to  which  he  had  no  just  claims. 
 His  discourses  arc  distinguished  for  thought  and  argu- 
 ment. His  style  is  strong,  hut  often  wanting  in  grace. 
 We  have  fifty-four  declamations  of  Aristides  remain- 
 ing at  the  present  day,  most  of  thein  celebrating  some 
 divinity,  or  else  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  and 
 other  personages.  One  of  these  discourses  is  in  the 
 form  of  a  letter  to  the  emperor,  on  tlie  destruction  of 
 Smyrna  by  an  earthquake,  A.D.  178.  The  monarch 
 was  so  much  affected  by  it,  that  he  immediately  gave 
 orders  for  rebuilding  the  city.  There  e.xists  also,  from 
 the  pen  of  this  orator,  a  work  on  the  style  that  is  adapt- 
 ed to  public  affairs,  and  that  suited  to  plain  and  sim- 
 ple topics  {Tvepl  TCo7uTLKov  nal  u<j)eXovc  Myov).  Among 
 the  discourses  of  Aristides  there  are  five,  and  the  be- 
 ginning of  a  sixth,  which  were  regarded  by  the  an- 
 cients as  the  fruit  of  imposture,  or  of  a  credulity  un- 
 worthy a  man  of  so  much  general  merit.  Some  of 
 them  appear  to  touch  on  animal  magnetism. — The  Abbe 
 Mai  found,  not  many  years  ago,  a  palimpsest  manu- 
 script of  Aristides  in  the  Vatican  Library,  containing 
 some  unedited  fragments  of  this  orator.  The  best 
 editions  of  Aristides  are  that  of  Jebb,  Ozon.,  1722-30, 
 4to  ;  and  that  of  Dindorf,  Lips.,  3  vols.  8vo.  The  lat- 
 ter is  decidedly  the  better  of  the  two,  the  te,\t  having 
 been  more  carefully  corrected  by  MSS.  Reiske  com- 
 plains heavily  of  the  former,  on  account  of  the  want  of 
 care  in  collating  MSS.,  &c. — V.  A  platonic  philoso- 
 pher, born  at  Athens.  He  became  a  convert  to  Chris- 
 tianity, and  presented  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian  an 
 "Apology"  for  the  new  religion,  which,  it  is  said,  in- 
 duced the  monarch  to  pass  his  edict,  by  which  no  one 
 was  to  be  put  to  death  without  a  regular  accusation 
 and  conviction.  This  edict  was  directly  favourable 
 to  the  Christians.  The  Apology  is  lost,  but  is  highly 
 praised  by  St.  Jerome,  who  had  read  it. — VI.  A  Greek 
 writer  on  music.  He  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
 the  commencement  of  the  second  century  of  our  era. 
 His  work  is  in  three  books,  and  the  best  edition  of  it 
 IS  that  contaiiied  in  the  collection  of  Meibomius,  A71- 
 tiquce.  Musica.  Scriplores,  AmslcL,  1652,  4to. 
 
 Aristippus,  I.  a  philosopher  of  Cyrene,  disciple  to 
 Socrates,  and  founder  of  the  Cyrenaic  sect,  who  flour- 
 ushed  alwut  392  B.C.  Socrates,  however,  with  whom 
 he  remained  till  his  execution  {Plat.,  Phcnd.,  p.  59), 
 does  not  appear  to  have  cured  him  of  his  inclination 
 for  pleasure.  For  although  there  is  little  consistency 
 in  the  notices  we  have  of  his  life  and  conduct,  it  is 
 nevertheless  clear,  from  a  variety  of  anecdotes,  that, 
 notwithstanding  he  was  able  to  endure  privations  and 
 sufferings  with  equanimity  and  dignity,  his  serenity  of 
 mitid  arose  principally  from  the  readiness  with  which 
 he  could  extract  pleasures  and  gratifications  from  the 
 most  difiicult  situations  of  life.  Hence  he  never 
 avoided  the  society  of  the  courtesan,  or  of  the  tyrant, 
 or  satrap,  in  full  and  calm  reliance  upon  his  tact  in  the 
 management  of  men.  Many  anecdotes  are  told  of 
 hiin,  wliich  would  seem  to  imply  that  Aristippus  en- 
 deavoured to  observe  faithfully  his  own  maxim  that  a 
 man  ought  to  control  circumstances,  and  not  be  con- 
 
 trolled by  them.  (Moral.,  Ep.,  \,\8.—Dioff.  Lacrt.,^, 
 66,  seqq.)  Aristippus  was  the  first  disciple  of  the 
 Socratic  school  who  took  money  for  teaching.  He 
 afterward  was  compelled  to  leave  Athens,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  freedom  of  his  manners,  and  visited, 
 among  other  parts,  the  island  of  Sicily.  Here  he  be- 
 came one  of  the  flatterers  of  Dionysius,  and  gained  a 
 large  share  of  royal  favour.  He  left  Syracuse  before 
 the  expulsion  of  the  tyrant,  and  appears,  in  his  old 
 age,  to  have  returned  to  Cyrene,  where  we  find  his 
 family  and  school.  {Diog.  Lacrt  ,  2,  86.)  Aristip- 
 pus taught,  that  good  is  pleasure,  and  pain  is  evil  ; 
 but,  at  the  same  tune,  he  appears  to  have  maintained, 
 that,  in  true  pleasure,  the  soul  must  still  preserve  its 
 authority  ;  his  true  pleasure  was,  consequenily.  nothing 
 more  than  the  Socratic  temperance.  He  tauoht  also 
 that  a  man  ought  not  to  desire  more  than  he  already 
 possesses  ;  for  all  pleasures  are  similar,  and  none  more 
 agreeable  than  another,  and  that  he  ought  not  to  suf- 
 fer himself  to  be  overcome  by  sensual  enjoyment. 
 {Diog.  Laert.,  2,  87. — Consult  Kitter,  Hist.  Anc. 
 Phil..,  vol.  2,  p.  88,  seqq.,  where  a  luminous  account 
 is  given  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Cyrenaic  school  )— II. 
 His  grandson  of  the  same  name,  called  the  YoimgeT, 
 was  a  warm  defender  of  his  opinions.  He  flourished 
 about  363  years  B.C. — III.  A  tyrant  of  Argos,  pro- 
 tected by  Antigonus  Gonatas,  whose  life  was  one  con- 
 tinued series  of  apprehensions.  He  was  slain  by  a 
 Cretan,  in  a  battle  with  Aratus,  near  Mycenae,  B.C. 
 242. 
 
 Aristo.      Vid.  Ariston. 
 
 Aristobulus,  I.  a  name  common  to  some  of  the 
 high  priests  and  kings  of  Judaea,  &c.  (Joseph) — H. 
 A  brother  of  Epicurus. — HI.  A  native  of  Potidaja,  one 
 of  the  generals  of  Alexander,  who  wrote  a  history  of 
 the  expedition  of  that  monarch  into  Asia.  His  work, 
 which  has  not  reached  us,  was  more  remarkable  for 
 adulation  than  truth. — IV.  An  Alexandrean  Jew,  pre- 
 ceptor of  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  flourished  about  145 
 B.C.  He  was  an  admirer  of  the  Greek  philosophy, 
 and  united  the  study  of  the  Aristotelian  system  with 
 that  of  the  Mosaic  law.  He  endeavoured  to  identify, 
 in  some  degree,  the  traditions  of  the  sacred  books 
 with  those  of  the  Greeks;  to  explain  Scripture  and  my- 
 thology by  the  aid  of  each  other ;  and  in  this  design 
 he  even  went  so  far  as  to  forge  and  interpolate  verses 
 of  Orpheus,  Linus,  Homer,  and  Hesiod.  His  wri- 
 tings have  not  come  down  to  us.  (Clem.  Alex., 
 Strom.,  1,  305. — Enfield's  History  of  Philos.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  154.) 
 
 Aristocles,  I.  a  peripatetic  philosopher  of  Mes- 
 sene,  who  composed  a  critical  examination  of  the  dif- 
 ferent sects  of  philosophy,  and  wrote  also  on  rhetoric 
 and  morals.  He  vigorously  attacked  the  scepticism 
 of  Timon  and  yEnesidemus,  showing  that  this  doc- 
 trine contradicted  itself,  and  led  to  the  most  deplora- 
 ble results.  "We  have  nothing  remaining  of  his  works, 
 except  a  single  fragment  preserved  by  Eusebius. — II. 
 A  native  of  Pergamus,  who  applied  himself  first  to  the 
 peripatetic  phil'bsophy,  and  afterward  to  eloquence, 
 which  last  be  studied  under  Herodes  Atticus.  He  be- 
 came one  of  the  ablest  rhetoricians  of  his  time,  though 
 he  is  censured  as  having  been  deficient  in  energy. 
 — HI.  The  earlier  name  of  Plato. — IV.  .\  statuary, 
 a  native  of  Cydon  in  Crete,  who  flourished,  according 
 to  Pausanias  (5,  25),  before  Zancle  was  termed  Mes- 
 sana,  that  is,  before  Olymp.  71,  3.  (Sil/ifr,  Diet. 
 Art.,s.  v.)—V.  A  grandson  of  the  former,  also  a  stat- 
 uary, born  at  Sicyon.  He  made  a  statue  of  Jupiter 
 with  Ganymede,  which  was  dedicated  at  Olympia. 
 (Plin.,  5,  2'i.—Sillig,  Did.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Aristocrates,  I.  a  king  of  Arcadia,  who  ascended 
 the  throne  B.C.  720.  He  was  stoned  to  death  by 
 his  subjects  for  offering  violence  to  the  priestess  of 
 Diana.  (Pausan.,  8,  Ci.) — II.  A  grandson  of  the  pre- 
 ceding.    He  was  stoned  to  death  for  taking  bribes, 
 
 197 
 
AR  I 
 
 ARI 
 
 during  the  second  Messenian  war,  and  being  the  cause 
 of  the  defeat  of  his  Messenian  allies,  B.C.  G82.  (Id. 
 thid.) 
 
 Aristodemus,  I.  son  of  Aristomachus,  of  the  race 
 of  the  Hcraclidae,  who,  together  with  his  brothers 
 Temenus  and  Cresphoiites,  conquered  tlie  Feloponne- 
 sns.  He  was  the  father  of  twin  sons,  Eurvslhenes  and 
 Procles,  and  was,  consequently,  the  parent-stem  of 
 the  Eurysthenidas  and  Proclida;,  the  two  royal  lines  at 
 Sparta.  Herodotus  mentions  the  traditionary  belief 
 prevalent  among  the  Lacedajnioniaiis,  tliat  this  mon- 
 arch had  led  their  forefathers  into  Laconia  (6,  52), 
 whereas  the  poetic  account  made  hnn  to  have  died 
 by  lightning  while  preparing  to  invade  the  Peloponne- 
 sus. This  latter  account  is  followed  by  ApoUodorus 
 (2,  8)  and  Pausanias  (3,  1).  Compare  the  remarks 
 of  Hcyne  {ad  Apollnd.,  I.  c.)  and  Bdhr  (ad  Herod.,  I 
 c).  —  II.  A  Messenian  leader,  the  successor  of  Eu- 
 phaes  on  the  throne  of  Messenia.  He  signalized  his 
 valour  in  the  war  against  the  Spartans.  An  account 
 of  him  will  be  found  in  the  remarks  under  the  article 
 Messenia. — III.  A  painter,  born  in  Caria,  and  the 
 contemporary  and  host  of  Philostratus  the  elder.  He 
 wrote  a  treatise  on  eminent  painters,  on  the  cities  in 
 which  the  art  of  painting  had  been  most  cultivated, 
 and  on  the  kings  who  had  patronised  it.  {fhilostr., 
 ■proam.  Icon.,  p.  4,  cd.  Jacobs. — Stllig,  Diet.  Art., 
 s.  V.) 
 
 Aeistogiton,  I.  the  friend  of  Harmodius,  who,  to- 
 gether with  the  latter,  slew  Hipparchus,  one  of  the 
 sons  of  Pisistratus.  Consult  the  account  given  under 
 the  article  Harmodius. — II.  A  Theban  statuary,  who, 
 in  connexion  with  Hypalodorus,  made  the  presents 
 dedicated  by  the  Argives  at  Delphi.  (Fausan.,  10, 
 10.)  He  is  supposed  to  have  exercised  his  art  from 
 Olymp.  90  to  102.  {StlUg,  Diet.  Art..,  s.  u.)— III. 
 An  Athenian  orator,  surnamed  6  kvuv,  the  dog,  from 
 his  consummate  effrontery.  He  is  the  same  with  the 
 Aristogiton  against  whom  Demosthenes  and  Dinarchus 
 both  pronounced  discourses.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  270.) 
 
 Aristomachus,  I.  son  of  Cleodaeus,  grandson  of 
 Hyllus,  and  great-grandson  of  Hercules.  He  was  the 
 father  of  Aristodemus,  Temenus,  and  Cresphontes, 
 the  three  Heraclida?  that  conquered  the  Peloponnesus. 
 He  himself  had  previously  made  the  same  attempt,  but 
 fell  in  battle.  (ApoUod.,2,  8. — Paitsan.,  2,  7. — Herod., 
 6,  52.) — II.  A  native  of  Soli  in  Cilicia,  who  devoted 
 fifty-eight  years  of  his  life  to  studying  the  habits  of 
 bees.  (Plin.,  11,  9.) — III.  A  tyrant  of  Argos,  suc- 
 cessor to  Aristippus,  who  resigned  the  sovereign  power 
 at  the  instigation  of  Aratus,  and  caused  Argos  to  join 
 the  Achcean  league.      (Pausan.,  2,  8.) 
 
 Aristomijnes,  a  celebrated  Messenian  leader,  who 
 signalized  his  valour  against  the  Spartans.  A  full  ac- 
 count of  him  will  be  found  in  the  remarks  under  the 
 article  Messenia. — II.  An  Acarnanian,  who  lived  at 
 Ale.\andrea,  and  was  appointed,  by  the  Roman  com- 
 mander /Emilius,  tutor  to  the  young  king  Ptolemy 
 Epiphanes.  He  executed  this  task  with  wisdom  and 
 talent,  but  was  eventually  put  to  death  by  his  un- 
 grateful pupil,  when  the  latter  had  come  to  the  throne, 
 B.C.  196. 
 
 \riston,  I.  the  son  of  Agasicles,  king  of  Sparta. 
 He  repudiated  two  wives  in  succession  on  account 
 of  their  sterility,  and  then  married  a  third,  said  to 
 have  been  the  most  beautiful  woman  in  Sparta.  She 
 bore  him  a  son,  Demaratus,  whom  he  at  the  moment 
 disowned,  but  afterward  acknowledged  to  be  his. 
 Consult  the  full  account  as  given  by  Herodotus  (6,  61, 
 seqq.). — II.  A  stoic  philosopher,  a  native  of  Chios. 
 He  was  one  of  the  immediate  pupils  of  Zeno,  but,  when 
 he  became  himself  an  instructcr,  openly  deviated  from 
 the  views  of  his  master,  and  founded  an  independent 
 school.  He  rejected  all  other  points  of  philosophy 
 but  ethics.  He  considered  physiology  to  be  beyond 
 198 
 
 man  ;  dialectics  or  logic  to  be  ill  suited  to  him.  He 
 even  limited  the  domain  of  ethics  itself;  for  he  taughl 
 that  its  object  is  not  to  treat  of  jiarlicular  duties,  and 
 of  encouragements  to  virtue,  such  being  the  part  ol 
 nurses  and  pedagogues  ;  but  it  is  the  province  of  the 
 philosopher  to  show  wherein  the  supreme  good  con- 
 sists, for  this  knowledge  is  the  source  of  all  useful  in- 
 telligence. In  accordance  with  his  view,  that  phys- 
 ics transcend  human  power,  Ariston  doubted  some  of 
 the  most  important  doctrines  of  Zeno.  It  is  impossi- 
 ble, he  said,  to  form  a  conception  of  the  shape  or  sense 
 of  the  gods ;  it  is  doubtful  whether  God  is  or  is  not  a 
 living  being.  From  this  last  position,  it  is  clear  that 
 Ariston  strongly  leaned  towards  scepticism ;  yet  he 
 was  careful  not  to  extend  this  doubt  to  the  common 
 branches  of  knowledge,  which  are  indispensable  to  the 
 conduct  of  life.  With  Ariston,  naught  is  of  worth 
 but  virtue,  nothing  is  evil  but  vice.  {Diog.  Laert.,  7, 
 160. — Slob.,  Serm.,  80,  7. — Sext.,  Emp.  adv.  Math., 
 7,  12. — Cic,  N.  D.,  1,  14.)  Ritter  maintains,  that 
 Tennemann  wholly  misrepresents  the  doctrine  of 
 Ariston,  when  he  calls  it  a  practical  science  for  man- 
 kind, or  a  science  for  life.  (Hist.  Philus.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 455,  seqq.) — III.  A  peripatetic  philosopher,  a  native 
 of  Inlis,  111  the  island  of  Cea,  and  hence  called,  for  dis- 
 tinction' sake,  luliitcs.  He  was  the  disciple  and 
 successor  of  Lycon.  (Consult  the  Bibl.  Philol.  Got- 
 ting.,  vol.  2,  pt.  I,  p.  1,  seqq.  ;  pt.  2,  p.  1,  seqt].  ;  pt. 
 6,  p.  1,  seqq.;  and  p.  459,  seqq.,  where  some  very 
 learned  and  acute  remarks  are  given  on  both  philoso- 
 phers.) 
 
 AkisTONAUTyE,  the  harbour  of  Pellene  in  Achaia, 
 sixty  stadia  from  that  town.  It  was  fabled  to  have 
 been  so  called  from  the  Argonauts  having  touched 
 there  in  the  course  of  their  voyage.     (Fausan.,  7,  26.) 
 
 Aristonicus,  I.  son  of  Eumenes  II.  by  a  concu- 
 bine of  Ephesus,  126  B.C.  invaded  Asia  and  the  king- 
 dom of  Pergamus,  which  Attains  III.  had  left  by  his 
 will  to  the  Roman  people.  He  was  at  hrst  successful, 
 and  conquered  and  put  to  death  the  consul  P.  Licinius 
 Crassus,  B.C.  128.  Perpenna,  however,  having  come 
 on  the  scene  soon  after,  defeated  Aristonicus,  who 
 was  led  to  Rome,  where  he  died,  or,  according  to 
 some,  was  strangled  in  prison.  (Justin,  36,  4. — 
 Flor.,  2,  20.) — II.  A  grammarian  of  Alexandrea,  who 
 wrote  a  commentary  on  Hesiod  and  Homer,  besides  a 
 treatise  on  the  Museum  established  at  Alexandrea  by 
 the  Ptolemies.     (Slrab.,  38.) 
 
 Aristophanes,  I.  a  celebrated  comic  poet,  with  re- 
 gard to  whom  antiquity  supplies  us  with  few  notices, 
 and  those  of  doubtful  credit.  The  most  likely  account 
 makes  him  the  son  of  Philippus,  a  native  of  /Egma ; 
 and,  therefore,  the  comedian  was  an  adopted,  not  a 
 natural,  citizen  of  Athens.  (Acharn.,  651,  seqq. — 
 Sckol.  ad  Acharn.,  I.  c. —  Alhenceus,  6,  p  227.)  The 
 exact  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  equally  unknown  ; 
 the  former,  however,  has  been  fixed,  with  some  degree 
 of  probability,  at  456  B.C.,  and  the  latter  at  B.C.  380, 
 when  he  would  be  seventy-six  years  of  age.  At  a  very 
 early  period  of  his  dramatic  career,  Aristophanes  di- 
 rected his  attention  to  the  political  situation  and  oc- 
 currences of  Athens.  His  second  recorded  comedy, 
 the  Babylonians,  was  aimed  against  Cleon ;  and  his 
 third,  the  Acharmayis,  turns  upon  the  evils  of  the  Pel- 
 oponnesian  war,  then  in  its  sixth  year,  and  the  advai>- 
 taces  of  a  speedy  peace.  His  talents  and  address 
 soon  gave  him  amazing  influence  with  bis  countrymen, 
 as  Cleon  felt  to  his  cost  the  succeeding  year,  on  the 
 representation  of  the  Eqvites.  This  piece  was  exhit^- 
 ited  the  very  year  after  that  in  which  Cleon  had  unde^ 
 servedly  gained  so  much  glory  by  the  capture  of  the 
 Spartans  in  Sphacteria.  He  was  then  in  the  heigh* 
 of  his  power  and  insolence.  No  actor  durst  personate 
 his  character  in  the  comedy,  and  no  artist  modeJ  a 
 mask  after  his  likeness.  (£9.,  230-4.)  Aristophanea 
 himself  was  compelled  to  undertake  the  ptrt,  and  ap>' 
 
ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 pcared  for  the  first  time  on  the  stage,  his  face  smear- 
 ed with  wine-lees.  His  success  was  complete. — The 
 fame  of  Aristophanes  was  not  confined  to  his  own  city. 
 Dionysius  of  Syracuse  would  gladly  have  admitted  the 
 popular  dramatist  to  his  court  and  patronage,  but  his 
 invitations  were  steadily  refused  by  the  independent 
 Athenian.  In  B.C.  428,  the  Sophists  felt  the  weight 
 of  his  lash,  for  in  that,  year  he  produced,  though  un- 
 successfully, his  Nubes.  The  vulgar  notion  that  the 
 exhibition  of  Socrates  in  this  play  was  an  intentional 
 prelude  to  his  capital  accusation  la  the  criminal  court, 
 and  that  Aristophanes  was  the  leagued  accomplice  of 
 Melitus,  has  ot  late  years  been  frequently  and  satis- 
 factorily refuted.  (See  particularly  Mr.  Mitchell's 
 elegant  and  able  introduction  to  his  translation  of  Aris- 
 tophanes )  The  simple  consideration  that  twenty-four 
 years  intervened  between  the  representation  of  the 
 Nubes  and  the  trial  of  Socrates,  affords  a  sufficient 
 answer  to  any  such  charge.  In  fact,  after  the  per- 
 formance o(  this  very  comedy,  we  find  Socrates  and 
 Aristophanes  become  acquainted,  and  occasionally 
 meeting  together  on  the  best  terms.  {Plato,  Sympos.) 
 An  imperfect  knowledge  of  Socrates  at  the  time,  his 
 reputed  doctrines,  his  face,  figure,  and  manners,  so 
 well  adapted  to  comic  mimicry,  were  doubtless  the 
 main  reasons  for  the  selection  of  him  as  the  sophistic 
 Coryphsus. — In  the  Peace  and  the  Lysistrata,  Aris- 
 tophanes again  reverts  to  politics  and  the  Peloponne- 
 sian  war :  in  the  Wasps,  the  Birds,  and  the  Eeclesi- 
 azouscE,  he  takes  cognizance  of  the  internal  concerns 
 of  the  state  ;  in  the  Thcsmophoriazoasce  and  the  Raiuc, 
 he  attacks  Euripides,  and  discusses  the  drama  ;  while 
 in  the  Plutus  he  presents  us  with  a  specimen  of  the 
 middle  comedy.  Eleven  of  his  comedies  are  still  e.x- 
 tant  out  of  upward  of  sixty.  {Fab.,  Bibl.  Gr.,  s.  v. 
 Aristophanes.)  Their  Greek  titles  are  as  follows  :  1. 
 ^kxapvelg:  2.  'IivkeI(;  :  3.  NecpsTiai  :  4.  ^(piJKeg  :  5. 
 TLlp^vf]  :  6.  'Opvideg  :  7.  OECifj.o<l)opiu^ov(jai :  8.  Av- 
 aiaTpdrj]  :  9.  Burpa^^ot  :  10.  'E.KK7i,i]aid(^ovaaL  :  11. 
 nAoiJrof. — The  Acharnians  {'Axapvd^)  was  repre- 
 sented B.C.  425.  In  this  piece  the  object  which  the 
 poet  proposes  to  himself  is  to  engage  the  Athenians  to 
 become  reconciled  with  the  Lacedaemonians,  by  ma- 
 king them  see,  through  the  aid  of  an  allegory,  that 
 peace  is  preferable  to  war.  He  feigns  that  an  Achar- 
 nian,  called  Dicajopolis  {the  just  city),  had  found  the 
 means  of  separating  his  cause  from  that  of  his  fellow- 
 citizens,  by  making  peace,  as  far  as  it  regarded  him- 
 self, with  the  enemy  ;  while  the  rest  of  the  Acharnians, 
 led  astray  by  the  suggestions  of  their  generals,  are 
 suffering  all  the  calamities  of  war — The  Equitcs  or 
 Knighls  ('lT7re?f)  was  represented  B.C.  424,  a  year 
 after  the  Acharnians.  The  professed  object  of  this 
 singular  composition  is  the  overthrow  of  that  power- 
 ful demagogue,  the  vainglorious  and  insolent  Cleon, 
 whom  the  author  had  professed  in  his  Acharnians  that 
 it  was  his  intention,  at  some  future  day,  to  "  cut  into 
 shoe-leather  ;"  and  his  assistants  on  the  occasion  are 
 the  very  persons  for  whose  service  the  e.xploit  was  to 
 take  place,  the  rich  proprietors,  who  among  the  Athe- 
 nians constituted  the  class  of  horsemen  or  knights. 
 For  this  purpose  Athens  is  here  represented  as  a 
 house  ;  Demus  (a  personification  of  the  Athenian  peo- 
 ple) is  the  master  of  it ;  Nicias  and  Demosthenes  are 
 his  slaves,  and  Cleon  is  his  confidential  servant  and 
 slave-driver.  The  levelling  disposition  of  the  Athe- 
 nians could  not  have  been  presented  with  a  more 
 agreeable  picture.  If  the  dramatis  persona  are  few, 
 the  plot  of  the  peace  is  still  more  meager :  it  consists 
 merely  of  a  series  of  humiliating  pictures  of  Cleon, 
 and  a  succession  of  proofs  to  Demus  that  his  favourite 
 servant  is  wholly  unworthy  of  the  trust  and  confidence 
 reposed  in  him.— The  Clouds  (Ne^f'Zoi,  Nubes)  was 
 twice  represented  ;  at  first,  B.C.  423,  when  it  failed  ; 
 and  the  second  time,  during  the  succeedino-  year.  By 
 •orae  curious  accident,  it  so  happens  that  the  play 
 
 originally  condemned  has  come  down  to  us,  with  part 
 of  a  parabasis  (or  address  to  the  audience)  evidently 
 intended  for  the  second.  The  author  here  complains 
 very  bitterly  of  the  injustice  which  had  been  done  to 
 this  most  elaborate  of  all  his  performances. — In  the 
 play  of  the  Clouds,  Socrates  is  made  the  chief  subject 
 of  ridicule.  As  a  person  given  to  ab.<^traction  and  sol- 
 itary speculation  is  proverbially  said  to  have  his  head 
 in  the  clouds,  it  was  but  another  step,  therefore,  in  the 
 poet's  creative  mind,  to  make  the  clouds  the  chorus 
 of  his  piece,  just  as  of  the  person,  whose  abstractions 
 and  reveries  seemed  to  make  him  mo.st  conversant 
 with  them,  he  had  formed  the  hero  of  the  piece.  The 
 effect  of  this  personification  in  the  original  theatre  was 
 no  doubt  very  striking.  A  solemn  invocation  calls 
 down  the  clouds  from  their  ethereal  abode  ;  their  ap- 
 proach is  announced  by  thunder ;  they  chant  a 
 lyric  ode  as  they  descend  to  the  earth  ;  and,  after 
 wakening  attention  by  a  well-managed  delay,  they 
 are  brought  personally  on  the  stage  as  a  troop  of 
 females,  "habited,"  says  Mr.  Cumberland,  "no  doubt 
 in  character,  and  floating  cloudlike  in  the  dance." 
 The  character  of  Strepsiades  receiving  the  lessons  of 
 Socrates,  is  the  original  of  Moliere's  "  Bourgeois 
 gentilhomme." — The  Wasps  {'E(pf/Kec,  Vespce),  repre- 
 sented B.C.  422,  is  a  satire  against  the  corru|)tion  of 
 justice  and  the  mania  of  litigation.  It  is  not  a  play 
 historically  political  like  the  Acharnians  and  the  Equi- 
 tes,  nor  personal  like  the  Clouds  :  it  is  an  attack,  di- 
 rected in  the  author's  peculiar  manner,  upon  the  jurispru- 
 dence of  Athens,  and  levelled  chiefly  at  that  numerous 
 class  of  her  citizens  who  gained  a  livelihood  by  execu- 
 ting the  office  of  dicast,  an  office  more  nearly  resem- 
 bling our  juryman  than  judge.  The  hero  of  the  piece 
 is  an  Athenian  citizen  absolutely  phrensied  with  a  pas- 
 sion for  litigation.  His  son  endeavours  to  reclaim  him 
 to  a  better  mode  of  life,  by  flattering  his  madness,  and 
 instituting  a  mock  court  of  justice  at  his  own  house. 
 The  colleagues  of  the  old  gentleman  are  represented 
 under  the  form  of  wasps,  which  circumstance  has  given 
 name  to  the  piece. — The  Peace  (E«p?;i7/)  was  repre- 
 sented B.C.  419,  at  the  period  when  the  Athenians 
 and  Jyacedsmonians,  after  having  concluded  what  was 
 called  the  peace  of  Nicias,  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
 view  of  compelling  the  other  states  of  Greece  to  ac- 
 cede to  the  pacification.  The  play  turns  on  this  point. 
 — The  Birds  {'OpviOec),  represented  B.C.  414,  turns 
 upon  political  affairs  :  two  Athenians,  disgusted  with 
 the  divisions  that  prevail  at  Athens,  transport  them- 
 selves to  the  country  of  the  birds,  who  build  them  a 
 city.  The  design  of  the  poet  appears  to  have  been  to 
 prevent  his  countrymen  from  fortifying  Decelia,  from 
 the  fear  lest  this  place  might  become  a  rallying-point 
 for  the  Lacedsinonians,  and  also  to  induce  them  to  re- 
 call their  forces  from  Sicily,  in  order  to  oppose  them 
 to  their  enemies  at  home. — The  Females  celebrating 
 the  festival  of  Ceres  {Q£rrfj.o(popiu^ovGai)  vv'as  repre- 
 sented B.C.  411.  The  female  Athenians  take  the  op- 
 portunity this  festival  affords,  of  deliberating  on  the 
 means  of  destroying  Euripides,  the  enemy  of  their  se.v. 
 In  order  to  save  himself,  Euripides  is  compelled  to 
 practise  a  thousand  expedients,  and  at  last  obtains  par- 
 don.— The  Lysistrata  {AvaiarpaT?]),  represented  the 
 same  year  with  the  preceding,  has  for  its  object  to  dis- 
 pose the  people  to  make  peace  with  the  LacediEmoni- 
 ans.  liysistrata,  the  wife  of  one  of  the  first  magistrates 
 of  Athens,  prevails  upon  all  the  married  females  of 
 Athens,  as  well  as  of  all  the  hostile  cities,  to  separate 
 themselves  from  their  husbands  until  peace  is  made. 
 —The  Frogs  {Bdrpaxoi,  Raiice),  represented  B.C. 
 405,  gave  Aristophanes  the  prize,  over  Phrynichus  and 
 Plato.  The  people  demanded  a  second  representa- 
 tion of  the  piece,  which  was  regarded  as  an  extraordi- 
 nary distinction.  The  poet,  in  this  play,  ridicules  the 
 tragic  writers,  but  especially  Euripides,  who  had  died 
 the  year  before.     The  chorus  is  composed  of  the  frogs 
 
 199 
 
ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 of  the  Styx,  over  which  stream  Bacchus  passes,  in  or- 
 der to  bring  back  to  earth  tiic  poet  ^scliylus,  in  prefer- 
 ence to  Euripides. —  The  Females  met  in  Asscmlily 
 {''E.KKX-qaiuL.ovaai),  represented  B.C.  392,  is  directed 
 against  the  demagogues  that  disturbed  the  tranquillity 
 of  the  state.  It  contains  also  some  attacks  levelled  at 
 the  republic  of  Plato,  and,  above  all,  at  the  community 
 of  goods,  of  women,  and  of  children,  which  formed  the 
 basis  of  Plato's  system.  The  wife  of  one  of  the  lead- 
 ing men  in  the  state  forms  a  plot  with  her  female  com- 
 panions, the  object  of  which  is  to  force  the  people  to 
 give  the  reins  of  government  into  their  hands.  They 
 succeed  by  a  stratagem,  and  pass  some  absurd  laws, 
 which  are  a  parody  on  those  in  existence  at  Athens. — 
 The  Plntus  {n?.oi'Toc)  appears  to  have  been  first  rep- 
 resented B  C.  409.  It  was  re-e.xhibited  twenty  years 
 after  this.  It  would  seem  that  our  present  le.xt  is  made 
 up  of  these  two  editions  of  the  play.  The  play  has  no 
 parabasis,  and  belongs  to  the  Middle  Comedy.  A  cit- 
 izen of  Athens  meets  with  a  blind  man,  and  entertains 
 him  at  his  house.  This  blind  personage  is  Plutus,  the 
 god  of  riches.  Having  recovered  his  sight  by  sleep- 
 mg  in  the  temple  of  ^sculapius,  he  is  made  to  take 
 the  place  of  the  ruler  of  Olympus,  which  affords  the 
 poet  an  opportunity  of  satirizing  the  cupidity  and  cor- 
 ruption of  his  countrymen. — '"Never,"  observes 
 Schlegel,  "  did  a  sovereign  power,  for  such  was  the 
 Athenian  people,  show  greater  good-humour  in  permit- 
 ting the  boldest  truths  lo  be  spoken  of  it  ;  nay,  more, 
 jestingly  thrown  in  its  teeth,  than  in  the  case  of  Aris- 
 tophanes. Even  though  the  abuses  of  government 
 might  not  be  corrected  thereby,  yet  it  was  a  mark  of 
 magnanimity  to  permit  this  unsparing  exposure  of  them. 
 Besides,  Aristophanes  shows  himself  throughout  to  be 
 a  zealous  patriot  :  he  attacks  the  powerful  misleaders 
 of  the  people,  the  same  who  are  represented  as  so  de- 
 structive by  the  grave  Thucydides  ;  he  advises  them 
 to  conclude  that  internal  war  which  irreparably  de- 
 stroyed the  prosperity  of  Greece  ;  he  recommends  the 
 simplicity  and  rigour  of  ancient  manners. — But  I  hear 
 it  asserted  that  Aristophanes  was  an  immoral  buffoon. 
 Why,  yes  ;  among  other  things  he  was  this  too ;  nor 
 do  I  mean  to  justify  him  for  sinking  so  low  with  all 
 his  great  qualifications,  whether  he  was  incited  lo  it 
 by  natural  coarseness,  or  whether  he  thought  it  ne- 
 cessary to  gain  over  the  mob,  in  order  to  be  able  to 
 tell  the  people  such  bold  truths.  At  any  rate,  he  boasts 
 of  having  striven  for  the  laughter  of  the  commonalty, 
 by  merely  sensual  jests,  much  less  than  any  of  his  com- 
 petitors, and  of  having  thus  contributed  to  the  perfec- 
 tion of  his  art.  To  be  reasonable,  we  must  judge  him, 
 in  those  things  which  give  us  so  much  offence,  from 
 the  point  of  view  of  a  contemporary.  The  ancients 
 had,  in  certain  respects,  a  completely  different  and  much 
 freer  system  of  morals  than  we  have.  This  was  de- 
 rived from  their  religion,  which  was  really  the  worship 
 of  nature,  and  which  had  hallowed  many  public  usages 
 grossly  offensive  to  decency.  Moreover,  since,  from 
 the  retired  manner  in  which  the  women  lived,  the  men 
 were  almost  always  by  themselves,  the  language  of 
 social  intercourse  had  obtained  a  certain  coarseness, 
 which  always  seems  to  be  the  case  under  similar  cir 
 cumstances.  Since  the  age  of  chivalry,  women  have 
 given  the  tone  to  society  in  modern  Europe,  and  we 
 are  indebted  to  the  homage  which  is  paid  them  for  the 
 sway  of  a  loftier  morality  in  speech,  in  the  fine  arts, 
 and  in  poetry.  Lastly,  the  ancient  comic  writer,  who 
 took  the  world  as  it  was,  had  a  very  corrupted  state  of 
 morals  before  his  eyes.  The  mort  honourable  testi- 
 mony for  Aristophanes  is  that  of  the  wise  Plato,  who 
 says,  in  an  o[)igram,  that  the  graces  had  selected  his 
 mind  as  their  place  of  habitation,  who  read  him  con- 
 stantlv.and  sent  the  Clouds  to  the  elder  Dionysius  with 
 the  information,  that  from  this  piece  (in  which,  how- 
 ever, together  with  the  trifling  of  the  sophists,  philoso- 
 phy itself  and  his  teacher  Socrates  were  attacked)  he 
 200 
 
 might  learn  to  know  the  state  of  Athens.  It  is  not 
 likely  that  he  merely  meant  that  the  piece  was  a  proof 
 of  the  unbridled  democratic  freedom  which  prevailed 
 at  Athens,  but  that  he  confessed  the  deep  knowledge 
 of  the  world  displayed  by  the  poet,  and  his  sound 
 views  of  the  whole  machinery  of  that  government  of 
 citizens.  But,  however  low  and  corrupt  Aristophanes 
 may  have  been  in  his  personal  inclinations,  and  howevei 
 much  he  may  have  offended  morals  and  taste  by  sev 
 eral  of  his  jests,  yet,  in  the  general  management  and 
 conduct  of  his  poems,  we  cannot  deny  him  the  praise 
 of  the  diligence  and  masterly  excellence  of  an  accom- 
 plislied  artist.  His  language  is  elegant  to  the  last  de- 
 gree ;  it  is  a  specimen  of  the  purest  Attic  ;  and  he  em- 
 ploys it  with  the  greatest  de.xterity  in  all  its  shades  of 
 difference,  from  the  most  familiar  dialogue  to  the  lofty 
 flights  of  dithyrambic  songs.  We  cannot  doubt,  that 
 he  would  have  succeeded  in  more  serious  poetry,  when 
 we  see  how  he  sometimes  lavishes  it  in  the  mere  wan- 
 tonness of  abundance  in  order  immediately  lo  destroy 
 its  effect.  This  high  degree  of  elegance  is  the  more 
 attractive  by  contrast ;  as,  on  the  one  hand,  he  em- 
 ploys the  roughest  dialects  and  provincialisms  of  the 
 common  people,  and  oven  the  broken  Greek  of  foreign- 
 ers ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  applies  the  same  caprice, 
 to  which  he  subjects  all  nature,  to  speech  likewise,  and 
 creates  the  most  astonishing  words  by  composition,  by 
 allusion  to  proper  names,  or  by  imitating  sounds.  We 
 may  boldly  assert,  that,  in  spite  of  all  the  explanations 
 which  have  come  down  to  us,  in  spite  of  all  the  learn- 
 ing which  has  been  accumulated  on  him,  half  of  the 
 wit  of  Aristophanes  is  lost  to  us.  It  was  only  from 
 the  incredible  quickness  of  Attic  intellect  that  these 
 comedies,  which,  with  all  their  buffoonery,  are  con- 
 nected with  the  most  important  relations  of  life,  could 
 be  regarded  as  a  diversion  for  the  common  people. 
 We  may  envy  the  poet  who  could  come  before  the 
 public  with  such  pre-suppositions  ;  but  it  was  a  dan- 
 gerous privilege.  It  was  not  easy  to  please  spectators 
 who  understood  with  so  much  ease.  Aristophanes 
 complains  of  the  too  fastidious  taste  of  the  Athenians, 
 with  whom  the  best  of  his  predecessors  were  no  long- 
 er in  favour  as  soon  as  the  smallest  decay  in  their  fac- 
 ulties was  perceptible.  On  the  contrary,  he  says,  the 
 rest  of  the  Greeks  were  out  of  the  question  as  judges 
 of  the  dramatic  art.  All  persons  who  had  talents  in 
 this  line  endeavoured  to  shine  at  Athens ;  and  here 
 again  their  contest  was  compressed  into  the  short  space 
 of  a  few  festivals,  when  the  people  always  desired  some- 
 thing new,  and  obtained  it  in  abundance.  It  was  set- 
 tled, by  a  single  representation,  to  whom  the  prize  was 
 to  be  given,  and  every  one  contended  for  it,  as  there 
 were  no  other  means  of  publication."  {Schhgel,ubcr 
 Dram.  Kunst,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p.  286,  seqq. — p.  283,  Eng. 
 trans. — Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  2d  ed.,  p.  175,  seqq.) — 
 Among  the  numerous  editions  of  Aristophanes  the  fol- 
 lowing are  most  worthy  of  notice  :  that  of  Kuster, 
 Amst,  1710,  fol.  ;  that'of  Brunck,  Argent.,  1783,  6 
 vols.  8vo,  which  would  be  more  complete  did  it  con- 
 tain the  scholia  ;  and  that  of  Invernitz,  based  on  the 
 readings  of  the  Ravenna  MS.,  and  continued  by  Beck 
 and  Dindorlf,  Lij)s.,  11  vols.  8vo,  1794-1826.  We 
 have  also  a  variorum  edition,  5  vols.  8vo,  1829,  from 
 the  London  press.  HotTmaun  censures  severely  the 
 carelessness  evinced  by  the  anonymous  editor  in  com- 
 piling the  notes  to  this  edition,  and  in  assigning  many 
 of  them  to  wrong  commentators.  {Lex.  Bibl.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  273.)  Of  the  editions  of  separate  plays,  we  may  par- 
 ticularize those  by  Mitchell  as  displaying  very  great 
 ability.  Five  of  the  series  have  already  appeared, 
 the  Frogs,  Ackarnians,  Wus-pSy  Knights,  and  Clouds. 
 (Land, 8\'o,  1835-1838.) — 11.  A  famous  grammarian, 
 a  native  of  Byzantium,  who  flourished  about  B.C.  240. 
 He  was  keeper  of  the  library  of  Alexandrea^  under 
 Ptolemy  Euergetes ;  and  arranged  and  commented 
 upon  the  productions  of  Homer,  Hesiod,  Ateaeus,  Pia- 
 
A  R  I 
 
 ARISTOTELES. 
 
 dar,  and  Aristophanes.  His  edition  of  Homer,  in  par- 
 ticular, enjoyed  a  higli  reputation,  and  was  only  ob- 
 scured by  the  labours  of  his  disciple  Aristarchus.  It 
 is  to  Aristophanes  that  the  grammarian  Arcadius  at- 
 tributes the  invention  of  accents  and  marks  of  punctu- 
 ation. He  is  regarded  also  as  the  first  who  arranged 
 the  Canon  of  writers,  to  which  Aristarchus  subsequent- 
 ly put  the  finishing  hand.  (Vid.  Alexandrina  Schola.) 
 We  have  nothing  remaining  of  the  works  of  Aristopha- 
 nes, excepting  a  small  fragment,  containing  the  ex- 
 planation of  some  Greek  words,  which  Boissonade 
 found  in  the  library  of  the  King  of  France.  It  is  pub- 
 lished by  this  scholar  at  the  end  of  his  edition  of  the 
 'E7r</:zepC(T/io«  of  Herodian.  Lo/(tZ.,  1819,  8vo.  {Schbll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  188.) 
 
 Aristopiion,  I.  a  Greek  comic  poet,  contemporary 
 with  Alexander. — II.  An  Athenian  orator,  whom  De- 
 mosthenes, in  his  speech  against  Leptines,  ranks 
 among  the  most  eloquent  men  of  the  republic. — III. 
 Another  orator  of  Athens,  also  distinguished  in  his 
 profession.  He  was  one  of  the  masters  of  .-Eschines. 
 (SchiiU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  268.)— IV.  A  paint- 
 er, a  native  of  Thasos,  and  brother  of  Polygnotus. 
 He  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  Olymp.  80. 
 Pliny  mentions  several  of  his  productions  (35,  11. — 
 Compare  Plul.,  dc  and.  poet.,  3,  p.  69,  vol.  7,  ed.  Hut- 
 ten.) 
 
 Aristotelea,  annual  feasts  in  honour  of  Aristotle, 
 celebrated  by  the  inhabitants  of  Stagira,  in  gratitude 
 for  his  having  obtained  from  Alexander  the  rebuilding 
 and  repeopling  of  that  city,  which  had  been  demolished 
 by  King  Philip.  {Piut.,  Vit.  Alex.,  7.— .Elian,  V.  H., 
 3,  \1.  —  Dwg.  Laert.,  5,  9  ) 
 
 Aristoteles,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  born  at  Sta- 
 gira, B.C.  384.  His  father  was  Nicomachus,  who 
 is  said  to  have  left  behind  him  many  works  on  medicine 
 and  natural  history  (^Suidas,  s.  v.  ISiiuo/iaxoc;),  and  who 
 was  the  physician  and  friend  of  Amyntas,  king  of  Ma- 
 cedDnia.  From  the  place  of  his  birth  Aristotle  is  fre- 
 quently called  the  Stagirite.  Having  lost  both  his 
 parents  at  a  very  early  age,  he  received  the  first  rudi- 
 ments of  learning  from  Proxenusof  Atarneusin  Mysia, 
 of  whom  he  always  retained  a  respectful  remembrance. 
 In  gratitude  for  the  care  which  he  had  taken  of  his 
 early  education,  he  afterward  honoured  his  memory 
 with  a  statue,  instructed  his  son  Nicanor  in  the  liberal 
 sciences,  and  adopted  him  as  his  heir.  At  the  age  of 
 seventeen  Aristotle  went  to  Athens,  and  devoted  him- 
 self to  philosophy  in  the  school  of  Plato.  The  uncom- 
 mon acuteness  of  his  apprehension,  and  his  indefatiga- 
 ble industry,  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  Plato,  and 
 obtained  his  applause.  Plato  used  to  call  him  the 
 Mind  of  the  School,  and  to  say,  when  he  was  absent, 
 "  Intellect  is  not  here."  His  acquaintance  with  books 
 was  extensive  and  accurate,  as  sufficiently  appears 
 from  the  concise  abridgment  of  opinions,  and  the  nu- 
 merous quotations  which  are  found  in  his  works.  The 
 zeal,  in  fact,  with  which  he  strove  to  master  the  treas- 
 ures not  only  of  the  olden  philosophy,  but  of  the  whole 
 literature  of  Greece,  may  be  inferred  from  another 
 name,  "  the  Reader,"  which  Plato  gave  him,  as  well 
 as  by  the  remark  made  by  that  philosopher,  when,  on 
 comparing  him  with  Xenocrates,  he  said  that  the  lat- 
 ter required  the  spur,  but  Aristotle  the  bit.  (Dwg. 
 Laert.,  4,  6.)  He  continued  to  reside  at  Athens  for 
 the  space  of  20  years,  all  of  which  time  assuredly  he 
 did  not  devote  to  the  instructions  of  Plato  ;  on  the 
 contrary,  we  must  assign  to  this  period  the  preparatory 
 labours  of  the  great  works  of  his  after  life.  (Rittef, 
 Hist.  Phil,  vol.  3,  p.  2.)  It  would  appear  from  the 
 language  of  some  eminent  writers,  that,  in  the  last 
 years  of  Plato's  life,  the  earlier  friendship  between  the 
 master  and  disciple  had  given  place  to  mutual  misunder- 
 standing, not  to  say  animosity.  Aristotle  is  accused 
 of  ingratitude  towards  Plato,  and  the  charge  is  sought 
 to  be  substantiated,  not  only  by  several  anecdotes,  but 
 C  0 
 
 by  an  appeal  to  the  writings  of  Aristotle  himself,  who 
 takes  every  occasion,  it  is  alleged,  to  refute  the  theory 
 of  his  master.  The  anecdotes,  however,  which  are  ad- 
 duced in  support  of  this  opinion,  will  be  found,  on  exam- 
 ination, to  be  as  unworthy  of  notice  as  the  similar  state- 
 ments which  speak  of  Plato's  ingratitude  to  Socrates. 
 As  regards  his  writings  themselves,  it  is  very  true  that 
 Aristotle  nowhere  prominently  exhibits  the  signal  merit 
 of  Plato  in  the  service  of  philosophy.  This,  however, 
 may  be  explained,  partly  from  the  scope  and  design  of 
 Aristotle's  works,  and  partly  from  his  scientific  charac- 
 ter. The  object  of  the  former  was  not  so  much  to  give 
 a  due  estimate  of  every  philosopher,  as,  by  an  exami- 
 nation of  their  systems,  to  prevent  his  own  disciples 
 being  disheartened  or  perplexed  by  erroneous  opinions, 
 however  widely  or  speciously  diffused.  The  scientific 
 character  of  Aristotle,  en  the  other  hand,  prevented  him 
 from  reviewing  the  system  of  Plato  in  its  spirit ;  for  it 
 cannot  be  denied  that  the  Aristotelian  criticism  attaches 
 itself  by  preference  to  single  tenets,  which  it  estimates, 
 not  so  much  by  their  philosophical  import,  and  re- 
 lation to  the  system  to  which  they  belong,  as  by  the 
 form  of  expression.  It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that 
 Aristotle  often  finds  fault  with  Plato,  and  never  men- 
 tions him  except  to  refute  his  doctrines  •,  nay,  that  he 
 at  times  evinces  something  of  a  bitterness  in  the  zeal 
 with  which  he  attacks  the  system  of  Plato  and  the 
 Platonists,  and  usually  represents  its  tendency  as  fatal  to 
 science.  (Ritler,  p.  5,  seqq.) — On  the  death  of  Plato  he 
 left  Athens,  and  some  time  after  was  chosen  by  Philip 
 preceptor  to  his  son  Alexander,  which  office  he  dischar- 
 ged with  tb°  greatest  ability  during  eight  years,  until 
 his  pupil's-  accession  to  the  throne.  I'he  letter  which 
 Philip  wrote  to  Aristotle  when  he  chose  him  pre- 
 cejjtor  to  his  son,  was  couched  in  the  following  terms  : 
 "  Be  informed  that  I  have  a  son,  and  that  I  am  thank- 
 ful to  the  gods,  not  so  much  for  his  birth,  as  that  he 
 was  born  in  the  same  age  with  you  ;  for  if  you  will 
 undertake  the  charge  of  his  education,  I  assure  myself 
 that  he  will  become  worthy  of  his  father,  and  of  the 
 kingdom  which  he  will  inherit."  After  Aristotle  had 
 left  his  pupil,  he  returned  to  Athens,  but  the  two  still 
 carried  on  a  friendly  correspondence,  in  which  the 
 philosopher  prevailed  upon  Alexander  to  employ  his 
 power  and  wealth  in  the  service  of  philosophy.  Alex- 
 ander accordingly  employed  several  thousand  persons 
 in  different  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia  to  collect  ani- 
 mals of  various  kinds,  birds,  beasts,  and  fishes,  and 
 sent  them  to  ,\ristotle,  who,  from  the  information  which 
 this  collection  afforded  him,  wrote  fifty  volumes  on  the 
 history  of  animated  nature,  only  a  small  portion  of 
 which  is  now  extant.  Upon  his  return  to  Athens, 
 Aristotle  resolved  to  found  a  new  sect  in  opposition  to 
 the  Academy.  He  chose  for  his  school  a  grove  and 
 enclosure  in  the  suburbs  of  Athens,  called  the  Lyceum. 
 {Vid.  Lyceum.)  From  his  walking  about  as  he  dis- 
 coursed with  his  pupils,  his  followers,  according  to  the 
 common  account,  were  termed  Peripatetics  (IlfptTra- 
 TrjTiKol,  ciTvo  Tov  TTEpmaTdi').  Others,  however,  more 
 correctly  derive  the  appellation  from  the  public  walk 
 {TTepLTTaTog)  in  the  Lyceum  which  Aristotle  and  his  dis- 
 ciples were  accustomed  to  frequent.  (Compare  Brucker, 
 Hist.  Grit.  PhiL,\-o\.  1,  p.  788.)  His  instructions  were 
 not  confined  to  philosophy,  but  comprised  every  branch 
 of  inquiry  which  could  profit  the  youth  of  an  enlightened 
 age,  and  especially  rhetoric.  {Diog.  Laert.,  5,  3. — 
 Cic.,  de  Orat.,  3,  35.)  His  more  abstruse  discourses 
 were  delivered  in  the  morning  to  his  select  disciples  ; 
 this  he  called  his  morning  walk.  He  delivered  lectures 
 to  a  more  promiscuous  auditory  in  the  evening,  when 
 the  Lyceum  was  open  to  all  young  men  without  dis- 
 tinction ;  this  he  termed  his  evening  walk.  The  for- 
 mer investigations  were  called  acroatic  or  acroamalic, 
 the  latter  exoterical.  Both  were  much  frequented. 
 Aristotle  continued  his  school  in  the  Lyceum  foi 
 thirteen  vcars,  employed  at  the  same  time  in  the  com- 
 •^  201 
 
ARISTOTELES. 
 
 ARISTOTELES. 
 
 position  of  the  principal  part  of  his  written  works.  To 
 this  period  also  must  be  assigned  his  important  labours 
 in  experimpntai  knowledge,  especially  in  the  history  of 
 nniinals,  wherein  he  was  assisted,  as  we  have  already 
 said,  bv  tlie  munilicent  liberality  of  Alexander.  Sub- 
 sequently, however,  the  philosojilier  appears  to  have  fall- 
 en under  the  displeasure  of  his  royal  pupil  and  patron, 
 in  consequence  of  having  expressed,  in  rather  hee 
 terms,  his  disapprobation  of  the  changed  habits  of  the 
 king.  {Diog.  Laert.,  5,  \0—Plut.,  Vit.  Alex.,  55.) 
 The  charge  has  even  been  brought  against  him,  that 
 he  furnished  Antipater  with  the  poison  by  which  Alex- 
 ander was  believed  to  have  been  taken  oft".  {Pint., 
 Vit.  Alex.,  77.) — At  the  close  of  this  period,  Aristotle 
 retired  to  Chalcis  with  a  few  of  his  disciples,  in  order, 
 it  is  said,  to  escape  a  fate  similar  to  that  of  Socrates, 
 a  charge  of  impiety  having  been,  in  like  manner,  brought 
 against  him.  (Rifter,  p.  10,  7iolc.)  He  died  at  Chal- 
 cis not  long  after  this,  at  the  age  of  63.  It  is  pretend- 
 ed by  some  that  he  took  poison,  from  the  fear  of  being 
 pursued  by  the  Athenians  ;  while  others  relate  a  still 
 more  idle  talc,  of  his  having  thrown  himself  into  the 
 waters  of  the  Euripus  (iml.  Euripus)  ;  it  is  most  prob- 
 able, however,  that  his  death  was  the  effect  of  prema- 
 ture decay,  in  consequence  of  excessive  watchfulness 
 and  application.  His  body  was  interred  at  Stagira, 
 where  his  memory  was  honoured  with  an  altar  and  a 
 tomb.  Aristotle  was  twice  married.  By  his  second 
 wife  he  had  a  son  named  Nicomachus,  to  whom  he 
 addressed  his  "  Greater  Morals."  Flis  person  was 
 slender ;  he  had  small  eyes,  and  a  shrill  voice  ;  and  when 
 he  was  young,  hesitated  in  his  speech.  He  endeavour- 
 ed to  supply  the  defects  of  his  natural  form  by  an  at- 
 tention to  dress,  and  commonly  appeared  in  a  costly 
 habit,  with  his  beard  shaven,  his  hair  cut,  and  rings 
 on  his  fingers.  {Diog.  Lacrt.,  5,  1. —  Vit.  Aristot.,  ap 
 Me  nag.,  fin.)  Concerning  his  character,  nothing  can 
 be  more  contradictory  than  the  accounts  of  different 
 writers  ;  some  making  him  a  model  of  every  virtue, 
 others  the  most  infamous  of  human  beings.  {Athcn., 
 13,  p.  566,  e. — Hitter,  p.  8,  note.)  The  truth  ap- 
 pears to  be,  that  his  virtues  were  neither  of  that  exalt- 
 ed kind  which  command  admiration,  nor  his  faults  so 
 highly  criminal  as  not  to  admit  of  some  apology. — Aris- 
 totle possessed  in  a  high  degree  the  talents  of  discrimi- 
 nation and  analysis,  added  to  the  most  astonishing 
 knowledge  of  books  and  the  works  of  nature.  To 
 the  latter,  more  especially,  he  devoted  himself  He 
 rejected  the  doctrine  of  ideas,  maintaining  that  all  our 
 impressions  and  thoughts,  and  even  the  highest  efforts 
 of  the  understanding,  are  the  fruit  of  experience.  The 
 Peripatetic  is  the  great  intellectual  school  of  antiquity. 
 In  Aristotle  we  see  the  calm  and  sober  inquirer,  who 
 does  not,  like  Plato,  pursue  a  lofty  ideal,  but  keeps 
 carefully  in  view  the  proximately  practicable,  and  is 
 not  easily  misled  into  any  extravagance  either  of  lan- 
 guage or  thought.  In  Aristotle  we  have  the  cold  in- 
 quirer, and  little  more.  Rarelv,  if  ever,  does  he  step 
 aside  to  consider  the  bond  which  connects  the  science 
 of  the  universal  and  of  nature  with  the  human  intellect 
 and  will.  Consequently,  his  works  have  none  of  that 
 impressiveness  which  constitutes  the  principal  charm  of 
 Plato's  writings.  It  is  true,  wg  only  possess  a  portion 
 of  his  writings,  and  the  very  portion  which  is  design- 
 edly free  from  all  accessory  matter  and  embellishment. 
 Nevertheless,  the  very  manner  in  which  this  portion  is 
 treated,  sufficiently  proves  that  Aristotle,  even  if  his 
 mind  were  not  wholly  alien  from  every  poetical  ele- 
 ment, was  unable  to  combine  the  sober  results  of  sci- 
 ence with  a  lively  imagination. — The  school  of  Aristotle 
 has  been  termed  the  inle.lleelval  school,  with  reference 
 to  his  doctrines  ;  the  school  of  expcrienec,  as  looking 
 without ;  and,  in  a  moral  point  of  view,  the  school  of 
 expediencij  or  prudence,  as  finding  the  rule  of  moral 
 conduct  in  the  result  of  actions. — Philosophy,  accord- 
 ing to  Aristotle,  is  science  arising  out  of  the  love  of 
 
 knowledge,  or  knowledge  according  to  certain  princi- 
 ples. These  principles  cannot,  of  themselves,  be  re- 
 garded as  objects  of  science,  in  so  far  as  they  are 
 known  previously  to  science  {Anal.  Post.,  1,  1. — 
 Eth.  Nic.,  5,  3)  ;  but  they  must  be  viewed  as  certain 
 and  fixed,  and  unable  to  be  subjected  to  any  scien- 
 tific procedure.  Accordingly,  he  assumes  an  imme- 
 diate cognition,  which  he  distinguishes  from  science 
 in  the  strict  sense,  though  he  calls  it  certainly,  and 
 assigns  it  to  science  in  a  wider  sense,  or,  rather,  to 
 wisdom  and  to  reason.  Aristotle's  mode  of  deriving 
 knowledge  is  from  externals,  Plato's  from  internals. 
 According  to  the  former,  we  obtain  the  knowledge  of 
 particulars  immediately  through  the  senses,  while  we 
 acquire  the  universal  {ra  lead'  oAor)  mediately  through 
 experience  and  logic.  Plato,  on  the  contrary,  be'^an 
 with  universals,  and  reasoned  downward.  In  this  we 
 have  the  leading  difference  between  the  two  schools. 
 In  the  system  of  Aristotle,  logic  is  the  opyavov,  the 
 instrument  by  which  all  general  knowledge  is  obtained. 
 Henc-e  the  importance  of  logic  in  the  peripatetic  school. 
 Logic,  however,  is  only  the  instrument  of  science  or 
 philosophy,  quoad  formam,  for  it  is  experience  that 
 must  supply  the  matter  to  be  worked  upon,  and  wrought 
 into  general  principles.  By  his  works  comprehended 
 under  the  title  of  Organum,  Aristotle  has  rendered 
 the  greatest  service  to  logic,  as  the  science  which 
 would  establish  the  formal  part  of  reasoning,  and  elu- 
 cidate its  theory  ;  and  he  ought  not  to  be  made  respon 
 sible  for  the  abuse,  which  afterward  prevailed,  of  this 
 same  art  among  his  later  followers,  the  schoolmen. 
 The  error  into  which  they  fell  was  to  make  logic  ca- 
 pable of  supplying  not  only  the  form,  but  even  the  mai- 
 ler, of  argumentation  ;  in  other  words,  to  consider  it  an 
 instrument  that  could  of  itself  discover  the  truth. — 
 Aristotle,  more  than  any  other  philosopher,  enlarged 
 the  limits  of  philosophy.  He  comprised  therein  all  the 
 sciences  (rational,  empirical,  or  mixed),  with  the  single 
 exception  of  history  ;  and  he  appears  to  have  divided 
 it,  as  a  whole,  into  Logic,  Physics,  and  Ethics,  or  spec- 
 ulative and  practical.  Aristotle's  tu  f^vcjiKu  is  not 
 equivalent  to  Physics  in  the  modern  acceptation  of 
 the  term,  but  has  a  much  wider  range,  comprehending 
 the  nature  of  all  beings,  and  not  confined  to  mere  ma- 
 terial ones.  Under  this  head,  therefore,  the  nature  of 
 Deity  comes  in  for  consideration.  But,  in  treating  this 
 topic,  Aristotle  fell  from  the  high  and  lofty  teaching 
 of  his  master  Plato,  and  taught  the  existence  of  deity 
 in  a  lower  sense,  without  any  of  those  attributes  which 
 may  be  said  to  constitute  his  very  nature.  With  him, 
 Nature  is  a  great  machine,  the  first  spring  of  which  is 
 Deity.  He  says  nothing  of  the  Supreme  Being  ;  he 
 speaks  of  him  merely  as  a  first  cause  of  movements, 
 itself  unmoved  {to  npCirov  klvovv  uKivriTov).  —  Aris- 
 totle has  been  accused  of  being  an  atheist  and  a  neces- 
 sitarian. The  Christian  fathers  rejected  his  philoso- 
 ]ihy  on  the  ground  of  atheism,  because  he  taught  that 
 the  world  was  eternal.  His  doctrine,  however,  would 
 not  seem  to  be  in  reality  an  atheistic  one.  He  taught 
 that  Creation  was  not  within  the  limits  of  time  :  that 
 the  essential  nature  of  Deity  was  cause.  Now  if  the 
 cause  be  eternal,  the  effect  must  be  eternal,  and  there 
 never  would  be  a  time  when  Creation  did  not  exist. 
 It  is  evident  that  in  this  he  did  not  mean  to  tearh 
 atheism.  He  is  more  justly  chargeable  with  being  a 
 necessitarian,  since  all  his  reasonings  on  the  Deity 
 make  him  the  first  spring  of  the  great  machine  of  na- 
 ture.— With  regard  to  man,  he  likewise  taught  a  less 
 lofty  doctrine  than  Plato.  He  makes  the  soul  distinct 
 from  the  body,  but  considered  as  its  form  (fWof  or 
 EVTeT^eX^'-"-)''  ''■  '*  inseparable  therefrom.  He  says  lit- 
 tle with  regard  to  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  a  fu- 
 ture state  of  rewards  and  punishments  ;  and  has  even 
 by  some  been  charged  with  materialism.  A  perfect 
 unity  of  plan  prevails  through  his  Ethics,  Politics,  and 
 Economics.     Both  the  latter  have  for  their  end  to  show 
 
ARISTOTELES. 
 
 ARM 
 
 how  the  object  of  man's  existence,  defined  in  the  Ethics, 
 namely,  virtue  combined  with  happiness,  may  be  attain- 
 ed in  the  civil  and  domestic  relations,  through  a  good 
 constitution  of  the  state  and  household. — In  the  history 
 of  the  Aristotelian  school,  four  periods  are  commonly 
 noticed.  The  Jirst,  from  the  death  of  Aristotle  to  the 
 time  of  Cicero,  was  a  period  of  gradual  decline,  for 
 the  philosophy  of  the  Stagirite  was  deeper  than  suited 
 ordinary  intellects,  and  they  could  not  carry  it  on.  Du- 
 ring the  second  period,  from  Cicero  to  the  seventh  cen- 
 tury of  the  Christian  era,  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle 
 was  quite  neglected,  and  almost  unknown.  From 
 the  seventh  to  the  tenth  century,  the  ihird  period,  it 
 was  revived,  but  in  a  greatly  corrupted  state.  From 
 the  tenth  to  the  fifteenth,  the  fourih  period,  when  it 
 was  overthrown  by  Bacon  and  Descartes,  it  went  by 
 the  name  of  the  scholastic  philosophy,  being  connect- 
 ed with  polemic  theology. — Aristotle  was  the  most 
 voluminous  of  the  ancient  philosophers.  A  large  cat- 
 alogue of  his  writings  is  given  by  Diogenes  Laertius, 
 and  in  modern  times  by  Fabricius  and  others.  From  this 
 it  appears  that  he  wrote  many  books  besides  those  which 
 have  been  transmitted  to  our  own  day.  We  have  all 
 his  Logical  works,  five  in  number,  and  usually  pub- 
 lished under  the  general  title  of  Organon.  We  have 
 16  books  on  Physical  Philosophy ;  14  on  Mcta-physics  ; 
 and  three  works  on  Morals ;  the  first  entitled  Nico- 
 machcan  Ethics,  addressed  to  his  son  Nicomachus  ; 
 the  second  Magna  Moralia  ;  the  third  a  Discourse  on 
 Virtue  aiid  Vice.  We  have  also  separate  works  on 
 Economics,  Government,  the  Art  of  Rhetoric,  and  the 
 Art  of  Poetry.  The  works  of  Aristotle,  together  with 
 his  library,  passed  very  early  through  hazards  which 
 have  rendered  it  a  subject  of  critical  inquiry  how  far 
 the  present  volumes  which  bear  his  name  are  genuine. 
 (Consult  remarks  under  the  article  Apellicon.) — Be- 
 fore closing  this  article,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  offer  a 
 few  observations  relative  to  the  term  Metaphysics,  as 
 applied  to  some  of  the  writings  of  Aristotle.  This  ap- 
 pellation is  not  found  either  in  the  works  of  the  Stagi- 
 rite himself,  or  in  those  of  any  Greek  or  Roman  phi- 
 losopher anterior  to  Nicholas  of  Damascus.  It  is  said 
 that  Andronicus  of  Rhodes,  wishing  to  arrange  the 
 works  of  Aristotle,  distributed  them  into  different 
 classes,  such  as  works  on  logic,  on  rhetoric,  on  poe- 
 try, &c.  The  last  of  these  sections  or  divisions  com- 
 prehended the  works  on  Physics.  Still,  however, 
 there  remained  over  a  number  of  writings,  which  he 
 had  been  unable  to  assign  to  any  class,  because,  being 
 first  essays  in  a  new  science,  they  did  not  fall  under  any 
 one  of  the  heads  under  which  he  had  arranged  the  rest. 
 He  therefore  united  these  into  one  class  by  themselves, 
 and  assigned  them  their  rank  after  the  works  on 
 Physics  (fxeru  ra  (J)V(7lku),  whence  arose  their  peculiar 
 name,  which  had  no  reference  whatever  to  the  subjects 
 discussed  in  them.  With  a  little  more  attention  on 
 his  part,  Andronicus  might  have  found  a  better  title  in 
 the  writings  of  Aristotle  himself ;  for  it  appears  that  the 
 books  which  we  have  on  Metaphysics  are  the  same 
 with  what  the  Stagirite  calls  his  Aoyoi  eK  t)J(;  Trpurrjc 
 ^i7.orso6Lar,  "  Discourses  on  the  First  Philosophy.'' — 
 The  best  editions  of  the  entire  works  of  Aristotle  are, 
 that  of  Du  Val,  Paris,  1619,2  vols.  fol. ;  that  of  Bekker, 
 Bend.,  1831,  5  vols.  4to  ;  and  the  small  stereotype  one 
 published  by  Tauchnitz,  Lips.,  16  vols.  18mo,  1832, 
 &.C. — Of  the  separate  treatises,  the  following  editions 
 may  be  mentioned.  The  best  edition  of  the^Organon 
 is  that  of  Geneva,  1605,  4to  ;  of  the  Ethics,  that  of 
 CardwcU,  Oxon.,  1828-30,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  to  which  we 
 may  add  that  of  Bekker,  BcroL,  1831,  8vo  ;  of  the  Art 
 of  Poetry,  that  of  Hermann.  L)>,?.,  1803,8vo;  to  which 
 may  be  added  the  excellent  one  of  Tyrwhitt,  Oxon., 
 1V94,  4to,  and  that  of  Graefcnhahn,  Lips.,  1821,  8vo  ; 
 of  the  Art  of  Rhetoric,  that  published  at  O.xford', 
 1820,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  of  the  History  of  Animals,  that  of 
 Schneider,  Lips.,  1811,  4  vols.  8vo ;  of  the  Politics, 
 
 that  of  Gottling,  Lips  ,  1824,  8vo,  &c.  Among  ihr 
 subsidiary  works  on  Aristotle  may  be  mentioned  the 
 following:  Examen  Critique  de  I'ouvrage  d'Anstoti 
 intitule  Melaphysitjuc,  par  Michdet,  Purls,  1836,  Svo 
 — Essai  sur  la  Mclaphysique  d'Anstote,  par  liavais^ 
 son,  Paris,  1837,  2  vols.  Svo  — La  Logique  d' Anstote, 
 par  Saint-  Hrl aire.  Pans,  1838,  2  vols.  Svo.  These 
 French  works  are  all  prize-essays  of  the  Institute. 
 {Hitter's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  3,  p.  1,  seqq. — 
 Tennemanii's  Manual,  &c.,  p.  121,  seqq. — Enfield's 
 Hist.  Philos.,  vol.  1,  p.  260,  seqq.) 
 
 Aristoxenus,  I.  a  native  of  Tarentum  and  disci- 
 ple of  Aristotle,  who  wrote  both  on  philosophy  and  mu- 
 sic. Among  the  works  of  a  philosophical  character 
 which  he  composed,  may  be  enumerated  his  treatise  on 
 the  Laws  respecting  Education  {Trtpl  iraidLKuv  vo^uv) ; 
 his  Pythagorean  Theses  {JlvOayopiKai  uTro(j)daEig),  a 
 collection  of  the  precepts  of  morality  inculcaied  by  that 
 sect;  and  his  Biography  of  Eminent  Philosophers  (Biof 
 uvSpuv).  In  the  last  of  these  works  he  is  unjust  to- 
 wards the  character  of  Socrates,  as  far  as  we  can  learn 
 from  some  fragments  that  have  come  down  to  us. 
 The  cause  of  this  may  cither  have  been  the  little  es- 
 teem in  which  music  was  held  by  Socrates,  or  a  quar- 
 rel which  had  occurred  between  the  latter  and  Spin- 
 thares,  the  father  of  Aristoxenus,  who  had  been  one 
 of  his  disciples.  Aristoxenus  was  celebrated  among 
 the  ancients  for  applying  the  Aristotelian  doctrine  of 
 knowledge  to  the  scientific  investigation  of  music.  He 
 compared  the  soul  to  a  musical  harmony,  and  thought 
 that,  as  the  latter  is  produced  by  the  different  relations 
 subsisting  between  several  tones,  so,  too,  the  soul  ;s  the 
 consequence  of  the  relative  arrangement  of  the  differ- 
 ent parts  of  the  body ;  for  that  it  is  this  which  produ- 
 ces the  movement  of  the  living  body,  and  the  soul  is 
 to  be  regarded  as  nothing  more  than  a  certain  tension 
 of  the  body.  {Cic.,  Tusc,  1,  10)  As  a  writer  on 
 music,  Aristoxenus  must  be  regarded  as  the  earliest 
 that  we  possess.  His  work  on  Harmony  was  pub- 
 lished by  Meursius  in  1616  {Lugd.  Bat.,  4lo),  and 
 subsequently,  in  a  much  more  correct  form,  by  Meibo- 
 mius,  in  his  collection  of  the  Writers  on  Music.  The 
 fragments  on  Rhythm  were  published  for  the  first  time 
 by  Morelli,  at  the  end  of  the  speech  of  Aristides  against 
 Leplines  (Vc7iet.,  1785,  8vo).  The  remains  of  the 
 philosophical  writings  of  Aristoxenus  are  principally 
 in  StobcBus,  but  have  not  as  yet  been  edited  by  any 
 scholar.  Compare,  with  regard  to  this  writer,  the  re- 
 marks of  Meiners,  Gesch.  der  Wissensch  ,  vol.  1,  p. 
 213,  and  Mahne,  Diatribe  de  Arisloxcnv,  Am-it.,  1793, 
 Svo). — II.  A  physician,  disciple  of  Alexander  Phiia- 
 lethes,  cited  by  Galen  (diff.  puis.,  4,  p.  47).  He  rec- 
 ommended the  use  of  clysters  in  hydrophobia  ;  and 
 boasted  much  of  the  efficacy  of  frictions  with  oil  and 
 the  plant  termed  by  botanists  polygonum  convolvvlvs, 
 in  cases  of  quartan  fever.  He  left  a  work  on  the 
 principles  of  his  school,  which  has  not  come  down  to 
 us.  ( Cocl.  Avrel.,  acut.,  3,  1 6,  p.  233. — Apoll.  Dysc, 
 hist,  mirah,  c.  33,  p.  133. — Galen,  I.  c.) 
 
 Arius.  apresbyter  of  the  church  of  Alex  andrea,  in  the 
 4th  century.  He  denied  the  divinity  and  consubstan- 
 tiality  of  the  Word.  After  havmg  been  persecuted 
 for  his  opinions,  he  gained  the  favour  of  the  Emperor 
 Constantine,  and  supplanted  St.  Athanasius,  his  adver- 
 sary, but  died  suddenly,  when  just  about  to  enter  in 
 triumph  the  cathedral  of  Constantinople,  A.D.  336. 
 He  gave  name  to  the  sect  of  the  Arians.  {Epiphan., 
 Hares.,  68.— Socrat.,  Hist.  Eccles.,  &c.) 
 
 Armenia,  a  large  country  of  Asia,  divided  into  Ar- 
 menia Major  and  Minor.  The  first,  which  is  the  mod- 
 ern Turcoman ia,  and  is  still  sometimes  called  Armenia, 
 lies  south  of  Mount  Caucasus,  and  comprehsnds  the 
 Turkish  pachalics  Erzerum,  Kars,  and  Van,  and  also 
 the  Persian  province  Iran  or  Eriran.  It  was  separa- 
 ted from  Armenia  Minor  by  the  river  Euphrates.  Ar- 
 menia Minor  was,  properly  speaking,  a  part  of  Cappa- 
 *^  203 
 
ARMENIA. 
 
 ARM 
 
 docia.  It  is  now  called  Aladidia  or  Pegian,  belongs 
 to  the  Turks,  and  is  divided  between  ihe  pachulics 
 Meraskc  and  Swas.  Armenia  is  a  rough,  inountani- 
 ous  country,  which  has  Caucasus  for  its  northern 
 boundarv,  and  in  the  centre  is  traversed  by  branches 
 of  Mount  Taurus,  to  which  belongs  Mount  Ararat. 
 Here  the  two  great  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris  take 
 their  rise ;  likewise  the  Cyrus  or  A'l/r,  and  other  less 
 considerable  streams.  Herodotus  (7,  73)  says  that 
 the  Armenians  were  a  Phrygian  colony,  and  used  arms 
 like  those  of  the  Phrygians  ;  but,  as  Ritter  well  re- 
 marks {Erdkiinde^  vo[.  2,  p.  782),  the  nations  whom 
 the  father  of  profane  history  designates  as  Phrygians, 
 Armenians,  Cappadocians,  and  Syrians,  are  all  de- 
 scendants of  the  Aramcan  stock.  Hence  we  may,  with 
 some  degree  of  probability,  consider  the  name  Armenia 
 as  derived  from  Aram,  and  the  Semitic  Arameans  to 
 have  been  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  land,  who  were 
 afterward  overpowered  by  barbarian  tribes  from  Upper 
 Asia.  (Compare  Addung,  Miiliradatcs,  vol.  1,  p.  420.) 
 According  to  another  opinion,  the  Armenian  tongue 
 may  be  traced  to  Xisuthros  or  Noah,  and  may  boast 
 of  being  antediluvian  in  its  character.  {Recherchcs 
 CuricKses,  &c.,  par  Chahan  de  Culned  et  Martin, 
 Paris,  1806,  8vo.)  Of  the  ancient  history  of  Arme- 
 nia but  little  is  known.  The  native  writers  make 
 Hai'g  to  have  been  the  first  chieftain  or  prince  that 
 ruled  over  this  country,  and  from  him  they  called  them- 
 selves Haji.  He  was  the  son  of  Taglath,  who,  ac- 
 cording to  them,  was  the  same  with  Thogarma,  grand- 
 son of  Japhet.  Twenty-two  centuries  before  the 
 Christian  era  he  left  Babylon,  his  native  place,  and  es- 
 tablished himself,  with  all  his  family,  in  the  mountains 
 of  southern  Armenia,  in  order  to  escape  from  the  tyr- 
 anny of  Belus,  king  of  Assyria.  The  latter  attacked 
 him  in  his  new  settlements,  but  perished  by  his  hand. 
 Aram,  the  sixth  successor  of  Haig,  became  so  distin- 
 guished by  his  exploits,  that,  from  his  lime,  the  sur- 
 rounding nations  called  the  country  Armenia,  after  his 
 name.  Ara,  son  of  the  preceding,  fell  in  defending 
 his  country  against  Semiramis,  and  Armenia  became 
 thenceforward  an  Assyrian  province  until  the  death  of 
 Sardanapalus,  when  a  succession  of  native  princes 
 again  appeared.  (Compare  Klaproth,  Tableaux  His- 
 toriqius  de  I'Asie,  &c.,  p.  50,  seqq.)  After  the  death 
 of  Alexander,  it  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria, 
 and  so  remained  till  the  overthrow  of  Antiochus  the 
 Great,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  different  rulers, 
 and  was  divided  into  Armenia  Major  and  Minor. — Ar- 
 menia Major  was  exposed  to  many  attacks.  The 
 Romans  and  Parthians  fought  a  long  time  for  the 
 right  of  giving  a  successor  to  the  throne,  and  it  was 
 governed  at  one  period  by  Parthian  princes,  at  anoth- 
 er by  those  whom  the  Romans  favoured,  until  Tra- 
 jan made  it  a  Roman  province.  Armenia  afterward 
 recovered  its  independence,  and  was  under  the  rule 
 of  its  own  kings.  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  attempt- 
 ed its  subjugation  in  vain,  and  it  remained  free  until 
 6?)0,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Arabians.  After 
 this  it  several  times  changed  its  masters,  among  whom 
 were  Gengis-Khan  and  Timour-leng.  In  1552,  Selim 
 II.  conquered  it  from  the  Persians,  and  the  greater 
 part  has  since  remained  under  the  Turkish  dominion. 
 — Armenia  Minor  has  also  had  several  rulers,  among 
 whom  Mithradatcs  was  first  distinguished.  From 
 him  Ponipey  took  the  kingdom,  and  gave  it  to  Deiota- 
 rus.  On  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the 
 east  it  was  conquered  by  the  Persians,  and  in  950 
 fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabians,  since  which  time 
 it  has  shared  the  same  fate  as  Armenia  Major,  and  was 
 made,  in  1514,  a  Turkish  province  by  Selim  I. — The 
 earlier  capital  of  Armenia  was  Armavir,  which,  during 
 1800  years,  was  the  residence  of  the  kings.  After 
 Armavir,  Artaxata  (Artaschad)  on  the  Araxes,  built 
 in  the  time  of  the  Seleucida^,  became  the  capital,  but 
 iank  into  decay  before  the  end  of  the  8th  century. — 
 204 
 
 For  some  remarks  on  the  Armenian  language,  consult 
 Balbi,  Atlas  Elhnographique,  &.c.,  tabl.  4,  and  Intro- 
 duction a  VAtlas,  p.  45. — As  regards  the  literary 
 history  of  Armenia,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  litera- 
 ture of  the  country  begins  with  the  conversion  of  the 
 Armenians  to  Christianity  in  the  commencement  of  the 
 fourth  century.  Since  that  time  they  have  translated 
 from  the  Greek  (there  is  a  Homer  in  Armenian  hex- 
 ameters), Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Chaldee,  into  their 
 own  dialect,  which  some  assert  to  be  an  original  lan- 
 guage, as  has  already  been  remarked ;  while  others 
 regard  it  as  a  mixed  dialect,  composed  of  the  Syriac, 
 Chaldee,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic.  Both  opinions  are  cor- 
 rect. The  old  Armenian,  the  language  of  literature 
 and  of  the  church,  is,  as  Vater  agrees,  an  original  lan- 
 guage ;  the  modern  Armenian  has  been  formed,  as  a 
 popular  language,  by  foreign  additions  during  the  suc- 
 cessive changes  of  their  conquerors,  and  consists  of 
 four  principal  dialects.  The  written  language  owes 
 its  cultivation  to  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  begun  in 
 411  by  Mesrob,  with  his  disciples  (among  whom  was 
 Moses  Choronensis),  by  the  desire  of  the  patriarch 
 Isaac  the  Great,  and  finished  in  511.  Mesrob  first 
 added  seven  vowel-signs  to  the  old  Armenian  alpha- 
 bet, which  before  only  contained  27  consonants.  At 
 the  same  time  schools  were  established.  The  most 
 flourishing  period  of  Armenian  literature  was  in  the 
 sixth  century,  at  the  time  of  the  separation  of  the  Ar- 
 menians from  the  Greek  church  after  the  council  of 
 Chalcedon.  It  continued  to  flourish  until  the  tenth 
 century,  revived  in  the  thirteenth,  and  maintained  a 
 respectable  character  till  1453.  In  scientific  inquiries 
 it  never  rose  to  any  considerable  eminence.  It  is  par- 
 ticularly valuable  in  what  relates  to  history. — The  best 
 introduction  to  Armenian  history,  geography,  and  lit- 
 erature, is  that  which  M.  J.  Saint-Martin,  member  of 
 the  French  Institute,  has  extracted  from  old  Armenian 
 writings,  inscriptions,  and  other  sources,  under  the 
 title  of  Miinoircs  historiques  el  geographiques  sur 
 l^Armenie,  Paris,  1808,  2  vols.  (^Encyc.  Amer.,  1, 
 373.) 
 
 Akmiiatstrium  orARMiLUSTRUM,  a  festival  at  Rome, 
 on  the  19th  of  October,  during  which  they  sacrificed 
 completely  armed,  and  to  the  sound  of  trumpets.  It 
 was  intended  for  the  expiation  of  the  armies,  and  the 
 prosperity  of  the  arms  of  the  Roman  people.  The 
 name  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  the  place  in  which 
 the  sacrifice  was  performed.  {Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  32. — 
 Id.  lb.,  5,  3.—Lw.,  27,  37.) 
 
 Arminius  (the  Latin  name  ior  Hermann,  i.  e.,  lead- 
 er or  general),  the  deliverer  of  Germany  from  the 
 Roman  yoke.  He  was  a  son  of  a  prince  of  the 
 Cherusci,  Sigimer  (which,  in  the  old  German,  signifies 
 a  famous  conqueror),  and  was  born  18  B.C.  He  was 
 educated  at  Rome,  admitted  into  the  rank  of  equites, 
 and  appointed  to  an  honourable  station  in  the  army  of 
 Augustus.  But  princely  fp.vour  and  the  charms  of 
 learning  were  insufficient  to  make  the  young  barbarian 
 forget  his  early  associations.  Convinced  that  the  rude 
 strength  of  his  savage  countrymen  would  be  unequal 
 to  cope  with  the  disciplined  fortes  of  the  Romans  in 
 the  open  field,  he  had  recourse  to  stratagem.  Having 
 fomented  the  discontent  prevailing  among  the  German 
 nations,  and  having  produced  a  wide  confederacy  for 
 revolt,  he  artfully  drew  Varus,  the  Roman  commander 
 on  the  Rhine,  into  an  ambuscade,  where  three  Roman 
 legions  were  cut  to  pieces.  Varus,  unable  to  survive 
 his  disgrace,  slew  himself,  A.D.  10.  Germanicus 
 marched  with  a  powerful  army  to  revenge  the  over- 
 throw of  Varus  ;  but  it  required  more  than  one  cam- 
 paign, and  several  battles,  before  he  obtained  any  de- 
 cided advantage  ;  and  at  last  Arminius  fell  a  sacrifice 
 only  to  the  civil  feuds  in  which  he  was  involved  with 
 his  own  countrymen  and  kindred,  being  assassinated 
 by  one  of  his  own  relations,  in  the  37th  year  of  his 
 age.     Tacitus  relates,  that  he  drew  upon  himself  the 
 
ARO 
 
 ARR 
 
 hatred  of  his  countrymen  by  aiming  at  the  regal  au- 
 thority. A  short  time  before  his  death,  Adgantestes 
 or  Adgantestrius,  prince  of  the  Catti,  proposed  to  the 
 Roman  senate  to  despatch  Arminius  by  poison,  but 
 tlie  senate  took  no  notice  of  the  offer.  Arminius  was 
 26  years  old  when  he  destroyed  the  legions  of  Varus. 
 In  the  language  of  Tacitus,  -'Arminius  was  doubtless 
 the  deliverer  of  Germany.  He  fought  against  the 
 Romans,  not  like  other  kmgs  and  generals,  when  they 
 were  weak,  but  when  their  empire  was  mighty  and 
 their  renown  glorious.  Fortune,  indeed,  sometimes 
 deserted  him  ;  but,  even  when  conquered,  his  noble 
 character  and  his  extensive  influence  cotnmanded  the 
 veneration  of  his  conquerors.  For  twelve  years  he 
 presided  over  the  destinies  of  Germany,  to  the  com- 
 plete satisfaction  of  his  countrymen  ;  and,  after  his 
 death,  they  paid  him  divine  honours."  {Tacit.,  Ann., 
 2,  88.)  If  we  dwell  a  moment  on  the  results  of  his 
 victory,  we  will  find  that  it  had  a  decided  influence  on 
 the  whole  character  of  Germany,  political  and  liter- 
 ary ;  because  it  is  evident  that,  had  the  Romans  re- 
 mained in  quiet  possession  of  the  country,  they  would 
 have  given  a  tone  to  all  its  institutions  and  its  lan- 
 guage, as  was  the  case  with  all  the  other  countries  of 
 Furope  conquered  by  them.  The  reason,  therefore, 
 why  the  language  of  the  Germans  remained  in  a  great 
 degree  unmi.\ed  with,  and  uninfluenced  by,  the  Latin, 
 and  why  their  political  institutions  retained  so  much 
 of  their  ancient  character,  is  to  be  found  in  the  victory 
 of  Arminius.  {Enryclop.  Ariieric.,\o\.  I,  p.  375,  seqq. 
 — Bibl.  Uyuv.,  vol.  2,  p.  480. — Menzel,  Geschichte 
 dcr  Deutschen,  p.  58.) 
 
 Armoric.a.       Vid.  Aremorica. 
 Arna,  I.  a  city  of  Lycia,  called  afterward  Xanthus. 
 (Vid.    Xanthus.) — II.    a    town   of  Umbria,   west   of 
 Nuceria,  and  near  the   Tiber.     It   is  now   Civitella 
 d'Arno.     {Pirn.,  3,  U.—Sil.  ltd.,  8,  458.) 
 
 Akxo^bius,  I.  the  Elder,  called  also  the  African, 
 was  born  at  Sicca  Venerea  in  Numidia,  in  the  latter 
 part  of  the  third  century.  He  was  at  first  a  pagan,  and 
 taught  rhetoric  in  his  native  city,  where  he  acquired  a 
 high  reputation;  but  he  subsequently  embraced  Chris- 
 tianiiy,  being  moved  thereto  by  dreams,  according  to 
 St.  Jerome.  {Chron.  ad  arm.  xx.  Const. — Compare  de 
 vir.  ill.,  79).  As,  however,  he  had  warmly  attacked 
 Christianity  before  his  conversion,  in  the  course  of  his 
 public  lectures,  the  bishop  of  Sicca  refused  to  admit 
 him  within  the  pale  of  the  church  until  he  had  evin- 
 ced the  sincerity  of  his  conversion  by  some  open  act. 
 In  consequence  of  this,  while  yet  a  catechumen,  he 
 wrote  a  work  entitled  Libri  vii.  advcrsus  gcntcs,  in 
 which  he  refuted  the  objections  of  the  heathen  against 
 Christianity  with  spirit  and  learning.  This  work  be- 
 trays, as  may  well  be  expected,  a  defective  knowledge 
 of  the  Christian  religion,  but  it  is  rich  in  materials  for 
 the  understanding  of  Greek  and  Roman  mythology  : 
 hence  it  is  one  of  the  writings  of  the  Latin  fathers, 
 which,  like  the  works  of  his  disciple  Lactantius,  are 
 particularly  valued  by  philologists.  We  have  given 
 above  the  more  correct  title  of  the  work  of  Arnobius. 
 It  is  commonly,  but  less  correctly,  called  Libri  vii. 
 disputalionvm  adversus  gcntcs .  {Le  Nnurry,  Ap- 
 parat.  ad  Bibl.  Pair.,  2,  p.  285. — B'dhr,  ChristUch- 
 Rom.  TkeoL,  p.  67.)  The  latest  and  best  edition  of 
 Arnobius  is  that  of  Orellius  {Lips.,  1816,  8vo).— 
 II.  The  younger,  a  Gallic  divine  in  the  last  half  of 
 the  5th  century.  We  have  from  him  an  insignificant 
 commentary  on  the  Psalms,  which  betrays  the  princi- 
 ples of  the  Semi-Pelagians.     {B'dhr,  I.  c.) 
 
 Arnus,  a  river  of  Etruria,  rising  in  the  Umbrian 
 Apennines,  and  falling  into  the  Mediterranean.  It 
 is  now  the  Arno.  On  its  banks  stood  Florentia,  the 
 modern  Florence,  and  near  its  mouth  Pisaj,  now  Pisa. 
 The  portus  Pisanus  was  at  the  very  mouth.  {Strab., 
 222.—Rutil.,  I/in.,  1,  531.) 
 
 Aroe,  one  of  the  three  towns  of  Achaia  on  the  site 
 
 of  which  Patrae  was  afterward  built.     The  other  two 
 were  Anthea  and  Messatis.     {Pausan.,  7,  18.) 
 
 Aromata,  or  Aromatum  Promontorium,  the  most 
 eastern  land  of  the  continent  of  Africa,  now  Cape 
 Guardafui.     {PloL,  1,  9,  p.  11.) 
 
 Arpi,  a  city  of  Apulia,  in  the  interior  of  Daunia,  re- 
 markable for  its  antiquity.  Its  first  name  was  Argy- 
 rippa,  an  appellation  supposed  to  be  modified  from 
 'Apyof  "lirnLov,  the  name  which  it  received  originally 
 from  its  founder  Diomede.  When  Arpi  is  first  intro- 
 duced to  our  notice  in  the  history  of  Rome,  it  is  rep 
 resented  as  an  Apulian  city  of  no  great  importance, 
 and  of  which  the  Romans  possessed  themselves  with- 
 out difficulty.  {Liv.,  9,  13.)  In  the  second  Punic 
 war  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Hannibal  after  the  battle 
 of  Cannae  {Polyb.,  3,  88  and  118),  but  was  recovered 
 by  the  Romans.  Arpi  was  greatly  reduced  in  the 
 time  of  Strabo  (283),  but  still  continued  to  exist  un- 
 der Constantine  as  an  episcopal  see.  {Cramer's  An- 
 cient Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  282.) 
 
 Arpinum,  a  small  town  of  Latium,  southeast  of 
 Rome,  still  known  by  the  name  of  Arpino.  It  is  ren- 
 dered illustrious  in  the  page  of  history  for  having 
 given  birth  to  Marius  and  Cicero.  It  originally  be- 
 longed to  the  Volsci,  but  was  taken  by  the  Samnitcs, 
 from  whom  it  was  again  wrested  by  the  Romans. 
 {Liv.,  9,  44.)  It  became  a  municipal  town,  and  its 
 citizens  were  enrolled  in  the  Cornelian  tribe.  Of 
 course,  frequent  mention  is  made  of  Arpinum  in  Ci- 
 cero's letters :  he  was  fond  of  his  native  place,  and 
 dwells  with  complacency  on  the  rude  and  primitive 
 simplicity  of  its  customs,  applying  to  it  those  lines  of 
 the  Odyssey  (1,  27,  seqq.)  in  which  Ulysses  expresses 
 his  love  for  Ithaca.  {Cramer'' s  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2, 
 p.  114,  seqq.) 
 
 Arria,  the  wife  of  Coecina  Paetus.  Her  husband, 
 a  man  of  consular  rank,  having  taken  part  in  the  un- 
 successful revolt  of  Scribonianus,  in  lUyricum,  against 
 the  Emperor  Claudius,  was  brought  to  Rome  for  trial. 
 Arria,  finding  all  means  of  saving  him  ineffectual,  and 
 perceiving  him,  at  the  same  time,  destitute  of  suffi- 
 cient courage  to  destroy  himself,  plunged  a  dagger 
 into  her  own  bosom  in  the  presence  of  her  husband, 
 and  then  drawing  it  forth,  handed  the  weapon  to  him, 
 calmly  remarking  at  the  time,  "  rt  does  not  pain.'' 
 Martial  has  made  this  the  subject  of  an  epigram  (1, 
 
 Arrianus,  I.  a  Greek  historian,  a  native  of  Nico- 
 media,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century  under 
 Hadrian  and  the  Antonines.  In  his  own  country  he 
 was  a  priest  of  Ceres  and  Proserpina  ;  but,  taking  up 
 his  residence  at  Rome,  he  became  a  disciple  of  Epic- 
 tetus.  He  was  honoured  with  the  citizenship  of 
 Rome,  and  appointed  prefect  of  Cappadocia  by  the 
 Emperor  Hadrian,  who  patronised  him  on  account  of 
 his  learning  and  talents.  In  this  capacity  he  distin- 
 guished himself  by  his  prudence  and  valour  in  the 
 war  against  the  Massageta;,  and  was  afterward  ad- 
 vanced to  the  senatorial  and  even  consular  dignities. 
 Like  Xenophon,  he  united  the  literary  with  the  mili- 
 tary character,  was  conversant  with  philosophy  and 
 learning,  and  intimate  with  those  who  cultivated  them. 
 No  less  than  seven  of  the  epistles  of  Pliny  the  young- 
 er are  addressed  to  Arrian.  His  historical  writings 
 were  numerous  ;  but  of  these,  with  the  exception  of 
 some  fragments  in  Photius,  only  two  remain.  The 
 first  is  composed  of  seven  books  on  the  expedition  of 
 Alexander,  which,  being  principally  compiled  from  the 
 memoirs  of  Ptolemy  Lagus  and  Aristobulus,  who  both 
 served  under  that  king,  are  deemed  proportionably  val- 
 uable. Arrian,  himself  a  soldier  and  a  politician,  pos- 
 sessed a  sounder  judgment  than  Quintus  Curtius,  and 
 indulged  less  in  the  marvellous.  To  this  work  is  add- 
 ed a  book  on  the  affairs  of  India,  which  pursues  the 
 history  of  Alexander,  but  is  not  deemed  of  equal  au- 
 thority with  the  former.  An  epistle  from  Arrian  to 
 '  ^  205 
 
A  RS 
 
 ARS 
 
 Hadrian  is  also  extant,  entitled,  "  A  Periplns  of  the 
 Euxitie,"  probably  written  while  he  was  prefect  of 
 Cappadociu.  There  are,  besides,  utidcr  the  name  of 
 Arrian,  "  a  treatise  on  Tactics  ;"  '•  a  Pcriplus  of  the 
 Erythrcaii  Sea,"  of  which  the  authority  is  doul)tfiil  ; 
 *'a  treatise  ot!  Hounds  and  Hunting;"  an  "  Enchirid- 
 ion," or  Manual,  exhibiting  an  abstract  of  the  doc- 
 trines of  Epictetus  ;  and  the  "  Discourses,"  or  Dis- 
 sertations of  that  philosopher,  coinjuled  from  notes 
 taken  during  his  lectures.  The  best  editions  of  Ar- 
 riati's  Ex[)cdition  of  Alexander  are,  that  of  Gronovius 
 (Lugd  Bat.,  1704,  fol),  and  that  of  Schmicder  (.£>?;)«., 
 
 1798,  8vo).  The  edition  of  Kaphelius  {Amst.,  1757, 
 6vo)  is,  with  the  exctption  of  the  Greek  index,  al- 
 most wholly  derived  from  that  of  Gronovius.  Of  the 
 Indian  history,  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Schrniedcr 
 {H(lI<e,  1798,  8vo).  Of  his  Enchiridion,  that  of  Upton 
 {Lnnd.,  1739,  4lo),  and  that  of  Schweighaeuser  (Ljjss., 
 
 1799,  8vo),  forming  part  of  the  ediiion  of  the  Dis- 
 courses, by  the  same,  winch  last-mentioned  work  is  in 
 5  vols.  8vo,  Lips.,  1799-1801.  Of  the  rest  of  his 
 works,  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Blancard,  Amst., 
 1683,  8vo.  The  edition  of  his  geographical  writings, 
 by  Stuckius,  Gcncv.,  1577,  fol.,  is  also  valuable. — II. 
 A  Roman  lawyer,  whose  era  is  unknown.  A  work  of 
 his,  "  De  InterdKlis,"  is  mentioned  in  lib.  2,  D.  V.,  3, 
 de  /tared,  pctil. — III.  A  poet  who  wrote  an  epic  poem 
 in  24  books  on  Alexander  ;  also  another  poem  on  At- 
 talus,  king  of  Pergamus.  He  likewise  translated  Vir- 
 gil's Georgics  into  Greek  verse.     {Suidas,  s.  p.) 
 
 Akrius,  a  noted  gourmand,  mentioned  by  Horace. 
 The  poet  alludes  to  an  entertainment  such  as  he 
 should  direct,  which  would  of  course  be  no  unexpen- 
 sive  one.     {Scrm.,  2,  3,  86.) 
 
 Aksaces,  I.  a  man  of  obscure  origin,  who  incited 
 the  Parthians  to  revolt  from  the  power  of  the  Seleu- 
 cidse,  and  was  elevated  to  the  throne  on  account  of 
 his  success.  Justin  (41,  4)  makes  this  revolt  to  have 
 taken  place  during  the  reign  of  Seleucus  Callinicus, 
 son  of  Antiochus  Theos,  but  his  account  is  inconsist- 
 ent with  his  date.  Arrian  (ap.  Phot  ,  Cod.,  58)  seems 
 to  fix  the  revo'It  in  the  reign  of  Aniiochus  ;  while  Ap- 
 pian  {Bell.  Syr.,  65)  places  it  at  the  death  of  this 
 monarch.  Possibly,  the  establishment  of  the  Parthian 
 power  was  gradual,  and  was  not  completed  till  the 
 reign  of  Seleucus.  {Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  2,  p.  18  ) 
 Arsaces  defeated  Seleucus  in  battle,  and  when  this 
 monarch  made  a  second  expedition  into  Parthia,  he  took 
 him  prisoner  and  kept  him  long  in  captivity.  {Posi- 
 don.,  ap.  Alhen.,  4,  p.  153,  a.)  Arsaces  then  laid  the 
 foundation  of  the  Parthian  empire,  and  his  successors 
 took  from  him  the  name  of  Arsacidje.  According  to 
 Justin  (/.  c),  who  seems  confirmed  by  Strabo  (515), 
 he  reigned  long  and  died  in  old  age  :  according  to 
 Syncellus  (p.  284,  c),  who  quotes  from  Arrian,  he 
 reigned  only  two  years.  {Clinton,  I.  c.) — II.  The 
 second  of  the  name,  son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded 
 his  father  on  the  Parthian  throne,  and  was,  like  him, 
 a  warlike  prince.  While  Antiochus  the  Great  was  en- 
 gaged in  a  war  with  Ptolemy  Philopator,  of  Egypt, 
 Arsaces  made  himself  master  of  Media.  Antiochus, 
 when  the  war  with  Ptolemy  was  ended,  marched 
 against  the  Parthian  king,  drove  him  not  only  from 
 Media,  but  from  his  own  kingdom,  and  compelled  him 
 to  take  refuge  in  Hyrcania.  Having  subsequently, 
 however,  collected  a  numerous  army,  Arsaces  appeared 
 to  Antiochus  so  formidable  an  antagonist,  that  the  lat- 
 ter was  glad  to  confirm  to  him  ihe  possession  of  Hyr- 
 cania as  well  as  Parthia,  on  the  sole  condition  of  his 
 concludiniT  an  alliance  with  him.  Arsaces  left  his 
 throne  to  his  son  Arsaces  Priapatius  or  Phriapatus. 
 (Pnlyb.,  10,  27. — hislin,  41,  5 — Clinton,  Fast. 
 Hell.,  vol.  2,  p.  315.)— HI.  The  third  of  the  name, 
 son  of  the  preceding,  surnamed  Priapatius  or  Phria- 
 patus. He  reigned  15  years,  and  left  the  kingdom  to 
 his  sou  Phraates.  {Justin^  41,  5.)— IV.  A  king  of 
 206 
 
 Armenia,  who  was  on  the  throne  when  Julian  march- 
 ed against  Sapor,  and  was  ordered  to  furnish  auxilia- 
 ries for  the  Roman  army.  When  Jovian,  after  the 
 death  of  Julian,  was  compelled  to  sign  an  ignominious 
 treaty  of  peace,  Arsaces,  by  the  very  terms  of  it,  was 
 left  to  the  mercy  of  the  Persians,  and  was  soon  after 
 entrapped  and  slain.  {Amm.  Marccll.,  23,  2,  seq. — 
 Id.,  25,  7,  ct  12  ) 
 
 Arsacid^,  a  name  given  to  some  of  the  monarchs 
 of  Parthia,  in  descent  from  Arsaces,  the  founder  of  the 
 empire.  Their  power  subsisted  till  the  226ih  year  of 
 the  Christian  era,  when  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides 
 was  founded  by  Artaxerxes.  {Yid.  Arsaces  I.,  and 
 Artabanus  V.) 
 
 ARSAMOs.vTA.a  city  of  Armenia  Major,  in  the  south- 
 western angle  of  the  district  of  Sophene,  and  70  miles 
 from  the  Euphrates.  It  is  now  Sirmat.  Another 
 form  of  the  ancient  name  is  Armosata.  {Phn.,  6,  9. 
 —Polyb.,  Exc.  vii.,  lib.  8,  25,  \.— Tacit ,  15,  10.) 
 
 Arsanias,  I.  a  river  of  Armenia  Major,  which 
 D'AnviUe  and  Mannert,  but  especially  the  latter,  con- 
 sider as  another  name'  for  the  southern  arm  of  the  Eu- 
 phrates. {Vid.  Euphrates.) — II.  There  was  another 
 river  of  the  same  name  lower  down,  which  flowed 
 from  the  northwest  through  Sophene,  and  entered  the 
 Euphrates  below  Melitene,  on  which  Arsamosata  was 
 situate.  This  is  now  the  Arsen.  {Pliny,  5,  24. — 
 Tacit.,  15,  15.) 
 
 Arses,  the  youngest  son  of  Ochus,  whom  the  eu- 
 nuch Bagoas  raised  to  the  throne  of  Persia,  and  de- 
 stroyed with  his  children  after  a  reign  of  three  years. 
 {Vid.  Bagoas.) 
 
 Arsia,  a  small  river  between  Illyricum  and  Histria, 
 and  forming  the  limit  of  Italy  in  that  quarter,  after 
 Histria  was  added  to  Italy  by  Augustus.  {Phn.,  3, 
 19.— F/or.,  2,  5.) 
 
 Arsinob,  I.  daughter  of  Meleager,  and  mother  of 
 Ptolemy  I.,  of  Egypt,  by  Philip,  father  of  Alexander. 
 During  her  pregnancy  she  was  married  to  Lagus. — II. 
 Daughter  of  Ptolemy  I.,  of  Egypt,  and  Berenice.  She 
 married  Lysimachus,  king  of  Thrace,  who  was  already 
 advanced  in  years,  by  whom  she  had  several  children. 
 Lysimachus,  setting  out  for  Asia,  left  her  in  Macedo- 
 nia, with  tvvo  sons,  Lysimachus  and  Philip,  a  pan  of  the 
 fruits  of  their  union.  This  monarch  having  been  slain 
 in  an  expedition,  Ptolemy  Ceraunus  seized  on  Macedo- 
 nia, but  could  not  take  the  city  of  Cassandria,  where 
 Arsinoe  had  taken  refuge  with  her  children.  He  there- 
 fore offered  her  his  hand  in  marriage,  and  with  much 
 difficulty  obtained  her  consent.  But  no  sooner  had  he 
 been  admitted  into  the  city  for  the  purpose  of  celebra- 
 ting the  nuptials,  than  he  caused  her  tvvo  sons  to  be 
 slam,  and  exiled  Arsinoe  herself  to  Samothrace.  From 
 this  island  she  soon  took  her  departure  to  wed  Ptole- 
 my Philadelphus,  her  own  brother,  the  first  instance 
 of  this  kind  of  union,  and  which  became  afterward  so 
 common  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies.  Although  many 
 years  older  than  Ptolemy,  she  nevertheless  inspired  him 
 with  such  a  passian,  that,  after  her  death,  he  gave  her 
 name  to  one  of  the  nomes  of  Egypt  (Arsinoitis),  and  to 
 several  cities  both  in  that  country  and  elsewhere.  He 
 even  gave  orders  to  have  a  temple  erected  to  her,  but 
 his  own  death  and  that  of  the  architect  prevented  the 
 fulfilment  of  his  wishes.  It  was  intended  to  have  had 
 the  ceiling  of  loadstone,  and  the  statue  of  iron,  in  order 
 that  the  latter  might  appear  to  be  suspended  in  the  air. 
 {Plin.,  34,  14.) — II.  Daughter  of  Lysimachus,  king  of 
 Thrace,  and  the  earlier  wife  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
 She  became  by  him  the  mother  of  Ptolemy  HI.  (Euer- 
 o-etes),  Lysimachus,  and  Berenice.  After  Ptolemy's 
 union  with  Arsinoe,  his  own  sister,  she  was  banished 
 to  Coptos.  The  charge  brought  against  her  was  a 
 design  to  overthrow  her  rival. —  HI.  Daughter  of  Ptol- 
 emy HI.,  and  Berenice,  married  Ptolemy  Philopator, 
 her  brother.  Her  husband  subsequently  having  be- 
 come enamoured  of  Agathoclea,  and  being  completely 
 
ART 
 
 ARTABANUS. 
 
 ruled  by  this  female  and  her  brothers,  was  induced,  at 
 their  instigation,  to  order  Arsinoe  to  be  put  to  death. — 
 IV.  A  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  proclaimed  queen 
 by  Ganynicdes,  when  ('a;sar  attacked  Alexandrca. 
 She  was  conquered,  and  brought  in  triumph  to  Rome  ; 
 but,  as  this  proved  unpleasing  to  the  people,  she  was 
 set  at  liberty.  Subsequently,  at  the  instigation  of  her 
 younger  sister  Cleopatra,  she  was  put  to  death  by  the 
 orders  of  Antony,  in  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Miletus. 
 (Hut.,  Bell.  Alcx^'i.—Appmn,  Bell.  Civ.,  5,  9.)— V. 
 A  city  of  Egypt,  the  capital  of  tlie  ArsinoVtic  noine, 
 lying  to  the  west  of  the  Nile,  and  between  Heracleo- 
 polis  Magna  and  Lake  Moeris.  It  derived  its  name 
 from  Arsinoe,  the  sister  and  queen  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
 delphus.  The  earlier  appellation  was  the  "  City  of 
 Crocodiles,"  as  the  Greeks  translated  it  (Crocodilo- 
 polis  )s.poKo6Ei'kuv  TcuXig,  Herod.,  2,  148).  This  last- 
 mentioned  name  arose  from  the  circumstance  of  the 
 crocodile's  being  worshipped  here  ;  and  a  tamed  rep- 
 resentative of  this  fearful  class  of  creatures  was  care- 
 fully nurtured  and  attended  to  in  an  adjacent  pond  or 
 tank.  Strabo  gives  an  account,  as  an  eyewitness,  of 
 this  curious  custom.  The  bodies  of  the  sacred  croco- 
 diles were  deposited  after  death  in  the  cells  of  the 
 Labyrinth,  which  stood  near  the  city.  The  Egyptians 
 honoured  the  crocodile  here,  because  it  was  conse- 
 crated to  Typhon,  their  evil  genius,  whom  they  dread- 
 ed, and  sought  to  a|)pease  by  worshipping  an  animal 
 which  was  his  symbolical  image.  The  city  of  Arsinoe 
 is  now  a  pile  of  ruins,  which  lie  not  far  to  the  north  of 
 the  modern  Medinel  el  Faioum.  Jomard  gives  an  ac- 
 curate description  of  them.  {Dcscripl.  dc  rEgypte, 
 vol.  4,  p.  446.) — VL  A  city  of  Egypt,  at  the  head  of 
 the  Sinus  Arabicus,  and  not  far  from  the  spot  where 
 stands  the  modern  Suez.  Philadelphus  constructed 
 the  harbour,  and  called  the  place  after  his  sister  and 
 queen  Arsinoe.  In  its  immediate  vicinity  lay  the  city 
 of  Cleopatris,  of  later  erection,  and,  in  consequence  of 
 their  pro.ximity,  both  places  were  often  called  by  the 
 common  name  of  Cleopatris,  though  actually  distinct 
 spots.  (Stiab.,  805.)  Arsinoe  was  connected  with 
 the  Nile  by  means  of  the  canal  of  Ptolemy,  and  for  a 
 long  period  was  the  very  life  of  the  navigation  on  the 
 Sinus  Arabicus,  forming  the  connecting  link  between 
 the  traffic  of  Egypt  and  that  of  the  East.  In  process 
 of  lime,  however,  the  dangerous  navigation  of  the  upper 
 part  of  the  gulf  induced  the  Ptolemies  to  construct 
 harbours  lower  down,  and  Arsinoe  from  this  time  sank 
 in  importance,  and  finally  disa[)pcared  from  notice. 
 The  Pcutinger  table,  in  the  third  century,  makes  men- 
 tion of  the  place,  but  the  Itinerary  of  Antonine  passes 
 it  over  in  silence.  {Manncrt,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  517.) 
 — VII.  A  city  of  Cilicia  Trachea,  on  the  coast,  be- 
 tween Celcndcris  and  the  mouth  of  the  Arymagdus. 
 {Plin.,  5,  27.) — VIII.  Another  name  for  Patara,  in 
 Lycia.  {Vid.  Patara.)— IX.  A  town  of  Cyprus,  near 
 the  promontory  of  Ammochostus.  {Slrnb.^ 682.)— X. 
 A  harbour  of  Egypt,  on  the  Sinus  Arabicus,  below  Phi- 
 loters  Portus.  {Plin.,  6,  29.)— XI.  Another  harbour, 
 in  the  regio  Troglodyiica,  in  the  vicinity  of  Diras. 
 (Mela,  3,  8.—Arlcmul,  ap.  S/rab.) 
 
 Arsissa  PAi.us,  a  great  lake  in  the  southern  part  of 
 Armenia  Major,  now  the  Lake  of  Van.  It  was  on  its 
 northern  side  embellished  with  cities,  which  were 
 better  known  to  the  Byzantine  writers  than  they  had 
 been  before,  viz.,  ChaHat  or  Allilat,  Arzes  or  Argisfi, 
 and  I'crkri.  This  sheet  of  water  is  also  sometimes 
 called,  in  Armenian  geography,  the  Lake  of  Bcsnouikh, 
 from  the  district  of  that  name  in  which  it  is  situate. 
 The  name  Besnouikh  is  deduced  from  that  of  Basus, 
 a  grandson  of  Haig,  the  first  ruler  of  Armenia.  ( Wahl, 
 Vorder  und  Miitcl  Asicn,  p.  508.) 
 
 ART.^B.iNus,  I.  son  of  Hystaspes,  was  brother  to 
 Darius  the  First.  He  endeavoured  to  dissuade  his 
 nephew  Xerxes  from  making  war  upon  the  Greeks,  but 
 to  no  effect ;  and,  after  accompanying  tiie  monarch  to 
 
 the  Asiatic  shore  of  the  Hellespont,  was  sent  back  by 
 him  to  Susa,  to  act  as  viceroy  or  regent  in  his  absence. 
 (Herod.,  7,  10,  scqq.—ld.,  1,  \1.—Id.,  7,  52.)  If  the 
 story  related  by  Plutarch  be  true,  Artabanus  must 
 always  have  possessed  great  influence  with  Xerxes, 
 since,  according  to  the  Greek  writer,  the  monarch 
 owed  his  crown  to  his  uncle,  who  was  appointed  by 
 the  Persians  to  decide  between  Xerxes  and  his  elder 
 brother  Ariamenes.  Artabanus  adjudged  the  kingdom 
 to  the  former,  as  having  been  born  after  his  father  came 
 to  the  throne,  and  as  being  the  son  of  Alossa  the 
 daughter  of  Cyrus.  (Plut.,  dc  frat.  am.,  p.  488,/.  p. 
 988,  Wi/ltenb. — Compare  the  account  given  by  He- 
 rodotus, 7,  1,  seqq.)  We  have  nothing  farther  of 
 Artabanus  in  history.  He  is  by  no  means  to  be  con- 
 founded with  the  individual  of  the  same  name  (.Arta- 
 banus II.)  who  slew  Xerxes.  (Bdhr,  ad  Cics  ,  c.  20, 
 p.  151. — Larehcr,  ad  Cics.,  vol.  6,  p.  287.) — II.  An 
 Hyrcanian,  captain  of  the  guards  of  Xerxes,  and  for  a 
 long  time  one  of  his  greatest  favourites.  When  the 
 monarch,  after  his  return  from  Greece,  gave  himself 
 up  to  a  life  of  dissolute  pleasure,  Artabanus  conceived 
 this  to  be  a  favourable  opportunity  for  seizing  on  the 
 throne,  and,  having  conspired  with  Mithradales,  one  of 
 the  eunuchs  of  the  palace,  and  chamberlain  to  the  king, 
 he  introduced  himself  by  night  into  the  royal  apart- 
 ment, and  slew  Xerxes,  B.C.  464.  After  perpetrating 
 the  deed,  he  ran  to  Artaxerxes,  the  son  of  the  monarch, 
 and  told  him  that  Darius,  his  elder  brother,  had  just 
 murdered  his  father.  Artaxerxes  believed  the  story, 
 and  his  brother  was  immediately  arrested  and  put  to 
 death.  After  the  new  monarch  had  ascended  the 
 throne,  Artabanus  conspired  against  his  life,  but  was 
 betrayed  by  Megabyzus,  an  accomplice  of  his,  and  put 
 to  death.  Such  is  the  account  of  Ctesias  (c.  30), 
 which  Larcher  very  justly  prefers  to  the  statements  of 
 Justin  (3,  1)  and  Diodorus  Siculus  (10,  19),  both  o/ 
 which  appear  tinged  with  absurdity. — III,  A  monarch 
 of  Parthia,  known  as  Artabanus  II.,  or  Arsaces  VIII. 
 He  succeeded  his  nephew  Phraales  II.  (Arsaces 
 VII.),  and  was  killed  in  a  war  with  the  Thogarii,  a 
 Scythian  nation.  (Justin,  A2,  2.) — IV.  A  monarch  of 
 Parthia,  known  as  Artabanus  III.,  or  Arsaces  XIX. 
 He  succeeded  Vonones  I.,  whom  he  drove  from  the 
 throne,  having  himself  previously  reigned  in  Media. 
 Faithful  to  the  Romans,  his  protectors,  as  long  as  Ger- 
 manicus  inspired  him  with  fear,  he  became,  after  the 
 death  of  this  commander,  cruel  and  oppressive  to  his 
 subjects,  and  arrogant  towards  Rome.  His  people 
 complained  of  him  to  Tiberius,  who  named  for  them 
 Phraates  as  king.  This  individual,  however,  dying 
 on  the  route,  the  emperor  nominated  Tiridates.  Arta- 
 banus fled  into  Scvthia,  but,  being  encouraged  by  the 
 eflfcmiiiacy  of  Tiridates,  he  took  up  arms  again,  and  re- 
 covered his  kingdom.  The  death  of  Tiberius  saved  him 
 from  punishment,  and  he  made  his  peace  with  Caligula 
 by  dint  of  flatteries.  Still,  however,  he  was  once  more 
 driven  out  by  his  subjects,  and  only  returned  eventually 
 to  die  in  his  kingdom,  about  44  A.D.  (Tacit.,  Ann., 
 2,  58.— Id.  2b.,  6,  31.— Id.  lb.,  6,  43,  &c.)— V.  A  king 
 of  the  Parthiaiis,  son  of  Vologeses  IV.,  ascended  the 
 throne  A.D.  216.  His  historical  name  is  Artabanus 
 IV.,  or  Arsaces  XXXI.  He  had  hardly  commenced 
 his  reign  when  he  was  menaced  by  Caracalla.  The 
 emperor  demanded  his  daughter  in  marriage,  in  ordci 
 to  have  a  pretext  for  war  in  case  he  refused.  The 
 Parthian  king,  however,  assented,  and  the  Roman  army 
 was  allowed  to  approach  the  Parthian  capital,  where 
 Artabanus  met  it  with  a  brilliant  cortege.  But  on  a 
 given  signal,  the  Roman  troops  fell  upon  the  followers 
 of  the  monarch,  and  an  indiscriminate  massacre  ensued, 
 from  which  Artabanus  himself  with  difliculty  escaped. 
 Carracalla  thereupon  pillaged  the  surrounding  country, 
 and  then  returned  to  Mesopotamia.  Artabanus,  burn- 
 ing for  revenge,  assembled  the  largest  army  which  the 
 Parthians  had  ever  as  yet  raised,  crossed  the  Euphrates, 
 
 207 
 
ART 
 
 ARTAXERXES. 
 
 laid  'vastc  everything  wilh  fire  and  sword,  and  en- 
 countered the  Roman  forces  in  Syria.  Macrinus  had 
 succeeded  (jaracalla.  A  bloody  battle  ensued,  vvliich 
 lasted  for  two  days.  On  the  third  day,  a  herald  from 
 the  Romans  announced  the  fact  of  Caracalla's  being 
 dead,  and  that  Macrinus  was  his  successor,  and  also 
 proposed  a  treaty  of  peace  between  the  two  empires. 
 The  Romans  accordingly  restored  the  prisoners  they 
 had  taken,  paid  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  Arta- 
 banus  returned  to  his  capital.  His  prosperity,  however, 
 was  of  short  duration.  Ardshir  Babegan,  or  Arta- 
 lerxes,  e.xctted  the  Persians  to  revolt,  and  Artabanus 
 was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death.  With 
 him  ended  the  Parthian  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidfe.  The 
 family  itself,  however,  was  not  e.xtinct  in  the  person 
 of  Artabanus,  but  continued  to  reign  in  Armenia,  as 
 tributary  to  the  new  Persian  dynasty,  until  the  time  of 
 Justinian.     {Biogr.   Unip.,  vol.  2,  p.  540.) 
 
 Artab.vzus,  I.  son  of  Pharnaces,  commander  of  the 
 Parthians  and  Chorasmians  in  the  army  of  Xerxes. 
 He  escorted  this  monarch  through  Europe  to  Asia, 
 after  the  battle  of  Salamis,  at  the  head  of  sixty  thousand 
 men,  and  rejoined  Mardonius  before  the  battle  of  Pla- 
 tasa.  He  endeavoured  to  dissuade  him  from  engaging  in 
 this  conflict,  but  to  no  purpose  ;  and,  after  the  death  of 
 Mardonius,  succeeded  in  retreating  to  Asia  with  the 
 residue  of  his  own  forces,  having  obtained  a  safe  pas- 
 sage through  Thessaly  by  assuring  the  inhabitants  that 
 Mardonius  had  defeated  the  Greeks.  {Herod.,  7,  66. 
 —Id.,  8,  126.— W..  9,  41.— W.,  9,  89.)— ir.  A  general 
 of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  He  remained  faithful  to 
 this  prince  as  long  as  he  reigned,  and  did  everything 
 in  his  power  to  conquer  Datames,  who  had  revolted 
 against  the  king.  He  himself  subsequently  revolted 
 against  Ochus,  but,  after  fleeing  into  Macedonia,  was 
 pardoned  by  that  prince.  He  fought  in  the  battle  of 
 Arbela,  on  the  side  of  Darius,  and,  after  the  death  of 
 that  prince  surrendered  himself  to  Alexander,  who 
 made  him  satrap  of  Bactriana.  He  had  a  large  number 
 of  sons,  to  whom  Alexander  assigned  governments. 
 His  daughters  were  married,  one  to  Ptolemy,  son  of 
 Lagus  ;  another  to  Eumenes,  of  Cardia  ;  and  a  third 
 to  Seleucus.     {Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  2,  p.  542.) 
 
 Artabru.m  Promontorium,  a  promontory  on  the 
 northwestern  coast  of  Spain,  now  Cape  Finistcrre,  in 
 Gallicia.  It  was  sometimes  called  Ccliicum  Promon- 
 iormm{PIin.,  4,  22),  and  also  Ncriu7n.  (Strab.,  106.) 
 Artacoana,  the  capital  of  Aria,  now  Herat,  situate 
 on  the  river  Arius,  now  the  Hcri.  {Arria7i,  3,  25. — 
 Strab.,  3.50.) 
 
 Artageras  or  Artagicerta,  a  town  of  Armenia 
 Major,  northeast  of  Amida,  where  Caius  Cassar,  a 
 nephew  of  Augustus,  was  dangerously  wounded  by  one 
 Addruus.  It  is  now  probably  Ardts.  {Veil.  Patcrc. 
 2,  103.) 
 
 Artaphernes,  I.  a  brother  of  Darius,  and  son  of 
 Hystaspes,  governor  of  Sardis.  {Hcrodot.,  5,  25.) — 
 II.  A  son  of  the  preceding,  whom  Darius  sent  into 
 Greece  with  Datis.  He  was  conquered  at  the  battle 
 of  Marathon  by  Miltiades.  {Vid.  Datis. — Herod.,  4, 
 153.— 7rf.,  5,  5r).) 
 
 Artavasdes  or  Artabazus,  king  of  Armenia,  the 
 son  and  successor  of  Tigranes,  began  to  reign  about 
 70  B.C.  It  was  principally  through  his  treacherous 
 advice,  as  to  the  mode  of  entering  Parthia,  that  Crassus 
 failed  in  his  expedition  against  that  country.  He  was 
 subsequently  taken  by  Antony,  to  whom  he  had  also 
 acted  a  treacherous  part  in  his  Parthian  expedition, 
 who  led  him  in  triumph  at  Alexandrea.  He  was  put 
 to  death,  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  by  Cleopatra,  who 
 wished  to  obtain  succours  from  the  King  of  Media,  and 
 therefore  sent  him  the  head  of  Artavasdes,  his  ene- 
 my. The  prince  appears  to  have  been  a  very  well  ed- 
 ucated man.  He  wrote  in  Greek  two  historical  works, 
 some  tragedies,  discourses,  &c.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Anton., 
 c.  50,  scqq.) 
 208 
 
 Artaxata,  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  Upper  Ar- 
 menia, the  capital  of  the  empire,  built  upon  a  plam 
 which  Hannibal  recommended  as  a  proper  site  for  the 
 capital  to  King  Artaxias.  Near  it  ran  the  Araxes.  It 
 was  l)urned  by  Corbulo,  and  rebuilt  by  Tiridates,  who 
 called  it  Neronea,  in  honour  of  Nero.  It  is  now  Ar- 
 desh.  {Plin.,  6,  9.—Flor.,  3,  5.— Tacit.,  Ann  ,  13, 
 39,  et  Al.—ld.  lb.,  14,  23.— Id.  ib.,  15,  \b.— Strab., 
 363.) 
 
 Artaxerxes,  I.  a  name  common  to  some  of  the 
 kings  of  Persia,  and  the  meaning  of  which  will  be  con- 
 sidered at  the  close  of  this  article.  The  first  of  the 
 name  succeeded  his  father  Xerxes,  who  had  been  as- 
 sassinated by  Artabanus,  captain  of  the  royal  guards. 
 After  discovering  and  punishing  the  murderer  of  his 
 father,  and  bringing  to  a  close  a  war  in  Bactria,  oc- 
 casioned by  the  revolt  of  a  satrap,  he  reduced  to  obedi- 
 ence the  Egyptians,  who  had  revolted  under  Inarus, 
 and  who  had  been  aided  by  the  Athenians.  Though 
 severe  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  reign,  he  became  con- 
 spicuous afterward  for  mildness  and  moderation.  This 
 Artaxerxes  was  called  M.aK.puxeip  {Longimanus),  from 
 the  extraordinary  length  of  his  ar7ns,  according  to 
 Strabo,  which,  on  his  standing  straight,  could  reach  his 
 knees  ;  but,  according  to  Plutarch,  because  his  right 
 hand  was  longer  than  his  left.  He  reigned  thirty  years, 
 and  died  B.C.  425.  {Ctes.,  Pers.,  c.  30,  scgq.,  p.  71, 
 seqq.,  ed  B'dhr. — Plut.,  Vit.  Artax.,  init.) — II.  The 
 second  of  the  name,  was  surnamed  Mv/juuv  {Mncmun), 
 on  account  of  his  extraordinary  memory.  He  was  son 
 of  Darius  the  Second,  by  Parysatis,  the  daughter  of 
 Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  and  had  three  brothers,  Cyrus, 
 Oslanes,  and  Oxathres.  His  name  was  Arsaces,  which 
 he  changed  into  Artaxerxes  when  he  ascended  the 
 throne.  His  brother  Cyrus  was  of  an  ambitious  dis- 
 position, and  he  resolved  to  make  himself  king  in  op- 
 position to  Artaxerxes.  Parysatis  always  favoured 
 Cyrus  ;  and  when  he  was  accused  by  Tissaphernes  of 
 plotting  against  his  brother,  she  obtained  his  pardon  by 
 her  influence  and  entreaties.  According  to  Xeno|)hon 
 {Anab.,  1,  1),  it  was  irritation  agamst  his  brother  for 
 listening  to  this  charge  that  induced  Cyrus  to  revolt 
 and  aspire  to  the  throne.  Another  reason,  however, 
 still  more  powerful  in  the  eyes  of  an  ambitious  prince, 
 would  likewise  appear  to  have  urged  him  on  to  the 
 step.  Artaxerxes  had  been  born  before  his  father's 
 accession  to  the  empire,  whereas  Cyrus  was  born  the 
 son  of  a  king,  a  distinction  somewhat  similar  to  that 
 which  had  given  Xerxes  the  throne.  ( Vid.  .Artabanus, 
 I.)  Cyrus  had  been  appointed  by  his  brother  satrap 
 of  Lydia,  and  had  also  the  command  assigned  him  of 
 whatever  forces  the  Dorian  cities  along  the  coast  ol 
 Asia  Mmor  might  be  required  to  send  as  auxiliaries  to 
 the  Persian  armies.  (Consult  Schneider,  ad  Xcn., 
 Anab.,  1,  1.)  Taking  advantage  of  this,  he  assembled 
 under  various  pretexts  a  numerous  army,  and  at  lenglh 
 marched  against  his  brother  at  the  head  of  one  hundred 
 thousand  barbarians,  and  nearly  thirteen  thousand 
 Greeks.  Artaxerxes  met  him  at  Cunaxa  with  an  army 
 of  nine  hundred  thousand  barbarians,  and  a  brief  con- 
 flict ensued,  in  which  Cyrus  was  killed.  He  was  slain 
 in  the  very  moment  of  victory  ;  for  he  had  routed  with 
 his  body-guard  the  guards  of  the  king,  while  the 
 Greeks  were  in  full  pursuit  of  that  part  of  the  king's 
 army  which  had  been  opposed  to  them.  The  loss  ot 
 the  battle  was  owing  partly  to  the  rash  impetuosity  of 
 Cyrus  in  charging  the  royal  guards,  and  partly  to  the 
 circumstance  of  the  Greeks  having  pursued  too  far  the 
 barbarians  opposed  to  them.  Artaxerxes  was  wounded 
 in  the  action  by  Cyrus's  own  hand,  while  Cyrus,  on  the 
 other  hand,  was  slain  by  Mithradates,  a  young  Persian 
 noble,  and  by  a  Carian  soldier,  having  been  wounded 
 in  succession  by  each.  So  anxious,  however,  was 
 Artaxerxes  to  have  it  believed  that  he  himself  had  slain 
 the  young  prince,  that  both  Mithradates  and  the  Carian 
 eventually  lost  their  lives  for  boasting  of  the  deed. 
 
ARTAXERXES. 
 
 ART 
 
 After  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  the  Greeks  began  their 
 celebrated  retreat,  so  graphic  an  account  of  wiiich  has 
 been  preserved  for  us  in  the  pages  of  Xenophon.  ( Vid. 
 Xenophon.)  Artaxerxes  was  nov"'  peaceable  possessor 
 of  the  throne.  Being  irritated  at  the  Lacedemonians, 
 who  had  embraced  his  brother's  cause,  he  lent  aid  to 
 Conon  the  Athenian  admiral,  and  succeeded  by  his 
 means  in  wresting  from  Sparta  the  dominion  of  the 
 sea.  He  then  furnished  the  necessary  means  for  re- 
 buildmg  the  walls  of  Athens,  and  finally,  by  employing 
 his  gold  in  sowing  dissensions  among  the  Grecian 
 states,  he  forced  Agesilaus  to  abandon  the  extensive 
 conquests  he  had  already  made  in  the  Persian  domin- 
 ions. The  war  at  length  was  brought  to  a  close  by  a 
 memorable  treaty,  by  which  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia 
 were  abandoned  to  his  sway.  Artaxerxes  was  not 
 successful  in  checking  a  revolt  on  the  part  of  the  Egyp- 
 tians, nor  was  his  march  in  person  against  the  Cadusii, 
 in  Upper  Asia,  crowned  with  any  happier  result.  He 
 was  governed  entirely  by  his  mother  Parysatis,  who,  by 
 studying  his  inclinations,  had  gained  a  complete  as- 
 cendency over  him.  After  having  put  to  death  Darius, 
 his  eldest  son,  for  conspiring  against  him,  he  died  at 
 the  advanced  age  of  ninety- four  years,  bowed  down  by 
 sorrow  at  the  loss  of  two  other  sons  whom  Ochus,  who 
 reigned  after  him,  had  managed  to  cut  off.  According 
 to  Diodorus,  he  was  on  the  throne  forty-three  years  ; 
 but  according  to  Eusebius  and  the  Alexandrine  Chron- 
 icle, forty  years.  Plutarch  makes  his  reign  sixty-two 
 years,  but  this  is  an  error  of  a  transcriber.  {Diod. 
 Sic,  13,  \04:.—Cli>ito?i's  Fast.  Hdl.,  vol.  1,  p.  316, 
 323.) — HI.  The  third  of  the  name,  called  previously 
 Ochus,  and  known  in  history  as  Artaxerxes  Ochus,  or 
 simply  Ochus,  succeeded  his  father  Mnemon.  He 
 commenced  his  reign  with  the  massacre  of  hisbrother.s, 
 and  of  all  who  belonged  to  the  royal  family.  Egypt 
 was  at  this  time  in  full  revolt,  Artaxerxes  Mnemon 
 having  in  vain  attempted  lo  reduce  it,  and  Ochus  con- 
 tinued the  war  by  means  of  his  generals.  Learning, 
 however,  that  the  Egyptians  indulged  in  railleries 
 against  his  person,  and,  moreover,  that  Phcenicia  and 
 Cyprus  had  also  rebelled,  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
 his  armies,  took  Sidon  through  the  treachery  of  Mentor, 
 commander  of  the  Greek  mercenaries,  and  made  an 
 indiscriminate  slaughter  of  the  inhabitants.  He  then 
 marched  against  Egypt,  and  reconquered  it  through 
 the  military  talents  of  Bagoas.  Once  master  of  the 
 country,  he  gave  himself  up  to  all  manner  of  cruelty, 
 destroyed  the  temples,  insulted  the  Egyptian  deities, 
 and,  to  crown  all,  caused  the  sacred  Apis  to  be  killed, 
 and  his  flesh  served  up  for  a  repast.  This  conduct 
 excited  the  indignation  of  Bagoas,  who,  being  an  Ecryp- 
 tian  by  birth,  was,  of  course,  stronglv  attached  to  the 
 religion  of  his  country.  He  concealed  his  angry  feel- 
 ings, however,  until  Ochus  had  returned  to  Persia,  and 
 resumed  his  indolent  mode  of  life,  giving  up  the  reins 
 of  government  entirely  to  Bagoas.  The  latter  there- 
 upon caused  him  to  be  poisoned,  gave  his  body  to  be 
 devoured  by  cats,  and,  to  indicate  his  cruelty  of  dis- 
 position, had  sabre  handles  made  of  his  bones.  Baoroas 
 placed  on  the  vacant  throne  Arses,  the  youngest  son 
 of  Ochus,  and  put  to  death  all  the  rest.  Ochus  reigned 
 eleven  years,  not  eighteen,  as  Manetho  gives  it.  {/Eli- 
 an, V.  H.,  6,  8.—Juslin,  10,  3.)— IV.  A  soldier  of 
 fortune,  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanida?,  and 
 called  by  the  Greek  historians  Artaxer.xes.  His  true 
 name  was  Ardechir  Babegan,  and  he  was  the  son  or 
 grandson  of  an  individual  named  Sassan,  who,  though 
 m  very  reduced  circumstances,  claimed  descent  from 
 Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  He  succeeded  in  dethroning 
 Artabanus,  the  last  of  the  Arsacids,  and  thus  laid  the 
 foundation  of  the  second  or  later  Persian  empire.  Al- 
 though a  usurper,  Artaxerxes  appears  to  have  had  a 
 peaceable  reign,  as  far  as  the  internal  affairs  of  his 
 kingdom  were  concerned.  In  his  external  relations  he 
 came  in  contact  with  the  Emperor  Severus,  who  de- 
 
 D  D 
 
 feated  him  on  his  invading  the  Roman  territory,  and 
 forced  hiin  to  retreat.  Artaxer.xes  was  about  to  renew 
 the  war  with  fresh  forces,  when  he  died.  To  rare 
 prudence  and  heroic  courage  he  united  a  love  of  letters, 
 and  is  said  to  have  composed  several  works.  He 
 reigned  fourteen  or  fifteen  years,  and  left  the  throne 
 to  Sapor  I. — V.  A  brother  and  successor  of  Sapor  II. 
 He  died  after  a  reign  of  four  years,  A.D.  384. — As 
 regards  the  form  Artaxerxes  {' ^pro^ep^rj^),  which  some- 
 times occurs,  in  editions,  in  place  of  the  more  common 
 Artaxerxes,  consult  the  remarks  of  Bahr  {ad  Ctes.,  p. 
 l8G,scqq.).  The  name  Artaxerxes  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  Arlachshast  or  Arlachshasta  in  Persian,  and  to 
 have  been  compounded  of  the  Persian  Art  er  Ard, 
 "  strong,"  and  the  Zendic  Khshctro,  Khshered,  or  Khsfic- 
 trcE,  "  a  warrior."  Hence  the  appellation  Artaxerxes 
 wjll  signify  "a  strong  or  mighty  warrior."  (Compare 
 Herodotus,  6,  98,  'kpra^ep^i]^,  [lEyag  upi/Loi;.)  Others 
 write  the  Persian  name  thus,  Arlahschetz,  and  make 
 it  equivalent  to  "  a  great  king."  (Consult  Bahr,  ad 
 Ctes.,  p.  187. — RoscnmuUcr,  Handbuch,  &c.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  373,  n.  40. — Dc  Sacy,  Memoires  sur  diverse  an- 
 tiqvites  de  la  Perse,  p.  100.) 
 
 Artaxias,  the  name  of  three  kings  of  Armenia. — 
 I.  The  first  reigned  in  the  Upper  or  Greater  Armenia, 
 with  the  consent  of  Antiochus  the  Great.  He  gave  an 
 asylum  to  Hannibal  at  one  time,  and  was  also  taken 
 prisoner  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  but  afterward  regain- 
 ed his  liberty. — II.  The  son  of  Artavasdes.  He  was 
 killed  by  his  own  subjects,  A.D.  20,  and  Tigranes 
 chosen  as  his  successor.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  2.) — III.  Sur- 
 named  Zeno,  son  of  Polemon.  He  was  proclaimea 
 king  of  Armenia  by  Germanicus,  in  the  place  of  Ve- 
 nones,  who  was  expelled  the  throne.  He  died  A  D. 
 35.     {Tacit.,  Ann.,  6,  31.) 
 
 Artemidorus,  I.  a  philosopher  of  Cnidus,  who,  hav- 
 ing been  intrusted  by  his  friend  Brutus  with  the  secret  of 
 the  conspiracy  set  on  foot  against  Cassar,  presented  to 
 the  latter  a  memorial  containing  an  account  of  the  whole 
 affair.     Coesar  received  it  as  he  was  going  to  the  senate- 
 house,  and  put  it  with  other  papers  which  he  held  in  his 
 hand,  thinking  it  to  be  of  no  material  consequence.   Had 
 it  been  read  by  him,  the  whole  plot  would  have  been 
 crushed.     {Plut ,    Vit.    Ccrs.) — II.  A   geographer  of 
 Ephesus,  who  flourished  about  104  B.C.     After  hav- 
 ing visited  the  coasts  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Medi- 
 terranean, and  having  seen  Gades  and  portions  of  the 
 Atlantic  shores,  as  also  the  Sinus  Arabicus  or  Red 
 Sea,  he  published  a  geographical  work  in  eleven  books, 
 entitled   TEuypaipovjieva.     More   than   five   centuries 
 after  this,  Marcianus  of  Heraclea  made  an  abridgment 
 of  it,  a  part  of  which  is  preserved.     We  have  also  re- 
 maining some  other  fragments  of  Artemidorus.    Athe- 
 nffius  likewise  cites  his  Ionic  Memoirs,  'luviKii    vtco- 
 fivfifiara.  He  is  often  referred   to  by  Strabo,  Pliny, 
 and  Stephanus  of  Byzantium.     The  remains  of  Ar- 
 temidorus are  given  in  the  Minor  Greek  geograhpcrs 
 by  Hoeschel  and  Hudson,  with  the  exception  of  one 
 fragment,  giving  a  description  of  the  Nile,  which  was 
 published  for  the  first  time  by  Berger  in  Aretin's  Bcy- 
 ir'dge  zur  Gesch.  und  Lit.,  vol.  2,  1804  {May),  p.  50. 
 — III.   \  native  of  Ephesus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
 the  Antonincs,  and  who  was  surnamed,  for  distinction 
 from  others,  Daldianus,  because  his  mother  had  been 
 born  in  Daldis,  a  city  of  Lydia.      He  published,  under 
 the  title  of  'OvEipoKpiriKu,  a  work  On  the  Interpreta- 
 tion of  Dreams,  in   five  books.     It  contains  all  that 
 the  author  had  been  able  to  collect  during  his  travels 
 in  Greece,  Italy,  and  Asia,  from  those  persons  who, 
 in  that  superstitious  age,  had  turned  their  attention  to 
 so   futile   and   illusory  a   subject.      The  work,  ajjart 
 from  its  main  topic,  contains   some  very  interesting 
 information  respecting  ancient   customs,  and    serves 
 also  to  explain  many  symbols  and  allegorical  objects 
 connected  with  the  sculpture  of  former  times.     It  fur- 
 nishes, moreover,  some  important  aid  in  elucidating 
 
 .      209 
 
ART 
 
 A  R  V 
 
 points  of  mythology.  The  style  is  marked  by  a  cer- 
 tain degree  of  neatness,  if  not  elegance.  The  best 
 edition  is  that  of  ReilT,  Lnps  ,  1805,  3  vols.  8vo. — 
 IV.  A  physician  in  the  age  of  Hadrian.  He  is  charged 
 with  having  inutilaicd  the  works  of  Hippocrates.  Not 
 content  with  removing  expressions  that  had  fallen  into 
 disuse,  and  substituting  others  that  were  more  intelli- 
 giole  in  Ins  own  day,  he  is  said  also  to  have  interiio- 
 latcd  I  he  te.\t,  and  to  have  struck  out,  at  the  same 
 time,  whatever  appeared  to  clash  with  the  new  matter 
 thus  brought  in  by  him.  {Vid.  Hippocrates.  —  Gakn, 
 comm.  in  lib.  de  nat.  hum.,  p.  4 — Sprcnpel,  Hist. 
 Med.,  vol.  1,  p.  294.) — V.  A  painter,  whose  country 
 is  uncertain.  He  flourished  towards  the  end  of  the 
 first  century  of  our  era,  and  is  referred  to  by  Martial 
 (Ej)  ,  5,  40),  who  censures  him.  because,  in  painting 
 Venus,  he  did  not  give  that  soft  gracefulness  to -her 
 person  which  other  artists  had  done,  but  rather  a  de- 
 gree of  the  austere  dignity  of  Minerva.  {Sillig;  Diet. 
 Art.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Artemis  {"Apre/ui),  the  Greek  name  of  Diana. 
 From  a  curious  passage  in  Clemens  Ale.xandrinus 
 (Strnm.,  1,  p.  3Sl,  Pott.),  it  woiild  af)pcar,  that  the 
 goddess  was  called  .\rtemis  because  of  Phrygian  origin 
 ('^pvjiav  re  ovaav,  KEKAf/rdai  'Aprqiiv).  Hence  Ja- 
 blonski  concludes,  that  the  name  itself  is  a  Phrygian 
 one,  and  he  compares  it  with  the  royal  ap|)cllation  Ar- 
 tenias,  as  given  in  Xcnophon  to  a  king  of  Phrysia. 
 {Cyrop.,  2,  I,  5.)  It  is  very  probable,  that  the  primi- 
 tive root  of  the  term  Artemis  is  to  he  traced  to  the 
 Persian  tongue  {Arta,  Arte,  Art.  Ar,  all  signifying 
 "great,"  or  '•  e.\cellcnl'"),  and  thus  .Artemis  or  Diana 
 becomes  identical  with  the  "  great"  mother  of  Nature, 
 even  as  she  was  worshipped  at  Ephesus.  Asa  col- 
 lateral confirmation  of  this  ctymologv,  we  may  state, 
 that  the  Persians,  according  to  Herodotus  (7,  61),  ori- 
 ginally called  themselves  Artcr.i  ('ApraloL),  which  Hel- 
 laiiicus  makes  equivalent  to  the  Greek  f/puec,  '^  heroes,'" 
 i.  e  ,  great,  strong,  powerful.  {Hellan.,  frngm.,  p.  97, 
 Sturz. — Id.,  ap.  Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'Apraia  )  Other 
 derivations  of  the  name  Aricmis  are  not  so  satisfa<-to- 
 ry.  Sickler,  for  example,  deduces  it  from  the  Semitic 
 Ar,  "a  foe,"  and  tamn,  "  impuritv,"  as  indicating  the 
 foe  of  what  is  unchaste,  gloomv,  or  obscure.  {Cadmus, 
 p  xc.)  Welcker,  on  the  other  hand,  regards  it  as  an 
 epithet  of  the  same  nature  with  Opis  and  Nemesis, 
 and  says  that  it  is  (i/it-0f/i(f .  (Schmenk,  Etijmnl.  My- 
 ihol.  AndeiU.,  p.  263.)  Plato,  in  his  Cratvlus,  derives 
 'Ap-F/nig  from  apTSfif/g,  "  whole,"  "  uninjured,"  and, 
 therefore,  "  so\md"  and  "  pure."  as  referring  to  the 
 virgin  [lurilv  of  the  goddess.  This  is  about  as  correct 
 as  the  rest  of  Plato's  attempts  at  e'vinology.  (  Crnli/L, 
 p.  .50. — Op.,  ed.  Bekk.,  vol.  4,  p.  248  —Consult  Creu- 
 zcr,  Sj/mholik;  vol    2,  p    190  ) 
 
 Arti;.misia,  I.  dauyhtcr  of  Lygdamis  of  Halicarnas- 
 eus,  reigned  (>ver  Halicarnassus.  and  also  over  Cos 
 and  other  adjacent  islands.  She  joined  the  fleet  of 
 Xerxes,  when  he  invaded  Creoro,  with  five  vessels, 
 the  best  equipped  of  the  whole  fleet  after  those  of  the 
 Sidonians  ;  and  she  displayed  so  much  valour  and  skill 
 at  the  battle  of  Salamis.  as  to  elicit,  from  Xer\es  the 
 well-known  remark,  that  the  men  had  acted  like  wom- 
 en in  the  fight,  and  the  women  like  men.  The  Athe- 
 nians, indignant  that  a  female  shotdd  appear  in  arms 
 against  them,  olfored  a  reward  of  10,000  drachma?  lo 
 any  one  who  should  take  her  prisoner.  She  however 
 escaped  after  the  action.  (Herod..  7,  99, — Id  ,8.  88. 
 — Id.,  8,93.)  If  we  are  to  believe  Ptolemy  Hepha:s- 
 tion,  a  writer  who  mi.xed  np  many  fables  with  some 
 truth,  Artemisia  subsequently  conceived  an  attachment 
 for  a  youth  of  Abydos,  named  Dardanus  :  but,  not 
 meeting  with  a  return  for  her  passion,  she  put  out  his 
 eyes  while  he  slept,  and  then  threw  herself  down  from 
 the  lover's  leap  at  the  Promontory  of  I-eucate.  {I'tol. 
 Hephast.,  ap.  Phot.,  Cud.,  190,  p.  1.53,  BeM.)—U. 
 Another  queen  of  Caria,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
 210 
 
 preceding.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Hecatomnus, 
 king  of  Caria,  and  married  her  brother  Mausolus,  a 
 species  of  union  sanctioned  by  the  customs  of  the 
 country.  She  lost  her  husband,  who  was  remarkable 
 for  personal  beauty,  B.(J.  36-5,  and  she  became,  in  con- 
 sequence, ,a  prey  to  the  dee|.>est  aflliction.  A  sjilendid 
 tomb  was  erected  to  his  memory,  called  Mausoleum 
 (Mavau^elov,  seiL  fivrijj.eloi',  i.  e.,  "  tomb  of  Mauso- 
 lus"'), and  the  most  noted  writers  of  the  day  were  in- 
 vited to  attend  a  literary  contest,  in  which  ample  re- 
 wards were  to  be  bestowed  on  those  who  sjiould  celebrate 
 with  most  ability  the  praises  of  the  deceased.  Among 
 the  individuals  who  carne  together  on  that  occasion 
 were,  according  to  Auhis  Gellius  (10,  18),  Theopom- 
 pus,  Theodectes,  Naiicrites,  and  even  Isocrates.  The 
 prize  was  won  by  Theopompus.  (Anl.  GcIL,  I.  c.) 
 Valerius  Maximus  and  Aulus  Gellius  relate  a  marvel- 
 lous story  concerning  the  excessive  grief  of  Artemisia. 
 They  say  that  she  actually  mixed  the  ashes  of  her  hus- 
 band with  water,  and  drank  them  off!  (Val.  il/ar.,4,  6.) 
 The  grief  of  Artemisia,  poignant  though  it  was,  did  not 
 cause  her  to  neglect  the  care  of  her  dominions  ;  she 
 conquered  the  isle  of  Rhodes,  and  gained  possession 
 of  some  Greek  cities  on  the  main  land  ;  and  yet  it  is 
 said  that  she  died  of  grief  two  years  after  the  loss  of 
 her  husband.  (Vitruv.,  2,  8. — Strab.,  656. — Plin., 
 36,  5  ) 
 
 Artemisium,  a  promontory  of  Euboea,  on  the  north- 
 western side  of  the  island.  It  had  a  temple  sacred  to 
 .\rtemis  (Diana),  whence  its  name.  Off  this  coast 
 the  Greeks  obtained  their  first  victory  over  the  fleet 
 of  Xerxes,  on  the  same  day  with  the  action  of  I'her- 
 mopvlae.     {Herod  ,  7,  175,  &c.) 
 
 Artkmjta,  I.  a  city  of  Assyria,  north  of  Scleucia, 
 and  southwest  of  Apollonia.  It  appears  to  have  been 
 the  same  with  Dastagrrda  in  the  middle  ages,  and 
 the  Chiilasnr  of  inore  modern  times.  {Turit..  6,  41. 
 — PIni..  G,  26.— Isid..  C'harac.) — II.  Another  in  Ar- 
 menia Major,  near  its  southern  boundary,  now  Aetnmar 
 or  Van.  It  lay  at  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the 
 Arsissa  Palus,  now  Lake  of  Vav. 
 
 Artemon,  J  a  celebrated  mechanician,  a  native  of 
 ClazomcncB,  who  was  with  Pericles  at  the  siege  of  Sa- 
 mos,  where  it  is  said  he  invented  the  battering-ram,  tho 
 ttslv.do,  and  other  equally  valuable  military  engines. 
 {Pint.,  Vit.  Periel.,  c.  27. )— II.  A  native  of  Syria,  one 
 of  the  lower  order,  whose  features  resembled  in  the 
 strongest  manner  those  of  Antiochus  Theos.  The 
 queen,  after  the  king's  murder,  made  use  of  Artemon 
 to  represent  her  husband  in  a  lingering  stale,  that,  by 
 h's  seeming  to  have  died  a  natural  deaih,  she  might  con* 
 ceal  her  guilt,  and  effect  her  wicked  purpose.  {Ptm., 
 7,  10.) 
 
 Aktimpas.*,  a  name  given  to  a  goddess  among  the 
 Scvthians,  whose  attributes  resembled  those  of  the  Gre- 
 cian Venus.  (Herod.,  4,  59  )  Some  read,  in  the  text  of 
 Herodotus,  'Ap'TTTraaa  (Anpp'isa) :  others,  with  Ori- 
 sren  (contr.  Cels  V.,  p.  609),  prefer  Wpyf/nraaa. 
 Manv  consider  the  deity  here  mentioned  to  be  none 
 other  than  the  'Earth,"  the  German  Herlhn,  for,  ac- 
 cording to  Jamieson.  the  ancient  Goths  called  Venus 
 lordem-asa,  and  Ardemnsn.  i.  c  ,  "  tcrrs^  dea."  The 
 first  part  of  the  name  reminds  us  at  once  of  our  English 
 term  "earth,"  through  the  German  "  erde,"  and  the  re- 
 mainder refers  to  the  ,4.'/.  or  earliest  deities  of  Asiatic  and 
 Scandinavian  mythology.    (Hermes  Seythirus,]).  120.) 
 
 Arvai.es  or  Ambarvai.es,  a  name  civen  to  twelve 
 priests  who  celebrated  the  festivals  called  Ambarvalia. 
 This  sacerdotal  order  is  said  to  have  been  instituted 
 by  Romulus  in  honour  of  his  nurse  Acca  Laureniia, 
 who  had  twelve  sons  ;  and  vvhen  one  of  them  died, 
 Romulus,  to  console  her,  offered  to  supply  his  place, 
 and  called  himself  and  the  rest  of  her  sons  Frutrss 
 Arvales.  Their  office  was  for  life,  and  continued  even 
 in  captivity  and  exile  They  wore  a  crown  inade  of 
 the  ears  of  wheat,  and  a  white  woollen  wreath  arc  and 
 
ASC 
 
 ASC 
 
 their  temples.  The  hymn  sung  by  these  priests  was 
 discovered  in  1778,  in  opening  the  foundations  of  the 
 sacristy  of  St.  Peter's,  inscribed  on  a  stone  Consult 
 Fiirccllini  (L-x.  Tot.  Lai.,  s.  v.  Arvales),  where  the 
 question  is  considered,  whether  the  Arvales  and  the 
 Ainbarvales  were  distinct  priesthoods  or  not.  Refer- 
 ence is  there  made  to  tiie  work  of  Marinio,  "  De<^li 
 At/.iche  MoKumciiti  de'  Ftuldli  ArnuU,  scolpili  gia  in 
 tavole  di  marino,  cd  oui  raccolti,  dwiferatie  commcn- 
 lati.,   Roma,  179o,  2  vols.  4lo." 
 
 Aruekis,  a  god  of  the  Egyptians,  son  of  Isis  and 
 Osiris.    (Vid.  Horus.) 
 
 Akvkkm,  a  powerful  people  of  Gaul,  whose  terri- 
 tories lay  between  the  sources  of  the  Elaver  or  Allicr, 
 and  Duranius  or  Durdogne,  branches  of  the  Liger  and 
 Garuirina.  The  district  is  now  Anvtrgne.  Their 
 c.auilal  was  Augustunometum,  now  Clermont.  They 
 were  a  powerful  nation,  and  were  only  conquered  after 
 great  slaughter.  Their  name  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
 from  Ar,  or  aU  "high," and  Vcrann  {fearann),  ••  coun- 
 try" or  "region."  {Thierry,  Hist,  dcs  Gaulois,  vol. 
 2,  p.  29.) 
 
 AriusIum  Pro.montorium,  a  promontory  of  Chios. 
 The  adjacent  country  was  famous  for  producing  a 
 wine  {Vinmn  Anusiuin)  that  was  considered  the  best 
 of  all  the  Greek  wines.  {Virg.,  Ec'og.,  5,  71. — 
 Slrab.,  95.5. — Pluf ,  non  jwsse  suav.  vivi,  &.C.,  c.  17. 
 -~Cltm.  Alex.,  I'cEd.,  2,  2.) 
 
 Aruns  Tarquinius,  I  a  brother  of  Lucius  Tar- 
 quiiiius,  or  Tarquin  the  Proud.  He  was  of  a  meek 
 and  gentle  spirit,  and  was  married  to  the  younger 
 TulHa.  His  wife,  a  haughty  and  ambitious  woman, 
 murdered  hint,  accorditig  to  the  old  legend,  and  mar- 
 ried Tarquin  the  Proud,  who  had,  in  like  marnier,  made 
 away  with  his  own  spouse.  {Liv.,  1,  46. — Arnold's 
 Rome,  vol.  1,  p.  41.) — H.  A  son  of  Tarquin  the 
 Proud.  In  the  first  conflict  that  took  place  after  the 
 expulsion  of  his  father,  he  and  Brutus  slew  each  other. 
 {Liv..  2,  &.—ArnohVs  Rome,  vol.  1.  p.   108  ) 
 
 Aruntius,  I  a  Iloman  writer,  who,  with  an  atTec- 
 tatioti  of  the  style  of  Sallust,  composed  in  the  age  of 
 Augustus  a  history  of  the  first  Punic  war.  (  Voss.,  de 
 Hi.st.  Lai.,  1,  IS.) — II.  A  Roman  poet,  whose  full 
 name  was  Aruntius  Stella  He  is  highly  praised  by 
 Statins,  wiio  dedicated  some  of  his  productions  to  him, 
 and  also  by  Martial.  Among  the  works  that  he  com- 
 posed was  a  poem  on  the  victory  of  Domitian  over  the 
 Sarmatas.  His  writings  have  not  coine  down  to  us. 
 {Siatius,  Syh.,  1.  2,  17.— W.  ih.,  1,  2,  258,  &c.— 
 Martial,  5,  59,  2.— W.,  12,  3,  11,  &c  ) 
 Arustex.      Vid.  Haruspcx. 
 
 Arx.\ta,  a  town  of  Armenia  Major,  situate  on  the 
 Araxes,  east  of  Artaxala,  towards  the  confines  of  Me- 
 dia. {Slrah  ,  528.)  It  is  probably  the  Naxuana  of 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 Arvandes,  a  Persian,  appointed  governor  of  Egypt 
 by  Cambyses.  He  was  put  to  death  by  Darius  for  is- 
 suing a  silver  coinage  in.  his  own  name.  {Hcrodot.. 
 4,  16G.) 
 
 AsANDER,  a  governor  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus 
 under  Pharnaces.  He  revolted  against  him  B.C.  47; 
 and  having  defeated  both  him  and  his  successor,  obtain- 
 ed peaceable  possession  of  the  government,  which  was 
 afterward  confirmed  to  him  by  Augustus.  He  separated 
 by  a  wall  the  Tauric  Chersonese  from  the  continent. 
 [Afpian,  Bell.  Mithrad.,l'H) —Dio  Cassms,  42,  46.) 
 AseiBUKUiUM,  I.  a  Roman  fortified  post  on  the  Ger- 
 man side  of  the  Rhine.  Ptolemy  places  it  where  the 
 Canal  of  Drusus  joined  the  Yssel.— II.  A  town  of 
 Germany,  j.laced  by  the  Tab.  Pculing.  on  the  western 
 bank  of  the  Rhine,  south  of  the  modern  Santcn. 
 (Compare  Mnnncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  454.)  Ritter 
 has  some  curious  speculations  upon  the  name  of  this 
 place,  and  seeks  to  trace  an  analogy  between  it  and 
 that  of  the  Aspurgiani,'on  the  Palus  Ma;otis  {Strabo, 
 495),  as  also  between  both  of  these  and  the  famed 
 
 As-gard  of  Scandinavian  mythology.  {Rittcr^s  Vor- 
 halle,  p.  296,  seqq. — Consult  remarks  under  the  arti- 
 cle Asi.) 
 
 AsBvsT.«,  a  small  inland  tribe  of  Africa,  situate  be- 
 tween the  Gilligammce  on  the  east,  and  the  .\uschisDB  on 
 the  west  {Handot ,  4,  .170),  and  above  Cyrenaica. 
 They  had  no  commutncation  with  the  coast,  which  was 
 occupied  by  the  Cyreneans.  According  to  Herodotus 
 (/.  c),  they  were  beyond  all  the  .Africans  remarkable  for 
 the  use  of  chariots  drawn  by  four  horses.  {Rennell, 
 Geogr.  Herod.,  vol.  2,  p.  265.) 
 
 Ascai-.Xphus,  I.  a  son  of  Mars  and  .\styochc,  went  to 
 the  Trojan  war  at  the  head  of  the  (Jrchomenians,  with 
 his  brother  lalmenus.  He  was  killed  by  Deiphobus. 
 {Horn  ,  11.,  2,  513.) — II.  A  son  of  .Acheron  by  Goigyra 
 or  Orphne,  stationed  by  Pluto  to  watch  over  Proscrpma 
 in  the  Elysian  fields.  It  was  he  who  tesiiiiid  to  the 
 fact  of  Proserpina's  having  eaten  a  pomegranate  seed 
 in  the  kingdom  of  Pluto.  (Fi;/  Proserpina.)  Hewa.s 
 changed  into  an  owl  for  his  mischief-making.  {Ovid, 
 Met.,  5,  549  )  Another  legend  says  that  CIcres  placed 
 a  large  stone  on  him  in  Erebus,  which  Hercules  rolled 
 away.  {ApolUd  ,  1,  5,  3.—Id,  2,  5,  12  )  There 
 are  likewise  other  variations  in  the  fable,  as  given  by 
 the  ancient  niythologists.  According  to  Antoninu.s 
 Liberalis  (c.  24),  who  quotes  from  Nicander,  the  name 
 of  the  individual  was  Ascalabus.  son  of  the  nymph 
 Misme  {Mig/xtj).  His  mother  having  handed  Ceres  a 
 drink  when  the  latter  was  searching  for  her  daughter, 
 and  the  goddess  having,  through  excessive  thirst, 
 drained  the  cup  at  a  single  draught,  Ascalabus.  in  de- 
 rision, ordered  a  caldron  to  be  brought ;  vvhereu])on 
 the  offended  deity  changed  him  into  a  lizard.  (Com- 
 pare Munckcr,  ad  Anton.  Lib.,  I.  c,  and  Creuzcr, 
 Symbolik,  vol.  4,  p.  467,  seqq.) 
 
 AscAi.oN,  a  maritime  town  of  Palestine,  320  fur- 
 longs from  Jerusalem,  between  Azotus  to  the  north, 
 and  Gaza  to  the  south.  Venus  Urania  was  worship- 
 ped in  this  city.  Her  temple  was  pillaged,  according 
 to  Herodotus,  by  the  Scvtliians,  B.C.  630.  Here  also 
 was  worshipped  the  goddess  Derceto.  Ascalon  was 
 taken  from  the  Assyrians  by  the  Persians,  and  after- 
 ward fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  Alexander  the 
 Great,  Ptolemy,  and  Antiochus  I.  ;  but,  during  the 
 wars  between  .\ntiochus  Epiphancs  and  his  brother 
 Philopator,  it  became  iiide))erident,  and  remained  so 
 until  it  fell  under  the  Roman  power.  It  was  frequent- 
 ly taken  by  the  Saracens,  and  suffered  much  during 
 the  crusades.  Baldwin,  king  of  Jerusalem,  took  it, 
 after  a  siege  of  five  or  six  months,  in  1153  or  1154,  at 
 which  time  it  was  erected  into  an  episcopal  town  ; 
 but,  falling  at  length  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  it  was 
 almost  destroyed,  and  is  now  an  insignificant  place, 
 which  they  occupy  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  the  in- 
 roads of  the  .Arabians.  Its  modern  name  is  Scalona. 
 Herod  the  Great  was  born  in  .Ascalon,  and  hence  re- 
 ceived the  appellation  of  Ascalonites.  {Plin.,  5,  13. 
 —Amm.  MarcelL,  14,  2G—Ptol.,  5,  IG.— Strabo, 
 522.— Joseph.,  Av't.  Jud.,  6,  1.) 
 
 AscANius,  I.  son  of  .Eneas  by  Crciisa.  According 
 to  the  old  legend  (for  it  is  not  right  to  dignify  such 
 narratives  with  the  name  of  history)  he  was  saved  from 
 the  flames  of  Troy  by  his  father,  whom  he  accompa- 
 nied to  Italy,  where  his  name  was  afterward  changed 
 to  lulus.  He  behaved  with  great  valour  in  the  war 
 which  his  father  carried  on  against  the  Latins,  and 
 succeeded  .dicas  in  the  kingdom  of  Latinus,  and  built 
 Alba,  to  which  he  transferred  the  scat  of  his  empire 
 from  Lavinium.  The  fabulous  chronology  of  the  Ro- 
 man writers  makes  the  descendants  of  Ascanius  to 
 have  reigned  in  Alba  for  about  420  years,  under  four- 
 teen kings,  till  the  age  of  Numitor.  Ascanuis  him- 
 self reigned,  according  to  the  same  authorities,  thirty - 
 eiaht  years,  of  which  thirty  were  passed  at  Lavinium, 
 an'd  the  remainder  at  Alba.  He  was  succeeded  by 
 Sylvius  Posthumus.  son  of  .Eneas  by  Lavinia.     lulus, 
 
 ^  •    211 
 
A  S  C 
 
 ASCLEPIADES. 
 
 the  son  of  Ascanius,  disputed  the  crown  with  him  ; 
 but  the  Latins  gave  it  in  favour  of  Sylvius,  as  he  was 
 descended  from  the  family  of  Lalinus,  and  lulus  was 
 invested  with  the  office  of  high-priest,  which  remained 
 a  long  while  in  his  family.  {Liv.,  1,  3. — Serv.,  ad 
 Virg.,  JEn.,  1,  270.— DioMT/s.  Hal,  1,  IG.—Pha., 
 Vtt.  Rom.) — II.  A  river  of  Bithynia,  which  discharged 
 into  the  Propontis  the  waters  of  the  Lake  Ascanius. 
 (Plin.,  5,  32. — Arislot.,  ap  Schol.  Apollon.  R.,  1, 
 1177.) — III.  A  lake  in  the  western  part  of  Bithynia, 
 near  the  head  waters  of  the  Sinus  Cianus.  At  its 
 eastern  extremity  stood  the  city  of  Nicsa.  Aristotle 
 observes,  that  the  waters  of  this  lake  were  so  im- 
 pregnated with  nitre,  as  to  cleanse  the  clothes  dipped 
 into  them.  {Mirah.  Auscvlt.,c.  54. — Pltn.,  31,  10.) 
 According  to  Colonel  Leake,  the  Ascanian  Lake  is 
 about  ten  miles  long  and  four  wide,  surrounded  on 
 three  sides  by  steep  v/oody  slopes,  behind  which  rise 
 the  snowy  summits  of  the  range  of  Olympus.  {Leake's 
 Asia  Minor,  p.  7.  —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p. 
 180.) 
 
 AscLEPiE.i  {' koKlriniela),  a  festival  in  honour  of 
 yEsculapius  {'AaKlriTVLOc),  celebrated  in  several  parts 
 of  Greece,  but  nowhere  with  so  much  solemnity  as  at 
 Epidaurus.  One  part  of  the  celebration,  as  we  learn 
 from  Plato,  consisted  of  contests  in  poetry  and  music. 
 {Plat..  Ion.  init.—Jul.  Poll,  1,  21.—Pausan.,  2, 
 26,  7.)  Another  form  of  the  name  is  Asclcpea  ('Aff- 
 KTirj-KEla),  respecting  which,  consult  the  remarks  of 
 Siebelis  {ad  Pausan.,  L  c). 
 
 AsclepiIdes,  I.  the  reputed  descendants  of  ^Escu- 
 lapius    ('A(T/c/l?;7rjOf),   consisting   of   several    families 
 spread   over  Greece,  and   professing   to  have  among 
 them  certain  secrets  of  the  healing  art  handed  down  to 
 them  from  their  great  progenitor.     The  Asclepiades  of 
 Epidaurus  were  among  the  most  famous  of  the  name. 
 The  Asclepiades   compelled  all   who   were   initiated 
 into  the  mysteries  of  their  science,  to  swear  by  Apol- 
 lo, ^Esculapius,  Hygiea,  Panacea,  and   all   the  other 
 gods    and    goddesses,   that    they  would   not    profane 
 the  secrets  of  the  healing  art,  but  would  only  unfold 
 them  to  the  children  of  their  masters,  or  to  those  who 
 should    have   bound   themselves   by  the    same    oath. 
 {Cons\i\t  Hippocr.,6pKoc  iliustrat.vs  a  Meibomio,  ilo, 
 L.  B.,  1C43.)     We  may,  in  this  point  of  view,  regard 
 as  a  locus  classici(s  a  passage  of  Galen,  wherein  he 
 states  that  medical  knowledge  was  at  first  hereditary, 
 and  that  parents  imparted  it  to  their  offspring  as  a 
 kind  of  family  prerogative  or  possession.      I'his  usage, 
 however,  became  in  process  of  time  more  relaxed,  and 
 then  medical  secrets  began  to  be  imparted  to  stran- 
 gers  who  had  gone  through   the  forms  of  initiation 
 (teXeioi  avi)pe^),  and  were  in  this  way  rendered  less 
 e.vclusive    in    their    character.      {Galen,    Administr. 
 Anatom,.,  lib.  2,  p.  128.)     It   is  for  this  reason  that 
 Aristides,  in  a  later  age,  remarks,  that  a  knowledge  of 
 medicine  was  for  a  long  time  regarded  as  the  attribute 
 of  the  family  of  the  Asclepiades.     {Oral.  Sacr.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  80.)     And  hence,  too,  Lncian  makes  a  physician 
 say,  "  My  sacred  and  mysterious  oath  compels  me  to 
 be  silent."     {Tragopod.,  yi.  818.)     The  theurgic  phy- 
 sicians of  the  Alexandrean  school  re-established,  at  a 
 subsequent  period,  this  ancient  custom,  in  order  to  im- 
 part, by  the  obligation  of  religious  silence,  a  greater 
 degree  of  consideration  to  their  superstitious  practices. 
 {Alex.  Trail,  \\\).  10,  p.  593.  cd.  Guinth.  Andernac.) 
 The  Asclepiades  appear  to  have  established,  among 
 their    disciples  and   in    their   manner  of  instructing, 
 a  distinction  which  we  find  existing  also  in  the  schools 
 of   the    philosophers.      They    imparted    the    ordinary 
 branches  of  medical  knowledge  to  those  who  were  not 
 yet  initiated,  but  their  profound  secrets  {ai  uiroppriTOL 
 didaaiialiaL)  only  to'  those  who  had  been   admitted 
 into  their  mysteries.     The  Asclepiades  neglected  en- 
 tirely two  essential  parts  of  the  healmg  art,  diet  and 
 anatomy.     Plato  says  that  an  acquaintance  with  die- 
 212 
 
 tetics  was  not  cultivated  before  the  time  of  Prodicu* 
 of  Selymbria,  and  Hippocrates  confirms  the  assertion 
 of  the  philosopher.  {Sprengel,  Apol.  d'Htppocr.,  pt. 
 11,  p.  271.)  Anatomy,  again,  could  not  flourish  in 
 Greece,  through  the  force  of  popular  prejudice,  and 
 these  prejudices  took  their  rise  from  the  belief,  that  the 
 soul,  after  being  disengaged  from  its  material  envelope, 
 was  obliged  to  wander  on  the  banks  of  the  Sty.x  until 
 the  body  was  consigned  to  the  earth  or  devoured  by 
 the  flames.  {Hum.,  M.,  23,  71. — Sprengel,  HisL 
 Med.,  vol.  1,  p.  169,  seqq.) — II.  A  Greek  physician, 
 a  native  of  Prusa  in  Bithynia,  who  lived  in  the  age  of 
 Cicero,  and  who  was  the  first  that  brought  the  art  of 
 medicine  into  reputation  at  Rome.  After  having  ac- 
 quired a  name  in  Asia,  he  came  to  the  capital  of  Italy, 
 B.C.  110,  rejecting  the  offers  of  Mithradatcs,  king  of 
 Pontus,  who  wished  him  to  reside  at  his  court.  As- 
 clepiades was  one  of  those  ardent  spirits  destined  to 
 bring  about  a  revolution  in  whatever  career  they 
 move,  and  nature  had  endowed  him  with  an  attractive 
 kind  of  eloquence,  which  he  often  abused.  At  Rome 
 he  commenced  giving  lessons  in  rhetoric,  but  all  of 
 a  sudden,  persuading  himself,  after  a  very  superficial 
 acquaintance  with  medicine,  that  he  was  thoroughly 
 master  of  the  art,  he  began  to  practice  it.  Unhappily, 
 he  brought  into  this  new  pursuit  all  the  rash  eagerness 
 of  his  independent  spirit,  and  all  the  philosophical  er- 
 rors of  opinion  which,  as  a  rhetorician,  he  had  success- 
 ively adopted.  The  Romans  had  given  a  favourable 
 reception  to  Archagathus  before  Asclepiades  came 
 among  them,  but  they  soon  began  to  dislike  his  prac- 
 tice, from  his  having  recourse  frequently  to  painful 
 remedies.  Asclepiades,  in  order  to  gain  a  reputation, 
 pursued  a  course  directly  opposite  to  this.  He  made 
 it  a  point  to  give  only  such  remedies  as  were  agree- 
 able and  easy  to  bear.  He  applied,  moreover,  to  the 
 medical  art  all  the  erroneous  philosophic  notions  of  hia 
 day  ;  and,  speaking  in  this  way  to  the  Romans  of  things 
 that  entered  into  the  plan  of  their  studies,  and  alluring 
 them  also  by  the  charms  of  his  eloquence,  he  was  en- 
 abled to  gain  their  confidence  the  more  easily,  from 
 being  himself  deceived  into  the  belief  that  he  was  near 
 the  truth.  Adopting  the  corpuscular  philosophy  of 
 Epicurus,  he  made  it  the  basis  of  his  doctrine.  He 
 misunderstood  that  of  Hippocrates,  the  only  true  one. 
 He  even  criticised  openly  the  method  of  this  great 
 physician,  namely,  the  calm  observation  of  nature,  and 
 called  it,  in  derision,  "  the  study  of  death"  {-davaTov 
 He)^et7]v. — Galen,  de  vena  sect.  adv.  Erasisir.,  p. 
 3).  From  Pliny's  account  of  him,  Asclepiades  would 
 appear  to  have  been  nothing  more  than  a  successful 
 charlatan,  who  flattered  the  whims  of  his  patients,  and 
 rejected  all  the  tortures  which,  under  the  name  of  regu- 
 lar remedies,  had  been  previously  in  vogue.  He  admit- 
 ted only  five  means  of  cure  ;  dieting,  occasional  absti- 
 nence from  wine,  frictions,  exercise  on  foot,  and  the 
 being  carried  in  litters.  {Plin.,  26,  3.)  The  appear- 
 ance, too,  for  the  first  time  in  Italy,  of  the  disorder 
 termed  elephantiasis,  and  the  alarm  which  it  occasion- 
 ed, could  not  fail  to  add  greatly  to  the  reputation  of  a 
 medical  man  who  was  skilful  in  curing  it.  {Pint., 
 Syvipos.  8,  qu.  9.)  Finally,  the  relations  subsisting 
 between  him  and  the  most  distinguished  Romans  of  his 
 time,  especially  Cicero,  contributed  greatly  to  his 
 celebrity.  {Be  Oral,  1,  14.)  A  singular  circum- 
 stance also  gained  him  great  credit  among  the  lower 
 orders.  Happening  to  pass,  on  one  occasion,  near  a 
 funeral  train,  he  perceived  that  the  body  which  was 
 being  conveyed  to  the  funeral  pile  exhibited  signs  of 
 life.  He  immediately  employed  the  most  active  meas- 
 ures for  its  resuscitation,  and  succeeded,  to  the  great 
 astonishment  of  the  by-standers,>who  regarded  what  he 
 had  done  as  a  restoring  from  death  to  life,  rather  than 
 as  an  act  of  ordinary  healing.  Asclepiades  used  to 
 boast  that  he  had  never  been  sick ;  and  if  we  credit 
 Pliny,  he  did  not  even  die  of  any  malady,  but  from  an 
 
A  S  C 
 
 A  S  G 
 
 accident,  that  befell  him.  We  have  some  fragments 
 of  his  writings  remaining,  an  edition  of  which  was 
 given  by  Gumpert,  with  a  preface  by  Griiner,  Vimar., 
 1794,  8vo.  Asclcpiadcs  was  the  founder  of  a  school, 
 which  enjoyed  great  celebrity  among  the  ancients. 
 Stephanus  of  Byzantium  gives  the  names  of  several 
 of  his  pupils  (s.  V.  Avppuxfov).  A  scholar  of  his, 
 not  mentioned  by  the  latter,  namely,  Themisto,  was 
 the  chief  of  the  sect  of  the  Methodists,  as  they  were 
 termed.  (Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  2,  p.  564. — Sprcngcl, 
 Hist.  Med.,  2,  p.  3,  seqq.)     ^ 
 
 AscLEPioDORUs,  I.  an  Athenian  painter,  contempora- 
 ry with  Apelles,  who  praised  the  former  for  the  symme- 
 try of  his  productions,  and  yielded  him  the  palm  in  delin- 
 eating the  relative  distances  of  objects.  Mnaso,  a  tyrant 
 of  antiquity,  employed  him  to  paint  the  twelve  deities 
 (Dii  majores),  and  paid  him  300  minas  (over  $5277) 
 for  each.  {Pliny,  35,  10.) — 11.  A  statuary,  one  of 
 those,  according  to  Pliny  (34,  8),  who  excelled  in  rep- 
 resenting the  philosophers.  {Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 AscLEPioDOTUs,  a  native  of  Ale.xandrea,  the  disci- 
 ple of  Jacobas  in  medicine  and  of  Proclus  in  eclectic 
 philosophy,  in  both  of  which  he  acquired  a  distinguish- 
 ed reputation.  Damascius  gave  a  long  account  of  him 
 in  the  Life  of  Isidorus,  of  which  Suidas  and  Photius 
 have  preserved  fragments.  In  medicine  he  surpassed 
 his  instructer,  and  is  said  to  have  re-established  the 
 Hse  of  white  hellebore,  with  which  he  made  some  very 
 successful  cures.  He  was  well  acquainted  also  with 
 the  virtues  of  plants,  and  with  the  history  of  animals  ; 
 and  made  great  progress  also  in  the  musical  art. 
 Some  wonderful  stories  are  likewise  related  of  him, 
 which  would  seem  to  place  him  in  the  class  of  Thau- 
 maturgists.  He'  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Tima^us 
 yf  Plato,  which  is  now  lost.  {Photius,  Co(Z.,  242,  vol. 
 2,  p.  343,  seqg.) 
 
 AscoLi.\,  a  festival  in  honour  of  Bacchus,  celebrated 
 by  the  Athenian  husbandmen,  who  generally  sacrificed 
 a  goat  to  the  god,  because  that  animal  is  a  great  enemy 
 to  the  vine.     They  made  a  bottle  or  bag  with  the  skin 
 of  the  victim,  which  they  filled  with  wine,  smearing 
 at  the  same  time  the  outer  surface  with  oil.     On  this 
 they  endeavoured  to   leap  with  one  foot,  and  he  that 
 first  fixed  himself  was   declared  victor,  and  received 
 the  bottle  as  a  reward.     This  was  called  aaKu?uui^eiv, 
 TTapa  Tov  STTL  TOP  uaKov  (iTJiEadai,  from  leaping  upon 
 the  bottle,  whence  the  name  of  the  festival  is  derived. 
 It  was  also  introduced  into  Italy  under  the  name  of 
 Vinalia,  on  which  occasion  the  rustics  put  on  hideous 
 masks  of  bark,  and  invoked  Bacchus  in  joyful  strains. 
 They  also  hung  up,  at  the  same  time,  little  images  on 
 a    lofty    pine.     These    images   they    called    Osctlta. 
 {Sihol.  ad  Aristoph.,  Pint.,  1129.— P'ir^.,  Georg.,  2, 
 387,  scqq.)     Spence  gives   engravings  from   several 
 gems,  on  which  figures  are  represented,  called  oscilla 
 or  aiupai.     They  are  found  also  in  the  paintings  at 
 Hcrculaneum,  and  in  Mercurialis  {Art.  Gymn.,  3,  8,  p. 
 217).     Spence  attributes  the  origin  of  this  rite  to  the 
 popular  belief,  that  when  Bacchus  turned  his  face  to- 
 wards the  fields,  their  fertility  was  assured.     Hence 
 they  exposed  these   small  figures  to   the  winds,  that 
 they  might  be  free  to  turn  in  any  direction.     Some 
 writers  think  that  the  osalla  were  ihc  same  with  phal- 
 lic  symbols  (compare  Srrv.,  ad   Virg.,  I.  c),  but  this 
 opinion  now  finds  few,  if  any,  supporters.     {Turneb., 
 Adv.,  3,  20. — Rolle,  Recker'ches  sur  le  culte  dc  Bac- 
 chus, vol.  1,  p  312.)     The  Athenians  had  their  festi 
 val  of  ascMn,  which  they  termed   alupaL,  and  which 
 was  said  to  have  been   instituted  in  metnory  of  Eri- 
 gone  ;  and  hence  Varro  (ap.  Sen.  ad  Mn.,  12,  603) 
 gives  another  singular  explanation  to  the  custom  of 
 suspendmg  oscilla.     According  to  him,  a  rope   was 
 suspended  at  either  extremity  from  a  beam  or  tree, 
 and  in  this  way  a  swing  was  formed,  to  which  a  little 
 image  or  oscillum  was  suspended.     The  movement  of 
 this  swing  to  and  fro,  with  the  image  attached,  was  re- 
 
 garded as  a  kind  of  funeral  offering  to  those  who  had 
 committed  suicide  by  hanging. — There  is  evidently 
 some  analogy,  in  both  form  and  meaning,  between  the 
 Latin  term  osalla  and  the  Greek  uGKuTi-ia,  and  the 
 common  derivations  given  in  either  case  cannot  be 
 correct.  (Consult  the  etymology  given  by  Servius,  ad 
 Viig.,  I.  c.) 
 
 AscoNius  Pedianus,  a  grammarian,  born  at  Pata- 
 vium,  a  little  before  the  commencement  of  our  era 
 {Madvig,  de  Pcdiani  Comment.  Disp.  Grit.,  p.  16), 
 and  who  is  known  to  modern  times  by  his  commentary 
 on  the  orations  of  Cicero.  The  statement  of  Philar- 
 gyrius,  that  Asconius  had  heard  Virgil  in  his  youth, 
 deserves  no  credit  whatever  {ad  Vtrg.,  Eclog.,  3, 
 106),  since  it  is  contradicted  in  effect  by  the  remark  of 
 St.  Jerome,  who  informs  us,  that  Asconius,  in  the  73d 
 year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  7th  of  Vespasian's  reign, 
 suffered  the  loss  of  his  sight,  but  still  lived  for  twelve 
 years  after  this.  {Hie.ron.,  in  Chronic.  Euscb.,  ad 
 Olymp.  ccxiii.,  3.)  Just  as  little  credit  is  due  to  the 
 supposition  of  there  having  been  two  individuals  named 
 Asconius,  an  earlier  one,  who  was  the  friend  of  Livy 
 and  Virgil,  and  wrote  a  commentary  on  Cicero's  ora- 
 tions, and  a  later  one,  who  was  an  historical  writer. 
 All  antiquity  knows  but  one  Asconius  Pedianus. 
 {Jos.,  Seal.  Animadv.  ad  Euscb.  Chron.,  p.  183,  cd. 
 1. — p.  200,  ed.  2.) — Few  particulars  have  reached  us 
 relative  to  Asconius.  He  composed  a  work  in  de- 
 fence of  Virgil,  now  lost  {Donai.,  in  Vit.  Virg.,  16, 
 64),  and  another  on  the  life  of  Sallust,  which  also  has 
 not  reached  us.  He  wrote  likewise  a  commentary  on 
 the  Orations  of  Cicero,  for  the  use  of  his  own  son  {ad 
 Oral,  pro  MUon.,  6),  some  portions  of  which  have 
 reached  our  day.  The  importance  of  these  makes 
 us  feel  the  more  sensibly  the  loss  of  the  other  parts. 
 {Madvig,  p.  72,  seqq.)  We  have  fragments  of  the 
 commentary  on  nine  orations  of  Cicero  :  the  Divina- 
 tio,  three  of  those  against  Vcrres,  the  oration  for  Cor- 
 nelius, the  oration  in  tog.  candid.,  that  against  Piso, 
 and  those  for  Scaurus  and  for  Milo.  The  character 
 of  this  commentary  is  in  general  historical,  and  As- 
 conius appears  in  it  as  a  man  well  acquainted  with  the 
 history  and  earlier  constitution  of  Rome.  Frequently 
 he  is  our  only  authority  for  certain  facts,  since  the 
 sources  from  which  he  has  drawn,  in  such  cases,  no 
 longer  exist.  His  Latinity  is  tolerably  pure  and  cor- 
 rect, and  comparatively  free  from  the  barbarisms  of  a 
 declining  tongue  ;  always  excepting  the  commentaries 
 on  the  Verrine  orations,  which  are  thought  by  the 
 learned  to  have  been  the  work  of  a  later  writer,  who 
 lived  shortly  after  Servius  and  Donatus,  and  who  prob- 
 ably derived  his  materials  from  some  commentary  of 
 Asconius,  now  lost.  It  is  to  this  same  later  writer, 
 and  not  to  Asconius,  that  Niebuhr  assigns  the  scholia 
 found  by  Mai,  in  1814,  in  the  Ambrosian  palimpsest. 
 {Nieb.,  ad  Front.  Op.,  ed.  Bcrolin.,  p.  xxxiv. — Bdhr, 
 Gcsch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  539,  scqq.) 
 
 AscRA,  a  town  of  Boeotia,  situate  on  a  rocky  sum- 
 mit belonging  to  Helicon.  It  could  boast  of  consider- 
 able antiquity,  having  been  founded,  as  the  poet  He- 
 gesinous,  quoted  by  Pausanias  (9,  29),  asserts,  by 
 Ephialtcs  and  Otus,  sons  of  Aloens.  V^'hat  rendered 
 the  place,  however,  most  remarkable,  was  its  having 
 been  the  residence  of  Hesiod.  The  poet  was  not  a 
 native  of  Cyme,  but  his  father  came  from  Cyme 
 to  Ascra,  his  native  city,  as  he  himself  informs  us 
 {Op.  et  D.,  v.  635,  seqq.).  He  does  not  give  us  a  very 
 favourable  idea  of  the  climate  of  the  place.  From  his 
 birthplace  Ascra,  Hesiod  is  commonly  called  the 
 Ascrean  bard.  Pausanias  reports,  that  in  his  day  only 
 one  tower  remained  to  mark  the  site  of  Ascra  (9,  29). 
 Dr.  Clark  imagined  that  the  village  of  Zagora  repre- 
 sents Ascra  ;  but  Sir  W.  Gell  is  inclined  to  identify 
 it  with  an  ancient  tower  he  observed  on  a  lofty,  bare, 
 conical  rock ;  which  agrees  with  the  topography  of 
 Strabo,  who  places  it  to  the  right  of  Helicon,  and 
 ^  213 
 
ASI 
 
 A  SI 
 
 about  forty  stadia  from  Thespise.  (Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  207,  scqq.) 
 
 Ascui.uM,  I.  Piccnum,  a  city  of  Piceniim,  so  named 
 to  distinguisii  it  from  the  Asrulum  of  Apulia.  It  was 
 situate  in  the  interior,  on  the  river  Truentus.  and  some 
 distance  to  the  southwest  of  Firnnini.  Strabo  de- 
 scribes it  as  a  place  of  great  strength,  surrounded  by 
 walls  and  inaccessible  heights.  It  was  the  first  city 
 to  declare  against  the  Romans  when  ihe  Social  war 
 broke  out,  and  its  example  was  followed  by  the  whole 
 of  Picenum.  Asculuin  sustained,  in  the  course  of 
 that  war,  a  long  and  memorable  siege  against  Pompey, 
 who  finally,  however,  compelled  the  place  to  surren- 
 der, and  caused  several  of  the  chiefs  of  the  rebels  to  be 
 beheaded.  {Liv.,  Epit.,  7(\.—  VcU.  Putcrc,  2,  21.— 
 Florus,  3,  18.— Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,38.— Plut.,  Vil. 
 Pomp.)  We  learn  from  Pliny  (3,  13)  that  Asculum 
 was  a  Roman  colony,  and  regarded  as  the  chief  city 
 of  the  province.  It  is  now  Axcoli. — II.  Apulum,  a 
 city  of  Apulia,  to  which  the  epithet  Apulum  was 
 attached  to  distinguish  it  from  Asculum  in  Picenum. 
 It  was  situate  in  the  interior  of  Daunia,  near  the  con- 
 fines of  Samnium,  and  is  supposed  to  be  represented 
 by  the  modern  town  of  Asculi,  which  is  about  six  miles 
 to  the  southwest  of  Ordona.  It  was  under  the  walls 
 of  this  place  that  Pyrrhus  encountered  a  second  time 
 the  Roman  army,  after  having  gained  a  signal  victory 
 in  Lucania.  The  action  was  attended  with  no  advan- 
 tage to  either  side.  {Florus,  1,  18. —  Plut.,  Vit. 
 Pyrrh. — Fronlm.,  Slratcg.,  1,  3.)  Frontinus,  who 
 classes  it  among  the  colonies  of  Apulia,  terms  it  Aus- 
 clum.  This  is  probably  the  correct  orthography,  as 
 may  be  seen  from  coins,  the  inscription  on  which  is 
 AYCAIi2N.  and  ATCKA.  {Cramcr''s  Ancient  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  288.) 
 
 AsDRUBAi^.      Vid    Hasdrubal. 
 
 Asi,  or  As.E  (in  the  old  Scandinavian  JEsir  or  Esir, 
 tiie  plural  form  of  As),  a  general  appellation  given, 
 in  the  mythology  of  northern  Europe,  to  the  deities 
 that  came  in  with  Odin  from  the  East.  Including  this 
 latter  divinity  they  were  twelve  in  number,  according 
 to  some,  thirteen  [Magnusen,  Boreal.  Mythol.  Lex, 
 p.  720),  and  there  was  the  same  number  of  female  dei- 
 ties or  Asyni<r. — While  some  are  inclined  to  see  in 
 the  Asi  merely  an  Asiatic  colony,  wandering  in  from 
 the  vicinity  of  the  Don,  others,  with  much  more  propri- 
 ety, find  in  the  name  a  curious  chain  of  connexion  be- 
 tween the  early  religions  of  the  Eastern  and  European 
 worlds.  The  term  A.<i,  in  fact,  appears  to  have  been 
 an  old  appellation  for  deity,  and  meets  us  in  numerous 
 quarters,  under  various  though  not  very  dissimilar 
 forms.  Thus,  in  the  Coptic,  Os  is  said  to  signify 
 "  Lord"  or  "  Deity  ;"  in  the  old  Persian,  good  deities 
 or  spirits  were  called  Ized,  while  by  Berosus  the  gods 
 are  termed  hi.  (Kanne,  Sy.itcm  der  Itid.  Myih.,  p. 
 228.)  Again,  in  Sanscrit  we  have  Isha,  "  a  lord" 
 or  "master,"  the  feminine  of  which,  Ishana,  reminds 
 us  at  once  of  A.fynia,  a  female  deity,  or  Asa.  Among 
 the  ancient  Gauls,  the  supreme  Being  was  denominated 
 Esus  or  Hesvs,  a  name  that  connects  the  Druidical 
 worship  with  the  East ;  while  among  many  nations  of 
 Finnish  origin,  in  Asiatic  Russia,  we  have  such  terms 
 for  deity  as  Eis,  Ess,  Essi,  and  Oss.  {Magmiscn, 
 p.  719,  r(o/e.  —  Hcyd,  Etymol.  Vcr.iurh.,  Tubingen, 
 1824.)  It  is  curious  to  connect  with  this  the  account 
 given  by  the  Roman  writers,  that  in  the  Etrurian  lan- 
 guage ASsar  signified  "  God."  {Sue/on.,  Aug..  97. — 
 Dio  Cass.,  56,  29. — Hcyych.,  s.  v.  Alaoi. — MuUer, 
 Etrusk.,  vol.  2,  p.  81.)  We  may  compare  with  this 
 the  old  augural  doctrine  among  the  Etrurian  priesthood, 
 that  the  gods  had  their  home  or  dwelling  in  the  north, 
 by  which  we  see  Scandinavia  and  Etruria  brought  sin- 
 gularly into  contact.  {Scrv.,  ad  JE>i.,  2,  093. —  Dion. 
 Hal.,  2,  5— Pint.,  Quccst.  Rom.,  7>i..—  Niillcr, 
 Etrusk,  vol.  2,  p.  126.) — Again,  the  traditions  in  the 
 north  of  Europe  arc  uniform,  that  the  Asi  came  in 
 214 
 
 from  the  east  or  rather  southeast,  and  mention  is  mada 
 of  a  country  called  Asa-land,  and  its  metropolis  As- 
 gard,  in  the  vicinity,  or  to  the  east,  of  the  TanaYs, 
 from  which  Odin  and  the  Asa?  are  said  to  have  come 
 into  Europe.  (Saga  Olafs  Trygg.  Ed.  Skalh.,  2, 
 49. — Havn.,  2,  183. — Append.  Ed  Jan.,  ed.  Rask., 
 p.  3^^.- Magnus  en,  p.  287,  293  )  We  see  here,  at 
 once,  the  striking  analogy  between  Asen-land  and 
 Asia,  and  may  easily  suppose  that  by  the  former  is 
 meant  merely  a  part  of  the  latter,  and  that  the  name 
 Asia  itself  means  nothin^more  than  the  "  land  of  the 
 Asi,"  or  "the  Holy  Land."  ("Asa,  Asia,  solum 
 divinum,  sacra  terra." — Hickes,  Thes.  Ling.  Scp- 
 tentr.,  1,  p.  193.)  As  Odin  and  Buddha  are  the  same 
 deity  (vid.  Odinus),  the  worship  of  the  Asi  is  to  be 
 referred  to  the  remote  East  as  its  native  home,  and 
 Asgard  near  the  TanaVs  must  be  regarded  as  merely 
 one  of  many  sacerdotal  stations  where  this  worship 
 was  observed,  and  whence  colonies  were  sent  forth. 
 Traces  of  the  root  from  which  these  names  are  derived 
 may  be  found  in  several  geographical  appellations  con- 
 nected with  the  country  around  the  Tanais.  1'hus  we 
 have  Caucasus  (Cauc-asos,  i.  e.,  the  motintain  of  the 
 Asi),  the  river  Phasis  (Ph-asis,  i.  e.,  the  holy  stream), 
 the  name  Amazoniiis,  sometimes  applied  to  the  Ta- 
 nais (Am-a2onius,  i.  e.,  Am-acon),  and  wv.  find  it  re- 
 tained even  in  the  modern  term  Azoph.  (Rittcr, 
 Vorhalle,-p  465.) — Many  other  curious  auiilogies  pre- 
 sent themselves.  Pausanias  (3,  2,  45)  makes  mention 
 of  an  ancient  city  in  Laconia,  named  L'ls  (L-as), 
 which  had  succeeded  a  still  earlier  city  of  the  same 
 name,  that  had  stood  on  Mount  Asia  (As-m),  and  amid 
 the  ruins  of  this  latter  place  were  the  remains  of  a 
 temple  of  Minerva  Asia  (As-in,  i.  e  ,  Asyiriu).  Pau- 
 sanias adds  that  Minerva  Asia  had  alho  a  temple 
 among  the  Colchians.  We  may  coinpaie  with  this 
 the  Doric  form  of  the  name  of  the  goddess,  as  ajipear- 
 ing  in  Aristophanes,  'Acraj'u  (.i.yana,  i  e  ,  Asa-va  oi 
 Asymu).  There  was  also  in  Crete  a  very  ancient 
 sanctuary  of  Jupiter  Asius.  (Sieph.  Byz.,  p.  181, 
 ed.  Berk.)  The  (ireek  adjective  ogloq  (hos-ios),  "sa- 
 cred," may  be  traced  to  the  same  source,  as  well  aa 
 the  earlier  form  of  the  Latin  term  ara,  "  an  altar," 
 namely,  a,ja  (as-n. — Aul.  Cell.,  4,  3.)  We  may  even 
 carry  our  speculations  into  the  Hebrew  tongue,  and 
 connect  with  our  subject  the  term  Az,  "  mighty"  or 
 "strong,"  and  the  apjiellation  Azazel  (Asa-el),  given 
 to  an  idol  or  false  deity.  (Consult  Gesen.,  Lex. 
 Hcbr.,  s  V.) — If  an  etymology  be  sought  for  the  name 
 Asi,  we  may  find  it  in  the  Sanscrit  verb  as,  "  to  be," 
 the  participle  of  which,  namely,  sant,  is  analogous  to 
 the  Greek  uv,  and  reminds  us  of  7.uv,  one  of  the  old 
 Greek  names  for  Jupiter  or  the  Supreme  Being.  The 
 Asi,  then,  are  the  "  Beings,"  Kaf  e^ox'iv. 
 
 Asia,  I.  one  of  the  three  parts  of  the  ancient  world, 
 separated  from  Europe  by  the  .^^gean,  the  Eu,\ine,  the 
 Palus  Ma-Otis,  the  Tana'is  or  Don,  aid  the  Dwina; 
 from  Africa  by  the  Red  Sea  and  Isthmus  of  Suez. 
 Asia  is  in  its  extent  the  largest  continent,  and  in  its 
 situation  the  most  favoured  by  nature.  Its  square 
 contents  amount  to  14,000.000  miles.  In  compari- 
 son with  other  countries  it  has  advantages,  and  espe- 
 cially over  Africa.  These  advantages  consist  in  the 
 character  of  its  broken  shore,  the  fruitful  islands 
 which  lie  around  it,  its  numerous  gulfs  that  enter  far 
 into  the  land,  its  large  rivers,  and  its  few  deserts  in  the 
 interior.  There  are  two  principal  chains  of  mount- 
 ains extending  from  west  to  east.  In  the  north,  the 
 Altai,  which  in  antiquity  was  still  without  a  name  ;  in 
 the  south,  the  range  of  Taurus.  Branches  of  both 
 are  the  Caucasus,  between  the  Black  and  Caspian 
 Seas  ;  the  Imaus,  along  the  golden  desert  (the  desert 
 of  Cohi)  ;  the  Paropamisus,  on  the  northern  side  of 
 India  ;  the  Uralian  chain,  in  antiquity  still  without  a 
 name,  unless  these  are  the  Rhiphaean  mountains  of 
 the    ancients.     Of  the   chief  rivers,    four  flow   from 
 
ASIA. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 north  to  south  ;  the  Euplirates  and  Tigris  into  the 
 Persian  Gulf,  the  Indus  and  Ganges  into  the  Indian 
 .Sea  :  two  flow  from  cast  to  west,  the  Oxus,  now  Gi- 
 hon,  and  the  laxartes,  now  Sirr. — Asia  may  therefore 
 be  divided  into  Northern  Asia,  the  country  north  of 
 the  Altai  range:  Middle  Asia,  the  country  hetween 
 the  ranges  of  Altai  and  Taurus  :  and  Southcrji  Asia, 
 the  country  south  of  Taurus. — Northern  Asia  lies  be- 
 tween 76°  and  ."iO"  of  latitude  {Asiatic  Russia  and 
 Siberia).  This  in  antiquity  was  very  little  known,  yet 
 not  entirely  unknown.  Dark  but  true  traditions  re- 
 specting it  may  be  found  in  the  father  of  history,  He- 
 rodotus.— Middle  Asia,  the  country  between  50°  and 
 40°  north  latitude,  comprehending  Scythia  and  Sar- 
 matia  Asiatica  (the  Grrat  Tartary  and  Mongolia),  is 
 almost  one  immeasurable  unproductive  prairie,  with- 
 out agriculture  and  forests,  and.  therefore,  a  mere  pas- 
 ture-land. The  inhabitants  leading  pastoral  lives  (No- 
 mades),  are  without  cities  and  fi.Yed  places  of  abode ; 
 and  therefore,  instead  of  political  union,  have  merely 
 the  constitution  of  tribes. — Southern  Asia,  comprising 
 the  lands  from  40°  north  latitude  to  near  the  equator, 
 is  entirely  different  in  its  character  from  the  countries 
 of  Middle  Asia  :  it  is,  both  in  soil  and  climate,  pos- 
 sessed of  advantages  for  agriculture,  and,  in  compari- 
 son with  the  other  countries  of  the  earth,  it  is  rich  in 
 the  costliest  and  most  various  products. — The  early 
 commerce  of  the  world,  especially  of  the  east,  was 
 originally  through  Asia.  The  natural  places  of  de- 
 pot in  the  interior  were  on  the  banks  of  the  large 
 rivers  ;  on  the  Oxus,  in  Bactria  ;  on  the  Euphrates, 
 at  Babylon.  The  natural  places  of  depot  on  the  coast 
 were  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  Phoenicia, 
 where  arose  the  series  of  Grecian  atid  Phoenician  cit- 
 ies.— Asia  from  the  first,  as  at  present,  contained  in 
 its  interior  empires  of  immense  extent,  by  which  they 
 are  distinguished  from  those  of  cultivated  Europe,  as 
 well  as  by  their  constitution.  They  often  underwent 
 revolutions,  but  their  form  remained  the  same.  Fo 
 this  causes  must  have  existed,  lying  deef)  and  of  wide 
 influence,  and  which,  notwithstanding  these  frequent 
 revolutions,  still  continued  to  operate,  and  always  gave 
 to  the  new  empires  of  Asia  the  organization  of  the 
 old  ones.  The  great  revolutions  of  Asia  (with  the 
 exception  of  that  of  Alexander)  were  occasioned  by 
 the  numerous  and  powerful  nomadic  nations  which  oc- 
 ci)|iied  a  great  part  of  that  continent.  Compelled  by 
 accident  or  necessity,  they  left  their  places  of  abode, 
 and  founded  new  empires,  while  they  passed  through 
 and  subjected  the  fruitful  and  cultivated  countries  of 
 Southern  Asia,  until,  unnerved  by  luxury  and  effemi- 
 nacy, consequent  on  the  change  in  their  habits  of  life, 
 they  in  their  turn  were  in  like  manner  subjected 
 From  this  common  origin  may  be  explained  in  part 
 the  great  extent,  in  part  the  rapid  rise  and  the  usually 
 Bhori  continuance,  of  these  empires.  The  develop- 
 ment of  their  internal  form  of  government  must,  for 
 the  same  reason,  have  had  great  resemblance ;  and 
 the  constant  reappearance  of  despotism  in  them  is  to 
 be  explained  partly  from  the  rights  of  conquerors,  and 
 partly  from  their  great  extent,  which  rendered  a  gov- 
 ernincui  of  satraps  necessary.  To  this  we  must  add, 
 that  the  custom  of  polygamy,  jircvailing  among  all  the 
 great  nations  of  inner  .Asia,  ruined  the  mutual  rela- 
 tions and  obligations  of  domestic  life,  and  thus  ren- 
 dered a  good  constitution  impossible.  For  a  domes- 
 tic tyrant  is  formed  instead  of  a  father  of  a  family, 
 and  despotism  at  once  gains  its  foundation  in  private 
 life.  {Hccren's  History  of  the  States  of  Antiquity, 
 p.  14,  scqq.,  Bancroft's  transl.)— As  early  as  the 
 time  of  Herodotus,  we  find  the  name  of  Asia  em- 
 ployed to  designate  this  vast  continent.  The  Greeks, 
 as  we  learn  from  that  historian,  pretended  that  it  was 
 derived  from  Asia,  the  wife  of  lapetus.  The  Lyd- 
 ians,  on  the  other  hand,  deduced  the  name  from 
 Asius,  one  of  their  earliest  kings.     {Herod.   4  45.) 
 
 Bochart,  in  modern  days,  has  traced  the  appellation  to 
 Asi,  a  Phoenician  word  according  to  him,  signifyiti" 
 "  a  middle  part,"  or  something  intermediate,  and  hence 
 he  makes  Asia  mean  the  continent  placed  between 
 Europe  and  Africa.  {Gcogr.  Sacr.,  4,  33,  p.  298.) 
 The  true  derivation,  however,  would  seem  to  be  that 
 given  in  the  preceding  article.  {Vid.  Asi.) — Homer 
 applies  the  name  of  Asia  to  a  small  district  of  Maer - 
 Ilia  or  Lydia,  situated  near  the  Caystcr.  (//.,  2,  461  ) 
 Euripides,  also,  evidently  restricts  the  appellation  to 
 a  portion  of  Lydia,  in  a  passage  of  the  Bacchs  (v. 
 64.— Compare  Dmtiys.  Pericg.,  386,  and  Eustalh  , 
 ad  loc).  It  would  appear,  indeed,  that  the  Ionian 
 Greeks,  on  their  first  arrival  on  the  banks  of  the  Mep- 
 andrr  and  Cayster,  found  the  name  of  Asia  attached 
 to  this  part  of  the  continent,  and  communicated  it 
 to  their  European  countrymen,  who  in  process  of 
 time  applied  it  to  all  the  countries  situated  to  the  east 
 of  Greece.  It  would  be  wrong,  however,  to  suppose, 
 that  the  name  in  question  originally  belonged  merely 
 to  that  part  of  the  continent  with  which  the  Ionian 
 colonists  first  became  acquainted.  It  would  seem, 
 on  the  contrary,  to  have  been  given  at  an  early  pe- 
 riod to  various  spots  connected  with  the  worship  of 
 the  Asi,  all  pointing,  however,  to  some  region  of  the  re- 
 mote East  where  the  name  most  probably  originated. — 
 Herodotus  employs  the  division  of  Upper  and  Lou-rr 
 Asia.  The  latter  of  these  answers  in  fact  to  what  wf 
 now  call  Asia  Minor,  while  the  former  denotes  the 
 vast  tract  of  country  situated  to  the  cast  of  the  Eu- 
 phrates. It  is  not  exactly  known  when  the  peninsulii 
 came  to  be  designated  by  the  name  of  Asia  Minor; 
 but  it  does  not  appear  in  any  author  prior  to  Orosius, 
 who  employs  it  (1,  2),  as  well  as  Constantine  Porphv- 
 rogenetes  {dc  Themat.,  1,  8).  The  term  Anadoli, 
 used  by  the  Turks  to  denote  this  portion  of  the  Otto- 
 man empire,  is  a  corruption  of  Anatolia,  and  this  last 
 is  derived  from  the  Greek  dvaro/J]  {the  rising  of  the 
 sun,  i.  e.,  the  east),  and  answers  to  the  Frank  word 
 Levant. — Few  countries  present  such  a  diversity  of 
 soil  and  climate  as  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor.  Io- 
 nia, I^dia,  Caria,  and,  indeed,  generally  speaking,  the 
 whole  of  Western  Asia,  were  remarkable  for  their  ge- 
 nial temperature  and  extreme  fertility ;  while  the 
 mountainous  districts  of  Lvcia,  Pisidia,  Cilicia,  and 
 Cappadocia  were  very  thinly  inhabited,  from  the 
 coldness  of  the  climate  and  the  unproductiveness  of 
 the  soil.  Many  parts  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia  were 
 also  nearly  deserted  from  the  barrenness  of  the 
 ground,  which  was  strongly  impregnated  with  salt, 
 and  exhibited,  besides,  many  traces  of  volcanic  agen- 
 cy. The  whole  country,  in  fact,  appears  to  have  been 
 subject  at  an  early  period  to  violent  earthquakes, 
 which  destroyed  or  damaged  many  flourishing  cities. 
 {Strab.,  578.)  Nevertheless,  Asia  Minor,  taken  col- 
 lectively, was  one  of  the  most  productive  and  opulent 
 countries  of  which  antiquity  has  left  us  any  account ; 
 and  we  have  the  authority  of  Cicero  for  stating,  that 
 the  Roman  treasury  derived  its  largest  and  surest  rev- 
 enues from  this  quarter.  {Or.  pro  Leg.  Man.,  2.  6  ) 
 Some  idea  of  its  various  productions  will  be  given 
 in  the  remarks  under  each  particular  province.  (  Vid. 
 Mysia,  Bithynia,  Phrygia,  &c.)  Asia  Minor  was  fur- 
 nished also  with  numerous  excellent  harbours  along 
 its  coast.  Nor  W'as  any  country  more  favoured  by  na- 
 ture, or  more  calculated  to  become  the  centre  of  a 
 mighty  and  perhaps  universal  empire.  But  the  moral 
 character  of  its  population  has  never  kept  pace  with 
 the  resources  of  the  country  ;  and  this  will  probably 
 always  be  the  case  as  long  as  the  softness  of  the  cli- 
 mate and  the  fertility  of  the  soil  continue  to  exercise 
 an  enervating  influence  over  the  character  of  the  peo- 
 ple. {Cramer^s  Asia  Mwor,  vol.  1,  p.  1,  sr.qq.) — 
 II.  Provincia,  or  Asia  Proconsularis,  the  Roman 
 province  of  Asia,  comprising  Mysia,  Lydia,  Caria, 
 and  Phrygia,  with  the  exception  of  Lycaonia.    This  is 
 
 215 
 
A  S  1 
 
 ASP 
 
 meant  by  Asia  in  the  legal  sense  of  the  term  as  em- 
 pLoyctl  by  the  Romans,  and  is  the  same  with  what  the 
 Greek  writers  of  the  Roman  era  call  Asia  Proper,  or 
 ;/  idiug  KoAovfiivr]  'Aala  {Slrah.,  G2G),  in  which  sense 
 we  find  the  word  Asia  used  in  the  New  Testament. 
 (Acts,  2,  9.)  In  another  passage,  however  (Acts,  16, 
 6),  we  find  a  distinction  made  between  Phrygia  and 
 Asia.  So,  again,  in  the  book  of  Revelations,  which 
 is  addressed  to  the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  the  name 
 appears  to  be  confined  to  that  portion  of  ancient  Lydia, 
 which  contained  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamus,  Sardis, 
 &c.  {Cellarius,  dc  Sept.  Eccles.  Asia,  inter  Dis- 
 sert. Acad.,  p.  412. —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1, 
 p.  3.) — III  One  of  the  Oceanides.  She  married  lap- 
 etus,  and  became  by  him  the  mother  of  Atlas,  Pro- 
 metheus, Epimetheus,  and  Mcnoetius.  {ApoUod.,  1, 
 2. — Heync,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Asia  Palus  (the  "AtKOf  ?.etuuv  of  Homer),  a  marsh 
 in  Lvdia,  formed  by  the  river  Cayster,  near  its  mouth. 
 It  was  the  favourite  haunt  of  swans  and  other  water- 
 fowl. (Horn.,  11.,  2,  MO.  —  Virg.,Geog.,  I,  483.— 
 Id.,  Mn.,  7,  md.—Ovid,  Met.,  5,  386.)  Near  it  was 
 another  marsh  or  lake,  formed  in  like  manner  by  the 
 river,  and  called  Selinusia  Palus.  Both  belonged  to 
 the  temple  of  Ephesus,  and  were  a  source  of  consid- 
 erable revenue.  {Cramer'' s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p. 
 361.) 
 
 Asi.iNA,  one  of  the  later  divisiov^s  of  Asia  Minor. 
 Towards  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  Asia  Minor 
 was  divided  into  two  dioceses  or  provinces,  called 
 Asiana  and  Pontica,  each  governed  by  a  lieutenant 
 named  Vicarius.  {Notit.  Impcr.,  1. — Cod.  Theod., 
 5,  lit.  2) 
 
 AsiATicus,  I.  the  surname  of  one  of  the  Scipios 
 (Lucius  Cornelius),  obtained  by  him  for  his  conquests 
 in  Asia.  (Vid.  Scipio  V.) — II.  A  senator,  put  to 
 death  by  Claudius,  on  a  false  charge  made  at  the  in- 
 stigation of  Messalina,  who  was  desirous  of  seizing 
 upon  the  gardens  of  Lucullus,  which  were  in  his  pos- 
 session.    {Tac,  Ann.,  11,1,  seqq.) 
 
 AsiNARUs,  a  river  of  Sicily,  running  into  the  sea  to 
 the  north  of  Helorum.  It  is  now  called  Fiume  di 
 Noti,  from  the  little  town  of  Noto  on  its  northern 
 bank.     (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  240.) 
 
 AsiNE,  I.  a  town  of  Argolis,  northwest  of  Her- 
 inione,  on  the  Sinus  Argolicus,  or  Gulf  of  Nauplia. 
 — II.  Another  in  Messenia,  southwest  of  Messene, 
 founded  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  former  place,  when 
 driven  from  their  city  by  the  Argives. 
 
 AsiNius,  I.  Pollio.  {Vid.  Pollio.) — II.  Callus,  son 
 of  Asinius  Pollio,  was  consul  A.U.C.  748.  He  mar- 
 ried Vipsania,  the  repudiated  wife  of  Tiberius,  a  step 
 which  gave  rise  to  a  secret  enmity  on  the  part  of  the 
 latter  towards  him.  He  starved  himself  to  death,  ei- 
 ther voluntarily,  or,  what  is  more  probable,  having 
 been  ordered  by  the  emperor  to  destroy  himself. 
 Asinius  published  in  his  lifetime  a  parallel  between 
 his  father  and  Cicero,  in  which  he  assigned  to  the  for- 
 mer a  marked  superiority  overthe  latter.  {Tac.,  Ann  , 
 1,  76.— W.  lb.,  6,  'Z3.—Plin.,  Ep.,  7,  4.)— III.  Quad- 
 ratus,  an  historian  of  the  third  century  of  our  era,  who 
 wrote  a  history  of  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Par- 
 ihians,  down  to  the  time  of  Philip  the  Arabian,  under 
 whose  reign  he  lived. — IV.  Capito,  a  grammarian, 
 who  wrote  a  book  of  Epistles.  Some  read  Sinnius 
 for  Asinius.     {Aul.  GclL,  5,  20.) 
 
 Asius,  I.  a  son  of  Dymas,  brother  of  Hecuba.  He 
 assisted  Priam  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  slain  by 
 Idomeneus.  {Horn..  II.,  2,  352.— /</.  ib.,  12,  15.— 
 Id.  lb.,  13,  384.) — II.  Son  of  Imbracus,  accompanied 
 ^Eneas  to  Italy.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  10,  122.)— III.  A 
 name  given  to  a  mythic  personage  in  the  legends  of 
 Lydia.  Consult  remarks  under  the  articles  Asi  and 
 j\sia. — IV.  A  poet  of  Samos,  who  wrote  about  the 
 genealogy  of  ancient  heroes  and  heroines.  (Pausan., 
 7,4.) 
 
 216 
 
 Asius  Camhus,  a  place  near  the  Cayster,  and  m 
 the  vicinity  of  the  Asia  Palus.     {Vid.  Asia  Palus.) 
 
 Asoi'i.\nKs,  a  patronymic  of  ^-Eacus,  son  of  .(Egina 
 a  daughter  of  Asopus.     {Ovid,  Met.,  7,  484.) 
 
 AsoPis,  I.  a  daughter  of  the  Asopus.  —  II.  A 
 daughter  of  Thespius,  mother  of  Mentor.  {ApoUod., 
 2,  7.) 
 
 Asopus,  I.  a  river  of  Thessaly,  rising  in  Mount 
 CEta,  and  falling  into  the  Sinus  Maliacus.  It  flows 
 through  a  gorge  in  the  mountain  enclosing  the  Tra- 
 chinian  plain  {Herod.,  7,  199.— Slrab  ,  428.)— II. 
 A  river  of  Bceotia,  rising  in  Mount  Citha;ron  near 
 Flataea,  and  flowing  into  the  Euripus.  It  separated 
 the  territories  of  Plataea  and  Thebes,  and  also  trav- 
 ersed in  its  course  the  whole  of  Southern  Boeotia. 
 Though  generally  a  small  and  sluggish  stream,  yet 
 after  heavy  rains  it  could  not  easily  be  forded.  {Tha- 
 cyd.,  2,  5.)  It  was  on  the  banks  of  the  Asopus  that 
 the  battle  of  Platzea  was  fought.  {Herod.,  9,  43.) 
 This  river  still  retains  the  name  of  Asopo.  The  plain 
 along  its  northern  bank  was  called  Parasopias. 
 {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  217.)-^Ili.  A 
 river  of  Achaia,  rising  in  the  Argolic  mountains,  on 
 the  frontiers  of  Arcadia,  near  Cyllene,  and  falling 
 into  the  Corinthian  gulf  a  little  below  Sicyon.  The 
 part  of  the  Sicyonian  territory  which  it  watered  was 
 called  Asopia.  {Slrab.,  382. — Pausan.,  2,  5  )  On 
 its  banks  were  celebrated  the  games  which  Adrastus 
 instituted  in  honour  of  Apollo.  {Find.,  Nem.,  9,  20.) 
 The  neighbouring  people  believed  that  this  river  was 
 none  other  than  the  Maeander  of  Asia  Minor,  which, 
 emptying  into  the  sea  near  Miletus,  passed  under  the 
 waters  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  re-appeared  in 
 Achaia  as  the  Asopus.  {Paiisan.,  I.  c.) — IV.  A  son 
 of  Oceanus,  or,  according  to  others,  of  Neptune,  and 
 god  of  the  last-mentioned  stream.  His  daughter 
 iEgina  was  carried  off  by  Jupiter,  and  the  father,  on 
 seeking  her,  was  struck  by  a  thunderbolt,  and  driven 
 back  to  his  watery  abode.  Hence,  say  some  of  the 
 ancient  mythologists,  coals  were  seen  borne  along  on 
 the  surface  of  the  Asopus.  {ApoUod.,  3,  12,  5. — 
 Heyne,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Asparagiu.m,  a  town  of  Illyricum,  on  the  southern 
 bank  of  the  Apsus  (or  Ergent),  about  34  miles  south 
 of  Dyrrachium.     {Cas.,  Bell.  Civ.,  4,  13  ) 
 
 AsPASiA,  I.  a  celebrated  female,  a  native  of  Mile- 
 tus, which  place  vvas  early  and  long  renowned  as  a 
 school  for  the  cultivation  of  female  graces.  She 
 came  as  an  adventurer  to  Athens,  in  the  time  of  Per- 
 icles, and,  by  the  combined  charms  of  her  person, 
 manners,  and  conversation,  completely  won  the  aflec- 
 tions  and  esteem  of  that  distinguished  statesman. 
 Her  station  had  freed  her  from  the  restraints  which 
 custom  laid  on  the  education  of  the  Athenian  matron  , 
 and  she  had  enriched  her  mind  with  accomplishments 
 which  were  rare  even  ^mong  men.  Her  acquaintance 
 with  Pericles  seems  to  have  begun  while  he  was  still 
 united  to  a  lady  of  high  birth,  before  the  wife  of  the 
 wealthy  Hipponicus.  We  can  hardly  doubt  that  it 
 was  Aspasia  who  first  disturbed  this  union,  although 
 it  is  said  to  have  been  dissolved  by  mutual  consent. 
 But,  after  j)arting  from  his  wife,  who  had  borne  him 
 two  sons,  Pericles  attached  himself  to  Aspasia  by 
 the  most  intimate  relation  which  the  laws  permitted 
 him  to  contract  with  a  foreign  woman  :  and  she  ac- 
 quired an  ascendency  over  him  which  soon  became 
 notorious,  and  furnished  the  comic  poets  with  an  in- 
 exhaustible fund  of  ridicule,  and  his  enemies  with  a 
 o-round  for  serious  charges.  The  Samian  war  vvas 
 ascribed  to  her  interposition  on  behalf  of  her  birth- 
 place; and  rumours  were  set  afloat,  which  represented 
 her  as  ministering  to  the  vices  of  Pericles  by  the 
 most  odious  and  degrading  of  offices.  There  was 
 perhaps  as  little  foundation  for  this  report  as  for  a 
 similar  one  in  which  Phidias  was  implicated  {Plut., 
 i  Vil.  Pericl.,  c.  13) ;  though  among  all  the  imputatio-vi 
 
ASPASIA. 
 
 ASS 
 
 brought  against  Pericles,  this  is  that  which  it  is  the  most 
 difficult  clearly  to  refute.  But  we  are  inclined  to  be- 
 lieve, that  it  may  have  arisen  from  the  peculiar  nature 
 of  Aspasia's  private  circles,  which,  with  a  bold  neg- 
 lect of  established  usage,  were  composed  not  only 
 of  the  most  intelligent  and  accomplished  men  to  be 
 found  at  Athens,  but  also  of  matrons,  who,  it  is  said, 
 were  brought  by  their  husbands  to  listen  to  her  con- 
 versation. This  must  have  been  highly  instructive 
 as  well  as  brilliant,  since  Plato  did  not  hesitate  to  de- 
 scribe her  as  the  preceptress  of  Socrates,  and  to  as- 
 sert that  she  both  formed  the  rhetoric  of  Pericles,  and 
 composed  one  of  his  most  admired  harangues,  the 
 celebrated  funeral  oration.  {Plat.,  Mencx.,  4, — vol.  6, 
 p.  148,  erf.  Bekk.)  The  innovation,  which  drew  wom- 
 en of  free  birth  and  good  condition  into  her  company 
 for  such  a  purpose,  must,  even  where  ihe  truth  was 
 understood,  have  surprised  and  offended  many  ;  and 
 it  was  liable  to  the  grossest  misconstruction.  And  if 
 her  female  friends  were  sometimes  seen  watching  the 
 progress  of  the  works  of  Phidias,  it  was  easy,  through 
 his  intimacy  with  Pericles,  to  connect  this  fact  with  a 
 calumny  of  the  same  kind.  There  was  another  ru- 
 mour still  more  dangerous,  which  grew  out  of  the 
 character  of  the  persons  who  were  admitted  to  the  so- 
 ciety of  Pericles  and  Aspasia.  No  persons  were 
 more  welcome  at  the  house  of  Pericles  than  such  as 
 were  distinguished  by  philosophical  studies,  and  es- 
 pecially by  the  profession  of  new  philosophical  tenets. 
 The  mere  presence  of  Anaxagoras,  Zeno,  Protagoras, 
 and  other  celebrated  men,  who  were  known  to  hold 
 doctrines  very  remote  from  the  religious  conceptions 
 of  the  vulgar,  was  sufficient  to  make  a  circle  in  which 
 they  were  familiar  pass  for  a  school  of  impiety.  Such 
 were  the  materials  out  of  which  the  comic  poet  Her- 
 mippus,  laying  aside  the  mask,  formed  a  criminal 
 prosecution  against  Aspasia.  His  indictment  included 
 two  heads  :  an  offence  against  religion,  and  that  of 
 corrupting  Athenian  women  to  gratify  the  passions  of 
 Pericles.  The  danger  was  averted  ;  but  it  seems 
 that  Pericles,  who  pleaded  her  cause,  found  need  of 
 his  most  strenuous  exertions  to  save  Aspasia,  and 
 that  he  even  descended,  in  her  behalf,  to  tears  and  en- 
 treaties, which  no  similar  emergency  of  his  own  could 
 ever  draw  from  him.  {Athen.,  12,  p.  589.) — After 
 the  death  of  Pericles,  Aspasia  attached  herself  to  a 
 young  man  of  obscure  birth,  named  Lysicles,  who 
 rose  through  her  influence  in  moulding  his  character 
 10  some  of  the  highest  employments  in  the  republic. 
 {ThirhoalVs  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  87,  seqq. — Compare 
 Plut.,  Vil.  Pcricl. — Xen.,  Mem.,  2,  6. — Max.  Tyr., 
 24,  p.  461.— i/ar/)ocr.,  p.  I'd.—Aristid.,  2,  p.  131.) 
 — II.  Daughter  of  Hermotiinus,  and  a  native  of  Pho- 
 csea  in  Asia  Minor.  She  was  so  remarkable  for  her 
 beauty,  that  a  satrap  of  Persia  carried  her  off  and 
 made  her  a  present  to  Cyrus  the  Younger.  Her  mod- 
 est deportment  soon  won  the  affections  of  the  prince, 
 who  lived  with  her  as  with  a  lawful  spouse,  and  their 
 union  became  celebrated  throughout  all  Greece.  Her 
 name  at  first  was  Milto  (vermilion),  which  had  been 
 given  her  in  early  life  on  account  of  the  brilliancy  of 
 her  complexion.  Cyrus,  however,  changed  it  to  As- 
 pasia, calling  her  thus  after  the  female  companion  of 
 Pericles.  {VU.  Aspasia  I.)  After  the  death  of  the 
 prince,  she  fell  into  the  hands  of  Artaxerxes,  who  for 
 a  long  time  vainly  sought  to  gain  her  affections.  She 
 only  yielded  at  last  to  his  suit  through  absolute  ne- 
 cessity. When  the  monarch  declared  his  son  Darius 
 his  successor,  the  latter,  as  it  was  customary  in  Per- 
 sia for  an  heir  to  ask  a  favour  of  him  who  had  decla- 
 red him  such,  requested  Aspasia  of  his  father.  As- 
 pasia was  accordingly  sent  for,  and,  contrary  to  the 
 king's  expectation,  made  choice  of  Darius.  Arta- 
 xerxes therefore  gave  her  up,  in  accordance  with  estab- 
 lished custom,  bat  soon  took  her  away  again,  and 
 made  her  a  priestess  of  Diana  at  Ecbatana,  or  of  the 
 E  K 
 
 goddess  whom  the  Persians  called  AnaYtis.  This  sta- 
 tion required  her  to  pass  the  rest  of  her  days  in  chas- 
 tity. {Plut.,  Vit.'.  Artax.)  Justin,  however,  says 
 that  Artaxerxes  made  her  one  of  the  priestesses  of 
 the  sun.  {Just.,  10,  \.—Mian,  V.  H  ,  12,  l.—Plvt., 
 Vit.  Artax. — Xen.,  Anab.,  1,  10. — Athen.,  15,  p. 
 576.) 
 
 AspENDUS,  a  city  of  Pamphylia,  lying  for  the  most 
 part  on  a  rocky  precipice,  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
 Eurymedon.  {Arrian,  1,  27. — Znswi.,  5,  16. — Scy- 
 lax,  p.  39.)  Strabo  makes  it  to  have  been  well-peo- 
 pled, and  founded  by  an  Argive  colony.  On  this  lat- 
 ter head,  however,  Scylax  is  silent.  The  city  of  As- 
 pendus  was  a  flourishing  place  even  before  the  expedi- 
 tion of  the  younger  Cyrus.  {Xen.,  Anab.,  1,  2,  12.' 
 It  was  here  that  the  Athenian  patriot  Thrasybulus  ter 
 minated  his  life.  Being  off  the  coast,  he  levied  con 
 tributions  from  the  Aspendians,  who,  seizing  an  op 
 portunity  when  he  was  on  shore,  surprised  him  in  his 
 tent  at  night,  and  slew  him.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  4,  8. 
 —  Corn.  Nep.,  Thrasyb.,  c.  4.)  Hierocles  (p.  682) 
 makes  mention  of  Aspendus  under  the  name  of  Tri- 
 mupolis,  where  we  must  read  Primupolis.  The  site 
 of  Aspendus  has  not  yet  been  explored,  but  it  would 
 easily  ,be  discovered  by  ascending  the  banks  of  the 
 Eurymedon.    {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  125.) 
 
 AsPHALTiTEs  Lacus.       VkI.  Mare  Morluum. 
 
 Aspis,  I.  a  town  of  the  Contestani,  in  Hispania 
 Tarraconensis,  northwest  of  Ilicis,  which  lay  above 
 Carthago  Nova  on  the  coast.  It  is  now  Aspc,  a  vil- 
 lage in  Valencia. —  II.  An  island  on  the  coast  of  Io- 
 nia, opposite  Lebedus.  It  was  called  by  some  Ar- 
 connesus.  {Strah.,  643.)  The  modern  name  is  Car- 
 abash. —  III.  A  town  of  Africa  Propria.    {Vid.  Clupea  ) 
 
 AsFLEDON,  a  town  of  Boeotia,  about  twenty  stadia 
 to  the  northeast  of  Orchomenus.  It  derived  its  name 
 from  Aspledon,  the  son  of  Neptune,  according  to  Pau- 
 sanias  (9,  38),  and  is  mentioned  by  Homer.  {II ,  2, 
 511.)  The  name,  at  a  later  period,  was  changed  to 
 Eudielos,  from  its  advantageous  situation.  {Strabo, 
 416.)  Pausanias,  however,  affirms  that  in  his  time  it 
 was  deserted  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  water. 
 Dodwell  is  of  opinion,  that  the  site  of  Aspledon  is 
 marked  by  a  tower,  on  an  insulated  hill,  about  two 
 miles  and  a  half  to  the  northeast  of  Orchomenus,  near 
 the  range  of  hills  which  enclose  the  lake  and  plain  on 
 that  side,     {DodweWs  Tour,  vol.  1.  p.  233.) 
 
 AssA,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  on  the  Sinus  Singiti- 
 cus.     {Herodot.,  7,  122.) 
 
 AssARACUs,  a  Trojan  prince,  son  of  Tros  by  Callir- 
 hoe.  He  was  father  to  Capys,  the  father  of  Anchises. 
 {Homer,  II.,  20,  239.) 
 
 Assos,  a  town  of  Mysia,  on  the  coast,  west  of  Ad- 
 ramyttium,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Lesbos.  It  was 
 the  birthplace  of  Cleanthes,  the  stoic  ;  and  is  men- 
 tioned also  in  the  Acts  (20,  13).  The  modern  site  is 
 called  Bcriam  Kalesi.     {Leake,  p.  128.) 
 
 Assyria,  a  country  originally  of  sma".  extent,  but 
 afterward  greatly  enlarged.  It  was  bounded,  accord- 
 ing to  Ptolemy,  on  the  north  by  part  of  Armenia  and 
 Mount  Niphates  ;  on  the  west  by  the  Tigris  ;  on  the 
 south  by  Susiana  ;  and  on  the  east  by  part  of  Media 
 and  the  mountains  Choatra  and  Zagros.  The  country 
 within  these  limits  is  called  by  some  of  the  ancients 
 Adiabene,  and  by  others  Aturia  or  Atyria.  Assyria 
 is  now  called  Kurdistan,  from  the  descendants  of  the 
 ancient  Carduchi,  who  occupied  the  northern  parts. 
 The  Assyrian  was  one  of  the  first  and  greatest  empires 
 of  Asia.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  found- 
 ed by  Ashur  or  Assur,  son  of  Shem,  who  went  out 
 of  Shinar,  driven  out,  as  it  appears,  by  Nimrod,  and 
 founded  Nineveh,  not  long  after  Nimrod  had  estab- 
 lished the  Chaldean  monarchy  and  fixed  his  residence 
 at  Babylon.  This  is  the  commonly  received  account 
 of  the  origin  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  founded  on  the 
 Mosaic  history  as  given  "in  the  text  of  our  Bible  ;  but 
 •^  217 
 
AST 
 
 AST 
 
 Bocharl  adopts  the  marginal  translation,  which,  instead 
 of  "  Out  of  that  land  went  forth  Assur  and  builded 
 Nineveh,"  reads  "Out  of  tliat  land  he  (Niinrod)  went 
 forth  into  Assur  (or  Assyria)  and  built  Nineveh." 
 The  opinion  of  Bochart  is  espoused  by  Faber,  the 
 converse  by  Mirhaelis  and  Bryant.  'I'he  decision  of 
 the  point  is,  indeed,  a  difficult  one  ;  but,  if  weight  of 
 authority  can  avail,  the  question  will  be  speedily  de- 
 termined in  favour  of  the  marginal  translation  of  the 
 Bible,  which  represents  Nimrod  as  the  founder  of  Nin- 
 eveh. This  translation  is  supported  by  the  Targums 
 of  Oukeios  and  Jerusalem  ;  by  Theophilus,  bishop  of 
 Antioch,  and  Jerome,  among  the  ancients  ;  and,  iti  ad- 
 dition to  Bochart  and  Faber,  by  Hyde,  Marsham, 
 M'clls,  the  writers  of  the  Universal  History,  and 
 Hales,  among  the  moderns.  Admitting,  then,  the  force 
 of  these  united  authorities,  Nimrod,  when  driven  from 
 Babel,  still  attended  by  a  strong  party  of  military  fol- 
 lowers, founded  a  new  empire  at  Nineveh  ;  which,  as  it 
 was  seated  in  a  country  almost  exclusively  peopled  by 
 the  descendants  of  Ashur,  was  called  Assyria.  The 
 crown  of  this  new  universal  empire  continued  in  the 
 family  of  Niinrod  for  many  ages,  probably  till  its  over- 
 throw by  Arbaces,  which  introduced  a  Median  dynas- 
 ty ;  while  Babel  remained  in  a  neglected  state  nntil 
 the  same  era,  when  Nabonassar  became  its  first  king. 
 Whether  there  was  an  uninterrupted  line  of  kings  from 
 Assur  or  Nimrod  to  SardanapaUis,  or  not,  is  unknown. 
 — According  to  Herodotus,  an  Assyrian  empire  lasted 
 520  years,  from  1237  to  717.  Catalogues  of  the  As- 
 syrian kings  are  found  in  Syncellus  and  Eusebius. 
 {Mansford's  Scripture  Gazctlccr,  p.  38,  scqq. — Com- 
 pare Hereon  s  History  of  the  Slates  of  Antiquity,  p. 
 25,  seqq.,  Bancroft's  transl.) 
 
 AsTABoR  AS,  a  river  of  ^^thiopia,  falling  into  the  Nile. 
 It  is  now  called  the  Titcazze.     {Vid.  Nilus.) 
 
 AsTACus,  a  city  of  Bithynia,  on  the  Sinus  Astace- 
 nus,  founded,  according  to  Strabo  (563),  by  the  Mega- 
 rians  and  Athenians.  This  account  is  confirmed  by 
 Memnoii  {ap  Phot.,  p.  722),  who  says,  that  the  iMe 
 gariaris  settled  here  in  the  17ih  Olympiad,  and  that,  some 
 years  after  this,  an  Athenian  colony  joined  them.  As- 
 tarus  was  subsequently  seized  by  D^drtlsus,  a  native 
 chief,  who  became  the  founder  of  the  Bithynian  mon- 
 archy. In  the  war  waged  by  his  successor  Xipoetes 
 with  Lysimachus,  Astacus  was  ruined,  and  the  inhabi- 
 tants were  transferred  by  Nicomedes  to  the  city  which 
 he  funiided  and  named,  after  himself,  Nicomedia. 
 {Sl.rah  ,  /.  c. —  Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v. —  Cramer'' s  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, vol.  1,  p   185.) 
 
 AsT.iiPA,  a  town  of  Hispania  Boetica,  east  of  Hispa- 
 lis,  famed  for  its  vigorous  defence  against  the  Romans, 
 A.U.C.  546.  It  is  now  Eslepa  La  Vicja.  {Liv.,  38, 
 20.) 
 
 AsTAPUs,  a  river  of  Ethiopia,  falling  into  the  Nile. 
 It  is  now  the  Abawi,  or  Bahr-el-Azac,  and  flows  through 
 Nubia,  rising  in  a  place  called  Coloe  Palus,  now  Buhr 
 Dembi-a.  'I'his  is  the  river  which  Bruce  mistook  for 
 the  Nile.     {Joseph.,  Ant.,  2,  5  —Strab.,  565.) 
 
 AsTARTK,  a  powerful  divinity  of  Syria,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Ccelus  and  Terra.  She  had  a  famous  temple  at 
 Hierapolis  in  Syria,  which  was  served  by  300  priests. 
 "  Astarlc,"  observes  R.  P.  Knight,  "  was  precisely  the 
 same  as  the  Cybcle,  or  universal  mother  of  the  Phry- 
 gians. She  was,  as  Appian  remarks  {Bell.  Parlh.), 
 '  by  some  called  Juno,  by  others  Venus,  and  by  others 
 held  up  to  be  Nature,  or  the  cause  which  produced 
 the  beginnings  and  seeds  of  things  from  Humidity:' 
 so  that  she  comprehended  in  one  personification  both 
 these  goddesses,  who  were,  accordingly,  sometimes 
 blended  in  one  symbolical  figure  by  the  very  ancient 
 Greek  artists.  Her  statue  at  Hierapolis  was  various- 
 ly composed  ;  so  as  to  signify  many  attributes  like 
 those  of  the  Ephesian  Diana.  Berecynthian  Mother, 
 and  others  of  the  kind  It  was  placed  in  the  interior 
 part  of  the  temple,  accessible  only  to  priests  of  the 
 218 
 
 higher  order  ;  and  near  it  was  the  statue  of  the  cor- 
 responding male  personification,  called  by  the  Greek 
 writers  Jupiter."  {Inquiry  into  the  Symb.  Lang.,  &,c., 
 <J  218,  scqq. — Class.  Journ.,  No  53,  p.  74.) — Creuzer, 
 however,  thinks  it  more  than  probable,  that  the  legend 
 of  Astarte  is  purely  astronomical,  and  may  apply  to 
 the  moon  in  connexion  with  the  planet  Venus.  The 
 name  Astarte  would  seem  also,  according  to  him,  to 
 signify  a  star  or  planet.  Compare  the  Persian  aslara, 
 as  suggested  by  Von  Hammer  {Fimdgr.  des  Orients, 
 vol.  3,  p.  275),  and  the  Greek  uarpov.  (Creuzcr^s 
 Symbohk,  par  Guigniaiit,  vol.  2,  p.  26. — Lucian,  de 
 Dea  Syria.— Cic.,  de  Nat.  D.,  3,  23.) 
 
 AsTKR.  a  skilful  archer,  one  of  the  garrison  of  Me- 
 thone  in  Macedonia,  when  that  place  was  besieged  by 
 Philip.  He  aimed  an  arrow  at  the  monarch,  and  de- 
 prived him  of  an  eye.  On  the  arrow  was  inscribed, 
 ' karfjp  'biMmrcj  ■&avdaLiiov  ni/iTTei  /JeAof,  an  Iambic 
 trimeter,  meaning,  "Aster  sends  a  deadly  shaft  for  Phil- 
 ip.^' The  king  shot  back  an  arrow  with  the  following 
 inscription,  'Aarepa  ^i'AiTV-oc,  f/v  XdCy,  Kpefirjaerai, 
 another  Iambic  trimeter,  implying,  "  Philip  will  sus- 
 pend Aster"  (on  the  cross)  "  if  he  take  him."  When 
 the  place  surrendered,  Aster  was  delivered  up  to  the 
 conqueror,  who  kept  his  word,  and  crucified  him. 
 {Suidas,  s.v.  Kapavo^. — Plut.,  ParalL,  p.  307 — Diod. 
 Sic.,  16,  34.)  Plutarch  calls  him  an  Olynthian  ;  but 
 Lucian,  a  native  of  Amphipolis.  {Lucian,  Quomodo 
 Hist.  sit.  conscrib.,  38.)  These  two  writers  may  be 
 reconciled,  by  supposing  him  to  have  been  an  Amphi- 
 politan,  serving  in  the  Olvnthian  auxiliaries  of  the 
 Methonians.     {Palmer,  Exercit.,  p.  557.) 
 
 AsTERiA,  I.  a  daughter  of  Coeus  (Ko?oc)  one  of  the 
 Titans,  and  Phoebe,  daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ge  (Coe- 
 lus  and  Terra).  She  and  Latona  were  sisters.  As- 
 trsea  married  Perses,  son  of  Crius.  According  to  a 
 later  fable,  she  fled  from  the  suit  of  Jove,  and,  flinging 
 herself  down  from  heaven  to  the  sea,  became  the  isl- 
 and afterward  named  Delos.  Callimachus  (//.  in 
 Del.,  37),  who  relates  this,  makes  her  to  have  come 
 down  like  a  star  {daTspi  la?]),  in  allusion  to  her  name 
 Asteria  {Starry).  Another  legend,  however,  stated 
 that  she  took  the  form  of  a  quail  {bprv^. — Apollod., 
 
 1,  4,  l.—Hygin.,  53. — Serv.  ad  JEn.,  3,  73),  whence 
 the  isle  was  called  Ortygia.  This  identification  of 
 Delos  and  Ortygia  appears  to  have  been  later  than  the 
 time  of  Pindar,  who  {Nem.,  1,  4)  calls  them  sisters. 
 The  whole  fable  seems  to  owe  its  origin  to  the  af- 
 finity of  sense  between  the  words  Asteria  and  Delos. 
 {Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  81,  not.) — II.  One  of  the 
 daughters  of  Danaus,  who  married  Chaetus,  son  of 
 .^gyptus.     {Apollod  ,  2,  1,  4.) 
 
 AsTERioN,  I.  a  rivulet  of  Argolis,  rising  on  the  slope 
 of  Mount  Euboea,  near  the  temple  of  the  Argive  Juno, 
 and  soon  after  disappearing  among  the  rocks.  {Pau- 
 san.,  2,  17.) — II.  (called  also  Asterius)  A  king  of 
 Crete,  descended  from  Deucalion,  who  married  Eu- 
 ropa,  and  brought  up  the  children  whom  she  previously 
 had  from  her  union  with  Jupiter.  He  died  without 
 issue,  and  was  succeeded  by  Minos.     {Apollod.,  1,  2, 
 
 2,  seqq. — Schol.  ad  II.,  12,  397.)  According  to  an- 
 other account,  he  was  the  son  of  Minos,  and  was  slain 
 by  Theseus,  having  been  the  most  powerful  competi- 
 tor with  whom  that  hero  ever  had  to  contend.  {Pan- 
 san.,  2,  31.)  Lycophron,  again  (v.  1301),  makes  him 
 a  leader  of  the  forces  of  Minos.  (Compare  Hcyne,  ad 
 Apollod.,  I.  c. — Meurs.,  Cret.,  3,  2. — Hock,  Kret.,  2, 
 48.) 
 
 AsTEROP^A,  daughter  of  Deion,  king  of  Phocis,  or 
 more  probably  Phthiotis.  {Apollod.,  1,  9,  3. — Hcyne, 
 ad  loc,  not.  crit.) 
 
 AsTERoPE,  daughter  of  Cebren,  and  wife  of  .-Esa- 
 cus.  {Apollod.,  3  12,  5.)  Some  MSS.  of  ApoUodo- 
 rus  read  Sterope  {"Lreponr]). — For  other  names,  some- 
 times written  Asterope  and  Asieropes,  vid.  Sterope 
 and  Steropes. 
 
AST 
 
 A.  S  T 
 
 AsTR^A,  the  goddess  of  Justice.  Her  origin  is  dif- 
 ferently given.  She  is  either  a  Titan  or  a  descend- 
 ant of  the  Titans  ;  being  in  the  former  case  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Jove  and  Themis  (Hcsiod,  Theog.,  135,  191, 
 scqq),  or  of  Astraeus  and  Hemera,  or  Astraus  and 
 Aurora  (Eos).  Wlien  the  Titans  took  up  arms 
 against  Jupiter,  she  left  her  father  Astraeus,  who,  as 
 the  son  of  a  Titan,  fought  on  their  side,  and  descended 
 to  earth,  and  mingled  with  the  human  race.  This  in- 
 tercourse with  mortals  continued  during  the  golden 
 age,  but  was  interrupted  when  that  of  silver  ensued, 
 for,  during  this  latter  age,  she  came  down  from  the 
 mountains  only  amid  the  shades  of  evening,  unseen  by, 
 and  refraining  from  all  communion  with,  men.  When 
 the  brazen  age  commenced  she  fled  to  the  skies,  hav- 
 ing left  the  earth  the  last  of  the  immortals.  Jove  there- 
 upon made  her  the  constellation  Virgo,  among  the 
 signs  of  the  zodiac.  (Aral.,  I'kcen.,  102,  seqij — Schol. 
 Theon.,  adloc. — Hesiod,  Op.  et  D.,  254. — Pind.,  01., 
 13,  6.—0rph.,  H.,  Ql.—Hygin.,  Astran.,  2,  25.-— 
 Era.tos/h.,  Cat.,  9  )  As  the  constellation  Virgo,  she 
 is  identical  with  Erigone,  having  a  place  in  the  zodiac 
 between  the  Scorpion  and  the  Lion.  On  the  old  star- 
 tables,  or  celestial  planispheres,  the  Scorpion  extended 
 over  two  signs,  filling  with  its  claws  the  space  be- 
 tween itself  and  Virgo.  {Voss.  ad  Virg.,  Gcorg.,  1, 
 S3.—Erastosth.,  Cat.,  7. — Ovid,  Met.,  2,  197.)  Later 
 astronomers,  as  we  are  told  by  Theon  {ad  Aral.,  89), 
 named  the  sign  occupied  by  the  claws  of  Scorpio  the 
 Balance  (Libra),  and  this  balance  Astraea  (Virgo)  held 
 in  her  hand  as  a  symbol  of  justice.  Others,  however, 
 as  in  the  case  of  the  Farnese  marble,  made  it  the  mark 
 of  the  equality  of  the  day  and  night  at  the  oequinox.  It 
 is  very  probable  that  this  latter  explanation  was  the  ear- 
 lier one  of  the  two,  especially  as  Astraea  ranked  among 
 the  Horas,  and  that  the  moral  idea  succeeded  the  physi- 
 cal. (Vollmer,  Worterb.  der  MythoL,  p.  354. — Gru- 
 hcr,  Worterb.  der  AUclass.  MythoL,  vol.  1,  p.  666. — 
 Idelcr,  Slcrnnamcn,  p.  169.) 
 
 AsTRiEUs,  L  a  son  of  the  Titan  Crius  and  Eurybia 
 the  daughter  of  Poutus.  Hyginus,  however,  makes 
 him  the  offspring  of  Terra  and  Tartarus,  and  brother 
 of  the  giants  Enceladus,  Pallas,  &c.  {Hyg.,  Prcef., 
 p.  Z,cd.  Munk.)  He  was  the  father  of  Astraa,  men- 
 tioned in  the  preceding  article,  and  begat  also  by  Eos 
 (Aurora)  the  winds  Boreas,  Notus,  Zephyrus,  and  the 
 stars  of  heaven.  (Hes.,  Tkcog.,  378.)  Some  assign 
 him  also  a  son  named  Argestcs,  but  this  is  merely  an 
 epithet  of  Zephyrus,  meaning  "  the  swift,"  Astraeus 
 united  with  the  Titans  against  Jupiter,  and  was 
 hurled  along  with  them  to  Tartarus.  (Scrv.  ad  yE?!., 
 1,  136  ) — n.  A  river  of  Macedonia,  running  by  Be- 
 rcea,  and  falling  into  the  Erigonus,  a  tributary  of  the 
 Axius.  {jElian,  Hist.  An.,  15.  1.)  It  is  now  thought 
 to  be  the  Vostritza.  (Consult,  however,  as  to  the 
 course  of  this  river,  the  remarks  of  Cramer,  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  222,  who  makes  it  fall  into  the  lake 
 Ludias. — Compare  also  Bischoff  und  Moller,  Worterb. 
 der  Geogr.,  p.  123  ) 
 
 AsTUKA,  a  small  river  and  village  of  Latium,  near 
 the  coast,  below  Antium.  In  the  neighbourhood  was 
 a  villa  of  Cicero,  to  which  he  retired  to  vent  his  grief 
 for  the  loss  of  his  beloved  daughter,  and  where  he 
 thought  of  raising  a  monument  to  her  memory.  {Ep. 
 ad  All.,  12,  19.)  When  proscribed  by  Antony,  he 
 withdrew  to  this  same  place  from  Tusculum,  and 
 sought  escape  from  thence,  intending  to  join  Brutus 
 m  Macedonia.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Cic.)  Astura  seems  to 
 have  been  also  the  residence  of  Augustus,  during  an 
 illness,  with  which  he  was  seized  towards  the  close 
 of  his  life  {Suet.,  Aug.,  98),  and  also  of  Tiberius 
 {Suet.,  Ttb  ,  72).  A  decisive  battle  took  place  on 
 the  banks  of  the  river  Astura,  between  the  Romans 
 and  6ome  of  the  Latin  states,  which  led  to  the  com- 
 plete subjugation  of  the  latter.  {Liv.  8  13. Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  89.) 
 
 AsTUREs,  a  people  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis.  lying 
 west  and  southwest  of  the  Cantabri.  They  occupied 
 the  eastern  half  of  modern  Aslurias,  the  greater  part 
 of  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  and  the  northern  half  of  Pa- 
 lencia.  Their  capital  was  Asiurica  Augusta,  now 
 Astorga.     (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  363.) 
 
 AsTVAGEs,  son  of  Cyaxares,  was  the  last  king  of 
 Media.  His  reign  continued  from  595  to  560  B.C. 
 He  married  Aryenis,  daughter  of  Alyattes,  and  sister 
 of  Croesus,  by  whom  he  had  Mandane.  Fearing,  from 
 a  dream  which  he  had,  that  he  would  be  dethroned  by 
 a  grandson,  he  married  his  daughter  to  Cambyses,  a 
 Persian,  of  a  good  family,  but  peaceful  disposition,  and 
 one  whom  he  himself  thought  inferior  to  a  Mcde  even  of 
 moderate  condition.  A  second  dream,  equally  a-larm- 
 ing  with  the  first,  induced  him  to  send  to  Persia  for  his 
 daughter,  who  was  near  her  delivery,  and,  when  she 
 brought  forth  a  son,  he  gave  the  infant  into  the  hands 
 of  an  individual  named  Harpagus,  with  strict  orders 
 to  put  it  to  death.  The  latter,  however,  disobeying 
 these  injunctions,  gave  the  child  to  one  of  the  king's 
 herdsmen  to  expose,  and  the  wife  of  this  man,  having 
 just  been  delivered  of  a  dead  infant,  took  the  son  of 
 Mandane  in  its  place,  and  caused  her  husband  to  ex- 
 pose their  own  inanimate  offspring.  When  Harpagus 
 therefore  sent  some  trusty  persons  to  see  whether  the 
 herdsman  had  executed  his  orders,  the  dead  child  of  the 
 latter  was  seen  by  them  lying  exposed,  and  was  mis- 
 taken, of  course,  for  the  offspring  of  Mandane.  The 
 child  thus  preserved  grew  up,  and  became  Cvrus  the 
 Great,  dethroning  Astyages  according  to  the  import  of 
 the  two  dreams.  Astyages  was  in  this  way  deprived 
 of  his  crown  after  a  reign  of  about  35  years.  ( Vid. 
 Cyrus.)  He  appears  to  have  been  of  a  cruel  and  vin- 
 dictive disposition.  {Vid.  Harpagus.) — According  to 
 the  account  of  Xenophon,  in  his  historical  romance  of 
 the  Cyropffidia,  Astyages  and  his  grandson  lived  on 
 terms  of  the  closest  friendship  and  intimacy,  and  the 
 former  left,  besides  a  daughter,  a  son  named  Cyaxares, 
 who  succeeded  the  father,  and,  dying  without  issue,  left 
 the  crown  to  Cyrus.  {Herod.,  1,  46,  73.  &c. — Xrn., 
 Cyrop.)  Nothing  is  said  in  Herodotus  of  the  end  of 
 Astyages.  Ctesias,  however,  informs  us,  that,  after 
 having  been  treated  kindly  by  Cyrus,  he  was  sent  for 
 by  the  latter  to  come  to  Persia,  but  that  the  eunuch 
 charged  with  this  commission  led  him  astray  in  a  desert 
 place,  where  he  perished  from  hunger  and  thirst. 
 {Ctes.,  Pers.,  5.)  It  is  probable  this  was  done  by  the 
 secret  orders  of  Cyrus,  although  Ctesias  states  that 
 the  eunuch  was  cruelly  punished.  (Bdhr,  ad  Cies.,  I. 
 c.) — There  is  great  discrepance  in  the  form  of  this 
 name,  as  given  by  the  ancient  writers  ;  Herodotus,  and 
 most  of  the  Greeks,  following  his  authority,  write  'Ka- 
 Tvajrir.  Ctesias,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  WaTv'iya^, 
 while  Diodorus,  citing  Ctesias  himself,  has  'A(T7rd(5«f 
 (2,  34).  Compare  the  remarks  of  Wesseling  [ad  Diod., 
 I.  c),  Marsham  (Can.  Chron.  p.  528),  Bahr,  {ad  Ctes., 
 Assyr.,  19),  and  Beck  (  Weltgcsr./i.,  vol.  1,  p.  638). 
 
 AsTVANAX,  a  son  of  Hector  and  Andromache.  Hec- 
 tor had  called  him  Scamandrius,  after  the  river  Scaman- 
 der,  but  the  Trojans  bestowed  on  him,  out  of  compliment 
 to  his  father,  their  great  defender,  the  name  of  Asty- 
 anax,  or  "  Prince  of  the  city."  {Horn.,  II.,  22,  651  ) 
 He  was  very  young  when  the  Greeks  besieged  Troy  ; 
 and  when  the  city  was  taken,  his  mother  saved  him  in 
 her  arms  from  the  flames.  After  the  capture  of  the 
 city,  the  young  prince  excited  great  uneasiness  among 
 the  Greeks,  in  consequence  of  a  prediction  by  Calchas, 
 that  Astyanax,  if  permitted  to  live,  would  avenge  the 
 death  of  Hector,  and  raise  Troy  in  fresh  splendour  from 
 its  ruins.  Andromache,  dreading  the  fury  of  the  vic- 
 torious Greeks,  concealed  Astyanax  in  the  recesses  of 
 Hector's  tomb  ;  but  his  retreat  was  soon  discovered  by 
 Ulysses,  who,  according  to  some,  precipitated  the  un- 
 happy boy  from  the  battlements  of  Ilium.  This  cruelty 
 is  by'Euripides  ascribed  to  Menelaus,  and  by  Pausaniaa 
 
 219 
 
ATA 
 
 ATA 
 
 ^10,  25),  on  the  authority  of  Lesches,  to  Pyrrhus. 
 Kacine,  in  his  "  Atidromaque,"  has  indulged  in  the 
 poetic  license  of  making  Astyanax  survive  the  fall  of 
 Troy,  aiid  accompany  his  mother  to  Epirus.  (Con- 
 sult Jiacinc,  Prcf.  de  rAndrom.)  A  beautiful  lament 
 over  the  corpse  of  Astyanax,  from  the  lips  of  Hecuba, 
 may  be  found  m  tlie  Troades  of  Euripides  (1146-1196), 
 and  also  some  fine  lines,  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  same 
 play,  where  Andromache  is  taking  leave  of  her  son 
 (742-781). 
 
 AsTYDAMAS,  BH  Athenian  tragic  writer,  son  of  Mor- 
 simus,  and  grandson  of  Philocles,  the  nephew  of  .^s- 
 chylus.  He  studied  under  Isocratcs,  and  composed, 
 according  to  Suidas,  two  hundred  and  forty  tragedies ; 
 a  rather  improbable  number.  He  lived  sixty  years. 
 His  first  exhibition  was  B.C.  398.  {Diod.  Sic,  14, 
 i3.— Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  2d  ed.,  p.  158.) 
 
 AsTVDAMiA,  daughter  of  Amyntor,  king  of  Orcho- 
 raenos  in  Breotia,  married  Acastus,  son  of  Pelias,  who 
 was  king  of  lolcos.  She  is  called  by  some  Hippolylc. 
 {Vid.  Acastus.) 
 
 AsTYPAL^A,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  southeast  of  the 
 island  of  Cos.  It  is  eighty-eight  miles  in  circuit,  and 
 distant,  as  Pliny  (H.  N.,  4,  12)  reports,  one  hundred 
 and  twenty-five  miles  from  Cadistus  in  Crete.  Stra- 
 bo  informs' us  it  contained  a  town  of  the  same  name. 
 It  is  said  that  hares  having  been  introduced  into  this 
 island  from  Anaphe,  it  was  so  overrun  with  them 
 that  the  inhabitaats  were  under  the  necessity  of  con- 
 sulting the  oracle,  which  advised  their  hunting  them 
 with  dogs  :  in  one  year  six  thousand  are  said  to  have 
 been  caught.  {Hegesandrius,  Delph.  ap.  Athen.,  9, 
 63.)  According  to  Cicero,  divine  honours  were  ren- 
 dered here  to  Achilles.  It  was  called  Pyrrha  when 
 the  Carians  possessed  it,  and  afterward  Pylaa.  Its 
 name  Astypalaja  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from 
 that  of  a  sister  of  Europa.  It  was  also  called  Qruv 
 TpuKE^a,  or  the  Table  of  the  Gods,  because  its  soil 
 was  fertile,  and  almost  enamelled  with  flowers.  It  is 
 now  Stanpalia.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p. 
 416.) — II.  A  promontory  of  Caria,  near  the  city  of 
 Myndus,  now  the  peninsula  o[  Pasha  Liman.  {Cra- 
 mer's Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  176.) 
 
 AsYCHis,  a  king  of  Egypt,  who,  according  to  He- 
 rodotus (2,  136),  during  a  scarcity  of  money,  enacted 
 a  law  to  the  following  effect :  That  any  man,  by  giving 
 as  a  pledge  the  body  of  his  father,  might  borrow  money  ; 
 but  that,  in  case  he  afterward  refused  to  pay  the  debt, 
 lie  should  neither  be  buried  in  the  same  place  with  his 
 father,  nor  in  any  other,  nor  have  the  liberty  of  bury- 
 ing the  dead  body  of  any  of  his  friends.  This  law 
 was  based  on  the  popular  belief,  that  those  deprived 
 of  the  rites  of  sepulchre  were  not  permitted  to  enter 
 the  peaceful  realms  of  Osiris.  Hence  it  was  a  statute, 
 in  fact,  of  extraordinary  severity.  (Compare  Zoega, 
 de  Obelise,  p.  292.)  Herodotus  also  informs  us,  that 
 this  same  monarch,  desiring  to  outdo  all  his  predeces- 
 sors, erected  a  pyramid  of  brick  for  his  monument, 
 with  the  following  inscription  :  "  Do  not  despise  rne 
 in  comparison  with  the  pyramids  of  stone,  which  I 
 excel  as  much  as  Jupiter  surpasses  the  other  gods  ;  for, 
 dipping  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  lake  with  long  poles, 
 and  then  collecting  the  mire  that  stuck  to  them,  men 
 made  bricks  and  formed  me  in  this  manner."  {He- 
 rod., 2,  136.)  The  pyramid  here  referred  to  is  thought 
 to  be  the  same  with  the  one  seen  at  the  present  day 
 near  El  Lahun,  not  far  from  the  beginning  of  the  ca- 
 nal that  leads  to  Medinatcl- Faijoum .  {Descrip.  de 
 VEgypt,  livrais.  iii.,  vol.  2,  c.  17,  p.  23.) — Diodorus 
 Siculus  does  not  agree  with  Herodotus.  He  does  not 
 mention  Asychis,  or  his  successor  Anysis,  but  puts  in 
 their  place  Bocchoris.  Larcher  considers  him  to  be 
 in  error.  {Larcher,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c. — Compare  Beck, 
 Anleit.  zu  Weltgesch.,  vol.  1,  p.  692,  718.) 
 
 AtabClus,  a  wind  which  was  frequent  in  Apulia, 
 and  very  destructive  to  the  productions  of  the  earth, 
 220 
 
 which  it  scorched  or  withered  up.  It  is  the  same 
 with  the  modern  Sirocco.  {Horat.,  Serm.,  1,  5,  78.) 
 Both  Seneca  {Qua:st.  Nat.,  5,  17)  and  Pliny  (17,  36) 
 make  mention  of  this  wind  :  the  latter  remarks  con- 
 cerning it :  "  Hie  cnim,  sijlavit  circa  hrumam,  frigore 
 exurit  arefacicfis,  ut  rtullis  postea  solibus  recreari  pos- 
 sint."  Etymologists  derive  the  name  from  arr)  and 
 (iakTiu.     {Nork,  Elymol.  Handwort.,  vol.  1,  p.  84.) 
 
 Atabyris,  or  Atabyron,  I.  a  mountain  in  Rhodes, 
 the  highest  in  the  island,  where  Jupiter  had  a  temple, 
 whence  he  was  surnanied  Atahyrius.  Ancient  fables 
 speak  of  brazen  oxen  at  this  place,  which,  by  their  bel- 
 lowings,  announced  approaching  calamity.  The  mean- 
 ing of  the  fable  is  said  to  have  been,  that  the  priests 
 of  this  temple  pretended  to  be  possessed  of  the  spirit 
 of  prophecy.  {Find.,  01.,  7,  87,  cd.  Bbckh. — SchoL, 
 ad  loc. — Strab.,  655  — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'AruCvpov. 
 — Apollod.,  3.  2.)  The  name  is  connected  v^'ith  the 
 early  traditions  respecting  the  Tclchines,  and  would 
 seem  to  have  come  into  Rhodes  from  Phcenicia,  being 
 in  all  probability  derived  from  the  Oriental  Tabor. 
 {Vid.  Atabyrion.)  Ritter  indulges  in  some  curious 
 and  profound  speculations  on  the  subject.  {Vorhalle, 
 p.  339,  seqq.) — II.  A  mountain  in  Sicily,  the  name 
 having  been  transferred  to  this  island  from  Rhodes. 
 {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'ATu6vpov. —  Cluvcr.,  Sic.  Avt.,  p. 
 488.— ilffKr*.,  Rhod.,  1,  S.—  Gbller,  Syrac.,  p.  294.) 
 —III.  A  city  of  Persia.     {Steph.  Byz.) 
 
 Atabyrion,  a  fortified  town  on  the  summit  of  a 
 mountain  in  Galilaea  Inferior.  Both  the  town  and 
 mountain  answer  to  the  Thabor  of  Scripture.  Polybius 
 (5,  70)  gives  an  account  of  the  capture  of  the  place  by 
 Antiochus  the  Great.  The  Septuagint  version  writes 
 the  name  'IraCvpiov  {Hos.,  5,  1),  and  so  also  Jose- 
 phus  {Bell.  Jud.,  4,  1,  8,  &c.).  Reiske  thinks,  that 
 the  initial  vowel  in  the  Greek  name  arises  from  the 
 Hebrew  article  ;  but  if  this  were  so,  the  Greek  trans- 
 lator of  Hosea,  and  Josephus  also,  being  both  He- 
 brews, would  have  written  'kradvpiov,  not  'iTaCvpiov. 
 Polybius  describes  Mount  Thabor  as  a  round  or 
 breast-like  hill  {2.6(})oc  fiaaroeidi/g),  while  Dr.  Clarke 
 gives  it  a  conical  form.  According  to  the  latter,  it  is 
 entirely  detached  from  any  neighbouring  mountain, 
 and  stands  upon  one  side  of  the  great  plain  of  Endra- 
 clon.  {Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  4,  p.  239,  Lond.  cd., 
 1817.) 
 
 Atacini,  a  people  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  south  and 
 southeast  of  the  Volscse  Tcctosages.  They  inhabited 
 the  banks  of  the  Atax,  or  Aude,  whence  their  name. 
 Their  capital  was  Narbo,  now  Narbonne.  {Maiinert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  63.) 
 
 Atalanta,  daughter  of  lasos  or  lasion,  a  descend- 
 ant of  Areas  and  Clymene  the  daughter  of  Minyas. 
 Her  father  reigned  in  Arcadia.  He  was  anxious  for 
 male  offspring,  and,  on  his  wife's  bringing  forth  a  fe- 
 male, he  exposed  the  babe  in  the  mountains,  where  she 
 was  suckled  by  a  bear,  and  at  last  found  by  some  hunt- 
 ers, who  named  her  Atalanta,  and  reared  her.  She 
 followed  the  chase,  and  was  alike  distinguished  for  beau- 
 ty and  courage.  The  centaurs,  Rhoecos  and  Hylsos, 
 attempting  her  honour,  perished  by  her  arrows.  She 
 took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition  ;  was  at  the  Cal- 
 ydonian  hunt  {eid.  Meleagcr) ;  and  at  the  funeral 
 games  of  Pelias  she  won  the  prize  in  wrestling  from 
 Peleus.  {Apollod.,  3,  9,  2.—Callim.,  3,  215.— JUli- 
 an,  V.  H.,  13,  1.)  Atalanta  was  afterward  recog- 
 nised by  her  parents.  Her  father  wishing  her  to  mar- 
 ry, she  consented,  but  only  on  condition  that  her  suit- 
 ers should  run  a  race  with  her  in  the  following  man- 
 ner :  They  were  to  run  without  arms,  and  she  was  to 
 carry  a  dart  in  her  hand.  Her  lovers  were  to  start 
 first,  and  whoever  arrived  at  the  goal  before  her  would 
 be  made  her  husband  ;  but  all  those  whom  she  over- 
 took were  to  be  killed  by  the  dart  with  which  she  had 
 armed  herself.  As  she  was  almost  invincible  in  run- 
 ning, many  of  her  suiters  perished  in  the  attempt,  and 
 
ATA 
 
 AT  H 
 
 their  heads  were  fixed  round  the  place  of  contest, 
 when  Meilanion,  her  cousin,  oflered  himself  as  a  com- 
 petitor. Venus  had  presented  him  with  three  golden 
 apples  from  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  others,  from  an  orchard  in  Cyprus  ;  and,  as 
 soon  as  he  had  started  in  the  course,  he  artfully  threw 
 down  the  apples  at  some  distance  one  from  the  other. 
 While  Atalanta,  charmed  at  the  sight,  stopped  to 
 gather  the  apples,  Meilanion  won  the  race.  Atalanta 
 became  his  wife,  and  they  had  a  son  named  Partheno- 
 pseus.  It  is  added,  that  while  hunting  together  on 
 one  occasion,  they  profaned  the  temenos,  or  sacred 
 enclosure  of  Jove,  with  their  love,  for  which  offence 
 they  were  turned  into  lions.  {Apollod.,  I.  c,  where  for 
 fiTj  T&T/pevovTag  we  must  read,  with  Canter,  avvdr/- 
 pEvovraQ. — Theognis,  1279,  se(/q. — Hygin.,fab.,  185. 
 — Ovid,  Met.,  10,  560,  scgq. — Schol.  ad  Theocr.,  3, 
 40. — MuscEus,  153.)  Other  authorities,  however, 
 make  the  name  of  the  victor  Hippomenes,  and  say, 
 that  on  his  neglecting  to  give  thanks  to  Venus  for  her 
 aid,  she  inspired  him  with  a  sudden  passion,  which  led 
 to  the  profanation  of  the  sanctuary  of  Jove,  and  the 
 transformation  of  himself  and  his  bride.  {Ovid,  I.  c. 
 — Schol.  ad  Theocr.,  I.  c.)  According  to  other  ac- 
 counts, Atalanta  was  the  daughter  of  Schceneus,  son 
 of  Athamas,  and  therefore  a  Boeotian.  {Hcsiod,  ap. 
 Apollod.,  I.  c. — Ovid,  I.  c. — Hygin.,  I.  c.)  There  is 
 no  necessity  for  supposing  two  of  the  same  name,  as 
 has  usually  been  done.  They  are  both  connected  with 
 the  Minyans,  and  are  only  examples  of  different  ap- 
 propriations of  the  same  legend.  {Keighlley^ s  My- 
 thology, p.  427,  scq.) 
 
 At.\rantes,  a  people  of  Africa,  ten  days'  journey 
 from  the  Garamantes.  There  was  in  their  country  a 
 hill  of  salt,  with  a  fountain  issuing  out  of  the  summit. 
 {Herod.,  4,  184.)— All  the  MSS.  have  "krlavTEq  {At- 
 lantcs),  which  Salmasius  {in  Solin.,  p.  292)  first  alter- 
 ed to  'kTupavre^,  an  emendation  now  almost  univer- 
 sally adopted.  Rennell  thinks,  that  the  people  meant 
 here  are  the  same  with  the  Hammanientcs  of  Pliny 
 (5,  5).  What  Pliny,  however,  says  of  the  Atlantes 
 suits  the  case  better  (5,  S).  Casliglioni  makes  the 
 Atlantes  and  Atarantes  the  same  people.  {Mem. 
 Gengr.  et  Numism.,  &c.,  Paris,  1826.)  Heeren,  on 
 the  other  hand,  places  the  Atarantes  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Tegeny,  the  last  city  of  Fezzan.  {Ideen,  vol.  2,  pt. 
 1,  p.  239.)  Herodotus  says,  that  the  Atarantes  were 
 destitute  of  names  for  individuals  ;  and  they  cursed 
 the  sun  as  he  passed  over  their  heads,  because  he  con- 
 sumed both  the  inhabitants  and  the  country  with  his 
 scorching  heat.     {Herod.,  I.  c.) 
 
 ATARBiicHis,  a  city  of  Egypt,  sacred  to  Venus,  in 
 one  of  the  small  islands  of  the  Delta  called  Prosopitis. 
 The  name  of  the  city  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Alar 
 or  Athar  {Etymol.  Mag.,  s.  v.  "Advp),  which  signified 
 "  Venus,"  and  Bck,  "a  city  ;"  as  Balbeck,  "  the  city 
 of  the  Sun,"  called  by  the  Greeks  Heliopolis.  Baki 
 is  siill  found  in  the  same  sense  among  the  Copts,  and 
 in  their  language  a  is  pronounced  as  e.  Strabo  and 
 Pliny  call  the  city  Aphroditespolis.  {Herod.,  2,  41.— 
 Lurcher,  ad  Hcrodut.,  I.  c.) 
 
 ATARR.iTis  or  Atergatis,  an  Eastern  deity,  the 
 same  with  the  Great  Goddess  of  Syria.  8he  was 
 worshipped  principally  at  Mabog  or  Bambyce  (Edessa), 
 and  at  a  later  period  at  Hierapolis.  Strabo  informs  us 
 that  her  true  name  was  Athara.  (Compare  Xanih., 
 Lyd.  ap.  Hesych.,  s.  v.  'ATrnyddrj.—  Crcuzer,  fragm. 
 hist.  Grcp.r..  antiquiss.,  p.  183.)  Ctesias  calls  her  Der- 
 ceto.  It  is  probable  that  this  latter  name  is  only  a  cor- 
 ruption of  Atargatis  or  Atergatis,  and  that  these  three 
 appellations  designate  one  arid  the  same  divinity.  Lu- 
 cian,  however  {de  Dca  Syria,  c.  14. — Op.,  ed.  Bjp., 
 vol.  9,  p.  90),  distinguishes  expressly  between  the 
 goddess  worshipped  at  Hierapolis  and  the  Pha3nician 
 Derceto,  stating  that  the  latter  was  represented  with 
 the  lower  extremities  like  those  of  a  fish,  and  the  for- 
 
 mer under  a  figure  entirely  female.  Creuzer  seeks  to 
 reconcile  this  difficulty  by  supposing  that  Atergatis 
 and  Derceto,  though  originally  the  same,  were  at  a 
 subsequent  period  represented  under  forms  that  differ- 
 ed from  each  other.  {SyiiLholik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol. 
 2,  p.  28,  seqq.) 
 
 Atarneus,  I.  a  town  of  Mysia,  opposite  to  Lesbos. 
 It  was  ceded  to  the  Chians  by  the  Persians,  in  the 
 reign  of  Cyrus,  for  having  delivered  into  their  hands 
 the  Lydian  Pactyas.  {Herod.,  1,  160.)  The  land 
 around  Atarneus  was  rich,  and  productive  in  corn. 
 {Cramer  s  Asia  Minor,  yo\.  1,  p.  133.) — II.  A  place 
 near  Pitane,  in  Mysia,  and  called  "  Atarneus  under 
 Pitane,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  town  of  the  same 
 name  mentioned  in  the  previous  article.  It  was  oppo- 
 site the  island  of  Elteussa.  The  bricks  made  here 
 are  said  to  be  so  light  as  to  float  in  the  water.  {Slrah  , 
 614.) 
 
 Atax,  a  river  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  rising  in  the 
 Pyrenean  mountains,  and  falling  into  the  Lacus  Ru- 
 brensis  or  Rubresus,  at  the  city  of  Narbo  (now  Nar- 
 ho7inc),  for  which  the  lake  served  as  a  harbour,  an  out- 
 let or  canal  being  cut  to  the  Mediterranean.  The 
 Atax  (otherwise  called  Adax)  is  now  the  Aude,  and 
 the  modern  name  of  the  lake  is  Velang  de  Sigcan. 
 {Plin.,  3,  A.— Mela,  2,  ^.—Lucan,  1,  403.) 
 
 Ate,  the  goddess  of  evil,  and  daughter  of  Jupiter. 
 When  Jupiter  had  been  deceived  by  Juno  into  making 
 the  rash  oath  that  rendered  Hercules  subject  to  the 
 command  of  Eurystheus,  the  monarch  of  the  skies  laid 
 the  whole  blame  on  Ate,  and,  having  seized  her  by 
 the  hair,  flung  her  to  earth,  declaring  with  an  oath  that 
 she  should  never  return  to  Olympus.  Thenceforward 
 she  took  up  her  abode  among  men.  Her  feet,  accord- 
 ing to  Homer,  are  tender,  and  she  therefore  does  not 
 walk  on  the  ground,  but  on  the  heads  of  mortals  {Kar 
 uvdpup  Kpuara  fSaivei,).  The  name  is  derived  from 
 uo[iai  (Poetic  duofiai),  to  injure,  or,  to  adopt  the  lan- 
 guage of  Homer,  'Ary,  jj  nuvrag  aurai.  {11.,  19,  91, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Atella,  a  town  of  Campania,  to  the  west  of  Sues- 
 sula,  the  ruins  of  which,  as  Holstenius  reports  {Adnot., 
 p.  260),  are  still  to  be  seen  near  the  village  of  St.  El- 
 pidio  or  St.  Arpino,  about  two  miles  from  the  town 
 of  Aversa.  Atella  is  known  to  have  been  an  Oscan 
 citv,  and  it  has  acquired  some  importance  in  the  histo- 
 ry of  Roman  literature,  from  the  circumstance  of  the 
 name  and  origin  of  the  farces  called  Falulce  AtcUance 
 being  derived  from  thence.  We  are  told  that  these 
 comic  representations  were  so  much  relished  by  the 
 Roman  people,  that  the  actors  were  allowed  privile- 
 ges not  usually  extended  to  that  class  of  persons  ;  but 
 these  amusements  having  at  length  given  rise  to  va- 
 rious excesses,  were  prohibited  under  the  reign  of  Ti- 
 berius, and  the  players  banished  from  Italy.  {Liv., 
 7,  2.— Strabo,  233. — Tacit.,  Ann.,  4,  14.)  Atella,  in 
 consequence  of  having  joined  the  Carthaginians  after 
 the  battle  of  Cannas,  was  reduced,  with  several  other 
 Campanian  towns,  to  the  condition  of  a  praefectura  on 
 the  surrender  of  Capua  to  the  Romans.  {Liv.,  22, 
 61. — Id.,  26,  34.)  Subsequently,  however,  it  is  men- 
 tioned by  Cicero  as  a  municipal  town  {Ep.  ad  Fam., 
 13,  7),  and  Frontinus  states  that  it  was  colonized  by 
 Augustus.     {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  208.) 
 
 Athamanes,  a  rude  mountaineer  race  of  Epirus, 
 whose  territory  lay  between  Pindus  on  the  east  and 
 a  parallel  chain  on  the  west.  They  were  at  first  of 
 little  importance,  either  from  their  numbers  or  territo- 
 rial extent,  but  they  subsequently  acquired  great  pow- 
 er and  influence  by  the  conquest  or  extirpation  of 
 several  small  Thessalian  and  Epirotic  tribes,  and  they 
 appear  in  history  as  valuable  allies  to  the  ^tolians, 
 and  formidable  enemies  to  the  sovereigns  of  Macedon. 
 {Strah.,  A27.— Liv.,  33,  13.— Id.,  36,  9.)  The  rude 
 habits  of  this  people  may  be  inferred  from  the  custom 
 that  prevailed  among  them,  of  assigning  to  their  fe- 
 
 ■        221 
 
A  TH 
 
 ATE 
 
 males  the  active  labours  of  husbandry,  while  the  males 
 were  chielly  employed  in  tending  their  flocks,  (//e- 
 racl.,  I'oiil.  frag. —  Cramer's  Aitc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p 
 95,  s<(jq.) 
 
 Athamas,  king  of  Thebes,  in  Boeotia,  was  son  of 
 ^Eolijs.  lie  married  Nejihelc,  and  by  her  had  Phrixus 
 and  HcUe.  Some  time  after,  having  divorced  Nefih- 
 cle,  he  married  Ino,  the  daughter  of  Cadmus,  by 
 whom  he  had  two  sons,  Learchus  and  Mehcerta.  Ino 
 became  jealous  of  the  ehildren  of  Nc|>hele,  because 
 they  were  to  ascend  their  father's  throne  in  preference 
 to  her  own  ;  therefore  she  resolved  to  destroy  them  ; 
 but  tlicv  escaped  from  her  fury  to  Colchis  on  a  golden 
 ram.  {Vid.  Argonaut<£  )  Aihamas.  through  the  en- 
 mity of  Juno  towards  Ino,  who  had  suckled  the  infant 
 Bacchus,  was  afterward  seized  with  madness.  In  his 
 phrensy  he  shot  his  son  Learchiis  with  an  arrow,  or. 
 as  others  say,  dashed  him  against  a  rock.  Ino  fled 
 with  her  other  »nn,  and,  being  closely  pursued  by  her 
 furious  husband,  sprang  with  her  child  from  the  cliff 
 of  Moluris,  near  (Jorinth,  into  the  sea.  The  gods  took 
 pity  on  her,  and  made  her  a  sea- goddess,  under  the 
 name  of  Leucothea,  and  Melicerla  a  sea  god,  under 
 that  of  Paleiiion.  Athamas  subsequently,  in  accord- 
 ance with  an  oracle,  settled  in  a  place  where  he  built 
 the  town  of  Athamaniia.  This  was  in  Thessaly,  in  the 
 Phthioiic  district.  Here  he  married  Themisio,  daugh- 
 ter of  Hypseus,  and  had  by  her  lour  children,  Leucon, 
 Erythroe,  Schoeiieus,  and  Ptoos.  (Apollod  ,  1,  9.) 
 Such  is  the  account  of  Apollodorus.  There  are,  how- 
 ever, many  variations  in  the  tale  in  different  writers, 
 cs[iecialiy  in  the  tragic  poets.  (Kc)ghiley's  Mythology, 
 p.  33:5.) 
 
 Ath.^juxtiauks,  a  patronymic  of  Melicerta.  Phrix- 
 us,  or  Helle,  children  of  Athamas.  (Odd,  Met.,  13, 
 319.) 
 
 Athanasius,  a  celebrated  Christian  bishop  of  the 
 fourth  century.  He  was  a  native  of  Egypt,  and  a 
 deacon  of  the  church  of  Alexandrea  under  Alexander 
 the  bishop,  whom  he  succeeded  in  his  dignity  A.D. 
 326.  Previous  to  his  obtaining  this  high  office  he  had 
 been  private  secretary  to  Alexander,  and  had  also  led 
 for  some  lime  an  ascetic  life  with  the  renowned  an- 
 chorite St.  Aiilhonv.  Alexander  had  also  taken  him 
 to  the  council  at  iNice,  where  he  gained  the  highest 
 esteem  of  the  fathers  by  the  talents  which  he  dis- 
 plave:!  in  the  Arian  controversy.  He  had  a  great 
 share  in  the  decrees  passed  here,  and  thereby  drew 
 on  himself  the  hatred  of  the  Arians.  On  his  ad- 
 vancement to  the  prelacy  he  dedicated  all  his  time 
 and  talents  to  the  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trini 
 ty,  and  resolutely  refused  the  request  of  ("onstantine 
 for  the  restoration  of  Ariiis  to  the  Catholic  communion. 
 In  revenge  for  this  refusal,  the  Arian  party  brought 
 several  accusations  against  him  before  the  emperor. 
 Of  these  he  was  acquitted  in  Ihe  first  instance  ; 
 but,  on  a  new  charge  of  having  detained  ships  at  Alex- 
 andrea, laden  with  corn  for  (Constantinople,  either  from 
 conviction  or  policy,  he  was  found  siuilty  atid  banished 
 to  Gaul.  Here  he  remained  an  exile  eighteen  months, 
 or,  as  some  accounts  say,  upward  of  two  years,  his  see 
 in  the  mean  time  being  unoccupied,  On  the  death  of 
 Constantine  he  was  recalled,  and  restored  to  his  func- 
 tions by  Constantius  ;  but  the  Arian  parly  made  new 
 complaints  against  him,  and  he  was  condemned  by  90 
 Arian  bishops  assembled  at  Antioch.  On  the  opposite 
 side,  100  orthodox  bishops,  assembled  at  Alexandrea, 
 declared  him  innocent;  and  Pojie  Julius  cotifirmecl 
 this  sentence,  in  conjunction  with  more  than  300 
 bishops  assembled  at  Sardis  from  the  East  and  West. 
 In  consequence  of  this,  he  returned  a  second  time 
 to  his  diocese.  But  when  Constans,  emperor  of  the 
 West,  died,  and  Constantius  became  master  of  the 
 whole  empire,  the  Arians  again  ventured  to  rise  u]) 
 against  Athanasius.  They  condemned  him  in  the  coun- 
 cils of  Aries  and  Milan,  and,  as  the  worthy  patriarch 
 222. 
 
 refused  to  listen  lo  anything  but  an  express  command 
 of  the  emperor,  when  he  was  one  day  jirefuiriiig  to  cele- 
 brate a  festival  in  the  church,  a  body  of  soldiers  sudden- 
 ly rushed  in  to  make  him  prisoner.  But  the  surround- 
 ing priests  and  monks  placed  him  in  security.  Atha- 
 nasius, displaced  for  a  third  lime,  fled  into  the  deserts 
 of  Egypt.  His  enemies  pursued  him  even  here,  and 
 set  a  price  on  his  head,  'i'o  relieve  the  hermits,  \\ho 
 dwelt  in  these  solitary  places,  and  who  would  not  be- 
 tray his  retreat,  from  suffering  on  h  s  account,  he  went 
 into  those  parts  of  the  desert  which  were  entirely  unin- 
 habited. He  was  followed  by  a  faithful  servant,  who, 
 at  the  risk  of  his  life,  supplied  him  with  the  means  of 
 subsistence.  In  this  undisturbed  spot  Athanasius  com- 
 posed many  writings,  full  of  eloquence,  to  strengthen 
 the  faith  of  the  believers  or  expose  the  falsehoods  of 
 his  enemies.  When  Julian  the  apostate  ascended  ihe 
 throne,  he  allowed  the  orthodox  bishops  to  return  to 
 their  churches.  Athanasius,  therefore,  returned  after 
 an  absence  of  six  years.  The  mildness  which  he  ex- 
 ercised towards  his  enemies  was  imitated  in  Gaul, 
 Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece,  and  restored  peace  to  the 
 church.  But  this  peace  was  interrupted  by  the  com- 
 plaints of  the  heathen,  whose  temples  the  zeal  of  Atha- 
 nasius kept  always  empty.  They  excited  the  emperor 
 against  him,  and  'he  was  obliged  to  fly  to  the  Theba'is 
 to  save  his  life.  The  death  of  the  emperor  and  the 
 accession  of  Jovian  again  brought  him  back ;  but, 
 Valens  becoming  emperor  eight  months  after,  and  the 
 Arians  recovering  their  superiority,  he  was  once  more 
 compelled  to  fly.  He  concealed  himself  m  the  tomb  of 
 his  father,  where  he  remained  four  months,  until  Valens, 
 moved  by  the  ])ressing  entreaties  and  threats  of  the 
 Alexandreans,  allowed  him  to  return.  From  this  pe- 
 riod he  remained  undisturbed  in  his  office  till  he  died, 
 A.D.  373. — Of  the  46  years  of  his  official  life,  he  spent 
 20  in  banishment,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  remain- 
 der in  defending  the  Nicene  Creed.  Athanasius  is  one 
 of  the  greatest  men  of  whom  the  church  can  boast. 
 His  deep  mind,  his  noble  heart,  his  invincible  courage, 
 his  living  faith,  his  unbounded  benevolence,  sincere 
 humility,  loftv  eloquence,  and  strictly  virtuous  life, 
 gained  the  honour  and  love  of  all.  His  writings  are 
 en  polemical,  historical,  and  moral  subjects.  The  po- 
 lemical treat  chiefly  of  the  mysterious  doctrines  of  the 
 Trinity,  the  incarnation  of  Christ,  and  the  divinity  of 
 the  Holy  Spirit.  Tiie  historical  ones  are  of  the  great- 
 est importance  for  the  history  of  the  church.  In  all  his 
 writings,  the  style  is  distinguished,  considering  the  age 
 in  which  they  were  produced,  for  clearness  and  mod- 
 eration. His  apology,  addressed  to  the  Emperor  Con- 
 stantino, is  a  master  piece.  The  Creed  which  bears 
 his  name  is  now  generally  allowed  not  to  have  been 
 his.  Dr.  Waterland  supposes  it  was  made  by  Hilary, 
 bishop  of  Aries.  It  was  first  printed  in  Greek  in  1540, 
 and  several  times  afterward  to  1G71.  It  has  been 
 questioned  whether  this  Creed  was  ever  received  by 
 the  Greek  and  Oriental  churches.  In  America,  the 
 episcopal  church  has  rejected  it.  As  to  its  matter,  it 
 is  given  as  a  summary  of  the  true  orthodox  faith  :  un- 
 happily, however,  it  has  proved  a  fruitful  source  of  un- 
 y)rofitable  controversy. — The  best  edition  of  his  works 
 is  that  of  Montfiiucon,  Pans,  1698,  3  vols.  fol.  As  a 
 supplement  to  this  may  be  added  the  second  vol.  of 
 the  Bibliotheca  Patrum.  from  the  sailTC  editor,  1706. 
 (Encyclop.  Arncric  ,  vol    1,  p.  440,  scqq.) 
 
 Athena,  the  name  of  Minerva  among  the  Greeks 
 ('AOrjvu  and  'Adr'/vrj). 
 
 Athene,  I.  the  celebrated  capital  of  Attica,  found- 
 ed, accordmg  to  the  common  account,  by  Cecrops, 
 IS.'iO  B.C.  The  town  was  first  erected  on  the  sum- 
 mit of  a  high  rock,  probably  as  a  protection  against  at- 
 tacks from  the  sea.  The  primitive  name  of  this  early 
 settlement  was  Cranae.  from  Cranaus,  as  is  said,  from 
 whom  the  Pelasgi  took  the  name  of  Cranai,  and  all 
 Attica  that  of  Crauae.     At  a  later  period  it  was  called 
 
ATHENE. 
 
 ATHENE. 
 
 Cecropia,  from  Ceciops  ;  and  finally  Athen.-E  by  Erec- 
 •honius,  from  its  bcitig  under  the  protection  of  Minerva 
 or  Athene  {'kOijvrj).  A  distinction  was  also  made  be- 
 tween the  ancient  city  on  the  rock  and  the  part  subse- 
 quently added  in  the  plain.  The  former,  the  primitive 
 Cecropia,  was  called,  from  its  situation,  ?/  avu  ■ko'Ai^, 
 or  'A.Kj)u~o'?u^,  "  the  upper  city,"  where  afterward 
 stood  the  Parthenon,  and  other  splendid  edifices ; 
 the  buildings  in  the  plain,  where  eventually  Athens 
 itself  stood,  were  termed  ij  kutu  ivoXic,  "the  low- 
 er city."  (Compare,  as  regards  the  various  names 
 given  to  this  citv,  Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Kpavd?]. — 
 Plin.,  7,  56.— A^'wAC,  Hellas,  vol.  2,  p.  77  )— The 
 Acropolis  was  sixty  stadia  in  circumference.  We 
 have  little  or  nd  information  res[)ecting  the  size  of 
 ■Athens  under  its  earliest  kings;  it  is  generally  sup- 
 posed, however,  that,  even  as  late  as  the  time  of  The- 
 seus, the  town  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
 Acropolis  and  the  adjoining  Hill  of  Mars.  Subsequent- 
 ly 10  the  Trojan  war,  it  appears  to  have  been  increased 
 considerably,  both  in  population  and  e.xteiit,  since  Ho- 
 mer applies  to  it  the  epithets  of  evKTt/iEvo^  and  evpv- 
 ujvio^.  The  improvements  continued,  probably,  du- 
 ring the  reign  of  Pisistratus.  and,  as  it  was  able  to 
 etand  a  siege  against  the  Lacedoemonians  under  his  son 
 Hippias,  it  must  evidently  have  possessed  walls  and 
 fortifications  of  sufficient  height  and  strength  to  ensure 
 its  safety.  The  invasion  of  Xer.xes,  and  the  subse- 
 quent irruption  of  Mardonius,  effected  the  entire  de- 
 struction of  the  ancient  city,  and  reduced  it  to  a  heap 
 of  ruins,  with  the  e.xception  only  of  such  temples  and 
 buildings  as  were  enabled,  from  the  solidity  of  materi- 
 als, to  resist  the  action  of  fire  and  the  work  of  demoli- 
 tion. When,  however,  the  battles  of  Salamis,  Plataa, 
 and  Mycale  had  averted  all  danger  of  invasion,  Athens, 
 restored  to  peace  and  security,  soon  rose  frotn  its  state 
 of  ruin  and  desolation  ;  and,  having  been  furnished  by 
 the  prudent  foresight  and  energetic  conduct  of  The- 
 mistoeles  with  the  military  works  requisite  for  its  de- 
 fence, it  attained,  under  the  subsequent  administrations 
 of  Cimon  and  Pericles,  to  the  highest  pilch  of  beauty, 
 magtiificence.  and  strength.  The  former  is  known  to 
 have  erected  the  temple  of  Theseus,  the  Dionysiac 
 theatre,  the  StorB  or  porticoes,  and  Gymnasium,  and 
 also  to  have  embellished  the  Academy,  the  .-\orora,  and 
 other  parts  of  the  city  at  his  own  expense.  (Plul.,  Vit. 
 Cimoii.)  Pericles  completed  the  fortifications  which 
 had  been  left  in  an  unfinished  state  by  Themistocles 
 and  Cimon  ;  he  likewise  built  several  edifices  destroy- 
 ed bv  the  Persians,  and  to  him  his  country  was  in- 
 debted for  the  temple  of  Eleiisis,  the  Parthenon,  and 
 the  Propvlafia,  the  most  magnificent  buildings,  not  of 
 Attica  only,  but  of  the  world.  It  was  in  the  time  of 
 Pericles  that  Athens  attained  the  stimmit  of  its  beauty 
 and  prosperity,  both  with  respect  to  the  power  of  the 
 republic  and  the  extent  and  magnificence  of  the  archi- 
 tectural decorations  with  which  the  capital  was  adorn- 
 ed. .Xt  this  period,  the  whole  of  Athens,  with  its  three 
 pons  of  Piraeus,  Mnnychia,  and  Phalerus,  connected 
 by  means  of  the  celebrated  long  walls,  formed  one  great 
 city,  enclosed  within  a  vast  peribolus  of  massive  forti- 
 fications. The  vvfhole  of  this  circumference,  as  we  col- 
 lect from  Thucydides,  was  not  less  than  124  stadia. 
 Of  these,  forty-three  must  be  allotted  to  the  circuit  of 
 the  city  itself;  the  long  walls,  taken  together,  supply 
 twenty-five,  and  the  remaining  fifty-six  are  furnished 
 by  the  peribolus  of  the  three  harbours.  Xcnophon  re- 
 ports that  Athens  contained  more  than  10.000  houses, 
 which,  at  the  rate  of  twelve  persons  to  a  house,  would 
 give  120,000  for  the  ponulation  of  the  city.  {Xtrn., 
 Mem.,  3,  6,  U.— 7,i  ,  CEnnn.,  8,  22.— Compare  Clin- 
 ton's Fash  Hmemci,  Append,  p  395  )— From  the 
 researches  of  Col.  Leake  and  Mr.  Hawkins,  it  appears 
 that  the  former  city  considerably  exceeded  in  extent 
 the  modern  Athens  ;  and  though  little  now  remains  of 
 the  ancient  works  to  afford  certain  evidence  of  their 
 
 circumference,  it  is  evident,  from  the  measurement  fur- 
 nished by  Thucydides,  that  they  must  have  extended 
 considerably  beyond  the  present  line  of  wall,  especially 
 towards  the  north.  Col.  Leake  is  of  opinion,  that  on 
 this  side  the  extremity  of  the  city  reached  to  the  foot 
 of  Mount  Aiichesmus,  and  that  to  the  westward  its 
 walls  followed  the  same  brook  which  terminates  in  the 
 marshy  ground  of  the  Academy,  until  ihoy  met  the 
 point  where  some  of  the  ancient  foundations  are  still 
 to  be  seen  near  the  gate  Dipylum  ;  while  to  the  east- 
 ward they  approached  close  to  the  Ilissus,  a  lilile  be- 
 low the  present  church  of  the  Mulogiladcs.  or  confes- 
 sors. The  same  antiquary  estimates  the  space  com- 
 prehended within  the  walls  of  Athens,  the  loiigomiiral 
 enclosure  and  the  peribolus  of  the  ports,  to  be  more 
 than  si.xteen  English  miles,  without  reckoning  the  sin- 
 uosities of  the  coast  and  the  ram[)arts  ;  but  if  these 
 are  taken  into  account,  it  could  not  have  been  less 
 than  nineteen  miles.  (Topography  of  Athens,  p. 
 362,  scqq.)  We  know  from  ancient  writers  that  the 
 extent  of  Athens  was  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Koine 
 within  the  walls  of  Servius.  (Diim.  Hid..  4,  p.  (170  ) 
 Plutarch  {Vit.  Nrc.)  compares  it  also  with  that  of  Syra- 
 cuse, which  Strabo  esiiinates  at  180  stadia,  or  up- 
 ward of  twenty-tvio  miles.  The  number  of  gates  be- 
 longing to  ancient  Athens  is  uncertain  ;  hut  the  ex- 
 istence of  nine  has  been  ascertained  by  classical  wri- 
 ters. The  names  of  these  are  Dijiylum  (also  called 
 Thriasis,  Sacra?,  and  perhaps  Ccraniica;),  Dioineiae, 
 Diocharis,  Melitides,  Piraicae,  Acharnica>,  ltoni«,  Hip- 
 pades,  Heriae.  {Cramcr''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  312, 
 scqq)  The  earlv  histo  y  of  Athens  and  its  kings  is 
 blended  with  more  or  less  of  fable.  A  brief  sketch  of 
 the  affairs  of  Attica,  from  the  first  glimpses  of  tradition 
 down  to  the  period  when  Greece  fell  beneath  the 
 Roman  arms,  will  be  found  under  the  article  Cecrops. 
 The  Athenians  have  been  admired  in  all  ages  for  their 
 love  of  liberty,  and  for  the  great  men  that  were  liorn 
 among  them  ;  but  favour  there  was  attended  with  dan- 
 ger ;  and  there  are  very  few  instancf-s  in  the  history 
 of  Athens  that  can  prove  that  the  jealousy  and  fickle- 
 ness of  the  people  did  not  persecute  the  man  who 
 had  fought  their  battles  and  exposed  his  life  in  tlie  de- 
 fence of  his  country.  Perhaps  not  one  single  city  in 
 the  world  can  boast,  in  the  same  space  of  time,  of 
 so  large  a  number  of  illustrious  citizens,  as  regarded 
 either  warlike  operations  or  the  walks  of  civil  life  — 
 The  Athenians  claimed  to  be  of  indigenous  origin,  or, 
 in  other  words,  s|)rung  from  the  earth  itself  Hence 
 they  called  themselves  avroxOnver  I^Aiilorhlhoncs), 
 \  e.,  Aborigines;  and,  as  a  proof  of  their  indigenous 
 origin,  the  early  Athenians  are  said  by  Thucydides 
 (1,  6)  to  have  worn  in  the  hair  of  the  head  golden 
 ornaments,  formed  like  cicadaj,  a  species  of  insect  ne- 
 lieved  to  sjiring  from  the  earth.  'I'he  custom  only 
 went  entirely  out  of  use  a  short  time  previous  to  the 
 age  of  the  historian.  The  Romans,  in  the  more  jjol- 
 ished  ages  of  their  republic,  sent  their  youths  to  finish 
 their  education  at  .Athens,  and  respected  the  learning, 
 while  they  despised  the  military  character,  of  the  inhab- 
 itants.—  Modern  Athens,  in  Lirudm,  a  few  years  ago 
 contained  1300  houses  and  12,000  inhabitants,  2000 
 of  whom  were  Turks.  7'he  Greeks  here  experienced 
 from  the  Turks  a  milder  government  than  elsewhere. 
 They  also  retained  soinc  remains  of  their  ancient  cus- 
 toms, and  annually  chose  four  archons.  The  Greek 
 archbishop  residing  here  had  a  considerable  income. 
 In  1822,  the  Acropolis,  after  a  long  siege,  fell  into  the 
 hands  of  the  free  (ireeks.  In  1825.  aGreck  school, 
 under  the  care  of  the  patriot  professor,  George  Gen- 
 nadios,  was  in  a  flourishing  condition.  The  most 
 thorough  investigation  of  the  places  among  the  ruins 
 of  Athens  worthy  of  attention,  is  contained  in  Leake's 
 Toposraphy  of  Athens  (London,  1821,  with  an  atlas 
 in  foiio).  "The  splendid  work  of  Stuart  and  Revctt 
 {Antiquities  of  Athens)  must  also  be  consulted.    Leake 
 
ATHEN.E. 
 
 A  T  II 
 
 makes  it  appear  probable,  that,  in  the  time  of  Pausa- 
 nias,  many  monuments  were  extant  which  belonged 
 to  the  period  before  the  Persian  war  ;  because  so  tran- 
 sitory a  possession  as  Xerxes  had  of  the  city  scarcely 
 gave  him  time  to  finish  the  destruction  of  the  walls 
 and  principal  public  edifices.  In  the  restoration  of  the 
 city  to  its  former  state,  Themistocles  looked  more  to 
 the  nseful,  Cimon  to  magnificence  and  splendour ; 
 and  Pericles  far  surpassed  them  both  in  his  buildings. 
 The  great  supply  of  money  which  he  had  from  the 
 tribute  of  the  other  states  belonged  to  no  succeeding 
 ruler.  Athens,  at  length,  saw  much  of  her  ancient 
 splendour  restored  ;  but,  unluckily,  Attica  was  not  an 
 island  ;  and,  after  the  sources  of  power,  which  be- 
 longed to  the  fruitful  and  extensive  country  of  Mace- 
 donia, were  developed  by  an  able  and  enlightened 
 prince,  the  opposing  interests  of  many  free  states 
 could  not  long  withstand  the  disciplined  army  of  a 
 warlike  people,  led  by  an  active,  able,  and  ambitious 
 monarch.  When  Sylla  destroyed  the  works  of  the 
 PirKus,  the  power  of  Athens  by  sea  was  at  an  end, 
 and  with  that  fell  the  whole  city.  Flattered  by  the 
 triumvirate,  favoured  by  Hadrian's  love  of  the  arts, 
 Athens  was  at  no  time  so  splendid  as  under  the  Anto- 
 nines,  when  the  magnificent  works  of  from  eight  to 
 ten  centuries  stood  in  view,  and  the  edifices  of  Peri- 
 cles were  in  equal  preservation  with  the  new  build- 
 ings. Plutarch  himself  wonders  how  the  structures 
 of  Ictinus,  of  Menesicles  and  Phidias,  which  were 
 built  with  such  surprising  rapidity,  could  retain  such  a 
 perpetual  freshness.  The  most  correct  criticism  on 
 the  accounts  of  Greece  by  Pausanias  and  Strabo  is 
 in  Leake.  Probably  Pausanias  saw  Greece  yet  un- 
 plundered.  The  Romans,  from  a  reverence  towards 
 a  religion  approaching  so  nearly  to  their  own,  and 
 wishing  to  conciliate  a  people  more  cultivated  than 
 themselves,  were  ashamed  to  rob  temples  where  the 
 master-pieces  of  art  were  kept  as  sacred,  and  were  sat- 
 isfied with  a  tribute  in  money,  although  in  Sicily  they 
 did  not  abstain  from  the  plunder  of  the  temples,  on 
 account  of  the  prevalence  of  the  Carthaginian  and 
 Phcenician  influence  in  the  island.  Pictures,  even  in 
 the  time  of  Pausanias,  may  have  been  left  in  their 
 places.  The  wholesale  robberies  of  collectors  ;  the 
 removal  of  great  quantities  of  the  works  of  art  to  Con- 
 stantinople, when  the  creation  of  new  specimens  was 
 no  longer  possible ;  Christian  zeal,  and  the  attacks  of 
 barbarians,  destroyed,  after  a  time,  in  Athens,  what 
 the  emperors  had  spared.  We  have  reason  to  think, 
 that  the  colossal  statue  of  Minerva  Promachos  was 
 standing  in  the  time  of  Alaric.  About  420  AD.  pa- 
 ganism was  totally  annihilated  at  Athens  ;  and,  when 
 Justinian  closed  even  the  schools  of  the  philosophers, 
 the  recollections  of  the  mythology  were  lost.  The 
 Parthenon  was  turned  into  a  church  of  the  Virgin 
 Mary,  and  St.  George  stepped  into  the  place  of  The- 
 seus. The  manufacture  of  silk,  which  had  hitherto 
 remained,  was  destroyed  by  the  transportation  of  a 
 colony  of  weavers,  by  Roger  of  Sicily  ;  and  in  1456 
 the  place  fell  into  the  hands  of  Omar.  To  complete 
 its  degradation,  the  city  of  Minerva  obtained  the  privi- 
 lege (an  enviable  one  in  the  East)  of  being  governed 
 by  a  black  eunuch  as  an  appendage  to  the  harem. 
 The  Parthenon  became  a  mosque,  and,  at  the  west 
 end  of  the  Acropolis,  those  alterations  were  com- 
 menced which  the  new  discovery  of  artillery  then 
 made  necessary.  In  1687,  at  the  siege  of  Athens  by 
 the  Venetians  under  Morosini,  it  appears  that  the  tem- 
 ple of  Victory  was  destroyed,  the  beautiful  remains  of 
 which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum.  On  the 
 28th  September  of  this  year,  a  bomb  fired  the  powder- 
 magazine  kept  by  the  Turks  in  the  Parthenon,  and, 
 with  this  building,  destroyed  the  ever-memorable  re- 
 mains of  the  genius  of  Phidias.  Probably  the  Vene- 
 tians knew  not  what  they  destroyed ;  they  could  not 
 have  intended  that  their  artillery  should  accomplish 
 224 
 
 such  devastation.  The  city  was  surrendered  to  them 
 September  29th.  They  wished  to  send  the  chariot  of 
 Victory,  which  stood  on  the  west  pediment  of  the 
 Parthenon,  to  Venice,  as  a  trophy  of  their  conquest ; 
 but,  in  removing  it,  it  fell  and  was  dashed  to  pieces. 
 In  April,  1688,  Athens  was  agam  surrendered  to  the 
 Turks,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  inhabitants, 
 who,  with  good  reason,  feared  the  revenge  of  their 
 returning  masters.  Learned  travellers  have,  since  that 
 time,  often  visted  Athens  ;  and  we  may  thank  their 
 relations  and  drawings  for  the  knowledge  which  we 
 have  of  the  monuments  of  the  place.  How  little  the 
 Greeks  of  modern  times  have  understood  the  impor- 
 tance of  these  buildings,  is  proved  by  Crusius's  Turko- 
 Gracia.  From  them  originated  the  names  Temple  of 
 the  iiyiknown  God,  Lantern  of  Demosthenes,  &c.  It 
 is  doing  injustice  to  the  Turks  to  attribute  to  them 
 e.xclusively  the  crime  of  destroying  these  remains  of 
 antiquity.  From  these  ruins  the  Greeks  have  sup- 
 plied themselves  with  all  their  materials  for  buildings 
 for  hundreds  of  years.  The  ruins  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  inhabited  places  and  in  the  seaport  towns 
 are  particularly  exposed,  because  ease  of  transportation 
 is  added  to  the  daily  want  of  materials.  In  the  mean 
 time,  the  most  accessible  part  of  Athens  has  rich 
 treasures  to  reward  well-directed  searches  ;  and  each 
 fragment  which  comes  to  light  in  Athens  proves  the 
 all-pervading  art  and  taste  of  the  ancient  race.  It  is 
 fortunate  that  many  of  the  remains  of  Grecian  art  have 
 been  covered  by  barbarous  structures  until  a  brighter 
 day  should  dawn  on  Greece.  (Encyclop.  Americ, 
 vol.  1,  p.  44.5,  seqq.)  For  an  accurate  and  interest- 
 ing account  of  the  various  works  that  have  been  pub- 
 lished in  modern  times,  illustrative  of  the  remains  of 
 Grecian  art,  as  well  as  of  the  numerous  travellers  that 
 have  visited  these  classic  regions,  consult  Krusr^s  Hel- 
 las, vol.  1,  p.  65-1.56.  In  this  work  also  will  be  found 
 an  account  of  Lord  Elgin's  operations.  For  remarks 
 on  the  coinage  and  commerce  of  Athens,  ■!;;>/.  Mina  and 
 Pirajus,  and  for  some  account  of  its  public  structures, 
 consult  the  separate  articles  throughout  the  volume, 
 such  as  Parthenon,  Erechtheum,  &c. — II.  A  town  of 
 Euboea,  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  island,  and 
 near  the  promontory  of  Cenreum.  It  was  founded, 
 according  to  Strabo,  by  an  Athenian  colony,  but,  ac- 
 cording to  Ephorus,  by  Dias,  a  son  of  Abas.  {Stcph. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  'kdfjvai. — Euslath.,  ad  II.,  2,  537.)  The 
 modern  name  is  Port  Calos. — III.  An  ancient  city, 
 which,  according  to  tradition,  stood  at  an  early  period, 
 along  with  another  named  Eleusis,  near  the  spot 
 where  the  town  of  Copas  was  erected  at  a  later  day. 
 Athens  was  situate  on  the  river  Triton,  which,  if  it  is 
 the  torrent  noticed  by  Pausanias,  was  near  Alalco- 
 menae.  {Strab.,  407. — Pausan.,  9,  24.)  Stephanus 
 of  Byzantium  reports  that,  when  Crates  drained  the 
 waters  which  had  overspread  the  plains,  the  ruins  of 
 Athenae  became  visible  {s.  v.  'AdF/vai).  Some  wri- 
 ters asserted,  that  it  occupied  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 Orchomenus.  {Strab.,  I.  c. — Stcph.  Byz.,  I.  c.)  The 
 existence  of  such  a  city,  at  so  remote  a  date,  might 
 form  the  basis  of  no  uninteresting  theory  respecting 
 the  early  migrations  of  the  people  of  Attica  from  the 
 north.     (Compare  Miillcr,  Orchomrnus,^.  58.) 
 
 Atiien^.v,  festivals  celebrated  at  Athens  in  hon- 
 our of  Minerva.  One  of  them  was  called  PanalhcjicEa, 
 and  the  other  Chalcca  •  for  an  account  of  which,  see 
 those  words. 
 
 Athen^um,  a  building  at  Athens,  sacred  to  Miner- 
 va, whence  its  name  {' AOTjvalov,  from  ''h.Ofjvrj).  Here 
 poets,  philosophers,  and  literary  men  in  general  were 
 accustomed  to  assemble  and  recite  their  compositions, 
 or  engage  in  the  discussion  of  literai»y  subjects,  as  the 
 Roman  poets  and  others  were  wont  to  do  in  the  tem- 
 ple of  Apollo  at  Rome.  The  Emperor  Hadrian  built 
 an  Athenaeum  at  Rome  in  imitation  of  that  at  Athens. 
 The  ancient  Athenasa  were  generally  in  the  form  of 
 
ATHEN^US. 
 
 ATHEN^US. 
 
 amphitheatres.  {Lamprid.,  in  Alex.  Sev.,  c.  35. — 
 Aurel.  Vir.t.,  de  Cess.,  c.  14. — Forcellini,  Lex.  Tot. 
 Laf.,  s.  V  ) 
 
 Athkn^os,  I.  a  native  of  Naucratis  in  Egypt,  and 
 the  author  of  a  very  interesting  compilation,  entitled 
 Deipnosophislce  {i^enrvoaoipiaTai,  "  the   learned  men 
 at  supper''),  from  which  the  moderns  have  derived  a 
 large  portion  of  their  knowledge  respecting  the  private 
 life  of  the  ancient  Greeks.     He  declares  himself  to 
 have  been  a  little  later  than  the  poet  Oppian  ;   and,  as 
 that  writer  dedicates  his  Halieutics  to   the  Emperor 
 Caracalla,  the  age  of  Athenasas  may  be  fi.xed   at  the 
 beginning  of  the  third  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
 The  professed  object  of  Athenseus  was  to  detail  to  his 
 contemporaries  the  convivial  antiquities  of  their  an- 
 cestors, and  he  has  chosen  to  convey  his  information 
 in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  as  the  most  convenient  and 
 amusing.     The  plan  of  the  work  is  as  follows  :   A  con- 
 siderable number  of  learned  men,  among  whom  we  find 
 the  celebrated  Galen,  assemble  at  the  table  of  La- 
 rensius,  a  liberal  and  wealthy  Roman,  where  they  be- 
 stow as  large  a  portion  of  erudition  on  every  part  of 
 their  entertainment  as  the  memory  or  commonplace- 
 book  of  the  author  could  supply.     So  much  of  the 
 business  of  human  life  is  connected,  mediately  or  im- 
 mediately, with  eating  and  drinking,  that  it  does  not 
 require  any  great  share  of  ingenuity  to  introduce  into 
 a  work  of  so  miscellaneous  a  nature  much  useful  and 
 curious  information,  which,  at  first  sight,  does  not  ap- 
 pear to  be  very  closely  connected  with  the  science 
 of  cookery.     "  Accordingly,"  says  the  author  of  the 
 Epitome,  "  we  find  disquisitions  on  fish  of  every  sort, 
 together  with  potherbs  and  poultry  ;  not  to  mention 
 historians,  poets,  and  philosophers  ;  likewise  a  great 
 variety   of  musical   instruments,    witty    sayings,   and 
 drinking  vessels  ;  royal   magnificence,  ships  of  prodi- 
 gious magnitude,  and  many  other  articles  too  tedious 
 to   mention."     Although   this    kind  of   conversation 
 bears  no  very  strong  resemblance  to  the  dying  specu- 
 lations of  Socrates  on  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  our 
 author  has  selected  the  Phaedo  of  Plato  for  his  proto- 
 type, and  has  borrowed  the  beginning  of  that  dialogue, 
 with   no   alteration,   e.tcept    the   substitution    of   the 
 names  of  Timocrates  and  Athenceus  for  those  of  Ech- 
 ecrates  and  Phaedo.     A  strong  objection  to  the  dra- 
 matic form  which  the  work  assumes,  arises  from  the 
 impossibility  of  collecting  the  productions  of  all  the 
 different  seasons  at  one  banquet.     The  author  seems 
 to  suppose,  that  an  astonished  fishmonger  might  ex- 
 claim, in  the  words  of  Theocritus,  'AAAa  ru  fiev  -dip- 
 eof,  Tu  61  jiyvETai  tv  x^^jmuvl.     The  loss  of  the  two 
 first  books  renders  us  unable  to  judge  how  far  he  was 
 able  to  palliate   this  palpable   absurdity.     The  most 
 valuable  part  of  the  work  is  the  large  (quantity  of  quo- 
 tations which  it  presents  from  authors  whose  writings 
 no   longer    exist.      The    Athenian    comic    poets    af- 
 forded  an   ample   store   of  materials,    and    Athenseus 
 seems  to  have  been  by  no  means  sparing  in  the  use 
 of  them.     Many   of  the    extracts  from  their  works, 
 vk'hich  he  has  inserted  in   his  own,  are   highly  inter- 
 esting ;  and  the  mass   is  so   considerable,  as  far  to 
 exceed  in  bulk  all  that  can  be  collected  from  every 
 othei  Greek  or  Latin  writer.     The  number  of  theatri- 
 cal pieces  which  he  appears  to  have   consulted,  was 
 probably  not  less  than  two  thousand.      The   middle 
 comedy  furnished  him  with  eight  hundred. — The  com- 
 pilation of  Athenseus  immediately  became  the  prey  of 
 other  compilers  less  diligent  than  himself     .Elian,  who 
 was  nearly  his  contemporary,  has  made  use  very  lib- 
 erally of  the  Dcipnosophists  in  his  Various  History.     In 
 a  laicr  age  we  find  our  author  again  pillaged  by  Ma- 
 crobius,  who  seems  to  have  taken  from  him  not  only 
 many  of  the  materials,  but  even  the  form  and  idea, 
 of  his   Saturnalia.      But  of  all  writers,  ancient  or 
 modern,  there  is   none  who  is  so  highly  indebted  to 
 Athenceus  as  the  industrious  Eustathius.     Although 
 
 r  F 
 
 the  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica  appears  never  to  have 
 seen  the  entire  work,  but  to  have  made  use  of  the  Epit- 
 ome, the  stores  of  his  erudition  would  be  miserably 
 reduced  if  he  were  compelled  to  make  restitution  of 
 the  property  of  our  author  which  he  has  converted  to 
 his  own  benefit. —  By  the  same  fortunate  accident 
 which  has  preserved  a  few  of  the  writings  of  the  an- 
 cients, a  single  copy  of  Athenaeus  appears  to  have  es- 
 caped from  the  ravages  of  time,  ignorance,  and  fanat- 
 icism. That  MS.  still  exists.  After  the  death  of  Car- 
 dinal Bessarion,  who  probably  brought  it  from  Greece, 
 it  passed  into  the  library  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice.  In 
 this  sepulchre  of  books  it  would  certainly  have  contin- 
 ued for  many  ages,  unknown  to  the  learned,  if  the 
 French  successes  had  not  caused  it  to  be  included  in 
 the  valuable  spoils  of  Italy,  which,  until  lately,  enriched 
 the  national  collection  of  Paris.  Many  transcripts  of 
 this  manuscript  exist  in  different  parts  of  Europe, 
 which  were  probably  made  while  it  was  in  the  posses- 
 sion of  Cardinal  Bessarion.  All  of  them  betray  their 
 origin,  as,  besides  their  coincidence  in  orthographical 
 errors,  the  same  parts  are  wanting  in  all  of  them.  The 
 two  first  books,  the  beginning  of  the  third,  a  few  leaves 
 in  the  eleventh,  and  part  of  two  leaves  in  the  fifteenth, 
 are  wanting  in  the  Venetian  manuscript,  and  the  defi- 
 ciency appears  evidently  to  have  proceeded  from  acci- 
 dent. The  same  lacuna  occur  in  every  other  manu- 
 script, but  are  exhibited  in  a  manner  which  shows  the 
 cause  to  have  existed  in  the  copy  from  which  they 
 were  transcribed.  Fortunately  for  Athenaeus,  the  in- 
 tegrity of  his  work  is  in  some  measure  preserved  by 
 an  epitome  of  the  whole,  which  has  been  transmitted 
 to  us  without  defalcation.  This  abridgment,  if  it  may 
 be  called  so,  is  nearly  as  bulky  as  the  original  work. 
 The  age  of  it  is  uncertain.  It  is  executed  in  a  careless 
 manner  ;  and  the  copy  which  the  writer  had  before  his 
 eyes  appears  to  have  suffered  so  much  from  time  or 
 accident,  that  he  frequently  breaks  off  in  the  middle  of 
 an  extract,  and  declares  his  inability  to  decipher  the 
 remainder.  From  these  sources  our  editions  are  de- 
 rived ;  and  it  will  easily  be  seen  that,  where  the  ori- 
 ginal copies  are  so  few  and  so  faulty,  conjectural 
 emendation  will  find  ample  scope  to  display  its  powers, 
 — The  best  editions  of  Athensus  are  those  of  Casau- 
 bon,  Schweighaeuser,  and  Dindorff.  Of  the  edition  ol 
 Casaubon  there  arc  three  different  impressions,  in  the 
 years  1597,  1612,  and  1664,  which  do  not  differ  con- 
 siderably from  each  other.  To  these  editions  is  an- 
 nexed the  Latin  translation  of  James  Dalechamp  of 
 Caen,  which  was  first  printed  by  itself  in  1583.  The 
 Greek  text  is  much  more  perfect  and  accurate  than 
 in  the  preceding  editions  ;  as  in  the  long  interval  which 
 had  elapsed  between  the  edition  published  at  Basle 
 and  the  first  of  Casaubon's,  many  new  transcripts 
 had  been  discovered,  and  much  labour  had  been  be- 
 stowed on  Athenaeus  by  some  of  the  most  celebrated 
 scholars  of  that  age.  The  most  valuable  part  of  the 
 edition  of  Casaubon  is  his  celebrated  commentary 
 which  constitutes  a  folio  of  no  inconsiderable  magni- 
 tude. The  edition  of  Athenaeus  by  Schweighaeuser 
 was  published  at  Strasburg  {Argcntorali)  in  1801- 
 1807,  and  consists  of  14  vols.  8vo.  The  text  occupies 
 5  vols.,  and  the  remaining  nine  contain  the  comment- 
 aries and  indexes.  This  commentary  is  made  up  of  a 
 large  portion  of  the  notes  of  Casaubon,  together  with 
 others  by  Schweighaeuser  himself  The  greatest 
 advantage  which  th'Is  editor  enjoyed  was  the  collation 
 of  the  Venetian  manuscript.  This  was  performed  by 
 his  son.  The  least  commendable  part  of  the  work  is 
 the  critical  observations,  in  which  Schweighaeuser's 
 little  acquaintance  with  Greek  metre  exposes  him  to 
 many  mistakes.  The  edition,  however,  is  extremely 
 valuable.  Dindorff's  edition  is  m  5  vols.  8vo  Lifs., 
 1827.  {Elmslcy,  in  Edinburgh  Review,  vol.  3,  p 
 181,  seqq.)  —  U.  A  contemporary  of  Archimedes 
 His  native  country  is  not  known.     He  has  left  a  trea 
 
ATH 
 
 ATI 
 
 tise  on  Machines  of  War  {rcepl  MTJXdVTj/j.aTuv),  ad- 
 dressed to  Marcellus.  This  Marcellus  is  generally 
 supposed  to  be  the  same  with  the  conqueror  of  Syra- 
 cuse. Schweighaeuser,  however,  is  of  a  different  opin- 
 ion (ad  Athen.,  vol.  1,  p.  637).  His  work  is  con- 
 tained in  the  collection  of  Thevenot.  {Sch'oll,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  367.) — III.  A  celebrated  physician, 
 born  at  Attalia  in  Pamphylia,  and  who  flourished  at 
 Rome  50  A.D.  He  separated  the  Materia  Medica 
 from  Therapeutics.  He  treated  also,\vith  great  care,of 
 Dietetics.  Of  his  numerous  writings  only  a  few  chap- 
 ters remain  in  the  collection  of  Oribasus.  {Schbll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  343.) 
 
 AthenagSras,  a  Platonising  father  of  the  church, 
 the  author  of  an  "  Apology  for  Christians,"  and  of  a 
 treatise  "On  the  Resurrection  of  the  Body."  It  appears 
 from  his  writings  that  he  was  a  native  of  Athens,  and 
 that  he  passed  his  youth  among  the  philosophers  of  his 
 time.  He  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  second 
 century.  After  he  became  a  convert  to  Christianity, 
 he  stili  retained  the  name  and  habit  of  a  philosopher, 
 probably  in  expectation  of  gaining  greater  credit  to  the 
 Christian  doctrine  among  the  unconverted  heathen. 
 In  his  Apology  he  judiciously  explains  the  notions  of 
 ■the  Stoics  and  Peripatetics  concerning  God  and  divine 
 things,  and  exposes  with  great  accuracy  and  strength 
 of  reasoning  their  respective  errors.  He  frequently 
 supports  his  arguments  by  the  authority  of  Plato,  and 
 discovers  much  partiality  for  his  system.  In  what  he 
 advances  concerning  God,  and  the  Logos  or  Divine 
 Reason,  he  evidently  mixes  the  dogmas  of  paganism 
 with  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  His  two  works  are 
 contained  in  the  editions  of  the  Greek  fathers  by 
 OberthiJr  (Wurceb.,  1777,  vol.  3)  and  Gallaud  (vol. 
 2,  p.  3).  There  are  also  separate  editions  of  each, 
 and  Latin,  French,  Italian,  and  English  translations, 
 to  say  nothing  of  numerous  works  illustrating  his  wri- 
 tings. (Consult  Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bif/L,  vol.  1,  p.  427, 
 seqq.) — The  romance  of  Theagenes  and  Charis  is  er- 
 roneously ascribed  to  him.  This  romance  was  the 
 production  of  a  Frenchman  named  Martin  Fumee.  It 
 was  published  in  1599  and  1612,  in  French,  and  pur- 
 ported to  be  a  translation  from  a  Greek  manuscript 
 brought  from  the  East.  No  such  manuscript  ever  ex- 
 isted.    (Fabric,  Bibl.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p.  800,  seqq) 
 
 Athenion,  I.  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  108  B.C. 
 — II.  A  painter,  born  at  Maronea,  and  who  flourished 
 about  300  B  C.  Pliny  enumerates  several  of  his  pro- 
 ductions, and  adds,  that,  had  he  not  died  young,  he 
 would  have  stood  at  the  head  of  his  profession  (35,  11). 
 
 AxHENonoRUs,  I.  a  philosopher,  born  at  Cana,  near 
 Tarsus  in  Cilicia.  He  lived  at  Rome,  in  the  reign  of 
 Augustus,  and,  on  account  of  his  learning,  wisdom, 
 and  moderation,  was  highly  esteemed  by  that  emperor. 
 His  opinion  and  advice  had  great  weight  with  the  mon- 
 arch, and  are  said  to  have  led  him  into  a  milder  plan 
 of  government  than  he  had  at  first  adopted.  Athenodo- 
 rus  obtained,  for  the  inhabitants  of  Tarsus,  relief  from 
 a  part  of  the  burden  of  taxes  which  had  been  imposed 
 upon  them,  and  was  on  this  account  honoured  with  an 
 annual  festival.  He  was  intrusted  by  Augustus  with 
 tlie  education  of  the  young  prince  Claudius  ;  and,  that 
 he  might  the  more  successfully  execute  his  charge,  his 
 illustrious  pupil  became  for  a  while  a  resident  at  his 
 house.  This  philosopher  retired  in  his  old  age  to  Tar- 
 sus, where  he  died  in  his  82d  year.  (Fabric,  Bibl. 
 Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  Z^\.  —  Zosim.,  1,  Q.  —  Siiet.,  Vit. 
 Claud.,  c.  4:.—E7ifi.eld\-i  Hist.  Philos.,  vol.  2,  p.  109.) 
 — II.  A  stoic  philosopher,  a  native  of  Pergamus  ac- 
 cording to  some,  but,  more  correctly,  of  Tarsus.  He 
 was  surnamed  Cordylion  (KopSvliuv),  and  was  inti- 
 mate with  Cato  the  younger  (Uticensis).  Cato  made 
 a  voyage  to  Pergamus  expressly  to  see  him,  and 
 brought  him  back  with  him  to  Rome.  He  died  at 
 Cato's  house.  (Slrabo,  673.)  —  III.  An  Arcadian 
 statuary,  mentioned  by  Pliny  (34,  8)  as  one  of  the 
 226 
 
 pupils  of  Polycletus,  and  as  having  made,  with  gret 
 success,  the  statues  of  some  distinguished  females. 
 (SilUg,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.)  —  IV.  A  sculptor,  who, 
 in  connexion  with  Agcsander  and  Polydorus,  made 
 the  celebrated  Laocoon  group.  (SiUig,  Diet.  Art., 
 s.  V.) 
 
 Atherbal.      Vid.  Adherbal. 
 
 Athesis,  a  river  of  Venetia,  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  ri- 
 sing in  the  mountains  of  the  Tyrol  (Rhatian  Alps), 
 and,  after  a  course  of  nearly  two  hundred  miles,  dis- 
 charging its  waters  into  the  Adriatic.  It  is  now  the 
 Adige.,  and,  next  to  the  Po,  must  be  looked  upon  as 
 the  most  considerable  stream  of  Italy.  (Virg.,  Mn., 
 9,  679,  seqq.) 
 
 Athos,  a  mountain  in  the  district  Chalcidice  of 
 Macedonia.  It  is  situate  on  a  peninsula  between  the 
 Sinus  Strymonicus,  or  Gulf  of  CotUessa,  and  the  Sinus 
 Singiticus,  or  Gulf  of  Monte  Santo.  It  is  so  high 
 that,  according  to  Plutarch  and  Pliny,  it  projected  its 
 shadow  at  the  summer  solstice  on  the  marketplace  of 
 Myrina,  the  capital  city  of  the  island  of  Lemnos, 
 though  at  the  distance  of  87  miles.  On  this  account 
 a  brazen  cow  was  erected  at  the  termination  of  the 
 shadow,  with  this  inscription, 
 
 'AduQ  KaXvTTTei  nXevpa  Krjiiviac  jiooq. 
 
 Strabo  reports  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountain 
 saw  the  sun  rise  three  hours  before  those  who  lived  on 
 the  shore  at  its  base.  (Epit.,  7,  p.  331  )  Pliny, 
 however,  greatly  exaggerates,  when  he  affirms  that 
 Athos  extends  into  the  sea  for  seventy-five  miles,  and 
 that  its  base  occupies  a  circumference  of  one  hundred 
 and  fifty  miles  (4, 10).  Strabo  says  the  circumnavigation 
 of  the  whole  peninsula  was  four  hundred  stadia,  or  fifty 
 miles.  (Epit.,  7,  p.  331.)  When  Xerxes  invaded 
 Greece,  he  cut  a  canal  through  the  peninsula  of  Athos, 
 in  order  to  avoid  the  danger  of  doubling  the  promon- 
 tory, the  fleet  of  Mardonius  having  previously  sustained 
 a  severe  loss  in  passing  around  it.  This  canal  was 
 made  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cities  Acanthus  and  Sana. 
 (Vid.  Acanthus.) — The  architect  Dinocrates  offered 
 unto  Alexander  the  Great  to  cut  Mount  Athos  into  a 
 statue  of  the  king,  holding  in  its  left  hand  a  city,  and 
 in  its  right  a  basin  to  receive  all  the  waters  that  flowed 
 from  the  mountain.  The  monarch,  however,  declined 
 the  offer,  on  the  ground  of  their  being  no  fields  around 
 to  furnish  supplies,  which  would  have  to  come  entirely 
 by  sea.     (Vitruv.,  Praf,  lib.  2.) 
 
 Atia  lex,  a  law  enacted  A.U.C.  690,  by  T.  Atius 
 Labienus,  a  tribune  of  the  commons.  It  repealed  the 
 Cornelian  law,  and  restored  the  Domitian,  which  gave 
 the  election  of  priests  to  the  people,  not  to  the  colleges. 
 (Dio  Cass.,  37,  37.) 
 
 Atilia  lex,  1.  gave  the  praetor  and  a  majority  of 
 the  tribunes  power  of  appointing  guardians  to  orphans 
 and  women.  It  was  enacted  A.U.C.  443. — II.  An- 
 other, which  ordained  that  sixteen  military  tribunes 
 should  be  created  by  the  people  for  four  legions ;  that 
 is,  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number.  (Adams,  Rom. 
 Ant.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Atisa,  I.  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  theVoI- 
 sci.  It  was  situate  to  the  southeast  of  Arpinum,  and 
 near  the  source  of  the  river  Melfa.  If  we  are  to  credit 
 Vircfil  (jEh.,  7,  629),  it  was  a  considerable  town  as 
 earlv  as  the  Trojan  war.  We  learn  from  Cicero  (pro 
 Plane),  that  Atina  was  in  his  time  a  praefeclura,  and 
 one  of  the  most  populous  and  distinguished  in  Italy. 
 Frontinus  says  it  was  colonized  during  the  reign  of 
 Nero.  The  modern  name  is  Atino. — II.  A  town  of 
 Lucania,  not  far  from  the  Tanager.  Several  inscrip- 
 tions and  many  remains  of  walls  and  buildings,  prove 
 that  it  was  no  inconsiderable  place.  (Romaiielli,  vol. 
 1,  p.  438.)  The  modern  name  is  Atena.  (Cramer's 
 Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  378.) 
 
 Atinia  lex,  was  enacted  by  the  tribune  Atinius, 
 A.U.C.  623.     It  gave  a  tribune  of  the  people  the  priv- 
 
ATLANTIS. 
 
 ATLANTIS. 
 
 ileges  of  a  senator,  and  the  right  of  sitting  in  the  sen- 
 ate.    {Aul.  Gel,  14,  8.) 
 
 Atlantes,  a  people  of  Africa,  the  more  correct 
 name  of  whom  was  Atarantes.     {Vid.  Atarantes.) 
 
 Atlantiadks,  a  patronymic  of  Mercury,  as  grand- 
 son of  Atlas.     {Ocid,  Met.,  1,  639.) 
 
 Atlantides,  a  name  given  to  the  daughters  of  At- 
 las. They  were  divided  into  the  Hyades  and  Plei- 
 ades.    {Vid.  Atlas,  Hyades,  and  Pleiades.) 
 
 Atlantis,  a  celebrated   island,  supposed  to  have 
 existed  at  a  very  early  period  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
 and  to  have  been  eventually  sunk  beneath  its  waves. 
 Plato  is  the  first  that  gives  an  account  of  it,  and  he 
 obtained  his   information  from  the  priests  of  Egypt. 
 {I'lat.,  TimiEUS,  p.  24,  scqq.,  cd.  B/p.,  vol.  9,  p.  296, 
 seqq. — Id.,  Critias,  p.  108,  seqq.,  cd.  Bip.,\o\.  10,  p. 
 39,  43.)     The  statement  which  he  furnishes  is  as  fol- 
 lows :  In  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  over  against  the  Pillars 
 of  Hercules,  lay  an  island  larger  than  Asia  and  Africa 
 taken  together,  and  in  its  vicmity  were  other  islands, 
 from  which  there  was  a  passage  to  a  large  continent 
 lying  beyond.     The  Mediterranean,  compared  with  the 
 ocean  in  which  these  lands  were  situated,  resembled 
 a  mere  harbour  with  a  narrow  entrance.     Nine  thou- 
 sand years  before  the  time  of  Plato,  this  island  of  At- 
 lantis was  both  thickly  settled  and  very  powerful.     Its 
 sway  extended  over  Africa  as  far  as  Kgypt,  and  over 
 Europe  as  far  as  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea.     The  farther 
 progress   of  its  conquests,  however,  was  checked  by 
 the   Athenians,  who,  partly   with  the   other    Greeks, 
 partly  by   themselves,  succeeded    in   defeating  these 
 powerful  invaders,  the  natives  of  Atlantis.     After  this 
 a  violent  earthquake,  which  lasted  for  the  space  of  a 
 day  and  night,  and  was  accompanied  with  inundations 
 of  the  sea,  caused  the  islands  to  sink,  and,  for  a  long 
 period  subsequent  to  this,  the  sea  in  this  quarter  was 
 impassable,  by  reason  of  the  slime  and  shoals. — Thus 
 much  for  the   narrative   of  Plato.     A   dispute   arose 
 among  the  ancient  philosophers  and  naturalists,  wheth- 
 er this  statement  was  based  upon   reality,  or  was  a 
 mere  creation  of  fancy.      Posidonius  thought  it  wor- 
 thy of  belief     {Stralo,   102. — Epit.,    1,   p.    11,  ed. 
 Huds  )      Pliny  remains    undecided   (2,   92.  —  Com- 
 ])are  Ainmian.  Marccll.,  17,  7. —  Tcrtull.,  de  raliio, 
 ed.    Op.,  Anlvcrp,    1584,   p.    6. — Id.,  Apolog.,   adv. 
 gentes,  p.  82,  c.  40. — Philo,  quod  mund.  sit.  incor- 
 rupt., p.  963).     From  other  writers  we  have  short  no- 
 tices, which  merely  show  how  many  various  interpre- 
 tations were  given  to  the  passage  in  Plato.     {Proclus, 
 ud  Plat.,  Tim.,  p.  24.)     A  certain  Marcellus  related 
 a  similar  tradition  with  that  of  Plato  {sv  rulg  AWlottc- 
 Kolg  ap.  Prod.,  lib.    1,  p.    155).     According  to  this 
 writer  there  were  seven  islands  in  the  x\tlantic  Ocean 
 sacred  to  Proserpina ;  of  these,  three  were  of  a  very 
 large  size,  and  the  inhabitants  had  a  tradition  among 
 them  that  these  were  originally  one  large  island,  which 
 had  ruled  over  all  the  rest. — Nor  have  modern  theo- 
 rists been  inactive  on  this  captivating  subject.     Rud- 
 beck,  with  great  learning,  labours  to  prove  that  the 
 Atlantis  of  the  ancients  was  Sweden,  and  that  the  Ro- 
 mans, Greeks,  English,  Danes,  and  Germans  origina- 
 ted from  Sweden.     His  work,  entitled  Atlantica  {At- 
 land  clicr  Manhcim),  is  in  Latin  and  Swedish,  and  is 
 a  lypocrraphic  rarity.     The  first   edition   appeared  in 
 1075-79,  at  Upsal.     Several  editions  of  it  followed. 
 The  last  Latin  edition  is  of  1699,  and  bears  a  high 
 price.      Written  copies  of  it  are  in  several  European 
 libraries.— Bailly,  well  known  by  his  history  of  As- 
 tronomy, places  Atlantis  and  the 'cradle  of  the  human 
 race  in  the  farthest  regions  of  the  north,  and  seeks  to 
 connect  the  Atlantides  with  the  far-famed  Hyperbo- 
 reans.    {Lcttres  sur  VAtlantide  de   Platon,  &c.,  p. 
 384,  sc(7(/.— Compare  Lcttres  sur  VOrigine  des  Sci- 
 ences, by   the  same.)— Carli  and   others  find  Amer- 
 ica in  the  Atlantis  of  Plato,  and  adduce  many  argu- 
 ments in  support  of  their  assertion.     {Carli,  Lettres 
 
 Americaincs,  French  transl.,  vol.  2,  p.  180,  seqq.) 
 The  advocates  of  this  theory  might  easily  connect  with 
 the  legend  of  the  lost  Atlantis  the  remains  of  a  very  re- 
 mote civilization  that  are  found  at  the  present  day  in 
 Spanish  America.  We  have  there  the  ruins  of  cities, 
 the  style  of  whose  architecture  carries  us  back  to  Pe- 
 lasgic  times,  and  the  religious  symbols  and  ornaments 
 connected  with  which  remind  us  strongly  of  the  phal- 
 lic mysteries  of  antiquity.  Even  the  lotus  flower,  the 
 sacred  emblem  of  India,  may  be  seen  in  the  sculp- 
 tures. (Compare  the  plates  given  by  Del  Rio,  De- 
 scription of  the  Ruins  of  an  Ancient  City  discovered 
 near  Palenquc,  in  Guatemala,  &c..  Loud.,  1822,  4to.) 
 These  curious  remains  of  former  days  are  long  ante- 
 rior to  Mexican  times,  nor  have  they  anything  what- 
 ever to  do  with  Phoenician  settlements,  such  settle- 
 ments on  the  shores  of  America  being  purely  imaginary. 
 In  connexion  with  the  view  just  taken,  we  may  point 
 to  the  peculiar  conformation  of  our  continent,  along 
 the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  everything  in- 
 dicates the  sinking,  at  a  remote  period,  of  a  large 
 tract  of  land,  the  place  of  which  is  now  occupied  by 
 the  waters  of  the  gulf ;  a  sinking  occasioned,  in  all 
 probability,  by  the  sudden  rush  of  a  large  body  of 
 water  down  the  present  valley  of  the  Mississippi. 
 The  mountain  tops  of  this  sunken  land  still  appear  to 
 view  as  the  islands  of  the  West  Indian  group  :  and 
 thus  the  large  continent  lying  beyond  Atlantis  and 
 the  adjacent  islands,  and  to  which  Plato  refers,  may 
 have  been  none  other  than  that  of  America. — We 
 proceed  a  step  farther.  Admitting  that  Atlantis  was 
 situate  in  the  ocean  which  at  present  bears  its  name, 
 it  would  require  no  great  stretch  of  fancy  to  suppose 
 that  the  Canaries,  Madeira  Isles,  and  Azores  once 
 formed  portions  of  it,  and  that  it  even  extended  as  fai 
 as  Newfoundland.  The  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  though 
 so  much  to  the  south,  may  also  be  included.  It  is  cu- 
 rious to  observe  what  quantities  of  seaweed  {fucu.i 
 natans)  are  found  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
 not  only  near  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  but  also  more 
 to  the  northeast,  almost  under  the  meridian  of  the  isles 
 Cuervo  and  Flores,  among  the  Azores,  between  the 
 parallels  of  23°  and  35°  north  latitude.  {Humboldt, 
 Tableaux  de  la  Nature,  vol.  1,  p.  99,  French  transl.) 
 The  ancients  were  acquainted  with  these  collections 
 of  seaweed,  resembling  somewhat  a  vast  inundated 
 meadow.  "  Some  Phoenician  vessels,"  observes  Aris- 
 totle, "  impelled  by  the  east  winds,  reached,  after  a 
 navigation  of  thirty  days,  a  part  of  the  sea  where  the 
 surface  of  the  water  was  covered  with  rushes  and  sea- 
 weed {-^pvov  Koi  0i)/iOf)."  The  passage  occurs  in  the 
 treatise  de  Mirabrlihus,  p.  1157,  ed.  Duval.  Many 
 ascribed  this  abundance  of  seaweed  to  some  cause 
 connected  with  the  submerged  Atlantis.  (Compare 
 Irving's  Columbus,  vol.  1,  p.  133.)  The  quantities 
 of  seaweed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Cape  de  Verd 
 Islands  are  also  alluded  to  by  Scylax  {cd.  Grovov.,  p. 
 126),  if  we  suppose  the  conjecture  of  Ideler  to  be  cor- 
 rect, that  the  Cerne  of  Scylax  is  the  modern  Arguiu. 
 {Humboldt,  Tableaux,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p.  101  )  The  ex- 
 istence of  a  large  island,  at  a  remote  period,  where 
 the  waves  of  the  Atlantic  now  roll,  has  been  regarded 
 by  modern  science  as  visionary  in  the  extreme.  But 
 even  science  herself  can  be  made  to  contribute  data  to- 
 wards this  captivating  theory.  Immediately  below  the 
 chalk  and  green  sand  of  England,  afluviatile  formation, 
 called  the'wealden,  occurs,  which  has  been  ascertain- 
 ed to  extend  from  west  to  east  about  200  English 
 miles,  and  from  northwest  to  southeast  about  220 
 miles,  the  depth  or  total  thickness  of  the  beds,  where 
 greatest,  being  about  2000  feet.  ( Futon's  Geology  of 
 Hastings,  p.  58.)  These  phenomena  clearly  indicate, 
 that  there  was  a  constant  supply  in  that  region,  for  a 
 long  period,  of  a  considerable  body  of  fresh  water, 
 such  as  might  be  supposed  to  have  drained  a  conti- 
 nent or  a  large  island,  containing  within  it  a  lofty  chain 
 ^  227 
 
ATL 
 
 ATLAS. 
 
 of  mountains.  (LycWs  Geology,  vol.  4,  p.  308,  Lond. 
 ed.)  If  Geology  can  furnish  us  with  such  facts  as 
 these,  it  may  surely  bo  pardonable  in  us  to  linger 
 with  something  of  fond  belief  around  the  legend  of 
 Atlantis ;  a  legend  that  could  hardly  be  the  mere  ofT- 
 epring  of  a  poetic  imagination,  but  must  have  had  some 
 foundation  in  truth.  Nor  will  it  appear  surprising  if 
 some  of  the  learned,  in  the  ardour  of  theorizing,  have 
 hctually  constructed  maps  of  the  position  of  this  isl- 
 and. Among  the  number  of  these  we  may  mention 
 Dc  Lisle  and  Bureau  de  la  Malle,  but  more  particu- 
 larly Bory  dc  St.  Vincent,  in  his  Essai  stir  les  Isles 
 Fort,  el  Vantiquc  Atlantide  {Paris,  an  xi.,  4to).  Carli 
 also,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  work,  already  refer- 
 red to,  gives  maps  rej)resenting  what  he  terms  flats  and 
 shallows  {seches  el  has  funds)  between  America  and 
 Africa,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  equator,  and  also  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands.  (Com- 
 pare his  remarks  on  this  subject,  vol.  2,  p.  225,  seqq.) 
 — It  has  been  thought  by  some,  but  very  erroneously, 
 that  the  account  given  in  Diodorus  Siculus  may  have 
 reference  to  some  island,  now  submerged,  of  the  lost 
 Atlantic  group.  This  writer  speaks  of  an  island  sit- 
 uate at  a  distance  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  remark- 
 able for  its  beauty,  to  which  the  Carthaginians  had  re- 
 solved to  transfer  the  seat  of  their  republic  in  case  of 
 any  irreparable  disaster  at  home.  Aristotle  had  already, 
 before  Diodorus,  made  mention  of  a  similar  island,  the 
 charms  of  which  had  attracted  many  of  the  Carthaginians 
 to  it,  until  the  senate  at  home  forbade  any  person  from 
 going  to  it  under  pain  of  death.  {ArisL.,dc  Mirab. ,c.85, 
 ed.  Bcckman.)  The  reference  here,  however,  is  prob- 
 ably to  one  of  the  Canaries. — Before  quitting  this 
 subject,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  give  the  description  of 
 Atlantis,  as  handed  down  to  us  by  the  ancient  writers. 
 Though  a  mere  picture  of  the  imagination,  it  will 
 nevertheless  serve  to  show  the  opinion  entertained  on 
 this  subject  by  the  poetic  minds  of  antiquity.  Ac- 
 cording to  this  account,  the  isle  of  Atlantis  was  one 
 of  the  finest  and  most  productive  countries  in  the  uni- 
 verse. It  produced  abundance  of  wine,  grain,  and  the 
 most  exquisite  fruits.  Here  were  seen  wide-spread 
 forests,  extensive  pasture-grounds,  mines  of  various 
 metals,  hot  and  mineral  springs  ;  in  a  word,  whatever 
 could  contribute  to  the  necessities  or  comforts  of  life. 
 Here  commerce  flourished  under  a  most  excellent  sys- 
 tem of  government.  The  island,  divided  into  ten 
 kingdoms,  was  governed  by  as  many  kings,  all  de- 
 scendants of  Neptune,  and  who  lived  in  perfect  har- 
 mony with  each  other,  though  severally  independent. 
 Atlantis  had  numerous  and  splendid  cities,  together 
 with  a  large  number  of  rich  and  populous  villages.  Its 
 harbours  beheld  the  produce  of  almost  every  country 
 wafted  to  them  :  and  they  were  strengthened  with  for- 
 tifications, and  supplied  with  arsenals  containing  every- 
 thing calculated  for  the  construction  and  equipment  of 
 navies.  Neptune  was  not  only  the  progenitor  and  le- 
 gislator, but  also  the  principal  divinity  of  the  people  of 
 Atlantis.  He  had  a  temple  in  this  island,  a  stadium 
 in  length,  and  ornamented  with  gold,  silver,  oriclial- 
 chum,  and  ivory.  Among  various  statues  with  which 
 it  was  adorned,  was  seen  that  of  the  god  himself,  which 
 was  of  gold,  and  so  high  that  it  touched  the  ceiling. 
 He  was  represented  as  standing  in  a  chariot,  and  hold- 
 ing the  reins  of  his  winged  steed.  Such  were  some 
 of  the  bright  visions  of  former  days  respecting  the  lost 
 island  of  Atlantis.  {Plato,  Crilias,  p.  114,  seqq. — 
 ed.  Bip.,  vol.  10,  p.  51,  seqq.) 
 
 Atf.as,  I.  son  of  the  I'ilan  lapctus  and  Clymene 
 one  of  the  Oceanides.  He  was  the  brother  of  Menoe- 
 tius,  Prometheus,  and  Epimetheus.  The  name  Atlas 
 signifies  "  the  Endurcr"  (from  a,  intensive,  and  rXdu, 
 to  endure),  an  epithet  that  will  presently  be  explained. 
 Homer  calls  him  the  wise  or  deep-thinking  {oAoo- 
 4ip(jv),"who  knows  all  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  keeps 
 the  long  pillars  which  hold  heaven  and  earth  asunder." 
 228 
 
 {Od.,  1,  52  )  In  the  Theogony  of  Hesiod  (517,  seqq.) 
 he  is  said  to  support  the  heaven  on  his  head  and  hands 
 in  the  extreme  West,  a  task  assigned  him  by  Jupiter, 
 in  punishment,  the  later  writers  say,  for  his  share  in 
 the  Titan  war.  {Hygin.,  fab.,  150.)  Atlas  was  the 
 father  of  the  fair  nymph  Calypso,  who  so  long  detain- 
 ed Ulysses  in  her  island  in  the  distant  West.  Pleione, 
 an  ocean-nymph,  bore  him  seven  daughters  named 
 Pleiades.  {Hes.,  Op.  et  D.,  383.  — Schol.  ad  11.,  18, 
 486.)  He  was  also  said  to  be  the  father  of  the  Hy- 
 ades.  {Timceus,  ap.  Schol.  ad  11. ,  I.  c.) — It  is  hardly 
 necessary  to  state,  that  the  Atlas  of  Homer  and  Hesiod 
 is  not  the  personification  of  a  mountain.  In  process 
 of  time,  however,  when  the  meaning  of  the  earlier  le- 
 gend had  become  obscured  or  lost,  Atlas,  the  keeper 
 of  the  pillars  that  support  the  heaven,  became  a 
 mountain  of  Libya.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that, 
 in  all  the  forms  which  the  fable  assumes,  it  is  the  god 
 or  man  Atlas  who  is  turned  into  or  gives  name  to  the 
 mountain.  Thus,  according  to  one  mythologist  {Odd, 
 Met.,  4,  631),  Atlas  was  a  king  of  the  remotest  West, 
 rich  in  flocks  and  herds,  and  master  of  the  trees  that 
 bore  the  golden  apples.  An  ancient  prophecy,  deliv- 
 ered by  Themis,  had  announced  to  him,  that  his  pre- 
 cious trees  would  be  plundered  by  a  son  of  Jupiter. 
 When,  therefore,  Perseus,  on  his  return  from  slaying 
 the  Gorgon,  arrived  in  the  realms  of  Atlas,  and,  seek- 
 ing hospitality,  announced  himself  to  be  a  son  of  the 
 king  of  the  gods,  the  western  monarch,  calling  to  mind 
 the  prophecy,  attempted  to  repel  him  from  his  doors. 
 Perseus,  inferior  in  strength,  displayed  the  head  of  Me- 
 dusa, and  the  inhospitable  prince  was  turned  into  the 
 mountain  which  still  bears  his  name.  {Ovid,  I.  c. — 
 Serv.  ad  JEn.,  4,  246.)  According  to  another  ac- 
 count. Atlas  was  a  man  of  Libya,  devoted  to  astrono- 
 my, who,  having  ascended  a  lofty  mountain  to  make 
 his  observations,  fell  from  it  into  the  sea,  and  both 
 sea  and  mountain  were  named  after  him.  {Tzetz.  ad  _ 
 Lycophr.,  v.  879.)  His  supporting  the  heavens  was 
 usually  explained  by  making  him  an  astronomer  and 
 the  inventor  of  thte  sphere.  {Diod.  Sic.,  3,  60. —  Id., 
 4,  27.— Serv.  ad  Virg.,  jEu.,  1,  741.) -There  is  also 
 another  curious  legend  relating  to  Atlas,  which  forms 
 part  of  the  fables  connected  with  the  adventures  ol 
 Hercules.  When  this  hero,  in  quest  of  the  apples  of 
 the  Hesperides,  had  come  to  the  spot  where  Prome- 
 theus lay  chained,  moved  by  his  entreaties,  he  shot  the 
 eagle  that  preyed  upon  his  liver.  Prometheus,  out  of 
 gratitude,  warned  him  not  to  go  himself  to  take  the 
 golden  apples,  but  to  send  Atlas  for  them,  and,  in  the 
 mean  time,  to  support  the  heaven  in  his  stead.  The 
 hero  did  as  desired,  and  Atlas,  at  his  request,  went 
 and  obtained  three  apples  from  the  Hesperides  ;  but 
 he  said  he  would  take  them  himself  to  Eurystheus, 
 and  that  Hercules  might  continue  to  support  the  sky. 
 At  the  suggestion  of  Prometheus  the  hero  feigned  con- 
 sent, but  begged  him  to  take  hold  of  the  heavens  till 
 he  had  made  a  pad  {m'/pav)  to  put  on  his  head.  Atlas 
 threw  down  the  apples  and  resumed  his  burden,  and 
 Hercules  then  picked  them  up  and  went  his  way. 
 {Phcrecyd.,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Apoll.  Rhod.,  4,  1396.) — 
 Various  elucidations  of  the  legend  of  Atlas  have  been 
 given  by  modern  expounders  of  mythology.  The  best 
 IS  that  of  Volcker.  This  writer,  taking  into  consider- 
 ation the  meaning  of  his  name,  in  connexion  with  the 
 position  assigned  him  by  Homer  and  Hesiod,  and  the 
 species  of  knowledge  ascribed  to  him,  and  also  his 
 being  the  father  of  two  of  the  constellations,  regards 
 Atlas  as  a  personification  of  navigation,  the  conquest 
 of  the  sea  by  human  skill,  trade,  and  mercantile  profit. 
 {Volcker,  Myth,  der  lap.,  p.  51.)  With  this  view 
 Miiller  agrees'.  {Proleg.  zu  ciner  wissensch.  My- 
 thol. — Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  287,  seqq.) — II.  A 
 celebrated  range  of  mountains  in  Africa.  It  is  divi- 
 ded into  two  leading  chains  :  the  Greater  Atlas  runs 
 through  the  kingdom  of  Marocco,  as  far  south  as  the 
 
ATLAS. 
 
 A  T  R 
 
 desert  of  Sahara  ;  the  Lesser  Atlas  extends  from  Ma- 
 rocco  towards  the   northeast  to   the    northern   coast. 
 The  great  height  of  Mount  Atlas    is  proved  by  the 
 perpetual  snows  which  cover  its  summits  in  the  east 
 part  of  Marocco,  under  the  latitude  of  32°.     Accord- 
 ing to  Humboldt's  principles,  these  summits  must  be 
 12,000   feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     Leo  Afri- 
 canus,  who  travelled  here  in  the  month  of  October, 
 narrowly  escaped   being  buried  in   an  avalanche  of 
 snow.    In  the  state  of  Algiers,  tlic  snow  disappears  on 
 the  tops  of  Jurjura   and  of  Felizia  in  the  month  of 
 May,  and  covers  them  again  before  the  end  of  Sep- 
 tember.    The  Wanashisze,  situated  in  30°  55',  and 
 forming  an  intermediate  chain  between  the  maritime 
 one  and  that  of  the  interior,  is  covered  with  a  mantle 
 of  snow  nearly  the  whole  of  the  year.     The  fertility 
 of  the  region  of  Atlas  is  celebrated  by  Strabo  and 
 Pliny.     The   latter  (15,   18)    extols   its  figs,    olives, 
 corn,  and  valuable  woods.     {Id  ,  17,  12. — Id.,  18,  7. 
 — Id.,  13,  15.)     He  observes,  that  the  wines  had  a 
 certain  sharpness,  which  was  corrected  by  adding  to 
 Ihem   a  litile  plaster  (Id.,  14,  9),  and  says  that  the 
 vineyards  had  a  northern  and  western  exposure.     (Id  , 
 17,  2.)     Strabo  informs  us  (369),  that  the  vine-trunks 
 were  sometimes  so  thick  that  two  men  could  scarce- 
 ly clasp  them  round,  and  that  the  clusters  were  a  cu- 
 bit in  length.     A  horrible  government  and  a  total  ab- 
 sence of  civilization  have  not  succeeded  in  annihila- 
 ting these  bounties  of  nature.     Barbary  and  Marocco 
 still  export  large  quantities  of  grain.     The  olive-tree 
 is  superior  here  to  that  of  Provence  ;  and  the  Moors, 
 notwithstanding  the  hostility  to  Bacchus,  which  marks 
 their  religion,  cultivate  seven  varieties  of  the  vine. 
 The  soil  of  the  plains  in  many  places  resembles  that 
 of  the  rest  of  Africa,  being  light  and  sandy,  and  con- 
 taining numerovis  rocks  :    but  the  valleys  of  Mount 
 Atlas,  and  those  of  the  rivulets  which  descend  from  it 
 to  the  Mediterranean,  are  covered  with  a  compact,  fer- 
 tile, and  well-watered  soil.     Extensive  forests  cover 
 the  sides  of  the  fertile  mountains  in  the  northern  parts 
 of  these  countries.     All  the  valleys  that  have  a  mod- 
 erate elevation  form  in  April  and  May  so  many  little 
 Elysiums.     The  shade,  the  coolness,  the  bright  ver- 
 dure, the  diversity  of  the  flowers,  and  the  mixture  of 
 agreeable  odours,  combine  to  charm  the  senses  of  the 
 botanist,  who,  amid  such  scenes,  might  forget  his  na- 
 tive country,  were  he  not  shocked  and  alarmed  by  the 
 barbarity  of  the  inhabitants.— A  question  has  arisen 
 in  modern  times,  whether  the  chain  of  mountains  here 
 described  was  really  the  Atlas  of  the  ancients  1     This 
 is  denied  by  Ideler,  who  maintains  that  the  Atlas  of 
 Homer  and  Hesiod  is  the  Veak  of  Tcneriffc.    The  At- 
 las of  the  Greek  and  Roman  geographers  he  allows, 
 on  the  other  hand,  to  be  the  modern  Mount  Atlas. 
 His  arguments  are  given  by  Humboldt  (Tableaux  de 
 la  Nature,  vol.   1,   p.    144,  seqq.),  hut  are  more  in- 
 genious than  satisfactory.     The  Atlas   of  Herod^otus 
 might  be  a  promontory  of  the  southern  chain,  rising 
 from  the  plains  of  the  desert,  such  as  Mount  Saluban, 
 m  Biledulgerid,  appears  to  be.     It  agrees  with  the  dis- 
 tances assigned  by  this  historian.     It  is,  besides,  possi- 
 ble, ihat  all  the  contradictions  mentioned  by  Ideler  may 
 owe  their  origin  to  that  optical  illusion  by  which  a 
 chain  of  mountains,  seen  in  profile,  has  the   appear- 
 ance of  a  narrow  peak.     "  When  at  sea,"  says  Hum- 
 boldt, "  I  have  often  mistaken  long  chains  for  isolated 
 mountains.''     This  explanation  might  be  still  farther 
 simpl'ilied,  if  it  were  admitted  that  the  name  of  Atlas 
 belonged  originally  to   a  promontory  remarkable    for 
 •  form  and  its  peculiar  isolated  situation,  such  as  most 
 of  those  on  the  coast  of  Marocco.     A  curious  passage 
 in  MaximusTyrius  seems  to  countenance  this  hypoth- 
 esis :  "ThciEthiopian  Hesperians,"  says  he  (Diss., 
 38.— p.  457,  scqq.,  ed.  Oxon.),  "  worship  Mount  At- 
 las, who    is    both  their  temple  and  their  idol.     The 
 Atlas  16  a  mountain  of  moder?te  elevation,  concave, 
 
 and  open  towards  the  sea  in  the  form  of  an  amphit+ie- 
 atre.  Half  way  from  the  mountain  a  great  valley  ex- 
 tends, which  is  remarkably  fertile,  and  adorned  with 
 richly-laden  fruit-trees.  The  eye  plunges  into  this 
 valley  as  into  a  deep  well,  but  the  precipice  is  too 
 steep  for  any  person  to  venture  to  descend,  and  the 
 descent  is  prohibited  by  feelings  of  religious  awe. 
 The  most  wonderful  thing  is  to  see  the  waves  of  the 
 ocean  at  high  water  overspreading  the  adjacent  plains, 
 but  stopping  short  before  Mount  .\tlas,  and  standing 
 up  like  a  wall,  without  penetrating  into  the  hollow  of 
 the  valley,  though  not  restrained  by  any  earthly  bar- 
 rier. Nothing  but  the  air  and  the  sacred  thicket  pre- 
 vent the  water  from  reaching  the  meuntain.  Such  is 
 the  temple  and-  the  god  ol  the  Libyans  ;  such  is  the 
 object  of  their  worship  and  the  witness  of  their  oaths." 
 In  the  physical  delineations  contained  in  this  account, 
 we  perceive  some  features  of  resemblance  to  the  coast 
 between  Cape  Tefclneh  and  Cape  Geer,  which  re- 
 sembles an  amphitheatre  crowned  with  a  series  of  de- 
 tached rocks.  In  the  moral  description  we  find  traces 
 of  fetichism  ;  rocks  remarkable  for  their  shape  being 
 still  worshipped  by  some  negro  tribes.  (Malte- Brun, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p.  155,  seqq.) — Before  closing  this  ar- 
 ticle it  may  not  be  amiss  to  remark,  that,  according 
 to  Pliny,  the  ancient  Mauritanians  called  Atlas  Dyris. 
 The  chain  of  Atlas,  at  the  present  day,  bears  among 
 the  Arabs  the  name  of  Darah  or  Daran,  the  close  ap- 
 proximation of  which  to  the  ancient  appellation  is  ea- 
 sily perceived.  Horn,  on  the  contrary,  however,  rec- 
 ognises the  term  Dyris  in  AyaDyrma,  the  Guanche 
 name  for  the  Peak  of  Tcneriffe.  (Hornivs  de  Origin- 
 ibus  America noru?)},  p.  185. — Humboldt,  Tabl.  de  Nat., 
 vol.  1,  p.  151.) 
 
 Atossa,  a  daughter  of  Cyrns  the  Great.  She  mar- 
 ried her  own  brother  Cambyses>  the  first  instance  of 
 the  kind  that  occurred  among  the  Persians,  according 
 to  Herodotus  (3,  31).  After  the  death  of  Camby- 
 ses  she  became  the  wife  of  the  false  Smerdis,  and  sub- 
 sequently of  Darius  Hystaspis.  (Herod.,  3,  88.)  She 
 possessed  great  influence  over  the  last  of  these,  in  con- 
 sequence of  her  royal  birth,  and  her  son  Xerxes  suc- 
 ceeded him  on  the  throne.  She  was  cured  of  a  can- 
 cer in  the  breast  by  the  Greek  physician  Deinocedes; 
 and  this  individual,  through  a  desire  of  returning  to 
 his  native  land,  induced  Atossa,  it  is  said,  to  urge  Da- 
 rius to  a  war  with  Greece.  (Herod.,  3,  133,  seqq.) — 
 According  to  Creuzer,  the  name  Atossa  is  in  Persian 
 Atesh.  There  was  also  a  city  called  Atusia  in  As- 
 syria, on  the  river  Caprus,  whose  coins  displ-iyed  a 
 female  head,  crowned  with  turrets,  and  also  the  in- 
 scription ATOY2IE£2N.  (Creuzer,  ad  Herod.,  3,  68. 
 — Gotting.  Anzcig.,  1811,  «r.  78.) 
 
 Atraces,  the  people  of  Atrax,  an  ancient  cofony 
 of  the  Perrhoebi  in  Thessaly,  ten  miles  from  Larissa, 
 higher  up  the  Peneus,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  that 
 river.  It  was  successfully  defended  by  the  Macedoni- 
 ans against  T.  Flamininus.  (Lw.,  32,  15. — Strabo, 
 438  and  441.)  Dr.  Clarke  was  led  to  imagine,  that 
 this  city  stood  at  Ampelakia,  from  the  circumstance 
 of  the  green  marble,  known  to  the  ancients  by  the 
 name  of  Atracium  Marmor,  being  found  there  ;  but 
 this  supposition  is  erroneous,  since  it  is  evident  from 
 Livy  that  Atrax  was  to  the  west  of  Larissa,  and  only 
 ten  miles  from  that  city;  whereas  Ampelakia  is  close 
 to  Tempe,  and  distant  more  than  fifteen  miles  from 
 Larissa.  (Crainer's  Aacicnl  Greece,  vol.  1,  p-  386, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Atramyttu'M.     Vid.  Adramyttium. 
 
 Atrax,  I.  a  son  of  ^tolus,  or,  according  to  others, 
 of  the  river  Peneus.  He  was  king  of  Thessaly,  and 
 built  a  town  which  he  called  Atrax.  Hence  the  epi- 
 thet Atractus  is  sometimes  employed  with  the  same 
 meaning  as  Thessalus  or  "  Thessalian."  (Propert., 
 1,  8,  25.)  Atrax  was  father  to  Hippodamia,  who 
 married  Pirilhous,  and  whom  we  must  not  confound 
 '  229 
 
ATR 
 
 ATR 
 
 with  the  wife  of  Pelops,  who  bore  the  same  name. 
 [Slat.,  Thcb.,  1,  106.— Ovid,  Met.,  12,209.)— II.  An 
 Bncient  city  of  Thessaly.  {Vid.  Atraces.) — III.  A 
 river  of  ^tolia,  running  through  the  country  of  the 
 Ijocri  Ozoise,  and  falling  into  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus, 
 to  the  west  of  Naupactus.     (Plin.,  4,  2.) 
 
 Atrebates,  a  people  of  Belgic  CJaul,  southeast  of 
 the  Morini.  They  were  a  powerful  community,  and 
 promised  15,000  men  as  their  quota  for  the  Nervian 
 war  against  Julius  Cossar.  {B.G.,2,4.)  After  their 
 reduction  by  the  Roman  commander,  Commius,  one 
 of  their  own  nation,  and  friendly  to  Csesar,  was  placed 
 over  them  as  king.  Their  capital  was  Nemetacum, 
 afterward  Atrebates,  and  now  Arras,  or,  as  the  Flem- 
 ings call  it,  Atrecht.  Strabo  writes  the  name  of  this 
 people  'Arptdaroi,  and  Ptolemy  ^kvpe^drioi.  {Plin., 
 4,  n.—PtoL,  2,  9.) 
 
 Atrebatii,  a  people  of  Britain,  situate  on  both 
 banks  of  the  Tamesis  or  Thames,  and  occupying  the 
 larger  part  of  Oxfordshire,  Buckinghamshire,  a  part 
 of  Middlesex,  and  the  southern  part  of  Berkshire. 
 Their  chief  city  was  Caleva,  now  Silchester.  {Man- 
 nert,  Gecgr.,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  193.) 
 
 Atreus,  son  of  Pelops  and  Hippodamia,  and  king 
 of  Mycenae.  Having,  with  his  brother  Thyestes,  killed 
 out  of  jealousy  his  half-brother  Chrysippus,  they  were 
 both  banished  by  their  father,  who  at  the  same  time 
 pronounced  a  curse  on  them,  that  they  and  their  pos- 
 terity should  perish  by  means  of  one  another.  They 
 retired  to  Midea,  whence,  on  the  death  of  Pelops, 
 Atreus  came  with  an  army  and  took  possession  of  his 
 father's  throne.  {Hcllanicus,  up.  Schol.  ad  II.,  2, 105  ) 
 Thyestes,  it  is  said,  afterward  seduced  Aerope,  the 
 wife  of  Atreus,  who,  for  this  offence,  drove  him  from 
 his  kingdom  ;  and  Thyestes,  out  of  rc'venge,  sent  At- 
 reus'son  Plisthenes,  whom  he  had  brought  up  as  his 
 own,  10  murder  his  father.  Atreus,  taking  the  youth 
 to  be  the  son  of  Thyestes,  put  him  to  death,  and  the 
 curse  of  Pelops  began  thus  to  be  accomplished.  {Hy- 
 gin.,  fab.,  86.)  Others,  however,  make  Plisthenes  to 
 have  died  a  natural  death,  and  on  friendly  terms  with  his 
 father,  and  Atreus  to  have  married  his  widow  Aerope. 
 {Vid.  Aerope.) — Another  legend  thus  accounts  for  the 
 enmity  between  the  brothers.  Mercury,  in  order  to 
 avenge  his  son  Myrtilus,  whom  Pelops  had  murdered, 
 put  a  gold-fleeced  lamb  into  the  flocks  of  Atreus,  be- 
 tween whom  and  Thyestes,  according  to  this  version  of 
 the  story,  the  kingdom  was  disputed.  Atreus,  in  order 
 to  prove  that  the  kingdom  by  right  was  his,  said  he 
 would  produce  a  gold-fleeced  lamb.  Thyestes,  how- 
 ever, having  corrupted  Atreus's  wife  Aerope,  had  got 
 the  lamb ;  and,  when  Atreus  could  not  exhibit  it 
 as  he  promised,  the  people,  thinking  he  had  deceived 
 them,  deprived  him  of  his  kingdom.  Some  lime  after, 
 however,  Atreus  returned,  and  said  that,  to  prove  his 
 right,  he  would  let  them  see  the  sun  and  Pleiades  mo- 
 ving from  west  to  east.  This  miracle  Jove  performed 
 in  his  favour,  and  he  thus  obtained  the  kingdom,  and 
 drove  Thyestes  into  exile.  {Schol.  ad  Eunp.,  Ores/., 
 802,  995. — Compare  the  somewhat  different  account 
 of  Eudocia,  Villois.,  Anecd.  Grccc,  vol.  1,  p.  77.) — 
 Another  legend  continues  the  tale  in  a  more  horrible 
 and  tragic  form.  Atreus,  it  is  said,  invited  his  brother 
 to  return,  promising  to  bury  all  enmity  in  oblivion. 
 Thyestes  accepted  the  proffered  reconciliation  ;  a  feast 
 was  made  to  celebrate  it  ;  but  the  revengeful  Atreus 
 killed  the  two  sons  of  Thyestes,  and  served  the  flesh 
 up  to  their  father  ;  and,  while  Thyestes  was  eatin",  he 
 caused  the  heads  and  hands  of  his  children  to  be 
 brought  in  and  shown  to  him.  The  sun,  it  is  said,  at 
 the  sight  of  this  horrible  deed,  checked  his  chariot  in 
 the  midst  of  his  course.  {Schol.  ad  Eurip.,  Orcst.. 
 802.— Hygin.,  fab.,  88,  ct  258.— Sc7iec.,  Thyest.) 
 Thyestes  fled  to  Thesprotia,  whence  he  went  to  Sicy- 
 on,  where  his  daughter  Pelopia  dwelt.  He  arrived  on 
 the  very  night  in  which  she  was  to  ofTer  a  sacrifice  to 
 230 
 
 Minerva,  met  her  in  the  dark,  and  forcibly  embraced 
 her,  without  knowing  who  she  was.  In  the  struggle 
 she  drew  his  sword  from  the  sheath,  and,  taking  it  back 
 with  her,  concealed  it  in  Minerva's  temple.  Meantime 
 famine  and  plague  had  come  to  punish  the  crime  of 
 Atreus  ;  and  the  oracle  had  declared  that,  to  remove 
 it,  Atreus  should  bring  back  his  brotlier.  He  went  to 
 Thesprotia  in  search  of  him,  saw  Pelopia  by  the  war, 
 and,  supposing  her  to  be  the  daughter  of  the  King  of 
 Sicyon,  demanded  her  in  marriage.  He  obtained  her 
 hand.  She,  however,  was  already  pregnant  by  her  fa- 
 ther, and,  shortly  after  her  marriage,  brought  forth  a  son, 
 whom  Atreus  caused  to  be  exposed  ;  but  the  herdsman, 
 taking  pity  on  him,  reared  him  on  the  dugs  of  a  she- 
 goat  {al^,  alyoi),  whence  he  derived  his  name,  Algis- 
 thus.  Atreu^,  hearing  he  was  alive,  had  him  sought 
 for,  and  brought  him  up  as  his  own  son.  Atreus  af- 
 terward sent  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus  in  search  of 
 Thyestes.  They  went  to  Delphi,  where  they  met 
 him,  he  having  also  come  to  consult  the  god  on  the 
 nature  of  the  vengeance  which  he  should  seek  to  take 
 on  his  brother.  They  seized  and  brought  him  to 
 Atreus,  who  cast  hiin  into  prison.  Atreus  then  called 
 yEgisthus,  and  directed  him  to  put  the  captive  to 
 death,  ^gisthus  went  to  the  prison,  bearing  the  sword 
 which  his  mother  had  given  him ;  and  the  moment 
 Thyestes  beheld  it,  he  knew  it  to  be  the  one  which  he 
 had  lost,  and  asked  the  youth  how  he  had  come  by  it. 
 He  replied  that  it  was  the  gift  of  his  mother.  At  the 
 desire  of  Thyestes,  Pelopia  came,  and  the  whole  deed 
 of  darkness  was  brought  to  light.  The  unfortunate 
 daughter  of  Thyestes,  under  pretence  of  examining  the 
 sword,  plunged  it  into  her  bosom,  ^gisthus  drew  it 
 forth  reeking  with  blood,  and  brought  it  to  Atreus  as 
 a  proof  of  having  obeyed  his  commands.  Rejoiced  at 
 the  death,  as  he  thought,  of  his  brother,  Atreus  offered 
 a  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  on  the  seashore  ;  but,  while 
 he  was  engaged  in  it,  he  was  attacked  and  slain  by 
 Thyestes  and  ^Egisthus.  {Hygin  ,  I.  c.) — This  is  the 
 most  horrible  legend  in  the  Grecian  mythology.  It  is 
 evidently  post-Homeric,  since  it  is  utterly  irreconcila- 
 ble with  the  account  of  the  Pclopidae,  as  given  in  the 
 Homeric  poems.  Of  Agamemnon's  sceptre  it  is  there 
 said,  that  Vulcan  made  it  and  gave  it  to  Jupiter,  who 
 gave  it  to  Mercury,  by  whom  it  was  presented  to 
 "  horse-lashing"  Pelops,  who  gave  it  to  Atreus,  the 
 shepherd  of  the  people,  who,  when  dying,  left  it  to 
 "  lamb-abounding''  Thyestes,  who  left  it  to  Agamem- 
 non. {Ham.,  II.,  2,  101,  seqq  )  Here  we  have  a  fam- 
 ily of  princes  legitimately  transmitting  the  sceptre  from 
 one  to  another,  a  state  of  things  totally  at  variance 
 with  the  atrocities  that  have  been  related.  It  was 
 probably  at  the  time  when  the  Greeks  had  become  fa- 
 miliar with  Asia  and  the  barbarous  regions  rovmd  the 
 Euxine,  that  the  nameless  deeds  of  the  line  of  Pelops 
 were  invented.  The  author  of  the  Alcmyonis,  who- 
 ever he  was,  is  said  to  have  related  the  story  of  the 
 gold-fleeced  lamb.  {Schol.  ad  Eurip.,  Orcst.,  995.) 
 We  know  not  who  first  told  of  the  horrid  banquet,  but 
 we  find  it  frequently  alluded  to  by  iEschylus  {Agam., 
 1104,  1228,  sc(/q.;  1594,  seqq.;  Cho'eph.,  1065), 
 though  he  docs  not  appear  to  have  made  the  deeds  of 
 .Atreus  and  Thyestes  the  subject  of  a  drama.  Sopho- 
 cles wrote  two  Thyestes,  and  Euripides  one  ;  and  we 
 have  probably  their  contents  in  the  legends  transmitted 
 to  us  by  Hyginus.  {Kcightlcy^  Mythology,  p.  447, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Atkid^e,  a  patronymic  given  by  Homer  to  Aga- 
 memnon and  Menelaus,  who  were  brought  up  by  their 
 grandfather  Atreus,  as  if  they  had  been  his  own  sons, 
 the  term  Airidae  meaning  "sons  of  Atreus."  (Con- 
 sult remarks  at  the  commencement  of  the  article 
 Agamemnon.) 
 
 AtropatIa  or  Atropatexe,  a  name  given  to  the 
 northwestern  part  of  Media,  between  Mount  Taurus 
 and  the   Caspian  Sea.     It  received   this  name  from 
 
ATT 
 
 ATT 
 
 Atropatcs,  a  satrap  of  this  province,  who,  after  the 
 death  of  Alexander,  rendered  himself  independent, 
 and  took  the  title  of  king,  which  his  successors  en- 
 joyed for  many  ages.  It  was  a  cold,  barren,  and  in- 
 hospitable country,  and  on  that  account  allotted  by 
 Shalmanezar  for  the  residence  of  many  captive  Is- 
 raelites, after  the  conquest  of  their  kingdom.  It  is 
 now  called  Aderbigian,  from  the  Persian  term  Ader, 
 signifying y?re  ;  according  to  the  tradition  that  Zerdust 
 or  Zoroaster  lighted  a  pyre,  or  temple  of  fire,  in  a 
 city  named  Urmiah,  of  this  his  native  country.  Its 
 metropolis  was  Gaza,  now  Tebn:,  or,  as  it  is  more 
 commonly  pronounced,  Tauris.  (Strab.,260. — Plin., 
 b,  13.) 
 
 Atropos,  one  of  the  Parcae,  daughter  of  Nox  and 
 Erebus.  According  to  the  derivation  of  her  name 
 (a,  priv.,  and  rpiivG),  "  to  turn"  or  "  change"),  she  is 
 inexorable  and  inflexible,  and  her  duty  among  the 
 three  sisters  is  to  cut  the  thread  of  life  without  any 
 regard  to  sex,  age,  or  condition.     {Vid.  Parcas.) 
 
 Atta,  Titus  Quintius,  a  Roman  comic  writer,  who 
 died  A.U.C.  633,  B.C.  121.  His  productions  appear 
 to  have  been  extremely  popular  in  the  time  of  Hor- 
 ace, though,  as  would  seem  from  the  language  of  ihe 
 latter,  not  very  deserving  of  it.  {Hor.,  Ep.,  2,  1,  79.) 
 He  received  the  surname  of  Atta  from  a  lameness 
 in  his  feet,  which  gave  him  the  appearance  of  a  per- 
 son walking  on  tiptoe.  Thus  Festus  remarks  :  "  At- 
 ta  appelianlur,  qui,  propter  vitium  crurum  aut  pcd- 
 •im,  plantis  insis.lunt  et  altingunt  magis  terram  quam 
 ambulant."  It  is  to  this  personal  deformity  that  Hor- 
 ace (I.  c.)  pleasantly  alludes,  when  he  supposes  the 
 plays  of  Atta  to  limp  over  the  stage  like  their  lame 
 author.  Bothe's  assertion,  that  Atta  also  composed 
 tragedies,  is  contradicted  by  Schmid.  (Ad  Hor.,  I.  c. 
 — Compare  Crinit.,  Poet.  Lat.,  c.  23. — Bahr,  Gesch. 
 Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  Ill,  seqq.) 
 
 Attalea,  I.  a  city  of  Pamphylia,  southwest  of 
 Perga,  built  by  King  Attains  II.  The  site  of  this 
 city  is  called  Palaia  Altalia,  while  the  modern  city 
 of  Atlalia,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  Satalia,  an- 
 swers to  the  ancient  Olbia.  (Cramer^s  Asia  Minor, 
 vol.  2,  p.  275.) — II.  A  city  of  Lydia,  on  the  river 
 Hermus,  and  northeast  of  Sardis.  Its  earlier  name 
 was  Agroira  or  Alloira.  {Stcpk.  Byz.,  s.  v.)  The 
 ecclesiastical  notices  have  recorded  some  of  its  bish- 
 ops. The  site  is  occupied  by  a  village  called  Adala. 
 {Kevpefs  Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  335. — Cramer's  Asia 
 Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  435.) 
 
 Attalicus.  Vid.  Attains  II. 
 Attalus,  I.  king  of  Pergamus,  succeeded  Eume- 
 nes  I.  This  prince  was  first  proclaimed  king  of 
 Pergamus  after  a  signal  victory  obtained  by  him  over 
 the  Gallo-GraBci,  or  Galatae,  and,  for  his  talents  and 
 the  soundness  of  his  policy,  deserves  a  distinguished 
 place  among  the  sovereigns  of  antiquity.  He  formed, 
 at  an  early  period,  an  alliance  with  the  Romans,  whom 
 he  vigorously  assisted  in  their  two  wars  against  Philip 
 of  Macedon.  In  conjunction  with  the  Athenians,  he 
 invaded  Macedonia,  and  recalled  Philip  from  his  en- 
 terprise undertaken  against  Athens  ;  on  which  account 
 the  Athenians  gave  his  name  to  one  of  their  tribes. 
 His  wealth  was  so  great  as  to  become  proverbial. 
 {Hor.,  Od.,  1,  12.)  He  had  married  ApoUonias,  a 
 lady  of  Cyzicus,  of  obscure  birth,  but  great  merit  and 
 virtue  :  by  her  he  had  four  sons,  Eumenes,  Attalus, 
 Phileta!us,  and  Athena;us.  He  died  at  an  advanced 
 age,  after  a  prosperous  reign  of  43  or  44  years,  and 
 was  succeeded  by  Eumenes.  (Polyb.,  18,  24.— Li?;  , 
 33,  2l.—Slrab.,  624.)— II.  The  2d  of  the  name  suc- 
 ceeded his  brother  Eumenes  II.,  B  0.  159.  Before 
 ascending  the  throne  he  had  been  twice  sent  to 
 Rome,  to  solicit  aid  against  Antiochus  the  Great  and 
 against  the  Greeks.  When  he  commenced  his  reign, 
 he  found  two  adversaries  in  Prusias  of  Bithynia  and 
 Demetrius  Soter,  who  meditated  the  conquest  of  his 
 
 kingdom  ;  and  the  Romans  appeared  little  disposed  to 
 aid  him.  Prusias  in  fact  gained  some  advantages  over 
 him,  but  Attalus  eventually,  by  his  valour  and  skill, 
 freed  himself  from  his  foes.  The  friendship  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, subsequently  conciliated  by  him,  placed  him  in 
 security  for  the  time  to  come,  and  he  devoted  the  period 
 of  repose  thus  afforded  him  to  the  building  of  cities, 
 and  the  munificent  patronage  of  learning.  He  died  at 
 the  age  of  82,  after  a  reign  of  21  years,  having  been 
 poisoned  by  his  nephew,  the  son  of  Eumenes  II. 
 Attalus  was  surnamed  Philadelphus,  from  the  fraternal 
 love  he  displayed  towards  his  brother  Eumenes  during 
 the  lifetime  of  the  latter.  (Lie,  35,  23.— W.,  37,  43. — 
 /d.,38, 12.—Justi7i,25, 1.)— HI.  The  third  of  the  name 
 was  son  of  Eumenes  II.,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne 
 after  poisoning  his  uncle  Attalus  II.  He  made  himsell 
 extremely  odious  by  the  destruction  of  many  of  his 
 relations  and  friends.  Repenting  soon  after  of  his 
 cruelties,  he  assumed  all  the  habiliments  of  sorrow  ; 
 and  subsequently,  giving  up  the  cares  of  government 
 to  others,  he  turned  his  attention  to  gardening.  In 
 full  accordance,  however,  with  his  natural  disposition, 
 he  bestowed  particular  attention  upon  the  cultivation 
 of  noxious  and  poisonous  plants,  which  he  intermin- 
 gled with  the  fruits  and  flowers  that  he  sent  as  pres- 
 ents to  his  friends.  He  afterward  turned  his  atten- 
 tion to  the  melting  and  working  of  metals.  Attalus 
 died  after  a  reign  of  five  years,  from  a  stroke  of  the 
 sun,  while  superintending  the  erection  of  a  tomb  for 
 his  mother,  his  affection  for  whom  had  procured  him 
 the  surname  of  Philometor.  He  died  without  issue, 
 and  his  will  is  said  to  have  contained  the  following 
 words  :  "  Populus  Romanus  bonorum  meorum  hares 
 esto."  The  Romans  regarded  this  as  conveying  to 
 them  the  entire  kingdom,  and  accordingly  made  it  a 
 province  of  their  empire.  Considering  all  the  cir- 
 cumstances of  the  case,  and  especially  the  character 
 of  the  testator,  the  construction  which  the  Romans 
 put  upon  the  words  in  question  was  fair  enough. 
 Mithradates,  however,  in  his  letter  to  Arsaces  (Sail., 
 Hist,  fragm.,  p.  409,  ed.  Burnouf),  regards  it  as  a 
 forced  and  fraudulent  interpretation.  {Justin,  36,  4. 
 —  Veil.  Patcrc.,  2,  4.— Ltw.,  Ep.  et  Suppl.,  58.) 
 
 Atthis,  a  daughter  of  Cranaus  the  successor  of 
 Cecrops.  She  was  fabled  to  have  given  name  to  the 
 countrv  of  Attica.     {Apollod.,  3,  14,  5.) 
 
 Attica,  a  country  of  Greece,  without  the  Pelopon- 
 nesus, forming  a  kind  of  triangular  peninsula,  and 
 boucded  on  the  north  by  Boeotia  and  the  Euripus  ;  on 
 the  west  by  Megaris  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Sinus  Sa- 
 ronicus  ;  and  on  the  east  by  part  of  the  iEgean  Sea  ; 
 extending  from  northwest  to  southeast  about  eighty 
 miles,  with  decreasing  breadth,  but  at  an  average  of 
 about  forty  miles.  According  to  the  popular  account, 
 it  received  its  name  from  Atthis,  the  daughter  of  Cra- 
 naus. The  more  correct  etymology,  however,  is  from 
 (kr?/  {ar.te),  the  Greek  term  for  "  shore,"  the  country 
 being  of  a  peninsular  shape,  or,  in  other  words,  two 
 sides  of  it  being  shore.  The  original  name,  there- 
 fore, would  seem  to  have  been  Acta,  which  was  af- 
 terward changed  to  the  more  euphonious  Attica. 
 {Plm.,  4,  11. — Harpocrat.,  s.  v.  ukttj. — Aul.  GelL, 
 3,  &.—Eustath.,  ad  Diomjs.  Perieg.,  413.)  The 
 situation  of  Attica  marked  it  out  in  an  eminent  de- 
 gree for  a  commercial  country.  The  base,  or  north- 
 ern side  of  the  irregular  triangle  which  it  forms,  is 
 applied  to  the  continent  of  Greece  ;  with  its  eastern 
 face  it  looks  towards  Asia  ;  from  its  apex  on  the 
 south,  it  contemplates  Egypt  ;  and  on  the  west  it  di- 
 rects its  view  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and  to  the  coun- 
 tries of  Italy  and  Sicily  lying  beyond  it.  By  this 
 combination  of  the  advantages  of  inland  communica- 
 tion with  those  of  an  extensive  and  various  inter- 
 course with  all  the  civilized  countries  of  the  world,  it 
 was  distinguished  from  all  the  other  states  both  of  the 
 peninsula  and  continent  of  Greece.     As  Greece  was 
 
ATTICA. 
 
 ATT 
 
 the  centre  of  the  civilized  world  of  antiquity,  so  was 
 Attica  the  centre  of  Greece;  and  as  the  climate  and 
 temperature  of  Hellas  was  considered  to  be  more  fa- 
 vourable than  that  of  any  other  country  of  Europe  or 
 Asia,  for  the  healthy  and  vigorous  development  of  the 
 physical  and  intellectual  faculties  of  man,  so  did  ev- 
 ery Hellenic  province  yield  in  these  respects  to  the 
 superior  claims  of  the  Athenian  territory.  Again  :  it 
 was  not  merely  aided  by  these  natural  advantages, 
 which  arose  from  its  form,  its  position,  and  its  cli- 
 mate ;  the  very  defects  also  under  which  this  country 
 laboured,  the  very  difficulties  with  which  it  was  com- 
 pelled to  struggle,  supplied  to  Attica  the  inducements, 
 and  afforded  it  the  means,  for  availing  itself  in  the 
 most  effectual  manner  of  those  benefits  and  privileges 
 with  which  nature  had  so  liberally  endowed  it.  One 
 of  these  apparent  deficiencies  was  the  barrenness  of 
 its  soil.  The  geological  formation  of  Attica  is  prim- 
 itive limestone  :  on,  its  northern  frontier  a  long  ridge 
 of  mountains,  consisting  of  such  a  stratification, 
 stretches  from  east  to  west  :  a  range  of  similar  char- 
 acter bounds  it  on  the  west,  and  in  the  interior  of  the 
 country  it  is  intersected  with  hills  from  north  to  south, 
 which  belong  to  the  same  class.  Thus  it  will  appear 
 that  the  geographical  dimensions  of  Attica,  limited  as 
 they  are,  must  be  reduced  by  us  within  a  still  narrow- 
 er range,  when  we  consider  it  as  far  as  it  is  available 
 for  the  purposes  of  cultivation.  In  this  respect,  its 
 superficial  extent  cannot  he  rated  at  more  than  one 
 half  the  value  which  has  been,  assigned  to  the  whole 
 country.  The  mountains  of  which  we  have  spoken 
 are  either  bare  or  rugged,  or  thinly  clad  with  scanty 
 vegetation  and  low  shrubs.  The  mountain  pine  is 
 found  on  the  slopes  of  Laurium  ;  the  steeps  of  Parnes 
 and  Pentelicus  are  sprinkled  over  with  the  dwarf  oak, 
 the  lentisk,  the  arbutus,  and  the  bay.  But  the  hills 
 of  this  country  can  boast  few  timber  trees  ;  they  serve 
 to  afford  pasture  to  numerous  flocks  of  slieep  and 
 goats,  which  browse  upon  their  meager  herbage  and 
 climb  among  their  steep  rocks,  and  to  furnish  fuel  to 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  plain.  While  such  is  the  char- 
 acter of  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  province,  its 
 plains  and  lowlands  cannot  lay  a  much  better  claim  to 
 the  merit  of  fertility.  In  many  parts  of  them,  as  in 
 the  city  of  Athens  itself,  the  calcareous  rock  projects 
 above  the  surface,  or  is  scarcely  concealed  beneath  a 
 light  covering  of  soil  :  in  no  instance  do  they  pos- 
 sess any  considerable  deposite  of  alluvial  earth.  The 
 plains  of  this  country  are  irrigated  by  few  streams, 
 which  are  rather  to  be  called  torrents  than  rivers,  and 
 on  none  of  them  can  it  depend  for  a  perennial  supply 
 of  water.  There  is  no  lake  within  its  limits.  It  is 
 unnecessary  to  suggest  the  reason,  where  such  was 
 the  nature  of  the  soil,  that  the  olive  was  the  most 
 common,  and  also  the  most  valuable,  production  of 
 Attica.  Such  then  were  some  of  the  physical  defects 
 of  the  land.  But  these  disadvantages  were  abundant- 
 ly compensated  by  the  beneficial  effects  which  they 
 produced.  The  sterility  of  Attica  drove  its  inhabi- 
 tants from  their  own  country.  It  carried  them  abroad. 
 It  filled  them  with  a  spirit  of  activity,  which  loved  to 
 grapple  with  danger  and  difficulty  :  it  told  them,  that, 
 if  they  would  maintain  themselves  in  the  dignity 
 which  became  them,  they  must  regard  the  resources 
 of  their  own  land  as  nothing,  and  those  of  other  coun- 
 tries as  their  own.  It  arose  also  from  the  barrenness 
 of  her  soil,  that  Attica  had  always  been  exempt  from 
 the  revolutions  which  in  early  times  agitated  the  oth- 
 er countries  of  Greece  ;  and  hence  Attica,  secure  in 
 her  sterility,  boasted  that  her  land  had  never  been  in- 
 undated by  tides  of  immigration.  The  race  of  her 
 inhabitants  had  been  always  the  same  ;  nor  could  she 
 tell  whence  they  had  sprung ;  no  foreign  land  had 
 sent  them  ;  they  had  not  forced  their  way  within  her 
 confines  by  a  violent  irruption.  She  traced  the  stream 
 of  her  population  in  a  backward  course,  through  many 
 233 
 
 generations,  till  at  last  it  hid  itself,  like  one  of  her  own 
 brooks,  in  the  recesses  of  her  own  soil.  This  belief 
 that  her  people  was  indigenous,  she  expressed  in  dif- 
 ferent ways.  She  intimated  it  in  the  figure  which 
 she  assigned  to  Cecrops,  the  heroic  prince  and  pro- 
 genitor of  her  primeval  inhabitants.  She  represented 
 him  as  combining  in  his  person  a  double  character; 
 while  the  higher  parts  of  his  body  were  those  of  a  man 
 and  a  king,  the  serpentine  folds  m  which  it  was  termi- 
 nated declared  his  extraction  from  the  earth.  The 
 cicadas  of  gold,  which  she  braided  in  the  twinings  of 
 her  hair,  were  intended  to  denote  the  same  thing  ; 
 they  signified  that  the  natives  of  Attica  sprang  from 
 the  soil  upon  which  these  cicadoe  sang,  and  which  was 
 believed  to  feed  them  with  its  dew.  ( Wordsworih^s 
 Greece,  p.  69,  seqq.) — The  total  population  of  Attica, 
 in  B.C.  317,  may  be  taken  at  527,660.  Of  these 
 the  free  inhabitants  amounted  to  90,000 ;  the  resident 
 aliens  to  45,000  ;  while  the  slaves  made  up  the  resi- 
 due. Of  the  free  inhabitants  of  Attica,  the  citizens, 
 or  those  who  had  votes  in  the  public  assembly, 
 amounted  to  21,000.  About  127  years  before  they 
 had  been  19,000,  until  Pericles  reduced  their  num- 
 ber. Twenty  thousand  were  computed  as  the  num- 
 ber in  the  earliest  times,  under  Cecrops.  {Schol.  ad 
 Find.,  01.,  9,  68.)  The  slaves  of  Attica,  at  the  cen- 
 sus made  B.C.  309,  when  Demetrius  was  archon 
 eponymus,  were  400,000.  Hume,  in  his  Essay  on  the 
 Populousness  of  Ancient  Nations  {Essays,  vol.  1,  p. 
 443),  thinks,  that  there  is  error  or  corruption  in  this 
 high  number,  and  that  for  400,000  we  ought  to  read 
 40,000  (namely,  TerpaKLafivplov^  instead  of  Teoaaoil- 
 icovra  fivpiuSa^).  But  he  forgets,  that  in  this  enumera- 
 tion of  400,000  we  are  not  to  take  the  slaves  as  all 
 males  of  full  age.  Slaves  were  property,  and  there- 
 fore, in  enumerating  them,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
 compute  all  the  individuals  who  composed  that  prop- 
 erty. The  400,000  therefore  express  all  the  slaves, 
 of  either  sex  and  of  every  age,  and  in  this  number 
 the  men  of  full  age  would  be  less  than  100,000. 
 (Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  1,  p.  387,  seqq.) — Some  re- 
 marks on  the  ancient  kings  of  Attica  will  be  found  un- 
 der the  article  Cecrops,  and  on  the  coinage  and  com- 
 merce of  the  Athenians,  under  Mina  and  Pirseus. 
 
 Atticus,  I.  Titus  Pomponius,  a  Roman  knight, 
 who,  in  the  most  agitated  times,  preserved  the  esteem 
 of  all  parties.  The  Pomponian  family,  from  which  he 
 originated,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  those 
 of  equestrian  rank,  and  pretended  to  derive  its  origin 
 from  Numa  Pompilius.  Atticus  lived  in  the  latter  pe- 
 riod of  the  republic,  and  acquired  great  celebrity  from 
 the  splendour  of  his  private  character.  He  inherited 
 from  his  father,  and  from  his  uncle  Q.  Caecilius,  great 
 wealth.  When  he  attained  maturity,  the  republic 
 was  disturbed  by  the  factions  of  Cinna  and  Sylla. 
 His  brother  Sulpicius,  the  tribune  of  the  commons, 
 being  killed,  he  thought  himself  not  safe  in  Rome  ; 
 for  which  reason  he  removed  with  his  fortune  to  Ath- 
 ens, where  he  devoted  himself  to  science.  His  bene- 
 fits to  the  city  were  so  great,  that  he  gained  the  affec- 
 tions of  the  people  in  the  highest  degree.  He  ac- 
 quired so  thorough  a  knowledge  of  Greek,  that  he 
 could  not  be  distinguished  from  a  native  Athenian, 
 and  hence  the  surname  of  Atticvs  bestowed  upon  him. 
 When  Rome  had  acquired  some  degree  of  quiet,  he 
 returned,  and  inherited  from  his  uncle  ten  millions  of 
 sesterces.  His  sister  married  the  brother  of  Cicero. 
 With  this  orator,  as  well  as  with  Hortensius,  he  lived 
 on  terms  of  intimate  friendship.  It  was  his  principle 
 never  to  mix  in  politics,  and  he  lived  undisturbed 
 amid  all  the  successive  factions  which  reigned  in 
 Rome.  Caesar  treated  him  with  the  greatest  regard, 
 though  he  was  known  as  a  friend  of  Pompey's.  Aiict 
 the  death  of  Ctesar  he  lived  in  friendship  with  Brutus, 
 without,  however,  offending  Antony.  When  Brutua 
 was  obliged  to  flee  from  Italy,  he  sent  him  a  inillioi 
 
ATTICUS. 
 
 ATT 
 
 of  sesterces;  and  likewise  supported  Fulvia,  the  wife 
 of  Antony,  after  tiie    battle  of  Mutina,  and  therefore 
 was   spared   when  fortune   again  smiled  on  Antony, 
 and  the  friends  of  Brutus  generally  were  the   victims 
 of  his  vengeance.     Even  in  the  bad  times  of  the  tri- 
 umvirate, he  caused  all  the  proscribed  who  fled  to  Epi- 
 rus   to  be  liberally  relieved   from  his  estates  in    that 
 country,  and  by   his   interest  recovered   the  forfeited 
 property    of  several   of  them.      Such  was  his  credit 
 with  Octavius,  that  his  daughter  was  preferred  to  all 
 the  great  matches  of  Rome  as  a  wife   for  his  friend 
 Agrippa.     Octavius  himself  cultivated  the  closest  in- 
 timacy with  Atticus,  who,  at  the  same  time,  maintained 
 an  equally  intimate  correspondence  with  Antony.    The 
 mode  of  living  pursued  by  Atticus  was  that  of  a  man 
 of  great  fortune,  whose  mind  was  devotedly  attached 
 to  literary  and  philosophical  pursuits.     His  domestics 
 were  not  numerous,  but  choice   and  well   educated  ; 
 his  table  was  elegant,  but  not  costly  ;  and  he  delight- 
 ed in  what  would  now  be  called  literary  suppers,  where 
 an  anagnostes  always  read  something  aloud,  in  order 
 that  the  guests  might  enjoy  a  mental  as  well  as  physi- 
 cal  banquet.     He  was  extremely  studious,  much  at- 
 tached to  inquiries  relative  to   the   antiquities  of  his 
 country,    its  laws,   customs,   and  treaties,  and  wrote 
 several  works  on  these  subjects,  which  appear  to  have 
 been  much  valued.     The  conclusion  of  his   life  was 
 conformable  to  the  principles  of  Epicurean  philosophy, 
 by  which   it  had    been  all  along  governed.     Having 
 reached  the  age  of  seventy-seven  with  little  assistance 
 from  medicine,  he  was  seized  with  a  disorder  in  the 
 intestines,  which  terminated   in  an  ulcer  deemed  in- 
 curable.    Convinced  of  the  nature  of  his  case,  he  or- 
 dered his  son-in-law  Agrippa,  and  other  friends,  to  be 
 sent  for,  and  declared  to  them  his  intention  of  termi- 
 nating his   life  by  abstaining  from  food.     When,  in 
 spite  of  their  affectionate  entreaties,  he  had  persisted  in 
 this  resolution  for  two  days,  some  of  the  unfavourable 
 symptoms  of  his  complaint  abated  ;  but,  not  thinking  it 
 worth  while  to  take  the  chance  of  a  cure,  he  persevered, 
 and  the  fifth  day  closed  his  existence,  B.C.  33. — In 
 modern  times  the  character  of  Atticus  has  been  the 
 subject  of  much  curious  discussion,  and  his  neutrality  in 
 the  midst  of  civil  contentions  has,  by  some  politicians, 
 been  termed  selfish  and  criminal.     From  the  fearless 
 generosity  wliich  he  exhibited  to  the  unfortunate  on  all 
 sides,  it  may,  however,  be  presumed  that,  looking  on 
 the  state  of  the  commonwealth  without  passion,  he  was 
 convinced  of  the  inutility  of  attempting  to  stop  an  in- 
 evitable career.     Certain  it  is,  that  as  a  medium  of 
 friendship,  a  reconciler  of  differences,  and  a  protector 
 against  the  ferocity  of  party  hatred,  he  was  eminently 
 serviceable  in  the  calamitous  times  in  which  he  lived  ; 
 and  possibly,  with  his  cast  of  temper  and  talents,  could 
 scarcely  have  acted  more  beneficently  for  his  country 
 as  well  as  for  himself     His  line  of  conduct  has  been 
 attributed  to  his  Epicurean  philosophy  ;   hut  native  dis- 
 position and  temper  must  have  formed  his  peculiar 
 character  much  more  than  speculative  principles.     The 
 correspondence  between  Cicero  and  Atticus  is  highly 
 honourable  to  both  parties,  especially  as  the  latter  was 
 also  miimate  with  his  rival  Hortensius,  and  a  mediator 
 between  them.     According  to  Cicero,  Atticus  wrote 
 annals  of  great  value,  comprising  a  sort  of  universal 
 history  for  700  years.     {Corn.  Nep.  in  Vil.—Atkin's 
 Gen.  Diet.,  s.  v.— Gorton's  Biog.  Diet.,  vol.    1,  p. 
 134,  sujq.—Enr.yclop.  Americ,  vol.  1,   p.  457.)— H. 
 Herodus,  or  Tiberius  Claudius  Atticus   Herodes,  an 
 Athenian  philosopher  and  statesman  of  the  age  of  the 
 Antonines.      His    father,    Julius    Atticus,    descended 
 from  the    family  of  Miltiades,  was  raised  from  indi- 
 gence to  wealth  by  the  discovery  of  a  hidden  treas- 
 ure.    Herodes  received  an  education  suitable  to  the 
 condition  to  which  his  father  had  been  advanced  by 
 this  fortunate  accession  to  his  property.     Scholastic 
 rhetoric,  or  the  art  of  declamation,  then  esteemed  a 
 G  o 
 
 most  fashionable  accomplishment,  became  his  princi- 
 pal study  ;  and  he  prosecuted  it  under  the  first  masters 
 of  the  age  with  such  success  as  to  acquire  great  repu- 
 tation as  an  orator.  After  travelling  abroad,  he  settled 
 at  Athens,  and  gave  public  lectures  on  eloquence,  which 
 were  attended  by  sophists  and  rhetoricians,  whose  ad- 
 miration of  his  talents  was,  perhaps,  not  altogether  dis- 
 interested, as  his  hospitality  and  munificence  were  lav- 
 ishly extended  to  his  followers.  The  fame  of  Herode.s 
 reached  from  Athens  to  Rome,  and  he  was  invited  by 
 the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius  to  become  rhetorical  tu- 
 tor to  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus,  the  adopted 
 sons  and  destined  successors  of  Antoninus.  This  pro- 
 motion led  to  his  being  created  consul  A.D.  143.  He 
 was  also  made  prefect  of  the  free  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
 and  president  of  the  Panhellenic  and  Panathenaean 
 games,  at  which  he  was  crowned.  He  testified  his 
 sense  of  this  honour  by  building  a  marble  stadium,  or 
 course  for  running  matches,  one  of  the  grandest  works 
 ever  executed  by  a  private  individual.  He  also  erect- 
 ed a  new  theatre  at  Athens,  and  repaired  and  embel- 
 lished the  Odeon  of  Pericles.  These  and  other  splen- 
 did monuments  of  his  wealth  and  liberality  have  per- 
 petuated his  name,  while  his  literary  productions  have 
 perished.  The  latter  part  of  the  life  of  Herodes  was 
 embittered  by  the  ingratitude  of  his  fellow-citizens, 
 who  preferred  accusations  against  him  in  his  public  ca- 
 pacity ;  but  these  were  quashed  by  the  friendship  of 
 his  pupil  Marcus  Aurelius,  then  emperor.  He  passed 
 his  latter  days  at  Marathon,  his  birthplace,  where  he 
 died  about  A.D.  185,  aged  seventy-five.  His  remains 
 were  interred  at  Athens  with  public  honours.  {Gor- 
 ton''s  Biogr.  Did.,  vol.  1,  p.  134.) 
 
 Attila  (in  German,  Etzel),  the  son  of  Mundzuck, 
 or,  as  he  is  less  correctly  called,  Mandras,  a  Hun  of 
 royal  descent,  who  succeeded  his  uncle  Rugilas  (A.D. 
 433),  and  shared  the  supreme  authority  with  his  broth- 
 er Bleda.  These  two  leaders  of  the  barbarians,  who 
 had  settled  in  Scythia  and  Hungary,  threatened  the 
 Eastern  empire,  and  twice  compelled  the  weak  Theo- 
 dosius  H.  to  purchase  an  inglorious  peace.  Their 
 power  was  feared  by  all  the  nations  of  Europe  and 
 Asia.  The  Huns  themselves  esteemed  Attila  their 
 bravest  warrior  and  most  skilful  general.  Their  re- 
 gard for  his  person  soon  amounted  to  superstitious  rev- 
 erence. He  gave  out  that  he  had  found  the  sword  of 
 their  tutelar  god,  the  Scythian  Mars,  the  possession  of 
 which  was  supposed  to  convey  a  title  to  the  whole 
 earth  ;  and,  proud  of  this  weapon,  which  added  dignity 
 to  his  power,  he  designed  to  extend  his  rule  over  the 
 world.  He  caused  his  brother  Bleda  to  be  murdered 
 (A.D.  444),  and,  when  he  announced  that  it  was  done 
 by  the  command  of  God,  this  murder  was  celebrated 
 like  a  victory.  Being  now  sole  master  of  a  warlike 
 people,  his  unbounded  ambition  made  him  the  terror 
 of  all  nations;  and  he  became,  as  he  called  himself, 
 the  Scourge  of  God  for  the  chastisement  of  the  human 
 race.  In  a  short  time  he  extended  his  dominion  over 
 all  the  people  of  Germany  and  Scythia,  and  the  East- 
 ern and  Western  emperors  paid  him  tribute.  The 
 Vandals,  the  Ostrogoths,  the  Gepidae,  and  a  part  of  th« 
 Franks,  united  under  his  banners.  Some  historians 
 assure  us  that  his  army  amounted  to  700,000  men  — 
 His  portrait,  as  given  by  Jornandes,  was  that  of  a  mod- 
 ern Calinuc,  with  a  large  head,  swarthy  complexion, 
 flat  nose,  small  sunken  eyes,  and  a  short,  square  body. 
 His  looks  were  fierce,  his  gait  proud,  and  his  deport- 
 ment stern  and  haughty  ;  yet  he  was  merciful  to  a 
 suppliant  foe,  and  ruled  his  own  people  with  justice 
 and  lenity. — When  he  had  heard  a  rumour  of  the  riches 
 and  power  of  Persia,  he  directed  his  march  thither. 
 He  was  defeated  on  the  plains  of  Armenia,  and  fell 
 back  to  satisfy  his  desire  of  plunder  in  the  dominions 
 of  the  emperor  of  the  East.  He  easily  found  a  pretext 
 for  war  ;  he  therefore  went  over  to  Illyricum,  and  laid 
 waste  all  the  countries  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Adriatic. 
 
 233 
 
ATT 
 
 A  T  Y 
 
 The  Emperor  Theodosius  collected  an  army  to  oppose 
 his  progress  ;  but  in  three  bloody  battles  fortune  de- 
 clared herself  for  the  barbarians,  and  Constantinople 
 was  indebted  to  the  strength  of  its  walls,  and  to  the 
 ignorance  of  the  enemy  in  the  art  of  besieging,  for  its 
 preservation.  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Greece  all 
 submitted  to  the  savage  invader,  who  destroyed  sev- 
 enty flourishing  cities.  Theodosius  was  at  the  mercy 
 of  the  victor,  and  was  compelled  to  purchase  a  peace. 
 A  scheme  was  laid  in  the  court  of  Theodosius  to  as- 
 sassinate him  under  the  cover  of  a  solemn  embassy, 
 which  intention  he  discovered  ;  and,  without  violating 
 the  laws  of  hospitality  in  the  persons  of  the  embassa- 
 dors, wisely  preferred  a  heavy  ransom  for  the  principal 
 agent  in  the  plot,  and  a  new  treaty  at  the  expense  of 
 fresh  payments.  On  the  accession  of  Marcian,  Attila 
 demanded  tribute,  which  was  refused  ;  and,  although 
 much  exasperated,  he'resolved  first  to  turn  his  arms 
 against  the  Western  Emperor  Valentinian,  whose  li- 
 centious sister  Honoria,  in  revenge  for  being  banished 
 for  an  intrigue  with  her  chamberlain,  sent  an  offer  of 
 herself  to  Attila.  The  Hun,  perceiving  the  pretence 
 this  proposal  supplied,  preceded  his  irruptions  into 
 Gaul  by  demanding  Honoria  in  marriage,  with  a  share 
 of  the  imperial  patrimony.  Being  of  course  refused, 
 he  affected  to  be  satisfied,  and  pretended  he  was  only 
 about  to  enter  Gaul  to  make  war  upon  Theodoric,  king 
 of  the  Ostrogoths.  He  accordingly  crossed  the  Rhine, 
 A.D.  450,  with  a  prodigious  host,  and  marked  his  way 
 through  Gaul  with  pillage  and  desolation,  until  com- 
 pletely defeated  by  Theodoric  and  the  famous  Aetius, 
 in  the  bloody  battle  of  Chalons.  He  was,  however, 
 allowed  to  retreat,  and,  having  recruited  his  forces,  he 
 passed  the  Alps  the  next  year  and  invaded  Italy,  spread- 
 •  ing  his  ravages  over  all  Lombardy.  This  visitation 
 was  the  origin  of  the  famous  republic  of  Venice,  which 
 was  founded  by  the  fugitives  who  fled  at  the  terror  of 
 his  name.  Valentinian,  unable  to  avert  the  storm,  re- 
 paired from  Ravenna  to  Rome,  whence  he  sent  the 
 prelate  Leo  with  a  solemn  deputation,  to  avert  the 
 wrath  of  Attila,  who  consented  to  quit  Italy  on  receiv- 
 ing a  vast  sum  as  the  dowry  of  Honoria,  and  an  annual 
 tribute.  He  did  not  much  longer  survive  these  transac- 
 tions ;  and  his  death  was  singular,  he  being  found  dead, 
 in  consequence  of  suffocation  from  a  broken  blood- 
 vessel, on  the  night  of  his  marriage  with  a  beautiful 
 young  virgin  named  Ildegund.  This  event  took  place 
 in  453.  The  news  of  his  death  spread  sorrow  and  terror 
 in  the  army.  His  body  was  enclosed  in  three  coffins  : 
 the  first  was  of  gold,  the  second  of  silver,  and  the 
 third  of  iron.  The  captives  who  had  made  the  grave 
 were  strangled,  in  order  that  the  place  of  interment 
 might  be  kept  concealed  from  his  foes.  (Mcnzel, 
 Gcsch.  der  Deulschen,  p.  93,  scqq. — Gorton's  Biogr. 
 Did.,  vol.  1,  p.  135. — Encyclop.  Americ,  vol.  1,  p. 
 457,  seqq.) 
 
 Attii.ius,  I.  one  of  the  first  three  military  tribunes 
 with  consular  power,  chosen  by  the  peo])le,  B.C.  444, 
 in  place  of  the  regular  consuls.  (Ljd.,4,  7.) — II.  Reg- 
 ulus.  (Vid.  Regulus.) — HI.  Calatinus.  consul  B.C. 
 258,  in  which  year  he  took  the  city  of  Mylistratus, 
 in  Sicily.  Chosen  consul  again  B.C.  256,  he  cap- 
 tured Panormus  and  many  other  cities.  In  B.C.  249 
 he  was  appointed  dictator. — IV.  A  Roman  poet,  who 
 translated  into  Latin  verse  the  Electra  of  Sophocles. 
 From  the  allusion  made  to  him  by  Cicero,  he  appears 
 to  have  been  a  very  harsh  and  rugged  writer.  (Cic, 
 de  Fin.,  1,  2.—Ep.  ad  Att  ,  14,  20.)— V.  A  freed- 
 nian,  who  (A.D.  27)  exhibited  games  at  Fidenae  in  an 
 amphitheatre  so  badly  constructed  that  it  broke  down, 
 and  killed  or  wounded  50,000  persons.  In  conse- 
 quence of  this  he  was  banished,  and  a  law  was  made 
 prohibiting  any  individual  from  exhibiting  games  who 
 was  not  possessed  of  a  fortune  of  400,000  sesterces, 
 and  thus  enabled  to  erect  a  secure  edifice.  It  was  or- 
 dained also  that  buildings  intended  for  such  purposes 
 234 
 
 should  be  erected  on  a  firm  foundation.    {Tac,  Ann  , 
 4,  62.) 
 
 Attius,  I.  (or  Accius,  as  he  is  sometimes,  but  im- 
 properly, called),  a  Roman  tragic  writer,  born  A.U.C. 
 584.  His  style  was  harsh;  but  he  was,  notwithstand- 
 ing, held  in  high  estimation  by  his  countrymen  for  the 
 force  and  eloquence  of  his  productions.  Horace,  in 
 the  same  line  where  he  celebrates  the  dramatic  skill  of 
 Pacuvius,  alludes  to  the  loftiness  of  Attius  (Episi.,  2, 
 1,  56),  by  which  is  meant  sublimity  both  of  sentiment 
 and  expression.  Most  of  the  plays  of  Attius  were 
 taken  from  the  Greek  tragedians  ;  two  of  them,  how- 
 ever, the  Brutus  and  the  Decius,  hinged  on  Roman 
 subjects,  and  were  both  probably  written  in  compli- 
 ment to  the  family  of  his  patron  Decius  Brutus.  (Dun- 
 lop''s  Roman  Literature,  vol.  1,  p.  350,  seqq. — B'dhr, 
 Gcsch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  79,  seq.) — II.  Tullius, 
 the  general  of  the  Volsci,  to  whom  Coriolanus  fled  when 
 banished  from  Rome.     {Vid.  Coriolanus.) 
 
 Attus  N.wius,  a  Roman  augur,  of  whom  a  mar- 
 vellous story  is  related.  Tarquinius  Priscus,  after  his 
 victory  in  the  Sabine  war,  which  was  owing  to  his  hav- 
 ing doubled  the  number  of  his  cavalry,  wished  to  dou- 
 ble the  number  of  the  equestrian  centuries,  and  to 
 name  the  three  new  ones  after  himself  and  his  friends. 
 His  design  was  opposed  by  the  augur  Attus  Navius, 
 who  represented,  that  Romulus  had  acted  under  the 
 guidance  of  the  auspices  in  regulating  the  centuries, 
 and  that  nothing  but  the  consent  of  the  auspices  could 
 warrant  a  change  in  the  distribution  of  the  knights. 
 Attus  was  by  descent  a  Sabine  ;  the  gift  of  observing 
 and  interpreting  auguries  was  the  endowment  of  his 
 countrymen  ;  even  when  a  boy,  without  instruction, 
 he  had  practised  the  art,  and  afterward,  on  being  taught, 
 had  acquired  the  greatest  insight  into  it  that  any  priest 
 ever  attained  to.  Tarquinius,  to  shame  the  augurs, 
 or  for  his  own  conviction,  as  Croesus  tried  the  veraci- 
 ty of  the  oracle,  commanded  him  to  divine  whether 
 what  he  was  at  that  moment  thinking  of  were  possible 
 or  impossible.  When  Attus  had  observed  the  heav- 
 ens and  declared  that  the  object  of  the  king's  thoughts 
 could  be  effected,  Tarquinius  held  out  to  him  a  whet- 
 stone, and  a  razor  to  split  it  with  ;  the  augur  did  so 
 without  delay.  The  whetsone  and  razor  were  preserv- 
 ed in  the  Comitium  under  an  altar :  beside  them,  on 
 the  steps  of  the  senate-house,  stood  the  statue  of  At- 
 tus, a  priest,  with  his  head  muffled.  (Liv.,  1,  36. — 
 Dion.  Hal.,  3,  70,  seq.— Cic,  de  Dw.,  1,  17,  ^  32.— 
 Niehuhr's  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  307,  seqq.,  2d  ed., 
 Cambridge  trnnsl.) 
 
 Atyad^,  the  descendants  of  Atys,  an  ancient  king 
 of  Lydia.     {V'ld.  Atys  I.) 
 
 Atys,  I.  an  ancient  king  of  Lydia.  He  is  men- 
 tioned by  Herodotus,  who  calls  him  the  son  of  Manes 
 (1,  95).  The  historian,  however,  in  another  part  of 
 his  work,  makes  the  son  of  Manes  to  have  been  Cotys 
 (4,  45),  a  circumstance  which  has  occasioned  some 
 trouble  to  the  commentators.  Wesseling  {ad  Herod., 
 4,  45)  thinks  it  probable  that  Manes  had  two  sons, 
 Atys  and  Cotvs.  It  seems  more  natural,  however,  to 
 make  Atys  and  Cotys  two  names  for  one  and  the  same 
 person,  the  latter  appellation  being  evidently  the  same 
 as  the  former,  except  that  it  commences  with  a  strong 
 aspirated  consonant,  and  has  the  vowel  sound  changed. 
 Lanzi  sees  in  the  name  Atys  an  Etrurian  root.  (Sag- 
 gio  di  Lins-  Etrusc,  vol.  2,  p.  223.)  The  appella- 
 tion Manet,  moreover,  is  given  in  the  Vatican  MS.  as 
 Masnes  (Miiavr/r),  which  last  approximates  to  Masses 
 (M-daarjc),  a  foi'm  sometimes  given  to  the  name  of  the 
 river  god  Marsyas.  (Pint,  de  Mus.,  p.  1133. — 
 Mailer,  Etrvsk.,  vol.  1,  p.  81,  not.)  Ritter  considers 
 Manes  and  Atys  as  appellations  of  Oriental  origin, 
 made  euphonious  by  the  Greeks,  and  cotmects  them 
 with  the  early  worship  of  Buddha.  According  to  this 
 writer,  Manes  {Man-es)  is  nothing  more  than  the  term 
 "  man,"  and  to  the  same  family  of  words  belong  the 
 
A  V  A 
 
 AVE 
 
 Hindu    Me7iu,  the  Egyptian  Menes,  the  Greek  Minos, 
 and  even  the  Latin  mens.     On  the  other  hand,  Cotijs 
 or  Khodo  is  the  same  as  the  Boda  of  the  Persians. 
 (VorhaUe,  p.   365.)— II.   A  son  of  Crcesus,  king  of 
 Lydia.     His  father  dreamed  that  Atys  was  to  be  killed 
 by  the  point  of  a  spear,  and  therefore,  in  order  to  frus- 
 trate the  prediction,  kept  his  son  at  home,  and  care- 
 fully avoided  exposing  him  to  any  danger.    Meanwhile, 
 a  large  wild  boar  infested  the  country  around  the  Mysi- 
 an  Olympus,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  territo- 
 ry applied  to  Croesus  for  assistance  against  the  animal. 
 After  urgent  entreaties  on  the  part  of  the  young  prince, 
 his  father  allowed  him  to  accompany  the  hunters  sent 
 out  from  Lydia  to  the  aid  of  the  Mysians,  but  gave  him 
 in  charge  to  Adrastus,  a  Phrygian  of  royal  birth,  who 
 had  slain  by  accident  his  own  brother,  and  had  been 
 purified  of  the  homicide  by  Croesus.     The  party  en- 
 countered the  boar,  and,  in  making  the  onset,  Atys 
 was  killed  by  an  accidental  blow  from  the  javelin  of 
 Adrastus,  the  very  one  who  had  been  appointed  by 
 Croesus  to  guard  him  from  danger.     Such  is  the  ac- 
 count of  Herodotus  (1,  34,  se^' J.).     Ptolemy,  the  son 
 of  Hephaistion,  calls  the  son  of  Croesus,  whom  Adras- 
 tus slew,  by  the  name  of  Agathon.     He  also  states, 
 that  the  young  prince  had  a  dispute  with  Adrastus 
 about  a  quail,  m  which  he  fell  by  the   hand  of  the 
 latter.     {^Hhotius,   Bibl.,  vol.  1,  p.    146,  ed  Bekker.) 
 — III.    A  Trojan  who  came  to  Italy  with  yEneas,  and 
 wa^  fabled  to  have  been  the  progenitor  of  the  fami- 
 ly of  the  Attii  at  Rome.     {Virg.,  JEn.,  5,  568.) — 
 IV.  A  beautiful  shepherd  of  Phrygia,  beloved  by  Cyb- 
 ele,  and  to  whom  she  intrusted  the  care  of  her  altars 
 and  the  superintendence  of  her  religious  ceremonies. 
 Having  proved  unfaithful  to  the  goddess,  she  inspired 
 him  with  phrensy  to  such  a  degree,  that,  in  a  paroxysm 
 of  his  malady,  he  deprived  himself  of  his  virility.    Ovid, 
 however,  makes  him  to  have  been  changed  by  the  god- 
 dess into  a  pine-tree  {Met.,  10,   104).     According  to 
 Diodorus,  on  the  other  hand,  who  assigns  Meeon,  king 
 of  Phrygia,  as  the  mortal  father  of  Cybele,  Atys  was 
 put  to  death  by  her  parent  on  discovering  the  intimacy 
 subsisting  between  the  parties.     {Diod.  Sic,  3,  58.) 
 Another,  and  wilder  legend,  of  Lydian  origin,  may  be 
 found   in    Pausanias  (7,    17.  —  Compare    Catidl.,  de 
 Aly,  &c. — Ovid,  Fast.,  4,  223. — Lucian,  de  Dea  Sij- 
 ra).     The  fable  of  Atys  is  astronomical  in  its  origin. 
 Atys,  deprived  of  his  virility,  is  a  symbol  of  the  sun, 
 shorn  of  its  generative  powers  in  the  season  of  winter, 
 and  moving  in  the  lower  hemisphere  :  the  luminary  of 
 day  resumes  its  energies  on  ascending  into  the  upper 
 hemisphere.     Atys,  an  incarnation  of  the  sun,  is  him- 
 self the  first  of  the  Galli  ;   and  his  priests,  by  a  volun- 
 tary mutilation,  celebrate  the  period  of  his  weakness 
 ,   and  impotence.     But  as,  in  accordance  with  a  decree 
 of  the  gods,  not  a  single  member  of  Atys  is  to  perish, 
 every  year  he  returns  to  the  upper  world,  and  cele- 
 brates anew  his  union  with  Cybele.     This  return,  this 
 renewal  of  the  productive  powers  and  the  fecundity  of 
 nature,  gave  rise  to  all  those  demonstrations  of  savage 
 joy  which  are  so  well  described  in  the  verses  of  Lu- 
 cretius (2,  618,  seqq.).     For  farther  remarks  illustra- 
 tive of  this  curious  portion  of  ancient  mythology,  con- 
 sult  Creuzefs  Symbolik,  par   Gmgnuiut,  vol.   2,  p. 
 69,    seqq.      As    regards  the  different    forms   of  the 
 name,  Alys,  Attis,  or  Attes,  consult  the  remarks  of 
 Hemslerhuis  {ad  Lucian,  D.  D.,  12),  and  of  Graevius 
 {ad  Lucian.,  dc  Dea  Syra,  15).     Diodorus  says  that 
 Atys  was  subsequently  called  Papas  {Udnag),  which 
 is,  no  doubt,  the  same  with  the  old  Greek  word  Trajrac 
 or  ndTTTTar,  '■'  father,"  other  forms  of  which  are  urra, 
 urnva,  and  drr^a.     We  see  lurking,  therefore,  in  the 
 names  Atys,  Attis,  Attes,  and  Papas,  a  reference  to 
 the  sun  as  the  great  father  of  life  and  parent  of  fer- 
 tility.    (Compare   the  remarks  on  the  origin   of  the 
 name  Apollo,  under  that  article.) 
 
 AvARicuM,  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  Gaul,  the 
 
 capital  of  the  Bituriges,  now  Bourges.  It  received 
 its  former  appellation  from  the  river  Avara,  or  Eure, 
 one  of  the  southern  branches  of  the  Liger.  It  was 
 taken  by  Caesar  during  the  Gallic  wars,  and  its  inhabi- 
 tants massacred.      {Cas.,  Bell.  Gall.,  7,  27,  seqq.) 
 
 AvELLA.     Vid.  Abella. 
 
 AvENTiNus  I.  a  son  of  Hercules  by  Rhea,  who  as- 
 sisted Turnus  against  .5Cneas.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  657.) 
 — II.  A  king  of  Alba,  buried  upon  Mount  Aventine. 
 {Ovid,  Fast.,  4,  51.) — III.  One  of  the  seven  hills  of 
 Rome,  and  the  largest  of  the  whole  number.  It  was 
 divided  from  the  Palatine  by  the  valley  of  the  Circus 
 Maximus,  and  round  its  northern  base  flows  the'Tiber. 
 This  hill  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Aven- 
 tinus,  an  ancient  king  of  Alba,  who  was  buried  there 
 in  a  laurel  grove,  which  was  preserved  on  this  hill  lo  a 
 very  late  period.  The  Aventine  was  the  place  on 
 which  Remus  was  fabled  to  have  taken  his  station 
 when  watching  for  an  omen  in  his  competition  with 
 Romulus  for  the  crown ;  and  here,  too,  he  is  said  to 
 have  been  buried.  Hence  some  derive  the  name  from 
 the  Latin  aves,  "  omens."  The  Aventine,  in  conse- 
 quence of  what  has  been  said,  was  considered  a  place 
 of  evil  omen.  The  period  when  it  was  included  with- 
 in the  walls  of  Rome  is  differently  given.  Some 
 make  this  to  have  been  done  by  Ancus  Marcius,  others 
 not  till  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Claudius.  No  au- 
 thority, however,  can  be  adduced  in  support  of  the 
 latter  opinion,  though  advocated  by  some  antiquarians, 
 while  an  irresistible  weight  of  evidence  can  be  brought 
 against  it.  {Liv.,  1,  33. — Dion.  Hal.,  lib.  2,  3,  4. — 
 Nardini,  1,  5.)  In  the  early  ages  of  Rome,  however, 
 it  is  certain  that  the  whole  neither  of  the  Esquiline  nor 
 Aventine  hills  was  inhabited.  We  read  in  Livy  (2, 
 28)  of  nightly  meetings  of  the  disaffected  being  held 
 upon  the  former,  to  the  great  alarm  of  the  senate  ; 
 and  the  two  armies,  that  joined  in  rebellion  against 
 the  tyranny  of  the  decemvirs,  encamped  upon  the  lat- 
 ter. {Liv.,  3,  50.)  But  from  the  prodigious  extent 
 of  the  Aventine,  which  is  computed  by  Dionysius  of 
 Halicarnassus  to  be  three  miles  in  circumference,  it  is 
 not  surprising  that  there  was  abundant  room  for  en- 
 campments at  that  early  period.  The  Aventine  has 
 two  distinct  summits  ;  and,  indeed,  it  might  almost 
 be  called  two  hills,  for  they  are  divided  by  a  valley. 
 Near  the  base  of  the  more  southern  of  its  heights  are 
 the  gigantic  ruins  of  the  baths  of  Caracalla.  {Rome  in 
 the  Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  1,  p.  191,  seqq.) — The 
 Aventine  was  likewise  called  Collis  Murcias,  from 
 Murcia,  the  goddess  of  sleep,  who  had  a  chapel  {sacel- 
 lum,)  on  it  ;  Collis  Diana:,  from  a  temple  of  Diana 
 {Liv.,  1,  33. — Dion.  Hal,  3,  43);  and  Remonius, 
 from  Remus. 
 
 AvERNUs  Lacus,  a  lake  in  Campania,  near  Baiae  and 
 Puteoli.  It  lay  within,  from  the  Lucrine  lake,  and 
 was  connected  with  the  latter  by  a  narrow  passage. 
 Strabo  describes  it  as  surrounded  on  almost  every 
 side,  except  this  outlet,  by  steep  hills.  {Strab.,  248.) 
 These  hills  were  covered  with  immense  forests,  so  that 
 gloom  and  darkness  surrounded  the  lake,  and  accumu- 
 lated effluvia  filled  the  air  with  contagion.  The  an- 
 cients even  had  a  popular  belief  among  them,  that 
 birds,  on  attempting  to  fly  over  this  lake,  became  stu- 
 pified  by  its  exhalations  and  fell  into  it.  Hence  the 
 common  though  erroneous  derivation  of  the  name,  from 
 a,  priv.,  and  opvic,  "a  bird."  {Virg.,  JEn.,  6,  237, 
 seqq. — Lucrel.,  6,  748.)  As  little  credit  is  due  to  the 
 account  which  places  here  the  scene  of  Ulysses'  de- 
 scent to  the  lower  world,  and  his  evocation  of  the 
 dead,  as  described  in  the  Odyssey,  together  with  the 
 subterranean  abodes  of  the  Cimmerians.  {Strab., 
 244.)— The  forests  that  covered  the  hills  around  Aver- 
 nus  were  dedicated  to  Hecate,  and  sacrifices  were 
 frequently  offered  to  that  goddess.  These  forests  and 
 shades  disappeared,  when  Agrippa  converted  the  lake 
 into  a  harbour  by  opening  a  communication  with  th« 
 
 230 
 
AUG 
 
 AUG 
 
 sea  and  the  Lucrine  basin.  {Vid.  Portus  Julius.) 
 The  modern  name  of  the  lake  is  Lago  tVAvcrno. 
 Eustace  describes  Avcrnus  at  the  present  day  as  a 
 circular  sheet  of  water,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  cir- 
 cumference, and  of  great  depth  (in  some  places  180 
 feet).  It  is  surrounded  with  grounds  on  one  side  low, 
 on  the  other  high  but  steep,  cultivated  all  around,  but 
 not  much  wooded  ;  a  scene,  on  the  whole,  light,  airy, 
 and  exhilarating.  {Classical  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  394, 
 Load,  ed.) 
 
 AuFiDENA,  a  city  of  Samnium,  and  the  capital  of 
 the  Caraceni,  situate  on  the  Sagrus  or  Sangro.  It  is 
 now  Alfidena.     {Liv.,  10,  n.—Piin.,  3,  12.) 
 
 AuFiDiA  LEX,  was  enacted  by  the  tribune  Aufidius 
 Lurco,  A.U.C.  692.  It  contained  this  singular  clause, 
 that  if  any  candidate,  in  canvassing  for  an  office, 
 promised  money  to  a  tribe,  and  failed  in  the  perform- 
 ance, he  should  be  excused  ;  but  if  he  actually  paid  it, 
 he  should  be  compelled  to  pay  every  tribe  a  yearly 
 fine  of  3000  sesterces  as  long  as  he  lived.  {Cic,  ad 
 Alt.,  1,  13.)  This  law,  however,  soon  became  a  dead 
 letter,  as  is  apparent  from  what  Suetonius  states  re- 
 specting the  bribery  practised  by  Coesar  and  Bibulus. 
 (Suet.,  Vit.  Jul.,  19. — Compare  Heinccc,  Aiiliq.  Rom., 
 p.  807,  ed.  Haubold.) 
 
 Aufidius,  I.  Bassus,  an  historian  in  the  Augustan 
 age,  and  in  part  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  He  wrote 
 a  history  of  the  Roman  civil  wars,  and  another  of  the 
 war  in  Germany.  This  latter  work  was  continued  by 
 the  elder  Pliny.  {Plin.,  Mm.  Ep.,  3,  5,  6. — QnintiL, 
 10,  1,  103.) — II.  Caesius  Bassus,  a  lyric  poet,  to 
 whom  Persius  addressed  his  sixth  Satire.  He  per- 
 ished during  the  same  eruption  of  Vesuvius  that 
 proved  fatal  to  the  elder  Pliny.  (Qiiintil.,  10,  1,  96. 
 — Schol.  ad  Pcrs.,  Sal.,  6,  1. —  Voss,  de  poet.  Lat., 
 c.  3.) — III.  Saleius  Bassus,  a  poet  in  the  time  of  Ves- 
 pasian. He  is  highly  praised  by  Quintilian  (10,  1, 
 90),  and  by  the  author  of  the  Dialogue  "rfe  caus.  cor- 
 rupt, eloq.^'  (c.  5). — IV.  Luscus,  a  recorder  in  the 
 town  of  Fundi,  ridiculed  by  Horace.  {Serni.,  1,  5,  24.) 
 AuFiDus,  a  river  of  Apulia,  now  the  Ofanto.  It 
 was  on  the  banks  of  this  stream  that  the  battle  of  Can- 
 nae was  fought.  Polybius  (3,  110)  remarks  of  the 
 Aufidus,  that  it  is  the  only  river  which,  rising  on  the 
 western  side  of  the  Apennines,  finds  its  way  through 
 that  continuous  chain  into  the  Adriatic.  But  it  may 
 be  doubted  whether  the  historian  speaks  with  his  usual 
 accuracy.  It  is  certain  that  the  Aufidus  cannot  be 
 said  to  penetrate  entirely  through  the  chain  of  those 
 mountains,  since  it  rises  on  one  side  of  it,  while  the 
 Silarus  flows  from  the  other.  The  Aufidus  was  re- 
 markable for  the  rapidity  of  its  course.  {Horat.,  Od., 
 4,  U.—ld.,  Od.,  30,  3.— Id.,  Od.,  4,  9.— Cramer's 
 Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  295.) 
 
 AuGE,  daughter  of  Aleus,  king  of  Tegea.  She  be- 
 came a  mother  by  Hercules,  and  secretly  laid  her  off- 
 spring, a  son,  in  the  sacred  enclosure  {refievoc)  of  Mi- 
 nerva. A  famine  coming  on  the  land,  Aleus  went  to 
 the  TCfievoc  of  the  goddess  ;  and,  searching  about, 
 found  his  daughter's  infant,  which  he  exposed  on 
 Mount  Parthenion.  But  the  babe  was  protected  by 
 the  care  of  the  gods,  for  a  hind  which  had  just  brought 
 forth  came  and  suckled  him ;  and  the  shepherds, 
 finding  him  thus  nursed,  named  him  Telephus  from 
 that  circumstance  (tAaipnr,  a  hind).  Aleus  gave  his 
 daughter  Auge  to  Nauplius,  the  son  of  Neptune,  to 
 sell  her  out  of  the  country  ;  and  he  disposed  of  her  to 
 Teuthras,  king  of  Teuthrania,  on  the  Caysler,  in  My- 
 sia,  who  made  her  his  wife.  Telephus  having,  when 
 grown  up,  consulted  the  oracle  respecting  his  parents, 
 came  to  Mysia,  where  he  was  kindiy  received  by  Teu- 
 thras, whom  he  succeeded  in  his  kingdom.  {Pausan., 
 8,  4. — Apollod.,  3,  9,  1.)  This  legend  is  connected 
 apparently  with  the  worship  of  Minerva  Alea.  The 
 true  meaning  of  Telephus  is  Far-shimng  {TT]Ai(j>aoc). 
 Auge  (Ally??)  is  bright.  {Keighlley's  MythoL,  p.  367.) 
 236 
 
 AuGE^,  I.  a  town  of  Laconia,  supposed  to  be  the 
 same  with  .^Egiae.  It  stood  near  the  coast,  northwest 
 of  Gythium.  (7/.,  2,  bm.—Strabo,  364  )— II.  A  town 
 of  the  Epicnemidian  Locri.     (//.,  2,  532  ) 
 
 AuciiAs  (poetic  form  AuciiAs),  son  of  Neptune,  ac- 
 cording to  others,  of  the  Sun,  while  a  third  class  of 
 mythologists  make  him  to  have  been  the  offspring  of 
 Phorbas.  He  was  one  of  the  Argonauts,  and,  after  re- 
 turning from  that  expedition,  ascended  the  throne  of 
 Elis.  Augeas  kept  a  very  large  number  of  herds,  and 
 the  filth  and  dung  of  these  had  been  allowed  to  accu- 
 mulate for  many  years,  when  Eurystheus  imposed  on 
 Hercules,  as  one  of  his  tasks,  the  cleansing  of  the  sta- 
 bles of  the  Elian  monarch.  When  Hercules  came  ac- 
 cordingly to  Augeas,  he  said  nothing  to  him  of  the 
 commands  of  Eurvstheus,  but  offered  for  a  tenth  of 
 his  herds  to  clean  out  his  stables  in  one  day.  Augeas 
 agreed,  thinking  the  thing  impossible,  and  Hercules 
 took  Phyleus,  the  son  of  Augeas,  to  witness  the  agree- 
 ment. He  then  broke  down  a  part  of  the  wall  of  the 
 court,  and  turning  in  the  rivers  Peneus  and  Alpheus 
 by  a  canal,  let  them  run  out  at  the  other  side.  Au- 
 geas, on  learning  that  this  was  one  of  the  tasks  imposed 
 by  Eurystheus,  not  only  refused  to  stand  by  his  agree- 
 ment, but  denied  that  he  had  promised  anything,  and 
 offered  to  lay  the  matter  before  judges.  When  the 
 cause  was  tried,  Phyleus  honestly  gave  testimony 
 against  his  father,  and  Augeas,  in  a  rage,  even  be/'ore 
 the  votes  had  been  taken,  ordered  both  his  son  and 
 Hercules  to  depart  from  Elis.  The  former  retired  to 
 Dulichium,  the  latter  returned  to  Eurystheus,  stopping 
 first  at  Olenus,  where  he  aided  Dexamenus  against 
 the  centaur  Eurytion.  Eurystheus,  however,  refused 
 to  count  the  feat  of  Hercules,  in  cleansing  the  Augean 
 stables,  among  the  twelve  tasks,  saying  that  he  had 
 done  it  for  hire.  After  the  termination  of  all  his  la- 
 bours, Hercules  came  with  an  army  to  Elis,  slew  Au- 
 geas, and  set  Phyleus  on  the  throne.  For  an  explana- 
 nation  of  this  myth,  consult  the  article  Hercules. 
 {Apollod.,  2,  5,  A:.—Keightlcy's  Mythology,  p.  356, 
 366.) — To  "  cleanse  the  Augean  stables"  has  become 
 a  common  proverb,  and  is  applied  to  any  undertaking 
 where  the  object  in  view  is  to  remove  a  mass  of  moral 
 corruption,  the  accumulation  of  which  renders  the 
 task  almost  impossible.  The  Latin  form  of  this  same 
 proverb  is  "  Augea  stahulum  repurgare ;"  the  Greek, 
 merely  kvyeiov  povaraala.  {Lucian,  Pseudom. — 
 Erasmus,  Chil.  2,  cent.  3,  n.  21.) 
 
 AuGuiLA,  now  Augela,  one  of  the  Oases  of  the  great 
 African  desert,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name.  It  lay 
 M'cst  of  Amnion,  and  south  of  Cyrene,  and  was  famed 
 for  the  abundant  produce  of  its  date  palms.  This  was 
 one  of  the  stations  for  the  caravans  which  carried  on 
 the  inland  trade  of  Africa.  It  is  at  present  also  a 
 caravan  station.  {Mannert,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  181. — 
 Pacho,  Voyage  dans  la  Marmnrigue,  p.  272,  seqq.) 
 
 AuGUREs,  a  name  given  to  a  class  of  sacerdotal  offi- 
 cers among  the  Romans,  whose  duty  it  was  to  observe 
 and  interfiret  omens,  and  perform  other  analogous  acts 
 of  religion.  The  term  Avgur  is  commonly  but  erro- 
 neously derived  from  avis,  "a  bird,"  and  garrio,  ^^  to 
 chirp,'"  on  the  supposition  that  this  priesthood  origi- 
 nally drew  omens  merely  from  the  notes  of  birds.  The 
 true  etvmology,  however,  ought  very  probably  to  be 
 referred  to  some  Etrurian  term,  assimilated  both  in 
 form  and  meaning  to  the  Greek  avyt],  "  light"  (com- 
 pare the  German  aiige,  "  an  eye"),  so  that  the  primi- 
 tive meaning  of  the  term  avgur  will  be  "  a  seer." — 
 The  duties  and  powers  of  the  Roman  augurs  are  given 
 somewhat  in  detail  by  Cicero  {de  Leg.,  2,  8),  and  may 
 be  arranged  under  four  heads:  1.  The  inspecting  or 
 observing  of  omens.  2.  The  declaring  the  will  of 
 heaven,  as  ascertained  by  them  from  these  omens. 
 3.  The  inaugurating  of  magistrates,  and  the  consecra- 
 ting of  places  and  buildings.  4.  The  determining 
 whether  the  omens  observed  by  them  allowed  a  thing 
 
AUGURES. 
 
 AUG 
 
 to  be  (lone  or  not,  and  also   in  what  way  the  omens 
 themsejves    were    to    be    taken.     (Compare    Mullcr, 
 Etrusk.,  vol.  2,  p.  117.) — The  whole  system  of  augu- 
 ral  science  was   of  Etrurian  origin.     In   this   latter 
 country  it  served  as  a  powerful  engine  of  state  in  the 
 hands  of  the  aristocracy,  and  the  same  result  was  for 
 a  considerable  time  efl'ected  at  Rome.     Meetings  of 
 the  Comitia  Centuriata,  for  example,  could  not  be  held 
 at  all,  if  any  augur  declared  the  oihens  unpropitious  ; 
 or  the  Comitia  were  broken  off  if  a  magistrate,  vir- 
 tually invested  with  augural  powers,  declared  that  he 
 had  heard  thunder  or  seen  lightning.     So,  again,  all  the 
 business  transacted  at  any  comitia,  except  the  Tributa, 
 went  for  nothing,  if,  after  the  assembly  had  been  held, 
 an  augur  declared  that  there  had  been  some  informality 
 in  taking  the  auspices  before  the  meeting  was  con- 
 vened.— The  augurs  are  supposed  to  have  been  first 
 instituted  by  Romulus,  who  appointed  three,  one  for 
 each  tribe.     This,  however,  was  mere  popular  opinion, 
 and  had  no  foundation  in  reality.     A  fourth  augur  was 
 added,  it  is  thought,  by  Servius  TuUius,  when  he  in- 
 creased the  number  of  tribes,  and  divided  the  city  into 
 four  tribes.     The  augurs  were  at  first  all  patricians, 
 until  A.U.C.  454,  when  five  plebeians  were  added. 
 Sylla  increased  their  number  to  fifteen.     The  chief  of 
 the  augurs  was  called  Magislcr  Collegii.     The  augurs 
 enjoyed  this  singular  privilege,  that  of  whatever  crime 
 they  were  guilty,  they  could  not  be  deprived  of  their 
 office  ;  because,  as  Plutarch  remarks,  they  were  in- 
 trusted with  the  secrets  of  the  empire.     The  laws  of 
 friendship  were   anciently  observed  with   great   care 
 among  the  augurs,  and  no  .one  was  admitted  into  their 
 college  who  was  known  to  be  inimical  to  any  of  their 
 number. — The   augur  made  his  observations  on  the 
 heavens  usually  in  the  dead  of  night,  or  about  twilight. 
 He  took  his  station  on  an  elevated  place,  where  the 
 view  was  open  on  all  sides,  and,  to  make  it  so,  build- 
 ings were  sometimes  pulled  down.     Having  first  offer- 
 ed up  sacrifices,  and  uttered  a  solemn  prayer,  he  sat 
 down  with  his  head  covered,  and  with  his  face  turned 
 to  the  east,  so  that  he  had  the  south  on  his  right  and 
 the  north  on  his  left.     Then  he  determined  with  his 
 liluus  the  regions  of  the  heavens  from  east  to  west, 
 and  marked  in  his  mind  some  object  straightforward, 
 at  as  great  a  distance  as  his  eyes  could  reach,  within 
 which   boundaries  he  should  make  his  observations. 
 There  were  generally  five  things  from  which  the  augurs 
 drew  omens  :  the  first  consisted  in  observing  the  phe- 
 nomena of  the   heavens,  such  as  thunder,  lightning, 
 comets,  &c.     The  second  kind  of  omen  was  drawn 
 from  the  chirping  or  flying  of  birds.     The  third  was 
 from  the  sacred  chickens,  whose  eagerness  or  indiffer- 
 ence in  eating  the  food  which  was  thrown   to  them 
 was  looked  upon  as  lucky  or  unlucky.     The   fourth 
 was  from  quadrupeds,  from  their  crossing  or  appearing 
 in  some  unaccustomed  place.     The  fifth  was  from  dif- 
 ferent casualties,  which  were    called  Dircc,  such  as 
 spilling  salt  on  the  table,  or  wine  upon  one's  clothes, 
 hearing  ill-omened  words  or  strange  noises,  stumbling 
 or  sneezing,  meeting  a  wolf,  hare,  fox,   or  pregnant 
 bitch,  &c.     These  the  augur  explained,  and  taught 
 how  they  ought  to  be  expiated. — In  whatever  position 
 the  augur  stood,  omens  on  the  left,  among  the  Ro- 
 mans, were  reckoned  lucky.     But  sometimes  omens 
 on  the  left  are  called  unlucky,  in    imitation   of  the 
 Greeks,  among  whom  augurs  stood  with  their  faces  to 
 the  north,  and   then  the  east,  which  was  the  lucky 
 quarter,  was  on  the  right.     Thunder  on  the  left  was 
 a  good  omen  for  everything  else  but  holding  the  Comi- 
 tia.    The  croaking  of  a  raven  on  the  right,  and  of  a 
 crow  on   the  left,  was  reckoned   fortunate,  and  vice 
 versa.     In  short,  the  whole  art  of  augury  among  the 
 Romans  was  involved  in  uncertainty,  and  was,  in  effect, 
 a  mere  system  of  deception  for  restraining  the  multi- 
 ..tude,  and  increasing,  as  has  already  been  remarked 
 the  influence  of  the  leading  men  over  them.     {Cic, 
 
 de  Div.,   1,  7.— Id.,  2,  2G.—Aulus     Gellius,  5,  8, 
 &c.) 
 
 Augusta,  I.  a  name  given  singly,  or  in  conjunction 
 with  some  epithet,  to  a  large  number  of  cities,  either 
 founded,  embellished,  or  protected  by  Roman  emper- 
 ors. The  apellation  is  derived  from  the  name  of  the 
 first  emperor  of  Rome,  Augustus.  The  term  Augusta 
 sometimes  appears  under  its  Greek  form,  Sebaste 
 {I.£6uaTTi). — II.  A  title  of  honour,  borne  by  many 
 Roman  empresses. 
 
 Augustalia,  a  festival  at  Rome,  in  commemoration 
 of  the  day  on  which  Augustus  returned  to  Rome, 
 after  he  had  established  peace  in  the  different  parts  of 
 the  empire.  It  was  celebrated  on  the  12th  of  Octo- 
 ber. 
 
 AuGUSTiNus,  one  of  the  most  renowned  fathers  of 
 the  Christian  church,  born  at  Tagaste,  a  city  of  Africa, 
 November  13,  A.D.  354,  during  the  reign  of  the  Em- 
 peror Constantino.  He  has  related  his  own  life  in  the 
 work  to  which  he  gave  the  title  of  Confessiones,  and  it 
 is  from  this  source,  together  with  the  Rctractaliones, 
 some  of  his  letters,  and  the  Vila  Possidii  of  the  semi- 
 Pelagian  Gennadius,  that  we  derive  our  principal  in- 
 formation respecting  him.  His  parents  sent  him  to 
 Carthage  to  complete  his  education,  but  he  disap- 
 pointed their  expectations  by  his  neglect  of  serious 
 study  and  his  devotion  to  pleasure.  In  his  sixteenth 
 year  he  became  very  fond  of  women.  For  fifteen 
 years  he  was  connected  with  one,  by  whom  he  had  a 
 son.  He  left  her  only  when  he.  changed  his  whole 
 course  of  life.  A  book  of  Cicero's,  called  Hortcn.nits, 
 which  has  not  come  down  to  our  times,  led  him  to  the 
 study  of  philosophy  ;  and  when  he  found  that  this  did 
 not  satisfy  his  feelings,  he  went  over  to  the  sect  of  the 
 Manichaeans.  He  was  one  of  their  disciples  for  nine 
 years  ;  but,  after  having  obtained  a  correct  knowledge 
 of  their  doctrines,  he  left  them,  and  departed  from  Af- 
 rica to  Rome,  and  thence  to  Milan,  where  he  an- 
 nounced himself  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  Saint  Am- 
 brose was  bishop  of  this  city,  and  his  discourses  con- 
 verted Augustine  to  the  orthodox  faith.  The  reading 
 of  St.  Paul's  epistles  wrought  an  entire  change  in  his 
 life  and  character.  The  Catholic  church  has  a  festi- 
 val (May  3d)  in  commemoration  of  this  event.  He  re- 
 tired into  solitude,  wrote  there  many  books,  and  pre- 
 pared himself  for  baptism,  which  he  received  in  the 
 33d  year  of  his  age,  together  with  his  son  Adeodatus, 
 from  the  hands  of  Ambrose.  He  returned  to  Africa, 
 sold  his  estate,  and  gave  the  proceeds  to  the  poor,  re- 
 taining only  enough  to  support  him  in  a  moderate 
 manner.  As  he  v/as  once  present  in  the  church  at 
 Hippo,  the  bishop,  who  was  a  very  old  man,  signified 
 a  desire  to  consecrate  a  priest  to  assist  and  succeed 
 him.  At  the  desire  of  the  people,  Augustine  entered 
 upon  the  holy  office,  preached  with  extraordinary  suc- 
 cess, and,  in  395,  became  bishop  of  Hippo.  He  en- 
 tered into  a  warm  controversy  with  Pelagius  concern- 
 ing the  doctrines  of  free-will,  of  grace,  and  of  predes- 
 tination, and  wrote  a  hook  concerning  them.  Augus- 
 tine maintained  that  men  were  justified  merely  through 
 grace,  and  not  through  good  works.  He  died  August 
 28,  A.D.  403,  while  Hippo  was  besieged  by  the  Van- 
 dals. There  have  been  fathers  of  the  church  more 
 learned,  masters  of  a  better  language  and  a  purer 
 taste  ;  but  none  have  ever  more  powerfully  touched 
 the  human  heart  and  warmed  it  towards  religion. 
 Painters  have,  therefore,  given  him  for  a  symbol  a 
 flaming  heart.  Augustine  is  one  of  the  most  volumi- 
 nous of  the  Christian  writers.  His  works,  in  the  Ben- 
 edictine edition  of  Antwerp,  1700-3,  fill  12  folio  vol- 
 umes. The  first  of  these  contains  the  works  which 
 he  wrote  before  he  was  a  priest,  and  his  retractations 
 and  confessions ;  the  former  a  critical  review  of  his 
 own  writings,  and  the  latter  a  curious  and  interesting 
 picture  of  his  life.  The  remainder  of  these  volumes 
 consist  of  a  treatise  "  On  the  City  of  God  ;"  comment 
 
 237 
 
AUG 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 tries  on  Scripture  ;  epistles  on  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
 jects, doctrinal,  moral,  and  personal;  sermons  and 
 homilies;  treatises  on  various  points  of  discipline;  and 
 elaborate  arguments  against  heretics.  With  the  ex- 
 ception of  those  of  Aristotle,  no  writings  contributed 
 more  than  Augustine's  to  encourage  the  spirit  of  subtle 
 disputation  which  distinguished  the  scholastic  ages. 
 They  exhibit  much  facility  of  invention  and  strength 
 of  reasoning,  with  more  argument  than  eloquence,  and 
 more  wit  than  learning.  Erasmus  calls  Augustine  a 
 writer  of  obscure  subtlety,  who  requires  in  the  reader 
 acute  penetration,  close  attention,  and  quick  recollec- 
 tion, and  by  no  means  repays  him  for  the  application 
 of  all  these  requisites.  His  works  are  now  almost 
 wholly  neglected.  {Encydop.  Amcric,  vol.  1,  p. 
 46S.) — Among  the  sources  of  information  in  modern 
 times  respecting  the  life  and  productions  of  St.  Au- 
 gustine, the  following  may  be  mentioned  :  Ceillier, 
 Hist.  General,  des  Aut.  Eccles.  {Pans,  1744,  4to), 
 vols.  11  and  12. —  Tillemont,  Memoires,  &c.,  vol.  13. 
 —  Vit.  August.  Vaillant,  et  Du,  JPrischc :  ed.  Op. 
 Benedict.,  vol.  11. — Act.  Sanct.  Mens.  Aug.,  vol.  6, 
 p.  213,  seqq. — L.  Berti,  de  rebus  gestis  S.  August. 
 \Venet.,  1746,  4to). — Rosier,  Bibl.  dcr  Kirchenv'dt., 
 vol.  9,  p.  257.— Fabric,  Bibl.  Lat.,  vol.  3,  p.  519, 
 seqq.  —  Schiockh,  Kircheng.,  vol.  15,  p.  219,  seqq. — 
 Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  3,  p.  54,  seqq. —  Wiggcrs,  Vcrsuch. 
 einer  pragmat.  DarslcUung  des  August,  und  Pelagi- 
 anismus  {Hamburg,  1822,  8vo),  vol.  1.,  p.  7,  seqq. 
 
 AuGUSTULUs  (Romulus  Momyllus,  surnamed  Au- 
 gustus, or,  in  derision,  Augustulus),  the  last  Roman 
 emperor  of  the  West.  He  was  the  son  of  Orestes,  a 
 patrician  and  commander  of  the  Roman  forces  in 
 Gaul.  Augustulus  was  crowned  by  his  father  A.D. 
 475;  but  was  dethroned  the  next  year  by  Odoacer, 
 king  of  the  Heruli,  who  put  Orestes  to  death,  and  ban- 
 ished the  young  monarch  to  Campania,  allowing  him 
 at  the  same  time  a  revenue  for  his  support.  The  true 
 name  of  this  emperor  was  Augustus,  but  the  Romans 
 of  his  time  gave  him,  in  derision,  the  appellation  of 
 Augustulus  {The  Little  Augustus),  which  has  become 
 the  historical  name  of  this  feeble  sovereign.  His  fa- 
 ther Orestes  was  the  actual  emperor,  and  the  son  a 
 mere  puppet  in  his  hands.  {Cassiod.  et  Marcell.  in 
 Chron. — Jornandcs. — Procopius.) 
 
 Augustus  (Caius  Octavius  C^sar  Augustus), 
 originally  called  Caius  Octavius,  was  the  son  of 
 Caius  Octavius,  and  of  Attia  daughter  of  Julia  the 
 sister  of  Julius  Ca?sar.  The  family  of  the  Octavii 
 were  originally  from  Velitroe,  a  city  of  the  Volsci. 
 The  branch  from  which  Augustus  sprung  was  rich, 
 and  of  equestrian  rank.  His  father  was  the  first  of 
 the  name  that  obtained  the  title  of  senator,  but  died 
 when  his  son  was  only  four  years  old.  The  mother 
 of  the  young  Octavius  soon  after  married  L.  Philip- 
 pus,  under  whose  care  he  was  brought  up,  until  his 
 great  uncle  Julius  Caesar,  having  no  children,  began 
 to  regard  him  as  his  heir  (  Veil.  Paterc,  2,  85),  and, 
 when  he  was  between  sixteen  and  seventeen  years  of 
 age,  bestowed  upon  him  some  military  rewards  at  the 
 celebration  of  his  triumph  for  his  victories  in  Africa. 
 (Suet.,  Aug.,  8.)  In  the  following  year  he  accompa- 
 nied his  uncle  into  Spain,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
 given  indications  of  talent  and  activity  ;  and  in  the 
 winter  of  that  same  year  he  was  sent  to  Apollonia  in 
 Epirus,  there  to  employ  himself  in  completing  his  ed- 
 ucation, till  Caesar  should  be  ready  to  take  him  with 
 him  on  his  expedition  against  the  Parthians.  He  was 
 accordingly  living  quietly  at  Apollonia  when  the  news 
 of  his  uncle's  death  called  him  forth,  though  he  was 
 then  hardly  more  than  eighteen  years  of  age,  to  act  a 
 principal  part  in  the  contentions  of  the  times.  On 
 Cffisar's  death  being  known,  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa 
 and  Q.  Sabidienus  Rufns,  who  are  here  first  spoken 
 of  as  his  friends  {Veil.  Paterc,  2,85),  advised  him  to 
 embrace  the  offers  which  many  of  the  centurions  and 
 238 
 
 soldiers  made  him,  of  assisting  him  to  revenge  nis 
 uncle's  murder.  But,  as  he  was  not  yet  aware  of  the 
 strength  of  that  party  which  he  would  find  opposed  to 
 him,  he  judged  it  expedient  to  return  to  Italy,  in  the 
 first  instance,  in  a  private  manner.  On  his  arrival  at 
 Brundisium,  he  learned  the  particulars  of  Cajsar's 
 death,  and  was  informed  also  of  the  contents  of  his 
 will,  by  which  he  himself  was  declared  his  heir  and  his 
 adopted  son.  {Dio  Cnssius,  45,  3. —  Veil.  Paterc  ,  2, 
 85.)  He  did  not  hesitate  instantly  to  accept  this 
 adoption,  and  to  assume  the  name  of  Caesar;  and  it  is 
 said  that  numerous  parties  of  his  uncle's  veterans,  who 
 had  obtained  settlements  in  the  districts  of  Italy 
 through  which  he  passed,  came  from  their  homes  to 
 meet  him,  and  to  assure  him  of  their  support.  {Ap- 
 pian.  Bell.  Civ.,  3,  12.)  At  Rome  two  parties  di- 
 vided the  state,  that  of  the  republicans,  who  had  made 
 away  with  CaRsar,  and  that  of  Antony  and  Lejjidus, 
 who  pretended  to  avenge  his  death,  but  who  had,  in 
 reality,  no  other  intention  but  to  elevate  their  au- 
 thority above  that  of  the  laws.  The  latter  of  these 
 two  parties  was  in  the  ascendant  when  Octavius  vis- 
 ited the  capital,  and  the  consul  Antony  exercised  an 
 almost  absolute  control.  He  received  Octavius  with 
 great  coolness,  and  declined  any  co-operation  with 
 him.  It  is  even  said,  that,  not  content  with  slighting 
 him  as  a  political  associate,  Antony  endeavoured  to 
 obstruct,  or,  at  least,  to  delay,  his  adoption  into  the 
 Julian  family,  since  Octavius  could  not  claim  the 
 possession  of  his  uncle's  inheritance  till  he  had  gone 
 through  the  forms  by  which  he  became  Caesar's  adopt- 
 ed son.  {Florus,  4,  4. — Dio  Cassius,  45,  5.)  On 
 this  provocation,  Octavius  resolved  to  do  himself  jus- 
 tice by  the  most  atrocious  means  ;  and,  although  he 
 was  only  nineteen  years  of  age,  he  suborned  some 
 ruffians  to  assassinate  Antony,  the  consul  of  the  re- 
 public, in  his  own  house.  {Cic,  cp.  ad  fam.,  12,  23. 
 — Sencc.,de  Clem.,  1,  9.)  The  attempt  was  discov- 
 ered in  time,  but  it  threw  Antony  into  the  utmost  per- 
 plexity and  alarm.  As  it  had  not  succeeded,  a  large 
 portion  of  the  people  doubted  its  reality,  and  believed 
 that  the  charge  had  been  falsely  brought  against  Oc- 
 tavius, in  order  to  procure  his  ruin,  that  Antony  might 
 enjoy  his  property  without  disturbance.  So  strong,  in 
 fact,  was  the  public  feeling,  and  so  unpopular  was  An- 
 tony at  this  period,  that  he  did  not  think  it  advisable 
 to  bring  his  intended  assassins  to  trial.  But  he  trem- 
 bled at  the  insecurity  of  his  situation,  and  determined 
 to  employ  a  stronger  military  force  than  the  guard  with 
 which  he  had  hitherto  protected  his  person,  and  by 
 which  he  had  overawed  the  senate  and  the  forum. 
 With  this  view  Antony  endeavoured  to  gain  over  the 
 veterans  of  Capsar  that  were  stationed  at  Brundisium, 
 but  the  more  liberal  offers  of  the  young  Octavius  drew 
 them  over  to  the  side  of  the  latter.  At  length  the 
 two  competitors  for  empire  had  recourse  to  arms,  and 
 Cisaljiine  Gaul  became  the  theatre  of  warfare.  Deci- 
 mus  Brutus,  who  held  the  command  of  this  province, 
 threw  himself  into  Mutina,  where  Antony  besieged 
 him,  but  the  latter  was  defeated  by  Octavius  and  the 
 consuls  Hirtius  and  Pansa,  and  compelled  to  retreat 
 towards  Transalpine  Gaul.  All  the  veteran  legions 
 which  had  been  commanded  by  the  late  consuls  (these 
 leaders  had  fallen  in  the  battle  of  Mutina)  were  now, 
 with  one  exception,  under  the  orders  of  Octavius,  and 
 neither  they  nor  their  general  were  inclined  to  obey 
 any  longer  the  authority  of  the  senate.  Marching  to 
 Rome  at  the  head  of  his  forces,  Octavius  was  now 
 elected  consul  by  open  intimidation  of  the  senate  and 
 people,  and  the  liberty  of  the  commonwealth  was  lost 
 for  ever.  Antony  and  Lepidus,  meanwhile,  had  united 
 their  forces,  and  recrossed  the  Alps  ;  and  Octavius, 
 now  invested  with  the  title  of  consul,  and  command- 
 ing a  numerous  army,  marched  back  again  towards 
 Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  found  the  two  leaders  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Mutina.     A  friendly  correspondence 
 
AUGUSTUS. 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 had  been  carried  on  between  the  chiefs  of  the  two 
 armies  before  they  were  advanced  very  near  to  one 
 another;  and  it  was  determined  that  all  differences 
 should  finally  be  settled,  and  the  future  measures  which 
 they  were  to  take  in  common  should  be  arranged  at 
 a  personal  interview.     This  interview  resulted  in  the 
 formation  of  a  Triumvirate,  or  High  Commission  of 
 three,  for   settling  the  affairs  of  the  Commonwealth 
 during  tive  years.     (Liv.,  Epit.,  lib.  120.— Appian, 
 Bell.    Civ.,  4,  3.)     They  divided  among  themselves 
 those  provinces  of  the  empire  which  were  subject  to 
 their  power,  and  the  triumvirate  was  cemented  by  the 
 most    dreadful   scenes    of   proscription    and    murder, 
 during  which  fell  the  celebrated  Cicero,  a  victim  to 
 the  vengeance  of  Antony,  and  basely  left  to  his  fate 
 by   the  heartless  Octavius.     After  the  hopes  of  the 
 republican  party  had  been  crushed  at  Philippi,  Anto- 
 ny, in  an  evil  hour  for  himself,  turned  his  back  upon 
 Italy,  and  left  the  immediate  government  of  the  cap- 
 ital in  the  hands  of  his  associate.     On   returning  to 
 Rome,  Octavius  satisfied  the  cupidity  of  his  soldiers 
 by  the  division  of  the  finest  lands  in  the  Italian  penin- 
 sula.    This  division  gave  rise  to  the  most  violent  dis- 
 turbance.    In  the  midst  of  the  stormy  scenes  that  now 
 convulsed  Italy,  Octavius  was  obliged  to  contend  with 
 Fulvia,  whose  daughter  Clodia  he  had  rejected,  and 
 with   Lucius,   the    brother-in-law    of  Antony.     After 
 several  battles,  Lucius  threw  himself  into  the  city  of 
 Perusia,  where  he  was  soon  after  obliged  to  surrender. 
 The  city  was  given  up  to  be  plundered,  and  300  sen- 
 ators were  condemned  to  death,  as  a  propitiatory  sac- 
 rifice to  the  manes  of  the  deified  Casar.     After  the 
 return  of  Antony  an  end  was  put  to  the  proscriptions, 
 and  such  of  the  proscribed  persons  as  had  escaped 
 death  by  flight,  and  whom  Octavius  no  longer  feared, 
 were  allowed  to  return.     There  were  still  some  dis- 
 turbances in  Gaul,  and  the    naval   war   with  Sextus 
 Pompeius  continued  for  several  years.     After  his  re- 
 turn from  Gaul,  Octavius  married  the  famous  Livia, 
 the   wife   of  Claudius  Nero,  whom  he  compelled  to 
 resign  her,  after  he  himself  had  divorced  his  third  wife 
 Scnbonia.      Lepidus,  who  had  hitherto  retained  an  ap- 
 pearance of  power,  was  now  deprived  of  his  authority, 
 and  died  as  a  private  man  B.C.  13.     Antony  and  Oc- 
 tavius then  divided  the  empire.     But  while  the  for- 
 mer, in  the  East,  gave  himself  up  to  a  life  of  luxury, 
 the  young  Octavius  pursued  his  plan  of  making  him- 
 self sole  master  of  the  Roman  world.     He  especially 
 strove    to  obtain    the   affections  of    the    people.      A 
 firm  government  was  established  ;  the  system  of  auda- 
 cious robbery,  which  the  distresses  of  the  times  had 
 long   fostered    at    Rome  and   throughout    Italy,  was 
 speedily    and    effectually    suppressed.      He    showed 
 mildness  and  a  degree  of  magnanimity,  if  it  could  be 
 so  called,  without  the  appearance  of  striving  after  the 
 highest  power,  and  even  declared  himself  ready  to  lay 
 down  his  power  when  Antony  should  return  from  his 
 war  against  the  Parthians.     He  appeared  rather  to  per- 
 mit than  to  wish  himself  to  be  appointed  perpetual 
 tribune,  an  office  which  virtually  invested  him  with 
 sovereign  authority.     The  more  he  advanced  in  the 
 affections  of  the  people,  the  more  openly  did  he  de- 
 clare himself  against  Antony.     Meanwhile  the  latter 
 had  excited  a  strong  feeling  of  disgust  not  only  among 
 the  Romans  at  home,  but  even  among  his  own  offi- 
 cers, by  his  shameful  abandonment  to  the  celebrated 
 Cleopatra,  the  queen  of  Egypt.     His  divorcing  him- 
 self from  Octavia,  the  sister  of  his  colleggue  in  the 
 triumvirate,  seemed  like  dishonouring  a  noble  Roman 
 lady  in  order  to  gratify  the  jealousy  of  a  barbarian 
 paramour  ;  and  an  act  of  baseness  on  the  part  of  Oc- 
 tavius himself  completed  the  blow.     Having  got  pos- 
 session of  Antony's  will,  he  broke  open  the  seals,  and 
 read  the  contents  of  it  publicly,  first  to  the  senate,  and 
 afterward  to  the  assembly  of  the  people.     The  clause 
 in  it  which  especially  induced   Octavius  to  commit 
 
 this  act,  was  one  in  which  Antony  desired  that  his 
 body  might,  after  death,  be  carried  to  Alexandrea,  and 
 there  buried  by  the  side  of  Cleopatra.  This  proof  of 
 his  romantic  attachment  for  a  foreigner  seemed,  in  the 
 eyes  of  the  Romans,  to  attest  his  utter  degeneracy,  and 
 induced  the  populace,  at  least,  to  credit  the  inventions 
 of  his  enemies,  who  asserted  that  it  was  his  intention, 
 if  victorious  in  the  contest  that  now  appeared  inevita- 
 ble, to  give  up  Rome  to  the  dominion  of  Cleopatra, 
 and  transfer  the  seat  of  empire  from  the  banks  of  the 
 Tiber  to  those  of  the  Nile.  It  is  clear,  from  the  lan- 
 o-uacre  of  those  poets  who  wrote  under  the  patronage 
 of  Augustus,  that  this  was  the  light  in  which  the  war 
 was  industriously  represented  ;  that  every  effort  was 
 made  to  give  it  the  character  of  a  contest  with  a  for- 
 eign enemy  ;  and  to  array  on  the  side  of  Octavius  the 
 national  pride  and  jealousy  of  the  people  of  Rome. 
 {Hor.,  Od.,  1,  37,  5,  scqq.—Vtrg.,  JEn.,  8,  678,  685, 
 698.)  Availing  himself  of  this  feeling,  Octavius  de- 
 clared war  against  the  Queen  of  Egypt,  and  led  a  con- 
 siderable force  by  both  sea  and  land  to  the  Ainbracian 
 Gulf,  where  Agrippa  gained  the  naval  victory  of  Ac- 
 tium,  which  made  Octavius  master  of  the  Roman 
 world.  He  pursued  his  rival  to  Egypt,  and  ended  the 
 war  after  he  had  rejected  the  proposal  of  Antony  to 
 decide  their  differences  by  a  personal  combat.  Cleo- 
 patra and  Antony  killed  themselves.  Octavius  caused 
 them  to  be  splendidly  buried.  A  son  of  Antony  and 
 Cleopatra  was  sacrificed  to  ensure  the  safety  of  the 
 conqueror  ;  and  Cssarion,  a  son  of  Caesar  and  Cleopa- 
 tra, shared  the  same  fate.  All  the  other  relations  of 
 Antony  remained  uninjured,  and  Octavius,  on  the 
 whole,  used  his  power  with  moderation.  After  hav- 
 ing spent  two  years  in  the  East,  in  order  to  arrange 
 the  affairs  of  Egypt,  Greece,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and 
 the  islands,  he  celebrated,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  a 
 triumph  for  three  days  in  succession.  Freed  from  his 
 rivals  and  enemies,  and  master  of  the  world,  he  was 
 undecided  concerning  the  way  in  which  he  should  ex- 
 ercise his  power  for  the  future.  Agrippa,  whose  vic- 
 tory had  given  him  universal  dominion,  counselled  him 
 to  renounce  his  authority.  Ma'cenas  opposed  this  ; 
 and  Octavius  followed  his  advice,  or,  rather,  his  own 
 inclinations.  In  order  to  make  the  people  willing  to 
 look  upon  him  as  an  unlimited  monarch,  he  abolished 
 the  laws  of  the  triumvirate,  beautified  the  city,  and 
 exerted  himself  in  correcting  the  abuses  which  had 
 prevailed  during  the  civil  war.  At  the  end  of  his 
 seventh  consulship,  he  entered  the  senate-house,  and 
 declared  his  resolution  to  lay  down  his  power.  The 
 senate  besought  him  to  retain  it  ;  and  the  farce  ended 
 by  his  yielding  to  their  pressing  entreaties,  and  con- 
 senting to  continue  to  govern  through  them.  He  now 
 obtained  the  surname  of  Augustus,  which  marked  the 
 dignity  of  his  person  and  rank,  and  by  degrees  he 
 united  in  himself  the  offices  of  imperator,  or  command- 
 er-in-chief by  sea  and  land,  with  power  to  make  war 
 and  peace  ;  of  proconsul  over  all  the  provinces  ;  of 
 perpetual  tribune  of  the  people,  which  rendered  his 
 person  inviolable,  and  gave  him  the  power  of  interrupt- 
 ing public  proceedmgs  ;  and,  in  fine,  of  censor  (magis- 
 ler  morum)  and  pontifex  maximus,  or  controller  of  all 
 things  appertaining  to  public  morals  and  religion. 
 The  laws  themselves  were  subject  to  him,  and  the  ob- 
 servance of  them  depended  on  his  will.  To  these 
 dignities  we  must  add  the  title  of  "Father  of  his 
 Country"  {Pater  Patruc).  Great  as  was  the  power 
 thus  given  him,  he  nevertheless  exercised  it  witls  mod- 
 eration. It  was  the  spirit  of  his  policy  to  retain  M 
 names  and  forms,  and  he  steadfastly  refused  to  assume 
 the  title  of  Dictator,  which  Sylla  and  Cffisar  had  ren- 
 dered odious.— Augustus  carried  on  many  wars  in 
 Africa,  Asia,  and  particularly  in  Spain,  where  he  tri- 
 umphed over  the  Cantabri  after  a  severe  struggle. 
 His  arms  subjected  Aquitania,  Pannonia,  Dalmatia, 
 and  Illyria,  and  held  the  Dacians,  Numidians,  and 
 
AUGUSTUS. 
 
 AUGUSTUS. 
 
 .(Ethiopians  in  check.  He  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
 Parthians,  by  which  they  gave  up  Armenia,  and  re- 
 stored the  eagles  taken  from  Crassus  and  Antony. 
 At  the  foot  of  the  Alps  he  erected  nioninnents  of  his 
 triumphs  over  the  mountaineers,  the  proud  remains  of 
 which  are  yet  to  be  seen  at  Susa  and  Aosla.  After 
 he  had  established  peace  throughout  the  empire,  he 
 closed  (for  the  third  time  since  the  foundation  of  Rome) 
 the  temple  of  Janus  (B.C.  10).  This  universal  repose, 
 however,  was  interrupted,  A.D.  9,  by  the  defeat  of 
 Varus,  who  lost  three  legions  in  an  engagement  with 
 the  Germans  under  Arminius,  and  killed  himself  in 
 despair.  The  intelligence  of  this  misfortune  greatly 
 agitated  Augustus.  He  let  his  beard  and  hair  grow, 
 and  often  cried  out,  as  if  in  the  deepest  sorrow,  "  Oh 
 Varus,  give  me  back  my  legions .'"  Meanwhile  the 
 Germans  were  held  in  check  by  Tiberius.  During  the 
 peace,  to  which  we  have  just  referred,  Augustus  had 
 issued  many  useful  decrees,  and  abolished  many  abuses 
 in  the  government.  He  gave  a  new  form  to  the  senate, 
 employed  himself  in  improving  the  manners  of  the 
 people,  promoted  marriage,  suppressed  luxury,  intro- 
 duced discipline  into  the  armies,  and,  in  a  word,  did 
 everything  in  his  power  to  subserve  the  best  interests 
 of  the  state.  He  adorned  Rome  in  such  a  manner, 
 that  it  was  truly  said  by  him,  "  he  found  it  of  brick, 
 and  left  it  of  marble."  {Suelon.,  Aug.,  29. — Dio 
 Cass.,  56,  30.)  He  also  made  journeys  everywhere, 
 to  increase  the  blessings  of  peace ;  he  went  to  Sicily 
 and  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Gaul,  and  other  quar- 
 ters :  in  several  places  he  founded  cities  and  established 
 colonies.  (Veil.  Palerc,  2,  92.)  The  people  erected 
 altars  to  him,  and  by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  the  month 
 Sextilis  was  called  by  the  new  appellation  of  Augustus 
 (August).  Two  conspiracies,  which  threatened  his 
 life,  miscarried.  Caspio,  Muraena,  and  Egnatius  were 
 punished  with  death :  Cinna  was  more  fortunate,  re- 
 ceiving pardon  from  the  emperor.  This  forbearance 
 increased  the  love  of  the  Romans,  and  diminished  the 
 number  of  the  disaffected  ;  so  that  the  master  of  Rome 
 wouJd  have  had  nothing  to  wish  for,  if  his  family  had 
 been  as  obedient  as  the  world.  The  debauchery  of 
 his  daughter  .Julia  gave  him  the  greatest  pain,  and  he 
 showed  himself  more  severe  towards  those  who  de- 
 stroyed the  honour  of  his  family  than  towards  those 
 who  had  threatened  his  life.  History  says,  that  in  his 
 old  age  he  was  ruled  by  Livia,  the  only  person  per- 
 haps whom  he  truly  loved.  He  had  no  sons,  and  lost 
 by  death  his  sister's  son  Marcellus,  and  his  daughter's 
 sons  Caius  and  Lucius,  whom  he  had  appointed  his 
 successors.  Drusus,  also,  his  son-in-law,  whom  he 
 loved,  died  early  ;  and  Tiberius,  the  brother  of  the 
 latter,  whom  he  hated  on  account  of  his  bad  qualities, 
 alone  survived.  These  numerous  calamities,  together 
 with  his  continually  increasing  infirmities,  gave  him  a 
 strong  desire  for  repose.  He  undertook  a  journey  to 
 Campania,  from  whose  purer  air  he  hoped  for  relief; 
 but  disease  fixed  upon  him,  and  he  died  at  Nola  (Au- 
 gust 19,  A.D.  14),  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his  age, 
 and  forty-fifth  of  his  reign. — .\ugustus  was  in  his  stat- 
 ure something  below  the  middle  size,  but  extremely 
 well  proportioned.  {Suelon.,  Aug.,  79.)  His  hair 
 was  a  little  inclined  to  curl,  and  of  a  yellowish  brown  ; 
 his  eyes  were  bright  and  lively  ;  but  the  general  ex- 
 pression of  his  countenance  was  remarkably  calm  and 
 mild.  His  health  was  throughout  his  life  delicate,  yet 
 the  constant  attention  which  he  paid  to  it,  and  his  strict 
 temperance  in  eating  and  drinking,  enabled  him  to  reach 
 the  full  age  of  man.  As  a  seducer  and  adulterer,  and 
 a  man  of  low  sensuality,  his  character  was  as  profligate 
 as  that  of  his  uncle.  (Sueton.,  Aug.,  69,  71.)  In  his 
 literary  qualifications,  without  at  all  rivalling  the  at- 
 tainments of  Caesar,  he  was  on  a  level  with  most  Ro- 
 mans of  distinction  of  his  time  ;  and  it  is  said,  that 
 both  in  speaking  and  writing,  his  style  was  eminent  for 
 its  perfect  plainness  and  propriety.  {Sucton.,  Aug., 
 ?40 
 
 68,  seqq.)  His  speeches  on  any  public  occasion  were 
 composed  beforehand,  and  recited  from  memory  ;  nay, 
 so  careful  was  he  not  to  commit  himself  by  any  in- 
 considerate expression,  that,  even  when  discussing  any 
 important  subject  with  his  own  wife,  he  wrote  down 
 what  he  had  to  say,  and  read  it  before  her.  Like  his 
 uncle,  he  was  strongly  tinged  with  superstition.  He 
 was  very  deficient  in  military  talent ;  but  in  every  spe- 
 cies of  artful  policy,  in  clearly  seeing,  and  steadily  and 
 dispassionately  following  his  own  interest,  and  in  turn- 
 ing to  his  own  advantage  all  the  weaknesses  of  others, 
 his  ability,  if  so  it  may  be  called,  has  been  rarely 
 equalled.  His  deliberate  cruelty,  his  repeated  treach- 
 ery, and  his  sacrifice  of  every  duty  and  every  feeling  to 
 the  purposes  of  his  ambition,  speak  for  themselves  ;  and 
 yet  it  would  be  unjust  to  ascribe  to  a  politic  premedi- 
 tation all  the  popular  actions  of  his  reign.  Good  is  in 
 itself  so  much  more  delightful  than  evil,  that  he  was 
 doubtless  not  insensible  to  the  pleasure  of  kind  and 
 beneficent  actions,  and  perhaps  sincerely  rejoiced  that 
 they  were  no  longer  incompatible  with  his  interests. — 
 Among  the  various  arts  to  which  Augustus  resorted  to 
 beguile  the  hearts  of  his  people,  and  perhaps  to  render 
 them  forgetful  of  their  former  freedom,  one  of  the  most 
 remarkable  was  the  encouragement  which  he  extended 
 to  learning,  and  the  patronage  he  so  liberally  bestowed 
 on  all  by  whom  it  was  cultivated.  To  this  noble  pro- 
 tection of  literature  he  was  prompted  not  less  by  taste 
 and  inclination  than  sound  policy  ;  and  in  his  patron- 
 age of  the  learned,  his  usual  artifice  had  probably  a 
 smaller  share  than  in  those  other  parts  of  his  conduct 
 by  which  he  acquired  the  favourable  opinion  of  the 
 world.  Augustus  was,  besides,  an  excellent  judge  of 
 composition,  and  a  true  critic  in  poetry  ;  so  that  his 
 patronage  was  never  misplaced,  or  lavished  on  those 
 whose  writings  might  rather  have  tended  to  corrupt 
 than  improve  the  taste  and  learning  of  the  age.  No 
 writer  could  hope  for  patronage  except  by  cultivating 
 a  style  both  chaste  and  simple,  which,  if  ornamental, 
 was  not  luxurious,  or,  if  severe,  was  not  rugged  or 
 antiquated.  The  court  of  Augustus  thus  became  a 
 school  of  urbanity,  where  men  of  genius  acquired  that 
 delicacy  of  taste,  that  elevation  of  sentiment,  and  that 
 purity  of  expression,  which  characterize  the  writers  of 
 the  age.  To  Mscenas,  the  favourite  minister  of  the 
 emperor,  the  honour  is  due  of  having  most  successfully 
 followed  out  the  views  of  his  master  for  promoting  the 
 interests  of  literature  ;  but  it  is  wrong  to  give  Maecenas 
 the  credit,  as  some  have  done,  of  first  having  turned 
 the  attention  of  Augustus  to  the  patronage  of  literature. 
 On  the  contrary,  he  appears  merely  to  have  acted  from 
 the  orders,  or  to  have  followed  ^he  example,  of  his  im- 
 perial master.  (Encyclcp.  Metrop.,  Div.  3,  vol.  2,  p. 
 294,  seqij. — Encyclop.  Amer.,  vol.  1,  p.  469. — Bingr. 
 Univ.,  vol.  3,  p.  37,  seqq. — Dmilo-p's  Rom.  Lit.,  vol. 
 3,  p.  10,  seqq.) — n.  A  title  which  descended  from  Or- 
 tavius  to  his  successors.  It  was  purely  honorary,  and 
 carried  with  it  the  idea  of  respect  and  veneration  rather 
 than  of  any  authority.  The  feminine  form  Augusta 
 was  often  given  to  the  mothers,  wives,  or  sisters  of  the 
 Roman  emperors.  Under  Dioclesian,  when  the  new 
 constitution  was  given  to  the  empire,  the  title  of  Au- 
 gustus became  more  definite,  and  then  began  to  be 
 applied  to  the  two  princes  who  held  sway  conjointly, 
 while  the  appellation  of  Ccesar  was  given  to  each  of 
 the  presumptive  heirs  of  the  empire.  The  term  Au- 
 gustus is  derived,  not  from  augeo,  but  from  augur. 
 {Gronoii.,  Tlies.  Aiitiq.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  462.)  Places 
 or  buildings  consecrated  by  auguries  were  originally 
 called  augusta;  and  the  name  w'as  afterward  applied 
 to  other  things  similarly  circumstanced.  Thus  Ennius, 
 as  cited  by  Suetonius  (Avg.,  7),  uses  the  expression 
 "  augusto  augurio."  (Compare  Fest.,  p.  43. — Ovid, 
 Fast.,  1,  607,  seqq.)  Consequently,  when  the  title 
 Augustus  is  applied  to  a  person,  it  is  equivalent  in 
 meaning  to  sanetus,  sacralus,  oi  sacrosanctus.     (Com- 
 
AUL 
 
 AUR 
 
 pare  Dio  Cass.,  53,  16.)  And  hence,  as  Gronovius 
 correctly  remarks,  the  term  in  question  contains  -^tlov 
 TL,  "something  of  a  divine  nature."  The  Greelvs, 
 moreover,  rendered  Augustus  into  their  language  by 
 ^efjaaroc,  which  Dio  Cassius  (/.  c.)  explains  by  ce-kto^. 
 {Creuzcr,  Rom.  Antiq.,  p.  292,  scqq.) 
 
 AvuNUs,  Flavius,  a  Latin  versifier  of  ./Esopic  fables, 
 forty-two  \n  number.  The  measure  adopted  by  him 
 is  the  elegiac.  Accordmg  to  Cannegieter,  one  of  his 
 editors,  Avianus  flourished  about  160  A. D.  {Hemic. 
 Canneg.  de  alate,  &c.,  FLav.  Aviani  Disserlatio,  p. 
 231,  seqq.)  This  opinion,  however,  is  rendered  alto- 
 gether untenable  by  the  inferior  character  of  the  Latin- 
 itv,  which  Cannegieter  endeavours,  though  unsuccess- 
 fully, to  defend.  Avianus  would  seem  to  have  lived  in 
 the  reign  of  Theodosius,  long  after  the  date  assigned  by 
 the  scholar  just  mentioned.  His  work  is  dedicated  to 
 a  certain  Theodosius,  supposed  to  have  been  the  gram- 
 marian Macrobius  Theodosius.  The  fables  of  Avianus 
 are  soineliiiies  erroneously  ascribed  to  Avienus.  The 
 best  editions  of  Avianus  are,  that  of  Cannegieter,  Am- 
 stclod.,  1731,  8vo,  and  that  of  Nodell,  Amsldod.,  1787, 
 8vo.     {Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  317.) 
 
 Avienus,  Rufus  Festus,  a  Roman  poet,  whose  age 
 and  country  have  both  been    disputed.     St.  Jerome 
 speaks  of  him  as  of  a  recent  writer  {in  Epist.  ad  Titum, 
 V.  12),  and  we  can  scarcely,  therefore,  with  Crinitus, 
 place  him  in  the  reign  of  Diociesian.     {Criiut.,  depoet. 
 Laf.,  c.  80.)     The  death  of  Jerome  happened  A.D. 
 420,  in  his  ninety-first  year  :  on  the  supposition,  there- 
 fore, that  Avienus  flourished  about  the  middle  of  that 
 father's  protracted  life,  we  may  assign  him  to  about 
 A.D.  370,  or  the  period  of  Valcntinian,  Valens,  and 
 Gratian.     Tradition  or  conjecture    has    made    him  a 
 Spaniard  by  birth;  but  this  opinion  is  unsupported  by 
 written  testimony,  and  even  contradicted,   if  the  in- 
 scription found  in  the    Caisarian    Villa    refer  to  this 
 poet,  which  there  seems  small  reason  to  doubt.     From 
 this  we  learn  that  he  was  the  son  of  Musonius  Avienus, 
 or  the  son  of  Avienus  and  descendant  of  Musonius, 
 accordingly  as  we  punctuate  the  first  line  ("  Festus 
 Musoni  soboles  prolcsquc  Avieni''') ;  that  he  was  born 
 at  Vulsinii  in  Etruria  ;   that  he  resided  at  Rome  ;   that 
 he  was  twice  proconsul,  and  the  author  of  many  poet- 
 ical   pieces.     The    same    inscription   contradicts    the 
 notion,  too  precipitately  grounded  on  some  vague  ex- 
 pressions in  his  writings,  that  he  was  a  Christian  ;  for 
 it  is  nothing  else  than  a  religious  address  to  the  god- 
 dess Nortia,  the  Fortune  of  the  Etrurians.     The  extant 
 and  acknowledged  works  of  this  })oet  are  versions  of 
 the  iaivofieva  of  Aratus,  and  the  TLEpti/y7j<7ic  of  Dio- 
 nysius  ;  and  a  portion  of  a  poem  "  De  Ora  Maritima,^'' 
 which  includes,  with  some  digressions,  the  coast  be- 
 tween Cadiz  and  Marseilles.     The  other  poems  gen- 
 erally believed    to  be    the  work  of  Avienus   are,  an 
 Epistle  to  Flavianus  Myrmecius,  an  elegiac  piece  "  de 
 Caiitu   Sireniim,"  and   some  verses  addressed  to  the 
 author's  friends  from  the  country.     A  poem  "  de  ur- 
 bihus   HispanicE   Medilcrraneis,^''    is    cited    by   some 
 Spanish  writers  as  the  production  of  Avienus  {Nicolaus 
 Antonius,  Bibl.  Vet.  Hisp.,  2,  9),  but  it   is   generally 
 supposed  to  be  the  forgery  of  a  Jesuit  of  Toledo.      Ser- 
 vius  {ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  10,  272-388)  ascribes  to  Avie- 
 nus iambic  versions  of  the  narrative  of  Virgil  and  the 
 history  of  Livy  ;  which  observation  of  the  grammarian, 
 together  with  a  consideration  of  the  genius  and  habits 
 of  this  poet,  renders  it  not  altogether  improbable  that 
 he  is  the  author  of  a  very  curious  and   spirited  Latin 
 Epitome  of  the  Iliad,  which  has  reached  us,  and  which 
 throws  some  light  on  the  poetical  history  of  the  time. 
 — The  best  edition  of  Avienus  is  that  of  Wernsdorif, 
 in  the  Poctce  Latini  Minorcs,  vol.  5,  pt.  2,  Hclmstad., 
 1791,  12mo.     {Encydop.  Meiropol.,  Div.  3,  vol.  2,  p. 
 575,  scq. — B'dhr,   Gesch.   Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  I,  p.  185, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Ablerct.     Under  this   name  are  reckoned  three 
 Hh 
 
 nations  of  Gaul.  L  The  Aulerci  Brannovices,  con- 
 tiguous to  the  .(Edui,  and  subject  to  them,  ansv^'ering 
 to  what  is  now  le  Brtennois.  {Ccbs.,  B.  G.,  7,  75.) — 
 IL  The  Aulerci  Cenomani,  situate  between  the  Sarta 
 or  Sartke,  and  the  Lsdus,  two  of  the  northern  branches 
 of  the  Liger.  Their  country  is  now  the  Department 
 de  la  Sarlhe.  {Gees.,  B.  G.,  7,  75.)— III.  The  Au- 
 lerci Eburovices,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sequana  or 
 Seine,  below  Lutetia  or  Pans,  answering  now  to  the 
 Department  de  VEurc.     {Ccbs.,  B.  G.,  3,  17.) 
 
 AuLETEs,  the  surname  of  one  of  the  Ptolemies, 
 father  of  Cleopatra.  The  appellation  is  a  Greek  one, 
 meaning  "  flute-player"  (AiA^yr/)^),  and  was  given  him 
 on  account  of  his  excellence  in  playing  upon  the  flute, 
 or,  more  correctly  speaking,  pipe. 
 
 AuLis,  a  town  of  Boeotia,  on  the  shores  of  the  Eu- 
 ripus,  and  nearly  opposite  to  Chalcis.  It  is  celebrated 
 as  being  the  rendezvous  of  the  Grecian  fleet  when 
 about  to  sail  for  Troy,  and  as  the  place  where  they 
 were  so  long  detained  by  adverse  winds.  {Vid.  Iphi- 
 genia.)  Strabo  (403)  remarks,  that,  as  the  harbour  of 
 Aulis  could  not  contain  more  than  fifty  ships,  the  Gre- 
 cian fleet  must  have  assembled  in  the  neighbouring 
 port  of  Bathys,  which  was  much  more  extensive. 
 From  Xenophon  we  learn,  that,  when  Agesilaus  was 
 on  the  point  of  setting  out  for  Asia  Minor,  to  carry  or; 
 the  war  against  Persia,  he  had  intended  to  ofter  :,[) 
 sacrifice  at  Aulis,  but  was  opposed  in  this  design  by 
 the  Boeotarchs,  who  appeared  in  the  midst  of  the  cere- 
 mony with  an  armed  force.  {Hist.  Gr.,Z,4:,'i.)  Livy 
 says  the  distance  between  Aulis  and  Chalcis  was  three 
 miles.  {Liv.,  45,  27.)  Pausamas  (9,  19)  reports, 
 that  the  temple  of  Diana  still  existed  when  he  visited 
 Aulis,  but  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  place  were  few, 
 and  those  chiefly  potters.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  262,  seqq.) 
 
 AuLON,  I.  a  fertile  ridge  and  valley  near  Tarentum, 
 in  Southern  Italy,  the  wine  of  which  equalled  the  Fa- 
 lernian  in  the  opinion  of  Horace.  {Horat.,  Od.,  2,  6, 
 18.) — II.  A  valley  of  Palestine,  extending  along  the 
 banks  of  Jordan,  called  also  Magnus  Campus. — III. 
 Another  in  Syria,  between  the  ridges  of  Libanus  and 
 Antilibanus. — IV.  A  district  and  city  of  Messenia. 
 bordering  on  Triphylia  and  part  of  Arcadia,  being  sep- 
 arated from  these  two  by  the  Neda.  {Strab.,  350. — 
 Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.) 
 
 AuLus,  I.  A  pra;nomcn  common  among  the  Ro- 
 mans.— II.   Gellius.     {Vid.  Gellius.) 
 
 AuRELiA  I-EX,  was  enacted  A.U.C.  683,  and  or- 
 dained that  judices  or  jurymen  should  be  chosen 
 from  the  Senators,  Equites,  and  Tribuni  .Erarii. — 
 Another,  A.U.C.  678.  It  abrogated  a  clause  of  the 
 Lex  Cornelia,  and  permitted  the  tribunes  to  hold  other 
 offices  after  the  expiration  of  the  tribuneship. 
 AuREi.iANi.      Vid.  Genabum. 
 
 AuRELi.iNUs,  I.  (Lucius  Domitius)  an  emperor  ol 
 Rome,  distinguished  for  his  military  abilities  and  stern 
 severity  of  character,  was  the  son  of  a  peasant  in  the 
 territory  of  Sirmium,  in  Iliyria.  His  father  occupied 
 a  small  farm,  the  property  of  Aurelius,  a  rich  senator. 
 The  son  enlisted  in  the  troops  as  a  common  soldier, 
 successively  rose  to  the  rank  of  centurion,  tribune,  pre- 
 fect of  a  legion,  inspector  of  the  camp,  general,  or,  as 
 it  was  then  called,  duke  of  a  frontier  ;  and  at  length, 
 during  the  Gothic  war,  exercised  the  important  office 
 of  commander-in-chief  of  the  cavalry.  In  every  station 
 he  distinguished  himself  by  matchless  valour,  rigid  dis- 
 cipline, and  successful  conduct.  Theoclius,  as  quoted 
 in  the  Augustan  history  (p.  211),  aflirms,  that  in  one 
 day  he  killed  forty-eight  Sarmatians,  and  m  several 
 subsequent  engagements  nine  hundred  and  fifty.  This 
 heroic  valour  was  admired  by  the  soldiers,  and  cele- 
 brated in  their  rude  songs,  the  burden  of  which  was 
 "  Milk,  mille,  mille,  occidit."  At  length  Valerian  II. 
 raised  him  to  the  consulship,  and  his  good  fortune  waa 
 farther  favoured  by  a  wealthy  and   noble  marriage. 
 
 241 
 
AURELIANUS. 
 
 AUR 
 
 His  next  elevation  was  to  the  throne,  Claudius  II.,  on 
 his  deathbed,  having    recommended   Aureiian  to  the 
 troops  of  Illyricum,  who  readily  acceded  to  his  wishes. 
 The  reign  ol   this  monarch  lasted  only  four  years  and 
 about  nuie  months  ;    but  every  instant  of  that  short 
 period  was  filled  by   some   memorable    achievement. 
 He  put  an  end  to  the   Gothic  war,  chastised  the   Ger- 
 mans who   invaded   Italy,  recovered   Gaul,  Spain,  and 
 Britain  out  of  the  hands  of  Tctricus,  and  destroyed  the 
 proud  monarchy  which  Zenobia  had  erected  in  the  East 
 on  the  rums  of  the  afflicted  empire.     Owing  to  the  un- 
 generous excuse  of  the  queen,  that  she  had  waged  war 
 by  the  advice  of  her  ministers,  her  secretary,  the  cel- 
 ebrated Longinus,  was  put  to  death  by  the  victor  ;  but, 
 after   having  graced  his  triumphal   entry  into  Rome, 
 Zenobia  herself  was  presented  with  a  villa  near  Tibur, 
 and  allowed  to  spend  the  remainder  of  her   days  as  a 
 Roman  matron.     {Vid.  Zenobia,  Longinus,  Palmyra.) 
 Aureiian  followed  up  his  victories  by  the  reformation 
 of  abuses,  and  the  restoration  throughout  the  empire 
 of  order  and  regularity,  but  he  tarnished  his  good  in- 
 tentions by  the  general  severity  of  his  measures,  and 
 the  sacrifice  of  the   senatorian  order  to  his  slightest 
 suspicions.     He  had  planned  a  great  expedition  against 
 Persia,  and  was  wailing  in  Thrace  for  an  opportunity 
 to  cross  the  straits,  when  he  lost  his  life,  A.l).  125,  by 
 assassination,  the  result  of  a  conspiracy  excited  by  a 
 secretary  whom  he  intended    to  call    to  account  for 
 peculation.     Aureiian  was    a  wise,  able,  and    active 
 prince,  and  very  useful   in  the  declining   state  of  the 
 empire  ;  but  the  austerity  of  his  character  caused  him 
 to  be  very  little  regretted.     It  is  said  that  he  meditated 
 a  severe  persecution  on  the  Christians,  when  he  was 
 so  suddenly  cut  off.      {Hist.  August.,  p.  211,  segq. — 
 Gibbon,   Decline  and  Fall,  c.  11. — Btogr.  Univ.,  yo\. 
 3,  p.  72. — Encyclop.  Am.,  vol.  I ,  p.  474.) — II.   Cselius, 
 a  native  of  Sicca,  in  Numidia,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
 lived  between  180  and  240  A.D.     He  was  a  member 
 of  the  medical  profession,  and  has  left  behind  him  two 
 works  :   the  one  entitled,   "  Libri  Quinque  lardarum 
 sive  chronicarum  passionum,"'  and  the  other,  "  Ltbri 
 tres  celerum  sive  acutarum  passionum."     Both  are 
 drawn  from  Greek  authors  ;   from  Themison,  Thessa- 
 lus,  and,  above  all,  Soranus.     Cjelius  Aurelianus  being 
 the  only  author  of  the  sect  called  Methodists  who  has 
 come  down  to  us  (if  we  except  Octavius  Horatianus, 
 who  lived  in  the  days  of  the  Emperor  Valentiuian,  and 
 is  little  known),  his  work  is  particularly  valuable,  as 
 preserving  to  us  an  account  of  many  theories  and  views 
 of  practice  which  would  otherwise  have  been  lost ;  but 
 even  of  itself  it  is  deserving  of  much  attention  for  the 
 practical  information  which  it  contains.     C»lius  is  re- 
 markable for  learning,  understanding,  and  scrupulous 
 accuracy  ;  but  his  style  is  much  loaded  with  technical 
 terms,  and  by  no  means  elegant.     He  has  treated  of 
 the  most  important  diseases  which  come  under  the  care 
 of  the  physician  in  the  following  manner.     In  the  first 
 place,  he  gives  a  very  circumstantial   account  of  the 
 symptoms,  which  he  does,  however,  more  like  a  syste- 
 matic writer  and  a  compiler,  than  as  an  original  ob- 
 server of  nature.     Next,  he  is  at  great  pains  to  point 
 out  the  distinction  between  the  disease  he  is  treating 
 of  and  those  which  very  nearly  resemble  it.     He  after- 
 ward endeavours  to  determine  the  nature  and  seat  of 
 the  disease  ;  and  this  part  frequently  contains  valuable 
 references  to  the  works  of  Erasislratus,  the  celebrated 
 Alexandrean  anatomist.     Then  comes  his  account  of 
 the  treatment,  which  is,  in  general,  sensible  and  sci- 
 entific, but  somewhat  too  formal,  timid,  and  fettered 
 by  the  rules  of  the  sect.     He  is  ingenious,  however,  in 
 often  delivering  a  free  statement  of  modes  of  practice, 
 essentially  different    from  his  own.     His   account  of 
 Hydrophobia  is  particularly  valuable,  as  being  the  most 
 complete  treatise  upon  that  fatal   malady  which  an- 
 tiquity has  furnished  us  with.     He  states,  that  the  dis- 
 ease is  occasioned  not  only  by  the  bite  of  a  dog,  but 
 242 
 
 likewise  by  that  of  wolves,  bears,  leopards,  horses,  and 
 asses.  He  also  mentions  an  instance  of  its  being 
 brought  on  by  a  wound  inflicted  by  the  spurs  of  a  cock. 
 Nay,  he  says  that  he  knew  a  case  of  the  disease  being 
 brought  on  by  the  breath  of  a  dog,  without  a  wound  at 
 all.  Sometimes  too,  he  says,  the  complaint  comes  on 
 without  any  apparent  cause.  His  description,  if  com- 
 pared with  modern  descriptions  (for  example,  with 
 that  given  in  Hufeland's  Journal  for  181f),  by  Dr. 
 Goden),  will  bo  found  in  every  respect  very  complete. 
 He  considers  the  affection  as  a  general  one,  but  that 
 the  nerves  of  the  stomach  are  more  particularly  inter- 
 ested in  the  disease  ;  and  Dr.  Goden  likewise  is  o( 
 opinion,  that  the  splanchnic  nerves  are  more  especially 
 affected.  In  short,  his  theory  is,  that  the  complaint 
 consists  of  an  mcendium  nervorum,  or  increased  heat 
 of  the  nerves.  He  treats  the  disease  upon  much  the 
 same  plan  as  tetanus,  to  which  he  appears  to  have 
 considered  it  allied,  by  frictions  with  tepid  oil,  oily 
 clysters,  and  other  remedies  of  a  relaxing  nature.  He 
 approves  of  venesection,  but  not  to  a  great  extent.  He 
 condemns  the  use  of  hellebore,  which  is  a  mode  of 
 treatment  approved  of  by  every  ancient  authority  ex- 
 cept himself.  Neither,  also,  does  he  make  mention  of 
 the  application  of  the  actual  cautery  to  the  wound, 
 which  practice  is  recommended  by  the  best  authorities, 
 both  ancient  and  modern.  (Sprcngcl,  Hisl.  dc  la  Med., 
 vol.  2,  p.  37,  seqq.) 
 
 AuRELius,  I.  Marcus,  a  Roman  emperor.  (Fyrf. 
 Antoninus  II.) — II.  Victor,  a  Roman  historian.  (  Vid. 
 Victor.) 
 
 AuRiNiA,  a  prophetess  held  in  great  veneration  by 
 the  Germans.  {Tactt.,  Germ.,  8.)  Some  imagine  the 
 true  form  of  the  name  to  have  been,  when  Latinized, 
 Alurinia;  and  trace  an  analogy  between  it  and  the 
 Alruncc  of  northern  mythology.  (Consult  Oberlinus, 
 ad  Tacit.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Aurora,  the  goddess  of  the  dawn,  daughter  of  Hy- 
 perion and  Theia.  Her  Greek  name  was  Eos,  ('Huf). 
 Other  genealogies  represent  her  as  the  daughter  of 
 Titan  and  Terra,  or  of  Pallas,  the  son  of  Onus  and 
 husband  of  Styx,  whence  she  is  sometimes  styled 
 Fallanlias.  In  Homer  and  Hesiod  she  is  simply  the 
 goddess  of  the  dawn,  but  in  the  works  of  succeeding 
 poets  she  is  identified  with  Hernera,  or  the  Day. 
 {JEschyl,  Pcrs.,  d84.—Eimp.,  Tread.,  8U.—Bion, 
 Idyll.,  6,  18. —  Quint.,  Smyrn  ,  I,  119.— Nomms,  7, 
 286,  29i.— Id.,  25,  567.— Musaus,  110,  &c.)  Au- 
 rora became,  by  Astrseus,  the  mother  of  the  winds 
 Boreas,  Zephyrus,  and  Notus,  and  also  of  the  stars  of 
 heaven.  (Hcs.,  Tkcog.,  378.)  She  was  more  than 
 once,  moreover,  deeply  smitten  with  the  love  of  mortal 
 man.  She  carried  off  Orion,  and  kept  him  in  the  isle 
 of  Ortygia  till  he  was  slain  there  by  the  darts  of  Diana. 
 {Od.,5,  121.)  Clitus,  the  son  of  Mantiiis,  was  for  his 
 exceeding  beauty  snatched  away  by  her,  "  that  he 
 might  be  among  the  gods."  (Od,  15,250.)  She  also 
 carried  oft"  Cephalus,  and  had  by  him  a  son  named 
 Phaethon.  {Hcs.,  Theog.,  986.  —  Eurip.,  Hippol., 
 457.)  But  her  strongest  affection  was  for  Tithonus, 
 son  of  Laoinedon,  king  of  Troy.  (Vul.  Tithonus.) 
 The  children  whom  she  bore  to  Tithonus  were  Mem- 
 non  and  .tlmathion. — The  most  probable  derivation  o< 
 the  name  Eos  ('Hwf,  Doric  'Awf)  seems  to  be  thai 
 from  uw,  to  blow,  regarding  it  as  the  cool  morning  air 
 whose  gentle  breathing  precedes  the  rising  of  the  sun 
 The  Latin  term  Aurora  is  similarly  related  to  Aura 
 {Hermann,  iibcr  das  Wcsen,  &c.,  p.  98. — Kcighllcy'i 
 Mythology,  p.  63,  seqq.)  Aurora  is  sometimes  rep 
 resented  in  a  saffron-coloured  robe,  with  a  wand  oi 
 torch  in  her  hand,  coming  out  of  a  golden  palace,  anC 
 ascending  a  chariot  of  the  same  metal.  Homer  de- 
 scribes her  as  wearing  a  flowing  veil,  which  she  throw?- 
 back  to  denote  the  dispersion  of  night,  and  as  opening 
 with  her  rosy  fingers  the  gates-  of  day.  Others  rep- 
 resent her  as  a  nymph  crowned  with  flowers,  with  a 
 
AUS 
 
 A  US 
 
 star  above  her  bead,  standing  in  a  chariot  drawn  by 
 winged  horses,  while  in  one  hand  she  holds  a  torch, 
 and  with  the  other  scatters  roses,  as  illustrative  of  the 
 flowers  springing  from  the  dew,  which  the  poets  de- 
 scribe as  diffused  from  the  eyes  of  the  goddess  in  liquid 
 pearls.  (Compare  Inghiraim,  Mon.  Etrusc,  1,  5. — 
 Millin,  Vases  de  Canosa,  5.      Vases,  1,  15. — Id.  ibid., 
 
 2,  37.—Eckhel,  SylL,  7,  3.—MuUer,  Archaol.  der 
 Kiinst,  p.  611.) 
 
 AuRUNCi,  a  people  of  Latium,  on  the  coast  towards 
 Campania,  southeast  of  the  Volsci.  They  were,  in 
 fact,  identical  with  the  Ausonians.  The  Italian  form 
 of  the  name  Ausones  can  have  been  no  other  than 
 Aunni,  for  from  this  Aurunci  is  manifestly  derived. 
 Auruncus  is  Aurunicus ;  the  termination  belongs  to 
 the  number  of  adjective-forms  in  which  the  old  Latin 
 luxuriated,  so  as  even  to  form  Tuscanicus  from  Tuscus. 
 {Niebuhr's  Kom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  56,  2d  ed.,  Cam- 
 bridge transl.) 
 
 AusAR,  a  river  of  Etruria,  which  formerly  joined 
 the  Arnus,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  latter.  At 
 present  they  both  flow  into  the  sea  by  separate  chan- 
 nels. Some  indication  of  the  junction  of  these  rivers 
 seems  preserved  by  the  name  of  Osari,  attached  to  a 
 little  stream  or  ditch  which  lies  between  them.  (^Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  174.) 
 
 AuscHis^,  a  people  of  Libya.  {Herodot.,  4,  171.) 
 They  extended  from  above  Barca  to  the  neighbourhood 
 of  the  Hesperides.  (Compare  RcnneWs  Geography  of 
 Herodotus,  vol.  2,  p.  266.) 
 
 Ausci,  a  people  of  Gallia  Aquitania.  Their  capital 
 was  Ausci,  now  Ausch,  on  the  Ger,  one  of  the  south- 
 ern branches  of  the  Garumna  or  Garonne.  Its  earlier 
 name  was  Clmiberris  or  Climberrum.     {Cces.,  B.  G ., 
 
 3,  27.— Mela,  3,  2—Amm.  Marc.,  15,  28  ) 
 AusoN,  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Calypso,  from  whom 
 
 the  Ausones,  a  people  of  Italy,  were  fabled  to  have 
 been  descended.     {Vid.  Ausonia.) 
 
 AusoNiA,  a  name  properly  applied  to  the  whole 
 southern  part  of  Italy,  through  which  the  Ausones, 
 one  of  the  ancient  races  of  Italy,  had  spread  them- 
 selves. Its  derivation  from  Auson,  son  of  Ulysses 
 and  Calypso,  is  a  mere  fable.  The  sea  on  the  south- 
 east coast  was  for  a  long  time  called  from  them  Marc 
 Ausomum.  Niebuhr  makes  the  Ausonians  a  por- 
 tion of  the  great  Oscan  nation.  {Rom.  Hist  ,  vol.  1, 
 p.  56,  '2d  ed.,  Cambridge  transl.) 
 
 AusoMUs  (Decius,  or,  more  correctly,  Decimus, 
 Magnus),  a  Roman  poet  of  the  fourth  century.  The 
 most  authentic  particulars  respecting  him  are  to  be 
 found  in  his  owti  writings,  and  more  especially  in  the 
 second  volume  of  his  Pro'fatninculcR,  wherein  he  treats 
 the  subject  professedly.  He  was  born  at  Burdigala 
 {Bourdcaiix),  where  his  father,  Julius  Ausonius,  was 
 an  eminent  physician,  and  also  a  Roman  senator  and 
 member  of  the  Municipal  Council.  Had  his  educa- 
 tion been  solely  confided  to  paternal  attentions,  it  is 
 probable  that  no  record  of  him  would  have  been  ne- 
 cessary among  the  Latin  poets,  since  the  elder  Auso- 
 nius, although  well  read  in  Greek,  was  but  indiffer- 
 enlly  acquainted  with  the  Latin  tongue.  By  the  ex- 
 ertions, however,  of  his  maternal  uncle,  vEmilius 
 Magnus  Arborius,  himself  a  poet,  and  the  reputed  au- 
 thor of  an  elegy  still  e.xtant,  "  Ad  nympham  7iimis 
 ciillam,"  and  those  of  the  grammarians  Minervius, 
 Ncpotian,  and  Staphylus,  the  disadvantages  of  our  po- 
 et's circumstances  were  abundantly  removed.  From 
 these  eminent  men  he  acquired  the  principles  of  gram- 
 mar and  rhetoric.  His  success  in  the  latter  of  these 
 studies  induced  him  to  make  trial  of  the  bar ;  but  the 
 former  was  his  choice,  and  in  A.D.  367  he  was  ap- 
 pointed by  the  Emperor  Valentinian  tutor  to  the  youncr 
 prince  (iratiaii,  whom  he  accompanied  into  Germany 
 the  following  year.  He  became  successively  Count 
 of  the  empire,  quxstor,  governor  of  Gaul,  Libya,  and 
 
 Latium,  and  first  consul.  The  last  of  these  dignities 
 he  obtained  A.D  379  The  question  has  been  often 
 started,  whether  Ausonius  was  a  Christian  or  not. 
 Some  have  doubted  the  circumstance  on  account  of 
 the  extreme  licentiousness  of  certain  of  his  produc- 
 tions. It  is  difficult,  however,  to  deny  the  affirmative 
 of  this  question  without  attacking  the  authenticity  of 
 some  of  his  pieces,  such  as,  for  example,  his  first 
 Idyl  :  besides,  how  can  we  imagine  that  so  zealous  a 
 Christian  as  Valentinian  would  have  confided  to  a 
 pagan  the  education  of  his  son  !  As  to  the  licentious 
 character  of  some  of  his  poetry,  it  may  be  remarked, 
 that,  in  professing  the  prevailing  religion  of  the  day,  he 
 omitted,  perhaps,  to  follow  its  purer  [jrecepts,  and 
 hence  indulged  in  effusions  revolting  to  morality  and 
 decency.  The  frequent  use  which  he  makes  of  the 
 pagan  mythology  in  his  writings  does  not  prove  any- 
 thing against  his  observance  of  Christianity,  since  the 
 spirit  of  the  times  allowed  this  absurd  mixture  of  fa- 
 ble with  truth. — The  exact  time  when  Ausonius  died 
 is  uncertain  ;  he  was  alive  in  392. — The  poetry  of 
 Ausonius,  on  the  whole,  like  that  of  Avienus,  is  mark- 
 ed by  poverty  of  argument,  profusion  of  mechanical 
 ingenuity,  and  imitation  of,  or,  rather,  compilation  from, 
 the  ancients.  It  is  valuable,  however,  to  the  literary 
 historian  :  its  variety  alone  affords  us  a  considerable 
 insight  into  the  state  of  poetry  in  that  age  ;  and  the 
 station  and  pursuits  of  the  author  allowed  him  that 
 familiarity  with  contemporary  poets  which  has  impart- 
 ed to  his  works  the  character  of  poetical  memoirs. — ■ 
 Of  the  editions  of  Ausonius,  the  best,  although  a  very 
 rare  one,  is  that  of  Tollius,  Amst.,  1671,  8vo.  It  con- 
 tains the  learned  commentary  of  Joseph  Scaliger,  to- 
 gether with  selected  notes  from  Accursius,  Barthius, 
 Gronovius,  Grsvius,  and  others  The  Delphin  edi- 
 tion is  also  held  in  considerable  estimation.  The  Bi- 
 pont  edition,  published  in  1783,  8vo,  is  a  useful  and 
 correct  one.  {Bahr,  Gesch.  Riim.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  304, 
 seqq. — Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom  ,  vol.  3,  p.  52. — En- 
 cyclop.  MclropoL,  Div.  3,  vol.  2,  p.  576,  seq.) 
 
 Auspices,  a  sacerdotal  order  at  Rome,  nearly  the 
 same  as  the  augurs.  Avspct  (the  norn.  sing.)  deno- 
 ted a  person  who  observed  and  interpreted  omens, 
 especially  those  connected  with  the  flight,  the  sounds, 
 and  the  feeding  of  birds  ;  and  hence  the  term  is  said 
 to  be  derived  from  avis,  "  a  bird,"  and  specio,  "  to  be- 
 hold" or  "observe,"  the  earlier  form  of  the  word  hav- 
 ing been  avispex.  In  later  times,  when  the  custom 
 of  consulting  the  auspices  on  every  occasion  lost  much 
 of  its  strictness,  the  term  a^spex  acquired  a  more  gen- 
 eral signification.  Before  this,  the  name  was  particu- 
 larly applied  to  the  priest  who  officiated  at  marriages ; 
 but  now,  those  employed  to  witness  the  signing  of 
 the  marriage  contract,  and  to  see  that  everything  was 
 rightly  performed,  were  called  auspices  nupliarum, 
 otherwise  proxenelcB,  concilialores,  and  pronubi,  in 
 Greek  irapavvfK^ioi.  {Val.  Max.,  2,  1,  I. —  Cic..  de 
 Divin.,  1,  16. — Suelon.,  Claud.,  26. — Scrv.,  ad  jEn., 
 I,  350,  et  4,  Ao.—Buleng..  dc  Aug.  et  Ausp.,  3,  13.) 
 Hence  auspex  is  put  for  a  favourer  or  director  ;  thus, 
 auspcx  legis,  "  one  who  advocates  a  law  ;"  diis  aus- 
 picihus,  "  under  the  guidance  of  the  gods  ;"  ausprce 
 musa,  "  under  the  inspiration  of  the  muse,"  &c. 
 (Consult  remarks  under  the  article  Augures.) 
 
 AusTEK,  the  South  wind,  the  same  with  the  Notos 
 of  the  Greeks.  Pliny  (2,  48)  speaks  of  it  as  a  dry- 
 ing, withering  wind,  identifying  it,  therefore,  with  the 
 Sirocco  of  modern  times,  .\ristotle  {Probi,  1,  23) 
 ascribes  to  its  influence  burning  fevers.  Horace 
 (Serm.,  2,  6,  18)  calls  \t  "  plumbcus  Auster,"  thus 
 characterizing  it  as  unhealthy  ;  and,  on  another  occa- 
 sion, he  speaks  of  it  in  plainer  language,  as  "  noce7is 
 corporibus."  (0(/.,  2.  14,  15.)  Statins  describes  the 
 roses  as  dying  at  its  first  approach,  •'  Puhentesvc  rasa: 
 primos  moriuntur  ad  Austros."  {Sylv.,  3,  3,  129.-- 
 ^  243 
 
AXI 
 
 BAB 
 
 Compare  Virg.,  Eclog.,  2,  58.)  Pliny  recommends 
 the  husbandman  neither  to  trim  his  trees  nor  prime  his 
 vines  when  tliis  wind  blows  (18,  76).  On  another  oc- 
 casion (16,  46)  he  states,  that  the  pear  and  the  ahnoiid 
 trees  lose  their  buds  if  the  heavens  be  clouded  by  a 
 south  wind,  though  unaccompanied  by  rain.  This  re- 
 mark, however,  is  not  confirmed  by  modern  experience. 
 The  south  wmd  is  also  described  by  the  Latin  poets 
 as  bringing  rain.  {Tibull.,  1,  1,  'il.—Ovul,  Met.,  13, 
 725,  &c.)  We  must  distinguish,  therefore,  betweeti 
 the  dry  and  humid  southern  blasts,  as  Pliny  does  in  the 
 following  passage  :  "  (Ausler)  humidus  aut  ccsluosus 
 ItaHa  est ;  Africa  quidem  mcendm  cvm  scrcnitate 
 adferf"  (18,  76). 
 
 Autochthones,  an  appellation  assumed  by  the 
 Athenians,  importing  that  they  sprang  from  the  soil 
 which  they  inhabited.  (Consult  remarks  under  the 
 article  Attica.) 
 
 AuToi.oL.^,  a  people  of  Africa,  on  the  western  or 
 Atlantic  coast  of  Mauritania  Tingitana.  (PHn.,  6, 
 '6\.—Lucan,  PharsaL,  4,  677.— S(V.  llal.,  2,  63.) 
 
 AuTOLYCus,  son  of  Mercury  and  Philoiiis,  accord- 
 ing to  the  scholiast  on  Homer  {Od.,  19,  432),  but,  ac- 
 cording to  Pausanias  (8,  4),  the  son  of  Daedalion,  and 
 not  of  Mercury.  He  dwelt  on  Parnassus,  and  was  cel- 
 ebrated as  a  stealer  of  cattle,  which  he  carried  off  in 
 such  a  way  as  to  render  it  nearly  impossible  to  recog- 
 nise them,  all  the  marks  being  defaced.  Among 
 others,  he  drove  off  those  of  Sisyplius,  and  he  defaced 
 the  marks  as  usual ;  but,  when  Sisyphus  came  in  quest 
 of  them,  he,  to  the  great  surprise  of  the  thief,  selected 
 his  own  beasts  out  of  the  herd,  for  he  had  marked  the 
 initial  letter  of  his  name  under  their  hoofs.  (The  an- 
 cient form  of  the  2  was  C,  which  is  of  the  shape  of  a 
 horse's  hoof.)  Autolycus  forthwith  cultivated  the  ac- 
 quaintance of  one  who  had  thus  proved  himself  too  able 
 for  him  ;  and  Sisyphus,  it  is  said,  seduced  or  violated 
 his  daughter  Anticlea  (who  afterward  married  Laertes), 
 and  thus  was  the  real  father  of  Ulysses.  {Pherccyd., 
 ap.  Schol.  ad  Od.,  19,  432.— ScAo/.  ad  11.,  10,  267. 
 — Tzetz.  ad  Lycophr.,  344. — Keightley's  Mythology, 
 p.  400.) 
 
 AuTOMEDON,  a  son  of  Dioreus,  who  went  to  the 
 Trojan  war  with  ten  ships.  He  was  the  charioteer  of 
 Achilles,  after  whose  death  he  served  Pyrrhus  in  the 
 same  capacity.  {Horn.,  IL,  9,  16,  &;c. —  Virg.,  jEn., 
 2,  477.) 
 
 AuTONOE,  a  daughter  of  Cadmus,  who  married 
 AristSEus,  by  whom  she  had  Actason,  often  called  Au- 
 tontius  hews.  The  death  of  her  son  {vid.  Action) 
 was  so  painful  to  her  that  she  retired  from  Bceolia  to 
 Megara,  where  she  soon  after  died.  {Pansan.,  I,  44. 
 —Hygin.,  fab.,  nQ.—Ovui,  Met.,  3,  720.) 
 
 AuTRiGoNEs,  a  people  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis, 
 among  the  Cantabri.  They  occupied  what  is  now 
 the  eastern  half  of  La  Montana,  the  western  quarter 
 of  Biscay  and  Alava,  and  the  northeastern  part  of 
 Burgos.  Their  capital  was  Flaviobriga,  now  Porto 
 Galletc,  near  Bilboa.  {FLorez,  Esp.  S.,  24,  10.— 
 Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  446.)  Mannert,  however, 
 makes  it  to  be  Santandcr.     (Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  373.) 
 
 AxENUs,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Euxine  Sea.  The 
 word  s\gn\(\es  inhospilabte ,  which  was  highly  applicable 
 ,0  the  manners  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  coast. 
 it  took  the  name  of  Euxinus  after  the  coast  was  set- 
 -led  by  Grecian  colonies.     (  Vid.  Pontus  Euxinus.) 
 
 Axius,  the  largest  river  in  Macedonia,  rising  in  the 
 chain  of  Mount  Scardus,  and,  after  a  course  of  eighty 
 •niles,  forming  an  extensive  lake  near  its  mouth.  It 
 alls  into  the  Sinus  Thermaicus,  after  receiving  the 
 waters  of  the  Erigonus,  Ludias,  and  Astrajus.  In  the 
 middle  ages  this  river  assumed  the  name  of  Bardarus 
 {Thcophylact.,  Epist.,  55. — Niceph.  Greg.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 230),  whence  has  been  derived  that  of  Vardari  or 
 VarJar,  which  it  now  bears.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  I,  p.  235.) 
 244 
 
 AzAN,  I.  a  mountain  of  Arcadia,  sacred  to  Cybele. 
 (Stat.,  rheb.,  4,  292.)— II.  A  son  of  Areas,  king  of 
 Arcadia,  by  Erato,  one  of  the  Dryades.  He  divided 
 his  father's  kingdom  with  his  brothers  Aphidas  and 
 Elatus,  and  called  his  share  Azania.  There  was  in 
 Azania  a  fountain  called  Clitorius,  whot^e  waters  gave 
 a  dislike  for  wine  to  those  who  drank  them.  ( Vilruv., 
 8,  3.— Ovid,  Met.,  1.5,  322.— Pans  an.,  8,  4.—Plm., 
 21,  2.—Etymol.  Mag.,  s.  v.  KlLT6ptov.)~Ul.  A  re- 
 gion on  the  northeastern  coast  of  Africa,  lyino-  south 
 of  Aromatum  Promontorium  and  north  of  Barbaria.  It 
 is  now  Ajan.  {Ptol. — Arrian,  Pcripl.  Mar.  Erythr. 
 — Stukms,  ad  Arrian,  I.  c,  p.  93.) 
 
 AziRis,  a  place  in  Libya,  surrounded  on  both  sides 
 by  delightful  hills  covered  with  trees,  and  watered  by 
 a  river,  where  Battus  built  a  town,  previous  to  found- 
 ing Cyrene.  (Herod.,  4,  157.)  Ptolemy  calls  the 
 place  Axylis.  The  harbour  of  Azaris,  mentioned  by 
 Synesius  (c.  4),  appears  to  coincide  with  this  same 
 place.  Pacho  thinks,  that  the  Aziris  of  Herodotus 
 coincides  with  the  modern  Temmineh.  ( Voyage,  &c., 
 p.  50,  seqq.) 
 
 AzoTUs  (the  Asdod  of  Scripture),  one  of  the  five 
 chief  cities  of  the  Philistines,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
 one  of  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  cities  of  the 
 land.  The  god  Dagon  was  worshipped  here.  It  lay 
 on  the  seacoast,  and  in  the  division  of  the  country 
 among  the  Israelites,  it  fell  to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  but 
 was  not  conquered  until  the  reign  of  Solomon.  In  the 
 time  of  King  Hezekiah  it  was  taken  by  the  Assyrians, 
 and  subsequently  by  Psammetichus,  king  of  Egypt, 
 after  a  siege  of  twenty-nine  years.  (Herod.,  2,  157.) 
 At  a  later  period  Azotus  became  the  seat  of  a  Chris- 
 tian bishop.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  are  near 
 a  small  village  czWeA  Esdud.  (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 6,  pt.  1,  p.  261,  seq.) 
 
 B. 
 
 BabrIus  or  Babrias  (or,  as  the  name  is  sometimes 
 corrupted,  Gabrias),  a  Greek  poet,  who  lived,  accord- 
 ing to  Tyrwhitt,  either  under  Augustus  or  a  short  time 
 before  that  emperor  ;  while  Coray,  on  the  other  hand, 
 makes  him  a  contemporary  of  Bion  and  Moschus. 
 The  particulars  of  his  life  have  not  reached  us.  All 
 that  we  know  of  him  is,  that,  after  the  example  of  Soc- 
 rates, who,  while  in  prison,  amused  himself  with  ver- 
 sifying the  fables  of  ^i^sop,  Babrius  published  a  col- 
 lection of  fables  under  the  title  of  ixvOol  or  /ivdiafiSoi  ■ 
 from  which  the  fables  of  Phaedrus  are  closely  imitated. 
 They  were  written  in  choliambics,  and  comprised  in 
 ten  books,  according  to  Suidas,  or  two  volumes,  ac 
 cording  to  Avianus.  (Av.,  Praf.  Fab.) — These  two 
 accounts  are  not  at  variance  with  each  other,  as  the 
 books  were  doubtless  divisions  made  by  the  author, 
 like  the  books  of  Phsdrus,  perhaps  with  an  appropri- 
 ate introduction  to  each  ;  while  the  "  volumina'''  of 
 Avianus  were  probably  rolls  of  parchment  or  papyrus, 
 on  which  the  ten  books  were  written.  It  may  be 
 farther  observed,  that  Avianus  calls  the  books  of 
 Phsedrus  libelli,  and  not  volumina.  In  this  man 
 ner  may  be  explained  the  statement  of  Pliny  (8,  16), 
 that  Aristotle's  writings  on  Natural  History  were 
 contained  in  nearly  fifty  volumina.  (Compare  Men- 
 age, ad  Diog.  Lacrt.,  5,  25.)  This  collection  threw 
 all  preceding  ones  into  comparative  obscurity.  It 
 appears  to  have  been  still  in  existence  as  late  as  the 
 twelfth  century,  in  the  days  of  Tzetzes  :  the  copyists, 
 however,  of  succeeding  times,  little  sensible  of  the 
 charms  of  the  versification  which  Babrius  had  adopted, 
 thought  they  could  not  do  better  than  convert  it  into 
 so  much  prose  ;  and  the  fragments  of  verses,  which 
 they  were  unable  in  this  way  perfectly  to  disguise, 
 are  all  that  recalls  the  original  lines  which  they  have 
 spoiled.  The  collection  of  Babrius,  thus  dishonoured, 
 was  perpetuated  by  numerous  copies,  in  which  trace* 
 
BAB 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 of  the  original  became  more  and  more  obscured,  until 
 a  single  apologue  alone,  that  of  the  swallow  and  night- 
 ingale, bore  marks  of  a  versified  fable.  This  piece 
 found  its  way  into  a  collection  of  fables  attributed  to 
 Ignatius  Magister,  a  priest  of  Constantinople,  who, 
 beincT  in  possession  of  a  copy  of  the  original  fables  of 
 Babrius,  in  choliambic  verse,  as  that  author  had 
 written  them,  resolved  to  change  them  into  iambic 
 tertrastics.  With  this  view  he  abridged  and  tortured 
 each  apologue  until  he  succeeded  in  reducing  them 
 individually  to  four  verses.  Fifty-three  fables  were 
 thus  strangled  ;  but  as  if  Ignatius  had  wished,  by 
 means  of  a  comparison,  to  augment  our  regrets  for 
 those  which  he  had  altered,  he  preserved  entire  and 
 unchanged  a  single  fable,  the  one  to  which  we  have  al- 
 luded. At  the  period  when  the  Greek  authors  began 
 to  be  printed,  the  true  collection  of  Babrius  no  longer 
 existed  :  it  was  thought,  however,  that  the  collection 
 of  Ignatius  was  the  original  one,  and  hence  it  was  pub- 
 lished under  the  name  of  Babrius,  or  rather  Gabrias, 
 the  B  in  the  manuscripts  being  confounded  with  a  T. 
 The  error  of  the  name  was  only  perceived  about  the 
 close  of  the  si.xfeenlh  century.  Two  English  scholars, 
 the  celebrated  Bentley,  in  his  dissertation  on  .-Esop, 
 and,  at  a  later  period,  Tyrwhitt,  in  his  dissertation  on 
 Babrius  {Lcmd.,  1776,  8vo),  have  avenged  the  memo- 
 ry of  the  poet,  and  dissipated  much  of  the  obscurity 
 which  hung  over  this  portion  of  literary  history.  The 
 latter  of  these  two  scholars  reunited  all  the  fragments 
 of  Babrius  to  be  found  in  Suidas,  as  well  as  all  those 
 which  were  to  be  met  with  in  other  works.  In  this 
 way  he  succeeded  in  recomposing  four  of  the  fables 
 of  Babrius,  so  that  their  number  now  amounted  in  all 
 to  five.  Thirty-three  years  afterward  (1809)  De  Fu- 
 ria  published  many  fables  of  ^Esop,  up  to  that  time  in- 
 edited.  In  the  number  of  these  were  ihirtv-six,  which 
 he  believed  to  be  written  in  prose  like  the  rest,  and 
 which  he  printed  as  prose  compositions  ;  they  were, 
 in  reality,  however,  versified  fables,  and  a  few  correc- 
 tions sufficed  to  restore  them  to  their  primitive  form. 
 This  service  has  been  rendered  by  Coray,  in  his  col- 
 lection of  ^Esop's  Fables  ;  by  J.  G.  Schneider,  at  ihe 
 end  of  his  edition  of  .Esop,  from  the  Augustan  MS.  ; 
 by  Berger,  in  an  edition  of  the  remains  of  Babrius, 
 published  at  Munich  in  1816  ;  by  Mr.  G.  Burges,  in 
 the  Classical  Journal  (whose  collection,  however,  is 
 unfinished) ;  by  the  present  Bishop  of  London  (Dr. 
 Blomfield),  in  the  third  number  of  the  Museum  Criti- 
 cum  ;  and  by  an  anonymous  writer  in  the  second  num- 
 ber of  the  Cambridge  Philological  Museum.  {Schdll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  61,  scq. — Cambridge  Plulol. 
 Mus.,  n.  2,  p.  282,  scq.) 
 
 Babylon,  I.  a  celebrated  city,  the  capital  of  the 
 Baliyloiiian  empire,  situate  on  the  Euphrates,  in  32° 
 2.y  north  latitude,  and  44°  east  longitude,  as  is  sup- 
 posed. Its  origin  is  lost  in  the  obscurity  of  early 
 times.  It  is  remarkable  enough  that  Herodotus  should 
 have  given  us  no  intimation  respecting  its  founder  ;  he 
 merely  informs  us  that  Semiramis  and  Nitocris,  two  of 
 its  queens,  strengthened  the  fortifications,  and  guarded 
 the  city  against  inundations  of  the  river,  as  well  as 
 itnprovc-d  and  adorned  it.  May  we  not  conclude  from 
 this,  asks  Keiincll  {Geography  of  Herodotus,  vol.  1, 
 p.  442),  that  its  antiquity  was  very  great  ;  and  as- 
 cendinl  so  high  that  Herodotus  could  not  satisfy  him- 
 self concerning  it'  At  the  same  time,  adds  this  in- 
 telligent writer,  the  improvements  that  took  place  in 
 the  citv  in  the  reign  of  Semiramis,  might  occasion  the 
 original  foundation  to  be  ascribed  to  her;  the  like 
 having  happened  in  the  history  of  other  cities.  He- 
 rodotus informs  us  (1,  178),  that  Babylon  became  the 
 capital  of  Assyria  after  the  destruction  of  Nineveh. 
 Perhaps,  then,  we  ought  to  date  the  foundation  of 
 those  works  which  appear  so  stupendous  in  history 
 from  that  period  only  :  for,  wonderful  as  these  works 
 •ppear,  even  when  ascribed  to  the  capital  of  an  em- 
 
 pire, the  wonder  increases  when  ascribed  to  the  capital 
 of  a  province  only.  If,  then,  with  the  ancient  authors 
 generally,  we  allow  Semiramis  to  have  been  the  found- 
 ress of  that  Babylon  described  by  Herodotus,  we  can- 
 not fi.K  the  date  of  the  improved  foundation  beyond  the 
 eighth  century  before  the  Chrustian  era  :  so  that  the 
 duration  of  this  city,  in  its  improved  forin,  was  less 
 than  800  years,  reckoning  to  the  time  of  Pliny.  {Ren- 
 ndl,  Geography  of  Herodotus,  vol.  1,  p.  443,  seqq.) — 
 The  shape  of  the  city  of  Babylon  was  that  of  a  square, 
 traversed  each  way  by  twenty-five  principal  streets, 
 which,  of  course,  intersected  each  other,  dividing  the 
 citv  into  625  squares.  These  streets  were  terminated 
 at  each  end  by  gates  of  brass,  of  prodigious  size  and 
 strength,  with  a  smaller  one  opening  towards  the  river. 
 Respecting  the  height  and  thickness  of  the  walls  of 
 Babylon,  there  are  great  variations  among  the  ancient 
 writers.  Herodotus  makes  them  200  royal  cubits,  or 
 337  feet,  8  inches  high,  and  50  royal  cubits,  or  84 
 feet,  6  inches  broad.  Ctesias  gives  50  fathoms  (6p- 
 yvlai),  or  300  feet,  for  the  height.  An  anonymous 
 writer  in  Diodorus  Siculus  makes  the  height  50  com- 
 mon cubits,  or  75  feet,  and  this  estimate  is  followed 
 by  Strabo  and  Quintus  Curtius.  Pliny  gives  200 
 feet,  and  Orosius  200  common  cubits,  or  300  feet. 
 {Herod.,  1,  178. —  Ctcsws,  p.  402,  ed.  Bachr. — Diod. 
 Sic.,  2,  7.  — Strabo,  738.— Curtius,  5,  1. — Plivy, 
 6,  25. — Orosius,  2,  6.)  In  this  statement,  Ctesias 
 evidently  copies  from  Herodotus,  since  50  fathoms 
 make  exactly  200  cubits  ;  only  he  appears  not  to  have 
 perceived  that  royal  cubits  were  meant  by  the  latter. 
 It  is  also  clear,  that  the  anonymous  writer  mentioned 
 by  Diodorus  Siculus,  as  well  as  Strabo  and  Quintus 
 Curtius,  had  Ctesias  respectively  in  view,  but  that, 
 startled  at  the  number  of  50  fathoms,  they  have  re- 
 duced it  to  the  number  of  50  cubits.  The  number 
 200,  employed  by  Pliny,  proves  that  he  had  consulted 
 Herodotus  merely  ;  but  that,  through  inadvertence  on 
 his  part,  or  through  the  fault  of  later  copyists,  feet  are 
 substituted  for  cubits.  Orosius  follows  Herodotus, 
 but,  forgetting  that  the  latter  speaks  of  royal  cubits,  he 
 contents  himself  with  giving  200  common  cubits.  {Lar- 
 cher,  ad  Herodot.,  1,  178.)  But  are  we  to  receive 
 the  estimate  of  Herodotus  as  correct,  and  entitled  to 
 full  belief^  Evidently  not:  the  measurement  is  in- 
 credible, and  bears  on  its  very  front  the  impress  of 
 gross  exaggeration.  A  difficulty  also  presents  itself 
 with  regard  to  the  extent  of  the  walls  of  Babylon. 
 Herodotus  makes  them  120  stadia  each  side,  or  480  in 
 circumference.  Pliny  and  Solinus  give  the  circuit  at 
 60  Roman  miles  ;  which,  reckoning  eight  stadia  to  a 
 mile,  agrees  with  the  account  of  Herodotus.  Strabo 
 makes  it  385  stadia.  Diodorus,  from  Ctesias,  assigns 
 360,  but  from  Clitarchus,  who  accompanied  .Alexander, 
 365.  Curtius  gives  368.  It  appears  highly  probable, 
 remarks  Rennell  {Geography  of  Herodotus,  vol.  1,  p. 
 447),  that  360  or  365  was  the  true  statement  of  the 
 circumference,  since  one  of  these  numbers  was  report- 
 ed by  Ctesias,  the  other  (which  differs  so  little)  by 
 Clitarchus,  both  of  them  eyewitnesses.  Taking  the 
 circumference  of  Babylon  at  365  stadia,  and  these  at 
 491  feet,  each  side  of  the  square  (which  is  equal  to 
 9H  stadia)  will  be  8.485  British  miles,  or  nearly  8^. 
 This  gives  an  area  of  72  miles  and  an  inconsiderable 
 fraction.  If  the  same  number  of  stadia  be  taken  at 
 500  feet  each,  the  area  will  be  74.8.  And,  finally, 
 the  385  stadia  of  Strabo,  at  491  feet,  about  80.  The 
 480  stadia  of  Herodotus  would  give  about  126  square 
 miles,  or  eight  times  the  area  of  London  I  But  that 
 even  72  contiguous  square  miles  should  have  been  in 
 any  degree  covered  with  liuildings,  is  on  every  account 
 too  improbable  for  belief.  This  famous  city,  in  all 
 likelihood,  occupied  a  part  only  of  the  vast  space  en- 
 closed by  its  walls.  It  is  a  question  that  no  one  can 
 positively  answer,  "  what  proportion  of  the  space  was 
 occupied!"     It  is  possible,  however,  that  nearly  two 
 
BABYLON. 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 l^Irds  of  it  might  have  been  occupied  in  the  mode  in 
 which  the  large  cities  of  Asia  are  built ;  that  is,  in  the 
 style  of  some  of  those  of  India  at  the  present  day,  hav- 
 ing gardens,  reservoirs  of  water,  and  large  open  places 
 within  them.  Moreover,  the  houses  of  the  common 
 people  consist  of  one  floor  only  ;  so  that,  of  course, 
 fewer  people  can  be  accommodated  in  the  same  com- 
 pass of  ground  in  an  Indian  than  in  a  European  city. 
 This  accounts  at  once  for  the  erroneous  dunensions 
 of  some  of  the  Asiatic  cities;  and  perhaps  we  cannot 
 allow  much  less  than  double  the  space  to  accommo- 
 date the  same  number  of  Asiatics  that  Europeans 
 would  require.  That  the  area  enclosed  by  the  walls 
 of  Babylon  was  only  partly  built  on,  is  proved  by  the 
 words  of  Quintus  Curtius  (5,  4),  who  says,  that  "  the 
 buildings  in  Babylon  are  not  contiguous  to  the  walls, 
 but  some  considerable  space  was  left  all  around." 
 Diodorus,  moreover,  describes  a  vast  space  taken  up 
 by  the  palaces  and  public  buildings.  The  enclosure 
 of  one  of  the  palaces  was  a  square  of  15  stadia,  or 
 near  a  mile  and  a  half;  the  other  of  five  stadia  :  here 
 are  more  than  2^  square  miles  occupied  by  the  palaces 
 alone.  Besides  these,  there  were  the  temple  and 
 tower  of  Belus,  of  vast  e.xtenl  ;  the  hanging  gardens, 
 «fec.  From  all  this,  and  much  more  that  might  be  ad- 
 duced, we  may  collect  most  clearly,  that  much  vacant 
 space  remained  within  the  walls  of  Babylon  :  and  this 
 would  seem  to  do  away,  in  some  degree,  the  great  dif- 
 ficulty respecting  the  magnitude  of  the  city  itself. 
 Nor  IS  it  stated  as  the  effect  of  the  subsequent  decline 
 of  Babylon,  but  as  the  actual  state  of  it,  when  Alex- 
 ander first  entered  the  place  ;  for  Curtius  leaves  us 
 to  understand,  that  the  system  of  cultivating  a  large 
 proportion  of  the  enclosed  space  originated  with  the 
 foundation  itself;  and  the  history  of  its  two  sieges,  by 
 Cyrus  and  Darius  Hystaspis,  seems  to  show  it.  {Ren- 
 nelVs  Geography  of  Herodotus,  vol.  1,  p.  447.) — The 
 walls  of  Babylon  were  built  of  brick  baked  in  the  sun, 
 cemented  with  bitumen  instead  of  mortar,  and  were 
 encompassed  by  a  broad  and  deep  ditch,  lined  with 
 the  same  materials,  as  were  also  the  banks  of  the  river 
 in  its  course  through  the  city,  the  inhabitants  descend- 
 ing to  the  water  by  steps  through  the  smaller  brass 
 gates  already  mentioned.  Over  the  river  was  a  bridge, 
 connecting  the  two  halves  of  the  city,  which  stood, 
 the  one  on  its  eastern,  the  other  on  its  western  bank  ; 
 the  river  running  nearly  north  and  south.  The  bridge 
 was  five  furlongs  in  length,  and  thirty  feet  in  breadth, 
 and  had  a  palace  at  each  end,  with,  it  is  said,  a  sub- 
 terranean passage  beneath  the  river  from  one  to  the 
 other,  the  work  of  Semiramis.  Within  the  city  was 
 the  temple  of  Belus,  or  Jupiter,  which  Herodotus  de- 
 scribes as  a  square  of  two  stadia:  in  the  midst  of  this 
 arose  the  celebrated  tower,  to  which  both  the  same 
 writer  and  Strabo  give  an  elevation  of  one  stadium, 
 and  the  same  measure  at  its  base.  The  whole  was  di- 
 vided into  eight  separate  towers,  one  above  another, 
 of  decreasing  dimensions  to  the  summit ;  where  stood 
 a  chapel,  containing  a  couch,  tal)le,  and  other  things, 
 of  gold.  Here  the  principal  devotions  were  perform- 
 ed :  and  over  this,  on  the  highest  platform  of  all,  was 
 the  observatory,  by  the  help  of  which  the  Babylonians 
 are  said  to  have  attained  to  great  skill  in  astronomy. 
 A  winding  staircase  on  the  outside  formed  the  ascent 
 to  this  stupendous  edifice. — The  two  palaces,  at  the 
 two  ends  of  the  bridge,  have  already  been  alluded  to. 
 The  old  palace,  which  stood  on  the  east  side  of  the 
 river,  was  30  furlongs  (or  three  miles  and  three  quar- 
 ters) in  compass.  The  new  palace,  which  stood  on 
 the  west  side  of  the  river,  opposite  to  the  other,  was 
 60  furlongs  (or  seven  miles  and  a  half)  in  compass.  It 
 was  surrounded  with  three  walls,  one  within  another, 
 with  considerable  spaces  betwen  them.  These  walls, 
 as  also  those  of  the  other  palace,  were  embellished 
 with  an  infinite  variety  of  sculptures,  representing  all 
 kinds  of  animals  to  the  life.  Among  the  rest  was  a 
 Si6 
 
 curious  hunting-piece,  in  which  Semiramis  on  horse- 
 back was  throwing  her  javelm  at  a  leopard,  and  her 
 husband  Ninus  piercing  a  lion.  In  this  last  palace 
 were  the  hanging  gardens,  so  celebrated  among  the 
 Greeks.  They  contained  a  square  of  400  feet  on 
 every  side,  and  were  carried  up  in  the  manner  of  sev- 
 eral large  terraces,  one  above  another,  till  the  heiahl 
 equalled  that  of  the  walls  of  the  city.  The  ascent  was 
 from  terrace  to  terrace  by  stairs  ten  feet  wide.  The 
 whole  pile  was  sustained  by  vast  arches  raised  upon 
 other  arches,  one  above  another,  and  strengthened  by 
 a  wall,  surrounding  it  on  every  side,  of  tweniy-iwo 
 feet  in  thickness.  On  the  top  of  the  arches  were  first 
 laid  large  flat  stones,  sixteen  feet  long  and  four  broad ; 
 over  these  was  a  layer  of  reeds,  mixed  with  a  great 
 quantity  of  bitumen,  upon  which  were  two  rows  of 
 bricks  closely  cemented  together.  7'he  whole  was 
 covered  with  thick  sheets  of  lead,  upon  which  lay  the 
 mould  of  the  garden.  And  all  this  floorage  was  con- 
 trived to  keep  the  moisture  of  the  mould  from  running 
 away  through  the  arches.  The  earth  laid  thereon  was 
 so  deep  that  large  trees  might  take  root  in  it  ;  and  with 
 such  the  terraces  were  covered,  as  well  as  with  all 
 other  plants  and  llowers  that  were  proper  to  adorn  a 
 pleasure-garden.  In  the  upper  terrace  there  was  an 
 engine,  or  kind  of  pump,  by  which  water  was  drawn 
 up  out  of  the  river,  and  from  thence  the  whole  garden 
 was  watered.  In  the  spaces  between  the  several 
 arches  upon  which  this  whole  structure  rested,  were 
 large  and  magnificent  apartments,  that  were  very  light, 
 and  had  the  advantage  of  a  beautiful  prospect.  Amyitis, 
 the  wife  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  having  been  bred  in  Me- 
 dia (for  she  was  the  daughter  of  Astyages,  the  king  of 
 that  country),  desired  to  have  something  in  imitation 
 of  her  native  hills  and  forests  ;  and  the  monarch,  in 
 order  to  gratify  her,  is  said  to  have  raised  this  prodi- 
 gious structure. — Babylon  was  probably  in  the  zenith 
 of  its  glory  and  dominion  just  before  the  death  of  Neb- 
 uchadnezzar. The  spoils  of  Nineveh,  Jerusalem,  and 
 Egypt  had  enriched  it ;  its  armies  had  swept  like  a 
 torrent  over  the  finest  countries  of  the  East,  and  had 
 at  this  time  no  longer  an  enemy  to  contend  with  ;  the 
 arts  and  sciences,  driven  from  Phoenicia  and  Egypt, 
 were  centred  here  ;  and  hither  the  philosophers  of  the 
 West  came  to  imbibe  instruction.  The  fall  of  Babylon, 
 before  the  victorious  arms  of  Cyrus,  occurred  B.C. 
 538.  The  height  and  strength  of  the  walls  had  long 
 baffled  every  effort  of  the  invader.  Having  under- 
 stood at  length,  that  on  a  certain  day,  then  near  ap- 
 proaching, a  great  annual  festival  was  to  be  kept  at 
 Babylon,  when  it  was  customary  for  the  Babylonians  to 
 spend  the  night  in  revelling  and  drunkenness,  he 
 thought  this  a  fit  opportunity  for  executing  a  scheme 
 which  he  had  planned.  This  was  no  other  than  to 
 surprise  the  city  by  turning  the  course  of  the  river;  a 
 mode  of  capture  of  which  the  Babylonians,  who  look- 
 ed upon  the  river  as  one  of  their  greatest  protections, 
 had  not  the  smallest  apprehension.  Accordingly,  on 
 the  night  of  the  feast,  he  sent  a  party  of  his  men  to 
 the  head  of  the  canal,  which  led  to  the  great  lake  made 
 by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  receive  the  waters  of  the  Eu- 
 phrates while  he  was  facing  the  banks  of  the  river  with 
 walls  of  brick  and  bitumen.  This  party  had  directions, 
 as  soon  as  it  was  dark,  to  commence  breaking  down 
 the  great  bank  or  dam  which  kept  the  waters  of  the 
 river  in  their  place,  and  separated  them  from  the  canal 
 above  mentioned  :  while  Cyrus,  in  the  mean  time,  di- 
 viding the  rest  of  his  army,  stationed  one  part  at  the 
 place  where  the  river  entered  the  city,  and  the  other 
 where  it  came  out,  with  orders  to  enter  the  channel  oi 
 the  river  as  soon  as  they  should  find  it  fordable.  This 
 happened  by  midnight ;  for,  by  cutting  down  the  bank 
 leading  to  the  great  lake,  and  making  besides  openings 
 into  the  trenches,  which,  in  the  course  of  the  two  years' 
 siege,  had  been  dug  round  the  city,  the  river  was  sfi 
 drained  of  its  water  that  it  became  nearly  dry.     Wi  ea 
 
BABYLON. 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 the  army  of  Cyrus  entered  the  channel  from  their  re- 
 spective stations  on  each  side  of  the  city,  they  rushed 
 onward  towards  the  centre  of  the  place  ;  and  finding  the 
 gates  leading  towards  the  river  left  open,  in  the  drunk- 
 enness and  negligence  of  the  night,  they  entered  them, 
 and  met  by  concert  at  the  palace  before  any  alarm  had 
 been  given  :   here  the  guards,  partaking,  no  doubt,  in 
 the  negligence  and  disorder  of  the  night,  were  surpri- 
 sed and  killed.     While  all  this  was  going  on  without, 
 a  remarkable  scene  of  widely  different  character  was 
 transacting  within.     Daniel  was  deciphering  the  wri- 
 ting on  the  wall;   and,  soon  after,  the  soldiers  of  Cy- 
 rus, having  killed  the  guard,  and  meeting  with  no  re- 
 sistance, advanced  towards  the  banqneting-hall,  where 
 they  encountered  Belshazzar,  the  ill-fated   monarch, 
 and  slew  him,  with  his  armed  followers. — Babylon  had 
 suffered  much  when  carried  by  the  troops  of  Cyrus  ; 
 but  other  sufferings  were  to  come.     Cyrus  having  es- 
 tablished his  coart  at  Susa,  Babylon,  formerly  the  seat 
 of  empire,  was  thus  reduced  to  the  rank  of  a  provin- 
 cial  city  ;  and   the  inhabitants,  who,  grown    wealthy 
 and  proud  during  their  empire  over  the  East,  could  ill 
 brook  this  change  of  fortune,  resolved  to  make  an  ef- 
 fort towards  regaining  their   former  power  and  gran- 
 deur.    Accordingly,  in  the  fifth  year  of  Darius  Hys- 
 taspis,  and  twelve  years  after  the  death  of  Cyrus,  hav- 
 ing for  several  years  covertly  laid  in  great  stores  of 
 provisions,  and  every  necessary,  they  openly  revolted; 
 which,    as  they   might    have  expected,  soon  brought 
 upon  theili  the  armies  of  Darius.     The  city  a  second 
 time  was  taken  by  stratagem  (vid.  Zopyrus),  and  Da- 
 rius, when  he  again  became  possessed  of  it,  gave  it 
 up  to  the  plunder  of  his  soldiers.     He  impaled   3000 
 of  those  who  were  supposed  to  have  been  most  active 
 in  the  revolt ;   took  away  the  gates,  and  pulled  down 
 the  walls  to  the  height  of  fifty  cubits.     During  the  re- 
 mainder of  the  reign  of  Darius,  Babylon  continued  in 
 much  the  same  state  in  which  it  was  left  after  the 
 siege.     But  in  the  succeeding  reign  another  blow  was 
 struck  towards  her  downfall.     Xer.ves,  in  his  return 
 from  his  Grecian  e.vpedition,  partly  to  indemnify  him- 
 self for  his  losses,  and  partly  out  of  zeal  for  the  Ma- 
 gian  religion,  which  held  every  kind  of  image-worship 
 in   abhorrence,  destroyed   the  temples  and  plundered 
 them  of  their  vast  wealth,  which  appears  to  have  been 
 hitherto  spared,  and  which  must  have  been  indeed  pro- 
 digious ;  that  in  the  temple  of  Belus  alone  amounting, 
 according  to  Diodorus,  to  above  6000  talents  of  gold, 
 or  about  21  millions  sterling.     From  this  period,  Bab- 
 ylon, despoiled   of  her  wealth,  her  strength,  and  her 
 various  resources,  was   in  no  condition  for  any  more 
 revolts  ;  and   it   is  reasonable   to  suppose,  that,  with 
 the  decay  of  her  power  and  local  advantages,  the  pop- 
 ulation also  must  decline.     We  hear,  in  fact,  no  more 
 of  Babylon  until  the  coming  of  Alexander,  150  years 
 after ;  when  the  terror  of  his  name,  or  the  weakness 
 of  the  place,  was  such,  that  it  made  not  the  slightest 
 pretensions   to    resistance.      Alexander,  after  a  short 
 visit  to  Babylon,  proceeded  on  his  expedition  to  In- 
 dia ;  and,  at  his  return   from  thence,  finding  Babylon 
 more   suitable  in   its  situation  and  resources   for  the 
 capital  of  his  empire  than  any  other  place  in  the  East, 
 he  resolved  to  fix  his  residence  there,  and  to  restore 
 it  to  its  former  strength  and   magnificence.     For  this 
 purpose,  having  examined   the    breach  which   Cyrus 
 had  made  in  the  river,  and  the  possibility  of  bringing 
 it  back  to  its  former  channel  through  the  city,  he'em'^ 
 ployed    10,000   men  in   the  work,°and,  at   the  same 
 tune,  an  equal  number  in  rebuilding  the  temple  of  Be- 
 lus.     An  entire  stop,  however,  w:is  put  to  these  great 
 undcrtakiiigfs   by   the  death  of  Alexander,   who   here 
 terminated  together  his   mightv  projects  and  his  life. 
 After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Babylon  and   the  East 
 fell  to  the   lot  of  Seleucus,  one  of  the  generals  who 
 divided  his  em|)ire  among  them.     Seleucus,  for  sev- 
 eral years,  was  too  much  engaged  in  contention  with 
 
 his  rivals  to  pay  much  attention  to  Babylon  ;  which, 
 still  labouring  under  accumulated  evils,  continued  to 
 decline.  But  what  completed  its  downfall  was  the 
 building  of  Seleucia  by  Seleucus,  about  40  miles  dis- 
 tant, on  a  spot  more  favourable  for  commercial  inter- 
 course ;  the  restoration  of  Babylon  to  its  ancient  nat- 
 ural advantages  appearing  perhaps  hopeless.  This, 
 together  with  the  removal  of  the  court,  soon  ex- 
 hausted Babylon  of  the  little  that  remained  of  its 
 ancient  trade  and  population.  It  never  after  revi- 
 ved, but  continued,  through  each  succeedinor  at'e,  to 
 make  farther  advances  in  its  progress  of  depopulation 
 and  decay,  until  nothing  but  the  ruins  of  this  once 
 famous  city  were  to  be  found.  It  will  be  interesting 
 to  trace  the  successive  accounts  of  those  who  have 
 made  mention  of  Babylon  during  this  latter  period  : 
 that  is,  from  the  building  of  Seleucia  to  its  entire  de- 
 struction. The  first  of  these  is  Diodorus  Siculus, 
 who  wrote  about  45  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
 He  relates,  that  Babylon  having  fallen  into  the  hands 
 of  the  Parthians,  the  temples  were  burned  ;  much  of 
 the  remaining  part  of  the  city  demolished  ;  and  many 
 of  the  inhabitants  sold  into  slavery.  This  was  about 
 130  B.C. :  and,  in  his  own  time,  85  years  after,  he 
 says,  that  the  public  buildings  were  destroyed  or  fall- 
 en to  decay  ;  that  a  very  small  part  of  the  city  was 
 inhabited  ;  and  that  the  greater  part  of  the  space  with- 
 in the  walls  was  tilled.  Strabo,  who  wrote  about  70 
 years  after  Diodorus,  says,  that  the  city  was  near- 
 ly deserted  ;  and  that  the  same  might  be  applied  to  it 
 which  was  said  of  Megalopolis  in  Arcadia,  that  the 
 great  city  was  becoming  a  great  desert.  Quintus 
 Curtius,  the  next  in  order,  and  who  wrote  about  CO 
 A.D.,  is  cited  by  Dr.  Wells  to  show  that  Babylon 
 "  was  lessened  a  fourth  part  in  his  time  ;"  who  im- 
 mediately after  says,  that  it  was  reduced  to  desolation 
 in  the  time  of  Pliny.  Now,  besides  that  this  account 
 of  Quintus  Curtius  is  perfectly  inconsistent  with  pre- 
 ceding ones,  the  city  must  have  undergone  a  prodi- 
 gious decline,  and  that  without  any  assignable  cause, 
 in  the  short  space  of  20  years,  which  was  about  the 
 time  that  intervened  between  Curtius  and  Pliny.  The 
 truth  is,  that  Dr.  Wells  has  mistaken  the  period  re- 
 ferred to  by  Quintus  Curtius,  which  was  that  of  the 
 arrival  of  Alexander  at  Babylon,  whose  history  he 
 was  writing,  for  that  in  which  the  historian  himself 
 lived.  Pliny,  who  lived,  as  we  have  seen,  about  20 
 years  after  Quintus  Curtius,  and  70  after  Christ,  de- 
 clares, that  Babylon  was  at  that  time  "  decayed,  un- 
 peopled, and  lying  waste."  From  this  time  may  be 
 said  to  have  commenced  the  ruin  of  the  ruins  ;  which 
 has  been  so  complete,  that  they  are  with  difficulty 
 traced  :  and,  indeed,  their  exact  position  has  become  a 
 matter  of  learned  dispute.  Pausanias,  about  the  mid- 
 dle of  the  second  century,  says,  that  of  Babylon,  the 
 greatest  city  the  sun  ever  saw,  there  was  remaining 
 but  the  walls.  And  Lucian,  about  the  end  of  the 
 same  century,  savs,  that  in  a  little  time  it  would  be 
 sought  for,  and  not  be  found,  like  Nineveh.  Jerome, 
 in  the  fourth  century,  gives  the  account  of  a  monk,  at 
 that  time  living  in  Jerusalem,  who  had  been  at  Baby- 
 lon, and  who  says  that  the  space  occupied  by  the  city 
 was  converted  into  a  chase  for  wild  beasts,  for  the 
 kings  of  Persia  to  hunt  in;  the  walls  having  been  re- 
 paired for  that  purpose.  Among  more  recent  travel- 
 lers, the  best  accounts  of  the  ruins  of  Babylon  are 
 given  by  Kinneir,  Rich,  Porter,  and  Buckingham. 
 The  ancient  city  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated  in 
 what  is  now  the  Turkish  pachalic  of  Bagdad,  near  the 
 village  of  Hill  or  Hella,  on  the  Euphrates.  Ruins  of 
 various  kinds  are  found  for  many  miles  around  this 
 place.  Of  these,  one  of  the  most  interesting  is  that 
 which  is  thought  to  be  the  remains  of  the  tower  of 
 Belus.  Mr.  Rich,  after  refuting  the  opinion  of  Ren- 
 nell,  who  places  it  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river, 
 gives  the  following  account  of  this  stupendous  ruin, 
 ^  247 
 
BABYLON. 
 
 BAG 
 
 or,  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives,  Birs  Nemroud 
 ("  The  hill  of  Nimrod").  "  If  any  building,"  says  he, 
 "  may  be  supposed  to  have  left  any  considerable  traces, 
 it  is  certainly  the  pyramid  or  tower  of  Belus  ;  which, 
 by  its  form,  dimensions,  and  the  solidity  of  its  con- 
 struction, was  well  calculated  to  resist  the  ravages  of 
 time  ;  and,  if  human  force  had  not  been  employed, 
 would  in  all  probability  have  remained  to  the  present 
 day  in  nearly  as  perfect  a  state  as  the  pyramids  of 
 Egypt  Even  under  the  dilapidations  which  we  know 
 it  to  have  undergone  at  a  very  early  period,  we  might 
 reasonably  look  for  traces  of  it  after  every  other  ves- 
 tige of  Babylon  had  vanished  from  the  face  of  the 
 earth.  The  whole  height  of  the  Birs  Nemroud  above 
 the  plain,  to  the  summit  of  the  brick  wall  on  its  top, 
 is  235  feet  The  brick  wail  itself,  which  stands  on 
 the  edge  of  the  summit,  and  was  undoubtedly  the  face 
 of  another  stage,  is  37  feet  high.  In  the  side  of  the 
 pile,  a  little  below  the  summit,  is  very  clearly  to  be 
 seen  part  of  another  brick  wall,  precisely  resembling 
 the  fragment  which  crowns  the  summit,  but  which 
 still  encases  and  supports  its  part  of  the  mound^ 
 This  is  clearly  indicative  of  another  stage,  of  greater 
 extent.  The  masonry  is  infinitely  superior  to  anything 
 of  the  kind  I  have  ever  seen  ;  and,  leaving  out  of  the 
 question  any  conjecture  relative  to  the  original  desti- 
 nation of  this  rum,  the  first  impression  made  by  the 
 sight  of  it  is,  that  it  was  a  solid  pile,  composed  in  the 
 interior  of  unburned  brick,  and  perhaps  earth  or  rub- 
 bish ;  that  it  was  constructed  in  preceding  stages, 
 and  faced  with  fine  burned  bricks,  having  inscriptions 
 on  them,  laid  in  a  very  thin  layer  of  lime  cement  ; 
 and  that  it  was  reduced  by  violence  to  its  present  ru- 
 inous condition.  The  upper  stories  have  been  forcibly 
 broken  down,  and  fire  has  been  employed  as  an  in- 
 strument of  destruction,  though  it  is  not  easy  to  say 
 precisely  liow  or  why.  The  facing  of  fine  bricks  has 
 partly  been  removed,  and  partly  covered  by  the  falling 
 down  of  the  mass  which  it  supported  and  kept  to- 
 gether. The  Birs  Nemroud  is  in  all  likelihood  at 
 present  pretty  nearly  in  the  state  in  which  Alex- 
 ander saw  it ;  if  we  give  any  credit  to  the  report 
 that  10,000  men  could  only  remove  the  rubbish,  pre- 
 paratory to  repairing  it,  in  two  months.  If  indeed  it 
 required  one  half  of  that  number  to  disencumber  it, 
 the  state  of  dilapidation  must  have  been  complete. 
 The  immense  masses  of  vitrified  brick  which  are 
 seen  on  the  top  of  the  mount,  appear  to  have  marked 
 its  summit  since  the  time  of  its  destruction.  The 
 rubbish  about  its  base  was  probably  in  much  greater 
 quantities,  the  weather  having  dissipated  much  of  it 
 in  the  course  of  so  many  revolving  ages  ;  and  possi- 
 bly portions  of  the  exterior  facing  of  fine  brick  may 
 have  disappeared  at  difTerent  periods."  (Second  Me- 
 moir on  the  Rums  of  Bahxjlon,  p.  165,  seqq.,  Lond., 
 1839  ) — The  account  of  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter  is 
 also  exceedingly  interesting. — As  regards  the  opinion 
 generally  entertained,  that  all  traces  of  the  walls  of 
 Babylon  had  disappeared,  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
 Buckingham  considers  the  hill  or  mound  of  Al  Hhei- 
 mar  to  be  a  portion  of  the  ancient  wall.  This  mound 
 is  about  ten  miles  east  of  Hillah.  It  appears  to  con- 
 sist of  a  solid  mass  of  brickwork,  and  is  of  an  oval 
 form,  its  length  being  from  north  to  south.  It  is 
 from  80  to  100  feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  and  from  70 
 to  80  high.  On  the  summit  is  a  mass  of  solid  wall, 
 about  30  feet  in  length  by  12  to  15  in  thickness, 
 bearing  marks  of  being  broken  and  incomplete  on 
 every  side. — The  bricks  obtained  from  the  ruins  of 
 Babylon  are  celebrated  among  antiquaries  for  the  in- 
 scriptions stamped  upon  them.  I'hcse  inscrii)tions 
 are  in  the  cuneiform  or  Babylonian  character  :  some 
 four,  and  even  seven  lines.  Grotefend,  Burnouf,  and 
 Lassen  have  done  much  towards  deciphering  these. 
 (Hceren,  Idecn,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  325.  scqq. — Mans- 
 ford^s  Script.  Gazetteer,  p  58,  scqq.) — II.  A  city  of 
 248 
 
 Egypt,  north  of  Memphis,  supposed  to  have  been  found- 
 ed l)y  the  Persians  during  the  reign  of  Cambyses. 
 A  quarter,  retaining  the  name  of  Baboul  or  Babilon, 
 in  the  town  of  Old  Cairo,  marks  its  position.  {I'tol., 
 4,  5. — Strab.,  555. — Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  2,  5.) 
 
 B.\BVL0N'iA,  a  large  province  of  Upper  Asia,  of 
 which  Babylon  was  the  capital.  It  was  bounded  on 
 the  north  by  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria  ;  on  the  west 
 by  Arabia  Deserla  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Sinus  Persi- 
 cus  ;  and  on  the  east  by  the  Tigris.  According  to 
 Ptolemy  (5,  20),  it  comprised  Chaldea,  Amordacia, 
 and,  at  the  most  flourishing  period,  a  part  of  Mesopo- 
 tamia and  Assyria.  The  modern  name  is  Irak  Am- 
 bi,  or  Babcli.  Babylonia  is  a  dry  steppe  or  table- 
 land, but  enjoys  a  delightful  climate.  It  was  and  still 
 is  one  of  the  most  fruitful  lands  in  the  world.  He- 
 rodotus (1,  iy3j  gives  the  following  account  of  its  fer- 
 tility. "  All  the  country  about  Babylon  is,  like  Egypt, 
 divided  by  frequent  canals  ;  of  which  the  largest  is 
 navigable,  and,  beginning  at  the  Euphrates,  has  a 
 southeastern  direction,  and  falls  into  the  river  Tigris, 
 on  which  the  city  of  Nineveh  formerly  stood.  No 
 part  of  the  known  world  produces  so  good  wheat ;  but 
 the  vine,  the  olive,  and  the  fig-tree,  they  do  not  even 
 attempt  to  cultivate.  Yet,  in  recompense,  it  abounds 
 so  much  in  corn,  as  to  yield  at  all  times  two  hundred 
 fold,  and  even  three  hundred  fold  when  it  is  most  fruit- 
 ful. Wheat  and  barley  carry  a  blade  full  four  digits  in 
 breadth  ;  and  though  1  well  know  to  what  a  surprising 
 height  millet  and  sesame  grow  in  those  parts,  I  shall 
 be  silent  in  that  particular  ;  because  I  am  well  assured 
 that  what  has  already  been  related  concerning  other 
 fruits,  is  far  more  credible  to  those  who  have  never 
 been  at  Babylon.  They  use  no  other  oil  than  such  as 
 is  drawn  from  sesame.  The  palm-tree  grows  over  all 
 the  plain  ;  and  the  greater  part  bears  fruit,  with  which 
 they  make  bread,  wine,  and  honey."  The  products 
 are  nearly  the  same  now  as  they  were  in  ancient  times. 
 The  southwestern  part  of  Babylonia  was  called  Chal- 
 dea. In  the  more  extensive  sense  of  the  word.  Bab- 
 ylonia was  the  most  important  satrapy  of  the  Persian 
 empire,  and  comprised  both  Assyria  and  Mesopotamia. 
 {Plin.,  5,  12.— W.,  6,  26.— /d.,  18,  45.— &7rui.,  358, 
 &c.) 
 
 B.\BYRSA,  a  fortified  castle  near  Artaxata,  where 
 were  kept  the  treasures  of  Tigranes  and  Artabanus. 
 (5/ra^'.,364.) 
 
 B.4CCH^,  the  priestesses  of  Bacchus.  (Vid.  Bac- 
 chantes.) 
 
 BACcH.^NAi.i.\,  festivals  in  honour  of  Bacchus  at 
 Rome,  the  same  as  the  Dionysia  of  the  Greeks.  {Vti. 
 Dionysia.) 
 
 Bacchantes.  The  worship  of  Bacchus  prevailed  in 
 almost  all  parts  of  Greece.  Men  and  women  joined  in 
 his  festivals  dressed  in  Asiatic  robes  and  bonnets  ;  their 
 heads,  wreathed  with  vine  and  ivy  leaves,  with  fawn- 
 skins  (i'fCp£f5ef)  flung  over  their  shoulders,  and  thyrsi, 
 or  blunt  spears  twined  with  vme-leaves,  in  their  hands, 
 they  ran  through  the  country,  shouting  lo  Bacche ! 
 Euoi !  lacchc  !  &c.,  swinging  their  thyrsi,  beating 
 on  drums,  and  sounding  various  instruments.  Inde- 
 cent emblems  were  carried  in  procession,  and  the  cer- 
 emonies often  assumed  a  most  immoral  character  and 
 tendency.  The  women,  who  bore  a  chief  part  in  these 
 frantic  revels,  were  called  Bacchct,  Manadcs,  Tkyta- 
 dcs,  Euudcs,  &LC.     (Keighlky's  Mythology,  p.  216.) 
 
 Bacchius  and  Bithus,  two  celebrated  gladiators  of 
 equal  age  and  strength,  who,  after  conquering  many 
 competitors,  engaged  with  each  other  and  died  of  mu- 
 tual wounds  ;  whence  the  proverb  to  express  equality, 
 Bithus  contra  Bacchnim.  (Herat.,  Serm.,  1,  7,  20 
 — Porphyrwn,  Schol.  ad  Horat.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Bacchus,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele  daughter  ol 
 Cadmus  Jui)iter,  enamoured  of  the  beauty  of  Semele, 
 visited  her  in  secret.  Juno's  jealousy  took  the  alarm, 
 and,  under  the  form  of  an  old  woman,  she  came  to 
 
BACCHUS. 
 
 BACCHUS. 
 
 Semele,  and,  by  exciting  doubts  of  the  real  character 
 of  her  lover,  induced  her,  when  next  he  came,  to  ex- 
 act a  promise  that  he  would  visit  her  as  he  was  wont 
 to  visit  Juno.     An  unwary  promise  was   thus  drawn 
 from  the  god  before  he  knew  what  he  was  required  to 
 perform  ;  and  he  therefore  entered  the  bower  of  Sem- 
 ele,  with  the  lightning  and  thunder  flaming,  flashing, 
 and    roaring    around    him.      Overcome    with    terror, 
 Semele,  who  was   now  six  months  gone  with  child, 
 expired  in  the  flames,  and  Jupiter,  taking  the  babe, 
 thus  prematurely  born,  sewed  it  up  in  his  thigh.     In 
 due  time  it  came  forth,  and  Jupiier,  then  naming  it 
 Bacchus  (in  Greek  Dionysus),  gave  it  to  Mercury  to 
 convey  to  Ino,  the  sister  of  Semele,  with  directions 
 to  rear  it.     Juno,  whose  revenge  was  not  yet  satiated, 
 caused  Alhamas,  the  husband  of  Ino,  to  go  mad  ;  and 
 Jupiter,  to  save  Bacchus  from  the  machinations  of  his 
 spouse,  changed   him  into  a  kid,  under  which  form 
 Mercury  conveyed  him  to  the  Nymphs  of  Nysa,  by 
 whom  he  was  reared.     When  he  grew  up,  he  discov- 
 ered the  culture  of  the  vine,  and  the  mode  of  extract- 
 ing its  precious  liquor ;  but  Juno  struck  him  with  mad- 
 ness, and  he  roamed   through  great  part  of  Asia.     In 
 Phrygia  Rhea  cured  him,  and  taught  him  her  religious 
 rites,  which  he  now  resolved  to  introduce  into  Greece. 
 While  passing   through  Thrace,  he  was  so  furiously 
 attacked  by  Lycurgus,  a  prince  of  that  country,  that  he 
 was  obliged  to  take  refuge  with  Thetis,  in  the  sea. 
 But  he  inflicted   on  the  monarch   severe  retaliation. 
 {Vid.  Lycurgus.)     \\'hcn  Bacchus  reached  Thebes, 
 the  women  readily  received  the   new  rites,  and   ran 
 wildly  through  the  woods  of  Cithseron.     Pentheus,  the 
 ruler  of  Thebes,  however,  set  himself  against  them  ; 
 and  Bacchus  caused  him  to  be  torn  to   pieces  by  his 
 mother  and  his  aunts.     He  next  proceeded  to  Attica, 
 where  he  taught  Icarius  the  culture  of  the  vine.    ( Vtd. 
 Icarius,  Erigone.)     At  Argos  the   rites  of  Bacchus 
 were  received,  as  at  Thebes,  by  the  women,  and  op- 
 posed by  Perseus,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae.     Jove, 
 however,  reduced  his  two  sons  to  amity,  and  Bacchus 
 thence  passed  over  to  Naxos,  where  he  met  Ariadne. 
 On  his  way  to  this  island  he  fell  into  the  hands   of 
 Tyrrhenian  pirates,  who  bound    him   with  cords,  in- 
 tending to  sell  him  as  a  slave.     But  the  cords  fell  from 
 his  limbs,  vines  with  clustering  grapes  spread  over  the 
 sail,  and  ivy,  laden  with  berries,  ran  up  the  masts  and 
 sides  of  the  vessel.     The  god,  thereupon  assuming  the 
 form  of  a  lion,  seized  the  captain  of  the  ship,  and  the 
 terrified  crew,  to  escape  him,  leaped  into  the  sea  and 
 became  dolphins.     The  pilot  alone,  who  had  taken  the 
 part  of  Bacchus,  remained   on  board  ;  the  god  then 
 declared  to  him  who  he  was,  and  took  him  under  his 
 protection.     The  expedition  of  Bacchus  into  the  East 
 is  also  celebrated.     In  the  Bacchaj  of  Euripides  the 
 god  describes  himself  as  having  gone  through  Lydia, 
 Phrygia,  Persia,  Bactria,  Media,  Arabia,  and  the  coast 
 of  Asia,  inhabited  by  mingled  Greeks  and  barbarians, 
 throughout  all  which  he  had  established  his  dances  and 
 religious  rites.     India,  in  particular,  was  the  scene  of 
 his  conquests.     He  marched  at  the  head  of  an  army 
 composed  of  both  men  and  women,  all  inspired  with 
 divine  fury,  and  armed  with  thyrsi,  clashing  cymbals, 
 and  other  musical  instruments,  and  uttering  the  wild- 
 est cries.      His    conquests    were   easy   and    without 
 bloodshed  ;  the  nations  readily  submitted,  and  the  god 
 taught  them  the  use  of  the  vine,  the  cultivation  of  the 
 earth,  and  the  art  of  making  honey.      Bacchus  was 
 also   fabled  to  have  assisted   the  gods  in  their  wars 
 against  the  giants,  having  assumed  on  that  occasion 
 the  form  of  a  lion.     He  afterward  descended  to  Ere- 
 bus, whence   he   brought  his   mother,  whom   he  now 
 named  Thyone,  and  ascended  with  her  to  the  abode 
 of  the  gods.     (Apullod.,  3,  5,  3,— Dwrf.  Sic,  3,  62  — 
 Id.,  4,  25.—Hornt.,  Od.,  2,  19,  29.)— Like  every  other 
 portion   of  the  Grecian  mythology,  the  history  of  the 
 vine-god   was  pragmatised   when  infidelity  '  became 
 
 prevalent.  Thus,  Diodorus  gives  us,  probably  from 
 the  cyclograph  Dionysius,  the  following  narrative. 
 Amnion,  a  monarch  of  Libya,  was  married  to  Rhea,  a 
 daughter  of  Manus  ;  but  meeting,  near  the  Ceraunian 
 mountains,  a  beautiful  maiden  named  Ainalthea,  he 
 became  enamoured  of  her.  He  made  her  mistress  of 
 the  adjacent  fruitful  country,  which,  from  its  resem- 
 bling a  bull's  horn  in  form,  was  named  the  Western 
 horn,  and  then  Amalihea's  horn,  which  last  name  was 
 afterward  given  to  places  similar  to  it  in  fertility. 
 Ainalthea  here  bore  him  a  son,  whom,  fearing  the  jeal- 
 ousy of  Rhea,  he  conveyed  to  a  town  named  Nysa, 
 situated  not  far  from  the  Horn,  in  an  island  formed  by 
 the  river  Triton.  He  committed  the  care  of  him  to 
 Nysa,  one  of  the  daughters  of  Aristaeus,  while  Minerva 
 was  appointed  to  keep  guard  against  the  assaults  of 
 Rhea.  This  delicious  isle,  which  was  precipitous  on 
 all  sides,  with  a  single  entrance,  through  a  narrow  glen 
 thickly  shaded  with  trees,  is  described  in  a  similar 
 manner  witli  Panchaia  and  other  happy  retreats  of  the 
 same  nature.  It  had  verdant  meads,  abundant  springs, 
 trees  of  every  kind,  flowers  of  all  hues,  and  evermore 
 resounded  with  the  melody  of  birds.  (Compare  Mil- 
 ton, P.  L.,  4,  275,  seqq.)  After  he  grew  up,  Bac- 
 chus became  a  mighty  conqueror,  according  to  this 
 legend,  and  a  benefactor  of  mankind,  by  whom  he  was 
 finally  deified. — Though  the  adventures  of  Bacchus 
 were  occasionally  the  theme  of  poets,  especially  of  the 
 dramatists,  they  do  not  appear  to  have  been  narrated  in 
 continuity,  like  those  of  Hercules,  until  after  the  de- 
 cline of  Grecian  poetry.  It  was  in  the  fifth  century 
 of  the  Christian  era  that  Nonnus,  a  native  of  Panopo- 
 lis,  in  Egypt,  made  the  histoiy  of  Bacchus  the  subject 
 of  a  poem,  containing  forty-eight  books,  the  wildest 
 a>nd  strangest  that  can  well  be  conceived,  more  re- 
 sembling the  Ramayuna  of  India  than  anything  to  be 
 found  in  ancient  or  modern  occidental  literature.  It 
 forms  a  vast  repertory  of  Bacchic  fable.  ( Vid.  Non- 
 nus.)— Bacchus  was  represented  in  a  variety  of  modes 
 and  characters  by  the  ancient  artists.  The  Theban 
 Bacchus  appears  with  the  delicate  lineaments  of  a 
 maiden  rather  than  those  of  a  young  man  ;  his  whole 
 air  and  gait  are  effeminate;  his  long,  flowing  hair  is, 
 like  that  of  Apollo,  collected  behind  his  head,  wreath- 
 ed with  ivy  or  a  fillet ;  he  is  either  naked  or  wrapped 
 in  a  large  cloak,  and  the  nebris,  or  fawn's  skin,  is  some- 
 times flung  over  his  shoulders;  he  carries  a  thyrsus, 
 and  a  panther  generally  lies  at  his  feet.  In  some 
 monuments  Bacchus  appears  bearded,  in  others  horned 
 (the  Bacchus-Sebazius),  whence  in  the  mysteries  he 
 was  identified  with  Osiris,  and  regarded  as  the  Sun. 
 For  another  legend  relative  to  the  horns  with  which  he 
 is  depicted,  consult  the  article  Ammon  He  is  some- 
 times alone,  at  other  times  in  company  with  Ariadne 
 or  the  youth  Ampelus.  His  triumph  over  the  Indians 
 is  represented  in  great  pomp.  The  captives  are  chain- 
 ed, and  placed  on  wagons  or  elephants,  and  among 
 them  is  carried  a  large  crater  full  of  wine.  The  god 
 himself  is  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  elephants  or  panthers, 
 leaning  on  Ampelus,  preceded  by  Pan,  and  followed 
 by  Silenus,  the  satyrs,  and  Ma?nades,  on  foot  or  on 
 horseback,  who  make  the  air  resound  with  their  cries 
 and  the  clash  of  their  instruments.  The  Indian  Bac- 
 chus is  always  bearded. — It  is  with  reason  that  Sopho- 
 cles styles  Bacchus  mn 711/ 7inr7ied  {■rroXviJvvfxoc,  Antig., 
 1115),  for  in  the  Orphic  hymns  alone  we  meet  with 
 upward  of  forty  of  his  appellations.  The  etymology 
 of  the  most  common  one,  Bacchus,  has  been  variously 
 given  ;  it  appears,  however,  to  be  only  another  form 
 for  lacrhus.  (  Vid.  lacchus.)  Some  make  it  the  same 
 with  Bams,  one  of  the  names  of  the  Hindu  deity 
 Schiva.  "{Keishthifs  Mytholog}/,  p.  212,  seqq.)— 
 Modern  writers  are"  much  divided  in  opinion  respect- 
 ing the  origin  of  the  worship  of  Bacchus,  and  many 
 arguments  have  been  urged  in  support  of  its  having 
 come  from  a  Grecian  source.     A  dispassionate  view 
 
 249 
 
BACCHUS. 
 
 BAG 
 
 of  the  subject,  however,  will  lead,  we  think,  to  the  con- 
 viction that  the  religious  system  of  this  deity  is  of  In- 
 dian origin.  In  order,  however,  to  reach  the  soil  of 
 Greece,  it  had  to  traverse  other  countries,  Upfier  Asia, 
 Phoenicia,  Egypt,  and  Thrace  ;  and,  in  its  march,  its 
 fabulous  legetids  became  enlarged  and  variously  mod- 
 ified. It  IS  impossible  to  deny  the  identity  of  Bac- 
 chus with  Osiris.  The  birth  of  Bacchus,  drawn  living 
 from  the  womb  of  Semele,  after  she  had  perished  be- 
 neath the  fires  of  Jove,  and  his  strange  translation  to 
 the  thigh  of  the  monarch  of  Olympus,  bear  the  impress 
 of  Oriental  imagery.  When  he  escapes  from  his 
 mother's  womb,  an  ivy-branch  springs  forth  from  a 
 column  to  cover  him  with  its  shade  {Eunp.,  Pkccn., 
 658,  scqq.),  and  the  ivv  was  in  Egypt  the  plant  of 
 Osiris.  {Plut.,  de  h.  ci  Os.,  p.  365— Op.,  ed.  Raske, 
 vol.  7,  p.  442  )  In  like  manner,  the  coffin  of  the 
 Egyptian  deity  is  shaded  by  the  plant  enca,  which 
 springs  suddenly  from  the  ground  and  envelops  it. 
 {Plut., -ibid.)  Bacchus  and  Osiris  both  float  upon  the 
 waters  in  a  chest  or  ark.  They  have  both  for  their 
 symbols  the  head  of  a  bull ;  and  hence  Bacchus  is 
 styled  Bougenes  by  Plutarch. — It  is  equally  impossible 
 liot  to  recognise  in  Bacchus  the  Schiva  of  India,  as 
 well  as  the  Lingam  his  symbol.  (Compare  Rhode, 
 Religiose  Bildung,  &c.,  dcr  Hindus,  vol.  2,  p.  232.) 
 If  we  wish  to  call  etymology  to  our  aid,  we  shall  be 
 struck  with  the  remembrance  which  Dionysus  (Ato- 
 vv&or),  the  Greek  name  of  Bacchus,  bears  to  Diouichi 
 (Deva-Nicha),  a  surname  of  Schiva.  {Langles,  Re- 
 cherchcs  Asiatiques,  vol.  1,  p.  278 — Creuzer's  Sym- 
 bolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  1,  p.  148,  in  -nntis.)  An 
 analogy  may  also  be  traced  between  the  Greek  term 
 UTjpdr,  "  thigh,"  and  the  Indian  Merou,  the  mountain  of 
 the  gods.  One  of  the  symbols  of  Bacchus  is  an  equi- 
 lateral triangle  ;  this  is  also  one  of  Schiva's.  The  two 
 systems  of  worship  have  the  same  obscenities,  and  the 
 same  emblems  of  the  generative  power.  {Asiulic  Re- 
 searches, vol.  8,  p.  50.)  Schiva  is  represented,  in  the 
 Hindu  mythology,  as  assuming  the  form  of  a  lion 
 during  the  great  battle  of  the  gods.  He  seizes  the 
 monster  that  attacks  him,  and  assails  him  with  his 
 teeth  and  fangs,  while  Dourga  pierces  him  with  his 
 lance.  The  same  exploit  is  attributed,  in  the  Grecian 
 mythology,  to  Bacchus,  under  the  same  form,  against 
 the  giant  Rhoetus.  {Hor.,  Carm.,  2,  19,  23  )  The 
 manner  in  which  the  worship  of  Bacchus  came  into 
 Greece,  probably  by  means  of  several  successive  mi- 
 grations, through  regions  widely  remote,  will  ever  re- 
 main an  enigma  of  difficult  solution.  The  Greeks, 
 indeed,  inade  Thebes  the  birthplace  of  this  deity  ;  but 
 this  proves  nothing  for  the  fact  of  his  Grecian  origin. 
 Thebes,  in  Bceotia,  was  the  centre  of  the  Cadmean- 
 Asiatic  mythology  :  a  god,  whose  worship  came  to  the 
 rest  of  the  Greeks  out  of  Thebes,  was  for  them  a  deity 
 born  in  Thebes  ;  and  hence  arose  the  legend  of  the 
 Theban  origin  of  Bacchus.  {BiUtmanii's  Mylhnlogus, 
 vol.  1,  p.  5.)  So,  when  the  Greek  mythology  makes 
 Bacchus  to  have  gone  on  an  expedition  to  Asia,  and 
 to  have  conquered  India,  it  merely  reverses  the  order 
 of  events,  and  describes,  as  the  victorious  progress  of 
 a  Grecian  deity,  what  was  in  reality  the  course  which 
 the  religion  of  an  Oriental  deity  took,  from  the  East 
 to  the  West.  {Kanne,  Mythologie  der  Griechen,  <J 
 31.)  In  the  Anti-Symbollk  of  Voss  (p  65,  seqq.),  we 
 have  an  excellent  history  of  the  introduction  of  the 
 worship  of  Bacchus  into  Greece,  and  its  progress  in 
 that  country,  from  the  20th  to  the  60th  Olympiad. 
 We  find  this  worship  making  its  fir.st  appearance  in 
 the  mysteries  of  Samothrace  ;  furnishing  to  the  Ioni- 
 an school  Phoenician  elements  ;  enriching  itself  with 
 ideas  of  Asiatic  origin  by  means  of  the  extension  of 
 commerce  ;  mingling  with  the  elements  of  Grecian 
 philosophy  in  their  very  cradle  ;  presenting  I.ydian  and 
 Phrygian  additions  as  a  primitive  basis  ;  giving  an  oc- 
 cult meaning  to  the  public  games  at  Olyrapia ;  carry- 
 250 
 
 ing  back  into  Eg}'pt,  under  the  reign  of  Psammetichus, 
 along  with  Milesian  colonies,  and  enriched  with  im- 
 mense developments,  what  the  Egyptian  colonies  had 
 once  carried  into  Greece  ;  identifying  itself  with  the 
 Orphic  doctrine  ;  but  remaining  always  an  object  of 
 suspicion  and  aversion,  and  contemned  by  the  wise  in 
 the  days  of  Xenophanes  and  Ileraclitus,  as  it  had  been 
 a  long  time  before  proscribed  by  kings  and  rejected  by 
 communities.  The  fables  of  which  Bacchus  is  made 
 the  hero,  the  rites  which  these  fables  elucidated,  rites 
 bearing  at  one  tune  the  impress  of  profound  sadness, 
 at  another  of  frantic  joy,  and  by  turns  bloody  and  licen- 
 tious, mournful  and  frantic,  never  became  part  of  the 
 Grecian  system  of  religion.  Wherever  they  announ- 
 ced themselves,  they  excited  only  horror  and  dread. 
 The  sufferings  and  the  destruction  of  various  dynasties 
 attach  themselves  to  their  frightful  and  sudden  ap- 
 pearance. Agave  rends  in  pieces  her  son  Pcntheu.s. 
 Ino  precipitates  herself  into  the  sea,  with  Melicerta  in 
 her  arms.  The  daughters  of  Minyas,  becoming  furi- 
 ous, commit  horrible  murder,  and  undergo  a  hideous 
 metamorphosis.  The  language  of  the  poets  who  relate 
 to  us  these  fearful  traditions,  is  sombre  and  mysterious 
 in  its  character,  and  bears  evident  marks  of  a  sacerdo- 
 tal origin.  The  philosophic  Euri|)ides,  as  well  as  Ovid, 
 who  expresses  himself  with  so  much  lightness  in  ref- 
 erence to  other  legends,  appear,  m  describing  the  deatii 
 of  Pentheus,  to  partake  of  the  sanguinary  joy,  the 
 ferocious  irony,  and  the  fanaticism  of  the  Bacchantes. 
 One  would  feel  tempted  to  say,  that  the  sacerdotal 
 spirit  had  triumphed  over  these  incredulous  poets,  and 
 that,  after  the  lapse  of  ten  centuries,  the  phrensy  of  the 
 ancient  orgies  had  affected  their  senses  and  troubled 
 their  reason.  In  the  age  of  Homer  these  mournful 
 recitals  were  either  unknown  or  treated  with  disdain  ; 
 for  he  speaks  only  once  of  Bacchus,  on  occasion  of  the 
 victory  which  he  gained  over  Lycurgus  (//.,  6,  130. — 
 Compare  Od.,  24,  74),  and  the  scholiasts  express  their 
 surprise,  that  the  poet,  after  having  thus  placed  Bac- 
 chus among  the  divinities  of  Olympus,  makes  him  take 
 no  part  in  the  subjects  that  divide  them.  The  Grecian 
 spirit,  therefore,  renounced,  at  an  early  period,  every 
 attempt  to  modify  this  so  heterogeneous  a  conception. 
 {Constant,  de  la  Religion,  vol.  2,  p.  419,  scqq.) 
 
 B.\ccHvi,H)Es,  a  lyric  poet  of  Ceos,  nephew  to  Si- 
 monides.  He  flourished  about  450  B.C.  and  was  re- 
 garded as  one  of  the  most  celebrated  poets  of  his  day. 
 Bacchylides  shared  with  Pindar  the  favour  of  King 
 Hiero  at  the  court  of  Syracuse.  That  his  poetry  was 
 but  an  imitation  of  one  branch  of  that  of  Simonides, 
 cultivated  with  great  delicacy  and  finish,  is  proved  by 
 the  opinion  of  ancient  critics  ;  among  whom  Dionysius 
 adduces  perfect  correctness  and  uniform  elegance  as 
 the  characteristics  of  Bacchylides.  His  genius  and  art 
 were  chiefly  devoted  to  the  pleasures  of  private  life, 
 love,  and  wine  ;  and,  when  compared  with  those  of 
 Simonides,  appear  marked  by  greater  sensual  grace 
 and  less  moral  elevation.  Among  the  kinds  of  choral 
 songs  which  he  emplovcd,  besides  those  of  which  he 
 had  examples  in  Simonides  and  Pindar,  we  find  erotic 
 ones.  The  elaborate  and  brilliant  execution  which 
 is  peculiar  to  the  school  of  Simonides,  appears  also  in 
 the  productions  of  Bacchylides,  especially  in  the  beau- 
 tiful fragment  in. praise  of  peace.  The  structure  of 
 Bacchylides'  verses  is  generally  very  simple;  nine 
 tenths  of  his  odes,  to  judge  from  the  fragments,  con- 
 sisted of  dactylic  series  and  trochaic  dipodias,  as  we 
 see  in  those  odes  of  Pindar,  which  were  written  in 
 the  Doric  mode.  We  find  in  his  poems  trochaic  verses 
 of  great  elegance ;  as,  for  example,  a  fragment,  pro- 
 served  by  Athenasus,  of  a  religious  poem,  in  which  the 
 Dioscuri  are  invited  to  a  feast.  {Aiken.,  11,  p.  500, 
 h.)  Bacchylides  wrote  in  the  Doric  dialect.  Many 
 fragments  of  his  pieces  occur  in  Plutarch,  Dionysius 
 of  Halicarnassus,  Athenaeus,  Clemens  of  Alexandrea, 
 and  particularly  in  Stobasus.     The  fragments  of  Bac- 
 
BAG 
 
 BAG 
 
 c.ivlides  are  found  in  the  collections  of  Neander,  H. 
 Stephens,  Orsini,  and  Brunck.  A  more  complete 
 edition  of  them  appeared  in  1822,  from  the  Berlin 
 press,  by  C.  F.  Neue,  in  8vo.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  287 .—Mohnike,  Lit.  der  Gr.  und 
 R.,  p.  336.— Lit.  Anc.  Gr.,  c.  14,  ^  13,  in  Libr.  Us. 
 Know!.) 
 
 Bacenis,  a  wood  in  Germany,  generally  supposed 
 to  be  a  part  of  the  Hercynia  Silva,  and  to  have  been 
 situate  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Fulda,  or  Vnl,  which  flows 
 into  the  Visurgis.  It  separated  the  territories  of  the 
 Catti  from  those  of  the  Cherusci,  and  appears  to  be  the 
 same  with  the  Buchonia  of  later  writers.  {Cas  ,  B. 
 G..  6,  \0.—Mannert,  Gco^r.,  vol.  3,  p.  183,  417.) 
 
 B.tcTRA,  the  capital  of  Bactria,  situate  on  the  river 
 Bacirus,  a  tributary  of  the  Oxus.  It  is  now  Balkh,  in 
 the  country  of  the  Usbeck  Tatars.  It  was  likewise 
 called  Zariaspe  and  Zariaspa.  (Plin.,  6,  16.)  This 
 place  has  been  a  rendezvous  of  caravans  from  the 
 remotest  antiquity,  and  at  this  point  it  is  probable 
 that  commerce  united  Eastern  and  Western  Asia. 
 To  this  place  the  natives  of  Little  Thibet,  which  Herod- 
 otus and  Ctesias  call  Northern  India,  brought  the  valu- 
 able woollens  of  their  country,  and  likewise  the  gold 
 which  they  procured  from  the  great  desert  of  Gobi.  The 
 tales  which  they  told  to  the  Western  Asiatics  of  these 
 wonderful  regions  might  be  a  little  exaggerated,  or  per- 
 verted through  the  medium  of  an  interpreter.  (Long's 
 Anc.  Geogr.,  p.  13. — Compare  Hccrcn,  Lleen,  vol.  1, 
 pt.  3,  p.  408,  seqq.) — On  the  origin  of  the  Bactrians 
 and  their  connexion  with  the  great  Zend  race,  consult 
 the  remarks  of  Rhode,  in  his  Heilige  Sage  der  Baktrer, 
 &c.,  p.  60,  seqq. 
 
 Bactria  and  Bactri.vxa,  a  country  of  Asia,  bound- 
 ed by  Aria  on  the  west,  the  mountains  of  Paropamisus 
 on  the  south  ;  the  Emodi  Montes  on  the  east ;  and 
 Sogdiana  on  the  north.  Bactriana  now  belongs  to  the 
 kingdom  of  the  Afghauns,  or  Caubulistan.  Its  proxim- 
 ity to  Northern  India,  and  the  possession  of  a  large 
 river,  the  Oxus,  with  fertile  lands,  made  it,  in  very 
 remote  ages,  the  centre  of  Asiatic  commerce,  and  the 
 point  of  union  for  all  the  natives  of  this  vast  continent. 
 (  Vid.  Bactra.)  It  would  seem  also,  in  very  early  times, 
 to  have  been  the  seat  of  a  powerful  empire  long  prior 
 to  that  of  the  Medes  or  Persians.  (Compare  Ba.hr,  ad 
 Ctes.,  p.  93.) — This  country  became  remarkable  at  a 
 later  age  for  the  Greek  kingdom  which  was  founded  in 
 it.  The  Bactrian  kingdom  arose  almost  at  the  same 
 time  with  the  Parthian,  B.C.  254  ;  yet  the  mode  of  its 
 origin  was  not  only  different  (for  it  was  here  the  Gre- 
 cian governor  himself,  who  made  himself  independent, 
 and  therefore  had  Grecians  for  his  successors),  but  also 
 the  duration,  which  was  much  less.  Solitary  frag- 
 ments of  the  history  of  this  kingdom  have  only  been 
 preserved,  and  yet  it  seems  at  one  time  to  have  ex- 
 tended to  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  and  the  borders  of 
 China.  The  founder  of  this  kingdom  was  Diodatus 
 or  Theodotus  I.  (B.C.  254),  as  he  broke  from  the 
 Syrian  sway  in  the  time  of  Antiochus  II.  He  appears 
 to  have  been  master  of  Sogdiana  as  well  as  Bactria. 
 He  also  threatened  Parthia,  but  after  his  death  (B.C. 
 243)  his  son  and  successor,  Theodotus  II.,  closed  a 
 peace  and  alliance  with  Arsaces  II.,  but  was  deprived 
 of  his  throne  by  Eulhydemus  of  Magnesia,  about  B.C. 
 221.  The  attack  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  after  the 
 termination  of  the  Parthian  war,  was  directed  against 
 him.  hut  ended  in  a  peace,  in  which  Euthydemus,  on 
 givm<T  uj)  his  elephants,  retained  his  crown,' and  a  mar- 
 riage betweea  his  son  Demetrius  and  a  daughter  of 
 Anlioch\is  was  agreed  upon.  Demetrius,  although  he 
 was  a  great  conqueror,  appears  not  to  have  bcen^king 
 of  Bactria,  but  of  Northern  India  and  Malabar,  of  which 
 countries  the  history  is  now  closely  connected  with 
 that  of  Bactria,  although  all  the  accounts  are  but  frag- 
 mentary. To  the  throne  of  Bactria,  Menander  suc- 
 ceeded, who  extended  his  conquests  to  Serica,  as  De- 
 
 metrius established  his  dominion  in  India,  where,  about 
 this  time  (perhaps  as  a  consequence  of  the  expedition 
 of  Antiochus  III.,  B.C.  205),  there  appear  to  have 
 been  several  Greek  states.  Menander  was  followed, 
 about  B.C.  181,  by  Eucratidas,  under  whom  the  Bac- 
 trian i<ingdom  acquired  its  greatest  extent ;  for,  after 
 defeating  the  Indian  king  Demetrius,  who  had  attack- 
 ed him,  he,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Parthian  con- 
 queror Mithradates  (Arsaces  VI  ),  took  India  from  De- 
 metrius and  annexed  it  to  the  Bactrian  kingdom,  B.C. 
 148.  He  was,  however,  on  his  return,  murdered  by  his 
 son,  who  is  probably  the  Eucratidas  who  is  afterward 
 named.  This  latter  was  the  ally  and  chief  adviser  of 
 the  expedition  of  Demetrius  II.  of  Syria  agamst  the 
 Parthians,  B.C.  142;  and  therefore,  on  the  victorious 
 resistance  of  Arsaces  VI.,  robbed  of  a  part  of  his  ter- 
 ritory, and  soon  after  overpowered  by  the  nomadic  na- 
 tions of  Middle  Asia  ;  upon  which  the  Bactrian  king- 
 dom became,  as  such,  extinct,  and  Bactria  itself,  with 
 the  other  countries  on  this  side  the  Oxus,  became  a 
 booty  to  the  Parthians.  (Compare  Bayer,  Historia 
 rcgni  Grcecorum  Bactriam,  Petrop.  1738,  4to. — Hee- 
 I'cn's  Anc.  History,  p.  315,  seqq.,  Bancroft''s  transl.) 
 
 Bactrus,  a  river  of  Bactria,  running  into  the  Oxus. 
 It  flowed  by  the  capital  Bactra,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
 the  same  with  the  modern  Anderab.  {Curt.,  7,  4. — 
 Polyetn.,  Strat.,  7,  11.) 
 
 Bacuntius,  a  river  of  Pannonia,  in  the  immediate 
 vicinity  of  Sirmium.  It  fell  into  the  Savus  or  Save. 
 The  modern  name  is  Basset  or  Bossut.     (Pirn  ,  3,  25.) 
 
 Badia,  a  town  of  Hispania  Baetica,  supposed  to  be 
 the  present  Badajoz.  {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 447. — Cellarius,  Geogr.  Antiq.,  vol.  1,  p.  67.) 
 
 Baduhenn^  Lvcus,  a  grove  in  the  country  of  the 
 Frisii,  where  900  Romans  were  killed.  (Tacit.,  Ann., 
 4,  73.)  It  is  thought  to  have  been  situated  in  modern 
 West  Friesland.  The  name  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
 from  that  of  the  goddess  Pada,  and  the  modern  name 
 is  given  by  some  as  Holt  Fade.  (Alting,  Not.  Batav. 
 et  Fris.  Ant.,  vol.  1,  p.  14  ) 
 
 B^BiA  LEX,  I.  was  enacted  for  the  election  of  six 
 prretors  and  four  during  alternate  years.  (Lre.,  40,  44.) 
 — II.  Another  law  by  M.  Basbius,  a  tribune  of  the  peo- 
 ple, against  largesses  and  bribery.  (Non.  MarcelL,  de 
 propr.  Serm.,  c.  7,  n.  19,  p.  749. — Lzv.,  40,  19.) 
 
 B^TicA.      Vid.  Hispania. 
 
 BvETis,  a  river  of  Spain,  from  which  a  part  of  the 
 country  received  the  name  of  6<E/?>«.  (Vid.  Hispania.) 
 Its  sources  were  surrounded  by  the  chain  of  Mons  Oros- 
 peda.  At  its  mouth  was  the  island  of  Tartessus,  the 
 name  of  which  was  anciently  also  applied  to  the  river, 
 previous  to  that  of  Baetis.  (Strab.,  148.)  According 
 to  Steph.  Byz..  the  natives  called  this  river  Pcrkcs 
 (Tl^purjc)  ;  buc  according  to  Livy  (28,  22),  Certis. 
 Bochart  derives  the  name  Baetis  from  the  Punic  Bitsi, 
 "marshy."  So  also  Perkcs  is  deduced  by  him  from 
 Bcrca,  "  a  marsh,"  in  the  same  language.  In  illustra- 
 tion of  these  etymologies,  he  states  that  the  Bsetis 
 forms  marshes  three  times  in  its  course.  The  appel- 
 lation Certis,  as  found  in  Livy,  he  considers  a  mere 
 corruption  from  Perkes.  (Bochart,  Geogr.  Sacr.,  1, 
 34.)  Others,  however,  derive  Certis  from  the  Oriental 
 Kiriath,  "  a  town,"  from  the  great  number  which  it 
 watered  in  its  course.  (Consult  Oheilm,  ad,  Vih.  Se- 
 quest.,  p  \5.—Tzschuckc,  ad  Mel.,  3,  1,  vol.  3,  pt.  3, 
 p  15.)  The  modern  name  of  the  Bffitis  is  the  Gnadal- 
 quiver,  which  is  a  corruption  from  the  Arabic  Wadi- 
 al-Kiber,  or  "  the  Great  River."  (Plin.,  3,  1. — Lucan, 
 Phars.,  2,  589.— S/«/.  Sylv.,1,  34,  &c.) 
 
 Baoistanus,  a  mountain  of  Media,  southwest  of 
 Ecbatana,  and  sacred  to  Jupiter.  Here  Semiramis 
 formed  a  park  or  garden  of  twelve  stadia  in  circumfer- 
 ence, and  cut  her  image  on  the  face  of  the  rock. 
 (Diod.  Sic.,  2,  13.—Isid.,  Charac,  p.  6.)  Alexander 
 is  said  to  have  visited  the  s/iot.  (Diod.  Sic,  17,  1 10.) 
 It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  part  of  the  name,  Bagis, 
 
 251 
 
B  AI 
 
 B  AL 
 
 is  an  appellation  of  the  Hindoo  Schiva,  and  is  also  re- 
 garded by  some  as  the  source  whence  the  Greek  name 
 Bacchus  is  derived.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  5,  pt.  2, 
 p.  163,  seq.) 
 
 Bagoas,  I.  an  Egyptian  eunuch  at  the  court  of  Arta- 
 xer.xes  Ochus,  remarkable  for  his  bravery  and  military 
 talents.  In  concert  with  Memnon,  he  brought  Egvpt, 
 which  had  revolted,  under  the  Persian  sway  again. 
 Ochus,  however,  having  shocked  his  religious  preju- 
 dices by  his  conduct  towards  the  deified  animals  of 
 Egypt,  Bagoas  destroyed  him  (vid.  Artaxerxes  III.), 
 and  placed  Arses,  the  monarch's  youngest  son,  on  the 
 throne.  He,  however,  soon  destroyed  this  young 
 prince  also.  He  then  called  to  the  throne  Darius  Co- 
 domanus,  whom  he  attempted  to  poison  not  long  after. 
 But  Darius,  discovering  the  artifice,  made  him  drink 
 the  poison  himself. — It  is  believed  that  this  is  the  same 
 Bagoas  who,  during  the  reign  of  Ochus,  entered  the 
 temple  of  Jerusalem,  to  avenge  the  brother  of  John, 
 whom  the  latter  had  slain  in  the  temple,  as  a  compet- 
 itor for  the  high -priesthood.  The  name  Bagoas  is 
 said  to  be  equivalent  to  "eunuch."  (Biogr.  Univ., 
 vol.  3,  p.  216.) — II.  A  favourite  eurmch  of  Alexan- 
 der's. {Curt.,  6,  5,  23.—Plut.,  Vit.  Alex.,c.  67. — 
 Lemaire,  ad   Curt.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Bagradas,  I.  a  river  of  Africa,  flowing  between 
 Utica  and  Carthage  in  former  days,  though  at  present 
 their  situation  as  regards  it  is  materially  altered.  It 
 makes  encroachments  on  the  sea  like  the  Nile,  and 
 hence  its  ancient  mouth  is  now  circumscribed  by  mud, 
 and  become  a  large  navigable  pond.  (Vid.  Carthago 
 and  Utica.)  The  genuine  form  of  the  ancient  name 
 is  thought  to  be  found  in  Polybius,  namely,  Ma/cdpaf, 
 MuKpttf,  or  MuKap  {Schwcigh.,  ad  Polyb.,  1,  75,  5)  ; 
 and  with  this,  in  a  measure,  the  Boti^dpaf  of  Strabo 
 coincides.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  to  be  traced  to 
 the  Punic  Macar,  "  Hercules,"  so  that  Macaras  will 
 mean  "the  river  of  Hercules."  Gesenius  condemns 
 Bochart's  derivation  from  Barca  or  Berca,  "a  marsh." 
 {Gescn.,  Monum.  Phccn.,  p.  420.)  The  modern  name 
 of  the  river  is  the  Mejerda.     {PtoL,  6,  4.) 
 
 Bai^,  a  city  of  Campania,  on  a  small  bay  west  of 
 Neapolis,  and  opposite  Puteoli.  It  was  originally  a 
 village,  but  the  numerous  advantages  of  its  situation 
 soon  rendered  it  much  frequented  and  famous.  Its 
 foundation  is  ascribed  in  mythology  to  Baius,  one  of 
 the  companions  of  Ulysses.  The  cause  of  the  rapid 
 increase  of  Baiaj  lay  in  the  fruilfulness  of  the  surround- 
 ing country,  in  the  beauty  of  its  own  situation,  in  the 
 rich  supply  of  shell  and  other  fish  which  the  adjacent 
 waters  afforded,  and,  above  all,  in  the  hot  mineral 
 springs  which  flowed  from  the  neighbouring  mountains, 
 and  formed  a  chief  source  of  attraction  to  invalids. 
 (Compare  Florus,  1,  16.— P/m.,31,  2.—Senec.,  Ep., 
 51. — Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.,  18,  14. — Cassiod.,  9,  ep. 
 6.)  Bats  was  first  called  Aqu»  Cumans.  Numer- 
 ous villas  graced  the  surrounding  country,  and  many 
 were  likewise  built  on  artificial  moles  extending  a  great 
 distance  into  the  sea.  It  is  now,  owing  to  earthquakes 
 and  inundations  of  the  sea,  a  mere  waste  compared 
 with  what  it  once  was.  The  modern  name  is  Baia. 
 Many  remains  of  ancient  villas  may  be  seen  under  the 
 water.  "  The  bay  of  Baise,"  observes  Eustace,  "  is 
 a  semicircular  recess,  just  opposite  the  harbour  of  Poz- 
 zuolo,  and  about  three  miles  distant  from  it.  It  is 
 lined  with  ruins,  the  remains  of  the  villas  and  the  baths 
 of  the  Romans  ;  some  advance  a  considerable  way  out, 
 and,  though  now  under  the  waves,  are  easily  distin- 
 guishable in  fine  weather.  The  taste  for  building  in 
 the  waters  and  encroaching  on  the  sea,  to  which  Horace 
 alludes,  is  exemplified  in  a  very  striking  manner  all 
 along  this  coast."  {Classical  Tour,  vol,  2,  p.  406.) 
 The  same  traveller,  in  commenting  on  the  insalubrity 
 of  Baite  at  the  present  day,  remarks  as  follows  :  "  The 
 present  unwholesomeness  of  Baite  and  its  bay,  if  real, 
 must  be  ascribed  partly  to  the  streams  and  sources 
 232 
 
 once  collected  on  the  hills  behind  it  in  aqueducts  and 
 reservoirs,  now  spreading  and  oozing  down  the  decliv- 
 ities, and  settling  in  the  hollows  below.  In  a  warm 
 climate  all  stagnant  water  becomes  putrid  during  the 
 hot  months.     (Vol.  3,  p.  14,  in  notis.) 
 
 Bala,  a  surname  of  Alexander,  king  of  Syria. 
 {Justin,  35,  1.) 
 
 Balanea,  a  town  of  Syria,  north  of  Aradus,  now 
 Belnias.     {Plin.,  3,  20.) 
 
 Balbinus,  I.  a  Roman  alluded  to  by  Horace,  who 
 speaks  of  his  singular  taste  in  admiring  a  female 
 named  Agna,  deformed  by  a  polypus  in  the  nostrils. 
 {Horat.,  Scrm.,  1,  3,  40.) — II.  Dccimus  Cselius,  a 
 Roman,  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  senate  with  Pupie- 
 nus,  on  the  death  of  the  Gordians,  A.D.  237.  He 
 was  murdered  by  his  own  soldiers  after  a  year's  reign. 
 {Jul.,  Capitol,  in  Gord. — Herodian,  7,  10,  6,  &.c.) 
 
 Bale.Ires,  a  name  applied  anciently  to  the  islands 
 of  Majorca  and  Minorca,  off  the  coast  of  Spain.  The 
 name  Baleares  is  of  Greek  origin,  derived  from  jBuX- 
 "keiv,  "  to  throw"  or  "  cast,''  and  it  alludes  to  the  re- 
 markable skill  of  the  inhabitants  in  using  the  sling. 
 According  to  Florus  (3,  8),  this  was  their  only  weapon, 
 and  they  were  taught  to  use  it  from  early  boyhood, 
 their  daily  food  being  withheld  from  the  young  until 
 they  had  hit  a  certain  mark  pointed  out  to  them.  The 
 same  writer  describes  them  as  an  uncivilized  race,  ad- 
 dicted to  piratical  habits.  The  Romans  drew  from 
 these  islands  their  best  slingers.  Each  Balearian 
 went  to  battle  supplied  with  three  slings.  {Flor.,  I.  c. 
 —Id.,  3,  22.— Li».,  Epit.,  60.)  The  Greeks  also 
 called  these  islands  GymnesicE  {Tvfivtjaiai),  either  be- 
 cause, according  to  Diodorus,  the  inhabitants  were 
 yvfivoi,  naked,  in  summer,  or  because,  according  to 
 Hesychius,  they  went  to  battle  armed  only  with  a 
 sling,  jvp.i'F/TE^  being  used  in  Greek  to  denote  light- 
 armed  troops.  By  many,  Ebusus,  now  Ivica,  is  rank- 
 ed with  the  Baleares,  according  to  the  authority  of 
 Vitruvius.  The  larger  of  these  islands  was  called  Ba- 
 learis  Major,  hence  Majorca,  and  the  smaller  Balearis 
 Minor,  hence  Minorca.  In  the  former  was  Palma, 
 which  still  retains  the  name.  In  the  latter  was  Por- 
 tus  Magonis,  so  called  by  the  Carthaginians  from 
 Mago,  one  of  their  generals,  now  slightly  corrupted 
 into  Port  Mahon.  {Strab.,  450, — Diod.  Sic,  3,  17. 
 — Pliny,  3,  3.)  Q.  Csecilius  Metellus  conquered 
 these  islands  for  the  Romans,  and  hence  obtained  the 
 surnam*  of  Balearicus.  They  were  thereafter  con- 
 sidered as  forming  part  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis. 
 {Flor.,  3,  8) 
 
 Balius,  a  horse  of  Achilles.  {Horn.,  H.,  16,  146.) 
 Vtd.  Achilles. 
 
 Balnea  {baths)  were  very  numerous  at  Rome, 
 private  as  well  as  public.  It  was  under  Augustus 
 that  baths  first  began  to  assume  an  air  of  magnificence, 
 and  were  called  Thermct,  or  "  hot  baths,"  although 
 they  also  contained  cold  ones.  An  incredible  number 
 of  these  were  built  throughout  the  city.  Authors 
 reckon  above  800,  many  of  them  built  by  the  emperors 
 with  the  greatest  splendour.  The  chief  were  those 
 of  Agrippa,  near  the  Pantheon,  of  Nero,  of  Titus,  of 
 Domitian,  of  Caracalla,  Antoninus,  Dioclesian,  &c. 
 Of  these  splendid  vestiges  still  remain.  The  Ro- 
 mans began  their  bathing  with  hot  water,  and  ended 
 with  cold.  The  cold  bath  was  in  great  repute  after 
 Antonius  Musa  restored  Augustus  to  health  by  its 
 means,  when  he  was  attacked  by  a  dangerous  malady ; 
 but  it  fell  into  discredit  after  the  death  of  the  young 
 Marcellus,  which  was  occasioned  by  the  very  injudi- 
 cious application  of  the  same  remedy.  {Sudan.,  Aug., 
 39.— 7</.  lb.,  81— Plui.,  29,  I.— Die  Cass.,  53,  30.) 
 — In  the  magnificent  Thermae  erected  by  the  emfier- 
 ors,  not  only  were  accommodations  provided  for  iiun- 
 dreds  of  bathers  at  once,  but  spacious  porticoes,  rooms 
 for  athletic  games  and  playing  at  ball,  and  halls  for 
 the  public  lectures  of  philosophers,  for  rhetoricians  and 
 
BAR 
 
 BAR 
 
 poets,  were  added  one  to  another,  to  an  extent  which 
 has  caused  them,  by  a  strong  figure,  to  be  compared 
 to  provinces,  and  at  an  expense  which  could  only  be 
 supported  by  the  inexhaustible  treasures  which  Rome 
 drew  from  a  conquered  world.  The  general  time  for 
 bathing  was  from  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  until 
 the  dusk  of  evening,  at  which  time  the  baths  were 
 shut  until  two  o'clock  the  next  afternoon.  This  prac- 
 tice, however,  occasionally  varied.  Notice  was  given 
 when  the  baths  were  ready  by  ringing  a  bell ;  the  peo- 
 ple then  left  the  exercise  of  the  sphaeristerium,  and 
 hastened  to  the  warm  bath,  lest  the  water  should  cool. 
 Hadrian  forbade  any  one  but  those  who  were  sick  to 
 enter  the  public  baths  before  two  o'clock.  Alexander 
 Severus,  to  gratify  the  people  in  their  passion  for 
 bathing,  not  only  suffered  the  Thermae  to  be  opened 
 before  break  of  day,  which  had  never  been  permitted 
 before,  but  also  furnished  the  lamps  with  oil  for  the 
 convenience  of  the  people.  {Adams's  Rom.  Ant.,  p. 
 377,  ed.  Boyd.) 
 
 Bantia,  a  town  of  Apulia,  southeast  of  Venusia. 
 This  town  derived  some  interest  from  the  death  of  the 
 brave  Marcellus,  who  fell  in  its  vicinity,  a  victim  to 
 the  stratagem  of  his  more  cool  and  wily  antagonist, 
 Hannibal.  {Liv.,  27,  25.  —  Plut.,  Vit.  Marcell. — 
 Cic  ,  Tusc.  Disp.,  1,  37.) 
 
 Bapt^,  I.  the  priests  of  Colytto,  the  goddess  of 
 lewdness.  (Fi(Z.  Cotytto.)  The  name  is  derived  from 
 jiuTTTu,  "  to  tinge"  or  "  dye,"  from  their  painting 
 their  cheeks,  and  staining  the  parts  around  the  eye, 
 like  women.  They  were  notorious  for  the  profligacy 
 of  their  manners.  {Jtiv.,  Sat.,  2,  9,  2) — H.  A  Greek 
 comedy,  written  by  Eupolis.     {Vid.  Eupolis.) 
 
 Bakh.\ki,  a  name  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  all   na- 
 tions but  their  own.     The  term  is  derived  by  Damm 
 from  liui^Eiv,  but  with  the  p   inserted,  and   the  initial 
 consonant  repeated,  in  order  to  express  to  the  ear  the 
 harsh  pronunciation  of  a  foreigner.     Others  derive  it 
 from  the  harsh  sound  (3ap  j3ap.     We  are  informed  by 
 Drusius,   that    the  Syriac  bar  means   unlhout,  extra. 
 The  word  signified,  in  general,  with  the  Greeks,  no 
 more  than  foreigner.     I'he  Romans  sometimes  imi- 
 tate, in  this  respect,  the  Grecian  usage.     Plautus,  who 
 introduces  Greek  characters  into  his  pieces,  has  Bar- 
 baria  for  Italia,  Barbaricce  iirbes  for  Italce.,  and  styles 
 NeevIus,  the  Latin  poet,  poe/a  Barbaras. — As  regards 
 the  term  Barbaras  (\idp6apog),  it  may  not  be  amiss  to 
 remark,  that,  notwithstanding  the  etymologies  already 
 adduced,  the  true  root  must  very  probably  be  looked 
 for  in  the   language  of  Egypt.     The  natives  of  this 
 country  gave    the  ajjpellation   of   Barbar  to  the  rude 
 and     uncivilized    tribes    in    their   vicinity    (compare 
 Herodotus,  2,  158);    and  the  Greeks  would  seem  to 
 have  borrowed  it    from  them  in  a  similar  sense,  and 
 with  the    appendage   of  a   Greek    termination.     The 
 Sinus  Barharicus  occurs  on  the  coast  of  ancient  Af- 
 rica, a  little  below  the  mouth  of  the  Sinus  Arabicus, 
 and  ill  this  same  quarter,  extending  as  far  as  the  prom- 
 ontory of  Rhaplon,  we  find  a  tract  of  country  called 
 Barbaria.     (Compare   Bcrkcl,  ad  Stepk.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 B<ipfiapyf  )     So  also  the  root  obtained  from  this  quar- 
 ter was  styled  kha  Barbaricum  (Rhubarb),  in  contra- 
 distinction  to    the   Rha    Ponticum,  obtained  by    the 
 commerce  of  the  Euxine.     These  names,  in  so  remote 
 a  part  of  the  ancient  world,  could  never  have   been 
 more  generally  applied.     They  must  be  traced  to  Me- 
 roe  and  Egypt.     Nor  should  it  be  omitted,  that  this 
 very  point  furnishes  us  with  an  argument  for  the  early 
 communication  between  the  Egyptians  and  the  natives 
 of  India.      In  the  oldest   Hindu    works,  the  appella- 
 tion of  Barbara  (in  Sanscrit  Warwara)  is  given  to  a 
 race  in   southern  Asia  who  were  subdued  by  Wiswa- 
 mitra.     (Compare  Rilter,  Erdkunde,  vol    1    p    555 
 2(i  ed.) 
 
 Barbaria,  the  name  given  in  the   Periplus  of  the 
 Erythrcean  Sea  to  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Africa  ;  now 
 
 A  Jan.     It   was  otherwise  called  Azania.     (Vid.  re. 
 marks  under  the  article  Barbari.) 
 
 Barbaricus  Sinus,  a  gulf  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
 below  the  mouth  of  the  Sinus  Arabicus.  ( Yid.  re- 
 marks under  the  article  Barbari.) 
 
 Barc.^i  or  BARciT.ir,  a  warlike  nation  of  Africa,  in 
 the  western  part  of  Cvrenaica.  ( Virg.,  A^n.,  4,  43. 
 —Strab.,  7,  28.—jEn',  Folwrcet.,  c.  37.) 
 
 Barce,  the  nurse  of  Sichaeus.  {Virg  ,  JEn.,  4, 
 632.) 
 
 Barce  or  Barca,  I.  a  desert  countrj',  containing 
 only  a  few  fertile  spots,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Af- 
 rica, from  the  Syrtis  Major  as  far  as  Egypt.  Its  mod- 
 ern name  is  still  Barca.  The  country  is  at  present  a 
 Turkish  province,  under  a  sandgiak  in  the  town  of 
 Barca.  The  ancient  Cyrenaica  formed,  strictly  speak- 
 ing, a  part  of  this  region. — II.  A  city  of  Cyrena'i'ca  in 
 Africa,  erroneously  confounded  with  Ptolemais  by 
 many  writers,  both  ancient  and  modern.  Mannert, 
 Thrige,  and  others  have  fully  refuted  this  erroneous 
 position  ;  and  the  matter  is  now  placed  beyond  all 
 doubt  by  the  ocular  testimony  of  Delia  Cella  and  Pa- 
 cho.  (  Voyage  dans  la  Marmarique  et  la  Cyrenaique, 
 par  Pacho,  p.  175.)  According  to  Herodotus  (4, 
 160),  the  city  of  Barca  was  founded  by  the  brothers 
 of  Arcesilaus,  the  fourth  king  of  Cyrene  ;  while,  on 
 the  other  hand,  Stephanus  Byzantinus  makes  it  to 
 have  been  built  by  Perseus,  Zacynthus,  Aristomedon, 
 and  Lycus.  These  two  contradictory  traditions  are 
 perhaps  only  so  in  reality,  since  the  founders  named  by 
 Stephanus  may  be  none  other  than  the  brothers  of  Ar- 
 cesilaus to  whom  Herodotus  alludes.  St.  Jerome  af- 
 firms (Epist.  ad  DardaJi.),  that  Barca  was  the  ancient 
 capital  of  a  Libyan  tribe.  From  this  latter  authority 
 and  some  others,  the  opinion  has  been  formed,  and 
 perhaps  correctly  enough,  that  the  Greeks  were  not 
 the  founders  of  Barca,  but  only  enlarged  it  by  a  col- 
 ony, and  that  the  place  was  of  Libyan  origin.  (Com- 
 pare Pacho,  Voyage,  &c.,  p.  176.)  Barca  suffered 
 severely  for  the  death  of  Arcesilaus  IV.,  of  Cyrene, 
 who  was  slain  here,  and  the  cruelties  inflicted  by 
 Pheretima  are  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (4,  162). 
 The  Barcsan  captives  were  sent  to  Egypt,  and  from 
 thence  to  King  Darius,  and  by  his  command  were  set- 
 tled in  a  district  of  Baclria,  which  they  afterward 
 called  by  the  name  of  their  native  country.  (Herodot., 
 4,  204.)  A  more  severe  blow,  however,  was  struck 
 by  the  Ptolemies  in  a  later  age,  when  they  became 
 masters  of  Pentapolis  or  Cyrenaica.  They  founded  a 
 new  city  on  the  spot  where  the  port  of  Barca  had 
 stood,  and  called  it  Ptolemais.  The  increase  of  this 
 place  caused  the  city  of  Barca  to  decline,  and  its  in- 
 habitants became  at  length  only  noted  for  their  rob- 
 beries. III.  A  district  of  Bactria,  where  the  Barcaean 
 captives  were  settled  by  Darius.     (Vid.  No.  II.) 
 
 Barcha,  the  surname  of  a  noble  family  at  Carthage, 
 to  which  Annibal  and  Amilcar  belonged.  They  be- 
 came, by  their  influence,  the  head  of  a  powerful  party 
 in  the  state,  known  as  the  "  Barcha  party."  (L?»., 
 21,  2.)  The  name  is  derived  by  Gesenius  from  the 
 Hebrew  (Punic)  Barak,  "a  flash  of  lightning,"  "a 
 thunderbolt."  {Gcscn.,  Monum.  Phan.,  p.  403. — 
 Id,  Gcsch.  Hcbr.  Spr.,  p.  229.) 
 
 Baroi,  a  celebrated  ])oetico-sarcedotal  order  among 
 the  ancient  Gauls.  They  roused  their  countrymen 
 to  martial  fury  by  their  strains,  and  for  this  purpose 
 were  accustomed  to  follow  the  camp.  {Ihod.  Sic,  5, 
 31. —  Vales.,  ad  Amm.  Marcell.,  15,  9.)  From  the 
 language  of  Tacitus  {Germ.,  3),  some  have  supposed, 
 that  a  similar  order  existed  among  the  ancient  Ger- 
 mans. The  passage  in  question,  however,  involves  a 
 doubtful  reading.  They  who  adopt  bardttus  as  the 
 true  lection,  make  it  signify  "a  bard's  song."  The 
 reading  generally  adopted,  however,  is  barntus,  "  a 
 war-cry."  Probability,  neverthele.ss,  is  strongly  in  fa- 
 vour of  the  Germans  having  also  had  their  bards,  like 
 
 253 
 
B  A  S 
 
 BAT 
 
 the  Gallic  tribes.  Festus  makes  Bardus  equivalent  to 
 cantor,  "  a  singer."  Tlie  German  etymologists  de- 
 duce it  from  baren,  "  to  cry  aloud,"  "  to  sing  in  a 
 loud  strain."  {Adeliaig,  Gloss.  Med.  ct  Inf.  Lat., 
 vol.  1,  p.  5S4.) 
 
 Barium,  a  town  of  Apulia,  on  the  Adriatic,  in  the 
 district  of  Peuceli,  famed  for  its  fisheries.  It  is  now 
 Bari.  {Str.ih.,  'ZSS.—Horat.,  Serm.,  I,  ^,97.)  Ac- 
 cording to  Tacitus,  it  was  a  municipium.  (Aim., 
 16,  9.) 
 
 Baksine:  or  Barsenk,  a  daughter  of  Darius  Codo- 
 inanus,  who  married  Alexander  the  Great,  and  had  by 
 him  a  son  named  Hercules.  She  was  secretly  put  to 
 death  by  Cassander,  along  with  her  son,  when  the  lat- 
 ter had  reached  his  fourteenth  year.  {Justin,  15,  2.) 
 Accorduig,  however,  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (20,  28),  he 
 was  slain  by  Polysperohon,  who  had  agreed  with  Cas- 
 sander that  he  would  commit  the  deed.  Plutarch 
 says  that  Polysperchon  promised  to  slay  him  for  100 
 talents.  {Dc  vU.  pud.,  p.  530. — Op.,  ed.  Kiskc,  vol. 
 8,  p.  102. — Consult  WesscHng,  ad  Diod.,  I.  c.)  We 
 have  (bllovved  Arrian  (7,  1)  in  making  Barsine  the 
 daugliter  of  Darius.  According  to  Plutarch  {vit.  Alex., 
 €t  Euin.),  she  was  the  daughter  of  Artabazus  ;  while 
 another  authority  makes  her  father  to  have  been  na- 
 med Pharnabazus.     (Porph.,  ap.  Euseb  ) 
 
 B.isc.iA,  I.  an  island  famous  for  its  amber,  in  the 
 Northern  Ocean.  It  is  supposed  bv  Mannert  to  have 
 been  the  southern  e.xtreinily  of  Sweden,  mistaken 
 by  the  ancients  for  an  island,  on  account  of  their  ig- 
 norance of  the  country  to  the  north.  According  to 
 Pliny  (37,  2),  Pytheas  gave  this  island  the  name  of 
 Abalus  ;  and  yet,  in  another  place  (4,  13),  he  contra- 
 dicts himself,  and  makes  it  to  have  been  called  Basilia 
 by  the  same  Pytheas.  (Compare  the  remarks  oi  Man- 
 nert, Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  301,  seqq.) — II.  A  city  on  the 
 Rherms,  m  the  territory  of  the  Rauraci,  now  Basle. 
 It  appears  to  have  been  originally  a  fortress  erected 
 by  the  Emperor  Valentinian,  and  to  have  increased  in 
 the  course  of  time  to  a  large  city.  By  the  writers  of 
 the  middle  ages  it  is  called  Basula.  {Anim.  MarcclL, 
 30,  8.— I/in.  Anton.) 
 
 Basilius,  I.  an  eminent  father  of  the  church,  born 
 at  Cffisarea  in  Cappadocia,  A.D.  326.  He  is  called 
 the  Great,  to  distinguish  him  from  other  patriarchs  of 
 the  same  name.  His  father  had  him  instructed  in 
 the  principles  of  polite  literature,  and  he  seems,  in  the 
 first  instance,  to  have  been  a  professor  of  rhetoric 
 and  a  pleader.  Induced  to  visit  the  monasteries  in 
 the  deserts  of  Egypt,  the  austerities  of  these  misgui- 
 ded solitaries  so  impressed  his  imagination,  that  he  him- 
 self sought  a  similar  retreat  in  the  province  of  Pontus. 
 He  was  ordained  priest  by  Eusebius,  the  bishop  of  his 
 native  city,  upon  whose  death  he  succeeded  to  the 
 same  dignity.  He  is  the  most  distinguished  ecclesi- 
 astic among  the  Greek  patriarchs.  His  efforts  for 
 the  regulation  of  clerical  discipline,  of  the  divine  ser- 
 vice, and  of  the  standing  of  the  clergy  ;  the  number 
 of  his  sermons  ;  the  success  of  his  mild  treatment  of 
 the  Arians  ;  and,  above  all,  his  endeavours  for  the  pro- 
 motion of  monastic  life,  for  which  he  himself  prepared 
 vows  and  rules,  observed  by  him,  and  still  remaining  in 
 force,  prove  the  merits  of  this  holy  man.  The  Greek 
 church  honours  him  as  one  of  its  most  illustrious  pa- 
 tron saints,  and  celebrates  his  festival  Jan.  1. — In 
 point  of  literary  and  intellectual  qiialitications,  Basil 
 excels  most  of  the  fathers,  his  style  being  pure,  ele- 
 gant, and  dignified ;  and,  independently  of  his  exten- 
 sive erudition,  he  argues  with  more  force  and  close- 
 ness, and  interprets  scripture  more  naturally,  than 
 other  writers  of  his  class. — The  best  edition  of  his 
 works  is  that  of  the  Benedictines,  Gamier  and  Mo- 
 rand,  Paris,  3  vols,  folio,  1721-30.— II.  An  arch- 
 bishop of  Seleucia,  confounded  by  some  with  the  pre- 
 ceding. He  was  elevated  to  the  archiepiscopal  digni- 
 ty about  A.D.  440,  and  assisted  at  the  council  of 
 254 
 
 Constantinople  in  448,  and  in  the  year  followino-  at 
 the  council  of  Ephesus.  Here  he  had  the  weakness 
 to  side  with  the  heterodox  party,  in  denymg  the  union 
 of  the  two  natures  in  Christ ;  a  iault  for  which  he  af- 
 terward made  full  apology  to  the  council  of  Chalcedon, 
 which,  in  consequence,  readmitted  him  to  the  com- 
 munion of  the  orthodox.  History  preserves  silence  re- 
 specting the  rest  of  his  life,  which  ended  in  458  A.D. 
 8onie  few  productions  remain  that  are  generally  as- 
 cribed to  him,  though  there  are  not  wanting  those 
 who  deny  their  authenticity.  {Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 478.) 
 
 Bassareus,  a  surname  of  Bacchus.  The  epithet  is 
 derived  by  Sainte-Croix  {Mysleres  du  Paganisme, 
 vol.  2,  p.  93)  from  the  Bessi  (Qijaaoi)  mentioned  by 
 Herodotus  (7,  111)  as  the  priests  of  the  oracle  of 
 Bacchus,  among  the  Satraft,  a  nation  of  Thrace.  Other 
 etymologists  deduce  the  term  from  Jiaaaapi^,  a  par- 
 ticular kind  of  garment  worn  in  Asia  Minor  by  the  fe- 
 males who  celebrated  the  rites  of  this  same  god.  Bo- 
 chart  makes  it  come  from  the  Hebrew  basar,  "  to 
 gather  the  grapes  for  the  vintage  ;"  of  which  De 
 Sacy  approves.  We  are  inclined,  however,  to  follow 
 Creuzer  [Symbohk,  vol.  3,  p.  363).  who  states  the  root 
 to  be  Bilaaapoi  or  Baaaupia,  a  word  signifying  "a 
 fox,"  and  found  in  the  Coptic  at  the  present  day. 
 {Ignat.  Rossi,  Etymol.  jEgypt.,  p.  35.)  Creuzer 
 thinks,  that  the  garment  called  Baaaapig,  mentioned 
 above,  derived  its  name  from  its  having  superseded 
 the  skins  of  foxes  which  the  Bacchantes  previously 
 wore  when  celebrating  the  orgies.  Compare  Suidas: 
 Buaaapoc  '  ukumj^,  Kara  'HpoSorov.  Hesychius, 
 Baaaapig'  u?m7V7j^,  an-d  the  author  of  the  Etymol. 
 Mag.,  Aeyerai  Buaaapoe;  ij  uTiutttj^  vtto  Kvprjvaiuv. 
 Consult  also  Herodotus  (4, 192).  The  epithet  Buaaape 
 occurs  twice  in  the  Orphic  hymns  (44,  3,  and  51,  12.) 
 
 Bassus  AuFiDius.      Vid.  Aufidius. 
 
 Bastarn^,  a  people  who  first  inhabited  that  part 
 of  European  Sarmatia  which  corresponds  with  a  part 
 of  Poland  and  Prussia,  and  who  afterward  established 
 themselves  in  the  south,  to  the  left  and  right  of  the 
 Tvras.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  ancestors 
 of  the  Russians.  {Liv.,  40,  58.— Ovid,  Trist.,  2, 
 198.) 
 
 Batavi,  an  old  German  nation,  which  inhabited  a 
 part  of  the  present  Holland,  especially  the  island  call- 
 ed Batavorum  Insula,  formed  by  that  branch  of  the 
 Rhine  which  empties  into  the  sea  near  Lcyden  (Lug- 
 dunum  Batavorum),  together  with  the  Waal  (Vahalis) 
 and  Meuse  (Mosa).  Their  territories,  however,  ex- 
 tended much  beyond  the  Waal.  Tacitus  commends 
 their  bravery.  According  to  him,  they  were  original- 
 ly the  same  as  the  Catti,  a  German  tribe,  which  had 
 emigrated  from  their  country  on  account  of  domestic 
 troubles.  This  must  have  happened  before  the  time 
 of  Csesar.  When  Germanicus  was  about  to  invade 
 Germany  from  the  sea,  he  made  their  island  the  ren- 
 dezvous of  his  fleet.  Being  subjected  by  the  Romans, 
 they  served  them  with  such  courage  and  fidelity  as  to 
 obtain  the  title  of  friends  and  brethren.  They  were 
 exempted  from  tributes  and  taxes,  and  permitted  to 
 choose  their  leaders  among  themselves.  Their  caval- 
 ry was  particularly  excellent.  During  the  reign  of 
 Vespasian  they  revolted,  under  the  command  of  Ci- 
 vilis,  from  the  Romans,  and  extorted  from  them  fa- 
 vourable terms  of  peace.  Trajan  and  Hadrian  sub- 
 jected them  again.  At  the  end  of  the  third  century 
 the  Salian  Franks  obtained  possession  of  the  Insula 
 Batavorum.  The  capital  of  the  nation  was  Lugdu- 
 num  Batavorum,  now  Lcyden.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  4,  12. 
 —Id.  lb.,  19,  32.— Djo  Cass.,  55,  m.—Plin.,  4,  17. 
 — Lucan,  Phars.,  1,  431,  &c.) 
 
 BathycIjEs,  a  celebrated  artist,  supposed  to  have 
 been  a  native  of  Magnesia  on  the  Mseander.  {Hcyne, 
 Anliq.  Aufs.,  vol.  1,  p.  108.)  The  period  when  he 
 flourished  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion.     It  was 
 
BAT 
 
 BEL 
 
 probably  in  the  age  of  Croesus.  (Consult  SiU'tg,  Diet. 
 Art.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Bathyllus,  I.  a  youth  of  Samos,  a  favourite  of 
 Polycrates.     He   is  often  alluded  to  by  Anacreon. — 
 
 II.  A  vouth  of  Alexandrea,  a  favourite  of  Maecenas. 
 He  came  to  Rome  in  the  age  of  Augustus,  and  ob- 
 tained great  celebrity  as  a  dancer   in  pantomimes. — 
 
 III.  A  dancer  alluded  to  by  Juvenal  (6.  63).  As  this 
 was  in  the  time  of  Domitian,  the  Bathyllus  mention- 
 ed under  No.  II.  cannot,  of  course,  be  meant  here. 
 Salinasius  thinks,  that  the  name  had  become  a  gener- 
 al one  for  any  famous  dancer,  in  consequence  of  the 
 skill  that  had  been  displayed  by  the  Bathyllus  who 
 lived  m  the  time  of  Augustus.  (Salinas,  ad  Vopisc. 
 Carin.,  vol.  2,  p.  833,  cd.  Hack.) 
 
 B,\TR-tcH0MV0MACiii.\,  a  serio-comic  poem,  ascribed 
 to  Homer,  and  describing  the  battle  between  the  frogs 
 and  mice.  It  consists  of  294  hexameters.  Whether 
 Homer  actually  wrote  this  poem  or  not  is  still  an  un- 
 settled point  among  modern  critics.  The  majority, 
 however,  incline  to  the  opinion  that  he  was  not  the 
 author.  The  piece  would  seem  to  be  in  reality  a  par- 
 ody on  the  manner  and  language  of  Homer,  and  per- 
 haps a  satire  upon  one  of  the  feuds  that  were  so  com- 
 mon among  the  petty  republics  of  Greece.  Some 
 ascribe  it  to  Pigres  of  Caria.  Knight,  in  his  Prole- 
 gomena to  Homer  {cd.  Lips.,  p.  6),  remarks,  that  in 
 the  third  verse  mention  is  made  of  tablets  ((5f  Arot),  on 
 which  the  poet  writes  :  whence  he  concludes  that  the 
 author  of  the  piece  in  question  was  an  Athenian,  and 
 not  of  Asiatic  origin,  because  in  Asia  they  wrote  on 
 skins,  £v  6i(p6ipaic.  In  proof  of  his  assertion,  he  cites 
 Herodotus  (5,  58).  He  makes  also  another  ingenious 
 observation.  At  verse  291,  the  morning  cry  of  a  cock 
 is  alluded  to  as  a  thing  generally  known.  This  cir- 
 cumstance proves,  according  to  Knight,  that  the  poem 
 under  consideration  is  not  as  old  as  the  time  of  Homer, 
 for  it  is  not  credible,  that  the  ancient  poets  would 
 never  have  spoken  of  this  instinct  on  the  part  of  the 
 cock  if  it  had  been  known  to  them,  and  it  would  have 
 been  known  to  them  if  the  cock  had  been  found  at  that 
 period  in  Greece.  This  fowl  is  a  native  of  India,  and 
 does  not  appear  to  have  been  introduced  into  Greece 
 prior  to  the  si.xth  century  B.C.  It  is  then  found  on 
 the  money  of  Samothrace  and  Hiinera. — The  best  edi- 
 tions of  the  Batrachomyomachia  are  that  of  Ernesti, 
 in  the  works  of  Homer,  5  vols.  8vo,  Lips.,  17.t9,  re- 
 printed at  Glasgow,  1814;  and  that  of  Matthias,  Lips., 
 1805,  8vo. — There  is  also  the  edition  of  Maittaire, 
 Svo,  Land.,  1721. 
 
 Batti.ades,  I.  a  patronymic  of  Callimach(5s,  from 
 his  father  Battus.  (Ovid,  Ih.,  53.)  Some  think  the 
 name  was  given  him  from  his  having  been  a  native  of 
 Cyrene.  {Vid.  No.  II.) — II.  A  name  given  to  the 
 people  of  Cyrene  from  King  Battus,  the  founder  of 
 the  settlement.  {Prnd.,  Pijlh.,  5,  73. — Callim.,  H.  in 
 ApolL,QG.—Sil.  ltd.,  2,  61.) 
 
 Battus,  I.  a  LacedEemoniati,  who  built  the  town  of 
 Cyrene,  B.C.  630,  with  a  colony  from  the  island  of 
 Thera.  {Vid.  Cyrene.)  His  proper  name  was  Aris- 
 totle, according  to  Callimachus  (//.  in  ApolL,  76. 
 —  Sckol.  ad  loc.—Schul.  ad  Find.,  Pyth.,  4,  10),  but 
 he  was  called  Battus,  according  to  the  tradition  of 
 the  Therffians  and  people  of  Cyrene,  from  an  impedi- 
 ment in  his  speech.  Herodotus,  however  (4,  155), 
 opposes  this  explanation,  and  conjectures  that  the 
 name  was  obtained  from  the  Libyan  tongue,  where  it 
 signified,  as  he  informs  us,  "  a  king."  Battus  reigned 
 forty  years,  and  left  the  kingdom  to  his  son  Arcesi- 
 laus.  (//tm/.,  4,  159.— Compare  Bdhr,  ad  Herod., 
 4,  155.)— II.  The  second  of  that  name  was  grandson 
 to  Battus  I,,  by  Arcesilaus.  He  succeeded  his  father 
 on  the  throne  of  Cyrene,  and  was  surnamed  Felix, 
 and  died  554  B.C.  {Herod.,  4,  159.)— HI.  A  shep- 
 herd of  Pylos,  who  promised  Mercury  that  he  would 
 not  discover  his  having  stolen  the  flocks  of  Adinetus, 
 
 which  Apollo  tended.  He  violated  his  promise,  and 
 was  turned  into  a  stone.  {Ovid,  Mel.,  2,  702. — Com- 
 pare the  remarks  of  Gierig,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Batulum,  a  town  of  Campania,  alluded  to  by  Vir- 
 gil {Mn.,  7,  739)  and  Silius  Italicus  (8,  566).  The 
 site  of  this  place  is  fixed,  with  some  difiidence,  by 
 Romanelli  at  Padiili,  a  few  miles  to  the  east  of  Bene- 
 vento  (vol.  2,  p.  463). 
 
 Baucis,  an  aged  woman,  who  dwelt  in  a  small 
 town  of  Phrygia  along  with  her  husband  Philemon. 
 They  were  both  extremely  poor,  and  inhabited  a  hum- 
 ble cottage.  Jupiter  and  Mercury  came,  on  one  occa- 
 sion, in  the  form  of  men,  to  this  same  town.  It  was 
 evening ;  they  sought  for  hospitality,  but  every  door 
 was  closed  against  them.  At  length  they  approached 
 the  abode  of  the  aged  pair,  by  whom  they  were  gladly 
 received.  The  quality  of  the  guests  was  eventually 
 revealed  by  the  miracle  of  the  wine-bowl  being  spon- 
 taneously replenished  as  fast  as  it  was  drained.  They 
 told  their  hosts  that  it  was  their  intention  to  destroy 
 the  godless  town,  and  desired  them  to  leave  their 
 dwelling  and  ascend  the  adjacent  hill.  The  aged 
 couple  obeyed  :  ere  they  leached  the  summit  they 
 turned  round  to  look,  and  beheld  a  lake  where  the 
 town  had  stood.  Their  own  house  remained,  and, 
 as  they  gazed  and  deplored  the  fate  of  their  neighbours, 
 it  became  a  temple.  On  being  desired  by  Jupiter  to 
 express  their  wishes,  they  prayed  that  they  might  be 
 appointed  to  officiate  in  that  temple,  and  that  they 
 might  be  united  in  death  as  in  Ufe.  Their  prayer  was 
 granted  ;  and  as  they  were  one  day  standing  before  the 
 temple,  they  were  suddenly  changed  into  an  oak  and 
 a  lime  tree.  {Ovid,  Met.,  8,  620.)— The  reader  will 
 not  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  resemblance  between 
 a  part  of  this  legend  and  the  scripture  account  of  the 
 destruction  of  the  cities  of  the  plains.  {Keightlcy^s 
 Mythology,  p   83.) 
 
 Bavius  and  M^Evius,  two  stupid  and  malevolent 
 poets  in  the  age  of  Augustus,  who  attacked  Virgil, 
 Horace,  and  others  of  their  contemporaries.  (  Virg., 
 Eclog.,  3,  90. —  Voss,  ad  loc. — Sen.  ad  Virg.,  Gcorg., 
 I,  2f0. — Horat.,  Epod.,  10,  2.—  Weichert,  dc  obtrect. 
 Horatii,  p.  12,  se(jij.) 
 
 Bebrvcf.s,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Bithynia. 
 {Vid.  Bithynia.) 
 
 Bebrycia.  the  primitive  name  of  Bithynia.  It  was 
 so  called  from  the  Bebryccs,  the  original  inhabitants 
 of  the  land.     (F»/.  Bithynia.) 
 
 Bedri.ac'UM,  a  small  town  of  Italy,  between  Man- 
 tua and  Cremona  ;  according  to  Cluverius,  it  is  the 
 modern  Caneto,  a  large  village  on  the  left  of  the 
 Oglio.  D'Aiiville,  however,  makes  it  correspond  to 
 the  modern  Crmdala,  on  the  right  side  of  that  river. 
 Mannert  places  it  about  a  mile  west  of  the  modern 
 town  of  Bozzolo.  This  place  was  famous  for  two 
 battles  fought  within  a  month  of  each  other.  In  the 
 first  Otho  was  defeated  by  the  generals  of  Vitellius  ; 
 and  in  the  second,  Vitellius  by  Vespasian,  A.D.  69. 
 Tacitus  and  Suetonius  call  the  name  of  this  place  Bc- 
 triacum  ;  and  Pliny,  Juvenal,  and  later  writers,  Bebri- 
 acum.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  2,  23,  scqq.—Id.,  Hist.,  3,  1.5. 
 —  Plut.,  Vit.  Oth.—Plin.,  10,  49.— .Swc/'ort.,  Oth.,  9. 
 — Cramer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  66.) 
 
 Belesis,  a  priest  of  Babylon,  who  conspired  with 
 Arbaces  against  Sardanapalus,  king  of  Assyria.  Ar- 
 baces  promised  Belesis,  in  case  of  success,  the  gov- 
 ernment of  Babylon,  which  the  latter,  after  the  over- 
 throw of  Sardanapalus,  accordingly  obtained.  {Vid. 
 Arbaces.) 
 
 BELGiE,  a  warlike  people  of  ancient  Gaul,  separa- 
 ted from  the  Celt*  in  the  time  of  C«sar  by  the  riv- 
 ers Malrona  and  Sequana.  In  the  new  division  of 
 Gallia  made  by  Augustus,  whose  object  was  to  render 
 the  provinces  more  equal  in  extent,  the  countries  of 
 the  Helvetii  and  Sequani,  which  ti  1  that  time  vvere 
 included  in  Gallia  Celtica,  were  added  to  Gallia  Bel- 
 
 255 
 
BEL 
 
 BEL 
 
 gica.  The  Belgae  were  of  German  extraction,  and, 
 according  to  Caisar,  the  most  warlike  of  the  Gauls. 
 The  name  Belgte  belongs  to  the  Kymric  idiom,  in 
 which,  under  the  form  Bclgiaidd,  the  radical  of  which 
 is  Bc/i!,  it  signifies  "warlike."  ((compare  Thurry, 
 Hi.stone  des  Uaulois,  vol.  1,  p.  xxxvii.,  Jnlrod.) 
 
 Bki.gIca,  one  of  the  four  provinces  of  Gaul  near 
 the  Rhine.     (  Vid.  Gallia.) 
 
 Belgium,  a  canton  of  Gallia  Belgica,  from  which 
 it  is  distinguished  by  Cassar  {B.  G.,  5,  24),  as  a  part 
 from  the  whole,  and  to  which  he  assigns  the  Bellovaci, 
 to  whom  Hirtius  adds  the  Atrebates.  As  the  Ambi- 
 ani  were  situated  between  the  other  two,  they  must 
 also  be  included.  These  three  tribes  were  the  genu- 
 ine Belgae.     {Gas.,  B.  G.,  5,  2i.—Hirt.,  8,  46.') 
 
 Bki.ides,  a  surname  given  to  the  daughtersof  Belus. 
 {Ovid,  Met.,  4,  463.) 
 
 Belides,  a  name  applied  to  Palamedes,  as  descend- 
 ed from  Belus.     {Vug.,  Mn.,  2,  82.) 
 
 Bbmsana,  a  Gallic  deity,  analogous  to  the  Minerva 
 of  the  Romans.  (Compare  Mone,  Geschichle  dcr 
 Heidenlkums  im  Nordlichcn  Europa,  vol.  2,  p.  419, 
 in  not  IS.) 
 
 Bemsarius,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his 
 time,  to  whom  the  Emperor  Justinian  chiefly  owed 
 the  splendour  of  his  reign.  Sprung  from  an  obscure 
 family  m  Thrace,  Belisarius  first  served  in  the  body- 
 guard of  the  emperor,  but  soon  obtained  the  chief 
 command  of  an  army  of  25,000  men,  stationed  on  the 
 Persian  frontiers,  and,  A.D.  530,  gained  a  complete 
 victory  over  a  Persian  army  not  less  than  40,000 
 strong.  The  next  year,  however,  he  lost  a  battle 
 against  the  same  enemy,  wno  had  forced  their  way 
 into  Syria ;  the  only  battle  which  he  lost  during  his 
 whole  career.  He  was  recalled  from  the  army,  and 
 soon  became,  at  home,  the  support  of  his  master.  In 
 the  year  532,  civil  commotions,  proceeding  from  two 
 rival  parties,  who  called  themselves  the  green  and  the 
 blue,  and  who  caused  great  disorders  in  Constantinople, 
 Drought  the  life  and  reign  of  Justinian  in  the  utmost 
 peril,  and  Hypatius  was  already  chosen  emperor,  when 
 Belisarius,  with  a  small  body  of  faithful  adherents, 
 restored  order.  Justinian,  with  a  view  of  conquering 
 the  dominions  of  Gelimer,  king  of  the  Vandals,  sent 
 Belisarius,  with  an  army  of  15,000  men,  to  Africa. 
 After  two  victories,  he  secured  the  person  and  the 
 treasures  of  the  Vandal  king.  Gelirncr  was  led  in 
 triumph  through  the  streets  of  Constantinople,  and 
 Justinian  ordered  a  medal  to  be  struck,  with  the  in- 
 scription Belisarius  Gloria.  Romarwrum,  which  has 
 descended  to  our  times.  By  the  dissensions  existing 
 in  the  royal  family  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy,  Justin- 
 ian was  induced  to  attempt  the  reduction  of  Italy  and 
 Rome  under  his  sceptre.  Belisarius  vanquished  Vi- 
 tiges,  king  of  the  Goths,  made  him  prisoner  at  Ra- 
 venna (A.D.  540),  and  conducted  him,  together  with 
 many  other  Goths,  to  Constantinople.  The  war  in 
 Italy  against  the  Goths  contiinied  ;  but  Belisarius, 
 not  being  sufliciently  supplied  with  money  and  troops 
 by  the  emperor,  demanded  his  recall  (A.D.  548).  He 
 afterward  commanded  in  the  war  against  the  Bulga- 
 rians, whom  he  conquered  in  the  year  559.  Upon  his 
 return  to  Constantinople,  he  was  accused  of  having 
 taken  part  in  a  conspiracy.  But  Justinian  was  con- 
 vinced of  his  innocence,  and  is  said  to  have  restored 
 to  him  his  property  and  dignities,  of  which  he  had  been 
 deprived.  Belisarius  died  A.D.  565.  His  history 
 has  been  much  coloured  by  the  poets,  and  particularly 
 by  Marmontel,  in  his  otherwise  admirable  politico-phil- 
 osophical romance.  According  to  his  narrative,  the 
 emperor  caused  the  eyes  of  the  hero  to  be  struck  out, 
 and  Belisarius  was  compelled  to  beg  his  bread  in  the 
 streets  of  Constantinople.  Other  writers  say,  that 
 Justinian  had  him  thrown  into  a  prison,  which  is  still 
 shown  under  the  appellation  of  the  tower  of  Belisa- 
 rius. From  this  tower  he  is  reported  to  have  let 
 256 
 
 down  a  bag  fastened  to  a  rope,  and  to  have  addressed 
 the  passengers  in  these  words  :  "  Give  an  obolus  to 
 Belisarius,  whom  virtue  exalted,  and  envy  has  op- 
 pressed." Of  this,  however,  no  contemporary  writer 
 makes  any  mention.  I'zelzes,  a  slightly-esteemed 
 writer  of  the  12th  century,  was  the  first  who  related 
 this  fable.  Certain  it  is,  that,  through  too  great  in- 
 dulgence towards  his  wife  Antonia,  Belisarius  was 
 impelled  to  many  acts  of  injustice,  and  that  he  evinced 
 a  servile  submissivencss  to  the  detestable  Theodora, 
 the  wife  of  Justinian.  {Encijclop.  Americ  ,  vol.  1,  p. 
 39,  scqq. — Biogr.    Univ.,  vol.  4,  p.  82,  scqq.) 
 
 Bellerophon  (Greek  form  Bellerophontes),  son 
 of  Glaucus  and  grandson  of  Sisyphus.  His  adven- 
 tures form  a  pleasing  episode  in  the  Iliad  (6,  144, 
 scqq.),  where  they  are  related  to  Diomede  by  Glau- 
 cus the  grandson  of  Bellerophon.  The  gods  had  en- 
 dowed this  hero  with  manly  vigour  and  beauty.  Au- 
 tea,  the  wife  of  Proetus,  king  of  Argos,  fixed  her 
 love  upon  him,  and  sought  a  corresponding  return. 
 But  the  virtuous  youth  rejecting  all  her  advances,  hate 
 occupied  the  place  of  love  in  the  bosom  of  the  disap- 
 pointed queen.  She  accused  him  to  Proetus  of  an  at- 
 tempt on  her  honour.  The  credulous  king  gave  eai 
 to  her  falsehood,  but  would  not  incur  the  reproach  oi 
 putting  to  death  a  guest.  He  therefore  sent  Bellero- 
 phon to  Lycia,  to  his  father-in-law,  the  king  of  that 
 country,  giving  him  "  deadly  characters,"  written  in  a 
 sealed  package,  which  he  was  to  present  to  the  king  of 
 Lycia,  and  which  were  to  cause  his  death.  Beneath 
 the  potent  guidance  of  the  gods,  Bellerophon  came 
 to  Lycia  and  the  flowing  Xanthus.  Nine  days  the 
 king  entertained  him,  and  slew  nine  oxen  ;  and  on  the 
 tenth  he  asked  to  see  the  token  {oFi/ia)  which  he  had 
 received  from  his  son-in-law.  When  he  had  seen 
 this,  he  resolved  to  comply  with  the  desire  of  Proetus  ; 
 and  he  first  sent  his  guest  to  slay  the  Chimaera,  a 
 monster,  with  the  upper  part  a  lion,  the  lower  a  ser- 
 pent, the  middle  a  goat  (xifiaipa),  and  which  breathed 
 forth  flaming  fire.  Depending  on  the  aid  of  the  gods, 
 Bellerophon  slew  this  monster,  and  then  was  ordered 
 to  go  and  fight  the  Solymi,  and  this,  he  said,  was 
 the  severest  combat  iie  ever  fought.  He  lastly  slew 
 the  "  manlike  Amazons,'"  and,  as  he  was  returning, 
 the  king  laid  an  ambush  for  him,  composed  of  the 
 bravest  men  of  Lycia,  of  whom  not  one  returned 
 home,  for  Bellerophon  slew  them  all.  The  king,  now 
 perceiving  him  to  be  of  the  race  of  the  gods,  kept  him 
 in  Lycia,  giving  him  his  daughter  and  half  the  royal 
 dignity,  and  the  people  bestowed  upon  him  an  anqile 
 temenus'(T-f'//fvof)  of  arable  and  plantation  land.  Fall- 
 ing at  length  under  the  displeasure  of  all  the  gods,  he 
 wandered  alone  in  "  the  Plain  of  Wandering"  {K£(^iov 
 a?J/Lov),  "consuming  his  soul,  shunning  the  path  of 
 men." — Later  authorities  tells  us,  that  Bellerophon  was 
 at  first  named  Hipponoos  ;  but,  having  accidentally 
 killed  one  of  his  relatives,  some  say  a  brother,  named 
 Bellerus,  he  thence  derived  his  second  name,  which 
 meant  "  Slayer  of  Bellerus."  He  was  purified  of  the 
 bloodshed  by  Prtetus,  whose  wife  is  also  called  Sthe- 
 noba^a,  and  the  king  of  Lycia  is  named  lobates.  By 
 the  aid  of  the  winged  steed  Pegasus,  Bellerophon 
 gained  the  victory  over  all  whom  lobates  sent  him  to 
 encounter.  Sthenobsea,  hearing  of  his  success,  hung 
 herself.  Bellerophon  at  last  attempted,  by  means  of 
 Pegasus,  to  ascend  to  heaven  ;  but  Jupiter,  incensed 
 at  his  boldness,  sent  an  insect  to  sting  the  steed, 
 which  flung  its  rider  to  earth,  where  he  wandered  in 
 solitude  and  melancholy  until  his  death.  {Apollod., 
 2,  3,  I,  scqq. — Prnd.,  Istkm.,  7,  63,  sefjq. — Hygin., 
 fab.,  57.— Id.,  Poet.  Aslron.,  2,  \8.—Schol.  ad  IL, 
 6,  \55.—Tzelz.  ad  Lyr.ophr.,  17.)— Though  Homer 
 makes  no  mention  of  Pegasus,  this  steed  forms  an 
 essential  part  of  the  legend  of  Bellerophon.  In  the 
 Theogony  (v.  325)  it  is  said  of  the  Chimajra,  that 
 she  was  killed  by  Pegasus  and  the  "  good"  {eadXu^), 
 
BEL 
 
 BEN 
 
 i.  e.,  brave  Bellerophon.  But  though  all  seem  agreed 
 in  giving  the  winged  steed  to  the  hero,  none  tell  us 
 how  he  obtained  him.  Here,  however,  Pindar  comes 
 to  our  aiJ  with  a  very  remarkable  legend,  which  con- 
 nects Bellerophon  with  Corinth.  According  to  this 
 poet  (0/.,  13,  85,  seqq.),  Bellerophon,  who  reigned  at 
 Corinth,  being  about  to  undertake  the  three  adventures 
 mentioned  above,  wished  to  possess  the  winged  steed 
 Pegasus,  who  used  to  come  to  drink  at  the  fountain 
 of  Pirene  on  the  Acrocorinthus.  After  many  fruitless 
 efforts  to  catch  him,  he  applied  for  advice  to  the  sooth- 
 sayer Polyeidus,  and  was  directed  by  him  to  go  and 
 sleep  at  the  altar  of  Minerva.  He  obeyed  the  prophet, 
 and,  in  the  dead  of  the  night,  the  goddess  appeared  to 
 him  in  a  dream,  and,  givnig  him  a  bridle,  bade  him 
 sacrifice  a  bull  to  his  sire  Neptune-Damaeiis  {llic  Ta- 
 mer) and  present  the  bridle  to  the  steed.  On  awaking, 
 Bellerophon  found  the  bridle  lying  beside  him.  He 
 obeyed  the  injunctions  of  the  goddess,  and  raised  an 
 altar  to  herself  as  Hippeia  {Of -the- Horse).  Pegasus 
 at  once  yielded  his  mouth  to  the  magic  bit,  and  the 
 hero,  mounting  him,  achieved  his  adventures. — The 
 best  explanation  that  has  been  given  of  the  myth  of 
 Bellerophon  is  that  which  sees  in  this  individual  only 
 one  of  ihe  forms  of  Neptune,  namely,  as  Hippius 
 (Eqiicstnx).  This  god  is  his  father  (Pind.,  ut  supr., 
 9U),  and  he  is  the  sire  of  Pegasus,  and  in  the  two 
 combined  we  have  a  Neptune  Hippius,  the  rider  of 
 the  waves,  a  symbol  of  the  navigation  of  the  ancient 
 Ephyra  or  Corinth.  The  adventures  of  the  hero  may 
 have  signified  the  real  or  imaginary  perils  to  be  en- 
 countered in  voyages  to  distant  countries  ;  and,  when 
 the  original  sense  of  the  myth  was  lost,  the  King 
 (Prcetus,  TzpCnoc;),  and  his  Foe  (Antea,  uvto),  and  the 
 common  love-tale  were  introduced,  to  assign  a  cause 
 for  the  'adventure.  In  this  myth,  too,  we  find  the 
 mysterious  connexion  between  Neptune  and  Pallas- 
 Minerva  and  the  horse  more  fully  revealed  than  else- 
 where.    {Kcighfley's  Mythology,  p.  401,  seqq.) 
 
 Bellerus,  a  brother  of  Hipponoiis.  {Vid.  Bellero- 
 phon.) 
 
 Bellona,  the  goddess  of  war,  daughter  of  Phor- 
 cys  and  Ceto.  (Apollod.,  2,  4,  2.)  According  to 
 some  authorities,  however,  she  was  the  sister  of  Mars. 
 Others,  again,  make  her  his  spouse.  The  earlier  form 
 of  her  Latin  name,  Bellona,  was  Ducllona,  from  Du- 
 ellum,  the  old  form  for  helium,  from  which  last  the 
 later  appellation  of  Bellona  arose.  Her  Greek  name 
 was  Enyo  ('Ei'vw).  The  temple  of  Bellona  at  Rome 
 was  without  the  city,  near  the  Carmental  gate.  Au- 
 dience was  given  there  by  the  senate  to  foreign  am- 
 bassadors. Before  it  stood  a  pillar,  over  which  a  spear 
 was  thrown  on  the  declaration  of  war  against  any  peo- 
 ple. {Odd,  Fast.,  G,\^Q,  seqq.)  The  priests  of  Bel- 
 lona used  to  gash  their  thighs  in  a  terrific  manner,  and 
 ofTer  to  her  the  blood  which  flowed  from  the  wounds. 
 {Jnv.,  4,  124.— Farro,  L.  L.,  b.—  Virg.,Mn.,  8,  703. 
 —Slat.,Theb.,  2,  718.— Id.  ib.,  7,  73.) 
 
 Beli.onakii,  the  priests  of  Bellona. 
 
 BiiLLov.tci,  a  numerous  and  powerful  tribe  of  the 
 Belgac,  adjoining  the  Vellocasses,  Caleti,  Ambiani, 
 Veromandui,  and  Silvanectes.  They  correspond  in 
 position  to  the  present  people  of  Beauvais.  (Cits., 
 Bell.,  2,  4.) 
 
 Bkllovesus,  a  king  of  the  Celta»,  who,  in  the  reign 
 of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  was  sent  at  the  head  of  a  colo- 
 ny to  Italy  by  his  uncle  Ambigatus.    {Lw.,  5,  34.) 
 
 Bklon,  I.  a  city  and  river  of  Hispania  Bretica,  the 
 usual  place  of  embarcation  for  Tingis  in  Africa.  The 
 modern  name  fialonia  marks  the  spot,  though  now 
 uninhabited.  The  name  is  sometimes  written'^Bajlon. 
 {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  301.)  — II.  A  small 
 stream  to  the  west  of  the  city  of  Belon  just  named. 
 It  answers  to  that  which  flows  at  the  present  day  from 
 the  Laguna  de  la  landa  into  the  sea.     {Mannert,  I.  c.) 
 
 Belus,  I.  a  name  given  to  several  kings  of  the  East, 
 Kk 
 
 whose  existence  appears  extremely  doubtful.  The 
 most  ancient  is  Belus,  king  of  Assyria,  father  of  Ni- 
 nus,  whose  epoch  it  is  impossible  to  determine. — If. 
 A  son  of  Libya,  and  father  of  .^gyptus,  Danahs,  and 
 Cepheus.  He  is  fabled  to  have  reigned  in  Phoenicia, 
 1500  B.C.— III.  A  kmg  of  Lydia,  father  of  Ninus. 
 {Herod.,  1,  7.) — The  Belus  of  Assyria,  or  the  remote 
 East,  is  thought  by  some  to  be  the  same  with  the  Great 
 Bali  of  Hindu  mythology  {Bartolomeo,  Viagg:o  alte 
 Indie  Orientali,  p.  241),  as  well  as  the  Baal  of  Orien- 
 tal worship.  A  curious  analogy  in  form  is  said  to  exist 
 between  the  temple  of  Belus,  as  described  by  the  an- 
 cient writers  {md.  Babylon),  and  the  Mexican  Teocal- 
 lis  or  pyramid-temples,  especially  that  of  Cholula. 
 (Consult,  on  this  interesting  subject,  the  remarks  of 
 Humboldt,  Monumcns  Aincricains,  vol.  1,  p.  117, 
 seqq.) 
 
 BEN.icus,  a  lake  of  Italy,  from  which  the  Mincius 
 flows  into  the  Po.  Pliny  (9,  23)  makes  this  lake  to  be 
 formed  by  the  Mincius.  It  is  stated  by  Strabo  (209), 
 on  the  authority  of  Polybius,  to  be  500  stadia  long  and 
 150  broad  ;  that  is,  62  miles  by  18  :  but  the  real  di- 
 mensions, according  to  the  best  maps,  do  not  appear  to 
 e.xceed  30  modern  Italian  miles  in  length,  and  9  in 
 breadth  ;  which,  according  to  the  ancient  Roman  scale, 
 would  be  nearly  35  by  12.  The  modern  name  is 
 Lago  di  Garda,  and  the  appellation  is  derived  from 
 the  small  town  of  Garda  on  the  northeast  shore  of 
 the  lake.  The  Benacus  is  twice  noticed  by  Virgil. 
 {Georg.,  2,  158. — jEn.,  10,  204.)  Its  principal  pro'm- 
 ontory,  Sirmium,  has  been  commemorated  by  Catullus 
 as  his  favourite  residence.  Virgil  speaks  of  it  as  sub- 
 ject to  sudden  storms.  {Georg.,  2,  160.)  In  expla- 
 nation of  this,  compare  the  following  remarks  of  Eu- 
 stace :  "  We  left  Sirmionc  (Sirmium),  and,  lighted  by 
 the  moon,  glided  smoothly  over  the  lake  to  Desensa- 
 no,  four  miles  distant,  where,  about  eight,  we  stepped 
 from  the  boat  into  a  very  good  inn.  So  far  the  ap- 
 pearance of  the  Benacus  was  very  difTcrent  from  the 
 description  which  Virgil  has  given  of  its  stormy  char- 
 acter. Before  we  retired  to  rest,  about  midnight,  from 
 our  windows,  we  observed  it  still  calm  and  unruffled. 
 About  three  in  the  morning,  I  was  roused  from  sleep 
 by  the  door  and  windows  bursting  open  at  once,  and 
 the  wind  roaring  round  the  room.  I  started  up,  and, 
 looking  out,  observed  by  the  light  of  the  moon  the 
 lake  in  the  most  dreadful  agitation,  and  the  waves 
 dashing  against  the  walls  of  the  inn,  and  resembling 
 the  swelling  of  the  ocean  more  than  the  petty  agitation 
 of  inland  waters.  Shortly  after,  the  landlord  entered 
 with  a  lantern,  closed  the  outv.'ard  shutters,  expressed 
 some  apprehensions,  but,  at  the  same  time,  assured  me 
 that  their  house  v-ia.s  built  to  resist  such  sudden  tem- 
 pests, and  that  I  might  repose  with  confidence  under 
 a  roof  which  had  withstood  full  many  a  storm  as  ter- 
 rible as  that  which  occasioned  our  present  alarm. 
 Next  morning,  the  lake,  so  tranquil  and  serene  the 
 evening  before,  presented  a  surface  covered  with  foam, 
 and  swelling  into  mountain-billows  that  burst  in  break- 
 ers every  instant  at  the  very  door  of  the  inn,  and  cov- 
 ered the  whole  house  with  spray.  Virgil's  description 
 nov/  seemed  nature  itself."  {Classical  Tour,  vol.  1, 
 p.  203,  seqq.) 
 
 Bendis,  the  name  of  a  Thracian  goddess,  the  same 
 with  Diana  or  Artemis.  (Compare  JRuknken,  ad  Tim., 
 p.  62. — Fischer,  Index  in  Palcephat.,  s.  v.  Bsv- 
 Ssia.)  This  name,  and  the  festival  of  this  deity,  spread 
 even  to  Attica  and  Bilhynia.  Bendis  had  a  temple  in' 
 the  Munychium  at  Athens,  and  a  festival,  called  Ber- 
 JiJem,  was  celebrated  in  honour  of  her  at  the  Pireeus. 
 {Creuzer,  Symholik,  vol.  2,  p.  129,  seqq.) 
 
 Beneventum,  a  city  of  Samniiun,  about  ten  miles 
 beyond  Caudium,  on  the  Appian  Way.  {Strabo,  249.) 
 Its  more  ancient  name,  as  we  are  informed  by  several 
 writers,  was  Malevcntum.  {Liv.,  9,  27. — Pirn.,  3, 
 \\.-^Festus,s.  V.  Benevent.)     T\icnd.meo{ Malevcn- 
 
 237 
 
PER 
 
 BERENICE. 
 
 turn  is  said  to  have  been  given  it  on  account  of  its  un- 
 healthy atmosphere.  The  more  auspicious  appellation 
 of  Bnncvcnlum  was  substituted  when  the  Romans  sent 
 a  colony  thither  (A.U.C.  483).  Tradition  ascribed 
 the  foundation  of  this  city  to  Diomede  (Svlinus,  c.  8. 
 — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.),  but  other  accounts  would  lead 
 us  to  believe  that  it  was  lirst  possessed  by  the  Auso- 
 nes.  [Festus,  s.  v.  Auson.)  It  remained  in  the  pos- 
 session of  the  Romans  during  the  whole  of  the  second 
 Punic  war,  and  obtained  the  thanks  of  the  senate  for 
 its  firm  attachment  to  the  republic  at  that  critical  pe- 
 riod. (Liv.,  27,  10.)  We  subsequently  hear  of  its 
 being  a  second  time  colonized  by  the  veteran  soldiers  of 
 Augustus,  and  also  a  third  time  under  Nero.  (Front, 
 de  °Col. — Compare  Tacitus,  Ann.,  15,  Zi.—Flol,  p. 
 66.)  The  account  which  Horace  gives  of  the  fare  he 
 there  met  with  in  his  journey  to  Brundisium,  will  oc- 
 cur to  every  reader.  Bencventum  was  situated  near 
 the  junction  of  the  Sabatus  and  Calor,  now  Sabbato 
 and  Calore.  Its  position  was  a  very  important  one, 
 since  here  the  main  roads  intersected  each  other  from 
 Latium  into  Southern  Italy,  and  from  Samnium  into 
 Campania.  Under  the  Lombards  Beneventum  became 
 the  capital  of  a  powerful  dukedom.  It  abounds  in  re- 
 mains of  ancient  sculpture  above  any  other  town  in 
 Italy.  The  most  beautiful  relic  of  former  days,  at 
 this  place,  is  the  arch  of  Trajan,  which  forms  one  of 
 the  entrances  into  the  city.  Near  Beneventum  Pyr- 
 rhus  was  defeated  by  Dentatus,  A.U.C.  479.  It  is 
 now  Bencvcnto.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 2^Q.—Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  1,  p.  791,  seqg.) 
 
 Bekecyntia,  a  surname  of  Cybele,  from  Mount 
 Berecyntus  in  Phrygia,  where  she  was  particularly  wor- 
 shipped. {Stat.,  Theb.,  4,  l&^.—  Virg.,  JEn.,  9,  82.) 
 Berecvnth,  a  Phrygian  tribe,  celebrated  by  the 
 poets  in  connexion  with  Cybele,  so  often  styled  "B«r- 
 ■ecyntia  Mater."  Pliny  places  the  Berecyntian  district 
 iOn  the  borders  of  Caria,  about  the  Glaucus  and  Mae- 
 4mder.     {Plm.,  5,  29.) 
 
 Berecyntus,  a  mountain  in  Phrygia  Major,  on  the 
 •banks  of  the  river  Sangarius.  It  was  sacred  to  Cybele, 
 who  is  hence  styled  Bcrecyntia  Mater,  "  The  Bere- 
 cynthian  mother."     {Serv.,  ad  JEil  ,  9,  82.) 
 
 Berenice  (less  correctly  Beronice),  a  name  com- 
 mon to  several  females  of  antiquity.      It  is  of  Greek 
 origin,  and  means  "  victory-brmging,"  or  "bearer  of 
 victory,"  the  initial  /3  being  written,  according  to  Ma- 
 cedonian usage,  for  the  letter  0,  or,  in  other  words, 
 BspEviKr)  being  put  for  ^epevcKTi,  just  as  the  Macedo- 
 nians said  Bt/li7r7rof  for  a?[.innor.     {Maitlaire,  Dial, 
 p.   184,   cd.   Sturz  ) — The   most   remarkable   of  this 
 name  were   the  following :     I.  the   granddaughter  of 
 Cassander,  brother  of  Antipater.     She  married  Philip, 
 a  Macedonian,  probably  one  of  the  officers  of  Alexan- 
 der, and  became  by  him  the  mother  of  many  children, 
 among  whom  were  Magas,  king  of  Cyrene,  and  Anti- 
 gone, whom  she  married  to  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus. 
 She  followed  into  Egypt  Eurydice,  daughter  of  Antipa- 
 ter. who  returned  to  that  country  to  rejoin  her  husband 
 Ptolemy   I.     Berenice   inspired   this   prince   with  so 
 strong  a  passion  that  he  put  away  Eurydice,  although 
 he  had  children  by  her,  and  married  the  former.     He 
 also   gave  the  preference,  in   the   succession   to   the 
 throne,  to  her  son  Ptolemy,  notwithstanding  the  better 
 claims  of  his  ofl'spring  by  Eurydice.      Berenice  was  re- 
 markable for  her  beauty,  and  her  portrait  often  appears 
 on  the  medals  of  Ptolemy  I.,  along  with  that  of  the 
 latter. — II.   Daughter  of  Ptolemy   Philadelphus    and 
 Arsino(3.     She  followed  her  mother  into  exile,  and  re- 
 tired with  her  to  the  court  of  Magas,  at  Cyrene,  who 
 married  Arsinoe,  and  adopted   Berenice.     This  will 
 serve  to  explain  why  Polybius  and  Justin  make  Bere- 
 nice to  have  been  the  daughter  of  Magas,  while  Cal- 
 limachus  gives  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  and  Arsinoe  as 
 her  parents.     After  the  death  of  Magas,  Arsinoe  en- 
 gaged her  daughter  in  maniage  to  Demetrius,  son  of 
 258 
 
 Demetrius   Poliorcetes  ;   but,  on  the  young  prince'a 
 having  come  from  Macedonia  to  Cyrene,  she  became 
 attached  to  him  herself.     Demetrius,  conducting  him- 
 self insolently,  was  slain  in  a  conspiracy,  at  the  head 
 of  which  was  Berenice.     The  latter  thereupon  mar- 
 ried her   brother  Ptolemy  (Euergetes)  III.     A  short 
 time  after  the  nuptials,  Ptolemy  was  obliged  to  go  on 
 an  expedition  into  Syria,  and  Berenice  made  a  vow 
 that  she  would  consecrate  her  beautiful  head  of  hair 
 to   Venus  if  her   husband  returned   safe    to   Egypt. 
 Upon  his  return  she  fulfilled  her  vow  in  the  temple  of 
 Venus  Zephyrites.     On  the  following  day,  however, 
 the  hair  was  not  to  be  found.     As  both  the  nionarcli 
 and   his   queen  were   greatly   disquieted  at  the  loss, 
 Conon  the  Samaritan,  an  eminent  astronomer  of  the 
 day,  in  order  to  conciliate  the  royal  favour,  declared 
 that  the  locks  of  Berenice  had  been  removed  by  divine 
 interposition,  and  translated  to  the  skies  in  the  form 
 of  a  constellation.     Hence  the  cluster  of  stars  near 
 the  tail  of  the  Lion  is  called  Coma  Berenices  ("  Ber- 
 enice's  hair").     Callimachus  wrote   a   piece  on   this 
 subject,  now  lost,  but  a  translation  of  which  into  Latin 
 verse  by  Catullus   has  reached  our  time.     {CalulL, 
 Carm.,  66. — Compare  Hygin.,  Poet.  Astron.,  2,  24. 
 — Doering,  ad  CatulL,  I.  c. — Heyne,  de  genio  saculi 
 Ptolemccorum,  Opu.ic.,\o\.  1,  p.  177.)     Berenice  was 
 put  to  death  B.C.  216,  by  the  orders  of  Ptolemy  Phi- 
 lopator,  her  son. — III.  A  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
 delphus, given  by  him  in  marriage  to  Antiochus  Theos, 
 king  of  Syria,  in  order  to  cement  a  peace  between  the 
 two  countries.     After  the  death  of  her  father,  Antio- 
 chus put  her  aside  and  recalled  his  former  wife  Laod- 
 ice.     This  last,  having  taken  off  Antiochus  by  poison, 
 sought  to  destroy  Berenice  also  as  well  as  her  son. 
 This  son  was  surprised  and  carried  off  by  an  emissa- 
 ry of  Laodice's,  and  shortly  after  put  to  death ;  and 
 Berenice,  in   searching   for  him,  was   entrapped   and 
 slain,  B.C.  246. — IV.   Called  by  some  authors  Cleo- 
 patra, was  the  only  legitimate  child  of  Ptolemy  Lath- 
 urus,  and  ascended  the  throne  after  the  death  of  her 
 father,  B.C.  81.     Sylla,  who  was  at  that  time  dictator, 
 compelled  her  to  marry,  and  share  her  throne  with,  her 
 cousin,  who   took  the  name  of  Ptolemy   Alexander. 
 She  was  poisoned  by  the  latter  only  nineteen  days 
 after  the  marriage. — V.  Daughter  of  Ptolemy  Aulctes. 
 The  people  of  Alexandrea  having  revolted  against  this 
 prince,  B.C.  58,  drove  him  out,  and  placed  upon  the 
 throne  his  two  daughters,  Tryphena  and  Berenice.   The 
 former  died  soon   after,  and   Berenice  was  given  in 
 marriage    to  Seteucus,   surnamed    Cybiosactcs.      His 
 personal  deformity,  however,  and   vicious  character, 
 soon  rendered  him  so  odious  to  the  queen,  that  she 
 caused  him  to  be  strangled.     Berenice  then  married 
 Archelaus;    but,  Ptolemy   Auletes  having   been    re- 
 stored by  Gabinius,  the  Roman  commander,  she  was 
 put  to  death  by  her  own  father,  B.C.  55. — VI.  A  na- 
 tive of  Chios,  and  one  of  the  wives  of  Mithradates  of 
 Pontus.     On  the  overthrow  of  this  monarch's  power 
 by  Lucullus,  Berenice,  in  obedience  to  an  order  from 
 her  husband,  took  poison  along  with  his  other  wives; 
 but  this  not  proving  effectual,  she  was  strangled  by 
 the   eunuch   liacchus,    B.C.   71. — VII.  Daughter  of 
 Agrippa  I.,  king  of  Juda-a,  and  born  A.D.  28.     She 
 was  at  first  affianced  to  Marcus,  son  of  Alexander  ; 
 but  this  young  man  having  died,  Agrippa  gave  her  in 
 marriage  to  his  brother  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis,  by 
 whom  she  became  the  mother  of  two  sons,  Berenici- 
 anus  and  Hyrcanus.     Having  lost  her  husband  when 
 she  was  at  the  age  of  twenty,  she  went  to  live  with 
 her  brother  Agrippa,  a  circumstance  which  gave  rise 
 to  reports  injurious  to  her  character.     To  put  an  end 
 to  these  rumours,  she  made  proposals  to  Polemo,  king 
 of  Cilicia,  and  offered  to  become  his  wife  if  he  would 
 embrace  Judaism.     Polemo  consented,  but  she  soon 
 left  him,  and  returned,  in  all  probability,  to  her  brother, 
 for  she  was  with  the  latter  when  St.  Paul  was  arrested 
 
BE  R 
 
 B  E  S 
 
 at  Jerusalem,  A.D.  63.  The  commerce  between  the 
 guilty  pair  became  now  so  public,  that  the  rumour 
 even  reached  Rome,  and  we  find  Juvenal  alluding 
 to  the  affair  in  one  of  his  satires  (6,  155).  She  fol- 
 lowed Agrippa  when  he  went  to  join  Vespasian,  whom 
 Nero  had  charged  to  reduce  the  Jews  to  obedience. 
 A  new  scene  now  opened  for  her ;  she  won  the  affec- 
 tions of  Titus,  atid,  at  a  subsequent  period,  when  Ves- 
 pasian was  established  on  the  throne,  and  Titus  re- 
 turned home  after  terminating  the  Jewish  war,  she 
 accompanied  him  to  Rome  along  with  her  brother 
 Agrippa.  At  Rome  she  lived  openly  with  Titus,  and 
 took  up  her  abode  in  the  imperial  palace,  as  we  learn 
 from  Dio  Cassius,  who  states  also  that  she  was  then  in 
 the  flower  of  her  age.  Titus,  it  is  said,  intended  even 
 to  acknowledge  her  as  his  wife  ;  but  he  was  compelled 
 by  the  murmurs  of  his  subjects  to  abandon  this  idea, 
 and  he  sent  her  away  from  the  city  soon  after  his  ac- 
 cession to  the  throne.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  account 
 given  by  Suetonius  (Tit.,  7),  who  appears  more  enti- 
 tled to  belief  than  Dio  Cassius,  according  to  whom 
 Titus  sent  Berenice  away  before  his  accession  to  the 
 throne,  and  refused  to  receive  her  again,  when  she 
 had  returned  to  Rome  a  short  time  after  the  com- 
 mencement of  his  reign.  {Dio  Cass.,  66,  15  et  18.) 
 — There  is  a  great  difficulty  attending  the  history  of 
 this  Berenice  as  regards  her  intimacy  with  Titus.  She 
 must,  at  least,  have  been  forty-two  years  of  age  when 
 she  first  became  acquainted  with  the  Roman  prince, 
 and  fifty- one  years  old  at  the  period  of  the  celebrated 
 scene  which  forms  the  subject  of  Racine's  tragedy. 
 Many  are  inclined  to  believe,  therefore,  that  the  Bere- 
 nice to  whom  Titus  was  attached  was  the  daughter 
 of  Mariamne  and  Archelaus,  and,  consequently,  the 
 niece  of  the  Berenice  of  whom  we  have  been  speak- 
 ing;  she  would  be  twenty-five  years  old  when  Titus 
 came  into  Judaea.  {Clavier,  in  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  4, 
 p.  241,  seqq.) — VIII.  A  city  of  Egypt,  on  the  coast  of 
 the  Sinus  Arabicus,  from  which  a  road  was  made 
 across  the  intervening  desert  to  Coptos  on  the  Nile,  by 
 Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  258  miles  in  length.  From 
 this  harbour  the  vessels  of  Egypt  took  their  departure 
 for  Arabia  Felix  and  India.  It  was  through  the  me- 
 dium of  Berenice  also,  and  the  caravan  route  to  Cop- 
 tos, that  the  principal  trade  of  the  Romans  with  India 
 was  conducted.  By  this  line  of  communication,  it  is 
 said  that  a  sum  not  less  than  what  would  be  now 
 £400,000,  was  remitted  by  the  Roman  traders  to  their 
 correspondents  in  the  East,  in  payment  of  merchandise 
 which  ultimately  sold  for  a  hundred  times  as  much. 
 {Pltv.,  6.  23.— W.,  0,  29.— Strab.,  ^6Q.—Aga/hemer., 
 2,  5.)  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  Berenice  are  foimd  at 
 the  modern  port  of  Hahcst.  {Murray,  Hist-  Account, 
 &.C.,  vol.  2,  p.  187.) — IX.  A  city  of  Cyrena'ica,  called 
 also  Hesperis.  In  its  vicinity  the  ancients  placed  the 
 gardens  of  the  Hesperides.  It  is  now  Bcvgazi,  a 
 poor  and  filthy  town.  Few  traces  of  the  ancient  city 
 remain  above  ground,  altho\igh  much  might  be  brought 
 to  light  by  excavation.  "When  we  reflect,"  remarks 
 Capt  Bcechy,  "  that  Berenice  flourished  under  Justin- 
 ian, and  that  its  walls  underwent  a  thorough  repair  in 
 the  reign  of  that  emperor,  it  will  be  thought  some- 
 what singular,  that  both  the  town  and  its  walls  should 
 have  disappeared  so  completely  as  they  have  done." 
 Of  the  latter,  scarcely  a  vestige  remains  above  the  sur- 
 face of  the  plain.     (Modern  Traveller,  part  49,  p.  98.) 
 
 Beroe,  I.  an  old  woman  of  Epidaurus,  nurse  to 
 Semele.  Juno  assumed  her  shape,  when  she  persuaded 
 Semele  not  to  receive  the  visits  of  Jupiter  if  he  did  not 
 appear  in  the  majesty  of  a  god.  {Ovjd,  Met.,  3,  278.) 
 —II.  The  wife  of  Doryclus,  whose  form  was  assumed 
 by  Iris  at  the  instigation  of  Juno,  when  she  advised 
 the  Trojan  women  to  burn  the  fleet  of  ^neas  in  Si- 
 cily.    {Virg.,  JEn.,  5,  620.) 
 
 Bercea  or  Berrhoca,  a  large  and  populous  city  of 
 Macedonia,  south  of  Edessa.     It  was  a  place  of  wreat 
 
 antiquity,  and  is  often  mentioned  by  the  early  writers. 
 Its  situation,  as  is  generally  agreed,  answers  to  that 
 of  the  present  Kara  Vena.  Some  interesting  cir- 
 cumstances respecting  Beroea  are  to  be  found  in  the 
 Acts  of  the  Apostles  (17,  11.  —  Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  232). 
 
 Bekosus,  a  Babylonian  historian,  rendered  much 
 more  famous  by  the  mention  of  others  than  from  any- 
 thing which  is  known  of  his  own  jierfortnanccs.  He  was 
 priest  of  the  temple  of  Belus  in  the  time  of  Alexander, 
 and,  having  learned  the  Greek  language  from  the  Ma- 
 cedonians, he  removed  to  Greece,  and  opened  a  school 
 of  astronomy  and  astrology  in  the  island  of  Cos,  where 
 his  productions  acquired  him  great  fame  with  the  Athe- 
 nians. The  ancients  mention  three  books  of  his,  rel- 
 ative to  the  history  of  the  Chaldaeans,  of  which  Jose- 
 phus  and  Eusebius  have  preserved  fragments.  As  a 
 priest  of  Belus,  he  possessed  every  advantage  which 
 the  records  of  the  temple,  and  the  learning  and  tradi- 
 tions of  the  Chaldneans,  could  afford,  and  seems  to 
 have  composed  his  work  with  a  serious  regard  for 
 truth.  Annius  of  Viterbo  published  a  work  under  the 
 name  of  Berosus,  which  was  soon  discovered  to  be  a 
 forgery.     {Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  viii.,  Prcef.) 
 
 Bekytus  (Berotha,  Ezek.,  47,  16. — Mrjpudr],  Jo- 
 seph., Ant.  Jud.,  5,  1. — Berothai,  2  Sam.,  8,  8),  an 
 ancient  town  of  Phoenicia,  about  twenty-four  miles 
 south  of  Byblus,  famous  in  the  age  of  Justinian  for  the 
 study  of  law,  and  styled  by  the  emperor  "the  mother 
 and  nurse  of  the  laws."  The  civil  law  was  taught 
 there  in  Greek,  as  it  was  at  Rome  in  Latin.  It  had 
 also  the  name  of  Colonia  Felix  Julia,  from  Augustus 
 Caesar,  who  made  it  a  Roman  colony,  and  named  it  in 
 honour  of  his  daughter.  {Plin.,  5,20)  The  modern 
 appellation  is  Beirout.  The  adjacent  plain  is  renowned 
 as  the  place  where  St.  George,  the  patron  saint  of 
 England,  slew  the  dragon  ;  in  memory  of  which,  a 
 small  chapel  was  built  upon  the  s|iot,  dedicated  at  first 
 to  that  Christian  hero,  but  now  changed  to  a  mosque. 
 It  was  frequently  captured  and  recaptured  during  the 
 crusades.  It  is  now  the  seat  of  one  of  the  most  inter- 
 esting missionary  stations  in  the  world,  and  possesses 
 many  important  advantages  for  such  a  purpose.  It  is 
 situated  on  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Lebanon,  within  three  days  of  Damascus,  two  days' 
 sail  of  Cyprus,  two  from  Tyre,  and  three  from  Tripoli. 
 Its  present  population  is  about  10,000.  (For  interest- 
 ing notices  of  this  place,  consult  Jewelfs  Researches, 
 vols.  1  and  2. — Life  of  Rev.  Pliny  Fisk. — Missionary 
 Herald,  &,c.) 
 
 Besippo,  a  seaport  town  of  Hispania  Boetica,  east 
 of  Junonis  Promontorium,  where  Mela  was  born. 
 Its  ruins  lie  in  tlie  neighbourhood  of  the  modern  Porto 
 Barbato.  {Philos.  Transact.,  vol.  30,  p.  922.)  The 
 town  of  Vejer  dc  la  Frontera,  which  many  think  rep- 
 resents the  ancient  Besippo  {Hnrdouin,  ad  Plin.,  3, 
 3),  lies  too  far  from  the  sea.  {Ukert,  Geog.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 343.) 
 
 Bessi,  a  people  of  Thrace,  occupying  a  district 
 called  Bessica,  between  Mons  Rhodope  and  the  north- 
 ern part  of  the  Hebrus.  The  Bessi  belonged  to  the 
 powerful  nation  of  the  Satrse,  the  only  Thracian  tribe 
 which  had  never  been  subjugated.  {Herod.,  7,  110.) 
 According  to  Strabo  (318),  they  were  a  very  lawless 
 and  predatory  race,  and  were  not  conquered  finally  till 
 the  reign  of  Augustus.    {Dio  Cas^.,  54. — Flor  ,  4,  12.) 
 
 Bessus,  a  governor  of  Bactriana,  who,  after  the 
 battle  of  Arbela,  seized  Darius,  his  sovereign,  with 
 the  intention  of  carrying  him  off  prisoner  to  his  sa- 
 trapy ;  but,  being  hotly  pursued  by  the  Macedonians, 
 he  left  the  monarch  wounded  and  dying  in  the  way, 
 and  effected  his  own  escape.  Being  subsequently  de- 
 livered into  the  hands  of  Alexander,  that  monarch,  ac- 
 cording to  one  account  {Justin,  12,  5),  gave  him  up 
 for  punishment  to  the  brother  of  Darius.  (Compare 
 Curt.,  5,  12,  seqq.— Id.,  7,  5.)  Plutarch,  however, 
 '  ''^  259 
 
B  I  B 
 
 BIS 
 
 Slates,  that  Alexander  himself  punished  the  offender  in 
 the  following  manner  :  he  caused  two  straight  trees  lo 
 be  bent,  and  one  of  his  legs  to  be  made  fast  to  each  ; 
 then  suffering  the  trees  to  return  to  their  former  posture, 
 his  body  was  torn  asunder  by  the  violence  of  the  recoil. 
 {Flu/..,  Vtt.  Alex.)  Arrian  makes  Alexander  to  have 
 caused  his  nostrils  to  be  slit,  the  tips  of  his  ears  to  be 
 cut  off,  and  the  offender,  after  this,  to  have  been  sent 
 to  Ecbatana,  and  put  to  death  in  the  sight  of  all  the 
 inhabitants  of  the  capital  of  Media.  (Arrian,  Exp. 
 Al.,4,7.) 
 
 BfANOR,  a  son  of  the  river-god  Tiber,  and  of  Manto 
 daughter  of  Tiresias.  Scrvius  makes  him  the  founder 
 of  Mantua,  and  identical  with  Ocnus.  {Scrv.  ad 
 Virg.,  Edog.,  9,  m.—Id.  ad  Mn.,  10,  198.)  The 
 allusion  in  Virgil's  ninth  Eclogue  is  thought  to  be  to 
 this  same  Bianor,  but  consult  the  remarks  of  Heyne, 
 ad  loc. 
 
 Bias,  I.  son  of  Amythaon  and  Idomene,  was  king  of 
 Argos,  and  brother  to  the  famous  soothsayer  Melam- 
 pus.  {Vid.  Melampus.) — II.  One  of  the  seven  wise 
 men  of  Greece.  He  was  son  of  Teutamus,  and  was 
 born  at  Priene,  in  Ionia,  about  570  B.C.  Bias  was 
 a  practical  philosopher,  studied  the  laws  of  his  coun- 
 try, and  employed  his  knowledge  in  the  service  of 
 his  friends,  defending  them  in  the  courts  of  justice, 
 settling  their  disputes.  He  made  a  noble  use  of  his 
 wealth.  His  advice,  that  the  lonians  should  fly  before 
 the  victorious  Cyrus  to  Sardinia,  was  not  followed,  and 
 the  victory  of  the  army  of  Cyrus  confirmed  the  correct- 
 ness of  his  opinion.  The  inhabitants  of  Priene,  when 
 besieged  by  Mazares,  resolved  to  abandon  the  city  with 
 their  property.  On  this  occasion  Bias  replied  to  one 
 of  his  fellow-citizens,  who  expressed  his  astonishment 
 that  he  made  no  preparations  for  his  departure,  "  I  car- 
 ry everything  icith  me."  He  remained  in  his  native 
 country,  where  he  died  at  a  very  advanced  age.  His 
 countrymen  buried  him  with  splendour,  and  honoured 
 his  memory.  Some  of  his  apophthegms  are  still  pre- 
 served. {Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  4,  p.  455. — Encyclop. 
 Americ.,  vol.  2,  p.  89,  scq.) 
 
 BiBACULUs  (M.  Furius),  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Cre- 
 mona about  103  B.C.  He  appears  to  have  composed 
 a  turgid  poem  entitled  jEthiopis,  on  the  legend,  very 
 probably,  of  the^^thiopian  Memnon  ;  and  also  another 
 on  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine.  This  last  is  thought  to 
 have  formed  part  of  an  epic  poem  on  Caesar's  wars  in 
 Gaul.  {Burmann,  Anthol.  Lat.,  lib.  2,  ep.  238.) 
 Both  works  are  lost,  and  we  have  only  a  couple  of 
 fragments  remaining.  {Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  124.)  Horace  I^Scrm.,  2,  5,  40)  ridicules  a 
 laughable  verse  of  his,  in  which  Jupiter  is  represented 
 as  spitting  snow  upon  the  Alps:  "Jupiter  hibernas 
 carta  nive  conspuct  Alpcs.''^  This  line  occurred  in  the 
 beginning  of  a  poem  which  he  had  composed  on  the 
 Gallic  war.  Quintilian  (10,  1,  96)  enumerates  Bi- 
 baculus  among  the  Roman  Iambic  poets,  and,  in  an- 
 other part  of  his  work  (8,  6,  18),  gives  this  same  line, 
 citing  it  as  an  instance  of  harsh  metaphor.  It  is  sur- 
 prising that  the  critic  did  not  carry  his  censure  farther 
 than  this,  and  therefore  Spalding  well  remarks  of  the 
 omission,  "  Dchchat  autcm  noster  sordium  quoquc  in- 
 cusarc  hanc  ■melaphoram.'"  To  render  his  parody 
 more  severe,  Horace  substitutes  Furius  himself  for  the 
 monarch  of  the  skies,  and,  to  prevent  all  mistake,  ap- 
 plies to  the  former  a  laughable  species  of  designation, 
 drawn  directly  from  his  personal  appearance,  ■■'■pingui 
 tevtus  omasu,"  "  distended  with  his  fat  paunch." 
 {Moral.,  I.  c.) 
 
 BiBRACTE,  a  large  town  of  the  .^dui  in  Gaul,  upon 
 the  Arroux,  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Lio-eris  or 
 Loire.  It  was  afterward  called  Augustodunum,  and  is 
 now  Autun.     {Gas.,  B.  G.,  7,  55,  &c.) 
 
 BiBui,us,  a  son  of  M.  Calpurnius  Bibulus,  by  Portia, 
 Cato's  daughter.     He  was  Caesar's  colleague  in  the 
 consulship,  but,  finding  it  impossi'ole  to  thwart  the 
 260 
 
 measures  of  the  former,  he  retired  from  public  affairs 
 in  a  great  degree,  and  during  eight  months  (the  period 
 that  remained  for  his  holding  the  consulship)  content- 
 ed himself  with  publishing  edicts.  This  conduct 
 placed  his  colleague  in  an  odious  light,  and  Caesar  en- 
 deavoured, by  means  of  the  populace,  whom  he  had 
 excited  for  this  purpose,  to  force  Bibulus  to  leave  his 
 dwelling,  and  come  forth  and  take  an  active  part  in 
 public  affairs.  The  attempt,  however,  proved  unsuc- 
 cessful. Bibulus  was  not  very  conspicuous  for  mili- 
 tary talents.  In  the  war  between  CcBsar  and  Pompey, 
 however,  he  had  the  chief  command  of  the  fleet  of  the 
 latter.  He  died  at  sea  in  the  course  of  the  civil  con- 
 test.    (Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  4,  p.  463.) 
 
 BiFKONs,  a  surname  of  Janus,  because  he  was  rep- 
 resented with  two  faces.     {Vid.  Janus  ) 
 
 BiLBiLis,  I.  a  city  of  the  Celtiberi,  in  Hispania 
 Tarraconensis,  southeast  of  Numantia,  and  southwest 
 of  Nertobriga.  It  lay  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river 
 Bilbilis,  and  was  a  Roman  municipium.  The  poet 
 Martial  was  born  here.  Bilbilis  was  famed  for  the 
 temper  of  the  weapons  manufactured  in  it.  The  ruins 
 of  the  ancient  city  lie  not  far  from  the  modern  Cala- 
 tayud,  at  a  place  called  Bambola.  (Plin.,  34,  14. — 
 Mart.,  10,  103.— Id.,  4,  55.)— II.  A  river  of  His- 
 pania Tarraconensis,  running  by  Bilbilis,  in  the  coun- 
 try of  the  Celtiberi,  and  falling  into  the  Iberus.  It  is 
 now  the  Xalon.  Its  waters  were  famous  for  temper- 
 ing iron.  {Hierun.,  Pavl.  de  Flum.  Hisp. — Martial, 
 10,  103,  et  ult.— Justin,  44,  8.) 
 
 BiMATER,  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  which  signifies 
 that  he  had  two  mothers,  because,  when  taken  from  his 
 mother's  womb,  he  was  placed  in  the  thigh  of  his  fa- 
 ther Jupiter.     {Ovid,  Met.,  4,  12.) 
 
 BiNGiuM,  a  town  of  Gaul,  in  Germania  Prima,  west 
 of  Moguntiacum.  It  lay  upon  the  Rhine,  and  is  now 
 Brngen.     {Tacit.,  Hist',  4,  70.) 
 
 BioN,  I.  a  native  of  Borysthenes,  of  low  extraclion. 
 When  young  he  was  sold  as  a  slave  to  an  orator,  who 
 afterward  gave  him  his  freedom,  and  left  him  large 
 possessions.  Upon  this  he  went  to  Athens,  and  ap- 
 plied himself  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  He  had  sev- 
 eral preceptors  ;  but  chiefly  attached  himself  to  th^ 
 doctrine  of  Theodorus,  of  the  Cyrenaic  sect,  of  which 
 he  was  a  professed  advocate.  He  flourished  about  tht 
 120th  Olympiad.  {Diog.  Laert.,  4,  46,  scqq.)—ll. 
 An  Athenian  tragic  poet,  a  son  of  ..^schylus. — III.  A 
 Greek  poet,  born  near  Smyrna,  in  the  district  of  Phlos- 
 sa.  He  appears  to  have  lived  in  Sicily,  and  to  have 
 died  there  of  poison,  as  his  pupil  Moschus  informs  us 
 in  an  elegy  on  his  death.  Some  make  him  contempo- 
 rary with  Theocritus,  while  others  suppose  that  he 
 flourished  a  century  later,  about  187  B.C.  He  is 
 ranked,  along  with  Moschus,  among  the  bucolic  poets, 
 less  on  account  of  the  subjects  of  his  pieces,  which 
 are  for  the  most  part  of  a  lyric  or  philosophical  char- 
 acter, than  by  reason  of  the  manner  in  which  he  treats 
 them.  He  is  far  inferior  to  Theocritus  in  simplicity 
 and  naivete.  His  productions  are  in  general  too  la- 
 boured ;  but  in  description  he  succeeds  perfectly,  and 
 his  writings  are  not  wanting  in  elegance,  and  in  cor- 
 rect and  pleasing  imagery.  There  are  many  good 
 editions  of  this  poet's  works,  generally  printed  with 
 those  of  Mosrhus,  the  best  of  which  is  that  of  \'alcke- 
 naer,  Lngd.  Bat.,  1810,  8vo,  reprinted  at  Oxford  in 
 1816,  by  Gaisford,  in  the  Poctce  Minorcs  Graci. 
 
 BisALT-T,,  a  people  of  Macedonia,  situate  between 
 the  lake  Bolbe  and  the  Strymon.  They  were  of  Thra- 
 cian  origin.  {Herodotus,!,  lib.)  Theopompus,  who 
 is  cited  by  Stcph.  Byz.  {s.  v.  Biaa^^rla),  affirmed,  that 
 almost  all  the  hares  in  the  country  occupied  by  this 
 people  were  found  to  have  two  livers.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  266.) 
 
 BisANTHE,  a  town  on  the  Propontis,  northwest  of 
 Perinthus.  It  was  called  also  Rcedcstus,  and  is  now 
 Rodosto.     {Herod.,  1,  137.) 
 
B  I  T 
 
 B  0  E 
 
 BiSTONis,  a  lake  of  Thrace,  near  Abdera.  It  de- 
 rived its  name  from  the  Bistones,  who  inhabited  its 
 shores,  and  held  dominion  over  the  surroundnig  dis- 
 trict.    (Herud,  7,  110.— Scymn.,Ch.,  673  ) 
 
 BiTHVNiA,  a  country  of  Asia   Minor,  bounded  by 
 the  Euxine  on  the  north,  on  the  south  by  Phrygia  and 
 Galatia,  on  the  east  by  Paphlagonia,  and  on  the  west 
 by  the  Propontis  and  Mysia.     One  of  the  earlier  names 
 of  this  region,  more  particularly  along  the  shores  of  the 
 Propontis   and  Euxine,  was  Bebrycia,  derived  from 
 the  Bebryces,  who  are  said  to  have  been  the  primitive 
 settlers  in  the  land.     Homer  nowhere  mentions  the 
 people  of  this  country  by  the  appellation  of  Bilhynians, 
 but  invariably  designates  them  as  Mysians  and  Phrygi- 
 ans.   (7/.,  2,  862.— ii.,  13,  792.— Strab.,  565.)     Stra- 
 bo  has  also  proved,  that  the  Mysians  not  only  occupied 
 the  shores  of  the  Lake  Ascanius  and  the  plains  of  Ni- 
 caea,  but  that  they  e.xtended  as  far  as  Chalcedon  and 
 the  Thracian  Bosporus.     {Strah.,  566  )     Though  we 
 cannot  precisely  fi.x  the  period  at  which  the  Bithyni 
 settled  in  the  fertile  district  to  which  they  communi- 
 cated their   name,  we  can  have  no  doubt  as  to  the 
 country  whence  they  came,  since  the  testimony  of  an- 
 tiquity is  unanimous  in  ascribing  to  them  a  Thracian 
 origin.     Herodotus,  in  particular,  asserts  that,  accord- 
 ing to  their  own  traditions,  they  came  from  the  banks 
 of  the   Strymon,  and,  having  been  driven  from  their 
 country  by  the  Teucri  and   Mysi,  crossed  over  into 
 Asia.     {Herod.,  7,  75.)     Thucydides  also  and  Xen- 
 ophon    e.xpresslv  style    them    Bithynian    Thracians. 
 {Tliuajd.,4,  75'.—Xen.,  Hist.  Gr  ,  1,  3,  2— Id.  ib., 
 3,  2,  2.)     Some  geographers  have  noticed  a  distinction 
 XQ  be  observed  in  regard  to  this  people,  namely,  that 
 the  appellation  of  Bithyni  was  properly  applicable  to 
 the  inland  population,  while  that  of  the  coast  took  the 
 name  of  Thyni.     {Apollud.  Rkod.,  2,  462. — Eustath. 
 ad  Dionys.  Perieg.,  793.— Flt7i.,  5,  32.)     But,  his- 
 torically speaking,  it  is  of  little  value. — The  Bithyni- 
 ans,  as  Herodotus  informs  us  (1,  28),  were  first  sub- 
 jected by  Croesus.     On  the  dissolution  of  the  Lydian 
 empire  they  passed  under  that  of  Persia,  and  their 
 country  became  the  seat  of  a  satrapy  sometimes  known 
 in  history   by   the  title  of  Dascylium,  sometimes  of 
 the    Hellespont,    but    more    commonly    of   Bithynia,. 
 The  people  lived  principally  in  villages  ;  the  only  con- 
 siderable towns  being  situate  on  the  coast,  and  inhab- 
 ited by  Greek  colonists.     This  state  of  things  lasted 
 till  the  death  of  Alexander,  who  had  taken  military 
 possession  of  the  country  after  the  defeat  and  expul- 
 sion of  the  Persians  from  the  peninsula      On  the  de- 
 cease of  the  King  of  Macedon,  we  find  Botirus,  the  son 
 of  Dydalsus,  a  Thracian  chief,  seizing  upon  Astacus, 
 a  Greek  town  on  the  seacoast,  and,  after  defeating 
 Calantus,  the  officer   who   commanded   the   Grecian 
 forces   in  that  country,  establishing    an   independent 
 principality,  which  he  transmitted,  through  his  lineal 
 descendants  Bas  and  Xipcetes,  to  Nicomedes,  son  of 
 the  latter,  who,  after   the  death  of  Lysimachus,  first 
 assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Bithynia'.     He  gave  his 
 name  to  the  city  of  Astacus,  which   from  henceforth 
 was  called  Nicomedia,  and  became  the  capital  of  the 
 new  kingdom.     {Mcmn.  excerpt,  ap.  Phot.,   p.  720, 
 seq.—Pausan.,  5,  12.)     An  account  of  the  succession 
 in  this  family  will  be  found  under  the  articles  Nicom- 
 edes  and  Prusias. — Like   other  Asiatic    sovereigns, 
 the  kings  of  Bithynia  are  said   to  have  been  sensual 
 and  eflfemmate.     {Folyb.,  37,  2.—Ctc.,  Verr.,  5,  IL) 
 The   interior  of  the  countrv   was    mountainous  and 
 woody  {Xen.,  Anab.,  6,  {h.—Nicet.,  Chon.,  p.  128), 
 but  near  the  sea  it  was  covered  with  rich  and  ferlile 
 plains,  thickly  spread  with  towns  and  villages.     The 
 produce  ^consisted  in  grain  of  every  sort  t  in  wine, 
 cheese,   figs,  and   various   kinds   of    wood.      (Xen  , 
 Anab.,  6.  4,  i.— Strab.,  5Q5.~Plin.,   11,  42.)     The 
 western  portion   of   Bithynia  has  received  from  the 
 Turks  the  name  of  Khodavcnd'^.kiar ;  and  that  situated 
 
 on  the  Euxine  and  around  the  Bosporus  they  call  Ko 
 djaili.     {Crai)ter''s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  16V,  scqq  ) 
 
 EiTON.     Vid.  Cleobis. 
 
 BiTUKicuM.      Vid.  Avaricum. 
 
 BiTUBiGEs,  a  people  of  Gaul.  There  were  two 
 tribes  of  this  name,  the  Bituriges  Cubi  and  the  Bitur- 
 iges  Vivisci.  The  former  were  in  Gallia  Celtica,  to 
 the  west  of  the  ^dui.  Their  capital  was  Avaricum, 
 now  Bourges.  The  Vivisci  wore  in  Aquitania,  oti 
 the  Atlantic  coast,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Garuinna. 
 Their  chief  city  was  Burdigala,  now  Bordeaux. 
 (CcES.,  B.  G.,  8,  5,  &c.—rLemairc,  Index  Geogr.  ad 
 CcES.,  s.  v.,  p.  210,  seq.) 
 
 BizYA,  a  city  in  Thrace,  on  the  shores  of  the  Eux- 
 ine, above  Halmydessus,  and  northwest  of  Byzantium. 
 It  is  now  Vyzia.  The  poets  fabled  that  it  was  shun- 
 ned by  swallows,  on  account  of  the  crimes  of  Tereus. 
 {Plin.,  4,  n.—Solin.,  c.  10.— Ooid,  Met.,  6,  424, 
 seqq.) 
 
 BLANnusi.\,  or,  more  properly,  Bandusia,  a  fountain 
 in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Horace's  Sabine  farm.  It 
 is  supposed  to  be  the  modern  Fontc  Bella.  (Compare 
 the  remarks  of  the  commentators  on  Horace,  Ode  3, 
 13,  1.) 
 
 Blastophcenices,  a  people  of  Lusitania.  (Appian, 
 dc  r'cb.  Hisp.,  6,  5G.)  Ukert  maintains  the  identity 
 of  this  people  with  the  Bastuli  Poeiii.  {Geogr.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  309.)  ; 
 
 Blemmyes,  a  people  of  ^Ethiopia  supra  JEgyptiim, 
 dwelling,  according  to  Strabo  and  Ptolemy,  to  the 
 southeast  of  the  Astaboras,  towards  the  Sinus  Avaliles. 
 They  were  fabled  to  be  without  heads,  and  to  have  the 
 eyes  and  mouth  placed  in  the  breast.  This  fable  is 
 supposed  to  owe  its  origin  to  a  custom  prevailing 
 among  this  people,  of  depressing  their  heads  between 
 their  shoulders,  which  they  forced  upward,  so  that 
 their  necks  became  very  short,  and  their  heads  were 
 concealed  partly  by  their  shoulders,  and  partly  by  their 
 long  and  thick  hair.  (Sirab.,  563.— iMela,  1,  4,  8.— 
 Plin.,  5,  8.  —  Amm.  MarcelL,  14,  4. —  Vopisc.  in 
 Prob.,  c.  17. — Procop.,  Bell.  Per.s.,  c.  19. —  Claudian, 
 Carm.  de  Nil.,  v.  19. — Nona.  Dwnys.,  17,  extr.) 
 
 BoADicEA.      Vid.  Boudicea. 
 
 BoAGRius,  a  river  of  the  Locri  Epicnemidii,  water- 
 ing the  town  of  Thronium.  Strabo  asserts  that  it  was 
 known  likewise  by  the  name  of  Manes,  and  was  no- 
 thing more  than  a  torrent,  which  was  sometimes  en- 
 tirely dry,  though  occasionally  it  was  swollen  so  as 
 to  be  two  plethra  in  breadth.  (Compare  Lycophron, 
 v.  1145.) 
 
 BoccHus,  a  king  of  Getulia,  in  alliance  with  Rome, 
 who  perfidiously  delivered  Jugurtha  to  Sylla,  the 
 lieutenant  of  Marius.  Many  of  the  old  editions  of 
 Sallust  read  Jugurthce  fdia  Boccho  nupscrat  (Jug. 
 Bell.,  80),  instead  of  Bocchi,  &c.,  thereby  making 
 Bocchus  to  have  been  Jugurtha's  son-in-law.  The 
 Abbe  Brotier,  relying  upon  ihis  reading  and  some  of 
 Sylla's  medals,  proposes  to  substitute  in  Plutarch's  life 
 of  Marius,  where  mention  is  made  of  Bocchus,  the  term 
 "son-in-law"  for  "  father-in-law  ;"  but  M.  Vauvilliers 
 more  judiciously  contends,  from  six  MS.S.  of  Sallust, 
 and  in  conformity  with  Florus  (3,  1),  for  the  expression 
 "  father-in-law"  of  Jugurtha.  Bocchus  obtained,  as 
 the  reward  of  hi»  treachery,  the  western  part  of  Nu- 
 midia,  which  was  afterward,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
 named  Mauritania  Caisariensis,  now  Fez.  (Sallust, 
 Jag.— Pater c.,  2,  12.) 
 
 BoDUAGN.vrus,  a  leader  of  the  Nervii,  when  Ctesar 
 made  war  against  them.     (Cas.,  B.  G.,  2,  23.) 
 
 BoEDROMiA,  an  Athenian  festival,  sacred  to  Apollo 
 Patroiis,  and  instituted  in  commemoration  of  the  as- 
 sistance which  the  people  of  Athens  received  in  the 
 reiijn  of  Erechthcus,  from  Ion,  son  of  Xuthus,  when 
 their  country  was  invaded  by  Eumolpus,  son  of  Nep- 
 tune. It  was  celebrated  in  the  month  Boedromion, 
 which  took  its  name  from   this  circumstance.     The 
 
 261 
 
B  CEO 
 
 B  CE  T 
 
 appellation  given  to  the  festival  is  derived  anb  tov  [Jo?]- 
 6ftofidv,  from  coming  to  help.  {Elymol.  Mag.,  s.  v. — 
 Suid.,  s.  V. —  Callim.,  H.  in  ApolL,  v.  69. — Plut., 
 Thes.,c.  27.— Wachsmulh,  HcUcn.  Alt.,\o\.4,p.  143.) 
 
 BoEDRoMioN,  the  name  of  one  of  the  Attic  months. 
 It  was  the  third  in  the  order  of  the  Attic  year,  and 
 corresponded  nearly  to  our  September.  It  derived  its 
 name  from  the  festival  called  Boedromia  being  cele- 
 brated during  it.     {Vid.  Boedromia.) 
 
 BcEOTARCii^,  the  chief  magistrates  inBoeotia.  They 
 presided  in  the  national  councils,  and  commanded  the 
 forces.  They  were,  m  later  times  at  least,  elected 
 annually,  and  rigidly  restricted  to  their  term  of  office. 
 Their  number  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
 fourteen,  the  primitive  number  of  the  confederate  Boeo- 
 tian states.  It  was  afterward  reduced,  and  underwent 
 many  variations.  Thebes  appears  to  have  had  the 
 privilege  of  appointing  two,  one  of  whom  was  supe- 
 rior in  authority  to  the  rest,  and  probably  acted  as 
 president  of  the  board.  (Thucyd.,  2,  2. — Id.,  4,  91. 
 — Arnold,  ad  Thucyd  ,  I.  c. — ThiiiwaWs  Hist.  Gr., 
 vol.  1,  p.  iM.—Liv.,  42,  43.) 
 
 BcEOTiA,  a  country  of  Greece  Proper,  lying  to  the 
 northwest  of  Attica,  and  shut  in  by  the  chains  of  Hel- 
 icon, Citha^rOn,  Parnassus,  and,  towards  the  sea, 
 Ptous  ;  which  mountains  enclosed  a  large  plain,  con- 
 stituting the  chief  part  of  the  country.  Numerous 
 rivers,  of  which  the  Cephissus  was  the  most  important, 
 descending  from  the  heights,  had  probably  stagnated 
 for  a  long  time,  and  formed  lakes,  of  which  the  Copa'is 
 was  the  largest.  These  same  rivers  appear  to  have 
 formed  the  soil  of  Boeolia,  which  is  among  the  most 
 fruitful  in  Greece.  Boeotia  was  also  perhaps  the  most 
 thickly  settled  part  of  Greece  ;  for  no  other  could 
 show  an  equal  number  of  important  cities.  This 
 country,  as  we  learn  from  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
 Strabo,  Pausanias,  and  other  ancient  writers,  was  first 
 occupied  by  several  barbarous  clans,  under  the  various 
 names  of  Aones,  Ectencs,  Temmices,  and  Hyantes. 
 (Sirabo,  401. — Pausan.,  9,  5.)  To  these  succeeded, 
 according  to  the  common  account,  Cadmus  and  his 
 followers,  who,  after  expelling  some  of  the  indigenous 
 tribes  above  mentioned,  and  conciliating  others,  found- 
 ed a  city,  which  became  afterward  so  celebrated  under 
 the  name  of  Thebes,  and  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
 of  Cadmea.  The  descendants  of  Cadmus  were  com- 
 pelled, subsequently,  to  evacuate  Bceotia,  after  the 
 capture  of  Thebes  by  the  Epigoni,  and  to  seek  ref- 
 uge in  the  country  of  the  Illyrian  Enchelees.  (Herod- 
 ctus,  5,  61. —  Pausanias,  9,  5.)  They  regained,  how- 
 ever, possession  of  their  former  territory,  but  were  once 
 more  expelled,  as  we  learn  from  Strabo,  by  a  numer- 
 ous horde  of  Thracians  and  others.  On  this  occasion, 
 having  withdrawn  into  Thcssaly,  they  united  them- 
 selves with  the  people  of  Arne,  a  district  of  that  prov- 
 ince, and  for  the  first  time  assumed  the  name  of  Boeo- 
 tians. (Strabo,  401.)  After  a  lapse  of  some  years, 
 they  were  compelled  to  abandon  Thessaly,  when  they 
 once  more  succeeded  in  re-establishing  themselves  in 
 their  original  abode,  to  which  they  now  connnunicated 
 the  name  of  Bosotia.  This  event,  according  to  Thu- 
 cydides,  occurred  about  sixty  years  after  the  capture 
 of  Troy  ;  but,  in  order  to  reconcile  this  account  with 
 the  statement  of  Homer,  who  distinctly  names  the 
 Boeotians  among  the  Grecian  forces  assembled  at  that 
 memorable  siege,  the  historian  admits  that  a  Boeotian 
 division  (uTTodacindc)  had  already  settled  in  this  prov- 
 ince prior  to  the  migration  of  the  great  body  of  the 
 nation  (1,  12).  The  government  of  Boeotia  remained 
 under  the  monarchical  form  till  the  death  of  Xanthus, 
 who  fell  in  sincrle  combat  with  Melanthus  the  Messe- 
 nian,  when  it  was  determined  to  adopt  a  republican 
 constitution.  This,  though  imperfectly  known  to  us, 
 appears  to  have  been  a  compound  of  aristocratic  and 
 democratic  principles  ;  the  former  being  apparent  in 
 the  appointment  of  eleven  annual  magistrates  named 
 262 
 
 Boeotarchs,  who  presided  over  the  military  as  well  as 
 civil  departments  [Thucyd.,  2,  2  —Id.,  4,  92.— Id.,  5, 
 37) ;  the  latter  in  the  establishment  of  four  councils, 
 which  were  possessed,  in  fact,  of  the  sovereign  au- 
 thority, since  all  measures  of  importance  were  to  be 
 submitted  to  their  deliberation.  The  general  assembly 
 of  the  Boeotian  republic  was  held  in  the  temple  of  the 
 Itonian  Minerva.  (Pausan.,  9,  34.)  From  the  extent 
 and  population  of  their  territory,  the  Boeotians  might 
 have  played  the  first  part  in  Greece,  if  they  had  not  been 
 prevented  by  the  bad  government  of  the  cities,  by  the 
 jealousy  of  Thebes,  and  the  consequent  want  of  union. 
 And  yet  the  example  of  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas 
 afterward  showed  that  the  genius  of  two  men  could 
 outweigh  all  these  defects. — The  Boeotians  were  re- 
 garded by  their  neighbours,  the  Athenians,  as  naturally 
 a  stupid  race.  Much  of  this,  however,  was  wilful  ex- 
 aggeration, and  must  be  ascribed  to  the  national  enmity, 
 which  seems  to  have  existed  from  the  earliest  times 
 between  these  two  nations.  Besides,  this  country 
 produced,  in  fact,  many  illustrious  men,  such  as  He- 
 siod,  Pindar,  Plutarch,  Epaminondas,  Pelopidas,  &c. 
 In  Boeotia,  too.  Mount  Helicon  was  sacred  to  the 
 Muses,  to  whom  also  many  of  the  fountains  and  rivers 
 of  the  country  were  consecrated. — The  modern  name 
 of  Boeotia  is  Stramulipa,  in  Livadia,  which  last 
 comprehends  within  its  limits  the  ancient  Boeotia,  as 
 one  of  its  component  parts. — In  Boeotia  are  several 
 celebrated  ancient  battle-fields,  the  former  glory  of 
 which  has  been  increased  by  late  events ;  namely, 
 Platasa  (now  the  village  Kohla),  where  Pausanias  and 
 Aristides  established  the  liberty  of  Greece  by  their 
 victory  over  Mardonius  ;  Leuctra  (now  the  village 
 Parapogia),  where  Epaminondas  triumphed  over  the 
 Spartans  ;  Coronea,  where  the  Spartan  Agesilaus  de- 
 feated the  Thebans ;  and  Chaeronea,  where  Philip 
 founded  the  Macedonian  greatness  on  the  ruins  of  Gre- 
 cian freedom. — Near  Tanagra,  the  birthplace  of  Co- 
 rinna,  the  best  wine  was  produced  :  here  also  cocks 
 were  bred,  of  remarkable  size,  beauty,  and  courage, 
 with  which  the  Grecian  cities,  passionately  fond  of 
 cock-fighting,  were  supplied. — The  Boeotians  were 
 particularly  fond  of  music,  and  excelled  in  it.  (Cra- 
 mer's Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  189,  scqq. — Heeren's 
 Politics  of  Anc.  Greece,  p.  32,  Bancroft's  Iransl. — 
 Enryclop.  Americ,  vol.  2,  p.  151,  scqq.) 
 
 BoETHius,  Anicius  Manlius  Torquatus  Severinus,  a 
 man  celebrated  for  his  virtues,  services,  honours,  and 
 tragical  end.  He  was  born  about  A.D.  470,  in  Rome 
 or  Milan,  of  a  rich,  ancient,  and  respectable  family  ; 
 was  educated  in  Rome,  in  a  manner  well  calculated 
 to  develop  his  extraordinary  abilities  ;  afterward  went 
 to  Athens,  which  was  still  the  centre  of  taste  and  sci- 
 ence, and  studied  philosophy  under  Proclus  and  oth- 
 ers. Returning  to  Rome,  he  was  graciously  received  by 
 Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  then  master  of  Italy, 
 loaded  with  marks  of  favour  and  esteem,  and  soon 
 raised  to  the  first  offices  of  the  empire.  He  exerted 
 the  best  influence  on  the  administration  of  this  mon- 
 arch, so  that  the  dominion  of  the  Goths  promoted  the 
 welfare  and  happiness  of  the  people  who  were  subject 
 to  them.  He  was  long  the  oracle  of  his  sovereign 
 and  the  idol  of  the  people.  U'he  highest  honours  were 
 thought  inadequate  to  reward  his  virtue  and  his  ser- 
 vices. But  Theodoric,  as  he  grew  old,  became  irri- 
 table, jealous,  and  distrustful  of  those  around  him. 
 The  Goths  now  indulged  in  all  sorts  of  oppression  and 
 extortion,  while  Boethius  exerted  himself  in  vain  to 
 restrain  them.  He  had  already  made  many  enemies 
 by  his  strict  integrity  and  vigilant  justice.  These  at 
 last  succeeded  in  prejudicing  the  king  against  him, 
 and  rendering  him  suspicious  of  Boethius.  The  op- 
 position of  Boethius  to  their  unjust  measures  was  con- 
 strued into  a  rebellious  temper,  and  he  was  even  ac- 
 cused of  a  treasonable  corres[)ondence  with  the  court 
 •of  Constantinople.     He  was  arrested,  imprisoned,  and 
 
B  0  L 
 
 BOO 
 
 executed,  A.D.  524  or  526. — While  he  was  at  the 
 hehn  of  state,  he  found  recreation  from  his  toilsome 
 occupations  in  the  construction  of  mathematical  and 
 musical  instruments,  some  of  which  he  sent  to  CIo- 
 thaire,  king  of  France.  He  was  also  much  given  to 
 the  study  of  the  old  Greek  philosophers  and  mathema- 
 ticians, and  wrote  Latin  translations  of  several  of  them. 
 His  most  celebrated  work  is  that  composed  during  his 
 imprisonment,  "  On  the  consolation  afforded  by  Philoso- 
 phy." It  is  written  in  prose  and  verse  intermixed. 
 The  elevation  of  thought,  the  nobleness  of  feeling,  the 
 ease  and  distinctness  of  style  which  it  exhibits,  make 
 this  composition,  short  as  it  is,  far  superior  to  any  of 
 the  age.  Tiie  principal  edition  is  that  of  Basle,  1570, 
 fol.  A  more  modern  one,  of  some  value,  appeared  at 
 Glasgow,  1751, 4to.  (Encyclop.  Americ,  vol.  2,  p.  153, 
 seqq.) 
 
 BoETHUs,  I.  a  Stoic  philosopher,  referred  to  by 
 Diogenes  Laertius  and  Cicero.  (Diog.  L.,  7,  143. — 
 Cic,  de  Div.,  1,  8. — Id.  ib.,  2,  20.)  His  opinions 
 differed  so  far  from  those  of  his  school,  in  that  he  did 
 not  regard  the  world  as  animated,  and  in  his  admit- 
 ting four  principles  as  the  basis  of  judgment;  name- 
 ly, thought,  sensation,  appetite,  and  participation. 
 (Menag.  ad  Diog.,  I.  c.) — II.  A  peripatetic  philoso- 
 pher, a  native  of  Sidon.  He  acquired  so  high  a  repu- 
 tation, that  Strabo,  who  had  been  his  fellow-disciple, 
 ranks  him  among  the  most  illustrious  philosophers  of 
 his  time,  and  Simplicius  styles  him  ■&av/iuai,og,  '■'■the 
 wonderful."  {Menag.  ad  Diog.  Laert.,  7,  143.) — 
 HI.  A  statuary,  and  engraver  on  plate,  born  at  Car- 
 thage. {Pausan.,  5,  17.)  He  appiSars  to  have  flour- 
 ished before  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  the  Romans, 
 but  we  cannot,  with  any  certainty,  ascertain  the  age 
 in  which  he  lived.     {Sillig.  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Bon,  a  people  of  Celtic  Gaul,  who  inhabited  the 
 country  watered  by  the  river  Sigmanus,  Signatus,  or 
 Jgmanus,  now  the  Sollac.  From  Gaul  they  passed 
 into  Germany,  and  settled  in  the  present  Bohemia 
 (Boierheim,  i.  e.,  the  residence  of  the  Boii),  until  they 
 were  expelled  by  the  Marcomanni.  Abandoning  this 
 quarter,  they  carried  their  name  with  them  into  Boia- 
 ria,  Bayaria,  or  Bavaria.  The  name  Boii  is  thought 
 to  denote  "  the  terrible  ones,"  and  to  be  derived  from 
 the  Celtic  Bo,  "fear."  {Thierry.  Histoire  des  Gau- 
 lois.  vol.  1,  p.  i8. —  CcEs.,  B.  G.,  1,  28  ;   7,  17.) 
 
 BoLA,  a  town  of  the  iEqui  in  Italy.  It  is  thought 
 to  correspond  with  the  small  town  of  Poli,  situate  in 
 the  mountains  between  Tivoli  and  Palcestrina,  the  an- 
 cient Tibur  and  Prsneste.  It  was  a  colony  of  Alba. 
 {Virg.,JEn.,  1,  675.) 
 
 Boi.BE,  I.  a  lake  of  Macedonia,  in  the  territory  of 
 Mygdonia,  and  emptying  into  the  sea  near  Aulon  and 
 Bormiscus.  {ThucyiL,  1,  58.)  Dr.  Clarke,  who  visited 
 the  shores  of  this  lake  in  his  travels,  oiiserves,  "  it  is 
 now  called  Beshek  ;  it  is  about  12  miles  in  length, 
 and  6  or  8  in  breadth.  We  can  find  no  notice  that 
 has  been  taken  of  this  magnificent  piece  of  water  by 
 any  modern  writer."  {Travels,  vol.  8,  p.  6.) — II.  A 
 town  near  the  Lake  Bolbe.  {Sleph.  By:.,s.  v.BoMai.) 
 BoLBiTiNUM,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  in  the 
 vicinity  of  what  is  now  the  tov/n  of  Rosetta.  ( Vid. 
 Nilus.) 
 
 BoLiNE,  a  town  of  Achaia,  between  Drepannm  and 
 Patraj,  which  no  longer  existed  in  the  time  of  Pausa- 
 nias  (7,  23).  Near  it  ran  a  river  called  Boliuasus. 
 {S/cph.  Byz.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Boi.issus,  a  town  in  the  island  of  Chios,  situate  on 
 the  coast,  and  the  site  of  which  is  occupied  by  the 
 modern  village  of  Volisso.  The  ancient  place  is  no- 
 ticed by  Thucydides  (8,  24),  and  is  mentioned  also  in 
 the  life  of  Homer  (c.  23.— Compare  Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 BoAtffcrcJf). 
 
 BoLL.tNus,  a  man  whom  Horace  represents  as  of 
 the  most  irascible  temper,  and  most  inimical  to  lo- 
 quacity.    {Serm.,  1,  9,  II.) 
 
 BoMiLC.^R,  I.  a  Carthaginian  general,  son  of  Hamil- 
 car.  Ho  attempted  to  seize,  by  force  of  arms,  upon 
 the  government,  but  was  overcome  and  put  to  death. 
 {Died.  Sic,  20,  43.) — II.  A  Carthaginian  admiral,  sent 
 to  relieve  Syracuse  when  besieged  by  the  Romans. 
 He  fled,  however,  before  the  fleet  of  Marcellus,  and  the 
 city  fell.^ — HI.  A  native  of  Numidia,  a  secret  agent  of 
 Jugurtha's,  by  whose  means  that  monarch  eflTected  the 
 assassination  of  Massiva  at  Rome.  He  afterward,  at 
 the  instigation  of  Metellus,  the  Roman  commander, 
 conspired  with  Nabdalsa  against  Jugurtha,  but  the  plot 
 was  discovered,  and  he  was  put  to  death.  {SallusI, 
 Jug.,  35,  61,  70.) 
 
 BoMONicJE,  a  name  applied  to  the  youths  who  were 
 whipped  at  the  altar  of  Diana  Orthia  at  Sparta,  in  hon- 
 our of  that  goddess.  The  festival  was  called  Aiafiacr- 
 riycxjic,  and  was  so  named  aTrd  rov  fiaariyovv,  i.  e., 
 from  whipping.  These  boys  were,  at  first,  freeborn 
 Spartans,  but  afterward  of  meaner  birth,  being  fre- 
 quently the  offspring  of  slaves.  They  were  called 
 BomoniccE  {BufioviKai)  from  the  scourging  they  un- 
 derwent at  the  altar,  and  which  was  very  severe  and 
 cruel ;  and,  lest  the  officer  should,  out  of  compassion, 
 remit  any  of  its  rigour,  Diana's  priestess  stood  by 
 all  the  time  holding  in  her  hand  the  goddess's  image, 
 which,  say  the  ancients,  was  light  and  easy  to  be 
 borne,  but  if  the  boys  were  spared,  became  so  pon- 
 derous that  the  priestess  was  scarcely  able  to  support 
 its  weight.  The  parents  of  the  boys  were  also  pres- 
 ent, and  exhorted  their  sons  to  bear  their  sufferings 
 with  patience  and  firmness.  He  who  showed  the 
 most  firmness  was  highly  honoured.  Some  of  the 
 boys  even  died  under  the  lash  ;  these  they  buried  by  z. 
 public  funeral,  with  garlands  on  their  heads,  in  token 
 of  joy  and  victory.  The  origin  of  this  cruel  custom 
 is  variously  accounted  for  by  the  ancient  writers. 
 Some  ascribe  it  to  a  wish  on  the  part  of  Lycurgus 
 to  inure  the  Lacedemonian  youth  to  labour  and  fatigue, 
 and  to  render  them  insensible  to  pain  or  wounds. 
 Others  maintain  that  it  was  a  mitigation  of  an  oracle, 
 which  ordered  that  human  blood  should  be  shed  on 
 Diana's  altar.  Another  tradition  mentions  that  Pausa- 
 nias,  at  the  battle  of  Platsea,  being  disturbed  at  the 
 preparatory  sacrifices  by  a  party  of  Lydians,  and  his 
 attendants  having  repelled  them  with  staves  and  stones, 
 the  only  weapons  they  had  at  the  moment,  instituted 
 this  custom  subsequently  in  commemoration  of  the 
 event.     {Pausan.,  3,  16.—Plut.,  Vit.  Lycurg.) 
 
 Bona  Dea  {"/he  Good  Goddess"),  a  name  given  by 
 the  Romans  to  Ops  or  Tellus,  or,  in  other  words,  to  the 
 goddess  Earth.  The  first  of  May  was  the  time  for 
 celebrating  her  festival,  and  it  was  also  the  anniversa- 
 ry of  the  dedication  of  her  temple  on  the  Aventine  Hill. 
 {Ovid,  Fast.,  5,  148,  scq.)  She  was  worshipped  by  the 
 Roman  matrons  in  the  house  of  the  chief  pontiff,  and 
 everything  relating  to  the  other  sex  was  carefully  ex- 
 cluded. (Fi(Z.  Clodius.)  As  the  most  probable  deriva- 
 tion of  the  name  of  the  month  of  May  is  from  Maia,  it 
 has  been  inferred  that  this  goddess  and  Bona  Dea  were 
 the  same  deities.  The  Romans  had  a  legend  among 
 them,  that  Bona  Dea  was  Fauna  or  Fatua,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Faunus,  who,  out  of  modesty,  never  left  her 
 bower,  or  let  herself  be  seen  of  men  ;  for  which  she 
 was  deified,  and  no  man  entered  her  temple.  {Ma- 
 crob.,  1,  12.) 
 
 BoxoNiA,  a  city  of  Pannonia,  on  the  Danube,  north 
 of  Sirmium.  Its  site  corresponds  vvith  the  modern  II- 
 lock  or  Ujlak.  {Anton.,  Itin. — Notit.  Imp.)—U.  A 
 city  of  Italy.  {Vid.  Felsina.)— III.  A  city  of  Gaul. 
 {Vid.  Gesoriacum.) 
 
 Bonus  Eventus,  a  Roman  deity,  whose  worship 
 was  first  introduced  by  the  peasants.  He  was  repre- 
 sented holding  a  patera  or  cup  in  his  right  hand,  and  in 
 his  left  ears  of  corn.  {Varro,  de  R.  R.,  1,  1. — Plin., 
 34,  8.) 
 
 BoosuRA  {bovis  cauda),  a  town  of  Cyprus,  on  tho 
 
 263 
 
BOS 
 
 BRA 
 
 soutnwestern  coast.  Venus  had  an  ancient  temple 
 here. 
 
 Bootes,  a  northern  constellation,  near  the  Ursa  Ma- 
 jor. The  name  is  Greek,  Bogitij^,  and  means  "  the 
 Oxe7i-dnvc7-,"  Bootes  bemg  regarded  in  this  sense  as 
 the  driver  of  the  Wain  {"Afia^a).  another  appellation 
 for  the  "Greater  Bear."  {Aralus,  91. — Mah'dius,  1, 
 313.)  The  Greeks  generally  saw  in  Bootes,  Areas 
 son  of  Callisto.  Ovid,  however,  calls  him  on  one  oc- 
 casion Lycaon,  after  the  father  of  Callisto.  {Fast.,  6, 
 235.)  Others  regarded  him  as  Icarus,  the  father  of 
 Erigone.  {Vid.  Icarus.)  Propertius  hence  calls  the 
 seven  stars  of  the  Greater  Bear,  "  Loves  Icani.^'  {EL, 
 2,  24,  24.) 
 
 Boreas,  the  North  wind,  regarded  in  the  Grecian 
 mylhologv  as  a  deity.  According  to  the  poets,  he  was 
 the  son  of  Astra^us  and  Aurora,  but  others  make  him 
 the  son  of  the  Strymon.  He  loved  Orithyia,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Erechtheus,  king  of  Athens,  and  carried  her  off 
 to  Thrace,  where  she  bore  him  the  winged  youths 
 Zctes  and  Calais  ;  and  two  daughters,  Chione  and 
 Cleopatra.  {Flat.,  Pkcedr.,  229 —Apollod.,  3,  15,  2. 
 — Apoll.  Rhod.,  1,211.)  The  Athenians  ascribed  the 
 destruction  of  the  fleet  of  Xerxes  by  a  storm  to  the 
 partiality  of  Boreas  for  the  country  of  Orithyia,  and 
 built  a  temple  to  him  after  that  event.  {Herod.,  7, 
 189.)  Boreas  is  also  said  by  Homer  to  have  turned 
 himself  into  a  horse,  out  of  love  to  the  mares  of  Erich- 
 thonius,  and  to  have  begotten  on  them  twelve  foals  re- 
 markable for  their  fleetness.  (//.,  20,  22Z.—Keight- 
 lei/s  Mythology,  p.  255,  scqq.) 
 
 BoRvsTHENEs,  I.  a  large  river  of  Scythia,  falling 
 into  the  Eu.xine  Sea,  now  called  the  Dnieper.  Herod- 
 otus considers  it  the  greatest  of  the  Scythian  rivers  af- 
 ter the  Ister,  and  as  surpassing  all  others  except  the 
 Nile.  He  does  not  appear,  however,  to  have  known 
 much  about  its  course,  and  seems  not  to  have  been 
 apprized  of  the  famous  cataracts  of  this  river,  which 
 occur  at  the  height  of  2(10  miles  above  its  mouth,  and 
 are  said  to  extend  40  miles,  being  13  in  number.  {Vid. 
 Danaparis.) — II.  There  was  a  city  on  the  banks  of  this 
 river  called  BorysTlienis,  and  also  Olbia.  ( Vid.  01- 
 bid.) — III.  A  favourite  steed  of  the  Emperor  Hadri- 
 an's, to  whom  he  erected  a  monument  after  death. 
 
 Bosporus,  I.  a  name  applied  to  a  strait  of  the  sea. 
 There  were  two  straits  known  in  antiquity  by  this  ap- 
 pellation, namely,  the  Thracian  and  the  Cimmerian 
 Bos[)orus  ;  the  former  now  known  by  the  name  of  the 
 Straits  or  Channel  of  Constaidmojtie,  the  latter  the 
 Straits  of  Caffa  or  Theodo.iia,  or,  according  to  a  later 
 denommaiion,  the  Straits  of  Zabache.  By  the  Rus- 
 sians, however,  it  is  commonly  called  the  Bosporus. 
 Various  reasons  have  been  assigned  for  the  name. 
 The  best  is  that  which  makes  the  appellation  refer  to 
 the  early  passage  of  agricultural  knowledge  from  East 
 to  West  (/Jotif,  an  ox,  and  Tvopog,  a  passage).  Nym- 
 phius  tells  us,  on  the  authority  of  Accarion,  that  the 
 Phrygians,  desiring  to  pass  the  Thracian  strait,  built 
 a  vessel,  on  whose  prow  was  the  figure  of  an  ox,  call- 
 ing the  strait  over  which  it  carried  them, /?oof  Tropof, 
 Bosporus,  or  the  ox's  passage.  Dionysiusof  Halicar- 
 nassus,  Valerius  Flaccus,  and  others  of  the  ancient 
 writers,  refer  the  name  to  the  history  of  lo,  who,  when 
 transformed  into  a  cow  {l3ovr)  by  Juno,  swam  across 
 this  strait  to  avoid  her  tormentor.  Arrian  says  that 
 the  Phrygians  were  directed  by  an  oracle  to  follow  the 
 route  which  an  ox  would  point  out  to  them,  and  that 
 one  being  roused  by  them  for  this  purpose,  it  swam 
 across  the  strait. — The  strait  of  the  Thracian  Bosporus 
 properly  extended  from  the  (,'yancan  rocks  to  the  har- 
 bour of  Byzantium  or  Constantinople.  It  is  said  to  be 
 1 6  miles  in  length,  including  the  windings  of  its  course, 
 and  its  ordinary  breadth  about  li  miles.  In  several 
 places,  however,  it  is  very  narrow  ;  and  the  ancients 
 relate  that  a  person  might  hear  birds  sing  on  the  op- 
 posite side,  and  that  two  persons  might  converse  across 
 264 
 
 with  one  another.  Herodotus,  Polybius,  and  Arnan 
 make  its  length  120  stadia,  from  the  Cyanean  rocks 
 to  Byzantium.  The  new  castles  of  Europe  and  Asia 
 are  erected  on  either  coast,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 temples  of  Serapis  and  Jupiter.  The  old  ones,  raised 
 by  the  Greek  emperors,  command  the  narrowest  part 
 of  the  strait,  wliere  it  is  not  more  than  500  paces 
 across.  Here  Darius  is  said  to  have  crossed,  on  his 
 expedition  against  the  Scythians. — For  some  remarks 
 on  the  kings  of  Bosporus,  as  they  are  styled  in  history, 
 consult  Clinton's  Fasti  Hellcmci,  p.  281,  seqq.,  2d  cd. 
 — II.  A  city  in  the  Chersonesus  'I'aurica,  the  same  as 
 Panticapajum.     {Vid.  Panticapaeuni.) 
 
 BoTTi.^A,  or  BoTTiiEis,  a  name  anciently  given  to 
 a  narrow  space  of  country  in  Macedonia,  situated  be- 
 tween the  Haliacmon  and  Lydias,  as  Herodotus  in- 
 forms ns  (7,  127);  but  in  another  passage  heextendsit 
 beyond  the  Lydias  as  far  as  the  Axius.  The  Bottiaei 
 had  been,  however,  early  expelled  from  this  district  by 
 the  Macedonian  princes,  and  had  retired  to  the  other 
 side  of  the  Axius,  about  Therme  and  Olynthus  {Hero- 
 dot.,  8,  127),  where  they  formed  a  new  settlement  with 
 the  Chalcidians,  another  people  of  Thracian  origin,  oc- 
 cupying the  country  of  Chalcidice.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p   220  ) 
 
 BouDiCEA  or  BoADicEA,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  in  Brit- 
 ain, during  the  reign  of  Nero.  Having  been  treated 
 in  the  most  ignominious  manner  by  the  Romans,  she 
 headed  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Britons,  attacked 
 the  Roman  settlements,  reduced  London  to  ashes,  and 
 put  to  the  sword  all  strangers  to  the  number  of  70,000. 
 Suetonius,  the  Roman  general,  defeated  her  in  a  de- 
 cisive battle,  and  Boudicea,  rather  than  fall  into  the 
 hands  of  her  enemies,  put  an  end  to  her  own  life  by 
 poison.     {Tacit.,  Ann.,  14,  31.) 
 
 Bovii.L^,  I.  an  ancient  town  of  Latium,  on  the  Ap- 
 pian  Way,  between  the  ninth  and  tenth  mile-stones  ; 
 and  answering,  according  to  the  opinion  of  Holstenius, 
 to  the  situation  of  the  inn  called  I'Ostcria  dclle  Frat- 
 tochie.  It  is  distinguished  from  another  town  of  the 
 same  name  in  Novum  Latium  by  the  title  of  Suburba- 
 ns. Bovilla!  was  one  of  the  first  towns  conquered  by 
 the  Romans,  according  to  Floras  (1,  11).  We  learn 
 from  Cicero  that  it  was  a  municipium  {Orat.  pro  Flan- 
 cio),  but  he  represents  it  as  almost  deserted. — II.  A 
 town  of  Novum  Latium  ;  its  precise  situation  has  not 
 been  ascertained.  Vulpius  says,  that  some  vestiges 
 of  this  town  may  be  traced  near  a  place  called  Banco, 
 not  far  from  Veroli.     {Vet.  Lat.,  p.  120.) 
 
 Brachmanes,  Indian  philosophers.  i^Vid.  Gymno- 
 sophistae.) 
 
 Branchiades,  a  surname  of  Apollo.  {Vid.  Bran- 
 chida;.) 
 
 Branchio^,  I.  the  inhabitants  of  a  small  town  in 
 Sogdiana,  on  the  river  Oxus,  put  to  the  sword  by  Al- 
 exander. They  were  descended  irom  the  Branchidae, 
 a  faniily  who  held  the  priesthood  of  the  temple  of  Apollo 
 Didvniseus  at  Didynii  near  Miletus.  The  Persians  un- 
 der Xerxes  plundered  and  burned  the  temple,  and  the 
 Branchidff,  who  had  betrayed  it  into  their  hands,  be- 
 came, on  the  defeat  of  Xerxes,  the  voluntary  compan- 
 ions of  his  flight,  in  order  to  avoid  the  justice  of  their 
 countrymen.  They  settled  on  the  Oxus,  and  grew  up 
 into  a  small  state.  Alexander's  motive  in  the  cruel 
 massacre  of  this  people  was  retaliation  for  the  sacri- 
 lege of  their  ancestors.  {Curt.,  7,  5.) — II.  The  priests 
 of  Apollo  Didyma;us,  who  gave  oracles  in  Caria.  (  Vid. 
 Didymi.) 
 
 Branchus,  a  youth  of  Miletus,  beloved  by  Apollo, 
 who  gave  him  the  power  of  prophecy.  He  gave  ora- 
 cles at  Didymi.     {Vid.  Didymi.) 
 
 BrasTdas,  son  of  Tellis,  was  a  celebrated  Sfiartan 
 commander  during  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  gained 
 many  successes  over  the  Athenians.  The  principal 
 scene  of  his  operations  was  in  the  north,  in  that  part  of 
 Thrace,  or,  rather,  Macedonia,  which  was  so  nuinerou&r 
 
BRE 
 
 ly  settled  by  Greek  colonies,  a  large  number  of  whicn 
 he  broaght  under  the  control  of  Sparta  by  his  arms  or 
 personal  influence.  He  lost  his  life  at  the  taking  of 
 Amphipolis.  (FzW.  Amphipolis.)  The  virtues  of  his 
 private  character  were  worthy  of  the  best  days  of 
 Sparta.  {Thucyd.,  2,  25.— Id.,  4,  \l.—Id.,  4,  78.— 
 Id.,  4,  81.— Id.,  4,  102,  &c.—Id.,  5,  10.) 
 
 Brasidea,  festivals  at  Lacedasmon,  in  honour  of 
 Brasidas.  None  but  freemen  born  Spartans  were  per- 
 mitted to  enter  the  lists,  and  such  as  were  absent  were 
 fined. 
 
 Brauron,  a  town  of  Attica,  celebrated  in  mytholo- 
 gy as  the  place  where  Iphigenia  first  landed  after  her 
 escape  from  'i'auris  with  the  statue  of  Diana.  From 
 this  circumstance,  the  goddess  was  here  held  in  pecu- 
 liar veneration,  under  the  title  of  Brauronia.  (Pausan., 
 1,  33. — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Bpavpuv. — Slrabo,  398.) 
 The  ruins  of  Brauron  are  pointed  out  by  modern  trav- 
 ellers near  the  spot  called  Palaio  Hraona.  Chandler 
 calls  the  modern  site  Vrotma.  (Travels,  vol.  2,  ch. 
 34. — Compare  GcWs  Itinerary,  p.  77.) — Diana  had 
 three  festivals  here,  called  Brauronia,  celebrated  once 
 every  fifth  year  by  ten  men  who  were  called  'uponoLoL. 
 They  sacrificed  a  goat  to  the  goddess,  and  it  was  usual 
 to  sing  one  of  the  books  of  Homer's  Iliad.  The  most 
 remarkable  that  attended  were  young  virgins  in  yellow 
 gowns,  consecrated  to  Diana.  They  were  about  ten 
 years  of  age,  and  not  under  five,  and  therefore  their 
 consecration  was  called  6eKaTEveLv,  from  (5t'/ca,  decern ; 
 and  sometimes  dpKrevecv,  as  the  virgiss  themselves 
 bore  the  name  of  upicroi,  bears,  from  this  circumstance. 
 There  was  a  bear  in  one  of  the  villages  of  Attica  so 
 tame,  that  he  ate  with  the  inhabitants,  and  played  harm- 
 lessly with  them.  This  familiarity  lasted  long,  till  a 
 young  virgin  treated  the  animal  too  roughly,  and  was 
 killed  by  it.  The  virgin's  brother  killed  the  bear,  and 
 the  country  was  soon  after  visited  by  a  pestilence. 
 The  oracle  was  consulted,  and  the  plague  removed  by 
 consecrating  virgins  to  the  service  of  Diana.  This 
 was  so  faithfully  observed,  that  no  woman  in  Athens 
 was  ever  married  before  a  previous  consecration  to 
 the  goddess.  The  statue  of  Diana  of  Tauris,  which 
 had  been  brought  into  Greece  by  Iphigenia,  was  pre- 
 served in  the  town  of  Brauron.  Xer.xes  carried  it 
 away  when  he  invaded  Greece.  {Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  382.) 
 
 Brenni  and  Breuni,  a  people  of  Italy,  occupying, 
 together  with  the  Genauni,  the  present  Val  d'Agno 
 and  Val  Brcamia,  to  the  east  and  northeast  of  the 
 Lacus  Verbanus  {Lago  Maggiorc).  They,  together 
 with  the  Genauni,  were  subdued  by  Drusus,  whose 
 victory  Horace  celebrates.  Strabo  calls  them  Brenci 
 .  and  Genaui  ;  others  term  the  former  Breuni.  (Horat., 
 Od.,  4,  14,  16  ) 
 
 Brennus,  I.  a  general  of  the  Galli  Senones,  who 
 entered  Italy,  defeated  the  Romans  at  the  river  Allia, 
 and  entered  their  city  without  opposition.  The  Ro- 
 mans fled  into  the  capilol,  and  left  the  whole  city  in 
 the  possession  of  their  enemies.  The  Gauls  climbed 
 the  Tarpeian  rock  in  the  night,  and  the  capitol  would 
 have  been  taken,  had  not  the  Romans  been  awakened 
 by  the  noise  of  the  sacred  geese  in  the  temple  of  Juno, 
 and  immediately  repelled  the  enemy.  (  Vid.  Manlius.) 
 Camdlns,  who  was  in  banishment,  marched  to  the  re- 
 lief of  his  country,  and  so  totally  defeated  the  Gauls, 
 that  not  one  remained  to  carry  home  the  news  of  their 
 destruction.— The  destruction  of  the  Gauls  by  Camil- 
 lus  is  the  national  account  given  by  the  Roman  writers, 
 and  is  replete  with  error  and  exaggeration.  (Consult 
 remarks  under  the  article  Camillus.)— As  regards  the 
 name  Brennus,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  it  is  nothing 
 more  than  the  Cymric  word  Brenhin,  which  signifies 
 •^king"  or  "leader,"  converted  into  a  Latin^'form. 
 The  Romans  mistook  it  for  a  proper  name.  (Thierry, 
 Hist,  des  Gavl.,\o\.  1,  p  57.— Arnold's  Rome,  voL 
 1,  p.  524.)  Pritchard,  however,  maintains  that  it  is 
 L  L 
 
 BRI 
 
 rather  the  proper  name  Bran,  which  occurs  in  Welsh 
 history.  {Ariiold,  I.  c.) — II.  Another  Gallic  leader, 
 who  made  an  irruption  into  Greece  at  the  head  of  an 
 army  of  his  countrymen,  consisting  of  152,000  foot 
 and  20,000  horse.  After  ravaging  various  parts  of 
 Northern  Greece,  they  marched  against  Delphi,  and 
 endeavoured  to  plunder  the  temple.  But  the  army  of 
 the  invaders,  according  to  the  Grecian  account,  were 
 seized  with  a  panic  terror  during  the  night,  and  beim^ 
 attacked  at  daybreak  by  the  Delphians  and  others  of 
 the  Greeks,  retreated  in  the  utmost  confusion.  Large 
 numbers  perished,  the  Greeks  continually  hanging  on 
 the  skirts  of  the  retreating  foe  ;  and  Brennus,  wound- 
 ed, and  dispirited  by  his  overthrow,  killed  himself  in  a 
 fit  of  into.xication,  B.C.  278.  {Pausan.,  10,  19. — Id., 
 10,  23. — Justin,  24,  6,  &c.)  It  would  appear,  that 
 besides  the  Gauls  mentioned  here,  another  body  of  the 
 same  race  were  ravaging  Thrace  and  Macedonia  ;  and 
 these  latter  were  they  who  crossed  over  into  Asia,  not 
 the  remains  of  the  army  of  Brennus.  (Consult  Siebe- 
 lis,  ad  Pausan.,  10,  23,  8.) 
 
 Briareus,  I.  a  giant  famous  in  early  fable.  He  and 
 his  two  brothers  Cottus  and  Gyes,  were  the  offspring 
 of  Uranus  and  Ge  (Coelus  and  Terra),  and  had  each 
 a  hundred  hands.  According  to  Homer,  he  was  call- 
 ed of  men  ^gaeon,  and  by  the  gods  alone  Briareus. 
 When  Juno,  Neptune,  and  Minerva  conspired  to  de- 
 throne Jupiter,  Briareus,  being  brought  by  Thetis  to 
 the  aid  of  Jupiter,  ascended  the  heavens,  and  seated 
 himself  next  to  him,  and  so  terrified  the  conspirators 
 by  his  fierce  and  threatening  looks,  that  they  shrunk 
 from  their  purpose.  {Horn.,  P.,  1,  403.)  Briareus 
 also  appears  in  fable  as  one  of  the  Cyclopes.  ( Vid. 
 Cyclopes.)  The  name  Bpidpeug  appears  to  be  akin  to 
 jSpidu,  PpLapoc,  ppidcd,  Ppidvc,  all  denoting  weight 
 and  strength.  {Kcightlcy's  Mythology,  p.  46.) — II. 
 A  Cyclop,  made  judge  between  Apollo  and  Neptune, 
 in  their  dispute  about  the  isthmus  and  promontory  of 
 Corinth.  He  gave  the  former  to  Neptune,  and  the  lat- 
 ter to  Apollo.  He  is  probably  the  same  fabulous  per- 
 sonage with  the  preceding.     {Pausan.,  2,  1.) 
 
 Brigantes,  a  people  in  the  northern  parts  of  Britain, 
 regarded  as  the  .greatest,  most  powerful,  and  most 
 ancient  of  the  British  tribes.  They  possessed  the 
 country  from  sea  to  sea,  comprising  the  counties  of 
 York,  Durham,  Lancaster,  Westmoreland,  and  Cum- 
 berland. Their  capital  was  Eboracum,  York.  The 
 Brigantes  (Briges,  Bryges)  vVould  seem  to  have  been 
 originally  of  Thracian  origin,  and  to  have  wandered 
 forth  from  their  mountain  homes,  between  Macedonia 
 and  Thrace,  over  various  parts  of  Europe,  such  as 
 Gaul,  Spain,  Britain,  &c.  They  also  penetrated  into 
 Asia  Minor,  and  were  there  called  Phryges  (Phrygi- 
 ans). Consult,  as  regards  the  root  of  the  name,  the 
 remarks  under  the  article  Mesembria. 
 
 Brigantinus  Lacus,  a  lake  in  Vindelicia,  separating 
 the  Helvetii  from  the  Vindelici  and  other  German 
 tribes.  Another  name  for  it  was  Bodamicus  Lacus. 
 It  is  now  the  Lake  of  Constayice  {Conslanzer-See), 
 as  the  Germans  call  it,  who  have  likewise  another  ap- 
 pellation for  it,  resembling  one  of  the  ancient  names, 
 i.  e.,  Boden-See.  {Plin.,  9,  M.—  Mela,  3,  2.—Amm. 
 Marcell.,  15, '6.) 
 
 Brigantium,  I.  called  also  Brigantia,  a  city  of  Vin- 
 delicia, near  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  Lacus 
 Brigantinus.  It  was  the  station  of  a  force  in  the  tima 
 of  the  .^ntonines,  for  the  purpose  of  watching  the 
 movements  of  the  Alemanni.  The  modern  name  is 
 Bregenoz. — II.  A  city  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  now 
 Corunna.  Some  erroneously  identify  Abobriga  witl 
 this  place.     {Dio  Cass.,  37,  53  ) 
 
 Brilessus,  a  name  given  to  the  range  of  hills  thai 
 united  Mount  Pentelicus  with  Anchesmus.  {Strab., 
 399.)  The  modern  name  is  Turko  vouni.  {GcWt 
 Itin.,  p.  68  and  77.) 
 
 Bbimo  (from  Bpinu,  "  to  roar,"  "  to  rage''),  a  name 
 ^         '^'^^  265 
 
BRI 
 
 BR  I 
 
 given  to  Hecate,  and  chiefly  employed  to  denote  her 
 lerrific  appearance,  especially  when  she  came  sum- 
 moned by  magic  arts.  Apojlonius  describes  her  as 
 having  her  head  surrounded  by  serpents  twining  through 
 branches  of  oak,  while  torches  flamed  in  her  hands,  and 
 the  infernal  dogs  howled  around  her.  {Apoll.  R.,  3, 
 1214,  seqq.) 
 
 Briseis,  a  patronymic  of  Hippodamia,  or  Lyrnes- 
 seis,  daughter  of  Brises,  high-priest  of  Jupiter  at  Ped- 
 asus  in  Troas.  She  was  remarkable  for  her  beauty, 
 and  was  the  wife  of  Mines,  who  was  killed  in  the  siege 
 carried  on  by  Achilles  against  Lyrnessus.  From  Lyr- 
 nessus  the  Grecian  warrior  brought  her  away  captive. 
 She  was  taken  from  him  by  Agamemnon,  during  the 
 quarrel  occasioned  by  the  restoration  of  Chrysei's,  but 
 she  was  given  back  to  him,  when  a  reconciliation  took 
 place.  {Horn.,  II.,  1,  336,  &c.—Ovid,  A.  A.,  3,  2.— 
 Propcrt.,  2,  8,  20,  &c.) 
 
 Briseus,  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  said  to  signify  "the 
 discoverer  of  honey."  Some  derive  the  appellation 
 from  the  nymphs  called  Brisff;,  the  nurses  of  the  god. 
 Cornutus,  the  interpreter  of  Persius,  deduces  it  from 
 bris,  equivalent,  as  he  informs  us,  to  jucundus.  Bo- 
 chart  gives  a  Syriac  derivation,  briz  doubsa,  "  a  lake 
 of  honey."  {Rolle,  Recherches,  &c.,  vol.  3,  p.  390.) 
 Bkitanni,  the  inhabitants  of  Britain.  {Vid.  Bri- 
 tannia.) 
 
 Britannia,  called  also  Albion.  {Vid.  Albion.) 
 An  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the  largest  in 
 Europe.  The  Phoenicians  appear  to  have  been  early 
 acquainted  with  it,  and  to  have  carried  on  here  a  traffic 
 for  tin.  {Vid.  Cassiterides.)  Commercial  jealousy, 
 however,  induced  them  to  keep  their  discoveries  a  pro- 
 found secret.  The  Carthaginians  succeeded  to  the 
 Phcenicians,  but  were  equally  mysterious.  Avienus,  in 
 his  small  poem  entitled  Ora  Maritima,  v.  412,  makes 
 mention  of  the  voyages  of  a  certain  Himilco  in  this 
 quarter,  and  professes  to  draw  his  information  from  the 
 long-concealed  Punic  Annals.  Little  was  known  of 
 Britain  until  Caesar's  time,  who  invaded  and  endeav- 
 oured, although  ineffectually,  to  conquer  the  island. 
 After  a  long  interval,  Ostorius,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
 reduced  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  and  Agricola, 
 subsequently,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  extended  the 
 Roman  dominion  to  the  Frith  of  Forth  and  the  Clyde. 
 The  whole  force  of  the  empire,  although  exerted  to  the 
 utmost  under  Severus,  could  not,  however,  reduce  to 
 subjection  the  hardy  natives  of  the  highlands.  Britain 
 continued  a  Roman  province  until  A.D.  426,  when  the 
 troops  were  m  a  great  measure  withdrawn,  to  assist 
 Valentinian  the  Third  against  the  Huns,  and  never  re- 
 turned. The  Britains  had  become  so  enervated  under 
 the  Roman  yoke  as  to  be  unable  to  repel  the  incursions 
 of  the  inhabitants  of  the  north.  They  invoked,  there- 
 fore, the  aid  of  the  Saxons,  by  whom  they  were  them- 
 selves subjugated,  and  at  length  obliged  to  take  ref- 
 uge in  the  mountains  of  Wales. — The  name  of  Britain 
 was  unknown  to  the  Romans  before  the  time  of  Cse- 
 sar.  Bochart  derives  it  from  the  Phoenician  or  He- 
 brew term  Baratanac,  "  the  land  of  tin."  Others 
 deduce  the  name  of  Britons  from  the  Gallic  Britti, 
 "  painted,"  in  allusion  to  the  custom  on  the  part  of  the 
 inhabitants  of  painting  their  bodies.  {Adduno-,  Mith- 
 ridates,  vol.  2,  p.  50.)  Britain  was  famous  for  the 
 Roman  walls  built  in  it,  of  which  traces  remain  at  the 
 present  day.  The  first  was  built  by  Agricola,  A.D. 
 79,  nearly  in  the  situation  of  the  rampart  of  Hadrian, 
 and  wall  of  Severus  mentioned  below.  In  A.D.  81, 
 Agricola  built  a  line  of  very  strong  forts  from  the  Frith 
 of  Forth  to  the  Frith  of  Clyde.  This,  however,  was 
 insufficient  to  check  the  barbarians  after  his  departure. 
 In  A.D.  120,  therefore,  Hadrian  erected  a  famous  wall 
 from  Boulncss  on  Solway  Frith,  to  a  spot  a  little  be- 
 yond Newcastle  upon  Tyne.  It  was  sixty-eight  Eng- 
 lish or  seventy-four  Roman  miles  long.  Twenty  years 
 after  this,  Lollius  Urbicus,  under  the  Emperor  Anto- 
 266 
 
 ninus,  restored  the  second  wall  of  Agricola,  which  is 
 commonly  called  the  Vallum  Antonini.  But  the  great- 
 est of  all  was  that  of  Severus,  begun  A.D.  209.  and 
 finished  the  next  year,  and  which  was  only  a  few  yards 
 north  of  Hadrian's  wall.  It  was  garrisoned  by  ten 
 thousand  men.  {Ccbs.,  B.  G.,  4,  21,  seq. — Id.  2b.,5, 
 2,  &c.—Id.  lb.,  6,  13.—Plin.,  4,  16.— Mela,  3,  6.— 
 Veil.  Paterc.,  2,  46,  &c.) 
 
 Britannicus,    C^sar    (Tiberius    Claudius    Ger- 
 manicus),  son  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  and  Messalina, 
 was  born  a  few  days  after  the  accession  of  his  father 
 to  the  throne.     After  the  return  of  the  emperor  from 
 his  expedition  to  Britain,  the  surname  of  Britannicus 
 was  bestowed  on  both  the   father  and  son.     As  the 
 eldest  son  of  the  emperor,  Britannicus  was  the  lawful 
 heir  to  the  empire  ;  but  Claudius  was  prevailed  upon 
 by  his  second  wife,  the  ambitious  Agrippina,  to  adopt 
 Domitius  Nero,  her  son  by  a   former  marriage,   who 
 was  three  years  older  than  Britannicus,  and  to  declare 
 him  his  successor.     The  venal  senate  gave  its  consent. 
 In   the  mean   time,  Agrippina,  under  the  pretext  of 
 motherly  tenderness,   strove  to  keep  Britannicus  as 
 much  as  possible  in  a  state  of  imbecility.     She  re- 
 moved his  servants,  and  substituted  her  own  creatures. 
 Sosibius,  his  tutor,  was  murdered  by  her  contrivance. 
 She  did  not  permit  him  to  appear  beyond  the  precincts 
 of  the   palace,  and   even  kept  him  out  of  his  father's 
 sight,  under  the  pretence  that  he  was  insane  and  epi- 
 leptic.    Although  the  weak  emperor  showed  that  he 
 penetrated  the  artifices  of  Agrippina,  yet  his  death, 
 which  she  effected  by  poison,  prevented  him  from  re- 
 trieving  his    error.     Nero   was   proclaimed   emperor, 
 while  Britannicus  was  kept  in  close  confinement.     In 
 a  dispute   with  Nero,  Agrippina  threatened  to  place 
 Britannicus,  who  was  then  fourteen  years  of  age,  on 
 the  throne,  upon  which  Nero  caused  him  to  be  pois- 
 oned at  a  banquet.     His  funeral  took  place  the  same 
 night.     His  body  was  burned,  without  any  pomp,  in 
 the  Campus  Martins,  amid  a  violent  storm,  which  the 
 people  regarded  as  announcing  the  anger  of  the  gods. 
 It  is  said  that  Nero  had  caused  the  face  of  his  vic- 
 tim, already  blackened  with  the  poison,  to  be  painted 
 white,  but  that  the  heavy  rain  washed  off  this  arti- 
 ficial colour,  and   the  gleam  of  the  lightning  revealed 
 the  crime  which  had  been  confided  to  the  bosom  of 
 the  night.     According  to   some  authorities,  Britanni- 
 cus was  naturally  characterized  by  the  same  feeble- 
 ness of  spirit  as  his  father,  and  Nero  corrupted  and 
 abused    his  youth.     They  also  state,  that  Agrippina 
 advised  his  death.     Racine  has  immortalized  the  name 
 of  this  young  prince  by  one  of  his  finest  tragedies. 
 {Tacit.,  Ann.,   11,  11.— Id.  ib.,  12,  2.— Id.  %b.,  12, 
 25,  et  41. — Id.  ib.,  13,  16. — Encyclop.  Americ,  vol. 
 2,  p.  275,  seqq.  —  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  5,  p.  627,  seqq.) 
 Britomartis,  a  Cretan  nymph,  daughter  of  Jupiter 
 and  Charme,   and  a   favourite  companion   of   Diana. 
 Minos,  falling  in  love  with  her,  pursued  her  for  the  space 
 of  nine  months,  the  nymph  at  times  concealing  herself 
 from  him   amid  the  trees,  at  times  among   the  reeds 
 and  sedge  of  the  marshes.     At  length,  being  nearly 
 overtaken  by  him,  she  sprang  from  a  cliff  into  the  sea, 
 where  she  was  saved  in  the  nets  {dlKTva)  of  some  fish- 
 ermen.    The  Cretans  afterward  worshipped  her  as  a 
 goddess,  under  the  name  of  Dictynna,  from  the  above 
 circumstance,  which  was  also  assigned  as  the  reason 
 for  the  cliff  from  which  she  threw  herself  being  called 
 Dictffion.     At  the  rites  sacred  to  her,  wreaths  of  pine 
 or  lentisk  were  used  instead  of  myrtle,  as  a  branch  of 
 the  latter  had  caught  her  garments,  and  impeded  her 
 flight.     Leaving  Crete,   Britomartis    then    sailed   for 
 iEgina  in  a  boat :   the  boatman  attempted  to  offer  her 
 violence,  but   she  got  to  shore  and  took  refuge  in  a 
 grove  on  that  island,  where  she  became  invisible  {aipa- 
 VTJc) :  hence  she  was  worshipped  in  .(Egina  under  the 
 name  of  Aphaea.     {Callim.,  H.  in  Dian.,  190,  seqq. 
 — Diod.  Sic.,  5,  76. — Anton.,  lib.  40. — Pausan.,  2, 
 
B  R  U 
 
 B  R  U 
 
 30.  —  M'ullcr,   Mginet.,  p.    164,   scqq. — Keightley's 
 Mythology,  p.  131.) 
 
 Brixellum,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Gallia  Cispadana, 
 northeast  of  Parma,  where  Otho  slew  himself  when 
 defeated.  It  is  now  Bresello.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  2,  33.) 
 Brixia,  a  city  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  to  the  west  of 
 the  Lacus  Benacus,  and  southeast  of  Bergomum.  It 
 was  the  capital  of  the  Cenomanni,  as  we  learn  from 
 Livy  (32,  30).  Brixia  is  known  to  have  become  a 
 Roman  colony,  but  we  are  not  informed  at  what  pe- 
 riod this  event  took  place.  {Plm.,  H.  N.,  3,  19.) 
 Strabo  speaks  of  it  as  inferior  in  size  to  Mediolanum 
 and  Verona.     {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  63.) 
 
 Bromius,  an  appellation  given  to  Bacchus,  from 
 the  noise  with  which  his  festivals  were  celebrated.  It 
 is  derived  from  '{ipifiu,  "  to  roar.'" 
 
 Brontes,  one  of  the  Cyclopes.     The  name  is  de- 
 rived from  iSpovTTi,  "  thunder."     {Virg.,  JEn.,  8,  425.) 
 Bructijki,  a  people  of  Germany,  between  the  Am- 
 isia  or  Ems,  and  Lacus  Flevus  or  Zuyder  Zee.    {Ta- 
 cit., Ann.,  1,  51.) 
 
 Brundisium,  or  less  correctly  Brundusium,  a  cele- 
 brated city  on  the  coast  of  Apulia,  in  the  territory  of 
 the  Galabri.  By  the  Greeks  it  was  called  Bpevreaiov, 
 a  word  which,  in  the  Messapian  language,  signified  a 
 stag's  head,  from  the  resemblance  which  its  different 
 harbours  and  creeks  bore  to  the  antlers  of  that  animal. 
 {Strabo,  282.  —  Festus,  s.  v.  Brundisium. — Steph., 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  BpsvreaLOv.)  It  is  not  necessary  to  re- 
 peat the  various  accounts  given  by  different  writers 
 respecting  the  foundation  of  this  city  ;  its  antiquity  is 
 evident  from  the  statement  of  Strabo,  that  Brundisium 
 was  already  in  existence,  and  under  the  government 
 of  its  own  princes,  when  the  Lacedajmonian  Phalan- 
 thus  arrived  with  his  colony  in  this  part  of  Italy.  It 
 is  recorded  also  to  the  honour  of  the  Brundisians,  that 
 although  this  chief  had  been  instrumental  in  depriving 
 them  of  a  great  portion  of  their  territory,  they  gener- 
 ously afforded  him  an  asylum  when  he  was  exiled  from 
 Tarentum,  and  after  his  death  erected  a  splendid 
 monument  to  his  memory.  {Strab.,  282. — Aristot., 
 Polit.,  5,  3. — Justin,  3,  4.)  The  situation  of  its  har- 
 bour, so  advantageous  for  communicating  with  the  op- 
 j)Osite  coast  of  Greece,  naturally  rendered  Brundisium 
 a  place  of  great  resort,  from  the  time  that  the  colonies 
 of  that  country  had  fixed  themselves  on  the  shores  of 
 Italy.  Herodotus  speaks  of  it  as  a  place  generally 
 well  known,  when  he  compares  the  Tauric  Cherso- 
 nese to  the  lapygian  peninsula,  which  might  be  con- 
 sidered as  included  between  the  harbours  of  Brundisi- 
 um and  Tarentum  (4,  99).  Brundisium  soon  became 
 a  formidable  rival  to  Tarentum,  which  had  hitherto 
 engrossed  all  the  commerce  of  this  part  of  Italy 
 {Polyb.,  frag.,  11) ;  nor  did  the  facilities  which  it  af- 
 forded for  extending  their  conquests  out  of  that  country, 
 escape  the  penetrating  views  of  the  Romans.  Under 
 the  pretence  that  several  towns  on  this  coast  had  fa- 
 voured the  mvasion  of  Pyrrhus,  they  declared  war 
 against  them,  and  soon  possessed  themselves  of  Brun- 
 disium {Zonar.,  A7in.,  3),  whither  a  colony  was  sent 
 A.U.C.  508.  {Flor.,  1,  20.—Liv.,  Epit.,  \^.—  Vell. 
 Patera.,  1,  14.)  From  this  period  the  prosperity  of 
 this  port  continued  to  increase  in  proportion  with  the 
 greatness  of  the  Roman  empire.  Large  fleets  were 
 always  stationed  there  for  the  conveyance  of  troops 
 into  Macedonia,  Greece,  or  Asia ;  and  from  the  con- 
 venience of  its  harbour,  and  its  facility  of  access  from 
 every  other  part  of  Italy,  it  became  a  place  of  general 
 thoroughfare  for  travellers  visiting  those  countries. 
 When  the  rapid  advance  of  Ca?sar  forced  Pompey  to 
 remove  the  seat  of  war  into  Epirus,  he  was  for  some 
 time  blockaded  by  his  successful  adversary  in  Brun- 
 disium, before  the  return  of  his  fleet  enabled  him  to 
 evacuate  the  place,  and  carry  his  troops  over  to  the 
 opposite  coast.  Caesar  describes  accurately  the  works 
 undertaken  there  by  his  orders  for  preventing  the  es- 
 
 cape of  his  enemy.  From  his  account  we  learn  that 
 the  city  possessed  two  harbours,  one  called  the  inner, 
 and  the  other  the  outer,  communicating  by  a  very 
 narrow  passage.  {Ccbs.,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  25.  —  Ap- 
 pian,  B.  C,  2,  49. — Cic.,  Ep.  ad  Att.,  9,  12,  seqq.) 
 Strabo  considers  the  harbour  of  Brundisium  as  supe- 
 rior to  that  of  Tarentum,  for  the  latter  was  not  free 
 from  shoals.  {Strab.,  282. — Compare  Pigonati,  Mem. 
 del  riaprimento  del  port,  di  Brindisi,  Nap.,  4 to, 
 1781.)  It  was  at  Brundisium  that  a  convention  was 
 held  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  the  existing  differ- 
 ences between  Augustus  and  Marc  Antony.  {Dio 
 Cassius,  48.)  Among  the  commissioners  appointed 
 by  the  former  was  MsRcenas,  who  was  accompanied  on 
 the  occasion  by  Horace.  It  was  this  journey  which 
 produced  the  humorous  satire  of  Horace  (1,  5),  and 
 which  terminates  with  the  poet's  arrival  at  the  place 
 of  his  destination.  Brundisium  is  now  i?riwrf(.i>i.  Here 
 the  Appian  Way  ended.  {Vid.  Appia  Via. — Cra- 
 mcfs  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  303,  scqq.) 
 
 Brutii,  a  people  of  Magna  Graecia,  in  Italy,  below 
 Lucania.  The  origin  which  ancient  historians  have 
 ascribed  to  the  Brutii,  or,  as  they  are  called  by  the 
 Greeks,  Bperrioi,  is  neither  remote  nor  illustrious  : 
 they  are  generally  looked  upon  as  descended  from 
 some  refugee  slaves  and  shepherds  of  the  Lucanians, 
 who,  having  concealed  themselves  from  pursuit  in  the 
 forests  and  mountains  with  which  this  part  of  Italy 
 abounds,  became,  in  process  of  time,  powerful  from 
 their  numbers  and  ferocity.  Their  very  name  is  said 
 to  indicate  that  they  were  revolted  slaves  ;  Bperr/oj'C 
 yap  KaXovai  unoaruTa^,  says  Strabo,  speaking  of  the 
 Lucanians.  This  appellation  the  insurgents  are  sup- 
 posed to  have  accepted  as  a  term  of  defiance.  {Nie- 
 buhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  51,  Cambridge  transl.) 
 This  savage  race  is  represented  as  pouring  forth  to 
 attack  their  Lucanian  masters,  and  to  molest  the  Gre- 
 cian settlers  on  the  coast  of  either  sea  ;  and  so  for- 
 midable had  they  at  length  rendered  themselves,  that 
 the  Lucani  were  compelled  to  acknowledge  their  in- 
 dependence, and  to  cede  to  them  all  the  country  south 
 of  tke  rivers  Laus  and  Crathis.  This  advancement 
 of  the  Brutii  to  the  rank  of  an  independent  nation  is 
 supposed  by  Diodorus  Siculus  to  have  taken  place 
 about  397  years  after  the  foundation  of  Rome.  Dion, 
 the  Syracusan,  was  at  this  time  prosecuting  his  un- 
 dertaking against  the  younger  Dionysius  ;  and  it  is 
 conceived  that  the  hostilities  of  the  Brutii  were  fo- 
 mented by  his  means,  in  order  to  prevent  the  tyrant 
 from  deriving  any  aid  from  his  Lucanian  allies.  {Diod. 
 Sic,  16,  15. — Stral/o,  255  )  The  enterprising  and 
 turbulent  spirit  of  this  people  was  next  directed 
 ao-ainst  the  Greek  colonies ;  and,  in  proportion  as 
 these  were  rapidly  declining,  from  jealousies  and  inter- 
 nal dissensions,  and  still  more  from  luxury  and  indo- 
 lence, their  antagonists  were  acquiring  a  degree  of  vig- 
 our and  stability  which  soon  enabled  them  to  accom- 
 plish their  downfall.  The  Greek  towns  on  the  western 
 coast,  from  being  weaker  and  more  detached  from  the 
 main  body  of  the  Italiot  confederacy,  first  fell  into  the 
 hands  of  the  Brutii.  The  principal  cities  of  which  this 
 leacrue  was  composed  now  became  alarmed  for  their 
 own  security,  and  sought  the  aid  of  the  Molossian 
 Alexander  against  these  dangerous  enemies,  with 
 whom  the  Lucanians  also  had  learned  to  make  common 
 cause.  This  prince,  by  his  talents  and  valour,  for  a 
 time  checked  the  progress  of  these  barbarians,  and 
 even  succeeded  in  penetrating  into  the  heart  of  their 
 country  ;  but  after  his  death  they  again  advanced,  like 
 a  resistless  torrent,  and  soon  reduced  the  whole  of  the 
 peninsula  between  the  Laus  and  Crathis,  with  the  ex- 
 ception of  Crotona,  Locri,  and  Rhegium.  At  this  pe- 
 riod, Rome,  the  universal  foe  of  all,  put  an  end  at  once 
 to  their  conquests  and  independence.  After  sustain- 
 ing several  defeats,  both  the  Lucanians  and  Brutii  are 
 satd  to  have  finallr  submitted  to  L.  Papirius  Cursor, 
 
 267 
 
B  RU 
 
 BRUTUS. 
 
 AU.C.  430,  which  was  two  years  after  Pyrrhus  had 
 withdrawn  his  troops  from  Italy.  {Lie.,  EpU.,  14. — 
 Poryb.,  1,  6.)  The  arrival  of  Hannibal  once  more, 
 however,  roused  the  Brutii  to  exertion ;  they  flocked 
 eagerly  to  the  victorious  standard  of  that  general,  who 
 was  by  their  aid  enabled  to  maintain  his  ground  in  this 
 corner  of  Italy,  when  all  hope  of  final  success  seemed 
 to  be  extinguished.  But  the  consequences  of  this 
 protracted  warfare  proved  fatal  to  the  country  in  which 
 it  was  carried  on  ;  many  of  the  Brutian  towns  being 
 totally  destroyed,  and  others  so  much  impoverished  as 
 to  retain  scarcely  a  vestige  of  their  former  prosperity. 
 To  these  misfortunes  was  added  the  weight  of  Roman 
 vengeance  ;  for  that  power,  when  freed  from  her  for- 
 midable enemy,  too  well  remembered  the  support  he 
 had  derived  from  the  Brutii  for  so  many  years  to  allow 
 their  defection  to  pass  unheeded.  A  decree  was  there- 
 fore passed,  reducing  this  people  to  a  most  abject  state 
 of  dependance  :  they  were  pronounced  incapable  of 
 being  employed  in  a  military  capacity,  and  their  ser- 
 vices were  confined  to  the  menial  offices  of  couriers 
 and  letter-carriers.     (Strabo,  251. — Id.,  253.) 
 
 Brutium,  or  BRUTioRCAf  Ager,  the  country  occu- 
 pied by  the  Brutii.     (Vid.  Brutii.) 
 
 Brutus,  I.  L.  Junius,  a  celebrated  Roman,  the  au- 
 thor, according  to  the  Roman  legends,  of  the  great 
 revolution  which  drove  Tarquin  the  Proud  from  his 
 throne,  and  which  substituted  the  consular  for  the  re- 
 gal government.  He  was  the  son  of  Marcus  Junius 
 and  of  Tarquinia  the  second  daughter  of  Tarquin. 
 While  yet  young  in  years,  he  saw  his  father  and  broth- 
 er slain  by  the  order  of  Tarquin,  and  having  no  means 
 of  avenging  them,  and  fearing  the  same  fate  for  him- 
 self, he  affected  a  stupid  air,  in  order  not  to  appear  at 
 all  formidable  in  the  eyes  of  a  suspicious  and  cruel 
 tyrant.  This  artifice  proved  successful,  and  he  so  far 
 deceived  Tarquin,  and  the  other  members  of  the  royal 
 family,  that  they  gave  him,  in  derision,  the  surname  of 
 Brutus,  as  indicative  of  his  supposed  mental  imbecility. 
 At  length,  when  Lucretia  had  been  outraged  by  Sextus 
 Tarquinius,  Brutus,  amid  the  indignation  that  pervaded 
 all  orders,  threw  off  the  mask,  and,  snatching  the  dag- 
 ger from  the  bosom  of  the  victim,  swore  upon  it  eternal 
 exile  to  the  family  of  Tarquin.  Wearied  out  with  the 
 tyranny  of  this  monarch,  and  exasperated  by  the  spec- 
 tacle of  the  funeral  solemnities  of  Lucretia,  the  people 
 abolished  royalty,  and  confided  the  chief  authority  to 
 the  senate  and  two  magistrates,  named  at  first  praetors, 
 but  subsequently  consuls.  Brutus  and  the  husband 
 of  Lucretia  were  first  invested  with  this  important  of- 
 fice. They  signalized  their  entrance  upon  its  duties 
 by  making  all  the  people  take  a  solemn  oath  never 
 again  to  have  a  king  of  Rome.  Efforts  nevertheless 
 were  soon  made  in  favour  of  the  Tarquins  :  an  ambas- 
 sador sent  from  Etruria,  under  the  pretext  of  procuring 
 a  restoration  of  the  property  of  Tarquin  and  his  family, 
 formed  a  secret  plot  for  the  overthrow  of  the  new  gov- 
 ernment, and  the  sons  of  Brutus  became  connected  with 
 the  conspiracy.  A  discovery  having  been  made,  the 
 sons  of  the  consul  and  their  accomplices  were  tried, 
 r.ondemned,  and  executed  by  the  orders  of  their  father, 
 although  the  people  were  willing  that  he  should  par- 
 don them.  From  this  time  Brutus  sought  only  to  die 
 himself,  and  some  months  after,  a  battle  between  the 
 Romans  and  the  troops  of  Tarquin  enabled  him  to 
 gratify  his  wish.  He  encountered,  in  the  fight,  Aruns, 
 the  son  of  the  exiled  monarch;  and  with  so  much  im- 
 petuosity did  they  rush  to  the  attack,  that  both  fell 
 dead  on  the  spot,  pierced  to  the  heart,  each  by  the 
 weapon  of  the  other.  The  corpse  of  Brutus  v^as  car- 
 ried to  Rome  in  triumph.  The  consul  Valerius  pro- 
 nounced a  funeral  eulogy  over  it,  a  statue  of  bronze 
 was  raised  to  the  memory  of  the  deceased  in  the  capi- 
 tol,  ^d  the  Roman  females  wore  mourning  for  an  en- 
 tire year.  {Liv.,  1,  56. — Id.,  2,  1,  &c. — Dio7i.  Hal., 
 4,  15.— /(/.,  6,  1,  &c.— Vir^.,  ^n.,  6,  822,  seqq.)— 
 268 
 
 Such  is  the  legend  of  Brutus.  "  That  Brutus  procu- 
 red the  banishment  of  the  Tarquins,  in  his  capacity  of 
 Tribune  of  the  Celeres,  is  demonstrated,"  observes 
 Niebuhr,  "  by  the  Lex  tribunicia.  {Pomponnts,  I.  2, 
 D.  de  origine  juris.)  From  this  source  came  the  in- 
 formation that  he  bore  that  office  :  the  lay  which  spoke 
 of  his  feigned  idiocy  cannot  have  known  anything  of 
 this,  and  was  incompatible  with  it ;  the  annalists  com- 
 bined the  two.  That  poetical  tale  may  have  been  oc- 
 casioned by  his  surname  :  which  yet  may  have  had  a 
 very  different  meaning  from  the  one  there  affixed  to 
 it.  Brutus,  in  Oscan,  meant  a  runaway  slave  :  now  it 
 is  easy  enough  to  understand,  that  the  partisans  of  the 
 Tarquins  may  have  called  him  such,  and  that,  on  the 
 other  hand,  he  and  the  Romans  might  not  be  sorry  to 
 let  the  nickname  pass  into  vogue."  {Rom.  Hist.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  453,  Cambridge  transl.) — II.  D.  Junius,  master 
 of  the  horse  A.U.C.  418,  and  consul  A.U.C.  429. 
 {Liv.,  8,  12,  et  29.)— III.  D.  Junius,  consul  A.U.C. 
 615,  obtained  a  triumph  for  his  successes  in  Spain. — 
 IV.  M.  Junius,  father  of  the  Brutus  who  was  concern- 
 in  the  assassination  of  Csesar.  He  embraced  the  party 
 of  Marius,  and  was  overcome  by  Pompev.  After  the 
 death  of  Sylla,  and  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  he  was 
 besieged  by  Pompey  in  Mutina,  who  compelled  him  to 
 surrender  after  a  long  resistance,  and  caused  him  to  be 
 put  to  death.  He  was  brother-in-law  to  Cato  by  his 
 wife  Servilia.  Brutus  was  an  able  lawyer,  and  wrote 
 on  the  Civil  Wars.  {Cic,  Brut.,  G2.—Id.,  Or.,  2, 
 32. — Id., pro  Cluent.,  51.) — V.  Marcus  Junius,  son  of 
 the  preceding,  was  by  the  mother's  side  nephew  of  M. 
 Cato  (Uticensis).  He  accompanied  his  uncle  to  Cy- 
 prus, A.U.C.  695,  where  the  latter  was  sent  by  Clodius 
 to  annex  that  island  to  the  Roman  empire.  It  appear?, 
 however,  that  he  did  not  copy  the  example  of  Cato's 
 integrity  ;  for,  having  become  the  creditor  of  the  citi- 
 zens of  Salamis  to  a  large  amount,  he  employed  one 
 Scaptius,  a  man  of  infamous  character,  to  enforce  the 
 payment  of  the  debt,  together  with  an  interest  four 
 times  exceeding  the  rate  allowed  by  law.  {Cic,  ad 
 Att.,  5,  21. — Id.  ib.,  6,  1,  seqq.)  And  when  Cicero 
 governed  the  province  of  Cilicia,  to  which  Cyprus 
 seems  to  have  been  annexed,  Brutus  wrote  to  him, 
 and  was  supported  by  Atticus  in  his  request,  entreat- 
 ing him  to  give  Scaptius  a  commission  as  an  officer 
 of  the  Roman  government,  and  to  allow  him  to  employ 
 a  military  force,  to  exact  from  the  Salaminians  the  usu- 
 rious interest  which  he  illegally  demanded.  Cicero 
 was  too  upright  a  magistrate  to  comply  with  such  re- 
 quests, but  they  were  so  agreeable  to  the  practice  of 
 the  times,  that  he  continued  to  live  on  intimate  terms 
 with  the  man  who  could  prefer  them  ;  and  the  literary 
 tastes  of  Brutus  were  a  recommendation  which  he 
 could  not  resist ;  so  that  he  appears  soon  to  have  for- 
 gotten the  affair  of  Scaptius,  and  to  have  spoken  and 
 thought  of  Brutus  with  great  regard.  They  both,  in- 
 deed, were  of  the  same  party  in  politics,  and  Brutus 
 actively  exerted  himself  in  the  service  of  Pompey, 
 although  his  own  father  had  been  put  to  death  by  the 
 orders  of  that  commander.  Being  taken  prisoner  in 
 the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  he  received  his  life  from 
 the  conqueror.  Before  Csesar  set  out  for  Africa  to 
 carry  on  war  against  Scipio  and  Juba,  he  conferred  on 
 Brutus  the  government  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  in  that 
 province  Brutus  accordingly  remained,  and  was  actual- 
 ly holding  an  office  under  Cassar,  while  his  uncle  Cato 
 was  maintaining  the  contest  in  Africa  and  committed 
 suicide  rather  than  fall  alive  into  the  hands  of  the  ene- 
 my. His  character,  however,  seems  to  have  been 
 greatly  improved  since  his  treatment  o'  the  Salamin- 
 ians, for  he  is  said  to  have  governed  Cisalpine  Gaul 
 with  great  integrity  and  humanity  In  the  year  708 
 he  returned  to  Rome,  but  afterward  set  out  to  meet 
 Caesar  on  his  return  from  Spain,  and  in  an  interview 
 which  he  had  with  him,  at  Nicaea,  pleaded  the  cause 
 of  Deiotarus,  tetrarch  of  Galatia,  with  such  warmth 
 
BRUTUS. 
 
 BUG 
 
 and  freedom,  that  Caesar  was  struck  by  it,  and  was  re- 
 minded )f  what  he  used  frequently  to  say  of  Brutus, 
 that,  what  his  iiichnations  might  be,  made  a  very  great 
 diflVrence ;  but  that,  whatever  they  were,  they  would  be 
 nothing  lukewarm.  It  was  about  this  time  also  that 
 Brutus  divorced  his  first  wife,  Appia,  daughter  of  Ap- 
 pius  Claudius,  and  married  the  famous  Porcia,  his 
 cousin,  the  daughter  of  Cato.  Soon  after  he  received 
 another  mark  of  Caesar's  favour  (P/«^,  Vit.  Bruf.,c.  7. 
 — Dio  Cass.,  44,  12),  in  being  appointed  Proetor  Urba- 
 nus,  A.U.C.  709  ;  and  he  was  holding  that  office  when 
 he  resolved  to  become  the  assassin  of  the  man  whose 
 government  he  had  twice  acknowledged  by  consenting 
 to  act  in  a  public  station  under  it.  He  was  led  into 
 the  conspiracy,  it  is  said,  by  Cassius,  who  sought  at 
 first  by  writing,  and  afterward  by  means  of  his  wife 
 Junia,  the  sister  of  Brutus,  to  obtain  his  consent  to  be- 
 come an  accomplice  ;  and  Plutarch  informs  us,  that 
 when  the  attack  was  made  on  Caesar  in  the  senate- 
 house,  the  latter  resisted  and  endeavoured  to  escape, 
 until  he  saw  the  dagger  of  Brutus  pointed  against  him, 
 when  he  covered  his  head  with  his  robe  and  resigned 
 himself  to  his  fate.  After  the  assassination  of  Csesar, 
 the  conspirators  endeavoured  to  stir  up  the  feelings  of 
 the  people  in  favour  of  liberty;  but  Antony,  by  reading 
 the  w\\\  of  the  dictator,  excited  against  them  so  violent 
 a  storm  of  odium,  that  they  were  compelled  to  flee  from 
 the  city.  Brutus  retired  to  Athens,  and  used  every 
 e.xertion  to  raise  a  party  there  among  the  Roman  no- 
 bility. Obtaining  possession,  at  the  same  time,  of  a 
 large  sum  of  the  public  money,  he  was  enabled  to  bring 
 to  his  standard  many  of  the  old  soldiers  of  Pompey 
 who  were  scattered  about  Thessaly.  His  forces  dai- 
 ly increasing,  he  soon  saw  himself  surrounded  by  a 
 considerable  army,  and  Hortensius,  the  governor  of 
 Macedonia,  aiding  him,  Brutus  became  master  in  this 
 way  of  all  Greece  and  Macedonia.  He  went  now  to 
 Asia  and  joined  Cassius,  whose  efforts  had  been  equal- 
 ly successful.  In  Rome,  on  the  other  hand,  the  trium- 
 virs were  all  powerful ;  the  conspirators  had  been  con- 
 demned, and  the  people  had  taken  up  arms  against 
 them.  Brutus  and  Cassius  returned  to  Europe  to  op- 
 pose the  triumvirs,  and  Ociavius  and  Antony  met  them 
 on  the  plains  of  Philippi.  In  ihis  memorable  conflict 
 Brutus  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  republican 
 army,  and  defeated  the  division  of  the  enemy  opposed 
 to  him,  and  would  in  all  probability  have  gained  the 
 day,  if,  instead  of  pursuing  the  fugitives,  he  had  brought 
 succours  to  his  left  wing,  commanded  by  Cassius,  which 
 was  hard  pressed,  and  eventually  beaten  by  Antony. 
 Cassius,  upon  this,  believing  everything  lost,  slew  him- 
 self in  despair.  Brutus  bitterly  deplored  his  fate,  sty- 
 ling him,  with  tears  of  the  sincerest  sorrow,  "  the  last 
 of  the  Romans."  On  the  following  day,  induced  by 
 the  ardour  of  the  soldiers,.  Brutus  again  drew  up  his 
 forces  in  line  of  battle,  but  no  action  took  place,  and' 
 he  then  took  possession  of  an  advantageous  post,  where 
 it  was  difficult  for  an  attack  to  be  made  upon  him.  His 
 true  policy  was  to  have  remained  in  this  state,  without 
 hazarding  an  engagement,  for  his  opponents  were  dis- 
 tressed for  provisions,  and  the  fleet  that  was  bringing 
 them  supplies  had  been  totally  defeated  by  the  vessels 
 of  Brutus.  This  state  of  things,  however,  was  un- 
 known to  the  latter,  and,  after  an  interval  of  twenty 
 days,  he  hazarded  a  second  battle.  Where  he  himself 
 fought  in  person,  ho  was  still  successful;  but  the  rest 
 of  his  army  was  soon  overcome,  and  the  conflict  ended 
 m  a  total  defeat  of  the  republican  army.  Escaping 
 with  only  a  few  friends,  he  passed  the  night  in  a  cave, 
 and,  as  he  saw  his  cause  irretrievably  ruined,  ordered 
 Strato  one  of  his  attendants,  to  kill  him.  Strato  re- 
 fused for  a  long  time  to  perform  the  painful  office  ; 
 but,  seeing  Brutus  resolved,  he  turned  away  his  face, 
 and  held  his  sword  while  Brutus  fell  upon  it.  He  died 
 in  the  forty-third  year  of  his  age,  B.C.  42.— A  o-rcat 
 deal  of  false  glare  has  been  thrown  round  the  charac- 
 
 ter of  Brutus.  That  he  was  a  stern  and  consistent 
 patriot  throughout  the  whole  of  his  career,  the  sketch 
 which  we  have  given  of  his  movements  prior  to  the 
 assassination  of  Caesar  most  clearly  disproves.  Why 
 hold  office  under  one  who  was  trampling  upon  the 
 liberties  of  his  country  1  Why  require  so  much  soli- 
 citation before  engaging  in  the  conspiracy  1  Vv^as  he 
 not  aware  that  Cassar  was  a  usurper  ? — this  would 
 show  a  miserable  want  of  penetration.  Or  did  he  pre- 
 fer security  to  danger! — where  was  the  Roman  pa- 
 triot in  this  1  The  truth  is,  Brutus,  notwithstanding 
 all  that  has  been  said  of  him,  was  but  a  tardy  patriot. 
 His  motives  towards  the  close  of  his  career  were  no 
 doubt  pure  enough,  but  he  ought  to  have  had  notliino-  to 
 do  with  Cffisar  the  moment  that  general  began  to  act 
 with  treason  towards  his  country. — As  a  student  and 
 man  of  letters,  the  character  of  Brutus  appears  to  more 
 advantage  than  as  a  patriot.  He  was  remarkable  for 
 literary  application,  usually  rising  with  this  view  loner 
 before  day,  and  it  is  said  that,  on  the  evening  previous 
 to  a  battle,  while  his  army  was  in  a  state  of  anxious 
 suspense  and  alarm,  he  calmly  occupied  himself  in  his 
 tent  with  writing  an  abridgment  of  the  history  of  Po- 
 lybius. — One  of  the  most  singular  circumstances  in  the 
 life  of  Brutus  is  that  of  the  so-called  apparition,  which 
 it  is  said  appeared  to  him,  on  one  occasion,  in  his  tent 
 at  midnight.  "Who  art  thoul"  inquired  Brutus. 
 "Thy  evil  genius,"  replied  the  phantom;  "we  will 
 meet  again  at  Philippi."  And  so  it  happened.  The 
 spirit  re-appeared  on  the  eve  of  the  second  battle  of 
 Philippi  I  We  have  here  either  an  illusion  on  the  part 
 of  Brutus,  or  a  trick  played  off  by  some  partisan  of 
 Antony's,  in  order  to  discourage  and  depress  the  re- 
 publican commander,  or,  what  is  most  likely  of  all,  a 
 tale  utterly  untrue.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Brut. — Ejicyclop. 
 Mctropol.,  Div.  3,  vol.  2,  p.  274,  scqq.) 
 
 Bryges,  a  people  of  Thracian  origin,  living  at  one 
 time  in  Macedonia.  They  afterward  crossed  into 
 Asia,  where  their  name  was  changed  to  Phryges. 
 {Vid.  Phrygia.) 
 
 BuBASTicus  Fluvius  (BouCacTi/cof  TzorajioQ,  Ptol.), 
 a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  easternmost  arm  of  the 
 Nile,  from  the  .circumstance  of  its  passing  by  the  city 
 of  Bubastis.     (Fi<i.  Bubastis.) 
 
 BuBASTis  (or  BuBASTUs),  a  city  of  Egypt,  in  the 
 eastern  part  of  the'Delta,  and  the  capital  of  the  Bubas- 
 titic  nome.  This  city  is  called  in  scripture  Phi-Beseth, 
 which  is  now  altered  into  Basla.  It  was  situated  on 
 a  canal  leading  from  the  Pelusiac  mouth  of  the  Nile 
 to  the  canal  of  Trajan.  The  Pelusiac  branch  was 
 sometimes  called,  from  this  city,  the  Bubastic.  Bu- 
 bastis was  remarkable  also  as  being  the  place  where 
 great  numbers  assembled  to  celebrate  the  festival  of 
 the  goddess  Bubastis,  who  had  a  splendid  temple  here. 
 More  than  70,000  persons  were  accustomed  to  meet 
 here  on  these  occasions.  The  custom  had  ceased, 
 however,  in  the  time  of  Herodotus.  This  was  the 
 place,  also,  where  the  sacred  cats  were  interred.  Ja- 
 blonski  (Payith.  JEsr^jpt.,  3,  3. — Voc.  JEgypt.,  p.  53) 
 explains  the  name  Bubastis  to  mean,  "«Ac  who  hares,''' 
 or  "  uncovers,"  or  "  she  who  mult-iplics  her  aspects." 
 This  appellation  suited  very  well,  therefore,  the  god- 
 dess of  the  new  or  increasing  moon,  for  such  Bubas- 
 tis, the  Egyptian  deity,  in  reality  was.  Hence,  too, 
 we  see  why  Herodotus  says,  that  the  name  "  Bubastis," 
 in  the  Egyptian  tongue,  was  equivalent  to  "Artemis," 
 or  Diana,  in  Greek  (?)  de  Boi'fiacrrif,  Kara  'E/'iAtiJc 
 y7Maaav,  sgtI  'Apre/iic.     Herod.,  2,  137). 
 
 BucEPHALA,  a  city  of  India,  near  the  Hydaspes, 
 built  by  Alexander  in  honour  of  his  favourite  horse  Bu- 
 cephalus. It  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated  some- 
 where on  the  road  between  Attock  and  Lahaur. 
 {Curt.,  9,  Z.— Justin,  13,  8.) 
 
 Bucephalus,  a  horse  of  Alexander's,  so  called 
 either  because  his  head  resembled  that  of  an  ox  {(ioo^ 
 KE(ba?in),  or  because  he  had  the  mark  of  an  ox's  head 
 
 ^  269 
 
BU  P 
 
 BUR 
 
 Impressed  upon  his  flank  ;  or,  according  to  another 
 account,  because  he  had  a  black  mark  upon  his  head 
 resembling  that  of  an  ox,  the  rest  of  his  body  being 
 white.  Plutarch  gives  an  account  of  the  mode  in 
 which  Bucephalus  came  into  the  hands  of  Alexander. 
 The  horse  had  been  offered  for  sale  to  Philip,  the 
 prince's  father,  by  a  Thessalian,  but  had  proved  so  un- 
 manageable that  the  monarch  refu.scd  to  purchase, 
 and  ordered  it  to  be  taken  away,  Alexander  there- 
 upon expressing  his  regret  that  they  were  losing  so 
 fine  a  horse  lor  want  of  skill  and  spirit  to  manage 
 it,  Philip  agreed  to  pay  the  price  of  the  steed  if  his 
 son  would  ride  it.  The  prince  accepted  the  offer, 
 and  succeeded  in  the  attempt.  Bucephalus,  after  thi.s, 
 would  allow  no  one  but  Alexander  to  mount  him,  and 
 he  accompanied  the  monarch  in  all  his  campaigns.  In 
 the  battle  \A,'ith  Porus,  he  received,  according  to  the 
 same  authority,  several  wounds,  of  which  he  died  not 
 long  after.  A  writer,  however,  quoted  hy  the  same 
 Plutarch,  states  that  he  died  of  age  and  fatigue,  being 
 thirty  years  old.  Arrian  also  {Exp.  AL,  5,  19)  ex- 
 pressly confirms  this  last  account :  untdavev  avTov, 
 oil  j3Xrj(iel<;  wpij^  ovdevof,  aA/l'  aTro  Kavfiarog  te  Kal 
 ^?uKiac  ■  t/v  yap  ufKjtl  to.  TpiuKovra  eri].  Alexander, 
 ujjon  this  occasion,  showed  as  much  regret  as  if  he 
 had  lost  a  faithful  friend  and  companion.  He  built  a 
 city  near  the  Ilydaspes,  which  he  called  Bucephala, 
 after  the  name  of  his  steed.  {Phif.,  Vit.  Alex.,  61. — 
 Fltn.,6,  20.— rtuL,  7,  l.—Diod.  Sic,  17,95.) 
 
 BucoLicuM,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  situate 
 between  the  Sebennytic  and  Mendesian  mouths.  It 
 is  the  same  with  the  Phatnetic.     {Herod.,  2,  17.) 
 
 BuLis,  I.  a  town  of  Phocis,  on  the  shore  of  the 
 Sinus  Corinthiacus,  southeast  of  Anticyra.  The  town 
 was  situate  on  a  hill,  only  seven  stadia  from  its  port, 
 which  is  doubtless  the  same  as  the  Mychos  of  Strabo, 
 and  the  Naulochus  of  Pliny  (4,  3).  Pausanias  seems 
 to  assign  Bulls  to  Bosotia  (10,  37),  but  Steph.  Byz., 
 Pliny,  and  Ptolemy  (p.  87),  to  Phocis.  {Cramer^s 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  158.) — II.  A  Lacedsemonian, 
 given  up  to  Xerxes,  along  with  his  countryman  Sper- 
 thias,  to  atone  for  the  conduct  of  the  Spartans  in  put- 
 ting the  king's  messengers  to  death.  The  king,  how- 
 ever, refused  to  retaliate.     {Herod.,  7,  134,  &c.) 
 
 BuLLATius,  a  friend  of  Horace's,  who  was  roaming 
 abroad  for  the  purpose  of  dispelling  his  cares.  The 
 poet  addressed  an  epistle  to  him,  in  which  he  instructs 
 him  that  happiness  does  not  depend  upon  climate  or 
 place,  but  upon  the  state  of  one's  own  mind.  {Horat., 
 Episl.,  1,  11.) 
 
 BuPAi.us,  a  sculptor  and  architect,  born  in  the  isl- 
 and of  Chios,  and  son  of  Anthermus,  or  rather  Archen- 
 nus.  {Vid.  Anthermus.)  He  encountered  the  ani- 
 mosity of  the  poet  Hipponax  {Callim.,  fragm.,  90,  p. 
 460,  cd.  Ernest.),  the  cause  of  which  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  refusal  of  Bupalns  to  give  his  daughter  in 
 marriage  to  Hipponax,  while  others  inform  us  that  it 
 was  owing  to  a  statue  made  in  derision  of  the  poet  by 
 Bupalus.  {Wclcker, fragm.  Hippon.,  ]'2.)  The  satire 
 and  invective  of  the  bard  were  so  severe,  that,  accord- 
 ing to  one  account,  Bupalus  hung  himself  in  despair. 
 {Herat.,  Epod  ,  6,  14. — Acron.  nd  Horat.,  I.  c. — Plin., 
 36,  5.)  As  Hipponax  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Da- 
 rius {Proclus,  ad  fin.  HephcEst.,  p.  380,  ed.  Gaisf.), 
 Bupalus  must  have  been  living  not  only  in  Olymp. 
 68,  but  also  very  probably  in  Olymp.  64.  His  broth- 
 er's name  was  Athenis.  In  addition  to  the  statue 
 which  Bupalus  made  in  derision  of  Hipponax,  other 
 works  are  mentioned  by  Pliny  {I.  c.)  as  the  joint  pro- 
 ductions of  the  two  brothers.  {Sillig,  Diet.  Art., 
 s.  V.) 
 
 BuPHONi.\,  a  festival  in  honour  of  .lupiter  at  Athens. 
 The  legend  connected  with  this  festival  is  a  singular 
 one.  Among  the  laws  given  by  Triptolemus  to  the 
 Athenians,  three  more  especially  remarkable  were: 
 "  Reverence  your  elders. — Honour  the  gods  by  offer- 
 270 
 
 ings  of  the  first  fruits. — Hurt  not  the  labouring  beast," 
 i.  e.,  the  beast  employed  in  agriculture.  The  first  who 
 oftended  against  this  last  command  was  a  person  named 
 Thaulon,  who,  at  the  feast  of  Ztif  Tlo?.icv(,  observing 
 a  steer  eating  the  sacred  -jroTravov  on  the  altar,  took  up 
 an  axe  and  slew  the  trespasser.  The  expiation-feast 
 {Bovcpovia),  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  atoning  for 
 this  involuntary  offence,  it  was  found  afterward  ex- 
 pedient to  continue.  The  ceremonies  observed  iti  it 
 are  not  a  little  amusing.  First  was  brought  water  by 
 females  appointed  for  the  office,  for  the  purpose  of 
 sharpening  the  axe  and  knife,  with  which  the  slaughter 
 was  to  be  committed.  One  of  these  females  having 
 handed  the  axe  to  the  proper  functionar)',  the  latter 
 felled  the  beast  and  then  took  to  flight.  To  slay  the 
 beast  outright  was  the  office  of  a  third  person.  All 
 present  then  partook  of  the  flesh.  The  meal  finished, 
 the  hide  was  stuffed,  and  the  beast,  apparently  restored 
 to  life,  was  put  to  the  plough.  Now  commenced  the 
 steer-trial.  A  judicial  assembly  was  held  in  the  Pry- 
 taneum,  to  which  all  were  summoned  who  had  been  par- 
 takers in  the  above  transaction.  Each  lays  the  blame 
 upon  the  other.  The  water  bearers  throw  the  guilt 
 upon  the  sharpener  of  the  axe  and  knife  :  the  sharpener 
 of  the  knife  casts  it  upon  the  person  delivering  it  to  the 
 feller  of  the  beast :  the  feller  of  the  beast  upon  the 
 actual  slaughterer,  while  this  last  ascribes  the  whole 
 guilt  to  the  knife  itself.  The  knife,  unable  to  speak, 
 is  found  guilty  and  thrown  into  the  sea.  {Aristoph., 
 Nub.,  945. — Mkchcll.  ad  Aristoph.,  I.  c. — Creuzer, 
 Symholik,  vol.  4,  p.  123,  seq.) 
 
 BupR.\siuM,  a  city  of  Elis.  It  was  the  first  town 
 on  the  Elean  side  of  the  Larissus,  and  is  often  men- 
 tioned bv  Homer  as  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Epe- 
 ans.     {il,  2,  615.— 7Z.,  11,  755) 
 
 BuRA,  one  of  the  twelve  original  Achaean  cities,  as 
 we  learn  from  Herodotus  (1,  146),  which  stood  at  first 
 close  to  the  sea ;  but  having  been  destroyed,  with  the 
 neighbouring  town  of  Helice,  by  a  terrible  earthquake 
 and  inundation,  the  surviving  inhabitants  rebuilt  it  af- 
 terward, about  forty  stadia  from  the  coast,  and  near  the 
 small  river  Buraicus.     {Paus  ,  7,  25. —  Struhn,  386.) 
 
 BuRAicus,  I.  an  epithet  applied  to  Hercules,  from 
 his  temple  near  Bura. — II.  A  river  of  Achaia,  near  the 
 town  of  Bura.     {Pausan.,  7,  25.) 
 
 BuRGUNDi,  a  German  nation,  one  of  the  principal 
 branches  of  the  Vandals.  They  can  be  traced  back 
 to  the  country  between  the  Viadrus  {Oder)  and  the 
 Vistula,  in  what  is  now  the  New  Mark,  and  the  south- 
 ern part  of  West  Prussia.  They  were  distinguished 
 from  the  other  Germans  by  living  together  in  villages, 
 burgen,  whence,  according  to  some,  they  received  the 
 name  of  Burgundi.  Others,  however,  derive  the  name 
 from  GunI,  "  combat,"  as  alluding  to  the  warlike  char- 
 acter of  the  race,  and  make  Burgundi  mean  "  the  lance 
 of  war."  {Malte-Bruv,  Diet.  Gcogr.,  p.  xiii.,  Vocab. 
 dc  mots  gencriqucs.)  Their  dwelling  in  villages,  and 
 not  leadincT,  like  the  rest  of  the  Germans,  a  wandering 
 life,  is  the  reason  why  they  retained  [)osscssion  of  their 
 country  much  longer  than  the  neighbouring  Goths  and 
 Vandals,  till,  at  length,  they  were  no  longer  able  to 
 withstand  the  Gepida;,  who  pressed  in  upon  them  from 
 the  mouths  of  the  Vistula.  In  consequence  of  the  loss 
 of  a  great  battle  with  the  Gepida?,  they  emigrated  to 
 Germany,  where  they  advanced  to  the  region  of  the 
 Upper  Rhine,  and  settled  near  the  Alemanni.  From 
 these  they  took  a  considerable  tract  of  country,  and 
 lived  in  almost  continual  war  with  them.  In  the 
 beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  with  other  German  na- 
 tions, they  passed  over  into  Gaul.  After  a  long  strug- 
 gle, and  many  losses,  they  succeeded  in  possessing 
 themselves  of  the  southeastern  ])art  of  this  country  by 
 a  contract  with  the  Romans.  A  part  of  Switzerland, 
 Savoy,  Dauphiny,  Lionnais,  and  Franche-Conte,  be- 
 longed to  their  new  kingdom,  which,  even  in  the  year 
 470,  was  known  by  the  name  of  Burgundy.     The  seat 
 
BUS 
 
 BUT 
 
 ot  government  seems  to  have  been  sometimes  Lyons 
 (Lugduniun),  and  sometimes  Geneva. — By  their  old 
 constitution,  they  had  kings,  called  hcndinas,  whom 
 they  chose  and  deposed  at  their  pleasure.  If  any  great 
 calamity  befell  them,  as  a  failure  of  the  crops,  a  pesti- 
 lence, or  a  defeat,  tlie  king  was  made  responsible  for 
 It,  and  his  throne  was  given  to  another,  from  whom 
 they  hoped  for  better  times.  Before  their  conversion 
 to  Christianity  (which  happened  after  their  settlement 
 in  Gaul),  they  had  a  high-priest  called  Sinestus,  whose 
 person  was  sacred,  and  whose  office  was  for  life.  The 
 trial  by  combat  even  then  existed  among  them,  and 
 was  regarded  as  an  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  God. — 
 Continually  endeavouring  to  extend  their  limits,  they 
 became  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Franks,  by  whom 
 they  were  at  last  completely  subdued,  under  the  son  of 
 Clovis,  after  Clovis  himself  had  taken  Lyons.  They 
 still  preserved  their  constitution,  laws,  and  customs  for 
 a  time.  But  the  dignity  of  king  was  soon  abolished, 
 and,  under  the  Carlovingians,  the  kingdom  was  divided 
 into  provmces,  vvhicli,  from  time  to  time,  shook  off 
 their  dependance.  Their  later  movements  belong  to 
 modern  history.  (Claud.,  Mamert.  Paneg.  Maxim- 
 tan.,  c.  5. — Hadrian,  Vales.  Rer.  Franc,  1,  p.  50. — 
 Jornand.,  de  Regnor.  Success  ,  p.  54. — Id.  de  reb.  Get., 
 J).  98. — Paul.  Warnefr.  de  gest.  Longob.,  3,  3. — 
 Encyclop.  Amcric,  vol.  2,  p.  329.) 
 
 BusiRis,  a  king  of  Egypt,  son  of  Neptune  and  Ly- 
 sianassa  daughter  of  Epaphus,  or  (as  Plutarch  states, 
 from  the  Samian  Agalho),  of  Neptune  and  Anippe, 
 daughter  of  the  Nile.  (Plut.,  ParalL,  p.  317.)  This 
 king,  in  consequence  of  an  oracle,  offered  up  strangers 
 on  the  altar  of  Jupiter  :  for  Egypt  having  been  afflicted 
 with  a  dearth  for  niiie  years,  a  native  of  Cyprus,  nam.ed 
 Thrasius,  a  great  soothsayer,  came  thither,  and  said  that 
 it  would  cease  if  they  sacrificed  a  stranger  every  year 
 to  Jupiter.  Busiris  sacrificed  the  prophet  himself  first 
 of  all,  and  then  continued  the  practice.  When  Her- 
 cules, in  the  course  of  his  wanderings,  came  into  Egypt, 
 he  was  seized  and  dragged  to  the  altar;  but  he  burst 
 his  bonds,  and  slew  Busiris,  his  son  Amphidamas,  and 
 his  herald  Chalbes.  {Apollod.,  2,  5,  11.) — Now  who 
 was  this  Busirisl  — We  have  here  a  question  to  which 
 the  ancients  themselves  gave  very  different  answers. 
 Isocrates,  in  defending  the  memory  of  the  Egyptian 
 monarch,  pretends  that  he  lived  two  centuries  before 
 Perseus,  and,  consequently,  long  anterior  to  Hercules. 
 {Isocr.,  Busir.,  c.  15.)  Other  writers  have  made 
 mention  of  from  three  to  five  kings  of  Egvpt  bearing 
 this  same  name.  {Hcyne,  ad  Apollod.,  I.  c. — Slurz., 
 ad  Pherccyd.,  p.  141.— Compare  Thcon.,  Progymn  , 
 c.  6. — Syncell.,  Cliron  ,  p.  152. — Interpret,  ad  Diod., 
 1,  88.)  Herodotus  contradicts  the  common  tradition, 
 and  seeks  to  free  the  Egyptians  from  the  reproach  of 
 having  offered  up  human  victims.  He  may  be  right  as 
 regards  the  times  immediately  preceding  the  period 
 when  he  himself  flo\irished,  since  it  is  well  known  that 
 king  Amasis  abolished  human  sacrifices  at  Heliojiolis, 
 and  great  changes  took  place  also  after  the  Persian 
 conquest.  Still,  however,  numerous  scenes  and  ima- 
 ges delineated  in  the  temples  and  sepulchres  of  Egypt, 
 speak  but  too  plainly  for  the  existence  of  this  frightful 
 custom  in  earlier  times.  {Costaz,  Dcscript.  de  I'Eg., 
 vol.  1,  c.  9,  p.  401. — Gv7gniaut,  planche  xliv. — 
 Compare  Manelho,  ap.  Porphyr.  de  Abstm.,  2,  55.— 
 PhU.,  de  Is.  ct  Os.,  p.  556,  cd  Wyttenb.—Plut.,  dc 
 Malign.  Herod.,  p.  857.)  According  to  Eratosthenes, 
 as  cited  by  Strabo  (802),  Egypt  never  had  a  king 
 named  Busiris,  but  the  whole  superstructure  of  fable 
 erected  upon  this  name  has  no  other  origin  than  the 
 odious  inhospitality  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Busiritic 
 nome.  We  have  here,  without  doubt,  a  glimpse  of  the 
 truth,  which  is  fully  revealed  to  us  by  Diodorus  Siculus. 
 According  to  this  writer,  or,  rather,  the  tradition  col- 
 lected by  him,  the  kings  of  Egypt  immolated  in  earlier 
 times,  on  the  tomb  of  Osiris,  men  of  the  same  colour 
 
 with  Typhon,  that  is,  red-haired.  (Diod.  Sic,  1,  88.) 
 They  sacrificed  also  cattle  of  this  same  hue,  a  circum- 
 stance that  reminds  us  of  the  red  heifer  mentioned  in 
 scripture  {Numb.,  19,  2.— Compare  Spencer,  de  Le~ 
 gibus  Hcbr.  ritual.,  15,  p.  489,  ed.  Pfaff.-—Witsius, 
 JEgyptiac,  2,  8.)  Now,  continues  Diodorus,  these 
 red-haired  persons  were  almost  always  strangers,  few 
 of  the  Egyptians  being  found  with  hair  of  that  colour; 
 and  hence  arose  the  fable  of  human  sacrifices  by  Bu- 
 siris. In  fact,  expressly  adds  this  writer,  Busiris'is  not 
 the  name  of  a  king,  but  means,  in  the  j<]gyptian  lan- 
 guage, "  the  tomb  of  Osiris."  We  have  here,  then,  a 
 solution  of  the  whole  legend.  The  fettered  Hercules 
 is  the  sun  in  the  winter  season,  enfeebled  and  in  the 
 hands  of  his  enemy.  He  is  about  to  become  the  prey 
 of  the  tomb  (the  victim  of  Busiris);  but,  on  a  sudden, 
 resumes  his  strength,  breaks  his  fetters,  and  triumphs 
 over  gloom  and  darkness. — But  why  sacrifice  victims 
 of  the  peculiar  colour  mentioned  aliovel  Possibly  we 
 have  here  a  traditionary  allusion  to  the  shepherd  race, 
 the  red-haired,  blue-eyed  strangers,  who  once  overran 
 the  land,  and  whose  cruel  devastations  well  entitled 
 them  to  be  identified,  in  a  degree,  with  Typhon,  the 
 spirit  of  all  evil. — Jablonski  {Voc  Mgypt.,'-p.  54)  and 
 Zoega  {de  Obelise,  p.  288)  explain  the  word  Busiris 
 through  the  Coptic  Be-Ousiri,  i.  e.,  "  the  tomb  of  Osi- 
 ris," in  accordance  with  the  remark  of  Diodorus,  men- 
 tioned above.  ChampoUion,  on  the  other  hand,  writes 
 the  word  Pousiri,  and  sees  in  it  only  the  name  of  Osi- 
 ris, preceded  by  the  article.  He  condemns,  at  the  same 
 time,  as  altogether  absurd,  the  etymology  given  by 
 many  of  the  Greeks,  namely,  Bovf  and  'Oatpig.  (Com- 
 pare Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.)  Agreeing  with  him  on  this 
 latter  point,  we  must  nevertheless  regard  the  expla- 
 nation of  Diodorus,  which  he  al.so  rejects,  as  entitled 
 to  great  weight.  Plutarch,  moreover  (de  Is.  et  Os., 
 c.  21),  says  expressly,  that  Bovaipi^  is  the  same  as 
 Ta<fi6(npi^,  which  he  derives,  in  consequence,  from 
 Tucpoc,  "  a  tomb,''  and  'OaLpic;.  (Creuzer,  Syrnbolik, 
 vol.  1,  p.  353,  seqq. — Guigniaut,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  848, 
 seqq.) — II.  There  were  three  or  four  cities  of  this  name 
 in  ancient  Egypt,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is 
 placed  by  Herodotus  in  the  centre  of  the  Delta.  It 
 had  a  magnificent  temple  of  Isis.  (Herod.,  2,  59. — • 
 Compare  Strab.,  802. — Diod.  Sic,  1,  85,  et  88. — 
 Wesseling,  ad  Diod.,  I.  c. — ChampoUion,  I'Egypte 
 soils  les  Pharaons,  vol.  1,  p.  365  ;  vol.  2,  p.  42,  &c.) 
 It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  these  were  all  sepulchral 
 cities.     (Guigniaut,  I.  c.) 
 
 BuTEs,  I.  one  of  the  descendants  of  Amycus,  kinof 
 of  the  Bebryces,  very  expert  in  the  combat  of  the  cestus. 
 He  was  one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  leaped  overboard  in 
 order  to  swim  to  the  island  of  the  Sirene,  but  Venus 
 caught  him  up  and  conveyed  him  to  Lilybaeum  in  Si- 
 cily. Here  she  became  by  him  the  mother  of  Eryx. 
 (Apoll.  R.,  4.  912.— FrriT.,  JEn.,  5,  372.)— II.  A  son 
 of  Pandion  king  of  Athens,  and  brother  of  Erechtheus. 
 The  father  divided  his  offices  between  his  two  sons, 
 giving  Erechtheus  his  kingdom,  and  Butes  the  priest- 
 hood of  Minerva  and  Neptune  Ericlithonius.  Butes 
 married  Chthonia,  the  daughter  of  his  brother,  and  the 
 sacerdotal  family  of  the  Butadae  deduced  their  lineage 
 from  him.  (Apollod.,  3,  15,  1.) — HI.  An  armour- 
 bearer  to  Anchises,  and  afterward  to  Ascanius.  Apollo 
 assumed  his  shape  when  he  descended  from  heaven  to 
 encourage  Ascanius  to  fight.  Butes  was  killed  by 
 Turnus.     (Virg.,  Mn.,  9,  G^l ;    12,632.) 
 
 BuTHROTUM,  a  town  of  Epirus,  opposite  Corcyra. 
 It  was  originally  a  small  village,  but  was  subsequently 
 fortified  by  the  Romans,  in  order  to  keep  in  subjection 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  interior,  and  became  a  place  of 
 great  consequence.  Virgil  makes  Helenus  to  have 
 reigned  here.  (JEn.,  3,  295,  seqq.)  Stephanus  By- 
 zantinus  derives  the  name  from  an  ox  (ftovg)  having 
 broken  loose  at  this  place  when  about  being  sacrificed. 
 (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  107.) 
 
 271 
 
B  YZ 
 
 BYZANTIUM. 
 
 BuTUs,  a  city  of  Egypt,  at  tlie  Sebennytic  mouth 
 of  the  Nile,  or,  rather,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
 Butus  Lacus,  the  outlet  from  which  into  the  sea  is 
 formed  by  the  Ostium  Scbcnnyticum.  It  was  famed 
 for  its  temples  of  Apollo,  Diana,  and  Latona,  that  is, 
 of  Egyptian  deities  supposed  to  coincide  with  these. 
 The  temple  of  I^atona  had  a  celebrated  oracle  con- 
 nected with  ii,  and  the  goddess  had  also  an  annual  fes- 
 tival here,  which  was  one  of  the  most  numerously  at- 
 tended in  Egypt.  The  shrine  of  the  goddess,  accord- 
 ing to  Herodotus,  was  of  one  solid  stone,  having  equal 
 sides,  each  side  forty  cubits  long.  It  was  brought 
 from  a  quarry  in  the  isle  of  Phils,  near  the  cataracts, 
 on  rafts,  for  the  distance  of  200  leagues,  to  its  destined 
 station,  and  seems  to  have  been  the  heaviest  weight 
 ever  moved  by  human  power.  It  employed  many 
 thousand  men  for  three  years  in  its  transportation. 
 The  modern  Kom-Kasir  is  thought  to  correspond  to 
 the  ancient  city.  Schlichlhorst,  however,  gives  the 
 modern  name  of  the  ancient  site  as  El-Bueih.  (^He- 
 rod., 2,  59,  el  m.—Piin.,  5,  10.) 
 
 BvBLus,  a  town  of  Phoenicia,  nearly  midway  be- 
 tween Tripolis  and  Berytus.  Stephanus  of  By- 
 zantium calls  it  a  very  ancient  city,  but  this  expres- 
 sion suits  better  an  earlier  place,  called  Palaeobyblus. 
 The  name  Byblus  itself  shows  very  plainly  that  the 
 founders  of  the  place  were  Greeks,  and  merely  took 
 the  inhabitants  of  Palaeobyblus  to  reside  with  thern. 
 The  influence  of  Grecian  customs  here  is  also  shown 
 by  the  worship  of  Adonis,  to  whom  a  temple  was  con- 
 secrated in  this  city,  and  the  river  called  after  whom 
 was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  place.  Byblus  did 
 not  lie  directly  on  the  coast,  but  on  a  height  at  some 
 distance  from  it.  The  modern  name  is  Eshile,  or,  ac- 
 cording to  the  Frank  pronunciation,  Dschibile.  The 
 appellation  Zebdet  occurs  already  in  Phocas.  {Joh. 
 Phoc,  c.  5.—Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  383.) 
 
 Byksa,  the  citadel  of  Carthage.  The  story  com- 
 monly told  about  the  origin  of  its  name  is  as  follows  : 
 When  Dido  came  to  Africa  she  bought  of  the  inhabi- 
 tants as  much  land  as  could  be  encompassed  by  a 
 bull's  hide.  After  the  agreement,  she  cut  the  hide  in 
 small  thongs,  and  enclosed  a  large  piece  of  territory, 
 on  which  she  built  a  citadel,  which  she  called  Byrsa 
 {j3vpaa,  a  hide).  This,  however,  is  a  mere  fable  of 
 the  Greeks.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Punic 
 term  Basra,  "  a  fortification,"  "  a  citadel,"  the  sibilant 
 being  transposed.  {Gesen.,  Plwen.  Mon.,  p.  420. — 
 Compare  Hcync,  ad  Virg.,  jEn.,  1,  367. —  Valck., 
 Opusc. ,yo\.  1,  p.  103  ) 
 
 BvzAciuM,  a  district  of  Africa  Propria,  lying  above 
 the  Syrtis  Minor.  The  Carthaginians  were  the  pos- 
 sessors of  it,  and  for  a  long  time  allowed  no  Roman 
 vessels  to  navigate  the  coast  below  the  Hermean 
 promontory,  fearful  lest  their  enemies  might  be  tempt- 
 ed to  seize  what  formed  the  granary  of  Carthage. 
 This  district  was  originally  distinct  from  what  was 
 termed  Emporiae,  which  lay  below  it.  Afterward, 
 however,  they  became  united  into  one,  and  the  terri- 
 tory of  Byzacium  was  extended  upward  as  far  as  the 
 river  Bagradas,  thus  forming  the  Byzacena  Provincia. 
 {Flin..  5,  ^.—Liv.,  29,  25.—Pohjb.,  1,  82.— Id.,  3, 
 23. — Id.,  Excerpt.  Leg.,  118.) — Gesenius  deduces  the 
 name  Byzacium  (Biz.acium,  BvaaaKlrig,  Polyh.)  from 
 the  Putiic  Byt  saki,  "an  irrigated  region."  {Phccn. 
 Mon.,  p.  420.)  Hamaker,  less  correctly,  from  BcUi  saki, 
 "  the  abode  of  irrigation."     {Miscdl.  Phxn.,  p.  234.) 
 
 Bvz.\NTitJM,  a  celebrated  city  of  Thrace,  on  the  shore 
 of  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  called  at  a  later  period  Con- 
 stantinopolis,  and  made  the  capital  of  the  Eastern  em- 
 pire of  the  Romans.  It  was  founded  by  a  Dorian  colony 
 from  Megara,  or,  rather,  by  a  Megarian  colony  in  con- 
 junction with  a  Thracian  prince.  For  Byzas,  whom  the 
 city  acknowledged,  and  celebrated  in  a  festival  as  its 
 founder,  was,  according  to  the  legend,  a  son  of  Neptune 
 and  Ceroessa  the  daughter  of  lo,  and  ruled  over  all  the 
 272 
 
 adjacent  country.  The  meaning  of  the  myth  would  ap- 
 ])ear  to  be,  that  a  Thracian  prince,  having  imited  himsel! 
 in  marriage  with  a  Grecian  female,  founded  the  city, 
 with  the  aid  of  a  Greek  colony,  and  gave  the  place  a 
 name  derived  from  his  own.  {Scynin.,  715. — Euseb., 
 Chron.  01.,  30,  2. — Stcph.  Bye,  s.  v. — Eustath.,  ad 
 Dion.  Pericg.,  803. — Dionys.  Byzant.,  p.  5. — Gcogr. 
 Gr.  Min.,  vol.  3.)  The  early  commerce  of  Megara 
 was  directed  principally  to  the  shores  of  the  Propontis, 
 and  this  people  had  founded  Chalcedon  seventeen 
 years  before  Byzantium,  and  Selymbria  even  prior  to 
 Chalcedon.  (ife;wZ.,  4,  144. — &c7/m??.,  714.)  "When, 
 however,  their  trade  was  extended  still  farther  to  the 
 north,  and  had  reached  the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  the 
 harbour  of  Chalcedon  sank  in  importance,  and  a  com- 
 mercial station  was  required  on  the  opposite  side  of 
 the  strait.  This  station  was  Byzantium.  The  ap- 
 pellation of  "  blind  men,"  given  to  the  Chalcedonians 
 by  the  Persian  general  Megabyzus  {Hcrod^.,  4,  144), 
 for  having  overlooked  the  superior  site  where  Byzan- 
 tium was  afterward  founded,  does  not  therefore  appear 
 to  have  been  well  merited.  As  long  as  Chalcedon  was 
 the  northernmost  point  reached  by  the  commerce  of 
 Megara,  its  situation  was  preferable  to  any  offered  by 
 the  opposite  side  of  the  Bosporus,  because  the  cur- 
 rent on  this  latter  side  runs  down  from  the  north  more 
 strongly  than  it  does  on  the  side  of  Chalcedon,  and 
 the  harbour  of  this  city,  therefore,  is  more  accessible 
 to  vessels  coming  from  the  south.  On  the  other  hand 
 Byzantium  was  far  superior  to  Chalcedon  for  the  north- 
 ern trade,  since  the  current  that  set  in  strongly  from 
 the  Euxine  carried  vessels  directly  into  the  harbour  of 
 Byzantium,  but  prevented  their  approach  to  Chalcedon 
 in  a  straight  course.  {Polyb.,  4,  43.)  The  harbour 
 of  Byzantium  was  peculiarly  favoured  by  nature,  being 
 deep,  capacious,  and  sheltered  from  every  storm. 
 The  current  of  the  Euxine  swept  vessels  into  it  with- 
 out the  aid  of  sail  or  oars,  and  it  also  brought  thither 
 various  kinds  of  fish  that  afforded  a  lucrative  article  of 
 commerce.  From  its  shape,  and  the  rich  advantages 
 thus  connected  with  it,  the  harbour  of  Byzantium  ob- 
 tained the  name  of  Chrysoceras,  or  "  the  Golden  Horn," 
 which  was  also  applied  to  the  promontory  or  neck  of 
 land  that  contributed  to  form  it.  {Plin.,  4,  11. — 
 Amm.  MarcelL,  22,  8.)  And  yet,  notwithstanding  all 
 these  advantages,  Byzantium  remained  for  a  long  time 
 an  inconsiderable  place.  The  declining  commerce  of 
 Megara,  and  the  character  which  Byzantium  still  sus- 
 tained of  being  a  half-barbarian  place,  may  serve  to  ac- 
 count for  this.  At  a  subsequent  period  the  Milesians 
 sent  hither  a  strong  colony,  and  so  altered  for  the  bet- 
 ter the  aspect  of  things,  that  they  are  regarded  by  some 
 ancient  writers  as  the  founders  of  the  city  itself. 
 {Veil.  Patera.,  2,  15.)  When,  at  a  later  day,  the  in- 
 surrection of  the  Asiatic  Greeks  had  been  crushed  by 
 Darius,  and  the  Persian  fleet  was  reducing  to  obedi- 
 ence the  Greek  cities  along  the  Hellesponi  and  Pro- 
 pontis, the  Byzantines,  together  with  a  body  of  Chal- 
 cedonians, would  not  wait  for  the  coming  of  the  Per- 
 sians, but,  leaving  their  habitations,  and  lleeing  to  the 
 Euxine,  built  the  city  of  Mesembria  on  the  upper  coast 
 of  Thrace.  {Herod.,  6,  33.)  The  Persians  destroyed 
 the  empty  city,  and  no  Byzantium  for  some  lime  there- 
 after existed.  This  will  explain  why  Scylax,  in  his 
 Periplus,  passed  by  Byzantium  in  silence,  while  he 
 mentions  all  the  Grecian  settlements  in  this  quarter, 
 and  among  them  even  Mesembria  itself  Byzantium 
 re-appeared  after  the  overthrow  of  Xerxes,  some  of  the 
 old  inhabitants  having  probably  returned,  and  here 
 Pausanias,  the  commander  of  the  Grecian  forces,  took 
 up  his  headquarters.  He  gave  the  city  a  code  of 
 laws,  and  a  government  modelled,  in  some  degree, 
 after  the  S[)artan  form,  and  hence  he  was  regarded  by 
 some  as  the  true  founder  of  the  city.  {Justin,  9,  1.) 
 The  Athenians  succeeding  to  the  hegemony,  Byzanti- 
 um fell  under  their  control,  and  received  so  many  im- 
 
BYZANTIUM. 
 
 BY  Z 
 
 ponant  additions  from  thein,  that  Ammianus  Marcel- 
 iinus,  in  a  later  age,  calls  it  an  Attic  colony  (22,  8). 
 The  city,  however,  was  a  Doric  one,  in  language, 
 customs,  and  laws,  and  remained  so  even  after  the 
 Athenians  had  the  control  of  it.  The  maintenance  of 
 this  military  post  became  of  great  importance  to  the 
 Greeks  during  their  warfare  with  the  Persians  in  sub- 
 sequent years,  and  this  circumstance,  together  with 
 the  advantages  of  a  lucrative  and  now  continually  in- 
 creasing commerce,  gave  Byzantium  a  high  rank 
 among  Grecian  cities.  After  Athens  and  Sparta  had 
 weakened  the  power  of  each  other  by  national  rivalry, 
 and  neither  could  lay  claim  to  the  empire  of  the  sea, 
 Byzantium  became  an  independent  city,  and  turned  its 
 whole  attention  to  commerce.  Its  strong  situation 
 enabled  it,  at  a  subsequent  period,  to  resist  successfully 
 the  arms  of  Philip  of  Macedon  ;  nor  did  Alexander,  in 
 his  eagerness  to  march  into  Asia,  make  any  attempt 
 upon  the  place.  It  preserved  also  a  neutral  character 
 under  his  successors.  The  great  evil  to  which  the 
 city  of  Byzantium  was  exposed  came  from  the  inland 
 country,  theThracian  tribes-continually  making  incur- 
 sions into  the  fertile  territory  around  the  place,  and 
 carrying  off  more  or  less  of  the  produce  of  the  fields. 
 The  city  suffered  severely  also  from  the  Gauls  ;  being 
 compelled  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute,  amounting  at  least 
 to  eighty  talents.  After  the  departure  of  the  Gauls  it 
 again  became  a  flourishing  place,  but  its  most  prosper- 
 ous period  was  during  the  Roman  sway.  It  had 
 thrown  itself  into  the  arms  of  the  Romans  as  early  as 
 the  war  against  the  younger  Philip  of  Macedon,  and 
 enjoyed  from  this  people  not  only  complete  protection, 
 out  also  many  valuable  commercial  privileges.  It  was 
 allowed,  moreover,  to  lay  a  toll  on  all  vessels  passing 
 through  the  straits,  a  thing  which  had  been  attempted 
 before  without  success,  and  this  toll  it  shared  with  the 
 Romans.  {Strabo,  320. — Herodian,  3,  1.)  But  the 
 day  of  misfortune  at  length  came.  In  the  contest  for 
 the  empire  between  Severus  and  Niger,  Byzantium 
 declared  for  the  latter,  and  stood  a  siege  in  conse- 
 quence, which  continued  long  after  Niger's  overthrow 
 and  death.  After  three  years  of  almost  incredible  ex- 
 ertions, the  place  surrendered  to  Severus.  The  few 
 remaining  inhabitants  whom  famine  had  spared  were 
 sold  as  slaves,  the  city  was  razed  to  the  ground,  its 
 territory  given  to  Perinthus,  and  a  small  village  took 
 the  place  of  the  great  commercial  emporium.  Re- 
 penting soon  after  of  what  he  had  done,  Severus  re- 
 built Byzantium,  and  adorned  it  with  numerous  and 
 splendid  buildings,  which  in  a  later  age  still  bore  his 
 name,  but  it  never  recovered  its  former  rank  until  the 
 days  of  Constantine.  {Hcrodian,  3,  6. — Dio  Cnss., 
 74,  10. — Sparlian.,  Caracall.,  c.  1. — Zosimus,  2,30. 
 — Sutdas,  s.  V.  StCz/pof. —  Treb.  PolUo,  Galhcn.,  c. 
 5.^ — Claud.,  c.  9.) — Constantine  had  no  great  affection 
 for  Rome  as  a  city,  nor  had  the  inhabitants  any  great 
 regard  for  him.  He  felt  the  necessity,  moreover,  of 
 having  the  capital  of  the  empire  in  some  more  central 
 quarter,  from  which  the  movements  of  the  German 
 tribes  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  of  the  Persians  on 
 the  other,  might  be  observed.  He  long  sought  for 
 such  a  locality,  and  believed  at  one  time  that  he  had 
 found  it  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Sigasan  promonto- 
 ry, on  the  coast  of  Troas.  He  had  even  commenced 
 building  here,  when  the  superior  advantages  of  Byzan- 
 tium as  a  centre  of  empire  attracted  his  attention, 
 and  he  linally  resolved  to  make  this  the  capital  of  the 
 Roman  world.  For  a  monarchy  possessing  the  west- 
 ern portion  of  Asia,  and  the  largest  part  of  Europe, 
 together  with  the  whole  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
 Sea,  nature  herself  seemed  to  have  destined  Byzan- 
 tniin  as  a  capital.  Constantino's  plan  was  carried 
 into  rapid  execution.  The  ancient  city  had  possessed 
 a  circuit  of  forty  stadia,  and  covered  merely  two  hills, 
 one  close  to  the  water,  on  which  the  Seraglio  at  pres- 
 ent stands,  and  another  adjoining  it,  and  extending  to- 
 M  M 
 
 wards  the  interior  to  what  is  now  the  Bcses/an,  or 
 great  market.  The  new  city,  called  Constaritriwpohs, 
 or  "  City  of  Constantine,"  was  three  times  as  large, 
 and  covered  four  hills,  together  with  part  of  a  filth, 
 having  a  circuit  of  somewhat  less  than  fourteeen 
 geographical  miles.  Every  effort  was  made  to  embel- 
 lish this  new  capital  of  the  Roman  world  ;  the  most 
 splendid  edifices  were  erected,  an  imperial  palace,  nu- 
 merous residences  for  the  chief  officers  of  the  court, 
 churches,  baths,  a  hippodrome  ;  and  inhabitants  were 
 procured  from  every  quarter.  Its  rapid  increase  call- 
 ed, from  time  to  time,  for  a  corresponding  cnlaraement 
 of  the  city,  until,  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II,.  when 
 the  new  walls  were  erected  (the  previous  ones  havino- 
 been  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake),  Constantinople 
 attained  to  the  size  which  it  at  present  has.  {Zonaras, 
 13,  23.)  Chalcondylas  supposes  the  walls  of  the  city 
 to  be  111  stadia  in  circumference;  Gyllius,  about 
 thirteen  Italian  miles  ;  but,  according  to  the  best 
 modern  plans  of  Constantinople,  it  is  not  less  than 
 19,700  yards.  The  number  of  gates  is  twenty-eight ; 
 fourteen  on  the  side  of  the  port,  seven  towards  the 
 land,  and  as  many  on  the  Propontis.  The  city  is 
 built  on  a  triangular  promontory,  and  the  number  of 
 hills  which  it  covers  is  seven.  Besides  the  namo  of 
 Constantinopolis,  or  Constanlinou  ■polls  (Kuvaravri- 
 vov  TToAff),  this  city  had  also  the  more  imposing  one  of 
 Ncio  Rome  (Nea  'Fu/x7j),  which,  however,  gradually  fell 
 into  disuse.  At  the  present  day,  the  peasants  in  the 
 neighbourhood,  while  they  repair  to  Constantinople, 
 say  in  vulgar  Greek  that  they  are  going  es  tan  bolin 
 (i.  e.,  ef  Tuv  -noTiiv),  "  to  the  city,"  whence  has  arisen 
 the  Turkish  name  of  the  place,  namely,  Slamboul. 
 The  more  polished  or  less  barbarous  inhabitants,  how- 
 ever, frequently  call  it  Constantinia.  It  is  easy  to 
 recognise  in  the  vulgar  Greek  of  the  peasantry,  as  just 
 given,  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Doric.  {Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  154,  scqrj.)  For  an  account  of  the 
 Byzantine  empire  consult  the  succeeding  article,  at  the 
 end  of  which  also  will  be  found  some  remarks  on  the 
 Byzantine  historians,  as  they  have  been  denominated. 
 — Constantinople  was  taken  by  Mohammed  II.,  on  the 
 29th  May,  A.D.  1453. 
 
 Bvz.iNTiNUM  iMPERiuM.  The  Byzantine,  or  East- 
 ern Roman  Empire,  comprehended  at  first,  in  Asia, 
 the  country  on  this  side  of  the  Euphrates,  the  coasts 
 of  the  Black  Sea,  and  Asia  Minor ;  in  Africa,  Egypt; 
 and  in  Europe,  all  the  countries  from  the  Hellespont 
 to  the  Adriatic  and  Danube.  This  survived  the  West- 
 ern Empire  1000  years,  and  was  even  increased  by 
 the  addition  of  Italy  and  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
 nean. It  commenced  in  395,  when  Theodosius  divided 
 the  Roman  empire  between  his  two  sons,  Arcadius  and 
 Honorius.  The  Eastern  Empire  fell  to  the  elder,  Arca- 
 dius, through  whose  weakness  it  suffered  many  misfor- 
 tunes. During  his  minority  Rufinus  was  his  guardian 
 and  minister,  between  whom  and  Stilicho,  the  minister 
 of  the  Western  Empire,  a  fierce  rivalry  existed.  The 
 Goths  laid  waste  Greece.  Eutropius,  the  successor, 
 and  Gainas,  the  murderer,  of  Rufinus,  were  ruined  by 
 their  own  crimes.  The  latter  lost  his  life  in  a  civil  war 
 excited  by  him  (A.D.  400).  Arcadius  and  his  em- 
 pire were  now  ruled  by  his  proud  and  covetous  wife 
 Eudoxia,  till  her  death  (A.D.  404).  The  Isaurians 
 and  the  Huns  wasted  the  provinces  of  Asia,  and  the 
 country  along  the  Danube.  Theodosius,  the  younger, 
 succeeded  his  father  (A.D.  408),  under  the  guardian- 
 ship of  his  sister  Pulcheria.  Naturally  of  an  inferior 
 mind,  his  education  had  made  him  entirely  imbecile, 
 and  unfit  for  self-command.  Pulcheria,  who  bore  the 
 title  of  Augusta,  administered  the  kingdom  ably.  Of 
 the  Western  Empire,  which  had  been  ceded  to  Valen- 
 tinian,  Theodosius  retained  Western  Illyria.  The 
 Greeks  fought  with  success  against  the  King  of  the 
 Persians,  Varanes.  The  kingdom  of  Armenia,  thrown 
 into  confusion  by  internal  dissensions,  and  claimed  at 
 
 273 
 
BYZANTINUM 
 
 IMPERIUM. 
 
 the  same  time  by  the  Romans  and  the  Persians,  be- 
 came now  an  apple  of  contention  between  tiie  two 
 nations  (A.D.  440.)  Attila  laid  waste  the  dominions 
 of  Theodosius,  and  obliged  him  to  pay  tribute.  After 
 the  death  of  her  brother,  Pulcheria  was  acknowledged 
 empress  (A.D.  450).  She  was  the  first  female  who  at- 
 tained this  dignity.  She  gave  her  hand  to  the  senator 
 Marcian,  and  raised  him  to  the  throne.  His  wisdom 
 and  valour  averted  the  attacks  of  the  Huns  from  the 
 frontiers,  but  he  did  not  support  the  Western  Empire 
 in  its  wars  against  the  Huns  and  Vandals  with  suffi- 
 cient energy.  He  afforded  shelter  to  a  part  of  the 
 Germans  arid  Sarmatians,  who  were  driven  to  the  Ro- 
 man frontiers  by  the  incursions  of  the  Huns.  Pulche- 
 ria died  before  him  in  453.  Leo  I.  (A.D.  457),  a 
 prince  praised  by  contemporary  authors,  was  chosen 
 successor  of  Marcian.  His  expeditions  against  the 
 Vandals  (A.D.  467)  were  unsuccessful.  His  grand- 
 son Leo  would  have  succeeded  him,  but  died  a  minor 
 shortly  after  him,  having  named  his  father  Zeno  his 
 colleague  (A.D.  474).  The  government  of  this  weak 
 emperor,  who  was  hated  by  his  subjects,  was  disturbed 
 by  rebellions  and  internal  disorders  of  the  empire. 
 The  Goths  depopulated  their  provinces  till  their  king, 
 Theodoric,  turned  his  arms  against  Italy  (A.D.  489). 
 Ariadne,  widow  of  Zeno,  raised  the  minister  Anasta- 
 sius,  whom  she  married,  to  the  throne  (A.D.  491). 
 The  nation,  once  excited  to  discontents  and  tumults, 
 could  not  be  entirely  appeased  by  the  alleviation  of 
 iheir  burdens  and  by  wise  decrees.  The  forces  of  the 
 empire,  being  thus  weakened,  could  not  offer  an  ef- 
 fectual resistance  to  the  Persians  and  the  barbarians 
 along  the  Danube.  To  prevent  their  incursions  into 
 the  peninsula  of  Constantinople,  Anastasius  built  the 
 long  wall,  as  it  is  called.  After  the  death  of  Anasta- 
 sius, the  soldiers  proclaimed  Justin  emperor  (A.D. 
 518).  Notwithstanding  his  low  birth,  he  maintained 
 possession  of  the  throne.  Religious  persecutions, 
 which  he  undertook  at  the  instigation  of  the  clergy, 
 and  various  crimes  into  which  he  was  seduced  by  his 
 nephew  Justinian,  disgrace  his  reign.  After  his  early 
 death,  in  521,  he  was  succeeded  by  the  same  Justin- 
 ian, to  whom,  though  he  deserves  not  the  name  of 
 the  Great,  many  virtues  of  a  ruler  cannot  be  denied. 
 He  was  renowned  as  a  legislator,  and  his  reign  was 
 distinguished  by  the  victories  of  his  general  Belisa- 
 rius  ;  but  how  unable  he  was  to  revive  the  strength 
 of  his  empire  was  proved  by  its  rapid  decay  after  his 
 death.  Justin  IL,  his  successor  (.\.D.  565),  was  an 
 avaricious,  cruel,  weak  prince,  governed  by  his  wife. 
 The  Lombards  tore  from  him  part  of  Italy  (A.D. 
 568).  His  war  with  Persia,  for  the  possession  of  Ar- 
 menia, was  unsuccessful  ;  the  Avari  plundered  the 
 provinces  on  the  Danube,  and  the  violence  of  his  grief 
 at  these  misfortunes  deprived  him  of  reason.  Tibe- 
 rius, his  minister,  a  man  of  merit,  was  declared  Cw- 
 sar,  and  the  general  Justinian  conducted  the  war 
 against  Persia  with  success.  The  Greeks  now  al- 
 lied themselves,  for  the  first  time,  with  the  Turks. 
 Against  his  successor,  Tiberius  II.  (A.D.  578),  the 
 Empress  Sophia  and  the  general  Justinian  conspired  in 
 vain.  From  the  Avari  the  emperor  purchased  peace  ; 
 from  the  Persians  it  was  extorted  by  his  general  Mau- 
 ritius or  Maurice  (A.D.  582).  This  commander  Ti- 
 berius declared  Ca;sar  in  the  same  year.  Mauritius, 
 under  other  circumstances,  would  have  made  an  ex- 
 cellent monarch,  but  for  the  times  he  wanted  prudence 
 and  re.solution.  He  was  indebted  for  the  tranquillity 
 of  the  eastern  frontiers  to  the  gratitude  of  King  Chos- 
 roes  II.,  whom,  in  591,  he  restored  to  the  throne 
 from  which  he  had  been  deposed  by  his  subjects. 
 Nevertheless,  the  war  against  the  Avari  was  unsuc- 
 cessful, through  the  errors  of  Commentiolus.  The 
 army  was  discontented,  and  was  irritated,  now  by  un- 
 timely severitv  and  parsimony,  and  now  by  timid  in- 
 dulgence. They  finally  proclaimed  Phocas,  one  of 
 274 
 
 their  officers,  emperor.  Mauritius  was  taken  in  his 
 flight  and  put  to  death  (A.D.  602).  The  vices  of  Pho- 
 cas, and  his  incapacity  for  government,  produced  the 
 greatest  disorders  in  the  empire.  Heraclius,  son  of 
 the  governor  of  Africa,  took  up  arms,  conquered  Con- 
 stantinople, and  caused  Phocas  to  be  executed  (A.D. 
 610).  He  distinguished  himself  only  in  the  short  pe- 
 riod of  the  Persian  war.  During  the  first  twelve 
 years  of  his  reign,  the  Avari,  and  other  nations  of  the 
 Danube,  plundered  the  European  provinces,  and  the 
 Persians  conquered  the  coasts  of  Syria  and  Egypt. 
 Having  finally  succeeded  in  pacifying  the  Avari,  he 
 marched  against  the  Persians  (A.D.  622),  and  defeat- 
 ed them  ;  but,  during  this  time,  the  Avari,  who  had 
 renewed  the  war,  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on 
 Constantinople  in  626.  Taking  advantage  of  an  in- 
 surrection of  the  subjects  of  Chosroes,  he  penetrated 
 into  the  centre  of  Persia.  By  the  peace  concluded 
 with  Siroes  (A.D.  628),  he  recovered  the  lost  provinces 
 and  the  holy  cross.  But  the  Arabians,  who,  mean- 
 while, had  become  powerful  under  Mohammed  and 
 the  califs,  conquered  Phoenicia,  the  countries  on  the 
 Euphrates,  Judea,  Syria,  and  all  Egypt  (A.D.  631- 
 641).  Among  his  descendants  there  was  not  one  able 
 prince.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Constantine 
 III.,  probably  in  conjunction  with  his  step-brother 
 Heracleonas.  The  former  soon  died,  and  the  latter 
 lost  his  crown  and  was  mutilated.  After  him,  Con- 
 stans,  son  of  Constantine,  obtained  the  throne  (A  D. 
 642).  His  sanguinary  spirit  of  persecution,  and  the 
 murder  of  his  brother  Theodosius,  made  him  odious 
 to  the  nation.  The  Arabians,  pursuing  their  con- 
 quests, took  from  him  part  of  Africa,  Cyprus,  and 
 Rhodes,  and  defeated  him  at  sea  (A.D.  653).  Inter- 
 nal disturbances  obliged  him  to  make  peace.  After 
 this  he  left  Constantinople  (A.D.  659),  and,  in  the 
 following  year,  carried  on  an  unsuccessful  war  against 
 the  Lombards  in  Italy,  in  which  he  lost  his  life  at  Syr- 
 acuse (A  D.  660).  Constantine  IV.,  Pogonatus,  son 
 of  Constans,  vanquished  his  Syracusan  competitor  Me- 
 zizius,  and,  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  shared  the 
 government  with  his  brothers  Tiberius  and  Heraclius. 
 The  Arabians  inundated  all  Africa  and  Sicily,  pene- 
 trated through  Asia  Minor  into  Thrace,  and  attacked 
 Constantinople  for  several  successive  years  by  sea 
 (A.D.  669).  Nevertheless,  he  made  peace  with  them 
 on  favourable  terms.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
 Bulgarians  obliged  him  to  pay  a  tribute  (A.D.  680). 
 Justinian  II.,  his  son  and  successor,  weakened  the 
 power  of  the  Maronites,  but  fought  without  success 
 against  the  Bulgarians  and  Arabians.  Leonitms  de- 
 throned this  cruel  prince,  had  him  mutilated,  and  sent 
 to  the  Tauric  Chersonese  (.\.D.  6"J5).  Leonitius  was 
 dethroned  by  Apsimar,  or  Tiberius  III.  (A.D.  698), 
 who  was  himself  dethroned  by  Trebelius,  king  of  the 
 Bulgarians,  who  restored  Justinian  to  the  throne  (A.D. 
 705) ;  but  Philip[)icus  Bardanes  rebelled  anew  against 
 him.  With  Justinian  II.  the  race  of  Heraclius  was 
 extinguished.  The  only  care  of  Philiiipicus  was  the 
 spreading  of  Monotheism,  while  the  .Arabians  wasted 
 Asia  Minor  and  Thrace.  In  opposition  to  this  prince, 
 who  was  universally  hated,  the  different  armies  pro- 
 claimed their  leaders  emperors,  among  whom  Leo 
 the  Isaurian  obtained  the  superiority  (A.D.  713-714). 
 Leo  repelled  the  Arabians  from  Constantinople,  which 
 they  had  attacked  for  almost  two  years,  and  suppress- 
 ed the  rebellion  excited  by  Basilius  and  the  former 
 emperor  Anastasius.  From  726  the  abolition  of  the 
 worship  of  images  absorbed  his  attention,  and  the 
 Italian  provinces  were  allowed  to  become  a  prey  to  the 
 Lombards,  while  the  Arabians  plundered  the  eastern 
 provinces.  After  his  death  (.\.D.  741)  his  son  Con- 
 stantine V.  ascended  the  throne,  a  courageous,  active, 
 and  noble  prince.  He  vanquished  his  rebellious 
 brother-in-law  Artabasdus,  wrested  from  the  Arabians 
 part  of  Syria  and  Armenia,  and  overcame  at  last  the 
 
BYZANTINUM 
 
 IMPERIUM. 
 
 Bulgarians,  against  whom  he  had  been  long  unsuccess- 
 ful. He  died  (A.D.  775),  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
 son  Leo  III.,  who  fought  successfully  against  the 
 Arabians  ;  and  this  latter,  by  his  son  Constantine  VI., 
 whose  imperious  mother  Irene,  his  guardian  and  asso- 
 ciate in  the  government,  raised  a  powerful  party  by 
 the  restoration  of  the  worship  of  images.  He  en- 
 deavoured m  vain  to  free  himself  from  dependance  on 
 her  and  her  favourite  Stauratius,  and  died  in  796,  after 
 having  had  his  eyes  put  out.  The  war  against  the  Ara- 
 bians and  Bulgarians  was  long  continued  ;  against  the 
 former  it  was  unsuccessful.  The  design  ot  the  em- 
 press to  marry  Charlemagne  excited  the  discontent  of 
 the  patricians,  who  placed  one  of  their  own  order,  Ni- 
 cephorus,  upon  the  throne  (A.D.  802).  Irene  died  in 
 a  monastery.  Nicephorus  became  tributary  to  the 
 Arabians,  and  fell  in  the  war  against  the  Bulgarians 
 (A.D.  81 1).  Stauratius,  his  son,  was  deprived  of  the 
 crown  by  Michael  I.,  and  he  in  turn  by  Leo  IV.  (A.D. 
 813).  Leo  was  dethroned  and  put  to  death  by  Michael 
 II.  (A.D.  826).  During  the  reign  of  the  latter,  the 
 Arabians  conquered  Sicily,  Lower  Italy,  Crete,  and 
 other  countries.  Michael  prohibited  the  worship  of 
 images  ;  as  did  also  his  son  Theophilus.  Theodora, 
 guardian  of  his  son  Michael  III.,  put.  a  stop  to  the  dis- 
 pute about  images  (A.D.  841).  During  a  cruel  per- 
 secution of  the  Manichaeans,  the  Arabians  devastated 
 the  Asiatic  provinces.  The  dissolute  and  e.xtravagant 
 Michael  confined  his  mother  in  a  monastery.  The 
 government  was  adminisiered  in  his  name  by  Bardas, 
 his  uncle,  and  after  the  death  of  Bardas  by  Basil,  who 
 was  put  to  death  by  Michael  (A.D.  867).  Basil  I., 
 who  came  to  the  throne  in  867,  was  not  altogether  a 
 contemptible  monarch.  He  died  A.D.  886.  The 
 reign  of  his  learned  son,  Leo  V.,  was  not  very  happy. 
 He  died  A.D.  91L  His  son,  Constantine  VIII. ,  Por- 
 phyrogenitus,  a  minor  when  he  succeeded  his  father, 
 was  placed  under  the  guardianship  of  his  colleague 
 Ale.xander,  and  after  Ale.vander's  death  in  912,  under 
 that  of  his  mother  Zoe.  Romanus  Lakopenus,  his 
 general,  obliged  him,  in  919,  to  share  the  throne  with 
 him  and  his  children.  Constantine  subsequently  took 
 sole  possession  of  it  again,  and  reigned  mildly  but 
 weakly.  His  son  Romanus  II.  succeeded  him  in  959, 
 and  fought  successfully  against  the  Arabians.  To 
 him  succeeded,  in  963,  his  general  Nicephorus,  who 
 was  put  to  death  by  his  own  general,  John  Zimisces 
 (A.D.  970),  who  carried  on  a  successful  war  against 
 the  Russians.  Basil  H.,  son  of  Romanus,  succeeded 
 this  good  prince.  He  vanquished  the  Bulgarians  and 
 the  Arabians.  His  brother,  Constantine  IX.  (.\.D. 
 1025),  was  not  equal  to  him.  Romanus  HI.  became 
 emperor  (A.D.  1028)  by  a  marriage  with  Zoe,  daugh- 
 ter of  Constantine.  This  dissolute  but  able  princess 
 caused  her  husband  to  be  executed,  and  successively 
 raised  to  the  throne  Michael  IV.  (A.D.  1034),  Mi- 
 chael V.  (A.D.  1041),  and  Constantine  X.  (.\.D. 
 1042).  Russians  and  Arabians  meanwhile  devastated 
 the  empire.  Her  sister  Theodora  succeeded  her  on 
 the  throne  (.\.D.  1053).  Her  successor,  Michael  VI. 
 (A.D.  1056),  was  dethroned  by  Isaac  Comnenus  in 
 1057,  who  became  a  monk  (A.D.  1059).  His  suc- 
 cessor, Constantine  XL,  Ducas,  fought  successfully 
 against  the  Dzes.  Eudocia,  his  wife,  guardian  of  his 
 sons  Michael,  Andronicus,  and  Constantine,  was  in- 
 trusted with  the  administration  (A.D.  1067),  married 
 Romanus  IV.,  and  brought  him  the  crown.  He  car- 
 ried on  an  unsuccessful  war  against  the  Turks,  who 
 kept  him  for  some  time  prisoner.  Michael  VII.,  son  of 
 Constantine,  deprived  him  of  the  throne  (A.D  1071). 
 Michael  was  dethroned  by  Nicephorus  ill.  (.A.D.  1078), 
 and  the  latter  by  Alexius  I.,  Comnenus  (A.D.  1081). 
 Under  his  reign  the  crusades  commenced.  His  son, 
 .lohn  II.,  came  to  the  throne  in  1118,  and  fought  with 
 great  success  against  the  Turks  and  other  barbarians. 
 The  rcign  of  his  son  Manuel  I.,  who  succeeded  him  in 
 
 1143,  was  also  not  unfortunate.  His  son.  Alexins 
 II.,  succeeded  (A.D.  1180),  and  was  dethroned  by  his 
 guardian  Andronicus,  as  was  the  latter  by  Isaac  (A.D. 
 1185).  After  a  reign  disturbed  from  without  and 
 within,  Isaac  was  dethroned  by  his  brother,  Alexius 
 III.  (A.D.  1195).  The  crusaders  restored  him  and 
 his  son  Alexius  IV.  ;  but  the  seditious  Constantino- 
 politans  proclaimed  Alexius  V.,  Ducas  Murzuphlus, 
 emperor,  who  put  Alexius  IV.  to  death.  At  the  same 
 time  Isaac  II.  died.  During  the  last  reigns,  the  kings 
 of  Sicily  had  made  many  conquests  on  the  coasts  of 
 the  Adriatic.  The  Latins  now  forced  their  way  to 
 Constantinople  (A.D.  1204),  conquered  the  city,  and 
 retained  it,  together  with  most  of  the  European  terri- 
 tories of  the  empire.  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders, 
 was  made  emperor;  Boniface,  marquis  of  Montferrat, 
 obtained  Thessalonica  as  a  kingdom,  and  the  Vene- 
 tians acquired  a  large  extent  of  territory.  In  Rhodes, 
 Philadelphia,  Corinth,  and  Epirus,  independent  sover- 
 eigns arose.  Theodore  Lascaris  seized  on  the  Asiatic 
 provinces,  bore  the  title  of  emperor  at  Nice,  and  was, 
 at  first,  more  powerful  than  Baldwin.  A  descendant 
 of  the  Comncni,  named  Alexius,  established  a  princi- 
 pality at  Trebisond,  in  which  his  great-grandson  John 
 took  the  title  of  emperor.  Neither  Baldwin  nor  his 
 successors  were  able  to  secure  the  tottering  throne 
 He  himself  died  in  captivity  among  the  Bulgarians 
 (1206).  To  him  succeeded  Henry,  his  brother,  with 
 Peter,  brother-in-law  of  Henry,  and  his  son  Robert 
 (.\.D.  1221).  With  the  exception  of  Constantinople, 
 all  the  remaining  Bvzantine  territory,  including  Thes- 
 salonica, was  conquered  by  John,  emperor  of  Nice. 
 Baldwin  II.,  brother  of  Robert,  under  the  guardianship 
 of  his  colleague,  John  Brienne,  king  of  Jerusalem,  died 
 in  1237.  Michael  Palsologus,  king  of  Nice,  con- 
 quered Constantinople  in  1261,  and  Baldwin  died  in 
 the  West  a  private  person.  The  sovereigns  of  Nice, 
 up  to  this  {leriod,  were  Theodore  Lascaris  (.A.D. 
 1204);  John  Ducas  Patatzes,  a  good  monarch  and 
 successful  warrior  (.\.D.  1222);  Theodore  II.,  his 
 son  (A.D.  1259),  who  was  deprived  of  the  crown  by 
 Michael  Pala-ologus  (A.D.  1260).  In  1261  Michael 
 look  Constantinople  from  the  Latins.  He  laboured  to 
 unite  himself  with  the  Latin  church,  but  his  son  An- 
 dronicus renounced  the  connexion.  Internal  disturb- 
 ances and  foreign  wars,  particularly  with  the  Turks, 
 threw  the  exhausted  empire  into  confusion.  Andron- 
 icus HI.,  his  grandson,  obliged  him  to  divide  the 
 throne  (.\.D.  1322),  and,  at  length,  wrested  it  entirely 
 from  him.  Andronicus  died  a  monk  (A.D.  1328). 
 .Andronicus  IV.,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  the  same 
 year,  waged  war  unsuccessfully  against  the  Turks,  and 
 died  .A.D.  1341.  His  son  John  was  obliged  to  share 
 the  throne  with  his  guardian,  John  Cantacuzemis,  du- 
 ring ten  years.  The  son  of  the  latter,  Matthew,  was 
 also  made  emperor,  but  John  Cantacuzenus  resigned 
 the  crown,  and  Matthew  was  compelled  to  abdicate 
 (.AD.  1355.)  Under  the  reign  of  John,  the  Turks 
 first  obtained  a  firm  footing  in  Europe,  and  conquered 
 Gallifiolis  (A.D.  1357).  The  family  of  Palceologus, 
 from  this  time,  vvere  gradually  deprived  of  their  Euro- 
 pean territories,  partly  by  revolt,  and  partly  by  the 
 Turks.  The  sultan  Amurath  took  Adrianople  A.D. 
 1361.  Bajazct  conquered  almost  all  the  European 
 provinces  except  Constantinople,  and  obliged  John  to 
 [lay  him  tribute.  The  latter  was,  some  time  after, 
 driven  out  by  his  own  son  Manuel  (A.D.  1391). 
 Bajazet  besieged  Constantinople,  defeated  an  army  of 
 western  warriors  under  Sigismund,  near  Nicopolis,  and 
 Manuel  was  obliged  to  place  John,  son  of  Andronicus, 
 on  his  throne.  Timour's  invasion  of  the  Turkish 
 provinces  saved  Constantinople  for  this  time  (A.D. 
 1402).  Manuel  then  recovered  his  throne,  and  re- 
 gained some  of  the  lost  provinces  from  the  contending 
 sons  of  Bajazet.  To  him  succeeded  his  son  John 
 (A  D.   1425),  whom   Amurath  II.  stripped  of  all  his 
 
 275 
 
CAB 
 
 CAB 
 
 territories  except  Constantinople,  and  extorted  from 
 him  a  tribute  (A.D.  1444).  To  the  emperor  John 
 succeeded  his  brother  Constantine.  With  the  assist- 
 ance of  his  general,  the  Genoese  Justinian,  he  with- 
 stood the  superior  forces  of  the  enemy  with  fruitless 
 courage,  and  fell  in  the  defence  of  Constantinople,  by 
 the  conquest  of  which.  May  29,  A.D.  1453,  Moham- 
 med II.  put  an  end  to  the  Greek  or  Byzantine  empire. 
 {Encydop.  Amcric,  vol.  2,  p.  359,  «fyj.) — The  events 
 which  have  just  been  detailed  are  recorded  by  a  series 
 of  Greek  authors,  known  by  the  general  name  of  By- 
 zantine historians.  Their  works  relate  to  the  history 
 of  the  lower  empire,  from  the  fourth  century  to  the 
 conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  and  to  the 
 Turkish  history  for  some  period  later.  They  display 
 in  their  writings  the  faults  of  a  degenerate  age,  but  are 
 valuable  for  the  information  which  they  furnish,  being 
 the  principal  source  from  which  we  obtain  the  history 
 of  the  decay  of  the  Eastern  empire.  The  most  valua- 
 ble of  the  number  are  Zanaras,  Nicetas,  Nicephorus, 
 and  Chalcondylas .  These  four  form  a  continued  his- 
 tory of  the  Byzantine  empire  to  the  year  1470.  Of 
 the  remaining  authors,  who  give  us  histories  of  de- 
 tached portions  of  this  same  period,  the  following  de- 
 serve particular  mention,  and  are  given  in  chronologi- 
 cal order:  1.  Procopius ;  2.  Agalhias ;  3.  Thcophy- 
 laclus ;  4.  Nicephorus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  ; 
 5.  Johannes  Scylitzes  ;  6.  Anna  Corrmcna  ;  7.  Geur- 
 gius  Acropolila  ;  8.  Georgms  Pachymcrcs  ;  9.  Jo- 
 hannes Cantacuzenus  ;  10.  Georgius  Codinus  ;  11. 
 Cvnstanlinus  Porphyrogeintus  ;  12.  Ducas  ;  13.  ^«- 
 selmus  Bandurius ;  14.  Pctrus  Gyllius ;  15.  Zos- 
 vmus ;  16.  Georgius  Phranza. — Besides  editions  of 
 individual  works  or  of  entire  authors,  we  have  the 
 united  works  of  these  writers  in  what  is  called  the 
 Corpus  Byzantinum,  in  27  (counted  sometimes  as  23) 
 volumes  folio.  A  much  more  correct  edition,  how- 
 ever, is  that  which  was  published  at  Paris,  under  the 
 title  of  Corpus  Scriptorum  Hisloricz  Byzantina  (from 
 the  royal  press,  23  vols,  fol.)  This  was  reprinted  at 
 Venice,  with  a  different  arrangement  of  the  works,  in 
 1729-1733.  These  collections,  however,  are  rarely 
 to  be  found  complete.  The  best  edition  will  undoubt- 
 edly be  that,  now  in  a  course  of  publication,  from  the 
 press  of  Weber,  at  Bonn  in  Germany.  It  was  com- 
 menced under  the  editorial  care  of  the  celebrated  Nie- 
 buhr,  aided  by  other  eminent  scholars,  in  1828,  and 
 has  been  continued  since  his  death.  It  is  of  the  octavo 
 form.     {Pierer,  Lex.  Univ.,  vol.  4,  p.  682.) 
 
 Byz.4s,  a  Thracian  prince.  (Consult  remarks  at  the 
 commencement  of  the  article  Byzantium.) 
 
 Byzia.      Vid.  Bizya. 
 
 Cabal.Ica,  a  town  of  Albania,  on  the  southeastern 
 declivity  of  Caucasus,  near  the  Caspian  Sea  {Plin.,  4, 
 10).  Ptolemy  calls  it  Chubata  (XufjaXa).  It  is 
 thought  to  correspond  to  the  modern  Cahlasvar,  in 
 Georgia.  {Bischojf  und  MoLler,  Wurterb.  der  Geogr., 
 p.  217.) 
 
 Cabali-inum,  a  town  of  the/Edui,  in  Gallia  Lugdu- 
 nensis,  southeast  of  Bibracte,  now  Chdlons-sur-Saone. 
 Ptolemy  gives  Caballinum  {Ka6d?.2.ivov),  as  here  writ- 
 ten. Cffisar  {B.  G.,  7,  42,  et  90)  has  Cabillonum  ; 
 the  Itin.  Ant.,  Cabillio ;  and  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
 Cabillo  (14,  31). 
 
 Cabira,  I.  a  wife  of  Vulcan.  She  was  one  of  the 
 Oceanides.  Her  offspring,  according  to  the  Ionian 
 school,  were  the  deities  called  Cabiri.  (^Vid.  Cabiri.) — 
 II.  A  city  of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  south  of  Mag- 
 nopolis,  and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Paryadres.  It 
 was  at  one  time  the  favourite  residence  of  Mithrada- 
 tes.  His  palace,  park,  and  preserves  were  still  in  ex- 
 istence when  Sirabo  wrote,  as  well  as  a  water-mill 
 876 
 
 (vSpalerrig)  erected  by  him,  probably  for  the  use  of 
 the  mines  which  were  in  this  vicinity.  {Slrab.,  556.) 
 It  was  here  that  Miihradates  posted  himself  with  his 
 army,  in  the  campaign  which  followed  the  disastrous 
 retreat  from  Cyzicus,  in  order  that  he  might  afford  suc- 
 cours to  the  neighbouring  cities  of  Amisus  and  Eupa- 
 loria,  besieged  by  LucuUus.  {Appian,  Bell.  Milhrad., 
 c.  78.)  On  his  second  defeat,  however,  it  fell  into  the 
 hands  of  that  general,  with  several  other  cities.  Pom- 
 pey  afterward  enlarged  the  place,  and  changed  its  name  ' 
 to  Diopolis.  Pythodorus  subsequently  made  farther 
 improvements  in  this  city,  and,  having  finally  fixed  his 
 residence  there,  bestowed  on  it  the  appellation  of  Se- 
 baste.  {Strab.,L  e.)  The  modern  Sirvas  appears  to 
 some  to  indicate  the  site  of  the  ancient  Sebaste,  but 
 belongs  rather  to  Sebastia,  at  least  120  miles  from 
 Magnopolis,  whereas  Cabira  was  only  150  stadia  from 
 the  latter  place.  We  must  look  rather  for  the  remains 
 of  the  city  of  Cabira  or  Sebaste  (Sebastopolis)  on  the 
 right  bank  of  the  Lycus,  between  Niksar  and  Tchen- 
 tkeh,  or  Magnopolis.  {Cramer''s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1, 
 p.  31 1,  scqq.) 
 
 Cabiri,  certain  deities  held  in  the  greatest  venera 
 tion  at  Thebes  and  Lemnos,  but  more  particularly  in 
 the  islands  of  Samothrace  and  Imbros.  Their  number 
 was  not  fixed,  but  was  commonly  given  as  four,  and 
 the  names  of  these  four  were  Axierus,  Axiokersus, 
 Axiokcrsa,  and  Casmillus.  Their  mysteries  were 
 celebrated  with  great  solemnity,  and,  according  to 
 some,  with  much  impurity.  They  were  supposed, 
 among  other  things,  to  preside  over  melals,  and  were 
 represented  as  small  of  size,  with  a  hammer  on  the 
 shoulder,  and  a  half  eggshell  on  the  head.  They  were 
 still  farther  deformed  by  projecting  bellies  and  phallic 
 appendages.  Creuzer  traces  the  worship  of  the  Cabiri, 
 in  the  first  instance,  to  the  Phcenicians,  and  makes 
 these  deities  identical  with  the  Pataeci,  or  Patasci,  of 
 this  people.  {Herodut.,  3,  37.)  He  then  proceeds  to 
 find  vestiges  of  these  same  Cabiri  in  Upper  Asia,  in 
 the  name  of  the  Pontic  city  Cabira  ;  in  the  Mesopota- 
 mian  Carras,  the  medals  of  which  place  seem  to  as- 
 sociate the  worship  of  the  Cabiri  with  that  of  the  god 
 Lunus,  and  also  in  the  Chaldean  river  Chobar  or  Cha- 
 boras.  He  discovers  also  in  Malta,  among  the  remains 
 of  Punic  preserved  in  the  vulgar  dialect  of  the  island, 
 some  traces  of  the  name  Cabiri  in  the  word  Qbir  or 
 Kibir,  which  seems  to  designate  an  ancient  pagan  di- 
 vinity, and  is  now  taken  to  denote  "the  devil." 
 {Creuzer'' s  Symholik,  par  Gv.igniaul,  vol.  2,  p.  286. 
 — Miinter,  Religion  der  Carlhagcr,  ed.  2,  p.  87.) 
 Other  writers  believe,  that  they  discover  traces  of  the 
 Cabiri  in  Persia,  and  refer  to  the  Cabarini,  or  "strong 
 men,"  whom  the  essential  ideas  of  metallurgy  and  of 
 arms  would  seem  naturally  to  assimilate,  either  to  the 
 robust  forge-men  of  Vulcan  at  Lemnos,  or  to  the  armed 
 priests  of  Phrygia,  Crete,  and  different  parts  of  Greece. 
 ( Poacher,  surla  Religion  dcs  Perses. — Mem.  de  V  Acad. 
 des  Inscripl.,  &c.,  vol.  29.)  Others,  again,  have  re- 
 course to  the  mythology  of  India,  and  find  the  root  of 
 the  name  Cabin  in  the  Hindu  Cuvera.  (Wi/ford, 
 Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  5,  p.  297,  seqq. — Poller,  My- 
 Ihol.  des  Indous,  vol.  2,  p.  312,  scqq.)  The  best  ety- 
 moloiTy,  no  doubt,  is  that  which  makes  the  appellation 
 of  these  deities  a  Pha'nician  one,  denoting  "powerful," 
 "stroii"-;"  and  hence  the  titles,  Qeol  /i£ya?Mi,  dvi'a- 
 Toi,  which  the  Cabiri  frequently  received  among  the 
 Greeks.  With  the  Cabiri,  viewed  in  this  light,  may 
 be  compared  the  Dii  Poles  of  the  augural  books  of 
 the  Romans.  {Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  10,  p.  16,  ed.  Scalig.) 
 Schellinor,  however  (jiiber  die  Goltheilen  von  Samo- 
 thrace, p.  107,  scqq.),  gives  a  new  etymology  (the 
 Hebrew  Chaberim),  by  which  the  name  Cabiri  is  made 
 to  sicrnify  "  the  associate  deities,"  and  he  compares 
 these  deities  with  the  Dii  Consentcs  or  Dii  Complices, 
 whose  worship  the  Romans  borrowed  from  the  Etruri- 
 
CABIRI. 
 
 C  AC 
 
 ans.     The  same  learned  writer  compares  the  names 
 Ku6etpoi,  Kd6apoL,  KoGaXot  (which,  according  to  him, 
 are  identical),  wilh  the  German  Kohold,  "  golilin,"  and 
 finds  in  them  all  a  common  idea.      His  theory  respect- 
 ing the  worship  of  the  Cabiri,  which  he  refers  exclu- 
 sively to  Phoenician,  Hebrew,  and  Semitic  sources,  dif- 
 fers in  several  important  points  from  that  of  Creuzer, 
 and  lias  excited  a  great  deal  of  attention  on  the  conti- 
 nent of  Europe.     It  is  in  following  the  footsteps  of 
 Schelling  that  Pictet  thinks  he  has  found,  in  the  my- 
 thology of  the  ancient  Irish,  the  worship,  and  even  the 
 very  names,  of  the  Cabiri  of  Samothrace.     {Du,  Culte 
 des  Cabircs  chez  les  anciens  Irlandais,  Geneve,  1824. 
 — Compare  Bihiiolhcque  Univcrsclle^  vol.24.)    On  the 
 other  hand,  C.  O.  Miiller,  in  a  very  remarkable  disserta- 
 tion ai)pended  to  his  work  on  Orchomenus  {Orchomcnos 
 and  die  Minijer,  Betlage  2,  p.  450,  seqq. — Gcsch.  der 
 HeUemscher  Stdmme,  &c.,  vol.  1),  and  Welcker(Tn- 
 logie  der  Frometheus,  Darmstadt,  1824,  8vo),  reject 
 the  Phoenician,  or,  more  properly  speaking,   Oriental 
 origin  of  the  Cabiri.     The  first  of  these  writers  sees 
 in  them  a  worship  purely  Pelasgic,  and,  up  to  a  certain 
 point,  the  primitive  religion  of  the  Greeks  entire,  with 
 a  distant  relation,  at  the  same  time,  to  the  Theogonies 
 of  India ;   the  second  discovers  a  mixture  of  various 
 elements,  successively  amalgamated,  and  the  most  an- 
 cient of  which  would  be  the  Dardan  or  Trojan  Penates, 
 becoming,  in  process  of  time,  the  Dioscuri,  or  else  con- 
 founded with  them,  and  at  an  early  period  transported 
 to  Rome. — According  to  Constant  (dc   la    Religion, 
 vol.  2,  p.  430),  the  Cabiri  designated  the  two  grand 
 opposing  powers  in  each  department  of  nature,  and 
 fepresented  by  turns  the  earth  and  the  heavens,  moist- 
 ure and  dryness,  the  body  and  soul,  inert  matter  and 
 vivifying  intelligence.     Their  number  was  not  fixed, 
 but  varied  according  to  the  necessity  under  which  the 
 priests  found  themselves  of  expressing  the  cosmogon- 
 ical  powers.     Their  figures  were  at  first  excessively 
 deformed  ;  they  were  represented  under  the  guise  of 
 distorted  dwarfs,  and  under  these  forms  were  brought 
 to   Samothrace.      Their  worship  consisted  in  orgies 
 closely  resembling  those  of  the  Phrygian  Cybele.     The 
 Grecian  mythology  at  length  received  them,  and  the 
 poets,  in  examining  their  attributes,  sought  to  ascer- 
 tain which  of  them  were  susceptible  of  the  necessary 
 transformation.     The  statues  of  the  Cabiri  were  placed 
 m  the  port  of  Samothrace.     They  presided  over  the 
 winds.     Hence,  with  the  Greeks,  they  became  gods 
 favourable  to  navigators  and  terrible  to  pirates      (Ni- 
 gid.,  ap.   Schol.  Germ,  in  imag.  Gemin.)     They  ap- 
 peared also,  according  to  the  Grecian  belief,  on  the 
 tops  of  masl.s.  under  the  form  of  brilliant  flames,  to  an- 
 nounce   the   end  of  tempests.     {Diod.   Sic,  4,  43.) 
 Expressing,  as  they  did,  among  other  things,  the  op- 
 IKtsitioii  between  light  and  darkness,  they  became  with 
 the  Greeks  two  deities,  one  of  whom  was  hidden  be- 
 neath the  earth,  while   the  other  shone  in  the  skies. 
 1  he  Cabiri  proceeded   from   the  cosmogonical  egg  : 
 and  heuce,  with  the  Greeks,  the  new  deities  came 
 forth  from  an  egg,  the  fruit  of  the  amour  of  Jupiter 
 with   Leda.     In  order,  however,  to  nationalize  them 
 etill   more,  they   were    made   the   tutelary   heroes   of 
 Sparta,    and    to   preside    over    the    Olympic    games. 
 (/'/«/..  Olymp..  3,  63,  geqq.)     They  became  identi- 
 tifd,  through  Helen,  with  the  family  of  the  Atrid®. 
 W  ailike  adventures  were  ascribed  to  them.     (Pausan., 
 3,  13.)    Winged  coursers  were  given  them  by  the  aods. 
 {Siegick.  ap.  Terlull.  in  Speclae.,  p.  9,  geqq.)     they 
 received  the  names  of  Castor  and  Pollux  ;   and  thus 
 the  hideous  Cabiri  became  the  beauteous  Tyndarids. 
 —The  whole  fable  of  the  Cabiri  is  singularly  obscure. 
 Ir.  Egypt  (hey  were  at  first  five  in  number,  in  allusion 
 to  the  five   intercalary  days  necessary  for  completing 
 the  year.     Under  this  astronomical  point  of  view  they 
 had  three  father*,  the  Sun,  Hermes,  and  Saturn.   ( Plut., 
 ic  U.  a  Oi.)     Ill  the  transitioa  from  Egypt  to  Greece 
 
 they  lost  this  triple  origin  :  three  of  them  remained  hid- 
 den powers,  sons  of  the  cosmogonical  Jove,  and  of 
 Proserpina,  the  passive  principle  of  fecundity  as  well 
 as  of  destruction  :  the  two  others  took  the  Greek  names 
 of  Castor  and  Pollux,  and  had  Leda  for  a  mother,  the 
 mistress  of  Olympian  Jove.  (Ctt.,  iV.  D  ,  3,  21.) 
 For,  in  Egypt,  their  mother  was  not  Leda,  but  Neme- 
 sis, one  ot  the  appellations  of  Athyr,  or  the  primitive 
 night.  The  amour  of  Jupiter  also  has  here  a  fantastic 
 character,  which  is  sensibly  weakened  in  the  Grecian 
 fable.  Not  only  does  Jupiter  change  himself  into  a 
 swan,  but  he  likewise  directs  Venus  to  pursue  him  un- 
 der the  form  of  an  eagle,  and  he  takes  refuge  in  the 
 bosom  of  Nemesis,  whom  slumber  seizes,  and  who 
 offers  an  easy  conquest  to  her  divine  lover.  Hermes 
 thereupon  conveys  the  egg  to  Sparta,  and  Leda  incu- 
 bates it.  The  Greeks,  rejecting  altogether  the  cos- 
 ino<Tonical  personage  Nemesis,  made  Leda  the  real 
 mother,  and  the  ancient  Cabiri  became  thus  a  compo- 
 nent part  of  the  national  mythology.  The  Ionian 
 school,  however,  faithful  to  the  principles  of  a  sacer- 
 dotal philosophy,  continued  to  call  them  the  oH'sjiring 
 of  the  eternal  iire,  Vulcan,  and  of  the  nymph  Cabira, 
 one  of  the  Oceanides,  which  recalls  the  generation  by 
 fire  and  water.  When  astronomy  was  introduced  into 
 the  religion  of  Greece,  they  became  the  star  of  the 
 morning  and  the  star  of  evening.  It  is  possible  to  see 
 an  allusion  to  this  idea  in  Homer.  (//.,  3,  243. — Od,, 
 11,  302.)  At  a  later  period  they  became  the  Twins. 
 ( Constant,  de  la  Relig.,\ol  2,  p.  433,  scqq.,  in  notis.) — 
 As  regards  the  names  of  the  individual  Cabiri,  it  may 
 be  remarked,  that  they  all  appear  decidedly  Oriental. 
 The  etymologies  given  to  them  are  as  follows  :  Axieros 
 is  said  to  have  signified,  in  Egyptian,  "the  all-power- 
 ful one,"  and  he  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  identical 
 with  Phtha  or  Vulcan.  Axiokersus  is  made  to  denote 
 "  the  great  fecundator,"  and  is  thought  to  have  been  the 
 same  with  Mars,  the  planet  named  in  Egyptian  Ertosi, 
 a  word  which  presents  the  same  idea.  Axiokcrsa  is 
 consequently  "the  great  fecundatrix,"  Aphrodite  or 
 Venus,  the  companion  of  Mars.  {Zoega,  de  Obelise., 
 p.  220. —  Compare  Miinter,  Antiquar.  Abhandi,  p.  190, 
 feqq.)  As  to  the  fourth  personage,  Casmilius,  the 
 name  is  said  to  import  "  the  all-wise"  by  those  who 
 trace  it  to  the  Egyptian.  {Zoega,  I.  c.)  Bochart, 
 however,  with  more  probability,  compares  it  with  the 
 Hebrew  Cusmicl,  which  signifies  "  a  servant,"  "  a  min- 
 ister of  the  deity."  {Geogr.  Sacr.,  1,  p.  396.)  Bo- 
 chart gives  Hebrew  derivations  also  for  the  other  names 
 of  the  Cabiri.  Schelling,  more  recently,  proceeding 
 on  the  same  principle,  arrives  at  a  similar  result  with 
 Bochart,  but  in  a  quite  dilTerent  way.  {Samothrac. 
 Gotlheiten,  p.  16,  17,  63,  67,  seqq.)  His  new  ety- 
 mologies, however,  as  those  of  Zoega,  are  not  regard 
 ed  very  favourably  by  De  Sacy,  in  the  note  to  Sainte 
 Croix's  work.  My s teres  du  Paganisme,  vol.  1,  p.  43. 
 Miinter  defends  the  explanations  of  Zoega,  and  main- 
 tains, in  general,  with  Creuzer,  the  Egyptian  origin  of 
 the  Cabiri.  He  inclines,  however,  to  consider  the 
 last  of  the  four,  Casmilius,  as  of  Phosnician  origin,  and 
 explains  it  with  Schelling,  in  a  more  simple  manner 
 than  Bochart,  by  the  term  Cadmicl,  "  he  who  stands 
 before  the  deity,"  or  "  who  beholds  the  face  of  the  dei- 
 ty." {Religion  der  Carthager.  2d  ed.,  p.  89,  seqq.) 
 Miiller,  Welcker,  Schwenk,  and  Volcker  have  explo- 
 red the  Greek  language  alone  for  an  elucidation  of  these 
 mysterious  names.  And  yet  the  first  of  these  learned 
 writers,  in  spite  of  his  purely  Hellenic  system,  cannot 
 prevent  himself  from  being  struck  by  the  remarkable 
 coincidence,  as  well  real  as  verbal,  between  Cama, 
 the  Hindu  god  of  love,  and  Casmilius  {Creuzer'' s 
 Symbolik,  par  Gnigniaut,  vol.  2,  p.  293,  seqq.,  in 
 notis.) 
 
 Cabiria.  I.  a  surname  of  Ceres.— -II.  The  festivals 
 of  the  Cabiri.     {Vid.  Cabni.) 
 
 Caca,  a  goddess  among  the  Romans,  sister  to  Ca- 
 
CAD 
 
 CADMUS. 
 
 CU8,  wno,  according  to  one  version  of  the  fable,  be- 
 came enamoured  of  Hercules,  and  showed  the  hero 
 where  her  brother  had  concealed  his  oxen.  For  this 
 she  was  deihed.  Slie  had  a  chapel  {sacellum)  at  Rome, 
 with  a  sacred  lire  continually  burning  in  it,  and  vestal 
 virgnis  to  perform  her  rites.  {Laclant.,  1,  20,  p.  110, 
 ed.  Gall. — Serv.  ad   Virg.,  JEn.,  8,  190.) 
 
 C.icus,  a  famous  robber,  son  of  Vulcan,  represented 
 in  fable  as  of  gigantic  size,  and  vonnting  forth  smoke 
 and  fire.  He  inhabited  the  gloomy  recesses  of  the 
 forest  on  Mount  Avcntine,  and  a  deep  cave  there  was 
 his  dwellmg-place,  the  entrance  to  which  was  hung 
 around  with  human  heads  and  linibs.  He  plundered 
 and  ke|)t  in  continual  alarm  the  neighbouring  country  ; 
 and,  when  Hercules  returned  from  the  conquest  of 
 Geryon,  he  stole  some  of  his  cows,  and  dragged  them 
 backward  into  his  cave  to  prevent  discovery.  Her- 
 cules, after  having  enjoyed  the  hospitality  of  Evander, 
 was  preparing  to  depart,  without  being  aware  of  the 
 theft ;  but  his  o.xen,  having  lowed,  were  answered  by 
 the  cows  in  the  cave  of  Cacus,  and  the  hero  thus  be- 
 came acquainted  with  the  loss  he  had  sustained.  He 
 ran  to  the  place,  attacked  Cacus,  and  strangled  him  in 
 his  arms,  though  vomiting  lire  and  smoke.  Hercules 
 erected  an  altar  to  Jupiier,  in  commemoration  of  his 
 victory  ;  and  an  annual  festival  was  instituted  by  the 
 inhabitants  in  honour  of  the  hero  who  had  delivered 
 them  from  such  a  pest.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  1,  551. —  Virg., 
 Ain.,  8,  194.— Proper^.,  4,  10. — luv.,  5,  125.— Ljb., 
 1,  7. — Dionys.  Hal.,  1,  9.)  The  allegorical  charac- 
 ter of  the  fable  here  related  is  sufficiently  indicated 
 by  the  names  of  the  parlies.  Thus  Evander,  who  re- 
 ceived Hercules  on  his  return  from  the  conquest  of 
 Geryon,  and  Cacus  (in  Greek  'E,vav6pof  and  Ka/cof), 
 seem  to  be  nothing  more  than  appellations  intended 
 to  characterize  the  individuals  to  whom  they  arc  ap- 
 plied :  Evander,  therefore,  the  leader  of  the  Pelasgi, 
 the  head  and  chief  of  the  division  of  that  great  sacer- 
 dotal caste  which  passed  into  Italy,  and,  consequently, 
 to  apply  a  modern  term,  the  high-priest  of  the  order, 
 is  the  Good  Mail  (evardpo^),  and  Cacus,  his  opponent, 
 is  the  Bad  Mail  {naKo^).  Hercules  destroys  Cacus, 
 that  IS,  the  solar  worship,  or  some  other  Oriental  sys- 
 tem of  belief  professed  by  the  Pelasgi,  was  made  to 
 supplant  some  rude  and  probably  cruel  form  of  wor- 
 ship ;  and  as  Evander  was  high-priest  of  the  one,  so 
 Cacus,  whoever  he  was,  may  be  regarded  as  the  head 
 of  the  other.    (Compare  Ritter,  Vorhalle.  p.  343,  scqq.) 
 
 Cacijthis,  a  river  in  India  ;  according  to  Mannert, 
 the  Gurnly,  which  falls  into  the  Ganges,  to  the  north 
 of  Benares.     {Geogr.,  vol.  5,  pt.  1,  p.  93.) 
 
 Cad.mea,  the  citadel  of  Thebes,  fabled  to  have  been 
 built  by  Cadmus.  It  represents  very  evidently  the 
 early  city,  built  upon  a  height,  around  which  the  later 
 city  of  Thebes  was  subsequently  erected,  and  then  the 
 former  answered  for  a  citadel,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
 Acropolis  of  Athens.  Of  the  walls  of  the  Cadinea,  a 
 few  fragments  remain,  which  are  regularly  constructed. 
 These  were  probably  erected  by  the  Athenians,  when 
 Cassander  restored  the  city  of  Thebes.  {DodweU's 
 Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  264.) 
 
 Cadmeis,  an  ancient  name  of  Bocotia. 
 
 Cad.mus,  I.  son  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phcenicia,  by 
 Telephassa,  was  sent  by  his  father,  along  with  his 
 brothers  Phoeni.x  and  Cili.x,  in  quest  of  their  sister  Eu- 
 ,ro|)a,  who  had  been  carried  oil'  by  Jupiter,  and  they 
 were  ordered  not  to  return  until  they  had  found  her. 
 The  brothers  were  accompanied  by  their  mother,  and 
 by  Thasus,  a  son  of  Neptune.  Their  search  was  to 
 no  [lurpose  ;  they  could  get  no  intelligence  of  their 
 sister;  and,  fearing  the  indignation  of  their  father, 
 they  resolved  to  settle  in  various  countries.  Pha-ni.x 
 thereupon  established  himself  in  Plicenicia,  Cili.x  in 
 Cilicia,  and  Cadmus  and  his  mother  went  to  I'hrace, 
 where  Thasus  founded  a  town  also  named  after  him- 
 self. {ApoUod.,  3,  I,  1.) — Compare  the  somewhat  dif- 
 278 
 
 ferent  genealogy  given  by  Pherecydes.  (Schol.  ad 
 Apoll.  R.,3,  1179.)  After  the  death  of  his  mother, 
 Cadmus  went  to  Delphi,  to  inquire  of  the  oracle  re- 
 specting Europa.  The  god  desired  him  to  cease  from 
 troubling  himself  about  her,  but  to  follow  a  cow  as  his 
 guide,  and  to  build  a  city  where  she  should  he  down. 
 On  leaving  the  temple,  he  went  through  Phocis,  and 
 meeting  a  cow  belonging  to  the  herds  of  Pelagon,  he 
 followed  her.  She  went  through  Boeotia  till  she  came 
 to  where  Thebes  afterward  stood,  and  there  lay  down. 
 Wishing  to  sacrifice  her  to  Minerva,  Cadmus  sent  his 
 companions  to  fetch  water  from  the  fountain  of  Mars, 
 but  the  fount  was  guarded  by  a  serpent,  who  killed 
 the  greater  part  of  them.  Cadmus  then  engaged  and 
 destroyed  the  serpent.  By  the  direction  of  Minerva  he 
 sowed  its  teeth,  and  immediately  a  crop  of  armed  men 
 sprang  up,  who  slew  each  other,  either  quarrelling  or 
 through  Ignorance ;  for  it  is  said  that  when  Cadmus 
 saw  them  rising  he  flung  stones  at  them  ;  and  they, 
 thinking  it  was  done  by  some  of  themselves,  fell  upon 
 and  slew  each  other.  Five  only  survived,  Echion 
 [Viper),  Udaeus  (Groundly),  f^hihonmS' (Earthiy),  Hy- 
 perenor  (Mighty),  and  Pelor  (Huge).  I'hese  were 
 called  the  Sown  {airup-oi);  and  they  joined  with  Cad- 
 mus to  build  the  city.  For  killing  the  sacred  serpent 
 Cadmus  was  obliged  to  spend  a  year  in  servitude  to 
 Mars.  At  the  expiration  of  that  period,  Minerva  her- 
 self prepared  for  him  a  palace,  and  Jupiter  gave  him 
 Harmonia,  the  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus,  in  mar- 
 riage. All  the  gods,  quitting  Olympus,  celebrated  the 
 nuptials  in  the  Cadmea,  the  palace  of  Cadmus.  The 
 bridegroom  presented  his  bride  with  a  magnificent 
 robe,  and  a  collar,  the  work  of  Vulcan,  given  to  him,  it 
 is  said,  by  the  divine  artist  himself.  Harmonia  be- 
 came the  mother  of  four  daughters,  Semele,  Autonoe, 
 Ino,  and  Agave,  and  one  son,  Polydorus.  After  the 
 various  misfortunes  which  befell  their  children,  Cadmus 
 and  his  wife  quitted  Thebes,  now  grown  odious  to 
 them,  and,  migrated  to  the  country  of  the  Enchelians  ; 
 who,  being  harassed  by  the  incursions  of  the  Illyrians, 
 were  told  by  the  oracle  that,  if  they  made  Cadmus  and 
 Harmonia  their  leaders,  they  should  be  successful. 
 They  obeyed  the  god,  and  his  prediction  was  verified. 
 Cadmus  became  king  of  the  Illyrians,  and  had  a  son 
 named  lUyrius.  Shortly  afterward  he  and  Harmonia 
 were  changed  into  serpents,  and  sent  by  Jupiter  to  the 
 Elysian  plain,  or,  as  others  said,  were  conveyed  thither 
 in  a  chariot  drawn  by  serpents.  (Apollod.,  3,  4. — 
 Apoll.  R.,  4,  517.— Oru/,  Met.,  4,  563,  seqq.—Non- 
 nus,  44,  1 15.) — The  myth  of  Cadmus  is,  by  its  relation 
 to  history,  one  of  considerable  importance.  It  is  usually 
 regarded  as  oflering  a  convincing  proof  of  the  fact  of 
 colonies  from  the  East  having  come  to  Greece,  and  hav- 
 ing introduced  civilization  and  the  arts.  An  examina- 
 tion, however,  of  the  legend,  in  this  point  of  view,  wilJ 
 hardly  warrant  such  an  opinion.  In  the  Iliad,  though 
 the  Cadmeans  are  spoken  of  more  than  oiicc,  not  the 
 slightest  allusion  is  made  to  Cadmus.  In  the  Odyssey, 
 the  sea-goddess  Ino-Leucothia  is  said  to  have  l>een 
 a  mortal,  and  daughter  to  Cadmus.  {Od.,  5,  333.) 
 Hesiod  says  that  the  goddess  Harmonia  was  married  to 
 Cadmus  m  Thebes.  (TAeo^ir.,  937,  975.)  Pindar  fre- 
 quently speaks  of  Cadmus;  he  places  him  with  the  Gre- 
 cian heroes,  Pelcns  and  Achilles,  in  the  island  of  the 
 blessed  {01. ,  2,  142);  but  it  is  very  remarkable  that  this 
 Thcban  poet  never  bints  even  at  his  Phoenician  origin. 
 It  was  an  article,  however,  of  general  belief  in  Pindar's 
 time.  There  is  a  curious  coincidence  between  the 
 name  Cadmus  and  the  Semitic  term  for  the  east,  Kt- 
 dcm,  and  this  may  in  reality  be  the  sole  foundation  for 
 the  notion  of  a  Phoenician  colony  at  Tbebes  ;  for  none 
 of  the  usual  evidences  of  colonization  arc  to  be  found. 
 We  do  not,  for  example,  meet  with  the  slightest  trace 
 of  Phoenician  influence  in  the  language,  manners, 
 or  institutions  of  Boeotia.  It  is  farther  a  thing  most 
 incredible,  that  a  seafaring,  commercial  people  like  lh« 
 
CAD 
 
 C  ^  C 
 
 Phoenicians  should  have  selected,  as  the  site  of  their 
 very  earliest  foreign  settlement,  a  place  situated  in  a 
 rich  fertile  valley,  away  from  the  sea,  and  only  adapted 
 for  agriculture,  without  mines,  or  any  of  those  objects 
 of  trade  which  might  tempt  a  people  of  that  character. 
 It  IS  also  strange,  that  the  descendants  of  these  colo- 
 nists should  have  so  entirely  put  off  the  Phcenician 
 character  as  to  become  noted  in  after  ages  for  their 
 dislike  of  trade  of  any  kind.  We  may,  therefore,  now 
 venture  to  dismiss  this  theory,  and  seek  a  Grecian 
 origin  for  Cadmus.  {Miiilcr,  Orchomenus,  p.  113, 
 seq.) — Homer  and  Hesiod  call  the  people  of  Thebes 
 Cadmearis  or  Cadmeoniaiis,  and  the  country  the  Cad- 
 mean  land  ;  the  citadel  was  at  all  times  named  the 
 Cadinea.  Cadmus  is  therefore  apparently  (like  Pelas- 
 gus,  Dorus,  Ion,  Thessalus,  and  so  many  others)  mere- 
 ly a  personification  of  the  name  of  the  people.  Again, 
 Cadmilos  or  Cadmus  was  a  name  of  Mercury  in  the 
 mysteries  of  Samothrace,  which  were  instituted  by  the 
 Tyrrhenian  Pelasgi,  who,  at  the  time  of  the  Dorian 
 migration,  being  driven  from  Boeotia,  settled  on  the 
 islands  in  the  north  of  the  ^gean.  The  name  Cad- 
 mus, moreover,  occurs  only  at  Thebes  and  Samo- 
 thrace ;  Harmonia  also  was  an  object  of  worship  in  this 
 last  place,  and  the  Cabiri  were  likewise  worshipped  at 
 Thebes.  ]\ow,  as  the  word  Ku6/io(  may  be  deduced 
 from  Kai^u,  "  to  adorn"  or  "  order,"  and  answers  exactly 
 lo  Ktiff^of,  the  name  of  the  chief  magistrate  in  Crete, 
 it  has  been  inferred,  that  Cadmus-Hermes,  i.  e  ,  Her- 
 mes, the  Regulator  or  Disposer,  a  cosinogonic  power, 
 |ave  name  to  a  portion  of  the  Pelasgic  race,  and  that, 
 >n  the  usual  manner,  the  god  was  made  a  mortal  king. 
 [MuUer,  Orchomenus,  p.  461,  seqq. — Id  ,  Prolegom., 
 p.  146,  seqq. — Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  325,  seqq.) 
 — The  ancient  tradition  was,  that  Cadinus  brought  six- 
 teen letters  from  Phoenicia  to  Greece,  to  which  Pala- 
 medes  added  subsequently  four  more,  ■&,  f,  0,  Xy  aid 
 Siinonides,  at  a  still  later  period,  four  others,  Ci  V^  i'l  '^■ 
 The  traditional  alphabet  of  Cadinus  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  the  following  :  A,  B,  F,  A,  E,  ¥,  I,  K,  A, 
 M,  N,  O,  n,  P,  2,T,  and  the  names  were,  'AXda,  Bz/ra, 
 Tui-iua,  AeXra,  E,l,  Fai,  'lura,  Kumra,  Au/n6da,  Mv, 
 No,  Oil,  m,  T(J,  Itiyjia,  Tav.  The  explanation  which 
 has  just  been  given  to  the  myth  of  Cadmus,  and  its 
 connexion  with  the  Pelasgi,  has  an  important  bearing 
 on  the  question  relative  to  the  existence  of  an  early 
 Pelasgic  alphabet  in  Greece,  some  remarks  on  which 
 will  be  found  under  the  article  Pelasgi. — II.  A  native 
 of  Miletus,  who  flourished  about  5'20  B.C.  Pliny 
 (7,  56)  calls  him  the  most  ancient  of  the  logograpki. 
 In  another  passage  (5,  29),  he  makes  him  to  have 
 been  the  first  prose  writer,  though  elsewhere  he  at- 
 tributes this  to  Pherecydes.  According  to  a  remark 
 of  Isocrates  (in  his  discourse  nepl  avTidoaecj^),  Cad- 
 mus was  the  first  that  bore  the  title  of  aoCfUaTr/c,  by 
 which  appellation  was  then  meant  an  eloquent  man 
 He  wrote  on  the  antiquities  of  his  native  city.  His 
 work  was  abridged  by  Bion  of  Proconnesus.  {Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  134.) 
 
 Caduceus,  the  wand  of  the  god  Mercury,  with 
 which  he  conducts  the  souls  of  the  departed  to  the 
 lower  world.  In  the  case  of  the  god  it  is  of  gold,  hence 
 called  by  the  poets  aiirea  rirga,  and  was  said  to  have 
 been  given  him  by  Apollo  iii  exchange  for  the  lyre, 
 which  the  former  had  invented.  Commonly  speaking, 
 liowcver.  It  was  a  wand  of  laurel  or  olive,  with  two 
 httle  wings  on  the  upper  end,  and  with  two  serpents 
 entivuicd  aljout  this  same  part,  having  their  heads  turn- 
 ed towards  each  other,  the  whole  serving  as  a  symbol 
 ef  peace.  According  to  the  fable.  Mercury,  when 
 travelling  in  Arcadia,  saw  two  serpents  ficrhting  with 
 one  another,  and  threw  the  rod  of  peac^'e  bt'tween 
 them,  whereupon  they  instantly  ceased  from  the  con- 
 test, and  wound  themselves  around  the  staff  in  friendly 
 and  lasting  union.  Bottiger,  however,  gives  a  much 
 awre  rational  explanation.     According  to  this  writer, 
 
 the  caducous  was  of  Phoenician  origin,  and  what  were 
 the  serpents  in  latter  days  consisted  originally  of 
 nothing  more  than  a  mere  knot,  skilfully  formed,  and 
 used  to  secure  the  chests  and  wares  of  the  Phoenician 
 traders.  This  knot  became  very  probably  attached,  in 
 the  course  of  time,  to  a  bough  adorned  with  green 
 leaves  at  the  end,  and  the  whole  thus  formed  a  sym- 
 bol of  traffic.  Here  we  see  also  the  origin  of  the 
 wings.  The  caducous  served  Mercury  also  as  a  her- 
 ald's staff,  and  hence  its  Greek  name  KripvKSiov, 
 whence,  as  some  think,  the  Latin  caduceus  is  cor- 
 rupted. The  term  caduceus  was  also  applied  some- 
 times to  the  wliile  wand  cr  rod,  which  the  ancient  her- 
 alds regarded  as  the  symbol  of  peace.  (Consult  Bot- 
 tiger, AmaUhea,  vol.  i,  p.  l(/4,  seqq.) 
 
 Cadurci,  a  people  of  Gallia  Cellica,  living  between 
 the  Oldus  or  Oltis  (the  O't)  and  the  Duranius  {Dor- 
 dogne),  two  of  the  northern  branches  of  the  Garumna. 
 Their  capital  was  Divona,  afterward  called  from  their 
 own  name  Cadurci,  now  Cahors.    {Cas.,  B.  G.,  7,  4.) 
 
 C.'VDVTis,  a  town  of  Syria,  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
 (2,  159).  It  is  supposed  by  Reland  to  have  been  the 
 same  with  Gath.  D'Anville,  Rennell,  and  many 
 others,  however,  identify  it  with  Jerusalem.  This 
 latter  opinion  is  undoubtedly  the  more  correct  one, 
 and  the  name  Cadytis  would  seem  to  be  only  a  cor- 
 ruption of  the  Hebrew  Kedosha,  i.  e.,  "  holy  city." 
 With  this,  too,  the  present  Arabic  name  El  Kads,  i.  e., 
 "  the  holy,"  clearly  agrees.  {Rennell,  Gcngr.  Herod., 
 vol.  1,  p.  324. — Roscninullcr,  Bibl.  Alterthumsk,  vol. 
 2,  pt,  1,  p.  487. — Heeren,  Ideen,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  114. 
 — Dahlman,  Herod.,  p.  75. —  Valckenczr,  Opusc,  vol. 
 1,  p.  152,  seqq. — B'dhr,  Excurs.,  11,  ad  Herod.,  l.  c.) 
 
 (2m\,  an  island  of  the^gean  Sea,  among  the  Cyc- 
 lades,  called  also  Ceos  and  Cea.      (  F?rf.  Ceos.) 
 
 C^ciAS,  a  wind  blowing  from  the  northeast.  (Com- 
 pare Aldus  Gcllius,  2,  22,  and  Schneider,  Lex.,  s.  v. 
 KaiKiag.) 
 
 CECILIA  Caia,  or  Tanaquii-.      Vid.  Tanaquil. 
 
 CECILIA  Lex,  I.  was  proposed  A.U.C.  693,  by 
 Caecilius  Metellus  Nepos,  to  exempt  the  city  and  Italy 
 from  taxes.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Att.,  2,  9. — Dw  Cass., 
 37,  61.) — II.  Another,  called  also  Didia,  or  Didia  et 
 Caciiia,  A.U.C.  654,  by  the  consuls  Q.  Ca;cilius  Me- 
 tellus and  T.  Didius,  that  laws  should  be  promul- 
 gated for  three  market-days  (17  days),  and  that  several 
 distinct  things  should  not  be  included  in  the  same  law, 
 which  practice  was  called  ferre  per  saluram. — III. 
 .\nother,  A.U.C.  701,  to  restore  to  the  censors  their 
 original  rights  and  privileges,  which  had  been  lessen- 
 ed by  P.  Clodius,  the  tribune. — IV.  .'\nother,  called 
 also  Gabinia,  A.U.C.  685,  against  usury. 
 
 CECILIA  (gkns),  a  distinguished  plebeian  family  of 
 Rome,  the  principal  branch  of  which  were  the  Melelli. 
 They  pretended  to  have  derived  their  origin  from  Cas- 
 culus,  son  of  Vulcan. 
 
 C^ciLius,  I.  Metellus.  {Vid.  Metellus.) — II.  Sta- 
 tius,  a  comic  poet,  originally  a  Gallic  slave.  {AuL 
 GclL,  4,  20  )  His  productions  were  held  in  high  es- 
 timation by  the  Romans,  and  were  sometimes  ranked 
 on  an  equality  with  those  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  at 
 other  times  preferred  to  them.  {Horat.,  Ep.,  2,  1,  59. 
 — Cic,  de  Orat  ,  2,  10.— W.  ad  Attic,  1,  3.—  Vulga- 
 lius  Sedigilus,  ap.  Aid.  GelL,  15,  24.)  He  died  one 
 year  after  Ennius.  We  possess  the  names  and  frag- 
 ments of  more  than  thirty  of  his  comedies,  in  which 
 he  appears  to  have  copied  the  writers  of  the  INew 
 Comedy  among  the  Greeks,  especially  .Menander. 
 {B'dhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  p.  70.) 
 
 CjEcina,  Allienus,  a  celebrated  general,  a  native 
 of  Gaul.  He  commanded  at  first  a  legion  for  Galba, 
 in  Germany  ;  then  he  embraced  the  party  of  Vitcllius, 
 and  gained  him  the  crown  by  the  victory  of  Bedria- 
 cum,  where  Oiho  was  defeated.  Soon  after  this,  how- 
 ever, he  abandoned  Vitellius  and  went  over  to  Vespa- 
 sian.    Irritated  at  not  being  promoted  by  the  new  e;n- 
 
 279 
 
C.E  N 
 
 C^  R 
 
 peror  to  the  honours  at  which  he  aimed,  he  conspired 
 against  him,  but  was  slain  by  order  of  Titus  at  a  ban- 
 quet. Some  writers  have  thrown  doubts  on  this  con- 
 spiracy, and  have  pretended  that  Titus  was  actuated 
 by  a  feehng  of  jealousy  m  seeing  Caecina  regarded 
 with  attaclimcnt  by  Berenice.  (Tacit.,  Hist.,  1,  61. 
 —Id.   lb.,  3,  \-S.—Dio  Ca.is.,  G6,  16.) 
 
 C^cuDus  AuER,  a  district  in  the  vicinity  of  For- 
 raiae  and  Caieta  in  Latium,  famous  for  its  wines. 
 I'liny  (14,  6)  informs  us,  that,  before  his  time,  the 
 Ca?cuban  wine,  which  came  from  the  poplar  marshes 
 of  Ainyclaj,  was  most  esteemed,  but  that  at  the  period 
 when  he  wrote,  it  had  lost  its  repute,  through  the  neg- 
 ligence of  the  growers,  and  partly  from  the  limited 
 extent  of  the  vineyards,  which  had  been  ne-jrly  destroy- 
 ed by  the  navigable  canal  begun  by  Nero  from  the 
 Lake  Avernus  to  Ostia.  Galen  (Athcn.,  1,  21)  de- 
 scribes the  Caecuban  as  a  generous  and  durable  wine, 
 but  apt  to  alTcct  the  head,  and  ripening  only  after 
 many  years.  When  new  it  probably  belonged  to  the 
 class  of  rough  sweet  wines.  It  was  Horace's  favour- 
 ite, and  scarce  after  the  breaking  up  of  the  principal 
 vineyards.  The  best,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  oldest 
 vintage,  was  the  Opimian.  L.  Opimius  Nepos  was 
 consul  A.U.  633,  in  which  year  the  excessive  heat  of 
 the  summer  caused  all  the  productions  of  the  earth  to 
 attain  an  uncommon  degree  of  perfection.  (Vid.  Fa- 
 lernum  and  Massicus.  —  Henderson's  Hist.  Arte,  and 
 Mod.   Wines,  p.  81,  scqq.) 
 
 C.'Et  uLus,  a  son  of  Vulcan,  conceived,  as  some  say, 
 by  his  mother  as  she  was  silting  by  the  fire,  a  spark 
 having  leaped  forth  into  her  bosom.  After  a  life  spent 
 in  plundering  and  rapine,  he  built  Prseneste  ;  but,  being 
 unable  to  find  inhabitants,  he  implored  Vulcan  to  tell 
 him  whether  he  really  was  his  father  Upon  this  a 
 flame  suddenly  shone  around  a  multitude  who  were  as- 
 sembled to  see  some  spectacle,  and  they  were  imme- 
 diately persuaded  to  become  the  subjects  of  Cseculus. 
 Virgil  says,  that  he  was  found  on  the  hearth,  or,  as 
 some  less  correctly  explain  it,  in  the  very  fire  itself, 
 and  hence  was  fabled  to  have  been  the  son  of  Vulcan. 
 The  name  Calculus  refers,  it  is  said,  to  the  small  size 
 of  the  pupils  of  his  eyes.  (  Yirg.,  JEn.,  7,  680. — Scrv. 
 ad   Vtrg.,  I.  c.) 
 
 CvELEs  ViBENNA.      Vid.  Vibenna. 
 
 Cje\aa  Lex,  was  enacted  A.U.C.  630,  by  C^lius, 
 a  tribune.  It  ordained,  that  in  judicial  proceedings  be- 
 fore the  people,  in  cases  of  treason,  the  votes  should 
 be  given  by  ballot  ;  contrary  to  the  exception  of  the 
 Cassian  law.  (Heinecc.,  Antiq.  Rom.,  ed.  Hauhold, 
 p.  250.) 
 
 CjElius,  I.  a  young  Roman  of  considerable  tal- 
 ents and  accomplishments,  intrusted  to  the  care  of 
 Cicero  on  his  first  introduction  to  the  forum.  Having 
 imprudently  engaged  in  an  intrigue  with  Clodia,  the 
 well-known  sister  of  (^lodius,  and  having  afterward 
 deserted  her,  she  accused  him  of  an  attempt  to  poison 
 her,  and  of  having  borrowed  money  from  her  in  order  to 
 procure  the  assassination  of  Dio,  the  Alexandrean  am- 
 bassador. He  was  defended  by  Cicero  in  an  oration 
 which  is  still  extant. — II.  Aurelianns,  a  medical  wri- 
 ter. {Vid.  Aurelianus.) — III.  Sabinus,  a  writer  in  the 
 age  of  Vespasian,  who  composed  a  treatise  on  the 
 edicts  of  the  curule  edilcs.— IV.  One  of  the  seven 
 hills  on  which  Rome  was  built.  Romulus  surrounded 
 it  with  a  ditch  and  rampart,  and  it  was  enclosed  by 
 walls  by  the  succeeding  kings.  It  is  supposed  to 
 have  received  its  name  from  Caeles  Vibenna. 
 
 C.ENE,  or  CiENEPoLis,  I.  a  town  of  Egypt,  in  the 
 Panopolitain  nome,  supposed  to  be  the  present  Ghcnne 
 or  Kc7ine.^U.  A  town  near  the  promontory  of  Tsena- 
 rus  :  its  previous  name  was  Tajtiarum.  {Vid.  Ta;na- 
 rus.) 
 
 CvENEUs.      Vid.  Caenis. 
 
 CyENiDEs,  a   patronymic   of  Eetion,  as  descended 
 from  Caenus.     {Herod.,  5,  92.) 
 280 
 
 C.«NiNA,  a  town  of  Latium,  near  Rome,  placed  by 
 Cluverius  on  the  banks  of  the  Anio.  The  inhabi- 
 tants, called  Caninenses,  made  war  against  the  Ro- 
 mans after  the  rape  of  the  Sabines.  Having  been 
 conquered  by  Romulus,  Caenina  is  said  to  have  re- 
 ceived a  colony  from  the  victor,  together  with  Antem- 
 nae.  {Dion.  Hal.,  2,  36.)  It  is  thought  to  have  stood 
 on  the  hill  of  SanC  Angela,  ox  Movticelli.  {Holslen., 
 Adjiot.,  p.  103.) 
 
 CaiNis,  a  Thessalian  son  of  Elatus,  and  one  of  the 
 Lapithae.  He  was,  according  to  the  fable,  originally 
 a  female,  and  obtained  from  Neptune  the  privilege 
 of  changing  sex,  and  of  becoming  a  warrior  and  in- 
 vulnerable. In  this  new  sex  he  became  celebrated 
 for  his  valour  and  his  exploits  in  the  war  against  the 
 Centaurs.  He  offended  Jupiter,  and  was  changed  into 
 a  bird.  Virgil  represents  Caenis  under  a  female  form 
 in  the  lower  world.  (^En.,  6,  44S.)  The  name  is 
 sometimes,  but  less  correctly,  given  as  Cseneus.  (Con 
 suit  Hcync,  ad  Mn.,  I.  c.) 
 
 C^NVs,  a  promontory  of  Italy,  in  the  country  of 
 the  Bruttii,  north  of  Rhegium.  It  faced  the  promon- 
 tory of  Pelorus  in  Sicily,  and  formed,  by  its  means, 
 the  narrowest  part  of  the  Fretum  Siculum.  {Sirabo, 
 256.)  According  to  Pliny  (3,  10),  these  two  prom- 
 ontories were  separated  by  an  interval  of  twelve  sta- 
 dia, or  a  mile  and  a  half  :  a  statement  which  accords 
 with  that  of  Polybius  (1,  42).  Thucydides,  on  the 
 other  hand  (6,  1),  seems  to  allow  two  and  a  half  for 
 the  breadth  of  the  strait,  but,  at  the  same  time,  con- 
 siders this  as  the  utmost  amount  of  the  distance. 
 Topographers  are  divided  as  to  the  exact  point  of  the 
 Italian  coast  which  answers  to  Cape  Caenys ;  the 
 Calabrian  geographers  say,  the  Funta  del  Pezzo,  call- 
 ed also  Coda  del  Voipe,  in  which  opinion  Cluverius 
 and  D'Anville  coincide  ;  but  Holstenius  contends  for 
 the  Torre  del  Cavallo.  This  perhaps  may,  in  fact, 
 be  the  narrowest  point;  but  it  does  not  apparently  an- 
 swer so  well  to  Strabo's  description  of  the  figure  and 
 bearing  of  Cape  Caenys.  {Cramer^s  Ancient  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  426,  seqq.) 
 
 CjERE,  or,  as  it  is  always  called  by  the  Greek  wri- 
 ters, Agylla,  one  of  the  most  considerable  cities  of 
 Etruria,  and  universally  acknowledged  to  have  beea 
 founded  by  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgi.  {Dion  Hal.,  1, 
 20. — Id.,  3,  60.)  It  was  situate  near  the  coast,  to  the 
 west  of  Veii.  Ancient  writers  seem  puzzled  to  ac- 
 count for  the  change  of  name  which  this  city  is  allow- 
 ed to  have  undergone,  the  Romans  never  calling  it 
 anything  but  Caere,  excej)t  Virgil.  {Mn.,  8,  478  ) 
 Strabo  (220)  relates,  that  the  Tyrrheni,  on  arriving 
 before  this  city,  were  hailed  by  the  Pelasgi  from  the 
 walls  with  the  word  Xaipe,  according  to  the  Greek 
 mode  of  salutation  ;  and  that,  when  ihoy  had  made 
 themselves  masters  of  the  place,  they  changed  its 
 name  to  that  form  of  greeting.  Other  variations  of 
 this  story  may  be  seen  in  Servius  (ad  JSn.,  8,  597). 
 According  to  one  of  them,  given  on  the  authority  of 
 Hyginiis,  the  Romans,  and  not  the  Lydians,  changed 
 its  name  from  Agylla  to  Caere.  Al!  these  expJana- 
 tions,  however,  are  very  unsatisfactory.  It  has  been 
 supposed  that  Csere  might  be  the  original  name,  or 
 perhaps  that  which  the  Siculi,  the  ancient  possessors, 
 gave  to  the  place  before  the  Pelasgic  invasion.  Ker 
 is  a  Celtic  word.  (Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p. 
 205.)  According  to  Miiller  (Die,  Eirusker,  vol.  1.  p 
 87),  the  two  names  for  the  place  point  to  two  diffpient 
 stems  or  races  of  inhabitants.  This  same  writer 
 makes  the  genuine  Etrurian  name  to  have  been  Cisra. 
 ((Compare  Verriu.t  Flucats.,  Elrusc.  1,  ap.  Intcrp. 
 JEn  ,  10,  183,  Vcron  )  The  earliest  record  to  he 
 found  of  the  history  of  Agylla  is  in  Herodotus  (1,  166), 
 That  writer  informs  us,  that  the  Phocaeans,  having 
 been  driven  from  their  native  city  on  the  shores  of 
 Ionia  by  the  arms  of  Cyrus,  formed  establishments  in 
 Corsica,  of  which  the  Tyrrhenians  and  Carthaginiaoa 
 
c^  s 
 
 C^SAR. 
 
 jealous  of  their  nautical  skill  and  enterprising  spirit, 
 sought  to  dispossess  them.  A  severe  action  accord- 
 ingly took  place  in  the  Sea  of  Sardinia,  between  the 
 Phocffians  and  the  combined  fleet  of  the  latter  powers, 
 in  which  the  former  gained  the  day  ;  but  it  was  such 
 a  victory  as  left  them  little  room  for  exultation,  they 
 having  lost  several  of  their  ships,  and  the  rest  being 
 nearly  all  disabled.  The  Agylleans,  who  appear  to 
 have  constituted  the  principal  force  of  the  Tyrrhenians, 
 on  their  return  home  landed  their  prisoners  and  barba- 
 rously stoned  them  to  death  ;  for  which  act  of  cruelly 
 they  were  soon  visited  by  a  strange  calamity.  It  was 
 observed,  that  all  the  living  creatures  which  approach- 
 ed the  spot  where  the  Phocxans  had  been  murdered, 
 were  immediately  seized  with  convulsive  distortions 
 and  paralytic  affections  of  the  limbs.  On  consulting 
 the  oracle  at  Delphi,  to  learn  how  they  might  expiate 
 their  offence,  the  Agylleans  were  commanded  to  cele- 
 brate the  obsequies  of  the  dead,  and  to  hold  games  in 
 their  honour;  which  order,  the  historian  informs  us,  was 
 punctually  attended  to  up  to  his  time.  We  learn  also 
 from  Strabo  (220),  that  the  Agylleans  enjoyed  a  great 
 reputation  for  justice  among  the  Greeks  ;  for,  though 
 very  powerful,  and  able  to  send  ont  large  fleets  and  nu- 
 merous armies,  they  always  abstained  from  piracy,  to 
 which  the  other  Tyrrhenian  cities  were  much  addicted. 
 According  to  Dionysius,  the  Romans  were  first  en- 
 gaged in  hostilities  with  Caere  under  the  reign  of  Tar- 
 quin  the  Elder,  and  subsequently  under  Servius  Tul- 
 lius,  by  whom  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the 
 two  states  (3,  28).  Long  after,  when  Rome  had 
 been  taken  by  the  Gauls,  the  inhabitants  of  Csre  ren- 
 dered the  former  city  an  important  service,  by  receiv- 
 ing their  priests  and  vestals,  and  defeating  the  Gauls 
 on  their  return  through  the  Sabine  territory  ;  on  which 
 occasion  they  recovered  the  gold  with  which  Rome 
 is  said  to  have  purchased  its  liberation.  This  is  a  cu- 
 rious fact,  and  not  mentioned  by  any  historian  ;  but 
 it  agrees  very  well  with  the  account  which  Polybius 
 gives  us  of  the  retreat  of  the  Gauls  (1,  6).  In  re- 
 *urn  for  this  assistance,  the  Romans  requited  the  Cae- 
 rites  by  declaring  them  the  public  guests  of  Rome,  and 
 admitting  them,  though  not  in  full,  to  the  rights  en- 
 ioyed  by  her  citizens.  They  were  made  citizens,  but 
 without  the  right  of  voting  ;  whence  the  phrases,  iji 
 Carituin  tabulas  rcfcrre  aliquem,  "  to  deprive  one  of 
 his  right  of  voting,"  and  Carite  cera  digni,  "  worth- 
 less persons,"  in  reference  to  citizens  of  Rome,  since 
 what  would  be  an  honour  to  the  people  of  Caere  would 
 be  a  punishment  to  a  native  Roman  citizen.  {Cra- 
 mer's Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  207.) — "  It  is  a  weak 
 notion  of  Strabo,"  observes  Niebuhr,  "  that  the  Ro- 
 mans had  acted  ungratefully  in  not  admitting  the  Cae- 
 rites  to  a  higher  franchise.  It  was  not  in  their  power 
 to  do  so,  unless  the  Cffirites  themselves  preferred  re- 
 nouncing the  independence  of  their  state,  receiving 
 their  landed  property  from  the  republic,  according  to 
 the  Roman  law,  and  forming  a  new  tribe  ;  and  this 
 they  were  certainly  far  from  wishing  at  that  time,  as 
 fortune  had  been  more  favourable  to  them  in  the  Gal- 
 lic war  than  to  Rome ;  if,  indeed,  the  Roman  citizen- 
 ship were  really  conferred  on  the  Carites  at  this  time, 
 and  not  considerably  earlier,  in  the  flourishing  days  of 
 the  ancient  Agylla."  {Roman  History,  vol.  1,  p. 
 403,  Wallrys  Iransl.)  In  the  first  edition  of  his 
 work  (vol.  I,  p.  193,  scqq..  m  notis),  Niebuhr  starts 
 the  oold  hypothesis,  that  Care  was  the  -parent  city  of 
 Rome.  In  the  second  edition,  however  {Cambridge 
 transl.),  this  theory  is  silently  withdrawn. 
 
 C^SAR,  a  surname  given  to  the  Julian  family  at 
 Rome,  for  which  various  etymologies  have  been  assicrn- 
 ed.  Pliny  (7,  9)  informs  us,  that  the  first  who  bore  the 
 name  was  so  called,  quod  cceso  mortuce  matris  utero 
 natus  fuerit.  Festus  derives  it  from  ccesaries,  cum 
 qua  e  matns  venire  prodierit.  Others,  because  the 
 Cist  of  the  name  slew  an  elephant,  which  was  called 
 
 ccBsa  in  Punic,  as  Servus  informs  us  {ad  JEn.,  1,  290). 
 The  derivation  of  Pliny  is  generally  considered  the  best. 
 The  nobility  of  the  Julian  family  was  so  ancient  and 
 so  illustrious,  that,  even  after  it  obtained  the  imperial 
 dignity,  it  needed  not  the  exaggeration  of  flatterers  to 
 exalt  it.  Within  thirty  years  after  the  commencement 
 of  the  republic,  we  find  the  name  of  C.  Julius  on  the 
 list  of  consuls,  and  the  same  person,  or  a  relation  of 
 the  same  name,  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  De- 
 cemviri by  whom  the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables  were 
 compiled.  It  numbered,  after  this,  several  other  indi- 
 viduals who  attained  to  the  offices  of  praetor  and  con- 
 sul, one  of  whom,  L.  Julius  Casar,  distinguished  him- 
 self in  the  Italian  war  by  a  great  victory  over  the 
 Samnites,  and  was  afterward  murdered  by  order  of 
 Marius.  Another,  of  the  same  line,  C.  Julkis  Cssar, 
 the  brother  of  Lucius,  was  eminent  as  a  public  speaker 
 for  his  wit  and  pleasantry,  and  perished  together  with 
 the  former  when  I\Iarius  and  Cinna  first  assumed  the 
 government. — The  most  illustrious  of  the  name,  how- 
 ever, was  C.  Julius  C^s.tR,  born  July  {Quinlilis) 
 10th,  B.C.  100.  His  father  was  C.  Julius  Ca>sar,  a 
 man  of  praetorian  rank,  and  is  recorded  by  Pliny  (7, 
 53)  as  a  remarkable  instance  of  sudden  death,  he 
 having  expired  suddenly  one  morning  at  Pisa  while 
 dressing  himself.  C.  Caesar  married  Aurelia,  of  the 
 family  of  Aurelius  Cotta,  and  of  these  parents  was 
 born  the  subject  of  the  present  sketch.  From  his  ear- 
 liest boyhood  Caesar  discovered  extraordinary  talents. 
 He  had  a  penetrating  intellect,  a  remarkably  strong 
 memory,  and  a  lively  imagination;  was  indefatigable  in 
 business,  and  able,  as  we  are  told  by  Pliny,  to  read, 
 write,  hear,  and  dictate,  at  one  and  the  same  time, 
 from  four  to  seven  different  letters.  When  the  party 
 of  Marius  had  gained  the  ascendancy  at  Rome,  Cinna 
 gave  his  daughter  Cornelia  in  marriage  to  Caesar. 
 The  latter  was  also  farther  connected  with  the  popular 
 party  through  the  marriage  of  Julia,  his  father's  sister, 
 with  the  elder  Marius  ;  yet,  although  thus  doubly  ob- 
 noxious to  the  victorious  side,  he  refused  to  comply 
 with  the  commands  of  Sylla,  to  divorce  his  wife  ;  and 
 being  exposed,  in  consequence,  to  his  resentment,  he 
 fled  from  Rome,  and  baffled  all  attempts  upon  his  life, 
 partly  by  concealing  himself,  and  partly  by  bribing 
 the  officers  sent  to  kill  him,  till  Sylla  was  prevailed 
 upon,  according  to  Suetonius,  to  spare  him  at  the  en- 
 treaty of  some  common  friends.  A  story  was  after- 
 ward common,  that  Sylla  did  not  pardon  without  great 
 reluctance ;  and  that  he  told  those  who  sued  in  his 
 behalf,  that  in  Cassar  there  were  many  Mariuses.  Had 
 he  indeed  thought  so,  his  was  not  a  temper  to  have 
 yielded  to  any  supplications  to  save  him  ;  nor  would 
 any  considerations  have  induced  him,  to  exempt  from 
 destruction  one  from  whom  he  had  apprehended  so 
 great  a  danger.  After  this,  the  young  Caesar  pro- 
 ceeded to  the  court  of  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bithynia, 
 and  on  leaving  this  monarch,  of  whose  intimacy  with 
 him  a  scandalous  anecdote  is  recorded,  he  went  to  M. 
 Municius  Thermus,  then  praetor  in  Asia,  who  intrust- 
 ed him  with  the  command  of  the  fleet  that  was  to 
 blockade  Mytilcne.  In  the  execution  of  this  trust 
 Caesar  distinguished  himself  highly,  although  but  twen- 
 ty-two years  of  age.  He  next  visited  Rhodes,  and 
 studied  eloquence  for  some  time  under  Apollonius 
 Molo,  from  whom  Cicero,  about  the  same  period,  was 
 also  receiving  instruction.  {Sutton.,  Jul.,  c.  4. — Cic, 
 de  Ciar.  Or.,  c.  9L)  On  the  way  thither  he  was 
 taken  by  pirates,  and  was  detained  by  them  till  he 
 collected  from  some  of  the  neighbouring  cities  fifty 
 talents  for  his  ransom.  No  sooner,  however,  was  he 
 released,  than  he  procured  a  small  naval  force,  and 
 set  out  on  his  own  sole  authority  in  pursuit  of  theni. 
 He  overtook  the  pirates,  and  captured  some  of  their 
 vessels,  which  he  brought  back  to  the  coast  of  Asia 
 with  a  number  of  prisoners.  He  then  sent  word  of 
 hia  success  to  the  proconsul  of  Asia,  requesting  hiia 
 
 281 
 
CESAR. 
 
 CESAR. 
 
 tt  order  the  execution  of  the  captives  ;  but  that  officer 
 being  more  inclined  to  have  them  sold  as  slaves.  Cssar 
 crucified  them  all  without  loss  of  time,  before  the  pro- 
 consul's pleasure  was  officially  known.  Such  con- 
 duct was  not  likely  to  recommend  him  to  those  in  au- 
 thority ;  and  we  are  told  that  on  several  other  occa- 
 sions, he  wished  to  act  for  himself  {Veil.  Patcrc  ,  2, 
 67. — Sucton.,  Jul ,  4).  and  even  to  take  part  in  the 
 war  which  was  now  renewed  with  .Mithradates,  without 
 any  commission  from  the  government,  and  without 
 submitting  himself  to  any  of  the  regular  officers  of  the 
 republic.  These  early  instances  of  his  lawless  spirit 
 are  recorded  with  admiration  by  some  of  his  historians, 
 as  affording  proofs  of  vigour  and  greatness  of  mind. 
 He  now  returned  to  Rome,  and  became,  in  succession, 
 military  tribune,  qujpstor,  and  ledile.  At  the  same 
 time,  he  had  the  address  to  win  the  favour  of  the  peo- 
 ple by  affability,  by  splendid  entertainments,  and  pub- 
 lic shows ;  and,  trusting  to  his  popularity,  he  ven- 
 tured to  erect  again  the  statues  of  Marius,  whose 
 memory  was  hated  by  the  senate  and  patricians.  In 
 the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  he  certainly  had  a  secret 
 part  ;  and  his  speech  in  the  senate,  on  the  question  of 
 their  punishment,  was  regarded  bv  many  as  an  actual 
 proof  of  this,  for  he  insisted  that  death,  by  the  Roman 
 constitution,  was  an  illegal  punishment,  and  that  the 
 property  merely  of  the  conspirators  should  be  con- 
 fiscated, and  they  themselves  condemned  to  perpetual 
 imprisonment.  Soon  after  this  he  was  chosen  pontifex 
 maximus,  and  was  about  to  go  as  governor  to  Farther 
 Spain;  but  his  creditors  refusing  to  let  him  depart, 
 Crassus  became  his  security  in  the  enormous  sum  of 
 eight  hundred  and  thirty  talents.  It  was  on  his  jour- 
 ney to  Spain  that  the  remarkable  expression  fell  from 
 his  lips,  on  seeing  a  miserable  village  bv  the  wav. 
 "  that  he  would  rather  be  first  there  than  second  at 
 Rome."  When  he  entered  on  the  government  of  this 
 province,  he  displayed  the  same  ability,  and  the  same 
 unscrupulous  waste  of  human  lives  for  the  purposes  of 
 his  ambition,  which  distinguished  his  subsequent  ca- 
 reer. In  order  to  retrieve  his  fortune,  to  gain  a  mili- 
 tary reputation,  and  to  entitle  himself  to  the  honour  of 
 a  triumph,  he  attacked  some  of  the  native  tribes  on  the 
 most  frivolous  pretences  {Dio  Cass.,  37,  .02),  and  thus 
 enriched  himself  and  his  armv,  and  gained  the  credit 
 of  a  siiccessful  general  by  the  plunder  and  massacre 
 of  these  poor  barbarians  On  his  return  to  Rome  he 
 paid  off  his  numerous  and  heavy  debts,  and,  in  order 
 to  gain  the  consulship,  brought  about  a  reconciliation 
 between  Pompev  and  Crassus.  whose  enmitv  had  di- 
 vided Rome  into  two  great  parlies.  He  succeeded 
 in  his  design,  and  that  famous  coalition  was  cventuallv 
 formed  between  Pompev,  Crassus.  and  himself,  which 
 is  known  in  Roman  history  bv  the  name  of  the  First 
 Triumvirate  (Tirf  Triumvir.)  Supported  bv  such 
 powerful  assistants,  in  addition  to  his  own  popularitv, 
 Capsar  was  elected  consul,  with  ^^.  Calpurnius  Bibu- 
 lus,  confirmed  the  measures  of  Pompev,  and  procured 
 the  passage  of  a  law  for  the  distribution  of  certain 
 ]ands  among  the  poorer  class  of  citizens.  This,  of 
 course,  brought  him  high  popularitv.  M'iih  Pompey 
 he  formed  a  still  more  intimate  connexion,  bv  givins; 
 him  his  daughter  Julia  in  marriage  ;  and  the  favour  of 
 the  equestrian  order  was  gained  by  releasing  them 
 from  a  disadvantageous  contract  for  the  revenues  of 
 Asia,  a  step  which  the  senate  had  refused  to  take  in 
 their  behalf;  and  thus  the  afft-ctions  of  a  powerful 
 boilv  of  men  were  alienated  from  the  aristocracy  at 
 the  verv  time  when  their  assistance  was  most  needful. 
 ^^'hen  the  year  of  his  consulship  had  expired.  Caesar  ob- 
 tained fron  the  people,  by  the  Vatinian  law.  the  govern- 
 ment of  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  Illyricum,  for  five  years, 
 with  an  armv  of  three  iegions.  .As  the  law  then 
 stood,  the  disposal  of  such  commands  was  vested  in 
 the  senate  alone  ;  but  that  body,  wishing,  no  doubt,  to 
 increase  the  weight  of  Csesar's  employments  abroad, 
 2S2 
 
 and  to  remove  him  farther  from  the  city,  added  to  his 
 government  the  province  of  Transalpine  Gaul,  and 
 voted  him  another  legion.  After  marrying  Calpurma, 
 the  daughter  of  Lucius  Calpurnius  Piso  (his  third  wife 
 had  been  divorced  by  him  in  consequence  of  the  affair 
 of  Clodius),  Ca-sar  repaired  to  Gaul,  in  nine  vears  re- 
 duced the  whole  country,  crossed  the  Rhine  twice, 
 passed  over  twice  into  Britain,  defeated  the  natives  of 
 this  island  in  two  battles,  and  compelled  them  to  oive 
 hostages.  The  senate  had  continued  his  government 
 in  Gaul  for  another  period  of  five  vears  ;  while  Pom- 
 pey was  to  have  the  command  of  Spain,  and  Crassus 
 that  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  .Macedonia,  for  five  years  also. 
 The  death  of  Crassus,  however,  in  his  unfortunate 
 campaign  against  the  Parthians,  dissolved  the  trium- 
 virate. About  this  same  time,  too.  occurred  the  death 
 of  Julia,  and  thus  the  tie  which  had  bound  Pompev  so 
 closely  10  Caesar  was  broken,  and  no  private  consider- 
 ations any  longer  existed  to  allay  the  jealousies  and 
 animosities  which  political  disputes  might  enkindle 
 between  rhem.  The  power  of  Pompev,  meanwhile, 
 kept  continually  on  the  increase ;  and  Caesar,  on  his 
 part,  used  every  exertion  to  strengthen  his  own  re- 
 sources, and  enlarge  the  number  of  his  party  and 
 friends  C*sar  converted  Gaul  into  a  Roman  prov- 
 ince, and  kept  governing  it  with  policy  and  kindness. 
 Pompey,  on  his  side,  elevated  Caesar's  enemies  to  the 
 consulship,  and  prevailed  upon  the  senate  to  pass  a  de- 
 cree requiring  Cssar  to  leave  his  armv.  and  resign  his 
 government  of  Gaul.  The  latter  declared  his  willing- 
 ness to  obey  this  mandate,  if  Pompev  also  would  lay 
 aside  his  own  authority,  and  descend  to  the  ranks  of 
 a  private  citizen.  The  proposition  was  unheeded, 
 and  a  second  decree  followed,  commanding  Cssar  to 
 resign  his  otTices  and  military  power  within  a  specified 
 period,  or  be  declared  an  enemy  to  his  country,  and  at 
 the  same  time  appointing  Pompey  commander-in-cluef 
 of  the  armies  of  the  republic.  .An  open  rupture  now 
 ensued.  The  decree  of  the  senate  was  negatived  by 
 two  of  the  tribunes,  .Antony  and  Cassius  (Cas  .  Bell. 
 dr.,  1,  2,  seq.)  ;  the  senate,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
 recourse  to  the  exercise  of  their  highest  prerogative, 
 and  directed  the  consuls  for  the  time  being  '-to  pro- 
 vide for  the  safety  of  the  republic."'  This  resolution 
 was  entered  on  the  journals  of  the  senate  on  the  sev- 
 enth of  January  ;  and  no  sooner  was  it  passed,  than 
 Antony  and  Cassius,  together  with  Curio,  professing 
 to  believe  their  lives  in  danger,  fled  in  disguise  from 
 Rome,  and  hastened  to  escape  to  Cisar.  who  was 
 then  at  Ravenna,  waiting  for  the  result  of  his  proposi- 
 tion to  the  senate.  {Cic.,  Ep.  ad  Fiim.,  16.  11. — 
 Plut..  Vil.  CiTs..  c.  31.)  It  appears,  from  one  of  Cice- 
 ro's letters  (ad  Alt.,  7,  9),  written  a  few  davs  before 
 the  first  of  January,  that  he  had  calculated  on  such  au 
 event  as  the  flight  of  the  tribunes,  and  on  its  affording 
 Cssar  a  pretext  for  commencing  his  rebellion.  When 
 it  had  actually  taken  place,  the  senate,  well  aware  of 
 the  consequences  to  which  it  wonld  lead,  began  to 
 make  preparations  for  defence.  Italy  was  divided  into 
 districts,  each  of  which  was  to  be  under  the  com- 
 mand of  a  separate  officer;  soldiers  were  ordered  to  be 
 ever%-where  levied,  money  was  voted  from  the  treas- 
 ury to  be  placed  at  Pompey 's  disposal,  and  the  two 
 Gauls,  which  Caesar  had  just  been  summoned  to  re- 
 sign, were  bestowed  on  L  Domitius  and  M.  Con- 
 sidius  Nonianus.  When  Csesar  was  informed  of  the 
 flight  of  the  triKines  and  of  the  subsequent  resolu- 
 tions of  the  senate,  he  assembled  his  soldiers,  expa- 
 tiated on  the  violence  offered  to  the  tribunitian  char- 
 acter, and  on  the  attempts  of  his  enemies  to  despoil 
 himself  of  his  dignity,  bv  forcing  him  to  resign  his 
 province  before  the  term  of  his  command  was  ex- 
 pired. He  found  his  troops  perfectly  disposed  to  fol- 
 low him.  crossed  the  Rubicon,  and,  seizing  on  Arimi- 
 num,  the  first  town  of  importance  without  the  limits 
 of  his  province,  thus  declared  himself  in  open  rebel- 
 
C-ESAR. 
 
 CESAR. 
 
 lion  against  the  state.  At  Ariminum  he  met  the  fugi- 
 tive tribunes,  introduced  them  without  delay  to  his 
 armv,  and,  working  upon  the  feelings  of  the  latter  by 
 a  powerful  harangue,  soon  made  himself  master  of  Ita- 
 ly without  strikmg  a  blow,  as  Ponipey,  taken  by  sur- 
 prise through  the  suddenness  of  Caesar's  hostile  op- 
 erations, and  destitute  of  troops  to  meet  hitn,  had  left 
 the  oitv  with  the  senators,  consuls,  and  other  magis- 
 trates. Levying  an  army  thereupon,  with  the  treas- 
 ures of  the  stale,  C3esar  hastened  into  Spain,  which 
 he  reduced  to  submission,  without  coming  to  a  pitched 
 battle  with  Poinpey's  generals.  He  next  conquered 
 Massilia  {Marseille),  and  then,  returning  to  Rome, 
 was  appoitited  dictator  by  the  praetor  M.  ^Emilius  Lep- 
 idus.  Meanwhile  Pompey  had  collected  an  army  in 
 the  East,  and  his  rival  hastened  to  Epirus,  with  five 
 legions,  bv  land.  After  various  operations,  which  our 
 limits  prevent  us  from  detailing,  the  rival  commanders 
 met  in  the  plain  of  Pharsalia,  and  Caesar  gained  a  de- 
 cided victory.  Pompev,  fleeing  to  EgT,"pt,  was  basely 
 murdered  there,  while  his  more  fortunate  antagonist, 
 hastening  likewise  to  the  East,  came  just  in  tune  to 
 give  an  honourable  burial  to  the  body  of  his  opponent. 
 After  settling  the  differences  between  Ptolemy  and 
 his  sister  Cleopatra,  Caesar  marched  against  Pharna- 
 ces,  king  of  Pontus.  son  of  Mithradates  the  Great,  and 
 finished  the  war  so  rapidly  as  to  have  announced  the 
 result  to  his  friends  at  home  in  those  well-known 
 words,  •'  vcni,  vidi,  via^'  ("  /  hare  come,  I  hare  seen, 
 I  have  conquered"'),  so  descriptive  of  the  celerity  of  his 
 movements.  Returning  to  Rome,  after  having  thus 
 composed  the  affairs  of  the  East,  Cajsar  granted  an 
 amnesty  to  all  the  followers  of  Pompey,  and  gained 
 by  his  clemency  a  strong  hold  on  the  good  feelings  of 
 the  people.  He  had  been  appointed,  meanwhile,  consul 
 for  five  years,  dictator  for  a  year,  and  tribune  for  life. 
 "When  his  dictatorship  had  expired,  he  caused  himself 
 to  DC  chosen  consul  again,  and,  without  changing  the 
 ancient  forms  of  government,  ruled  with  almost  un- 
 limited authority.  Then  came  the  campaign  in  Africa, 
 where  the  friends  of  the  republic  had  gathered  under 
 the  standard  of  Cato  and  other  leaders.  Crossing 
 over  against  them,  Casar  engaged  in  several  conflicts 
 against  these  new  antagonists,  and  at  last  completely 
 defeated  them  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus.  Fresh  hon- 
 ours awaited  him  at  Rome.  The  dictatorship  was 
 again  bestowed  on  him  for  the  space  of  ten  years,  he 
 was  appointed  censor  for  life,  and  his  statue  was  placed 
 by  that  of  Jupiter  in  the  capitol. — From  the  date  of 
 Caesar's  return  from  Alrica  to  the  period  of  his  assas- 
 sination, there  is  an  interval  of  somewhat  less  than 
 two  years,  and  even  of  this  short  time  nine  months 
 were  engrossed  by  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  Spain, 
 which  obliged  him  to  leave  Rome  once  more,  and  con- 
 tend for  the  security  of  his  power  against  the  sons  of 
 Pompey  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  {Vid.  Munda.) 
 He  enjoyed  the  sovereignty,  therefore,  which  he  had 
 so  dearly  purchased,  during  little  more  than  one  single 
 year;  from  the  end  of  July.  A.U.C.  707.  to  the  mid- 
 dle of  the  winter,  a  period  of  between  seven  and  eicrht 
 months,  owing  lo  the  reformation  of  the  calendar 
 which  he  introduced  during  this  interval ;  and  asrain 
 from  October,  708,  to  the  Ides  of  March  in  the  folfovv- 
 ing  spring.  When  Casar  again  entered  Rome  after 
 conquering  the  sons  of  Pompev,  he  was  made  per- 
 petual dictator,  and  received  the  title  of  imperator 
 with  powers  of  sovereignty.  The  appellation  also  of 
 "  Father  of  his  Countr)'"  was  voted  him  ;  the  montii  in 
 which  he  was  born,  and  which  had  till  then  been  called 
 Quinlilis.  was  now  named  Julius  (July),  in  honour  of 
 him  ;  money  was  stamped  with  his  image,  and  a  guard 
 of  senators  and  citizens  of  equestnan  rank*  was 
 appointed  for  the  security  of  his  person.  He  was 
 allowed  also  to  wear,  on  all  public  festivals,  the 
 dress  worn  by  victorious  generals  at  their  triurnphs, 
 and  at  all   times  to  have  a  crown  of  laurel  on  his 
 
 j  head.  He  continued,  meanwhile,  to  conciliate  ni« 
 I  enemies,  and  to  heap  favours  on  his  friends.  Lar- 
 j  gesses  were  also  distributed  among  the  populace, 
 shows  of  various  kinds  were  exhibited,  and  everything, 
 in  fact,  was  done  to  call  off  their  attention  from  the 
 utter  prostration  of  their  liberties  which  had  so  suc- 
 cessfully been  achieved.  The  gross  and  impious  flat- 
 tery of  the  senate  now  reached  its  height.  The  stat- 
 ues of  Ctesar  were  ordered  to  be  carried,  along  with 
 those  of  the  gods,  in  the  processions  of  the  circus  ; 
 temples  and  altars  were  dedicated  to  him.  and  priests 
 were  appointed  to  superintend  his  worship.  These 
 things  he  received  with  a  vanity  which  affords  a  stri- 
 king contrast  to  the  contemptuous  pride  of  Sylla. 
 Ca>sar  took  a  pleasure  in  every  token  of  homage,  and 
 in  contemplating  with  childish  delight  the  gaudy  hon- 
 ours with  which  he  was  invested.  It  was  a  part  of  the 
 prize  which  he  had  coveted,  and  which  he  had  commit- 
 ted so  many  crimes  to  gain ;  nor  did  the  possession  of 
 real  power  seem  to  give  him  greater  delight,  than  the 
 enjoyment  of  these  forced,  and,  therefore,  worthless 
 flatteries. — We  now  come  to  the  closing  scene,  his 
 assassination.  Various  causes  tended  to  hurry  this 
 event.  Caesar  had  given  offence  to  the  senate  by  re- 
 ceiving them  without  rising  from  his  seal  when  they 
 waited  upon  him  to  communicate  the  decrees  which 
 they  had  passed  in  honour  of  him.  He  had  given 
 equal  offence  to  numbers  in  the  state  by  assuming  so 
 openly  not  only  the  patronage  of  the  ordinary  offices, 
 but  the  power  of  bestowing  them  in  an  unprecedented 
 manner,  in  order  to  suit  his  own  policy.  On  one  occa- 
 sion, too,  as  he  was  sitting  in  the  rostra.  Marc  Antony 
 offered  him  a  royal  diadem.  He  refused  it,  however, 
 and  his  refusal  drew  shouts  of  applause  from  the  peo- 
 ple. The  next  morning  his  statues  were  adorned  with 
 diadems.  The  tribunes  of  the  people  took  them  off, 
 and  imprisoned  the  persons  who  had  done  the  act,  bu' 
 they  were  deposed  from  their  office  by  Caesar.  These 
 and  other  acts,  that  declared  but  too  plainly  the  ambi 
 tious  feelings  of  the  man,  and  his  hankering  after  the 
 bauble  of  royalty,  gave  rise  to  a  conspiracy,  of  which 
 Caius  Cassius  was  the  prime  mover.  Caesar,  having 
 no  suspicion  of  the  danger  which  threatened  him,  was 
 forming  new  projects.  He  resolved  to  subdue  the 
 Parthians,  and  then  to  conquer  all  Scythia  from  the 
 Caucasus  to  Gaul.  His  friends  gave  out,  that,  ac- 
 cording to  the  Sibvlline  books,  the  Parthians  would  be 
 conquered  only  by  a  king,  and  the  plan  proposed  there- 
 fore was,  that  Ctesar  should  retain  the  title  o{  dictator 
 with  regard  to  Italy,  but  should  be  saluted  with  that  of 
 king  in  all  the  conquered  countries.  For  this  purpose 
 a  meeting  of  the  senate  was  appointed  for  the  15lh 
 (the  Ides)  of  March ;  and  this  was  the  day  fi.xcd  upon 
 by  the  conspirators  for  the  execution  of  their  plot. 
 Coesar,  it  is  said,  had  been  often  warned  by  the  augurs 
 to  beware  of  the  Ides  of  March  {Plu/.,  in  Vit.,  c.  63. 
 — Sucton.,  in  Vtt.,  c.  81),  and  these  predictions  had 
 probably  wrought  upon  the  mind  of  his  wife  Calpiirnia, 
 so  that,  on  the  night  which  preceded  that  dreaded  day, 
 her  rest  was  broken  by  feverish  dreams,  and  in  the 
 morning  her  impression  of  fear  was  so  strong  that  she 
 earnestly  besought  her  husband  not  to  stir  from  the 
 house.  He  himself,  we  are  told,  felt  a  little  unwell, 
 and  being  thus  more  ready  to  be  infected  by  supersti- 
 tious fears,  was  inclined  to  comply  with  Calpurnia's 
 wishes.  His  delay  in  attending  the  senate  alarmed  the 
 conspirators  ;  Decimus  Brutus  was  sent  to  call  on  him, 
 and.  overcome  by  his  persuasions,  he  proceeded  to  the 
 capitol.  On  his  way  thither,  .\rtemidorus  of  Cnidus,  a 
 Greek  sophist,  who  had  been  admitted  into  the  houses 
 of  some  of  the  conspirators,  and  had  there  become  ac- 
 quainted with  some  facts  that  excited  his  suspicions,  ap- 
 proached him  with  a  written  statement  of  the  informa- 
 tion which  he  had  obtained,  and,  putting  it  into  his  hand, 
 begged  him  to  read  it  instantly,  as  it  was  of  the  last  im- 
 portance. Caesar,  it  is  said,  tried  to  look  at  it,  but  was 
 ^  283 
 
CESAR. 
 
 C^SAR. 
 
 prevented  by  the  crowd  that  pressed  around  him  as  he 
 passed  along,  and  he  still  held  it  in  his  hand  when  he  en- 
 tered the  senate-house.  When  Casar  had  taken  his 
 scat,  the  conspirators  gathered  more  closely  around  him, 
 and  L.  Tillius  Cimber  approached  him  as  if  to  offer  some 
 petition.  Cajsar  seemed  unwilling  to  grant  it,  and  ap- 
 peared impatient  of  farther  imjiortunily,  when  Cnnber 
 took  hold  of  his  robe  and  pulled  it  down  from  his 
 shoulders.  This  was  the  signal  for  attack.  The  dag- 
 ger of  Casca  took  the  lead,  and  Caesar  at  first  at- 
 tempted to  force  his  way  through  the  circle  that  sur- 
 rounded him.  But  when  all  the  conspirators  rushed 
 upon  him,  and  were  so  eager  to  share  in  his  death  that 
 they  wounded  one  another  in  the  confusion  of  the  mo- 
 ment ;  and  when,  moreover,  he  saw  Junius  Brutns 
 among  the  number,  Cwsar  drew  his  robe  closely  around 
 him,  and,  having  covered  his  face,  fell  without  a  struggle 
 or  a  groan.  He  received  three-and-twenty  wounds,  and 
 it  was  observed  that  the  hlciid,  as  it  streamed  from  them, 
 bathed  the  pedestal  of  Pompey's  statue.  No  sooner 
 was  the  murder  finished,  than  Brutus,  raising  his  gory 
 dagger,  turned  round  to  the  assembled  senate,  and  call- 
 ing on  Cicero  by  name,  congratulated  him  on  the  re- 
 covery of  their  country's  liberty.  But  to  preserve  or- 
 der was  hopeless,  and  the  senators  fled  in  dismay.  (For 
 an  account  of  the  events  immediately  subsequent,  vid. 
 Antonius  and  Brutus.) — Ca;sardied  in  the  56lhyear  of 
 his  age. — In  his  intellectual  character  he  deserves  the 
 highest  rank  among  the  men  of  his  age  ;  as  a  general, 
 moreover,  it  is  needless  to  pronounce  his  eulogy.  But 
 if  we  turn  from  his  intellectual  to  his  moral  physiogno- 
 my, the  whole  range  of  history  can  hardly  furnish  a 
 picture  of  greater  deformity.  Besides  being  exces- 
 sively addicted  to  gross  sensualities,  never  did  any  man 
 occasion  so  large  an  amount  of  human  misery  with  so 
 little  provocation.  In  his  campaigns  in  Gaul  he  is 
 said  to  have  destroyed  one  million  of  men  in  battle 
 (Plut.,  Vit.  Cc£s.,  c.  15. — Compare  Plin.,  7,  25),  and 
 to  have  made  prisoners  a  million  more,  many  of  whom 
 were  destined  to  perish  as  gladiators,  and  all  were  torn 
 from  their  country  and  reduced  to  slavery.  The 
 slaughter  which  he  occasioned  in  the  civil  wars  cannot 
 be  computed  ;  nor  can  we  estimate  the  degree  of  suf- 
 fering caused  in  every  part  of  the  empire  by  his  spoli- 
 ations and  confiscations,  and  by  the  various  acts  of  op- 
 pression which  he  tolerated  in  his  followers. — Was, 
 then,  his  assassination  a  lawful  act  !  Certainly  not. 
 The  act  of  assassination  is  in  itself  so  hateful,  and  in- 
 volves in  it  so  much  of  dissimulation  and  treachery, 
 that,  whatever  allowance  may  be  made  for  the  perpe- 
 trators, when  we  consider  the  moral  ignorance  of  the 
 times  in  which  they  lived,  their  conduct  must  never  be 
 spoken  of  without  open  condemnation.  (Encyc.  Mc- 
 tropoL,  Div.  3,  vol  2,  p.  156,  seqq. — Encyc.  Amer., 
 vol.  2,  p.  379.) — As  an  historical  writer  Caesar  has 
 been  compared  to  Xenophon.  Simplicity  is  the  char- 
 acteristic of  both,  though  in  Ca;sar  perhaps  it  borders 
 on  severity.  We  have  from  the  pen  of  the  Roman 
 commander  seven  books  of  commentaries  on  the  Gal- 
 lic war,  and  three  of  the  civil  contest.  His  style  is  re- 
 markable for  clearness  and  ease,  and  its  most  distin- 
 guishing characteristic  is  its  perfect  equality  of  expres- 
 sion, it  has  been  affirmed,  by  some  critics,  that  Cae- 
 sar did  not  write  the  three  books  of  the  civil  war,  and 
 even  that  Suetonius  was  the  author  of  the  seven  books 
 on  the  Gallic  war.  But  Vossius  has  vindicated  Ceb- 
 sar's  title  to  the  authorship  of  the  Commentaries  as 
 they  stand  in  the  editions,  though  he  does  not  vouch 
 for  his  accuracy  or  veracity  on  all  occasions.  The 
 opinion  that  the  extant  commentaries  are  not  Caesar's 
 may  possibly  have  arisen  from  a  confusion  of  circum- 
 stances between  two  works.  It  is  believed  that  he 
 wrote  Ephemeridcs,  containing  a  journal  of  his  life  ; 
 but  they  are  lost.  Servius  quotes  them,  as  does  also 
 Plutarch.  Frontinus  likewise  seems  to  refer  to  them, 
 since  he  relates  many  of  Caesar's  stratagems  not  men- 
 281 
 
 tioned  in  the  commentaries,  and  must  in  all  probabil- 
 ity have  read  them  in  the  journal.  {Malkin's  Classical 
 DisqiiisUw7is,  p.  185,  seqq) — The  question,  when 
 Ccesar  wrote  his  commentaries,  has  been  frequently 
 agitated.  Guischard  (Mem.  Crit.,  539)  is  in  favour 
 of  the  common  opinion,  that  they  were  written  short- 
 ly after  the  events  themselves,  1.  Because  Cicero, 
 in  his  Brutus,  a  work  written  before  the  civil  war, 
 speaks  of  the  commentaries  of  Casar.  2.  Because,  if 
 Cffsar  had  written  his  commentaries  after  the  civil  war 
 was  ended,  there  would  not  have  been  a  lacuna  after 
 the  sixth  book,  to  he  supplied  by  Hirtius.  3.  Because 
 Cajsar  had  little  leisure  at  his  disposal  after  the  civil 
 war. — Csesar  wrote  other  books,  especially  one  on  the 
 analogies  of  the  Latin  tongue.  A  few  fragments  re- 
 main, which  do  not  impress  us  with  a  very  high  opin- 
 ion of  this  performance.  It  was  entitled  De  Analogia, 
 and  was  written,  as  we  are  informed  by  Suetonius, 
 while  Cffisar  was  crossing  the  Alps,  on  his  return  to 
 the  army  from  Hither  Gaul,  where  he  had  been  to  at- 
 tend the  assembly  of  that  province.  {Suet.,  Jul., 
 56.)  In  this  book,  the  great  principle  established  by 
 him  was,  that  the  proper  choice  of  words  formed  the 
 foundation  of  eloquence  (Cicero,  Brut.,  72);  and  he 
 cautioned  authors  and  public  speakers  to  avoid  as  a 
 rock  every  unusual  word  or  unwonted  expression. 
 (Aul.  GelL,  7,  9.) — There  were  also  several  useful  and 
 important  works  accomplished  under  the  eye  and  di- 
 rection of  Caesar,  such  as  the  graphic  survey  of  the 
 whole  Roman  empire.  Extensive  as  their  conquests 
 had  been,  the  Romans  hitherto  had  done  almost  no- 
 thing for  geography,  considered  as  a  science.  Their 
 knowledge  was  confined  to  the  countries  they  had  sub- 
 dued, and  these  they  only  regarded  in  the  view  of  the 
 levies  they  could  furnish  and  the  taxations  they  could 
 endure.  Casar  was  the  first  who  formed  more  exalted 
 views,  ^thicus,  a  writer  of  the  fourth  century,  in- 
 forms us,  in  the  preface  to  his  Cosmographia,  that  this 
 great  man  obtained  a  senatus  consuUum,  by  which  a 
 geometrical  survey  and  measurement  of  the  whole 
 Roman  empire  was  committed  to  three  geometers. 
 Zenodoxus  was  charged  with  the  eastern,  Polycletus 
 with  the  southern,  and  Theodotus  with  the  northern 
 provinces.  Their  scientific  labour  was  immediately 
 commenced,  but  was  not  completed  till  more  than 
 thirty  years  after  the  death  of  him  with  whom  the  un- 
 dertaking had  originated.  The  information  which 
 Caesar  had  received  from  the  astronomer  Sosigenes 
 in  Egypt,  enabled  him  to  alter  and  amend  the  Ro- 
 man calendar.  The  computation  he  adopted  has 
 been  explained  by  Scaliger  and  Gassendi,  and  it  has 
 been  since  maintained,  with  little  farther  alteration  than 
 that  of  the  style  introduced  by  Pope  Gregory.  When 
 we  consider  the  imperfections  of  all  mathematical  in- 
 struments in  the  time  of  Ca;sar,  and  the  total  want  of 
 telescopes,  we  cannot  but  view  with  admiration,  not 
 unmixed  with  astonishment,  that  comprehensive  genius 
 which,  in  the  infancy  of  science,  could  surmount  such 
 difficulties,  and  arrange  a  system  that  experienced  but 
 a  trifling  derangement  in  the  course  of  sixteen  centu- 
 ries.— Although  Caesar  wrote  with  his  own  hand  only 
 seven  books  of  the  Gallic  campaigns,  and  the  history 
 of  the  civil  wars  till  the  death  of  his  great  rival,  it 
 seems  highly  probable  that  he  revised  the  last  or  eighth 
 book  of  the  Gallic  war,  and  communicated  informa- 
 tion for  the  history  of  the  Alexandrean  and  African  ex- 
 peditions, which  are  now  usually  published  along  with 
 his  own  commentaries,  and  may  be  considered  as  their 
 supplement  or  continuation.  The  author  of  these 
 works,  which  nearly  complete  the  interesting  story  of 
 the  caiTipaigns  of  Cfesar.  was  Aulus  Hirtius,  one  of  his 
 most  zealous  followers  and  most  confidential  friends. 
 The  eighth  book  of  the  Gallic  war  contains  the  ac- 
 count of  the  renewal  of  the  contest  by  the  states  of 
 Gaul  after  the  surrender  of  Alesia,  and  of  the  different 
 battles  that  ensued,  at  most  of  which  Hirtius  was  per- 
 
c^  s 
 
 CiES 
 
 sonally  present,  till  the  final  pacification,  when  Caesar, 
 learning  the  designs  which  were  forming  against  him 
 at  Rome,  set  out  for  Italy.  Cassar,  in  the  conclusion 
 of  the  third  book  of  the  civil  war,  mentions  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  Alexandrean.  Hirtius  was  not 
 personally  present  at  the  succeeding  events  of  this 
 Egyptian  contest,  in  which  Caesar  was  involved  with 
 the  generals  of  Ptolemy,  nor  during  his  rapid  cam- 
 paigns in  Pontus  against  Pharnaces,  and  against  the 
 remains  of  the  Pompeian  party  in  Africa,  where  they 
 had  assembled  under  Scipio,  and,  being  supported  by 
 Juba,  still  presented  a  formidable  appearance.  He 
 collected,  however,  the  leading  events  from  the  con- 
 versation of  Caesar,  and  the  oflicers  who  were  engaged 
 in  these  campaigns.  He  has  obviously  imitated  the 
 style  of  his  master  ;  and  the  resemblance  which  he  has 
 happily  attained,  has  given  an  appearance  of  unity  and 
 consistence  to  the  whole  series  of  these  well-written 
 and  authentic  memoirs.  It  appears  that  Hirtius  car- 
 ried down  the  history  even  to  the  death  of  Csesar  :  for 
 in  his  preface  addressed  to  Balbus,  he  says  that  he  had 
 brought  down  what  was  left  imperfect  from  the  trans- 
 actions at  Alexandrea  to  the  end,  not  of  the  civil  dis- 
 sensions, to  a  termination  of  which  there  was  no  pros- 
 pect, but  of  the  life  of  Cossar.  This  latter  part,  how- 
 ever, of  the  Commentaries  of  Hirtius,  has  been  lost. 
 It  seems  now  to  be  generally  acknowledged  that  he 
 was  not  the  author  of  the  book  De  Bcllo  Hispanico, 
 which  relates  Caesar's  second  campaign  in  Spain,  un- 
 dertaken against  young  Cneius  Pompey,  who,  having 
 assembled,  in  the  ulterior  province  of  that  country, 
 those  of  his  father's  party  who  had  survived  the  disas- 
 ters in  Thessaly  and  Africa,  and  being  joined  by  some 
 of  the  native  states,  presented  a  formidable  resistance 
 to  the  power  of  Caesar,  till  his  hopes  were  terminated 
 bv  the  decisive  battle  of  Munda.  Dodwell,  indeed,  in 
 his  Dissertation  De  auctore  Belli  Gallia,  Sec,  main- 
 tains, that  it  was  originally  written  by  Hirtius,  but  was 
 interpolated  by  Julius  Celsus,  a  Constantino[)olitan  wri- 
 ter of  the  si.xth  or  seventh  century.  Vossius,  however, 
 whose  opinion  is  the  one  more  commonly  received,  at- 
 tributes it  to  Caius  Oppius,  who  wrote  the  Lives  of 
 Illustrious  Captains,  and  also  a  book  to  prove  that  the 
 Egyptian  Caesarion  was  not  the  son  of  Caesar.  {Dun- 
 lop's  Roman  Literature,  vol.  2,  p.  191,  scqq)  The 
 best  editions  of  Cassar's  Commentaries  are,  the  mag- 
 nificent one  by  Dr.  Clarke,  fol.,  Lond.,  1712  ;  that  of 
 Cambridire,  with  a  Greek  translation,  4to,  1727;  that 
 of  Oudendorp,  2  vols.  4lo,  L.  Bat.,  1737;  that  of  the 
 Elzevirs,  8vo,  L.  Bat.,  1635  ;  that  of  Oberlinus,  Lips., 
 1819,  Svo  ;  and  that  of  Achaintre  and  Lemaire,  Paris, 
 4  vols.  Svo,  1819-22. — II.  The  name  Csesar  became  a 
 title  of  honour  for  the  Roman  em])erors,  commencing 
 with  Augustus,  and  at  a  later  period  designated  also  the 
 presumptive  heirs  to  the  empire.  {Vid.  Augustus.) — 
 III.  The  twelve  Cxsars,  as  they  are  styled  in  history, 
 were  Julius  Ccesar,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Caligula, 
 Claudius,  Nero,  Galha,  Otho,  Vitellius,  Vespasian, 
 Titus,  Dnniitinn.  These  succeeded  each  other  in  the 
 order  which  we  have  mentioned.  The  true  line  of  the 
 Casars,  however,  terminated  in  Nero. 
 
 C^s.\RAUGusTA,  3  towu  of  Hispauia  Tarraconensis, 
 now  Sarngossa,  so  called  from  its  founder,  Augustus 
 Cassar,  by  whom  it  was  built  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
 Iberus,  on  the  site  of  the  ancientcity  Subduba.  It  was 
 the  birthplace  of  the  poet  Prudentius.  {Isidor.,  Hisp. 
 Etymol.,  15,  \.—Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  428.) 
 
 C.'Es.^uii.t,  I.  the  principal  city  of  Samaria,  situate 
 on  the  coast,  and  anciently  called  Turris  Stratonis, 
 "  Strato's  tower."  Who  this  Strato  was  is  not  clearly 
 ascertained.  In  the  preface  to  the  Novels  it  is  stated 
 that  he  came  from  Greece  and  founded  this  place  ;  an 
 event  which  took  place  probably  under  the  reio-n  of  Se- 
 leucus.  the  first  king  of  Syria.  The  first  inhabitants 
 were  Syrians  and  Greeks.  (Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  20, 
 6.)     It  was  subsequently  made  a  magnificent  city  and 
 
 port  by  Herod,  who  called  it  Cresarea  in  honour  of 
 Augustus ;  and  it  now  began  to  receive  Jews  among 
 its  inhabitants.  Frequent  contentions  hence  arose, 
 in  consequence  of  the  diversity  of  faiths  that  prevailed 
 within  its  walls.  Here  the  Roman  governor  resided, 
 and  a  Roman  garrison  was  continually  kept.  Vespa- 
 sian, after  the  Jewish  war,  settled  a  Roman  colony  m 
 it,  with  the  additional  title  of  Colonia  pnma  Flavia. 
 {Uipian,  1,  de  cens.)  In  later  times  it  became  the 
 capital  of  PalcBstina  Prima.  This  city  is  frequently 
 mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  Here  King  Agrip- 
 pa  was  smitten,  for  neglecting  to  give  God  the  praise 
 when  the  people  loaded  him  with  flattery.  Here  Cor- 
 nelius, the  centurion,  was  baptized  ;  and  also  Philip, 
 the  deacon,  with  his  four  daughters  ;  and  here  Agabus, 
 the  prophet,  foretold  to  Paul  that  he  would  be  bound  at 
 Jerusalem.  (Acts,8,\0.)  The  modern  name  of  the 
 place  is  Kaisarieh.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Eusebi- 
 us. — II.  The  capital  of  Mauritania  Caesariensis,  and  a 
 place  of  some  note  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  emper- 
 ors. It  was  originally  called  lol,  but  was  beautified 
 at  a  subsequent  period  by  Juba,  who  made  it  his  resi- 
 dence, and  changed  its  name  to  Csesarea,  in  honour  of 
 Augustus.  This  city  was  situate  on  the  coast,  to  the 
 west  of  Saldae,  and,  according  to  D'Anville,  its  re- 
 mains are  to  be  found  at  the  modern  harbour  of  Vacur. 
 {Plin.,  5,  2.— Mela,  1,  6.—S/rab.,  571.)— III.  Ad 
 ArgEum,  the  capital  of  Cappadocia,  called  by  this 
 name  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  previously  Mazaca.  It 
 was  situate  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Argseus,  as  its  name 
 indicates,  and  was  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  its  found- 
 ation having  even  been  ascribed  by  some  writers  to 
 Mesech,  the  son  of  Japhet.  {Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  1,  6.) 
 Philostorgius,  however,  says  it  was  first  called  Maza, 
 from  Mosoch,  a  Cappadocian  chief,  and  afterward  Ma- 
 zaca. {Strab.,  530.)  The  modern  name  is  Kaisa- 
 rieh. This  city,  as  Strabo  reports,  was  subject  to  great 
 inconveniences,  being  ill  supplied  with  water,  and  des- 
 titute of  fortifications.  The  surrounding  country  was 
 also  unproductive,  consisting  of  a  dry,  sandy  plain, 
 with  several  volcanic  pits  for  the  space  of  many  stadia 
 around  the  town.  And  yet  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
 in  modern  times,  travellers  are  struck  with  the  great 
 quantity  of  vegetables  offered  for  sale  in  the  market  of 
 Kaisarieh,  and  it  is  said  that  there  is  no  part  of  Asia 
 Minor  which  surpasses  the  neighbourhood  for  the 
 quality  and  variety  of  its  fruits.  (Kinneir''s  Travels, 
 p.  103. — Cramer's  Asia  M^nor,  vol.  2,  p.  118.) — IV. 
 Philippi,  a  town  on  the  northern  confines  of  Palestine, 
 in  the  district  of  Trachonilis,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Paneus,  and  near  the  springs  of  the  Jordan.  It  wa» 
 also  called  Leshem,  Laish,  Dan,  and  Paneas.  Tha 
 name  Paneas  is  supposed  to  have  been  given  it  by  the 
 Pha;nicians.  The  appellation  of  Dan  was  given  to  it  by 
 the  tribe  of  that  name,  because  the  portion  assigned  to 
 them  was  "  too  little  for  them,"  and  they  therefore 
 "  went  up  to  fight  against  Leshem  (or  Laish.  Jndg., 
 18,  29),  and  took  it,"  calling  it  "Dan,  after  the  name 
 of  Dan,  their  father."  {Josh.,  19,  47.)  Eusebius  and 
 Jerome  distinguish  Dan  from  Paneas  as.  if  they  were 
 different  places,  though  near  each  other;  but  most 
 writers  consider  them  as  one  place,  and  even  Jerome 
 himself,  on  Ezek.,  48,  says,  that  Dan  or  Leshem  was 
 afterward  called  Paneas.  Philip,  the  tetrarch,  rebuilt 
 it,  or,  at  least,  embellished  and  enlarged  it,  and  named 
 it  Cffisarea,  in  honour  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius  ;  and 
 afterward  Agrippa,  in  compliment  to  Nero,  called  it 
 Neronias.  According  to  Burckhardt,  the  site  is  now 
 called  Banias.  {Plin.,  5,  15.— Joseph.  Ant.  Jud., 
 18,  3.— Id.,  Bell.  Jud.,  1,  \6.—Sozom.,  3,  21.)— V. 
 Insula,  now  the  isle  of  Jersey. 
 
 CiESARioN,  the  reputed  son  of  Julius  Ca'sar  and 
 Cleopatra.  Plutarch  calls  him  the  son  of  Cfcsar,  but 
 Dio  Cassius  (47,  31)  throws  doubt  on  his  paternity. 
 He  was  put  to  death  by  Augustus.  {Sueton.,  Vit. 
 Jul.,  c.  52.— Id.,  Vit.  Aug.,  17.) 
 
 285 
 
C  AI 
 
 C  A  L 
 
 C-ESARis  AR^.  placed  by  Ptolemy  near  the  Tana'is, 
 in  what  is  now  called  the  country  of  the  Don  Cossacks. 
 rhey  are  supposed  to  have  been  erected  in  honour  of 
 BOine  one  of  tbe  Roman  emperors  by  some  neiglibouring 
 prince  ;  perhaps  by  Polemo,  m  the  reign  of  Tiberius. 
 Near  the  source  of  the  Tana'is  Ptolemy  places  the 
 Alexandri  Am,  which  see.  {Slral/.,  493. —  Tacit., 
 Ann.,  12,  15. — Dio  Cass.,  9,  8. — Manncrt,  Geogr., 
 vol.  4.  p.  159). 
 
 C.«SARODUNUM,  now  Tours,  the  capital  of  the  Tu- 
 rones.  {Amm.  MarccIL,  15,  28. — Greg.  Turon.,  10, 
 19.— Snip.  Sever.,  Dial.  3,  8.) 
 
 C^SAROM.vGUs,  I.  now  Beauvais,  the  capital  of  the 
 BeUovaci.  {Anton.,  Iliu.) — II.  A  city  of  the  Trino- 
 bantes  in  Britain,  answering,  as  is  thought,  to  what  is 
 now  Chelmsford.  It  lay  28  miles  north  of  Londinum. 
 {Anion.,  Itm.)  The  Peutinger  Table  calls  it  Baro- 
 macus. 
 
 CfEscA  SYLVA,  a  forest  in  Germany,  in  the  territory 
 of  the  Istffivones  and  Sicambri.  It  is  supposed  to  cor- 
 respond to  the  present  forest  o(  Heserwald.  {Tacit., 
 An}i.,  1,  50. — Brotier,  ad  Tacit.,  I.  c.) 
 
 C/Eso  or  K/Eso,  a  Roman  praenomen,  peculiar  to 
 the  Fabian  family.  Thus  we  have  C^so  Fabius  in 
 Livy  (2,  43),  and  C/Eso  Quintius  in  the  same  writer 
 (3,  11).  In  ancient  inscriptions  it  is  more  commonly 
 written  with  an  initial  K. — The  latter  of  the  two  indi- 
 viduals just  mentioned  was  the  son  of  L.  Quintius 
 Cincinnatus,  and  opposed  the  tribunes  in  their  passage 
 of  the  Lex  TerentiUa.  He  was  brought  to  trial  for 
 this,  and  also  for  the  crime  of  homicide  that  was  alleged 
 against  him,  but  escaped  death  by  going  into  voluntary 
 exile.      {Livy,  2,  11,  seqq.) 
 
 Caicinus,  a  river  of  Italy  in  Brutium,  near  the 
 Epizephynan  Locri,  and  at  one  time  separating  the 
 territories  of  Locri  and  Rhegium.  It  is  noticed  by  an- 
 cient writers  for  a  natural  phfenomenon  which  was 
 observed  to  occur  on  its  banks.  It  was  said  that  the 
 cicadce  on  the  Locrian  side  were  always  chirping  and 
 musical,  while  those  on  the  opposite  side  were  as  con- 
 stantly silent.  The  Caicinus  is  supposed  by  Roman- 
 elli  to  correspond  to  the  Amcndolea,  which  falls  into 
 the  sea  about  ten  miles  to  the  west  of  Cape  Sparti- 
 vcnto.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  412.) 
 
 Caicus,  I.  a  companion  of  .^neas.  (  Vir.g.,  JEn.,  1, 
 187.) — II.  A  river  of  Alysia,  falling  into  the  ^Egean 
 Sea,  opposite  Lesbos.  On  its  banks  stood  the  city  of 
 Pergamus,  and  at  its  mouth  the  port  of  Elcea.  It  is 
 supposed  by  some  to  be  the  present  Girmasti.  Ac- 
 cording to  Mannert,  however,  its  modern  name  is  the 
 Mandragorai.  {Pliny,  5,  30.— Mc/a,  1,  18. —  Virg., 
 Georg.,  4,  210.— Ovid,  Met.,  15,  277.) 
 
 Caieta,  a  town  and  harbour  of  Latium,  southeast 
 of  the  promontory  of  Circeii,  which  was  said  to  have 
 received  its  name  from  Caieta,  the  nurse  of  ^neas, 
 who  was  buried  there.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  1.)  This, 
 however,  is  a  mere  fable,  since  ,'Eneas  never  was  in 
 Italy.  Equally  objectionable  is  the  etymology  of  Au- 
 relius  Victor,  who  derives  the  name  from  Kalecv,  to 
 ham,  because  the  fleet  of  -Eneas  was  burned  here  :  as 
 if  the  Trojans  spoke  Greek  !  Slrabo  (233)  furnishes 
 the  best  explanation.  It  comes,  according  to  him,  from 
 a  Laconiari  term  {KO-idrra),  denoting  a  hollow  or  cav- 
 ity ;  in  allusion,  perhaps,  to  a  receding  of  the  shore. 
 It  is  now  Gacta.  The  harbour  of  Caieta  was  consid- 
 ered one  of  the  finest  and  most  commodious  in  Italy. 
 Cicero  laments  on  one  occasion  that  so  noble  a  port 
 should  be  subject  to  the  depredations  of  pirates  even  in 
 the  open  day.  {Proleg.  Man. — Compare  Floras,  1, 
 16) 
 
 Caius  and  Caia,  a  praenomen  very  common  at 
 Rome  to  both  sexes.  In  this  word,  and  also  in  Cneius, 
 the  C  must  be  pronounced  like  G.  {Qumlil.,  1,  7.) 
 C,  in  its  natural  position,  denoted  the  name  of  the 
 male,  and  when  reversed  that  of  the  female  :  thus,  C 
 was  equivalent  to  CAIUS  ;  but  0  to  CAIA  Female 
 286 
 
 praenomina,  which  were  marked  with  an  inverted  capi- 
 tal, were,  however,  early  disused  among  the  Romans. 
 Tlic  custom  after  this  was,  in  case  there  was  only 
 one  daughter,  to  name  her  after  the  gens.  If  there 
 were  two,  to  distinguish  them  by  major  and  minor 
 added  to  their  names ;  if  there  were  more  than  two, 
 they  were  distinguished  by  their  number,  Prima,  Se- 
 cunda,  &c.  Thus  we  have,  in  the  first  case,  TulUa,  the 
 daughter  of  Cicero,  Julia,  the  daughter  of  C»sar  ;  and 
 in  the  second,  CorncUa  Major,  Cinnclia  Minor,  &c. 
 
 CAL.iBER.     Vid.  Quintus,  II. 
 
 Calabria,  the  part  of  Italy  occupied  by  the  ancient 
 Calabri.  It  seems  to  have  been  that  portion  of  the 
 lapygian  peninsula  extending  from  Brundisium  to  the 
 city  of  Hydruntum,  answering  nearly  to  what  is  now 
 called  Terra  di  Leccc.  Its  name  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  derived  from  the  Oriental  "  Kalab"'  or  pitch,  on 
 account  of  the  resin  obtained  from  the  pines  of  this 
 country.  It  was  also  called  Messapia  and  lapygia. 
 The  poet  Ennius  was  born  here.  The  country  was 
 fertile,  and  produced  a  variety  of  fruits,  much  cattle, 
 and  excellent  honey.  {Virg.,  G.,  3,  425. — Horat., 
 Od.,  1,  31  ;   Epod,  1,27,  1.— P/in.,8,  48.) 
 
 Calagurris.  There  were  two  cities  of  this  name 
 in  ancient  Spain,  both  of  them  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Vascones.  One  was  called  Calagurris  Fibularensis, 
 the  other  Calagurris  Nascica.  The  moderns  are  not 
 yet  decided  which  of  these  two  cities  answers  to  the 
 present  Calahorra  and  which  to  Loharre.  It  is  gener- 
 ally thought  that  (/alagurris  Fibularensis  is  the  modern 
 Calahorra,  but  jMarca  is  in  favour  of  Loharre,  and 
 his  opinion  appears  confirmed  by  Livy.  {Petr.  de 
 Marca,  2,  28. — Liv.,  fragm.,  lib.  91,  ed.  Bmns.,  p. 
 27.) 
 
 Calais  and  Zetes.      Vid.  Zetes. 
 
 Calamis,  a  very  celebrated  statuary,  and  engraver 
 on  silver,  respecting  whose  birthplace,  and  the  city  in 
 which  he  exercised  his  profession,  ancient  writers  have 
 given  no  information.  The  period  when  he  flourished 
 appears  to  have  been  very  near  that  of  Phidias.  From 
 the  account  given  of  his  works  by  the  ancient  writers, 
 he  would  seem  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  industri- 
 ous artists  of  antiquity,  for  he  executed  statues  of 
 every  description,  in  bi-onze,  marble,  and  in  gold 
 blended  with  ivory.  Cicero  and  Quintilian  refer  to 
 his  productions  as  not  sufficiently  refined,  though  su- 
 perior in  this  respect  to  those  of  his  predecessors. 
 {Cic.,  Brut.,  18,  70.— QuintiL,  12,  10.— SilUg,  Diet. 
 Art.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Calanus,  a  celebrated  Indian  philosopher,  one  of 
 the  gymnosophists.  He  followed  Alexander  from  In- 
 dia, and,  becoming  unwell  when  they  had  reached  Per- 
 sia, he  desired  to  have  his  funeral  pile  erected.  Hav- 
 ing offered  up  his  prayers,  poured  libations  upon  him- 
 self, and  cut  off  part  of  his  hair  and  thrown  it  into  the 
 fire,  he  ascended  the  pile,  and  moved  not  at  the  ap- 
 proach of  the  flames.  Plutarch  says,  that,  in  taking 
 leave  of  the  Macedonians,  he  desired  them  to  spend 
 the  day  in  merriment  and  drinking  with  their  king, 
 "  For  I  shall  see  him,"  said  he,  "  in  a  little  while  at 
 Babylon."  Alexander  died  in  Babylon  three  months 
 after  this.  Calanus  was  in  his  eighty-third  year  when 
 he  burned  himself  on  the  funeral  pile.     {Cic  ,de  Div., 
 
 1,  23. — Arrian,  et  Pint,  in   Alex. — JElian,    V.  H., 
 
 2,  41,  5,  &.—  Val.  Max.,  1,  8.) 
 
 Calaurea,  an  island  in  the  Sinus  Saronicus,  oppo- 
 site the  harbour  of  Troezene  in  Argolis.  It  obtained 
 its  greatest  celebrity  from  the  death  of  Demosthenes. 
 Before  that  event,  however,  it  was  a  place  of  great 
 note  and  sanctity.  Neptune  was  said  to  have  re- 
 ceived it  from  Apollo  in  exchange  for  Delos,  agreeably 
 to  the  advice  of  an  oracle.  {Ephor.  ap  Slrah.,  374.) 
 His  temple  was  held  in  great  veneration,  and  the 
 sanctuary  accounted  an  inviolable  asylum.  Seven 
 confederate  cities  here  held  an  assembly  somewhat 
 similar  to  the  Amphictyonic  council,   and  joined  in 
 
C  A  L 
 
 C  A  L 
 
 solemn  sacrifices  to  the  god.  Strabo  names  Hermi- 
 one,  Epidaurus,  ^Egina,  Athens,  Prasiae,  Nauplia,  and 
 the  Minyan  Orchoincnus.  Argos  subsequently  repre- 
 sented Nauplia,  and  Sparta  succeeded  to  Prasiae. 
 {Slrab.,  I.  c)  In  this  sanctuary  Demosthenes,  who 
 had  rendered  himself  obnoxious  to  the  Macedonian 
 sovereign,  took  refuge  when  pursued  by  his  satellites. 
 Here  he  swallowed  poison  and  terminated  his  exist- 
 ence. {Plut.,  Vic.  Demosth. — Pausan.,  2,  33.)  A 
 monument  was  raised  to  this  great  orator  within  its 
 peribolus,  and  divine  honours  were  paid  to  him  by  the 
 Calaureans.  According  to  Strabo,  the  island  of  Calau- 
 rea  was  four  stadia  from  the  shore,  and  thirty  in  cir- 
 cuit. It  is  now  called  Poio,  or  "  the  ford,"  as  the 
 narrow  channel  by  which  it  is  separated  from  the 
 niamland  may,  in  calm  weather,  be  passed  on  foot. 
 The  temple  of  Neptune  was  situated  at  some  dis- 
 tance from  the  sea,  on  one  of  the  highest  summits  of 
 the  island.  Dodwell  observes  {Class.  Tour,  vol.  S, 
 p.  276),  that  not  a  single  column  of  this  celebrated 
 sanctuary  is  standing,  nor  is  the  smallest  fragment  to 
 be  seen  among  the  ruins. 
 
 Calchas,  a  celebrated  soothsayer,  son  of  Thestor. 
 He  had  received  from  Apollo  the  knowledge  of  future 
 events ;  and  the  Greeks,  accordingly,  on  their  de- 
 parture for  the  Trojan  war,  nominated  him  their  high- 
 priest  and  prophet.  Among  the  interpretation  of  events 
 imputed  to  him,  it  is  said  he  predicted  that  Troy  could 
 not  be  taken  without  the  aid  of  Achilles  ;  and  that, 
 having  observed  a  serpent,  during  a  solemn  sacrifice, 
 glide  from  under  an  altar,  ascend  a  tree,  and  devour 
 nine  young  birds  with  their  mother,  and  afterward  be- 
 come itself  changed  into  stone,  he  inferred  that  the 
 siege  of  Troy  would  last  ten  years.  He  also  foretold 
 that  the  Grecian  fleet,  which  was  at  that  same  time 
 detained  by  contrary  winds  in  the  harbour  of  Aulis, 
 would  not  be  able  to  sail  until  Agamemnon  should 
 have  sacrificed  his  own  daughter  Iphigeiiia.  Calchas 
 also  advised  Agamemnon,  duringthe  pestilence  by  which 
 Apollo  desolated  the  Grecian  camp,  to  restore  Chry- 
 seis,  as  the  only  means  of  appeasing  the  god.  He 
 was  consulted,  indeed,  on  every  affair  of  importance, 
 and  appears  to  have  often  determined,  with  Agamem- 
 non and  Ulysses,  the  import  of  the  oracles  which  he 
 expounded.  His  death  is  said  to  have  happened  as 
 follows.  After  the  taking  of  Troy,  he  accompanied 
 Amphilochus,  son  of  Amphiaraus,  to  Colophon  in  Ionia. 
 It  had  been  predicted  that  he  should  not  die  until  he 
 found  a  prophet  more  skilful  than  himself:  this  he  ex- 
 perienced in  the  person  of  Mopsus.  He  was  unable 
 to  tell  how  many  figs  were  on  the  branches  of  a  cer- 
 tain fig-tree  ;  and  when  Mopsus  mentioned  the  exact 
 number,  Calchas  retired  to  the  wood  of  Claros,  sacred 
 to  Apollo,  where  he  expired  of  grief  and  mortification. 
 — Calchas  had  the  patronymic  of  Thestorides.  {Horn., 
 li.,  1,69,  &c. — ^Esck  ,Agam. — Eurip.,lphig. — Pau- 
 mn.,  1,  43.) 
 
 Caledonia,  a  country  in  the  north  of  Britain,  now 
 called  Scotland.  The  ancient  Caledonia  compre- 
 hended all  those  countries  which  lay  to  the  north  of 
 the  Forth  and  Clyde.  It  was  never  completely  sub- 
 dued by  the  Romans,  though  Agricola  penetrated  to 
 the  Taij,  and  Severus  into  the  very  heart  of  the  coun- 
 try. The  Caledonians  are  supposed  to  have  derived 
 their  name  from  the  Celtic  words  Gael  Dun,  implying 
 "the  Gael  (Gauls)  of  the  mountains,"  i.  e.,  "  High- 
 landers." These  Gallic  tribes  were  driven  into  Scot- 
 land, from  Britain,  by  the  conquests  of  the  Belgic  or 
 Kimric  race.  (Compare  Adclung's  Mithridatcs,  vol 
 2,  p.  78.)  ^ 
 
 Calentum,  a  city  of  Spain,  in  the  country  of  Basti- 
 ca,  supposed  to  correspond  to  the  modern  Cazalla. 
 The  ancient  place  was  famed  for  making  bricks  of 
 so  much  lightness  that  they  floated  upon  the  water 
 {Phn.,  35,  Ad.-VUruv.,  2,  3.)  This  was  also  done 
 at  Massiha  {Marseille)    in    Gaul,  and  at  Pitane  in 
 
 Asia.  {Vitruv.,l.  c.)  According  to  a  modern  authori- 
 ty, the  same  kind  of  bricks  are  made  in  Italy,  "  de 
 una  singolarissima  specie  di  matlone."  {Fahroni, 
 Dissert.,  Venczia,  1797,  8vo.) 
 
 Cales,  a  city  of  Campania,  to  the  south  of  Tea- 
 num,  now  Calvi.  According  to  Livy  (8,  16),  it  for- 
 merly belonged  to  the  Ausones,  but  was  conquered  by 
 the  Romans,  and  colonized  (A.U.C.  421).  The  Ager 
 Calenus  was  much  celebrated  for  its  vineyards.  ( V id. 
 Falernum.) 
 
 CALicTEs,  a  Belgic  tribe  in  Gaul,  north  of  the  mouth 
 of  the  Sequana,  and  inhabiting  the  peninsula  which 
 that  river  makes  with  the  sea.  Their  territory  is  now 
 le  pays  de  Caux,  forming  a  part  of  Normandy,  in  the 
 department  de  la  Seine-Inferieure.  I'heir  capital 
 was  Juliobona,  now  Lillebonne.  Strabo  calls  them 
 KaAtro/,  and  hence  on  D'Anville's  Map  of  Ancient 
 Gaul  they  are  named  Caleli.  Ptolemy,  on  the  otrher 
 hand,  gives  Ka/l?/rff.  They  appear  to  have  been 
 ranked  by  Caesar  among  the  Armoric  states,  if  in  one 
 part  of  his  Commentaries  (B.  G.,  7, 75)  we  read  Caletes 
 for  Cadctcs.  I'hey  could  easily  have  been  connected 
 with  the  Armoric  tribes  by  commercial  relations  and 
 affinity,  and  yet  have  belonged,  by  their  position,  to  the 
 Belgic  race.  {Lemaire,  Ind.  Geogr.  ad  Cas.,  p.  220. 
 —  Op.,  vol.  4.) 
 
 •  Caligula,  Caius  Ca;sar  Augustus  Germanicus,  son 
 of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  was  born  A.D.  12, 
 in  the  camp,  probably  in  Germany,  and  was  brought 
 up  among  the  legions.  {Sue Ion,  Vit.  Calig.,  8.) 
 Here  he  received  from  the  soldiers  the  surname  of 
 Caligula,  from  his  being  arrayed,  when  quite  young, 
 like  a  common  soldier,  and  wearing  a  little  pair  of 
 caligcE,  a  kind  of  shoe  or  covering  for  the  feet  used 
 chiefly  by  the  common  soldiers.  This  was  done  in 
 order  to  secure  towards  him  the  good-will  of  the 
 troops.  Caligula  himself,  however,  disliked  the  ap- 
 pellation in  after  days,  and  preferred  that  of  Cains 
 Caesar,  which  is  also  his  historical  name.  Upon  his 
 father's  death  he  returned  from  Syria,  and  lived  with 
 his  mother  till  her  exile,  when  he  removed  to  the  resi- 
 dence of  Livia  Augusta,  his  great-grandinother,  whose 
 funeral  oration  he  delivered  in  public,  while  he 
 still  wore  the  pratexf.a.  He  afterward  remained  in 
 the  family  of  his  grandmother  Antonia  until  his 
 twentieth  year,  when,  being  invited  to  Capreae  by  the 
 emperor,  he  assumed  the  dress  proper  to  manhood, 
 but  without  the  customary  ceremonies.  In  the  court 
 of  his  grandfather,  his  naturally  mean  and  vicious  tem- 
 per appeared  in  a  servile  compliance  with  the  caprices 
 of  those  in  power,  in  a  wanton  love  of  cruelty  towards 
 the  unfortunate,  and  in  the  most  abandoned  and  un- 
 principled debauchery  ;  so  that  Tiberius  observed, 
 that  he  was  breeding  a  second  Phaethon  for  the  de- 
 struction of  the  world.  {Sucton.,  Cat  ,c.  10.)  Tibe- 
 rius had,  by  his  testament,  appointed  his  two  grand- 
 sons, Caius  Caesar  and  Tiberius  Gemellus,  the  latter 
 the  son  of  Drusus,  joint  heirs  of  the  empire.  The 
 first  act  of  Caligula,  however,  was  to  assemble  the  sen- 
 ate, for  the  purpose  of  declaring  the  invalidity  of  the 
 will ;  and  this  being  readily  effected,  and  Tiberius  Ge- 
 mellus being  declared  too  young  to  rule,  Caius  Caesar 
 Caligula  was  immediately  proclaimed  emperor.  This 
 appointment  was  received  with  the  most  unbounded 
 joy  both  at  Rome  and  in  the  provinces,  and  the  con- 
 duct of  the  new  prince  seemed  at  first  to  promise  one 
 of  the  most  auspicious  of  reigns.  But  this  was  all 
 dissimulation  on  his  part ;  a  dissimulation  which  he 
 had  learned  under  his  wily  predecessor  ;  for  Caligula 
 esteemed  it  prudent  to  assume  the  appearance  of  mod- 
 eration, liberality,  and  justice,  till  he  should  be  firmly 
 seated  on  the  throne,  and  freed  from  all  apprehension 
 lest  the  claims  of  the  young  Tiberius  might  be  revived 
 on  any  off"ence  having  been  taken  by  the  senate.  He 
 interred,  in  the  most  honourable  manner,  the  remains 
 of  his  mother  and  of  his  brother  Nero,  set  free  all  state 
 
 287 
 
CALIGULA. 
 
 C  A  L 
 
 prisoners,  recalled  the  banished,  and  forbade  all  prose- 
 cutions for  treason.  He  conferred  on  the  magistrates 
 free  and  inde|jendcnt  power.  Although  the  will  of 
 Tiberius  had  been  declared,  by  the  senate,  to  be  null 
 jind  void,  he  fulfilled  every  article  of  it,  with  the  ex- 
 ception only  of  that  above  mentioned.  When  he  was 
 chosen  consul,  he  took  his  uncle  Claudius  as  his  col- 
 league. Thus  he  distinguished  the  first  eight  months 
 of  his  reign  by  many  actions  dictated  by  the  pro- 
 foundest  hypocrisy,  buf.  which  appeared  magnanimous 
 and  noble  to  the  eyes  cf  the  world,  when  he  fell,  on  a 
 sudden,  dangerously  ill,  in  consequence,  as  has  been 
 imagined,  of  a  love-potion  given  him  by  his  mistress 
 Milonia  Cajsonia  (whom  he  afterward  married),  with  a 
 view  to  secure  his  unconstant  affections.  On  recov- 
 ering from  this  malady,  whether  weary  by  this  time  of 
 the  restraints  of  hypocrisy,  or  actually  deranged  in  his 
 intellect  by  the  inflammatory  effects  of  the  potion 
 which  he  had  taken  (Juv.,  Sat.,  6,  614),  the  emperor 
 threw  off  all  appearance  of  virtue  and  moderation,  as 
 well  as  all  prudential  considerations,  and  acted  on  every 
 occasion  with  the  mischievous  violence  of  unbridled 
 passions  and  wanton  power,  so  that  the  tyranny  of 
 Tiberius  was  forgotten  in  the  enormities  of  Caligula. 
 {Senec,  Consol.  ad  Hdv.,  9,  c.  779.)  The  most  ex- 
 quisite tortures  served  him  for  enjoyments.  During 
 his  meals  he  caused  criminals,  and  even  innocent  per- 
 sons, to  be  stretched  on  the  rack  and  beheaded  :  the 
 most  respectable  persons  were  daily  executed.  In  the 
 madness  of  his  arrogance  he  even  considered  himself  a 
 god,  and  caused  the  honours  to  be  paid  to  him  which 
 were  paid  to  Apollo,  to  Mars,  and  even  to  Jupiter. 
 He  built  a  temple  to  his  own  divinity.  At  one  time 
 he  wished  that  the  whole  Roman  people  had  but  one 
 head,  that  he  might  be  able  to  cut  it  off  at  a  single 
 blow.  He  frequently  repeated  the  words  of  an  old 
 poet,  Odcrint  dum  metuaiit  One  of  his  greatest 
 follies  was  the  building  of  a  bridge  of  vessels  between 
 Baias  and  Puteoli,  in  imitation  of  that  of  Xerxes  over 
 the  Hellespont.  He  himself  consecrated  this  grand 
 structure  with  great  splendour  ;  and,  after  he  had 
 passed  the  night  following  in  a  revel  with  his  friends, 
 in  order  to  do  something  extraordinary  before  his  de- 
 parture, he  caused  a  crowd  of  persons,  without  dis- 
 tinction of  age,  rank,  or  character,  to  be  seized,  and 
 thrown  into  the  sea.  On  his  return  he  entered  Rome 
 in  triumph,  because,  as  he  said,  he  had  conquered 
 nature  herself  After  this  he  made  preparations  for  an 
 expedition  against  the  Germans,  passed  with  more  than 
 200,000  men  over  the  Rhine,  but  returned  after  he  had 
 travelled  a  few  miles,  and  that  without  having  seen  an 
 enemy.  Such  was  his  terror,  that,  when  he  came  to  the 
 river,  and  found  the  bridge  obstructed  by  the  crowd 
 upon  it,  he  caused  himself  to  be  passed  over  the  heads 
 of  the  soldiers.  He  then  went  to  Gaul,  which  he  plun- 
 dered with  unexampled  rapacity.  Not  content  with  the 
 considerable  booty  thus  obtained,  he  sold  all  the  prop- 
 erty of  his  sisters  Agrippina  and  Livilla,  whom  he  ban- 
 ished. He  also  sold  the  furniture  of  the  old  court,  the 
 clothes  of  Augustus,  Agrippina,  &,c.  Before  he  left 
 Gaul  he  declared  his  intention  of  going  to  Britain. 
 He  collected  his  army  on  the  coast,  embarked  in  a 
 magnificent  galley,  but  returned  when  he  had  hardly 
 let't  the  land,  drew  np  his  forces,  ordered  the  signal 
 of  battle  to  be  sounded,  and  commanded  the  soldiers 
 to  fill  their  helmets  with  she\ls,  while  he  cried  out, 
 "  This  booty,  ravished  from  the  sea,  is  fit  for  my  pal- 
 ace and  the  capitol."  When  he  returned  to  Rome  he 
 was  desirous  of  a  triumph  on  account  of  his  achieve- 
 ments, but  contented  himself  with  an  ovation.  Dis- 
 contented with  the  senate,  he  resolved  to  destroy  the 
 greater  part  of  the  members,  and  the  most  distinguish- 
 ed men  of  Rome.  This  is  proved  by  two  books 
 which  were  found  after  his  death,  wherein  the  names 
 of  the  proscribed  were  noted  down,  and  of  which  one 
 A'as  entitled  Gladius  (Sword),  and  the  other  Pugillus 
 238 
 
 (Dagger).  He  became  reconciled  to  the  senate  again 
 when  he  found  it  worthy  of  him.  He  supported  pub- 
 lic brothels  and  gaming-houses,  and  received  himself 
 the  entrance-money  of  the  visiters.  His  horse,  named 
 Incilatus,  was  his  favourite.  This  horse  he  made  one 
 of  his  priests,  and,  by  way  of  insult  to  the  repub- 
 lic, declared  it  also  consul.  It  was  kept  in  an 
 ivory  stable,  and  fed  from  a  golden  manger  ;  and,  when 
 it  was  invited  to  feast  at  the  emperor's  table,  gilt  corn 
 was  served  up  in  a  golden  basin  of  exquisite  work- 
 manship. He  had  even  the  intention  of  destroying  the 
 poems  of  Homer,  and  was  on  the  point  of  removing 
 the  works  and  images  of  Virgil  and  Livy  from  all  libra- 
 ries :  those  of  the  former,  because,  as  he  said,  he  was 
 destitute  of  genius  and  learning  ;  those  of  the  latter, 
 because  he  was  not  to  be  depended  upon  as  an  histo- 
 rian. Caligula's  morals  were,  from  his  youth  upward, 
 abominably  corrupt.  After  he  had  married  and  repu- 
 diated several  wives,  Caesonia  retained  a  permanent 
 hold  on  his  affections.  A  number  of  conspirators,  at 
 the  head  of  whom  were  Chaerea  and  Cornelius  Sabi- 
 nus,  both  tribunes  of  the  prsetorian  cohorts,  murdered 
 him  in  the  29th  year  of  his  age,  and  the  fourth  of  his 
 tyrannical  reign,  A.D.  41.  (Crevier,  Hist,  des  Emp. 
 Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  1,  seqq. — Encyclop.  Americ,  vol.  2, 
 p.  405,  seqq. — Encyclop.  Mctropol.,  div.  3,  vol.  2,  p. 
 434,  seqq.) 
 
 Callaici  or  Cali..«ci,  a  people  of  Spain,  in  the 
 northwestern  part  of  the  country.  They  inhabited  what 
 is  now  Gallicia,  together  with  the  Portuguese  ^xo\- 
 inces  of  Entie-Douro-y-Mi?)ho  and  Tras-los- Monies. 
 {Eutrop.,  4,  19  — Si7.  Ital,  3,  352.— P/in.,  3,  3.— 
 Inscripl.,   ap.  Gru/er.) 
 
 Calle  or  Cale,  a  seaport  town  of  the  Callaici,  at 
 the  mouth  of  the  Durius.  It  is  now  Oporto.  From 
 Partus  Calks  comes,  by  a  corruption,  the  name  of 
 modern  Portugal.  {Sil.  Ilal,  12,  525.— Fe//.  Pa- 
 terc,  1,  14.— Cfc,  Agrar.,  2,  31.) 
 
 Callias,  a  rich  Athenian,  who  offered  to  release 
 Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  from  prison,  into  which  he 
 had  been  thrown  through  inability  to  pay  his  father's 
 fine,  if  he  would  give  him  the  hand  of  Elpinice,  ('i- 
 mon's  sister  and  wife.  Cimon  consented,  but  with 
 great  reluctance.  He  was  afterward  charged  with 
 having  violated  the  terms  of  his  agreement  with  Cal- 
 lias, which  was  looked  upon  by  the  Athenians  as  adul- 
 tery on  his  part,  Elpinice  having  become  the  property 
 of  another.  This  custom  of  marrying  sisters  at 
 Athens  extended,  according  to  Philo  Judajus,  only  to 
 sisters  by  the  same  father,  and  was  forbidden  in  the 
 case  of  sisters  by  the  same  mother.  Elpinice  was 
 taken  in  marriage  hv  Cimon,  because,  in  consequence 
 of  his  extreme  poverty,  he  was  unable  to  provide  a 
 suitable  match  for  her.  The  Lacedcemonians  were 
 forbidden  to  marry  any  of  their  kindred,  whether  in  the 
 direct  degrees  of  ascent  or  descent  ;  but  in  the  case 
 of  a  collateral  it  was  allowed.  Several  of  the  barba- 
 rous nations  seem  to  have  been  less  scrupulous  on 
 this  head  ;  the  Persians  especially  were  remarkable  for 
 such  unnatural  unions.     (C  Ncp.  et  Pint,  in  Cim.) 
 
 Cai.licolone,  a  hill  in  the  district  of  Troas,  deri- 
 ving its  name  (kqIi/  KtOMVjj)  from  the  pleasing  regu- 
 larity of  its  form,  and  the  groves  by  which  it  seems 
 for  ages  to  have  been  adorned.  It  is  mentioned  by 
 Homer  in  the  20th  book  of  the  Iliad  (v.  53  and  151). 
 Strabo  informs  us,  from  Demetrius  of  Scepsis,  that  it 
 was  ten  stadia  from  the  village  of  the  Ilians  ClTiUuv 
 Kofiij),  which  would  make  it  forty  stadia  from  Troy  it- 
 self. It  was  situate  to  the  northwest  of  this  city, 
 near  the  banks  of  the  SimoVs.  (Compare  Le  Chcra- 
 lier's  Map  of  the  Plain  of  Troy,  and  the  note  of  Hcync 
 to  the  262d  page  of  the  German  translation  of  Lc 
 Chevalier's  works  on  this  subject.  Consult  also 
 Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  3,  p.  119,  Lond.,  8vo  ed.) 
 
 Cali.ic RATES,  I.  an  Athenian,  who  caused  Dion  to 
 be  assassinated.     (Vid.  Dion  I.) — II.  An  officer  in- 
 
C  A  L 
 
 C  A  I 
 
 trusted  with  the  care  of  the  treasures  of  Susa  by  Alex- 
 ander. {Curt  ,  Si,  2.) — III.  An  architect,  who,  in  con- 
 junction with  Ictinu.s,  built  the  Parthenon  at  Athens, 
 and  who  undertook  also  to  complete  the  long  walls 
 termed  a/cfZ;/.  {Flut.,  Vit.  Paid.,  c.  \3.)  Heap- 
 pears  to  have  flourished  about  Olymp.  80  or  85.  {Sillig, 
 Diet.  Art.,  s.  iv)— IV.  A  sculptor,  distinguished  prin- 
 cipally by  the  minuteness  of  his  performances.  He  is 
 mentioned  as  a  Lacedaemonian,  and  is  associated  with 
 Myrmeoides  by  .'Elian.  {V.  H ,  1,  17. — Compare 
 Galen,  Adhort.  ad  Art.,  c.  9.)  In  connexion  with 
 this  artist  he  is  said  to  have  made  some  chariots  which 
 could  be  covered  with  the  wings  of  a  fly,  and  to  have 
 inscribed  on  a  grain  of  the  plant  scsamum  some  verses 
 of  Homer,  (/'//w.,  7,  21.)  Galen,  therefore,  well  ap- 
 plies to  him  the  epithet  //aratorfjvof.  AthenaRus, 
 however,  relates  that  he  engraved  only  large  vases 
 (11,  p.  782).  The  age  in  which  he  lived  is  uncertain. 
 {Sillig,  Did.  Art.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Cai.licratIdas,  a  Spartan,  who  succeeded  Lysan- 
 der  in  the  command  of  the  fleet.  He  took  Methym- 
 na,  and  routed  the  Athenian  fleet  under  Conon.  He 
 was  defeated  and  killed  near  the  Arginusae,  in  a  naval 
 battle,  B.C.  406.  He  was  one  of  the  last  that  pre- 
 served the  true  Spartan  character,  which  had  become 
 greatly  altered  for  the  worse  during  the  Peloponnesian 
 war,  by  the  habit  which  the  Lacedemonians  had  con- 
 tracted of  fighting  beyond  the  limits  of  their  country. 
 The  enervating  chmate  of  Ionia  had  also  contributed 
 very  much  towards  producing  this  result.  {Xcn., 
 Hist.  Gr.,  1,  6,  l,seqq.—Diod.  Sic,  13,  76.— Id.  ib., 
 13,  99.) 
 
 Cali.idromus,  according  to  Livy  (36,  15),  the  high- 
 est summit  of  Mount  CEta.  It  was  occupied  by  Cato, 
 with  a  body  of  troops,  in  the  battle  fought  at  the  pass 
 of  Thermopylae,  between  the  Romans,  under  Acilius 
 Glabrio,  and  the  army  of  Antiochus  ;  and,  owing  to 
 this  manoeuvre,  the  latter  was  entirely  routed.  (Com- 
 pare Fliny,  H.  N.,  4,  7.) 
 
 Callim.Ichus,    I.    a  native  of  Cyrene,  descended 
 from  an  illustrious  family.     He  first  gave  instruction 
 in  grammar,  or  belles-lettres,  at  Alexandrea,  and  num- 
 bered among  his  auditors  Apollonius  Rhodius,  Eratos- 
 thenes,  and  Aristophanes   of  Byzantium.       Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus   subsequently  placed  him  in  the  Muse- 
 um, and  from  this  period  he  turned  his  principal  at- 
 tention to  poetic  composition.     He  lived,  loaded  with 
 honours,  at  the  court  of  this  prince,  where  his  abilities 
 were  greatly  admired.     The  small  number  of  pieces, 
 however,  that  remain  to  us,  out  of  eight  hundred  com- 
 posed by  him,  present  him  to  us  in  the  light  of  a  cold 
 poet,  wanting  in  energy  and  enthusiasm,  and  making 
 vain  efforts  to  replace  by  erudition  the  genius  which 
 nature  had  denied  him.     These  productions  compel  us 
 to  subscribe   to  Ovid's    opinion    in  relation    to  him, 
 Qiiamvis  ingcnio  non  valet,  arte  valtt.''''     {Amor.,  \, 
 15.)     The  principal  works  of  Callimachus  were  as  fol- 
 lows :  1.  Elegies.    These  were  regarded  as  his  princi- 
 pal title  to  renown.    The  Romans,  especially  in  the  Au- 
 gustan age,  held  them  in  high  estimation ;  they  were  im- 
 itated by  Ovid  and  Propertius.     Among  the  Elegies  of 
 Callimachus  two  in  particular  were  celebrated,  one  on 
 the  tresses  of  Berenice,  queen  of  Ptolemy  III.,  which 
 Catullus  has   either  translated  or  imitated  ;    and  the 
 other,  entitled  Cydippe,  to  which  Ovid  alludes  {Rem. 
 Am.,  1,  380),  and  which  he  has  imitated  in  his  20th  He- 
 roid.     We  have  only  some  fragments  remaining  of  the 
 elegies.     2.  A'lnai,  "  Causes,''  i.  e  ,  a  poem,  in  four 
 cantos,  on  the  origin  or  causes  of  various  fables,  cus- 
 toms, &c.     Some  fragments  remain.     3.  'EkciXti,  He- 
 calc,  an  heroic  poem,  the  subject  of  which  was  the  hos- 
 pitable reception  given  to  Theseus,  by  an  old  female, 
 when  he  was  proceeding  to  combat  the  Marathonian 
 bull.     Some  fragments  remain.    4. 'I6(f,  "  the /li.?  "  a 
 poem  directed  against  one  of  his  pupils,  accused  by 
 him  of  mgratiiude,  named  Apollonius  Rhodius.     It  has 
 0  o 
 
 not  reached  us.  The  Ibis  is  a  bird,  whose  habits  taughl 
 man,  it  is  said,  the  use  of  clysters.  We  know  not  the 
 reason  why  Callimachus  gave  this  appellation  to  his  en- 
 emy :  it  was  done  in  ridicule,  probably,  of  some  per- 
 sonal deformity,  or  else  from  some  resemblance  winch 
 Apollonius  bore  to  this  bird  in  the  eyes  of  his  irritated 
 master.  It  is  in  imitation  of  Callimachus  that  Ovid 
 has  given  the  title  of  Ibis  to  one  of  his  poems.  5. 
 Hymns.  Of  these  we  have  six  remaining;  five  in  the 
 Ionic  dialect,  and  the  sixth  in  Doric.  The  subject  of 
 this  last  is  the  bathing  of  the  statue  of  Minerva.  Ac- 
 cording to  the  commentators,  the  Doric  dialect  was 
 preferred  for  this  poem,  because  Callimachus  com- 
 posed it  at  Argos,  where,  during  a  certain  festival,  the 
 statue  of  Pallas  was  bathed  in  the  Inachus.  Of  the 
 six  hymns  which  we  have  from  Callimachus,  that  ad- 
 dressed to  C'eres  is  the  best.  The  one  in  honour  of 
 Dolos  is  in  the  epic  style,  like  the  hymns  of  the  Ho- 
 meridae.  6.  Epigrams.  Of  these  we  possess  seventy- 
 four,  which  may  be  regarded  among  the  best  of  an- 
 tiquity. The  grammarian  Archibius,  the  father,  or, 
 according  to  others,  the  son  of  Apollonius,  wrote  a 
 commentary  or  exegesis  {t^r/yT/ai^)  on  these  epigrams 
 and  Marianus,  who  lived  under  the  Emperor  Anasta 
 sius,  made  a  paraphrase  of  them  in  iambic  verse.  7. 
 Iambics  and  choliambics.  Strabo  refers  to  them,  and 
 some  fragments  remain. — Such  are  some  of  the  prin- 
 cipal poetic  works  of  Callimachus.  V\e  have  to  re- 
 gret the  loss  of  several  prose  works,  which  would,  no 
 doubt,  have  thrown  great  light  on  various  subjects 
 connected  with  the  antiquities  of  Greece.  Such  are 
 his  Commentaries,  or  Memoirs  {'T'iTO/j.vji/:iaTa);  hia 
 work  entitled  Kriaei^  vrjauv  koI  ttoTisuv,  "  The  set- 
 tling of  islands  and  founding  of  cities  ;"  his  "  Won- 
 ders of  the  World,''  Qavfiucna,  or,  QavjiuTuv  tQv  ftj 
 uTraaav  rijv  yyv  koI  toixov^  ovtuv  cvvayuyi],  &c. 
 Callimachus  did  not  want  detractors,  who  occasioned 
 him  that  species  of  torment  to  which  the  vanity  of  au- 
 thors exposes  them,  and,  at  the  same  time,  renders  them 
 so  sensitive.  A  certain  grammarian,  named  Aristo- 
 phon,  wrote  against  one  of  his  productions  ;  and  there 
 exists,  in  the  Anthology,  a  distich  against  Callima- 
 chus, by  Apollonius  the  grammarian,  which  is  often 
 erroneously  ascribed  to  the  author  of  the  Argonautics. 
 — Among  the  editions  of  Callimachus  may  be  men- 
 tioned that  of  Ernesti,  Lvgd.  Bat.,  1761,  2  vols.  8vo, 
 and  that  of  Blomfield,  Land.,  1815,  8vo.  Brunck 
 gave  also  a  revised  text  in  his  Poetae  Gnornici. 
 {ScMll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  107,  seqq.)—U.  A 
 celebrated  artist,  whose  attention  was  directed  not 
 only  to  statuary,  but  to  engraving  on  gold  and  to 
 painting.  {Plin.,  34,  8.)  On  account  of  the  elegant 
 finish  of  his  works  in  marble,  he  was  styled  by  the 
 Athenians  Karilrexvo^.  {Vilruv.,  4,  1,  10. — Com- 
 pare the  remarks  of  Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Calliope,  one  of  the  Muses,  daughter  of  Jupiter 
 and  Mnemosvne.  She  presided  over  epic  poetry  and 
 eloquence,  and  was  represented  holding  a  close-rolled 
 parchment,  and  sometimes  a  trumpet.  She  derived 
 her  name  from  her  beautiful  (silver-toned)  voice,  awo 
 Tij(  Ka?.7jg  OTTOC.  Calliope  bore  to  ffiagrus  a  son 
 named  Linus,  who  was  killed  by  his  pupil  Hercules. 
 {Apollod.,  I,  3,  2.)  She  had  also  by  the  same  sire  the 
 celebrated  Orpheus.  Others,  however,  made  Apollo 
 the  sire  of  Linus  and  Orpheus.  Hesiod  {frag.  97) 
 says,  that  Urania  was  the  mother  of  Linus.  ( VuL  Mu- 
 sas,  and  consult  Mixller,  Archaul.  der  Kunst,  p.  594, 
 seqq.) 
 
 CallipatIra,  daughter  of  Diagoras,  and  wife  of 
 Callianax  the  athlete.  According  to  the  common  ac- 
 count, she  went  with  her  son,  after  the  death  of  hei 
 husband,  to  the  Olympic  games,  having  disguised 
 herself  in  the  attire  of  a  teacher  of  gymnastics.  When 
 her  son  was  declared  victor,  she  discovered  her  sex  in 
 the  joy  of  the  moment,  and  was  immediately  arrested, 
 as  women  were  not  allowed  to  ajipear  on  such  occa- 
 
 28» 
 
C  A  L 
 
 C  A  L 
 
 eions.  The  punishment  to  which  she  was  liable  was 
 to  be  cast  down  from  a  precipitous  and  rocky  height, 
 but  she  was  pardoned  in  consequence  of  the  pecu- 
 liar circumstances  of  lier  case.  A  law,  however,  was 
 immediately  passed,  ordaining  that  the  teachers  of 
 gymnastic  exercises  should  also  appear  naked  at  the 
 games.  {Pausanias,  5,  6,  5.) — From  an  examina- 
 tion of  authorities,  it  would  appear  that  the  story  just 
 told  relates  rather  to  Berenice  {•i'spEi'iKij),  the  sister 
 of  Callipatira.  (Consult  Bayle,  Diet.,  s.  v.  Berenice, 
 and  Sicbelis,  ad  Pausan.,  I.  c.) 
 
 CallIphon,  a  painter,  a  native  of  Samos,  who 
 decorated  with  pictures  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephe- 
 sus.  The  subjects  of  his  pieces  were  taken  from  the 
 Iliad.     (Pausan.,  5,  19.) 
 
 Calmpolis,  I.  a  city  of  Thrace,  about  five  miles 
 from  ^gospotamos.  Its  origin  is  uncertain  :  a  By- 
 zantine writer  ascribes  its  foundation  and  name  to 
 (/allias,  an  Athenian  general  {Jo.  Cinnamus,  5,  3), 
 while  another  derives  its  appellation  from  the  beauty 
 o.  liie  site.  {Agalhias,  5,  p.  155.)  It  is  certain  that 
 we  do  not  hear  of  Callipolis  before  the  Macedonian 
 war,  when  Livy  mentions  its  having  been  taken  by 
 Philip,  the  last  king  of  that  name  (31,  16. — Com- 
 pare Plin.,  4,  11).  From  the  Itineraries  we  learn,  that 
 Callipolis  was  the  point  whence  it  was  usual  to  cross 
 the  Hellespont  to  Lampsacus  or  Abydos.  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  Gallipoh,  and  it  is  from  this  that  the 
 Chersonese  now  takes  its  name  as  a  Turkish  province. 
 (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  330.)— II.  A  town 
 of  Sicily,  north  of  Catana,  now  Gallipoli. — III.  A  city 
 of  Calabria,  on  the  Sinus  Tareniinus,  now  Callipoli. 
 According  to  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (17,  4),  it 
 owed  its  foundation  to  Leucippus,  a  Lacedaemonian, 
 who  erected  a  town  here  with  the  consent  of  the  Ta- 
 rentines,  who  expected  to  be  put  in  possession  of  it 
 shortly  after ;  but  in  this  hope  they  were  deceived  ; 
 and  on  finding  that  the  Spartan  colony  was  already 
 strong  enough  to  resist  an  attack,  they  suffered  Leu- 
 cippus to  prosecute  his  undertaking  without  molesta- 
 tion. {Dwn.  Hal.,  frag.  ed.  Angela  Malo,  MedwL, 
 1816.)  Mela  styles' it  "  urhs  Gram  Callipolis"  (2, 
 4).  The  passage  in  which  Pliny  names  this  town  is 
 corrupt.  {Plin  ,  3,  11. — Cramcr^s  Ancient  Italy, \o\. 
 2,  p.  317.) 
 
 Cai.lirhoe,  I.  a  daughter  of  the  Scamander,  who 
 married  Tros,  by  whom  she  had  Uus,  Ganymede,  and 
 Assaracus.  (//.,  20,  231  )— II.  A  daughter  of  Ocea- 
 nus  and  Tethys,  mother  of  Geryon,  Echidna,  Cerbe- 
 rus, and  other  monsters,  by  Chrysaor.  {Hcsiod,  Theog., 
 287,  segq.) 
 
 Calliste,  an  island  of  the  JEgean  Sea,  called  also 
 Thera.     {Vid.  Thera.) 
 
 Callisteia,  Beauty's  rewards  ;  a  festival  at  Les- 
 hos,  during  which  all  the  women  presented  themselves 
 in  the  temple  of  Juno,  and  the  prize  was  assigned  to 
 the  fairest.     (Alhenaus,   13,  p.  610,  a.)     There  was 
 also  an   institution  of  the  same  kind  among  the  Par- 
 rhasians,   made    first   by  Cypselus,  whose   wife    was 
 honoured  with  the  first  prize.     The  Eleans  had   one 
 also,  in  which  the  fairest  man  received  as  a  prize  a 
 complete  suit  of  armour,  which  he  dedicated  to  Miner- 
 va.    (AthencBus,  I.  c. — Ca.saub.  et  Schi'eigh.,  ad  Inc.) 
 Callisthenes,  a  native  of  Olynthus,  the  son  of 
 Hero,  Aristotle's  sister.     He  was  placed  by  the  Sta- 
 girite  about  the  person  of  Alexander,  as  a  kind  of  in- 
 structer,  or,  rather,  companion  of  his  studies,  and  ac- 
 companied the  monarch  into  the  East.     He  gave  of- 
 fence, however,  by  the  rudeness  of  his  manners  and 
 his  boldness  of  speech,  and  was  eventually  charged 
 with  being  imphcated  in  a  conspiracy  against  Alexan- 
 der.    According  to  the  common  account,  he  was  mu- 
 tilated, and  then  carried  along  with  ttie  army  m  an  iron 
 cage,  until  he  ended  his  days  by  poison.     Ptolemy, 
 however,  wrote  in  his  history  of  Alexander,  that  he 
 was  first  tortured  and  then  hanged.     Callisthenes  does 
 290 
 
 not  deserve  the  name  of  a  philosopher,  which  some 
 have  bestowed  upon  him  ;  he  appears,  on  the  contrary, 
 to  have  been  little  better  than  a  mere  sophist.  He 
 wrote  a  history  of  Alexander's  movements  which  has 
 not  come  down  to  us,  but  which,  from  the  remarks  of 
 ancient  writers,  does  not  appear  to  have  possessed 
 even  the  merit  of  exactness  in  ordinary  details.  {Plut., 
 Vtt.  Alex. — Polyh.,  12,  23. — Sainle-Croix,  Ezumcn, 
 &c.,  p.  34,  segq  — Id.  ib.,  p.  163,  seqq.) 
 
 Cai.listo  and  Calisto,  called  also  Helice,  was 
 daughter  of  Lycaon,  king  of  Arcadia,  and  one  of  Di- 
 ana's attendants.  Jupiter  saw  her,  and  assuming  the 
 form  of  Diana,  accompanied  the  maiden  to  the  chase, 
 and  surprised  her  virtue.  She  long  concealed  her 
 shame  ;  but  at  length,  as  she  was  one  day  bathing  with 
 her  divine  mistress,  the  discovery  was  made,  and  Di- 
 ana, in  her  anger,  turned  her  into  a  bear.  While  in 
 this  form  she  brought  forth  her  son  Areas,  who  lived 
 with  her  in  the  woods,  till  the  herdsmen  caught  both 
 her  and  him,  and  brought  them  to  Lycaon.  ( Vid.  Ar- 
 eas.) Some  time  afterward  she  went  into  the  teme- 
 nus,  or  sacred  enclosure  of  the  Lycjean  Jove,  which  it 
 was  unlawful  to  enter.  A  number  of  Arcadians, 
 among  whom  was  her  own  son,  followed  to  kill  her,  but 
 Jove  snatched  her  out  of  their  hands,  and  placed  her  as 
 a  constellation  in  the  sky.  {Apollod.,  3,8. — Ovid,  Met., 
 2.  401,  seq.—Id.,  Fast  ,  2,  155,  scq. — Hygin.,  fab., 
 177.)  It  was  also  fabled,  that  at  the  request  of  Juno, 
 Tethys  forbade  the  constellation  of  the  bear  to  descend 
 into  her  waves.  This  legend  is  related  with  great  va- 
 riety in  the  circumstances.  According  to  one  of  these 
 versions.  Areas,  having  been  separated  from  his  mother 
 and  reared  among  men,  met  her  one  day  in  the  woods., 
 and  was  on  the  point  of  slaying  her,  when  Jupiter 
 transferred  the  mother  and  son  to  the  skies.  {Keight- 
 ley's  Mythology,  p.  425,  scq.) 
 
 CALLisTRArus,  I.  a  celebrated  orator  of  Athens. 
 Demosthenes,  having  heard  him  plead  on  one  occa- 
 sion, was  so  charmed  by  his  eloquence  that  he  aban- 
 doned all  his  other  studies,  and  betook  himself  to  ora- 
 tory. He  was  employed  on  several  occasions  as  an 
 ambassador,  but  eventually  met  with  the  common  fate 
 of  popular  leaders,  and  was  exiled.  Retiring  upon 
 this  to  Thrace,  he  founded  Datum  in  that  country. 
 {Pint.,  Vit.  Demosth.,  c.  3. — Scylax,  Peripl.,  p.  27.) — 
 II.  A  sophist,  who  lived,  as  Heyne  thinks,  a  little  be- 
 fore the  elder  Philoslratus,  towards  the  close  of  the 
 second  century  of  our  era.  We  have  from  him  a  de- 
 scription of  fourteen  statue.^,  written,  it  is  true,  in  the 
 style  of  a  rhetorician,  but  still  containing  many  details 
 of  a  curious  nature  as  regards  the  history  of  ancient 
 art.  {Heync,  Opusc,  vol.  5,  p.  196,  seqq.)  The 
 work  accompanies  the  writings  of  Philoslratus,  and  is 
 found  in  all  our  editions  of  the  latter. — III.  A  lloinan 
 lawyer,  who  lived  during  the  time  of  Severus  and  Car- 
 acalla.     {Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  6,  p.  555.) 
 
 Calor,  a  river  of  Italy,  which  rose  in  the  mountains 
 of  the  Hirpini.  passed  Beneventum,  and  joined  the 
 Vulturnus.     {Liv.,  24,  14  ) 
 
 Cai.pe,  a  lofty  mountain  in  the  most  southern  part.s 
 of  Spain,  opposite  to  Mount  Abyla  on  the  African 
 coast.  These  two  mountains  were  called  the  Pillars 
 of  Hercules.  Calpe  is  now  called  Gibraltar,  from  the 
 Arabic  Gibcl  Tank  (i.  e.,  "  the  mountain  of  Tarik." 
 This  Tarik  was  a  Moorish  general,  who  first  led  the 
 Moors  into  Spain,  A.D.  710). — For  some  remarks  on 
 the  etvmology  of  the  name  Calpe,  vid.  Abyla. 
 
 Calpurnia,  I.  a  daughter  of  L.  Piso,  and  Julius 
 Cxsar's  fourth  wife.  The  night  previous  to  her  hus- 
 band's murder,  she  dreamed  that  he  had  been  stabbed 
 in  her  arms.  According  to  others,  she  dreamed  that 
 the  pinnacle  had  fallen,  which  the  senate,  by  way  of 
 ornament  and  distinction,  had  caused  to  be  erected  on 
 Caesar's  house.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Cces.,c.)  After  Cesar's 
 death  she  intrusted  Antony  with  his  private  treasure, 
 which  amounted  to  four  thousand  talents,  and  also  with 
 
CAL 
 
 CAM 
 
 tne  private  papers  of  the  dictator.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Ant., 
 c.  15.)  — II.  Calpurnia  Lex,  passed  A.U.C.  604, 
 against  extortion,  by  which  law  the  first  qucBstio  per- 
 peltia  was  established.  (C;f.  in  Verr.,  4,  25.) — III. 
 Another,  called  also  Acilia,  concerning  bribery,  A.U.C. 
 686.     (Cic.pro  Murcr.n.,  23.) 
 
 Cai.purnius,  I.  a  writer  of  mimes,  not  to  be  con- 
 founded with  the  pastoral  poet  of  the  same  name. 
 (Bdhr,  Gesck.  Rum.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  118.)— II.  A 
 Christian  in  the  time  q{  Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius, 
 from  whom  we  have  fifty-one  Declamations  remaining. 
 {Bd/ir,ib.,  p.  537.) — III.  A  Latin  poet,  a  native  of  Sici- 
 Iv,  and  contemporary  of  Nemesianus,  lived  during  the 
 third  century  of  our  era.  In  the  earliest  editions  of 
 his  works,  and  in  all  but  one  of  the  MSS.,  eleven 
 eclogues  pass  under  his  name.  Ugoletus,  however,  at 
 a  later  period,  guided  by  this  single  j\IS.,  undertook  to 
 assign  four  of  the  eleven  to  Nemesianus.  In  this  he 
 is  wrong,  for  the  tone  and  manner  of  these  pieces  show 
 plainly  that  they  all  came  from  one  pen.  Such  was 
 the  opinion  of  Ulitius  {Frorf.  ad  Nemcsian.,  Eclog., 
 p.  459. — Id.  ad  Nemcsian.,  Cyneg.,  v.  1,  p.  314), 
 with  which  Burmann  agrees  {Poet.  Lat.  Mm.,  Pra/., 
 p.  ***4),  and  which  Wernsdorfl"  at  last  has  fully  estab- 
 lished. (Poet.  Lat.  Mm.,  vol.  2,  p.  15,  seqq.)  The 
 Eclogues  of  Calpurnius  are  not  without  merit,  though 
 greatly  inferior  iii  elegance  and  simplicity  to  Virgil's. 
 They  are  dedicated  to  Nemesianus,  his  protector  and 
 patron,  for  he  himself  was  very  poor.  In  the  time  of 
 Charlemagne  these  pieces  were  placed  in  the  hands  of 
 young  scholars.  The  best  editions  are  found  in  the 
 Poclcc  Laliiii  Minorcs  of  Burmann,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1731, 
 2  vols.  4io,  and  of  Wernsdoiff,  ^//em6.,^1780-1799,  10 
 vols.  8vo.     {B'dhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  301.) 
 
 Calvus  (3orn.  LiciNius,  a  Roman,  equally  distin- 
 guished as  an  orator  and  a  poet.  In  the  former  ca- 
 pacity he  is  mentioned  with  praise  by  Cicero  (Brut., 
 81.— Ep.  ad  Fam,  7,  2i.—Ibid.,  15,  51).  He  was 
 also  the  friend  of  Catullus,  and  two  odes  of  that  au- 
 thor's are  addressed  to  him,  in  which  he  is  commemo- 
 rated as  a  most  delightful  companion,  from  whose  so- 
 ciety he  could  scarcely  refrain.  The  fragments  of  his 
 epigrams  which  remain  do  not  enable  us  to  judge  for 
 oursehes  of  his  jjoeiical  merits.  He  is  classed  by 
 Ovid  among  the  licentious  writers.  {Horat.,  Scrm., 
 1,  10,  19. — Dunloi/s  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p  540.) 
 
 Calvc.\dnus,  a  large  and  rapid  river  of  Cilicia  Tra- 
 chea, which  rises  in  the  central  chain  of  Taurus,  and, 
 after  receiving  some  minor  tributary  streams,  falls  into 
 the  sea  between  the  promontories  of  Zephyrium  and 
 Sarpedon  It  is  now  the  Giuk-sou.  {Plin.,  5,  27. — 
 Lit).,  38,  38  —Amm.  MarcelL,  14,  25.) 
 
 C.tLVDN.^,  I.  small  islands,  placed  by  Strabo  (603) 
 between  Cape  Lectum  and  Tenedos,  but  not  to  be 
 found  in  that  direction.  In  Choiseul  Gouffier's  map 
 they  are  laid  down  between  Tenedos  and  Sigseuni. — 
 H.  A  group  of  islands,  lying  of!"  the  coast  of  Caria,  to 
 the  southeast  of  Leros.  One  of  the  number  was  called 
 Calymna.  {Horn.,  II.,  2,  676.)  Herodotus  informs 
 us  (7,  99),  that  the  Calydnians  were  subject  to  Arte- 
 misia, queen  of  Caria.  Calymna,  in  modern  charts,  is 
 called  Calimno,  and  the  surrounding  group  Kapperi 
 and  Carabaghlar.  (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p. 
 218.)  ^ 
 
 Calydon,  a  city  of  .^tolia,  below  the  river  Eve- 
 nu3,  and  between  that  stream  and  the  sea.  It  was 
 faraed  in  Grecian  story  on  account  of  the  boar-hunt 
 in  its  neighbourhood  (vid.  Meleaser),  the  theme  of 
 poetry  from  Homer  to  Slatius.  We  are  told  by  my- 
 thologists  that  Qineus,  the  father  of  Meleager  and 
 Tydeus,  reigned  at  Calydon,  while  his  brother  Agrius 
 settled  in  Pleuron.  Frequent  wars,  however,  arose 
 between  them  on  the  subject  of  contiguous  lands  ;  a 
 circumstance  to  which  Homer  alludes.  (IL,  9,  525, 
 seqq.)  From  the  same  poet  we  collect,  that  Calydon 
 was  situate  on  a  rocky  height.     (/;.,  2,  640  ;    13, 
 
 217.)  Its  territory,  however,  was  ample  and  produc* 
 tive.  (//.,  9,  577,  seqq.)  Some  time  after  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesian  war,  we  find  Calydon  in  the  possession  of  the 
 Achseans.  It  is  probable  that  the  Calydonians  them- 
 selves invited  over  the  Achasans,  to  defend  them 
 against  the  Acarnanians.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  4,  6.  1.— 
 Pausan.,  3,  10.)  Their  city  was,  in  consequence,  oc 
 cupied  by  an  Achaean  garrison,  until  Epaminondas, 
 after  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  compelled  them  to  evacu- 
 ate the  place.  (Diod.  Stc,  15,  57.)  It  was  still  a 
 town  of  importance  during  the  Social  war  {Poll///.,  4, 
 65. — Id.,  5,  95),  and  as  late  as  the  time  of  Gssar. 
 {B.  Civ.,  3,  35.)  But  Augustus  accomplished  its 
 downfall  by  removing  the  inhabitants  to  Nicopolis. 
 According  to  Dodwell,  there  are  yet  to  be  seen  here 
 the  remains  of  a  city,  and  its  acropolis,  composed  of 
 magnificent  walls,  constructed  nearly  in  a  regular  man- 
 ner.    {Cramer''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  78,  seqq.) 
 
 CAL^■DONls,  a  name  of  Deianira,  as  living  in  Caly- 
 don.    {Omd,  Met.,  9,  112) 
 
 Calymna,  an  island  of  the  ..lEgean,  southeast  of 
 Leros.     {Vid.  Calydnae,  II.) 
 
 Calypso,  a  daughter  of  Atlas,  according  to  Homer. 
 {Od.,  1,  52. — Ih.,  7,  245.)  Hesiod,  however.  makeS: 
 her  an  ocean-nymph  {Thcog.,  359),  and  Apollodoru.^ 
 a  Nereid  (1,  2).  Like  Circe,  she  was  a  human-speak- 
 ing goddess,  and  dwelt  in  solitary  state  with  her  attend- 
 ant nymphs  on  an  island  named  Ogygia,  in  the  midst 
 of  the  ocean.  Her  isle  presented  such  a  scene  of  syl- 
 van beauty  as  charmed  even  Mercury,  one  of  the 
 dwellers  of  Olympus.  iOd.,  5,  72.)  Calypso  received 
 and  kindly  entertained  Ulysses,  when,  in  the  course  of 
 his  wanderings,  that  hero  was  thrown  upon  her  domains 
 after  his  shipwreck.  She  detained  him  there  for  eight 
 years,  designing  to  make  him  immortal,  and  to  keep 
 him  with  her  lor  ever  ;  but  Mercury  arriving  with  a 
 command  from  Jupiter,  she  was  obliged  to  consent  to 
 his  departure.  She  gave  the  hero  tools  to  build  a  rat't 
 or  light  vessel,  supplied  him  with  provisions,  and  re- 
 luctantly took  a  final  leave  of  him. — The  name  Ca- 
 lypso means  "  the  Concealer,'''  the  poet,  after  his  usual 
 manner,  giving  her  a  significant  appellation.  As  re- 
 gards her  island,  Homer  seems  to  have  conceived 
 Ogygia  to  lie  in  the  northwestern  parts  of  the  West  sea, 
 far  remote  from  all  other  isles  and  coasts  ;  and  he  thus 
 brought  his  hero  into  all  parts  of  that  sea,  and  informed 
 his  auditors  of  all  its  wonders.  {Keighlley's  Mythol- 
 ogy, p.  274.  seq  ) 
 
 CamalodCnum,  the  first  Roman  colony  in  Britain, 
 established  under  Claudius.  Its  situation  agrees  with 
 that  of  the  modern  Maiden,  according  to  Cluver  and 
 Cellarius.     {Tacit.,  Ann.,  12,  ^2.— Id.  ib.,  14,  31.) 
 
 Camaracom,  a  city  of  the  Nervii,  in  Belgic  Gaul, 
 east  of  Nemetacum,  now  Camhray  (Cammcnk). 
 
 Camarina,  a  city  of  Sicily,  near  the  southern  coast, 
 on  the  river  Hipparis.  {Schol.  ad  Pind.,  01.,  5,  19.) 
 It  was  originally  founded  by  a  colony  from  Syracuse, 
 but,  proving  subsequently  disobedient,  it  was  destroy- 
 ed by  the  parent  state,  and  the  ground  on  which  it 
 stood  was  sold  to  Hippocrates,  tyrant  of  Gela,  as  a 
 ransom  for  some  Syracusan  captives.  Hippocrates  re- 
 built the  city  ;  but  his  successor,  Gelon,  after  having 
 obtained  the  sovereignty  of  Syracuse,  transferred  the 
 inhatiitants  of  Camarina  to  the  former  city,  and  thus 
 again  was  Camarina  destroyed.  (Herodol.,  7,  156.) 
 Dissensions  in  Syracuse  enabled  the  Geloans  to  rebuild 
 Camarina  ;  according  to  Timsus,  in  the  82d  Olympiad, 
 but  according  to  Diodorus  at  the  end  of  the  79th.  Thi^ 
 city,  however,  seemed  destined  to  be  still  unfortunate. 
 It  again  suffered  from  the  elder  Dionysius,  and  the  in- 
 habitants were  once  more  obliged  to  become  wander- 
 ers. When  Timoleon,  after  the  overthrow  of  tyranny, 
 gave  peace  to  the  whole  island,  Camarina  again  re- 
 vived. {Diod.  Sic,  16,  82.)  It  sudered  once  more, 
 however,  in  the  contest  between  Carthage  and  Agatho 
 cles ;  and  finally,  in  the  first  Punic  war,  was  severely 
 
 2Sl 
 
CAM 
 
 CAM 
 
 punished  by  the  Romans  for  having  admitted  Cartha- 
 ginian troops  wiliiin  its  walls.  From  this  time  it  re- 
 mained an  inconsiderable  city.  In  the  neighbourhood 
 of  the  place  the  river  formed  a  low  island,  covered  at 
 high  water,  but  when  the  tide  fell  converted  into  a 
 marsh.  This  marsh  yielded  exhalations  which  pro- 
 duced a  pestilence,  and  the  inhabitants  consulted  an 
 oracle  whether  they  should  drain  it.  Although  the  or- 
 acle dissuaded  them,  they  drained  it,  and  opened  a  way 
 to  their  enemies  to  come  and  plunder  their  city. 
 Hence  arose  the  j)roverb,  from  the  worils  of  the  oracle, 
 uri  kIvel  YLafiapivav,  "  move  not  Ciimarina,'"  applied 
 to  those  who,  by  removing  one  evil,  will  bring  on  a 
 greater.  Nothing  now  remains  of  this  city  but  some 
 ruins,  and  the  name  Camarana,  given  by  the  natives  to 
 a  town  and  a  neighbouring  marsh.  {Virg.,  Mn.,  3, 
 1Q\..— Herod.,  7,  154.) 
 
 Cambunii  Montes,  a  chain  of  mountains  forming  the 
 southern  boundary  of  Macedonia,  and  separating  that 
 country  from  Thessaly.     {Liv.,  42,  53. — Id..,  44,  2.) 
 
 Cambyses,  I.  an  early  monarch  of  the  line  of  the 
 Achajmenides,  the  successor  of  Teispes,  who  was  him- 
 self the  successor  of  Achaemenes.  He  must  not  be  con- 
 founded with  ('ambyses,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  who  was,  in 
 fact,  the  second  of  the  name  in  the  line  of  Persian 
 kings.  {Herod.,  7,  11. — Consult  Rdhr  and  Lurcher, 
 ad  loc.) — II.  A  Persian  of  good  family,  but  peaceful 
 disposition,  to  whom  Astyages,  king  of  Media,  gave 
 his  daughter  Mandane  in  marriage.  {Vtd.  Astyages.) 
 The  issue  of  this  union  was  Cyrus  the  Great.  {He- 
 rod., \,  46. — Id.,  1,  107.) — III.  The  son  and  succes- 
 sor of  Cyrus  the  Great,  ascended  the  throne  of  Persia 
 B.C.  530.  Soon  after  the  commencement  of  his 
 reign,  he  undertook  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  being  ex- 
 cited to  the  step,  according  to  the  Persian  account  as 
 given  in  Herodotus  (3,  I),  by  the  conduct  of  Amasis, 
 the  king  of  that  country.  Cambyses,  it  seems,  had  de- 
 manded in  marriage  the  daughter  of  Amasis ;  but  the 
 latter,  knowing  that  the  Persian  monarch  intended  to 
 make  her,  not  his  wife,  but  his  concubine,  endeavour- 
 ed to  deceive  him  by  sending  in  her  stead  the  daughter 
 of  his  predecessor  Ajiries.  The  historian  gives  also 
 another  account  besides  this  ;  but  it  is  more  than  prob- 
 able that  both  are  untrue,  and  that  ambitious  feelings 
 alone  on  the  part  of  Cambyses  prompted  him  to  the 
 enterprise.  (Compare  Dahlmann,  Herod.,  p.  148. — 
 Creuzer,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c.)  Amasis  died  before  Cam- 
 byses marched  against  Egypt,  and  his  son  Psammeni- 
 tus  succeeded  to  the  throne.  A  bloody  battle  was 
 fought  near  the  Pelusiac  mouth  of  the  Nile,  and  the 
 Egyptians  were  put  to  flight,  after  which  Cambyses 
 made  himself  master  of  the  whole  country,  and  receiv- 
 ed tokens  of  submission  also  from  the  Cyrenceans  and 
 the  people  of  Barca.  The  kingdom  of  Egypt  was  thus 
 conquered  by  him  in  si.x  months.  Cambyses  now  form- 
 ed new  projects.  He  wished  to  send  a  squadron  and 
 subjugate  Carthage,  to  conquer  ^Ethiopia,  and  to  make 
 himself  master  of  the  famous  temple  of  Jupiter  Amnion. 
 The  first  of  these  expeditions,  however,  did  not  take 
 place,  because  the  Phcenicians,  who  composed  his  na- 
 val force,  would  not  go  to  attack  one  of  their  own  col- 
 onies. The  army  that  was  sent  against  the  Ammoni- 
 ans  perished  in  the  desert ;  and  the  troops  at  whose 
 head  he  himself  had  set  out  against  the  /Ethiopians 
 were  compelled  by  hunger  to  retreat.  How  far  he 
 advanced  into  -'Ethiopia  cannot  be  ascertained  from 
 anything  that  Herodotus  says.  Diodorus  Siculus,  how- 
 ever (1,  33),  makes  Cambyses  to  have  penetrated  as 
 far  as  the  spot  where  Meroe  stood,  which  city,  accord- 
 ing to  this  same  writer,  he  founded,  and  named  after 
 his  mother.  His  mother,  however,  was  Cassandana. 
 Josephus  {Ant.  Jud.,  2,  10,  2)  makes  the  previous 
 name  to  have  been  merely  changed  by  Cambyses  to 
 Meroe,  in  honour  of  his  sister.  (Compare  Straho,  790. ) 
 Both  accounts  are  untrue.  {Vid.  Meroe.) — After  his 
 Xelurn  from  Ethiopia,  the  Persian  king  gave  himself 
 292 
 
 up  to  the  greatest  acts  of  outrage  and  cruelty.  On 
 entering  Memphis  he  found  the  inhabitants  engaged  in 
 celebrating  the  festival  of  the  re-appearance  of  Apis, 
 and,  imagining  that  these  rejoicings  were  made  on  ac- 
 count of  his  ill  success,  he  caused  the  sacred  bull  to 
 be  brought  before  him,  stabbed  him  with  his  dagger, 
 of  which  wound  the  animal  afterward  died,  and  caused 
 the  priests  to  be  scourged.  {Herod.,  3,  27,  sctjq.) 
 Cambyses  is  said  to  have  been  subject  to  epilepsy  from 
 his  earliest  years  ;  and  the  habit  of  drinking,  in  which 
 he  now  indulged  to  excess,  rendered  him  at  times  com- 
 pletely furious.  No  relation  was  held  sacred  by  him 
 when  intoxicated.  Having  dreamed  that  his  brother 
 Smerdis  was  seated  on  the  royal  throne,  he  sent  on* 
 of  his  principal  confidants  to  Persia,  with  orders  to  put 
 him  to  death,  a  mandate  which  was  actually  accom- 
 plished. His  sister  and  wife  Atossa,  who  lamented 
 the  death  of  Smerdis,  he  struck  with  a  blow  of  his  foot, 
 which  brought  on  abortion.  {Herod.,  3,  30,  seqg.) 
 These  and  many  other  actions,  alike  indicative  of  al- 
 most complete  insanity,  aroused  against  him  the  feel- 
 ings of  his  subjects.  A  member  of  the  sacerdotal  or- 
 der called  the  Magi  availed  himself  of  this  discontent, 
 and,  aided  by  the  strong  resemblance  which  he  bore  to 
 the  murdered  Smerdis,  as  well  as  by  the  exertions  of 
 a  brother  who  was  also  a  Magian,  seized  upon  the 
 throne  of  Persia,  and  sent  heralds  in  every  direction, 
 commanding  all  to  obey,  for  the  time  to  come,  Smerdis, 
 son  of  Cyrus,  and  not  Cambyses.  The  news  of  this 
 usurpation  reached  Cambyses  at  a  place  in  Syria  call- 
 ed Ecbatana,  where  he  was  at  that  time  with  his  army. 
 Resolving  to  return  with  all  speed  to  Susa,  the  mon- 
 arch was  in  the  act  of  mounting  his  horse,  when  his 
 sword  fell  from  its  sheath  and  inflicted  a  moital  blow 
 in  his  thigh.  An  oracle,  it  is  said,  had  been  given 
 him  from  Butus,  that  he  would  end  his  life  at  Ecba- 
 tana, but  he  always  thought  that  the  Median  Ecbatana 
 was  meant  by  it.  He  died  of  his  wound  soon  after, 
 B  C.  522,  leaving  no  children.  {Herod.,  3,  61,  seqq.) 
 Ctesias  gives  a  different  account.  He  makes  Camby- 
 ses to  have  died  at  Babylon  of  a  wound  he  had  given 
 himself  on  the  femoral  muscle,  while  shaving  smooth 
 a  piece  of  wood  with  a  small  knife.  {Clcs.,  Excerpt. 
 Pcrs.,  ^  12.)  According  to  Herodotus  (3,  66),  Cam- 
 byses reigned  seven  years  and  five  months.  Ctesias 
 says  eighteen  years  ;  but  there  must  be  some  error  in 
 this.  Clemens  of  Alexandrea  gives  ten  years.  {Clem. 
 Alex.,  Strom..,  1,  p.  395.) — IV.  A  river  of  Asia,  which 
 rises,  according  to  Pomponius  Mela  (3,  5),  at  the  base 
 of  Mens  Coraxicus,  a  branch  of  Caucasus,  and  in  the 
 vicinity  of  the  sources  of  the  Cyrus.  After  flowing 
 through  Iberia  and  Hyrcania,  it  joins  the  Cyrus,  and 
 the  united  streams  empty  into  the  Hyrcanian  Sea.  La 
 Martiniere  {Diet.  Geog.)  remarks,  that  there  is  no  riv- 
 er in  modern  times  ansv^ering  to  this  description  of 
 the  Cambyses.  Vossius  thinks  that  Mela  intended  to 
 designate  the  Araxes,  but  the  sources  of  this  river  are 
 too  far  distant.  Hardouin,  suspecting  that  Ptolemy 
 has  spoken  of  the  Cambyses  under  another  name,  be- 
 lieves it  to  be  the  same  with  the  Soana  of  this  geogra- 
 pher :  he  goes,  however,  too  high  towards  the  northern 
 extremity  of  Albania.  {Hardouin,  ad  Flin.,  6,  13, 
 7Wt.  7.) 
 
 CamerInum,  a  town  of  Umbria.  on  the  borders  of 
 Picenum.  It  was  a  Roman  colony  and  a  city  of  some 
 note,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Camerte 
 of  Strabo,  an  error  into  which  Cluverius  has  fallen. 
 {Ital.  Ant.,  1,  p.  613.)  The  modern  name  is  Cam- 
 erino.  {Cce.i.,  RcU.  Civ.,  1,  15. — C7C.  ad  Attic.,  8, 
 \2.—Pto!.,  p.  62.)  Appian  calls  it  Cameria.  {Bell. 
 Civ.,  5,  50.— Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  262.) 
 
 Camerte,  a  town  of  Umbria,  between  Tudcr  and 
 Ameria.  {Strah.,  227,  seq. — Consult  the  remarks  of 
 Cramer,  Anc.  Itahj,\o].  1,  p.  274.) 
 
 Camilla,  queen  of  the  Volsci,  was  daughter  of  Me- 
 tabus  and  Casmilla.    Her  father,  who  reigned  at  Priver- 
 
CAM 
 
 CAM 
 
 num,  having  by  his  tyranny  rendered  himself  odious  to 
 his  subjects,  was  by  them  expelled  from  his  dominions, 
 and  forced  to  take  refuge  from  their  fury  in  the  lonely 
 woods.  Here  he  bred  up  the  infant  Camilla,  the  sole 
 companion  of  his  flight;  and,  having  dedicated  her  to 
 the  service  of  Diana,  he  instructed  her  in  the  use  of  the 
 bow  and  arrow,  and  accustomed  her  to  the  practice  of 
 martial  and  sylvan  exercises.  She  was  so  remarkable 
 for  her  swiftness,  that  she  is  described  by  the  poets 
 as  flyinw  over  the  corn  without  bending  the  stalks,  and 
 skimming  over  the  surface  of  the  waves  without  wet- 
 ting her  feet.  Attended  by  a  train  of  warriors,  she  led 
 the  V^olscians  to  battle  against  ..f^neas.  Many  brave 
 chiefs  fell  by  her  hand  ;  but  she  was  at  length  herself 
 killed  by  a  soldier  of  the  name  of  Aruns,  who,  from 
 a  place  of  concealment,  aimed  a  javelin  at  her.  Diana, 
 however,  who  had  foreseen  this  fatal  event,  had  com- 
 missioned Opis,  one  of  her  nymphs,  to  avenge  the 
 death  of  Camilla,  and  Aruns  was  slain  in  his  flight 
 from  the  combat  bv  the  arrows  of  the  goddess.  ( Virg., 
 ,Eii.,  7,  803,  seq'q.—Id.  ib.,  11,  532,  seqq.—ld.  ib., 
 11,  848,  seqq.)  'I'asso  has  applied  this  story  of  Camil- 
 la to  Clorinda  {B.  12,  sUmza  20,  &c.). 
 
 Camillus  (L.  FuRius),  a  celebrated  Roman,  called 
 a  second  Romulus,  from  his  services  to  his  country. 
 After  tilling  various  important  stations,  and,  among 
 other  achievements,  taking  the  city  of  Veil,  which  had 
 for  the  space  of  ten  years  resisted  the  Roman  arms,  he 
 encountered  at  last  the  displeasure  of  his  countrymen, 
 and  was  accused  of  having  embezzled  some  of  the 
 plunder  of  this  place.  Being  well  aware  how  the  mat- 
 ter would  terminate,  Camillus  went  into  voluntary  ex- 
 ile, although  his  friends  offered  to  pay  the  sum  demand- 
 ed of  him.  During  this  period  of  separation  from  his 
 country,  Rome,  with  the  exception  of  the  capitol,  was 
 taken  by  the  Gauls  under  Brennus.  Camillus,  though 
 an  exile,  was  invited  by  the  fugitive  Romans  at  Veil 
 to  take  command  of  them,  but  refused  to  act  until  the 
 wishes  of  the  Romans  besieged  in  the  capitol  were 
 known.  These  unanimously  revoked  the  sentence  of 
 banishment,  and  elected  him  dictator.  The  noble- 
 minded  Roman  forgot  their  previous  ingratitude,  and 
 inarched  to  the  relief  of  his  country  ;  which  he  deliv- 
 ered, after  it  had  been  for  some  time  in  the  possession 
 of  the  enetny.  The  Roman  account  says,  that  Camil- 
 lus, at  the  head  of  an  army  of  forty  thousand  men, 
 hastened  to  Rome,  where  he  found  the  garrison  of  the 
 capitol  on  the  point  of  purchasing  peace  from  the  in- 
 vaders. "  With  iron,  not  wiih  gold,"  exclaimed  Ca- 
 millus, "  Rome  buys  her  freedom."  An  attack  was 
 instantly  made  upon  the  Gauls,  a  victory  obtained, 
 and  the  foe  left  their  camp  by  night.  On  the  morrow 
 Camillus  overtook  them,  and  they  met  with  a  total 
 overthrow.  His  triumphal  entry  into  Rome  was  made 
 amid  the  acclamations  of  thousands,  who  greeted  him 
 with  the  name  of  Romulus,  father  of  his  country,  and 
 frond  founder  of  the.  city.  After  performing  another 
 equally  important  service,  in  prevailing  upon  his  coun- 
 trymen to  rebuild  their  ciiy  and  not  retire  to  Veii,  and 
 after  gaining  victories  over  the  .Equi,  Volsci,  Etruri- 
 ans, and  Latins,  he  died  \n  the  eighty-ninth  year  of  his 
 age.  having  been  five  times  dictator,  once  censor,  three 
 tunes  mierrex,  twice  military  tribune,  and  having  ob- 
 tained four  triumphs.  {Plut.  in  Vk.—Lie.,  5,  46, 
 Kcqq.—Flor.,  1,  l-i—Vng.,  J'ln.,  6,  825.)— We  have 
 touched  merely  on  a  few  of  the  events  connected  with 
 the  history  of  Camillus,  in  consequence  of  the  strong 
 Buspicion  which  attaches  itself  to  the  greater  part  ol" 
 the  narrative.  In  no  instance,  perhaps,  have  the  fam- 
 ily-memorials of  the  Roman  aristocracy  more  com- 
 pletely usurped  the  place  of  true  history  than  in  the 
 cage  of  (Camillus.  The  part  relative  to  the  overthrow 
 of  the  GauU  appears  to  be  all  a  pure  fiction.  "  For  a 
 long  time  past,"  observes  Niebuhr,  "no  one  has  pe- 
 rused, with  any  degree  of  faith,  Livy's  narrative  of  the 
 wrival  of  the  dictator  Camillus  m  the  city  during  the 
 
 payment  of  the  ransom-money  to  the  Gauls,  hi.s  break- 
 ing off  the  compact  as  invalid,  his  expelling  the  Gauls 
 from  the  city,  and  then  gaming  a  victory  over  them  on 
 the  road  to  Gabii,  from  which  no  messenger  escaped  to 
 carry  home  the  tidings.  Polybius,  a  more  ancient  wit- 
 ness, and  of  much  greater  validity,  who  is  never  partial 
 towards  the  Ronians,  and  could  not  be  so  to  the  Gauls 
 assures  lis  that  the  conquerors  returned  home  with  the 
 booty  (2,  18).  The  story,  however,  was  common 
 among  the  l\omans,  that  the  gold  which  had  been  paid 
 was  recovered,  and  it  is  said  to  have  been  kept  in  the 
 capitol,  in  the  sanctuary  of  Jupiter  {Pirn.,  33,  5),  until 
 the  time  of  Crassus's  sacrilege,  and  increased  to  double 
 the  amount  by  the  addition  of  plunder.  Yet,  even  ac- 
 cording to  Livy  himself  (5,  50),  this  Capitoline  gold 
 was  no  proof  of  it.  and  was  rather  collected  from  the 
 treasures  of  different  temples,  which  it  was  impossible 
 to  separate  in  order  to  restore  them  ;  and  even  the  du- 
 [ilication  might  prove  a  re[)lacing,  according  to  custom, 
 for  the  payment  of  the  war-taxes.  Livy  thought  it 
 shocking  and  insufl'erable  that  the  existence  of  Rome 
 should  have  been  purchased  with  gold  ;  hence  his  nar- 
 ration, according  to  which  the  arrival  of  Camillus  ar- 
 rested the  payment,  is  poetically  consistent.  Besides 
 the  bitter  truth  of  Polybius,  there  are  two  other  series 
 of  traditions,  which  do  not  deny  the  departure  of  the 
 Gauls  with  the  gold,  but  do  not  allow  them  to  have 
 derived  any  advantage  thereby.  Of  the  first  class  ap 
 parently  is  that  of  Pfiny,  already  adduced  ;  it  is  found 
 most  distinctly  in  Diodorus.  According  to  him,  Ca- 
 millus recovered  the  ransom,  and  almost  all  the  re- 
 maining booty,  when  relieving  one  of  the  allied  towns 
 which  was  besieged  by  the  Gauls.  {Diod.,  14,  117.) 
 The  other  story  seems  to  have  deemed  it  sufficient 
 for  the  honour  of  Rome  if  the  Gauls  did  not  carry 
 home  the  gains  of  their  victory.  It  deposes  as  a  wit- 
 ness to  the  unpalatable  truth  revealed  by  Polybius. 
 On  its  authority  Strabo  relates  of  the  Caeritians,  that 
 they  defeated  the  Ganls  on  their  return  from  Rome, 
 and  wrested  from  them  the  booty  which  they  were  car- 
 rying off.  {Struho,  2'20).  Diodorus  has  also  the  story 
 of  a  victory  gained  by  this  nation  over  the  Gauls  that 
 were  returning  from  Apulia;  he  blends  the  two  ac- 
 counts together."  (Nicbuhr's  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 282,  Walter's  transl. — Compare  the  remarks  of  Ar- 
 nold, Hist,  of  Rome,  vol.  1,  p.  547,  seqq.) 
 
 Camirus,  a  town  of  the  island  of  Rhodes,  on  the 
 western  coast.  It  derived  its  name  from  a  son  of 
 Cercaphus,  one  of  the  Heliadse.  We  learn  from  Dio- 
 dorus Siculus  (5,  57),  that  Juno  Telchinia  was  wor- 
 shipped here.  Pisander,  the  epic  poet,  was  a  native 
 of  Camirus.  The  place  retains  the  name  of  Camiro. 
 {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2.  p.  237  ) 
 
 Campania,  a  district  of  Italy,  below  Latium,  and 
 for  some  time  separated  from  it  by  the  river  Liris. 
 All  ancient  writers  who  have  treated  of  Italy  bear 
 witness  to  the  frequent  change  of  inhabitants  which 
 Campania  more  particularly  has  undergone  in  the 
 course  of  its  history.  Attracted  by  the  fertility  of  its 
 soil,  the  beauty  of  its  climate,  and  the  commodious- 
 ness  of  its  havens,  successive  invaders  poured  in  and 
 dispossessed  each  other,  until  the  superior  ascendancy 
 of  Rome  left  her  the  undisputed  mistress  of  this  garden 
 of  Italy.  From  these  repeated  contentions  arose,  as 
 Strabo  asserts,  the  fiction  of  the  battle  between  the 
 gods  and  giants  in  the  Phlegrsan  plains.  The  true 
 solution  of  this  tradition,  however,  it  may  be  observed 
 in  passing,  refers  itself  to  some  early  and  tremendous 
 volcanic  eruption,  since  it  would  seem  that  there  is  a 
 source  of  volcanic  fire,  at  no  great  distance  from  the 
 surface,  in  the  whole  of  Southern  Italy,  {('onsolatwn.i, 
 in  Travel,  p.  123,  Am.  ed.) — It  is  universally  agreed 
 that  the  first  settlers  in  Campania  with  whom  history 
 makes  us  acquainted  are  the  Oscans.  {Antwch.  Syrw:. 
 ap.  Strah  ,  2:U.—Plin.,  3.  5.)  I''ven  when  the  Oscan 
 name  had  disappeared  from  the  rest  of  italv,  the  Oscan 
 
 293 
 
CAM 
 
 CAN 
 
 language  was  retained  by  the  inhabitants  of  Campania, 
 though  mitigltd  with  the  dialects  of  the  various  tribes 
 which  successively  obtained  possession  of  that  much- 
 prized  country.  Of  these,  the  next  to  be  mentioned 
 are  the  Tuscans,  who  are  stated  to  have  extended  their 
 dominion  at  an  early  period  both  to  the  north  and  south 
 of  that  portion  of  Italy,  which  is  considered  as  more 
 properly  belonging  to  them.  When  they  had  effected 
 the  conquest  of  Campania,  that  province  became  the 
 seat  of  a  particular  empire,  and  received  the  federal 
 form  of  government,  centred  in  twelve  principal  cities. 
 {Strabo,  242.— L;».,  4,  SL—Foli/b.,  2,  17.)  Wealth 
 and  luxury,  however,  soon  produced  their  usual  effects 
 on  the  conquerors  of  Gamiiania,  and  they  in  their  turn 
 fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  attacks  of  the  Samnites,  and 
 were  compelled  to  admit  these  hardy  warriors  to  share 
 with  them  the  possession  and  enjoyment  of  these  sunny 
 plains  '^his  observation,  however,  applies  moro  par- 
 ticular'\  N  t"'apua  and  its  district,  which  was  surprised 
 by  a  S.ii,','  t  force,  A.U.C.  831.  '  {Liv.,  4,  44.)  It  is 
 from  tliiK  I  eiiod  that  we  must  date  the  origin  of  theCam- 
 j)anian  nation,  which  appears  to  have  been  thus  com- 
 posed of  Oscans,  Tuscans,  Samnites,  and  Greeks,  the 
 latter  having  formed  numerous  colonies  on  these  shores. 
 About  eighty  years  after,  the  Romans  gladly  seized  the 
 opportunity  of  adding  so  valuable  a  portion  of  Italy  to 
 their  dominions,  under  the  pretence  of  defending  the 
 Campanians  against  their  former  enemies  the  Samnites. 
 From  this  time  Campania  may  be  regarded  as  subject 
 to  Rome,  if  we  except  that  short  interval  in  which  the 
 brilliant  successes  of  Hannibal  withdrew  its  inhabitants 
 from  their  allegiance  ;  an  offence  which  they  were  made 
 to  expiate  by  a  punishment,  the  severity  of  which  has 
 few  examples  in  the  history,  not  of  Rome  only,  but  of 
 nations.  {Liv.,  26,  14,  scqq.) — The  natural  advan- 
 tages of  Campania,  its  genial  climate  and  fertile  soil, 
 so  rich  in  various  productions,  are  a  favourite  theme 
 with  the  Latin  writers,  and  elicit  from  them  many  an 
 eloquent  and  animated  tribute  of  admiration.  Pliny, 
 in  particular,  styles  it,  '■' Fdiz  ilia  Campania  .  .  .  . 
 certcimen  humancB  voluplatis.'^  {Cramer's  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  143,  seqq  ) 
 
 Campaspe,  a  beautiful  female  whom  Alexander  be- 
 stowed upon  Apelles.     {Vid.  Apelles.) 
 
 Campi,  I.  Canini,  plains  situate  in  the  country  of 
 the  Mesiates,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  whose  territory  cor- 
 responded to  the  modern  Val  di  Misocco.  (Amm. 
 Marccll.,  15,  10.) — II.  Dio.medis,  the  plains  in  Apulia 
 on  which  the  battle  of  Cannse  was  fought.  (Sil.  ItaL, 
 8,  242.— Lii).,  25,  1 1.— .SVrui.,  283  )— III.  Labokini, 
 a  name  applied  to  the  district  between  CumsB  and 
 Puteoli,  now  Terra  di  Lavoro.  The  modern  name 
 is  probably  derived  from  the  ancient.  (Plin.,  3,  5.) — 
 IV.  RaudIi.  {Vid.  Raudii  Campi.) — V.  Taurasim, 
 a  name  given  to  the  territory  of  Taurasiuin,  in  Sain- 
 nium.  Pyrrhus  was  defeated  here  by  Dentatus.  The 
 name  is  often  incorrectly  given  as  Campi  Arusini. 
 (Flor.,  1,  18.— Frontin.,  Slratc<r.,A,  1. — Oros.,A,2.) 
 
 Campus  Martius,  a  large  plain  at  Rome,  without 
 the  walls  of  the  city,  where  the  Roman  youths  per- 
 formed their  gymnastic  exercises.  Public  assemblies 
 were  often  held  here,  magistrates  chosen,  and  here, 
 too,  audience  was  given  to  such  ambassadors  as  the 
 senate  did  not  choose  to  admit  within  the  city.  The 
 bodies  of  the  dead  were  also  burned  here.  The 
 Campus  Marlins,  as  we  learn  from  Livy  (2,  5),  was 
 land  which  belonged  formerly  to  Tarquin,  but  which, 
 beincr  confiscated  with  the  remaining  property  of  that 
 kintr  after  his  expulsion,  wan  dtdicated  to  Mars.  But 
 Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  affirm.s  (5,  13)  that  it  had 
 ieen  consecrated  before,  but,  having  been  seized  by 
 Tarquin,  was  recovered  afterward  by  the  people.  And 
 this  account  is  more  probable,  as  Festus  (piotes  a  law 
 of  Numa  in  which  mention  is  made  of  the  Campus 
 Martius  (s  v.  SolitaurU  ),  and  Livy  himself  seems  to 
 allow  the  name  to  be  as  ancient  as  the  reign  of  Ser- 
 294 
 
 vius  Tullius  (1,  44).  In  the  Latin  poets  we  generally 
 find  it  designated  under  the  simple  name  of  Campus. 
 The  Campus  Martius  is  the  principal  situation  of  mod- 
 ern Rome.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus,  when  the  city 
 had  extended  itself  far  beyond  the  lines  of  Servius 
 Tullius,  a  great  part  of  the  Campus  Martius  was  en- 
 closed and  occupied  by  public  buildings,  more  espe- 
 cially by  the  great  works  of  Agrippa.  A  considerable 
 expanse  of  meadow  was  left  open,  however,  at  that 
 time,  as  we  learn  from  Strabo  (236),  who  has  accu- 
 rately described  its  situation  and  appearance.  It  was 
 here  that  the  Roman  youths  engaged  in  martial  sports 
 and  exercises,  while  the  neightioiiring  waters  of  the 
 Tiber  afforded  them  a  salutary  refreshment  after  their 
 fatigue.  Strabo  also  informs  us,  that  the  Campus 
 Martius  was  surrounded  by  many  porticoes  and  sump- 
 tuous buildings.  These  were  principally  the  struc- 
 tures erected  by  Agrippa.  In  times  posterior  to  the 
 age  of  the  geographer,  we  find  that  Nero  constructed 
 baths  in  this  part  of  the  city.  {Cramers  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  436.) 
 
 Canaria,  the  largest  of  the  cluster  of  islands  called 
 by  the  ancients  Bcala.  and  Fortunatce  Insula,  and 
 now  Canary  Islands.  Pliny  says,  that  this  island  de- 
 rived its  name  from  the  number  of  very  large-sized 
 dogs  which  it  contained,  and  that  two  of  these  were 
 brought  over  to  Africa  for  King  Juba.  {Plin.,  6,  32. 
 —  Vid.  Fortunats  Insulae.) 
 
 Candace,  a  name  given  to  the  queen-mothers  in 
 Meroe,  in  ^Ethiopia.  Some  females  of  this  name  ap- 
 pear in  history,  but  they  seem  to  have  been  merely 
 queen-regents,  governing  during  the  minority  of  their 
 sons.  Some  ancient  authors,  however,  state,  that  it 
 was  customary  for  the  Ethiopians  to  be  governed  by 
 queens  called  each  by  the  name  of  Candace.  (Compare 
 Plin.,  6,  29,  but  especially  Euscbius,  Hist.  EccL,  2,  1 : 
 Karii.  TO  ndrpiov  eOog  vnb  yvvaiKO^  tov  tOvov^  e'lairi 
 vi'v  i3aai2,Evofth'ov.)  Suidas  speaks  of  a  Candace  wkj 
 was  made  prisoner  by  Alexander  the  Great  ;  but  this 
 appears  to  be  a  mere  fable. — A  Candace,  blind  of  one 
 eye,  made  an  irruption  into  Egypt  during  the  reign  of 
 Augustus,  B.C.  20.  She  took  and  pillaged  several 
 cities,  but  Petronius,  the  prefect  of  Egypt,  pursued 
 her,  penetrated  into  her  dominions,  which  he  pillaged 
 in  turn,  until  she  restored  the  booty  which  she  had 
 carried  off  from  Egypt,  and  sued  for  peace.  {Dio 
 Cass.,  54,  5. — Plin  ,  6.  29.) — Mention  is  also  made 
 in  the  sacred  writings  of  a  queen  of  Ethiopia  named 
 Candace.  (Acts,  8,  27. — Consult  Kuinoel,  ad  loc.) 
 There  is  a  gloss  given  by  Alberti  {Gloss.  N.  T.,  p. 
 213),  in  which  it  is  said  that  the  ^Ethiopians  had  no 
 particular  or  individual  name  for  their  kings,  but  styled 
 them  all  "  sons  of  the  Sun,"'  whereas  the  queen-mother 
 they  called  Candace,  as  above.  Now  in  the  Lydian 
 language  Candaules  was  an  appellation  for  Hercules, 
 or  the  Sun.  {Bdhr,  ad  Herod.,  1,  13)  Possibly, 
 therefore,  the  word  Ca^idace,  in  the  ancient  Ethiopian, 
 may  be  of  cognate  origin  with  Cawrfaules  in  the  Lydian 
 tongue,  the  root  being  apparently  the  same,  and  may 
 signify  "  a  daughter  of  the  Sun." 
 
 Candavia,  a  district  of  Macedonia,  bounded  on  the 
 east  by  the  Candavian  mountains,  supposed  by  some 
 to  be  the  same  with  the  Camhunn  Monies  of  Livy, 
 and  the  Canaluvii  Monies  of  Ptolemy.  {Slrab.,  323. 
 — Lucan,  6,  331.) 
 
 Candaules,  a  monarch  of  Lydia,  the  last  of  the 
 Heraclida;,  dethroned  by  Gyges  at  the  instigation  o) 
 his  own  queen.  (Consult  Herod.,  1,  7,  seq(f  )  His 
 true  name  appears  to  have  been  Myrsilus,  and  the  ap- 
 pellation of  Candaules  to  have  been  asiiumed  hy  him 
 as  a  title  of  honour,  this  latter  being,  in  the  Lydian 
 language,  equivalent  to  Hercuies,  i.  e.,  the  Sun. 
 {Bdhr,  ad  Haod.,  1,  12.) 
 
 Canephori  (Kavr/^opoi),  a  select  number  of  vir^ 
 gins  of  honourable  birth,  who  formed  part  of  the  pro- 
 cession in  the  festival  called  Dionysia,  celebrated  it 
 
CAN 
 
 CAN 
 
 honour  of  Bacchus.  They  carried  small  baskets  of 
 gold,  containing  fruit  and  various  sacred  and  mysteri- 
 ous things.  {Clem.  Alex.,  Protr.,  p.  19. — Anstoph., 
 Acliarn.,  241,  seqr/.)  They  wore  around  their  necks  a 
 collar  of  dried  tigs.  (Compare  Arisloph.,  Lysisir., 
 V.  647. — Saititc-Croix,  Myslercs  du  Faganistuc,  vol. 
 2,  p.  87,  with  the  note  of  De  Sacy.) 
 
 CA.McuL.iRKS  DiKs,  Certain  days  in  the  summer, 
 preceding  and  ensuing  the  heliacal  rising  of  Canicula. 
 or  the  dog-star,  in  the  morning.  Tiie  ancients  heiievcd 
 that  this  star,  rising  with  the  sun,  and  joining  his  in- 
 fluence to  the  fire  of  that  luminary,  was  the  cause  of 
 the  extraordinary  heat  which  usually  prevailed  in  that 
 season  ;  and  accordingly  they  gave  the  name  of  dog- 
 days  to  about  six  or  eight  weeks  of  the  hottest  part 
 of  summer.  This  idea  originated  with  the  Egyptians, 
 and  was  borrowed  froni  them  by  the  Greeks.  The 
 Romans  sacrificed  a  brown  dog  every  year  to  Canicula, 
 at  its  rising,  to  appease  its  rage.  (Consult  remarks 
 under  the  article  SiRius.) 
 
 Canidia,  a  reputed  sorceress  at  Rome,  ridiculed  by 
 Horace.     {Epod.  5.) 
 
 Caninkfates,  a  people  of  Germania  Superior,  of 
 common  origin  with  the  Batavi,  and  inhabiting  the 
 western  part  of  the  Insula  Batavoriim.  The  name  is 
 written  differently  in  different  authors.  {Veil.  Falerc., 
 2,  105.— P/m.,  4,  lb.— Tacit.,  Hist  .  4,  15  ) 
 
 Ganinius  Rebilus,  G.  a  consul  along  with  Julius 
 Cssar.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus,  the  regular  colleague  of 
 Cassar  in  the  consulship,  died  on  the  last  day  of  his 
 official  year,  in  the  morning,  and  Cssar  caused  Ga- 
 ninius to  be  elected  in  his  stead,  although  only  a  few 
 hours  remained  for  enjoying  the  consulship.  Ganinius, 
 therefore,  was  chosen  consul  at  one  o'clock  P.M.  on 
 the  31st  December,  and  held  office  until  midnight,  the 
 end  of  the  civil  year,  and  commencement  of  the  kal- 
 ends of  January.  As  we  may  suppose  that  the  newly- 
 appointed  consul  would  hardly  retire  to  rest  before 
 midnight,  we  can  undetbtand  the  jest  which  Cicero 
 uttered  on  this  occasion,  that  Rome  had  in  Ganinius  a 
 most  vigilant  consul,  since  he  had  never  closed  his 
 eyes  during  the  period  of  his  consulship.  This  mode 
 of  conferring  office  was  intended  to  conciliate  friends, 
 for  the  individual  thus  favoured  enjoyed,  after  his  brief 
 continuance  in  office,  all  the  rights  and  privileges,  to- 
 gether with  the  honorary  title,  of  a  man  of  consular 
 rank.     {Cic.,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  7,  30  ) 
 
 Canv^e,  a  small  village  of  Apulia,  situate  about  five 
 miles  from  C^anusium,  towards  the  sea,  and  at  no  great 
 distance  from  the  Aufidus.  It  was  celebrated  for  the 
 defeat  of  the  Romans  by  Hannibal.  Polybius  tells  us 
 that,  as  a  town,  it  was  destroyed  the  year  before  the 
 battle  was  fought,  which  took  place  May  21st,  B.C. 
 216.  The  citadel,  however,  was  preserved,  and  the 
 circumstance  of  its  occupation  by  Hannibal  seems  to 
 have  been  regarded  by  the  Romans  of  sufficient  im- 
 portance to  cause  them  considerable  uneasiness  and 
 annoyance.  It  commanded,  indeed,  all  the  adjacent 
 country,  and  was  the  principal  southern  depot  of  stores 
 and  provisions  on  which  they  had  depended  for  the 
 approaching  campaign.  The  Greek  writers,  especially 
 Polybius,  use  the  name  in  the  singular,  Kmwa.  There 
 is  an  exception  to  this,  however,  in  the  15th  book,  c. 
 7  and  II,  where  the  plural  form  is  used  by  the  histo- 
 rian just  mentioned— The  decisive  victory  at  Cannae 
 was  owing  to  three  combined  causes:  the  excellent  ar- 
 rangements of  Hannibal,  the  superiority  of  the  Nu- 
 midian  horse,  and  the  skilful  manojuvre  of  Hasdrubal 
 in  opposing  only  the  light-armed  cavalry  against  that 
 of  the  Romans,  while  he  emploved  the  heavy  horse, 
 divided  mto  small  parties,  in  repeated  attacks  on  dif- 
 ferent part«  of  the  Roman  rear.  The  Roman  army 
 contained  80,000  infantry  and  6000  cavalry,  the  Car- 
 thaginians 40,000  infantry  and  10,000  cavalry  Han- 
 Mbal  drew  up  his  forces  in  the  form  of  a  convex  cres- 
 u.nt,  having  his  centre  thrown  forward  before   the 
 
 wings.  He  commanded  in  the  centre  in  person,  and 
 here  he  had  purposely  stationed  his  worst  troops  ;  the 
 best  were  posted  at  the  extremities  of  each  wing, 
 which  would  enable  them  to  act  with  decisive  advan- 
 tage as  bodies  of  reserve,  they  being,  in  fact,  the  rear 
 of  the  other  forces.  Hasdrubal  commanded  the  left 
 wing,  Hanno  the  right.  On  the  Roman  side,  want  of 
 union  between  the  two  consuls,  and  want  of  spirit 
 among  the  men,  afforded  a  sure  omen  of  the  fortune 
 of  the  day.  .i-Emilius  commanded  the  right,  Varro 
 the  left  wing ;  the  proconsuls  Regulus  and  Servius, 
 who  had  been  consuls  the  preceding  year,  had  charge 
 of  the  centre.  What  Hannibal  foresaw  took  place. 
 The  charge  of  the  Romans,  and  their  immense  superi- 
 ority in  numbers,  at  length  broke  his  centre,  which, 
 giving  way  inward,  his  army  now  assumed  the  shape 
 of  a  concave,  crescent.  The  Romans,  in  the  ardour  of 
 pursuit,  were  carried  so  far  as  to  be  completely  sur- 
 rounded. Both  flanks  were  assailed  by  the  veterans 
 of  Hannibal,  who  were  armed  in  the  Roman  manner  ; 
 at  the  same  time  the  cavalry  of  the  Carthaginians  at- 
 tacked their  rear,  and  the  broken  centre  rallying,  at- 
 tacked them  in  front.  The  consequence  was,  that  they 
 were  nearly  all  cut  to  pieces.  The  two  proconsuls, 
 together  with  ^Emilius  the  consul,  were  slain.  Varro 
 escaped  with  70  horse  to  Venusia.  The  Romans  lost 
 on  the  field  of  battle  70,000  men  ;  and  10,000  who 
 had  not  been  present  in  the  fight  were  made  prisoners. 
 The  Carthaginian  loss  amounted  to  5500  infantry  and 
 200  cavalry.  Such  is  the  account  of  Polybius,  whose 
 statement  of  the  fight  is  much  clearer  and  more  satis- 
 factory than  that  of  Livy.  Hannibal  has  been  cen- 
 sured for  not  marching  immediately  to  Rome  after  the 
 battle,  in  which  city  all  was  consternation.  But  a  de- 
 fence of  his  conduct  may  be  found  under  the  article 
 Hannibal,  which  see.  (Po'yb.,  3,  113,  ct  scqq. — Liv., 
 22,  44.— F/or.,  2,  Q.—Plut.,  Vit.  Hannih.) 
 
 Canopicum  (or  Ganobicum)  ostium,  the  western- 
 most mouth  of  the  Nile,  twelve  miles  from  Alexandrea. 
 Near  its  termination  is  the  lake  Madie  or  Maadie  (de- 
 noting, in  Arabic,  a  passage),  which  is  the  remains  of 
 this  branch.  This  lake  has  no  communication  with 
 the  Nile,  except  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  increase. 
 It  is  merely  a  salt-water  lagoon.  The  Canopic  mouth 
 was  sometimes  also  called  Naucralicum  Ostium  and 
 Heracleotic.um  Ostium.  {Herod..  2,  17. — Died.  Sic, 
 1,  .33.— P/m.,  5,  10.— Mela,  1,  9.) 
 
 Canopus  (or  Canobus),  a  city  of  Egypt,  about 
 twelve  miles  northeast  of  Alexandrea,  and  a  short  dis- 
 tance to  the  west  of  the  Ostium  Canopicum.  The 
 Greek  writers  give  the  name  as  Canobus  (Kui'wfiof): 
 the  Latin,  Canopus.  The  form  Kui-wttoc  occurs  also 
 in  Scylax  (p.  43),  but  the  reference  there  is  to  the  isl- 
 and formed  by  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  in  this  quarter. — 
 Canopus  was  a  very  ancient  city,  and  most  probably 
 of  Egyptian  origin,  since  we  are  informed  by  Diodorus 
 Siculus  (1,  33)  that  each  mouth  of  the  Nile  was  de- 
 fended by  a  fortified  city,  and  since  the  Ionian  Greeks, 
 who  came  first  to  this  quarter,  were  only  allowed 
 originally  to  enter  by  this  arm  of  the  river.  Whence 
 the  name  of  the  place  arose  is  unknown.  It  came, 
 very  likely,  from  the  brilliant  star  Canobus,  which  one 
 beholds,  even  in  the  southern  regions  of  Asia  Minor,  on 
 the  edge  of  the  horizon,  but  which  was  seen  to  rise 
 in  full  splendour  by  a  spectator  on  the  coast  of  Egypt. 
 The  Greek  writers,  however,  not  knowing  any  better 
 derivation  for  the  name,  deduced  it  from  that  of  the 
 pilot  of  Menelaus,  who  was  fabled  to  have  been  called 
 (Janopus,  and  to  have  died  and  been  interred  here. 
 Herodotus  makes  no  mention  of  this  legend,  but  Scy- 
 lax speaks  of  a  monument  in  this  quarter  which  Men- 
 elaus, as  he  informs  us,  erected  here  in  memory  of  his 
 pilot.  Previous  to  the  founding  of  Alexandrea,  Cano- 
 bus must  have  been  a  very  important  place,  since  it 
 formed  the  chief  centre  of  communication  between 
 the  interior  of  Egypt  and  other  countries  lying  to  the 
 
 295 
 
CAN 
 
 CAP 
 
 north.  It  sank,  however,  in  importance  after  Alexan- 
 drea  was  built,  and  merely  retained  some  consequence 
 from  its  temple  and  oracle  of  Serapis,  which  latter  was 
 consulied  during  the  night,  and  gave  intimations  of 
 the  future  to  ajiplicants  while  sleepnig  within  the  walls 
 of  the  structure.  The  festivals,  also,  that  vsere  cele- 
 brated at  this  temple,  drew  large  crowds  of  both  sexes 
 from  the  adjacent  country,  and  exercised  an  injurious 
 influence  on  the  morals  of  all  who  took  part  in  them. 
 Canopus,  in  fact,  was  always  regarded  as  a  dissolute 
 place,  and,  even  after  Alexandrea  arose,  it  was  much 
 frequented  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital  for  purpo- 
 ses of  enjoyment  and  pleasure,  the  temperature  of  the 
 air  and  the  situation  of  the  city  being  spoken  of  in 
 high  terms  by  the  ancient  writers.  {Anim.  MarcclL, 
 22,  16.)  The  festivals  of  Serapis  ceased  on  the  intro- 
 duction of  Christianity,  and  from  that  period  history 
 is  silent  respecting  Canopus.  'I'he  French  savans 
 found  some  traces  of  the  ancient  city  a  short  distance 
 to  the  west  of  the  modern  Aboukir.  {3Iannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  541,  scqq.) 
 
 C.vNT.iBRi,  a  warlike  and  ferocious  people  of  Spain, 
 who  long  resisted  the  Roman  power.  Their  country 
 answers  to  Biscay  and  part  of  Asturias.  Augustus 
 marched  in  person  against  them,  anticipating  an  easy 
 victory.  The  desperate  resistance  of  the  Cautabrians, 
 however,  induced  him  to  retire  to  Tarraco,  and  leave 
 the  management  of  the  war  to  his  generals.  They 
 were  finally  reduced,  but,  rebelling  soon  after,  were 
 decreed  to  l)e  sold  as  slaves.  Most  of  them,  however, 
 preferred  falling  by  their  own  hands.  The  final  reduc- 
 tion of  the  Canlabri  was  effected  by  Agrippa,  A.U.C. 
 734,  after  they  had  resisted  the  power  of  the  Romans 
 in  various  ways  for  more  than  two  hundred  years. 
 (Liu.,  £>/.,  48.— f'/or.,  4,  12.— Ptoi.,  3,  %—Horat., 
 Od.,  3,  8,  22.) 
 
 C.^NTiuM,  a  country  in  the  southeastern  extremity 
 of  Britain,  now  called  Kent.  The  name  is  derived 
 from  the  British  word  cant,  signifying  an  angle  or  cor- 
 ner. (Consult  Adclung,  Gloss.  Med.  el  Inf.  Lat., 
 vol.  2,  p.  133,  s.  V.  canto.) 
 
 Canulkia  lex,  a  law  proposed  by  C.  Canuleius, 
 tribune  of  the  commons,  A.U.C.  310,  and  allowing  of 
 intermarriages  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians. 
 (Lu).,  4,  1.) 
 
 Canusium,  a  town  of  Apulia,  on  the  right  bank  of 
 the  Autidus,  and  about  twelve  miles  from  its  mouth. 
 The  origin  of  Canusium  seems  to  belong  to  a  period 
 which  reaches  far  beyond  the  records  of  Roman  histo- 
 ry, and  of  which  we  possess  no  memorials  but  what  a 
 fabulous  tradition  has  conveyed  to  us.  This  tradition 
 ascribes  its  foundation  to  Diomede,  after  the  close  of 
 the  Trojan  war.  Perhaps,  however,  we  should  see  in 
 Diomede  one  of  those  Pela.sgic  chiefs,  who,  in  a  very 
 distant  age,  formed  settlements  in  various  parts  of 
 Italy.  Canusium  appears  to  have  been  in  its  earlier 
 days  a  large  and  flourishing  place.  It  is  said  by  those 
 who  have  traced  the  circuit  of  the  walls  from  the  re- 
 maining vestiges,  that  they  must  have  embraced  a  cir- 
 cumference of  sixteen  miles.  (Fratilli,  Via  Appia,  4, 
 13. — Romanclli,  vol.  2,  p.  2G5. — Compare  Strabo, 
 28.)  The  splendid  remains  of  antiquity  discovered 
 among  the  ruins  of  Cannsa,  together  with  its  coins, 
 establish  the  fact  of  the  Grecian  origin  of  this  jjlace. 
 Antiquaries  dwell  with  rapture  on  the  elegance  and 
 beauty  of  the  Greek  vases  of  Cayto.sa,  which,  in  point 
 of  size,  numbers,  and  decorations,  far  surpass  those 
 discovered  in  the  tombs  of  any  other  ancient  city,  not 
 even  excepting  Nola.  {Millitigcii,  Pcintiires  Anti(/ues 
 des  Vases,  &,c.) — Horace  alludes  to  the  mixed  dialect 
 of  Oscan  and  Greek,  in  the  expression  employed  by 
 him,  *'  Camisini  more  bilmguis.'"  (Sat.,  1,  10,  30.) 
 — It  is  stated,  that  the  small  remnant  of  the  Roman 
 army,  which  escaped  from  the  slaughter  of  Cannae, 
 took  rel'uge  here.  Livy  records  the  generous  treat- 
 ment they  experienced  on  that  occasion  from  Busa,  a 
 296 
 
 wealthy  lady  of  this  city  (22,  52).  Philostratus  in- 
 forms us  (  K/7.  Sopliist),  that  Hadrian  colonized  thii 
 place,  and  procured  for  it  a  good  supply  of  water,  of 
 which  it  stood  much  in  need,  as  we  know  from  Hor- 
 ace. {Sat.,  1,  5,  90.)  The  same  poet  complains 
 also  of  the  grittiness  of  the  bread.  {Cramer's  An- 
 cient Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  292.) 
 
 Capaneus,  an  Argive  warrior,  son  of  Hipponoiis. 
 He  was  one  of  the  seven  leaders  in  the  war  against 
 Thebes  {vid.  Adraslus),  and  is  often  alluded  to  by  the 
 ancient  poets  as  remarkable  for  his  daring  and  impiety. 
 Having  boasted  that  he  would  take  the  Thcban  city, 
 in  despite  even  of  Jove,  this  deity  struck  him  with  a 
 thunderbolt  as  he  was  in  the  act  of  ascending  the 
 ramparts.  When  his  body  was  being  consumed  on 
 the  funeral  pile,  his  wife  Evadne  threw  herself  upon 
 it  and  perished  amid  the  flames.  .lEsculapius  was 
 fabled  to  have  restored  Capaneus  to  life.     (Apollod., 
 
 3,  6,  2.— Id.,  3,  6,  7.— Id,  37,  2.— Id.,  3,  10,  3.— . 
 JEsch.,  Sept.,  c.  Theb.,  427,  secjq. — Heync,  ad  Apol- 
 lod.,  3,  6,  3.) 
 
 Capella,  I.  (Marcianus  Mineus  Felix),  a  poet,  born, 
 according  to  Cassiodorus,  at  Madaura  in  Africa  :  he 
 calls  himself,  however,  at  the  end  of  this  work,  "  the 
 foster-child  of  the  city  of  Elissa  ;"  whether  it  be  thai 
 he  was  born  at  Carthage,  or  else  received  his  educa- 
 tion there,  which  latter  is  the  more  probable  opinion 
 of  the  two.  The  MSS.,  however,  give  him  the  title 
 of  "  the  Carthaginian."  In  process  of  time  he  at- 
 tained to  proconsular  dignity,  but  whether  he  was  a 
 Christian  or  not  is  a  matter  of  uncertainty.  About 
 the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  of  our  era  he  wrote  at 
 Rome  a  work  bearing  the  appellation  of  Sutira  or 
 Sutyricon,  divided  into  nine  books.  It  is  a  species 
 of  encyclopedia,  half  prose  and  half  verse,  modelled 
 after  the  Varronian  satire.  The  first  two  books  form 
 a  detached  and  sejiarate  work,  entitled  De  Nuptiis 
 rhilologia  ct  Mcrcurii,  and  treating  of  the  apoth- 
 eosis of  Philology  and  her  marriage  with  Mercury. 
 We  find  in  it,  among  other  things,  a  description  of 
 heaven,  which  shows  that  the  mystic  notions  of  the 
 Platonists  of  that  day  approximated  in  a  very  singular 
 manner  to  the  truths  of  Christianity.  In  the  seven 
 following  books  Capella  treats  of  the  seven  sciences, 
 which  formed  at  that  time  the  circle  of  human  study, 
 namely,  grammar,  logic,  rhetoric,  geometry,  astrology, 
 arithmetic,  and  music,  which  com])rehends  poetry. 
 This  work,  written  in  a  barbarous  style,  was  introdu- 
 ced into  the  schools  of  the  middle  ages  :  hence  it  was 
 frequently  copied,  and  the  text  has  become  extremely 
 corrupt.  The  best  edition  of  Capella  is  that  of  Gro- 
 tius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1599,  8vo  ;  although  a  good  edition, 
 in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  is  still  a  desideratum. 
 The  work  of  Giotius  is  generally  regarded  as  a  litera- 
 ry wonder,  since  he  was  only  fourteen  years  old  when 
 he  undertook  tlie  task  of  editing  Capella,  and  published 
 his  edition  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  was  aided  in  it 
 by  his  father,  as  he  himself  informs  us,  and  very  prob- 
 ably also  by  Joseph  Scaliger,  who  induced  him  to  at- 
 tempt tiic  task.  {Bnhr,  Gcsch.  Honi.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 727,  scqq. — Schiill,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  98. — 
 Wulckcnacr,  in  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  7,  p.  62  ) — II.  An 
 elegiac  poet,  mentioned  with  eulogium  by  Ovid.  {Pont., 
 
 4,  16,  36.)     We  have  no  remains  of  his  productions. 
 Capena,  I.  a  gate  of  Rome,  now  the  gate  of    5". 
 
 Sebastitm,  in  the  southeast  part  of  modern  Rome. 
 {Ooid,  Fast.,  5,  192.) — H.  A  city  of  Eiruria,  south- 
 east of  Mount  Soracte.  It  is  frequently  recorded,  in 
 the  early  annals  of  Home,  among  those  which  oppo- 
 sed, though  unsuccessfully,  the  gradual  encroachments 
 of  Its  power.  Great  diversity  of  opinion  has  e.xisted 
 as  to  the  modern  site,  but  the  conjecture  of  Galoili  is 
 now  generally  followed,  which  makes  Capena  to  hav« 
 stood  at  a  place  called  Ctvitucula.  {Cramer's  Ant. 
 Italy,  vol.  l,p.  231.) 
 
 Capetus,  a  king  of  Alba,  who  reigned  twenty-sa 
 
CAP 
 
 CAP 
 
 years.     (Consult,  however,  the  remarks  under  the  ar- 
 ticle Al-BA  ) 
 
 Capharkus,  a  lofty  mountain  and  promontory  at 
 the  southeastern  extremity  of  Euboea,  where  Nau- 
 plius,  king  of  the  country,  to  avenge  his  son  Paia- 
 medes,  put  to  death  through  the  false  accusation 
 brought  against  him  by  Ulysses,  set  a  burning  torch 
 in  tlie  darkness  of  night,  which  caused  the  Greeks  to 
 be  shipwrecked  on  the  coast.  It  is  now  called  Capo 
 d'Oro,  and,  in  the  infancy  of  navigation,  was  reckoned 
 very  dauoerous  on  account  of  the  rocks  and  whirlpools 
 on  the  coast.  {Eurip.,  Truad.,  88. — Id.,  HcL,  113G. 
 —  Vug.,  Mn.,  11,  2m.—0od,  Met.,  14,  481.— iVo- 
 pert.,  4,  1,  11.5.) 
 
 CAPiro,  I.  the  uncle  of  Paterculus,  who  joined 
 Agrippa  against  Gassius.  {Veil.  Falcrc,  2,  69.) — 
 II.  Fouteius,  a  Roman  nobleman  sent  by  Antony  to 
 settle  his  disputes  with  Augustus.  (Hurat.,  Serm., 
 1,  5,  32.) 
 
 GAPiTOf.iNOs,  I.    a   surname  of  Jupiter,  from  his 
 temple  on  Mount  Capitolinus. — II.  A  surname  of  M. 
 Manlius,  who,  for  his   ambition  in  aspiring  to  sover- 
 eign power,  was  thrown  down  from  the  Tarpcian  Rock, 
 which  he  had  so  nobly  defended. — III.  Mons,  one  of 
 the  seven  hills   on  which  Rome  was  built,  contain- 
 ing the  citadel  and  fortress  of  the  Capitol.     Three  as- 
 cents led  to  its  summit  from  below.      1st.  By  the  100 
 steps  of  the  Tarpeian  Rock,  which  was  probably  on  the 
 steepest  side,  where  it  overhangs  the  Tiber.     (Com- 
 pare Taciliis,  Hist.,  3,  71. — Liv.,  5,46. — PliU.,  Vii. 
 Cumil.l.)     2d.  The  Clivus  Capitolinus,  which  began 
 from  the  arch  of  Tiberius  and  the  temple  of  Saturn, 
 near  the  present  hospital  of  the  Consolazionc,  and  led 
 to  the   citadel  by  a  winding  path.     {Ovid,  Fast.,  1, 
 261.)     3d.  The  Clivus  Asyli,  which,  being  less  steep 
 than  the  other  two,  was  on  that  account  the  road  by 
 which  the  fiumphant   generals  were  borne   in  their 
 cars  to  the  Capitol.     This  ascent  began  at  the  arch  of 
 Septimius  Severus,  and  from  thence,  winding  to  the 
 left,  passed  near  the  ruined  pillars  of  the   temple  of 
 Concord,  as  it  is  commonly  but  improperly  called,  and 
 from  thence  led  to  the  Intcrmontium.    The  Capitoline 
 Hill  is  said  to  have  been  previously  called  Saturnius, 
 from  the  ancient  city  of  Saturnia,  of  which  it  was  the 
 citadel.     Afterward  it  was   known  by  the   name   of 
 Mons  Tarpeius,  and  finally  it  obtained  the  appellation 
 first   mentioned,   from  the  circumstance  of  a  human 
 head  being  discovered   on  its  summit,  in  making  the 
 foundations  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter.     ( Varro,  L.  L., 
 4,  8.)     It  was  considered  as  forming  two  summits, 
 which,  though  considerably  depressed,  are  yet  suffi- 
 ciently  apparent.     That  which  looked   to  the   south 
 and  the  Tiber  was  the  Tarpeian  Rock  or  citadel ;  the 
 other,  which  was  properly  the  Capitol,  faced  the  north 
 and  the  Quirinal.      The  space  which  was  left  between 
 these  two  elevations  was  known  by  the  name  of  In- 
 termontium. — IV.   An  appellation  said  to  have  been 
 given  to  an  individual  named  Pecilius,  who  had  been 
 governor  of  the  Capitol.     (Compare  the  scholiast  on 
 Horace,  Sat.,  1 ,  4,  94.)     It  is  also  related,  that  he  was 
 accused  of  having  stolen,  during  his  office,  a  golden 
 crown,  consecrated  to  Jupiter,  and  that,  having  pleaded 
 his  cause  in  person,  he  was  acquitted  bv  the  judges,  in 
 order  to  gratify  Augustus,  with  whom  he  was  on  friend- 
 ly terms.    One  part,  at  least,  of  the  story  is  incorrect, 
 since  the  Capilolini  were  a  branch  of  the  Petilian  fam- 
 ily long  before  this  time.     (Compare  Vaillant,  Nam. 
 fum.  Rom  ,  vol.  2,  p.  222.)     What  degree  of  credit 
 IS  to  he  attached  to  the  rest  of  the  narrative  is  uncer- 
 tain.    (Consult    Widaicd,  ad  Horat.,  I.  c.)— V.   Ju- 
 lius, on<;  of  those  later  Roman  historians,  whose  works 
 form  what  has  been  termed  "the  Augustan  History." 
 He  lived  during  the  reign  of  Dioclesian  and  Constan- 
 tine  the  Great,  and  we  have  from  him  the  lives  of  An- 
 toninus Pius,  Marcus  Aurelius,  Verus,  Perlinax,  Albi- 
 nus,  Macrinus,  the  two  Maximins,  the  three  Gordians, 
 i*  P 
 
 Ma-timus,  and  Balbinus.  He  wrote  other  lives  aisc 
 which  have  not  reached  us.  The  greater  part  of  his 
 biograj)hies  are  dedicated  to  Dioclesian  and  Constan- 
 tine.  His  works  show  carelessness  and  want  of  prop- 
 er arrangement.  {B'dhr,  Gesch.  Rum.  Lit.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  464.  —  Mullcr,  Dissert,  de  Julio  Capitol.,  Altdorf, 
 1689,  4to.) 
 
 Capitoliiim,   a   celebrated  temple    and   citadel   at 
 Rome,  on  the  'I'arpeian  Rock.     l"he  foundations  were 
 laid  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  A.U.C.    139,  B.C    615. 
 The  walls  were  raised  by  his  successor  Servius  Tul- 
 lius,  and  Tarquinius  Superbus  finished  it,  A.U.C.  231, 
 B.C.   533.     It  was  not,  however,   consecrated   until 
 the  third  year  after  the  e.xpulsion  of  the  kings.     This 
 ceremony  was  performed  by  the  consul  Horatius.     It 
 covered  8  acres,  was  200  feet  broad,  and  about  215 
 long.     It  consisted  of  three  parts,  a  nave  sacred  to 
 Jupiter,  and  two  wings  or  aisles,  the  right  sacred  to  Mi- 
 nerva, and  the  left  to  Juno.     The  ascent  to  it  from  the 
 forum  was  by  a  hundred  steps.     The  magnificence  and 
 richness  of  this  temple  are  almost  incredible.     All  the 
 consuls  successively  made  donations  to  the  Capitol, 
 and  Augustus   bestowed  upon   it  at   one   time   2000 
 pounds  weight  of  gold.     The   gilding  of  the  whole 
 arch  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  which  was  undertaken 
 after   tl:e  destruction  of  Carthage,  cost,  according  to 
 Plutarch,  21,000  talents.     The  gates  of  the   temple 
 were  cf  brass,  covered  with  large  plates  of  gold.     'I'he 
 inside  of  the  temple  was  all  of  marble,  and  was  adorn- 
 ed with  vessels  and  shields  of  solid  silver,  with  gilded 
 chariots,  &,c.     The  Capitol  was  burned  in  the  time  of 
 .Sylla,  A.U  G.  670,  B.C.  84,  through  the  negligence 
 of  those  who  kept  it,  and  Sylla  rebuilt  it,  but  died  be- 
 fore the  dedication,  which  was  performed  by  Q   Catu- 
 lus,  A.U.C.    675.     It   was    again   destroyed    in    the 
 troubles  under  Yitellius,   19th  December,   A.D.  69; 
 and  Vespasian,  who  endeavoured  to  repair  it,  saw  it 
 again  in  rums  at  his  death.     Domitian  raised  it  again 
 for  the  last  time,  ai:d  made  it  more  grand  and  magnifi- 
 cent than  any  of  his  predecessors  had,  and  spent  12,000 
 talents  in  gilding  it. — The  ordinary  derivation  of   the 
 term  Capitolium  is  desprvedly  ridiculed  by  a  modem 
 tourist :   "  It  was  in  diggi.ig  the  foundation  of  the  tem- 
 ple of  Jupiter  Capitohnus  that  a  human  head  was  found, 
 according  to    Roman  legends;    and   the  augurs   de- 
 clared this  to  be  emblematical  of  future  empire.     The 
 hill,  in   consequence,  which  bad  been  originally  call- 
 ed  Saturnius,  and  then  Taipeius,  was    now  denom- 
 inated Capitolms  {Caput  Oi%i),  because  this  he»d,  it 
 seems,  belonged  to  somebody  .nallf'd  Tolius  or  Olius, 
 though  how  they  knew  the  ma.i's  nar.:e  from  his  scull 
 I   never  could  discover."     {Romz  »:    tk".  Nmitecnth 
 Century,  \o\.  1,  p.  179.)     Equally  unfoknunpte  >s  th« 
 etymology  assigned  by  Nork,  who  deduces  Cap;toli'j» 
 
 f. .,,,,►,.,*      />^^^,\    .r^fkl  CI  sf       IvKisrO      TTTTl?,  P/.^^      1<5     J.hf^      ftli 
 
 from  caput  {rov)  tctoKiisx:,  where  TrroJ.ecjf  is  the  olfi 
 form  for  ttoAecjc,  and  which  old  form,  in  the  proj^ee* 
 of  time,  dropped  the  ■k  instead  of  the  r  !  {Etyrrn}L 
 Handwort.,  vol.  1,  p.  128.) 
 
 Cappadocia,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  or 
 the  north  by  Galatia  and  Ponius,  west  by  Phrygia 
 east  by  the  Euphrates,  and  south  by  Cilicia.  Iti 
 eastern  part  was  called  Armenia  Minor.  The  term 
 Cappadocia,  under  the  Persians,  had  a  more  extended 
 meaning  than  in  later  geography  :  it  comprised  two 
 satrapie°s,  Cappadocia  the  greater  and  Cappadocia  on 
 the  Pontus  Euxinus.  The  first  satrap  of  the  greater 
 Cappadocia  was  a  member  of  the  royal  family  of  Per- 
 sia, and  a  kind  of  hereditary  succession  seems  to  have 
 prevailed,  which  the  great  king  probably  allowed,  be- 
 cause he  could  not  prevent  it.  The  founder  of  this 
 dynasty  was  named  Anaphus,  and,  according  to  Dio- 
 dorus  Siculus  (a/..  Phot.,  Cod.,  244,  p.  Uft7),  was  one 
 of  the  seven  conspirators  who  slew  the  false  Smerdis. 
 Datames,  the  grandson  of  Anaphus,  was  the  first  regu- 
 lar  sovereign  of  this  Cappadocian  dynasty  ;  and  after 
 him  and  his  son  Ariamues,  we  have   a  long  list  of 
 
 297 
 
CAP 
 
 CAP 
 
 princes,  all  bearing  the  name  of  Ariarathes  for  sever- 
 al generations.  {Vul.  Ariarathes.) — Cappadocia  was 
 surrounded  on  three  sides  by  great  ranges  of  mount- 
 ains, besides  being  intersected  by  others  of  as  great 
 elevation  as  any  in  the  peninsula.  Hence  its  miner- 
 al productions  were  various  and  abundant,  and  a  source 
 of  wealth  to  the  country.  Slrabo  specifies  the  rich 
 mineral  colour  called  Smople,  from  its  being  exported 
 by  the  merchants  of  Sino|)e,  but  which  was  really  dug 
 in  the  mines  of  Cappadocia  :  also,  ony.x  ;  crystal  ;  a 
 kind  of  white  agate,  employed  for  ornamental  pur- 
 poses ;  and  the  lapis  specularis  :  this  last  was  found 
 in  large  masses,  and  was  a  considerable  article  of  the 
 e.xport  trade.  The  champagne  country  yielded  almost 
 every  kind  of  fruit  and  grain,  and  the  wines  of  some 
 districts  vied  with  those  of  Greece  in  strength  and 
 flavour.  Cappadocia  was  also  rich  in  herds  and  flocks, 
 but  more  particularly  celebrated  for  its  breed  of  horses  ; 
 and  the  onager,  or  wild  ass,  abounded  in  the  mount- 
 ains towards  Lycaonia.  {Strab.,  535,  scg'].) — Herod- 
 otus informs  us,  that  in  the  days  of  Croesus  and  Cy- 
 rus the  people  commonly  known  in  history  by  the 
 name  of  Cappadocians  were  termed  Syrians  by  the 
 Greeks,  while  the  Persians  employed  the  more  usual 
 appellation.  (Herod.,  1,72. — /(/.,  7,  72  )  A  portion, 
 moreover,  of  this  same  nation,  who  occupied  the  coast 
 of  Pontus  and  Paphlagonia,  about  Sinope  and  Ainisus, 
 long  retained  the  name  of  Leucosyri,  or  while  Syrians, 
 to  distinguish  them  from  the  more  swarthy  and  south- 
 ern inhabitants  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  {Strab.,  514.) 
 The  origin  of  the  Cappadocians,  therefore,  unlike  that 
 of  most  of  the  other  nations  of  Asia  Minor,  was  of 
 Asiatic  growth,  unmi.xed  wiih  the  Thracian  hordes 
 which  had  overrun  Phrygia  and  al!  the  western  part  of 
 the  peninsula.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minoi-,\o].  2,  p  105, 
 seqq.) — The  Cappadocians  bore  among  the  ancients 
 the  character  of  volatility  and  faithlessness.  They 
 were  also  made  the  subject  of  sarcastic  remark,  for 
 having  refused  freedom  when  it  was  offered  them  by 
 the  Romans,  and  for  having  preferred  to  live  under 
 the  sway  of  kings.  (Jiislin,  38,  2.)  There  was  no- 
 thing, however,  very  surprising  in  this  refusal,  coming, 
 as  it  did,  from  a  people  who  knew  nothing  of  free- 
 dom, and  who  had  become  habituated  to  regal  sway. 
 Their  moral  character  is  severely  satirized  in  the  well- 
 known  epigram,  which  states  that  a  viper  bit  a  Cap- 
 fadocian,  but  died  itself  from  the  poisonous  and  cor- 
 rupt hiood  of  the  latter  .'—The  Greeks  and  Romans 
 found  in  this  country  few  towns,  but  a  number  of 
 strong  castles  on  the  mountains,  and  large  villages  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  celebrated  temples,  to  which  the 
 latter  served  as  a  kind  of  protection.  Most  of  these 
 villages  became  cities  in  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
 when  this  people  had  destroyed  the  castles  and  strong- 
 holds on  the  mountains.  {Manncrl,  Geogr.,  vol.  G, 
 pt.  2,  p.  216,  seq.) 
 
 C.tPPADox,  a  river  of  Cappadocia,  bounditig  it  on  the 
 side  of  Galatia,  and  falling  into  the  Halys.    {Plin  ,  6,  3.) 
 
 Capraria,  [.  a  mountainous  island,  south  ofBalearis 
 Major  or  Majorca,  and  deriving  its  name  from  its  nu- 
 merous goats  (enper,  rapra).  I'he  modem  name  is 
 Cahrera.  {Pliny,  3,  6.) — II.  One  of  the  Fortunata; 
 Insula;,  or  Canaries.  Some  make  it  the  modern 
 Palnm,  but  it  answers  rather  to  Gomcra.  {Mamiert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  628.) 
 
 Capki";^:,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Campania,  situ- 
 ate near  the  promontory  of  Minerva.  It  is  now  Capri. 
 This  island  is  chiefly  known  in  history  as  the  abode  of 
 Tiberius,  and  the  scene  of  his  infamous  debauchery. 
 {Siicton.,  Tib.,  c.  42,  seqq.  — Tacit.,  Ann.,  6,  1. — Dio 
 Cass.,  58,  22.) — Tradition  reported,  that  this  island 
 was  first  in  the  possession  of  the  Telebooe,  who  are 
 mentioned  as  a  people  of  Greece,  inhal)iiing  the  Echi- 
 nades,  a  grou[)of  islands  at  the  moiith  of  the  Acheloiis, 
 in  Acarnauia  ;  but  how  they  came  to  settle  in  Caprea) 
 no  one  lias  informed  us.  (Compare  Schol.  in  Apoll. 
 298 
 
 Rhod.,  Argon.,  1.)  Augustus  was  the  first  emperor 
 who  made  Capreae  his  residence,  being  struck,  as  Sue- 
 tonius relates,  by  the  happy  presage  ol  an  old  decayed 
 ilex  having,  as  it  was  said,  revived  on  his  arrival  there. 
 Not  long  after,  he  obtained  the  island  from  the  Nea- 
 [)olitans,  by  giving  them  in  e.xchange  that  of  l.schia, 
 which  belonged  to  him.  {Suet.,  Aug.,  92.)  Tiberius 
 was  led  to  select  this  spot  for  his  abode,  from  its  diffi- 
 culty of  access,  being  cut  off  from  all  approach,  e.xccpt 
 on  one  side,  by  lofty  and  perpendicular  clifls.  The 
 mildness  of  the  climate  and  the  lieauty  of  the  pros- 
 pect, which  extends  over  the  whole  bay  of  Naples, 
 might  also,  as  Tacitus  remarks,  have  influenced  liis 
 choice.  Here  he  caused  twelve  villas  to  be  erected, 
 which  he  is  supposed  to  have  named  after  the  twelve 
 chief  deities.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  i,  C>7  )  The  ruins  of  the 
 villa  of  Jove,  which  was  the  most  conspicuous,  are 
 still  to  be  seen  on  the  summit  of  the  cliH  looking  to- 
 wards Sorrento.  It  is  probably  the  same  with  the 
 Arx  Tiberii  of  Pliny  (3,  6) — The  island  of  Capri,  at 
 the  present  day,  abounds  so  much  with  various  birds 
 of  passage,  but  especially  with  quails,  that  the  greatest 
 part  of  the  bishop's  income  arises  from  this  source. 
 Hence  it  has  been  called  the  "  Bishopric  of  Quails." 
 In  bad  years  the  number  caught  is  about  12,000,  in 
 good  years  it  exceeds  60,0(11).  The  island  is  sur- 
 rounded by  steep  rocks,  which  render  the  approach  to 
 it  very  dangerous.  In  the  centre  the  mountains  recede 
 from  each  other,  and  a  vale  intervenes,  remarkable  for 
 its  beauty  and  fertility.  The  climate  of  the  island  is 
 a  delightful  one  ;  the  lofty  rocks  on  the  coast  keep  off 
 the  cold  winds  of  winter,  and  the  Seabreeze  tempers 
 the  heat  of  summer.  {Maltc-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p. 
 240,  Brussels  ed.) 
 
 Capsa,  a  town  of  Libya,  in  the  district  of  Byzacium, 
 north  of  the  Palus  Tritonis,  surrounded  by  vast  deserts. 
 Here  Jugurtha  kept  his  treasures.  It  was  surprised 
 by  Marius  ;  and  was  destroyed  in  the  war  of  Ca>sar 
 and  Metellus  Scipio.  It  was  afterward  rebuilt,  and  is 
 now  Cafsa.  Sallust  {Bell.  Jug.,  94)  ascribes  the 
 oritrin  of  this  place  to  the  Libyan  Hercules.  Diodo- 
 rus  Sicuhis  also  (4,  18)  speaks  of  a  large  city,  called 
 Hecalonpylos,  from  its  hundred  gates,  and  which  was 
 founded  in  a  fertile  spot  in  the  desert  by  Hercules,  as 
 he  was  proceeding  from  I.il>ya  to  Egypt.  Hanno  is 
 said  to  have  taken  this  city  during  the  first  Punic  war. 
 {Diod.,  2,  24,  exc.  1. — Compare  J'olyb.,  1,  73.)  Man- 
 nert  identifies  Hecatonpylos  with  Capsa,  and  str:v(^'-  to 
 elucidate  the  fable  by  ascribing  to  the  place  an  Egyp- 
 tian origin.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  346.) 
 Gesenius  derives  the  name  of  Capsa  from  the  Punic 
 captsa,  "a  bolt,"  "  bar,"  or  "  barrier."  {Phoen.  Mon.. 
 p.  421.) 
 
 CapGa,  a  rich  and  flourishing  city,  the  capital  of 
 Campania  until  ruined  by  the  Romans.  Its  origina, 
 name  was  Vulturnus,  which  was  changed  by  the  Tyr- 
 rheni,  after  they  became  masters  of  the  place,  to  Capua. 
 This  latter  name  was  derived  from  that  of  their  leadci 
 Capys,  who,  according  to  Festus,  received  this  appel- 
 lation from  his  feet  being  deformed  and  turned  in- 
 ward. The  name  is  not  of  Latin,  but  Tuscan  origir). 
 The  Latins,  however,  pretended,  notwithstanding,  to 
 ascribe  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  Romulus,  who 
 named  it,  as  they  stated,  after  one  of  his  ancestors. 
 Capua  was  the  chief  city  of  the  southern  Tyrrheni ; 
 and  even  after  it  fell  under  the  Roman  dominion,  von- 
 tinued  to  be  a  powerful  and  flourishing  place.  Before 
 Capua  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  a  dread 
 ful  massacre  of  its  Tyrrhenian  inhabitants  bv  the  Sari)- 
 nites  put  the  city  into  the  hands  of  this  latter  people. 
 Livy  appears  to  have  confounded  this  event  with  the 
 origin  of  the  place,  when  he  makes  it  to  have  changed 
 its  name  from  Vulturnus  to  Capua,  after  the  SamnUe 
 leader  Capvs.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  retaliation 
 should  have  followed  in  a  later  age  from  the  hands  of 
 the  Romans,  themselves  in  part  of  Tyrrhenian,  that  Is. 
 
CAR 
 
 CARACALLA. 
 
 Pelasgian  descent.  Capua  deeply  offended  them  by 
 opening  its  gates  to  Hannibal  after  tlie  victory  of  Can- 
 nae. The  vengeance  inflicted  by  the  Romans  was  of 
 a  most  fearful  nature,  when,  five  years  after,  the  city 
 again  fell  under  their  dominion.  Most  of  the  senators 
 and  principal  inhabitants  were  put  to  death,  the  greater 
 partof  the  remaming  citizens  were  sold  into  slavery,  and 
 by  a  decree  of  the  senate  the  Capuani  ceased  to  e.xist 
 as  a  people.  The  city  and  territory,  however,  did  not 
 become  thereupon  deserted.  A  few  inhabitants  were 
 allowed  to  remain  in  the  former,  and  the  latter  was  in 
 a  great  measure  sold  by  the  Romans  to  the  neighbour- 
 ing communities.  Julius  C.'Ksar  sent  a  powerful  colo- 
 ny to  Capua,  and  under  the  emperors  it  again  flourish- 
 ed. But  it  suffered  greatly  from  the  barbarians  in  a 
 later  age  ;  so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  the  Bishop  Lan- 
 dulfus  and  the  Lombard  Count  Lando  transferred  the 
 inhabitants  to  Casilinum,  on  the  Vulturnus,  19  stadia 
 distant.  This  is  the  site  of  modern  Capua.  {Man- 
 ucrt,  Geosrr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  1,  p.  701,  766.) 
 
 C.tPYs,  I.  a  Trojan  who  came  with  ^neas  into  Ita- 
 ly, and,  according  to  the  common,  but  erroneous,  ac- 
 count, founded  the  city  of  Capua.  ( Vid.  Capua.) — II. 
 A  son  of  Assaracus,  by  a  daughter  of  the  Simois. 
 He  was  father  of  Anchises  by  Themis.  {Ovid,  Fast., 
 4,  33.) 
 
 C.'iR,  I.  a  son  of  Phoroneus,  king  of  Megara.  {Pau- 
 san.,  1,  40.) — II.  A  son  of  Manes,  and  regarded  by 
 the  Cariaus  as  the  patriarch  of  their  race.  {Herod.,  1, 
 171— .S7r(iA.,  659.) 
 
 Caracai.la,  Antoninus  Bassianus,  eldest  son  of  the 
 Emperor  Severus.     His  name  Caracalla  was  derived 
 from  a  species  of  Gallic  cassock  which  he  was  fond  of 
 wearing  ;  that  of  Bassianus  from  his  maternal  grand- 
 father.     Caracalla   was  born    at  Lugdunum  {Lyons), 
 A.D.  188,  and  appointed  by  his  father  his  colleague  in 
 the  government  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years.      And  yet 
 he  is  said,  even  at  this  early  age,  to  have  attempted  his 
 father's   life.     Severus  died  A.D.  211,  and  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  his  two  sons  Caracalla  and  Gcta.     These 
 two  brothers  bore  towards  each  other,  even  from  infan- 
 cy, the    most    inveterate    hatred      After  a  campaign 
 against  the  Caledonians,  they  concluded  a  disgraceful 
 peace.     They  then  wished  to  divide  the  empire  f)e- 
 tween  them  ;  but  their  design  was   opposed  by  their 
 mother,  Julia,  and  by  the  principal  men    in  the  state, 
 and  Caracalla  now  resolved  to  get  rid  of  his  brother, 
 by  causing  him  to  be  assassinated.      After  many  un- 
 successful  attempts,  he  pretended  to  desire  a  recon- 
 ciliation, and  requested  his  mother  to  procure  him  an 
 interview  with    his   brother  in    her   own  apartment : 
 Geta  appeared,  and  was  stabbed  in  his  mother's  arms, 
 AD.  212,  by  several  centurions,  who  had  received  or- 
 ders to  this  effect.     The  prsetorian  guards  were  pre- 
 vailed upon,  by  rich  donations,  to  proclaim  Caracalla 
 sole  emperor,  and    to  declare  Geta   an  enemy  to  the 
 state,  and  the  senate  confirmed  the  nomination  of  the 
 soldiers.     After  this,  the  whole  life  of  Caracalla  was 
 only  one  series  of  cruelties  and  acts  of  extravagant  fol- 
 ly     All  who  had  been  in  any  way  connected  with  Geta 
 wore  put  to  death,  not  even  their  children  being  spared. 
 '1  he  historian  Dio  Cassius  makes  the  whole  number 
 of  victims  to  have  amounted  to  20,000.      {Dio  Cass., 
 77,  4.)     Among  those  who  fell  in  this  horrid  butchery 
 was  the  celebrated  lawyer  Papinian.      And  yet,  after 
 this,  fiya  singular  act  of  contradiction,  he  not'onlv  put 
 to  death  many  of  those  who  had  been  concerned  in  the 
 murder  of  his  brother,  but  even  demanded  of  the  sen- 
 ate that  he  should  he  enrolled  among  the  gods.      His 
 pattern  was  Sylla,  whose  tomb  he  reltored'and  adorn- 
 ed.     Like  this  dictator,  he  enriched  his  soldiers  with 
 the  most  cvtravagant  largesses  which  extortion  enabled 
 him  to  furnish.     The  augmentation  of  pav  received  by 
 them  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  280  millions  of  ses'- 
 terces  a  year.      As  cruel  as  Caligula  and  Nero    but 
 weaker  than  either,  he  regarded  the  senate  and  people 
 
 with  equal  hatred  and  contempt.  From  motives  of  av- 
 arice, he  gave  all  the  freemen  of  the  empire  the  right 
 of  citizenship,  and  was  the  first  who  received  Egyp- 
 tians into  the  senate.  Of  all  his  follies,  liowever,  the 
 greatest  was  his  admiration  of  Alexander  of  Macedoii. 
 From  his  infancy  he  made  this  monarch  his  model,  and 
 copied  him  in  everything  which  it  was  easy  to  imitate. 
 He  had  even  a  Macedonian  phalanx  of  sixteen  thou- 
 sand men,  all  born  in  Macedonia,  and  commanded  by 
 officers  bearing  the  same  names  with  those  who  had 
 served  under  Alexander.  Convinced,  moreover,  that 
 Aristotle  had  participated  in  the  conspiracy  against 
 the  son  of  Philip,  he  caused  the  works  of  the  phi- 
 losopher to  be  burned.  With  equally  foolish  enthu- 
 siasm for  Achilles,  he  made  him  the  object  of  his 
 deepest  veneration.  He  went  to  Ilium  to  visit  the 
 grave  of  Homer's  hero,  and  poisoned  his  favourite 
 freedman  named  Festus,  to  imitate  Achilles  in  his  grief 
 for  Patroclus.  His  conduct  in  his  campaigns  in  Gaul, 
 where  he  committed  all  sorts  of  cruelties,  was  still  more 
 degrading.  He  crossed  over  the  Rhine  in'o  the  coun- 
 tries of  the  Catii  and  Alemanni.  The  Catti  defeated 
 him,  and  permitted  him  to  repass  the  river  only  on 
 condition  of  paying  them  a  large  sum  of  money.  He 
 next  marched  through  the  land  of  the  Alemanni  as  an 
 ally,  and  built  several  fortifications.  He  then  called  to- 
 gether the  young  men  of  the  tribe,  as  if  he  intended  to 
 take  them  into  his  service,  and  caused  his  own  troops 
 to  surround  them  and  cut  them  in  pieces.  For  this 
 barbarous  exploit  he  assumed  the  surname  of  Alemnn- 
 nicus.  In  Dacia  he  gained  some  advantages  over  the 
 Goths.  He  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Antioch  with 
 Artabanus,  the  Parthian  king,  who  submitted  to  all  his 
 demands.  He  invited  Abgares,  the  king  of  Edcssa, 
 an  ally  of  the  Romans,  to  Antioch,  loaded  him  with 
 chains,  and  took  possession  of  his  estates.  He  exer- 
 cised the  same  treachery  towards  Vologeses,  king  of 
 Armenia  ;  but  the  Armenians  flew  to  arms  and  re- 
 pulsed "the  Romans.  After  this  Caracalla  went  to 
 .Alexandrea,  to  punish  the  people  of  that  city  for  ridi- 
 culmo-  him.  While  preparations  were  making  for  a 
 great  massacre,  he  offered  hecatombs  to  Serapis,  and 
 visited  the  tomb  of  Alexander,  on  which  he  left  his 
 imperial  ornaments  by  way  of  oflfering.  He  afterward 
 dfvoted  the  inhabitants  for  several  days  and  nights  to 
 plunder  and  butchery,  and  seated  himself,  in  order  to 
 have  a  view  of  the  bloody  spectacle,  on  the  top  of  the 
 temple  of  Serapis,  where  he  consecrated  the  dagger 
 which  he  had  drawn,  some  years  before,  against  his  own 
 brother.  His  desire  to  triumph  over  the  Parthians  in- 
 duced him  to  violate  the  peace,  under  the  pretence  that 
 Artabanus  had  refused  him  his  daughter  in  marriage. 
 He  found  the  country  undefended,  ravaged  it,  marched 
 through  Media,  and  approached  the  capital.  The  Par- 
 thians, who  had  retired  beyond  the  Tigris  to  the  moun- 
 tains, were  preparing  to  attack  the  Romans  the  fol- 
 lowing year  with  alltheir  forces.  Caracalla  returned 
 without  delay  to  Mesopotamia,  without  having  even 
 seen  the  Parihians.  When  the  senate  received  from 
 him  information  of  the  submission  of  the  East,  they  de- 
 creed him  a  triumph  and  the  surname  Parthiois.  Be- 
 ing informed  of  the  warlike  preparations  of  the  Parthi- 
 aiTs,  he  prepared  to  renew  the  contest ;  but  Macrmus, 
 the  praetorian  prefect,  whom  he  had  offended,  assassi- 
 nated him  at  Edessa,  A.D.  217,  on  his  way  to  the 
 temple  of  Lunus.  His  reign  had  lasted  more  than 
 six  years.  It  is  remarkable,  that  this  prince,  al- 
 ihoush  he  did  so  much  to  degrade  the  throne  of 
 the  Cfesars,  yet  raised  at  Rome  some  of  the  most 
 splendid  structures  that  graced  the  capital.  Magnifi- 
 cent therma?  bore  his  name,  and  among  other  monu- 
 ments of  lavish  expenditure  was  a  triumphal  arch,  on 
 which  were  represented  the  victories  and  achieve- 
 ments of  his  father  Severus.  Notwithstanding  his 
 crimes,  Caracalla  was  deified  after  death  by  a  decree 
 of  the  senate.     {Dio  Cass.,  122,  1,  seqq.—  Sparttan., 
 
 299 
 
CAR 
 
 CAR 
 
 Vit.    Caracall. — Biogr.    Univ.,  vol.    7,   p.   95. — En- 
 cyclop.  Am.,  vol.  2,  p.  50G.) 
 
 Caracatks,  a  peole  of  Gcrmania  Prima,  in  Belgic 
 Gaul.  Their  country  answers  now  to  the  diocese  of 
 Ma'icnce.     (Tacit.,  Hist.,  4,  70  ) 
 
 C.vRACT.iicus,  kiriir  of  the  Silures  in  Britain,  a  peo- 
 ple occupying  what  is  now  SoiUh  Wales.  After  with- 
 standing, for  the  space  of  nine  years,  the  Roman  arms, 
 he  was  defeated  in  a  pitclicd  battle  by  Ostorius  Scap- 
 ula, and  his  forces  put  to  the  rout.  Taking  refuge, 
 upon  this,  with  Carlisinandua,  queen  of  the  Bngantes, 
 he  was  betrayed  by  her  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
 and  ltd  to  Rome.  Great  importance  was  attached  to 
 his  capture.  Claudius,  who  was  emperor  at  the  time, 
 augmented  the  territories  of  Cartismandua.  and  trium- 
 phal honours  were  decreed  to  Ostorius.  This  e.xploit 
 was  compared  to  the  cajjture  of  Syphax  by  Scipio,  and 
 that  of  Perses  by  Paulus  -Emilius.  The  manly  and 
 independent  bearing,  however,  of  the  British  prince, 
 when  brought  into  the  presence  of  the  Roman  em- 
 peror, excited  so  much  admiration,  that  his  letters 
 were  removed,  and  freedom  was  granted  him,  together 
 with  his  wife  and  children,  who  had  shared  his  captivi- 
 ty. Some  time  after  Claudius  sent  him  back  to  his 
 native  island  with  rich  presents,  and  he  reigned  there 
 for  two  years  after,  remaining  during  all  that  period  a 
 firm  friend  to  the  Romans.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  12,  33, 
 seqq. — Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  7,  p.  103.) 
 
 Caralis,  or,  with  less  accuracy,  Carallis,  a  city  of 
 Sardinia,  founded  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  soon  luade 
 the  capital  of  the  island.  It  is  supposed  to  correspond 
 to  the  modern  Cagliari,  but  it  reached,  in  fact,  far- 
 ther to  the  east  than  Cagliari,  up  to  the  present  Capo 
 St.  Elia.  This  we  learn  from  Ptolemy,  who  speaks 
 of  the  city  and  promontory  of  Caralis  together.  Ciau- 
 dian  also  alludes  to  the  long  extent  of  the  place. 
 '■  Tenditur  in  longiim  Caralis,"  &c.  {Bell.  Gild., 
 520.)  Its  harbour,  which  afforded  a  good  shelter 
 against  the  winds  and  waves,  rendered  it  always  a 
 place  of  importance.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt. 
 2,  p.  490.) 
 
 Carambis,  I.  a  promontory  of  Paphlagonia,  now  Ka- 
 rempi,  facing  Criu-Mctopon  (Cape  Crio),  in  the  Tau- 
 ric  Chersonese.  {Strab.,  b^h. —  Plin.,  6,  2.)— II.  A 
 city  near  the  promontory  of  the  same  name.  {Scylax, 
 PeripL,  p.  Si.— Pint.,  G,  2.) 
 
 Caranus,  a  descendant  of  Temenus  the  son  of 
 Hercules.  According  to  Justin  (7,  1),  Velleius  Pa- 
 terculus  (1,  6),  Pausanias  (9,  40),  and  others,  he  quit- 
 ted Argos,  his  native  city,  at  the  head  of  a  numerous 
 body  of  colonists,  and,  arriving  in  .lEmathia,  a  district 
 of  Macedonia,  then  ruled  by  Midas,  obtained  posses- 
 sion of  Edessa,  the  capital,  where  he  estabHshed  his 
 sway,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Macedonian 
 empire.  Considerable  doubts,  however,  arise,  upon 
 looking  into  the  accounts  of  Herodotus  and  Thucyd- 
 ides,  as  to  the  authenticity  of  the  adventure  ascribed 
 to  Caranus.  (Consult  remarks  under  the  article  Mace- 
 donia.) 
 
 Cabausius,  a  native  of  Gaul,  born  among  the  Mena- 
 pii.  His  naval  abilities  attracted  the  notice  of  Max- 
 imian,  who  gave  him  the  command  of  a  squadron 
 against  the  pirates.  He  proved,  however,  unfaithful 
 to  his  trust,  and  too  much  bent  on  enriching  himself. 
 Maxiinian  thereupon  gave  orders  to  put  him  to  death  ; 
 but  Carausius,  apprized  of  this  in  season,  retired  with 
 his  fleet  to  Britain.  Here  he  succeeded  in  gaining 
 over,  or  else  intimidating,  the  only  Roman  legion  that 
 remained  in  the  island,  and  finally  proclaimed  himself 
 emperor.  He  forced  the  emperors  Maximian  and  Dio- 
 clesian  to  acknowledge  his  authority,  which  he  main- 
 tained for  the  space  of  seven  years.  He  was  assassi- 
 nated by  Allectus.  {Crevicr,  Hist,  dcs  Emp.  Rom., 
 vol.  6,  p.  177,  202.) 
 
 Carbo,  the  surname  of  a  branch  of  the  Papirian 
 family  at  Rome.     Several  distinguished  men  bore  tliis 
 300 
 
 name,  among  whom  were,  I.  Caius,  a  Roman  orator,  tha 
 contemporary  and  friend  of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  was  ac- 
 cused of  seditious  conduct  by  L.  Crassus,  and  commit- 
 ted suicide  l)y  swallowing  cantharides.  {Cic,  Brut., 
 '21,  et  43— W.,  Or.,  M—LL,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  9,  21.)  He 
 was  thought  to  have  been  concerned  in  the  assassina- 
 tion of  the  younger  Africanus.  {Cic,  Or.,  2,  40. — Ep. 
 ad  Fam.,  I.  c.) — II.  Cneius,  son  of  the  preceding, .was 
 three  times  consul,  and  at  last  proconsul  in  Gaul. 
 He  was  a  partisan  of  Marius',  and  was  put  to  death 
 by  order  of  Pompey,  at  Lilybaeum,  in  Sicily.  Consult, 
 as  regards  the  singular  attachment  to  life  which  he 
 displayed,  the  account  given  by  Valerius  Maxiinus 
 (9,  13). 
 
 Carchedon  (Kap\'j?J(Ji'),  the  Greek  name  of  Car- 
 thage. 
 
 Cardia,  a  town  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  at 
 the  top  of  the  Sinus  Melanis.  It  was  destroyed  by 
 Lysimachus  when  he  founded  Lysimachia  a  little  south 
 of  it.  It  derived  its  name  from  being  built  in  the  form 
 of  a  heart.  It  was  also  called  Hexamilium,  because 
 the  isthmus  is  here  about  six  miles  across.  It  was  after- 
 ward rebuilt,  and  is  now  Hexamili.  {Plin.,  4,  11. — 
 Mela,  2,  2.—Solin.,  c.  10.— Plol.,  3,  12.— Herod., 
 7,  58.) 
 
 Carduchi,  a  warlike  nation  in  Gordyene,  a  district 
 of  Armenia  Major,  inhabiting  the  Monies  Carduchi, 
 between  the  Tigris  and  Lake  Arsissa.  Strabo  says 
 that  in  his  time  they  were  called  Gordyai.  Pliny  (6, 
 12)  and  Quintus  Curtius  (4,  10)  both  make  mention 
 of  the  Monies  Gordyai,  but  the  former  writer  else- 
 where (6,  17)  informs  us  that  the  Carduchi  were  call- 
 ed in  his  time  Corducni.  The  modern  Kurds  are  re- 
 garded as  the  descendants  of  this  ancient  people. 
 {Xen.,  Anab.,  3,  5,  16,  &c. — Consult  Kriigcr,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Caria,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  to  the  south  of 
 Ionia  and  Lydia,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  the 
 course  of  the  Marauder.  In  extent  it  was  the  least 
 considerable  of  the  divisions  of  the  peninsula ;  but, 
 from  the  number  of  towns  and  villages  assigned  to 
 it  by  the  ancient  geographers,  it  would  seem  to  have 
 been  very  populous.  'I'he  corresponding  division  of 
 the  Turkish  provinces,  in  modern  geography,  is  called 
 Muntesha.  Caria  was  a  fruitful  country,  and  produced, 
 like  the  surrounding  regions,  wheat,  oil,  wine,  &c. 
 The  Carians  were  not  considered  by  Herodotus  and 
 other  early  Greek  historians  as  the  aboriginal  inhabi- 
 tants of  the  country  to  which  they  communicated  their 
 name.  Herodotus,  himself  a  native  of  Caria,  and  who 
 must  therefore  be  allowed  to  have  been  well  acquainted 
 with  its  traditions,  believed  that  the  people  who  inhab 
 ited  it  had  formerly  occupied  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean, 
 under  the  name  of  Leleges  ;  but  that,  being  reduced 
 by  Minos,  king  of  Crete,  they  were  removed  by  thai 
 sovereign  to  the  continent  of  Asia,  where  they  still, 
 however,  continued  to  be  his  vassals,  and  to  serve  him 
 more  especially  in  his  maritime  expeditions.  At  thi.s 
 period,  says  the  historian,  the  Carians  were  by  far  tho 
 most  celebrated  of  the  existing  nations  ;  they  excelled 
 in  the  manufacture  of  arms,  and  the  Greeks  ascribed 
 to  them  the  invention  of  crests,  and  the  devices  and 
 handles  of  shields.  {Herod.,  1,  171. — Compare  Anacr. 
 et  Ale.  ap.  Strab.,  661.)  The  Carians  appear  to  have 
 been,  at  an  early  period,  great  pirates,  and  it  was  for 
 this  reason,  doubtless,  that  Minos  expelled  them  iiom 
 the  island,  while  he  was  glad,  at  the  same  time,  to 
 avail  himself  of  their  skill  and  enterprise  for  the  aggran- 
 dizement of  his  own  empire.  The  account  which  the 
 Carians  themselves,  however,  gave  of  the  origin  of 
 their  race,  indicates  a  near  degree  of  affinity  with  the 
 Lydians  and  Mysians,  for  they  made  Lydns  and  My- 
 sus  the  brothers  of  Car,  the  patriarch  of  their  nation. 
 {Herod.,  1,  17 \.— Strab.,  659.)  Hence  it  is  not  un- 
 reasonable to  suppose,  that  as  Thrace  and  Macedonia 
 furnished  those  numerous  tribes,  which,  under  the  sev- 
 eral names  of  Leleges,  Caucones,  and  Pelasgi,  soread 
 
CAR 
 
 CAR 
 
 themselves  over  the  shores  of  the  ^gcan  and  the  isl- 
 ands of  that  sea,  the  Carians  therefore  must  have  be- 
 longed to  the  same  great  family,  since  they  are  con- 
 founded by  the  best  authorities  with  the  Leleges.  It 
 is  ditlkuli  to  say  what  nation  inhabited  Caria  before 
 Minos  had  removed  thither  the  people  from  whom  it 
 took  Its  name  ;  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  PhcE- 
 nicians  occupied  a  portion  of  it.  For  we  know  that 
 they  had  colonized  Rhodes  and  other  islands  off  the 
 coast,  and  Athena3us  remarks  (4,  p.  174)  that  certain 
 poets  had  applied  the  name  Phojnice  to  Caria.  The 
 Carians  appear  to  have  offered  but  little  resistance  to 
 the  Greek  settlers  vvho  successively  established  them- 
 selves on  their  coast,  and  to  have  been  gradually  con- 
 fined to  the  southern  coast  chiefly,  and  to  the  valleys 
 of  those  streams  which  are  tributary  to  the  Maean- 
 der,  towards  the  borders  of  Phrygia  and  Pisidia.  We 
 find  them  also  yielding  to  the  superior  ascendency 
 of  the  Lydians,  under  the  dominion  of  Alyattes  and 
 Crcesus.  '  (Nic,  Damasc,  p.  ^iS.—  Herod.,  1,  28.) 
 On  the  overthrow  of  the  Lydian  empire  they  passed 
 under  the  Persian  sway.  The  policy  of  the  sovereigns 
 of  Persia  was.  to  establish  in  each  subject  or  tributary 
 state  a  government  apparently  independent  of  them, 
 but  whose  despotic  authority  at  home  afforded  the 
 best  guarantee  that  the  people  would  everywhere  be 
 brought  under  the  control  of  the  court  of  Susa.  It 
 was  to  this  system  that  the  dynasty  of  Carian  princes, 
 who  fi.xed  their  residence  at  Halicarnassus,  owed  its 
 origin.  A  sketch  of  their  history  will  be  given  in  the 
 account  of  that  city.  From  the  Persian  Caria  passed 
 to  the  Macedonian  sway.  At  a  later  period,  it  appears 
 to  have  been,  for  a  time,  anne.\ed  to  the  kingdom  of 
 Egy|it.  {Polyh.,'i,2.)  It  ne.xt  fell  under  the  dominion 
 of  Aiitiochus  ;  but,  on  his  defeat  by  Scipio,  the  Ro- 
 man senate  bestowed  this  part  of  the  conquered  mon- 
 arch's territory  upon  the  Rhodians.  It  was  afterward 
 overrun,  and  occupied  for  a  short  time,  by  Miihradates, 
 but  was  finally  annexed  by  the  Romans  to  the  procon- 
 sular province  of  Asia.  {Cramer''s  Asia  Minor,  vol. 
 2,  p.  163,  sc(iq.) 
 
 Cakin.'e,  a  street  of  Rome,  where  Cicero,  Pompey, 
 and  others  of  the  principal  Romans  dwelt.  From  the 
 epithet  lautcp.,  which  Virgil  applies  to  the  Carinoe,  we 
 may  infer,  that  the  houses  which  stood  in  this  quarter 
 of  ancient  Rome  were  distinguished  by  an  air  of  su- 
 perior elegance  and  grandeur.  {JEn.,  8,  861,  seqq.) 
 The  name  Carinse  is  derived,  as  Nardini  not  improba- 
 bly supposes,  from  the  street's  being  placed  in  a  hol- 
 low between  the  Ccelian,  Esquiliiie,  and  Palatine  hills. 
 (firamer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  375.) 
 
 C.^RiNus  (M.  AuRKLius),  eldest  son  of  the  Em- 
 peror (Jarus,  who  gave  him  the  title  of  Caesar,  and 
 rank  of  Augustus,  together  with  the  government  of 
 Italy,  Illyricum,  Africa,  and  the  West,  when  he  him- 
 self was  setting  out  with  his  second  son  Numerianus, 
 to  make  war  against  the  Persians.  Cams,  knowing 
 the  evil  qualities  of  Carinus,  gave  him  this  charge 
 with  great  reluctance,  but  he  had  no  alternative,  as 
 Numerianus,  though  superior  in  every  respect  to  his 
 elder  brother,  was  too  young  to  hold  so  important  a 
 command.  As  soon  as  Carinus  entered  Gaul,  which 
 his  father  had  particularly  charged  him  to  defend  against 
 the  barbarians,  who  menaced  an  irruption,  he  gave 
 himself  up  to  the  most  degrading  excesses,  discharged 
 the  most  virtuous  men  from  public  employment,  and 
 substituted  the  vile  companions  of  his  debaucheries. 
 On  hearing  of  the  death  of  his  father  he  indulged  in 
 new  excesses  and  new  crimes.  Still,  however,  his 
 courage  and  his  victories  merit  praise.  He  defeated 
 the  barbarians  who  had  begun  to  attack  the  empire, 
 among  others  the  Sarmata;,  and  he  afterward  over- 
 threw Sabinus  Julianus,  who  had  assumed  the  purple 
 in  Venetia.  He  then  marched  against  Dioclesian,  who 
 had  proclaimed  himself  emperor  after  the  death  of 
 Nuincriau.     The  two  armies  met  in  Moesia,  and  sev- 
 
 eral engagements  took  place,  in  which  success  seem- 
 ed balanced.  At  last  a  decisive  battle  was  fought 
 near  Margum,  and  Carinus  was  on  the  point  of  gam- 
 ing a  complete  victory,  when  he  was  slain  by  a  tribune 
 of  his  own  army,  who  had  received  an  outrage  at  his 
 hands.  This  event  took  place  A.D.  285,  so  that  the 
 reign  of  Carinus,  computing  it  from  his  father's  death, 
 was  a  little  more  than  one  year.  {Vopisc,  Car.,  7. 
 — Id.,  Ntimcr.,  11. — Id.,  Carin.,  Ifi,  scq. — Suid.,  s.  v. 
 Kaplvoc. — Eictrop.,  &c.)  If  historians  have  decried 
 Carinus  for  his  vices,  there  have  not  been  wanting 
 poets  to  sing  his  praises.  Nemesianus  and  Calpur- 
 nius  have  followed  the  example  of  Virgil ;  and,  as  the 
 latter  has  placed,  on  the  lips  of  shepherds,  eulogiums  on 
 Augustus,  so  these  two  bards  have  sung  in  their  ec- 
 lotTues  the  praises  of  Carinus  and  Numerian,  and  have 
 raised  them  both  to  the  rank  of  gods  I  {Btogr.  Univ., 
 vol.  7,  p.  137,  seq. —  Crevier,  Hist.  Emp.  Rom.,  vol. 
 6,  p.  150,  scqq.) 
 
 C.tRM.iNiA,  a  country  of  Asia,  between  Persia  and 
 Gedrosia,  now  Kerman.  Its  capital  was  Carmania  or 
 Kcrman,  southeast  of  Persepolis.  {Plin.,  6,  22,  seq. 
 — Soiin.,  c.  104. — Arrian,  Exp.  AL,  6.  28.) 
 
 C.*RMEi,us,  a  god  of  the  Syrians,  who  was  worship- 
 ped on  Mount  Carmel.  He  had  an  altar,  but  no  tem- 
 ple. According  to  Tacitus,  a  priest  of  this  deity  pre- 
 dicted to  Vespasian  that  he  would  be  emperor.  (Com- 
 pare the  remarks  of  Brolicr,  ad  Tacit ,  Hist.,  2,  78.) 
 
 Carmenta  and  Carmentis,  according  to  the  old 
 Italian  legend,  a  prophetess  of  Arcadia,  mother  of 
 Evander,  with  whom  she  was  said  to  have  come  to 
 Italy.  Her  first  name  is  said  to  have  been  Themis, 
 and  the  afipellation  Carmenta,  or  Carmentis,  to  have 
 been  given  her  from  her  delivering  oracles  in  verse 
 {Carmma. — Compare  Kruse,  Hellas,  vol.  1,  p.  444, 
 in  7iotis).  Carmenta  seems,  in  fact,  to  have  been  a 
 deity  similar  to  the  Camenae  or  Muses.  That  she 
 was  an  ancient  Italian  deity  is  clear,  for  she  had  a 
 flamen  and  a  festival.  {Cir,.,  Brut.,  14.)  The  Car- 
 mentalia  were  on  the  11th  and  15lh  of  January.  Car- 
 menta was  worshipped  by  the  Roman  matrons.  They 
 prayed,  on  this  occasion,  to  two  deities,  named  Porri- 
 ma  and  Prosa,  or  Aniivorta  and  Postvorta,  for  a  safe  de- 
 livery in  childbirth.     (Kaghlley's  Mijthol.,  p.  532.) 
 
 Carmentali*,  a  festival  at  Rome  in  honour  of  Car- 
 menta, celebrated  the  1 1th  and  15th  of  January.  {Vid. 
 CarmentA.— Ovid,  Fast,  1,461.) 
 
 Carment.u.is  Porta,  one  of  the  gates  of  Rome  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  the  Capitol.  It  was  afterward 
 called  Sceleratti,  because  the  Fabii  passed  through  it 
 in  going  to  that  fatal  expedition  where  they  perished. 
 {Virg.^JEn.,  8,  338.) 
 
 Carne.Xdes,  a  philosopher  of  Cyrene  in  Africa, 
 founder  of  a  sect  called  the  third  or  New  Academy. 
 The  Athenians  sent  him  with  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  and 
 Critolaus  the  peripatetic,  as  ambassador  to  Rome, 
 B.C.  155.  Carneades  excelled  in  the  vehement  and 
 rapid,  Critolaus  in  the  correct  and  elegant,  and  Dio- 
 genes in  the  simple  and  modest,  kind  of  eloquence. 
 Carneades,  in  particular,  attracted  the  attention  of 
 his  new  auditory  bv  the  subtlety  of  his  reasoning  and 
 the  fluency  of  his  language.  Before  Galba  and  Cato 
 the  Censor,  he  harangued  with  great  variety  of  thought 
 and  copiousness  of  diction  in  praise  of  justice.  The 
 next  day,  to  establish  his  doctrine  of  the  uncertainty 
 of  human  knowledge,  he  undertook  to  refute  all  hi» 
 former  arguments.  Many  were  captivated  by  his  elo- 
 quence ;  but  Cato,  apprehensive  lest  the  Roman 
 youth  should  lose  their  military  character  in  the  pur- 
 suit of  Grecian  learning,  persuaded  the  senate  to  send 
 back  these  philosophers,  without  delay,  to  their  own 
 schools.  Carneades  obtained  such  high  reputation  at 
 home,  that  other  philosophers,  when  they  had  dis- 
 missed their  scholars,  frequently  came  to  hear  him. 
 It  was  the  doctrine  of  the  New  Academy,  that  the 
 senses,  the  understanding,  and  the   imagination  fre- 
 
 301 
 
CAR 
 
 CAR 
 
 quently  deceive  us,  and  therefore  cannot  be  infallible 
 judges  of  truth;  but  that,  from  the  impression  which 
 we  perceive  to  be  produced  on  the  ininJ  by  means  of 
 the  senses,  we  infer  appearances  of  truth  or  probabili- 
 ties. He  maintained,  that  they  do  not  always  corre- 
 spond to  the  real  nature  of  things,  and  that  there  is  no 
 infallible  nieiliod  of  determining  when  they  are  true  or 
 false,  and  consequently  that  they  afford  no  certain  cri- 
 terion of  truth.  Nevertheless,  with  respect  to  the 
 conduct  of  life,  Carneades  held  that  probable  appear- 
 ances are  a  sufficient  guide,  because  it  is  unreasonable 
 that  some  degree  of  credit  should  not  be  allowed  to 
 those  witnesses  who  commonly  give  a  true  report. 
 He  maintained,  that  all  the  knowledge  the  human 
 mind  is  capable  of  attaining  is  not  science,  but  opin- 
 ion. {Enjidd's  Hist.  PhiL,  vol.,  1,  p.  254,  scq. — 
 Cic.  ad  Atl.,  12,  23,  dc  Orat.,  1  et  2.—Lactant.,  5, 
 14  — Fa/,  ^fax.,  8,  8.) 
 
 Carnea,  a  festival  observed  in  many  of  the  Grecian 
 cities,  but  more  particularly  at  Sparta,  where  it  was 
 first  instituted,  in  honour  of  Apollo  Canieus.  (  Vid. 
 Carneus.)  It  commenced  at  Sparta  on  the  seventh 
 day  of  the  month  named  after  it  Carneus  (Kupveior), 
 which  corresponded  to  the  Athenian  Metageitnion,  or 
 a  part  of  our  August  and  September.  The  celebra- 
 tion lasted  nine  days,  and,  according  to  some,  was  an 
 imitation  of  the  manner  of  living,  and  the  discipline 
 used,  in  camps  ;  for  nine  aKitldeg  (Icn/s)  were  erected  ; 
 in  every  one  of  which  nine  men,  of  three  difterent 
 tribes,  three  being  chosen  out  of  a  tribe,  lived  for  the 
 space  of  nine  days,  during  which  time  they  were  obe- 
 dient to  a  public  crier  or  herald,  and  did  nothing  with- 
 out express  directions  from  him.  Hesychius  tells  us, 
 that  the  priest,  whose  office  it  was  to  attend  at  this 
 solemnity,  was  named  uyrjrri^,  and  he  adds,  in  another 
 place,  that  out  of  every  tribe  five  other  ministers  were 
 elected,  and  called  Kapveurai,  who  were  obliged  to 
 continue  in  their  function  four  years,  during  which 
 time  they  led  a  life  of  celibacy.  At  this  festival,  the 
 musical  numbers  called  Kdpveioi  vofioi  were  sung  by 
 musicians,  who  contended  for  victory.  The  first  prize 
 was  won  by  Terpander.  (Athenceus,  14,  p.  635,  e. — 
 Compare  Corsini,  Fust  Attic,  3,  p.  41. — S/urz,  ad 
 Hcllanic,  fragm.,  p.  83. — Mansn,  Sparta,  vol.  1,  pt. 
 2,  p.  2lh,scq^  ) 
 
 (Carneus,  an  epithet  applied  to  Apollo.  According 
 to  the  common  account,  the  name  was  derived  from 
 Cariius,  an  Acarnanian,  who  was  instructed  by  the 
 god  in  the  art  of  divination,  but  was  afterward  slain 
 by  Hippotes,  a  descendant  of  Hercules.  Apollo,  in 
 revenge,  sent  a  plague  upon  the  Dorians,  to  avert 
 which  they  instituted  the  festival  of  the  Carnea.  Va- 
 rious other  accounts,  equally  unworthy  of  reliance,  are 
 given.  The  epithet  Carneus  evidently  refers  to  the 
 prophetic  powers  of  the  god,  and  the  certam  fulfdlnig 
 of  iiis  predictions  ;  and  hence  it  is  clearly  related  to 
 the  Greek  verb  Kpaivu,  "to  accomplish."  (Compare 
 Schnl.  ad  Thcocnt.,  5,  83. — Manso,  Sparta,  vol.  1,  pt. 
 2,  p.  218.) 
 
 CaknOtes,  a  powerful  nation  of  Gallia  Cellica, 
 known  even  before  the  time  of  Ca;sar,  and  mentioned 
 by  fjivy  (5,  34)  among  the  tribes  that  crossed  the 
 Alps  in  the  time  of  Tarqninius  Priscus.  And  yet 
 they  are  numbered  by  Ctesar  (B  G.,  6,  4)  among  the 
 clients  or  dependants  of  the  Remi.  Their  country 
 was  the  principal  seat  of  the  Druids,  and  lay  to  the 
 eoulhwest  of  the  Parisii.  It  answered  to  the  modern 
 departments  d'Eurc-el-Lorre  and  du  Loiret.  Autri- 
 cum,  now  Chartrcs,  was  their  chief  city.  (Lcmatrc, 
 J  rid    Gensr.  ad  Ccrs.,  s.  v  ) 
 
 CarnOtiim,  or  Carnunlum,  a  city  of  Pannonia  Su- 
 perior, on  the  Danube,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Ma- 
 rus.  It  became  a  place  of  importance  in  the  war 
 with  the  Marcomanni,  and  here  the  emperor  Marcus 
 Aurelius  took  up  his  residence  for  some  years,  and 
 made  it  a  cenlral  point  from  which  to  direct  his  op- 
 302 
 
 erations  against  the  Marcomanni  and  Quadi.  It  was 
 plundered  and  destroyed  by  the  barbarians  in  the 
 fourth  century  {Ammian.  Marcell ,  30,  5),  but  was 
 afterward  rebuilt,  though  it  never  attained  to  its  pre- 
 vious flourishing  condition.  The  ruins  of  this  place 
 are  to  be  found  at  the  present  day  between  Pclronel 
 and  Altcnhurg,  on  the  Danube.  {Veil,  ralerc,  2, 
 im.—Plui.,  4,  H.—Eutrop.,  8,  6—Sparttan.  Sev., 
 5. — Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  657.) 
 
 Carj-.^tes.  a  long  chain  of  mountains  in  the  north- 
 ern parts  of  Dacia,  called  also  Alpes  Bastarnicae,  now 
 the  range  of  Mount  Kropack.     {PtoL,  3,  7.) 
 
 Cakpathus.  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  be- 
 tween Rhodes  and  Crete.  The  adjacent  sea  received 
 from  it  the  name  of  Marc  Curpalkium.  Its  first 
 inhabitants  were  transplanted  here  by  Minos  from 
 Crete  ;  and  an  Argive  colony  was  afterward  added 
 to  them.  {Diod.  Sic,  5,  54.)  Garpathus  was  two 
 hundred  stadia  in  circumference,  and,  according  to 
 Strabo,  had  four  towns.  In  this  he  is  wrong  ;  since 
 Pliny  and  Scylax  speak  merely  of  three  ;  and  even 
 thi  IS  a  large  number  for  so  small  an  island.  The 
 chief  place  was  Nisyrus.  The  Turks  call  the  island 
 of  Garpathus  at  the  present  day  Scarpanto,  but  the  mod- 
 ern Greeks  Carpatfio.     {Plin.,  4,  12. — Scylax,  p.  38.) 
 
 Carr.(E  and  Carrh^e,  a  town  of  Mesopotamia,  near 
 which  Crassus  was  killed.  It  lay  to  the  southeast  of 
 Edessa,  and  was  a  very  ancient  city.  It  is  supposed 
 to  be  the  Charran  of  Scripture,  whence  Abraham  de- 
 parted for  the  Land  of  Canaan.  (Compare  WcWs 
 Sacred  Geogr.,  s.  v.  Char'>'an. — Calmet's  Diet.,  vol.  5, 
 p.  323  )  According  to  Kinneir,  a  modern  traveller  in 
 that  quarter,  Charran,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  Harran, 
 is  peopled  by  a  few  families  of  wandering  Arabs,  who 
 have  been  led  thither  by  a  plentiful  supply  of  good 
 water  from  several  small  streams.  It  is  situated  in 
 36°  52'  north  latitude,  and  39°  5'  east  longitude,  in 
 a  flat  sandy  plain.  {Lucan,  1,  104. — Plin.,  5,  24. — 
 Eutrop.,  6,  18. — Amm.  Marcell.,  23,  4. — Jornand., 
 de  rean.  Success.,  p.  22. — Zosim.,  3,  12. — Joseph., 
 Ant.  Jud.,  1,  7,  19.) 
 
 Carseoli,  a  town  of  the  ^Equi,  on  the  Via  Valeria. 
 It  became  a  Roman  colony  after  the  ^qui  had  been 
 finally  reduced.  (L?».,10,  3.)  It  was  sometimes  se- 
 lected by  the  senate  as  a  residence  for  illustrious  state 
 captives  and  hostages.  Ovid  (Fast.,  4,  683)  describes 
 the  adjacent  country  as  cold,  and  unfit  for  raising  ol- 
 ives, but  good  for  grain.  The  ruins  of  the  place  still 
 retain  the  name  of  Carsoli.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol. 
 1,  p.  324.) 
 
 Carteia,  a  city  of  Hispania  Baetica,  the  position  of 
 which  has  given  rise  to  much  dispute.  It  does  not  ap- 
 pear, however,  to  have  been  the  same  with  Calpe. 
 D'Anville  places  it  at  the  extremity  of  a  gulf  which 
 the  mountain  of  Calpe  covers  on  the  east ;  but  Man- 
 nert, more  correctly,  at  the  verv  extremity  of  the  strait 
 hcXovj  Algcsiras.  {Mannert,  Geogr,  \o\.  l,p.  305. — 
 Compare  Ukcrt,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  345.) 
 
 Garth^a,  a  town  in  the  island  of  Geos,  whence 
 the  epithet  of  Gartheius.  {Ovid,  Met.,  7,  368.)  It 
 was  situate  on  the  southeastern  side  of  the  island,  and 
 is  now  called  Poles.  (Compare  the  French  Strabo, 
 vol.  4,  p.  164,  not.) 
 
 Cakthaginienses,  the  inhabitants  of  Carthage. 
 {Vid.  Carthago.) 
 
 Carthago,  a  celebrated  city  of  Africa,  the  rival, 
 for  a  long  period,  of  the  Roman  power.  It  was 
 founded  by  a  colony  from  Tyre,  according  to  the 
 common  account,  B.C.  878.  Some  suppose,  how- 
 ever, that  the  city  was  more  than  once  founded,  and 
 in  this  way  they  seek  to  remove  the  difficulty  pre- 
 sented by  the  various  accounts  respecting  the  build- 
 ing of  Carthage,  by  referring  them  to  different  epochs. 
 {Heync,  Excurs.,  1,  ad  JEn.,  4.— Vol.  2,  p.  543,  f(i. 
 Lips.)  According  to  this  view  of  the  subject,  Car- 
 thage was  originally  settled  by  Tzorus  and  Garchedon, 
 
CARTHAGO. 
 
 50  years  before  the   fall   of  Troy.     {Appian,   Bell. 
 Pun.  init. — Hieron.  in  Euscb.  ad  Num.,  805,  p.  91, 
 ed.  Scalig.)     By  the  coinputalion  of  Eusebius,  how- 
 ever, it  took  place  37  years  before  Troy  was  destroyed. 
 The  second   founding  of  Carthage  occured  173  years 
 subsequent  to  the  former  one  {Cliron.  Euseb.,  Hicron. 
 ad  Niim-,  971),  or,  if  we  follow  Syncellus  (p.  181,  A), 
 133  years  after  the  taking  of  Troy.     With  this  epoch 
 tho  mention  of  Dido  comes  in  for  the  first  time.     Her 
 true  era.  however,  appears  to  be  that  of  the  third  found- 
 ing of  the  city,  190  years  later,  according  to  Josephus 
 {in  Apion,  1,  18,  p.  1042) — The  Greeks  called  Car- 
 thage Kapxv'*"^^  a'"'  l'^^  Carthaginians,  Kapx^'^ovioi. 
 The  name  of  the  place  in  Punic  was  Carlhada,  i.  e., 
 "  l"he  New  City,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  old  or 
 parent   city    of   Tyre.     (Compare    Gcsenius,    Gesch. 
 Hcbr.  Spr.,p.  229.— W  ,  Phan.  Mori.,  p.  421.)— Car- 
 thage was  situated  on  a  peninsula,  in  the  recess  of  a 
 spacious  bay,  formed   by  the  promontory  Hermff!um 
 (Cape  Bon)  on  the  east,  and  that  of   Apollo  (Cape 
 Zihib)  on  the  west.      The  Bagradas  flows    into    the 
 bay  between  Utica  and  the  peninsula,  and,  being  an 
 inundating  river,  has  doubtless  caused  many  changes 
 in  this  bay.     The  adventurers  who  founded  Carthage 
 bought  a  small  piece  of  land,  for  which  they  paid  a 
 yearly  tax  ;  with  the  increasing  wealth  and  power  of 
 the  city,  the  respective  conditions  of  the  Carthagini- 
 ans and  the  natives  were  changed,  and  the  merchants 
 assumed  and  maintained  a  dominion  over  the  Libyans 
 who  dwelt  around  them.     The  Carthaginians  upheld 
 their  control  over  the  native  tribes  by  sending  out  colo- 
 nies, as  the  Romans  did  into  the  Italic  states  ;  a  mi.\ed 
 population  would  thus  soon  arise.    \  regular  colonizing 
 svstem  was  part  of  the  Carthaginian   policy.     {Aris- 
 tot.,  Polit.,  6,  3.)     To  provide  for  the  poor  by  grants 
 of  land,  and   to  avoid  popular  commotion,   which    is 
 naturally  produced  by  poverty,  was  the  object  of  their 
 colonial  estabhshments.      This  kind  of  relief  cannot  be 
 permanent,  and  we  consequently  read  of  more  colonies 
 of  this  description  in  the  later  periods  of  Carthage. 
 Their  settlements  in  Africa  were  principally  on   the 
 coast  between  Carthage  and  the  Syrtis  Mmor  ;  they  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  \inder  the  immediate  control  of  the  pa- 
 rent city.     But  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing,  that  the 
 genuine  Phoenician  colonies,  those  estabhshed  by  Tyre, 
 or  other  cities  of  the  parent  country,  were  in  this  kind 
 of  dependancc  on  Carthage. — It  was  the  policy  of  Car- 
 thage to  encourage  the  agriculture  of  the  productive  re- 
 gion of  Bvzacium  :   their  city  was  thus  supplied  with 
 the  prime  necessaries  of  life. — The  boundaries  of  the 
 Carthaginian  territories  in  Africa  were  these  :   on  the 
 east  the  tower  of  Euphranta  was  the  barrier  between 
 them  and  the  Cyrenceans.     From  this  place,  which  was 
 on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Syrtis  Major,  or  from  Charan, 
 which  was  near  to  it,  the  Carthaginians  carried  on  a  con- 
 traband trade  to  procure  the  silphium.     (Strabo,  836.) 
 1  he  southern  boundary  was  determined  by  natural  lim- 
 its •    the  sandy  desert  and  its  wandering  inhabitants 
 owned  no  master.     It   is  more  difficult    to  assign  a 
 western  boundary  :    they  had  posts,  or  trading  posi- 
 tions, along  the  northern  coast  as  far  as  the  Straits  of 
 Gihrattar,  but  this  will  not  prove  that  they  had  any 
 territorial   possession.       The    Nomades    would    give 
 themselves  little  concern  about  a  small   island  oppo- 
 site to  the  coast,  or  a  barren  rock  upon  it,  and   the 
 Carthaginians  might  gradually  attain  some  small  tract 
 besides  the  spot  which  was  a  depOt  for  commodities. 
 "^I'he  Carthaginian  possessions  which  were  undisputed 
 probab.ly  did  not  extend  west  of  the  26th  degree  of 
 east  longitude,  and  spread  some  distance  into  the  in- 
 terior.    The  lake  Tritonis  may  be  considered  as  the 
 southern  and  western  limit  of  the  cultivated  reciion 
 Among  the  foreign  possessions  of  Carthage  ma^y  be 
 ennmerated  their  dependances  in  Sicily  and  Spain,  as 
 well    as  Sardinia,  Corsica,  the  Baleares,  and  Malta. 
 In  Sicily  the  Carthaginians  succeeded  to  the  posses- 
 
 CARTHAGO. 
 
 sions  of  the  mother-country,  Phoenicia.  They  were 
 never  able,  however,  to  make  themselves  masters  of 
 the  whole  island  :  had  they  succeeded  in  their  design, 
 their  subsequent  history  might  have  been  diflerent. 
 They  probably  never  had  secure  possession  of  more 
 than  one  third  of  the  island.  Sicily  was  the  point 
 where  the  interests  of  the  Greeks  and  Carthaginians 
 conflicted.  The  Greek  cities  were  free  stales,  whose 
 wealth  increased  with  as  much  rapidity,  according  to 
 extant  documents,  as  any  countries  whose  history  is 
 known,  e.xcept  some  of  the  free  states  of  America 
 Had  these  little  commonwealths  always  united  their 
 forces,  the  Carthaginian  sctllemenis,  which  were 
 strictly  colonies  in  the  modern  acceptation  of  the 
 word,  must  have  yielded  to  the  superior  energies  of 
 the  Greeks.  It  is  said  (Herodot.,  7,  165)  that  it  was 
 a  concerted  plan  between  Xerxes  and  the  Carthagin- 
 ians, that  Greece  and  Sicily  should  be  crushed  at  the 
 same  time  ;  one  by  the  united  myriads  of  the  east,  the 
 other  by  the  barbarians  of  the  west,  who  formed  the 
 armies  of  Carthage.  Cut  Hamilcar,  the  Carthaginian 
 general,  saw  his  forces  vanquished  by  the  Sicilian 
 Greeks,  and  he  himself  lost  his  life.— As  to  Spain,  it 
 is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  Phoenicians  and 
 their  descendants,  the  Carthaginians,  owing  to  the  im- 
 perfect records  we  possess  of  Carthaginian  history ; 
 nor  can  we  with  certainly  assign  the  era  when  the 
 colonists  succeeded  to  the  foreign  possessions  of  the 
 mother-country.  The  southwestern  part  of  Spain, 
 the  modern  Andalusia,  was  their  favourite  region  : 
 the  town  of  Gades  {Cadiz)  became  a  flourishing 
 place,  and  the  emporium  of  Southern  Spain.  {Hee- 
 rcn,  Ideen,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  27,  seqq.— Long's  Anc. 
 Geogr.,  p.  91,  scqq.) 
 
 1.  The  Carthaginian  Politij. 
 Our  information  on  this  important  and  interesting 
 subject  is  not  so  complete  as  the  investigator  of  an- 
 cient history  desires.  Aristotle's  small  extant  treatise, 
 entitled  "  Politica,"  is  our  best  guide  in  this  obscure 
 matter.  The  city  was  a  commercial  town,  possessing, 
 as  we  have  seen,  numerous  foreign  colonies,  besides 
 dependent  towns  in  the  fertile  region  of  Byzacium. 
 Agriculture  was  encouraged  in  the  African  colonies, 
 or"  subject  cities,  by  the  demands  for  the  necessaries 
 of  life  which  a  great  capital  would  create  :  from  the 
 fragments  of  Mago's  book  on  husbandry,  and  the  tes- 
 timony of  historians,  we  infer  that  the  cultivation  of 
 grain,  of  the  olive,  and  the  vine,  and  the  raising  of 
 cattle,  were  well  understood.  Carthage,  like  most 
 of  the  towns  in  the  Greek  states,  was  the  ruling 
 city  of  the  district  in  which  it  was  situated  :  the 
 citizens  of  the  metropolis  possessed  the  sovereign 
 power,  but  the  mode  in  which  it  was  distributed 
 among  those  of  Carthage  requires  some  explanation. 
 There  was  in  Carthage,  undoubtedly,  a  body  of  rich 
 citizens,  who  are  sometimes  considered  as  a  kind 
 of  aristocracy,  but  there  is  no  proof  that  this  was 
 an  hereditary  dignity,  or  that  it  was  anything  more 
 than  the  influence  which  a  rich  individual  possess- 
 es and  transmits  to  his  children  by  joining  it  to  a 
 laroe  estate.  An  aristocracy  may  be  formed  in  this 
 way  :  that  of  Carthage,  as  far  as  we  know,  possessed 
 no  hereditary  privileges,  and  no  political  power  but 
 from  election.  But  posts  of  honour  and  dignity 
 brought  with  them  no  emolument,  and,  consequently, 
 were'^the  exclusive  property  of  the  rich,  who  alone 
 could  affijrd  to  sustain  the  expense  which  such  situa- 
 tions necessanlv  require.  Bribery  is  a  consequence 
 of  such  an  institution,  and  a  small  body,  whatever 
 name  it  may  have,  wfll  thus  govern  a  community. 
 {Aristot.,  Polk.,  2,  8.—Heeren's  Idem,  vol.  2,  pt.  1, 
 p.  108,  scqq.)  The  Spartan  polity  was  that  which  Ar- 
 istotle and  Polvbius  consider  the  most  nearly  related 
 to  the  Carthaginian.  The  power  of  the  people  was 
 very  limited,  and  was  exercised  only  in  their  public 
 
CARTHAGO. 
 
 CARTHAGO. 
 
 meetings.  The  kinjTs  or  suffetcs,  and  the  generals  of 
 the  republic,  were  elected  by  the  people  in  their  public 
 assemblies  ;  but  bribery  was  so  usual  that  Aristotle 
 considered  those  high  distinctions  as  saleable  at  the 
 time  when  he  wrote.  When  the  suffetes  and  the 
 senate  could  not  agree  about  atiy  )iroposed  enactment, 
 the  people  had  the  right  of  deciding  between  them. 
 The  senate  possessed  the  chief  power,  both  legislative 
 and  executive  ;  but  we  are  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
 constitution  of  this  body.  It  is  only  from  the  compar- 
 ison made  by  Aristotle  and  Polybius  between  the  con- 
 stitutions of  Carthage  atid  Sparta,  and  the  additional 
 resemblance  between  that  of  Carthage  and  Rome  in 
 the  time  of  Polybius,  that  we  can  attain  to  any  proba- 
 bilities. We  suppose,  then,  that  the  senators  might 
 hold  their  offices  for  life;  that  their  number  was  con- 
 siderable, and  that  they  possessed  the  principal  legis- 
 lative and  executive  power.  The  presiding  officers 
 of  the  senate  and  the  chief  civil  magistrates  were  the 
 suffetes  :  the  Creek  writers  call  them  kings,  and  the 
 Roman  historian,  Livy,  compares  them  with  the  con- 
 suls. They  were  elected  from  the  richest  and  noblest 
 families  (Arislot.,  Polit.,  2,  81) ;  we  suppose  the  num- 
 ber was  two,  like  that  of  the  kings  of  Sparta  and  con- 
 suls of  Rome  :  any  farther  conjectures  about  them  may 
 be  ingenious,  but  they  will  also  be  useless.  The  gen- 
 erals of  the  state  were  elected  also  from  the  most  dis- 
 tinguished families.  The  civil  and  the  military  power 
 in  Carthage  were  distinct.  We  may  find  instances  in 
 which  the  kings  seem  to  have  had  something  like  mil- 
 itary command,  as  in  the  case  of  King  Hanno,  who 
 conducted  the  colonial  expedition  ;  but,  in  general,  we 
 can  have  no  doubt  that  the  generals  of  the  republic 
 were  officers  chosen  by  the  people  to  command  the 
 armies  in  foreign  expeditions  or  in  domestic  dissen- 
 sion. The  judicature  of  Carthage  resembled  that  of 
 Sparta:  the  judges  of  the  several  courts  had  the  full 
 and  complete  cognizance  of  all  civil  and  criminal  cases, 
 without  the  aid  of  jurymen.  (Ar7s(ot.,  Poht.,  3,  ].) 
 The  court  of  the  one  hundred  was  the  supreme  tribunal 
 of  Carthage,  and  the  account  of  its  origin,  given  by 
 Justin  (18,  7),  is  rendered  more  jirobable  by  Aristotle's 
 comparing  this  body  with  that  of  the  Spartan  Ephori. 
 Such  a  tribunal  as  this  could  be  converted  by  favoura- 
 ble circumstances  and  a  few  bold  leaders  into  a  real 
 court  of  inquisition  :  it  actually  became  so  in  the  later 
 ages  of  the  commonwealth;  and,  if  we  believe  Livy 
 (33,  46),  the  lives  and  property  of  the  citizens  were 
 disposed  of  according  to  its  caprice.  Any  injury,  real 
 or  imaginary,  done  to  one  of  the  Dodv,  was  an  offence 
 against  the  dignity  of  the  whole  college.  Hannibal 
 overturned  the  throne  of  the  inquisitors,  and  destroyed 
 this  tyrannical  and  dangerous  tribunal.  This  body 
 was  not  chosen  by  the  people,  but  liy  courts  called 
 Pentarchies  :  we  know  nothing  more  of  these  latter 
 courts,  except  that  they  had  cognizance  of  very  im- 
 portant cases,  and  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  supplying 
 the  vacancies  that  happened  in  their  own  body.  The 
 members  of  the  court  of  one  hundred  retained  their 
 place  for  a  long  time,  though  originally  not  for  life. 
 {Arisiot.,  Po'it.,  2,  8.)  Our  materials  will  hardlv  ad- 
 mit any  farther  development  of  the  constitution  of  Car- 
 thage. In  the  decline  of  the  state,  we  know  from  Ar- 
 istotle that  the  influence  of  a  few  rich  families  in  ob- 
 taining possession  of  places  of  importance,  and  the 
 union  of  several  distinct  offices  in  one  person,  con- 
 tributed materially  to  hasten  the  end  of  the  political 
 system.  {Hcercn's  Idem,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  118,  scqq. 
 —  Long's  Anc.  Gcogr.,  p.  97.) 
 
 2.  Religion  of  the  Carthaginians. 
 
 The  religious  faith  and  ceremonies  of  the  Carthagin- 
 ians appear  to  have  been  at  bottom  the  same  with 
 those  of  the  mother  country,  Phnpnicia.  Hence  the 
 general  denominations  for  their  divinities  betray  a 
 strong  resemblance  between  the  two  nations.  Thus 
 304 
 
 we  have  'Elim,  Alonim,  and,  in  the  feminine,  Alonoth  ; 
 Baal,  and  Baalalh  ;  Mdcrh  and  Makath ;  Don  for 
 Adon.  {Plaut.,  I'oinul ,  5,  1,  15. — Coinpiire  BcHf.r- 
 mafin,  vol.  1,  p.  4-5,  and  vol.  2,  p.  15.)  Theseappel- 
 lations,  given  to  the  deities  of  Carthage  as  well  as  to 
 those  of  Phoenicia,  expressed  in  both  countries  the 
 majesty  of  those  all-powerful  beings,  and  the  dominion 
 which  they  exercised  over  men.  It  was  to  the  sun, 
 however,  as  the  first  principle  of  nature,  as  the  gener- 
 ative power,  that  the  Carthasjiniaiis,  after  the  example 
 of  the  nations  of  Canaan,  offered  peculiar  adoration. 
 They  styled  him  Baal  or  Moloch,  "  the  lord,"  "  the 
 king,"  and  also  Bclsamen,  "  the  lord  of  heaven." 
 This  supreme  deity  they  worshipped  with  a  rever- 
 ence so  profound  as  scarcely  ever  to  dare  to  pro- 
 nounce his  true  name  :  they  contented  themselves  in 
 general  with  designating  him  as  the  ''  Ancient  One," 
 "the  Eternal."  {Aaguslin.,  De  Consensu  Evntig., 
 1,  36. — Vol.  3,  p.  11,  cd.  Mavr. — Compare  the  ex- 
 pression, "Ancient  of  Days,"  in  David,  7,  9,  13.) 
 The  Greek  writers  translated  Baal  by  KpSvor,  and  the 
 Romans  by  Saliirims,  no  doubt  on  account  of  the  com- 
 mon reference  which  those  divinities  had  to  the  idea 
 of  time.  The  images,  as  well  as  the  titles  of  the  Sun- 
 God,  were  the  same,  to  all  appearances,  both  among 
 the  Phoenicians  or  Canaanites,  and  the  Carthaginians. 
 The  description  which  Diodorus  has  left  us  of  the 
 statue  of  Cronus  (Saturn)  at  Carthage,  coincides  in 
 general  with  the  account  given  by  the  Jewish  Rabbins 
 of  that  of  Moloch  in  Canaan.  (Dwd.  Sic  ,  20,  14. — 
 Seldcn,  de  Diis  Syris,  1,  6.)  Both  were  made  of 
 metal ;  both  had  the  arms  extended,  with  a  kind  of 
 furnace,  or  inner  cavity,  below,  into  which  children 
 were  thrown  to  bo  destroyed  bv  fire,  as  an  offering  to 
 this  horrid  idol.  In  process  of  time,  when  the  Car- 
 thaginians had  become  more  closely  connected  with 
 the  Greeks,  it  is  probable  that  Baal  was  made  in  some 
 respects  to  resemble  the  Apollo  of  the  latter;  his  wor- 
 ship, as  well  as  his  figure,  would  begin  to  modify 
 themselves,  and  hence  the  Apollo  of  Carthage,  whose 
 colossal  statue,  entirely  gilt,  was  transjmrted  to  Rome 
 by  Scipio.  (Polijb.,  7,  9.  —  Appian,  Bell.  Pmi,  79. 
 — PIvt.,  Vit.  Flamin.,  c.  1.  —  Creuzer's  Symholik, 
 vol.  2,  p.  269  — But  consult  Guigniaut's  note,  vol.  2, 
 p.  231,  of  the  French  work.)  In  the  Roman  Carthage, 
 which  retained  the  worship  of  its  ancient  deities,  while 
 it  changed,  at  the  same  time,  their  forms  and  names, 
 the  Latin  Saturn  appeared  to  take  the  place  of  the 
 Phcenician  Baal;  but  the  human  sacrifices,  still  con- 
 tinually renewed,  notwithstanding  the  repeated  orders 
 to  the  contrary  on  the  part  of  the  Romans,  attest  the 
 permanency  of  ancient  ideas  and  rites.  Baal-Saturn 
 maintained  his  honours  even  to  the  extremities  of  the 
 west,  even  to  Gadcs,  where,  under  the  Roman  do- 
 minion, there  still  existed  a  temple  of  this  god.  (Com- 
 pare MiXnter,  Religion  dcr  Karthager,  p.  17,  scqq. — 
 Id.,  uher  Sardischc  Hole,  p.  8,  scqq.)  A'arious  ani- 
 mals were  consecrated  to  Baal,  as  to  all  the  great  di- 
 vinities of  pagamsm.  Oxen  were  sacrificed  to  him.  and 
 he  himself  bore  the  attribhtes  of  a  bull.  A  Phopnician 
 medal,  which  has  come  down  to  us,  displays  the  image 
 of  a  god,  like  the  Jupiter  of  the  Greeks,  seated  en  a 
 throne,  and  having  the  head  of  an  ox.  The  inscrip- 
 tion is  Baiil-Thiirz.  Payne  Knight  {Inquiry  into  the 
 Syml).  Lang.,  &c.,  ^  31. — Class.  Joitrn  ,  vol.  23,  p. 
 226)  compares  the  name  Thar,  given  to  the  bull  among 
 the  Phn»nicians,  according  to  Plutarch  {Vit.  SylL, 
 17),  with  the  god  Thor  of  Scandinavian  mythologyi, 
 the  head  of  whose  image  was  that  of  a  bull.  Horses 
 were  also  dedicated  to  the  Sun.  and  their  blood  shed 
 at  his  festivals.  {Miinter,  Religion  der  Karthager, 
 p.  14,  n.  44,  who  deduces  this  from  a  passage  in  the 
 2d  (4th)  Book  of  Kings,  23,  11  )  It  is  also  very 
 probable  that  the  elephant,  an  animal  so  renowned 
 among  the  ancients  for  the  species  of  worship  which 
 it  was  said  to  offer  to   the  sun  and  moon  {Mlian 
 
CARTHAGO. 
 
 CARTHAGO. 
 
 H.  A.,  7,  4. — Plin.,  8,  1),  was  held  sacred  to  Baal. 
 One  ihing  at  least  is  certain,  that  in  Africa  these  pious 
 animals  were  in  some  degree  connected  with  the  wor- 
 ship of  Ammon  ;   and  the  coins  of  Juba,  king  of  Mau- 
 ritania, display  on  one  side  the  head  of  Jupiter  Am- 
 nion, and  on  the  other  an  elephant.     {Eckhcl,  Dodr. 
 Num.    Vet.,  vol.  4,  p.    154.) — To  the   Sun-God,  as 
 monarch  of    the   skies  and   supreme  generator,   was 
 joined  a   female  divinity,  as  the  great   goddes.s  /car' 
 i^oXi'iv,  as  the  queen  of  heaven,  and  the  principle  of 
 fecundated  nature.     This  divinity  makes  her  appear- 
 ance under  various  forms  and  different  names  in  almost 
 all  the  religions  of  Asia.      (Compare  Nouvcau  Journal 
 Asiafiijuc,    vol.    1    (1828),   p.    11,    scqq. — Cicuzefs 
 Symboiik,  par  Guigmaut,  vol.  2,  p.   232.)     At  Car- 
 thage, as  in  Syria  and  Phoenicia,  she  appears  to  have 
 borne  the  name  of  Astarle  or  Aslarolh,  which  corre- 
 sponds to  the  idea  of  sovereign  of  the  heavens  and  the 
 stars.     Thus  the  Greeks  called  her,  in  their  language, 
 Urania,  and   the    Romans   the  "  Celestial  Goddess." 
 This  deity  was  worshipped  in  numerous  temples  at 
 Carthage,  along  the  coast  of  Africa,  at  Malta,  and  in 
 the  other  isles  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  also  in  Spain, 
 near  Gades ;   and  her  rites  were  no  less  voluptuous  in 
 their  character  than  those  of  Mylitla  at  Babylon,  of 
 Anaitis  in  Armenia,  and  of  Venus-Urania  in  Cyprus. 
 Munler.  Rcl.  der  Karthagcr   p.  SO,  se'i'/) — Immedi- 
 ately after  Baal  and  .^starte.  was  placed,  among  the 
 national  divinities   of  Carthage,  Mflkartk,  tiic  "king 
 of  the  city,"  the  tutelary  deity  of  the  parent  city  of 
 Tyre.     {MunUr,  ibid  ,  p.   36,  scqq.)     Wherever  the 
 Phoenicians  penetrated,  the  altars  that  were  raised  in 
 honour  of  this  god,  and  the  varioL>.s  traces  of  his  wor- 
 ship, testify  the  high  veneration  which  this  people  en- 
 tertained for  him.     The  Tyrian  colonies  regarded  him 
 as  their  common  protector;  they  adored  him  as  a  kind 
 of  divine  mediator;   as  a  sort  of  sacred  bond,  uniting 
 them  one  with  another  and  with  their  common  coun- 
 try.    The  symbol  of  the  victorious  course  of  the  sun, 
 and  identical,  in  this  respect,  with  the  Grecian  Hercu- 
 les, he   naturally  became,  for  these  hardy  navigators, 
 the  celestial  guide  of  their  distant  expeditions,  and, 
 consequently,  the  god  of  commerce.    {Crcuzcr''s  Syrii- 
 holik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  2,  p.  172,  n.  4.)     In  this  way 
 he  was  in  some   measure  assimilated  to  another  de- 
 ity, Sumcs.  whose  Phoenician  name   recalls  the  Sorji 
 of    Egypt.      (Compare    Bcllermann,    iibcr    J'hccnic. 
 Miuiz  ,  1,  p.  25.)     A  similar  alliance  existed  at  Rome 
 between   Hercules   and   Mercury,   both  deities  being 
 considered  as  the  gods  of  riches  and  abundance.      Mel- 
 karth   was,  in  effect,  like  the  Grecian  Hercules,  the 
 same  with  the  sun.     The  Tyrians  raised,  in  his  temple 
 at  Gades,  an  altar  to  the  year  {Eustath.  ad  Dionys. 
 I'ericg.,  p.  453),  and  it  is  in  a  point  of  view  directly 
 analogous,  that  Nonnus  calls  Hercules  the  conductor 
 of  the  twelve   months.     {Dionys.,  40,  338.)     Every 
 year  they  kindled  at  Carthage,  as  at  Tyre,  and  probably 
 in  all  the  Phoenician  colonies,  a  large  pyre  in  honour 
 of  Melkarth,  whence  an  eagle  was  let  loose,  as  a  sym- 
 bol, like  the  Egyptian  phoenix,  of  the  sun,  and  of  time 
 renewing  itself  from  its  own  ashes.     This  scene  was 
 transferred  by  the  Greeks  to  Mount  ffita,  where  Her- 
 cules, in  consuming  himself  on  the  funeral  pile,  cele- 
 brates his  apotheosis  after  the  accomplishment  of  his 
 twelve  labours.     {Bio.  Chrysoslom.,  Oral.,  33  —Vol. 
 2,  p.  23,  cd.  Raske.)     The  worship  of  a  Hercules, 
 distinct  from  the  one  of  Thebes,  was  continued,  even 
 to  the  last  periods  of  paganism,  in  Carthage  and  in  all 
 the  Phffinician  cities.— Omitting  the  mention  of  other 
 and  less  important  divinities  of  the  Carthaginians,  we 
 will  conclude  the  present  head  with  some  general  re- 
 marks on  the  religion  of  this  people.     The  character 
 of  the  Carthaginian  religion,  like  that  of  the  nation 
 which  professed  it,  was  melancholy  even  to  cruelty. 
 Terror  was  the  animating  principle  of  this  religion  ;  a 
 religion  thirsting  after  blood,  and  environed  with  the 
 Qq 
 
 most  gloomy  and  appalling  images.  When  we  vie 
 the  abstinences,  the  voluntary  tortures,  and,  above  all^ 
 the  horrid  sacrifices  which  it  imposed  as  a  duty  on  the 
 living,  we  are  not  astonished  that  the  dead  should  ap 
 pear  in  some  degree  actual  objects  of  envy.  I 
 silenced  the  most  sacred  sentiments  of  human  nature  ; 
 it  degraded  the  minds  of  its  votaries  by  superstitions  in 
 turn  atrocious  and  dissolute  ;  and  we  are  naturally  led 
 to  the  inquiry,  what  moral  influence  such  a  religion 
 could  have  exercised  over  the  people  who  professed  it. 
 The  portrait  which  antiquity  has  left  us  of  the  Cartha 
 ginian  character  is  hence  far  from  being  a  flattering  one 
 By  turns  imperious  and  servile,  melancholy  and  cruel, 
 inexorable  and  faithless,  egotistical  and  covetous,  it 
 would  seem  as  if  the  spirit  of  their  religion  had  con- 
 spired with  the  jealous  aristocracy  that  weighed  so 
 heavily  upon  them,  and  with  their  purely  commercial 
 and  industrious  habits,  to  close  their  hearts  to  every 
 generous  emotion  and  every  elevated  thought.  Their 
 system  of  belief  may  have  contained  some  noble  ideas, 
 but  their  practice  of  that  system  served  effectually  to 
 obscure  these.  A  goddess  presided  over  their  public 
 councils  {Appian,  Bell.  I'un.,  p.  81,  ed.  Tollii) ;  but 
 these  councils  or  assemblies  were  held  during  the 
 night,  and  history  informs  us  respecting  some  of  the 
 terrible  measures  that  were  agitated  therein.  The  god 
 of  the  solar  fire  was  the  patron  deity  of  both  Carthage 
 and  Tyre,  and  gave  an  example  of  great  enterprises 
 and  hardy  labours  ;  yet  his  brightness  was  often  stained 
 with  blood,  and  every  year  human  victims  were  immo- 
 lated at  his  altars  as  at  those  of  Baal.  Wherever  the 
 Phoenicians,  or  the  Carthaginians  after  them,  carried 
 their  commerce  and  their  arms,  not  only  at  particular 
 periods,  but  in  all  critical  conjunctures,  their  high-toned 
 fanaticism  renewed  these  sanguinary  sacrifices.  In 
 vain  did  Gelon  of  Syracuse,  with  the  authority  which 
 victory  gave  him;  in  vain  did  the  Greeks  established 
 at  Carthage,  endeavour,  by  mild  and  pacific  influence, 
 to  put  an  end  to  these  inhuman  rites  {Tunaus,  Tau- 
 rornen.  up.  Srkol.  in  Prnd.,  Pijlh.,  2,  3. — Munler, 
 Rel.  der  Karlh.,  p.  25)  ;  the  ancient  barbarity  con- 
 stantly reappeared,  and  maintained  itself  even  in  Ro- 
 man Carthage.  At  the  commencement  even  of  the 
 third  century  of  our  era,  traces  of  this  frightful  mode 
 of  v/orship  were  still  found  to  be  practised  in  secret. 
 {TertulL,  ApoL,  9.)  From  the  year  of  Rome  655,  all 
 human  sacrifices  had  been  prohibited  ;  but  the  emper- 
 ors more  than  once  found  themselves  under  the  ne- 
 cessity of  making  this  prohibition  a  more  binding  one. 
 Still,  however,  the  evil  was  not  completely  eradica1;ed  ; 
 and  we  see,  even  at  Rome,  the  worthless  Elagabalua 
 immolating  children  in  the  course  of  his  magic  cere- 
 monies. {Dio  Cass  ,  79,  12. — Creuzer's  Symbolik, 
 par  Guigniaut,  vol.  2,  p.  252.) 
 
 3.    Carthaginian  Language  and  Literature. 
 
 An  account  of  the  language  and  literature  of  Car- 
 thage will  come  in  more  naturally  when  treating  of  the 
 Phoenicians.  To  this  latter  head,  therefore,  we  refer 
 the  reader. 
 
 4.  History  of  Carthage. 
 
 The  first  period  of  the  history  of  Carthage  ex6en<ft 
 to  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  Syracuse,  from  B.C 
 878  to  480.  Carthage  extended  its  conquests  in  Af- 
 rica and  Sardinia,  carried  on  a  commercial  war  with 
 the  people  of  Marseille  (Massilia)  and  the  Etrurians, 
 and  concluded  a  commercial  peace  with  Rome,  B.C. 
 509.  The  Carthaginians  then  directed  their  chief  at- 
 tention to  the  conquest  of  Sicily,  wiih  which  com- 
 mences their  second  and  most  splendid  period,  extend- 
 ing to  the  beginning  of  their  war  with  the  Romans, 
 B.C.  265.  When  Xer.xes  undertook  bis  campaign 
 into  Greece,  the  Carthaginians  made  a  league  with 
 him,  and  the  object  of  this  arrangement  was  to  crush 
 at  once  both  Sicily  and  Greece.     The  Carthaginian^ 
 
 303 
 
CARTHAGO. 
 
 CARTHAGO. 
 
 however,  were  defeated  at  Himera  by  Gelon,  king  of 
 Syracuse,  and  obliged  to  sue  for  peace,  and  to  abstain 
 from    ort'ering    human    sacrifices.      In    the    war    with 
 Hiero,  the  next  king,  the  Carthaginians  conquered  the 
 cities  Seliniis,  Himera,  and  Agrigeiit\nn.      Uionysius 
 the  elder  obtained  a  temporary  peace.     But,  alter  Ti- 
 moleon  had  deUvered  Syracuse  and  Sicily  from  the 
 yoke  of  tyranny,  the   Carthaginians  were    peculiarly 
 unfortunate.      Contagious  diseases  and  frequent  muti- 
 nies reduced  the  strength  of  the  city.     When  Sicily 
 suffered  under  the  tyranny  of  Agathocles,  Carthage 
 engaged   in  a  war  with  him,  and  was  soon  attacked 
 and  severely  pressed  by  the  usur[;cr.      After  the  death 
 of  Agathocles,  Carthage  once  more  took  part  in  the 
 commerce  of  Sicily,  when  difficulties  broke  out  there 
 with  their  auxiliaries  the  Mamerlines.     The  Romans 
 took  advantage  of  these  troubles  to  expel  the  Cartha- 
 ginians from  Sicily,  although  they  had  previously  re- 
 ceived assistance  from  them  in  the  war  against  Pyr- 
 rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  in  Sicily  and  Lov/er  Italy.     Here 
 begins  the  third  period  of  Carthaginian  history,  em- 
 bracing the  thrice-repeated  struggle  for  dominion  be- 
 tween  Rome  and  Carthage,  in  the  interval  between 
 264  and  146  B.C.     The  first  Punic  war  continued  23 
 years.     The  fleets  and  armies  of  Carthage  were  van- 
 quished.    By  the  peace  (B.C.  241)  the  Carthaginians 
 lost  all   their  possessions  in   Sicily.      Upon   this,  the 
 mercenary  forces,  whose  wages  could  not  be  paid  by 
 the   exhausted    treasury  of   the   city,   took   up   arms. 
 Hamtlcar  Barcas  conquered  them,  and  restored  the 
 Carthaginian  power  in  Africa.      Notwithstanding  the 
 peace  with  Carthage,  the  Romans  took  possession  of 
 Sardinia  in  228,  where  the  mercenary  troops  of  Car- 
 thage had  revolted.     Hamilcar,  who  was  at  the  head 
 of  the  democratic  party,  now  undertook  the  conquest 
 of  Spain,  whose  rich  mines  tempted  his  countrymen. 
 For  the  success  of  this  enterprise,  within    17  years, 
 Carthage  was  indebted  to  the  family  of  Barcas,  which 
 could  boast  of  the  glorious  names  of  Hamilcar,  Has- 
 drubal,  and   Hannibal.      To  secure  the  possession  of 
 this   acquisition,    Hasdrubal    founded    New    Carthage 
 (Carthage7ia),  the  inost  powerful  of  all  the  Carthagin- 
 ian colonies.     The  second  Punic  war  (from  218  to 
 201   B.C.),  notwithstanding  the  abilities  of  the  gen- 
 eral, ended  with  the  subjugation  of  Carthage.     Han- 
 nibal, neglected  by  his  countrymen,  and  weakened  by 
 a  victory  that  cost  him  so  much  blood,  was  obliged  to 
 leave  Italy,  in  order  lo  hasten  to  the  assistance  of  Car- 
 thage, which  was  threatened  by  the  Romans.     The  bat- 
 tle of  Zama  resulted  in  favour  of  the  Romans.     Scipio 
 granted  the  city  peace  under  the  severest  conditions. 
 Carthage  ceded  Spain,  delivered  up  all  her  ships  ex- 
 cept ten,  paid    10,000  talents  (about    $10,000,000), 
 and  promised  to  engagj  in  no  war  without  the  con- 
 sent  of   the    Romans.      Besides  this,   Masinissa,  the 
 ally  of  Rome  and  implacable  enemy  of  Carthage,  was 
 placed  on  the  Numidian  throne.     This  king,  under  the 
 protection  of  Rome,  deprived  the  Carthaginians  of  the 
 best  part  of  their  possessions,  and  destroyed  their  trade 
 in  the  interior  of  Africa.     The  third  war  with  the  Ro- 
 mans was  a  desperate  contest.      The  disarmed   Car- 
 thaginians were  obliged  to  demolish  part  of  their  own 
 walls.     Then,  taking  up  arms  anew,  they  fought  for 
 death  or  life.      After  three  years,  the  younger  Scipio 
 ended  this  war  by  the  destruction  of  the  city,  B.C. 
 146.     Only  .5000  persons  are  said  to  have  been  found 
 within  its  walls.     It  was  23  miles  in  circumference  ; 
 and  when  it  was  set  on  fire  by  the  Romans,  it  burned 
 incessantly  for  17  days.     After  the  overthrow  of  Car- 
 thage Utica  became  powerful.     Cajsar  planted  a  small 
 colony    on    the   ruins   of   Carthage.     Augustus    sent 
 3000  men  thither,  and  built  a  city  at  a  small  distance 
 from  the  spot  on  which  ancient  Carthage  stood,  thus 
 avoiding  the  ill  effects  of  the  imprecations  which  had 
 been  pronounced  by  the  Romans,  according  to  custom, 
 at  the  time  of  its  destructi.  o,  against  those  who  should 
 306 
 
 rebuild  it.  This  new  city  of  Carthage  was  conquered 
 from  the  Romans  by  the  arms  of  Genscric,  AD.  439, 
 and  It  was  for  more  than  a  century  the  seat  of  the 
 Vandal  empire  in  Africa.  It  was  at  last  destroyed  by 
 the  Saracens,  during  the  califate  of  Abdel  Melek,  to- 
 wards the  end  of  the  7th  century,  and  few  traces  of  it 
 now  remain  except  an  aqueduct.  According  to  Livy, 
 Carthage  was  twelve  miles  from  Tunetum  or  Tunis, 
 a  distance  which  still  subsists  between  that  city  and 
 a  fragment  of  the  western  wall  of  Carthage.  (Heercn, 
 Idccn,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  270,  seqq. — Encydvp.  Americ, 
 vol.  2,  p.  543,  seqq.) 
 
 5.    Circulating  Medium  and  Revenue  of  Carthage. 
 
 The  precious  metals  were  probably  early  used  in 
 Carthage,  as  a  medium  of  exchange  as  well  as  an  ar- 
 ticle of  luxury  ;  but  whether  the  stale  stamped  coin 
 for  the  use  of  the  community  is  a  question  still  unde- 
 cided. That  gold  and  silver  coin  was  in  circulation 
 we  cannot  doubt ;  the  dispute  is  about  the  existence 
 of  real  Carthaginian  coins.  But  we  read  of  a  substi- 
 tute that  the  Carthaginians  had  for  gold  and  silver, 
 which  renders  it  probable  that  the  precious  metal  in 
 circulation  was  often  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the 
 community.  It  is  likely  that  the  conquest  of  Spain 
 materially  supplied  this  deficiency.  Several  writers 
 speak  of  a  leather  circulating  medium  :  this  was  a 
 piece  of  leather  with  a  state-stamp  on  it,  probably  de- 
 noting its  value.  In  this  leather  a  small  piece  of 
 metal  was  enclosed,  the  precise  nature  of  which, 
 whether  it  was  a  compound,  or  had  some  peculiar 
 mark  upon  it,  we  cannot  now  ascertain.  The  best 
 account  of  this  substitute,  which  we  may  presume  was 
 not  used  beyond  the  city,  is  fotind  in  a  dialogue  on 
 wealth  in  yEschines  Socraticus  (2,  24,  p.  78,  cd.  Fis- 
 cher.— Compare  Aristid.,  Oral.  Plat.,  2,  p.  241. — 
 Salmas.,  de  Us.,  p.  463).  The  revenue  of  Carthage 
 was  derived  from  various  sources  :  that  from  the  agri- 
 cultural colonies  within  the  African  territory  of  Car- 
 thage, consisted  of  a  tax  paid  in  raw  commodities. 
 The  duties  on  imported  goods,  both  in  the  metropolis 
 and  the  colonies,  were  another  abundant  source  of  pub- 
 lic income.  We  learn  from  Aristotle  {Polit.,  3,  5), 
 that  there  were  treaties  between  the  Carthaginians  anU 
 Etrurians,  by  which  the  commodities  that  might  be 
 carried  by  each  nation  into  the  ports  of  the  other  were 
 accurately  described  :  this  is  an  indication  of  commer- 
 cial restrictions,  mutual  jealousies,  and  high  duties. 
 The  produce  of  the  mines  of  Spain,  which  at  that  time 
 were  rich  in  gold,  silver,  and  iron,  must  be  added  to 
 the  public  revenues  of  the  state.  The  richest  mines 
 were  in  the  neighbourhood  of  New  Carthage.  It  is 
 probable  that  they  were  worked  by  slaves,  both  native 
 and  imported,  while  they  were  in  the  possession  of  the 
 Carthaginians,  as  they  were  afterward  when  the  Ro- 
 mans were  masters  of  Spain.  In  times  of  difficulty 
 Carthage  occasionally  applied  for  loans  to  foreign 
 countries.  In  the  Punic  war,  the  impoverished  repub- 
 lic asked  as  a  favour  from  the  rich  Ptolemy  Philadei- 
 phus,  king  of  Egypt,  the  loan  of  2000  talents,  which 
 the  prudent  Greek  declined.  It  cannot  be  considered 
 that  this  was  one  of  the  ordinary  sources  of  revenue, 
 because  the  only  profit  that  could  arise  from  it  would 
 he  the  use  of  the  money  and  the  non-payment  of  the 
 interest  and  principal  ;  and  this  kind  of  profit  would 
 necessarily  cease,  as  in  the  case  of  some  modern 
 states,  when  the  character  of  the  borrower  was  known. 
 (Hceren,  Idrrn,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  148. — Long^s  Aw. 
 Geogr.,  p.  98.) 
 
 6.  Naval  Commerce,  and  Naval  and  Military  foice 
 of  Carthage. 
 
 The  district  of  Byzacium,  in  the  province  called 
 Africa  Propria  by  the  Romans,  and  the  island  of  Sar- 
 dinia, were  the  gram  countries  of  Carthage  :  this  com- 
 mercial town  derived  its  supply  of  bread  from  remote 
 
CARTHAGO. 
 
 CARTHAGO. 
 
 parts,  like  Athens,  Corinth,  and  other  large  cities  of 
 Greece.     Sicily  was  much  frequented  by  the  Punic 
 merchants  ;    and  the.  rich  emporium   of  Syracuse,  in 
 times   of  peace,   saw  its   port  crowded  with  African 
 vessels.      Oil  arid   wine  were  imported   from  Sicily; 
 both  of  these  articles  were  produced  in  Africa,  but  it 
 is  probable  that  the  sup[)ly  was  insufficient.      Strabo 
 (836)  speaks  of  a  contraband  trade  carried  on  by  Car- 
 thage with  the  Cyrenajans.  through  the  port  of  Charax  ; 
 the  Punic  merchant  brought  wine,  and  received  in  ex- 
 change the  precious  siiphmm.    The  treaties  with  Rome 
 preserved  in  Polybius,  and  the  remarks  of  Aristotle  in 
 his  Politica,  prove  the  active  commerce   of  the  Car- 
 thaginians and  their  jealousy  of  foreign  rivals.     The 
 Etrurians,   who  had    built  towns  in   Campania,  were 
 probably  rather  pirates  than  merchants  ;  they  procured 
 the  wares  whicii  they  had  to  exchange  for  other  com- 
 modities by  robbing  vessels  on  the  sea,  or  the  towns 
 of  the  coast.     The  Carthaginrans,  as  has  already  been 
 remarked,  had  commercial  treaties  with  the  Etrurians, 
 who,  from  the  nature  of  their  profession,  could  furnish 
 them  with  most  of  the  articles  that  the  Mediterranean 
 produced.     In  return,  their  African  friends  gave  them 
 slaves,   ()recious   stones,  ivory,  and  gold,  the  produce 
 of  the  vast  continent  behind  their  city.     Malta,  and 
 the  small  adjoining  island  of  Gaulus  [Gozo),  were  Car- 
 thaginian possessions  :  cloth  for  wearing  apparel  was 
 manufactured    in    Malta,  and   probably  from  a  native 
 cottoR.     The  wax  of  Corsica  was  also  an   article  of 
 commerce  :  the  natives  of  the  island  were  prized  for 
 making  excellent  servants.     {Diod.  Sic,  5,  13.)    The 
 little  island  of  /Ethalia  or  Ilva,  now  Elba,  has   fur- 
 nished iron  ore  from  the  remotest  historical  period  ;  the 
 foreign  trader  and   the  merchant  of  Carthage  purcha- 
 sed ihe  ore  when  it  was  smelted,  and  deposited  it  i-n 
 the  hands  of  their  countrymen   for  farther   improve- 
 ment.    Majorca  and  Minorca  exchanged  mules   and 
 fruit   for  wine  and   female  slaves  ;  the  latter  article 
 these   '  ide   islanders  were  always  ready  to  purchase. 
 The  precious  metals  of  Spain   have  been  frequently 
 alluded  to  ;  some  of  the  mines  appear  to   have  been 
 public  property,  while  in  other  cases  the  merchant  pro- 
 cured gold  dust  from  the  natives   by  an  exchange  of 
 commodities.     There  is  no  impossibility  involved  in 
 supposing  that  the  PhcEniciaiis   or  the  Carthaginians 
 visited  the  northern  shores  of  Europe  ;  but,  as  direct 
 evidence    is  wanting,  it  is  not  necessary  to  assume 
 that  the  tin  and  the  amber  which   they  sold  to  the 
 world  were  brought  by  their  own  ships  from  the  Scilly 
 islands  (Cassiterides)  or  the  coast  of  the  Baltic      The 
 trading  towns  established  on  the  shores  of  Mauritania 
 seem    to   have  been    intended   to  form  a  commercial 
 connexion  with  central  Africa  :  the  carriers  of  the  des- 
 ert would  bring  the  products  of  Soudan  to  the  small 
 island  of  Cerne,  the  most  southern  of  the  colonies  es- 
 taiilished    by    Hanno.       The    Carthaginians    supplied 
 them  from  the  stores  in  Cerne  with  earthen  vessels, 
 trinkets,  and  ornaments  of  various  kinds.     There  was 
 also  a  fishery  on  this  coast,  according  to  the  book  of 
 wonders  ascribed  to  Aristotle  (c.  148).     The  fish  was 
 salted  and  carried  to  Carthage,  where  it  commanded  a 
 high  price.     As  regards  the  discovery-voyage  of  Han- 
 no, we  feci  some  curiosity  to  know  whether  it  was  use- 
 ful in  establishing  a  trade  on  the  gold  coast  of  Africa; 
 and  our  admiration  of  the  extensive  knowledge  of  He- 
 rodotus is  increased,  by  finding  in  his  history  the  only 
 extant  information   on  this  obscure   subject.      In  the 
 fourth  hook  (c.  146),  he  tells  us,  on  the  authority  of 
 some  Carthaginians,  that  merchants  from  that  renown- 
 ed trading    town,  after   passing  through   the   straits, 
 visited    a  remote  place  on  the  Libyan  coast,   where 
 they  procured  gold  from  the  natives  by  barter.     When 
 they  landed  at  the  spot  which  the  natives  frequented, 
 it  was  their  practice  to  lay  their  wares  on  the  shore 
 and  return  to  their  vessel  after  raising  a  smoke.     The 
 inhabitants,  seeing  this,  would  come  down  to  the  coast, 
 
 place  a  quantity  of  gold  near  the  commodities,  and  re« 
 tire.  The  Carthaginians  then  would  leave  the  ship, 
 and  examine  what  the  natives  had  left  in  exchange  : 
 if  it  was  sufficient,  they  would  take  the  gold,  leavinf 
 their  own  merchandise  in  its  stead  ;  if  they  were  not 
 satisfied,  they  gave  the  gold-possessors  an  opportuni- 
 ty of  adding  to  the  deposite  of  precious  metals  by  re- 
 tiring again  to  their  ship.  This  was  repeated  till  the 
 bargain  was  closed,  and,  it  is  added,  neither  party 
 ever  wronged  the  other.  This  story  of  the  Carthagin- 
 ians must  not  be  considered  as  a  mere  fiction  :  it 
 may  have  received  some  slight  alterations,  but  the 
 outline  of  it  bears  the  marks  of  truth.  A  modern 
 traveller  (Host),  quoted  by  Heeren  {Idccn,  vol.  2,  pt. 
 1,  p.  182),  describes  in  a  similar  way  the  mode  of  ex- 
 changing commodities  between  the  people  of  Morocco 
 and  the  negroes  on  the  borders  of  Negroland.  A  car- 
 avan goes  once  a  year  from  Sus,  one  of  the  four  di- 
 visions of  the  empire  of  Morocco,  across  the  terrific 
 waste  of  the  western  Sahara  :  tobacco,  salt,  wool,  with 
 woollen  and  silken  cloths,  are  the  articles  which  they 
 carry.  Gold-dust,  negroes,  and  ostrich-feathers  are 
 given  in  exchange  by  the  blacks.  The  Moors  do  not 
 enter  the  Negroland,  but  meet  the  blacks  at  a  place 
 on  the  frontiers,  and  conclude  the  bargain  without 
 speaking  a  word.  The  mutual  ignorance  of  each 
 other's  language  renders  this  the  only  mode  of  con- 
 ducting their  mercantile  transactions. — (>arthage,  in 
 time  of  war,  maintained  a  large  army  and  navy:  nay, 
 even  when  she  was  not  engaged  in  foreign  strug- 
 gles, her  distant  colonies  required  the  residence  of 
 a  garrison  and  the  occasional  visits  of  a  navy.  The 
 writers  on  the  Punic  wars  have  left  us  informa- 
 tion on  the  military  and  naval  force  of  the  republic, 
 which  is  in  general  satisfactory.  The  principal  dock- 
 yard was  in  the  city  of  Carthage.  {Appian,  Bell. 
 Pun.,  96.)  There  were  two  ports  or  havens,  an  out 
 er  one,  intended  for  merchant  ships,  and  an  inner  ba- 
 sin, which  was  separated  from  the  other  by  a  double 
 wall.  A  small  but  elevated  island  in  the  centre  of 
 the  inner  haven  commanded  a  view  of  the  sea.  The 
 admiral  of  the  navy  resided  here.  Two  hundred  and 
 twenty  ships  of  war  were  generally  laid  up  in  this  dock- 
 yard, with  all  the  necessary  stores  for  fitting  them  out 
 on  a  short  notice.  In  the  wars  with  Syracuse,  the 
 ships  of  Carthage  were  only  triremes  {Diod.  Sic,  2, 
 16),  but  thev  afterward  buiit  vessels  of  a  much  larger 
 size,  in  imitation  of  the  Macedonian  Greeks.  The 
 war-ships  of  the  Romans  and  the  Carthaginians  in  the 
 first  Punic  wax  {Poly h.,  1,  2)  carried  nearly  five  hun- 
 dred men  :  each  Roman  vessel  contained  one  hun- 
 dred and  twenty  soldiers  and  three  hundred  seamen. 
 The  Carthaginian  ships  had  about  the  same  number 
 of  men  on  board.  In  one  engagement  the  Carthagin- 
 ians collected  a  fleet  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  ships, 
 manned,  according  to  the  computation  of  Polybius 
 himself,  by  more  than  one  hundred  and  fitly  thousand 
 sailors  and  soldiers.  We  find  extravagant  and  ap- 
 parently improbable  estimates  of  numbers  in  all  the 
 Carthaginian  wars  in  Sicily,  and  in  their  sea-fights 
 with  the  Romans.  The  sailors  or  rowers  were  slaves, 
 purchased  by  the  state  for  this  service  :  the  comple- 
 ment of  a  quinquerenie  was  about  three  hundred  slaves 
 and  one  hundred  and  twenty  fighters.  In  ancient  na- 
 val tactics,  to  move  in  any  direction  with  celerity,  to 
 break  through  the  enemy's  line,  and  to  disable  or  sink 
 his  ships,  were  the  evolutions  on  which  victory  de- 
 pended. Sometimes  a  number  of  ships  were  wedged 
 together,  and  the  soldiers  fought  on  the  decks  as  if  it 
 were  a  land  battle,  but  with  this  important  diflference, 
 that  an  escape  was  not  so  easy.  The  slaughter  in 
 their  naval  engagements  was  prodigious,  sometimes 
 amounting  to  ten,  twenty,  or  even  thirty  thousand 
 men.  The  sea-fights  described  by  Thucydides  and 
 Polybius,  particularly  in  the  first  book,  are  minute, 
 and,  we  believe,  generally  faithful  accounts  by  the 
 '        '  ^  307 
 
CARTHAGO. 
 
 CARTHAGO. 
 
 two  great  historians  of  antiquity.     The  command  of 
 the  fleet  was  usually  separated  from  that  of  the  land 
 force,  but  we  find  instances  in  which  a  single  person 
 possessed  the   direction  of  both.     The  military  force 
 of  Carthage  consisted  principally  of  hired  troops,  col- 
 lected from  all  the  nations  with  which  the  stale  had 
 commercial  connexions.      Only  a  small  part  of  the  cit- 
 izens of  ('arthage  could  be  employed  in  military  ser- 
 vice.    The    mercantile    occupations  of  the    majority 
 would  not  allow  them  to  neglect  their  business  for 
 foreign  conquests,  or  the  defence  of  remote  posses- 
 .•sions.      It  was  found  to  be  a  more   economical  ))lan, 
 to  make  a  bargain  with  nations  who   had  nothing    to 
 dispose  of  but  their  bodies,  and  with  this  saleable  com- 
 modity to  provide  for  the  defence  of  their  colonies  or 
 to   acquire  new  possessions.     But  the  distinguished 
 families  of  Carthage  served  in  the  armies  of  the  state, 
 and  from  this  class  all  the  commanders  were  chosen. 
 In  times  of  danger,  all  the  citizens  would  necessarily 
 arm  themselves  to  repel  an  attack  on  the  inetrojjolis  ; 
 but  we  are  now  speaking  of  the  ordinary  constitution 
 of  a  Carthaginian  army,  and  this  neither  admitted  nor 
 required  a  larcre  number  of  Carthaginian  citizens.      A 
 Punic  army  was  like  a  congrcgration  of  nations  :   the 
 half-naked  savage  of  Gaul  stood  by  the  side  of  the  wild 
 Iberian  ;  the  cunning  Ligurian,  from  the  Alpine  or  Ap- 
 enniiie  mountains,  met  with  the  Lolophagi  of  Libya  ; 
 and  the  Nasamories,  the  e.xplorers  and  guides  in  the 
 great  desert,  half-bred  Greeks,  runaways,  and  slaves, 
 found  themselves   mingled  in  this  strange  assembly. 
 Troops   of   Carthaginian  and  Liby- Phoenician    origin 
 were  in  the  centre  of  the  army  :  on  the  flank  the  nu- 
 merous   Nomadic   tribes  of   western  Africa  wheeled 
 about  on  unsaddled  horses  guided  by  a  bridle  of  rush- 
 es.     The  Balearic  slingers  formed  the  vanguard,  and 
 the  elephants  of  .^Lthiopia,  with  their  black  conductors, 
 were   the   moveable   castles   that  protected   the   front 
 lines.     According  to  Polybius  (1,  6),  it  was  consid- 
 ered politic   to  form  an   army  of  such  materials,  that 
 difTerence  of   language  might  prevent  union  between 
 several  nations,  and  remove  all  danger   of  a  general 
 conspiracy :   but    there  are  disadvantages  also,  which 
 arise  from  the  want  of  a  medium  of  communication, 
 and  these  were  developed  in.  the  later  periods  of  the 
 republic.       When    Xerxes    led    the   nations    of    Asia 
 agauist  the  Greeks  of  the  land  of  Hellas,  a  Carthagin- 
 ian arrrjament  was  despatched  to  subjugate  the  west- 
 ern colonlesun  Sicily.      The  [nuster-roll  of  the  Asiat- 
 ic {ovce  {Htrodot.,  7,  61,  scc/q  )  contained  the  names 
 of  all  the  nations  in  his  extensive  empire,   and   even 
 .some  beyond  it,  who  nerved  for  money.     The  Punic 
 army  was   composed    of   ihc  tribes    of   the  western 
 world  and  of  the  .\frican  desert,  and  the  two  armies 
 combined  would  have  exhibited  specimens  of  nearly 
 all  the  tribes  of  men  that  were  then  known.     We  be- 
 come intimately  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  a  Car- 
 thaginian army  from  the  extant  narrative  of  Polybius. 
 In  the  opinion  of  this  soldier  and  historian,  the  caval- 
 ry of  Numidia  formed  the  strongest  part  of  the  army, 
 and  to  their  quick  evolutions,  their  sudden  retreat,  and 
 their  rapid  return  to  the  charge,  he  attributes  the  suc- 
 cess of  Hannibal  in   his  great  victories.      {Polyb.,  3, 
 12.)     Another  cause   may  be  assigned  lor  the   losses 
 of  the  Romans,  without  at  all  impeaching  the  opinion 
 of  Polybius  on  the  Numidian  cavalry.     The   Romans 
 frequently  had  two  consuls  at  the  head  of  their  armies, 
 and  when  both  haiijjened  to  be   together  in  the  field, 
 they  commanded  alternately,  day  by  day.     At  the  fatal 
 battle  of   Cannae,  the  ignorance  and   presumption  of 
 Varro  were  associated  with  the  better  judgment  and 
 calm  valour  of  ^milius  ;  the  single  unshackled  energy 
 of  the  great  Hannibal  was  more  than  a  match  for  this 
 unfortunate  combination.     We  can  readily  admit  the 
 possibility  of  the  large  armaments  which  the  rich  com- 
 mercial city  of  Carthage  is  said  to  have  equipped,  but 
 we  perhaps  shall  find  it  necessary  to  detract  something 
 308 
 
 from  the  numerical  estimates  of  Diodorus,  which  he 
 took  from  the  careless  and  credulous  Ephorus,  or  from 
 Timseus  {Polyl/.,  12,  exc.  8),  whose  authority  is  not 
 much  better.  To  form  some  idea  of  the  naval  and  mili- 
 tary force  of  Carthage,  even  in  time  of  peace,  we  must 
 recollect  that  their  foreign  trading  ports  were  main- 
 tained by  garrisons,  and  that,  in  the  short  interval  of 
 peace,  it  was  necessary  to  support  a  force  sufTicient  lo 
 meet  the  probable  danger  of  war.  Three  hundred 
 elephants  were  kept  in  the  citadel  of  Carthage,  which 
 contained,  also,  stalls  for  four  thousand  horses,  with 
 accommodations  for  their  riders,  and  for  forty  thou- 
 sand foot  soldiers  besides.  {Heeren,  Ideen,  yo\.  2,  ]il. 
 1,  p.  250,  scfjq. — Long's  Anc.  Geogr.,  p.  9S,  sc(jq.) 
 
 6.    Inland  Commerce  of  Carthage. 
 
 Writers  who  have  discussed  the  commercial  rela- 
 tions of  Carthage,  seem  scarcely  to  have  supposed  the 
 existence  of  an  extensive  caravan-trade  with    central 
 Africa  and  other  parts  of  the  continent.     But  if  we 
 compare  the  position  of  the  modern  towns  of  Tripoli, 
 Tunis,  and  Algiers,  with   that  of  Carthage,  and  con- 
 sider the  nature  of  their  commerce  at  the  |>resent  day, 
 we  cannot  doubt  that  similar  circumstances  would,  in 
 ancient   times,  produce  corresponding  results.     This 
 probability  is    increased  and    strengthened  by   a   few 
 passages  in  the  works  of  Herodotus.     The  commod- 
 ities of  Central  Africa,  of  the  desert,  and  of  the  re- 
 gion of  Beledulgerid,  must  necessarily  create  a  cara- 
 van trade,  extending  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
 ranean to  the  banks  of  the  Niger.     These  commodi- 
 ties are  black  slaves,  male  and  female,  from  the  coun- 
 tries south  of  the  Sahara  ;   salt  from  the  great  saline 
 deposites  in  the  desert ;    and  dates  from   the   region 
 bordering  on  the  north  side  of  the  great  sandy  waste. 
 These  three  things  have  in  all  ages  been  considered 
 articles  of  necessity  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Tripoli 
 and  Tunis  coasts,  or  those  connected   with  them  by 
 commercial  relations.     Gold  is  seldom  found  in  north 
 Africa ;    it   is   principally    procured   by    washing    the 
 earths  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Kong,  or  Mount- 
 ains of  the    Moon,  south   of  the   great   river   Niger. 
 Ivory   is    also   another  article   of  luxury,    which    the 
 central  countries  furnish  to  the  merchants  of  the  sea- 
 coast.     The  native  tribes  of  the  Sahara  are  the  car- 
 riers of  the  desert,  for  which  occupation  they  are  pe- 
 culiarly adapted  by  their  nomadic  life,  and  the  posses- 
 sion of  numerous  beasts  of  burden.     Many  of  them 
 are  merely  carriers  for  the  rich  merchants  settled  at 
 the  different  trading  ports,  while  some  of  them,  who 
 possess  a  capital,  purchase  commodities  on  their  own 
 account,  and   frequently  acquire  considerable   wealth. 
 The  direction  of  this  traffic  across  the  desert  has  [)rob- 
 ably  changed  verv  little  :   the  great  emporiums  of  com- 
 merce  on    the   shores    of   the    Mediterranean   and   in 
 Lower  Egypt,   are   nearly  in   the  same  position,  and 
 the  caravr.n-routes  across  the  Sahara   are  determined 
 by  the  unchanging  physical  circumstances  of  this  ex- 
 tensive   sandy    waste.     The   caravans    choose    those 
 times  for  their  route  at  which  springs  of  water  can  be 
 found  to  refresh  the  men  and  animals,  and  to  furnish 
 ihem  with  a  sutlicient  supply  during  their  journey  from 
 one  haliing-jilace  to  the  next.      It  appears    from   the 
 narrative  of  Herodotus,  that  the  people  between  the 
 two    Syrles    were   the  carriers    of  the  desert.     The 
 Carthaginians  might  either  directly  participate  in  this 
 traffic,  or  they  might  meet  the  caravan  near  the  small- 
 er Syrtis,  and  receive  from  it  their  slaves,  their  gold  and 
 precious  stones,   in  exchange  for   manufactured  arti- 
 cles, for  wine,  oil,  or  grain.     The  immense  consump- 
 tion of  slaves  in  this  commercial  and  military  ri'public, 
 would  render  a  slave-trade  necessary  to  its  existence, 
 and  from   no   place  could  thev  be  procured    in   such 
 number  as  from  the  inexhaustible  slave-magazines  of 
 the  African  continent.     When  we  affirm  that  the  Car- 
 thaginians were  engaged  in  commerce  with  the  na- 
 
CAR 
 
 CAS 
 
 lions  of  Central  Africa,  we  do  not  mean  to  say  that  it 
 was  a  direct  commerce,  though  it  is  possible  it  might 
 be  so  in  some  dej,rrec.  The  tribes  between  the  two 
 Syrtes  travelled  to  Garaina,  and,  as  every  great  rest- 
 ing-place mitiht  be  a  depot  for  commodities,  they  could 
 procure  from  this  town  the  products  of  remote  lands 
 which  the  Carthaginians  desired  to  possess.  The 
 towns  on  the  coast  of  Byzacumi  would  be  the  market 
 for  the  caravans  of  Garama,  and  [)laces  of  the  greatest 
 importance  for  the  commerce  of  Carthage.  It  does 
 not  appear  that  the  wares  and  products  of  Central  Af- 
 rica were  carried  by  the  caravans  any  farther  than  the 
 towns  near  the  byrtes,  on  the  edge  of  the  desert  : 
 thus  the  coiine.vion  of  Carthage  with  the  nations  of  the 
 interior  appears  to  have  attracted  little  attention. 
 {Hceiea,  Jdecn,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  185,  seqq. — Long's 
 Anc.  Gengr.,  p.  104,  seqq.) 
 
 Carthago  nova,  a  well-known  city  of  Hispania 
 Tarraconensis,  situate  on  the  coast,  a  little  distance 
 above  the  boundary  line  between  Tarraconensis  and 
 Baitioi.  It  was  founded  by  Ilasdrubal,  the  Carthagin- 
 ian, who  succeeded  Barcas,  the  father  of  Hannibal, 
 B.C.  242.  {Folyb.,  2,3.— Mela,  2,  Q.  —  Slnib.,  158.) 
 It  was  taken  by  Scipio  Africanus  during  the  second 
 Punic  war,  and,  on  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, it  became  a  colony,  under  the  title  of  Colonia 
 Vicirix  Julia  Nova  Carthago  {Florcz,  Med.  de 
 Esp.,  vol.  1,  p.  316.)  The  situation  of  this  place  was 
 very  favourable  for  commerce,  since  it  lay  almost  in 
 the  middle  of  the  southern  coast  of  Spain,  which 
 had  hardly  any  good  harbours  besides  this  along  its 
 whole  e.\tent.  {I'vlyh.,  10,  10  —W.,  3,  Z'i.—Slrab., 
 156.)  In  Slrabo's  time  it  was  a  very  important  place, 
 and  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce,  and  in  the 
 mountains  not  far  to  the  north  of  it  were  the  richest 
 silver  mines  of  all  Spain.  The  governor  of  the  prov- 
 ince of  Tarraconensis  spent  the  winter  either  in  this 
 city  or  Tarraco.  {S/rab.,  167.)  The  modern  Car- 
 tkagc7ia  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  {Ukerl, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  400,  scqq.) 
 
 Carvii.ius,  I.  one  of  the  four  kings  of  Cantium 
 (Kent),  who,  at  the  command  of  Cassivelaunus,  made 
 an  attack  on  Caesar's  naval  camp,  in  which  they  were 
 repulsed  and  lost  a  great  number  of  men.  {Gees., 
 B.  G.,  5,  22.) — II.  The  first  Roman  who  divorced 
 his  wife  during  the  space  of  six  hundred  years.  This 
 was  for  barrenness,  B.C.  231.  (Val.  Max.,  2,  I,  4.) 
 — III.  A  grammarian  of  this  name,  according  to  Plu- 
 tarch (dc  qu(£st.  Rom.,  n.  54),  first  introduced  the  G 
 into  the  Roman  alphabet,  C  having  been  previously 
 used  for  it.  This  was  nearly  500  years  after  the  build- 
 ing of  the  city.  (Compare  Quintilian,  1,  7,  23. — 
 Tcrcnt.  Maur.,  p.  2402.— W.,  p.  2410.— ilfar.  Vict., 
 p.  2469. — Diom.,  p.  417. — Serv.  ad  Virg.,  Georg., 
 1,  104:.—Schneider,  L.  G.,  vol.  1,  p.  233,  seqq.) 
 
 Carus,  a  Roman  emperor,  who  succeeded  Probus. 
 He  was  first  appointed,  by  the  latter,  Prantorian  prefect, 
 and  after  his  death  was  chosen  by  the  army  to  be  his 
 successor,  A.D.  282.  Carus  created  his  two  sons, 
 Carinus  and  Numerianus,  Caesars,  as  soon  as  he  was 
 elevated  to  the  empire,  and,  some  time  after,  gave  them 
 each  the  title  of  Augustus.  On  the  news  of  the  death 
 of  Probus,  the  barbarians  put  themselves  in  motion, 
 and  Carus,  sendiiig  his  son  Carinus  into  Gaul,  depart- 
 ed with  Numerianus  for  lUyncum,  in  order  to  op- 
 po.se  the  Sarmata?,  who  threatened  Thrace  and  Ita- 
 ly. He  slew  16,000,  and  made  20,000  prisoners. 
 Proceeding  after  this  against  the  Persians,  he  made 
 himself  master  of  Mesopotamia,  and  of  the  cities  of 
 Seleucia  and  (3tesiphon,  and  took  in  consequence 
 (he  surnames  of  Persmis  and  Parlhicus.  He  died, 
 however,  in  the  midst  of  his  successes,  A.D.  283. 
 (  Vid.  Aper.)  His  whole  reign  was  one  of  not  more 
 than  «i.xteen  or  seventeen  months.  Carus  was  deified 
 after  his  death.  According  to  Vopiscus,  he  held  a 
 middle  rank  between  good  and  bad  princes.    {Vopisc, 
 
 Car. — Id.,  Prob.,  c.  24.— /(/.,  Carin.,  c.  16,  seq.-~ 
 Baslie,  Mem.  de  l^Acad.  des  Inscnpt.,  &.C.,  vol.  13, 
 p.  437,  seqq.) 
 
 Caky.'e,  I.  a  village  of  Arcadia,  near  the  sources  of 
 the  Aroanius.  {rausan  ,  8,  14.) — II.  A  small  town 
 of  Laconia,  to  the  norlh  of  Sellasia.  (Puusan.,  3,  10.) 
 It  appears  from  Pausanias  (8,  45),  that  the  Caryatas 
 were  formerly  attached  to  the  territory  of  Tegsea  ;  and 
 it  is  clear  from  Xcnophon  (Htst.  Gr.,  6,  5,  25),  that 
 it  was  .a  border-town.  At  the  latter  of  these  two 
 places  a  festival  was  observed  in  honour  ot  Diana 
 Canjatis.     (  K?(/.  Caryata:.) 
 
 CAUv.iTiK,  the  inhabitants  of  Carya?  (II.).  It  ia 
 said,  that  they  joined  the  Persians  upon  their  invading 
 Greece,  and  that,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  invaders, 
 the  Greeks  made  war  upon  the  Caryals,  took  their 
 city,  slew  all  the  males,  carried  the  women  into  sla- 
 very, and  decreed,  by  way  of  ignominy,  that  their 
 images  should  be  used  as  supporters  for  public  edifices. 
 Hence  the  Caryatides  of  ancient  architecture.  No 
 trace  of  this  story,  however,  is  to  be  found  in  any 
 Greek  historian,  and  no  small  argument  against  its 
 credibility  may  be  deduced  from  the  situation  of  the 
 CaryatsB,  within  the  Peloponnesus.  A  writer  in  the 
 Museum  Criticum  (vol.  2,  p.  402)  suggests,  that  these 
 figures  were  so  called  from  their  resembling  the  statue 
 of 'Ap-f/zif  KapvariQ,  or  else  the  Laconian  virgins,  who 
 celebrated  their  annual  dance  in  her  temple  ;  and  he 
 refers  to  Pausan.,  3,  10 — Lucia?!,  Salt.,  10. — PLut., 
 Vit.  Artax.  (Compare  Winckclmajin,  Gesch.  der 
 Kunst.  des  Alter thiims,  vol.  4,  pt.  1,  p.  225. —  Vis- 
 coiiti,  Mus-Pio-Clcvicnt.,  vol.  2,  p.  42. — bdhr,  ad 
 Ctes.,  p.  239.) 
 
 Carvstus,  I.  a  city  of  Eubcea,  on  the  seacoast,  at 
 the  foot  of  Mount  Oche.  It.  is  now  known  by  the 
 name  of  Castel-Rosso,  and  was  founded,  as  we  are 
 told,  by  some  of  the  Dryopes,  who  had  been  driven 
 from  their  country  by  Hercules.  {Thucyd.,  7,  57.) 
 This  place  was  principally  celebrated  for  its  marble, 
 which  was  highly  esteemed,  and  much  used  by  the 
 Romans  in  the  embellishment  of  both  public  and  pri- 
 vate edifices,  {TibulL,  3,  13, —Compare  Plin.,  4,  12. 
 —Id.,  36,  7.)  We  learn  from  Strabo  (446),  that  the 
 spot  which  furnished  this  valuable  material  was  named 
 Marmarium,  and  that  a  temple  had  been  erected  there 
 to  Apollo  Marmarius. — II.  A  town  of  Laconia,  belong- 
 ing to  the  territory  of  ^gys.  Its  wine  was  celebrated 
 by  the  poet  Alcman,  as  we  are  informed  by  Strabo 
 (446. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  224). 
 
 Casca,  p.  Servilius,  one  of  the  conspirators  against 
 Capsar,  and  the  individual  who  inflicted  the  first  blow 
 He  had  been  attached  to  the  party  of  Pompcy,  but  had 
 submitted,  and  received  a  pardon  from  Cresar.  Plu- 
 tarch states,  that  Casca  gave  Cajsar  a  stroke  upon  the 
 neck,  but  that  the  wound  was  not  dangerous,  as  he 
 was  probalily  in  some  trepidation  at  the  time.  Cas- 
 sar,  turning  around,  caught  hold  of  his  dagger,  crying 
 out  at  the  same  time,  "  Villain !  Casca !  what  art 
 thou  doing  1"     {Pint.,  Vit.  Cces..c.  66.) 
 
 Cascei.lius  Annus,  a  lawyer  of  great  erudition  and 
 talent  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  (Horat.,  Ep.  ad  Pis., 
 371.— Val.  Max,  8,  12,  1.) 
 
 Casii.inum,  a  city  of  Campania,  on  the  river  Vul- 
 turnus  and  the  Appian  Way.  It  is  celebrated  in  his- 
 tory for  the  obstinate  defence  which  it  made  against 
 Hannibal  after  the  battle  of  Canna;.  It  appears  from 
 Livy,  that  the  river  Vulturnus  divided  the  town  into  two 
 parts,  and  that  the  one  on  the  right  bank  was  occupied 
 by  the  Roman  garrison,  while  the  other  was  m  posses- 
 sion of  the  Cartbjginian  army,  which  was  thus  enabled 
 to  cutoff  all  supplies,  e.xcept  such  as  might  be  convey- 
 ed down  the  stream  ;  bv  this  means  the  brave  handful 
 of  soldiers  who  defended  the  town  were  at  last  forced 
 to  surrender.  (Lie,  23.  17,  seqq.—  '^al  Max.,  7,  G.) 
 This  town  appears  to  have  been  still  in  existence  in 
 the  time  of  Strabo  (249) ;  but  Pliny,  who  wrote  some 
 
 309 
 
CAS 
 
 CASPIUM  MARE. 
 
 time  after,  speaks  of  it  as  being  reduced  to  the  lowest 
 state  of  iiisignilicance.  {Plin.,  3,  5.)  It  is,  however, 
 inentiont'd  by  I'toleiny  (p.  66).  The  modern  Capua 
 is  generally  su|)posed  to  occupy  the  site  of  Casilinum. 
 (F ratlin,  Via  Appia,  2,  12,  p.  257. — Cramer's  Anc. 
 Ilaiy,   vol.  2,  p,  199.) 
 
 Casinum,  the  last  town  of  Latiiim  on  the  Latin 
 Way,  according  to  Stralio  (238).  It  was  a  large  and 
 populous  place,  and  its  site  is  now  partly  occupied  by 
 the  modern  town  of  San  Gtrmano.  According  to 
 Varro,  its  name  was  derived  from  Casciim,  an  Oscan 
 word,  answering  to  the  Lalni  Veins.  The  same  wri- 
 ter informs  us,  that  Casinum  originally  belonged  to  the 
 Samnites,  from  whom  it  was  conquered  by  the  Ro- 
 mans.    (Varr.,  L.  L  ,  6.) 
 
 Casius,  I.  a  mountain  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  near 
 the  Palus  Serbonis  {Herodol.,  2,  6),  and,  accordmg  to 
 Strabo  (758),  three  hundied  stadia  from  Pelusium. 
 The  Itm.  Antonin.,  however,  makes  the  distance  be- 
 tween it  and  the  latter  place  320  stadia.  (Conijiare 
 Lurcher,  Hisl.  d'Herodvte,  Table  Giogruphic/ue,  vol.  8 
 p.  101.)  On  this  mountain  reposed  the  remains  of  Pom- 
 pey,  and  here  also  Jupiter,  surnamed  Casius,  had  a  tem- 
 ple. (Compare  remarks  under  the  article  Asi.)  Mount 
 Casius  forms  a  promontory  called  at  the  present  day 
 Cape  El-Cas. — II.  Another  in  Syria,  below  Antio- 
 chia.  It  is  a  very  lofiy  mountain.  Pliny,  in  a  style 
 of  exaggeration,  asserts,  that  at  the  fourth  watch  (three 
 o'clock  A.M.),  the  rising  sun  could  be  seen  from  its 
 top,  while  the  base  was  enveloped  in  darkness.  {Plin., 
 5,  22.)  The  African  appears  to  have  been  named  af- 
 ter the  Syrian  mountain.  {Mannerl,  Geogr.,  vol.  10, 
 p.  493.)  As  regards  the  etymology  of  the  name  Ca- 
 sius. consult  Ruler,  Vorhalle,  p.  465,  and  compare  re- 
 marks under  the  article  Asi. 
 
 Caspi^  Pokt^e  or  Vw.m,  the  Caspian  gates  or 
 pass,  a  name  belonging  properly  to  a  defile  near  Te- 
 heran, in  ancient  Media.  Morier  {Second  Journey 
 through  Persia,  &c.,  chap.  23)  names  it  the  pass  of 
 Charvar.  (Compare  Samle-Croix,  Examen  des  Hist. 
 d''Alex.,  p.  688,  seqq.,  and  862,  cd.  2d.)  It  is  vaguely 
 applied  by  Tacitus  and  some  other  ancient  writers  to 
 different  passes  of  Mount  Caucasus.  {Malle-  Brun, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  13,  Brussels  cd.)  For  the  Cauca- 
 sian and  Albanian  gates,  vid.  Caucasus. 
 
 CashIi,  a  nation  dwelling  along  the  southern  borders 
 of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  giving  name  to  it,  according  to 
 Ritter.  {Erdkunde,  vol.  2,  p.  899,  seqq  )  They  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  at  one  time  a  powerful  commercial 
 people,  and  to  have  occupied,  in  the  time  of  the  Per- 
 sian dominion,  the  country  answering  to  Ghilan  and 
 Derbend.  Their  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
 rived from  the  term  Casp,  signifying  "a  vio\mtain.'" 
 (Ritter,  I.  c.)  Gatterer  is  wrong  in  placing  them  be- 
 tween the  Sea  of  Aral  and  the  northeastern  shore  of 
 the  Caspian,  from  which  quarter,  according  to  him, 
 they  advanced  into  the  country  of  the  Sarmatas,  and 
 afterward,  in  the  first  century  of  our  era,  emigrated  into 
 Purope.  (Consult  Bdhr,  ad  Herod.,  3,  95,  and  com- 
 pare PtoL,  7,  I.— Mela,  3,  5.) 
 
 Caspium  mare,  a  celebrated  inland  sea  of  U[)per 
 Asia,  deriving  its  name  either  from  the  Caspii  along 
 its  southern  shores  (vid.  Caspii),  or  from  Casp,  '•  a 
 mountain,"  in  allusion  to  its  vicinity  to  Caucasus. 
 According  to  the  latest  astronomical  observations  and 
 local  measurements,  it  c.\iends  from  north  to  south,  in 
 a  longitudinal  direction,  nearly  all  of  equal  width,  ex- 
 cepting a  contraction  which  occurs  at  the  encroach- 
 ment made  by  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron.  The  nor- 
 'ihern  end  forms  a  large  bay,  turning  round  from  the 
 north  to  the  northeast,  and  approaching  to  the  basin 
 of  the  Sea  of  Aral.  The  length  of  the  Caspian  may 
 be  estimated  at  760  n  iles,  in  a  line  drawn  from  north 
 to  south,  that  is,  from  he  bay  of  Kolpinskom,  on  the 
 west  of  the  river  Ural,  to  BaJfoosh.  This  line,  how- 
 ever, crosses  the  peninsula  of  Karagan.  Its  smallest 
 310 
 
 width  is  1 13,  and  its  greatest  width  275  miles.  Th« 
 situation  of  this  sea,  thouglr  now  well  known,  was  not 
 ascertained  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  ancients  la- 
 boured under  a  general  mistake  of  its  being  a  gulf  of 
 the  Northern  Ocean,  and  this  was  not  corrected  till 
 the  second  century  of  our  era.  Ptolemy  re  establish- 
 ed the  fact,  which  had  been  known  to  Herodotus,  and 
 j)erhaps  to  Aristotle.  The  Caspian  Sea  was  then  re- 
 stored in  the  maps  to  the  form  of  a  lake  or  inland  sea, 
 separate  on  all  sides  from  the  northern  and  every  other 
 ocean.  But,  instead  of  having  its  longest  diameter  in 
 a  direction  from  north  to  south,  it  was  described  as 
 longest  from  east  to  west.  One  reason  for  this  view 
 of  It  was,  that  the  Northern  Ocean  was  still  thought  to 
 come  much  nearer  to  it  than  it  did,  and  not  to  leave 
 room  in  a  northerly  direction  for  the  dimensions  of  this 
 sea,  the  total  extent  of  which  was  pretty  well  known. 
 Besides  this,  the  Sea  of  Aral,  being  imperfectly  known, 
 was  considered  as  a  part  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  This 
 notion  is  shown  to  have  been  entertained  by  the  opin- 
 ion which  the  ancients  had  of  the  mouth  of  the  river 
 Oxus.  {Vid.  Oxus.)— The  level  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
 is  much  lower  than  that  of  the  ocean  or  the  Black 
 Sea.  Olivier  makes  a  difference  of  64  feet.  Lowitz, 
 whose  researches  seem  to  have  been  unknown  to  that 
 learned  traveller,  makes  it  only  53.  The  north  an<l 
 south  winds,  acquiring  strength  from  the  elevation  of 
 the  shore,  added  to  the  facility  of  their  motion  along 
 the  surface  of  the  water,  exercise  a  pov^'erful  influence 
 in  varying  the  level  of  the  water  at  the  opposite  ex- 
 tremities. Hence  its  variations  have  a  range  of  from 
 four  to  eight  feet,  and  powerful  currents  are  generated 
 both  with  the  rising  and  subsiding  of  the  winds.  It 
 has  also  been  said  to  be  subject  to  another  variation, 
 which  observes  very  distant  periods.  We  are  told, 
 that  since  1556,  the  waters  of  the  sea  have  encroached 
 on  the  Russian  territory  to  the  north.  I'his  is  a  fact 
 which  might  deserve  to  he  better  ascertained.  The 
 depth  of  this  sea  is  inconsiderable,  except  at  the 
 southern  extremity,  where  bottom  has  not  been  found 
 at  a  depth  of  2400  feet.  (Sanite-  Croix,  Examen  des 
 historiens  d' Alexandre,  p.  701.)  Pallas  and  others 
 have  indulged  in  the  geological  speculation  first  ad- 
 vanced by  Varenius,  of  the  former  existence  of  a  much 
 greater  extension  of  this  sea  to  the  northwest,  and  a 
 union  of  it  with  the  Palus  Mseotis,  or  Sea  of  Azof, 
 along  the  low  grounds,  abounding  in  shells  and  saline 
 jilants.  But  of  such  an  extension  not  the  slightest 
 historical  trace  is  to  be  found  in  any  creditable  author. 
 The  ideas  of  the  ancient  geographers  respecting  a  great 
 extension  of  this  sea  to  the  east  have  no  relation  to 
 this  supposed  strait.  The  voyage  of  the  Argonauts 
 would  not  be  at  all  explained  by  such  a  strait,  and  re- 
 quires no  such  explanation. — But  what  becomes,  it  may 
 be  asked,  of  all  the  water  which  so  many  rivers  poni 
 into  the  Casjjian  Sea?  Do  they  flow  into  two  sub- 
 terranean communications,  which  connect  this  sea 
 with  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  which  some  travellers  pre- 
 tend to  have  seen?  {Slrvy's  Tiavcls,  p.  126 — Atinl, 
 Voyages,  &c.,  p.  73.)  Tunnels  of  this  k»t:d  have  at 
 all  times  been  considered  by  the  judicious  as  purely 
 imaginary. — {Kuempfer,  Amamt.  Exot,  p.  254.) 
 The  willow-leaves  found  in  the  Persian  Gulf  do  not 
 re(]uire  to  come  from  Ghilan,  or  any  other  part  of  ihf 
 Caspian  shore,  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  being  suf- 
 ficient to  furnish  them.  'I'he  waters  of  the  Caspian 
 Sea,  like  those  of  the  ocean,  give  oflf  their  superfluity 
 by  evaporation.  This  evaporation  has  been  considered 
 as  established  by  the  extreme  humidity  of  the  air  in 
 Daghi.ilan,  Shirtean,  Ghilan,  and  Mnzanderan  ;  but 
 no  such  phenomena  as  these  are  required  for  the  dem- 
 onstration.— Round  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  the  wa- 
 ter is  fresh,  but  becomes  moderjtely  salt  towards  thr 
 middle  of  the  sea,  though  less  so  than  that  of  the 
 ocean.  In  addition  to  the  usual  ingredients  of  sea- 
 water,  it  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  sulohuiie 
 
CAS 
 
 CASSANDER. 
 
 acid,  which  is  obtained  from  it  in  union  with  soda,  that 
 is,  in  the  state  of  Glauber's  salt.  (Gmelin,  Voyage, 
 vol.  3,  p.  267.)  The  northwest  winds  are  said  to  di- 
 minish the  saltness,  and  to  increase  the  bitterness  of 
 the  water.  The  powerful  phosphorescence  of  the  thick, 
 muddy  waters  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  remarked  by 
 Pallas.  The  black  colour  which  they  assume  at  a 
 great  distance  from  the  shore  is  nothing  more  than 
 the  effect  of  the  depth,  and  owing  to  the  same  optical 
 cause  which  makes  the  ocean  appear  comparatively 
 dark  and  blue  instead  of  light  green,  in  deep  places 
 where  the  colour  of  the  bottom  does  not  intermix 
 itself  with  the  natural  colour  of  the  water. — It  would 
 serve  little  purpose  to  enunierate  all  the  names  which 
 have  been  given  to  this  sea.  The  "  Caspian"  is  one 
 of  the  most  ancient.  This  name  is  not  only  common 
 to  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  but  enters  into  the 
 Georgian,  the  Armenian,  and  the  Syriac.  (Wahl, 
 AsUn,  vol.  1,  p.  679,  seqq.)  The  Jewish  Rabbis  and 
 Peritsol  call  it  the  Dead  Sea.  The  Turkish  denom- 
 ination for  it,  Khoosghoun  Denghizi,  is  variously  trans- 
 lated, but  no  probable  etymology  is  assigned.  The 
 Byzantine  and  Arabian  writers  call  it  the  Sea  of  Kho- 
 zares,  after  a  powerful  nation  ;  and  the  Russian  an- 
 nalists knew  it  in  the  tenth  century  under  the  name  of 
 Gualenskoi  or  Shwalenskoi-More,  after  the  Shawlis  a 
 Slavonian  people,  not  much  known,  that  lived  on  the 
 Wolga.  The  name  given  to  this  sea  in  the  Zenda- 
 Vcsta  is,  however,  worthy  of  remark.  That  apocry- 
 phal work,  which  is  full  of  old  traditions,  calls  this  sea 
 Tchekatt  Daeli,  or  "  the  great  water  of  the  judgment." 
 Perhaps  Noah's  flood,  as  described  in  some  of  the 
 Eastern  traditions,  might  have  a  connexion  with  a 
 sinking  of  the  earth,  which  had  destroyed  the  inhab- 
 itants of  an  extensive  country,  and  converted  it  into 
 this  remarkable  sea.  {MaUe-Brun,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 130,  Briissels   ed.) 
 
 Cassander,  son  of  Antipater.  A  short  time  before 
 the  death  of  Alexander,  he  crossed  over  into  Asia  for 
 the  purpose  of  defending  his  father  against  the  accusa- 
 tions of  Olympias  ;  and  when,  after  the  decease  of  the 
 Macedonian  monarch,  Antipater  was  appointed  regent, 
 his  son  received  from  him  the  command  of  the  Asiatic 
 horse.  The  ambitious  views,  however,  of  the  young 
 Cassander,  induced  his  parent  to  bequeath  to  him  no 
 share  in  the  government,  and  Cassander,  therefore, 
 wishing  to  annul  the  arrangements  which  his  father 
 had  made  at  his  death,  gave  Nicanor  the  command  of 
 the  garrison  in  the  Munychia  at  Athens,  by  means  of 
 secret  orders,  before  the  news  of  his  father's  death 
 could  reach  that  city,  and  thus  secured  for  himself  an 
 important  stronghold.  He  then  crossed  over  into 
 Asia,  in  order  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  Ptolemy 
 and  Antigortus.  During  his  absence,  Polvsperchon 
 sent  an  army  into  Attica,  and  issued  a  decree  for  the 
 re-establishment  of  democracy  in  all  the  Grecian  cities, 
 in  place  of  the  aristocratic  forms  of  government  which 
 had  been  brought  in  by  Alexander.  This  edict  had 
 *U  the  effect  which  Polysperchon  intended,  and  the 
 cities  of  Greece  drove  out,  for  the  most  part,  those  in- 
 dividuals who  were  at  the  head  of  their  affairs.  The 
 Athciuang,  likewiRe,  put  many  persons  to  death,  in  the 
 ntsmber  of  whom  was  the  celebrated  Fhocion,  but  could 
 not  dislodge  the  garrison  from  the  Munychia.  Cas- 
 sander, having  returned  with  troops  and  vessels,  which 
 h'.  had  obtained  from  Antigonus,  seized  ujion  the  Fi- 
 ra;n«,  and  compelled  the  Athenians  to  submit  once 
 more  to  an  aristocratic  rule,  at  the  head  of  which  he 
 phtced  Dtmetrius  the  Phalerean.  He  then  went  into 
 Macedonia,  where  he  had  many  partisans,  and  con- 
 ferrftd  the  reins  of  government'on  Eurydice  and  her 
 husband  ;  sud,  after  this,  returning  to  the  Peloponne- 
 sus, he  drew  many  of  the  Grecian  cities  over  to  his 
 fiide.  While  he  was  occupied  with  the  siege  of  Tegea 
 in  Arcadia,  Polysperchon,  in  order  to  chec\  the  influ- 
 ence of  Eurydice,  advised  the  recall  of  Olympias,  the 
 
 mother  of  Alexander,  into  Macedon,  where  it  was  in- 
 tended that  she  should  once  more  enjoy  a  share  of  that 
 authority  in  the  government,  of  which,  during  the  re- 
 gency of  Antipater,  it  had  been  necessary  to  deprive 
 her.  Polysperchon  had  soon  reason,  however,  to  re- 
 pent of  this  resolution  ;  for  Olympias,  still  untaught  by 
 events,  and  thirsting  for  revenge,  returned  to  the  Ma- 
 cedonian capital  only  to  gratify  her  worst  feelings  and 
 disturb  the  tranquillity  of  the  state.  A  powerful  rival- 
 ry soon  arose  between  the  two  queens,  Olympias  and 
 Eurydice  ;  and  the  former,  having  acquired  a  moment- 
 ary ascendency  over  the  affections  of  the  Macedonian 
 soldiers,  drove  out  Eurydice  and  Arida-us,  and  after- 
 ward, on  getting  possession  of  their  persons,  caused 
 them  both  to  be  despatched  by  assassins.  But  the 
 rage  of  the  inexorable  Olympias  was  not  supported  by 
 an  adequate  force.  The  presence  of  Cassander  in 
 Macedonia,  who  flew  thither  to  avenge  the  death  of 
 Eurydice,  struck  terror  into  the  aged  queen,  and  she 
 shut  herself  up  in  the  city  of  Pydna.  After  a  long 
 resistance,  this  strongly-fortified  place  fell  before  the 
 arms  of  Cassander  ;  Olympias  was  put  to  death,  and 
 the  victor  married  Thessalonica,  half- sister  of  the  con- 
 queror of  Asia,  who,  with  other  members  of  the  royal 
 family,  had,  by  the  capture  of  the  place,  fallen  into  his 
 hands.  The  nuptials  were  celebrated  in  a  style  of  the 
 greatest  magnificence,  and  the  active  governor  chose 
 to  mark  his  accession  to  power  by  building  Cassandrea 
 on  the  Isthmus  of  Pallene,  and  by  restoring  to  its  an- 
 cient splendour  the  city  of  Thebes.  Aspiring  now  to 
 the  throne,  he  found  powerful  opponents  in  Antigonus 
 and  Ptolemy,  who,  in  order  to  strengthen  their  side, 
 proclaimed  liberty  for  the  whole  of  Greece,  and  this 
 country  became,  in  consequence,  the  theatre  of  war, 
 which  was  terminated  at  last  by  a  treaty,  B.C.  311. 
 The  conditions  of  this  treaty  were,  that,  until  Alexan- 
 der, son  of  Roxana,  should  be  of  age,  Cassander  was 
 to  hold  the  government  of  Macedon  and  Greece,  Ly- 
 simachus  that  of  7'hracc,  Ptolemy  that  of  Egypt,  and 
 Antigonus  that  of  Asia.  The  death  of  the  young 
 Alexander  was,  without  doubt,  one  of  the  secret  con- 
 ditions of  this  league,  for  Cassander  caused  him  to  be 
 put  to  death  not  long  after,  together  with  his  mother 
 Roxana,  and  no  attempt  was  made  by  the  other  con- 
 tracting parties  to  punish  him  for  the  deed.  Polysper- 
 chon, moreover,  influenced  by  Cassander,  put  to  death 
 Hercules,  son  of  .\lexander  and  Barsine.  The  race 
 of  Alexander  being  thus  extinct,  Antigonus  assumed 
 the  title  of  king,  in  which  he  was  imitated  by  Ptol- 
 emy, Lysimachus,  and  Cassander,  and  these  three  soon 
 found  themselves  obliged  to  unite  their  forces  against 
 Antigonus  and  his  son  Demetrius,  who  aimed  at  no- 
 thing less  than  reuniting  under  their  sway  all  the 
 countries  once  ruled  over  by  Alexander.  Antigonus 
 having  lost  the  battle  of  fpsus,  B.C.  301,  and  Deme- 
 trius being  too  feeble  in  point  of  resources  to  make  any 
 effectual  opposition,  Cassander  found  himself  the  tran- 
 qud  possessor  of  Macedonia.  He  did  not,  however, 
 long  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  labours,  but  died,  B.C.  298, 
 of  a  dropsy  which  ended  in  the  morbus  •pcdicularis. 
 He  had  by  Thessalonica  three  sons,  Philip,  Antipater, 
 and  .Mexander.  It  is  difficult  to  form  a  true  opinion 
 of  t'ne  character  of  this  prince.  The  Greek  writers 
 have  not  done  justice  to  him,  since  they  regarded  both 
 him  and  his  father  Antipater  as  foes  to  popular  free- 
 dom. We  cannot  refuse  him,  however,  the  praise  of 
 valour  and  of  considerable  talents  for  government. 
 He  loved  letters,  had  copied  Homer  with  his  own 
 hand,  and  could  repeat  from  memory  a  large  number 
 of  his  verses.  Still,  however,  no  excuse  can  be  found 
 for  his  conduct  towards  the  mother  and  the  children  oj 
 Alexander.  A  grasping  ambition  alone  was  the  in- 
 citing cause  to  these  acts  of  bloodshed — His  son 
 Philip  succeeded  him,  but  died  the  same  year  with  his 
 father.  Antipater,  his  second  son,  put  to  death  his 
 own  mother,  for  having,  after  the  decease  of  Cassan- 
 
 311 
 
CAS 
 
 CAS 
 
 dcr,  favoured,  as  he  thought,  the  interests  of  his  broth- 
 er Alexander.  The  latter,  with  the  aid  of  Demetrius, 
 son  of  Antigoniis,  made  war  upon  him  for  this  ;  but, 
 when  about  to  become  reconciled  to  him,  was  treach- 
 erously slain  by  Demetrius,  his  own  ally  ;  and  Antipa- 
 ler  vvas  afterward  put  to  death  by  his  own  father- in- 
 law Lysimachus.  {Justi?i,  13,  4,  18.— W,  14,(5,  12. 
 —Id.,  15,  2,  2.-1(1.,  16,  2,  1,  &.c.—Diod.  Sic,  18, 
 3,  scqq.-Id.,  18,  54,  &c.) 
 
 C.tssANDRA,  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba.  She 
 was  beloved  by  Apollo,  and  promised  to  listen  to  his 
 addrc-sses,  provided  he  would  grant  her  the  knowledge 
 of  futurity.  This  knowledge  she  obtained  :  but  she 
 was  regardless  of  her  promise  ;  and  Apollo,  in  re- 
 venge, determined  that  no  credit  should  ever  be  at- 
 tached to  her  predictions.  Hence  her  warnings  re- 
 specting the  downfall  of  Troy,  and  the  subsequent 
 misfortunes  of  the  race,  were  disregarded  by  her  coun- 
 trymen. When  Troy  was  taken,  she  fled  for  shelter 
 to  the  temple  of  Minerva,  but  was  exposed  there  to  the 
 brutality  of  Ajax,  the  son  of  O'ileus.  In  the  division 
 of  the  spoils  she  fell  to  the  share  of  Agamemnon,  and 
 was  assassinated  with  him  on  his  return  to  Mycenae. 
 {Vid.  Agamemnon.)  Cassandra  was  called  Prmnfiis 
 from  her  father  ;  and  Alexandra,  as  the  sister  of  Alex- 
 ander or  Paris. — Lord  Bacon  considers  this  fable  to 
 have  been  invented  to  express  the  inefficacy  of  unsea- 
 sonable advice  :  '■  For  they,"  affirms  the  great  philos- 
 opher, "  who  are  conceited,  stubborn,  or  untractable, 
 and  listen  not  to  the  instructions  of  Apollo,  the  god 
 of  harmony,  so  as  to  learn  and  observe  the  modula- 
 tions and  measures  of  affairs,  the  sharps  and  flats  of 
 discourse,  the  difference  between  judicious  and  vulgar 
 cars,  and  the  proper  times  of  speech  and  silence,  let 
 them  be  ever  so  intelligent,  and  ever  so  frank  of  their 
 advice,  or  their  counsels  ever  so  good  and  just,  yet  all 
 their  endeavo\irs,  either  of  persuasion  or  force,  are  of 
 little  significance,  and  rather  hasten  the  ruin  of  those 
 whom  they  advise.  Dut  at  last,  when  the  calamitous 
 event  has  made  the  sufferers  feel  the  effects  of  their 
 neglect,  they  too  late  reverence  their  advisers  as  deep, 
 foreseeing,  and  faithful  prophets."  (Apollod.,  3,  12, 
 5.—Virff.,  JEn.,  2,  2-2^.— Bacon,  De  Sap.  Vet.  1.) 
 
 C.\ssANDRE.\,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  on  the  neck  of 
 the  peninsula  of  Pallene.  It  was  founded  by  Cassan- 
 der,  and  he  transferred  to  it  the  inhabitants  of  several 
 neighbouring  towns,  and,  among  others,  those  of  Po- 
 tidffia,  and  the  remnant  of  the  population  of  Olynthus. 
 Cassandrca  is  said  to  have  surpassed  all  the  Macedo- 
 nian cities  in  opulence  and  splendour.  {Diod.  Sic, 
 19,  52.)  Philip,  the  son  of  Demetrius,  made  use  of 
 the  place  as  his  principal  naval  arsenal,  and  at  one 
 time  caused  a  hundred  galleys  to  be  constructed  in  the 
 docks  of  that  port.  (Liv.,  28,  8.)  Pliny  speaks  of 
 Cassandrea  as  a  Roman  colony  (4,  10),  From  Pro- 
 copius  we  learn  that  this  city  at  length  fell  a  prey  to 
 the  Huns,  who  left  scarcely  a  vestige  of  it  remainintr. 
 {Bell.  Pers,  2,  A— Id.,  de  JEdif.,  4,  S.—Niceph. 
 GrcQ-.,  vol.  1,  p.  150. — Cramer  s  Anc.  Greece,  vol. 
 1,  p':246,) 
 
 Cassia  lex  was  enacted  by  Cassius  Longinus, 
 A.U.C.  649.  By  it  no  man  condemned  by  the  peo- 
 ple or  deprived  of  military  power  vvas  permitted  to  en- 
 ter the  senate-hovise. — H.  Another,  that  the  people 
 should  vote  by  ballot. — IH.  Another,  called  &]so  fru- 
 mentaria.  proposed  by  the  consuls  0.  Cassius  and  M. 
 Terentius,  and  hence  sometimes  termed  Lex  Cassia 
 Terentia.  It  ordained,  as  is  thought,  that  five  modii 
 of  grain  should  be  given  monthly  to  each  of  the  poorer 
 citizens,  &c.  It  was  passed  A.U.C.  680.  {Sail., 
 Hist,  frag.,  p.  974.  ed.  Cort.) 
 
 Cassiodorus,  Magnus  Aurelius,  an  eminent  states- 
 man, orator,  historian,  and  divine,  who  flourished  du- 
 ring the  greater  part  of  the  sixth  century,  under  The- 
 odoric,  Amalasontha  and  her  sons  Athalaric,  Theo- 
 dorus  and  Vitiges,  by  all  of  whom  he  was  honourably 
 312 
 
 employed,  and  held  in  high  estimation.  He  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Scyllacium  in  Magna  Gra-cia,  and  descended 
 of  a  noble  family,  his  father  having  held  a  crwisiderable 
 office  under  Odoaccr.  In  514  he  was  sole  consul, 
 and  afterward  commander  of  the  praetorian  guard  and 
 secretary  of  state.  It  is  in  this  latter  capacity  that  he 
 composed  his  twelve  books  of  public  epistles,  or  Va- 
 riarum  (E[)istolarum),  libri  xii.,  consisting  of  various 
 writings  and  ordinances  prepared  by  him  from  time 
 to  time  for  the  Ostrogothic  kings.  They  arc  the 
 most  valuable  of  liis  works  now  extant,  and  give  a 
 considerable  and  curious  insight  into  the  history  and 
 manners  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  The  style  is 
 considered  by  Gibbon  to  be  quaint  and  declamatory, 
 while  Tiraboschi  characterizes  it  as  possessing  a  bar- 
 barous elegance.  During  the  whole  of  his  continu- 
 ance in  office,  he  was  the  patron  of  learning  and  of 
 learned  men,  till  the  impending  dissolution  of  the 
 Gothic  kingdom  in  Italy  induced  him  to  retire  from 
 public  life  to  the  enjoyment  of  a  learned  leisure  in  a 
 monastery  of  his  own  founding  near  his  native  place. 
 Here  he  divided  his  time  between  the  study  of  the 
 Scriptures  and  other  religious  writings,  and  the  con- 
 struction of  various  mechanical  contrivances,  such  as 
 water-clocks,  sundials,  curious  lamps,  &c.,  and  is  said 
 to  have  lived  in  his  retirement  till  575,  when  his  de- 
 cease took  place  in  his  ninety-sixth  year.  His  writings 
 were  of  various  descriptions  ;  all  his  orations,  highly 
 celebrated  in  their  day,  are  lost ;  as  also  is  his  history 
 of  the  Goths,  comprised  in  twelve  books,  an  abridg- 
 ment of  which  by  Jornandes  is,  however,  still  extant. 
 His  devotional  tracts,  consisting  of  a  "  Commentary 
 on  the  Psalms,"  "Institutions  of  Divine  and  Human 
 Letters,"  "  Commentaries  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul," 
 •'  On  the  Acts  and  Apostolical  Epistles,  and  the  Apoc- 
 alypse," &c.,  were  composed  by  him  in  his  seclusion. 
 The  editions  of  his  works  that  we  possess  are  that 
 of  Gravius,  Colun.,  1650,  8vo;  that  of  Garet,  Rolom., 
 1679,  8vo  ;  that  of  Lebrun  des  Marettes,  Par^s,  1685, 
 2  vols.  4to  ;  and  that  of  L.  A  Miiratori,  Vcrnn.,  1736, 
 fol.  The  last  is  the  best.  (Sckbll,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit., 
 vol.  3,  p.  174  and  328  —Id.,  vol.  4,  p.  114.— BaAr, 
 Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  603.) 
 
 Cassiope  and  Cassikpea,  I.  wife  of  Cepheus,  king 
 of  Ethiopia,  and  mother  of  Andromeda.  Having  of- 
 fended the  Nereids  by  her  presumption  insetting  her- 
 self before  them  as  regarded  beauty,  Neptune,  sympa- 
 thizing with  the  anger  of  the  sea-maidens,  laid  waste 
 the  realms  of  Cepheus  by  an  inimdation  and  a  sea- 
 monster.  {Vid.  Andromeda. )^Cassiope  was  made  a 
 constellation  after  death  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 
 It  consists  of  thirteen  stars,  and  is  placed  over  the 
 head  of  Cepheus.  The  Arabians  compare  the  stars 
 of  this  constellation  to  an  open  hand.  {Idfler,  Slcrn- 
 namen,  p.  81.) — The  form  Cassiopea,  which  is  some- 
 times given  to  the  Latin  name,  is  incorrect.  It  ought 
 to  be  Ca.<tsiepca,  from  the  Greek  KaacrteTreca.  {Srali- 
 n-cr,  ad  Manil.,  p.  459. — Bultmann  in  Ideler''s  Stern- 
 namen,  p.  308.) — II.  A  harbour  of  Ej)irus,  to  the 
 south  of  Onchcsmus,  and  probably  so  called  from 
 its  vicinity  to  a  port  and  town  of  the  same  name 
 in  the  island  of  Corcyra. — III.  A  town  and  harbour 
 of  Corcyra,  to  the  north  of  the  ciiv  of  Corcyra,  at  the 
 distance  of  about  120  stadia.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam  , 
 16,9)  It  probably  derived  its  name  from  a  temple 
 sacred  to  Jupiter  Casius  or  Cassius.  {Plin.,  4,  12. — 
 Proc.op.  Goth.,  A,  22.)  Suetonius  relates  {Vit.  Ncr., 
 22),  tliat  Nero,  in  a  voyage  made  to  this  island,  sang 
 in  public  at  the  altar  of  this  god.  Ptolemy  also  no- 
 tices Cassiope  (p.  85),  and  near  it  a  cape  of  the  same 
 name.  Its  vestiges  remain  on  the  spot  which  is  still 
 called  Santa  Maria  di  Cassopo.  The  promontory  is 
 the  Cape  di  Santa  Calerina.  (Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  162  ) 
 
 CassiterTdes,  islands  in  the  Western  Ocean,  where 
 tin  was  found,  supposed  to  be  the  SciHy  Islands  of  th« 
 
CAS 
 
 CAS 
 
 moderns,  together  with  a  part  of  Cornwall.  The 
 term  Gassiterides  is  derived  from  the  Greek  Kaaai- 
 Tepoc,  tin.  The  tin  was  obtained  by  the  islanders 
 from  the  main  land,  and  afterward  sold  to  strangers. 
 Sohnus  (c.  22)  mentions  these  islands  under  the  name 
 of  Silurum  Insulcz,  and  Sulpitius  Severus  (2,  c.  51) 
 under  that  of  Sulina  Insula.  {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  238.) 
 
 C.4SSIVELLAUNUS,  a  monarch  over  part  of  Britain  at 
 the  time  of  Cssar's  invasion.  His  territories  were 
 separated  from  the  maritime  states  by  the  river  Ta- 
 niesis  or  Tluimes.  He  commanded  the  confederate 
 forces  against  Caesar.  In  Dio  Cassius  the  name  is 
 incorrectly  written  "ZovtXkav,  which  Reimar  changes 
 in  the  te.xt  to  Kaaovel'kavbv,  but,  in  a  note,  thinks  that 
 the  true  form  is  Kaaove'X^av.  (Kcim.  ad  Dion.  Cass., 
 40,2.)  Polvcenus  has  KacroAat'Aof  (8,  23,  5).  Bcde 
 gives  Cassahetlaimus.  Julius  Celsus  (p.  60)  has  Cas- 
 tticlla.riins,  and  in  another  place  (p.  61)  Casmcllaitnns. 
 Cainbden  makes  Cassivellaunus  equivalent  to  Cassi- 
 orum  princcps.  Cajsar  makes  mention  of  the  Cassi 
 (whom  Camhden  calls  Cassii)  in  a  part  of  his  Com- 
 mentaries. (C<2s.,  B.  G.,  5,  11. — Id.  lb.,  c.  21. — 
 Reimar,  I.  c.) 
 
 C.\ssius,  I.,  C.  or  C.  Cassius  Longinus,  one  of  the 
 conspirators  against  Julius  Cssar.  Even  when  a  boy 
 he  is  said  to  liave  been  remarkable  for  the  pride  and 
 violence  of  his  temper,  if  we  may  believe  the  anec- 
 dotes recorded  of  him  by  Plutarch  {Vit.  Brut,,  c.  9) 
 and  Valerius  Maximus  (3,  1).  He  accompanied  Cras- 
 sus  into  Parthia  as  his  qua;stor,  and  distinguished  him- 
 sTelf,  after  the  death  of  his  general,  by  conducting  the 
 wreck  of  the  Roman  army  back  to  Syria  in  safety. 
 At  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  he  was  one  of  the 
 tribunes  of  the  people.  We  find  him  after  this  com- 
 manding the  Syrian  squadron  in  Pompey's  fleet,  and 
 infesting  the  coasts  of  Sicily.  A  short  time  before  the 
 battle  of  Pharsalia  he  had  burnca  the  entire  fleet  of  the 
 enemy,  amounting  to  thirty-five  ships,  in  the  harbour 
 of  Messana.  The  news  of  Pompey's  defeat,  however, 
 deterred  him  from  pursuing  his  advantages,  and,  re- 
 signing the  contest,  he  submitted  to  Ca?sar  in  Asia 
 Minor,  when  the  latter  was  returning  from  Egypt  into 
 Italy.  Cicero,  however,  asserts,  that  at  this  very  time 
 Cassius  had  intended  to  assassinate  the  man  whose 
 clemency  he  was  consenting  to  solicit,  had  not  an  acci- 
 dent prevented  the  accomplishment  of  his  purpose. 
 {Pliilipp.,  2,  11.)  He  was  not  only  spared  by  Cssar, 
 but  was  appointed  by  him  one  of  his  lieutenants,  a  fa- 
 vour bestowed  by  magistrates  upon  their  friends,  in 
 order  to  invest  them  with  a  public  character,  and  thus 
 enable  them  to  reside  or  to  travel  in  the  provinces  with 
 greater  comfort  and  dignity.  Even  during  the  last 
 campaign  of  C«sar  in  Spain,  Cassius  wrote  to  Cicero, 
 saying  that  he  was  anxious  that  Caesar  should  be  vic- 
 torious, for  that  he  preferred  an  old  and  merciful  mas- 
 ter to  a  new  and  cruel  one.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  15, 
 19.)  He  also,  together  with  Brutus,  was  appointed 
 one  of  the  praetors  for  the  year  709  {Flut.,  Vii. 
 Brut.,  C.7  —Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  11,  2,  et  3),  at  a 
 moment  in  which  he  was  entirely  discontented  with 
 Cesar's  government ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  the 
 person  by  whose  intrigues  the  first  elements  of  the 
 conspiracy  were  formed.  Cassius  had  married  Junia, 
 the  sister  of  Brutus,  and  it  was  partly  through  her 
 means  that  he  made  his  approaches,  when  seeking  to 
 pain  over  her  brother  and  induce  him  to  join  in  the 
 plot.  After  the  assassination  of  Ca-sar,  Cassius,  to- 
 gether with  Brutus,  raised  an  army  to  maintain  his 
 country's  freedom.  They  were  met  by  Octavius  and 
 Antony  at  Philippi.  The  wing  which  Cassius  com- 
 manded being  defeated,  he  imagined  that  all  was  lost, 
 »nd  killed  himself,  B.C.  42.  Brutus  gave  him  an 
 honourable  burial,  and  called  him,  with  tears  the  last 
 of  the  Romans.  {Vid.  Brutus.) — II.  Parmensis  so 
 called  from  his  having  been  born  at  Parma  in  Italy, 
 
 was  a  Latin  poet  of  considerable  talent.  He  sided 
 with  Brutus  and  Cassius  in  the  civil  war,  and  obtain- 
 ed the  ofhce  of  military  tribune.  After  the  defeat  of  the 
 republican  forces  he  retired  to  Athens,  and  was  j)ut 
 to  death  by  Q.  Varius,  who  had  been  sent  for  that 
 purpose  by  Octavius.  {Schol.  ad  Horat.,  Ep  ,  J,  4, 
 3.)  He  must  not  be  confounded  with  Cassi  is  tne 
 Etrurian,  who  appears  to  have  been  a  very  rapid  and 
 poor  writer.  {Horat.,  Scrm.,  1,  10,  61. — Schol. ,  ad 
 loc.)  Ruhnken  inclines  to  the  opinion,  that  the  per- 
 son sent  by  Octavius,  to  put  to  death  Cassius  of  Par- 
 ma, was  not  Varius,  but  Varus,  a  commander  of  his, 
 and  the  same  individual  to  whom  Virgil  alludes. 
 (Ruhnk.  ad.  Veil.  Patcrc,  2,  88.) — III.  Hemina,  an 
 early  annalist  of  Rome,  who  flourished  about  A.U.C. 
 608.  ( Voss.,  de  Hist.  Lat.,  1,  7. — Funcc.  de  Adolxsc., 
 L  L.,  6,  I.—Mnjfei,  Ver.  Illustr.,  3,  p.  35.)— IV.  A 
 Roman  lawyer,  remarkable  for  his  strictness  in  dis- 
 pensing justice.  Hence  severe  and  rigid  magistrates 
 were  called  from  him  Cassiani  Judices.  (Cic,  pro 
 Rose  ,  c.  30.) — V.  A  Roman  orator,  distinguished  for 
 his  eloquence,  and  fond,  at  the  same  time,  of  indul- 
 ging in  satirical  composition.  He  was  exiled  by  Au- 
 gustus to  the  island  of  Seriphus,  where  he  ended  his 
 days  in  wretchedness.  His  full  name  was  T.  Cassius 
 Severus.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  75. — Id.  ib.,  4,  21. — 
 Lips,  ad  Tacit.,  4,  21.) 
 
 Castabala,  a  city  of  Cappadocia,  northeast  of  Cy- 
 bistra,  and  near  the  source  of  one  of  the  branches  of 
 the  Halys.  Col.  Leake  is  inclined  to  identify  it  with 
 the  modern  Nigde,  but  this  latter  place  answers 
 rather  to  Cadyna.  Castabala  was  remarkable  for  a 
 temple  sacred  to  Diana  Perasia.  It  was  asserted,  that 
 the  priestesses  of  the  goddess  could  tread  with  naked 
 feet  on  burning  cinders  without  receiving  any  injury. 
 The  statue  of  Diana  was  also  said  to  have  been  the 
 identical  one  brought  by  Orestes  from  Tauris,  whence 
 the  name  of  Perasia,  ^'■from  beyond  sea"  (Tripa),  was 
 thought  to  be  derived.  (Slral.,  538. — Stcplt.  Byz., 
 s.  V. — Cramer''s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p    132.) 
 
 Castalius  fons,  or  Castalia,  I.  a  celebrated  fount- 
 ain on  Mount  Parnassus,  sacred  to  the  Muses.  It 
 poured  down  the  cleft  or  chasm  between  the  two 
 summits,  being  fed  by  the  perpetual  snows  of  the 
 mountain.  "  The  Castalian  spring,"  says  Dodwell, 
 "  is  clear,  and  forms  an  excellent  beverage.  The 
 water,  which  oozes  from  the  rock,  was  in  ancient 
 times  introduced  into  a  hollow  square,  where  it  was 
 retained  for  the  use  of  the  Pythia  and  the  oracular 
 priests.  The  fountain  is  ornamented  with  pendent 
 ivy,  and  overshadowed  by  a  large  fig-tree.  After  a 
 quick  descent  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  through  a 
 narrow  and  rocky  glen,  it  joins  the  little  river  Pleis- 
 tus."  {Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  172  )— II.  Another  in  Sy- 
 rip,  near  Daphne.  The  waters  of  this  fountain  were 
 believed  to  give  a  knowledge  of  futurity  to  those  who 
 drank  them.  1"he  oracle  at  the  fountain  promised  Ha- 
 drian the  supreme  power  when  he  was  yet  in  a  pri- 
 vate station.  He  had  the  fountain  shut  up  with  stones 
 when  he  ascended  the  throne.  {Amm.  Marcell.,  22, 
 12. — Casnub.  ad  Sparlian.,  Vit.  Hadr.,  2. — Id.  ad 
 Capitol.,  Vit.  Antonin.,  Philos.,  c.  8.) 
 
 Castei.lum,  a  term  of  frequent  occurrence  in  an- 
 cient geogra[ihv,  as  indicating  some  fortified  post  er 
 castle,  which  in  later  days  became  the  site  of  a  city. 
 The  most  important  of  these  are,  I.  Castei.lum,  or, 
 as  it  is  sometimes  given,  Munimentum  Trajani,  a 
 fortified  post  on  the  Rhine,  strengthened  and  enlar- 
 ged by  Trajan  and  Julian.  It  is  now  Castcl.  {Amm. 
 "Marcell.,  17,  i)nt.)—U.  Castellum  Aiuanoru.m, 
 now  Castcl-Naudarcy  in  France,  in  the  department 
 oi  Audc. — III.  Castei.lum  Baldu.m,  now  Castcl  Bal- 
 do,  on  the  Adige.— IV.  Castellum  Hunnorum,  now 
 Castellaun  in  Prussia,  on  the  river  Dnin.—V.  Castel- 
 lum Menapiorum,  now  Kcsscl,  a  village  on  the  west- 
 ern bank  of  the  Maas.—Vl.  Castellum  Morinorum, 
 
 313 
 
CAS 
 
 CAS 
 
 now  Motitcassd,  northeast  of  Si.  Omer  in  France. — 
 VII.  Castkllum  Turentinum,  in  Picenuin,  now 
 Tone  Segura.  {Fomp.  in  Cic,  Epist.  ad  Fani.,  8, 
 12.) 
 
 Casthan^a,  a  town  of  Thcssaly,  on  the  coast  of 
 Magnesia,  northwest  of  the  promontory  Scjiias.  It  is 
 noticed  by  Herodoius  in  his  account  oi  ilic  terrible 
 storm  experienced  by  the  fleet  of  Xcr.Yes  otif  this  coast 
 (7,  183.— Compare  Strub.,  Uli.—Pltn.,  4,  9).  The 
 name  is  written  by  Steph.  Byz  Iv«a7aj'a(rt  {Casta- 
 nxa),  and  in  the  Etyinol.  Mag.  Kaarapia  {Castania. 
 — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  424) 
 
 Castor  and  Pollu.x  (in  Greek  KuGTup  and  IIo/l- 
 vSevKij^},  twin  brothers,  the  latter  the  son  of  Leda  and 
 Jupiter,  the  former  of  Leda  and  Tyndarus.  ( Vtd 
 Leda.)  The  earliest  exploit  of  these  twin  heroes, 
 who  were  born  at  AmyclcB  in  Laconia,  was  the  re- 
 covery of  their  sisier  Helen  from  the  hands  of  Theseus, 
 whose  mother  .^ihra  they  dragged  into  captivity. 
 They  took  [lart  in  all  the  great  undertakings  of  their 
 time,  were  at  the  Calydonian  hunt,  accompanied  Her- 
 cules against  the  Amazons,  sailed  in  the  Argo,  and 
 aided  Peleus  to  storm  lolcos.  Pollux  was  the  most 
 distinguished  pugilist,  Castor  the  most  experienced 
 charioteer  of  his  day.  Mercury  bestowed  on  them  the 
 fleet  steeds  Phiogius  and  Harpagus,  the  offspring  of 
 the  harpy  Podarge  :  Juno  gave  ihcm  the  swilt  Xan- 
 thus  and  Cyllarus.  The  brothers  fell  into  the  very 
 same  offence  which  ihey  had  punished  in  Theseus. 
 Being  invilod  to  the  Vi'edding- feast  by  their  cousins 
 Idas  and  Lyiiceus,  the  sons  of  Aphareus,  who  had 
 married  their  cousins  Phoebe  and  llilaera,  the  daugh- 
 ters of  Leucippus,  tlipy  became  enamoured  of  the 
 brides,  and  carried  them  off.  Idas  and  his  brother 
 pursued  them.  In  the  conflict  C:;si.or  fell  by  the  spear 
 of  Idas  ;  ar.d  Pollux,  aided  by  tbe  thunder  of  Jove, 
 slew  the  two  sons  of  Aphareus.  {Sclwl.  ad  II.,  3, 
 Zi'i.Sc/wl.  ad  Find,  Nem.,  10,  112.— Hygin.,  fab., 
 80.)  Another  account  says,  that  the  fcjr  heroes 
 joined  to  drive  off  the  herds  of  the  Arcadian^.  Idas 
 was  appointed  to  divide  the  booty.  He  killed  »r.  c.t  ; 
 and,  dividing  it  into  four  parts,  said  that  one  half  cf 
 the  prey  should  fall  to  him  who  had  first  eaten  his 
 share,  and  the  remainder  to  him  who  next  finished. 
 He  then  quickly  devoured  his  own  and  his  brother's 
 part,  and  drove  the  whole  herd  to  Messene.  The 
 Dioscuri  (AioaKQvpoc,  Jove's  sons),  as  Castor  and  his 
 brother  were  called,  made  war  on  Messene.  Driving 
 jff  ail  the  cattle  which  they  met,  they  laid  themselves 
 in  ambush  in  a  hollow  tree.  But  Lynceus,  whose 
 vision  could  penetrate  the  trees  and  the  rocks,  as- 
 cended the  top  of  Taygetus,  and,  looking  over  on 
 the  Peloponnesus,  saw  them  there ;  whereupon  lie 
 ind  his  brother  hastened  to  attack  them.  Castor  fell 
 jy  the  spear  of  Idas;  Pollux  pursued  the  slayers,  and, 
 ..oining  up  with  them  at  the  tomb  of  their  father  .\[)ha- 
 eus,  was  struck  by  them  in  the  breast  with  the  pillar 
 Dclonging  to  it.  Unretarded  by  the  blow,  he  rushed 
 *n,  and  killed  Lynceus  with  his  spear ;  and  Jupiter, 
 it  the  same  moment,  struck  Idas  with  a  thunderbolt. 
 Schol.  ad  Pind ,  Nem.,  10,  IH.—Tzctz.  ad  Ly- 
 opkr.,  511.)  Pollux  was  inconsolable  for  the  loss 
 ,f  his  brother  ;  and  Jupiter,  on  his  prayer,  gave  him 
 uis  choice  of  being  taken  up  himself  to  Olympus,  and 
 «haring  the  honours  of  Mars  and  Minerva,  or  of  divi- 
 ding them  with  his  brother,  and  for  them  to  live  day  and 
 day  alternately  m  heaven  and  under  the  earth.  Pollux 
 chose  the  latter,  and  divided  his  immortality  with  Cas- 
 tor. (Pind.,  Nem.,  10,  103,  ser/i/. — Schol.  ad  Theoc- 
 fit.,22,  137,  scqq.—Apollod.,  3,  11,  2.—Tzelz.  ad 
 Lycopkr.,  5,  11. — Omd,  Fus/i,  5,  69!),  scq//.) — The 
 remarkable  circumstance  of  the  two  brothers  living  and 
 dying  alternately,  leads  at  once  to  a  suspicion  of  their 
 being  personifications  of  natural  powers  and  objects. 
 This  is  confirmed  by  the  names  in  the  myth,  all  of 
 which  seem  to  refer  to  light  or  its  opposite.  Thus, 
 314 
 
 Lrda  differs  little  from  Leto,  and  may  therefore  be  re- 
 garded as  darkness :  she  is  married  to  Tyndarus,  a 
 name  which  seems  to  be  of  a  family  of  words  relating 
 to  light,  flame,  or  hent.  (Possibly  there  may  have 
 been  a  Pelasgic  word  akin  to  the  German  z'unden,  and 
 the  Anglo-Saxon  tendau,  whence  the  English  tinder. 
 The  children  of  Leda  by  T\ndarus  or  Jupiter,  that  is 
 by  Juj)iter- Tyndarus,  "  the  bright  god,"  are  Helena, 
 "  brightness"  {iXa,  light),.  Castor,  "  adorncr"  (ku-^u, 
 "  to  adorn"  or  '' regulate"),  and  Polydeukes,  "  devful" 
 {dei'io,  dsvKr/c;).  In  Helena,  therefore,  we  have  only 
 another  name  for  Selene,  or  the  moon;  the  Adurner 
 is  a  very  appropriate  name  for  the  day,  whose  light 
 adorns  all  nature  ;  and  nothing  can  be  more  apparent 
 than  the  suitableness  of  Devful  to  the  night.  It  is 
 rather  curious,  that,  in  the  legend,  Helena  is  connected 
 by  birth  with  Polydeukes  rather  than  with  Castor. — 
 Another  explanation  of  this  myth  views  the  brothers 
 as  sun  and  moon,  to  which  their  names  and  tlie  form 
 of  the  legend  are  equally  well  adapted.  VV ticker, 
 who  adopts  this  latter  opinion,  makes  Castor  the  same 
 as  Astor  (Starry),  and  Polydeukes  the  same  a.s  Poly- 
 leukes  [Lightful).  This  latter  etymology  will  remind 
 us  at  once  of  the  Latin  form  of  the  name  Foi-lux,  and 
 is  much  better,  as  far  as  we  can  hazard  a;i  ojiinion, 
 than  the  other  derivation  for  the  name  Polydeukes 
 given  above.  (Wclckcr,  TriL,  p.  120,  220,  271  )  To 
 proceed  to  the  other  names  of  the  legend,  I'ias  and 
 Lynceus,  that  is.  Sight  and  Light,  are  the  children  of 
 Aphareus  or  Phareus,  that  is,  the  Shiner  (^uw) ;  and 
 the  two  daughters  of  Leucippus  or  Whitc-horsed  (an 
 epithet  of  the  Dioscuri,  Eurrp.,  Hd,  639),  are  Phcebe, 
 Brightness,  and  Hilaera,  Jui/fid  (lAap'if),  which  last 
 is  an  epithet  given  to  the  moon  by  Eir.pedocles.  (Pint., 
 de  Fac.  in  Orb.  Luna,  2.)  In  the  Cypria  they  were 
 called  the  daughters  of  Apollo.  (Pausun.,  3,  16,  1.) 
 — That  these  were  origir.sl  divinities  is  demonstrated 
 by  their  being  objects  of  v^o'-'rh'.p.  The  Dioscuri  were 
 also  called  Anaces  {'AvnKSc)  or  kings,  and  had  their 
 temples  and  statues.  They  were  represented  gener- 
 ally as  two  youths  on  horseback,  each  holding  a  spear 
 in  his  hand,  and  their  heads  surmounted  by  a  circular 
 cap,  fabled  by  the  poets  to  be  a  half  egg,  in  allusion 
 to  the  circumstances  of  their  birth,  but  referring  evi- 
 dently to  the  cosinogonical  egg,  and  forming  an  addi- 
 tional proof,  if  one  were  needed,  of  the  truth  of  our 
 explanation  of  the  legend.  The  Dioscuri  were  also 
 identified  with  the  Cabiri,  and  were  regarded  as  the 
 protectors  of  ships  in  tempests  {Eurip.,  Orest.,  1653. 
 — Id.,  Hei,  1663)  ;  and  the  St.  Elmo's  fire,  as  it  is 
 now  termed,  was  ascribed  to  them.  They  were  also 
 said  to  be  the  constellation  of  the  twins.  {Keightley't 
 Mythology,  p.  430,  scqq.) 
 
 Castra,  a  term  of  frequent  occurrence  in  ancient 
 geography,  and  generally  indicating  the  site  of  some 
 Roman  or  other  encampment.  From  the  winter  quar- 
 ters of  the  Romans,  strongly  fortified  according  to  es- 
 tablished custom,  and  presenting  the  appearance  of  cit- 
 ies in  miniature,  many  towns  in  Europe  are  supposed 
 to  have  had  their  origin  ;  in  England  particularly  those, 
 the  names  of  which  end  in  cestcr  or  Chester. — The 
 principal  places  indicated  by  the  term  castra  are  as 
 follows:  I.  Castra  ad  Gakumnam,  now  Castres,  on 
 the  Garonne  in  France. — II.  Castra  Constantina, 
 now  Coatances,  on  the  river  Soulle  in  Normandy. — 
 III.  Castra  Cornb-lia,  a  city  of  Africa,  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Utica,  where  Scipio  pitched  his  first 
 camp  in  the  second  Punic  war.  It  is  now  Gellah. 
 {Plin.,  5,  4.  — A/f/o,  1,  7.)— IV.  Castra  Explora- 
 TORUM,  now  Nctherhy,  on  the  borders  of  Scotland. - 
 V.  Castra  Hannibai.is,  now  Castcllete  in  Calabria. 
 — VI.  Castra  InD/Eorum,  a  place  in  Lower  Egypt, 
 now  Jehudieh — VII.  Castra  Trajana,  a  place  in 
 Dacia,  now  Ribnik  in  Walltirhia. 
 
 Castrum,  a  term  of  frequent  occurrence  in  ancifnt 
 geography.     The  principal  places  thus  designated  are 
 
CAT 
 
 CAT 
 
 as  follows  :  I.  Castrum  NovuiM,  a  town  of  Etruria, 
 south  of  Centum  Cells,  and  situate  on  the  coast.  It 
 is  now  Santa  Marinella.  D'Anville,  however,  makes 
 it  correspond  to  the  modern  7'orre  Chiarruccia. — II. 
 Castrum  Inui,  a  place  on  the  coast  of  Latium,  between 
 Antiutn  and  Ardea.  (Virg.,  JEn.,&,  775.)  Accord- 
 ing to  Livy  (I,  5),  Inuus  was  the  same  with  Pan. — III. 
 CastkuiM  Lucii,  now  C'lalus  in  France,  in  the  de- 
 partment of  Upper  Vievne.  Here  Richard  I.  of  Eng- 
 land died. — IV.  Castrum  Sedunum,  now  Sion  in 
 Switzerlatid.  It  was  also  called  Civitas  Sedunorum. 
 {Casaub.  ad  Suet.,  Vit.  Aug.,  c.  58.) 
 
 Castui.o,  a  town  of  Hispania  Boetica,  on  the  Baetis, 
 west  of  Corduba.  Now  Cazluna.  {I'lut.,  Vit.  Sert. 
 —Lw.,  24.  41.) 
 
 Catabath.mus,  a  great  declivity,  whence  its  name, 
 KaraftaO/ioCi  separatmg  Cyrenaica  from  Egypt.  It  is 
 now  called  by  the  Arabs  Akabct-assolom.  Some  an- 
 cient writers,  and  in  particular  Sallust,  make  this  the 
 point  of  separation  between  Asia  and  Africa.  There 
 was  another  Catabathmus  in  the  Libyan  iiome,  called 
 parvus,  as  this  was  styled  magnus.  It  lay  southeast 
 of  Paraetonium.  {Sallust,  Jug.,  17  et  19. — PUn., 
 5,5.) 
 
 Catadupa,  a  name  given  by  the  Greek  geographers 
 to  the  smaller  cataract  of  the  Nile  (Cataractes  Minor), 
 and  iiiLoirdcd  to  indicate  the  loud  noise  occasioned  by 
 the  fall  of  the  waters  {aaru  and  (^oiiTrof,  a  heavy,  crash- 
 ing sound).  It  was  situate  in  the  Thebais,  at  Dodeca- 
 schoenus,  to  the  south  of  Elephantina,  and  near  Phi- 
 laB.  (Cic,  Som.  Scip.,  c.  5. — Plin.,  5,  9. — Scnec., 
 Quasi.  Nat.,  4,  2.)  The  ancients  believed  that  the 
 neighbouring  inhabitants  were  deprived  of  hearing  by 
 the  constant  roar  of  the  waters  !     (Cic,  I.  c.) 
 
 Cat.Jna,  a  city  of  Sicily,  on  the  eastern  coast,  at  the 
 base  of  .Etna,  and  a  short  distance  below  the  river  Acis 
 and  the  Cyclopum  Scopuli.  It  was  founded  by  a  colony 
 from  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  five  years  after  the  settlement 
 of  Syracuse.  Catana,  like  all  the  otlier  colonies  of  Gre- 
 cian origin,  soon  became  independent  of  any  foreign 
 control,  and,  in  consequence  of  the  fertility  of  the  sur- 
 rounding country,  attained  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
 prosperity.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  to  have  been 
 at  any  time  a  populous  city  ;  and  hence  Hiero  of 
 Syracuse  was  enabled  without  difficulty  to  transfer 
 the  inhabitants  to  Leontini.  A  new  colony  of  Pel- 
 oponnesians  and  Syracusans  was  established  here  by 
 him.  and  the  place  called  yElna,  from  its  proximity  to 
 the  mountain.  {Diod.  Sic,  II,  49. — Pind.,  Pyth.,  1.) 
 — After  the  death  of  Hiero,  the  new  colonists  were 
 driven  out  by  the  Siculi,  and  the  old  inhabitants  from 
 Leontini  then  came,  and,  recovering  possession  of  the 
 place,  changed  its  name  again  to  Catana.  We  find 
 Catana  after  this  possessed  for  a  short  time  by  the 
 Athenians,  and  subsequently  falling  into  the  hands  of 
 Dionysius  of  Syracuse.  This  tyrant,  according  to  Di- 
 odorus  Siculus(14,  15),  sold  the  inhabitants  as  slaves, 
 and  gave  the  city  to  his  mercenary  troops,  the  Cam- 
 pani,  to  dwell  in.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  he 
 only  sold  those  who  were  taken  with  arms  in  their 
 bands,  and  that  many  of  the  old  population  remained, 
 since  Dionysius  afterward  persuaded  these  same  Cain- 
 paiii  to  migrate  to  the  city  of --Etna.  {Dwd.  Sic,  14, 
 5S  )  Catana  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Romans  du- 
 ring the  first  Punic  war.  [rim.,  7,  60.)  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  Catania,  and  the  distance  from  it  to  the 
 summit  of  ^Etna  is  reckoned  thirty  miles.  {Maimert, 
 (Jcogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  287.) 
 
 Cataonia,  a  tract  of  country  in  the  southern  part 
 of  Cappadocia.  The  inhabitants  were  of  Cilician  ori- 
 gin. It  answers  now  to  the  canton  of  Aladculi,  in  the 
 pachahc  of  Adana.  (Compare  Mannert,  Geo<rr.,  vol. 
 6,  pt.  2,  p.  222,  scqq.) 
 
 Cataractes,  I.  a  river  of  Pamphylia,  falling  into 
 the  sea  near  Attalia.  It  derived  its  ancient  name 
 from  its  impetuosity.     Now  Dodensoui. II.  A  river 
 
 of  Asia  Minor,  the  same  with  the  Marsyas.  (Compar« 
 Larcher,  Hist.  d'Herodote,  vol.  8,  p.  104. — Table  Ge- 
 ographique,  and  the  authorities  there  cited.) 
 
 Cath.«:a,  a  country  of  Asia,  the  precise  situation 
 of  which  is  doubtful.  Mannert  places  it  northeast  of 
 the  Malli,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Hydraotes.  The  chief 
 town  was  Sangala.  Diodorus  Siculus  calls  the  people 
 Catheri.  Thevenot  is  supposed  to  allude  to  their  de- 
 scendants under  the  name  of  Catlry,  that  is,  the  Kuttry 
 tribe  or  Rajpoots.     {Mannert,  Gr.ogr,,  vol.  5,  p.  56.) 
 
 Catilina,  L.  Sergius  a  Roman  of  patrician  rank, 
 and  the  last  of  the  gens  Sergia.  Of  his  father  and 
 grandfather  little  is  known  :  the  former  would  seem 
 to  have  been  in  indigent  circumstances,  from  the  lan- 
 guage of  Quintus  Cicero  {de  Petitione  Consvlatu.t,  c. 
 2),  who  speaks  of  Catiline  as  having  been  born  amid 
 the  poverty  of  his  father  {in  palris  egcsfatc).  The 
 greatgrandfather,  M.  Sergius  Silus  or  Silo,  distin- 
 guished himself  greatly  in  the  second  Punic  war,  and 
 was  present  in  the  battles  of  Ticinus,  Trebia,  Trasy- 
 menus,  and  Cannae.  Pliny  (7,  29)  speaks  of  his  ex- 
 ploits in  a  very  animated  strain — The  cruelty  of  t'at- 
 iline's  disposition,  his  undaunted  resolution,  and  the 
 depravity  of  his  morals,  fitted  him  for  acting  a  distin- 
 guished part  in  the  turbulent  and  bloody  scenes  of  the 
 period  in  which  he  lived.  He  embraced  the  interest 
 of  Sylla,  in  whose  army  he  held  the  office  of  quxstor. 
 That  monster  in  his  victory  had  in  Catiline  an  able 
 coadjutor,  whose  heart  knew  no  sympathy  and  his 
 lewdness  no  bounds.  He  rejoiced  in  the  carnage  and 
 plunder  of  the  proscribed,  gratifying  at  one  time  his 
 own  private  resentments  by  bringing  his  enemies  to 
 punishment,  and  executing  at  another  the  bloody  man- 
 dates of  the  dictator  himself  Many  citizens  of  no- 
 ble birth  are  said  by  Quintus  Cicero  {de  Petit.  Cons., 
 c.  23)  to  have  fallen  by  his  hand  ;  and,  according  to 
 Plutarch  {Vit.  Syll,  c.  32.— Vit.  Cic,  c.  10),  he  had 
 assassinated  his  own  brother  during  the  civil  war,  and 
 now,  to  screen  himself  from  prosecution,  persuaded 
 Sylla  to  put  him  down  among  the  proscribed  as  a  per- 
 son still  alive.  He  murdered  too,  with  his  own  hands, 
 his  sister's  husband,  a  lioman  knight  of  a  mild  and 
 peaceable  character.  {Q.  Cic,  de  Petit.  Cons.,  c.  3.) 
 One  of  the  most  horrid  actions,  however,  of  which  he 
 was  guilty,  would  seem  to  have  been  the  killing  of 
 M.  Marius  Gratidianus,  a  near  relation  of  the  celebrated 
 Mariiis.  Sylla  had  put  the  name  of  this  individual  on 
 the  list  of  the  proscribed,  whereupon  Catiline  entered 
 the  dwelling  of  the  unfortunate  man,  exhausted  upon 
 his  person  all  the  refinements  of  cruelty  and  insult, 
 and  having  at  last  put  an  end  to  his  existence,  carried 
 his  bloody  head  in  triumph  through  the  streets  of  Rome, 
 and  brought  it  to  Sylla  as  he  sat  on  his  tribunal  in  the 
 forum.  When  this  was  done,  the  murderer  washed 
 his  hands  in  the  lustral  water  at  the  door  of  Apollo's 
 temple,  which  stood  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  {Set^ 
 cca,  de  Ira,  3,  18.) — Catiline  was  peculiarly  dangerous 
 and  formidable,  as  his  power  of  dissimulation  enabled 
 him  to  throw  a  veil  over  his  vices.  Such  was  his 
 art,  that,  while  he  was  poisoning  the  minds  of  the  Ro- 
 man youth,  he  gained  the  friendship  and  esteem  of  ihe 
 severe  Catulus.  Equally  well  qualified  to  deceive  the 
 good,  to  intimidate  the  weak,  and  to  inspire  bis  own 
 boldness  into  his  depraved  associates,  he  evaded  two 
 accusations  brought  against  him  by  Oodius,  fur  crim- 
 inal intercourse  with  a  Vestal,  and  for  monstrous  ex- 
 tortions of  which  he  had  been  guilty  while  proconsul 
 in  Africa  (A. U.C.  687).  He  was  suspected  also  of 
 having  murdered  his  first  wife  and  his  son.  A  con- 
 federacy of  many  young  men  of  high  birth  and  daring 
 character,  who  saw  no  other  means  of  extricating 
 themselves  from  their  enormous  debts  than  by  obtain- 
 ing the  highest  offices  of  the  state,  having  been  formed, 
 Catiline  was  placed  at  their  head.  This  eminence  he 
 owed  chiefly  to  his  connexion  with  the  old  soldiers  of 
 Sylla.  by  means  of  whom  he  kept  in  awe   the  towns 
 
 316 
 
CATILINA. 
 
 CATILINA. 
 
 near  Rome,  and  even  Rome  itself.     At  the  same  lime 
 he  numbered  among  his  adherents  not  only  the  worst 
 and  lowest  of  the  riotous  populace,  but  also  many  of 
 the  patricians  and  men  of  consular  rank.     Everything 
 favoured  his  audacious  scheme.     Pompey  was  ])ursu- 
 ing  the  victories  which  Lucullus  had  prepared  for  him, 
 and  the  latter  was  but  a  feeble  supporter  of  the  patriots 
 in   the  senate,  who  wished  him,   but  in  vain,  to  put 
 himself  at  their  head.     Crassus,  who  had  delivered  It- 
 aly from   the  gladiators,  was   now  striving  with  mad 
 eagerness  after  power  and  riches,  and,  instead  of  op- 
 posing, countenanced  the  growing  influence  of  Cati- 
 line, as  a  means  of  his  own  aggrandizement.     Cajsar, 
 who  was  labouring  to  revive  the  party  of  Marius,  spared 
 Catiline,  and,  perhaps,  even  encouraged  him.    Only  two 
 Romans  remained  determined   to  uphold  their  falling 
 country — Cato  and  Cicero  ;   the  latter  of  whom  alone 
 possessed   the   qualifications    necessary   for  the  task. 
 The  conspirators  were  now  planning  the  elevation   of 
 Catiline  and  one  of  his  accomplices  to  the  consulship. 
 When  this  was  effected,  they  hoped  to  obtain  possession 
 of  the  public  treasures  and  the  property  of  the  citizens, 
 under  various  pretexts,  and  especially  by  means  of  pro- 
 scription.     It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  Catiline 
 had  promised  them  the  liberty  of  burning' and  plunder- 
 ing Rome.     Cicero  had  the  courage  to  stand  candi- 
 date for  the  consulship,  in  spite  of  the  impending  dan- 
 ger, of   the  extent  of  which  he  was  perfectly  aware. 
 Neither  insults  nor  threats,  nor  even  riots  and  attempts 
 to  assassinate   him,  deterred  him  from  his  purpose  ; 
 and,  being  supported   by  the  rich  citizens,  he  gained 
 his  election,  B.C.  65.     All  that  the  party  of  Catiline 
 could  accomplish  was  the  election  of  Caius  Antonius, 
 one  of  theii  accomplices,  as  colleague  of  Cicero.    This 
 failure,  however,  did  not  deprive  Catiline  of  the  hope 
 of  gaining  the   consulship  the   following   year.     For 
 this  purpose  he  redoubled  the  measures  of  terror,  by 
 means  of  which  he  had  laid  the  foundation  of  his  pow- 
 er.    Meanwhile  he  had  lost  some  of  the  most  impor- 
 tant members  of  his  conspiracy.     Antony  had   been 
 prevailed  upon  or  compelled  by  Cicero  to  remain  neu- 
 tral.     Caesar  and  Crassus  had  resolved  to  do  the  same. 
 Piso  had  been  killed  in   Spain.      Italy,  however,  was 
 destitute  of  troops.     The  veterans  of  Sylla  only  waited 
 the  signal   to  take  up  arms.     This   signal  was  now 
 given  by  Catiline.     The  centurion  Manlius  appeared 
 among  them,  and  formed  a  camp  in  Etruria.     Cicero 
 was  on  the  watch,  and  a  fortunate  accident  disclosed 
 to  him  the  counsels  of  the  conspirators.     One  of  them, 
 Curius,  was  on  intimate  terms  with  a  woman  of  doubt- 
 ful  reputation,  Fulvia  by  name,   and  had  acquainted 
 her    with   their  plans.     Through   this  woman  Cicero 
 learned  that  two  knights  had   undertaken  to  assassi- 
 nate him  at  his  house.     On   the  day  which  they  had 
 fixed  for  the  execution  of  their  plan,  they  found  his 
 doors  barred  and  guarded.     Still  Cicero    delayed  to 
 make  public   the   circumstances  of  a  conspiracy,  the 
 progress  and  resources  of  which  he  wished  first  to  as- 
 certain.    He  contented  himself  with  warning  his  fel- 
 low-citizens, in  general  terms,  of  the  impending  dan- 
 ger.    But  when  the  insurrection  of  Manlius  was  made 
 known,  he  procured  the  passage  of  the  celebrated  de- 
 cree, "  that  the  consuls  should  take  care  that  the  re- 
 public received  no  detriment."     By  a  decree  of  this 
 kind,  the  consuls  or  other  magistrates  named  therein 
 were,   in  accordance  with   the    custom    of   the  state, 
 armed  with  the  supreme  civil  and   military  authority. 
 It  was  exceedingly  diOicult  to  seize  the  person  of  one 
 who  had  soldiers  at  his  command,  both  in  and  out  of 
 Rome  ;  still  more   difTicult  would  it  be  to  prove  his 
 oruilt  before  those  who  were  accomplices  with  him,  or, 
 at  least,  were  willing  to  make  use  of  his  plans  to  serve 
 their  own  interests.     He  had  to  choose  between  two 
 evils — a  revolution  within  the  city,  or  a  civil  war  :  he 
 preferred  the  latter.     Catiline  had  the  boldness  to  take 
 his  seat  in  the  senate,  known  as  he  was  to  be  the  ene- 
 316 
 
 my  of  the  Roman  state.     Cicero  then  rose  and  deliv- 
 ered that  bold  oration   against   him,    which  was  the 
 means  of  saving  Rome  by  driving  Catiline  from  the 
 city.     The  consjiirators  who  remained,  Lentulus,  Ce- 
 thegus,    and     other    mfamous    senators,    engaged    to 
 liead   the  insurrection   in  J<ome  as  soon  as  Catiline 
 appeared  at  the  gates.     According  to  Cicero  and  Sal- 
 lust,  it  was  the    intention  of  the  conspirators  to  set 
 the  city  on  tire, and  massacre  the  inhabitants.     At  any 
 rate,  these  horrid  consequences  might  have  easily  fol- 
 lowed from  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  without  any 
 previous   resolution.       Lentulus,   Cethegus,    and    the 
 other  conspirators,  in  the  mean  while,  were  carrying  on 
 their  criminal  plots.     They  applied  to  the  ambassa- 
 dors of  the  Allobroges  to  transfer  the  war  to  the  fron- 
 tiers of  Italy  Itself.     These,  however,  revealed    the 
 plot,  and  their  disclosures  led  to  others  still  more  im- 
 j)ortant.      The    correspondence    of   the    conspirators 
 with  their  leader  was   intercepted.     The  senate  had 
 now  a  notorious  crime   to  punish.     As  the   circum- 
 stances of  the  case  did  not  allow  of  a  minute  observ- 
 ance of  form  in  the  proceedings  against  the  conspira- 
 tors,  the   laws   relating  thereto    were   disregarded,  as 
 had  been  done  in  former  instances  of  less  pressing 
 danger.     Caesar  spoke  against  immediate  execution, 
 but  Cicero  and  Cato  prevailed.     Five  of  the  conspira- 
 tors were  put  to  death.     Caius  Antonius  was  then  ap- 
 pointed to  march  against  Catiline,  but,  on  the  eve  of 
 battle,  under  pretence  of  being  disabled  by  the  gout, 
 he  gave  the  command  to  his  lieutenant  Petreius.     Tho 
 battle  was  fought  at  Pistoria(now  Pisloia)  in  Etruria, 
 and  ended  in  the  complete  ovigrthrovv  of  the  insurgents. 
 Catiline,  on  finding  that  all  was  lost,  resolved  to  die 
 sword  in  hand.     His  followers  imitated  his  example. — 
 The  history  of  Catiline's  conspiracy  has  been  written 
 by  Sallust.     The  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  as  described 
 by  this  historian  and  Cicero,  is  considered  by  some 
 persons  to  contain  many  improbabilities.     It  is  increCi- 
 ble,  say  they,  that  a  man  like  Catiline,  unconnected 
 with  the  regular  popular  party,  should  have  seriously 
 hoped  to  etfect  a  revolution  ;  nor  can  it  be  believed 
 that  any  of  the  nobility  would   have  submitted  them- 
 selves to  the  guidance  of  such  a  leader.     Even  if  he 
 had  succeeded  in  setting  fire  to  the  city  and  destroy- 
 ing the  princif)al  senators,  the  prsetor  of  the   nearest 
 province  would  presently  have  marched  against  him, 
 and  would    have    crushed   him  with   little   difficulty. 
 But  they  who  argue  thus,  forget  that   Catiline  was  a 
 patrician  of  noble  family  ;   that   he  had  been  prajtor ; 
 and  that  he  was  considered  by  Cicero  as  his  most  dan- 
 gerous  competitor  for   the    consulship  when  he  was 
 candidate  for  that  office.     He  had  been  known  in  Syl- 
 la's  proscription  as  a  man  who   scrupled  at  nothing  ; 
 and  there  was  a  large  party  in  Rome  to  whom  such  a 
 character  was  the  greatest  recommendation,  and  who 
 would  gladly  follow  any  one  that  possessed  it.     'I'hat 
 this  party  was  inconsiderable  in  point  of  political  power, 
 is  true  ;  and  they  accordingly  hoped  to  effect  their  de- 
 signs by  fire  and  assassination  rather  than  by  open 
 force.     But  if  Catiline  could  have  once  made  himself 
 master  of  the  city,  no  one  can  doubt  but  that  he  would 
 have  found    a  majority  in   the   Comitia  ready,  either 
 from  fear  or  sympathy  in  his   projects,  to  elect   him 
 consul  or  dictator;  and,  when  once  invested  with  the 
 title  of  a  legal  magistrate,   and  in  possession  of  the 
 seat  of  government,  he  would  probably  have  persuaded 
 a  very  great  part  of  the   community  to  remain   neu- 
 tral, while    his  own  active  supporters,  the   profligate 
 young  nobility,  the  needy  plebeians,  the  discontented 
 Italian  allies,  and  the   restless  veterans  of  Sylla's  ar- 
 mies, would  have  enabled  him  to  defy  the   efforts  of 
 any   neighbouring  praetor  who    might   have  been  dis- 
 posed to  attack  him.     He  might  have  held  the  govern- 
 ment as    easily  as   Cinna    had    done ;    and,   although 
 Pompey  might   have   imitated    successfully  the   con- 
 duct of  Sylla,  in  returning  from  Asia  to  revenge  the 
 
CAT 
 
 CATO. 
 
 cause  of  the  aristocracy,  yet  the  chance  of  resisting 
 him  was  not  so  ho[)eless  as  to  dismay  a  set  of  despe- 
 rate conspirators,  who,  in  their  calculations,  would 
 have  been  well  contented  if  the  |)rol)ability  of  their 
 failure  was  only  a  little  greater  than  that  of  their  suc- 
 cess. (Sail.,  Bdl.  CiU.—  Cic,  Or.  in  Cat.,  1,  &c. — 
 Id  ,  pio  MarcEn.,  c.  25. — Encijclop.  Amer.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 3,  scqq. — Encydop.  Metropol.,  Div.  3,  vol.  2,  p.  176, 
 not.) 
 
 Catim.us  or  Catilus.  Vid.  Tibnr. 
 CATiits,  M.  a  ficiiiious  name  in  Horace  {Serni.,  2, 
 4),  under  which  the  poet  alludes  to  an  entire  class  of 
 persons,  who  abused  the  genuine  doctrines  of  Epicu- 
 rus, and  made  a  large  portion  of  human  felicity  con- 
 sist in  the  pleasures  of  the  table.  According  to  Manso 
 (Scftnften  iind  Abhandlunoen,  p.  59),  Catius  appears 
 to  have  had  for  his  prototype  one  Malius,  a  Roman 
 kniijht,  famed  for  his  acquaintance  with  the  precepts 
 of  the  culinary  art.  ((consult  Heuidurf,  ad  Hvrat.,  l.  c.) 
 — The  scholiast  cited  by  Cruquius  makes  Catius  to 
 have  been  an  Epicurean,  and  to  have  written  on  ''the 
 Nature  of  Things,"  and  "  the  Sovereign  Good."  With 
 this  account  Acron  and  Por[)hyrion  agree.  Cicero, 
 moreover,  speaks  of  the  Epicurean  Calms,  from  Insu- 
 bria,  as  of  a  writer  who  had  died  only  a  short  time  pre- 
 vious. (Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fani.,  15,  l(j. — Compare  Quvn- 
 ttl.,  10,  1.)  Still,  however,  the  e.xplanation  we  have 
 given  suits  better  the  spirit  of  Horace's  satire  ;  and, 
 besides,  Catius  had  died  some  time  before,  and  was 
 almost  entirely  forgotten.     {Hemdorf,  in) 
 
 Cato,  a  surname  of  the  Porcian  family,  rendered 
 illustrious  by  M.  Porcius  Cato.  a  celebrated  Roman, 
 surnamed  Censonus,  in  allusion  to  the  severity  with 
 which  he  discharged  the  office  of  censor,  and  hence 
 commonly  styled,  at  the  present  day,  "  Cato  the  Cen- 
 sor." Other  surnames  were.  Priscus,  "  the  old,"  and 
 Major,  "  the  elder,"  both  alluding  to  his  having  pre- 
 ceded, in  the  order  of  time,  the  younger  Cato,  who 
 committed  suicide  at  Utica.  The  subject  of  the  pres- 
 ent sketch  was  born  232  B.C.,  at  Tusculum,  of  ple- 
 beian parents.  His  family  were  in  very  moderate  cir- 
 cumstances, and  little,  if  anything,  was  known  of  it, 
 until  he  himself  made  the  name  a  conspicuous  one. 
 His  father  left  him  a  small  farm  in  the  Sabine  terri- 
 tory, and  here  the  first  years  of  his  youth  were  spent. 
 The  state  of  public  afiairs,  however,  soon  compelled 
 him  to  take  up  arms  for  the  defence  of  his  country. 
 The  secdnd  Punic  war  had  broken  out,  and  Hannibal 
 had  invaded  Italy.  Cato,  therefore,  served  his  first 
 campaign  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  under  Fabius  Maxi- 
 mus,  when  he  besieged  the  city  of  Capua.  Five 
 years  after  this  he  fought  under  the  same  commander 
 at  the  siege  of  Tarentum,  and,  after  the  capture  of  this 
 place,  became  acquainted  with  the  Pythagorean  Near- 
 chus,  who  initialed  him  into  the  principles  of  that 
 system  of  philosophy,  with  which,  in  practice,  he  had 
 already  become  familiar.  The  war  being  ended,  Cato 
 returned  to  his  farm.  Near  this  there  stood  a  cot- 
 tage belonging  to  Manius  Curius  Dentatus,  who  had 
 repeatedly  triumphed  over  the  Sabines  and  Samnites, 
 and  had  at  length  driven  Pyrrhus  from  Italy.  Cato  was 
 accustomed  frequently  to  walk  over  to  the  huml)le 
 abode  of  this  renowned  commander,  where  he  was 
 struck  with  admiration  at  the  frugality  of  Us  owner, 
 »nd  the  skilful  management  of  the  farm  which  was 
 etlachcd  to  it.  Hence  it  became  his  great  object  to 
 emulate  his  ilhislrious  neighbour,  and  adopt  him  as  his 
 model.  Having  made  an  estimate  of  his  house,  lands, 
 slaves,  and  expenses,  he  applied  himself  to  husbandry 
 with  new  ardour,  and  retrenched  all  superfluity.  In 
 the  morning  he  went  to  the  small  towns  in  the  vicinity 
 to  plead  and  defend  the  causes  of  those  who  applieii 
 to  him  for  assistance.  Thence  he  returned  to  his 
 fields  ;  where,  with  a  plain  cloak  over  his  shoulders  in 
 waiter,  and  almost  naked  in  summer,  he  laboured  with 
 his  servants  till  they  had  concluded  their  tasks   after 
 
 which  he  sat  down  along  with  them  at  table,  eating 
 the  same  bread  and  drinking  the  same  wine.  Valerius 
 Flaccus,  a  noble  and  powerful  Roman,  occupied  an 
 estate  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cato's  residence.  A 
 witness  of  the  virtues  and  talents  displayed  by  him,  he 
 persuaded  the  young  Cato  to  remove  to  Rome,  and 
 promised  to  assist  him  by  his  influence  and  patronage. 
 Cato  came  accordingly  to  the  capital,  with  an  obscure 
 name,  and  with  no  other  resources  but  his  own  talents 
 and  the  aid  of  the  generous  Flaccus  ;  but  by  the  purity 
 of  his  morals,  the  austere  energy  of  his  character,  his 
 knowledge  of  the  laws,  his  fluency  of  elocution,  and 
 the  great  ability  that  marked  his  early  forensic  career, 
 he  soon  won  for  himself  a  distinguished  name.  It 
 was  in  the  camp,  however,  rather  than  at  the  bar,  that 
 he  strove  to  raise  himself  to  eminence.  At  the  age  of 
 thirty  he  went  as  military  tribune  to  Sicily.  The  ne.xt 
 year  he  was  chosen  quKstor,  and  was  attached  to  the 
 army  which  Scipio  Africanus  was  to  carry  into  Africa, 
 at  which  period  there  commenced  between  hiin  and 
 that  commander  a  rivalry  and  hatred  which  lasted  un- 
 til death.  Cato,  who  had  returned  to  Rome,  accused 
 Scipio  of  extravagance  ;  and,  though  he  failed  in  sup- 
 porting his  charge,  yet  his  zeal  for  the  public  good  gain- 
 ed him  great  influence  over  the  minds  of  the  people. 
 Five  years  subsequent  to  this,  after  having  been  already 
 fedile,  he  was  chosen  prator,  and  the  province  of  Sar- 
 dinia fell  to  him  by  lot.  His  austere  self-control,  his 
 integrity  and  justice,  while  discharging  this  office, 
 brought  him  into  direct  and  most  favourable  contrast 
 with  those  who  had  preceded  him.  Here  too  it  was 
 that  he  became  acquainted  with  the  poet  Ennius.  who 
 was  then  serving  among  the  Calabrian  levies  attached 
 to  the  army.  From  Ennius  he  acquired  the  Greek 
 language,  and.  on  his  departure  from  the  island,  he 
 took  the  bard  along  with  him  to  Rome.  He  was  final- 
 ly elected  consul,  B.C.  193,  and  his  colleague  in  office 
 was  Valerius  Flaccus,  his  early  friend.  While  consul 
 he  strenuously  but  fruitlessly  opposed  the  abolition  of 
 the  famous  Oppian  Law  {vid.  Oppia  Lex),  and  soon  after 
 this  set  out  for  Spain,  which  had  attempted  to  shako 
 oft" the  Roman  yoke.  With  newly-raised  troops,  which 
 he  soon  converted  into  an  excellent  army,  he  quickly 
 reduced  that  province  to  submission,  and  obtained  the 
 honours  of  a  triumph  at  Rome,  though  there  is  but 
 too  much  reason  to  believe  that  he  had  justly  e.xposed 
 himself,  in  the  eyes  of  a  candid  historian,  it'  such  a 
 one  could  then  have  been  found  among  his  country 
 men,  to  the  charge  of  perfidious  conduct  and  cruelly 
 Hardly  had  Cato  descended  from  the  triumphal  char 
 iot,  when,  laying  aside  the  consular  robe  and  assu- 
 mino-  the  garb  of  the  lieutenant,  he  accompanied,  as 
 such,  the  Roman  commander  Sempronius  into  Thrace 
 He  afterward  placed  himself  under  the  orders  of  Ma 
 nius  Acilius,  the  consul,  to  fight  against  Antiochus 
 and  carry  the  war  into  Thessaly.  By  a  bold  march 
 he  seized  upon  Callidromus,  one  of  the  rockiest  sum- 
 mits of  Thermopyla?,  and  thus  decided  the  issue  of 
 the  conflict.  For  this  signal  service,  the  consul,  in  the 
 excess  of  his  enthusiasm,  embraced  him  in  the  presence 
 of  the  whole  army,  and  exclaimed  that  it  was  iieither 
 in  his  power,  nor  in  that  of  the  Roman  pco[ile,  to 
 award  him  a  recompense  commensurate  with  his  de- 
 serts. Acilius  immediately  after  this  sent  him  to  Rome 
 to  communicate  the  tidings  of  the  victory.  Seven  years 
 subsequently  he  obtained  the  office  of  censor,  not- 
 withstanding the  powerful  opposition  of  a  large  part  of 
 the  nobility,  who  dreaded  to  have  so  severe  an  in 
 specter  of  public  morals,  at  a  time  when  luxury,  the 
 result  of  their  Asiatic  conquests,  had  driven  out  many 
 of  the  earlier  virtues  of  the  Roman  people.  He  ful- 
 filled this  trust  with  inflexible  rigour.  Some  of  hit 
 acts,  it  is  true,  would  seem  to  have  proceeded  fron.^ 
 that  pugnacious  bitterness  which  must  be  contracted 
 by  a  man  engaged  in  constant  strife  and  inflictions  •, 
 i  thus,  for  example,  he  took  away  his  horse  from  Lu^ 
 
 317 
 
CATO. 
 
 CATO. 
 
 cms  Scipio,  and  expelled  Manilius  from  the  senate  for 
 saluting  his  wife  at  what  Cato  deemed   an  improper 
 time.     Still,  however,  most  of  his  proceedings  when 
 censor  indicate  a  man  who  aimed,  by  every  method, 
 at  keeping  up  the  true  spirit  of  earlier  days.     Hence, 
 though  his  measures,  while  holding  this  office,  caused 
 him  some  obloquy  and  opposition,  ihey  met  in  the  end 
 with  tiie  highest  applause,  and,  when    he  resigned  the 
 censorship,  the  people  erected  a  statue  to  hnn  in  the 
 »em|)le  of  Healili,  with  an  honourable  inscription,  tes- 
 tifying his   faithful  discharge  of  the  duties  of  his  of- 
 5ce.      Cato's   attachment  to   the   old    Roman  morals 
 tvas  still   more  plainly  seen  in  his  opposition  to  Car- 
 neades  and  his  colleagues,  when  he  persuaded  the  sen- 
 nte  to  send  back  these  philosophers,  without  delay,  to 
 their  own  schools,  through  fear  lest  the  Roman  youth 
 should  lose  their  martial  character  in   the   pursuit  of 
 Grecian  learning.     The  whole  political  career  of  Cato 
 was  one  continued  warfare.      He  was  continually  ac- 
 cusing others,  or  made  the  subject  of  accusation  him- 
 self.    Livy,  although  full  of  admiration  for  his  charac- 
 ter, still  does  not  seek  to  deny,  that  Cato  was  sus- 
 pected of  having  excited  the  accusation  brought  against 
 Scipio  Africanus,  which  compelled  that  illustrious  man 
 to  retire  from  the  capital.     He  was  also  the  means  of 
 the   condemnation  of   Scipio    Asiaticus,   who    would 
 have  been  dragged  to  prison  had  not  Tiberius  Grac- 
 chus   generously    interfered.      As    for    Cato  himself, 
 he  was  fifty  times  accused    and  as    often  acquitted. 
 He  was  eighty-five  years  of  age  when  he  saw  himself 
 compelled  to  answer  the  last  accusation  brought  against 
 him,  and  the  exordium  of  his  speech  on  that  occasion 
 was  marked  by  a  peculiar  and  touching  simplicity:  "It 
 is  a  hard  thing,  Romans,  to  give  an  accoimt  of  one's 
 conduct  before  the  men  of  an  age  different  from   that 
 in  which  one  has  himself  lived." — The  last  aci  of  Ca- 
 to's public  life  was  his  embassy  to  Carthage,  to  settle 
 the  dispute  between  the  Carthaginians  and  King  Mas- 
 sinissa.      This  voyage  of  his  is  rendered  famous  in  his- 
 tory, since  to  it  has  been  attributed  the  destruction  of 
 Carthage       In  fact,   struck   by  the   rapid  recovery  of 
 this  city  from  the  loss  it  had  sustained,  Cato  ever  af- 
 ter ended   every  speech  of  his  with  the  well  known 
 words,  "  PraUrca  ccnsco  Ciirlhaginem  esse  delenrlam'" 
 ("  I  am  also  of  opinion  that  Carthage  ought  to  be  de- 
 stroved").     Whatever  we  may  think  of  his  patriotism 
 in  this,  we  certainly  cannot  admire  his  political  sao-a- 
 city,  since  the  ruin  of  Carthage,  by  removing  all  dread 
 of  a  once  powerful   rival,  only  tended  to  accelerate 
 the  downfall  of  Roman  freedom  itself     Cato  died  a 
 year  after  his  return  from  this  embassy,  in  the  eighty- 
 fifth  year  of  his   age. — Although  frugal  of  the  public 
 revenues,  he  does  not  appear  to  have  been  indifferent 
 to  riches,  nor  to  have  neglected  the  ordinary  means  of 
 acquiring  them  ;  nay,  if  Plutarch  speaks  truly,  some 
 of  the  modes  to  which  he  had  recourse  for  increasing 
 his  resources  were  anything  but  reputable.     Towards 
 the  end  of  his  life  he  was  fond  of  indulging  in  a  cheer- 
 ful glass,  and  of  inviting  daily  some  of  his  neighbours 
 to  sup  with   him   at   his  villa;    and  the  conversation 
 on  these  occasions  turned,  not,  as  one  might  have  sup- 
 po.sed,  chiefly  on  rural  affairs,  but   on  the  praises  of 
 great  and  excellent  men  among  the  Romans.     He  was 
 twice  married,  and  had  a  son  by  each  of  his  wives. 
 His  conduct  as  a  husband  and  father  was  equally  ex- 
 emplary.— Cato  may  be   taken  as   a  specimen  of  the 
 SabinoSamnite  character.     If  his  life  be  regarded  as 
 ihat  of  a  mere  private  man,  it  offers  only  acerbity  and 
 rigour :    it  presents,  however,  a   wholly  different  as- 
 pect if  one  contemplates  him  as  the  representative  of 
 the  early  Italian  popular  character.     Many  features  of 
 this   same  character  strikingly  resemble  the  modern. 
 Who  does  not,  in  Cato's  vehement  bitterness,  retrace 
 a  leading  feature  of  the  modern  Italian,  so  vehement 
 and  implacable  when  his  feelings  arc  once  irritated  1 
 Who  knows  not  that  in  Italy  is  most  frequently  to 
 318 
 
 be  tound  the  strange  combination  of  grovelling  cupidity 
 and   boundless   indifference   towards  external   goods] 
 As  to  what  regards  the  first  point,  we  need  not,  as 
 in  other  cases,  betake  ourselves  to   Plutarch's  collec- 
 tion of  anecdotes  ;  we   can  judge  of  it    from  Cato's 
 own    work    on  husbandry    and    household    economv. 
 At   the  very  outset  of  the  book,  he  sees  nothing  to 
 find  fault  with  in  a  respectable  man's  endeavouring  to 
 enrich   himself  by  trade  ;    for  profit  and  gain  appear 
 to  him  an    important  object  of    life ;    only    he   looks 
 upon  the  mercantile  profession   as   too  hazardous   in 
 its  nature. — While  we  recognise  with  pleasure,  even 
 in  Cato's  generation,  the  old  Sabine  discipline  in  the 
 simplicity  of  life,  rural  employments,  and  social  cheer- 
 fulness of  the  Roman  country  nobleman,  yet  we  per- 
 ceive with  horror  that  the  treatment  of  slaves,  even  in 
 ancient  Italy  and   according  to  old  Roman  manners, 
 was  still  more  degrading  to  humanity  than  in  Greece. 
 Cato   bought  slaves  like   hounds  or  foals,  when  they 
 were  young,  in  order  to  sell  them  again  when  grown 
 up  ;  he  treated  them   exactly    like  hounds  or  foals  ; 
 used  them  well,  because  they  had  a  money  value,  but 
 otherwise  viewed  them  merely  as  live-stock,  not  as 
 persons.    This,  however,  we  find  less  surprising,  since, 
 even  in  his  warlike  undertakings,  Cato  opposed  rigour 
 and    cruelty,   as   genuine    Roman   policy,  to  Scipio's 
 mildness.     His  advice,  however,  to  the  farmer,  as  to 
 the  mode  in  which  old  and  sickly  slaves  are  to  be  dis- 
 posed of,  shows  an  utter  want  of  good  feeling.     He 
 classes  them  with  old  and  xcorn-out  iron  implements, 
 and  recommends  them  to  be  sold  :  "  Ferramcnta  vete- 
 a,  servum  scnem,  senium  morbosum,  et  si  quid  aliud 
 sitpersit  vendat.'''    {R.  R.,  2,  p.  12,  ed.  Bip.) — Among 
 the   literary  Jabovirs  of  Cato,  the   first    that   deserves 
 mention  is   the  treatise  Dc  Re  Ricstica  ("  On  Agri- 
 culture"').    It  appears  to  have  come  down  to  us  in  a 
 mutilated  state,  since  Pliny  and  other  writers  allude 
 to  subjects  as  treated  of  by  Cato,  and  to  opinions  as 
 delivered  by  him  in  this  book,  which  are  nowhere  to  be 
 found  in  any  part  of  the  work  now  extant.     In  its 
 present  state,  it  is  merely  the  loose,  unconnected  jour- 
 nal of  a  plain  farmer,  expressed  with  rude,  sometimes 
 with  almost  oracular,  brevity  ;  and  it  wants  all  those 
 elegant  topics  of  embellishment  and  illustration  which 
 the  subject    might  have   so   naturally  suggested.     It 
 consists  solely  of  the  dryest  rules  of  agriculture,  and 
 some  receipts  for  making  various  kinds  of  cakes  and 
 wine.      Servius  says,  it  is  addressed  to  the  author's 
 son,  but  there  is  no  such  address  now  extant.     The 
 most  remarkable  feature  in  this  work  of  Cato's  is  its 
 total  want  of  arrangement.      It  is  divided,  indeed,  into 
 chapters,  but  the   author  apparently  had  never  taken 
 the  trouble   of  reducing  his  precepts  to    any  sort  of 
 method,  or  of  following  any  general  plan.     The  hun- 
 dred and   sixty-two  chapters,  of  which  this  work  con- 
 sists, seem  so  many  rules  committed  to  writing,  as  the 
 daily  labours  of  the  field  suggested.     He  gives  direc- 
 tions about  the  vineyard,  then  goes  to  his  corn-fields, 
 and  returns  again  to  the  vineyard.    His  treatise,  there- 
 fore, was  evidently  not  intended  as  a  regular  and  well- 
 composed  book,  but  merely  as  a  journal  of  incidental 
 observations.      That  this  was  its  utmost  pretension,  is 
 farther  evinced  by  the  brevity  of  the  precepts,  and  the 
 deficiency  of  all  illustrations  or  embellishment.     Of  the 
 style,  he  of  course  would  be  little  careful,  as  his  Mem- 
 oranda were  intended  for  the  use   only  of  his  family 
 and  slaves.     It  is  therefore  always  simple,  and  some- 
 times rude,  but  it  is  not  ill-adapted  to  the  subject,  and 
 suits  our  notions  of  the  severe  manners  of  its  author 
 and  the  character  of  the  ancient  Romans — Besides 
 this  book  on  agriculture,  Cato  left  behind  him  various 
 works,  which  have  almost  entirely  perished.     He  left 
 a  hundred  and  fifty  orations  {Cicero,  Brutus,  c.  17), 
 which  were  existing  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  though  al- 
 most entirely  neglected,  and  a  book  on  military  disci- 
 pline {Vegclius,  I,  8),  Isoth  of  which,  if  now  extant. 
 
CATO. 
 
 CATO. 
 
 would  be  liigbly  interesting,  as  proceeding  from  one 
 who  was  equally  distinguished  in  the  camp  and  lorum. 
 A  good  many  of  his  orations  were  in  dissuasion  or 
 favour  of  particular  laws  and  measures  of  state.  By 
 his  readiness  and  pertinacity,  and  his  bitterness  in 
 speaking,  he  completely  wore  out  his  adversaries  (Liv., 
 39,  40),  and  earned  the  reputation  of  being,  if  not  the 
 most  eloquent,  at  least  the  most  stubborn,  speaker 
 among  the  Romans.  Both  Cicero  and  Livy  have  ex- 
 pressed themselves  very  fully  on  the  subject  of  Cato's 
 orations.  The  former  admits  that  his  "  language  is 
 antiquated,  and  some  of  his  phrases  harsh  and  inele- 
 gant:  but  only  change  that,"  he  continues,  "which  it 
 was  not  in  his  power  to  change — add  number  and  ca- 
 dence— give  an  easier  turn  to  his  sentences,  and  regu- 
 late the  structure  and  connexion  of  his  words,  and 
 you  will  find  no  one  who  can  claim  the  preference  to 
 Cato."  Livy  principally  speaks  of  the  facility,  asperi- 
 ty, and  freedom  of  his  tongue. — Of  the  book  on  mili- 
 tary discipline,  a  good  deal  has  been  incorporated  into 
 the  work  of  Vcgeiius  ;  and  Cicero's  orations  may  con- 
 sole us  for  the  want  of  those  of  Cato.  But  the  loss  of 
 ihe  seven  books,  Dc  Onginibus,  which  he  commenced 
 in  his  vigorous  old  age,  and  finished  just  before  his 
 death,  must  ever  be  deeply  deplored  by  the  historian 
 and  antiquary.  Cato  is  said  to  have  begun  to  inquire 
 into  the  history,  antiquities,  and  language  of  the  Ro- 
 man people,  with  a  view  to  counteract  the  influence 
 of  the  Greek  taste  introduced  by  the  Scipios.  The 
 first  book  of  the  valuable  work,  l)e  Onginibus,  as  we 
 are  informed  by  Cornelius  Nepos,  in  his  short  life  of 
 Cato,  contained  the  exploits  of  the  kings  of  Rome. 
 Cato  was  the  first  author  who  attempted  to  fix  the  era 
 of  the  foundation  of  Rome,  which  he  calculated  in  his 
 Origines,  and  determined  to  have  been  in  the  first  year 
 of  the  7th  Olympiad,  which  is  also  the  estimate  fol- 
 lowed by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus.  The  second 
 and  third  books  treated  of  the  origin  of  the  difTerent 
 states  of  Italy,  whence  the  whole  work  has  received 
 the  name  of  Orignics.  The  fourth  and  fifth  books 
 comprehended  the  history  of  the  first  and  second  Punic 
 wars  ;  and  in  the  two  remaining  books,  the  author  dis- 
 cussed the  other  wars  of  the  Romans  till  the  time  of 
 Servius  Galba,  who  overthrew  the  Lusilanians.  The 
 whole  work  e.\hibited  great  industry  and  learning,  and, 
 had  it  descended  to  us,  would  unquestionably  have 
 thrown  much  light  U|)on  the  early  periods  of  Roman 
 historv  and  the  antiquities  of  the  different  states  of  Ita- 
 ly. Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  himself  a  sedulous  in- 
 quirer into  aniiquities,  bears  ample  testimony  to  the 
 research  and  accuracy  of  that  part  which  treats  of  the 
 origin  of  the  ancient  Italian  cities. — Cato  vvas  the 
 first  of  his  countrymen  who  wrote  on  the  subject  of 
 medicine.  This  was  done  in  a  work  entitled  "  Coin- 
 mcntarius  quo  mrdclur  Filto,  Servis,  Famtliaribus." 
 In  this  book  of  domestic  medicine,  duck,  pigeons, 
 and  hare  were  the  food  he  chiefly  recommended  to 
 the  sick.  His  remedies  were  jirincipally  e.xtracted 
 from  herbs  ;  and  colewort  or  cabbage  was  his  favour- 
 ite cure.  {Pliny,  20,  9.)  The  recipes,  indeed, 
 contained  in  his  work  on  agriculture,  show  that  his 
 medical  knowledge  did  not  e.'fceed  that  which  usu- 
 ally exists  among  a  semi-barbarous  race,  and  only  ex- 
 tended to  the  most  ordinary  simples  which  nature  af- 
 fords.--Aulus  Gellius  (7,  10)  mentions  Cato's  Lihri 
 qu<csiiunum  Epislolicarum;  and  Cicero  his  Apoph- 
 Ihcgmaia  {Dc  OJiciis,  1,  29),  the  first  example,  prob- 
 ably, of  that  class  of  works  which,  under  the  appella- 
 tion of  Aria,  became  so  fashionable  and  prevalent  in 
 France.— The  only  other  work  of  Cato's  which  we 
 shall  here  mention  is  the  Carmen  de  Muribus.  This, 
 however,  was  not  written  in  verse,  as  might  be  sup- 
 posed from  the  title.  Precepts,  irnprecatio'ns,  or  pray- 
 ers, or  any  sel  furmulce  whatever,  were  called  Carmi- 
 na.  Misled,  however,  by  the  title,  some  critics  have 
 erroneously  assigned  to  the  censor  the  Disticha  de 
 
 Moribus,  now  generally  attributed  to  Dionysius  Cato, 
 
 who  lived,  according  to  Scaliger,  in  the  age  of  Com- 
 modus  and  Septimius  iSeverus.  {Plut.,  Vil.  Cat. 
 Maj. —  Biogr.  Univ  ,  vol.  7,  p.  399,  scgg. — Dunlop's 
 Roman  Lhcralure,  vol.  2,  p.  16,  scqq.) — The  pretend- 
 ed fragments  of  the  Ongincs,  published  by  the  Do- 
 minican, Nanni,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Annius 
 Viterbiensis,  and  inserted  in  his  Aniiquitates  Varia, 
 printed  at  Rome  in  1498,  are  spurious,  and  the  impo- 
 sition was  detected  soon  after  their  appearance,  'i'he 
 few  remains  first  collected  by  Riccobonus,  and  pub- 
 lished at  the  end  of  his  Treatise  on  History  {Basle, 
 1759),  are  believed  to  be  genuine.  They  have  been 
 enlarged  by  Ausonius  Popma,  and  added  by  him,  with 
 notes,  to  the  other  writings  of  Cato,  published  at  Ley- 
 den  in  1590. — The  best  edition  of  the  work  on  Agri- 
 culture is  contained  in  Gesner's  Scriptores  Rci  Rusti- 
 (CF,  2  vols.  4to,  Lips.,  1735.  —  II.  Marcus,  son  of  Cato 
 Ihe  Censor,  by  his  first  wife.  He  distinguished  him- 
 xelf  greatly  in  the  battle  of  Pydna,  against  Perses, 
 king  of  Macedonia,  and  received  high  eulogiums  from 
 Paulus  ^milius,  the  Roman  commander  on  that  oc- 
 casion, whose  daughter  Tertia  he  afterward  married. 
 He  died  while  filling  the  office  of  praetor.  {Plut.,  Vit. 
 Cat.  Maj.,  c.  20  et  24.)— III.  Salonius,  or,  as  Plu- 
 tarch calls  him,  Saloninus  {I,a?Mvivo^),  son  of  Gate 
 the  Censor,  by  his  second  wife.  This  second  wife  was 
 the  daughter  of  one  Salonius,  who  had  been  Cato's 
 secretary,  and  was,  at  the  tirrie  of  the  marriage,  a  mem- 
 ber of  his  retinue.  Salonius,  like  his  half-brother  Mar- 
 cus, died  when  praetor.  He  left,  however,  a  son  na- 
 med Marcus,  who  attained  to  the  consulship,  and  who 
 was  the  father  of  Cato  the  younger,  commonly  called 
 Uticensis.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Cat.  Ma.).,  c.  27.)— IV.  Va- 
 lerius, a  celebrated  grammarian  in  the  time  of  Sylla. 
 He  was  deprived  of  all  his  patrimony  during  the  ex- 
 cesses of  the  civil  war,  and  then  directed  his  attention 
 to  literary  pursuits.  He  wrote  a  poem  entitled  Dira 
 111  Batlarum,  "  Imprecations  on  Battarus."  It  was 
 directed  against  the  individual  who  had  profited  by  his 
 disgrace,  to  appropriate  to  himself  all  the  properly  of 
 the  former.  Suetonius,  who  has  preserved  some  ac- 
 count of  him,  mentions  two  other  poems  of  his,  the 
 one  entitled  Lydia,  the  other  Diana,  and  also  a  third 
 work,  probably  in  prose,  called  Indignatio,  in  which 
 he  gives  an  account  of  his  misfortunes.  These 
 three  works  are  lost.  {Sch'ull,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  152.) — V.  Dionysius,  a  writer  supposed  to  have 
 flourished  in  the  age  of  Commodus  and  Septimius  Sev- 
 eius,  and  who  is  regarded  as  the  author  of  the  Disti- 
 cha de  Moribus.  (Compare  Scaliger,  Led.  Auson., 
 232  —Ca.nnegieter,  Re.icnp.  Boxhorn.  de  Catone.,  c. 
 18.— B'dhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lilt.,  vol.  1,  p.  154.)— VI. 
 Marcus,  surnamed  JJticeiisis,  from  his  death  at  Utica, 
 was  great-grandson  to  the  censor  of  the  same  name, 
 and  born  B.C.  93.  A  short  time  after  his  birth  he 
 lost  boih  his  parents,  and  was  brought  up  in  the  man 
 sion  of  Livius  Drusus,  his  uncle  on  the  mother's  side. 
 Even  in  early  life  Cato  displayed  a  maturity  of  judg- 
 ment and  an  inflexible  firmness  of  character  far  above 
 his  years;  and  Sarpedon,  his  instructer,  being  accus- 
 tomed to  take  him  frequently  to  the  residence  of  Sylia, 
 who  had  been  his  father's  friend,  the  young  Cato,  then 
 but  fourteen  years  of  age,  struck  with  horror  at  the 
 bloody  scenes  that  were  passing  around  him,  asked 
 his  preceptor  for  a  sword  that  he  might  slay  the  tyrant. 
 His  afl'eclionate  disposition  was  clearly  displayed  in 
 his  strong  attachment  to  Ccepio,  his  brother  by  the 
 mother's  side,  as  may  be  seen  by  a  reference  to  the  pa- 
 ges of  Plutarch.  Being  appointed  to  the  priesthood 
 of  Apollo,  he  changed  his  residence,  and  took  his 
 share  of  his  father's  estate  ;  but,  though  the  fortune 
 which  he  thus  received  was  a  considerable  one,  his 
 manner  of  living  was  simpler  and  more  frugal  than 
 ever.  He  formed  a  particular  connexion  v/ith  An- 
 tipater  of  Tyre,  the   stoic   philosopher,  made  himself 
 
CATO. 
 
 CATO. 
 
 well  acquainted  with  the  tenets  of  this  school,  and  ever 
 after  remained  true  to  its  principles,  pushing  tiiein  even 
 to  the  extreme  of  austerity.  His  first  ajtpcarance  in 
 public  was  against  tlie  tribunes  of  the  people,  who 
 wished  to  remove  a  column  of  the  Porcian  Basilica,  or 
 Hall  of  Justice,  which  iiicoininoded  their  benches. 
 I'his  Basilica  had  been  erected  by  his  great-grandfa- 
 ther the  censor,  and  the  young  Cato  displayed  on  the 
 occasion  that  powerful  and  commanding  eloquence 
 which  afterward  rendered  hiin  so  formidable  to  all 
 }iis  opponents.  His  first  campaign  was  in  the  war 
 against  8partacus,  as  a  simple  volunteer,  his  half- 
 brother  Clapio  being  a  military  tribune  in  the  same 
 army  ;  and  he  distinguished  himself  so  highly,  that 
 Gellius,  the  praitor,  wished  to  award  him  a  prize  of 
 honour,  which  Cato,  however,  declined.  He  was 
 then  sent  as  military  tribune  to  Macedonia.  There 
 he  learned  that  Cspio  was  lying  dangerously  ill  at 
 yEtios  in  I'hrace,  and  instantly  embarked  for  that 
 place  in  a  small  passage-boat,  notwithstanding  the 
 roughness  of  the  sea  and  the  great  peril  which  at- 
 tended the  attempt,  but  only  arrived  at  ^iios  just 
 after  C«pio  had  breathed  his  last,  fcitoicism  was  here 
 of  no  avail,  and  the  young  Roman  bitterly  lamented 
 the  companion  of  his  early  years.  According  to  Plu- 
 tarch, there  were  some  who  condemned  him  for  act- 
 ing in  a  way  so  contradictory  to  his  philosophical  prin- 
 ciples ;  but  the  heavier  and  more  unfeeling  charge  was 
 the  one  brought  against  him  by  Caesar,  in  his  work  en- 
 titled "  Anti-Cato."  It  was  there  stated,  that,  after 
 all  the  lavish  expenditure  in  which  Cato  had  indulged 
 in  performing  the  funeral  obsequies  of  Caepio,  and 
 after  having  declined  repayment  from  the  daughter 
 of  the  latter,  he  nevertheless  passed  Caspio's  ashes 
 through  a  sieve  in  search  of  the  gold  which  might 
 have  melted  down  with  them  !  When  the  term  of  his 
 service  in  Macedonia  had  expired,  he  travelled  into 
 Asia,  and  brought  back  with  him  the  stoic  Atheno- 
 dorus  to  Rome.  He  was  ne.\t  made  quar'stor,  and  dis- 
 charged with  so  much  impartiality  the  duties  of  this 
 difficult  office,  and  displayed  so  much  integrity  in  its 
 various  details,  that,  on  the  last  day  of  his  quajstor- 
 ship,  he  was  escorted  to  his  house  by  the  whole  assem- 
 bly of  the  people.  So  high,  indeed,  was  the  opinion 
 entertained  by  his  countrymen  of  the  purity  of  his 
 moral  character,  that  when,  at  the  Floral  games  given 
 by  the  asdile  Messius,  Cato  happened  to  be  a  specta- 
 tor, the  people,  out  of  respect  for  him,  hesitated  about 
 ordering  the  dancers  to  lay  aside  their  vestments,  ac- 
 cording to  long-established  custom,  nor  would  they 
 allow  this  to  be  done  until  he  had  departed  from  the 
 theatre.  (  Fn/.  Max.,  2,  10,8.)  When  the  conspira- 
 cy of  Catiline  was  discovered,  Cato  sup[)orted  by 
 every  means  in  his  power  the  acts  of  Cicero,  and  was 
 the  first  that  gave  him  publicly  the  honourable  title  of 
 "  Father  of  his  Country."  Opposing  after  tliis  the 
 ambitious  movements  of  the  first  triumvirate,  they 
 managed  to  have  him  removed  to  a  distance,  by  send- 
 ing him  out  as  governor  of  the  island  of  Cyprus. 
 Having  executed  this  trust  with  ability  and  success, 
 and  having  deposited  in  the  treasury  nearly  seven 
 thousand  talents  of  silver,  he  again  took  jiart  in  public 
 affairs  at  Rome,  and  again  continued  his  op))osition 
 to  the  triumvirate.  When,  however,  the  rupture  took 
 place  between  Pompcy  and  Cajsar,  he  sided  with  the 
 former,  and  was  left  behind  by  him  at  Dyrrhachium 
 to  guard  the  military  chest  and  magazine,  while  he 
 pushed  on  after  Ca:sar,  who  had  been  forced  to  retire 
 from  the  siege  of  that  city.  Cato,  therefore,  was  not 
 present  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  On  receiving  the 
 news  of  this  event  he  sailed  to  Corcyra  with  the 
 troops  under  his  orders,  and  offered  the  command  to 
 Cicero,  who  declined  it.  He  then  proceeded  to  Afri- 
 ca, where  he  hoped  to  meet  with  Pompey,  but  on 
 reaching  Cyrene  he  heard  of  his  death,  and  was  also 
 informed  that  Pompey 's  father-in-law,  Scipio,  had  gone 
 320 
 
 to  Juba,  king  of   Mauritania,  where  Varus  had  col- 
 lected  a  considerable  force.     Cato  immediately  resolv- 
 ed to  join  them,  and,  in  order  to  effect  this,  was  com- 
 pelled to  make  a  long  and  painful  march  across  a  des- 
 ert region,  in  which  his  troops  suffered  severely  from 
 hunger,  thirst,  and  every  hardship,  but  which  priva- 
 tions his  own  example  enabled  them  manfully  to  en- 
 dure.     After  seven  days  of  suffering  his  force  reach- 
 ed Utica,  where  a  junction  between  the   two  armies 
 took  place.     The  soldiers  wished  to  have  him  for  their 
 general,  but  he  yielded  to  what  he  conceived  to  be  the 
 superior  claims  of  Scipio,  who  held  the  office  of  pro- 
 consul ;   and  this  fault  on  his  part,  of  which  he  soon 
 after  had  reason  to  repent,  accelerated  the  ruin  of  the 
 cause  in  which  he  had  embarked.      Scipio  having  wish- 
 ed, for  Juba's  gratification,  to  put  all  the   inhabitants 
 of  Utica  to  the  sword,  Cato  strenuously  opposed  this 
 cruel  plan,  and  accepted  the  command   of  this  impor- 
 tant city,  while  Scipio  and  Labienus  marched  against 
 Caesar.      Cato  had  advised  them  to  protract  the  war  ; 
 but  they  hazarded  an  engagement  at  'I'hupsus,  in  which 
 they  were  entirely  defeated,  and  Africa   submitted   to 
 the  victor.     After  vainly  endeavouring  to  ])revail  upon 
 the  fragments  of  the  conquered  artny,  as  they  came 
 successively  to  Utica,  to  unite  in  defending  that  city 
 against  the  conqueror,  Cato  furnished  them  with  al! 
 the  ships  in  the  harbour  to  convey  them  whitherso- 
 ever they  wished  to  go.     When  the  evening  of  that 
 day  came,  he  retired  to  his  own  apartments,  and  em- 
 ployed himself  for  some  time  in  reading  the  Pha'don 
 of  Plato,  a  dialogue  that  turns  upon  the  immortality  of 
 the  soul.     He  endeavoured  at  the  same  time  to  lull 
 the   suspicions   of  his  friends,  by  seeming  to  take  a 
 lively  interest  in  the  fate  of  those  who  were  escaping 
 by  sea  from  Utica,  and  by  sending  several  times  to  the 
 seaside  to  learn  the  state  of  the  wind  and  weather. 
 But  towards  morning,  when  all  was  quiet,  he  stabbed 
 himself     He  fell  from  his  bed  with  the  blow,  and  the   ' 
 noise  of  his  fall  brought  his  son  and  servants  into  the 
 room,   by  whose   assistance    he  was  raised  from  the 
 ground,   and   an   attempt  was  made    to  bind    up  the 
 wound.     Their  eflbrts  to  save  him  were  in  vain  :  for 
 Cato  had  no  sooner  recovered  his  self-possession,  than 
 he  tore  open  the  wound  again  in  so  effectual  a  manner 
 that  he  instantly  expired.      He  died  at  the  age  of  48; 
 and  when  Cassar  heard  of  his  fate  he  is  said   to  have 
 e.xclaimed,  "I  grudge  thee  thy  death,  Cato,  since  thou 
 hast  grudged  me  the  saving  of  thy  life." — Such  was 
 the  end  of  a  man  whom  a  better  philosophy,  by  teach- 
 ing him  to  struggle  with  his  predominant  faults  instead 
 of  encouraging  them,  would  have  rendered  trulv  ami- 
 able and  admirable.     He  possessed  the  greatest  integ- 
 rity and  firmness  ;  and,  from  the  beginning  of  his  po- 
 litical career,  was  never  swayed  by  fear  or  interest  to 
 desert  that  which  he  considered  the  course  of  liberty 
 and  justice.      He  is  said  to  have  foreseen  C:esar's  de- 
 signs long  before  they  were  generally  suspected  ;   but 
 his  well-known  animosity  against  him  rendered  his  au- 
 thority on  the  subject  less  weighty  ;   and  his  zeal  led 
 him  to  miscalculate  the  strength  of  the  commonwealth, 
 when  he  earnestly  advised  the  senate  to  adopt  those 
 measures  which  gave  Cssar  a  pretence  for  commen- 
 cing hostilities.     During  the  civil  war  he  had  the  rare 
 merit  of  uniting  to   the  sincerest  ardour  in  the  cause 
 of  his  party  a  steady  regard  for  justice  and  humanity  ; 
 he  would  not  countenance  cruelty  or  rapine  because 
 practised  by  his  associates  or  coloured  with  pretences 
 of  public  advantage.     But  philosophical    pride   over- 
 shadowed the  last  scenes  of  his  life,  and  led   him  to 
 indulge  his  selfish  feelings  by  suicide,  rather  than  live 
 for  the  happiness  of  his  family  and  friends,  and  miti- 
 gate, as  far  as  lay  in  his  power,  the  distressed  condi- 
 tion of  his  country.     His  character,  however,  was  so 
 pure,  and,  since  Pompey's  death,  so  superior  to  that  of 
 all  the  leaders  engaged  with  him  in  the  same  cause, 
 that  his  opponents  could  not  refuse  him  their  respect 
 
CAT 
 
 CATULLUS. 
 
 End  praise  ;    and  his  name  has  become   a   favourite  j  by  C»sar  in  that  year.     He  had  satirized  the  dictator, 
 iheme  of  paneiryric  in  modern  times,  as  that  of  the    who  revenged  himself,  lilie  a  man  of  the  world  and  a 
 
 most  upright  and  persevering  defender  of  the  liberties 
 of  Rome.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Cat.  Min.—Biogr.  Univ.,  vol. 
 7,  p.  405,  scqq.—Encydop.  MelropoL,  Div.  3,  vol.  2, 
 p.  261.)— -VIl!  M.  Porcius,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
 spared  by  Coesar,  but  led  a  somewhat  unmoral  life, 
 until  he  effaced  every  stain  upon  his  character  by  a 
 glorious  death  at  Phihppi.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Cat.  Mm.,  c. 
 73.) 
 
 Catti  or  Chattj  (Xtirrot,  Slrah. — Xurrai,  Ptol. — 
 Catti,  Tactt. — Chatti,  PLin.),  a  powerful  nation  of 
 Germany,  little  known,  however,  to  the  Romans,  since 
 that  people,  though  they  made  some  incursions  into 
 their  country,  never  had  a  fixed  settlement  therein. 
 Cssar  knew  nothing  more  of  them  than  that  they  lived 
 in  the  vicinity  of  the  Ubii,  and  that  in  the  interior  a 
 wood  called  Bacenis  separated  them  from  the  Cherus- 
 ci.  Tacitus  describes  them  more  closely,  and  assigns 
 the  Decumates  Agri  for  their  southern  boundary,  and 
 the  Hercynian  forest  for  their  eastern.  The  country 
 of  the  Catti  would  seem  to  have  comprehended  the 
 territory  of  Hesse  and  other  adjacent  parts.  The 
 name  Catti  or  Chatti,  and  the  more  modern  Hassen 
 and  Hcssen,  appear  to  be  identical.  (Compare  Wenk, 
 Hessischcn  Landesgeschichle,  vol.  2,  p.  22. — Man- 
 nert,  Geogr.,  ~\o\.  3,  p.  183,  seqq.)  A  fortress  of  the 
 Catti,  called  Castellum,  still  bears  the  name  of  Cas- 
 sel ;  but  their  capital  Mattium  is  now  Marpurg. 
 
 C.4.TULLUS,  Caius  Valerius,  a  celebrated  poet,  born 
 of  respectable  parents  in  the  territory  of  Verona,  but 
 whether  in  the  town  so  called,  or  on  the  peninsula  of 
 Sirmio,  which  projects  into  the  Lake  Benacus,  has  been 
 a  subject  of  much  controversy.  The  former  opinion 
 has  been  maintained  by  Maffei  {Vero7ia  Illustrata,  pt. 
 2,  c.  1)  and  Bayle  {Diet.  Hist.,  art.  Catullus),  and  the 
 latter  by  Gyraldus  (Z?e  Poet.,  dial.  10),  SchoU  [Hist. 
 Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  1,  p.  310),  Fuhrmann  (Handbuch  der 
 Class.,  vol..!,  p.  187),  and  most  modern  writers. 
 The  precise  period,  as  well  as  place,  of  the  birth  of 
 Catullus,  is  a  topic  of  debate  and  uncertainty.  Ac- 
 cording to  the  Eusebian  chronicle,  he  was  born  A.U.C. 
 666,  but  according  to  other  authorities  in  667  {Saxii 
 Onomast.,  vol.  1,  p.  148)  or  668.  In  consequence  of  an 
 invitation  from  Manlius  Torquatus,  one  of  the  noblest 
 patricians  of  the  state,  he  proceeded  in  early  youth  to 
 Rome,  where  he  appears  to  have  kept  but  indifferent 
 company,  at  least  in  point  of  moral  character.  He  im- 
 paired his  fortune  so  much  by  his  extravagance,  that 
 he  complains  he  had  no  one 
 
 "  Fractum  qui  veteris  pedem  grabali, 
 In  collo  sibi  collocare  possit." 
 
 This,  however,  must  partly  have  been  written  in 
 jest,  as  his  finances  were  always  sufficient  to  allow 
 him  to  keep  up  a  delicious  villa  on  the  peninsula  of 
 Sirmio,  and  an  expensive  residence  at  Tibur.  With 
 a  view  of  improving  his  pecuniary  circumstances,  he 
 adopted  the  usual  Roman  mode  of  re-establishing  a 
 diminished  fortune,  and  accompanied  Caius  Memmi- 
 us,  the  celebrated  patron  of  Lucretius,  to  Bitbynia, 
 where  he  was  appointed  prator  to  that  province.  His 
 situation,  however,  was  but  little  meliorated  by  this 
 expedition,  and,  in  the  course  of  it,  he  lost  a  beloved 
 brother  who  was  along  with  him,  and  whose  death  was 
 lamented  in  verses  never  surpassed  in  dc4icacy  or  pa- 
 thos. He  came  back  to  Rome  with  a  shattered  con- 
 stitution and  a  lacerated  heart.  From  the  period  of 
 his  return  to  Italy  till  his  decease,  his  time  appears  to 
 have  been  chiefly  occupied  with  the  prosecution  of  li- 
 centious amours  in  the  capital  or  in  the  solitudes  of 
 Sirmio.  The  Eusebian  chronicle  places  his  death  in 
 A.U.C.  696,  and  some  writers  fix  it  in  705.  It  is  evi- 
 dent, however,  that  he  must  have  survived  at  least  till 
 708,  as  Cicero,  in  his  Letters,  talks  of  his  verses  against 
 
 man  of  sense  and  good  temper,  by  asking  the  satirist 
 to  sup  with  him.     The  distracted  and  unhappy  state 
 of  his  country,  and  his  disgust  at  the  treatment  which 
 he  had  received  from  Memmius,  were  perhaps  suffi- 
 cient excuse  for  shunning  political  employments  ;  but 
 when  we  consider  his  taste  and  genius,  we  cannot  help 
 regretting  that  he  was  merely  an  idler  and  a  debauchee. 
 He  loved  Clodia  (supposed  to  have  been  the  sister  of 
 the  infamous  Clodius),  a  beautiful  but  shameless  wom- 
 an, whom  he  has  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Les- 
 bia,  as  comparing  her  to  the  Lesbian  Sappho,    Among 
 his  friends  he  ranked  not  only  most  men  of  pleasure 
 and  fashion  in  Rome,  but  many  of  her  eminent  litera- 
 ry and  political  characters,  as  Cornelius  Nepos,  Cice- 
 ro, and  Asinius  PoUio.     His  enmities  seem  to  have 
 been  as  numerous  as  his  loves  or  friendships,  and  com- 
 petitions in  poetry  or  rivalship  in  gallantry  appear  al- 
 ways to  have  been  a  sufficient  cause  for  his  dislike ; 
 and  where  an  antipathy  was  once  conceived,  he  was 
 unable  to  put  any  restraint  on  the  expression  of  his 
 hostile  feelings.     His  poems  are  chiefly  employed  in 
 the  indulgence  and  commemoration  of  these  various 
 passions.     They  have  been  divided  into  lyric,  elegiac, 
 and  epigrammatic,  an  arrangement   convenient   from 
 its  generality,  but  to  which  all  cannot  with  strictness 
 be   reduced.     He   seems   to   have    been  the  earliest 
 Ivric  poet  of  Latium,   notwithstanding  the  claim  of 
 Horace   to   the   same    honour.     Much  of  his   poetry 
 appears  to  have  been  lost :  the  pieces  that  remain  to 
 us  exhibit,  in  singular  contrast,  the  sensual  grossne.ss 
 which  is  imbibed  from  depraved  habits  and  loose  ima- 
 ginations, together  with  gleams  of  sentiment  and  taste, 
 and  the  polish  of  intellectual  cultivation.     They  who 
 turn  with  disgust  from  the  coarse  impurities  that  sul- 
 ly his    pages,  may   be  inclined    to    wonder   that   the 
 term  of  delicacy  should  ever  have  been  coupled  with 
 the  name  of  Catullus.     But  to  many  of  his  effusions, 
 distinguished  both  by  fancy  and  feeling,  this  praise  is 
 justly  due.     Many  of  his  amatory  trifles  are  quite  un- 
 rivalled in  the  elegance  of  their  playfulness  ;  and  no 
 author  has  excelled  him  in  the  purity  and   ne^^iess 
 of  his  style,  the  delightful  ease  and  rare  simplicity 
 of  his  manner,  and  his  graceful  turns  of  thought  and 
 happiness  of  expression.     Some  of  his  pieces,  which 
 breathe  the  higher  enthusiasm  of  the  art,  and  are  col- 
 oured  with  a    singular   picturesqueness  of   imagery, 
 increase  our  regret  at  the  manifest  mutilation  of  his 
 works.  No  one  of  his  poetical  predecessors  was  more 
 versed  in  Greek  literature  than  Catullus,  and  his  ex- 
 tensive knowledge  of   its  beauties  procured  for  him 
 the  appellation  of  Doctus  :  unless  we  understand  by 
 the  term  in  question,  not  "  learned,''  but  rather  know- 
 ing and  accomplished  ;  what  the  old   English  writers 
 generally  signify  by  "  cunning,"  as  "  cunning  in  mu- 
 sic and  the  matheniatics."     Catullus  translated  many 
 of  the  shorter  and  more  delicate  pieces  of  the  Greeks, 
 an  attempt  which  hitherto  had  been  thought  impossi- 
 ble, though  the  broad  humour  of  their  comedies,  the 
 vehement  pathos  of  their  tragedies,  and  the  romantic 
 interest  of  the  Odyssey,  had  stood  the  transformation. 
 His   stay   in  Bithynia,  though  little  advantageous  to 
 his  fortune,  rendered   him  better  acquainted  than   he 
 might  otherwise    have  been  with  the  productions  of 
 Greece  ;  and  he  was   therefore,  in  a  great  degree,  in- 
 debted to  this  expedition  (on  which  he  always  appears 
 to  have  looked  back  with  mortification  and  disappoint- 
 ment) for  those  felicitous   turns  of  expression,  that 
 grace,  simplicity,  and  purity  which  are  the  characteris- 
 tics of  his  poems,  and  of  which  hitherto  Greece  alone 
 had  afforded  models.     Indeed,  in  all  his  verses,  wheth- 
 er elegiac  or  heroic,  we  perceive  his  imitation  of  the 
 Greeks  ;  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  he  has  drawn 
 from  them  his  choicest  stores.     His  Hellenisms  are 
 
 Caesar  and  Mamurra  as  newly  written,  and  first  seen  |  frequent ;  his  images,  similes,  metaphors,  and  addreas- 
 S  s  331 
 
C  A  U 
 
 C  AU 
 
 es  to  himself  arc  all  Greek ;  and  even  in  the  versifica- 
 tion of  his  odes  we  see  visible  traces  of  their  origin. 
 Nevertheless,  he  was  the  inventor  of  a  new  sjiecies  of 
 Latin  poetry  ;  and  as  he  was  the  first  who  used  such 
 variety  of  measures,  and  perhaps  invented  some  that 
 were  new,  he  was  amply  entitled  to  call  the  poetical 
 volume  which  he  presented  to  Cornelius  Nepos  Lcpi- 
 dum  Novum  Libcllum.  The  beautiful  expressions, 
 too,  and  idioms  of  the  Greek  language,  which  he  has 
 so  carefully  selected,  are  woven  with  such  art  into  the 
 texture  of  his  composition,  and  so  aptly  paint  the  im- 
 passioned ideas  of  his  amorous  muse,  that  they  have 
 all  the  fresh  and  untarnished  hues  of  originality. ^The 
 best  editions  of  Catullus  are,  that  of  Vuljiius,  Patav., 
 4to,  1737,  and  that  of  Doring,  Lips.,  8vo,  1788,  re- 
 printed in  London,  1820.  The  works  of  this  poet 
 have  also  been  frequently  edited  in  conjunction  with 
 those  of  Tibullus  and  Propertius,  of  which  the  best 
 edition  is  perhaps  that  of  Morell,  Paris,  fol.,  1604. 
 {B'dhr,  Gcsch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  253,  seqq. — 
 Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  1,  p.  236,  310,  scqq. — 
 Elton'' s  Specimens,  vol.  2,  p.  31. —  Dunlop,  Rom. 
 Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  454,  seqq.) 
 
 Catulus,  Q.  LuTATius,  I.  a  Roman  naval  com- 
 mander, famous  for  his  victory  over  the  fleet  of  the 
 Carthaginians,  consisting  of  400  sail,  off  the  JEgates 
 InsulcE  ;  forty  of  the  Carthaginian  vessels  were  sunk, 
 seventy  taken,  and  the  remainder  dispersed.  This 
 celebrated  victory  put  an  end  to  the  first  Punic  war. 
 {Vid.  Agates  Insulte.) — II.  A  celebrated  Roman,  the 
 colleague  of  Marius  in  the  consulship,  and  who  jointly 
 triumphed  with  him  over  the  Cimbri.  He  was  con- 
 demned to  death  by  Marius,  during  the  tyrannical  sway 
 of  the  latter,  and  suffocated  himself  in  a  newly-plaster- 
 ed room  by  the  steam  of  a  large  fire.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Mar. 
 —  Veil.  Paterc,  2,  22.) 
 
 Caturiges,  a  Gallic  nation,  dwelling  among  the 
 Cottian  Alps.  (Plin.,  3,  20.)  Their  capital  was  Ca- 
 turiga,  traces  of  which  are  found,  according  to  D'An- 
 ville,  at  Chorges,  between  Gap  and  Embrun,  in  the 
 department  ^es  Hautcs-Alpcs.  {Lemaire,Ind.  Geogr. 
 ad  CcBs.,  p.  228,  seq.) 
 
 CMc.Xsus,  the  name  of  the  highest  and  most  e.xten- 
 sive  range  of  mountains  in  the  northern  part  of  Asia, 
 and  which  the  ancients  erroneously  considered  as  a 
 continuation  of  the  chain  of  Taurus.  According  to 
 Strabo,  it  extended  from  the  Eu.xine  to  the  Caspian 
 Sea.  It  divided  Albania  and  Iberia  towards  the  south, 
 from  the  level  country  of  the  Sarmatas  on  the  north. 
 The  inhabitants  of  these  mountains  formed,  according 
 to  some,  seventy,  and  according  to  others,  300  different 
 nations,  who  spoke  various  languages,  and  lived  in  a 
 savage  state.  The  breadth  of  this  chain,  according  to 
 the  best  Russian  authorities,  is  about  400  miles  be- 
 tween the  mouths  of  the  Don  and  Kooma  ;  about  756 
 betw'een  the  straits  of  Cajfa  and  the  peninsula  of  ^4^9- 
 sheron  ;  and  about  350  between  the  mouths  of  the 
 Phasis  and  the  city  of  Dcrbcnd.  The  etymology  of 
 the  name  of  Caucasus,  so  celebrated  in  history  and 
 poetry,  is  not  agreed  upon  ;  the  most  probable  opinion 
 is  that  which  connects  it  with  the  Asi,  the  early  divin- 
 ities of  Asia.  {Vid.  Asi.)  The  range  of  Caucasus 
 cannot  be  compared  with  the  Alps  in  point  of  eleva- 
 tion, though  in  resemblance  it  may,  as  the  middle  of 
 the  chain  is  covered  with  glaciers,  or  white  with  eter- 
 nal snows.  The  highest  summit  is  only  5900  feet 
 above  the  level  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  two  principal 
 passages  of  Caucasus  are  mentioned  by  the  ancients 
 under  the  name  of  the  Caucasian  and  Albanian  gates. 
 The  first  is  the  defile  which  leads  from  Masdok  to 
 Tiflis.  It  is  the  narrow  valley  of  four  days'  journey, 
 where,  according  to  Strabo,  the  river  Aragon,  now 
 called  Arakui,  flows.  It  is,  as  Pliny  calls  it,  an 
 enormous  work  of  nature,  which  has  cut  out  a  long 
 opening  among  the  rocks,  that  an  iron  gate  would  be 
 almost  sufficient  to  close.  It  is  by  this  passage  that 
 322 
 
 the  barbarians  of  the  north  threatened  both  ibe  Roman 
 and  the  Persian  empire.  It  is  now  called  Dariel. 
 The  Albanian  pass  of  the  ancients  was,  according  to 
 common  ojjinion,  the  pass  of  Derbend  along  the  Cas- 
 pian Sea.  Later  and  better  authorities  sanction  the 
 belief,  however,  that  it  was  the  same  with  the  Sarma- 
 tian  pass,  and  coincides  with  a  defile  passing  through 
 the  territory  of  Ooma- khan,  along  the  frontier  of  Da- 
 gkestan,  and  then  traversing  the  district  of  Kagmam- 
 sharie.  {Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  12,  Brus- 
 sels  cd.) 
 
 Caucones,  a  people  of  Paphlagonia,  who  occupied 
 the  coast  of  the  Euxine  from  the  Maryandynes  as  far 
 as  the  river  Parthenius.  Some  pretend  that  they  were 
 of  Arcadian  origin,  in  common  with  the  Pelasgi,  and 
 roamed  about  like  this  latter  people  {Strab.,  345), 
 while,  according  to  others,  they  were  of  Scythian  ex- 
 traction. (Strab.,  5A2.)  A  portion  of  these  Caucones 
 are  said  to  have  passed  into  Greece,  and  occupied  a 
 territory  in  the  division  of  Elis,  called  Coele,  or  "  the 
 hollow."  Another  part  settled  in  Triphylian  Elis.  It 
 is  of  the  latter  that  Herodotus  speaks  (1,  147  ;  4,  148. 
 — Compare  Larchcr,  Hist.  d^Herod.,  vol.  8,  p.  106, 
 Table  Geographique). 
 
 Caudium,  a  city  of  Samnium,  the  position  of  which 
 is  not  perfectly  agreed  upon  by  antiquaries  :  most  of 
 them,  indeed,  place  it,  with  Holstenius,  who  examined 
 the  whole  of  this  tract  with  great  accuracy,  at  Arpaia. 
 But  D'Anville  assigns  it  a  situation  a  few  miles  farther 
 towards  Beneventum.  In  the  vicinity  of  Caudium 
 was  the  famous  defile  called  Furca.  Cauiinct,  where 
 the  Roman  army  was  compelled  by  the  Samnites  to 
 pass  under  the  yoke.  The  present  valley  of  Arpaia,  is 
 thought  to  answer  to  this  pass.  (Cramer'' s  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  243.) 
 
 Caulonia  or  Caulon,  a  city  of  Brutium,  in  lower 
 Italy,  on  the  seacoast,  a  short  distance  south  of  Cocin- 
 tum  Promontorium,  and  between  that  and  the  Zephyri- 
 an  Promontory.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  colonies 
 founded  by  the  Achaeans  on  these  shores (S^r«i.,  261. — 
 Scymn.,  Ch.,  v.  317),  and  the  name  originally,  perhaps, 
 was  Aulon.  (Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  AvT^uv.)  That  it 
 held  a  distinguished  rank  among  the  republics  of  Mag- 
 na Graecia  we  may  collect  from  Polybius  (2,  39),  who 
 records  its  alliance  with  Crotona  and  Sybaris.  It  was 
 razed  to  the  ground  by  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  who  re- 
 moved the  inhabitants  to  his  capital  (Died.  Sic,  14, 
 106),  but  it  must  have  arisen  again  from  its  ruins, 
 since,  during  the  war  with  Pyrrhus,  it  espoused  the 
 cause  of  that  prince,  and  was,  in  consequence,  attacked 
 and  pillaged  by  the  Mamertini,  who  were  the  allies  of 
 the  Romans.  (Pansan.,  6,  3  )  The  town  was  sub- 
 sequently occupied  by  the  Brutii,  who  defended  it 
 against  the  Romans  during  the  second  Punic  war. 
 The  siege  was  raised  by  Hannibal.  (Li v.,  27,  12  et 
 15. — Plut.,  Vit.  Fab.  Max.)  Banio,  and  the  other 
 Calabrian  topographers,  fixed  its  site  at  Castro  vctcre  ; 
 but  the  opinion  of  the  best-informed  antiquaries  is  in 
 favour  of  ylfero.     (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  402.) 
 
 Caukus,  a  city  of  Caria,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tarbe- 
 lus,  west  of  the  Sinus  Glaucus.  It  appears  to  have 
 been  the  capital  of  a  people,  whom  Herodotus  regarded 
 as  differing  from  the  Carians  in  some  important  par- 
 ticulars, and  possessing  more  of  the  character  of  an  in- 
 digenous nation.  (Herod.,  I,  172.)  This  city,  though 
 possessing  the  advantages  of  a  good  harbour  and  a  very 
 fertile  territory,  was  nevertheless  reckoned  particularly 
 unhealthy  during  the  summer  by  reason  of  the  exces- 
 sive heat ;  the  abundance  of  fruit  was  also  prejudicial 
 to  the  health  of  its  inhabitants.  Under  the  Byzantine 
 emperors,  Caunus  formed  part  of  Lycia.  (HicrocL,  p. 
 68.5. — Compare  the  Acts  of  Councils  and  Notitise. — 
 Geogr.  Sacr.,  p.  248.)  The  site  of  Caunus  is  now 
 occupied  by  a  small  town  and  seaport  named  Kaiguea 
 or  Kheutrez,  about  four  miles  to  the  south  of  the  e«- 
 trance  6(  the  Calbis  into  the  sea.     (Cramer's  Asia 
 
CKB 
 
 C  EC 
 
 Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  193,  seqg.)  The  figs  of  this  place 
 were  famous.  Cicero  (de  Div.,  2,  4)  mentions  the  cry 
 of  a  person  who  sold  Caunian  figs  at  Brundisium,  as 
 a  bad  omen  against  Crassus  when  setting  out,  at  the 
 time,  on  his  Parthian  expedition.  The  cry  of  the  fig- 
 vender  was  Caimcas  (supply  ficus  erne,  or  vendo),  and 
 this  to  a  Roman  ear  would  sound  very  much  like  cave 
 ■Ke  eas,  pronounced  rapidly,  that  is,  like  caw''  n'  cas, 
 the  letter  v  being  sounded  by  the  Romans  like  u. 
 {Schneider,  L.  G.,  vol.  1,  p.  357,  segq.) 
 
 Cayster  or  Caystkus,  a  rapid  river  of  Asia,  rising 
 in  Lydia,  and,  after  a  meandering  course,  falling  into 
 the  JEgean  Sea  near  Ephesus.  Near  its  mouth  it 
 formed  a  marsh  called  Asia  Palus,  or  the  Asian  marsh, 
 and  the  same  with  the  'Katog  Aei/nuv  of  Homer,  much 
 frequented  by  swans  and  other  water-fowl.  The 
 Cayster  is  now  called  the  Kitchik  Minder,  or  Little 
 Maeander,  from  its  winding  course.  {Plin.,  5,  29. — 
 Strab.,  6^2.— Horn.,  IL,  2,  i70.—  Virg.,  Gcorg.,  1, 
 Zm.—Id.,  JEn.,  7,  699.— Ovid,  Met.,  5,  386.— Mar- 
 lial,  £>.,  1,  54,  6.) 
 
 Cebenna  Mons,  a  range  of  mountains  in  Gaul,  com- 
 mencing in  the  territory  of  the  Volcae  Tectosages,  run- 
 ning thence  in  a  northern  direction  into  the  country  of 
 the  Ruteni,  communicating  by  a  side-chain  with  the 
 mountains  of  the  Arverni  to  the  northwest,  while  the 
 main  range  pursues  its  course  towards  the  northeast 
 ^nd  north,  connecting  itself,  in  the  former  direction 
 with  Mount  Jura,  and  in  the  latter  with  Mount  Voge- 
 sus  ( Vosge).  The  modern  name  of  the  range  is  the 
 Cevennes,  in  the  departments  of  PAveyron,  la  Lozere, 
 and  VArdeche.  {Cces.,  B.  G.,7,4:Ct  56.)  Pliny  calls 
 this  range  Gehenna  (3,  4) ;  Ptolemy,  Strabo,  and  the 
 Greeks  in  general,  style  it  Ke/ifiei'ov  bpog.  Avienus 
 {Or.  Marit.,  614)  calls  the  adjacent  region  Cimenice. 
 (Compare  Wernsdorff,  ad  loc. — Lemaire,  Index  Geogr. 
 ad  CcBs.,  s.  v.,  p.  239.) 
 
 Cedes,  I.  a  Greek  philosopher,  and  disciple  of  Soc- 
 rates, and  also  one  of  the  interlocutors  whom  Plato  in- 
 troduces in  his  dialogue  entited  Phsedon.  He  was 
 born  at  Thebes,  and  composed  three  dialogues,  called 
 Hebdome  {'E6d6firi),  Phrynichus  {<ipvvixo(;),  and  Pi- 
 fiax,  or  the  Picture  {Hlva^).  The  last  is  the  only  one 
 which  has  come  down  to  us.  It  is  commonly  cited 
 by  its  Latin  title  Cchetis  Tabula  (i.  e.,  picta),  and  is  a 
 moral  sketch  or  picture  of  human  life,  written  in  a 
 pleasing  and  simple  style.  Some  critics  have  raised 
 doubts  as  to  the  authenticity  of  this  little  work.  It 
 breathes,  indeed,  a  very  pure  vein  of  morality,  but  is  not 
 composed,  as  they  think,  in  the  true  spirit  of  the  So- 
 cratic  school ;  and  they  are  disposed,  therefore,  to  regard 
 it  as  the  work  of  some  stoic,  perhaps  Cebes  of  Cyzicus 
 (No.  II.),  who  wished  to  show  that  happiness  consisted 
 m  the  practice  of  virtue.  But  it  is  expressly  attributed 
 to  Cebes  by  Lucian  {de  Mcrcede  Conduct.,  c.  42),  and 
 after  him  by  Tertullian  {de  Prascri'pt.  adv.  Hceref..,  c. 
 39),  Diogenes  Laertius  (2,  125),  Chalcidius,  and  Sui- 
 das.  Wolff  was  the  first  among  the  moderns  who 
 ventured  to  call  in  question  this  testimony  of  the  an- 
 cients, and  he  has  been  followed  on  the  same  side  by 
 the  Abbe  Sevin  {Mem.  de  PAcad.  dcs  Inscr.,  &c., 
 vol.  3,  p.  75. — Compare  the  dissertation  of  Gamier,  in 
 the  same  collection,  vol.  49,  p.  455).  No  work  of  an- 
 tiquity has  met  with  a  wider  circulation.  It  has  been 
 translated  into  almost  all  the  modern  languages,  even 
 into  the  Arabic— The  best  editions  of  Cebes  are,  that 
 of  Schweighaeuscr,  Anient.,  12mo,  1806,  and  that  of 
 Thiemc,  Ikrol.,  8vo,  ^810,  with  German  notes  of 
 great  merit.  {Schbli,  Hist.  Ut.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  346.)— 
 II.  A  philosopher  of  Cyzicus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
 Marcus  Aurclius.  (Compare  Athena;us,  4,  p.  156.— 
 Ed.  Schimgh,  vol.  2,  p.  109,  and  Gamier,  Dissert, 
 surle  Tableau  de  Cebes.— Mem.  de  VAcad.dcs  Inscr., 
 &c.,  vol.  49,  p.  455.) 
 
 CEBRiiNE,  a  city  of  Troas,  capital  of  a  small  district 
 named  from  it  Cebrenia.     This  district  was  separated 
 
 by  the  Scamander  (the  Simois  of  Homer)  from  tlie 
 territory  of  Scepsis,  as  Strabo  informs  us,  and  the 
 Cebrenians  and  the  people  of  Scepsis  were  almost 
 continually  at  war,  until  Antigonus  removed  the  in- 
 habitants of  both  places  to  Antigonia,  afterward  Alex- 
 andrea Troas.  {Strab.,  597.)  According  to  Ephorus, 
 Cebrene  had  received  a  colony  from  the  yEolian  Cyme. 
 {Ap.  Harpocr.,  s.  v.  KedpTjva.)  Xenophon  affirms 
 that  it  was  a  place  of  great  strength.  {Hist.  Gr.,  3, 
 1,  14).  The  site  is  called  at  the  present  day  Kutchu- 
 lan-tepe.     {Cramer^s  Asia  Minor,  \o\.  1,  p.  119.) 
 
 Cebrus,  a  river  of  Mcesia,  flowing  into  the  Danube, 
 and  separating  Upper  from  Lower  Mcesia.  It  is  now 
 either  the  Ischa,  a  small  Bulgarian  stream,  or  the  Zib- 
 riz.     {Dio  Cass.,  51,  25.) 
 
 Ceceopia,  the  original  name  of  Athens,  in  honour 
 of  Cecrops,  its  first  founder.     {Vid.  Cecrops.) 
 
 CecropiDjE,  f  name  given  to  the  Athenians  by  the 
 poets,  as  the  fabled  descendants  of  Cecrops.  {Vid. 
 Cecrops.) 
 
 Cecrqps,  according  to  the  Attic  legend,  an  autoch- 
 thon or  indigenous  personage,  and  the  earliest  monarch 
 of  the  country,  after  Ogyges.  His  form  was  half  hu- 
 man, half  that  of  a  serpent.  In  his  days,  it  is  said,  the 
 gods  began  to  choose  favourite  spots  among  the  dwell- 
 ings of  men  for  their  own  residence,  or,  as  the  expres- 
 sion seems  to  mean,  particular  deities  were  worshipped 
 with  especial  homage  in  particular  cities.  It  was  at 
 this  time,  therefore,  that  Minerva  and  Neptune  strove 
 for  the  possession  of  Attica.  The  question  was  to  be 
 determined  by  the  natural  principle  of  priority  of  occupa- 
 tion. It  was  asserted  by  Neptune,  that  he  had  appro- 
 priated the  territory  to  himself,  by  planting  his  trident 
 on  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  before  the  land 
 had  been  claimed  by  Minerva.  He  pointed  to  it  there 
 standing  erect,  and  to  the  salt-spring  which  had  then 
 issued,  and  was  flowing  from  the  fissure  of  the  cliff, 
 that  had  opened  for  the  reception  of  the  trident.  On 
 the  other  hand,  Minerva  alleged  that  she  had  taken 
 possession  of  the  country  at  a  still  earlier  period  than 
 had  been  done  by  the  rival  deity.  She  appealed,  in 
 support  of  her  claim,  to  the  olive,  which  had  sprung  at 
 her  command  from  the  soil,  and  which  was  growing 
 near  the  fountain  produced  by  the  hand  of  Neptune 
 from  the  same  place.  Cecrops  was  required  to  attest 
 the  truth  of  her  assertion.  He  had  been  witness  of 
 the  act,  and  testified  accordingly ;  whereupon  the 
 twelve  gods,  according  to  one  version  of  the  fable, 
 but,  according  to  another,  Cecrops  himself,  decided  in 
 favour  of  Minerva,  who  then  became  the  tutelary  deity 
 of  Athens.  {Apollod.,  3,  14,  1.)  Cecrops  married 
 Agraulos,  daughter  of  Actasus,  and  became  the  father 
 of  three  daughters,  Pandrosos,  Herse,  and  Agraulos. 
 After  a  reign  of  many  years,  spent  in  introducing 
 among  his  subjects  the  blessings  of  civilization,  he 
 died,  leaving  the  kingdom  to  Cranaus,  another  au- 
 tochthon. {Apollod.,  I.  c.) — Thus  much  for  the  fa-  • 
 ble,  which  has  become  in  our  histories  so  much  grave 
 matter  of  fact.  The  truth  appears  to  be,  that  the 
 whole  series  of  Attic  kings  who  are  said  to  have  pre- 
 ceded Theseus,  including,  perhaps,  even  Theseus  him- 
 self, are  mere  fictions,  owing  their  existence  to  misun- 
 derstood names  and  false  etymologies,  to  attempts  to 
 explain  ancient  customs  and  religious  rites,  and  to  a 
 wish  to  exalt  the  antiquity  of  a  nation  or  a  family  by 
 giving  it  a  founder  in  a  remote  age.  At  the  head  of 
 the  list  of  Attic  kings  is  commonly  placed  Ogyges. 
 The  evidence  of  his  historical  existence  is  so  slight 
 that  his  name  hardly  appears  deserving  of  remark. 
 Whether  we  make  it  equivalent,  as  some  do,  to  up- 
 Xalog,  or  trace  ir,  with  other  etymologists,  to  a  root 
 yvjrj,  meaning  night  or  darkness,  in  either  case  the 
 name  is  merely  figurative,  and  is  intended  to  refer, 
 not  to  an  individual,  but  to  a  period  of  remote  and 
 obscure  antiquity.— Next  in  order  comes  Cecrops, 
 whom  we  oueht  to  regard  as  being,  in  genuine  Attic 
 '^  323 
 
CECROPS. 
 
 CEL 
 
 fable,  the  first  king  of  Attica ;    the  true  autochthon 
 Irom  whom,  according  to  the  popular  faith,  the  Attic 
 people  had  their  origin.     I'he  story  of  his  being  half 
 man,  half  serpent,  is  only  an  expression  of  his  autoch- 
 thonous nature.     For  in  Herodotus  (1,  78),  the  ex- 
 planation given  by  the  Telmessians  of  the  serpents 
 devoured  by  the  horses  at  Sardis  is,  6(j>tv  elvai   yi/c 
 nai6a,  "  that  the  snake  is  a  child    of    earth."     The 
 story  of  his  leading  a  colony  from  Sais,  in  Egypt,  to 
 Athens,  is  a  comparatively  late  invention,  and  entitled 
 to  no  credit.     {Fhilol.  Museum,  5,  p.  357.)     The  very 
 name  Cecrops  (Kt'/cpoi/;)  itself  appears  to  be  nothing 
 else  than  a  synonyme  of  avrox'&uv.     The  tetti^,  or 
 cicada,  was  always  regarded  by  the  Athenians  as  a 
 symbol  of  their  autochthonia .     As  the  eggs  of  this    in- 
 sect fall  to  the  ground  from  ihe  stalks  on  which  they 
 are  deposited  (Aristot.,  Hist.   An.,  5,  24),  and    are 
 hatched  in  great  numbers  in  shower)*  weather,  it  was 
 natural  that  the  vulgar  should  consider  the  earth  as 
 producing  them.     Now  one  of  the  names  of  the  ci- 
 cada is  KipKuip  {JElian,  Hist.  An.,  10,  44),  the  origi- 
 nal form  of  which  would  seem  to  have  been  Kpinu^p, 
 referring,  as  well  as  tettl^,  to  the  peculiar  sound  which 
 the  insect    emits.     Cecrops,  therefore  {KeKpotp,  Kpt'- 
 KOTp),  is  in  reality  nothing  more  than  the  cicada  itself, 
 the  emblem  of  autochthonia,  converted  into  the  first 
 king  of  Athens,     This  is  rendered  still  more  probable 
 by  the  names  of  his  daughters.     As  the  ancients  sup- 
 posed the  cicada  to  be  produced  from  the  ground,  so 
 they  thought  that  it  was  wholly  nourished  by  the  dew. 
 Hence  the  names  YluvSpoao^  ("  All-dewy")  and  "EpcrT/ 
 ("  Dew"),  given  to  two  of  the  daughters  of  the  fabled 
 Cecrops.     The  third  name,  "kypavAoQ  ("  Field-piper'''), 
 is  equally  appropriate  to  the  cicada,  of  whose  music 
 the  ancients  thought  so  highly,  that  it  was  doubted 
 whether  the  lonians  did  not  wear  the  golden  cicada  in 
 their  hair  in  honour  of  Apollo.     (Schol.  ad  Aristoph., 
 Nub.,  971.) — But  what  becomes  of  the  legend  respect- 
 ing the  part  that  Cecrops  bore  in  the  controversy  be- 
 tween Neptune  and  Minerva  1     It  is  not  difficult  to 
 perceive,  that  in  this  tradition  a  record  is  preserved  of 
 the  rivalry  that  arose  between  two  classes  of  the  Attic 
 population,  the  one  devoted  to  maritime  pursuits,  and 
 aiming  at  commercial  eminence,  the  other  contented 
 with  their  own  domestic  resources,  and  preferring  the 
 tranquil  occupations  of  agricultural  and  pastoral  life, 
 which  were   typified   by  the    emblematic    symbol    of 
 peace.     The  victory  of  Minerva,  which  it  commem- 
 orates, is  a  true  and  significant  expression  of  the  con- 
 dition of  this  country,  and  of  the  habits  of  its  people, 
 from  the  days  of  Cecrops  to  those  of  Themistocles. 
 (Wordswortli  s  Greece,  p.  93). — Cranaus  comes  next 
 in  the  list  of  Attic  kings.     He  was  also  an  autochthon, 
 contemporary  with  the  flood  of  Deucalion.     He  mar- 
 ried Pedias,  and  the  issue  of  their  wedlock  was  At- 
 this.     What  is  this  but  the  legend  of  a  union  between 
 the    inhabitants    of  the   hills  (Kpavai]    yri,  the  rocky 
 country)  with  those  of  the  plains  of  Attica  (ITfJiuf, 
 ihe  plain   country)  1    and    thus    Attica    {' krOig)   was 
 formed  by  uniting  the  rugged  district  with  that   be 
 longing  to  the  plain.     And  yet  a   hundred   histories 
 have  repeated  the  name  of  Cranaus  as  a  king  of  At- 
 tica ! — This  state  of  f)rosperity,  however,  does  not  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  of  long  duration  ;   for  Althis  is  said 
 to  have  died  in  early  youth  ;   and  the  flood  of  Deucalion 
 to  have  inundated  the  country  during  the  reign  of  Cra- 
 naus, who  was  himself  driven  from  the  throne  by  the 
 kincr  next  in  succession,  named  Amphictyon.     This 
 appellation,  indicating,  as  it  docs,  a  collector  of  neigh- 
 bouring people  into  one  community,  appears  to  indicate 
 an  attempt  made  in  this,  the    next  age,  to  organize 
 afresh  the  social  elements,  which  had  been  disturbed 
 by  the  convulsions  of  the  previous  generation,  and  to 
 combine  them  together  into  one  federal  body.     This 
 design  seems  to  have  been  attended  with  success,  and 
 to  have  produced  results  /avourable  to  the  cultivation 
 324 
 
 of  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  For  the  immediate  »nj> 
 cesser  of  Amphictyon,  and  the  representative  of  th« 
 state  of  the  Athenian  nation,  as  it  existed  in  that  pe- 
 riod, vvas  Erichthonius.  Erichthonius  was,  in  the 
 language  of  mythology,  the  son  of  Vulcan  and  Miner- 
 va ;  or,  as  that  tradition  may  be  interpreted,  it  was  in 
 this  age  that  the  manual  labours  which  enjoyed  the 
 especial  patronage  of  those  two  deities  began  to  at- 
 tract the  attention  and  assume  the  importance  which 
 afterward  rendered  them  the  source  of  affluence  and 
 of  glory  to  the  possessors  of  the  Athenian  soil. 
 (  Word.sworth' s  Greece,  p.  92,  seqq. — Philological 
 Museum,  5,  p.  345,  seqq.) 
 
 Cel^n.*  or  Celene,  a  city  of  Pbrygia,  in  the 
 southwest,  at  the  sources  of  the  Marsyas.  This  was  a 
 small  river  which  flows  into  the  Maander,  and  which, 
 according  to  Xenophon,  was  named  after  Marsyas, 
 whom  Apollo  caused  to  be  flayed  alive,  and  whose 
 skin  he  hung  in  the  cave  where  the  river  rises.  Cyrus 
 the  Younger  had  a  palace  there,  with  a  park  filled  with 
 wild  beasts,  where  he  exercised  himself  in  hunting. 
 Within  the  enclosure  of  this  palace  rose  the  Mseander, 
 and  flowed  through  the  park  ;  the  Marsyas  rose  in  the 
 market-place.  At  the  sources  of  the  latter,  Xerxes, 
 after  his  return  from  Greece,  built  a  palace  and  cita- 
 del. The  inhabitants  of  Celaense  were  in  after  days 
 carried  off  by  Antiochus  Soter  to  the  city  of  Apamea, 
 founded  by  him  a  few  miles  to  the  southeast,  at  the 
 confluence  of  the  Marsyas  and  Maeander.  {Liv.,  38* 
 13, — Xenoph.,  Anab.,   1.) 
 
 Cel^no,  one  of  the  harpies,  daughter  of  Neptune 
 and  Terra.     {Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  245.) 
 
 Celendebis,  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Cilicia Trachea, 
 to  the  northeast  of  the  Anemurian  promontory.  It 
 was  founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  afterward  receiv- 
 ed a  Samian  colony.  Celenderis  appears  to  have 
 been  a  place  of  great  strength,  built  on  a  high  and 
 craggy  precipice,  surrounded  by  the  sea.  {Tacit., 
 Ann.,  2,  80.)  It  is  now  Chelindreh.  {Cramer's 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  328.) 
 Celebes.      Vid.  Equites. 
 
 Celeus,  a  king  of  Eleusis,  father  to  Triptolemus 
 by  Metanira.  He  gave  a  kind  reception  to  Ceres,  who 
 taught  his  son  the  art  of  cultivating  the  earth.  {Hc- 
 siod.  Op.  et  D.,  V,  423, — Apollod.,  1,  5,  1. — Pau- 
 san.,  1,  14. —  Virg.,  Gcorg.,  1,  165.) 
 
 Celsus,  I.  AuLUs  Cornelius,  a  celebrated  physi- 
 cian. His  native  city  is  unknown  ;  some  writers  con- 
 tending for  Rome,  others  for  Verona.  (Compare  Fa- 
 hricius,  Bibl.  Lai.,  2,  4,  p.  36,  seqq.)  Even  his  very 
 name  is  partly  involved  in  doubt,  some  making  it  Au- 
 relius  Cornelius  Celsus,  others  Aulus.  The  lime  in 
 which  he  lived  has  also  been  made  a  subject  of  contro- 
 versy. One  class  of  writers  infer,  from  a  passage  in 
 Columella  {R.  R.,  1,  1,  14,  compare  3,  17,  4,  and  4, 
 8,  1),  that  he  was  born  in  the  time  of  Tiberius,  and 
 lived  until  the  reign  of  Trajan.  {Schilling,  Quasi, 
 de  Corn.  Celsi  VUa,  Lips.,  1824,  p,  19"  and  75.) 
 Another  class  place  his-  birth  under  the  reign  of  Au- 
 gustus. (Compare  Le  Clerc,  Hist,  de  la  Med.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  517,  seqq. — Schulzc,  Compcnd.  Hist.  Med.,  p. 
 298,  seqq.')  The  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  he 
 lived  under  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  but  wrote  his 
 works  under  tiie  latter.  Celsus  composed  a  large 
 work,  on  the  plan,  in  some  measure,  of  an  encyclope- 
 dia, in  which  he  treated  of  philosophy,  jurisprudence, 
 agriculture,  and  medicine.  It  was  entitled  "  De  Ar- 
 tibus."  Unhappily,  however,  only  the  eight  books 
 (from  the  6th  to  the  14th)  which  treat  of  medicine 
 have  come  down  to  us.  The  best  editions  arc  that 
 of  Ruhnken,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1785,  and  that  of  Milligan, 
 Land.,  1826. — Roman  literature,  otherwise  so  barren 
 of  good  medical  authorities,  can  boast  of  possessing 
 in  Celsus  one,  who,  for  elegance,  terseness,  learning, 
 good  sense,  and  practical  information,  stands  unrival- 
 led.    Every  branch  of  the  profession  has  been  treated 
 
CELSUS. 
 
 C  E  L 
 
 of  by  htm,  and  it  may  be  well  said  of  him,  Nihil  quod 
 (eligit  non  ornavit.  So  complete  a  specimen  of  pro- 
 fessional knowledge,  selected  by  a  sound  judgment, 
 and  adorned  with  philosophy,  is  nowhere  else  to  be 
 met  with.  As  a  Roman  historian  said  of  Homer,  that 
 he  who  can  believe  him  to  have  been  born  blind  must 
 himself  be  devoid  of  every  sense,  so  may  we  venture  to 
 affirm  respecting  Celsus,  that  he  who  can  suppose  him 
 to  have  been  a  mere  compiler,  and  never  to  have 
 practised  the  art  of  medicine,  must  be  totally  destitute 
 of  all  professional  experience.  His  preface  contains 
 an  admirable  exposition  of  the  principles  of  the  diffeii- 
 ent  sects  which  had  risen  up  in  medicine  before  his 
 time  ;  and  in  the  remaining  part  of  the  1st  book  there 
 are  many  pertinent  remarks  on  the  best  method  of 
 preserving  the  health.  In  the  2d,  which  treats  of  the 
 general  symptoms  and  phasnomena  of  diseases  in  gen- 
 eral,- he  has  copied  freely  from  Hippocrates,  having,  no 
 doubt,  discovered  that  "  to  copy  nature  was  to  copy 
 him."  The  last  part  of  this  book  is  devoted  to  the 
 subject  of  diet  and  regimen  ;  and  here  his  views  will, 
 with  a  few  exceptions,  even  now  be  admitted  by  the 
 unprejudiced  to  be  wonderfully  correct.  Dr.  Cullen, 
 with  all  his  prejudices  against  ancient  authors,  allows 
 that,  "  in  most  instances,  his  judgment,  if  understood 
 well,  might  be  found  perhaps  to  be  very  good." — In 
 the  3d  book  he  has  treated  of  fevers  ;  and  here  his 
 distinctions,  remarks  upon  critical  days,  and  treatment, 
 will  be  found  to  be  particularly  deserving  of  attention. 
 Venesection  and  cold  applications  to  the  head  are  the 
 general  remedies  which  he  most  approves  of,  and  hap- 
 py would  it  have  been  for  mankind  if  the  masters  of 
 the  profession  had  been  content  to  follow  this  simple 
 plan  of  treatment,  instead  of  being  carried  away  by 
 such  specious  theories  as  the  Cullenian  and  Brunoni- 
 an,  which  all  must  now  admit  have  introduced  very 
 mistaken  and  fatal  views  of  practice.  The  other  parts 
 of  his  work  it  is  unnecessary  to  go  over  minutely  ;  but 
 we  would  point  out,  as  particularly  valuable,  his  di- 
 visions and  treatment  of  ulcers.  It  is  remarkable  that 
 no   one    has    treated    of  diseases  of    the  "  obscana. 
 
 ? curies"  with  the   same   precision  that  he  has  done, 
 ^he  different  shades  of  cutaneous  diseases,  which  are 
 found  so  difficult  to  define,  he  has  marked  with  a  sur- 
 prising degree  of  precision.     But,  of  the  whole  work, 
 the   most  interesting   part,  perhaps,  is  the  7th  book, 
 which  treats  of  the   operations  of  surgery.     His  ac- 
 count of  those  performed  upon  the  eye  may  be   in- 
 stanced as  particularly  e.xcellent.     The  operating  for 
 couching  the  cataract  is  described  in  much  the  same 
 manner  as  it  is  now  performed.     The  ancients  were 
 not  acquainted  with  the  mode  of  extracting.     The  op- 
 eration of  lithotomy,  as  described  by  him,  though  not 
 exactly  the  same  as  that  now  generally  practised,  has, 
 even  at  the  present  day,  its  admirers,  among  whom  we 
 may  mention  tlie  celebrated  Dupuytrens,  who  has  re- 
 vived it  at  Paris,  and  considers  it  to  possess  the  ad- 
 vantage over   the  common  plan  of  affording  a  freer 
 passage  to  the  etone.     Mr.  Charles  Bell,  of  London, 
 has  also  operated  much  in  the  same  way  upon  boys, 
 to    whom,   by-the-by,    Celsus   restricts    his    practice. 
 Celsus  has  the  merit  of  being  the  first  author  who 
 makes  mention  of  the  application  of  the    ligature  to 
 arteries  for  stopping  hemorrhage.      The    ligature  is 
 also  mentioned  by  Heliodorus  in  a  short  tract  on  am- 
 putation preserved    by  Nicetas,   by  Galen   in  nearly 
 twenty  places,  by  Aetuis,  Paulus  Mgmcis.,  Avicenna, 
 Rhazez,  Avenzoar,  and  Albucasis  ;  so  that  it  cannot 
 with  any  propriety  he  called  a  modern  invention. — In 
 the  last  book  he  treats  minutely  of  fractures  and  dislo- 
 cations ;  and  here,  of  course,  he  avails  himself  of  the 
 correct  views   previously  laid  down  by  Hippocrates. 
 One  may  venture  to  affirm  that,  even  at  the   present 
 day,   he  who  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  wri- 
 tings of  Celsus,  and  has  learned  to  reduce  his  knowl- 
 edge to  practice,  will  prove  a  useful  and  distinguished 
 
 member  of  his  profession. — II.  A  Platonic,  or,  accord- 
 ing   to  others.  Epicurean  philosopher,  who   lived  to- 
 wards the  close  of  the  reign  of  Hadrian.     His  name 
 is  famous  as  that  of  one  of  the  bitterest  enemies  of 
 Christianity.     From  a  motive  of  curiosity,  or,  perhaps, 
 in  order  to  be  better  able  to  combat  the  new  religion, 
 Celsus  caused  himself  to  be   initiated  into  the  myste- 
 ries of  Christianity,  and  to  be  received  into  that  secret 
 society  which  St.  Clement  of  Rome  is   supposed  to 
 have   founded.      (Compare  Kcstner,  Agape,  odcr  der 
 gcheime  Weltbunde  der  Christen,  &c.,  Jena,    1819, 
 8vo.)     It  appears,  however,  that  the  sincerity  of  the 
 neophyte  was  distrusted,  and  that  he  was  refused  ad- 
 mittance into  the  higher  ceremonies.     The  discontent 
 to  which  this  gave  rise  in  the  breast  of  Celsus,  infla- 
 med his  resentment  against  the  Christians,  and  he  wrote 
 a  work  against  them,  entitled  'A/'t7?0?yf  Xoyoc,  "  A  true 
 discourse,"  in  which  he  employed  all  the  resources  of 
 his  intellect  and  eloquence  to  paint  Christianity  as  a 
 ridiculous  and  contemptible  system,  and  its  followers 
 as  a  sect  dangerous  to  the  well-being  of  the  state. 
 There  is  no  falsehood  to  which  he  has  not  recourse  in 
 order  to  represent  in  an   untrue  light    the  Christian 
 scheme  of  morals,  to  parody  and  falsify  the  text  of  the 
 Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  to  calumniate  the  char- 
 acter of  Jesus  Christ   and  his  disciples.     He  styles 
 Christianity  a  doctrine  tending  to  pervert  and  corrupt 
 the  human  race  (Myog  Iv/iaLvoixevog  rov  tuv  uvdpu- 
 nuv  j3i6v),  and   exhorts  the  government  to  extirpate 
 the  sect,  if  it  wishes   to  save  the  empire.     The  dis- 
 course itself  is  lost ;  but  Origen,  who  refuted  it,  in  a 
 work  divided  into  eight  books,  has  given  us  so  com- 
 plete an  extract  from  it,  that,  by  the  aid  of  this,  we  can 
 follow  all  the  principal  reasonings  of  the  author.     Cel- 
 sus wrote  also  a  work  against  magicians  and  sorcerers 
 (Kara  Mt2)'6)v),  which  is  cited  by  Origen  and  Lucian. 
 The  latter,  who  was  his  friend,  addressed  to  him  his 
 memoir  on  Alexander,  the  false  prophet,  in  which  he 
 extols  the  wisdom  of  Celsus,  his  love  for  truth,  and 
 his  amiable  manners.     {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5, 
 p.  103,  scqq.) — III.  Albinovanus,  a  friend  of  Horace, 
 warned  against  plagiarism  {Epist.,  1,3,  15)  and  plea- 
 santly ridiculed  (Epist.,  1,  8)  for  his  foibles. 
 
 Celt^,  a  general  name  for  the  whole  Gallic  r-ace, 
 but,  in  a  special  sense,  an  appellation  given  to  the  most 
 indigenous  and  extensive  of  the  three  great  tribes  that 
 occupied  Gaul  in  the  days  of  Caesar.     (Vid.  Gallia.) 
 
 Celtiberi,  a  people  of  Spain,  brave  and  powerful, 
 who  occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  interior  of  the 
 country.  According  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (5,  33),  they 
 were  composed  of  two  nations,  the  Celtae  and  Ibcri, 
 whence  their  name,  which,  perhaps,  was  used  for  dis- 
 tinction' sake  from  that  of  the  Celtae  beyond  the  Pyre- 
 nees in  Gaul.  Their  cavalry  were  excellent,  and  fought 
 equally  well  on  foot  and  on  horseback.  Niebuhr  consid- 
 ers the  fact  far  from  proved  that  the  Celts  of  Iberia  were 
 strangers  from  Gaul  who  had  migrated  into  that  coun- 
 try. No  definite  tradition  of  this  event  is,  according 
 to  him,  to  be  found  ;not  even  in  Diodorus.  This  as- 
 sertion, however,  is  altogether  untenable,  and  is  based 
 upon  the  strange  hypothesis  that  different  races  of  hu- 
 man beings  were  originally  created,  and  that  mankind 
 did  not  spring  from  one  common  parent.  (Compare 
 Niebuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  256.)  The  Celtiberi 
 were  reduced  beneath  the  Roman  sway  in  the  Sertori- 
 an  war,  after  a  long  and  brave  resistance.  They  were 
 divided  into  six  tribes,  the  Bellones,  Arevaci,  Pelen- 
 dones,  Ditthi,  Belli,  and  Lusones.  The  country  of  the 
 Celtiberi  was  sometimes  called  Celtiberia,  and  border- 
 ed, on  the  east,  upon  the  Edetani  and  the  range  of 
 Mount  Ortospeda  ;  on  the  north  upon  the  Ibcrus  ;  oa 
 the  west  upon  the  Tagus  and  the  Carpetani ;  on  the 
 south  upon  the  Oretani.  It  comprised,  therefore,  what 
 is  now  the  southwestern  part  of  Ara!;on,  the  southern 
 part  of  Navarre,  the  eastern  portion  of  Old  Castile,  and 
 the  northeastern  division  of  New  Castile.     {Plin.,  3, 
 
 325 
 
CE  N 
 
 CE  N 
 
 3— Id.,  4,  22—Lw.,  Epit.,  AS.—Eutrop.,  4,  16.— 
 Isidor.,  Ilisp.  Chron.  Goth.,  p.  173.) 
 
 Cei.tTci,  a  people  of  Lusitania,  whose  territory  lay 
 below  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  and  between  that  river 
 and  the  Turdetani.  They  were  of  Celtic  origin,  as 
 their  name  imports,  and  their  countiy  answered  to 
 what  is  now  the  southern  part  of  Alonfcjos.  Their 
 chief  town  was  Pax  Julia,  now  Beja.  {Pirn.,  3,  1. — 
 Id.,  4,  21.) 
 
 Centum,  a  promontory  of  Euboea,  which  formed  the 
 extreme  point  of  the  island  towards  the  northwest. 
 The  modern  name  is  Lithada.  {Strab.,  444. — riin., 
 4,  \2.—Plol.,  p.  87.) 
 
 CenchrejE,  I.  a  harbour  of  Corinth,  on  the  Saronic 
 Gulf,  from  which  this  city  traded  with  Asia,  the  Cyc- 
 lades,  and  the  Euxine.  {Sfraho,  380.)  It  was  about 
 seventy  stadia  from  the  city  itself;  and  the  road  thither 
 appears,  from  the  account  of  Pausanias,  to  have  been 
 lined  with  temples  and  sepulchres.  Dr.  Clarke  ob- 
 serves, that  the  remains  at  CenchresB  faithfully  corre- 
 spond with  the  description  given  by  Pausanias  of  the 
 spot.  Sir  W.  Gell  says  the  place  is  still  called  Ken- 
 chres.  (liin.  of  the  Morea,  p.  207.) — II.  A  village  of 
 Argolis,  near  the  frontiers  of  Arcadia,  southwest  of 
 Argos.  A  tumulus  was  here  erected  to  some  Argives 
 who  had  fallen  in  a  battle  with  the  Spartans.  {Strabo, 
 376.) 
 
 Cenchreis,  a  small  island  off  the  Spiraeum  Prom- 
 ontorium  of  Argolis.     {Plin.,  4,  11.) 
 
 Cenchrius,  a  river  of  Ionia  rear  Ephesus  and  Mount 
 Solmissus,  where  the  Cureles,  according  to  some,  con- 
 cealed and  protected  Latona  after  her  delivery,  when 
 she  was  pursued  by  the  power  of  Juno.  {Strab.,  639. 
 —  Tacit.,  Ann.,  3,  61.) 
 
 Cenimagni,  a  people  of  Britain,  north  of  the  Trino- 
 bantes,  on  the  eastern  coast,  forming  part  of  the  great 
 nation  of  the  Iceni.  (Vid.lceni.)  l.ipsius,  however, 
 rejects  the  term  Cenimagni,  where  it  occurs  in  the 
 text  of  Cajsar  (S.  G.,  5,  21),  on  the  ground  that  this 
 race  are  nowhere  else  mentioned  among  the  British 
 tribes,  and  he  proposes  to  read  in  place  of  it,  Iceni, 
 Cangi.  The  author  of  the  Greek  paraphrase  of  Caesar 
 has  Kevi/xavoi,  whence  Vossius  conjectured  the  true 
 reading  to  be  Ccnomani,  and  supposed  this  nation  to 
 have  crossed  over  from  Gaul.  {Lemaire,  hid.  Geogr. 
 ad  C(BS.,  p.  231,  seqq.) 
 
 Cenina.      Vid.  Ca?nina. 
 
 Cenomani,  a  people  of  Gaul,  belonging  to  the  nation 
 of  the  Aulerci.     {Vid.  Aulerci.) 
 
 Censor Ks,  two  magistrates  of  great  authority  at 
 Rome,  first  created  A.U.C.  312.  The  office  of  the 
 censors  was  chiefly  to  estimate  the  fortunes,  and  to  in- 
 spect the  morals  of  the  citizens.  For  a  full  account 
 of  their  duties,  &c.,  consult  Adams,  Rom.  Ant. 
 
 Censokinus,  I.  one  of  the  ephemeral  Roman  emper- 
 ors who  appeared  in  so  great  numbers  under  the  reign 
 of  Gallienus,  and  are  known  in  later  Roman  history 
 as  "  the  thirty  tyrants."  {Treli.  Pollio,  in  Hist.  Aug. 
 Script.,  vol.  2,  p.  254,  ed.  Hack.)  Censorinus  had 
 been  distinguished  in  camps  and  in  the  senate  ;  he  had 
 been  twice  consul,  twice  prcetorian  prefect,  three  times 
 prefect  of  Rome,  and  four  times  proconsul.  After 
 having  passed  through  this  honourable  career,  he  re- 
 tired to  the  country,  being  now  advanced  in  years,  and 
 lame  from  a  wound  he  had  received  in  the  war  against 
 the  Persians  during  the  reign  of  Valerian.  It  was  un- 
 der these  circumstances  that  he  was  proclaimed  em- 
 peror, A.D.  269,  in  spite,  as  it  would  appear,  of  his 
 own  wishes;  and  by  a  species  of  pleasantjy  he  was 
 surnamed,  or  rather  nicknamed,  Claudius,  in  allusion  to 
 his  lameness  {claudus,  "lame").  The  strict  disci- 
 pline, however,  which  he  wished  to  introduce,  gave  of- 
 fence, and  he  was  .slain  by  the  very  soldiers  who  had 
 raised  him  to  the  throne.  {Trcb.  Poll.,  Vit.  Cens.) — 
 II.  A  grammarian  and  philosopher,  who  flourished 
 under  Maximus  and  Gordianus,  about  A.D.  238.  He 
 326 
 
 wrote  a  small  work  entitled  "  De  die  Natali,"  v/hwh  wae 
 so  called  because  composed  on  occasion  of  the  birth- 
 day of  his  friend  Cerellius.  It  treats  of  the  time 
 of  birth,  of  the  influence  of  one's  Genius,  as  well  as 
 that  of  the  stars,  upon  the  birth-period  of  an  individ- 
 ual ;  and  embraces  many  other  to))ics  of  a  chronolo- 
 gical, mathematical,  and  cosmographical  character. 
 Canio,  therefore,  who  edited  the  work  in  1583,  separ- 
 ated the  latter  part  of  this  production  from  the  rest, 
 and  regards  it  as  a  fragment  of  an  unknown  author, 
 "  De  naturali  institutions."  The  style  of  Censorinus 
 is  good,  though  not  free,  of  course,  from  the  blemishes 
 natural  to  his  time.  We  have  also  a  fragment,  de  Me- 
 tris,  by  this  same  writer.  He  composed  also  a  work 
 on  accents,  and  another  on  geometry,  but  these  last  two 
 have  not  reached  us.  The  best  edition  of  Censorinus 
 is  that  of  Havercamp,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1743,  8vo,  reprinted 
 in  1767.  {BHIir,  Gcsch.  Rom  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  661.) 
 The  latest  edition  is  that  of  Gruber,  Nurcmb.,  1805, 
 8vo. 
 
 Centauri,  a  Thessalian  race  fabled  to  have  been 
 half-men  half-horses. — The  Centaurs  and  Lapithae  are 
 two  mythic  tribes,  which  arc  always  mentioned  to- 
 gether. The  former  are  spoken  of  twice  in  the  Iliad, 
 under  the  appellation  of  wild-creatures  {'^f/pec),  and 
 once  under  their  proper  name.  {IL,  1,268. — /i.,2, 742. 
 — lb.,  11,  832.)  We  also  find  the  name  Centaurs  in  the 
 Odyssey  (21,  803).  They  seem  to  have  been  a  rude 
 mountain-tribe,  dwelling  on  and  about  Mount  Pelion. 
 It  is  very  doubtful  whether  Homer  and  Hesiod  con- 
 ceived them  to  be  of  a  mingled  form,  as  they  were 
 subsequently  represented.  In  the  fight  of  the  Cen- 
 taurs and  Lapithae  on  the  shield  of  Hercules,  tbe  lat- 
 ter appear  in  panoply  fighting  with  spears,  while  the 
 former  wield  pine-clubs.  {Hcs.,  Scut.  Here,  178, 
 seqq.)  Pindar  is  the  earliest  poet  extant  who  express- 
 ly describes  them  as  semi-ferine.  According  to  him 
 {Pyth.,  2,  78,  seqq.),  the  offspring  of  Ixion  and  the 
 cloud  {vid.  Ixion)  was  a  son  named  Cenlaurus,  who, 
 when  grown  up,  wandered  about  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Pelion,  where  he  united  with  the  Magnesian  mares,  who 
 brought  forth  the  Centaurs,  a  race  partaking  of  the 
 form  of  both  parents,  their  lower  parts  resembling  their 
 dams,  their  upper  their  sire.  The  common  account 
 makes  the  Centaurs  to  have  been  the  immediate  off- 
 spring of  Ixion  and  the  cloud.  By  his  wife  Dia,  Ixion 
 had  a  son  named  Pirithoiis,  who  married  Hippodamia, 
 daughter  of  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos.  The  chiefs  of 
 his  own  tribe,  the  Lapithae,  were  all  invited  to  the  wed- 
 ding, as  were  also  the  Centaurs,  who  dwelt  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Pelion.  Theseus,  Nestor,  and  other 
 strangers  were  likewise  present.  At  the  feast,  Eury- 
 tion,  one  of  the  Centaurs,  becoming  intoxicated  with 
 the  wine,  attempted  to  offer  violence  to  the  bride  ;  the 
 other  Centaurs  followed  his  example,  and  a  dreadful 
 conflict  arose,  in  which  several  of  them  were  slain. 
 The  Centaurs  were  finally  driven  from  Pelion,  and 
 obliged  to  retire  to  other  regions.  {Ocid,  Met.,  12, 
 210,  seqq. — Diod.  Sic,  4,  70.) — According  to  the 
 earliest  version  of  this  legend,  Eurytion,  the  Centaur, 
 being  invited  to  the  mansion  of  Pirithoiis,  got  intoxi- 
 cated, and  behaved  so  ill,  that  the  heroes  rose,  and, 
 dragging  him  to  the  door,  cut  off  his  ears  and  nose, 
 which  was  the  occasion  of  "  strife  between  the  Cen- 
 taurs and  men."  {Od.,  21,  295,  seqq  )  When  Her- 
 cules was  on  his  way  to  hunt  the  Erymanthian  boar, 
 he  was  entertained  by  the  Centaur  Pholus  ;  and  this 
 gave  rise  to  a  conflict  between  him  and  the  other  Cen- 
 taurs, which  terminated  in  the  total  discomfiture  of  the 
 latter. — The  most  celebrated  of  the  Centaurs  was 
 Chiron,  the  son  of  Saturn  by  the  nymph  Philyra. 
 {Vid.  Chiron.) — It  is  the  opinion  of  Buttmann  (My- 
 thologus,  vol.  2,  p.  22),  that  the  Centaurs  and  Lapitha) 
 are  two  purely  poetic  names,  used  to  distinguish  two 
 opposite  races  of  men  ;  the  former,  the  rude  horse- 
 riding  tribes,  which   tradition  records  to  have  been 
 
CE'N 
 
 CEP 
 
 spread  over  the  north  of  Greece  ;  the  latter,  the  more 
 civilized  race,  which  founded  towns,  and  gradually 
 drove  ilieir  wild  neighbours  back  into  the  mountains. 
 He  therefore  thinks  the  exposition  of  Centaurs  as  Air- 
 piercers  (from  KevTslv  H/v  avjiav)  not  an  improbable 
 one,  for  that  very  idea  is  suggested  by  the  figure  of  a 
 Cossack,  leaning  forward  with  his  protruded  lance  as 
 he  gallops  along.  He  regards,  however,  the  idea  of 
 KEvravfio^  having  been  in  its  origin  simply  Kevrup  as 
 much  more  probable.  Lapithse  may,  he  thinks,  have 
 signified  Stonc-pcrsuaders  (from  Xaag  ireideiv),  a  po- 
 etic appellation  for  the  builders  of  towns.  He  supposes 
 Hippodamia,  as  her  name  seems  to  intimate,  to  have 
 been  a  Centauress,  married  to  the  prince  of  the  Lapi- 
 thas,  and  thus  accounts  for  the  Centaurs  having  been 
 at  the  wedding.  (Myflwlogus,  I.  c. — KcigkUey's  My- 
 'Ihohgy,  p.  316,  scqq.) — Knight  takes  a  very  different 
 view  of  the  legend.  The  horse,  as  he  observes,  was 
 sacred  to  Neptune  and  the  Rivers,  and  was  employed 
 as  a  general  symbol  of  the  waters.  The  Centaurs  ap- 
 pear to  him  to  have  been  the  same  .symbol  partly  hu- 
 manized. According  to  this  explanation,  the  legend 
 respecting  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithse  will  have  refer- 
 ence to  the  draining  of  some  parts  of  Thessaly  by  that 
 old  Pelasgic  race.  {Knight^s  Enquiry,  &c.,  ij  111, 
 seqq. —  Class.  Journ.,  vol.  25,  p.  34,  seqq.) 
 
 Centritis,  a  river  of  Armenia  Major,  flowing  under 
 the  ramparts  of  Tigranocerta,  and  falling  into  the  Eu- 
 phrates. The  Greeks  gave  it  the  name  of  Nicephorius, 
 "  that  brings  victory,"  probably  on  account  of  some 
 battle  gained  in  its  vicinity  during  the  time  of  the 
 Syrian  kings.  It  separated  Armenia  from  the  country 
 of  the  Carduchi,  and  is  now  the  Billis-Soo.  {Xen., 
 Anab.,  4,  3. — Marmert,  Geogr.,  vol.  5,  p.  236.) 
 
 Centrones,  a  people  of  Gaul,  among  the  Alpes 
 Graias,  who,  along  with  the  Graioceli  and  Caturiges, 
 were  defeated  by  Csesar  in  several  engagements. 
 Their  chief  city  was  Forum  Claudii  Centronum,  now 
 Centron.  {Lcrnaire,  Index  Geogr.  ad  Ccbs.,  p.  231  ) 
 Ce.vtum  Ckll^,  a  seaport  town  of  Etruria,  north- 
 east of  Caere.  It  is  better  known  under  the  name  of 
 Trajani  Portus,  that  emperor  having  caused  a  magnifi- 
 cent harbour  to  be  constructed  there,  which  Pliny  the 
 younger  has  described  in  one  of  his  epistles  (6,  31). 
 Two  immense  piers  formed  the  port,  which  was  semi- 
 circular, while  an  island,  constructed  artificially  of  im- 
 mense masses  of  rock,  brought  there  by  vessels  and 
 sunk  in  the  sea,  served  as  a  breakwater  in  front  and 
 supported  a  pharos.  The  coast  being  very  destitute 
 of  shelter  for  vessels  of  burden,  this  work  of  Trajan 
 was  of  great  national  benefit.  Previous  to  Trajan's 
 improvements  the  place  was  very  thinly  inhabited,  and 
 received  its  name  from  the  mean  and  scanty  abodes 
 scattered  here  and  there  along  the  shore.  Centum 
 Cells;  having  been  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  the  in- 
 habitants built  another  town  at  some  distance  inland, 
 but  afterward  they  reoccupied  the  site  of  the  old  city, 
 which,  from  that  circumstance,  obtained  its  present 
 name  of  Civita  Vccchia.  (Cramer's  Auc.  I/ah/,  vol. 
 1,  p.  201,  seqq.—Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  p.  373.) 
 
 Centumviri,  the  members  of  a  court  of  justice  at 
 Rome.  There  were  originally  chosen  three  from  each 
 of  the  35  tribes  of  the  people,  and,  though  105,  they 
 were  always  called  Centumvirs.  They  were  after- 
 ward increased  to  the  number  of  180,  but  still  kept 
 their  original  name.  They  seem  to  have  been  first  insti- 
 tuted soon  after  the  creation  of  the  praetor  pereirrinus. 
 The  causes  that  came  before  them  in  the  time^of  the 
 republic  are  enumerated  by  Cicero.  They  judged 
 then  chiefly  concerning  testaments  and  inheritances. 
 (Ctc,  Or.,  1,  38.— Vai.  Max.,  7,  l.—Qidntil.,  4,  1, 
 7.)  After  the  time  of  Augustus,  however,  they  formed 
 the  council  of  the  praetor,  and  judged  in  the  most  im- 
 portant causes.  When  the  number  of  the  Centumviri 
 reached  180,  they  were  divided  into  four  councils, 
 sometimes  only  into  two,  and  sometimes,  in  important 
 
 causes,  they  judged  all  together.  A  cause  before 
 them  could  not  be  adjourned.  {Piin.,  Ep.,  I,  IS  — 
 Id.,  4,  24.)  Ten  men  were  appointed,  five  senators 
 and  five  equites,  to  assemble  these  councils,  and  pre- 
 side in  them  in  the  absence  of  the  prajtor.  {Saeton., 
 Aug.,  36.)  Trials  before  the  centumviri  were  held 
 usually  in  the  Basilica  Julia,  sometimes  in  the  forum. 
 (Consult  Heineccius,  Antiq.  Rom.,  ed.  Hauhold,  4,  6, 
 9,  p.  664.) 
 
 Centuripa  (ra  'KevropiTca. — Ptol.,  KevTovptirai. — 
 Sil.  liaL,  Centuripe),  an  ancient  city  of  the  Siculi, 
 on  the  eastern  shore  of  Sicily,  near  Catana.  After 
 the  Roman  conquest  of  the  island  it  became  an  im- 
 portant place  in  the  corn-trade  to  Italy.  The  modern 
 Cenlorhi  appears  to  mark  the  ancient  site.  (Man- 
 ner!, Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  416.) 
 
 Ceos  (also  called  Cea,  Plin.,  4,  12. — Ovid,  Met., 
 7,  368,  &c.),  an  island  of  the  .^Dgean,  one  of  the  Cyc- 
 lades,  opposite  the  promontory  of  Sunium.  in  Attica. 
 It  was  famed  for  its  fertility  and  rich  pastures.  Pliny 
 (4,  12)  writes,  that  it  had  been  torn  from  Euboea,  and 
 was  once  500  stadia  in  length,  but  nearly  four  parts 
 were  carried  away  by  the  sea  on  the  side  of  Boeotia. 
 Herodotus  states,  that  it  was  an  Ionian  colony  peo- 
 pled from  Africa,  and  furnished  a  few  ships  both  at 
 Artemisium  and  Salamis  (8,  1).  From  this  island,  as 
 Varro  reports,  a  greater  degree  of  elegance  was  intro- 
 duced in  female  dress.  (Plin.,  I.  c.)  It  once  pos- 
 sessed four  towns,  named  lulls,  Carthaea,  Coressia, 
 and  Posessa,  but  in  Strabo's  time  only  the  two  former 
 remained,  the  population  of  the  others  having  been 
 transferred  to  them.  lulls  was  the  birthplace  of  Si- 
 monides,  and  is  probably  represented  by  the  modern 
 Zea,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  island.  It  is  said 
 that  the  laws  of  this  town  decreed,  that  every  man,  on 
 reaching  his  sixtieth  year,  should  destroy  himself  by 
 poison,  in  order  to  leave  to  others  a  sufficient  main- 
 tenance. This  ordinance  is  said  to  have  been  pro- 
 mulgated when  the  town  was  besieged  by  the  Athe- 
 nians. (Straho,  ^m.—JEIian,  V.  H.,  3,  'il.—Cra- 
 mer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  401,  seqq.) 
 
 Cephallenia,  an  island  in  the  Ionian  sea,  south- 
 west of  Ithaca,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait 
 of  six  miles.  It  is  now  Cefalonia,  and  forms  one  of 
 the  seven  Ionian  islands.  Strabo  (456)  asserts,  that 
 it  was  about  three  hundred  stadia  in  circuit,  or  thir- 
 ty-eight miles;  Pliny  (4,  12),  forty-four  miles  ;  but 
 both  are  very  far  short  of  the  real  measurement,  which 
 is  little  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles.  The 
 more  ancient  name  of  this  large  island  was  Samos,  as 
 we  learn,  from  Homer.  (Od.,  4,  671.)  But  the  poet 
 elsewhere  speaks  of  the  Cephallenians  as  the  subjects 
 of  Ulysses.  (7/.,  2,  631.)  All  the  writers  of  antiqui- 
 ty agree  in  deriving  the  name  of  Cephallenia  from 
 Cephalus,  who  settled  here  after  his  expedition  against 
 the  Teleboffi,  in  which  he  accompanied  Amphitry- 
 on. (Strabo,  I.  c.)  The  Cephallenians  did  not  .share 
 in  the  glory  of  the  victory  of  Salamis,  but  one  of  their 
 cities  sent  a  few  soldiers  to  Plataa.  (Hcrodot.,  9, 
 28.)  Prior  to  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  whole  isl- 
 and was  conquered  by  an  Athenian  fleet  commanded 
 by  Tolmides.  But  its  subjugation  does  not  appear  to 
 have  been  permanent,  since  Thucydides  mentions, 
 that,  towards  the  commencement  of  the  war,  it  was 
 brought  under  the  dominion  of  .\thens,  without  a 
 struggle,  by  a  fleet  of  one  hundred  triremes  (2,  30). 
 There  were  four  cities  in  the  island,  Palle  or  Pale, 
 Cranii,  Same,  and  Proni.  Besides  these^  well-known 
 cities,  Stephanos  Byzantinus  assigns  to  Cephallenia  a 
 town  called  Taphos,  of  which  some  remains  are  said 
 to  exist  near  the  modern  village  of  Tapkios,  on  Ihe 
 western  coast  of  the  island.  (Dodu-elPs  Tuur,  vol.  1, 
 p.  75.)  Strabo  reports,  that,  towards  the  close  of  the 
 Roman  republic  C.  Antonius,  the  colleague  of  Cicero 
 in  his  consulship,  resided  in.  Cephallenia  during  his 
 exile,  and  acquired  such  an  influence  over  the  inhabt- 
 
CEP 
 
 CEP 
 
 tants  that  he  appeared  to  have  the  direction  of  the 
 whole  island.  He  had  projected  the  foundation  of  a 
 new  city,  but  the  work  was  never  executed.  {Cra- 
 mer's Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  49,  seq.) 
 
 Cephai.ion,  a  Greek  writer,  whose  native  country 
 IS  unknown.  Suidas,  it  is  true,  makes  him  to  have 
 been  horn  at  Gergitha  in  Troas,  but  the  lexicographer 
 evidently  confounds  him  with  another  writer  named 
 Cephalon.  {Voss.,  Hist.  Gr.,  2,  12.)  Cephalion  is 
 said  to  have  lived  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  and  to 
 have  been  exiled  to  Sicily  for  some  oifence  given  to 
 the  emperor.  He  wrote  an  Abridgment  of  Universal 
 Histonj  (1ivvTO/xo^  'laropiKoc)  from  Ninus  to  the  death 
 of  Alexander.  It  was  in  the  Ionic  dialect,  like  the 
 work  of  Herodotus,  and,  like  this  also,  was  divided 
 into  nine  books,  each  named  after  one  of  the  Muses. 
 He  composed  also  rhetorical  declamations.  His  works 
 are  lost.  {Photms,  Cod.,  68 — vol.  1,  p.  34,  ed.  Bek- 
 Aer. — Kiislcr  ad  Suid.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Cephalon,  a  native  of  Gergitha  in  Troas,  not  to  be 
 confounded  with  the  preceding.  Cephalon  wrote  an 
 historical  work,  entitled  Trojan  Events  {Tpu'iKu).  He 
 ap[)ears  to  have  been  anterior  to  Alexander  the  Great, 
 and  is  considered  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
 worthy  of  reliance  as  an  historical  writer.  His  work 
 is  lost.     (Dion.  Hal.,  Ant.  Rom.,  1,  49,  et  72.) 
 
 Cephalus,  I.  the  son  of  De'ion,  and  a  grandson  of 
 .-Eolus,  was  married  to  Procris.  the  eldest  daughter  of 
 Erechtheus.  They  dwelt  at  Thoricos  in  Attica,  and 
 lived  happily  together,  till  curiosity  to  try  the  fidelity 
 of  his  wife  entered  the  mind  of  Cephalus.  Feigning 
 a  journey  of  eight  years,  he  disguised  himself  and 
 came  to  Procris  with  a  splendid  jewel,  which  he  offer- 
 ed to  her  on  dishonourable  terms.  After  much  hesita- 
 tion she  yielded,  when  her  husband  discovered  himself 
 and  reproached  her  with  her  conduct.  She  fled  from 
 him  in  shame,  but  they  were  soon  after  reconciled. 
 Cephalus  went  constantly  to  the  chase  ;  and  Procris 
 growing  suspicious,  as  she  had  failed  herself,  fancied 
 that  he  was  attracted  by  the  charms  of  some  other  fair 
 one.  She  questioned  the  slave  who  used  to  accom- 
 pany him ;  and  he  told  her,  that  his  master  used  fre- 
 quently to  ascend  the  summit  of  a  hill,  and  cry  out, 
 "Come,  Nephela,  come  !"  Procris  went  to  the  des- 
 ignated hill,  and  concealed  herself  in  a  thicket  ;  and 
 on  her  husband's  crying,  "  Come,  Nephela,  come  !" 
 (which  was  nothing  more  than  an  invocation  for  some 
 cloud  to  interpose  itself  between  him  and  the  scorching 
 beams  of  the  sun),  she  rushed  forward  towards  her 
 husband,  who,  in  his  astonishment,  threw  his  dart  and 
 unwittingly  killed  her.  (Pherecydes,  ap.  Schol.  ad 
 Od.,  11,  321.)  This  legend  is  told  with  great  varia- 
 tions, which  it  is  not  worth  while  here  to  enumerate. 
 (Consult  Hygin.,  fab.,  189.  — Ovid,  Met.,  7,  661, 
 scqq. — Pausan.,  9,  19,  1. — Apollod.,  3,  15,  1. — An- 
 ton. Lib.,  c.  41.)  Cephalus,  for  his  involuntary  crime, 
 was  banished.  He  went  to  Thebes,  which  was  at 
 that  time  ravaged  by  a  fox,  which  nothing  could  over- 
 take, and  he  joined  Amphitryon  in  the  chase  of  it. 
 His  dog  Laelaps  ran  it  down  ;  but,  just  as  he  was 
 catching  it,  Jupiter  turned  them  both  to  stone.  {Apol- 
 lod., 2,  4,  7.)  Cephalus  then  aided  Amphitryon  against 
 the  Teleboans,  and  on  tlieir  conquest  he  settled  in 
 the  island  named  from  him  Ccphallenia.  This  last- 
 mentioned  circumstance,  however,  is  a  mere  coinci- 
 dence of  name.  {Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  381, 
 seqq.) — II.  An  Athenian  orator,  who  flourished  to- 
 wards the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  was  one 
 of  those  that  contributed  most  to  overthrow  the  rule 
 of  the  thirty  tyrants.  Although  he  lived  during  a 
 very  stormy  period,  and  although  no  one  ever  propo- 
 sed or  caused  to  be  passed  more  laws  than  he  did,  yet 
 he  never  had  any  accusation  brought  against  him,  a 
 remarkable  fact  in  the  history  of  Athens.  We  must 
 not  confound  him  with  Cephalus,  the  father  of  Lysias, 
 who  came  from  Syracuse  and  settled  at  Athens.  Sui- 
 338 
 
 das  makes  Cephalus  to  have  been  the  first  orator  t?iat 
 made  use  of  an  exordium  and  peroration.  {Suid.,  r. 
 V.  Kiipalog.) — III.  The  father  of  Lysias  the  orator. 
 He  was  a  native  of  Syracuse,  but  settled  at  Athens 
 as  a  resident  sojourner,  or  one  of  the  fieroisoi.  {Lut. 
 contra  Eratosth.,  2. — Reiske,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Cepheis,  a  name  given  to  Andromeda  as  daughter 
 of  Cepheus.     {Ovid,  A.  A.,],}^.) 
 
 Cephenes,  I.  an  ancient  name  of  the  Persians. 
 {Vid.  Persia. — Herodot.,  7,  61.) — II.  A  name  of  the 
 ^Ethiopians,  from  Cepheus,  one  of  their  kings.  {Omd, 
 Met.,  4,  764:.— Gicrig,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Cepheus,  a  king  of  Ethiopia,  father  of  Andromeda, 
 by  Cassiope.  He  was  one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  was 
 changed  into  a  constellation  after  his  death.  {Omd, 
 Met.,  4,  669.— Id.,  5,  12.— Pausan.,  4,  35.) 
 
 Cephisia,  a  borough  of  Attica,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Brilessus,  and  near  the  source  of  the  Cepbissus.  It 
 was  the  favourite  'residence  of  Herodes  Atticus,  who 
 had  a  beautiful  villa  here.  The  modern  name  is  said 
 to  be  Ktssia.  Cramer,  however,  gives  Cephissia. 
 {Aul.  GelL,  18,  10. —  Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol. 
 2,  p.  400.) 
 
 Cephisodotus,  I.  a  statuary  of  Athens,  flourished 
 about  B.C.  372.  Two  works  of  his  are  spoken  of  by 
 the  ancients,  a  Mercury  nourishing  Bacchus  when  an 
 infant,  and  one  of  a  public  speaker  in  the  act  of  deliv- 
 ering an  oration.  {Plin.,  34,  8,  19. — Sdiig,  Diet. 
 Art.,  s.  V.)  —  II.  Another  statuary,  who  flourished 
 about  Olym.  120.  {Plin.,  34,  8,  19.— Sillig,  Diet. 
 Art.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Cephisus  and  Cephissos,  I.  a  celebrated  river  of 
 Greece,  that  rises  at  the  foot  of  Parnassus,  close  to 
 Lilsa,  and,  after  traversing  the  plains  of  Fhocis  and 
 part  of  the  Boeotian  territory,  empties  into  the  Copa 
 ic  Lake  in  the  latter  country.  Hesiod  compared  it  to 
 a  serpent,  from  the  many  sinuosities  of  its  course 
 {Ap.  Strab.,  424.)  The  modern  name  is  Mauro  Pa- 
 tamo.  According  to  the  poets,  the  son  of  the  river- 
 god  Cephissus  introduced  the  worship  of  the  Graces 
 into  Boeotia  {vid.  Orchomenus),  and  hence  the  pecu- 
 liar attachment  which  they  were  said  to  have  for  the 
 waters  of  this  stream.  {Vid.  Grati.T.) — II.  A  rivei 
 of  Attica,  generally  distinguished  by  the  name  of  At- 
 ticus, to  prevent  its  being  confounded  with  the  Ce- 
 phissus which  flowed  near  Eleusis.  Strabo  (400)  af- 
 firms, that  it  took  its  source  near  the  demus  of  Trine- 
 meis,  and,  after  flowing  through  the  Attic  plains  and 
 passing  under  the  long  walls,  discharged  itself  into  the 
 sea  near  Phalcrum  :  he  adds,  that  in  summer  it  was 
 nearly  dry.  In  the  CEdipus  Coloneus  it  is  described, 
 however,  as  a  perennial  stream  (v.  685,  scqq. — Cra- 
 mer's Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  3.'j7). — HI.  A  river 
 running  near  Eleusis.  According  to  Sir  W.  Gell  {Itin- 
 erary, p.  34),  it  is  divided  at  present  into  many  small 
 branches,  and  often  inundates  the  plain  in  its  vicinity. 
 The  modern  name  is  said  to  be  the  Podhomsta. — ■ 
 IV.  A  river  of  Argolis,  flowing  into  the  Inachus. — V. 
 A  river  in  the  island  of  Salamis.     {Strabo,  424.) 
 
 Ceramicus,  I.  now  Kcramo,  a  bay  of  Caria,  north 
 of  the  peninsula  of  Doris,  receiving  its  name  from  the 
 city  of  Ceramus  in  its  vicinity.  {Plin.,  5,  29.) — II. 
 One  of  the  most  considerable  and  important  parts  of 
 the  city  of  Athens.  Its  name  was  derived  from  the 
 hero  Ceramus  {Pau.^an.,  1,  ?>),  or  perhaps  from  some 
 potteries  which  v/ere  formerly  situated  there.  {Herod- 
 otus, 5,  88. — Suidas,  s.  v.  Kepafj-dg.)  It  included 
 probably  the  Agora,  the  Stoa  Basileios,  and  the  Poe- 
 cile,  as  well  as  various  other  temples  and  public 
 buildings.  Antiquaries  are  not  decided  as  to  the  gen- 
 eral extent  and  direction  of  this  part  of  the  ancient 
 city,  since  scarcely  any  trace  remains  of  its  monu- 
 ments and  edifices  ;  but  we  may  certainly  conclude, 
 from  their  researches  and  observations,  that  it  lay  en- 
 tirely on  the  south  side  of  the  acropolis.  {Leake's 
 Topography  of  Athens,  p.  101.)     In  this  direction  il 
 
CER 
 
 CER 
 
 must  have  been  limited  by  the  city  walls,  which,  as 
 we  know,  came  close  to  the  fountain  Caliirhoii  or  En- 
 neacrounos.  {Thucyd.,  2  15.)  The  breadth  of  the 
 Ceramicus,  according  to  Mr.  Hawkins,  being  thus 
 confined  on  one  side  by  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  on 
 the  other  by  the  buildings  immediately  under  the  acrop- 
 olis, could  not  have  exceeded  one  half  of  its  length. 
 It  was  divided  into  the  outer  and  inner  Ceramicus. 
 The  former  was  without  the  walls,  and  contained  the 
 tombs  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  battle,  and  were  bu- 
 ried at  the  public  expense.  (SchoL,  Arisloph.  Eqiiit., 
 772. — Flut.,  Vit.  Syll. — Hcsych.,  s.  v.  KepaneiKoc,-.) 
 From  Plutarch  it  appears,  that  the  communication 
 from  the  one  Ceramicus  to  the  other  was  by  the  gate 
 Dipylum.  (Hawkinses  Topogr.  of  Athens,  in  Walp. 
 Coll.,  p.  485. — Cramcr''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  315, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Ceramus,  a  small  town  and  fortress  of  Caria,  on  the 
 northern  side  of  the  Sinus  Ceramicus,  and  a  short  dis- 
 tance to  the  east  of  Haticarnassus.  The  village  of 
 Keramo,  at  the  present  dav,  indicates  the  ancient  site. 
 {Slrab.,  6l].—PtoL,  p.  119.) 
 
 CER.isas  {untis),  a  city  of  Pontus,  on  the  seacoast, 
 southwest  of  Trapezus.  It  was  founded  by  a  colony 
 from  Sinope  in  Paphlagonia,  to  which  it  paid  a  yearly 
 tribute.  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  Pharnacia. 
 (Vid.  Pharnacia.)  Xenophon  and  the  Greeks  rested 
 here  for  ten  days  on  their  retreat  from  Asia.  {Anab., 
 5,  3,  5.)  From  this  {ilace,  according  to  Pliny,  Lucul- 
 lus  first  brought  cherries  into  Italy,  A.U.C.  680,  which 
 were  introduced  120  years  after  into  Britain.  Hence 
 the  Latin  cerasus,  "  a  cherry-tree,"  and  cerasum,  "  a 
 cherry."  According  to  Tournefort,  the  country  is  hilly 
 and  the  hills  covered  with  forests,  in  which  cherry-trees 
 grow  naturally.  It  is  now  Kerasoim.  (Anim.  Mar- 
 cclL,  22,  13.— Plin.,  15,  25.— Mela,  1,  19.) 
 
 Ceraunii  (or  Acroceraunii)  Montes,  a  chain  of 
 mountains  stretching  along  the  coast  of  northern  Epi- 
 rus,  and  forming  part  of  the  boundary  between  it  and 
 Iliyricum.  That  portion  of  the  chain  which  extended 
 beyond  Oricum,  formed  a  bold  promontory,  and  was 
 termed  Acroceraunia  {' kKpoKEpavvia),  from  its  sum- 
 viits  {uKpa)  being  often  struck  by  lightning  {Kepavvo^). 
 The  modern  name  for  the  Ceraunian  range  is  Monte 
 Chimarra,  and  that  of  the  Acroceraunian  promontory 
 is  Cape  Linguetta.  The  Greek  and  Latin  poets  are 
 fall  of  allusions  to  this  dangerous  shore.  {Apollon., 
 Arg.,  4,  l2\&—Lycophr.,  1016.— Tir^.,  jEn.,  3, 
 50Q.—Hor.,  Od.,  1,  3,  19.)  It  was  much  dreaded  by 
 the  mariners  of  antiquity,  from  the  belief  that  the 
 mountains  attracted  storms.  Augustus  narrowly  es- 
 caped shipwreck  here  when  returning  from  Actium. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  94.) 
 
 Ceraunus,  a  surname  of  one  of  the  Ptolemies. 
 {Vid.  PtolemsBus  XV.) 
 
 Cerbekus,  the  famous  dog  of  Hades,  the  fruit  of 
 Echidna's  union  with  Typhon.  He  was  stationed  at 
 the  entrance  of  hell,  as  a  watchful  keeper,  to  prevent 
 the  living  from  entering  the  infernal  regions,  and  the 
 dead  from  escaping  from  their  confinement.  Orpheus 
 lulled  him  ^  sleep  with  his  lyre ;  and  Hercules 
 dragged  him  from  hell  in  the  performance  of  his 
 twelfth  and  last  labour.  (Vid.  Hercules.)  The  poets 
 differ  in  their  descriptions  of  this  fabled  animal.  He- 
 siod  (Theog.,  312)  assigns  him  fifty  heads,  calling 
 him  Kvva  nevTrjKovTaKuprjvov.  Sophocles  (Trach., 
 1114)  styles  him  "Aidov  rpiKpavov  aKvXuKa  ("the 
 ihree-hcadod  dog  of  Pluto"),  and  in  this  last  account 
 the  Latin  poets  generally  coincide.  Horace,  however, 
 calls  him  bellua  cenliceps  (Od.,  2,  13,  14),  either  bv 
 poetic  amplification,  or  else  in  accordance  with  some 
 Greek  authority.  (Compare  the  remarks  of  Tzetzes 
 in  his  scholium  on  Lycophron,  v.  678  :  6  Kvuv  rov 
 'A1.60V,  Of  t'xft  sKarbv  H€(j)aldc.)  ChampoUion  traces 
 a  curious  analogy  between  the  Egyptian  and  Grecian 
 mythology  as  regards  the  dog  of  Hades.  "  Le  voisi- 
 Tt 
 
 nage  du  sejour  du  supreme  juge  de  I'Amenthi  est 
 annonce  par  un  pi^destal,  sur  lequel  se  repose  un 
 animal  monstrueux,  mais  dont  les  formt;s  sonl  si  de- 
 terminees  qu'on  ne  peut  y  meconnaitre  un  hippopot- 
 ame,  amphibie  redoubtable,  dont  les  cavernes  du  Nil 
 renfermaient  un  grand  nombre.  Ici  c'est  I'hippopot- 
 ame  femelle,  qui,  dans  les  tableaux  astronomiques  de 
 Thebes  et  d'Esneh,  occupe  dans  le  ciel  meme  la  place 
 que  les  Grecs  ont  donnee  a  la  grand  curse.  Cette 
 constellation  etait  nommee  le  Chien  de  Typhon  par 
 les  Egyptiens,  et  sa  presence  dans  YAmenlhi  (I'enfer) 
 ne  laisse  pas  douter  que  cet  animal  ne  soit  le  type  du 
 chien  Cerbere,  qui,  selon  les  mythes  Grecs  gardait 
 I'entr^e  du  palais  d'Adis."  {ChampoUion  le  jeune, 
 "  Explication  de  la  principale  scene  peinte  dans  des 
 Papyrus  funer aires  Egyptiens.^'' — Bulletin  des  Sci- 
 ences Historiques,  &c.,  vol.  4,  p.  351.) 
 
 Cercasorum,  a  city  of  Egypt,  in  the  Memphitic 
 nome,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile.  It  lay  to  the 
 north  of  Memphis,  and  a  short  distance  south  of  the 
 spot  where  the  Nile  branched  off  into  the  Pelusiac  and 
 Canopic  mouths.  {Herod.,  2,  15.— Id.,  17,  97.)  The 
 ancient  Cercasorum  is  thought  to  answer  to  the  mod- 
 ern Eksas,  or  Al  Achsas.  (Compare  D^Anville,  Mem. 
 sur  VEgypte,  p.  73. — Edrisii  Africa,  p.  426.) 
 
 Cercina  (Cercinna,  Mela,  2,  7. — Slrab.,  574),  a 
 small  island  off  the  coast  of  Byzacium,  in  Africa,  at 
 the  mouth  of  the  Syrtis  Minor,  towards  the  northwest. 
 It  is  now  Ktrkine.  {Liv.,  33,  48. — Tacit.,  Ann.,  1, 
 bZ.-Plin.,  5,  7.) 
 
 Cercinium,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  west  of  Amphip- 
 olis.  It  was  situate  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Pon- 
 tus, on  a  lake  called  Ccrcrnitis  palus.     {Liv.,  31,  41.) 
 
 Ceucopes,  a  predatory  race  infesting  Lydia  during 
 the  reign  of  Omphale.  They  were  overcome  by  Her- 
 cules. {Diod.  Sic,  4,  31.)  The  legend  connected 
 with  their  name  will  be  given,  with  some  remarks 
 upon  it,  under  the  article  Melampyges. 
 
 Cercyon  and  Cercyones,  a  king  of  Eleusis,  son 
 of  Neptune,  or,  according  to  others,  of  Vulcan.  He 
 obliged  all  strangers  to  wrestle  with  him  ;  and,  as  he 
 was  a  dexterous  wrestler,  they  were  easily  conquered 
 and  put  to  death.  After  many  cruel  victories  of  this 
 kind,  he  challenged  Theseus  in  wrestling,  and  was 
 conquered  and  put  to  death  by  his  antagonist.  {Plut., 
 Vrt.  Thes.—Diod.  Sic,  4,  59.—Hygm.,  38.) 
 
 Cercyra  (KepKvpa),  the  Greek  form  of  the  name 
 Corcyra  Latinized.     {Vid.  Corcyra.) 
 
 Cerealia,  festivals  in  honour  of  Ceres;  first  in- 
 stituted at  Rome  by  Memmius  the  asdile,  and  cele- 
 brated on  the  9th  of  April.  Persons  in  mourning 
 were  not  permitted  to  appear  at  the  celebration  ;  and 
 therefore  they  were  not  observed  in  the  year  after  the 
 battle  of  Cannas.  They  were  analogous  to  the  Gre- 
 cian Thesmophoria.     {Vid.  Thesmophoria.) 
 
 Ceres  (in  Greek  Dem^er,  A7]fiT^Trjp),  daughter  of 
 Saturn  and  Rhea,  was  the  goddess  of  grain  and  bar- 
 vests.  She  is  in  fact,  however,  the  same  as  the  god- 
 dess of  the  earth,  Mother-Earth  (7;/  /u/irrip),  whence 
 some  ancient  system  married  her  to  Jupiter,  the  god 
 of  the  heavens,  and  hence  in  Hesiod  (Theog.,  454, 
 912)  she  is  said  to  have  become  by  this  deity  the 
 mother  of  Proserpina  (Persephone).  In  Homer  she 
 is  but  slightly  mentioned  (7/.,  5,  500. — Od.,  5,  125), 
 and  she  does  not  appear  among  the  gods  on  Olympus. 
 She  seems  to  have  been  early  distinguished  from  the 
 goddess  called  Earth,  and  to  have  been  thenceforth  re- 
 garded as  the  protectress  of  the  growing  corn  and  of 
 agriculture  in  general.  The  most  celebrated  event 
 in  the  historv  of  Ceres  is  the  carrying  off  of  her  daugh- 
 ter Proserpina  by  Hades  or  Pluto,  and  the  search  of 
 the  goddess  after  her  throughout  the  whole  world.  It 
 is  noticed  by  Hesiod  (T/ieo^.,  914) ;  but  the  Homeric 
 hymn  in  her  honour  contains  perhaps  the  earliest  nar- 
 rative of  this  event,  which,  though  apparently  unknown 
 to  Homer  himself,  became  a  favourite  theme   with 
 
 329 
 
CERES. 
 
 CERES. 
 
 succeeding  poets,  after  whom  Ovid  has  related  it  (Met., 
 5,  341. — Id.,  Fast.,  4,  417,  seq.).  Claudian  also  has 
 sung  it  ill  a  paetn,  of  which,  unfortunately,  a  portion  is 
 lost. — Proserpina,  according  to  the  author  of  the  Ho- 
 meric hymn,  was  in  the  Nysian  plain  with  the  ocean- 
 nymphs  gathering  flowers.  According  to  some  ac- 
 counts, Venus,  Minerva,  and  Diana  were  the  compan- 
 ions of  their  sister  on  this  occasion.  {Hygin.,  fab., 
 146. — Claudian,  Rapt.  Pros.,  2,  11,  seqq. — Stat., 
 Achill.,  2,  150.)  Others  gave  her  the  sirens  as  her 
 attendants.  (Apoll.  Rh.,  4,  896.)  She  plucked  the 
 rose,  the  violet,  the  crocus,  the  hyacinth,  when  she 
 beheld  a  narcissus  of  surprising  size  and  beauty,  hav- 
 ing a  hundred  flowers  growing  from  a  single  root. 
 Unconscious  of  danger,  the  maiden  stretched  forth 
 her  hand  to  seize  the  wondrous  flower,  when  suddenly 
 the  wide  earth  gaped,  Pluto  arose  in  his  golden  char- 
 iot, and,  seizing  the  terrified  goddess,  carried  her  oflf 
 shrieking  for  aid,  but  unheard  and  unseen  by  gods  or 
 mortals  save  by  Hecate,  the  daughter  of  Perses,  who 
 heard  her  as  she  sat  in  her  cave,  and  by  King  Helius 
 (the  sun),  whose  eye  nothing  on  earth  escapes.  So 
 long  as  the  goddess  beheld  the  earth  and  starry  heav- 
 ens, the  fishy  sea,  and  the  beams  of  the  sun,  so  long  she 
 hoped  to  see  her  mother  and  the  tribes  of  the  gods  ; 
 and  the  tops  of  the  mountains  and  the  depths  of  the 
 sea  resounded  with  her  divine  voice.  At  length  her 
 mother  heard,  and,  frantic  with  grief,  inquired  for  ti- 
 dings of  her  lost  daughter  ;  but  neither  gods,  nor  men, 
 nor  birds,  could  give  her  intelligence.  Nine  days  she 
 wandered  over  the  earth,  with  flaming  torches  in  her 
 hands  ;  on  the  tenth  Hecate  met  her,  but  could  not 
 tell  who  it  was  that  had  carried  oflf  Proserpina.  To- 
 gether they  proceeded  to  He'ius,  and  the  Sun-god 
 tells  Ceres  that  the  ravisher  is  Pluto,  who,  by  the  per- 
 mission of  her  sire,  had  carried  her  away  to  be  his 
 queen.  Incensed  at  the  conduct  of  Jupiter,  Ceres 
 thereupon  abandoned  the  society  of  the  gods  and 
 came  down  among  men.  But  now  she  was  heedless 
 of  her  person,  and  no  one  recognised  her.  Under  the 
 guise  of  an  aged  female,  she  came  to  Eleusis,  and 
 was  employed,  as  a  nurse  for  her  infant  son  Demo- 
 phoon,  by  Metanira  the  wife  of  Celeus,  monarch  of  the 
 place.  Beneath  the  care  of  the  goddess  the  child 
 "throve  like  a  god."  He  ate  no  food,  but  Ceres 
 breathed  on  him  as  he  lay  in  her  bosom,  and  anointed 
 him  with  ambrosia,  and  every  night  hid  him  beneath 
 the  fire,  unknown  to  his  parents,  who  marvelled  at  his 
 growth.  It  was  the  design  of  Ceres  to  make  him 
 immortal,  but  the  curiosity  and  folly  of  Metanira 
 deprived  him  of  the  intended  gift.  She  watched  one 
 night,  and,  seeing  what  the  nurse  was  doing  to  her 
 child,  shrieked  with  affright  and  horror.  The  goddess 
 threw  the  infant  on  the  ground,  declaring  what  he  had 
 lost  by  the  inconsiderateness  of  his  mother,  but  an- 
 nouncing that  he  would  still  become  a  great  and  hon- 
 oured man.  She  then  disclosed  her  real  character, 
 and  directed  the  people  of  Eleusis  to  raise  an  altar  and 
 temple  to  her  without  the  city,  on  the  hill  Callichorus. 
 The  temple  was  speedily  raised,  and  the  mourning 
 goddess  took  up  her  abode  in  it,  but  a  dismal  year 
 came  upon  mankind  ;  the  earth  yielded  no  produce  ; 
 in  vain  the  o.xen  drew  the  plough  in  the  field  ;  in  vain 
 the  seed  was  cast  into  the  ground,  for  Ceres  would 
 allow  of  no  increase.  Jove  at  length  sent  Iris  to 
 Eleusis  to  invite  Ceres  back  to  Olympus,  but  she 
 would  not  comply  with  the  call.  All  the  other  gods 
 were  sent  on  the  same  errand,  but  with  as  little  suc- 
 cess. Finding  that  there  was  no  other  remedy,  and 
 that  the  goddess  would  not  allow  the  earth  to  bring 
 forth  until  she  had  seen  her  daughter,  Jupiter  sent 
 Mercury  to  Erebus  to  endeavour  to  prevail  on  Pluto 
 to  suffer  Proserpina  to  return  to  the  light.  The  mon- 
 arch of  the  lower  world  yielded  compliance,  and, 
 kindly  addressing  Proserpina,  granted  her  permission 
 to  return  to  her  mother.  The  goddess  instantly  sprang 
 330 
 
 up  with  joy,  and  heedlessly  swallowed  a  grain  of  pom- 
 egranate which  he  presented  to  her.  Mercury  con- 
 ducted his  fair  charge  safe  to  Eleusis,  and  delivered 
 her  into  the  hands  of  Ceres.  When  their  joy  had 
 a  little  subsided,  Ceres  anxiously  inquired  of  her 
 daughter  if  she  had  lasted  anything  while  below  ;  for 
 if  she  had  not  she  would  be  free  to  spend  her  whole 
 time  with  her  father  and  mother ;  whereas,  if  but  one 
 morsel  had  passed  her  lips,  nothing  could  save  her 
 from  passing  one  third  of  the  year  with  her  husband  ; 
 she  should,  however,  paeo  the  other  two  with  her  and 
 the  gods.  Proserpina  ingenuously  confessed  the  swal- 
 lowing of  the  gram  of  pomegranate,  and  then  relates 
 unto  her  mother  the  whole  story  of  her  abduction. 
 They  pass  the  day  in  delightful  converse.  Hecate 
 arrives  to  congratulate  Proserpina,  and  henceforward 
 becomes  her  attendant.  Jove  sends  Rhea  to  invite 
 them  back  to  heaven.  Ceres  now  complies,  and  fer- 
 tility once  more  prevailed  over  the  earth.  Ceres  there- 
 upon taught  •' Triptolemus.  horse-lashing  Diodes,  the 
 mighty  Eumolpus,  and  Celeus,  leader  of  the  people," 
 the  mode  of  performing  her  sacred  rites  ;  and  the  god- 
 dess, after  this,  returned  to  Olympus. — Such  is,  in  all 
 probability,  the  oldest  account  of  this  celebrated  event. 
 In  progress  of  time  it  underwent  various  alterations  ; 
 the  scene  was,  as  usual,  changed,  and  circumstances 
 also  were  added  or  modified.  In  the  beautiful  ver- 
 sions of  it  given  by  the  Latin  poets,  the  scene  is 
 transferred  to  the  grove  and  lake  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  Enna  in  Sicily,  the  nymph  Arethusa  gives 
 intelligence  of  the  -ravisher,  the  torches  of  Ceres  are 
 lighted  from  ^tna,  and  Ascalaphus  tells  of  Proser- 
 pina's having  plucked  a  pomegranate  in  the  garden 
 of  Pluto,  and  having  put  seven  of  the  seeds  in  her 
 mouth.  In  this  as  in  other  legends,  the  funcy  of  po- 
 ets, and  vanity  of  the  inhabitants  of  different  places, 
 have  taken  abundance  of  liberties  with  the  ancient 
 tale. — The  meaning  of  the  whole  fable  is  evident 
 enough.  Proserpina  signifies  the  seed-corn,  which, 
 when  cast  into  the  ground,  lies  there  concealed  ;  that 
 is,  she  is  carried  off  by  the  god  of  the  lower  world  ;  it 
 re-appears  ;  that  is,  Proserpina  is  restored  to  her  moth- 
 er, and  she  abides  with  her  two  thirds  of  the  year. 
 As,  however,  the  seed-corn  is  not  a  third  part  of  the 
 year  in  the  ground,  it  is  probable  that  by  the  space  of 
 time  which  Proserpina  was  to  spend  with  the  god  in 
 the  invisible  state,  was  intended  to  be  e.xpressed  the 
 period  between  the  sowing  of  the  seed  and  the  ap- 
 j)earance  of  the  ear,  during  which  the  corn  is  away  ; 
 and  which  space  of  time  in  some  species  of  grain,  bar- 
 ley for  instance,  is  about  four  months.  The  vanity 
 of  the  people  of  the  hungry  soil  of  Attica  made  them 
 pretend,  that  corn  was  first  known,  and  agriculture 
 first  practised,  in  their  country.  They  fabled,  that 
 the  goddess  gave  to  Triptolemus  {Thnce-ploiigher), 
 who  occupies  the  place  of  Demophoijn  in  the  foregoing 
 legend,  her  chariot  drawn  by  dragons,  in  which  he 
 flew  through  the  air,  distributing  corn  to  the  different 
 regions  of  the  earth.  (Callim.,  H  in  Ccr.,  22. — Pau- 
 san.,  1,  14,  2.— Ovid,  Met.,  5,  &M.—Hygin.,  fab., 
 147.) — Ceres,  though  of  a  gentle  disposition  in  gen- 
 eral, partook  of  the  usual  revengeful  character  of  the 
 gods,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  legends  of  Stellio  and 
 Erysichthon.  {Vid.  Stellio  and  Erysichthon.) — The 
 chief  seats  of  the  worship  of  Ceres  and  Proserpina  were 
 Attica,  Arcadia  {vid.  Oncsum),  and  the  fertile  isle 
 of  Sicily,  which  was  given  by  Jupiter  to  his  daughter 
 on  her  day  of  unveiling,  that  is,  on  her  marriage ;  as 
 was  also  Thebes,  according  to  the  poet  Euphorion. 
 {Schol.  ad  Earip.,  Phan.,  693. — Muller,  Orchom., 
 p.  217.)  The  form  of  Ceres  is  copied  from  that  of  Ju- 
 no. She  has  the  same  majestic  stature  and  matronly 
 air,  but  of  a  milder  character.  Her  usual  symbol  are 
 poppies,  which  sometimes  compose  a  garland  for  her 
 head,  sometimes  are  held  in  her  hand.  She  is  fre- 
 quently represented  holding  a  torch,  significant  of  her 
 
CER 
 
 C  H  A 
 
 search  after  Proserpina.  At  times  she  appears  in  her 
 chariot  drawn  by  dragons.  {Keigktky's  Mythology, 
 p.  17(»,  scqq.) — The  Latin  name  Ckres  is  in  reality  of 
 the  same  force  with  the  Greek  appellation  Demeter 
 (AiJl^?'lTrip,  i.  e.,  yr/  firju/p),  the  Roman  C  being  origi- 
 nally the  same  letter,  both  in  figure  and  power,  as  the 
 Greek  T,  which  was  often  employed  as  a  mere  gut- 
 tural aspirate,  especially  in  the  old  ^Eolic  dialect,  from 
 which  the  Latin  is  principally  derived.  (Compare 
 Knight  on  the  Greek  Alphabet,  p.  4,  scqq.)  The  hiss- 
 ing termination,  too,  in  the  S,  belonged  to  the  same  : 
 wherefore  the  word,  which  the  Attics  atid  lonians 
 wrote  EPA,  EPE,  or  HPfl,  would  naturally  be  writ- 
 ten FEPES  by  the  old  JSolics  ;  the  Greeks  always  ac- 
 commodating their  orthography  to  their  pronunciation  ; 
 and  not,  like  the  English  and  French,  encumbering 
 their  words  with  a  number  of  useless  letters.  Ceres, 
 however,  was  not  a  personification  of  the  brute  matter 
 which  composed  the  earth,  but  of  the  passive  pro- 
 ductive principle  supposed  to  pervade  it  {Ovid,  Fast., 
 l^  67'3.—  Virg.,  Georg.,  2,  324) ;  which,  joined  to  the 
 active,  was  held  to  be  the  cause  of  the  organization 
 and  animation  of  its  substance ;  from  whence  arose 
 her  other  Greek  name  AHQ,  "  the  invetitress."  She 
 is  mentioned  by  Virgil  {loc.  cil.)  as  the  wife  of  the 
 omnipotent  Father,  /Ether  or  Jupiter,  and  therefore 
 the  same  as  Juno;  who  is  usually  honoured  with  that 
 title,  and  whose  Greek  name  HPH  signifies,  as  be- 
 fore observed,  precisely  the  same.  {Plutarch,  ap. 
 Euscb.,  FrcBp.  Evang.,  3,  L)  The  Latin  name  Juno 
 is  derived  from  the  Greek  AlflNH,  the  female  Zeiif  or 
 Atf  ;  the  Etruscan,  through  which  the  Latin  received 
 much  of  its  orthography,  having  no  D  or  0  in  its  al- 
 phabet. The  ancient  Germans  worshipped  the  same 
 goddess  under  the  name  of  Hertha,  the  form  and 
 meaning  of  which  still  remain  in  our  word  Earth. 
 The  Greek  title  seems  originally  to  have  had  a  more 
 general  signification  ;  for  without  the  aspirate  (which 
 was  anciently  added  and  omitted  almost  arbitrarily) 
 it  becomes  EPE ;  and  by  an  abbreviation  very  com- 
 mon in  the  Greek  tongue,  PE,  or  PEE  ;  which,  pro- 
 nounced with  the  broad  termination  of  some  dialects, 
 become. PEA;  and  with  the  hissing  one  of  others, 
 PES  or  RES  ;  a  word  retained  in  the  Latin,  signify- 
 ing properly  matter,  and  figuratively  every  quality  and 
 modification  that  can  belong  to  it.  The  Greek  has 
 no  word  of  such  comprehensive  meaning ;  the  old 
 general  term  being  in  the  refinement  of  their  language 
 rendered  more  specific,  and  appropriated  to  that  prin- 
 cipal mass  of  matter  which  forms  the  terraqueous 
 globe,  and  which  the  Latins  also  expressed  by  the 
 same  word  united  to  the  Greek  article  rij  kpa — TER- 
 RA. {Knight,  Inquiry,  &c.,  (j  35,  seqq. — Class. 
 Journ.,  vol.  23,  p.  228,  and  vol.  2o,  p.  39. — Samte- 
 Croix,  My  St  ires  da  Paganisme,  vol.  1,  p.  159.) 
 
 Cerinthus,  a  town  of  Euboea,  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Histioea,  and  near  a  small  river  called  Budorus.  The 
 name  of  Geronda,  attached  to  a  hamlet  on  the  western 
 coast,  seems  to  recall  that  of  Cerinthus.  {Scymn., 
 Ch.,  571.— Plat.,  QucEst.  Gr.—  Op.,  ed.  Reiske,  vol. 
 7,  p.  187.) 
 
 Cf.rne,  an  island  without  the  pillars  of  Hercules, 
 on  the  African  coast,  mentioned  by  Hanno  in  his 
 Periplus,  as  it  is  usually  though  incorrectly  termed. 
 Here  he  established  a  colony,  and  it  was  always  the 
 depot  of  the  Carthaginians  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
 Africa.  Hanno  says  that  it  was  the  same  distance 
 from  the  Columns  of  Hercules  that  Carthage  was. 
 According  to  Rennell,  the  island  of  Cerne  is  the  mod- 
 ern Arguin.  Gossellin, however,  makes  this  island  to 
 be  the  modern  Fcdala.  {Vtd.  the  account  of  Han- 
 no's  voyage  under  the  article  Africa.) 
 
 Ceket.vni,  a  people  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  at 
 the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  to  the  east  of  the  Vas- 
 cones.  Pliny  divides  them  into  the  Cerctani  Augus- 
 tani  (so  named  from  Augustus  having  enlar<red  their 
 
 territory),  and  the  Ceretani  Jaliani,  who  possessed 
 the  Jus  Latii.  Their  country  answers  to  the  district 
 of  Cerdagnc  in  Catalonia.  {Plin.,  3,  3. — Fetr.  de 
 Marca,  1,  12.) 
 
 Cestbine,  a  district  of  Epirus,  separated  from 
 Thesprotia  by  the  river  Thyamis.  It  was  said  to 
 have  taken  its  name  from  Cestrinus,  the  son  of  Hele- 
 nus,  having  previously  borne  the  appellation  of  Cam- 
 mania.  It  is  now  called  Fhilates.  {Pausan.,  1,  11. 
 — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Kuftiiavia. — Thucyd.,  1,  46.) 
 
 Cethegus,  I.  a  Roman  consul,  A.U.C.  421.  He 
 was  obliged  to  lay  down  his  office  on  account  of  some 
 informality  in  his  election. — II.  M.  Cornelius,  a  dis- 
 tinguished Roman  orator.  Being  sent  as  pra;tor  to 
 Sicily,  he  quelled  a  sedition  of  the  soldiers  in  that  isl- 
 and. He  was  called  to  the  censorship  before  he  had 
 been  consul,  a  thing  not  in  accordance  with  Roman 
 usage,  and  obtained  this  latter  office  six  years  subse- 
 quently, B.C.  204.  He  carried  on  the  war  against  the 
 Carthaginians  in  Etruria,  and  defeated  Mago,who  was 
 coming  with  succours  for  Hannibal.  {Liv.,  27,  11. — 
 Id.,  30,  18.) — HI.  C.  Cornelius,  proconsul  in  Spain, 
 A.U.C.  552,  defeated  a  numerous  army  of  the  Sede- 
 tani.  Being  elected  consul,  A.U.C.  557,  he  gained 
 a  great  victory  over  the  Insubres,  and  on  his  return  to 
 Rome  obtained  the  honours  of  a  triumph.  The  peo- 
 ple having  afterward  chosen  him  censor,  he  assigned 
 distinct  places  to  the  senators  at  the  public  games. 
 {Liv.,  31,4:9.— Id.,  32,  30.— Id.,  35,  9.)— IV.  C.  Cor- 
 nelius, a  Roman  rendered  powerful  by  his  influence 
 with  Marius.  He  himself  was  wholly  governed  by  a 
 female  named  Praecia,  who  obtained  for  LucuUus  the 
 government  of  Cilicia.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Lucull.)—'W .  C. 
 Cornelius,  a  Roman  of  the  most  corrupt  and  aban- 
 doned character,  and  one  of  the  accomplices  of  Cati- 
 line. He  was  strangled  in  prison  by  order  of  the  sen- 
 ate.    {Sail,  Bell.  Cat.) 
 
 Ceto,  a  daughter  of  Pontus  and  Terra,  who  mar- 
 ried Phorcys,  by  whom  she  had  the  three  Gorgons, 
 the  Grseas,  Echidna,  and  the  serpent  that  watched  the 
 golden  apples.     {Hesiod.,  Theog.,  270.) 
 
 C^us,  an  incorrect  form  for  Coeus  or  Coios.  {Vid. 
 Coeus.) 
 
 Ceyx,  a  king  of  Trachinia,  and  husband  of  Alcy- 
 one. He  was  drowned  as  he  went  to  consult  the  ora- 
 cle of  Claros  ;  and  his  wife,  having  been  apprized  of 
 his  fate  in  a  dream,  found  his  corpse  on  the  shore. 
 They  were  both  changed  into  Halcyons.  {Vtd.  Al- 
 cyone.) 
 
 Chaboras,  a  river  of  Mesopotamia,  springing,  ac- 
 cording to  Ptolemy,  from  Mount  Masius,  a  little  to  the 
 west  of  Nisibis,  but,  according  to  other  authorities,  a 
 little  east  of  Charrse.  These  last  are  followed  by 
 D'Anville.  It  fell  into  the  Euphrates  near  the  town 
 of  Circesium.  Its  modern  name  is  the  Khabuur.  In 
 the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon  (1,  4,  19. — Compare  Ind. 
 Norn,  to  the  edition  of  Zeune),  it  is  called  the  Araxes, 
 which  appears  to  be  an  appellative  term,  as  we  find  it 
 applied  to  many  other  rivers  in  antiquity.  The  Cha- 
 boras is  called  by  Straho  (747)  the  Abborras;  by  Zosi- 
 mus  (3,  13)  the  Aboras.  ((Compare  Avm.  MarcelL, 
 14,  1,  and  23,  5. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  5,  p.  268, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Chabrias,  a  celebrated  Athenian  general,  at  first  a 
 disciple  of  Plato's,  who  distinguished  himself  in  the 
 military  movements  of  Athens  during  the  fourth  cen 
 tury  before  our  era,  after  the  termination  of  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesian  war.  One  of  his  first  exploits  was  the  aid- 
 ing of  Evagoras,  king  of  Salamis,  in  the  island  of  Cy- 
 prus, against  the  Persian  arms.  He  was  after  thia 
 sent  to  the  aid  of  the  Boeotians,  who  had  been  attacked 
 by  Agesilaus,  and  he  disconcerted  the  Spartan  general 
 by  a  manceuvre  hitherto  unknown  to  the  Greeks.  His 
 army,  on  this  occasion,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  foe, 
 who  had  already  become  sure  of  victory,  Chabrias  or- 
 dered  his  soldiers  to  plant  one  knee  on  the  ground, 
 
 ool 
 
C  H  ^E 
 
 C  H  A 
 
 and  rest  their  spears  firmly  on  the  other,  covering 
 their  persons  at  the  same  time  with  their  shields. 
 Agesilaus,  not  daring  to  attack  them  in  this  po- 
 sition, drew  back,  his  forces  mto  camp.  A  statue 
 was  erected  to  Chabrias  in  honour  of  this  exploit, 
 and  he  was  represented  in  the  posture  just  described. 
 Some  of  the  learned  of  modern  times  think  that  they 
 recognise  this  statue  in  that  of  the  "  Gladiator." 
 Chabrias  afterward  defeated  near  Naxos  the  fleet  of 
 the  Lacedemonians,  and  thus  restored  to  Athens  the 
 control  of  the  sea,  which  she  had  lost  since  the  battle 
 of  .iilgos  Potamos.  Subsequently  to  this  he  was  ac- 
 cused of  treason  for  having  allowed  Oropus  to  be  sur- 
 prised by  the  Theban  exiles,  but  was  acquitted  not- 
 withstanding the  powerful  efforts  of  his  foes,  and  par- 
 ticularly of  Callistratus.  Finding  a  stay  at  Athens 
 rather  unsafe,  he  accepted  the  offer  of  Tachus,  king 
 of  Egypt,  who  already  had  Agesilaus  in  his  service, 
 and  accepted  the  command  of  his  naval  forces.  Ta- 
 chus, however,  having  been  abandoned  by  Agesilaus, 
 who  sided  with  his  son  Nectanebis,  Chabrias  returned 
 to  Athens,  and  he  was  then  sent  into  Thrace  to  take 
 charge  of  the  war  against  Chersobleptes.  His  ope- 
 rations, however,  were  not  very  successful  in  this 
 quarter,  owing  to  the  disorganized  state  of  the  Gre- 
 cian forces,  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  their  pay. 
 Not  long  after  this  the  social  war,  as  it  has  been 
 termed,  broke  out  between  the  Athenians  on  the  one 
 side,  and  the  Byzantines,  together  with  the  inhabi- 
 tants of  Chios,  Rhodes,  and  Cos,  on  the  other.  The 
 Athenians  gave  the  command  of  their  forces  to  Chares, 
 and  Chabrias  went  with  him  as  second  in  authority, 
 having  charge  of  the  fleet  according  to  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus,  but,  as  Nepos  informs  us,  in  the  character  of  a 
 simple  volunteer.  They  proceeded  to  attack  Chios  ; 
 and  Chares,  wishing  to  make  an  onset  by  both  sea  and 
 land,  gave  the  command  of  his  ships  to  Chabrias.  The 
 latter  succeeded  in  forcing  an  entrance  into  the  har- 
 bour, but,  not  being  followed  by  the  remainder  of  the 
 squadron,  he  was  surrounded  by  the  vessels  of  the 
 enemy,  and  fell  bravely  defending  his  ship,  although 
 he  might  have  escaped  had  he  felt  inclined.  Great 
 honours  were  paid  to  his  memory  at  Athens.  Demos- 
 thenes says,  that  he  took  in  the  course  of  his  life  sev- 
 enteen cities  and  seventy  vessels ;  that  he  made 
 three  thousand  prisoners,  and  brought  one  hundred 
 and  ten  talents  into  the  public  treasury ;  that  he 
 erected  also  many  trophies,  but  his  foes  not  a  single 
 one  for  any  victory  over  him.  He  adds,  that  the 
 Athenians,  during  the  whole  time  Chabrias  was  com- 
 mander, never  lost  a  single  city,  a  single  fortress,  a 
 single  vessel,  or  even  a  single  soldier.  In  this,  no 
 doubt,  there  is  great  exaggeration ;  still,  however,  he 
 appears  to  have  been  a  very  able  general,  and  one  that 
 would  have  equalled  all  who  went  before  him,  had  he 
 lived  in  more  favourable  times.  Plutarch  says,  that 
 Chabrias,  though  at  other  times  scarcely  anything 
 could  move  him,  was  in  the  moment  of  action  im- 
 petuously vehement,  and  exposed  his  person  with  a 
 boldness  ungoverned  by  discretion.  We  have  his  life 
 by  Cornelius  Nepos,  but  it  is  a  very  meager  one. 
 Xenophon,  in  his  Greek  history,. might  have  given  us 
 more  details  respecting  him  ;  but  the  partiality  of  this 
 writer  for  Sparta  prevented  him  from  saying  much  in 
 favour  of  the  Athenian  commander.  (Corn.  Nep.  in 
 Vtt.—Perizon.  ad  JEL,  V.  H.,  5,  \.—Diod.  Sic,  15, 
 32,  seqq. — Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  5,  1,  10,  seqq. — De- 
 mosih.,  adv.  Leptin.,  17,  &c.) 
 
 Ch^remon,  I.  a  tragic  poet  of  Athens,  who  flour- 
 ished about  338  B.C.  The  earliest  testimony,  per- 
 haps, in  relation  lo  this  poet,  is  the  mention  made  of 
 him  by  the  comic  writer  Eubulus.  {Aihenaus,  2,  p. 
 43^  c. — Compare  Aristot.,  Poet.,  2,  25. — Id.,  Rhct., 
 2,  23,  et  29. — Theophrast.,  Hist.  Plant.,  5,  9,  5.— 
 Clinton's  Fasti  Hellenici,  2d  ed.,  p.  xxxii.) — H.  A 
 philosopher  and  historian  of  Alexandrea.  He  accom- 
 332 
 
 panied  iElius  Callus  in  his  journey  through  Egypt, 
 and  was  subsequently  appointed  librarian  to  the  Sera- 
 peum.  Being  afterward  called  to  Rome  to  preside 
 over  the  education  of  Nero,  he  shared  this  office  with 
 Alexander  of  yfc]g33  the  peripatetic.  His  historical  la- 
 bours embraced  the  antiquities  of  Egypt,  both  sacred 
 and  profane.  He  wrote  also  a  work  on  Hieroglyphics, 
 which  has  unfortunately  perished.  He  is  the  author, 
 also,  of  one  of  the  two  systems  relating  to  the  Egyp- 
 tian religion,  wdiich  divided  the  opinions  of  the  ancient 
 world.  According  to  him,  this  religion  was  nothing 
 more  than  a  species  of  sacred  physics,  in  which  the  vis- 
 ible worlds  {bpiofiEVOi  Koa/ioi)  played  a  principal  part, 
 lamblichus,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained,  that  the 
 Egyptians  acknowledged  one  supreme  and  absolute  in- 
 telligence. Perhaps  both  these  philosophers  were 
 right :  they  may  have  spoken  of  different  epochs. — 
 {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  177,  seqq. — Creu- 
 zcr,  Si/mbolik,  vol.  1,  p.  383.) 
 
 Ch^konea,  a  city  of  Bceotia,  to  the  northeast  of 
 Lebadaea.  It  was  about  sixteen  English  miles  from 
 Elatea,  twenty-seven  from  Thebes,  and  sixty-two  from 
 Athens  {Clinton's  Fasti  Hellenici,  2d  ed.,  p.  295,  in 
 noits),  and  was  remarkable  for  the  important  military 
 events  which  occurred  in  its  territory,  and  also  as 
 being  the  birthplace  of  Plutarch.  Pausanias  is  in- 
 clined to  look  upon  this  city  as  the  Bceotian  Arne  men- 
 tioned by  Homer  (II.,  2,  5i)7. —Pausan.,  9,  40).  Ac- 
 cording to  some  traditions,  however,  Arne  and  Mi- 
 dea  had  both  been  swallowed  up  by  the  waters  of  the 
 Copaic  Lake ;  but  others  considered  the  town  of 
 Acrssphium  as  the  Arne  of  the  poet.  {Straho,  413.) 
 Pausanias  reports,  on  the  authority  of  Hesiod,  that 
 the  name  of  Chseronea  was  derived  from  Chseron,  the 
 son  of  Apollo.  It  was  memorable  for  the  defeat  of 
 the  Athenians  by  the  Boeotians,  B.C.  447,  and  much 
 more  for  their  irretrievable  defeat  by  Philip,  B.C. 
 338.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Demosth.,  c.  "Z^.  —  S-trabo,  414.) 
 Pausanias  observes,  that  no  trophy  was  erected  by 
 Philip  after  this  signal  victory,  as  it  was  not  the  prac- 
 tice of  the  Macedonian  kings.  Several  years  after 
 this  place  witnessed  another  bloody  engagement,  be- 
 tween the  Romans,  under  the  conduct  of  Sylla,  and 
 the  troops  of  Milhradates,  commanded  by  Taxiles 
 and  Archelaus,  B.C.  86.  Chaeronea  is  now  called 
 Kaprena,  and  is  still  a  populous  village,  with  many 
 vestiges  of  the  ancient  town.  {Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  241,  seqq. — DodwelVs  Tour,  vol.  1, 
 p.  220.— Cell,  Itin.,  p.  221.) 
 
 Chalcedon,  a  city  of  Bithynia,  situate  at  the  south- 
 em  extremity  of  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  nearly  oppo- 
 site to  Byzantium  or  Constantinople.  It  was  founded 
 by  a  colony  from  Megara,  about  seventeen  years  prior 
 to  the  settling  of  Byzantium.  Chalcedon  was  called 
 by  the  Persian  satrap  Megabyzus,  in  derision,  the  city 
 of  the  blind,  because  the  inhabitants  had  overlooked 
 the  superior  position  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
 straits,  where  Byzantium  was  subsequently  founded. 
 (Herodot.,  4,  144.)  Strabo,  however,  ascribes  this  re- 
 mark to  an  oracle  of  Apollo,  which  was  received  by 
 the  founders  of  Byzantium,  and  by  which  they  were 
 directed  to  select  a  spot  for  a  city  "  opposite  the 
 blind"  {uTTEvavTLOV  ruv  TV(pAuv. — Strah.,  320).  But, 
 whichever  be  the  true  account,  one  thing  is  very  cer- 
 tain, that  the  imputation  attempted  to  be  cast  upon 
 the  Chalcedonians  was  any  other  than  just.  When 
 Chalcedon  was  founded,  the  commerce  of  Megara  had 
 not  extended  to  the  Euxine,  and  it  would  have  been 
 idle,  therefore,  to  found  a  city,  at  that  period,  on  the 
 European  side  of  the  Bosporus,  along  which  a  steady 
 current  sets  down  from  the  Euxine  Sea.  It  was  only 
 when  traflTic  had  spread  to  the  shores  of  the  Euxine, 
 that  the  site  occupied  at  present  by  Constantinople 
 became  an  important  one ;  since  the  vessels  from 
 that  sea  would  then  be  carried  down  directly  by  the 
 current  into  the  harbour  of  the  last-mentioned  city. 
 
CH  A 
 
 CHA 
 
 {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  155.)  Chalcedon  was 
 always  a  considerable  place.  It  preserved  its  inde- 
 pendence until  the  reign  of  Darius,  to  whose  arms  the 
 Chalcedouiaas  were  forced  to  submit.  They  recover- 
 ed their  freedom,  however,  after  the  defeat  of  Xerxes, 
 and  became  the  allies,  or,  rather,  tributaries  of  the 
 Atiienians,  to  whom  the  ports  of  the  Bosporus  were  an 
 object  of  the  highest  commercial  and  financial  impor- 
 tance. After  the  battle  of  .^Egos  Potamos,  however, 
 Chalcedon  opened  its  gates  to  Lysander,  whose  first 
 ODJect  seems  to  have  been  to  secure  the  entrance  of 
 the  Bosporus  by  the  possession  of  this  city  and  By- 
 zantium. (Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  2,  2,  1.)  Theopompus, 
 who  is  quoted  by  Athenasus,  observes,  that  the  Chal- 
 cedonians  at  first  possessed  good  institutions,  but, 
 having  been  tainted  by  the  democratic  principles  of 
 their  neighbours,  the  Byzantines,  they  became  luxu- 
 rious and  debauched.  {Allien.,  12,  p.  526,  /.)  This 
 city  is  also  celebrated  in  ecclesiastical  history  for  the 
 council  held  there  against  the  Eutychian  heresy  (A.D. 
 451).  Hierocles  assigns  to  it  the  first  rank  among  the 
 cities  of  the  province  then  called  Pontica  Prima  (p. 
 690). — It  is  to  be  observed,  that  in  writing  the  name 
 of  this  city  ancient  authors  have  not  been  uniform, 
 some  giving  Ka'Axv^'*"v,  others  XalKTjduv.  The  for- 
 mer mode  is,  however,  much  more  frequent,  and  it 
 is  confirmed  by  the  existing  coins,  the  epigraph  of 
 which  is  invariably  KAAXAA0NIS2N,  according  to 
 the  Doric  form.  {Eckhel,  Doct.  Num.  Vet.,  p.  1,  vol. 
 1,  p.  410.) — The  site  of  this  ancient  city  is  now  oc- 
 cupied by  the  Turkish  village  of  Kadikcvi,  but  the 
 Greeks  still  preserve  the  classical  name.  {Cramer'' s 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  190. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  I.  c. 
 —  Walpole,  Mevjoirs,  \o\.  2,  p.  8,  Append.,  n.  41.) 
 
 ChalcidIce,  I.  a  district  of  Macedonia,  between  the 
 Sinus  Thermaicus  and  Strymonicus.  The  lower  part 
 of  it  formed  three  peninsulas,  Phlegra  or  Pallene,  Si- 
 thonia,  and  Athos.  The  small  town  of  Chalcis  gave 
 name  to  this  district. — II.  Another  in  Syria,  adjacent 
 to  the  town  of  Chalcis.     {Vid.  Chalcis  V.) 
 
 Cn.iLciDinus  {Chalcidian),  an  epithet  applied  to 
 Cumaj  in  Italy,  as  built  by  a  colony  from  Chalcis  in 
 Eubcea.     {Virg.,  Mn.,  6,  17.) 
 
 Ch.\i,cicecus,  an  epithet  applied  to  Minerva  at 
 Sparta,  from  her  having  a  brazen  temple  (^a/l/coCf 
 oIko^).  Sir  W.  Cell,  in  his  account  of  the  treasury 
 at  Argos,  gives  a  reasonable  explication  of  this  seem- 
 ingly strange  term.  He  discovered  in  the  interior 
 of  the  Treasury,  which  still  remains  in  a  great  de- 
 gree entire,  a  number  of  brass  nails,  placed  through- 
 out at  regular  intervals  on  the  walls,  and  these  he 
 supposes  were  originally  used  for  securing  plates  of 
 the  same  metal  to  the  wall  ;  and  hence  the  seeming 
 fables  of  brazen  chambers  and  brazen  temples.  In  a 
 similar  manner  may  be  explained  the  account,  given 
 by  the  ancients,  of  the  brazen  vessel  made  by  Eurys- 
 theus,  and  into  which  he  retired  whenever  Hercules 
 returned  from  his  labours.     {GcWs  Argolis,  p.  33.) 
 
 Chalcis,  I.  the  most  celebrated  and  important  city 
 of  Euboea,  situate  on  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Euri- 
 pus.  According  to  the  common  account,  it  was 
 founded  after  the  seige  of  Troy  by  an  Ionian  colony 
 from  Athens,  under  the  conduct  of  Colhus.  {Strabo, 
 447.)  Other  authorities,  however,  have  assigned  to 
 it  a  much  greater  antiquity,  and  it  is  certain  that  Ho- 
 mer speaks  of  Chalcis  as  already  existing  before  the 
 event  above  mentioned.  {II.,  2,  537.)  The  flourish- 
 ing condition  of  this  great  Ionian  city,  at  a  very  early 
 period,  is  attested  by  its  numerous"  colonies  on  the 
 shores  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  as  well  as  on  the  Thracian 
 coast  around  Pallene  and  Mount  Athos.  Aristotle,  as 
 Strabo  reports,  dated  these  establishments  from  the 
 period  when  the  government  of  Chalcis,  through  the 
 influence  of  the  wealthiest  inhabitants,  named  Hippo- 
 botse,  became  a  pure  aristocracy.  From  Herodotus 
 (6,  77)  we  learn,  that  the  Chalcidians,  having  joined 
 
 the  Boeotians  in  their  depredations  on  the  coast  of 
 Attica,  soon  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Pisistralid^e, 
 afibrded  the  Athenians  just  grounds  for  reprisals. 
 They  accordingly  crossed  over  into  Euboea  with  a 
 large  force,  and,  after  defeating  the  ChalcidiaBs,  occu- 
 pied the  lands  of  the  wealthiest  inhabitants,  and,  dis- 
 tributed among  them  4000  of  their  own  citizens. 
 These,  however,  were  obliged  to  evacuate  the  island 
 on  the  arrival  of  the  Persian  fleet  under  Datis  and  Ar- 
 taphernes.  {Herod.,  d,  \0Q.)  The  Chalcidians^  aftei 
 the  termination  of  the  Persian  war,  became  again  de- 
 pendent on  Athens  with  the  rest  of  Eubcea,  and  did 
 not  regain  their  liberty  till  the  close  of  the  Pclopon- 
 nesian  war,  when  they  asserted  their  freedom,  and, 
 aided  by  the  Bosotians,  fortified  the  Euripus  and  es- 
 tablished a  communication  with  the  continent  by 
 throwing  a  wooden  bridge  across  the  channel.  Tow- 
 ers were  placed  at  each  extremity,  and  room  was  left 
 in  the  middle  for  one  ship  only  to  pass.  This  work  was 
 undertaken,  according  to  Diodorus,  410  B.C.  {Diod. 
 Sic,  13,  47.)  From  the  advantages  of  its  situation 
 and  the  strength  of  its  works,  Chalcis  was  considered, 
 in  the  latter  period  of  the  history  of  Greece,  as  one 
 of  the  most  important  fortresses  of  that  country  ; 
 hence  we  find  it  a  frequent  object  of  contention  be- 
 tween the  Romans  and  Philip,  son  of  Demetrius,  wlio 
 termed  it  one  of  the  chains  of  Greece.  {Puhjh.,  17, 
 W.—Id.,  18,  28.)  In  the  war  with  Perses,  the  Chal- 
 cidians were  cruelly  oppressed  and  plundered  by  the 
 Roman  praetors  Lucretius  and  Hortensius.  {Livy, 
 43,  7.)  They  were  subsequently  treated  with  still 
 greater  severity  by  Mummius,  the  destroyer  of  Cor- 
 inth, for  having  favoured  the  Achaeans  in  their  contest 
 with  Rome  ;  and  the  epitomist  of  Livy  asserts  that 
 their  town  was  actually  destroyed.  {Liv.,  52. — Com- 
 pare Freinsh.,  SuppL,  19.)  Pausanias  informs  us 
 that  Chalcis  no  longer  existed  in  his  day  (5,  23. — 
 Compare  Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  XalKcc. — Hierocles,  p. 
 645).  Procopius  names  it  among  the  towns  restored 
 by  Justinian  (4,  3).  In  the  middle  ages  it  assumed 
 the  name  of  Euripus  {Apospasm.,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p. 
 42,  Geogr.  Mm.,  ed  Hudson),  which  was  in  process 
 of  time  corrupted  to  Negropont,  the  modern  appella- 
 tion of  the  whole  island,  as  well  as  that  of  its  capital. 
 {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  134.) — II.  A 
 town  of  JStolia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Chalcis,  and  on 
 the  right  bank  of  the  Evenus.  It  was  sometimes 
 called  Hypochalcis,  with  reference  to  its  situation  at 
 the  base  of  the  mountain,  and  is  now  represented  by 
 the  modern  village  of  Galala.  Thucydides  (2,  83) 
 places  it  near  the  mouth  of  the  Evenus.  Livy  says 
 it  stood  on  the  road  from  Naupactus  to  Lysimachia 
 and  Stratus  (36,  11).  Polybius  calls  it  Chalcia,  and 
 speaks  of  it  as  a  maritime  town  (5,  94). —  III.  A 
 small  maritime  town  of  the  Corinthians,  situated  to- 
 wards Sicyon.  {Thucyd.,  1,  108.) — IV.  A  city  of 
 Macedonia,  in  the  district  of  Chalcidice,  to  which  it 
 gave  name.  It  was  founded  at  an  early  period  by  a 
 colony  from  Chalcis  in  Euboea. — V.  A  city  of  Syria, 
 capital  of  the  district  of  Chalcidice,  and  of  Grecian  or- 
 igin, having  been  settled  by  the  Macedonians.  It  was 
 superseded  afterward  by  Chaleb  or  Beroea.  It  is  rep- 
 resented by  the  modern  Kinncsrin  or  Ckinsertn. 
 {Apfian,  Bell.  Syr.,  20.— Joseph.,  Bell.  Jud.,  20,  3.) 
 Chald^ea,  a  country  of  Asia,  at  the  head  of  the 
 Persian  Gulf,  and  south  of  Babylonia.  Some  writers, 
 however,  make  Babylonia  a  part  of  it.  With  respect  to 
 the  origin  of  the  Chaldaeans,  who  are  called  in  scripture 
 Chasdiin,  various  opinions  have  been  entertained.  Mi- 
 chaelis  considers  them  as  a  foreign  race  in  Assyria. 
 His  chief  reason  for  this  opinion  is  founded  on  the 
 names  of  Chaldsan  and  Babylonian  kings  preserved  in 
 scripture,  and  by  Ptolemy  and  Syncellus,  which  differ 
 from  the  Assyrian  names,  and  bear  an  apparent  re- 
 semblance to  those  of  some  northern  nations  of  Sla 
 vonic  oriein  Thus  Nebucadnezzar  would  be  in  Sla 
 ^  333 
 
C  H  A 
 
 C  H  A 
 
 vonic,  Nehu-godnoi-tzar,  i.  e.,  a  prince  worthy  of  heav- 
 en. Belshazzar  would  be  equivalent  to  Bolshoi-tzar, 
 i.  e.,  a  great  prince;  and  so  of  others.  It  has  been 
 objected  to  this,  that  the  word  Cznr  in  Slavonic  is 
 nothing  more  than  a  corruption  of  Cczsar,  an  opinion 
 hardly  worth  refuting.  The  orthography  of  the  Rus- 
 sian term  tsar  suiriciently  disproves  such  an  idea. 
 Compare  the  Hebrew  sar  ;  the  Arabic  sary ;  the 
 Sanscrit  shera  ;  the  English  sire.  So  also  we  have 
 in  the  arrow-headed  inscriptions  of  Persepolis,  as  in- 
 terpreted by  Lassen,  the  form  ksahiah  for  "king." 
 {Lassen,  Altpersischen  Keil-Inschriftcn,  &c.,  p.  141. 
 — Compare  Michaelis,  Spicilcg-.  Geogr.,  Hcb.  ext., 
 vol.  2,  p.  77,  scqq.) — The  Chaldsans  appear  to  have 
 been  originally  a  mountaineer-race  from  the  northern 
 parts  of  Mesopotamia,  though  not,  as  Michaelis  sup- 
 poses, of  foreign  extraction,  but  in  reality  a  branch  of 
 the  Semitic  race.  (Compare  Adelung,  Milhradates, 
 vol.  1,  p.  517. — Fiirst,  Chald.  Gram.,  p.  5,  srqq. — 
 Compare  still  farther,  in  relation  to  the  Chaldee 
 tongue,  the  remarks  of  Saint-Martin,  as  cited  by  Bal- 
 bi,  Introduction  a  PAtlas  Ethnographique,  p.  106, 
 and,  as  regards  the  pretended  antiquity  of  the  Chaldee 
 empire,  consult  Cuvier,  on  the  Revolutions  of  the  Sur- 
 face of  the  Globe,  p.  127,  seqq.,  Eng.  transL,  1829, 
 and  Drummond^s  Origincs,  vol.  1,  p.  13,  seqq.)  The 
 Chaldasans  are  highly  commended  in  many  of  the  an- 
 cient writers  for  their  skill  in  the  sciences,  especially 
 in  astronomy.  If  we  are  to  believe  Diodorus,  how- 
 ever, their  claims  to  this  high  character  were  very 
 slight.  They  seem  to  have  pursued  the  study  of  as- 
 tronomy no  farther  than  as  it  might  tend  to  aid  their 
 astrological  researches.  They  taught  that  the  shape 
 of  the  earth  was  that  of  a  skiff  or  small  boat,  and  of 
 eclipses  of  the  sun  they  knew  but  little,  and  never 
 ventured  to  predict  them,  or  fix  the  time  of  their  oc- 
 curring. So  says  Diodorus.  {Diod.  Sic,  2,  31. — 
 Compare,  however,  in  relation  to  the  science  of  the 
 Chaldseans,  the  remarks  of  Sir  W.  Drummond,  Class. 
 Journ.,\o\.  16,  p.  145  and  262  ;  vol.  17,  p.  19  ;  vol. 
 18,  p.  1  and  298  ;  vol.  19,  p.  296.) 
 
 CHALD^r,  I.  the  inhabitants  of  Chaldsea. — 11.  The 
 same  with  the  Chalybes.     {Vid.  Chalybes.) 
 
 Chalybes,  a  people  of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  who 
 inhabited  the  whole  coast  from  the  Jasonium  Promon- 
 torium  to  the  vicinity  of  the  river  Thermodon,  to- 
 gether with  a  portion  of  the  inner  country.  They 
 were  celebrated  in  antiquity  for  the  great  iron-mines 
 and  forges  which  existed  in  their  country.  {Apcll. 
 Rh.,  2,  1002,  seqq.— Id.,  2,  374.— Fsr^.,  Georg.,  1, 
 58. —  Dionys.  Perieg.,  768.)  We  are  ignorant  of 
 the  grounds  on  which  the  ancients  attributed  this  ac- 
 tive employment  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  to  the 
 Chalybes,  for  it  does  not  appear  at  present  that  this 
 part  of  Asia  is  at  all  productive  of  that  most  useful 
 metal ;  perhap.s,  however,  if  the  mountainous  districts 
 were  accurately  examined,  there  could  be  found  traces 
 of  the  ancient  works.  It  is  plain,  however,  that  they 
 had  not  ceased  to  furnish  a  good  supply  of  metallic 
 ore  in  Strabo's  time,  for  he  observes,  that  the  two 
 great  articles  of  produce  in  the  land  of  the  Chalybes, 
 who  were  then  commonly  called  Chaldasi  or  Chaldi, 
 were  the  fisheries  of  the  pelamys  and  the  iron-works  ; 
 the  latter  kept  in  constant  employment  a  great  num- 
 ber of  men.  Strabo  observes,  also,  that  these  mines 
 formerly  produced  a  quantity  of  silver  ;  and  this  cir- 
 cumstance,  together  with  some  affinity  in  the  names, 
 led  some  commentators  of  Homer  to  identify  the  Aly- 
 be  of  that  poet  with  the  Chalybes  of  Pontus.  (//.,  2, 
 856.)  Strabo  himself  strongly  contends  for  this  inter- 
 pretation, and  it  is  in  all  probability  the  true  one. 
 (Strabo,  549,  seqq.)  It  is  remarkable,  that  Herodotus 
 names  the  Chalybes  among  the  nations  of  Asia  that 
 were  conquered  by  Croesus  (1,  28),  and  yet  they  cer- 
 tainlv  are  found  afterward  considerably  beyond  the 
 Halys,  which  separated  his  dominion  from  those  of 
 334 
 
 Cyrus  :  either,  therefore,  they  must  have  shifted  their 
 position,  or  Croesus  subsequently  lost  what  he  had 
 gained  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Halys.  Xenophon, 
 who  traversed  the  country  of  the  Chalybes,  speaks  of 
 them  as  being  few  in  number,  and  subject  to  the  Mo- 
 synoeci  ;  he  adds,  that  their  chief  employment  was 
 forging  iron.  But  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  he 
 places  these  Chalybes  more  to  the  east  than  other 
 writers.  (Anab.,  5,  5,  2.)  Zeunius,  therefore,  is  of 
 opinion,  that  this  people  must  have  lived  a  wandering 
 sort  of  life,  and  have  often  changed  their  territory. 
 {Dissert.  Geogr.  ad  Anab.,  p.  xxvii.,  cd.  Oxon.,  1809.) 
 Xenophon,  however,  speaks  elsewhere  of  some  other 
 Chalybes,  who  were  situated  apparently  on  the  borders 
 of  Armenia,  and  were  much  more  numerous  and  war- 
 like. (Anab.,  4,  7,  10.)  Strabo  reports,  that  the 
 Chalybes,  in  his  time,  had  changed  their  name  to  that 
 of  Chaldaei  {Strab.,  549),  and  it  is  remarked,  that  Xen- 
 ophon speaks  of  an  Armenian  tribe  of  Chaldees,  who 
 encountered  the  Greeks  near  the  river  Centritis  {Anab., 
 4,  3,  4. — Compare  Eustath.  ad  Dioji.  Perieg.,  708)  ; 
 but  Menippus,  in  his  Periplus,  calls  the  Pontic  tribe 
 Chaldi,  and  their  canton  Chaldia.  {Ap.  Stcph.  Byz., 
 s.  V.  XaTidia. — Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  273, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Chalybon,  a  city  of  Syria,  capital  of  the  district 
 called  Chalybonitis,  and  the  same  with  the  Scripture 
 Helbon.  {Ezck.,  27,  18.)  The  surrounding  country 
 was  famed  for  its  wine.  (Compare  Casaub.  ad  A  then., 
 2,  p.  66. — Bochart,  Hieroz.,  pt.  1,  lib.  2,  c.  45,  p. 
 485. — Schleusncr,  Lex.  V.  T.,  s.  v.  XeXSc'ov.)  The- 
 venot,  Russel,  and  others  make  this  city  correspond  to 
 the  modern  Aleppo  {Haleb).  Pococke,  however,  is  in 
 favour  of  Kennesrin,  to  the  south  of  Aleppo.  {Vid. 
 Beroea.) 
 
 Chalybs,  a  river  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  in  the 
 country  of  the  Celtiberi,  and  one  of  the  tributaries  of 
 the  Iberus.  Its  waters  were  famed  for  hardening  steel ; 
 so  that  the  name  Chalybs  was  given  to  it  from  this 
 circumstance,  by  either  the  Romans  or  the  Greeks, 
 more  probably  the  former.  The  modern  name  is  the 
 Queiles.     {Justin,  44,  3.) 
 
 Chaones,  a  people  of  Epirus.     {Vid.  Chaonia.) 
 
 Chaonia,  a  region  of  Epirus.  The  ancients  com- 
 prehended under  the  name  of  Chaonia  that  northwest- 
 ern part  of  Epirus  which  bordered  on  the  territory  of 
 Oricum,  Amantia,  and  still  more  to  the  east  on  the 
 country  of  the  Atintanes,  while  it  extended  along  the 
 coast  of  the  Ionian  Sea  from  the  Acroceraunian  prom- 
 ontory to  the  harbour  of  Buthrotum,  opposite  the  isl- 
 and of  Corcyra.  The  exact  limits  of  Chaonia  can- 
 not now  be  ascertained,  since,  even  in  Strabo's  time, 
 it  was  impossible  to  discern  with  accuracy  what  be- 
 longed to  each  of  the  several  tribes  into  which  the 
 body  of  the  nation  had  been  divided,  owing  to  the  great 
 political  changes  which  that  country  had  experienced 
 since  it  became  subject  to  the  Romans.  {Strabo, 
 322.)  We  must  observe,  however,  that  in  llie  time 
 of  Thucydides,  the  river  Thyamis  bounded  that  south- 
 ern portion  of  Chaonia  which  bore  the  name  of  Ces- 
 trine,  on  the  side  of  Thesprdiia.  The  Chaones,  as  we 
 learn  from  Strabo,  were  once  the  most  powerful  and 
 warlike  people  of  Epirus,  until  the  Molossi,  in  their 
 turn,  acquired  a  preponderating  ascendancy  over  the 
 other  clans  of  that  country.  In  the  time  of  the  Pel- 
 oponnesian  war  the  Chaones  differed  from  their  neigh- 
 bours, in  being  subject  to  an  aristocratical  and  not  a 
 monarchical  government  ;  their  annual  magistrates 
 being  always  chosen  from  a  particular  family.  {Thu- 
 cyd.,  2,  80.)  Tradition  ascribed  the  origin  of  their 
 name  to  Chaon,  the  brother  of  Helenus  who  married 
 Andromache  after  the  death  of  Pyrrhus.  {Virg., 
 JEn.,  3,  333. — Compare  the  commentary  of  Servius, 
 ad  loc.)  It  may  be  inferred  from  the  name  of  Pelas- 
 gis  given  to  Chaonia  bv  some  ancient  writers,  that  it 
 was  formerly  occupied  bv  the  Pelasgi.     {Stcph.  Byz., 
 
C  H  A 
 
 C  H  A 
 
 s.  V.  Xaovia  )  Virgil  uses  the  epithet  Chaonius  for 
 Dodonctus  {Georg.,  1,  8)  in  referring  to  the  acorns  of 
 Dodona.     {Cramer's  Arte.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  93.) 
 
 Chaos,  a  heterogeneous  mass,  containing  all  the 
 seeds  of  nature.  According  to  Hesiod  {Thcog.,  116), 
 "  Chaos  was  first ;"  then  came  into  being  "  broad- 
 breasted  Earth,  the  gloomy  Tartarus,  and  Love." 
 Chaos  produced  Erebus  and  Night,  and  this  last  bore 
 to  Erebus  Day  and  /Ether.  The  idea  of  Chaos  and 
 Night,  divested  of  poetical  imagery,  is  simply  that  of  un- 
 formed matter,  eternally  existing  as  the  passive  princi- 
 ple, whence  all  forms  are  produced.  Whether,  besides 
 this  Chaotic  mass,  the  ancient  theogonies  suppose  an 
 infinite,  active,  intelligent  Principle,  who  from  the 
 first  matter  formed  the  universe,  is  a  question  which 
 has  occasioned  much  debate.  It  is  evident,  upon  the 
 most  cursory  review  of  all  the  ancient  theogonies,  that 
 God,  the  great  Creator  of  all  things,  is  not  expressly 
 introduced,  but  it  is  doubted  whether  the  framers  of 
 these  theogonies  meant  lo  exclude  him  from  their  re- 
 spective systems,  or  indirectly  to  suppose  his  exist- 
 ence and  the  exertion  of  his  power  in  giving  motion  to 
 matter.  When  divested  of  allegory  and  poetry,  the 
 sum  of  the  doctrine  contained  in  the  ancient  theogo- 
 nies will,  it  is  conceived,  be  found  to  be  as  follows  : 
 The  first  matter,  containing  the  seeds  of  all  future 
 being,  existed  from  eternity  with  God.  At  length 
 the  Divine  energy  acting  upon  matter  produced  a  mo- 
 tion among  its  parts,  by  which  those  of  the  same  kind 
 0  were  brought  together,  and  those  of  a  different  kind 
 were  separated,  and  by  which,  according  to  certain 
 wise  laws,  the  various  forms  of  the  material  world 
 were  produced.  The  same  energy  of  emanation  gave 
 existence  to  animals  and  men,  and  to  gods  who  in- 
 habit the  heavenly  bodies,  and  various  other  parts  of 
 nature.  Among  men,  those  who  possess  a  larger  por- 
 tion of  the  Divine  nature  than  others  are  hereby  im- 
 pelled to  great  and  beneficent  actions,  and  afford  illus- 
 trious proofs  of  their  divine  original,  on  account  of 
 which  they  are,  after  death,  raised  to  a  place  among 
 the  gods,  and  become  objects  of  religious  worship. 
 {Enfield's  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  vol.  l,p.  \30,  seqq.) 
 
 Charadra,  a  town  of  Phocis,  about  20  stadia  from 
 Lilsa.  Near  it  flowed  the  river  Charadrus,  which  fell 
 into  the  Cephissus.  Herodotus  (8,  33)  names  this 
 place  among  the  Phocian  cities  destroyed  by  the  army 
 of  Xerxes.  Dodwell  states,  that  the  ruins  of  Chara- 
 dra are  to  be  seen  near  the  village  of  Mariolates,  at 
 the  foot  of  Parnassus.    {Dodwell's  Tf^tr,  vol.  2,  p.  132.) 
 
 Charax,  I.  a  considerable  emporium  of  Bithynia, 
 in  the  later  periods  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  It  was 
 situate  on  the  bay  of  Nicomedia,  or  Sinus  Astacenus. 
 {Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Xupa^.) — II.  Another  and  earlier 
 name  for  the  city  of  Tralies,  in  Lydia.  {Stcph.  Byz., 
 s.  V.  Tpd^iXig,  Xilpa^.) — III.  A  town  of  Phrygia,  be- 
 tween Lampe  and  Graosgala.  {Nicct.,  Ann.,  p.  127, 
 h.) — IV.  A  town  of  Armenia  Minor,  in  the  northeast- 
 ern angle  of  the  country.  {Ptol. — Compare  Cramer, 
 Asia  Miyior,  vol.  2,  p.  154.) 
 
 Charaxus,  a  Mytilenean,  brother  to  Sappho.  {Vid. 
 Sappho,  near  the  commencement  of  the  article.) 
 
 Chares,  I.  an  Athenian  general,  who  succeeded  to 
 the  command  after  the  condemnation  and  death  of 
 Loosthenes.  He  was  sent  by  the  Athenians  again.st 
 Ale.tander,  tyrant  of  Pherae,  but,  instead  of  coming  to 
 action  wilh  the  foe,  he  harassed  the  Athenian  allies  to 
 such  a  degree  by  his  extortions  and  oppression,  that 
 the  social  war  was  the  result  (B.C.  388).  Although 
 Chares  was  the  principal  cause  of  this  war,  yet  the 
 orators  of  his  party  shielded  him  from  punishment,  and 
 succeeded  in  having  him  nominated  commander-in- 
 chief.  Little,  if  anything,  was  effected  by  him,  and 
 he  was  at  length  recalled  for  having  aided  Artabazus, 
 who  had  revolted  against  the  king  of  Persia.  Some 
 time  after  he  was  sent  to  aid  Byzantium  against  Philip 
 of  .Macedon,  but  he  only  incurred  the  contempt  of  his 
 
 foe,  and  excited  the  discontent  of  the  allies,  so  that  the 
 Athenians  finally  recalled  him,  and  put  Phocion  in  his 
 place.  This,  however,  did  not  prevent  them  from  choo 
 sing  him  for  their  general  at  the  battle  of  Chaeronasa, 
 where  his  ignorance  and  incapacity  mainly  contributed 
 to  the  loss  of  the  day.  He  was  one  of  those  whom 
 Alexander  ordered  to  be  delivered  up  to  him  after  the 
 destruction  of  Thebes,  but  he  succeeded  in  mollifying 
 the  conqueror,  and  was  permitted  to  live  at  Athens. 
 {Died.  Sic.,  15,  95. — Athcnaus,  12,  p.  532. — Xen., 
 Hist.  Gr.,  1,  2,18.— Lambi7i.,  ad  Coin.  Nep.,  Vit. 
 Chahr.,  c.  3.) — II.  A  Greek  statuary,  born  at  Lindus. 
 He  was  the  disciple  of  Lysippus,  and  was  celebrated 
 as  the  maker  of  the  colossus  of  Rhodes,  on  which  he 
 was  employed  twelve  years.  {Slrab.,  652. — Plin., 
 34,  l.—Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Charicles,  I.  one  of  the  30  tyrants  set  over  Athens 
 by  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  possessing  great  influence 
 among  his  colleagues,  (^en.,  Mem.  Socr.,  1,  2,  31. 
 — Aristot.,  Polit.,  5,  6. — Schlosser,  ad  Aristot.,  I.  c.) 
 — II.  A  celebrated  physician  in  the  train  of  Tiberius. 
 Towards  the  end  of  that  emperor's  life,  Charicles,  on 
 taking  leave  of  him,  as  if  about  to  journey  abroad,  man- 
 aged, in  grasping  the  hand  of  Tiberius,  to  feel  his 
 pulse,  and  became  instantly  convinced  that  the  latter 
 had  not  more  than  two  days  to  live,  a  secret  which  he 
 soon  divulged  to  Macro.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  6,  50. — 
 Gronov.,  ad  loc.) 
 
 CharTla,  a  festival  observed  once  in  nine  years  by 
 the  Delphians.  It  owed  its  origin  to  this  circumstance : 
 in  a  great  famine  the  people  of  Delphi  assembled  and 
 applied  to  their  king  to  relieve  their  wants.  He  ac- 
 cordingly distributed  the  little  corn  he  had  among  the 
 better  portion  of  them  ;  but  an  orphan  girl  coming  and 
 importuning  him,  he  beat  her  with  his  sandal.  The 
 girl,  unable  to  endure  the  affront,  hung  herself  with 
 her  girdle.  The  famine  increased  ;  and  the  oracle 
 told  the  king  that,  to  relieve  his  people,  he  must  atone 
 for  the  murder  of  Charila.  Upon  this  a  festival  was 
 instituted  with  expiatory  rites.  The  king  presided 
 over  this  festival,  and  distributed  pulse  and  corn  to 
 such  as  attended.  Charila's  image  was  brought  be- 
 fore the  king,  who  struck  it  with  his  shoe  ;  after 
 which  it  was  carried  to  a  desolate  place,  where  they 
 put  a  halter  round  its  neck,  and  buried  it  where  Char- 
 ila was  buried.  {Plut.,  QucEst.  Gr. — Op.,ed.  Reiske, 
 vol.  4,  p.  176.) 
 
 Charis,  a  name  applied  by  Homer  (7Z.,  18,  382)  to 
 the  wife  of  Vulcan.  In  the  Odyssey,  on  the  other 
 hand  (8,  267),  Venus  is  named  as  his  spouse.  It 
 amounts  to  the  same  thing  in  the  figurative  explana- 
 tion of  the  myth,  since  Grace  and  Beauty  were  both 
 regarded  as  the  characteristics  of  Vulcan's  labours. 
 {Heyne,  ad  11.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Charisia,  a  festival  in  honour  of  the  Graces,  with 
 dances  which  continued  all  night.  A  cake  was  given 
 to  those  who  remained  awake  during  the  whole  time. 
 {Eustath.  ad  Od.,  18,  194.) 
 
 Charistia,  a  festival  at  Rome,  on  the  8th  day  be- 
 fore the  Calends  of  March  (February  22).  It  was 
 celebrated  among  relations  by  a  kind  of  family  ban- 
 quet, and  presents  were  made.  No  stranger  was  al- 
 lowed to  be  present.     {Val.  Max.,  2,  1,  8.) 
 
 CharItes,  the  Graces,  daughters,  according  to  He- 
 siod {Theog.,  907),  of  Jupiter  and  the  ocean-nymph 
 Eiirynome.  They  were  three  in  number,  and  their 
 names,  as  the  same  bard  informs  us,  were  Aglaia 
 {Splendour),  Euphrosyne  {Joy),  and  Thalia  {the  Bloom- 
 ing one).  According  to  Antimachus  {Pausan.,  9, 
 3.'i),  the  Graces  were  the  daughters  of  Helius  {the 
 Sun)  and  .^gle  {Splendour);  and  Hermesianax  made 
 Peitho  {Persua.non)  one  of  their  number.  In  Nonnus 
 {Dionys.,  21,  263)  their  names  are  Pasithea,  Feitho, 
 and  Aglaia.  The  Graces,  like  the  Muses  and  other 
 sister-goddesses,  are  spoken  of  by  Homer  in  the  plu- 
 ral, and  with  him  their  number  is  indefinite.     They 
 
 335 
 
CH  A 
 
 C  H  A 
 
 are  graceful  and  beautiful  themselves,  and  the  bestow- 
 ers  of  all  grace  and  beauty  both  on  persons  and  tilings. 
 They  seem  to  have  been  particularly  attached  to  the 
 train  of  the  goddess  of  love,  although  the  queen  of 
 heaven  had  authority  over  them  {IL,  14,  267);  and 
 she  promises  Pasithea,  one  of  the  youngest  of  thcin, 
 as  a  wife  to  Somnus,  in  return  for  his  aid  in  deceiving 
 Jupiter  :  by  later  writers  she  is  even  said  to  be  their 
 mother.  {Nortfiiis,  31,  184. — Eudocia,  ap.  Villois., 
 Anecd  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  430  )  Orchomcnus,  in  Boeotia, 
 was  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  these  goddesses. 
 Its  introduction  was  ascribed  to  Eteocles,  the  son  of 
 the  river  Cephissus.  The  Laceda;monians  worship- 
 ped only  two  Graces,  whom  they  name  Cleta  (Re- 
 nowned) and  Phaenna  {Brii^ht),  as  we  are  informed 
 by  Pausanias  (/.  c,  et  3,  18,  6).  The  Athenians  ori- 
 ginally adored  the  same  number,  under  the  names  of 
 Hegemone  {Leader)  and  Auxo  {Increase)).  The 
 Graces  were  at  all  times,  in  the  creed  of  Greece,  the 
 goddesses  presiding  over  social  enjoyments,  the  ban- 
 quet, the  dance,  and  all  that  tended  to  inspire  gayety 
 and  cheerfulness.  Thev  are  represented  as  three 
 beautiful  sisters,  either  dancing  together,  or  standing 
 with  their  arms  around  each  other.  Sometimes  they 
 are  nude,  sometimes  habited.  {Kcightlcifs  Mythol- 
 ogy, p.  193,  scq.) — The  Graces,  like  the  Horse  and 
 Muses,  appear  to  have  had  originally  a  reference  to 
 the  stars  and  seasons.  The  Greeks  deprived  them 
 of  their  astronomical  functions,  and  substituted  such 
 attributes  as  were  merely  of  a  poetic  character.  We 
 still  see,  however,  on  an  ancient  gem,  the  Graces  dan- 
 cing upon  the  head  of  Taurus,  while  two  of  them  are 
 turning  towards  seven  stars,  at  which  they  point  with 
 the  hand.  {Borioni,  Collect.  Antiq.  Rom.,  fol.  1736, 
 n.  82. — Passerat,  Thcsaur.  gemm.  astrifer.,  1,  tab. 
 144.)  At  a  later  period,  when  moral  ideas  began  to 
 be  more  intimately  blended  with  parts  of  the  Grecian 
 system,  the  Graces  assumed  analogous  attributes. 
 One  of  them  was  supposed  to  represent  a  favour  con- 
 ferred, another  a  favour  received,  while  the  third  des- 
 ignated the  return  made  for  benefits.  {Aristot.,  Eth., 
 5,  8. — Scnec,  de  Bene/ ,  1,  3. —  Constant,  de  la  Reli- 
 gion, vol.  2,  p.  402. —  Winckelmann,  Essai  sur  I'Al- 
 legorie,  c.  2.  —  Traites  sur  l' Allegoric,  vol.  1,  p.  132.) 
 Chariton,  of  Aphrodisias  (a  Carian  town),  the 
 name  by  which  we  know  the  author  of  a  Greek  ro- 
 mance, entitled,  Twv  Trepl  Xaipiav  kul  KaUipporjV 
 ipuTiKcJv  diTjjrifiuTuv  \dyoi  t]  :  "  The  Loves  of  Chje- 
 reas  and  Callirhoe,  in  eight  books."  The  appellation 
 is  probably  an  assumed  one,  as  well  as  the  title  he 
 gives  himself  of  "  Secretary  to  the  rhetorician  Athen- 
 agoras."  This  rhetorician  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
 the  same  with  the  one  of  whom  Thucydides  makes 
 mention  (6,  35,  scqq.)  as  enjoying  great  credit  among 
 the  people  of  Syracuse.  He  was  opposed  to  Her- 
 mocrates,  the  general  who  vanquished  the  Athenians. 
 The  daughter  of  this  Hermocrates  is  the  heroine  of 
 the  romance,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  writer  wished 
 to  appear  to  his  readers  in  the  light  of  a  contemporary. 
 We  have  no  data  by  which  to  fix  the  period  when 
 Chariton  flourished.  Some  place  him  at  the  end  of  the 
 4th  century  of  our  era.  As  regards  the  romance  it- 
 self, it  may  be  observed,  that,  though  by  no  means 
 remarkable  for  its  invention,  it  is  smooth  and  easy  in 
 the  story.  "  Villemain  has  said  no  worse  about  it," 
 observes  a  writer  in  the  Foreign  Quarterly  (No.  9,  p. 
 132),  "  than  that  it  is  '  a  work  which  the  learned  Lar- 
 cher  has  translated  without  being  able  to  render  it 
 amusing  ;'  and  Larcher  himself,  in  his  preface,  re- 
 solves, with  great  good  sense,  to  '  say  nothing  about 
 't.'  In  fact,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  say  anything 
 about  a  book  which  is  too  dull  for  praise  and  too 
 harmfess  for  censure." — The  best  edition  of  Chariton 
 is  that  of  D'Orville,  with  some  excellent  conjectural 
 emendations  of  Reiske,  Amst.,  1750,  3  vols.  4to. 
 CHARMinEs,  son  of  Glaucon,  was  famed  in  early 
 33G 
 
 life  for  his  beauty  and  his  dissipated  mode  of  life. 
 After  having  squandered  his  patrimony,  he  became  a 
 pupil  of  Socrates,  and  was  advised  by  that  philosopher 
 to  turn  his  attention  to  public  affairs.  This  advice 
 proved  unfortunate,  for  Charmides,  having  joined  the 
 party  of  Critias,  was  made  one  of  the  ten  tyrants  whom 
 Lysaiider  established  in  the  Pireeus,  to  govern  con- 
 jointly with  the  thirty  in  the  city.  He  was  slain  along  ' 
 with  Critias  in  the  first  battle  between  the  exiles  un- 
 der Thrasybulus  and  the  forces  of  the  tyrants.  Plato 
 has  called  one  of  his  dialogues  after  him.  Xenophon 
 makes  mention  of  him  on  several  occasions,  especially 
 in  his  Banquet.  {Xen.,  Mem.  Socr.,  3,  7,  1. — Schnei- 
 der, ad  loc. — Xen.,  Sympos.,  4,  31,  &c.) — II.  or 
 Charmidas,  an  academic  philosopher,  the  companion 
 of  Philo.  He  was  celebrated  for  the  compass  and 
 fidelity  of  his  memory,  and  for  his  moral  wisdom. 
 {Cic,  Tusc.  QucBst.,  1,  24. — Davies,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Charmion,  one  of  Cleopatra's  female  attendants, 
 who  killed  herself  after  the  example  of  her  mistress. 
 {Plut.,  Vit.  Anton.,  c.  86.) 
 
 Charmis,  a  physician  of  Marseille,  in  Nero's  age, 
 who  revived  the  use  of  cold  baths  at  Rome  in  cases 
 of  sickness,  after  the  practice  had  been  discontinued 
 since  the  time  of  AntoniusMusa.  (F?rf.  Musa.)  He 
 was  very  successful  in  his  professional  labours,  and 
 amassed  great  riches.  (P/in.,  29,  1. — Sprengel,  Hist. 
 de  la  Med.,  vol.  2,  p.  24.) 
 
 Charon,  I.  a  deity  of  the  lower  world,  son  of  Ere- 
 bus and  Nox,  who  conducted  the  souls  of  the  dead  in  ^ 
 a  boat  over  the  river  Acheron  to  the  infernal  regions. 
 The  sum  exacted  for  this  service,  from  each  of  the 
 shades  ferried  over  by  him,  was  never  less  than  an 
 obolus,  nor  could  it  exceed  three.  A  piece  of  money, 
 therefore,  was  generally  placed  by  the  ancients  under 
 the  tongue  of  the  deceased,  in  order  to  meet  this  neces- 
 sary demand.  Such  as  had  not  been  honoured  with  a 
 funeral  were  not  permitted  to  enter  Charon's  boat, 
 without  previously  wandering  on  the  shore  for  one 
 hundred  years.  If  any  living  person  presented  him- 
 self to  cross  the  river  of  the  dead,  he  could  not  be 
 admitted  into  the  bark  before  he  showed  Charon  a 
 golden  bough,  obtained  from  the  Cumsean  sibyl ;  and 
 the  ferryman  was  on  one  occasion  imprisoned  for  an 
 entire  year,  because  he  had,  though  against  his  own 
 will,  conveyed  Hercules  across  the  stream  without 
 first  receiving  from  him  this  necessary  passport.  The 
 poets  have  represented  Charon  as  a  robust  old  man, 
 of  a  severe  though  animated  countenance,  with  eyes 
 glowing  like  flame,  a  white  and  bushy  head,  vestments 
 of  a  dingy  colour,  stained  with  the  mire  of  the  stream, 
 and  with  a  pole  for  the  direction  of  his  bark,  which 
 last  is  of  a  dark  ferruginous  hue.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  6, 
 298,  scqq.) — The  earliest  mention  of  Charon  in  Gre- 
 cian poetry  seems  to  be  in  the  ancient  poem  of  the 
 Minyas,  quoted  by  Pausanias  (10,  28).  The  fable 
 itself  is  considered  by  some  to  be  of  Egyptian  origin, 
 and  in  support  of  this  opinion  they  refer  to  the  ac- 
 count of  Diodorus  Siculus,  relative  to  the  statements 
 made  by  the  Egyptian  priests.  {Diod.  Sic.,  1,  92,  et 
 96.)  The  latter  asserted,  it  seems,  that  Orpheus  and 
 Homer  had  both  learned  wisdom  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Nile  ;  and  that  the  Erebus  of  Greece,  and  all  its 
 parts,  personages,  and  usages,  were  but  transcripts  of 
 the  mode  of  burial  in  Egypt ;  and  here  the  corpse 
 was,  on  payment  of  an  obolus,  conveyed  by  a  ferry- 
 man (named  Charon  in  the  language  of  Egypt)  over 
 the  Acherusian  lake  after  it  had  received  its  sentence 
 from  the  judges  appointed  for  that  purpose.  (Died., 
 I.  c.)  Lobeck,  in  his  Aglaophamus  (vol.  2,  p.  811), 
 despatches  all  these  fictions  of  the  Egyptian  priest- 
 hood in  a  very  plain  and  summary  manner,  dignify- 
 ing them  with  the  appellation  of  "  portentosa  tvcnda- 
 cia,"  a  title  which  they  fairly  deserve.  "  Qiiin  tota 
 Orci  et  locorum  infer  arum  deseriptio  ad  Orpheum  re- 
 fertur  auctorem,  ah  JEgyptiis  illis,  qui,  prater  reliqua 
 
C  H  A 
 
 CHE 
 
 fortctitosa  mendacia  a  Dwdoro  rclata,  Orpheum  var- 
 rant  rur  kou  tuv  aatOiJv  hv  (idov  ri/iupiag,  k.  t.  A." 
 {KciirAtlet/'^  Mythology,  p.  92.)— II.  0/ie  of  the  ear- 
 lier Greek  historical  writers,  a  native  of  Lampsacus, 
 supposed  to  have  flourished  between  the  Tiith  and  78th 
 Olympiads.  Charon  continued  the  researches  of  He- 
 cataeus  into  eastern  ethnography.  He  wrote  (as  was 
 the  custom  of  the  historians  oi  his  day)  separate  works 
 upon  Persia,  Libya,. Ethiopia,  &c.  He  also  subjoined 
 the  history  of  his  own  time,  and  he  preceded  Herod- 
 otus in  narrating  the  events  of  the  Persian  war,  al- 
 though Herodotus  nowhere  mentions  him.  From  the 
 fragments  of  his  writings  which  remain,  it  is  manifest, 
 that  hi.s  relation  to  Herodotus  was  that  of  a  dry  chroni- 
 cler to  an  historian,  under  whose  hands  everything 
 acquires  life  and  character.  Charon  wrote,  besides,  a 
 chronicle  of  his  own  country,  as  several  of  the  early 
 historians  did,  who  were  thence  called  Horographers  : 
 {upoi,  corresponding  to  the  Latin  annales,  ought  not  to 
 be  confounded  with  upoi,  termini,  limitcs. — Schweigh. 
 ad  Aiken.,  11,  p.  475,  b;  12,  p.  520,  d.)  The  frag- 
 ments of  Charon  have  been  collected  by  Creuzer,  in 
 his  Historicorum  Gracorum  Antiquissimorum  Frag- 
 menta,  p.  89,  scqq. 
 
 Ch.4R0ndas,  a  celebrated  legislator,  born  at  Catana 
 in  Sicily,  where  he  flourished  about  650  B.C.  We 
 have  very  few  details  of  his  life.  Aristotle  merely 
 informs  us,  that  he  was  of  the  middling  class  of  citi- 
 zens, and  that  he  framed  laws  for  the  people  of  Cata- 
 na as  well  as  for  other  communities,  which,  like  them, 
 were  descended  from  Chalcis  in  Eubcea.  ^Elian  adds 
 (V.  H.,  3,  17),  that  he  was  subsequently  driven  into 
 e.xile  from  Catana,  and  took  refuge  in  Rhegium,  where 
 he  succeeded  in  introducing  his  laws.  Some  authors 
 inform  us,  that  he  compiled  his  laws  for  the  Thurians; 
 but  he  lived,  in  fact,  a  long  time  before  the  foundation 
 of  Thurium,  since  his  laws  were  abrogated  in  part  by 
 Anaxlias,  tyrant  of  Rhegium,  who  died  476  B.C.  It 
 is  not  necessary,  therefore,  to  suppose,  with  Sainte- 
 Croix  {Mem.  de  VAcad.  dcs Inscript.,  vol.  42,  p.  317), 
 that  there  were  two  legislators  of  the  same  name,  one 
 a  native  of  Catana,  and  the  other  of  Thurium.  The 
 laws  of  Charondas  were,  like  those  of  many  of  the 
 ancient  legislators,  in  verse,  and  formed  part  of  the  in- 
 struction of  the  young.  Their  fame  reached  even  to 
 Athens,  where  they  were  sung  or  chanted  at  repasts. 
 The  preamble  of  these  laws,  as  preserved  to  us  by 
 Stobaeus,  is  thought,  as  far,  at  least,  as  regards  the 
 form  of  expression,  not  to  be  genuine  ;  and  Heyne 
 supposes  it  to  have  been  taken  from  some  Pythago- 
 rean treatise  on  the  laws  of  Charondas. — The  man- 
 ner of  this  legislator's  death  is  deserving  of  mention. 
 He  had  made  a  law,  that  no  man  should  be  allowed' 
 to  come  armed  into  the  assembly  of  the  people.  The 
 penalty  for  infringement  was  death.  He  became  the 
 victim  of  his  own  law  :  for,  having  returned  from  pur- 
 suing some  robbers,  he  entered  the  city,  and  presented 
 himself  before  the  assembly  of  the  people  without  re- 
 flecting that  he  carried  a  sword  by  his  side.  Some 
 one  thereupon  remarked  to  him,  "  You  are  violating 
 your  own  law."  His  reply  was,  "  On  the  contrary,  I 
 am  establishing  it ;"  and  he  slew  himself  on  the  spot. 
 This  action,  however,  is  ascribed  by  others  to  Diodes, 
 legislator  of  the  Syracusans  :  perhaps  it  is  true  of 
 neither.  For  farther  details  respecting  Charondas, 
 consult  the  memoir  of  SanteCroi.x,  cited  above,  and 
 Heyne,  Opuscula  Academica,  vol.  2.  p.  74,  seijq.  ■ 
 
 Charvbdis,  a  dangerous  whirlpool,  mentioned  in 
 the  Odyssey,  and  placed  by  Homer  somewhere  be- 
 tween his  Wandering  Rocks  and  his  island  of  Thri- 
 nakia.  Directly  opposite  to  it  was  the  fearful  Scylla. 
 The  ancients,  who  were  anxious  to  localize  all  the 
 wonders  of  Homer,  made  the  straits  of  Messina  the 
 abode  of  Scylla  and  Charybdis.  A  full  account  of  the 
 whole  fable,  with  its  solution  by  Spallanzani,  will  be 
 found  under  the  article  Scylla. 
 U  TJ 
 
 Chauci,  a  people  of  Germany,  of  Suevic  race,  and 
 divided  into  the  Chauci  Majores  and  Minores.  The 
 former  were  situate  between  the  Visurgis  {Wescr) 
 and  Albis  (Elbe);  the  latter  between  the  Amisia 
 (Ems)  and  Visurgis.  Tacitus  draws  a  very  flatter- 
 ing picture  of  the  Chauci.  He  represents  them  as  the 
 noblest  of  the  German  tribes,  as  distinguished  for  a 
 love  of  justice  and  peace,  but  able,  when  attacked,  to 
 bring  a  powerful  army  of  horse  and  foot  into  the  field. 
 (Tacit.,  Germ.,  35.)  What  is  very  surprisino-,  Pliny 
 describes  the  Chauci  as  a  miserable  race,  weak  in 
 numbers  and  resources,  compelled  to  build  their  cab- 
 ins on  hills,  their  country  being  twice  every  day  inun- 
 dated by  the  sea,  without  cattle  or  pasturage,  or  even 
 a  single  tree  in  their  territory.  (Plin..,  16,  1.)  How 
 are  these  two  writers  to  be  reconciled  1  Probably  in 
 the  following  way.  The  Chauci,  about  the  foiirth 
 century  of  our  era,  formed  part  of  the  confederation  of 
 the  Saxones.  This  confederation,  however,  appears  to 
 have  been  better  known  by  the  name  of  Chauci  than 
 that  of  Saxones.  Now  Pliny  may  have  meant  the 
 people  termed  Chauci,  and  Tacitus  the  confederation. 
 (Consult  Malte-Brun.,  Gcogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  105,  Brus- 
 sels ed.) 
 
 Chelidonia,  a  festival  at  Rhodes,  in  which  it  was 
 customary  for  boys  to  go  asking  for  presents  from 
 door  to  door,  and  singing  a  song  called  Chclidonisma, 
 so  named  because  it  began  with  an  allusion  to  the  ar- 
 rival of  the  swallows,  and  the  consequent  approach  of 
 spring  :  'HW,  ?/A0e  ;^;fA«(5wy,  k.  t.  A.  (Athenctus,  8, 
 p.  360,  b,  c. — Casaub.,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Chelidoni^e,  now  Kclidoni,  small  islands  south 
 of  the  Sacrum  Promontorium,  on  the  coast  of  Lycia, 
 very  dangerous  to  sailors.  The  Chelidonian  isles  were 
 two  in  number,  according  to  Scylax  (p.  38),  or  three 
 as  Strabo  reports  :  the  latter  geographer  says  that 
 they  were  six  stadia  from  the  land,  and  five  from 
 each  other.  Captain  Beaufort,  however,  distinctly 
 counted  five  of  these  islands  ;  whence  he  is  led,  not 
 without  reason,  to  think  that  this  increase  of  number 
 has  been  produced  by  the  shock  of  an  earthquake  : 
 two  are  from  four  to  five  hundred  feet  high,  the  other 
 three  are  small  and  barren.  (Karamama,  p.  37,  seq.) 
 After  the  victory  at  the  river  Eurymedon,  it  became 
 the  boast  of  the  Greek  nation,  that  no  armed  ship  of 
 Persia  was  to  be  seen  westward  of  the  Chelidonian 
 isles,  or  of  the  Cyanean  rocks  at  the  entrance  of  the 
 Euxine  ;  and  that  no  Persian  troops  dared  to  show 
 themselves  within  a  horseman's  day's  journey  of  the 
 Grecian  seas.  In  after  times  a  report  arose,  that  a 
 treaty  of  peace  had  been  regularly  made  between  the 
 Per.s'ian  monarch  and  the  Greeks,  in  which  it  was  for- 
 bidden for  any  Persian  forces  to  come  within  the  lim- 
 its just  mentioned.  As  regards  this  pretended  treaty, 
 consult  the  remarks  towards  the  close  of  the  article 
 Cimon.     (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  256.) 
 
 Chelidonium  Pbomontorium,  the  same  with  the 
 Sacrum  Promontorium  of  Lycia,  now  Cape  Kdidonia. 
 (Vid.  Sacrum  Promontorium,  II.) 
 
 Chelo.ve,  a  nymph  who  was  the  only  one  of  the 
 deities  that  did  not  attend  the  nuptials  of  Jupiter  and 
 Juno  ;  nay,  she  even  made  the  celebration  a  subject 
 of  ridicule.  Mercury  thereupon  precipitated  her  into 
 a  river  on  the  banks  of  which  her  mansion  was  situa- 
 ted, and  transformed  her  into  a  tortoise,  under  which 
 shape  she  was  doomed  to  perpetual  silence,  and  to  t.ic 
 necessity  of  always  carrying  her  dwelling  about  with 
 her.  The  Greek  for  a  tortoise  is  jfAwi-T/,  and  hence 
 the  fable  arose.     (Scrv.  ad  Virg.,  JSn.,  1,  509.) 
 
 Chelonites  or  Chelonatas,  Promontorium,  a 
 promontory  of  Elis,  forming  the  extreme  point  of  the 
 Peloponnesus  towards  the  northwest.  (Strabo,  338. 
 —Flm..  4,  5.)     It  is  now  called  Cape  Tornese. 
 
 Chemmis,  I.  a  city  of  Egypt,  the  same  as  Panopo- 
 lis.     (Vid.  Panopolis.)— II.    A  city  of  Egypt,  men- 
 tioned by  Herodotus  (2,  91),  and  placed  by  him  m  the 
 '  337 
 
CHE 
 
 CHE 
 
 Thebaic  nome,  near  Neapolis.  There  was  in  it,  ac- 
 cording to  the  historian,  a  temple  dedicated  to  Per- 
 seus, the  son  of  Danae.  This  city  is  considered  by 
 many  to  be  the  same  with  Panopohs,  but  incorrectly, 
 as  Will  appear  on  the  least  examination  of  the  case. 
 Herodotus  says  not  a  word  of  Pan's  being  worship- 
 ped in  this  place,  he  only  speaks  of  the  hero  Perseus. 
 He  places,  moreover,  his  Chemmis,  not  in  the  The- 
 baid,  but  in  the  Thebaic  nome,  the  distance  of  which 
 from  Panopolis  forms  another  strong  objection  to  this 
 latter  place  being  the  same  with  Chemmis.  Still 
 farther,  he  mentions  the  city  of  Neapolis  as  stand- 
 ing near  his  Chemmis,  when  no  traces  of  this  city, 
 nor,  indeed,  of  any  city  at  all,  are  to  be  found  near 
 Panopolis.  For  these  reasons  Mannert  appears  to  be 
 perfectly  correct  in  making  the  Chemmis  of  Herodo- 
 tus identical  with  Coptos.  {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  10, 
 pt.  1,  p.  374.)  Creuzer  and  Bahr,  on  the  other  hand, 
 arc  in  favour  of  the  opposite  opinion  stated  above,  but 
 adduce  very  feeble  arguments  in  its  support.  {B'dhr, 
 ad  Herod.,  2,  91.)— III.  An  island  in  Egypt,  situate 
 in  a  broad  and  deep  lake,  near  the  temple  of  Latona, 
 in  the  .city  of  Butus.  The  Egyptians,  according  to 
 Herodotus  (2,  156),  affirmed,  that  it  was  a  floating 
 island  ;  but  the  historian,  with  great  candour,  adds, 
 that  for  bis  own  part  he  could  neither  see  it  float  nor 
 move.  The  island  contained  a  spacious  temple  dedi- 
 cated to  Apollo,  and  three  altars  ;  with  great  numbers 
 of  palms,  and  other  trees,  as  well  of  such  as  produce 
 fruit  as  of  those  that  do  not.  The  Egyptians  had 
 the  following  legend  respecting  this  island  :  they 
 sta.ted,  that  Latona,  one  of  the  eight  primary  deities, 
 residing  in  Butus,  received  Apollo  from  the  hands  of 
 Isis,  and  preserved  his  life  by  concealing  him  in  this 
 island,  when  Typhon,  arriving  in  these  parts,  used  all 
 possible  diligence  to  find  out  the  son  of  Osiris. — It  is 
 thought  that  the  Greeks  invented  from  this  story  their 
 fable  respecting  Delos.  (Compare  Larchcr,  ad  Herod., 
 I.  c.)  As  regards  the  name  Chemmis,  consult  the  re- 
 marks of  Champollion,  Systemc  Hierogl.,  p.  112. 
 Mannert  makes  the  Egyptian  legend  arise  from  the 
 Avish,  on  the  part  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  to  explain 
 the  Grecian  mythology  by  a  reference  to  their  own  as 
 its  parent  source.  (Compare  the  remarks  at  the  close 
 of  the  article  Charon.  —  Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt. 
 1,  p.  559.) 
 
 Cheops,  a  king  of  Egypt,  the  successor,  according 
 to  Herodotus  (2,  124),  of  Rhampsinitus.  According 
 to  Larcher  (Chronol.  d' Herod.,  vol.  7,  p.  90),  Che- 
 ops began  to  reign  1178  B.C.  Herodotus  makes  him 
 to  have  ruled  over  Egypt  for  the  space  of  fifty  years, 
 and  to  have  been  a  most  oppressive  monarch.  He 
 shut  up  all  the  temples,  forbade  public  sacrifices,  and 
 compelled  the  people  to  undergo  the  severest  labour. 
 Ten  years  were  occupied  in  constructing  a  causeway, 
 along  which  to  draw  the  stones  intended  for  a  large 
 pyramid,  and  twenty  years  were  then  spent  in  erect- 
 ing the  pyramid  itself.  On  this  structure  was  an  in- 
 scription, in  Egyptian  characters,  stating  how  much 
 had  been  expended  in  radishes,  onions,  and  garlic  for 
 the  workmen.  The  interpreter  informed  Herodotus, 
 that  this  sum  amounted  to  no  less  than  1600  talents 
 of  silver.  Taking  the  Attic  talent  at  a  valuation  of 
 $1055,60,  the  sum  expended  will  be  nearly  $1,700,000 
 of  our  currency.  The  mode  to  which  Cheops  had  re- 
 course in  order  to  replenish  his  exhausted  treasury, 
 although  gravely  related  by  Herodotus  (2,  126),  is  ut- 
 terly incredible,  and  must  have  been  a  falsehood  of 
 the  Eo-yptian  priests.  Indeed,  the  whole  account  given 
 of  Cheops  bears  this  same  impress  of  mendacity.  He 
 was,  in  all  probability,  a  monarch  who  broke  loose 
 from  the  restraints  of  the  sarcedotal  order,  and  not 
 only  curbed  the  power  of  the  latter,  but  likewise  em- 
 ployed on  public  works  a  larger  part  of  the  population 
 of  Ecrypt,  who  were  living  in  idleness,  and  whose  mor- 
 als were  becoming  more  and  more  corrupted  by  a  fre- 
 338 
 
 quenf  attendance  on  the  dissolute  festivals  so  common 
 among  the  Egyptians. — Diodorus  Siculus  gives  Chein- 
 bcs  {XeftGTjr)  as  the  name  of  the  monarch  who  suc- 
 ceeded Rhampsinitus.  The  true  reading,  no  doubt, 
 is  Chemmis  (Xe////(f),  as  we  find  it  written  in  some 
 MSS.     {Dead.  Sic,  1,  63.) 
 
 Chephren,  a  king  of  Egypt,  brother  and  successor 
 to  Cheops.  According  to  Herodotus  (2,  127),  he  both 
 imitated  his  brother  in  other  things,  and  particularly  irj 
 building  a  pyramid.  He  reigned  lifty-si.t  years.  The 
 historian  adds,  that  the  Egyptians,  in  consequence  of 
 the  oppressive  reigns  of  these  two  monarchs,  Cheops 
 and  Chephren,  would  never  thereafter  mention  their 
 names,  but  always  attributed  their  pyramids  to  "  one 
 Philitis,  a  shepherd,  who  kept  his  cattle  at  that  time  in 
 these  same  parts."  Who  this  Philitis  was  it  is  im- 
 possible to  say.  Zoega  (de  Obelise,  p.  389,  not.  20) 
 thinks,  that  Osiris  of  Philas  is  mf^wi  {Os-iris  Phileii- 
 sis),  a  deity  to  whom  these  abodes  of  the  dead  (the 
 pyramids  namely)  were  consecrated,  and  who,  as  he 
 supposes,  was  called  "  a  shepherd,"  in  the  same  sense 
 in  which  kings  are  called  by  Homer  "  the  shepherds 
 of  their  people"  (Tvoifisveg  ?iauv).  This  opinion, 
 however,  is  utterly  erroneous,  since  the  word  "  shep- 
 herd," as  employed  on  this  occasion  by  the  priests  of 
 Egypt,  is  indicative  of  contempt.  (Compare  Genesis, 
 46,  34. — Manetho,  ap.  Joseph,  adv.  Apion.,  1,  ]4,  p. 
 1039. — Heercn,  Idecn,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  148.)  Besides, 
 neither  the  genitive  ^iXiriuvoc,  as  employed  by  He- 
 rodotus, nor  the  corrupt  reading  <i>f/imof,  recalled  by 
 Zoega,  could  come  from  <&i'/la<,  as  the  root  of  their 
 nominative  :  the  form  in  that  event  would  be  •i'lAarov, 
 or  ^iXiTov,  from  a  nominative  ^t/ldr^yf  or  "ttAtrT/f. 
 (Compare  Steph.  Byz.,  p.  739,  ed  Berk.) — We  come 
 DOW  to  another  opinion,  which  makes  the  pyramids  of 
 Cheops  and  Chephren  to  have  been  erected  by  kings 
 of  the  Shepherd-race.  It  will  be  sufficient,  however, 
 in  rejecting  this  supposition,  to  remark,  that  the  build- 
 ing of  such  structures  is  entirely  at  variance  with  the 
 known  habits  of  a  nomadic  people. — Jablonski  ( Voc. 
 .^gyj)t,  p.  346)  thinks,  that  in  the  word  "  Philitis" 
 there  lurks  the  form  "  Philista^an,"  i.  e.,  a  native  of 
 Palaestine,  which  he  considered  to  be  equivalent  here 
 to  "  one  of  the  Jewish  nation,"  and  to  have  reference 
 to  Moses. — Heeren,  however,  appears  to  be  nearest 
 the  truth,  when  he  makes  the  pyramids  of  Cheops 
 and  Chephren  to  have  been  the  work  of  Ethiopian 
 conquerors,  and  the  term  "  shepherd"  to  have  been,  as 
 above  remarked,  merely  expressive  of  the  contempt 
 and  hatred  borne  by  the  conquered  towards  those  who 
 had  subdued  them.  (Heeren,  Ideen,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p. 
 118,  not.  —  Bdhr,  ad  Herod.,  2,  128.) 
 
 Chersonesus,  a  Greek  geographical  term,  equiva- 
 lent in  meaning  to  the  Latin  '^peninsula."  The  ear- 
 lier form  is  Chcrronesus,  the  word  being  derived  from 
 Xef>(ioq  (later  form  _;t;ep(TOf),  "  a  continent"  or  "  main- 
 land," and  vT/aoc,  "  an  island,"  since  a  peninsula 
 partakes,  as  it  were,  of  the  properties  of  both  continen 
 and  island. — The  most  noted  Chersonesi  in  ancient 
 times  were  the  following:  I.  Chersonesus  Aurea, 
 or  Golden  Chersonese,  a  peninsula  of  farther  India, 
 corresponding,  according  to  D'Anville,  Rennell,  Man- 
 nert, and  others,  to  the  modern  Malacca,  but,  as  Gos- 
 sellin  maintains,  to  the  southern  part  o(  -Pegu.  The 
 positive  knowledge  of  the  ancient  geographers  can 
 hardly  be  said  to  have  extended  much  beyond  this, 
 their  account  of  the  regions  farther  to  the  east  being 
 principally  derived  from  the  natives  of  India.  Even 
 the  position  of  the  Golden  Chersonese  itself  is  given 
 differently  by  different  writers.  (Consult  Gossellin, 
 Rccherches,  &c.,  vol.  3,  p.  49.— vol.  2,  p.  262,  &c.) 
 The  name  given  to  this  region  by  the  ancients  has 
 reference  to  the  popular  belief  of  its  abounding  in 
 gold  ;  and  here,  too,  some  inquirers  into  early  geogra- 
 phy have  placed  the  Ophir  of  Solomon,  an  opinion 
 maintained  also  by  Josephus.     {AnL  Jud.,  8,  6,  4.1 — 
 
CHI 
 
 C  H  I 
 
 Chersonesus  CiMERicA,  a  peninsula  in  the  northern 
 part  of  Germany,  answering  to  the  modern  Jutland, 
 Scklcsswig,  and  HolsUin.  {PloL,  2,  1 1.)— HI.  Cher- 
 sonesus Taurica,  a  peninsula  between  the  Pontus 
 Euxinus  and  Palus  M«otis,  answering  to  the  modern 
 Crimea.  The  name  was  derived  from  the  Tauri,  a 
 barbarous  race  who  inhabited  it.  It  was  sometimes 
 called  Chersonesus  Scythica  and  Chersonesus  Magna. 
 (Ovid,  TnsL,  4,  4,  63.— 7rf.,  Font.,  3,  2,  5.)— IV. 
 Chersonesus  Thracica,  often  called  simply  the  Cher- 
 sonesus, and  the  most  important  of  all.  It  was  a 
 peninsula  of  Thrace,  between  the  Sinus  Melas  and 
 the  Hellespont.  The  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  its  prox- 
 imity to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  early  attracted  an 
 influx  of  Grecian  settlers,  and  its  shores  soon  became 
 crowded  with  flourishing  and  populous  cities.  From 
 this  quarter  the  Athenians  drew  their  chief  supply  of 
 grain.  {Cramcr^s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  322,  seqq.) 
 Cherusci,  a  people  of  Germany,  between  the  We- 
 ser  and  the  Elbe,  southeast  of  the  Chauci.  Under 
 the  conduct  of  Arminius,  they  defeated  and  slew  three 
 Roman  legions  commanded  by  Varus,  A.D.  10,  in  the 
 Saltus  Teutobergiensis,  or  Bishopric  of  Paderhorn. 
 They  were  afterward  defeated  by  Germanicus,  and 
 never  recovered  their  former  eminence.  {Tacit., 
 Ann.,  1,  56  and  59.—/./.  ibid.,  2,  17,  26,  41,  45, 
 and  64— /</.,  Germ.,  ^Q.—  Cas.,  B.  G.,  6,  10.— Veil. 
 Pater c.,  2,  105.) 
 
 Chilo,  a  Spartan,'  ranked,  on  account  of  his  wis- 
 dom and  experience,  among  the  seven  sages  of 
 Greece.  He  directed  his  attention  to  public  affairs, 
 and  became  one  of  the  ephori,  B.C.  556.  {Diog.  La- 
 ert.,  1,  68. — Menag.,  ad  loc.)  Many  of  his  maxims 
 are  quoted  by  the  ancient  writers,  which  justify  the 
 high  reputation  connected  with  his  name.  He  died 
 of  joy  at  an  advanced  age,  while  embracing  one  of 
 his  sons  who  had  gained  a  prize  at  the  Olympic  games. 
 The  story  told  by  Herodotus  (I,  59)  respecting  Chilo 
 and  the  father  of  Pisistratus  cannot  be  true,  since 
 Pisistratus  usurped  the  government  of  Athens  B.C. 
 561,  only  five  years  after  Chilo  became  ephorus,  and 
 there  could  not  have  been  any  very  great  difference 
 between  their  respective  ages.  Chilo  appears  to  have 
 travelled  much  abroad,  and  it  is  probable  that  be  vis- 
 ited Sardis,  the  capital  of  Croesus,  a  monarch  who  had 
 sought  an  alliance  with  Sparta.  {Herod.,  1,  69.)  It 
 was  at  the  court  of  the  Lydian  monarch,  in  all  proba- 
 bility, that  he  saw  ^$]sop,  since  Diogenes  Laertius 
 speaks  of  a  question  put  by  the  philosopher  to  the 
 fabulist.     {Diog.  Laert.,  1,  G8,  seqq.) 
 
 CuiMjER.K,  a  fabulous  monster,  the  offspring  of  Ty- 
 phon  and  Echidna  {Hesiod,  Theog.,  319),  which  rav- 
 aged the  country  of  Lycia  until  slain  by  Bellerophon. 
 It  had  the  head  and  neck  of  a  lion,  the  body  of  a  goat 
 {Xil^aipn),  and  the  tail  of  a  serpent,  and  vomited  forth 
 fire.  {Horn.,  11.,  6,  181.)  Hesiod's  account  is  some- 
 what different  from  that  of  Homer's,  since  he  gives 
 the  Chimaera  three  heads,  one  that  of  a  lion,  another 
 a  goat's,  and  a  third  a  serpent's.  {Theog.,  321.) 
 There  is  strong  reason  to  believe,  however,"that  this 
 passage  in  Hesiod  is  an  interpolation.  {Heyne,  in 
 Comment.  Soc.  Gott.,  vol.  2,  p.  144.)  The  Latin 
 poets,  m  their  description  of  this  monster,  have  imita- 
 ted, as  usual,  their  Grecian  masters.  (Consult  Lu- 
 art.,  5,^  Wi.—Omd,  Mel..,  9,  Q\Q.— Virgil,  JEn.,  6, 
 288.)  The  various  explanations  given  to  this  fabu- 
 lous legend  by  the  Greeks  may  be  seen  in  Eustathius 
 {ad  //.,  6,  181.  p.  634,  40).  "Servius,  the  great  com- 
 mentator on  Virgil,  give?,  a  curious  one  :  "This,  in 
 truth,"  says  he,  speaking  of  the  Chimera,  "is  a 
 mountain  of  Lycia,  the  top  of  which  is  on  fire  at  the 
 present  day  :  near  it  are  lions  :  but  the  middle  region 
 is  occupied  by  pastures  which  abound  in  goats.  The 
 lower  parts  of  the  mountain  swarm  with  serpents." 
 (Serv.  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  I.  c.)— The  geographers  agree 
 in  adapting  this  fable  to  the  mountains  on  the  coast 
 
 of  Lycia  ;  but  Strabo  seems  rather  to  place  the  site  in 
 Mount  Cragus  {Strah.,  665),  while  Pliny,  on  the  au- 
 thority of  Ctesias,  whose  words  have  been  preserved 
 by  Photius  {Cod.,  72),  fixes  it  near  Phaselis,  beyond 
 Olympus.  {Plin.,  2,  106.)  Seneca,  in  his  account 
 of  this  natural  phaenomenon,  says  {Ep.,  79)  :  "  In. 
 Lycia  rcgio  notissima  est,  Hcphastion  incola  vacant  ; 
 perforatum  pluribus  locis  solum,  quod  sine  ullo  nas- 
 centium  dainno  ignis  innoxius  circuit.  Laeta  itaque 
 regio  et  herbida,  ml  flammis  adurenlibus,  scd  tantum 
 vi  remissa  ac  languida  refulgentibus."  From  this  de- 
 scription it  is  plain  that  the  fire  in  question  had  little 
 of  the  usual  volcanic  character,  being  perfectly  harm- 
 less. Instances  of  this  sort  of  flame  are,  however 
 by  no  means  uncommon  ;  that  of  Pictra  mala,  in  the 
 Apennines,  is  well  known,  and  there  are  others  in 
 Epirus  and  the  Greek  islands.  We  are  indebted  to 
 Capt.  Beaufort  for  an  accurate  account  of  the  Chimce- 
 ra  flame,  which,  after  the  lapse  of  so  many  centuries, 
 is  still  unsubdued.  This  able  navigator  and  anti- 
 quary, being  at  the  time  to  the  east  of  Olympus, 
 says:  "  Wc  had  seen  from  the  ship,  the  preqeding 
 night,  a  small  but  steady  light  among  the  hills  ;  on 
 mentioning  the  circumstance  to  the  inhabitants,  we 
 learned  that  it  was  a  yanar  or  volcanic  flame  ;  and  they 
 offered  to  supplv  us  with  horses  and  guides  to  exam- 
 ine it.  We  rode  about  two  miles  through  a  fertile 
 plain,  partly  cultivated,  and  then,  winding  up  a  rocky 
 and  thickly-wooded  glen,  we  arrived  at  the  place.  In 
 the  inner  corner  of  a  ruined  building  the  wall  is  under- 
 mined, so  as  to  leave  an  aperture  of  about  three  feet 
 diameter,  and  shaped  like  the  mouth  of  an  oven;  from 
 thence  the  flame  issues,  giving  out  an  intense  heat, 
 yet  j)roducingno  smoke  on  the  wall ;  and  though  from 
 t;iie  neck  of  the  opening  we  detached  some  small 
 lumps  of  caked  soot,  the  walls  were  hardly  discolour- 
 ed. Trees,  brushwood,  and  weeds  grow  close  around 
 this  little  crater,  a  small  stream  trickles  down  the  hill 
 hard  by,  and  the  ground  does  not  appear  to  feel  the 
 effect  of  its  heat  beyond  the  distance  of  a  few  yards. 
 No  volcanic  productions  whatever  were  perceived  in 
 the  neighbourhood.  The  guide  declared  that,  in  the 
 memory  of  man,  there  had  been  but  one  hole,  and 
 that  it  never  had  changed  its  size  or  appearance.  It 
 was  never  accompanied,  he  said,  by  earthquakes  or 
 noises,  and  it  ejected  neither  stones,  smoke,  nor  nox- 
 ious vapours ;  nothing  but  a  brilliant  and  perpetual 
 flame,  which  no  quantity  of  water  could  quench." 
 {Beaufort's  Karamania,  p.  47,  seqq.  —  Compare 
 Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  5,  p.  427.— Cramer's  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, vol.  2,  p.  258,  seqq.) 
 
 Chtmerium,  a  promontory  on  the  coast  of  Epirus, 
 opposite  the  island  of  Paxos.  It  is  mentioned  by 
 Thucydides  (1,  30)  as  the  place  where  the  Corinthians 
 formed  a  camp  to  protect  their  allies  against  the  Cor- 
 cyreans.  (Compare  Strabo,  324. — Pausan.,  8,  7.) 
 It  seems  to  answer  to  Cape  Saracinico,  above  Parga. 
 {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  111.) 
 
 CnioN,  a  native  of  Heraclea  Pontica,  and  disciple 
 of  Plato.  Animated  by  the  political  fanaticism  to 
 which  the  young  and  inexperienced  so  easily  abandon 
 themselves,  he  left  Athens,  where  he  had  resided  for 
 the  space  of  five  years,  attending  the  instructions  of 
 Plato,  and  returned  home  with  the  determination  of 
 freeing  his  native  city  from  the  yoke  of  tyranny. 
 Clearchus,  who  ruled  at  Heraclea,  was  not,  it  is  true, 
 a  good  prince  ;  but,  in  slaying  him,  Chion  was  the 
 cause  of  this  city's  falling  under  a  worse  tyrant,  Saty- 
 rus,  the  brother  of  Clearchus.  Chion  himself  perish- 
 ed as  the  victim  of  the  latter's  elevation  to  power. 
 We  have  seventeen  letters  said  to  have  been  written 
 by  this  young  philosopher.  They  are  principally  ad- 
 dressed to  his  father  Matris  ;  but  their  authenticity 
 has  been  called  into  question  ;  and  the  real  author  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  a  Platonist  of  the  fourth  ccn- 
 turv       The   style   is    clear,    simple,    and    animated. 
 
 339 
 
C  H  I 
 
 C  H  CE 
 
 The  best  edition  of  these  letters  is  that  of  HofTmann, 
 which  is  joined  to  the  edition  of  the  fragments  of 
 Memnon,  by  Oroili,  Lips.,  1816. — Consult,  in  rela- 
 tion to  Chion,  and  the  authenticity  of  these  letters, 
 the  prolegomena  of  Ilolfmann,  p.  131,  seqq.  {Sclioll, 
 Hist.  Lu.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  281.) 
 
 Chionides,  said  to  have  been  the  earliest  writer  of 
 the  old  Athenian  comedy.  (Compare  Aristot.,  Pod., 
 3,  5. — Suidas,  s.  v.  Xiuv.)  His  representations  date 
 from  Olymp.  73,  2,  or  487  B.C.  'I'he  names  of  three 
 of  his  comedies  are  recorded,  "Hpuef,  Ilepaal  y  'Aa- 
 ovpwi,  and  Ilru^oi.  To  judge  from  ihesc  titles,  we 
 should  conclude  tlrat  his  comedies  had  a  political  ref- 
 erence, and  were  full  of  personal  satire  ;  and  from 
 an  allusion  in  Vitruvius  (Praf.  m  lib.,  6)  we  may  in- 
 fer, that  ihey  were  gnomic,  like  those  of  Epicharmus. 
 (T/iealre  of  the  Greeks,  p.  99,  4th  ed.) 
 
 Chios,  now  Sao,  an  island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  be- 
 tween Lesbos  and  Samos,  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 
 It  is  about  900  stadia  m  circuit,  and  was  probably 
 once  connected  with  the  main  land,  from  which  it  is 
 separated  only  by  a  strait  three  leagues  wide.  {Stra- 
 bo,  645  )  It  was  known  by  the  names  of  .^Ethalia, 
 Macris,  and  Pityusa,  but  its  most  prevalent  name  was 
 Chios,  derived,  according  to  some,  from  jiwv,  snow, 
 because  its  mountains  were  often  covered  with  it. 
 Isidorus,  however,  deduces  the  name  from  a  Syriac 
 term  signifying  masiich,  with  which  the  island  abounds. 
 (Compare  £><0iC0/«(/c5,  1,  90. — Plin.,  12,  16.)  It  was 
 well  inhabited,  and  could  once  equip  a  hundred  ships  ; 
 and  Its  chief  town,  called  Chios,  had  a  beautiful  har- 
 bour which  could  contain  eighty  ships.  {Heiodot.,  6, 
 8,  and  SL—Thucyd.,  8,  157)  The  wine  of  this  isl- 
 and, so  much  celebrated  by  the  ancients,  is  still  in 
 esteem.  The  Chians  are  said  to  have  first  known  the 
 art  of  cultivating  the  vine,  taught  them  by  CEnopion, 
 the  son  of  Bacchus,  and  by  them  communicated  to  the 
 rest  of  mankind.  The  first  red  wine  was  made  here. 
 The  marble  of  Chios  was  also  in  repute.  It  was  one 
 of  the  places  which  contended  for  the  honour  of  having 
 given  birth  to  Homer,  and  his  school  was  shown  in 
 the  i.sland.  Modern  Scio,  until  the  dreadful  ravages 
 of  the  Turks,  contained  115,000  inhabitants,  nearly°all 
 Greeks,  and  was  the  best  cultivated  and  most  flour- 
 ishing island  in  the  Archipelago.  (Compare  Malte- 
 Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  86,  Am.  ed.) 
 
 Chiron,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Centaurs  {vid. 
 Centauri),  and  sun  of  Saturn  and  the  nymph  Philyra. 
 Dreading  the  jealousy  of  his  wife  Rhea,  the  god  is  said 
 to  have  transformed  Philyra  into  a  mare,  and  himself 
 into  a  steed :  the  ollspring  of  this  union  was  Chiron, 
 half  man  and  half  horse.  This  legend  first  appeared 
 in  the  poem  of  the  Gigantomachia.  {Schol.  ad  Apoll. 
 Rh.,  3,  554.)  It  is  also  noticed  by  Pindar.  {Pyih., 
 3,  1,  seq(j.)  Probably  the  praise  of  Chiron,  by  Homer 
 (//.,  11,  832),  for  his  love  of  justice,  led  to  the  making 
 him  the  offspring  of  the  god  who  ruled  over  the  crold^ 
 en  race  of  men  ;  and  if,  as  it  would  appear,  he  was 
 skilled  in  music,  a  more  suitable  mother  could  not  have 
 been  assigned  hiinthan  the  nvmph  "  Lyre-loving."  (<I)i- 
 Tivpa,  quasi  <^LM7,vpa. —  Welcker,  NaclUrair  zur  Tnl., 
 p.  53,  not.)  Unto  Chiron  was  intrusted  the  rearing 
 and  educating  of  Jason  and  his  son  Medeus,  Hercu" 
 les,  .'Esculapius,  and  Achilles.  Besides  his  knowl- 
 edge of  the  musical  ait,  which  he  imparted  to  his  he- 
 roic pupils,  Jie  was  also  skilled  in  surgery,  which  he 
 taught  to  the  last  two  of  the  number.  In  the  contest 
 between  Hercules  and  the  Centaurs,  Chiron  was  acci- 
 dentally wounded  in  the  knee  by  one  of  the  arrows  of 
 the  hero.  Grieved  at  this  unhappy  event,  Hercules 
 ran  up,  drew  out  the  arrow,  and  applied  to  the  wound 
 a  remedy  given  by  Chiron  himself  ;  but  in  vain  ;  the 
 venom  of  the  hydra  was  not  to  be  overcome.  Chiron 
 retired  into  his  cave  longing  to  die,  but  unable  on  ac- 
 count of  his  immortality,  till,  on  his  expressing  his 
 willingness  to  die  for  Prometheus,  he  was  released  by 
 340 
 
 death  from  his  misery.  According  to  another  accoijrrt, 
 he  was,  on  his  prayer  to  Jove  for  relief,  raised  lo  the 
 sky  and  made  the  constellation  of  Sagittarius.  (^Oeid, 
 Fast.,b,  379,  seqq. — thjgin.,  Poet.  A»tron.,2,  38. — 
 Keighllei/s  Mythology,  p.  69,  317,  356.) 
 
 Chlok,  I.  a  surname  of  Ceres  at  Athens.  Heryear- 
 ly  festival,  called  Chloeia,  was  celebrated  with  much 
 mirth  and  rejoicing  on  the  6th  of  the  month Thargeli- 
 on  (a  month  corresponding  to  the  middle  of  our  May 
 and  June),  and  a  ram,  together  with  young  garden 
 plants,  was  offered  to  her.  She  had  a  temple  near  the 
 citadel.  (Paitsan.,  1,  22. — Schol.  ad  Soph.,  (Ed. 
 Col.,  1600.)  The  name  (/hloe  {x^Mr/}  embraces  the 
 double  idea  of  "green"  or  "verdant,"  as  referring  la 
 the  young  blade  of  corn  coining  forth  and  gradually  in- 
 creasing, and  also  "  golden-coloured"  or  "  yellow,"  as 
 applicable  to  the  ripened  harvest.  In  this  latter  sense 
 it  bears  a  direct  relation  to  the  Homeric  ^avOr/  Atjh?/- 
 Tijp,  and  the  Roman  "  Flava  Ceres."  (Consult  Creu- 
 zcr,  Symbolik,  vol.  4,  p.  314,  7iot.) — II.  A  female 
 name  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  denoting  "  the 
 blooming  one,"  "  the  fresh  in  youthful  beauty,"  &c. 
 It  comes  from  x^-'^V>  "  '■he  young  blade  of  grass, 
 corn,"  &c. 
 
 Chlokis,  I.  the  goddess  of  flowers,  who  married 
 Zephyrus.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
 X/^(jp6(,  "  verdant,"  and,  according  to  Ovid,  she  is  the 
 same  as  Flora.  (Ovid,  Fast.,  5,  195.) — II.  A  daugh- 
 ter of  Amphion  son  of  Jason  and  Persephone,  who 
 married  Neleus,  king  of  Pylos,  by  whom  she  had  one 
 daughter  and  twelve  sons,  who  all,  except  Nestor, 
 were  killed  by  Hercules.     {Pausan.,  2,  21,9,  36.) 
 
 Chlorus.     Vid.  Constantius  Chlorus. 
 
 Choaspes,  I.  an  Indian  river.  (Vid.  Suastus.) — II. 
 A  river  of  Susiana.     (  Fz(i.  Eulaeus.) 
 
 Chobus,  a  river  of  Colchis,  falling  into  the  Eu.xine, 
 north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Phasis.  (Arrian,  Pcripl., 
 Pont.  Enx.,  p.  122,  ed.  Blancard.)  Mannert  supposes 
 it  to  be  the  same  with  the  modern  Schijani.  {Geogr., 
 vol.  4,  p.  394.) 
 
 Chcer.\des,  islands  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  off  the  coast 
 of  lapygia.  (Thucyd.,  7,  33.)  D'Anville  follows 
 Cluverius  in  placing  them  near  the  harbour  of  Taren- 
 tum.    .(Compare  Haack,  ad.  Thueyd.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Chcere^,  islands  off  the  coast  of  Euboea,  near  Sty- 
 ra.  They  coincide  with  the  Cavalleri  of  modem 
 maps.     {Hcrodot.,  6,  101.) 
 
 Chcerilus,  I.  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  the  contem 
 porary  of  Phrynichus,  and,  like  him,  the  competitor  of 
 ^Eschylus.  With  Pratinas  and  the  last-mentioned 
 dramatist  he  contended  Olymp.  70,  2,  or  B.C.  499, 
 the  time  when  ^^schylus  first  exhibited.  It  is  stated 
 that  he  contended  with  Sophocles  also,  but  the  differ- 
 ence in  their  ages  renders  this  extremely  improbable  ; 
 and  the  mistake  may  easily  have  arisen  from  the  way 
 in  which  Suidas  mentions  the  book  on  the  chorus 
 which  Sophocles  wrote  against  him  and  Thespis. 
 (Chmrilus,  ed.  N'dke,  p.  7.)  It  would  seem  that  tra- 
 gedy had  not  altogether  departed  from  its  original  form 
 in  his  time,  and  that  the  chorus  was  still  satyric. 
 Chcerilus  is  said  to  have  written  150  pieces,  but  no 
 fragments  have  come  down  to  us.  The  disparaging  re- 
 marks of  Hermeas  and  Proclus  do  not  refer  to  him, 
 but  to  his  Sainian  namesake  {ChoErilus,  ed.  N'dke,  p. 
 92),  and  he  is  mentioned  by  Alexis  in  such  goodly 
 company  (Athenaus,  4,  p.  164,  c.)  that  we  cannot  be- 
 lieve his  poetry  to  have  been  altogether  contemptible. 
 One  of  his  plays  was  called  the  Alope,  and  appears  to 
 have  been  of  a  strictly  mythical  character.  {Patisa)i  , 
 1,  14.)  Some  improvements  in  theatrical  costume  are 
 ascribed  to  him  by  Suidas  and  Eudocia.  (Theatre  of 
 the  Greeks,  p.  59,  4th  ed.) — II.  A  native  of  Samos, 
 born  in  a  state  of  slavery,  from  which  condition  he 
 subsequently  found  means  to  extricate  himself.  Sui- 
 das, from  whom  we  obtain  this  fact,  makes  him  to 
 have  been  the  pupil  and  favourite  of  Herodotus  ;  bu* 
 
CHCERILUS. 
 
 C  H  O 
 
 m  what  this   same  lexicographer  adds,  that  Chcerilus 
 was  a  young  man  when  Xerxes  invaded  Greece,  there 
 is  a  conlradiction  to  the  previous  assertion,  since  He- 
 rodotus was    at  this  time   but   just  born.     Plutarch 
 states,  that  Lysander  of  Sparta  was  very  fond  of  the 
 poet's  society  :  this  would  fix    the  period   when   he 
 flourished  between  the  peace  of  Cimon  and  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  or  between  460 
 and  431  B.(;.     (Chxrilus,  ed,  Nakc,  p.  21,  seqrj .)     In 
 his  old  age  Chosrilus  was  invited  to  the  court  of  Ma- 
 cedonia by  King  Archelaus,  who  allowed  him,  it  is  snid, 
 three  minae  daily.     At  the  court  of  this  prince  he  died. 
 Choerilus  perceived  that  a  poet  could  no  longer  please 
 by  foUowincT  the  footsteps  of  Homer,  since  a  people 
 arrived  at   the  degree    of  civilization    in    which    the 
 Greeks  then  were,  seemed  no  longer  capable  of  rel- 
 ishing, in  a  modern  work,  the  simplicity  which  pos- 
 sesses so  many  charms  in  the  earlier  national  poetry. 
 Choerilus  selected,  in  consequence,  an  historical  sub- 
 ject, the  victory  of  his  counti-ymen  over  the  arms  of 
 Xerxes.     In  this,  however,  he  was  unfortunate,  since 
 so  recent  an  event  was  incompatible  with  the  employ- 
 ment of  fiction,  and  fiction  is  an  important  part  of  the 
 machinery  of  every  epic  poem.     According  to  Sto- 
 bffius,  he  entitled  his  poem  Yieparjtq,  "  the  Perseid." 
 We  have  so  few  fragments  remaining  of  this  poem 
 of  his,  that  wc  are  unable  to  ascertain  whether  he 
 ended  it  with  the  battle  of  Salamis,  or  carried  it  on  to 
 ihe  close  of  the  war  with  Xerxes.     This  poem  was  a 
 monument  raised  to  the  glory  of  the  Athenians.     An 
 ancient  law  of  Solon's  relative  to  Homer,  was  revived 
 in  honour  of  Cha-rilus,  and  the  people  decreed  that 
 the   poem    should   be  publicly    read,  every   year,    at 
 the   festival  of  the   Panathenaea.     Suidas,  it  is  true, 
 merely  states,  that  "  it  was  decreed  that  this  poem 
 should  be  read  with  those  of  Homer."     But  such  a 
 resolve  could  only  proceed  from   the  Athenians,  and 
 could  only   have  reference  to   the  great   celebration 
 just  mentioned,  which  periodically  reunited  the  tribes 
 of  Attica.     Suidas  adds,  that  the  author  received  a 
 piece  of  gold  for  every  verse;  a  recompense  but  little 
 in  unison  with  the  spirit  of  a  republic,  and  still  less 
 probable  in  the  case  of  a  long  epic  poem.     It  would 
 seem,  in  fact,  that  Suidas  is  here  mistaken,  and  re- 
 lates of  the  Samian  Choerilus  what  happened  to  an- 
 other poet  of  the  same  name,  who  composed  an  effu- 
 sion  in  honour  of  Alexander  the  Great.     {Chcerilus, 
 ed.  Ndke,  p.  78,  seijq.)     Whatever  the  reputation  of 
 Choerilus  may  have  been,  one  thing  at  least  is  certain, 
 that  the  Alexandrean  critics  excluded   him  from  their 
 canon,  in  which  they  assigned  the  fifth  and  last  place 
 to  his  rival  Antimachus.     A  certain  want  of  elegance 
 with  which  the  style  of  Choerilus  was  reproached,  as 
 well  as  the  predilection  of  Plato  for  Antimachus,  may 
 have  been  the  primary  causes  of  this  disgraceful  ex- 
 clusion of  the  Athenian  poet. — Among  the  fragments 
 of  the  Perseid  which  have  come  down  to  us,  there  are 
 some  verses  that  have-given  rise  to  a  curious  discus- 
 sion.    The   lines   in  question  are   preserved    for    us 
 by  Josephus  (contra  Apion.,   1,  p.  454.— vol.   2,  ed. 
 Haverrnmp),  as   the  most  ancient  profane  document 
 ui  which  mention  is  made  of  the  Jews.      In  the  enu- 
 meration of  the  forces  composing  the  army  of  Xerxes, 
 Clxmlus  speaks  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountains 
 of  Solymi,  in  the  vicinity  of  a  large  lake.     CQ,lk£ov  iV 
 fv  loTiviMtc  bpesLv,  vKariri  ktu  lliivij.)     Josephus  is 
 convinced  that  the  poet  means  Jerusalem,  but  some 
 critics  of  modern  days  insist  that  the  Solvmi  in  Lycia 
 are  meant,  because  Chosrilus  speaks  of  these   troops 
 as  Tpoxanovpaihr,  i.  e.,  having  the  hair  cut  in  a  cir- 
 cular form  ;  a  usage  which  the  Levitical  law  {LevH  , 
 19,  27)  forbade,  with  the  express  view  of  distinguish- 
 ing the   Jews    from    the  neighbouring   nations.     All 
 doubt,  however,  is  removed  with  regard  to  the  poet's 
 meaning,  by  his  adding,  that  the  troops  in  question 
 6poke  the  PhoBnician  tongue,  of  which  the  Hebrew  is 
 
 only  a  dialect  (VTiuaaav  [liv  ^oiviaaav  utto  ara/idruv 
 cKptevrei-).  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  Choerilus 
 knew  the  inhabitants  of  these  countries  had  in  general 
 the  custom  of  cutting  the  hair  of  the  head  in  this  way, 
 and  that  his  means  of  information  had  not  put  him  in 
 possession  of  the  fact,  that  one  community  of  Syria 
 deviated  from  this  custom.  {Sch'dll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  125,  scqq  ) — III.  A  poet  of  lassus  in  Asia 
 Minor,  of  whom  Horace  {Epis/.,  2,  1,  2:^3. — Epist. 
 ad  Fis.,  357),  Qumtus  Curtius  (8,  5,  8),  and  Auso- 
 nius  {Ep.  16),  as  well  as  Acron  and  Porphyrion,  the 
 scholiasts  on  Horace,  make  mention.  It  was  to  this 
 poet  that  Alexander  the  Great  is  said  to  have  prom- 
 ised a  piece  of  gold  for  every  good  verse  which  he 
 should  compose  in  his  praise.  The  commentator, 
 known  under  the  name  of  the  scholiast  of  Cruqui- 
 us,  informs  us,  that  Choerilus  could  only  produce 
 seven  lines  that  were  deemed  worthy  of  the  price 
 offered  by  the  monarch.  Porphyrion,  however,  re- 
 marks in  more  general  terms,  "  Hujus  ornnino  scplcm 
 versus  laudabanlur.''''  Now  Strabo  (672),  and  also 
 Athenoeus  (8,  S.'je),  have  preserved  for  us  a  transla- 
 tion, by  Chosrilus,  into  seven  hexameters,  of  the  As- 
 syrian inscription  on  the  tomb  of  Sardanapalus  ;  and 
 hence  it  has  been  supposed  that  these  are  the  seven 
 verses  to  which  the  scholiasts  refer. — It  is  also  stated 
 of  Chosrilus  that  he  consented  to  receive  a  blow  for 
 everv  verse  of  his  encomiums  .on  Alexander  which 
 should  be  rejected  by  the  judges,  and  that  he  paid 
 dearly,  in  consequence,  for  his  foolish  presumption.  It 
 is  probable  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  poem  on  the 
 Lamiac  war  {AafiiaKu),  which  Suidas  erroneously  as- 
 cribes to  the  Samian  Choerilus.  (Cliarilus,  ed.  I\'dfce, 
 p.  101,  seqq.—Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  75.) 
 
 Chorasmii,  a  people  of  Asia,  between  Sogdiaiia 
 and  the  northeastern  shore  of  the  Caspian,  whose  cap- 
 ital was  Gorgo,  now  Urgheng.  Their  country  is  now 
 Kharasm.  llitter  has  some  curious  speculations  on 
 the  name  Khorasan,  as  indicating  a  country  in  which 
 the  worship  of  the  sun  anciently  prevailed  {Khor- 
 Asan. —  Hitler,   Vorhalle,  p.  90.) 
 
 CiioRCEBUs.      Vid.  Coroebus. 
 
 Chosroes,  I.  (more  correctly  Khosrou),  king  of  Per- 
 sia, surnamed  the  Great,  was  the  twenty-first  monarch 
 of  the  line  of  the  Sassanides,  and  succeeded  his  father 
 Kobad,  A.D.  531.  The  Orientals,  even  after  the  lapse 
 of  twelve  centuries,  are  accustomed  to  cite  him  as  a 
 model  for  kings,  and  the  glorious  surname  of  the  "Just" 
 is  one  which  he  frequently  bears  in  history.  Chos- 
 roes manifested  even  in  early  life  the  germes  of  those 
 virtues  which  were  afterward  so  brilliantly  developed 
 by  him  on  coming  to  the  throne.  At  the  period  of  his 
 accession  Persia  was  involved  in  a  war  with  Justinian, 
 but  Chosroes  succeeded  in  negotiating  a  favourable 
 peace,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  Roman  emperor  had 
 to  pay  11,000  pounds  of  gold,  and  forego  various  ad- 
 vantages. Not  long  after  (A.D.  540),  having  become 
 powerful  by  reason  of  various  Asiatic  conquests,  and 
 regarding  the  Romans  as  usurpers  of  many  of  the  an 
 cient  provinces  of  Persia,  he  invaded  Syria,  laid  An- 
 tioch  in  ashes,  and  only  drew  off"  his  forces  from  the 
 territories  of  the  empire  on  the  payment  of  a  consider- 
 able sum.  After  several  other  victorious  expeditions, 
 he  renewed  the  war  with  Justin,  the  successor  of  Jus- 
 tinian, whom  he  compelled  to  solicit  a  truce,  but  was 
 soon  after  driven  back  across  the  Euphrates  by  Tibe- 
 rius, the  new  emperor,  and  the  Romans  took  up  their 
 winter-quarters  in  the  Persian  provinces.  Chosroes 
 died  A.D.  579,  after  a  glorious  reign  of  forty-eight 
 years.  He  encouraged  the  arts,  founded  schools,  and 
 is  said  to  have  made  considerable  proficiency  in  philos- 
 ophy himself.  {Saml- Martin,  in  Bwgr.  Univ.,  vol. 
 22,  p.  380,  scqq.—Encycl.  Am.,  vol.  3,  p.  162.)— II. 
 The  second  of  the  name,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
 ascended  the  Persian  throne  A.D.  590.  The  earlier 
 pan  of  his  career  was  marked  by  great  reverses  of  for- 
 ^  341 
 
C  H  R 
 
 C  H  R 
 
 tune,  he  having  been  dethroned  and  driven  from  his 
 kingdom  by  a  lormidable  rival,  and  conipclled  to  take 
 refuge  with  the  Emperor  Maurice.  He  owed  his  res- 
 toration to  the  generous  aid  of  the  same  potentate. 
 Not  long  after,  upon  the  deatii  of  Maurice,  he  carried 
 his  victorious  arms  against  his  former  allies,  to  the 
 very  walls  of  Constantinople  and  Alexandrea;  and 
 subsequently  he  beheld  liie  very  Romans,  whom  he 
 had  so  often  defeated,  penetratmg,  under  Heraclius, 
 into  the  heart  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  pillaging  and 
 burning  his  palace  itself.  He  was  at  last  dethroned 
 by  his  own  son  and  cast  into  prison,  where  he  died 
 A.D.  638.  {Saint-Martin,  in  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  22,  p. 
 391.) 
 
 Chronium  Mare,  a  name  applied  by  the  ancients 
 to  the  Frozen  Ocean.  The  Cimbri,  according  to 
 Pliny  (4,  13),  called  it  Morimarusa,  i.e.,  "the  dead 
 sea."  In  the  Welsh  tongue,  mor  is  the  "  sea,"  and 
 marv  "dead;"  in  the  Irish,  muir-croinn  denotes  a 
 thick,  coagulated,  frozen  sea.  (Compare  Classical 
 Journal,  vol.  6,  p.  297.) 
 
 Chrysa,  I.  a  town  of  Troas,  on  the  coast,  near 
 the  city  of  Hamaxitus,  where  lived  Chryses,  the  fa- 
 ther of  the  beautiful  Chryse'is.  (Homer,  Iliad,  1,  37. 
 — Id.  ibid.,  430,  &c.)  Strabo  (G04),  however,  places 
 it  in  the  innermost  part  of  the  Adramyttian  Gulf, 
 and  hence  some  are  in  favour  of  making  two  places 
 of  this  name,  an  old  and  a  new  Chrysa.  (Compare 
 Hex/no's  note  to  the  German  transl.  of  Le  Chevalier, 
 p.  7,  seqq.)  This  place  was  famous  for  a  temple  of 
 Apollo  yminlheus  (vid.  Smintheus),' whence  it  was 
 also  called  Smnilhium.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt. 
 3,  p.  463.) — II.  A  small  island  in  the  mimediate  vi- 
 cinity of  Lemnos,  in  which  Philoctetes  took  up  his 
 abode  when  suffering  from  the  wound  inflicted  by  one 
 of  the  arrows  of  Hercules.  {Pausan.,  8,  33.)  It 
 was  afterward  submerged  by  the  sea,  in  accordance 
 with  an  ancient  prediction.  {Herodot.,  7,  6.)  Choi- 
 seul-Gouffier  (  Fc/i/flo^e  piltoresguc  de  la  Greece,  vol.  2, 
 p.  129)  thuiks  he  saw  traces  of  it  still  remaining. 
 That  the  change  here  referred  to  has  been  occasioned 
 by  volcanic  action  no  one  can  doubt.  ( Vtd.  Mosych- 
 lus.)  "^'he  whole  island  of  Lemnos  is  said  to  bear 
 the  strongest  marks  of  the  effects  of  volcanic  fire  ;  the 
 rocks  in  many  parts  are  like  the  burned  and  vitrified 
 scoria  of  furnaces.  (Hunt's  Journal,  in  Walpolc''s 
 Collection,  vol.  2,  p.  59.) 
 
 CiiRvsANTHius,  an  eclectic  philosopher  of  Sardis, 
 made  highpriest  of  Lydia  by  the  Emperor  Julian,  and 
 supposed  to  possess  a  power  of  conversing  with  the 
 gods  and  of  predicting  future  events.  (Eunap  ,  p. 
 144,  seqq. — Enfield's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  2, 
 p.  71.) 
 
 Chrvsaor,  a  son  of  Medusa  by  Neptune,  born  im- 
 mediately after  the  decapitation  of  his  mother  by  Per- 
 seus. (Apollod.,  2,  4,  2. — Hcync,  ad  loc.)  He  was 
 of  gigantic  stature,  and  received  his  name,  according 
 toHesiod  (Theog.,  283),  from  his  wielding  in  his  hands 
 a  "  golden  sword"  (xpyoEiov  Hop).  Chrysaor  became 
 by  Callirhoe,  one  of  the  ocean-nymphs,  the  father  of 
 Geryon  and  Echidna.  (Hesiod,  Theog.,  287,  seqq. — 
 Compare  Clcsias  Ephes.  ap.  Plut.  de  Jlum  ,  p.  1034, 
 ed.  Wytt. — Tzctz.  ad  Lycophr.,  v.  17.)— The  legend 
 of  Chrysaor,  like  that  of  Perseus  itself,  has  a  blend- 
 ed religious  and  astronomical  reference.  It  is  based 
 on  the  idea  of  purification  by  blood,  and  also  of  the 
 reappearance  of  fertility,  after  the  darker  period  of  the 
 year,  the  months  of  winter,  have  passed  away.  (Com- 
 pare remarks  under  the  article  Perseus.) 
 
 Chrysaorius,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  from  his  temple 
 at  Slratonice  in  Caria.  There  was  a  political  union 
 of  certain  Carian  states,  which  held  their  meetings 
 here,  under  the  name  of  Chrysaorium.  These  states 
 had  votes  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  towns  they 
 possessed.  (Slrab.,  660. —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol. 
 2,  p.  204.) 
 
 342 
 
 Chrvseis,  the  patronymic  of  Astynome,  daufrhter 
 of  Chryses.     (FiVi.  Chryses.) 
 
 Chrvses,  a  priest  of  Apollo  Smintheus  at  Chrvsa. 
 He  was  the  father  of  Astynome,  who  was  called  from 
 him  Chryseis.  In  the  division  of  the  spoils  of  Hypo- 
 placian  Thebe,  when  that  city  was  taken  by  the 
 Greeks,  Chryseis,  as  one  of  the  captives,  fell  to  the 
 share  of  Agamemnon.  Chryses,  upon  hearing  of  his 
 daughter's  fate,  repaired  to  the  Grecian  camp,  attired 
 in  his  sacerdotal  insignia,  to  solicit  her  restitution  ; 
 and  when  his  prayers  were  fruitless,  he  implored  the 
 aid  of  Apollo,  who  visited  the  Greeks  with  a  pesti 
 lence,  and  obliged  them  to  restore  Chryse'is.  {Horn., 
 II.,  1,  11,  seqq. — Id.  th.,  366,  seqq.)  It  has  been 
 asked  how  Chryse'is,  a  native  of  Chrysa,  could  have 
 been  taken  prisoner  at  Thebe  !  Eustaihius  solves  the 
 difficulty,  giving  us  our  choice  of  one  of  two  explana- 
 tions. According  to  one  account,  as  he  informs  us, 
 she  had  been  sent  to  Thebe  as  to  a  place  of  more 
 safety  than  Chrysa,  while  another  made  her  to  have 
 gone  thither  to  attend  a  festival  of  Diana.  {Evstath. 
 ad  II.,  1.  366.) 
 
 Chrysippus,  I.  a  son  of  Pelops,  carried  off  by 
 Laius.  (Apollod.,  3,  5,  6.)  This  circumstance  be- 
 came a  theme  with  many  ancient  writers,  and  hence 
 the  story  assumed  different  shapes,  according  to  the 
 fancy  of  those  who  handled  it.  The  death  of  Chrysip- 
 pus was  also  related  in  different  ways.  According  to 
 the  common  acc/unt,  he  was  slain  by  Atreus,  at  the 
 instigation  of  h  6  stepmother  Hippodamia.  (Consult 
 Heyne,  ad  loi  .)—lI.  A  stoic  philosopher  of  Soli  in 
 Cilicia  Campestris.  He  fixed  his  residence  at  Athens, 
 and  became  a  disciple  of  Cleanthcs,  the  successor  of 
 Zeno.  He  was  equally  distinguished  for  natural  abil- 
 ities and  industry,  seldom  suffering  a  day  to  elapse 
 without  writing  500  lines.  He  wrote  several  hundred 
 volumes,  of  which  three  hundred  were  on  logical  sub- 
 jects, but  in  all  he  borrowed  largely  from  others.  He 
 maintained,  with  the  Stoics  in  general,  that  the  world 
 was  God,  or  a  universal  effusion  of  his  spirit,  and 
 that  the  superior  part  of  this  spirit,  which  consisted  in 
 mind  and  reason,  was  the  common  nature  of  things, 
 containing  the  whole  and  every  part.  Sometimes  he 
 speaks  of  God  as  the  power  of  fate  and  the  necessary 
 chain  of  events  ;  sometimes  he  calls  him  fire  ,  and 
 sometimes  he  deifies  the  fluid  parts  of  nature,  as  water 
 and  air  ;  and  again,  the  earth,  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
 and  the  universe  in  which  these  are  comprehended, 
 and  even  those  men  who  have  obtained  immortality. 
 He  was  very  fond  of  the  figure  Sorites  in  argxiing, 
 which  is  hence  called  by  Persius  the  heap  of  Chrysip- 
 pus. His  discourses  abounded  more  in  curious  sub- 
 tleties and  nice  distinctions  than  in  solid  arguments. 
 In  disputation,  in  which  he  spent  the  greatest  part  oi 
 his  life,  he  discovered  a  degree  of  promptitude  and 
 confidence  which  approached  towards  audacity.  He 
 often  said  to  his  preceptor,  "  Give  me  doctrines,  and  1 
 will  find  arguments  to  support  them."  It  was  a  sin- 
 gular proof  of  his  haughty  spirit,  that  when  a  cer'ain 
 person  asked  him  what  preceptor  he  would  advise  him 
 to  choose  for  his  son,  he  said,  "Me  ;  for  if  I  thought 
 any  philosopher  excelled  me,  I  would  myself  become 
 his  pupil  "  With  so  much  contempt  did  he  look 
 down  upon  the  distinctions  of  rank,  that  he  would 
 never,  as  other  philosophers  did,  pay  his  court  to 
 princes  or  great  men,  by  dedicating  to  them  any  of  his 
 writings.  The  vehemence  and  arrogance  with  which 
 he  supported  his  tenets,  created  him  many  adver- 
 saries, particularly  in  the  Academic  and  Epicurean 
 sects.  Even  his  friends  of  the  Stoic  school  com- 
 plained, that,  in  the  warmth  of  dispute,  while  he  was 
 attempting  to  load  his  adversary  with  the  reproach  of 
 obscurity  and  absurdity,  his  own  ingenuity  often  failed 
 him,  and  he  adopted  such  unusual  and  illogical  modes 
 of  reasoning,  as  gave  his  opponents  great  advantages 
 over  him.     (Cic,  Ac.  Quasi.,  4,  27.)      It  was  also 
 
C  H  R 
 
 C  I  B 
 
 a  common  practice  with  Chrysippus,  at  different  times, 
 to  take  the  opposite  sides  of  the  same  question,  and 
 ihus  furnish  his  antagonists  with  weapons,  which 
 might  easily  be  turned,  as  occasion  offered,  against 
 himself,  Carneades,  wlio  was  one  of  his  most  able 
 and  skilful  adversaries,  frequently  availed  himself  of 
 this  circumstance,  and  refuted  Chrysippus  by  convict- 
 ing hitn  of  inconsistency.  Of  his  writings  nothing 
 remains,  except  a  few  extracts  which  are  preserved  in 
 the  works  of  Cicero,  Plutarch,  Seneca,  and  Aulus  Gel- 
 lius.  He  died  in  the  143d  Olympiad,  B.C.  208,  at  the 
 age  of  eightj'-three.  A  statue  was  erected  to  his  mem- 
 ory by  Ptolemy.  (Diog.  Laert.,  7,  189. — Enfield's 
 History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  358.) 
 
 Ch'rvsocer.*s,  or  the  horn  of  gold,  a  name  given 
 to  the  harbour  of  Byzantium.     {Vid.  Byzantium.) 
 
 Chrvsopolis,  a  town  and  harbour  opposite  Byzan- 
 tium, on  the  Asiatic  shore.  It  is  often  mentioned  in 
 history.  The  Atlienians  established  there  a  toll,  to- 
 wards the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  to  be  paid 
 by  all  ships  coming  from  the  Eu.\ine.  {Xen.,  Hist. 
 Gr.,  1,  1,  li.—Polyb.,  4,  44,  3.)  The  ten  thousand 
 Greeks  were  encamped  there  for  some  days  prior  to 
 crossmg  over  into  Thrace.  {Xen.,  Anab.,  6,  6,  22.) 
 It  is  mentioned  by  Strabo  (563)  as  a  small  town,  and 
 Phny  says,  "  Fiai  ChrysopoUs'"  (5,  32).  Several  his- 
 torians, however,  of  a  later  date,  continue  to  speak  of 
 it.  {Zosim.,  2,  30. — Socrat.,  Hist.  Eccles.,  1,  4. — 
 Amni.  MarcclL,  22,  12.)  Stephanus  of  Byzantium 
 gives  various  etymological  derivations  of  the  name. 
 The  modern  Scutari  is  thought  to  correspond  to  the 
 ancient  place.  {Cramer'' s  Asia  Minor,  \ol.  1,  p.  191, 
 seq.) 
 
 Chrysorrhoas-,  or  Golden  Stream,  a  river  of  Syr- 
 ia, near  Damascus.  It  rises  in  Mount  Libanus,  and, 
 after  leaving  its  native  valley,  divides  itself  into  five 
 small  streams  near  the  village  of  Dumar.  The  main 
 one  of  these  flows  through  Damascus,  while  two  others 
 water  the  gardens  in  the  plain  of  El-Gutha.  All  the 
 streams  unite  subsequently,  and  their  collected  waters 
 empty  into  the  sea.  The  Chrysorrhoas  is  the  same 
 with  the  Bardine  or  Amana  (in  Scripture  Abana,  2 
 Kings,  5,  12),  now  the  Baradi.  {Abulfeda,  Tab. 
 Syr. — Burckhardt,  p.  37. —  Von  Richtcr,  Wall/ahrl, 
 p.  154,  scqq.) 
 
 Chrysostom  (St.  John),  an  eminent  father  of  the 
 church,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Antioch,  AD. 
 347.     His  father's  name  was  Secundus,  and  the  sur- 
 name of  Chrysostom,  or  "golden  mouth"  (Xpvffoffro- 
 fio^),  obtained  by  the  son,  was  given  to  him  on  account 
 of  his  eloquence.     He  was  bred  to  the  bar,  but  quitted 
 it  for  an  ascetic  life  :  first,  with  a  monk  on  a  ino\int- 
 ain  near  Antioch,  and  then  in  a  cave  by  himself.     He 
 remained  in  this  retirement   si.x:  years,  when  he  re- 
 turned to  Antioch,   and,  being  ordained,  became  so 
 celebrated  for  his  talents  as    a  preacher,  that,  on  the 
 death  of  Nectarius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  he 
 was  chosen  to  supply  his  place.      On  obtaining  this 
 preferment,  which   he  very  unwillingly  accepted,  he 
 acted  with  great  vigour  and  austerity  in  the  reform  of 
 abuses,  and  exhibited  all  the  mistaken  notions  of  the 
 day  in  regard  to  celibacy  and  the  monastic  life.     He 
 also  persecuted  the  pagans  and  heretics  with  great  zeal, 
 and  sought  to  extend  his  episcopal  power  with  such 
 unremitting  ardour,  that  he  involved  himself  in  a  quar- 
 rel with  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Alexandrea,  who  en- 
 joyed the  patronage  of  the  Empress  Eudoxia  ;  which 
 quarrel  ended  iii  his  formal  deposition  by  a  synod  held 
 at  Chalcedon  A.D.  403.     He  was,  however,  so  popu- 
 lar in  Constantinople,  that  a  formidable    insurrection 
 ensued,  and  the  empress  herself  interfered  for  his  re- 
 turn.    Towards  the  end  of  the  same  year,  owing  to 
 his  zeal  relative  to  a  statue  of  Eudoxia,  placed  near  the 
 great  church,  and  causing  a  disturbance  of  public  wor- 
 ship, all  his  troubles  were  renewed.     If  true,  that  in 
 one  oi  his  sermons  the  empress  was  compared  by  him 
 
 to  Herodias,  who  sought  the  head  of  John  in  a  char- 
 ger, the  anger  of  Eudoxia  was  not  altogether  unjustifia- 
 ble. The  consequence  of  her  resentment  was  the  as- 
 sembling of  another  synod,  and  in  A.D.  404  the  pa- 
 triarch was  again  deposed  and  sent  into  exile.  The 
 place  of  his  banishment  was  Cucusus,  a  lonely  town 
 among  the  ridges  of  Mount  Taurus,  on  the  confines  of 
 Cappadocia  and  Cilicia.  He  sustained  himself  with 
 much  fortitude  ;  hut  having,  by  means  of  his  great  in- 
 fluence and  many  adherents,  procured  the  intercession 
 of  the  western  emperor,  Honorius,  with  his  brother  Ar- 
 cadius,  he  was  ordered  to  be  removed  still  farther 
 from  the  capital,  and  died  on  the  journey  at  Comana  in 
 Pontus,  A.D.  407,  at  the  age  of  sixty.  Opinion  was 
 much  divided  in  regard  to  his  merits  for  some  time 
 after  his  death,  but  at  length  his  partisans  prevailed, 
 and,  thirty  years  from  his  decease,  he  was  removed 
 from  his  place  of  interment  as  a  saint,  and  his  re- 
 mains were  met  in  procession  by  the  Emperor  Theo- 
 dosius  the  younger,  on  their  removal  from  the  place 
 of  his  original  interment  to  Constantinople.  Chry- 
 sostom was  a  voluminous  writer,  but  more  eloquent 
 than  either  learned  or  acute.  Although  falling  short 
 of  Attic  purity,  his  style  is  free,  copious,  and  unaf- 
 fected, and  his  diction  often  glowing  and  elevated. 
 The  numerous  treatises  or  sermons  by  which  he  chiefly 
 gained  his  reputation,  are  very  curious  for  the  informa- 
 tion they  contain  on  the  customs  and  manners  of  the 
 times,  as  elicited  by  his  declamation  against  prevail- 
 ing vices  and  follies.  The  first  entire  Greek  edition 
 of  the  works  of  Chrysostom  was  that  of  Sir  Henry  Sa- 
 ville,  at  Eton,  in  8  vols,  folio,  1613  ;  but  that  of 
 Montfaucon,  Paris,  with  annotations  and  his  life,  11 
 vols,  folio,  1718,  is  by  far  the  most  complete.  {Gor- 
 ton's Biogr.  Diet.,  vol.  1,  p.  485.) 
 
 Chrysothemis,  I.  a  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and 
 Clytemnestra. — II.  A  Cretan,  who  first  obtained  the 
 poetical  prize  at  the  Pythian  games.  (Pausanias, 
 10,  7.) 
 
 CiBAL^,  a  town  of  Lower  Pannonia,  situate  on  the 
 Saavus,  about  fifty  miles  from  Sirmium,  and  about 
 one  hundred  from  the  confluence  of  the  Saavus  and 
 Danube.  It  was  famous  for  the  defeat  of  Licinius  by 
 Constantino,  A.D.  315,  and  was  also  the  birthplace  of 
 Gratian.  Its  name  is  preserved  in  the  obscure  ruins 
 of  Savilei.  (Eulropius,  10,  4. — Amm.  Marcellinus, 
 30,  24.) 
 
 CiBYRA,  I.  a  flourishing  commercial  city  in  the 
 southwest  angle  of  Phrygia,  between  Lycia  and  Ca- 
 ria.  It  was  surnamed  the  Great  for  distinction'  sake 
 from  another  city  of  the  same  name  situate  in  Pam- 
 pliylia.  Cibyra  seems  to  have  been  originally  a  small 
 town  of  the  Cabalees,  from  whom  the  tract  of  CabaUa 
 or  Cabalis  took  its  name.  On  the  accession,  however, 
 of  a  Pisidian  colony,  the  site  was  changed,  the  town 
 considerably  enlarged,  and  the  name  gradually  altered 
 from  Cabalis,  or  some  analogous  form,  to  that  ot  Cib- 
 yra. The  place  became  very  prosperous,  and  its  pros- 
 perity was  chiefly  owing  to  the  excellence  of  its  laws, 
 though  the  government  was  that  of  an  absolute  mon- 
 archy. Under  this  government  were  included  the 
 three  old  Cabalian  towns  of  Bubon,  Balbura,  and  CEno- 
 anda,  and  these,  together  with  the  capital  Cibyra, 
 constituted  a  tetrapohs.  Each  of  these  towns  had  one 
 vote  in  the  general  assembly  of  the  states,  except 
 Cibyra,  which  had  two,  in  consideration  of  its  supe- 
 rior power.  This  city,  as  we  are  told  by  Strabo, 
 could  raise  no  less  than  30,000  foot  and  2000  horse, 
 and  its  influence  and  power  extended  over  a  part  of 
 Pisidia,  Milyas,  and  Lycia,  as  far  as  Persa  of  the 
 Rhodians.  {Strab.,  631.)  After  its  conquest  by  the 
 Romans,  we  find  Cibyra  mentioned  as  the  chief  city 
 of  a  considerable  forum  or  conventus,  comprising  not 
 less  than  twenty-five  towns.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Alt.,  5,  21. 
 —Plin.,  5,  29.)  According  to  Tacitus  {Ann.,  4,  13), 
 Cibyra,  having    been   nearly  destroyed  by    an  earth- 
 
C  I  c 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 quake,  was  afterward  restored  by  Tiberius.  In  later 
 writers  we  find  it  included  within  the  limits  of  Caria. 
 (HieiocL,  690.)  Strabo  reports,  that  there  were  four 
 dialects  in  use  at  Cibyra:  that  of  the  ancient  Solymi, 
 the  Greek,  the  Pisidian,  and  the  Lydian  ;  the  latter, 
 however,  he  adds,  was  quite  e.xtinct  even  in  Lydia. 
 The  Cibyratte  excelled  in  engraving  on  iron  or  steel. 
 {Slrab.,  631.)  No  trace  of  the  ruins  of  Cibyra  has  as 
 yet  been  discovered.  They  are  to  be  found,  however, 
 in  all  probability,  not  far  from  Dcnisti,  or  Laodicea, 
 on  a  river  which  is  either  the  Lycus  or  a  branch  of  it. 
 {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  269,  seqq.) — II.  A 
 town  on  the  coast  of  Pamphylia,  southeast  of  Aspen- 
 dus,  called  Cibyra  Parva,  for  distinction'  sake  from 
 the  preceding.  Ptolemy  annexes  it  to  Cilicia  Tra- 
 chea. Its  site  corresponds  to  that  of  the  modern  /6m- 
 rar.     {Strab.,  667.) 
 
 CiciiRO,  M,\Rcus  TuLLius,  a  celebrated  Roman  ora- 
 tor, was  born  at  Arpinum,  the  native  place  of  Marius, 
 B.C.  107,  the  same  year  which  gave  birth  to  Pom- 
 pey  the  Great.  His  family  was  ancient,  and  of  eques- 
 trian rank,  but  had  never  taken  part  in  public  affairs  at 
 Rome,  though  both  his  father  and  grandfather  were 
 persons  of  consideration  in  the  part  of  Italy  in  which 
 they  resided.  (Or.  contra.  Rull.,  2,  1.)  His  father, 
 being  a  man  of  cultivated  mind,  determined  to  educate 
 his  two  sons,  Marcus  and  Quintus,  on  an  enlarged 
 and  liberal  plan,  and  to  fit  them  for  the  prospect  of 
 those  public  employments  which  his  own  weak  state 
 of  health  incapacitated  him  from  seeking.  Marcus, 
 the  elder  of  the  two,  soon  displayed  indications  of  a 
 superior  mind,  and  we  are  told  that  his  schoolfellows 
 carried  home  such  accounts  of  his  extraordinary  parts, 
 that  their  parents  often  visited  the  school  for  the  sake 
 of  seeing  a  youth  who  gave  so  much  promise  of  future 
 eminence.  (Plut.  in  Vit.)  One  of  his  earliest  mas- 
 ters was  the  poet  Archias,  whom  he  defended  after- 
 ward in  his  consular  year ;  and  under  his  instruction 
 he  made  such  proficiency  as  to  compose  a  poem, 
 though  yet  a  boy,  on  the  fable  of  Glaucus,  which  had 
 formed  the  subject  of  one  of  the  tragedies  of  ^-Eschylus. 
 Soon  after  he  assumed  the  manly  gown,  he  was  placed 
 under  the  care  of  Scaevola,  the  celebrated  lawyer, 
 whom  he  introduces  so  beautifully  into  several  of  his 
 philosophical  dialogues  ;  and  in  no  long  time  he  gained 
 a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  laws  and  political  insti- 
 tutions of  his  country.  (Dc  Clar.,  Or.,  29.)  This  was 
 about  the  time  of  the  Social  War ;  and,  according  to 
 the  Roman  custom,  which  made  it  a  necessary  part 
 of  education  to  learn  the  military  art  by  actual  service, 
 Cicero  took  the  opportunity  of  serving  a  campaign 
 under  the  consul  Pompeius  Strabo,  father  of  Pompey 
 the  Great.  Returning  to  pursuits  more  congenial  to 
 his  natural  taste,  he  commenced  the  study  of  philoso- 
 phy under  Philo  the  Academic.  But  his  chief  atten- 
 tion was  reserved  for  oratory,  to  which  he  applied  him- 
 self with  the  assistance  of  Molo,  the  first  rhetorician 
 of  the  day  ;  while  Diodotus,  the  Stoic,  exercised  him 
 in  the  argumentative  subtleties  for  which  the  disciples 
 of  Zeno  were  so  celebrated.  At, the  same  time  he 
 declaimed  daily  in  Greek  and  Latin  with  some  young 
 noblemen,  who  were  competitors  in  the  same  race  of 
 honours  with  himself — Cicero  was  the  first  Roman 
 who  found  his  way  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the  ^tate 
 with  no  other  recommendation  than  his  powers  of  elo- 
 quence and  his  merits  as  a  civil  magistrate.  {Or.  in 
 Cat.,  3,  %.—In  Pis.,  3.— Fro  Su!L,  30.— Pro  Dom., 
 27.— De  Harusp.  Rcsp.,  23.— Ep.  ad  Fam.,  15,  4.) 
 The  first  cause  of  importance  which  he  undertook 
 was  the  defence  of  Roscius  Amcrinus,  in  which  he 
 distinguished  himself  by  his  courageous  defence  of  his 
 client,  who  had  been  accused  of  parricide  by  Chry- 
 sogonus,  a  favourite  of  Sylla's.  This  obliging  him, 
 however,  according  to  Plutarch,  to  leave  Rome  from 
 prudential  motives,  the  power  of  Sylla  being  at  that 
 time  paramount,  he  employed  his  time  in  travelling  for 
 344 
 
 two  years  under  pretence  of  his  health,  which  he  tells 
 us  was  yet  unequal  to  the  exertion  of  pleading.  (Dt 
 Clar.,  Or.,  91.)  At  Athens  he  met  with  T.  Pompo- 
 nius  Atticus,  whom  he  had  formerly  known  at  school, 
 and  there  renewed  with  him  a  friendship  which  tasted 
 through  life,  in  spite  of  the  change  of  interest  and  es- 
 trangement of  affection  so  commonly  attendant  on 
 turbulent  times.  Here  too  he  attended  the  lectures 
 oi  Antiochus,  who,  under  the  name  of  an  Academic, 
 taught  the  dogmatic  doctrines  of -Plato  and  the  Stoics. 
 Though  Cicero  at  first  evinced  considerable  dislike  of 
 his  philosophical  views,  he  seems  afterward  to  have 
 adopted  the  sentiments  of  the  Old  Academy,  which 
 they  much  resembled,  and  not  until  late  in  life  to  have 
 relapsed  into  the  sceptical  tenets  of  bis  earlier  in- 
 structer  Pbilo.  ( Warhiirton,  Div.  Leg.,  lib.  3,  sec. 
 3. —  Vossivs,  dc  Nat.  Log.,  c.  8,  sec.  22.)  After  visit- 
 ing the  principal  philosophers  and  rhetoricians  of  Asia, 
 he  returned  at  the  age  of  thirty  to  Rome,  so  strength- 
 ened and  improved  both  in  bodily  and  mental  powers, 
 that  he  soon  eclipsed  in  speaking  all  his  competitors 
 for  public  favour.  So  popular  a  talent  speedily  gained 
 him  the  suffrage  of  the  commons  ;  and  being  .sent  to 
 Sicily  as  qusesior,  at  a  time  when  the  metropohs  itself 
 was  visited  with  a  scarcitv  of  corn,  he  acquitted  him- 
 self in  that  delicate  situation  with  so  much  success  as 
 to  supply  the  clamorous  wants  of  the  people  without 
 oppressing  the  province  from  which  the  provisions 
 were  raised.  {Or.  pro  Plane,  26. — Li  Verr.,  5,  14.) 
 Returning  thence  with  greater  honours  than  had  ever 
 before  been  decreed  to  a  Roman  governor,  he  gain- 
 ed for  himself  still  farther  the  esteem  of  the  Sicil- 
 ians, by  undertaking  his  celebrated  prosecution  of  Ver- 
 res  ;  who,  though  defended  by  the  influence  of  the 
 Metelli  and  the  eloquence  of  Hortensius,  was  driver: 
 in  despair  into  voluntary  exile.  Five  years  after  his 
 quaestorship  Cicero  was  elected  eedile.  Though  pos- 
 sessed of  only  a  moderate  fortune,  he  nevertheless, 
 with  the  good  sense  and  taste  which  mark  his  charac- 
 ter, was  enabled,  while  holding  this  expensive  office, 
 to  preserve  in  his  domestic  arrangements  the  dignity 
 of  a  literary  and  public  man,  without  any  of  the  os- 
 tentation of  magnificence  which  often  distinguished  the 
 candidate  for  popular  applause.  {Or.  pro  Dom.,  58.) 
 After  the  customary  interval  of  two  years,  he  was  re- 
 turned at  the  head  of  the  list  as  prajtor  {Or.  in 
 Pis.,  1),  and  now  made  his  first  appearance  on  the 
 rostra  in  support  of  the  Manilian  law.  About  the 
 same  time,  also,  he  defended  Cluentius.  At  the  expi- 
 ration of  his  prffitorship,  he  refused  to  accept  a  foreign 
 prov.i^ce,  the  usual  reward  of  that  magistracy  ;  but, 
 having  the  consulship  full  in  view,  and  relying  on  his 
 interest  with  Cfesar  and  Pompey,  be  allowed  nothing 
 to  divert  him  from  that  career  of  glory  for  which  he 
 now  believed  himself  to  be  destined.  Having  suc- 
 ceeded at  length  in  attaining  to  the  high  office  of 
 which  he  was  in  quest,  he  signalized  his  cor>sulship 
 by  crushing  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  ;  and  the  Ro- 
 mans hailed  him,  on  the  discovery  and  overthrow  of 
 this  nefarious  plot,  as  the  Father  and  Deliverer  of  his 
 country.  His  consulate  was  succeeded  by  the  returrj 
 of  Pompey  from  the  East,  and  the  establishment  of 
 the  First  Triumvirate  ;  which,  disappointing  his  hopes 
 of  political  greatness,  induced  bim  to  resume  his  fo- 
 rensic and  literary  occupations.  From  these  he  was 
 called  off,  after  an  interval  o{  four  years,  by  the  threat- 
 ening measures  of  Clodius,  who  at  length  succeeded 
 in  driving  him  into  exile.  This  event.  vv}>icb,  consid- 
 ering the  circumstances  connected  with  it,  was  one  of 
 the  most  glorious  of  his  life,  filled  him  with  the  ut- 
 most distress  and  despondency.  Its  history  is  as  fol- 
 lows. Clodius,  Cicero's  bitter  enemy,  had  caused  a 
 law  to  be  renewed,  declaring  every  one  guilty  of  trea- 
 son who  ordered  the  execution  of  a  Roman  citizen 
 before  the  people  had  condemned  him.  The  blrtv» 
 was  aimed  against  Cicero,  on  account  of  the  punisb" 
 
CICERO. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 mcnt  he  had  caused  to  be  inflicted,  by  the  authority 
 of  the  senate,  upon  the  accomplices  of  Gatihne.     The 
 illustrious  ex-consul  put  on  mournuig,  and  appeared 
 in  public,  accompanied  by  the  equites  and  many  young 
 patricians,  demanding  the    protection  of  the  people. 
 Clodius,  however,  at  the  head  of  his  armed  adherents, 
 insulted  them  repeatedly,  and  ventured  even  to  be- 
 siege the  senate  house.     Cicero,  upon  this,  went  into 
 voluntary  exile.     His  conduct,  however,  in  this   re- 
 verse of  fortune,  showed  anything  but  the  firmness  of 
 a  man  of  true  spirit.     He  wandered  about  Greece,  be- 
 wailing his  miserable  condition,  refusing  the  consola- 
 tions which  his  fi lends  attempted  to  administer,  and 
 shunning  the   pullic  honours   with  which  the  Greek 
 cities  were  eager  to  load  him.     (Ep.  ad  Alt.,  lib.  3. 
 —Ep.  ad  Fain.,  lib.    14.— Or.  pro  Sext.,  22.— Pro 
 Dom.,  36.)     He    ultimately  took   refuge  in  Thessa- 
 lonica  with  Plancus.     Clodius,  in  the  mean  time,  pro- 
 cured new  decrees,  in  consequence  of  which  Cicero's 
 country  seats  were  torn  down,  and  a  temple  of  Free- 
 dom built  on  the  site  of  his  house  at  Rome.    His  wife 
 and  children  were  also  exposed  to  ill  usage  from  his 
 imbittered    persecutors.     A  favourable  change,  how- 
 ever, soon  took  place  in  the  minds  of  his  countrymen. 
 The  audacity  of  Clodius  became  insupportable  to  all : 
 Pompey  encouraged  Cicero's  friends  to  get  him  re- 
 called to  Rome,  and  the  senate  also  declared  that  it 
 would   not    attend  to  any  business  until   the   decree 
 which  ordered  his  banishment  was  revoked.    Through 
 the  zeal  of  the  consul  Lentulus,  and  at  the  proposition 
 of  several  tribunes,  the  decree  of  recall  passed  the  as- 
 sembly of  the  people  in  the  following  year,  in  spite 
 of  a  bloody  tumult,  in  which  Cicero's  brother  Quintus 
 was  dangerously  wounded ;    and  the  orator  returned 
 to  his  native  country,  after  an  absence  of  ten  months, 
 and  was   received  with  every  mark  of  honour.     The 
 senate  met  him  at  the  city  gates,  and  his  entry  re- 
 sembled a  triumph.     The  attacks  of  Clodius,  though 
 they  could  now  do  no   harm,  were    immediately  re- 
 newed, until  Cicero  was  freed  from  the  insults  of  this 
 turbulent  demagogue  by  the  hand  of  Milo,  whom  he 
 afterward,  in  a  public  trial  for  the  deed,  unsuccess- 
 fully defended.     {Vid.  Milo.)     Five   years  after  his 
 return  from  exile  he  received  the  government  of  Cili- 
 cia,  in  consequence  of  Pompey's  law,  which  obliged 
 those  senators  of  consular  or  praetorian  rank  who  had 
 never  held  any  foreign  command,  to  divide  the  vacant 
 provinces    among    them.     Cicero    conducted  a  war, 
 while   in   this   office,  with  good  success  against   the 
 plundering  tribes  of  the  mountain  districts  of  Cilicia, 
 and  was  greeted  by  his  soldiers  with  the  title  of  Im- 
 perator.     He  resigned  his  command,  and  returned  to 
 Italy,  about   the   close   of  the  year  703,   intending   to 
 prefer  his  claim  to  a  triumph  ;  but  the  troubles  which 
 were  just  then  commencing  between  Cassar  and  Pom- 
 pey prevented  him  from  obtaining  one.      His  return 
 home  was  followed  by  earnest   endeavours  to  recon- 
 cile Pompey  with  Caesar,  and  by  very  spirited  beha- 
 viour when  Cassar  required  his  presence  in  the  senate. 
 But  ttiis  independent  temper  was  only  transient  ;   and 
 at  no  period  of  his  public  life  did  he  display  such  mis- 
 erable vacillation  as  at  the  opening  of  the  civil  war. 
 His  conduct,  in  this  respect,  had  been  faulty  enough 
 before,   for  he  then    vacillated    between  the    several 
 memliers  of  the  first  triumvirate,  defending  Vatiiiius 
 in  order  to  please  Cassar,  and  his  bitter  political  en- 
 emy  Gabmius    to    ingratiate   himself   with    Pompey. 
 Now,  however,  we  find   him  first  accepting  a  com- 
 mission from  the  republic ;  then  courting  Cfesar  ;  next, 
 on   Pompey's  sailing  for  Greece,  resolvincr  to  follow 
 him  thither ;  presently  determining  to  stand  neuter ; 
 then  bent  on  retiring  to  the  Pompeians  in  Sicily  ;  and 
 when,  after  all,  he  had  joined  their  camp  in  Greece, 
 discovering  such  timidity  and  discontent  as  to  draw 
 from  Pompey  the  bitter  reproof,  '^  cupio  ad  hostes  Ci- 
 cero transeat,  ul  jios  timcaty    {Macrobiua  Sat.  2  3.) 
 
 After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  and  the  flight  of  Pompey, 
 he  refused  to  take  the  command  of  some  troops  then 
 under  the  orders  of  Calo,  but  returned  to  Italy,  v-fhich 
 was  governed  by  Antony,  the  representative  of  Caesar, 
 His  return  was  attended  with  several  unpleasant  cir- 
 cumstances, until  the  conqueror  wrote  to  hiin,  and  soon 
 after  received  him  in  the  most  friendly  spirit.  Cicero 
 now  devoted  himself  entirely  to  literature  and  philoso- 
 phy. The  state  of  his  private  affairs,  however,  involv- 
 ed him  in  great  embarrassment.  A  large  sum,  which 
 he  had  advanced  to  Pompey,  had  impoverished  him,  ana 
 he  was  forced  to  stand  indebted  to  Atticus  for  present 
 assistance.  These  difficulties  led  him  to  a  step  which 
 it  has  been  customary  to  regard  with  great  severity  ; 
 the  divorce  of  his  wife  Terentia,  though  he  was  then 
 in  his  62d  year,  and  his  marriage  with  his  rich  ward 
 Publilia,  who  was  of  an  age  disproportionate  to  his 
 own.  Yet,  in  reviewing  this  proceeding,  we  must 
 not  adopt  the  inodern  standard  of  propriety,  forgetful 
 of  the  character  of  an  age  which  reconciled  actions 
 even  of  moral  turpitude  with  a  reputation  for  honour 
 and  virtue.  Terentia  was  a  woman  of  a  most  imperi- 
 ous and  violent  temper,  and  (what  is  more  to  the 
 purpose)  had  in  no  slight  degree  contributed  to  his 
 present  embarrassment  by  her  extravagance  in  the 
 management  of  his  private  affairs.  By  her  he  had 
 two  children,  a  son  born  the  year  before  his  con- 
 sulship, and  a  daughter,  whose  loss  he  was  now  fated 
 to  experience.  To  TuUia  he  was  tenderly  attached, 
 not  only  frorh  the  excellence  of  her  disposition,  but 
 from  her  love  of  polite  literature;  and  her  death  tore 
 from  him,  as  he  so  pathetically  laments  to  Sulpicius, 
 the  only  comfort  which  the  course  of  public  events 
 had  left  him.  (Ep.  ad  Fam.,  4,  14.)  His  distress 
 was  increased  by  the  unfeeling  conduct  of  Publilia, 
 whom  he  soon  divorced  for  testifying  joy  at  the  death 
 of  her  step-daughter.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he 
 wrote  his  treatise  "  On  Consolation,"  with  a  view  to 
 mitigate  the  anguish  of  his  sufferings.  His  friends 
 were  assiduous  in  their  attentions  ;  and  Caesar,  who 
 had  treated  him  with  the  utmost  kindness  on  his  re- 
 turn from  Egypt,  signified  the  respect  he  bore  his  char- 
 acter by  sending  a  letter  of  condolence  from  Spain, 
 where  the  remains  of  the  Pompeian  party  still  en- 
 gaged him.  But  no  attentions,  however  considerate, 
 could  soften  Cicero's  vexation  at  seeing  the  country 
 he  had  formerly  saved  by  his  exertions,  now  subjected 
 to  the  tyranny  of  one  master.  His  speeches,  indeed, 
 for  Marcellus  and  Ligarius  exhibit  traces  of  inconsist- 
 ency ;  but  for  the  most  part  he  retired  from  public 
 business,  and  gave  himself  up  to  the  composition  of 
 those  works  which,  while  they  mitigated  his  political 
 sorrows,  have  secured  his  literary  celebrity.  The  as- 
 sassination of  Caesar,  which  took  place  in  the  follow- 
 ing year,  once  more  brought  him  on  the  stage  of  pub- 
 lic affairs.  He  hoped  to  regain  great  political  influ- 
 ence :  but  Antony  took  Coesar's  place,  and  all  that 
 was  left  Cicero  to  do  was  to  compose  those  admira- 
 ble orations  against  him  which  are  known  by  the  name 
 of  Philippics,  and  are  equally  distinguished  for  elo- 
 quence and  patriotism.  His  enmity  towards  Antony 
 induced  him  to  favour  the  young  Octavios,  although 
 the  pretended  moderation  of  the  latter  by  no  means 
 deceived  him.  With  him  originated  all  the  ener- 
 getic resolutions  of  the  senate  in  favour  of  the  war 
 which  the  consuls  and  the  young  Caesar  were  con- 
 ducting against  .\ntony  in  the  name  of  the  republic; 
 and  for  a  time  the  prospect  seemed  to  brighten.  At 
 last,  however,  Oclavius  having  possessed  himself  of 
 the  consulship,  and  having  formed  an  alliance  with 
 Antony  and  Lepidus,  Cicero  became  convinced  that 
 liberty  was  at  an  end.  At  Tusculum,  whither  he  had 
 retired  with  his  brother  and  nephew,  he  learned  that 
 Octavius  had  baselv  deserted  hiin,  and  that  his  name, 
 at  Antony's  demand,  had  been  added  to  the  list  of  the 
 nroscribed.  He  repaired,  in  a  state  of  indecision,  to 
 ^  ■  345 
 
CICERO. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 the  seacoast,  and  embarked.  Contrary  winds,  how- 
 ever, drove  him  back  to  the  shore.  At  the  request  of 
 his  slaves  he  embarked  a  second  time,  but  soon  re- 
 turned again  to  await  his  fate  at  his  country-seat  near 
 Foriuiaj.  "  I  will  die,"  said  he,  "  in  that  country 
 which  I  have  so  often  saved."  Here,  then,  he  was  dis- 
 posed to  remair),  and  to  meet  his  death;  but  his  slaves, 
 who  were  warmly  attached  to  him,  could  not  bear  to 
 6ee  him  thus  sacrificed  ;  and  when  the  party  of  sol- 
 diers sent  to  murder  him  was  advancing  towards  the 
 villa,  they  almost  forced  him  to  put  himself  into  his 
 litter,  and  to  allow  them  to  carry  him  once  more  on 
 board  of  the  vessei,  which  was  still  lying  at  Caieta. 
 But,  as  they  were  bearing  the  litter  towards  the  sea, 
 they  were  overtaken  in  the  walks  of  his  own  grounds 
 by  the  soldiers  who  were  in  search  of  him,  and 
 who  were  headed  by  one  Herennius,  a  centurion,  and 
 by  C.  Popilius  Laenas.  Popilius  was  a  native  of  Pi- 
 eenum,  and  had,  on  a  former  occasion,  been  success- 
 fully defended  by  Cicero,  when  brought  to  trial  for 
 some  oiience  before  the  courts  at  Rome.  As  the  as- 
 isistance  of  advocates  was  given  gratuitously,  the  con- 
 nexion between  them  and  their  clients  was  esteemed 
 very  dilferently  from  what  it  is  among  us  ;  and  it  was 
 therefore  an  instance  of  peculiar  atrocity,  that  Popil- 
 ius offered  his  services  to  Antony  to  murder  his  pa- 
 tron, from  no  other  motive  than  the  hope  of  gaining 
 his  favour,  by  showing  such  readiness  to  destroy  his 
 greatest  enemy.  The  slaves  of  Cicero,  undismayed 
 at  the  appearance  of  the  soldiers,  prepared  to  defend 
 their  master ;  but  he  refused  to  allow  any  blood  to  be 
 shed  on  his  account,  and  commanded  them  to  set  down 
 the  litter  and  await  the  issue  in  silence.  He  was 
 obeyed ;  and  when  the  soldiers  came  up,  he  stretched 
 out  his  head  with  perfect  calmness,  and  submitted  his 
 neck  to  the  sword  of  Popilius.  He  died  in  his  sixty- 
 fourth  year,  B.C.  43.  When  the  murder  was  accom- 
 plished, the  soldiers  cut  off  his  two  hands  also,  as  the 
 instruments  with  which  he  had  written  his  Philippic 
 Orations ;  and  the  head  and  hands  were  carried  to 
 Rome,  and  exposed  together  at  the  Roxlra.  Men 
 crowded  to  see  the  mournful  sight,  and  testified  by 
 their  tears  the  compassion  and  affection  which  his  un- 
 worthy death,  and  his  pure  and  amiable  character,  had 
 60  justly  deserved.  On  the  whole,  antiquity  may  be 
 challenged  to  pffjduce  an  individual  so  virtuous,  so 
 perfectly  amiable  as  Cicero.  None  interest  more  in 
 their  lives,  none  excite  more  painful  emotions  in  their 
 deaths.  Others,  it  is  true,  may  be  found  of  loftier 
 and  more  heroic  character,  who  awe  and  subdue  the 
 mind  by  the  grandeur  of  their  views  or  the  intensity 
 of  their  exertions.  But  Cicero  engages  our  affections 
 by  the  integrity  of  his  public  conduct,  the  purity  of 
 his  private  life,  the  generosity,  placability,  and  kind- 
 ness of  his  heart,  the  playfulness  of  his  temper,  the 
 warmth  of  his  domestic  attachments.  In  this  respect 
 his  letters  are  invaluable.  Here  we  see  the  man 
 without  disguise  or  affectation,  especially  in  his  letters 
 to  Atticus,  to  whom  he  unbosomed  every  thought,  and 
 talked  with  the  same  frankness  as  to  himself.  It 
 must,  however,  be  confessed,  that  the  publication  of 
 this  same  correspondence  has  laid  open  the  defects  of 
 his  political  character.  Everything  seemed  to  point 
 out  Cicero  as  the  fittest  person  of  the  day  to  be  a 
 mediator  beween  contending  factions.  And  yet,  after 
 the  eventful  period  of  his  consulship,  we  see  him  re- 
 signing the  high  station  in  the  republic  which  he  him- 
 self might  have  filled,  to  the  younger  Cato,  who,  with 
 only  half  his  abilities,  little  foresight,  and  no  address, 
 possessed  that  first  requisite  for  a  statesman,  firmness. 
 Cicero,  on  the  contrary,  was  irresolute,  timid,  and  in- 
 consistent. {Montesquieu,  Grand,  dcs  Rom.,  c.  12.) 
 He  talked,  indeed,  largely  of  preserving  a  middle  course 
 {Ep.  ad  All.,  1,  19),  but  he  was  continually  vacilla- 
 ting from  one  to  the  other  extreme  ;  always  too  confi- 
 dent or  too  dejected  ;  incorrigibly  vain  of  success, 
 346 
 
 yet  meanly  panegyrizing  the  government  of  a  usurpei. 
 His  foresight,  sagacity,  practical  good  sense,  and  singu- 
 lar tact  in  directing  men's  measures,  were  lost  for 
 want  of  that  strength  of  mind  which  points  them 
 steadily  to  one  object.  He  was  never  decided,  never 
 (as  has  sometimes  been  observed)  took  an  important 
 step  without  afterward  repenting  of  it.  Nor  can  we 
 account  for  the  firmness  and  resolution  of  his  consu- 
 late, unless  we  discriminate  between  the  ease  of  re- 
 sisting a  parly  and  that  of  balancing  contending  in- 
 terests. Boldness  in  opposition  differs  widely  from 
 steadiness  in  mediation  ;  the  latter  implying  a  cool- 
 ness of  judgment,  which  a  direct  attack  is  so  far  from 
 requiring,  that  it  ever  inspires  minds  naturally  timid 
 with  unusual  excitement. — Let  us  now  pass  to  Cicero 
 as  a  public  speaker  and  writer.  The  orations  he  is 
 known  to  have  composed  amount  in  all  to  about  eigh- 
 ty, of  which  fifty-nine,  either  entire  or  in  part,  are  pre- 
 served. All  those  pronounced  by  him  during  the  five 
 years  intervening  between  his  election  to  the  quaestor- 
 ship  and  asdileship  have  perished,  except  that  for  M. 
 Tullius,  the  exordium  and  narratio  of  which  were 
 brought  to  light  by  the  discoveries  of  Maio,  in  the  Am- 
 brosian  library  at  Milan.  From  the  same  quarter 
 have  been  obtained  many  other  reliques  of  the  elo- 
 quence of  Cicero,  among  the  most  important  of  which 
 are,  a  large  fragment  of  the  oration  for  Scaurus,  and 
 detached  portions  of  that  delivered  against  Clodius  for 
 his  profanation  of  the  mysteries  of  the  Bona  Dea.  Of 
 all  the  lost  orations,  the  two  most  regretted  are,  that  in 
 defence  of  Cornelius,  and  the  speech  delivered  by  him 
 in  the  temple  of  Bellona,  in  quelling  the  disturbance 
 excited  by  the  law  of  Otho.  This  last  is  said  to  have 
 been  one  of  the  most  signal  victories  of  eloquence 
 over  the  turbulence  of  human  passions,  while  to  the 
 former  Cicero  himself  frequently  alludes  as  among 
 the  most  finished  of  his  compositions.  The  oration 
 for  Marcellus  is  maintained  by  many  to  be  a  spurious 
 performance.  It  would  seem,  however,  after  weigh- 
 ing all  the  arguments  adduced  by  modern  critics,  that 
 a  part  is  actually  genuine,  but  that  much  has  been 
 subsequently  interpolated  by  some  rhetorician  or  de- 
 claimer.  Of  the  rhetorical  works  of  Cicero,  the  most 
 admired  and  finished  is  the  dialogue  De  Oratore,  of 
 which  Cicero  himself  highly  approved,  and  which  his 
 friends  were  accustomed  to  regard  as  one  of  the  hap- 
 piest of  his  productions.  In  the  Oratoricz  Partitioncs, 
 the  subject  is  the  art  of  arranging  and  distributing  the 
 parts  of  an  oration  so  as  to  adapt  them  in  the  best 
 manner  to  their  proper  end,  that  of  moving  and  per- 
 suading an  audience.  In  the  dialogue  on  famous  ora- 
 tors, entitled  Brutus,  he  gives  a  short  character  of  all 
 who  had  ever  flourished  in  Greece  or  Rome,  with  any 
 considerable  reputation  for  eloquence,  down  to  his 
 own  time.  It  was  intended  as  a  fourth  and  supple- 
 mental book  to  the  treatise  De  Oratore.  The  Ora- 
 tor, addressed  to  Brutus,  and  written  at  his  solicita- 
 tion, was  intended  to  complete  the  two  works  just 
 mentioned.  It  enlarges  on  the  favourite  topic  of  Ci- 
 cero, which  had  already  been  partially  discussed  in 
 the  treatise  De  Oratore,  the  character  of  the  per- 
 fect orator,  and  seeks  to  confirm  his  favourite  prop- 
 osition, that  perfection  in  oratory  requires  an  extensive 
 acquaintance  with  every  art.  It  is  on  the  merits  of 
 this  work  in  particular  that  Cicero,  in  a  letter  to  a 
 friend,  asserts  his  perfect  willingness  that  his  reputation 
 should  be  staked.  The  Topica  are  a  compend  of  the 
 Topica  of  Aristotle.  The  treatise  De  optima  genere 
 Oratorum  was  originally  intended  as  a  preface  to  a 
 translation  of  the  celebrated  orations  of  Demosthenes 
 and  JCschines  De  Corona.  The  work  De  Inventione 
 was  a  youthful  performance,  and  that  addressed  to 
 Herennius,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  never 
 proceeded  from  his  pen.  In  all  Cicero's  rhetorical 
 works,  except,  perhaps,  the  Orator,  he  professes  to 
 have  digested  the  principles  of  the  Aristotelic  and  Iso* 
 
CICERO. 
 
 cratean  schools  into   one  finished  system,  selecting 
 what  was  best  in  each,  and,  as  occasion  might  otter, 
 addiniT  remarks  and  precepts  of  his  own.     The  subject 
 is  considered  in  three  distinct  lights,  with  reference  to 
 the  case,  the  speaker,  and  the  speech.     The  case,  as 
 respects  its  nature,  is  definite  or  indefimte  ;  with  ref- 
 erence to  the  hearer,  it  is  judicial,  deliberative,  or  de- 
 scriptive ;    as   regards   the  opponent,   the  division   is 
 fourfold ;  according  as  the  fact,  its  nature,  its  qrality, 
 or  Its  propriety  is  called  in  question.     The  art  of  trie 
 speaker  is  directed  to  five  points ;  the  discovery  of 
 persuasives  (whether  ethical,  pathetic,  or  argumenta- 
 tive), arrangement,  diction,  memory,  delivery.     And 
 the  speech,  itself  consists  of  six  parts  ;  introduction  (or 
 exordium),  statement  of  the  case,  division  of  the  suo- 
 ject,  proof,  refutation,  and  conclusion  or  peroration. 
 Cicero's  laudatory  orations  are  among  his  happiest  ef- 
 forts     Nothing  can  exceed  the  taste  and  beauty  of 
 those  for  the  Manilian  Law,  for  Marcellus,  for.  Ligarius, 
 for  Archias,  and  the  ninth  Philippic,  which  is  princi- 
 pally in  praise  of  Servius  Sulpicius.     But  it  is  in  ju- 
 dicial eloquence,  particularly  on  subjects  of  a  hvely 
 cast,  as  in  his  speeches  for  Cffilius  and  Mursena,  and 
 ac^ainst  Cfficilius,  that  his  talents  are  displayed  to  the 
 best    advantage.      To   both   kinds    his    amiable    and 
 pleasant  turn  of  mind  imparts  inexpressible  grace  and 
 delicacy  ;  historical  allusions,  philosophical  sentiments, 
 descriptions  full  of  life  and  nature,  and  polite  raillery, 
 succeed   each  other  in   the  most  agreeable  manner, 
 without  appearance  of  artifice  or  effort.     Of  this  nature 
 are  his  pictures  of  the  confusion  of  the  Catilinarian 
 conspirators  on  detection  {Or.  in  Cat.,  3,  3) ;  of  the 
 death  of  Metellus  {Or.  pro  CceL,  10)  ;  of  Sulpicius 
 undertaking  the  embassy  to  Antony  {Fhilipp.,  9,  3) ; 
 the  character  he  draws  of  Catiline  {Or.  pro  CceL,  6); 
 and  his  fine  sketch  of  old  Appius  frowning  on  his  de- 
 generate descendant  Clodia  (vi.,  6).     But,  by  the  in- 
 vention of  a  style  which  adapts  itself  with  singular  fe- 
 licity to  every  class  of  subjects,  whether  lofty  or  famil- 
 iar, philosophical  or  forensic,  Cicero  answers  more  e.x- 
 act'ly  to  his  own  definition  of  a  perfect  orator  {Orat., 
 29),   than   by   his   plausibility,   pathos,  and    vivacity. 
 Am'on<r  many  excellences  possessed  by  Cicero's  ora- 
 toricardiction,  the  greatest  is  its  suitableness  to  the 
 genius  of  the  Latin  tongue ;   though  the  diffuseness 
 thence  necessarily  resulting  has  exposed  it  both    in 
 his  own  days,  and  since  his  time,  to  the  criticisms  of 
 those,  who  have  affected  to  condemn  its  Asiatic  char- 
 acter, in  comparison  with  the  simplicity  of  Attic  wri- 
 ters, and  the  strength  of  Demosthenes.     Greek,  how- 
 ever, is  celebrated  for  copiousness  in  its  vocabulary 
 and  perspicuity  in  its  phrases,  and  the  consequent  fa- 
 cility of  expressing  the  most  novel  or  abstruse  ideas 
 with  precision  and  elegance.     Hence  the  Attic  style 
 of  eloquence  was  plain  and  simple,  because  simplicity 
 and  plainness  were  not  incompatible  with  clearness, 
 energy,  and  harmony.     But  it  was  a  singular  want  of 
 judgment,  an  ignorance  of  the  very  principles  of  com- 
 position, which  induced  Brutus,  Calvus,  Sallust,  and 
 others,  to  imitate  this  terse  and  severe  beauty  in  their 
 own  defective  language,  and  even  to  pronounce  the 
 opposite  kind  of  diction  deficient  in  taste  and  purity. 
 In  Greek,  indeed,  the  words  fall,  as  it  were,  naturally 
 into  a  distinct  and  harmonious  order;    and,  from  the 
 exuberant  richness  of  the  materials,  less  is  left  to  the 
 ingenuity  of  the  artist.     But   the  Latin  language  is 
 comparatively  weak,  scanty,  and  unmusical,  and  re- 
 quires considerable  skill  and  management  to  render  it 
 expressive    and    graceful.       Simplicity    in    Latin    is 
 scarcely  separable  from  baldness  ;  and  justly  as  Ter- 
 ence is  celebrated  for  chaste  and  unadorned  diction, 
 yet  even  he,  compared  with  Attic  writers,  is  flat  and 
 heavy.     {Quiniil.,  10,  1.)     Again,  the  perfection   of 
 strength  is  clearness  united  to  brevity,  but  to  this  com- 
 bination Latin  is  utterly  unequal.     From  the  vague- 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 its  separate  words,  to  be  perspicuous  it  must  be  full. 
 What  Livy,  and  much  more  Tacitus,  have  gained  ii» 
 energy,  they  have   lost   in   perspicuity  and  elegance. 
 Latin,  in  short,  is  not  a  philosophical  language  ;  not  a 
 lam^uage  in  which  a  deep  thinker  is  likely  to  express 
 himself  with  purity  or  neatness.     Now  Cicero  rather 
 made  a  language  than  a  style,  yet  not  so  much  by 
 the  invention  as  by  the  combination  of  words.     Some 
 terms,   indeed,   his  philosophical   subjects   compelled 
 him  to  coin  ;  but  his  great  art  lies  in  the  application 
 of  existincr  materials,  in  converting  the  very  disadvan- 
 tages of  the  language   into  beauties,  in  enriching  it 
 with  circumlocutions  and  metaphors,  in  pruning  it  of 
 harsh  and  uncouth  expressions,  in  systematizing  the 
 structure  of  a  sentence.     This  is  that  copia  dwcntli 
 which  gained  Cicero  the  high  testimony  of  Cwsar  to 
 his  inventive  powers  {De  Clar.,  Or.,  TI),  and  which, 
 we  may  add,  constitutes  him  the  greatest  master  of 
 composition  the  world  has  ever  seen.     If  the  compar- 
 ison be  not  thought  fanciful,  he  may  be  assimilated  to 
 a  skilful  landscape-gardener,  who  gives  depth  and  rich- 
 ness to  narrow  and  confined  premises,  by  taste  and  va- 
 riety in  the  disposition  of  his  trees  and  walks. — We 
 come  next  to  Cicero's  philosophical  writings,  afier  a 
 brief  enumeration  of  which  we  will  offer  a  few  remarks 
 on  the  character  of  his  philosophy  itself     The  treatise 
 De  Lctribushis  reached  us  in  an  imperfect  slate,  only 
 thre^  books  remaining,  and  these  disfigured  by  numer- 
 ous  chasms  that  cannot  be  supplied.     It  traces  the 
 philosophic  principles  of  jurisprudence  to  their  remotest 
 sources,  sets  forth  a  body  of  laws  conformable  to  Ci- 
 cero's idea  of  a  well-regulated  state,  and  is  supposed 
 to  have  treated  in  the  books  that  are  lost  of  the  exec- 
 utive power  of  the  magistrates  and  the  rights  of  Ro- 
 man citizens.     The  treatise  De  Finibus  Bonorum.  el 
 Malorum  is  written  after  the  manner  of  Aristotle,  and 
 discusses  the  chief  good,  and  ill  of  man  ;  in  it  Cicero 
 explains  the  several  opinions  entertained  on  this  sub- 
 ject by  the  sages  of  antiquity.     The  AcademkcB  Qutzs- 
 iioiies  relate  to  the  Academic  Philosophy,  whose  ten- 
 ets Cicero  himself  had  embraced.     It  is  an  account 
 and  defence  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Academy.     In  the 
 Tusculancz  Disputationes,  five  books  are  devoted  to 
 as  many  different  questions  of  philosophy,  bearing  the 
 most  strongly  on  the  practice  of  life,  and   involving 
 topics  the  most  essential  to  human  happiness.     The 
 Faradoza  contain  a  defence  of  six  paradoxes  of  the 
 Stoics.     The  work   De  ISalura  Deorum  embraces  a 
 full  examination  of  the  various  theories  of  heathen  an- 
 tiquity on  the  nature  of  the  gods,  to  which  the  treatise 
 De  Divinalwne   may  be  regarded   as  a  supplement. 
 The  essay  De  Offwiis,  on  moral  duties,  has  not  un- 
 aptly been  styled  the  heathen  Whole  Duty  of  Man  ; 
 nor  have  the  dialogues  De  Scncctule  and  De  Amicitia 
 been  incorrectly  regarded  as  among  the  most  highly 
 finished  and  pleasing  performances  of  which  any  Ian 
 (juaire  can  boast.     We  have  to  lament  the  loss  of  the 
 treaUses  De  Consolatione  (that  which  we  have  under 
 this  title  being  a  patched-up  imposture  of  Sigonius),  Dc 
 Gloria,  and  the  one  entitled  Horlcnsms,  in  which  last 
 Cicero  undertook  the  defence  of  learning  and  philoso- 
 phy, and  left  to  his  illustrious  competitor  the  task  of 
 arraigning  them.     It  was  this  book  which  first  led  St. 
 Augustin  to  the  study  of  Christian  philosophy  and  the 
 doctrines  of  Christianity.     The  treatise  De  Kcpubbca 
 has  been  in  part  rescued   from   the  destroying  hand 
 of  time  by  the  labours  of  Maio.     Except  the  works  on 
 Invention  and  De   Oratore,  this  was  the  earliest  ot 
 Cicero's  literary  productions.     It  was  given   to   the 
 world  A.U.C.  700,  just  before  its  author  set  out  lor 
 his  proconsular  government  in  Cilicia.     He  was  then 
 in  his  fifty-third  year.     The  object  and  spirit  of    he 
 work  were  highly  patriotic.     He  vvished  to  bring  the 
 constitution  back  to  its  first  principles  by  an  impression 
 expositive  of  its  theory  ;  to  inflame  his  contempora- 
 
 oinaiioii   jjauii   is   ui,i,ciiy   uueiiuai.      r  roni   uie  vague-     cApu^ii-iT^   «.    .-„   ...---j  ,  „,.,o„;r.rr  fKo /.hamr-te* 
 
 ness  and  uncertainly  of  meaning  which  characterize  I  ries  with  the  love  of  virtue,  by  portraying  tne  cnaraciei 
 
CICERO. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 of  their  ancestors  in  its  primeval  purity  and  beauty ; 
 and  while  he  was  raising  a  monument  to  all  future 
 ages  of  what  Rome  had  been,  to  inculcate  upon  his 
 own  limes  what  it  ought  still  to  be.  We  know  it  to 
 have  been  his  original  purpose  to  make  it  a  very  volu- 
 minous work;  for  he  expressly  tells  his  brother  {Ep. 
 ad  Q.  Fraf.,  3,  Ft)  that  it  was  to  be  extended  to  nine 
 books.  Erncsli  thinks  that  they  were  all  given  to  the 
 world  (Ep.  ad  Atl.,  6,  1,  in  notis),  alihough  (Cicero, 
 :ii  a  letter  to  Atticus,  on  which  that  learned  and  accu- 
 rate scholar  makes  this  very  remark,  speaks  of  them  as 
 his  six  pledges  or  sureties  for  his  good  behaviour. 
 — Cicero,  as  a  philosopher,  belongs,  upon  the  whole, 
 to  the  New  Academy.  It  has  been  disputed  whether 
 he  was  really  attached  to  this  system,  or  had  merely 
 resorted  to  it  as  being  the  best  adapted  for  furnishing 
 him  with  oratorical  arguments  suited  to  all  occasions. 
 At  first  its  adoption  was  subsidiary  to  his  other  plans. 
 But,  towards  the  conclusion  of  his  life,  when  he  no 
 longer  maintained  the  place  he  was  wont  to  hold  in 
 the  Senate  or  the  Forum,  and  when  philosophy  formed 
 the  occupation  "  with  which,"  to  quote  his  own  words, 
 "  life  was  just  tolerable,  and  without  which  it  would 
 have  been  intolerable,"  he  doubtless  became  convinced 
 that  the  principles  of  tht;  New  Academy,  illustrated  as 
 they  had  been  by  Carneades  and  Philo,  formed  the 
 soundest  system  which  had  descended  to  mankind 
 from  the  schools  of  Athens.  The  attachment,  howev- 
 er, of  Cicero  to  the  Academic  philosophy  was  flee 
 from  the  exclusive  spirit  of  sectarianism,  and  hence  it 
 did  not  prevent  his  extracting  from  other  systems  what 
 he  found  in  them  conformable  to  virtue  and  reason. 
 His  ethical  principles,  in  particular,  appear  eclectic, 
 having  been  in  a  great  measure  formed  from  the  opin- 
 ions of  the  Stoics.  Of  most  of  the  Greek  sects  he 
 speaks  with  respect  and  esteem.  For  the  Epicureans 
 alone  he  seems  (notwithstanding  his  friendship  for 
 Atticus)  to  have  entertained  a  decided  aversion  and 
 contempt.  The  general  purpose  of  Cicero's  philosoph- 
 ical works  was  rather  to  give  a  history  of  the  ancient 
 philosophy,  than  dogmatically  to  inculcate  opinions  of 
 his  own.  It  was  his  great  aim  to  explain  to  his  fel- 
 low-citizens, in  their  own  language,  whatever  the 
 sages  of  Greece  had  taught  on  the  most  important 
 subjects,  in  order  to  enlarge  their  minds  and  reform 
 their  morals.  In  theoretic  investigation,  in  the  devel- 
 opment of  abstract  ideas,  in  the-  analysis  of  qualities 
 and  perceptions,  Cicero  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  in- 
 ventor or  profound  original  thinker,  and  cannot  be 
 ranked  with  Plato  and  Aristotle.  His  peculiar  merit, 
 as  a  philosophical  writer,  lay  in  his  luminous  and 
 popular  exposition  of  the  leading  principles  and  dis- 
 putes of  the  ancient  schools  ;  and  no  works  trans- 
 mitted from  antiquity  present  so  concise  and  compre- 
 hensive a  view  of  the  opinions  of  the  Greek  philoso- 
 phers. The  most  obvious  peculiarity  of  Cicero's  phil- 
 osophical writings  is  their  form  of  dialogue.  The  idea 
 was  borrowed  from  Plato  and  Xenophon  ;  but  the  na- 
 ture of  Cicero's  dialogue  is  as  different  from  that  of 
 the  two  Athenians,  as  was  his  object  in  writing. 
 With  them,  the  Socratic  mode  of  argument  cpuld 
 hardly  be  displayed  in  any  other  shape ;  whereas  Ci- 
 cero's aim  was  to  excite  interest,  and  he  availed  him- 
 self of  this  mode  of  composition  for  the  life  and  varie- 
 ty, the  ease,  perspicuity,  and  vigour  which  it  gave  to 
 his  discussions.  Nor  does  Cicero  discover  less  skill 
 in  the  execution  of  these  dialogues,  than  address  in 
 their  design.  In  the  dignity  of  his  speakers,  their  high 
 lone  of  mutual  courtesy,  the  harmony  of  his  groups, 
 and  the  delicate  relief  of  his  contrasts,  he  is  inimitable. 
 The  majesty  and  splendour  of  his  intfoductions,  the 
 eloquence  with  which  both  sides  of  a  question  are  suc- 
 cessively displayed,  the  clearness  and  terseness  of  his 
 statements  on  abstract  points,  his  ex(]uisite  allusions  to 
 the  scene  or  time  of  the  supposed  conversation,  his 
 digressions  in  praise  of  philosophy,  and,  lastly,  the  mel- 
 348 
 
 [  ody  and  fulness  of  his  style,  unite  to  throw  a  ciiarm 
 around  these  productions  which  has  been  felt  in  every 
 age. — Cicero's  Epixllcs,  about  1000  in  all,  are  com- 
 prised in  thirty- six  books,  sixteen  of  which  are  ad- 
 dressed to  Atticus,  three  to  his  brother  Quintus,  one 
 to  Brutus,  and  sixteen  to  his  diflerent  friends  ;  and 
 they  form  a  history  of  his  life  from  his  fortieth  year. 
 Among  those  addressed  to  his  friends,  some  occur 
 from  Brutus,  Metellus,  Plancus,  Ca;hus,  and  others. 
 For  the  preservation  of  this  most  valuable  dejjarlment 
 of  Cicero's  writings,  we  are  indebted  to  Tyro,  the  au- 
 thor's freedman,  though  we  possess  at  the  present  day 
 only  a  part  of  those  originally  published.  The  most 
 interesting  by  far  are  the  letters  to  Atticus,  for  they 
 not  only  throw  great  light  on  the  history  of  the  times, 
 but  also  give  us  a  full  insight  into  the  private  character 
 of  Cicero  himself,  who  was  accustomed  at  all  times  to 
 unbosom  his  thoughts  most  freely  to  this  friend  of  his. 
 The  authenticity  of  the  correspondence  with  Brutus  has 
 been  much  disputed  by  modern  scholars,  and  the  gen- 
 eral opinion  is  adverse  to  these  letters  being  genuine. — 
 His  poetical  and  historical  works  have  suffered  a  heavy 
 fate.  The  latter  class,  consisting  of  his  coinincntary 
 on  his  consulship,  and  his  history  of  his  own  limes, 
 are  altogether  lost.  Of  the  former,  which  comprised 
 the  heroic  poems  Alcyones,  Limon,  Marius,  his  own 
 consulate,  the  elegy  of  Tamelastis,  translations  of 
 Homer  and  Aratus,  Epigrams,  &c.,  but  little  remains 
 except  some  fragments  of  the  Pha?nomena  and  Diose- 
 meia  of  Aratus.  It  may,  however,  be  questioned, 
 whether  literature  has  suffered  much  by  these  losses. 
 We  are  far,  indeed,  from  speaking  contemptuously  of 
 the  poetic  powers  of  one  who  possessed  so  much 
 fancy,  so  much  taste,  and  so  fine  an  ear.  But  his 
 poems  were  principally  composed  in  his  youth  ;  and 
 afterward,  when  his  powers  were  more  mature,  his  oc- 
 cupations did  not  allow  even  his  active  mind  the  time 
 necessary  for  polishing  a  language  still  more  rugged 
 in  metre  than  it  was  in  prose.  His  contemporary  his- 
 tory, on  the  other  hand,  can  hardly  have  conveyed 
 more  explicit,  and  certainly  would  have  contained  less 
 faithful,  information  than  his  private  correspondence ; 
 while,  with  all  the  penetration  he  assuredly  possessed, 
 it  may  be  doubted,  if  his  diffuse  and  graceful  style  of 
 thought  and  composition  was  adapted  for  the  depth  of 
 reflection  and  condensation  of  meaning,  which  are  the 
 chief  excellences  of  historical  composition. — 7  he  edi- 
 tions of  the  separate  works  of  Cicero  are  too  numerous 
 to  be  mentioned  here.  The  best  editions  of  the  entire 
 works  are:  that  of  Ernesti,  Hal.,  1774,  8  vols;.  8vo  ; 
 that  of  Olivet,  Pans,  1740,  9  vols.  4to  ;  that  of  Schulz, 
 L7ps.,  1814-20,  19  vols,  (in  27)  12mo  ;  and  that  of 
 Nobbe,  Lrps.,  1827,  1  vol.  4to,  or  10  vols.  12mo. 
 {Plut.,in  Vit. — Enc.  Metropol,  div.  3,  vol.  2.  p.  279, 
 seqq. —  Biog.  Univ.,  vol.  8,  p.  .530,  seqq. — Eiicyclop. 
 Am.,  vol.  3,  p.  190,  seqq. — Dunlop,  Rom.  Lit.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  275,  seqq. —  Bdhr,  Ge.ich.  Pom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 487,  seqq.) — II.  Marcus,  only  son  of  the  orator,  and 
 to  whom  the  latter  addressed  his  work  De  OJ/irAis. 
 He  took  part  in  the  civil  contest  at  an  early  age,  and 
 served  under  both  Pompey  and  Brutus.  After  the 
 battle  of  Philippi  he  retired  to  Sicily  and  joined  the 
 younger  Pompey.  Subsequently,  however,  he  took 
 advantage  of  the  act  of  amnesty  that  was  passed,  and 
 returned  to  Italy,  where  he  lived  some  time  in  a  privatj. 
 situation.  Augustus,  on  attaining  to  sovereign  power, 
 made  him  his  colleague  in  the  consulship,  and  it  was 
 to  Marcus  Cicero,  in  his  quality  of  consul,  that  he 
 wrote  an  account  of  the  victory  at  Actiiim  and  the 
 conquest  of  Egypt.  Marcus  had  the  satisfaction  of 
 executing  the  decree  which  ordered  all  the  statues  and 
 monuments  that  had  been  erected  to  Antony  to  be 
 thrown  down.  After  his  consulship  he  was  appointed 
 governor  of  Syria,  from  which  period  history  is  silent 
 respecting  him.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age,  and  was 
 notorious  for  dissipated  and  intemperate  habits      He, 
 
OIL 
 
 CIM 
 
 appears  to  have  inherited  Httle,  if  anything,  of  his  fa- 
 ther's virtue,  patriotism,  and  talent.  (CVc,  Ep.  ad 
 AtL,  1,  2—1(1.,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  13,  II.— Plut.,  Vit. 
 Ctc.  erJr. — Id.,  Vii.  Bml.,  &c.)— HI.  Quintus,  brotli- 
 er  of  the  orator,  and  brotlier-in-law  of  Atliciis.  After 
 having  been  proetor  A.U.C.  692,  he  obtained  the  gov- 
 ernment of  Asia.  He  was  subsequently  a  lieutenant 
 of  Cassar's  iti  Britain,  and  only  left  that  commander  to 
 accompany  his  brother  Marcus  TuUius,  as  lieutenant, 
 into  Cilicia.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  in  which 
 he  took  part  on  the  side  of  Pompey,  he  was  proscribed 
 by  the  trmmvnate,  and  put  to  death  by  the  emissaries 
 of  Antony.  He  had  a  marked  talent  for  poetry,  and 
 had  planned  a  poem  on  the  mvasion  of  Britain  by  Oaj- 
 sar.  He  also  composed  several  tragedies,  imitated  or 
 else  translated  from  the  Greek,  but  which  have  not 
 reached  us.  Eighteen  lines  of  his  are  preserved  in 
 the  Corpus  Po'elarum  of  Maittaire.  He  was  the  au- 
 thor of  the  piece  entitled  ''  de  Pelilionc  Consul atus," 
 usually  printed  along  with  Cicero's  letters  to  him.  It 
 is  addressed  by  Quintus  to  his  brother  when  the  latter 
 was  a  candidate  for  the  consulship,  and  gives  advice 
 with  regard  to  the  measures  he  should  pursue  to  at- 
 tain his  object,  particularly  inculcating  the  best  means 
 to  gain  private  friends  and  acquire  general  popularity. 
 (Corrad.  Quccst.,  p.  278,  cd.  Lips. — Biogr.  Unw., 
 vol.  8,  p.  550. — Dunlop,  Roman  Literature,  vol.  2,  p. 
 495.) 
 
 CicoNEs,  a  people  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  near  the 
 spot  where  Maronea  stood  in  a  later  age.  Homer  has 
 placed  here  the  scene  of  Ulysses'  first  disaster.  Isma- 
 rus  was  the  name  of  their  city,  which  the  poet  sup- 
 poses that  chieftain  to  have  taken  and  plundered  ;  but 
 the  natives  coming  down  from  the  interior  in  great 
 force,  he  was  driven  off  with  severe  loss  of  both  men  and 
 ships.  {Od.,  1,  40,  scqq.)  Ismarus  is  known  to  later 
 writers  only  as  a  mountain  celebrated  for  its  wine, 
 which  indeed  Homer  himself  alludes  to  in  another  pas- 
 sage.    {Od.,  1,  197.) 
 
 CiMci.\,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  seacoast, 
 south  of  Cappadocia  and  Lycaonia,  and  to  the  east  of 
 Pisidia  and  Pamphilia.     Herodotus  says  (7,  91),  that 
 the  people  of  this  country  were  anciently  called  Hyp- 
 achaei,  and  that  the  appellation  of  Cilicians  was  sub- 
 sequently derived  from  Cilix,  son  of  Agenor,  a  Phceni- 
 cian.     This  passage  seems  to  point  to  a  Phcenician  or 
 Syrian  origin  for  the  race,  a  supposition  strengthened 
 by  the  fact  of  the  earlv  commercial  habits  of  the  people 
 of  Cilicia.     This  country,  though  tributary  to  the  Per- 
 sian king,  was  nominally  under  the  government  of  its 
 native  princes,  with  whom  Syenncsia  appears  to  have 
 been  a  common  name.     (Consult  Herod.,  1,  74. — Id., 
 5,  118. — Xcn.,  Ajiab.,  1,  2.)     Cilicia,  more  especially 
 that   part  which  consisted  of  plains,  was  a  wealthy 
 country  ;  since  we  are  informed  by  Herodotus  (3,  90) 
 that  it  yielded  to  Darius  a  revenue  of  500   talents, 
 equal  to  that  of  Mysia  and  Lydia  together,  besides 
 360  white  horses.     Xenophon  also  {Anab.,  1,  2)  de- 
 scribes it  as  a  broad  and  beautiful  plain,  well  watered, 
 and  abounding  in  wine  and  all    kinds  of   trees,  and 
 yielding  barley,  millet,  and  other  grain.     In  a  military 
 point  of  view,  the  importance  of  Cilicia  was  also  very 
 great,  since  it  was    surrounded    by  lofty  mountains, 
 presenting  only  one  or  two  passes,   and  these  easily 
 secured  by  a  small  force  against  the  largest  armies. 
 Had  the   Persians  known  how  to  defend    these,  the 
 younger  Cyrus  would  never  have  reached  the  Euphra- 
 tes, nor  would  Alexander  have  been  able  to  penetrate. 
 to  the  plains  of  Issus,  which  witnessed  the  overthrow 
 of  Darius.     {Arrian,    Exp.    AL,  2,  4.)     At  a  later 
 period  we  learn  from  Cicero,  during  his  command  there, 
 what  importance  the  Romans  attached  to  the  province 
 of  Cilicia,  when  it  became  necessary  to  cover  Asia 
 against  the  growing  power  of  the  Parthians.     (Ep.  ad 
 Att.,  5,  20.)     As    a   maritime   country,  too,    Cilicia 
 makes  a  considerable  figure  in  history,  since  it  furnished 
 
 numerous  fleets  to  the  Persian  monarchs,  as  well  a» 
 to  the  Syrian  and  Egyptian  successors  of  Alexander 
 But  It  was  more  especially  from  the  formidable  char- 
 acter of  her  piratical  navy  that  Cilicia  has  obtained  a 
 name  in  the  seafaring  annals  of  antiquity.  Some  idea 
 of  the  alarm  inspired  by  these  daring  rovers  can  be 
 formed  from  the  language  of  Cicero^  however  exag- 
 gerated we  may  suppose  it  to  be  for  a  political  purpose. 
 (Or.  pro  Leg.  ManiL,  11.)  The  selection,  too,  which 
 the  Roman  people  made  of  Pompey,  and  the  unusual 
 powers  confided  to  him,  prove  the  importance  of  the 
 contest.  In  less  than  50  days,  however,  Pompey  re- 
 duced the  whole  province  either  by  force  or  the  terror 
 of  his  arms.  More  than  20,000  pirates  are  said  to  have 
 fallen  into  his  hands  :  these  he  settled  in  the  interior, 
 or  removed  to  some  distant  countries,  and  thus  en- 
 tirely purged  the  shores  of  Asia  of  these  nests  of  rob- 
 bers. In  the  course  of  this  war  the  Romans  are  said 
 to  have  captured.378  ships,  and  burned  1300,  conquered 
 120  towns  and  castles,  and  to  have  slain  10,000  of  the 
 enemy. — Cilicia  was  divided  into  Campestris  and 
 Trachea.  The  former  was  the  larger  and  more  east- 
 erly portion,  and  derived  its  name  from  its  champaign 
 character.  Trachea,  on  the  other  hand,  was  so  called 
 from  its  rugged  aspect  {jpaxna,  ^^  rouizV).  It  was 
 nearly  all  occu[)ied  by  the  broad  ridge  of  Taurus,  whicli 
 leaves  scarcely  any  room  for  level  land  towards  the  sea. 
 {Cramers  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  315,  seqq.) 
 
 CiLix,  a  son  of  Agenor,  who  gave  his  name  to  Ci- 
 licia, according  to  Herodotus.  (Consult  remarks  under 
 tha  article  Cilicia. — Herodot.,  7,  91.) 
 
 CiLLA,  a  town  of  Troas,  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
 of  Adramyttium.     {Horn.,  II. ,  1,  37.—Strab.,  612.) 
 
 CiMBER,  L.  Tillius,  one  of  the  conspirators  against 
 Caesar.  He  was  a  man  notorious  for  his  drunkenness 
 and  low  violence  {Seneca,  Ep.  83 — Id.,  de  Ira,  3, 
 30),  and  he  had  been  throughout  the  civil  war  a  violent 
 partisan  of  Caesar's,  who  appointed  him  a  short  time 
 before  his  assassination  to  the  province  of  Bithynia. 
 {Apptan,  Bell.  Civ.,  3,  2.— C/c,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  12, 
 13.)  Cimber  was  the  one  who  gave  the  signal  agreed 
 upon  with  his  associates  for  commencing  the  attack, 
 by  taking  hold  of  Cassar's  robe,  and  pulling  it  down 
 from  his  shoulders.     {Plut.,  Vit.  Cces.) 
 
 CiMBRT,  a  people  of  Germany,  who  invaded  the 
 Roman  empire  with  a  large  army,  and  were  conquered 
 by  Marius  and  Catulus.  (For  an  account  of  the  war, 
 consult  the  article  Teutones.)  The  Ciinbri  are  gener- 
 ally thought  to  have  had  for  their  original  seat  the 
 Cimbric  Chersonese,  or  modern  Jutland.  It  would 
 seem,  however,  that  there  is  sojne  curious  connexion 
 between  their  name  and  that  of  the  ancient  Cimmerii, 
 a  point  which  may  have  some  bearing  on  the  question 
 respecting  the  origin  of  the  Germanic  race.  (Consult 
 remarks  under  the  article  Cimmerii,  and  compare 
 Manncrt,  Gcschichtc  dcr  alien  Deutschcn,  p.  11,  and 
 PJister,  Gcsch.  dcr  Teulschen,  vol.  1,  p.  40.)  Ade- 
 lung,  however,  opposes  this  idea.  {Mithradates,  vol 
 2,  p.  143.) 
 
 CiMiNus,  I.  a  range  of  hills  in  Etruria,  lying  to  the 
 south  of  Salpinum. — II.  A  lake  at  the  foot  of  Mont 
 Ciminus,  now  Lago  di  Vjco,  or  RoncigUone.  {Strabo, 
 225.)  Tloj;  Ciininian  forest,  whose  almost  impene- 
 trable shades  served  for  a  time  as  a  barrier  to  Etruria 
 against  the  attacks  of  Rome,  is  described  as  covering 
 the  adjacent  country  to  a  considerable  extent.  {Liv., 
 9,  26.— Front.  Sirat.,  1,  2.—Plm.,  2,  96.) 
 
 Cimmerii,  a  nomadic  race  of  Upper  Asia,  who  ap- 
 pear to  have  originally  inhabited  a  part  of  what  is  now 
 called  Tartury.  According  to  Herodotus  (1,  15),  they 
 were  driven  from  their  primitive  seats  by  the  Scythiansj 
 and  moved  down,  in  consequence,  upon  Asia  Minor. 
 which  they  invaded  and  ravaged  during  the  reign  of 
 Ardy s,  king  of  Lydia,  the  successor  of  Gygcs.  Strabo, 
 however,  places  the  incursion  of  the  Cimmerians  in 
 the  time  of  Homer,  or  a  little  before  the  birth  of  the 
 
 349 
 
CIMMERII. 
 
 C  I  M 
 
 poet.  {Strah.,  20.)  Wesseling  thinks  the  authority 
 of  Strabo  inferior  to  that  of  Herodotus  ;  but  Larcher 
 inclines  to  the  opinion  that  two  diiferent  incursions  are 
 spoken  of,  an  earlier  and  a  later  one.  He  makes  the 
 former  of  these  anterior  even  to  the  time  assigned  by 
 Strabo,  and  thinks  it  preceded  by  a  short  period  the 
 siege  of  Troy.  He  supposes  this,  moreover,  to  be  the 
 one  alluded  to  by  Euripides.  {Iph.  in  Taur.,  1115, 
 seqq. — Larckcr,  ad  Herod.,  1,  6.)  According  to  this 
 view  of  the  subject,  Herodotus  speaks  merely  of  the 
 latter  of  these  two  inroads.  Volney  maintains,  in  like 
 manner,  that  there  were  two  incursions  of  the  Cim- 
 merians, hut  he  places  the  first  of  these  in  the  reign  of 
 Ardys  (699  B.C.),  to  which  he  thinks  Herodotus  al- 
 ludes in  the  fifteenth  chapter  of  his  first  book  ;  and  the 
 second  one  in  the  time  of  Alyattes  and  Cyaxares, 
 which  he  supposes  to  be  the  inroad  alluded  to  by  He- 
 rodotus in  the  one  hundred  and  third  chapter  of  the 
 same  book.  ( Volney,  Siippl.  a  V Herod.,  de  Larcher, 
 p.  75,  seqq.)  It  appears  much  more  reasonable,  how- 
 ever, to  refer  all  to  but  one  invasion  on  the  part  of 
 the  Cimmerian  race,  commencing  in  the  time  of  Ar- 
 dys, and  continued  until  the  reign  of  Alyattes  (616, 
 B.C.),  when  these  barbarians  were  expelled  from  the 
 Asiatic  peninsula.  (B'dhr,  ad  Herod.,  1,  6.) — The 
 account  given  by  Herodotus  is,  that  the  Cimmerians, 
 when  they  came  into  Asia  Minor,  took  Sardis,  with 
 the  exception  of  the  citadel,  and  that  they  were  finally 
 expelled  by  Alyattes,  the  contemporary  of  Cyaxares. 
 {Herod.,  1,  15,  seq.)  The  same  historian  makes  the 
 Cimmerians  to  have  dwelt  originally  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  the  Palus  Maeotis  and  Cimmerian  Bosporus, 
 and  when  driven  out  "  from  Europe,"  as  he  expresses 
 himself  {ck  rijc;  E^vpuirric),  by  the  Scythians,  to  have 
 fled  along  the  upper  shore  of  the  Euxine  to  Colchis, 
 and  thence  to  have  passed  into  Asia  Minor.  (Herod., 
 1,  103.)  Niebuhr,  with  very  good  reason,  insists  that 
 Herodotus  has  here  fallen  into  an  error,  and  that  all 
 the  wandering  races  which  have  in  succession  occupied 
 the  regions  of  Scythia,  have,  when  driven  out  by  other 
 tribes  from  the  east,  moved  forth  in  a  western  direction 
 towards  the  country  around  the  Danube.  The  Cim- 
 merians, therefore,  must  have  come  into  Asia  Minor 
 from  the  east.  As  regards  the  name  of  the  Cimmerian 
 Bosporus,  the  same  acute  critic  supposes  it  to  have 
 arisen  from  the  circumstance  of  a  part  of  the  Cimme- 
 rian horde  having  been  left  in  this  quarter,  and  having 
 continued  to  pccujjy  the  Tauric  Chersonese  as  late  as 
 the  settlement  of  the  Greek  colonics  in  these  parts. 
 {Niehuhr,  Klcine  Schriften,  p.  365,  seqq.) — The  an- 
 cients differed  in  opinion  as  regarded  the  orthography  of 
 the  name  Cimmerii,  some  being  in  favour  of  KepBipioi, 
 others  of  Xei/xepioi.  (Hesych.,  s.  v. — Eustath.,  ad 
 Od.,  10,  14:.— Schol.,  ad  Ion. — Aristojih.,  Ran.,  189. 
 —  Elymol.  Mag.,  p.  513.  —  Voss,  Weltk.,  p.  14).) 
 Modern  scholars  are  in  like  manner  divided  as  to  the 
 derivation  of  the  term  "  Cimmerian"  itself.  It  is  main- 
 tained by  some  of  these  that  the  Greeks  obtained  their 
 first  knowledge  of  this  race  from  the  Phoenicians,  and 
 that  hence,  in  all  probability,  the  stories  told  of  the 
 gloom  which  enshrouded  the  Cimmerian  land,  and  of 
 the  other  appalling  circumstances  connected  with  this 
 people,  were  mere  Pha3nician  inventions  to  deter  the 
 Grecian  traders  from  visiting  them.  In  accordance 
 with  this  idea,  Bochart  derives  the  word  "  Cimmerian" 
 from  the  Phoenician  kamar,  or  kimmcr,  "  tencbrosum." 
 {Gcogr.  Sacr.,  col.  591. — Compare  Job,  3.  5.)  Hence 
 we  read  of  Cimmerians,  not  only  in  Lower  Asia,  but 
 also  in  the  remotest  west  and  north.  "  The  Cimme- 
 rians," says  Eustathius,  "  are  a  people  in  the  west,  on 
 the  Oceanus  :  they  dwell  not  far  from  Hades."  (Com- 
 pare Tzetz.,  ad  Lycophr.,  695,  and  consult  the  article 
 Avernus.)  Another  class  of  etymologists,  however, 
 deduce  the  word  in  question  from  the  Celtic,  and  make 
 the  Cimmerii  identical  with  the  Kimri,  whenee  the  later 
 Oimhri.  (Volney,  SuppL,  &.c.,  p.  75.)  The  Cim- 
 350 
 
 merians,  therefore,  who  overran  Asia  Mmor,  will  be  a 
 Celtic  race.  There  is  something  extremely  plausible 
 in  this  supposition,  and  in  this  way,  too,  we  may,  with- 
 out having  recourse  to  Bochart's  derivation,  account 
 for  the  existence  of  Cimmerii,  or  Celts,  in  the  remote 
 west.     (Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  26,  not.) 
 
 CiMMERiUM,  a  town  in  the  interior  of  the  Tauric 
 Chersonese,  northwest  of  Theodosia.  It  is  now  Eski- 
 Krim  (Old  Kriin),  on  the  river  Tschuruck.  (Mela, 
 I,  19.) 
 
 CiMOLUs,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  northeast  of  Melos. 
 Its  more  ancient  name  was  Echinusa,  or  Viper's  Isl- 
 and, from  the  number  of  vipers  which  infested  it  be- 
 fore it  was  inhabited.  It  produced  what  was  called 
 the  Cimolia  terra,  a  species  of  earth  resembling,  in 
 some  of  its  properties,  fuller's  earth,  though  not  the 
 same  with  it.  (Theophrast.,  de  Lapid.,  2,  107. — 
 Strabo,  484.)  The  ancients  used  it  for  cleaning  their 
 clothes.  It  was  white,  dense,  of  a  loose  texture, 
 mixed  with  sand  or  small  pebbles,  insipid  to  the  taste, 
 and  unctuous  to  the  touch.  The  substance,  according 
 to  Sir  John  Hill  (ad  Theophr.,  I.  c),  which  comes 
 nearest  to  the  Cimolian  earth  of  antiquity,  is  the  Stea- 
 tite of  the  Soap-rock  of  Cornwall,  which  is  the  com- 
 mon matter  of  a  great  part  of  the  cliff  near  the  Lizard 
 Point.  Cimolus  is  now  Kimoli,  though  more  generally 
 known  by  the  name  of  Argentiera.  (Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  405.) 
 
 CiMON,  I.  son  of  Miltiades,  and  of  Hegesipyle  the 
 daughter  of  Olorus,  a  Thracian  prince.  His  education, 
 according  to  Plutarch,  was  very  much  neglected,  and 
 he  himself  indulged,  at  first,  in  every  species  of  ex- 
 cess. At  his  father's  death  he  seems  to  have  suc- 
 ceeded to  a  very  scanty  fortune,  and  he  would  per- 
 haps have  found  it  difficult  to  raise  the  penalty  of  fifty 
 talents,  which  had  been  imposed  upon  his  parent,  and 
 which  the  son  was  bound  to  pay  to  the  public  treas- 
 ury, had  not  Callias,  one  of  the  wealthiest  men  of 
 Athens,  struck  by  the  charms  of  his  half-sister  Elpi- 
 nice,  undertaken  to  discharge  the  sum  as  the  price  of 
 her  hand.  (Vid.  Callias,  Elpinice.)  Cimon,  how- 
 ever, had  attracted  notice,  and  gained  reputation,  by 
 the  spirit  which  he  displayed  on  the  occasion  of  leav- 
 ing the  city  on  the  approach  of  the  Persians,  when  he 
 was  the  foremost  to  hang  up  a  bridle  in  the  Acropolis, 
 as  a  sign  that  he  placed  all  his  hopes  in  the  fleet  ;  and 
 also  by  the  valour  with  which  he  fought  at  Salamis. 
 Aristides,  in  particular,  saw  in  him  a  fit  coadjutor 
 to  himself  and  antagonist  to  Themistocles,  and  ex- 
 erted himself  in  his  favour  ;  and  the  readiness  with 
 which  the  allied  Greeks,  when  disgusted  by  the  arro- 
 gance of  Pausanias,  united  themselves  with  Athens, 
 was  owinof  in  a  great  measure  to  Cinion's  mild  tem- 
 per, and  to  his  frank  and  gentle  manners.  The  popu- 
 larity of  Themistocles  was  already  declining,  while 
 Cimon,  by  a  series  of  successful  enterprises,  was  rap- 
 idly rising  in  public  favour.  He  defeated  the  Per- 
 sians in  Thrace,  on  the  banks  of  the  Strymon,  took 
 Eion,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  whole  country. 
 He  conquered  the  island  of  Scyros,  the  inhabitants  of 
 which  were  addicted  to  piracy;  and  brought  thence  to 
 Athens  what  were  deemed  the  bones  of  the  national 
 hero  Theseus.  He  next  subdued  all  the  cities  on  the 
 coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  went  against  the  Persian 
 fleet  which  lay  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eurymedon.  The 
 Persians,  although  superior  in  number,  did  not  dare  to 
 abide  an  engagement,  but  sailed  up  the  river  to  place 
 themselves  under  the  protection  of  their  land  forces. 
 Cimon,  however,  provoked  them  to  a  battle,  and,  hav- 
 ing defeated  and  sunk  or  taken  two  hundred  ships, 
 landed  his  men,  flushed  with  victory,  and  complete- 
 ly routed  the  Persian  army.  Returning  to  Athens 
 after  these  two  victories  thus  achieved  in  a  single 
 day,  he  employed  the  perquisites  of  his  command,  and 
 the  resources  which  he  had  acquired  from  his  suc- 
 cesses over  the  barbarians,  in  the  embellishment  of 
 
CIMON. 
 
 C  I  N 
 
 his  native  city,  and  in  relieving  the  wants  of  the  indi- 
 gent.    He  laid  a  part  of  the  foundations  of  the  long 
 walls  with   magnificent   solidity  at    his    own  charge, 
 and  the  southern  wall  of  the  citadel  was  built  with  the 
 treasures  which  he  brought  from  Asia  into  the  coffers 
 of  the  state.     He  also  set  the  example  of  adorning  the 
 public  places  of  the  cily  with  trees,  and,  by  introdu- 
 cing a  stream  of  water,  converted  the  Academy,  a  spot 
 about  two  miles  north  of  the  city,  from  an  arid  waste 
 into  a  delightful  grove.     ( F«Z.  Academus.)    He  threw 
 down  the  fences  of  his  fields  and  orchards,  that  all  who 
 wished  might  enter  and  partake  of  their  produce  :  he 
 not  only  gave  the  usual  entertainments  expected  from 
 the  rich  to  the  members  of  his  own  borough,  but  kept 
 a  table  constantly  open  for  them.     He  never  appeared 
 in  public  without  a  number  of  persons  attending  him 
 in  good  apparel,  who,  when  they  met  with  any  elderly 
 citizen  scantily  clothed,  would   insist  on   exchanging 
 their  warm  mantles   for  his  threadbare  covering.     It 
 was  the  office  of  the  same  agents,  respectfully  to  ap- 
 proach any  of  the  poorer  citizens  of  good  character, 
 whom  they  might  see  standing  in  the  market-place, 
 and  silently  to  put   some  small  pieces  of  money  into 
 their  hands.     This  latter  kind  of  expenditure  was  cer- 
 tainly of  a  mischievous  tendency  ;  and  was  not  the 
 less  that  of  a  demagogue,  because  Cimon  sought  popu- 
 larity, not  merely  for  his  own  sake,  but  for  that  of  his 
 order  and   his   party. — About  466  B.C.,  Cimon  was 
 sent  to  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  of  which  the  Per- 
 sians still  kept  possession,  and  having  driven  them  out, 
 next  reduced  the  island  of  Thasus,  and  took  posses- 
 sion of  the  Thasian   gold-mines  on  the  neighbouring 
 continent.     Scarcely,  however,  had  he  returned  to  At- 
 tica, when  an  accusation  was  preferred  against  him  of 
 having  been  corrupted  by  the  King  of  Macedonia,  be- 
 cause he  had  refrained,  not,  according  to  the  common 
 account,   from    attacking   the    Macedonians    then    at 
 peace  with  Athens,  but  from  striking  a  blow  at  the 
 Thracian  tribes  on  the  frontier  of  that  kingdom,  who 
 had  recently  cut  off  the  Athenian  settlers  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Strymon.     {Vid.  Amphipolis.)     From  this  ac- 
 cusation Cimon  had  a  very  narrow  escape.     Having 
 been  sent,  however,  after  this,  with  a  body  of  troops  to 
 aid  the  Spartans  before  Ithome,  and  the  latter  having, 
 after  some  interval,  sent  back  their  Athenian  allies, 
 whom  they  suspected  of  not  lending  them  any  effectual 
 assistance,  the  irritation  produced  by  this  national  in- 
 sult fell  principally  upon  Cimon,  who  was  known  to  be 
 an  admirer  of  the  Spartan  character  and  constitution, 
 and  he   was   accordingly  driven  into    exile.      Subse- 
 quent events,  however,  made  the  Athenians  feel  the 
 want  of  this  able  commander,  and  he  was  recalled  and 
 sent  on  an  expedition  against  Egypt  and  Cyprus  ;  but 
 he  was  carried  off  by  illness,  or  the  consequences  of  a 
 wound,  in  the  harbour  of  Citium,  to  which  place  he 
 was  laying  siege.     His  spirit,  however,  still  animated 
 his  countrymen  ;  for  the  fleet,  when  sailing  home  with 
 his  remains,  gained  a  naval  victory  over  a  large  squad- 
 ron of  Phoenician  and  Cilician  gallevs  near  the  Cyprian 
 Salamis,  and  followed  up  this  victoi-y  by  another  which 
 thev  gained  on  shore,  either  over  the  troops  which  had 
 landed  from  the  enemy's  ships,  or  over  a  land   force 
 by  which  they  were  supported.— Cimon  was,  beyond 
 dispute,  the  ablest  and  most  successful  general  of  his 
 day  ;  and  his  victories  shed  a  lustre  on  the  arms  of 
 Athens   which  almost  dimmed  the  glories  of  Marathon 
 and  Salamis.     In  after  times,  Cimon's  military  renown 
 was  enhanced  by  the  report  of  a  peace  which  his  vic- 
 tories had  compelled  the  Persian  king  to  conclude  on 
 terms    most    humiliating   to    the    monarchy.     These 
 were,  that  the  Persians  had  agreed  to  abandon  at  least 
 the  mditarv  occupation  of  Asia  Minor,  to  the  distance 
 of  three  days   journey  on  foot,  or  one  on  horseback, 
 rom  the  coast,  and  to  abstain  from  passing  the  mouth 
 of  the  Bosporus    and    the    Chelidonian    islands    into 
 the  western  se*     This  peace,  of  which  Isocrates,  De- 
 
 mosthenes, Diodorus,  and  Plutarch  speak,  never  tooR 
 place.  The  silence  of  Thucydides  is  conclusive  on 
 the  subject,  to  say  nothing  of  the  vague  and  contra- 
 dictory statements  of  the  verv  authors  who  do  men- 
 tion it.  The  fable  seems  to  have  sprung  up,  or  to 
 have  acquired  a  distinct  shape,  in  the  rhetorical  school 
 of  Isocrates,  and  to  have  been  transmitted  through  the 
 orators  to  the  historians.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Cim. — Thirl- 
 waWs  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  2,  scqq.) 
 
 CiNci.i  LEX,  was  proposed  by  M.  Cincjgs,  a  tri- 
 bune of  the  people,  A.U.C.  549.  It  enacted,  that  no 
 one  should  take  money  or  a  present  for  pleading  a 
 cause.     {Liv.,  34,  4. —  Tac,  Ann.,  11,  5.) 
 
 CiNCiNNATUS,  L.  Quintius,  a  Roman  patrician, 
 whose  name  belongs  to  the  earlier  history  of  the  re- 
 public, and  has  a  well-known  and  spirit-stirring  legend 
 connected  with  it.  His  son,  Kaeso  Quintius,  had  been 
 banished  on  account  of  his  violent  language  towards 
 the  tribunes,  and  the  father  had  retired  to  his  own  pat- 
 rimony, aloof  from  popular  tumults.  The  successes 
 of  the  ^qui  and  Volsci,  however,  rendered  the  ap- 
 pointment of  a  dictator  necessary,  and  Cincinnatus 
 was  chosen  to  that  high  office.  The  delegates  who 
 were  sent  to  announce  this  unto  him,  found  the  Ro- 
 man noble  ploughing  his  own  fields  ;  and  from  the 
 plough  he  was  transferred  to  the  highest  magistracy  of 
 his  native  state.  The  dictator  laid  aside  his  rural 
 habiliments,  assumed  the  ensigns  of  absolute  power, 
 levied  a  new  army,  marched  all  night  to  bring  the  ne- 
 cessary succour  to  the  consul  Minucius,  who  was 
 surrounded  by  the  enemy  and  blockaded  in  his  camp, 
 and  before  morning  surrounded  the  enemy's  army,  and 
 reduced  it  to  a  condition  exactly  similar  to  that  in 
 which  the  Romans  had  been  placed.  The  baffled 
 .-Equi  were  glad  to  submit  to  the  victor's  terms  ;  and 
 Cincinnatus,  thereupon  returning  in  triumph  to  Rome, 
 laid  down  his  dictatorial  power,  after  having  held  it 
 only  fourteen  days,  and  returned  to  his  farm.  At  an 
 advanced  age  he  was  again  appointed  dictator,  to  re- 
 strain the  power  of  Spurius  Melius  {vid.  Melius),  and 
 again  proved  himself  the  deliverer  of  his  country. 
 {Val.  Max.,  4,  4,  l.—Liv.,  3,  26.) 
 
 CiNE.is,  a  Thessalian,  a  minister  and  friend  of  Pyr- 
 rhus,  and  employed  by  the  latter  on  many  embassies. 
 He  had  been  a  pupil  of  Demosthenes,  and  possessed 
 considerable  talents  as  an  orator.  Having  been  sent 
 by  Pyrrhus  to  Rome  with  proposals  of  peace,  he  com- 
 pared the  senate,  on  his  return,  to  an  assembly  of 
 kings,  and  a  war  with  the  Romans  to  a  contest  with 
 another  Lernsean  hydra.     {Plut.,  Vit.  Pyrrh.) 
 
 CiNGULUM,  a  town  of  Picenum,  southwest  of  Anco- 
 na.  It  surrendered  to  Csesar,  though  Labienus,  then 
 a  great  partisan  of  Pompey,  had  raised  and  constructed 
 its  fortifications  at  his  own  expense.  The  modern 
 name  is  Cinsolo.  {Cces.,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  15. —  Cic, 
 Ep.  ad  Att.,  7,  U.—Sil.  ItaL,  10,  34.) 
 
 CiNNA,  L.  Cornelius,  an  adherent  of  Marius,  who 
 played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  civil  war  between 
 that  leader  and  Svlla.  Having  attained  to  the  con- 
 sulship, after  the  proscription  of  Marius  by  his  oppo- 
 nent, he  began  to  exert  himself  for  the  recall  of  the 
 former,  and  accused  Sylla,  who  was  just  going  as 
 proconsul  to  Asia,  of  maladministration.  That  com- 
 mander, however,  took  no  notice  of  the  complaint. 
 After  the  departure  of  Sylla,  he  brought  forward  once 
 more  the  law  of  Sulpicius,  which  admitted  the  Italians 
 into  all  the  thirty-five  tribes  without  distinction.  A 
 violent  riot  ensued,  numbers  were  slain,  and  Cinna, 
 with  his  chief  partisans,  was  driven  from  the  city  by 
 his  colleague  Octavius.  The  Italian  towns,  regarding 
 the  cause  of  Cinna  as  their  own,  received  him  with 
 the  utmost  cordiality.  He  collected  thirty  legions, 
 called  the  proscribed  to  his  support,  and  wiih  Marius, 
 Sertorius,  and  Carbo,  marched  upon  and  took  posses- 
 sion of  Rome.  A  scene  of  bloodshed  and  lawless 
 rapine  now  ensued,  which  has  perhaps  no  parallel  in 
 
 351 
 
C  I  N 
 
 (.  I  R 
 
 ancient  or  modern  times,  and  lias  deservedly  procured 
 for  those  who  were  the  actors  in  it  the  unmitigated  ab- 
 horrence of  all  posterity.  Cinna  and  Marius,  by  their 
 own  authority,  now  declared  themselves  consuls  for 
 the  ensuing  year;  but  Marius  dying,  after  having  only 
 held  that  office  for  seventeen  days,  Cinna  remained  in 
 effect  the  absolute  master  of  Rome.  During  the 
 space  of  three  years  after  this  victory  of  his,  he  con- 
 tinued to  hold  possession  of  the  government  at  home, 
 a  period  during  which,  as  Cicero  remarks  {De  Clar. 
 Oral.,  62);  the  republic  was  without  laws  and  without 
 dignity.  At  length,  however,  Sylla,  after  terminating 
 the  war  with  Mithradates,  prepared  to  march  home 
 with  his  army  and  punish  his  opponents.  Cinna,  with 
 his  colleague  Carbo,  resolved  thereupon  to  cross  the 
 Adriatic,  and  anticipate  Sylla  by  attacking  him  in 
 Greece  ;  but  a  mutiny  of  their  troops  ensued,  in  which 
 Cinna  was  slain,  B.C.  77.  Haughty,  violent,  always 
 eager  for  vengeance,  addicted  to  debauchery,  precipi- 
 tate in  his  plans,  but  always  displaying  courage  in  their 
 execution,  Cinna  attained  to  a  power  little  less  absolute 
 than  that  afterward  held  by  Sylla  or  Ca3sar  :  and  it  is 
 somewhat  remarkable,  that  his  usurpation  should  have 
 been  so  little  noticed  by  posterity,  and  that  he  himself 
 should  be  so  Utile  known,  that  scarcely  a  single  per- 
 sonal anecdote  of  him  is  to  be  found  on  record.  (Aji- 
 pian,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  64..— Veil.  Fa/crc,  2,  43,  scqq.— 
 Appian,  B.  C,  1,  74,  scqq.—Plut.,  Vit.  SijlL,  22.— 
 Lw.,  Epit.,  83,  &c.) — II.  One  of  the  conspirators 
 against  Cssar  {Pint.,  Vit.  Ccbs.) — III.  C.  Helvius,  a 
 Roman  poet,  intimate  with  Caesar,  and  tribune  of  the 
 commons  at  the  time  when  the  latter  was  assassinated. 
 According  to  Plutarch,  he  went  to  attend  the  obsequies 
 of  Caesar,  but,  being  mistaken  by  the  populace  for  Cinna 
 the  conspirator,  was  torn  in  pieces  by  them.  {Plut., 
 Vit.  CcBS.)  Helvius  composed  a  poem  entitled  Smyr- 
 na (or  Zinyrna),  on  which  he  was  employed  nine  or 
 ten  years.  Four  fragments  of  it  have  reached  us.  It 
 appears  to  have  been  characterized  by  considerable 
 obscurity  of  meaning  until  the  grammarian  Crassitius 
 wrote  an  able  commentary  upon  it.  {Sucton.,  Illuslr. 
 Gram.,  18.)  Some  other  fragments  have  also  reached 
 us  of  other  productions  of  this  poet.  ( Wcichert,  de  C. 
 Helv.  Chin.  poet.  Comment. — Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit., 
 vol.  1,  p.  164.) 
 
 CiNNiANA,  a  town  of  Lusitania,  in  the  northern  or 
 northwestern  section  of  the  country.  Its  precise  sit- 
 uation has  given  rise  to  much  dispute.  According  to 
 some,  it  corresponds  to  Sitania,  a  deserted  spot,  six 
 leagues  east  of  Braga.  Others,  however,  make  it  the 
 same  with  certain  ruins,  called  at  the  present  day 
 Chalccdonia,  and  lying'  near  Calila.s  de  Gercz,  on  the 
 northern  confines  of  Portugal.  {Val.  Max.,  6,  4,  ext. 
 1. — Link,  Reisen  durch  Portugall,  vol.  2,  p.  3,  scqq. 
 —  Vkert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  399.) 
 
 CiNYPS  and  Cinyphus  {Kivvip,  Herod. — Kivv(j)OC, 
 PtoL,  Slrab. — Kivvcjtio^,  Said.),  a  small  river  of  Africa, 
 below  Tripolis,  falling  into  the  sea  southwest  of  the 
 promontory  of  Cephalas.  Herodotus  (4,  198)  speaks 
 of  the  land  around  this  river  as  being  remarkably  fer- 
 tile, and  equal  to  any  other  land  in  the  production  of 
 corn.  The  water  of  this  stream  was  conveyed  by  an 
 aqueduct  to  the  city  of  Leptis  Magna.  Bochart  de- 
 rives the  name  of  the  Cinyps  or  Cinyphus  from  the 
 Phcenician  A'i?i;)/iO(/,  "  porcupine's  river,"  the  porcu- 
 pine being  found,  according  to  Herodotus  (4,  192),  in 
 parts  of  the  country  watered  by  this  stream.  ( Bochart, 
 Geogr.  Sacr.,  1,  24,  col.  486.)  The  modern  name  of 
 the  Cinyps  is  Wadi  Qiiaham,  and  travellers  describe 
 the  soil  in  its  neighbourhood  as  being  still  remarkable 
 for  its  fertility.  {Riltcr,  Erdkunde,  vol.  1,  p.  927. — 
 Bcechifs  Travels,  p.  71.) 
 
 CiNYRAS,  a  king  of  Cyprus,  father,  by  Myrrha,  of 
 
 Adonis.     {Vid.  Adonis  and  Myrrha.)     He  bears  his 
 
 part  in  the  myth  of  the  sun-god,  and  his  name  appears 
 
 to    come   from    the  Phoenician  Kinnor,  whence  the 
 
 353 
 
 Greek  Kivvpa,  and  also  Ktvvpi^o,  "  to  mourn"  or  "  la- 
 ment."    {Keighllcy''s  Mythology,  p.  143.) 
 
 CiRCEii,I.  a  promontory  of  i.,atium,  below  Anlium, 
 now  Monte  Circe.llo.  It  was  the  fabled  residence  ol 
 Circe;  the  adjacent  country  being  very  low,  and  giv- 
 ing this  promontory  at  a  distance  the  appearance  of 
 an  island.  It  would  seem,  that  Hesiod's  making  the 
 kings  of  the  Tyrrheni  to  have  been  descended  from 
 Circe  and  Ulysses,  led  to  the  opinion  that  the  island 
 of  that  goddess  was  to  be  found  on  the  Italian  coast. 
 An  accidental  resemblance  in  name  also  may  have 
 induced  many  to  select  this  promontory  as  the  place 
 of  her  abode.  Homer's  account,  however,  of  the  isle 
 of  Circe  does  not  at  all  suit  this  spot.  The  island 
 was  a  low  one,  whereas  this  is  a  lofty  promontory. 
 The  adjacent  sea  also  is  represented  by  the  poet  as 
 boundless  to  the  view,  which  is  not  the  case  as  regards 
 Circeii.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  1,  p.  621.) 
 But,  in  truth,  it  requires  too  great  a  stretch  of  the 
 imagination  to  believe  that  Homer,  and  the  other  poets 
 who  have  sung  of  the  charms  of  Circe,  were  descri- 
 bing places  which  had  an  actual  existence.  It  is  more 
 than  probable,  that  the  fiction  relative  to  the  abode  of 
 Circe,  received  its  application  to  the  Italian  coast  sub- 
 sequently to  the  period  in  which  Homer  wrote,  when, 
 from  the  celebrity  of  his  poems,  it  became  a  matter  of 
 belief.  {Cluver.,  Ital.  Ant.,  vol.  2,  p.  1000.— Cra- 
 mer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  91.)  Niebuhr,  however, 
 makes  the  fable  indigenous  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
 the  mountain.  (Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  66,  2d  cd., 
 Cambridge  transl.) — The  promontory  of  Circeii  was 
 famed  for  its  oysters  in  the  time  of  both  Horace  and 
 Juvenal.  {Horat.,  Sat.,  2,  4,  33.—Juv  ,  4,  140  )— II. 
 A  town  of  Latium,  standing  rather  inland  from  the 
 promontory  just  mentioned,  probably  on  the  site  of  the 
 village  of  San  Felice,  where  some  ruins  are  said  to  be 
 visible.  (Corradini,  Vet.  Lat.,  1,  9,  p.  98. — Pratilli, 
 ViaAppia,  1,  16,  p.  113.)  We  first  hear  of  this  place 
 in  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Snperbus  ;  Dionysius  in- 
 forms us  that  it  was  colonized  by  his  soldiers,  as  being 
 an  important  place  from  its  situation  near  the  Ponieti- 
 nus  Campus  and  the  sea.  (4,63. — Compare  Livy,  I, 
 56.)  It  is  uncertain,  however,  whether  the  town  ex- 
 isted before  this  period.  Circeii  appears  to  have  oeen 
 still  extant  in  Cicero's  time,  for  he  mentions  that  G'lrce 
 was  worshipped  there.  {N.  D.,  3,  19.)  It  was  as- 
 signed to  Lepidus  as  the  place  of  his  exile  by  Augustus. 
 {Suet.,  Aug.,  16.) 
 
 CiRCE,  sister  of  JSetes  king  of  Colchis,  and  daughter 
 of  the  Sun  and  Perse,  one  of  the  ocean-nymphs. 
 (Homer  gives  the  mother's  name  as  Perse,  but  He- 
 siod,  Apollodorus,  and  others,  Perseis.)  Circe  is  cel- 
 ebrated for  her  skill  in  magic  arts,  and  for  her  knowl- 
 edge of  subtile  jwisons.  According  to  Homer  {Od., 
 10,  135,  scqq.),  she  dwelt  in  an  island,  attended  by 
 four  nymphs,  and  all  persons  who  approached  her 
 dwelliritr  were  first  feasted,  and  then,  on  tasting  the 
 contents  of  her  magic  cup,  converted  into  swine. 
 When  Ulysses  had  been  thrown  on  her  shores,  he 
 deputed  some  of  his  companions  to  explore  the  coun 
 try  ;  these,  incautiously  partaking  of  the  banquet  set 
 before  them,  were,  by  the  effect  of  the  enchanted  po- 
 tion, transformed  as  above.  "SAHicn  Ulysses  himself, 
 on  hearing  of  their  misfortune  from  Eurylochus,  set 
 out  to  release  them  or  share  their  fate,  he  was  met  by 
 Hermes,  who  gave  him  a  plant  named  Moly  (MwAii), 
 potent  against  her  magic,  and  directed  him  how  to 
 act.  Accordingly,  when  she  reached  him  the  medi- 
 cated cup,  he  drank  of  it  freely,  and  Circe,  thinking  it 
 had  produced  its  usual  effect,  striking  him  with  her 
 wand,  bade  hiin  go  join  his  comrades  in  their  sty. 
 But  Ulysses,  drawing  his  sword,  threatened  to  slay 
 her ;  and  the  terrified  goddess  bound  herself  by  a 
 solemn  oath  to  do  him  no  injury.  She  afterward,  at 
 his  desire,  restored  his  companions  to  their  pristine 
 form,  and  they  all  abode  in  her  dwelling  for  an  entre 
 
CIR 
 
 C  IR 
 
 yeai.     Circe  is  said  to  have  had  by  Ulysses  a  son  named 
 'J'elegonus,  who  afterward  unwittingly  slew  his  own  fa- 
 ther.    Hesiod,  in  his  Theogony  (1011),  says   Agnus 
 and   Lalinus  (not  the  king  of  Latium),  "  who,  afar  in 
 the  recess  of  the  holy  isles,  ruled  over  all  the  renowned 
 Tyisenians."     Later  writers  tooli  great  hberties  with 
 the  narratives  of  Homer  and  Hesiod.     Thus,  for  ex- 
 ample, Dioriysius,  the  cyclographer,  makes  Circe  the 
 daughter  of  .Eetes   by  Hecate,  the  daughter  of   his 
 brother  Perses.     He  goes  on   to   say,    that  she  was 
 married    to  the  king   of   the  Sarmatiuns,  whom   she 
 poisoned,   and    seized    his  kingdom  ;    but,  governing 
 tyrannically,  she  was    expelled,    and    then   fled    to  a 
 desert  isie  of   the  ocean,  or,  as    some    said,  to   the 
 headland    named    from  her  in  Italy.     (Vid.  Circeii.) 
 The  Latin  poets  thence  took  occasion  to  connect  Circe 
 with  their  own  scanty  mythology.      It  was  fabled,  for 
 example,  that  she  had  been  married  to  King  Picus, 
 whom,  by  her  magic  art,   she  changed    into    a   bird. 
 (Diod.  Sic,  4,  45. — Eudocia,  261. — Schol.  ad  Apoll. 
 Rh.,  3,  ■im.—Omd,  Met  ,  14,  320,  seqq.)     Another 
 lei'end  made  her  the  mother  of  Faunus,  by  the  god  of 
 the  sea.     {Nonnus,  13,  328.)     The  herb  Moly  is  said, 
 by  these  late  writers,  to  have  sprung  from  the  blood 
 of  a  giant  slain  by  the  Sun,  in  aid  of  his  daughter  in 
 her  island.     Its  name,  we  are   told,  comes  from  the 
 fight  (jxCiXoc).     Its  flower  is  white,  as  the  warrior  was 
 the  Sun.    {Plol.,  Hephasl.  ap  Phot ,  Cud.,  190,  vol.  1, 
 p.  149,  e(Z.  Bckkcr.—Keightlcys  Mythology,  p.  267.) 
 Among  other  supernatural  acts  ascribed  to  Circe,  was 
 her  converting    Scylla   into   a    hideous  sea-monster. 
 {Vid.  Scylla.) — Various   theories    have    been  started 
 for  explaining  the  fable  of  Circe  and  her  transforma- 
 tion of  men  into  swine.      i\cyne{Excurs.  1,  ad  Virg., 
 JB/J.,  7,  p.   103)  thinks,  that  Homer  merely  gave  an 
 historical  aspect,  as  it  were,  to  an  allegory  invented 
 'i,j  some  earlier  poet,  and  in  which  the  latter  wished 
 to  show  the  brutalizing  influence  of  sensual  indulgen- 
 ces.    (Compare  Wachsmuih,  ad  Alhcn.,  2,  2,  p.  218.) 
 Creuzer  {Symbolik,  vol.  4,  p.  22)  sees  in  the  name 
 Circe  {KipKJi)  an  allusion  to  some  magic  ring,  since 
 KipKog  is  the  Doric  form  for  apiKoc,  "  a  ring."     {Greg. 
 Connlh.,  ^  lG5.—Koe}i,  ad  be.)     J.  C.  Wolf  (Mul. 
 GrcEC,  &c.,  fragin.  312)  is  in  favour  of  another  ex- 
 planation, in  support  of  which  he  cites  Bochart( Geo^r. 
 Sacr.,  1,  33)  and  Fabrieius  {BM.  Grcic.,  vol.  13,  p. 
 120).     The  historians  from  whom  Diodorus  Siculus 
 (2,  106)  derived  his  information,  represent  llie  knowl- 
 edge of  Circe  and  Medea  as  purely  natural,  and  relating 
 particularly  to  the  efficacy  of  poisons  and  remedies. 
 Hence,  also,  drugs  which  produced   mental  stupefac- 
 tion, without  impairing  the  physical  powers,  are  thought 
 by  some  to  have  given  rise,  in  this  and  other  cases,  to 
 the  accounts  of  men  being  transformed  into  brutes. 
 (Salecrle,  dcs  Sciences  Occultes,  &c. — Foreign  Qaar- 
 tcrhj  RcrAcw,  No.   12,  p.   427  and  444.)     Porpliyry 
 thought  the  meaning  of  the  fable  relative  to  Circe  was 
 this,  tliat  impure  souls  passed  after  death  into  the  bod- 
 ies of  brutes,  a  doctrine  taught  by  the  school  of  Py- 
 thagoras.    (Compare  Heeren,  ad  Stob.  Eel.  Phys.  "et 
 Elh.,  1,  52,  vol.  1,  p.  1047.) 
 
 CiRiIus, a  violent  wind  blowing  in  the  southern  parts 
 o{  Gaul,  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  Its 
 fury  was  so  great,  that  it  carried  off  the  roofs  of  dwell- 
 ings, overthrew  armed  men.  riders,  and  even  loaded 
 wagons.  {Cato,  Orig.,  lib.  3,  ap.  Aid.  GelL,  2,  22.) 
 It  blew  from  the  northwest.  Its  Gallic  name  was 
 Kirk,  i.  e.,  "the  impetuous"  or  "destructive."  In 
 Armoric,  kirk  means  impetuosity,  and  also  a  hurricane, 
 (Com[)are  Addung,  Mithradalcs,  vol.  2,  p.  53.— C«m- 
 den\s-  BrUaiiHut,  p.  19)  In  Gaelic,  Ciurrach  means 
 that  which  strikes  or  destroys.  {Armsirojig's  Gaelic 
 Diet.,  s.  v.— Thierry,  Histoire  des  Ganlois,  vol  2,  p. 
 6. — Compare  Favorin.  Galhi.s,  ap.  GclL,  2,  22. Sen- 
 eca, Quasi.  Nat.,  5,  17. — Plin.,  2,  47.) 
 
 Circus,  a  name  given  at  Rome  to  a  species  of  ob- 
 
 long-circular building,  erected  for  exhibiting  shows  anc? 
 games.  The  most  ancient  and  celebrated  of  thest 
 structures,  of  which  there  were  many  in  the  Roman 
 capital,  was  the  Circus  Maximus.  It  was  built  by 
 Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  afterward,  at  different  times, 
 magnificently  adorned.  This  structure  lay  between 
 the  Palatine  and  Aventine  hills.  Its  length  was  three 
 stadia  (2187^^  feet),  and  the  breadth  a  little  over  one 
 stadium,  with  rows  of  seats  all  around,  rising  one  above 
 another.  The  lowest  of  these  seats  were  of  stone, 
 and  tlie  highest  of  wood,  and  separate  places  were  al- 
 lotted to  the  senators  and  equites.  It  is  said  to  have 
 contained  at  least  150,000  persons,  or,  according  to 
 others,  above  double  that  number  ;  according  to  Pliny, 
 250,000  ;  some  moderns  say  380,000.  Its  circumfe- 
 rence was  one  mile.  It  was  surrounded  with  a  ditch 
 or  canal,  called  Euripus,  10  feet  broad  and  10  feet 
 deep,  and  with  porticoes  3  stories  high  ;  both  the 
 work  of  Cffisar.  The  canal  served  to  supply  it  with 
 water  in  naval  exhibitions.  For  some  interesting  re- 
 marks on  the  ancient  Circi  in  general,  consult  the 
 work  of  Burgess  {Description  of  the  Circus  on  the 
 Via  Appia,  near  Rome,  &c.,  Lond.,  1828,  12mo). 
 
 CiRKH.\,  a  town  of  Phocis,  at  the  head  of  the  Cris- 
 sffian  Gulf.  It  served  as  the  harbour  of  Delphi,  and 
 was  situated  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Pleistus, 
 which  descends  from  Parnassus.  Pausanias  (10,  37) 
 reckoned  sixty  stadia  from  the  city  of  Delphi  to  Cirrha. 
 This  writer,  however,  seems  to  have  confounded  the 
 town  of  which  we  are  here  speaking  with  Crissa,  a  city 
 that  had  ceased  to  exist  in  his  time,  but  which  former- 
 ly stood  more  inland,  between  Cirrha  and  Delphi. 
 Strabo  (418),  who  clearly  distinguishes  them,  informs 
 us  that  Cirrha  was  situate  on  the  sea,  and  opposite  to 
 Sicyon  ;  and  that  the  distance  thence  to  Delphi  was 
 eighty  stadia.  The  Cirrhean  plain  and  port,  says  JEs- 
 chines  {in  Ctes.,  p.  69. — Compare  Pausan.,  10,  38), 
 which  are  now  accursed,  were  formerly  inhabited  by 
 the  Cirrhcei  and  Acragallidffi,  a  nefarious  race,  who 
 violated  the  sanctity  of  the  temple  of  Delphi,  and  ran- 
 sacked its  treasures.  The  oracle,  on  being  consulted 
 by  the  Amphictyons,  declared  that  a  war  of  exter- 
 mination was  to  be  carried  on  against  these  oflenders. 
 and  that  their  land  was  never  thereafter  to  be  placed 
 in  a  state  of  cultivation.  This  decree  was  executed  in 
 the  time  of  Solon,  who  took  an  active  part  in  the  ex- 
 pedition. The  port  of  Ciirha  was  then  demolished, 
 and  Its  territory  declared  accursed,  according  to  the 
 form  prescribed  by  the  oracle  ;  but  this  edict  was  af- 
 terward violated  by  the  Amphissians,  who  tilled  the 
 land  and  repaired  the  port.  It  is  evident  that  Cirrha 
 still  existed  in  the  time  of  Pausanias,  as  he  mentions 
 the  temples  of  Apollo,  Diana,  and  Latona,  as  well  as 
 several  statues  worthy  of  notice.  The  ruins  of  Cirrha 
 are  pointed  out  by  Sir  William  Gell,  near  the  village 
 of  Xe7io  Pegadia,  on  a  very  gentle  eminence  on  the 
 coast,  close  to  the  many  beds  of  the  Pleistus.  {Cra- 
 mer's Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  153,  seqq.) 
 
 CiRTiiA  and  CiRTA,  a  city  of  Numidia,  about  48 
 miles  from  the  sea,  on  a  branch  of  the  river  .\mpsagas. 
 It  was  intended  as  the  royal  residence,  and  being,  in 
 fact,  the  only  city  originally  in  the  country  and  erected 
 by  Carthaginian  workmen,  it  hence  took  the  Punic 
 name  of  Cartha,  or  "  the  city."  It  was  the  residence 
 of  Syphax,  Masinissa,  and  the  other  rulers  of  the  land. 
 When  Caesar  had  landed  in  Africa,  and  was  in  great 
 dancer  of  being  overpowered  by  Scipio  and  Jul)a,  a 
 certain  Sittius,  who  had  fled  from  Rome  into  ,\frica, 
 and  was  roaming  along  the  latter  country  with  a  preda- 
 tory band,  having  made  a  sudden  attack  upon  Cirta, 
 took  it,  and  compelled  .luba  to  return  and  defend  his 
 kingdom.  Ctesar  being  thus  relieved,  when  the  war 
 was  over,  gave  Cirta  as  a  reward  to  Sittius,  with  a 
 part  of  the  adjacent  country.  Tlie  city  no  w  changed  its 
 name  to  Siltianorum  Coloma.  In  the  time  of  the  Em- 
 peror Constantine.  having  sufl'ered  much  on  account  o> 
 
CIT 
 
 CL  A 
 
 its  fidelity  to  t'  at  prince,  he  repaired  and  re-embellished 
 it,  giving  it  ti  e  name  of  Conslantina.  This  name  re- 
 mains, with  a  slight  variation,  to  the  present  day,  and 
 the  small  city  built  ui)on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  cap- 
 ital is  still  called  Cosantina.  {Appiari,  Bell.  Pun.,  7. 
 —  Id.,  Bell.  Numid.,  111.— /(/.,  Bell.  Civ.,  2,  96.— 
 Strabu,  831.— Mela,  1,  T.—Flin.,  5,  ^.—Manncrt, 
 Georgr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  310,  scqq.) 
 
 CisALPiNA  Gallia.      Vid.  Gallia. 
 
 CisPADANA  Gallia.      Vid.  Gallia. 
 
 CissA.      Vid.  Susiana. 
 
 CissEis,  a  patronymic  given  to  Hecuba  as  daughter 
 of  Cisseus. 
 
 CissEus,  I.  a  king  of  Thrace,  father  to  Hecuba. 
 {Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  330.)-II.  A  son  of  Melampus,  killed 
 by  ^.neas.     {Id.,  10,  317.) 
 
 Cissi  A,  a  country  of  .\sia,  having  Media  to  the  north, 
 Babylonia  to  the  west,  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  south, 
 and  Persia  to  the  southeast.  Its  capital  was  Susa. 
 In  Cissia  was  Ardericca,  where  Darius  settled  those 
 of  the  Eretrians  whom  his  naval  commanders  had 
 brought  to  him  as  prisoners  in  obedience  to  his  com- 
 mand. {Vid.  Ardericca  and  Eretria.)  Susiana  is  fre- 
 quently confounded  with  Cissia.  The  former  was 
 merely  a  part  of  the  latter,  and  was  properly  the  terri- 
 tory adjacent  to  the  city  of  Susa.  {Larchcr,  Hist. 
 d'Hcrod. — Table  Crengraphique,  vol.  8,  p.  133.) 
 
 Cissus,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  in  the  vicinity  of  Thes- 
 salonica,  which  contributed,  as  Strabo  asserts  {Epil. 
 7,  p.  330),  to  the  aggrandizement  of  that  city.  The 
 modern  name  is  said  to  be  Cisme.  {French  Slrabo, 
 vol.  3,  p.  126.)  Xenophon  also  speaks  of  a  Mount 
 Cissus.  which  was  probably  in  this  direction.  {Cyneg., 
 c.  11,  1.) 
 
 (^iTH^RON,  I.  a  king  of  Platnea  in  Boeotia,  remarka- 
 ble for  his  wisdom.  By  his  advice,  Jupiter  pretended 
 to  be  contracting  a  second  marriage,  when  Juno  had 
 quarrelled  with  and  left  him.  The  scheme  succeeded, 
 and  the  goddess  became  reconciled  to  her  spouse. 
 [Pausan.,  9,  3  )  This  monarch  is  said  to  have  given 
 name  to  the  well-known  mountain-range  in  Bceotia. 
 'Pausan.,  9,  1.) — II.  An  elevated  ridge  of  mountains, 
 dividing  Bceotia  first  from  Megaris,  and  afterward  from 
 Attica,  and  finally  uniting  with  Mount  Parnes  and 
 other  summits  which  belong  to  the  northeastern  side  of 
 that  province.  {Strabo,  405.)  It  was  dedicated,  as 
 Pausanias  affirms  (9,  2),  to  Jupiter  Cithsronius,  and 
 .vas  celebrated  in  antiquity  as  having  been  the  scene 
 of  many  events  recorded  bv  poets  and  other  writers. 
 Such  were  the  metamorphosis  of  Acta^on,  the  death  of 
 Pentheus,  and  the  exposure  of  Q^dipus.  Here  also 
 Bacchus  was  said  to  hold  his  revels  and  celebrate  his 
 mystic  orgies,  accompanied  by  his  usual  train  of  satyrs 
 and  frantic  Bacchantes.  {Eurip.,  Bacch<t,  1381  — 
 Soiih.,  (Ed.  Tyr.,  ]4,'31.— /rf.  jbid.,  1391.— Eurip., 
 Phain.,  809.)  We  know  from  Thucydides  (2,  75), 
 that  this  mountain  was  once  supplied  with  forest  tim- 
 ber, as  the  Pcloponncsians  are  said  to  have  derived 
 from  thence  the  supply  they  required  for  carrying  on 
 the  siege  of  Platasa.  But  Dodwcll  says,  "  it  is  now 
 shrouded  by  deep  gloom  and  dreary  desolation,"  and 
 elsewhere  he  remarks,  "  it  is  barren,  or  covered  only 
 with  dark  stunted  shrubs;  towards  the  summit,  how- 
 ever, it  is  crowned  with  forests  of  fir.  from  which  it  de- 
 rives its  modern  name  of  Ela/ea,  the  modern  Greek 
 term  for  the  fir-tree  being,  like  the  ancient, f/tar?/." 
 {Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  281. —  Cramer's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  218,  seqq.) 
 
 CiTiUM,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Cyprus, 
 on  the  southern  shores  of  the  island,  northeast  of  Ama- 
 thus.  Josephus  says  it  was  built  by  Chittim,  the 
 son  of  Javan.  {Ant.  .Tud.,  1,  7. — Compare  Epiphan., 
 Har.,  1,  30. — Ilieron.  in  Jes.,  5,  23.)  It  vv-as  the 
 birthplace  of  the  celebrated  Zcno  ;  and  Diogenes  La- 
 ertius,  in  his  life  of  that  philosopher,  reports,  that  this 
 town  had  been  colonized  by  the  Phoenicians,  a  circum- 
 354 
 
 stance  which  is  confirmed  by  Cicero  {de  Fin.,  4,  20) 
 and  Suidas  {s.  v.  7,ijvuv).  Citium  was  besieged,  at 
 the  close  of  the  Persian  war,  by  the  Athenian  forces 
 under  the  command  of  Cimon.  {Thucyd.,  1,  112.) 
 According  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (12,  3),  the  place  sur- 
 rendered ;  but  it  was  the  last  exploit  of  that  distinguish- 
 ed general,  for  he  was  soon  after  taken  ill,  and  died 
 on  board  his  ship  in  the  harbour.  {Plut.  et  Corn  Nep  , 
 vil.  Cim.)  Citium  was  a  bishopric  under  the  Byzan- 
 tine empire.  The  place  still  retains  the  name  of  Chi- 
 li.    {Cramer''s  Asia  Minor,  vol    2,  p.  379,  seq.) 
 
 Cius,  I.  a  river  of  Thrace,  rising  in  the  northwest- 
 ern part  of  the  chain  of  Mount  Rhodope,  and  falling 
 into  the  Ister.  It  is  now  the  Esker.  D'Anville  calls 
 the  river  Ceseus. — II.  A  river  and  town  of  Bithynia. 
 The  town  was  destroyed  by  Philip,  father  of  Perses, 
 and  rebuilt  by  Prusias,  who  called  it,  after  his  own 
 name,  Prusias.     {Vid.  Prusias.) 
 
 CivJLis,  a  powerful  Batavian,  who  raised  a  sedition 
 against  the  Roman  power  during  the  controversy  for 
 empire  between  Vitellius  and  Vespasian.  Tacitus  has 
 furnished  us  with  interesting  and  copious  details  of 
 this  long-protracted  conflict.  {Taeit.,  Hist.,  4,  13. — 
 Id.  ib.,  5,  14,  &c.) 
 
 Clan'is,  a  river  of  Etruria,  now  la  Chiana,  rising 
 near  Arretium,  and  falling  into  the  Tiber  northeast  of 
 Vulsinii.  It  may  be  seen  from  Tacitus  that  a  project 
 was  once  agitated  for  causing  its  waters,  which  formed 
 large  marshes  near  Clusium,  to  discharge  themselves 
 into  the  Arnus.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  79.) — II.  (or  Clanius), 
 a  river  of  Campania,  falling  into  the  sea  near  Liternum. 
 It  rises  in  the  Apennines  near  Nola,  and  flows  at  no 
 great  distance  from  Acerrse.  The  modern  name  is 
 Lagno.  By  some  writers  the  ancient  name  is  given  as 
 Liternus.  {Strabo,  243.— Liv.,  32,29.)  This  stream 
 is  apt  to  stagnate  near  its  entrance  into  the  sea,  and  to 
 form  marshes,  anciently  known  as  the  Pains  Literna, 
 now  Lago  di  Patria.  The  appellation  Clanius  is  evi- 
 dently derived  from  the  Etrurian  Clanis.  {Mixller, 
 Etruskcr,  vol.  1,  p.  146,  in  not.)  Pliny  names  them 
 both  Glanis.     {Plin.,  3,  9.) 
 
 Claros,  a  citv  of  Ionia,  northeast  of  Colophon  and 
 southeast  of  Lebedus.  It  was  famous  for  its  temple, 
 grove,  and  oracle  of  Apollo.  This  celebrated  seat  of 
 divination  is  supposed  to  have  been  discovered  soon 
 after  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  the  poets  relate  many  tales 
 with  regard  to  a  contention  in  prophetic  skill  which 
 took  place  here  between  Calchas  and  Mopsus,  and 
 which  ended  in  the  defeat  and  death  of  the  former. 
 {Vid.  Calchas.)  Tacitus  gives  an  account  of  the  visit 
 paid  by  Germanicus  to  this  oracle.  {Ann.,  2,  54.) 
 The  priesthood  was  confined  to  certain  families,  prin- 
 cipally of  Miletus.  The  number  and  names  of  those 
 who  came  to  consult  the  oracle  were  announced  to 
 the  seer,  who,  having  descended  into  the  cave  and 
 drunk  of  the  spring,  revealed  in  verse  to  each  his  mosi 
 secret  thoughts.  On  this  occasion  it  is  said  that  a 
 speedy  death  was  announced  to  Germanicus.  The 
 oracle  continued  to  flourish  in  the  time  of  Pliny  (5,  29), 
 and  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Constantine.  Considera- 
 ble vestiges  are  still  to  be  seen  at  Zillc,  which  occu- 
 pies the  site  of  the  ancient  Claros.  {Cramer's  Asia 
 Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  359,  seq.) 
 
 ClastipTum,  a  town  of  Liguria,  northeast  of  Der- 
 tona,  now  Chiasteggio.  It  was  celebrated  as  the  spot 
 where  Claudius  Marcelliis  gained  the  spolia  vpima,  by 
 vanquishing  and  slaying  Viridomarus,  king  of  the  Gtp- 
 sata;.  {Polybius,  2,  34. — Plvt.,  Vit.  Marcell — Val. 
 Max.,  1,  1.)  Clastidium  was  betrayed  to  Hannibal 
 after  the  battle  of  Ticinum,  with  considerable  maga- 
 zines which  the  Romans  had  laid  up  there,  and  it  form- 
 ed the  chief  depot  of  the  Carthaginian  army  while  en- 
 camped on  the  Trebia.  {Polyb.,3,Q9.—Liv.,  21,48 
 —  Cic,  Tiisr.  Disp.,  4,  22.)  It  was  afterward  burn- 
 ed by  the  Romans  in  a  war  with  the  Ligurians.  {Liv., 
 32,  29,  and  31.) 
 
C  L  A 
 
 C  L  A 
 
 Claudia  Gens,  a  celebrated  patrician  house  at 
 Rome,  from  which  came  many  distinguished  men  in 
 the  days  of  the  repubhc.  According  to  Suetonius 
 (Vic.  Tib.,  1),  this  family  could  boast  of  28  consuls,  5 
 dictators,  7  censors,  7  triumphs,  and  2  ovations.  The 
 emperors  Tiberius  and  Claudius  were  of  this  same  line. 
 The  Claudian  family  claimed  descent  from  Appius 
 Claudius.  There  was  also  a  plebeian  branch  of  the 
 Claudii,  named  the  Claudii  Marcelli.  (Consult  Glan- 
 dorp,  Onomast.,  p.  222,  scqq.) 
 
 ClaudIa,  I.  a  vestal  virgm,  suspected  of  having  vio- 
 lated her  vow.  She  proved  her  innocence  by  drawing 
 off  from  a  shoal  in  the  Tiber,  with  the  aid  of  her  girdle 
 merely,  a  vessel  which  had  been  stranded  there,  and 
 on  board  of  which  was  the  statue  of  Cybcle,  that  had 
 been  brought  to  Italy  from  Asia  Minor.  {Ovid,  Fast., 
 4,  30ft,  seqq.—Smton.,  Vit.  Tib.,  c.  2.—Lw.,  29,  14.) 
 — II.  A  sister  of  Claudius  Pulcher,  fined  by  the  people 
 on  account  of  an  offensive  remark  made  by  her.  It 
 seems,  that,  as  her  vehicle  {carpentuni)  was  retarded  in 
 its  nrocrcss  through  the  streets  of  Rome  by  the  press- 
 ure of  the  crowd,  she  exclaimed,  in  a  moment  of 
 haughty  irritation,  strikingly  characteristic  of  the  Clau- 
 dian race,  '•  I  wish  my  brother  Pulciier  were  alive 
 again,  and  would  lose  another  fleet,  that  there  might 
 be  less  crowding  and  confusion  at  Rome  !"  (Suclon., 
 Vil.  Tib.,  c.  2  ) — III.  A  vestal  virgin,  daughter  of  Ap- 
 pius Claudius  Auda.x;.  When  the  tribunes  of  the  com- 
 mons endeavoured  to  pull  her  father  from  his  chariot, 
 in  the  midst  of  a  triumph  (A.U.C.  610),  she  ascended 
 the  triumphal  car,  took  her  place  by  her  father's  side, 
 and  rode  with  him  to  the  Capitol,  thus  securing  him  by 
 her  sacred  character  from  any  farther  molestation. 
 {Val.  Max.,  5,  4,  6.--Cic,pro.  Cod,  14.)  In  Sue- 
 tonius {Vk.  Tib.,  c.  2),  Ap])ius  is  called  her  brother 
 {fratrcm),  but  this  is  evidently  an  error  of  the  copyists 
 for  patrem.  {Pigh  ,  Ann.,  vol  2,  p.  473.) — IV.  Au- 
 gusta, a  daughter  of  Nero  and  Poppaea.  Her  birth  ex- 
 cited great  joy  in  her  profligate  father,  but  she  died 
 at  the  end  of  four  months.  Divine  honours  were  de- 
 creed unto  the  royal  infant,  and  a  temple  and  priestess. 
 {Tacit.,  Ann.,  15,  2-^.—Sitclon.,  Vk.  Ner.,  c.  3.5.)— V. 
 (Via)  a  Roman  road,  which  branched  off  from  the  Via 
 Flaminia,  at  the  Pons  Mulvius,  near  Rome,  and,  pro- 
 ceeding through  the  more  inland  parts  of  Etruria,  joined 
 the  Via  .\urelia  at  Lucca.  It  appears  to  have  fallen 
 into  disuse,  when  the  central  parts  of  Etruria,  which  it 
 crossed,  became  unfrequented.  {Cramer's  Anc  Ilahj, 
 vol.  1,  p.  245.) — VI.  Antonia,  a  daughter  of  the  Em- 
 peror Claudius,  married  Cn.  Pompey,  whom  Mcssalina 
 caused  to  be  put  to  death.  Her  second  husband,  Syl- 
 la  Fauslus,  by  whom  she  had  a  son,  was  killed  by 
 Nero,  and  she  shared  his  fate  when  she  refused  to 
 marry  his  murderer.  {Siceton.,  Vit.  Claud.,  c.  27. — 
 Id.,  Vu.  Ncr.,  35.) 
 
 Claudia  Lex,  I.  proposed  by  Claudius  the  consul, 
 at  the  request  of  the  allies,  A.U.C.  573,  that  the  allies 
 and  those  of  the  Latin  name  should  leave  Rome,  and 
 return  to  their  own  cities.  According  to  this  law, 
 the  consul  made  an  edict ;  and  a  decree  of  the  senate 
 was  added,  that,  for  the  future,  no  person  should 
 be  manumitted,  unless  both  master  and  slave  swore 
 that  the  latter  was  not  manumitted  for  the  sake  of 
 changing  his  city.  For  the  allies  used  to  give  their 
 children  as  slaves  to  any  Roman  citizen,  on  condition 
 of  their  being  manumitted.  {Liv.,  41,  8,  seq.—Cic, 
 pro  Ball.,  23.)— II.  Another  by  the  consul  Marcellus, 
 A.U.C.  703,  that  no  one  should  be  allowed  to  stand 
 candidate  for  an  office  while  absent  ;  thus  taking  from 
 C^sar  the  privilege  granted  by  the  Pompeian'  law  ; 
 also,  that  the  freedom  of  the  city  should  be  taken  from 
 the  colony  of  Novumcomum,  which  Ctesar  had  planted. 
 Sudan.,  Vit.  Jul,  28— Ctc,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  13,  35  )— 
 III.  Another,  dc  usxira,  by  the  Emperor  Claudius, 
 which  forbade  people  to  lend  money  to  minors  on  condi- 
 tion of  payment  after  the  decease  of  their  parents.     It 
 
 is  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  what  was  called  the 
 Senalus-consullum  Maceduniujuun,  enforced  by  Ves- 
 pasian. {Tacit.,  Ann  ,\\,Vi.) — IV.  Another,  ()assed 
 A.U.C.  535,  and  forbidding  any  senator  or  father  of 
 a  senator  to  have  a  vessel  above  a  certain  burden 
 (300  amphora).  The  object  it  had  in  view  was  to 
 prevent  their  engaging  in  commercial  operations.  A 
 clause  is  supposed  to  have  been  added  to  this  law,  pro- 
 hibiting the  quaestors'  clerks  from  trading.  {Lni.,  21, 
 63. — Compare  Crusius,  ad  Suelon.,  Vit.  Dom.,  c.  9.) 
 
 Claudi.e  aqu^,  the  first  water  brought  to  Rome 
 by  means  of  an  aqueduct.  This  was  one  of  1 1  miles, 
 erected  by  the  censor  Apfjius  Claudius,  A.U.C.  44L 
 The  supply  was  obtained  from  the  river  Anio.  {Eu- 
 trop.,  2,  'I.— Liv.,  9,  29.) 
 
 Cr.AUDiANUs,  Claudius,  a  Latin  poet,  born  at  Alex- 
 andrea  in  Egypt,  probably  about  365  A.D.,  in  the  first 
 year  of  the  reign  of  Valentinian  I.  His  name  indi- 
 cates that  his  family  was  originally  from  Rome  ;  but 
 at  Alexandrea  Greek  was  the  language  of  every-day 
 intercourse,  and  it  was  in  this  tongue  that  Claudian 
 com|)osed  his  first  works.  He  received  a  distinguished 
 literary  education.  It  has  been  supposed,  from  some 
 passages  in  his  works,  that  in  his  youth  he  bore  arms, 
 and  that  he  assisted,  A.D.  394.  in  the  battle  between 
 Theodosius  and  Eugenius.  Gesner,  however,  has 
 shown  that  these  passages  are  susceptible  of  another 
 interpretation.  It  is  more  certain,  that,  after  having 
 passed  some  time  at  Rome,  he  followed,  A.D.  395, 
 Stilicho,  the  minister  and  guardian  of  Hoiiorius,  to 
 Mediolanum,  which  was,  at  this  period,  the  residence 
 of  the  Emperor  of  the  West.  The  minister,  a  Vandal 
 by  nation,  and  his  spouse,  the  Princess  Serena,  became 
 the  patrons  of  the  young  poet ;  and  the  latter  expressed 
 his  gratitude  in  verses,  which  were  recompensed  by 
 honours  of  the  most  exaggerated  character.  Not  only 
 was  Claudian  raised  to  stations  of  which  his  talents  no 
 doubt  rendered  him  worthy,  but,  on  the  request  of  the 
 senate,  the  two  emperors  of  the  East  and  West  united 
 in  having  a  bronze  statue  raised  to  him  in  the  forum, 
 the  pedestal  of  which,  bearing  an  inscription  in  hon- 
 our of  the  poet,  was  discovered  at  Rome  in  the  15th 
 century.  The  authenticity  of  this  monument  is  doubt- 
 ed by  some,  but  without  sufficient  reason,  since  Clau- 
 dian himself  makes  mention  of  the  statue  in  one  of  his 
 poems  (25,  7. — Compare  Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.., 
 vol.  3,  p.  82,  m  7iotis).  About  A.D.  398,  Claudian 
 returned  to  Egypt,  armed  with  a  letter  from  his  pro- 
 tector, demanding  for  the  bard  the  hand  of  a  rich  heir- 
 ess in  this  province.  The  marriage  was  celebrated  at 
 Alexandrea,  and  Claudian  conducted  his  young  bride 
 to  the  imperial  court.  After  having  enjoyed,  for  the 
 space  of  more  than  ten  years,  the  favour  of  his  power- 
 ful protectors,  our  poet  was  involved  in  one  of  those 
 catastrophes  so  common  at  courts.  Accused,  probably 
 without  any  reason,  of  a  design  to  raise  his  own  son  to 
 the  imperial  throne,  Stilicho  was  delivered  over  to 
 punishment  in  408.  Though  we  know  not  how  far 
 Claudian  was  involved  in  the  disgrace  of  his  protectors, 
 still  we  cannot  doubt  that  he  lost  his  official  stations, 
 and  also  a  fiart  of  his  fortune.  The  period  of  his  death 
 is  unknown. — The  question  is  sometimes  put,  whether 
 Claudian  was  a  Christian  or  not.  There  is  nothing  in 
 his  works  to  indicate  that  he  was  ;  for  some'  Christian 
 epigrams  that  are  found  among  his  poems  are  evi- 
 dently spurious.  It  is  not  a  little  surprising,  indeed, 
 that  one  who  lived  in  a  court  which  possessed  a  great 
 zeal  for  Christianity,  should  have  remained  faithful  to 
 the  religion  of  his  fathers  :  the  regrets,  however,  of  St. 
 Augustine  and  of  Orosius,  who  state  that  Claudian  was 
 a  pagan,  are  too  positive  in  their  character  to  admit  of 
 any  doubt  on  this  point.  {Auguslin.,  de  Cio.  Dei,  5, 
 26.— Oro*.,  adv.  Pagan.  Hist.,  7,  35.)— Claudian  has 
 left  poems  of  various  kinds  :  epic,  panegyric,  satirical, 
 and  also  idyls  and  epigrams.  The  panegyrics  in  verse, 
 composed  by  him,  are  the  earliest  with  which  we  are 
 
 355 
 
CLAUDIAN. 
 
 CLA 
 
 acquainted,  and  may  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  an 
 innovation.  Prose  panegyrics  had  been  in  use  from 
 the  second  century  of  our  era.  These  eulogiums  in 
 verse,  composed  by  the  poet,  are  as  follows:  1st.  A 
 Panegyric  on  the  consulship  of  Probinus  and  Olybrins, 
 which  took  place  in  395  :  2d.  Panegyrics  on  the  third, 
 fourth,  and  si.xth  consulships  of  Honorius,  which  look 
 place  in  the  years  396,  398,  and  404:  3d.  A  Pane- 
 gyric in  lionour  of  Mallius  Theodorus,  A.D  399: 
 4th.  A  Eulogium  on  Stilicho,  in  three  parts:  5th.  A 
 Eulogium  on  Serena.  In  reading  these  productions 
 we  are  at  a  loss  which  to  wonder  at  most,  the  base 
 flattery  of  the  poet,  or  the  effrontery  of  those  who  re- 
 ceived his  gross  adulation  without  a  blush. —  In  epic 
 poetry  Claudian  has  left  us  a  j)iece  in  three  cantos  or 
 books,  entitled  "  De  Raplu  Proserpince ;"  and  the 
 commencement  of  a  second  production,  entitled  "  Gi- 
 gantomachia,"  the  war  of  the  Giants.  As  regards 
 the  first  of  these  works,  critics  have  considered  the 
 third  book  inferior  in  polish  to  the  other  two,  and  show- 
 ing less  of  a  finishing  hand.  The  plan  of  the  poem, 
 moreover,  is  a  defective  one.  Instead  of  hurrymg  us 
 at  once  into  the  very  midst  of  the  action,  as  an  epic 
 bard  should  do,  he  recounts  his  fable  from  its  very 
 commencement,  as  an  historian  would  relate  an  event. 
 All  the  actors,  too,  being  deities,  and,  consequently, 
 elevated  above  the  level  of  human  nature,  can  only  in- 
 spire a  feeble  interest.  This  defect  Claudian  seeks  to 
 remedy  by  a  style  always  elevated,  by  striking  imagery 
 and  brilliant  descriptions  :  but  this  tone  pervading  the 
 whole  work,  and  the  uniformity  of  the  characters,  have 
 spread  over  it  a  monotony  which  becomes  fatiguing  in 
 the  extreme.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  however,  Clau- 
 dian is,  perhaps,  next  to  Statins,  the  Latin  epic  poet 
 that  has  come  nearest  to  Virgil,  especially  in  some  of 
 his  descriptions  and  comparisons,  and  his  merit  will  no 
 doubt  appear  in  a  much  more  favourable  light  if  we  take 
 into  consideration  the  period  when  he  lived. — Two 
 other  works  of  Claudian  may  be  ranked  in  the  class  of 
 epic  poems.  One  is  entitled  "  De  Bello  Gildomco ;" 
 the  other,  "  De  Bcllo  Gctico,  she  Pollenliaco.'"  Gil- 
 don,  son  of  a  king  of  Mauritania,  had  made  himself  in- 
 dependent in  Africa  during  the  reign  of  Theodosius 
 the  Great.  The  loss  of  this  province,  one  of  the  gran- 
 aries of  the  empire,  was  se^rely  felt.  Under  Hono- 
 rius, however,  Africa  was  reconquered,  and  it  is  this 
 exploit  that  Claudian  celebrates  in  a  poem,  of  which 
 we  have  only  the  first  canto,  containing  the  cause  and 
 the  preparations  of  the  war.  The  poem  "  De  Bello 
 Getico"  turns  on  the  war  with  the  Visigoths,  called 
 also  the  war  of  Pollentia,  which  occurred  A.D.  402, 
 when  Honorius  was  consul  for  the  fifth  time  with  his 
 brother  Arcadius,  emperor  of  the  East.  Alaric,  king 
 of  this  Germanic  race,  having  entered  Italy  by  the  way 
 of  Pannonia,  was  defeated  bv  Stilicho  near  Pollentia, 
 among  the  Cottian  Alps.  This  war  is  the  subject  of  a 
 poem  by  Claudian,  in  six  hundred  and  forty-seven  ver- 
 ses. Cassiodorus,  it  is  true,  and  likewise  Jornandes, 
 «ay  directly  the  contrary  in  relation  to  this  affair;  but 
 m  admitting  the  fact  of  the  overthrow,  as  stated  by 
 Claudian,  we  do  not  intend  to  prejudge  a  question  of 
 jiistory. — Claudian  is  the  author  also  of  some  poems, 
 which  one  would  be  tempted  to  rank  in  the  class  of 
 satires,  if  the  manner  in  which  he  treats  his  subject 
 was  not  rather  of  an  epic,  or,  if  we  may  so  speak,  of 
 a  rhetorical  character,  and  if  these  pieces  were  not 
 composed  with  the  same  view  as  his  panegyrics, 
 namely,  that  of  pleasing  Stilicho.  The  productions  to 
 which  we  refer  are  his  invectives  against  Kufinus  and 
 Eutropius,  two  enemies  of  the  minister's.  These  arc, 
 perhaps,  Claudian's  chef-d'ceuvres.  Some  critics,  how- 
 ever, consider  the  poem  against  Eutropius  superior  to 
 '.hat  against  Rufinus.  We  have  also  two  Epithalamia 
 Dy  Claudian  ;  one  on  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  Ho- 
 norius and  Maria,  the  daughter  of  Stilicho  and  Serena  ; 
 *he  other  on  the  marriage  of  Palladius  and  Celerina. 
 356 
 
 In  both  of  these  pieces  Claudian  shows  imagination 
 and  talent.  The  first  of  these  epithalamia  is  followed 
 by  a  poem,  to  which  the  copyists  have  given  the  title 
 of  Fescennina.  There  exist  also  five  poetical  epistles 
 of  Claudian,  which  may  be  ranked  among  the  feeblest 
 of  his  productions.  Under  the  name  of  Idyls,  we  have, 
 moreover,  seven  didactic  or  descriptive  poems.  There 
 are  likewise  some  epigrams  remaining,  but  many  of 
 them  a|)pear  to  have  been  written,  not  by  Claudian, 
 but  by  a  Christian  bard.  To  the  works  of  Claudian 
 it  has  been  customary  to  join  a  poem  in  honour  of 
 Hercules.  It  is  more  correctly  assigned,  however, 
 to  Olympius  Nemesianus.  ( Wernsdorff,  Poet.  Lat. 
 Mm.,  vol.  1,  p.  275.)  The  best  editions  of  Claudian 
 are,  that  of  Gesner,  Lips.,  1759,  8vo ;  that  of  Bur- 
 mann  (secundus),  Amst.,  1760,  4to ;  and  that  of  Ar- 
 taud  (in  Lemaire's  collection),  Paris,  1824,  2  vols.  8vo. 
 
 CLAuniopoMs,  I.  a  city  of  Biihynia,  previously 
 called  Bithynium.  It  was  situate  above  Tium,  in  a 
 district  named  Salone,  celebrated  for  its  excellent  pas- 
 tures, and  a  cheese  much  esteemed  at  Rome.  (Sirab., 
 ^65.  —  Plimj,  11,  42.)  From  Pausanias  (8,  9),  it 
 would  appear  to  have  been  either  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Sangarius,  or  near  them.  It  obtained  the  name  of 
 Claudiopolis  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  At  a  later 
 period,  as  the  birthplace  of  Antinoiis  the  favourite  of 
 Hadrian,  it  received  several  privileges  from  that  em- 
 peror. (Djo  Cass.,  69,  11.)  Under  Theodosius  it 
 was  made  the  capital  of  the  province  Honorias.  Many 
 years  after,  we  learn  from  Anna  Comnena  (p.  967) 
 and  Leo  Diaconus  (4,  9),  who  describe  it  as  the  most 
 wealthy  and  flourishing  city  of  Galatia,  that  it  was 
 almost  totally  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  attended 
 with  vast  loss  of  lives.  {Cramer^ s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1, 
 p.  209.) — 11.  A  city  of  Cilicia  Trachea,  but  assigned 
 by  Ammianus  and  Hierocles  to  Isauria.  (Antmian. 
 MareelL,  14,  25. — Hicrocl,  p.  709  )  It  was  founded 
 by  Claudius  the  Roman  emperor,  and  was  situate  in  a 
 plain  between  two  summits  of  Mount  Taurus,  and 
 probably  also  on  the  Calycadnus,  or  one  of  its  branches. 
 {WesscUnr;,  ad  Hierocl.,  I.  c. —  Cramer''s  Asia  Minor, 
 vol.  2,  p.  332.) 
 
 Claudius,  I.  Appius.  {Vid.  Appius.) — II.  Pul- 
 cher,  a  Roman  consul,  in  the  first  Punic  war.  When, 
 previous  to  a  naval  engagement  with  the  Carthagini- 
 ans, the  person  who  had  charge  of  the  sacred  fowls 
 told  him  that  they  would  not  eat,  which  was  esteemed 
 a  bad  omen,  he  ordered  them  to  be  thrown  into  the 
 sea,  exclaiming,  "Then  let  them  drink."  After  this, 
 joining  battle  with  the  foe,  he  was  defeated  with  the 
 loss  of  his  fleet.  Having  been  recalled  by  the  senate, 
 he  gave  another  specimen  of  the  haughty  temper  of  the 
 Claudian  race,  for,  on  being  directed  to  nominate  a 
 dictator,  he  purposely  named  his  own  viator,  an  indi- 
 vidual of  the  lowest  rank.  \Liv.,  Epit.,  19. —  Cic., 
 N.  D  ,  2,  3.— 7r/.,  de  Div.,  1,  16.)— III.  Nero,  a  Ro- 
 man consul  in  the  second  Punic  war,  who,  in  con- 
 junction with  his  colleague  Livius  Salinator,  defeated 
 Hasdrubal  in  Umbria,  on  the  banks  of  the  Metaurus. 
 (Vid.  Metauriis  and  Hasdrubal.) — IV.  Tiberius  Nero, 
 father  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius.  He  was  distinguished 
 for  his  naval  skill  in  the  Alexandrine  war,  under  Ju- 
 lius C*sar.  At  a  subsequent  period  he  e.xciied  a  se- 
 dition in  ('ampania,  by  promising  to  restore  the  prop- 
 erty of  those  who  had  suffered  in  the  civil  wars.  This 
 tumult,  however,  was  soon  quelled  by  the  arrival  ol 
 Octavius  ;  and  Tiberius,  together  with  his  wife  Livia, 
 took  refuge  in  Sicily  and  Achaia  until  the  establish- 
 ment of  the  second  triumvirate  made  it  safe  for  him  to 
 return  to  Rome.  Livia  having  after  this  engaged  the 
 affections  of  Octavius,  Tiberius  transferred  to  him  the 
 name  and  privileges  of  a  husband.  (Tacit.,  Ann., 
 5,  1.) — V.  Tiberius  Nero  Caesar,  the  successor  of  Au- 
 gustus, and  son  of  the  preceding.  (Vid.  Tiberius.) — 
 VI.  Tiberius  Claudius  Drusus  Csesar,  more  com- 
 monly known  by  his  historical  name  of  Claudius,  sue- 
 
CLAUDIUS 
 
 CLE 
 
 ceeaed  to  the  Roman  empire  on  the  death  of  Caligula. 
 He  was  the  second  son  of  Drusus  and  Antoma,  and, 
 consequently,  grand  nephew  to  Augustus.  When  the 
 assassuiation  of  Caligula  was  made  known,  the  first 
 impulse  of  the  court  party  and  of  the  foreign  guards 
 was  to  massacre  all  who  had  participated  in  the  mur- 
 der. Several  persons  of  distiiiclion,  who  imprudently 
 e.xposed  themselves,  became,  in  consequence,  the  vic- 
 tims of  their  fury.  This  violence  subsided,  however, 
 upon  their  discovering  Claudius,  who  had  concealed 
 himself  in  an  obscure  corner  of  the  palace,  and,  being 
 dragged  from  his  hiding-place,  threw  himself  at  their 
 feet  in  the  utmost  terror,  and  besought  them  to  spare 
 his  life.  The  soldiers  in  the  palace  immediately  sa- 
 luted him  emperor,  and  Claudius,  in  return,  set  the 
 first  example  of  paying  the  army  for  the  imperial  dig- 
 nity by  a  largess  from  the  public  treasury.  It  is  dif- 
 ficult to  assign  any  other  motive  for  the  choice  which 
 the  army  made  of  Claudius  than  that  which  they  them- 
 selves professed,  "  His  relationship  to  the  whole  fami- 
 ly of  the  Cajsars."  Claudius,  who  was  now  fifty 
 years  old,  had  never  done  anything  to  gain  popularity, 
 or  to  display  those  qualities  which  secure  the  attach- 
 ment of  the  soldiery.  He  had  been  a  rickety  child, 
 and  the  development  of  his  faculties  was  retarded  by 
 his  bodily  infirmities  ;  and  although  he  outgrew  hLs 
 complaints,  and  became  distinguished  as  a  polite  schol- 
 ar and  an  eloquent  writer  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  13,  3. — Sue- 
 Ion.,  Vit.  Claud.,  c.  41),  his  spirits  never  recovered 
 from  the  effects  of  disease  and  of  severe  treatment, 
 and  he  retained  much  of  the  timidity  and  indolence  of 
 his  childhood.  (Sue/on.,  VU.  Claud.,  c.  2.)  During 
 the  reign  of  Tiberius  he  gave  himself  up  to  gross  sen- 
 suality, and  consoled  himself  under  this  degradation 
 hy  the  security  wliich  it  brought  with  it.  Under  Ca- 
 ligula also  he  found  his  safety  consist  in  maintaining 
 his  reputation  for  incapacity,  and  he  suffered  himself 
 to  become  the  butt  of  court  parasites,  and  the  subject 
 of  their  practical  jokes.  {Sucloii.,  Vit.  Claud.,  c.  7.) 
 The  excitement  of  novelty,  on  his  first  accession  to 
 ihe  throne,  produced  efforts  of  sagacity  and  prudence, 
 of  which  none  who  had  previously  known  him  believed 
 hijii  capable  ;  and  during  the  whole  of  his  reign,  too, 
 we  find  judicious  and  useful  enactments  occasionally 
 made,  wliich  would  seem  to  show  that  he  was  not  in 
 reality  "  so  silly  an  emperor''  as  historians  have  gen- 
 erally represented  him  to  be.  It  is  most  probable, 
 therefore,  that  the  fatuity  which  characterizes  some 
 parts  of  his  conduct  was  the  result,  not  of  natural  im- 
 becility, but  of  the  early  and  unlimited  indulgence  of 
 the  grossest  sensuality.  Claudius  embellished  Rome 
 with  many  magnificent  works  ;  he  made  Mauritania  a 
 Roman  province  ;  his  armies  fought  successfully  against 
 the  Germans  ;  and  he  himself  triumphed  magnificently 
 for  victories  over  the  Britons,  and  obtained,  together 
 with  his  infant  son,  the  surname  of  Britannicus.  But 
 III  other  respects  he  was  wholly  governed  by  worthless 
 favourites,  and  especially  by  his  empress,  the  profligate 
 and  abandoned  Messalina,  whose  cruelty  and  rapacity 
 were  as  unbounded  as  her  licentiousness.  At  her  in- 
 stigation it  was  but  too  common  for  the  emperor  to 
 put  to  death,  on  false  charges  of  consjiiracy,  some  of 
 l!ie  wealthiest  of  the  nobles,  and  to  confiscate  their  es- 
 tates, with  the  money  arising  from  which  she  openly 
 pain|iered  her  numerous  paramours.  When  the  ca- 
 reer of  this  guilty  woman  was  terminated,  Claudius 
 was  governed  for  a  time  by  his  freedinan  Narcissus, 
 and  Pallas,  another  manumitted  slave,  until  he  took  to 
 wife  his  own  niece,  Agrippina.  daughter  of  Germani- 
 cus,  a  woman  of  strong  natural  abilities,  but  of  insa- 
 tiable avarice,  extreme  ambition,  and  remorseless  cru- 
 elly. Her  influence  over  the  feeble  emperor  was 
 boundless,  and  wag  displayed  in  the  most  glaring  man- 
 ner. She  prevailed  on  him  at  last  to  set  aside  Ins  own 
 «)n  Britannicus,  and  to  adopt  her  son  Domitius  Aheno- 
 tjarbus,  by  her  former  husband,  giving  him  the  name 
 
 by  which  he  is  best  known,  Nero,  and  constituting 
 him  heir  to  the  imperial  throne.  Claudius  having  af- 
 terward shown  a  disposition  to  change  the  succession 
 and  restore  it  to  Britannicus,  fell  a  victim  to  the  am- 
 bition of  Agrippina,  who  caused  him  to  be  poisoned. 
 A  dish  of  mushrooms  was  prepared  for  the  purpose,  a 
 kind  of  food  of  which  the  emperor  was  known  to  be 
 especially  fond,  and  the  effects  of  the  poison  were 
 hastened  by  the  pretended  remedies  exhibited  by  Xeno- 
 phon,  the  physician  of  the  palace.  It  was  given  out 
 that  Claudius  had  suffered  from  indigestion,  which  his 
 habitual  gluttony  rendered  so  frequent  that  it  excited 
 no  surprise  :  and  his  death  was  concealed  till  Domi- 
 tius Nero  had  secured  the  guards,  and  had  quietly- 
 taken  possession  of  the  imperial  authority.  (Claudius 
 died  in  the  si.xty-fourlh  year  of  his  age,  and  the  four- 
 teenth of  his  reign,  A.D.  54.  {Sue/on.,  Vtl.  Claud. 
 — Dio  Cass.,  lib.  GO. — Encydop.  MetropoL,  div.  3, 
 vol.  2,  p.  443,  scqq.) 
 
 Ci.azomenjE,  a  city  of  Ionia,  on  the  coast  of  the 
 yEgean  Sea,  west  of  Smyrna.  There  were  two  places 
 of  this  name ;  the  more  ancient  stood  on  the  conti- 
 nent, and  was  strongly  fortified  by  the  lonians  to  re- 
 sist the  Persians.  After  the  defeat  of  Croesus,  how- 
 ever, they  were  terrified,  and  withdrew  to  a  neighbour- 
 ing island,  where  they  built  the  second  Clazomenas,  so 
 often  mentioned  in  Roman  history.  {S/.rabo,  04.5  — 
 Compare  Pausanias,  7,  3.)  Alexander  joined  it  to 
 the  continent  by  a  causeway  250  paces  long ;  from 
 which  time  it  was  reckoned  among  the  cities  on  the 
 continent.  {Pirn.,  5,  29.)  Augustus  greatly  em- 
 bellished it,  and  was  styled,  on  some  medals,  its 
 founder,  through  flattery.  Ana.xagoras  was  born  here. 
 On  or  near  its  site  stands  the  small  town  of  Doarlak 
 or  Vourla.  I'here  are  still  some  remains  of  the  an- 
 cient causeway,  by  which  one  can  reach,  with  some 
 risk,  however,  from  the  force  of  the  sea,  the  island  of 
 St.  .lohn.  {Pococke,  vol.  3,  book  2,  c.  2  — Chandler, 
 c.  24. — Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  329.) 
 
 Cleanthes,  I.  a  Stoic  philosopher  of  Assus  in  Lyd- 
 ia,  disciple  of  Zeno.  After  the  death  of  Zeno  ho 
 presided  over  his  school.  His  first  appearance  was  in 
 the  character  of  a  wrestler.  In  this  capacity  he  vis- 
 ited Athens,  where  the  love  of  philosophy  was  diffused 
 through  all  ranks  of  people.  He  soon  caught  the  gen- 
 eral spirit,  and  though  he  was  possessed  of  no  more 
 than  four  drachmm,  he  determined  to  put  himself  under 
 the  tuition  of  some  eminent  philosopher.  His  first 
 master  was  Crates,  the  Academic.  He  afterward  be- 
 came a  disciple  of  Zeno,  and  a  celebrated  advocate  of 
 his 'doctrines.  By  night  he  drew  water  as  a  common 
 labourer  in  the  public  gardens,  that  he  might  have 
 leisure  in  the  daytime  to  attend  the  schools  of  phi- 
 losophy. The  Athenian  citizens  observing  that,  though 
 he  appeared  strong  and  healthy,  he  had  no  visible 
 means  of  subsistence,  summoned  him  before  the  .Are- 
 opagus, according  to  the  custom  of  the  city,  to  give  an 
 account  of  his  manner  of  living.  Upon  this  he  pro- 
 duced the  gardener  for  whom  he  drew  water,  and  a 
 woman  for  whom  he  ground  meal,  as  witnesses  to 
 prove  that  he  subsisted  by  the  labour  of  his  hands, 
 and  the  judges  of  the  court  were  struck  with  such  ad- 
 miration of  his  conduct,  that  they  ordered  ten  mina:  to 
 be  paid  him  out  of  the  public  treasury  ;  which,  how- 
 ever, Zeno  would  not  suffer  him  to  accept.  {Uiog, 
 Laert  — Val.  Max  ,  8,  7.— Sen.,  Ep.,  44  )  Antigo- 
 nus  afterward  presented  him  with  three  thousand  miner. 
 From  the  manner  in  which  this  ])hilosopher  supported 
 himself,  he  was  called  (ppeuvr'kor,  or  "  the  well-drawer." 
 For  many  years  he  was  so  very  poor  that  he  was  com- 
 pelled to  write  the  heads  of  his  master's  lectures  on 
 shells  and  bones,  for  the  want  of  money  to  buy  better 
 materials.  He  remained,  however,  notwithstanding 
 every  obstacle,  a  pupil  of  Zeno  for  nineteen  years. 
 His  natural  faculties  were  slow  ;  but  resolution  and 
 perseverance  enabled  him  to  overcome  every  difficaltv  ; 
 
 357 
 
CLE 
 
 CLE 
 
 and  at  last  he  became  so  complete  a  master  of  the 
 Stoic  philosophy  as  to  be  perfectly  well  qualified  to 
 succeed  Zeno.  His  fellow-disci|)les  often  ridiculed 
 him  for  his  dulness  by  calling  him  an  ass  ;  but  his 
 answer  was,  that  if  he  were  an  ass  he  was  the  better 
 able  to  bear  the  weight  of  Zeno's  doctrine.  He  wrote 
 much,  but  none  of  his  writings  remain  except  a  most 
 beautiful  hymn  to  Jupiter,  preserved  in  the  Anthology. 
 After  his  death,  the  Roman  senate  erected  a  statue 
 in  honour  of  him  at  Assus.  It  is  said  that  he  starved 
 himself  in  his  90th  year,  B.C.  240.  {EnJiehVs  His- 
 tory of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  354,  seqq.) — II.  A  Co- 
 rinthian painter,  whom  some  make  to  have  been  the 
 inventor  of  drawing  in  outline.  {I'lin.,  35,  3.)  Athe- 
 nagoras  mentions  him  among  the  first  that  practised 
 this  branch  of  the  art.     {Sillig,  Did.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Cleakchus,  I.  a  tyrant  of  Heraclea  Pontica,  who 
 was  killed  by  Chion  and  Leonidas,  Plato's  pupils,  du- 
 ring the  celebration  of  the  festival  of  Bacchus,  after 
 the  enjoyment  of  the  sovereign  power  for  twelve 
 years,  353  B.C.  (Consult  Mcmnon,  fragm.,  c.  1, 
 and  Hotfmann's  Prolegomena  in  Chionis  Epist. — 
 Compare  also  remarks  under  the  article  Chion.) — 
 n.  A  Jjacedffimonian,  one  of  the  Greek  command- 
 ers in  the  army  of  Cyrus  the  younger,  and  held  by 
 that  prince  in  the  highest  estimation  of  all  the  Greek 
 leaders  that  were  with  him.  A  sketch  of  his  charac- 
 ter and  history  is  given  by  Xenophon  (Anab.,  2,  6), 
 in  which  many  things  appear  to  be  softened  down. 
 He  had  been  governor  previously  of  Byzantium,  under 
 the  orders  of  the  Spartan  Ephori,  and  had  conducted 
 himself  so  tyrannically  that  the  government  at  home 
 sent  an  armed  force  against  him.  Clearchus,  antici- 
 pating the  arrival  of  these  troo[)s,  left  Byzantium  and 
 seized  upon  Selymbria,  and  when  the  Spartan  forces 
 came  he  engaged  in  battle  with  them,  but  was  de- 
 feated. After  this  he  fled  to  Cyrus.  He  was  entrap- 
 ped along  with  the  other  Greek  leaders,  after  the  bat- 
 tle of  Cunaxa,  by  the  satrap  Tissaphernes,  and  put  to 
 death  in  common  with  them.  (Xen.,  Anab.,  2,  5,  31, 
 seqq.— Id.  lb.,  2,  6,  1,  seqq  —Diod.  Sic,  14,  12.) 
 
 Clemens,  I.  (commonly  called  Romanus,  for  distinc- 
 tion' sake  from  Clemens  of  Alexandrea),  one  of  the 
 early  Christians,  the  friend  and  fellow-traveller  of  St. 
 Paul,  and  afterward  bishop  of  Rome,  to  which  station 
 he  was  chosen  A.D.  67,  or,  according  to  some,  A.D. 
 91.  He  was  the  author  of  an  epistle  to  the  church  of 
 Corinth,  printed  in  the  "  Patres  Apostolici"  of  Le 
 Clerc,  Amst.,  1698.  Of  this  work,  the  only  manu- 
 script of  which  now  extant  is  in  the  British  Museum, 
 Archbishop  Wake  printed  a  translation  in  1705.  The 
 best  edition  of  the  original  is  Jacobson's,  2  vols.  8vo, 
 Oxon.,  1838.  Clemens  is  supposed  to  have  died  at 
 Rome  about  the  close  of  the  first  century. — II.  An 
 eminent  father  of  the  church,  who  flourished  between 
 A.D.  192  and  217,  and  is  commonly  called  Alexan- 
 drinus,  to  distinguish  him  from  Clemens  of  Rome. 
 He  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  a  native  of 
 Athens,  and  by  others  of  Alexandrea,  but  of  his  real 
 origin  very  little  is  known.  He  early  devoted  himself 
 to  study  in  the  schools  of  the  latter  city,  and  had  many 
 preceptors.  {Strom.,  l,p.  274. — Euseb.,  Hist.  EccL, 
 5,  2)  His  Hebiew  preceptor,  whom  he  calls  "the 
 Sicilian  bee,"  was  unquestionably  Pantamus,  a  Jew 
 by  birth,  but  of  Sicilian  extraction,  who  united  Gre- 
 cian with  sacred  learning,  and  was  attached  to  the 
 Stoic  philosophy.  {Vales,  ad  Euseh.,  5,  10.)  Cle- 
 mens so  far  adopted  the  ideas  of  this  preceptor  as  to 
 espouse  the  moral  doctrine  of  the  Stoics.  In  other 
 respects  he  followed  the  Eclectic  method  of  philoso- 
 phizing. While  the  pagan  philosophers  pillaged  the 
 Christian  stores  to  enrich  the  Eclectic  svstein,  this 
 Christian  father,  on  the  contrary,  transferred  the  Pla- 
 tonic, Stoic,  and  Oriental  dogmas  to  the  Christian 
 creed,  as  relics  of  ancient  tradition  originating  in  Di- 
 vine revelation.  {Strom.,  1,  p.  313.)  In  hopes  of 
 358 
 
 recommending  Christianity  to  his  catechumens  (for. 
 after  Pantienus,  he  had  the  charge  of  the  Christian 
 catechetical  school  in  Alexandrea),  Clemens  made  a 
 large  collection  of  ancient  wisdom,  under  the  name  of 
 Stromata,  an  epithet  borrowed  from  carpet-work,  and 
 intended  to  denote  the  miscellaneous  nature  of  the 
 philosophical  and  religious  topics  of  which  the  work 
 treats.  He  assigned  this  reason  for  the  undertaking, 
 that  much  truth  is  mixed  with  the  dogmas  of  philoso- 
 phers, or,  rather,  covered  and  concealed  in  their  wri- 
 tings, like  the  kernel  within  its  shell.  This  work  is 
 of  great  value,  as  it  contains  many  quotations,  and 
 relates  many  facts,  not  elsewiiere  preserved.  But, 
 though  the  object  of  his  labours  was  laudable,  it  must 
 be  confessed  that  his  inclination  to  blend  heathen 
 tenets  with  Christian  doctrines  rendered  his  writings 
 in  many  respects  injurious  to  the  Christian  cause. 
 His  vast  reading  encumbered  his  judgment ;  and  his 
 injudicious  zeal  sometimes  led  him  into  credulity,  if 
 not  into  dishonesty.  We  frequently  find  him  adopt- 
 ing Platonic  and  Stoic  tenets  as  Christian  doctrines, 
 and  thus  sowing  the  seeds  of  error  in  the  Christian 
 church.  Besides  the  Stromata,  we  have  the  following 
 works  of  Clemens  remaining  :  1.  Protrepticon,  or  an 
 exhortation  to  the  Pagans  ;  2.  Padagogus,  or  the  in 
 strucier  ;  3.  The  fragments  of  a  treatise  on  the  use  of 
 riches,  entitled,  "  What  rich  man  shall  be  saved  !'' — 
 In  these  works  he  approaches  the  strict  standard  of 
 orthodoxy  ;  but  in  one  which  is  lost,  and  the  title  of 
 which  was  Hypotyposes,  or  "Institutions,"  he  is  slated 
 by  Photius  {Cod'.,  109.— vol.  1,  p.  89.  ed.  Bekker)  to 
 have  maintained  sentiments  which  were  unscriptural. 
 The  works  of  Clemens  were  first  printed  in  Greek 
 only,  at  Florence  in  1550.  Of  the  various  editions 
 with  Latin  versions,  the  best  is  that  of  Archbishop 
 Potter,  2  vols,  fob,  1715,  Oxon.  {Enfield's  History 
 of  Philosophy,  vol.  2,  p.  274,  seqq.) 
 
 Cleobis  and  Biton,  two  youths,  sens  of  Cvdippe, 
 the  priestess  of  Juno  at  Argos,  and  remarkable  for 
 physical  prowess,  having  both  carried  oflT  prizes  in  the 
 public  games.  Solon,  in  his  conversation  wiih  Croe- 
 sus on  the  subject  of  human  felicity,  related,  accordincr 
 to  Herodotus  (1,  31),  the  following  incident  respecting 
 them.  Their  mother  Cydippe  was  required  by  sa- 
 cred custom  to  be  drawn  to  the  temple  of  Juno,  on 
 a  certain  festival,  by  a  pair  of  oxen.  The  animals 
 happening  not  to  be  brought  up  from  the  field  in  due 
 season,  and  Cydippe  being  pressed  for  time,  .her  two 
 sons  put  themselves  under  the  yoke,  drew  the  chariot 
 in  which  their  mother  sat  for  the  distance  of  forty-five 
 stadia  (nearly  six  miles),  and  brought  her  in  that  man- 
 ner to  the  temple.  The  men  of  Argos  who  stood 
 around  commended  the  strength  of  the  youths,  and  the 
 women  felicitated  their  mother  on  having  such  sons  ; 
 while  (Cydippe  herself,  in  a  transport  of  joy,  praved  tf> 
 the  goddess  that  t'leobis  and  Biton  might  obtain  the 
 greatest  blessing  man  could  receive.  When  she  bad 
 finished  her  prayer,  and  her  sons  had  sacrificed  and 
 feasted  with  her,  they  fell  asleep  in  the  temple,  and 
 awoke  no  more.  The  Argives,  in  commemoration  of 
 their  filial  piety,  caused  statues  to  be  erected  to  thern 
 at  Delphi.  Servius  {ad  Virg.,  Georg.,  3,  532)  says, 
 that  the  want  of  oxen  on  this  occasion  was  owina  to 
 a  f)estilential  malady,  which  had  destroyed  all  the  cat- 
 tle belonging  to  Argos. — This  touching  little  story  is 
 frequently  alluded  to  by  the  ancient  writers.  (Compare 
 Cic.,  Tusc.  Ou(e.9l.,  1,47.— Plut.,  Consol.  ad  Apoll.,p 
 108,  F.—M  ,  Vit.  Sol.,  c.  '21.—Slobctus.  p.  603,  &c.) 
 
 Ci.EOBf'i.os,  a  native  of  Lindus,  m  the  island  of 
 Rhodes,  son  of  Evagoras,  monarch  of  that  city,  and 
 claiming  descent  from  Hercules.  He  was  not  less  re- 
 markable for  strength  than  for  beauty  of  pers'^n 
 After  travelling  in  Egypt  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring 
 knowledge,  he  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of  hi» 
 father.  Plutarch  says  he  usurped  it.  The  rest  of  bis 
 life  is  unknown :  we  are  merely  informed  thai  he  a*- 
 
CLE 
 
 CLE 
 
 tained  to  the  age  of  seventy  years,  and  died  about  the 
 65th  Olympiad.  By  some  he  is  ranked  among  the 
 wise  men  of  Greece.  His  favourite  maxim  was  "ApLa- 
 Tuv  jitTpov,  "  moderation  is  bcst,'^  i.  e.,  preserve  a  due 
 mean  m  all  thmgs.     (Diog.  Laert.  m  Vil.) 
 
 Cleombrotus,  I.  a  king  of  Sparta,  who  succeeded 
 his  brother  Agesipolis  I.  He  was  defeated  by  Epam- 
 inondas  m  the  battle  of  Leuclra,  and  lost  his  life  on 
 that  occasion.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  6,  4,  13.) — U.  A 
 fioa-in-law  of  Leonidas  II.,  king  of  Sparta,  who  usurp- 
 ed the  kingdom  after  the  expulsion  of  that  monarch, 
 but  was  soon  after  expelled  in  turn  and  sent  into  ban- 
 ishment.    {Plut.,  Vit.  Ag.  et  Cleom.) 
 
 Cleomedes,  a  Greek  writer,  supposed  to  have  been 
 the  author  of  the  work  which  has  reached  us,  entitled 
 "Cyclic  Theory  o(  Meteors,"  i.  e..  Circular  Theory 
 of  the  Stars.  He  is  thought  to  have  lived  some  years 
 before  the  Christian  era.  {Delambre,  in  Biogr.  Univ., 
 vol.  9,  p.  54.) 
 
 Ci.EOMiiNEs  I.,  king  of  Sparta,  ascended  the  throne 
 B.C.  519.     At  the  beginning  of  his  reign  be  under- 
 took an  expedition  against  the  Argives,  defeated  them, 
 and  destroyed  a   large    number  who    had   taken   ref- 
 uge in  a  sacred  grove.     He  afterward  drove  out  the 
 Pisistratidas  from  Athens.     This  is  the  same  Cleome- 
 nes  whom  Aristagoras  endeavoured,  but  in  vain,  to  in- 
 volve ill  a  war  with  the  Persians.      He  afterward  man- 
 aged, by  undue  influence,  to  procure  an  oracular  re- 
 sponse from  Delphi,  pronouncing  his  colleague  Dema- 
 ratus   illegitimate,  and  thus   obtained   his  deposition. 
 Becoming  alarmed,  subsequently,  lest  the  fraud  should 
 be  discovered,  Cleomenes  fled  secretly  to  Thessaly, 
 and  from  thence  passing  into  Arcadia,  he  began  to  stir 
 up  the  people  of  this  latter  country  against   Sparta. 
 The    Lacedaemonians,   fearing   his   intrigues,   recalled 
 him,  but  he  died  soon  after  his  return,  in  a  fit  of  in- 
 sanity, by  his  own  hand.     {Herod.,  5,   64. — Id.,  5, 
 49,  scqi]. — Id  ,  5,  65,  &c.) — II.   Cleomenes  II  ,  suc- 
 ceeded his  brother  Agesipolis   II.   on   the   throne   of 
 Sparta,   B  C.  371.     The  power  of   his   country  was 
 then  on  the  decline,  and  he  possessed  not  the  requisite 
 talents  to  restore  it  to  its  former  state.     He  reigned 
 sixty  years  and  ten  months  without  having  done  any- 
 thing worthy  the  notice  of  posterity.     {Paus.,  3,  6.) — 
 III.  Cleomenes  III.,  son  of  LeonidasII.,  ascended  the 
 Spartan  throne  B.C.  230.     Dissatisfied  at  the  prevail- 
 ing manners  of  Sparta,  he  resolved  to  bring  about  a 
 reform,  and  to  restore  the  institutions  of   Lycurgus, 
 after  the  example  of  Agis,  who  had  lost  his  life  in  a 
 similar  attempt.     Thinking   that   war   would   furnish 
 the  best  opportunity  for  the  execution  of  his  design,  he 
 led   his  forces  against  the   .\chrpaiis,  who  were  com- 
 manded by  Aratus,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself 
 Returning  after  this  to  Sparta,  with  a  portion  of  iiis 
 army,  he  put  to  death  the  Ephori,  made  a  new  division 
 of  the  lands,  and   introduced    again    the  old  Spartan 
 system  of  education.     He  also  took  his  brother  Eucli- 
 das  as  his  colleague  on  the  throne,  and  thus  for  the 
 first  and  only  time  the  Spartans  had  two  kings  of  the 
 same  family.     After  a  long,  and  in  many  respects  suc- 
 cessful, series  of  operations  against  the  Achseans  and 
 Macedonians,  the  latter  q[  whom  had  been  called  in 
 by  .\ralus  as  allies,  Cleomenes  was  defeated  by  Atiti- 
 poniis  in  the  battle  of  Sellasia,  and   immediately  after 
 fled  to  Plx)lemy  Euergetcs  in  Egypt.     This  monarch 
 treated  hun  with  some  degree  of  generosity,  but  his 
 successor  Ptolemy  Philopator,  a  weak  and  suspicious 
 prince,  soon  began  to  look  upon  him  with  an  evil  eye, 
 and  at  last  kept  him  in  confinement.      The  Spartan 
 monarch,  in  a  fit  of  despair,  and  lakmg  advantage  of 
 the   temiwrary  absence  of  Ptolemy  from  his  capital, 
 broke  forth  from  the  place  where  he  had  been  kept  in 
 custody,  along  with  thirteen  of  his  friends,  and   en- 
 deavoured to  arouse  the  inhabitants  in  the  cause  of 
 frmlora.     But   finding  iheir  efforts  fruitless,  they  fell 
 by  their  own  hands.     Cleomenes  had  been  sixteen 
 
 years  king  of  Laconia.  With  him  ended  the  race  of 
 the  Hcraclida;,  which  had  so  long  sat  on  the  throne  of 
 that  country.  Ptolemy  ordered  his  body  to  be  flayed 
 and  nailed  to  a  cross,  and  his  children  to  be  put  to 
 death.     {Plut.,  Vit.  Cleom.) 
 
 Cleon,  an  Athenian,  bred  among  the  lowest  of  the 
 peo()le,  the  son  of  a  tanner,  and  said  himself  to  have 
 exercised  that  trade.  Of  extraordinary  impudence  and 
 little  courage,  slow  in  the  field,  but  forward  and  noisy 
 in  the  assembly,  corrupt  in  practice  as  in  principle,  but 
 boastful  of  integrity,  and  supported  by  a  coarse  but 
 ready  eloquence,  he  gained  such  consideration  by  flat- 
 tering the  lower  orders  and  railing  at  the  higher,  that 
 he  stood  in  the  situation  of  head  of  a  party.  By  an 
 extraordinary  train  of  circumstances  he  came  off  vic- 
 torious in  the  affair  of  Sphacteria,  the  Athenian  popu- 
 lace having  chosen  him  one  of  their  generals.  Elated 
 upon  this  with  the  idea  that  he  possessed  military  tal- 
 ents, he  caused  himself  to  be  appointed  commander  of 
 an  expedition  into  Thrace.  He  was  slain  in  a  battle  at 
 Amphipolis  against  Brasidas,  the  Spartan  general,  422 
 B.C.  (Consult  the  remarks  of  Mitchell,  in  his  edition 
 of  the  Acharnenses  of  Aristophanes,  Appendix,  note. 
 A,  and  compare  Thucy'd.,  4,  28,  segq. — Id.,  5,  2. — 
 Id.,  5,  8,  scqq.) 
 
 Cleon^e,  I.  a  town  of  Argolis,  northeast  of  Nemea. 
 According  to  Strabo,  it  was  120  stadia  from  Argos 
 and  eighty  from  Corinth  ;  he  adds,  that  it  was  situated 
 on  a  rock,  and  surrounded  by  walls,  which  justified  the 
 epithet  applied  to  it  by  Homer  (//.,  2,  570).  Hercules 
 was  said  to  have  defeated  and  slain  the  Elean  chief 
 called  Moliones,  near  Cleonae.  {Pindar,  Olymp.,  10, 
 36. — Compare  ApoUodorus,  2,  5,  1.)  We  learn  from 
 Pindar  that  games  were  there  solemnized.  (Ncm.,  4, 
 26. — Ibid.,  10.  78.)  Dodwell  states,  that  the  ruins 
 of  Cleonas  are  to  be  seen  on  the  site  now  called  Cour- 
 tese.  They  occupy  a  circular  hill,  which  seems  to 
 have  been  completely  covered  with  buildings.  On 
 the  side  of  the  hill  are  six  ancient  terrace-walls,  rising 
 one  above  another,  on  which  the  houses  and  streets 
 were  situated.  {Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  206. —  Chandler, 
 vol.  2,  p.  288.— Geirs  Ilin.  of  the  Morca,  p.  157.)— 
 II.  A  town  of  Macedonia,  in  the  peninsula  of  Athos, 
 said  to  have  been  founded  by  a  colony  from  Chalcis. 
 {Herod.,  7,  22.— Thucyd.,  4,  109.— Cromer'*  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  260.) 
 
 Ci.E0PA.TR.*,  I.  a  daughter  of  Idas  and  Marpessa^ 
 and  the  wife  of  Meleager.  {Horn.,  11. ,  9,  557.)— IL 
 The  wife  of  Philip  of  Maccdon,  whom  that  monarch 
 married  after  he  had  rcjjudiated  Olympias.  {Justin, 
 9,  5.)  After  the  death  of  Philip,  Olympias  compelled 
 her  to  destroy  herself.  {Justin,  9,  7.)— III.  A  daugh- 
 ter of  Philip  and  Olympias,  and  sister  to  Alexander 
 the  Great.  She  married  Alexander  of  Epirus,  who 
 fell  in  Italy.  {Justin,  9,  6,  1.)  After  the  death  of 
 Alexander  of  Macedon,  her  hand  was  sought  by  Per- 
 diccas  and  others  of  his  generals,  but  she  was  put  to 
 death  by  Antigonus.  (Dind.  Sic,  20,  37. — Compare 
 Diod.  Sic,  18,  23,  and  Wesscling,  ad  loc.)—lV.  A 
 daughter  of  Mithradatcs,  and  the  wife  of  Tigranes. 
 {Ju'stin,  38,  3  ) — V.  A  daughter  of  Aiitiochus  III.  of 
 Syria.  She  married  Ptolemy  V.,  king  of  Egypt,  and 
 was  left  guardian  of  her  infant  son  Ptolemy  VI.,  but 
 she  died  soon  after  her  husband,  to  the  great  regret  of 
 her  subjects — VI.  A  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Philometor, 
 was  the  wife  of  three  kings  of  Syria,  and  the  mother  of 
 four  ;  namely,  of  Antiochus  Dionysius.  by  her  first  hus- 
 band Alexander  Balas  ;  of  Seleucus  V.  and  Antiochus 
 VIII.,  by  Demetrius  Nicator  ;  and,  lastly,  of  Antiochus 
 IX.,  surnamed  Cyzicenus,  by  Antiochus  Euergetes  or 
 Sidetes.  She  was  compelled  by  her  son,  Antiochus 
 VIII  ,  to  drink  the  poison  which  she  had  prepared 
 for  him,  B.C.  120. —  VII.  The  most  famous  of  the 
 name  was  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  and  re- 
 markable for  her  beauty  and  personal  accomplishments. 
 1  According  to  the  usage  of  the  Alexandrean  court,  she 
 
CLEOPATRA. 
 
 CLE 
 
 married  her  eldest  brother  Ptolemy  XII.,  and  began 
 to  reign  with  hi  in  in  her  seventeenth  year.  Both  she 
 and  her  husband,  being  minors,  were  placed  by  the 
 will  of  their  father  under  the  guardianship  of  Rome, 
 an  office  which  the  senate  transferred  to  Pompcy.  An 
 insurrection  breaking  out  in  the  Egyptian  capital  soon 
 after  the  commencement  of  this  reign,  Cleopatra  was 
 ccmpelled  to  yield  to  the  tide  of  popular  fury,  and  to 
 flte  into  Syria,  where  she  sought  protection  in  tempo- 
 rary exile.  The  flight  of  this  princess,  though  mainly 
 arising  from  the  tumult  just  mentioned,  was  uiiijues- 
 lionably  accelerated  by  the  designs  of  the  young  king 
 and  his  ambitious  ministers.  Their  object  became 
 manifest  when  Cleopatra,  after  a  few  months'  residence 
 in  Syria,  returned  towards  her  native  country  to  resume 
 her  seat  on  the  throne.  Ptolemy  prepared  to  oppose 
 her  by  force  of  arms,  and  a  civil  war  would  inevitably 
 have  ensued,  had  not  Cajsar  at  that  very  juncture 
 sailed  to  the  coast  of  Egvpt  in  pursuit  of  Pompey.  A 
 secret  interview  soon  took  place  between  Cleopatra 
 and  the  Roman  general.  She  placed  herself  on  board 
 a  small  skiff,  under  the  protection  of  Apollodorus,  a 
 Sicilian  Greek,  set  sail  from  the  coast  of  Syria,  reach- 
 ed the  harbour  of  Alexandrea  in  safety,  and  had  herself 
 conveyed  into  the  chamber  of  the  Roman  commander 
 in  the  form  of  a  large  package  of  goods.  The  strata- 
 gem proved  completely  successful.  Cleopatra  was 
 now  in  her  twentieth  year,  distinguished  by  extraordi- 
 nary personal  charms,  and  surrounded  with  all  the 
 graces  which  give  to  those  charms  their  greatest  pow- 
 er. Her  voice  sounded  like  the  sweetest  music  ;  and 
 she  spoke  a  variety  of  languages  with  propriety  and 
 ease.  She  could,  it  is  said,  assume  all  characters  at 
 will,  which  all  alike  became  her,  and  the  impression 
 that  was  made  by  her  beauty  was  contirmed  by  the  fas- 
 cinating brilliancy  of  her  conversation.  The  day  after 
 (his  singular  meeting,  Csesar  summoned  before  him  the 
 king,  as  well  as  the  citizens  of  Alexandrea,  and  made 
 arrangements  for  the  restoration  of  peace,  procuring 
 Cleopatra,  at  the  same  time,  her  share  of  the  throne. 
 Potliinus,  however,  one  of  Ptolemy's  ministers,  in 
 whose  intriguing  spirit  ail  the  dissensions  of  the  court 
 had  originated,  soon  stirred  up  a  second  revolt,  upon 
 which  the  Alexandrean  war  commenced,  in  which 
 Ptolemy  was  defeated,  and  lost  his  life  by  drowning. 
 Caesar  now  proclaimed  Cleopatra  queen  of  Egypt ;  but 
 she  was  compelled  to  take  her  brother,  the  younger  Ptol- 
 emy, who  was  only  eleven  years  old,  as  her  husband  and 
 colleague  on  the  throne.  The  Roman  general  contin- 
 ued for  some  time  at  her  court,  and  she  bore  him  a  son, 
 called,  from  the  name  of  his  father,  Caesarion.  During 
 the  six  years  which  immediately  followed  these  events, 
 the  reign  of  Cleopatra  seems  not  to  have  been  dis- 
 turbed by  insurrection,  nor  to  have  been  assailed  by 
 foreign  war.  When  her  brother,  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
 demanded  his  share  in  the  government,  Cleopatra  poi- 
 soned him,  and  remained  sole  possessor  of  the  regal 
 authority.  The  dissensions  among  the  rival  leaders 
 who  divided  the  power  of  Ctesar,  had  no  doubt  nearly 
 involved  her  in  a  contest  with  both  parties ;  but  the 
 decisive  issue  of  the  battle  of  Philippi  relieved  her 
 from  the  iicsitaiion  under  which  some  of  her  measures 
 appear  to  have  been  adopted,  and  determined  her  in- 
 clinations, as  well  as  her  interests,  in  favour  of  the 
 conquerors.  To  afford  her  an  opportunity  of  ex|)laiii- 
 ing  her  conduct.  Antony  summoned  her  to  attend  him 
 in  Cilicia,  and  the  meeting  winch  she  gave  him  on  the 
 river  Cydnus  has  employed  the  pen,  not  only  of  the 
 historian,  but  of  the  prince  of  English  dramatists. 
 {Shnkspeare,  Antony  and  CUopafrn,  act  1,  scene  1.) 
 The  artifices  of  this  fascinating  princess,  now  in  her 
 twenty-fifth  year,  so  far  gained  upon  Antony,  as  not 
 only  to  divert  his  thoughts  from  his  original  purpose  of 
 subjecting  her  kingdom  to  the  payment  of  tribute,  but 
 entirely  to  lull  his  ambition  to  sleep,  and  make  him 
 sacrifice  his  great  stake  as  a  candidate  for  the  em- 
 36U 
 
 pire  of  the  world.  After  a  fruitless  attack  upon  the 
 territory  of  Palmyra,  he  hastened  to  forget  his  disgrace 
 in  the  society  of  the  Egyptian  queen,  passing  several 
 [notiths  at  Alexandrea  in  the  most  foolish  and  puerile 
 dissipation.  The  death  of  his  wife,  and  his  subsequent 
 marriage  with  Octavia,  delayed  for  a  time  the  crisis 
 whicli  his  ungoverned  passions  were  preparing  for 
 him.  But,  though  he  had  thus  extricated  himself  from 
 the  snares  of  Alexandrea,  his  inclinations  too  soon  re- 
 turned to  that  unhappy  city  ;  for  we  find  that  when 
 he  left  Rome  to  proceed  against  the  Parthians,  he  de- 
 spatched in  advance  his  friend  Fontcius  Capito,  to 
 conduct  Cleopatra  into  Syria.  On  his  return  from 
 this  disgraceful  campaign,  he  encountered  still  deeper 
 disgrace  by  once  more  willingly  submitting  to  that 
 bondage  which  had  rendered  him  contemptible  in  the 
 eyes  of  most  of  his  followers. — Passing  over  events 
 which  have  been  alluded  to  elsewhere  (  Vtd.  Augustus), 
 we  come  to  the  period  that  lollowed  the  battle  of  Ac- 
 tium.  When  Octavius  advanced  against  Egypt,  and 
 Antony  had  been  a  second  time  defeated  under  the 
 walls  of  Alexandrea,  Cleopatra  shut  herself  up  with  a 
 few  attendants,  and  the  most  valuable  part  of  her 
 treasures,  in  a  strong  building  which  apjiears  to  have 
 been  intended  for  a  royal  sepulchre.  To  prevent  in- 
 trusion by  friend  or  enemy,  she  caused  a  report  to  be 
 circulated  that  she  had  retired  into  the  monument  to 
 put  herself  to  death.  Antony  resolved  to  follow  her 
 example,  and  threw  himself  upon  his  sword  ;  but  being 
 informed,  before  he  expired,  that  Cleopatra  was  still 
 living,  he  caused  himself  to  be  carried  into  her  pres- 
 ence, and  breathed  his  last  in  her  arms.  Octavius, 
 after  this,  succeeded  in  getting  Cleopatra  into  his  pow- 
 er, and  the  queen  at  first  hoped  to  subdue  him  by  her 
 attractions  ;  but  finding  at  last  that  her  efforts  were 
 unavailing,  and  suspecting  that  her  life  was  spared 
 only  that  she  might  grace  the  conqueror's  trium[ih,  she 
 ended  her  days,  if  the  common  account  is  to  be  cred- 
 ited, by  the  bite  of  an  asp.  A  small  puncture  in  the 
 arm  was  the  only  mark  of  violence  which  could  be  de- 
 tected on  the  body  of  Cleopatra  ;  and  it  was  therefore 
 believed  that  she  had  procured  death  either  by  the 
 bite  of  a  venomous  reptile,  or  by  the  scratch  of  a  poi- 
 soned bodkin.  She  was  in  her  thirty-ninth  year,  hav- 
 ing reigned  twenty-two  years  from  the  death  of  her 
 father.  Octavius,  it  is  said,  though  deprived  by  this 
 act  of  suicide  of  the  greatest  ornament  of  his  approach- 
 ing triumph,  gave  orders  that  she  should  have  a  mag- 
 nificent luneral,  and  that  her  body,  as  she  desired, 
 should  be  laid  by  that  of  Antony. — In  the  grave  of  Cle- 
 opatra was  deposited  the  last  of  the  royal  race  of  the 
 Ptolemies,  a  family  which  had  swayed  the  sceptre  of 
 Egypt  for  two  hundred  and  ninety-four  vcars.  Of  the 
 real  character  of  this  celebrated  queen  herself,  it  is  not 
 possible  to  speak,  at  this  distance  of  time,  with  any 
 degree  of  confidence.  That  she  had  beauty  and  tal- 
 ents of  the  highest  order,  is  admitted  by  every  histo- 
 rian who  has  undertaken  to  give  the  annals  of  her 
 reign  ;  and  that  she  was  accomplished  in  no  ordinary 
 degree,  is  established  by  the  fact  of  her  being  a  great 
 j)roricient  in  music,  and  mistress  of  nearly  all  the  lan- 
 guages which  were  cultivated  in  her  age.  She  was 
 well  skilled,  for  example,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  she 
 could  converse  with  Ethiopians,  Jews,  Arabians,  Syr- 
 ians, Medes,  and  Persians,  without  an  interpreter.  If 
 her  conduct  was  not  at  ail  times  strictly  pure,  we  must 
 seek  for  an  apology  in  the  religion  and  manners  of  her 
 country,  and  must  ascribe  the  most  glaring  of  her  frail- 
 ties to  the  absurd  institutions  which  regulated  the  mat- 
 rimonial connexions  of  the  Grsco- Egyptian  j>rinces, 
 and  which  f)aid  no  respect  to  the  age,  affections,  or 
 temper  of  the  parties.  {Plut.,  YU.  Ca-s. — Id.,  Vit. 
 Ant. — Enryclop.  Mrtropoi,  div.  3,  vol,  2,  p.  345.) 
 
 Ci.EOP.\TK!s,  a  city  of  Egypt,  at  the  head  of  the  Si- 
 nus Arahicus,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Ars»« 
 noe.     {Vid.  Arsinoe,   VI.) 
 
CLI 
 
 CLO 
 
 Climax,  a  narrow  passage  on  the  coast  of  Lycia, 
 near  Phaselis.     {Vid.  Phaselis.) 
 
 Clinias,  I.  a  Pythagorean  philosopher  and  musi- 
 cian, 520  years  before  the  Christian  era.  {^EUan, 
 V.  H.,  14,  23.) — II.  An  Athenian,  said  by  Herodotus 
 (8,  17)  to  have  been  the  bravest  of  his  countrymen 
 in  the  bailie  fought  against  the  Persian  fleet  at  Ar- 
 temisium  :  and  the  Athenians  are  said  by  the  same 
 writer  to  have  conducted  themselves  on  that  occasion 
 with  the  greatest  valour  of  any  of  the  Greeks. — This 
 (Jlinias  was  the  father  of  the  celebrated  Alcibiades. 
 He  married  Dinomache,  the  daughter  of  Megacles, 
 grandson  to  Aganste,  the  daughter  of  Glisthenes,  ty- 
 rant of  Sicyon.  He  fell  at  the  battle  of  Coronea. 
 Consult  the  learned  note  of  Valckenaer  {ad  Herodot., 
 I.  c.)  for  other  particulars  respecting  this  Clinias. — 
 III.  The  father  of  Aratus,  killed  by  Abantidas,  B.C. 
 263.     (F;(/.  Aratus  II.) 
 
 Ci.io,  one  of  the  Muses.  She  presided  over  histo- 
 ry, and  was  generally  represented  as  holding  a  half- 
 opened  roll.  The  mvention  of  the  cithara  was  ascribed 
 to  her.  Having  drawn  on  herself  the  anger  of  Venus, 
 by  taunting  her  with  her  passion  for  Adonis,  Clio  was 
 inspired  by  the  goddess  with  love  for  Pierus,  the  son 
 of  Magnes,  and  bore  him  a  son  named  Hyacinthus. 
 {Apollod.,  1,  3,  2,  seqq)  Her  name  (KAftw)  is  de- 
 rived from  K'Adog  (louic  for  /cAeof),  glory,  renown, 
 6ic.,  because  she  celebrates  the  glorious  actions  of  the 
 good  and  brave. 
 
 Clito.m.Ichus,  a  native  of  Carthage.  {Diog.  La- 
 ert.,  4,  67,  seqq.)  In  his  early  years  he  acquired  a 
 fondness  for  learning,  which  induced  him  to  visit 
 Greece  for  the  purpose  of  attending  the  schools  of  the 
 philosopliers.  From  the  time  of  his  first  arrival  in 
 Athens  he  attached  himself  to  Carneades,  and  con- 
 tinued his  disciple  until  his  death,  when  he  became 
 his  successor  in  the  academic  chair.  He  studied  with 
 great  industry,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  systems 
 of  the  other  schools  ;  but  professed  the  doctrine  of  sus- 
 pension of  assent,  as  it  had  been  taught  by  his  master. 
 Cicero  relates,  that  he  wrote  four  hundred  books  upon 
 philosophical  subjects.  At  an  advanced  age  he  was 
 seized  with  a  lethargy.  Recovering  in  some  measure 
 the  use  of  his  faculties,  he  said,  "  The  love  of  life 
 shall  deceive  me  no  longer,"  and  laid  violent  hands 
 upon  himself  He  entered,  as  we  have  said,  upon  the 
 office  of  preceptor  in  the  academy  immediately  after  the 
 death  of  Carneades,  and  held  it  thirty  years.  According 
 to  Cicero,  he  taught  that  there  is  no  certain  criterion 
 by  which  to  judge  of  the  truth  of  those  reports  which 
 we  receive  from  the  senses,  and  that,  therefore,  a  wise 
 man  will  either  wholly  suspend  his  assent,  or  decline 
 giving  a  peremptory  opinion  ;  but  that,  nevertheless, 
 men  are  strongly  impelled  by  nature  to  follow  proba- 
 bility. His  moral  doctrine  established  a  natural  alli- 
 ance between  pleasure  and  virtue.  He  was  a  professed 
 enemy  to  rhetoric,  and  thought  that  no  place  should  be 
 allowed  in  society  to  so  dangerous  an  art.  (Sext. 
 Emp.  adv.  Rhct ,  t)  20.— Enfield's  History  of  P kilos- 
 ophi/,  vol.  1,  p.  258.) 
 
 Ci.iTUMNus,  a  river  of  Umbria,  rising  in  the  vicinity 
 of  Spolelurn,  and  falling  into  the  Tinia,  and  both  to- 
 gether mto  the  Tiber.  The  modern  name  of  the  Cli- 
 luinnus  IS  Clilunno.  It  was  famous,  according  to 
 Virgil,  for  Us  milk-white  herds,  selected  as  victims  in 
 the  celebration  of  the  triumph.  {Virg.,  Georg  ,  2 
 lAR.—Propcrt.,  2,  el.  19,  25.— «,1  Ital.,  8,  452.— 
 /«!).,  12,  l^— Claud.,  6,  Cons.  Hon.,  506.)  The 
 beautiful  description  which  the  younger  Pliny  (Ep., 
 8,  8)  has  left  us  of  this  sacred  river  an'd  its  little  tem- 
 ple, the  rums  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  near  the 
 posthouse  of  Le  Vcrrc,  between  Foligno  and  Spolelo, 
 will  be  read  with  most  pleasure  in  the  original. 
 (Compare  Vom/t,   Osscrmzwni  sopra  il  fiume   Cli- 
 
 rnnnu,dri  suo  Culto  e  Tempio,  Rom.,  1773,  4to. 
 
 Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  270.)     According 
 
 xj  Z 
 
 to  Eustace,  white  herds  are  still  seen  wandering  over 
 the  rich  plain  watered  by  this  river.  {Classical  Tour, 
 vol.   1,  p.  322.) 
 
 Clitus,  a  familiar  friend  and  foster-brother  of  Al- 
 exander, who  had  saved  the  king's  life  in  battle.  Al- 
 exander killed  him  with  a  javelin  in  a  fit  of  inebriety, 
 because,  at  a  feast,  he  preferred  the  actions  of  Philip 
 to  those  of  his  son.     {Vid.  Alexander.) 
 
 Cloacina,  a  goddess  at  Rome,  who  presided  over 
 the  cloacas.  I'hese  cloacae  were  sewers  for  carrying 
 off  the  fikh  of  the  city.  The  main  one  was  called 
 Cloaca  Maxima.  From  what  remains  of  the  Cloaca 
 Maxima  at  the  present  day,  we  may  infer  that  the 
 praise  which  the  ancients  bestowed  on  the  Roman 
 cloacae  generally  was  not  unmerited.  The  first  cloacae 
 were  constructed  by  the  two  Tarquins.  Tarquinius 
 Priscus  drained  the  low  grounds  of  the  city  about  the 
 Forum,  and  the  valleys  lying  between  the  hills  (the 
 Palatine  and  Capitoline),  by  cloacae,  which  were  carried 
 into  the  Tiber.  {Liv.,  1,  38.)  But  the  draining  was 
 imperfect,  and  the  Cloaca  Maxima  was  inconsequence 
 built  by  Tarquinius  Superbus.  {Liv.,  1,  56.)  It 
 crossed  the  Roman  Forum  beneath  the  level  of  the 
 pavement,  and  in  ancient  times  it  is  said  that  the 
 tunnel  was  so  large  that  a  wagon  loaded  with  hay 
 could  easily  pass  under  it.  (.S7/a6o,  235.)  Pliny  ex- 
 presses his  wonder  at  the  solidity  and  durability  of  this 
 great  undertaking,  which,  after  a  lapse  of  800  years, 
 still  remained  uninjured  and  entire  (36,  15).  At 
 the  present  day,  however,  all  that  we  see  of  it  is  the 
 upper  part  of  a  gray  massy  arch  of  peperin  stone,  as 
 solid  as  the  day  il  was  built,  through  which  the  water 
 almost  imperceptibly  fiovvs.  Though  choked  up  nearly 
 to  its  top  by  the  artificial  elevation  of  the  surface  of 
 modern  Rome,  it  is  curious  to  see  it  slill  serving  as 
 the  common  sewer  of  the  city,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly 
 three  thousand  years.  When  the  Tiber,  into  which  it 
 flows,  is  flooded,  the  water  in  the  cloaca  is  driven  back 
 so  as  to  rise  above  the  keystone  of  the  arch,  and  hide 
 It  from  view.  When  the  Tiber  is  low,  not  only  this 
 arch,  but  also  the  arch  through  which  it  discharges  its 
 sordid  flood  into  the  river,  may  be  seen  from  the 
 Ponte  Rotto,  or  still  more  distinctly  from  the  river 
 itself  Dionysius  informs  us  (3,  67),  that  it  cost  the 
 state  the  enormous  sum  of  1000  talents  to  have  the 
 cloacae  cleaned  and  re[)aired.  We  hear  also  of  other 
 sewers  being  made  from  time  to  time  on  Mount  Aven- 
 tine  and  other  places,  by  the  censors  M.  Cato  and  Va- 
 lerius Flaccus  {Lrv.,  39,  44),  but  more  especially,  by 
 Agrippa,  who,  according  to  Pliny  (/.  c),  :s  said  to 
 have  introduced  whole  rivers  into  these  hollow  chan- 
 nels, on  which  the  city  was,  as  it  were,  suspended, 
 and  thus  was  rendered  subterraneously  navigable. 
 (Compare  Slrabo,  I.  c. — Cassiod  ,  Var.  Ep.,  3,  30.) 
 It  would  seem,  according  to  the  common  account, 
 that  the  early  cloacae  were  at  first  carried  through  the 
 streets  ;  but  that,  through  want  of  regularity  in  rebuild- 
 ing the  city  after  it  was  burned  by  the  Gauls,  they  in 
 many  places  passed  under  private  houses. — Some 
 architects,  in  order  to  support  their  improbable  theory 
 that  the  construction  of  the  arch  was  not  known  even 
 in  Greece  (where  the  art  had  reached  a  perfection  it 
 will  never  more  attain)  till  about  a  hundred  years  be- 
 fore the  Christian  era,  have  attempted  to  controvert 
 the  antiquity  of  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  and  attribute  it  to 
 a  much  later  period.  (Compare  Hirt,  Gesch.  diT 
 Baukimst,  vol.  2,  p.  123,  and  Muller,  Etrusker,  vol. 
 1,  p.  259.)  But  if  it  had  really  been  rebuilt,  as  a  late 
 learned  antiquary  chose  to  imagine,  by  Augustus, 
 would  it  have  escaped  the  notice  of  Suciomus!  or 
 would  Livy,  that  minute  and  accurate  historian,  who 
 extols  its  grandeur  and  antiquity,  and  carefully  chron- 
 icles the  erection  of  every  temple  and  basilica,  have 
 failed  to  record  such  a  work  as  this,  which  must 
 have  been  executed  before  his  own  eyes,  and  by  the 
 very  prince  in  whose  court  he  was  living  \     On  the 
 
 361 
 
CLO 
 
 C  LU 
 
 contrary,  be  expressly  says,  "  that  Tarquin  made  the 
 great  subterranean  cloaca  to  carry  off  tlic  filth  of  the 
 city,  a  work  so  vast  that  even  the  maiinificencc  of  the 
 present  age  has  not  been  able  to  equal  it."  (Liv...  1, 
 fifi.)  Pliny  also,  who  records  its  repair  in  the  reign 
 of  Augustus,  expressly  says,  that,  afler  800  years,  this 
 opus  ommuni  maximum  continued  as  strong  as  when 
 first  built  by  Tarquin.  It  may,  indeed,  seem  incredi- 
 ble, that  the  Romans,  in  that  rude  age,  should  have 
 been  capable  of  executing  so  noble  a  piece  of  architec- 
 ture ;  but  Livy  tells  us,  "  that  Tarquin  sent  for  artists 
 from  every  part  of  Etruria,"  for  this  and  his  other  pub- 
 lic works.  Nothing  can  be  clearer  than  this  evidence 
 of  the  Cloaca  Maxima  being  the  work  of  the  Tarquins  ; 
 and  its  denial  only  affords  one  of  the  many  proofs,  that 
 antiquaries  will  pervert  or  overlook  facts  when  they 
 interfere  with  their  favourite  theories.  This  cloaca, 
 therefore,  is  doubly  interesting,  not  only  from  its  ex- 
 traordinary grandeur  and  antiquity,  but  from  being, 
 perhaps,  the  sole,  and  certainly  the  finest,  remains  of 
 Etruscan  architecture  that  have  come  down  to  our 
 times.  {Rome  in  the  19th  Century,  vol.  1,  p.  249, 
 not. — Compare  Burgess,  Anliquilies  of  Rome,  vol.  2, 
 p.  223.) 
 
 Cloanthus,  one  of  the  companions  of  ^neas, 
 from  whom  the  family  of  the  Cluentii  at  Rome  claimed 
 descent.     {Virg.,  Ain.,  5,  122.) 
 
 Clodia,  I.  a  sister  of  Clodius  the  tribune,  and  a 
 female  of  the  most  abandoned  character.  She  married 
 Q.  Metellus  Celer,  and  was  suspected  of  having  poi- 
 soned him. — II.  The  younger  sister  of  the  preceding, 
 and  e(]ually  infamous  in  character.  She  married  Lu- 
 cullus,  but  was  repudiated  by  him  for  her  scandalous 
 conduct.     (Plut...  Vit.  Litcull.) 
 
 Clodia  Lex,  I.  dc  Cypro,  was  brought  forward  by 
 the  tribune  Clodius,  A.U.C.  695,  that  Cyprus  should 
 be  taken  from  Ptolemy  and  made  a  Roman  province. 
 This  was  done  in  order  to  punish  that  monarch  for 
 having  refused  Clodius  money  to  pay  his  ransom  when 
 taken  by  the  pirates,  and  to  remove  Cato  out  of  the 
 way  by  appointing  him  to  see  the  law  executed. — II. 
 Another,  dc  Magisiralibns,  A.U.C.  695,  by  the  same. 
 It  forbade  the  censors  to  put  a  stigma  or  mark  of  in- 
 famy upon  any  person  wiio  had  not  been  actually  ac- 
 cused and  condemned  by  both  of  them.— III.  An- 
 other, A.U.C.  695,  which  required  the  same  distribu- 
 ■  ion  of  corn  among  the  people  gratis,  as  had  been  given 
 .hem  before  at  six  asses  and  a  trictis  the  modius. — IV. 
 Another,  ."^.U-C.  695,  by  the  same,  de  Judiciis.  It 
 called  to  an  account  such  as  had  executed  a  Roman 
 citizen  without  a  judgment  of  the  people,  and  all  the 
 formalities  of  a  trial.  Cicero  was  aimed  at  by  this 
 law,  and  soon  after,  by  means  of  a  hired  mob,  was  actu- 
 ally banished. 
 
 Ci.oDias,  Publiiis,  a  Roman  descended  from  an  il- 
 lustrious faniily,  but  notorious  as  a  bold  and  reckless 
 demagogue,  and  a  man  of  the  most  corrupt  morals. 
 Besides  being  guilty  of  the  most  revolting  turpitude  in 
 the  case  of  his  nearest  female  relatives,  he  introduced 
 himself,  in  woman's  clothing,  into  the  house  of  Julius 
 Caesar,  with  improper  designs  against  Pompeia,  the 
 wife  of  Caesar,  of  wliom  he  was  enatnourcd.  and 
 who  was  then  celebrating  the  mysteries  of  the  Bona 
 Dea,  at  which  no  male  was  allowed  to  be  present. 
 He  was  tried  for  the  sacrilege,  but  escaped  punish- 
 ment by  bribing  the  judges.  In  order  to  be  eligible  to 
 the  trihuneship,  he  relinquished  his  patrician  rank,  and 
 had  himself  adopted  into  a  plelieian  family.  While 
 filling  the  office  of  tribune  he  had  numerous  laws  pass- 
 ed, favourable  to  the  people  and  adverse  to  the  patri- 
 cians. He  procured  for  Cato,  whom  he  detested,  the 
 government  of  Cyprus,  in  order  that  he  might  lose  his 
 reputation  in  this  difficult  office,  and  along  with  it  the 
 influence  which  he  enjoyed  at  Rome.  He  cherished 
 equal  hatred  towards  Cicero,  whom  he  finally  succeed- 
 ed in  driving  from  the  city.  So  troublesome  at  last 
 362 
 
 did  he  become  even  to  his  own  party,  that,  in  order  to 
 keep  him  in  check,  Pompey  procured  the  recall  of  Ci- 
 cero from  exile,  which  he  could  not  effect,  however, 
 without  the  strenuous  aid  of  the  tribune  Milo ;  and 
 not  long  after  Clodius  was  slain  in  a  conflict  that  took 
 place  between  his  followers  and  those  of  Milo.  {Cic, 
 Or.  pro  Mil. — Plut.,  Vit.  Cic.) 
 
 Cloclia,  a  Roman  virgin,  given  as  a  hostage  to  Por- 
 senna.  According  to  the  old  Roman  legend,  when 
 Porsenna  and  the  Romans  made  a  peace  after  the  af- 
 fair of  Mucins  Scsevola,  the  latter  people  gave  hostages 
 to  the  king,  ten  youths  and  ten  maidens,  children  of 
 noble  parents,  as  a  pledge  that  they  would  truly  keep 
 the  peace  which  had  been  made.  It  happened,  as  the 
 camp  of  the  Etrurians  was  near  the  Tiber,  that  Clcelia, 
 one  of  the  maidens,  escaped  with  her  companions,  and 
 fled  to  the  brink  of  the  river  ;  and,  as  the  Etrurians  pur- 
 sued them,  they  all  rushed  into  the  water  and  swam  in 
 safety  across  the  stream.  But  the  Romans,  jealous  of 
 their  reputation  for  good  faith,  sent  them  all  back  to 
 the  camp  of  Porsenna.  Not  to  be  outdone  in  gener- 
 osity, the  monarch  gave  her  and  her  female  compan 
 ions  their  freedom,  and  permitted  her  to  take  with  hei 
 half  of  the  youths  ;  whereupon,  with  the  delicacy  of  a 
 Roman  maiden,  she  selected  those  only  who  were  of 
 tender  years.  The  Romans  raised  an  equestrian 
 statue  in  honour  of  her,  on  the  highest  part  of  the  Sa- 
 cred Way.  {Lie.,  2,  13.)  She  was  also  rewarded  with 
 a  horse  and  arms.  (Fragm.  Dion.  Cass.,  4. — Bckker, 
 Anecd.,  1,  p.  133,  8.)  There  is  another  story,  that 
 Tarquinius  fell  upon  the  hostages  as  they  were  con- 
 ducted into  the  Etrurian  camp  ;  and,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  Valeria,  who  fled  back  to  the  city,  massacred 
 them  all.     {Plin.,  34,  13.) 
 
 Clotho,  the  youngest  of  the  three  Parcae,  daughters 
 of  Jupiter  and  Themis.  {Vid.  V&rcx.)  She  held  the 
 distaff,  and  spun  the  thread  of  life,  whence  her  name 
 (K?.udeiv,  to  spin). 
 
 Cluentius,  a  Roman,  who,  at  his  mother's  instiga 
 tion,  was  accused  of  having  poisoned  his  stepfather 
 Oppianicus.  He  was  defended  with  great  ability  by 
 Cicero,  in  an  oration  which  is  still  extant.  (Firf.  Ci- 
 cero.) 
 
 Ci-usiUM,  now  C/tmsi,  a  town  of  Etruria,  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Clanis.  Its  more  ancient  name  was  Gamers. 
 (Liv.,  10,  25. — Compare  Mullcr,  Etrusker,  vol.  1,  p. 
 102,  where  the  name  Camers  or  Camars  is  regarded 
 as  a  j)roof  of  the  place's  having  been  originally  pos- 
 sessed by  the  Umbrian  race  of  the  Camertes.  Con- 
 sult also  Cluvcr,  It.  Ant.,  vol.  2,  p.  567.)  The  Gauls 
 under  Bretinus  besieged  it,  but  marched  to  Rome  with- 
 out taking  it.  It  was  at  Clusium  that  Porsenna  held 
 his  court ;  and  near  this  city  he  erected  for  himself  the 
 splendid  mausoleum  of  which  Pliny  has  transmitted  to 
 us  a  description  on  the  authority  of  Varro.  (Plin.,  36, 
 13  )  The  whole  account  seems  to  bear  no  small  aj)- 
 pearance  of  fiction  ;  for,  had  such  a  stupendous  work 
 really  existed,  some  traces  of  it  would  surely  have  re- 
 mained, not  merely  in  Pliny's  day,  but  even  in  the 
 present  age. — Pliny  (3,  5)  makes  a  distinction  between 
 Clusium  Vetus  and  Novum  ;  and  a  village,  named 
 Chiu.n,  supposed  to  represent  the  latter,  is  pointed  out 
 at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  north  oi  Arczzo,  in  con- 
 firmation of  this  distinction.  (^Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  l,p.  219.) 
 
 Ci.usius,  I.  or  Clesius,  a  river  of  Gallia  Transpada 
 na,  rising  among  the  Euganel,  and  flowing  between  the 
 Lake  Benacus  and  the  river  Mela.  It  is  now  the  Chiese, 
 or  Chiso,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Oglio. — II.  The 
 surname  of  .fanus,  when  his  temple  was  shut.  (Ovid, 
 Fa.tt.,  1,  130.) 
 
 Clymene,  I.  a  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys, 
 who  married  lapetus,  by  whom  she  had  Atlas,  Prome- 
 theus, Menoetius,  and  Epimctheus.  (Hesiod,  Tkeog., 
 508,  scqq.)—U.  The  mother  of  Phaethon  (Ovid,  Met., 
 1,  756.)— III.  A  female  servant  of  Helen,  who  ac- 
 
CNO 
 
 COG 
 
 companied  her  mistress  to  Troy  when  she  eloped  with 
 Paris.     (Or;(Z,  Heroid.,  17,  267.— Horn.,  IL,  3,  144.) 
 Gi,vMENEiDEs,  a  patronymic  given  to  Phaethon's 
 sisters,  who  were  daughters  of  Clymene. 
 
 Clyi'ea  (called  by  the  Greek  writers  Aspis),  now 
 Aklibm,  a  town  of  Africa  Propria,  22  miles  east  of 
 Carthage.  It  was  built  upon  a  promontory  which  was 
 shaped  like  a  shield.  Agathocles  seized  upon  this 
 place  when  he  landed  in  Africa,  fortified  it,  and  gave 
 It,  from  the  shape  of  the  promontory,  the  name  of  As- 
 pis ("a  shield"  in  Greek,  same  as  Cii/peus  in  Latin). 
 The  natives  called  the  promontory  Tapliitis.  This 
 town  served  as  a  stronghold  to  Reguhis  in  the  first 
 Punic  war.  (Lucan,  4,  586.— Lb.,  27,  29.— Cces., 
 B   C,  2,  23  ) 
 
 Ci.YTEMNESTRA,  a  daughter  of  Tyndarus,  king  of 
 Sparta,  by  Leda.  She  was  born,  together  with  her 
 brother  Castor,  from  one  of  the  eggs  which  her  mother 
 brought  forth  after  her  amour  with  Jupiter,  under  the 
 form  of  a  swan.  She  married  Agamemnon,  king  of 
 Mycenae.  When  this  monarch  went  to  the  Trojan  war, 
 he  left  his  wife  and  family,  and  all  his  affairs,  to  the  care 
 of  his  relation  yEgisthus.  But  the  latter  proved  un- 
 faithful to  liis  trust,  corrupted  Glytemnestra,  and  usurp- 
 ed the  throne.  Agamemnon,  on  his  return  home,  was 
 murdered  by  his  guilty  wife,  who  was  herself  after- 
 ward slain,  along  with  ^gisthus,  by  Orestes,  son  of 
 the  deceased  monarch.  (Consult,  for  a  more  detailed 
 account,  the  articles  Agamemnon  and  Orestes.) 
 
 Cmdus,  a  town  and  promontory  of  Doris  in  Caria, 
 at  the  extremity  of  a  promontory  called  Triopium. 
 The  founder  of  the  place  is  said  to  have  been  Triopas. 
 (Diod.,  5,  61. — PaiLsan.,  10,  2.)  From  him  it  re- 
 ceived at  first  the  name  of  Triopium,  which  at  a  later 
 period  was  confined  merely  to  the  promontory  on  which 
 it  stood.  (Sajlax,  p.  38. — Hcrodot.,  1,  174.)  Venus 
 was  the  chief  deity  of  the  place,  and  had  three  temples 
 erected  to  her,  under  the  several  surnames  of  Doritis, 
 Acr^^a,  and  Euplora.  In  the  last  of  these  stood  a  cele- 
 brated statue  of  the  goddess,  the  work  of  Praxiteles. 
 iPau.'^an..  1,  l.—Plm.,  36,  b.—Hor.,  Od..  3,  28.— Ca- 
 tulL,  36,  11.)  Nicomedes  of  Bithynia  wished  to  pur- 
 chase this  admirable  production  of  the  chisel,  and  actual- 
 ly offered  to  liquidate  the  debt  of  Cnid us,  which  was  very 
 considerable,  if  the  citizens  would  cede  it  to  him  ;  but 
 thev  refused  to  part  with  what  they  esteemed  the  glory 
 of  their  city.  (Plin.,  I.  c)  A  drawing  of  the  Venus 
 of  Cnidus,  from  an  antique  statue  found  near  Rome, 
 is  given  by  Flaxman,  at  the  end  of  his  lectures  on 
 sculpture  {pi.  22).  The  shores  of  Gnidus  furnished  in 
 ancient  times,  as  they  do  now,  a  great  abundance  of 
 fishes.  The  wines  were  famous,  and  Theophrastus 
 speaks  of  the  Cnidian  onions  as  of  a  particular  species, 
 being  very  mild,  and  not  occasionifig  tears.  Cnidus 
 was  the  birthplace  of  the  famous  mathematician  and 
 astronomer  Eudoxus;  of  ."^gatharchidas,  Theopompus, 
 and  (Ucsias.  It  is  now  a  mere  heap  of  ruins  ;  and 
 the  modern  name  of  the  promontory  is  Cape  Crio. 
 (Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  236.)  An  account 
 of  the  ruins  of  Cnidus  is  given  in  Clarke's  Travels, 
 vol    3,  p.  261,  from  Walpole's  MS.  Journal. 
 
 Cnosits  (Kvuffor,  more  correct  than  Cnossus, 
 Ki'uiaor,  if  we  follow  the  language  of  coins  and  in- 
 Fcriptions),  the  roval  city  of  Crete,  on  the  northern 
 co;\st,  at  a  small  distance  from  the  sea.  Its  earlier 
 name  was  Cieratus,  which  appellation  was  given  also 
 to  the  inconsiderable  stream  that  flowed  beneath  its 
 waiis.  (Strah.,  476  )  It  was  indebted  to  Minos  for 
 ah  Its  importance  and  splendour.  That  monarch  is 
 said  to  have  divided  the  island  into  three  portions,  in 
 each  of  which  he  founded  a  large  city  ;  and  fixing  his 
 residence  at  ('nosus,  it  became  the  capital  of  the  king- 
 dom. (Diod.  Sic,  5,  78  )  It  was  here  that  D»da- 
 lus  cultivated  his  art,  and  planned  the  celebrated  lab- 
 yrinth. Gnosus  long  preserved  its  rank  among  the 
 chief  cities  of  Crete,  and,  by  its  alliance  with  Gortvna, 
 
 obtained  the  dominion  of  nearly  the  whole  island.  The 
 vestiges  of  this  city  are  discernible  at  the  present  day, 
 to  the  east  of  the  town  of  Candia,  which  has  commu- 
 nicated to  the  island  its  present  name.  The  precise 
 site  of  the  ruins  is  called  Long  Candia.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  368,  seqq.)  The  name  of  this 
 city  is  sometimes  written  with  an  initial  G,  as  Gno- 
 sus, and  the  V  occurs  actually  on  some  coins,  but  the 
 more  common  initial  letter  in  Greek  inscriptions  and 
 on  coins  is  the  K.  (Compare  Raschc,  Lex.  Rei 
 Num.,  vol.  2,  col    649,  seqq.) 
 
 Coc.Xlus,  a  king  of  Sicily,  who  hospitably  received 
 DaRdalus,  when  he  fled  before  Minos.  When  Minos 
 arrived  in  Sicily,  the  daughters  of  Cocalus  destroyed 
 him.     {Ovid,  Met.,  8,  261.) 
 
 CoccEius  Nerva.      Vid.  Nerva  I. 
 
 CoccvGius,  a  mountain  of  Argolis,  between  Halice 
 and  Hermione.  Its  previous  name  was  Thornax ; 
 but  it  received  the  appellation  of  Coccygius  from  the 
 circumstance  of  Jupiter's  having  been  metamorphosed 
 there  into  the  bird  called  Coccyx  {Kokkv^)  by  the 
 Greeks.  On  its  summit  was  a  temple  sacred  to  that 
 god,  and  another  of  Apollo  at  the  base.  {Pausanias, 
 2,  36.) 
 
 CociNTUM  Promontorhim,  a  promontory  of  Bru- 
 tium  in  Lower  Italy,  below  the  Sinus  Scylacius.  The 
 modern  name  is  Cape  StUo.  It  marked  the  separation 
 between  the  Ionian  and  Sicilian  seas.    {Pohjb.,  2,  14.) 
 
 CocLEs,  Publius  Horatius  (or,  as  Niebuhr  gives  it, 
 Marcus  Horatius),  a  Roman  who,  alone,  opposed  the 
 whole  army  of  Porsenna  at  the  head  of  a  bridge,  while 
 his  companions  behind  him  were  cutting  oflF  the  com 
 munication  with  the  other  shore.  When  the  bridge 
 was  destroyed.  Codes,  after  addressing  a  short  prayer 
 to  the  god  of  the  Tiber,  leaped  into  the  stream,  and 
 swam  across  in  safety  with  his  arms.  As  a  mark  of 
 gratitude,  every  inhabitant,  while  famine  was  raging 
 within  the  city,  brought  him  all  the  provisions  he  could 
 stint  himself  of ;  and  the  state  afterward  raised  a  statue 
 to  him,  and  gave  him  as  much  land  as  he  could  plough 
 round  in  a  day.  (Lw.,  2,  \Q.—Dion.  Hal,  1,  24.) 
 Whatever  we  may  think  of  the  other  parts  of  the  story, 
 that  portion  of  it  which  relates  to  the  land  is  evidently 
 mere  poetic  exaggeration.  Polybius  (6,  53)  makes 
 Codes  to  have  perished  in  the  river.  (Consult,  as 
 regards  the  whole  legend,  the  remarks  of  Niebuhr, 
 Pom.  Hist.,  vol.  i.,  p.  476,  seqq.,  Camhr.  transl.) — 
 The  name  Codes  properly  means""  a  person  blind  of 
 one  eye."  It  appears  to  be  the  old  form  odes  (fronti 
 oculus),  with  a  harsh  initial  aspiration.  {Varro,  L. 
 L,  6,  3  ) 
 
 CocYTUs,  a  river  of  Epirns,  which,  according  to 
 Pausanias  (1,  17),  blended  its  nauseous  waters  with 
 those  of  the  Acheron.  Its  fancied  etymology  (from 
 KcjKvu,  "  to  lament,"  "  to  wail"),  the  unwholesome- 
 ness  of  its  waters,  and,  above  all,  its  proximity  to  the 
 Acheron,  induced  the  poets  to  make  it  one  of  the  riv- 
 ers of  the  lower  world.  {Virg.,  Georg.,  3,  38. — Id, 
 Mn.,  6,  297,  &c.) — "  Leaving  Polamia,"  observes  an 
 intelligent  traveller,  "  we  passed  over  a  marsh  or  bog 
 formed  by  the  overflowing  of  the  river  Yava,  which 
 is  probably  the  Cocytus  of  antiquity.  It  flows  from 
 below  the  mountains  of  Margarili,  opposite  Piciami- 
 thia.  and.  after  skirting  the  opposite  side  of  the  plain, 
 empties  itself  into  the  Acheron,  at  a  small  distance 
 from  its  mouth,  below  the  village  of  Tcheuk-mdes. 
 Pausanias,  in  his  description  of  the  Acheron,  ii.tiniaies 
 that  the  Cocytus  also  flows  in  the  same  plain  ;  and  no 
 other  river  except  the  Acheron,  now  called  the  ttotu/ii 
 -nil  loiili.  and  the  Vava,  is  to  be  discovered  in  the 
 Phanari.  The  very  appellation  Vara  {fiadd),  which  is 
 an  expression  of  grief  or  aversion,  seems  to  strengthen 
 the  conjecture  ;  and  not  only  this,  but  the  water  of 
 the  Vava  exactly  coincides  with  the  expression  of 
 Pausanias,  v6u)p  arepTTiaTarov,  for  it  flows  slowly 
 over  a  deep  muddy  soil,  imbibing  no.xious  qualities 
 
C  CE  L 
 
 COL 
 
 from  inrmmerable  weeds  upon  its  banks,  and  occasions 
 the  greatest  part  of  the  malaria  of  the  plain."  (Hughes, 
 Travels  in  Greece,  &c.,  vol.  2,  p.  311. — Compare 
 Wordsworth's  Greece,  p.  254,  seqq.) 
 
 CoDANUs  SINUS,  one  of  the  ancient  names  of  the 
 Baltic.  Mela  (3,  3,  6)  represents  it  as  full  of  large 
 and  small  islands,  the  largest  of  which  he  calls  Scan- 
 dinavia ;  so  also  Pliny  (4,  13).  The  name  Codanus 
 seems  to  have  some  reference  to  that  of  the  Goths  in 
 sound.  The  modern  term  Baltic  appears  to  be  de- 
 rived from  the  Celtic  Bah  or  Belt,  denoting  a  collection 
 of  water  ;  whence  also  the  name  of  the  straits,  Great 
 and  Little  Belt.     (Malte-Brun,  Diet.  Geogr.,  p.  viii.) 
 
 CoDOMANNUs,  a  surname  of  Darius  the  Third,  king 
 of  Persia.     {Vul.  Darius  III.) 
 
 CouRfjs,  the  last  king  of  Athens.  He  received  the 
 sceptre  from  his  father  Melanthus,  and  was  now  far 
 advanced  in  years,  having  reigned  for  a  considerable 
 time,  when  some  of  the  Dorian  states  united  their 
 forces  for  the  invasion  of  Attica.  The  Dorian  army 
 marched  to  Athens,  and  lay  encamped  under  its  walls; 
 and  the  oracle  at  Delphi  had  assured  them  of  success. 
 provided  they  spared  the  life  of  the  Athenian  king. 
 A  friendly  Delphian,  named  (Jleomantis,  disclosed  the 
 answer  of  the  oracle  to  the  Athenians,  and  Codrus  re- 
 solved to  devote  himself  for  his  country  in  a  manner 
 not  unlike  that  which  immortalized  among  the  Ro- 
 mans, at  a  later  date,  the  name  of  the  Decii.  He 
 went  out  at  the  gate  disguised  in  a  woodman's  garb, 
 and.  falling  in  with  two  Dorians,  killed  one  with  his 
 bill,  and  was  killed  by  the  other.  The  Athenians 
 thereupon  sent  a  herald  to  claim  the  body  of  their  kino-, 
 and  the  Dorian  chiefs,  deeming  the  war  hopeless,  with- 
 drew their  forces  from  Attica  — This  story,  which  con- 
 tinued for  centuries  to  warm  the  patriotism  of  the 
 Athenians,  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  altogether 
 improbable.  It  would  seem,  however,  to  be  confirm- 
 ed by  the  fact  mentioned  by  the  orator  Lycurcus 
 {contra  Leocr.,  p.  158),  that  Cleomantis,  and  his  pos- 
 terity, were  honoured  with  the  privilege,  of  sharing  the 
 entertainment  provided  in  the  Prytaneum  at  Athens 
 for  the  guests  of  the  state.  But  we  scarcely  know 
 how  the  current  tradition  is  to  be  reconciled  with  an- 
 other preserved  by  Pausanias  (7,  25),  that  a  part  of 
 the  Dorian  army  effected  their  entrance  by  night 
 within  the  walls,  and,  being  surrounded  by  their  en- 
 emies, took  refuge  at  the  altars  of  the  Eumenides  on 
 the  Areopagus,  and  were  spared  by  the  piety  of  the 
 Athenians.  If.  however,  either  must  be  rejected  as  a 
 fabrication,  this  last  has  certainly  the  slighter  claim  to 
 credit. — After  the  death  of  Codrus,  the  nobles,  taking 
 advantage,  perhaps,  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  a 
 dispute  between  his  sons,  are  said  to  have  abolished 
 the  title  of  king,  and  to  have  substituted  for  it  that  of 
 archon.  This  new  office  was  to  be  held  for  life,  and 
 then  transmitted  to  the  son  of  the  deceased.  The 
 first  of  these  hereditary  archons  was  Medon,  son  of 
 Codrus,  from  whom  the  thirteen  following  archons 
 were  called  Mcdontidae,  as  being  his  lineal  descend- 
 ants. {Vid.  Archontes. — ThirlwaWs  Hist,  of  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  275,  vol.  2,  p.  15.) 
 
 CoELE  (Koihj),  or,  the  Hollow,  I.  the  northern  di- 
 vision of  Elis. — II.  A  quarter  in  the  suburbs  of 
 Athens,  appropriated  to  sepulchres.  Cimon  and  Thu- 
 cydides  were  both  interred  in  this  place.  (Herodot., 
 6,  1(13.— P/«<.,  Vit.  Cuiwn.—Paumn.,  1,  23.)  Coele 
 is  classed  by  Hesychius  among  the  Attic  deini  or  bor- 
 oughs. Col.  Leake  places,  with  great  probability,  this 
 hollow  way  or  gate  "to  the  south  of  the  acropolis, 
 near  the  gate  of  Lumhardhari,  which  answers  to  the 
 Portoe  Melitenses."  {Cravier's  Ancient  Greece,  vol. 
 2,  p   336.) 
 
 CcE[,EsvRi.\  (Ko(7,>7  "Zvpia),  or,  the  "Hollow  Sy- 
 ria," a  tract  of  country  between  the  ranges  of  Libanus 
 and  Antilibanus  ;  in  Syria,  and  stretching  inland  from 
 Jhe  coast  as  far  as  the  country  around  Damascus.  In 
 364 
 
 the  time  of  Dioclesian  it  received  the  name  of  Phoe- 
 nicia Libanesia.  The  modern  appellation  is  given  by 
 some  as  El-Bokah.  {Mela,  1,  \\.—Plin.,  5,  12. — 
 Jornand.,  dc  Regn.  Success.,  p.  65,  &c.) 
 
 CcELiA  Lex,  a  law  passed  A.U.C.  630,  that  in  trials 
 for  treason  the  people  should  vote  by  ballot,  which 
 had  been  excepted  by  the  Cassian  law.  (Consult 
 Cic  ,  de  Leg.,  3,  16.) 
 
 CcEMus,  a  young  Roman  of  considerable  talents 
 and  acquirements,  but  of  dissolute  character,  who  had 
 been  intrusted  to  the  care  of  Cicero  on  his  first  intro- 
 duction to  the  Forum.  Having  imprudently  engaged 
 in  an  intrigue  with  Clodia,  the  well-known  sister  of 
 Clodius,  and  having  afterward  deserted  her,  she  ac- 
 cused him  of  an  attempt  to  poison  her,  and  of  having 
 borrowed  money  from  her  in  order  to  procure  the  as- 
 sassination of  Dio,  the  Alexandrean  ambassador.  He 
 was  defended  by  Cicero  in  a  speech  still  extant,  and 
 obtained  an  acquittal.  We  find  him  subsequently  at- 
 taining to  the  praetorship,  and  engaging  eventually  in 
 the  civil  contest,  in  which  he  lost  his  life.  In  this,  as 
 in  most  other  prosecutions  of  the  period,  a  number  of 
 charges,  unconnected  with  the  main  one,  seem  to  have 
 been  accumulated  in  order  to  give  the  chief  accusation 
 additional  force  and  credibility.  Cicero  had  thus  to 
 defend  his  client  against  the  suspicions  arising  from 
 the  general  libertinism  of  his  conduct.  Middleton  has 
 pronounced  this  to  be  the  most  entertaining  of  the  ora- 
 tions which  Cicero  has  left  us,  from  the  vivacity  of 
 wit  and  humour  with  which  he  treats  the  gallantries 
 of  Clodia,  her  commerce  with  Coelius,  and,  in  general, 
 the  gayeties  and  licentiousness  of  youth.  This  ora- 
 tion was  a  particular  favourite  with  the  celebrated 
 Mr.  Fox.  {Dunlop's  Roman  Literature,  vol.  2.  p. 
 309.  seqq. — Correspondence  of  Wakefield  and  Fox, 
 p.  50.) 
 
 CcELUs,  one  of  the  earlier  deities,  and  the  spouse  of 
 Terra.  He  is  the  same  with  the  Grecian  Uranus. 
 {Vid.  Uranus.) 
 
 Casus  (KoiOf),  one  of  the  Titans,  son  of  Coelus  and 
 Terra,  or.  to  adopt  the  Grecian  phraseology,  of  Ura- 
 nus and  Ge  (Gea).  His  name  indicates  his  cosmo- 
 gonical  character,  being  derived  from  Kaiu,  "  to  hum." 
 {Vid.  Titanes  )  He  was  the  father  of  Latona  by 
 Pha?be.     {Hesiod,  Theog.,  404,  seqq.) 
 
 CoHORs.      Vrd.  Legio. 
 
 CoLCHi,  the  inhabitants  of  Colchis. 
 
 Colchis,  a  country  of  Asia,  having  Iberia  on  the 
 east,  the  Euxine  on  the  west,  Caucasus  on  the  north, 
 and  Armenia  on  the  south.  It  is  famous  in  poetic 
 legends  as  having  been  the  land  to  which  the  Argo- 
 nautic  expedition  was  directed  in  quest  of  the  golden 
 fleece.  {Vjd.  Argonautae.)  It  corresponds  at  the 
 present  day  to  what  is  called  Mingrelia.  Colchis 
 abounded,  according  to  Strabo,  with  fruit  of  every 
 kind,  and  every  material  requisite  for  navigation  Its 
 only  exceptionable  produce  was  the  honey,  which  bad  a 
 bitter  taste.  The  linen  manufactured  here  was  in  high 
 repute,  and  was  made,  according  to  Herodotus  (2,  105), 
 after  the  manner  of  Egypt ;  the  two  kinds,  however, 
 being  distinguished  from  each  other  by  name,  since  the 
 Greeks  called  the  Colchian  by  the  name  of  Sardoiiian, 
 but  that  which  came  from  Egypt  by  the  proper  name 
 of  the  country.  This  species  of  manufacture,  together 
 with  the  dark  complexion  and  crisped  locks  of  the  na- 
 tives, were  so  many  arguments  with  the  ancients  to 
 prove  them  of  Egyptian  origin,  independently  of  other 
 proofs  drawn,  according  to  Herodotus,  from  thtir  lan- 
 guage and  mode  of  life.  The  historian  farther  informs 
 us,  that,  being  struck  by  the  resemblance  between  the 
 Colchians  and  Egyptians,  he  inquired,  from  motives  of 
 curiosity,  of  both  nations,  and  discovered  that  the  Col- 
 chians had  more  recollection  of  the  Egyptians  than 
 the  Egyptians  had  of  the  Colchians.  The  Egyptians, 
 however,  told  him,  that  they  believed  the  Colchians  to 
 have  been  descended  from  a  part  of  the  army  of  Se 
 
COL 
 
 COL 
 
 sostris,  left  behind  by  him  in  this  quarter  to  guard  the 
 passes  when  he  was  going  on  his  Scythian  expedition, 
 and  who  were  finally  estabHshed  here  as  a  military  colo- 
 ny. Another  argument,  in  favour  of  the  identity  of  the 
 Colchians  atid  Egyptians,  is  drawn  by  Herodotus  from 
 the  singular  circumstance  of  the  rite  of  circumcision 
 being  common  to  both.  (Compare  Michaclis,  Mos. 
 Hcch'..,  vol.  4,  <)  185. — Mcrners,  in  Comment.  Soc. 
 Mcf.  Gutling.,  vol.  14,  p.  207,  seqq.,  p.  211,  scqq.) 
 — 'J  he  account  here  given  liy  Herodotus  of  the  Col- 
 chians has  elicited  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  among 
 modern  scholars.  Heeren,  for  example,  thinks  that 
 the  Egyptian  colony  in  Colchis  owed  its  existence  to 
 the  Eastern  custom  of  transplanting  vanquished  na- 
 tions, either  in  whole  or  part,  to  other  and  more  dis- 
 tant regions  ;  and  he  supposes  the  Colchian  settle- 
 ment to  have  been  the  result  of  some  such  transplanta- 
 tion by  Nebuchadnezzar,  or  some  other  of  the  Asiatic 
 monarchs,  who  penetrated  into  Egypt.  {Ideen,  vol.  1, 
 pt.  1,  p.  405,  not.)  Holstenius  makes  the  Colchians 
 to  have  been  a  colony  of  Jews,  transported  to  the 
 shores  of  the  Euxine  by  some  Assyrian  king.  {Ep. 
 ad  divers,  ed.  Boissonad.,  p.  510  )  Michaelis  views 
 them  as  of  Syrian  origin,  led  out  from  home  after  the 
 overthrow  of  ihe  kingdom  of  Damascus.  {Mos.Rccht., 
 vol.  4,  ^  185,  p.  18,  not)  Kitter  maintains  a  theory 
 altogether  different  from  any  of  the  preceding.  He 
 makes  the  Colchians  of  Indian  origin,  and  in  this 
 way  explains  their  acquaintance  with  the  manufacture 
 of  linen.  According  to  him  they  were  a  mercantile 
 colony,  established  on  the  shores  of  the  Euxine  for  the 
 purposes  of  trafRc,  and  the  very  name  of  Sardonian, 
 as  applied  to  the  Colchian  linen,  he  traces,  along  with 
 the  term  Sindon  (2tj'(5(Jv,  "fine  linen"),  to  the  land 
 of  Serhind  (Sind)  or  India.  {Rttter,  Vorhalle,  p.  35, 
 seqq.) 
 
 CoLiAS  Promontorium,  a  promontory  of  Attica, 
 about  twenty  stadia  from  Phalerum,  and  still  retaining 
 its  ancient  name,  though  occasionally  designated  bv 
 that  of  Trispyrgoi.  Here  was  a  temple  consecrated 
 to  Venus,  another  to  the  goddesses  named  Genetyllides 
 {Pansan.,  1,  1.  —  Sfrab.,  398).  and  also  chapels  of 
 Pan  and  Ceres.  {^Meurs.,  de  Ptrao,  c.  11,  p.  574.) 
 Colias  was  also  celebrated  for  its  earthenware.  {Plut., 
 de  Audit. — Op.,  cd.  Rciskc,  vol.  6,  p.  153. — Etym. 
 Mag. — Said.)  Ritter  indulges  in  some  curious  spec- 
 ulations on  the  name  Colias,  and  finds  in  it  a  connect- 
 ing link  lietween  the  religious  systems  of  the  eastern 
 and  western  world.      {Vorhalle,  p.  54:,  seqq.) 
 
 Coi.i.ATiA,  I.  a  town  of  Latium,  to  the  north  of  Ga- 
 bii,  and  colonized  from  Alba.  It  was  rendered  famous 
 in  Roman  history  by  the  self-immolation  of  the  chaste 
 Lucretia.  {Liv.,  1,  58.)  In  the  time  of  Strabo  (229) 
 it  was  little  more  than  a  village.  The  ruins  of  this 
 place  are  still  to  be  traced  on  a  hill,  which  from  thence 
 has  obtained  the  name  of  Castellacio.  {Nibhy,  Viag- 
 pio  Anliquano,  \o\  1,  p.  240.)— II.  A  town  of  Apu- 
 lia, near  Mount  Garganus,  now  Collatini.  (Plin.,  3, 
 li.— Front.,  de  Col.) 
 
 Coi.LATiNus,  L.  Tarquinius,  grandson  of  Aruns 
 elder  brother  of  Tarquinius  Priscus.  He  derived  his 
 surname  from  CoUatia,  where  he  resided,  and  with  the 
 principality  of  which  he  was  invested.  Collatinus  was 
 the  husband  of  the  celebrated  Lucretia  ;  and,  after  the 
 expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  he  and  Brutus  were  elected 
 the  iiist  consuls.  His  relationship,  however,  to  the 
 Tarquin  family  excited  distrust,  and  when  a  law  was 
 passed  banishing  the  whole  Tarquinian  house,  he  was 
 forced  to  lay  down  his  office  and  depart  from  Rome. 
 He  ended  his  days  at  Lavmium.  (Liv.,  1,  60  —Id 
 2,  2.) 
 
 CoLi.iNA,  I.  one  of  the  gates  of  Rome,  on  Mount 
 Quirinahs,  so  called,  a  collibus  Quirinali  et  Viminali. 
 —It  was  called  also  Qmnnahs.  To  this  gate  Hanni- 
 bal rode  uji  and  threw  a  spear  within  the  city.  (Ovid, 
 Fast.,  4,  871.)     II.  The  name  of  one  of  the  four  re- 
 
 1  gions  or  wards  into  which  Rome  was  divided  by  Ser^ 
 i  vius  Tullius.     The  other  three  were  Palatina,  SubuT' 
 I  rana,  and  Esqmlina.     {Ltv.,  5,  41. — Id.,  36,   10. — 
 Plr7i.,34:,  6.) 
 
 I  Colons,  I.  a  city  of  Troas,  north  of  Larissa.  It 
 is  placed  on  the  coast  by  Scylax  and  others.  Pliny, 
 however,  assigns  it  a  position  inland.  Strabo  makes  it 
 I  the  residence  of  a  Thracian  prince,  who  ruled  over  the 
 [  adjacent  country,  and  also  the  island  of  Tenedos. 
 {Manncrt,  Geogr.,vo\.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  465.) — II.  A  town 
 of  Mysia,  in  the  territory  of  Lampsacus.  {Arrian,  1, 
 13.— Strabo,  589.) 
 
 CoLONiA  Agrippina,  a  city  of  Germany,  on  the 
 Rhine.     {Vid.  Agrippina  III.) 
 
 CoLONUs,  a  demus  of  Attica,  to  the  northwest  of 
 the  Academy,  near  Athens.  It  was  named  Hippeios, 
 from  the  altar  erected  there  to  the  Equestrian  Nep- 
 tune, and  is  rendered  so  celebrated  by  the  play  of 
 Sophocles  (Q^dipiis  at  Colonus)  as  the  scene  of  the 
 last  adventures  of  CEdipus.  It  was  the  native  borough 
 of  the  poet,  and  is  beautifully  described  bv  him  in  one 
 of  the  choruses  of  the  same  play.  From  Thucydides 
 we  learn  that  Colonus  was  distant  ten  stadia  from  the 
 city,  and  that  assemblies  of  the  inhabitants  were  on 
 some  occasions  convened  at  the  temple  of  Neptune. 
 {Thucyd.,  8,  67.) 
 
 Colophon,  a  city  of  Ionia,  northwest  of  Ephesus. 
 It  was  founded  by  Andraemon,  son  of  Codrus,  and  was 
 situate  about  two  miles  from  the  coast,  its  harbour, 
 called  Notium,  being  connected  with  the  city  by  means 
 of  long  walls.  Colophon  was  destroyed  by  Lysima- 
 chus,  together  with  Lebedus,  in  order  to  swell  the  pop- 
 ulation of  the  new  town  he  had  founded  at  Ephesus. 
 {Paiisan.,  1,  9.—Diod.  Sic.,  20,  107.)  The  Colo- 
 phonians  are  stigmatized  by  several  ancient  writers  as 
 very  effeminate  and  luxurious  {AtheyicEus,  12,  p  526), 
 and  yet  Strabo  says,  that,  at  one  period,  this  place 
 possessed  a  flourishing  navy,  and  that  its  cavalry  was 
 in  such  repute,  that  victory  followed  wherever  they 
 were  employed.  Hence  arose  the  proverb  KoXocpiJva 
 kniTidevai.,  "  to  add  a  Colophonian,"  i.  e.,  to  put  the 
 finishing  hand  to  an  affair.  The  scholiast  on  Plato, 
 however,  gives  another  explanation  of  the  saying, 
 which  appears  somewhat  more  probable,  though  its 
 authority  is  not  so  good.  He  states,  that  the  Colo- 
 phonians  had  the  right  of  a  double  vote  in  the  general 
 assembly  of  the  lonians,  on  account  of  the  service 
 they  had  rendered  the  confederacy  by  inducing  the  city 
 of  Smyrna  to  join  it.  Hence  they  were  frequently 
 enabled  to  decide  points  left  undetermined  from  a 
 parity  of  suffrages.  (Schol.  ad  Plat.  Theatet.,  p.  319.) 
 It  arose  from  this  old  saying,  that,  in  the  early  periods 
 of  the  art  of  printing,  the  account  which  the  printer 
 gave  of  the  place  and  date  of  the  edition,  being  the 
 last  thing  printed  at  the  end  of  the  book,  was  called 
 the  Colophon.  This  city  was  one  of  the  places  which 
 contended  for  the  birth  of  Homer,  and  was  unquestion- 
 ably the  native  place  of  Mimnermus  and  Hermesianax. 
 It  was  also  famed  for  its  resin,  whence  the  name  of 
 Colophony,  otherwise  called  Spanish  wax,  and  Grecian 
 resin.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  357,  seqq.) 
 Cot.ossjE,  a  large  and  flourishing  city  of  Phrygia 
 Pacatiana,  in  an  angle  formed  by  the  rivers  Lycus  and 
 Maeander.  Strabo  speaks  of  the  great  profits  accruing 
 from  its  wool-trade.  One  of  the  first  Christian  church- 
 es was  established  here,  and  one  of  St.  PauTs  epistles 
 was  addressed  to  it.  In  the  tenth  year  of  the  reign  ol 
 Nero,  or  about  two  years  after  the  epistle  of  St.  Paul 
 was  sent,  this  city  was  nearly  destroved  by  an  earth- 
 quake. Under  the  Byzantine  emperors,  Coiosss", 
 being  in  a  ruinous  state,  made  way  for  a  more  modern 
 town  named  Chonae,  which  was  built  at  a  short  dis- 
 tance from  it.  Some  remains  of  Colossic  and  its  more 
 modern  successor  are  to  be  seen  near  each  other  on  tho 
 site  called  Khonas,  or  Kanassi,  by  the  Turks.  {Arun- 
 dell's  Seven  Churches,  p.  92.)— Hierocles  writes  the 
 
 365 
 
COL 
 
 COM 
 
 name  ol  this  place  Kolaaaai,  a  reading  given  also  by 
 numerous  MSS.  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  But  Herodo- 
 lus,  Xenoplion,  and  Strabo  give  the  more  customary 
 forms,  and  they  have  also  on  their  side  the  evidence 
 of  corns,  the  authority  of  which  is  not  to  be  disputed. 
 {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  44.) 
 
 Colossus,  a  celebrated  brazen  image  at  Rhodes, 
 which  passed  for  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
 World.  It  was  the  workmanship  of  Chares,  a  pupil  of 
 Lysippiis,  who  was  employed  twelve  years  in  making 
 it.  its  height  was  105  Grecian  feet;  there  were  few 
 persons  who  could  encompass  the  thumb  with  their 
 arms,  and  its  fingers  were  larger  than  most  statues. 
 It  was  hollow,  and  m  its  cavities  were  large  stones, 
 placed  there  to  counterbalance  its  weight,  and  render 
 it  steady  on  its  pedestal.  The  cost  was  300  talents 
 (nearly  $317,000),  and  the  money  was  obtained  from 
 the  sale  of  the  machines  and  military  engines  which 
 Demetrius  Poliorcetes  had  left  behind  him  when  he 
 raised  the  siege  of  Rhodes.  (Plin.,  34,  18.)  The 
 Colossus  is  generally  supposed  to  have  stood  with  dis- 
 tended legs  upon  the  two  moles  which  formed  the 
 entrance  of  the  harbour.  As  the  city,  however,  had 
 two  harbours,  the  main  one,  and  a  second  one  much 
 smaller,  within  which  their  fleets  were  secured,  it 
 seems  more  natural  to  suppose  that  this  Colossus  was 
 placed  at  the  entrance  of  this  latter  one,  inasmuch  as 
 the  space  between  the  legs  at  the  base  could  not  have 
 greatly  exceeded  fifty  feet ;  a  space  too  narrow  to  be  the 
 entrance  to  the  main  harbour.  There  was  a  winding 
 staircase  to  go  up  to  the  top  of  the  statue,  from  whence 
 one  might  discover  Syria,  and  the  ships  that  went  to 
 Egypt.  It  was  erected  B.C.  300,  and,  after  having 
 stood  about  fifty-six  years,  was  broken  off  below  the 
 knees,  and  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake.  {Plin.,  I. 
 c.)  Eusebius  says  that  this  occurred  in  the  second 
 year  of  the  139th  Olympiad  ;  but  Polybius  seeins  to 
 place  it  a  little  later,  in  the  140lh  Olympiad  (5,  88). 
 The  same  writer  adds,  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
 walls  and  docks  were  thrown  down  at  the  same  time. 
 It  remained  in  ruins  for  the  space  of  894  years;  and 
 the  Rhodians,  who  had  received  several  large  contri- 
 butions to  repair  it,  divided  the  money  among  them- 
 selves, and  frustrated  the  expectations  of  the  donors, 
 by  saying  that  the  oracle  of  Delphi  forbade  them  to 
 raise  it  up  again  from  its  ruins.  {Slrab.,  652.)  In 
 the  year  672  of  the  Christian  era,  it  was  sold,  accord- 
 ing to  Cedrenus,  by  the  Saracens,  who  were  masters 
 of  the  island,  to  a  Jewish  merchant  of  Edessa,  who 
 loaded  900  camels  with  the  brass.  Allowing  800 
 pounds'  weight  for  each  load,  the  brass,  after  the  dim- 
 inution which  it  had  sustained  by  rust,  and  probably 
 by  theft,  amounted  to  about  720,000  pounds'  weight. 
 The  city  of  Rhodes  had,  according  to  Pliny,  100 
 other  colossuses,  of  inferior  size,  in  its  different  quar- 
 ters.— Compare  the  remarks  of  Ritter  in  relation  to 
 the  worship  of  the  sun,  which  prevailed  in  the  ear- 
 liest periods  of  Rhodes,  and  the  connexion  between 
 this  and  the  Colossus.  He  finds  also  his  accustomed 
 root  (Co/-)  in  the  name  of  the  statue.  {Vorhalle,  p. 
 104,  scqq.) 
 
 CoLu.MELLA  (Ij.  Junius  Moderatus),  an  ancient 
 writer,  born  at  Gades,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  or  Ti- 
 berius, and  a  contemporary,  according  to  his  own  ac- 
 count, of  Seneca  and  Celsus.  The  elder  Pliny  also 
 frequently  makes  mention  of  him.  His  father,  Marcus 
 Columella,  had  possessions  in  the  province  of  Reb- 
 tica.  The  son  betook  himself  at  an  early  period  to 
 Rome,  where  he  passed  his  life,  with  the  exception  of 
 a  few  journeys  to  Syria  and  Cilicia.  It  is  not  as- 
 certained whether  he  visited  these  latter  countries  as 
 a  simple  traveller,  or  on  some  mission  of  govern- 
 ment, for  we  know  nothing  very  particularly  of  the  cir- 
 cumstances of  his  life.  We  have  two  works  of  his  re- 
 maining :  one,  entitled  "  De  Re  Ruslica,"  in  twelve 
 ■jooks  ;  ihe  oiher,  "  De  Arboribus."  This  last  made, 
 366 
 
 very  probably,  part  of  a  work  on  agriculture,  in  four 
 books,  which  Columella  had  published  as  the  first  edi- 
 tion of  that  which  we  now  have  in  twelve  books.  On 
 this  supposition  Cassiodorus  was  correct  in  saying 
 that  Columella  had  written  a  work  in  sixteen  books  on 
 rural  economy.  This  author  appears  to  have  been  but 
 little  read.  Among  the  ancients,  Servius,  Cassiodorus, 
 and  Isidorus  are  the  only  ones  that  cite  him.  He 
 fell  into  almost  complete  neglect  after  Palladius  had 
 made  an  abridgment  of  his  work.  {Vid.  Palladiua 
 II.)  Hence  Vincent  de  Beauvais  and  Petrus  de 
 Crescentiis,  the  latter  of  whom  Schneider  calls  "  </j7i- 
 gcittissimum  veterum  reiruslica.  scrijiloriim  kclorcm," 
 were  not  acquainted  with  him.  (Compare  Script. 
 Rci  Rust.,  ed  Schneider,  vol.  2,  p.  5.)  The  style  of 
 Columella  is  pure  and  elegant ;  if  any  reproach  can 
 be  made  against  him,  it  is  that  of  being  too  studied  in 
 his  language  on  the  subject  of  which  he  treats.  The 
 best  edition  is  that  of  Schneider,  in  the  Scriplores 
 Rei  Rusiica;,  Lips.,  1794-97,  4  vols.  8vo.  That  of 
 Gesner  is  also  in  deservedly  high  repute,  Lips.,  1773, 
 2  vols.  4to. 
 
 Column^  Herculis,  "The  Pillars  of  Hercules," 
 a  name  often  given  to  Calpe  and  Abyla,  or  the  heights 
 on  either  side  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  The  tradi- 
 tion was,  that  the  Mediterranean  had  no  outlet  in  this 
 quarter  until  Hercules  broke  through  the  mountain 
 barrier,  and  thus  formed  the  present  straits.  The 
 rocky  height  on  either  side  of  the  opening  was  fabled 
 to  have  been  placed  there  by  him  as  a  memorial  of  his 
 achievement,  and  as  marking  the  limits  of  his  wander- 
 ings towards  the  west.  {Vid.  Calpe,  Abyla,  and  Med- 
 iterraneum  Mare. — Odyss.,  4,  351. — Virg.,  JEn.,  11, 
 262.) 
 
 CoLiJTHUs,  a  native  of  Lycopolis  in  Egypt,  sup- 
 posed to  have  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
 century.  He  wrote  a  poem  in  six  cantos,  entitled  "  Cal- 
 ydoniacs''''  (Ka?..f(5(jx't«u),  as  well  as  other  pieces  that 
 are  now  lost.  He  is  believed  also,  though  without 
 any  great  degree  of  certitude,  to  have  been  the  author 
 of  a  poem,  in  three  hundred  and  eighty-five  verses, 
 which  bears  the  title  of  "  the  Rape  of  Helen"  ('E/lfii'T^f 
 (Ipnayrj).  This  most  unfortunate  imitation  of  Homer 
 commences  with  the  nuptials  of  Peleus  and  Thetis. 
 The  poet  goes  on,  without  any  animation,  sentiment, 
 or  grace  whatsoever,  to  recount  the  judgment  of  Paris, 
 the  voyage  of  this  prince  to  Sparta,  and  the  abduction 
 of  Heien,  which  takes  place  after  the  first  interview. 
 This  poem  of  Colulhus  was  discovered  by  Cardinal 
 Bessarion  along  with  that  of  Quintus  Smyrnsus.  The 
 best  editions  are,  that  of  Van  Lennep,  Lcovard,  1747, 
 8vo,  improved  by  Shaeffer,  Lips.,  1825,  8vo,  and  that 
 of  Bekker,  BeroL,  1816,  8vo. 
 
 CoMAGENE.      Vid.  Commagene. 
 
 CoMANA  {oruni),  I.  a  city  of  Pontus,  surnamed  Pon- 
 tica,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Cappadocian  city  of  the 
 same  name.  It  was  situate  to  the  northeast  of  Zela, 
 and  not  far  from  the  source  of  the  Iris.  {Strabo,  547.) 
 This  place  was  celebrated  for  the  worship  of  the  god- 
 dess Ma,  supposed  to  answer  to  the  Bellona  of  the 
 West.  She  was  likewise  revered  with  equal  honours 
 in  the  Cappadocian  Comana.  The  priesthood  attach- 
 ed to  the  temple  was  an  office  of  the  highest  emol- 
 ument and  dignity,  and  was  sought  alter  by  kings  and 
 princes.  The  city  itself  was  large  and  populous,  and 
 kept  up  a  considerable  traffic  with  Armenia.  The 
 festivals  of  the  goddess,  which  were  held  twice  a  year, 
 drew  thither  an  immense  concourse  from  the  surround- 
 ing countries  and  towns,  as  well  as  from  more  distant 
 parts.  There  were  no  less  than  6000  slaves  attached 
 to  the  service  of  the  temple,  and  most  of  these  were 
 courtesans.  Hence  it  was  remarked,  that  the  citizens 
 were  generally  addicted  to  pleasure,  and  the  town 
 itself  was  styled  by  some  the  little  Corinth.  The 
 chief  produce  of  the  country  was  wine.  When  the 
 Romans,  under  Lucullus,  invaded  Pontus,  a  report 
 
COM 
 
 COM 
 
 «ras  spread,  probably  by  Mithradates,  that  they  were 
 come  for  the  express  purpose  of  plundering  the  shrine 
 ol'Comana.  {Ctc,  Or.  pro  Leg.  Maml, /)  9.)  Some 
 remains,  at  the  present  day,  not  far  from  Tokat,  under 
 the  name  of  Komanak,  sufficiently  indicate  the  ancient 
 site.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  i.,  p.  307,  scq.) 
 — II.  A  city  of  Cappadocia,  on  the  river  Sarus,  and 
 the  princi(iai  place  in  the  district  of  Cataonia.  It  was 
 celebrated,  like  its  Pontic  namesake  (No.  I.),  for  the 
 worship  of  Ma,  the  Gappadocian  Bellona.  The  popu- 
 lation consisted,  in  a  great  degree,  of  soothsayers, 
 priests,  and  slaves,  belonging  to  the  sacred  institution; 
 the  latter  of  these  amounted,  in  the  time  of  Strabo, 
 to  more  than  6000  of  both  sexes.  These  belonged 
 exclusively  to  the  high-priest,  who  stood  next  in  rank 
 to  the  King  of  Cappadocia,  and  was  generally  chosen 
 from  the  royal  family.  The  territory  annexed  to  the 
 temple  was  very  considerable,  and  furnished  a  large 
 income  for  the  pontifT.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fain.,  15,  4.) 
 It  was  asserted  that  the  worship  of  Bellona,  like  that 
 of  Diana  Tauropolus,  had  been  brought  from  Tauris 
 by  Orestes  and  Iphigcnia,  and  it  was  even  pretended 
 that  the  former  had  deposited  within  the  temple  his 
 mourning  locks  {KOfiijv),  whence  the  city  was  called 
 Comana.  {Slrab.,b'ib.)  These,  of  course,  are  fables 
 of  Greek  invention.  The  Bellona  of  Comana  was 
 probably  no  other  than  the  Ana'itis  of  the  Persians 
 and  Armenians,  and  perhaps  the  Agdistis  and  Cybelc 
 of  the  Phrygians.  The  Gappadocian  Comana  was  dis- 
 tinguished from  the  Pontic  by  the  epithet  of  Xpvafj. 
 The  Turkish  town  of  El  Bostan  is  thought  to  repre- 
 sent the  ancient  city.  {Kinneir's  Travels,  Append., 
 p.  560. — Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  138,  seqq.) 
 Co.MARiA  PEOMONTORiuM,  a  promontofy  forming  the 
 southern  extremity  of  India  intra  Gaiigcm.  It  is  now 
 Cape  Camorin  (or  Cornari).  Al-Edrissi,  the  Arabian 
 geographer,  confounds  this  cape  with  Comar,  or  the 
 island  of  Madagascar.  {Arrian,  Pcripl.  Mar.  Erythr. 
 —  Vincent's  Anc.  Commerce,  vol.  2,  p   498.) 
 
 CoMMAGENE,  a  district  of  Syria,  in  the  northeastern 
 extremity  of  that  country,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
 Mount  Taurus,  on  the  west  by  Amanus,  on  the  east 
 by  the  Euphrates,  and  on  the  south  by  Cyrrhestica. 
 Its  chief  city  was  Samosata.  This  tract  of  country 
 had  at  one  time  rulers  of  its  own,  but  became  a  Ro- 
 man province  under  Domitian.  Its  modern  name  is 
 Camash  or  Kamask.  {Plin  ,  5,  12. — Eutrop.,  7,  19. 
 — Amrn.  MarcclL,  14,  26.)  The  name  often  occurs 
 as  Oomagene,  but  the  more  correct  form  is  Gomma- 
 gcnc.  (Consult  Raschc,  Lex.  Rci  Num.,  vol.  2,  col. 
 723  ) 
 
 CoMMonrs,  L.  Aurelius  Antoninus,  son  and  suc- 
 cessor of  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus,  ascended  the  im- 
 perial throne  A.D.  180.  The  reign  of  this  prince  is  a 
 scene  of  guilt  and  misery,  which  the  historian  con- 
 templates with  disgust,  and  is  glad  to  dismiss  with 
 brevity.  He  appears,  indeed,  to  have  inherited  all  the 
 vices  of  his  mother  Faustina  ;  and  his  father,  in  select- 
 ing him  for  his  successor,  allowed  the  feelings  of  the 
 parent  to  triumph  over  the  wisdom  of  the  magistrate. 
 He  had  accompanied  his  father  on  the  expedition 
 against  the  Marcomanni  and  Quadi,  but  no  sooner  was 
 Aurelius  dead  than  his  degenerate  son  became  anxious 
 to  proceed  to  Rome,  and"  soon  concluded  a  hasty  and 
 disgraceful  peace  with  the  very  barbarians  whom  his 
 father  was  on  the  point  of  completely  subjugating 
 when  he  was  cut  off  by  disease.  Notwithstanding  the 
 care  which  Antoninus  had  bestowed  upon  his  education, 
 Counnodus  was  ignorant  to  an  extreme  degree,  having 
 neither  abilities  nor  inclination  for  profiting  by  the  im° 
 penal  example  and  instruction.  On  his  return  to  Rome 
 he  speedily  showed  the  bias  of  his  natural  disposition, 
 giving  himself  up  to  unrestrained  indulgence  in  the 
 grossest  vices.  That  he  might  do  so  without  impedi- 
 ment, he  intrusted  all  power  to  Perennis,  prasfect  of 
 the  priEtorian  guard,  a  man  of  stern  and  cruel  temper. 
 
 j  who  was  at  last  slain  by  his  soldieis  for  his  severity. 
 ^  A  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  Commodus  having 
 failed,  was  followed  by  a  long  succession  of  judicial 
 murders,  to  gratify  the  vengeance  of  the  cowardly  and 
 vindictive  tyrant.  He  was  next  threatened  by  a  new 
 danger :  disaffection  had  spread  over  the  legions,  and 
 an  attempt  of  Maternus,  a  private  soldier,  who  headed 
 a  band  of  deserters,  and  projected  the  assassination  o/ 
 Commodus  during  the  celebration  of  the  festival  ol 
 Cybele,  was  so  ably  conceived,  that  he  must  have  been 
 successful  but  for  the  treachery  of  an  accomplice.  But 
 neither  duly  nor  danger  could  draw  Commodus  from 
 the  sports  of  gladiators  or  the  pleasures  of  debauchery. 
 Cleander,  a  Phrygian  slave,  soon  succeeded  to  the 
 place  and  influence  of  Perennis,  and  for  three  years 
 the  empire  groaned  beneath  his  cruelty  and  rapacity. 
 At  length  a  new  insurrection  burst  forth,  which  nothing 
 could  allay,  the  prwtorian  cavalry  being  defeated  in  the 
 streets  by  the  populace,  until  the  head  of  Cleander 
 was,  by  the  emperor's  command,  thrown  to  the  insur- 
 gents. In  the  mean  time,  Commodus  was  indulging  hia 
 base  tastes  and  appetites,  not  only  by  gross  sensuality, 
 but  by  endeavouring  to  rival  the  gladiators  in  their 
 sanguinary  occupation.  Being  a  very  skilful  archer, 
 and  of  great  personal  strength,  he  delighted  in  killing 
 wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre,  and  thus  pretending 
 to  rival  the  prowess  of  Hercules.  In  the  gladiatorial 
 contests,  he  publicly  engaged  so  often,  that  he  was 
 the  conqueror  in  735  combats.  Though  luxurious  ia 
 his  dress,  frequently  resorting  to  the  baths  eight  times 
 in  the  day,  scattering  gold  dust  in  his  hair,  and,  from 
 the  fear  of  admitting  the  approach  of  a  razor  in  the 
 hand  of  another,  singing  oft"  his  beard,  he  was  espe- 
 cially proud  of  exhibitions  of  personal  strength,  and 
 frequently  butchered  victims  with  his  own  hands  in  the 
 garb  of  a  sacrificer.  Among  the  flatteries  of  the  ob- 
 sequious senate,  none  pleased  him  more  than  the  vote 
 which  styled  him  the  Hercules  of  Home,  not  even  that 
 which  annexed  to  him  the  titles  of  Pius  and  Felix% 
 or  which  offered  to  abolish  the  name  of  the  eternal 
 city,  and  substitute  for  it  Colonia  Commodiana ! — 
 After  thirteen  years  of  unmitigated  oppression,  his 
 favourite  Martia  ultimately  became  the  instrument  by 
 which  the  Roman  world  was  delivered  from  its  odious 
 master.  She  discovered,  from  some  private  notes  of 
 Commodus,  that  herself,  Lastus  the  prajtorian  prsefect, 
 and  Electrus  the  chamberlain,  were  on  the  list  devoted 
 to  death  :  a  conspiracy  was  immediately  formed,  Mar- 
 tia administered  poison  to  the  emperor,  and,  lest  the 
 measure  should  not  prove  effectual,  the  deed  was  com- 
 pleted by  suffocation,  A.D.  192.  {Lamprid.,  Vit. 
 Com. — Encyclop.  Mctropol.,  div.  3,  vol.  2,  p.  684.) 
 
 CoMPSA,  a  city  of  Samnium,  on  the  southern  con- 
 fines of  the  Hirpini.  It  revolted  to  Hannibal  after  the 
 battle  of  Cannoe,  and  it  was  here  that  this  general  left 
 all  his  baggage  and  part  of  his  army  when  advancing 
 towards  Campania.  (Liv  ,  23,  1.)  Compsa  was  re- 
 taken by  the  Romans  under  Fabius  two  years  after- 
 ward. {Liv.,  24,  20.)  Velleius  Palerculus  says, 
 that  Milo,  the  opponent  of  Clodius,  met  his  death  be- 
 fore the  walls  of  Compsa,  which  he  was  at  that  time 
 besieging  (Veil.  Palerc,  2,  68);  but,  according  to 
 Caesar  and  Pliny,  this  event  took  place  near  Cossa  in 
 Lucania.  The  modern  Conza  occupies  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  city.     {Cramer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol    2,  p.  253.) 
 
 CoMUM,  a  city  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  at  the  southern 
 extremity  of  the  Lacus  Larius,  or  Lago  dl  Como.  It 
 was  originally  a  Gallic  settlement,  and  continued  to  be 
 an  inconsideralile  place  until  a  Greek  colony  was  es- 
 tablished here  by  Pompeius  Strabo  and  Cornelius 
 Scipio,  and  subsequently  by  .lulius  C^sar.  Comum 
 thenceforth  took  the  name  of  Novum  Comum.  {Stra- 
 bo, 212. — Porcacchi  Nobilta  dclla  Cilta  di  Coma,  vol. 
 1,  p.  10.)  The  enemies  of  Cssar,  among  whom  were 
 the  consuls  CI.  Marcellus  and  L.  Cornelius  Lentulus, 
 appear  to  have  taken  the  lead,  and  used  everv  endeav- 
 
 367 
 
CON 
 
 CON 
 
 our  to  ruin  the  colony,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  pro- 
 pose a  law  which  should  deprive  it  of  its  municipal 
 rights.  {Appia/i,  Bell.  Civ.,  2,  2G.—Plut.,  Vil.  C(J.s. 
 • — Suet..  Vil.  Jul.,  28.)  If  they  succeeded  in  their 
 designs,  it  was  only  for  a  short  time  ;  since  we  may 
 collect  from  the  letters  of  the  younger  Pliny,  who  was 
 horn  at  (Jomurn,  that  his  native  city  was  in  his  time  in 
 a  very  flourishing  state,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  all 
 the  privileges  which  belonged  to  a  Roman  corporation, 
 inde[)endently  of  the  prosperity  and  affluence  it  would 
 naturally  derive  from  the  peculiar  advantages  of  its 
 situation.  {Flin.,  Ep.,  3,  6— /(/.  ibid.,  4,  13.— /d. 
 ibid  ,  4,  24.)  Comum  is  now  Como.  (Cramer's  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  60.) 
 
 Co.\e.\Ni,  a  people  of  Spain,  among  the  Cantabri. 
 According  to  Horace  {Ode,  3,  4,  34),  they  delighted 
 in  mingling  the  blood  of  hor.^es  with  their  drink.  This 
 same  trait  is  mentioned  by  Silius  Itaiicus  (3,  360, 
 seqq.),  who  makes  them  of  Scythian  origin,  tracing 
 them  up  to  the  parent  stock  of  the  Massagelaj.  Strabo 
 likewise  speaks  of  a  resemblance  between  them  and 
 the  Scythians  in  certain  customs.  The  Scythian  Mas- 
 sageta;,  according  to  Dionysius  Periegetes  (v.  743, 
 seqq.),  drank  milk  mi.xed  with  horse's  blood  ;  which  is 
 also  ascribed  to  the  Geloni  by  Virgil  {Georg.,  3,  463) ; 
 while  Pliny  states,  that  the  Sarmalos  mixed  millet  with 
 the  milk  of  mares,  or  with  the  blood  drawn  out  of  their 
 legs.  Their  chief  town,  Concana,  is  now  called  San- 
 tilana,  or  Cangas  de  Onis.  {Vvrg.,  G.,  3,  463. — Sil. 
 Jtai,  3,  361.— Horat.,  Od.,  3,  4,  34.) 
 
 CondrOsi,  a  people  of  Gallia  Belgica,  to  the  south 
 of  the  Eburones.  Their  country  answers  at  the  pres- 
 ent day  to  the  archdeaconry  of  Condros,  forming 
 part  of  the  bishopric  of  Liege.  {Cces.,  B.  G.,  2,  4. — 
 Lemaire,  Ind.  Geogr.  ad  Cces.,  vol.  4,  p.  239.) 
 
 CoNFLUENTEs,  a  city  of  the  Treviri,  at  the  con- 
 fluence of  the  Moselle  and  Rhine,  now  CoUentz. 
 This  town,  in  the  lime  of  the  Romans,  was  the  station 
 of  the  first  legion  ;  and  afterward  became  the  resi- 
 dence of  the  successors  of  Charlemagne.  {Anton., 
 Itin. — Tab.  Pent.— Cces.,  B.  G.,  4,  \5.—Amm.  Mar- 
 cell,  16,  3.) 
 
 CoNiMBRiCA,  a  town  of  Lusitania,  near  the  seacoast, 
 on  the  river  Munda,  now  Coimbra  in  modern  Portugal. 
 As  regards  the  termination  of  the  ancient  name  {-brica), 
 consult  remarks  under  the  article  Mesembria. 
 
 CoNON,  I.  a   distinguished    Athenian    commander, 
 was  one  of  the  generals  who  succeeded  Alcibiades  in 
 the   command  of  the  fleet  during  the  Peloponnesian 
 war.      Having  engaged   with  Callicratidas,  the  Spar- 
 tan admiral,  he  lost  thirty  vessels,  and  was  compelled 
 to   take  shelter  in  the  harbour  of  Mytilene,  where  he 
 was  blockaded  by  his  opponent.     The  victory  gained 
 by  the   Athenians   at    the   Arginusae   released  him  at 
 length   from   this  situation.     Being  sut)sequently  ap- 
 pointed along  with  five  others  to  the  command  of  a 
 powerful  fleet,  he  proceeded  to  the  Hellespont,  where 
 Lysander  had  charge  of  the  Lacedemonian  squadron. 
 The  negligence  of  his  fellow-commanders,  the  result 
 of  overweening  confidence  in  their  own  strength,  led 
 to  the  fatal  defeat  at  ^gos  Potamos,  and  the  whole 
 Athenian  fleet  was  taken,  e.xcept  nine  vessels  of  Co- 
 non's  division,  with  eight  of  which,  thinking  that  the 
 war  was  now  desperate,  he    sailed  to  Salamis  in  the 
 island    of   Cyprus.     The    ninth    vessel   was    sent    to 
 Athens  with  the   tidings  of  the  defeat.     In  Cyjjrus, 
 Conon  remained  at  the  court  of  Evagoras,  watching 
 for  an  opportunity  to  prove  of  service  to  his  country. 
 Such  a  state  of  affairs   soon  presented  itself     The 
 Lacedaemonians,  having  no  more  rivals  in  Greece,  sent 
 Agesilaus  with  an  army  into  Asia,  to  make  war  upon 
 the    Persian    king.     Conon    immediately  repaired    to 
 pharnabazus,  the  satrap  of  Lydia  and  Ionia,  aided  him 
 with  his  counsels,  and  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of 
 cxcitincT  the  Thebans  and  other  Grecian  communities 
 agamst  Sparta,  so  as  to  compel  that  state  to  recall 
 368 
 
 Agesilaus  from  the  East.  The  plan  was  approved  of 
 by  the  King  of  Persia,  and  Conon,  at  the  head  of  a 
 Persian  fleet,  B.C.  398,  attacked  the  Sjjartan  admiral 
 Pisander  near  Cnidus,  and  defeated  hnn,  with  the  loss 
 of  the  greater  part  of  his  ships.  Lacedsmon  immedi- 
 ately lost  the  empire  of  the  sea,  and  her  power  in  Asia 
 Minor  ceased.  Conon  thereupon,  after  ravaging  the 
 coasts  of  Laconia,  returned  to  Attica,  rebuilt  the  city 
 walls  as  well  as  those  of  the  Pirsus,  with  means  which 
 had  been  furnished  by  Pharnabazus,  and  gave  on  this 
 occasion  a  public  entertainment  to  all  the  Athenians. 
 The  Laced»monians,  dispirited  by  the  success  of  Co- 
 non, and  alarmed  at  the  re-establishment  of  the  Athe- 
 nian fortifications,  sent  Antalcidas  to  Tiribazus,  one 
 of  the  Persian  generals,  to  negotiate  a  peace.  The 
 Athenians,  on  their  part,  deputed  Conon  and  some 
 others  to  oppose  this  attempt ;  but  Tiribazus  being 
 favourably  inclined  towards  Sparta,  and  in  all  proba- 
 bility jealous  of  Pharnabazus,  imprisoned  Conon,  un- 
 der the  pretext  that  he  was  endeavouring  to  excite  an 
 insurrection  in  ^olis  and  Ionia.  The  Persian  king, 
 however,  disapproved  of  the  conduct  of  his  satrap,  and 
 Conon  was  released.  The  latter  thereupon  returned 
 to  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  he  fell  sick  and  died, 
 about  B.C.  390.  His  remains  were  conveyed  to 
 Athens.  {Corn.  Nep.,  in  Vil. — Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  1,  4, 
 10.— Id.  lb.,  2,  1,  21,  &c.—Diod.  Sic.,  13,  78.— M, 
 14,  39.— Id.,  14,  83,  &c.)— II.  A  native  of  Samos,  dis- 
 tinguished as  an  astronomer  and  geometrician.  None 
 of  his  works  have  reached  us  ;  he  is  mentioned,  how- 
 ever, with  eulogiums,  by  Archimedes,  Virgil,  Seneca, 
 and  others.  Conon  lived  between  about  300  and  260 
 years  before  our  era.  Apollonius,  in  the  fourth  book 
 of  his  Conic  Sections,  does  not  speak  as  favourably  of 
 him  as  Archimedes  has  done.  He  thinks  that  many  of 
 his  demonstrations  might  be  rendered  more  concise. 
 This  is  nearly  all  that  we  know  respecting  Conon  as  a 
 geometer.  He  is  mentioned  as  an  astronomer  by  one 
 of  the  commentators  on  Ptolemy,  who  speaks  of  his 
 having  made  observations  in  Italy.  Seneca  {Quctst. 
 Nat.,  7,  3)  informs  us,  that  he  had  made  out  a  list  of 
 the  eclipses  of  the  sun  that  had  been  visible  in  Egypt. 
 He  is  mentioned  also  by  Virgil  {Eelog.,  3,  40),  and 
 by  Catullus  in  his  translation  of  the  Greek  poem  of 
 Callimachus,  on  the  tresses  of  Berenice.  The  Greek 
 piece  itself,  in  which  he  bore  a  conspicuous  part,  is 
 lost.  {Vid.  Berenice.)  Delambre  expresses  consid* 
 erable  doubt  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  story,  which 
 makes  Conon  to  have  named  a  new  constellation  after 
 the  locks  of  the  Egyptian  queen.  {Delambre,  in  Biogr. 
 Univ.,  vol.  9,  p.  427.) 
 
 CoNsENTEs,  the  name  which  the  Romans  gave  to 
 the  twelve  superior  deities,  or  Dii  Majorxtm  Gentium. 
 The  best  derivation  of  the  name  is  that  which  traces 
 it  to  the  participle  of  the  obsolete  verb  conso,  "  to  ad- 
 vise'' or  "  counsel,"  the  Dii  Consenlcs  being  they 
 who  formed  the  council  of  the  sky.  (  Voss.,  Etym..  s. 
 ?i.)  Ennius  has  expressed  their  names  in  the  two  fol- 
 lowing lines : 
 
 "  Juno,  Vesta,  Ceres,  Diana,  Minerva,  Venus,  Man, 
 Merc.urius,  Jovi',  Ncptunus,  Vulcanus,  Apollo." 
 
 {Ennii,  Fragm.,  ed.  Hessel.,  p.  164. —  Compare  Co- 
 lumna,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Consent!.*,  a  town  of  the  Brutii,  the  capital  of  that 
 people  according  to  Strabo  (255),  and  situated  at  the 
 sources  of  the  river  Crathis.  It  was  taken  by  Han- 
 !iibal  after  the  surrender  of  Petilia  {Liv.,  23,  30),  but 
 again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  towards  the 
 end  of  the  war.  {Liv.,  29,  38.)  It  is  now  repre- 
 sented by  Cosenza.  {Cramer's  .Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 434.) 
 
 CoNST.\Ns,  a  son  of  Constantine.  {Vid.  Constan- 
 tinus.) 
 
 ConstantIa,  a  granddaughter  of  Constantine,  who 
 married  the  Emperor  Gratian. 
 
CON 
 
 CONSTANTINUS. 
 
 CoNSTANTiXA,    a  piincess,   wife    of  the   Emperor 
 •iailus. 
 
 CoNSTANTiNoroLis.  Vid.  Byzantium. 
 ConstantInus  (Caius  Flavius  Valerius  Aurelius 
 Claudius),  surnamed  the  Great,  son  of  the  Emperor 
 Co'isiantius  Chlorus,  was  born  A.D.  272,  or,  according 
 to  some  authorities,  A.D.  274,  at  Naisus,  a  city  of  Da- 
 cia  Mediterranea.  When  Constantine's  father  was 
 associated  in  the  government  by  Dioclesian,  the  son 
 was  retained  at  court  as  a  kind  of  hostage,  but  was 
 treated  with  great  kindness  at  first,  and  was  allowed 
 several  opportunities  of  distinguishing  himself.  After 
 the  abdication  of  Dioclesian,  Constantius  and  Gale- 
 rius  were  elevated  to  the  rank  of  Augusii,  while  two 
 new  Cssars,  Severus  and  Ma.ximin,  were  appointed 
 to  second  them.  Constantino  was  not  called  to  the 
 succession.  Dioclesian,  partial  to  Galerius,  his  son- 
 in-law,  had  left  the  nomination  of  the  two  new  Cse- 
 sars  to  the  latter ;  and  the  son  of  Constantius,  whose 
 popularity  and  talents  had  excited  the  jealousy  of 
 (ialcrins,  and  whose  departure,  although  earnestly  so- 
 licited by  his  father,  was  delayed  from  time  to  time 
 under  the  most  frivolous  pretences,  with  difFiculty  at 
 length  obtained  permission  to  join  his  parent  in  the 
 West,  and  only  escaped  the  machinations  of  the  em- 
 peror by  travelling  with  his  utmost  speed  until  he 
 reached  the  western  coast  of  Gaul.  He  came  just  in 
 time  to  join  the  Roman  legions,  which  were  about  to 
 sail  under  his  father's  command  to  Britain,  in  order  to 
 make  war  upon  the  Caledonians.  Having  subdued 
 the  northern  barbarians,  Constantius  returned  to  York, 
 where  he  died  in  the  month  of  July,  in  the  year  306. 
 Galerius,  sure  of  the  support  of  his  two  creatures,  the 
 Ccesars,  had  waited  impatiently  for  the  death  of  his 
 colleague,  to  unite  the  whole  Roman  empire  under  his 
 individual  sway.  But  the  moderation  and  justice  of 
 Constantius  had  rendered  him  the  more  dear  to  his 
 soldiers  from  the  contrast  of  these  qualities  with  the 
 ferocity  of  his  rival.  At  the  moment  of  his  death,  the 
 legions  stationed  at  York,  as  a  tribute  of  gratitude  and 
 afiection  to  his  memory,  and,  according  to  some,  at  his 
 dying  request,  saluted  his  son  Constantine  with  the 
 title  of  CjBsar,  and  decorated  him  with  the  purple. 
 Whatever  resentment  Galerius  felt  at  this,  he  soon 
 perceived  the  danger  of  engaging  in  a  civil  war.  As 
 the  eldest  of  the  emperors,  and  the  representative  of 
 Dioclesian,  he  recognised  the  authority  of  the  col- 
 league imposed  upon  him  by  the  legions.  He  as- 
 signed unto  him  the  administration  of  Gaul  and  Brit- 
 ain, but  gave  him  only  the  fourth  rank  among  the 
 rulers  of  the  empire,  and  the  title  of  Caesar.  Under 
 this  official  appellation,  Constantine  administered  the 
 prefecture  of  Gaul  for  six  years  (A.D.  306-312), 
 perhaps  the  most  glorious,  and  certainly  the  most  vir- 
 tuous, period  of  his  hfe. — The  title  and  rank  of  Augus- 
 tus, which  his  soldiers  had  conferred  upon  Constan- 
 tine, but  which  Galerius  had  not  allowed  him  to  re- 
 tain, the  latter  gave  to  Severus,  one  of  his  own  Caesars. 
 1  his  dignity  had  been  expected  by  Maxcntius,  son  of 
 the  abdicated  Emperor  Maximian,  the  former  colleague 
 of  Dioclesian.  Indignant  at  his  disappointment,  Max- 
 entius  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor  by  his 
 army  ;  and,  to  colour  his  usurpation,  he  induced  his 
 father  to  leave  his  retreat  and  resume  the  imperial  ti- 
 tle. A  scene  of  contention  followed,  scarcely  paral- 
 leled in  the  annals  of  Rome.  Severus  marched  against 
 the  two  usurpers;  but  was  abandoned  by  his  own 
 troops,  yielded,  and  was  slain.  Galerius  levied  a 
 great  army,  and  marched  into  Italy  against  Max- 
 imian and  Maxentius,  who,  dreading  his  power,  re- 
 tired to  Gaul,  and  endeavoured  to  procure  the  support 
 of  Constantine.  This  politic  prince  did  not  consider 
 It  expedient  to  provoke  a  war  at  that  time,  and  for 
 no  better  cause ;  and  Galerius  having  withdrawn 
 from  Italy  and  returned  to  the  East,  Maximian  and 
 Maxcntius  returned  to  Rome.  To  aid  him  in  the 
 A  A  A 
 
 struggle,  Galerius  conferred  the  title  of  emperor  on 
 his  Iriend  Licinius  ;  and  thus  there  were  at  once  six 
 pretenders  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  empire,  name- 
 ly, Galerius  and  Licinius,  Maximian  and  his  son  Max- 
 entius, Maximin,  who  had  been  nominated  Caesar 
 by  Galerius,  and  Constantine,  the  son  and  successor 
 of  Constantius.  Among  these  rivals  Constantine 
 possessed  a  decided  superiority  in  prudence  and  abil- 
 ities, both  military  and  political.  The  harsh  tem- 
 per of  Maximian  soon  led  to  a  quarrel  between  him 
 and  his  son  Maxentius.  Quitting  Rome,  he  went  to 
 Gaul,  to  Constantine,  who  had  become  his  son-in-law 
 when  he  and  his  son  were  endeavouring  to  make  head 
 against  Galerius.  Here  also  Maximian  found  him.self 
 disappointed  of  that  power  which  he  so  greatly  longed 
 to  possess,  and,  having  plotted  against  Constantine, 
 was  detected  and  put  to  death.  Galerius  died  not 
 long  after,  leaving  his  power  to  be  divided  between 
 his  Cajsars  Maximin  and  Eicinius ;  and  there  were 
 now  four  competitors  for  the  empire,  Constantine, 
 Maxentius,  Maximin,  and  Licinius.  Maxentius  speed- 
 ily provoked  open  hostilities  with  Constantine,  who 
 marched  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army  towards  Rome. 
 It  was  while  Constantine  was  proceeding  on  this  mo- 
 mentous expedition  that  he  made  an  open  and  public 
 declaration  in  favour  of  Christianity.  Before  that 
 time,  the  persecuting  edicts  of  Dioclesian  had  been 
 much  mitigated  by  the  forbearance  and  leniency  of 
 Constantius  ;  and  Constantine  not  only  followed  his 
 father's  example  in  being  merciful  to  the  persecuted 
 Christians,  but  even  showed  them  some  marks  of  pos- 
 itive favour.  Very  considerable  numbers  of  them,  in 
 consequence,  flocked  to  his  standard,  and  swelled  the 
 ranks  of  his  army.  Their  peaceful,  orderly,  and  faithful 
 conduct,  contrasting  most  favourably  with  the  turbu- 
 lent and  dissolute  behaviour  of  those  who  formed  the 
 mass  of  common  armies,  won  his  entire  confidence. 
 To  what  extent  this  led  Constantine  to  form  a  favour- 
 ble  opinion  of  Christianity,  or  inclined  him  to  view 
 with  esteem  and  respect  the  tenets  which  had  produced 
 such  results,  cannot  be  ascertained.  How  far  his 
 avowed  reception  of  Christianity  was  influenced  by 
 the  prudence  of  the  politician,  how  far  by  the  convic- 
 tion of  the  convert,  it  is  impossible  to  determine.  The 
 accounts  of  his  dream  and  his  vision  {vid.  Labarum), 
 which  united  to  enforce  his  trust  in  Christianity,  bear 
 too  much  the  aspect  of  fiction,  or  of  having  been  the 
 illusive  consequences  of  mental  anxiety,  brooding  in- 
 tensely on  the  possible  results  of  a  great  religious  rev- 
 olution, to  be  woven  into  the  narrative  of  sober  history. 
 This  at  least,  is  certain  :  Constantine  caused  the  cross 
 to  be  employed  as  the  imperial  standard,  and  advanced 
 with  it  to  promised  victory.  After  the  armies  of  Max- 
 entius, led  by  his  generals,  had  sustained  two  suc' 
 cessive  defeats,  that  emperor  himself,  awakening  from 
 his  sensual  and  inactive  life  at  Rome,  advanced  against, 
 his  formidable  assailant,  and  met  him  near  the  little 
 river  Cremera,  about  nine  miles  from  the  city.  Ma.x- 
 entins  lost  the  day,  after  a  bloody  conflict,  and,  in  en- 
 deavouring to  enter  the  city  by  the  Milvian  liridge, 
 was  precipitated  into  the  Tiber,  where  he  perished, 
 Constantine  was  received  at  Rome  with  acclamations  ; 
 Africa  acknowledged  him,  as  well  as  Italy  ;  and  an 
 edict  of  religious  toleration,  issued  at  Milan,  extended 
 the  advantages,  hitherto  enjoyed  by  Gaul  alone,  to 
 this  prefecture  also.  After  a  brief  stay  at  Rome,  du- 
 ring which  he  restored  to  the  senate  their  authority,, 
 disbanded  theprsetorian  guard,  and  destroyed  their  for- 
 tified famp,  from  which  they  had  so  long  awed  the 
 city  and  given  rulers  to  the  empire,  Constantine  pro- 
 ceeded to  lUyricum  to  meet  Licinius,  with  whom  he 
 had  formed  a  secret  league  before  marching  againsfc 
 Maxentius.  The  two  emperors  met  at  Milan,  where 
 their  alliance  was  ratified  by  the  marriage  of  Licimus 
 to  Constantine's  sister.  During  this  calm  interview, 
 Constantine  prevailed  upon  Licinius  to  Repeal  the  per- 
 
CON 
 
 CON 
 
 secuting  edicts  of  Dioclesian,  and  to  issue  a  new  one, 
 by  which  Christianity  was  encouraged,  its  teachers 
 were  honoured,  and  its  adherents  advanced  to  places 
 of  trust  and  influence  in  the  state.  After  tiie  over- 
 throw of  Maximin  by  Licinius,  and  his  death  at  Ni- 
 comedia,  Constantine  and  his  brother- in-law  were  now 
 the  only  two  that  remained  of  the  six  competitors  for 
 the  empire ;  and  the  peace  between  them,  which  had 
 seemed  to  be  established  on  so  firm  a  basis,  was  soon 
 interrupted  by  a  strife  for  sole  supremacy.  In  the 
 first  war  (A.C.  315)  Constantine  wrested  Illyricum 
 from  his  competitor.  After  an  interval  of  eight  years 
 the  contest  was  renewed.  Licinius  was  beaten  before 
 Adrianople,  the  3d  July,  323,  and  Constantine  the 
 Great  was  recognised  as  sole  master  of  the  Roman 
 world. — The  seat  of  empire  was  now  transferred  to 
 Byzantium,  which  took  from  him  the  name  of  Con- 
 stantinople. Several  edicts  were  issued  for  the  sup- 
 pression of  idolatry  ;  and  their  churches  and  property 
 restored  to  the  Christians,  of  which  they  had  been  de- 
 prived during  the  last  persecution.  A  re-construction 
 of  the  empire  was  effected  upon  a  plan  entirely  new, 
 and  this  renovated  empire  was  pervaded  by  the  worship 
 and  the  institutions  of  Christianity.  That  much  of 
 the  policy  of  the  statesman  was  mixed  up  with  this 
 patronage  of  the  new  religion  can  easily  be  imagined. 
 I3ut  still  it  would  be  wrong  to  make  him,  as  some  have 
 ilotie,  a  mere  hypocrite  and  dissembler.  The  state  of 
 i)is  religious  knowledge,  as  far  as  we  have  any  means 
 of  judging,  was  certainly  very  inadequate  and  imper- 
 iect ;  but  he  was  well  aware  of  the  characters  of  the 
 two  conflicting  religions,  Christianity  and  Paganism, 
 and  the  purity  of  the  former  could  not  but  have  made 
 some  impression  upon  his  mind. — The  private  charac- 
 ter of  Constantine  has  suffered,  in  the  eyes  of  posteri- 
 ty, from  the  cruel  treatment  of  Crispus,'his  son  by  his 
 first  wife,  whom  he  had  made  the  partner  of  his  empire 
 and  the  commander  of  his  armies.  Crispus  was  at  the 
 ;head  of  the  administration  in  Gaul,  where  he  gained 
 the  hearts  of  the  people.  In  the  wars  against  Licinius 
 he  had  displayed  singular  talents,  and  had  secured  vic- 
 tory to  the  arms  of  his  father.  Bat,  from  that  moment, 
 a  shameful  and  unnatural  jealousy  stifled  every  paternal 
 feeling  in  the  bosom  of  the  monarch.  He  detained 
 Crispus  in  his  palace,  surrounded  him  with  spies  and 
 informers,  and  at  length,  in  the  month  of  July,  326, 
 ordered  him  to  be  arrested  in  the  midst  of  a  grand 
 festival,  to  be  carried  off  to  Pola  in  Islria,  and  there 
 put  to  death.  A  cousin  of  Crispus,  the  son  of  Licini- 
 us and  Constantine's  sister,  was  at  the  same  time  sent 
 without  trial,  without  even  accusation,  to  the  block. 
 His  mother  implored  in  vain,  and  died  of  grief.  Faus- 
 la,  the  daughter  of  Maximian,  the  wife  of  Constantine, 
 and  the  mother  of  the  three  princes  who  succeeded 
 liim,  was  shortly  after  stifled  in  the  bath  by  order  of 
 her  husband. — Constantine  died  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
 three,  at  Nicomedia,  May  22,  337.  after  a  reian  of 
 thirty-one  years  from  the  death  of  his  father,  and  of 
 fourteen  from  the  conquest  of  the  empire.  {Hclhcr- 
 tngton,  Hist,  of  Rome,  p.  23G,  scqq. — Sismondi,  Fall 
 of  the  Roman  Empire,  p.  76,  scqq. — Encyclop.  Mc- 
 tropoL,  div.  3,  vol.  3,  p.  74,  seyy.)— Constantine  left 
 three  sons,  Constantine,  Coustans,  and  Constantius, 
 among  whom  he  divided  his  empire.  The  first,  who 
 had  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain  for  his  portion,  was  con- 
 quered by  the  armies  of  his  brother  Coustans,  and 
 killed  in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  A.D.  340. 
 Maguentius,  the  governor  of  the  provinces  of  Rhastia, 
 murdered  Constans  in  his  bed,  after  a  reign  of  thirteen 
 years  ;  and  Constantius,  the  only  surviving  brother, 
 now  become  the  sole  emperor,  A. 13.  353,  punished  his 
 brother's  murderer,  and  gave  way  to  cruelty  and  op- 
 pression. He  visited  Rome,  where  he  displayed  a 
 triumph,  and  died  in  his  march  against  Julian,  who  had 
 been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  soldiers. 
 
 CoNsr.4\Tius,  I.  Chlorus,  son  of  Eutropius,  and 
 370 
 
 father  of  Constantine  the  Great,  merited  the  title  of 
 Cffisar,  which  he  obtained,  by  his  victories  in  Britain 
 and  Germany.  He  became  the  colleague  of  Galerius 
 on  the  abdication  of  Dioclesian  ;  and,  after  bearing 
 the  character  of  a  humane  and  benevolent  prince,  he 
 died  at  York,  and  had  his  son  for  his  successor,  A.D. 
 306. — II.  The  third  son  of  Constantine  the  Great. 
 (Vid.  Constantinus.)  —  III.  The  father  of  Julian  and 
 Gallus,  was  son  of  Constantius  by  Theodora,  and  died 
 A.D.  337.  —  IV.  A  Roman  general,  who  married  Pla- 
 cidia,  the  sister  of  Honorius,  and  was  proclaimed  em- 
 peror, an  honour  he  enjoyed  only  seven  months.  He 
 died  universally  regretted,  421  A.D.,  and  was  succeed- 
 ed by  his  son  Valentinian  in  the  West. 
 
 CoNsu.iLiA,  the  festival  of  the  god  Consus.  {Vid. 
 Consus.) 
 
 CoNsuLEs,  two  chief  magistrates  at  Rome,  chosen 
 annually  by  the  people.  The  office  commenced  af- 
 ter the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  and  the  first  two  con- 
 suls were  L.  Junius  Brutus  and  L.  Tarquinius  Col- 
 latinus,  A.U.C.  244.  In  the  first  ages  of  the  republic 
 the  two  consuls  were  always  chosen  from  patrician 
 families  ;  but  the  people  obtained  the  privilege,  A.U.C. 
 388,  of  electing  one  of  the  consuls  from  their  own 
 body  ;  and  sometimes  both  were  plebeians.  The  first 
 consul  from  the  plebeians  was  L.  Scxtius. — It  was 
 required  that  every  candidate  for  the  consulship  should 
 be  forty-three  years  of  age.  He  was  always  to  ap- 
 pear at  the  election  as  a  private  man,  without  a  reti- 
 nue ;  and  it  was  requisite,  before  he  canvassed  for  the 
 office,  to  have  discharged  the  inferior  functions  of 
 quaestor,  a?dile,  and  praetor.  Sometimes,  however, 
 these  qualifications  were  disregarded.  M.  Valerius 
 Corvus  was  made  a  consul  in  his  twenty-third  year ; 
 Scipio  Africanus  the  Elder  in  his  twenty-fourth,  and 
 the  Younger  in  his  thirty-eighth  ;  T.  Quinctius  Flami- 
 ninus  when  not  quite  thirty  ;  Pompey  before  he  was 
 full  thirty-six. — The  consuls  were  at  the  head  of  the 
 whole  republic  ;  all  the  other  magistrates  were  subject 
 to  them,  except  the  tribunes  of  the  commons.  M'hey 
 assembled  the  people  and  senate,  laid  before  them 
 what  they  pleased,  and  executed  their  decrees.  The 
 laws  which  they  proposed  and  got  passed  were  usually 
 called  by  their  name.  They  received  all  letters  from 
 the  governors  of  provinces,  and  from  foreign  kings  and 
 states,  and  gave  audience  to  ambassadors.  The  year 
 was  named  after  them,  as  it  used  to  be  at  Athens  from 
 one  of  the  archons.  Their  insignia  were  the  same 
 with  those  of  the  kings  (except  the  crown),  namely, 
 the  toga  prcetexta,  sella  curulis,  the  sceptre  or  ivory 
 staff,  and  twelve  lictors  with  the  fasces  and  sccuris. 
 Within  the  city,  the  lictors  went  before  only  one  of 
 the  consuls,  and  that  commonly  for  a  month  alter- 
 nately. A  public  servant,  called  accensus,  went  be- 
 fore the  other  consul,  and  the  lictors  followed.  He 
 who  was  eldest,  or  had  most  children,  or  who  was  first 
 elected,  or  had  most  suffrages,  had  the  fasces  first. 
 When  the  consuls  commanded  different  armies,  each 
 of  them  had  the  fasces  and  sccuris  ;  but  when  they 
 both  commanded  the  same  army,  they  commonly  had 
 them  for  a  day  alternately.  Valerius  Poplicola  took 
 away  the  sccuris  from  the  fasces,  i.  e.,  he  took  from 
 the  consuls  the  power  of  life  and  death,  and  only  left 
 them  the  right  of  scourging.  Out  of  the  city,  how- 
 ever, when  invested  with  military  command,  they  re- 
 tained the  sccuris,  i.  e.,  the  right  of  punishing  capi- 
 tally. Their  provinces  used  anciently  to  be  decreed 
 by  the  senate  after  the  consuls  were  elected  or  had 
 entered  on  their  office.  But  by  the  Sempronian  law, 
 passed  A.U.C.  631,  the  senate  always  decreed  two 
 provinces  to  the  future  consuls  before  their  election, 
 which  they,  after  entering  upon  their  office,  divided 
 by  lot  or  agreement.  Sometimes  a  certain  province 
 was  assigned  to  some  one  of  the  consuls,  both  by  the 
 senate  and  people,  and  sometimes  again  the  people 
 reversed  what  the  senate  had  decreed  respecting  the 
 
COP 
 
 COP 
 
 provinces.  No  one  could  be  consul  two  following 
 vears  ;  an  interval  of  ten  years  must  have  elapsed  pre- 
 vious to  tlie  second  application  ;  yet  this  regulation 
 was  sometimes  broken,  and  we  find  Marius  re  elected 
 consul,  after  the  expiraiion  of  his  office,  during  the 
 Citnbnan  war.  The  office  of  consul  became  a  mere 
 matter  of  form  under  the  emperors  ;  although,  as  far 
 as  appearance  went,  they  who  filled  the  station  in- 
 dulged in  much  greater  pomp  than  had  before  been 
 customary  :  they  wore  the  toffa  pic/a  or  palmata,  and 
 had  iheir  fasces  wreathed  with  laurel,  which  used  for- 
 merly to  he  done  only  by  those  who  triumphed.  They 
 also  added  the  securis  or  a.\e  to  the  fasces  of  their  lic- 
 lors. — Cajsar  introduced  a  custom,  which  became  a 
 common  one  after  his  time,  of  appointing  consuls  for 
 merely  a  part  of  a  year.  The  object  was  to  gratify  a 
 larcrer  number  of  political  partisans.  Those  chosen 
 on  the  first  day  of  January,  however,  gave  name  to 
 the  year,  and  were  called  ordtnani ;  the  rest  were 
 termed  suffecd.  Under  Commodus  tliere  were  no 
 less  than  twenty-five  consuls  in  the  course  of  a  single 
 year.  Constantino  renewed  the  original  institution, 
 ftnd  permitted  the  consuls  to  be  a  whole  year  in  office. 
 Co.Nsus,  a  Roman  deity,  the  god  of  counsel,  as  his 
 nanje  denotes.  His  altar  was  in  the  Circus  Maximus, 
 and  was  always  covered,  except  on  his  festival-day, 
 the  18th  August,  called  Consualia.  Horse  and  chariot 
 races  were  celebrated  on  this  occasion,  and  the  work- 
 irig-lwrses,  mules,  and  asses  were  crowned  with  flow- 
 ers, and  allowed  to  rest.  {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  33. — Plat., 
 Qu(£st.  Rom.,  48.)  Hence  Consus  has  probably  been 
 confounded  with  Neptunus  Equestris.  It  was  at  the 
 Consualia  that  the  Sabine  maidens  were  carried  off  by 
 the  Romans.     {Keightlcifs  Mythology,  p.  529.) 
 
 CopjE,  a  small  town  of  Boeotia,  on  the  northern 
 shore  of  the  Lake  Copais,  and  giving  name  to  that 
 piece  of  water.  It  was  a  town  of  considerable  an- 
 tiquity, being  noticed  by  Homer  in  the  Catalogue  of 
 the  ships.  {II.,  2,  503  )  Pausanias  remarks  here  the 
 temples  of  Bacchus,  Ceres,  and  Serapis  (9,  24. — 
 Compare  Thucyd.,  4,  Q^.—Strab.,  406  and  410).  Sir 
 \V.  Gell  points  out,  to  the  north  of  Kardilza  (the  an- 
 cient Acraephia),  "a  triangular  island,  on  which  are 
 the  walls  of  the  ancient  Copss,  and  more  distant,  on 
 another  island,  the  village  of  Topolias,  which  gives  the 
 present  name  to  the  lake."  (GelVs  Itin.,  p.  143.) 
 And  Dodvvell  speaks  of  a  low  insular  tongue  of  land 
 projecting  from  the  foot  of  Ptous,  and  covered  with 
 the  ruins  of  a  small  ancient  city,  the  walls  of  which 
 are  seen  encircling  it  to  the  water's  edge.  {Dodwcirs 
 Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  56.) 
 
 Cop.iis  Lacus,  a  lake  of  BcEotia,  which,  as  Strabo 
 informs  us,  received  different  appellations  from  the 
 different  towns  situated  along  its  shores.  At  Haliar- 
 tus  it  was  called  Haliartius  Lacus  {Strabo,  410) ;  at 
 Orchomcnus,  Orchomenius.  {Plin.,  l(i,2G.)  Pindar 
 and  Homer  distinguish  it  by  the  name  of  Cephissus. 
 Ihat  of  Copa'is,  however,  finally  jirevailed,  as  Copas 
 was  situate  near  the  deepest  part  of  it.  It  is  by  far 
 the  most  considerable  lake  of  Greece,  being  not  less 
 than  three  hundred  and  eighty  stadia,  or  forty-seven 
 miles  in  circuit,  according  to  Strabo  (407).'  Pau- 
 sanias states,  that  it  was  navigable  from  the  mouth  of 
 the  Cephissus  to  Copaj  (9,  24).  As  this  considera- 
 ble e.\tcnt  of  water  had  no  apparent  discharge,  ft 
 sometnnes  threatened  to  inundate  the  whole  surround- 
 ing country.  Tradition  indeed  asserted,  that  near 
 Copaj  there  stood,  in  the  time  of  Cecrops,  two  ancient 
 cities,  Eleusis  and  Aihenae,  the  latter  of  which  was  sit- 
 uated on  the  river  Triton,  which,  if  it  is  the  torrent 
 noticed  by  Pausanias,  was  near  Alalcomens.  {Stra- 
 bo, iQ7.—Pausan.,  I.  c.)  Stephanus  Byzantinus  re- 
 ports, that  when  Crates  drained  the  waters  which  had 
 overspread  the  plains,  the  latter  town  became  visible 
 (.9.  V.  'X6i]vai.).  Some  writers  have  asserted,  that  it 
 occupied  the  site  of  the  ancient  Orchomenus.     {Stra- 
 
 bo, I-  c. — Stcph.  Byz.,  V.  c.)  Fortunately  for  the 
 Boeotians,  nature  had  supplied  several  subterranean 
 canals,  by  which  the  waters  of  the  lake  found  their 
 way  into  the  sea  of  Euboea.  Strabo  supposes  they 
 were  caused  by  earthquakes.  Their  number  is  un- 
 certain ;  but  Dodwell,  who  seems  to  have  inquired 
 minutely  into  the  subject,  was  informed  by  the  natives 
 that  there  were  as  many  as  fifteen.  He  himself  only 
 observed  four,  one  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pioiis,  near 
 Acraephia,  which  conveys  the  waters  of  Copais  to  the 
 Lake  Hylica,  a  distance  of  about  two  miles.  The  other 
 katabothra,  as  they  are  called  by  the  modern  Greeks, 
 are  on  the  northeastern  side  of  the  lake.  Dodwel 
 speaks  of  these  subterranean  canals  as  being  in  a  cal- 
 careous rock,  of  a  hard  though  friable  quality,  and  full 
 of  natural  caverns  and  fissures.  yDodwcW s  Tour,  vol. 
 I,  p.  238.)  In  consequence  of  some  obstructions  in 
 these  outlets,  an  attempt  was  made  to  cleanse  them  in 
 the  time  of  Alexander,  and  for  this  purpose  square  pits 
 were  cut  in  the  rock  in  the  supposed  direction  of  this 
 underground  stream.  Mr.  Raikes  saw  some  of  these 
 remaining.  {MS.  Journal. —  Walpolcs  Memoirs,  vol. 
 1,  p.  304.)  According  to  Dodwell  (vol.  1,  p.  240), 
 "  the  general  size  of  these  pits  is  four  feet  square ; 
 the  depth  varies  according  to  the  unevenness  of  the 
 ground  under  which  the  water  is  conducted  to  its  out- 
 let. It  is  impossible  to  penetrate  into  these  deep  re- 
 cesses, which  are  most  of  them  filled  with  stones  or 
 overgrown  with  bushes  ;  but  it  would  not  be  diflicult  to 
 ascertain  their  depth,  and  their  direction  might  be 
 traced  by  following  the  shafts,  which  extend  nearly 
 to  the  sea." — Mr.  Raikes  gives  the  following  account 
 of  the  outlets  where  tbey  empty  into  the  sea.  "  From 
 the  mouth  of  the  Larmi  I  rode  along  its  banks,  until, 
 in  about  three  miles,  I  came  to  a  s[]Ot  covered  with 
 rocks  and  bushes,  in  the  middle  of  which  the  whole 
 river  burst  with  impetuosity  from  holes  at  the  foot 
 of  a  low  cliff,  and  immediately  assumed  the  form  of  a 
 considerable  stream.  Above  this  source  there  is  a 
 small  plain  under  cultivation,  bounded  to  the  west  by 
 a  range  of  low  rocky  hills.  From  these  a  magnificent 
 view  of  the  Copaic  Lake  and  the  mountains  of  Pho- 
 cis  presents  itself  to  the  eye."  The  same  writer  re- 
 marks, that  "when  the  undertaking  for  clearing  the 
 katabothra,  in  the  time  of  .\lexander,  was  proposed, 
 the  rich  and  flourishing  towns  of  the  plain  were  re- 
 duced to  a  state  of  desolation  by  the  cn-croachments  of 
 the  lake,  and  under  the  despondency  occasioned  by  a 
 universal  monarchy,  sunk  into  complete  decay.  At 
 present  the  rising  of  the  waters  in  winter  has  turned 
 a  great  portion  of  the  richest  soil  in  the  world  into  a 
 morass,  and,  should  any  permanent  internal  obstruction 
 occur  in  the  stream,  the  whole  of  this  fertile  plain  might 
 gradually  become  included  in  the  limits  of  the  Copaic 
 
 I^ake." The  Copaic  Lake  was  especially  famed  for 
 
 its  eels  which  <rrew  to  a  large  size,  and  were  highly 
 esteemed  bv  the  epicures  of  antiquity.  {Archestr.  ap. 
 Athen.  7,  53.)  We  know  from  Aristophanes  that 
 they  fonnd  their  way  to  the  .Athenian  nmxkei  {Acharn., 
 V.  8S0,  seqq.  —  Lysistr.,  v.  36);  and  we  are  inform- 
 ed by  Dodwell  (vol.  1,  p.  237),  "that  they  are  as 
 much  celebrated  at  present  as  they  were  in  the  time 
 of  (he  ancients  ;  and,  after  being  salted  and  pickled, 
 are  sent  as  delicacies  to  various  i)arts  of  Greece." 
 Some  which  were  extraordinarily  large  were  offered 
 up  as  sacrifices,  and  decorated  like  victims.  {Athen., 
 7,  50— Compare  Pauaan.,  9,  24.-7.  Poll.,  6,  63.— 
 Cramer's  Aiicicnt  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  256.) 
 
 CopH.is,  a  harbour  in  Gedrosia,  supposed  by  some 
 to  be  the  modern  Gondcl.  (Compare  the  remarks  of 
 Vincent,  Commerce  of  the  Ancients,  vol.  1,  p.  252, 
 seqq.) 
 
 CopiA,  the  goddess  of  plenty  among  the  Romans, 
 represented  as  bearing  a  horn  filled  with  fruits,  &c. 
 
 CoPTUs,  a  city  of  Egypt,  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
 Thebais,  and  to  the  east  of  the  Nile,  from  which  river 
 
 371 
 
COR 
 
 COR 
 
 it  stood  some  distance  back  in  a  plain.  Under  the 
 Pharaohs  its  true  name  appears  to  have  been  Chem- 
 inis,  and  it  would  seem  to  have  been  at  that  time 
 merely  a  place  connected  with  the  religious  traditions 
 of  the  p]gyptian  nation  Under  the  Ptolemies,  on  the 
 other  hand,  not  only  the  appellation  for  the  place  as- 
 sumed more  of  a  Greek  form,  but  the  city  itself  rose 
 into  commercial  importance.  The  Arabian  Gulf  be- 
 ginning to  be  navigated  by  the  Greeks,  and  traffic  be- 
 ing pushed  from  this  quarter  as  far  as  India,  Coptus 
 became  the  centre  of  communication  between  this  lat- 
 ter country  and  Alexandrea,  through  the  harbour  of 
 Berenice  on  the  Red  Sea.  It  was  well  situated  for 
 such  a  purpose,  since  the  Arabian  chain  of  mountains, 
 which  elsewhere  forms  a  complete  barrier  along  the 
 coast,  has  here  an  opening  which,  after  various  wind- 
 ings, conducts  to  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea.  Along  this 
 route  the  caravans  proceeded;  and  camels  were  also 
 employed  between  Coptus  and  the  Nile.  The  road 
 from  Coptus  to  Berenice  was  the  work  of  Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus,  and  258  miles  in  length.  It  was  raised 
 above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country. — Coptus 
 was  destroyed  by  the  Emperor  Dioclesian,  for  having 
 sided  with  his  opponent  Achilleus.  {Tkeophan., 
 Chronngr.,  p.  4,  ed.  Paris. — Euscb.,  Chro?i.,  p.  178.) 
 Its  favourable  situation  for  commerce,  however,  soon 
 caused  it  again  to  arise,  and  Hierocles  speaks  of  Cop- 
 tus in  the  si.xth  century. — The  modern  name  is  Keft 
 or  Kmjpt,  a  name  which  exhibits,  according  to  some, 
 the  simple  form  of  that  word  which  the  Greeks  cor- 
 rupted or  improved  into  JEiryplus.  Plutarch  states 
 (Z)c  Is-,  et  Os.,  p.  356.— O}?.,  cd.  Rciske,  vol.  7,  p. 
 405),  that  Isis,  upon  receiving  the  news  of  the  death 
 o/'  Osiris,  cut  off  one  of  her  locks  here,  and  that  hence 
 the  place  was  called  Coptus,  this  term  signifying,  in 
 the  Egyptian  language,  want  or  privation.  Mannert 
 suggests,  that  Coptus  may  have  denoted  in  the  Egyp- 
 tian tongue  a  mixed  population,  a  name  well  suited 
 to  the  inhabitants  of  a  large  commercial  city  ;  and  he 
 conjectures,  that  the  modern  appellation  of  Kopts,  as 
 given  to  the  present  mingled  population,  which  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  descended  in  part  from  the  ancient  Egyp- 
 tians, may  have  reference  to  the  same  idea.  {Man- 
 iicrt,  Gco'gr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  365.) 
 
 Cora,  a  town  of  Latium,  southwest  of  Anagnia.  It 
 was  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  has  preserved  its 
 name  unchanged  to  the  present  day.  Virgil  {^En.,  6, 
 773)  makes  it  to  have  been  a  colony  from  Alba,  while 
 Pliny  (3,  5)  says,  it  was  founded  by  Dardanus,  a  Tro- 
 jan. Cora  suffered  greatly  during  the  contest  with 
 Spartacus,  being  taken  and  sacked  by  one  of  his  wan- 
 dering bands.  {Flor.,  3,  20.)  It  apparently,  how- 
 ever, recovered  from  this  devastation,  as  there  are 
 some  fine  remains  of  ancient  buildings  to  be  seen 
 here,  which  must  have  been  erected  in  the  reigns  of 
 Tiberius  and  Claudius.  But  Propertius  and  Lucan 
 speak  of  Cora  as  the  seat  of  ruin  and  desolation. 
 {Propert.,  4,  I].— Lucan,  7,  392.— Nihby,Via.g.  An- 
 tiq.,  vol.  2,  p.  207. —  Cramer's  Anc,  Italy,  volt  2,  p 
 105) 
 
 CoRAOEsiuM,  a  maritime  town  of  Pamphylia,  south- 
 east of  Side.  It  is  described  by  Strabo  as  a  strong 
 and  important  fortress,  situate  on  a  steep  rock.  Pom- 
 pcy  took  Coracesium  in  the  piratical  war.  It  is 
 also  incidentally  noticed  by  Livy  (33,  20. —  Com- 
 j)are  !^cylax,  p.  40.— P/;«,,  5,  27).  Hierocles  as- 
 signs Coracesium  to  Pamphylia,  and  D'Anville's  map 
 Rijrees  with  this.  Others,  however,  to  Cilicia  ;  and 
 Cramer's  map  places  it  in  this  latter  country,  just  be- 
 yond the  confines  of  Pam[)hylia.  The  site  of  Cora- 
 <  esium  corresponds  with  that  of  Ahu/a.  Capt.  Beau- 
 f  )rt  describes  it  as  a  promontory  rising  abruptly  from 
 a  low  sandy  isthmus.  Two  of  its  sides  are  cliffs 
 of  great  height,  and  absolutely  perpendicular;  and 
 the  eastern  side,  on  which  the  town  is  placed,  is  so 
 steep,  t'hat  the  houses  seem  to  rest  on  each  other  It 
 373 
 
 forms,  according  to  him,  a  natural  fortress  that  mighl 
 be  rendered  impregnable  ;  and  the  numerous  walls  and 
 towers  prove  how  anxiously  its  former  possessors  la- 
 boured to  make  it  so.  {Beaufort's  Karamania,  p. 
 172. — Cramer''s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  320.) 
 
 CoRALLi,  a  savage  people  of  Sarmatia  Europea,  who 
 inhabited  the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  near  the  mouths 
 of  the  Danube.     (Ovid,  ex  Pont.,  4,  2,  37.) 
 
 Coras,  a  brother  of  Calillus  and  Tiburtus  (vid.  Ti- 
 bur),  who  fought  against /Eneas.    (F(V^.,^?i.,7,672.) 
 
 CoRAX,  a  Siciliun,  whom  the  ancients  regarded  as 
 the  creator  of  the  rhetorical  art.  Cicero,  following 
 Aristotle,  says,  that  when  the  tyrants  were  driven  out 
 of  Sicily,  and  private  affairs  began  again  to  be  taken 
 cognizance  of  by  the  tribunals  of  justice,  Corax  and 
 Tisias  wrote  on  the  rhetorical  art,  and  penned  pre- 
 cepts of  oratory.  In  this  way,  according  to  him,  the 
 eloquence  of  the  bar  arose,  the  Sicilians  being  naturally 
 an  acute  race  and  given  to  disputation.  {Cic,  Brut., 
 c.  12.— Compare  De  Oral.,  1,  20,  and  3,  21.)  Cora.x 
 and  Tisias  must  have  lived,  consequently,  about  473 
 B.C.,  since  this  is  the  period  when  the  Sicilians  re- 
 gained their  freedom,  of  which  they  had  been  deprived 
 by  Gclon  and  the  other  tyrants  who  were  contempo- 
 raneous with  him.  {Clavier,  in  Biog.  Univ.,  vol.  9, 
 p.  556.) 
 
 CoRBOLO,  Cn.  Domitius,  a  celebrated  Roman  com- 
 mander, under  Claudius  and  Nero.  He  was  famed 
 for  his  military  talent,  his  rigid  observance  of  ancient 
 discipline,  and  for  the  success  of  his  arms,  especially 
 against  the  Parthians.  On  account  of  his  great  repu- 
 tation, he  became  an  object  of  jealousy  and  suspicion 
 to  Nero,  who  recalled  him,  under  pretence  of  reward- 
 ing his  merit.  When  Corbulo  reached  Corinth,  he 
 met  there  an  order  to  die.  Reflecting  on  his  own  want 
 of  prudence  and  foresight,  he  fell  upon  his  sword,  ex- 
 claiming, "  I  have  well  deserved  this  !''  Thus  perish- 
 ed, A.I).  67,  the  greatest  warrior,  and  one  of  the  m.ost 
 virtuous  men  of  his  time.  Corbulo  had  written  Me- 
 moirs of  the  wars  carried  on  by  him,  after  the  manner 
 of  Cffisar's  Commentaries  ;  but  they  have  not  reached 
 our  day.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  11,  IS.— Id.  ib.,  13,  35.— 
 Id.  lb.,  13,  14,  &c.) 
 
 CoRBULONis  MoNUMENTUM,  a  placo  in  the  north- 
 western part  of  Germany,  among  the  Frisii,  near  the 
 confines  of  the  Chauci.  It  is  supposed  to  answer  to 
 the  modern  Groningen.     {Tacit.,  Ann.,  11,  19.) 
 
 CoRCYRA,  an  island  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  off  fhe  coast 
 of  Epirus,  in  which  Homer  places  the  fabled  gardens 
 of  Alcinoiis.  It  is  said  to  have  been  first  known  un- 
 der the  name  of  Drepane,  perhaps  from  its  siinilarity 
 of  shape  to  a  scythe.  {Apollon.,  Argon.,  4,  982.)  To 
 this  name  succeeded  that  of  Scheria,  always  used  by 
 Homer,  and  by  which  it  was  probably  known  in  his 
 time.  From  the  Odyssey  we  learn,  that  this  island  was 
 then  inhabited  by  Phreacians,  a  people  who,  even  at 
 that  early  period,  had  acquired  considerable  skill  in 
 nautical  atfairs,  and  possessed  extensive  commercial 
 relations,  since  they  traded  with  the  Phoenicians,  and 
 also  with  Eubosa  and  other  countries. — Corcyra  was 
 in  after  days  the  principal  city  of  the  island,  and  was 
 situated  precisely  where  the  modern  town  of  Corfu 
 stands.  Scylax  speaks  of  three  harbours,  one  of  which 
 is  depicted  as  beautiful.  Homer  describes  the  posi- 
 tion of  the  city  very  accurately  {Od.,  6,  262).  In  the 
 middle  ages,  the  citadel  obtained  the  name  of  Kopvifx'-i, 
 from  its  two  conical  hills  or  crests,  which  appellation 
 was,  in  process  of  time,  applied  to  the  whole  town, 
 and  finally  to  the  island  itself.  Hence  the  modern 
 name  of  Corfu,  which  is  but  a  corruption  of  the  for- 
 mer. {Wordsuwrth's  Greece,  Y>-^f>3)  As,  however, 
 the  island  is  designated  in  Boccacio  by  the  appella- 
 tion of  Gurfo,  and  as  the  modern  Greek  term  is  Korfo, 
 some  have  imagined  that  the  name  Corfu,  originated 
 in  a  Romaic  corruption  of  the  ancient  word  for  Kolpo 
 (/coXrrof),  "  gulf"    or   "  bay,"  which   might  well   be 
 
COR 
 
 COR 
 
 applied  to  the  harbour  beneath  the  double  summits. 
 (  Words wor/h,  I.  c.)  Corfu  forms  at  the  present  day 
 one  of  the  Ionian  islands,  and  is  the  most  important  of 
 ihe'number.  It  is  70  miles  in  length  by  30  in  breadth, 
 and  contains  a  population  of  30,000  souls.  The  olive 
 arrives  at  greater  perfection  here  than  in  any  other  part 
 of  Greece  ;  but  the  oil  obtained  from  it  is  acrid. — Corfu 
 was  for  a  long  time  considered  as  the  stronghold  of  It- 
 aly against  the  attacks  of  the  Mussulmans.  The  fol- 
 lowing is  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  this  island.  Its 
 earlier  periods  are  enveloped  in  the  mist  of  uncertainty 
 and  conjecture.  A  colony  of  Colchians  is  said  to  have 
 settled  there  about  1349  years  before  our  era.  It  was 
 afterward  governed  by  kings  of  whom  little  is  known. 
 Homer  has,  indeed,  immortalized  the  name  of  Alci- 
 lioijs.  But  it  is  not  easy  to  draw  a  map  of  the  Ho- 
 meric Phaiacia,  which  shall  coincide  in  its  details  with 
 the  localities  of  Corfu  ;  nor  will  the  topographer  find 
 it  a  simple  task  to  discover  the  natural  objects  con- 
 nected HI  the  Odyssey  with  the  city  of  the  Phajacian 
 king.  In  process  of  time,  Corcyra,  enriched  and  ag- 
 grandized by  its  maritime  superiority,  became  one  of 
 the  most  powerful  nations  in  Greece.  {Thucyd.,  1,1.) 
 The  Corinthians,  under  Chersicrates,  formed  a  settle- 
 ment here  in  753  B.C.,  and  415  years  afterward  it  was 
 captured  Liy  Agatliocles  of  Syracuse,  who  gave  it  to 
 his  daughter  Lanessa  upon  her  marriage  with  Pyrrhus 
 of  Epirus.  It  was  occupied  by  the  troops  of  the  II- 
 lyrian  queen  Teuta,  about  fifty-eight  years  after  its 
 seizure  by  Agathocles,  but  was  soon  after  taken  from 
 her  by  the  Romans,  under  the  consul  Cii.  Flavius  ; 
 and,  although  it  had  the  privileges  of  a  free  city,  it 
 remained  under  the  Romans  for  many  centuries.  In 
 the  time  of  Strabo  it  was  reduced  to  e.xtreme  misery, 
 owing  to  the  vices  of  its  administration  and  its  want  of 
 moderation  in  prosperity.  Corfu  has  for  several  cen- 
 turies been  celebrated  for  its  powerful  fortresses,  to 
 which  great  additions  were  made  by  the  French,  and 
 eubsequently  by  the  English,  in  the  hanJs  of  which 
 latter  people  it,  together  with  the  other  Ionian  islands, 
 at  present  remains.  {DodweWs  Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  36, 
 seqq.) — II.  An  island  in  the  Adriatic,  on  the  coast  of 
 Illyricum,  termed  iV/ova  ("Black"),  in  Greek  MeXaiva, 
 to  distinguish  it  from  the  more  celebrated  island  of  the 
 same  name.  It  is  now  Curzola.  Apollonius  accounts 
 for  the  epithet  just  mentioned  from  the  dark  masses  of 
 wood  with  which  it  was  crowned.  {Argon.,  4,  571.) 
 Scymnus  attributes  to  this  island  the  honour  of  hav- 
 ing received  a  colony  from  Cnidus  in  Asia  Minor. 
 {Scynin.,  v.  426. — Compare  Scylax,  p.  8. — Strabo, 
 315") 
 
 CoRuuBA,  a  city  of  Hispania  Boptica,  on  the  right 
 bank  of  the  river  Bsetis,  and  about  1200  stadia  from 
 ihe  sea.  The  river  being  navigable  to  this  quarter, 
 Corduba  became,  in  consequence,  a  large  and  opulent 
 commercial  place.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  both  the 
 Seiiccas,  and  of  the  poet  Lucan.  and  is  now  Cordova. 
 {Strab.,  U\.—Plm.,  3,  3—Wernsdorff,  Fact.  Lat. 
 Min.,  vol.  5,  pt.  3,  p.  1366.) 
 
 Core  I.  (Kop;/,  "//ic  jnaiden^),  an  Attic  name  for 
 Proserpina.  Some,  not  very  correcily,  derive  the  term 
 from  Keipu,  "  to  cut,"  &c.,  and  make  it  have  reference 
 to  the  "  harvest."  {Journal  Royal  Instilation,  No. 
 1,  p.  59.) — II.  A  Corinthian  female,  said  to  have  been 
 the  inventress  of  plaster-casts.  {Alhenag.,  Leg.  pro 
 Christ.,  14,  p.  59.— SiWjV,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  ».) 
 
 CoBFiNiUM,  the  capital  of  the  Peligni,  in  Italy,  about 
 three  miles  from  the  Aternus.  During  the  Social  war 
 It  took  the  name  of  Italica,  and  had  the  honour  of  be- 
 ing styled  the  capital  of  Iialy.  This  arrangement,  how- 
 ever, was  of  short  continuance,  as  Corfinium  appears 
 to  have  seceded  from  the  confederacy  before  the  con- 
 clusion of  the  war.  {Diod.  Sic,  Fracm.,  37.)  In  la- 
 ter times  we  find  it  still  regarded  as  one'  of  the  most 
 important  cities  of  this  part  of  Italy,  and  one  which 
 Caesar  was  most  anxious  to  secure  in  his  enterprise 
 
 against  the  liberties  of  his  country.  It  surrendered  to 
 him  after  a  short  defence.  {Bell.  Civ.,  1,  16. — Com- 
 pare Floras,  4,  2.—Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  2,  38.)  The 
 church  of  S.  Pelino,  about  three  miles  from  the  town 
 of  Popoli,  stands  on  the  site  of  this  ancient  city,  and 
 the  little  hamlet  of  Pertinia  occupies  probably  the 
 place  of  its  citadel.  {D'Anville,  An.  Geogr.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  173. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  1,  p.  500.) 
 
 CoRiNN.4,  a  poetess  of  Thebes,  or,  according  to 
 others,  of  Tanagra,  distinguished  for  her  skill  in  lyric 
 verse,  and  remarkable  for  her  personal  attractions. 
 She  was  the  rival  of  Pindar,  while  the  latter  was  still 
 a  young  man  ;  and,  according  to  ^Elian  {V.  H.,  13,  25), 
 she  gained  the  victory  over  him  no  less  than  five  times. 
 Pausanias,  in  his  travels,  saw  at  Tanagra  a  picture,  in 
 which  Corinna  was  represented  as  binding  her  head  with 
 a  fillet  of  victory,  which  she  had  gained  in  a  contest  with 
 Pindar.  He  supposes  that  she  was  less  indebted  for 
 this  victory,  to  the  excellence  of  her  poetry  than  to  her 
 Boeotian  dialect,  which  was  more  familiar  to  the  ears  of 
 the  judges  at  the  games,  and  also  to  her  extraordinary 
 beauty.  Corinna  afterward  assisted  the  young  poet 
 with  her  advice  ;  it  is  related  of  her,  that,  she  recom- 
 mended him  to  ornament  his  poems  with  mythical  nar- 
 rations ;  but  that,  when  he  had  composed  a  hymn,  in 
 the  first  six  verses  of  which  (still  extant)  almost  the 
 whole  of  the  Theban  mythology  was  introduced,  she 
 smiled  and  said,  "  We  should  sow  with  the  hand,  not 
 with  the  whole  sack."  {Pausan  ,  9,  22. — Flat.,  de 
 Glor.  Ath.—Op.,  cd.  Reiske,  vol.  7,  p.  320.)  She 
 was  surnamed  "  the  Fly"  (Mum),  as  Erinna  had  been 
 styled  "the  Bee."  This  appellation  of  Mota  has  de- 
 ceived  Clement  of  Alexandrea,  who  speaks  of  a  poet 
 ess  named  Myia.  {Strom.,  4,  19.)  The  poems  of 
 Corinna  were  all  in  the  Bosotian  or  ^Eolic  dialect. 
 Too  little  of  her  poetry,  however,  has  been  preserved 
 to  allow  of  our  forming  a  safe  judgment  of  her  style 
 of  composition.  The  extant  fragments  refer  mostly 
 to  mythological  subjects,  particularly  to  heroines  of 
 the  Boeotian  legends.  These  remains  were  given  by 
 Ursinus,  in  his  Carmina  noveni  illustrium  feminarum, 
 1568  ;  by  Wolf  in  his  Foelriaruni  octo  fraguienia, 
 1734  ;  and  by  Schneider  in  his  MovacJv  uvdi],  Giess., 
 1802,  8vo.  '{Seholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  295.— 
 Mohnikc,  Geseh.  Lit.  der  Gr.  luid  R  ,  p.  317.) 
 
 CoRiNTHi  Isthmus,  or  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  between 
 the  Saronicus  Sinus  and  Corinthiacus  Sinus,  and  uni- 
 ting the  Peloponnesus  to  the  northern  parts  of  Greece, 
 or  Grcecia  Propria.  The  ancients  appear  to  have 
 been  divided  in  their  opinions  concerning  the  exact 
 breadth  of  the  isthmus.  Diodorus  (11,  16)  and  Stra- 
 bo (335)  say  it  was  forty  stadia,  and  Mela  (2,  3)  five 
 miles,  with  which  last  Pliny  agrees  (4,  5).  The 
 real  distance,  however,  in  the  narrowest  part,  cannot 
 be  less  than  six  miles  (or  not  quite  five  British  miles), 
 as  the  modern  name  of  Hcxamilion  sufTiciently  denotes. 
 Ships  were  drawn,  by  means  of  machinery,  from  one 
 sea  to  the  other,  near  the  town  of  Schoenus,  over  the 
 narrowest  part  of  the  isthmus,  which  was  called  Diol- 
 kos.  This  could  only  be  accomplished,  however,  with 
 the  vessels  usually  employed  in  commerce,  or  with  lem- 
 hi,  which  were  light  ships  of  war,  chiefly  used  by  the 
 Illyrians  and  Macedonians.  The  tediousness  and  ex- 
 pense attending  this  process,  and  still  more  probably 
 the  difficulty  of  circumnavigating  the  Peloponnesus, 
 led  to  frequent  attempts,  at  various  periods,  for  effect-' 
 ing  a  junction  between  the  two  seas  ;  but  all  proved 
 equally  unsuccessful.  According  to  Strabo  (54),  De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes  abandoned  the  enterprise,  because 
 it  was  found  that  the  two  gulfs  were  not  on  the  same 
 level.  We  read  of  the  attempt  having  been  made  be- 
 fore his  time  by  Pcriander  and  Alexander,  and,  sub- 
 sequently to  Demetrius,  by  Julius  Caesar,  Caligula 
 Nero,  and  Herodes  Atticus.  "  It  appears  somewhat 
 surprising,"  remarks  Mr.  Dodwell,  "  that  these  success- 
 ive attempts  should  have  failed  or  been  relinquished 
 ^  373 
 
.ORINTHI  ISTHML&. 
 
 COR 
 
 The  art  of  perforating  rocks  was  well  understood  and 
 dexterously  practised   both  in  Italy  and  Greece  at  a 
 very  early  period,  and,  therefore,  no  difficulty  of  this 
 kind  could  have  occasioned  the  abandonment  of  so 
 useful  a  project,  though  Pausanias  is  of  a  different  opin- 
 ion.     It  was  afterward  begun  with  the  greatest  energy, 
 and  abandoned  without  any  plausible  motive,  as  no  doubt 
 the  quantity  of  rock  or  earth  to  be  removed,  and  all 
 the  associated  impediments,  must  have  been  the  sub- 
 ject of  previous  calculation.     And  if  Demetrius  was 
 really  convinced  that  the  level  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf 
 was  higher  than  that  of  the  Saronic,  and  that  the  ad- 
 jacent shore,  with  the  neighbouring  islands,  would  be 
 inundated  by  the  union  of  the  two  seas,  those  who  came 
 after  him  would  not  have  persevered  in  so  destructive 
 an   undertaking.      Sesostris,    and    afterward    Darius, 
 were  in  the  same  manner  deterred  from  finishing  a  ca- 
 nal from  the  Red  Sea  to  tiie  Nile,  by  an  apprehension 
 that  Egypt  would  be  inundated.  (Slrah.,28. — Id.,  804.) 
 Dio  (^assius  tells  nearly  the  same  story  about  digging 
 the  isthmus  as  that  which  is  related  to  travellers  at 
 this  day.     He  says  that  blood  issued  from  the  ground  ; 
 that  groans  and  lamentations  were  heard,  and  terrible  ap- 
 paritions seen.     In  order  to  stimulate  the  perseverance 
 of  the  people,  Nero  took  a  spade  and  dug  himself.    {Dio 
 Cass.,  63,  16. — Compare  Suet.,  Vit.  Ncr.,  19.— Lu- 
 cian,  de  pcrfoss.  Islhm.)     Lucian  informs  us,  that  Ne- 
 ro was  said  to  have  been  deterred  from  proceeding,  by 
 a  representation  made  to  him,  similar  to  that  which  De- 
 metrius received  respecting  the  unequal  levels  of  the 
 two  seas.     He  adds,  however,  a  more  probable  reason  ; 
 the  troubles,  namely,  that  were  excited  by  Vindex  in 
 Gaul,  and  which  occasioned  the  emperor's  hasty  re- 
 turn from  Greece  to  Italy.     {Lucian,  de  pcrfoss.  Islhm. 
 —Op.,  cd.  Brp.,  vol.  9,  p.  298.)     It  is  probable,  as 
 far   as  the  supernatural    appearances  went,  that   the 
 priests  at  Delphi  had  some  influence  in  checking  the 
 enterprise."     {DodweWs  Tour,yo\.2,'p.  \8A:.)     Trav- 
 ellers inform  us,  that  some  remains  of  the  canal  under- 
 taken by  the  Roman  emperor  are  yet  visible,  reaching 
 from  the  sea,  northeast  of  Lechaeum,  about  half  a  mile 
 across  the  isthmus.     It  terminates  on  the  southeast 
 side,  where  solid  rock  occurs,  which,  as  Dr.  Clarke 
 thinks,  must  have  opposed  an  insurmountable  obsta- 
 cle.   (Tra?;.,  vol.  6,  p.  562.)    Sir  W.  Cell  remarks,  that 
 the  vestiges  of  the  canal  may  be  traced  from  the  port 
 or  bay  of  Schosnus,  along  a  natural  hollow  at  the  fool 
 i  of  a  line  of  fortifications.     There  are  also  several  pits, 
 probably  sunk  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  soil,  through 
 which  the  canal  was  to  be  carried.     The  ground,  how- 
 ever, is  so  high,  that  the  undertaking  would  be  attend- 
 ed with  enormous  expense.     {Iiin.  of  ihc  Morea,  p. 
 208.) — We  hear  also  of  various  attempts  made  to  raise 
 fortifications  across  the  Isthmus  for  the  Peloponnesus 
 when  threatened  with  invasion.      The  first  undertaking 
 was  made  before  the  battle  of  Salamis,  when,  as  He"' 
 rodotus  relates,  the  Peloponnesian  confederates,  hav- 
 ing blocked  up  the  Scironian  way,  collected  together  a 
 vast  multitude,  who  worked  night  and  day,  without  in- 
 termission, on  the  fortifications.     Every  kind  of  mate- 
 rial, such  as  stones,  bricks,  and  timber,  were  employ- 
 ed, and  the  insterslices  filled  up  with  earth  and  sand. 
 {Herodot.,  8,  73.)     Many  years  after,  the  Lacedemo- 
 nians and  their  allies  endeavoured  to  fortify  the  isth- 
 mus from  Cenchreoe  to  Lechoeum  against  Epaminon- 
 das  ;  but  this  measure  was  rendered  fruitless  by  the 
 conduct  and  skill  of  that  general,  who  forced  a  pas- 
 sage across  the  Oneian  Mountains.     {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr. 
 7,  1.)     Cleomenes  also  threw  uji   trenches  and  lines 
 from  Acrocorinthus  to  the  Oneian  Mountains,  in  order 
 to  prevent  the  Macedonians,  under  Antigonus  Doson, 
 from  penetrating  into  the  peninsula.     {Poli/h.,  2,  52. 
 — Plut.,  de  Clcom.) — The  Isthmus  of  Corinth  derived 
 great  celebrity  from  the  games  which  were  celebrated 
 there  every  five  years  in  honour  of  Palsmoti  or  Meli- 
 certa,  and  subsequently  of  Neptune.     (Paiisan  .  I,  44 
 374 
 
 — Plut.,  Vit.  Thes.)  These  continued  in  vogue  when 
 the  other  gymnastic  exercises  of  Greece  had  fallen  into 
 neglect  and  disuse ;  and  it  was  during  their  solemni- 
 zation that  the  independence  of  Greece  was  proclaim- 
 ed, after  the  victory  of  Cynoscephalae,  by  order  of  the 
 Roman  senate  and  people.  {Polyb.,  18,  29. — Liv., 
 33,  32.)  After  the  destruction  of  Corinth,  the  super- 
 intendence of  the  Isthmian  games  was  committed  to 
 the  Sicyonians  by  the  Romans  ;  on  its  restoration,  how- 
 ever, by  Julius  Cajsar,  the  presidency  of  the  games 
 again  reverted  to  the  Corinthian  settlers.  {Pausan., 
 2,  2.) 
 
 CoRiNTHiACUs  SiNus,  Or  Gulfof  Lcpaiito,  an  arm 
 of  the  sea  running  in  between  the  coast  of  Achaia  and 
 Sicyonia  to  the  south,  and  that  of  Phocis,  Locris,  and 
 yEtolia  to  the  north.  Its  gulf  had  the  general  appel- 
 lation of  Corinthian  as  far  as  the  Isthmus,  but  it  was 
 divided  into  smaller  bays,  the  names  of  which  were 
 sometimes  poetically  used  for  the  entire  gulf.  Its 
 diflTerent  names  were  the  Crissaean,  Cirrhagan,  Delphic, 
 Calydonian,  Rhian,  and  Halcyonian.  Besides  being 
 now  called  the  GmM  oi Lcpanio,  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus 
 is  often  known  by  the  name  of  the  Gulf  of  Nepahtos  or 
 Salona.  The  victory  of  Don  John  of  Austria,  in  1571, 
 over  the  Turks,  has  immortalized  the  name  of  the  Gulf 
 of  Lepanto  in  modern  history.  {DodweU's  Tour,  vol. 
 l,p.  111.) 
 
 CoRiNTHUs,  a  famous  city  of  Greece,  novv  Corito  or 
 Corinth,  and  situate  on  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name. 
 Commanding  by  its  position  the  Ionian  and  .^gean 
 seas,  and  holding,  as  it  were,  the  keys  of  Peloponne- 
 sus, Corinth,  from  the  pre-eminent  advantages  of  its 
 situation,  was  already  the  seat  of  opulence  and  the 
 arts,  while  the  rest  of  Greece  was  sunk  in  compara- 
 tive obscurity  and  barbarism.     Its  origin  is,  of  course, 
 lost  in  the  night  of  time  ;  but  we  are  assured  that  it 
 already  existed  under  the  name  of  Epihyre  long  before 
 the  siege  of  Troy.     According  to  the  assertions  of  the 
 Corinthians  themselves,  their  city  received  its  name 
 from  Corinthus,  tlie  son  of  Jove ;   but  Pausanias  does 
 not  credit  this  popular    tradition,  and  cites  the  poet 
 Eumelus  to  show  that  the  appellation  was  really  de- 
 rived   from   Corinthus,  the    son  of  Marathon  (2.   1). 
 Homer  certainly  employs  both  names  indiscriminately. 
 {11,  2,  570;   13,  603.)     Pausanias  reports,  that  the 
 descendants  of  Sysiphus  reigned  at  Corinth  until  the 
 invasion  of  their  territory  by  the  Dorians  and   Hera- 
 clidre,  when  Doridas  and   Hyanthidas,  the  last  princes 
 of  this  race,  abdicated  the  crown  in  favour  of  Aletes, 
 a  descendant  of  Hercules,  whose  lineal  successors  re- 
 mained in  possession  of  the  throne  of  Corinth  during 
 five  generations,  when  the  crown  passed  into  the  family 
 of  the  Bacchiadce,  so  named  from  Bacchis,  the  son  of 
 Prumnis,  who  retained  it  for  five  other  generations. 
 After  this  the  sovereign  power  was  transferred  to  an- 
 n\ial  magistrates,  still  chosen,  however,  from  the  line 
 of  the  Bacchiadce,  with  the  title  of  Prytanes.     Strabo 
 afl^rins  that  this  form  of  government  lasted  200  years  ; 
 but    Diodorus    limits  it  to  ninety  years  :    the  former 
 writer  prohably  includes  within  that  period  botl'   the 
 kings  and   Prytanes  of  the  Bacchiadoe,  Diodorus  only 
 the'"lattcr.     {Straho,  378, — Diod.   Sic,  Fra.ff. —  Lar- 
 rher.  Chronol.  d'Hcrodotc,  vol.  7,  p.  519,  531.)     The 
 oligarchy  so  long  established  by  this  rich  and  powerful 
 family  was  at  length  overthrown,  about  629  B.C.,  by 
 Cypselus,  who  banished  many  of  the  Corinthians,  ce- 
 priving  others  of  their  possessions,  and  putting  others 
 to  death.     {Herodot.,  5,  92  )     Among  those  who  fled 
 from  his  persecution  was  Demaratus,  of  the  family  of 
 the  Bacchiadas,  who  settled  at  Tarquinii  in  Etruria. 
 and  whose  descendants  became  sovereigns  of  Rome. 
 {Sirabo,  378.— Polyb.,  6,  2.— Dion.  Hal,  3,  46.— 
 Liv.,  1,  34  )     The  reign  of  Cypselus  was  more  pros- 
 perous than  his  crimes  deserved  ;  and  the  system  of 
 colonization,  which  had  previously  succeeded  so  well 
 in  the  settlements  of  Corcyra  and  Syracuse,  was  ac- 
 
CORINTHUS. 
 
 COR 
 
 lively  pursued  by  that  prince,  who  added  Ambracia, 
 Anactorium,  and  Leucas  to  the  maritime  dependencies 
 of  the  Corinthians.     {Strabo,  l.  c. — Arislot.,  Polit.,  5, 
 9.)     Cypselus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Periander. 
 On  the  c'-^ath  of  this  latter,  after  a  reign  of  forty-four 
 years,  according  to  Aristotle,  his  nephew  Psammeti- 
 chus  came  to  the  throne,  but  lived  only  three  years.     At 
 his  decease  Corinth  regained  its  independence,  when  a 
 moderate  aristocracy  was  established,  under  which  the 
 republic  enjoyed  a  state  of  tranquillity  and  prosperity 
 unequalled  by  any  other  city  of  Greece.     We  are  told 
 by  I'hucydides,  that  the  Corinthians  were  the  first  to 
 build  war-galleys  or  triremes  ;  and  the  earliest  naval 
 engagement,   according   to    the    same    historian,  was 
 fought  by  their  fleet  and  that  of  the  Corcyreans,  who 
 had  beea   alienated    from    their    mother-state  by  the 
 cruelty  and  impolicy  of  Periander.     {Thuci/d.,  1,  13. — 
 Compare  Herodot.,  3,  48.)     The  arts  of  painting  and 
 sculpture,  more  especially  that  of  casting  in  bronze,  at- 
 tained to  the  highest  perfection  at  Corinth,  and  rendered 
 this  city  the  ornament  of  Greece,  until  it  was  stripped 
 by  the  rapacity  of  a  Roman  general.     Such  was  the 
 beauty  of  its  vases,  that  the  tombs  in  which  they  had 
 been  deposited  were  ransacked  by  the  Roman  colonists 
 whom  Julius  Cssar  had  established  there  after  the  de- 
 struction of  the  city  ;  these,  being  transported  to  Rome, 
 were  purchased  at  enormous  prices.     {Strabo,  381.) 
 An  interesting  dissertation  on  these  beautiful  specimens 
 of  art  will  be  found  in  Dodwell's  Tour  (vol.  2,  p.  196). 
 — When  the  Achsan  confederacy,  owing  to  the  in- 
 fatuation of  those  who  presided  over  its  counsels,  be- 
 came involved  in  a  destructive  war  with  the  Romans, 
 Corinth  was  the  last  hold  of  their  tottering  republic  ; 
 and,  had  its  citizens  wisely  submitted  to  the  offers  pro- 
 posed by  the  victorious  Metellus,  it  might  have  been 
 preserved ;  but  the  deputation  of  that  general  having 
 been  treated  with  scorn,  and  even  insult,  the  city  be- 
 came exposed  to  all  the  vengeance  of  the  Romans. 
 (Polyb.,  40,  4,   1. — Strabo,  381.)     L.  Mummius,  the 
 consul,  appeared  before  its  walls  with  a  numerous  army, 
 and,  after  defeating  the  Achaeans  in  a  general  engage- 
 ment, entered  the  town,  now  left  without  defence,  and 
 deserted  by  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants.     It  was 
 then  given  up  to  plunder,  and  finally  set  on  fire ;   the 
 walls  also  were  razed  to  the  ground,  so  that  scarcely 
 a  vestige  of  this  once  great  and  noble  city  remained. 
 Polybius,  who  witnessed  its  destruction,  affirmed,  as 
 we  are  informed  by  Strabo  (381),  that  he  had  seen  the 
 finest  paintings  strewed  on  the  ground,  and  the  Roman 
 soldiers  using  them  as  boards   for  dice  or  draughts. 
 Pausanias  reports  (7,  16),  that  all  the  men  were  put  to 
 the  sword,  the  women  and  children  sold,  and  the  most 
 valuable    statues    and    paintings    removed    to  Rome. 
 {Vid.  Mummius.)     Strabo  observes  (/.  c),  that    the 
 finest  works  of  art  which  adorned  that  capital  in  his 
 lime  had  come  from  Corinth.     He  likewise  states,  that 
 Corinth  remained  for  many  years  deserted  and  in  ru- 
 ins ;  as  also  does  the  poet  Antipater  of  Sidon,  who  de- 
 scribes in  verse  the  scene  of  desolation.     (Anal.,  vol 
 2,  p.  20.)     Julius  Csesar,  however,  not  long  before  his 
 death,  sent  a  numerous  colony  thither,  by  means  of 
 which  Corinth  was  once  more  raised  from  its  state  of 
 ruin.     (.S7r«6o,  381.)     It  was  already  a  large  and  pop- 
 ulous city,  and  the  capital  of  Achaia,  when  St.  Paul 
 preached  the  gospel  there  for  a  year  and  six  months. 
 (Ads,  18,  11.)     It  is  also  evident  that,  when  visited  by 
 Pausanias,  it  was  thickly  adorned  by  public  buildings, 
 and  enriched  with  numerous  works  of  art  (Pausan.,  2, 
 2) ;  and  as  late  as  the  time  of  Hierocles,  we  find  it 
 styled  the  metropolis  of  Greece.     (Synecd.,  p.  646.) 
 In  a  later  age,  the  Venetians  received  the  place  from 
 a  Greek  emperor  ;  Mohammed  II.  took  it  from  them 
 in  14.58  ;  the  Venetians  recovered  it  in  1687,  and  for- 
 .tified  the  Acrocorinthus  again ;  but  the  Turks  took  it 
 anew  in  171.5,  and  retained  it  until  driven  from  the 
 Peloponnesus. — An  important  feature  in  the  scenery 
 
 around  Corinth,  was  the  Acrocorinthus,  an  account 
 of  which  has  been  given  in  a  previous  article.  (Vzd. 
 Acrocorinthus.)  On  the  summit  of  this  hill  was 
 erected  a  temple  of  Venus,  to  whom  the  whole  of  the 
 Acrocorinthus,  in  fact,  was  sacred.  In  the  times  of 
 Corinthian  opulence  and  prosperity,  it  is  said  that  the 
 shrine  of  the  goddess  was  attended  by  no  less  than 
 one  thousand  female  slaves,  dedicated  to  her  service 
 as  courtesans.  These  priestesses  of  Venus  contrib- 
 uted not  a  little  to  the  wealth  and  luxury  of  the  city  ; 
 whence  arose  the  well-known  expression,  ov  navro^ 
 uvSpd(  eif  Kopivdov  iar'  6  TrAoOf,  or,  as  Horace  ex- 
 presses  it  (Epist.,  1,  17,  36),  '' No7i  cvivis  hommi 
 contingit  adirc  Corinthum,''  in  allusion  to  its  expen- 
 sive pleasures. — Corinth  was  famed  for  its  three  har- 
 bours, Lechaeum,  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  and  Cen- 
 chreaB  and  Schoenus  on  the  Saronic.  Near  this  last 
 was  the  Diolcos,  where  vessels  were  transported  over 
 the  isthmus  by  machinery.  (Vid.  Corinthi  Isthmus.) 
 The  first  of  these  is  now  choked  with  sand,  as  is  like- 
 wise the  port  of  Cenchrese.  The  shallow  harbour  of 
 Schoenus,  where  was  a  quay  in  ancient  times,  has  now 
 almost  disappeared.  All  these  harbours  are  mere  mo- 
 rasses, and  corrupt  the  air  of  the  city. — Before  leaving 
 this  subject,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  say  a  few  words 
 in  relation  to  the  well-known  Corinthian  brass  of  an- 
 tiquity. The  common  account  is,  that  when  Corinth 
 was  destroyed  by  the  Romans,  all  the  metals  that  were 
 in  the  city  melted  and  mixed  together  during  the 
 conflagration,  and  formed  that  valuable  composition, 
 known  by  the  name  of  "  Corinthian  brass,"  jEs  Corin- 
 thium.  This,  however,  bears  the  stamp  of  improba- 
 bility on  its  very  face.  Klaproth  rejects  the  account. 
 He  seems  to  think,  and  adduces  the  authority  of  Pliny 
 in  his  favour,  that  it  was  merely  a  term  of  art,  and 
 applied  to  a  metallic  mixture  in  high  estimation  among 
 the  Romans,  and,  though  of  a  superior  quality,  nearly 
 resembling  aurichalcum.  This  last  was  composed  ot 
 either  copper  and  zinc,  or  of  copper,  tin.  and  lead  ; 
 the  former  of  a  pale  yellow,  the  latter  of  a  darker 
 colour,  resembling  gold.  The  mixture  by  means  of 
 calamine  was  rendered  tough  and  malleable.  (Crom- 
 bie's  Gyvinasium,  vol.  2,  p.  127,  not.) 
 
 CoRioL.lNus,  Caius  Marcius,  a  distinguished  Ro- 
 man of  patrician  rank,  whose  story  forms  a  brilliant 
 legend  in  the  early  history  of  Rome.  His  name  at 
 first  was  Caius  Marcius,  but  having  contributed,  mainly 
 by  his  great  personal  valour,  to  the  capture  of  Corioli, 
 and  the  defeat  of  a  Volscian  army,  assembled  for  its 
 aid,  on  the  same  day,  he  received  for  this  gallant  ex- 
 ploit the  surname  of  Coriolanus.  Not  long  after  this, 
 however,  during  a  scarcity  at  Rome,  he  opposed  the 
 distribution  of  a  supply  of  provisions,  in  part  sent  by 
 Gelon,  of  Sicily,  and  advised  the  patricians  to  make 
 this  a  means  of  recovering  the  power  which  had  been 
 wrested  from  them  by  the  commons.  For  this  and 
 other  conduct  of  a  similar  nature,  he  was  tried  in  the 
 Comitia  Tributa,  and  condemned  to  perpetual  banish- 
 ment. Resolving,  upon  this,  to  gratify  his  vindictive 
 spirit,  Coriolanus  presented  himself  as  a  suppliant  to 
 Tullius  Aufidius,  the  leading  man  among  the  Volsci, 
 was  well  received  by  him  and  the  whole  nation,  and, 
 war  being  declared,  w-as  invested,  along  with  Aufidius, 
 with  the  command  of  the  Volscian  forces.  By  his 
 military  skill  and  renown  Coriolanus  at  once  defeated 
 and  appalled  the  Romans,  till,  having  taken  almost  all 
 their  subject  cities,  he  advanced  at  the  head  of  the 
 Volscian  army  against  Rome  itself,  and  encamped  only 
 five  miles  from  it,  at  the  Fossa?  CluilicB.  All  was  there- 
 upon terror  and  confusion  in  the  Roman  capital.  Em- 
 bassy after  embassy  was  sent  to  Coriolanus,  to  en- 
 treat him  to  spare  his  country,  but  he  remained  inex- 
 orable, and  would  only  grant  peace  on  condition  that 
 the  Romans  restored  all  the  cities  and  lands  which 
 they  had  taken  from  the  Volsci,  and  granted  to  the 
 latter  the  freedom  of  Rome,  as  had  been  done  in  the 
 
 375 
 
COR 
 
 COR 
 
 case  of  the  Latins.  After  all  other  means  of  concilia- 
 tion had  failed,  a  number  of  Roman  females,  headed 
 lv  the  mother  and  the  wife  of  Coriolanus,  proceeded 
 to  his  tent,  where  the  lofty  remonstrances  of  his  parent 
 were  more  powerCil  than  all  the  arms  of  Rome  had 
 proved,  and  ihc  son,  after  a  brief  struggle  with  his  irri- 
 tated and  vindictive  feelings,  yielded  to  her  req\]cst, 
 exclaiming  at  the  same  time,  "  Oh  mother,  thou  hast 
 saved  Rome,  but  destroyed  thy  son  !"  The  Volscian 
 forces  were  then  withdrawn,  and  Rome  was  thus  saved, 
 by  female  influence  alone,  from  certain  capture.  On 
 returning  to  the  Volsci  with  his  army,  Coriolanus,  ac- 
 cording to  one  account,  was  summoned  to  trial  for  his 
 conduct,  and  was  slain  in  a  tumult  during  the  hearing 
 of  the  cause,  a  faction  having  been  excited  against  him 
 by  TuUius  Aufidius,  who  was  jealous  of  his  renown. 
 {Dion.  Hal.,  Ant.  Rom.,  8,  59.)  According  to  another 
 statement,  he  lived  to  an  advanced  age  among  the 
 Volscian  people,  often  towards  the  close  of  his  life  ex- 
 claiming, "  How  miserable  is  the  state  of  an  old  man 
 in  banishment !"  [Plut.,  in  Vit. — Liv.,  2,  33,  scqq.) 
 iN'iebuhr,  who  writes  the  name  Cnaeus  Marcius,  on 
 what  he  considers  good  authority,  indulges  in  some 
 acute  speculations  on  the  legend  of  Coriolanus.  He 
 thinks  that  poetical  invention  has  here  most  thoroughly 
 stitled  the  historical  tradition.  He  regards  the  name 
 Coriolanus  as  of  the  same  kind  merely  with  such  appel- 
 lations as  Camerinus,  Collatinus,  Mugillanus,  Vibula- 
 nus,  &.C.,  vi'hich,  when  taken  from  an  independent  town, 
 were  assumed  by  its  npo^Evo^,  when  from  a  dependant 
 one  by  its  ■patronus.  The  capture  of  Corioli  belongs 
 merely,  in  his  opinion,  to  a  heroic  poem.  As  for  Co- 
 riolanus himself,  he  thinks  that  he  merely  attended  the 
 Volscian  standard  as  leader  of  a  band  of  Roman  exiles. 
 He  admits,  however,  that  a  recollection  like  the  one 
 which  remained  of  him  could  not  rest  on  mere  fable, 
 and  that,  in  all  probability,  his  generosity  resigned  the 
 opportunity  afforded  him  of  takmg  the  city,  when  La- 
 tium  was  almost  entirely  subdued,  and  when  Rome 
 was  brought  to  a  very  low  ebb  by  pestilence.  {Nte- 
 buhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  234,  seqq.,  Cambr.  transl) 
 
 CoKioLi,  an  ancient  city  of  the  Volsci,  between 
 Velitraj  and  Jjanuvium,  from  the  capture  of  which  C. 
 Marcius  obtained  the  surname  of  Coriolanus,  according 
 to  the  conunon  account.  {Vid.,  however,  remarks  at 
 the  end  of  the  article  Coriolanus.)  We  collect  from 
 Livy  that  it  was  situated  on  the  confines  of  the  territory 
 of  Ardea,  Aricia,  and  Antium.  {Liv.,  2,  33,  and  3, 
 71.)  Dionysius  speaks  of  Corioli  as  one  of  the  most 
 considerable  towns  of  the  Volsci.  {Ant.  Rom.,  6,  92.) 
 Pliny  (3,  5)  enumerates  Corioli  among  the  towns  of 
 Latium  of  which  no  vestiges  remained.  A  hill,  now 
 known  by  the  name  of  Monte  Gwvc,  is  thought,  with 
 some  degree  of  probability,  to  represent  the  site  of 
 Corioli.     {Cramcfs  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  84.) 
 
 CoRNEr.iA  Lex,  L  de  Religione,  enacted  by  L.  Cor- 
 nelius Sylla,  A.U.C.  677.  It  restored  to  the  sacerdo- 
 tal college  the  privilege  of  choosing  the  priests,  which, 
 by  the  Domitian  law,  had  been  lodged  in  the  hands  of 
 the  people.-— H.  Another,  de  Municipiis,  by  the  same  ; 
 that  the  free  towns  which  had  sided  with  Marius  should 
 be  deprived  of  their  lands  and  the  right  of  citizens  ; 
 the  last  of  which  Cicero  says  could  not  be  done,  {t'ro 
 Dam.,  30.) — HL  .Another,  de  Magistratibus,  by  the 
 same  ;  which  gave  the  privilege  of  bearing  honours  and 
 being  promoted  before  the  legal  age,  to  those  who  had 
 followed  the  interest  of  Sylla,  while  the  sons  and  par- 
 tisans of  his  enemies,  who  had  been  proscribed,  were 
 deprived  of  the  privilege  of  standing  for  any  office  in 
 the  state. — IV.  Another,  de  Magistratibus,  bv  the 
 jame,  A.U.C.  673.  It  ordained,  that  no  person  should 
 ■jxercise  the  same  office  until  after  an  interval  of  ten 
 years,  or  he  invested  with  two  different  magistracies 
 in  one  year ;  and  that  no  one  should  be  praetor  before 
 being  qujpstor,  nor  consul  before  being  praetor. — V. 
 Another,  de  Magistratibus,  by  the  same,  A.U.C.  673. 
 376 
 
 It  ordained,  that  whoever  had  been  tribune  should 
 not  afterward  enjoy  any  other  magistracy  ;  that  there 
 should  be  no  appeal  to  the  tribunes  ;  that  they  should 
 not  be  allowed  to  assemble  the  people  and  make  ha 
 rangues  to  them,  nor  to  propose  laws  ;  but  should  only 
 retain  the  right  of  intercession.  {Cic,  de  Leg.,  3,  9.) 
 — VI.  Another,  by  the  same.  It  allowed  an  individ- 
 ual, accused  of  having  taken  away  the  life  of  another 
 by  weapons,  poison,  false  accusation,  &c.,  the  privilege 
 of  choosing  whether  he  wished  the  judges  to  decide  his 
 case  by  voice  or  by  ballot. — VII.  Another,  by  the  same, 
 imposing  the  punishment  of  aqucB  et  ignis  mterdictio 
 on  all  such  as  were  found  guilty  of  forging  testaments 
 or  any  other  writings,  of  debasing  or  counterfeiting 
 the  public  coin,  &c. — VIII.  Another,  imposing  the 
 same  punishment  as  the  preceding  on  all  who  had  been 
 guilty  of  extortion,  &c.,  in  their  provinces.  (Consult, 
 as  regards  other  "  Cornelian  Laws,"  Hcineccin.'>,  Antiq. 
 Rom.,  ed  Haubold,  p.  650,  &c. — Erncsti,  Clav.  Cic., 
 s.  V. — Adani's  Rom.  Antiq.,  p.  162,  cd   Boyd.) 
 
 CoRNELi.t,  I.  daughter  of  Cinna.  She  was  Julius 
 Ca3sar"s  second  wife,  and  mother  of  Julia  the  wife  of 
 Pompey.  She  died  young.  Plutarch  says,  it  had 
 been  the  custom  at  Rome  for  the  aged  women  to  have 
 funeral  panegyrics,  but  not  the  young.  Caesar  first 
 broke  through  this  custom,  by  pronouncing  one  upon 
 Cornelia.  This,  adds  the  biographer,  contributed  to 
 fix  him  in  the  afTections  of  his  countrj'men  :  they 
 sympathized  with  him,  and  considered  him  a  man 
 of  good  feeling,  who  had  the  social  duties  deeply  at 
 heart.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Cces.,  c.  5.) — II.  Daughter  of 
 Metellus  Scipio,  married  to  Pompey  after  the  death  of 
 her  first  husband  Publius  Crassus.  She  was  remark- 
 able for  the  variety  of  her  accomplishments  and  the 
 excellence  of  her  private  character.  Plutarch  makes 
 her  to  have  been  versed,  not  only  in  the  musical  art, 
 but  in  polite  literature,  in  geometry,  and  in  the  pre- 
 cepts of  philosophy.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Pomp.,  c.  5b.)  After 
 the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  when  Pompey  joined  her  at 
 Mytilene,  Cornelia  with  tears  ascribed  all  his  misfor- 
 tunes to  her  union  with  him,  alluding  at  the  same  lime 
 to  the  unhappy  end  of  her  first  husband  Crassus  in  his 
 expedition  against  the  Parthians.  (Compare  Lucan, 
 8,  88.)  She  was  also  a  witness,  from  her  galley,  ol 
 the  murder  of  her  husband  on  the  shores  of  Egypt. 
 {Plut.,  Vit.  Pomp.,  c.  79.)— III.  Daughter  of  Sc'ipio 
 Africanus  Major,  and  mother  of  Tiberius  and  Caius 
 Gracchus.  Cornelia  occupies  a  high  rank  for  the  purity 
 and  excellence  of  her  private  character,  as  well  as  for 
 her  masculine  tone  of  mind.  She  was  married  to 
 Sempronius  Gracchus,  and  was  left  on  his  death  with 
 a  family  of  twelve  children,  the  care  of  whom  devolved 
 entirely  upon  herself.  After  the  loss  of  her  husband, 
 her  hand  was  sought  by  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  but 
 the  offer  was  declined.  Plutarch  speaks  in  high  terms 
 of  her  conduct  during  widowhood.  Having  lost  all 
 her  children  but  three,  one  daughter,  who  was  married 
 to  Scipio  Africanus  the  younger,  and  two  sons,  Tibe- 
 rius and  Cains,  she  devoted  her  whole  time  to  the 
 education  of  these,  and,  to  borrow  the  words  of  Plu- 
 tarch, she  brought  np  her  two  sons  in  particular  with 
 so  much  care,  that,  though  they  were  of  the  noblest 
 origin,  and  had  the  happiest  dispositions  of  all  the 
 Roman  youth,  yet  education  was  allowed  to  have  con- 
 tributed still  more  than  nature  to  the  excellence  of 
 their  characters.  Valerius  Maximus  relates  an  anec- 
 dote of  Cornelia,  which  has  often  been  cited.  A  Cam- 
 panian  lady,  who  was  at  the  time  on  a  visit  to  her, 
 having  displayed  to  Cornelia  some  very  beautiful  orna- 
 ments which  she  possessed,  desired  the  latter,  ir.  re- 
 turn, to  exhibit  her  own.  The  Roman  mother  pnr- 
 ])Osely  detained  her  in  conversation  until  her  chi  dren 
 relumed  from  school,  when,  pointing  to  them,  she  ex- 
 claimed, "These  are  my  ornaments!"  {Hire  orna- 
 menta  mea  sunt — Val.  Max.,  4,  init.)  Plutarch  in- 
 forms us,  thai  some  persons  blanaed  Cornelia  for  the 
 
COR 
 
 COR 
 
 rash  conduct  of  her  sons  in  after  life,  she  having  been 
 accustomed  to  reproach  them  that  she  was  still  called 
 the  mother-in-law  of  Scipio,  not  the  mother  of  the 
 Gracchi.  {Plul.,  Vit.  T.  Gracch.,  c.  8.)  She  bore  the 
 untimely  death  of  her  sons  with  great  magnanimity, 
 and  a  statue  was  afterward  erected  in  honour  of  her 
 by  the  Roman  people,  bearing  for  an  inscription  the 
 words  "  Cornelia,  mother  of  the  Gracchi.^''  {Pint., 
 Vtt.  C.  Gracch.,  c.  4.) 
 
 CoRNELii's,  a  name  indicating  a  member  of  the 
 Gens  Cornelia.  The  greater  part  of  the  individuals 
 who  bore  it  are  better  known  by  their  surnames  of 
 Cossus,  Dolabella,  Lentulus,  Scipio,  Sylla,  &,c.,  which 
 see. 
 
 CoRNicuLUM,  a  Sabine  town,  which  gave  its  name 
 to  the  Corniculani  Colles.  It  is  one  of  those  places 
 of  which  no  trace  is  left,  and  is  only  interesting  in  the 
 history  of  Rome  as  being  the  most  accredited  birth- 
 place of  Servius  Tullius.  {Liv.,  1,  39. — Dion.  Hal., 
 3,  50. — riin.,  3,  5.)  The  Corniculan  hills  are  those  of 
 Monlicclli  and  Sanf  Avgdo;  and  Corniculum  itself 
 may  have  stood  on  the  site  of  the  latter  village,  if  we 
 place  Casnina  at  Monticclli.  {Crarner''s  Ancient  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  308  ) 
 
 CoRNiFicius,  I.   Quintus,  a   contemporary  of  Ci- 
 cero's, distinguished  for  talents  and  literary  acquire- 
 ments, who  attained  to  some  of  the  highest   offices 
 in  the  state.     Catullus  and  Ovid  both  speak  of  his 
 poetic  abilities,  and  he  appears  to  have  been  the  friend 
 of  both.     {Catidl,  38.— Ovnl,  Trist.,  2,  436.— iJwr- 
 mann.  ad  Ov.,  I.  c.)     Cornificius  distinguished  himself 
 as  Proprastor  in  the  Illyrian  war,  and  also  as  governor 
 of  Svria,  and  afterward  of  Africa.     In  this  latter  prov- 
 ince he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  senate  after  Csesar's 
 death,  and  received  and  gave  protection  to  those  who 
 had  been  proscribed  by  the  second  triumvirate.     He 
 lost  his  life,  however,  while  contending  in  this  quarter 
 against  Sextius,  who  had  been  sent  against  him  by 
 Octavius.      {Appia7i,  Bell.   Civ.,  3,  85. — Id.  ih.,  4, 
 36  ;  4,  53  ;  4,  56. — Compare  the  account  given  by 
 Eusebius,   Chron.  An.   mdcccclxxvi.)     Some    mod- 
 ern scholars  make  this  Cornificius  to  have  been  the 
 author  of  the  Treatise  to  Herennius,  commonly  as- 
 cribed to  Cicero.     {Vid.  Herennius.)     He  is  said  also 
 to  have  been  an  enemy  of  Virgil's,  but  this  suppo- 
 sition violates  chronology,  since  the  poet  only  became 
 eminent  subsequent  to  the  period  when  Cornificius  died. 
 {Hcyne,  ad  Donat.  Vit.  Virg-.,  <J  67,  p.  clxxii.) — II. 
 Lucius,  a  partisan  of  Octavius,  by  whom  he  was  ap- 
 pointed to  accuse  Brutus,  before  the  public  tribunal 
 at  Rome,  of  the  assassination  of  Cajsar.     (Plut.,  Vit. 
 Bru'.,  c.  27.)     Ho  afterward    distinguished  himself, 
 as  one  of  Octavius's  lieutenants,  by  a  masterly  retreat 
 in   Sicily   during    the    war   with    Sextus    Pompeius. 
 {Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  5,  111,  seqq.) 
 CoRNiGER,  a  surname  of  Bacchus. 
 CoRNUTus,  L.  Annsus,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born 
 at  Leptis  in  Africa,  who  lived  and  taught  at  Rome 
 during  the  reign  of  Nero.     The  appellation  L.  Anna;us 
 appears  to  indicate  a  client  or  freedman  of  the  Seneca 
 family.     His  tenets  were  those  of  the  Stoic  sect,  and 
 his  name  was  not  without  distinction  in  that  school  of 
 philosophy.     He  excelled  in  criticism  and  poetry  ;  but 
 bis  principal  studies  were  of  a  philosophical  character. 
 His  merits  as  a  teacher  of  the  Stoic  doctrine  suffi- 
 ciently appears  from  his  having  been  the  preceptor  of 
 that  honest  advocate  for  virtue,  the  satirist  Persius. 
 PerMus,  dying  before  his  master,  left  him  his  library, 
 with  a  considerable  sum  of  money  ;  but  Cornutus  ac- 
 cepted onlv  the  hooks,  and  gave    the  money  to  the 
 sisters  of  his  pupil.     The  poet  Lucan  was  also  one  of 
 his  pupils.     Under  Nero,  Cornutus  was  driven  into 
 exile  for  his  freedom  of  speech.     The  emperor  havina 
 written  several  books  in  verse  on  the  affairs  of  Rome'^ 
 and  his  flatterers  advising  him  to  continue  the  poem, 
 the  honest  Stoic  had  the  courage  to  remark,  that  he 
 
 B  B  B 
 
 doubted  whether  so  large  a  work  would  be  read  ;  and 
 when  it  was  urged  thai  Chrysippus  had  written  as  much, 
 he  replied,  "His  writings  were  useful  to  mankind." 
 After  so  unpardonable  an  offence  against  imperial 
 vanity,  the  only  wonder  was  that  Cornutus  escaped 
 with  his  life.  He  composed  some  tragedies,  and  a 
 large  number  of  other  works,  the  only  one  of  which 
 that  has  come  down  to  us  is  the  ''  Theory  concerning 
 the  Nature  of  the  Gods"  {Qeupia  Ttepl  rfig  tuv  ■&eu)v 
 (pvaeuc),  or,  as  it  is  entitled  in  one  of  the  MSS., 
 "  concermng  Allegories''''  {-KEpl  'A'Dniyopiuv).  Cor- 
 nutus, in  fact,  in  this  production,  seeks  to  explain  the 
 Greek  mythology  on  allegorical  and  physical  principles. 
 The  best  edition  is  that  given  by  Gale  in  his  Opuscula 
 {Canlabr.,  1670,  12mo). — The  name  of  this  philoso- 
 pher is  sometimes,  though  less  correctly,  written  Phur- 
 nutus.  (Consult  the  remarks  of  Gale,  Prcrf.  ad 
 Opusc,  p.  2,  seqq.,  and  Martini,  Disputaiio  de  Cor- 
 nuto,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1825,  8vo.—Aul.  GelL,  6,  2.— 
 Euseb.,  Eccl.  Hist.,  6,  19. — Enfield's  Hist.  Phil.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  110.) 
 
 CoRCEBUS,  I.  a  foot-racer  of  Elis,  who  carried  off 
 the  prize  at  the  Olympic  games,  B.C.  776.  This  date 
 is  remarkable,  as  being  the  one  from  which  the  Greeks 
 began  to  count  their  Olympiads.  Not  that  the  Olym- 
 pic games  were  now  for  the  first  time  established,  but 
 the  names  of  the  victors  were  now  first  inscribed  on 
 the  public  registers.  Some  writers  calculate  the  Greek 
 Olympiads  from  the  period  of  iheir  re-establishment  by 
 Lycurgus,  Iphitus,  and  Cleosthenes,  and  hence  they 
 make  the  first  Olympiad  of  Corcebus  correspond  to  the 
 twenty-eighth  of  Iphitus.  {Pausan.,  5,  8. — Siebelis, 
 ad  loc.  —  Larcher,  Tahl.  ChronoL,  vol.  7,  p.  590. — • 
 Id.,  Essai  de  Chronologic,  p.  307.)  According  to 
 Athenaeus,Coroebuswas  by  profession  a  cook!  {Athen., 
 9,  p.  382,  b.  —  Compare  Casaubon,  ad  loc.)  The 
 Arundel  Marbles  make  the  first  Olympiad  of  Coroebus 
 coincide  with  the  year  806  of  the  Athenian  era,  when 
 iEschylus,  the  twelfth  perpetual  archon,  was  in  his 
 third  year  of  office.  {UArt  de  Verifier  les  Dates, 
 vol.  3,  p.  173,  Paris,  1819.)  Delalande  makes  the 
 true  summer-solstice  of  the  year  776  B.C.,  under  the 
 meridian  of  Pisa  in  Elis,  to  have  taken  place  at  1  Ih  15' 
 33"  of  the  morning.  {UArt  de  Verifier,  &c.,  vol.  3, 
 p.  170.) — II.  An  architect,  who  lived  in  the  age  of 
 Pericles.  {Pint.,  Vu.  Pericl.,c.  13.)— HI.  A  son  of 
 Mygdon,  king  of  Thrace,  who,  from  his  love  for  Cas- 
 sandra, offered  his  services  to  Priam,  under  the  hope 
 of  obtaining  the  hand  of  his  daughter.  The  prophetess, 
 however,  knowing  the  fate  that  awaited  him,  implored 
 him  to  retire  from  the  war ;  but  he  was  inflexible,  and 
 fell  by  the  hand  of  Peneleus  the  night  that  Troy  was 
 taken.     {Virg.,  Mn.,  2,  425.) 
 
 CoRONF.,  a  city  of  Messenia,  on  the  western  shore 
 of  the  Sinus  Messeniacus.  It  is  now  Coron,  and  the 
 gulf  is  called  after  it,  the  Gulf  of  Coron.  Its  original 
 name  was  ^pea ;  but  this  was  changed  to  Corone 
 after  the  restoration  of  the  Messenians.  It  was  in  at- 
 tempting to  take  this  town,  during  the  war  occasioned 
 by  the  secession  of  Messene  from  the  Achaean  league, 
 that  Philopoemen  was  made  prisoner.  {Liv.,  39,  49.) 
 Strabo  reports  that  this  place  was  regarded  by  some  as 
 the  Pedasus  of  Homer.  The  haven  of  Corone  was 
 called  the  Port  of  the  Achsans.  {Cramer''s  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  139.) 
 
 CoRONEA,  a  city  of  Bceotia,  to  the  southeast  of  Chae- 
 ronea,  on  a  branch  of  the  Cephissus.  It  was  a  place  of 
 considerable  antiquity  and  importance,  and  was  said  to 
 have  been  founded,  together  with  Orchomenus,  by  the 
 descendants  of  Athamas  who  came  from  Thessaly. 
 {Pausan.,  9,  M.— Strabo,  411.)  Several  important 
 actions  took  place  at  difltrent  times  in  its  vicinity. 
 Tolmides,  who  commanded  a  body  of  Athenian  troops, 
 was  here  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Breotians,  which 
 led  to  the  emancipation  of  the  whole  province,  after 
 it  had  been  subject  to  the  Athenians  since  the  victorv 
 ■•  377 
 
COR 
 
 COR 
 
 t.ity  obtained  at  CEnophytae.  (Thucyd.,  I,  113.)  The 
 battle  of  Coronea  was  gained  by  Agesilaus  and  the 
 Spartans  against  the  Thebans  and  their  allies  in  the 
 second  year  of  the  9Cth  Olympiad,  394  B.C.  (A'cw., 
 Hist.  Gr.,  4,  3,  8,  seqq.—Plut.,  Vit.  Agcsil,  17.) 
 This  city  was  also  twice  taken  by  the  Phocians  under 
 Onomarchus,  and  afterward  given  up  to  the  Thebans 
 by  Philip  of  Macedon.  (Dcmosth.,  de  Fac,  p.  62. — 
 Fliilip.,  2,  p.  69.)  The  Coroneans,  in  the  Macedonian 
 war,  having  adhered  to  the  cause  of  Perses,  suffered 
 severely  from  the  resentment  of  the  Romans.  {Folyb., 
 27,  1,  8,  and  5,  2.—Liv.,  42,  44,  and  G7.— Id.,  43, 
 SuppL,  1,  2.)  The  ruins  of  Coronea  are  observable 
 near  the  village  of  Korumis,  on  a  remarkable  insulated 
 hill,  where  there  are  "many  marbles  and  inscriptions. 
 On  the  summit  or  acropolis  are  remains  of  a  very  an- 
 cient polygonal  wall,  and  also  a  Roman  ruin  of  brick." 
 {Gell,  lUn.,  p.  \bQ.—Dodwell,  vol.  1,  p.  247.) 
 
 CoRONis,  daughter  of  Phlegyas,  and  mother  of 
 ^sculapius  by  Apollo.  She  was  put  to  death  by  the 
 god  for  having  proved  unfaithful  to  him,  but  the  off- 
 spring of  her  womb  was  first  taken  fi-om  her  and  spared. 
 {Vid.  ^-Esculapius.) 
 
 CoRsi,  I.  the  inhabitants  of  Corsica. — II.  The  in- 
 habitants of  part  of  northern  Sardinia,  who  came  origi- 
 nally from  Corsica.  {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2, 
 p.  479.) 
 
 Corsica,  an  island  of  the  Mediterranean,  called  by 
 the  Greeks  Kvpfo^.  Its  inhabitants  were  styled  by 
 the  same  people  Kvpvioi ;  by  the  Latins,  Corsi.  In 
 later  times  the  island  took  also  the  name  of  Corsis. 
 {r/  Kopaic- — Compare  Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Kopalc- — 
 JJionys.  Pericg.,  v.  459,  et  Eustath.,  ad  loc.)  The 
 ancient  writers  represent  it  as  mountainous  and  woody, 
 and  only  well  cultivated  aloreg  the  eastern  coast,  where 
 the  Romans  had  settlements.  {Dioyiys.  Perieg.,  v. 
 460.)  Its  natural  products  were  resin,  honey,  and 
 wax.  {Diod.  Sic,  5,  13.)  The  honey,  however,  had 
 a  bitter  taste,  in  consequence  of  the  bees  deriving  it 
 from  the  yew-trees  with  which  the  island  abounded. 
 {Virg.,  Echg.,  9,  30.— Ovid,  Am.,  I,  12.  —  Diod. 
 Sic,  5,  14)'  It  was  to  their  feeding  abundantly  on 
 this  honey,  however,  that  the  longevity  of  the  Corsi- 
 cans  was  ascribed.  (Compare  Eustath.  ad  Dionys. 
 Perieg.,  v.  458.)  The  inhabitants  were  a  rude  race 
 of  mountaineers,  indebted  for  their  subsistence  more 
 to  the  produce  of  their  flocks  than  to  the  cultivation  of 
 the  soil.  Seneca,  who  was  banished  to  this  quarter  iii 
 the  reign  of  Claudius,  draws  a  very  unfavourable  pic- 
 ture of  the  island  and  its  inhabitants ;  describing  the 
 former  as  rocky,  unproductive,  and  unhealthy,  and  the 
 latter  as  the  worst  of  barbarians.  He  writes,  however, 
 under  the  influence  of  prejudiced  feelings,  and  many 
 allowances  must  be  made.  (Senec,  de  Consol.  ad 
 Helv.,  c.  6,  8.)  The  Corsi  appear  to  have  derived 
 their  origin  from  Ligurian  and  Iberian  (called  by  Sen- 
 eca Spanish)  tribes.  Eustathius  says  that  a  Ligurian 
 female,  named  Corsa,  having  pursued  in  a  small  boat 
 a  bull  which  had  taken  to  the  water,  accidentally  dis- 
 covered the  island,  which  her  countrymen  named  after 
 her.  {Eustath.,  ad  Dionys.  Perieg.,  v.  458. — Com- 
 pare I.sidori  Origines,  14,  6.)  The  Phocaeans,  on  re- 
 tiring from  Asia,  settled  here  for  a  time,  and  founded 
 the  city  Aleria,  but  were  driven  out  finally  by  the  Tyr- 
 rhenians and  Carthaginians.  {Diod.  Sic,  5,  13.) 
 The  Romans  took  the  island  from  this  latter  people 
 B.C.  231,  and  subsequently  two  colonies  were  sent 
 to  it ;  one  by  Marius,  which  founded  Mariana,  and  an- 
 other by  Sylla,  which  settled  on  the  site  of  Aleria. 
 Mantinorum  Oppidum,  in  the  same  island,  is  now  Bus- 
 tia  ;  and  Urcinium,  Ajaccio,  was  the  birthplace  of  Na- 
 poleon. {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  505,  scqq.) 
 CoRsoTE,  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the  river  Masca. 
 D'Anvillc  places  it  at  the  confluence  of  the  Masca  and 
 Euphrates.  The  Masca,  according  to  Xenophon 
 (Anab.,  1,  5,  4),  flowed  around  the  city  in  a  circular 
 378 
 
 course.  Mannert  supposes  it  to  have  been  nothing 
 more  than  a  canal  cut  from  the  Euphrates.  {Vid. 
 Masca,  where  notice  is  taken  of  an  error  in  D'AnviUe's 
 chart.)  The  site  of  Corsote  appears  to  correspond,  at 
 the  present  day,  to  a  spot  where  are  the  ruins  of  a 
 large  city,  named  Erzi  or  Irsah.  {Rennell,  Illustra- 
 tions of  the  Anabasis,  &c.,  p.  103.) 
 
 CoRTONA,  a  town  of  Etruria,  a  short  distance  north- 
 west of  the  Lacus  Thrasymenus,  and  fourteen  miles 
 south  of  Arretium.  Its  claims  to  antiquity  were  equal- 
 led by  few  other  places  of  Italy.  It  is  thought  to  have 
 been  built  on  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  town  called  Co- 
 rythus,  and  is  known  by  that  appellation  in  Virgil. 
 (tEm.,  3,  170.— 7(Z.  ibid.,  7,  209;  9,  10;  10,  719.— 
 Compare  Siliiis  Italicus,  5,  123.)  From  the  similar- 
 ity of  names,  it  was  supposed  by  some  to  owe  its  ori- 
 gin to  Corythus,  the  father  of  Dardanus.  Others  de- 
 duced the  name  from  the  circumstance  of  Dardanus 
 having  lost  his  helmet  {Kopv^)  there  in  fighting.  Both, 
 however,  are  pronounced  by  Heyne  to  be  mere  fables. 
 {Hcyne,  Excurs.,  6,  ad  jEn.,  3.)  Perhaps  the  opinion 
 most  entitled  to  credit  is  that  of  Mannert,  who  makes 
 the  place  to  have  been  of  Pelasgic  origin.  This,  in 
 fact,  is  strongly  corroborated  by  the  massy  remains  of 
 the  ancient  walls,  evidently  of  Pelasgic  structure. 
 Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  moreover,  who  quotes 
 from  Hellanicus  of  Lesbos,  an  author  somewhat  ante- 
 rior to  Hesiod,  states  that  the  Pelasgi,  who  had  land- 
 ed at  Spina  on  the  Po,  subsequently  advanced  into  the 
 interior  of  Italy,  and  occupied  Cortona,  which  they 
 fortified,  and  from  thence  formed  other  settlements  in 
 Tyrrhenia.  On  this  account  Cortona  is  styled  the 
 metropolis  of  that  province.  {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v. — • 
 Compare  Stl.  Ilal.,  7,  174.)  Cortona  was  one  of  the 
 twelve  cities  of  Etruria.  {Miilier,  Etrusher,  vol.  1,  p. 
 345.)  The  Greek  name  of  the  place  was  Gortyu 
 (TopTvv),  and  the  Etrurian  one  Kortun,  from  which 
 the  Romans  made  Cortona.  {Miilier,  Elrusker,  vol 
 2,  p.  268.)  The  city  still  retains  its  ancient  appella- 
 tion of  Cortona.  It  was  colonized  by  the  Romans 
 {Dionys.,  1,  26),  at  what  period  is  uncertain;  proba- 
 bly in  the  time  of  Sylla,  who  colonized  several  towns 
 of  Etruria.  Cramer  thinks,  that  some  confusion  of 
 names  must  have  given  rise  to  the  story  of  Dardanus 
 coming  from  Italy  to  Troy,  as  alluded  to  by  Virgil 
 {JEn.,  7,  205).  It  is  known  that  there  were  several 
 towns  in  antiquity  of  the  name  of  Gyrton,  Gyrlone, 
 and  Gortyna,  in  Thessaly,  Boeolia,  Arcadia,  and  Crete; 
 countries  all  more  or  less  frequented  at  one  time  by 
 the  Pelasgi.  This,  he  thinks,  was  the  original  form 
 by  which  Cortona  was  first  named  ;  for  Polybius  calls 
 it  Cyrtone  (3,  82),  and  it  is  known  that  the  Etruscans 
 and  Umbri,  who  took  their  letters  from  the  Pelasgi, 
 never  used  the  letter  O.  Now,  according  to  some  ac- 
 counts, Dardanus  came  from  Arcadia,  and  according 
 to  others,  from  Crete.  Cramer  suspects,  however, 
 that  the  Thessalian  Gyrton  ought  to  have  the  prefer- 
 ence ;  for  this  city,  in  a  passage  of  Strabo,  though  it  is 
 supposed  to  be  mutilated,  is  entitled  the  Tyrrhenian 
 {Strab.,  330),  and  this  might  prove  the  key  to  the 
 Italian  origin  of  Dardanus,  besides  confirming  the 
 identity  of  the  Tyrrheni  with  the  Thessalian  Pelasgi. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  215,  not.) 
 
 CoRviNus,  I.  or  Corvus,  a  name  given  to  M.  Va- 
 lerius, from  his  having  been  assisted  by  a  crow  {corvus) 
 while  engaged  in  combat  with  a  Gaul.  {Vid.  Valeri- 
 us.)—II.  Messala,  a  distinguished  Roman  in  the  Au- 
 gustan age.     ( Vid.  Messala.) 
 
 CoRYBANTEs,  the  priests  of  Cybele,  called  also 
 Galli.  (Firf.  Cybele.)  In  celebrating  the  festivals  of 
 the  goddess,  they  ran  about  with  loud  cries  and  bowl- 
 ings, beating  on  timbrels,  clashing  cymbals,  sounding 
 pipes,  and  cutting  their  flesh  with  knives.  Some  de- 
 rive the  name  from  their  moving  along  in  a  kind  of 
 dance,  and  tossing  the  head  to  and  fro((i7r6  tov  KopvK- 
 Tovrag  PaivELv).     According  to  Strabo  (479),  and 
 
COR 
 
 COS 
 
 Freret  {Mem.  de  V Acad.  dcs.  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  18,  p. 
 34),  the  word  Cor}'bas  is  a  Phrygian  one,  and  refers  to 
 the  wild  dances  in  which  the  Corybantes  indulged. — 
 As  reirards  the  assertion  commonly  made,  that  the  Co- 
 rybantes were  originally  from  Mount  Ida,  it  may  be 
 remarked,  that  more  correct  authorities  make  Phrygia 
 to  have  been  their  native  seat.  (Compare  Rollc,  Re- 
 eherches  sur  le  Culte  de  Bacchus,  vol.  1,  p.  246,  seqq.) 
 — The  dance  of  the  Corybantes  is  thought  to  have 
 been  symbolical  of  the  empire  exercised  by  man  over 
 metals,  as  also  of  the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
 {Constant,  de  la  Religiun,  vol.  2,  p.  375,  segq.)  The 
 Corybantes  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  that  turned 
 their  attention  to  metallurgy.  {Sainte  Croix,  Mys- 
 tires  du  Paganisme,  vol.  1,  p.  79.) 
 
 CoRYBAS,  son  of  lasion  and  Cybele,  who  introduced 
 the  rites  of  the  mother  of  the  gods  into  Phrygia,  from 
 the  island  of  Samoihrace.     {Died.  Sic,  5,  49.) 
 
 CoRVCiDEs,  a   name   applied  to   the  nymphs  who 
 were  supposed  to  inhabit  the  Corycian  cave  on  Mount ' 
 Parnassus.     They  were  the  daughters  of  the  river-god 
 Pleistus.     {Ovid,  Mel.,  1,  ZW.—Apoll.  Rh.,  2,  711. 
 — Gierig,  ad  Ovid,  I.  c.) 
 
 CoRYciUM  Antrum,  I.  a  cave  or  grotto  on  Mount 
 Parnassus,  about  two  hours  from  Delphi,  and  higher 
 up  the  mountain.  It  is  accurately  described  by  Pau- 
 sanias,  who  states,  that  it  surpassed  in  extent  every 
 other  known  cavern,  and  that  it  was  possible  to  ad- 
 vance into  the  interior  without  a  torch.  The  roof, 
 from  which  an  abundance  of  water  trickles,  is  elevated 
 far  above  the  floor,  and  vestiges  of  the  dripping  water 
 (i.  e.,  stalactites)  are  to  be  seen  attached  to  it,  says 
 Pausanias,  along  the  whole  extent  of  the  cave.  The 
 inhabitants  of  Parnassus,  he  adds,  consider  it  as  sa- 
 cred to  the  Corycian  nymphs  and  the  god  Pan.  {Pau- 
 san.,  10,32. — Compare  Strabo,Wl .)  Herodotus  re- 
 lates (8,  36),  that  on  the  approach  of  the  Persians,  the 
 greater  part  of  the  population  of  Delphi  ascended  the 
 mountain,  and  sought  refuge  in  this  capacious  recess. 
 We  are  indebted  for  an  account  of  the  present  state  of 
 this  remarkable  cave  to  Mr.  Raikes,  who  was  the  first 
 modern  traveller  that  discovered  its  site.  He  describes 
 the  narrow  and  low  entrance  as  spreading  at  once  into 
 a  chamber  330  feet  long  by  nearly  200  wide.  The 
 stalactites  from  the  top  hung  in  the  most  graceful 
 forms  the  whole  length  of  the  roof,  and  fell  like  dra- 
 pery down  the  sides.  {Raike's  Journal,  in  Waipnle's 
 Collection,  vol.  1,  p.  312.) — II.  A  cave  in  Cilicia, 
 near  Corycus.      {Vid.  Corycus,  II.) 
 
 CoRYcus,  I.  a  promontory  of  Ionia,  southeast  of  the 
 southern  extremity  of  Chios.  The  high  and  rugged 
 coast  in  this  quarter  harboured  at  one  time  a  wild  and 
 daring  population,  greatly  addicted  to  piracy ;  and 
 who,  by  disguising  themselves,  arid  frequenting  the 
 harbours  in  their  vicinity,  obtained  private  information 
 of  the  course  and  freight  of  any  merchant  vessel,  and 
 concerted  measures  for  the  purpose  of  intercepting  it. 
 The  secrecy  with  which  their  intelligence  was  pro- 
 cured gave  rise  to  the  proverb,  Toi;  (5'  uf}'  6  KufWKaiag 
 riKpou^era,  "  This,  then,  the  Corycian  overheard,"  a 
 saying  that  was  used  in  cases  where  any  carefully- 
 guarded  secret  had  been  discovered.  (Compare  Eras- 
 mus, Chil.  1,  cent.  2,  col.  76.)  The  modern  name  of 
 the  ridge  of  Mount  Corycus  is  the  Table  Mountain, 
 bjt  the  ancient  appellation  is  still  preserved  in  that  of 
 Kourko,  which  belongs  to  a  bold  headland  forming  the 
 extreme  point  of  the  Erytlirean  peninsula  towards  Sa- 
 mos.  Plmy  (5,  31)  calls  it  Coryceon  Promontorium. 
 {Crarr.cr's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  351.)— II.  A  small 
 town  of  Cihcia  Trachea,  near  the  confines  of  Cilicia 
 Campestns,  on  the  seacoast,  and  to  the  east  of  Seleu- 
 cia  Trachea.  It  appears  to  have  been  a  fortress  of 
 great  strength,  and  a  mole  of  vast  unhewn  rocks  is 
 carried  across  the  bay  for  about  a  hundred  yards.  It 
 served  at  one  time  as  the  harbour  of  Seleucia,  and 
 was  then  a  place  of  considerable  importance.   'The 
 
 modern  name  is  Korghoz.  About  twenty  stadia  in- 
 land was  the  Corycian  cave,  celebrated  in  mythology 
 as  the  fabled  abode  of  the  giant  Typhosus.  {Find., 
 Pyth.,  1,  31.— Id.  ih.,  8,  2(i.—Mschyl.,  P.  v.,  350, 
 seqq.)  In  fact,  many  writers,  as  Sirabo  reports,  placed 
 Arima  or  Arimi,  the  scene  of  Typhoeus's  torments, 
 alluded  to  by  Homer,  in  Cilicia,  wliile  others  sought  it 
 in  Lydia,  and  others  in  Campania.  The  description 
 which  Strabo  has  left  us  of  this  remarkable  spot  leadj 
 to  the  idea  of  its  having  been  once  the  crater  of  a  vol- 
 cano. He  says  it  was  a  deep  and  broad  valley,  of  a 
 circular  shape,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  lofty  rocks. 
 The  lower  part  of  this  crater  was  rugged  and  stony, 
 but  covered  nevertheless  with  shrubs  and  evergreens, 
 and  especially  saffron,  of  which  it  produced  a  great 
 quantity,  regarded  as  the  best  of  all  antiquity.  There 
 was  also  a  cavity  from  which  gushed  a  copious  stream, 
 which,  after  a  short  course,  was  again  lost,  and  re- 
 appeared near  the  sea,  which  it  joined.  It  was  called 
 the  "bitter  water."  {Strab.,  671.)  The  account  of 
 Pomponius  Mela  is  still  more  minute  and  elaborate. 
 {Mela,  1,  13. — Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  336.) 
 — HI.  A  naval  station,  on  the  coast  of  Lycia,  about 
 thirty  stadia  to  the  north  of  Olympus.  Strabo  makes  it 
 a  tract  of  shore  {KupvKoc;  aijiaTiog. — Strab.,  666). 
 
 Coryphasium,  a  promontory  on  the  western  coast 
 of  Messenia,  north  of  Methone,  now  Cape  Zonchio. 
 There  was  a  town  of  the  same  name  on  it,  to  which 
 the  inhabitants  of  Pylos  retired  after  their  town  was 
 destroyed.     {Pausan.,  4,  36.) 
 
 Cos,  an  island  of  the  ^gean,  one  of  the  Sporades, 
 west  of  the  promontory  of  Doris.  Its  more  ancient 
 names  were  Cea,  Staphylus,  Nymphaea,  and  Meropis, 
 of  which  the  last  was  the  most  common.  {Thum/d., 
 8,  41.)  The  colonizing  of  this  island  must  have  taken 
 place  at  a  very  early  date,  since  Homer  makes  men- 
 tion of  it  as  a  populous  settlement.  (//.,  2,  184,  14, 
 255.)  The  inhabitants  were  of  Dorian  origin,  and 
 closely  connected  with  the  Doric  colonies  on  the  main 
 land.  It  is  now  called  Stan-Co.  Its  chief  city  was 
 Cos,  anciently  called  Astypalaea.  Strabo  remarks,  that 
 the  city  of  Cos  was  not  large,  but  very  populous,  and 
 seen  to  great  advantage  by  those  who  came  thither  by 
 sea.  Without  the  walls  was  a  celebrated  temple  of 
 ^sculapius,  enriched  with  many  admirable  works  of 
 art,  and,  among  others,  two  famous  paintings  of  Apel- 
 les,  the  Antigonus  and  Venus  Anadyomene.  The  lat- 
 ter painting  was  so  much  admired  that  Augustus  re- 
 moved it  to  Rome,  and  consecrated  it  to  Julius  Cae- 
 sar ;  and  in  consideration  of  the  loss  thus  inflicted  on 
 the  Coans,  he  is  said  to  have  remitted  a  tribute  of 
 one  hundred  talents  which  had  been  laid  on  them. 
 Besides  the  great  painter  just  mentioned,  Cos  could 
 boast  of  ranking  among  her  sons  the  first  physician  of 
 antiquitv,  Hippocrates.  The  soil  of  the  land  was  very 
 productive,  especially  in  wine,  which  vied  with  those 
 of  Chios  and  Lesbos.  It  was  also  celebrated  for  its 
 purple  dye,  and  for  its  manufacture  of  a  species  of 
 transparent  silk  stufl^,  against  the  use  of  which  by  the 
 Romans  Juvenal  in  particular  so  strongly  inveighs. 
 The  modern  island  presents  to  the  view  fine  planta- 
 tions of  lemon-trees,  intermixed  with  stately  maples. 
 (For  a  more  particular  account  of  it,  consult  Turner't 
 Tour  in  the  Levaiit,  vol.  3,  p.  41,  seqq. —  Cramer'i 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  220.) 
 
 CossA,  I.  (or  Cossff),  a  town  of  Etruria,  near  the 
 coast,  on  the  promontory  of  Mount  Argentarius,  north- 
 west of  Centum  Cellae.  It  was  situate  at  a  little  dis- 
 tance from  the  modern  Ansedonia,  which  is  now  itself 
 in  ruins.  For  a  plan  of  this  ancient  city,  consult  Mi- 
 cali,  L'ltaHa,  &c.,  tav.  10,  who  gives  also  a  repre- 
 sentation  of  parts  of  its  walls  built  of  polygonal  stones. 
 (Compare  Micali,  Storia  degU  Antichi  Popoh  Ilahani, 
 tav.  4.)  According  to  him,  this  is  the  only  specimen 
 of  such  construction  to  be  found  in  Etruria.  From 
 Pliny  (3,  5),  we  learn  that  Cossa  was  founded  by  the 
 
 379 
 
COT 
 
 COT 
 
 people  of  Volci,  an  Etruscan  city,  and  Virgil  has 
 named  it  in  the  catalogue  of  the  forces  sent  by  Etruria 
 to  the  aid  of  .'Eneas.  {vEn.,  10,  167.)  Cossa  be- 
 came a  Roman  colony  A.U.C.  480.  (Veil.  Faterc, 
 1,  14. — Liv.,  Epit.,  14. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol. 
 1,  p.  195.) — II.  A  city  of  Lucania,  in  Italy,  near  the 
 sources  of  the  river  Cylistamus.  {Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 Koaoa.)  Casar,  who  calls  it  Cosa,  states  that  Titus 
 Annius  Milo  was  slain  before  its  walls  when  besieging 
 the  place  in  Pompey's  cause.  (Bell.  Civ.,  3,  22.) 
 Cluverius  was  nearly  correct  in  his  supposition,  that 
 Cassano  might  occupy  the  site  of  this  ancient  town 
 {Ital.  Ant.,  vol.  2,  p.  1205),  for  more  modern  topog- 
 raphers have  in  fact  discovered  its  ruins  at  Civita,  a 
 village  close  to  the  former  place.  {Anton.,  Lucan.  p. 
 3,  disc.  1. — Romanclli,  vol.  1,  p.  240. —  Cramer's 
 Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  354.) 
 
 Cossus,  I.  a  surname  of  the  familia  Malugincnsis, 
 a  branch  of  the  Gens  Cornelia. — II.  Aulus  Cornelius, 
 a  Roman,  and  military  tribune,  who  slew  in  battle 
 with  his  own  hands  Lar  Tolumnius,  king  of  the  Veien- 
 tes,  for  which  he  offered  up  the  Spolia  Opima  to  Jupi- 
 ter Feretrius,  being  the  only  one  who  had  done  this 
 since  the  time  of  Romulus.  {Liv.,  4,  20 ;  where 
 consult  the  discussion  into  which  Livy  enters  on  this 
 subject,  and  also  the  note  of  Crevier.) 
 
 Cotes,  a  promontory  of  Mauritania,  now  Capo  Es- 
 partel.  The  form  in  Greek  is  generally  given  as  plu- 
 ral, ai  KuTELQ.  Ptolemy,  however,  has  the  singular, 
 Kwr?7f  uKpnv.  The  name  is  Punic,  and  signified  "  a 
 vine  ;"  and  hence  the  Greeks  sometimes  translated  the 
 term  by  Ampelusia.  {Mela,  I,  5. —  Manncrt,  Geogr., 
 vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  465.) 
 
 (SoTHON,  a  name  given  to  a  small  but  elevated  isl- 
 and in  the  inner  harbour  of  Carthage,  commanding  a 
 vievy  of  the  sea,  and  on  which  the  Carthaginian  admi- 
 ral resided.  Around  the  whole  island  numerous  ships 
 of  war  were  laid  up  under  cover  of  spacious  halls  or 
 arsenals,  with  all  the  necessary  stores  for  fitting  them 
 out  at  the  shortest  notice.  {Appian,  Pun.,  96.  —  Stra- 
 bo,  572.)  The  term  appears  to  indicate  a  harbour 
 made  by  art  and  human  labour ;  and  hence  Festus 
 states  that  artificial  harbours  were  called  Cothones. 
 {Fest.,  s.  V.  Ciitones,  with  the  emendation  of  Scali- 
 ger.)  The  word  appears  to  be  derived  from  the  Pu- 
 nic (Hebrew)  Keton,  with  its  primary  reference  to 
 cutting,  lopping  ofl',  &c.  {Gesenius,  Phoen.  Mon.,  p. 
 422.) 
 
 CoTiso,  a  king  of  the  Daci,  whose  army  invaded 
 Pannonia,  and  was  defeated  by  Corn.  Lentulus,  the 
 lieutenant  of  Augustus.  {Sueton.,  Aug.,  21. — Flo- 
 ras, 4,  l2.—Horat.,  Od,  3,  8,  18.) 
 
 CoTT.t,  I.  Caius  Aurelius,  a  celebrated  Roman  ora- 
 tor, of  the  school  of  Crassus,  and  who  flourished 
 about  A.U.C.  661.  He  failed,  observes  Cicero,  in  his 
 pursuit  of  the  tribuneship  by  the  envious  opposition 
 which  he  encountered.  Being  accused  before  the 
 people,  he  spoke  with  great  force  against  the  violent 
 and  unjust  mode  in  which  the  equites  dispensed  jus- 
 tice, and  then  went  into  voluntary  exile,  without  wait- 
 ing for  his  condemnation.  This  happened  in  the 
 stormy  times  of  Marius  and  Sylla.  He  was  recalled 
 by  the  latter.  When  con.sul  in  677,  Cotta  had  a  law 
 passed,  which  gave  the  tribunes  of  the  commons  the 
 right  of  holding  other  offices,  of  which  they  had  been 
 joprived  by  Sylla. — II.  L.  Aurelius,  flourished  at  the 
 Roman  bar  when  Cicero  was  yet  a  young  man,  and 
 the  latter  states  that  none  kindled  in  him  more  emula- 
 tion than  Hortensius  and  Cotta.  The  eloquence  of 
 this  individual  was  calm  and  flowing,  and  his  diction 
 elegant  and  correct.  He  was  elevated  to  the  con- 
 sulship in  687  A.U.C,  and  in  the  year  following  to 
 the  censorship.  In  the  debate  respecting  the  recall 
 of  Cicero,  Cotta,  who  was  first  called  upon  for  his 
 opinion,  distinguished  himself  for  the  manly  frank- 
 ness with  which  he  censured  the  proceedings  against 
 380 
 
 Cicero.  {Cic,  de  Div.,  2,  21.— Ep.  ad  Alt ,  12,  23 
 &c.) — HI.  M.  Aurelius,  a  Roman  commander  in  the 
 Mithradatic  war,  sent  by  the  senate  to  guard  the  Pro- 
 pontis  and  to  protect  Bithynia.  His  eagerness  to  en- 
 gage in  battle  with  Mithradates  before  LucuUus  came 
 up,  led  to  his  defeat  by  both  sea  and  land,  after  which 
 he  was  shut  up  in  Chalcedon  until  relieved  by  Lucul 
 lus.  {Plat.,  Vtt.  Lucull.)  —  IV.  L.  Aurunculeius,  a 
 lieutenant  of  Caesar's  in  Gaul,  cut  off  along  with  Tilu- 
 rius  by  the  Eburoncs.     {C<^s.,  B.  G.,  5,  26,  seqq.) 
 
 CoTTiyE  Alpes,  now  Mo7it  St.  Genevre,  generally, 
 though  erroneously,  supposed  to  be  the  place  where 
 Hannibal  crossed  into  Italy.  {Vid.  Alpes.)  They 
 took  their  name  from  Cottius.     {Vid.  Cottius.) 
 
 CoTTius,  a  chieftain,  who  held  a  kind  of  sovereignty 
 over  several  valleys  among  the  Alps.  It  appears  to 
 have  been  hereditary,  as  we  also  hear  of  King  Don- 
 nus,  his  father.  {Ovid,  Ep.  Pont.,  4,  7.)  Cottius 
 is  represented  as  lurking  in  the  fastnesses  of  his  Alps, 
 and  even  defying  the  power  of  Rome,  till  Augustus 
 thought  it  worth  while  to  conciliate  him  with  the 
 title  of  prefect.  {Dio  Cassias,  9,  24. — Amm.  Mar- 
 cell.,  15,  10.)  Claudius,  however,  restored  to  him 
 the  title  of  king.  Under  Nero,  the  Cottian  Alps  be- 
 came a  Roman  province.  {Suet.,  Ner.,  18.)  The 
 extent  of  the  territory  which  Cottius  possessed  cannot 
 now  be  easily  defined ;  for  though  all  the  people 
 which  composed  his  dominions  are  enumerated  in  the 
 inscription  of  the  arch  at  Suza,  many  of  them  remain 
 unknown,  notwithstanding  great  pains  have  been  taken 
 to  identify  their  situation.  (Consult  Millen,  Voyage 
 en  Italic,  vol.  1,  p.  105.)  Enough,  however,  is  known 
 of  them  to  make  it  appear,  that  the  territory  of  Cottius 
 extended  much  farther  on  the  side  of  Gaul  than  of 
 Italy.  In  Gaul,  he  seems  to  have  held  under  him  all 
 the  eastern  part  of  Dauphine,  and  the  northeastern 
 portion  of  Provence.  (Compare  D'Anville,  Not.  de 
 VAnc.  Gaule,  art.  Caturiges,  Savincates,  Esubiani, 
 &c.) 
 
 CoTTUs,  a  giant,  son  of  Coelus  and  Terra,  who  had 
 one  hundred  hands  and  fifty  heads.  {Hesiod,  Theog., 
 149.)  His  brothers  were  Gyes  {Ti'7]g,  the  form  Tvyijc 
 is  less  correct :  Gottling,  ad  loc.)  and  Briareos.  ^I'he 
 most  recent  expounders  of  mythology  consider  these 
 three  as  mere  personifications,  relating  to  the  winter 
 season.  Thus  Cottus  (Korrof,  from  kutttu,  "  to 
 smite")  is  the  Smiler,  and  is  an  epithet  for  the  hail : 
 Gyes  {Tvijc;,  the  part  of  the  plough  to  which  the  share 
 is  fixed),  is  the  Furrovjcr,  or  the  rain  :  and  Briareos 
 {Bpidpeuc,  akin  to  (ipiuu,  [3piap6c,  Ppidu,  j3pi6ix,  all 
 denoting  ivcight  and  strength)  is  the  Prcsscr,  the  snow 
 which  lies  deep  and  heavy  on  the  ground.  They  were 
 naturally  named  Hundred-handed  {iKaroyxeipeg,  centi- 
 mani),  from  their  acting  so  extensively  at  the  same 
 moment  of  time.  {Hermann,  ilber  das  \Vcse71,  &c., 
 p.  84.) — Welcker  understands  by  the  Hundred-handed 
 the  water.  {Welck.,  Tni,  14:7.— Keighlley's  My- 
 thology, p.  46.) 
 
 CoTY^UM,  a  town  of  Phrygia,  south  of  Doryl.-Eum, 
 on  the  Thymbris,  a  branch  of  the  Sangariiis.  Suidas 
 says,  that,  according  to  some  accounts,  it  was  the 
 birthplace  of  /Esop  the  fabulist.  Alexander,  a  gram- 
 marian of  great  learning,  and  a  voluminous  writer,  was 
 also  a  native  of  CotyiEuin.  Late  Byzantine  writers 
 term  it  the  metropolis  of  Phrygia.  {M.  Due,  p.  7,  a.) 
 Kutaya  or  Kutaich,  a  Turkish  town  of  about  eight 
 thousand  souls,  has  succeeded  to  the  ancient  Cotia-uin. 
 The  name  of  this  is  sometimes  given  as  Coyiasum, 
 which,  judging  from  ancient  coins,  is  the  more  correct 
 mode  of  writing  it,  the  legend  being  always  KOTIA- 
 ES2N.  IScslini,  p.  12\.—Rasche,  Lex  Rei.  Num., 
 vol.  3,  col.  1052. — Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p. 
 17.) 
 
 CoTYs,  a  name  borne  by  several  kings  of  Thrace, 
 and  also  by  some  other  princes. — I.  A  king  of  Thrace, 
 contemporary  with  Philip,  father  of  Alexander.     He 
 
C  R  A 
 
 C  R  A 
 
 was  a  very  active  and  inveterate  foe  to  the  Athenians, 
 and  did  them  considerable  mischief  in  the  Chersonese. 
 Cotys  was  assassinated  by  Python  and  Heraclides, 
 who  received  each  from  the  Athenians,  as  a  recom- 
 pense for  the  deed,  the  rights  of  citizenship  and  a 
 golden  crown.  {Dcmosth.,  contra,  Aristocr. — Aristot., 
 Pvlit.,  5,  10. — Palmer.,  ad  Bcmosth.,  coiitr.  Arist., 
 30.)— II.  A  king  of  Thrace,  who  sent  his  son  Sadales, 
 at  the  head  of  five  hundred  horse,  to  the  aid  of  Pom- 
 pey,  in  his  contest  with  Cssar.  {Ccrs.,  Bell.  Civ.,  3, 
 4  —Compare  Lucan,  5,  54,  and  Corlius,  ad  loc.) — III. 
 A  king  of  Thrace  in  the  time'  of  Augustus,  slain  by 
 his  uncle  Rhescuporis,  B.C.  15.  He  was  a  prince  of 
 a  literary  turn,  and  Ovid  addressed  to  him  one  of  his 
 epistles  from  the  Euxine  {Ep.  ex  Fonto,  2,  9. — Tacit., 
 Ann  ,  2,  66,  &c.)— IV.  Son  of  Manes,  succeeded  his 
 father  on  the  throne  of  Lydia.  (Herod.,  4,  45. — Con- 
 sult Ritter,  VorJialle,  p.  365)— V.  A  king  of  the 
 Odrysce,  in  Thrace,  who  favoured  the  interests  of  Per- 
 ses  against  the  Romans.     (Lio.,  42,  29.) 
 
 CoTYTTo,  or  CoTYs,  a  goddess  worshipped  by  the 
 Thracians,  and  apparently  identical  with  the  Plirygian 
 Cybele.  Her  worship  was  introduced  at  Athens  and 
 Corinth,  where  it  was  celebrated,  in  private,  with  great 
 indecency  and  licentiousness.  The  priests  of  the 
 goddess  were  called  Baptse.  A  full  account  of  all  that 
 the  ancients  have  left  us  in  relation  to  this  deity,  may 
 be  found  in  Bultmann  {Mythologies,  vol.  2,  c.  19,  p. 
 159,  seqq.,  "  Ueber  die  Kolyltia  und  die  Baptcc'') 
 and  in  Lobeck  {Aglaophamiis,  p.  1007,  seqq. — Epi- 
 metrum  xi ,  ad.  c.  8). 
 
 Cragus,  I.  a  chain  of  mountains  running  along 
 the  coast  of  I.ycia.  It  rises  precipitously  from  the 
 sea,  and,  from  the  number  of  detached  summits  which 
 it  offers  to  the  spectator  in  that  direction,  it  has  not 
 unaptly  been  called  by  the  Turks  Yedi  Bouroun,  or 
 the  Seven  Capes.  Strabo,  however,  assigns  to  it  eight 
 summits.  {Strab.,  665.)  This  same  writer  also  pla- 
 ces in  the  range  of  Cragus  the  farned  Chimera.  {Vid. 
 Chimsera.)  Scylax  calls  Cragus,  however,  a  promon- 
 tory, and  makes  it  the  separation  of  Lycia  and  Caria 
 (p.  39. — Compare  Plin.,  5,  28). — II.  A  town  of  Ly- 
 ••■ia,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mountain-ranges  of  the  same 
 name.  [Strab.,  665.)  The  authority  of  Strabo  is 
 confirmed  by  coins.  {Sestini,  p.  92. —  Cramer'' s  Asia 
 Minor,  vol.  2,  245,  seqq.) 
 
 Cran.Xi,  a  surname  of  the  Athenians,  from  their 
 King  Cranaus.     {Vid.  Cranaus.) 
 
 Cranaus,  the  successor  of  Cecrops  on  the  throne 
 of  Attica.  He  married  Pedias,  and  the  offspring  of 
 their  union  was  Atthis.  (Consult  remarks  under  the 
 article  Cecrops.) 
 
 Cranii,  a  town  of  Cephallenia,  situate,  according 
 to  Strabo,  in  the  same  gulf  with  Pale.  {Strab.,  456. 
 —Thuc.yd.,  2,  Si.—Liv.,  38,  28.)  The  Athenians 
 established  the  Messenians  here,  upon  the  abandon- 
 ment of  Pylos  by  the  latter,  when  that  fortress  was  re- 
 stored to  the  Lacedaemonians.  {Thucyd.,  5,35.)  Dr. 
 Holland  says,  "  this  city  stood  on  an  eminence  at  the 
 upper  end  of  the  bay  of  Argostoli ;  and  its  walls  may 
 yet  be  traced  nearly  in  their  whole  circumference," 
 which  he  conceives  to  be  nearly  two  miles.  The 
 structure  is  that  usually  called  Cyclopian.  (Vol.  1,  p. 
 55. — Dodwcll,  vol.  1,  p.  75.) 
 
 Cranon  and  Crannon,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  on  the 
 river  Onchestus,  southeast  of  Pharsalus.  Near  it  was 
 a  fountain,  the  water  of  which  warmed  wine  when 
 mixed  with  it,  and  the  heat  remained  for  two  or  three 
 days.     {AthcncBus,  2,  16.) 
 
 Crantor,  a  philosopher  of  SoH,  among  the  pupils 
 of  Plato,  B.C.  310.  He  was  the  first  who  wrote  com- 
 mentaries on  the  works  of  Plato.  Crantor  was  highly 
 celebrated  for  the  purity  of  his  moral  doctrine,  as  may 
 be  inferred  from  the  praises  bestowed  by  the  ancients, 
 especially  by  Cicero,  upon  his  discourse  "  on  arief " 
 Horace  also  {Ep.,  1,  2,  3)  alludes  to  his  high  reputa- 
 
 tion as  a  moral  instructer.     {Enfield's  History  of  Phi- 
 losophy,  vol.  1,  p.  248,  seqq.) 
 
 Ceassus,  I.  Lucius  Licinius,  a  Roman  orator  and 
 man  of  consular  rank.  In  A.U.C.  633,  being  only 
 twenty-one  years  of  age,  he  made  his  debut  in  the 
 Forum,  in  a  prosecution  against  C.  Carbo.  Cicero 
 says,  that  he  was  remarkable,  even  at  this  early  period, 
 for  his  candour  and  his  great  love  of  justice.  Crassus 
 was  but  twenty-seven  years  old  when  his  eloquence 
 obtained  the  acquittal  of  his  relation,  the  vestal  Licinia. 
 Being  elevated  to  the  consulship  in  657,  he  was  the 
 author  of  a  law,  by  which  numbers  of  the  allies,  who 
 passed  for  Roman  citizens,  were  sent  back  to  their 
 respective  cities.  This  law  alienated  from  him  the 
 affections  of  the  principal  Italians,  so  that  he  was  re- 
 garded by  some  as  the  primary  cause  of  the  social  war, 
 which  broke  out  three  years  after.  Having  Hithei 
 Gaul  for  his  province,  Crassus  freed  the  country  from 
 the  robbers  that  infested  it,  and  for  this  service  had 
 the  weakness  to  claim  a  triumph.  The  senate  were 
 favourable  to  his  application  ;  but  Sccevola,  the  other 
 consul,  opposed  it,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  not  con- 
 quered foes  worthy  of  the  Roman  people,  Crassus 
 conducted  himself,  in  other  respects,  with  great  wis- 
 dom in  his  government,  and  not  only  did  not  remove 
 from  around  him  the  son  of  Carbo,  who  had  come  as 
 a  spy  on  his  conduct,  but  even  placed  him  by  his  side 
 on  the  tribunal,  and  did  nothing  of  which  the  other 
 was  not  a  witness.  Being  appointed  censor  in  659, 
 he  caused  the  school  of  the  Latin  rhetoricians  to  be 
 closed,  regarding  them  as  dangerous  innovators  for 
 the  young.  Crassus  left  hardly  any  orations  behind 
 him  ;  and  he  died  while  Cicero  was  yet  in  his  boy- 
 hood :  but  still  that  author,  having  collected  the  opin- 
 ions of  those  who  had  heard  him,  speaks  with  a  minute, 
 and  apparently  perfect,  intelligence  of  his  style  of  ora- 
 tory. He  was  what  may  be  called  the  most  ornamental 
 speaker  that  had  hitherto  appeared  in  the  Forum. 
 Though  not  without  force,  gravity,  and  dignity,  these 
 were  happily  blended  with  the  most  insinuating  polite- 
 ness, urbanity,  ease,  and  gayety.  He  was  master  of 
 the  most  pure  and  accurate  language,  and  of  perfect 
 elegance  of  expression,  without  any  affectation,  or  un- 
 pleasant appearance  of  previous  study.  Great  clear- 
 ness of  language  distinguished  all  his  harangues  ;  and, 
 while  descanting  on  topics  of  law  or  equity,  he  pos- 
 sessed an  inexhaustible  fund  of  argument  and  illus- 
 tration. Some  persons  considered  Crassus  as  only 
 equal  to  Antonius,  his  great  contemporary ;  others  pre- 
 ferred him  as  the  more  perfect  and  accomplished  orator. 
 The  language  of  Crassus  was  indisputably  preferable 
 to  that  of  Antonius  ;  but  the  action  and  gesture  of  the 
 latter  were  as  incontestably  superior  to  those  of  Cras- 
 sus. As  a  public  speaker  Crassus  was  remarkable  for 
 his  diffidence  in  the  opening  of  a  speech,  a  diffidence 
 which  never  forsook  him  ;  and,  after  the  practice  of  a 
 long  life  at  the  bar,  he  was  frequently  so  much  agita- 
 ted in  the  exordium  of  a  discourse,  as  to  grow  pale  and 
 tremble  in  every  joint  of  his  frame.  The  most  splen- 
 did of  all  the  efforts  of  Crassus  was  the  immediate 
 cause  of  his  death,  which  happened  A.U.C.  662,  a  short 
 while  before  the  commencement  of  the  civil  wars  of 
 Marius  and  Sylla,  and  a  few  days  after  the  time  in  which 
 he  is  supposed  to  have  borne  his  part  in  the  dialogue 
 "i>c  Oralore."  The  consul  Philippus  had  declared, 
 in  one  of  the  assemblies  of  the  people,  that  some  other 
 advice  must  be  resorted  to.  since,  with  such  a  senate 
 as  then  existed,  he  could  no  longer  direct  the  affairs 
 of  the  government.  A  full  senate  being  immediately 
 summoned,  Crassus  arraigned,  in  terms  of  the  most 
 glowing  eloquence,  the  conduct  of  the  consul,  who, 
 mstead  of  acting  as  the  political  parent  and  guar- 
 dian of  the  senate,  sought  to  deprive  its  members 
 of  their  ancient  inheritance  of  respect  and  dignity. 
 Being  farther  irritated  by  an  attempt,  on  the  part  of 
 Philippus,  to  force  him  into  compliance  with  his  de 
 "^  381 
 
CRASSUS. 
 
 CRASSUS. 
 
 signs,  he  exerted,  on  this  occasion,  the  utmost  effort  of 
 his  genius  and  strength  ;  but  he  returned  home  wiih  a 
 pleuritic  fever,  of  which  he  died  seven  days  after. 
 This  oration  of  Crassus,  followed,  as  it  was,  by  his 
 almost  immediate  death,  made  a  deep  impression  on 
 his  countrymen  ;  who,  long  afterward,  were  wont  to  re- 
 pair to  the  senate-house  for  the  pur|)0se  of  viewing  the 
 spot  where  he  had  last  stood,  and  where  he  fell,  as  it  may 
 be  said,  in  defence  of  the  privileges  of  his  order.  (Dun- 
 lop's  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  215,  seqq.) — II.  Marcus, 
 was  prostor  A.U.C.  G48.  {Cic,  dc  Fin.,  5,  30.)  He 
 was  surnamed  by  his  friends  Agelastus  CAyfAaarog), 
 because,  according  to  Pliny  (7,  19),  he  never  laughed 
 during  the  whole  course  of  his  life  ;  or  because,  ac- 
 cording to  Lucilius,  he  laughed  but  once.  {Cic,  de 
 Fin.,  6,  30.) — III.  Marcus  Licinius,  surnamed  the 
 Rich,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  the  most  opu- 
 lent Roman  of  his  day,  was  of  a  patrician  family,  and 
 the  son  of  a  man  of  consular  rank.  His  father  and 
 brother  perished  by  the  proscriptions  of  Marius  and 
 Cinna  while  he  was  still  quite  young,  and,  to  avoid  a 
 similar  fate,  he  took  refuge  in  Spain  until  the  death  of 
 Cinna,  when  he  returned  to  Italy  and  served  under 
 Sylla.  Crassus  proved  very  serviceable  to  this  com- 
 mander in  the  decisive  battle  that  was  fought  near 
 Rome  ;  but  afterward,  making  the  most  unjust  and  ra- 
 pacious use  of  Sylla's  proscriptions,  that  leader,  ac- 
 cording to  Plutarch,  gave  him  up,  and  never  employed 
 him  again  in  any  public  affair.  The  glory  which  was 
 then  beginning  to  attend  upon  Pompey,  though  still 
 young  and  only  a  simple  member  of  the  equestrian 
 order,  excited  the  jealousy  of  Crassus,  and,  despairing 
 of  rising  to  an  equality  with  him  in  warlike  (jperations, 
 he  betook  himself  to  public  affairs  at  home,  and,  by 
 paying  court  to  the  people,  defending  the  impeached, 
 lending  money,  and  aidmg  those  who  were  candidates 
 fnr  ofiice,  he  attained  to  an  influence  almost  equal 
 to  that  which  Pon:.pey  nad  acquired  by  his  military 
 ichicvements.  It  was  at  the  bar,  in  particular,  that 
 Cra?-)us  rendered  himself  e.ttreniely  popular.  He 
 was  not,  it  would  seem,  a  very  eloquent  speaker,  yet 
 »y  care  and  application  he  eventually  exceeded  those 
 whom  nature  had  more  highly  favoured.  When  Pom- 
 pey, and  Ca}sar,  and  Cicero  declined  speaking  in  be- 
 half of  any  individual,  he  often  arose,  and  advocated 
 the  cause  of  the  accused.  Besides  this  promptness  to 
 aid  the  unfortunate,  his  courteous  and  conciliating  de- 
 portment acquired  for  him  many  friends,  and  made  him 
 very  popular  with  the  lower  orders.  There  was  not  a 
 Roman,  however  humble,  whom  he  did  not  salute,  or 
 whose  salutation  he  did  not  return  by  name.  The 
 great  defect,  however,  in  the  character  of  Crassus, 
 was  his  inordinate  fondness  for  wealth  ;  and,  although 
 he  could  not  strictly  be  called  an  avaricious  man,  since 
 he  is  said  to  have  lent  money  to  his  friends  without 
 demanding,  interest,  yet  he  allowed  the  love  of  riches 
 to  exercise  a  paramount  sway  over  his  actions,  and  it 
 proved  at  last  the  cause  of  his  unhappy  end.  Plutarch 
 informs  us,  Ihat  his  estate  at  first  did  not  exceed  three 
 hundred  talents,  but  that  afterward  it  amounted  to  the 
 enormous  sum  of  seven  thousand  one  hundred  talents 
 (nearly  $7. .500, 000).  The  means  by  which  he  at- 
 tained to  this  are  enumerated  by  the  same  writer,  and 
 some  of  them  are  singular  enough.  Observing,  says 
 Plutarch,  how  liable  the  city  was  to  fires,  he  made  it 
 his  business  to  buy  houses  that  were  on  fire  and  others 
 that  joined  upon  them  ;  and  he  commonly  got  them  at 
 a  low  price,  on  account  of  the  fear  and  distress  of  the 
 owners  about  the  result.  A  band  of  his  slaves  there- 
 upon, regularly  organized  for  the  purpose,  exerted 
 themselves  to  extinguish  the  flames,  and,  after  this  was 
 done,  rebuilt  what  had  been  destroyed,  and  in  this  way 
 (Crassus  gradually  became  the  owner  of  a  large  portion 
 of  Rome.  He  gained  large  sums  also  by  educatino- 
 and  then  selling  slaves.  Plutarch,  in  fact,  recrards 
 this  as  his  principal  source  of  revenue.  With  all  this 
 3R2 
 
 eager  graspirg  after  wealth,  however,  Crassus  appears 
 to  have  been  no  mean  soldier,  even  though  he  displayed 
 so  few  of  the  qualities  of  a  commander  in  his  Parthian 
 campaign,  ('reated  pr*tor  A.U.C.  680,  he  was  sent 
 to  terminate  the  war  with  Spartacus.  He  accordingly 
 met,  defeated  him  in  several  encounters,  and  at  last 
 bringing  him  to  a  decisive  action,  ended  the  war  by  a 
 single  blow,  Spartacus  and  forty  thousand  of  his  fol- 
 lowers being  left  on  the  field.  iS'ot  venturing  to  de 
 mand  a  triumph  for  a  victory  over  gladiators  and  slaves, 
 he  contented  himself  with  an  ovation.  In  682  Cras- 
 sus obtained  the  consulship,  having  Pompey  for  his 
 colleague.  At  a  subsequent  period  we  find  him  im- 
 plicated by  an  informer  in  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline, 
 but  acquitted  by  acclamation  the  moment  the  charge 
 was  heard  by  the  senate.  We  now  come  to  the  clo- 
 sing scene  in  the  career  of  Crassus.  W^hen  Csesar,  on 
 returning  froir.  his  government  to  solicit  the  consul- 
 ship, found  Pompey  and  CraSsus  at  variance  (which 
 had  been  the  case  also  during  almost  all  the  time  that 
 they  were  colleagues  in  the  consular  office),  and  per- 
 ceived, that,  for  the  furtherance  of  his  own  ambitious 
 views,  the  aid  of  these  two  individuals  would  be  needed 
 by  him  for  opposing  the  influence  of  the  senate,  as  well 
 as  that  of  Cicero,  Cato,  and  Catulus,  he  managed  to 
 reconcile  them,  and  soon,  in  conjunction  with  both  of 
 them,  formed  the  well-known  league  usually  styled  the 
 First  Triumvirate,  which  proved  so  fatal  to  the  liber- 
 ties of  the  Roman  people.  By  the  terms  of  this  com- 
 pact Crassus  obtained  the  government  of  Syria.  In 
 the  law  that  was  passed  relative  to  this  government 
 of  Crassus,  no  mention  was  indeed  made  of  any  war 
 in  its  neighbourhood  ;  still  every  one  knew  that  he 
 had  connected  with  it  an  immediate  invasion  of  Par- 
 thia.  Plutarch  even  states,  that  he  had  fixed  upon 
 neither  Syria  nor  Parthia  as  the  limits  of  his  expected 
 good  fortune,  but  intended  to  penetrate  even  to  Bac- 
 tria,  India,  and  the  shores  of  the  Eastern  Ocean.  The 
 only  motive  to  this  memorable  and  unfortunate  under- 
 taking was  the  rapacious  love  of  wealth.  It  was  not, 
 however,  without  considerable  opposition  from  the 
 people  and  the  tribunes  that  Crassus  was  allowed  to 
 proceed  on  this  expedition.  All  the  influence  of  Pom- 
 pey was  necessary  to  prevent  an  expression  of  popular 
 wrath,  for  no  good  was  expected  to  result  from  hos- 
 tilities acrainst  a  people  who  had  done  the  Romans  no 
 injury,  and  who  were,  in  fact,  their  allies.  When 
 Crassus,  moreover,  had  reached  the  gate  of  the  city, 
 the  tribune  Ateius  attempted  to  stop  him  by  force  ; 
 but,  failing  in  this,  he  immediately  proceeded  to  per- 
 form a  religious  ceremony  of  the  most  appalling  na- 
 ture, by  which  he  devoted  the  commander  himself, 
 and  all  who  should  follow  him  on  that  service,  to 
 the  wrath  of  the  infernal  gods  and  a  speedy  destruc- 
 tion. Undismayed,  however,  by  either  denunciations 
 or  omens  {vid.  Caunus),  Crassus,  embarking  at  Brun- 
 disium,  proceeded  into  Asia  by  Macedonia  and  the 
 Hellespont.  As  the  enemy  were  not  prepared  for 
 this  un])rovokcd  invasion,  the  Romans  met  with  no  re- 
 sistance. At  first  Crassus  overran  the  greater  part  of 
 Mesopotamia ;  and,  had  he  taken  advantage  of  the 
 consternation  into  which  his  sudden  appearance  had 
 thrown  the  Parthians,  he  might,  with  the  greatest  ease, 
 have  extended  his  conquest  to  Babylonia  itself.  But 
 the  season  being  far  advanced,  he  did  not  think  it  ex 
 pedient  to  proceed.  On  the  contrary,  having  left  in 
 the  different  towns  and  strongholds  a  detachment  of 
 7000  foot  and  1000  horse,  he  returned  into  Syria,  and 
 took  up  his  winter  quarters  in  that  province.  This 
 retrograde  movement  was  a  fatal  error.  His  occupa- 
 tions, too,  during  the  winter  were  highly  censurable, 
 having  more  of  the  trader  in  them  than  the  general. 
 Instead  of  improving  the  discipline  of  the  soldiers,  and 
 keeping  them  in  proper  exercise,  he  spent  his  time  in 
 making  inquiry  relative  to  the  revenues  of  the  cities, 
 and  in  weighing  the  treasures  which  he  found  in  the 
 
CRA 
 
 CR  A 
 
 temple  of  Hierapolis.  In  the  spring  the  Roman  com- 
 mander took,  the  field,  on  the  frontiers  of  Syria,  with 
 seven  legions,  four  thousand  horse,  and  an  equal  num- 
 ber of  light  or  irregular  troops.  With  this  force  he 
 again  passed  the  Euphrates,  when  he  was  joined  by 
 an  Arabian  chief,  whom  Plutarch  calls  Ariamnes,  but 
 who  is  elsewhere  named  Acbarus  or  Abgarus ;  and  in 
 this  barbarian,  owing  to  his  knowledge  of  the  coun- 
 try, and  his  warm  and  frequent  expressions  of  attach- 
 ment to  the  Romans,  Crassus  unfortunately  placed  the 
 utmost  confidence.  The  result  may  easily  be  fore- 
 seen. Crassus  intended  to  have  followed  the  course 
 of  the  Euphrates  till  he  should  reach  the  point  where 
 it  approaches  nearest  to  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon,  the 
 capital  of  the  Parthian  empire  ;  but,  being  dissua- 
 ded from  this  by  his  crafty  guide,  and  directing  his 
 march  across  the  plains,  he  was  led  at  last  into  a  sandy 
 desert,  where  his  army  was  attacked  by  the  Parthian 
 forces  under  Surena.  An  unequal  conflict  ensued. 
 The  son  of  Crassus,  sent  with  a  detachment  of  Gallic 
 horse  to  repel  the  Parthian  cavalry,  lost  his  life  after 
 the  most  heroic  exertions  ;  and  his  loss  was  first  made 
 known  to  his  father  by  the  barbarians  carrying  his  head 
 on  a  spear.  Crassus  himself,  not  long  after,  being 
 compelled  by  his  own  troops  to  meet  Surena  in  a  con- 
 ference, was  treacherously  slain  by  the  barbarians,  and 
 his  head  and  right  hand  sent  to  the  Parthian  king, 
 Orodes.  The  whole  loss  of  the  Romans  in  this  dis- 
 astrous campaign  was  20,000  killed  and  10,000  taken 
 prisoners.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Crass. — Dio  Cass.,  40,  13, 
 scqq. — Appian,  Be.ll.  Parth.) 
 
 Crater,  or  Sinus  Crater,  the  ancient  name  of  the 
 Gulf  of  Naples,  given  to  it  from  its  resembling  the 
 mouth  of  a  large  bowl  or  mixer  {icpaT/'ip.)  It  is  about 
 twel/e  miles  m  diameter. 
 
 Craterus,  one  of  Alexander's  generals,  distinguish- 
 ed for  both  literary  and  warlike  acquirements.  He 
 was  held  in  high  esteem  by  Alexander,  whose  confi- 
 dence he  obtained  by  the  frankness  of  his  character ; 
 and  the  monarch  used  to  say,  "  Hephaestion  loves 
 Alexander,  tait  Craterus  the  king."  After  the  death 
 of  Alexander,  he  was  associated  with  Antipater,  in  the 
 care  of  the  hereditary  states.  He  afterward  crossed 
 over  into  Asia  along  with  Antipater,  in  order  to  con- 
 tend against  Eumenes,  but  was  defeated  by  the  latter, 
 and  lost  his  life  in  the  battle.  {Ncp.,  Vit.  Eum.,  2. — 
 Jiislin,  13,  6,  &c.) 
 
 Crates,  I.  a  philosopher  of  Boeotia,  son  of  Ascon- 
 dus,  and  disciple  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic,  B.C.  324. 
 He  is  considered  as  the  most  distinguished  philosopher 
 of  the  Cynic  sect,  after  Diogenes.  In  his  natural  tem- 
 per, however,  he  differed  from  his  tnaster,  and,  instead 
 of  being  morose  and  gloomy,  was  cheerful  and  face- 
 tious. Hence  he  obtained  access  to  many  families  of 
 the  most  wealthy  Athenians,  and  became  so  highly  es- 
 teemed, that  he  frequently  acted  as  an  arbiter  of  dis- 
 putes and  quarrels  among  relations.  He  was  hon- 
 ourably descended,  and  inherited  large  estates ;  but 
 when  he  turned  his  attention  to  philosophy,  he  sold 
 thein,  and  distributed  the  money  among  the  poorer 
 ruizens.  He  adopted  all  the  singularities  of  the  Cynic 
 sect.  His  wife  Hipparchia,  who  was  rich  and  of  a 
 good  family,  and  had  many  suiters,  preferred  Crates  to 
 every  other,  and,  when  her  parents  opposed  her  incli- 
 nations, so  determined  was  her  passion  that  she 
 threatened  to  put  an  end  to  her  life.  Crates,  at  the 
 request  of  her  parents,  represented  to  Hipparchia 
 every  circumstance  in  his  condition  and  manner  of 
 living  which  might  induce  her  to  change  her  mind. 
 Still  she  persisted  in  her  resolution,  and  not  only  be- 
 came the  wife  of  Crates,  but  adopted  all  the  peculiari- 
 ties of  the  Cynic  profession.  {EnJieUVs  History  of 
 rinlosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  313.)— H.  A  philosopher  of 
 Athens,  who  succeeded  in  the  school  of  his  master  Pol- 
 emon.  Crates  and  Polemon  had  long  been  attached 
 to  each  other  from  a  similarity  of  dispositions  and  pur- 
 
 suits. While  they  lived,  their  friendship  continued 
 inviolate,  and  they  were  both  buried  in  the  same 
 grave.  (Diog.  Laert.,  4,  21.) — III.  An  Athenian, 
 originally  an  actor,  and  who  in  that  capacity  perform- 
 ed the  principal  part  in  the  plays  of  Cralinus.  He  could 
 not,  however,  have  followed  this  profession  very  long, 
 for  we  learn  from  Eusebius  that  he  was  well  known  as 
 a  comic  writer  in  450  B.C.,  which  was  not  long  after 
 Cratinus  began  to  exhibit.  Crates,  according  to  Aris- 
 totle {Poet.,  4,  6),  was  the  first  Athenian  poet  who 
 abandoned  the  iambic  or  satiric  form  of  comedy,  and 
 made  use  of  general  stories  or  fables.  Perhaps  the 
 law,  passed  B.C.  440,  restraining  the  virulence  and 
 license  of  comedy,  might  have  some  share  in  giving 
 his  plays  this  less  offensive  turn.  His  style  is  said  to 
 have  been  gay  and  facetious  ;  yet  the  few  fragments 
 of  his  writings  which  remain  are  of  a  serious  cast ;  such 
 are,  for  example,  his  reflections  on  poverty,  and  his 
 beautiful  lines  on  old  age.  From  the  expressions  of 
 Aristophanes  {Eqmt.,  538),  the  comedies  of  Crates 
 seem  to  have  been  marked  by  elegance  of  language 
 and  ingenious  ideas.  Yet,  with  all  his  endeavours  to 
 please  his  fastidious  auditors,  the  poet  had,  in  common 
 with  his  rivals,  to  endure  many  contumelies  and  vexa- 
 tions. He  nevertheless,  with  unwearied  resolution, 
 continued  to  compose  and  exhibit  during  a  varied  ca- 
 reer of  success  and  reverses.  {Theatre  of  the  Greeks, 
 2d  ed.,  p.  170.) 
 
 Cratius,  I.  a  river  of  Arcadia,  rising  in  a  mountain 
 of  the  same  name,  and  flowing  through  Achaia  into  the 
 Sinus  Corinthiacus,  to  the  west  of  ^Egira.  It  was  from 
 this  stream  that  the  Italian  Crathis,  which  flowed  be- 
 tween Crotona  and  Sybaris,  derived  its  appellation. 
 {Herodot.,  1,  liG.—Strabo,  386.)— II.  A  river  of  Lu- 
 cania,  flowing  into  the  Sinus  Tarentinus,  between  Cro- 
 tona and  Sybaris.  It  is  now  the  Crati.  The  ancients 
 ascribed  to  this  stream  the  property  of  turning  white 
 the  hair  of  those  who  bathed  in  its  waters,  which 
 were,  however,  accounted  salutary  for  various  disor 
 ders.     {Strabo,  263.) 
 
 Cratinus,  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  born  B.C.  519. 
 It  was  not  till  late  in  life  that  he  directed  his  attention 
 to  comic  compositions.  The  first  piece  of  his  on 
 record  is  the  'Apxi?ioxot.,  which  was  represented  about 
 448  B.C.,  at  which  time  he  was  in  his  seventy-first 
 year.  In  this  play,  according  to  Plutarch  {Vit.  Cim..), 
 he  makes  mention  of  the  celebrated  Cimon,  who  had 
 died  the  preceding  year,  B.C.  449,  and  from  the  lan- 
 guage employed  by  the  poet,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
 he  was  on  terms  of  close  intimacy  with  the  Athenian 
 general.  Soon  after  this,  comedy  became  so  licen- 
 tious and  virulent  in  its  personalities,  that  the  magis- 
 tracy were  obliged  to  interfere.  {Schol.  in  Arisloph., 
 Acharn.,  67.  — Compare  Clinton's  Fasti  Hellcmci, 
 B.C.  440  and  437.)  A  decree  was  passed,  B.C.  440, 
 prohibiting  the  exhibitions  of  comedy  ;  which  law  con- 
 tinued in  force  only  during  that  year  and  the  two  fol- 
 lowing, being  repealed  in  the  archonship  of  Euthym- 
 enes.  Three  victories  of  Cratinus  stand  recorded 
 after  the  recommencement  of  comic  performances. 
 With  the  Xeif.iaC6jj.Evoi  he  was  second,  B.C.  425 
 {Argnm.  Aeharn'),  when  the  'Kx^-pvelg  of  Aristopha- 
 nes won  the  prize,  and  the  third  place  was  adjudged  to 
 the  'NovpTjviai  of  Eupolis.  In  the  succeeding  year  he 
 was  again  second  with  the  'S.drvpot,  and  Aristophane 
 again  first  with  the  'linvetc.  (Argum.  Equil.)  In  a 
 parabasis  of  this  play  that  young  rival  makes  mention 
 of  Cratinus ;  where,  having  noticed  his  former  suc- 
 cesses, he  insinuates,  under  the  cloak  of  an  equivocal 
 piety,  that  the  veteran  was  becoming  doting  a'"^^^" 
 perannuated.  The  old  man,  now  in  his  ninety-fifth 
 year,  indignant  at  this  insidious  attack,  exerted  his 
 remaining  vigour,  and  composed,  agamst  the  contests 
 of  the  approaching  season,  a  comedy  entitled  TIvtivt], 
 or  The  Flagon,  which  turned  upon  the  accusations 
 brought    against    him    by   Aristophar.tb.     The   aged 
 
C  R  E 
 
 C  R  E 
 
 dramatist  had  a  complete  triumph.  {Argxim.  Nuh.) 
 He  vv^  first ;  while  his  humbled  antagonist  was  van- 
 quished also  by  Aincipsias  with  the  Korrof,  though  the 
 play  of  Aristophanes  was  his  favourite  Keipi/iat.  Not- 
 withstanding his  notorious  intctnperance,  Cralinus  lived 
 to  an  extreme  old  age,  dying  B.C.  422,  iti  his  ninety- 
 seventh  year.  {Lucian,3Iaciob.,2b.)  Aristophanes 
 alludes  to  the  excesses  of  Cratinus  in  a  passage  of  the 
 Equites  (v.  526,  scqg.).  In  the  Pax  (v.  700,  seqq.), 
 he  humorously  ascribes  the  jovial  old  poet's  death  to 
 a  shock  on  seeing  a  cask  of  wine  staved  and  lost. 
 Cratinus  himself  made  no  scru()le  of  acknowledging 
 his  failing  :  (Otl  6e  (piTiocvoc  o  KpaTcvoc  nal  avTog 
 £v  Ty  Hvtivt)  Myei  aa(j>C)(. — Sc/wL  in  Fac,  703). 
 Horace,  also,  opens  one  of  his  epistles  (1,  19)  with  a 
 maxim  of  the  comedian's,  in  due  accordance  with  his 
 practice.  The  titles  of  thirty-eight  of  the  comedies 
 of  Cratinus  have  been  collected  by  Meursius,  Kcenig, 
 &c.  His  style  was  bold  and  animated  (Pcrsius,  1, 
 123),  and,  like  his  younger  brethren,  Eupolis  and  Aris- 
 tophanes, I'.e  fearlessly  and  unsparingly  directed  his 
 satire  a<Tainst  the  iniquitous  public  officer  and  the 
 profligate  of  private  life.  (Horat.,  Sat.,  1,  4,  I,  seqq.) 
 Nor  yet  are  we  to  suppose,  that  the  comedies  of  Cra- 
 tinus and  his  contemporaries  contained  nothing  beyond 
 broad  jest  or  coarse  invective  and  lampoon.  They 
 were,  on  the  contrary,  marked  by  elegance  of  expres- 
 sion and  purity  of  language  ;  elevated  sometimes  into 
 philosophical  dignity  by  the  sentiments  which  they 
 declared,  and  graced  with  many  a  passage  of  beautiful 
 idea  and  high  poetry  :  so  that  Quintilian  deems  the 
 Old  Comedy,  after  Homer,  the  most  fitting  and  bene- 
 ficial object  of  a  young  pleader's  study.  {Quijit., 
 10,  l.—  Thcalrc  of  the  Greeks,  2d  ed.,  p.  166,  seqq.) 
 
 Cratippus,  a  peripatetic  philosopher  of  Mytilene, 
 who,  among  others,  taught  Cicero's  son  at  Athens. 
 He  first  became  acquainted  with  Cicero  at  Ephesus, 
 whither  he  had  gone  for  the  purpose  of  paying  his  Re- 
 spects to  him.  Afterward,  being  aided  by  the  orator, 
 he  obtained  from  Caesar  the  rights  of  Roman  citizen- 
 ship. On  coining  to  Athens,  he  was  requested  by  the 
 Areopagus  to  settle  there,  and  become  an  instructer  of 
 youth  in  the  tenets  of  philosophy,  a  request  with  which 
 he  complied.  He  wrote  on  divination  and  on  the  in- 
 terpretation of  dreams.  (Cic,  Off.,  1,  1. — Id.,de  Div., 
 1,  3.— Id.,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,\2,  16.) 
 
 Cratylus,  a  Greek  philosopher,  and  disciple  of 
 Heraclitus.  According  to  Aristotle  {Metaph.,  1,  6), 
 Plato  attended  his  lectures  in  his  youth.  Diogenes 
 Laertius,  however  (3;  8),  says  that  this  was  after  the 
 death  of  Socrates.  Cratylus  is  one  of  the  interlocutors 
 in  the  dialogue  of  Plato  called  after  his  name.  (Com- 
 pare Schlciermacher'' s  Introduction  to  the  Cratylus, 
 Dohson's  Iransl.,  p.  245.) 
 
 CiiAUALUDiE,  a  nation  who  occupied  at  one  period 
 a  part  of  the  Cirrhcean  plain.  They  are  described  by  ^Es- 
 chines  {in  Ctcs.,  p.  405)  as  very  impious,  and  as  hav- 
 ing plundered  some  of  the  oflferings  of  Delphi.  They 
 were  exterminated  by  the  Amphictyons.  The  name 
 is  erroneously  given  by  some  as  Acragallida;,  and  they 
 are  thought  by  \^'olf,  who  adopts  this  lection,  to  have 
 Deen  a  remnant  of  the  army  of  Brennus.  (Consult 
 Taylor,  ad  JEsch.,l.  c.) 
 
 Cre.mera,  a  small  river  of  Tuscany,  running  between 
 Veii  and  Rome,  and  celebrated  for  the  daring  but  unfor- 
 tunate enterprise  of  the  gallant  Fabii.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  3, 
 193,  seqq.)  The  Cremera  is  now  called  la  Valca,  a 
 rivulet  which  rises  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Baccano, 
 and  falls  into  the  Tiber  a  little  below  Prima  Porta. 
 {Cramers  A71C.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  239.) 
 
 Cre.mna,  I.  a  strong  place  m  the  interior  of  Pisidia, 
 lying,  according  to  Ptolemy,  on  the  declivity  of  Tau- 
 rus,"nearly  six  miles  north  of  Selga.  According  to 
 Strabo  (569),  it  had  been  long  looked  upon  as  imprcg- 
 lable  ;  but  it  was  at  length  taken  by  the  tetrarch 
 Amy  itas,  with  some  other  places,  in  his  wars  against 
 381 
 
 the  Pisidians.  This  fortress  was  considered  after- 
 ward by  the  Romans  to  be  of  so  much  consequence, 
 that  they  established  a  colony  here.  {PtoL,  p.  124. — 
 HicrocL,  p.  681. — Zosim.,  1,  60.)  It  is  generally 
 supposed,  that  this  town  is  represented  by  the  modern 
 fort  of  Kebrinaz,  occupying  a  commanding  situation 
 between  Isbarteh  and  tlie  lake  Egreder.  {Cramers 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  300.) — H.  A  commercial  place 
 on  the  Palus  Maeotis.  Mannert  supposes  the  name 
 to  be  one  of  Greek  origin,  and  to  have  reference  to  its 
 rocky  situation.  He  locates  the  place  at  the  mouth  of 
 the  Tanais,  near  the  modern  Taganrock.  {Maiinert, 
 Gcogr. ,yo\.  4,  p.  115.) 
 
 Cremona,  a  city  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  northeast  of 
 Placentia,  and  a  little  north  of  the  Po.  Cremona  and 
 Placentia  were  both  settled  by  Roman  colonies,  A.U.C. 
 535.  {Polyb.,  3,  40.)  After  the  defeat  on  the  Tre- 
 bia,  we  find  the  consul  P.  Scipio  retiring  to  Cremo- 
 na {Liv.,  21,  56),  and  it  appears  that  the  Romans  re- 
 tained the  place  throughout  the  whole  of  the  second 
 Punic  war,  though  it  suffered  so  much  during  its  con- 
 tini'ince,  and  afterward  from  the  attacks  of  the  Gauls, 
 that  it  was  found  necessary  to  recruit  its  population 
 by  a  fresh  supply  of  colonists.  {Liv.,  37,  46.)  The 
 colony,  being  thus  renewed,  continued  to  prosper  for 
 nearly  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  ;  when  the  civil  wars, 
 which  ensued  after  the  death  of  C^sar,  materially  af- 
 fected its  interests.  Cremona  unfortunately  espoused 
 the  cause  of  Brutus,  and  thus  incurred  the  vengeance 
 of  the  victorious  party.  The  loss  of  its  territory,  which 
 was  divided  among  the  veteran  soldiers  of  Augustus, 
 is  well  known  from  the  line  of  Virgil  {Eclog.,  9,  28), 
 "  Mantua  vcz  miserce  nimiitm  vicina  Cremona,''''  which 
 is  nearly  repeated  by  Martial  (8,  55),  '^  Jugcra  perdide- 
 ral  misercE  vicina  CrcmoJice.'"  The  effect  of  this  ca- 
 lamity would  seem,  however,  to  have  been  but  tempo- 
 rary :  and,  in  fact,  we  learn  from  Strabo  (216),  that  Cre- 
 mona was  accounted  in  his  time  one  of  the  most  con- 
 siderable towns  in  the  north  of  Italy.  The  civil  wars, 
 which  arose  during  the  time  of  Otho  and  Vitellius,  were 
 the  source  of  much  severer  affliction  to  this  city  than 
 any  former  evil,  as  the  fate  of  the  empire  was  more  than 
 once  decided  between  large  contending  armies  in  its  im- 
 mediate vicinity.  After  the  defeat  of  Vitellius's  party 
 by  the  troops  of  Vespasian,  it  was  entered  by  the  latter, 
 and  exposed  to  all  the  horrors  that  fire,  the  sword,  and 
 the  ungoverned  passions  of  a  licentious  soldiery  can  in- 
 flict upon  a  city  taken  by  storm.  The  conflagration  of 
 the  place  lasted  four  days.  The  indignation  which 
 this  event  excited  throughout  Italy  seems  to  have 
 been  such,  that  Vespasian,  afraid  of  the  odium  it  might 
 attach  to  his  party,  used  every  effort  to  raise  Cremona 
 from  its  ruins,  by  recalling  the  scattered  inhabitants, 
 reconstructing  the  public  edifices,  and  granting  the 
 city  fresh  privileges.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  3,  33  and  34. — 
 Plin.,  3,  19. — Ptol.,  p.  63. —  Cramer's  Ancient  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  66,  seq.) 
 
 Ceemutius  Cordus,  an  historian  who  wrote  an  ac- 
 count of  the  achievements  of  Augustus.  He  gave  of- 
 fence to  Tiberius,  and  his  prime  minister  Sejanus,  by 
 stating  in  his  history  that  "  Cassias  teas  the  last  of 
 the  Fomans."  {Tacit.,  Ami.,  4,  34.)  Suetonius, 
 however,  makes  him  to  have  called  both  Cassius  and 
 Brutus  by  this  title.  {Sueton.,  Vit.  Tib.,  61. — Die 
 Cass.,  57,  24.) 
 
 Creon,  I.  king  of  Corinth,  and  father  of  Creiisa 
 or  Glance,  the  wife  of  Jason.  {Vid.  Creiisa  and  Me- 
 dea.)— II.  The  brother  of  Jocasta,  mother  and  wife  of 
 GEdipus.  {Vid.  CEdipus.)  He  ascended  the  throne 
 of  Thebes  after  EteocJes  and  Polynices  had  fallen  in 
 mutual  combat,  and  gave  orders  that  the  body  of  the 
 latter  should  be  deprived  of  funeral  rites,  on  which  cir- 
 cumstance is  founded  the  plot  of  the  Antigone  of  Soph- 
 ocles.    {Vid.  Eteocles,  Polynices,  Antigone,  &;c.) 
 
 Creophylus,  a  native  of  Samos,  who  composed, 
 under  the  title  of  Oj;i;aAtaf  uPiuaic,  "  The  conquest  of 
 
ORE 
 
 CRETA. 
 
 Qichalia,"  an  epic  poem  commemorative  of  the  ex- 
 ploits of  Hercules.  According  to  an  ancient  tradition, 
 Homer  liimself  was  the  author  of  this  piece,  and  gave 
 't  to  Greophylus  as  a  return  for  ihe  hospitable  recep- 
 tion which  he  had  received  under  his  roof  {Strabo, 
 638  )  In  an  epigram  of  Calhmachus,  however,  Gre- 
 ophylus is  named  as  the  real  author.  {Strab.,  I.  c.) 
 It  was  among  the  descendants  of  Greophylus  that  Ly- 
 <:urf,us  found,  according  to  Plutarch  (  Vit.  Lycarg.,  4), 
 the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  {Sclioll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  166.) 
 
 Gresphontes,  a  son  of  Aristomachus,  who,  with 
 his  brothers  Temenus  and  Aristodemus,  conquered  the 
 Peloponnesus.  This  was  the  famous  conquest  achiev- 
 ed by  the  Heraclidaj.  {Vid.  Aristodemus  and  Herach- 
 dae.) 
 
 Grestone,  I.  or  Creston,  a  city  of  Thrace,  the  cap- 
 ital probably  of  the  district  of  Grestonia.  Dionysius 
 of  Halicarnassus,  and  most  of  the  commentators  and 
 translators  of  Herodotus,  confound  this  city  with  Gor- 
 tona  in  Umbria.  (Gompare  Miiller,  Etruskcr,  vol.  1, 
 p.  95. — Larckcr,  Hist.  iVHcrodote. — Table  Geogr., 
 vol.  8,  p.  149.)  Herodotus  speaks  of  Grestone  as  sit- 
 uate beyond  the  Tyrrhenians,  and  inhabited  by  Pelas- 
 gi  (1,  67),  speaking  a  different  language  from  their 
 neighbours.  Rennel  thinks  that  the  reading  Tyrrhe- 
 nians IS  a  mistake,  and  that  Thermaans  should  be 
 substituted  for  it,  as  Therma,  afterward  Thessalonica, 
 agrees  with  the  situation  mentioned  by  the  historian. 
 {Geography  of  Hcrodot.,  p.  45  )  If,  however,  the  text 
 be  correct  as  it  stands,  it  shows  that  there  was  once 
 a  nation  called  Tyrrhenians  in  Thrace.  This  is  also 
 confirmed  by  Thucydides  (4,  109.  —  Gompare  the 
 elaborate  note  of  Larcher,  ad  Hcrodot.,  I.  c.) — II.  A 
 district  of  Thrace,  to  the  north  of  Anthermus  and 
 Bolbe,  chiefly  occupied  by  a  remnant  of  Pelasgi. 
 {Herodot.,  1,  57.)  We  are  informed  by  Herodotus, 
 ,hat  the  river  Ethedorus  took  its  rise  in  this  territory  ; 
 and  also  that  the  camels  of  the  Persian  army  were  here 
 attacked  by  lions,  which  are  only  to  be  found  in  Eu- 
 rope, as  he  remarks,  between  the  Nestus,  a  river  of 
 Thrace,  and  the  Achelous  (7,  134,  and  127).  Thu- 
 cydides also  mentions  the  Grestonians  as  a  peculiar 
 race,  part  of  whom  had  fi.xed  themselves  near  Mount 
 Athos  (4,  109).  The  district  of  Grestone  is  now 
 known  by  the  name  of  Caradugh.  {Craviefs  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  240  ) 
 
 Cret.\,  one  of  the  largest  islands  of  the  Mediterra- 
 nean Sea,  at  the  south  of  all  the  Gyclades.  Its  name 
 is  derived  by  some  from  the  Guretes,  who  are  said  to 
 have  been  its  first  inhabitants ;  by  others,  from  the 
 nymph  Grete,  daughter  of  Hesperus  ;  and  by  others, 
 from  Gres,  a  son  of  Jupiter,  and  the  nymph  Idaea. 
 {Slcph.  Byz.,  s.  V.  Kpi^Tjj.)  It  is  also  designtitcd 
 among  the  poets  and  mythological  writers  by  the  sev- 
 eral appellations  of  jEria,  Doliche,  Idoea,  and  Telchin- 
 ia.  {Plmy,  4,  12. — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'Aepia.)  Ac- 
 cording to  Herodotus,  this  great  island  remained  in 
 the  possession  of  various  barbarous  nations  till  the  time 
 of  Minos,  son  of  Europa,  who,  having  expelled  his 
 brother  Sarpedon,  became  the  sole  sovereicrn  of  the 
 country  (1,  173.— Compare  Hoeck,  Krcfa,  vol.  1,  p. 
 141).  These  early  inhabitants  are  generally  supposed 
 to  be  the  Eteocretes  of  Homer,  who  clearly  distin- 
 guishes them  from  the  Grecian  colonists  subsequently 
 settled  there.  {Od.,  19,  172.)  Strabo  observes  that 
 the  Eteocretes  were  considered  as  indigenous  ;  and 
 adds,  that  Staphylus,  an  ancient  writer  on  the  subject 
 of  Grete,  placed  them  in  the  southern  side  of  the  isl- 
 and. {Strab.,  475.)  Other  authors,  who  concur  in 
 this  statement  of  the  geographer,  would  lead  us  to  es- 
 tablish a  connexion  between  this  primitive  Cretan  race 
 and  the  Guretes,  Dactyli,  Telchines,  and  other  ancient 
 tribes,  so  often  alluded  to  with  reference  to  the  mystic 
 rites  of  Grete,  Samothrace,  and  Phrygia.  {Strab., 
 466.)     Mmos,  according  to  the  concurrent  testimony 
 
 of  antiquity,  first  gave  laws  to  the  Cretans,  and,  hav- 
 ing conquered  the  pirates  who  mfested  the  ^Egean 
 Sea,  established  a  powerful  navy.  {Hcrodot  ,  1,  171. 
 — Id.,  3,  122. — Thucyd.,  1,  4,  scqq. — Ephor.,  ap. 
 Strab.,  ^76.— Aristot.,  Polit.,  2,  12  )  In  the  Trojan 
 war,  Idomeneus,  sovereign  of  Grete,  led  its  forces  to 
 the  war  in  eighty  vessels,  a  number  little  inferior  to 
 that  commanded  by  Agamemnon  himself.  According 
 to  the  traditions  which  Virgil  has  followed,  Idomeneus 
 was  afterward  driven  from  his  throne  by  faction,  and 
 compelled  to  sail  to  lapygia,  where  he  founded  the 
 town  of  Salernum.  {JEn.,  3,  121  and  399.)  At  this 
 period  the  island  appears  to  have  been  inhabited  by  a 
 mixed  population  of  Greeks  and  barbarians.  Homer 
 enumerates  the  former  under  the  names  of  Achcei,  Do- 
 rians, surnamed  Tricha'ices,  and  Pelasgi.  The  lat- 
 ter, who  were  the  most  ancient,  are  said  to  have  come 
 from  Thessaly,  under  the  conduct  of  Teutamus,  poste- 
 rior to  the  great  Pelasgic  emigration  into  Italy.  {A7i- 
 dron.,  ap.  Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Aupiov.)  The  Dorians 
 are  reported  to  have  established  themselves  in  Grete, 
 under  the  command  of  Althamenes  of  Argos,  after 
 the  death  of  Godrus  and  the  foundation  of  Megara. 
 {Strabo,  48]^ — Eustath.  ad  II.,  2,  645.)  After  the 
 Trojan  war  and  the  expulsion  of  Idomeneus,  the  prin- 
 cipal cities  of  Grete  formed  themselves  into  several 
 republics,  for  the  most  part  independent,  while  others 
 were  connected  by  federal  ties.  These,  though  not 
 exempted  from  the  dissensions  which  so  universally 
 distracted  the  Greek  republics,  maintained  for  a  long 
 time  a  considerable  degree  of  {)rosperity,  owing  to  the 
 good  system  of  laws  and  education  which  had  been  so 
 early  instituted  throughout  the  island  by  the  decrees  of 
 Minos.  The  Cretan  code  was  supposed  by  many  of 
 the  best-informed  writers  of  antiquity  to  have  furnish- 
 ed Lycurgus  with  the  model  of  his  most  salutary  reg- 
 ulations. It  was  founded,  according  to  Ephorus,  as 
 cited  by  Strabo  (480),  on  the  just  basis  of  liberty  and 
 an  equality  of  rights  ;  and  its  great  aim  was  to  promote 
 social  harmony  and  peace  by  enforcing  temperance  and 
 frugality.  On  this  principle,  the  Cretan  youths  were 
 divided  into  classes  called  Agelae,  and  all  met  at  the 
 Andreia,  or  public  meals.  Like  the  Spartans,  they  were 
 early  trained  to  the  use  of  arms,  and  inured  to  sustain 
 the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  undergo  the  se- 
 verest exercise  ;  they  were,  also  compelled  to  learn 
 their  letters  and  certain  pieces  of  music.  The  chief 
 magistrates,  called  Cosmi  {Koafwi),  were  ten  in  num- 
 ber, and  elected  annually.  The  Gerontes  constituted 
 the  council  of  the  nation,  and  were  selected  from  those 
 who  were  thought  worthy  of  holding  the  ofKce  of  Cos- 
 mus  {K6(7/ioc).  There  was  also  an  equestrian  order, 
 who  were  bound  to  keep  horses  at  their  own  expense. 
 (Compare  Aristot.,  Polit  ,  2,  7.—Polyb.,  6,  46.)  But 
 though  the  Cretan  laws  resembled  the  Spartan  institu- 
 tions in  so  many  important  points,  there  were  some 
 striking  features  which  distinguished  the  legislative  en- 
 actments of  the  two  countries.  One  of  these  was, 
 that  the  Lacedoemonians  were  subject  to  a  strict  agra- 
 rian law,  whereas  the  Cretans  were  under  no  restraint 
 as  to  the  accumulation  of  moneyed  or  landed  property  ; 
 another,  that  the  Cretan  republics  were  for  the  most 
 part  democratical,  whereas  the  Spartan  was  decidedly 
 aristocratical.  Herodotus  informs  us,  that  the  Cretans 
 were  deterred  by  the  unfavourable  response  of  the 
 Pythian  oracle  from  contributing  forces  to  the  Grecian 
 armament  assembled  to  resist  the  Persians  (7,  169). 
 In  the  Peloponnesian  war,  incidental  mention  is  made 
 of  some  Cretan  cities  as  allied  with  Athens  or  Sparta  ; 
 but  the  island  does  not  appear  to  have  espoused  col- 
 lectively the  cause  of  either  of  the  belligerant  parties. 
 {Thucyd.,  2,  85.)  The  Cretan  soldiers  were  held  in 
 great  estimation  as  light  troops  and  archers,  and  readi- 
 ly offered  their  services  for  hire  to  such  states,  wheth- 
 er Greek  or  barbarian,  as  needed  them.  {Thucyd.,  7. 
 bl.—Xen.,  Anab.,  3,  3,  6.—Polyb.,  4,  8.— Id.,  5,  14  > 
 
 385 
 
CRETA. 
 
 CRI 
 
 In  the  time  of  Polybius  the  Cretans  had  much  degener- 
 ated from  their  ancient  character,  for  he  charges  them 
 repeatedly  with  the  grossest  immoraUty  and  the  most 
 hateful  vices.  {Polt/b.,  4,  4.7.— Id.  tbul,  53.— Id.,  6, 
 46.)  We  know  also  with  what  severity  they  are  re- 
 proved by  St.  Paul,  in  the  words  of  one  of  their  own 
 poets,  Epimenides  {Ep.  Tit.,  1,  12),  Kpf/rec  ud  tptva- 
 rai,  KaKu  ^rjpla,  yaarepeg  apyai. — The  Romans  did 
 not  interfere  with  the  atlairs  of  Crete  before  the  war 
 with  Antiochus,  when  Q.  Fabius  Labeo  crossed  over 
 into  the  island  from  Asia  Minor,  under  pretence  of 
 claiming  certain  Roman  captives  who  were  detained 
 there.  (Lzy.,  37,  60.)  Several  years  after,  the  island 
 was  invaded  by  a  Roman  army  commanded  by  M.  An- 
 tonius,  under  the  pretence  that  the  Cretans  had  se- 
 cretly favoured  the  cause  of  Mithradates  ;  but  Florus 
 more  candidly  avows,  that  the  desire  of  conquest  was 
 the  real  motive  which  led  to  this  attack  (3,  7. — Com- 
 pare Liv.,  Epit.,  97).  The  enterprise,  however,  having 
 iailed,  the  subjugation  of  the  island  was  not  effect- 
 ed till  some  years  later,  by  Metellus,  who,  from  his 
 success,  obtained  the  agnomen  of  Creticus.  (Liv., 
 Epit.,  99. — Appian,  Excerpt,  de  Rcb.  Cret. — Flor.,  3, 
 7.)  It  then  became  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire, 
 and  formed,  together  with  Cyrenaica,  one  of  its  nu- 
 merous provinces,  being  governed  by  the  same  pro- 
 consul. {Dio  Cassius,  53,  12.  —  Strabo,  1198.)  — 
 Crete  forms  an  irregular  parallelogram,  of  which- the 
 western  side  faces  Sicily,  while  the  eastern  looks  to- 
 wards Egypt ;  on  the  north  it  is  washed  by  the  Mare 
 Creticum,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Libyan  Sea,  which 
 intervenes  between  the  island  and  the  opjiosite  coast 
 of  Cyrene.  The  whole  circumference  of  Crete  was 
 estimated  at  4100  stadia  by  Artemidorus  ;  but  Sosi- 
 crates,  who  wrote  a  very  accurate  description  of  it,  did 
 not  compute  the  periphery  at  less  than  5000  stadia. 
 Hieronymus  also,  in  reckoning  the  length  alone  at  2000 
 stadia,  must  have  exceeded  the  number  given  by  Ar- 
 temidorus. {StTabo,  474.)  Acconhog  to  Pliny,  the 
 extent  of  Crete  from  east  to  west  i«  dbout  270  miles, 
 and  It  is  nearly  539  in  circuit.  In  breadth  it  nowhere 
 exceeds  50  miles.  Strabo  observes,  that  the  interior 
 is  very  mountainous  and  woody,  and  intersected  with 
 fertile  valleys.  Mount  Ida,  which  surpasses  all  the 
 other  summits  iri  elevation,  rises  in  the  centre  of  the 
 island  ;  its  base  occupies  a  circumference  of  nearly 
 600  stadia.  To  the  west  it  is  connected  with  another 
 chain,  called  the  white  mountains  {Aevicu  op?]),  and  to 
 the  east  its  prolongation  forms  the  ridge  anciently 
 known  by  the  name  of  Dicte.  (Strabo,  475,  478.) 
 The  island  contains  no  lakes,  and  the  rivers  are  mostly 
 mountain-torrents,  which  are  dry  during  the  summer 
 season. — It  has  been  remarked  by  several  ancient  wri- 
 ters, that  Homer  in  one  passage  ascribes  to  Crete  100 
 cities  //.,  2,  649),  and  in  another  only  90  (Od.,  19, 
 174'^ ,  a  variation  which  has  been  accounted  for  on  the 
 supposition,  that  ten  of  the  Cretan  cities  were  found- 
 'd  posterior  to  the  siege  of  Troy  ;  but,  notwithstand- 
 M'y  this  explanation,  which  Strabo  adopts  from  Epho- 
 rus,  it  seems  rather  improbable,  that  the  poet  should 
 have  paid  less  attention  to  historical  accuracy  in  the 
 Iliad  than  in  the  Odyssey,  where  it  was  not  so  much 
 required.  The  difficulty  may  be  solved  by  assum- 
 ing, what  has  every  appearance  of  being  true,  that 
 the  Odyssey  was  not  the  composition  of  Homer,  but 
 the  work  of  a  later  age.  Others  affirmed,  that  during 
 the  siege  of  Troy  the  ten  deficient  cities  had  been 
 destroyed  by  the  enemies  of  Idomeneus.  (Strabo, 
 479. —Compare  Hoeck,  Krcta,  vol.  2.  p.  437.)  The 
 modern  name  of  Crete  is  Candia.  Chalk  was  pro- 
 duced in  o-reat  abundance  here,  and  was  hence  called 
 Creta  Terra,  or  simply  Greta.  The  valleys  or  slo- 
 ping plains  in  modern  Candia  are  very  fertile.  The 
 greater  portion  of  the  land  is  not  cultivated,  but  it 
 might  produce  sugarcane,  excellent  wine,  and  the  best 
 kind  of  fruit;  the  exports  are  salt,  grain,  oil,  honey, 
 386 
 
 silk,  and  wool.  Crete  abounds  in  wild  fowl  and  dif- 
 ferent kinds  of  game.  (Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  6, 
 p.  166,  Am.  ed. — Gramer's  Ajicient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p. 
 356,  seqq.)  The  best  work  on  the  history  of  ancient 
 Crete  is  that  of  Hoeck  (Kreta,  3  vols.  8vo,  Gottingen, 
 1823-29). 
 
 Crete,  I.  the  wife  of  Minos.  (Apollod.,  3,  1.) — 
 II.  A  daughter  of  Deucalion.     (Id.,  3,  3.) 
 
 Cretes,  the  inhabitants  of  Crete.  (Virg.,  Mn.,^, 
 146.) 
 
 Creiisa,  I.  a  daughter  of  Creon,  king  of  Corinth, 
 and  wife  of  Jason.  She  received  from  Medea,  as  bri- 
 dal presents,  a  diadem  and  robe,  both  of  which  had 
 been  prepared  with  magic  art,  and  saturated  with  dead- 
 ly poisons.  On  arraying  herself  in  these,  flames  burst 
 forth,  and  fed  upon  and  destroyed  her.  Creon,  the  fa- 
 ther of  the  princess,  perished  in  a  similar  way,  having 
 thrown  himself  upon  the  body  of  his  dying  daughter, 
 and  being  afterward  unable  to  extricate  himself  from 
 the  embrace  of  the  corpse.  (Eurip.,  Med.,  781,  seqq. 
 — Id.  ib.,  l\56,  seqq.)  According  to  the  scholiast, 
 she  was  also  called  Gflauce.  (Schol.  ad  Eurip.,  Med., 
 19.) — II.  Daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  wife  of 
 ^neas.  When  Troy  was  surprised  by  the  Greeks, 
 she  fled  in  the  night  with  her  husband,  but  they  were 
 separated  during  the  confusion,  nor  was  her  absence 
 observed  until  the  other  fugitives  arrived  at  the  spot 
 appointed  for  assembling,  ^^^neas  a  second  time 
 braved  the  perils  of  the  burning  city  in  quest  of  his 
 wife.  Wliile  he  was  distractedly  seeking  for  her 
 through  every  quarter  of  Troy,  Creiisa  appeared lohim 
 as  a  deified  personage,  and  appeased  his  alarm  by  in- 
 forming him,  that  she  had  been  adopted  by  Cybele 
 among  her  own  attendant  nymphs  ;  and  she  then  ex- 
 horted him  to  pursue  his  course  to  Italy,  with  an  inti- 
 mation of  the  good  fortune  that  awaited  him  in  that 
 land.     (Virg.,  JEn.,  2,  562,  seqq.) 
 
 Creusis  or  Creusa  (Kpevai^  or  Kpevaa),  a  town  of 
 Boeotia,  which  Pausanias  (9,  32)  and  Livy  (36,  21) 
 term  the  harbour  of  Thespise.  It  was  on  the  confines 
 of  the  Megarean  territory,  and  a  difficult  and  danger- 
 ous road  led  along  the  shore  from  thence  to  iEgosthe- 
 na3,  a  seaport  belonging  to  the  latter.  Xenophon,  on 
 two  occasions,  describes  the  Lacedjeinonians  as  re- 
 treating from  Boeotia  by  this  route,  with  great  hazard 
 and  labour,  before  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  when  under 
 the  command  of  CleombrOtus,  and  again  subsequent  to 
 that  bloody  conflict.  (Hist.  Gr.,  5,  4,  17.— Ibid.,  6, 
 4,  25.)  Pausanias  describes  the  navigation  from  the 
 coast  of  the  Peloponnesus  to  Creusa  as  dangerous,  on 
 account  of  the  many  headlands  which  it  was  necessary 
 to  double,  and  also  from  the  violence  of  the  winds 
 blowing  from  the  mountains  (9,  32. — Compare  Stra- 
 bo, 405  and  409.— P^oZ ,  p.  86).  The  position  of 
 Creusa  seems  to  correspond  with  that  of  Livudostro,  a 
 well-frequented  port,  situated  in  a  bay  running  inland 
 towards  the  north,  to  which  it  gives  its  name.  From 
 Livadostro  to  Psato  there  is  a  path  which  winds  around 
 the  western  shore  of  the  bay,  at  the  base  of  Mount 
 Cithaeron,  and  agrees  very  well  with  Xenophon's  de- 
 scription. (Cramer'' s  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  202, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Crimisus  or  Crimissus,  I.  a  river  of  Sicily,  in  the 
 western  part  of  the  island,  flowing  into  the  Hypsa. 
 D'Anville  makes  the  modern  name  Cattabellotta ;  but 
 Mannert,  the  San  Bartolomao.  The  orthography  of 
 the  ancient  word  is  given  differently  in  different  edi- 
 tions of  Virgil.  The  true  reading  is  Crimisus  or  Cri- 
 missus. (Consult  Heyne,  in  Var.  Lcct.,  ad  Virg., 
 JEn.,  5,  ZH.—Ccllarnis,  Geogr.  Ant.,  vol.  1,  p.  794.) 
 — If.  or  Crimisa,  a  promontory,  river,  and  town  of 
 Brutiurn,  north  of  Crotona.  The  modern  name  of 
 the  promontory  is  Capo  deW  Alice  ;  of  the  river,  the 
 Frumenica  ;  the  modern  Giro  answers  to  the  city. 
 This  place  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Philoc- 
 tetes  after  the  siege  of  Troy.     (Strab.,  254. — Steph 
 
CRI 
 
 CRCE 
 
 Byz.,s.v.—Lycophr.,9\l.)—lIl.  The  god  of  the  river 
 Crimisus  in  Sicily.  He  became,  by  a  Trojan  female, 
 the  father  of  Acestes  or  ^Egestes.  {Vid.  ^flgestes, 
 and  compare  Scrv.,  ad  Virg.,  Mn.,  1,  550.) 
 
 Crispinus,  I,  a  native  of  Alexandrca  in  Egypt,  of 
 mean,  if  not  servile,  origin.  According  to  the  scholi- 
 ast on  Juvenal  (1,  26),  he  was  at  first  a  paper-vender 
 (xapTowuljjc),  but  became  afterward  a  great  favourite 
 with  Domitian,  and  was  raised  to  equestrian  rank. 
 He  was  a  man  of  infamous  morals.  {SchoL,  in  cod. 
 Schiirz.,  ad  Juv.,  I.  c.—Schott,  Obs.,  5,  35.)— IT.  A 
 ridiculous  philosopher  and  poet  in  the  time  of  Horace, 
 and  noted  for  garrulity.  According  to  the  scholiast 
 {ad  Horat.,  Serm.,  1,  1,  120),  he  wrote  some  verses 
 on  the  Stoic  philosophy,  and,  on  account  of  his  ver- 
 boseness  and  loquacity,  received  the  appellation  of 
 uperuXoyoc-  (Compare  Dbrmg,  ad  Horat.,  I.  c.) 
 Crispus,  Sallustius.  Vid.  Sallustius. 
 Criss^us  Sinus,  an  arm  of  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus, 
 on  the  northern  shore.  It  extends  into  the  country  of 
 Phocis,  and  had  at  its  head  the  town  of  Crissa,  whence 
 it  took  its  name.  Its  modern  name  is  the  Gulf  of 
 Salona,  from  the  modern  city  of  Salona,  the  ancient 
 Amphissa,  which  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Locri 
 Ozolas,  and  lay  to  the  northeast  of  Delphi.  {Cramei-'s 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p    151.) 
 
 Critheis,  the  reputed  mother  of  Homer.     (Vid. 
 Homerus.) 
 
 Critias,  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants  set  over  Athens 
 by  the  Spartans.     He  was  of  good  family,  and  a  man 
 of  considerable  talents,  but  of  dangerous  principles. 
 He  applied  himself  with  great  success  to  the  culture 
 of  eloquence,  which  he  had   studied  under  Gorgias, 
 and   Cicero  cites  him  among  the  public  speakers  of 
 that  day.     {Brut.,  7. — De  Oral.,  2,  22.)     He  appears 
 also  to  have  had  a  talent  for  poetry,  if  we  may  judge 
 from  some  fragments  of  his  which  have  reached  us. 
 Critias  turned  his  attention  likewise  to  philosophical 
 studies,  and  was  one  of  the  disciples  of  Socrates,  whom, 
 however,  he  quarrelled  with  and  left.     {Xcn.,  Mem., 
 1,   2.)     Being  after  this  banished    from    Athens   for 
 some  cause  that  is  not  known,  he  retired  to  Thessaly, 
 where  he  excited  an  insurrection  among  the  Penestae 
 or  serfs.     (Consult  Schneider,  ad  Xen  ,  Hisl.  Gr.,  2, 
 3,  36,  et  ad  Xen.,  Mem.,  1,  2,  24.)     Subsequently  to 
 this  he  visited  Sparta,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  laws 
 and  institutions  of  that  republic.     Returning  lo  x\thens 
 along  with  Lysander,  B.C.  404,  he  was  appointed  one 
 of  the  thirty,  his  pride  of  birth  and  hatred  of  dema- 
 gogues having  pointed  him  out  as  a  fit  person  for  that 
 office.     After  a  cruel  and  oppressive  use  of  the  power 
 thus  conferred  upon  him,  he  fell  in  battlle  against  Thra- 
 sybulus  and  his  followers.     Plato,  who  was  a  relation 
 of  his,  has  made  him  one  of  the  interlocutors  in  his  Ti- 
 maeus  and  Critias.     {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  2,  3.— Id.,  2,  4.) 
 Ckito,  I.  a  wealthy  Athenian,  the  intimate  friend 
 and  disciple  of  Socrates.     When  that  philosopher  was 
 accused,  he  became  security  for  him  ;  and,  after  his 
 condemnation,  succeeded  in  bribing  the  keeper  of  the 
 prison,  so  that  Socrates,  had  he  felt  inclined,  might 
 easily  have  escaped.      He   is    introduced,   therefore, 
 by  Plato  as  an   interlocutor   in   the  dialogue  called 
 Crtto,  after  his  name.     The  remainder  of  his  life  is  not 
 known  ;  but,  as  he  was  nearly  of  the  same  age  with 
 Socrates,  he  could  not  have  long  survived  him.     Crito 
 wrote  seventeen  dialogues,  which  are  lost.     {Plat., 
 Crit.—Suid.,  &.C.)— II.  A  Macedonian  historian,  who 
 wrote  an  account  of  Pallenc,  of  Persia,  of  the  founda- 
 tion of  Syracuse,  of  the  Getae,  &c.     {Suid.,  s.  v.) 
 
 HI.  An  Athenian  sculptor,  who,  with  Nicol'aus,  one 
 of  his  fellow-citizens,  made  a  statue  intended  as  a 
 support  to  a  building.  This  work,  belonging  to  the 
 class  of  Caryatides, .is  still  extant,  and  fonns  part  of 
 the  collection  at  the  Villa  Albani.  Winckelmann  (vol. 
 6,  p.  203)  thinks  he  flourished  about  the  time  of  Cice- 
 ro     {ISillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Critolaus,  I.  a  native  of  Phaselis  in  Lycia,  wno 
 came  to  Athens  to  study  philosophy,  and  became  there, 
 after  the  death  of  Ariston  of  Ceos,  the  head  of  the 
 peripatetic  school.  He  was  sent  by  the  Athenians, 
 along  with  Carneades  and  Diogenes,  on  an  embassy  to 
 Rome,  B.C.  158,  and  acquired  great  reputation  in  that 
 city,  during  his  stay  there,  for  his  ability  in  speaking ; 
 a  circumstance,  however,  which  did  not  prevent  his 
 declaiming  against  the  rhetorical  art,  which  he  consid- 
 ered prejudicial  rather  than  useful.  He  lived  more 
 than  eighty  years.  Critolaus  strove  to  confirm,  by 
 new  arguments,  the  doctrine  of  Aristotle  respecting 
 the  eternity  of  the  world.  {Plut.,  de  Exit.,  p.  605. — 
 Cic.,  de  Fin.,  5,  5. — Stobaus,  Eclog.  Pkys.,  1,  1. — 
 Philo,  Mund.  Incorrupt.,  p.  943.) — II.  A  general  of 
 the  Achaeans,  and  one  of  the  principal  authors  of  the 
 war  between  the  Romans  and  his  countrymen,  which 
 ended  in  the  subjugation  of  the  latter.  {Polyb.,  38, 
 2.— Id.,  38,  5,  &c.) 
 
 Criu-metopon  (Kpioij  Meruirov,  i.  e.,  "  Ram's 
 Front"),  I.  a  promontory  of  the  Tauric  Chersonesp, 
 and  the  most  southern  point  of  that  peninsula.  It  i 
 now  called  Karadjebouroun,  according  to  D'Anville 
 which  signifies,  in  the  Turkish  language,  Black-noac 
 Mannert,  however,  makes  the  modern  name  to  be 
 Ajadag,  or  the  Holy  Mountain. — II.  A  promontory 
 of  Crete,  forming  its  southwestern  extremity,  now 
 Cape  Crio.     {Plin.,  4,  11.) 
 
 Crobyzi,  a  people  between  Mount  Hsemus  and  the 
 Danube,  in  Lower  Maesia.  Their  territory  lay  in  a 
 northeastern  direction  from  Philippopolis  on  the  He- 
 brus.     {Plin.,  4,  12.) 
 
 Crocodilopolis,  a  city  of  Egypt.     {Vid.  Arsinoe 
 
 ^•)  .      , 
 
 Crocus,  a  youth  who,  being  unable  to  obtain  the 
 
 object  of  his  affections,  the  nymph  Smilax,  pined 
 away,  and  was  changed  into  the  crocus,  or  "  saffron." 
 Smilax  herself  was  metamorphosed  into  the  smilax,  or 
 "  Oriental  bindweed."     {Ovid,  Mel.,  4,  283.) 
 
 Crcesus,  son  of  Alyattes,  king  of  Lydia,  and  born 
 about  591  B.C.  He  was  the  fifth  and  last  of  the 
 Mermiiadae,  a  family  which  began  to  reign  with  Gyges, 
 who  dethroned  Candaules.  {Herod.,  1,  14.)  Ac- 
 cording to  the  author  just  quoted,  Crossus  was  the  son 
 of  Alyattes  by  a  Carian  mother,  and  had  a  half-brother, 
 named  Pantaleon,  the  offspring  of  an  Ionian  female.  An 
 attempt  was  made  by  a  private  foe  of  Croesus  to  hinder 
 his  accession  to  the  throne,  and  to  place  the  kingdom 
 in  the  hands  of  Pantaleon;  but  the  plot  failed  {Herod., 
 1,  92),  although  Stobaus  {Serm.,  45)  informs  us,  that 
 Croesus,  on  coming  to  the  throne,  divided  the  kingdom 
 with  his  brother.  Plutarch  states,  that  the  second 
 wife  of  Alyattes,  wishing  to  remove  Croesus,  gave  a 
 female  baker  in  the  royal  household  a  dose  of  poison  to 
 put  into  the  bread  she  made  for  Croesus.  The  woman 
 informed  Croesus,  and  gave  the  poisoned  bread  to  the 
 queen's  children,  and  the  prince,  out  of  gratitude,  con- 
 secrated at  Delphi  a  golden  image  of  this  female  three 
 cubits  high.  {Pint.,  de  Pyth.  Orac. — Op.,  cd.  Reiske, 
 vol.  7.  p.  580. — Herod.,  1,  51.)  Crcesus  ascended  the 
 throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  B.C.  56-0,  and  imme- 
 diately undertook  the  subjugation  of  the  Greek  com- 
 munities of  Asia  Minor  (the  ^olians,  lonians,  and 
 Dorians),  whose  disunited  state,  and  almost  continual 
 wars  with  one  another,  rendered  his  task  an  easy  one. 
 He  contented  himself,  however,  after  reducing  them 
 beneath  his  sway,  with  merely  imposing  an  annual 
 tribute,  and  left  their  forms  of  government  unaltered. 
 When  this  conquest  was  effected,  he  turned  his 
 thoughts  to  the  construction  of  a  fleet,  intending  to 
 attach  the  islands,  but  was  dissuaded  from  his  purpose 
 by  Bias  of  Priene.  {Herod.,  1,  27.)  Turning  his 
 arms,  upon  this,  against  the  nations  of  Asia  Minor,  he 
 subjected  all  the  country  lying  west  of  the  river  Halys, 
 except  Cilicia  and  Lycia;  and  then  applied  himself  to 
 the  arts  of  peace,  and  to  the  patronage  of  the  sciences 
 '  '  387 
 
CRCESUS. 
 
 CRO 
 
 and  ot  literature.  He  n.jc-inc  famed  for  his  riches 
 and  muniticence.  Poets  ana  philosophers  were  invited 
 to  his  court,  and,  among  others,  Solon,  the  Athenian,  is 
 said  to  have  visited  his  captital,  Sardis.  Herodotus 
 relates  the  conversation  which  took  j)lace  between  the 
 'atter  and  Croesus  on  the  subject  of  human  felicity,  in 
 which  the  Athenian  offended  the  Lydian  monarch  by 
 he  little  value  which  he  attached  to  riches  as  a  means 
 <)f  happiness.  {Herod.,  1,  30.)  This  anecdote,  how- 
 ever, appeared  encumbered  with  chronological  difficul- 
 ties, even  to  the  ancients  (Flul.,  Vit.  Sui.,  c.  27),  and 
 has  given  rise  to  considerable  discussions  in  modern 
 times.  (Consult  Larchcr,  Chronol.  d'Hcrod.,  vol.  7, 
 p.  205,  se(/q. — Clavier,  Hislotre  des  premiers  temps 
 de  la  Grece,  vol.  2,  p.  324.  —  Schultz,  Apparat.  ad 
 Annall.  Crit.  licr.  Grac.,  p.  16,  sc(jq.  —  B'dhr,  ad 
 Herodot.,  1,  30.)  Not  long  after  this,  Croesus  had 
 the  misfortune  to  lose  his  son  Atys  {vtd.  Atys) ;  but 
 the  deep  affliction  into  which  this  loss  plunged  him 
 was  dispelled  in  some  degree,  after  two  years  of 
 mourning,  by  a  feeling  of  disijuiet  relative  to  the  move- 
 ments of  Cyrus  and  the  increasing  power  of  the  Per- 
 sians. Wishing  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  Greeks 
 of  Europe  against  the  danger  which  threatened  him, 
 a  step  which  had  been  reconunended  by  the  oracle  at 
 Delphi  {Herod.,  1,  53),  he  addressed  himself,  for  this 
 purpose,  to  the  Laceda;monians,  at  that  time  the  most 
 powerful  of  the  (Grecian  communities,  and  having  suc- 
 ceeded in  his  ol)ject,  and  made  magnificent  presents  to 
 the  Delphic  shrine,  he  resolved  on  open  hostilities  with 
 the  Persians.  The  art  of  the  crafty  priesthood  who 
 managed  the  machinery  of  the  oracle  at  Delphi  is  no- 
 where more  clearly  shown  than  in  the  history  of  their 
 royal  dupe,  the  monarch  of  Lydia.  He  had  lavished 
 upon  their  temple  the  most  splendid  gifts  ;  so  splendid, 
 in  fact,  that  we  should  be  tempted  to  suspect  Herodo- 
 tus of  exaggeration  if  his  account  were  not  confirmed 
 by  other  writers.  And  the  recipients  of  this  bounty,  in 
 their  turn,  put  him  off  with  an  answer  of  the  most  studied 
 ambiguity  when  he  consulted  their  far-famed  oracle  on 
 the  subject  of  a  war  with  the  Persians.  The  response 
 of  Apollo  was,  that  if  Croesus  made  war  upon  this  peo- 
 ple, he  would  destroy  a  great  empire;  and  the  answer  of 
 Amphiaraus  (for  his  oracle,  too,  was  consulted  by  the 
 Lydian  kmg),  tended  to  the  same  effect.  {Herod.,  1, 
 53.)  The  verse  itself,  containing  the  response  of  the 
 oracle,  is  given  by  Diodorus  {Excerpt.,  7,  ^  28),  and  is 
 as  follows  :  Kpotao^,  "A?mv  SiaCuc,  /iEydXrjv  upx>iv 
 Kara?ivaEi,  "  Crxi-us,  on  having  ci'osscd  the  Halys, 
 will  destroy  a  grca.l  empire,"  the  river  Halys  being,  as 
 already  remarked,  the  boundary  of  his  dominions  to 
 the  east.  (Compare  Cic.,  de  Div.,  2,  56. — Aristot., 
 Rhet.,  3,  4.)  Croesus  thought,  of  course,  the  kingdom 
 thus  referred  to  was  that  of  Cyrus;  the  issue,  however, 
 proved  it  to  he  his  own.  Having  assembled  a  numer- 
 ous army,  the  Lydian  monarch  crossed  the  Halys,  in- 
 vaded the  territory  of  Cyrus,  and  a  battle  took  place 
 in  the  district  of  Pteria,  but  without  any  decisive  re- 
 sult. Croesus,  upon  this,  thinking  his  forces  not  suffi- 
 ciently numerous,  marched  back  to  Sardis,  disbanded 
 his  army,  consisting  entirely  of  mercenaries,  and  sent 
 for  succour  to  Amasis  of  Egypt,  and  also  to  the  Lacede- 
 monians, determining  to  attack  the  Persians  again  in  ihe 
 beginning  of  the  ne.xt  spring.  But  Cyrus  did  not  allow 
 him  time  to  effect  this.  Having  discovered  that  it  was 
 the  intention  of  the  I>ydian  king  to  break  up  his  (irescnt 
 army,  he  marched  with  all  speed  into  Lydia,  before  a 
 new  mercenary  force  could  be  assembled,  defeated 
 Croesus  (who  had  no  force  at  his  command  but  his 
 Lydian  cavalry),  in  the  battle  of  Thymbra,  shut  him  up 
 in  Sardis,  and  took  the  city  itself  after  a  siege  of  four- 
 teen days,  and  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of 
 the  son  of  Alyaltes.  With  Croesus  fell  the  empire  of 
 the  Lydians.  Herodotus  relates  two  incredible  stories 
 connected  with  this  event ;  one  having  reference  to 
 the  dumb  son  of  Croesus,  who  spoke  for  the  first  time 
 388 
 
 when  he  saw  a  soldier  in  the  act  of  killing  his  father 
 and,  by  the  exclamation  which  he  uttered,  saved  his 
 parent's  life,  the  soldier  being  ignorant  of  his  rank  , 
 and  the  other  being  as  follows  :  Croesus  having  been  ■ 
 made  prisoner,  a  pile  was  erected,  on  which  he  was 
 placed  in  order  to  be  burned  alive.  After  keeping  si- 
 lence for  a  long  time,  the  royal  captive  heaved  a  deep 
 sigh,  and  with  a  groan  thrice  pronounced  the  name  of 
 Solon.  Cyrus  sent  to  know  the  reason  of  this  e.vcla- 
 mation,  and  Croesus,  after  considerable  delay,  acquaint- 
 ed him  with  the  conversation  between  himself  and 
 Solon,  in  which  the  latter  had  discoursed  with  so  much 
 wisdom  on  the  instability  of  human  happiness.  'I'he 
 Persian  monarch,  relenting  upon  this,  gave  orders  for 
 Croesus  to  be  released.  But  the  flames  had  already 
 begun  to  ascend  on  every  side  of  the  pile,  and  all  hu- 
 man aid  proved  ineffectual.  Li  this  emergency  Croesus 
 prayed  earnestly  to  Apollo,  the  god  on  whom  he  had 
 lavished  so  many  splendid  offerings  ;  that  deity  heard 
 his  prayer,  and  a  sudden  and  heavy  fall  of  rain  extin- 
 guished the  flames!  {Herod.,  1,  86,  seqq.)  This 
 story  must  be  decidedly  untrue,  as  it  is  not  possible  to 
 conceive  that  the  Persians  would  employ  fire,  which 
 to  them  was  a  sacred  element,  in  punishing  a  criminal. 
 Croesus,  after  this,  stood  high  in  the  favour  of  Cyrus, 
 who  profited  by  his  advice  on  several  important  occa- 
 sions ;  and  Ctesias  says  that  the  Persian  monarch  as- 
 signed him  for  his  residence  a  city  near  Ecbatana. 
 This  prince,  in  his  last  moments,  recommended  Croe- 
 sus to  the  care  of  his  son  and  successor  Cambyses, 
 and  entreated  the  Lydian,  on  the  other  hand,  to  be  an 
 adviser  to  his  son.  Croesus  discharged  this  duty  with 
 so  much  fidelity  as  to  give  offence  to  the  new  monarch, 
 who  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death.  Happily  for  him, 
 they  who  were  charged  with  this  order  hesitated  to 
 carry  it  into  execution  ;  and  Cambyses,  soon  after, 
 having  regretted  his  precipitation,  Crossus  was  again  '' 
 brought  into  his  presence,  and  restored  to  his  former 
 favour.  The  rest  of  his  history  is  unknown.  As  he 
 was  advanced  in  years,  he  could  not  have  long  sur- 
 vived Cambyses.  {Herod.,  3,  36,  seqq. — Compare 
 B'dhr,  ad  Cles.,p.  102,  seqq — Creuzer,  Fragm.  Hist., 
 p.  207,  seqq. — Nic.  Datnasc.,  in  Excerpt.  Vales.,  p. 
 457,  seqq.)  The  wealth  of  Croesus  was  proverbial  in 
 the  ancient  world,  and  one  source  of  supply  was  in  the 
 gold  ore  washed  down  by  the  Pactolus  from  Mount 
 Tmolus  in  Lydia.  (Compare  Erasmus,  chil.  1,  cent. 
 6,  col.  2\?>.—Strab.,  610,  625.— Fno-.,  JEn.,  10,  141. 
 —Senec,  Phxn.,  604. Tuvenal,  Sat.,  14,  298.) 
 
 Cromi  or  Cro.mni,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  in  the  district 
 Cromitis,  mentioned  by  Xenophon  as  a  place  of  some 
 strength.  It  is  thought  by  Sir  W.  Gell  to  correspond 
 with  Crano,  two  hours  and  forty-seven  minutes  from 
 Sinano,  or  Megalopolis.     {Ilin.  of  the  Morca,  p.  99.) 
 
 Cro.mmyon,  a  small  place  in  Corinthia,  on  the  shorn 
 of  the  Saronic  Gulf,  south  of  the  Megarean  frontier. 
 It  was  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  haunt  of  a 
 wild  boar  destroyed  by  Theseus.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Thcs., 
 Plat  ,  Lach.,  p.  196. — Strabo,  380.)  Pausanias  says 
 it  was  named  after  Crommus,  son  of  Neptune.  From 
 Thucydides  (4,  44)  it  appears  that  Crommvon  was 
 120  stadia  from  Corinth.  The  little  hamlet  of  Canet- 
 /a  or  Kinctla  is  generally  thought  to  occupy  the  site 
 of  this  ancient  town.  {Chandlefs  Travels,  vol.  2, 
 ch.  43.— Gc/r^  Pin.,  p.  209.) 
 
 Cr.oPHi,  a  mountain  of  Egypt,  between  Elephantina 
 and  Syene.  Between  this  mountain  and  another  called 
 Mophi  were  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  according  to  a 
 foolish  statement  made  to  Herodotus  by  an  Egyptian 
 priest  at  Sais.     {Herodot.,  2,  28.) 
 
 Croto.n.^  or  Croto  {Kporuv),  now  Cotronc,  a 
 powerful  city  of  Italy,  in  the  Brutiorum  ager,  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Sinus  Tarentinus.  Its  foundation  is  as- 
 cribed to  Myscellus,  an  Achaean  leader,  soon  after  Syb- 
 aris  had  been  colonized  by  a  party  of  the  same  nation, 
 which  was  about  715  A.C.     (Antioch.,  Syrac,  av. 
 
CROTONA. 
 
 C  TE 
 
 Strab..,  262.)     According  to  some  traditions,  the  ori- 
 oin  of  Crolotia  was  much  more  ancient,  and  it  is  said  to 
 derive  its  name  from  i..ie  hero  Croton.     {Ovid,  Mc/am., 
 15,  63.— Compare  Heracl.,  Pont.  Fragm.,  p.  20. — 
 Diod.  Sic,  4,  24.)     The  residence  of  Pythagoras  and 
 his  most  distinguished  followers  in  this  city,  together 
 with  the  overthrow  of  Sybaris  which  it  accomplished, 
 and  ihe  exploits  of  Milo  and  of  several  other  Crotoniai 
 victors  in  the  Olympic  Games,  contributed  in  a  high 
 degree  to  raise  its  fame.     Its  climate,  also,  was  prover- 
 bially excellent,  and  was  supposed  to  be  particularly 
 calculated  for  producing  in  its  inhabitants  that  robust 
 frame  of  body  requisite  to  ensure  success  in  gymnastic 
 contests.     Hence  it  was  commonly  said,  that  the  last 
 athlete  of  Crotona  was  the  first  of  the  other  Greeks. 
 {Strabo,  262.)     This  city  was  also  celebrated  for  its 
 school  of  medicine,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Derno- 
 cedes,  who  long  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  the 
 lirst  physician  of  Greece.     (Herodol,  ii,  131.)     How- 
 ever brilliant  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  Crotona  its 
 triumph  over  Sybaris  may  appear,  that  event  must  be 
 regarded  also  as  the  term  of  her  greatness  and  pros- 
 perity ;  for  from  this  period  it  is  said  that  luxury  and 
 the  love  of  pleasvire,  the  usual  consequences  of  great 
 opulence,  soon  obliterated  all  the  good  effects  which 
 had  been  produced  by  the  wisdom  and  morality  of  Py- 
 thagoras, and  conspired  to  enervate  that  hardihood  and 
 vigour  for  which  the  Crotoniatas  had  hitherto  been  so  pe- 
 culiarly distinguished.     {Polyb.,  Fragm.,7,l,and  10, 
 1. — Tim.,ap.  Alhen.,  12,  4.)    Asaproof  of  the  remark- 
 able change  which  took  place  in  the  warlike  spirit  of 
 this  people,  it  is  said  that,  on  their  being  subsequently 
 engaged  in  hostilities  with  the  Locrians,  an  army  of 
 130,000  Crotoniatffi  were  routed  by  10,000  of  the  en- 
 emy on  the  banks  of  the  Sagras.     Such  was,  indeed, 
 the  loss  they  experienced  in  this  battle,  that,  according 
 to  Strabo,  their  city  henceforth  rapidly  declined,  and 
 could  no  longer  maintain  the  rank  it  had  long  held  among 
 the  Italiot  republics.     (Strabo,  261.)     According  to 
 Justin  (20,  2),  it  is  true,  a  much  earlier  date  ought  to 
 be   assigned  to   this  event ;  but  the  accounts  which 
 Strabo  has  followed  evidently  regarded  it  as  subsequent 
 to  the  fall  of  Sybaris,  and  probability  rather  favours 
 such  an  arrangement  in  the  order  of  events.     (Con- 
 sult Hcyne,  de  Ctvit.  GrcBc,  prolus.  10,  in  Op.  Acad., 
 vol.  2,  p.  184.)     Dionysius  the  elder,  who  was  then 
 aiming  at  the  subversion  of  all  the  states  of  Magna 
 Grajcia,  having  surprised  the  citadel,  gained  possession 
 of  the  town,  which,  however,  he  did  not  long  retain. 
 {Liv.,  24,  3.)     Crotona  was  finally  able  to  assert  its 
 independence  against  his  designs,  as  well  as  the  attacks 
 of  the  Brutii ;  and  when  Pyrrhus  invaded  Italy,  it  was 
 still  a  considerable  city,  extending  on  both  banks  of 
 the  /Esarus,  and  its  walls  embracing  a  circumference 
 uf  twelve  miles.     But  the  consequences  of  the  war 
 which  ensued  with  that  king  proved  so  ruinous  to  its 
 prosperity,  that  above  one  half  of  its  extent  became 
 deserted  ;  the  ^Esarus,  which  flowed  through  the  town, 
 now  ran  at  some  distance   from  the  inhabited   part, 
 which  was  again  separated  from  the  fortress  by  a  va- 
 cant space.     Such  is  the  picture  which  Livy  draws  of 
 the   state  of  this  city  after  the  battle   of   Canns,  at 
 which  period  almost  all  the  Greek  colonies  abandoned 
 Ihe  Roman  cause.     Crotona  was  then  occupied  by  the 
 Brutii,  with  the  exception  of  the  citadel,  in  which  the 
 chief  inhabitants  had  taken  refuge  ;   these  being  unable 
 to  defend  the  place  against  a  Carthaginian  force,  soon 
 »fter  surrendered,  and  were  allowed  to  withdraw  to 
 Locri.     {Lie.,  24,  2  and  2.)     Crotona  eventually  fell 
 again  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  A.U.C.  560',  and 
 a  colony  was  established  here.     Pliny  merely  speaks 
 of  it  as  an  Oppidum,  without  adding  a  single  remark 
 re.^pecting  its  importance.     It  became  a  place  of  some 
 consequence  in  the  time  of  Belisarius,  who  made  it, 
 on  account  of  its  position,  a  chief  point  in  his  opera- 
 tions along  the  coast.     {Procop.,  B.  Goth.,  3,  28,  ct 
 
 4,  26.)  Its  harbour,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have 
 been  any  of  the  best,  or  well  calculated  to  afford  pro- 
 tection against  storms  and  winds.  It  was  rather  what 
 Polybius  calls  (10,  1)  a  summer-harbour.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  391,  scqq. — Mayinert,  G,eogr., 
 vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  210.) 
 
 Crotoniat^,  the  inhabitants  of  Crotona.     {Cic, 
 de,  Inv.,  2,  1.) 
 
 Ckotoniatis  {>/  KpoTtJX'j«r<f  jupre),  a  part  of  Italy, 
 of  which  Crotona  was  the  capital.  {Thucyd.,  7,  35.) 
 Crustumerium  or  Crustumium,  a  town  of  tha 
 Sabines,  in  the  vicinity  of  Fidense,  and,  like  Fidenae, 
 founded  by  a  colony  from  Alba.  {Dion.  Hal.,  2,  53.) 
 Its  great  antiquity  is  also  attested  by  Virgil  (JBn.,  7, 
 629),  and  by  Silius  Italicus  (8,  367).  From  Phny  (3, 
 5)  we  learn  that  the  Crustumini  were  vanquished  by 
 Romulus,  and  that  a  settlement  was  formed  in  their 
 territory.  The  fertility  of  their  lands  is  extolled  by 
 more  than  one  writer.  Their  city,  however,  was  not 
 finally  conquered  till  the  reign  of  the  elder  Tarquiu. 
 {Liv.,  1,  38  )  The  name  of  Crustumini  CoUes  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  given  to  the  ridge  of  which  the 
 Mons  Sacer  formed  a  part,  since  Varro,  speaking  of 
 the  secession  of  the  Roman  people  to  that  hill,  terms 
 it  Seccssio  Crustumcrina.  {L.  L.,  3,  1.)  The  tribe 
 called  Cruslumina  evidently  derived  its  name  from 
 this  ancient  city.  {Liv  ,  42,  34.)  The  ruins  of  Crus- 
 tumerium are  said  to  exist  in  a  place  now  called  Mar- 
 ciglmno  Vecchio.  {Vvlp.,  Vet.  Lat ,  lib.  18,  c.  17. — 
 Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  303,  seqq.) 
 
 Ctesias,  I.  a  Greek  historian  and  physician  of  Cni- 
 dus,  who  flourished  in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon. 
 {Suidas,  s.  v. — Xcn.,  Anab.,  1,  8,  27. — Diod.    Sic, 
 1,  32.)     He  was  of  the  family  of  the  Asclejnades,  who 
 possessed  the  art  of  healing  as  a  patrimony,  inherited 
 from  their  great  progenitor  JSscuIapius.     {Galen,  vol. 
 5,  p.  652,  1.  51,  cd.  Basil.)     Ctesias  assisted  at  the 
 battle  of  Cunaxa,   B.C.  401,  but  it  is  not  precisely 
 known  whether  he  was  in  the  army  of  Cyrus  or  in 
 that  of  Artaxerxes.     He  merely  states  that  he  healed 
 the  wound  received  by  the  latter  during  the  conilict. 
 In  speaking,  however,  of  the  death  of  Clearchus,  the 
 Grecian  commander,  which  took  place  a  short  time 
 after  the  battle,  he  informs  us,  that  he  was  then  the 
 physician    of    Parysatis,    the    mother   of  Artaxerxes, 
 which  would  render  it  very  {.robable  that  he  was  from 
 the  first  in  the  suite  of  the  king,  and  not  in  that  of  his 
 brother.     (Compare  Bdhr,  ad  Ctcs.,  p.   16,  Proleg.) 
 He  passed,  after  this,  seventeen  years  at  the  court  of 
 Persia.     Ctesias  composed  a  History  of  Assyria  and 
 Persia,  entitled  TlepaiKu,  in  23  hook's,  written  in  the 
 Ionic  dialect.     In  writing  this,  he  obtained  great  as- 
 sistance, as  well  from  the  oral  communications  of  the 
 Persians  as  from  the  archives  of  the  empire,  to  which 
 he  states  that  he  had  access,  and   in  which  appear  to 
 have  been  deposited  those  royal  documents  which  Di- 
 odorus  Siculus  calls  (iaaLkiKnl  di^Oipai.     These  an- 
 nals contained  rather  the  history  of  the  court  and  the 
 monarchs    of   Persia    than    that    of   the    state    itself. 
 What  we  possess  at  present  of  the  history  of  Ctesias, 
 induces  the  belief,  that  it  was  precisely  in  this  circle 
 of  events  that  the  work  of  Ctesias  just  mentioned  was 
 principally  taken  up.      It  is  by  means  of  quotations 
 given  by  Athcna?us,  and  more  particularly  by  Plutarch, 
 that  we' are  made  acquainted  with  some  fragments  of 
 the  first  six  books,  which  turned  entirely  on  the  history 
 of  Assyria.    We  have  an  extract,  in  a  somewhat  more 
 complete  order,  from  the  seventeen  books  that  imme- 
 diately follow  :   Photius  has  placed  it  in  his  Bibliothe- 
 ca      Ctesias  wrote  also  a  history  of  India  {'IvSiKu),  in 
 one  book,  from  which  Photius  has  also  copied  an  ex- 
 tract —On  many  points  Ctesias  is  in  contradiction  with 
 Herodotus,  whom  he  accuses  of  dealing  in  fable  ;   and 
 also  with  Xenophon.  •  He  has  been  charged,   in  his 
 turn,  with  being,  on  many  occasions,  negligent  of  the 
 truth.     What  has  principally  injured  the  reputation  o; 
 
CTE 
 
 CUM 
 
 Ctesias  is  his  system  of  chronology,  which  is  more  dif- 
 ficult to  be  reconciled  with  that  of  the  Scriptures  than 
 the  one  adopted  by  Herodotus.  It  must  be  observed, 
 however,  that,  among  the  ancient  writers,  Plutarcii  is 
 the  only  one  who  shows  little  respect  for  Ctesias ; 
 whereas  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus,  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  even  Xenophon  himself,  his 
 contemporary,  cite  him  with  praise,  or  at  least  without 
 contradicting  him.  It  may  reasonably  be  asked,  more- 
 over, which  of  the  two  ought  to  have  been  better  ac- 
 quainted with  the  subject  of  which  they  treat,  Herod- 
 otus or  Ctesias  1  Herodotus,  who  speaks  only  of  the 
 afikirs  of  Persia  on  the  testimony  of  others,  and  who 
 wrote  at  a  period  when  the  Greeks  had  as  yet  but  lit- 
 tle intercourse  with  Persia ;  or  Ctesias,  viho  had 
 passed  many  years  at  Susa,  where  he  enjoyed  so  high 
 a  reputation  as  to  be  charged  with  the  management  of 
 some  important  negotiations'!  {Gedoyn,  Mem.  dc 
 I'Acad.  dcs  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  14,  p.  247,  scqq.) — What 
 has  just  been  said,  however,  refers  merely  to  the  work 
 of  Ctesias  on  Persia.  His  history  of  India  is  crowded 
 with  fables.  Heeren  {Idccn,  vol.  1,  p.  323)  seeks  to 
 justify  Ctesias,  on  the  ground  that  he  details  merely 
 those  of  the  myths  of  India  which  were  in  the  mouths 
 of  the  vulgar  in  Persia.  Cuvier  also  observes,  that 
 Ctesias  has  by  no  means  imagined  the  fantastic  ani- 
 mals of  which  he  speaks,  but  that  he  has  fallen  into 
 the  mistake  of  ascribing  an  actual  existence  to  the 
 hieroglyphic  figures,  which  are  remarked  at  the  present 
 day  among  the  ruins  of  Persepolis.  We  there  find, 
 for  example,  the  martichora,  that  fabulous  animal 
 which  was  the  symbol  or  hieroglyjihic  of  royal  power. 
 Many  other  fables  are  to  be  explained  by  the  ignorance 
 of  the  laws  of  nature,  which  was  so  great  among  the 
 ancients. — The  fragments  of  Ctesias  are  to  be  found 
 appended  to  various  editions  of  Herodotus.  A  separ- 
 ate edition  was  given  by  Lion,  in  1825,  8vo,  GblLing., 
 and  another  by  Bahr,  in  1824,  8vo,  Franco/.  This 
 last  is  decidedly  the  best.  The  editor  has  not  con- 
 tented himself  with  giving  an  accurate  te.xt,  corrected 
 by  the  aid  of  manuscripts,  but  in  his  commentary  he 
 explains  the  text,  with  reference  to  history,  geography, 
 &,c.,  and  seeks  also  to  justify  Ctesias  against  most  of 
 the  charges  alleged  to  his  discredit.  (Schbll,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  176,  seqq. — Id.,  vol.  7,  p.  436.)— 
 II.  An  Ephesian,  who  also  wrote  on  Persian  affairs 
 (Consult  Vossius,  de  Hist.  Grccc,  3,  p.  349.) — III. 
 An  artist,  mentioned  by  Pliny  (34,  29)  as  having 
 flourished,  along  with  other  carvers  in  silver,  after  the 
 time  of  Myron. — IV.  A  spendthrift  and  debauched 
 person.  Some  verses  of  the  comic  poets  Anaxilas  and 
 Philetanrus  against  him  are  preserved  in  Athenasus  (10, 
 p.  416,  d.) 
 
 Ctesibius,  a  native  of  Ascra,  and  contemporary  of 
 Archimedes,  who  flourislied  during  the  reigns  of  Ptol- 
 emy II.  and  Ptolemy  III.,  or  between  260  and  240 
 B.C.  He  was  the  son  of  a  barber,  and  for  some  time 
 exercised  at  Alcxandrea  the  calling  of  his  parent. 
 His  mechanical  genius,  however,  soon  caused  him  to 
 emerge  from  obscurity,  and  he  became  known  as  the 
 inventor  of  several  very  ingenious  contrivances  for 
 raising  water,  &c.  The  invention  of  clepsydra,  or 
 water  clocks,  is  also  ascribed  to  him.  (Compare  Vi- 
 truviiis,  9,  9.)  He  wrote  a  work  on  hydraulic  ma- 
 chines, which  is  now  lost.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr  , 
 vol.  3,  p.  363.) 
 
 CtesTphon,  I.  an  Athenian,  who  brought  forward 
 the  proposition  respecting  the  crown  of  gold,  which 
 the  Athenians,  on  his  motion,  decreed  to  Demosthe- 
 nes for  his  public  services.  He  was  accused  and 
 brought  to  trial  for  this  by  yEschines,  but  was  suc- 
 cessfully defended  by  Demosthenes.  This  contro- 
 versy gave  rise  to  the  two  famous  and  rival  orations 
 concerning  "the  Crown."  {Vid.  .^schines,  Demos- 
 thenes.)— II.  A  city  of  Parlhia,  situate  on  the  eastern 
 bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  to,  and  distant  three  miles 
 390 
 
 from  Seleucia.  It  was  founded  by  Vardanes,  fortified 
 by  Pacorus,  and  became  the  metropolis  of  the  whole 
 Parthian  empire.  Ctesiphon  was  at  first  an  inconsid- 
 erable village,  but  the  camp  of  the  Parthian  monarchs 
 being  frequently  pitched  in  its  vicinity,  caused  it  grad- 
 ually to  become  a  large  city.  In  A.D.  165  it  was 
 taken  by  the  Romans,  and  again  33  years  after  by  the 
 Emperor  Severus.  (Dio  Cass.,  75,  9. — Spartian., 
 Wt.  Scv.,  16. — Hcrodian,  3,  30.)  Notwithstanding, 
 however,  its  Josses,  it  succeeded  to  Babylon  and  Se- 
 leucia as  one  of  the  great  capitals  of  the  East.  In  the 
 time  of  .lulian,  Ctesiphon  was  a  great  and  flourishing 
 city  ;  and  Coche,  as  the  only  remaining  part  of  Seleu- 
 cia was  called,  was  merely  its  suburb.  To  these  two 
 have  been  assigned  the  modern  epithet  of  "tIZ  Mo- 
 dain,"  or  "  the  cities."  They  are  now  both  in  ruins. 
 Ctesiphon  never  recovered  its  sack  by  the  Saracens, 
 A.D.  637.  This  place  was  the  winter  residence  of 
 the  Parthian  and  Persian  monarchs.  In  summer  they 
 dwelt  at  Ecbatana  in  Media.  (Strabo,  743. — Plin., 
 6,  2Q.—Ma7inert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  5,  p.  406.) 
 
 Cui.ARO,  a  city  of  the  AUobroges,  in  Gallia  Nar- 
 bonensis,  on  the  banks  of  the  Isara.  On  being  rebuilt 
 by  Gratian,  it  took  the  name  of  Gratianopolis,  and  is 
 now  Grenoble.  (Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  10,  23. — Paul 
 Warncfr.,  de  Gest.  Longob  ,  3,  8.) 
 
 CuM^,  I.  a  city  of  ^Eolis,  in  Asia  Minor.  .  {Vid. 
 Cyme.) — II.  A  city  of  Campania  in  Italy,  northwest 
 of  Neapolis.  It  was  placed  on  a  rocky  hill  washed  by 
 the  sea ;  and  the  same  name  is  still  attached  to  the 
 ruins  which  lie  scattered  around  its  base.  Whatever 
 doubt  may  have  been  thrown  on  the  pretensions  of 
 many  other  Italian  towns  to  a  Greek  origin,  those  of 
 Cumas  seem  to  stand  on  grounds  too  firm  and  indis- 
 putable to  be  called  in  question.  It  is  agreed  upon  by 
 all  ancient. writers  who  have  adverted  to  this  city,  that  it 
 was  founded  at  a  very  early  period  by  some  Greeks  of 
 Euboea,  under  the  conduct  of  Hippocles  of  Cumse  and 
 Megasthenes  of  Chalcis.  (Strabo,  243. — Thuci/d.,  6, 
 4. — Liv.,  8,  22.)  The  Latin  poets,  moreover,  with 
 Virgil  at  their  head,  all  distinguish  Cumaj  by  the  title 
 of  the  Euboic  city.  (jEn.,  6,  2.—0iml,  Met'.,  14,  154. 
 —Lucan,  5,  \Qb.— Martial,  9,  30.—Stalius,Sylv.,i, 
 3.)— The  period  at  which  Cuinae  was  founded  is  stated 
 in  the  chronology  of  Eusebius  to  have  been  about  1050 
 B.C.,  that  is,  a  few  years  before  the  great  migration 
 of  the  lonians  into  Asia  Minor.  (Compare  ScaJigcr, 
 ad  Euseb.,  Chron.,  and  Prideaux,  Not.  ad  Marm. 
 Oxon.,  p.  146.)  We  have  also  the  authority  of  Strabo 
 (/.  c.)  for  considering  it  as  the  most  ancient  oi  all  the 
 Grecian  colonies  in  both  Italy  and  Sicily.  The  colo- 
 nization of  Cumse  at  this  early  period  is  a  remarkable 
 event,  as  showing  the  progress  already  made  by  the 
 Greeks  in  the  art  of  navigation,  and  proving  also  that 
 they  were  then  well  acquainted  with  Italy.  (Compare 
 MMer,  Etruskcr,  vol.  1,  p.  167.)  Hence  Blum  is  of 
 opinion,  that  to  an  early  intercourse  between  Rome  and 
 Cum»,  by  means  of  commercial  operations,  is  to  be 
 ascribed  the  ^olic  character  wiiich  so  clearly  develops 
 itself  in  the  forms  of  the  most  ancient  Latin.  (Ein- 
 leitung  in  Roms  altc  Gcschichle,  p.  89.)  Strabo  also 
 informs  us,  that  from  its  eommencoment  the  state  of 
 the  colony  was  most  flourishing.  The  fertility  of  the 
 surrounding  country,  and  the  excellent  harbours  which 
 the  coast  afforded,  soon  rendered  it  one  of  the  most 
 powerful  cities  of  southern  Italy,  and  enabled  it  to  form 
 settlements  along  the  coast,  and  to  send  out  colonies 
 as  far  as  Sicily.  When  Campania  placed  itself  under 
 the  protection  of  Rome,  Cums  followed  the  example 
 of  that  province,  and  obtained  soon  afler  the  privileges 
 of  a  municipal  city.  (Liv.,  8,  14,  and  23,  31  )  In 
 the  second  Punic  war  it  was  attacked  by  Hannibal,  but, 
 by  the  exertions  of  Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus, 
 it  was  vigorously  and  successfully  defended.  (Liv., 
 23,  37.)  This  city  became  a  Roman  colony  in  the 
 reign  of  Augustus  but,  owing  to  the  superior  attractions 
 
CUR 
 
 CUR 
 
 Ot  Bais  and  Neapolis,  it  did  not  attain  to  any  degree 
 of  prosperity,  and  in  Juvenal's  time  it  appears  to  have 
 been  nearly  deserted.  {Sat.,  3,  1)  But  Cuma;  was, 
 perhaps,  still  more  indebted  for  its  celebrity  to  the 
 oracular  sibyl,  who,  from  the  earliest  ages,  was  sup- 
 posed to  have  made  her  abode  m  the  Cumaean  cave, 
 from  which  she  delivered  her  prophetic  lore.  Every 
 one  is  acquainted  with  the  splendid  fictions  of  Virgil 
 relative  to  this  sibyl,  but  it  is  not  so  generally  known 
 that  the  noble  fabric  of  the  poet  was  raised  on  a  real 
 foundation.  The  temple  of  Apollo,  or,  as  it  was  more 
 generally  called,  the  cavern  of  the  sibyl,  actually  ex- 
 isted ;  it  consisted  of  one  vast  chamber,  hewn  out  of 
 the  solid  rock  ;  but  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  in  a 
 siege  which  the  fortress  of  Cumae,  then  in  the  pos- 
 session of  the  Goths,  maintained  against  Narses  ;  that 
 general,  by  undermitiing  the  cavern,  caused  the  citadel 
 to  sink  into  the  hollow,  and  thus  involved  the  whole  in 
 one  common  ruin.  {Agalh.,  Husl.  Goth.,  1.)  There 
 is  also  a  description  of  this  cave  in  Justin  Martyr. 
 {0<'(it.  Paian. — Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  148, 
 seqq.) 
 
 CuNAXA,  a  place  in  Babylonia,  where  the  battle  was 
 fought  between  Cyrus  the  younger  and  his  brother 
 Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  and  in  which  the  former  lost  his 
 life.  Plutarch  {Vit.  Artax.,  c.  8)  says,  it  was  500 
 stadia  distant  from  Babylon.  D'Anville  places  it 
 within  the  limits  oi  Mesopotamia,  near  Is,  the  modern 
 Hit.  But  Mannert,  with  more  propriety,  assigns  it  to 
 Babylonia,  and  fixes  its  location  a  feyv  miles  south  of 
 the  entrance  of  the  wall  of  Media.  {Geogr.,  vol.  5, 
 pt.  2,  p.  331.) 
 
 CuNEUs,  I.  Ager,  a  region  in  the  southernmost  part 
 of  Lusitania,  between  the  river  Anas  and  the  Sacrum 
 Promontorium  and  Atlantic.  It  is  now  yl/^ar»e.  The 
 appellation  Cuneus  is  generally  thought  to  have  been 
 given  it  by  the  Romans  from  its  resemblance  to  "  a 
 wedge"  {cuneus) ;  Ukert,  however,  thinks  that  the 
 name  is  to  be  traced  to  the  Conii  {Koviot),  of  whom 
 Polybius  (10,  7)  speaks  as  dwelling  to  the  west  of  the 
 straits,  and  who  were  probably  inhabitants  of  the  south- 
 western part  of  Iberia.  Appian  {Rcb.  Hisp.,  c.  57) 
 calls  them  Cunei  (Konvt'ot),  and  makes  their  capital 
 to  have  been  Conistorgis.  It  is  very  probable  that  this 
 name,  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  sway,  reminding  that 
 people  of  their  own  term  cuneus,  gave  rise  to  the  idea 
 of  ascribing  a  wedgelike  form  to  the  country  in  the 
 southern  parts  of  Lusitania.  {Ukcrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  309.) — II.  or  CuNEUM  Promontorium,  a  promon- 
 tory of  the  Cuneus  Ager,  in  Lusitania,  to  the  west  of 
 the  mouth  of  the  Anas,  now  Cape  Santa  Maria.  It 
 is  the  southernmost  point  of  Portugal.  {Plin.,  4,  32.) 
 Co  Pino,  the  god  of  love.  {Vid.  Eros.) 
 Cures,  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  to  the  north  of  Ere- 
 tum,  celebrated  as  having  given  birth  to  Numa  Pom- 
 piiius.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  6,  811.)  Antiquaries  are  divi- 
 ded in  opinion  as  to  the  site  occupied  by  this  ancient 
 place.  Cluverius  fixed  it  at  Vescovo  dt  Sabini  {lial. 
 Ant.,  1,  675),  about  twenty-five  miles  from  Rome  ; 
 the  Abbe  Chaupy  at  Monte  Maggiore,  on  the  Via  Sa- 
 leria,  and  twenty  miles  from  that  city.  {Dec.  de  la 
 Maixon  d'Hor.,  vol.  3,  p.  576.)  The  opinion  of  Hol- 
 steniiis  ought,  however,  to  be  preferred  ;  he  places  it 
 at  Corcsr.,  a  little  town  on  a  river  of  the  same  name, 
 which  bears  an  evident  similarity  to  that  of  the  ancient 
 city,  and  where,  according  to  the  same  accurate  ob- 
 server, many  remains  were  still  visible  when  he  ex- 
 amined the  spot.     {Adnot.  ad  Steph.  Ryz.,  p.  106.— 
 
 Compare   D'Anville,  Geogr.  Anc.,  vol.  1,  p.    195. 
 
 Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  310.) 
 
 CuRETEs,  an  ancient  people,  who  would  seem  to 
 have  been  a  branch  o(  the  Leleges,  and  to  have  settled 
 at  an  early  period  in  the  island  of  Crete.  (Compare 
 Eiiseh.^  Chron.,  1,  p.  \'^.~Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  8,  p. 
 21.)  Being  piratical  in  their  habits,  we  find  them,. in  pro- 
 cess of  time,  occupying  many  of  the  islands  of  the  Archi- 
 
 pelago, and  establishing  themselves  also  along  the  coasts 
 of  Acarnania  and  ..-Etolia.      It  is  from  them  that  the  lat- 
 ter country  first  received  the  name  of  Curetis.     Strabo 
 (465)  derives  their  appellation  from  Kovpd,  tonsura, 
 from  the  circumstance  of  their  cutting  off  the  hair  in 
 front,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  takino  hold.     (Com- 
 pare remarks  under  the  article  Abantes.)     Others  de- 
 duce their  name  from  the  town  of  Curium  in  JElolia, 
 in  the  vicinity  of  Pleuron.     Hitter,  however,  finds  in 
 the  name  Curetes  the  key-word  of  his  system  {Kor), 
 which  traces  everything  to  an  early  worship  of  the  Sun 
 and  other  heavenly  bodies;  just  as  he  deduces  the 
 name  Crcta  from  Cor-cta.     {Vorha.lle,  p.  410.) — The 
 name  Curetes  is  also  applied,  in  a  religious  sense,  to 
 a  class  of  priests  in  the  island  of  Crete,  who  would 
 seem,  however,  to  be  identical  with  the  early  inhabi- 
 tants already  spoken  of.     To  them  was  confided  by 
 Rhea  the  care  of  Jupiter's  infancy,  and,  to  prevent  his 
 being  discovered  by  his  father  Saturn,  they  invented  a 
 species  of  Pyrrhic  dance,  and  drowned  the  cries  of  the 
 infant  deity  by  the  clashing  of  their  arms  and  cymbals. 
 Some  writers  among  the  ancients  pretended,  that  the 
 Dactyli  were  the  progenitors  of  the  Curetes,  and  that 
 Phrygia  had   been  the  cradle  of  their  race.     Others 
 maintained,  that  Minos  brought  them  with  him  into 
 Crete.     (Compare  Ephorus,  ap.  Died.  Sic,  5,  64.) 
 The  president  De  Brosses,  in  order   to  clear  up  this 
 obscure  point,  advances  the  opinion,  that  the  Curetes 
 were  the  ancient  priesthood  of  that  part  of  Europe 
 which  lies  in  the  vicinity  of  Asia,  and  resembled  ihe 
 Druids  among  the  Celts,  and  the  Salii  among  the  Sa- 
 bines, as  well  as  the  sorcerers  and  jugglers  of  Lapland, 
 Nigritia,  &c.     Hence  he  infers,  that  it  would  be  idle 
 to  seek  for  their  native  country,  since   we  find   this 
 class  of  priests  everywhere. existing  where  popular  be- 
 lief was  based  on  gross  superstition.     The  most  cele- 
 brated college  of  these  jugglers  would   be  in  Crete. 
 {Hist,  de  la  Rcpuhl.  Rom.  dc  Sallustc  retablie,  vol.  2, 
 p.  564,  in  notis.)     But,  whoever  they  may  have  been, 
 one  thing  is  certain,  that  the  Curetes  exerted  them- 
 selves successfully  to  civilize  the  rude  inhabitants  of 
 Crete.     (Compare  Servius,  ad  Virg.,  Mn.,  3,  131. — 
 "  Curetes  primi  cultores  Cretcc  esse  dicuntur.")     They 
 taught  them  to  keep  flocks  and  herds,  to  raise  bees,  to 
 work  metals.     They  made  them  acquainted  also  with 
 some  of  the  leading  ])rinciples  of  astronomy.     {Thcon., 
 ad  Arat.,  1,  35.)     To  the  Curetes,  too,  must  no  doubt 
 be  attributed  what  is  said  of  Melisseus,  the  first  king 
 of  Crete,  that  he  was  the  first  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods, 
 to  introduce  new  rites  and  sacred  processions  unknown 
 before  his  time  ;  and  that  his  daughter  Melissa  was  the 
 first  priestess  of  the  Mother  of  the  Gods.  {Laclant.,  div. 
 Inst.,  1,  22,  19.)     Melisseus,  whose  daughters  Amal- 
 thea  and  Melissa  nourished  the  infant  Jupiter  with  milk 
 and  honey,  was  of  necessity  contemporaneous  with  the 
 Curetes,  and  may  be  regarded  without  doubt  as  one 
 of  them.     In  a  word,  so  well  grounded  a  reputation 
 did  the  Curetes  leave  behind  them,  that,  in  process  of 
 time,  it  became  customary  in   Crete,  when  an  inhabi- 
 tant of  the  island  had  rendered  himself  conspicuous  by 
 talent  or  acquirements,  to  call  him,  as  is  proved  by 
 the  example  of  Epimenides,  a  new  Curete,  or  simply  a 
 Curete.      {PbU.,    Vit.   Solon,  84. — Diog.   Laert.,  1, 
 114.)      The    title  of  Tr/yevelc,   or  "children    of  the 
 Earth,"  also  given  to  the  Curetes  {Diod.  Sir.,  5,  65), 
 and  likewise  that  of  "  Companions  of  Rhea"  {Sirabo, 
 465),  suffice  to  prove  that  tlaey  worshipped  this  divin- 
 ity.    The   founders   of  Cnosus,    they  rai.sed  in  that 
 city   a    temple,    and    consecrated    a   grove,    unto   the 
 Mother  of  the  Gods.     {Diod.  Sic.,  5,  ed.—Si/ncell., 
 Chron  ,  p.  125.) — For  other  remarks  on  the  Curetes, 
 consult  Sainle-Croix,  Mysteres  du  Paganisme,  vol.  1, 
 p.  71,  seqq. 
 
 Curetis,  I.  a  name  given  to  Crete,  as  being  the 
 residence  of  the  Curetes.  (Ovid,  Met.,  8,  136.)— H 
 The  earlier  name  of  ^tolia.     {Vul.  Curetes.) 
 
 391 
 
CUR 
 
 CUR 
 
 Curia,  I.  a  subdivision  of  the  oarly  Roman  tribes, 
 each  tribe  containing  ten  curis.  This  arrangement 
 commenced,  as  is  said,  with  Romulus,  at  which  time 
 the  number  of  tribes  amounted  to  three,  so  that  the 
 curiae  at  their  very  outset  were  thirty.  This  number 
 of  curiae  always  remained  the  same,  whereas  that 
 of  the  tribes  was  increased  subsequently  to  thirty- 
 five.  Each  curia  anciently  had  a  chapel  or  temple 
 for  the  performance  of  sacred  rites.  He  who  presided 
 over  one  curia  was  called  Curio ;  he  who  presided 
 over  them  all,  Curio  Maximus. — II.  A  name  given  to 
 a  building  where  the  senate  assembled.  These  curiae 
 were  always  consecrated,  and,  being  thus  of  a  reli- 
 gious character, were  supposed  to  render  the  debates  of 
 the  senate  more  solemn  and  auspicious.  The  senate 
 appear  at  first  to  have  met  in  the  chapels  or  temples 
 of  the  curias,  and  afterward  to  have  had  buildings  spe- 
 cially erected  for  this  purpose.  Varro,  therefore,  dis- 
 tinguishes the  curias  into  two  kinds ;  the  one  where 
 the  priests  took  care  of  divine  matters,  and  the  other 
 where  the  senate  took  counsel  for  human  affairs. 
 {Varro,  L.  L  ,  4,  32. — Burgess,  Antiquities  of  Rome, 
 vol.  1,  p.  360.) 
 
 CuRiATii,  a  family  of  Alba.  The  three  Curiatii, 
 who  engaged  the  Horatii  and  lost  the  victory,  belonged 
 to  it.     (L/C  ,  1,  24.) 
 
 Curio,  I.  Caius,  was  prajtor  A  U.C.  632,  but  did 
 not  attain  to  the  consulship.  Cicero  speaks  with 
 praise  of  his  oratory,  an  opinion  founded,  not  on  per- 
 sonal knowledge,  but  on  the  speeches  he  had  left.  {Cw., 
 Brut.,  32.) — II.  C.  Scribonius,  was  consul  with  Cne- 
 us  Octavius,  A. U.C.  677.  On  returning  from  the 
 province  of  Macedonia,  he  triumphed  over  the  Darda- 
 ni,  as  proconsul,  A. U.C.  681.  (Sigon.,  Fast.  Cojis. 
 ad  Ann.  dcxxci. — Id.,  Comment,  in  Fast.,  p.  454, 
 cd^.  Oxon.)  Cicero  often  mentions  him,  and  in  his 
 Brutus  (c.  49)  enumerates  him  among  the  Roman 
 orators,  along  with  Cotta  and  others. — III.  C.  Scri- 
 bonius, son  of  the  preceding,  a  turbulent  and  unprin- 
 cipled man,  and  an  active  partisan  of  Julius  Caesar's. 
 Being  deeply  involved  in  debt  when  tribune  of  the 
 commons,  Csesar  gained  him  over  by  paying  for  him 
 what  he  owed  {Pluf.,  Vit.  Pomp.,  c.  58),  and  Curio 
 immediately  exerted  himself  wilh  great  vigour  in  his 
 behalf.  Caesar,  it  seems,  was  under  obligations  to  him 
 before  this,  since  Curio  is  said  to  have  saved  his  life 
 when  he  was  leaving  the  senate-house  after  the  debate 
 about  Catiline's  accomplices,  his  personal  safety  being 
 endangered  by  the  young  men  who  stood  in  arms 
 around  the  building.  {Plut.,  V'd.  C<zs.,  c.  8.)  Plu- 
 tarch ascribes  Antony's  early  initiation  into  licentious 
 habits  to  his  acquaintance  with  Curio.  {Vit.  Ant.,  c. 
 2. — Compare,  Cic,  Phil.,  2,  2.)  Cicero  speaks  very 
 favourably  of  his  natural  qualifications  as  an  orator, 
 but  denies  him  the  praise  of  application.  {Cic,  Brut., 
 81.)  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  Caesar, 
 after  having  possessed  himself  of  Rome,  sent  Curio  to 
 take  charge  of  Sicily.  The  latter  subsequently  crossed 
 over  from  this  island  into  Africa,  with  an  armed  force, 
 against  Juba  and  the  followers  of  Pompey,  but  was  de- 
 feated and  slain.     {Appiun,  Bell.  Civ.,  2,  41,  seqq.) 
 
 CuKiosoLiT.^,  a  people  of  Gaul,  forming  part  of  the 
 Armoric  states.  Their  territory  lay  to  the  northeast 
 of  the  Veneti,  and  answers  to  what  is  now  the  territory 
 of  St.  Malo,  between  Dmant  and  Lcimhalle,  in  the  de- 
 partment rfrs  Cotes-du-Nord.  {Lcmairc,  hid.  Gcogr., 
 ad  CcEs  ,  p.  244.) 
 
 Curium,  a  city  of  Cyprus,  on  the  southern  coast, 
 or  rather,  according  to  the  ancients,  at  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  western  shore,  at  a  small  distance  from 
 which,  to  the  southeast,  there  is  a  cape  which  bears 
 the  name  of  Curias.  Curium  is  said  to  have  been 
 founded  by  an  Argive  colony,  and  it  was  one  of  the 
 nine  royal  cities  of  Cyprus.  (Herod.,  5,  113. — Strah., 
 683.)  .The  site  seems  to  correspond  with  what  is  now 
 F-pisccpia,  implying  the  existence  of  a  bishop's  see,  a 
 392 
 
 circumstance  which  applies  to  Curium  in  the  middle 
 ages.  (HierocL,  p.  706.)  Ancient  writers  report, 
 that  the  hills  around  Curium  contained  lich  veins  oif 
 copper  ore.  {Thcophr.,  de  Vent. — Serv.,  ad  Vug., 
 /Eji.,  3,  111. —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  3,  p.  3*6.) 
 
 Curius  DENT.iTUs,  Manius,  a  Roman,  celebrated 
 for  his  warlike  achievements,  and  also  for  the  primitive 
 simplicity  of  his  manners.  In  his  first  consulship 
 (A. U.C.  463)  he  triumphed  twice,  once  over  the  Sain- 
 nites  and  then  over  the  Sabines,  and  in  this  same  year 
 also  he  obtained  an  ovation  for  his  successes  against 
 the  Lucanians.  {Aurel.  Vicl.,  c.  33. — Compare  the 
 remarks  of  Sigonius,  ad  Fast.  Cons.,  p.  142,  seqq., 
 ed.  Oxon.)  He  afterward  (A. U.C.  478),  in  his  third 
 consulship,  triumphed  over  Pyrrhus  and  the  Samnites. 
 (Sigon.,  p.  164.)  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the 
 Roman  people  first  saw  elephants  led  along  in  triumph 
 (Flor.,  1,  \8.  — Pliny,  8,  6. — Eulropms,  2,  14. — 
 Tzschucke,  ad  Eutrop.,  I.  c),  and  it  was  this  victory 
 that  drove  Pyrrhus  from  Italy.  The  simple  manners 
 of  this  distinguished  man  are  often  referred  to  by  the 
 Roman  writers.  When  the  ambassadors  of  the  Sam- 
 nites visited  his  cottage,  they  found  him,  according  to 
 one  account,  sitting  on  a  bench  by  the  fireside,  and 
 supping  out  of  a  wooden  bowl  (Val.  ilfox.,  4,  3,  5), 
 and,  according  to  another,  boiling  turnips  (iibovra  yoy- 
 yv'Aidac.—Plut.,  Vit.  Cat.  Maj.,  c.  2).  On  their  at- 
 tempting to  bribe  him  with  a  large  sum  of  gold,  he  at 
 once  rejected  their  ofi'er,  exclaiming,  that  a  man  who 
 could  be  content  to  live  as  they  saw  him  living,  had 
 no  need  whatever  of  gold  ;  and  that  he  thought  it  more 
 glorious  to  conquer  the  possessors  of  it  than  to  possess 
 it  himself. — His  scanty  farm  and  humble  cottage,  more- 
 over, were  in  full  accordance  with  the  idea  which  Cu- 
 rius had  formed  of  private  wealth  ;  for,  after  so  many 
 achievements  and  honours,  he  declared  that  citi^en  a 
 pernicious  one  who  did  not  find  seven  acres  (jugera) 
 sufficient  for  his  subsistence.  (Plin.,  18,  3. — Com- 
 pare Schott.,  ad  Aurtl.  Vict.,  c.  33.)  Seven  acres 
 was  the  number  fixed  by  law  on  the  expulsion  of  the 
 kings.  (Plin.,  I.  c.)— According  to  Pliny,  Dentatus 
 was  so  named  because  born  with  teeth  (cum  dcnlibiis. 
 —Plin.  7,  15). 
 
 CuRTius,  M.,  a  Koman  youth,  who  devoted  himself, 
 for  his  country,  to  the  gods  Manes,  B.C.  359.  Ac- 
 cording to  the  account  given  by  Livy  (7,  6),  the  ground 
 near  the  middle  of  the  Forum,  in  consequence,  as  the 
 historian  remarks,  either  of  an  earthquake  or  some  oth- 
 er violent  cause,  sank  down  to  an  immense  depth, 
 forming  a  vast  aperture  ;  nor  could  the  gulf  be  filled 
 up  by  all  the  earth  which  they  could  throw  into  it.  At 
 last  the  soothsayers  declared,  that,  if  they  wished  tho 
 Roman  commonwealth  to  be  everlasting,  they  must 
 devote  to  this  chasm  what  constituted  the  principle 
 strength  of  the  Roman  people.  Curtius,  on  hearing 
 the  answer,  demanded  of  his  countrymen  whetlier  they 
 possessed  anything  so  valuable  as  their  arms  and  cour- 
 age. They  yielded  a  silent  assent  to  the  question  put 
 them  by  the  heroic  youth  ;  whereupon,  having  arrayed 
 himself  in  full  armour  and  mounted  his  horse,  he 
 plunged  into  the  chasm,  and  the  people  threw  after 
 him  their  offerings,  and  quantities  of  the  fruits  of  the 
 earth.  Valerius  Maximus  (5,  6,  2)  states,  that  the 
 earth  closed  immediately  over  him.  Livy,  however, 
 speaks  of  a  lake  occupying  the  spot,  called  Lacus 
 Curtius.  In  another  part  of  his  history  (1.  13),  he 
 mentions  this  same  lake  as  existing  in  the  time  ol 
 Romulus,  and  as  having  derived  its  name  from  Meitus 
 Curtius,  a  Sabine  in  the  army  of  Titus  Tatius.  In  all 
 probability  it  was  of  volcanic  origin,  since  the  early  ac- 
 counts speak  of  its  great  depth,  and  was  not  productd 
 merely  by  the  inundations  of  the  Tiber,  as  Burgess 
 thinks.  '(A)itiqiiilirs  of  Rome,  vol.  2,  p.  219.)  'I'ar- 
 quinius  Priscus  is  said  to  have  filled  up  this  lake,  at 
 the  time  that  he  drained  the  whole  of  this  district  and 
 constructed    the  Cloaca  Maxima.     Possibly   he  ma* 
 
CUT 
 
 C  YA 
 
 have  been  aided  in  this  by  a  natural  tunnel  gradually 
 formed  through  the  basin  of  the  lake  itself  (Compare 
 Arnold's  History  of  Rome,  vol.  1,  p.  511.) — II.  Quin- 
 "tus  Kufus,  a  Latin  historian.     {Vid.  Quiiitus   I.) 
 
 CaKULis  Magistr.vtus,  the  name  given  to  a  class 
 of  magistracies  which  conferred  the  privilege  of  using 
 the  sella  ciirulis  or  chair  of  state.  This  was  anciently 
 made  of  ivory,  or,  at  least,  adorned  with  it.  The  ma- 
 gistrates who  enjoyed  this  privilege  were  the  dictator, 
 consuls,  praetor,  censors,  and  curule  adiles.  They 
 sat  on  this  chair  in  their  tribunals  on  all  solemn  occa- 
 sions. Those  commanders  who  triumphed  had  it  with 
 them  in  their  chariot.  Persons  whose  ancestors,  or 
 themselves,  had  borne  any  curule  office,  were  called 
 nobilcs,  and  had  the  jus  imaginum.  They  who  were 
 the  first  of  the  family  that  had  raised  themselves 
 lo  any  curule  office,  were  called  homines  novi,  new 
 men. — As  regards  the  origin  of  the  term  curulis, 
 Festus  deduces  it  from  currus,  "  a  chariot,"  and  says, 
 that  "  curule  magistrates"  were  so  called  because 
 they  were  accustomed  to  be  borne  along  in  chariots 
 {''quia  curru  vchcbantur").  Aulus  Gellius  (3,  18) 
 also  remarks,  quoting,  at  the  same  time,  Gabius  Bas- 
 sus,  that  those  senators  who  had  borne  any  curule  ma- 
 gistracy were  accustomed,  as  a  mark  of  honour,  to  be 
 conveyed  to  the  senate  in  chariots,  and  that  the  seat  in 
 the  chariot  {sella  in  curru)  was  hence  denominated 
 "  curule"  {sella  curulis).  He  may  be  correct  as  re- 
 gards the  mere  derivation  of  the  term,  but  he  is  cer- 
 tainly wrong  in  the  explanation  which  he  gives,  since 
 Pliny  expressly  states  (7,  43),  that  L.  Metcllus,  who 
 had  enjoyed  the  highest  honours  in  the  state,  having 
 become  deprived  of  sight,  had  the  privilege  allowed 
 him  of  being  conveyed  to  the  senate  in  a  chariot,  a 
 favour  granted  to  no  one  before  his  time. — The  com- 
 mon derivation  of  the  word  is  from  Cures,  a  town  of 
 the  Sabines,  whence  this  official  badge  is  said  by  some 
 to  have  been  borrowed.  Lipsius  favours  this  latter 
 etymology.     {De  Magislr.  Vet.  P.  R.,  c.  12.) 
 
 Cuss^i  or  Coss^i,  a  nation  occupying  the  southern 
 declivity  of  the  mountains  which  separated  Susiana 
 from  Media.  The  Eiymeei  possessed  the  northern  de- 
 clivities. The  Cussffii  or  Cossasi  were  a  brave  peo- 
 ple, and  the  kings  of  Persia  were  frequently  compelled 
 to  purchase  a  passage  over  these  mountains  from  them. 
 Alexander  effected  one  by  taking  them  by  surprise. 
 Antigonus  lost  a  large  portion  of  his  army  in  crossing 
 over.  According  to  Mannert,  this  people,  together 
 with  the  Carduchi  and  some  other  neighbouring  tribes, 
 were  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Curds.  {Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  5,  p.  493.) 
 
 Cusus,  a  river  of  Hungary,  falling  into  the  Danube; 
 now  the  Vag,  according  to  D'Anville.  Mannert,  how- 
 ever, makes  it  the  same  with  the  Granna  or  Gran. 
 {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  380,  in  nolis  ) 
 
 CuTiLi^,  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  east  of  Reate,  and 
 on  the  right  bank  of  the  Velinus,  famed  as  an  aborigi- 
 nal city  of  great  antiquity  {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  14  and  2, 
 49),  and  celebrated  for  its  lake,  now  Pozzo  Ratignano, 
 and  the  floating  island  on  its  surface.  {Senec,  Nat. 
 Qiuast.,  3,  25.— P/m.,  2,  95.)  This  lake  was  farther 
 distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  the  Umbilicus,  or 
 "Navel"  (i.  e.,  centre)  of  Italy.  {Varro,  ap.  Plin., 
 3,  12.)  This  statement  is  found  by  D'Anville  {Anal. 
 Gcogr.,  p.  165)  to  be  correct,  when  referred  to  the 
 breadth  of  Italy  ;  the  distance  from  Ostia  to  Cutilias, 
 the  ruins  of  which  are  to  be  seen  close  to  Paterno,  a 
 village  near  Cwila  Ducale,  being  seventy-six  miles, 
 and  the  same  from  thence  to  Castrum  Truentinum  on 
 the  .Adriatic.  If  Cluverius  is  right  in  reading  KotvItj 
 for  Kom'nti  in  Stephanusof  Byzantium,  who  quotes  the 
 name  from  the  Periegesis  of  Ctesias,  as  belonging  to  a 
 city  of  the  Umbri,  wc  may  adduce  the  authority  of  that 
 early  historian  in  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  this  town. 
 Cutiliae  is  also  noticed  by  Strabo  (228)  for  its  mineral 
 waters,  which  were  accounted  salutary  for  many  dis- 
 Ddd 
 
 orders  ;  they  failed,  however,  in  their  effect  upon  Ves 
 pasian,  who  is  stated  to  have  died  here.  {Suet.,  Vesp., 
 24:.— Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  317,  seqq.) 
 
 Cyane,  according  to  Ovid,  a  fountain-nymph  of 
 Sicily,  whose  stream  flowed  into  the  Anapus,  near  Syr- 
 acuse. She  attempted,  but  in  vain,  to  stop  the  car 
 of  Pluto,  when  that  god  was  carrying  off  Proserpina. 
 The  irritated  deity  made  a  passage  for  himself  to  the 
 lower  world  through  the  very  waters  of  the  fountain. 
 {Ovid,  Met.,  5,  409,  seqq.)— Chudian,  on  the  other 
 hand,  makes  Cyane  one  of  the  attendants  of  Proser- 
 pina, and  to  have  been  gathering  flowers  with  ber  at 
 the  time  she  was  carried  off.  According  to  this  poet, 
 she  pined  away,  and  dissolved  into  a  fountain  after  the 
 abduction  of  the  goddess.  {Claudian,  de  rapt.  Pro- 
 serp.,  2,  61.— Id.  ib.,  3,  246,  seqq.)  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus  gives  a  third  legend,  by  which  the  fountain  Cyane 
 is  made  to  have  come  forth  from  the  opening  through 
 which  Pluto  descended  with  Proserpina  to  the  shades. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  5,  4.) — The  modern  name  of  the  fountain 
 is  said  to  be  the  Pisma.  On  the  banks  of  this  stream 
 grows  the  papyrus,  which  is  thought  by  Hoare  to  have 
 been  brought  hither  from  Egypt  by  the  orders  of  Hiero. 
 {Hoare' s  Classical  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  163  ) 
 
 CyanejE,  two  small,  rugged  islands  at  the  en- 
 trance of  the  Euxine  Sea,  and  forty  stadia  from  the 
 mouth  of  the  Thracian  Bosporus.  {Arrian,  Peripl. 
 Mar.  Eiix.,  ad  fin.,  p.  137,  ed.  Blanc.)  According 
 to  Strabo,  one  was  near  the  European,  the  other  near 
 the  Asiatic  side,  and  the  space  between  them  was 
 about  twenty  stadia.  {Slrab.,  319.)  There  was  an 
 ancient  fable  relative  to  these  islands,  that  they  floated 
 about,  and  sometimes  united  to  crush  to  pieces  those 
 vessels  which  chanced  at  the  time  to  be  passing  through 
 the  straits.  {Pomp.  Mela,  2,  7.)  Pliny  gives  the 
 same  fable  (4,  13),  but  assigns,  at  the  same  time,  the 
 true  cause  of  the  legend.  It  arose  from  their  appear- 
 ing, like  all  other  objects,  lo  move  towards,  or  from 
 each  other,  when  seen  from  a  vessel  in  motion  itself. 
 The  Argo,  we  are  told  by  ApoUonius  Rhodius  (2,  601), 
 had  a  narrow  escape  in  passing  through,  and  lost  the 
 extremity  of  her  stern  {cKpXdaroio  uKpa  KopvfiSa). 
 Pindar  says,  that  they  were  alive,  and  moved  to  and 
 fro  more  swiftly  than  the  blasts,  until  the  expedition 
 of  the  Argonauts  brought  death  upon  them.  {Pyth., 
 4,  371,  seqq.)  On  which  passage  the  scholiast  re- 
 marks in  explanation,  that  it  was  decreed  by  the  fates 
 they  should  become  "  rooted  to  the  deep"  whenever 
 a  vessel  succeeded  in  passing  through  them  :  {WtfiapTO, 
 SianTievatlcTTjc  veug  pi^udijvai  tuc  Trirpag  raJ  TceXu-yEt). 
 The  prediction  was  accomplished  by  the  Argo.  Phin- 
 eus  {vul.  Argonautae)  had  directed  Jason  and  his  com- 
 panions to  let  fly  a  pigeon  when  they  were  near  these 
 islands,  telling  them  that,  if  the  bird  came  safely 
 through,  the  Argo  might  venture  to  follow  her.  They 
 obeyed  the  directions  of  the  prophet-prince;  the  pi- 
 geon passed  through  safely  with  the  loss  of  its  tail ; 
 and  then  the  Argonauts,  watching  the  recession  of  the 
 rocks,  and  aided  by  Juno  and  Minerva,  rowed  vigor- 
 ously on,  and  passed  through  with  the  loss  of  a  part  of 
 the  stern-works  of  their  vessel. — The  term  "  Cyanese" 
 {Kvdveai),  i.  e,  "dark  blue"  or  "azure,"  is  referred 
 by  the  scholiasts  on  Euripides  {Med.,  2)  and  ApoUo- 
 nius Rhodius  (2,  317),  to  the  colour  of  these  rocks. 
 In  the  description  of  Homer,  however,  as  will  be  seen 
 presently,  a  more  poetic  turn  is  given  to  the  appella- 
 tion. To  the  name  Cyaneae  is  frequently  joined  that 
 of  "  Symplegades"  {liVfx.irXrjyuSEi;),  i.  e  ,  "  the  Dash- 
 ers," in  allusion  to  their  supposed  collision  when  ves- 
 sels attempted  to  pass  through.  (Compare  Eurip., 
 Med.,  2.  —  Kvaveaf^  'LvinrlrjyuSag)  Juvenal  calls 
 them  "■  concurrentia  saxa,  Cyancas''''  (15,  19),  and 
 Ovid  {Met.,  7,  62)  has,  "  Qui  mediis  concurrere  in 
 undis  dicuntur  monies.''''  Homer  {Od.,  12,  61)  calls 
 them  ll'XayKTai,  "  The  Wanderers,"  and  gives  the 
 following  description  of  them :  "  There  there  are  lofty 
 
 393 
 
CYANEiE. 
 
 CYANEiE. 
 
 rocks  ;  and  near  them  the  vast  wave  of  ihe  dark  Am- 
 philrite  resounds  :  the  blessed  gods  call  them  the 
 Wanderers.  Here  neither  birds  pass  by,  nor  do  fear- 
 ful doves  v.'hich  carry  ambrosia  to  father  Jove  ;  but 
 the  smooth  rock  always  takes  away  some  one  of 
 them,  while  the  father  supplies  another  to  make  up 
 their  number.  From  this  not  yet  has  any  ship  of  men 
 escaped,  whichever  has  come  to  it,  but  the  waves  of 
 the  sea,  and  the  storms  of  pernicious  tire  take  away 
 planks  of  ships  and  bodies  of  men  together.  That  ship, 
 indeed,  only,  which  passes  over  the  sea,  has  sailed  be- 
 yond, the  Argo,  a  care  to  all,  which  sailed  from  ^ta  .  .  . 
 But  as  to  the  two  rocks,  the  one  reaches  the  wide 
 heaven  with  its  sharp  top,  and  a  dark  cloud  surrounds 
 it  :  this,  indeed,  never  goes  away,  nor  does  clearness 
 ever  hold  possession  of  its  top,  either  in  summer  or  in 
 autumn  ;  nor  could  a  mortal  man  ascend  it,  or  de- 
 scend, not  if  he  had  twenty  hands  and  feet  ;  for  the 
 rock  is  smooth  like  one  polished  around." — It  is  not 
 difficult,  from  the  accounts  here  given,  adorned  though 
 they  he  with  the  garb  of  poetry,  to  deduce  the  inference 
 that  the  Cyanean  isles  were  originally  volcanic.  The 
 "  storms  of  pernicious  fire"  {irvpoc  o'Aooio  ■dveXkai) 
 and  the  dark  cloud  {Kvavirj  ve<^e'Aj])  point  at  once  to 
 this.  Hence,  in  the  discussions  which  have  arisen 
 relative  to  the  formation  of  the  Thracian  Bosporus, 
 and  the  enlargement  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  {vid. 
 Mediterraneum  Mare),  the  agency  of  volcanoes  is  gen- 
 erally asserted  by  the  one  party.  (Compare  Olivier, 
 Voyage,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p.  62. — Geographie  Physique  de 
 la  Mere  Noire,  par  Bureau  dc  la  Malic,  p.  255,  seqq.) 
 Their  opponents,  on  the  other  hand,  maintain,  that  the 
 only  probable  change  in  the  region  of  the  Bosporus 
 must  have  been  produced  by  a  gradual  sinking  of  a 
 barrier  of  rocks,  and  that  even  this  must  have  occurred 
 at  a  period  antecedent  to  all  historical  and  geographi- 
 cal records.  They  add,  that  the  pretended  volcanic 
 substances  brought  from  the  Bosporus  have  been 
 proved  to  be  merely  fragments  of  ordinary  rocks. 
 {Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  397,  Brussels  ed.)  It 
 is  difficult,  however,  to  reconcile  this  assertion  with 
 the  strong  and  decided  language  of  Dr.  Clarke,  rela- 
 tive to  the  structure  of  the  rock  of  which  the  Cyanean 
 isles  consist,  as  well  as  to  the  general  appearance  of 
 the  shore  along  the  line  of  the  Bosporus.  "  The  Cy- 
 aneffi,"  he  remarks,  "  are  each  joined  to  the  main  land 
 by  a  kind  of  isthmus,  and  appear  as  islands  when  this 
 is  inundated  ;  which  always  happens  in  stormy 
 weather.  But  it  is  not  certain  that  the  isthmus,  con- 
 necting either  of  them  with  the  continent,  was  for- 
 merly visible.  The  disclosure  has  been  probably 
 owing  to  that  gradual  sinking  of  the  level  of  the  Black 
 Sea  before  noticed.  The  same  cause  continuing  to 
 operate,  may  hereafter  lead  posterity  to  marvel  what 
 is  become  of  the  Cyanes  ;  and  this  may  also  account 
 for  their  multiplied  appearance  in  ages  anterior  to  the 
 time  of  Strabo.  For  some  time  before  we  reached 
 the  entrance  to  the  Canal,  steering  close  along  its  Eu- 
 ropean side,  we  observed  in  the  cliff's  and  hills,  even 
 to  their  summits,  a  remarkable  aggregate  of  hetero- 
 geneous stony  substances,  rounded  by  attrition  in  wa- 
 ter, imbedded  in  a  hard  natural  cement,  yet  differing 
 from  the  usual  appearance  of  breccia  rocks  ;  for,  upon 
 a  nearer  examination,  the  whole  mass  appears  to  have 
 undergone,  first,  a  violent  action  of  fire  ;  and,  secondly, 
 that  degree  of  friction  in  water  to  which  their  forms 
 must  be  ascribed.  Breccia  rocks  do  not  commonly 
 consist  of  substances  so  modified.  The  stratum  form- 
 ed by  this  singular  aggregate,  and  the  parts  composing 
 it,  exhibited,  by  the  circumstances  of  their  position,  a 
 striking  proof  of  the  power  of  an  iimndation  ;  having 
 dragged  along  with  it  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
 mixture,  over  all  the  heights  above  the  present  level 
 of  the  Black  Sea,  and  deposited  them  in  such  a  man- 
 ner as  to  leave  no  doubt  but  that  a  torrent  had  there 
 passed  towards  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  All  the  strata 
 394 
 
 of  the  mountains,  and  each  individual  mass  composing 
 them,  lean  from  the  north  to  the  south.  At  the  point 
 of  the  European  lighthouse,  we  found  the  sea  tem- 
 pestuous, beating  against  immense  rocks  of  a  hard  and' 
 compact  lava  :  these  rocks  have  separated  prismati- 
 cally,  and  they  exhibit  surfaces  tinged  by  the  oxide  of 
 iron.  From  this  point  we  passed  to  the  Cyanean  isle, 
 upon  the  European  side  of  the  strait,  and  there  landed. 
 The  structure  of  the  rock,  whereof  the  island  consists, 
 corresponds  with  the  nature  of  the  strata  already  de- 
 scribed :  but  the  substances  composing  it  were  per- 
 haps never  before  associated  in  any  mineral  aggregate. 
 They  all  appear  to  have  been  more  or  less  modified  by 
 fire,  and  to  have  been  cemented  during  the  boiling  of 
 a  volcano.  In  the  same  mass  may  be  observed  frag- 
 ments of  various-coloured  lava,  of  trap,  of  basalt,  and 
 of  marble.  In  the  fissures  appear  agate,  chalcedony, 
 and  quartz  ;  but  in  friable  and  thm  veins,  not  half  an 
 inch  in  thickness,  deposited  posterior  to  the  settling  of 
 the  stratum.  The  agate  appeared  in  a  vein  of  con- 
 siderable extent,  occupying  a  deep  fissure  not  more 
 than  an  inch  wide,  and  coated  by  a  green  earth,  re- 
 sembling some  of  the  lavas  of  JEtna,  which  have  been 
 decomposed  by  acidiferous  vapours.  The  summit  of 
 this  insular  rock  is  the  most  favourable  situation  for 
 surveying  the  mouth  of  the  canal  ;  thus  viewed,  it  has 
 the  appearance  of  a  crater,  whose  broken  sides  were 
 opened  towards  the  Black  Sea,  and,  by  a  smaller  ap- 
 erture, towards  the  Bosporus.  The  Asiatic  side  of 
 the  strait  is  distinguished  by  appearances  similar  to 
 those  already  described ;  with  this  difference,  that, 
 opposite  to  the  island,  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  Ana- 
 tolian lighthouse,  a  range  of  basaltic  pillars  may  be 
 discerned,  standing  upon  a  base  inclined  towards  the 
 sea  ;  and,  when  examined  with  a  telescope,  exhibiting 
 very  regular  prismatic  forms.  From  all  the  preceding 
 observations,  and  after  due  consideration  of  events  re- 
 corded in  history,  as  compared  with  the  pheenomena 
 of  nature,  it  is,  perhaps,  more  than  probable,  that  the 
 bursting  of  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  the  deluge  men- 
 tioned by  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  the  draining  of  the 
 waters  once  uniting  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian, 
 were  all  the  consequence  of  an  earthquake  caused  by 
 subterranean  fires,  which  were  not  extinct  at  the  time 
 of  the  passage  of  the  Argonauts,  and  the  effects  of 
 which  are  still  visible."  {Clarke's  Travels — Russia, 
 Tartary,  and  Turkey — vol.  2,  p.  430,  seqq.) 
 
 Cyaxares,  I.  a  king  of  the  Medes,  grandson  of 
 Dejoces,  son  of  Phraortes,  and  father  of  Astyages.  He 
 was  a  prince  of  violent  character  {Hcrodot.,  1,  73. — 
 Compare  Larcher,  ad  loc  ),  and  this  trait  displayed  it- 
 self in  his  treatment  of  the  Scythians,  a  body  of  whom 
 had  taken  refuge  in  his  territories  in  consequence  of  a 
 sedition.  He  received  them  kindly,  allowed  them  set- 
 tlements, and  even  went  so  far  as  to  intrust  some 
 children  to  their  care,  in  order  to  have  them  taught 
 the  Scythian  language  and  the  art  of  bending  the  bow. 
 After  some  lime  had  elapsed,  the  Scythians,  accus- 
 tomed to  go  forth  to  the  chase,  and  to  bring  back  to 
 the  king  some  of  the  game  obtained  by  the  hunt,  re- 
 turned one  day  with  empty  hands.  Cyaxares  gave 
 vent  to  his  temper  by  punishing  them  severely.  The 
 Scythians,  indignant  at  this  treatment,  which  they 
 knew  to  be  unmerited,  resolved  to  slay  one  of  the  chil- 
 dren confided  to  their  care,  and,  after  preparing  the  flesh 
 like  the  game  they  had  been  accustomed  to  bring,  to 
 serve  it  up  before  Astyages,  and  betake  themselves  im- 
 mediately unto  Alyattes  at  Sardis.  The  horrid  plan 
 succeeded  but  too  well.  Cyaxares  demanded  the  fu- 
 gitives from  the  Lydian  monarch,  and  on  his  refusal  a 
 war  ensued.  This  war  lasted  for  five  years  :  in  the 
 sixth,  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  had  been  predicted 
 by  Thales,  separated  the  contending  armies.  Peace 
 was  soon  restored  through  the  mediation  of  Labyne- 
 tus,  king  of  Babylon,  and  Syennesis,  king  of  Cilicia. 
 {Hcrodot.,  1,  73,  seqq.)     Herodotus  also  informs  us 
 
CYB 
 
 cy  B 
 
 (1,  103),  that  Cyaxares  was  superior  in  valour  to  his 
 ancestors  ;  tliat  he  was  the  first  who  regularly  trained 
 the  Asiatics  to  military  service  ;  dividing  the  troops, 
 which  had   been    imbodied  promiscuously  before   his 
 time,  into  distinct  companies  of  lancers,  archers,  and 
 cavalry.     The    historian    then    adds    parenthetically, 
 ("  this   was  he   who   waged  war  with    the   Lydians  ; 
 when,  during  a  battle,  the  day  became  night").     This 
 parenthetical  remark  evidently  refers  to  the  foregoing 
 account  of  the  eclipse.     We  are  next  informed,  that, 
 having   subdued  all  Asia  above   the   river  Halys,  he 
 marched  with  all  that  were  under  his  command  against 
 Nineveh,  resolving  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  lather 
 by  the  destruction  of  that  city.     After  he  had  defeat- 
 ed the  Assyrians,  he  laid  siege  to  the  city  ;   but  was 
 forced  to  raise  it  by  a  sudden  invasion  of  his  territories. 
 For  a  numerous  army  of  Scythians,  headed  by  Ma- 
 dyas,  made  an  irruption  into  .Media,  defeated  him  in  a 
 pitched  battle,  and  reduced  hiin  and  all  Upper  Asia, 
 under  subjection  to  them,  for  eighl-and-twenty  years. 
 {Herodol.,  1,  \Q^,  seqq.)     Then,  in  revenge  for  their 
 galling  impositions  and  exactions,  he  slew  their  chief- 
 tains, when  intoxicated,  at  a  banquet  to  which  he  had 
 invited  them,  and,  expelling  the  rest,  recovered  his  for- 
 mer power  and  possessions,    (i/erot/oi.,  1,  196  )    After 
 this,  the  Medes  took  Nineveh  and  subdued  the  Assy- 
 rian provinces,  all  except  the  Babylonians,  their  con- 
 federates   in    the  war.     Cyaxares    died    after  having 
 reigned  forty  years,  including  twenty-eight  years  of 
 the  Scythian  dominion. — Hale  fixes  the  time  of  the 
 eclipse  that  was  predicted  by  Thales,  as  above  stated, 
 on- the  18th  of  May,  B.C.  603,  at  9  hours  and  30  min- 
 utes in  the  morning.     He  makes  this  eclipse  to  have 
 been  a  total  one,  and  the  moon's  shadow  to  have  trav- 
 ersed the  earth's  disk,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Ha- 
 lys, the  boundary  of  the  two  contending  kingdoms  at 
 a  later  day.     {Hale's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  4, 
 p.  84,  2(i  ed.)     The  same  learned  writer  makes  Cyax- 
 ares I.  to  have  been  the  same  with  Kai  Kobad,  whom 
 Mirkhond.  and  other  Persian  historians  give  as   the 
 founder  of  the  second  or  Kaianian  dynasty.      He  iden- 
 tifies   him    also   with    the    Ahasuerus    of    Scripture. 
 {Hale's  Analysis,  \'o\.  4,  p.  76,81.)     According,  how- 
 ever, to  another  modern  writer,  Cyaxares  is  the  same 
 with  the  monarch  styled  Gustasp.     {Holty,  Djcmschid, 
 Feridun,  &c.,  p.   53,  scqq.,  Hanov.,  1829.) — H.  Son 
 of  Astyages,  succeeded   his   father   at   the  age  of  49 
 years.     Being  naturally  of  an  easy,  indolent  disposi- 
 tion, and  fond  of  his  amusements,  he  left  the  burden 
 of  military  affairs  and  the  care  of  the  government  to  Cy- 
 rus, his  nephew  and  son-in-law,  who  married  his  only 
 daughter,  and  was,  therefore,  doubly  entitled  to  suc- 
 ceed him.     Xenophon  notices  this  marriage  as  taking 
 place  after  the  conquest  of  Babylon.     {Cyrop.,  8,  28.) 
 But  to  this  Sir  Isaac  Newton  justly  objects  :  "This 
 daughter,  saith  Xenophon,  was  reported   to  be  very 
 handsome,  and  used    to  play  with   Cyrus  when  they 
 were  both  children,  and  to  say  that  she  would  marry 
 mm  ;  and,  therefore,  they  were  much  of  the  same  age. 
 Xenophon  saith,  that  Cyrus  married  her  after  the  ta- 
 king of  Babylon  ;  but  she  was  then  an  old  woman.    It  is 
 more  probable  that  he  married  her  while  she  was  young 
 and  handsome,  and  he  a  youiij  man."     {Chron.,  p. 
 310.)     Newton  supposes  that  Darius  the  Mede  was 
 the  son  of  Cya.Kares,  and  cousin   of  Cyrus  ;   and  that 
 Cyrus  rebelled  against,  and  dethroned  him  two  years 
 after  the  capture  of  Babylon.     But  this  is  unfounded  : 
 for  Darius  the  Mede  was  sixteen  years  older  than  Cy- 
 rus.     We  may  therefore  rest  assured  that  he  was  Cy- 
 axares himself,  and  none  else.     {Hale's  Analysis  of 
 Chronology,  vol.  4,  p.  88,  id  ed.) 
 
 CvBEBK,  a  name  of  Cybele,  used  by  the  poets  when 
 a  long  penult,  is  required.  The  form  Cybelle  is  some- 
 times, though  with  less  propriety,  employed  for  a  sim- 
 ilar purpose.  (Compare  the  Greek  forms  Kv6elri  and 
 Kv6rj6ri,  and  consult  Drakenborch,  ad  Stl.  llal^  17, 
 
 8. — Heync,  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  111. — Dbring,  ad  Ca- 
 tull.,  63,  9. — Hcinsius,  ad  Prudent,  -rrepl  aTe(p.  10, 
 196. — Brouckhus.,  ad  Propcrt.,  3,  15,  35. — Forcelli- 
 ni,  Lex.  Tot.  Lat.,  s.  ii.  Cybebe.) 
 
 C  VBELE  (for  the  quantity  of  the  penult,  vid.  Cybebe), 
 a  goddess,  daughter  of  Coelus  and  Terra,  and  distin- 
 guished by  the  appellation  of  "Mother  of  the  Gods," 
 or  "  Great  Mother."  The  Phrygians  and  Lydians  re- 
 garded her  as  the  goddess  of  nature  or  of  the  earth. 
 Her  temples  stood  on  the  summits  of  hills  or  mount- 
 ains, such  as  Dindymus,  Berecyntus,  Sipylus,  and 
 others.  She  was  particularly  worshipped  at  Pessinus, 
 in  Galatia,  above  which  place  rose  Mount  Dindymus, 
 whence  her  surname  of  Dindymene.  Her  statue  in 
 this  city  was  nothing  more  than  a  large  aerolite,  which 
 was  held  to  be  her  heaven-sent  image,  and  which  was 
 removed  to  Rome  near  the  close  of  the  second  Punic 
 war.  The  legend  of  Cybele  and  Atys  has  already 
 been  alluded  to,  in  its  various  forms  {vid.  Atys),  and 
 the  explanation  given  on  that  occasion  may  here  be  re- 
 peated, that  Atys  was,  in  fact,  an  incarnation  of  the 
 sun.  The  account  of  Diodorus,  as  usual,  is  based  upon 
 the  system  of  Euhemerns,  by  which  a  mortal  origin  was 
 sought  to  be  established  for  all  the  heathen  divinities. 
 According  to  this  writer,  Cybele  was  daughter  to  King 
 Maeon  and  his  queen  Dindyme.  She  was  exposed  by 
 her  father  on  Mount  Cybelus,  where  she  was  suckled 
 by  panthers  and  lionesses,  and  was  afterward  reared 
 by  shepherdesses,  who  named  her  Cybele.  When 
 she  grew  up,  she  displayed  great  skill  in  the  healing 
 art,  and  cured  all  the  diseases  of  the  children  and  cat- 
 tle. They  thence  called  her  the  mountain-mother. 
 While  dwelling  in  the  woods  she  formed  a  strict  friend- 
 ship with  Marsyas,  and  had  a  love-affair  with  a  youth 
 named  Atys  or  Attis.  She  was  afterward  acknowl- 
 edged by  her  parents  ;  but  her  father,  on  discovering 
 her  intimacy  with  Atys,  seized  that  unhappy  youth  and 
 put  him  to  death.  Grief  deprived  Cybele  of  her  rea- 
 son :  with  dishevelled  locks  she  roamed  to  the  sound 
 of  the  drums  and  pipes  which  she  had  invented,  over 
 various  regions  of  the  earth,  even  as  far  as  the  coun- 
 try of  the  Hyperboreans,  teaching  mankind  agriculture : 
 her  compani(;yi  was  still  the  faithful  Marsyas.  Mean- 
 time a  dreadful  famine  ravaged  Phrygia ;  the  oracle, 
 being  consulted,  directed  that  the  body  of  Atys  should 
 be  buried,  and  divine  honours  be  paid  to  Cybele.  A 
 stately  temple  was  accordingly  erected  to  her  at  Pes- 
 sinus by  King  Midas.  {Diod.  Sic.,  3,  58,  seq.')  It 
 is  apparent  from  this  account,  pragmatizcd  as  it  is, 
 that  Cybele,  Marsyas,  and  Atys  were  all  ancient  Phry- 
 gian deities. — Like  Asiatic  worship  in  general,  that  of 
 Cybele  was  enthusiastic.  Her  priests,  named  Galli 
 and  Corybantes,  ran  about  with  dreadful  cries  and 
 bowlings,  beating  on  timbrels,  clashing  cymbals,  sound- 
 ing pipes,  and  cutting  their  flesh  with  knives.  The 
 box-tree  and  cypress  were  considered  as  sacred  to  her  ; 
 as  from  the  former  she  made  the  pipes,  and  Atys  was 
 said  to  have  been  changed  into  the  latter.  We  find  from 
 Pindar  and  the  dramatists,  that  the  worship  and  the 
 mysteries  of  the  Great  Mother  were  common  in  Greece, 
 particularly  at  Athens,  in  their  lime.  {Pind.,  Pyth., 
 3,  137.— SchoL,  ad  loc.—Eurip.,  Hippol,  143.— /(?., 
 Bacch.,  78.— Id.,  Hel.,  1321.)  The  worship  of  Cyb- 
 ele, as  has  already  been  remarked,  was  introduced  into 
 Rome  near  the  close  of  the  second  Punic  war,  A.U.C. 
 547,  when  a  solemn  embassy  was  sent  to  Attalus, 
 king  of  Pergamus,  to  request  the  image  at  Pessinus, 
 which  had  fallen  from  heaven.  The  monarch  readily 
 yielded  compliance,  and  the  goddess  was  conveyed  to 
 the  Italian  capital,  where  a  stately  temple  was  built  to 
 receive  her,  and  a  solemn  festival,  named  the  Megale- 
 sia,  was  celebrated  everv  year  in  her  honour.  (Liv., 
 29,  U.—Orid,  Fast.,  4'  179,  segq.)  As  the  Greeks 
 had  confounded  her  with  Rhea,  so  the  Latins  made  her 
 one  with  their  Ops,  the  goddess  of  the  earth.  {Lu- 
 cret.,  2,  598,  seqq.-Virg.,  Mn.,  3,  104  ;  6,  785,  &c.) 
 
CY  0 
 
 CYC 
 
 — In  works  of  art  Cybcle  exhibits  the  matronly  air  and 
 composed  dignity,  which  distinguish  Juno  and  Ceres. 
 Someliiiies  she  is  veiled,  and  seated  on  a  throne  with 
 lions  at  her  side  ;  at  other  times  riding  in  a  chariot 
 drawn  by  hens.  Her  head  is  always  crowned  with 
 towers.  Slie  frequently  beats  on  a  drum,  and  bears  a 
 sceptre  in  her  hand.  (Keiglula/s  Mythology,  p.  223, 
 scqq.) — The  name  Cybele  is  derived,  by  some,  from 
 the  cymlmls  {Kvp.Boq,  Kviifjaka)  used  in  the  worship  of 
 the  goddess.  It  is  better,  however,  to  suppose  her  so 
 called,  because  represented  usually  in  her  more  mys- 
 terious character,  under  a  globular  or  else  square  form : 
 (Aeyerai  6h  koI  KvCfkrj  unb  tov  kvOikov  gx^IJ-o-to^, 
 Kara  yEOfitTpiav,  rj  yfj. — hex.  A?itiq.,  Frag,  in  Hcrm. 
 Gramm. — Knight's  Inquiry,  ^  42,  Class.  Joiirn.,  vol. 
 23,  p.  233. — For  an  explanation  of  the  myth  of  Cybele, 
 which  cannot,  of  course,  be  given  here,  consult  Guig- 
 niaut,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  67,  seqq  ) 
 
 CvBiSTRA,  a  town  of  Cappadocia,  in  the  district  of 
 Cataonia,  and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus.  {Cic, 
 Ep.  ad  Fam.,  15,  2  et  4  — i,>.  ad.  Alt.,  5,  20.)  Ci- 
 cero made  it  his  headquarters  during  his  command  in 
 Cilicia.  Leake  is  inclined  to  place  Cybistra  at  Kara- 
 hissar,  near  Mazaca,  but  this  position  does  not  agree 
 with  Strabo's  account.  D'Aiiville  had  imagined,  from 
 a  similarity  of  name,  that  Cybistra  might  be  represented 
 by  Bustereh,  a  small  place  near  the  source  of  one  of 
 the  branches  of  the  Halys  ;  but  it  is  not  said  whether 
 there  are  any  remains  of  antiquity  at  Bustereh,  and, 
 besides,  Leake  affirms,  that,  according  to  the  Arabian 
 geographer  Hadji  Khalfa,  the  true  name  of  the  place 
 is  Kostere.  {Asia  Minor,  p.  63.)  Cybistra  is  men- 
 tioned by  Hierocles  among  the  Episcopal  cities  of 
 Cappadocia.  {Hicrocl.,  p.  700. — Mannerl,  Geogr., 
 vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  236,  262.) 
 
 Cyclades,  a  name  applied  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
 to  that  cluster  (/cv/c/lof)  of  islands  which  encircled 
 Delos.  Strabo  (485)  says,  that  the  Cyclades  were 
 at  first  only  twelve  in  number,  but  were  afterward  in- 
 creased to  fifteen.  These,  as  we  learn  from  Artemi- 
 dorus,  were  Ceos,  Cythnos,  Seriphos,  Melos,  Siphnos, 
 Cimolos,  Prepesinthos,  Olearos,  Paros,  Naxos,  Syros, 
 Myconos,  Tenos,  Andros,  and  Gyaros,  which  last,  how- 
 ever, Strabo  himself  was  desirous  of  excluding,  from 
 its  being  a  mere  rock,  as  also  Prepesinthos  and  Olea- 
 ros.— It  appears  from  the  Greek  historians,  that  the 
 Cyclades  were  first  inhabited  by  the  Phoenicians,  Cari- 
 ans,  and  Leieges,  whose  piratical  habits  rendered  them 
 formidable  to  the  cities  on  the  continent,  till  they  were 
 conquered  and  finally  extirpated  by  Minos.  (Tkucyd., 
 I,  4. — Herodot.,  1,  171.)  These  islands  were  subse- 
 quently occupied  for  a  short  time  by  Polycrales,  ty- 
 rant of  Samos,  and  the  Persians.  {Herodot.,  5,  28.) 
 But,  after  the  battle  of  Mycale,  they  became  dependant 
 on  the  Athenians.     {Thucyd.,  1,  94.) 
 
 CvcLici  poetiB,  a  name  given  by  the  ancient  gram- 
 marians to  a  class  of  minor  bards,  who  selected,  for  the 
 subjects  of  their  productions,  things  transacted  as  well 
 during  the  Trojan  war,  as  before  and  after  ;  and  who, 
 in  treating  of  these  subjects,  confined  themselves  with- 
 in a  certain  round  or  cycle  of  fable  {kvkXo^,  circulus). 
 In  order  to  understand  the  subject  more  fully,  we  must 
 observe,  that  there  was  both  a  Mythic  and  a  Trojan 
 cycle.  The  former  of  these  embr  ced  the  whole  se- 
 ries of  fable,  from  the  genealogies  of  the  gods  down  to 
 the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  The  latter  comprised  the 
 fables  that  had  reference  to,  or  were  in  any  way  con- 
 nected with,  the  Trojan  war.  Of  the  first  class  were 
 Theogonies,  Cosmogonies,  Titanomachies,  and  the 
 like ;  of  the  second,  the  poems  of  Arctinus,  Lesches, 
 Stasinus,  and  others.  At  a  later  period,  the  term  cyclic 
 /as  applied,  as  a  mark  of  contempt,  to  two  species  of 
 poems  ;  one,  where  the  poet  confined  himself  to  a  trite 
 and  hackneyed  round  (/ct'/c/lof)  of  particulars  (compare 
 Horal.,  Ep.  ad  Pis.,  132)  ;  the  other,  where,  from  an 
 ignorance  of  the  true  nature  of  epic  poetry  and  of  the 
 396 
 
 art  itself,  the  author,  with  tedious  minutenesss,  re«' 
 counted  all  the  attendant  circumstances  of  an  event, 
 from  the  earliest  beginnings  of  the  same  ;  as,  for  ex- 
 ample, the  history  of  the  Trojan  war,  from  the  story  ol 
 Leda  and  the  eggs.  (Compare  Heyne,  Excurs.  1,  ad 
 Jin.,  2,  vol.  2,  p.  268,  cd.  Lips.) 
 
 CvcLOHES,  a  fabled  race,  of  gigantic  size,  having 
 but  one  eye,  large  and  round,  placed  in  the  centre  of 
 their  forehead,  whence,  according  to  the  co.mmon  ac- 
 count, their  name  was  derived,  from  kvkIoc,  "«  circu- 
 lar opening,''^  and  oii/i,  "an  eye."  Homer  makes 
 Ulysses,  after  having  left  the  country  of  the  Lotus- 
 eaters  (Lotophagi),  to  have  sailed  on  westward,  and  to 
 have  come  to  that  of  the  Cyclopes,  which  could  not  have 
 been  very  far  distant,  or  the  poet  would  in  that  case, 
 as  he  always  does,  have  specified  the  number  of  days 
 occupied  in  the  voyage.  The  Cyclopes  are  described 
 by.  him  as  a  rude  and  lawless  race,  who  neither  planted 
 nor  sowed,  but  whose  land  was  so  fertile  as  to  pro- 
 duce for  them,  of  itself,  wheat,  barley,  and  vines. 
 They  had  no  social  institutions,  neither  assemblies  nor 
 laws,  but  dwelt  separately,  each  in  his  cave,  on  the 
 tops  of  lofty  mountains,  and  each,  without  regard  to 
 others,  governed  his  own  wife  and  children.  The  ad- 
 venture of  Ulysses  with  Polyphemus,  one  of  this  race, 
 will  be  found  under  the  latter  article.  Nothing  is  said 
 by  Homer  respecting  the  size  of  the  Cyclopes  in  gen- 
 eral, but  every  etfort  is  made  to  give  an  exaggerated 
 idea  of  that  of  Polyphemus.  Hence  some  have  im- 
 agined that,  according  to  the  Homeric  idea,  the  Cy- 
 clopes were  not  in  general  of  such  huge  dimensions  or 
 cannibal  habits  as  the  bard  assigns  to  Polyphemus  him- 
 self. For  the  latter  does  not  appear  to  have  been  of 
 the  ordinary  Cyclops-race,  but  the  son  of  Neptune  and 
 a  sea-nymph ;  and  he  is  also  said  to  have  been  the 
 strongestof  the  Cyclopes.  {Od.,],10.)  Later  poets, 
 however,  lost  no  time  in  supplying  whatever  the  fable 
 wanted  in  this  respect,  and  hence  Virgil  describes  the 
 whole  race  as  of  gigantic  stature,  and  compares  them 
 to  so  many  tall  forest-trees.  (JSn.,  3,  680.)  It  is  not 
 a  little  remarkable,  that  neither  in  the  description  of 
 the  Cyclopes  in  general,  nor  of  Polyphemus  in  par- 
 ticular, is  there  any  notice  taken  of  their  being  one- 
 eyed  ;  yet,  in  the  account  of  the  blinding  of  the  latter, 
 it  seems  to  be  assumed  as  a  thing  well  known.  We 
 may  hence,  perhaps,  infer,  that  Homer  followed  the 
 usual  derivation  of  the  name. — Thus  much  for  the 
 Homeric  account  of  the  Cyclopes.  In  Hesiod,  on  the 
 other  hand  {Thcog.,  139,  seqq.),  we  have  what  ap- 
 pears to  be  the  earlier  legend  respecting  these  fabled 
 beings,  a  circumstance  which  may  tend  to  show  that 
 the  Odyssey  was  composed  by  a  poet  later  than  He- 
 siod, and  not  by  the  author  of  the  Iliad.  In  the  Theog- 
 ony  of  Hesiod,  the  Cyclopes  are  only  three  in  number, 
 Brontes,  Steropes,  and  Arges.  They  are  the  sons  of 
 Uranus  and  Gsea  (Coelus  and  Terra),  and  their  em- 
 ployment is  to  fabricate  the  thunderbolt  for  Jove. 
 They  are  said  to  be  in  every  other  respect  like  gods, 
 excepting  the  one,  single  eve,  in  the  middle  of  their 
 foreheads,  a  circumstance  from  which  Hesiod  also, 
 like  Homer,  deduces  their  general  name :  "  Their 
 name,"  says  the  poet,  "  was  Cyclopes,  because  a  sin- 
 gle, round  eye  lay  in  their  forehead."  {Theog.,  144, 
 seq.)  In  the  individual  names  given  by  Hesiod,  we 
 have  evidently  the  gerine  of  the  whole  fable.  The  Cy- 
 clopes are  the  energies  of  the  sky,  the  thunder,  the 
 lightning,  and  the  rapid  march  of  the  latter  (Brontes, 
 from  (ijiovTi),  thunder. — Steropes,  from  GTCponi},  the 
 lightning. — Arges,  from  iipyi/q,  rapid).  In  accordance 
 with  this  idea,  the  term  Kii/cAwi/;  {Cyclops)  itself  may 
 be  regarded  as  a  simple,  not  a  compound  term,  of  the 
 same  class  with  liu^uij),  KepKuij',  KeKpotj',  JlHoiji;  and 
 the  word  kvk?.oc  being  the  root,  we  may  make  the  Cy- 
 clopes to  be  the  Whirlcrs,  or,  to  designate  them  by  a 
 Latin  name,  the  Volvnli.  (Compare  Hermann,  de 
 Mythol.  Grac.  Anliguiss. — Opusc,  vol.  2,  p.  176.) 
 
CYCLOPES. 
 
 C  YD 
 
 When  the  Thunder,  the  Lightning,  and  the  rapid 
 Flame  had  been  converted  by  poetry  into  one-eyed 
 giants,  and  locahzed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  volca- 
 noes, it  was  an  easy  process  to  convert  them  into 
 smiths,  the  assistants  of  Vulcan.  {Callim.  H.  tn 
 Dian.,  4G,  se/jq. —  Virg.,  Gcorg.,  4,  173. — ^En.,  8, 
 416,  scqi/.)  As  they  were  now  artists  in  one  line,  it 
 gave  no  surprise  to  find  them  engaged  in  a  task  adapt- 
 ed to  their  huge  strength,  namely,  that  of  rearing  the 
 massive  walls  of  Tiryns,  for  which  purpose  they  were 
 brought  by  ProE'tus  from  Lycia.  {Schol.  ad  Eurip., 
 Orest ,  955.— Keight/cy's  Mijthology,  p.  259,  scqq.) 
 Hence,  too,  the  name  Cyclopian,  is  a[)plied  to  this  spe- 
 cies of  architecture,  respecting  which  we  will  give 
 some  e.xplanation  at  the  close  of  this  article. — This  last- 
 mentioned  circumstance  has  led  some  to  imagine,  that 
 the  Cvclopes  were  nothing  more  than  a  caste  or  race  of 
 miners,  or,  rather,  workers  in  quarries,  who  descended 
 into,  and  came  forth  from,  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  with 
 a  lamp  attached  to  their  foreheads,  to  light  them  on 
 their  way,  and  which  at  a  distance  would  appear  like  a 
 large,  flaming  eye  :  an  explanation  more  ingenious  than 
 satisfactory.  (Hirt,  Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  vol.  1, 
 p.  198. — Agatharch.,ap.  Phot.,  Cod.,  250.)  Another 
 solution  is  that  which  refers  the  name  Cyclops  to  the 
 circular  buildings  constructed  by  the  Pelasgi,  of  which 
 we  have  so  remarkable  a  specimen  in  what  is  called 
 the  Treasury  of  Atreus,  at  Mycenae.  From  the  form 
 of  these  buildings,  resembling  within  a  hollow  cone  or 
 beehive,  and  the  round  opening  at  the  top,  the  individ- 
 uals who  constructed  them  are  thought  to  have  derived 
 their  appellation.  (Kruse,  Hellas,  vol.  1,  p.  440, — 
 Compare  GcWs  Argolis,  p.  34.) — rAs  regards  the 
 country  occupied  by  the  Homeric  Cyclopes,  it  may  be 
 remarked,  that  this  is  usually  supposed  to  have  been 
 the  island  of  Sicily.  But  it  would  be  very  inconsistent 
 in  the  poet  to  place  the  Cyclopes,  a  race  contemning 
 the  gods,  in  an  island  sacred  to,  and  in  which  were 
 pastured  the  herds  of,  the  Sun.  The  distance,  too, 
 between  the  land  of  the  Lotophagi  and  that  of  the  Cy- 
 clo))es,  could  not  have  been  very  considerable  ;  since, 
 as  has  already  been  remarked,  it  is  not  given  in  days 
 and  nights,  a  mode  of  measurement  always  adopted  by 
 Homer  when  the  distance  mentioned  is  a  great  one. 
 Everything  conspires,  therefore,  to  induce  the  belief, 
 that  the  Cyclopes  of  Homer  were  placed  by  him  on  the 
 coast  of  Africa,  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  Syrtis  Mi- 
 nor. ((Compare  Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p.  9,  scqq.) 
 They  vvho  make  them  to  have  dwelt  in  Sicily  blend  an 
 old  tradition  with  one  of  more  recent  date.  This  last 
 probably  took  its  rise  when  .^tna  and  the  Lipari  isl- 
 ands were  assigned  to  Vulcan,  by  the  popular  belief 
 of  the  day,  as  his  workshops;  which  could  only  have 
 happened  when  xEttia  had  become  better  known,  and 
 Mount  Moschylus,  in  the  isle  of  Lemnos,  had  ceased 
 to  be  volcanic. — Before  we  conclude  this  article,  a  few 
 remarks  will  be  made  on  the  subject  of  Cyclopian 
 architecture.  This  style  of  building  is  frequently  al- 
 luded to  by  the  ancient  writers.  In  fact,  every  archi- 
 tectural work  of  extraordinary  magnitude,  to  the  exe- 
 cution of  which  human  labour  appeared  inadequate, 
 was  ascribed  to  the  Cyclopes,  {Eiinp.,  Iph.  in  AuL, 
 534  —7(Z.,  Here.  Fur.,  15.— Id.,  Troad.,  WS.-Slra- 
 bo,  373,— Scnec,  Here.  Fur.,  ddH.—Stalius,  Thcb., 
 4,  \5\.—Fansan.,  2,  25.)  The  general  character  of 
 the  Cyclopian  style  is  immense  blocks  of  stone,  with- 
 out cement,  placed  upon  each  other,  sometimes  irreg- 
 ularly, and  with  smaller  stones  filling  up  the  interstices, 
 sometimes  in  regular  and  horizontal  rows.  The  Cy- 
 clopian style  is  commonly  divided  into  four  eras.  The 
 Jirsl,  or  oldest,  is  that  employed  at  Tiryns  and  Myce- 
 n-D,  consisting  of  blocks  of  various  sizes,  some  of  them 
 very  large,  the  interstices  of  which  are,  or  were  once, 
 filled  up  with  small  stones.  The  second  era  is  marked 
 by  polygonal  stones,  which  nevertheless  fit  into  each 
 other  with  great  nicety.     Specimens  e.xist  at  Delphi, 
 
 lulis,  and  at  Cosa  in  Etruria.  In  this  style  there  are 
 no  courses.  The  third  era  appears  in  the  Phociaa 
 cities,  and  in  some  of  Boeotia  and  Argolis.  It  is  dis- 
 tinguished by  the  work  being  made 'in  courses,  and  the 
 stones,  though  of  unequal  size,  being  of  the  same 
 height.  The/m(?-^A  and  youngest  style  presents  hori- 
 zontal courses  of  masonry,  not  always  of  the  same 
 height,  but  formed  of  stones  which  are  all  rectangular. 
 This  style  is  chiefly  confined  to  Attica.  {Hamilton, 
 ArchcEolog.,  15,  320.)  Drawings  of  Cyclopian  walls  ' 
 are  given  in  GcWs  Argolis,  pi.  7. — Micali,  Antichi 
 Monamcnti,  tav.  9,  10,  11,  12. — Hirt,  Geschichte  der 
 Baukm^st,  taf.  7,  fig.  5,  6,  8,  9,  10.  The  most  ra- 
 tional opinion  relative  to  the  Cyclopian  walls  of  anti- 
 quity, is  that  which  ascribes  their  erection  to  the  an- 
 cient Pelasgi.  (Dodioell,  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  219. — Hirt, 
 Gesch.  der  Bauk.,  vol.  1,  p.  199,  &c.) 
 
 CvcNus,  I.  a  son  of  Mars,  killed  by  Hercules.  As 
 the  latter  was  passing  by  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Pa- 
 gasae,  he  was  opposed  by  Cycnus,  who  was  in  the 
 habit  of  plundering  those  who  brought  the  sacrifices 
 to  the  god.  Both  Cycnus  and  his  parent  Mars  were 
 standing  in  the  same  chariot  ready  for  the  conflict. 
 Hercules  engaged,  and  slew  the  former ;  and  when 
 Mars,  who  had  witnessed  the  fate  of  his  son,  would 
 avenge  him,  he  received  a  wound  in  the  thigh  from  the 
 spear  of  the  hero.  The  two  combats  are  described  in 
 the  Hesiodean  fragment  called  the  "  Shield  of  Hercu- 
 les." (Vid.  Hesiod,) — II.  A  son  of  Neptune,  whom 
 his  father  had  made  invulnerable.  He  fought  on  the 
 side  of  the  Trojans  at  the  landing  of  the  Greeks,  and 
 had  Achilles  for  an  antagonist.  When  the  latter  saw 
 that  his  weapons  were  of  no  effect,  he  took  advantage 
 of  a  fall  on  the  part  of  Cycnus,  occasioned  by  a  stone 
 with  which  he  came  in  contact,  as  he  was  retreating 
 before  the  Grecian  hero,  and  choked  him  to  death  by 
 means  of  the  strap  of  his  helmet.  Neptune  immedi- 
 ately changed  the  corpse  of  his  son  into  a  swan  (ktJk- 
 vof,  cycnus.  —  Ovid,  Met.,  13,  72,  scqq.) — III.  Son  of 
 Stheneleus,  and  king  of  the  Ligurians.  He  was  a  re- 
 lation and  friend  of  Phaethon's,  and  was  standing  on 
 the  banks  of  the  Po  when  the  sisters  of  the  latter 
 were  transformed  into  poplars.  While  mourning  at 
 the  sight  he  was  himself  changed  into  a  swan.  {Ovid, 
 Met.,  2,367.) 
 
 CvDiAs,  a  painter,  born  in  the  island  of  Cythnus, 
 one  of  the  Cyclades,  and  who  flourished  Olymp.  104. 
 Hortensius,  the  orator,  purchased  his  painting  of  the 
 Argonauts  for  144,000  sesterces  (nearly  $5600).  This 
 same  piece  was  afterward  transferred  by  Agrippa  to  the 
 portico  of  Neptune.  {Flin.,  35,  40. — Dio  Cass.,  53, 
 27.) 
 
 CvDiPPE.     Vid.  Acontius. 
 
 Cydnus,  a  river  of  Cilicia  Campestris,  rising  in  the 
 chain  of  Mount  Taurus,  and  falling  into  the  sea  a  little 
 below  Tarsus,  which  stood  on  its  banks.  (Xen., 
 Anah.,  1,  2)  Its  waters  were  extremely  cold,  and 
 Alexander  nearly  lost  his  life  by  bathing  in  them  when 
 overheated  and  fatigued.  The  illness  of  Alexander  re- 
 sulting from  this,  is  connected  with  the  well-known 
 story  of  the  physician  Philip.  {Arriaji,  Exp.  Alex., 
 2,  i— Quint.  Curt.,  3,  4,  7,  scqq.)  The  rii-er  Cyd- 
 nus expanded  about  a  mile  below  Tarsus,  near  the 
 sea,  and  formed  a  port  for  the  city,  called  Rhegma, 
 or  the  aperture.  {Slraho.  672.)  The  Geogr.  Nub. 
 Cliina,  4,  p,  5,  gives  the  castle  of  Arlow  as  the  har- 
 bour of  Tarsus.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p. 
 65.)  The  Cydnus  is  now  the  Tersoos,  and,  according 
 to  Captain  Beaufort,  is  at  present  inaccessible  to  any 
 but  the  smallest  boats  ;  though  within  the  bar  that  ob- 
 structs the  entrance,  it  is  deep  enough,  and  about  160 
 feet  wide.  That  this  river  was  navigable,  however, 
 anciently,  we  learn  from  Plutarch's  description  of  Cle- 
 opatra's splendid  pageant  in  sailing  down  its  stream; 
 a  passage  so  well  known  to  the  English  reader  from 
 Shakspeare's  beautiful  version.  {Pint.,  Vu.  Ant.,  c 
 ^  397 
 
C  YM 
 
 C  YN 
 
 25.)  Capt.  Beaufort  observes,  that  the  sea  must  have 
 retired  considerably  from  the  mouth  of  the  Cydnus  ; 
 since,  in  the  time  of  the  crusades,  it  is  reported  to 
 have  been  six  miles  from  Tarsus,  and  now  that  dis- 
 tance is  more  than  doubled.  {Karamania,  p.  275. — 
 Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  344.) 
 
 CvuoNiA,  the  most  ancient  city  in  the  isJand  of 
 Crete.  (Sirabo,  47G.)  It  is  said  to  have  been  found- 
 ed by  the  Cydoiies  of  Homer  {Od.,  3,  292),  whom 
 Strabo  considered  as  indigenous.  But  Herodotus  as- 
 cribes its  origin  to  a  party  of  Samians,  who,  having 
 been  exiled  by  Polycrates,  settled  in  Crete  when  they 
 had  expelled  the  Zacynthians.  Six  years  afterward, 
 the  Samians  were  conquered  in  a  naval  engagement 
 by  the  .Eginetae  and  Cretans,  and  reduced  to  captivi- 
 ty :  the  town  then  probably  reverted  to  its  ancient 
 possessors  the  Cydonians.  {Hcrodot.,  3,  59.)  It 
 stood  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  northwestern  part 
 of  Crete,  and  was  the  most  powerful  and  wealthy  city 
 of  the  whole  island,  since,  in  the  civil  wars,  it  with- 
 stood the  united  forces  of  Cnosus  and  Gortyna  after 
 they  had  reduced  the  greater  part  of  Crete.  From 
 Cydonia  the  qumce-tree  was  first  brought  into  Italy, 
 and  thence  the  fruit  was  called  malum  Cydonium,  or 
 Cydonian  apple.  Its  inhabitants  were  the  best  of  the 
 Cretan  archers.  The  ruins  of  this  ancient  city  are  to 
 be  seen  on  the  site  of  Jerami.  {Cramer'' s  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  365,  scq.) 
 
 Cydrara,  a  city  of  Phrygia.  Mannert  supposes  it 
 to  have  been  the  same  with  Laodicea,  on  the  confines 
 of  three  provinces,  Caria,  Phrygia,  and  Lydia,  and 
 situate  on  the  Lycus,  which  flows  into  the  Maeander. 
 (Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  131.)  Herodotus  speaks  of 
 a  pillar  erected  in  Cydrara  by  Croesus,  with  an  inscrip- 
 tion defining  the  boundaries  of  Phrygia  and  Lydia  ;  so 
 that  it  must  have  been  on  the  confines  of  these  two 
 countries  at  least.     {Hcrodot.,  7,  30.) 
 
 CvLLARUs,  a  celebrated  horse  of  Castor,  according  to 
 Seneca,  Valerius  Flaccus,  Claudian,  and  Martial,  but, 
 according  to  Virgil,  of  Pollux.  (Virg^.,  G.,  3,  90.) 
 The  point  is  gravely  discussed  by  La  Cerda  and  Mar- 
 tyii,  in  their  respective  commentaries,  and  the  conclu- 
 sion to  which  both  come  is,  what  might  have  easily 
 been  surmised,  that  the  steed  in  question  was  the  com- 
 mon property  of  the  two  Dioscuri.  Statins,  in  his 
 poem  on  Dotnitian's  horse,  mentions  Cyllarus  as  serv- 
 ing the  two  brothers  alternately.  ((Syfe.,  1,  1,54.)  Ste- 
 sichorus  also,  according  to  Suidas,  says  that  Mercury 
 gave  Phlogeus,  and  Harpagus,  and  Cyllarus  to  both 
 Castor  and  Pollux.  {Stiid.,  s.  v.  KvXXapo^.)  In  the 
 Etymol.  Mag.  it  is  stated,  that  Mercury  gave  them 
 Phlogeus  and  Harpagus,  but  Juno,  Exalithus  and  Cyl- 
 larus.    {Etymol.  Mag.,  p.  544,  54.) 
 
 Cyllicne,  I.  the  port  of  Elis,  the  capital  of  the  dis- 
 trict of  Elis  in  the  Peloponnesus.  It  is  supposed  to 
 be  the  modern  Chiarcnta. — II.  The  loftiest  and  most 
 celebrated  mountain  of  Arcadia,  rising  between  Slym- 
 phalus  and  Pheneos,  on  the  borders  of  Achaia.  It 
 was  said  to  take  its  name  from  Cyllen,  the  son  of  Ela- 
 tus,  and  was,  according  to  the  poets,  the  birthplace 
 of  Mercury,  to  whom  a  temple  was  dedicated  on  the 
 summit.  "  Hence  the  epithet  Cyllenius  applied  to  him. 
 {Paiisan.,  8,  17. — Horn.,  Hymn,  in  Merc,  1. — Find., 
 Olymp.,  6,  129.-7/.,  2.  GO'^.—Vug.,  JEn.,  8,  138.) 
 The  perpendicular  height  of  this  mountain  was  esti- 
 mated by  some  ancient  geographers  at  twenty  stadia, 
 by  others  at  fifteen.  {S/rabo,  388.)  The  modern 
 name  is  Zyria.  (Ge.ll's  Itin.,  p.  168.)  Pouqueyille 
 calls  it  Chelmos.     {Voyage  de  la  Grere,  vol.  5,  p.  339.) 
 
 Cyllenius,  an  epithet  applied  to  Mercury,  from  his 
 having  been  born  on  Mount  Cyllene. 
 
 Cyma,  the  most  considerable  of  the  cities  of  .Eolis, 
 in  Asia  Minor,  and  lying  to  the  northeast  of  Phocsea. 
 This  place,  sometimes,  but  less  correctly,  called  Cuma, 
 was  surnamcd  Phriconis,  because  its  founders  had  set- 
 tled for  some  time  around  Mount  Phricium  in  Locris, 
 398 
 
 previous  to  crossing  over  into  Asia.  On  their  arrivai 
 in  .^olis,  they  found  that  country  in  the  possession 
 of  the  Pelasgi ;  but  the  latter,  who  had  sustained 
 great  losses  during  the  Trojan  war,  were  unable  to 
 offer  any  resistance  to  the  invaders,  who  successively 
 founded  Neontichos  and  Cyma,  though,  according  to 
 some  traditions,  there  existed  already  a  place  of  that 
 name,  so  called  from  Cyme,  one  of  the  Amazons. 
 {Strabo,  623. — Steph.  By:.,  s.  v.  KvftTj.)  Cyma  was 
 one  among  the  many  cities  which  laid  claim  to  the 
 honour  of  having  given  birth  to  Homer.  Hesiod's  fa- 
 ther was  born  in  this  place,  the  poet  himself,  how- 
 ever, in  Ascra  in  Boeotia.  Ephorus,  also,  one  of 
 the  most  distinguished  historians  of  Greece,  but  whose 
 works  are  unfortunately  lost,  was  a  native  of  Cyma. 
 And  yet  this  city,  notwithstanding  the  celebrity  it  de- 
 rived from  the  birth  of  such  talented  individuals,  was 
 by  no  means  generally  famed  for  the  genius  and  wit  of 
 its  citizens.  On  the  contrary,  they  were  prorerbially  ^ 
 taxed  with  stupidity  and  slowness  of  apprehension.  H 
 {Strabo,  622. — Siud.,  'Ovog  «f  Kvualovg. — Piut., 
 Vit.  CcEs.,  c.  61.) — In  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  Cyma 
 suffered,  in  common  with  the  other  cities  of  Asia, 
 from  the  terrible  earthquake  which  desolated  that 
 province.  {Tacit,  Ann.,  2,  47.)  Its  site  is  near  the 
 Turkish  village  of  Sanderly.  D'Anville  is  in  favour 
 of  Nemoart,  but  this  is  more  probably  the  ancient 
 Myrina.  {Mannert^ s  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  390. — 
 Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  i.,  p.  147,  seqq.) 
 
 Cymothoe,  one  of  the  Nereides,  represented  by 
 Virgil  as  assisting  the  Trojans,  with  Triton,  after  the 
 storm  with  which  .^Eolus,  at  the  request  of  Juno,  had 
 afflicted  the  fleet.  {JSn.,  1,  148. — Hesiod,  Theog., 
 245.) 
 
 CvN^GiRUs,  an  Athenian,  celebrated  for  his  extraor- 
 dinary courage.  He  was  brother  to  the  poet  ^schy- 
 lus.  After  the  battle  of  Marathon,  he  pursued  the 
 flying  Persians  to  their  ships,  and  seized  one  of  their 
 vessels  with  his  right  hand,  which  was  immediately 
 severed  by  the  enemy.  Upon  this  he  seized  the  ves- 
 sel with  his  left  hand,  and  when  he  had  lost  that  also, 
 he  still  kept  his  hold  with  his  teeth.  Herodotus  merely 
 relates  that  he  seized  one  of  the  Persian  vessels  by  the 
 stern,  and  had  his  hand  cut  off  with  an  axe.  The  more 
 detailed  account  is  given  by  Justin.  Phasis,  an  obscure 
 painter,  represented  Cynsegirus  with  both  his  hands, 
 which  Cornelius  Longinus  made  the  subject  of  a  very 
 neat  epigram,  preserved  in  the  Anthology.  {Herndut., 
 6,  \14:.— Justin,  2,  9.—Anthol.  Palat.,  vol  2,  p.  660,  M 
 ed.  Jacobs  )  fl 
 
 Cyn/eth>e,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  on  the  river  Crathis,  " 
 near  the  northern  borders,  and  some  distance  to  the 
 northwest  of  Cyllene.  It  had  been  united  to  the 
 Achajan  league,  but  was  betrayed  to  the  ^•Etolians  in 
 the  Social  War.  This  was  effected  by  some  exiles, 
 who,  on  their  return  to  their  native  cilv,  formed  a  plot 
 for  admitting  the  enemy  within  its  walls.  The  .Eto- 
 lians,  accordingly,  having  crossed  into  Achaia  vv'ith  a 
 considerable  force,  advanced  to  Cyntetha^,  and  easily 
 scaled  the  walls  ;  they  then  sacked  the  town  and  de- 
 stroyed many  of  the  inhabitants,  not  sparing  even  those 
 to  whose  treachery  they  were  indebted  for  their  suc- 
 cess. Polybius  observes,  that  the  calamity  which  thus 
 overwhelmed  the  Cynsthians  was  considered  by  many 
 as  a  just  punishment  for  their  depraved  and  immoral 
 conduct,  their  city  forming  a  striking  exception  to  the 
 estimable  character  of  the  .\rcadians  in  general,  who 
 were  esteemed  a  pious,  humane,  and  social  people. 
 Polybius  accounts  for  this  moral  phenomenon,  from 
 the  neglect  into  which  music  had  fallen  among  the 
 Cynaethians.  All  the  towns  of  Arcadia,  save  this  single 
 one,  paid  the  greatest  attention  to  the  science,  deem- 
 ing it  a  necessary  branch  of  education,  on  the  principle 
 that  its  influence  was  beneficial  in  humanizing  the 
 character  and  refining  the  manners  of  the  people. 
 The  historian  adds,   that  such  was  the  abhonence 
 
C  YN 
 
 C  YN 
 
 produced  m  Arcadia  by  the  conduct  of  the  Cynse- 
 thians,  that,  after  a  great  massacre  which  took  place 
 among  them,  many  of  the  towns  refused  to  receive 
 their  deputies,  and  the  Mantinaeans,  who  allowed  them 
 a  passage  through  their  city,  thought  it  necessary  to 
 perform  lustral  rites  and  expiatory  sacrifices  in  every 
 part  of  their  territory.  CynJEthae  was  burned  by  the 
 ^tolians  on  their  retreat  from  Arcadia  (Polyb.A,  19, 
 seqq.),  but  was  probably  restored,  as  it  still  existed  in 
 the  time  of  Pausanias.  {Cramer's  Ajicicnt  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p.  319.)  Cynffithaj  is  supposed  to  have  stood 
 near  the  modern  town  of  Calabnjta,  though  there  are 
 no  remains  of  antiquity  discernible  near  that  place. 
 {Dodwtirs  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  Ul.—GeWs  Itin.  of  Mo- 
 rea,  p.  131.) 
 
 Cynesii  or  CvNETES  {Kvv^aioi  or  KvvriTec),  ac- 
 cording to  Herodotus  (2,  33),  the  most  western  in- 
 habitants of  Europe,  living  beyond  the  Celtae.  Man- 
 nert,  following  the  authority  of  Avienus  {Oi'a  Mar  it., 
 V.  200),  makes  them  to  have  been  situate  in  Spain,  on 
 both  sides  of  the  river  Anas,  and  their  western  limit  to 
 have  corresponded  with  the  modern  Faro  in  Algarve, 
 while  their  eastern  was  the  bay  and  islands  formed  by 
 the  small  rivers  Odie.l  and  Tmto.  (Compare  Larcher, 
 Hist.  d'Herodote. — Tab.  Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  159. — 
 Ukcrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  247,  251. — Manncrt,  Ge- 
 ogr., vol.  1,  p.  235)  Niebuhr,  however,  is  of  a  dif- 
 ferent opinion.  ''  Still  more  absurd,"  observes  he, 
 "  than  this  identification  of  the  Celts  of  Herodotus 
 with  the  Celtici,  is  the  notion  that  the  Cynetes,  who, 
 by  his  account,  dwelt  still  farther  west,  being  the  most 
 remote  people  in  that  part  of  Europe,  were  the  inhab- 
 itants of  Algarve,  merely  because  this  district,  on  ac- 
 count of  Cape  St.  Vincent,  which  projects  in  the  shape 
 ,  of  a  wedge,  was  called  Cuneus  by  the  Romans,  and 
 unfortunately  may,  from  its  true  situation,  be  consid- 
 ered the  westernmost  country  in  this  direction.  As 
 in  historical  geography  we  are  not  to  look  for  the 
 Celts  to  the  west  of  the  Iberi,  so  the  Cynetes  are  not 
 to  be  sought  to  the  west  of  the  Celts ;  yet  assuredly 
 they  are  not  a  fabulous  people,  but  one  which  dwelt  at 
 a  very  great  distance  beyond  the  Celts,  and,  therefore, 
 probably  in  the  north;  for,  the  more  distant  the  object 
 was,  the  farther  it  naturally  diverged  from  the  truth." 
 {Niebuhr'' s  Geography  of  Herodotus,  p.  13.) 
 
 CvNici,  a  sect  of  philosophers,  so  called  either  from 
 Cynosarges,  where  Antisthenes,  the  founder  of  the 
 sect,  lectured,  or  from  the  Greek  term  KVidv,  "a  dog,'''' 
 in  allusion  to  the  snarling  humour  of  their  master. 
 This  sect  is  to  be  regarded  not  so  much  as  a  school 
 of  philosophers  as  an  institution  of  manners.  It  was 
 formed  rather  for  the  purpose  of  providing  a  remedy 
 for  the  moral  disorders  of  luiury,  ambition,  and  ava- 
 rice, than  with  a  view  to  establish  any  new  theory  of 
 speculative  opinions.  The  sole  end  of  the  Cynic  phi- 
 losophy was  to  subdue  the  passions,  and  produce  sim- 
 pMcity  of  manners.  Hence  the  coarseness  of  their 
 outward  attire,  their  haughty  contempt  of  external 
 good,  and  patient  endurance  of  external  ill.  The  rig- 
 orous discipline  of  the  first  Cynics,  however,  degen- 
 erated afterward  into  the  most' absurd  severity.  The 
 Cynic  renounced  every  kind  of  scientific  pursuit,  in 
 order  to  attend  solely  to  the  cultivation  of  virtuous 
 habit,s.  The  sect  fell  gradually  into  disesteem  and 
 contempt,  and  many  gross  and  disgraceful  tales  were 
 propagated  respecting  them.  {Vid.  Antisthenes  and 
 Diogenes.— £7(AcM's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  301,  scqq.—  Tcnneman,  Grundriss  der  Gcsch.  dcr 
 Phil.,  p.  113.) 
 
 CvNiscA,  a  daughter  of  Archidamus,  king  of  Sparta, 
 who  was  the  first  female  that  ever  turned  her  attention 
 to  the  training  of  steeds,  and  the  first  that  obtained  a 
 prize  at  the  Olympic  games.     {Pausan.,  3,  8.) 
 
 •  CvNO,  the  wife  of  a  herdsman,  and  the  one  who 
 nurtured  and  brought  up  Cyrus  the  Great,  when  ex- 
 posed m  infancy.     {Hcrodot.,  I,  no.)     Her  name,  in 
 
 the  Median  language,  was  Spaco,  according  to  Herod- 
 otus, who  makes  Cyno  the  Greek  translation  of  it, 
 from  Kvuv,  "  a  dog,"  and  adds  that  it  signified,  in  the 
 Median  tongue,  a  female  dog.  It  is  not  known 
 whether  the  dialect  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  was 
 the  same.  In  such  remains  as  we  have  of  the  Per- 
 sian language,  Burton  and  Reland  have  not  been  able 
 to  discover  any  term  like  this.  Nevertheless,  Lefevre 
 affirmed  that  the  Hyrcanians,  a  people  in  subjection 
 to  the  Persians,  called,  even  in  his  time,  a  dog  by  the 
 word  spac.  On  what  authority  he  makes  this  asser- 
 tion is  not  known.  Foster,  in  his  letter  to  Michaelis 
 upon  the  origin  of  the  Chaldees,  thinks  that  he  detects 
 a  resemblance  between  the  Median  Spaco  and  the  Sla- 
 vonic Sabaka,  which  has  the  same  meaning.  (Com- 
 pare Michaelis,  Spicilegium,  vol.  2,  p.  99.)  Some  of 
 the  Greek  grammarians  cite  the  word  anu^  as  signi- 
 fying "  a  dog,"  among  the  Persians.  {Struve,  Spe- 
 cim.  Qucest.,  p.  14,  ?iol.) 
 
 CvNoscEPHALwE,  eminences  in  Thessaly,  southeast 
 of  Pharsalus,  where  the  Romans,  under  T.  Quinctius 
 Flamininus,  gained  a  victory  over  Philip,  king  of  Macc- 
 don,  and  put  an  end  to  the  first  Macedonian  war. 
 {Strabo,  iU.—Liv.,  33,  Q.—Polyb.,-  Fragm.,  18,  3, 
 10.)  They  are  described  by  Plutarch  as  hills  of  small 
 size,  with  sharp  tops  ;  and  the  name  properly  belongs 
 to  those  tops,  from  their  resemblance  to  the  heads  of 
 dogs  {kvvCiv  K£(j)a?iai. — Pint.,  Vit.  Flamin.)  Sir  W. 
 Gell,  in  describing  the  route  between  Larissa  and 
 Velestino,  the  ancient  Pheras,  observes,  that  Cynos- 
 cephalee  was  in  the  range  of  hills  which  separate  the 
 plain  of  Larissa  from  that  of  Pharsalia.  {Itin.,  p.  268. 
 — Compare  Pouqueville,  vol.  3,  p.  390.) 
 
 CvNocEPHALi,  a  nation  of  India,  who  were  said  to 
 have  the  heads  of  dogs,  whence  their  name.  {Ctesias, 
 Ind..,  23.—Aul.  Gell.,  9,  ^.—JElian,  Nat.  An.,  4,46. 
 — Diod.  Sic.,  3,  34.)  The  writer  last  quoted  speaks 
 of  them  as  resembling  human  beings  of  deformed 
 visage,  and  as  sending  forth  human  mutterings.  It 
 has  been  generally  supposed,  that  the  Cynocephali  of 
 antiquity  were  nothing  more  than  a  species  of  larue 
 ape  or  baboon.  Heeren,  however  {Idccn,  1,  2,  p. 
 689),  thinks,  that  Ciesias  refers,  in  fact,  to  the  Parias, 
 or  lowest  caste  of  Hindoos  ;  and  that  the  appellation 
 of  Cynocephali  is  a  figurative  allusion  to  their  degraded 
 state.  Malle-Brun  also  thinks  that  the  narration  ol 
 Ctesias  refers  to  some  actual  race  of  human  beings 
 {Nouvellcs  Annales,  p.  356,  seqq. — Bdhr,  ad  Ctes.,  p. 
 321),  and  supposes  that  a  black  race  is  meant,  who 
 at  a  very  earlv  period  occupied  not  only  the  islands  of 
 the  Southern  Ocean,  but  the  interior  of  the  peninsula 
 of  India  as  far  as  the  mountains,  and  also  the  country 
 around  the  sources  of  the  Indus.  He  calls  them 
 "  Negres  Oceaniques,  Haraforas,  ou  Alphuriens  de 
 Borneo."  Bahr  seems  inclined  to  admit  this  hypothe- 
 sis, but  maintains  that  more  or  less  of  fable  must  have 
 been  blended  with  it.  He  refers  to  the  Hindu  le- 
 gends of  the  war  waged  by  Rama  with  the  nation  of 
 apes  in  Ceylon,  and  to  the  bridge  built  by  apes,  con- 
 necting that  island  with  the  peninsula  of  India. 
 (Compare  the  plate  given  in  Creuzcr's  Symbolik,  n. 
 28,  and  the  remarks  of  Creuzer  himself,  vol.  1,  p.  606, 
 612.)  Some  inferior  race,  subdued  by  a  superior  one, 
 is  evidently  meant. 
 
 Cynos,  a  town  of  Locris,  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Opuntii,  and  their  principal  maritime  place.  Accord- 
 ing to  some  ancient  traditions,  it  had  long  been  the 
 residence  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha ;  the  latter  was 
 even  said  to  have  been  interred  here.  {Strabo,  425. 
 —Apollod.,  ap.  Schol.  in  Pind.,  01,  9,  65.)  The  ru- 
 ins of  this  city  are  probably  those  which  have  been  ob- 
 served near  the  small  village  of  Lebanitis,  by  Sir  W. 
 Gell  and  other  travellers. 
 
 Cynos.\rges,  a  place  in  the  suburbs  of  Athens, 
 where  the  school  of  the  Cynics  was  held.  It  derived 
 its  name  from  a  white  dog  {kvuv  apjog),  which,  when 
 
 399 
 
C  YP 
 
 C  Y  P 
 
 Diomus  was  sacrificing  to  Hercules,  snatched  away 
 part  o(  the  victim.  It  was  adorned  with  several  tem- 
 ples ;  that  o{  Hercules  was  the  most  splendid.  The 
 most  remarkable  thing  in  it,  however,  was  the  Gym- 
 nasium, where  all  strangers,  who  had  but  one  parent 
 an  Athenian,  had  to  perform  their  exercises,  because 
 Hercules,  to  whom  it  was  consecrated,  had  a  mortal 
 for  his  mother,  and  was  not  properly  one  of  the  im- 
 mortals. Cynosarges  is  supposed  to  have  been  situ- 
 ated at  the  foot  of  Mount  Anchesmus,  now  the  hill  of 
 St.  George.  (Potter,  Gr.  Ant.,  1,  8. — Cramer  sAnc. 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  342.) 
 
 CvNossEMA  {the  dog's  tomb),  a  promontory  of  the 
 Thracian  Chersonesus,  where  Hecuba  was  changed 
 into  a  dog,  and  buried.  (Ovid,  Met.,  13,  569. — 
 Strabo,  bSib.—Schol.  Lye.,  315,  ct  1176.)  Here  the 
 Athenian  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Thrasybulus 
 and  Thrasyllus,  gained  an  important  victory  over  the 
 allied  squadron  of  the  Peloponnesus,  towards  the  close 
 of  the  war  with  that  country.  ( Thucijd.,  8,  103,  seqq.) 
 The  site  is  said  to  be  now  occupied  by  the  Turkish 
 fortress  of  the  Dardanelles,  called  Kclidil- Bahar . 
 {Chevalier,  Voyage  dans  la  Troade,  pt.  1,  p.  5.) 
 
 CvNosiJRA,  I.  a  nymph  of  Ida  in  Crete,  one  of  the 
 nurses  of  Jove.  She  was  changed  into  a  constellation. 
 (Consult  remarks  under  the  article  Arctos,  near  its 
 close.)— II.  A  promontory  of  Attica,  formed  by  the 
 range  of  Pentelicus.  It  is  now  Cape  Cavala.  {PtoL, 
 p.  86. — Said.,  s.  v.) — HI.  A  promontory  of  Attica, 
 facing  the  northeastern  extremity  of  Salamis.  It  is 
 mentioned  in  the  oracle  delivered  to  the  Athenians, 
 prior  to  the  battle  of  Salamis.  {Herod.,  8,  76. — GeWs 
 Ilin.,  p.  103.) 
 
 Cynthi.\,  I.  a  female  name,  occurring  in  some  of 
 the  ancient  poets.  {Propcrt.,  2,  33,  1. — Ovid,  Rem. 
 Am.,  764,  &,c.) — II.  A  surname  of  Diana,  from  Mount 
 Cynthus,  in  the  island  of  Delos,  where  she  was  born. 
 — HI.  A  name  given  to  the  island  of  Delos  itself. 
 {Plin.,  4,  12.) 
 
 Cynthius,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  from  Mount  Cyn- 
 thus, in  the  island  of  Delos,  where  he  was  born.  ( Vid. 
 Cynthus.) 
 
 Cynthus,  a  mountain  of  Delos,  which  raises  its 
 barren  summit  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  plain. 
 At  its  base  was  the  city  of  Delos.  The  modern  name 
 is  Monte  Cintio.  On  this  mountain,  according  to  the 
 poets,  Apollo  and  Diana  were  born,  and  hence  the 
 epithets  of  Cynthius  and  Cynthia,  respectively  applied 
 to  them.  {Strab.,  A85.—Plin.,  4,  \2.—Virg.,  Geogr., 
 3,  m.—Ovid,  Met.,  6,  304.— 7(Z.,  Fast.,  3,  346,  &c.) 
 Cynurii,  a  small  tribe  of  the  Peloponnesus,  on  the 
 shore  of  the  Sinus  Argolicus,  and  bordering  on  Laco- 
 nia,  Arcadia,  and  Argolis  properly  so  called.  They 
 were  an  ancient  race,  accounted  indigenous  by  He- 
 rodotus (8,  73),  who  also  styles  them  lonians.  The 
 possession  of  the  tract  of  country  which  they  occupied 
 led  to  frequent  disputes  and  hostilities  between  the 
 Spartans  and  Argives.  {Pausan.,  3,  2,  7. — Steph. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  Kvvovpa.)  As  early  as  the  time  of  Eches- 
 tratus  the  son  of  Agis,  the  first  king  of  Sparta,  the 
 Cvnurians  were  expelled  from  their  homes  by  the  La- 
 cedcemonians,  under  pretence  that  they  committed 
 depredations  on  the  Spartan  territory.  {Pausan.,  lac.- 
 cil.) 
 
 Cyp.*.riss.^  or  CvPARissiA,  I.  a  town  of  Messenia, 
 near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cyfiarissus,  and  on  the 
 Sinus  Cyparissius.  The  river  and  gulf  are  now  called 
 Arcadia  and  Gulf  of  Arcadia  respectively,  from  the 
 modern  town  which  occupies  the  site  of  Cyparissia. 
 {Strabo,  M8.—Polyb.,  5,  93.)— II.  A  town  of  Laco- 
 nia,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Asopus.  The  site  is  now 
 occupied  by  the  modern  fortress  of  Rupino  or  Ram- 
 pano,  sometimes  also  called  Castel  Kyparissi.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  194.) 
 
 CvPARissus,  a  youth,  son  of  Telephus  of  Cca,  be- 
 loved by  Apollo.     He  slew,  by  mistake,  a  favourite 
 400 
 
 stag,  and,  amid  the  deep  sorrow  which  he  felt  lor  tne 
 loss  of  the  animal,  was  changed  into  a  cypress-tree. 
 {Oeid,  Met.,  10,  121,  segg.) 
 
 CvpRiANus  (or  Thascius  Caecilius  Cyprianus),  one 
 of  the  Latin  Fathers  of  the  church,  born  at  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  third  century  of  our  era,  in  Africa,  either 
 at  Carthage,  or  some  place  in  its  vicinity.     According 
 to  Gregory  Nazianzen,  he  belonged  to  a  senatorial 
 family  of  that  place.     His  name  previous  to  his  con 
 version  was  Thascius  Cyprianus,  but  he  now  assumed 
 the  additional   appellation  of  Caecilius.  the    name  of 
 the  priest  by  whom  he  was  converted.     Cyprian  con- 
 ducted   himself  so    well    after   his   change   of  faith, 
 that,  upon  the  death  of  Donatus,  bishop  of  Carthage, 
 he  was   unanimously  chosen    to  succeed    him.     For 
 nearly  two  years  he  managed  the  affairs  of  his  bish- 
 opric in  tranquillity;  but  in  25],  on  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  Decian  persecution,  the  pagans  of  Car- 
 thage, enraged   at  his  desertion  of  them,  demanded 
 that  Cyprian  should  be  thrown  to  the  lions.     During 
 the  storm  he  thought  it  prudent  to  withdraw,  on  which 
 he  was  proscribed  by  government  and  his  goods  were 
 confiscated.     In  his  retirement,  which  lasted  fourteen 
 months,  he  employed  himself  in  writing  letters  to  his 
 people  and  clergy,  and  to  the  Christians  at  Rome,  e.^c- 
 horting  them  to  remain  steadfast  in  their  faith.     On 
 the  death  of  the  Emperor  Decius,  Cyprian  returned  to 
 Carthage,  and  held  different  councils  for  regulating  the 
 affairs  of  the  church  and  a  number  of  points  relating 
 to  ecclesiastical  discipline.     One  subject  of  much  con- 
 tention was  the  validity  of  the  baptism  of  heretics. 
 Cyprian  maintained,  that  all  baptism  out  of  the  Catholic 
 Church  was  null  and  void,  and  that  all  who  came  over 
 from  heresies  to  the  church  ought  to  be  baptized  again. 
 He  was  supported  by  the  African  bishops,  but  opposed 
 by  Stephen,  bishop  of  Rome.     In  257  the  persecution 
 was  renewed  by  order  of  the  Emperors  Valerian  and 
 Gallienus,  and  Cyprian  was  summoned  before  Aspasius 
 Paternus,  proconsul  of  Africa,  and,  remaining  firm  in 
 his    faith,  was    banished  to  Curubis,  a  town    twelve 
 leagues  from  Carthage,  where  he  employed  himself  in 
 writing  letters  to  the  persecuted  Christians,  exhorting 
 them  to  cheer  their  spirits  and  persevere  in  their  reli- 
 gion.    At  the  end  of  eleven  months  he  was  recalled  to 
 Carthage  by  Galerius  Maximus,  a  new  proconsul.     On 
 his  return,  finding  that  orders  were  issued  to  carry  him 
 before    the    proconsul,  who  was    then  at    Utica,  and 
 wishing  to  suffer  martyrdom  before  the  eyes  of  his  own 
 church,  he  retired  to  a  place  of  temporary  concealment, 
 from  which  he  emerged  to  give  his  last  testimony  to 
 the  truth  of  his  religion  on  the  return  of  Galerius  to 
 Carthage.     Being  apprehended,  he  was  desired  by  the 
 magistrate  to  obey  the  imperial  edict,  and  to  sacrifice 
 to  the  gods  ;  and,  on  his  preremptory  refusal,  he  was 
 sentenced  to  be  beheaded.     This  sentence  was  exe- 
 cuted at  a  place  called  Sexti,  near  the  city  of  Carthage, 
 in  the  year  258,  where  Cyprian  submitted  to  his  fate 
 with  firmness  and  cheerfulness.     As  a  bishop,  he  dis- 
 charged the  duties  of  his  office  with  prudence,  fidelity, 
 and  affection,  and  with  a  degree  of  modesty  and  hu- 
 mility which  much  endeared  him  to  bis  flock.      As  a 
 writer,  he  is  correct,  pure,  and  eloquent,  with  much 
 force  and  argumentative  skill.     According  to  Erasmus, 
 he  is  the  only  African  writer  who  attained  to  the  native 
 purity  of  the    Latin-  tongue.     His  works  consist  of 
 treatises  on  various  subjects  ;   some  being  defences  of 
 Christianity  against  the  Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  others 
 on  Christian  morality  and  the  discipline  of  the  church. 
 I'he  best  editions  are,  that  of  Erasmus  in  1520  ;  of 
 Rigaltius,   Paris,   1648;  of  Bishop   Fell,  at  Oxford, 
 1662,  with  the  Annales  Cyprianici  of  Bishop  Pearson 
 prefixed ;    and  that  of  Father  Maran,  a  Benedictine 
 monk  of  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur  at  Paris,  1727. 
 They  were  translated  into  English,  with  notes,  by  Mar- 
 shal, in  1717.     {Dupin,  vol.  1,  p.  149,  seqq. — Fabric., 
 Bibl.  Lat.,  vol.  3,  p.  377,  seqq. — Biogr.   Univ.,  vol. 
 
C  YP 
 
 C  YR 
 
 10,  p.  397,  seqq. — Rcttberg,  Cyprian  dargestdU,  &c. 
 Gotting.,  1831,  8vo — B'dhr,  Christiich-Rom.  TheoL, 
 p.  50,  seqq.) 
 
 CvpRas,  a  large  island  of  the  Mediterranean,  south 
 of  (Jilicia  and  west  of  Syria.     Like  every  other  isle  in 
 the  Grecian  seas,  it  appears  to  have  borne  several  ap- 
 pellations in  remote  ages,  but  tnatiy  of  these  are  only 
 poetical,  and  rest  on  dubious  and  obscure  authority. 
 Those  which  occur  most  commonly  are  Sphecia,  Ce- 
 rastis,  and  Cryptus,  for  which  fanciful  etymologies  are 
 adduced  by  Stcphanus  of  Byzantium,  Eustathius,  and 
 other  authorities  compiled  by  Meursius  ;  that  of  Cy- 
 prus, which  finally  prevailed  over  every  other,  is  also 
 uncertain  ;  but  the  notion  which  derives  it  from  the 
 shrub  cypress  is  probably  the  most  correct ;  and  Bo- 
 chart,  whose   Phoenician  analogies  rest  here  on  safer 
 ground,  insists  strongly  on  its  validity.     {Gcogr.  Sacr., 
 p.  373.)     Cyprus  is  reckoned   by  Strabo    (654),  or, 
 rather,  Timaeus,  whom  he  quotes,  as  the  third  in  extent 
 of  the  seven  Mediterranean  isles,  which  he  classes  in 
 the  following  order :  Sardinia,  Sicily,  Cyprus,  Crete, 
 Eubaea,  Corsica,  and  Lesbos.     According  to  ancient 
 measurements,  its   circuit   amounted  to  3420  stadia, 
 including  the  sinuosities  of  the  coast.     Its  greatest 
 lencrth  from  west  to  east,  between  Cape  Acamas  and 
 the  little  islands  called  Clides,  was  reckoned  at  1400 
 stadia.     The  mterior  of   Cyprus   is  mountainous  ;  a 
 ridge  being  drawn  across  the  entire  length  of  the  island, 
 from  Cape  Acamas  on  the  west,  to  that  of  Dinaretum 
 in  the  opposite  direction  ;   it  attains  the  highest  eleva- 
 tion near  the  central  region,  and  was  anciently  called 
 Olympus.     This  physical  conformation  precludes  the 
 existence  of  any  considerable  rivers.     There   are  no 
 lakes,  but  some  salt  marshes  on  the  coast.     Cyprus 
 yielded  to  no  other  island  in  fertility,  since  it  produced 
 excellent  wine  and  oil,  and  abundance  of  wheat  and 
 various  fruits.     There  was  also  a  great  supply  of  timber 
 for  building  ships.     {Strabo,  684.)     Its  mineral  pro- 
 ductions were   likewise  very  rich,  especially  copper, 
 found  at  Tamasus,  and  supposed  to  be  alluded  to  in 
 the  Odyssey.     The  first  inhabitants  of  this  island  are 
 generally  supposed  to  have  come  from  Phoenicia  ;   and 
 yet,  tiiat  the  Cyprians  s{)oke  a  language  different  from 
 the  Phoenicians  and  peculiar  to  themselves,  is  evident 
 from  the  scattered  glosses  preserved  by  the  lexicog- 
 raphers and  grammarians.     One  thing  is  certain,  how- 
 ever, that  the  whole  of  the  ceremonies  and  religious 
 rites  observed  by  the  Cyprians,  with  respect  to  Venus 
 and  Adonis,  were  without  doubt  borrowed  from  Phoe- 
 nicia.    V^enus,  in  fact,  was  the  principal  deity  of  the 
 island,  and,  as  might  be  expected,  the  Cyprians  were, 
 in  consequence,  a  sensual  and  licentious  people.     Pros- 
 titution was  sanctioned  by  the  laws  {Herod.,  1,  199. 
 — Athcnczus,  12,  p.  516),  and  hired  flatterers  and  pro- 
 fessed sycophants  attended  on  the  luxurious  princes  of 
 the  land.     {Church.,  ap.  Athoi.,  6,  p.  255.)     Never- 
 theless, literature  and  the  arts  flourished  here  to  a  con- 
 siderable extent,  even  at  an  early  period,  as  the  name 
 of  the  (;)ypria  Carmina,  ascribed  by  some  to  Homer, 
 sufliciently  attests.     {Herod  ,  2,  \  18.— AlhentBus,  15, 
 p.  682.)     The  island  of  Cyprus  is  still  famed  for  its 
 fertility.     The  most  valuable  production  at  present  is 
 cotton.     The  French  also  send  thither  for  turpentine, 
 building  limber,  oranges,  and  particularly  Cyprus  wine. 
 Hyacinths,  anemonies,  ranunculuses,  and  the  single 
 and  double  narcissus,  grow  here  without  cultivation. 
 They  deck  the  mountains,  and  give  the  country  the 
 a))pcarance  of  an  immense  flower-garden.     But  agri- 
 culture is  neglected,  and  an  unwholesome  atmosphere 
 infects  some  districts  where  the  method  of  drainint^ 
 the  stagnant  water  is  unknown.     {Maltc-Brun,  Geogr° 
 vol.  2,  p.  88,  Am.  ed.  — Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2, 
 p.  366,  seqq.) 
 
 CvPSEt.us,  I.  son  of  Eetion,  and  a  native  of  Corinth, 
 who  attained  to  the  sovereign  power  in  that  citv  about 
 660  B.C.     The  Heraclide  clan  of  the  Bacchiadae  had 
 
 £  E  E 
 
 previously  changed  the  original  constitution  of  Corinth 
 into  an  oligarchy,  by  keeping  themselves  distinct,  in 
 the  manner  of  a  caste,  from  all  other  families,  and 
 alone  furnished  the  city  with  the  annual  prytanes  or 
 chief  magistrates.  Cypselus,  although  connected  on 
 the  mother's  side  with  the  Bacchiada;,  overcame,  with 
 the  assistance  of  the  lower  orders,  the  oligarchs,  now 
 become  odious  through  their  luxury  and  insolence 
 {vElian,  V.  H.,  1,  19),  and,  from  the  inability  of  the 
 people  to  govern  themselves,  made  himself  tyrant  of 
 Corinth.  However  violently  the  Corinthian  orator  in 
 Herodotus  (5,  92)  accuses  this  sovereign,  the  judg- 
 ment of  antiquity  in  general  was  widely  dift'erent.  Cyp- 
 selus was  of  a  peaceful  disposition,  reigned  without  a 
 body-guard,  and  never  forgot  that  he  rose  from  being  a 
 demagogue  to  the  throne.  Herodotus  informs  us  (/. 
 c.)  that  an  oracle  had  been  given  to  the  parents  of 
 Cypselus,  before  the  birth  of  the  latter,  intimating  that 
 the  offspring  of  their  union  would  overthrow  the  ex- 
 isting authority  at  Corinth  ;  and  that  the  Bacchiadae, 
 hap[)ening  to  hear  of  this,  and  comparing  it  with  an- 
 other response  which  had  been  given  unto  their  own 
 family,  sent  certain  of  their  number  to  destroy  C/ypse- 
 lus  shortly  after  he  was  born.  His  mother,  however, 
 saved  his  life  by  hiding  him  in  a  coffer  or  chest  {icvxj;- 
 sA?/),  from  which  circumstance  he  obtained  his  name 
 {KvijieAo^).  His  descendants,  the  Cypselidae,  conse- 
 crated at  Olympia,  in  the  temple  of  Juno,  a  richly 
 adorned  coffer,  in  commemoration  of  the  escape  of 
 their  progenitor,  an  elaborate  account  of  which  offer- 
 ing is  given  by  Pansanias  (5,  17,  seqq.).  This  was  not, 
 however,  the  coffer  in  which  Cypselus  himself  had  been 
 preserved.  (Compare  Valckenaer,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c, 
 and  consult,  on  the  subject  of  the  cofier  of  Cypselus, 
 Midler,  Archceol.  der  Kunst,  p.  37. — Heync,  ilber  den 
 Kasten  des  Kypselus ;  eitie  Vorlesung,  1770,  4to. — De- 
 scrizione  delta  CassadiCipselo.daSeb.  Ciampi,  Pisa. 
 1814. — Qualrcmere-de- Qiiincy ,  Jup.  Oli/mp.,  p.  124. 
 — Sicbelis,  Amalthca,  vol.  2,  p.  2.i7.  —  Thiersch,  Epo- 
 chen,  p.  169.)  Creuzer  and  Bahr  think,  that  the  his- 
 tory of  Cypselus,  if  such  a  person  ever  reigned  at 
 Corinth,  has  received  a  colouring  from  the  fables  rel- 
 ative to  Hercules,  Bacchus,  and  Osiris.  {Creuzer, 
 Comment .  Herod.,  p.  62,  seqq. — Bahr,  ad  Herod.,  I.e. — 
 Compare  Miiller,  Dorians,  vol.  1,  p.  187,  seq.)  Cyp- 
 selus was  succeeded  by  his  son  Periander. — II.  The 
 elder  son  of  Periander,  incapacitated  from  succeeding 
 him  by  mental  alienation. — III.  A  king  of  Arcadia, 
 who  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Cresphontes,  the 
 Heraclide,  and  thus  saved  his  dominions  from  the  sway 
 of  the  Dorians  when  they  invaded  the  Peloponnesus.. 
 {Pausan,  8.  5.) 
 
 CvRENAiCA,  a  country  of  Africa,  east  of  the  Syrtis 
 Minor,  and  west  of  Marmarica.  It  corresponds  with 
 the  modern  Barca.  Cyrenaica  was  considered  by  the 
 Greeks  as  a  sort  of  terrestrial  paradise.  This  was 
 partly  owing  to  the  force  of  contrast,  as  all  the  rest  of 
 the  African  coast  along  the  Mediterranean,  from  Car- 
 thage to  the  Nile,  was  a  barren,  sandy  waste,  and  partly 
 to  the  actual  fertility  of  Cyrenaica  itself.  It  was  ex- 
 tremely well  watered,  and  the  inhabitants,  according 
 to  Herodotus  (4,  199),  employed  eight  months  in  col- 
 lecting the  productions  of  the  land  :  the  maritime  places 
 first  yielded  their  fruits,  then  the  second  region,  which 
 they  called  the  hills,  and  lastly  those  of  the  highest 
 part  inland.  One  of  the  chief  natural  productions  of 
 Cyrenaica  was  an  herb  called  silphitim,  a  kind  of  laser- 
 pitium  or  assafoetida.  It  was  fattening  for  cattle,  ren- 
 dering their  flesh  also  tender,  and  was  a  useful  aperient 
 for  man.  From  its  juice,  too,  when  kneaded  with  clay, 
 a  powerful  antiseptic  was  obtained.  The  silphium 
 formed  a  great  article  of  trade,  and  at  Rome  the  com- 
 position above  mentioned  sold  for  its  weight  in  silver. 
 It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  silphium  appeared  always 
 on  the  medals  of  Cyrene.  Its  culture  was  neglected 
 however,  when  the  Romans  became   masters  of  th». 
 
 401 
 
C  YR 
 
 CYRENE. 
 
 country,  and  pasturage  was  more  attended  to.  Cap- 
 tain Beechy,  in  the  course  of  his  travels  through  this 
 region,  noticed  a  plant  about  three  feet  in  height,  very 
 much  resembling  the  hemlock  or  wild  carrot.  He  was 
 told,  that  it  was  usually  fatal  to  the  camels  who  ate  of 
 it,  and  that  its  juice  was  so  acrid  as  to  fester  the  flesh, 
 if  at  all  excoriated.  He  supposes  it  to  be  the  silphium. 
 Delia  Cella  describes,  apparently,  the  same  production 
 as  an  umbelliferous  plant,  with  compound,  indented 
 leaves,  fleshy,  delicate,  and  shining,  without  any  involu- 
 crum;  the  fruit  being  somewhat  flattened,  surmounted 
 by  three  ribs,  and  furnished  all  round  with  a  membrane 
 as  glossy  as  silk  (p.  128).  Captain  Smith  succeeded 
 hi  bringing  over  a  specimen  of  the  plant,  which  is  said 
 to  be  now  thriving  in  Devonshire.  (Beechy,  p.  410, 
 seqq.)  M.  Pacho  says,  that  the  Arabs  call  it  dcrias ; 
 and  he  proposes  to  class  the  plant  as  a  species  of  la- 
 serwort,  under  the  name  of  laserpitium  dcrias.  It 
 seems  to  resemble  the  laserpitium  ferulaccum  of  Lin- 
 iiffius. — Cyrenaica  was  called  Pentapolis,  from  its  hav- 
 ing five  cities  of  note  in  it,  Cyrene,  Barce,  Ptolemais, 
 Berenice,  and  Tauchira.  All  of  these  exist  at  the 
 present  day  under  the  form  of  towns  or  villages,  and, 
 what  is  remarkable,  their  names  are  scarcely  changed 
 from  what  we  may  suppose  the  pronunciation  to  have 
 been  among  the  Greeks.  They  are  now  called  Ku- 
 rin,  Barca,  Tollnmata,  Bernic,  and  Taukera. — Some 
 farther  remarks  upon  the  district  of  Cyrenaica  will  be 
 found  under  the  head  of  Cyrene,  being  blended  with 
 the  history  of  that  city  as  its  capital.  For  a  full  ac- 
 count of  the  silphium,  see  the  36th  volume  of  the 
 Memoires  de  rAcadem.  dcs  Belles  Lett.rcs,  p.  18,  and 
 for  some  valuable  observations  respecting  Cyrenaica, 
 consult  the  work  of  M.  Pacho,  Relation  d'un  Voy- 
 asfc  dans  la  Marmarique,  la  Cyrenaique,  &c.,  Pans, 
 1828,  4to. 
 
 Cyrenaici,  a  sect  of  philosophers  who  followed  the 
 doctrines  of  Aristippus,  and  whose  name  was  derived 
 from  their  founder's  having  been  a  native  of  Cyrene, 
 and  from  their  school's  having  been  established  in  this 
 place.  Aristippus  made  the  summum  honum  and  the 
 reXo^  of  man  to  consist  in  enjoyment,  accompanied  by 
 good  taste  and  freedom  of  mind,  to  Kparelv  koI  /j.?] 
 TjTTaodaL  i]6bvo)v  upicTov,  ov  to  /it/  xpv'^^o.c.  (Diog. 
 Laert.,  2,  75.)  Happiness,  said  the  Cyrenaics,  con- 
 sists, not  in  tranquillity  or  indolence,  but  in  a  pleas- 
 ing agitation  of  the  mind  or  in  active  enjoyment. 
 Pleasure  is  the  ultimate  object  of  human  pursuit;  it 
 is  only  in  subserviency  to  this  that  fame,  friendship, 
 and  even  virtue  are  to  be  desired.  All  crimes  arc 
 venial,  because  never  committed  but  through  the  im- 
 mediate impulse  of  passion.  Nothing  is  just  or  un- 
 just by  nature,  but  by  custom  and  law.  The  business 
 of  philosophy  is  to  regulate  the  senses  in  that  manner 
 which  will  render  them  most  productive  of  pleasure. 
 Since,  then,  pleasure  is  to  be  derived,  not  from  the  past 
 or  the  future,  but  the  present,  a  wise  man  will  take  care 
 to  enjoy  the  present  hour,  and  will  be  indifferent  to  life 
 or  death.  Such  were  the  tenets  of  the  Cyren?\c  school. 
 The  short  duration  of  this  sect  was  owing,  in  part,  to 
 the  remote  distance  of  Cyrene  from  Greece,  the  chief 
 seat  of  learning  and  philosophy  ;  in  part  to  the  un- 
 bounded latitude  which  these  philosophers  allowed 
 themselves  in  practice  as  well  as  opinion  ;  and  in  part 
 to  the  rise  of  the  Epicurean  sect,  which  taught  the  doc- 
 trine of  pleasure  in  a  more  philosophical  form.  (En- 
 field's History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  197. — Tennc- 
 mann's  Manual,  p.  101,  Johnson's  transl.) 
 
 Cyrene,  I.  the  daughter  of  the  river  Peneus,  be- 
 loved by  Apollo.  The  god  carried  her  in  his  golden 
 chariot  over  the  sea,  to  that  part  of  Africa  called  after- 
 ward Cyrenaica,  where  she  bore  him  a  son  named  Aris- 
 tEBUs.  (Pind.,  Pytk.,  9,  90,  scqq. — Hrync,  ad  Vtrg., 
 Georg.,  4,  321.) — H.  A  celebrated  city  of  Africa,  on 
 the  Mediterranean  coast,  the  capital  of  Cyrenaica,  and 
 to  the  west  of  Egypt.  The  foundation  of  this  place 
 402 
 
 j  dates  as  far  back  as  the  37th  Olympiad  (about  B.C. 
 628),  when,  according  to  Herodotus,  a  colony  of 
 Greeks  from  Thera,  under  Battus,  were  conducted  by 
 the  Libyan  Nomades  to  this  delightful  spot,  then  call- 
 ed Irasa.  In  the  neighbourhood  was  a  copious  sprinor 
 of  excellent  water,  which  the  Dorian  colonists  are  said 
 to  have  called  the  fountain  of  Apollo,  and  to  have 
 named  Cyra  (Kiipo),  having  in  this,  most  probably,  giv- 
 en a  Greek  form  to  some  appellation  in  use  among 
 the  natives.  From  Kvpa  arose  the  name  of  the  place, 
 Kvpdva,  which,  substituting  the  Ionic  for  the  Doric 
 form,  became  Kvpf/vT},  or  Cyrene.  {Callim.  H.  in 
 ApolL,  88. — Eustath.,  ad  Dionys.  Perieg.,  213. — 
 Spanhcim,  ad  Callim.,  I.  c  )  'Phe  poetic  account, 
 which  makes  Aristasus  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the 
 city,  and  to  have  named  it  after  his  mother,  the  nymph 
 Cyrene,  is,  of  course,  purely  fabulous. — After  the  ar- 
 rival of  Battus  in  this  quarter,  other  migrations  from 
 Greece  also  took  place  ;  and  the  colonists  had  become 
 strong  enough,  under  their  third  sovereign,  to  make 
 war  upon  their  Libyan  neighbours,  and  even  to  defeat 
 an  army  of  Egyptian  auxiliaries,  which  Apries  (Pha- 
 raoh Hophra)  had  sent  to  their  assistance.  (Herodot., 
 4,  160.)  The  state  of  Barca  was  founded  by  a  divi- 
 sion of  the  colonists,  headed  by  the  brother  of  the 
 king  (Arcesilaus  III.),  who,  having  abjured  his  author- 
 ity, left  Cyrene  with  his  followers.  A  civil  war  en- 
 sued, followed  by  the  usual  consequences,  an  appli- 
 cation to  the  neighbouring  states  for  foreign  aid,  the 
 eventual  ruin  of  one  party,  and  the  loss  of  independence 
 by  the  other.  At  first  the  Barceans  appear  to  have 
 had  the  advantage  ;  but,  in  the  reign  of  a  fourth  Ar- 
 cesilaus, who  had  married  the  daughter  of  the  sovereign 
 of  Barca,  a  popular  insurrection  took  place,  in  which 
 both  monarchs  were  assassinated.  The  mother  of  the 
 Cyrenean  king.  Queen  Pheretime,  fled  to  Egypt,  and 
 invoked  the  aid  of  Aryander,  the  Persian  viceroy  un- 
 der Darius  Hystaspcs,  who  readily  espoused  her  cause. 
 Barca,  after  a  long  siege,  fell  through  treachery,  and 
 was  plundered  by  the  Persians  ;  while  the  vengeance 
 of  the  queen  was  glutted  in  the  massacre  of  all  who 
 had  been  concerned  in  the  insurrection.  After  this 
 we  hear  no  more  of  Barca  as  a  separate  state.  In  the 
 time  of  Aristotle  Cyrene  was  a  republic  ;  and  this  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  the  form  of  government  at  the  era 
 of  the  memorable  dispute  recorded  by  Sallust,  between 
 the  Cyreneans  and  the  Carthaginians,  relative  to  their 
 respective  limits.  (Vid.  Philsni.)  Cyrene  subse- 
 quently fell  under  the  power  of  the  Carthaginians, 
 and  was  comprised,  with  l^gypt  and  Libya,  in  the 
 viceroyalty  of  Ptolemy  Lagus,  whose  brother  Magas 
 ruled  Cyrene  for  fifty  years.  It  continued  to  form  part 
 of  the  empire  of  the  Ptolemies  till  it  was  made  over 
 by  Ptolemy  Physcon  to  his  illegitimate  son  Apion. 
 During  a  reign  of  twenty-one  years,  during  which 
 Egypt  was  a  prey  to  intestine  disturbances,  Apion 
 maintained  peace  and  tran<iuillity  in  his  dominions, 
 and  on  his  death  bequeathed  Cyrenaica  to  the  Ro- 
 mans. The  senate  accepted  the  bequest,  but  allowed 
 the  cities  to  be  governed  by  their  own  laws,  which 
 opened  the  way  for  fresh  discord;  and  the  anarchy 
 was  terminated,  twenty  years  after  the  death  of  Apion 
 (B.C.  76),  by  the  reduction  of  the  v^'hole  of  Cyrenaica 
 to  the  condition  of  a  Roman  province.  In  the  time 
 of  Strabo  it  was  united  with  Crete  in  one  govern- 
 ment. The  most  flourishing  period  of  Cyrene  was 
 probably  that  of  the  Ptolemaic  dynasty,  and  of  the  pre- 
 ceding two  or  three  centuries,  when  Grecian  art  was 
 in  the  highest  perfection  ;  to  which  period  we  may  as- 
 sign the  Doric  temples  and  other  monuments,  which 
 are  decidedly  of  an  early  style.  The  philosophy  and 
 literature  of  Greece  were  diligently  cultivated  at  Cy- 
 rene, and  this  city  gave  birth  to  Aristippus,  the  found- 
 er of  the  licentious  sect  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
 Cyrenaic.  It  was  the  birthplace  also  of  the  poet  Callim- 
 achus,  of  Eratosthenes  the  historian,  and  Carncades 
 
C  YR 
 
 CYRILLUS. 
 
 the  sophist.  Numbers  of  Jews  appear  to  have  settled 
 in  Cyrenaica,  even  prior  to  the  Christian  era.  It  was 
 a  Jew  of  Gyrene  whom  the  Roman  soldiers  compell- 
 ed to  bear  one  end  of  our  Saviour's  cross.  (Matt., 
 27,  33. — Mark,  15,  21.)  Cyrenean  Jews  were  pres- 
 ent at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  the  Pentecost ;  some 
 of  them  took  part  with  their  Alexandrean  brethren  in 
 disputing  against  the  proto-martyr  Stephen  ;  and  Chris- 
 tian Jews  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene,  fleeing  from  the  per- 
 secution of  their  intolerant  brethren,  were  the  first 
 preachers  of  Christianity  to  the  Greeks  of  Antioch. 
 {Acts,  2,  10  ;  6,  9  ;  11,  20.)  That  Cyrene  continued 
 to  flourish  under  the  Romans,  may  be  inferred  as  well 
 from  some  Latin  inscriptions  as  from  the  style  of  many 
 of  the  architectural  remains.  To  what  circumstance 
 its  desertion  is  attributable,  does  not  appear  ;  but  in 
 the  fifth  century  it  had  become  a  mass  of  ruin.  It  is 
 60  described  by  Synesius,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
 Theodosius  the  younger.  The  wealth  and  honours  of 
 Cyrene  were  transferred  to  the  episcopal  city  of  Ptol- 
 emaVs.  The  final  extirpation  of  the  Greek  colonies  of 
 Cyrenaica  dates,  however,  from  the  destructive  inva- 
 sion of  the  Persian  Chosrocs,  who,  about  616,  overran 
 Syria  and  Egypt,  and  he  advanced  as  far  westward  as 
 the  neighbourhood  of  Tripoli.  The  Saracens  comple- 
 ted the  work  of  destruction,  and  for  seven  centuries 
 this  once  fertile  and  populous  region  has  been  lost  to 
 civilization,  to  commerce,  and  almost  to  geographical 
 knowledge.  For  three  parts  of  the  year  Cyrene  is 
 untenanted,  except  by  jackals  and  hyenas,  and  during 
 the  fourth,  wandering  Bedouins,  too  indolent  to  as- 
 cend the  higher  range  of  hills,  pitch  their  tents  chiefly 
 on  the  low  grounds  to  the  southward  of  the  summit  on 
 which  the  city  is  built.  The  situation  of  Cyrene  is 
 described  by  modern  travellers  as  singularly  beautiful. 
 It  is  built  on  the  edge  of  a  range  of  hills,  rising  about 
 800  feet  above  a  fine  sweep  of  high  table-land,  form- 
 ing the  summit  of  a  lower  chain,  to  which  it  descends 
 by  a  series  of  terraces.  The  elevation  of  the  lower 
 chain  may  be  estimated  at  1000  feet ;  so  that  Cyrene 
 stands  about  1800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  of 
 which  it  commands  an  extensive  view  over  the  table- 
 land, which,  extending  east  and  west  as  far  as  the  eye 
 can  reach,  stretches  about  five  miles  to  the  northward, 
 and  then  descends  abruptly  to  the  coast.  The  view 
 from  the  brow  of  the  height,  extending  over  the  rocks, 
 and  woods,  and  distant  ocean,  is  described  by  Capt. 
 Beechy  as  almost  unrivalled  in  magnificence.  Ad- 
 vantage has  been  taken  of  the  natural  terraces  of  the 
 declivity,  to  shape  the  ledges  into  practicable  roads, 
 leading  along  the  face  of  the  mountain,  and  communi- 
 cating, in  some  mstances,  by  narrow  flights  of  steps 
 cut  in  the  rock.  These  roads,  which  may  be  supposed 
 to  have  been  the  favourite  drives  of  the  citizens  of  Cy- 
 rene, are  very  |)lainly  indented  with  the  marks  of  char- 
 iot-wheels, deeply  furrowing  the  smooth,  stony  sur- 
 face. The  rock,  in  most  instances  rising  perpendicu- 
 larly from  these  galleries,  has  been  excavated  into  in- 
 numerable tombs,  formed  with  great  labour  and  taste, 
 and  generally  adorned  with  architectural  facades.  In 
 several  of  the  excavated  tombs  were  discovered  re- 
 mains of  paintings,  representing  historical,  allegorical, 
 and  pastoral  subjects,  executed  in  the  manner  of  those 
 of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii :  some  of  them  by  no 
 means  inferior  to  the  best  that  have  been  found  in 
 those  cities.  (For  some  remarks  on  these  paintings, 
 consult  Bccchy,  p.  451,  seqq  ) 
 
 GvRKscH.vTA.      Vid   Cyropolis. 
 
 CvKiM.us,  I.  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  born  in  that 
 city  A.U.  315.  He  succeeded  Maximus  in  the  epis- 
 copate, about  the  close  of  the  year  350;  and  the  author 
 of  the  Chronicle  of  Alexandrea,  as  well  as  Socrates 
 nnd  other  writers,  inform  us,  that  on  the  7th  of  May, 
 351.  about  nine  in  the  morning,  a  luminous  cross  was 
 seen  in  the  heavens,  extending  from  Calvary  to  the 
 Mount  of  Olives,  a  distance  of  nearly  three  fourths  of 
 
 a  league.  The  Greek  church  has  a  festival  on  the 
 7th  of  May,  in  commemoration  of  this  phenomenon, 
 which  marked  the  promotion  of  CyriU  to  the  mitre. 
 Cyrill  himself  has  left  a  description  of  this  celestial 
 appearance  in  a  letter  to  the  Emperor  Constantius, 
 and  the  subject  has  afforded  much  controversy  to 
 writers  of  a  later  age. — Cyrill  became  involved  in  a 
 controversy  with  Acacius,  archbisho|)  of  Caesarea,  an 
 Arian  or  Semiarian  in  his  tenets  ;  and  refused  to  obey 
 the  citation  of  his  opponent  to  appear  at  Csesarea  : 
 the  charge  alleged  against  him  was,  his  havin"  wasted 
 the  property  of  the  church,  when  the  truth  was,  that, 
 during  a  great  famine  in  Judea,  Cyrill  had  sold  some 
 of  the  sacred  ornaments  in  order  to  procure  suste- 
 nance for  the  suflfering  poor.  The  council  assem- 
 bled at  Cassarea,  and  composed  of  Arian  bishops,  con- 
 demned him,  and,  oti  Cyrill's  appealing  from  them  to  a 
 higher  tribunal,  Acacius,  construing  this  appeal  into  a 
 high  offence,  drove  him  from  Jerusalem.  He  was  re- 
 stored to  his  see  in  359  by  the  council  of  Seleucia, 
 which  also  pronounced  the  deposition  of  Acacius  and 
 many  other  Arians  ;  but  in  the  following  year  Acacius 
 and  his  partisans  succeeded  in  again  deposing  (Cyrill. 
 In  the  year  361  he  was  again  restored  to  his  pontifi- 
 cate. It  was  about  this  time  that  Julian  made  his 
 memorable  attempt  to  rebuild  the  Jewish  temple  :  Cyr- 
 ill was  then  at  Jerusalem,  and  before  the  flames  is- 
 sued from  the  side  of  the  former  structure,  he  confi- 
 dently predicted  the  failure  of  the  emperor's  scheme 
 He  became  odious  to  Julian,  who  resolved,  according 
 to  Orosius,  to  sacrifice  this  pontiff  to  his  hatred  on  his 
 return  from  the  Persian  war.  Julian,  however,  per- 
 ished in  the  expedition.  Cyrill  was  again  exiled,  in 
 367,  by  the  Emperor  Valens,  who  had  embraced  Ari- 
 anism:  his  exile  lasted  for  ten  years,  and  he  only  re- 
 turned to  Jerusalem  in  378,  when  Gratian  re-estab- 
 li.shed  in  their  sees  those  bishops  who  were  in  com- 
 munion with  Pope  Damasus.  Cyrill  governed  his 
 church  without  atiy  farther  troubles  for  the  space  of 
 eight  years,  under  the  reign  of  Theodosius,  and  assist- 
 ed in  381  at  the  general  council  of  Constantinople. 
 He  subscribed  the  condemnation  of  the  Arians  and 
 Macedonians,  and  died  in  386,  in  the  71st  year  of  his 
 age  and  the  36lh  of  his  episcopate.  The  works  of 
 Cyrill  consist  of  twenty-three  Instructions,  known  by 
 the  name  of  Catcchcses,  which  were  composed  by 
 him  at  Jerusalem  when  he  filled  the  station  of  cate- 
 chist,  previous  to  his  being  made  a  bishop.  These 
 productions,  the  style  of  which  is  in  general  simple 
 and  familiar,  are  regarded  as  the  most  ancient  and  com- 
 plete abridgment  that  we  possess  of  the  doctrines  of 
 the  primitive  church.  The  Calvinists  have  attempted 
 to  prove  them  supposititious,  but  the  Protestants  of 
 England  have  fully  succeeded  in  establishing  their  au- 
 thenticity. We  have  also  a  homily  of  Cyrill's  on  the 
 paralytic  man  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  his  letter  to 
 Constantius  on  the  luminous  cross  which  appeared  at 
 Jerusalem.  The  best  editions  of  his  works  are,  that 
 of  Mills,  Oxon.,  1703,  fol.,  and  that  of  Touttee,  Fans, 
 1720,  fol.  This  last  is  decidedly  the  better  one,  and 
 was  published  by  Maran  on  the  death  of  Touttee.  (Bt- 
 ogr.  Univ.,  vol  10,  p.  404,  seqq.) — II.  Bishop  of  Al- 
 exandrea, in  the  fifth  century,  succeeded  his  uncle 
 Theophilus  in  that  dignity  in  the  year  412.  Tho 
 bishops  of  Alexandrea  had  long  acquired  great  au- 
 thority and  power,  and  Cyrill  took  every  opportunity  to 
 confirm  and  increase  it.  Soon  after  his  elevation,  he 
 expelled  the  Novatians  from  Alexandrea,  and  stripped 
 their  bishop,  Theopompus,  of  all  his  property.  In  415 
 the  Jews  committed  some  insult  on  the  Christians  of 
 Alexandrea,  which  so  enraged  Cyrill,  that,  instead  of 
 advising  them  to  apply  for  redress  to  the  civil  magis- 
 trate, he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  people,  and  led 
 them  to  the  assault  and  plunder  of  the  synagogues  and 
 houses  of  that  people,  and  drove  them  out  of  the  city. 
 This  conduct,  however,  displeased  Orestes,  the  govern- 
 
 403 
 
C  YR 
 
 or  of  Alexandrea,  who  feared  that  the  bishop's  author- 
 ity, if  not  checked,  might  infringe  upon  that  of  the 
 magistrate.  Parties  were  formed  to  support  the  rival 
 claims,  and  battles  were  fought  in  the  streets  of  Alex- 
 andrea ;  and  Orestes  himself  was  one  day  suddenly 
 surrounded  by  500  monks,  by  whom  he  would  have 
 been  murdered  had  not  the  [)eople  interfered.  One  of 
 these  assailants,  being  seized,  was  put  to  the  torture 
 so  severely  that  he  died  under  the  o[)eration,  on  which 
 Cyriil  had  hitn  immediately  canonized,  and  on  every 
 occasion  commended  his  constancy  and  zeal.  There 
 also  lived  in  Alexandrea  a  learned  pagan  lady,  named 
 Hypatia,  with  whom  Orestes  was  intimate,  and  who 
 was  supposed  to  have  encouraged  his  resistance  to  the 
 claims  of  the  bishop.  This  accomplished  female  was 
 one  day  seized  by  a  band  of  zealots,  who  dragged  her 
 through  the  streets,  and  concluded  by  tearing  her  limb 
 from  limb,  a  piece  of  atrocity  attributed  to  the  instiga- 
 tion of  Cyriil,  and  from  which  his  memory  has  never 
 been  absolved.  He  next  engaged  in  a  furious  contro- 
 versy with  Nestorius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who 
 maintained  that  the  Virgin  Mary  ought  not  to  be  called 
 the  Mother  of  God,  but  the  mother  of  our  Lord  or  of 
 Christ,  since  the  Deity  can  neither  be  born  nor  die. 
 These  homilies,  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Egyptian 
 monks,  caused  a  great  commotion  among  them,  and 
 CyriU  wrote  a  pastoral  letter  to  them,  in  which  he 
 maintained  that  the  Virgin  Mary  ought  to  be  called 
 the  Mother  of  God,  and  denounced  bitter  censures 
 against  all  who  supported  an  opjjosite  opinion.  A  con- 
 troversial correspondence  between  the  two  bishops  en- 
 sued, which  ended  in  an  open  war  of  excommunica- 
 tions and  anathemas.  To  put  an  end  to  this  contro- 
 versy, in  431  a  council  was  held  at  Ephesus  by  the 
 Emperor  Theodosius  ;  and  Cyriil,  by  his  precipitation 
 and  violence,  and  not  waiting  for  a  number  of  Eastern 
 bishops,  obtained  the  condemnation  of  Nestorius  with- 
 out his  being  heard  in  his  own  defence,  and  that  prelate 
 was  deprived  of  his  bishopric  and  banished  to  the 
 Egyptian  deserts.  When  John,  bishop  of  Antioch, 
 and  the  other  Eastern  bishops,  however,  appeared,  they 
 avenged  Nestorius,  and,  deposing  Cyriil,  put  him  in 
 prison.  In  a  subsequent  meeting  of  the  council,  he 
 was  liberated  and  absolved  from  the  sentence  of  de- 
 position, but  had  the  mortification  of  seeing  the  doc- 
 trine which  he  had  condemned  spreading  rapidly  through 
 the  Roman  empire,  Assyria,  and  Persia.  He  died  at 
 Alexandrea  in  the  year  444.  CyriU  was  undoubtedly 
 a  man  of  learning,  but  overbearing,  ambitious,  cruel, 
 and  intolerant  in  the  highest  degree.  He  is  much  ex- 
 tolled by  Catholic  writers  for  his  great  zeal  and  pietv, 
 of  which  the  particulars  thus  specified  are  proofs.  He 
 was  the  author  of  a  number  of  works,  treatises,  &c  , 
 the  best  edition  of  which  was  published  at  Paris  in 
 1638,  in  7  vols,  fol.,  under  the  care  of  Jean  Aubert, 
 canon  of  Laon.     {Biogr.  Uiuv.,vo\.  10,  p.  40G.) 
 
 CvRNOs(Kiipvof),  the  Greek  name  of  Corsica.  {Vid. 
 Corsica.) 
 
 CvROPoLis,  a  large  city  of  Asia,  on  the  banks  of 
 the  laxarles,  founded  by  Cyrus.  (Ccllaritis,  Gcogr. 
 Ant.,  vol.  2,  p.  715. — Salma.s.,  in  Solin.,  p.  480.)  It 
 was  also  called  Cyreschata.  Both  of  these  names, 
 however,  are  Greek  translations  of  the  true  Persian 
 terms.  The  termination  of  the  last  is  the  Greek  ea- 
 XnTTj,  expressing,  as  did  the  Persian  one,  the  remote 
 situation  of  the  place.  Alexander  destroyed  it,  and 
 built  in  its  stead  a  city,  called  by  the  Roman  geogra- 
 phers Alexandrea  Ultima,  by  the  Greeks,  however,  'A/l- 
 e^av6pEia  'Ecrjur;/,  of  which  the  Latin  is  a  translation. 
 The  modern  Cogcnd  is  supposed  by  D'Anvillc  to  an- 
 swer to  the  site  of  this  city.  Some  writers  make 
 another  city  of  the  name  of  Cyropolis  to  have  been 
 founded  by  Cyrus  in  Media.  (Compare  Cdlarius, 
 Geogr.  Ant.,  vol.  2,  p.  666.) 
 
 Cyrrhestica,  a  country  of  Syria,  northeast  of  the 
 city  of  Aiitiochia,  and  north  of  the  district  of  Chaly- 
 404 
 
 CYR 
 
 bonitis.      It  was  so  called  from  its  capital  CyrrhuB. 
 {Plin.,  5,  23.— CVc,  Ep.  ad  Att.,  5,  18.) 
 
 CvRRHUs,  I.  a  city  of  Macedonia,  in  the  vicinity  ol 
 Pella.  (Compare  Thucydides,  2,  100.)  There  is  a 
 Pal(Eo  Castro  about  sixteen  miles  northwest  of  Pella, 
 which  is  very  likely  to  be  Cyrrhus.  Wesseling  thinks 
 that  Diodorus  alludes  to  the  Macedonian  Cyrrhus  (18, 
 4),  when  he  speaks  of  a  temple  of  Minerva  built  there 
 by  order  of  Alexander  {ad  Itin  Hieros.,  p.  606). 
 Hence  the  title  of  Kv()()iaTig,  noticed  by  both  Strabo 
 and  Stephanus.  But  these  writers  allude  to  the  Syri- 
 an Cyrrhus.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  229.) 
 — II.  A  city  of  Syria,  the  capital  of  a  district  named 
 after  it  Cyrrhestica.  It  derived  its  name  from  the 
 Macedonian  Cyrrhus.  Stephanus  Byzantinus,  how- 
 ever, writes  Kr'/ppog.  Later  writers,  and  especially 
 Christian  ones,  give  the  name  of  this  place  as  Kv- 
 po(,  Cyrus,  being  misled,  probably,  by  the  fable  which 
 is  found  in  Procopius  {JEdif.,  2,  12),  that  the  Jews 
 were  the  founders  of  the  city,  and  called  it  after  Cyrus 
 their  liberator.  The  ruins  are  still  called  Corns. 
 {CeUarius,  Geogr.  Ant.,  vol.  2,  p.  359.) 
 
 Cyrus,  I.  a  celebrated  conqueror,  and  the  I'ounder  of 
 the  Persian  empire.  His  early  history  has  been  given, 
 on  the  authority  of  Herodotus,  under  the  article  .\sty- 
 ages. — He  had  not  been  long  sealed  on  the  throne, 
 when  his  dominions  were  itivaded  by  Croesus,  king  of 
 Lydia,  the  issue  of  which  contest  was  so  fatal  to  the 
 latter.  {Vid.  Croesus.)  The  conquest  of  Lydia  es- 
 tablished the  Persian  monarchy  on  a  firm  foundation, 
 and  Cyrus  was  now  called  away  to  the  East  by  vast 
 designs,  and  by  the  threats  of  a  distant  and  formidatile 
 enemy.  Babylon  still  remained  an  independent  city 
 in  the  heart  of  his  empire,  and  to  reduce  it  was  his 
 first  and  most  pressing  care.  On  another  side  he  was 
 tempted  by  the  wealth  and  the  weakness  of  Egypt; 
 while  his  northern  frontier  was  disturbed  and  endan- 
 gered by  the  fierce  barliarians,  who  ranged  over  the 
 plains  that  stretch  from  the  skirts  of  the  Indian  Cau- 
 casus to  the  Caspian.  Until  these  last  should  be  sub- 
 dued or  humbleci,  his  Eastern  provinces  could  never 
 enjoy  peace  or  safety.  These  objects  demanded  his 
 own  presence  ;  the  subjugation  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks, 
 as  a  less  urgent  and  less  difficult  enterprise,  he  com- 
 mitted to  his  lieutenants.  While  the  latter,  therefore, 
 were  executing  his  commands  in  the  West,  he  was  him- 
 self enlarging  and  strengthening  his  power  in  the  East. 
 After  completing  the  subjugation  of  the  nations  west  of 
 the  Euphrates,  he  laid  siege  to  Babylon.  The  account 
 of  its  capture  is  given  elsewhere  {vid  Babylon),  though 
 it  seems  doubtful  whether  he  took  the  city  in  the  way 
 there  related,  or  in  any  other  manner,  and  did  not  rath- 
 er owe  his  success  to  some  internal  revolution,  which 
 put  an  end  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Babylonian  kings. 
 In  Xcnophon's  romance,  Cyrus  is  made  to  fix  his  resi- 
 dence at  Babylon  during  seven  months  in  the  year  ; 
 perhaps  we  cannot  safely  conclude  that  this  was  ever 
 the  practice  of  any  of  his  successors  :  but  it  is  highly 
 probable,  that  the  reduction  of  this  lu.vurious  city  con- 
 tributed, more  than  any  other  of  the  Persian  conquests, 
 to  change  the  manners  of  the  court  and  of  the  nation. 
 Cyrus  himself  scarcely  enjoyed  so  long  an  interval  of 
 repose.  The  protection  which  he  afforded  to  the  Jews 
 was  probably  connected  with  his  designs  upon  Egypt; 
 but  he  never  found  leisure  to  carry  them  into  effect. 
 Soon  after  the  fall  of  Babylon  he  undertook  an  expedition 
 against  one  of  the  nations  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Cas- 
 pian. According  to  Herodotus,  it  was  the  Massagetae, 
 a  nomadic  horde,  which  had  driven  the  Scythians  be- 
 fore them  towards  the  West;  and,  after  gaining  a  vic- 
 tory over  them  by  stratagem,  he  was  defeated  in  a  great 
 battle  and  slain.  The  event  is  the  same  in  the  nar- 
 rative of  Ctcsias  ;  but  the  people  against  whom  Cyrus 
 marched  are  called  the  Derbices,  and  their  army  is 
 strengthened  by  troops  and  elephants  furnished  by  Indi- 
 an allies  ;  while  the  death  of  Cyrus  is  speedily  avenged 
 
CX^RUS. 
 
 CYRUS. 
 
 by  one  of  his  vassals,  Amorges,  king  of  the  Sac»,  who 
 gains  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Derbices,  and  annex- 
 es their  land  to  the  Persian  empire.     This  account  is 
 so   far  confirmed  by  Herodotus,  that  we  do  not  hear 
 from  him  of  any  consequences  that  followed   the  suc- 
 cess of  the  Massagetas,  or  that  the  attention  of  Cam- 
 byses,  the  son  and  heir  of  Cyrus,  was  called  away  to- 
 wards the  North.     The  first  recorded  measure  of  his 
 reign,  on    the  contrary,   was  tlie   invasion  of  Egypt. 
 {Thn/wuU's  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  172,  scq.) — Thus  much 
 for  the  history  of  Gyrus,  according  to  the  generally  re- 
 ceived account.    It  is  more  than  probable,  however,  that 
 many  and  conflicting  statements  respecting  his  birth, 
 parentage,  early  life,  attainment  to  sovereign  power, 
 and  subsequent  career,  were  circulated  throughout  the 
 East,  since  we  find  discrepances  between  the  narra- 
 tives of  Herodotus,  Ctesias,  and   Xenophon  in  these 
 several  particulars,  that  can  in  no  other  way  be  ac- 
 counted for.      It  has  been  customary  with  most  schol- 
 ars to  decry  the  teslimonv  of  Ctesias,  and   to  regard 
 him  as  a  writer  of  but  slender  pretensions  to  the  char- 
 acter of  veracity.      As  far,  however,  as  the  history  of 
 Cyrus  was  concerned,  to  say  nothitig  of  other  parts  of 
 his  narrative,  this  opinion  is  evidently  unjust,  and  its 
 injustice  will  be  placed  in  the  clearest  light  if  we  com- 
 pare together  the  two  rival  statements  of  Ctesias  and 
 Herodotus.     The  account  of  the  latter  teems  with  fa- 
 bles, from  which  that  of  the  former  appears  to  be  entire- 
 ly free.     It  is  far  more  consistent  with  reason,  to  be- 
 lieve with  Ctesias  that  there  was  no  affinity  whatever 
 between  Cyrus  and  Astyages,  than  with  Herodotus,  that 
 the  latter  was  his  maternal  grandfather.     Neither  does 
 Ctesias  make  any  mention  of  that  most  palpable  fable, 
 the  exposure  of  the  infant ;   nor  of  the  equally  fabulous 
 story  respecting  the   cruel  punishment  of  Harpagns. 
 (Compare  Bdhr,  ad  Ctes.,  Pers.,  c.  2,  and  the  words 
 of  Rcineccius,  Famil.  Keg.   Med.  et    Hactr.,   Lips., 
 1572,    p.   35,   "  ab   Astyage   usurpalm  in    Cyrum   et 
 Harpagi  filium  crvdeliiatis  decnnlalam  ab  Herodoto 
 fabulam  plane  rejicimiis.'^}     Nor  need  this  dissimilar- 
 ity between  the  statements  of  Ctesias  and  Herodotus 
 occasion  any  surprise.     The  latter  historian  confesses, 
 very  ingenuously,  that  there  were  three  different  tradi- 
 tions in  his  time  relative  to  the  origin  of  Cyrus,  and 
 that  he  selected  the  one  which  appeared  to  him  most 
 probable  (1,  9G).      How  unfortunate  this  selection  was 
 we  need  hardly  say.     Ctesias,  then,  chose  another  tra- 
 dition for  his  guide,  and  Xenophon,  perhaps,  may  have 
 partially  mingled  a  third  with  his  narrative,      ^schy- 
 lus  {PerscB,  v.  767)  appears  to  have  followed  a  fourth. 
 (Compare  Stanley,  ad  Aischyl.,  I.  c,  and  Lurcher,  ad 
 Cleg.,  Pcrs.,  c.   2.)     With   these   several   accounts, 
 again,  what  the  Armenian  writers  tell  us  respecting  Cy- 
 rus is  directly  at  variance.     (Compare  Rccherches  Cu- 
 vicunes  sur  VHistoire  Ancicnne  dc  I'Asie,  par  Cirhied 
 ft  Martin,  p.  61,  seqq.)     Among  the  modern  scholars 
 who  have  espoused  the  cause  of  Ctesias,  his  recent  ed- 
 itor, Bahr,  stands  most  conspicuous.     This  writer  re- 
 gards the  narrative  of  Herodotus  as  savouring  of  the 
 <ireek  love  for  the  marvellous,  and  thinks  it  to  have 
 been  in  some  degree  adumbrated  from  the  story  of  the 
 riicban  CEdipiis  and  his  e.\:posure  on  Cithasron  ;   while, 
 on  the  other  hand,  Xenophon  presents  Cyrus  to  our 
 view  as  a  young  man.  imbued  with  the  precepts  of  the 
 Socratic  school,  and  exhibiting  in  his  life  and  conduct 
 a  model  for  the  imitation  of  others.      The  same  scholar 
 gives  the  following  as  what  appears  to  him  a  near  ap- 
 proximation to  the  true  history  of  Cyrus.      He  sup- 
 poses Cyrus  not  to  have  been  of  royal  lineage,  but  to 
 have  been  by  birth  in  the  rank  of  a  subject,  and  gifted 
 with  rare  endowments  of  mind.     He  makes  him  to 
 have  first  seen  the  light  at  the  time  when  the  Modes 
 possessed   the  empire  of  Asia.     The  provinces  or  di- 
 visions of  this  empire  he  supposes  to  have  been  held 
 by  satraps  or  viceroys,  whose  power,  though  derived 
 from  the  monarch,  was  hereditary  among  themselves. 
 
 He  makes  Cambyses,  the  father,  to  have  been  one  of 
 these  satraps  ;  and  Cyrus,  the  son,  to  have  succeeded 
 him.  Their  sway  was  over  the  Persians,  whom  they 
 ruled  with  almost  regal  power.  Cyrus  at  length  re- 
 volted from  the  king  of  the  Medes,  and,  by  the  aid  of 
 his  immediate  followers,  obtained  possession  of  the 
 empire.  In  order,  however,  the  belter  to  keep  in  sub- 
 jection the  other  nations  composing  the  cmjiire  of  Asty- 
 ages, he  wished  to  pass  himself  off  as  the  son  and  law- 
 ful successor  of  the  dethroned  monarch.  Hence  arose 
 the  nuptials  of  Cyrus  and  Amytis  the  wife  of  Astyages. 
 (Compare,  as  regards  the  Persian  custom  of  intermar- 
 riage, Crcuzer,  Fragm.  Hist  ,  p.  223.  —  Freinshem., 
 ad  Curt.,  3,  11,  24,  and  8,  2,  19.  — Thcodoret  ,  Scrm., 
 9,  p.  614. — Bdhr,  ad  Ctes.,  p.  91.)  Hence,  too,  we 
 may  account  for  the  circumstance  of  .\styages'  not 
 having  been  put  to  death,  but  being  treated  with  great 
 honour,  and  made  the  companion  of  Cyrus  in  his 
 marches  against  those  nations  who  would  not  acknowl- 
 edge his  sway.  (Consult  Bdhr,  ad  Ctes.,  p.  86,  seqq.) 
 — Ctesias  makes  Cyrus  to  have  reigned  thirty  years, 
 and  Herodotus  twenty-nine.  According  to  some  au- 
 thorities he  died  at  a  very  advanced  age.  (Compare 
 Xenophon,  Cyrop.,  8,  7,  1.)  Scaliger,  guided  by 
 Dinon  and  Ctesias,  makes  Cyrus  to  have  reached  the 
 218th  year  of  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  i.  e.,  B.C.  .528. 
 {De  Emend.  Temp.,  p.  402.)— The  name  Cyrus  {Kv- 
 pof)  is  generally  thought  to  have  been  deduced  from  a 
 Persian  word,  meaning  the  Sun.  (^Plut.,  Vit.  Arlax., 
 1  )  Coray  (ad  Pint.,  I.  c.)  informs  us,  that  the  Sun  is 
 still  called  Kour  by  the  Persians.  (Compare  Hesy- 
 chius,  s.  V.  Kvpoi;  ....  urvb  tov  ij^iiov  rbv  yup  rfkiov 
 ol  Hepaai  Kvpov  Myovaiv  and  Plethon.,  Schol.  in 
 Orac.  Mag.  Zoroastr.,  p.  68,  lin.  3,  a  fine.)  Ritter 
 also  adduces  various  authorities  to  show,  that,  among 
 the  ancient  Persians,  as  well  as  other  early  Oriental 
 nations,  Kor  and  Koros  denoted  the  Sun.  (Vorhalle, 
 p.  86,  seqq.)  Wahl  had  proved  the  same  before  him. 
 [Vordcr  und  Mittel-asicn,  vol.  1,  p.  599.)  The  He- 
 brew Khoresh  (Cyrus)  is  traced  by  Gesenius  also  to 
 the  Persian.  {Heb.  Lex.,  s.  v.)  The  previous  name 
 of  Cyrus  appears  to  have  been  Agradates  (Strabo, 
 729),  which  Rosenmiiller  explains  by  the  Persian 
 Agah-dar-dad,  i.  e.,  ''juris  cognitionem  habens,"  "jus 
 tcncns  ac  servans."  (Rosenm.,  Handbuch,  vol.  1.  p. 
 367. — Bdhr,  ad  Ctes.,  p.  458.)— II.  Commonly  called 
 "the  Younger,"  to  distinguish  him  from  the  |)rece- 
 ding,  was  the  second  of  the  four  sons  of  Darius  Nolhus 
 and  Parysatis.  According  to  the  customs  of  the  mon- 
 archy, his  elder  brother  .Artaxerxes  was  the  legitimate 
 heir  apparent ;  but  Cyrus  was  the  first  son  born  to 
 Darius  after  his  accession  to  the  throne ;  and  he  was 
 also  his  mother's  favourite.  She  had  encouraged  him 
 to  hope,  that,  as  Xerxes,  through  the  influence  of  Atos- 
 sa,  had  been  preferred  to  his  elder  brother,  who  was 
 born  while  their  father  was  yet  in  a  private  station,  so 
 she  should  be  able  to  persuade  Darius  to  set  aside  Ar- 
 laxerxes,  and  declare  Cyrus  his  successor.  In  the 
 mean  while  he  was  invested  with  the  government  of 
 the  western  provinces.  This  ajipointment  he  seems 
 from  the  first  to  have  considered  as  a  step  to  the  throne. 
 He  had,  however,  sagacity  and  courage  enough  to  per- 
 ceive, that,  should  he  be  disappointed  in  his  first  ex- 
 pectations, the  co-operation  of  the  Greeks  might  still 
 enable  hiin  to  force  his  way  to  the  throne.  It  was 
 with  this  view  that  he  zealously  embraced  the  side  of 
 Sparta  in  her  struggle  with  Athens,  both  as  the  power 
 which  he  found  in  the  most  prosperous  condition,  and 
 as  that  which  was  most  capable  of  furthering  his  de- 
 signs. According  to  Plutarch  (Vit.  Artax.,  2),  Cyrus 
 went  to  attend  his  father's  sickbed  with  sanguine 
 hopes  that  his  mother  had  accomplished  her  purpose, 
 and  that  he  was  sent  for  to  receive  the  crown.  On  his 
 arrival  at  court,  however,  he  saw  himself  disappointed 
 in  his  expectations,  and  found  that  he  had  only  come 
 to  witness  his  father's  death,  and  his  brother's  acces- 
 
 405 
 
CYRUS. 
 
 CYT 
 
 Bion  to   the   throne.      He   accompanied  Artaxerxes, 
 whom  the  Greeks  distinguished  by  the  epithet  of  Mne- 
 mon,    to   Pasargadae,  where   the  Persian  kings  went 
 through  certain  mystic  ceremonies  of  inauguration,  and 
 Tissaphernes   took  this  opportunity  of  charging  him 
 with  a  design  against  his  brother's  hfe.    It  would  seem, 
 from   Plutarch's   account,   that   one  of  the  officiating 
 priests  was  suborned  to  support  the  charge  ;   though  it 
 is  by  no  means  certam  that  it  was  unfounded.      Arta- 
 xer.xes  was  convinced  of  its  truth,  and  determined  on 
 putting  his  brother  to  death  ;  and  Cyrus  was  only  saved 
 by  the  passionate  entreaties  of  Parysatis,  in  whose  arms 
 he  had  sought  refuge  from  the  executioner.     The  char- 
 acter of  Artaxerxes,  though  weak  and  timid,  seems  not 
 to  have  been  naturally  unamiable.     The  ascendency 
 which  his  mother,  notwithstanding  her  undissembled 
 predilection  for  her  younger  son,  exercised  over  him, 
 was  the  source  of  the  greater  part  of  his  crimes  and 
 misfortunes.     On  this  occasion  he  suffered  it  to  over- 
 power i)Oth  the  suspicions  suggested  by  Tissaphernes, 
 and  the  jealousy  which  the  temper  and  situation  of  Gy- 
 rus might  reasonably  have  excited.     He  not  only  par- 
 doned his  brother,  but  permitted  him  to  return  to  his 
 government.     Cyrus  felt  himself  not  obliged,  but  hum- 
 bled, by  his  rival's  clemency  ;  and  the  danger  he  had 
 escaped  only  strengthened  his  resolution  to  make  him- 
 self, as  soon  as  possible,  independent  of  the  power  to 
 which  he  owed  his  life.     Immediately  after  his  return 
 to  Sardis,  he  began  to  make  preparations  for  the  exe- 
 cution of  his  design.     The  chief  difficulty  was  to  keep 
 them  concealed  from  Artaxerxes  until  they  were  fully 
 matured  ;   for,  though  his  mother,  who  was  probably 
 from  the  beginning  acquainted  with  his  pu.pose,  was 
 at  court,  always  ready  to  put  the  most  favourable  con- 
 struction on  his  conduct,  yet  Tissaphernes  was  at  hand 
 to  watch  it  with  malignant  attention,  and  to  send  the 
 earliest  information  of  any  suspicious  movement  to  the 
 king.     Cyrus,  however,  devised  a  variety  of  pretexts 
 to  blind  Tissaphernes  and  the  court,  while  he  collected 
 an  army  for  the  expedition  which  he  was  meditatincr. 
 His  mam  object  was  to  raise  as  strong  a  body  of  Greek 
 troops  as  he  could,  for  it  was  only  with  such  aid  that 
 he  could  hope  to  overpower  an  adversary,  who  had  the 
 whole  force  of  the  empire  at  his  command  :  and  he 
 knew  enough  of  the  Greeks  to  believe,  that  their  su- 
 periority over  his  countrymen,  in  skill  and  courage,  was 
 sufficient  to  compensate  for  almost  any  inequality  of 
 numbers.     In  the  spring  of  401   B.C.,   Cyrus  began 
 his  march  from  Sardis.      His  whole  Grecian  force,  a 
 part  of  which  joined  him  on  the  route,  amounted  to 
 1 1,000  heavy  infantry,  and  about  2000  tartreteers.     His 
 barbarian  troops  were  100,000  strong.     After  directing 
 his  line  of  march  through  the  whole  extent  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, he  entered  the  Babylonian  territory  ;   and   it  was 
 not  until   he  reached   the  plain  of  Cunaxa,  between 
 sixty  and  seventy  miles  from  Babylon,  that  he  became 
 certain  of  his  brother's  intention  to  hazard  an  entraue- 
 inent.      Artaxerxes  met  him  in  this  spot  at  the  head  of 
 an  army  of  900,000  men.     If  we  may  believe  Plutarch, 
 the  Persian  monarch  had  continued  to  waver  almo.?t  to 
 the   last,  between  the  alternatives  of  fightinor  and  re- 
 treating, and  was  only  diverted  from  adopting  the  lat- 
 ter course  by  the  energetic  remonstrances  of  Tiriba- 
 zus.      In    the  battle  which   ensued,  the  Greeks  soon 
 routed  the  barbarians  opposed  to  them,  but  committed 
 an  error  in  pursuing  them  too  far,  and  Cyrus  was  com- 
 pelled, in  order  to  avoid  being  surrounded  by  the  rest 
 of  the  king's  army,  to  make  an  attack  upon  tlie  centre, 
 where    his    brother  was    in    person.      He   routed    the 
 royal  body-guard,  and,  being  hurried  away  by  the  vio- 
 lence of  his  feelings  the  moment  he  espied  the  king,  he 
 engaged  with  him,  but  was  himself  wounded  and  slain 
 by  a  common  soldier.      Had  Clearchus  acted  in  con- 
 formity with  the  directions  of  Cyrus,  and  led  his  divis- 
 ion against  the  king's  centre,  instead  of  being  drawn 
 off  into  pursuit  of  the  fJving  enemy,  the  victory  must 
 406 
 
 have  belonged  to  Cyrus.  According  to  the  Persian 
 custom  of  treating  slain  rebels,  the  head  and  right 
 hand  of  Cyrus  were  cut  ofl"  and  brought  to  the  king, 
 who  is  said  himself  to  have  seized  the  head  by  the 
 hair,  and  to  have  held  it  up  as  a  proof  of  his  victory 
 to  the  view  of  the  surrounding  crowd.  Thus  ended 
 the  expedition  of  Cyrus.  Xenophon,  who  gives  an  ac- 
 count of  the  whole  enterprise,  pauses  to  describe  the 
 qualities  and  conduct  by  which  this  prince  commanded 
 love  and  respect,  in  a  manner  which  shows  how  impor- 
 tant the  results  of  his  success  might  have  been  for  the 
 welfare  of  Persia.  The  Greeks,  after  the  battle,  began 
 to  negotiate  with  the  king  through  Tissaphernes,  who 
 ofTercd  to  lead  them  home.  He  treacherously  violated 
 his  word,  however;  and  having,  by  an  act  of  perfidy,  ob- 
 tained possession  of  the  persons  of  the  Greek  command- 
 ers, he  sent  them  up  to  the  king  at  Babylon,  where 
 they  were  all  put  to  death.  The  Greeks  were  not, 
 however,  discouraged,  though  at  a  great  distance  from 
 their  couiitry,  and  surrounded  on  every  side  by  a  pow- 
 erful enemy.  They  unmediately  chose  new  command- 
 ers, in  the  number  of  whom  was  Xenophon,  who  has 
 given  so  beautiful  and  interesting  an  account  of  their 
 celebrated  retreat.  ( Fz(/.  Xenophon.)  According  to 
 Diodorus  and  Diogenes  Laertius,  the  expedition  was 
 undertaken  by  Cyrus  in  the  4th  year  of  the  94th 
 Olympiad.  Larcher,  on  the  contrary,  in  a  dissertation 
 inserted  in  the  17lh  vol.  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Acade- 
 my of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres,  makes  it  to  have 
 been  in  the  third  year  of  that  Olympiad,  in  the  end  of 
 March  or  beginning  of  .^pril.  He  makes  the  battle  of 
 Cunaxa  to  have  been  fought  at  the  end  of  October,  in 
 the  4th  year  of  the  same  Olympiad,  and  the  time  which 
 the  whole  expedition  occupied,  including  the  retreat, 
 down  to  the  period  when  the  Greeks  entered  the  army 
 of  Thyinbron,  to  have  been  two  years.  {PliU.,  Vit. 
 Artax. — Xen.,  Anab. —  TtiirlwaWs  Greece,  v(j1.  4,  p. 
 281,  scqq.) — III.  A  large  river  of  Asia,  rising  in  Iberia 
 and  falling  into  the  Caspian  ;  now  the  Kur.  This  river 
 waters  the  great  valley  of  Georgia,  and  is  increased 
 by  the  Arairui,  the  lora,  probably  the  Iberus  of  the 
 ancients,  and  the  Alasari,  which  is  their  Alazo.  When 
 it  reaches  the  plains  of  Shirvan,  its  waters  are  mixed 
 with  those  of  the  Aras  or  A  raxes.  These  two  rivers 
 form  several  branches,  sometimes  united  and  some- 
 times separated,  so  that  it  appears  uncertain,  as  it  was 
 in  the  time  of  Strabo  and  Ptolemy,  whether  their 
 mouths  were  to  be  considered  as  separate,  or  whether 
 the  Cyrus  received  the  Araxes.  (i'lin.,  4,  10. — Id., 
 6,  9.— Id,  10,  1-3— Mela,  3,  5.— Strabo,  345.) 
 
 Cyta,  a  city  of  Colchis,  in  the  interior  of  the  coun- 
 try, near  the  river  Phasis,  and  northeast  of  Tyndaris. 
 It  was  the  birthplace  of  Medea,  and  its  site  corresponds 
 at  the  present  day  to  Kutais,  the  capital  of  the  Rus- 
 sian province  of  Imerethi.  The  inhabitants,  like  the 
 Colchians  generally,  were  famed  for  their  acquaintance 
 with  poisonous  herbs  and  magic  rites.  Scylax  calls 
 the  place  Male  (MuA?;),  which  Vossius  changes  lo 
 Cyta  (KiTa).  Medea  was  called  Cytttis  from  this 
 her  native  city.  (Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v. —  Cellar.,  Geog. 
 Aniiq.,  vol.  1,  p.  308. ) 
 
 CvtyEis,  a  surname  given  to  Medea  by  the  poets, 
 from  her  having  been  born  at  Cyta.  (Propcrl.,  2. 
 1,  73.) 
 
 Cythera,  now  Cerigo,  an  island  on  the  coast  of 
 Laconia  in  Peloponnesus.  It  was  particularly  sacred 
 to  the  goddess  Venus,  who  was  hence  surnatned  Cythe- 
 raa,  and  who  rose,  as  fables  tell  us,  from  the  sea,  near 
 its  coasts.  Stepbanus  of  Byzantium  says,  that  the 
 island  derived  its  name  Cythera  from  a  Phoenician 
 named  Cytherus,  who  settled  in  it  Before  his  arrival 
 it  was  called  Porphyris  or  Porphyrissa,  according  to 
 Eustathius  {ad  Dion.  Perieg.,  500),  from  the  quantity 
 of  purple  fish  found  on  its  shores  ;  but  the  name  of 
 Cythera  is  as  ancient  as  the  time  of  Horner.  {OtL,  1, 
 80.)     The  fable  respecting  Venus'  having  arisen  frosa 
 
C  Y  Z 
 
 D  AC 
 
 the  sea  in  its  vicinity,  means  notiiing  more  than  that 
 her  worship  was  introduced  into  the  island  by  some 
 maritime  people,  probably  the  Phosniciaiis.  Cythera 
 was  a  place  of  great  importance  to  the  Spartans,  since 
 an  enemy,  if  in  possession  of  it,  would  be  thereby  en- 
 abled to  ravage  the  southern  coast  of  Laconia.  Its 
 harbours  also  sheltered  the  Spartan  fleets,  and  afforded 
 protection  to  all  merchant  vessels  against  the  attacks 
 of  pirates,  whose  depredations,  on  the  other  hand, 
 would  have  been  greatly  facilitated  by  its  acquisition. 
 {Thucyd.,  4,  53.)  Hence  the  Argives,  who  originally 
 held  it,  were  driven  out  eventually  by  the  Spartans. 
 A  magistrate  was  sent  yearly  from  Sparta,  styled  Cy- 
 therodices,  to  administer  justice,  and  to  examine  into 
 the  state  of  the  island  ;  and  so  important  a  position 
 was  it,  that  Demaratus  expressly  advised  Xerxes  to 
 seize  it  with  a  part  of  his  fleet,  since  by  that  means  he 
 would  compel  the  Spartans  to  withdraw  from  the  con- 
 federacy, aad  defend  their  own  territories.  Demara- 
 tus quoted,  on  this  occasian,  the  opinion  of  Chilo,  the 
 Lacedasmonian  sage,  who  had  declared  it  would  be  a 
 great  benefit  to  Sparta  if  that  island  were  sunk  into 
 the  sea.  Cythera  (Cerigo)  is  now  one  of  the  Ionian 
 islands.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  1,  262;  10,  5. — Pausan.,  3, 
 m.—Omd,  Met.,  4.  288;  15,  386.— fas/.,  4,  15.— 
 Hcrodot.,  1,  29.) 
 
 CytherjEa,  a  surname  of  Venus,  from  her  rising  out 
 of  the  ocean  near  the  island  of  Cythera. 
 
 CvTHNOs,  an  island  between  Ceos  and  Seriphus,  in 
 the  Mare  Myrtoum.  colonized  by  the  Dryopes.  {Ar- 
 tem.,  ap.  Strab.,  485. — Diccearch.,  Ins.,  27.)  It  was 
 the  birthplace  of  Cyadias,  an  eminent  pamter.  The 
 cheese  of  Cythnos,  according  to  Stephanus  and  Julius 
 Pollux,  was  held  in  high  estimation  among  the  an- 
 cients. The  island  is  now  called  Thermia.  It  was 
 also  named  Ophiussa  and  Dryopis.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  403.) 
 
 Cytineum,  the  most  considerable  of  the  four  cities 
 of  Doris  in  Greece.  According  to  Thucydides  (3, 
 95),  it  was  situate  to  the  west  of  Parnassus,  and  on 
 the  borders  of  the  Locri  Ozolaj.  /Esehines  observes, 
 that  it  sent  one  deputy  to  the  Amphictyonic  council. 
 {De  Fids.  Leg.,  p.  43.) 
 
 CvTORUM,  a  city  of  Paphlagonia,  on  the  coast  be- 
 tween the  promontory  Carainbis  and  Amastris.  It 
 was  a  Greek  town  of  great  antiquity,  since  Homer  al- 
 ludes to  it  {IL,  2,  853),  and  is  thought  to  have  been 
 founded  by  a  colony  of  Milesians.  According  to  Stra- 
 bo  (545),  it  had  been  a  port  of  the  inhabitants  of  Si- 
 nope.  In  its  vicinity  was  a  mountain,  named  Cyto- 
 rus,  which  produced  a  beautifully-veined  species  of 
 box-tree.  (Catullus,  4,  IS.—Virg.,  Gcovg.,  2,  437.) 
 The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  are  found  near  a  harbour 
 called  Quilros  or  Kitros.  {Tavernier,  Voyage,  lib.  3, 
 c.  6.)  In  the  vicinity  is  a  high  mountain  called  Ku- 
 tros  or  Kotru.  {Abulfeda,  tab.  18,  p.  309. — Man- 
 tiert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  23.) 
 
 Cvzicus,  I.  an  island  off  the  northern  coast  of  My- 
 eia,  nearly  triangular  in  shape,  and  about  five  hundred 
 etadia  in  circuit.  Its  base  was  turned  towards  the 
 Pro[)ontis.  while  the  vertex  advanced  so  closely  to  the 
 coiiiinent  that  it  was  easy  to  connect  it  by  a  double 
 bridge.  This,  as  Pliny  reports,  was  done  by  Alexan- 
 der. Scylax,  however,  says  that  it  was  always  a  pen- 
 insula, and  his  authority  is  followed  by  Maniiert,  who 
 is  of  opinion  that  the  inhabitants  may,  after  tlie  time 
 of  Scylax,  have  separated  it  from  the  mainland  by  a 
 catial  or  ditch,  for  purposes  of  security.  (Plm.,  5, 
 32.— Maimert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.'  527.)  It  is 
 certainly  a  peninsula  at  the  present  dav,  and  there  are 
 no  indications  whatever  of  the  bridge's  mentioned  by 
 Pliny  and  others.  (Seslini,  Viaggio,  p.  502 —Cra- 
 mer's  Asia.  Minor,  vol.  1,  p  47  )— II.  A  celebrated 
 city  of  Mysia,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  situate 
 partly  in  the  plain  which  extended  to  the  bridges  con- 
 uecting  the  island  with  the  continent,  and  partly  on 
 
 the  slope  of  Mount  Arcton-oros.  Its  first  foundation 
 is  ascribed  by  Conon  to  a  colony  of  Pelasgi  from  Thes- 
 saly,  under  the  conduct  of  Cyzicus,  son  of  Apollo,  and 
 Aristides  speaks  of  the  god  himself  as  the  founder  of 
 the  city.  {Orat.  Cyzic,  1,  p.  114.)  In  process  of 
 time  the  Pelasgi  were  expelled  by  the  Tyrrheni,  and 
 these  again  made  way  for  the  Milesians,  who  are 
 generally  looked  upon  by  the  Greeks  as  the  real  set- 
 tlers, to  whom  the  foundation  of  Cyzicus  is  to  be 
 attributed.  {Coiion,  Narrat.,A:\.  —  Strab.,  %Zb.)  Cyz- 
 icus became,  in  process  of  time,  a  flourishincf  com- 
 mercial city,  and  was  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity, 
 when,  through  the  means  of  the  kings  of  Pergamus,  it 
 secured  the  favour  and  protection  of  Rome.  Florus 
 speaks  in  the  highest  terms  of  its  beauty  and  opu- 
 lence ;  and  Strabo  assures  us  that  it  equalled  in  these 
 respects,  as  well  as  in  the  wisdom  of  Us  political  in- 
 stitutions and  the  firmness  of  its  government,  the 
 most  renowned  cities  of  Asia.  The  Cyzicene  com- 
 monwealth resembled  those  of  Rhodes,  Marseilles,  and 
 Carthage.  They  elected  three  magistrates,  who  were 
 curators  of  the  public  buildings  and  stores.  They 
 possessed  extensive  arsenals  and  granaries,  and  care 
 was  taken  to  preserve  the  wheat  by  mixing  it  with 
 Chalcidic  earth.  Owing  to  these  wise  and  salutary 
 precautions,  they  were  enabled  to  sustain  an  arduous 
 and  memorable  siege  against  Mithradates,  king  of  Pon- 
 tus,  by  both  sea  and  land,  until  relieved  by  Lucullus. 
 {Appian,  Bell.  Milhr.,  c.  73,  scqq.—Plut.,  Vit.  Lu- 
 cuU.,  c.  9,  seqq. — Strab.,  bib)  The  Romans,  in  ac- 
 knowledgment of  the  bravery  and  fidelity  displayed  by 
 the  Cyzicenians  on  this  occasion,  granted  to  them 
 their  independence,  and  greatly  enlarged  their  terri- 
 tory. Under  the  emperors,  Cyzicus  continued  to  prcs- 
 per  greatly,  and  in  the  time  of  the  Byzantine  sway 
 It  was  the  metropolis  of  the  Hellespontine  province. 
 {HierocL,  p.  661.)  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an 
 earthquake,  A.D.  943.  Cyzicus  gave  birth  to  several 
 historians,  philosophers,  and  other  writers.  The  coins 
 of  this  place,  called  KiiJt/c>?i'ot  ararf/peg,  were  so  beau- 
 tiful as  to  be  deemed  a  miracle  of  art.  Proserpina 
 was  worshipped  as  the  chief  deity  of  the  place,  and  the 
 inhabitants  had  a  legend  among  them,  that  their  city 
 was  given  by  .Jupiter  to  this  goddess,  as  a  portion  of 
 her  dowry.  The  ruins  of  Cyzicus  now  pass  by  the 
 name  of  Alraki.  {Cramer  s  Asia  Mmur,  vol.  1,  p. 
 40,  scqq.) — III.  .\  king  of  the  Dolionians,  a  people 
 who  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  inhabitants  of  the 
 district  of  Cyzicus  in  Mysia.  He  was  killed  in  a 
 night  encounter  by  the  Argonauts,  whom  he  had  mis- 
 taken for  enemies.     {Vid.  Argonauta3.) 
 
 D. 
 
 DavE  or  D.VHJE  (called  by  Herodotus  Dai),  a  peo 
 pie  who  dwelt  on  the  southeastern  borders  of  the  Cas- 
 pian Sea,  in  the  province  of  Hyrcania.  They  seem 
 to  have  been  a  roving  nomadic  tribe.  Virgil  {JEn., 
 728)  styles  them  tndomiti ;  and  Servius,  in  comment- 
 ing on  the  passage  of  the  poet  where  the  term  occurs, 
 states  that  they  extended  to  the  northern  part  of  Per- 
 sia. He  must  allude  evidently  to  the  incursions  they 
 were  accustomed  to  make  into  the  countries  south  of 
 Hyrcania.  (Compare  Plin.,  6,  \7 —Mela,  1,  2,  and 
 3,  5.)  Their  country  is  supposed  by  some  to  answer 
 to  the  modern  Dahtsian.  {Piin.,  6,'l7.— Curt.,  7,  4. 
 -Herod.,  1,  125.) 
 
 Dacia,  a  large  country  of  Europe,  bounded  on  the 
 south  by  the  Danube,  which  separated  it  from  ^Joes!a, 
 on  the  north  by  Sarmatia,  on  the  east  by  the  Tyras 
 and  Pontus  Euxinus,  and  on  the  west  by  the  lazy- 
 ges  Metanasts.  It  corresponded  nearly  to  \alachm, 
 Transyhania,  Moldavia,  and  that  part  of  Hungary 
 which  lies  to  the  east  of  the  Tibiscus  or  Teiss,oneoi 
 the  northern  branches  of  the  Danube.  In  AD.  105, 
 Traian  added  this  country  to  the  Roman  empire.  He 
 •*  407 
 
D^ED 
 
 BJEB 
 
 erected  a  stately  bridge  over  the  Danube.  3325  Eng- 
 lish feet  in  length.  I'his  Aurelian  destroyed  :  his  mo- 
 tive in  so  doing  is  said  to  have  been  the  fear  lest  the 
 barbarians  would  find  it  an  easy  passage  to  tlie  coun- 
 tries south  of  the  Danube,  for  he  had  by  a  treaty  aitan- 
 doned  to  the  Goths  the  Dacia  of  'I'rajan.  {Vopisc, 
 33,  39.)  On  this  occasion  he  named  the  province 
 south  of  the  Danube,  to  which  his  forces  were  with- 
 drawn, Dacia  Aureliani.  (Vtd.  Moesvd.)  'J'here  were 
 afterward  distinguished  in  Dacia,  the  part  bordering 
 on  the  Danube  and  called  Ripensis,  and  that  which 
 was  sequestered  in  the  interior  country  under  the  name 
 of  Mediterranea.  This  last  was  probably  the  same 
 with  what  was  more  anciently  termed  Dardania.  The 
 Daci  of  the  Romans  are  the  same  with  the  Getae  of 
 the  Greeks.  {Marmcrl,  Geogr.,\o\.  4,  p.  188,  segq.) 
 From  ]Jacus  comes  Davus,  the  common  name  of 
 slaves  in  Greek  and  Roman  plays.  Geta  was  used 
 in  the  same  sense.  The  Daci  were,  in  process  of 
 time,  successively  subdued  by  the  Sarmatae,  the  Goths, 
 and  the  Huns  ;  and  lastly,  the  Sa.vons,  driven  by  the 
 conquests  of  Charlemagne,  established  themselves  in 
 Dacia.  The  Saxons  prmci[)ally  concentrated  them- 
 selves in  what  is  now  Transylvania,  corresponding 
 to  the  ancient  Dacia  Mediterranea,  a  fertile  region, 
 surrounded  with  forests  and  metalliferous  mountains. 
 [Samhuco,  Append.  Rcr.  Hung.  Bonfin.,  p.  760.)  To 
 iheir  coming  must  be  entirely  attributed  the  origin  of 
 iis  cultivation.  .^11  its  principal  towns  were  built  by 
 them  :  traces  of  their  language  still  remain  ;  and  it 
 is  from  them  that  Transylvania  received  the  name  of 
 Siebenbuigcn,  or  the  Region  of  Seven  Cities.  {Chron. 
 Hang.,  c.2,  ap.  Rer.  Hung.  Script.,  p.  31. — Clarke''s 
 Travels — Greece,  Egypt,  Holy  Land,  &,c.,  vol.8,  p. 
 295,  seqq.) 
 
 Dauicus,  I.  a  surname  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  from 
 his  conquest  of  Dacia.  (Rasche,  Lex.  Rei  Num.,\o\. 
 3,  col.  27.) — II.  A  surname,  su[)posed,  but  errone- 
 ously, to  have  been  assumed  by  Domitian,  on  account 
 of  a  pretended  victory  over  the  Dacians.  The  coins 
 on  which  it  occurs  are  Trajan's.  {Achaintre,  ad  Juv., 
 Sat.,  6,  204.) 
 
 D.icTYLi.       Vid.  Idaei  Dactyli. 
 
 DyEn.iL.i,  I.  a  town  of  Caria,  near  the  confines  of 
 Lycia,  and  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Glaucus  Sinus. 
 It  was  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Dsdalus, 
 who,  being  slung  by  a  snake  on  crossing  the  small 
 river  Niiius,  died  and  was  buried  here.  (Steph.  Byz., 
 s.  V.  AaidaAa.)  —U.  A  mountain,  in  the  vicinity  of 
 the  city  of  the  same  name,  and  on  the  confines  of 
 Lycia.  (Strabo,  664.) — III.  Two  festivals  in  Boeo- 
 tia.  One  of  these  was  observed  at  Alalcomenos  by 
 the  Platsans,  in  a  large  grove,  where  they  exposed,  in 
 the  open  air,  pieces  of  boiled  flesh,  and  carefully  ob- 
 served whither  the  crows  that  had  come  to  prey  upon 
 them  directed  their  flight.  All  the  trees  upon  which 
 any  of  these  birds  alighted  were  immediately  cut 
 down,  and  with  them  statues  were  made,  called  Da:d- 
 ala,  in  honour  of  Dasdalus. — The  other  festival  was 
 of  a  more  solemn  kind.  It  was  celebrated  every  sixty 
 years  by  all  the  cities  of  Boeotia,  as  a  compensation 
 for  the  intermission  of  the  smaller  festival  for  that 
 number  of  years,  during  the  exile  of  the  Plataeans. 
 Fourteen  of  the  statues  called  Daedala  were  distribu- 
 ted by  lot  among  the  Plataeans,  Lebadffians,  (^orone- 
 ans,  ( )rchomeiiians,  Thespians,  Thebans,  TanagraDans, 
 and  Chaeroneans,  because  they  had  effected  a  recon- 
 ciliation among  the  Plataeans,  and  caused  them  to  be 
 recalled  from  exile  about  the  time  that  Thebes  was 
 restored  by  Cassander,  the  son  of  Aniipatcr.  During 
 this  festival,  a  woman  in  the  habit  of  a  bridemaid  ac- 
 companied a  statue,  which  was  dressed  in  female  gar- 
 ments, along  the  banks  of  the  Eurotas.  This  proces- 
 sion was  attended  to  the  top  of  Mount  Citha;ron  by 
 many  of  the  Bceolians,  who  had  places  assigned  them  by 
 oX.  Here  an  altar  of  square  pieces  of  wood,  cemented 
 408 
 
 together  like  stones,  was  erected,  and  upon  it  were 
 thrown  large  quantities  of  combustible  materials.  Af- 
 terward a  bull  was  sacrificed  to  Jupiter,  and  an  ox  or 
 heifer  to  Juno,  by  every  one  of  the  cities  of  Bceolia, 
 and  by  the  most  opulent  that  attended.  'I'he  poorest 
 citizens  offered  small  cattle;  and  all  these  oblations, 
 together  with  the  Da-dala,  were  thrown  in  the  com- 
 mon heap  and  set  on  fire,  and  totally  reduced  to  ashes. 
 The  festival  originated  in  this  :  when  Juno,  after  a 
 quarrel  with  Jupiter,  had  retired  to  Eultoea,  and  retused 
 to  return,  the  god  went  to  consult  Cithsron,  king  ol 
 Plataja,  to  find  some  effectual  measure  to  subdue  hei 
 obstinacy.  Cithaeron  advised  him  to  dress  a  statue  m 
 woman's  apparel,  and  carry  it  in  a  chariot,  and  pub- 
 licly to  report  it  was  Platsa,  the  daughter  of  Asopus, 
 whom  he  was  going  to  marry.  The  advice  was  fol- 
 lowed, and  Juno,  informed  of  her  husband's  future 
 marriage,  repaired  in  haste  to  meet  the  chariot,  and 
 was  easily  united  to  him,  when  she  discovered  the 
 artful  measures  he  made  use  of  to  effect  a  reconcilia- 
 tion. {Fausan.,  ^,2.)  Plutarch  composed  an  enure 
 treatise  on  this  festival,  some  fragments  of  which  have 
 been  preserved  by  Eusebius  {I'rap.  Evang.,  3,  1,  p. 
 83. — Plut.,  Op.  cd.  Hullen,  vol.  14,  p.  287),  and 
 agree  with  the  account  given  in  Pausanias,  except 
 that,  in  the  narrative  of  Eusebius,  Cithaeron  is  called 
 Alalcomene,  and  Plataea,  Daedala.  {Siebelis,ad  Pau- 
 san.,  I.  c.) 
 
 D^D.iLus,  I.  the  name  of  a  celebrated  artist  of  anti- 
 quity, said  to  have  been  a  native  of  Athens.  In  treat- 
 ing of  him,  it  is  requisite  first  to  mention,  that  the 
 statements  of  ancient  writers  respecting  him  cannot  be 
 understood  as  exhibiting  the  true  history  of  an  indi 
 vidual,  but  rather  as  obscurely  intimating  the  origin 
 and  progress  of  the  arts  in  Greece ;  and,  in  particu- 
 lar, the  information  which  is  afforded  respecting  the 
 place  of  his  birth,  and  the  countries  in  which  he  lived, 
 seems  to  reflect  light  on  the  districts  in  which  the  arts 
 were  first  cultivated.  In  noticing  the  accounts  which 
 have  reached  us,  of  the  personal  history  of  the  artist 
 Dasdalus,  the  name  itself  first  claims  our  attention. 
 We  learn  from  Pausanias  (9,  3,  2),  that  all  statues 
 and  images  were  anciently  styled  daldaT^a,  and  as 
 this  designation  was  common  long  before  the  birth  of 
 the  Athenian  artist  Daedalus,  it  is  inferred  that  the 
 name  Dsedalus  was  given  to  him  on  account  of  his  pro- 
 ductions. We  have  many  similar  instances  of  names 
 given  to  individuals,  to  shov^'  either  the  origin  of  par- 
 ticular acts,  or  the  talents,  ingenuity,  and  other  excel- 
 lences of  artists.  Diodorus  Siculus  (4,  76,  seqq.)  and 
 Pausanias  (7,  4,  5. — Id.,  9,  3,  2),  together  with  other 
 writers,  say  that  he  was  born  in  Attica;  but  Auso- 
 nius  {Mos.,  301)  designates  him  as  a  Cretan,  proba- 
 bly because  a  large  portion  of  his  time  was  spent  in 
 the  island  of  Crete.  The  name  of  his  father  is  vari- 
 ously stated  by  different  authors.  Plato  (Ion,  p. 
 363)  and  Diodorus  Siculus  (4,  76,  seqq  )  give  the 
 name  as  Metiones.  On  the  other  hand,  Hvginus 
 {fab.,  274),  Suidas,  Servius  (ad  V%rg.,  Jin.,  6,  14), 
 and  some  other  authorities,  mention  Eupalamus  as  his 
 parent.  Pausanias  (9,  3,  4)  calls  the  latter  Palamns  ; 
 and  thus  we  have  three  names  contended  for  by  differ- 
 ent authors,  all  of  which  iinplv  descent  from  some  skil 
 lul  and  ingenious  person.  Dsedalus  was  ctlcbrated  foi 
 his  skill  in  architecture  and  statuary.  His  nephew, 
 named  Talus  or  Perdix,  showed  a  great  geni-js  for 
 mechanics;  having,  from  the  contenipiaiion  of  a  .ser- 
 pent's teeth,  invented  the  saw,  and  applied  it  to  ihe 
 cutting  up  of  timber.  Da)da!us.  jealous  of  his  skill, 
 and  apprehensive  of  the  rivalry  of  the  young  man,  cast 
 him  down  from  the  Acropolis  and  killed  him.  For 
 this  murder  he  was  banished  by  the  court  of  Areopa- 
 gus, and  ho  betook  himself  to  Mmos,  king  of  Crete, 
 for  whom  ho  built  the  Labyrinth.  He  also  devised  an 
 ingenious  species  of  dance  for  Ariadne,  the  daugliler 
 of  that  monarch  (//.,  18,  590);  but,  having  fonued 
 
DAL 
 
 DAM 
 
 tlie  wooden  cow  for  Pasiphae,  he  incurred  the  dis- 
 pleasure of  the  king,  and  was  thrown  into  prison. 
 Having,  by  means  of  Pasiphae,  escaped  from  confine- 
 ment, he  determined  to  flee  from  Crete ;  but,  being 
 unable  to  get  away  by  sea,  he  resolved  to  attempt 
 Hight  through  the  air.  He  made,  accordingly,  wings 
 of  feathers  united  by  wax,  foi  himself  and  his  son  Ica- 
 rus. They  mounted  into  the  air ;  but  Icarus  ascend- 
 ing too  high,  and  a[)proaching  too  near  the  sun,  its 
 heat  melted  the  wax,  and  the  youth  fell  into  the  sea 
 and  was  drowned.  Daedalus  arrived  in  safety  in  Sici- 
 ly, where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Cocalus,  king 
 of  that  island,  who  took  up  arms  in  his  defence  against 
 Minos,  when  the  latter  pursued  him  thither.  (Apollod., 
 3,  15,  9.—0md,  Met.,  8,  103,  seqq.—PhUisti  Fragm., 
 1,  p.  145,  cd.  Golkr.)  Here,  too,  he  was  employed 
 in  erecting  several  great  architectural  works,  some  of 
 which  were  extant  even  in  the  time  of  Diodorus. 
 This  author  states  that  he  died  in  Sicily,  but  others 
 mention  that  he  went  to  Egypt,  where  he  left  monu- 
 ments of  his  ability  (Scylax  Peripl.)\  and  others, 
 again,  assert,  that  he  was  a  member  of  the  colony  which 
 AristuBus  IS  said  by  some  to  have  established  in  Sar- 
 dinia.— Thus  much  for  the  pretended  history  of  Daeda- 
 lus. It  must  be  evident,  that  under  the  name  of  this 
 artist  are  concealed  facts  respecting  the  origin  of  Gre- 
 cian art,  which  took  its  rise  in  Attica,  and  then  spread, 
 under  different  circumstances,  into  Crete  and  Sicily. 
 Dajdalus,  therefore  (Ja«5a/lof,  "  ingenious,''^  ''  invcnl- 
 tvc'^),  is  merely  a  personification  of  manual  art.  He 
 was  the  Eponymus  of  the  class  of  Dsedalids,  or  statua- 
 ries, at  Athens,  and  there  were  various  wooden  stat- 
 ues, preserved  till  late  times,  and  said  to  be  the  work 
 of  his  hands.  Icarus  (from  eiKu,  ''  to  be  like,"  eikuv, 
 fA'f/lc/f)  was  a  suitable  name  for  his  son,  and  the  re- 
 reniblance  between  it  and  the  name  of  the  Icarian  Sea 
 probably  gave  occasion  to  the  legend  of  the  flight 
 through  the  air.  {Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v. — Kcight- 
 Icy's  Mythology,  p.  398.)  Daedalus  is  said  to  have 
 introduced  several  improvements  into  the  forms  of  an- 
 cient statues,  by  separating  the  legs,  which  before 
 were  closed  together,  and  representing  his  statues  in 
 the  attitude  of  moving  forward  ;  and  also  by  opening 
 the  eyes,  which  were  previously  shut.  Hence  arose 
 the  fabulous  statement,  invented  at  a  subsequent  pe- 
 riod, that  Dajdalus  communicated  motion  to  statues  by 
 an  infusion  of  quicksilver.  {Plat.,  Men.,  p.  97,  ed. 
 Stall). — Aristot.,  Polit.,  1,  4. — Suid  ,  s.  v.  Aa/.JuAoD 
 Troii'iftara. — Botliger,  Andeutungcii,  p.  49.)  Daedalus 
 is  mentioned  as  the  inventor  of  the  axe,  plumbline, 
 auger,  and  also  of  glue  ;  and  likewise  as  the  person  who 
 first  introduced  masts  and  sails  into  ships.  (Plin.,  7, 
 56.  —  Van-.,  Fragm.,  p.  325,  cd.  Bip)— II.  A  statua- 
 ry of  Sicyon,  who  flourished  in  the  95th  Olympiad,  or 
 400-397B.G.  (Plm.,  34,  8.—Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 — III.  A  statuary  of  Bilhynia,  author  of  an  admirable 
 figure  of  2evg  Srpurtof,  which  was  preserved  at  Ni- 
 comedia.  {Arriati,  ap.  Euslalh.,  ad.  Dionys.  Perieg., 
 796.)  Thiersch  thinks  that  he  lived  after  the  found- 
 ing of  Nicomedia.  He  certainly  flourished  when  the 
 arts  had  been  brought  to  a  high  stale  of  perfection  in 
 Greece.  {Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 DaHve.      Vid.  Daas. 
 
 D.\lmatTa,  a  part  of  lilyricum,  between  the  rivers 
 Titius  and  Drinus,  and  "the  ranges  of  the  Bebian 
 mountains  and  Scardus.  It  derived  its  name  from  the 
 Dalrnates,  a  barbarous  but  valiant  race,  supposed  to  be 
 of  Thracian  origin,  and  who  were  very  skilful  in  nav- 
 igating the  sea  along  their  coast,  and  extremely  bold 
 m  their  piracies.  The  modern  name  of  the  country 
 is  the  same  with  the  ancient.  The  capital,  Dalmini- 
 um  or  Delminium,  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the 
 Romans,  B.C.  157;  the  country,  however,  was  not 
 completely  subdued  until  the  time  of  Augustus,  who 
 is  said  by  Appian  {Bell.  III.  c.  25)  to  have  concluded 
 the  war  in  person  before  he  became  emperor  Ac- 
 F  F  p 
 
 '  cording  to  Strabo,  the  Dalmatians  had  a  peculiar  cus' 
 tom  of  dividing  their  lands  every  eight  years,  and  had 
 no  coined  money.  Tlie  geographer  also  informs  us, 
 that  they  possessed  fifty  towns,  all  of  considerable  size, 
 several  of  which  were  burned  bv  Augustus.  Their 
 capital  he  calls  Dalmiuin,  and  derives  from  it  the  name 
 of  the  nation.  (Strab.,31^.)  The  Romans,  after  their 
 conquest  of  this  country,  divided  it  into  Dalmaiia  Mar- 
 iltma  and  Mediterranca,  and  made  it  part  of  the  prov- 
 ince of  Illyricum,  forming  the  lower  portion  of  i//y?ia 
 Barbara.  Dahnatia,  however,  is  sometimes  made  to 
 comprehend  a  much  wider  tract  of  country,  namely, 
 all  Illyria  Barbara,  or  the  region  between  Istna  aiid 
 Dyrrhachiuin,  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  the  Danube.  Dal- 
 matia  was  the  native  land  of  several  of  the  Roman 
 emperors,  who  exerted  themselves,  accordinglv,  to  im- 
 ])rove  its  condition.  Many  cities,  therefore,  and  splen- 
 did structures  arose  in  various  parts  of  it ;  and,  after 
 the  new  division  of  the  Roman  provinces  under  Con- 
 stantine  and  Theodosius,  Dalmatia  became  one  of  the 
 most  important  parts  of  the  empire.  {Flor.,  4.  12. — 
 Siteton.,  Vit.  Tib.,  c.  9.— Id.,  Vil.  Aug.,  c.  21. — Jor- 
 nand.,  de  Regn.  Sitee.,  p.  39,  58. — Id.,  de  Reb.  Get.,  p. 
 109,  128,  136.) 
 
 Dalmatius,  a  nephew  of  Constaniine  the  Great. 
 He  was  invested  by  this  emperor  with  the  title  of 
 Caesar,  and  commanded  against  the  Goths  in  Thrace. 
 Macedonia,  and  Greece.  Dalmatius  fell  in  a  tumult  of 
 his  own  soldiers,  A.D.  338,  brought  about  by  the  in 
 trigues  of  Constantius,  after  the  death  of  Constantine. 
 (Zosiin.,  2,  39,  scq. — Compare  Crevier,  Hist,  des 
 Emp.,  vol.  6,  p.  395.) 
 
 Dai.minium,  the  capital  of  Dalmatia,  and  from  which 
 the  Dalmatse  are  said  to  have  derived  their  name.  It 
 was  situate  to  the  east  of  the  river  Naro,  and  north- 
 east of  Narona.  This  place,  like  many  other  of  the 
 Dalmatian  towns,  was  situate  on  an  eminence.  Hence, 
 when  it  was  attacked  by  the  Romans,  the  usual  ma- 
 chines could  not  be  brought  up  against  it,  and  the  con- 
 sul Figulus  was  compelled  to  dart  burning  brands  from 
 his  catapultas.  As  the  fortifications  of  the  place  were 
 of  wood,  these  were  soon  reduced  to  ashes,  and  with 
 them  a  large  part  of  the  city  itself  Strabo  (315)  and 
 Stephanus  of  Byzantium  write  the  name  Dalmion 
 {tiulfiLov).  The  reduction  of  this  city  by  Figulus  took 
 place  B.C.  119.  (Appian,  Bell.  Ill,  11. — Mannert, 
 Gcogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  372.) 
 
 Damasckna.  or  Damascene  {tj  AafmcrKTjVTi  x'^P^)t 
 a  name  given  to  the  region  around  Damascus,  in  Sy- 
 ria.    {Plin.,  5,  12.— Strab.,  756.) 
 
 Damascius,  a  philosopher,  a  native  of  Damascus. 
 He  commenced  his  studies  under  Ammonius  at  Alex- 
 andrea,  and  completed  them  at  Athens  under  Marinus, 
 Isidorus,  and  Zenodotus.  According  to  some,  he  was 
 the  successor  of  Isidorus.  It  is  certain,  however, 
 that  he  was  the  last  professor  of  New-Platonism  at 
 Athens.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  excellent 
 judgment,  and  to  have  had  a  strong  attachment  for  the 
 sciences,  particularly  mathematics.  He  wrote  a  work 
 entitled  'ATropmt  Kal  Avaei^  m-pl  tuv  irpuTuv  u(>x'^'''t 
 "  Doubts  and  solutions  concerning  the  origin  oj 
 things.''''  Of  this  only  two  fragments  remain,  one 
 preserved  by  Photius,  which  forms  a  biographica 
 sketch  of  Isidorus  of  Gaza  ;  the  other  treating  irepi 
 yevvTjTov,  "  of  tchaf  has  been  procreated."  A  Munich 
 MS.  is  said  to  contain  an  unedited  work  of  his,  en- 
 titled 'kiropiai  Kal  7.va£i^  dc  tov  nZaTwi'Of  Ylnpfievi- 
 ihjv,  "  Doubts  and  solutions  relative  to  the  Parmeni- 
 des  of  Plato.'"  {Arctm,  Beitrase  zur  Gcsch.  und 
 Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  2i.  —  Schdll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p. 
 117,  seq.) 
 
 Damascus  (in  Hebrew  Dammesek),  one  of  the  prin- 
 cipal cities  of  Syria,  in  what  was  called  Coele-Syna, 
 a  few  miles  to  the  east  of  Antilibanus,  where  the  chain 
 begins  to  turn  off  to  the  southeast,  under  the  name  of 
 Carmel      It  was  beautifully  situated  in  an   extensive 
 
 409 
 
DAM 
 
 DAM 
 
 ana  pieasant  plain,  still  called  Goulch  Demesk,  or  the 
 orchard  of  Damascus,  and  watered  by  a  river  called 
 by  the  Greeks  Bardnie  or  Chrysorrhoas,  /he  goldcii 
 stream,  now  Baradi.  The  Syriac  name  of  this  stream 
 was  Pharphar.  Damascus  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 founded  by  Uz,  the  eldest  son  of  Aram.  {Gen.,  10, 
 23.)  However  this  may  be,  it  subsisted  in  the  time 
 of  Abraham,  and  may  be  reckoned  one  of  the  most 
 ancient  cities  of  Syria.  It  was  conquered  by  David 
 (2  Sam.,  8,  G),  but  freed  itself  from  the  Jewish  yoke  in 
 the  tnne  of  Solomon  (I  Kings,  11,  23,  scqq.),  and 
 became  the  seat  of  a  new  principality,  which  often 
 harassed  the  kingdoms  of  both  Judah  and  Israel.  It 
 afterward  fell,  in  succession,  under  the  power  of  the 
 Assyrians  and  Persians,  and  came  from  the  latter  into 
 the  hands  of  the  Seleucidce.  Damascus,  however,  did 
 not  flourish  as  much  under  the  Greek  dynasty  as  it 
 had  while  held  by  the  Persians.  The  Seleucidae  neg- 
 lected the  place,  and  bestowed  all  their  favour  on  the 
 new  cities  erected  by  them  in  the  northern  parts  of 
 Syria  ;  and  here,  no  doubt,  lies  the  reason  why  the 
 later  Greek  and  Roman  writers  say  so  little  of  the  city 
 itself,  though  they  are  all  loud  in  their  praises  of  the 
 adjacent  country.  Damascus  was  seized  by  the  Ro- 
 mans m  the  war  of  Pompey  with  Tigranes,  B.C.  65, 
 but  still  continued,  as  under  the  Greek  dynasty,  a 
 comparatively  unimportant  place,  until  the  time  of 
 Dioclesian.  This  emperor,  feeling  the  necessity  of  a 
 strongly  fortified  city  in  this  quarter,  as  a  depot  for 
 munitions  of  war,  and  a  military  post  against  the  fre- 
 quent inroads  of  the  Saracens,  selected  Damascus  for 
 the  purpose.  Everything  was  done,  accordingly,  to 
 strengthen  the  place  ;  extensive  magazines  were  also 
 established,  and  likewise  numerous  workshops  for  the 
 preparation  of  weapons  of  war.  {Malala.  Chron.,  1 1, 
 p.  132. — Natitia  Imperii.)  It  is  not  unlikely  that  the 
 high  reputation  to  which  Damascus  afterward  at- 
 tained, for  its  manufacture  of  sword-blades  and  other 
 works  in  steel,  may  have  had  its  first  foundations  laid 
 by  this  arrangement  on  the  part  of  Dioclesian.  The 
 city  continued  from  this  time  a  flourishing  place.  In 
 the  7th  century  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  tlie  Saracens, 
 and  was  for  some  time  after  this  the  seat  of  the  ca- 
 lifs. Its  prosperity,  too,  remained  unimpaired,  since 
 the  route  of  the  principal  caravans  to  Mecca  lay  through 
 it.  It  is  now  the  capital  of  a  pachalic.  The  Arabs 
 call  it  El-Sham,  and  the  Oriental  name  Demesk  i.s 
 known  only  to  geographers.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
 beautiful  and  pleasant  cities  of  Asia,  and  is  by  the 
 Arabs  considered  the  first  of  the  four  terrestrial  par- 
 adises. Its  population  is  variously  estimated  from 
 80,000  to  200,000.  Volney  gives  the  former  number, 
 and  Ali  Bey  the  latter.  The  Christian  population 
 is  estimated  by  Connor  at  about  20,000,  including 
 Greeks,  Catholics,  Latins,  Maronites.  Armenians,  and 
 Ncstorians,  but  he  says  "  this  is  a  rough  calculation 
 It  is  impossible  to  know  the  exact  number."  {Man- 
 nert,  Geogr  ,  vol.  6,  pt.   1,  p.  409,  scq.) 
 
 D.tMAsii'Piis,  I.  a  praBtor  during  the  consulship  of 
 Papirius  Carbo  and  the  younger  .Marius,  A.IJ.C.  671. 
 As  a  follower  of  the  Marian  party,  he  indulged  in 
 many  cruel  excesses  against  the  opposite  faction,  and 
 also  against  such  as  were  suspected  of  favourinir  it. 
 He  was  put  to  death  by  Sylla.  (Sallust,  Cat.,  51. — 
 Vel.l.  Pa'erc,  2,  20.) — II.  A  character  in  Horace,  who 
 is  there  represented  as  having  been  at  first  a  virtuoso, 
 or  dealer  in  antiques,  but  who,  proving  unfortunate  in 
 this  branch  of  business,  assumed  the  name  and  ap- 
 pearance of  a  Stoic  philosopher.  (Hurat.,  Sat.,  2,  3, 
 17,  scqq.) 
 
 Damnii,  one  of  the  ancient  nations  of  Scotland, 
 whose  country  answered  to  the  modern  Cli/dcsdalc, 
 Renfrew,  Lennox,  and  Stirling.  (Ptol. — Mannert, 
 Geogr.  vol.  2,  p.  207.) 
 
 Damnonii   or  Dumnonii,  a  people  of  Britain,  whose 
 country  answered  to  the  modern  Devonshire  and  Corn- 
 410 
 
 wall.  As  the  several  tribes  of  the  Damnonii  submit- 
 ted without  much  resistance  to  the  Romans,  and  never 
 joined  in  any  revolt  against  them,  their  conquerors 
 were  under  no  necessity  of  building  many  forts  or 
 keeping  many  garrisons  in  their  country.  Hence  it 
 happens,  that  few  Roman  antiquities  have  been  found 
 here,  and  that  the  name  of  its  peojile  is  seldom  men- 
 tioned by  the  Roman  writers.  Mannert  considers  the 
 name  Dumnonii  the  more  correct  of  the  two.  (Geogr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  195.) 
 
 Dam6ci.Es,  one  of  the  flatterers  of  Dionysius  the 
 Elder,  of  Sicily.  Having  in  the  course  of  conversa- 
 tion extolled  the  power  and  wealth  of  the  tyrant,  and 
 the  abundant  means  of  felicity  tiy  which  the  latter  ap- 
 peared to  be  surrounded,  Dionysius  asked  him  wheth- 
 er he  would  like  to  make  trial  of  this  same  state, 
 which  seemed  to  him  so  happy  a  one.  Damocles 
 eagerly  assented,  and  the  tyrant  caused  him  to  be 
 placed  on  a  purple  couch,  most  beautifully  adorned 
 with  various  embroidery.  Vessels  of  gold  and  silver, 
 richly  wrought,  met  his  view  on  every  side,  and  an 
 exquisite  banquet  was  served  up  by  slaves  of  the  most 
 attractive  mien,  who  were  attentive  to  his  every  com- 
 mand. Damocles  thought  himself  at  the  summit  of 
 human  felicity  ;  when,  happening  to  cast  his  eyes  up- 
 ward towards  the  richly  carved  ceiling,  he  perceived  a 
 sword,  sus[)ended  from  it  by  a  single  horsehair,  di- 
 rectly over  his  neck  as  he  lay  reclined  at  the  banquet. 
 All  feeling  of  delight  instantly  left  him  ;  and  he  i)egged 
 the  tyrant  to  allow  him  to  depart,  since  he  no  longer 
 wished  to  enjoy  this  kind  of  felicity.  And  thus  was 
 Damocles  taught  the  salutary  lesson,  that  little,  if  any, 
 enjoyment  is  found  in  the  possession  of  usurped  power, 
 when  every  moment  is  imbittered  by  the  dread  of  im- 
 pending conspiracy  and  danger.  (Cic.,  Tusc  ,  5,  22. — 
 Compare  Philo,  ap.  Euseh.,  Prccp  Evang  ,  8,  14,  p. 
 391. — Macrob.,  ad  Somn.  Scip.,  1,  10. —  Sidon.  ApolL, 
 2,  U.—Horat..  Od„  3,  1,  17.) 
 
 Damon,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher  of  Syracuse, 
 united  by  ties  of  the  firmest  friendship  to  Phintias 
 (not  Pythias,  as  the  name  is  commonly  given),  another 
 Pythagorean,  of  the  same  city.  Dionysius  the  tyrant 
 having  condemned  Phintias  to  death  for  cons[)iring 
 against  him,  the  latter  begged  that  leave  might  be  al- 
 lowed him  to  go  for  a  short  period  to  a  neighbouring 
 place,  in  order  to  arrange  some  family  affairs,  and  of- 
 fered to  leave  one  of  his  friends  in  the  hands  of  Dio- 
 nysius as  a  pledge  for  his  return  by  an  appointed  lime, 
 and  who  would  be  willing,  in  case  Phintias  broke  his 
 word,  to  die  in  his  stead.  Dionysius,  quite  sceptical 
 as  to  the  e.xistence  of  such  friendship,  and  prompted 
 by  strong  curiosity,  assented  to  the  arrangement,  and 
 Damon  took  the  place  of  Phintias.  The  day  ajipointed 
 for  the  return  of  the  latter  arrived,  and  j)ublic  expec- 
 tation was  highly  excited  as  to  the  probable  issue  of 
 this  singular  aflfair.  The  day  drew  to  a  close,  no  Phin- 
 tias came,  and  Damon  was  in  the  act  of  being  led  to 
 execution,  when,  on  a  sudden,  the  absent  friend,  who 
 had  been  detained  hy  unforeseen  and  unavoidable  ob- 
 stacles, presented  himself  to  the  eyes  of  the  admiring 
 crowd,  and  saved  the  life  of  Damon.  Dionysius  was 
 so  much  struck  by  this  instance  of  true  attachment, 
 that  he  pardoned  Phintias,  and  entreated  the  two  to 
 allow  him  to  share  their  friendship.  (Diod  Sicfragm., 
 lib.  10,  vol.  4,  p.  52,  .icqq.,cd.  Bip. —  Val.  Max  ,4,  7, 
 1,  ext  ed.  Hasc. — Pint.,  dc  amic  mult.,  p.  93.) 
 
 DamophTla,  a  poetess  of  Lesbos,  intimate  with 
 Sappho.  She  composed  a  hymn  on  the  worship  of  the 
 Pergsean  Diana.     (Philosfraf.,  Vit.  ApoUori.,  1,  20  ) 
 
 Damoxemis,  a  boxer  of  Syracuse,  excluded  from 
 the  Nemean  games  for  killing  his  opponent  in  a  pugi- 
 listic encounter.  The  name  of  the  latter  was  Creu- 
 gas,  and  the  two  competitors,  after  having  consumed 
 the  entire  day  in  boxing,  agreed  each  to  receive  from 
 the  other  a  blow  without  flinching.  Creugas  first 
 struck  Damoxenus  on  the  head,  and  then  Damoxenus, 
 
DAN 
 
 DAN 
 
 with  his  fingers  unfairly  stretched  out,  struck  Creugas 
 on  the  side  :  and  such,  observes  Pausanias,  was  ihe 
 hardness  of  his  nails  and  the  violence  of  the  blow, 
 that  his  hand  pierced  his  side,  seized  on  his  bowels, 
 and,  drawing  them  outward,  gave  instant  death  to 
 Creugas. — A  fine  piece  of  sculpture  has  come  down 
 to  us,  with  this  for  its  subject.     {Pausan.,  8,  40.) 
 
 Dan.\,  a  large  town  of  Cappadocia.  D'Anville 
 makes  it  to  have  been  the  same  with  Tyana,  an  opin- 
 ion which  is  ably  refuted  by  Mannert,  who  maintains 
 that  it  lay  more  to  the  southeast,  and  coincided  with 
 the  Tanadaris  of  Ptolemy.  It  is  mentioned  in  Xeno- 
 phon's  Anabasis  as  being  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Cili- 
 cian  Gates  (1,  2).  The  position  of  Tyana  on  Man- 
 nert's  chart  is  north  of  the  Cilician  pass;  in  D'An- 
 ville's  it  IS  to  the  northeast.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6, 
 pt.  2,  p.  239,  263  ) 
 
 Danae,  I.  the  daughter  of  Acrisius,  king  of  Argos, 
 by  Eurydice,  daughter  of  Lacedsinon.  Acrisius  in- 
 quired of  the  oracle  about  a  son  ;  and  the  god  replied 
 that  he  would  himself  have  no  male  issue,  but  that  his 
 daughter  would  bear  a  son,  whose  hand  would  deprive 
 him  of  life.  Fearing  the  accomplishment  of  this  pre- 
 diction, he  framed  a  brazen  subterranean  charnlier 
 (i^aAa/fOf  ;j;u/\Keoi'  inro  yrjv),  in  which  he  shut  up  his 
 daughter  and  her  nurse,  in  order  that  she  might  never 
 become  a  mother.  (The  Latin  poets  call  the  place  of 
 confinement  a  brazen  tower.)  But  Jupiter  had  seen 
 and  loved  the  maiden  ;  and,  under  the  form  of  a  gold- 
 en shower,  he  poured  through  the  roof  into  her  bosom. 
 Danae  became,  in  consequence,  the  mother  of  a  son, 
 whom  she  and  her  nurse  reared  in  secrecy  until  he 
 had  attained  his  fourth  year.  Acrisius  then  chanced 
 to  hear  the  voice  of  the  child  at  play.  He  brought 
 out  his  daughter  and  her  nurse,  and,  putting  the  lat- 
 ter instantly  to  death,  drew  Danae  privately,  with  her 
 child,  to  the  altar  of  Hercean  Jove,  where  he  made  her 
 answer  on  oath  whose  was  her  son.  She  replied  that 
 he  was  the  offspring  of  Jove.  Her  father  gave  no 
 credit  to  her  protestations.  Enclosing  her  and  the 
 boy  in  a  coffer,  he  cast  them  into  the  sea,  to  the 
 mercy  ol  the  winds  and  waves,  a  circumstance  which 
 has  afforded  a  subject  for  a  beautiful  piece  by  the 
 poet  Simoiiides.  The  coffer  was  carried  to  the  little 
 island  of  Seriphus,  where  a  person  named  Dictys  drew 
 it  out  in  his  nets  (JilKTva) ;  and,  freeing  Daiiaij  and 
 Perseus  from  their  confinement,  treated  them  with 
 the  greatest  attention.  Polydectes,  the  brother  of 
 Dictys,  reigned  over  the  island.  He  fell  in  love  with 
 Danae  ;  but  her  son  Perseus,  who  was  now  grown 
 up,  was  an  invincible  obstacle  in  his  way.  He  had, 
 therefore,  recourse  to  artifice  to  deliver  himself  of  his 
 presence  ;  and,  feigning  that  he  was  about  to  become 
 a  suitor  to  Hippodamia,  the  daughter  of  QCnoinaus,  he 
 inaiKiged  to  send  Perseus,  who  had  bound  himself  by  a 
 rash  promise,  in  quest  of  the  head  of  the  Gorgon  Medu- 
 sa, which  he  pretended  that  he  wished  for  a  bridal  gift. 
 When  Perseus  had  succeeded,  by  the  aid  of  Hermes, 
 in  destroying  the  Gorgon,  he  proceeded  to  Seriphus, 
 where  he  found  that  his  mother  and  Dictys  had  been 
 obliged  to  fly  to  the  protection  of  the  altar  from  the 
 violence  of  Polydectes.  He  immediately  went  to  the 
 royal  residence  ;  and  when,  at  his  desire,  Polydectes 
 had  summoned  thither  all  the  peo|ile,  to  see  the  formi- 
 dable head  of  the  Gorgon,  it  was  displayed,  and  each 
 became  a  stone  of  the  form  and  position  which  he  ex- 
 hibited at  the  moment  of  the  transformation.  Hav- 
 ing established  Dictys  as  king  of  Seriphus,  Perseus 
 returned  with  his  mother  to  Argos,  and,  not  finding 
 Acrisius  there,  proceeded  to  Larissa  in  Thessaly, 
 whither  the  latter  had  retired  through  fear  of  the  ful- 
 filment of  the  oracle.  Here  he  inadvertently  killed 
 Acrisius.  {Vid.  Acrisius,  Perseus.) — There  was  a 
 legend  in  Italy,  that  .^rdea,  the  capital  of  the  Rutu- 
 lians,  had  been  founded  by  Danae.  {Virg.^  JEn.,  7, 
 372,  410.)     It  was  probably  caused  by  the  similarity  of 
 
 sound  in  Danae  and  Daunia.  Dauniis  is  the  father  ot 
 Turnus. — An  explanation  of  the  legend  of  Danae  will 
 be  fount,  ^nder  the  article  Perseus.  {Apollod.,  2,  4, 
 scqq. — Keighda/s  Mythology,  p.  414,  seqq.) 
 
 Danai,  a  name  originally  belonging  to  the  Argives, 
 as  being,  according  to  the  common  opinion,  the  sub- 
 jects of  Danaiis.  In  consequence,  however,  of  the 
 warlike  character  of  the  race,  and  the  high  renown  ac- 
 quired by  them.  Homer  uses  the  name  Danai  (Aavooi) 
 as  a  general  appellation  for  the  Greeks,  when  that  of 
 Hellenes  was  still  confined  to  a  narrower  range.  ( Vid. 
 Danaiis.) 
 
 Danaides,  the  fifty  daughters  of  Danaiis,  king  of 
 Argos.     An  account  of  the   legend   connected  with 
 their  names  will  be  found,  together  with  an  explana 
 tion  of  the  same,  under  the  article  Danaiis. 
 
 Danaperis,  another  name  for  the  Borysthenes, 
 first  mentioned  in  an  anonymous  Periplus  of  the  Eux- 
 ine  Sea.  It  is  now  the  Dnieper.  The  Dnieper  rises 
 in  the  Valdai  hills,  near  the  sources  of  the  Duna,  and, 
 after  a  winding  course  of  about  800  miles,  falls  into  the 
 Black  Sea,  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  Dniester.  In  the 
 lower  part  of  its  course  the  navigation  is  impeded  by 
 islands,  and  at  one  place,  about  tv^'O  hundred  miles 
 from  Its  mouth,  by  falls,  which  continue  for  nearly 
 forty  miles.  A  little  above  its  mouth,  the  river  wi- 
 dens into  a  kind  of  lake  or  marsh,  called  Liman,  into 
 which  the  Bog,  the  ancient  Hy[)anis  or  Bogus,  one 
 of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Dnieper,  discharges 
 itself  As  regards  the  root  of  the  name  Danaperis 
 (Dan,  Don),  consult  remarks  under  the  article  Tanais. 
 {PHn.,  4,  12— Mela,  2,  1. — Ammian.  Marcell.,  22, 
 IS. — Jornand.,  de  Reb.  Get  ,  p.  5.) 
 
 Danastus,  another  name  of  the  Tyras  or  Dniester. 
 It  is  called  Danastus  by  Ammianiis  MarccUinus  (31, 
 3),  Danastris  by  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  {de  ad- 
 ministr.  Imperio,  c.  8),  and  Danaster  by  Jornandes 
 {dc  Reb.  Get.,  p.  84).  The  Dniester  rises  from  a  lake 
 amid  the  Carpathian  Mountains  in  Austrian  Gallicia, 
 and  empties  into  the  Black  Sea  after  a  course  of  about 
 si.x  hundred  miles.  The  name  Tyras  (Tiymf)  occurs 
 in  Ptolemy,  Strabo,  Stephanus  of  Byzantium,  and 
 Scymnus  of  Chios.  Herodotus  gives  the  Ionic  form 
 Tvpj/C-  (Hernd,4:,5\.)  As  regards  the  root  of  the 
 name  {Dan,  Don),  consult  remarks  under  the  article 
 Tanais. 
 
 Danaus,  a  son  of  Belus  and  Anchinoe,  and  brother 
 of  ^gyptus.  Belus  assigned  the  country  of  Libya  to 
 Danaus,  while  to  ^gyptus  he  gave  Arabia.  ^Egyp- 
 tus  conquered  the  country  of  the  Melampodes,  and 
 named  it  from  himself  By  many  wives  he  became 
 the  father  of  fifty  sons.  Danaus  had  by  several  wives 
 an  equal  number  of  daughters.  Dissension  arising  be- 
 tween him  and  the  sons  of  ^gyptus,  they  aimed  at 
 depriving  him  of  his  kingdom  ;  and,  fearing  their  vio- 
 lence, he  built,  with  the  aid  of  Minerva,  a  fifty-oared 
 vessel,  the  first  that  ever  was  made,  in  which  he  em- 
 barked with  his  daughters,  and  fled  over  the  sea.  He 
 first  landed  on  the  Isle  of  Rhodes,  where  he  set  up 
 a  statue  of  the  Lindian  Minerva  ;  but,  not  willing  to 
 abide  in  that  island,  he  proceeded  to  Argos,  where  Gel- 
 anor,  who  at  that  time  ruled  over  the  country,  cheer- 
 fully resigned  the  government  to  the  stranger  who 
 brought  thither  civilization  and  the  arts.  The  people 
 took^the  name  of  their  new  monarch,  and  were  called 
 Danai  {Aavani).  The  country  of  Argos  being  at  this 
 time  extremely  deficient  in  pure  and  wholesome  water 
 {Vid.  Inachus),  Danaus  sent  forth  his  daughters  m 
 quest  of  some.  As  .^mymone.  one  of  them,  was  en- 
 gacred  in  the  search,  she  was  rescued  by  Neptune  from 
 the  intended  violence  of  a  satyr,  and  the  god  revealed 
 to  her  a  fountain  called  after  her  name,  and  the  most 
 famous  among  the  streams  that  contributed  to  form 
 the  Lernrean  lake  or  marsh.  The  sons  of  .f^gyptus 
 came  now  to  Argolis,  and  entreated  their  uncle  to 
 bury  past  enmity  m  oblivion,  and  to  give  them  their 
 
DAN 
 
 DAP 
 
 cousins  in  marriage.  Danaiis,  retaining  a  perfect 
 recollection  of  the  injuries  they  had  done  hiin,  and 
 distriisllul  of  their  promises,  consented  to  bestow  upon 
 them  his  daughters,  whom  he  divided  among  them  by 
 lot ;  but,  on  the  wedding-day,  he  armed  the  hands  of 
 the  brides  with  daggers,  and  enjoined  upon  them  to  slay 
 in  the  night  their  unsuspecting  bridegrooms.  All  but 
 Hypermnestra  obeyed  the  cruel  orders  of  their  father  ; 
 and,  cutting  off  the  heads  of  their  husbands,  they  flung 
 them  into  Leriia,  and  buried  their  bodies  with  all 
 due  rites  outside  of  the  town.  At  the  command  of 
 Jupiter,  Mercury  and  Minerva  purified  them  from  the 
 guilt  of  their  deed.  Hypermnestra  had  spared  Lyn- 
 ceus,  for  the  delicate  regard  which  he  had  sliown  to 
 her  modesty.  Her  father,  at  first,  in  his  anger  at  her 
 disobedience,  put  her  into  close  confinement.  Re- 
 lenting, however,  after  some  time,  he  gave  his  consent 
 to  her  union  with  Lynceus,  and  proclaimed  gymnas- 
 tic games,  in  which  the  victors  were  to  receive  his 
 other  daughters  as  the  prizes.  It  was  said,  however, 
 that  the  crime  of  the  Danaides  did  not  pass  without 
 due  punishment  in  the  lower  world,  where  they  were 
 condemned  to  draw  water,  for  ever,  with  perforated 
 vessels.  (Apollnd.,  2,  1,  'i.—Hi/gin.,  fab.,  168,  169, 
 170.— Schol.  ad  IL,  1,  42,  et  ad  ^,  \l\.—  Schol.  ad 
 Eurip  ,  Hcc, 872.) — Thus  much  for  the  story  of  Da- 
 naiis. The  intimate  connexion  between  this  popular 
 legend  and  the  peculiar  character  of  the  Argive  soil, 
 which  exhibited  a  striking  contrast  between  the  upper 
 part  of  the  plain  and  the  low  grounds  of  Lerna,  has 
 given  rise  to  a  bold  and  ingenious  theory.  Argoswas 
 greatly  deficient  in  water  (whence  Homer  calls  it 
 "  thirsty,''''  noXvdiipinv),  and  the  word  davur  signifies 
 "dry."  We  have  here,  then,  a  simple  derivation  for 
 the  name  Danai,  namely,  the  people  of  the  thirsty  land 
 of  Argos  ;  and,  in  the  usual  manner,  the  personifica- 
 tion of  their  name  is  a  hero,  Danaiis.  Again,  springs 
 are  daughters  of  the  earth,  as  they  are  called  by  the 
 Arabs ;  the  nymphs  of  the  springs  are  therefore 
 daughters  of  Danaiis,  that  is,  of  the  thirsty  land  ;  and 
 as  a  confirmation,  in  some  degree,  of  this  view  of  the 
 subject,  we  may  state,  that  four  of  the  daughters  of 
 Danaiis,  namely,  Amymone,  Peircne,  Physadea,  and 
 Asteria.  were  names  of  springs.  Still  farther,  a  head 
 (Kprjvrj)  is  a  usual  name  for  a  spring  in  many  languages  ; 
 and  a  legendary  mode  of  accounting  for  the  origin  of 
 founts  is  to  ascribe  them  to  the  welling  forth  of  the 
 blood  of  some  person  who  was  slain  on  the  spot  where 
 the  spring  emitted  its  vtaters.  Thus  the  blood  of 
 Pentheus  and  Actson  gave  origin  to  springs  on  Cithaa- 
 ron.  {Pkilostrat.,  Icon.,  1,  14. — Compare  Welcker, 
 TriL,  p.  400.)  The  number  fifty,  in  the  case  of  the 
 Danaides,  is  probably  an  arbitrary  one,  for  we  cannot 
 discern  in  it  any  relation  to  the  weeks  of  the  year,  as 
 some  endeavour  to  do.  (Volckcr,  Myth,  der  lap.,  p 
 192,  seqq  )  It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  founts  of  the 
 Inachus  were  in  Mount  Lyrceon  or  Lynceon  (Schol. 
 ad  Apoll.  Rh.,  1,  125),  and  here,  perhaps,  lies  the  ori- 
 gin of  Lynceus,  who,  in  one  form  of  the  legend,  fights 
 with  and  vanquishes  Danaus  {Schol.  ad  Eurip.,  I.  c.) ; 
 that  is,  the  stream  from  Mount  Lynceon  overcomes 
 the  dry  nature  of  the  soil.  We  see,  therefore,  that 
 the  physical  legend  may  have  existed  long  before 
 there  was  any  intercourse  with  Egypt ;  and,  like  that 
 of  lo,  may  have  been  subsequently  modified  so  as  to 
 suit  the  new  theory  of  an  Egyptian  colony  at  Argos. 
 {Herod.,  2,  91  ;  171,  \8'Z.—Mullcr,  Orchom.,  p.  109, 
 seqq. — Id.  Proleg.,  p.  184,  seqq. — Kcightleifs  Mythol- 
 ogy, p.  409,  seqq.) 
 
 Danubius,  the  largest  river  of  Europe  except  the 
 Rha  or  Volga,  and  called  in  German  the  Donau,  by 
 us  the  Danube.  Strabo  and  Pliny  make  it  rise  in  the 
 chain  of  Mons  Abnoba,  or  the  mountains  of  the  Black 
 Forest.  According  to  modern  accounts,  it  has  its  ori- 
 gin on  the  heights  of  the  Black  Forest,  from  three 
 sources,  the  Brig-Ach  and  the  Brige,  which  are  both 
 413 
 
 more  considerable  than  the  third  or  the  Donau,  a  fee- 
 ble stream  that  is  enclosed  in  a  stone  basin,  and  formed 
 into  a  fountain  in  the  court  of  the  castle  of  Donau-Es- 
 chingen.  It  is,  therefore,  the  first  two  that  may  be 
 considered  the  source  of  the  Danube.  {Malte-Brun, 
 vol.  7,  p.  41,  Am.  ed. — Id.,  vol.  6,  p.  288.)  It  is  one 
 of  the  few  rivers  which  run  from  west  lo  cast,  traver- 
 sing Austria,  Hungary,  and  part  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
 and,  after  a  course  of  about  1620  miles,  falls  into  the 
 Black  Sea.  It  is  of  irregular  width,  being  sometimes 
 confined  between  rocks  and  mountains,  at  other  times 
 so  wide  that  it  almost  resembles  a  sea,  and  again  bro- 
 ken and  divided  into  small  streams  by  numerous  isl- 
 ands. It  receives  sixty  navigable  rivers,  the  largest  of 
 which  is  the  CEnus  or  Inn,  and  120  smaller  streams. 
 It  is  always  yellow  with  mud,  and  its  sands  are  every- 
 where auriferous.  At  its  entrance  into  the  Black  Sea 
 it  is  shallow  ;  its  waters  are  spread  over  an  immense 
 surface,  and  lie  stagnating  among  an  infinity  of  reeds 
 and  other  aquatic  plants.  The  current  of  the  river 
 communicates  a  whitish  colour  to  the  sea,  and  gives 
 a  freshness  lo  it  for  nearly  nine  leagues,  and  within 
 one  league  renders  it  fit  for  use.  Pomponius  Mela 
 says  it  had  as  many  mouths  as  the  Nile,  of  which  three 
 were  small  and  four  navigable.  Only  two  now  re- 
 main, which  can  scarcely  be  entered  by  ships  of  con- 
 siderable size  or  burden,  the  rest  being  choked  up. 
 The  ancients  gave  the  name  of  Ister  to  the  eastern 
 part  of  this  river  after  its  junction  with  the  Savus  or 
 Saave.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  very  imper- 
 fectly acquainted  with  the  whole  course  of  the  stream, 
 which  was  for  a  long  period  the  northern  boundary  of 
 the  Roman  empire  in  this  quarter.  This  river  was  an 
 object  of  worship  to  the  Scythians.  The  river-god  is 
 represented  on  a  medal  of  Trajan ;  but  the  finest  fig- 
 ure of  him  is  on  the  column  of  that  emperor  at  Rome. 
 {Mela,  2,  7.—Amm.  MarcclL,  22,  I'i.—Ptol.,  3,  10. 
 — Plin.,  4,  12. — Dionys.  Pericg.,  301.)  As  regards 
 the  root  of  the  name  {Dan),  consult  remarks  under  the 
 article  Tanais. 
 
 Daphne,  a  city  of  Egypt,  about  sixteen  miles  from 
 Pelusium,  on  the  route  to  Memphis.  {Anton.,  Itin., 
 p.  162.)  There  was  always  a  strong  garrison  in  this 
 place,  to  keep  in  check  the  Arabians  and  Syrians.  It 
 is  now  Safnas.     {Herodot.,  2,  30.) 
 
 Daphne,  I.  a  daughter  of  the  Peneus,  and  the  first 
 love  of  Phoebus.  This  god,  according  to  the  poetic 
 legend,  proud  of  his  victory  over  the  serpent  Python, 
 beholding  Cupid  bending  his  bow,  mocked  at  the  ef- 
 forts of  the  puny  archer.  Cupid,  incensed,  flew  to 
 Parnassus,  and,  taking  his  station  there,  shot  his  gold- 
 en arrow  of  love  into  the  heart  of  the  son  of  Latona, 
 and  discharged  his  leaden  one  of  aversion  into  the 
 bosom  of  the  nymph  of  the  Peneus.  Daphne  loved 
 the  chace,  and  it  alone,  indifferent  to  all  other  love. 
 Phcebus  beheld  her,  and  pursued.  Exhausted  and 
 nearly  overtaken.  Daphne,  on  the  banks  of  her  father's 
 stream,  stretched  forth  her  hands,  calling  on  Peneus 
 for  protection  and  change  of  form.  The  river-god 
 heard  ;  bark  and  leaves  covered  his  daughter,  and 
 Daphne  became  a  bay-tree  {dai^vrj,  laurus).  The 
 god  embraced  its  trunk,  and  declared  that  it  should  be 
 afterward  his  favourite  tree.  {Ovid,  Met.,  1,  402, 
 seqq. — Hygin  ,  fab.,  203^) — The  meaning  of  this  le- 
 gend is  evident  enough.  It  is  only  one  of  the  many 
 talcs  devised  lo  give  marvel  to  the  origin  of  natural 
 productions;  and  its  ol)ject  is  to  account  for  the  bay- 
 tree  being  sacred  lo  Apollo.  The  great  majority  of 
 the  authorities  place  the  legend  in  Arcadia,  making 
 Daphne  the  daughter  of  the  Ladon  by  Earth  (the  natu- 
 ral parent  of  a  plant),  and  add  that  it  was  her  mother 
 who  changed  her  on  her  prayer.  {Pausan.,  8,  20. — • 
 Nonnus,A2,  387. —Schol.  ad  II.,  1,  14.— .S'/«^,  Thcb., 
 4,  289,  &.c.—Kei^httey's  Mythology,  p.  118  )— 11.  A 
 beautiful  spot  about  forty  stadia  to  the  south  of  Anti- 
 och,  near  the  Orontes,  adorned  with  fair  edifices,  and 
 
D  A  R 
 
 D  AR 
 
 containing  a  temple  sacred  to  Apollo  and  Diana.  The 
 wiiole  was  surrounded  with  a  thick  grove  of  cypresses 
 and  bay-trees  (6u(pvai),  from  the  latter  of  which  the 
 place  derived  its  name.  Numerous  fountains,  too, 
 itnparted  continual  freshness  to  the  grove  and  cool- 
 ness to  ihe  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  luxurious 
 citizens  of  Antioch  made  this  a  favourite  place  of  re- 
 treat, and  even  the  Roman  governors  often  forgot 
 amid  the  enjoyments  of  Daphne  the  cares  of  office. 
 Poinpey  is  said  to  have  been  so  charmed  by  the  place, 
 and  by  the  united  beauties  of  nature  and  art  with 
 which  it  was  adorned,  that  he  considerably  enlarged 
 the  limits  of  the  grove,  by  the  addition  of  many  of  the 
 surrounding  fields.  The  modern  name  of  the  place 
 is  Bnt-el-Mar,  "the  house  of  water."  {Ammian. 
 MarccIL,  19,  2.— Id.,  22,  31.— Socomew,  5,  19.— £(«- 
 imp.,  6,  11.) 
 
 D.tCHNEPHORiA,  a  festival  in  honour  of  Apollo,  cele- 
 brated every  ninth  year  by  the  Boeotians.  It  was  then 
 usual  to  adorn  an  oUve  bough  with  garlands  of  bay  and 
 flowers,  and  place  on  the  top  a  brazen  globe,  from  which 
 were  suspended  smaller  ones.  In  the  middle  were  a 
 number  of  crowns,  and  a  globe  of  inferior  size  ;  and  the 
 bottom  was  adorned  with  a  saffron-coloured  garment. 
 The  globe  on  the  top  represented  the  Sun  or  Apollo; 
 that  in  the  middle  was  an  emblem  of  the  moon,  and 
 the  others  of  the  stars.  The  crowns,  which  were  365 
 in  number,  represented  the  sun's  annual  revolution. 
 This  bough  was  carried  in  solemn  procession  by  a 
 beautiful  vouth  of  an  illustrious  family,  and  whose  pa- 
 rents were  both  living.     {Fausun.,  9,  10,  4.) 
 
 Daphnis,  a  celebrated  herdsman  of  Sicily,  the  son 
 of  Mercury  by  a  Sicilian  nymph.  He  was  found  by 
 the  she[)herds,  when  an  infant,  lying  among  the  bay- 
 trees  {6u(j)vaL),  and  from  this  circumstance  obtained  his 
 name.  Pan  taught  him  to  sing,  and  play  upon  the 
 pipe,  the  nymphs  were  his  foster-parents,  and  the  Muses 
 inspired  him  with  the  love  of  song.  According  to 
 T)iodorus,  he  was  the  inventor  of  pastoral  poetry.  He 
 also  accompanied  Diana  in  the  chase,  and,  when  the 
 labours  of  the  day  were  ended,  was  wont  to  delight  the 
 goddess  with  the  sweet  notes  of  his  syrinx.  Daphnis 
 became  eventually  attached  to  a  Naiad,  who  forbade 
 him  holding  communion  with  any  other  female,  under 
 pain  of  loss  of  sight ;  and  she  bound  him  by  an  oath 
 to  that  effect.  A  princess,  however,  contrived  to  in- 
 toxicate him  :  he  broke  his  vow,  and  the  threatened 
 penalty  was  inflicted.  According  to  Diodorus,  how- 
 ever, the  Naiad  merely  predicted  that  loss  of  sight 
 would  he  the  consequence  of  his  proving  unfaithful  to 
 her.  Theocritus,  in  his  first  Idyl,  represents  him  as 
 pining  awav  in  death,  and  refusing  to  be  comforted. 
 {Scrv.  ad  Vug.,  Edog.,  5,  10—Diod.  Sic,  4,  84. 
 — Schol  ad  Thcocr.,  Idyll.,  1,  66. — Parlhcn.,  Erot., 
 29.— .E/(aw,  V.  H.,  10,  18.)  Ovid  says,  that  the  Nai- 
 ad turned  him  into  a  rock.  (Met.,  4,  276,  seqq. — 
 Keightky's  Mythology,  p.  240  ) 
 
 Daph.nus  (gen.  -unlis  :  in  Greek,  Aafvovc,  -ovvro^), 
 a  town  of  the  Locri  Opuntii,  situate  on  the  seacoast,  at 
 the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  near  the  frontiers 
 of  the  Epicnemidian  Locri.  Strabo  (424)  places  it 
 twenty  stadia  from  Cnemides.  Into  the  river  Daphnus 
 the  body  of  Hesiod  was  thrown  after  his  murder.  ( Vid. 
 Hesiodus.) 
 
 Dar.vdus  (called  also  Daras,  gen.  -atis),  a  river  of 
 Africa,  rising  to  the  northwest  of  the  Palus  Nigrites, 
 on  Mount  Mandras,  and  falling  into  the  Atlantic  to 
 the  north  of  the  promontory  Arsinarium.  It  is  sup- 
 posed to  he  the  same  with  the  Senegal.  (Bisrhoff  und 
 Mollcr,  VV'o/7f/*.  rffr  Geoo-r.,  p.  405.)  Gossellin,  how- 
 ever, makes  it  correspond  to  the  modern  Darabin. 
 (Rexlterchcs,  vol.  3,  p.  112.) 
 
 DaroanTa,  I.  a  district  of  Troas,  in  the  north,  call- 
 ed so  from  its  inhabitants  the  Dardani.  These  derived 
 their  name  from  Dardanus,  who  built  here  the  city  of 
 
 to  the  Homeric  topography,  the  Dard&ni,  who  were 
 subject  to  Anchises,  and  commanded  by  his  son  Apneas 
 during  the  siege,  occupied  the  small  district  which  lay 
 between  the  territory  of  Abydus  and  the  Promontory 
 of  Rhoeteum,  beyond  which  point  the  Trojan  land, 
 properly  so  called,  and  the  hereditary  dominions  of 
 Priam  commenced.  Towards  the  mainland,  Darda- 
 nia  extended  to  the  summit  of  Ida,  and  beyond  that 
 chain  to  the  territory  of  Zelea,  and  the  plains  watered 
 by  the  ^sepus  on  the  north,  and  as  far  as  the  territo- 
 ries of  Assus  and  Antandrus  to  the  south.  {Strab  , 
 592,  606.)  It  was  more  particularly  in  this  inland 
 district  that  the  descendants  of  ^neas  are  said  to  have 
 maintained  themselves  as  independent  sovereigns  af- 
 ter the  siege  of  Troy.  {Cramer^s  Asia  Minor,  vol. 
 1,  p.  80,  scq.) — II.  A  region  of  Illyria,  lying  south  of 
 the  territory  of  the  Scordisci.  It  comprehended  the 
 upper  valleys  of  the  Drilo,  and  extended  to  the  borders 
 of  Pseonia  and  Macedonia.  The  Dardani,  its  inhabi- 
 tants, were  often  at  war  with  the  latter  power,  more 
 particularly  under  the  reign  of  its  last  two  monarchs. 
 Their  country  answers  to  the  modern  districts  of  Ipeck, 
 Prisiina,  and  Jacova,  which  are  situate  to  the  south 
 of  Servia,  and  form  part  of  the  pachalic  of  Scvlari. 
 Strabo  describes  these  Dardani  as  a  savage  race,  living 
 mostly  in  caves  formed  out  of  mud  and  dirt,  and  yet  pos- 
 sessing great  taste  for  music,  having  from  the  earliest 
 period  been  acquainted  with  both  wind  and  stringed 
 instruments.  {Slrab.,  316. —  Cramer^s  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  47.) 
 
 Dardanis  or  Dardanium,  a  promontory  of  Troas, 
 south  of  Abydus,  near  which  was  situate  the  city  of 
 Dardanus.  It  is  now  called  Cape  Berbieri,  or  Kepov 
 Burun.  The  Hellespont  here  begins  to  contract  it- 
 self.    {Strab.,  597,^9^) 
 
 Dard.Xnus,  I.  a  celebrated  hero,  son  of  Jupiter  and 
 Electra,  who  came  to  Troas,  according  to  some  ac- 
 counts, from  Arcadia  ;  according  to  others,  from  Italy. 
 All,  however,  agree  in  fixing  upon  Sarnothrace  as  the 
 spot  in  which  he  had  formed  his  first  principality,  be- 
 fore he  migrated  to  the  foot  of  Mount  Ida.  (Apollod., 
 3^  \2.— Strab.,  33l.—  Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  207.)  We  may 
 reconcile  this  variety  of  opinions  respecting  the  native 
 country  of  Dardanus,  by  supposing  that  he  was  a  chief 
 of  that  early  race,  who,  under  the  name  of  Pelasgi,  were 
 so  widely  diffused,  and  more  especially  in  those  coun- 
 tries, each  of  which  claimed  to  be  the  birthplace  of  the 
 hero.  The  epoch  of  the  arrival  of  Dardanus  on  the 
 coast  of  Asia  is  too  remote  to  be  ascertained  at  pres- 
 ent with  accuracy.  Homer  reckons  five  generations 
 between  Dardanus  and  Priam.  (//.,  20,  230.)  Plato, 
 as  we  learn  from  Strabo  (592),  placed  his  arrival  in  the 
 second  epoch  after  the  universal  deluge,  when  man- 
 kind becan  to  leave  the  summits  of  the  mountains  to 
 which  fear  had  driven  them,  and  where  they  had  led 
 a  barbarous  and  savage  life,  in  caves  and  grots,  like 
 the  Cyclopes  of  Homer.  The  Athenian  philosopher 
 deduced  his  reasoning  from  the  passage  in  Homer, 
 where  the  town  founded  by  Dardanus  is  stated  to  havp 
 been  built  at  the  foot  of  Ida.  {11. ,  20,  215,  seqq.)— 
 The  legend  respecting  Dardanus  is  as  follows  :  Af- 
 flicted by  the  death  of  his  brother  lasion,  whom  Jove 
 had  struck  with  lightning,  Dardanus  left  Sarnothrace, 
 and  passed  over  to  the  mainland,  where  Tcucer,  thn 
 son  of  the  river  Scamandrus  and  the  nymph  Id^a  then 
 reigned  over  a  people  called  Teucrians.  He  was  well 
 rec'eived  by  this  prince,  who  gave  him  his  daughter 
 Batieia  (//.',  2,  813)  in  marriage,  and  a  part  of  his  ter- 
 ritory, on  which  he  built  a  town  called  Dardanus.  He 
 had  'two  sons,  Ilus  and  Erichthonius,  the  former  of 
 whom  died  childless  :  the  latter  succeeded  to  the  king- 
 dom, and  was  remarkable  for  his  wealth.  By  Asty- 
 oche,  daughter  of  the  Simois.  Erichthonius  had  a  son 
 
 named  Tros,  who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne.     ^ 
 
 Tros   came   Ilus,  Assaracus,  and    Ganymcdes 
 
 From 
 The 
 
 the  same  name.    {Vid.  Dardanus,  I.,  II.)     According  [house  of  Priam  were  descended  from  Ilus  ;  that  of 
 
DAR 
 
 DAR 
 
 ^neas  from  Assaracus.     {Cramcr^s  Asia  Minor ,  vol. 
 
 I,  p.   76,  seqq. — KcighUei/'s   Mythology,  p.   483.) — 
 
 II.  An  ancient  city  of  Troas,  founded  by  Dardaniis. 
 According  to  Homer,  who  calls  it  Dardania,  it  was 
 situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ida.  {11. ,  20,  215. — 
 Strah.,  592.) — III.  Another  city  of  Troas,  not  to  be 
 confounded  with  the  preceding.  By  whom  it  was 
 built  is  uncertain.  We  know,  however,  that  it  existed 
 in  the  time  of  Herodotus  (5,  117),  who  mentions  its 
 capture  by  the  Persians,  in  the  reign  of  Darius.  In 
 the  narrative  of  Xerxes's  march,  he  describes  it  as 
 close  to  the  sea,  and  conterminous  with  Abydus  (7,  43). 
 Strabo  reports,  that  the  iiiiiabitants  were  often  com- 
 pelled to  change  their  abode  by  the  successors  of  Al- 
 exander :  he  reports  also,  that  peace  was  concluded 
 here  between  Syllaand  Mitbradates.  {Strab.,  595. — 
 Plul.,  Vil.  SylL,  c,  21.)  The  ruins  of  Dardanus  are 
 to  be  found  between  Kcpos  Burun  and  Dervcnd 
 Tchemeh  Burun.  The  name  Dardanelles,  which  was 
 in  the  first  instance  applied  to  the  Turkish  castles  erect- 
 ed to  defend  the  passage  of  the  straits,  and  next  to  the 
 straits  themselves,  is  confessedly  derived  from  this  an- 
 cient city.     (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  82.) 
 
 Dakes,  I.  a  Trojan  priest,  mentioned  by  Homer  (//., 
 5,  9).  It  is  absurdly  pretended,  by  some  of  the  ancient 
 writers,  that  he  wrote  an  Iliad,  or  history  of  the  Trojan 
 war,  in  prose  ;  and  ^lian  (Var.  Hist.,  11,  2)  assures 
 us  that  it  still  existed  m  his  day,  without  telling  us, 
 however,  whether  he  himself  had  read  it  or  not.  There 
 can  be  no  doubt  that  jElian  was  deceived,  and  that 
 the  work  which  he  took  for  the  production  of  Dares 
 was  the  composition  of  some  sophist  of  a  much  later 
 age  However  this  may  be,  the  Iliad  of  which  JElian 
 speaks  no  longer  exists ;  but  we  have  a  Latin  work 
 remaining,  written  in  prose,  which  was  for  some  time 
 regarded  as  a  translation  from  the  Greek  original,  and 
 WIS  ascribed  to  Cornelius  Nepos.  though  abounding 
 w'th  solecisms.  The  truth  is,  that  this  work  is  the 
 production  of  an  English  poet,  who  flourished  at  the 
 close  of  the  12th  century.  His  name  was  Joseph,  to 
 which  was  sometimes  added  Davunius,  from  his  hav- 
 mg  been  born  at  Exeter  in  Devnrshire,  and  at  other 
 times  Iscanus,  from  the  ancient  name  of  Exeter,  Isca. 
 This  Iliad,  thus  falsely  ascribed  to  Dares,  is  not  even 
 translated  from  any  Greek  writer ;  it  is  merely  the 
 plan  or  prose  outline  of  a  Latin  poem  in  six  cantos, 
 which  Joseph  Iscanus  composed  under  the  title  De 
 Bella  Trnjano  — The  work  just  mentioned,  as  well  as 
 that  of  Dictys  Cretensis,  forms  the  original  source  of 
 a  famous  romance  of  chivalry,  which  met  with  ex- 
 traordinary success  during  the  middle  ages,  and  in  the 
 centuries  immediately  subsequent  to  the  invention  of 
 printing.  These  works  of  Dares  and  Dictys  having 
 fallen  into  the  hands  of  a  Sicilian  named  Guido  dalle 
 Colonne,  a  native  of  Messina,  and  a  celebrated  lawyer 
 and  poet  of  the  13th  century,  he  conceived  the  idea 
 of  giving  them  that  romantic  air  which  would  harmo- 
 nize with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  when  chivalry  had  now 
 acquired  its  greatest  lustre.  He  consequently  inter- 
 calated the  narratives  of  the  pretended  poets  of  Phry- 
 gia  and  Crete  with  various  adventures,  suited  to  the 
 taste  of  the  age,  such  as  tournaments,  challenges,  sin- 
 gle combats,  &c.  His  work  having  met  with  consid- 
 erable success,  he  composed,  in  Latin  prose,  a  romance 
 of  the  war  of  Troy,  in  which  he  also  introduced  the 
 war  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  and  the  expedition 
 of  the  Argonauts.  He  confounds  together  history  and 
 mvthology,  Greek  and  Arabian  manners;  his  heroes 
 are  acquainted  with  alchymy  and  astronomy,  and  come 
 in  contact  with  dragons,  grifTons,  and  other  fabulous 
 monsters.  His  romance  was  translated  into  almost 
 every  European  language,  and  excited  a  general  en- 
 thusiasm. Hence  the  desire  which  at  that  time  seized 
 the  great  families  of  Europe  of  claiming  descent  from 
 one  of  the  heroes  of  Trojan  story  ;  and  hence  the  eager- 
 ness, on  the  part  of  the  monks,  to  compose  genealogies 
 414 
 
 consisting  of  Greek  and  Roman  names  which  had  some 
 analogy  with  the  names  of  the  sovereign  princes  of  the 
 middle  ages.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,\o\.  7,  p.  3,  seqq.) 
 This  same  work  of  Dares  Phrygius  was  the  source 
 whence  Conrad  of  Wijrzburgh,  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
 13th  century,  derived  the  materials  of  the  poem  which 
 he  composed  in  like  manner  on  the  war  of  Troy.  ( Ko- 
 bcrsle-in,  Grundriss  der  Deulsch  Natwnalit,  tji  40,  not. 
 3.) — II.  One  of  the  companions  of -■Eneas,  celebrated 
 as  a  pugilist,  though  conquered  in  the  funeral  games  of 
 Anchises  by  the  aged  Eiitellus.  {Virg.,  Mn.,  5,  369, 
 seqq.)  This  Dares,  or  a  Trojan  of  the  same  name,  was 
 slain  by  Turnus  in  Italy.      (^En.,  12,  3G3.) 
 
 Daricus,  a  Persian  coin  of  the  purest  gold.  Ac- 
 cording to  Harpocration  and  Suidas,  it  weighed  two 
 drachmas,  and  hence  it  was  equivalent  in  value  to  20 
 Attic  drachmas  of  silver.  Five  Darics  were  conse- 
 quently equal  to  an  Attic  mina  of  silver.  {Wiirm , 
 de  pond.,  &LC..,  p.  58.)  Reckoning  the  Attic  drachma 
 at  17  cents,  5.93  mills.  Federal  currency,  the  value 
 of  the  Dane  will  be  3  dolls.,  51  cts.,  8  64  mills.  The 
 Daric  was  the  gold  coin  best  known  at  Athens;  and 
 when  we  consider  the  great  number  that  are  recorded 
 to  have  been  employed  in  presents  and  bribes  alone, 
 exclusive  of  the  purposes  of  traffic,  it  would  seem  ex- 
 traordinary that  so  few  should  have  reached  modern 
 times,  if  we  did  not  know  that,  upon  the  conquest  of 
 Persia,  they  were  melted  down,  and  recoined  with  the 
 type  of  Alexander.  Very  few  Persian  Darics  are  now 
 to  be  seen  in  cabinets.  There  is  one  in  Lord  Pem- 
 broke's, which  weighs  129  grains  ;  and  there  are  three 
 in  the  cabinets  at  the  British  Museum,  weighing  about 
 1282-  grains  each.  The  purity  cf  the  gold  in  the  Per- 
 sian Daric  was  remarkable.  Bath6lemy  found  it  to  be 
 in  one,  =^J,  or  0,9583  (Mem.  de  VAead.  des  Inscr., 
 vol.  21) ;  and  yet,  if  we  credit  Patin  (Hist.  Num.,  c. 
 7),  this  was  exceeded  by  the  purity  of  the  gold  coins 
 of  Philip  and  his  son  Alexander,  which  he  makes  = 
 23  carats,  10  grains,  or  0.979.  (Warm,  I.  c.)  The 
 Daric  had  on  one  side  the  figure  of  an  archer  crowned, 
 and  kneeling  upon  one  knee  ;  upon  the  other  a  sort  of 
 quadrataincusa,or  deep  cleft.  Knight  sees  in  the  fig- 
 ure upon  the  Persian  Daric,  not  an  archer,  but  a  type 
 of  Hercules-Mithras,  or  the  sun.  (hiquiry,  (^  131. — 
 Class.  Journ.,  vol.  25,  p.  49.)  Common  parlance, 
 however,  made  the  figure  to  be  an  archer ;  and  hence 
 arose  the  witticism  of  Agesilaus,  who  said  that  he  had 
 been  driven  out  of  Asia  by  thirty  thousand  archers, 
 meaning  so  many  Darics  distributed  among  the  Greek 
 cities  by  the  Persian  king.  Who  the  Darius  was 
 from  whom  the  coin  received  its  name  has  never  been 
 clearly  ascertained.  According  to  the  scholiast  on 
 Aristophanes  (Eccles  ,  589),  and  also  Harpocration 
 and  Suidas,  the  Daric  did  not  obtain  this  appellation 
 from  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  but  from  a  more  ancient 
 king  of  the  name  of  Darius.  Hence  some  writers  arc 
 led  to  infer  that  Darius  the  Mede,  who  is  mentioned  by 
 Daniel  (5,  31),  was  the  same  with  the  Cyaxares  of 
 whom  Xenophon  speaks.  (Compare  Prideaux,  Hist. 
 Connect.,  2,  538. — Hutchtnsoji,  ad  Xen.,  Cyrop.,  5,  2, 
 ^.—Perizon.,  ad  Mlian,  V.  H,  1,  22.)  Wesseling, 
 however,  maintains  the  contrary,  and  ascribes  the  ori- 
 gin of  the  coin  in  question  to  the  son  of  Hystaspes  ; 
 1st,  because  we  find  no  mention  made  by  the  Greeks 
 of  any  more  ancient  Darius  than  the  one  just  alluded 
 to  ;  and,  2d,  because,  as  the  lineage  of  the  monarch  is 
 given  by  Herodotus,  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes.  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  the  first  who  bore  the  name.  Zeune 
 conjectures  (what,  in  fact,  seems  more  than  probable), 
 that  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  only  corrected,  and 
 gave  his  name  to  an  ancient  coinage  already  existing. 
 Miiller  also  speaks  of  the  Daric  as  having  been  coined 
 by  Darius  Hystaspis.  (Public  Econ.  of  Athens,  vol. 
 1,  p.  32.) — The  silver  coins  which  go  by  the  name  of 
 Darics  are  in  truth  miscalled  The  earliest  of  them, 
 if  we  may  credit  Herodotus  (4,  166),  were  struck  by 
 
D  AR 
 
 DARIUS. 
 
 Aryandes,  the  Persian  governor  of  Egypt,  under  Cam- 
 byses,  in  imitation  of  the  Darics.  He  was  put  to  death 
 by  Darius  for  his  presumption.  The  coining  of  these 
 Darics  or  Aryandics  in  silver,  however,  must  have  been 
 continued  after  the  time  of  the  Persian  governor.  No 
 fewer  than  eight  specimens  of  this  description  are  in 
 the  cabinets  of  the  British  Museum.  One,  formerly 
 Mr.  R.  P.  Knight's,  bears  the  name  of  Pythagoras,  a 
 king  or  governor  of  Cyprus,  as  Mr.  Knight  conjectured. 
 Others,  which  have  the  figure  of  the  archer  crowned 
 on  one  side,  have  a  mounted  horseman  on  the  other. 
 They  are  generally  considered  as  ancient  Persian  coins, 
 and  are  commonly,  though  without  any  assignable  rea- 
 son, except  as  bearing  the  impress  of  an  archer,  call- 
 ed Darics.  In  the  silver  Daric,  a  drawing  of  which  is 
 given  by  Landon  {Numismati<]ue  da  Voyage  d'An- 
 achamis,  p.  48),  a  kneeling  archer  appears  on  both 
 sides  of  the  coin. — Prideaux  observes,  that  in  those 
 parts  of  Scripture  which  were  written  after  the  Baby- 
 lonian ca[)tivity  (he  refers  to  Chron.,  29,  7,  and  Ezra, 
 8,  27).  the  gold  Darics  are  mentioned  by  the  name  of 
 Adarkonim;  and  in  the  Talmudists  by  the  name  of 
 Darkorioth  {Buxtorf,  Lex.  Rahhin.,  p.  577),  both  from 
 the  Cireek  Aapet/cof.  {Prideaux's  Connexions,  vol. 
 1.  p.  183,  ed.  172.5.) 
 
 Darius,  I.surnamed  Hystaspis(or  sonof  Hystaspes), 
 a  satrap  of  Per.sia,  belonging  to  the  royal  line  of  the 
 Achaemenides,  and  whose  father  Hystaspes  had  been 
 governor  of  the  province  of  Persia.  Seven  noblemen  of 
 the  highest  rank,  in  the  number  of  whom  was  Darius, 
 conspired  to  dethrone  the  Magian  Smerdis,  who  had 
 usurped  the  crown  after  the  death  of  Uambyses,  and, 
 having  accomplished  their  object,  resolved  that  one  of 
 their  number  should  reign  in  his  stead.  According  to 
 Herodotus  (3,  84),  they  agreed  to  meet  at  early  dawn 
 in  the  suburbs  of  the  capital,  and  that  he  of  their  num- 
 ber whose  horse  should  first  neigh  at  the  rising  of  the 
 sun,  should  possess  the  kingdom.  If  we  believe  the 
 historian,  who  gives  two  accounts  of  the  matter,  Da- 
 rius obtained  the  crown  through  an  artful  contrivance 
 on  the  part  of  his  groom.  It  is  more  probable,  how- 
 ever, that,  in  consequence  of  his  relationship  to  the 
 royal  line,  his  election  to  the  throne  was  the  unani- 
 mous act  of  the  other  conspirators.  It  is  certain,  in- 
 deed, that  they  reserved  for  themselves  privileges 
 which  tended  at  least  to  make  them  independent  of  the 
 monarch,  and  even  to  keep  him  dependant  upon  them. 
 One  of  their  number  is  even  said  to  have  formally  stip- 
 ulated for  absolute  exemption  from  the  royal  authority, 
 as  the  condition  on  which  he  withdrew  his  claim  to  the 
 crown  :  and  the  rest  acquired  the  right  of  access  to 
 the  king's  person  at  all  seasons,  without  asking  his 
 leave,  and  bound  him  to  select  his  wives  exclusively 
 from  their  families.  How  far  the  power  of  Darius, 
 though  nominally  despotic,  was  really  limited  by  these 
 privileges  of  his  grandees,  may  be  seen  from  an  oc- 
 currence which  took  place  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign, 
 in  the  case  of  Intaphcrnes,  who  had  been  one  of  the 
 partners  in  the  conspiracy.  He  revenged  himself,  it 
 is  true,  for  an  outrage  committed  by  this  individual, 
 by  putting  him  to  death.  But,  before  he  ventured  to 
 take  this  step,  he  thought  it  necessary  to  sound  the 
 rest  of  the  six,  and  to  ascertain  whether  they  would 
 make  common  cause  with  the  offender.  He  was  prob- 
 ably glad  to  remove  men  so  formidable  to  distant  gov- 
 ernments ;  and  it  may  easily  be  conceived,  that,  if  their 
 power  was  so  great  at  court,  it  was  still  less  restrained 
 in  the  provinces  that  were  subjected  to  their  authority. 
 Nevertheless,  Darius  was  the  greatest  and  most  power- 
 ful king  that  ever  filled  the  throne  of  Persia,  and  even 
 the  disasters  he  experienced  but  slightly  clouded  the 
 remembrance  of  his  wisdom  and  his  prosperity.  Cyrus 
 and  Camhyscs  had  conquered  nations  :  Darius  was  the 
 true  founder  of  the  Persian  stale.  The  dominions 
 of  his  predecessors  were  a  mass  of  countries  only  uni- 
 ted bv  their  subjection  to  the  will  of  a  common  ruler, 
 
 which  expressed  itself  by  arbitrary  and  irregular  exac- 
 tions :  Darius  first  organized  them  into  an  empire, 
 where  every  member  felt  its  place  and  knew  its  func- 
 tions. His  realm  stretched  from  the  yEgean  to  the 
 Indus,  from  the  steppes  of  Scythia  to  the  Cataracts  of 
 the  Nile.  He  divided  this  vast  tract  into  twenty  sa- 
 trapies or  provinces,  and  appointed  the  tribute  which 
 each  was  to  pay  to  the  royal  treasury,  and  the  propor- 
 tion in  which  they  were  to  supply  provisions  for  the 
 army  and  for  the  king's  household.  A  high  road  oa 
 which  distances  were  regularly  marked,  and  spacious 
 buildings  placed  to  receive  all  who  travelled  in  the 
 king's  name,  connected  the  western  coast  with  the  seat 
 of  government ;  and  along  this  road,  couriers  trained 
 to  extraordinary  speed  transmitted  the  king's  mes- 
 sages.— Compared  with  the  rude  government  of  his 
 predecessors,  the  institutions  of  Darius  were  wise  and 
 vigorous;  in  themselves,  however,  unless  they  are 
 considered  as  foundations  laid  for  a  structure  thai  was 
 never  raised,  they  were  weak  and  barbarous.  The  de- 
 fects of  the  Persian  system,  however,  belong  to  another 
 head.  {Vid.  Persia.) — Darius,  in  the  very  beginning 
 of  his  reign,  meditated  an  expedition  against  the 
 Scythians,  in  retaliation,  most  probably,  for  the  desola- 
 ting inroads  of  that  barbarous  but  warlike  race,  and  to 
 check  their  incursions  for  the  time  to  come  by  a  salu- 
 tary display  of  the  power  and  resources  of  the  Persian 
 empire.  His  march,  however,  was  delayed  by  a  re- 
 bellion which  broke  out  at  Babylon.  The  ancient  cap- 
 ital of  Assyria  had  been  secretly  preparing  for  revolt 
 during  the  troubles  that  followed  the  fall  of  the  Magian, 
 and  for  nearly  two  years  it  defied  the  power  of  Dari- 
 us. At  length  the  treachery  of  Zopyrus,  a  noble  Per- 
 sian, who  sacrificed  his  person  and  his  power  to  the  in- 
 terest of  his  master,  is  said  to  have  opened  its  gates  to 
 him.  When  he  was  freed  from  this  care  he  set  out 
 for  the  Scythian  war.  The  whole  military  force  of  the 
 empire  was  put  in  motion,  and  the  numbers  of  the  army 
 are  rated  at  seven  or  eight  hundred  thousand  men. 
 This  expedition  of  Darius  into  Scylhia  has  given  rise 
 to  considerable  discussion.  The  first  point  involved 
 is  to  ascertain  how  far  the  Persian  monarch  penetrated 
 into  the  country.  According  to  Herodotus  (4,  83), 
 he  crossed  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  marched  through 
 Thrace,  passed  the  Danube  on  a  bridge  of  boats,  and 
 then  pursued  a  Scythian  division  as  far  as  the  Tana'is. 
 Having  crossed  this  river,  he  traversed  the  territories 
 of  the  SauroinatE  as  far  as  the  Budini,  whose  city  he 
 burned.  Beyond  the  Budini  he  entered  upon  a  vast 
 desert,  and  reached  the  river  Oarus,  where  he  re- 
 mained some  considerable  time,  erecting  forts  upon  its 
 banks.  Finding  that  the  Scythians  had  disappeared, 
 he  left  these  works  only  half  finished,  turned  his  course 
 to  the  westward,  and,  advancing  by  rapid  marcties, 
 entered  Scythia,  where  he  fell  in  with  two  of  the  divis- 
 ions of  the  enemy.  Pursuing  these,  he  traversed  the 
 territories  of  the  Mclanchteni,  Androphagi,  and  Neuri, 
 without  being  able  to  bring  them  to  an  engagement. 
 Provisions  failing,  he  was  eventually  compelled  to  re- 
 cross  the  Danube  {vid.  Histisus),  glad  to  have  saved 
 a  small  portion  of  his  once  numerous  army.  Accord- 
 ing to  Rennel  {Geography  of  Herodotus,  vol.  1,  p. 
 13G),  the  Persian  monarch,  in  marching  against  the 
 Scythians,  crossed  the  Danube  between  Ismail  and 
 the  junction  of  that  river  with  the  Pruth,  and  pene- 
 trated as  far  as  Saratow  on  the  Wolga.  ((Jompare 
 Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  v-  13,  seqq.)  It  i«  very 
 doubtful,  however,  whether  Darius  proceeded  as  far  as 
 this,  especially  when  we  take  into  consideration  the 
 time  consumed  by  a  Persian  army  in  making  an  expe- 
 dition,  the  labour  of  crossing  large  and  rapid  rivers, 
 and  the  dilTiculty  of  supplying  so  numerous  a  force 
 with  food  and  forage,  especially  when  wandering  in 
 the  track  of  the  Scythians  at  a  distance  from  the  coast. 
 According  to  other  accounts  (S//«/'o,  305),  Darius  only 
 came  as  far  as  the  sandy  tract  between  the  Danube  and 
 
 415 
 
DARIUS. 
 
 DARIUS. 
 
 the  Tyras,  in  the  present  Bcssarahia,  where,  in  after 
 days,  .\ntigonus  was  taiien  prisoner  by  the  Scylliians, 
 with  his  whole  army.  {Ukert,  Gcogr.,  vol,  1,  p.  59.) 
 —To  wipe  away  the  disgrace  of  this  unfortunate  en- 
 terprise, we  find  the  Persian  monarch  shortly  after  un- 
 dertaking an  expedition  against  India.  In  this  he  was 
 more  successful,  and  conquered  a  part  of  the  Pcntljab  ; 
 not,  however,  the  whole  country,  as  some  modern  wri- 
 ters erroneously  represent.  Some  time  after  this, 
 Miletus  having  revolted,  and  Arisiagoras,  its  ruler, 
 having  solicited  aid  from  the  Athenians  for  the  purpose 
 of  enabling  it  to  maintain  its  independence,  they  sent 
 twenty  ships,  to  which  the  Eretrians  added  five  more, 
 in  order  to  requite  a  kindness  previously  received  from 
 the  Milesians.  Aristagoras,  upon  this  succour's  arri- 
 ving, resolved  to  make  an  expedition  against  Sardis,  the 
 residence  of  the  Persian  satrap.  Accordingly,  landing 
 at  Ephesus,  the  confederates  marched  inland,  took  Sar- 
 dis, and  drove  the  governor  into  the  citadel.  Most  of 
 the  houses  in  Sardis  were  made  of  reeds,  and  even 
 those  which  were  built  of  brick  were  roofed  with 
 reeds.  One  of  these  was  set  on  lire  by  a  soldier,  and 
 immediately  the  flames  spread  from  house  to  house, 
 and  consumed  the  whole  city.  The  light  of  the  con- 
 flagration showing  to  the  Greeks  the  great  numbers  of 
 their  opponents,  who  were  beginning  to  rally,  being 
 constrained  by  necessity  to  defend  themselves,  as  their 
 retreat  was  cut  off  by  the  river  Pactolus,  the  former 
 retired  through  fear,  and  regained  their  ships.  Upon 
 the  receipt  of  this  intelligence,  Darius,  having  called 
 for  a  bow,  put  an  arrow  into  it,  and  shot  it  into  the 
 air,  with  these  words  :  "  Grant,  oh  Jupiter,  that  I  may 
 be  able  to  revenge  myself  upon  the  Athenians."  After 
 he  had  thus  spoken,  he  commanded  one  of  his  attend- 
 ants thrice  every  time  dinner  was  set  before  him,  to 
 e.\rlaim,  "Master!  remember  the  Athenians."  Mar- 
 donius,  the  king's  son-in-law,  was  intrusted  with  the 
 care  of  the  war.  After  crossing  the  Hellespont,  he 
 marched  down  through  Thrace,  but,  in  endeavouring 
 to  double  .Mount  Athos,  he  lost  300  vessels,  and,  it  is 
 said,  more  than  20,000  men.  After  this  he  was  at- 
 tacked in  the  night  by  the  Brygi,  who  killed  many  of 
 his  men,  and  wounded  Mardonius  himself.  He  suc- 
 ceeded, however,  in  defeating  and  reducing  them  un- 
 der his  power,  but  his  army  was  so  weakened  by  these 
 circumstances  that  he  was  compelled  to  return  inglo- 
 riously  to  Asia.  Darius,  only  animated  by  this  loss, 
 sent  a  more  considerable  force,  under  the  command  of 
 Datis  and  Artaphcrnes,  with  orders  to  sack  the  cities 
 of  Athens  and  Eretria,  and  to  send  to  him  all  the  sur- 
 viving inhabitants  in  fetters.  The  Persians  took  the 
 isle  of  Naxos  and  the  city  of  Eretria  in  Eubcea,  but 
 were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by  the  Athenians 
 and  Platsans  under  the  celebrated  Miltiades  at  Mara- 
 thon. Their  fleet  was  also  completely  unsuccessful  in 
 an  attempt  to  surprise  Athens  after  the  battle.  {Vid. 
 Miltiades  and  Marathon.)  The  anger  of  Darius  was 
 doubly  inflamed  against  Athens  by  the  event  of  Mara- 
 thon ;  and  he  resolved  that  the  insolent  people,  who 
 had  invaded  his  territories,  violated  the  persons  of  his 
 messengers,  and  driven  his  generals  to  a  shameful 
 flight,  should  feel  the  whole  weight  of  his  arm.  The 
 preparations  he  now  set  on  fool  were  on  a  vast  scale, 
 and  demanded  a  longer  time.  For  three  years  all  Asia 
 was  kept  in  a  continual  stir  :  in  the  fourth,  however, 
 Darius  was  distracted  by  other  causes  ;  by  a  quarrel 
 between  his  two  sons  respecting  the  succession  to  the 
 throne,  and  by  an  insurrection  in  Egypt.  In  the  fol- 
 lowing year,  before  he  had  ended  his  preparations 
 acrainst  Egypt  and  Attica,  he  died,  and  Xerxes  mounted 
 the  throne,  13. C.  485.  Darius  reigned  thirty-six  years. 
 His  memory  was  always  held  in  veneration  by  the  Per- 
 sians and  the  other  nations  comprehended  under  his 
 sway,  whom  he  governed  with  much  wisdom  and  mod- 
 eration.— As  regards  the  im[)ort  of  the  name  Darius 
 in  Persian,  Herodotus  (6,  98)  informs  us  that  it  was 
 416 
 
 equivalent  to  ip^ivc-  "one  who  restrainn,'"  but  he  is 
 at  variance  with  Ilesychius,  who  makes  it  the  same  as 
 (pouvifior,  '■'prudent.''^  Grotefeiid  makes  Darius  to 
 be  a  compound  word,  the  first  pan  being  an  abbrevia- 
 tion of  Dara  ("  lord  "),  and  the  latter  portion  coming 
 fronn  Icshah  {'' king"),  and  thinks  that  the  name  may 
 have  been  pronounced  in  Persian  Darycush,  or  Dary- 
 coesh,  whence,  by  an  easy  change,  we  have  Daryavesh, 
 which  reminds  us  of  the  Aapetalo^  of  Ctesias  (Pcrs., 
 ()  48).  Herodotus  appears  to  have  merely  translated 
 the  latter  part  of  the  name  Darius,  by  epiiTjc,  imitating, 
 after  the  Greek  fashion,  the  sound  of  the  Persian  word. 
 {G rotcfcnd,  in  Hccron,  Jdccn,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  347.) 
 St.  Martin  reads  the  name  as  Dareiousch  Vyschtas- 
 ponca  on  the  Persepolitan  inscriptions,  i.  e.,  Darius 
 (ToiJ)  Vishlaspo  (sc.  filius).  {Journal  Asialiqtie, 
 Fehr.,  1823,  p.  83.)  Lassen,  however,  more  correct- 
 ly, we  think,  gives  Darhawus  Vistaspnha.  the  latter 
 word  being  equivalent  to  the  GustaKp  of  the  modern 
 Persian,  and  meaning  "  one  whose  employment  is 
 about  horses."  {Die  Allpersisch.  Keil-Insckrif/cii,  p. 
 37,  scqq.) — II.  The  second  of  the  name  was  surnamed 
 Ochus.  {Vid.  Ochus.) — III.  The  third  of  the  name, 
 and  the  last  king  of  Persia,  was  son  of  Arsames,  who 
 had  for  his  father  Osthames,  one  of  the  sons  of  Darius 
 Ochus.  His  true  name  was  Codomannus,  and  he  had, 
 before  coming  to  the  throne,  acquired  some  reputation 
 for  personal  courage,  chiefly  through  an  exploit  which 
 he  had  performed  in  one  of  the  expeditions  against  the 
 Cadusians,  when  he  accepted  a  challenge  from  one  of 
 their  stoutest  warriors,  and  slew  hiin  in  single  combat. 
 The  eunuch  Bagoas  raised  him  to  the  throne,  not  so 
 much,  however,  on  this  account,  as  because  they  had 
 previously  been  friends,  and  because,  perhaps,  there 
 was  no  other  prince  of  the  blood  on  whose  gratitude 
 he  could  safely  rely.  {Vid.  Bagoas.)  Codomannus, 
 upon  his  accession,  which  took  place  about  the  time 
 when  Philip  of  Macedon  died,  assumed  the  name  of 
 Darius.  He  soon  discovered  that  Bagoas,  who  may 
 have  intended  at  length  to  mount  the  throne  himself, 
 designed  that  he  should  share  the  fate  of  his  last  two 
 predecessors.  A  cup  of  poison  had  been  prepared  for 
 him.  But,  having  detected  the  plot,  he  called  Bagoas 
 into  his  presence,  and  compelled  him  to  drink  the  deadly 
 drauglit. — The  reign  of  Darius  Codomannus  was  early 
 disturbed  by  the  invasion  of  Alexander.  The  Persian 
 monarch,  however,  did  not  take  the  command  of  his 
 forces  until  after  the  battle  of  the  Granicus  had  been 
 fought,  and  Alexander  had  advanced  as  far  as  Cilicia. 
 He  then  proceeded  to  meet  the  invader,  in  all  the  pomp 
 of  royalty,  but  with  an  army  ill  fitted  to  contend 
 against  such  an  antagonist.  Resolving  to  hazard  an 
 encounter,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  Greek  allies, 
 Darius  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Issus.  but  was  com- 
 pelled to  flee  from  the  field  with  so  much  precipitation 
 as  to  leave  behind  him  his  bow,  shield,  and  royal 
 mantle.  His  camp  was  plundered,  and  his  mother, 
 wife,  and  children  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror 
 In  vain,  after  this,  did  Darius  supplicate  for  an  accom- 
 modation. Alexander  went  on  in  the  career  of  victo 
 ry  ;  and  in  a  second  pitched  battle  at  Gaugamcla,  com- 
 monly called  the  battle  of  Arbcla  {vul.  Arbela),  Darius 
 again  fought,  and  again  was  compelled  to  flee.  His 
 plan  was  now  to  advance  into  Media,  lay  waste  the 
 country  through  which  he  passed,  and  seek  refuge 
 finally  on  the  other  side  of  the  Oxus,  where  he  ho|)ed 
 that  the  conqueror  would  be  content  to  leave  him  un- 
 molested. Alexander  suffered  four  months  to  elapse 
 before  he  again  set  out  in  pursuit  of  Darius.  He  then 
 advanced  by  forced  marches  in  pursuit  of  him,  and 
 learned  eventually  that  the  monarch  was  a  prisoner  in 
 the  hands  of  Be.ssus,  one  of  his  own  satraps.  ( Vid. 
 Bessus.)  A  still  more  active  pursuit  now  commenced, 
 and  the  unhappy  king  refusing  to  proceed  any  farther, 
 was  left  mortally  wounded  in  a  chariot,  while  Bessus 
 and  his  accomplices   took  to  flight,  accomuanied  by 
 
DAT 
 
 DEC 
 
 600  horse.  Darius  expired  before  Alexander  saw  him. 
 The  conqueror  threw  his  cloak  over  the  corpse. — Al- 
 exander ordered  his  body  to  be  buried  in  the  sepulchre 
 of  his  ancestors  with  royal  magnificence,  took  charge 
 of  the  education  of  his  children,  and  married  his  daugh- 
 ter. {Flut.,  Vii.  Alex. — Arrian,  Exp.  Al. — ThirlwalVs 
 History  of  Greece,  vol.  6,  p.  237,  seqq.)—lY.  Eldest 
 son  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  put  to  death  for  conspi- 
 ring against  his  father.     {Flut.,  Vtt.  Artax.) 
 
 Dascv  LiuM,  a  city  of  Bithynia,  in  the  district  Olym- 
 pena,  placed  by  D'Anville  on  a  lake  at  the  mouth  of 
 the  small  river  Horisius  ;  which  runs,  according  to 
 him,  into  the  Propontis.  Mannert,  however,  makes  it 
 to  have  been  situated  to  the  west  of  the  mouth  of  the 
 river  Gebes  or  Gelbes,  and  gives  the  Horisius  as  flow- 
 ing to  the  west  towards  the  Rhyndacus.  (Gcogr., 
 vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  559.)  This  city  is  named  by  Strabo 
 and  Ptolemy  Dascylium,  as  it  is  here  given,  but  by 
 Mela  and  Pliny,  Dascylos.  (Strabo,  bib. — Pirn.,  5, 
 32. — Mela,  1,  19.)  During  the  continuance  of  the 
 Persian  empire,  it  was  the  residence  of  the  satrap  of 
 Mysia  and  Phrygia  Mmor;  hence,  immediately  after 
 the  battle  of  the  Granicus,  Alexander  despatched  Par- 
 menio  to  take  possession  of  it.  {Arrian,  Exp.  Alex., 
 1,  18.)  The  modern  name,  according  to  D'Anville,  is 
 Diaskillo. 
 
 Dat.\mes,  a  satrap  of  Cappadocia,  in  the  reign  of 
 Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  He  was  a  man  of  extraordinary 
 abilities,  had  served  the  king  with  the  utmost  loyalty, 
 and  micrht  have  proved  the  firmest  bulwark  of  his 
 throne.  But  the  calumnies  of  some  envious  courtiers 
 had  excited  the  suspicions  of  Artaxerxes  against  him, 
 and  Datames  saw  himself  obliged  to  revolt,  to  escape 
 discrrace  and  ruin.  He  long  maintained  his  independ- 
 ence, but  was  at  length  entrapped  and  slain  by  Mith- 
 radates,  a  son  of  x^riobarzanes,  satrap  of  Phrygia. 
 This  event  took  place  after  the  death  of  Artaxerxes, 
 and  when  Ochus  had  succeeded  to  the  throne.  Nepos 
 has  written  the  life  of  Datames.  {Nep.,  Vit.  Dat. — 
 Compare  Polyayi.,  7,  29,  1.) 
 
 Datis,  a  general  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  sent,  in  con- 
 junction with  Artaphernes,  to  punish  Eretria  and  Ath- 
 ens.    Datis  was  a  Mede,  and  Artaphernes  son  of  the 
 satrap  of  Lydia,  and  nephew  of  Darius.     He  was  hence 
 superior  m  rank,  but  inferior  probably  to  Datis  both  in 
 age   and   military  experience.      The  latter,  therefore, 
 would  seem  to  be  the  real  leader  of  the  expedition. 
 The  whole  armament  consisted  of  600  ships,  accord- 
 ing to  Herodotus  ;  this,  on  the  footing  which  he  fixes 
 clspwhere,  of  200  men  to  each  trireme,  would  give 
 120,000   men    as   the   strength   of  the   Persian    land 
 force  transported  in  the  fleet.      After  accomplishing 
 one  object  of  the  expedition  in  the  capture  of  Eretria, 
 Datis  and  Artaphernes  then  invaded  Attica,  but  were 
 defeated  in  the  memorable  battle  of  Marathon.     Ac- 
 cording to   Ctesias  {Pers.,  c.   18),  Datis  fell  on  the 
 field  of  battle  ;   but  Herodotus  (6,  119)  makes  him  to 
 have  returned  to  Asia.     Larcher  sides  with  the  latter 
 {Hist.  (THcrod.,  vol.  9,  p.  272),  and  Biihr  with  the 
 former  {ad  Ctes.,  p.  148).     This  commander,  in  the 
 exultation  which  he  felt  on  occasion  of  his  first  suc- 
 cess in  reducing  Naxos  {vid.  Darius),  exclaimed,  uq 
 r/doitai  Koi  ripTTOfiac  Kal  xaipofiac !      The  word  X^'P^- 
 jiai  is  a  barbarism,  for  the  Greeks  always  said  ;\'a/pw. 
 These  kinds  of  barbarisms  were  afterward  called  Da- 
 tisms.      (Compare  Aristoph.,  Pac.,  v.  290,  and  the 
 remarks  of  the  schohast  on  v.  288.) 
 
 Datos,  a  town  of  Europe,  which,  after  having  belong- 
 ed to  Thrace,  was  transferred  to  Macedonia  when  the 
 empire  was  extended  on  that  side.  It  was  situate  not 
 far  from  the  coast,  to  the  northeast  of  Amphipolis,  and 
 near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  range  of  Mount 
 PangBBUS.  It  stood  on  a  craggy  hill,  having  a  forest 
 to  the  north,  and  to  the  south  a  lake  or  marsh  at  a  small 
 distance  from  the  sea.  Proserpina  is  said  to  have  been 
 gathering  flowers  here  when  she  was  carried  away  by 
 G  a  o 
 
 Pluto,  whereas  the  common  account  places  the  scene 
 of  the  fable  at  Enna  in  Sicily.  This  place  was  pio- 
 verbially  rich,  on  account  of  the  mines  of  gold  in  its 
 territory.  Its  territory  also  was  highly  fertile,  and  it 
 possessed  excellent  docks  for  the  construction  of  ships ; 
 hence  arose  the  proverb,  Adrof  uyadiJv,  i.  e  ,  an  abun- 
 dance of  good  things.  {Strabo,  p.  331. — Compare 
 Harpocrat.,  s.  v.  Aurng. — Zenob.,  Prov.  Grczc.  Cent., 
 3,  71.) 
 
 Daui.is,  I.  a  city  of  Phocis,  south  of  the  Cephis- 
 sus,  and  about  seven  stadia  from  Panopesus.  {Pau- 
 san.,  10,  4.)  It  was  a  city  of  great  antiquity,  and 
 celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  scene  of  the  tragic 
 story  of  Philomela  and  Progne.  Thucydides  (2,  a9) 
 affirms,  that  Teres,  who  had  married  Progne,  the 
 daughter  of  Pandion,  sovereign  of  Athens,  was  chief 
 of  Daulis,  then  occupied,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  Phocis, 
 by  a  body  of  Thracians  ;  in  support  of  his  statement, 
 he  observes,  that  the  poets  frequently  alluded  to  Phil- 
 omela under  the  name  of  the  "  Daulian  bird."  Strabo 
 (423)  asserts,  that  the  word  "  Daulos,"  which  signifies 
 a  thick  forest,  had  been  applied  to  this  district  from  its 
 woody  character.  Daulis,  having  been  destroyed  by 
 the  Persians,  was  no  doubt  afterward  restored,  as  we 
 find  it  besieged  and  taken,  during  the  Macedonian  war, 
 by  T.  Flamininus,  the  consul.  Livy  represents  it  as 
 situate  on  a  lofty  hill  difficult  to  be  scaled  (33,  18). 
 Daulis  was  the  more  ancient  name  ;  it  was  afterward 
 changed  to  Daulia  {Slrab.,  I.  c.)  and  Daulium.  {Po- 
 lyb.,  4,  25.)  Pausanias  reports,  that  the  Daulians  sur- 
 passed in  strength  and  stature  all  the  other  Phocians 
 (10,  4).  The  site  of  this  ancient  city  retains  the  name 
 of  Daulia.  (Compare  Dodioell,  Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  204 
 — GeWs  Itinerary,^.  172  and  203. —  Cramer's  Ajic. 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  183.) 
 
 Daunia,  a  country  of  Italy,  forming  part  of  Apulia, 
 and  situate  on  the  coast  to  the  northwest  of  Peuce- 
 tia.  The  Daunii  appear  to  have  been  one  of  the  earli- 
 est Italian  tribes  with  which  the  Greeks  became  ac- 
 quainted, from  the  circumstance  of  their  having  formed 
 colonies,  which  they  established  at  a  remote  period  on 
 the  western  shores  of  the  Adriatic.  This  people,  ac- 
 cording to  the  most  received  tradition,  obtained  their 
 appellation  from  Daunus,  the  father-in-law  of  Diomede, 
 which  latter  is  stated,  on  his  return  from  Troy,  to  have 
 been  compelled,  from  domestic  calamities,  to  abandon 
 his  native  country,  and  to  have  founded  another  king- 
 dom in  the  plains'^  watered  by  the  Aufidus.  This  tra- 
 dition, as  far  as  it  relates  to  Diomede,  may  afford  mat- 
 ter for  discussion,  but  it  proves,  at  least,  the  great  an- 
 tiquity of  the  Daunians  as  an  indigenous  people  of  It- 
 aly. Other  accounts,  perhaps  still  more  ancient,  as- 
 serted tiiat  Daunus  was  an  Illyrian  chief,  who,  driven 
 from  his  country  by  an  adverse  faction,  formed  a  set- 
 tlement in  this  part  of  Italy.  {Festus,  s.  v.  Daunia. 
 — Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  266.) 
 
 Daunus,  according  to  one  account,  an  Illyrian  chief- 
 tain, who,  on  being  driven  from  his  native  country  by 
 an  adverse  faction,  formed  a  settlement  in  that  part  of 
 Italy  which  was  called  Daunia  after  his  name.  {Fes- 
 tus, s.  V.  Daunia.)  Poetic  legends,  however,  make 
 him  to  have  been  of  Italian  origin,  and  a  son  of  Pilum- 
 nus,  king  of  Apulia,  by  Danae,  who  had  fled  hither,  as 
 was  fabled,  from  Greece.  Virgil  makes  Turnus  the  son 
 of  Daunus,  and  grandson  of  Pilumnus.  {jEn.,  10,  76.) 
 Decapolis,  a  country  of  Palestine,  lying  to  '''^  east 
 and  southeast  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias.  It  seems  to  have 
 belonged  originally  to  the  possessions  of  the  kingdom 
 of  Israel,  but  was  afterward  reckoned  as  a  part  of  Syr:a. 
 Pliny  (15,2)  and  Ptolemy  both  speak  of  it  as  forming 
 a  part  of  the  latter  country.  The  name  is  derived 
 from  the  circumstance  oi  ten  cities  {Ssko  TroZcif)  con- 
 tained in  it  having  formed  a  confederation,  in  order  to 
 oppose  the  Asmonaean  princes,  by  whoin  tlie  Jewish 
 nation  was  governed  until  the  time  of  Herod.  Aftei 
 his  death  they  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 
 
DEC 
 
 DECEMVIRI. 
 
 (Josephus,  Ant.,  17,  12.— /i.,  Bell.  Jud.,  2,  4.)  The 
 inhabitants  were  for  tht  most  part  of  Grecian  origin. 
 These  ten  cities,  according  to  Ptolemv,  were  Scy- 
 ihopolis,  Hippos,  Gadara,  Dion,  I'clia,  Gerasa,  Philadel- 
 phia, Canatha,  Capitolias,  and  Gadora.  Pliny,  instead 
 of  the  last  two,  gives  Damascus  and  Rafjhana  ;  in  the 
 rest  his  account  agrees  with  that  of  Ptolemy,  who 
 seems  more  worthy  of  reliance  in  this  instance  than 
 the  Roman  writer.     (Plin.,  6,  18.) 
 
 Decebalus,  a  warlike  and  enterprising  monarch  of 
 the  Dacians,  who  prosecuted  a  successful  war  against 
 Domitian,  and  drove  him  to  a  disgraceful  peace.  He 
 was  unable,  however,  to  cope  with  Trajan,  and  de- 
 stroyed himself  when  all  was  lost.  His  head  was  sent 
 by  the  emperor  to  Rome,  and  his  treasures  were  found 
 by  the  Romans,  on  the  information  of  one  of  his  confi- 
 dants, in  the  bed  of  the  river  Sargetia  (now  the  Istrig), 
 and  in  various  secret  caverns.  {Dio  C'aM.,f>7, 6. — Id, 
 68,  6,  scqq.)  Lazius,  cited  by  Fabretti,  says,  that  some 
 Wallachian  fishermen,  in  the  middle  of  the  si.xteenth 
 century,  found  a  part  of  these  treasures,  which  had  es- 
 caped the  search  of  Trajan.     {Fahr.,de  Cul.  Traj.,c.8.) 
 
 Decef-ea,  a  borough  and  fortress  of  Attica,  about 
 125  stadia  from  Athens,  and  the  same  distance  from 
 the  Boeotian  frontier.  This  town  was  always  consid- 
 ered of  great  importance,  from  its  situation  on  the  road 
 to  Euboea,  whence  the  Athenians  derived  most  of  their 
 supplies;  when,  therefore,  by  the  advice  of  Alcibia- 
 des,  it  was  seized  and  garrisoned  by  a  Lacedaemonian 
 force,  they  became  exposed  to  great  loss  and  inconve- 
 nience. {Thucyd.,  6,  91.— Zrf.,  7,  19.- .S/mio,  396.) 
 Thucydides  reports,  that  Decelea  was  visible  from  Ath- 
 ens ;  and  Xenophon  observes  that  the  sea  and  Pirsus 
 could  be  seen  from  it,  {Hist.  Gr.,  1,  1,  25.)  Herodo- 
 tus states,  that  the  lands  of  the  Deceleans  were  always 
 spared  by  the  Peloponnesian  army  in  their  invasions  of 
 Attica,  because  they  had  pointed  out  to  the  Tyndaridce 
 liie  place  were  Helen  was  secreted  by  Theseus,  when 
 ■they  came  to  Attica  in  search  of  her.  {Herodot.,  9, 
 73. — Alex.,  ap.  Achen.,  2,  76.)  Sir  W.  Gell  describes 
 Decelea  as  situate  on  a  round  detached  hill,  connected 
 by  a  sort  of  isthmus  with  Mount  Parnes.  From  the 
 top  is  an  extensive  view  of  the  plains  of  both  Athens 
 and  Eleusis.  The  fortress  is  at  the  mouth  of  a  pass 
 through  Parnes  to  Oropus.  The  nearest  place  is  Va- 
 ribobi.  {Itin.,  p.  106.)  Mr.  Hawkins  gives  the  mod- 
 ern name  of  the  spot  on  which  the  ruins  of  Decelea 
 stand  as  XupLOK2.ei6ia.  ( WalpoWs  Collection,  vol. 
 1,  p.  338,  in  notis. — Cramer'' s  AncicjU  Greece,  vol.  2, 
 p.  403) 
 
 Decemviri,  I.  ten  commissioners  appointed  to  frame 
 a  code  of  laws  for  the  Roman  state. — The  history  of 
 this  affair  is  as  follows  :  'i'he  intestine  feuds  between 
 the  patricians  and  plebeians  were  continuing  with  un- 
 abated animosity.  Occasionally  one  of  the  consuls 
 favoured  the  plebeians,  and  proposed  some  mitigation 
 of  the  hardships  under  which  they  were  labouring,  or 
 some  increase  of  their  privileges,  but  generally  with 
 little  success.  The  Agrarian  law,  brought  forward  by 
 Spurius  Cassius,  continued  to  be  the  main  demand 
 of  the  commons  and  their  supporters,  but  its  passage 
 was,  on  every  occasion,  either  directly  or  indirectly 
 prevented.  At  last  the  commons  became  convinced, 
 that  they  need  hope  for  no  complete  redress  of  griev- 
 ances, until  they  should  have  ])reviously  secured  the  es- 
 tablishment of  some  constitutional  principle,  from  which 
 equal  justice  would,  of  necessity  and  from  its  very  na- 
 ture, emanate.  Accordingly,  Caius  Tcrentillus  Harsa, 
 one  of  the  tribunes,  proposed  a  law  for  a  complete 
 reform  of  the  existing  state  of  things.  Its  purport  was, 
 that  ten  commissioners  should  be  chosen,  five  by  the 
 patricians  and  five  by  the  commons,  to  draw  up  a  con- 
 stitution, which  should  define  all  points  of  constitution- 
 al, civil,  and  criminal  law  ;  and  should  thus  determine, 
 on  just  and  fixed  principles,  all  the  political,  social,  and 
 civil  relations  of  all  orders  of  the  Roman  people.  Af- 
 418 
 
 ter  much  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  patricians,  the 
 law  was  passed,  and  three  commissioners  were  at 
 length  sent  to  Greece,  to  collect  from  the  Grecian 
 states  such  notices  of  their  laws  and  constitutions  as 
 might  be  serviceable  to  the  Romans.  After  the  ab- 
 sence of  a  year,  they  returned  ;  and  the  commons, 
 finding  it  in  vain  to  insist  upon  five  of  their  own  body 
 ibrming  part  of  the  reviewers  of  the  laws,  yielded  the 
 [loint,  and  ten  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  patrician 
 and  senatorial  body  were  chosen  to  form  an  entirely 
 new  and  complete  code  of  laws,  by  which  the  state 
 should  be  governed.  They  were  named  Decemviri 
 ("  the  ten  men"),  and  during  their  office  they  were 
 to  supersede  every  other  magistrate.  Each  in  his 
 turn  was  to  administer  the  government  for  a  day,  or, 
 according  to  others,  for  several  days,  till  they  should 
 complete  their  legislative  labours.  After  the  careful 
 deliberation  of  a  few  months,  the  result  was  laid  be- 
 fore the  people  in  the  form  of  ten  tables,  fully  written 
 out,  and  exhibited  in  a  conspicuous  place  where  all 
 might  read  them.  Various  amendments  were  pro- 
 posed, and  the  ten  tables  again  laid  before  the  senate, 
 the  curiffi,  and  the  centuries,  and,  having  received  the 
 sanction  of  both  orders  of  the  state,  were  recoonised 
 as  the  very  fountain  of  the  laws,  public  and  private. 
 The  decemvirs  had  conducted  matters  so  much  to  the 
 satisfaction  of  the  community,  that  when,  at  the  ex- 
 piration of  their  year,  they  requested  a  renewal  of  their 
 office,  on  the  ground  that  they  had  still  two  more  tables 
 to  form  in  order  to  complete  their  task,  an  election  of 
 new  decemvirs  was  ordered.  The  patrician  Appius 
 Claudius,  who  took  the  leading  part  in  the  whole  affair, 
 was  nominated  to  preside  over  this  election.  He  act- 
 ed in  concert  with  the  plebeians,  by  receiving  votes  for 
 plebeian  candidates,  and  for  himself  likewise,  though 
 It  had  been  declared  contrary  to  law  that  any  function- 
 ary should  be  re-elected  immediately  after  holding  of- 
 fice. By  dint  of  intrigue,  however,  Appius  was  re- 
 elected, and  along  with  him  nine  others,  half  of  whom 
 were  patricians,  half  plebeians.  The  new  commission 
 soon  showed  itself  very  different  from  the  first.  Each 
 of  the  decemvirs  had  twelve  lictors,  whereas  the  pre- 
 vious commission  had  the  lictors  only  bv  turns,  and  a 
 single  accensus  or  officer  preceded  each  of  the  rest. 
 The  lictors,  too,  now  bore  amid  the  fasces  the  formi- 
 dable axe,  the  emblem  of  judgment  on  life  and  death, 
 which  the  consuls,  since  the  time  of  Valerius  Publi- 
 cola,  had  been  obliged  to  lay  aside  during  their  con- 
 tinuance in  the  city.  The  Decemviri  seemed  resolved 
 to  change  the  government  of  Rome  into  a  complete 
 oligarchy,  consisting  of  ten,  whose  power  should  be 
 absolute  in  everything.  They  arrogated  the  right  of 
 superseding  all  other  magistracies  ;  and,  at  the  con- 
 clusion of  their  second  year,  they  showed  no  intention 
 of  resigning  their  offices  or  of  appointing  their  succes- 
 sors. Matters  had  nearly  arrived  at  a  crisis,  when  a 
 war  arose,  the  Sabmcs  and  the  .lEqui  having  united 
 Ihcir  forces,  and  being  desirous  of  availing  themselves 
 of  the  distracted  state  of  Rome.  The  decemvirs  as- 
 sembled the  senate,  obtained  their  authority  to  raise 
 an  army,  at  the  head  of  which  they  placed  three  of 
 their  number,  and  sent  it  against  the  Sabines.  An- 
 other was  raised  and  sent  against  the  ^qui,  while 
 Appius  (Claudius  remained  at  Rome  to  provide  for  the 
 safety  of  the  city  and  for  the  maintenance  of  the  {)Ower 
 of  the  decemvirs.  Both  armies  suffered  themselves 
 to  be  defeated,  and  retired  nearer  to  the  city,  dissatis- 
 fied rather  than  discomfited.  Then  occurred  the  af- 
 fair of  Virginia,  and  the  decemviral  power  was  at  an 
 end.  {Vid.  Virginia,  Appius. — Liv-,  3,  32,  scqq. — 
 Hcthcrrnp:ton's  Hist,  of  Rome,  p.  50,  seqq.) — The  ac- 
 count of  the  Decemviri  is  involved  in  considerable  ob- 
 scurity. A  careful  examination  of  the  whole  subject 
 gives  rise  to  the  suspicion,  that  it  was  an  artful  and 
 well-concerted  scheme  on  the  part  of  the  nobility  to 
 regain  the  power  of  which  they  had  been  dispossessed 
 
DECEMVIRI. 
 
 DEC 
 
 by  the  gradual  encroachments  of  the  commons,  and 
 was  only  frustrated  by  the  selfish  and  inordinate  am- 
 bition of  the  leading  agents.  The  people  had  been 
 clamorous  for  a  code  of  laws,  a  demand  which  the 
 patricians,  in  whom  the  whole  judiciary  power  was 
 vested,  and  to  whom  the  knowledge  of  the  few  laws 
 which  then  existed  was  confined,  had  always  very 
 strenuously  opposed.  After  violent  altercations  be- 
 tween the  two  orders,  the  patricians  on  a  sudden  yield- 
 ed to  the  popular  wish,  and  became  apparently  as  de- 
 sirous of  a  code  of  laws  as  the  people  themselves  were : 
 when,  however,  it  came  to  the  choice  of  commissioners, 
 who  should  be  sent  abroad  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting 
 foreign  codes,  the  nobility  insisted  that  all  three  depu- 
 ties should  be  of  patrician  rank.  They  gained  their 
 point,  and  three  of  their  own  order  were  sent.  That 
 these  deputies  actually  went  to  Greece  is  a  point  far 
 from  being  well  established  ;  indeed,  the  contrary  would 
 seem  much  nearer  the  truth.  We  have,  it  is  true,  the 
 authority  of  Floras,  Orosius,  and  Aurelius  Victor,  in 
 favour  of  the  Roman  laws  having  been  compiled  from 
 the  code  of  Solon  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Diodorus 
 Siculus  (12,  23),  who  makes  mention  of  the  Decem- 
 viri, and  of  the  laws  compiled  by  them,  says  nothing 
 of  the  Romans  having  sent  to  Athens  for  that  purpose  ; 
 and  in  none  of  the  works  of  Cicero  is  any  account 
 given  of  this  deputation.  It  must  not  be  denied, 
 however,  that  Dio  Cassius  (44,  26)  makes  Cicero 
 remark,  a  little  after  the  death  of  Caesar,  that  their 
 forefathers  had  not  disdained  to  borrow  some  laws 
 from  Athens  ;  and  Cicero  himself,  in  his  treatise  De 
 Lcsihus  (2,  23),  speaking  of  a  funeral  law  of  the 
 twelve  tables,  states  that  it  was  nearly  all  borrowed 
 from  one  of  the  laws  of  Solon.  In  opposition  to  this, 
 hov^'ever,  it  may  be  urged,  that  a  comparison  of  the 
 fragments  we  possess  of  the  decemviral  laws  with  the 
 code  of  Solon,  shows  so  striking  a  discrepance  in  gen- 
 eral, as  to  lead  at  once  to  the  belief  that  the  coinci- 
 dences mentioned  by  Cicero  are  to  be  explained  on 
 other  and  different  grounds.  Why,  it  may  be  asked, 
 if  the  Roman  code  were  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  did 
 it  breathe  so  little  of  the  spirit  of  Grecian  legislation, 
 and  contain  so  many  things  peculiar  to  the  Romans 
 and  foreign  to  the  Greeks  1  How  came  it  that  Her- 
 modorus  of  Ephesus,  who  is  reported  to  have  inter- 
 preted and  explained  the  Attic  laws  to  the  Roman 
 commissioners,  used  many  Latin  terms,  such  as  auc- 
 tnritas,  libripcns,  assiduus  prolclarius,  and  many 
 others,  for  which  there  were  no  equivalent  expressions 
 among  the  Greeks  1 — But  the  authority  of  Cicero  him- 
 self is  conclusive  on  this  point.  He  hesitates  not  to 
 rank  the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables  far  ahovc  those  of 
 Greece.  "  It  is  easy,"  he  observes,  "  to  perceive  how 
 much  the  wisdom  and  prudence  of  our  forefathers  sur- 
 passed that  of  other  nations,  if  you  compare  our  laws 
 with  those  of  Lycurgus,  Draco,  and  Solon.  It  is  in- 
 credible how  ill  digested  and  almost  ridiculous  every 
 system  of  civil  law  is  excepting  our  own.  This  I 
 repeat  every  day,  when  in  my  discourses  I  prefer  the 
 wisdom  of  our  Romans  to  that  of  other  men,  and  in 
 particular  of  the  Greeks."  (Cic,  de  Oraf  ,  \,  4:4:.)  Is 
 this  the  language  of  a  man  who  believed  that  the  De- 
 cemviri had  been  indebted  to  the  legislators  of  Greece 
 for  the  code  which  they  promulgated  1 — The  truth  ap- 
 pears to  be,  that  whatever  admixture  of  Grecian  laws 
 there  was  in  the  Roman  code,  was  derived  from  Gre- 
 cian customs  and  usages  prevalent  at  the  time  both 
 in  the  vicinity  of  Rome  and  in  the  city  itself  To 
 these  Grecian  customs  were  added  others  peculiar  to 
 the  Romans.  These  last  were,  in  fact,  the  old  Leges 
 RegicB.  which,  as  the  ancient  writers  inform  us,  were 
 observed,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  not  as  writ- 
 ten law,  but  as  customs.  The  patricians  might  well 
 be  anxious  to  give  them  the  sanction  of  written  laws, 
 as  it  is  highly  probable  that,  being  of  regal  institution, 
 thev  breathed  more  or  less  of  an  aristocratical  spirit. 
 
 Now  the  concurrence  of  the  nobility  in  the  views  of 
 the  people,  as  regarded  a  code  of  laws,  appears  to  have 
 been  all  a  preconcerted  plan.  They  wished  to  de- 
 stroy the  tribunician  power,  and  bring  in  laws  which 
 would  tend  to  strengthen  their  own  hands.  The  short 
 time  in  which  the  Decemviri  were  occupied  with  di- 
 gesting the  code  in  question,  shows  that  the  laws  had 
 already  been  compiled  and  arranged  by  the  patricians, 
 and  that  their  object  was  merely  to  present  them  under 
 the  sanction  of  some  esteemed  and  respected  name,  as, 
 for  example,  that  of  Solon,  to  the  attention  of  the 
 Roman  people.  The  very  continuance  of  the  decem- 
 viral office  shows  this  ;  and  Dionysius  of  Halicarnas- 
 sus  expressly  states  (^Ant.  Rom.,  10,  .58),  that  the  want 
 of  two  additional  tables  was  a  mere  pretext  to  con- 
 tinue the  office  and  crush  the  tribunician  power.  It 
 was  no  difficult  thing  for  the  patricians  to  impose  on 
 the  lower  orders,  and  give  them  old  Roman  laws  for 
 Athenian  ones,  especially  as  the  patricians  were  the 
 sole  depositaries  of  the  ancient  laws.  The  whole  his- 
 tory of  the  Decemviri  would  show  that,  until  a  short 
 time  previous  to  their  abdication,  they  acted  with  a 
 full  understanding  on  the  part  of  the  patricians  ;  and 
 that  even  towards  the  close  of  their  administration, 
 when  they  wanted  levies  of  troops,  the  opposition  of 
 the  senate  was  little  better  than  a  mere  farce.  Had 
 Appius  not  been  tempted  to  play  the  tyrant,  and  to  en- 
 deavour to  monopolize  too  large  a  portion  of  the  de- 
 cemviral power,  the  plans  of  the  nobility  might  have 
 had  a  successful  result. — II.  There  were  also  military 
 decemviri ;  and,  on  various  emergencies,  decemviri 
 were  created  to  manage  and  regulate  certain  affairs, 
 after  the  same  manner  as  boards  of  commissioners  are 
 now  appointed.  Thus  there  were  decemviri  for  con- 
 ducting colonies  ;  decemviri  who  ofliciated  as  judges  in 
 litigated  matters  under  the  prsetor ;  decemviri  for  di- 
 viding the  lands  among  the  veteran  soldiers;  decem- 
 viri to  prepare  and  preside  at  feasts  in  honour  of  the 
 pods  ;  decemviri  to  take  care  of  the  sacrifices  ;  and 
 decemviri  to  guard  the  Sibylline  books.  With  regard 
 to  the  last  of^  these,  however,  it  must  be  observed, 
 that  the  number,  after  having  been  originally  two,  and 
 then  increased  to  10,  was  subsequently  still  farther  in- 
 creased to  15  and  16.     (F2(f.  Sibyllas.) 
 
 Decius  I.  (Pilblius  Decius  Mus),  a  celebrated  Ro- 
 man consul,  who,  after  many  glorious  exploits.,  devoted 
 himself  to  the  gods  Manes  for  the  safety  of  his  coun- 
 try, in  a  battle  against  the  Latins,  B  C.  337.  His  son 
 Decius  imitated  his  example,  and  devoted  himself  in 
 like  manner  in  his  fourth  consulship,  when  fighting 
 against  the  Gauls  and  Samnites,  B.C.  296.  His  grand- 
 son also  did  the  same  in  the  war  against  Pyrrhus  and 
 the  Tarentines,  B.d  280.  {Liv  ,  7,  21,  seqq.—Id.,  8, 
 10.— Fa;.  Max.,  5, 6.— Fzr^.,  JEn  ,  6,  824.)— II.  (Mes- 
 sius  Quintus  Trajanus),  a  native  of  Pannonia,  sent  by 
 the  Emperor  Philip  to  appease  a  sedition  in  Mcesia. 
 Instead  of  obeying  his  master's  command,  he  assumed 
 the  imperial  purple.  His  disaflected  troops,  it  is  said, 
 forced  him  to  this  step.  The  emperor  immediately 
 marched  against  him,  and  a  battle  was  fought  near  Ve- 
 rona, which  terminated  successfully  for  Decius,  and 
 Philip  was  either  slain  in  the  conflict  or  put  to  death 
 after  he  fell  into  the  conqueror's  power.  This  took 
 place  A.D.  249,  and  from  this  period  is  dated  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  reign  of  Decius.  It  was  one  ot 
 short  duration,  about  two  years.  During  this,  how- 
 ever, he  proved  a  very  cruel  persecutor  of  the  Chris- 
 tians. He  greatly  signalized  himself  against  the  Per- 
 sians, but  was  slain  in  an  action  with  the  Goths,  who 
 had  invaded  his  dominions.  In  advancing  upon  them, 
 he  was,  with  the  greatest  part  of  his  troops,  entangled 
 in  a  morass,  where,  being  surrounded  by  the  enemy, 
 he  perished  under  a  shower  of  darts,  A.D.  251,  aged 
 50  years.     {Casaub.,  m  Hist.  Aug.  Script,  vol.  2,  p. 
 
 168.)  ^  ,   •  1 
 
 Decumates  agri,  lands   in  Germany,  lying  along 
 
 419 
 
DEI 
 
 DEL 
 
 the  Danube,  in  the  vicinity  of  Mons  Abnoba,  which 
 paid  the  tenth  part  of  their  value  to  the  Romans.  (Ta- 
 cit., G.,  29.)  Much  interesting  information  relative  to 
 these  lands  will  be  found  in  the  work  of  Lckhtlcn,  en- 
 titled '^  SchivabenuiUer  dc7iRbmern."  Fribourg,  8vo, 
 1825. 
 
 Deianira,  a  daughter  of  QCneus,  king  of  .^tolia. 
 Her  beauty  procured  many  admirers,  and  her  father 
 promised  to  give  her  in  marriage  to  him  only  who 
 proved  superior  in  prowess  to  all  his  competitors.  Her- 
 cules obtained  her  hand,  after  a  contest  with  the  god 
 of  the  Acheloiis.  (Vid.  Acheloiis.)  On  his  way  toTra- 
 chis,  after  his  union  with  the  daughter  of  GEneus, 
 Hercules  came  in  company  with  Deianira  to  the  river 
 Evenus,  where  Nessus,  the  Centaur,  had  taken  his 
 abode,  and  carried  over  travellers,  saying  that  he  had  re- 
 ceived this  office  from  the  gods  as  a  reward  for  his 
 uprightness.  Hercules  went  across  through  the  water 
 himself,  having  agreed  on  the  price  for  the  conveyance 
 of  Deianira.  Nessus  attempted  the  honour  of  his  fair 
 freight.  She  resisted,  and  Hercules,  hearing  her  cries, 
 shot  Nessus  to  the  heart  as  he  came  on  shore.  The 
 dying  Centaur  thought  on  revenge  :  he  called  Deianira 
 to  him,  and  told  her,  if  she  wished  to  possess  a  philtre, 
 or  means  of  securing  the  love  of  Hercules,  to  keep 
 carefully  the  blood  which  flowed  from  his  wound  ;  an 
 advice  with  which  she  incautiously  complied.  When 
 Hercules,  subsequently,  had  erected  an  altar  to  Ju- 
 piter at  the  promontory  of  Censum  in  Eubaea,  and, 
 wishing  to  offer  a  sacrifice,  had  sent  for  a  splendid  robe 
 to  wear,  Deianira,  having  heard  from  the  messenger  of 
 a  female  captive  named  lola,  whom  Hercules  had 
 taken,  and  fearing  the  effect  of  her  charms  on  the 
 heart  of  her  husband,  resolved  to  try  the  efficacy  of  the 
 philtre  of  Nessus,  and  tinged  with  it  the  tunic  which 
 was  sent.  Hercules,  suspecting  nothing,  put  on  the 
 fatal  garment,  and  prepared  to  sacrifice.  At  first  he 
 felt  no  effect  from  it  ;  but,  when  it  became  warm,  the 
 venom  of  the  hydra,  which  had  been  communicated 
 by  his  arrow  to  the  blood  of  the  Centaur,  began  to 
 consume  his  flesh,  and  eventually  compelled  him,  in 
 order  to  put  an  end  to  his  sufferings,  to  ascend  the 
 funeral  pile  at  CEta.  (Vid.  Hercules.) — Another  le- 
 gend made  Deianira  to  have  been  the  offspring  of 
 Bacchus  and  Althaea,  queen  of  CEneus.  Apollodorus 
 speaks  also  of  her  skill  in  driving  the  chariot,  and  her 
 acquaintance  generally  with  martial  exercises,  a  state- 
 ment which  he  appears  to  have  borrowed  from  some 
 old  poet.  (ApoUod.,  1,  8,  1. — Heync,  ad  loc. — Apol- 
 lod.,  2,  7,  5.— Id.,  2,  7,  7.— Ovid,  Met.,  9,  9.— /<?. 
 ih.,  9,  137.) — Miiller,  in  his  explanation  of  the  myth  of 
 Hercules,  makes  the  marriage  of  that  hero  with  Deia- 
 nira a  figurative  allusion  to  the  league  between  the 
 Dorians  and  ^tolians  for  the  invasion  of  the  Pe- 
 loponnesus. (Dorians,  vol.  1,  p.  70,  Eng.  trans.) 
 Creuzer,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  a  mystic  interpre- 
 tation to  the  legend.  According  to  him,  Hercules 
 represents  the  power  of  the  sun  in  drying  up  and  fertil- 
 izing the  wet  places.  Hence  (Elneus  (Oivcvq,  oIvoq), 
 the  t/;?«e-man  (or  cultivator  of  the  vine),  gives  his 
 offspring  in  marriage  to  Hercules  (or,  in  other  words, 
 gives  the  vine  to  the  protecting  care  of  that  power 
 which  imparts  the  principle  of  production),  and  Her- 
 cules rescues  her  from  the  Centaur,  the  type,  accordino- 
 to  Creuzer  and  others,  of  the  water  or  morasses.  (Sijm- 
 hoUk,  vol.  2,  p.  251.) 
 
 DE'inAMJA,  a  daughter  of  T^ycomcdes,  king  of  Scy- 
 ros.  She  bore  a  son  called  Pyrrhus,  or  Neoptolemus, 
 to  Achilles,  who  was  disguised  at  her  father's  court  in 
 women's  clothes,  under  the  name  of  Pyrrha.  (Apol- 
 Zcrf.,3,  13, 7.— Pro;)ert., 2, 9,  \&.—Ovid,A.  yl.,  1,682, 
 scqq.) 
 
 Deioces,  a  Median,  who,  when  his  countrymen  had 
 
 shaken  off  the  Assyrian  yoke,  succeeded  in  attaining 
 
 to  the  sovereign  power.     His  mode  of  accomplishing 
 
 that  object  was  as  follows  :  Having,  by  his  probitv  and 
 
 420 
 
 strict  exercise  of  justice,  obtained  Ihe  office  of  judge 
 in  his  own  district,  he  made  himself  so  celebrated  by 
 the  discharge  of  his  official  duties  that  the  inhabitants 
 of  other  districts  also  came  to  him  for  redress.  Pre- 
 tending at  last  that  his  private  affairs  were  suffering, 
 in  consequence  of  the  time  which  he  devoted  to  the 
 business  of  others,  he  absented  himself  from  the  place 
 where  he  used  to  sit  to  determine  difl'erences.  Law- 
 lessness and  iniquity  thereupon  increased,  until  an  as- 
 sembly of  the  Medes  being  summoned,  the  partisans  of 
 Deioces  recommended  him  for  king,  and  he  was  ac- 
 cordingly elected.  He  is  said  to  have  founded  the 
 city  of  Ecbatana,  and  to  have  reigned  43  years,  being 
 succeeded  on  his  death  by  his  son  Phraortes.  (Herod., 
 1,  96,  scqq.) 
 
 Deiotarus  was  first  distinguished  as  tetrarch  of 
 Galatia,  and,  on  account  of  the  eminent  services  which 
 he  performed  in  that  station,  and  of  the  figure  which 
 he  made  in  the  Mithradatic  war,  was  afterward  ap- 
 pointed to  the  throne  of  Armenia  Minor  by  Pompey, 
 which  appointment  was  confirmed  by  the  senate.  In 
 the  civil  wars  he  sided  with  Pompey,  and  on  that  ac- 
 count was  deprived  of  his  Armenian  possessions  by 
 Csesar,  but  allowed  to  retain  the  title  of  king  and  the 
 other  favours  conferred  upon  him  by  the  Romans. 
 Shortly  after  this  he  was  accused  by  his  grandson,  with 
 whom  he  was  at  open  variance,  of  having  made  an 
 attempt  on  the  life  of  Csesar  when  the  latter  was  in 
 Asia.  Cicero  ably  and  successfully  defended  him  be- 
 fore Cssar,  in  whose  presence  the  cause  was  tried. 
 After  Caesar's  death,  he  recovered  by  bribery  his  for- 
 feited territories.  He  intended  also  to  join  Brutus, 
 but  the  general  to  whom  he  committed  his  troops  went 
 over  to  Antony,  which  saved  him  his  kingdom.  (Cic., 
 2>roReoeDciot.—Id.,  PhiL, II..  \-2.—Id.,ep.  ad  Alt. ,5, 
 [7.~id.,de  Har.  Rcsp.,  13.—Id.,de  Div.,  2,  37,  &c.) 
 
 Deiphobe,  a  sibyl  of  Cumas,  daughter  of  Glaucus. 
 Virgil  makes  her  the  guide  of  ^neas  to  the  lower 
 world.  (jEn.,6,236,seqq.)  Various  names  are  given 
 to  her  by  the  ancient  writers,  in  relation  to  which,  con- 
 sult Gallffius  (Dissertafioncs  de  Si.bijllis,  p.  145). 
 
 DEiPH6Bus,asonof  Priam  and  Hecuba,  who  married 
 Helen  after  the  death  of  Paris,  and  was  betrayed  by  her 
 to  Menelaus,  and  ignominiously  murdered.  (Virg., 
 JEn.,  6,  495.)  According  to  Virgil's  account,  she  in- 
 troduced Menelaiis  secretly  into  the  bedchamber  of 
 Deiphobus,  who  was  asleep  at  the  time,  and,  on  awa- 
 king, was  unable  to  defend  himself,  his  faithless  con- 
 sort having  removed  his  trusty  sword  from  beneath  his 
 head,  and  all  arms  from  his  palace.  He  was  cruelly 
 mutilated  before  being  put  to  death.  (Virg.,  I.  c.) 
 Homer  makes  Deiphobus  to  have  particularly  distin- 
 guished himself  during  the  Trojan  war,  in  two  encoun- 
 ters with  Meriones  and  Ascalaphus.  (7/.,  13,  156,  ct 
 517,  scqq.) 
 
 Delia,  I.  a  festival  celebrated  every  fifth  yea^  in  the 
 island  of  Delos,  in  honour  of  Apollo.  It  was  institu- 
 ted by  the  Athenians,  after  the  solemn  lustration  of 
 Delos,  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
 (Vid.  Delos.) — II.  Another  festival,  celebrated  annu- 
 ally by  a  sacred  voyage  from  Athens  to  Delos.  It 
 was  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Theseus,  who 
 when  going  to  Crete,  made  a  vow  to  Apollo,  that,  ii 
 he  and  the  rest  of  the  youths  and  maidens  should  be 
 saved,  he  would  send  every  year  a  sacred  delegation 
 to  the  natal  island  of  the  god.  The  vow  was  fulfilled, 
 and  the  custom  was  ever  after  observed  by  the  Athe- 
 nians. The  persons  sent  on  this  annual  vovage  were 
 called  DcliastcR  and  Theori,  and  the  ship  which  con- 
 veyed them  was  said  to  have  been  the  same  with  the 
 one  which  had  carried  Theseus  to  Crete.  The  begin- 
 ning of  the  voyage  was  computed  from  the  time  that 
 the  priest  of  Apollo  first  adorned  the  stern  of  the  ship 
 with  garlands,  according  to  Plato,  and  from  that  time 
 they  began  to  purify  the  city.  During  this  period,  up 
 to  the  t-irne  of  the  vessel's  return,  it  was  held  unlawful 
 
DEL 
 
 DELOS. 
 
 to  put  any  condemned  person  lo  death,  which  was  the 
 reason  that  Socrates  was  reprieved  for  thirty  days  after 
 his  condemnation,  as  we  learn  from  Plato  and  Xen- 
 ophon.  With  regard  to  the  sacred  vessel  itself, 
 which  was  called  Qeupic,  it  was  preserved  by  the 
 Athenians  to  the  time  of  Demetrius  Phalereus,  they 
 restoring  always  what  was  decayed,  and  changing  the 
 old  rotten  planks  for  others  that  were  new  and  entire  ; 
 so  that  it  furnished  philosophers  with  matter  of  dispute, 
 whether,  after  so  many  repairs  and  alterations,  it  still  re- 
 mained the  same  identical  ship;  and  it  served  as  an  in- 
 stance to  illustrate  the  opinion  of  those,  who  held  that 
 the  body  still  remained  the  same  numerical  substance, 
 notwithstanding.the  continual  decay  of  old  parts  and  the 
 acquisition  of  new  ones,  through  the  several  stages  of 
 life.  (Plat.,  Phcedon.,  ^  2,  seqq. — SchoL,  ad  loc. — 
 Plut.,  Vit.  T/ies.,  c.  23.— A'cK.,  Mem.,  4,  8,  2.—Cal- 
 tlm.,  H.  in  Del.,  278,  &c.) — III.  A  surname  of  Diana, 
 from  her  having  been  born  in  the  island  of  Delos. 
 
 Delium,  a  city  of  Bosotia,  on  the  seacoast,  north  of 
 the  mouth  of  the  Asopus.  It  was  celebrated  for  its 
 temple  of  Apollo,  and  also  for  the  battle  which  took 
 place  in  its  vicinity  between  the  Athenians  and  Boeo- 
 tians, when  the  former  were  totally  routed.  It  was  in 
 this  engagement  that  Socrates,  according  to  some  ac- 
 counts, saved  the  life  of  Xenophon,  or,  according  to 
 others,  of  Alcibiadcs.  (Stra.bo,  403. — Diog.  Laert., 
 2,  22. —  Thucyd.,  4,  96.)  Some  vestiges  of  this  an- 
 cient town  have  been  observed  by  modern  travellers 
 near  the  village  of  Dramisi,  on  the  Euripus.  {GeWs 
 Ilin.,  p.  134. — DodwcWs  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  155.) 
 
 Delios,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  because  born  in  Delos. 
 
 Delminium,  the  ancient  capital  of  Dalmatia.  ( Vtd. 
 Dalminium.) 
 
 Delos,  an  island  of  the  ^gean,  situate  nearly  in 
 the  centre  of  the  Cyclades.  This  island  was  called 
 also  Asteria,  Pelasgia,  Chlamydias,  Lagia,  Pyrpdis, 
 Scylhias,  Mydia,  and  Ortygia.  (Plin.,4:,  12. — Steph. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  A?j?Log.)  It  was  named  Ortygia  from  oprv^, 
 a  (luuil,  and  Lagia  from  Aaywf,  a  hare,  the  island  for- 
 merly abounding  with  both  these  creatures.  On  this 
 account,  according  to  Strabo,  it  was  not  allowed  to 
 have  do|,s  at  Delos,  because  they  destroyed  the  quails 
 and  hares.  {Straho,  AS5.)  The  name  Delos  is  com- 
 monly derived  from  (5?/Aof,  manifest,  in  allusion  to  the 
 island  havtng  floated  under  the  surface  of  the  sea  until 
 made  to  ap/iear  and  stand  firm  by  order  of  Neptune. 
 This  was  done  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  Latona, 
 who  was  on  the  eve  of  delivery,  and  could  find  no 
 asylum  on  the  earth,  Juno  having  bound  it  by  an  oath 
 not  to  receive  her ;  as  Delos  at  the  time  was  floating 
 beneath  the  waters,  it  was  freed  from  the  obligation. 
 Once  fi.xed  in  its  place,  it  continued,  according  to  pop- 
 ular belief,  to  remain  so  firm  as  even  to  be  unmoved 
 by  the  shocks  of  an  earthquake.  This,  however,  is 
 contradicted  by  Thucvdides  and  Herodotus,  who  re- 
 port that  a  shock  was  felt  there  before  the  Peloponnesian 
 war.  (Thucyd.,  2,  8. — Hcrudot.,  6,  98. — Compare 
 Orac,  ap.  Eustalh.  ad  Dion.  Pcrieg.,  525,  and  Pindar, 
 op.  Phil.  Jud.,  2,  p.  511.)  Pliny  quotes,  among  oth- 
 ers,. Aristotle,  v^ho  pretends  that  its  name  was  given  to 
 Delos,  because  the  island  rose  unexpectedly  out  of 
 the  sea,  and  appeared  to  view.  Many  other  opinions 
 have  been  advanced  respecting  its  origin.  According, 
 however,  to  Olivier,  it  is  at  the  present  day  everywhere 
 schistose  or  granitical,  exhibiting  no  traces  of  a  volca- 
 no, and  nothing  that  can  explain,  by  the  laws  of  physics, 
 the  wonders  which  the  Greeks  have  transmitted  to  us 
 respecting  it.— It  appears  from  Thucydides,  that  as 
 early  as  the  days  of  Homer,  whose  hymn  to  Delos  he 
 quotes,  this  island  was  the  great  rendezvous  of  the 
 lonians,  who  met  there  to  celebrate  a  national  festival 
 and  public  games.— Delos  was  celebrated  as  the  natal 
 island  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  the  solemnities  with 
 which  the  festivals  of  these  deities  were  observed 
 there  never  failed  lo  attract  '.irge  crowds  from  the 
 
 neighbourmg  islands  and  the  continent.  Among  the 
 seven  wonders  of  the  world  was  an  altar  at  Delos, 
 which  was  made  of  the  horns  of  animals.  Tradition 
 reported  that  it  was  constructed  by  Apollo,  with  the 
 horns  of  deer  killed  in  hunting  by  his  sister  Diana. 
 Plutarch  says  he  saw  it,  and  he  speaks  of  the  wonder- 
 ful interlacmg  of  the  horns  of  which  it  was  made^  no 
 cement  nor  bond  of  any  kind  being  employed  to  hold 
 it  together.  (Plut.,  de  Solert.  An.,  p.  983.)  The 
 Athenians  were  commanded  by  an  oracle,  in  the  time 
 of  Pisistratus,  to  purify  Delos,  which  they  did  by 
 causing  the  dead  bodies  to  be  taken  up  which  had 
 been  buried  there,  and  removed  from  all  places  within 
 view  of  the  temple.  In  the  si.\th  year  of  the  Pelopon- 
 nesian war,  they,  by  the  advice  of  an  oracle,  purified  it 
 anew,  by  carrying  all  the  dead  bodies  to  the  neigh- 
 bouring island  of  Rhensea,  where  they  were  interred. 
 After  having  done  this,  in  order  to  prevent  its  being 
 polluted  for  the  time  to  come,  they  published  an  edict, 
 that  for  the  future  no  person  should  be  suffered  to  die, 
 nor  any  woman  to  be  brought  to  bed,  in  the  island,  but 
 that,  when  death  or  parturition  approached,  they  should 
 be  carried  over  into  Rhenaea.  In  memory  of  this  puri- 
 fication, it  is  said,  the  Athenians  instituted  a  solemn 
 quinquennial  festival.  (Vid.  Delia. —  Thucyd.,  3, 
 104.)  A  ship  called  Theoris  (Qeupic)  likewise  sailed 
 annually  from  the  Athenian  shores  on  a  sacred  voyage 
 to  this  same  island.  (Vid.  Delia  II) — When  the 
 Persian  armament,  under  Datis  and  Artaphernes,  was 
 making  its  way  through  the  Grecian  islands,  the  in- 
 habitants of  Delos  left  their  rich  temple,  with  its  treas- 
 ures, to  the  protection  of  its  tutelary  deities,  and  fled 
 to  Tenos.  The  fame  of  the  sanctuary,  however,  saved  ' 
 it  from  spoliation.  The  Persians  had  heard  that  Delos 
 was  the  birthplace  of  two  deities,  who  corresponded 
 to  those  which  held  the  foremost  rank  in  their  own  re- 
 ligious system,  the  sun  and  moon.  This  comparison 
 was  probably  suggested  to  them  by  some  Greek  who 
 wished  to  save  the  temple.  Hence,  though  separately 
 neither  of  the  divine  twins  inspired  the  barbarians  with 
 reverence,  their  common  shrine  was  not  only  spared, 
 but,  if  we  may  credit  the  tradition  which  was  current 
 in  the  days  of  Herodotus,  received  the  highest  honours 
 from  Datis  :  he  would  not  suffer  his  ships  to  touch  the 
 sacred  shore,  but  kept  them  at  the  island  of  Rhenaea. 
 He  also  sent  a  herald  to  recall  the  Delians  who  had 
 fled  to  Tenos  ;  and  offered  sacrifice  to  the  god,  in 
 which  300  talents  of  frankincense  are  said  to  have 
 been  consumed.  {Hcrodut.,  6,  97.)  After  the  Persian 
 war,  the  Athenians  established  at  Delos  the  treasury 
 of  the  Greeks,  and  ordered  that  all  meetings  relative 
 to  the  confederacy  should  be  held  there.  (Thucyd., 
 1,  96  )  In  the  tenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
 not  being  satisfied  with  the  purifications  which  the  isl- 
 and had  hitherto  undergone,  they  removed  its  entire 
 population  to  Adramyttium,  where  they  obtained  a 
 settlement  from  the  Persian  satrap  Pharnaces.  (Thu- 
 cyd., 5,  1.)  Here  many  of  these  unfortunate  Delians 
 were  afterward  treacherously  murdered  by  order  of 
 Arsaces,  an  officer  of  Tissapherncs.  (Thucyd. ,8,  108.) 
 Finally,  however,  the  Athenians  restored  tliose  that 
 survived  to  their  country  after  the  battle  of  Aniphipo- 
 lis,  as  they  considered  that  their  ill  success  in  the 
 war  proceeded  from  the  anger  of  the  god  on  account 
 of  their  conduct  towards  this  unfortunate  people. 
 (Thucyd.,  5,  32.)  Strabo  says  that  Delos  became 
 a  place  of  great  commercial  importance  after  the  de- 
 struction of  Corinth,  as  the  merchants  who  had  fre- 
 quented that  city  then  withdrew  to  this  island,  which 
 afiTorded  great  facilities  for  carrying  on  trade  on  ac- 
 count of  the  convenience  of  its  port,  its  advantageous 
 situation  with  respect  to  the  coasts  of  Greece  and 
 Asia  Minor,  as  well  as  from  the  great  concourse  of 
 people  who  resorted  thither  at  stated  times.    (Plin.,  4, 
 
 12. Liv.,  36,  43  )     The  Romans  especially  favoured 
 
 the  interests  of  the  Delians,  though  they  had  conceded 
 
 421 
 
DEL 
 
 DELPHI. 
 
 (o  tlie  Athenians  the  sovereignty  of  the  island  and 
 the  administration  of  the  temple.  (Polyb.,  30,  18.) 
 But,  on  the  occupation  of  Athens  by  the  generals  of 
 Mithradates,  they  landed  troops  in  Delos,  and  com- 
 mitted the  greatest  devastations  there  in  consequence 
 of  the  inhabitants  refusing  to  espouse  their  cause. 
 After  this  calamity  it  remained  in  an  impoverished  and 
 deserted  state.  {Slraho,  4S6. — Appian,  Bell.  Milh- 
 rail.,  c.  28. — Pauxan.,  3,  23. — Antip.,  Thess.  Anal., 
 vol.  2,  p.  118.)  The  town  of  Delos  was  situate  in  a 
 j)!ain  watered  by  the  little  river  Inopus  {Slrabo,  I.  c. 
 —  Ciillim.,  Hymn,  in  Del.,  206),  and  by  a  lake,  called 
 Trochoeides  by  Herodotus  (2,  170),  and  Theognis 
 (v.  7).  Callimachus  and  Euripides  also  allude  to  it. 
 (Hymn,  in  Del.,  26\.—Iph.  Taur.,  1097.)  The  isl- 
 and is  now  called  Delo  or  Sdille,  and  is  so  covered 
 with  ruins  and  rubbish  as  to  admit  of  little  or  no  cul- 
 ture. {Wheeler,  vol.  1,  p.  88. — Spon.,  vol.  1,  p.  176. 
 — Tournefort,  vol.  1,  p.  307. —  Choiseul  Gouffier, 
 Voyage  Pittoresquc,  vol.  1,  p.  396,  scqq.) 
 
 Delphi,  a  small  but  important  city  of  Phocis  in 
 Greece,  situate  on  the  southern  side  of  Mount  Par- 
 nassus, and  built  m  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre. 
 Justin  (24,  6)  says  it  had  no  walls,  but  was  defended 
 by  its  precipices.  Strabo  (418)  gives  it  a  circuit 
 of  si.xteen  stadia;  and  Pausanias  (10,  5)  calls  it 
 7t6?u^,  which  seems  to  imply  that  it  was  walled  like 
 other  cities.  In  earlier  times  it  was,  perhaps,  like 
 Olympia,  defended  by  the  sanctity  of  its  oracle  and 
 the  presence  of  its  god.  These  being  found  not  to  af- 
 ford sufficient  protection  against  the  enterprises  of  the 
 j)rofane,  it  was  probably  fortified,  and  became  a  regu- 
 lar city  after  the  predatory  incursions  of  the  Phocians. 
 The  walls  may,  however,  be  coeval  with  the  founda- 
 tion of  the  city  itself;  their  high  antiquity  is  not  dis- 
 proved by  the  use  of  mortar  in  the  construction. 
 Some  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  are  built  in  a  similar 
 jnanner.  (Consult  Hamilton's  JEgyptiaca. — DodwclVs 
 Tour,  vol.  I,  p.  164.) — The  more  ancient  name  of 
 Delphi  was  Pytho,  from  the  serpent  Python,  as  is  com- 
 monly supposed,  which  was  said  to  have  been  slain 
 by  Apollo.  {Apollod.,  Bibhoth.,  1,  4,  3.)  Whence 
 the  name  Delphi  itself  was  derived  we  are  not  in- 
 formed. Some  make  the  city  to  have  received  this 
 name  from  Delphu.«,  a  son  of  Apollo.  Others  deduce 
 the  appellation  from  the  Greek  u6(?^(poi,  "  brethren,'^ 
 because  Apollo  and  his  brother  Bacchus  were  both 
 worshipped  there,  each  having  one  of  the  summits  of 
 Parnassus  sacred  to  him.  The  author  of  the  Hymn 
 to  Apollo  seems  to  pun  on  the  word  Delphi,  in  making 
 Apollo  transform  himself  into  a  dolphin  {6e?i(j>lc. — v. 
 494).  Some  supposed,  that  the  name  was  intended 
 to  designate  Delphi  as  the  centre  or  navel  of  the  earth. 
 Faber  makes  it  Tel  Phi,  "  the  oracle  of  the  Sun"  (Ca- 
 hiri,  vol.  1,  p.  66),  and  Bryant  would  tempt  us  to  re- 
 solve the  Nymph  who  originally  presided  over  the 
 sacred  precincts  of  Delphi,  into  Am  omphc,  i.  e.,  '■^  fons 
 oraculi."  (My//io/oiry,  vol.  1,  p.  110  and  345  )  Jones 
 derives  the  name  of  Delphi  from  the  Arabic  Telb,  "  to 
 inquire."  {Greek  Lex.,  s.  v.)  If,  amid  these  various 
 etymological  theories,  we  might  venture  to  adduce  one 
 of  our  own,  it  would  be,  that  BtZpo/,  the  ^Eolic  form 
 for  AfA^ot  {Maitlaire,  Dial.,  p.  139,  c),  contains  the 
 true  gcrme  of  the  name,  viz.,  BtA,  or  the  old  term  eX 
 (i.  e.,  "the  sun"),  with  the  digamma  prefi.xed  in  place 
 of  the  aspirate.  (Compare  the  Greek  forms  y7uoc, 
 i.  e.,  ^A-£Of,  aiT^a^,  i.  e.,  (Tf/l-«f,  and  the  Latin  Sol.) 
 Delphi  will  then  be  the  city  of  the  Sun.  (Compare 
 with  the  term  Be/l  the  Oricntel  Baal.)— In  speaking 
 of  this  city,  the  poets  commonly  use  the  appellation 
 of  Pytho,  but  Herodotus  and  historians  in  general  pre- 
 fer that  of  Delphi,  and  are  silent  as  to  the  other.  A 
 short  sketch  of  the  history  of  this  most  celebrated  ora- 
 cle and  temple  will  not,  perhaps,  be  unacceptable  to  the 
 reader.  Though  not  so  ancient  as  Dodona,  it  is  evi- 
 dent that  the  fame  of  the  Delphic  shrine  had  been  es- 
 422 
 
 tablished  at  a  very  early  period,  from  the  mention  made 
 of  it  by  Homer,  and  the  accounts  supplied  by  Pau- 
 sanias and  Strabo.  The  Homeric  hymn  to  Apollo  in- 
 forms us  (v.  391,  scqq.),  that,  when  the  Pythian  god 
 was  establishing  his  oracle  at  Delphi,  he  beheld  on  the 
 sea  a  merchant-ship  from  Crete  ;  this  he  directs  to 
 Crissa,  and  appoints  the  foreigners  the  servants  of  his 
 newly-established  sanctuary,  near  which  they  settled. 
 When  this  story,  which  we  would  not  affirm  to  be  his- 
 torically true,  is  stripped  of  the  language  of  poetry,  it 
 can  only  mean,  that  a  Cretan  colony  founded  the  tem- 
 ple and  oracle  of  Delphi.  {Hecren,  Ideen,  vol.  3,  p. 
 94.)  Strabo  reports,  that  it  was  at  first  consulted  only 
 by  the  neighbouring  states  ;  but  that,  after  its  fame 
 became  more  widely  spread,  foreign  princes  and  na- 
 tions eagerly  sought  responses  from  the  sacred  tripod, 
 and  loaded  the  altar  of  the  god  with  rich  presents 
 and  costly  offerings  (420).  Pausanias  states  that  the 
 most  ancient  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  was  formed, 
 according  to  some,  out  of  branches  of  bay,  and  that 
 these  branches  were  cut*  from  the  tree  that  was  at 
 Tempe.  The  form  of  this  temple  resembled  that  of  a 
 cottage.  After  mentioning  a  second  and  a  third  tem- 
 ple, the  one  raised,  as  the  Delphians  said,  by  bees 
 from  wa.x  and  wings,  and  sent  by  Apollo  to  the  Hy- 
 perboreans, and  the  other  built  of  brass,  he  adds,  that 
 to  this  succeeded  a  fourth  and  more  stately  edifice  of 
 stone,  erected  by  two  architects  named  Trophonius 
 and  Agamedes.  {Pausan.,  10,  5.)  Here  were  de- 
 posited the  sumptuous  presents  of  Gyges  and  Midas, 
 Alyattes  and  Crcesus  {HerodoL,  1,  14;  50,51),  as  well 
 as  those  of  the  Sybarites,  Spinetas,  and  Siceliots,  each 
 prince  and  nation  having  their  separate  chapel  or  treas- 
 ury for  the  reception  of  these  offerings,  with  an  in- 
 scription attesting  the  name  of  the  donor  and  the  cause 
 of  the  gift.  {Strabo,  420.)  This  temple  having  been 
 accidentally  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  first  year  of  the 
 fifty-eighth  Olympiad,  or  548  B.C.  {Pausan.,  I.  c), 
 the  Amphictyons  undertook  to  build  another  for  the 
 sum  of  three  hundred  talents,  of  which  the  Delphians 
 were  to  pay  one  fourth.  The  remainder  of  the  amount 
 is  said  to  have  been  obtained  by  contributions  from 
 the  different  cities  and  nations.  Amasis,  king  of 
 Egypt,  furnished  a  thousand  talents  of  alumina.  The 
 Alcmseonidffi,  a  wealthy  Athenian  family,  undertook 
 the  contract,  and  agreed  to  construct  the  edifice  of  Po- 
 rine  stone,  but  afterward  liberally  substituted  Parian 
 marble  for  the  front,  a  circumstance  which  is  said  to 
 have  added  considerably  to  their  influence  at  Delphi. 
 (Herodot.,  2,  180.— W.,  5,  62.)  According  to  Stra- 
 bo and  Pausanias,  the  architect  was  Spintharus,  a 
 Corinthian.  The  vast  riches  accumulated  in  this  tem- 
 ple, led  Xerxes,  after  having  forced  the  pass  of  Ther- 
 mopylae, to  detach  a  portion  of  his  army  into  Phocis, 
 with  a  view  of  securing  Delphi  and  its  treasures,  which, 
 as  Herodotus  affirms,  were  better  known  to  him  than 
 the  contents  of  his  own  palace.  The  enterprise,  how- 
 ever, failed,  owing,  as  it  was  reported  by  the  Dcl|)hians. 
 to  the  manifest  interposition  of  the  deity,  who  terrified 
 the  barbarians  and  hurled  destruction  on  their  scat- 
 tered bands.  {Herodot  ,  8,  37.)  Many  years  subse- 
 quent to  this  event,  the  temple  fell  into  the  hands  of 
 the  Phocians,  headed  by  Philomelus,  who  scrupled  not 
 to  appropriate  its  riches  to  the  payment  of  his  troops 
 in  the  war  he  was  then  waging  against  Thebes.  The 
 Phocians  are  said  to  have  plundered  the  temple,  du- 
 ring this  contest,  of  gold  and  silver,  to  the  enormous 
 amount  of  10,000  talents,  or  nearly  10,600,000  dol- 
 lars. (Compare  Pau.iayiias,  10,  2.  —  Strabo,  421.) 
 At  a  still  later  period,  Delphi  became  exposed  to  a 
 formidable  attack  from  a  large  body  of  Gauls,  headed 
 by  their  king  Brennus.  These  barbarians,  having 
 forced  the  defiles  of  Mount  CEta,  possessed  them- 
 selves of  the  temple  and  ransacked  its  treasures.  The 
 booty  which  they  obtained  on  this  occasion  is  stated 
 to  have  been  immense  ;  and  this  they  must  have  sue- 
 
DELPHI. 
 
 DEM 
 
 ceeded  in  removing  to  their  own  country,  since  we 
 are  told,  tliat,  on  tiie  capture  of  Tolosa,  a  city  of  Gaul, 
 by  tlie  Roman  general  Cspio,  a  great  part  of  the  Del- 
 phic spoils  was  found  there.  {Strabo,  188.  —  Dio 
 Cassius,  Excerpt.,  p.  630.)  Pausanias,  however, 
 relates,  that  the  Gauls  met  with  great  disasters  in 
 their  attempt  on  Delphi,  and  were  totally  discomfited 
 through  the  miraculous  intervention  of  the  god  (10, 
 23  —Compare  Pohjbius,  1,  6,  5.— Id.,  2,  30,  6.— 
 Justin,  24,  6).  Sylla  is  also  said  to  have  robbed  this 
 temple,  as  well  as  those  of  Olympia  and  Epidaurus. 
 (Dio  Cass.,  Excerpt.,  p.  646. — Diod.  Sic,  Excerpt., 
 406.)  Strabo  assures  us,  that  in  his  time  the  temple 
 was  greatly  impoverished,  all  the  offerings  of  any 
 value  having  been  successively  removed.  The  Em- 
 peror Nero  carried  off,  according  to  Pausanias  (10,  7), 
 five  hundred  statues  of  bronze  at  one  time.  Con- 
 stantine  the  Great,  however,  proved  a  more  fatal  ene- 
 my to  Delphi  than  either  Sylla  or  Nero.  He  removed 
 the  sacred  tripods  to  adorn  the  hippodrome  of  his  new 
 city,  where,  together  with  the  Apollo,  the  statues  of 
 the  Heliconian  muses,  and  a  celebrated  statue  of  Pan, 
 they  were  extant  when  Sozomen  wrote  his  history. 
 (Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  c.  17.)  Among  these  tri- 
 pods was  the  famous  one,  which  the  Greeks,  after  the 
 battle  of  Platsa,  found  in  the  camp  of  Mardonius. 
 The  Brazen  Column  which  supported  this  tripod  is 
 still  to  be  seen  at  Constantinople.  {Clarke's  Trav- 
 els— Greece,  Egypt,  &c.,  vol.  3,  p.  75,  seqij.) — The 
 spot  whence  issued  the  prophetic  vapour,  which  in- 
 spired the  priestess,  was  said  to  be  the  central  point 
 of  the  earth,  this  having  been  proved  by  Jupiter  him- 
 self, who  despatched  two  eagles  from  opposite  quar- 
 ters of  the  heavens,  which  there  encountered  each 
 other.  {Strabo,  419. — Pausan.,  10,  16. — Plut.,  de 
 Orac.  Def.,  p.  409.)  Strabo  reports,  that  the  sacred 
 tripod  was  placed  over  the  mouth  of  the  cave,  whence 
 proceeded  the  exhalation,  and  which  was  of  great 
 depth.  On  this  sat  the  Pythia,  who,  having  caught 
 the  inspiration,  pronounced  her  oracles  in  extempore 
 prose  or  verse  ;  if  the  former,  it  was  immediately  ver- 
 sified by  the  poet  always  employed  for  that  purpose. 
 The  oracle  itself  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  by 
 accident.  Some  goats  having  strayed  to  the  mouth  of 
 the  cavern,  were  suddenly  seized  with  convulsions  : 
 those  likewise  by  whom  they  were  found  in  this  situa- 
 tion having  been  affected  in  a  similar  manner,  the 
 circumstance  was  deemed  supernatural,  and  the  cave 
 pronounced  the  seat  of  prophecy.  {Pausan.,  10,  5. 
 —Plut.,  de  Orac.  Def.,  p.  433.—Plin.,  2,  93.)  The 
 priestess  could  only  be  consulted  on  certain  days. 
 The  season  of  inquiry  was  the  spring,  during  the 
 month  Busius.  {Plut.,  Quast  GrcEc,  p.  292.)  Sac- 
 rifices and  other  ceremonies  were  to  be  performed  by 
 those  who  sought  an  answer  from  the  oracle,  before 
 they  could  be  admitted  into  the  sanctuary.  {Herodot., 
 7,  UO.—Plut.,  de  Orac  Def.,  p.  435,  437.— /-i.,  de 
 Pyth.  Orac,  p.  397  )  The  most  remarkable  of  the 
 Pythian  responses  are  those  which  Herodotus  records 
 as  having  been  delivered  to  the  Athenians,  before  the 
 invasion  of  Xerxes  (7,  140),  to  Croesus  (1,46),  to  Ly- 
 curgus  (1,  65),  to  Glaucus  the  Spartan  (6,  86),  and 
 one  relative  to  Agesilaus,  cited  by  Pausanias  (3,  8). 
 There  was,  however,  it  appears,  no  difficulty  in  bri- 
 bing and  otherwise  influencing  the  Pythia  herself,  as 
 history  presents  us  with  several  instances  of  this  im- 
 posture. Thus  we  are  told,  that  the  Alcmajonidae  sug- 
 gested on  one  occasion  such  answers  as  accorded  with 
 their  political  designs.  {Herodot ,  5,  62,  90.)  Cle- 
 omenes,  king  of  Sparta,  also  prevailed  on  the  priestess 
 to  aver  that  his  colleague  Demaratus  was  illegitimate. 
 On  the  discovery,  however,  of  this  machination,  the 
 Pythia  was  removed  from  her  office.  {Herodotus, 
 6,  66.)  The  same  charge  was  brought  against  Plis- 
 tonax,  another  sovereign  of  Sparta.  {Thucyd.,  5,  16. 
 — Compare  Plut.,  Vit.  Demosih.,  p.  854 Id.,  Vit. 
 
 Nic,  p.  532.)  Delphi  derived  farther  celebrity  from 
 its  being  the  place  where  the  Amphictyonic  council 
 held  one  of  their  assemblies  {Strabo,  420. — Sainle 
 Croix,  des  Gouvern.  Fedcr.  Art.,  2,  p.  19),  and  also 
 from  the  institution  of  the  games  which  that  ancient 
 and  illustrious  body  had  established  after  the  success- 
 ful termination  of  the  Crissaean  war.  {Vtd.  Pythia, 
 H.,  and  compare  Clinton''s  Fasti  Hellenici,  Appen- 
 dix, 1,  p.  195.)  For  an  account  of  the  ruins  of  Del- 
 phi, on  part  of  the  site  of  which  stands  the  present 
 village  of  Castri,  consult  Clarke's  Travels — Greece, 
 Egypt,  &c.,  vol.  7,  p.  225,  seqq.—DodwelVs  Tour, 
 vol.  1,  p.  174,  seqq. — And  for  some  remarks  on  the 
 fable  of  Apollo  and  Python,  consult  the  latter  article. 
 — No  traces  of  the  sacred  aperture  remain  at  the  pres- 
 ent day.  Dr.  Clarke,  however,  inclines  to  the  opin- 
 ion that  it  ought  to  be  searched  for  in  the  very  mid- 
 dle of  the  ancient  city.  He  bases  his  remark  on  a 
 passage  of  Steph.  Byz.  (p.  229,  ed.  Gronov.,  Amst., 
 1678),  and  on  the  statement  of  Strabo,  that  the  navel 
 of  the  earth  was  in  the  midst  of  the  temple  of  Apollo. 
 {Clarke'' s  Travels,  I.  c) 
 
 Delphicus,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  from  his  sane 
 tuary  and  worship  at  Delphi. 
 
 Delphus,  a  son  of  Apollo  and  Celaeno,  who,  ac 
 cording  to  one  account,  was  the  founder  of  Delphi. 
 {Pausan.,  10,  6.) 
 
 Delta,  a  part  of  Egypt,  which  received  that  name 
 from  its  resemblance  to  the  form  of  the  fourth  letter 
 of  the  Greek  alphabet.  It  lay  between  the  Canopic 
 and  Pelusiac  mouths  of  the  Nile,  where  the  river  be- 
 gins to  branch  off,  and  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
 been  formed,  in  part  at  least,  if  not  altogether,  by  the 
 deposites  of  the  Nile.  (Consult  remarks  under  the  ar- 
 ticle Nil  us,  and  also  LyclVs  Geology,  vol.  1,  p.  355.) 
 
 Demaues,  an  Athenian,  of  obscure  origin,  the  son 
 of  a  mariner,  and  at  first  a  mariner  himself.  He  af- 
 terward, although  without  any  liberal  education,  came 
 forward  as  a  public  speaker,  and  obtained  great  influ- 
 ence among  his  countrymen.  Demades  is  described 
 as  a  witty,  acute,  and  fluent  speaker,  but  an  unprin- 
 cipled and  immoral  man.  Having  been  taken  pris- 
 oner at  Chaeronea,  he  is  said,  by  a  free  and  well-timed 
 rebuke,  to  have  checked  the  insolent  joy  displayed 
 by  Philip,  but  afterward  to  have  allowed  himself  to  be 
 corrupted,  and  employed  as  a  venal  agent  by  the  con- 
 queror. The  first  part  of  this  story  is  hardly  credible, 
 the  latter  is  fully  substantiated.  Demades  from  this 
 time  was  the  tool  of  Macedon.  He  advocated  the  in- 
 terests of  Philip,  flattered  his  successor  Alexander, 
 sided  with  Antipater,  and,  in  a  word,  is  described  by 
 Plutarch  as  the  man  who,  of  all  the  demagogues  of  the 
 day,  contributed  most  to  the  ruin  of  his  country.  {Vit. 
 Phoc.  i7iil.)  He  was  at  last  put  to  death  by  Cassan- 
 der,  having  been  proved,  by  means  of  an  intercepted 
 letter,  to  be  in  secret  league  with  the  enemies  of  the 
 former,  B.C.  313.  Cicero  and  Quintilian  state,  that 
 no  orations  of  Demades  were  extant  in  their  time. 
 {Cic,  Brut.,  9.  — Quint.,  2,  17,  et  12.)  The  old 
 rhetorician,  however,  from  whom  Tzetzes  drew  his 
 information  on  the  subject,  had  read  speeches  of  his. 
 {Tzetz.,  Chii,  6,  36,  scq.)  We  have,  moreover,  re- 
 maining at  the  present  day  a  fragment  of  an  oration 
 by  Demades,  entitled  vi:ep  ri/g  iudsKasriac,  "  An 
 apology  for  his  conduct  during  the  twelve  years  he  had 
 been  a  public  orator.'''  It  is  to  be  found  in  the  col- 
 lections of  Aldus,  Stephens,  and  Reiske.  {Ruhnkcn, 
 Hist.  Crit.  Orat.  Grac,  in  Opusc,  \o\.  1,  p.  349, 
 seqq. — Hauptmann,  de  Dcmade  Dissert.  —  Sch'dll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr  ,  vol.  2,  p.  265,  .^eq.) 
 
 Demaratus,  I.  the  son  and  successor  of  Ariston 
 on  the  throne  of  Sparta,  B.C.  526.  He  was  deposed, 
 through  the  intrigues  of  Clcomenes,  his  colleague,  on 
 the  ground  of  his  being  illegitimate.  After  his  deppsi- 
 tion,  he  was  chosen  and  held  the  office  of  magistrate.; 
 but,  beine  insultingly  derided  on  one  occasion  by  Le- 
 ^  ^  423 
 
DEM 
 
 DEM 
 
 otychicles,  who  bad  been  appointed  king  in  his  stead, 
 he  retired,  first  to  the  island  of  Zacyiithus,  whither  he 
 was  pursued  by  the  Lacedemonians,  and  afterward 
 crossed  over  into  Asia  to  Darius,  who  received  him 
 honourably,  and  presented  him  with  lands  and  cities. 
 [Herod.,  (5,  65,  70.)  He  enabled  Xerxes  subsequently 
 to  obtain  the  noniinatioh  to  the  empire,  in  preference 
 to  his  elder  brother  Artabazarnes,  by  suggesting  to  him 
 an  argument,  the  justice  of  which  was  acknowledged 
 by  Darius.  (Herod.,  7,  3.)  We  find  him  after  this, 
 though  an  exile  from  his  country,  yet  sending  the  first 
 intelligence  to  Sparta  of  the  designs  of  Xerxes  against 
 Greece.  (Herod.,  7,  239.)  He  accompanied  the 
 monarch  on  his  expedition,  frankly  praised  to  him  the 
 discipline  of  the  Greeks,  and  especially  that  of  the 
 Spartans  ;  and,  before  the  battle  of  Thermopylae,  ex- 
 plained to  him  some  of  the  warlike  customs  of  the  last- 
 mentioned  people.  (Herod.,  7,  209.)  We  learn  also, 
 that  he  advised  Xerxes  to  seize,  with  his  fleet,  on  the 
 island  of  Cythera,  off  the  coast  of  Laconia,  from  which 
 he  might  continually  infest  the  shores  of  that  country. 
 The  monarch  did  not  adopt  his  suggestion,  but  still 
 always  regarded  the  exile  Spartan  as  a  friend,  and 
 treated  him  accordingly.  The  nature  of  the  advice 
 relative  to  Cythera  makes  it  more  than  probable  that 
 Demaratus,  in  sending  home  information  of  the  threat- 
 ened expedition  of  Xerxes,  meant  in  reality  to  taunt 
 and  alarm  his  countrymen.  (Herod.,  7,  234,  seqq.) — 
 n.  A  rich  citizen  of  Corinth,  of  the  family  of  the  Bac- 
 chiadae.  When  Cypselus  had  usurped  the  sovereign 
 power  of  Corinth,  Demaratus,  with  all  his  family,  mi- 
 grated to  Italy,  and  settled  at  Tarquinii,  658  years  be- 
 fore Christ.  Commerce  had  hot  been  deemed  disrep- 
 utable among  the  Corinthian  nobility ;  and  as  a  mer- 
 chant, therefore,  Demaratus  had  formed  ties  of  friend- 
 ship at  this  place.  He  brought  great  wealth  with  him. 
 The  sculptors  Eucheir  and  Eugrammus,  and  Cleo- 
 phantus  the  painter,  were  said  to  have  accompanied 
 him  ;  and  along  with  the  fine  arts  of  Greece,  he  taught 
 (so  the  popular  account  said)  alphabetic  writing  to  the 
 Etrurians.  His  son  Lucumo  migrated  afterward  to 
 Rome,  and  became  monarch  there  under  the  name  of 
 Tarquinius  Priscus.  (Plin.,  35,  5. — Liv.,  1,  34, 
 seqq.) — HI.  A  Corinthian,  in  the  time  of  Philip  and 
 his  son  Alexander.  He  had  connexions  of  hospi- 
 tality with  the  royal  family  of  Macedon,  and,  having 
 paid  a  visit  to  Philip,  succeeded  in  reconciling  that 
 monarch  to  his  son.  After  Alexander  had  overthrown 
 the  Persian  empire,  Demaratus,  though  advanced  in 
 years,  made  a  voyage  to  the  east  in  order  to  see  the 
 conqueror,  and,  when  he  beheld  him,  exclaimed,  "  What 
 a  pleasure  have  those  Greeks  missed,  who  died  without 
 seeing  Alexander  seated  on  the  throne  of  Darius  !"  He 
 died  soon  after,  and  was  honoured  with  a  magnificent 
 funeral.  (Pint.,  VU.  Alex.,  c.  37.— Id.  ibid.,  c.  56. 
 — Id.,  Vit.  Ages.,  c.  15.) — IV.  A  Corinthian  exile  at 
 the  court  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia.    (Pint.,  Alex.) 
 
 DEMETRi.\,a  festival  inhonour  of  Ceres,  called  by  the 
 Greeks  Demcter  (Atj/xtittjp).  It  was  then  customary 
 for  the  votaries  of  the  goddess  to  lash  themselves  with 
 whips  made  with  the  bark  of  trees.  The  Athenians 
 instituted  for  a  short  time  a  solemnity  of  the  same 
 name,  in  honour  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 
 
 DEMETRi.\s,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  on  the  Sinus  Pelas- 
 gicus  or  Pagasaeus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Onches- 
 tus.  It  owed  its  name  and  origin  to  Demetrius  Poli- 
 orcetes, about  290  B.C.,  and  derived,  as  Strabo  re- 
 ports, its  population,  in  the  first  instance,  from  the 
 neighbouring  towns  of  Nelia,  Pagasae,  Ormenium, 
 Rhizus,  Sepias,  Olizon,  Bcebe,  and  lolcos,  all  of  which 
 were  finally  included  within  its  territory.  (Strabo, 
 43G. — Pbit.,  Vit.  Demetr.)  It  soon  became  one  of 
 the  most  flourishing  towns  in  Thessaly,  and,  in  a  mil- 
 itafy  point  of  view,  was  allowed  to  rank  among  the 
 principal  fortresses  of  Greece.  It  was,  in  fact,  most 
 advantageously  placed  for  defending  the  approaches  to 
 424- 
 
 the  defile  of  Tempe,  as  well  on  the  side  of  the  plains 
 as  on  that  of  the  mountains.  Its  maritime  situation 
 also,  both  from  its  proximity  to  the  island  of  Euboea, 
 to  Attica,  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Cyclades,  and  the  op- 
 posite shores  of  Asia,  rendered  it  a  most  important 
 acquisition  to  the  sovereigns  of  Macedonia.  Hence 
 Philip,  the  son  of  Demetrius,  is  said  to  have  termed  it 
 one  of  the  chains  of  Greece.  (Polyb.,  17,  11. — Liv., 
 32,  37. — Id.,  28,  5.)  After  the  battle  of  Cynosceph- 
 alae,  it  became  the  principal  town  of  iheMagnesian  re- 
 public, and  the  seat  of  government.  It  fell  under  the 
 Roman  power  after  the  battle  of  Pydna.  Demetrias 
 is  generally  thought  to  coincide  with  the  modern  Volo  ; 
 but  this  last  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Pagasje. 
 (Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  434.) 
 
 Demetrius,  I.  a  son  of  Antigonus  and  Stratonice, 
 surnamed  Poliorcetes  ( lloZtop/cj^r^f ),  '■^besieger  of 
 cities,"  from  his  talents  as  an  engineer,  and  his  pecu- 
 liar skill  in  conducting  sieges,  especially  by  the  aid  of 
 machines  and  engines  either  invented  or  improved  by 
 himself  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  sent  by 
 his  father  against  Ptolemy,  who  had  invaded  Syria. 
 He  was  defeated  near  Gaza  ;  but  he  soon  repaired  his 
 loss  by  a  victory  over  one  of  the  generals  of  the  ene- 
 my. He  afterward  sailed  with  a  fleet  of  250  ships  to 
 Athens,  and  restored  the  Athenians  to  liberty,  by  free- 
 ing them  from  the  power  of  Cassander  and  Ptolemy, 
 and  expelling  the  garrison  which  was  stationed  there 
 under  Demetrius  Phalereus.  The  gratitude  of  the 
 Athenians  to  their  deliverer  passed  all  bounds,  or  was 
 only  equalled  by  their  fulsome  and  impious  adulation, 
 the  details  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  pages  of 
 Plutarch.  (Vit.  Demetr.,  c.  10  )  But  Demetrius 
 was  soon  summoned  by  his  father  to  leave  the  flattery 
 of  orators  and  demagogues,  in  order  to  resume  the 
 combined  duties  of  an  admiral  and  an  engineer  in  the 
 reduction  of  Cyprus.  After  a  slight  engagement  with 
 Menelaijs,  the  brother  of  Ptolemy,  he  laid  siege  to  Sal- 
 amis,  the  ancient  capital  of  that  island.  The  occur- 
 rences of  this  siege  occupy  a  prominent  place  in 
 history,  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  dete  min- 
 ed resistance  opposed  to  the  assailants,  and  the  great 
 importance  attached  to  its  issue  by  the  heads  of  the 
 belligerent  parties,  as  for  a  new  species  of  warlike 
 engine  invented  by  Demetrius,  and  first  employed  by 
 him  against  the  city  of  Salamis.  The  instrument  in 
 question  was  called  an  Helepolis,  or  "  Town-taker," 
 and  was  an  immense  tower,  consisting  of  nine  sto- 
 ries, gradually  diminishing  as  they  rose  in  altitude, 
 and  affording  accommodation  for  a  large  number  of 
 armed  men,  who  discharged  all  sorts  of  missiles  against 
 the  ramparts  of  the  enemy.  Ptolemy,  dreading  the 
 fall  of  Salamis,  which  would  pave  the  way,  as  he  ea- 
 sily foresaw,  for  the  entire  conquest  of  Cyprus,  had 
 already  made  formidable  preparations  for  compelling 
 Demetrius  to  raise  the  siege.  A  memorable  seafight 
 ensued,  in  which  the  ruler  of  Egypt  was  completely 
 defeated,  with  the  loss  of  nearly  all  his  fleet,  and  thirty 
 thousand  prisoners.  An  invasion  of  Egypt,  by  Anti- 
 gonus, then  took  place,  but  ended  disgracefully  ;  and 
 Demetrius  was  sent  to  reduce  the  Rhodians,  who  per- 
 sisted in  remaining  allies  to  Ptolemy.  The  operations 
 of  the  son  of  Antigonus  before  Rhodes,  and  the  reso- 
 lute defence  of  the  place  by  the  inhabitants,  present 
 perhaps  the  most  remarkable  example  of  skill  and  he- 
 roism that  is  to  be  found  in  the  annals  of  ancient  war- 
 fare. The  Helepolis  employed  on  this  occasion  greatly 
 exceeded  the  one  that  was  used  in  the  siege  of  Sala- 
 mis. Its  towers  were  150  feet  high;  it  was  supported 
 on  eight  enormous  wheels,  and  propelled  by  the  labour 
 of  3400  men.  After  a  siege  of  a  whole  year,  however, 
 the  enterprise  was  abandoned,  a  treaty  was  concluded 
 with  the  Rhodians,  and  Demetrius,  at  the  request  of 
 the  Athenians,  who  were  now  again  subjected  to  the 
 Macedonian  yoke,  proceeded  to  rescue  Greece  from 
 the  power  of  Cassander.     In  this  he  was  so  success- 
 
DEMETRIUS. 
 
 DEMETRIUS. 
 
 ful  that  he  ultimately  spread  the  terror  of  his  arms 
 over  the  whole  of  that  country.  The  object  of  Anti- 
 gonus  and  his  son  was  now  to  effect  the  final  subjuga- 
 tion of  Macedonia,  Egypt,  and  the  East.  The  con- 
 federacy of  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus,  and  Cas- 
 sander  was  therefore  renewed,  with  the  view  of  crush- 
 ing these  ambitious  schemes,  and  in  the  battle  of  Ipsus 
 they  succeeded  in  effecting  their  object.  Antigonus 
 fell  in  the  conflict,  and  Demetrius,  after  a  precipitate 
 flight  of  200  miles,  regained  his  fleet  with  only  a  small 
 remnant  of  his  once  powerful  host.  Sailing  soon  after 
 to  Athens,  he  received  information  from  the  fickle  and 
 ungrateful  inhabitants  that  they  had  resolved  to  admit 
 no  king  within  their  city  ;  upon  which,  finding  that  all 
 Greece  had  now  submitted  to  the  influence  of  Cassan- 
 der,  he  made  a  descent  on  the  coast  at  Corinth  for  the 
 mere  purposes  of  plunder  and  revenge,  and  afterward 
 committed  similar  ravages  along  the  whole  coast  of 
 Thrace.  Fortune,  however,  soon  smiled  again.  Se- 
 leucus, jealous  of  the  power  of  Lysimachus,  whose  ter- 
 ritories now  e.xtended  to  the  Syrian  borders,  resolved 
 to  strengthen  his  own  dominions  by  forming  an  alli- 
 ance with  the  family  of  Demetrius,  which  was  still 
 possessed  of  considerable  claims  and  interests.  He 
 therefore  made  proposals  for,  and  obtained  in  marriage, 
 the  accomplished  Stratonice,  the  daughter  of  his  for- 
 mer rival.  The  power  of  Demetrius  again  became 
 formidable,  an  alliance  with  Ptolemy,  who  gave  him 
 his  daughter  PtolemaVs  in  marriage,  having  also  added 
 to  its  increase.  Having  compelled  the  Athenians  to 
 open  their  gates  and  receive  a  garrison,  and  having 
 generously  forgiven  their  previous  fickleness,  he  turned 
 his  attention  to  Macedonia,  and  having  embraced  an 
 opportunity  of  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  that  country, 
 which  was  afforded  by  dissensions  between  the  two 
 sons  of  Cassander,  he  cut  off  Ale.xander,  one  of  the 
 two  princes,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  throne. 
 His  restless  ambition  now  projected  new  conquests  in 
 Europe  and  Asia.  Turning  his  arms  against  Pyrrhus, 
 he  drove  him  from  Thessaly,  and  then  marched  to 
 Thebes,  which  he  took  by  assault.  About  the  same 
 time  also  he  built  the  city  of  Demetrias  on  the  Pelas- 
 gic  gulf;  and,  in  order  to  increase  his  naval  power, 
 formed  a  matrimonial  union  with  the  daughter  of  Aga- 
 thocles,  tyrant  of  Sicily.  His  fleet  at  length  amounted 
 to  .500  gallies,  many  of  them  having  fifteen  or  sixteen 
 banks  of  oars;  while  his  land  forces  exceeded  consid- 
 erably 100,000  men,  of  which  more  than  12,000  were 
 cavalry.  This  formidable  power  excited  the  alarm  of 
 Lysimachus  and  Ptolemy  ;  the  latter  advanced  against 
 Greece  with  his  fleet,  while  the  former,  with  Pyrrhus 
 his  ally,  made  a  land  attack  on  Macedon  in  two  differ- 
 ent points  at  once.  Demetrius  took  the  field  with  his 
 usual  alacrity,  but  when  he  approached  the  position  of 
 Pyrrhus,  the  greater  part  of  his  troops  deserted  him, 
 and  he  was  compelled  to  flee.  Leaving  Macedon  a 
 prey  to  Lysimachus  and  Pyrrhus,  the  active  Demetrius 
 passed  over  into  Asia  Minor  with  a  body  of  his  best 
 troops,  resolved  to  assail  his  adversary  in  the  most 
 vulnerable  quarter.  The  enterprise  was  at  first  at- 
 tendsd  with  the  most  brilliant  success.  In  a  short 
 lime,  however,  a  check  was  imposed  on  his  career  by 
 Agathocles,  the  son  of  Lysimachus,  and  Demetrius 
 was  compelled  to  apply  for  protection  to  his  aged  son- 
 in-law  Seleucus.  The  latter  yielded  to  his  solicita- 
 tions only  so  far  as  to  grant  him  permission  to  spend 
 two  months  within  his  territory  ;  and  was  subsequently 
 induced  by  his  courtiers  to  rid  himself  of  so  dangerous 
 a  guest,  by  sending  him  a  prisoner  to  a  strong  fortress 
 on  the  Syrian  coast,  about  sixty  miles  south  of  Anti- 
 och.  A  sufficient  revenue  was  allowed  him  for  his 
 support,  and  he  was  permitted  to  indulge  in  the  chace 
 and  oiher  manly  exercises,  always,  however,  under  the 
 eye  of  his  keepers.  At  last,  however,  giving  up  all 
 active  pursuits,  he  closed  his  checkered  life,  at  the  end 
 of  three  years,  a  victim  to  chagrin,  sloth,  and  intem- 
 
 H  H  H 
 
 perance.  His  remains  were  delivered  up  to  his  son 
 Antigonus,  who  interred  them  with  great  splendour  m 
 the  city  of  Demetrias.  The  age  of  Demetrius  at  the 
 time  of  his  death  was  fifty-four.  His  posterity  enjoy 
 ed  the  throne  of  Macedon  in  continued  succession 
 down  to  Perses,  when  the  Roman  conquest  took  place. 
 — Demetrius  was  remarkable  for  the  possession  of  two 
 qualities,  which  seem  to  be  altogether  inconsistent 
 with  each  other,  an  excessive  love  of  pleasure  and  an 
 ardent  passion  for  glory.  His  courage  in  conflicts,  his 
 profound  acquaintance  with  the  military  art,  and  his 
 skill,  particularly  in  the  construction  of  warlike  en- 
 gines, constitute'  strong  claims  on  the  remembrance  of 
 posterity.  His  dissolute  morals  have  been  justly  cen- 
 sured, but  there  were  many  excellent  traits  of  charac- 
 ter which  went  far  towards  counterbalancing  his  vices. 
 He  always  showed  himself  a  dutiful  and  affectionate 
 son,  a  mild  and  generous  conqueror,  and  a  liberal  pa- 
 tron of  the  arts.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Demctr.) — II.  Son  of 
 Antigonus  Gonatas,  and  grandson  of  Demetrius  Poli- 
 orcetes,  succeeded  his  father,  B.C.  243.  He  made 
 war  on  the  ^tolians  and  Achsans,  and  was  successful 
 against  both,  especially  the  latter,  whom  he  defeated, 
 although  under  the  command  of  Aratus.  He  had  dis- 
 tinguished himself,  before  coming  to  the  throne,  by 
 driving  Alexander  of  Epirus  out  of  Macedonia,  and 
 also  stripping  him  of  his  own  dominions.  He  reigned 
 ten  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Philip  III. 
 {Justin,  26,  2.-1(1.  ib.,  28,  3.) -III.  Son  of  Philip 
 III.,  of  Macedonia.  He  was  an  excellent  prince, 
 greatly  beloved  by  his  countrymen,  and  was  sent  by 
 his  father  as  a  hostage  to  Rome,  where  he  also  made 
 many  friends.  He  was  subsequently  liberated,  and 
 not  long  after  paid  a  second  visit  to  the  capital  of  Ita 
 ly,  as  an  ambassador  from  Philip,  on  which  occasion 
 he  obtained,  by  his  modest  and  candid  deportment, 
 favourable  terms  for  his  parent,  when  the  latter  was 
 complained  of  to  the  Roman  senate  by  the  cities  of 
 Greece.  Returning  home  loaded  with  marks  of  dis- 
 tinction from  the  Romans,  and  honoured  by  the  Mace- 
 donians themselves,  who  regarded  him  as  the  liberator 
 of  their  country,  he  excited  the  jealousy  of  his  own  fa- 
 ther, and  the  envy  and  hatred  of  his  brother  Perses, 
 The  latter  eventually  accused  him  of  aspiring  to  the 
 crown,  and  of  carrying  on,  for  this  purpose,  a  secret 
 correspondence  with  the  Romans.  Philip,  lending  too 
 credulous  an  ear  to  the  charge,  put  his  son  Demetrius 
 to  death,  and  only  discovered,  when  too  late,  the  utter 
 falsity  of  the  accusation.  (Liv  ,  33,  30.— Id.,  39,  35, 
 scqq.—Id,  40,  5— Id.,  40,  24.— /(/.,40,  54,  seqq.)— 
 IV.  Surnamed  Soter  {I,uTrjp),  or  "  the  Preserver," 
 was  the  son  of  Seleucus  Philopator ;  and  was  sent  by 
 his  father,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  as  a  hostage  to 
 Rome.  He  was  living  there  in  this  condition  when 
 his  father  died  of  poison,  B.C.  176.  His  uncle  Anti- 
 ochus  Epiphanes  thereupon  usurped  the  throne,  and 
 was  succeeded  by  Antiochus  Eupator.  Demetrius, 
 meanwhile,  having  in  vain  endeavoured  to  interest  the 
 senate  in  his  behalf,  secretly  escaped  from  Rome, 
 through  the  advice  of  Polybius  the  historian,  and,  find- 
 ing a  parly  in  Syria  ready  to  support  his  claims,  de- 
 feated and  put  to  death  Eupator,  and  ascended  the 
 throne.  He  was  subsequently  acknowledged  as  king 
 by  the  Romans.  After  this  he  freed  the  Babylonians 
 from  the  tyranny  of  Timarchus  and  Heraclides.  and 
 was  honoured  for  this  service  with  the  title  of  ^Soter. 
 At  a  subsequent  period  he  sent  his  generals  Nicanor 
 and  Bacchides  into  Judasa,  at  the  solicitation  of  Alci- 
 mus,  the  high-priest,  who  had  usurped  that  office  with 
 the  aid  of  Eupator.  These  two  commanders  ravaged 
 the  country,  and  Bacchides  defeated  and  slew  the  eel- 
 ebrated  Judas  Maccabeus.  Demetrius,  at  last,  be- 
 came so  hated  by  his  own  subjects,  and  an  object  of  so 
 much  dislike,  if  not  of  fear,  to  the  neighbouring  princes, 
 that  they  advocated  the  claims  of  Alexander  Bala,  and 
 he  fell  in  battle  against  this  competitor  for  the  crown, 
 
 42': 
 
DEMETRIUS. 
 
 DEMETRIUS. 
 
 Rfler  having  reigned  twelve  years  (from  B.C.  162  lo 
 B.C.  150).  His  death  was  avenged,  however,  by  his 
 son  and  successo^  Demetrius  Nicator.  {Foiyb.,  31, 
 22.-1(1.,  31,  19.— Id.,  32,  4,  seqq.—Id.,  33,  14,  scqq. 
 — Juslin,  34,  3.— W.,  35,  1.) — V.  Son  of  the  prece- 
 ding, was  surnanied  Nicator,  or  "the  Conqueror." 
 He  drove  out  Alexander  Bala,  with  the  aid  of  Ptole- 
 my Philometor,  who  had  given  him  his  daughter  Cle- 
 opatra in  marriage,  though  she  was  already  the  wife  of 
 Bala.  He  ascended  the  throne  B.C.  146,  but  soon 
 abandoned  himself  to  a  life  of  indolence  and  debauch- 
 ery, leaving  the  reins  of  government  in  the  hands  of 
 Lasthenes,  his  favourite,  an  unprincipled  and  violent 
 man.  The  disgust  to  which  his  conduct  gave  rise  in- 
 duced Tryphon,  who  had  been  governor  of  Antioch 
 under  Bala,  to  revolt,  and  place  upon  the  throne  Anti- 
 ochus  Dionysius,  son  of  Bala  and  Cleopatra,  a  child 
 only  four  years  of  age.  A  battle  ensued,  in  which  De- 
 metrius was  defeated,  and  Antiochus,  now  receiving 
 the  surname  of  Theos,  was  conducted  by  the  victors 
 to  Antioch,  and  proclaimed  king  of  Syria.  He  reign- 
 ed, however,  only  in  name.  The  actual  monarch  was 
 Tryphon,  who  put  hnn  to  death  at  the  end  of  about 
 two  years,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  in  his 
 stead.  Demetrius,  meanwhile,  held  his  court  at  Se- 
 leucia.  Thinking  that  the  crimes  of  Tryphon  would 
 soon  make  him  universally  detested,  he  turned  his 
 arms  in  a  different  direction,  and  marched  against  the 
 Parthians,  in  the  hope  that,  if  he  returned  victorious,  he 
 would  be  enabled  the  more  easily  to  rid  himself  of  his 
 Syrian  antagonist.  After  some  successes,  however, 
 he  was  entrapped  and  made  prisoner  by  the  Parthian 
 monarch  Mithradaies,  and  his  army  was  attacked  and 
 cut  to  pieces.  His  captivity  among  the  Parthians  was 
 an  honourable  one,  and  Mithradaies  made  him  espouse 
 his  daughter  Rhodoguna.  The  intelligence  of  this 
 marriage  so  exasperated  Cleopatra,  that  she  gave  her 
 hand  to  Antiochus  Sidetes,  her  brother-in-law,  who 
 thereupon  ascended  the  throne.  Sidetes  having  been 
 slain  111  a  battle  with  the  Parthians  after  a  reign  of 
 several  years,  Demetrius  escaped  from  the  hands  of 
 Mithradates  and  remounted  the  throne.  His  subjects, 
 however,  unable  any  longer  to  endure  his  pride  and 
 cruelty,  requested  from  Ptolemy  Physcon,  a  king  of  the 
 race  of  the  Seleucidse  to  govern  them.  Ptolemy  sent 
 Alexander  Zebina.  Demetrius,  driven  out  by  the  Syr- 
 ians, came  to  Piolema'is,  where  Cleopatra,  his  first  wife, 
 then  held  sway,  but  the  gates  were  shut  against  him. 
 He  then  took  refuge  in  Tyre,  but  was  put  to  death  by 
 the  governor  of  the  city.  Zebina  recompensed  the 
 Tyrians  for  this  act,  by  permitting  them  to  live  ac- 
 cording to  their  own  laws,  and  from  this  period  com- 
 mences what  is  called  by  chronologists  the  era  of  the 
 independence  of  Tyre,  which  was  still  subsisting  at 
 the  time  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  574  years  after 
 this  event.  [Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  1.3,  9. — Id.  ib.,  13, 
 \2.—Id.  ih.,  13,  a.— Justin,  36,  I.— Id.,  39,  1.— 
 L'Art  dc  verifier  ks  Dales,  vol.  2,  p.  331.) — VI.  Sur- 
 named  Eucarus  {EvKaipog),  "  the  Seasonable"  or 
 -"  Fortunate,"  was  the  fourth  son  of  Antiochus  Gry- 
 pus.  He  was  proclaimed  king  at  Damascus,  and,  in 
 conjunction  with  his  brother  Philip,  to  wdiom  a  part  of 
 Syria  remained  faithful,  drove  out  Antiochus  Euscbes 
 from  that  country,  compelling  him  to  take  refuge 
 among  the  Parthians.  The  two  brothers  then  divided 
 Syria  between  them,  Antioch  being  the  capital  of  Phil- 
 ip, and  Damascus  that  of  Demetrius.  The  latter  after- 
 ward marched  to  the  aid  of  the  Jews,  who  had  revolted 
 from  their  king  Alexander  Janneus.  He  was  recalled, 
 however,  to  his  own  dominions  by  the  news  of  an  in- 
 vasion on  the  part  of  his  own  brother  Philip.  He  took 
 Antioch,  and  besieged  Philip  in  Beroea ;  but  the  latter 
 being  succoured  by  the  Parthians  and  Arabians,  De- 
 metrius was  besieged  in  his  own  camp,  and  at  length 
 taken  prisoner.  He  was  brought  to  the  King  of  Par- 
 thia,  who  treated  him  with  great  distinction,  and  sent 
 426 
 
 him  into  Upper  Asia.  He  reigned  a  little  over  si» 
 years.  The  Abbe  Belley  has  written  a  learned  disser- 
 tation on  the  reign  of  this  monarch,  illustrated  by  med- 
 als. {Mem.  de  PAcad.  des.  laser.,  vol.  29.) — \TI. 
 Pepagomenus,  a  medical  writer,  who  flourished  during 
 the  reign  of  Michael  VIII.  (Palaologus).  By  the  or- 
 der of  this  monarch,  he  wrote  a  work  on  the  Gout 
 ijcepl  lloduypaq).  We  have  two  treatises  under  his 
 name  ;  but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  he  was 
 indeed  their  author.  The  first  is  on  the  art  of  training 
 falcons ;  the  second,  on  the  mode  of  breaking  and 
 training  dogs.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  265.) 
 The  best  edition  of  the  treatise  on  the  gout  is  that  of 
 Bernhard,  Amst.,  1753,  8vo. — VIII.  Phalereus  (three 
 syllables — ^alypev(),  a  native  of  Phalerum  in  Attica, 
 and  the  last  of  the  more  distinguished  orators  of 
 Greece.  He  was  the  son  of  a  person  who  had  been 
 slave  to  Timotheus  and  Conon.  (Compare  JElian, 
 Var.  Hist.,  12,  43,  and  the  remarks  of  Perizonius,  ad 
 loc.)  But,  though  born  in  this  low  condition,  he  soon 
 made  himself  distinguished  by  his  talents,  and  was  al- 
 ready a  conspicuous  individual  in  the  public  assem- 
 blies when  Antipaler  became  master  of  Athens  ;  for 
 he  was  obliged  to  save  himself  by  flight  from  the  ven- 
 geance of  the  Macedonian  partv.  He  was  compelled 
 to  quit  the  city  a  second  time,  when  Polysperchon 
 took  possession  of  it  through  his  son.  Subsequently 
 named  by  Cassander  as  governor  of  Athens  (B.C. 
 312),  he  so  gained  the  affections  of  his  countrymen, 
 that,  during  the  ten  years  in  which  he  filled  this  of- 
 fice, they  are  said  to  have  raised  to  him  three  hun- 
 dred and  sixty  statues.  Athenseus,  however,  on  the 
 authority  of  Duris,  a  Samian  writer,  reproaches  him 
 with  luxurious  and  expensive  habits,  while  he  prescri- 
 bed, at  the  same  time,  frugality  to  his  fellow-citizens, 
 and  fixed  limits  for  their  expenditures.  It  is  thought, 
 however,  that  Duris,  or  else  Athen33us  in  copying  him, 
 erred  with  respect  to  the  name  ;  since  what  the  latter 
 relates  of  Demetrius  Phalereus,  yElian  mentions  of  De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes.  [Var.  Hst.,  9,  19.)  .After  the 
 death  of  his  protector,  Demetrius  was  driven  from 
 Athens  by  Antigonusand  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  (B.C. 
 306).  The  people  of  that  city,  always  fickle,  always 
 ungrateful,  always  the  sport  of  the  demagogues  who 
 ruled  them,  overthrew  the  numerous  statues  they  had 
 erected  to  him,  although  he  had  been  their  benefactor 
 and  idol,  and  even  condemned  him  to  death.  Deme- 
 trius, upon  this,  retired  to  the  court  of  Alexandrea, 
 where  ho  lived  upward  of  twenty  years.  It  is  gener- 
 ally supposed  that  he  was  the  individual  who  gave 
 Ptolemy  the  advice  to  found  the  Museum  and  famous 
 library.  This  prince  consulted  him  also  as  to  the 
 choice  of  a  successor.  Demetrius  was  in  favour  of 
 the  monarch's  eldest  son,  but  the  king  eventually  de- 
 cided for  the  son  whom  he  had  by  his  second  wife 
 Berenice.  When  Ptolemy  II.,  therefore,  came  to  the 
 throne,  he  revenged  himself  on  the  unlucky  counsel- 
 lor by  exiling  him  to  a  distant  province  in  Ujiper 
 Egypt,  where  Demetrius  put  an  end  to  his  own  life 
 by  the  bite  of  an  asp  (B.C.  284. — Compare  the  disser- 
 tation of  Bonamy,  on  the  life  of  Demetrius  Phalereus, 
 Mem.  dc  V  Acad.  des.  Inser.  et  Belles  Lettres,  vol.  7,  p. 
 157,  seqq).  Cicero  describes  Demetrius  as  a  polished, 
 sweet,  and  graceful  speaker,  but  deficient  in  energy 
 and  power.  (Z)e  0;a/.,  2,  23. — Brut.,  9.)  Quintilian 
 assigns  to  him  much  of  talent  and  fluency.  {Inst. 
 Or.,  10,  1,  80.)  Both  writers,  however,  agree  that  he 
 was  the  first  who  deviated  in  a  marked  degree  from 
 the  character  that  previously  belonged  to  Attic  elo- 
 quence. We  cannot  form  any  opinion  of  our  own  re- 
 specting the  merits  of  this  writer,  because  his  histor- 
 ical, political,  and  philosophical  writings  are  all  lost. 
 In  the  number  of  these  was  a  treatise  "0«  the  lonians," 
 and  another  "  On  the  Laws  of  Athens,"  two  pieces, 
 the  acquisition  of  which  would  prove  of  great  value  to 
 us.     Plutarch  cites  his  treatise  "  On  Socrates,"  whick 
 
DE  M 
 
 DEMOCRITUS. 
 
 appears  to  have  contained  also  "a  Life  of  Arislides." 
 Me  have  said  that  the  works  of  Demetrius  are  lost : 
 there  exists,  it  is  true,  under  his  name  "  A  Treatise 
 on  Elocution'^  {irepl  'Ep/xr/vELa^),  a  work  full  of  in- 
 genious observations  ;  but  critics  agree  in  making  it 
 of  later  origin.  It  appears  that  the  copyists  have  con- 
 founded Demetrius  Phalereus  with  Demetrius  of  Alex- 
 andrea,  who  flourished  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  was, 
 perhaps,  the  author  of  the  work  in  question.  Besides 
 the  treatise  on  Elocution,  there  exists  a  small  work  On 
 the  A'pophlhcgms  of  the  Seven  Sages,  which  Stobaeus 
 has  inserted  m  his  iliird  discourse,  as  being  the  produc- 
 tion of  Demetrius  Phalereus. — The  best  editions  of  the 
 treatise  on  Elocution  are,  that  of  Gale,  Oxon.,  1676, 
 8vo,  re-edited  by  Fischer,  Lips.,  1773,  8vo,  and  that 
 of  J.  G.  Schneider,  Alien.,  1779,  8vo.  This  last  is 
 printed  with  but  little  care  ;  yet  it  is  critical,  and  sup- 
 plied with  an  excellent  commentary.  {Schbll,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  241,  seqq.) — IX.  A  Cynic  philos- 
 opher, who  flourished  at  Corinth  in  the  first  century. 
 During  the  reign  of  Caligula,  he  taught  philosophy  at 
 Rome,  where  he  obtained  the  highest  reputation  for 
 wisdom  and  virtue.  He  was  banished  from  Rome  in 
 the  time  of  Nero,  for  his  free  censure  of  public  man- 
 ners. After  the  death  of  this  emperor  he  returned  to 
 Rome  ;  but  the  boldness  of  his  language  soon  ofTend- 
 ed  Vespasian,  and  again  subjected  him  to  the  punish- 
 ment of  exile.  ApoUonius,  with  whom  he  had  con- 
 tracted a  friendship,  prevailed  on  Titus  to  recall  him  ; 
 but  under  Domilian  he  shared  the  common  fate  of 
 philosophers,  and  withdrew  to  Puteoli.  Seneca,  who 
 was  intimately  acquainted  with  him,  speaks  in  the 
 highest  terms  of  his  masculine  eloquence,  sound  judg- 
 ment, intrepid  fortitude,  and  inflexible  integrity.  {Se?i- 
 eca,  dc  Vit.  Beat.,  25.) 
 
 DeiMocedes,  a  celebrated  physician  of  Crotona,  son 
 of  Calliphon,  and  intimate  with  Polycrates.  He  was 
 carried  as  a  prisoner  from  Samos  to  Darius,  king  of 
 Persia,  where  he  acquired  great  riches  and  much  repu- 
 tation by  two  cures  which  he  performed,  one  on  the 
 king,  and  the  other  on  Atossa.  Always  desirous  of 
 returning  to  his  native  country,  he  pretended  to  enter 
 into  the  views  and  interests  of  the  Persians,  and  pro- 
 cured himself  to  be  sent  with  some  nobles  to  explore 
 the  coast  of  Greece,  and  to  ascertain  in  what  parts  it 
 might  be  attacked  with  the  greatest  probability  of  suc- 
 cess. Stopping  at  Tarentum,  the  Persrans  were  seized 
 as  spies,  and  Democedes  escaped  to  Crotona,  whiiher 
 the  Persians  followed  him,  and  demanded,  but  in  vain, 
 that  he  should  be  restored.  He  settled  there,  and 
 married  the  daughter  of  Milo.  {^Ulian,  V.  H.,  8,  18. 
 —Hcrodot.,  3,  124,  &c.) 
 
 Democritus,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  born  at  Ab- 
 dera,  about  490  or  494  B.C.,  but  according  to  some, 
 460  or  470  B.C.  His  father  was  a  man  of  noble  fam- 
 ily and  of  great  wealth,  and  contributed  largely  to- 
 wards the  entertainment  of  the  army  of  Xerxes,  on  his 
 return  to  Asia.  Asa  reward  for  this  service,  the  Per- 
 sian monarch  made  him  and  the  other  Abderites  rich 
 presents,  and  left  among  them  several  Chaldaean  Magi. 
 Democritus,  according  to  Diogenes  Laertius,  was  in- 
 structed by  these  Eastern  sages  in  astronomy  and  the- 
 ology. After  the  death  of  his  father,  he  determined 
 to  travel  in  search  of  wisdom  ;  and  devoted  to  this 
 purpose  the  portion  which  fell  to  him,  amounting  to 
 one  hundred  talents.  He  is  said  to  have  visited  Egypt 
 and  Ethiopia,  the  Persian  Magi,  and,  according  to  some, 
 even  the  Gymnosophists  of  India.  Whether,  in  the 
 course  of  his  travels,  he  vished  Athens  or  attended 
 upon  Anaxagoras,  is  uncertain.  There  can  be  little 
 doubt,  however,  that,  during  some  part  of  his  life,  he 
 was  instructed  in  the  Pythagorean  school,  and  particu- 
 larly that  he  was  a  disciple  of  Leucippus.  After  a 
 long  course  of  years  thus  spent  in  travelling,  Democri- 
 tus returned  to  Abdera,  richly  stored  with  the  treas- 
 ures of  philosophy,  but  destitute  even  of  the  necessary 
 
 means  of  subsistence.  His  brother  Damosis,  howev- 
 er, received  him  kindly,  and  liberally  supplied  all  his 
 wants.  It  was  a  law  in  Abdera,  that  whoever  should 
 waste  his  patrimony,  should  be  deprived  of  the  rites 
 of  sepulture.  Democritus,  desiring  to  avoid  this  dis- 
 grace, gave  public  lectures  to  ihe  people,  chiefly  from 
 his  larger  Diacosmus,  the  most  valuable  of  his  wri- 
 tings ;  in  return,  he  received  from  his  hearers  many 
 valuable  presents,  and  other  testimonies  of  respect, 
 which  relieved  him  from  all  apprehension  of  suffering 
 public  censure  as  a  spendthrift.  Democritus,  by  his 
 learning  and  wisdom,  and  especially  by  his  acquaint- 
 ance with  natural  phenomena,  acquired  great  fame,  and 
 excited  much  admiration  among  the  ignorant  Abderites. 
 By  giving  previous  notices  of  unexpected  changes  in 
 the  weather,  and  by  other  artifices,  he  had  the  address 
 to  make  them  believe  that  he  possessed  a  power  o\ 
 predicting  future  events,  and  they  not  only  looked  upon 
 him  as  something  more  than  mortal,  but  even  proposed 
 to  invest  him  with  the  direction  of  their  public  atfairs. 
 From  inclination  and  habit,  however,  he  preferred  a 
 contemplative  to  an  active  life,  and  therefore  declined 
 these  public  honours,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
 days  in  solitude.  It  is  said  that  from  this  time  he 
 spent  his  days  and  nights  in  caverns  and  sepulchres ; 
 and  some  even  relate,  that,  in  order  to  be  more  per- 
 fectly master  of  his  intellectual  faculties,  he  deprived 
 himself,  by  means  of  a  burning-glass,  of  the  organs  oi 
 sight.  The  story,  however,  is  utterly  incredible,  since 
 the  writers  who  mention  it  affirm  that  Democritus 
 employed  his  leisure  in  writing  books,  and  in  dissect- 
 ing the  bodies  of  animals,  neither  of  which  could  well 
 have  been  eflected  without  eyes.  Nor  is  greater  cred- 
 it due  to  the  tale  that  Democritus  spent  his  leisure 
 hours  in  chemical  researches  after  the  philosopher's 
 stone,  the  dream  of  a  later  age  ;  or  to  the  story  of  his 
 conversation  with  Hippocrates,  grounded  upon  letters 
 which  are  said  to  have  passed  between  the  father  of 
 medicine  and  the  people  of  Abdera,  on  the  supposed 
 madness  of  Democritus,  but  which  are  so  evidently 
 spurious  that  it  would  require  the  credulity  of  the  Ab- 
 derites themselves  to  suppose  them  genuine.  The 
 only  reasonable  conclusion  that  can  be  drawn  from 
 these  ami  other  marvellous  tales,  is,  that  Democritus 
 was,  what  he  is  commonly  represented  to  have  been, 
 a  man  of  lofty  genius  and  penetrating  judgment,  who, 
 by  a  long  course  of  study  and  observation,  became  an 
 eminent  master  of  speculative  and  physical  science ; 
 the  natural  consequence  of  which  was,  that,  like  Roger 
 Bacon  in  a  later  period,  he  astonished  and  imposed 
 upon  his  ignorant  and  credulous  countrymen.  Petro- 
 nius  relates,  that  he  was  perfectly  acquainted  with  the 
 virtues  of  herbs,  plants,  and  stones,,  and  that  he  spent 
 his  life  in  making  experiments  upon  natural  bodies. — 
 Democritus  has  been  commonly  known  under  the  ap- 
 pellation of  "  The  Laughing  Philosopher ;"  and  it  is 
 gravely  related  by  Seneca  {De  Ira,  2,  10. — De  Tranq., 
 1-5),  that  he  never  appeared  in  public  without  express- 
 ing his  contempt  of  the  follies  of  mankind  by  laugh- 
 ter. But  this  account  is  wholly  inconsistent  with 
 what  has  been  related  concerning  his  fondness  for  a 
 life  of  gloomy  solitude  and  profound  contemplation  ; 
 and  with  the  strength  and  elevation  of  mind  which  his 
 philosophical  researches  must  have  required,  and  which 
 are  ascribed  to  him  by  the  general  voice  of  antiquity. 
 Thus  much,  however,  may  be  easily  admitted  on  the 
 credit  of  iElian  (V.  if.,  4.  20)  and  Lucian  (FaV.  Auct., 
 vol.  3,  p.  112,  ed.  Bip.),  that  a  man  so  superior  to  the 
 generality  of  his  contemporaries,  and  whose  lot  it  was  to 
 hve  among  a  race  of  men  who  were  stupid  to  a  proverb, 
 might  frequently  treat  their  follies  with  ridicule  and 
 contempt.  Accordingly,  we  find  that,  among  his  fel- 
 low-citizens, he  obtained  the  appellation  of  yflaaivo^, 
 or  the  "  Derider."  Democritus  appears  to  have  been 
 in  his  morals  chaste  and  temperate  ;  and  his  sobriety 
 was  repaid  by  a  healthy  old  age.     He  lived  and  en- 
 
 427 
 
DEM 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 joyed  the  use  of  his  faculties  to  the  term  of  a  hundred 
 years  (some  say  several  years  longer),  and  at  last  died 
 through  mere  decay. — Democritus  expanded  the  alom- 
 ic  theory  of  his  master  Leucippus,  to  support  the  truth 
 of  which  he  maintained  the  impossibility  of  division  ad 
 infinitum  ;  and  from  the  difficutly  of  assigning  a  com- 
 mencement of  time,  he  argued  the  eternity  of  existing 
 nature,  of  void  space,  and  of  motion.  He  supposed 
 the  atoms,  originally  similar,  to  be  endowed  with  cer- 
 tain properties,  such  as  impenetrability,  and  a  density 
 proportionate  to  their  volume.  He  referred  every  ac- 
 tive and  passive  affection  to  motion,  caused  by  impact, 
 limited  by  the  principle  he  assumed,  that  like  can  only 
 act  on  like.  He  drew  a  distinction  between  primary 
 motion  and  secondary  ;  impulse  and  reaction  ;  from  a 
 combination  of  which  he  produced  rotatory  motion. 
 Herein  consists  the  law  of  necessity,  by  which  all 
 things  in  nature  are  ruled.  From  the  endless  multi- 
 plicity of  atoms  have  resulted  the  worlds  which  we 
 behold,  with  all  the  properties  of  immensity,  resem- 
 blance, and  dissimilitude  which  belong  to  them.  The 
 soul  consists  (such  is  his  doctrine)  of  globular  atoms 
 of  fire,  which  impart  movement  to  the  body.  Main- 
 taining his  atomic  theory  throughout,  Democritus  in- 
 troduced the  hypothesis  of  images  (elSuAa),  a  species 
 of  emanation  from  external  objects,  which  make  an  im- 
 pression on  our  senses,  and  from  the  influence  of  which 
 he  deduced  sensation  {aladrjOLg)  and  thought  {voTjcnc). 
 He  distinguished  between  a  rude,  imperfect,  and  there- 
 fore false  perception,  and  a  true  one.  In  the  same 
 manner,  consistently  with  his  theory,  he  accounted  for 
 the  popular  notions  of  the  Deity  ;  partly  through  our 
 incapacity  to  understand  fully  the  phenomena  of  which 
 we  are  witnesses,  and  partly  from  the  impressions  com- 
 municated by  certain  beings  (eWwAa)  of  enormous 
 stature,  and  resembling  the  human  figure,  which  in- 
 habit the  air.  To  these  he  ascribed  dreams,  and  the 
 causes  of  divination.  He  carried  his  theory  into  prac- 
 tical philosophy  also,  laying  down  that  happiness  con- 
 sisted in  an  equability  of  temperament  {evdvfila), 
 whence  he  deduced  his  moral  principles  and  pruden- 
 tial maxims.  It  was  from  Democritus  that  Epicurus 
 borrowed  the  principal  features  of  his  metaphysics. 
 {Enfield's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  423,  seqq. 
 — Rillcr,  Hist.  Phil.,  vol.  1,  p.  544,  seqq. —  Tenne- 
 mann's  Manual,  p.  79.) 
 
 Demodocus,  I.  a  musician  at  the  court  of  Alcinoiis, 
 who  sang  in  the  presence  of  Ulysses.  (Ham.,  Od., 
 8,  44. — Plat.,  de  Mus.) — 11.  A  Trojan  chief,  who 
 came  with  ^neas  into  Italy,  where  he  was  killed. 
 {Virg.,  JEn.,  10,  413.) 
 
 Demoleon,  I.  a  centaur,  killed  by  Theseus  at  the 
 nuptials  of  Pirithoiis.  {Ovid,  Mel.,  12,  356.)— II.  A 
 son  of  Antenor, killed  by  Achilles.   {Horn.,  11. ,20, 395.) 
 
 Demon.vx,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  of  excellent  charac- 
 ter, contemporary  with  Lucian,  who  relates  his  history. 
 He  was  a  native  of  Cyprus,  of  wealthy  parents,  and  is 
 described  by  Lucian  as  having  been  the  best  philoso- 
 pher he  ever  knew.  Demonax  resided  at  Athens,  at- 
 tained to  the  age  of  nearly  90  years,  and  was  honoured 
 at  his  death  with  a  public  funeral.  {Lucian,  Vit.  De- 
 monad.,  vol.  5,  p.  231,  seqq.,  ed.  Bip.) 
 
 Demophoon  or  Demophon.      Vid.  Phyllis. 
 
 D&MOSTHENEs,  I.  a  celebrated  Athenian  orator,  a 
 native  of  the  borough  of  Pseania,  in  the  tribe  Pandio- 
 nis.  His  father,  Demosthenes,  was  a  citizen  of  rank 
 and  opulence,  and  the  proprietor  of  a  manufactory  of 
 arms  ;  not  a  common  blacksmith,  as  the  language  of 
 Juvenal  (10,  WO)  would  lead  us  to  believe.  The  son 
 was  born  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  98th  Olympiad, 
 B.C.  385,  and  lost  his  father  at  the  early  age  of  seven 
 years,  when  he  was  left  to  the  care  of  his  mother, 
 Cleobule.  The  guardians  to  whom  his  father  had 
 intrusted  the  administration  of  a  large  property  pro- 
 ving faithless  to  their  charge,  and  wasting  a  large  por- 
 tion of  his  patrimony,  the  orator's  early  studies  were 
 428 
 
 seriously  impeded  by  the  want  of  sufficient  means,  ic 
 say  nothing  of  the  over-anx'ous  fears  of  maternal  ten- 
 derness, and  the  delicate  state  of  his  own  health. 
 When  Demosthenes  was  about  sixteen  years  of  age, 
 his  curiosity  was  attracted  by  a  trial  in  which  Callis- 
 tratus  pleaded,  and  won  a  cause  of  considerable  im- 
 portance. The  eloquence  which  procured,  and  the 
 acclamations  which  followed,  his  success,  so  inflamed 
 the  ambition  of  the  young  Athenian,  that  he  deter- 
 mined to  devote  himself  thenceforward  to  the  assidu- 
 ous study  of  oratory.  He  chose  Isseus  as  his  master 
 rather  than  Isocrates  (either  because  this  plan  was  less 
 expensive,  or  because  the  style  of  the  latter  was  not 
 sufficiently  nervous  and  energetic) :  from  Plato,  also, 
 he  imbibed  much  of  the  richness  and  the  grandeur 
 which  characterized  the  writings  of  that  mighty  master. 
 At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  appeared  before  the  public 
 tribunals,  and  pronounced  against  his  faithless  guar- 
 dians, and  against  a  debtor  to  his  father's  estate,  five 
 orations,  which  were  crowned  with  complete  success. 
 These  discourses,  in  all  probability,  had  received  the 
 finishing  hand  from  Issus,  under  whom  Demosthenes 
 continued  to  study  for  the  space  of  four  years  after  he 
 had  reached  his  majority.  An  opening  so  brilliantly 
 successful  imboldened  the  young  orator,  as  may  well 
 be  supposed,  to  speak  before  the  people  ;  but,  when  he 
 made  the  attempt,  his  feeble  and  stammering  voice,  his 
 interrupted  respiration,  his  ungraceful  gestures,  and  his 
 ill-arranged  periods,  brought  upon  him  general  ridicule. 
 Returning  home  in  the  utmost  distress,  he  was  reani- 
 mated by  the  kind  aid  of  the  actor  Satyrus,  who,  hav- 
 ing requested  Demosthenes  to  repeat  some  passage 
 from  a  dramatic  poet,  pronounced  the  same  extract 
 after  him  with  so  much  correctness  of  enunciation, 
 and  in  a  manner  so  true  to  nature,  that  it  appeared  to 
 the  young  orator  to  be  quite  a  diffisrent  passage.  Con- 
 vinced, thereupon, how  much  grace  and  persuasive  pow- 
 er a  proper  enunciation  and  manner  add  to  the  best 
 oration,  he  resolved  to  correct  the  deficiencies  of  his 
 youth,  and  accomplished  this  with  a  zeal  and  perse- 
 verance which  have  passed  into  a  proverb.  How 
 deeply  he  commands  our  respect  and  admiration  by 
 his  struggles  to  overcome  his  natural  infirmities,  and 
 remove  the  impressions  produced  by  his  first  appear- 
 ance before  his  assembled  countrymen  !  He  was  not 
 indebted  for  the  glory  he  acquired  either  to  the  bounty 
 of  nature  or  to  the  favour  of  circumstances,  but  to  the 
 inherent  strength  of  his  own  unconquerable  will.  To 
 free  himself  from  stammering,  he  spoke  with  pebbles 
 in  his  mouth,  a  story  resting  on  the  authority  of  De- 
 metrius Phalereus,  his  contemporary.  It  also  appears 
 that  he  was  unable  to  articulate  clearly  the  letter  R  ; 
 but  he  vanquished  that  difficulty  most  perfectly  ;  for 
 Cicero  says,  "  exercitatione  fecissc  ut  plenissime  dice- 
 ret."  He  removed  the  distortion  of  featuies,  which 
 accompanied  his  utterance,  by  watching  the  movements 
 of  his  countenance  in  a  mirror ;  and  a  naked  sword 
 was  suspended  over  his  left  shoulder  while  he  was 
 declaiming  in  private,  to  prevent  its  rising  above  the 
 level  of  the  right.  That  his  enunciation  might  be 
 loud  and  full  of  emphasis,  he  frequently  ran  up  the 
 steepest  and  most  uneven  walks.,  an  exercise  by  which 
 his  voice  acquired  l)oth  force  and  energy  ;  and  on  the 
 seashore,  when  the  waves  were  violently  agitated,  he 
 declaimed  aloud,  to  accustom  himself  to  the  noise  and 
 tumult  of  a  public  assembly.  He  constructed  a  sub- 
 terranean study,  where  he  would  often  stay  for  two  or 
 three  months  together,  shaving  one  side  of  his  head, 
 that,  in  case  he  should  wish  to  go  abroad,  the  shame 
 of  appearing  in  that  condition  might  keep  him  within. 
 In  this  solitary  retreat,  by  the  light  of  his  lamp,  he 
 copied  and  recopied,  ten  times  at  least,  the  orations 
 scattered  throughout  the  history  of  Thucydides,  for 
 the  purpose  of  moulding  his  own  style  after  so  pure  a 
 model. — Whatever  may  be  the  truth  of  these  several 
 stories,  Demosthenes  got  credit  for  the    most  inde- 
 
DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 fatigable  labour  in  the  acquisition  of  his  art.  His 
 enemies,  at  a  subsequent  period  of  his  career,  at- 
 tempted to  ridicule  this  extraordinary  industry,  by 
 remarking  that  all  his  arguments  "smelt  of  the  lamp," 
 and  they  eagerly  embraced  the  opportunity  of  denying 
 him  the  possession  of  natural  talents.  A  malicious 
 opinion  like  this  would  easily  find  credit ;  and,  in  fact, 
 a  similar  mistake  is  very  frequently  made  ;  for,  since 
 it  is  acknowledged  on  all  hands,  that  all  successful  men 
 who  are  naturally  dull  must  be  industrious,  the  con- 
 verse of  the  proposition  grows  into  repute,  and  it  is  in- 
 ferred that  all  men  who  are  industrious  must  necessarily 
 be  dull.  The  accusation  against  Demosthenes  seems 
 to  have  rested  chiefly  on  his  known  reluctance  to  speak 
 without  preparation.  The  fact  is,  that,  though  he  could 
 exert  the  talent  of  e.Ktemporaneous  speaking,  he  avoided 
 rather  than  sought  such  occasions,  partly  from  defer- 
 ence to  his  audience,  and  partly  from  apprehending 
 the  possibility  of  a  failure.  Plutarch,  who  mentions 
 this  reluctance  of  the  orator,  speaks  at  the  same  time 
 of  the  great  merit  of  his  extemporaneous  effusions. — 
 Demosthenes  reappeared  in  public,  after  the  rigorous 
 discipline  of  private  study,  at  the  age  of  35  years, 
 and  pronounced  two  orations  against  Leptines,  the 
 author  of  a  law  which  imposed  on  every  citizen  of 
 Athens,  except  the  descendants  of  Harmodius  and 
 Aristogiton,  the  exercise  of  certain  burdensome  func- 
 tions. The  second  of  these  discourses,  entitled  "  Of 
 Immunities,''''  is  regarded  as  one  of  his  happiest  efforts. 
 After  this  he  became  much  engaged  with  the  business 
 of  the  bar,  and  these  professional  labours,  added  to  the 
 scanty  portion  of  his  pa,trimony  which  he  had  recovered 
 from  his  guardians,  appear  to  have  formed  his  only 
 means  of  support.  But,  whatever  may  have  been  the 
 distinction  and  the  advantages  which  Demosthenes 
 acquired  by  his  practice  at  the  bar,  his  principal  glory 
 is  derived  from  his  political  discourses.  At  the  pe- 
 riod when  he  engaged  in  public  affairs,  the  state  was  a 
 mere  wreck.  Public  spirit  was  at  the  lowest  ebb  ;  the 
 laws  had  lost  their  authority,  the  austerity  of  early  man- 
 ners had  yielded  to  theinroadsofluxury,  activity  to  indo- 
 lence, probity  to  venality,  and  the  people  were  far  advan- 
 ced upon  the  route  which  conducts  a  nation  to  irremedi- 
 able servitude.  Of  the  virtues  of  their  forefathers  there 
 remained  to  the  Athenians  naught  save  an  attachment, 
 carried  almost  to  enthusiasm,  for  their  native  soil,  for 
 that  country  the  possession  of  which  had  been  con- 
 tested even  by  the  gods.  On  the  slightest  occasion 
 this  feeling  of  patriotism  was  sure  to  display  itself; 
 thanks  to  this  sentiment,  the  people  of  Athens  were 
 still  capable  of  making  the  most  strenuous  eiforts  for 
 the  preservation  of  their  freedom.  No  one  knew  bet- 
 ter than  Demosthenes  the  art  of  exciting  and  keeping 
 alive  this  enthusiasm.  His  penetration  enabled  him 
 easily  to  divine  the  ambitious  plans  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
 don,  from  the  very  outset  of  that  monarch's  operations, 
 ar.d  he  resolved  to  counteract  them.  His  whole  pub- 
 lic career,  indeed,  had  but  one  object  in  view,  and  that 
 was,  war  with  Philip.  For  the  space  of  fourteen 
 years  did  this  monarch  find  the  Athenian  orator  con- 
 tinually in  his  path,  and  every  attempt  proved  unavail- 
 ing to  corrupt  so  formidable  an  adversary.  These 
 fourteen  years,  which  unmetiiatcly  preceded  the  fall 
 of  Grecian  freedom,  constitute  the  brightest  period  in 
 the  history  of  Demosthenes.  And  yet  his  courage  was 
 political  rather  than  military.  At  Chceronea  he  fled 
 from  the  field  of  battle,  though  in  the  Athenian  assem- 
 bly no  private  apprehensions  could  check  his  eloquence 
 or  influence  his  conduct.  But,  though  overpowered  in 
 the  contest  with  the  enemy  of  Athenian  independence, 
 he  received  after  his  defeat  the  most  glorious  recom- 
 pense, which,  in  accordance  with  Grecian  customs, 
 a  grateful  country  could  bestow  upon  a  virtuous  son. 
 Athens  decreed  him  a  crown  of  gold.  The  reward  was 
 opposed  by  ..'Eschines.  The  combat  of  eloquence  which 
 arose  between  the  two  orators,  attracted  to  Athens  an 
 
 immense  concourse  of  spectators.  Demosthenes  tri- 
 umphed, and  his  antagonist,  not  having  received  the 
 fifth  part  of  the  votes,  was,  in  conformity  with  the  ex- 
 isting law,  compelled  to  retire  into  exile.  A  short 
 time  after  this  splendid  victory,  ])emosthenes  was 
 condemned  for  having  sulfered  himself  to  be  bribed 
 by  Harpalus,  a  Macedonian  governor,  who,  dreadinc 
 the  anger  of  Alexander,  had  come  to  Athens  to  hiua 
 there  the  fruit  of  his  extortion  and  rapine,  and  had  bar- 
 gained with  the  popular  leaders  of  the  day  for  the  pro- 
 tection of  the  republic.  Demosthenes,  having  escaped 
 from  imprisonment,  fled  to  ^^gina,  whence  he  could 
 behold  the  shores  of  his  beloved  country,  and  earnest- 
 ly and  constantly  protested  his  innocence.  After  the 
 death  of  Alexander  he  was  restored,  and  his  entry  into 
 Athens  was  marked  by  every  demonstration  of  joy. 
 A  new  league  was  formed  among  the  Grecian  cities 
 against  the  Macedonians,  and  Demosthenes  was  the 
 soul  of  it.  But  the  confederacy  was  broken  up  by 
 Antipater,  and  the  death  of  the  orator  was  decreed. 
 He  retired  thereupon  from  Athens  to  the  island  of  Ca- 
 lauria,  off  the  coast  of  Argolis,  and,  being  still  pursued 
 by  the  satellites  of  Antipater,  terminated  his  life  there 
 by  poison,  in  the  temple  of  Neptune,  at  the  age  of 
 above  sixty  years. — Before  the  time  of  Demosthenes 
 there  existed  three  distinct  styles  of  eloquence :  that 
 of  Lysias,  mild  and  persuasive,  quietly  engaged  the  at- 
 tention, and  won  the  assent  of  an  audience ;  that  of 
 Thucydides,  bold  and  animated,  awakened  the  feelings 
 and  powerfully  forced  conviction  on  the  mind ;  while 
 that  of  Isocrates  was,  as  it  were,  a  combination  of  the 
 two  former.  Demosthenes  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
 have  proposed  any  individual  as  a  model,  although  he 
 bestowed  so  much  untiring  labour  on  the  historian  of 
 the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  rather  culled  all  that  was 
 valuable  from  the  various  styles  of  his  great  predeces- 
 sors, working  them  up,  and  blending  them  into  one 
 harmonious  whole  :  not,  however,  that  there  is  such 
 a  uniformity  or  mannerism  in  his  works  as  prevents 
 him  from  applying  himself  with  versatility  to  a  variety 
 of  subjects  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  seems  to  have  had 
 the  power  of  carrying  each  individual  style  to  perfec- 
 tion, and  of  adapting  himself  with  equal  excellence  to 
 each  successive  topic.  In  the  general  structure  of 
 many  of  his  sentences,  he  resembles  Thucydides  ;  but 
 he  is  more  simple  and  perspicuous,  and  better  calcula- 
 ted to  be  quickly  comprehended  by  an  audience.  On 
 the  other  hand,  his  clearness  in  narration,  his  elegance 
 and  purity  of  diction,  and  (to  borrow  a  metaphor  from 
 a  sister  art)  his  correct  keeping,  remind  the  reader  or 
 Lysias.  But  the  argumentative  parts  of  the  speeches  of 
 Lysias  are  often  deficient  in  vigour ;  whereas  earnest- 
 ness, power,  zeal,  rapidity,  and  passion,  all  exemplified 
 in  plain,  unornamented  language,  and  a  strain  of  close, 
 business-like  reasoning,  are  the  distinctive  characteris- 
 tics of  Demosthenes.  The  general  tone  of  his  oratory, 
 indeed,  was  admirably  adapted  to  an  Athenian  audience, 
 constituted  as  it  was  of  those  whose  habits  of  life  were 
 mechanical,  and  of  those  whom  ambition  or  taste  had 
 led  to  the  cultivation  of  literature.  The  former  wero 
 captivated  by  sheer  sense,  urged  with  masculine  force 
 and  inextinguishable  spirit,  and  by  the  forcible  applica- 
 tion of  plain  truths  ;  and  yet  there  was  enough  of  grace 
 and  variety  to  please  more  learned  and  fastidious  audi- 
 tors. "  His  style,"  as  Hume  well  observes,  "is  rapid 
 harmony,  exactly  adjusted  to  the  sense  :  it  is  vehement 
 reasoning,  without  any  appearance  of  art :  it  is  disdain, 
 anger,  boldness,  freedom,  involved  in  a  continued 
 stream  of  argument ;  and,  of  all  human  productions, 
 the  orations  of  Demosthenes  present  to  us  the  models 
 which  approach  the  nearest  to  perfection."  Another 
 very  remarkable  excellence  of  Demosthenes  is  the  col- 
 location of  his  words.  The  arrangement  of  sentences 
 in  such  a  manner  that  their  cadences  should  be  har- 
 monious, and,  to  a  certain  degree,  rhythmical,  was  a 
 study  much  in  use  among  the  great  masters  of  Gre- 
 
 429 
 
DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 cian  composition.  Plato  passed  the  latter  years  of  his 
 life  in  correcting  his  dialogues  ;  and  that  very  simplici- 
 ty remarkable  in  the  structure  of  the  periods  of  Demos- 
 thenes is  itself  the  result  of  art. — The  question  has  often 
 been  raised  as  to  the  secret  of  the  success  of  Demos- 
 thenes. How  is  it  that  he  attained  to  his  astonishing 
 pre-eminence!  How  is  it  that,  m  a  faculty  which  is 
 common  to  the  whole  species,  that  of  communicating 
 onr  thoughts  and  feelings  in  language,  the  palm  is  con- 
 ceded to  him  alone  by  the  unannnous  and  willing  con- 
 sent of  all  nations  and  ages  1  .\nd  this  universal  ap- 
 probation will  appear  the  more  extraordinary  to  a  reader 
 who  for  ihe  first  time  peruses  his  unrivalled  orations. 
 They  do  not  exhibit  any  of  that  ostentatious  decla- 
 mation, on  which  loosely  hangs  the  fame  of  so  many 
 pretenders  to  eloquence.  There  appears  no  deep  re- 
 flection to  indicate  a  more  than  ordinary  penetration, 
 or  any  philosophical  remarks  to  prove  the  extent  of 
 his  acquaintance  with  the  great  moral  writers  of  his 
 country.  He  affects  no  learning,  and  he  displays  none. 
 He  aims  at  no  elegance  ;  he  seeks  no  glaring  orna- 
 ments- ho  rarely  touches  the  heart  with  a  soft  or 
 melting  appeal,  and  when  he  does,  it  is  only  with  an 
 effect  111  which  a  third-rate  artist  would  have  surpassed 
 him.  He  had  no  wit,  no  humour,  no  vivacity,  in  our 
 acceptance  of  these  terms,  qualities  which  contribute 
 so  much  to  the  formation  of  a  modern  orator.  He 
 wanted  all  these  undeniable  attributes  of  eloquence, 
 and  yet  who  rivals  him  1 — The  secret  of  his  |)Ower  is 
 simple  ;  it  lies  essentially  in  this,  that  his  political 
 principles  were  interwoven  with  his  very  spirit ;  they 
 were  not  assumed  to  serve  an  interested  purpose,  to 
 be  laid  aside  when  he  descended  from  the  Bema,  and 
 resumed  when  he  sought  to  accomplish  an  object. 
 No ;  they  were  deeply  seated  in  his  heart,  and  emanated 
 from  its  profoundest  depth.  The  more  his  country 
 was  environed  by  dangers,  the  more  steady  was  his 
 resolution.  Nothing  ever  impaired  the  truth  and  in- 
 tegrity of  his  feelings,  or  weakened  his  generous  con- 
 viction. It  was  his  undeviating  firmness,  his  disdain 
 of  all  compromise,  that  made  him  the  first  of  states- 
 men and  orators  ;  in  this  lay  the  substance  of  his  pow- 
 er, the  primary  foundation  of  his  superiority  ;  the  rest 
 was  merely  secondary.  The  mystery  of  his  mighty 
 influence,  then,  lay  in  his  honesty  ;  and  it  is  this  that 
 gave  warmth  and  tone  to  his  feelings,  an  energy  to  his 
 language,  and  an  impression  to  his  manner,  before 
 which  every  imputation  of  insincerity  must  have  im- 
 mediately vanished. — We  may  hence  perceive  the 
 meaning  of  Demosthenes  himself,  when,  to  one  who 
 asked  him  what  was  the  first  requisite  in  an  orator,  he 
 merely  replied,  ^^  Delivery"'  (vTroKpiaig);  and  when 
 asked  what  were  the  second  and  third  requisites, 
 gave  the  same  answer  as  at  first.  (Plut ,  Vit.  X. 
 Oral.,  p.  84.5  )  His  idea  was  this  :  a  lifeless  manner 
 on  the  part  of  a  public  speaker,  shows  that  his  own 
 feelings  are  not  enlisted  in  the  cause  which  he  is  ad- 
 vocating, and  it  is  idle  for  him,  therefore,  to  seek  to 
 make  converts  of  others,  when  he  has  failed  in  making 
 one  of  himself.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  tone  of 
 voice,  the  gesture,  the  look,  the  whole  manner  of  the 
 orator,  display  the  powerful  feelings  that  agitate  him,  his 
 emotion  is  communicated  to  his  hearers,  and  success 
 is  inevitable.  It  was  not,  therefore,  mere  "  action" 
 that  Demosthenes  required  in  an  orator,  an  error  into 
 which  some  have  fallen  from  a  mistranslation  of  the 
 Latin  rhetorical  term  "  ac/io,"  as  employed  by  Cicero 
 {Brut.,  37)  in  mentioning  this  incident ;  but  it  was  an 
 attention  to  the  whole  manner  of  delivery,  the  look, 
 the  tone,  the  every  movement,  as  so  many  unerring 
 indications  of  internal  emotion,  and  of  the  honesty  and 
 sincerity  of  the  speaker.  (Compare  Qiiin/ilian,  Inst. 
 Or.,  11,3.  i7i)t ) — A  comparison  has  oi^ten  been  drawn 
 between  Demosthenes  and  Cicero  ;  but  by  no  writer 
 has  it  been  done  more  successfully  than  by  the  cele- 
 brated Longinus.  "  The  sublimity  of  the  one,"  he 
 430 
 
 remarks,    "  consists    in   his    abruptness,    that   of  the 
 other  in  his  diffuseness.     Our   countryman  (Demos- 
 thenes), from  the  force,  the  fire,  the  mighty  vehemence 
 with  which  he  bears  down   all   before  him,  may  be 
 compared  to  a  tempest  or  thunderbolt;   while  Cicero, 
 like  a  wide-spreading  conflagration,  devours  and  rolls 
 onward   in   every  direction,  ever  maintaining  its   de- 
 structive energy,  and  nourished  and  sup[)orted  from 
 time  to  time  by  the  fuel  of  various  kinds  with  which 
 it  is  continually  supplied  in  its  progress."     (Longi- 
 nus, I)  12  )     Cicero's  eloquence  is  like  a  consular  tri- 
 umph ;   he  is  himself  the  most  conspicuous  figure  in 
 the  procession,   which  is   swollen  with  the  grandeur 
 and  riches  of  conquered  provinces.     Demosthenes  is 
 the  terrible  sweep  of  a  vast  body  of  cavalry.      Cice- 
 ro's  oratory  was  local,  fitted   only  to  the  audience; 
 in  Athens  it  would  not  have  been  tolerated.     Demos- 
 thenes was   for   the  whole   earth,  and   at    all   times. 
 In  Rome  he  would  have  been  as  resistless  as  in  Ath- 
 ens ;  and  his  eloquence  would  be  as  convincing  now 
 as  it  was  in  the  popular  assemblies  of  old.  —  Of  the 
 orations  of  Demosthenes  we  have  sixty-one  remaining, 
 and  sixty-five  Introductions,  or  npooiiiia  6?jfnp/optKd. 
 In  confining  ourselves  to  the  classification  adopted  by 
 the  ancient  rhetoricians,  we  may  arrange  all  these  dis- 
 courses under  one   of  three   heads.      I.   Deliberative 
 discourses  {Xoyoi  avfitovXevTiKOi),  treating  of  political 
 topics,  and  delivered  either  before  the  senate  or  the 
 assembly  of  the  people.     2.  Judicial  speeches  {Ti-oyot 
 Slkuvlkol),  having  for  their  object  accusation  or  de- 
 fence.    3.   Studied  or  set  speeches  {Aoyoi  e-idelKTi- 
 K.OL),  intended  to  censure  or  praise. — Seventeen  of  the 
 orations  of  Demosthenes  belong  to  the  first  of  these 
 classes,  fortv-two  to  the  second,  and  two  to  the  third. 
 (Compare  Becker,  Demosthenes  als  Staalsmann  und 
 Reiner,  Halle,   1815,  2  vols.   8vo.)— Of  the  seven- 
 teen discourses  which  compose  the  first  class,  five  treat 
 of  various  subjects  connected  with  the  republic,  and 
 twelve   of  the  quarrels  between  the  state  and  King 
 Philip.     Our  limits,  of  course,  allow  an  examination 
 of  only  a  few  of  these,  that  are  most  important  in  their 
 character.     Of  the  twelve  harangues  that  turn  upon 
 the  quarrels  of  the  republic  with  King  Philip,  the  first 
 was  pronounced  in  the  first  year  of  the  107th  Olym- 
 piad, B.C.  353;   the  second,  third,  and   fourth,  in  the 
 fourth  year  of  the   same   Olympiad,   B.C.  349  ;  the 
 fifth  in  the  second  year  of  the  108th  Olympiad,  B.C. 
 347  ;   the  sixth   in   the  third  of  the  same  Olympiad, 
 B.C.  346  ;    the  seventh  in  the  first  year  of  the  109th 
 Olympiad,  B.C.   344;   the  eighth  in  the  second  year 
 of   the   same  Olympiad,  B.C.  343  ;   the  ninth  in  the 
 third    year   of  the    same    Olympiad,   B.C.  342  ;   the 
 tenth   and  eleventh    in  the  fourth  year  of  the   same 
 Olympiad,  B.C.   341  ;    and  the   twelfth    in    the   first 
 year  of  the  110th  Olympiad,  B.C.  340 — The  order 
 here  given  is  taken  from  Dionvsius  of  Halicarnassus  ; 
 but  no  manuscript  and   no  editions  observe  it.     The 
 manuscripts  give  (he   1st,  2d,   10th,  and  \\\.\\  Philip- 
 pics of  Dionysius  by  name,  and   regard   his  fifth  as 
 forming  the   conclusion   of  the  first.     They  give  the 
 title  of  2d,  3d,  and   1st   Olynthiacs  to  his  2d,  3d,  and 
 4th.     The  remaining  four  (6th,  Sth,  9th,  12th)  have 
 the  following  titles:  "Of  Peace,"  "Of  Halonesus," 
 "  Of  the  Chersonese,"  and  "  On  the  letter  of  Philip." 
 We  will  now  speak  of  them  in  chronological  order. 
 1st  and   2d,  ITpof    '^i7uTtnov    "koyoQ    TrpcjTOC,  "  First 
 Phihppic."     Demosthenes   here    exhorts  his    fellow- 
 citizens  to  prosecute  the  war  with  the  greatest  vigour 
 against  Philip.     This  monarch  had,  after  the  defeat  of 
 the   Phocians,  assumed  a  threatening  attitude,  as  if 
 wishing  to  establish  himself  in  their  country.     The  dis- 
 course we  are  now  considering  has  been  divided  into 
 two  parts,  which,  according  to  Dionysius  of  Halicar- 
 nassus, were  pronounced  at  different  times  ;  but  this 
 opinion  is  contradicted  by  most  critics. — 3d,  4th,  5th, 
 '0?,vv6LaKog  A.  B.  F.     The  three  Olynthiacs.     Their 
 
DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 object  IS  to  stimulate  the  Athenians  to  succour  0!yn- 
 thus,  and  prevent  its  falling  into  the  hands  of  Philip. 
 — 6th.  Jlepl   rf/g   elpf/vTjc,  "  Of  the   Peace."     Philip 
 having  obtained  a  seat  in  the  council  of  the  Amphic- 
 tj'ons,  Demosthenes  advises  his  countrymen  to  pre- 
 serve  the  peace   with   tliis  prince.     Libanius  thinks 
 that  this  discourse,  though  written  by  Demosthenes, 
 was    never   delivered.     Leland,   Auger,  Jacobs,  and 
 Bekker  are,  however,  of   a    different   opinion. — 7th. 
 Kara  <i>MTrKov  'kbyoq  B,  the  Second  Philippic,  pro- 
 nounced after   the  return  of  Demosthenes   from  the 
 Peloponnesus,  where  he  had  negotiated  a  peace  be- 
 tween   Sparta   and    Messenia. — 8th.   Ilept    rriq  'AXo- 
 vriaov,    "  Of    Halonesus,"   or,  rather,  of  a  letter  of 
 King    Philip's,  by    which    he    makes    a    present    to 
 the    Athenians    of  the  isle  of  Halonesus,    which    he 
 had  taken  from  the  pirates,  and  demands  of  the  Athe- 
 nians to  share  with  them  the  office  of  protecting  the 
 seas.     Demosthenes  strenuously  opposes  so  insulting 
 an  offer :  it  is,  however,  far  from  certain  whether  he 
 ever  pronounced  such  a  discourse  as  this.     Libanius 
 says,  that  the  ancient  critics  ascribed  it  to  Hegesippus, 
 the  friend  of  Demosthenes.     Suidas  and  the  author  of 
 the  Etvmologicon  Magnum  agree  with  him.      Valcke- 
 naer    {Dia/r.   dc  fragm.    Enrip.,    p.    253),    Larcher 
 {Mem.  de  VAcad.  dcs  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  2,  p.  243),  and 
 I5ekker,  also  adopt  this  opinion  :  Jacobs  (Demosthenes 
 Staatreden,  p.  378),  after  having  stated  the  arguments 
 on  either   side,  pronounces  no  decision  :  Jacques  de 
 Tourreil  {Preface  historiquc  dcs  Philippes  de  Demos- 
 thcne,  p.  124)  and  M'^eiske  (Oratio  de  Haloncso,  &c. 
 Lubben.,  1808,  4to)  maintain  that  the  speech  is  genu- 
 ine.— 9.  Ilepi  Tuv  £V  Xep^ovTjffcj  Trpayfiuruv,  ?/  6  nepl 
 ALOTTFideuvg,  "  Of  the   events   in  the   Chersonese,  or 
 of  Diopeithes."     This   general,  sent   at  the   head  of 
 a  colony  into  the  Chersonesus,  had   committed   hos- 
 tilities against  the  city  of  Cardia  ;  the  only  one  which 
 Pliilip  had  reserved  for  himself  in   the  conditions  of 
 peace.     Diopeithes    had    even   made  an   inroad    into 
 Macedonia.      Philip  insisted   on  his  being  punished  : 
 Demosthenes  undertakes  in  this  oration  to  justify  the 
 conduct   of  the   Athenian    commander. — 10th.   Kara 
 ^iMttitov  Aoyof  F,  the  Third  Philippic      The  prog- 
 ress which   Philip    had    made   in  Thrace,  where    he 
 vi'as  preparing  to  lay  siege  to  the  cities  of  Perinthus 
 and    Byzantium,  form  the   subject   of  this    harangue. 
 11.   Kara  <ii'ALTrnov  loyog  A,    Fourth  Philippic,  pro- 
 nounced at  the  time  when  Philip  had  raised  the  siege 
 of  Perinthus,  in  order  to  fall  upon  Byzantium.  Valck- 
 enaer  (Or.  de  Phil,  p.  250),  Wolf  (ad  Lepi.  Proleg., 
 p.  Lx),  and  Bekker  do  not  acknowledge  this  as  a  pro- 
 duction of  Demosthenes. — 12.  'O  Tzpoq  T7]v  ETriaToTi/iv 
 ^lMkttov  loyog,  "  On  the  letter  of  PhiHp."     The  let- 
 ter of  the  king,  to  which  this  harangue  refers,  still  ex- 
 ists.    It  contains  many  complaints,  but  no  declaration 
 of   war.     Taylor,  Reiske,    Valckenaer,  and    Bekker, 
 consider  this  letter  to  be  spurious. — We  now  come  to 
 the    second    class   of   the"^  orations  of  Demosthenes, 
 namely,  those  of  a  judicial   nature;  and   here   a  dis- 
 tinction must  be  made  between  those  which  refer  to 
 affairs  connected  with  the  state,  and  those  which  re- 
 late to  individual  interests  :   in  the  former  case,  the 
 procedure  was  called  Karjjyopia  ;   in  the  second,  SIkt}  ; 
 words  which  may  be  translated  by  "  accusation"  and 
 "  pleadings."     Of  the  first  species,  we  have  twelve  ha- 
 rangues remaining,  the  most  important  one  of  which  is 
 that  entitled  Xlepl  arefuvov,  "Co7icerning  the  Crmon.''^ 
 Demosthenes  had  been  twice  crowned  in  the  theatre 
 during  the  Dionysiac  festival  ;  the  first  time,  ^fter  the 
 e.\pulsion  of  the  Macedonian  garrisons  from  the  island 
 of  Euboea,  and  again  after  the  alliance  with  the  The- 
 bans.      In  the  2d  year  of  the  110th  Olympiad,  Ctesi- 
 phon,  who   was   then  president  of  the  senate,  had  a 
 decree    jwssed   by   this  body,  that,  if  the  people  ap- 
 proved, Demosthenes  should  be  crowned  at  the  ap- 
 nroaching  Dionysiac  festival,  in  the  public  theatre,  as 
 
 a  recompense  for  the  disinterested  manner  in  which  Uf> 
 had  filled  various  ofRces,  and  for  the  services  which  he 
 had  never  for  a  moment  ceased  to  render  the  slate. 
 This  matter  had  to  be  confirmed  by  a  pscphisma,  or 
 decree  of  the  people  ;  but,  before  it  was  brought  be- 
 fore them,  ^Eschines  presented  himself  as  the  accuser 
 of  Ctesiphon.  He  charged  him  with  having  violated 
 the  laws  in  proposing  to  crown  a  public  functionary 
 before  the  latter  had  given  an  account  of  the  manner 
 in  which  he  had  discharged  his  office,  and  to  crown 
 him,  too,  in  the  theatre,  instead  of  the  senate-house  or 
 the  Pnyx,  where  this  could  alone  be  done  ;  finally,  in 
 having  alleged  what  was  false,  for  the  purpose  of 
 favouring  Demosthenes.  He  concluded  by  demanding 
 that  a  fine  of  fifty  talents  be  imposed  upon  Ctesiphon. 
 The  matter  remained  for  some  time  pending,  in  con- 
 sequence of  'the  interruption  which  public  business  of 
 all  kinds  met  with  during  the  embarrassments  and 
 troubles  that  succeeded  the  battle  of  Chasronea.  When, 
 however,  the 'influence  of  the  Macedonian  party  had, 
 through  the  exertions  of  Antipater,  gained  the  ascend- 
 ancy in  Athens,  iEschines  believed  it  to  be  the  fa- 
 vourable moment  for  the  revival  of  his  accusation.  It 
 was  brought  forward,  therefore,  again,  in  the  3d  year  of 
 the  112th  Olympiad,  which  was  eight  years  since  the 
 proposition  of  Ctesiphon  had  been  made.  iEschines 
 thereupon  pronounced  his  famous  harangue,  to  which 
 Demosthenes  replied.  This  speech  of  Demosthenes 
 is  regarded,  and  justly  so,  not  only  as  his  chcf-d'a3uvre, 
 but  as  the  most  perfect  specimen  that  eloquence  has 
 ever  produced.  Such  is  the  opinion  of  Dionysms  of 
 Halicarnassus  (De  Comp.  Verb. — Ed.  Rcish,  Op., 
 vol.  5,  p.  204),  of  Cicero  (Oraf.,  ^  133),  and  of  Quin- 
 tilian  (Inst.  Or.,  11,  1).  Modern  critics  come  to  the 
 same  conclusion.  It  is  said  that  after  this  discourse, 
 Demosthenes  no  longer  appeared  as  a  public  speaker, 
 Ulpian,  in  his  commentary  on  the  oration  respectinj; 
 the  crown,  relates  an  anecdote,  which  has  often  been 
 cited  by  those  scholars  who  maintain  that  the  Greek 
 accents  are  anterior  to  the  grammarians  of  Alexandrea. 
 Demosthenes  is  endeavouring  to  fix  the  charge  of  bri- 
 bery on  ^schines,  whom  he  represents  as  corrupted 
 by  Philip  and  by  Alexander,  and  consequently  their 
 hireling,  and  not  their  friend  or  guest.  Of  this  asser- 
 tion he  declares  his  willingness  to  submit  the  truth  to 
 the  judgment  of  the  assembly.  "  I  call  thee,"  says 
 the  orator,  "  the  hireling,  first  of  Philip,  and  now  of 
 Alexander  ;  and  all  these  who  are  here  present  agree 
 in  opinion  with  me.  If  thou  disbelievest  it,  ask  them 
 the  question  :  but  no,  I  will  ask  them  myself. — Athe- 
 nians, does^schines  appear  to  you  in  the  light  of  a 
 hireling  or  a  friend  of  Alexander's  T' — In  putting  this 
 question,  Demosthenes  purposely  commits  a  fault  of 
 accentuation  :  he  places  the  accent  improperly  on  the 
 antepcnultima,  mstead  of  the  last  syllable,  of  piaduTog 
 — in  the  words  of  Ulpian,  Ikuv  kljHpljdpiaev—m  order 
 to  draw  the  attention  of  the  people  from  the  question 
 to  the  pronunciation.  This  had  the  desired  effect ; 
 the  accurate  ears  of  the  Athenians  were  struck  with 
 the  mistake  ;  to  correct  it,  they  called  out  ^laOuToc, 
 HiaduToc  ("  a  hireling  !  a  hireling  !")  from  every  part 
 of  the  assembly.  Affecting  to  receive  the  word  as  tho 
 expression  of  their  sentiments  on  the  guilt  of  ji'^schines, 
 he  cries  out,  "  Dost  thou  hear  what  they  say  1"— Tho 
 simple  pleadings  (Slkui)  relative  to  matters  of  private 
 interest,  constitute  the  second  class  of  judicial  actions. 
 Of  these  we  have  thirty  remaining,  which  are  as  fol- 
 lows :  1.  Discourses  having  relation  to  the  procecd- 
 ino-s  instituted  by  Demosthenes  against  his  guardians. 
 They  are  five  in  number  :  of  these,  two  are  against 
 Aphobus,  and  two  against  Onitor,  his  brother —^. 
 A6yo.  TTapaypd<^LKOi,  or,  as  Cicero  (de  I'M  I,  8), 
 calls  them,  constiluliones  translativa:.  1  he  Koman 
 orator  remarks  :  "  Cum  causa  ex  co  pcndet  quod  non 
 aut  is  agere  videtur  quern  oportet,  aut  non  apud  quos, 
 quo  tempore,  qua  lege,  quo  criminc,  qua  pana  opor- 
 
DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 D  E  R 
 
 tet,  traiislativa  dicit\ir  constitutio,  quia  actio  transla- 
 tionis  et  commutationis  indigcre  videtur.  Atque  harum 
 aliquam  in  oinne  causae  genus  incidere  necesse  est. 
 Nam  in  quam  rem  non  inciderit,  in  ca  nihil  esse  po- 
 test controversioe  ;  quare  earn  ne  causam  quidem  con- 
 venit  putari."  We  have  seven  discourses  of  this  class 
 from  the  [)en  of  Demosthenes,  viz.,  against  Zenothemis, 
 against  Apaturius,  against  Lacritus,  against  Phormion, 
 against  Pantasnetus,  against  Nausimachus,  and  Xeno- 
 pithaaa. — 3.  Discourses  relative  to  the  rights  of  suc- 
 cession and  to  questions  of  dower.  These  are  four 
 in  number :  against  Macartatus,  against  Leochares, 
 against  Spudias,  against  Boetus  for  his  mother's  dowry. 
 — 4.  Discourses  in  matters  of  commerce  and  of  debt. 
 Tliese  are  three  in  number  :  against  Calippus,  against 
 Nicostratus,  against  Timotheus. — 5.  Actions  for  in- 
 demnity and  for  damages  {pT^d&ri,  a'lKia).  The  dis- 
 courses under  this  head  are  five  in  number  :  against 
 Boeotus,  against  Oiympiodorus,  against  Conon,  against 
 Dionysiodorus,  against  Callicles. — 6.  Actions  for  per- 
 jury :  two  discourses  against  Stephanus,  and  one 
 against  Euergus  and  Mnesibulus. — 7.  Three  dis- 
 courses on  the  subject  of  the  avTl6oaiQ,  or  exchange 
 of  estates.  According  to  the  laws  of  Athens,  if  any 
 person  appointed  to  undergo  any  public  charge,  or 
 ItiTovpyicUi  couid  find  another  who  was  richer  than 
 himself,  and  who  was  free  from  all  duties,  the  informer 
 was  excused.  But  if  the  person  thus  substituted  de- 
 nied that  he  was  the  richer  of  the  two,  they  then  e.x- 
 changed  estates.  The  discourses  under  this  head  are 
 the  following  :  against  Phcenippus,  against  Polycles, 
 and  respectmg  the  crown  of  the  trierarchia. — It  would 
 be  useless  to  speak  of  each  of  these  thirty  pleadings  : 
 a  few  remarks  on  some  of  them  must  suffice.  The 
 five  discourses  which  Demosthenes  pronounced  against 
 his  guardians  contain  valuable  details  respecting  his 
 youth,  his  fortune,  the  Athenian  laws,  &c.  Aphobus, 
 one  of  the  guardians,  was  condemned  to  pay  Demos- 
 thenes the  sum  of  ten  talents.  It  does  not  appear 
 whether  he  brought  the  two  other  guardians  to  trial  or 
 not :  it  is  probable  that  he  settled  the  matter  with 
 them.  These  discourses  have  some  resemblance  to 
 those  of  Isajus,  his  master. — The  paragraph  forPhor- 
 inio  against  Apollodorus  has  furnished  occasion  for 
 a  reproach  to  the  memory  of  Demosthenes.  We  are 
 told  by  Plutarch  {Vit.  Dem.— vol.  4,  p.  717,  ed. 
 Reiske),  that  Demosthenes  "  wrote  an  oration  for 
 Apollodorus,  by  which  he  carried  his  cause  against  the 
 general  Timotheus,  in  an  action  for  debt  to  the  public 
 treasury  ;  as  also  those  others  against  Phormio  and 
 Stephanus,  which  formed  a  just  exception  against  his 
 character.  For  he  composed  likewise  the  oration 
 which  Phormio  had  pronounced  against  Apollodorus. 
 This,  therefore,  was  like  furnishing  the  enemies  with 
 weapons  out  of  the  same  shop." — Thediscourse  against 
 Macartatus  respecting  the  succession  of  Hagnias  is  in- 
 teresting from  the  circumstance  of  our  having  the  de- 
 fence of  Macartatus  by  Isasus,  and  from  our  being  thus 
 able  to  compare  the  pupil  with  his  former  master. — It 
 remains  to  speak  of  the  third  class  of  Demosthenes' 
 orations,  the  /l(5yot  inideiKTiKoi,  "  studied  or  set 
 speeches."  We  have  only  two  remaining,  and  these, 
 very  probably,  are  spurious.  The  one,  iniTiKpLOQ  7.6- 
 yof,  is  an  eloge  on  the  Athenians  who  had  perished  at 
 Chaeronea  :  the  other,  epunKoc  /loyof,  is  written  in 
 praise  of  the  beauty  of  the  young  Epicrates. — There 
 are  also  six  letters  of  Demosthenes,  written  by  him 
 during  his  exile  :  five  of  them  are  addressed  to  the 
 people  of  Athens. — The  best  editions  of  the  entire 
 works  of  Demosthenes  are,  that  of  Reiske,  in  the  Cor- 
 pus Oratorum  GrcBComm,  and  that  of  Bekker,  in  the 
 Oratores  Attici,  10  vols.,  8vo,  Oxon.,  1828.  {Sckiill, 
 Hist.  Lit.  G''-.,vol.  2,  p.  22i.—EncycIop.  Mctropol, 
 div.  2,  vol.  1,  p.  699,  seqq. — Recollections  of  an  Irish 
 Barrisl':r,  s.  v.  Demosth.) — II.  An  Athenian  general, 
 son  of  Alcisthenes,  who  obtained  considerable  reputa- 
 432 
 
 tion  during  a  part  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  When 
 the  Spartan  monarch  Agis  made  an  inroad  into  At- 
 tica, Demosthenes,  on  his  part,  infested  the  coasts 
 of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  seized  upon  and  fortified 
 the  Messenian  Pylos.  This  led  to  the  aflfair  oJ 
 Sphacleria,  in  which  he  had  a  conspicuous,  or,  rath- 
 er, the  principal  share.  He  was  afterward  sent 
 with  an  armament  to  the  relief  of  Nicias  before 
 Syracuse  ;  but,  by  his  precipitate  measures  there, 
 brought  defeat  upon  himself,  and  the  consequent 
 ruin  of  the  whole  expedition.  Demosthenes  and  Ni- 
 cias  were  both  put  to  death  while  in  prison,  notwith- 
 standmg  the  endeavours  of  the  Spartan  commander 
 Gylippus  to  save  their  lives.  Another  account,  allu- 
 ded to  by  Plutarch,  makes  them  to  have  been  stoned  to 
 death.  {Thucyd.,4:,3,  seqq. — Plut.,  Vit.  Nic.)—lU. 
 The  father  of  the  orator  Demosthenes,  a  rich  manu- 
 facturer of  arms.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Demosth.)  —  IV.  A 
 Greek  physician,  a  disciple  of  Alexander  Philalethes, 
 who  obtained  the  same  surname  as  his  master,  name- 
 ly, Philalethes,  or  "  Lover  of  Truth."  He  flourished 
 about  the  commencement  of  our  era,  and  turned  his  at- 
 tention particularly  to  diseases  of  the  eye.  We  have 
 some  fragments  remaining  of  his  writings  on  this  sub- 
 ject, which  appear  to  have  formed  part  of  a  work 
 often  cited  by  Galen,  Oribasius,  and  Aelius.  (Spren- 
 gel,  Hist,  de  la  Med.,  vol.  1,  p.  458. — Renauldin,  in 
 Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  11,  p.  64.) 
 
 Deo  (A??w),  a  name  given  to  Ceres.  According  to 
 the  common  account,  it  means  "  the  finder"  or  "  in- 
 ventress,"  and  alludes  to  the  search  for,  and  discovery 
 of,  her  daughter,  on  the  part  of  the  goddess.  (Com- 
 pare Eiistath.,  ad  Horn.,  Od.,  11,  115. — Apolloji^ 
 Lex.  Horn.,  p.  221,  ed.  Toll.)  Knight,  however,  gives 
 a  different  and  much  superior  explanation.  "  Ceres,  ' 
 he  observes,  "  was  not  a  personification  of  the  brute 
 matter  which  composed  the  earth,  but  of  the  passive 
 productive  principle  supposed  to  pervade  it ;  which, 
 joined  to  the  active,  was  held  to  be  the  cause  of  the 
 organization  and  animation  of  its  substance ;  whence 
 arose  her  other  Greek  name,  AHt2,  the  inventress." 
 {Enquiry,  &c.,  (Ji  36.) — Some  etymologists  are  in  fa- 
 vour of  an  Oriental  derivation  for  the  name.  Thus, 
 Sickler  {Hymn,  ad  Cer.,  p.  112)  deduces  it  fro.m  the 
 Hebrew  davah,  "  to  be  feeble"  or  "afflicted,"  in  allu- 
 sion to  the  sorrow  of  Ceres  for  the  loss  of  her  daugh- 
 ter ;  or,  as  he  explains  it,  the  condition  of  the  vegeta- 
 ble kingdom,  when  Hie  quickening  principle  does  not 
 act.  Schelling  also  makes  Deo  signify  "  the  one  that 
 has  become  feeble  and  dejected  with  sorrow  and  fruit- 
 less search."  {Gotth.  der  Samotkrak.,  p.  13. — Id.  ib., 
 p.  bl.—  Creuzcr,  Sy^nbolik,  vol.  4,  p.  275,  not.)  The 
 term  A??cj  occurs  in  the  Homeric  hymn  to  Ceres  (v. 
 47,  211,  497),  but  is  suspected  by  Hermann  of  being 
 an  interpolation.  {Horn.,  Hymn.,  ed.  Herm. — Epist. 
 ed.,  p.  ci.,  seq.) 
 
 Deoine  {AT/utvri),  a  name  given  by  the  Greek  poets 
 to  Proserpina,  as  the  daughter  of  Deo  or  Ceres.  Vid. 
 Deo.     {Callim.,  fragm.,  48. — Valck.,  ad  lac.) 
 
 Derbe,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Lycaonia,  near 
 Isauria.  D'Anville  places  it  in  a  district  of  Isauria 
 called  Antiochiana,  agreeing  with  Ptolemy  (p.  124) 
 and  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  ;  but  St.  Luke  {Acts, 
 14,  6)  and  Hicrocles  (p.  675)  assign  it  to  Lycaonia. 
 Derbe  and  the  adjacent  town  of  Lystra  derive  consid- 
 erable interest  from  what  befell  St.  Paul  and  Barna- 
 bas there  on  leaving  Iconium.  Stephanus  reports,  that 
 this  place  was  called  by  some  Delbia,  which,  in  the 
 Lycaonian  language,  signified  "  the  juniper."  The 
 same  lexicographer  describes  it  as  a  fortress  and  port 
 of  Isauria  ;  but  we  ought,  in  his  account,  to  substitute 
 "kijivT]  for  ?u/.a/v,  which  would  imply,  that  the  town  was 
 situated  near  some  one  of  the  numerous  lakes  that  are 
 to  be  found  in  this  part  of  Asia  Minor.  Derbe,  as  we 
 learn  from  Strabo  (569),  was  at  one  time  the  residence 
 and  capital  of  Antipater,  the  robber  chieftain  of  Lyca- 
 
DE  V 
 
 DEUCALION. 
 
 onia.  Its  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from 
 the  word  Darb,  a.  gate  ;  and  here,  perhaps,  was  one  of 
 the  passes  of  Mount  Taurus,  as  the  name  of  Alah  dag 
 is  yet  given  to  the  spot,  signifying  the -pass  of  the  high 
 mountains.  Colonel  Leake  thinks,  that  the  ruin& 
 now  called  Bmhir-Klissa,  or  the  Thousand  and  One 
 Churches,  will  perhaps  be  found  to  be  those  of  Derbe  : 
 they  ha--r  never  yet,  he  adds,  been  visited,  or  at  least 
 descrioed,  by  any  modern  traveller.  (Walpok's  Me- 
 moirs, vol.  2,  p.  233. — Leakeys  Asia  Minor,  p.  lOL 
 —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  68.) 
 
 Dekbices,  a  nation  of  Upper  Asia,  whom  Ptolemy 
 (6,  10)  places  in  Margiana,  where  the  Oxus,  accord- 
 ing to  him,  empties  into  the  Caspian  ;  but  Slrabo  (782) 
 in  Hyrcania.  Larcher  seeks  to  reconcile  this  discrep- 
 ance by  supposing,  that,  in  Strabo's  time,  Margiana  did 
 not  yet  extend  as  far  as  the  Caspian.  Others  place 
 them  on  the  southern  and  western  shores  of  the  Cas- 
 pian. {Manne.rt,  Geogr.,  vol.  5,  pt.  2,  p.  135.)  Wahl, 
 however,  thinks  that  they  occupied  a  part  of  what  is 
 now  Chorasan.  ( Vorder  und  Millel-As.,  vol.  1,  p.  562.) 
 The  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  the  Derbices  dwelt 
 not  onlv  around  the  Oxus  and  the  shores  of  the  Cas- 
 pian, but  that  their  territories  extended  also  to  the 
 east  as  far  as  Bactriana.  {Bahr,  ad  Ctcs.,  Pcrs.,  c. 
 6. — Voji  Hammer,  Wicn.  Jahrh.,  vol.  7,  p.  253.) 
 
 Derceto  and  Dercetis,  a  goddess  worshipped  by 
 the  Syrians,  and  the  same,  in  all  probability,  with 
 Atargatis,  the  name  Derceto  or  Dercetis  itself  being, 
 apparently,  a  mere  corruption  from  Atargatis.  {Vid. 
 Atargatis  ) — According  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (2,  4)  and 
 Lucian  {dc  Syria  Dea,  14),  her  statues  represented 
 her  as  half  woman,  half  fish,  the  female  part  being 
 from  the  head  to  the  loins.  The  Syrians  of  Ascalon, 
 where  Derceto  had  one  of  her  temples,  accounted  for 
 this  peculiarity  of  form  bv  the  following  legend.  Der- 
 ceto, it  seems,  having  offended  Venus,  was  inspired 
 by  the  latter  with  a  passion  for  a  young  priest,  and, 
 having  become  a  mother,  and  being  filled  with  shame 
 at  her  own  conduct,  she  put  the  young  man  to  death, 
 exposed  the  child  in  a  lonely  spot,  and,  throwing  her- 
 self into  the  sea,  became  partially  transformed  into  a 
 fish.  Hence  the  Syrians  abstained  from  eating  fish, 
 atrd  regarded  them  as  something  divine.  The  child 
 was  the  famous  Semiramis.  (Diod.,  I.  c.)  Guigni- 
 aut  makes  the  true  form  of  the  name  Atargatis  to  have 
 been  Addirdaga,  i.  e.,  "the  excellent"  or  "divine 
 fish."  The  root  is  dag,  "  a  fish,"  which  we  find  in- 
 verted in  Atargatis  and  Derceto,  but  plainly  appearing 
 in  the  Syrian  name  Dagon.  Dupuis  and  others  make 
 the  Syrian  fish-worship  to  have  had  an  astronomical 
 basis,  in  which  they  are  very  probably  correct.  (Ori- 
 gine  des  Cultes,  vol.  2,  eh.  17. — Guigniaut,  vol.  2, 
 pt.  1,  p.  35,  seqq.) 
 
 Dertona,  a  city  of  Liguria,  about  twenty  miles  to 
 the  west  of  Asta.  According  to  Strabo  (217),  it  was 
 a  considerable  place.  It  was  a  Roman  colony  (Plin., 
 3,  5),  surnamed  lulia,  as  we  learn  from  ancient  in- 
 scriptions. The  modern  name  is  Torlona.  (Veil. 
 Palcrc,  1,  15.— CVc,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  11,  13) 
 
 Dkrtose,  now  Torlosa,  a  city  of  the  Ilercaones  in 
 Spain,  situate  on  the  Iberus,  a  short  distance  above 
 its  mouth.  Here  was  a  bridge  over  the  river,  and 
 along  this  route  led  the  main  military  road  to  the 
 southern  parts  of  Spain,  and  the  colonies  established 
 there.  {Uhcrt,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  418.  —  Manncrt, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  429.) 
 
 Dev.^i,  I.  a  city  of  the  Cornavii  in  Britain.  It  lay 
 on  the  river  Seteia,  or  Dee,  and  was  the  station  of  the 
 20ih  legion.  Devana  is  merely  an  error  of  the  edi- 
 tions:  the  Greek  form  of  the  name  in  Ptolemy  is 
 Ajioi'a.  (Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  131.)  It  is 
 now  Chester. — II.  A  river  of  Britain,  in  the  north, 
 now  the  Dec,  from  which  the  cities  of  Old  and  New 
 Aberdeen,  the  latter  of  which  lies  at  its  mouth,  derive 
 their  name.  {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  201.) — III 
 J.'i 
 
 There  was  another  river  named  Deva  in  Britain,  on 
 the  northwestern  coast,  which  is  also  called  Dee,  and 
 flows  into  Wigtoiin  Bay,  the  ancient  Jena  Jilsluarium. 
 Deucalion,  a  prominent  personage  in  the  mythical 
 traditions  from  which  Greek  history  sprang.  He  is 
 represented  as  the  son  of  Prometheus  and  Clymene 
 (Schol.  ad  Find.,  01.,  9,  72),  or  of  Prometheus  and 
 Pandora^and  is  sometimes  called  the  father  (Thnryd., 
 1,  3),  sometimes  the  brother  of  Hellen  (Schol.  ad 
 ApoUon.  Rh.,  3,  1086),  the  reputed  founder  of  the 
 Greek  nation.  The  seat  of  his  authority  was  Thes- 
 saly,  from  which,  according  to  general  tradition,  he 
 was  driven  to  Parnassus  by  a  great  deluge  (Apollod., 
 1,  7,  2),  which,  however,  according  to  Aristotle  (Me- 
 teorol.,  1;  14),  occurred  between  Dodona  and  the 
 Acheloiis.  The  Greek  legend  respecting  this  memo- 
 rable event  is  as  follows  :  Deucalion  was  married  to 
 Pyrrha,  the  daughter  of  Epimetheus  and  Pandora. 
 When  Jupiter  designed  to  destroy  the  brazen  race  of 
 men  on  account  of  their  impiety,  Deucalion,  l)y  the 
 advice  of  his  father,  made  himself  an  ark  (XupvaKa), 
 and,  putting  provisions  into  it,  entered  it  with  his  wife 
 Pyrrha.  Jupiter  then  poured  rain  from  heaven,  and 
 inundated  the  greater  part  of  Greece,  so  that  all  the 
 people,  except  a  few  who  escaped  to  the  lofty  mount- 
 ains, perished  in  the  waves.  At  the  same  time,  the 
 mountains  of  Thessaly  were  burst  through  by  the  flood, 
 and  all  Greece  without  the  isthmus,  as  well  as  all  the 
 Peloponnesus,  were  overflowed.  Deucalion  was  car- 
 ried along  the  sea  in  his  ark  for  nine  days  and  nights, 
 until  he  reached  Mount  Parnassus.  By  this  time  the 
 rain  had  ceased,  and,  leaving  his  ark,  he  sacrificed  to 
 Jupiter  "■  Flight- giving'''  {^v^loq),  who  sent  Hermes, 
 desiring  him  to  ask  what  he  would.  His  request  was 
 to  have  the  earth  replenished  with  men.  By  the  di- 
 rection of  Jupiter,  thereupon,  he  and  his  wife  flung 
 stones  behind  them,  and  those  which  Deucalion  cast 
 became  men,  those  thrown  by  Pyrrha  women  ;  and 
 from  this  circumstance,  say  the  Greeks,  came  the 
 name  for  people  {Tiaoq  from  Auflf,  "a  stone." — Apol- 
 lod., 1,  7,  2). — This  narrative,  it  may  easily  l^e  seen, 
 is  of  a  very  narrow  and  even  unpoetic  character.  It 
 restricts  the  general  deluge  to  Greece  Proper,  perhaps 
 originally  to  Thessaly  (Aristot.,  I.  c.) ;  and  it  most 
 incongruously  represents  others  as  having  escaped 
 as  well  as  Deucalion  ;  yet,  at  the  same  time,  it  inti- 
 mates, that  he  and  his  wife  alone  had  been  preserved 
 in  the  catastrophe.  What  is  said  of  the  brazen  age  is 
 quite  at  variance  with  the  narrative  of  Hesiod,  and  is 
 a  very  clumsy  attempt  at  connecting  two  perlectly  in- 
 dependent and  irreconcilable  myths.  The  circum- 
 stance of  the  ark  is  thought  by  some  to  be  borrowed 
 from  the  Mosaic  account,  and  to  have  been  learned  at 
 Alexandrea,  for  we  elsewhere  find  the  dove  noticed. 
 "  The  mythologists,"  says  Plutarch,  "  inform  us,  that 
 a  dove  let  fly  out  of  the  ark,  was  to  Deucalion  a  sign 
 of  bad  weather  if  it  came  in  again,  of  good  weather  if 
 it  flew  away."  {Plut.,  de  solcrt.  an. —  Op.,  ed.  Rciskc, 
 vol.  10,  p.  37.)  The  sacrifice  and  the  appearance  of 
 Hermes  also  strongly  remind  us  of  Noah. — I'he  Latin 
 writers  take  a  much  nobler  view  of  the  deluge.  Ac- 
 cording to  them,  it  overspread  the  whole  earth,  and 
 all  animal  life  perished  except  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha, 
 whom  Ovid,  who  gives  a  very  poetical  account  of  this 
 great  catastrophe,  convevs  in  a  small  boat  to  the  sum- 
 mit of  Parnassus  ;  while  others  make  .Etna  3r  Athos 
 the  mountain  which  yielded  them  a  refuge.  (Ovid, 
 Met.,  1,  253,  scqq.  —  Hijgin.,  fab,  1.53.  — &V)».  ad 
 Vng.,  Eclog.,  6,  41.)  According  to  Ovid,  they  con- 
 sulted the  ancient  oracle  of  Themis  respecting  the  res- 
 toration of  mankind,  and  received  the  following  re- 
 sponse :  "Deoart  from  the  fane,  veil  your  heads, 
 loosen  your  girded  vestments,  and  cast  behind  you  the 
 great  bones  of  your  parent."  (Met.,  1,  381,  scqq.) 
 They  were  at  first  horror-struck  at  such  an  act  of  im- 
 piety being  enjoined  upon  them ;  but  at  length  Dea- 
 
Dl  A 
 
 DIANA. 
 
 calion  penetrated  the  sense  of  the  oracle,  the  stones 
 being,  by  a  very  natural  figure,  the  bones  of  the  earth. 
 — Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  are  evidently  pure  beings  of 
 fiction,  personifications  of  water  and  tire.  The  name 
 Vcucalwn  comes  very  probably  from  devu  (whence 
 dexjK'y-;),  to  wet ;  while  Pyrrha  is  evidently  derived 
 from  Ti<f>,  fire.  The  meaning  of  the  legend  will  then 
 be,  that  when  the  passage  through  which  the  Peneus 
 carries  off  the  waters  that  run  into  the  vale  of  Thes- 
 saly,  which  is  on  all  sides  shut  in  by  lofty  mountains, 
 had  been  closed  by  some  accident,  they  overflowed 
 the  whole  of  its  surface,  till  the  action  of  subterranean 
 fire  opened  a  way  for  them.  According  to  this  view 
 of  the  subject,  then,  the  deluge  of  Deucalion  was 
 merely  a  local  one  ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  time  of 
 Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  when  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
 became  known  to  the  Greeks,  that  some  features  bor- 
 rowed from  the  universal  deluge  of  Noah  were  incor- 
 porated into  the  story  of  the  Thessalian  flood.  ( Wclck- 
 cr,  Tril.,  p.  549,  not. — Kcigkllcy's  Mythology. — Clin- 
 toti's  Fasti  Hcllcnici,  vol.  1,  p.  43,  not.)  It  is  but 
 fair  to  remark,  however,  that  many  modern  writers  re- 
 gard the  deluge  of  Deucalion  as  nothing  else  than  a 
 tradition  of  the  great  cataclysm  of  Noah,  altered  in 
 some  of  its  features,  and  placed  by  the  Hellenes  in  the 
 period  which  they  also  assigned  to  Deucalion,  because 
 he  was  regarded  as  the  founder  oF  their  nation,  and 
 because  his  history  is  confounded  with  that  of  all  the 
 chiefs  of  the  renewed  nations.  Such,  in  particular,  is 
 the  opinion  of  the  celebrated  Ouvier.  (Theory  of  the 
 Earth,  p.  145,  scqq.,  Jameson's  transl. — Ovid,  ed. 
 Lemaire,  vol.  3,  p.  xiii.,  seqq.) 
 
 DiA,  I.  another  name  for  the  island  of  Na.vos. 
 {PUn  ,  4,  12.) — II.  An  island  not  far  from  the  north- 
 ern shore  of  Crete.     It  is  now  S/andia. 
 
 Di.^GORAS,  I.  a  native  of  the  island  of  Melos,  and  fol- 
 lower of  Democritus.  Having  been  sold  as  a  captive 
 in  his  youth,  he  was  redeemed  by  Democritus,  and 
 trained  up  in  the  study  of  philosophy.  Hu  attached 
 himself  also  to  lyric  poetry,  and  was  much  distinguish- 
 ed for  his  success  in  this  branch  of  the  art.  His  name, 
 however,  has  been  transmitted  with  infamy  to  posteri- 
 ty, as  that  of  an  avowed  advocate  for  the  rejection  of 
 all  religious  belief.  It  is  expressly  asserted  by  ancient 
 writers,  that  when,  in  a  particular  instance,  he  saw  a 
 perjured  person  escape  punishment,  he  publicly  de- 
 clared his  disbelief  of  Divine  Providence,  and  from 
 that  time  spoke  of  the  gods  and  all  religious  ceremo- 
 nies with  ridicule  and  contempt.  He  even  attempted 
 to  lay  open  the  sacred  mysteries,  and  to  dissuade  the 
 people  from  submitting  to  the  rites  of  initiation.  A 
 price  at  last  was  set  upon  his  head,  and  he  fled  to  Cor- 
 inth, where  he  died.  He  lived  about  416  years  before 
 Chrisi.  {Cic,  N.  D.,  I,  23.— Id.  ib.,  3,  37.—  Val. 
 Max.,  1,  1,  ext.  7.) — II.  An  athlete  of  Rhodes,  who 
 gained  the  prize  in  pugilism  at  the  Olympic  games, 
 B.C.  462,  01.  79.  His  victory  was  celebrated  by 
 Pindar,  in  an  ode  which  is  still  extant  (Olympiad  7), 
 and  which  is  said  to  have  been  inscribed  in  golden  let- 
 ters in  the  temple  of  the  Lindian  Minerva,  at  Rhodes. 
 According  to  Pindar,  he  twice  obtained  the  victory  in 
 the  games  of  Rhodes,  four  times  at  the  Isthmian,  and 
 was  successful  also  at  the  Ncmean  and  other  contests. 
 Aulas  Gellius  (3,  15)  informs  us,  that  he  saw  his  three 
 sons  crowned  on  the  same  day  at  the  Olympic  games, 
 and  expired  through  joy.  Bayle  (Diet.,  s.  v.)  censures 
 Pindar  for  prolix  digression  in  the  ode  above  referred 
 to,  and  is  censured  in  turn  by  Bockh  :  "  Baylius,  Pin- 
 dari  quidem  pessimtis  judex  :  nam  hoc  carmen,  quod 
 ob  digrcssiones  reprchendit,  ita  pulchre  adornatum  est, 
 ut  nihil  vitupcrari  queat."  (Bockh,  ad  Pind.,  01.,  7, 
 vol.  3,  p.  167.) 
 
 DiAMASTiGosis,  a  festival  at  Sparta  in  honour  of  Di- 
 ana Orthia.     (Vid.  Bomonicae.) 
 
 Di.vNA  (called  by  the  Greeks  'Apre/itg,  Artemis), 
 was  the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  sister  of 
 434 
 
 Apollo.  She  was  the  goddess  of  the  chase  ;  she  also 
 presided  over  the  delivery  of  females.  The  sudden 
 deaths  of  women  were  ascribed  to  her  darts,  as  those 
 of  men  were  to  the  arrows  of  her  brother,  of  whom  she 
 forms  the  exact  counterpart.  Diana  was  a  spotless 
 virgin  :  her  chief  joy  was  to  speed  like  a  Dorian  maid 
 over  the  hills,  followed  by  a  train  of  nym[)hs,  in  pur- 
 suit of  the  flying  game.  Callimachus  thus  relates  the 
 early  history  of  the  goddess.  (Hymn.  adDiun)  Di- 
 ana, while  yet  a  child,  as  she  sat  on  her  father's  knee, 
 besought  him  to  grant  her  permission  to  lead  a  life  of 
 perpetual  virginity,  to  get  a  bow  and  arrows  formed  by 
 the  (Jyclopes,  and  to  devote  herself  to  the  chase.  She 
 farther  asked  for  sixty  Ocean-nymphs  as  her  compan- 
 ions, and  twenty  nymphs  from  ."Vmnisus  in  Crete  as  her 
 attendants.  Of  towns  and  cities  she  required  not  more 
 than  one,  satisfied  with  the  mountains,  which  she  never 
 would  leave,  but  to  aid  women  in  the  pains  of  child- 
 birth. Her  indulgent  sire  assented  wi'h  a  smile,  and 
 gave  her  not  one,  but  thirty  towns.  She  speeds  to 
 Crete,  and  thence  to  Ocean,  and  selects  all  her  nymphs. 
 On  her  return,  she  calls  at  Lipara  on  Vulcan  and  the 
 Cyclopes,  who  immediately  lay  aside  all  their  work  to 
 execute  her  orders.  She  now  proceeds  to  Arcadia, 
 where  Pan,  the  chief  god  of  that  country,  supplies  her 
 with  dogs  of  an  excellent  breed.  Mount  Parrhasius 
 then  witnessed  the  first  exploit  of  the  huntress-goddess. 
 Five  deer,  larger  than  bulls,  with  horns  of  gold,  fed 
 on  the  banks  of  the  dark-pebbled  Anaurus,  at  the  foot 
 of  that  hill ;  of  these  the  goddess,  unaided  by  her  dogs, 
 caught  four,  which  she  reserved  to  draw  her  chariot ; 
 the  fifth,  destined  by  Juno  for  the  last  labour  of  Her- 
 cules, bounded  across  the  Keladon  and  escaped. — 
 The  adventures  of  Diana  were  not  numerous.  She 
 turned  Actaeon  into  a  stag  for  having  unconsciously 
 beheld  her  when  bathing.  Callisto  was  changed  by  her 
 into  a  bear  for  a  breach  of  maiden  purity.  Orion  per- 
 ished by  her  arrows.  Along  with  her  brother  she  de- 
 stroyed the  children  of  Niobe  ;  and,  in  a  fable  later 
 than  Homer,  she  is  said  to  have  detained  the  Grecian 
 fleet  at  Aulis,  in  consequence  of  Agamemnon's  having 
 killed  a  hind  which  was  sacred  to  her,  and  to  have  re- 
 quired the  sacrifice  of  his  daughter  Iphigenia.  The 
 Aloida;,  Otus  and  Ephialtes,  sought  in  marriage  Juno 
 and  Diana  ;  the  latter  goddess,  changing  her  form  into 
 a  hind,  sprang  out  between  the  two  brothers,  who, 
 aiming  their  darts  at  the  supposed  beast,  by  her  art 
 pierced  each  other,  and  died. — If  Diana  or  Artemis 
 were  merely  one  of  the  names  under  which  the  moon 
 was  worshipped,  it  need  not  surprise  us  to  find  her 
 identified  with  Selene,  with  Hecate,  and  even  with 
 Proserpina,  the  goddess  of  the  under  world,  and  to  be 
 thence  called  the  three-formed  goddess,  ruling  as  Se- 
 lene in  the  sky,  as  Artemis  or  Diana  on  earth,  as  He- 
 cate or  Proserpina  in  Erebus.  This  will  also  give  a 
 very  simple  reason  for  her  being  the  aider  of  women 
 in  labour.  The  moon  was  believed  by  the  ancients  to 
 have  great  influence  over  growth  in  general  (Plin., 
 18,  30.— Id.,  2,  99.— Id.,  10,  5\.—Plut.,  de  Is.  et 
 Os.,  41. —  Eudocia,  11);  and  as,  moreover,  a  woman's 
 time  was  reckoned  by  moons,  it  was  natural  to  con- 
 ceive that  the  moon-goddess  presided  over  the  birth  of 
 children.  (Vid.  Lucina.) — On  the  other  hand,  sud- 
 den deaths  were  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  Apollo 
 and  Diana.  In  the  former  case,  this  will  be  an  allu- 
 sion to  the  coups  de  soleil ;  in  the  latter,  to  the  well- 
 known  unhealthy  influence  of  the  moon,  in  producing 
 fevers,  &c.  Diana  was  also  confounded  with  the  god- 
 dess worshipped  on  the  Tauric  Chersonese,  whose  al- 
 tars were  stained  with  the  blood  of  such  unhappy 
 strangers  as  were  cast  on  that  inhospitable  shore. 
 (Herod.,  4,  103. — Eurip.,  Iph.  in  Taur.)  She  was 
 identified,  too,  with  the  goddess  of  nature  adored  at 
 Ephesus,  whose  symbolical  figure,  by  its  multitude  ot 
 breasts  and  heads  of  animals  hung  around  it,  denoted 
 the  fecundity  of  nature. — Diana   is  generally  repre- 
 
DI  A 
 
 DIG 
 
 sented  as  a  healthy,  strong,  active  maiden  ;  handsome, 
 but  with  no  gentleness  of  expression.  She  wears  the 
 Cretan  hunting-shoes  {tvdfw/udEg),  and  has  her  gar- 
 ment tucked  up  for  speed.  On  her  back  she  bears  a 
 quiver,  and  in  her  hand  a  bow  or  a  hunting-spear.  She 
 is  usually  attended  by  a  hound.  Walker  considers  the 
 jiiode  in  which  this  goddess  is  represented  as  an  il- 
 lustration of  what  he  terms  the  locomotive  system. 
 {Analysis  of  Beauly,  p.  220.) — The  name  Artemis 
 seems  identical  with  uprefi/'ic,  whole,  uiunjiired,  and, 
 therefore,  sound  and  pure,  probably  with  reference  to 
 the  virginity  of  the  goddess.  Welcker,  however,  re- 
 gards it  as  an  epithet  of  the  same  nature  with  Opis 
 and  Nemesis,  and  says  that  it  is  upi-Qtjxi(.  {Schwenk, 
 p.  263.)  The  name  Diana  comes  from  Dia  or  Deiva 
 Jana,  which  became  Diojana  or  Deivjana,  and  ulti- 
 mately Diana.  She  was  invoked  as  Deiva  lana  in 
 the  Salian  hymns.  Varro  makes  lana  the  same  as 
 Luna.  {R.  R.,  1,  37,  3  )  Nigidius,  however  {ap. 
 Macrob.,  Sat.,  1,  9),  makes  Diana  come  from  lana 
 with  D  prefixed  ;  while  Lanzi  deduces  the  name  from 
 the  early  Greek  form  TH  ANA  (i.  e.,  ri  avdaaa,  '■'■the 
 queen^''),  just  as  Apollo  is  called  llva^.  {Saggio  di 
 Lingua  Etrusca,  vol.  1,  p.  48,  not.) — Mythologists 
 are  divided  respecting  the  original  nature  of  Apollo  and 
 Diana.  The  question  is,  whether  they  are  to  be  re- 
 garded as  physical  or  moral  beings.  Both  classes  of 
 disputants  agVee  that  the  latter  is  their  character  in 
 the  Homeric  and  Hesiodic  poetry,  where  Apollo  ap- 
 pears only  as  the  god  of  prophecy,  music,  and  ar- 
 chery, and  Diana  as  his  counterpart  in  this  last  office 
 Voss,  therefore  (with  whom  agree  Wolf,  Lobeck,  Her- 
 mann, Volcker,  Nitzsch,  and  Miiller),  maintains  such 
 to  have  been  the  original  conception  of  these  deities  ; 
 while  Heyne,  Buttmann,  Welcker,  Creuzer,  Guigniaut, 
 and  others,  think  that  Apollo  and  Diana  were,  in  their 
 primitive  character,  the  same  with  the  sun  and  moon. 
 This  latter  hypothesis  is  undoubtedly  the  more  correct 
 one  of  the  two.  ( Keightlcif  s  Mythology,  p.  1 28,  seqq.) 
 The  references,  in  thediscussion  just  alluded  to,  are  as 
 follows  :  Voss,  Mylhol.  Bricfe,  vol.  2,  p.  385.— Id. 
 ib.,  vol.  3,  p.  53.— Wolf,  ad' II.,  1,  43.—Lohcck,  Ag- 
 laoph.,  p.  79. — Hermann,  iiber  das  Wcsen,  &c.,  p. 
 106,  seqq. — Volcker,  Myth,  der  lap.,  p.  309. — Heyne, 
 ad  II. ,  1,  50. — Buttmann,  Mytholog.,\6\.  1,  p.  I,  seqq. 
 —  Welcker,  TriL,  p.  41,  65,  222. 
 
 DuNiuM  Promontorium,  a  promontory  and  town 
 of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast, 
 opposite  the  Pityusse  Insulae.  The  modern  name  of 
 the  town  is  Dcnia,  and  of  the  promontory,  cape  St. 
 Martin.  It  was  one  of  the  three  towns  on  this  coast 
 whose  foundation  was  ascribed  to  the  Massilians.  It' 
 was  called  by  them  Artemisium,  from  the  Greek  name 
 of  Diana,  who  had  a  temple  here  which  was  much 
 venerated.  Sertorius  made  this  the  chief  station  for 
 his  fleet,  in  consequence  of  its  favourable  position  for 
 intercepting  the  vessels  of  the  foe.  Mela  names  the 
 promontory  Ferraria,  without  doubt  from  iron-works 
 in  its  vicinity  (Strab.,  159. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  A23.—Mela,  2,  6.) 
 
 DiAsiA,  a  festival  in  honour  of  Jupiter  at  Athens. 
 In  ancient  Attica,  the  four  tribes  under  the  govern- 
 ment of  Erichthonius  derived  their  names  from  four 
 divinities,  Jupiter,  Minerva,  Neptune,  and  Vulcan. 
 They  were  termed,  accordingly,  Auif,  ^kdijvaitr,  IIo- 
 aeix^uviu^,  and  'H^ajarmf.  The  deities  in  question 
 were  the  four  great  possessors  of  the  Attic  soil,  and 
 Jove  was  the  first  among  them.  At  the  outgoing  of 
 the  month  Anthcsterion,  all  the  citizens  celebrated  his 
 festival  under  the  name  of  Diasia;  many,  after  the 
 old  fashion,  offered  him  the  fruits  of  their  fields,  while 
 others  sacrificed  cattle.  It  was  a  state  family-feast ; 
 the  old  idea  of  house  and  court  not  being  forgotten  in 
 it.  {Creuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  2,  p.  510,.— Wachsmuth, 
 Alterlhumsk..  vol.  4,  p.  25,  et  139.  — Milchell,  ad 
 Aristoph.,  Nub.,  397.) 
 
 DiBio,  a  city  of  Gaul,  in  the  territory  of  the  Lingo- 
 nes,  and  now  Dijon.  It  was  founded,  according  to 
 some  authorities,  by  the  Emperor  Aurelian,  wh\\e 
 others  make  him  merely  to  have  fortified  it  anew. 
 {Greg.  Turon.,  3,  19.) 
 
 Dic^,A,  a  town  of  Thrace  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Bistones,  and  to  the  southeast  of  the  Bistonian  marsh. 
 (Herod.,  7,  WS.—Scylax,  p.  -Zl.—Slrabo,  Epit.,7,  p. 
 331.)  Dr.  Clarke,  in  his  travels,  mentions  the"  Bis- 
 tonis  Palus,  and  some  ruins  near  it,  which  probably 
 are  to  be  identified  with  those  of  Dicaea.  {Clarke's 
 Travels,  vol.  8,  p.  65.) 
 
 DicvEARCHiA.      Vid.  Puteoli. 
 
 Dic^ARCHUs,  1.  a  native  of  Messana  in  Sicily.  He 
 was  a  scholar  of  Aristotle's,  and  is  called  a  peripatetic 
 philosopher  by  Cicero  {Off.,  2,  5);  but,  though  hq 
 wrote  some  works  on  philosophical  subjects,  he  seems 
 to  have  devoted  his  attention  principally  to  geography 
 and  statistics.  His  chief  philosophical  work  was  two 
 dialogues  "  on  the  Soul,"  each  divided  into  three  books, 
 the  one  dialogue  being  supposed  to  have  been  held  at 
 Corinth,  the  other  at  Mytilene.  In  these  he  argued 
 against  the  Platonic  doctrines  of  the  soul,  and,  indeed, 
 altogether  denied  its  existence.  The  greatest  perform- 
 ance, however,  of  Dicsarchus  was  a  treatise  on  the  ge- 
 ography, politics,  and  manners  of  Greece,  which  he 
 called  BiOf  'KX'Audoc:,  "The  Life  of  Greece"  (a  title 
 imitated  by  Varro  in  his  Vita  Populi  Romnni). — All 
 the  philosophical  writings  of  Dicsearchus  are  lost.  His 
 geographical  works  have  shared  the  same  fate,  except 
 a  few  fragments.  We  have  remaining  one  hundred 
 and  fifty  verses  of  his  'Avaypap]  r;/f  'E/lA(t(5of,  or 
 "  Description  of  Greece,''''  written  m  iambic  trimeters  ; 
 and  also  two  fragments  of  the  Biof  'EAAar^of,  one  con- 
 taining a  description  of  Boeotia  and  Attica,  and  anoth- 
 er an  account  of  Mount  Pelion.  It  has  been  con- 
 jectured, with  great  appearance  of  truth,  that  the  cita- 
 tions from  Dicajarchus,  in  which  his  treatises  on  "  Mu- 
 sical Contests,"  "  on  the  Dionysian  Contests,"  &c., 
 are  referred  to,  are  drawn  from  his  "  Life  of  Greece," 
 and  that  the  grammarians  have  named  them  by  the  title 
 of  the  subdivision  to  which  these  subjects  belonged,  in- 
 stead of  the  leading  title  of  the  book.  {Nake,  Rhein. 
 Mus.  for  1833,  p.  47.)  Dicoearchus's  maps  were  ex- 
 tant in  the  tune  of  Cicero  {Ep.  ad  Alt.,  6,  2),  but 
 his  geography  was  not  much  to  be  depended  upon. 
 {Strab.,  104  )  Cicero  was  very  fond  of  the  writings 
 of  Dica3archus,  and  speaks  of  him  in  terms  of  warm 
 admiration.  {Ep.  ad  Att.,  2,  2.)  In  one  of  the  ex- 
 tant fragments  Dicoearchus  quotes  Posidippus,  and 
 must  therefore  have  been  alive  in  289  B.C. — The  re- 
 mains of  this  writer  are  given  in  the  Geographi  Grcect 
 Minores  of  Hudson,  Gail,  and  Bernhardy.  They  were 
 printed  also  (with  the  exception  of  the  one  respecting 
 Pelion)  in  the  collection  of  Stephens,  Paris,  1590,  and 
 in  the  second  volume  of  Gronoviiis's  Thesaurus  An- 
 liq.  Grac.  Marx  has  given  a  new  edition  of  them  in 
 Creuzer's  Melctemata,  vol.  3,  p.  174,  seqq. — II.  A 
 grammarian,  a  pupil  of  Aristarchus.     {Suid.) 
 
 DictjEus  Mons.      Vid.  Dicte. 
 
 DioTAMNUM  Promontorium.  Vid.  Dictynnsum 
 Promontorium. 
 
 Dic^T.iTOR,  the  highest  extraordinary  magistrate  in 
 the  Roman  republic.  Though  the  name  obviously 
 contains  the  element  dw  (from  dico),  it  was  doubted 
 by  the  Roman  writers,  whether  the  title  had  reference 
 to  the  mode  of  his  nomination  or  his  power.  He  was 
 also  called  Prcetor  Maximus,  and  MagisterPopuh, 
 and  in  Greek  Siavnaroc,  or  "double  consul."  After 
 the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  the  consulship  was  estab- 
 lished. The  two  consuls  possessed  the  same  power 
 as  the  kinfTs  in  the  administration  of  the  state  and  the 
 command°of  the  army,  yet  their  authority  was  subject 
 to  some  restrictions,  and  principally  to  the  appeal  that 
 could  be  made  from  their  decisions.  The  two  con- 
 suls, possessiiitf  equal  authority,  often  differed  in  thetf 
 
DICTATOR. 
 
 DIG 
 
 views  and  opinions ;  a  circumstance  which  necessa- 
 rily caused  jealousy  and  disunion,  particularly  in  the 
 conuiiand  of  tlie  army  when  on  active  service.  In 
 extraordmary  emergencies,  therefore,  the  republic  re- 
 quired a  single  magistrate,  invested  with  ample  au- 
 thority. Sucli  circumstances  led  to  the  establishment 
 of  the  dictatorship.  'I'he  first  dictator  was  created 
 about  253  A.U.O.,  or  501  B.C.  {Liv.,  2,  IS.)  The 
 dictator  uiutcd  in  himself  the  power  of  the  two  con- 
 suls ;  and  the  authority  of  all  the  other  magistrates, 
 except  that  of  the  tri-bunes,  ceased  as  soon  as  he  was 
 appomted.  He  possessed  the  whole  administrative 
 power  of  the  state,  and  the  command  of  the  army 
 without  any  restrictions.  {Dio  Cass.,  according  to 
 Zonaras,  7,  13,  where  a  reference  to  a  lost  book  of 
 J)io  is  given. — Dion.  Hal  ,  5,  70,  seqq.)  He  had  the 
 power  of  life  and  death,  and  there  was  no  appeal  from 
 his  decision.  This  power,  however,  contitnied  only 
 for  the  space  of  six  months,  even  although  the  busi- 
 ness for  which  he  had  been  created  was  not  finished, 
 and  was  never  prolonged  beyond  that  time  except  in 
 extreme  necessity,  as  in  the  casu  o*"  Camillus,  for  Syl- 
 la  and  Cassar  usurped  their  perpetual  di^tatorshin  in 
 contempt  of  the  laws  of  their  country.  But  the  dic- 
 tator usually  resigned  his  command  whenever  he  had 
 effected  the  business  for  which  he  had  been  created  : 
 thus,  Q.  Cincinnatus  and  Mamercus  JEmilius  abdica- 
 ted the  dictatorship  on  the  16lh  day  ;  Q.  Servilius  on 
 the  8th  day.  Another  check  on  the  dictator's  power 
 was,  that  he  could  lay  out  none  of  tlie  public  money 
 without  the  authority  of  the  senate  or  the  order  of  the 
 people.  He  could  not,  moreover,  leave  Italy  ;  a  law 
 which  was  only  once  violated,  and  that  on  account  of 
 the  most  urgent  necessity,  as,  for  example,  in  the  first 
 Punic  war,  when  a  dictator  commanded  in  Sicily. 
 {Ltv.,  Epil.,  19.)  Neither  was  he  allowed  to  ride  on 
 horseback  without  the  permission  of  the  people.  The 
 principal  check,  however,  against  a  dictator's  abuse  of 
 power  was,  that  he  might  be  called  to  an  account  for 
 his  conduct  when  he  resigned  his  office.  The  dicta- 
 tor was  not  created  by  the  suffrages  of  the  people,  as 
 the  other  magistrates,  but  one  of  the  consuls,  by  order 
 of  the  senate,  named  as  dictator  whatever  person  of 
 consular  dignity  he  thought  proper  ;  and  this  he  did, 
 after  having  taken  the  auspices,  usually  in  the  dead  of 
 night.  Sometimes  the  senate  itself  appointed  the  dic- 
 tator, and  in  some  instances  he  was  elected  by  the 
 comitia.  The  dictator  was  preceded  by  twenty-four 
 lictors,  with  the  fasces  and  sccuris,  or,  in  other  words, 
 by  as  many  as  the  two  consuls  together.  The  wri- 
 ters on  Roman  antiquities,  and  especially  Dr.  Adam, 
 assert,  that  the  dictator  was  attended  by  twenty-four 
 lictors  with  the  fasces  and  sccuris  even  in  the  citv. 
 In  this  they  appear  to  have  erred.  Plutarch,  indeed, 
 tells  us,  in  his  life  of  Fabius,  that  the  dictator  was  at- 
 tended by  twenty-four  lictors  ;  but,  as  Justus  Lipsius 
 observes,  this  statement  is  contradicted  by  higher  au- 
 thority ;  for  we  are  told  in  the  epitome  of  the  8'Jth 
 book  of  Livy,  that  Sylla,  in  assuming  to  himself  twen- 
 ty-four lictors,  had  done  a  thing  entirely  unprecedent- 
 ed :  "  Sylla,  diclalor  faclus,  quod  nemo  quidem  un- 
 quam  fecerat,  cum  fascibus  viginti  qualuor  jirocessilV 
 — At  first  the  dictator  was  taken  only  from  the  patri- 
 cian order,  but  afterward  (B.C.  35G)  from  the  plebeians 
 also.  After  his  appointment  he  nominated  the  mas- 
 ter of  the  horse  {Magtslcr  Eqmluni.),  who  commanded 
 under  him.  Sometimes,  however,  a  master  of  the 
 horse  was  pitched  upon  for  the  dictator  by  the  senate, 
 or  by  the  order  of  the  people.  It  was  only  when  the 
 state  was  menaced  by  a  sudden  danger  from  within 
 or  without  that  a  dictator  was  nominated  ;  but,  in 
 the  course  of  time,  a  dictator  was  elected  to  jireside 
 at  the  elections  in  the  comitia,  when  the  consuls  were 
 abroad  :  and  also  on  some  other  public  solemnities. 
 {Liv.,  7,  ^.—Id.,  8,  18,  et  23.)  For  one  hundred  and 
 twenty  years  before  Sylla,  the  creation  of  a  dictator  was 
 436 
 
 disused,  but  in  dangerous  emergencies  the  consuls 
 were  armed  with  dictatorial  pow-er.  This  office,  so  re- 
 spectable and  illustrious  in  the  first  ages  of  the  rcimb- 
 lic,  became  odious  by  the  usurpations  of  Sylla  ani\ 
 CfEsar ;  and,  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  Roman 
 senate,  on  the  motion  of  the  consul  Antoiiv,  passed  a 
 decree,  which  forbade  a  dictator's  being  ever  after  ap- 
 ])ointed  at  Rome.  Augustus  declined  the  office,  though 
 ottered  to  him  by  the  people  {Suet.,  Aug.,  52),  ar.d  the 
 title  of  dictator  was  never  assumed  by  the  emjjerors 
 of  Rome. — These  are  the  received  opinions  as  to  the 
 Roman  dictators;  but  in  Niebuhr's  Roman  History 
 we  find  other  views  of  the  subject,  to  which  we  shall 
 briefly  advert.  According  to  him,  the  dictatorship 
 was  of  Laiin  origin,  and  was  introduced  from  the  Latins 
 among  the  Romans.  The  object  of  the  Roman  dic- 
 tatorship was  to  evade  the  Valerian  laws,  and  to  es- 
 tablish the  power  of  the  patricians  over  the  plebeians  ; 
 for  the  appeal  granted  by  those  laws  was  from  the 
 sentence  of  the  consuls,  not  from  that  of  the  dictator. 
 The  later  Romans  had  but  an  indistinct  knowledge  of 
 the  dictatorship  of  the  ancient  constitution.  Dio  Cas- 
 sius  is  in  error  when  (without  excepting  the  patri- 
 cians) he  asserts,  that  in  no  instance  was  there  a  right 
 of  appeal  from  the  dictator,  and  that  he  could  con- 
 demn knights  and  senators  to  death  without  trial. 
 Dionysins  is  also  in  error  when  he  says  that  the  dic- 
 tator decided  on  every  measure  according  to  his  own 
 pleasure.  It  is  incorrect  to  suppose,  that  the  appoint- 
 ment of  the  dictator  in  all  cases  rested  with  one  of  the 
 consuls  ;  for  the  conferring  of  kingly  power  (such  as 
 that  of  the  dictator  was)  could  never  have  been  in- 
 trusted to  a  single  person.  The  pontifical  books  have 
 jireserved  so  much  as  this,  that  the  dictator  was  nomi- 
 nated by  the  senate,  and  that  the  nomination  was  ap- 
 proved by  the  people.  As  the  plebeians  increased  in 
 power,  the  dictatorship  was  seldom  required,  and  then 
 only  for  matters  of  less  importance,  and  in  such  cases 
 the  nomination  was  left  to  the  consuls.  For  a  general 
 sketch  of  the  dictatorial  power,  consult  Creuzer,  Rom. 
 Antiq.,  p.  231,  seqq. — Niebuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 495,  seqq.,  Cambr.  Iransl. 
 
 DiCTE,  a  mountain  of  the  island  of  Crete,  now  called 
 Sefhia,  and  also  Lasthi,  next  in  height  to  Mount  Ida, 
 and  covered  throughout  a  great  part  of  the  year  with 
 snow  ;  vvhence  it  is  denominated  by  Strabo,  Pliny,  and 
 Ptolemy,  "  the  White  Mountain."  {Strabo,  338. — 
 Compare  Athcnceus,  9,  p.  376.)  It  is  commonly  sup- 
 posed to  have  obtained  its  name  from  Dictynna,  a 
 nymph  of  Crete,  who  is  supposed  first  to  have  invented 
 hunting-nets  {('Hktvu),  and  to  have  been  called  Dictyn- 
 na on  that  account,  having  been  before  named  Brito- 
 martis.  {Callim..,  Hymn,  in  Dian.,  v.  197.)  Strabo, 
 however,  censures  Callimachus  for  his  false  derivation 
 of  the  name.  According  to  another  account,  she 
 plunged  into  the  sea  in  order  to  avoid  Minos,  who 
 pursued  her,  and  was  caught  in  a  fisherman's  net. 
 This  mountain  was  consecrated  to  Jupiter,  and  hence 
 he  was  called  Dictaus,  as  well  as  from  a  cave  which 
 was  there,  in  which  he  had  been  concealed  from  Sat- 
 urn. {Virgil,  Georg.,  4,  149.)  Crete  was  sometimes 
 also  styled  by  the  poets  Diclaa  arva.  {Virg.,  JEn., 
 3,  171.) 
 
 DicTVNNA,  a  nymph  of  Crete.     {Vid.  Dicte.) 
 
 DlCTVNN^UM,    or     DlCT.^MNU.M      PrOMONTOK  lUM,    a 
 
 promontory  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  isle  of  Crete, 
 towards  the  northwest.  This  promontory,  answering 
 to  the  Psacum  Promontorium  of  Ptolemy,  forms  the 
 termination  of  a  chain  called  Tityrus  by  Strabo  (499). 
 On  its  summit  was  placed  a  celebrated  temple  of  the 
 nymph  Brilomartis  or  Dictynna.  {Dwd.  Sic.,  5,  76. 
 — Mela,  2.  7.)  The  site  of  the  temple  now  bears  the 
 name  of  Masvy.  (Cramer  s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p. 
 365.) 
 
 DicTVs,  I.  a  Cretan,  said  to  have  accompanied  Ido- 
 meneus  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  to  have  written  a  histo- 
 
DID 
 
 DID 
 
 ry  of  that  contest.  Tliis  work,  according  to  the  ac- 
 count thai  has  come  down  to  us.,  was  discovered  in  the 
 reign  of  Nero,  in  a  tomb  near  Cnossus,  which  was  laid 
 open  by  an  eartliqualie.  It  was  written  in  Phoenician, 
 and  translated  into  Greek  by  one  Eu|)raxides  or  Praxis. 
 The  Greek  translation  has  not  reached  our  times,  but 
 we  have  remaining  the  Latin  version  of  Q.  Septiinius, 
 who  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Dioclesian,  and 
 not  in  that  of  Constantine.  Scioppius  {Paradox.  Lit. 
 Ep.,  5)  makes  him  to  have  been  a  contemporary  of 
 Cornelius  Nepos,  an  assumption  which  the  style  of 
 Septimius  most  clearly  disproves.  The  work  of  Sep- 
 timius  contains  the  first  five  books,  with  an  abridgment 
 of  the  remainder. — The  Phcenician  part  of  this  story 
 has  been  very  ably  refuted  by  Perizonius,  in  his  "  Dts- 
 sertatio  de  Historia  Belli  Trojani,  qua:  Diclyos  Cre- 
 tensis  nomen  prctfert,  Grceca."  The  real  author  was 
 Eupraxidcs  or  Praxis,  and  the  whole  affair  was  got  up 
 to  impose  upon  Nero,  who  was  at  that  time  on  a  visit 
 to  Achaia.  What  added  to  the  deception  was,  that 
 an  earthquake  did  actually  take  place  m  Crete  at  this 
 same  period,  {rcrizon.,  Diss.,  ^5.)  Although  this 
 work  does  not  merit  the  confidence  which  its  fabri- 
 cator wished  to  produce,  it  is  still  not  without  inter- 
 est for  those  who  pursue  the  study  of  antiquity,  since 
 it  contains  many  things  derived  from  books  which  no 
 longer  exist.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Smids, 
 Arnst.,  1702,  in  4to  and  Svo,  with  the  preliminary  dis- 
 sertation of  Perizonius.  (Fabric.,  Bibl.  Lat.,  1,  6,  p. 
 111. — B'dhr,  Gcsch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  465,  scq.) 
 — II.  A  brother  of  Polydectes,  king  of  Seriphus,  made 
 monarch  of  the  island,  in  place  of  the  latter,  by  Pers- 
 eus.    ( Vid.  Danae.) 
 
 DiDiA  Lex,  de  Sumptihus,  by  Didius,  A.U.C.  610. 
 It  limited  the  expense  of  entertainments,  and  the  num- 
 ber of  guests,  and  ordained  that  the  sumptuary  laws 
 should  be  extended  to  all  the  Italians,  and  that  tiot 
 only  the  master  of  the  feast,  but  also  the  guests,  should 
 incur  a  penalty  for  their  offence.  {Macrob.,  Sal., 
 2,  13.) 
 
 Dinius,  Julianus,  of  a  family  originally  from  Me- 
 diolanum  {Milan),  and  grandson  of  Salvius  Julianus,  a 
 celebrated  jurist,  was  born  about  A.IX  133.  He  was 
 educated  by  Domitia  Lucilla,  the  mother  of  Marcus 
 Aurelius.  Didius  soon  rose  to  important  offices,  was 
 successively  qusstor,  prajlor,  and  governor  of  Belgic 
 Gaul,  and,  having  defeated  the  Chauci,  obtained  the 
 consulship.  He  was  afterward  sent  as  governor  to 
 Daimatia,  and  next  to  Germania  Inferior.  Under 
 Commodus  he  was  governor  of  Bithynia  :  on  his  return 
 to  Rome  he  lived  in  luxury  and  debauchery,  being 
 enormously  rich.  After  the  murder  of  Pertinax,  A.D. 
 193,  the  prostorians  having  put  up  the  empire  at  auc- 
 tion, Didius  proceeded  to  their  camp,  and  bid  against 
 Sulpicianus,  the  father-in-law  of  Pertinax,  who  was 
 to  make  his  own  bargain  with  the  soldiers.  Didius 
 having  bid  highest,  and  having  been  proclaimed,  was 
 taken  by  the  soldiers  into  Rome.  The  senate,  with 
 its  usual  servility,  acknowledged  him  emperor,  but  the 
 ])cople  openly  showed  their  dissatisfaction,  and  loaded 
 him  with  abuse  and  imprecations  in  the  circus,  when 
 he  assisted  at  the  solemn  games  which  were  customary 
 on  the  occasion  of  a  new  reign.  He  is  said  to  have 
 borne  these  insults  with  patience,  and  to  have  behaved 
 altogether  with  great  moderation  during  his  short 
 reign.  Three  generals,  at  the  head  of  their  respective 
 legions,  refused  to  acknowledge  the  nomination  of  the 
 .prajtorians  ;  Pescennius  Niger,  who  commanded  in  the 
 East;  Septimius  vSeverus,  inlllyricum;  and  Claudius 
 Albinus  in  Britain.  Severus  being  proclaimed  Au- 
 gustus by  his  troops,  marched  upon  Rome,  and  found 
 no  opposition  upon  the  road,  as  the  towns  and  garri- 
 sons all  declared  for  him.  The  praetorians  themselves 
 forsook  Didius,  and  the  senate  readily  pronounced  his 
 abdication  and  proclaimed  Severus  emperor.  A  party 
 of  soldiers  making  their  way  into  the  palace,  and  dis- 
 
 regarding the  entreaties  of  Didius,  who  ofTercd  to  re- 
 nounce the  empire,  cut  oft"  his  head.  He  !iad  reigned 
 only  sixty-six  days.  {Sjiartianus,  Vit.  Did.  Jul.—  Dio 
 Cass.,  Epit.  Lib.,  73.) 
 
 Dido  (called  also  Elissa),  was  daughter  of  Belus 
 II.,  king  of  Tyre,  and  sister  of  Pygmalion.  According 
 to  Justin  (18,  5),  the  Tyrians,  on  the  death  of  Belus, 
 gave  the  kingdom  to  Pygmalion,  though  still  quite 
 young,  and  Dido  married  Acerbas,  her  maternal  uncle, 
 who  was  priest  of  Hercules,  an  office  next  to  that  of 
 king.  Acerbas  was  possessed  of  great  treasures, 
 which,  dreading  Pygmalion's  covetous  disposition  when 
 the  latter  had  attained  to  manhood,  he  deemed  it  pru- 
 dent to  conceal.  Pygmalion,  in  order  to  obtain  this 
 wealth,  assassinated  him  while  officiating  at  the  altar, 
 and  Dido,  unwilling  to  remain  in  a  spot  which  served 
 but  to  renew  her  grief,  quitted  her  brother's  kingdom. 
 The  tyrant,  to  prevent  her  final  escape  with  the  treas- 
 ures of  Acerbas,  despatched  messengers  to  solicit  het 
 to  return  to  Tyre.  Dido  apparently  assented,  but  took 
 the  precaution,  when  embarking,  to  place  in  the  ves- 
 sel, in  the  presence  of  those  whom  Pygmalion  had 
 sent  to  her,  several  bales  filled  with  sand,  which  she 
 told  them  contained  the  treasures.  When  they  v,'ere 
 out  at  sea,  she  compelled  her  attendants  to  throw  these 
 bales  into  the  sea  ;  and  then  representing  to  those 
 who  had  come  from  the  monarch,  the  instant  death 
 that  awaited  them  if  they  presented  themselves  before 
 him  without  the  expected  treasures,  and  that  a  regard 
 for  their  own  safety  should  induce  them  to  become  her 
 companions  in  search  of  some  settlement,  in  which 
 they  might  find  shelter  from  the  persecution  of  Pyg- 
 malion, she  prevailed  upon  them  to  follow  her  fortunes. 
 Large  numbers  of  the  chief  men  {sejiatorum  agmina), 
 with  whom  the  time  had  previously  been  agreed  upon, 
 thereupon  joined  her  party.  She  sailed  first  to  Cyprus, 
 where  the  priest  of  Jupiter  and  his  whole  family,  in 
 obedience  to  the  will  of  the  gods,  added  themselves  to 
 the  e.x))edition.  Taking  these  along  with  her,  and  also 
 eighty  Cvprian  maidens,  whom  she  carried  off  from  the 
 shore  of  the  island,  she  sailed  in  quest  of  new  settle- 
 ments, and  landed  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  Not  being 
 allowed  by  the  inhabitants  a  more  extensive  grant  of 
 land  than  what  could  be  covered  with  a  bull's  hide, 
 Dido  evaded  this  jealous  concession,  by  cutting  the 
 hide  into  small  slips,  and  enclosing  with  them  a  large 
 portion  of  ground.  I'he  space  thus  enclosed  was  hence 
 called  Byrsa,  from  the  Greek  Bvpaa,  "a  hide."  {Vid., 
 however,  Byrsa.)  Here  the  first  settlement  was  made, 
 and  as  the  city  gradually  increased  around,  and  Car- 
 thage arose,  Byrsa  became  the  citadel  of  the  place. 
 When  the  Phoenician  colony  had  established  itself, 
 larbas,  king  of  Mauritania,  sought  the  hand  of  Dido 
 in  marriage,  and  threatened  war  in  case  of  refusal. 
 Her  subjects  thereupon  importuning  her  to  save  them 
 from  this  formidable  enemy,  she  demanded  three 
 months  for  consideration.  During  this  interval  she 
 caused  a  large  pile  to  be  erected,  as  if  for  the  purpose 
 of  offering  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  to  the  manes  of 
 Acerbas,  and,  having  ascended  it,  there  plunged  a  dag- 
 ger into  her  heart.  This  action  procured  for  her,  it  is 
 said,  the  name  of  Dido,  or  "heroine,"  her  previous 
 name  having  been  Elissa.  (But  consult  remarks  at 
 the  close  of  this  article.) — From  this  narrative  of  Jus- 
 tin's we  find  many  deviations  in  Virgil.  The  poet  as- 
 signs to  Dido  indiscriminately  the  name  of  Dido  and 
 EHssa.  Acerbas  is  the  Sichwus  of  Virgil  ;  and  the  , 
 latter  states  that  Pygmalion,  after  having  slain  Sichaus, 
 long  concealed  the  deed  from  Dido:  that  it  was  re- 
 vealed to  her  by  the  shade  of  Sicha-us,  who  at  the 
 same  time  discovered  to  her  the  spot  where  his  treas- 
 ures were  concealed,  and  urged  her  to  seek  her  own 
 safety  in  fli-rht.  Virgil  sanctions  the  story,  that  the 
 Carthaginians,  when  making  a  foundation  for  their  city, 
 ducr  up  the  head  of  a  horse,  which  was  regarded  as  a 
 
 pre'saee  of  future  greatness  ;  a  story  which  Bochari 
 r         6  o  43Y 
 
DID 
 
 DIN 
 
 considers  to  have  arisen  from  the  word  Cacale  (one  of 
 the  names  of  Carlhage),  signifying  also,  in  Punic, 
 "  thf.  head  of  a  horse."  {Gcog.  Sacr.,  col.  471,  583, 
 743.)  But  the  point  on  which  the  Mantuan  poet  and 
 the  historians  most  essentially  differ,  is  the  maimer  of 
 Dido's  death.  Virgil  attributes  this  to  grief  on  her  be- 
 ing abandoned  by  .'Eneas,  whom  she  had  hospitably  re- 
 ceived when  wrecked  on  her  coast.  Opinions  vary 
 also  relative  to  the  time  of  Dido's  death  ;  but  it  is  gen- 
 erally agreed,  that  she  lived  some  centuries  later  than 
 the  Trojan  hero.  Her  subjects,  after  her  death,  paid 
 her  divine  honours. — The  whole  question  relative  to 
 Dido  is  discussed  by  Heyne  in  the  first  Excursus  to 
 the  fourth  /Eneid.  He  divides  the  earlier  history  of 
 Carthage  into  three  epochs  :  the  first  commences  fifty 
 years  before  the  taking  of  Troy  ;  the  second,  173  years 
 after  the  former;  and  the  third,  190  years  still  later. 
 At  the  commencement  of  this  third  epoch  he  makes 
 Dido  to  have  flourished,  and  to  have  improved,  not, 
 however,  to  have  founded,  the  city,  which,  in  fact,  ex- 
 isted long  before. — On  the  episode  of  Dido,  as  intro- 
 duced by  Virgil  into  his  jEneid,  Dunlop  {History 
 Rom.  Lie,  vol.  3,  p.  167)  has  the  following  remarks  : 
 "  Our  poet  has  just  so  far  availed  himself  of  ancient 
 traditions  as  to  give  probability  to  his  narration,  and 
 to  support  it  by  the  prisca  fides  facto.  He  wrote, 
 however,  at  such  a  distance  of  time  from  the  events 
 which  formed  the  groundwork  of  his  poem,  and  the 
 events  themselves  were  so  obscure,  that  he  could  de- 
 part from  history  without  violating  probability.  Thus, 
 it  appears  from  chronologv,  that  Dido  lived  many  hun- 
 dred years  after  the  Trojan  war  ;  but  the  point  was  one 
 of  obscure  antiquity,  known  perhaps  to  few  readers, 
 and  not  very  precisely  ascertained.  Hence,  so  far  was 
 the  violence  offered  to  chronology  from  revolting  his 
 countrymen,  that  Ovid,  who  was  so  knowing  in  an- 
 cient histories  and  fables,  wrote  an  heroic  epistle  as 
 addressed  by  Dido  to  ^neas." — In  giving  the  narra- 
 tive of  Dido,  we  have  given  also  the  etymology  of  the 
 name,  as  assigned  by  some  of  the  ancient  writers. 
 The  derivation,  however,  appears  to  be  an  erroneous 
 one.  Dido  neither  denotes  "  the  heroine."  as  Servius 
 maintains  {ad  JEn.,  4,  36),  and  as  we  have  already 
 given  it ;  nor  "  the  man-slayer"  (uvf5po0ovof),  as  Eu- 
 stathius  pretends  (compare  Bochart,  col.  746);  nor 
 "  the  wanderer"  (?;  7T?iav7/Tig),  as  we  find  it  stated  in 
 the  Etymologicon  Magnum.  The  name  Dido  means 
 nothing  more  than  "  the  beloved,"  whether  the  refer- 
 ence be  to  Baal  or  to  her  husband  :  '^  amor,  dclicicB 
 ejus,  sive  Baalis,  sive  mariti."  (Gcseniiis,  Phcen. 
 Mon.,  p.  406.)  The  other  appellation,  Elissa  (more 
 correctly,  perhaps,  Elisa),  means  "  the  exulting''''  or 
 "joyous  one"  {Gesen.,  I.  c),  and  not,  as  Bochart 
 makes  it,  "  the  divine  maiden."  {Bochart,  Geogr. 
 Sacr.,  col.  472.) 
 
 DinvMAON,  an  artist,  mentioned  in  Virgil.  {JEn., 
 5,  o!)9.)     The  name,  of  course,  is  imaginary. 
 
 DiDY.MUs,  a  famous  grammarian,  the  son  of  a  seller 
 of  fish  at  Alexandrea,  was  born  in  the  consulship  of 
 Antonius  and  Cicero,  B  C.  63,  and  flourished  in  the 
 reign  of  Augustvis.  Macrobius  calls  him  the  greatest 
 grammarian  of  his  own  or  any  other  time.  {Sat.,  5, 
 22.)  According  to  Alhenaeus  (4,  p.  139,  c),  he  pub- 
 lished 3500  volumes,  and  had  written  so  much  that  he 
 was  called  "  the  forgcttcr  of  books"  {Piljlioluda^),  for 
 he  often  forgot  what  he  had  written  himself ;  and  also 
 "  the  man  with  brazen  boicels"  (xaTiKtvTFpo^),  from  his 
 unwearied  industry.  To  judge  from  the  specimens  of 
 his  writings  given  by  Athenteus,  we  need  not  much 
 regret  the  loss  of  them.  His  criticisms  were,  ac- 
 cording to  Suidas,  of  the  Aristarchean  school.  He 
 wrote,  among  other  things,  an  explanation  of  the  Aga- 
 memnon of  Ion  {Athcn.,  11,  p.  418,  d.)  ;  and  also  of 
 the  plays  of  Phrynichus  {Id.,  9,  p.  371,  /.);  several 
 treatises  against  Juba,  king  of  Maurctania  {Svid.,  s.  v. 
 Moficf) ;  a  book  on  the  corruption  of  diction  {Athen.,  9, 
 43S 
 
 p.  368,  b.),  &c.  The  Scholia  Minora  on  Horner  have 
 been  attributed  to  him,  but  incorrectly,  for  Didymns 
 himself  is  quoted  in  these  notes.  The  collection  of 
 proverbs  extant  under  the  name  of  Zenobius,  was  partly 
 taken  from  a  previous  collection  made  by  Didvnnis  ; 
 and  about  sixty  fragments  of  his  fifteen  books  on  agri- 
 culture are  preserved  in  the  collection  of  Cassianus 
 Bassus. 
 
 DiEspiTER,  a  name  given  to  Jupiter  as  "  the  Father 
 of  Light."     (  y^zd.  Jupiter.) 
 
 DiGENTiA,  a  small  stream,  watering  the  vale  of  Us- 
 tica,  near  the  Tiburtine  villa  of  Horace.  It  is  cele- 
 brated by  the  poet  for  the  refreshing  coolness  of  its 
 waters,  and  the  beautiful  scenery  along  its  banks. 
 The  modern  name  is  La  Liccma.  {Horat.,  Ep-it.,  1, 
 18,  104.) 
 
 DiNARCHUs,  one  of  the  ten  Greek  orators,  for  the 
 explanation  of  whose  orations  Harpocration  compiled 
 his  lexicon.  He  was  a  Corinthian  by  birth,  but  set- 
 tled at  Athens,  and  became  intimate  with  Theophras- 
 tus  and  Demetrius  Phalereus.  Dionysius  of  Halicar- 
 nassus  fixes  his  birth  at  B  C.  361.  The  time  of  his 
 highest  reputation  was  after  the  death  of  Alexander, 
 when  Demosthenes  and  other  great  orators  were  dead 
 or  banished.  He  seems  to  have  got  his  living  by  wri- 
 ting speeches  for  those  who  were  in  want  of  them,  and 
 he  carried  on  apparently  a  profitable  business  in  this 
 way.  Having  always  been  a  friend  to  the  aristocrat- 
 ical  party,  he  was  involved  in  a  charge  of  conspiracy 
 against  the  democracy,  and  withdrew  to  Chalcis  in 
 Euboea.  He  was  allowed  to  return  to  Athens  by  De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes,  after  an  absence  of  fifteen  vears. 
 On  his  return,  Dinarchus,  who  had  brought  all  his 
 money  back  with  him,  lodged  with  one  Proxenus,  an 
 Athenian,  a  friend  of  his,  who,  hov^'ever,  if  the  story  be 
 true,  proved  to  be  a  knave,  and  robbed  the  old  man  of 
 his  money,  or,  at  least,  colluded  with  the  thieves.  Di- 
 narchus brought  an  action  against  him,  and,  for  the  first 
 time  in  his  life,  made  his  appearance  in  a  court  of  jus- 
 tice. The  charge  against  Proxenus,  which  is  drawn 
 up  with  a  kind  of  legal  formality,  is  preserved  by  Dio- 
 nysius of  Halicarnassus.  Of  the  numerous  orations 
 of  Dinarchus,  only  three  remain,  and  these  are  not  en- 
 titled to  any  very  high  praise.  One  of  them  is  against 
 Demosthenes,  touching  the  affair  of  Harpalus.  Dio- 
 nysius passes  rather  a  severe  judgment  on  Dinarchus. 
 He  considers  him  merely  an  imitator  of  Lysias,  Hy- 
 perides,  and  Demosthenes,  and  though  succeeding, 
 to  a  certain  extent,  in  copying  the  several  styles  of 
 these  three  great  orators,  yet  failing,  as  all  copiers 
 from  models  must  fail,  in  that  natural  expression  and 
 charm  which  are  the  characteristics  of  originality. 
 The  extant  orations  of  Dinarchus  are  found  in  the 
 usual  collections  of  the  Attic  orators.  {Dion.  Hal.,  de 
 Dinarch.  Jud. — Op.,  cd.  Kciske,  vol.  5,  p.  C29,  seqq.) 
 
 Dixnv.Mus  or  a  {orum),  I.  a  mountain  of  Galatia  in 
 Asia  Minor,  placed  by  Ptolemy  southeast  of  Pessinus, 
 while  Strabo  says  that  the  city  hiy  upon  it.  The  latter 
 writer  names  it  Dindymus,  which  is  generally  followed 
 by  subsequent  geographers.  Mannert,  however,  con- 
 siders the  true  name  to  have  been  Didymus,  from  the 
 Greek  didvfior  {twin),  and  supposes  this  appellation  to 
 have  been  given  to  it  from  its  double  summit.  One 
 of  these  summits  had  the  name  of  Agdistis  ;  and  on 
 this,  according  to  Pausanius,  Atvs  was  buried.  Man- 
 nert makes  Dindymus  to  have  been  at  the  northern 
 extremity  of  a  chain  of  mountains  known  by  the  name 
 of  Olympus,  not  to  be  confounded,  however,  with  the 
 mountain  named  Olympus  near  Prusa  in  Bithynia,  nor 
 with  another  Olympus  in  Galatia,  on  which  the  Tolis- 
 toboii  collected  their  forces  to  resist  the  proconsul 
 Manlius.  The  whole  march  of  the  Roman  army,  as 
 described  by  Livy,  shows  that  the  last-mentioned 
 mountain  lay  about  ten  geographical  miles  northwest 
 of  Ancyra.  The  goddess  Cybele  was  worshipped  at 
 Pessinus  and  on  Mount  Dindymus,  and  hence  was 
 
DTO 
 
 DIOCLETIANUS. 
 
 called  Dindyniene.  {Mannert,  Anc.  Gcosfr.,  vol.  6, 
 3,  G3.) — II.  A  mountain  in  the  island  of  Cyzicus,  and 
 overhanging  the  city.  J^  bad  on  its  summit  a  temple, 
 said  to  have  been  erected  by  the  Argonauts  in  honour 
 of  Gybele.     {Slrabo,  575.) 
 
 DiNiA,  a  town  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  and  the  cap- 
 ital of  the  Bodiontici.  Its  name  is  said  to  be  of  Cel- 
 tic origin,  being  derived  from  din,  water,  and  ia,  hot, 
 so  called  from  the  thermal  waters  at  the  distance  of  a 
 quarter  of  a  league  from  it.  It  is  now  Digne.  (Com- 
 pare Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  106.) 
 
 DiNocRATES,  a  very  celebrated  Macedonian  archi- 
 tect, who  offered  to  cut  Mount  Athos  into  a  statue  of 
 Alexander.  {Vid.  Athos,  at  the  close  of  the  article.) 
 The  monarch  took  him  to  Egypt,  and  employed  him  in 
 several  works  of  art.  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  directed 
 him  to  construct  a  temple  for  his  queen  Arsinoe,  after 
 her  death  ;  and  the  intention  was  to  have  the  ceiling  of 
 loadstone,  and  the  statue  of  iron,  \n  order  that  the  lat- 
 ter might  appear  to  be  suspended  in  the  air.  The 
 death  of  the  artist  himself  frustrated  the  undertaking. 
 {Pliny,  34,  14.) 
 
 DfNosTRATEs,  a  famous  mathematician  of  the  Pla- 
 tonic school,  the  brother  of  Menechares,  and  disciple 
 of  Plato.  Pursuing  the  steps  of  his  brother,  who  am- 
 plified the  theory  of  the  conic  sections,  Dinostrates  is 
 said  to  have  made  many  mathematical  discoveries  ; 
 but  he  is  particularly  distinguished  as  the  inventor  of 
 the  quadratrix.  Montucla,  however,  ob.serves,  that 
 there  is  some  reason  for  ascribing  the  original  inven- 
 tion of  this  curve  to  Hippias  of  Elea,  an  ingenious  phi- 
 losopher and  geometer  contemporary  with  Socrates. 
 (Piodus,  Comment,  in  Eucl.,  2,  4. — Pappus,  Coll. 
 Math.,  4,  prop.  25.) 
 
 DiocLEA,  a  town  of  Dalmatia,  the  birthplace,  ac- 
 cording to  some,  of  the  Emperor  Dioclesian.  Its  ruins 
 are  near  the  modern  Narcnza. 
 
 DiocLETiANOPoLis,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  called  so 
 in  honour  of  Dioclesian,  and  supposed  by  Mannert 
 {Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  479)  to  have  been  identical  with 
 Pella. 
 
 Dioci.ETiANUs,  Caius  Valerius  .Tovius,  a  cele- 
 brated Roman  emperor,  born  of  an  obscure  family  in 
 Dalmatia,  at  the  town  of  Dioclea  or  Doclea,  from 
 which  town  he  derived  his  first  name,  which  was 
 probably  Docles,  afterward  lengthened  to  the  more 
 harmonious  Greek  form  of  Diodes,  and  at  lengt^, 
 after  his  accession  to  the  empire,  to  the  Roman  form 
 of  Diocletianus.  He  likewise,  on  this  occasion,  as- 
 sumed the  patrician  name  of  Valerius.  Some,  how- 
 ever, make  him  to  have  been  born  at  Salona.  His 
 birth  year  also  is  differently  given.  The  common 
 account  says  245  A.D.,  but  other  statements  make 
 him  ten  years  older.  He  was  first  a  coirimon  soldier, 
 and  by  merit  and  success  gradually  rose  to  rank.  At 
 the  commencement  of  his  career,  and  while  he  occu- 
 "pied  some  inferior  post,  it  is  said  that  a  Druidess, 
 in  whose  house  he  lodged,  upbraided  him  with  covet- 
 ousness,  to  whom  he  jocosely  replied,  "  I  shall  be 
 more  generous  when  I  am  emperor."  "  You  are  jo- 
 king," replied  the  Druidess  ;  "  but  I  tell  you,  in  good 
 earnest,  that  you  will  attain  to  the  empire  after  you 
 have  killed  a  boar."  This  circumstance  is  said  to 
 have  occurred  in  the  city  of  Tongres,  and  present  bish- 
 opric of  Liege. — Dioclesian  served  in  Gaul,  in  Moesia, 
 under  Probus,  and  was  present  at  the  campaign  against 
 the  Persians,  when  Carus  perished  in  so  mysterious  a 
 manner.  He  commanded  the  household  or  imperial 
 body-guard  when  young  Numerianus,  the  son  of  Ca- 
 rus, was  secretly  put  to  death  by  Aper,  his  father-in- 
 law,  while  travelling  in  a  close  litter  on  account  of  ill- 
 ness, on  the  return  of  the  army  from  Persia.  The 
 death  of  Numerianus  being  discovered,  after  several 
 days,  by  the  soldiers,  near  Chalcedon,  they  arrested 
 Aper,  and  proclaimed  Dioclesian  emperor^  who,  ad- 
 dressing the   army    from   his  tribiral   in   the   camp, 
 
 protested  his  innocence  of  the  death  of  Numerianus, 
 and  then,  upbraiding  Aper  for  the  crime,  plunged  his 
 sword  into  his  body.  The  new  emperor  observed  to 
 a  friend  that  he  had  now  "killed  the  boar,"  punning 
 on  the  word  Aper,  which  means  a  boar,  and  alluding 
 to  the  prediction  of  the  Druidess.  Dioclesian,  in  fact, 
 self-composed  and  strong-minded  in  other  respects, 
 was  all  his  life  an  anxious  believer  in  divination,  which 
 superstition  led  him  probably  to  inflict  summary  pun- 
 ishment upon  Aper  with  his  own  hands.  He  made 
 his  solemn  entry  into  Nicomedia  in  September,  284 
 A.D.,  and  afterward  chose  this  town  for  his  favourite 
 residence.  Carinus,  the  other  son  of  Carus,  having 
 collected  a  force  to  oppose  Dioclesian,  the  two  armies 
 met  at  Margium  in  Moesia,  where  the  soldiers  of  Cari- 
 nus had  the  advantage  at  first,  but  Carinus  himsell 
 having  been  slain  by  one  of  his  own  officers,  both  ar- 
 mies joined  in  acknowledging  Dioclesian  emperor, 
 A.D.  285.  Dioclesian  was  generous  after  his  victory, 
 and,  contrary  to  the  common  practice,  there  were  no 
 executions,  proscriptions,  or  confiscations  of  property  ; 
 he  even  retained  most  of  the  officers  of  Carinus  in 
 their  places.  Dioclesian,  on  assuming  the  imperial 
 power,  found  the  empire  assailed  in  various  quarters, 
 but  his  talents  and  energy  soon  succeeded  in  counter- 
 acting these  evils.  In  the  year  286,  he  chose  his  old 
 friend  Maximian,  a  brave,  but  rude  and  uncultivated 
 soldier,  as  his  colleague  in  the  empire,  and  it  is  to 
 the  credit  of  both  that  the  latter  continued  ever  after 
 faithful  to  Dioclesian,  and  willing  to  follow  his  advice. 
 Maximian  was  stationed  in  Gaul,  and  on  the  German 
 frontier,  to  repel  invasion  ;  Dioclesian  resided  chiefly 
 in  the  East,  to  watch  the  Persians,  though  he  appears 
 to  have  visited  Rome  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign. 
 After  the  lapse  of  a  few  years,  Dioclesian  thought  it 
 necessary,  in  consequence  of  invasions  and  revolts  in 
 different  parts  of  the  empire,  to  increase  the  number 
 of  his  colleagues.  On  the  1st  March,  292,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  some,  291,  he  appointed  Galerius  a  Cssar,  and 
 Maximian,  at  the  same  time,  adopted,  on  his  part, 
 Constantius  Chlorus.  The  two  Caesars  repudiated 
 their  respective  wives  ;  Galerius  married  Valeria,  Dio- 
 clesian's  daughter,  and  Constantius  married  Theodora, 
 daughter  of  Maximian.  The  two  Caesars  remained 
 subordinate  to  the  two  Augusli,  though  each  of  the 
 four  was  intrusted  with  the  administration  of  a  part  of 
 the  empire.  Dioclesian  kept  to  himself  Asia  and 
 Egypt;  Maximian  had  Italy  and  Africa;  Galerius, 
 Thrace  and  Illyricum ;  and  Constantius,  Gaul  and 
 Spain.  But  it  was  rather  an  administrative  than  a 
 political  division.  Ki  the  head  of  the  edicts  of  each 
 prince  were  put  the  names  of  all  four,  beginning  with 
 that  of  Dioclesian.  Dioclesian  resorted  to  this  ar- 
 rangement probably  as  much  for  reasons  of  internal  as 
 of  external  policy.  By  fixing  upon  four  colleagues, 
 one  in  each  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  empire,  each 
 having  his  army,  and  all  mutually  checking  one  an- 
 other, Dioclesian  put  a  stop  to  military  insolence  and 
 anarchy.  The  empire  was  no  longer  put  up  for  sale  ; 
 this  immediate  and  intolerable  evil  was  effectually 
 cured,  though  another  danger  remained,  that  of  dis- 
 putes and  wars  between  the  various  sharers  of  the  im- 
 perial power;  still  it  was  a  smail  danger,  and  one 
 which  did  not  manifest  itself  so  long  as  Dioclesian  re- 
 mained at  the  helm.  Writers  have  been  very  free  of 
 their  censure  upon  this  emperor,  for  parcelling,  as  they 
 call  it,  the  empire  ;  but  this  was  the  only  chance  there 
 was  of  preventing  its  crumbling  to  pieces.  Italv  and 
 Rome,  in  particular,  lost  bv  the  change  :  they  no  long- 
 er monopolized  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  world  ; 
 but  the  other  provinces  gained  by  this.— 1  he  new 
 Cajsars  justified  Dioclesian's  expectations.  Success- 
 ful wars  were  waged  in  diflcrent  quarters  of  the  em- 
 pire ;  and  though^ Galerius  at  first  met  vvith  a  defeat 
 from  Narses,  king  of  Persia,  vet.  in  ihe  following 
 year,  he  gave  the  Persians  a  terrible  overthrow.    Nar 
 
DIOCLETIANUS. 
 
 D  10 
 
 ses  sued  for  peace,  which  was  granted  Ijy  Dioclesian, 
 on  condition  of  the  Persians  giving  up  aii  the  territory 
 on  tlie  right  or  western  bank  of  the  I'igris.  'I'iiis 
 peace  was  concluded  m  297,  and  lasted  forty  years. 
 At  the  same  tune,  Dioclesian  marched  into  Egvpt 
 against  AcliiUajus,  whom  he  besieged  in  Alexandrea, 
 wnich  he  look  after  a  siege  of  eight  rnontlis,  when  the 
 usur[)er  and  his  chief  adherents  were  put  to  death. 
 Dioclesian  is  said  to  have  behaved  on  this  occasion 
 with  unusual  sternness,  several  towns  of  Egypt,  among 
 others  Busiris  and  Ooptos,  being  destroyed.  For 
 several  years  after  this  the  empire  enjoyed  rejjose,  and 
 Dioclesian  and  his  colleagues  were  chiefly  emj.iloyed 
 in  framing  laws  and  administrative  regulations,  and  in 
 conslructmg  forts  on  the  frontiers.  Dioclesian  kept 
 a  splendid  court  at  Nicoinedia,  which  town  he  em- 
 bellished with  numerous  structures.  He,  or  rather 
 Maximian  by  his  order,  caused  the  magnificent  Ther- 
 ms: at  Rome  to  be  built,  the  remains  of  which  still 
 bear  Dioclesian's  name,  and  which  contained,  besides 
 the  baths,  a  library,  a  museum,  and  other  establish- 
 ments.— In  February,  303,  Dioclesian  issued  an  edict 
 against  the  Christians,  ordering  their  churches  to  be 
 pulled  down,  their  sacred  books  to  be  burned,  and  all 
 Christians  to  be  dismissed  from  ofifices  civil  or  military ; 
 with  other  penalties,  exclusive,  however,  of  death. 
 Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this  measure. 
 It  is  known  that  Galerius  had  always  been  hostile  to 
 the  Christians,  while  Dioclesian  had  openly  favoured 
 them,  and  had  employed  them  in  his  armies  and  about 
 his  person,  and  Eusebius  speaks  of  the  prosperity,  se- 
 curity, and  protection  which  they  enjoyed  under  his 
 reign.  They  had  churches  in  most  towns,  and  one 
 at  Nicomedia,  in  particular,  under  the  eye  of  the  em- 
 peror. Just  before  the  edict  was  issued,  Galerius  had 
 repaired  to  Nicomedia  to  induce  Dioclesian  to  pro- 
 scribe the  Christians.  He  filled  the  emperor's  mind 
 with  reports  of  conspiracies  and  seditions,  and,  aided 
 by  the  artifices  of  the  heathen  priesthood,  was  at  last 
 but  too  successful.  The  barbarities  that  followed 
 upon  the  issuing  of  the  edict  above  referred  to  are 
 utterly  inconceivable.  Malicious  ingenuity  was  racked 
 to  the  utmost  to  devise  tortures  for  the  persecuted  fol- 
 lowers of  Jesus.  For  the  space  of  ten  years  did  this 
 persecution  rage  with  scarcely  mitigated  horrors ;  and 
 such  multitudes  were  massacred  in  all  parts  of  the 
 empire,  that  at  last  the  imperial  murderers  ventured 
 to  erect  a  triumphal  column,  bearing  the  barbarously 
 boastful,  yet  false  inscription,  that  they  had  extin- 
 guished the  Christian  name  and  superstition,  and  re- 
 stored the  worship  of  the  gods  to  its  former  purity  and 
 splendour.  This  was  the  last  persecution  under  the 
 lioman  empire,  and  it  has  been  called  by  the  name  of 
 Dioclesian.  But,  as  the  persecution  raged  with  most 
 fury  in  the  provinces  subject  to  the  rule  of  Galerius, 
 and  as  he  continued  it  for  several  years  after  Dio- 
 clesian's abdication,  it  might  with  more  propriety  be 
 called  the  Galerian  persecution. — In  November,  303, 
 Dioclesian  repaired  to  Rome,  where  he  and  Ma.ximian 
 enjoyed  the  honour  of  a  triumph,  followed  by  festive 
 games.  This  was  the  last  triumph  that  Rome  saw. 
 The  populace  of  that  city  complained  of  the  economy 
 of  Dioclesian  on  that  occasion,  and  so  offended  him  by 
 their  jibes  and  sarcasms,  that  he  left  Rome  abruptly, 
 in  the  month  of  December,  in  very  cold  weather.  A 
 long  illness  ensued,  which  confined  tiim  at  Nicomedia  ; 
 and,  soon  after  his  recovery,  he  was  visited  by  Galerius, 
 who  persuaded  and  almost  forc(  d  him  to  abdicate. 
 According  to  others,  however,  Dioclesian  did  it  spon- 
 taneously. Setting  off  for  Salona,  in  Dalmatia,  he 
 built  himself,  near  this  place,  an  extensive  palace  by 
 the  seashore,  in  which  he  lived  for  the  rest  of  his  life, 
 respected  by  the  other  emperors,  without  cares  and 
 without  regret.  At  the  same  time  that  Dioclesian  ab- 
 dicated at  Nicomedia,  Maximian,  according  to  an 
 agreement  between  them,  performed  a  similar  ceremo- 
 440 
 
 ny  at  Milan.  Maximian  retired  to  his  seat  in  Lucania.. 
 but,  not  being  endowed  with  the  firmness  of  Dioclesian, 
 he  tried  some  time  after  to  ^cover  his  former  power, 
 and  wrote  to  his  old  colleague  to  induce  him  to  do  the 
 same.  "  "Were  you  Imt  to  come  to  Salona, ""answer- 
 ed Dioclesian,  "and  see  the  vegetables  which  I  raise 
 in  my  garden  with  my  own  hands,  you  would  no  long- 
 er talk  to  me  of  empire."  Dioclesian  died  in  313, 
 surviving  his  abdication  about  nine  years. — He  ranks 
 among  the  most  distinguished  emperors  of  Rome  ;  his 
 reign  of  twenty-one  years  being,  uj)on  the  whole,  pros- 
 perous for  the  empire  and  credital)le  to  the  Roman 
 name.  He  was  severe,  but  not  wantonly  cruel,  and 
 we  ought  to  remember  that  mercy  vv-as  not  a  Roman 
 virtue.  His  conduct  after  his  abdication  shows  that 
 his  was  no  common  mind.  The  chief  charge  against 
 him  is  his  haughtiness  in  introducing  the  Oriental  cer- 
 emonial of  prostration  into  the  Roman  court.  The 
 Christian  writers,  and  especially  Lactantius,  have  spo- 
 ken unfavourably  of  him  ;  but  Lactantius  cannot  be 
 imphcitly  trusted.  (Eulrop.,  9,  19,  segg. — Aurcl. 
 Vict.,  39. —  Vopisc.  Carin.,  15. — Faneg.  Maxim. — 
 Lactam.,  de  mart,  persec,  8,  et  18. — Eusch.,  Vit. 
 Const.,  c.  18,  &,c.) 
 
 DioDORUs,  I.  an  historian,  surnamed  Siculus,  be- 
 cause born  at  Agyrium  m  Sicily,  and  the  contempo- 
 rary of  Julius  Cajsar  and  Augustus.  Our  principal 
 data  for  the  events  of  his  life  are  derived  from  his  own 
 work.  In  early  life  he  travelled  into  Asia,  Africa,  and 
 Europe,  and  on  his  return  established  himself  at  Rome, 
 where  he  published  a  general  history,  in  forty  books, 
 under  the  title  of  Bt6?iiodi'iK7}  laropiKi],  or  Historical 
 Library.  To  this  Lbour  he  consecrated  thirty  years 
 of  his  life.  The  history  comprehended  a  period  of 
 1138  years,  besides  the  time  preceding  the  Trojan 
 war,  and  was  carried  down  to  the  end  of  Caesar's  Gal- 
 lic war.  His  work  was  written  after  the  death  of  Cae- 
 sar. The  first  six  books  were  devoted  to  the  fabulous 
 history  anterior  to  the  war  of  Troy,  and  of  these,  the 
 three  former  to  the  antiquities  of  barbarian  states,  the 
 three  latter  to  the  archajology  of  the  Greeks.  But  the 
 historian,  though  treating  of  the  fabulous  history  of  the 
 barbarians  in  the  first  three  books,  enters  into  an  ac- 
 count of  their  manners  and  usages,  and  carries  down 
 the  history  of  these  nations  to  a  point  of  time  posterior 
 to  the  Trojan  war ;  thus,  in  the  first  book,  he  gives  a 
 sketch  of  Egyptian  history  from  the  reign  of  Menes 
 to  Amasis.  In  the  eleven  following  books  he  detailed 
 the  different  events  which  happened  between  the  Tro- 
 jan war  and  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  and  the 
 remaining  twenty-three  books  contained  the  history  of 
 the  world  down  to  the  Gallic  war  and  the  conquest 
 of  Britain.  We  have  only  a  small  part  remaining  of 
 this  vast  compilation,  namely,  the  first  five  books,  then 
 from  the  11th  to  the  20th,  both  inclusive,  and  finally 
 fragments  of  the  other  books  from  the  Gth  to  the  10th 
 inclusive,  and  also  of  the  last  twenty.  These  rescued 
 portions  v/e  owe  to  Eusebius,  to  John  Malala,  Syncel- 
 lus,  and  other  writers  of  the  lower  empire,  who  have 
 cited  them  in  the  course  of  their  works  ;  but,  above 
 all,  to  the  authors  of  the  "Extracts  respecting  Em- 
 bassies," and  of  the  "  Extracts  respecting  Virtues  and 
 Vices."  \^'e  are  indel)ted  also  for  a  part  of  them  to 
 the  patriarch  Photius,  who  has  inserted  in  his  Myrio-- 
 biblon  extracts  from  several  of  the  books,  from  the 
 31st  to  the  33d,  and  from  the  36ih  to  the  38ih  and 
 40th.  Important  additions  have  also  recently  been 
 made  from  MSS.  in  the  Vatican  Library.  (As  regards 
 the  sources  whence  Diodorus  drew  the  materials  of 
 his  work,  consult  the  dissertation  of  Heyne,  "  De  font 
 iliHs  hist.  Diodori,'"  prefixed  to  the  Bipont  edition.) — 
 A  great  advantage  possessed  by  Diodorus  over  most 
 of  the  ancient  historians,  is  his  indicating  the  order  oi 
 time  :  though  it  must  be  acknowledged,  at  the  same 
 time,  that  his  chronology  offers  occasional  difficulties, 
 and  often  needs  reducing.     Diodorus,  who  wrote  al 
 
DIODORUS. 
 
 DIO 
 
 Rome,  and  at  a  period  when  the  dominion  of  this 
 city  extended  over  the  greatest  part  of  the  civih'zed 
 world,  arrai!g€s  his  narrative  in  accordance  with  tlie 
 Kouian  calendar  and  consular  fasti;  he  frequently 
 adds  the  names  of  the  Athenian  archons  that  were 
 contemporaneous.  Now,  at  the  tune  when  he  wrote, 
 the  consuls  entered  on  their  office  on  the  iirst  ol  Jan- 
 uary, whereas,  after  the  adoption  ot  the  cycle  of  Me- 
 lon, B.C.  AO'Z,  the  Athenian  archons  commenced  their 
 terms  about  the  middle  of  the  year.  Diodorus,  how- 
 ever, limits  himself  to  the  mention  of  those  archons 
 that  entered  upon  their  duties  in  the  course  of  the  con- 
 sular year,  which  forms  the  basis  of  his  chronology  : 
 thus,  the  events  which  took  place  during  the  lirst  six 
 months  of  a  year,  ought  to  be  referred  to  the  archon 
 mentioned  by  him  in  the  preceding  year.  Nor  is  this 
 all ;  the  duration  of  the  consulship  was  that  of  the  Ro- 
 man year,  which,  from  a  very  early  period,  was  made 
 to  consist  of  365  days;  while  the  duration  of  the  ar- 
 chonship  remaitied  for  a  long  time  subject  to  the  ir- 
 regularity of  the  Athenian  calendar  and  years,  the  lat- 
 ter being  sometimes  354  days,  at  other  tunes  384. 
 Thus,  to  cite  only  a  single  instance,  Diodorus  places 
 the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  in  Ohe  4th  year  of  the 
 113th  Olympiad,  a  period  with  which  the  names  of  the 
 consuls  also  indicated  by  him  fully  agree  ;  whereas,  by 
 th.e  name  of  the  archon,  he  makes  it  to  be  the  follow- 
 ing year,  the  1st  of  the  114th  Olympiad.  (Compare 
 Diod.  Sic,  17,  113. — Annalcs  dcs  Lag  ides,  par  M. 
 ChampoUion  Figcac,  vol.  1,  p.  264.)  We  must  care- 
 fully attend  to  this  point  in  remodelling  the  chronology 
 of  Diodorus. — With  regard  to  the  historical  value  of 
 the  work  itself,  and  the  merits  of  the  author,  the  most 
 discrepant  opinions  have  been  entertained  by  modern 
 writers.  The  Spanish  scholar  Vives  called  him  a 
 mere  trifler ;  and  Jean  Bodin  accused  him,  in  no 
 sparing  terms,  of  ignorance  and  carelessness  ;  while, 
 on  the  other  hand,  he  has  been  defended  and  extolled 
 by  many  eminent  critics  as  an  accurate  and  able  wri- 
 ter. I'he  principal  fault  of  Diodorus  seems  to  have 
 been  the  too  great  extent  of  his  work.  It  was  not 
 j)0ssible  for  any  man  living  in  the  time  of  Augustus  to 
 write  an  une.Kceptionable  universal  history.  It  is  not, 
 then,  a  matter  of  surprise,  that  Diodorus,  who  does  not 
 a[)pear  to  have  been  a  man  of  superior  abilities,  should 
 have  fallen  into  a  number  of  particular  errors,  and 
 should  have  placed  too  much  reliance  on  authorities 
 sometimes  far  from  trustworthy.  Wherever  he  speaks 
 from  his  own  observations,  he  may,  perhaps,  generally 
 be  relied  upon  ;  but  when  he  is  compiling  from  the 
 writings  of  others,  he  has  shown  little  judgment  in  the 
 selection,  and  has,  in  many  cases,  proved  himself  in- 
 capable of  discriminating  "between  the  fabulous  and 
 the  true.  We  must  not  blame  him  for  having  given 
 a  Greek  colouring  to  the  manners  of  other  nations 
 which  he  describes,  for  it  was  the  common  practice  of 
 Greek  writers  to  do  so,  and  he  has  not  erred  so  much 
 in  this  respect  as  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus.  We 
 are  indebted  to  him,  moreover,  for  many  particulars 
 which,  but  for  him,  we  should  never  have  known  ;  and 
 we  must  regret  that  we  have  lost  the  last,  and  proba- 
 bly the  most  valuable,  portion  of  his  works,  as  even 
 by  the  fragments  of  them  which  remain  we  are  enabled, 
 in  many  jilaces,  to  correct  the  errors  of  Livy.  The 
 style  of  Diodorus,  though  not  very  pure  or  elegant,  is 
 sutficiently  perspicuous,  and  presents  but  few  difficul- 
 ties, except  where  the  MSS.  are  defective,  as  is  fre- 
 quently the  case.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p. 
 77,  seqq. — ISiehuhr,  Rom.  GcscL,  vol.  3,  p.  190,  jfbtc 
 297.)  The  best  edition  of  Diodorus  is  that  of  Wes- 
 seling,  Ainst.,  2  vols,  folio,  17-16  ;  reprinted  at  the 
 Bipont  press  in  11  vols.  Svo,  1793,  with  dissertations 
 by  Heyne,  and  notes  and  disputations  by  Eyring. — II. 
 A  native  of  Caria,  and  discij)le  of  the  Megaric  school. 
 He  was  a  great  adept  in  that  s|)ecies  of  verbal  com- 
 bat which  prevailed  among  the  philosophers  of  his  sect. 
 Kkk 
 
 It  is  said  ihac  a  question  was  proposed  to  him  in  the 
 presence  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  by  Stilpo,  one  of  his  fra- 
 ternity, which  he  required  lime  to  answer,  and  on  this 
 account  he  was  ridiculed  by  Ptolemy,  and  denomina- 
 ted Ckronus  (Xpovos).  Mortified  at  this  defeat,  he 
 wrote  a  book  On  the  question,  but  nevertheless  died  o' 
 vexation.  He  is  the  reputed  author  of  the  fainouf 
 sophism  against  motion.  "  If  any  body  be  moved,  it 
 is  moved  either  in  the  place  where  it  is,  or  in  a  placf. 
 where  it  is  not,  for  nothing  can  act  or  suffer  wher«' 
 it  is  not,  and  therefore  there  is  no  such  thing  as  mo 
 tion."  Diodorus  was  suitably  rewarded  for  this  brill 
 iant  discovery  ;  having  dislocated  his  shoulder,  th» 
 surgeon  who  was  sent  for  kept  him  for  some  time  ii 
 torture,  while  he  proved  from  the  philosopher's  owr 
 mode  of  reasoning  that  the  bone  could  not  hav(< 
 moved  out  of  its  place.  {Seholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 3,  p.  253.) — III.  A  peripatetic  philosopher,  with  whom 
 the  uninterrupted  succession  of  the  peripatetic  school 
 terminated.  He  was  a  native  of  Tyre,  and  a  pupil 
 of  Critolaus.  Mention  is  often  made  of  him  in  the 
 selections  of  StobaBus,  and  also  in  the  works  of  Cice- 
 ro. l"he  sovereign  good,  according  to  Diodorus,  was 
 to  live  in  a  becoming  manner,  free  from  toil  and  care, 
 TO  u/.toxdi]Tu^  Kal  /caAfjf  f?}v,  or,  vacare  omni  molestia 
 cum  honestate,  as  Cicero  expresses  it.  {Acad.,  2,  42  ) 
 — IV.  An  orator  and  epigrammatic  poet,  a  native  of 
 Sardis.  He  was  surnamed  Zonas  {Zuvug).  He  fought 
 in  Asia,  and  was  contemporaneous  with  Mithradates 
 the  Great,  against  whom  he  was  charged  with  con- 
 spiring. He  defended  himself  successfully.  I\ine  of 
 his  epigrams  re'.nain.  {Jacobs,  Catal.  Poet.  Epigram, 
 in  Anlhol,  yoX.  3,  p.  S^'d.—Strab.,  627.)— V.  Another 
 native  of  Sardis,  who  wrote  historical  works,  odes,  and 
 epigrams.  Slrabo  speaks  of  him  as  subsequent  to  the 
 former,  and  a  contemporary  and  friend  of  his  own. 
 {Strab.,  627.)  We  have  one  of  his  epigrams  remain- 
 ing.    {Jacobs,  I.  c.) 
 
 Diogenes,  I.  a  celebrated  Cynic  philosopher  of  Si- 
 nope.  His  fa,ther,  who  was  a  banker,  was  convicted 
 of  debasing  the  public  coin,  and  was  obliged  to  leave 
 the  country,  or,  according  to  another  account,  his  fa- 
 ther and  himself  were  charged  with  this  offence,  and 
 the  former  was  thrown  into  prison,  while  the  son  es- 
 caped from  the  city  and  came  to  Athens.  Here  he 
 attached  himself,  as  a  disciple,  to  Antisthenes,  who 
 was  at  the  head  of  the  Cynics.  Antisthenes  at  first 
 refused  to  admit  him  into  his  house,  and  even  struck 
 him  with  a  stick.  Diogenes  calmly  bore  the  rebuke, 
 and  said,  Strike  me,  Antisthenes,  but  never  shall  you 
 find  a  slick  suiriciently  hard  to  remove  me  from  your 
 presence,  while  you  speak  anything  worth  hearing. 
 The  philosopher  was  so  much  pleased  with  this  reply, 
 that  he  at  once  admitted  him  among  his  scholars. 
 Diogenes  perfectly  adojited  the  principles  and  charac- 
 ter of  his  master.  Renouncing  every  other  object  of 
 ambition,  he  determined  to  distinguish  himself  by  his 
 contempt  of  riches  and  honours,  and  by  his  indignation 
 against  luxury.  He  wore  a  coarse  cloak;  carried  a 
 wallet  and  a  staff;  made  the  porticoes  and  other  pub- 
 lic places  his  habitation  ;  and  depended  upon  casual 
 contributions  for  his  daily  bread.  A  friend,  whom  he 
 had  desired  to  procure  him  a  cell,  not  executing  his  order 
 so  soon  as  was  expected,  he  took  up  his  abode  in  a 
 tub  or  large  vessel  in  the  Metroum.  It  is  probable, 
 however,  tTiat  this  was  only  a  temporary  expression  of 
 indignation  and  contempt,  and  that  he  did  not  make  a 
 tub  the  settled  place  of  his  residence.  Tins  famous 
 tub  is  indeed  celebrated  by  Juvenal ;  it  is  also  ridiculed 
 by  Lucian,  and  mentioned  by  Seneca.  But  no  notice 
 is  taken  of  so  singular  a  circumstance  by  other  ancient 
 writers  who  have  mentioned  this  philosopher;  not 
 even  by  Epictetus,  who  discourses  at  large  concerning 
 Diogenes,  and  relates  many  particulars  respecting  hia 
 maimer  of  life.  It  may  therefore  be  questioned  wheth- 
 er this  whole  story  is  not  to  be  ranked  among  the  mi 
 
 441 
 
DIOGENES. 
 
 DIOGENES. 
 
 meroiis  tales  which  have  been  invented  to  expose  the 
 sect  of  the  Cynics  to  ridicule.  It  cannot  be  doubled, 
 however,  that  Diogenes  practised  the  most  hardy  self- 
 control  and  the  most  rigid  abstinence;  exposing  him- 
 self to  the  utmost  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  liv- 
 ing upon  the  simplest  diet,  casually  supplied  by  the 
 hand  of  charity.  In  his  old  age,  sailing  to  ^Egina, 
 he  was  taken  by  pirates  and  carried  to  Crete,  where 
 he  was  exposed  to  sale  in  the  public  market.  When 
 the  auctioneer  asked  him  what  he  could  do,  he  said, 
 I  can  govern  men ;  therefore  sell  me  to  one  who  wants 
 a  master.  Xeniades,  a  wealthy  Corinthian,  happen- 
 ing at  that  instant  to  pass  by,  was  struck  with  the 
 singularity  of  his  reply,  and  purchased  him.  On 
 their  arrival  at  Corinth,  Xeniades  gave  him  his  free- 
 dom, and  committed  to  him  the  education  of  his 
 children  and  the  direction  of  his  domestic  concerns. 
 Diogenes  executed  this  trust  with  so  much  judgment 
 and  fidelity,  that  Xeniades  used  to  say  that  the  gods 
 had  sent  a  good  genius  to  his  house.  During  his  resi- 
 dence at  Corinth,  the  interview  between  him  and  Al- 
 exander is  said  to  have  taken  place.  Plutarch  relates, 
 ttiat  Alexander,  when  at  Corinth,  receiving  the  con- 
 gratulations of  all  ranks  on  being  appointed  to  com- 
 mand the  army  of  the  Greeks  against  the  Persians, 
 missed  Diogenes  among  the  number,  with  whose  char- 
 acter he  was  not  acquainted.  Curious  to  see  one  who 
 had  given  so  signal  an  instance  of  his  haughty  inde- 
 pendence of  spirit,  Alexander  went  in  search  of  him, 
 and  found  him  sitting  in  his  tub  in  the  sun.  "/aw 
 Alexander  the  Great,''''  said  the  monarch  ;  ^^  and  I  am 
 Diogenes  the  Cynic,''''  replied  the  philosopher.  Alex- 
 ander then  requested  that  he  would  inform  him  what 
 service  he  could  render  him  :  "  Stand  from  between 
 me  and  the  sun,"  .said  the  Cynic.  Alexander,  struck 
 with  the  reply,  said  to  his  friends  who  were  ridiculing 
 the  whimsical  singularity  of  the  philosopher,  "  If  I 
 were  not  Alexander,  I  would  wish  to  be  Diogenes." 
 This  story  is  too  good  to  be  omitted,  but  there  are  sev- 
 eral circumstances  which  in  some  degree  diminish  its 
 credibility.  It  supposes  Diogenes  to  have  lived  in  his 
 tub  at  Corinth,  whereas  it  appears  that  he  lived  there 
 in  the  house  of  Xeniades,  and  that,  if  he  ever  dwelt  in 
 a  tub,  he  left  it  behind  him  at  Athens.  Alexander, 
 moreover,  was  at  this  time  scarcely  20  years  old,  and 
 could  not  call  himself  Alexander  the  Great,  for  he  did 
 not  receive  this  title  till  his  Persian  and  Indian  expe- 
 dition, after  which  he  never  returned  to  Greece  ;  yet 
 the  whole  transaction  supposes  him  elated  with  the 
 pride  of  conquest.  Diogenes,  probably,  was  visited 
 by  Alexander,  when  the  latter  held  the  general  assem- 
 bly of  the  Greeks  at  Corinth,  and  was  received  by  him 
 with  rudeness  and  incivility,  which  may  have  given 
 rise  to  the  whole  story.  The  philosopher  at  this  time 
 would  be  about  70  years  of  age. — Various  accounts 
 are  given  concerning  the  manner  and  time  of  his  death. 
 It  seems  most  probable  that  he  died  at  Corinth,  of 
 mere  decay,  in  the  90t.h  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the 
 1  I4th  Olympiad.  His  friends  contended  for  the  honour 
 of  defraying  the  expenses  of  his  funeral ;  but  the  ma- 
 gistrates settled  the  dispute  by  ordering  him  an  inter- 
 ment at  the  public  expense.  A  column  of  Parian 
 marble,  terminated  by  the  figure  of  a  dog,  was  raised 
 over  his  tomb.  His  fellow  townsmen  of  Sinope  also 
 erected  brazen  statues  in  memory  of  the  philosopher. 
 Diogenes  left  behind  him  no  system  of  philosophy. 
 After  the  example  of  his  master,  he  was  more  atten- 
 tive to  practical  than  theoretical  wisdom.  The  follow- 
 ing are  a  few  of  the  particular  opinions  ascribed  to 
 him.  He  thought  exercise  was  indispensable,  and 
 able  to  effect  anything ;  that  there  were  two  kinds  of 
 exercise,  one  of  the  mind,  the  other  of  the  body,  and 
 that  one  of  these  was  of  no  value  without  the  other. 
 By  the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  he  did  not  mean  the 
 prosecution  of  any  science,  or  the  acquirement  of  anv 
 mental  accomplishment ;  all  such  things  he  considered 
 442 
 
 useless  ;  but  he  intended  such  a  cultivation  of  the 
 mind  as  might  serve  to  bring  it  into  a  healthy  and  vir- 
 tuous state,  and  produce  upon  it  an  effect  analogous  to 
 that  which  exercise  produces  upon  the  body.  He 
 adopted  Plato's  doctrine,  that  there  should  be  a  com- 
 munity of  wives  and  children  ;  and  he  held,  with  the 
 Dorian  lawgivers,  that  order  {Koa/uor)  was  the  basis 
 of  civil  government. — The  freedom  of  remark  in  which 
 Diogenes  indulged,  and  which  spared  neither  the  rich 
 and  powerful,  nor  even  the  religious  superstitions  of 
 the  age,  gave  great  offence  ;  and  the  consequence 
 was,  that  in  his  private  life  he  suffered  much  obloquy, 
 and  was  made  the  subject  of  ludicrous  and  disgrace- 
 ful calumny.  It  is  wholly  incredible,  that  a  man  who 
 is  universally  celebrated  for  his  sobriety  and  contempt 
 of  pleasure,  and  who,  for  his  vehement  indignation 
 against  vice,  and  his  bold  attempts  to  reform  the  age 
 in  which  he  lived,  has  been  represented  by  some  of  the 
 most  eminent  philosophers  as  one  endued  with  divine 
 vifisdom,  should  have  been  capable  of  committing  the 
 grossest  indecencies.  The  tale  which  is  related  of 
 him  and  the  courtesan  Lais  is  wholly  inconsistent  with 
 chronology,  for  Lais  must  have  been  fourscore  years 
 old,  and  Diogene%  seventy,  when  the  circumstance  is 
 related  to  have  taken  place..  The  truth  is,  we  are 
 chiefly  indebted  for  these  stories  to  Athenseus,  a  writer 
 who  seems  to  have  ransacked  every  corner  of  antiqui- 
 ty, and  of  his  own  invention  too,  for  tales  to  the  dis- 
 credit of  philosophy.  (Diog.  Laerlius,  'Vil.  Dwg. — 
 Plutarch,  Apoplh. — Enfield,  Hist.  Philos.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 305,  seqq.) — II.  A  native  of  Apollonia  in  Crete,  was 
 a  pupil  of  Anaximenes,  and  contemporary  with  Anax- 
 agoras.  Schleiermacher,  however,  who  is  followed  by 
 Schaubach,  the  editor  of  the  fragments  of  Anaxago- 
 ras,  affirms,  from  the  internal  evidence  of  the  fragments 
 of  the  two  philosophers,  that  Diogenes  preceded  Anax- 
 acToras.  But  Diogenes  might  have  written  before  An- 
 axagoras,  and  yet  have  been  his  junior,  as  we  know 
 was  the  case  with  Empedocles.  (Aristot.,  Met.,  1,  3, 
 p.  843,  b.)  Diogenes  followed  Anaximander  in  ma- 
 king air  the  primal  element  of  all  things  ;  but  he  car- 
 ried his  views  farther,  and  regarded  the  universe  as 
 issuing  from  an  intelligent  principle,  by  which  it  was 
 at  once  vivified  and  ordered,  a  rational  as  well  as  sen- 
 sitive soul,  but  still  without  recognising  any  distinction 
 between  matter  and  mind.  Diogenes  wrote  several 
 books  on  Cosmology  (Trrpt  tpvaeui;).  The  fragments 
 which  remain  have  been  recently  collected  and  edited 
 by  Panzerbeiter.  {Diog.  Laert.,  9,  9  — Bajjlc,  Hist. 
 Diet.,  s.  V. — Schleiermacher,  Mem.  Berlin.  Acad,  for 
 1815.— Philol.  Museum,  vol.  1,  p.  92.)— III.  Laer- 
 tius,  so  called  from  his  native  city,  Laertes  in  Cilicia. 
 He  wrote  the  lives  of  the  philosophers,  in  ten  books, 
 which  are  still  extant.  The  period  when  he  lived  is 
 not  exactly  known,  but  it  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 during  the  reigns  of  Septimius  Severus  and  Caracalla. 
 (Compare  lonsius,  de  Script.  Hist.  Phil.,  lib.  3,  c.  12, 
 <J  5.  seqq.)  Diogenes  is  thought  to  have  belonged  to 
 the  Epicurean  sect.  He  divides  all  the  Greek  philos- 
 ophers into  two  classes ;  those  of  the  Ionic  and  those 
 of  the  Italic  school.  He  derives  the  first  from  Anaxi- 
 mander, the  second  from  Pythagoras.  After  Socrates, 
 he  divides  the  Ionian  philosophers  into  three  branches  : 
 1st.  Plato  and  the  Academics,  down  to  Clitomachus  : 
 2d.  the  Cynics  down  to  Chrysippus  :  3d.  Aristotle  and 
 Theophrastus.  The  series  of  Italic  philosophers  con- 
 sists, after  Pythagoras,  of  the  following :  Telanges, 
 ^nophanes,  Parmenides,  Zeno  of  Elea,  Leucippus, 
 Democritus,  and  others  down  to  Epicurus.  The  first 
 seven  books  are  devoted  to  the  Ionic  philosophers  ;  the 
 last  three  treat  of  the  Italic  school. — The  work  of 
 Dionysius  is  a  crude  contribution  towards  the  history  of 
 philosophy.  It  contains  a  brief  account  of  the  lives, 
 doctrines,  and  sayings  of  most  persons  who  have  been 
 called  philosophers  ;  and  though  the  author  is  evidently 
 a   most  unfit  person  for  the  task  which  he  imposed 
 
DIO 
 
 DIO 
 
 opon  himself,  and  has  shown  very  little  judgment  and 
 discrimination  in  the  execution  of  it,  yet  the  book  is 
 extremely  useful  as  a  collection  of  facts,  which  we 
 could  not  have  learned  from  any  other  quarter,  and  is 
 entertaining  as  a  sort  of  omniana  on  the  subject.  The 
 article  on  Epicurus  is  valuable,  as  containing  some 
 original  letters  of  that  philosopher,  which  comprise  a 
 j)retty  satisfactory  epitome  of  the  Epicurean  doctrines, 
 and  are  very  useful  to  the  readers  of  Lucretius.  The 
 best  editions  of  Diogenes  are,  thatof  Meibomius,  Artist., 
 1692,  2  vols.  4to,  and  that  of  Hubner,  Lips.,  1828,  2 
 vols.  8vo. 
 
 DioMEDE/E  Insui-jE.  Vid.  Diomedis  Insula8. 
 DioMEDEs,  son  of  Tydeus  and  Dciphyle,  was  king 
 of  .(Etolia,  and  one  of  the  bravest  of  the  Grecian 
 chiefs  in  the  Trojan  war,  ranking  next  to  Achilles  and 
 Ajax.  Homer  represents  him  as  one  of  the  favourites 
 of  Minerva,  and  ascribes  his  many  acts  of  valour  to 
 her  protecting  influence.  Among  his  exploits,  it  is 
 recorded  of  him  that  he  engaged  in  single  combat 
 with  Hector  and  ^neas ;  that  he  wounded  Mars, 
 .iEneas,  and  Venus  ;  and  that,  in  concert  with  Ulysses, 
 he  carried  otf  the  horses  of  Rhesus,  and  the  palladi- 
 um ;  and  procured  the  arrows  of  Philoctetes.  (Soph- 
 ocles, however,  makes  Ulysses  to  have  been  aided 
 in  this  last-mentioned  afifair  by  Pyrrhus,  son  of  Achil- 
 les.) Diomede  was  deprived  of  the  affection  of  his 
 wife  ^■Egiale,  through  the  wrath  and  vengeance  of  Ve- 
 nus, by  whose  influence,  during  his  absence  at  the  war, 
 she  had  become  attached  to  Cyllabarus,  the  son  of 
 Sihenelus.  (But  consult  Heyne,  ad  Apollod.,  1,8,  6, 
 et  ad  Horn.,  II.,  5,  412.)  Diomede  was  so  afflicted  at 
 the  enstrangement  of  yEgiale,  that  he  abandoned 
 Greece,  and  settled  at  the  head  of  a  colony,  in  Magna 
 GrtEcia,  where  he  founded  a  city,  to  which  he  gave  the 
 name  of  Argyripa  ;  and  married  a  daughter  of  Dau- 
 nus,  prince  of  the  couwtry.  In  the  progress  of  his 
 voyage  to  Italy,  Diomede  was  shipwrecked  on  that  part 
 of  the  Libyan  coast  which  was  under  the  sway  of  Ly- 
 cus,  who,  as  was  his  usage  towards  all  strangers,  seized 
 and  confined  him.  He  was,  however,  liberated  by 
 Callirhoe,  the  tyrant's  daughter,  who  became  so  en- 
 amoured of  him,  that,  upon  his  quitting  the  African 
 shores,  she  put  herself  to  death.  Diomede,  according 
 to  one  account,  died  in  Italy  at  a  very  advanced  age  ; 
 while  another  legend  makes  him  to  have  been  slain  by 
 his  father-in-law  Daunus.  (T-^elz.,  ad  Lycophr.,  603, 
 scqq.)  His  companions  were  so  much  afflicted  by  his 
 death  that  they  were  changed  into  birds.  Virgil,  how- 
 ever, makes  this  transformation  earlier  in  date,  and 
 to  have  taken  place  during  the  lifetime  of  Diomede. 
 (2En.,  11,272.)  He  seems  to  have  followed  the  tra- 
 dition recorded  by  Ovid  {Mel.,  14,  457),  that  Agnon, 
 one  of  Diomede's  companions  in  his  voyage  from 
 Troy,  insulted  Venus  with  contemptuous  language, 
 and  that  the  goddess,  in  revenge,  transformed  not  only 
 Agnon,  but  many  others  of  Diomede's  followers  into 
 birds.  These  birds,  according  to  Ovid,  resembled 
 swans  ;  they  chiefly  frequented  some  neighbouring 
 islands  in  the  Adriatic,  and  were  noted  for  their  fond- 
 ness for  Greeks,  and  their  aversion  towards  the  natives 
 of  any  other  country.  {Vid.  Diomedis  Insula?  — Con- 
 sult Hryne,  Excurs  ,  \,  ad  Mn.,  1 1.  and  Lord  Bacon's 
 Fables  of  the  Ancients,  fab.  xviii.) — II.  A  king  of  the 
 Bistones,  in  Thrace,  son  of  Mars  and  Gyrene.  His 
 mares  fed  on  human  flesh.  Hercules  sailed  to  this 
 quarter,  having  been  ordered,  as  his  eighth  labour,  to 
 bring  these  mnros  to  Mycense.  The  hero  overcame 
 the  grooms  of  Diomede,  and  led  the  mares  to  the  sea. 
 The  Bistones  pursued  with  arms.  Hercules,  leaving 
 the  mares  in  charge  of  Abderus,  one  of  his  compan- 
 ions, went  to  engage  the  foe.  Meantime  the  mares 
 tore  their  keeper  to  pieces  ;  and  the  hero,  having  de- 
 feated the  Bistones  and  slain  Diomede,  built  a  citv  by 
 the  tomb  of  Abderus,  which  he  called  Abdera  after 
 him.     Hercules   brought  the  mares   to   Eurystheus, 
 
 who  turned  them  loose  ;  and  they  strayed  on  to  Mount 
 Olympus,  where  they  were  destroyed  by  the  wild 
 beasts.  {Apollod.,  2,  5,  8. — Heyne,  ad  loc)  Another 
 account  makes  Hercules  to  have  given  Diomede  to  be 
 devoured  by  his  own  mares ;  and  Eurystheus  to  have 
 consecrated  them  to  Juno.     {Diod.  Sic,  4,  15.) 
 
 Diomedis  Insula,  certain  small  islands  apposite 
 the  Sinus  Urias,  and  at  no  great  distance  from  the 
 coast  of  Apulia.  They  are  celebrated  in  mythology 
 as  connected  with  the  legend  of  the  transformation  of 
 Diomede's  companions  into  birds.  {Vid.  Diomedes 
 I.,  towards  the  close  of  the  article.)  {Arislot.,  de  Mi- 
 rab. — Lycophr.,  Alex.,  v.  599. — Ovid,  Mel.,  14,  457.) 
 Ancient  writers  differ  as  to  their  number.  Strabo 
 (284)  recognises  two  ;  whereof  one  was  inhabited,  the 
 other  deserted.  This  is  also  the  account  of  Pliny  (3, 
 26,  and  10,  44),  who  states,  that  one  was  called  Dio- 
 medea,  and  the  other  Teutria.  Ptolemy,  however, 
 reckons  five,  which  is  said  to  be  the  correct  number, 
 if  we  include  in  the  group  three  barren  rocks,  which 
 scarce  deserve  the  name  of  islands.  The  island  to 
 which  Pliny  gives  the  name  of  Diomedca  appears  to 
 have  also  borne  the  appellation  of  Tremitus,  as  we 
 learn  from  Tacitus  {Ann.,  4,  71),  who  informs  us  that 
 it  was  the  spot  to  which  Augustus  removed  his  aban- 
 doned daughter  Julia,  and  where  she  terminated  a  life 
 of  infamy.  Of  these  islands,  the  largest  is  now  called 
 Isola  San  Dovmio,  the  other  S.  Nicolo.  {RomanelU, 
 vol.  2,  p.  296.— Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  275.) 
 
 Dion,  I.  an  illustrious  inhabitant  of  Syracuse,  who, 
 deriving  an  ample  inheritance  from  his  father  Hippa- 
 rinus,  became  a  disciple  of  Plato,  invited  to  the  court 
 of  Syracuse  by  the  elder  Dionysius.  In  consequence 
 of  the  instructions  of  his  master,  he  escaped  being  in- 
 fected with  the  licentiousness  of  the  capital,  and  he 
 shared  with  his  preceptor,  at  a  subsequent  period,  in 
 the  persecutions  inflicted  by  the  son  and  successor 
 of  the  tyrant.  He  was  nearly  connected  with  Diony- 
 sius by  having  married  his  daughter,  and  by  his  sis- 
 ter being  one  of  his  vv'ives  ;  and  he  was  also  much 
 esteemed  by  him,  so  as  to  be  employed  on  several  em- 
 bassies. At  the  accession  of  the  younger  Dionysius. 
 Plato  was  again,  at  Dion's  request,  invited  to  Syra 
 cuse.  In  order,  however,  to  counteract  his  influence, 
 the  courtiers  obtained  the  recall  of  Philistus,  a  man 
 notorious  for  his  adherence  to  arbitrary  principles. 
 This  faction  determined  to  supplant  Dion,  and  availed 
 themselves  of  a  real  or  supposititious  letter  to  fix  on 
 him  the  charge  of  treason.  Dion,  precluded  from  de- 
 fence, was  transported  to  Italy,  and  from  thence  pro- 
 ceeded to  Greece,  where  he  was  received  with  great 
 honour.  Dionysius  became  jealous  of  his  popularity 
 in  Greece,  especially  at  Athens,  stopped  his  remit- 
 tances, confiscated  his  estates,  and  compelled  his  wife, 
 who  had  been  left  at  Syracuse  as  an  hostage,  to  marry 
 another  person.  Dion,  incensed  at  this  treatment,  de- 
 termined to  expel  the  tyrant.  Plato  resisted  his  inten- 
 tions ;  but,  encouraged  by  other  friends,  he  assembled 
 a  body  of  troops,  and  with  a  small  force  sailed  to  Si- 
 cily, took  advantage  of  the  absence  of  Dionysius  in 
 Italy,  and  freed  the  people  from  his  control.  Dionysius 
 returned,  but,  after  some  conflicts,  was  compelled  to 
 escape  to  Italv.  The  austere  and  philosophic  man- 
 ners of  Dion,  however,  soon  lost  him  the  favour  of  his 
 fickle  countrymen,  and  he  was  supplanted  by  Hera- 
 clides,  a  Syracusan  exile,  and  obliged  to  make  his  re- 
 treat to  Leontini.  He  afterward  regained  tlie  ascend- 
 ancy, and  in  a  rash  moment  caused  Heraclidcs  to  be 
 assassinated.  This  robbed  him  ever  after  of  his  peace 
 of  mind.  An  Athenian,  an  intimate  friend,  formed  a 
 conspiracy  against  his  life,  and  Dion  was  assassinated 
 in  the  55th  year  of  his  age,  B.C.  354.  His  death  was 
 universally  "lamented  by  the  Syracusans,  and  a  monu- 
 ment was  raised  to  his  memory.  {Diod.  Sic^  16,  6 
 .^eqq.—Plut.,  Vit.  Dion.— Corn.  Nep.,  V/V.  Dton.)^ 
 II.   Cassius  Cocceianus,  son  of  Cassius  Apronianua 
 
 443 
 
DION. 
 
 V  10 
 
 a  Roman  senator,  was  born  AD.  155,  in  Bithynia. 
 His  true  name  was  L'assius,  but  lie  assuuied  the  other 
 two  names,  as  beir.g  descended  on  the  mother's  side 
 from  Dion  Chrysostom.  Thus,  ihougli  he  was  on  his 
 mother's  side  of  Greek  descent,  and  though,  in  his 
 writings,  he  adopted  the  then  prevailing  language  of 
 his  native  province,  namely,  the  Greek,  he-  must  nev- 
 ertheless be  considered  as  a  Roman.  Dio  Cassius 
 passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  public  employ- 
 ments. He  was  a  senator  under  Commodus  ;  governor 
 of  Smyrna  after  the  death  of  Scptimius  Severus  ;  for  he 
 had  displeased  this  monarch,  and  held  no  oflice,  con- 
 sequently, during  the  life  of  the  latter;  and  afterward 
 consul,  as  also  proconsul  in  Africa  and  Pannonia.  Al- 
 exander Severus  entertained  the  highest  esteem  for 
 him,  and  made  him  consul  for  the  second  time,  with 
 himself,  though  the  praetorian  guards,  irritated  against 
 him  on  account  of  his  severity,  had  demanded  his  life. 
 When  advanced  in  years,  he  returned  to  his  native 
 country.  Dion  published  a  Roman  history,  in  eighty 
 books,  the  fruit  of  his  researches  and  labours  for  the 
 space  of  twenty-two  years.  It  embraced  a  period  of 
 9S3  years,  e.xtending  from  the  arrival  of  ^^neas  in 
 Italy,  and  the  subsequent  founding  of  Rome,  to  A.D. 
 £29.  Down  to  the  time  of  Julius  Cajsar,  he  only 
 gives  a  summary  of  events  ;  after  this,  he  enters  some- 
 what more  into  details ;  and  from  the  time  of  Com- 
 modus he  is  very  circumstantial  in  relating  what  passed 
 under  his  own  eyes.  We  have  fragments  remaining  of 
 the  first  36  books  :  but  there  is  a  considerable  portion 
 of  the  35th  book,  on  the  war  of  Lucullus  against  .Alith- 
 radates,  and  of  the  3Uth,  on  the  war  with  the  pirates,  and 
 the  expedition  of  Pompey  against  the  King  of  Pontus. 
 The  books  that  follow,  to  the  54th  inclusive,  are  nearly 
 all  entire:  they  comprehend  a  period  from  B.C.  65  to 
 B.C.  10,  or  from  the  eastern  campaign  of  Pompey,  and 
 the  death  of  Miihradates,  to  the  death  of  Agrippa.  The 
 55ih  book  has  a  considerable  gap  in  it.  The  5Gth  to  the 
 COth,  both  included,  which  comprehend  the  period  from 
 A.D.  9  to  A.D.  54,  are  com})lete,  and  contain  the  events 
 from  the  defeat  of  Varus  in  Germany  to  the  reign  of 
 Claudius.  Of  the  following  20  books  we  have  only 
 fragments,  and  the  meager  abridgment  of  Xiphilinus. 
 The  80th  or  last  book  comprehends  the  period  from 
 A.D.  222  to  A.D.  229,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander 
 Severus.  The  abridgment  of  Xiphilinus,  as  now  ex- 
 tant, commences  with  the  35th,  and  continues  to  the 
 end  of  the  80th  book.  It  is  a  very  indifferent  per- 
 formance, and  was  made  by  order  of  the  Emperor 
 Michael  Ducas  :  the  abbreviator,  Xiphilinus,  was  a 
 monk  of  the  eleventh  century. — The  fragments  of  the 
 first  36  books,  as  now  collected,  are  of  three  kinds. 
 1.  Fragmenla  Valcsiana :  such  as  were  dispersed 
 throughout  various  writers,  scholiasts,  grammarians, 
 le.vicographers,  &c.,  and  were  collected  by  Henri  de 
 Valois.  2.  Fra.gmcnta  Peiresciana  :  comprising  large 
 extracts,  found  in  the  section  entitled  "  Of  V^irtues  and 
 Vices,"  in  the  great  collection  or  portative  library 
 compiled  by  ord(^r  of  Constantine  VI.,  Porphyrogeni- 
 lus.  The  manuscript  of  this  belonged  to  Peiresc. 
 3.  The  fragments  of  the  first  34  books,  preserved  in 
 the  second  section  of  the  same  work  of  Constantino's, 
 entitled  "  Of  Embassies."  T'  ese  are  known  under 
 the  name  of  Fragmenta  Ursiidana,  because  the  man- 
 uscript containing  them  was  found  in  Sicily  by  Fulvio 
 Orsini.  4.  Excerpla  Vaticana,  by  Mai,  which  contain 
 fracrments  of  books  1-35,  and  61-80,  and  which  have 
 been  published  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Scriplorum 
 Nova  Collectio,  p.  135,  scqq.  To  these  are  added  the 
 fracrinents  of  an  unknown  continuator  of  Dion  (p. 
 234-246),  which  go  down  to  the  time  of  Constantine. 
 Other  fragments  from  Dion  belong  chiefly  to  the  first 
 35  books,  also  published  in  the  same  collection  (p. 
 527,  seqq.),  were  found  by  Mai  in  two  V' atican  MSS., 
 which  contain  a  eylloge  or  collection  made  by  Maxi- 
 zr.us  Pianudes.  Tlie  annals  of  Zonaras  also  contain 
 444 
 
 numerous  extracts  from  Dion.  Dion  has  taken  Po- 
 iybius  for  his  model  ;  but  the  imitator  is  comparable 
 with  his  original  neither  as  respects  arrangement  and 
 the  distribution  of  materials,  nor  in  soundness  of  views, 
 and  just  and  accurate  reasoning.  His  style  is  gener- 
 ally clear,  though  there  are  occasionally  obscure  pas- 
 sages, where  there  appears  to  be  no  corruption  of  the 
 text.  His  diligence  is  unquestionable,  and,  from  his 
 opportunities,  he  was  well  acquainted  with  the  circum- 
 stances of  the  empire  during  the  [jeriod  for  which  he 
 is  a  contemporary  authority  ;  and,  indeed,  we  may  as- 
 sign a  high  value  to  his  history  of  the  whole  period 
 from  the  time  of  Augustus  to  his  own  age.  Kor  is 
 his  work  without  value  for  the  earlier  periods  of  Ro- 
 man history,  in  which,  though  he  has  fallen  into  errors, 
 like  all  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  who  have  han- 
 dled the  same  obscure  subject,  he  still  enables  us  to 
 correct  some  erroneous  statements  of  Livy  and  Dio- 
 nysius. — The  best  edition  is  that  of  Fabricius,  com- 
 pleted by  Reimar,  Hamh.,  2  vols,  folio,  1751.  Not- 
 withstanding, however,  the  labours  of  these  editors,  a 
 new  critical  edition  is  much  wanted,  both  from  the 
 scarcity  of  the  edition  just  mentioned,  and  the  fact 
 that  the  manuscripts  have  not  been  collated  with  suf- 
 ficient care.  The  small  Tauchnitz  edition,  4  vols, 
 16mo,  contains  all  the  fragments.  A  very  useful  edi- 
 tion appeared  in  1824-1825,  by  Sturz,  from  the  Leip- 
 sic  press,  8  vols.  8vo,  which  some  even  prefer  to  the 
 edition  of  Fabricius  and  Reimar.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  180,  segq. — Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bihliog- 
 raph.,  vol.  1.  p.  250.) — HI.  Surnamed  Chrysostomus, 
 or  the  Golden-mouthed,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of 
 his  style,  was  a  native  of  Prusa,  in  Bithynia,  and  a 
 sophist  and  stoic.  He  was  in  Egypt  when  Vespasian, 
 who  had  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  own  army, 
 came  there,  and  he  was  consulted  by  that  prince  on 
 the  proper  course  to  be  adopted  under  the  circumstan- 
 ces. Dion  had  the  candour,  or,  as  some  may  think, 
 the  want  of  judgment,  to  advise  him  to  restore  the  re- 
 public. Afterward  he  resided  for  years  at  Rome,  till 
 one  of  his  friends  having  engaged  in  a  conspiracy 
 against  Domitian,  Dion,  fearing  for  himself,  fled  to  the 
 modern  Moldavia,  where  he  remained  till  the  tyrant's 
 death,  labouring  for  his  subsistence  with  his  own 
 hands,  and  possessing  no  books  but  the  Phsedon  of 
 Plato,  and  Demosthenes'  Trcpl  HapaTTpEa^ElaQ.  Domi- 
 tian having  been  assassinated,  the  legions  quartered  on 
 the  Danube  were  about  to  revolt,  when  Dion  got  upon 
 an  altar,  and  harangued  them  so  effectually  that  they 
 submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  senate.  Dion  was  in 
 high  favour  with  Nerva  and  Trajan,  and,  when  the  lat- 
 ter-triumphed after  his  Dacian  victories,  the  orator  sat 
 in  the  emperor's  car  in  the  procession.  He  returned 
 to  Bithynia,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
 Accusations  of  peculation  and  treason  were  brought 
 against  him,  but  rejected  as  frivolous.  He  died  at  an 
 advanced  age,  but  it  is  not  known  in  what  year.  We 
 have  eighty  orations  attributed  to  him,  which  are  very 
 prettily  written,  but  not  of  much  intrinsic  value.  The 
 best  edition  is  that  of  Reiske,  2  vols.  8vo,  Lips.,  1784 
 {Srhiill,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  210,  sci/q.) 
 
 DioN.^j;.\,  a  surname  of  Venus,  as  the  daughter  of 
 Dione. 
 
 DioNE,  a  nymph  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris. 
 She  was  mothi.r  of  Venus  by  Jupiter,  according  to 
 Homer  (//.,  5,  370).  Dione,  according  to  Knight,  is 
 the  female  AIS,  or  ZET2.  and  therefore  associated 
 with  him  in  the  most  ancient  temple  of  Greece  at  Do- 
 dona.  {Inquiry  into  the  Symh.  Lang.,  dec,  ^  43. — 
 Class.  Journ.,  vol.  23,  p.  234. — Compare  Butimann, 
 Mylhnhgvs,  vol.  1,  p.  7,  and  Constant,  dt  la  lleli- 
 gcon,  vol.  2,  p.  335,  in  votis.) 
 
 DioNvsiA,  festivals  held  in  honour  of  the  god  Dio- 
 nysus or  Bacchus.  The  most  important  of  these  were 
 held  at  Athens  and  in  Attica  ;  and  these  derive  their 
 importance  from  their  being  the  occasion  on  which  the 
 
DIO 
 
 DIONYSIUS. 
 
 <lramatic  exhibitions  of  the  Athenians  teok  place.  An 
 account  of  these  festivals,  which  were  four  in  nun:iber, 
 will  be  found  under  the  article  'I'heatrum,  t)  2. 
 
 DioNYsiAS,  a  town  of  Egypt,  situate  at  the  south- 
 ivestern  extremity  of  the  Lake  JVIosris.  It  is  now  called 
 Bclcd-Kerun,  or,  according  to  some,  Scobha.     {PloI.) 
 
 DioNYsoi'OLis,  I.  a  town  of  J.ower  Mossia,  in  the 
 vicinity  of  the  Euxine  Sea.  Pliny  says  that  it  was 
 also  called  Crunos,  but  Pomponius  Mela  (3,  2)  makes 
 Grunos  the  port  of  Dionysopolis.  1"he  modern  name 
 IS  Dimj.sipoli. — II.  A  citv  of  India,  supposed  by  Man- 
 ner! to  be  the  same  with  the  modern  Nagar,  or  Nughr, 
 on  the  western  bank  of  the  river  Cow.  Mannert  does 
 not  consider  it  to  have  been  the  same  with  the  ancient 
 city  of  Nyssa,  but  makes  the  position  of  the  latter  more 
 to  the  north.     (Gcogr.,  vol.  5,  p.  142.) 
 
 DioNYsius  I.,  or  the  Elder,  a  celebrated  tyrant  of 
 Syracuse,  raised  to  that  high  rank  from  the  station  of 
 a  simple  citizen,  was  born  in  this  same  city  430  B.C. 
 He  was  son-inlaw  to  Hermocrates,  who,  having  been 
 banished  by  an  adverse  party,  attempted  to  return  by 
 force  of  arms,  and  was  killed  in  the  action.  Dionysius 
 was  dangerously  wounded,  but  he  recovered,  and  was 
 after^vard  recalled.  In  time  he  procured  himself  to 
 be  nominated  one  of  the  generals,  and,  under  pretence 
 of  raising  a  force  sufficient  to  resist  the  Carthaginians, 
 he  obtamed  a  decree  for  recalling  all  the  exiles,  to 
 whom  he  gave  arms.  Being  sent  to  the  relief  of  Gela, 
 then  besieged  by  the  Carthaginians,  lie  eti'ected  nothing 
 against  the  enemy,  pretending  that  he  was  not  sec- 
 onded by  the  other  commanders  ;  and  his  friends  sug- 
 gested, that,  in  order  to  save  the  state,  the  supreme 
 power  ought  to  be  confided  to  one  man,  reminding  the 
 people  of  the  times  of  Gelon,  who  had  defeated  the 
 Carthaginian  host,  and  given  peace  to  Sicily.  The 
 general  assembly  therefore  proclaimed  Dionysius  su- 
 preme chief  of  the  republic  aliout  405  B.C.,- when  he 
 was  twenty-five  years  of  age.  He  increased  the  pay 
 of  the  soldiers,  enlisted  new  ones,  and,  under  pretence 
 of  a  conspiracy  against  his  person,  formed  a  guard  of 
 mercenaries.  He  then  proceeded  to  the  relief  of  Gela, 
 but  failed  in  the  attack  on  the  Carthaginian  camp  :  he 
 however  penetrated  into  the  town,  the  inhabitants  of 
 which  he  advised  to  leave  it  quietly  in  the  night  under 
 the  escort  of  his  troops.  On  his  retreat  he  persuaded 
 those  of  Camarma  to  do  the  same.  I'his  raised  suspi- 
 cions among  his  troops,  and  a  party  of  horsemen,  riding 
 on  before  the  rest,  raised,  on  their  arrival  at  Syracuse, 
 an  insurrection  against  Dionysius,  plundered  his  house, 
 and  treated  his  wife  so  cruelly  that  she  died  in  conse- 
 quence. Dionvsius,  with  a  chosen  body,  followed 
 close  after,  set  fire  to  the  gate  of  Acradina,  forced  his 
 way  into  the  city,  put  to  death  the  leaders  of  the  re- 
 volt, and  remained  undisputed  possessor  of  the  su- 
 preme power.  The  Carthaginians,  being  afflicted  by 
 a  pestilence,  made  proposals  of  peace,  wliich  were  ac- 
 cepted by  Dionysius,  and  he  then  applied  himself  to 
 fortifying  Syracuse,  and  especially  the  island  of  Orty- 
 gia,  which  he  made  his  stronghold,  and  which  he  peo- 
 pled entirely  with  his  trusty  partisans  and  mercenaries, 
 by  the  aid  of  whom  he  put  down  several  revolts.  Af- 
 ter reducing  beneath  his  sway  the  towns  of  Leontini, 
 Catana,  and  T^Jaxus,  he  engaged  in  a  new  war  with 
 Carthage,  in  vhich  he  met  with  the  most  brilliant  suc- 
 cess, makitir  himself  master  of  numerous  towns  in  Si- 
 cily, and  becoming  eventually  feared  both  in  Italy  and 
 Sicily,  to  the  dominion  of  both  of  which  countries  he 
 seems  at  one  time  to  have  aspired.  In  order  to  raise 
 money,  he  allied  himself  with  the  Illyrians,  and  pro- 
 posed to  them  the  joint  plunder  of  the  teniple  of  Del- 
 phi :  the  enterprise,  however,  failed.  He  then  plun- 
 dered several  teiii|)les,  such  as  that  of  Pj-oserpina  at 
 Locri  ;  and  as  he  sailed  back  with  the  plunder,  with  a 
 fair  wind,  he,  who  was  a  humourist  in  his  way,  ob- 
 served to  his  friends,  "  You  see  how  the  immortal  gods 
 favour  sacrilege."     Having  carried  off  a  golden  mantle 
 
 from  a  statue  of  Jupiter,  consecrated  by  Gelon  out  of 
 the  spoils  of  the  Carihagiiiians,  he  replaced  it  by  a 
 woollen  garment,  saying  that  this  was  more  suited  to 
 the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons.  He  also  took  away  a 
 golden  beard  from  iEsculapius,  observing  that  it  was 
 not  becoming  for  the  son  of  a  beardless  father  (Apollo) 
 to  make  a  display  of  his  own  beard.  He  likewise  ap- 
 propriated to  himself  the  silver  tables  and  golden  vases 
 and  crowns  in  the  temples,  saying  he  would  make  use 
 
 of  the  bounty  of  the  gods.     (C'/c,  N.  !>.,  :i,  34. Jt^li- 
 
 an,  V.H.,  1,  20.)  He  also  made  a  descent  with  a  ficet 
 on  the  coast  of  Etruria,  and  plundered  the  temple  at 
 Cffire  or  Agylla  of  1000  talents.  With  these  re- 
 sources he  was  preparing  himself  for  a  new  expedition 
 to  Italy,  when  a  fresh  Carthaginian  armament  landed 
 in  Sicily,  383  B.C.,  and  defeated  Dionysius,  whose 
 brother  Leptines  fell  in  the  battle.  A  peace  followed,  of 
 which  Carthage  dictated  the  conditions.  The  boundary 
 of  the  two  states  was  fixed  at  the  river  Halycus,  and 
 Dionysius  had  to  pay  1000  talents  for  the  expenses  of 
 the  war.  This  peace  lasted  fourteen  years,  during  which 
 Dionysius  remained  the  undisturbed  ruler  of  Syracuse, 
 and  one  half  of  Sicily,  with  part  of  southern  Italy.  He 
 sent  colonies  to  the  coasts  of  the  Adnatic,  and  his 
 fleets  navigated  both  seas.  Twice  he  sent  assistance 
 to  his  old  ally,  Sparta;  once  against  the  Athenians, 
 374  B.C.,  and  again  in  369,  after  the  battle  of  Leuc- 
 tra,  when  the  Spartans  were  hard  pressed  by  Epami- 
 nondas.  Meantime  the  court  of  Dionysius  was  fre- 
 quented by  many  distinguished  men,  philosophers,  and 
 poets.  Plato  is  said  to  have  been  among  the  former, 
 being  invited  by  Dion,  the  brother-in-law  of  Dionys- 
 'ius  ;  but  the  philosopher's  declamations  against  tyr- 
 anny led'to  his  being  sent  away  from  Syracuse.  The 
 poets  fared  little  better,  as  Dionysius  himself  aspired 
 to  poetical  fame,  for  which,  however,  he  was  not  so 
 well  qualified  as  for  political  success.  Those  who  did 
 not  praise  his  verses  were  in  danger  of  being  led  to 
 [irison.  Dionysius  twice  sent  some  of  his  poems  to 
 be  recited  at  the  Olympic  games,  but  they  were  hissed 
 by  the  assembly.  He  was  more  successful  at  Athens. 
 A  tragedy  of  his  obtained  the  prize,  and  the  news  of  his 
 success  almost  turned  his  brain.  He  had  just  con- 
 cluded a  fresh  truce  with  the  Carthaginians,  after  hav- 
 ing made  a^  unsuccessful  attack  on  Lilybsum,  at  the 
 expiration  of  the  fourteen  years'  peace  ;  and  he  now 
 gave  himself  up  to  rejoicings  and  feastings  for  his  po- 
 etical triumph.  In  a  debauch  with  his  friends,  he  ate 
 and  drank  so  intemperately  that  he  fell  senseless,  and 
 soon  after  died  (some  say  he  was  poisoned  by  his  phy- 
 sicians, at  the  instigation  of  his  son),  B.C.  367,  in  the 
 63d  year  of  his  age,  having  been  tyrant  of  Syracuse 
 thirty-eight  years.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife, 
 he  married  two  wives  at  once,  namely,  Doris  of  I.ocri, 
 and  Aristaeneta,  daughter  of  Hipparinus,  of  Syracuse  : 
 by  these  women  he  had  seven  children,  of  whom  Di- 
 onysius, his  elder  son  by  Doris,  succeeded  him  in  the 
 sovereignty. — Dionysius  was  a  clever  statesman,  and 
 generally  successful  in  his  undertakings.  .  He  did 
 much  to  strengthen  and  extend  the  power  of  Syracuse, 
 and  it  was  probably  owing  to  him  that  all  Sicily  did 
 not  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians.  He  was 
 unscrupulous,  rapacious,  and  vindictive,  but  several  of 
 the  stories  stated  of  his  cruelty  and  suspicious  temper 
 afipear  improbable,  or  at  least  exaggerated.  The 
 works  of  Philistus,  who  had  written  his  life,  and  who 
 is  praised  by  Cicero,  are  lost.  Diodorus,  who  is  our 
 principal  remaining  authority  concerning  Dionysius, 
 lived  nearly  three  centuries  after,  and  was  not  a  criti- 
 cal writer.  The  government  of  Dionysius,  like  that 
 of  many  others  who  are  styled  tyrants  in  ancient  histo- 
 ry, was  not  a  despotism  ;  it  resembled  rather  that  of 
 the  first  Medici,  and  other  leaders  of  the  Italian  repub- 
 lics in  the  middle  ages,  or  that  of  the  stadthokiers  in 
 Holland.  The  popular  forms  still  remained,  and  we  find 
 Dionysius  repeatedly  convoking  the  assembly  of  the 
 
 445 
 
DIONYSIUS. 
 
 DIONYSIUS. 
 
 people  on  important  occasions,  when  full  freedom  of 
 speech  seems  to  have  been  allowed.  (Pint.,  Vu.  Dion. 
 — Diod.  Sic,  13,  'J'-i,  seqq. — Id.,  14,  7,  sajq.,  &c.)  An 
 account  of  the  famous  prison,  or  "  Ear  of  Dionysius," 
 will  be  found  under  the  article  Laulumiae. — I'l.  The 
 second  of  that  name,  surnamed  the  Younger,  was  son 
 of  Dionysius  I.  by  13oris.  His  father,  whom  he  suc- 
 ceeded, had  left  the  state  in  a  prosperous  condition, 
 but  young  Dionysius  had  neither  his  abilities,  nor  his 
 prudence  and  experience.  He  followed  at  first  the  ad- 
 vice of  Dion,  who,  although  a  republican  in  principle, 
 had  remained  faithful  to  his  father,  and  who  now  en- 
 deavoured to  direct  the  inexperienced  son  for  the  good 
 of  his  country.  For  this  purpose  Dion  invited  his 
 friend  Plato  to  Syracuse  about  364  B.C.  Dionysius 
 received  the  philosopher  with  great  respect,  and,  in 
 deference  to  his  advice,  reformed  for  a  while  his  loose 
 habits  and  the  manners  of  his  court.  But  a  faction, 
 headed  by  Pliilislus,  who  had  always  been  a  supporter 
 of  the  tyranny  of  the  elder  Dionysius,  succeeded  in 
 prejudicing  the  son  against  both  Dion  and  Plato. 
 Dion  was  exiled,  under  pretence  that  he  had  written 
 privately  to  the  senate  of  Carthage  for  the  purpose  of 
 concluding  a  peace.  Plato  urgently  demanded  of  Di- 
 onysius the  recall  of  Dion,  and,  not  being  able  to  ob- 
 tain It,  he  left  Syracuse,  after  which  Dionysius  gave 
 himself  up  to  debauchery  without  restraint.  Dion, 
 meanwhile,  was  travelling  through  Greece,  where  his 
 character  gained  him  numerous  friends.  Dionysius, 
 moved  by  jealousy,  confiscated  his  property,  and  obliged 
 his  Wife  to  marry  another.  Upon  this,  Dion  collected 
 a  small  force  at  Zacynthus,  with  which  he  sailed  for 
 Sicily,  and  entered  Syracuse  without  resistance.  Di- 
 onysius retired  to  the  citadel  in  Ortygia,  and,  after 
 some  resistance,  in  which  Philistus,  his  best  support- 
 ter,  was  taken  prisoner  and  put  to  death,  he  quitted 
 Syracuse  by  sea  and  retired  to  Locri,  the  country  of 
 his  mother,  where  he  had  connexions  and  friends. 
 Dion  having  been  treacherously  murdered,  several  ty- 
 rants succeeded  each  other  in  Syracuse,  until  Dionys- 
 ius himself  came  and  retook  it  about  B.C.  346.  In- 
 stead, however,  of  improving  by  his  ten  years'  exile,  he 
 had  grown  worse.  Having,  during  the  interval  of  his 
 absence  from  Syracuse,  usurped  the  supreme  power 
 in  Locri,  he  had  committed  many  atrocities,  had  put 
 to  death  several  citizens,  and  abused  their  wives  and 
 daughters.  Upon  his  return  to  Syracuse,  his  cruelty 
 and  profligacy  drove  away  a  great  number  of  people, 
 who  emigrated  to  various  parts  of  Italy  and  Greece, 
 while  others  joined  Iketas,  tyrant  of  Leontini,  and  a 
 former  fnend  of  Dion.  The  latter  sent  messengers 
 to  Corinth  to  request  assistance  against  Dionysius. 
 The  Corinthians  appointed  Timoleon  leader  of  the 
 expedition.  This  commander  landed  in  Sicily  B.C. 
 344,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  Carthagin- 
 ians, and  of  Iketas,  who  acted  a  perfidious  part  on 
 the  occasion  ;  he  entered  Syracuse,  and  soon  after 
 obliged  Dionysius  to  surrender.  Dionysius  was  sent 
 to  Corinth,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
 the  company  of  actors  and  low  women  ;  some  say, 
 that  at  one  lime  he  kept  a  school.  Justin  (21,  5)  states, 
 that  he  purposely  affected  low  habits  in  order  to  dis- 
 arm revenge,  in  that,  being  despised,  he  might  no  long- 
 er be  feared  or  hated  for  his  former  tyranny.  Several 
 repartees  are  related  of  him  in  answer  to  those  who 
 taunted  him  upon  his  altered  fortunes,  which  are  not 
 destitute  of  wit  or  wisdom.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Dion. — Dtod. 
 Sic,  16,  5,  seqq.) — HI.  Halicarnassensis  or  Haiicar- 
 nasseus,  an  historian  and  critic,  was  born  at  Halicar- 
 iiassus  in  the  first  century  B.C.  We  know  nothing  of 
 his  history  beyond  what  he  has  told  us  himself  He 
 states,  that  he  came  to  Italy  at  the  termination  of  the 
 civil  war  between  Augustus  and  Antony  (B.C.  29), 
 and  that  he  spent  the  following  two-and-twenty  years 
 at  Rome  in  learning  the  Latin  language,  and  in  col- 
 lecting materials  for  his  history.  {Antiq.  Horn.,  1,  7, 
 446 
 
 seqq. — Compare  Phot.,  B'tblioth.,cod.  83.)  The  prin- 
 cipal work  of  Dionysius  is  his  Roman  Antiqa-ilict 
 {'Pu/xainrj  'Apxaio'Aojia),  which  commenced  with  tho 
 early  history  of  the  people  of  Italy,  and  terminated 
 with  the  beginning  of  the  first  Punic  war,  B.C.  205. 
 It  originally  consisted  of  20  books,  of  which  the  first 
 ten  remain  entire.  The  eleventh  breaks  oft'  in  the 
 year  312  B.C.,  but  several  fragments  of  the  latter  half 
 of  the  history  are  preserved  in  the  collection  of  Con- 
 stantino Porphyrogenitus,  and  to  these  a  valuable  ad- 
 dition was  made  in  1816,  by  Mai,  from  an  old  MS. 
 Besides,  the  first  three  books  of  Appian  were  founded 
 entirely  upon  Dionysius ;  and  Plutarch's  biography 
 of  Camillus  must  also  be  considered  as  a  compilation 
 mostly  taken  from  the  Roman  Antiquities,  so  that, 
 perhaps,  upon  the  whole,  we  have  not  lost  much  of  his 
 work.  With  regard  to  the  trustworthiness  and  gener- 
 al value  of  Dionysius's  history,  considerable  doubts  may 
 justly  be  entertained  :  for,  though  he  has  evidently 
 written  with  much  greater  care  than  Livy,  and  has 
 studied  Cato  and  the  old  annalists  more  diligently  than 
 his  Roman  contemporary,  yet  he  wrote  with  an  object 
 which  at  once  invalidates  his  claim  to  be  considered  a 
 veracious  and  impartial  historian.  Dionysius  wrote 
 for  the  Greeks,  and  his  object  was  to  relieve  them  from 
 the  mortification  which  they  felt  at  being  conquered 
 by  a  race  of  barbarians,  as  they  considered  the  Romans 
 to  be.  And  this  he  endeavoured  to  effect  by  twisting 
 and  forging  testimonies,  and  botching  up  the  old  le- 
 gends, so  as  to  make  out  a  prima  facie  proof  of  the 
 Greek  origin  of  the  city  of  Rome;  and  he  inserts  arbi- 
 trarily a  great  number  of  set  speeches,  evidently  com- 
 posed for  the  same  purpose.  He  indulges  in  a  mi- 
 nuteness of  detail,  which,  though  it  might  be  some 
 proof  of  veracity  in  a  contemporaneous  history,  is  a 
 palpable  indication  of  want  of  faith  in  the  case  of  an 
 ancient  history  so  obscure  and  uncertain  as  that  of 
 Rome.  With  all  his  study  and  research,  Dionysius  was 
 so  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  Roman  constitu- 
 tion, that  he  often  misrepresents  the  plainest  state- 
 ments about  it.  (Nichuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  13, 
 Camhr.  Iransl.)  For  instance,  he  thought  the  original 
 constitution  of  Rome  was  a  monarchical  democracy, 
 and  he  calls  the  curiae  the  dermis  {6///xor).  He  be- 
 lieved, when  he  wrote  his  second  book,  that  the  decrees 
 of  the  people  were  enacted  by  the  curife  and  confirmed 
 by  the  senate  {Antiq.,  2,  14),  and  not,  as  he  afterward 
 discovered,  the  converse.  {Antiq. ,7,  38.)  In  a  word, 
 though  the  critical  historian  may  be  able  to  extract 
 much  that  is  of  great  importance  for  the  early  history 
 of  Rome  from  the  garbled  narrative  and  dull  trifling  of 
 Dionysius,  he  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  meritorious  wri- 
 ter, or  recommended  to  the  student  of  ancient  history 
 as  a  faithful  guide. — Dionysius  also  wrote  a  treatise 
 on  rhetoric  ;  criticisms  on  the  style  of  Thucydides, 
 Lysias,  Isocrates,  Isaeus,  Dinarchus,  Plato,  and  Demos- 
 thenes ;  a  treatise  on  the  arrangement  of  words,  and 
 some  other  short  essays.  His  critical  works  are  much 
 more  valuable  than  his  historv,  and  are,  intleed,  written 
 with  considerable  power.  The  criticism  on  Dinarchus 
 displays  good  sense  and  judgment,  and  shows  the 
 great  pains  which  the  author  took  to  separate  the  gen- 
 uine writings  of  the  Attic  orators  from  tl  e  fabrications 
 which  passed  under  their  name.  The  be  U  editions  of 
 Dionysius  are,  that  of  Hudson,  Oxo7i ,  1 704  2  vols,  fol., 
 and  that  of  Reiske.  Lips.,  1774-1777,  6  vols.  8vo. 
 Mai's  fragments  were  first  published  at  Milan  in  1S16, 
 and  reprinted  the  following  year  at  Frankfort.  They 
 also  appear  in  the  second  volume  of  Mai's  Nova  Collcc- 
 tio,  Rome,  1827. — IV.  The  author  of  a  Greek  jwein  in 
 1 186  hexameters,  entitled  T//f  OiKOv/uev?!^  JlepiZ/jr/nif, 
 "^  Dcsrriptinn  of  the  Habitable  World."  It  is  not  clear- 
 ly ascertained  where  he  was  born.  The  probability  is., 
 however,  that  he  was  a  native  of  Charax,  in  Siisiana. 
 It  is  uncertain,  also,  when  he  flourished  ;  he  belonged, 
 however,  according  to  the  general  opinion,  to  the  lat- 
 
DIO 
 
 DIO 
 
 ter  part  of  the  third  or  the  beginning  to  the  fourth 
 century  A.D.  He  derived  from  his  poem  the  surname 
 of  Periegetes.  This  production  of  his  has  Uttie  merit 
 as  a  work  of  imagination,  and  but  feeble  interest  for  the 
 geographer.  The  commentary,  however,  of  Eustathius 
 upon  It  possesses  some  value  from  the  niiscelianeous 
 information  which  is  scattered  diroughout.  There  are 
 two  Latm  translations  of  the  poem,  one  by  Rufus  Fes- 
 tus  Avienus,  and  the  other  by  Priscian.  The  last  and 
 best  edition  of  the  Periegesis  is  that  of  Bernhardy, 
 Lips.,  1828,  8vo,  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Geographi 
 Gifzci  Minores.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  59.) — 
 V.  A  Christian  writer,  called  Arcopagita,  from  his  hav- 
 ing been  a  member  of  the  court  of  Areopagu.s  at  Athens. 
 He  was  converted  to  Christianity  by  St.  Paul's  preach- 
 ing. {Acts,  17,  34.)  He  is  reported  to  have  been 
 the  first  bishop  of  Athens,  being  appointed  to  that  office 
 by  the  apostle  Paul,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom 
 under  Doinitian.  During  the  night  of  learning,  a  great 
 number  of  writings  were  circulated  under  his  name, 
 which  were  collected  together  and  printed  at  Cologne 
 in  1536,  and  subsequently  at  Antwerp  in  1634,  and  at 
 Paris  in  1646,  2  vols.  fol.  They  have  now,  for  a  long 
 time,  been  deemed  spurious,  although  the  learned  dif- 
 fer in  respect  to  the  times  and  authors  of  the  fabrica- 
 tion. The  most  probable  reasoning,  however,  fixes 
 them  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  (Suid. — Cave, 
 Hist.  Lit. — Lardner's  Creed,  pt.  2.) — VI.  Surnamed 
 Exiguus,  or  the  Little,  on  account  of  the  smallness  of 
 his  stature,  was  a  Scythian  monk  of  the  si.xth  century, 
 who  became  an  abbot  at  Rome.  Cassiodorus,  who 
 was  his  intimate  friend,  speaks  highly  of  his  learning 
 and  character.  At  the  request  of  Stephen,  bishop  of 
 Salona,  he  drew  up  a  body  of  canons,  entitled  "  Col- 
 lectio,  sive  Codex  Canonum  Ecdesiasticurum,'"  &c., 
 translated  from  the  Greek,  containing  the  first  50 
 apostolical  canons,  as  they  are  calltd,  with  those  of  the 
 councils  of  Nice,  Constantinople,  Chalcedon,  Sardis, 
 and  including  138  canons  of  certain  African  councils. 
 He  afterward  drew  up  a  collection  of  the  decretals, 
 and  both  are  to  be  found  in  the  Bibliotheca  Juris  Ca- 
 nonici  Veteris  of  Justell.  I'o  this  Dionysius  some 
 writers  ascribe  the  mode  of  computing  the  time  of 
 Easter,  attributed  to  Victorinus,  and  of  dating  from  the 
 birth  of  Christ.  (Cave's  Hist.  Lit. — Hutton's  Math. 
 Diet.) — VII.  A  Greek  poet  and  musician,  the  author 
 of  the  words  and  music  of  three  hymns,  addressed 
 to  Calliope,  Apollo,  and  Nemesis.  They  were  pub- 
 lished by  Vincent  Galilei,  at  Florence,  in  1581  ;  and 
 again  by  Dr.  Fell,  at  Ctford,  in  1672,  from  a  manu- 
 script found  among  the  papers  of  Archbishop  Usher. 
 It  appears  by  these  notes,  that  the  music  of  the  hymns 
 in  question  was  in  the  Lydian  mode  and  diatonic  ge- 
 nus. Galilei  asserts  that  he  had  them  from  a  Floren- 
 tine gentleman,  who  copied  them  from  an  ancient 
 Greek  manuscript  in  the  library  of  Cardinal  St.  Angelo 
 at  Rome,  which  manuscript  also  contained  the  treatises 
 on  music  by  Aristides,  Quintilianus,  and  Bryennius, 
 since  published  by  Meibomius  and  Dr.  Wallis.  The 
 Florentine  and  Oxford  editions  of  these  hymns  exactly 
 agree  ;  and  they  have  since  also  been  printed  in  the 
 fifth  volume  of  the  French  Memoirs  of  the  Academy 
 of  Inscriptions,  &c.     {Burnci/s  History  of  Music.) 
 
 Di0PH.\NTUs,  a  mathematician  of  Ale.xandrea,  who, 
 according  to  the  most  received  opinion,  was  contem- 
 porary with  the  Emperor  Julian.  This  opinion  is 
 founded  upon  a  passage  of  Abulpharadge,  an  Arabian 
 author  of  the  thirteenth  century  :  he  names,  among  the 
 contemporaries  of  the  Emperor  Julian,  Diophantes 
 (for  Diophantus),  as  the  author  of  a  celebrated  work 
 on  algebra  and  arithmetic  ;  and  he  is  thought  to  have 
 ilerived  his  information  from  an  Arabic  commentator 
 on  Diophantus,  Muhammed  al  Buziani,  who  flourished 
 about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  passage 
 of  Abulpharadge,  in  the  translation  of  Pococke  is  as 
 follows ;  "  Ex  lis  etiam  Diophantes,  cujus  liber  A,  B, 
 
 quern  Algehram  vacant,  Celebris  est."  According  to 
 Ideler,  however  (in  a  communication  to  Schulz),  the 
 Arabic  text,  when  rendered  into  Latin,  runs  as  follows  . 
 "  Cujus  liber  Ab-kismet  de  Algebra  ct  Almokabala  Cele- 
 bris est.''  The  two  words  Al-dgcbr  and  Almokabala, 
 designate  with  the  Arabians  what  we  call  algebra. 
 The  term  Kismet  means  "  division,"  but  Ab-Kismet 
 is  unintelligible  :  it  may,  perhaps,  be  the  Greek  word 
 for  arithmetic  {'AfuO/xi/TtKi'/),  in  a  corrupt  and  mutila- 
 ted state.  Some  critics,  who  attach  no  great  weight  to 
 this  testimony  of  the  Arabian  writer  just  referred  to, 
 declare  that  there  is  no  reason  whatever  for  fixinor  any 
 precise  period  between  B.C.  200  and  AD.  400.  Di- 
 ophantus is  certainly  later  than  the  first  of  these  dates, 
 since  he  cites  Hypatia  ;  he  is  anterior  to  the  year  400 
 of  our  era,  since,  according  to  Suidas,  the  celebrated 
 Hypatia,  who  perished  A.D.  415,  commented  upon 
 his  writings.  The  reputation  of  Diophantus  was  so 
 great  among  the  ancients  that  they  ranked  hun  with 
 Pythagoras  and  Euclid.  From  his  epitaph  in  the  An- 
 thologia,  which  furnishes  a  kmd  of  arithmetical  prob- 
 lem, the  following  particulars  of  his  life  have  been 
 collected  :  viz.,  that  he  was  married  when  thirty- three 
 years  old,  and  had  a  son  five  years  after ;  that  his  son 
 died  at  the  age  of  forty-two,  and  that  his  father  did  not 
 survive  him  above  four  years  ;  whence  it  appears  that 
 Diophantus  was  eighty-four  years  old  when  he  died. 
 The  problem  amounts  to  this,  viz.,  to  find  a  number 
 such  that  its  sixth,  twelfth,  and  seventh  parts,  with 
 five,  its  half,  and  four,  amount  to  the  whole  number  ; 
 which  is  evidently  eighty-four.  Diophantus  wrote  a 
 work  entitled  Arithmetical  Questions,  in  thirteen  books, 
 of  which  only  six  remain.  It  would  seem  that  in  the 
 fifteenth,  and  even  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth, 
 century  all  the  thirteen  books  still  existed.  John  Miil- 
 ler,  known  by  the  name  of  Regio-montanus,  assures 
 us  that  he  saw  a  complete  manuscript  of  the  work ; 
 and,  according  to  Bachet  de  Meziriac,  Cardinal  Per- 
 ron also  once  possessed  a  complete  copy.  The 
 arithmetic  of  Diophantus  is  not  merely  important  for 
 the  study  of  the  history  of  mathematics,  from  its  ma- 
 king known  the  state  of  the  exact  sciences  in  the  fourth 
 century  before  the  Christain  era,  but  is  interesting 
 also  to  the  mathematician  himself,  from  its  furnishing 
 him  with  luminous  methods  for  the  resolution  of  ana- 
 lytical problems.  We  find  in  it,  moreover,  the  first 
 traces  of  that  branch  of  the  exact  sciences  called  alge- 
 bra. It  is  scarcely  to  be  conceived,  however,  that, 
 while  the  cumbrous  machinery  of  common  language 
 constituted  the  sole  instrument  of  investigation,  the 
 very  curious  conclusions  which  we  find  in  this  work 
 could  have  resulted  from  the  researches  of  one  single 
 mind.  To  suppose  that  Diophantus  was  the  author  of 
 the  analysis  which  bears  his  name  is  so  contrary  to  all 
 analogy  with  experience  and  the  history  of  mental 
 jjhenomena,  as  to  be  utterly  impossible  to  admit.  Still, 
 if  we  inquire  into  the  history  of  this  branch  of  analy- 
 sis, and  ask  who  were  the  predecessors  to  Diophantus, 
 or  whether  they  were  Greeks  or  Hindus,  no  satis- 
 factory answer  can  be  given.  We  have  also  a  sec- 
 ond work  of  Diophantus  on  Polygon  Numbers  (Uepi 
 "uXvyovuv  upidpuv).  He  himself  cites  a  third,  un- 
 der the  title  of  tloplanaTa,  or  Corollaries.  The  best 
 edition  of  Diophantus  is  that  of  Ferrnat,  Tolos.,  1670, 
 fol.  It  i*a  republication  of  that  of  Meziriac  [Paris, 
 1621,  fol.),  with  additions.  A  valuable  translation  cf 
 the  Arithmetical  Questions  into  German  was  published 
 by  Otto  Schulz,  Berlin,  1822,  8vo,  to  which  is  added 
 Poselger's  translation  of  the  work  on  Polygon  numbers. 
 {Sclwll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  43,  scqq.) 
 
 DioREs,  a  friend  of  ^neas,  killed  by  Turnus.  He 
 had  engaged  in  the  games  exhibited  by  ^^neas  on  his 
 father's  tomb  in  Sicily.     {Virg.,JEn.,b.2'i7;  12,509.) 
 
 DioscoRiDEs,  I.  a  disciple  of  Isocratcs,  who  wrote.  I. 
 A  work  on  the  government  of  Lacedsmon  (IIoAirf/a  Aa- 
 Kedamoviuv) ;  2.  Commentaries,  or  Historic  Memoirs- 
 
DIOSCORIDES. 
 
 DIOSCORIDES. 
 
 ("TTTOiivrifiaTa) ;  and,  3.  A  treatise  on  the  manners  in 
 Homer  {Oi  Trap  'Oja'ipL)  vojioi).  Athen.'Biis,  who  cites 
 the  first  two  of  these  works,  has  preserved  a  long  frag- 
 ment of  the  last.  It  treats  of  the  mode  in  which  the 
 Homeric  heroes  subsisted,  and  is  extremely  curious. 
 {Athenaiis,  Ep.,  1,  p.  8. — Ed.  Schwcigh.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 SI.) — n.  A  poet  of  Alexandrea,  some  of  whose  epi- 
 grams are  preserved  in  the  Anthology  (cil.  Jacobs,  vol. 
 1,  p.  224,  scqq.). — HI.  A  native  of  Anuzarbus  in  Cili- 
 cia,  who  lived,  according  to  some,  in  the  time  of  An- 
 tony and  (/leopatra,  while  others  place  him  m  the 
 reign  of  Nero.  One  circumstance  in  favour  of  the 
 latter  supposition  is,  that  Pliny,  who  faithfully  men- 
 tions the  authors  whence  he  borrows,  does  not  once 
 mention  Dioscorides,  although  we  find  in  the  work  of 
 the  former  a  great  number  of  passages  which  appear  to 
 have  been  borrowed  from  the  latter.  This  silence  on 
 the  one  hand,  and  conformity  on  the  other,  prove  that 
 Pliny  and  Dioscorides  wrote  nearly  at  the  same  period, 
 and  derived  some  of  their  materials  from  the  same 
 sources,  particularly  from  the  lost  work  of  Sextius 
 Niger.  Dioscorides  himself  informs  us,  that,  as  a  mil- 
 itary man,  he  visited  many  countries.  He  received  the 
 surname  of  Phacas,  from  his  having  on  his  person  a 
 spot  resembling  a  lentil  (<^a/c//).  Dioscorides  is  the 
 most  celebrated  herbalist  of  antiquity,  and  for  sixteen 
 or  seventeen  centuries  there  was  nothing  known  that 
 could  be  regarded  as  superior  to  his  work  Hepl  "TTiyc; 
 iaTpLiiy^,  "  On  the  Materia  Medica,^''  in  five  books. 
 This  is  the  more  surprising,  considering  the  real  na- 
 ture of  this  famous  work.  The  author  introduces  no 
 order  into  the  arrangement  of  his  matter,  unless  liy 
 consulting  a  similarity  of  sound  in  the  names  he  gives 
 his  plants.  Thus,  medium  was  placed  with  cpimcdi- 
 U7n,  alihaa.  cannahina  with  cannabis,  hi'ppophcBslvm 
 (cnicus  stellatus)  with  hippopha'e,  and  so  on.  The 
 mere  separation  of  aromatic  and  gum-bearing  trees, 
 esculents  and  corn-plants,  hardly  forms  an  exception 
 to  this  statement.  Of  many  of  his  plants  no  descrip- 
 tion is  given,  but  they  are  merely  designated  by  a  name. 
 In  others  the  descriptions  are  comparative,  contradic- 
 tory, or  unintelligible.  He  employs  the  same  word  in 
 ditierent  senses,  and  evidently  attached  no  exactness 
 to  the  terms  he  made  use  of  He  described  the  same 
 plant  twice  under  the  same  name  or  difiercnt  names  ; 
 he  was  ofien  notoriously  careless,  and  he  appears  to 
 have  been  very  ready  to  state  too  much  upon  the  author- 
 ity of  others.  Nevertheless,  his  writings  are  extremely 
 interesting,  as  showing  the  amount  of  Materia  Medica 
 knowledge  in  the  author's  day,  and  his  descriptions 
 are  in  many  cases  far  from  bad  :  but  we  must  be  care- 
 ful not  to  look  upon  them  as  evidence  of  the  state  of 
 botany  at  the  same  period  ;  for  Dioscorides  has  no 
 pretensions  to  be  ranked  among  the  botanists  of  anti- 
 quity, considering  that  the  writings  of  Theophrastus, 
 four  centuries  earlier,  show  that  botany  had  even  at 
 that  time  begun  to  be  cultivated  as  a  science  distinct 
 from  the  art  of  the  herbalist. — It  was  only  at  last,  when 
 the  rapidly  increasing  riuinber  of  new  plants,  and  the 
 general  advance  in  all  branches  of  physical  knowledge, 
 compelled  the  moderns  to  admit  that  the  vegetable 
 kingdom  might  contain  more  things  than  were  dreamed 
 of  by  tlie  Anazarbian  philosopher,  that  the  authority  of 
 Dioscorides  ceased  to  be  acknowledged. — Dioscorides, 
 in  his  preface,  criticises  the  authors  who  had  treated  of 
 this  subject  before  him  :  lolas  of  Bithynia,  and  Her- 
 aclides  of  Tarentum,  had  neglected  plants  and  metals  ; 
 Craterus,  the  botanist  (piO)Ti'i/io(:),  and  Andreas  the 
 physician,  who  had  been  regarded  as  the  best  writers 
 on  this  subject,  had  nevertheless  omitted  many  plants 
 or  roots ;  the  disciples  of  Asclepiades,  namely,  Julius 
 Bassus,  Niceralns,  Petronius,  Sextius  Niger,  and  Di- 
 odotus,  had  described  very  exactly  what  all  the  world 
 knew,  but  had  passed  over  in  silence  the  sanative  vir- 
 tues of  medicaments.  He  also  states,  in  his  preface, 
 that  his  work  is  divided  into  five  books.  Photius,  how- 
 448 
 
 ever,  cites  as  a  sixth  and  seventh  book,  two  small  trea- 
 tises which  have  come  down  to  us,  the  one  on  Alexi- 
 pharmacs,  and  the  other  on  Theriacs.  The  authenti- 
 city of  these  is  doubted  by  critics  ;  and  yet  not  only 
 are  these  two  books  found  in  manuscript,  but  the  whole 
 work  is  often  arranged  in  a  very  different  mariner  ;  be- 
 ing distributed  sometimes  into  five,  and  at  other  times 
 into  seven,  eight,  or  nine  books.  The  te.it  aJso  has 
 experienced  various  interpolations,  which  have  in  some 
 degree  been  removed  by  the  diligence  and  leariirng  of 
 later  editors.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the 
 synonyms  for  the  names  of  the  plants  in  the  several 
 chapters,  which  are  taken  from  the  ancient  Egyptian, 
 Dacian,  and  Celtic  languages.  These  have  been  now 
 placed  at  the  end  of  the  work,  as  they  are  generally 
 supposed  not  to  have  come  from  the  pen  of  Dioscorides. 
 Many  jiassagcs,  too,  have  been  discovered,  which  have 
 been  added  to  the  text,  being  taken  from  authors  of  a 
 later  period,  such  as  Aetius,  Oribasius,  Constantinus  Af- 
 ricanus,  or  else  being  translations  from  Flinv.  Many 
 transpositions,  too,  have  been  made  in  the  text  by  copy- 
 ists and  possessors  of  manuscripts,  with  a  view  of  in- 
 troducing into  the  work  an  alphabetical  arrangement. 
 Besides  the  Alexipharmacs  and  Theriacs,  there  exists 
 another  work  attributed  to  Dioscorides,  and  entitled 
 Ucpt  evTroptfjTCiiv  (nv?Mv  re  nal  avvQiruv  i>appdKuv, 
 "  Of  Simple  and  Compound  Medicines  which  are  easy 
 to  be  prepared."  It  is  divided  into  two  books:  the 
 authenticity  of  the  treatise,  however,  is  extremely 
 doubtful.  Finally,  we  have  a  work  entitled  Ylspl 
 f^npfiaKuv  kiinstplar,  "  Of  the  Knowledge  of  Medi- 
 cines." It  is  a  species  of  al[)habetical  repertory  of  the 
 works  of  Dioscorides  and  Stephen  of  Athens. — Dr. 
 Alston  afllrms,  that  Dioscorides  brought  the  Greek  Ma- 
 teria Medica  to  perfection  ;  or,  at  least,  that  it  was 
 never  much  improved  afterward.  "  In  him  I  have 
 counted,"  he  savs,*' above  90  minerals,  700  plants, 
 and  168  animal  substances,  that  is,  OnS  in  all." 
 "  Even  Galen,"  remarks  Dr.  Adams,  "  who  is  so  par- 
 simonious of  praise,  seldom  mentions  Dioscorides  but 
 in  terms  of  high  eulogy;  and  neither  G^len  nor  Ae- 
 tius, Oribasius  nor  Paulus^Egineta, have  made  any  ma- 
 terial addition  to  the  list  of  medical  articles  described 
 by  Dioscorides.  The  only  fault  with  which  his  work 
 is  at  all  chargeable,  is  his  attributing,  in  some  instan- 
 ces, too  many  virtues  to  one  and  the  same  s"ubstaiice  ; 
 and  probably  some  which  one  cannot  always  admit  to 
 have  been  founded  upon  actual  experience.  On  this 
 ground  Dr.  Cullen  founds  a  severe  charge  against  the 
 accuracy  of  our  author ;  but,  as  the  mania  for  exalting 
 modern  literature  at  the  expense  of  the  ancient  was 
 then  at  its  height  in  Edinburgh,  the  opinion  of  such  a 
 critic  ought  to  be  received  with  considerable  allow- 
 ance, more  especially  as  Cullen  is  constantly  bctraving 
 his  ignorance  of  the  works  which  he  depreciates." — 
 The  most  celebrated  MS.  of  Dioscorides  is  one  at  Vi- 
 enna, illuminated  with  rude  figures.  It  was  sent  by 
 Busbequius,  the  Austrian  ambassador  at  Constantin>>- 
 ple,  to  Mathiolus.  who  quotes  it  under  the  name  of  the 
 "  Cantacuzene  Codex,"  and  it  is  believed  to  have  been 
 written  in  the  sixth  century.  Copies  of  some  of  the 
 figures  were  inserted  by  Dodosus  in  his  Historia  Stir- 
 pium,  and  others  were  engraved  in  the  reign  of  the 
 Empress  Maria  Theresa,  under  tiie  inspection  of  Ja- 
 quin.  Two  impressions  only  of  these  plates  have  ever 
 been  taken  ofl[',  as  the  work  was  not  continued.  One 
 of  thorn  is  now  in  the  library  of  the  Linna?an  Society, 
 the  other  with  Sibthorp's  collection  at  Oxford.  They 
 are  of  little  importance,  as  the  figures  are  of  the  rudest 
 imaginable  descri[)lion.  Another  MS.,  of  the  ninth 
 century,  exists  at  Paris,  and  was  used  by  Salmasius  : 
 this  also  is  illustrated  with  figures,  and  has  both  Ara- 
 bic and  Coptic  names  introduced,  on  which  account  it 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  written  in  Egvpt.  Besides 
 these,  there  is  at  Vienna  a  MS.,  believed  to  be  still 
 more   ancient   than   that   first  mentioned  ;   and  ihxea 
 
DIO 
 
 DIT 
 
 others  are  preserved  at  Leyden.  The  latest  and  best 
 edition  of  Dioscorides  is  that  of  Sprengel,  in  the  col- 
 lection of  Greek  physicians  by  Kuhn,  Lips.,  1829,  8vo. 
 The  folio  edition  by  Saracenus  (Sarassin)  Francoj., 
 1598,  is  also  a  very  good  one.  Sprengel's  edition  is 
 improved  by  a  collation  of  several  MSS. — So  far  as 
 European  plants  are  in  question,  we  may  suppose  that 
 the  means  of  illustrating  Dioscorides  are  now  nearly 
 exhausted  ;  but  it  is  far  otherwise  with  his  Indian  and 
 Persian  plants.  Concerning  the  latter,  it  is  probable 
 that  much  may  be  learned  from  a  study  of  the  modern 
 Materia  Medica  of  India.  When  the  Nestorians,  in 
 the  fifth  century,  were  driven  into  exile,  tiiey  sought 
 refuge  among  the  Arabs,  with  whom  they  established 
 their  celebrated  school  of  medicine,  the  ramifications 
 of  which  extended  into  Persia  and  India,  and  laid  the 
 foundation  of  the  present  medical  practice  of  the  na- 
 tives of  those  countries.  In  this  way  the  Greek  names 
 of  Dioscorides,  altered,  indeed,  and  adapted  to  the 
 genius  of  the  new  countries,  became  introduced  into 
 the  language  of  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Hindustan,  and 
 have  been  handed  down  traditionally  to  the  present 
 day.  Thus  Dr.  Royle  has  shown,  by  an  examination 
 of  this  sort  of  evidence,  that  the  calamos  aromatikos 
 of  Dioscorides  is  not  a  Gentian,  as  has  been  imagined  ; 
 that  Nardos  Indike  is  unquestionably  the  Nardosta- 
 chys  Jatamansi  of  De  Candolle,  and  that  the  Lukion 
 Indicon  was  neither  a  Rhamnus  nor  a  Lycium,  but,  as 
 Prosper  Alpinus  long  ago  asserted,  a  Berberis.  {En- 
 cyc.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  9,  p.  5. — Sckoll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  5,  p.  331,  seqq.) 
 
 DioscoRiDi  Insul.\  {l^LOCKopiSov  vijaoQ,  Ptol.),  or 
 DioscoRiD.i  {AiodKopida,  Fertpl.,  p.  17),  an  island 
 situate  at  the  south  of  the  entrance  of  the  Arabic  Gulf, 
 and  now  called  Socotora.  The  aloes  here  produced 
 are  held  in  more  estimation  than  those  of  Hadrainaiit. 
 The  ancient  name,  observes  Vincent  {Peiiplus  oj  the 
 Erylhrean  Sea,  p.  341. —  Commerce  of  the  Ancients, 
 vol.  2),  may  have  a  Greek  origin ;  but  it  has  so  near 
 a  name  to  Socotra  or  Zocotora,  that  it  is  much  more 
 likely  to  be  a  nautical  corruption  of  an  Arabic  term, 
 than  the  application  of  a  Greek  one.  The  island  is 
 near  a  hundred  miles  long,  and  thirty  at  its  greatest 
 breadth  ;  it  was  inhabited  only  on  the  northern  side  in 
 the  age  of  Arrian,  and  the  population  there  was  very 
 scanty,  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  Arabians,  Indians, 
 and  Greeks,  who  had  resorted  hither  for  the  purposes 
 of  commerce  ;  while  the  remainder  of  the  country  was 
 marshy  and  deserted.  Marco  Polo  informs  us,  that  in 
 his  time  the  inhabitants  were  Christians  ;  and  Al 
 Edrissi  confirms  this,  with  the  addition,  that  the  Greeks 
 were  introduced  there  by  Alexander  at  the  request  of 
 Aristotle,  in  hopes  of  obtaining  aloes.  Cosmas  Indi- 
 copleustes,  on  the  other  hand,  says  they  were  Greeks 
 from  Egypt  {ed.  Montfauc,  p.  179). 
 
 DiosciJKi  {AiooKovpot),  or  sons  of  Jupiter,  a  name 
 given  to  Castor  and  Pollux. 
 
 DioscuRiAS,  a  maritime  town  of  Colchis,  at  the 
 mouth  of  the  small  river  Charus.  It  was  afterward 
 called  Sebastopolis,  and  was,  in  the  earliest  ages,  the 
 port  most  frequented  m  Colchis  by  distant  as  well  as 
 neighbouring  nations,  speaking  different  languages ; 
 a  circumstance  that  still  distinguishes  Iskiiriah,  which 
 name  is  only  a  corruption  of  the  ancient  one.  {Man- 
 nert,  Geogr.,  vol.,  4,  p.  370.)  Arrian  makes  it  to 
 have  been  established  by  a  colony  of  Milesians.  Pom- 
 poniiis  Mela,  however,  says  that  it  was  founded  by 
 Castor  and  Pollux,  who  made  a  voyage  to  Colchis, 
 along  with  Jason,  in  the  Argonautic  expedition.  {Me- 
 la, 1,  19.) 
 
 DiosPoLis  I.  Magna,  a  famous  city  of  Egypt.  ( Vid. 
 Theba;.)— II.  Parva,  a  city  of  Egypt,  vves^  of  Ten- 
 tyra,  and  on  the  western  side  of  the  Nile.  It  was  the 
 capital  of  the  nome  Diospolites.  Pococke  thought  that 
 the  site  of  this  place  was  in  the  vicinity  of  the  village 
 Hon,  a  supposition  adopted  by  D'Anville,  and  also  by 
 
 L  L  L 
 
 the  sgavans  of  the  French  expedition.  {Mannerl, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  376.)— III.  A  city  of  Pales- 
 tine, called  also  Lydda.  It  was  situate  in  an  extensive 
 plain,  and  is  placed  by  the  Itiner.  Hierosol.  (p.  60) 
 thirty -two  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  de- 
 stroyed by  the  Saracens,  who  at  a  later  period  built, 
 about  two  geographical  miles  to  the  east  of  its  site,  the 
 modern  city  oi  Ratal  at.  {Ahulfcda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  79.) 
 DiK^E,  another  name  for  the  Furies.  {Vid.  Furiae.) 
 DiKCE,  I.  wife  of  Lycus,  king  of  Thebes.  She  treat- 
 ed Antiope  with  great  cruelty,  and  was  put  to  death  by 
 Amphion  and  Zethus,  Antiope's  two  sons.  They  tied 
 her  by  the  hair  to  a  wild  bull,  and  let  the  animal  drag 
 her  until  she  was  dead.  After  death  she  was  changed 
 into  a  fountain  of  the  same  name,  near  the  city  of 
 Thebes.  (Fi(Z.  Antiope.) — II.  A  fountain  near  Thebes, 
 in  Boeotia,  the  waters  of  which  emptied  into  the  Isme- 
 nus.  Near  it  was  the  dwelling  of  Pindar.  Sir  W. 
 Gell  noticed  a  brook  to  the  west  of  the  Cadmea,  by 
 some  Turkish  tombs,  which  he  considered  to  be  the  an- 
 cient Dirce.  {Cramer^s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  230.) 
 Dis,  a  name  given  to  Pluto.  {Vid.  Pluto.) 
 Dire  or  Dere  {Aeip-ii,  called  by  Ptolemy  Aripr/),  a 
 promontory  of  Africa,  over  against  the  coast  of  Ara- 
 bia, and  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Sinus  Arabicus, 
 or  Red  Sea.  From  its  appearance  as  it  stretched 
 along  the  coast,  it  received  the  appellation  of  Dire 
 (Ae(p^)  or  "  the  neck."  The  modern  name  is  said  to 
 be  Bab-el-Mandeh.  According  to  Mannert,  however. 
 Dire  is  now  Ras-bel,  and  the  opposite  promontory  of 
 Posidium  is  Bab-cl-Mandch.  The  city  of  Dire,  or,  as 
 it  was  originally  called,  Berenice  epi-Dires,  stood  upou 
 a  part  of  the  promontory  Dire.  {Mannert,  vol.  10,  pt. 
 1,  p.  59,  seqq.) 
 
 DiscoEDiA,  a  malevolent  deity,  daughter  of  Nox, 
 and  sister  to  Nemesis,  the  Parcaj,  and  Death.  She 
 was  driven  from  heaven  by  Jupiter,  beca>.ise  she  sowed 
 dissensions  among  the  gods,  and  was  the  cause  of  con- 
 tinual quarrels.  When  the  nuptials  of  Peleus  and 
 Thetis  were  celebrated,  the  goddess  of  discord  was 
 not  invited,  and  this  seeming  neglect  so  irritated  her, 
 that  she  threw  into  the  midst  of  the  festal  assembly 
 an  apple  all  of  gold,  and  having  on  it  the  inscription, 
 "  Let  the  fairest  take  me."  This  apple  was  the  cause 
 of  the  ruin  of  Troy,  and  of  infinite  misfortunes  to  the 
 Greeks.  {Vid.  Paris.)  Discord  is  represented  with 
 a  pale,  ghastly  look,  her  garment  is  torn,  her  eyes  spar- 
 kle with  fire,  and  in  her  bosom  she  has  a  concealed  dag- 
 ger. {Lucian,  Dial.  Mann.,  b.—Virg.,  JEn.,  8,  702.) 
 DiTHY RAMBUS,  I.  a  name  of  Bacchus.  (^Eurip., 
 BacchcE,  526.)  According  to  the  old  explanation,  now 
 deservedly  rejected,  it  stood  for  diOvpafiog,  "  double- 
 doored,"  "  he  who  has  passed  through  two  doors,"  as 
 an  allusion  to  the  double  birth  of  Bacchus.  The 
 quantity  of  the  first  syllable  is  an  insuperable  objection 
 to  this  interpretation,  and  Welcker's  answer  to  it 
 {Nachtrag.,  p.  192),  that  this  deviation  from  the 
 quantity  of  dig  arose  from  the  necessities  of  the  tro- 
 chaic verse,  falls  to  the  ground  at  once,  unless  it  can 
 he  shown  not  only  that  the  metre  of  the  dithyramb  itself 
 was  trochaic,  but  also  that  it  was  necessary  to  introduce 
 the  name  of  the  poem  into  the  poem  itself.  {Donald- 
 son, Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p.  17,  not.,  4th  ed)—\l. 
 The  earliest  species  of  choral  poetry  connected  with 
 the  worship  of  Bacchus.  The  inventor  of  this  species 
 of  hymn  was  as  little  known  as  the  meaning  of  the 
 name.  It  is  attributed  by  Herodotus  to  Arion  (1,  23) ; 
 by  others  to  Lasus  {Schol.  ad  Anstoph.,  Vcsp.,  I4o0. 
 —Suid.,  s.  V.  Auaog) ;  and  Archilochus,  who  lived 
 long  before  either  of  them,  mentions  it  by  name. 
 {Archil.,  frag.,  38,  ed.  Liebcl.)  It  was  danced  by  a 
 chorus  o'f  fifty  men  or  boys  around  a  blazing  altar 
 {Schol.  ad  Pind.,  Olymp.,  13,  2&.-Simonid  Epigr., 
 76) ;  and  hence  it  was  also  called  the  Cyclic  chorus 
 The  subjects  were  generally  the  birtli  of  Bacchus,  and 
 his  misfortunes.     Indeed,   unless  we  mjunderstand 
 
DOD 
 
 DODONA, 
 
 Plato's  words  {Leg.,  3,  p.  700,  b.  Aiovvaov  yevEffcc 
 
 (^Ldiipa/iCo^  Xeyuj-ievog),  the  name  of   the   song 
 
 expressed  as  much.  It  was  originally  distinguished 
 by  a  disorderly  and  enthusiastic  wildness  of  tone, 
 which,  in  the  end,  degenerated  into  turgidity  and  bom- 
 bast. The  music  was  Phrygian  (therefore  stirring 
 and  rapid),  and  the  pipe  its  original  accompaniment. 
 From  the  more  solemn  festivities*  and  systematic  wild- 
 ness of  the  dithyramb  sprang  tragedy  ;  just  as  comedy 
 came  from  the  Phallic  song. — Blomfield  supposes  an 
 etymological  connexion  between  the  words  ia/j.6o(, 
 ■dpiafidog,  and  didvpa/uGoc;,  and  thinks  they  are  corrup- 
 tions of  Egyptian  terms.  (Mus.  Crit.,  vol.  2,  p.  70.) 
 It  is  more  probable,  however,  that  -dpiaiifjo^  and  SlOv- 
 pafidog  came  with  the  worship  of  Bacchus  from  In- 
 dia, and  that  Dilhyramhus  was  not,  as  many  think,  the 
 name  of  the  god  after  it  became  the  name  of  the  song, 
 but  the  reverse.  Donaldson,  however,  opposes  this 
 last-mentioned  supposition,  and  attempts  also  to  give 
 a  new  derivation  to  the  term  itself,  but  with  little,  if 
 any  success.  {Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p.  18,  not., 
 4th  ed.) 
 
 DiviTiAcus,  a  leading  nobleman  of  the  ^dui,  who 
 possessed  great  influence  with  Caesar  in  consequence 
 of  his  fidelity  and  attachment  to  the  Romans.  {Cces., 
 B.  G.,  1,  3.— M  lb.,  1,  41,  &c.) 
 
 DiuM,  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  Macedonia,  and 
 not  unfrequently  the  residence  of  its  monarchs.  It 
 was  situate,  according  to  Livy  (44,  6  and  7),  at  the 
 foot  of  Mount  Olympus,  which  leaves  but  the  space  of 
 one  mile  from  the  sea  ;  and  half  of  this  is  occupied  by 
 marshes  formed  by  the  mouth  of  the  river  Baphyrus. 
 Thucydides  (4,  78)  says  it  was  the  first  Macedonian 
 town  which  Brasidas  entered  on  his  march  from  Thes- 
 saly.  This  place  suffered  considerably  during  the  So- 
 cial war  from  an  incursion  of  the  Ji^tolians  under  their 
 praBtor  Scopas,  who  levelled  to  the  ground  the  walls, 
 houses,  and  gymnasium,  destroying  the  porches  around 
 the  temple  of  Jupiter,  an  edifice  of  great  celebrity, 
 with  the  offerings  and  everything  used  in  the  festivals. 
 {Polyb.,  4,  62.)  It  is  evident,  however,  from  Livy's 
 account,  that  this  damage  had  been  repaired  when  the 
 Romans  occupied  the  town  in  the  reign  of  Perseus. 
 It  was  here  that  Philip  assembled  his  army  previous 
 to  the  battle  of  Cynoscephalae.  {Liv  ,33,3.)  Dium, 
 at  a  later  period,  became  a  Roman  colony.  {PtoL,  p. 
 82.)  Pliny  terms  it  Colonia  Diensis  (4,  10).  Some 
 similarity  in  the  name  of  this  once  flourishing  city  is 
 apparent  in  that  of  a  spot  called  Standia,  which  an- 
 swers to  Livy's  description.  Dr.  Clarke,  however, 
 was  not  disposed  to  acquiesce  in  this  opinion,  and 
 thought  that  it  muse  have  stood  at  Katerina.  {Trav- 
 els— Greece,  Egypt,  &c.,  vol.  7,  p.  400,  seqq.)  He 
 was  most  probably  mistaken,  as  Katerina,  or  Hateri, 
 which  is  the  real  name  of  the  place,  is  doubtless  the 
 Hatera  of  the  Tabula  Theodosiana,  one  stage  from 
 Dium.     {Cramefs  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  203.) 
 
 DivoDURUM,  the  capital  of  the  Mediomatrici,  a  peo- 
 of  Belgic  Gaul,  who  were  located  along  the  Mosella  or 
 Moselle.  Its  name  was  afterward  changed  to  that  of 
 the  people  itself,  and  is  now  Meiz.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  1, 
 63. — A  mm.  Marccll.,  15,  27.) 
 
 DoDoNA,  I.  a  celebrated  city  and  oracle  of  Epirus, 
 situate  most  probably  in  the  present  valley  o(  Joannina, 
 but  the  exact  position  of  which  has  never  been  ascer- 
 tained. We  are  not  assisted  here  by  any  accurate  an- 
 cient traveller  like  Pausanias,  nor  have  we  any  itine- 
 raries or  faithful  measurements  of  distances  to  wuide 
 us  ;  all  is  vague  and  indefinite  ;  and,  even  after  a  most 
 careful  comparison  of  all  the  various  passages  in  which 
 the  name  occurs,  very  different  opinions  may  be  en- 
 tertained on  the  subject.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
 places  it  four  days'  journey  from  Buthrotum,  and  two 
 from  Ambracia.  {Antiq.  Rom.,  1,5.)  Colonel  Leake 
 makes  it  to  have  been  situate  at  the  southeastern  ex- 
 tremity of  the  Lake  of  Joannina,  near  Kastritza  {Trav- 
 450 
 
 els  in  Northern  Greece,  vol.  4,  p.  168,  scqq),  a7id 
 there  are  many  reasons  for  believing  that  the  Dodone- 
 an  territory  corresponded  to  the  valley  at  the  south  of 
 that  sheet  of  water.  It  is  true  there  is  no  mention  of 
 a  lake  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  ancient  Dodona, 
 but  the  place  is  described  as  surrounded  by  marshes, 
 and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  Lake  of  Joannina  may 
 have  been  increased  in  later  times  from  the  Katavo- 
 thras  in  the  country.  {Leake,  vol.  4,  p.  189.)  It  is 
 universally  allowed,  that  the  temple  of  Dodona  owed 
 its  origin  to  the  Pelasgi  at  a  period  much  anterior  to 
 the  Trojan  war ;  since  many  writers  represent  it  as 
 existing  in  the  time  of  Deucalion,  and  even  of  Inachus. 
 {jEscL,  Prom.  Vinct.,  v.  679.  — Dion.  Hal,  Ant. 
 Rom.,  1,  14.)  Herodotus  distinctly  states,  that  it  was 
 the  most  ancient  oracle  of  Greece,  and  represents  the 
 Palasgi  as  consulting  it  on  various  occasions  (2,  52). 
 Hence  the  title  of  Pelasgic  assigned  to  Jupiter,  to 
 whom  the  temple  was  dedicated.  {Xcv  uva,  Awdw- 
 vale,  UeXaayiKe. — Iliad,  16,  233. — Compare  Hesiod, 
 ap.  Strab.,  7,  327.)  Of  the  existence,  however,  of 
 another  oracle  in  Thessaly  of  the  same  name  (vid. 
 No.  II.),  no  doubt  can  be  entertained  ;  and  to  this  the 
 prayer  of  Achilles,  in  Homer,  probably  had  reference. 
 — Setting  aside  the  fables  which  Herodotus  has  trans- 
 mitted to  us  respecting  Dodona  and  its  doves,  to  which 
 he  evidently  attached  no  belief,  his  report  of  the  affin- 
 ity which  existed  between  the  service  of  this  temple 
 and  that  of  Thebes  in  Egypt  is  deserving  of  our  at- 
 tention. It  appears  from  this  author,  that  in  his  time 
 the  service  of  the  temple  was  performed  by  females ; 
 and  he  has  recorded  the  names  of  the  three  priestesses 
 who  officiated  when  he  visited  Dodona  (2,  55).  Stra- 
 bo,  however,  asserts,  that  these  duties  were  originally 
 allotted  to  men,  from  the  circumstance  of  Homer's 
 mention  of  the  Selli  as  being  attendant  upon  the  gods. 
 The  term  Selli  was  considered  by  many  ancient  writers 
 to  refer  to  a  people  of  Pelasgic  origin,  whom  they  iden- 
 tified with  the  Helli  {Soph.,  Truck.,  v.  1160,  seqq. — 
 Strabo,  327.— Eustath.,  ad  11.,  16,  v.  233.— Schol. 
 ad  Hom.,  I.  c. — Aristot.,  Mcteorol.,  1,  14. — Hesych., 
 s.  V.  "E/lP-oi),  and  also  with  the  Tomuri.  {Eustath., 
 ad  Od.,  16,  403.)  The  origin  of  the  word  Dodona 
 seems  not  to  have  been  ascertained,  if  we  judge  from 
 the  contradictory  opinions  transmitted  to  us  by  Steph. 
 Byz.  {s.  V.  AuduuTj. — Compare  remarks  under  No.  II.) 
 Nor  are  we  better  informed  as  to  the  nature  and  con- 
 struction of  the  temple  during  the  early  age  of  Gre- 
 cian history.  The  responses  of  the  oracle  were  origi- 
 nally delivered  from  the  sacred  oak  or  beech.  {Soph., 
 Track.,  V.  173. — Hesiod,  ap.  Schol.  in  Soph.,  Track- 
 in.)  Its  reputation  was  at  first  confined  to  the  inhab- 
 itants of  Epirus,  Acarnania,  ^tolia,  and  the  western 
 parts  of  Greece  {Pausan.,  7,  21),  but  its  fame  was  af- 
 terward extended  over  the  whole  of  that  country,  and 
 even  to  Asia,  as  we  know  that  on  one  occasion  the 
 oracle  was  consulted  by  Croesus.  {Herod.,  ],  46.) 
 The  Boeotians  were  the  only  people  who  received  the 
 prophetic  answers  from  the  mouth  of  men  ;  to  all  other 
 nations  they  were  always  communicated  by  the  priest- 
 esses of  the  temple.  The  reason  of  this  exception  is 
 stated  at  length  by  Strabo  (401),  on  the  authority  of 
 Ephorus.  (Compare  Prod,  Ckrestom.,  ap.  Phot., 
 Bibl.,  vol.  2,  p.  321,  ed.  Bckker.)  Dodona  was  the 
 first  station  in  Greece  to  which  the  oflTerings  of  the 
 Hyperboreans  were  despatched,  according  to  Herodo- 
 tus ;  they  arrived  there  from  the  Adriatic,  and  were 
 thence  passed  on  to  the  Maliac  Gulf  (4,  33).  Among 
 the  several  offerings  presented  to  the  temple  by  vari- 
 ous nations,  one  dedicated  by  the  Corcyreans  is  par- 
 ticularly noticed.  It  was  a  brazen  figure  placed  over 
 a  caldron  of  the  same  metal ;  this  statue  held  in  its 
 hand  a  whip,  the  lash  of  which  consisted  of  three  chains, 
 each  having  an  astragalus  fastened  to  the  end  of  it ; 
 these,  when  agitated  by  the  wind,  struck  the  caldron, 
 and  produced  so  continued  a  sound  that  400  vibrations 
 
DODONA. 
 
 DOL 
 
 could  be  counted  before  it  ceased.  Hence  arose  the 
 various  proverbs  of  the  Dodonean  caldron  and  the 
 Corcyrean  lash.  {Sfrabo,  Compend.,  7,  p.  329.)  Me- 
 nander,  in  one  of  his  plays,  compared  an  old  nurse's 
 chatter  to  the  endless  sound  of  this  kettle.  (Menand., 
 Reliq.,€d.  Mcinecke,  p.  27.)  It  was  said  by  others, 
 that  the  walls  of  the  temple  were  composed  of  many 
 caldrons,  contiguous  to  each  other,  so  that,  striking 
 upon  one,  the  sound  was  conveyed  to  all  the  rest. 
 But  this  account  is  not  so  much  to  be  depended  on 
 as  the  other,  which,  according  to  Steph.  Byz.,  rests 
 on  the  authority  of  Polemo  Periegetes,  who  seems  to 
 have  written  a  very  accurate  description  of  the  curi- 
 osities of  the  place ;  as  also  another  person  named  Aris- 
 tides. — We  hear  of  the  oracle  of  Dodona  at  the  time 
 of  the  Persian  invasion  {Herodot.,  9,  93),  and  again  in 
 the  reign  of  Agesilaus,  who  consulted  it  previously  to 
 his  expedition  into  Asia.  {Plut.,  Apophthegm.  Lacon., 
 p.  125.)  It  is  stated  by  Diodorus  Siculus  (14,  13), 
 that  Lysander  was  accused  openly  of  having  offered  to 
 bribe  the  priestess.  The  oracle  which  warned  the 
 Molossian  Alexander  of  his  fate  is  well  known  from 
 Livy  (8,  24).  From  Demosthenes  we  learn,  that  the 
 answers  delivered  from  time  to  time  to  the  Athenians 
 were  laid  up  in  the  public  archives  ;  and  he  himself  ap- 
 peals to  their  testimony  on  more  than  one  occasion. 
 At  length,  during  the  Social  war,  Dodona  was,  ac- 
 cording to  Polybius  (4,  67),  almost  entirely  destroyed 
 in  an  irruption  of  the  ^tolians,  under  their  prstor 
 Corimachus,  then  at  war  with  Epirus.  "  They  set 
 fire,"  says  the  historian,  "  to  the  porches,  destroyed 
 many  of  the  offerings,  and  pulled  down  the  sacred  edi- 
 fice." It  is  probable  that  the  temple  of  Dodona  nev- 
 er recovered  from  this  disaster,  as  in  Strabo's  time 
 there  was  scarcely  any  trace  left  of  the  oracle ;  but  the 
 town  must  still  have  existed,  as  it  is  mentioned  by 
 Hierocles  among  the  cities  of  Epirus  in  the  seventh 
 century  ;  and  we  hear  of  a  bishop  of  Dodona  in  the 
 council  of  Ephesus.  {Wessel.,  ad  HicrocL,  Synced., 
 p.  651.) — All  accounts  seem  to  agree  that  Dodona 
 stood  either  on  the  declivity  or  at  the  foot  of  an  ele- 
 vated mountain  called  Tomarus  or  Tamarus.  (Stra- 
 bp,  328.)  Hence  the  term  Tomuri,  supposed  to  be  a 
 contraction  for  Tomaruri  {Tofiapovpoc),  or  guardians  of 
 Tomarus,  which  was  given  to  the  priests  of  the  temple. 
 (Strabo,  I.  c.)  In  Callimachus  {Hymn,  in  Cer.,  52) 
 we  find  the  name  of  the  mountain  written  Tmarus 
 {Tfiupog).  This  lofty  mountain  was  farther  remarka- 
 ble for  the  number  of  streams  which  burst  from  its 
 sides.  (Plin.,  4,  1.)  If,  then,  we  had  the  means  of 
 distinguishing  the  modern  chain  which  answers  to  the 
 ancient  Tomarus,  we  might  easily  discover  the  site  of 
 Dodona,  but  the  whole  of  Epirus  being  covered  with 
 lofty  mountains,  it  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  even  this 
 point. — (For  discussions  on  this  interesting  question, 
 consult  Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  115,  scqq. — 
 Wordsicorlh' s  Greece,  p.  247. —  WalpoWs  Collection, 
 vol.  2,  p.  ATl'i.— Hughes's  Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  5 11.)— II. 
 A  city  and  oracle  of  Thessaly.  It  has  given  rise  to 
 much  controversy  whether  Homer  (7/.,  2,  749)  refers 
 to  this  or  the  city  of  Epirus,  and  the  scholiasts  and 
 commentators  are  divided  in  their  opinions.  Stepha- 
 iius  Byzantinus  {s.  v.  i^udwvi])  enters  fully  into  the 
 discussion,  and  quotes  passages  from  several  writers 
 on  the  antiquities  of  Thessaly,  who  all  acknowledged 
 a  city  named  Dodona  or  Bodona  in  that  country  : 
 whence  the  opinion  has  been  entertained  that  the  ora- 
 cle of  .lupiter  was  afterward  transferred  to  Epirus. 
 Stnibo  (441)  seems  to  adopt  this  notion,  and  affirms, 
 in  one  place,  thai  the  Thessalian  Dodona  was  situated 
 near  the  Titaresius.  Elsewhere,  however,  he  leads  us 
 to  suppose  that  it  stood  near  Scotussa.  at  the  foot  of 
 Mount  Ossa  (9,  p.  441).  Rittcr  has  some  curious  and 
 learned  speculations  on  this  subject.  According  to  this 
 writer,  the  primitive  form  of  the  name  was  Bodona  (Bw- 
 •  fim-ij),  and  he  traces  the  founding  of  Dodona  to  a  sacer- 
 
 dotal colony  from  India,  and  establishes,  when  taken 
 in  connexion  with  various  other  parts  of  early  Grecian 
 history,  the  remarkable  fact  of  the  introduction  of  the 
 5wrfrfa- worship  into  Greece  along  with  the  germes  of 
 civilization.  The  analogy  between  the  root  of  the  name 
 'Quduvi]  {Bod),  and  that  of  the  Hindu  Budda  {Bud), 
 is  sufficiently  obvious.  Hitler's  work,  however  (Fo;- 
 halle  Europaischer  Volhergesehichtcn  vor  Herodotus, 
 um  den  Kaukasus  und  an  den  Gestaden  des  Ponlus, 
 Berlin,  1820,  8vo),  ought  to  be  carefully  perused  in 
 order  to  do  justice  to  his  learned  and  elaborate  argu- 
 ments. His  object  is  to  show,  that  the  stream  of  civ- 
 ilization and  religion  flowed  into  the  countries  of  Eu- 
 rope from  the  remote  India,  by  pursuing  a  route  through 
 the  vast  regions  of  Scythia,  and  coming  down  into  Eu- 
 rope by  the  shores  of  the  Euxine. 
 
 DoDON^os,  a  surname  of  Jupiter  from  Dodona. 
 (Consult  Homer,  II. ,  16,  233. — Zev  uva,  Auduvale, 
 IleKaayiKE. — And  compare  remarks  under  the  article 
 Dodona.) 
 
 DoDONiDF.s,  the  priestesses  who  gave  oracles  in  the 
 temple  of  Jupiter  in  Dodona.     {Vid.  Dodona.) 
 
 DoLABELLA,  P.  Cornelius,  a  Roman  who  married 
 Tullia,  the  daughter  of  Cicero.  His  early  profligacies 
 and  extravagances  led  him  to  join  Caesar  at  the  begin- 
 ning of  his  rebellion,  as  the  natural  patron  of  men  of 
 broken  fortunes.  He  afterward  fought  under  him  ai 
 Pharsalia,  distinguished  himself  by  his  revolutionar) 
 proceedings  when  tribune  during  Caesar's  absence  in 
 Egypt,  and  afterward  went  with  him  into  Africa,  anc 
 served  under  him  through  the  whole  of  that  campaign 
 On  his  return  to  Italy  after  Cajsar's  final  victory,  hf 
 appears  to  have  lived  in  a  style  of  great  magnificence 
 and  the  excellence  of  his  entertainments  is  recorded  b) 
 Cicero,  who,  through  him  and  one  or  two  other  friends 
 maintained  a  friendly  intercourse  with  the  dominant 
 party.  He  was  nominated  by  Cassar  for  the  consulship 
 a  short  time  before  the  assassination  of  the  latter,  and, 
 after  Cssar's  death,  assumed  the  office  of  consul  him- 
 self, but  went  over  to  the  side  of  the  republic,  and  acted 
 vigorously  in  Us  behalf.  Subsequently,  however,  An- 
 tony drew  him  entirely  away  from  the  republican  party 
 by  paying  off  for  him  a  heavy  load  of  debts.  Leaving 
 Rome  in  order  to  get  possession  of  Syria  against  Cas 
 sius,  hc'surprised  Smyrna  and  put  Trebonius  to  death, 
 on  which  the  senate  declared  him  a  public  enemy. 
 Having  been  pursued  and  defeated  by  Cassius,  he  de- 
 stroyed himself. — Dolabella  was  a  man  of  no  virtue  or 
 principle.  Cicero  was  compelled  to  have  his  daugh- 
 ter Tullia  divorced  from  him.  Still,  however,  the  or- 
 ator always  kept  up  a  fair  intercourse  with  him,  and 
 endeavoured  to  use  him  as  a  check  upon  the  designs 
 of  Antonv,  his  colleague  in  the  consulship.  {Ctc, 
 Phil.,  2,  '30.— Id.,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  9,  le.—Middleton, 
 Life  of  Cicero,  vol.  2,  p.  206,  224,  290,  343,  &c., 
 8vo  ed.) 
 
 DoLicHA,  I.  a  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  Perrhaebian 
 district,  to  the  southeast  of  Azorus.  Here  the  consul 
 Q.  Marcius  Philippus  received  a  deputation  from  the 
 Achaean  leacrue,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Polybius, 
 who  accompanied  the  Roman  army  in  their  singular 
 and  perilous  march  through  the  defiles  of  Olympus  into 
 Pieria.  {Polyb.,  Excerpt.,  28,  U.—Liv.,  42,  53  — 
 Id.,  44,  2.)— II.  A  town  of  Syria,  situate  in  the  dis- 
 trict Euphratensis,  and  northwest  of  Zeugma.  The 
 ancient  name  is  preserved  in  that  of  Doluc,  a  castle  on 
 a  chain  of  mountains,  which,  detached  from  Amanus, 
 are  prolonged  towards  the  Euphrates.  {Ahulfcda, 
 Tab.  Syr.,  p.  122.— Manner t,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p. 
 496.) 
 
 DoLON,  a  Trojan,  the  only  son  of  the  herald  Eu- 
 medes,  famed  for  swiftness  of  foot.     When  Hector 
 was  anxious  to  explore  by  night  the  Grecian  camp 
 Dolon,  induced  by  the  promised  reward  of  the  chari 
 and  hor-ses  of  Achilles,  undertook  the  enterprise      O 
 his  approach  to  the  Grecian  tents,  he  was  met  by  D" 
 
 451 
 
DOM 
 
 DOM 
 
 omede  and  Ulysses,  who,  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks, 
 had  been  despatched  ou  a  similar  expedition.  Dolon, 
 having  betrayed  to  them  the  situation  and  plans  of  the 
 Trojans,  was  put  to  death  by  Dioinede  for  his  treach- 
 ery.    {Horn.,  II.,  10,  314.— Fir^r.,  Mn.,  12,  349.) 
 
 DoLONui,  a  people  of  Thrace.  {Hcrodut.,  6,  34. — 
 Vid.  Miltiades.) 
 
 DoLOPEs,  a  people  of  Thessaly,  who  appear  to  have 
 been  early  established  in  that  southeastern  angle  of 
 Thessaly  formed  by  the  chain  of  Pindus,  or  rather 
 Tymphrestus,  on  one  side,  and  Mount  Othrys,  branch- 
 ing out  of  it,  on  the  other.  By  the  latter  mountain 
 they  were  separated  from  the  ^Enianes,  v»ho  were  in 
 possession  of  the  upper  valley  of  the  Sperchius  ;  while 
 to  the  west  they  bordered  upon  Phthiotis,  with  the  in- 
 habitants of  which  country  they  were  connected  as 
 early  as  the  siege  of  Troy.  This  we  learn  from  Ho- 
 mer, who  represents  Phoenix,  the  Dolopian  leader,  as 
 accompanying  Achilles  thither  in  the  double  capacity 
 of  preceptor  and  ally.  (//.,  9,  480. — Find.,  ap.  Slrab., 
 431.)  The  Dolopians,  according  to  Pausanias  and 
 Harpocration,  sent  deputies  to  the  Amphictyonic  coun- 
 cil. From  Herodotus  we  learn,  that  they  presented 
 earth  and  water  to  Xerxes,  and  furnished  some  troops 
 for  the  expedition  undertaken  by  that  monarch  into 
 Greece  (7,  132  and  185).  Xenophon,  at  a  later  peri- 
 od, enumerates  thear  as  subjects  of  Jason,  tyrant  of 
 Pherse.  (Hist.  Gr.,  6,  1.)  Diodorus  Siculus  informs 
 us  that  they  took  part  in  the  Lainiac  war  (18,  11).  We 
 afterward  find  Dolopia  a  frequent  subject  of  contention 
 between  the  /Etolians,  who  had  extended  their  domin- 
 ion to  the  borders  of  this  district,  and  the  kings  of 
 Macedonia.  Hence  the  frequent  incursions  made  by 
 the  former  people  into  this  part  of  Thessaly  when  at 
 war  with  the  latter  power.  (Liv.,  31,  12. — Id..  33, 
 34. — Id.,  36,  33.)  Dolopia  was  finally  conquered  by 
 Perseus,  the  last  Macedonian  monarch.  The  cantons 
 of  Thaitmako,  Gntuiano,  and  part  of  Agrapha,  may 
 be  supposed  to  occupy  the  situation  ascribed  by  an- 
 cient writers  to  the  country  of  the  Dolopians.  {Cra- 
 mer s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  416.) 
 
 DoMiTiA  Lex,  de  Sacerdotiis,  brought  forward  by 
 Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  tribune  of  the  commons, 
 A.U.C.  650.  It  enacted  that  the  ponlijiccs,  augures, 
 and  decemviri  sacris  factendts  should  not  be  chosen  by 
 the  sacerdotal  colleges,  but  by  the  people.  The  pon- 
 tifcx  maxmnis  and  curio  maximus  were  always,  in  the 
 first  ages  of  the  republic,  chosen  by  the  people.  (CVc, 
 hull.,  2,  7.— Liv.,  25,  5.— Id.,  27,  8.) 
 
 DoMiTiA  Gens,  a  celebrated  plebeian  family,  divi- 
 ded into  two  branches,  that  of  the  Calvini  and  that  of 
 the  Ahenobarbi.  The  Calvini  attained  to  the  consular 
 office  A.U.C.  422,  the  Ahenobarbi  in  562.  The  latter, 
 at  length,  in  the  person  of  Nero,  became  invested  with 
 imperial  power ;  but  with  this  emperor  perished  the 
 male  line  of  the  Domitii.  Domitiaii  only  belonged  to 
 this  family  through  his  mother  Domitia. 
 
 DoMiTU,  I.  Lepida,  aunt  of  Nero,  was  accused  of  ma- 
 gic and  put  to  death  (A.D.  54)  through  the  intrigues 
 of  Agrippina,  who  was  jealous  of  her  influence  over 
 Nero.  (Tacit.,  Ann.,  12,  64,  seq.) — H.,  or  Domitilla, 
 wife  of  Vespasian,  by  whom  he  had  Titus  and  Domi- 
 tian,  and  a  daughter  named  Domitilla.  She  had  been 
 Jie  mistress  of  a  Roman  knight,  and  passed  fr,'  a  freed 
 woman  ;  but  she  was  declared  of  free  birth  on  having 
 been  acknowledged  by  her  father  Flavins  Liberalls, 
 who  held  the  situation  of  scribe  to  one  of  the  quaestors. 
 She  died  before  Vespasian  came  to  the  throne.  {Sue- 
 ton.,  Vit.  Vespas.,  3.) — HI.  Ivongina,  daughter  of  the 
 famous  Corbulo,  the  general  of  Nero.  She  married 
 yElius  Lamia,  but  was  seduced  by  Domitian,  and,  after 
 the  birth  of  a  daughter,  publicly  raised  to  the  throne. 
 Hardly,  however,  had  the  emperor  elevated  her  to  the 
 station  of  Augusta,  when  his  jealousy  was  alarmed  by 
 certain  familiarities  to  which  she  admitted  the  panto- 
 mime Paris,  and  he  drove  her  from  his  bed  and  palace. 
 452 
 
 The  ascendency  which  she  had  acquired,  howcTcr, 
 over  the  vicious  emperor,  was  too  strong  to  be  thus 
 suddenly  dissolved,  and  she  was  recalled  to  her  former 
 station.  Domitia  was  concerned,  it  is  thought,  in  the 
 conspiracy  by  which  the  emperor  lost  his  life.  She 
 died  during  the  reign  of  Trajan.  {Suelon.,  Vit.  Do- 
 mil.,  3.) 
 
 DoiMiTiANUs,  Titus  Flavius,  the  second  son  of  Ves- 
 pasian, born  at  Rome  A.D.  51.  Vespasian,  well  aware 
 of  his  natural  disposition,  reposed  no  confidence  in  him 
 during  his  whole  reign.  Domitian,  however,  accom- 
 panied his  father  and  brother  Titus  in  their  triumph  at 
 the  close  of  the  Jewish  war.  Upon  the  death  of  Ves- 
 pasian, he  endeavoured  to  foment  troubles  in  the  em- 
 pire, and  share  the  succession  with  Titus.  The  latter, 
 however,  generously  forgave  him,  treated  him  witlv 
 great  kindness,  and  made  him  his  colleague  in  the  con- 
 sulship, always  declaring  to  him  that  he  intended  bira 
 for  his  successor.  Domitian  is  accused  of  hastening 
 the  death  of  Titus  by  poison ;  a  charge,  however,  not 
 warranted  by  the  circumstances  of  Titus's  death.  The 
 beginning  of  his  reign  was  marked  by  moderation  and 
 a  display  of  justice  bordering  upon  severity.  He  af- 
 fected great  zeal  for  the  reformation  of  public  morals, 
 and  punished  with  death  several  persons  guilty  of  adul- 
 tery, as  well  as  some  vestals  who  had  broken  their 
 vows.  He  completed  several  splendid  buildings  begun 
 by  Titus ;  among  others,  an  odeum,  or  theatre  for 
 musical  performances.  The  most  important  event  of 
 his  reign  was  the  conquest  of  Britain  by  Agricola  ;  but 
 Domitian  grew  jealous  of  that  great  commander's  rep- 
 utation, and  recalled  him  to  Rome.  His  suspicious 
 temper  and  his  pusillanimity  made  him  afraid  of  every 
 man  who  was  distinguished  either  by  birth  and  connex- 
 ions, or  by  merit  and  popularity,  and  he  mercilessly  sac- 
 rificed many  to  his  fears,  while  his  avarice  led  him  to 
 put  to  death  a  number  of  wealthy  persons  for  the  sake 
 of  their  property.  The  usual  pretext  for  these  mur- 
 ders was  the  charge  of  conspiracy  or  treason;  and  thus 
 a  numerous  race  of  informers  was  created  and  main- 
 tained by  this  system  of  spoliation.  His  cruelty  was 
 united  to  a  deep  dissimulation,  and  in  this  particular 
 he  resembled  Tiberius  rather  than  Caligula  or  Nero. 
 He  either  put  to  death  or  drove  away  from  Rome  the 
 philosophers  and  men  of  letters  ;  Epictetus  was  one 
 of  the  exiled.  He  found,  however,  some  flatterers 
 among  the  poets,  such  as  Martial,  Silius  Italicus,  and 
 Statius.  The  latter  dedicated  to  him  his  Thehdis  and 
 Achilleis,  and  commemorated  the  events  of  his  reign 
 in  his  Sylva.  But,  in  reality,  the  reign  of  Domitian  was 
 any  other  than  favourable  to  the  Roman  arms,  except 
 in  Britain.  In  Moesia  and  Dacia,  in  Germany  and 
 Pannonia,  the  armies  were  defeated,  and  whole  prov- 
 inces lost.  {Tacilus,  Vit.  Agric,  41.)  Domitian 
 himself  went  twice  into  Moesia  to  oppose  the  Dacians, 
 but,  after  several  defeats,  he  concluded  a  disgraceful 
 peace  with  their  king  Decebalus,  whom  he  acknowl- 
 edged as  sovereign,  and  to  whom  he  agreed  to  pay 
 tribute,  which  was  afterward  discontinued  by  Trajan. 
 And  yet  Domitian  made  a  pompous  report  of  his  vic- 
 tories to  the  senate,  and  assumed  the  honours  of  a 
 triumph.  In  the  same  manner  he  triumphed  over  the 
 Cotti  and  Sarmatians,  which  made  Pliny  the  younger 
 say,  that  the  triumphs  of  Domitian  were  always  evi- 
 dence of  some  advantages  gained  by  the  enemies  of 
 Rome.  In  A.D.  95,  Domitian  assumed  the  consul- 
 ship for  the  seventeenth  time,  together  with  Flavius 
 Clemens,  who  had  married  Domitilla,  a  relative  of  the 
 emperor.  In  that  year  a  persecution  of  the  Christians 
 is  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  Church  ;  but  it  seems 
 that  it  was  not  directed  particularly  against  them,  but 
 against  the  Jews,  with  whom  the  Christians  were  then 
 confounded  by  the  Romans.  Suetonius  ascribes  the 
 proscrii)tions  of  the  Jews,  or  those  who  lived  after  the 
 manner  of  the  Jews,  and  whom  he  styles  "  improfessi," 
 to  the  rapacity  of  Domitian.     Flavius  Clemens  and  < 
 
DOM 
 
 DOR 
 
 his  wife  were  among  the  victims.  In  the  lollowing 
 year,  A.D.  96,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  Do- 
 mitian  among  the  officers  of  his  guards  and  several  of 
 his  intimate  friends,  and  his  wife,  the  infamous  Domi- 
 tilla,  herself  is  said  to  have  participated  in  it.  The  im- 
 mediate cause  of  it  was  his  increasing  suspicions,  which 
 threatened  the  life  of  every  one  around  him,  and  which 
 are  said  to  have  been  stimulated  by  the  predictions  of 
 astrologers  and  soothsayers,  whom  he  was  very  ready 
 to  consult.  He  was  killed  in  his  apartments  by  sev- 
 eral of  the  conspirators,  after  struggling  with  them  for 
 some  time,  in  his  45th  year,  and  in  the  fifteenth  of  his 
 reion.  On  the  news  of  his  death,  the  senate  assem- 
 bled and  elected  M.  Cocceius  Nerva  emperer. — The 
 character  of  Domitian  is  represented  by  all  ancient 
 historians  m  the  darkest  colours,  as  being  a  compound 
 of  timidity  and  cruelty,  of  dissimulation  and  arrogance, 
 of  self-indulgence  and  stern  severity  towards  others. 
 He  gave  himself  up  to  every  e.xcess,  and  plimged  into 
 the  most  degrading  vices.  Conceiving  at  last  the  mad 
 idea  of  arrogating  divine  honours  to  himself,  he  as- 
 sumed the  titles  of  Lord  and  God,  and  claimed  to  be 
 a  son  of  Minerva.  Soon  after  he  had  succeeded  to 
 the  government,  he  indulged  in  that  love  of  solitude, 
 which  pride  and  fear  combined  to  render  in  a  very 
 short  time  the  most  confirmed  of  all  his  habits.  In 
 the  beginning  of  his  reign,  says  his  biographer,  he  ac- 
 customed himself  to  spend  several  hours  every  day  in 
 the  strictest  privacy,  employed  frequently  in  nothing 
 else  than  in  catching  flies,  and  piercing  them  with  a 
 sharp  instrument.  Hence  the  well-known  remark 
 made  by  Vibius  Crispus,  who,  when  asked  whether 
 there  was  any  one  with  the  emperor,  replied,  "  No,  not 
 even  aflyy  Domitian  took  a  delight  in  inspiring  oth- 
 ers with  terror ;  and  Dio  Cassius  tells  of  a  singular 
 banquet,  to  which  he  invited  the  principal  members 
 of  the  senate  and  equestrian  order,  where  everything 
 wore  the  appearance  of  an  intended  execution.  He 
 once  even  convened  the  senate  to  determine  in  what 
 way  a  large  turbot  should  be  cooked,  whether  whole 
 or  divided.  And  yet  at  one  time,  before  his  becoming 
 emperor,  DomJtian  had  applied  himself  to  literature, 
 and  he  is  said  to  have  composed  several  poems  and 
 other  works. — The  senate,  after  his  death,  issued  a  de- 
 cree that  his  name  should  be  struck  out  of  the  Roman 
 annals,  and  obliterated  from  every  public  monument. 
 (Tacit.,  Hist.,  3,  59,  scqq.  —  /(/.  ih.,  4,  2,  seqq. — 
 Saeton.,  Vit.  Domit. — Djo  Cass.,G7. — Plin.,Epist., 
 4,  n.—Id.,  Paneg.,  52,  6,  &c,— Jm».,  Sat.,  4,  37, 
 scqq.) 
 
 DoMiTiLi.A.  Vid.  Domitia  II. 
 DoMiTius,  I.  Ahenobarbus,  the  first  of  the  Domitian 
 family  that  bore  the  surname  of  Ahenobarbus,  lived 
 about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  from  the 
 founding  of  the  city. — II.  Cneius  Ahenobarbus,  son  of 
 the  preceding,  was  plebeian  adile  A.U.C.  558,  B.C. 
 196;  prstor  A.U.C.  560;  and  consul  A.U.C.  562. 
 (Liv.,  33,42.— W.,  49,  35,  &c.)— III.  Cneius  Ahen- 
 obarbus, was  consul  B.C.  122.  He  conquered  Bi- 
 tuitus,  general  of  the  Arverni,  slaying  20,000  and  ma- 
 king 3000  prisoners.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he  ob- 
 tained a  triumph. —  IV.  Lucius  Ahenobarbus,  was 
 qus3stor  B.C.  66,  and  prastor  some  years  after.  In  the 
 vear  54  B.C.  he  attained  to  the  consulship.  He  and 
 L(mtulus  were  the  first  to  oppose  Ca;sar  in  his  inva- 
 sion of  Italy.  Betrayed  by  his  own  troops  into  the 
 hands  of  the  conqueror  at  the  capture  of  Corfinium, 
 he  received  his  liberty,  and  again  raising  a  little  army 
 at  his  own  expense,  sustained  a  siege  at  Massilia.  Es- 
 caping thence,  we  find  him  with  Pompey  in  Macedo- 
 nia, still  the  determined  enemy  of  Cjesar,  and  finally 
 he  fell  in  the  flight  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  (Cic, 
 Ep.  ad  Fam.,  8,  14.— 7(Z.  ih.,  16,  \<2..—I(l.,  Ep.  ad 
 Att.,  1,  &c.) — V.  Cneius  Ahenobarbus,  son  of  the  pre- 
 ceding, inherited  all  his  father's  hatred  towards  Caesar. 
 After  the  death  of  the  latter,  he  joined  the  party  of 
 
 Brutus  and  Cassius.  After  the  battle  of  Philippi  he 
 went  over  to  \^e  triumvirs,  was  pardoned,  and,  during 
 the  ensuing  year,  obtained  the  consulship,  A.U.C.  722. 
 Subsequently,  however,  he  attached  himself  to  Octa- 
 vius  against  Antony,  but  died  before  he  could  render 
 the  former  any  service. —  VI.  Cneius  Ahenobarbus, 
 father  of  Nero,  married  Agrippina,  the  daughter  of 
 Germanicus,  B.C.  28.  He  degraded  his  high  birth  by 
 the  ferocity  of  his  character  and  the  corruption  of  his 
 niorals.  In  early  life  he  killed  one  of  his  freedmen, 
 who  would  not  drink  as  much  as  he  wished  him  to  do. 
 He  tore  out  also  the  eye  of  a  Roman  knight  who  dis- 
 played towards  him  a  freedom  of  spirit  that  gave  of- 
 fence. Being  accused  before  Claudius  of  treason, 
 adultery,  and  other  crimes,  he  only  escaped  by  the 
 death  of  that  emperor.  He  used  to  say,  that  from  hin>- 
 self  and  his  wife  there  could  only  spring  a  monster 
 deadly  to  the  human  race,  a  prediction  fatally  verified 
 in  Nero.     {Tacit.,  Ann.,  4,  75.— Id.  ih.,  6,  45,  &c.) 
 
 DoN'ATUs,  .^Lius,  I.  a  celebrated  grammarian,  born 
 in  the  fourth  century  of  our  era,  about  A.D.  333. 
 He  was  preceptor  to  St.  Jerome,  who  speaks  with 
 great  approbation  of  his  talents,  and  of  the  manner  in 
 which  he  explained  the  comedies  of  Terence.  Inde- 
 pendent of  his  commentaries  on  Virgil  and  Terence, 
 Donatus  composed  a  treatise  purely  elementary,  in 
 which  he  treated  of  the  eight  parts  of  speech  individu- 
 ally. This  work  was  highly  esteemed,  and  Diomedes 
 the  grammarian  entertained  so  high  an  opinion  of  its 
 merits,  as  subsequently  to  add  it  to  his  own  work  on 
 Latin  grammar.  Some,  though  without  the  least  au- 
 thority, maintain  that  the  commentaries  of  Donatus  on 
 Virgil  and  Terence  are  lost,  and  that  those  which  at 
 the  present  day  bear  his  name  are  spurious.  That  on 
 Virgil  is  very  unimportant,  it  is  true,  and  appears  wor- 
 thy neither  of  the  author  commented  on,  nor  of  the 
 reputation  of  the  grammarian  to  whom  it  is  ascri- 
 bed. But  the  commentary  on  Terence  is  extremely 
 valuable.  Some  writers  assign  the  commentary  on 
 Virgil  not  to  yElius  Donatus,  but  to  Claudius  Tiberius 
 Donatus.  (Compare  the  remarks  of  Heyne  on  the 
 life  of  Virgil  by  Donatus,  vol.  1,  p.  153,  in  notis.)— 
 II.  A  bishop  of  Numidia,  in  the  fourth  century.  Ac- 
 cording to  some  writers,  he  was  the  founder  of  the 
 sect  of^Donatists,  which  grew  out  of  a  schism  produced 
 by  the  election  of  a  bishop  of  Carthage.  He  was  de- 
 posed and  excommunicated  in  councils  held  at  Rome 
 and  at  Aries,  in  the  years  313  and  314,  but  was  for 
 some  time  after  supported  by  a  party  at  home.  What 
 farther  happened  to  him  is  not  known.— HI.  A  bishop 
 of  Carthase,  chosen  to  that  office  in  316.  He  contin- 
 ued and  s'upported  the  schism  produced  by  his  name- 
 sake, which  led  to  a  persecution  under  the  Emperor 
 Constans,  in  which  the  imperial  arms  finally  prevailed, 
 and  Donatus  died  in  exile  about  355.  According  to 
 St.  Augustin,  this  prelate  maintained  an  inequality  of 
 persons  in  the  Trinity.  (Gorton's  Biogr.  Diet.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  653. 
 
 DoNT SA,  an  island  in  the  Icarian  Sea,  one  of  the 
 Sporades.  It  lay  southeast  of  Icaria,  and  east  of  Pat- 
 mos.  The  marble  obtained  from  this  island  was 
 green.  It  is  thought  to  correspond  to  the  modern  Ra- 
 clia.  (Compare,  as  regards  this  island,  the  following 
 authorities  :  Tant.,  Ann.,  4,  30.— Mela,  2,  7.— i  Im., 
 4,  12. — Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Aovovma.)  . 
 
 DoRES,  the  inhabitants  of  Dons.     (Vid.  Dori.s.) 
 
 DoRiAs,  a  river  of  India  extra  Gangem.  Maiinerc 
 makes  it  correspond  to  the  small  river  Pcsu-  [ideo- 
 graph., vol.  5,  pt.  1,  p.  249  and  264.)  Others,  how- 
 evef,  are  in  favour  of  the  modern  Zanran,  the  mouth 
 of  which  is  in  the  kingdom  of  Tonqian. 
 
 DoRiON,  a  town  of  Messenia,  where  Thanwns  the 
 musician  challenged  the  Muses  to  a  l^.^'  of  sk'I 
 Pausanias  (4  33)  notices  this  ancient  town  of  which 
 he  saw  the  ruins  near  a  fountain  named  Achaia.  Stra- 
 bo,  however,  asserts  that  no  such  place  was  known  to 
 
DOR 
 
 DORIS. 
 
 exist  in  his  day,  but  that  some  identified  it  with  an  ob- 
 scure town  named  Oluris,  in  the  Messeiiian  district  of 
 Aulon  (350).  This  may  have  been  the'spot  alluded  to 
 by  Pausanias.  Homer  (//.,  2,  594)  assigns  Dorium 
 to  the  dominions  of  Nestor.  Hesiod  seems  to  have 
 adopted  a  different  tradition  from  other  poets,  since  he 
 removes  the  scene  of  the  story  of  Thainyris  to  Dotium 
 in  Thessaly  {up.  Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Auriuv.  —  Flin., 
 4,  5). 
 
 Doris,  a  country  of  Greece,  situate  to  the  south  of 
 Thessaly,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  range  of  Mount 
 Qilta.  On  the  south  it  had  the  Locri  Ozolee.  On  the 
 east  it  was  parted  from  the  Locri  Epicnemidii  by  the 
 Pindus,  a  branch  of  the  Cephissus  ;  and  on  the  west 
 from  ^'Etolia  by  a  part  of  the  chain  of  QCla.  Its  ter- 
 ritory was  of  small  size,  extending  only  about  40  miles 
 in  length.  The  country,  though  mountainous,  had  still 
 several  beautiful  plains,  and  was  very  fruitful. — The 
 Dorians  were  the  most  powerful  of  the  Hellenic  tribes, 
 and  derived  their  origin,  as  they  pretended,  from  a 
 mythic  personage  named  Dorus,  who  is  generally  made 
 the  son  of  Hellcn,  though  he  is  described  as  the  son  of 
 Xuthus  by  Euripides  {Ion.,  1590).  Herodotus  (1,  52) 
 mentions  tive  successik'e  migrations  of  this  race.  Their 
 first  settlement  was  in  Phthiotis,  in  the  time  of  Deu- 
 calion ;  the  next  under  Dorus,  in  Hesticeotis,  at  the 
 foot  of  Ossa  and  Olympus  ;  the  third  on  Mount  Pin- 
 dus, after  they  had  been  expelled  by  the  Cadmaeans 
 from  HesliEBOtis.  In  this  settlement,  says  Herodotus, 
 they  were  called  the  Macedonian  people  ;  and  he  else- 
 where (8,  43)  attributes  to  the  Dorians  a  Macedonian 
 origin  ;  but  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  real  con- 
 nexion between  the  Dorians  and  the  Macedonians, 
 who  were  of  lllyrian  origin  {Mullcr,  Dorians,  vol.  1, 
 p.  2),  beyond  this  vicinity  of  abode.  The  fourth  set- 
 tlement of  the  Dorians,  according  to  Herodotus,  was 
 in  Dryopis  (afterward  called  the  Doric  Tetrapolis) ; 
 and  their  last  migration  was  to  the  Peloponnesus. 
 Another,  and  most  remarkable  expedition,  not  men- 
 tioned by  Herodotus,  was  the  voyage  of  a  Dorian  col- 
 ony to  Crete,  which  is  stated  to  have  taken  place 
 while  they  were  in  their  second  settlement,  at  the  foot 
 of  Olympus  {Androm.,  ap.  Strab.,  475) ;  and  Dori- 
 ans are  mentioned  among  the  inhabitants  of  that  isl- 
 and even  by  Homer  (0^.,  19,  174).  The  eastern  coast 
 was  the  first  part  which  they  occupied.  {Slaphylus,  ap. 
 Strab.,  475).  This  early  settlement  in  Crete  must 
 not  be  confounded  with  the  two  subsequent  expeditions 
 of  the  Dorians  to  that  island,  which  took  place  after 
 they  were  well  settled  in  the  Peloponnesus,  the  one 
 from  Laconia,  under  the  guidance  of  PoUis  and  Del- 
 phus ;  the  other  from  Argolis,  under  Althamenes.  The 
 migration  of  the  Dorians  to  the  Peloponnesus,  which 
 is  generally  called  "  the  return  of  the  descendants  of 
 Hercules,"  is  expressly  stated  to  have  occurred  80 
 years  after  the  Trojan  war,  that  is,  in  B.C.  1104. 
 {Thucyd.,  1,  12.)  The  origin  and  nature  of  the  con- 
 nexion which  subsisted  between  the  Heraclidse  and 
 the  Dorians  are  involved  in  much  obscurity.  The 
 Dorians  were,  from  very  early  times,  divided  into  three 
 tribes,  and  the  epithet  "  thrice  divided"  {rpLxuiKec)  is 
 applied  to  them  by  Homer  in  the  passages  referred 
 to  above.  These  three  tribes  were  the  Hyllseans,  the 
 Dymanes,  and  the  Pamphylians.  Now  the  two  latter 
 tribes  are  said  to  have  been  descended  from  Dymas 
 and  Pamphylus,  the  two  sons  of  ^gimius,  a  mythi- 
 cal Doric  king ;  and  the  first  claimed  a  descent  from 
 Hyllus,  the  son  of  Hercules.  An  attempt  has  been 
 made  to  show  that  the  Hyllseans  were  of  Doric  origin, 
 as  well  as  the  other  two  tribes.  {Miillcr,  Dorians,  1, 
 chaj).  3,  sect.  2  )  It  is  more  natural,  however,  to  in- 
 fer from  the  traditions,  as  well  as  from  the  duplicate 
 divinities  of  the  Dorians,  that  the  genuine  Dorians  were 
 included  in  the  two  other  tribes,  and  that  the  Hera- 
 clidaj  were  a  powerful  Achaean  family,  united  with 
 them  in  a  similar  manner,  but  by  a  stronger  tie  than 
 454 
 
 the  ^tolians  under  Oxylus,  who  are  also  said  to  have 
 taken  part  in  this  expedition.  The  Heraclidse,  then, 
 with  their  iEtolian  and  Dorian  allies,  crossed  the  Co- 
 rinthian Gulf  from  Naupactus,  invaded  and  subdued 
 Elis,  which  was  assigned  to  the  ./Etolian  chieftain ;  and, 
 bending  their  steps  southward,  conquered  successively, 
 and  with  greater  or  less  difficulty,  Messenia,  Laconia, 
 Argolis,  Corinth,  and  Megaris.  In  Laconia  they  were 
 joined  by  the  CadniEean  clan  of  th*  ^gidse,  who  as- 
 sisted them  in  their  tedious  war  with  Amyclse,  and  af- 
 terward took  part  in  the  colonies  to  Thera  and  Cyrene. 
 This  invasion,  which  so  materially  affected  the  desti- 
 nies of  Greece,  was  very  similar  in  its  character  to 
 the  return  of  the  Israelites  to  Palestine.  1"be  invaders, 
 who,  like  the  descendants  of  Abraham,  brought  their 
 wives  and  children  with  them,  though  they,  perhaps,  did 
 not  completely  abandon  their  last  settlement,  which 
 was  still  called  and  considered  Dorian  {Thucyd.,  1, 
 107),  numbered  about  20,000  fighting  men,  on  the  high- 
 est estimate.  {Midler,  Dorians,  1,  ch.  4,  sect.  8.) 
 They  were  therefore  very  inferior  in  number  to  the  in- 
 habitants of  the  countries  which  they  conquered ;  but 
 the  superiority  of  their  peculiar  tactics  ensured  them 
 an  easy  victory  in  the  field,  and  they  appear  to  have 
 taken  all  the  strong  places  either  by  a  long  blockade, 
 or  by  some  lucky  surprise  ;  for  they  were  altogether 
 unskilled  in  the  art  of  taking  walled  towns.  The  gov- 
 ernment which  the  Dorians  established  in  all  the  coun- 
 tries which  they  thus  invaded  and  conquered,  was,  as 
 might  have  been  expected,  very  analogous  to  that  which 
 the  Norman  invasion  introduced  into  England,  namely, 
 an  aristocracy  of  conquest ;  for  while  the  successful 
 invaders  remained  on  a  footing  of  equality  among  them- 
 selves, all  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  re- 
 duced to  an  inferior  condition,  like  the  Saxons  in  Eng- 
 land. They  were  called  TrepioiKot,  or  "  dwellers 
 around,"  a  name  corresponding  to  the  Pfahlbiirger,  or 
 "  citizens  of  the  Palisade,"  at  Augsburg,  who  dwelt  in 
 the  city  suburbs,  without  the  wall  of  the  city  ;  to  the 
 "pale"  in  Ireland  before  the  time  of  James  I.  ;  to  the 
 people  of  the  contado  in  Italy  ;  and  to  the  Fauxbour- 
 geois  in  France.  {Niebuhr,  Roman  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p 
 398,  Cnmbr.  trans. — Arnold's  Thucydidcs,  vol.  1,  p. 
 626.)  The  usual  name  for  a  constitution  in  a  Dorian 
 state  was  "  an  order,"  or  regulative  principle  {Koafxog), 
 and  this  name  appears  to  have  arisen  from  the  circum- 
 stance that  the  attention  of  the  Dorian  legislators  was 
 principally,  if  not  solely,  directed  to  the  establishment 
 of  a  system  of  military  discipline,  and  to  the  encour- 
 agement of  that  strict  subordination  which  is  the  result 
 of  it.  The  necessity  of  this  was  apparent,  from  the 
 peculiar  relation  subsisting  between  the  Dorians  and 
 their  TTspioiKnt.  It  was  by  superior  prowess  and  dis- 
 cipline that  the  former  had  acquired  their  rank,  and  it 
 was  only  by  a  continuance  of  this  superiority  that  they 
 could  hope  to  maintain  themselves  in  the  same  posi- 
 tion. The  same  occasion  for  strict  discipline  may  also 
 account  for  the  extraordinary  austerity  which  prevailed 
 in  most  Dorian  communities.  The  Dorian  women  en- 
 joyed a  degree  of  consideration  unusual  among  the 
 Greeks.  The  Syssitia  or  common  tables,  which  were 
 established  in  most  Doric  states,  were  designed  to  ad- 
 monish those  of  the  privileged  class,  that,  living  as 
 they  did  in  the  midst  of  a  conquered  but  numerous 
 population,  they  must  not  consideT  themselves  to  have 
 any  individual  existence,  but  must  live  only  for  the 
 sake  of  their  order.  (Consult  Midler's  Dorians,  I'ng. 
 trans.,  Oxford,  1830,  2  vols.  8vo. — Hermann,  Lehr- 
 bvch  der  Griechischcn  Staal sutler thumcr,  Heidelh., 
 1836,  translated  Ozford,  1836. — Lachmann,  Spur- 
 tunische  Staatsvcrfassnng,  Breslau,  1836. — Ena/cl. 
 Vs.  KnowL,  vol.  9,  p.  89.) — II.  A  colony  of  the  Do 
 rians  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  coast  of  Caria.  On  the 
 arrival  of  the  Dorians  in  Asia,  they  formed  themselves 
 into  six  independent  states  or  small  republics,  which 
 were  confined  within  the  bounds  of  as  many  ciiJea 
 
DOR 
 
 DRE 
 
 These  were  Lindus,  lalyssus,  Caminis,  Cos,  Cnidus, 
 and  Halicarnasstis.  Other  cities  in  the  tract,  called 
 from  them  Doris,  belonged  to  their  confederacy ;  but 
 the  inhabitants  of  these  six  alone,  as  true  and  genuine 
 Dorians,  were  admitted  into  the  temple  at  Triope, 
 where  they  exhibited  solemn  games  in  honour  of  Apol- 
 lo Triopius.  The  prizes  were  tripods  of  brass,  which 
 the  victors  were  obliged  to  consecrate  to  Apollo,  and 
 leave  in  the  temple.  When  Agasicles  of  Halicarnas- 
 sus  won  the  prize,  he  transgressed  this  custom,  and 
 carried  the  tripod  to  his  own  house,  on  which  account 
 the  city  of  Halicamassns  was  ever  afterward  excluded 
 from  the  Dorian  confederacy.  The  Dorians  were  from 
 that  time  known  by  the  name  of  the  five  cities,  or 
 Penlapolis,  and  no  longer  by  that  of  Hexapolis. — III. 
 A  goddess  of  the  sea,  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys. 
 She  married  her  brother  Nereus,  by  whom  she  had  50 
 daughters  called  Nereides.  Her  name  is  often  used 
 to  express  the  sea  itself.  (ProperL,  1,  17,  25. —  Virg., 
 Eel.,  10. — Hesiod.,  Thcog.) — IV.  A  female  of  Locri, 
 in  Italy,  daughter  of  Xenetus,  whom  Dionysius  the  El- 
 der, of  Sicily,  married  the  same  day  with  Aristomache. 
 (Vtd.  Dionysius.) 
 
 DoRisccJS,  a  plain  in  Thrace,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
 Hebrus,  where,  according  to  Herodotus  (7,  59),  Xerxes 
 numbered  his  land  forces,  as  he  was  marching  upon 
 Greece.  The  mode  in  which  his  officers  ascertained 
 >he  amount  of  his  troops  was  this :  they  drew  up  in 
 cne  place  a  body  of  10,000  men;  and  making  these 
 stand  together  as  compactly  as  possible,  they  traced  a 
 circle  around  them.  Dismissing  these,  they  enclosed 
 the  circle  with  a  wall  breast  high  ;  into  this  they  intro- 
 duced the  army  by  bodies  of  10,000  men  each  time. 
 {Viil.  Xerxes.) 
 
 DoRsENNUs,  or  more  correctly  Dossennus,  a  Roman 
 comic  poet,  and  writer  of  Atellane  fables,  who  enjoyed 
 no  mean  reputation  as  a  popular  dramatist.  (Compare 
 Vossivs,  de  Poet.  Lat.  ineert.  cet.,  c.  7,  p.  84.)  Hor- 
 ace ina^kes  mention  of  him  {Ep.,  1,  2,  173.)  He  par- 
 ticularly excelled  in  drawing  the  characters  of  para- 
 sites ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the  applause  which  these 
 elicited  from  the  lower  orders,  he  would  seem,  from 
 the  censure  of  Horace,  to  have  been  tempted  to  go  still 
 farther,  and  push  matters  to  extremes.  The  same  poet 
 also  pleasantly  alludes  to  his  carelessness  and  negli- 
 gence as  a  writer,  by  saying  that  he  traversed  the  stage 
 with  his  sock,  or  comic  slipper,  loose  and  untied. 
 Seneca  makes  mention  of  the  inscription  on  his  tomb  ; 
 from  which  epitaph  some  have  inferred  that  he  was 
 distinguished  as  a  moral  writer.  It  ran  as  follows  : 
 "  Hospes  resiste,  et  sophiam.  Dossemii  legeV  (Sencc, 
 Epist.,  89,  6.— Fabric,  Bihl.  La/.,  vol.  3,  p.  238,  seqq.) 
 
 DoKso,  C.  Fabius,  a  Roman,  who,  according  to  the 
 old  legend,  when  Rome  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
 Gauls,  issued  from  the  Capitol,  which  was  then  be- 
 sieged, to  go  and  offer  on  Mons  Quirinalis  a  stated 
 sacrifice  enjoined  on  the  Fabian  house.  In  the  Ga- 
 bine  cincture,  and  bearing  the  sacred  things  in  his 
 hands,  he  descended  from  the  Capitol  and  passed 
 through  the  enemy  without  betraying  the  least  signs 
 of  fear.  "When  he  had  finished  his  sacrifice,  he  re- 
 turned to  the  Capitol  unmolested  by  the  foe,  who  were 
 astonished  at  his  boldness,  and  did  not  obstruct  his 
 passage  or  molest  his  sacrifice.     {Liv.,  5,  46.) 
 
 DoRus,  a  son  of  Hellen.     {Vid.  Doris.) 
 
 DoRYL^UM  and  DoRvr.^us,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  now 
 EsH-shehr,  at  the  junction  of  the  Bathys  and  Thy m- 
 bris,  two  branches  of  the  Sangarius,  and  on  the  con- 
 fines of  Bithynia.  The  plain  of  Dorylaeum  is  often 
 mentioned  by  the  Byzantine  historians  as  the  place  of  as- 
 semblage of  the  armies  of  the  Eastern  empire  in  their 
 wars  against  the  Turks  ;  and  it  is  described  by  Anna 
 Comnena  as  being  the  first  extensive  plain  of  Phrygia 
 after  crossing  the  ridges  of  Mount  Olympus,  and  after 
 passing  Leucae.  For  some  remarks  on  the  modern 
 Eski-shehr,  consult  Walpole's  Collection,  vol.  2,  p.  205. 
 
 DosoN,  a  surname  of  Antigonus  III ,  because  ha 
 promised  and  never  performed  ;  duauv,  in  Greek,  i.  e., 
 about  to  give ;  i.  e.,  always  promising.  (Fj(Z.  Antigo- 
 nus III.) 
 
 Draco,  I.  a  celebrated  Athenian  legislator,  who 
 flourished  about  the  39th  Olympiad,  B.C.  621.  Suidas 
 tells  us  that  he  brought  forward  his  code  of  laws  in 
 this  year,  and  that  he  was  then  an  old  man.  Aristotle 
 {Polit.,  2,  sub  fin.)  says,  that  Draco  adapted  bs  laws 
 to  the  existing  constitution,  and  that  they  contained 
 nothing  particular  beyond  the  severity  of  their  penal- 
 ties. The  slightest  theft  was  punished  capitally,  as 
 well  as  the  most  atrocious  murder ;  and  Demades  re- 
 marked of  his  laws,  that  they  were  written  with  blood, 
 and  not  with  ink.  (Plut.,  Yd.  Sol.,  c.  17.)  Draco, 
 however,  deserves  credit  as  the  first  vviio  introduced 
 written  laws  at  Athens,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  im- 
 proved the  criminal  courts,  by  his  transfer  of  cases  of 
 bloodshed  from  the  archon  to  the  ephetae  {Jul.  Pol- 
 lux, 8,  124,  seq.),  since  before  his  time  the  archons 
 had  a  right  of  setthng  all  cases  arbitrarily,  and  without 
 appeal ;  a  right  which  they  enjoyed  in  other  cases  un- 
 til Solon's  time.  {Bekkcr,  Anecd.  Grcec.,  p.  449,  1. 
 23.)  It  appears  that  there  were  some  offences  which 
 he  did  not  punish  with  death  ;  for  instance,  loss  of  civ- 
 il rights  was  the  punishment  of  attempting  to  alter  one 
 of  his  laws.  {Bemostk.,  c.  Anstoer.,  p.  714,  Bekk.) 
 Draco  was  an  archon  {Pausan ,  9,  36,  8),  and,  conse- 
 quently, an  Eupatrid  :  it  is  not,  therefore,  to  be  sup- 
 posed, that  his  object  was  to  favour  the  lower  orders, 
 through  his  code  seems  to  have  tended  to  abridge 
 the  power  of  the  nobles.  The  Athenians,  it  is  said, 
 could  not  endure  the  rigour  of  his  laws,  and  the  legis- 
 lator himself  was  obliged  to  withdraw  to  the  island  of 
 ^gina.  Here  he  was  actually  suffocated  in  the  the- 
 atre beneath  the  number  of  cloaks  and  garments  which 
 the  people  of  the  island,  according  to  the  usual  mode 
 of  expressing  approbation  among  the  Greeks,  shower- 
 ed upon  him.  He  was  buried  in  the  theatre.  On  the 
 legislation  of  Draco  in  general,  consult  Wachsmuth, 
 Hdknische  Alterthumsk,  2,  1,  p.  239,  seqq. — Encycl. 
 Us.  KnowL,  vol.  9,  p.  118. 
 
 Dranc^e.       Vid.  ZarangtBi. 
 
 Dravus,  a  river  of  Germany,  rising  in  the  Norican 
 Alps.  {Plin.,  3,  25.—Strabo,  314.)  It  traverses  the 
 southern  parts  of  Noricum  and  Pannonia,  running  from 
 west  to  east,  and  falls  into  the  Danube  near  the  city  of 
 Comacum,  or  Erdeiit.  It  is  now  the  Dravc.  Ptol- 
 emy calls  it  the  Darus.  The  Greek  copyists  frequent- 
 ly allowed  themselves  the  license  of  altering  names 
 and  adding  remarks,  which  only  tended  to  show  their 
 own  ignorance.  So,  in  the  present  instance,  they 
 state  that  this  river,  which  Ptolemy  calls  Darus,  is 
 the  same  with  that  named  Daris  by  the  barbarians,  or 
 the  modern  Drin.  The  truth  is,  Ptolemy  means  the 
 Dravus,  and  no  other.  {Manncrt,  Gcogr.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 561.) 
 
 Drepanum,  I.  a  town  of  Sicily,  north  of  Lilybaeum, 
 and  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Eryx.  Here  vEneas,  ac- 
 cording to  Virgil,  lost  his  father  Anchises.  The  more 
 correct  form  of  the  name  is  Drepana  (tu  ApeTvavu). 
 This  place  was  founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  first 
 Punic  war  by  the  Carthaginian  commander  Hamilcar, 
 who  removed  hither  the  inhabitants  of  Eryx,  and  other 
 places  adjacent.  {Piod.  Sic.,  23,  9  )  Drepanum  and 
 Lilybajum  formed  the  two  most  important  nar.ime 
 cities  held  by  the  Carthaginians  m  Sicily.  Oft  this 
 place,  near  the  Agates  Insulag,  was  fought  the  fa- 
 mous naval  battle  between  the  Romans  commanded 
 by  Lutatius  Catulus,  and  the  Carthaginians  undei 
 Hanno.  The  Romans  gained  a  decisive  victory,  which 
 put  an  end  to  the  first  Punic  war.  Drepanum  was  so 
 called  from  the  curvature  of  the  shore  in  Us  vicinity 
 resembling  a  scythe  {(^pi^avov).  It  is  now  Trapain. 
 {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  384,  seqq.)—U.  A 
 town  of  Bithynia,  on  the  Sinus  Astacenus,  called  by 
 
 455 
 
DRU 
 
 DRUIDS. 
 
 Constantine  the  Great,  Hellenopolis. — III.  A  prom- 
 ontory on  the  Sinus  Arabicus,  below  Arsinoe  :  it  is 
 now  Ras-Zafrane. 
 
 Drilo,  a  river  of  Illyricurn,  which  falls  into  the 
 Adriatic  at  Lissus.  This  is  the  largest  of  the  lilyrian 
 streams.  Strabo  (316)  informs  us,  that  it  was  naviga- 
 ble as  far  as  the  country  of  the  Dardanii,  which  is  a 
 considerable  distance  from  the  sea,  as  they  inhabited 
 the  southern  part  of  what  is  now  Servia.  This  river 
 is  formed  princij)ally  by  the  junction  of  two  others,  the 
 one  distinguished  in  modern  geography  by  the  name 
 of  the  white  Dnno,  which  rises  in  the  chain  of  Mount 
 Bertiscus  {Strabon  ,  Chrestom.  ap.  Gcogr.  Mm.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  99)  ;  the  other  flows  from  the  south,  out  of  the 
 great  lake  of  Ochrida,  the  ancient  Lychnitis  Palus, 
 and  unites  with  the  former  after  a  course  of  nearly 
 si.xty  miles  :  this  is  commonly  termed  the  Black  Drino. 
 {Cramer'' s  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  41.) 
 
 Dromus  AcHiLLis,  a  promontory  near  the  mouth 
 of  the  Borysthenes.  {Strabo,  307. — Arrian,  PcripL, 
 p.  21. — Pcripl.  Anonym.,  p.  8. — Mela,  2,  1. — Plin., 
 4,  26.)  According  to  the  old  geographers,  Achilles, 
 having  entered  the  Euxine  with  a  hostile  fleet,  after 
 ravaging  the  coast,  landed  on  this  promontory,  and 
 exercised  himself  and  his  followers  in  running  and 
 other  gymnastics  sports.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  4, 
 p.  234.)  It  is  a  low,  sandy,  and  uninhabited  neck  of 
 land,  resembling  somewhat  a  sword  in  its  shape.  Stra- 
 bo evidently  exceeds  the  true  measurement,  when  he 
 states  it  to  be  one  thousand  stadia.  Pliny  only  makes 
 it  eighty  miles.  Its  modern  name  is  said  to  heKossa- 
 Oscharigatsh.     {Vid.  Leuce.) 
 
 Druentius  and  Druentia  (6  ApovevTio^,  Ptol. — 
 6  Apovevrm^,  Strabo),  a  river  of  Gaul,  rising  among 
 the  Alpes  Cottise,  north  of  Brigantio  or  Briangon. 
 It  falls  into  the  Rhodanus  or  Rhone,  about  three  miles 
 below  Avenio  or  Avignon,  after  a  course  of  one  hun- 
 dred and  eighty  miles,  and  is  now  called  the  Durance. 
 Is  is  an  extremely  rapid  river,  and  below  the  modern 
 town  of  Sistcron  it  has  been  found  impracticable  to 
 throw  a  bridge  over  it.  Its  inundations  are  frequent 
 and  very  destructive.  {Strab.,  185. — Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  78.) 
 
 Druids,,  the  ministers  of  religion  among  the  ancient 
 Gauls  and  Britons.  Britain,  according  to  Cassar,  was 
 the  great  school  of  the  Druids,  and  their  chief  settle- 
 ment was  in  the  island  called  Mona  by  Tacitus,  now 
 Anglesey.  The  natives  of  Gaul  and  Germany,  who 
 wished  to  be  thoroughly  versed  in  the  mysteries  of 
 Druidism,  resorted  to  this  island  to  complete  their 
 studies. — Many  opinions  have  been  formed  respecting 
 the  origin  of  the  name.  The  common  derivation  is 
 from  6pv^,  an  oak,  either  from  their  inhabiting  and 
 teaching  in  forests,  or,  as  Pliny  states,  because  they 
 never  sacrificed  but  under  an  oak.  But  it  is  hard  to 
 imagine  how  the  Druids  should  come  to  speak  Greek. 
 Some  deduce  the  name  from  the  old  British  word  dru 
 or  drew,  an  oak,  whence  they  take  6pv^  to  be  derived. 
 This  last  derivation  receives  considerable  support  from 
 a  passage  in  Diodorus  Siculus  (5,  31),  who,  speaking  of 
 the  philosophers  and  priests  of  Gaul,  the  same  with  the 
 Druids,  says  that  they  were  called  'Zapuvidai,  a  term 
 which  some  of  the  commentators  trace  to  the  old  Greek 
 form  adpowig  ('(5of),  a  hollow  oak.  Wesseling,  how- 
 ever, it  must  be  acknowledged,  condemns  this  reading, 
 and  is  in  favour  of  receiving  into  the  text  the  form 
 ApovWai,  where  others  read  Ijapovtdai.  Among  the 
 many  Oriental  derivations  which  have  been  given,  a 
 favourite  one  is  that  from  the  Sanscrit  term  Drtiundh, 
 sio-nifyinor ^wor,  indigent.  In  historical  conformity  with 
 this  derivation,  it  has  been  urged  that,  among  the  Hin- 
 dus, we  may  observe  in  the  Sanniassi  the  professional 
 mendicant,  while  among  the  Druids  poverty  was  rather 
 a  merit  than  a  disgrace. — The  arguments  in  favour  of 
 the  Oriental  origin  of  the  Druids  are  deserving  of 
 great  attention,  although  too  numerous  to  be  here  all 
 456 
 
 detailed.  Diogenes  Laerlius  and  Aristotle  class  tne 
 Druids  with  the  Chaldeans,  Persian  Magi,  and  Indi- 
 ans, in  which  they  are  followed  by  other  writers.  The 
 deities  of  the  Sanscrit  school  are  closely  to  be  traced 
 in  the  names  of  the  Druidical  gods.  The  importance 
 which  the  Druids  attached  to  bulls  and  o.xen  form* 
 another  very  striking  mark  of  coincidence.  The  Dru- 
 idical mysteries  also  are  said  by  Davies  to  have  been 
 nearly  parallel  to  the  riles  of  Bhawanee  and  Eleusis. 
 In  the  magic  rod  of  the  Druids  we  likewise  discern  the 
 sacred  staff  of  the  Brahmins.  Both  possessed  con- 
 secrated beads  ;  both  made  almost  endless  lustrations  ; 
 both  wore  linen  tiaras :  and  Maurice  remarks  that  the 
 circle,  Brahma's  symbol,  and  the  crescent,  that  of  Siva, 
 were  both  Druidical  ornaments.  So  also  there  wras  a 
 striking  resemblance  between  the  notion  entertained 
 by  the  Druids  of  a  Supreme  Being,  and  that  found  in 
 the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hindus.  —  The  Druids 
 formed  a  distinct  caste,  possessing  the  greatest  au- 
 thority, being  the  learned  men  and  philosophers  of  the 
 nation,  and  having  also  very  great  authority  in  the 
 government  of  the  state.  Julius  Csesar  has  left  more 
 information  concerning  them  than  any  other  writer. 
 According  to  him,  they  performed  all  public  and  pri- 
 vate sacrifices,  explained  the  doctrines  of  religion,  dis- 
 tributed all  kinds  of  rewards,  administered  justice  at 
 staled  times,  and  determined  the  punishment  which 
 should  be  inflicted  on  offenders.  Whoever  opposed 
 their  decisions  was  e.tcommunicatcd  by  them,  and 
 was  thereby  deprived  of  all  share  in  public  worship. 
 They  could  even  pronounce  this  curse  against  a  whole 
 people ;  and,  in  fact,  their  power  had  hardly  any  lim- 
 its. They  appointed  the  highest  officers  in  all  the 
 cities,  and  these  dared  not  undertake  anything  with- 
 out their  advice  and  direction.  They  were  freed  from 
 taxes  and  all  public  burdens.  Instruction  in  religious 
 and  all  other  kinds  of  knowledge,  the  art  of  war  alone 
 excepted,  was  intrusted  entirely  to  them.  They  gave 
 oral  instruction  in  the  form  of  verses,  which  often  had 
 a  hidden  meaning,  and  which,  though  amounting  to 
 many  thousands,  were  committed  to  memory  by  their 
 pupils.  According  to  Caesar,  they  believed  in  the  im- 
 mortality of  the  soul,  and  its  transmigration  through 
 different  bodies.  They  taught,  moreover,  the  nature 
 and  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  magnitude  of 
 the  universe  and  the  earth,  the  nature  of  things,  and 
 the  power  of  the  gods.  They  also  practised  astrology, 
 magic,  and  soothsaying.  According  to  I'liny,  they 
 were  not  ignorant  of  natural  philosophy  and  physic. 
 They  had  a  wonderful  reverence  for  the  mistletoe, 
 a  parasitical  plant,  which  grows,  not  from  the  earth, 
 but  on  other  plants,  particularly  the  oak.  This  they 
 looked  upon  as  the  holiest  object  in  nature.  They 
 likewise  esteemed  the  oak  sacred.  The  Druids  had 
 a  common  superior,  who  was  elected  by  a  majority  of 
 votes  from  their  own  number,  and  who  enjoyed  his 
 dignity  for  life.  In  their  sacrifices,  the  Druids  often 
 immolated  human  victims.  {Ca.i.,  B.  G.,6,  13,  seqq. 
 — PHn.,  16,  44.)  Cssar  states  that  the  members  of 
 the  Gallic  nobility  might  alone  enter  the  order  of  the 
 Druids.  Porphyry,  on  the  other  hand  {de  Abxtin.,  4, 
 17),  makes  admission  into  this  priesthood  to  have  been 
 open  to  all  who  could  obtain  the  consent  of  their  fel- 
 low-citizens. The  severity,  however,  of  a  long  and 
 rigorous  novitiate,  occupying  many  years,  would  oper- 
 ate as  an  effectual  barrier  to  the  admission  of  many. — 
 As  regards  the  wisdom  of  which  the  Druids  were  the 
 depositaries,  it  may  be  remarked,  that,  among  all  the 
 early  nations  of  antiquity,  a  sacerdotal  caste  of  some 
 kind  or  other  appear,  by  observation  of  the  stars  and 
 the  phenomena  of  nature,  to  have  formed  for  them- 
 selves a  species  of  scientific  religion,  if  it  may  be  so 
 termed,  which  was  carefully  treasured  up  by  the  sacred 
 order,  and  rendered  inaccessible  to  the  people  at  large. 
 Hence  those  oral  traditions  which  were  always  con- 
 fined to  the  limits  of  the  sanctuary,  and  those  sacred 
 
DRU 
 
 DRY 
 
 books  which  were  closed  against  the  profane  crowd. 
 Such  were,  among  the  Etrurians,  the  Acherontic  and 
 ritual  books  of  Tages,  containing  the  precepts  of  agri- 
 culture, legislation,  medicine,  the  rules  of  divination, 
 of  meteorology,  of  astrology,  and  also  a  system  of 
 metaphysics  :  such  were,  among  the  Egyptians,  the 
 boolvs  of  Hermes  Trismegistus  ;  such  are,  among  the 
 Hindus,  the  Vedas,  the  Pouranas,  the  Angas,  with 
 their  innumerable  commentaries  ;  and  such  was  the 
 sacred  wisdom  of  the  Gallic  Druids. — The  ablest  work 
 on  the  ancient  Druids  is  the  splendid  and  elaborate 
 production  of  Mr.  Higgins.  {The  Celtic  Druids,  by_ 
 Godfrey  Higgins,  Esq.,  F.S.A.,  4/o,  London.)  In 
 this  will  be  found  a  vast  body  of  most  interesting  in- 
 formation respecting  this  ancient  priesthood.  "  The 
 Druids,"  observes  Mr.  Higgins,  "  held  the  same  doc- 
 trme,  ir.  effect,  with  Pythagoras,  the  worship  of  one 
 Supreme  Being,  a  state  of  future  rewards  and  punish- 
 ments, the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  a  metempsy- 
 chosis. These  doctrines,  their  hatred  of  images,  their 
 circular  temples  open  at  the  top,  their  worship  of  fire 
 as  the  emblem  of  the  Sun,  their  observaiion  of  the 
 most  ancient  Tauric  festival  (when  the  Sun  entered 
 Taurus),  their  seventeen-letter  alphabet,  and  their  sys- 
 tem of  oral  instruction,  mark  and  characterize  the 
 Druid  in  every  age  and  every  country  of  the  world,  by 
 whatever  name  the  priests  of  the  country  may  have 
 been  known."  {Celtic  Druids,  p.  305.)  The  Druids 
 exercised,  as  may  well  be  imagined,  great  influence 
 over  the  minds  of  their  more  ignorant  countrymen. 
 Tacitus  {Ann.,  14,  30)  speaks  of  the  summary  pun- 
 ishment inflicted  upon  them  by  Suetonius  Paulinas, 
 in  the  reign  of  Nero.  The  island  of  Mona  was  taken 
 by  the  Roman  troops  with  great  slaughter  of  the  foe, 
 the  sacred  groves  were  cut  down,  and  the  Druids  driven 
 out.  On  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  the  Druidi- 
 cal  order  gradually  ceased,  and  the  Druids  themselves 
 were  regarded  as  enchanters  by  the  early  Christians. 
 
 Drusilla,  I.  LiviA,  a  daughter  of  Germanicus  and 
 Agrippina,    born    at    Augusta    Treverorum    {Treves) 
 A.D.  15.     She  was  far  from  inheriting  the  excellent 
 qualities  of  her  mother.     Her  own  brother  Caligula 
 seduced  her,  and  then  gave  her  in  marriage,  at  the  age 
 of  seventeen,  to  Lucius  Cassius  Longinus,  a  man  of 
 consular  rank.     Subsequently,  however,  he  took  her 
 away  from  her  husband,  and  lived  with  her  as  his  own 
 spouse.     This  unhallowed  connexion  lasted  until  the 
 death  of  Drusilla,  A.D.  38,  and  at  her  decease  Calig- 
 ula abandoned  himself  to  the  most  extravagant  sor- 
 row.    Divine  honours  were  rendered  to  her  memory, 
 and  medals  were  struck  in  honour  of  her,  with  the  title 
 of  Augusta.     She  was  23  years  of  age  at  the  time  of 
 her  death.     {Sueton.,  Vit.  Calig.,  24.)     Dio  Cassius 
 calls  the  name  of  her  husband  Marcus  Lepidus,  dif- 
 fering in  this  from  Suetonius.     He  may  possibly  refer 
 to  a  second  husband,  who  may  have  been  given  her, 
 for  form's  sake,  a  short  time  before  her  death.     {Dio 
 Cass.,  59,  3.) — H.   A   daughter  of  Agrippa,  king  of 
 Judasa,  remarkable  for  her  beauty.      She  was  at  first 
 affianced   to   Epiphanes,  son   of  Antiochus,   king   of 
 Comagene.     But,  on  his  declining  to  submit  to  the 
 rite  of  circumcision  and  to  Judaize,  the  marriage  was 
 broken  off.     She  was  then  given  to  Azizus,  king  of 
 Emesa.     Not  long  after,  however,  Drusilla  renounced 
 the  religion  of  her  fathers,  abandoned  her  husband,  and 
 espoused  Antonius  Felix,  a  freedman  of  the  Emperor 
 Claudius,  and  brother  to  Pallas  the  freedman  of  Nero. 
 This  is  the  Felix  who  was  governor  of  Judaea,  and  is 
 mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.     Drusilla  was 
 with  Felix  at  Ca^sarea  when  St.  Paul  appeared  before 
 the   latter.     She  had  a  son  by  her  second  husband, 
 named  Agrippa,  who  perished  in  the  eruption  of  Ve- 
 suvius which  took  place  during  the  reio-n  of  Titus. 
 {Joseph.,  Jud.  Ant.,  19,  9. — Noldius,  dc  Vita,  et  gestis 
 Hcrodum,  p.  4C3,  at?*/.)— Tacitus  {Hist.,  5,  9)  calls 
 Drusilla  tlie  granddaughter  of  Cleopatra  and  Antony, 
 M  u  u 
 
 making  her,  consequently,  the  daughter  of  Juba  II., 
 king  of  Mauritania.  The  Roman  historian  is  in  er- 
 ror, for  Drusilla  was  of  Jewish  origin.  And  besides, 
 history  only  assigns  to  Juba  H.  a  son,  named  Ptolemy. 
 {Tochon,  in  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  12,  p.  46.) 
 
 Drusus,  I.  Claudius  Nero,  son  of  Tiberius  Clau- 
 dius Nero  and  of  Livia,  was  born  B.C.  38,  three 
 months  after  his  mother's  marriage  with  Augustus. 
 He  served  early  in  the  army,  and  was  sent,  in  17  B.C., 
 with  his  brother  Tiberius,  against  the  Ilhaeti  and  Vin- 
 delici,  who  had  made  an  irruption  into  Italy.  He  de- 
 feated the  invaders,  pursued  them  across  the  Alps,  and 
 reduced  their  country.  Horace  has  celebrated  this  vic- 
 tory in  one  of  his  finest  odes  (4,  4).  Drusus  married 
 Antonia  Minor,  daughter  of  Antony  and  Octavia,  by 
 whom  he  had  Germanicus  and  Claudius,  afterward 
 emperor,  and  Livia  or  Livilla.  In  14  B.C.,  being  sent 
 to  quell  an  insurrection  in  Gaul,  occasioned  by  the 
 extortions  of  the  Roman  tax-gatherers,  he  succeeded 
 by  his  conciliatory  address.  In  the  following  year  he 
 attacked  the  Germans,  and,  carrying  the  war  beyond 
 the  Rhine,  he  obtained  a  series  of  victories  over  the 
 Sicambri,  Cherusci,  Catti,  and  Tencteri,  and  advanced 
 as  far  as  the  Visurgis  or  Weser,  for  which  the  senate 
 bestowed  on  him  and  his  posterity  the  surname  of 
 Germanicus.  In  9  B.C.,  Drusus  was  made  consul, 
 with  L.  Quintius  Crispinus.  He  was  soon  after  sent 
 by  Augustus  against  the  Germans,  crossed  the  Visur- 
 gis, and  advanced  as  far  as  the  Albis  or  Elbe.  He  im- 
 posed a  moderate  tribute  on  the  Frisians,  consisting 
 of  a  certain  quantity  of  hides,  which,  being  afterward 
 aggravated  by  the  extortion  of  his  successors,  caused 
 a  revolt  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  4, 
 72.)  He  caused  a  canal  to  be  cut,  for  the  purpose  of 
 uniting  the  Rhine  to  the  Yssel,  which  was  known  long 
 after  by  the  name  of  Fossa  Drusi ;  and  he  also  began 
 to  raise  dikes  to  prevent  the  inundations  of  the  Rhine, 
 which  were  completed  by  Paulinus  Pompeius,  in  the 
 reign  of  Nero.  Drusus  did  not  cross  the  Aibis,  prob- 
 ably because  he  thought  that  he  had  advanced  already 
 far  enough  :  he  retired  towards  the  Rhine,  but,  before 
 he  reached  that  river,  he  died,  at  the  age  of  thirty,  in 
 consequence,  as  it  was  reported,  of  his  horse  falling 
 upon  him,  and  fracturing  his  leg.  {Liv.,  Epit.,  140.) 
 Tiberius,  who  was  sent  for  in  haste,  and  found  his 
 brother  expiring,  accompanied  his  body  to  Rome,  where 
 his  funeral  was  performed  with  the  greatest  solemnity. 
 Both  Augustus  and  Tiberius  delivered  orations  in  his 
 praise.  Drusus  was  much  regretted  by  both  the  army 
 and  the  Romans  in  general,  who  had  formed  great  ex- 
 pectations from  his  manly  and  generous  sentiments. 
 {Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  3,  seqif  —Id  ib..  2,  4^  —Id.  ib.,  4, 
 72,  &ic—Id.  Hist.,  5,  19,  6lc.— Sueton.,  Vit.  Aug., 
 94._/(Z.,  Vit.  Tib.,  7.— Id.,  Vit.  Claud.,  l,&c.)— II. 
 Cffisar,  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius  by  Vipsania 
 daughter  of  Agrippa.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
 Pannonia  and  Illyricum,  and  was  consul  with  his  father, 
 A.D.  21.  In  a  quarrel  he  had  with  the  imperial  fa- 
 vourite Sejanus,  he  gave  the  latter  a  blow  in  the  face. 
 Sejanus,  in  revenge,  seduced  his  wife  Livia  or  Livil- 
 la, daughter  of  Drusus  the  elder  and  of  Antonia  ;  and 
 the  guilty  pair  got  rid  of  Drusus  by  poison,  which  was 
 administered  by  the  eunuch  Lygdus.  The  crime  re- 
 mained a  secret  for  eight  years,  when  it  was  discovered 
 after  the  death  of  Sejanus,  and  Livia  was  put  to  death. 
 {Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  24,  &c.— W.  ib.,  4,  3,  sc(]q.)—ln. 
 Caesar,  son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  and  brothel 
 to  Nero  Cssar  and  Caligula.  He  married  JEm\ha 
 Lepida,  who  was  induced  by  Sejanus  to  betray  hex 
 husband.  Deluded  himself  by  the  arts  of  that  evil 
 minister,  he  conspired  against  the  life  of  his  brother, 
 Nero  Cffisar,  and  was  starved  to  death  by  order  ot  1 1- 
 berius.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  4,  60.— /(i-  «*•,  6,  23,  scqq.,— 
 IV.  M.  Livius.     {Vid.  Livius.) 
 
 Drvades,  nymphs  that  presided  over    he  woods 
 The  Dryades  differed  from  the  Hamadryades,  m  that 
 •^  457 
 
DUf 
 
 DUR 
 
 these  latter  were  attached  to  some  particular  tree,  with 
 whicli  they  were  born,  and  with  which  they  died  ; 
 whereas  the  Dryades  were  the  goddesses  of  the  trees 
 and  woods  in  general,  and  lived  at  large  in  the  midst 
 of  them.  For  though  6pvc  properly  signifies  an  oak, 
 it  was  also  used  for  a  tree  in  general.  Oblations  of 
 niilk,  oil,  and  honey  were  offered  to  them,  and  some- 
 times the  votaries  sacrificed  a  goat.  The  derivation 
 of  the  name  Hamadryades  is  from  ii/xa,  "  at  the  same 
 time,'"  and  6pvi,  "a  tree"  for  the  reason  given  above. 
 It  is  plain  that  dpi^  and  the  Germanic  tree  are  the 
 same  word.  Apiif  has  apparently  this  signification  in 
 //.,  22,  126.— Ofl!.,  19,  \QZ.— Herod.,  7,  218.— Soph., 
 Track.,  768.  In  Nonnus,  6pvc  is  constantly  tree,  and 
 dpvoEic,  wooden.   {Keightlcys  Mythology,  p.  237,  not.) 
 
 Dhym^a,  a  town  of  Phocis,  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Cephissus,  northeast  of  Elatea.  {Pausa7i.,  10,  34.) 
 It  was  burned  and  sacked  by  the  Persians  under  Xerx- 
 es, as  we  are  informed  by  Herodotus  (8,  33).  Its 
 position  is  uncertain.  Some  antiquaries  place  it  at 
 Dadi,  others  at  Ogulnitza.  (Compare  DodweWs  Tour, 
 vol.  2,  p.  IZb.—GeWs  Itin.,  p.  210.) 
 
 Dkyohes,  a  people  of  Greece,  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Mounts  CEtaand  Parnassus.  (Herodot.,  1,  56  — Stra- 
 ho,  434.)  DicKarchus,  however  (v.  30),  extends  their 
 territory  as  far  as  the  Ambracian  gulf  They  were  so 
 called,  it  is  supposed,  from  Dryope,  the  daughter  of 
 Eurypylus,  or,  according  to  the  poets,  from  a  nymph 
 violated  by  Apollo.  Others  derive  the  name,  how- 
 ever, from  ^pvg,  an  oak,  and  6ip,  a  voice,  on  account  of 
 the  number  of  oaks  which  grew  about  the  mountains, 
 and  the  rustling  of  their  leaves.  The  inhabitants 
 themselves,  however,  advocated  their  fabulous  origin, 
 and  claimed  to  be  the  descendants  of  Apollo  ;  and 
 therefore  Hercules,  having  overcome  this  people,  car- 
 ried them  prisoners  to  Delphi,  where  he  presented  them 
 to  their  divine  progenitor,  who  commanded  the  hero 
 to  take  them  with  him  to  the  Peloponnesus.  Hercules 
 obeyed,  and  gave  them  a  settlement  there,  near  the 
 Asinean  and  Hermionian  territories  :  hence  the  Asin- 
 eans  came  to  be  blended  with,  and  to  call  themselves, 
 Dryopes.  According  to  Herodotus,  however,  they 
 passed  into  Euboea,  and  from  thence  into  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus and  Asia  Minor  (8,  73  ;  1,  146).  It  is  wor- 
 thy of  remark,  that  Strabo  ranks  the  Dryopes  among 
 those  chiefly  of  Thracian  origin,  who  had,  from  the 
 earliest  period,  established  themselves  in  the  latter 
 country,  towards  the  southern  shores  of  the  Euxine. 
 {Strab.,  586.) 
 
 DuBis,  a  river  of  Gallia,  rising  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Jura,  and,  after  a  course  of  50  miles,  falling  into  the 
 Arar  or  Sao7ic,  near  Cabillonum,  the  modern  Chalons. 
 It  is  now  the  Douhs  or  Doux.  (^Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 3,  pt.  1,  p.  77.)  The  text  of  Ceesar  (B.  G.",  \,  38), 
 where  he  makes  mention  of  this  river,  is  very  corrupt, 
 some  MSS.  reading  Adduabis,  others  Alduadubis,  and 
 others  again  Alduadusius,  Adduadubis,  and  Alduasdu- 
 bis.  Cellarius,  following  Valois  (Valesius)  and  Vos- 
 sius,  gives  Dubis  as  the  true  lection  {Geogr.  Ant.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  36),  and  this  has  been  followed  in  the  best  edi- 
 tions. (Compare  the  remarks  of  Oberlinus,  ad  Cces., 
 I.  c,  as  to  the  origin  of  the  corruption.) 
 
 DuBRis  PoRTUs,  a  port  of  Britain,  supposed  to  be 
 Dover.  It  was  in  the  territory  of  the  Cantii,  and  14 
 miles  from  Durovernum.  At  Dubris,  according  to  the 
 Notitia  Imperii,  was  a  fortress,  erected  against  the 
 Saxon  pirates.  (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p. 
 161. —  Cellarius,  Geogr.  Ant.,  vol.  1,  p.  331.) 
 
 DuiLLiA  Lex,  I.  was  brought  forward  by  M.  Duil- 
 lius,  a  tribune,  A.U.C.  304.  It  made  it  a  capital 
 crime  to  leave  the  Roman  people  without  tribunes, 
 or  to  create  any  new  magistrate  from  whom  there  was 
 no  appeal.  The  punishment  was  scourging  and  be- 
 heading. (Liv.,  3,  55.)— II.  Another,  A.U.C.  392,  to 
 regulate  what  interest  ought  to  be  paid  for  money  lent, 
 and  fixing  it  at  one  per  cent. 
 458 
 
 DuiLLius  Nepos,  C.  a  Roman  consul,  the  first  who 
 obtained  a  victory  over  the  naval  power  of  Carthage, 
 B.C.  260.  After  his  colleague  Cn.  Corn.  Scipio  had 
 been  taken  at  sea  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the  first  Pu- 
 nic war,  Duillius  proceeded,  with  a  newly-built  Roman 
 fleet,  to  Sicily,  in  quest  of  the  enemy,  whom  he  met 
 near  the  Lipari  Islands  ;  and,  by  means  of  grappling- 
 irons,  so  connected  the  ships  of  the  Carthaginians  with 
 his  own,  that  the  contest  became  a  sort  of  land-fight. 
 By  this  unexpected  manoeuvre,  he  took  eighty  and  de- 
 stroyed thirteen  of  the  Carthaginian  fleet,  and  obtained  a 
 naval  triumph,  the  first  ever  enjoyed  at  Rome.  ^There 
 were  some  medals  struck  in  commemoration  of  this 
 victory,  and  a  column  was  erected  on  the  occasion. 
 This  column  (called  Columna  Rostrata,  because  adorn- 
 ed with  beaks  of  ships)  was,  as  Livy  informs  us,  struck 
 down  by  lightning  during  the  interval  between  the  sec 
 ond  and  third  Punic  wars.  A  new  column  was  erect 
 ed  by  the  Emperor  Claudius,  and  the  inscription  re- 
 stored, though  probably  modernized.  It  was  buried 
 afterward  amid  the  ruins  of  Rome,  until  at  length,  in 
 1565,  its  base,  which  contained  the  inscription,  was 
 dug  up  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Capitol.  So  much,  how- 
 ever, was  defaced,  that  many  of  the  letters  were  ille- 
 gible. This  inscription  has  been  restored,  on  conjec- 
 ture, by  the  learning  of  modern  scholars.  (Compare 
 Lipsius,  Auctarium  ad  Inscript.  Smetianas. —  Ciac- 
 conius,  Col.  Roslr.  Inscr.  in  Grav.  Thes.,  vol.  4,  p. 
 1811.) 
 
 DuLicHiuM,  the  principal  island  in  the  group  of  the 
 Echinades.  Its  name  occurs  more  than  once  in  the 
 Odyssey  as  being  well  peopled  and  extensive.  {Od., 
 1,  246;  16,  247.)  Its  situation,  however,  has  never 
 been  determined  by  those  who  have  commented  on  the 
 poet ;  nor  is  it  probable  that  much  light  can  be  thrown 
 upon  the  subject  at  this  distant  period.  Strabo  (456), 
 who  has  entered  largely  on  the  question,  takes  much 
 pains  to  refute  those  who  confounded  it  with  Cephal- 
 lenia,  or  considered  it  as  a  town  of  that  island.  He 
 himself  contends,  that  the  Dolicha  of  his  time,  situated 
 at  the  mouth  of  the  Achelous,  opposite  to  ffiniadae, 
 and  100  stadia  from  Cape  Araxus,  was  the  real  Dull- 
 chium.  (Compare  Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  AovTiixiop. — 
 Euslath.  ad  Horn.,  Od.,  1,  246.)  But  it  is  very  doubt- 
 ful whether  this  place  was  ever  of  sufficient  conse- 
 quence to  apply  to  Homer's  description  of  that  island. 
 Dodwell,  who  has  made  some  judicious  observations 
 on  this  head,  thinks  that  Dulichium  may  have  been 
 swallowed  up  by  an  earthquake  ;  and  mentions  having 
 been  assured  by  some  Greek  sailors  that  there  was, 
 about  two  miles  from  Cephallenia,  an  immersed  isl- 
 and, extending  out  for  seven  miles.  (Classical  Tour, 
 vol.  1,  p.  107,  seqq. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2, 
 p.  27.) 
 
 DuMNORix,  a  powerful  and  ambitious  chieftain  of 
 the  .(^dui,  and  brother  to  Divitiacus.  He  was  disaf- 
 fected towards  Caesar  and  the  Romans,  and,  when  the 
 former  was  on  the  point  of  sailing  for  Britain,  and  had 
 ordered  Dumnorix  to  accompany  him,  the  .iEduan,  on 
 a  sudden,  marched  away  with  the  cavalry  of  his  nation, 
 and  directed  his  course  homeward.  He  was  pursued 
 and  put  to  death.  {Cas.,  B.  G.,  1,  3. — Id.  ib.,  1,  20. 
 — Id.  ib.,  5,  6,  seq.) 
 
 DuRius,  a  river  of  Spain,  rising  in  the  chain  of  Mons 
 Idubeda,  near  the  sources  of  which  are  the  ruins 
 of  ancient  Numantia.  {Strabo,  152.)  Ptolemy  (2, 
 5)  calls  it  the  Aupcac  and  Dio  Cassius  (37,  52)  the 
 Ac'jpioc.  It  flowed  to  the  west,  through  the  territories 
 of  the  Arevaci  and  Vaccsei,  and  formed  a  dividing  line 
 between  the  Lusitani  and  Vettones  on  the  south,  and 
 the  Callaici  on  the  north.  It  empties  into  the  Atlan- 
 tic after  a  course  of  nearly  300  miles,  but  is  navigable 
 only  seventy  miles  from  its  mouth,  on  account  of  the 
 rapid  current.  Its  modern  name  is  the  Douro.  The 
 sands  of  the  Durius  are  spoken  of  by  the  ancients  as 
 being  auriferous.     {Sil.  Ital.,  1,  234.)     At  the  mouth 
 
EBO 
 
 ECB 
 
 of  this  river  stood  Calle,  commonly  styled  Portus 
 Calles,  from  a  corruption  of  which  last  comes  the 
 modern  name  of  Porlugal.  (Manner t,  Geogr.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  MO.—  Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  290.) 
 
 DuROCASSEs  (called  also  Drocse  and  Fanum  Druid- 
 um),  a  city  of  the  Eburovices,  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis, 
 southvv'est  of  Liitetia.  In  its  vicinity  was  the  princi- 
 pal residence  of  the  Druids  in  Gaul.  The  modern 
 name  is  Drcux.  {Cces.,  B.  G.,  6,  13. —  Thuan., 
 Hist.,  34,  seq.) 
 
 DuRocoRTOKUM,  the  capital  of  the  Remi,  on  the 
 Veslc,  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Asona  or  Aisne. 
 It  is  now  Rhcims.     (Cces.,  B   G.,  6,  44.) 
 
 Dym^,  the  last  of  the  Achaean  towns  to  the  west, 
 situate  about  forty  stadia  beyond  the  mouth  of  the 
 Peyrus  or  Pirus.  Pausanias  states  (7,  18),  that  its 
 more  ancient  name  was  Palea.  Strabo  is  of  opinion, 
 that  the  appellation  of  Dyme  had  reference  lo  its 
 western  situation,  with  regard  to  the  other  cities  of  the 
 province  {Traaiiv  Svct/iikututti,  a^'  ov  koI  Tovvofia). 
 He  adds,  that  it  was  originally  called  Stratos.  (Stra- 
 bo, 387.)  The  epithet  of  Cauconis,  applied  to  this 
 city  by  the  poet  Antimachus,  would  lead  to  the  sup- 
 position that  It  was  once  occupied  by  the  ancient  Cau- 
 cones.  (Ap.  Schol.  Lycophron,  v.  589.)  Dyms  is 
 mentioned  as  one  of  the  twelve  towns  of  Achaia  by 
 Herodotus  (],  146).  Its  territory,  from  being  contig- 
 uous to  Elis  and  .'Etolia,  was  frequently  laid  waste 
 during  the  Social  war  by  the  armies  of  those  countries 
 then  united.     (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  71.) 
 
 Dyr.^s,  a  river  of  Thessaly,  twenty  stadia  beyond 
 the  Sperchius,  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  ground  in 
 order  to  assist  Hercules  when  burning  on  Oeta.  (He- 
 rodot.,  7,  \Q2.—Straho,  428.) 
 
 Dyris,  the  name  given  to  Mount  Atlas  by  the  neigh- 
 bouring inhabitants.  ("Opof  karlv,  direp  oi  filv  "E/l- 
 A?;i'ff  'A-T'XavTa  KaAovaiv,  oi  (iupdapoi  6e  Avpiv. — 
 Strabo,  825.)  Mr.  Hodgson,  in  a  pamphlet  on  the  af- 
 finities of  the  Berber  languages,  after  observing  that 
 the  Atlas  chain  of  mountams  was  called  by  the  ancient 
 geographers,  besides  their  common  appellation,  Dyris 
 or  Dynm,  and  Adderis  or  Aderim,  indulges  in  the  fol- 
 lowing etymological  remarks  (p.  5,  seqq).  "  These 
 names  appear  to  me  to  be  nothing  else  than  the  Berber 
 words  Athraer,  Edhrarin,  which  mean  a  mountain  or 
 Tnountains,  differently  corrupted  from  what  they  had 
 been  before  they  were  changed  lo  Atlas.  Adrar,  Ath- 
 raer, Edhrarin,  Adderis,  or  Adderim,  are  evidently 
 the  same  word,  with  such  variations  as  may  naturally 
 be  expected  when  proper  names  pass  from  one  lan- 
 guage to  another.  There  is  surely  not  more,  nor  per- 
 haps so  much,  difference  between  them  as  between 
 Antwcrpen  and  Amheres  (the  Spanish  name  for  An- 
 twerp), Mechlin  and  Malincs,  Lugdunum  and  Lyons, 
 'Odvacsvq  a.TiA  Ulysses,  Kapxv^uv  a-ndi  Carthage.  And 
 if  the  Romans  or  the  Greeks  changed  Adhrar  and  Ed- 
 hrarin into  Adderis,  ov  in  the  accusative  Adderim, 
 why  from  Adderis  might  they  not  have  made  Adras, 
 Atras,  or  Atlas  1  The  weight  of  probability,  at  least, 
 seems  to  be  in  favour  of  this  supposition."  (Trans- 
 actions of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  vol.  4, 
 ncio  series.) 
 
 Dyrrachium,  now  Durazzo,  a  city  of  Illyricum, 
 previously  called  Epidamnus.     (Vid.  Epidamnus.) 
 
 E. 
 
 Eanus,  a  name  of  Janus  among  the  ancient  Latins. 
 Cornificius,  quoted  by  Macrobius  (Sat.,  1,  9),  main- 
 tained that  Cicero  (A^.  D.,  2,  27)  meant  this  appellation, 
 and  not  Janus,  when  he  derived  the  name  ub  eimdo. 
 
 Ebora,  I.  a  city  of  Lusitania,  to  the  south  of  the 
 Tagus  and  north  of  the  Anas,  called  also  Liberaliias 
 Julia..  (Plin.,  4,  22. — Mela,  3,  1.)  It  is  now  Evora, 
 the  chief  city  of  the  province  of  Alontejo. — II.  A  for- 
 tress in  Hispania  Baetica,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
 
 Btetis.  (Mela,  3,  1.)— III.  A  city  of  Hispania  Tarra- 
 conensis,  near  the  river  Taniaris.  It  is  supposed  to 
 coincide  with  the  modern  village  of  Mvros,  near  the 
 mouth  of  the  Tanibre.  Others,  however,  are  in  favour 
 of  the  harbour  of  Obre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tamaro. 
 (Bischoff  und  Moller,  Worterb.  der  Geogr.,  p.  446.) 
 
 Ebor.^cum,  a  city  of  Britain,  m  the  territorv  of  the 
 Brigantes,  now  York.  Eboracum  was,  next  to  Lon- 
 dinium  or  London,  the  most  important  city  in  the 
 whole  island.  It  formed  a  convenient  post,  and  place 
 of  arms,  for  the  Romans  during  the  continual  war» 
 waged  by  them  against  the  northern  nations  of  Britain. 
 Seplimius  Severus  died  here.  The  modern  city  can 
 still  show  many  vestiges  of  Roman  power  and  magni- 
 ficence.    (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  123.) 
 
 EbuDjE,  the  western  isles  of  Britain,  now  Hebrides. 
 Ptolemy  (2,  2)  places  them  to  the  north  of  Hibernia, 
 and  makes  them  five  in  number.  The  name  Ebu- 
 dae  was  borrowed  by  the  Romans  from  the  Greek  ap- 
 pellation 'ESovdai.  Two  of  the  five  properly  bear  the 
 name  of  Ebudae  ;  the  remaining  three  were  called  Ma- 
 leus,  Epidium,  and  Ricina.  Pliny  (4,  16)  calls  them 
 all  Hebrides  Insulae.  "  Ebudcs,"  says  Salmasius, 
 "  Mela  rmllas  recenset,  et  nullas  Emodas  Ptolem<eus. 
 Vix  sane  mihi  dubium  est,  quin  Emodce,  vcl  Emudce,  et 
 Ebudce  eadem  sijit.'"     (Salmas.  ad  Solin.,  1,  22.) 
 
 Eburones,  I.  a  nation  of  Belgic  Gaul,  to  the  west 
 of  the  Ubii  and  the  Rhine,  and  to  the  south  of  the 
 Menapii.  Their  territory  corresponded  to  the  present 
 country  of  Liege  (le  pays  de  Liege).  Under  the  con- 
 duct of  Ambiorix  they  defeated  Sabinus  and  Gotta, 
 the  lieutenants  of  Caesar,  having  induced  them  to  quit 
 their  winter-quarters,  and  then  having  attacked  them 
 on  the  route.  Caesar  inflicted  a  terrible  retaliation, 
 desolating  the  country,  and  almost  annihilating  their 
 ra^e.  The  Tungri  afterward  took  possession  of  the 
 vacated  seats  of  the  Eburones.  The  capital  of  the 
 Eburones  was  Aduatuca.  This  was  rebuilt  by  the 
 Tungri,  and  is  now  Tongrcs.  (Cas.,  B.  G.,  2,  4, 
 seqq. — Id.  ib.,  5,  26,  seqq. — Id.  ib.,  6,  33.) 
 
 Ebusus  ("Efiofffof,  Gronov.  ad  Strab.,  ed  Oxon.,  p. 
 216. — BoiJiTOf,  Dionys.  Pericg.),  one  of  the  PityusK, 
 or  Pine-islands,  so  named  by  the  Greeks  from  the 
 number  of  pine-trees  which  grew  in  them  (nirv^, 
 pinus).  The  island  of  Ebusus  was  the  largest  of  the 
 number,  and  very  fertile  in  the  production  of  vines, 
 olives,  and  large  figs,  which  were  exported  to  Rome 
 and  elsewhere.  (Compare  Mela,  2,  7. — Pli7i.,  3,  5. 
 — Id.,  15,  9. —  Fest.  Avien.,  v.  621.)  It  was  famed 
 also  for  its  wool :  but  that  no  poisonous  animal  existed 
 here  is  a  mere  fable  of  former  days.  Some  of  the  an- 
 cient writers  call  it  simply  Pityusa.  (Diod.  Sic,  5, 
 16. — Compare  Livy,  28,  37,  who,  however,  in  another 
 place  (22,  20),  names  it  Ebusus.)  Agathemerus  (Ge- 
 ogr., 1,  5)  speaks  of  the  larger  Pityusa  in  eontradistinc- 
 tion  to  the  smaller.  It  is  about  forty  miles  from  the 
 Mediterranean  coast  of  Spain,  and  is  now  named,  by  a 
 slight  corruption,  Iviga.  It  still  produces  abundance 
 of  corn,  wine,  oil,  fruit,  &c.,  and  a  great  deal  of  salt 
 is  made  in  it  by  natural  evaporation.  Its  size  is  190 
 square  miles  ;  the  population  about  15,000.  Diodorus 
 (/.  c.)  compares  this  island,  in  point  of  size,  with  Corcy- 
 ra.  The  chief  place  on  the  island  was  Ebusus,  which 
 had  an  excellent  harbour,  and  was  inhabited  in  part  by 
 Phoenicians.     (Dwd.  Sic,  5,  16.—Sil.  Ital.,  3,  362.) 
 
 EcBATANA  (brum),  I.  the  capital  of  Media,  situate, 
 according  to  Diodorus  (2,  3),  about  twelve  stadia  from 
 Mount  Orontes.  The  genuine  orthography  of  the 
 word  appears  to  be  Agbatana  ('Ayfifiraj'o).  Stepha- 
 nos of  Byzantium  says  that  this  form  'kydarava  was 
 employed  by  Ctesias.  Bahr,  however,  the  latest  edi- 
 tor of  Ctesias,  retains  'E/cfidrava,  not  because  he  thinks 
 it  the  true  reading,  but  from  a  reluctance  to  change  the 
 form  of  the  word  in  opposition  to  the  MSS.  But  the 
 same  editor,  in  his  Herodotus  (1,  98),  adopts 'Ayfia- 
 rava  with  Wesseling,  for  here  the  MSS.  favour  it. 
 
 459 
 
ECBATANA. 
 
 ECH 
 
 Isidorus  Characeiius  has  ^AwoSuTava,  a  manifest  er- 
 ror. Reland  {Diss.  Miscell.,  pt.  2,  p.  107)  deduces 
 the  name  from  the  Persian  Ac,  "  a  lord"  or  "  master." 
 And  Abadan,  "a cultivated  and  inhabited  place." — Ec- 
 batana,  being  in  a  high  and  mountainous  country,  was 
 a  favourite  residence  of  the  Persian  kings  during  sum- 
 mer, when  the  heat  of  Susa  was  almost  uisupportable. 
 The  Parthian  kings  also,  at  a  later  period,  retired  to  it 
 in  the  summer  to  avoid  the  excessive  heat  of  Ctesi- 
 phor..  According  to  Herodotus  (1,  98),  Ecbatana  was 
 built  near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  B.C.  by 
 Dejoces,  the  founder  of  the  Median  monarchy.  The 
 book  of  Judith  (1,  2)  assigns  the  building  of  this  city, 
 or,  rather,  the  erection  of  its  citadel,  to  Arpha.xad,  in  the 
 twelfth  year  of  the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of 
 Assyria.  Some  writers  make  Arphaxad  the  same  with 
 Dejoces,  while  others  identify  him  with  Phraortes,  the 
 son  of  the  latter,  who  might  have  repaired  the  city,  or 
 else  made  some  additions  to  it. — Herodotus  furnishes 
 us  with  no  hint  whence  we  may  infer  the  relative  po- 
 sition of  Ecbatana  on  the  map  of  Media.  His  de- 
 scription of  the  fortress  or  citadel,  however,  is  par- 
 ticular. "  The  Medes,"  he  remarks,  "  in  obedience 
 to  their  king's  command,  built  those  spacious  and 
 massy  fortifications  now  called  Ecbatana,  circle  within 
 circle,  according  to  the  following  plan.  Each  inner 
 circle  overtops  its  outer  neighbour  by  the  height  of  the 
 battlements  alone.  This  was  effected  partly  by  the 
 nature  of  the  ground,  a  conical  hill,  and  partly  by  the 
 building  itself.  The  number  of  the  circles  was  seven  ; 
 within  the  innermost  were  built  the  palace  and  the 
 treasury.  The  circumference  of  the  outermost  wall 
 and  of  the  city  of  Athens  may  be  regarded  as  nearly 
 equal.  The  battlements  of  the  first  circle  are  white  ; 
 of  the  second,  black;  of  the  third,  scarlet;  of  the  fourth, 
 azure  ;  of  the  fifth,  orange.  All  these  are  brilliantly 
 coloured  with  different  paints.  But  the  battlements 
 of  the  sixth  circle  are  silvered  over,  while  those  of  the 
 seventh  are  gilt.  Dejoces  constructed  these  walls 
 around  his  palace  for  his  own  personal  safety.  But 
 he  ordered  the  people  to  erect  their  houses  in  a  circle 
 around  the  outward  wall."  {Herod.,  1,  98,  scq.) — 
 The  Orientals,  however,  according  to  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus,  claimed  a  far  more  ancient  origin  for  Ecbatana. 
 They  not  only  described  it  as  the  capital  of  the  first 
 Median  monarchy,  founded  by  Arbaces,  but  as  exist- 
 ing prior  to  the  era  of  the  famed  and  fabulous  Semira- 
 mis,  who  is  said  to  have  visited  Ecbatana  in  the  course 
 of  her  royal  journeys,  and  to  have  built  there  a  magnifi- 
 cent palace.  She  also,  with  immense  labour  and  ex- 
 pense, introduced  abundance  of  excellent  water  into 
 the  city,  which  before  had  been  badly  supplied  with  it, 
 and  she  effected  this  object  by  perforating  the  adjacent 
 Mount  Orontes,  and  forming  a  tunnel,  fifteen  feet  broad, 
 and  forty  feet  high,  through  which  she  conveyed  a  lake- 
 stream.  {Diod.  Sic,  2,  13.)  Ecbatana  continued  a 
 splendid  city  under  the  Persian  sway,  the  great  king 
 spending  at  this  place  the  two  hottest  months  of  the 
 year.  {Julian,  I.  c. — Xen.,  I.  c.)  The  Macedonian 
 conquest  did  not  prove  destructive  to  Ecbatana,  as  it 
 had  to  the  royal  palace  at  Persepolis.  Alexander  de- 
 posited in  Ecbatana  the  treasures  taken  from  Persepo- 
 lis and  Pasargada,  and  one  of  the  last  acts  of  his  life 
 was  a  royal  visit  to  the  Median  capital.  Although  not 
 equally  favoured  by  the  Seleucidae,  it  still  retained  the 
 traces  of  its  former  grandeur  ;  and  Polybius  has  left  on 
 record  a  description  of  its  state  under  Antiochus  the 
 Great,  which  shows  that  Ecbatana  was  still  a  splendid 
 city,  though  it  had  been  despoiled  of  many  of  its  more 
 costly  decorations.  {Polyb.,\0,  frag.  A.)  When  the 
 Seleucidae  were  driven  from  Upper  Asia,  Ecbatana  be- 
 came the  favourite  summer  residence  of  the  Arsacidae, 
 and  we  have  the  authority  of  Tacitus  to  show,  that,  at 
 the  close  of  the  first  century,  it  still  continued  to  be 
 the  Parthian  capital.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  lH,  31.)  When 
 the  Persians,  under  the  house  of  Sassan,  A.D.  226,  re- 
 460 
 
 covered  the  dominion  of  Upper  Asia,  Ecbatana,  both 
 as  an  ancient  seat  of  empire  and  as  a  place  situate 
 far  from  the  immediate  scene  of  warfare  between  the 
 Persians  and  the  Romans,  continued  to  be  a  favourite 
 and  secure  place  of  residence.  The  natural  bulwarks 
 of  Mount  Zagros  were  never  forced  by  the  Roman  le- 
 gions, nor  did  the  matrons  of  Ecbatana  ever  behold  the 
 smoke  of  a  Roman  camp.  Consequently,  we  find,  from 
 Ammianus  Marcellmus,  that  near  the  close  of  the  fourth 
 century,  Ecbatana  continued  to  be  a  great  and  a  forti- 
 fied city. — The  site  of  Ecbatana  has  been  a  matter  of 
 dispute  among  modern  scholars.  Gibbon  and  Sir  W. 
 Jones  are  in  favour  of  the  present  Tabriz.  The  claims, 
 however,  of  this  town  are  now  completely  set  aside. 
 Mr.  Williams  contends  for  Ispahan.  {Geography  of 
 Anc.  Asia,  p.  10,  seqq.)  He  is  ably  refuted,  however, 
 in  the  Journal  of  Education  (No.  4,  p.  305,  seqq.). 
 D'Anville,  Mannert,  and  others  declare  for  Hamme- 
 dan,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  true  opinion.  The 
 route  of  commerce  between  the  low  country,  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  the  ancient  Seleucia,  and  the  mod- 
 ern Bagdad  and  the  high  table-land  of  Iran,  is  deter- 
 mined by  the  physical  character  of  the  country,  and 
 has  continued  the  same  from  the  earliest  recorded  his- 
 tory of  those  countries  to  the  present  day.  The  places 
 marked  in  the  Itinerary  of  Isidorus  Characenus,  as 
 lying  in  Seleucia  and  Ecbatana,  are  the  places  indi- 
 cated by  modern  travellers  as  lying  on  the  route  be- 
 tween fia^^^farf  and  Hammcdan. — Mr.  Kinneir  describes 
 the  climate  of  Hammedan  as  delightful  during  eight 
 months  of  the  year  ;  but  in  winter  the  cold  is  exces- 
 sive, and  fuel  with  difficulty  procured.  Hammedan 
 lies  in  a  low  plain  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Elwund,  which 
 belongs  to  the  mountain-chain  that  forms  the  last  step 
 in  the  ascent  from  the  lowlands  of  Irak-Arahi  to  the 
 high  table-land  of  Iran.  The  summit  of  Elwund  is 
 tipped  with  continual  snow.  {Kinncir's  Persia,  p. 
 126.) — II.  A  town  of  Syria,  in  Galilsea  Inferior,  at  the 
 foot  of  Mount  Carmel,  supposed  to  coincide  with  the 
 modern  Caiffa.  Here  Cambyses  gave  himself  a  mor- 
 tal wound  as  he  was  mounting  his  horse,  and  thus  ful- 
 filled the  oracle  which  had  warned  him  to  beware  of 
 Ecbatana.     {Herod.,  3,  64.) 
 
 Echidna,  a  monster  sprung  from  the  union  of  Chry- 
 saor  with  Callirhoe,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus.  She  is 
 represented  as  a  beautiful  woman  in  the  upper  parts  of 
 the  body,  but  as  a  serpent  below  the  waist.  {Hesiod, 
 Theog.,  297.) 
 
 EcHiNADEs,  islands  formerly  lying  opposite  the 
 mouth  of  the  Acheloiis,  but  which,  in  process  of 
 time,  have  for  the  most  part  become  connected  with 
 the  land  by  the  alluvial  deposites  of  the  muddy  waters 
 of  the  river.  These  rocks,  as  they  should  rather  be 
 termed,  were  known  to  Homer,  who  mentions  them 
 as  being  inhabited,  and  as  having  sent  a  force  to  Troy 
 under  the  command  of  Megas,  a  distinguished  warrior 
 of  the  Iliad.  {II.,  2,  625.)  They  are  said  by  some 
 geographers  to  be  now  called  Curzolari;  but  this 
 name  belongs  to  certain  small,  pointed  isles  near  them, 
 called  from  their  appearance  Ozice  {'O^elai)  by  the  an- 
 cients.    {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  26.) 
 
 EcHiNussA.      Vid.  Cimolus. 
 
 EcHioN,  one  of  the  men  who  sprang  from  the  drag- 
 on's teeth  sown  by  Cadmus.  He,  along  with  four 
 others,  survived  the  conflict  that  ensued,  and  assisted 
 Cadmus  in  building  Thebes.  The  monarch  gave  him 
 his  daughter  Agave  in  marriage,  by  whom  he  had  Pen- 
 theus.  After  the  death  of  Cadmus  he  reigned  in 
 Thebes.  Hence  the  epithet  "  Echionean,"  applied 
 by  the  poets  to  that  city.  {Ovid,  Met.,  3,  311. — Ho- 
 rat.,  Od.,  4,  4,  64.) 
 
 EcHioNii)i;s,  a  patronymic  given  to  Pentheus  as  de- 
 scended from  Echion.     {Ovid,  Met.,  3,  311.) 
 
 EcHiONius,  an  epithet  applied  to  the  city  of  Thebes, 
 as  founded  by  the  aid  of  Echion.  {Ovid,  Met.,  3,  311. 
 —Horat.,  Od.,  4,  4.  64.) 
 
EDE 
 
 EGN 
 
 Echo,  a  daughter  of  the  Air  and  Tellus,  who  chiefly 
 resided  iti  the  vicinity  of  the  Cephissus.  She  was  once 
 one  of  Juno's  attendants ;  but,  having  oH'ended  that 
 goddess  by  her  deception,  she  was  deprived,  in  a  great 
 measure,  by  her,  of  the  power  of  speech.  Juno  de- 
 clared, that  in  future  she  should  have  but  little  us-j  of 
 her  tongue  ;  and  immediately  she  lost  all  power  jf  do- 
 ing any  more  than  repeat  the  sounds  which  she  heard. 
 Echo  happening  to  see  the  beautiful  youth  Narcissus, 
 became  deeply  enamoured  of  him.  I3ut,  her  love  be- 
 ing slighted,  she  pined  away  till  nothing  remained  of 
 her  but  her  voice  and  bones.  The  former  still  exists, 
 the  latter  were  converted  into  stone.  (Ovid,  Met.,  3, 
 341,  seqq.) 
 
 EcTENKS,  a  people  who,  according  to  Pausanias, 
 first  inhabited  the  territory  of  Thebes,  in  Boeotia. 
 Ogyges  is  said  to  have  been  their  first  king.  They 
 were  exterminated  by  a  plague,  and  succeeded  by  the 
 Hyantes.  (Compare  Strabo,  401. — Pausan.,  9,  5. — 
 Lycophr.,  v.  433.) 
 
 Edessa,  I.  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  in  the  district  of 
 Osroene,  on  the  banks  of  a  small  river  called  Scirtus. 
 It  lay  northeast  of  Zeugma,  and  southeast  of  Samosa- 
 ta,  and,  according  to  the  Itin.  Ant.,  nine  geographical 
 miles  from  the  Euphrates  and  Zii\\gm&{cd.Wesseling, 
 p.  185).     Procopius  (Pers.,  2,  12)  places  it  a  day's 
 journey  from  Batnae  ;  and  an  Arabian  writer  cited  by 
 Wesseling  {ad  Itin.  Ant.,  I.  c),  about  six  parasangs  or 
 four  miles.     Edessa  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  those 
 numerous  cities  which  were  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator, 
 and  was  probably  called  after  the  city  of  the  same 
 name  in  Macedonia.     It  was  once  a  place  of  great  ce- 
 lebrity, and  famous  for  a  temple  of  the  Syrian  goddess, 
 which  was  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world.     During 
 the  intestine  broils  which  greatly  weakened  the  king- 
 dom of  Syria,  Augurus  or  Abgarus  seized  on  this  city 
 and    its  adjacent    territory,  which  he  erected   into  a 
 kingdom,  and  transmitted  the  royal  title  to  his  poster- 
 ity.    We   learn    from    St.    Austin  that    our  Saviour 
 promised  Abgarus  that  the  city  should  be  impregna- 
 ble ;    and   Euagrius  {Hist.  Eccles.,  4,  27)  observes, 
 that  although  this  circumstance  was  not  mentioned  in 
 our  Lord's  letter,  still  it  was  the  common  belief ;  which 
 was  much  confirmed  when  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia, 
 after  having  set  down  before  it,  was  obliged  to  raise 
 the  siege.     This  is  all,  however,  a  pious  fable. — Edessa 
 was  called  Callirhoe,  from  a  fountain  contained  within 
 it.     {Plin.,  5,  24.)     The  sources  of  this  fountain  still 
 remain,  and  the  inhabitants  have  a  tradition  that  this 
 is  the  place  where  Abraham  offered  up  his  prayer  pre- 
 vious to  his  intended  sacrifice  of  Isaac.     (Compare 
 Nichvhr,  vol.  2,  p.  407.  —  Tavernicr,   lib.  2,  c.  4.) 
 In  later  limes  it  was  termed  Roha,  or,  with  the  article 
 of  the  Arabs,  Orrhoa,  and  by  abbreviation  Orrha.    This 
 appellation  would  seem  to  have  arisen  from  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  Edessa  having  been  the  capital  of  the 
 district  Osroene,  or,  as  it  was  more  probably  called, 
 Orrhoene.     The  modern  name   is    Orrhoa   or   Orfa. 
 (Chron.  Edcss.  in  Assemanni  Bibl.  Orient.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 388.)     The  Arabians  revere  the  spot  as  the  seat  of 
 learned  men  and  of  the  purest  Arabic.     {Ahulpharag., 
 Hist.  Dynast.,  p.  16,  ed.  Wesselins;,  ad  loc.) — II.  A 
 city  of  .Macedonia,  called    also  Odessa    and  -Egoe, 
 situate  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  thirty  miles  west  of  Pella. 
 According  to  Justin  (7,  i)  it  was  the  city  occupied  by 
 Caranus  on  his  arrival  in  the  country,  and  it  continued 
 apparently  to  be  the  capital  of  Macedonia,  until  the 
 seat  of  government  was  transferred  to  Pella.     Even 
 after  this  event  it  remained  the  place  of  sepulture  for 
 the  royal  family,  since  we  are  told  that  Philip  and 
 Eurydice,  the  king  and  queen  of  Maccdon,  who  had 
 been  put  to  death  by  Olympias,  were  buried  here  by 
 Cassander.  {Allien.,  4,  41.)     Pausanias  (1,  6)  states, 
 that  Alexander  was  to  have  been  interred  here  ;  and 
 when  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  had  taken  and  plun- 
 dered the  town,  he  left  there  a  body  of  Gauls,  who 
 
 opened  the  royal  tombs  in  hopes  of  fiinding  treasure 
 It  was  here  that  Philip  was  assassinated  by  Pausan- 
 ias while  celebrating  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
 Cleopatra  with  Alexander,  king  of  Epirus.  (Diod. 
 Src,  16,  92.)  It  is  uncertain  which  of  the  two  ap- 
 pellations is  the  more  ancient,  .Egae  or  Edessa  ;  the 
 latter  form  is  always  used  by  later  writers.  {Hierocl., 
 Synecd.,  p.  638.)  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  town 
 called  Vndina,  situate  on  the  river  Vistntza,  which 
 issues  from  the  Lake  of  Osirovo,  represents  this  an- 
 cient city  ;  but  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  name  ol 
 Bodena  appears  to  be  as  old  as  the  Byzantine  histo- 
 rians. {Cedrenus,  vol.  2,  p.  705. — Glycas,  p.  309.) 
 Dr.  Clarke,  in  his  travels  {Greece,  Egypt,  &c.,  vol,  7, 
 p.  434,  seqq.),  quotes  a  letter  from  Mr.  Piolt  of  Cam- 
 bridge, who  had  visited  Vodina,  and  which  leaves  no 
 doubt  as  to  its  identity  with  Edessa.  He  says,  "  it  is 
 a  delightful  spot.  There  are  sepulchres  cut  in  the 
 rock,  which  the  superstitious  inhabitants  have  never 
 plundered,  because  they  are  afraid  to  go  near  them. 
 I  went  into  two,  and  saw  the  bodies  in  perfect  repose, 
 with  some  kinds  of  ornaments,  and  clothes,  and  vases. 
 There  is  a  beautiful  inscription  in  the  town.  The  fall 
 of  waters  is  magnificent."  {Cramer'' s  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  226,  seqq.) 
 
 Edetant,  a  people  of  Spain,  south  of  the  Iberus. 
 They  occupied  what  corresponds  with  the  northern 
 half  "of  Valencia,  and  the  southwestern  corner  of  Ar- 
 agon.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  426. —  Vkert, 
 vol.  2,  p.  413,  seqq.) 
 
 Edom  or  Edones,  a  people  of  Thrace,  on  the  left 
 bank  of  the  Strymon.  It  appears  from  Thucydides 
 (2,  99),  that  this  Thracian  clan  once  held  possession 
 of  the  right  bank  of  the  Strymon  as  far  as  Mygdonia, 
 but  that  they  were  ejected  by  the  Macedonians.  The 
 name  of  this  tribe  is  often  used  by  the  poets  to  express 
 the  whole  of  the  nation  of  which  they  formed  a  part. 
 {Soph.,  Ant.,  955.— £?<r.,  Hec.,  1153.) 
 
 Eetion,  the  father  of  Andromache,  and  king  of  Hy- 
 poplacian  Thebe  in  Troas.  {Horn.,  II.,  6,  396.)— II. 
 The  commander  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  conquered  by 
 the  Macedonians  under  Clitus,  near  the  Echinades. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  18,  15.) 
 
 Eqeria,  a  nvmph  of  Aricia  in  Italy,  the  spouse  and 
 instructress  of  Numa.  (F^rf.  Numa.)  Some  regard 
 ed  her  as  one  of  the  Camcenae.  According  to  the  old 
 legend,  when  Numa  died,  Egeria  melted  away  in  tears 
 into  a  fountain.  Niebuhr  places  the  grove  of  Egeria 
 below  S.  Biilbina,  near  the  baths  of  Caracalla.  {Ro- 
 man History,  vol.  1,  p.  203,  Cambr.  transl.)  Wag- 
 ner, in  a  dissertation  on  this  subject,  is  in  favour  of 
 the  valley  of  Caffardla,  some  few  miles  from  the  pres- 
 ent gate  of  Saint  Sebastian.  {Wagner,  commentatio 
 de  Egeria  fonte,  et  spccu  cjusque  situ. — Marbourg, 
 1824.'") 
 
 Egesta.      Vid.  iEgesta. 
 
 Egnatia,  a  town  of  Apulia,  on  the  coast,  below 
 Barium.  It  communicated  its  name  to  the  consular 
 way  that  followed  the  coast  from  Canusium  to  Brun- 
 disium.  {Straho,  282.)  Its  ruins  are  still  apparent 
 near  the  Torre  d'Agnazzo  and  the  town  of  MonopoU. 
 {PratiUi,  Via  Appia,  lib.  4,  c.  16. — Romanclli,  vol.  2, 
 p.  143.)  Pliny  states  (2,  107),  that  a  certain  stone 
 was  shown  at  Egnatia,  which  was  said  to  possess  the 
 property  of  setting  fire  to  wood  that  was  placed  upon 
 it.  It  was  this  prodigy,  seemingly,  wliich  aiforded  so 
 much  amusement  to  Horace  {Sat.\  1,  5,  98),  and  from 
 the  expression  limine  sacro  employed  by  the  poet,  the 
 stone  in  question  would  appear  to  have  been  P'aced 
 in  the  entrance  of  a  temple,  serving  for  an  altar.  V\  hal 
 Horace,  however,  regarded  as  a  mere  trick,  has  been 
 thought  to  have  had  more  of  reality  about  it  than  the 
 poet  supposed.  Some  commentators  imagme  that  the 
 stone  was  placed  over  a  naphtha  spring,  with  an  aper- 
 ture in  it  for  the  flame  to  pass  through  ;  a  simple  con- 
 trivance which  the  priests  would  not  fail  to  turn  to 
 
 461 
 
EL  A 
 
 ELE 
 
 good  account.  So  La  Lande  found  in  Italy,  on  a  hill 
 near  Pictra  Mala,  not  far  from  Firemuola,  flames 
 breaking  forth  from  the  ground,  the  vapour  from  which 
 resembled  petroleum  in  smell.  {Voyage  (Tun  Fran- 
 ^oi^  en  Ilalie,  vol.  2,  p.  134.  — 1765.)  Compare  also 
 the  remarks  of  Salmasius  on  the  account  given  by  So- 
 'jnus  of  a  volcanic  hill  near  Agrigentum  in  Sicily. 
 ^Solin.,  c.  5. — Salmas.,  ad  loc,  p.  89,  seqq.) 
 
 EiON,  a  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon,  twenty- 
 five  stadia  from  Amphipolis,  of  which,  according  to 
 Thucydidcs  (4,  102),  it  formed  the  harbour.  This 
 historian  affirms  it  to  have  been  more  ancient  than 
 Amphipolis.  It  was  from  Eioti  that  Xerxes  sailed  to 
 .\sia,  according  to  Herodotus,  after  the  battle  of 
 Salamis.  (Herodot,  8,  118.)  Boges  was  left  in 
 command  of  the  town  on  the  retreat  of  the  Persian  ar- 
 mies, and  made  a  most  gallant  resistance  when  be- 
 sieged by  the  Grecian  forces  under  Cimon.  On  the 
 total  failure  of  all  means  of  subsistence,  he  ordered  a 
 vast  pile  to  be  raised  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  and 
 having  placed  on  it  his  wives,  children,  and  domestics, 
 he  caused  them  to  be  slain  ;  then,  scattering  every- 
 thing of  value  in  the  Strymon,  he  threw  himself  on  the 
 burning  pile  and  perished  m  the  flames.  {Herodot., 
 7,  W7.—Tkucyd.,  1,  98  )  After  the  capture  of  Am- 
 phipolis, the  Spartans  endeavoured  to  gain  possession 
 of  Eion  also,  but  in  this  design  they  were  frustrated 
 by  the  arrival  of  Thucydides  with  a  squadron  from 
 Thasus,  who  repelled  the  attack.  (Tkucyd.,  4,  107.) 
 Cleon  afterward  occupied  Eion,  and  thither  the  remains 
 of  his  army  retreated  after  their  defeat  before  Amphip- 
 olis. (Thiicyd.,  5,  10.)  This  place  is  mentioned  by 
 Lycophron  (v.  417).  In  the  middle  ages  a  Byzantine 
 town  was  built  on  the  site  of  Eion,  which  now  bears 
 the  name  of  Contessa.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  295,  seqq.) 
 
 El^a,  the  port  of  the  city  of  Pergamus.  Accord- 
 ing to  some  traditions,  it  had  been  founded  after  the 
 siege  of  Troy,  by  the  Athenians,  under  the  command 
 of  Mnestheus.  '{Strab.,  622.)  Elsea  was  distant  12 
 stadia  from  the  mouth  of  the  Caicus,  and  120  from 
 Pergamus.  {Strab.,  615.)  The  modern  name  is  la- 
 lea  or  Lalea.  Smith  places  the  ruins  of  this  city  at 
 no  great  distance  from  Clisiakevi,  on  the  road  from 
 Smyrna  to  Berganat.  {Account  of  the  Seven  Churches 
 of  Asia,  p.  7. — Liv.,  36,  i3.—Fausan.,  9,  5.) 
 
 Elagabalus,  I.  the  surname  of  the  sun  at  Emesa. 
 — II.  The  name  of  a  Roman  emperor.  {Vid.  Emesa 
 and  Heliogabalus.) 
 
 Elaphebolia,  a  festival  in  honour  of  Diana  the 
 Huntress.  In  the  celebration  a  cake  was  made  in  the 
 form  of  a  deer,  eXacboc,  and  ofl^ered  to  the  goddess.  It 
 owed  its  institution  to  the  following  circumstance. 
 When  the  Phocians  had  been  severely  defeated  by  the 
 Thessalians,  they  resolved,  by  the  persuasion  of  a  cer- 
 tain Deifihantus,  to  raise  a  pile  of  combustible  materi- 
 als, and  burn  their  wives,  children,  and  effects,  rath- 
 er than  submit  to  the  enemy.  This  resolution  was 
 unanimously  approved  of  by  the  women,  who  decreed 
 Deiphantus  a  crown  for  his  magnanimity.  When 
 everything  was  prepared,  before  they  fired  the  pile, 
 they  engaged  their  enemies,  and  fought  with  such  des- 
 perate fury,  that  they  totally  routed  them,  and  obtain- 
 ed a  complete  victory.  Ir.  commemoration  of  this 
 unexpected  success,  this  festival  was  instituted  to 
 Diana,  and  observed  with  the  greatest  solemnity. 
 {A  then.,  14,  p.  646,  e. — Castcllanus,  de  Fest.  Grcec, 
 p.  115.) 
 
 Elatea,  the  most  considerable  and  important  of  the 
 Phocian  cities  after  Delphi,  situate,  according  to  Pau- 
 sanias  (10,  34),  one  hundred  and  eighty  stadia  from 
 Amphicaaa,  on  a  gently  rising  slope,  above  the  plain 
 watered  by  the  Cephissus.  It  was  captured  and  burn- 
 ed by  the  army  of  Xerxes  {Herodot.,  8,  33),  but,  being 
 afterward  restored,  it  was  occupied  bv  Philip,  father  of 
 Alexander,  on  his  advance  into  Phocis  to  overawe  the 
 462 
 
 Athenians.  The  alarm  and  consternation  produced  at 
 Athens  by  his  approach  is  finely  described  by  Demosthe- 
 nes in  his  Oration  de  Corona  (p.  284. —  Compare  JEs- 
 chin.  in  Ctes.,  p.  73. — Strab.,  424).  Some  years  after, 
 Elatea  made  a  successful  defence  against  the  arms  of 
 Cassander.  It  was,  however,  reduced  by  Philip,  sori 
 of  Demetrius,  who  bribed  the  prrncipal  inhabitants. 
 {Pausan.,  I.  c.)  During  the  Macedonian  war,  thi? 
 town  was  besieged  by  the  Roman  consul,  T.  Flami- 
 ninus,  and  taken  by  assault.  {Liv.,  32,  18.  scqq. — 
 Polyb.,  5,  26. — Id.,  18,  26.)  An  attack  subsequently 
 made  on  Elatea  by  Taxilus,  general  of  Miihradates, 
 was  successfully  repelled  by  the  inhabitants  ;  in  con 
 sequence  of  which  exploit  they  were  declared  free  b" 
 the  Roman  senate.  {Pausan.,  I.  c.)  Strabo  speaks 
 of  its  advantageous  situation,  which  commanded  the 
 entrance  into  Phocis  and  Bceotia.  Other  passages 
 relative  to  this  place  will  be  found  in  Plutarch  {Vil. 
 SylL),  Appian  {Bell.  Mithrad.),  Theophrastus  (Hist. 
 Plant.,  8,  8,  2),  and  Scylax  (p.  23).  Its  ruins  are  tc 
 be  seen  on  a  site  called  Elcphta,  on  the  left  bank  of 
 the  Cephissus,  and  at  the  foot  of  some  hills  which 
 unite  with  the  chains  of  Cnemis  and  CEta.  Sir  W. 
 Gell,  in  his  Itinerary,  notices  the  remains  of  the  city 
 walls,  as  well  as  those  of  the  citadel,  and  the  ruins  of 
 several  temples  (p.  216. — Compare  Dodwell,  vol.  2, 
 p.  140).  At  the  distance  of  about  twenty  stadia  to 
 the  east  was  the  temple  of  Minerva  Cranaea,  described 
 by  Pausanias  :  its  remains  were  discovered  by  Sir  W. 
 Gell  and  Mr.  Dodwell.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  179.) 
 
 Elaver,  a  river  of  Gaul,  rising  in  the  same  quar- 
 ter with  the  Liger,  and, -after  pursuing  a  course  almost 
 parallel  with  it,  falling  into  this  same  stream  below 
 Ncvers.  It  is  now  the  Allier.  {Cas.,  B.  G.,  8,  34 
 and  53. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  119.) 
 
 Elba,  a  city  of  Lucania.     {Vid.  Velia.) 
 
 Electra,  I.  one  of  the  Oceanides,  wife  of  Atlas, 
 and  mother  of  Dardanus  by  Jupiter.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  4, 
 31.) — II.  A  daughter  of  Atlas  and  Pleiorie,  and  one 
 of  the  Pleiades.  {Vid.  Pleiades.)— III.  One  of  the 
 daughters  of  Agamemnon.  Upon  the  murder  of  her 
 father,  on  his  return  from  Troy,  Electra  rescued  her 
 brother  Orestes,  then  quite  young,  from  the  fury  of 
 .lEgisthus,  by  despatching  him  to  the  court  of  her  un- 
 cle Strophius,  king  of  Phocis.  There  Orestes  formed 
 the  well-known  attachment  for  his  cousin  Pylades, 
 which,  in  the  end,  led  to  the  marriage  of  Electra  with 
 that  prince.  According  to  one  account,  Electra  had 
 previously  been  compelled,  by  .^Egisthug,  to  become 
 the  wife  of  a  Mycenean  rustic,  who,  having  regarded 
 her  merely  as  a  sacred  deposite  confided  to  him  by  the 
 gods,  restored  her  to  Orestes  on  the  return  of  that 
 prince  to  MycenEC,  and  on  his  accession  to  the  throne 
 of  his  ancestors.  Electra  became,  by  Pylades,  tlie 
 mother  of  two  sons,  Strophius  and  Medon.  Her  story 
 has  formed  the  basis  of  two  plays,  the  one  by  Sopho- 
 cles, the  other  by  Euripides.  {Soph.,  Elcctr. — Eurip  , 
 Electr.) 
 
 Electrides,  islands  fabled  to  have,  been  in  the 
 Adriatic,  off  the  mouths  of  the  Padus  or  Po,  and  to 
 have  abounded  with  amber  {cleclrum),  whence  theii 
 name.     {Vid.  Eridanus.) 
 
 Electryon,  son  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda,  and 
 king  of  Mycena?.  He  was  the  father  of  Alcmena. 
 Electryon  undertook  an  expedition  against  the  Tele- 
 boans  in  order  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  sons,  whom 
 the  sons  of  Taphius,  king  of  the  Teleboans,  had  slain 
 in  an  encounter.  Returning  victorious,  he  was  met 
 by  Amphitryon,  and  killed  by  an  accidental  blow. 
 {Arollod.,  2,' 4,  6.—  V7d.  Alcmena.) 
 
 Ei.Ei,  the  people  of  Elis  in  Peloponnesus.  {Vid. 
 Elis.) 
 
 Elephantine,  an  island  of  Egypt,  in  the  Nile,  with 
 a  city  of  the  same  name,  about  a  semi-stadium  distant 
 from  Syene.     Pliny  (5,  9)  calls  it  Elephantis  Insula 
 
El-  E 
 
 ELEUSINIA. 
 
 It  is  of  small  size,  being,  according  to  the  French 
 measurement,  700  toises  long  and  200  broad.  The 
 island  was  remarkable  for  its  fertility,  and  it  is  there- 
 fore easy  to  believe,  that,  in  early  ages,  when,  accord- 
 intf  to  Manetho,  Egypt  was  divided  into  several  dynas- 
 ties, one  of  these  had  its  capital  on  this  island.  The 
 cataracts  of  the  Nile  are  not  far  distant,  and  hence  El- 
 ephantine became  the  depot  for  all  the  goods  that  were 
 destined  for  the  countries  to  the  south,  and  that  re- 
 quired land-carriage  in  this  quarter  in  order  to  avoid 
 the  falls  of  the  river.  The  Nile  has  here  a  very  con- 
 siderable breadth,  and  it  is  natural  to  suppose,  that,  on 
 its  entrance  into  Egypt,  the  inhabitants  were  desirous 
 of  ascertaining  the  rise  of  the  stream  at  the  period  of 
 its  annual  increase.  Hence  we  find  a  Nilometer  here, 
 on  the  banks  of  the  river.  {Strabo,  817.)  In  the 
 time  of  the  Pharaohs,  the  garrison  stationed  on  the 
 frontiers  against  the  Ethiopians  had  their  head-quar- 
 ters at  Elephantine.  In  the  Roman  times,  however, 
 the  frontiers  were  pushed  farther  to  the  south.  In  the 
 fourth  century,  when  all  Egypt  was  strongly  guarded, 
 the  first  Cohors  Thcodosiana  was  stationed  in  this  isl- 
 and, according  to  the  Notifia  Imperii. — It  is  surpri- 
 sing that  merely  the  Greek  name  for  this  island  has 
 come  down  to  us,  since  Herodotus  was  here  during 
 the  Persian  sway,  when  Grecian  influence  could  by 
 no  means  have  been  strong  enough  to  supplant  the 
 original  name  by  one  which  is  evidently  a  mere  trans- 
 lation of  it.  The  modern  name  of  Elephantine  is 
 Gezyret  Assuan,  "  the  Island  of  Syene."  There  are 
 some  ruins  of  great  beauty  remaining,  and,  in  particu- 
 lar, a  superb  gate  of  granite,  which  formed  the  entrance 
 of  one  of  the  porticoes  of  the  temple  of  Cnepht. 
 {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  323,  seqq.) 
 
 Elephantis,  an  impure  poetess.  Consult  Martial 
 (Ep.,  12,  43,  4),  Suetonius  {Vit.  Tib.,  43),  and  the 
 remarks  of  the  commentators  on  each  of  these  places. 
 
 ElephantophXgi,  a  people  of  Ethiopia.  (Consult 
 remarks  under  the  article  Ethiopia,  page  72,  col.  1.) 
 
 Eleusinia,  a  great  festival  observed  every  fourth 
 year  by  the  Celeans,  Phliasians,  as  also  by  the  Pheneatce, 
 Lacedaemonians,  Parrhasians,  and  Cretans  ;  but  more 
 particularly  by  the  people  of  Athens  every  fifth  year, 
 at  Eleusis  in  Attica,  where  it  was  said  to  have  been 
 introduced  by  Eumolpus,  B.C.  1356.  It  was  the  most 
 celebrated  of  all  the  religious  ceremonies  of  Greece, 
 whence  it  is  often  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  fiva- 
 TTipta,  the  mysteries.  It  was  so  superstitiously  ob- 
 served, that  if  any  one  ever  revealed  it,  it  was  sup- 
 posed that  he  had  called  divine  vengeance  upon  his 
 head,  and  it  was  unsafe  to  live  in  the  same  house  with 
 him.  Such  a  wretch  was  publicly  put  to  an  ignomin- 
 ious death.  This  festival  was  sacred  to  Ceres  and 
 l^roserpina ;  everything  contained  a  mystery  ;  and 
 Ceres  herself  was  known  only  by  the  name  of  aj- 
 i)da,  from  the  sorrow  (ajflof)  which  she  suflTered  for 
 the  loss  of  her  daughter.  This  mysterious  secrecy 
 was  solemnly  observed,  and  enjoined  on  all  the  vota- 
 ries of  the  goddess  ;  and  if  any  one  ever  appeared  at 
 the  celebration,  either  intentionally  or  through  igno- 
 rance, without  [)roper  introduction,  he  was  immediately 
 punished  with  death.  Persons  of  both  sexes  and  ail 
 ages  were  initiated  at  this  solemnity,  and  it  was  looked 
 upon  as  so  heinous  a  crime  to  neglect  this  sacred  part 
 of  religion,  that  it  was  one  of  the  heaviest  accusations 
 which  contributed  to  the  condemnation  of  Socrates. 
 The  initiated  were  under  the  more  particular  care  of 
 the  deities,  and  therefore  their  lives  were  supposed  to 
 be  attended  with  more  happiness  and  real  security  than 
 those  of  other  men.  This  benefit  was  not  only  granted 
 during  life,  but  it  extended  beyond  the  grave,  and  they 
 were  honoured  with  the  first  places  in  the  Elysian 
 fields,  while  others  were  left  to  wallow  in  perpetual 
 filth  and  ignominy.  As  the  benefits  of  expiation  were 
 so  extensive,  particular  care  was  taken  in  examininT 
 the  character  of  those  who  were  presented  for  initia- 
 
 tion. Such  as  were  guilty  of  murder,  though  against 
 their  will,  and  such  as  were  convicted  of  impiety 
 or  any  heinous  crime,  were  not  admitted;  and  the 
 Athenians  suffered  none  to  be  initiated  but  those 
 that  were  members  of  their  city.  This  regulation, 
 which  compelled,  according  to  the  popular  behef,  Her- 
 cules, Castor,  and  Pollux  to  become  citizens  of  Ath- 
 ens, was  strictly  observed  in  the  first  ages  of  the  insti- 
 tution, but  afterward  all  persons,  barbarians  excepl&J, 
 were  freely  initiated.  The  festivals  were  divided  into 
 the  greater  and  less  mysteries.  The  less  were  institu-  / 
 ted  from  the  following  circumstance  :  Hercules  passed 
 near  Eleusis  while  the  Athenians  were  celebrating  the 
 mysteries,  and  desired  to  be  initiated.  As  this  could 
 not  be  done  because  he  was  a  stranger,  and  as  Eumol- 
 pus was  unwilling  to  displease  hirn  on  account  of  his 
 great  power,  and  the  services  which  he  had  done  to 
 the  Athenians,  another  festival  was  instituted  without 
 violating  the  laws.  It  was  called  fxiKpu,  and  Hercules 
 was  solemnly  admitted  to  the  celebration,  and  initiated. 
 These  minor  mysteries  were  observed  at  .'Igrae  near  the 
 Ilissus.  The  greater  were  celebrated  at  Eleusis,  from 
 which  place  Ceres  has  been  called  Eleusinia.  In  later 
 times  the  smaller  festivals  were  preparatory  to  the 
 greater,  and  no  person  could  be  initiated  at  Eleusis 
 without  a  previous  purification  at  Agree.  This  purifi- 
 cation they  performed  by  keeping  themselves  pure, 
 chaste,  and  unpolluted  during  nine  days,  after  which 
 they  came  and  offered  sacrifices  and  prayers,  wearing 
 garlands  of  flowers,  called  lufiepa  or  ifiepa,  and  hav- 
 ing under  their  feet  Aiog  kuSlov,  Jiipitefs  skin,  which 
 was  the  skin  of  a  victim  offered  to  that  god.  The  per- 
 son who  assisted  was  called  vSpavoQ,  from  v6up,  wa- 
 ter, which  was  used  at  the  purification  ;  and  they  them- 
 selves were  called  fivGrai,  the  initiated.  A  year  after 
 the  initiation  at  the  less  mysteries  they  sacrificed  a 
 sow  to  Ceres,  and  were  admitted  into  the  greater,  ajjj 
 the  secrets  of  the  festivals  were  solemnly  revealed  to 
 them,  from  which  they  were  tailed  £(j)opoi.  and  knoiz- 
 rai,  inspectors.  The  institution  was  performed  in  the 
 following  manner  ;  the  candidates,  crowned  with  myr- 
 tle, were  admitted  by  night  into  a  place  called  /xvcrri- 
 Kog  arjKog,  the  mystical  temple,  a  vast  and  stupendous 
 building.  As  they  entered  the  temple,  they  purified 
 themselves  by  washing  their  hands  in  holy  water,  and 
 received  for  admonition  that  they  were  to  come  with 
 a  mind  pure  and  undefiled,  without  which  the  cleanli- 
 ness of  the  body  would  be  unacceptable.  After  this 
 the  holy  mysteries  were  read  to  them  from  a  large 
 book  called  nsTpufia,  because  made  of  two  stones, 
 TTETpai,  fitly  cemented  together  ;  and  then  the  priest, 
 called  Ispo^uvTT/c,  proposed  to  them  certain  questions, 
 to  which  they  readily  answered.  After  this,  strancre 
 and  fearful  objects  presented  themselves  to  their  sight; 
 the  place  often  seemed  to  quake,  and  to  appear  sud- 
 denly resplendent  with  fire,  and  immediately  covered 
 with  gloomy  darkness  and  horror.  Sometimes  flashes 
 of  lightning  appeared  on  every  side.  At  other  times 
 thunder,  hideous  noises,  and  bowlings  were  heard,  and 
 the  trembling  spectators  were  alarmed  by  sudden  and 
 dreadful  apparitions.  This  was  called  avToipia,  intui- 
 tion. When  these  ceremonies  were  ended,  the  word 
 Koyf  was  uttered  by  the  officiating  priest,  which  im- 
 plied that  all  was  ended,  and  that  those  present  might 
 retire.  In  the  common  text  of  Hesychius,  the  words 
 Kuy^  ofi-Ka^  are  said  to  have  been  uttered  on  this  oc- 
 casion (Koyf,  bfiira^-  enicpcovTifia  TereXeff/J-EVOtc)'  ^^^ 
 various  explanations  have  been  attempted  to  be  given, 
 Wilford,  for  example,  makes  the  words  in  question  to 
 have  been  Koyf,  "Oft,  Ilaf,  and  maintains  that  they  are 
 pure  Sanscrit,  and  used  this  day  by  the  Brahmins,  at 
 the  conclusion  of  sacred  rites  !  (Asiatic  Researches, 
 vol.  5,  p.  297.)  Miinter,  Creuzer,  Ouvaroff,  and  oth- 
 ers, have  adopted  the  opinion  of  VVilford.  [Miinter, 
 Erldanmg  einer  gricrh.  Inschrift.,  p.  18  — Creiizcr, 
 Srmbd,  ik,  vol.  4,  p.  573.  —  Ouvaroff,  Essai  sur  les 
 
 463 
 
ELEUSINIA. 
 
 ELEUSINIA. 
 
 MysL  d'Elcusis,  p.  26,  seqq.  —  Schelling,  iiber  die 
 GoUhcit.von  Samo(hrak,-p.9l.)  The  speculations  of 
 all  these  writers,  as  well  as  the  opinion  of  Von  Ham- 
 mer, who  derives  the  word  'O^Traf  from  the  Persian 
 Cambaksck,  which  denotes,  according  to  him,  "  voli 
 sill  compos,^^  have  been  very  unceremoniously  put  to 
 flight  by  Lobeck.  This  able  and  judicious  critic  has 
 emended  the  text  of  Hesychius  so  as  to  read  as  fol- 
 lows ;  Koj'f,  ofio'uj^  TTcf,  tm(i)uvi//j.a  reTE/iEa/ievoi^, 
 and  thus  both  Koy^  and  Trdf  are  nothing  more  than 
 mere  terms  of  dismission.  The  former  of  these  is 
 borrowed  from  the  language  of  the  Athenian  assem- 
 blies for  voting.  The  pebble  or  ballot  was  dropped 
 into  the  urn  through  a  long  conical  tube  ;  and  as  this 
 tube  was  probably  of  some  length,  and  the  urn  itself 
 of  considerable  size,  in  order  to  enable  several  hundred 
 persons  to  vote,  the  stone  striking  against  the  metal 
 bottom  made  a  sharp,  loud  noise.  This  sound  the 
 Athenians  imitated  by  the  monosyllable  Koy^.  Hence 
 the  term  Koy^  came  to  denote  that  all  was  ended,  that 
 the  termination  of  an  afiair  was  reached ;  and  hence 
 Hesychius  assimilates  it  to  the  form  Truf,  which  ap- 
 pears to  have  had  the  same  force  as  the  Latin  inter- 
 jection pax.  {Lobeck,  Aglaopharmis,  p.  776,  seqq. — 
 Philol.  Museum,  No.  3,  p.  425,  not.) — But  to  return \o 
 the  mysteries  :  the  garments  in  which  the  new-comers 
 were  initiated  were  held  sacred,  and  of  no  less  efficacy 
 to  avert  evils  than  charms  and  incantations.  From 
 this  circumstance,  therefore,  they  were  never  left  off 
 before  they  were  totally  unfit  for  wear,  after  which  they 
 were  appropriated  for  children,  or  dedicated  to  the  god- 
 dess. The  chief  person  that  attended  at  the  initiation 
 was  called  l£po<f>uvr7j(;,  the  revcaler  of  sacred  things. 
 He  was  a  citizen  of  Athens,  and  held  his  office  during 
 life,  though,  among  the  Celeans  and  Phliasians,  it  was 
 limited  to  the  period  of  four  years.  He  was  obliged 
 to  devote  himself  totally  to  the  service  of  the  deities  ; 
 and  his  life  was  to  be  chaste  and  single.  The  Hiero- 
 phant  had  three  attendant*  ;  the  first  was  called  6a6ov- 
 XOi,  torch-bearer,  and  was  permitted  to  marry ;  the 
 second  was  called  Kijpv^,  a  crier ;  the  third  adminis- 
 tered at  the  altar,  and  was  called  6  tnl  /?6j/xtj.  There 
 were,  besides  these,  other  inferior  officers,  who  took 
 particular  care  that  everything  was  performed  accord- 
 ing to  custom.  The  first  of  these,  called  [3aai.7t.Evc, 
 was  one  of  the  archons  ;  he  offered  prayers  and  sac- 
 rifices, and  took  care  that  there  was  no  indecency  or 
 irregularity  during  the  celebration.  Besides  him  there 
 were  four  others,  called  eTTi/zfA^rai,  curators,  elected 
 by  the  people.  One  of  them  was  chosen  from  the  sa- 
 cred family  of  the  Eumolpidffi,  the  other  was  one  of 
 the  Ceryces,  and  the  rest  were  from  among  the  citi- 
 zens. There  were  also  ten  persons  who  assisted  at 
 this  and  every  other  festival,  called  iepoTroLoi,  because 
 they  offered  sacrifices. — This  festival  was  observed  in 
 the  month  Boedromion  or  September,  and  continued 
 nine  days,  from  the  15th  till  the  23d.  During  that 
 time  it  was  unlawful  to  arrest  any  man,  or  present  any 
 petition,  on  pain  of  forfeiting  a  thousand  drachmas,  or, 
 accord mg  to  others,  on  pain  of  death.  It  was  also  un- 
 lawful for  those  who  were  initiated  to  sit  upon  the 
 cover  of  a  well,  to  eat  beans,  mullets,  or  weazels.  If 
 any  woman  rode  to  Eleusis  in  a  chariot,  she  was  obli- 
 ged, by  an  edict  of  Lycurgus,  to  pay  GOOO  drachmas. 
 The  design  of  this  law  was  to  destroy  all  distinction 
 between  the  richer  and  poorer  sort  of  citizens.— The 
 first  day  of  the  celebration  was  called  dyvpfiog,  assem- 
 bly, as  it  might  be  said  that  the  worshippers  first  met 
 together.  The  second  day  was  called  uXade  /xvorat, 
 to  the  sea,  you  that  are  initiated,  because  they  were 
 commanded  to  purify  themselves  by  bathing  in  the  sea. 
 On  the  third  day  sacrifices,  and  chiefly  a  mullet,  were 
 offered  ;  as  also  barley  from  a  field  of  Eleusis.  These 
 oblations  were  called  Qva,  and  held  so  sacred  that  the 
 priests  themselves  were  not,  as  in  other  sacrifices,  per- 
 mitted to  partake  of  them.  On  the  fourth  day  they 
 464 
 
 made  a  solemn  procession,  in  which  the  KoXddiov.  holy 
 basket  of  Ceres,  was  carried  about  in  a  consecrated 
 cart,  while  on  every  side  the  people  shouted,  x^'P^t 
 Atj/x?]tep,  hail,  Ceres  !  Ahei  these  followed  women, 
 called  Ki.cTO(p6poi,  who  earned  baskets,  in  which  were 
 sesamum,  carded  wool,  grains  of  salt,  a  serpent,  pom- 
 egranates, reeds,  ivy-boughs,  certain  cakes,  &c.  The 
 fifth  was  called  jj  ruv  /la/ZTradui;  iifiipa,  the  torch-day, 
 because  on  the  followi.ng  night  the  people  ran  about 
 with  torches  in  their  hands.  It  was  usual  to  dedicate 
 torches  to  Ceres,  and  contend  which  should  offer  the 
 largest  in  commemoration  of  the  travels  of  the  god- 
 dess, and  of  her  lighting  a  torch  at  the  flames  of  Mount 
 /Etna.  The  sixth  day  was  called  'laKxoc,  from  lac- 
 chus,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Ceres,  who  accompanied 
 his  mother  in  her  search  after  Proserpina,  with  a  torch 
 in  his  hand.  From  that  circumstance  his  statue  had  a 
 torch  in  its  hand,  and  was  carried  in  solemn  procession 
 from  the  Ceramicus  to  Eleusis.  The  statue,  with 
 those  that  accompanied  it,  called  'lanxayuyoi,  was 
 crowned  with  myrtle.  In  the  way  nothing  was  heard 
 but  singing  and  the  noise  of  brazen  kettles,  as  the  vo- 
 taries danced  along.  The  way  through  which  they 
 issued  from  the  city  was  called  upii  666g,  the  sacred 
 way;  the  resting-place,  iepa  gvktj,  from  a  fig-tree 
 which  grew  in  the  neighbourhood.  They  also  slopped 
 on  a  bridge  over  the  Cephissus,  where  they  derided 
 those  that  passed  by.  After  they  had  passed  this 
 bridge,  they  entered  Eleusis  by  a  place  called  fiva- 
 TLKTj  Etaodoc,  the  mystical  entrance.  On  the  seventh 
 day  were  sports,  in  which  the  victors  were  rewarded 
 with  a  measure  of  barley,  as  that  grain  had  been 
 first  sown  in  Eleusis.  The  eighth  day  was  called 
 'YiTTidavpiuv  71/j.Epa,  because  once  /Esculapius,  at  his 
 return  from  Epidaurus  to  Athens,  was  initiated  by 
 the  repetition  of  the  less  mysteries.  It  became  cus- 
 tomary, therefore,  to  celebrate  them  a  second  time 
 upon  this,  that  such  as  had  not  hitherto  been  initia- 
 ted might  be  lawfully  admitted.  The  ninth  and  last 
 day  of  the  festival  was  called  Trlri/ioxoaL,  earthen  ves- 
 sels, because  it  was  usual  to  fill  two  such  vessels  with 
 wine,  one  of  which  being  placed  towards  the  east,  and 
 the  other  towards  the  west,  which,  after  the  repetition 
 of  some  mystical  words,  were  both  thrown  down,  and 
 the  wine  being  spilled  on  the  ground,  was  offered  as  a 
 libation.  The  Eleusinian  mysteries  lasted  about  eigh- 
 teen hundred  years,  and  were  finally  abolished  by 
 Theodosius  the  Great. — Various  opinions,  as  may  well 
 be  supposed,  have  been  entertained  by  modern  schol- 
 ars respecting  the  nature  and  end  of  the  Eleusinian 
 mysteries.  The  following  are  some  of  the  results  of 
 the  inquiries  of  the  learned  and  judicious  Lobeck. 
 {Aglaophamus,  p.  3,  seqq.) — In  the  very  early  ages  of 
 Greece  and  Italy,  and  probably  of  most  countries,  the 
 inhabitants  of  the  various  independent  districts  into 
 which  they  were  divided  had  very  little  communica- 
 tion with  each  other,  and  a  stranger  was  regarded  as 
 little  better  than  an  enemy.  Each  state  had  its  favour- 
 ite deities,  under  whose  especial  protection  it  was  held 
 to  be,  and  these  deities  were  propitiated  by  sacrifices 
 and  ceremonies,  which  were  different  in  different 
 places.  It  is  farther  to  be  recollected,  that  the  Greeks 
 believed  their  gods  to  be  very  little  superior  in  moral 
 qualities  to  themselves,  and  they  feared  that  if  prom- 
 ises of  more  splendid  and  abundant  sacrifices  and  offer- 
 ings were  made  to  them,  they  might  not  be  able  to 
 resist  the  temptation.  As  the  best  mode  of  escaping 
 the  calamity  of  being  deserted  by  their  patrons,  they 
 adopted  the  expedient  of  concealing  their  names,  and 
 of  excluding  strangers  from  their  worship.  Private 
 families,  in  like  manner,  excluded  their  fellow-citizens 
 from  their  family-sacrifices  ;  and  in  those  states  where 
 ancient  aerolites  and  such  like  were  preserved  as  na- 
 tional palladia,  the  sight  of  them  was  restricted  to  the 
 magistrates  and  principal  persons  in  the  state.  (Agla- 
 oph.,  p.  65,  273,  274.)     We  are  to  recollect,  that 
 
ELEUSINIA. 
 
 E  LE 
 
 Eleusis  and  Athens  were  long  independent  of  each 
 other.  {Agiaoph.,  p.  214,  1351. — Miiller,  Dorians, 
 vol.  1,  p.  201.)  The  worship  of  Ceres  and  Proser- 
 pina was  the  national  and  secret  religion  of  the  Eleu- 
 sinians,  from  which  the  Athenians  were  of  course  ex- 
 chidcd,  as  well  as  all  other  Greeks.  But  when  Eleusis 
 was  conquered,  and  the  two  states  coalesced,  the  Athe- 
 nians' became  participators  in  the  worship  of  these 
 deities  ;  which,  however,  remained  so  long  confined  lo 
 them,  as  to  have  given  rise  to  a  proverb  ('Arr«/coi  tu. 
 'E'Aevau'ia),  applied  to  those  who  met  together  in  se- 
 cret for  the  performance  of  any  matter.  {Aglaoph., 
 p.  271.)  Gradually,  with  the  advance  of  knowledge, 
 and  the  decline  of  superstition  and  national  lUiberaiity, 
 admission  to  witness  the  solemn  rites  celebrated  each 
 year  at  Eleusis  was  extended  to  all  Greeks  of  either 
 sex  and  of  every  rank,  provided  they  came  at  the  prop- 
 er time,  had  committed  no  inexpiable  offence,  had  per- 
 formed the  requisite  previous  ceremonies,  and  were 
 introducxd  by  an  Athenian  citizen.  {Aglaoph.,  p.  14, 
 28,  31.)  These  mysteries,  as  they  were  termed,  were 
 performed  with  a  considerable  degree  of  splendour,  at 
 the  charge  of  the  state,  and  under  the  superintendence 
 of  the  magistrates  ;  whence  it  follows,  as  a  necessary 
 consequence,  that  the  rites  could  have  contained  no- 
 thing that  was  grossly  immoral  or  indecent.  (Agla- 
 oph., p.  116.)  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  valid 
 reason  for  supposing,  as  many  do,  that  a  public  dis- 
 course on  the  origin  of  things  and  that  of  the  gods, 
 and  on  other  high  and  important  matters,  was  de- 
 livered by  the  Hierophant,  whose  name  would  rather 
 seem  to  be  derived  from  his  exhibitmg  the  sacred 
 ihings,  ancient  statues  probably  of  the  goddesses, 
 which  were  kept  carefully  covered  up,  and  only  shown 
 on  these  solemn  occasions.  The  delivery  of  a  public 
 discourse  would,  in  fact,  have  been  quite  repugnant  to 
 the  usages  of  the  Greeks  in  their  worship  of  the  gods  ; 
 and  the  evidence  offered  in  support  of  this  supposition 
 .s  extremely  feeble.  But  the  singing  of  sacred  hymns, 
 .n  honour  of  the  goddess,  always  formed  a  part  of  the 
 service.  {Aglaoph.,  p.  63,  193. — Midler,  Prolcgom., 
 p.  250,  scq.)  The  ancient  writers  are  full  of  the  prais- 
 es of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  of  the  advantage  of 
 beino-  initiated,  i.  e.,  admitted  to  participate  in  them, 
 and  of  the  favour  of  the  gods  in  life,  and  the  cheerful 
 hopes  in  death,  which  v/ere  the  consequence  of  it. 
 Hence  occasion  has  been  taken  to  assert,  that  a  sys- 
 tem of  religion  little  inferior  to  pure  Christianity  was 
 taught  in  them.  But  these  hopes,  and  this  tranquillity 
 of  mind  and  favour  of  heaven,  are  easy  to  be  accounted 
 for  without  having  recourse  to  so  absurd  a  supposition. 
 Every  act  performed  in  obedience  to  the  will  of  Heaven 
 is  believed  to  draw  down  its  favour  on  the  performer. 
 The  Mussulman  makes  his  pilgrimage  to  the  Kaaba  at 
 Mecca,  the  Catholic  to  Eoretto,  Compostella,  or  else- 
 where ;  and  each  is  persuaded  that,  by  having  done 
 so,  he  has  secured  the  divine  favour.  {Aglaoph.,  p. 
 70,  scq.)  So  the  Greek  who  was  initiated  at  Eleusis 
 (the  mysteries  of  which  place,  owing  to  the  fame  in 
 which  Athens  stood,  and  the  splendour  and  magnifi- 
 cence with  which  they  were  performed,  eclipsed  all 
 others)  retained  ever  after  a  lively  sense  of  the  hap- 
 piness which  he  had  enjoyed,  when  admitted  to  view 
 the  interior  of  the  illuminated  temple,  and  the  sacred 
 relics  which  it  contained,  v/hen,  to  his  excited  imagi- 
 nation, the  very  gods  themselves  seemed  visibly  to  de- 
 scend from  their  Olympian  abodes,  amid  the  solemn 
 hymns  of  the  officiating  priests.  Hence  there  natu- 
 rally arose  a  persuasion,  that  the  benign  regards  of  the 
 gods  were  bent  upon  him  through  after  life  ;  and,  as  man 
 can  never  divest  himself  of  the  belief  of  his  continued 
 existence  after  death,  a  vivid  hope  of  enjoying  bliss  in 
 the  life  to  come.  It  was  evidently  the  principle  al- 
 ready staled,  of  seeking  to  discover  the  causes  of  re- 
 markable appearances,  which  gave  origin  to  most  of 
 the  ideas  respecting  the  recondite  sense  of  the  actions 
 
 N  N  N 
 
 and  ceremonies  which  took  place  in  the  Eleusinian 
 mysteries.  The  stranger,  dazzled  and  awed  by  his 
 own  conception  of  the  sacrcdness  and  importance  of 
 all  he  beheld,  conceived  that  nothing  there  could  be 
 without  some  mysterious  meaning.  What  this  might 
 be  he  inquired  of  the  ofTiciating  ministers,  who,  as  vari- 
 ous passages  in  Herodotus  and  Pausanias  sliow,  were 
 seldom  without  a  legend  or  Sacred  Accoimt  {iepdc 
 /Iciyof),  as  it  was  called,  to  explain  the  dress  or  cere- 
 mony, which  owed,  perhaps,  its  true  origin  to  the  ca- 
 price or  sportive  humour  of  a  ruder  period.  Or  if  the 
 initiated  person  was  himself  endowed  with  inventive 
 power,  he  explained  the  appearances  according,  in  gen- 
 eral, to  the  system  of  philosophy  which  he  himself  had 
 embraced.  {Aglaoph.,  p.  ISO,  scq.)  It  was  thus  thai 
 Porphyry  conceived  the  liierophant  to  represent  the 
 Platonic  Demiurgus  or  creator  of  the  world  ;  the  torch- 
 bearer  {6{i6ovxo(;)  the  sun  ;  the  altar-man  (6  i-l  pujM). 
 the  moon  ;  the  herald  {Kt/pv^)  Hermes  ;  and  the  other 
 ministers  the  inferior  stars.  These_  fancies  of  priests 
 and  philosophers  have  been  formed  by  modern  writers 
 into  a  complete  system,  and  Sainl-Croix  in  particular 
 describes  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  with  as  much  mi- 
 nuteness as  if  he  had  been  actually  himself  initiated. 
 (Compare  Warburton's  Div.  Legation.— Saiiit-Croxx, 
 Recherches  sur  les  Mysleres,  &c.) — It  is  to  be  ob- 
 served, in  conclusion,  with  respect  to  the  charges  of 
 impiety  and  inmiorality  brought  against  the  Eleusinian 
 mysteries  by  some  Fathers  of  the  Church,  that  this 
 arose  from  their  confounding  them  with  the  Bacchic, 
 Isiac,  Mithraic,  and  other  private  mysteries,  mostly  im- 
 ported from  Asia,  which  were  undoubtedly  liable  to 
 that  imputation.  It  must  always  be  remembered,  that 
 those  of  Eleusi-s  were  public,  and  celebrated  by  the 
 state.  {Aglaoph.,  p.  116,  197,  202,  1263.— il/«//cr. 
 Prolcg.,  p.  248,  scq. — Keightlcy's  Mythology,  p.  181, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Ei,EUsis  or  Eleusin,  I.  an  ancient  city  of  Bosotia, 
 which  stood,  according  to  tradition,  near  Copje  and 
 the  Lake  Copais,  and  was,  together  with  another  an- 
 cient city,  named  Athense,  niundated  by  the  waters  of 
 thatlake.  {Strab.,A07.)  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  re- 
 ports, that  when  Crates  drained  the  waters  which  had 
 overspread  the  plains,  the  city  of  Athence  became  visi- 
 ble {s.  V.  ^A6i]vat).  Compare  Miiller,  Gesch.  Hcllen- 
 isch.  Sl&mme  und  St'ddte,  vol.  1,  p.  57,  seqq. — II.  A 
 city  of  Attica,  equidistant  from  Megara  and  the  Pi- 
 rajus,  and  famed  for  the  celebration  of  the  mysteries 
 of  Ceres.  According  to  some  writers,  it  derived  its 
 name  fronva  hero,  whom  some  affirmed  to  be  the  son 
 of  Mercury,  but  others  of  Ogyges.  {Pausan.,  1,  38. — 
 Compare  Aristid.,  Rhet.  Eleus.,  vol.  1,  p.  257.)  Its 
 origin  is  certainly  of  the  highest  antiquity,  as  it  aj)- 
 pears  to  have  already  existed  in  the  time  of  Cccrops 
 {Strabo,  387),  but  we  are  not  informed  by  whom,  or 
 at  what  period,  the  worship  of  Ceres  was  introduced 
 there.  Eusebius  places  the  b\iilding  of  the  first  tem- 
 ple in  the  reign  of  Pandion  {Chron.,  2,  p.  66);  but, 
 according  to  other  authors,  it  is  more  ancient.  {Clew. 
 Alex.,  Strom.,  1,  p.  381. —  Tatian,  ad  Grccc.,  c.  61.) 
 Celeus  is  said  to  have  been  king  of  Eleusis  when 
 Ceres  first  arrived  there.  {Horn.,  Hymn,  in  Cer.,  96. 
 —Id.  ibid.,  350. — Id.  ibid.,  474.)  Some  etymologists 
 suppose  that  Eleusis  was  so  called,  because  Ceres, 
 after  traversing  the  whole  world  in  pursuit  of  her 
 daughter,  came  here  {D^evOu,  vcnio),  and  ended  her 
 search.  Diodorus  Siculus  (5,  69)  makes  the  name 
 Eleusis  to  have  been  given  this  city,  as  a  monument 
 to  posterity,  that  corn  and  the  art  of  cultivating  it  were 
 brought  from  abroad  into  Attica  ;  or,  to  use  the  words 
 of  the  historian,  "because  the  person  who  brought 
 thither  the  seed  of  corn  came  from  foreign  parts."  At 
 one  period  Eleusis  was  powerful  enough  to  contend 
 with  Athens  for  the  sovereignty  of  Attica.  This  was 
 in  the  time  of  Eumolpus.  The  controversy  was  ended 
 bv  a  treaty,  wherein  it  was  stipulated  that  Eleusis 
 •^  ^  4r>5 
 
ELE 
 
 ELI 
 
 should  yield  to  the  control  of  Athens,  bat  that  the  sa- 
 cred rites  of  Ceres  should  be  celebrated  at  the  former 
 city.  Ceres  and  Tnptolemus  were  both  worshin[<ed 
 here  with  peculiar  solemnity,  and  here  also  was  shown 
 the  Rarius  Campus,  where  Ceres  was  said  to  have 
 first  sown  corn.  (Pausanias,  1,  38  )  Dodwell  ob- 
 serves, that  the  soil,  thoucjh  arid,  still  produces  abini- 
 dant  harvests  (vol.  1,  p.  583).  The  temple  of  Elcusis 
 was  burned  by  the  Persian  army,  in  the  invasion  of 
 Attica  (Herod.,  9,  65),  bnl  was  rebuilt,  under  the  ad- 
 ministration of  Pericles,  by  Ictinns,  the  architect  of 
 the  Parthenon.  (Slraho,  395.— 7^/m/.,  Vit.  Pcriclis.) 
 Strabo  says,  that  the  mystic  cell  of  this  celebrated  edi- 
 fice was  capable  of  containing  as  many  persons  as  a 
 theatre.  A  portico  was  afterward  added  by  Deme- 
 trius Phalereus,  who  employed  for  that  purpose  the 
 architect  Philo.  This  magnificent  structure  was  en- 
 tirely destroyed  by  Alaric  A.D.  396  (Eiinap.,  Vit. 
 Soph.,  p.  75),  and  has  ever  since  remained  in  ruins. 
 Eleusis,  though  so  considerable  and  important  a  place, 
 was  classed  among  the  Attic  demi.  {Straho,  I.  c.)  It 
 belonged  to  the  tribe  Hippolhoontis.  {S/cph.  Byz., 
 s.v.  'E/let'crtV.)  Livy  speaks  of  the  citadel  as  being 
 a  fortress  of  some  strength,  comprised  within  the  sa- 
 cred precincts  of  the  temple  (31,  25. — Compare  Scy- 
 lax,   Pcripliis,   p.   21);    and  Dodwell  observes  (vol. 
 
 1,  p.  584),  that  the  acropolis  was  elevated  upon  a 
 rocky  ridge,  which  rises  to  the  north  of  the  temple  of 
 Ceres. — Eleusis,  now  called  Lessina,  is  an  inconsid- 
 erable village,  inhabited  by  a  few  .\lbanian  Christians. 
 (Chandler's  Travels,  c.  42.)  The  colossal  statue  of 
 the  Elensinian  Ceres,  the  work  of  Phidias,  after  hav- 
 ing suffered  many  mutilations,  was  brought  over  to 
 England  by  Dr.  Clarke  and  Mr.  Cripps  in  1801,  and 
 now  stands  in  the  vestibule  of  the  University  Library 
 at  Cambridge.  The  temple  itself  was  subsequently 
 •cleared  by  SirWm.  Cell.  (Cramer's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  360,  scqq.) 
 
 Eleuthisr^,  a  city  of  Attica,  on  the  road  from 
 Eleusis  to  Plata;a,  which  appears  to  have  once  belono-- 
 ed  to  Bosotia,  but  finally  became  included  within  the 
 limits  of  Attica.  (Strabo,  412.)  Pausanias  reports 
 (1,  3S),  that  the  Eleutherians  were  not  conquered  by 
 the  Athenians,  but  voluntarily  united  themselves  to 
 that  people,  from  their  constant  enmity  to  the  The- 
 bans.  Bacchus  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  this  town. 
 (Diod.  Sic,  3,  65.)  This  ancient  site  probably  cor- 
 responds with  that  now  called  Gyplo  Castro,  where 
 modern  travellers  have  noticed  the  rums  of  a  consid- 
 erable fortress  situated  on  a  steep  rock,  and  apparently 
 designed  to  protect  the  pass  of  Cithsron.  (Dodwell's 
 Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  283. — Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol. 
 
 2,  p.  407.) 
 
 Ei.eutheria,  a  festival  celebrated  at  Plataea  in  hon- 
 our of  .lupiter  Elentherius,  or  the  assertcr  of  libertv, 
 by  delegates  from  almost  all  the  cities  of  Greece.  Its 
 institution  originated  in  this :  after  the  victory  ob- 
 tained by  the  Grecians  under  Pausanias  over  Mardo- 
 nius,  the  Persian  general,  in  the  vicinity  of  Platsa,  an 
 altar  and  statue  were  erected  to  Jupiter  Elentherius, 
 who  had  freed  the  Greeks  from  the  tyranny  of  the  bar- 
 barians. It  was  farther  agreed  upon  in  a  general  as- 
 sembly, by  the  advice  of  Aristides  the  .Athenian,  that 
 deputies  should  be  sent  every  fifth  year  from  the  dif- 
 ferent cities  of  Greece  to  celebrate  the  Eleutheria,  or 
 festival  of  liberty.  The  Platreans  celebrated  also  an 
 anniversary  festival  in  memory  of  those  who  had  lost 
 their  lives  in  that  famous  battle.  The  cclel)ration  was 
 t*hus  :  at  break  of  day  a  procession  was  made  with  a 
 trumpeter  at  the  head,  sounding  a  signal  for  battle. 
 After  him  followed  chariots  loaded  with  myrrh,  far- 
 lands,  and  a  black  bull,  and  certain  free  youno-  men, 
 as  no  signs  of  servility  were  to  appear  during  the  so- 
 lemnity, because  they  in  whose  honour  the  festival 
 was  instituted  had  died  in  the  defence  of  their  coun- 
 try. They  carried  libations  of  wine  and  milk  in  lartre- 
 466 
 
 eared  vessels,  with  jars  of  oil  and  precious  ointments. 
 Last  of  all  appeared  the  chief  magistrate,  who,  though 
 not  permitted  at  other  times  to  touch  iron,  or  wear 
 garments  of  any  colour  but  white,  yet  appeared  clad  in 
 purple,  and,  taking  a  water-pot  out  of  the  city  cham- 
 ber, proceeded  through  the  middle  of  the  town  with 
 a  sword  in  his  hand,  towards  the  sepulchres.  There 
 he  drew  water  from  a  neighbouring  spring,  and  washed 
 and  anointed  the  monuments  ;  after  which  he  sacri- 
 ficed a  bull  upon  a  pile  of  wood,  invoking  Jupiter  and 
 Mercury,  and  inviting  to  the  entertainment  the  souls 
 of  those  happy  heroes  who  had  perished  in  the  defence 
 of  their  country.  After  this,  he  filled  a  bowl  with 
 wine,  saying,  "I  drink  to  those  who  lost  their  lives  in 
 the  defence  of  the  liberties  of  Greece." — There  was 
 also  a  festival  of  the  same  name  observed  by  the  Sa- 
 mians  in  honour  of  the  god  of  Love — Slaves  also, 
 when  they  obtained  their  liberty,  kept  a  holyday,  which 
 they  called  Eleutheria. 
 
 Eleuthero-Cilices,  a  name  given  to  those  of  the 
 Cilicians  who  had  fled  to  the  mountains  when  the 
 Greek  settlers  established  themselves  in  that  country. 
 The  appellation,  which  means  "  Free  Cilicians,"  has 
 reference  to  their  independent  mode  of  life.  The 
 Greeks,  however,  connected  a  fable  with  this.  Accord- 
 ing to  them,  when  Myrina,  queen  of  the  Amazons,  was 
 spreading  her  conquests  over  Asia  Minor,  the  Cdicians 
 were  the  only  people  that  voluntarily  surrendered  to 
 her,  and  hence  they  were  allowed  to  retain  their  free- 
 dom. (Diod.  Sic,  3,  55.)  Xenophon  also  makes  men- 
 tion of  the  Cilician  mountaineers  (Anah.,  1,  2),  and  of 
 their  having  cut  to  pieces  some  Greek  troops,  a  part 
 of  those  in  the  army  of  Cyrus,  who  had  lost  their  way. 
 Cicero  came  in  contact  with  them  during  his  govern- 
 ment in  Cilicia,  and  partially  reduced  them  under  the 
 Roman  sway,  but  they  soon  after  became  as  free  and 
 independent  as  ever.  (Ep.  ad  Fam.,  15,  4  ;  ad  Att., 
 5,  20.) 
 
 Eleuthero-Lacones,  a  title  conferred  by  Augustus 
 on  a  considerable  part  of  the  Laconian  nation,  consist- 
 ing of  several  maritime  towns,  for  the  zeal  which  the 
 inhabitants  had  early  testified  in  favour  of  the  Romans. 
 Enfranchisement  and  other  privileges  accompanied  the 
 title.     (Slraho,  2'3Q.—Pausan.,  3^21.) 
 
 Eleutheropolis,  a  city  of  Palestine,  placed  by  the 
 Itin.  Ant.  24  miles  northeast  from  Ascalon,  and  20 
 miles  southwest  from  Jerusalem.  It  was  founded  in 
 the  third  century,  but  by  whom  is  uncertain.  (Ain7n. 
 MarcelL,  23,  1.)  Hence,  owing  to  its  late  foundation, 
 no  mention  of  it  occurs  in  Ptolemy  or  Josephus.  In 
 the  days  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  however,  it  was  an 
 im])ortant  and  flourishing  city,  and  these  writers  esti- 
 mate the  distances  and  positions  of  places  from  this 
 and  ^lia  or  Jerusalem.  St.  Epiphanius  was  born  here. 
 (Sozom.,  6,  32. — Compare  Ccllarius,  Geogr.  Ant., 
 vol.  1,  p.  490.) 
 
 Eleutho,  a  surname  of  Lucina,  from  her  coming, 
 when  invoked,  to  the  aid  of  women  in  labour.  (Pind., 
 01.,  6,  72  ) 
 
 Elicius,  a  surname  of  Ju[)iter,  worshipped  on  Mount 
 Aventine.  The  Romans  gave  him  this  name,  accord- 
 ing to  Ovid  (Fast.,  3,  328),  because  they  believed  that 
 they  could,  by  a  set  form  of  words,  draw  him  down 
 (eliccrc)  from  the  sky,  to  inform  them  how  to  e.xpi- 
 ate  prodigies,  &c.  M.  Salverte,  in  his  curious  and 
 learned  work  on  the  Occult  Sciences  of  the  Ancients 
 (Des  Sciences  Occultcs,  ou  Essai  sur  la  Magie,  &c., 
 Paris,  1829,  2  vols.  8vo),  takes  up  this  subject  of  Ju- 
 piter Elicius,  and  seeks  to  connect  it  with  a  knowledge 
 of  the  art  of  drawing  down  the  electric  fluid  from  the 
 clouds.  Medals  and  traditions  are  the  grounds  on 
 which  he  rests.  "  M.  La  Boessiere,"  he  states,  "  men- 
 tions several  medals  which  appear  to  have  a  reference 
 to  this  subject.  One  described  by  M.  Duchoul  repre- 
 sents the  temple  of  Juno,  the  goddess  of  the  air :  the 
 roof  which  covers  it  is  armed  with  pointed  rods.    An- 
 
ELICIUS. 
 
 ELI 
 
 other,  describcJ  and  engraved  by  Pellerin,  bears  the 
 legend  Jupiter  Elicius  ;  the  god  appears  with  the  light- 
 ning in  his  hand  ;  beneath  is  a  man  guiding  a  winged 
 stag :  but  we  must  observe,  that  the  authenticity  of 
 this  medal  is  suspected.  Finally,  other  medals  cited 
 by  Duchoul,  in  his  work  on  the  Religion  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, present  the  exergue  ;  XV.  Vii'i  Sacris  Faci- 
 undis  ;  and  bear  a  fish  covered  with  points  placed  on 
 a  globe  or  on  a  patera.  M.  la  Boessiere  thinks,  that 
 a  hsh  or  a  globe,  thus  armed  with  points,  was  the  con- 
 ductor employed  by  Nuina  to  withdraw  from  the  clouds 
 the  electric  fire.  And,  comparing  the  figure  of  this 
 globe  with  that  of  a  head  covered  with  erect  hair,  he 
 gives  an  ingenious  and  plausible  e.xplanation  of  the 
 singular  dialogue  between  Numa  and  Jupiter,  related 
 by  Valerius  Antias,  and  ridiculed  by  Arnobius  (lib.  5.), 
 probably  without  its  being  understood  by  either.— The 
 history  of  the  physical  attainments  of  Numa  deserves 
 particular  examination.  At  a  period  when  lightning 
 was  occasioning  continual  injury,  Numa,  instructed  by 
 the  nymph  Egeria,  sought  a  method  of  appeasing  the 
 lightning  (fulmcn  piare)  ;  that  is  to  say,  in  plain  lan- 
 guage, a  way  of  rendering  this  meteor  less  destructive. 
 He  succeeded  in  intoxicating  Faunus  and  Picus,  whose 
 names  in  this  place  probably  denote  only  the  priests  of 
 these  Etruscan  divinities  ;  he  learned  from  them  the 
 secret  of  making,  without  any  danger,  the  thundering 
 Jupiter  descend  upon  earth,  and  immediately  put  it  in 
 execution.  Since  that  period,  Jupiter  Elicius,  or  Jupiter 
 who  is  made  to  descend,  was  adored  in  Rome.  Here 
 the  veil  of  the  mystery  is  transparent :  to  render  the 
 lightning  less  injurious,  to  make  it,  without  danger,  de- 
 scend from  the  bosom  of  the  clouds  :  and  the  effect 
 and  the  end  are  common  to  the  beautiful  discovery  of 
 Franklin,  and  to  that  religious  experiment  which  Nu- 
 ma frequently  repeated  with  success.  Tullus  Hostil- 
 ius  was  less  fortunate.  'It  is  related,'  says  Livy, 
 '  that  this  prince,  in  searching  the  memoirs  left  by  Nu- 
 ma, found  among  them  some  instructions  relative  to 
 the  secret  sacrifices  offered  to  Jupiter  Elicius.  He  at- 
 tempted to  repeat  them  ;  but  in  the  preparations  or  in 
 the  celebration  he  deviated  from  the  sacred  rite.  .  .  . 
 Exposed  to  the  anger  of  Jupiter,  evoked  by  a  defective 
 ceremony  {soUieitati  prava  religione),  he  was  struck 
 by  the  lightning  and  burned,  together  with  his  palace' 
 (1,  31.— Compare  Plin.,  2,  53.— /t^,  38,  4).  An  an- 
 cient annalist  quoted  by  Pliny,  expresses  himself  in  a 
 more  explicit  manner,  and  justifies  the  liberty  we  take 
 in  departing  from  the  sense  commonly  given  to  the 
 sentences  of  Livy  by  his  translators.  Guided  by  the 
 books  of  Numa,  Tullus  undertook  to  evoke  Jupiter  by 
 the  aid  of  the  same  ceremonies  which  his  predecessors 
 had  employed.  Having  departed  from  the  prescribed 
 rite,  he  was  struck  by  the  lightning  and  perished.  (Lu- 
 cius Piso,  ap.  Plin.,  28,  2.)  For  the  words  ri/es  and 
 ccrcmotiies,  substitute  the  words  phi/sical  process,  and 
 we  shall  perceive  that  the  fate  of  Tullus  was  that  of 
 Professor  Reichmann.  In  1753  this  learned  man  was 
 killed  by  the  lightning,  when  repeating  too  incautiously 
 the  experiments  of  Franklin."  {Salverte,  vol.  2,  p. 
 154.)  The  art  thus  veiled  under  the  name  of  rites  of 
 Jupiter  Elicius,  and  ZeCf  KaratBuTTjc,  M.  Salverte  con- 
 siders as  having  been  employed  by  the  various  imita- 
 tors of  thunder.  Going  back  to  the  age  of  Prometheus, 
 it  affords  an  explanation  of  the  fable  of  Salmoneus  ; 
 it  was  employed  by  Zoroaster  to  kindle  the  sacred  fire 
 [Dioji  Chrijsost.,  Oral.  Borysth.),  and  perform,  in  the 
 initiation  of  his  followers,  somi  ct  ihe  miracles,  of 
 which  a  traditionary  belief  still  exists  in  the  East.  It 
 may  be  inferred,  that  in  the  time  of  Ctesias  the  same 
 art  was  known  in  India,  and  that  the  Jews  were  not  un- 
 acquainted with  its  effects  would  appear  from  some  re- 
 marks of  Michaelis  cited  by  M.  Salverte.  He  remarks, 
 "  1.  That  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  litrht- 
 ning  ever  struck  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  durincr  the 
 lapse  of  a  thousand  years.     2.  That,  according  to  the 
 
 account  of  .Tosephus  {Bell.  Jud.,  5,  14),  a  forest  of 
 spikes  with  golden  or  gilt  points,  and  very  sharp,  cov- 
 ered the  roof  of  this  temple  ;  a  remarkable  feature  of 
 resemblance  with  the  temple  of  Juno  represented  or. 
 the  Roman  medals.  3.  That  this  roof  communicated 
 with  the  caverns  in  the  hill  of  the  temple,  by  means 
 of  metallic  tubes,  placed  in  connexion  with  the  thick 
 gilding  that  covered  the  whole  exterior  of  the  building. 
 The  points  of  the  spikes  there  necessarily  produced  the 
 
 effect  of  lightning-rods How  are  we  to  suppose 
 
 that  it  was  only  by  chance  they  discharged  so  impor- 
 tant a  function  ;  that  the  advantage  received  from  it  had 
 not  been  calculated  ;  that  the  spikes  were  erected  in 
 such  great  numbers  only  to  prevent  the  birds  from  lodo-- 
 ing  upon  and  defiling  the  roof  of  the  temple '!  Yet 
 this  is  the  sole  utility  which  the  historian  Josephus  at- 
 tributes to  them.  His  ignorance  is  an  additional  proof 
 of  the  facility  with  which  the  higher  branches  of  knowl- 
 edge must  be  lost,  so  long  as  men,  instead  of  formino' 
 them  into  an  organized  system  of  science,  sought  only 
 an  empirical  art  of  operating  wonders."  {Salverte, 
 vol.  2,  p.  160. — Foreign  Quarterly,  No.  13,  p.  449, 
 scfjq.) 
 
 Em.<lci,  a  name  g'iven  to  the  school  of  philosophy 
 established  by  Phajdo  of  Elis.  {Laert.,  2,  106.)  It 
 was  instituted  after  the  Socratic  model  by  Phaodo  of 
 Elis,  and  was  continued  by  Plistanus  an  Elian,  and 
 afterward  by  Menedemus  of  Eretria.  {Enfield's  His- 
 tory of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  204.) 
 
 ELi.ME.i  or  Elimiotis,  a  region  of  iMacedonia,  to 
 the  east  of  Stymphalia.  It  was  at  one  time  independ- 
 ent, but  was  afterward  conquered  by  the  kings  of  Ma- 
 cedonia, and  finally  included  by  the  Romans  in  the 
 fourth  division  of  that  province.  {Thucyd.,  2,  99. — 
 Liv.,  45,  30.)  Though  a  mountainous  and  barren  tract, 
 Elimea  must  have  been  a  very  important  acquisition  to 
 the  kings  of  Macedonia,  from  its  situation  with  regard 
 to  Epirus  and  Thessaly,  there  being  several  passages 
 leading  directly  into  those  provinces  from  Elimea. 
 The  mountains  which  separated  Elimea  from  Thessaly 
 were  the  Cambunii  Monies  of  Livy  (43,  53),  which 
 cross  nearly  at  right  angles  the  chain  of  Pindus  to  the 
 west,  and  that  of  Olympus  to  the  east.  Ptolemy  has 
 assigned  to  the  Elimiots  a  maritime  situation  on  the 
 coast  of  lUyria,  which  cannot  be  correct  (p.  81),  but 
 elsewhere  he  places  them  in  the  interior  of  Macedonia 
 (p.  83),  and  writes  the  name  Elymiots.  According  to 
 Stephanus  of  Byzantium,  there  was  a  town  named  Eli- 
 mea or  Elimeum,  which  tradition  reported  to  have  been 
 founded  by  Elymas,  a  Tyrrhenian  chief  (s.  v.  'FAipdaj. 
 Ptolemy  calls  it  Elyma.  Livy  probably  alludes  to  this 
 city  in  his  account  of  the  expedition  undertaken  by  Per- 
 seus against  Stratus,  when  that  prince  assembled  his 
 forces  and  reviewed  them  at  Elymca  (43,  21).  This 
 ca[)ital  of  Elimiotis  stood,  perhaps,  on  the  Haliacmon, 
 not  far  from  Greuno.  {Cramer'' s  Ancient  Greece,  vol. 
 1,  p.  200,  seqq.) 
 
 Elis,  I.  a  district  of  thf  Peloponnesus,  lying  west 
 of  Arcadia.  At  the  period  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
 the  name  of  Elis  was  applied  to  the  whole  of  that 
 northwestern  portion  of  the  peninsula  situated  between 
 the  rivers  Larissus  and  Neda,  which  served  to  separate 
 it  from  Achaia  and  Messcnia.  {Strabo,  336.)  But 
 in  earlier  times,  this  tract  of  country  was  divided  into 
 several  districts  or  principalities,  each  occupied  by  a 
 separate  clan  or  people.  Of  these  the  Caucones  were 
 probably  the  most  ancient,  and  also  the  most  widely 
 disseminated,  since  we  find  them  occupying  both  ex- 
 tremities of  the  province,  and  extending  even  into 
 Achaia.  {Strabo,  342.)  Strabo  affirms,  that,  accord- 
 ing to  some  authors,  the  whole  of  Elis  once  bore  the 
 name  of  Cauconia.  Next  to  these  were  the  Epei,  who 
 are  placed  by  Homer  {Od.,  15,  296)  in  the  northern 
 part  of  the  province,  and  next  to  Achaia.  Pausanias 
 who  seems  to  have  regarded  them  as  indigenous,  de 
 rives  their  name  from  Epeus,  son  of  Endymion,  oi.  , 
 
 467 
 
ELIS. 
 
 ELIS. 
 
 of  the  earliest  sovereigns  of  the  country  ;  on  his  death 
 his  brother  ^tolus  succeeded  to  his  crown  ;  but,  as 
 he  was  shortly  after  forced  to  fly  his  country  for  an  in- 
 voluntary crime,  the  sovereignly  devolved  on  Elcus, 
 descended  also  from  Endymion,  who  gave  his  name 
 to  the  Elean  people  (5,  1).  The  former  appellation, 
 however,  still  continued  to  predominate,  as  we  may 
 infer  from  the  poems  of  Homer,  who  mentions  Elis  as 
 a  district  of  the  Epci,  without  ever  naming  the  Elei. 
 Struho  also  states,  that  Elis  did  not  become  the  capi- 
 tal of  the  country  till  after  the  Persian  war,  at  which 
 period  it  was  formed  into  a  city  by  the  union  of  sev- 
 eral smaller  towns.  Prior  to  the  siege  of  Troy,  the 
 Epei  are  said  to  have  been  greatly  reduced  by  their 
 wars  wiih  Hercules,  who  conquered  Augeas  their  king, 
 and  the  Pylians  commanded  by  Nestor.  They  sub- 
 sequently, however,  acquired  a  great  accession  of 
 strength  by  the  influx  of  a  large  colony  from  ^tolia, 
 under  the  conduct  of  O.xylus,  and  their  numbers  were 
 farther  increased  by  a  considerable  detachment  of  the 
 Dorians  and  Heraclidae.  (Sirabo,  354. — Pausan.,  5, 
 3.)  Iphitus,  descended  from  Oxylus,  and  a  contem- 
 porary of  Lycurgus,  re-established  the  Olympic  games, 
 which,  though  instituted,  as  it  was  said,  by  Hercules, 
 had  been  interrupted  for  several  years.  (Pausan.,  5, 
 4.)  The  Pisataj  having  remained  masters  of  Olympia 
 from  the  first  celebration  of  the  festival,  long  disputed 
 its  possession  with  the  Eleans,  but  they  were  iinallv 
 conquered,  when  the  temple  and  presidency  of  the 
 games  fell  into  the  hands  of  their  rivals.  The  pre- 
 ponderance obtained  by  the  latter  is  chiefly  attribu- 
 table to  the  assistance  they  derived  from  Sparta,  in 
 return  for  the  aid  afforded  to  that  power  in  the  Mes- 
 senian  war.  From  this  period  we  may  date  the  as- 
 cendency of  Elis  over  all  the  other  surrounding  districts 
 hitherto  independent.  It  now  comprised  not  only  the 
 countiy  of  the  Epei  and  Caucones,  which  might  be 
 termed  Elis  Proper,  but  the  territories  of  Pisa  and 
 Olympia,  forming  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Pelops,  and 
 the  whole  of  Triphylia,  wdiich,  according  to  Strabo's 
 view  of  the  Homeric  geography,  constituted  the  great- 
 er part  of  Nestor's  dominions.  {Straho,  355.)  The 
 Eleans  were  present  in  all  the  engagements  fought 
 at'ainst  the  Persians,  and,  in  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
 zealously  adhered  to  the  Spartan  confederacy,  until  the 
 conclusion  of  the  treaty  after  the  battle  of  Amphipolis, 
 when  an  open  rupture  took  place  between  this  people 
 and  the  Laccdsemonians,  in  consequence  of  protection 
 and  countenance  afforded  by  the  latter  to  the  inhabitants 
 of  Lepra3um,  who  had  revolted  from  them.  (ThucyJ., 
 5,  31.)  Such  was  the  resentment  of  the  Eleans  on 
 ♦his  occasion,  that  they  imposed  a  heavy  fine  on  the 
 Lacedsemonians,  and  prohibited  their  taking  part  in  the 
 Olympic  games.  They  also  made  war  upon  Sparta, 
 in  conjunction  with  the  Mantineans,  Argives,  and 
 Athenians  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  unsuccessful 
 battle  of  Mantinea  that  this  confederacy  was  dissolved. 
 {Thucyd.,  5,  81.)  The  Lacedsemonians,  on  the  other 
 hand,  avenged  those  injuries  by  frequent  incursions 
 into  the  territory  of  Elis,  the  fertility  of  which  present- 
 ed an  alluring  prospect  of  booty  to  an  invading  army. 
 They  were  iDcaten,  however,  at  Olympia  under  the 
 command  of  Agis  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  3,  2,  16. — Pau- 
 sa?i.,  5,  4)  ;  and  again  repulsed  before  the  city  of  Elis, 
 whither  they  had  advanced  under  Pausanias,  in  the  3d 
 vear  of  the  94th  Olympiad.  (Diod.  Sic,  14,  17.)  At 
 ien'fth  the  Eleans,  wearied  with  the  continual  incur- 
 sions to  which  their  country  was  exposed,  since  it  fur- 
 nished entire  subsistence  to  the  army  of  the  enemy, 
 gladly  sued  for  peace,  and  renewed  their  ancient  alli- 
 ance with  Sparta.  {Xe7i.,  Hist.  Gr.,  3,  2. — Pausan., 
 I  r.)  Not  long  after,  however,  we  find  them  again  in 
 arms,  together  with  the  Ba?otians  and  Argives,  against 
 that  povvcr.  {Xcn.,  Hist.  Gr.,  7,  2.)  At  the  battle 
 of  Mantinea,  they  once  more  fought  under  the  Spartan 
 Danners,  jealousy  of  the  rising  ascendency  obtained  bv 
 468 
 
 the  Thebans  having  led  them  to  abandon  their  inter- 
 ests. {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  7,  5,  1.)  Pausanias  writes, 
 that  when  Philip  acquired  the  dominion  of  Greece, 
 the  Eleans,  who  had  sufTcred  much  from  civil  dissen- 
 sions, joined  the  Macedonian  alliance,  but  refused  to 
 fight  against  the  Athenians  and  Thebans  at  Chaeronea, 
 and  on  the  death  of  Alexander  they  united  their  arms 
 with  those  of  the  other  confederates,  who  carried  on 
 the  war  of  Lamia  against  Antipater  and  the  other  com- 
 manders of  the  Macedonian  forces.  Some  years  after, 
 Aristotimus,  son  of  Damaretus,  through  the  assistance 
 of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  usurped  the  sovereignty  of  Elis; 
 but  a  conspiracy  having  been  formed  against  him,  he 
 was  slain  at  the  altar  of  Jupiter  Servator,  whither  he 
 had  fled  for  refuge.  {Pausan.,  5, 4, 5.)  During  the  So- 
 cial war,  the  Eleans  were  the  firmest  allies  of  the  .lEto- 
 lians  in  the  Peloponnesus  ;  and  though  they  were  on 
 more  than  one  occasion  basely  deserted  by  that  people, 
 and  sustained  heavy  losses  in  the  field,  as  well  as  from 
 the  devastatipn  of  their  territory  and  the  capture  of 
 their  towns,  they  could  not  be  induced  to  desert  their 
 cause  and  join  the  Achoean  league.  {Polyh  ,4:,  5,  scijq. 
 —Id.,  4,  59,  scqq.—Id.,  4,  71,  scqq. — Id.,  5,  17,  scqq.) 
 These  events,  described  by  Polybius,  are  the  last  in 
 wliich  the  Eleans  are  mentioned  as  an  independent 
 people  :  for  though  they  do  not  appear  to  have  taken 
 any  part  in  the  Achaean  war,  they  were  included  with 
 the  rest  of  the  Peloponnesus  in  the  general  decree,  by 
 which  the  whole  of  Greece  was  annexed  to  the  Ro- 
 man empire. — Elis  was  by  far  the  most  fertile  and  pop- 
 ulous district  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  its  inhabitants 
 are  described  as  fond  of  agriculture  and  rural  pursuits. 
 {Poli/b.,  4,  73.)  It  is  remarked  by  Pausanias  (5,  5), 
 that  Elis  was  the  only  part  of  Greece  in  which  the  bys- 
 sus  was  known  to  grow.  Another  extraordinary  cir- 
 cumstance relative  to  this  province  was,  that  no  mules 
 were  engendered  in  it,  though  they  abounded  in  the 
 adjoining  countries.  This  phenomenon  had  been  no- 
 ticed before  by  Herodotus  (4,  30),  who  reports  that  it 
 was  looked  upon  as  resulting  from  the  curse  of  Heav- 
 en.— Elis  was  divided  into  three  districts,  Elis  Proper, 
 Pisatis,  and  Triphylia.  The  first  of  these  occupied 
 the  northern  section  of  the  country,  and  has  already 
 been  alluded  to  :  the  second,  or  Pisatis,  was  that  part 
 of  the  Elean  territory  through  which  flowed  the  Alphe- 
 us  after  its  junction  with  the  Erymanthus.  It  derived 
 its  name  from  the  citv  of  Pisa  :  the  third,  or  Triphylia, 
 formed  the  southern  division.  Some  authors  have  de- 
 rived the  name  of  this  portion  of  Elis  from  Triphylus, 
 an  Arcadian  prince.  {Polyb.,  4,  77.)  But  others  as- 
 cribe it  with  more  probability  to  the  circumstance  of 
 its  inhabitants  having  sprung  from  three  different  na- 
 tions {rpia  (fivXa),  the  Epei,  the  Minyte  or  Arcadians, 
 and  the  Eleans.  {Sirabo,  337. — Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  77,  seqq.)—U.  The  capital  of  Elis, 
 situated,  as  we  learn  from  Strabo,  on  the  Peneus,  at 
 the  distance  of  120  stadia  from  the  sea.  It  was,  like 
 many  other  towns  of  Greece,  at  first  composed  of  sev- 
 eral detached  villages,  which,  being  united  after  the 
 Persian  war,  formed  one  considerable  city.  It  always, 
 however,  remained  without  walls ;  as  it  was  deemed 
 sacred,  and  under  the  immediate  protection  of  the  god 
 whose  festival  was  there  solemnized.  Hence,  in  early 
 times,  according  to  Ephorus,  those  troops  which  were 
 obliged  to  traverse  this  country  delivered  up  their  arms 
 on  entering  it,  and  received  them  again  upon  quitting  the 
 frontier.  {Ap.  Strabo,  357.  —  Compare  Xen.,  Hist. 
 Gr.,  3,  2,  20.)  But  this  primitive  state  of  things  was 
 not  of  long  duration  :  for  we  subsequently  find  the 
 Elean  territory  as  little  respected  as  any  other  Grecian 
 state  by  the  powers  at  war  with  that  republic  ;  still  the 
 peace  and  tranquillity  thus  enjoyed  for  a  time  by  the 
 Eleans,  together  with  the  vast  concourse  of  persons 
 attracted  by  the  Olympic  games,  greatly  contributed 
 to  the  prosperity  and  opulence  of  their  citv.  The  re- 
 mains of  Elis  are  now  called  Palccopoli,  but  they  are 
 
E  M  0 
 
 EMP 
 
 inconsiderable,  neither  are  tliey  interesting  from  their 
 state  of  preservation.  (Compare  the  remarks  of  Chan- 
 dler, Travels,  vol.  2,  ch.  7-1. — Dodwcll,  vol.  2,  p.  316. 
 —  Gell,  Ihn.  of  the  Morea,  p.  32. — Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  88,  scqq) 
 
 Elissa,  another  name  for  Dido.     {Vid.  Dido.) 
 
 Ellopi.\,  a  district  of  Eubcea,  in  the  northern  part 
 of  the  island,  in  which  Histiaea  was  situated.  Accord- 
 ing to  some.  It  derived  its  name  from  Ellops,  a  son  of 
 Ion,  who  settled  here.     {Slrab.,  445.) 
 
 Elpinice,  a  daughter  of  Miltiades.  (Vid.  Callias 
 and  Cimon.) 
 
 Elym.Iis,  a  province  of  Persia,  lying  to  the  south 
 of  Media,  and  forming  the  northern  part  of  the  larger 
 district  of  Susiana.  It  derived  its  name  from  the  Ely- 
 maei.  These  were  originally  seated  in  the  north  {Po- 
 lyb.,  5,  44),  but  in  process  of  time  spread  themselves 
 over  all  the  rest  of  Susiana,  to  the  shores  of  the  Per- 
 sian Gulf.  {Strab.,  Epit.,  11,  p.  1264,  ed.  Oxon.) 
 Elymais,  the  metropolis  of  the  province,  was  famed 
 for  a  rich  temple,  which  Antiochus  Epiphanes  attempt- 
 ed to  plunder;  he  was  beaten  off,  however,  by  the  in- 
 habitants. The  temple  was  afterward  plundered  by 
 one  of  the  Parthian  kings,  who  found  in  it,  according 
 to  Strabo,  10,000  talents.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  5, 
 pt.  2,  p.  158  ) 
 
 Elymiotis,  a  district  of  Macedonia,  in  the  south- 
 west, bordering  on  Thessaly  and  Epirus. 
 
 Elysii  C.iMPi,  the  abode  of  the  blessed  in  another 
 world,  where  they  enjoyed  all  manner  of  the  ))urest 
 pleasures.  In  the  Homeric  mythology,  the  Elysian 
 fields  lay  on  the  western  margin  of  the  earth,  by  the 
 stream  of  Oceanus,  and  to  them  the  mortal  relatives  of 
 the  king  of  the  gods  were  transported,  without  tasting 
 of  death,  to  enjoy  an  immortality  of  bliss.  {Od.,  4, 
 563,  seqq.)  In  the  time  of  Hesiod,  the  Elysian  Plains 
 had  become  the  Isles  of  the  Blessed,  in  the  Western 
 Ocean.  {Op.  et  D  ,  169.)  Pindar,  who  has  left  a 
 glowing  description  of  Elysium,  appears  to  reduce  the 
 number  of  these  happy  islands  to  one.  {01.,  2,  129.) 
 At  a  later  day,  a  change  of  religious  ideas  ensued, 
 brought  about  by  the  increase  of  geographical  knowl- 
 edge, and  Elysium  was  moved  down  to  the  lower 
 world,  as  the  place  of  reward  for  the  good.  The  po- 
 etical conceptions  respecting  Elysium  made  it  a  region 
 olessed  with  perpetual  spring,  clothed  with  continual 
 verdure,  enamelled  with  flowers,  shaded  by  pleasant 
 groves,  and  refreshed  by  never-failing  fountains.  Here 
 the  righteous  lived  in  perfect  felicity,  communing  with 
 each  other,  bathed  in  a  flood  of  light  proceeding  from 
 their  own  sun,  and  the  sky  at  eve  being  lighted  up 
 by  their  own  constellations  :  "  solemque  suum,  sua 
 sidcra  norunt."  {Virg.,  JEn.,  6,  541.)  Their  em- 
 ployments below  resembled  those  on  earth,  and  what- 
 ever had  warmly  engaged  their  attention  in  the  upper 
 world,  continued  to  be  a  source  of  virtuous  enjoyment 
 in  the  world  below.     {Virg  ,  JEn.,  6,  653.) 
 
 Em.^thia,  the  more  ancient  name  of  Macedonia. 
 Polybius  {fragm.,  24,  8)  and  Livy  (40,  3)  expressly 
 assert,  however,  that  Emathia  was  originally  called  Pae- 
 oiiia,  though  Homer  certainly  mentions  them  as  two 
 distinct  countries.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol. 
 1,  p.  226.) 
 
 Emehita  Augusta,  a  town  of  Lusitania,  below  Nor- 
 ba  Caesarea,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Anas.  It  is 
 now  Merida.     {Plin.,  9,- 41.) 
 
 Emesa,  an  ancient  city  of  Syria,  situate  near  the 
 eastern  bank  of  the  Orontes,  southeast  of  Epiphania. 
 It  was  the  birthi)lace  of  the  Emperor  Heliogabaliis,  and 
 contained  a  famous  temple  of  the  Sun,  in  which  Helio- 
 gabalus  was  priest.  It  is  now  called  Hems,  and  is 
 merely  a  large  ruinous  town,  containing  about  2000  in- 
 habitants, though  formerly  a  strong  and  populous  city. 
 {Amm.  MarcelL,  26,  18.) 
 
 E.MODi  MoNTEs,  part  of  a  chain  of  mountains  in 
 Asia.     Pliny  (6,  16)  states,  that  the  Fmo(a  Montes, 
 
 and  those  of  Imaus,  Paropamisus,  and  Caucasus  were 
 connected  together.  That  part  of  the  chain  which  Al- 
 exander crossed  in  order  to  invade  Bactriana  was  call- 
 ed Paropamisus,  the  more  easterly  continuation  of  the 
 range  was  termed  Emodi  Montes,  and  its  still  farther 
 continuation,  even  to  the  Eastern  Ocean,  was  styled 
 Imaus.     {Vid.  Imaus.) 
 
 Empedocles,  a  native  of  Agrigentum  in  Sicily,  who 
 flourished  about  450  B.C.  He  was  distinguished  not 
 only  as  a  philosopher,  but  also  for  his  knowledge  of 
 natural  history  and  medicine,  and  as  a  poet  and  states- 
 man. After  the  death  of  his  father  Aleto,  who  was  a 
 wealthy  citizen  of  Agrigentum,  he  acquired  a  great 
 weight  among  his  fellow-citizens  by  espousing  the  pop 
 ular  party  and  favouring  democratic  measures.  Hiscou 
 sequence  in  the  state  became  at  length  so  great,  that 
 he  ventured  to  assume  several  of  the  distinctions  of 
 rovalty,  particularly  a  purple  robe,  a  golden  girdle,  a 
 Delphic  crown,  and  a  train  of  attendants,  always  re- 
 taining a  grave  and  commanding  aspect.  The  skill 
 which  he  possessed  in  medicine  and  natural  philosophy 
 enabled  him  to  perform  many  wonders,  which  he  pass- 
 ed upon  the  superstitious  and  credulous  multitude  for 
 miracles.  He  pretended  to  drive  away  noxious  winds 
 from  his  country,  and  thereby  put  a  stop  to  epidemic 
 diseases.  He  is  said  to  have  checked,  by  the  power 
 of  music,  the  madness  of  a  young  man  who  was  threat- 
 ening his  enemy  with  instant  death  ;  to  have  restored 
 a  woman  to  life  who  had  lain  breathless  thirty  days  ; 
 and  to  have  done  many  other  things,  equally  astonish- 
 ing, after  the  manner  of  Pythagoras.  On  account  of 
 all  this,  he  was  an  object  of  universal  admiration,  so 
 that  when  he  came  to  the  Olympic  games  the  eves  of 
 all  the  people  were  fixed  upon  hirn.  Besides  medical 
 skill,  Empedocles  possessed  poetical  talents.  The 
 fragments  of  his  verses  are  scattered  throughout  the 
 ancient  writers,  and  Fabricius  is  of  opinion  that  he 
 was  the  real  author  of  that  ancient  fragment  which 
 bears  the  name  of  the  "  Golden  Verses  of  Pythagoras." 
 Gorgias  of  Leontini,  the  well-known  orator,  was  his  pu- 
 pil, whence  it  may  seem  reasonable  to  infer,  that  Em- 
 pedocles was  also  no  inconsiderable  master  of  the  art 
 of  eloquence.  According  to  the  common  account,  he 
 threw  himself  into  the  burning  crater  of  VEtna,  in  Ol- 
 der that,  the  manner  of  his  death  not  being  known, 
 he  might  afterward  pass  for  a  god  ;  but  the  secret  was 
 discovered  by  means  of  one  of  his  brazen  sandals, 
 which  was  thrown  out  from  the  mountain  in  a  subse- 
 quent eruption  of  the  volcano.  This  story  is  rejected, 
 however,  as  fictitious  by  Strabo  and  other  judicious 
 writers.  The  truth  probably  was,  as  Timceus  relates, 
 that,  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  Empedocles  went 
 into  Greece  and  never  returned,  whence  the  exact 
 time  and  manner  of  his  death  remain  unknowm.  Ac- 
 cording to  Aristotle,  he  died  at  60  years  of  age. — His 
 masters  in  philosophy  are  variously  given.  By  some, 
 like  the  Eleats  generally,  he  is  called  a  Pythagorean, 
 in  consequence  of  a  resemblance  of  doctrine  in  a  few 
 unessential  points.  But  the  principles  of  his  theory 
 evidently  show  that  he  belongs  to  the  Eleatic  school, 
 though  the  statement  which  makes  him  a  disciple  of 
 Parmenides  rests  apparently  upon  no  better  founda- 
 tion than  a  comparison  of  their  systems  :  as,  in  like 
 manner,  the  common  employment  of  the  mechanical 
 physiology  has  led  to  an  opinion  that  he  was  a  hearer 
 of  his  contemporary  Anaxagoras.  Empedocles  taught, 
 that  originally  All  was  one  :  God  eternal  and  at  rest ; 
 a  sphere  and  a  mixture  {a(paIpog,  fiijua),  without  a 
 vacuum,  in  which  the  elements  of  things  were  held  to- 
 gether in  undistinguishable  confusion  by  love  {(bilia), 
 the  primal  force  which  unites  the  like  to  like.  In  a 
 portion  of  this  whole,  however,  or,  as  he  expresses  it, 
 in  the  members  of  the  Deity,  strife  {vdKO<:),  the  force 
 which  binds  like  to  unlike,  prevailed,  and  gave  the  ele- 
 ments a  tendency  to  separate  themselves,  whereby  the 
 first  become  perceptible  as  such,  although  the  separation 
 '        ^  469 
 
END 
 
 ENN 
 
 was  not  so  complete  but  that  each  contained  portions 
 of  the  others.  Hence  arose  the  inultiphcity  of  things. 
 By  the  vivifying  counteraction  of  love,  organic  life  was 
 produced,  not,  however,  so  perfect  and  so  full  of  design 
 as  it  now  appears ;  but,  at  first,  single  limbs,  then  ir- 
 regular coinliinalions,  till  ultimately  they  received  their 
 present  adjustments  and  perfection.  But,  as  the  forces 
 of  love  and  hate  are  constantly  acting  uj)on  each  other 
 for  generation  or  destruction,  the  present  condition  of 
 things  connot  persist  for  ever,  and  the  world  which, 
 properly,  is  not,  the  All,  but  only  the  ordered  part  of  it, 
 wdl  again  be  reduced  to  a  chaotic  unity,  out  of  which 
 a  new  system  will  be  formed,  and  so  on  for  ever. 
 There  is  no  real  destruction  of  anything,  but  only  a 
 change  of  combinations. — Of  the  elements  (which  he 
 seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  exhibit  as  four  distinct 
 species  of  matter),  fire,  as  the  rarest  and  most  power- 
 ful, he  held  to  be  the  chief,  and,  consequently,  the  soul 
 of  all  sentient  and  intellectual  beings  which  issue  from 
 the  central  fire,  or  soul  of  the  world.  The  soul  mi- 
 grates through  animal  and  vegetable  bodies  in  atone- 
 ment for  some  guilt  committed  in  its  unembodied 
 state,  when  it  is  a  demon  ;  of  which  he  supposed  that 
 an  infinite  number  existed.  The  seat  of  a  demon, 
 when  in  a  human  body,  is  the  blood.  Closely  connect- 
 ed with  this  view  of  the  objects  of  knowledge  was  his 
 tneory  of  human  knowledge.  In  the  impure  separa- 
 tion of  the  elements,  it  is  only  the  predominant  one 
 that  the  senses  can  apprehend  ;  and,  consequently, 
 though  man  can  knovif  all  the  elements  of  the  whole 
 singly,  he  is  unable  to  see  them  in  their  perfect  unity, 
 wherein  consists  their  truth.  Empedocles  therefore 
 rejects  the  testimony  of  the  senses,  and  maintains  that 
 pure  intellect  alone  can  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  the 
 truth.  This  is  the  attribute  of  the  Deity  ;  for  man 
 cannot  overlook  the  work  of  love  in  all  its  extent ;  and 
 the  true  unity  is  open  only  to  itself.  Hence  he  was 
 jed  to  distinguish  between  the  world  as  presented  to 
 our  senses  (Koa/xo^  alaOTjTog),  and  its  type  the  intel- 
 lectual world  (noGfj-o^  vo7}t6(). — The  fragments  of  Em- 
 pedocles were  published,  with  a  commentary,  by  Sturz, 
 Lips.,  1805,  8vo,  and  by  Peyron,  Lips.,  1810,  8vo. 
 {Enfield,  Hist.  PkiL,  vol.  1,  p.  402.— £wcj/c.  Useful 
 KnowL,  vol.  9,  p.  382.) 
 
 Emporia,  a  country  of  Africa  Propria,  called  also 
 Byzacium,  situate  to  the  north  of  the  Syrtis  Minor. 
 {Polyh.,  3,  23.)  In  it  stood  Leptis  Minor,  below 
 Hadruinetum.  This  city  is  said  to  have  paid  to  the 
 Carthaginians  a  talent  each  day.  It  was,  in  fact,  a 
 very  fruitful  district ;  and  Poly  bins  says,  that  almost 
 all  the  hopes  of  the  Carthaginians  depended  on  the 
 revenue  they  drew  from  it.  (Compare  Scylax,  p.  49.) 
 To  this  were  owing  the  anxiety  and  state  jealousy  of 
 the  Carthaginians,  that  the  Romans  should  not  sail  be- 
 yond the  Fair  promontory  which  lay  before  Carthage, 
 and  become  acquainted  with  a  region  which  they 
 might  be  templed  to  conquer.  {Manncrt,  Geogr., 
 vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  160.) 
 
 Encei-.Xdus,  one  of  the  giants  that  warred  against 
 Jove.  Minerva  flung  upon  him,  as  he  fled,  the  island 
 of  Sicily,  where  his  motions  caused,  according  to  the 
 poets,  the  eruptions  of  .lEtna.  {Pmd.,  Pyth.,  8,  15. 
 —LI.,  New..,  I,  WQ.—Id.  lb.,  4,  40.—Eurip.,  Ion, 
 204,  seqq.—Apollod.,  1,  6,  2.) 
 
 EndvmTon,  the  son  of  Aethlius  and  Calyce.  He 
 led  a  colony  of  ^Eolians  from  Thessaly,  and  founded 
 the  city  of  Elis.  Endymion,  it  is  said,  gained  the  love 
 of  the  goddess  Selene,  or  the  Moon,  and  she  bore  him 
 fifty  daughters.  {Pausan.,  5,  1.)  Jove,  as  a  favour, 
 allowed  him  to  live  as  long  as  he  pleased  {Schol.  ad 
 Apoll.  Rh.,  4,  57) ;  or,  as  others  said,  granted  him  the 
 boon  of  perpetual  sleep.  The  place  of  his  repose  was 
 a  cavern  of  Mount  Latmus  in  Caria,  and  thither  Se- 
 lene used  to  repair  to  visit  him.  Some  said  he  was 
 made  immortal  for  his  righteousness  ;  others,  that,  like 
 Ixion,  when  raised  to  heaven,  he  aspired  to  the  love  of 
 470 
 
 Juno,  and  was  hurled  to  Erebus.  (Schol.  ad  Apoll. 
 Rh.,  I.  c.) — There  can  be  very  little  doubt  that  this 
 mysterious  being  was  originally  an  object  of  worship, 
 and  that  he  was  converted  into  a  hero  in  the  usual 
 manner.  The  sire  assigned  to  him  is  nothing  more 
 than  a  personification  of  the  Olympic  Games.  His 
 union  with  the  moon,  and  their  fifty  daughters,  will 
 perhaps  furnish  a  key  to  his  true  nature.  In  these 
 daughters  Bbckh  sees  the  fifty  lunar  months  which 
 formed  the  Olympic  cycle  of  four  years.  In  such  case, 
 Endymion  would  probably  be  the  sun,  who,  with  the 
 moon,  is  the  author  of  the  months  ;  or,  supposing  the 
 myth  anterior  to  the  institution  of  the  Olympic  games, 
 the  daughters  may  have  been  the  weeks  of  the  year 
 (the  round  number  being  employed  as  usual),  of  vvhicu 
 the  sun  and  moon  are  the  parents.  The  conjunction 
 of  these  bodies  at  the  time  of  new  moon  is  a  matter  of 
 common  observation.  Endymion  is  perhaps  the  set- 
 ting sun,  who  goes  into  (ivdvei)  the  sea,  or,  possibly, 
 in  the  early  myth,  into  the  cavern  where  he  meets  the 
 moon.  {Muller,  Prolcg.,  p.  223. — Kcightlcy's  My- 
 thology, p.  439,  seqq.)  The  rationalizers  said,  that 
 Endymion  was  a  hunter,  who  used  to  go  to  the  chase 
 at  night,  when  the  beasts  came  out  to  feed,  and  to 
 sleep  in  a  cavern  during  the  day  ;  and  hence  he  was 
 supposed  to  be  always  asleep.  (Schol.  ad  Apoll.  Rh., 
 I.  c.) 
 
 Enipeus,  I.  a  river  of  Macedonia,  in  the  district  of 
 Pieria,  rising  in  Mount  Olympus,  and,  though  nearly 
 dry  in  summer,  becoming  a  considerable  torrent  in 
 winter  from  the  heavy  rains.  Its  rugged  and  steep 
 banks,  which  in  some  places  attained  a  height  of  300 
 feet,  served  for  a  long  time  as  a  defence  to  the  Mace- 
 donian army  under  Perseus,  when  encamped  on  its 
 left  bank,  until  Paulus  ^milius,  by  sending  a  consid- 
 erable detachment  round  the  Perrhajbian  mountains, 
 threatened  the  rear  of  the  enemy,  and  forced  him  to 
 abandon  his  advantageous  situation.  (Liv.,  44,  8  and 
 35. — Plut.,  Vit.  Paul.  .Siinil.)  The  modern  name  of 
 this  stream,  according  to  Dr.  Clarke,  is  Malathria. 
 (Travels— Greece,  Egypt,  &c.,  vol. -7,  p.  390.)— II. 
 A  river  of  Thessaly,  flowing  into  the  Apidanus,  which 
 afterward  enters  the  Peneus.  It  rose  in  Mount  Othrys 
 (Strabo,  256),  and  flowed  from  Achaia,  or  the  south- 
 western part  of  Phthiotis,  as  we  learn  from  Thucydi- 
 des  (4,  78),  who  remarks  that  Brasidas  was  arrested 
 in  his  march  through  Thessaly  when  about  to  cross 
 the  Enipeus.  It  is  now  called  the  river  of  Goura. 
 Near  the  Enipeus,  and  not  far  from  its  junction  with 
 the  Apidanus,  was  situate  the  city  of  Pharsalus. 
 (Ciamer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  399.) — III.  A 
 small  river  of  Elis,  flowing  near  the  city  of  Salmone. 
 (Apvllod.,  1,  9,  8.)  In  Strabo's  time  it  was  called  the 
 Barnichius.     (Slrab.,  356.) 
 
 Enna,  a  city  of  Sicily,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
 seats  of  the  Siculi,  and  celebrated  over  the  whole  isl- 
 and, not  so  much  for  its  size  and  opulence,  as  for  its 
 being  the  principal  centre  of  the  worship  of  Ceres. 
 The  adjacent  country  was  remarkable  for  its  fertility  ; 
 and  in  the  plains  of  Enna  Proserpina  was  sporting 
 when  Pluto  carried  her  away  to  be  mistress  of  the 
 lower  world.  Here,  too,  she  had  Minerva  and  Diana 
 for  her  vouthful  companions.  (Diod.  Sic,  5,  3.)  In 
 the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  was  a  cave,  facing  the 
 north,  through  which  the  King  of  Hades  is  said  to  have 
 driven  his  chariot  as  he  was  bearing  off  his  prize. 
 We  have  in  this,  no  doubt,  some  old  Siculan  legend, 
 appropriated  by  the  Greeks  to  goddesses  of  their  own 
 mythology.  Enna  was  regarded  as  the  navel  of  Sicily 
 (ofi(j>a2.d(  "LiKE^.ia^.  —  Callim.,  Hymn,  in  Cer.,  v.  15. 
 — Compare  Cic.  in  Verr.,  4,  48,  seqq.),  and  here  Ce- 
 res and  Proserpina  had  one  of  their  most  sacred  tem- 
 ples. In  a  political  point  of  view  Enna  was  never  of 
 any  importance.  From  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians 
 it  fell  into  tliose  of  the  Romans,  and  subsequently, 
 when  about  to  abandon  the  latter  and  return  to  their 
 
ENN 
 
 ENNIUS. 
 
 former  masters,  the  inhabitants  met  with  prompt  and 
 signal  chastisement.  {Liv.,  24,38,  seqq.)  From  this 
 period  the  city  gradually  declined.  The  site  of  the 
 ancient  place  is  at  present  occupied  by  the  modern 
 Casiro  Giovanni,  but  nearly  all  traces  of  the  blooming 
 meads  in  its  neighbourhood  have  disappeared.  (For 
 some  account  of  the  modern  place  and  its  vicinity,  con- 
 sult Hoare's  Classical  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  247,  scgq.) 
 
 ENNE.'i.  HoDOi,  a  spot  in  Thrace,  near  which  the 
 city  of  Amphipolis  was  founded.  It  appears  to  have 
 derived  its  name,  which  means  "  the  Nine  Ways," 
 from  the  number  of  roads  which  met  here  from  differ- 
 ent parts  of  Thrace  and  Macedon.  This  supposition 
 is  confirmed  by  travellers  who  have  explored  the  adja- 
 cent country,  and  who  report,  that  all  the  principal 
 communications  between  the  coast  and  plains  must 
 have  led  through  this  pass.  It  was  here,  according  to 
 Herodotus  (7,  114),  that  Xerxes  and  his  army  crossed 
 the  Strymon  on  bridges,  after  having  offered  a  sacri- 
 fice of  white  horses  to  that  river,  and  buried  alive  nine 
 youths  and  maidens.  {Walpole''s  Collection,  p.  510. 
 — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  292.) 
 
 EnnIus,  Quintus,  a  poet,  who  has  generally  received 
 the  distinguished  appellation  of  the  Father  of  Roman 
 Song.  He  was  born  at  Rudise,  a  town  of  Calabria, 
 and  lived  from  B  C.  239  to  B.C.  169.  {Cic,  Brutus, 
 c.  18. — Id.,  de  Senccl.,  c.  5.)  In  his  early  youth  he 
 went  to  Sardinia ;  and,  if  Silius  Italicus  (12,  393)  may 
 bo  believed,  he  served  in  the  Calabrian  levies,  which, 
 in  the  year  216  B.C.,  followed  Titus  Manlius  to  the 
 war  which  he  waged  in  that  island  against  the  favour- 
 ers of  the  Carthaginian  cause.  After  the  termination 
 of  the  campaign,  he  continued  to  live  for  twelve  years 
 in  Sardinia.  Aurelius  Victor  says  he  taught  Cato 
 Greek  in  Sardinia  ("  In  pratura  Sardiniam  suhegit, 
 vhi  ab  Ennio  Gracis  Uteris  instituius")  ;  but  this  is 
 inconsistent  with  what  is  delivered  by  Cicero,  that  Ca- 
 to did  not  acquire  Greek  till  his  old  age.  (De  Senect., 
 c.  8.)  Ennius  was  at  last  brought  to  Rome  by  Cato 
 the  Censor,  who,  in  204  B.C.,  visited  Sardinia,  on  re- 
 turning as  quaestor  from  Africa.  {Corn.  Nep.,  Vit. 
 Cat.)  At  Rome  he  fixed  his  residence  on  the  Aven- 
 tine  Hill,  where  he  lived  in  a  very  frugal  manner,  hav- 
 ing only  a  single  maid  as  an  attendant.  (Hieron., 
 CJiron.  Eiiseb.,  p.  37.)  He  instructed,  however,  the 
 patrician  youth  m  Greek,  and  acquired  the  friendship 
 of  many  of  the  most  illustrious  men  in  the  state.  Be- 
 ing distinguished  in  arms  as  well  as  letters,  he  followed 
 M.  Fulvius  Nobilior  during  his  expedition  to  ^Etolia 
 {Cic,  pro  Archia,  c.  10. — Id.,  Tusc.  Disp.,  1,  2); 
 and,  in  185  B.C.,  he  obtained  the  freedom  of  the  city, 
 through  the  favour  of  Quintus  Fulvius  Nobilior,  the 
 son  of  his  former  patron,  Marcus.  {Cic.,  Brutus,  c. 
 20.)  He  was  also  protected  by  the  elder  Scipio  Afri- 
 canus,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  accompanied  in  most 
 of  his  campaigns.  {Claudian,  de  Laud.  Stilic.,  lib.  3, 
 pmf)  It  is  not  easy,  however,  to  see  in  what  expe- 
 ditions he  could  have  attended  this  renowned  general. 
 Scipio's  Spanish  and  African  wars  were  concluded  be- 
 fore Ennius  was  brought  from  Sardinia  to  Rome  ;  and 
 the  campaign  against  Antiochus  was  commenced  and 
 terminated  v^'hile  he  was  serving  under  Fulvius  Nobilior 
 in  /Etolia.  In  his  old  age  he  obtained  the  friendship 
 of  Scipio  Nasica  ;  and  the  degree  of  intimacy  subsist- 
 ing between  them  has  been  characterized  by  the  well- 
 known  anecdote  of  their  successively  feigning  to  be 
 from  home.  {Cic,  de  Oral.,  2,  68.)  He  is  said  to 
 have  been  intemperate  in  drinking  {Horat.,  Epist.,  1, 
 19,  7),  which  brought  on  the  disease  called  Morbus 
 Articularis,  a  disorder  resembling  the  gout,  of  which 
 he  died  at  the  age  of  seventy,  just  after  he  had  exhib- 
 ited his  tragedy  of  Thyestes.  {Ser.  Sammonicus,  de 
 Medicina,  c.  37.)  The  evils,  however,  of  old  age  and 
 indigence  were  supported  by  him,  as  we  learn  from 
 Cicero,  with  such  patience,  and  even  cheerfulness,  that 
 one  would  almost  have  imagined  he  derived  satisfac- 
 
 tion from  circumstances  which  are  usually  regarded  as, 
 of  all  others,  the  most  dispiriting  and  oppressive.  {Da 
 Senccl.,  c.  5.)  The  honours  due  to  his  character  and 
 talents  were,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  reserved  till 
 after  his  death,  when  a  bust  of  him  was  erected  in  the 
 family  tomb  of  the  Scipios.  {Cic.,  pro  Arch.,  c.  9. — 
 Val.  Max.,  8,  15,  1.)  In  the  days  of  Livy  the  bust 
 still  remained  near  that  sepulchre,  beyond  the  Porta 
 Capena,  along  with  the  statues  of  Africanus  and  Scipio 
 Asiaticus  {Liv.  38,  56).  The  tomb  was  discovered  in 
 1780,  on  a  farm  situated  between  the  Via  Appia  and 
 Via  Latina.  The  slabs,  which  have  been  removed  to 
 the  Vatican,  contained  several  inscriptions,  commem- 
 orating different  persons  of  the  Scipian  family.  Tbere 
 were  neither  statues  nor  any  memorials  remaining  of 
 Africanus  himself  or  Asiaticus  {Bankcs.  Civil  History 
 of  Rome,  vol.  1,  p.  357. — Hohhouse,  Illustrations  of 
 Childe  Harold,  p.  167);  but  a  laurelled  bust  of  Pep- 
 perino  stone,  which  was  found  here,  and  which  now 
 stands  on  the  sarcophagus  of  Scipio  Barbatus  in  the 
 Vatican,  is  supposed  to  be  that  of  Ennius.  {Rome  in 
 the  I9lh  Century,  Letter  36,  vol.  2,  p.  401,  Am.  ed.) 
 There  is  also  still  extant  an  epitaph,  reported  to  have 
 been  written  for  himself  {Cic,  Tusc.  Disp.,  1,  15), 
 strongly  characteristic  of  that  overweening  conceit, 
 and  high  estimation  of  his  own  talents,  which  are  said 
 to  have  formed  a  principal  defect  in  his  character  : 
 
 "  Adspiciie,  0  cives,  senis  Enni  imaginis  formam. 
 Hic  vestrum  panxit  maxima  facta  patrum. 
 Nemo  me  lacrymis  decoret,  nee  funcra  jlctu 
 Faxit — curl  volito  vivus  per  ora  virum.'''' 
 To  judge  by  the  fragments  of  his  works  which  remain, 
 Ennius  greatly  surpassed  his  predecessors,  not  only  in 
 poetical  genius,  but  in  the  art  of  versification.     By 
 his  time,  indeed,  the  best  models  of  Greek  composi- 
 tion had  begun  to  be  studied  at  Rome.     Ennius  par- 
 ticularly professed  to  have  imitated  Homer,  and  tried 
 to  persuade  his  countrymen  that  the  soul  and  genius 
 of  that  great  poet  had  revived  in  him,  tiirough  the  me- 
 dium of  a  peacock,  according  to  the  process  of  Pytha- 
 gorean transmigration.     From  a  passage  in  lAicretius 
 (1,  118,  seqq.),  it  would  appear,  that  Ennius  somewhere 
 in  his  works  had  described  a  descent  into  hell,  through 
 which  he  feigned  that  the  shade  of  Homer  had  con- 
 ducted him  in  the  same  manner  as  Dante  afterward 
 chose   Virgil  for  his   mystagogue.     Accordingly,   we 
 find  in  the  works  of  Ennius  innumerable  imitations  of 
 the   Iliad  and   Odyssey.     It  is,  however,  the  Greek 
 tragic  writers  whom  he  has  chiefly  imitated  ;  and  in- 
 deed it  appears,  from  the  fragments  that  remain,  that 
 all  his  plays  were  rather  translations  from  the  dramas 
 of  Sophocles  and   Euripides,   on   the   same   subjects 
 which  he  has  chosen,  than  original  tragedies.     They 
 are  founded  on  the  old  topics  of  Priam  and  Paris,  Hec- 
 tor and  Hecuba.     Nor,  although  Ennius  was  the  first 
 writer  who  introduced  satiric  composition  into  Rome, 
 are  his  pretensions,  in  this  respect,  to  originality,  very 
 distinguished.     He  adapted  the  ancient  satires  of  the 
 Tuscan  and   Oscan    stage    to   the  closet,  by  refining 
 their  grossness,  softening  their  asperity,  and  introdu- 
 cing railleries,  borrowed   from  the  Greek  poets,  with 
 whom  he  was   familiar.     His  satires  thus   appear  to 
 have  been  a  species  of  cento,  made  up  from  passages 
 of  various   poems,  which,  by  slight  alterations,  were 
 humorously  or  satirically  applied,  and  chiefly  to  the 
 delineation  of  character.     The  fragments  which  remain 
 of  those  satires  are  too  short  and  broken  to  allow  us 
 even  to  divine  their  subject.    Qnintilian  mentions,  that 
 one  of  the  satires  contained  a  dialogue  between  Life 
 and  Death,  contending  with  each  other,  a  mode  of 
 composition  suggested  perhaps  by  the  allegory  of  Pro- 
 dicus.     We   are   farther   informed   by  Aulus  Gellias 
 (2,  29),  that  he  introduced   into  another  satire,  with 
 great  skill  and  beauty,  .Esop's  fable  of  the  Larks  now 
 well  known  through' the  imitation  of  Fontaine  (liv.  4, 
 
 471 
 
ENNIUS. 
 
 ENNIUS. 
 
 ch.  22 — "  UAlmicUc  et  scs  pclits  avcc  le  maitrc  d'un 
 champ''').  It  is  certainly  much  to  be  regretted  that  wc 
 possess  such  scanty  fragments  of  these  productions, 
 which  would  have  been  curious  as  the  first  attempts 
 at  a  species  of  composition,  which  was  carried  to  such 
 perfection  by  succeeding  Latin  poets,  and  which  has 
 been  rei^arded  as  almost  peculiar  to  the  llomans. 
 The  great  work,  however,  of  Ennius,  and  of  which 
 we  have  still  consifjerable  remains,  was  his  Amials, 
 or  Metrical  Chronicles,  devoted  to  the  celebration  of 
 Roman  exploits,  from  the  earliest  periods  to  the  con- 
 clusion of  the  Istrian  war.  These  annals  were  writ- 
 ten by  our  poet  in  his  old  age  ;  at  least  Aulus  Gel- 
 lius  informs  us,  on  the  authority  of  Varro,  that  the 
 twelfth  book  was  finished  by  him  in  his  sixty-seventh 
 year  (17,  21).  The  aimals  of  Ennius  were  partly 
 founded  on  those  ancient  traditions  and  old  heroic  bal- 
 lads, which  Cicero,  on  the  authority  of  Cato's  Ori- 
 gines,  mentions  as  having  been  sung  at  feasts  by 
 the  guests,  many  centuries  before  the  age  of  Cato, 
 in  praise  of  the  heroes  of  Rome.  Niebuhr  has  at- 
 teinpted  to  show,  that  all  the  memorable  events  of 
 Roman  liistory  had  been  versified  in  ballads  or  metri- 
 cal chronicles,  in  the  Saturnian  measure,  before  the 
 time  of  Ennius  ;  who,  according  to  him,  merely  ex- 
 pressed in  the  Greek  hexameter  what  his  predecessors 
 had  delivered  in  a  ruder  strain,  and  then  maliciously 
 depreciated  those  ancient  compositions,  in  order  that 
 he  himself  might  be  considered  as  the  founder  of  Ro- 
 man poetry.  The  chief  work,  according  to  Niebuhr, 
 Irom  whicli  Eimius  borrowed,  was  a  romantic  epopee, 
 or  chronicle,  made  up  from  these  heroic  ballads,  about 
 the  end  of  the  fourth  century  of  Rome,  commencing 
 with  the  accession  of  Tarquinius,  and  ending  with  the 
 battle  of  Regillus. — Ennius  begins  his  Annals  with  an 
 invocation  of  the  nine  Muses,  and  the  account  of  a 
 vision  in  which  Homer  had  appeared  to  him,  and  re- 
 lated the  story  of  the  metamorphosis  already  mention- 
 ed. He  afterward  invokes  a  great  number  of  the 
 gods,  and  then  proceeds  to  the  history  of  the  Al- 
 ban  kings,  the  dream  of  the  Vestal  virgin  Ilia,  which 
 announced  her  pregnancy  by  Mars  and  the  foundation 
 of  Rome.  The  reigns  of  the  kings,  and  the  contests 
 of  the  republic  with  the  neighbourmg  states  previous 
 to  the  Punic  war,  occupy  the  metrical  annals  to  the 
 end  of  the  sixth  book.  It  should  be  observed,  in  pass- 
 ing, that  the  Annals  were  not  separated  by  Ennius 
 himself  into  books  ;  hut  were  so  divided,  long  after  his 
 death,  by  the  grammarian  Q.  Vargunteius.  {Sueton., 
 (le  liluslr.  Gnimm.,  c.  2.)  Cicero,  in  his  Brutus  (c. 
 19),  says  that  Ennius  did  not  treat  of  the  first  Pumc 
 war,  as  Nsvius  had  previously  written  on  the  same 
 subject.  P.  Merula,  however,  who  edited  the  frag- 
 ments of  Ennius,  is  of  opinion  that  this  passage  of  Ci- 
 cero can  oidy  mean  that  he  had  not  entered  into  much 
 detail  of  its  events,  as  he  finds  several  lines  in  the 
 eeventh  book  which,  he  thinks,  evidently  apply  to  the 
 first  Carthaginian  war,  particularly  the  description  of 
 naval  operations,  and  the  building  of  the  first  fleet  with 
 which  the  Carthaginians  were  attacked  by  the  Ro- 
 mans. In  some  of  the  editions  of  Ennius,  the  charac- 
 ter of  the  friend  and  military  adviser  of  .Servilius,  gen- 
 erally supposed  to  be  intended  as  a  portrait  of  the  poet 
 himself,  is  ranged  under  the  seventh  book.  The 
 eighth  and  ninth  books  of  these  Annals,  which  are 
 much  mutilated,  detail  the  events  of  the  second  Car- 
 thaginian war  in  Italy  and  Africa.  This  was  by  much 
 the  most  interesting  part  of  the  copious  subject  which 
 Ennius  had  chosen,  and  a  portion  of  it  on  which  he 
 would  probably  exert  all  the  force  of  his  genius,  in  order 
 the  more  to  honour  his  friend  and  patron  Scipio  Afri- 
 canus.  The  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  books  of  the 
 Annals  of  Ennius  contain  the  war  with  Philip  of  Mace- 
 don.  In  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth,  Han- 
 nibal excites  Antiochus  to  a  war  against  the  Romans. 
 Ill  the  fourteenth  book,  the  consul  Scipio,  in  th  prose- 
 472 
 
 cution  of  this  contest,  arrives  at  Ilium,  which  he  thus 
 apostrophizes : 
 
 "  0  patria  !     0  dicum  domus  nium,  et  inclula  hello 
 Pergama .'" 
 
 DifTerent  Latin  writers  extol  the  elegant  lines  of  En- 
 nius immediately  following,  in  which  the  Roman  sol- 
 diers, alluding  to  its  magnificent  revival  in  Rome,  ex- 
 claim with  enthusiasm,  that  Ilium  could  not  be  de- 
 stroyed : 
 
 "  Quai  ncque  Dardanecis  campeis  poluere  perire. 
 Nee  quoin  capta  capei,  nee  quom  combusla  creman," 
 
 a  passage  which  has  been  closely  imitated  in  the  sev 
 enth  book  of  Virgil  (y.  294,  scqq.).  The  fifteenth 
 book  relates  the  expedition  of  Fulvius  Nobilior  to 
 jEtolia,  which  Ennius  himself  is  said  to  have  accom- 
 panied. In  the  two  following  books  he  prosecutes  the 
 Istrian  war.  The  concluding,  or  eighteenth  book, 
 seems  to  have  been  in  a  great  measure  personal  to  tho 
 poet  himself.  Connected  with  his  annals  there  is  a 
 poem  of  Ennius  devoted  to  the  celebration  of  the  ex- 
 ploits of  Scipio,  in  which  occurs  a  much-admired  de- 
 scription of  the  calm  of  evening,  where  the  flow  of  the 
 versification  is  finely  modulated  to  the  still  and  solemn 
 imagery.  Horace,  in  one  of  his  odes  (4,  8),  strongly 
 expresses  the  glory  and  honour  which  the  Calabrian 
 muse  of  Ennius  had  conferred  on  Scipio  by  this  pociu 
 devoted  to  his  praise. — The  historical  poems  of  Eimius 
 appear  to  have  been  written  without  the  introduction 
 of  much  machinery  or  decorative  fiction  ;  and  whether 
 founded  on  ancient  ballads  or  framed  conformably  to 
 historical  truth,  they  are  obviously  deficient  in  those 
 embellishments  of  imagination  which  form  the  distinc- 
 tion between  a  poem  and  a  metrical  chronicle.  In  the 
 subject  which  he  had  chosen,  Ennius  wanted  the  poet- 
 ic advantages  of  distance  in  place  or  time.  But  though 
 not  master  of  a  shell  round  which  the  passions  would 
 throng,  or  at  the  sound  of  which  a  whole  people  would 
 fall  prostrate,  as  at  the  first  breath  of  Jubal's  lyre,  still 
 the  Annals  of  Ennius,  as  a  national  work,  were  highly 
 gratifying  to  a  proud,  ambitious  people,  and,  in  conse- 
 quence, continued  long  popular  at  Rome.  They  wero 
 highly  relished  in  the  days  of  Horace  and  Virgil ;  and 
 as  far  down  as  the  reign  of  iMarcus  Aurelius,  they 
 were  recited  in  theatres  and  other  public  places  for  the 
 amusement  of  the  people.  (Aulus  Gcllius,  18,  5.) 
 Tho  Romans,  indeed,  were  so  formed  on  his  style,  that 
 Seneca  called  them  populus  Erinianus,  an  Ennian  race, 
 and  said  that  both  Cicero  and  Virgil  were  obliged, 
 contrary  to  their  own  judgment,  to  employ  antiquated 
 terms,  in  com[)liance  with  the  reigning  prejudice. 
 {Aid.  GelL,  12,  2  )  From  his  example,  too,  added  to 
 the  national  character,  the  historical  epic  became  in 
 future  times  the  great  poetical  resource  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, who  versified  almost  every  important  event  in 
 their  history.  Besides  the  Pharsalia  of  Lucan,  and  the 
 Punica  of  Silius  Italicus,  which  still  survive,  there 
 were  many  works  of  this  description  which  are  now 
 lost.  Varro  Attacinus  chose  as  his  subject  Caesar's 
 war  with  the  Sequani;  Varius,  the  deeds  of  Augustus 
 and  Agrippa  ;  Valgius  Rufus,  the  battle  of  Actium  ; 
 .Albinovanus,  the  exploits  of  Germanicus ;  Cicero, 
 those  of  Marius,  and  the  events  of  his  own  consulship. 
 — The  poem  of  Ennius,  entitled  Phagetica,  is  curious  ; 
 since  one  would  hardly  suppose  that,  in  this  early  age, 
 luxury  had  made  such  progress,  that  the  culinary  art 
 should  have  been  systematically  or  poetically  treated. 
 All  that  we  know,  however,  of  the  manner  in  which  it 
 was  prepared  or  served  up,  is  from  the  Apologia  of 
 Apuleius,  It  was,  as  its  name  imports,  a  didactic 
 poem  on  eatables,  particularly  fish.  It  is  well  known, 
 that  previous  to  the  time  of  Ennius,  this  subject  had 
 been  discussed,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  by  various 
 Greek  authors,  and  was  particularly  detailed  in  the 
 poem  of  Archestratus  the  Epicurean.     It  appears  from 
 
ENNIUS. 
 
 EPA 
 
 a  passage  of  Apuleius,  that  the  work  of  Ennius  was  a 
 digest  of  all  the  previous  books  on  this  subject.  The 
 eleven  lines  which  remain,  and  which  have  been  pre- 
 served by  Apuleius,  mention  the  places  where  differ- 
 ent sorts  of  lish  are  found  in  greatest  perfection  and 
 abundance.  Another  poem  of  Ennius,  entitled  Epi- 
 channus,  was  so  called  because  it  was  translated  from 
 the  Greek  work  of  Epicharmus,  the  Pythagorean,  on 
 the  Nature  of  Things,  in  the  same  iiTanner  as  Plato 
 gave  the  name  of  TimsEus  to  the  book  which  he  trans- 
 lated from  Timasus  the  Locrian.  The  fragments  of 
 this  work  of  Ennius  are  so  broken  and  corrupted,  that 
 it  is  impossible  to  follow  the  plan  of  his  poem,  or  the 
 system  of  philosophy  which  it  inculcated.  It  appears, 
 however,  to  have  contained  many  speculations  con- 
 cerning the  elements  of  which  the  world  was  primarily 
 composed,  and  which,  according  to  him,  were  water, 
 earth,  air,  and  tire  (Varro,  R.  R.,  1,  4);  as  also  with 
 regard  to  the  preservative  powers  of  nature.  Jupiter 
 seems  merely  to  have  been  considered  by  him  as  the  air, 
 the  clouds,  and  the  storm  — Ennius,  however,  whose 
 compositions  thus  appear  to  have  been  formed  entirely 
 on  Greek  originals,  has  not  availed  himself  so  success- 
 fully of  these  writings  as  Virgil  has  done  of  the  works  of 
 Ennius  himself.  'J'he  prince  of  Latin  poets  has  often 
 condescended  to  imitate  long  passages,  and  sometimes 
 to  copy  whole  lines,  from  the  Father  of  Roman  Song. 
 This  has  been  shown,  in  a  close  comparison,  by  Ma- 
 crobius,  in  his  Saturnalia  (6,  1,  scqq.).  Lucretius 
 and  Ovid  have  also  frequently  availed  themselves  of 
 the  works  of  Ennius.  His  description  of  the  cutting 
 of  a  forest,  in  order  to  fit  out  a  fleet  against  the  Car- 
 thaginians, in  the  seventh  book,  has  been  imitated  by 
 Stjtius  in  the  tenth  book  of  the  Thebais.  The  pas- 
 sage in  his  si.xth  Satire,  in  which  he  has  painted  the 
 happy  situation  of  a  parasite,  compared  with  that  of 
 the  master  of  a  feast,  is  copied  in  Terence's  Phormio 
 (2,  2). —  It  appears,  then,  that  Ennius  occasionally 
 produced  verses  of  considerable  harmony  and  beauty, 
 and  that  his  conceptions  were  frequently  expressed 
 with  energy  and  spirit.  -It  must  be  recollected,  how- 
 ever, that  the  lines  imitated  by  Virgil,  and  the  other 
 passages  which  are  usually  selected  with  reference  to 
 the  imitation  of  the  early  bard  by  other  poets,  are  very 
 favourable  specimens  of  his  taste  and  genius.  Many 
 of  his  verses  are  harsh  and  defective  in  their  mechani- 
 cal construction  ;  others  are  frigidly  prosaic  ;  and  not 
 a  few  are  deformed  with  the  most  absurd  conceits,  not 
 so  much  in  the  idea,  as  in  a  jingle  of  words  and  ex- 
 travagant alliteration. — On  the  whole,  the  works  of 
 Ennius  are  rather  pleasing  and  interesting,  as  the  early 
 blossoms  of  that  poetry  which  afterward  opened  to 
 such  perfection,  than  estimable  from  their  intrinsic 
 beauty.  But,  whatever  may  have  been  the  merit  of 
 the  works  of  Ennius,  of  which  we  are  now  but  incom- 
 petent judges,  they  were  at  least  sufficiently  various. 
 Epic,  dramatic,  satiric,  and  didactic  poetry  were  all 
 successively  attempted  by  him  ;  and  we  also  learn  that 
 he  exercised  himself  in  the  lighter  species  of  verse,  as 
 the  epigram  and  acrostic.  (Czc,  de  Div.,  2,  .54.)  For 
 this  novelty  and  exuberance  it  is  not  difficult  to  ac- 
 count. The  fountains  of  Greek  literature,  as  yet  un- 
 tasted  in  Latium,  were  open  for  his  imitation.  He 
 stood  in  very  different  circumstances  from  those  Greek 
 bards  who  drew  solely  from  the  resources  of  their 
 own  genius  ;  or  from  his  successors  in  Latin  poetry, 
 who  wrote  after  the  best  productions  of  Greece  had 
 become  familiar  to  the  Romans.  He  was  thus  placed 
 in  a  situation  in  which  he  could  enjoy  all  the  popularity 
 and  applause  due  to  originality,  without  undergoing 
 the  labour  of  invention,  and  might  rapidly  run  with 
 success  through  every  mode  of  tlie  lyre,  without  pos- 
 sessing any  incredible  diversity  of  genius. — Thus  far 
 we  have  spoken  of  the  poetical  productions  of  Ennius  : 
 ,  but  the  most  curious  point  connected  with  his  literary 
 history  is  his  prose  translation  of  the  celebrated  work  of 
 Ooo 
 
 Euhemerus,  entitled  'hpu  'Avaypaipri.  The  transia 
 tion,  as  well  as  the  original  work,  is  lost.  Some  frag- 
 ments, however,  have  been  saved  by  St.  Augustine 
 and  Lactantius.  It  is  clear,  notwithstanding  their  ob- 
 servance of  prodigies  and  religious  ceremonies,  that 
 there  prevailed  a  considerable  spirit  of  free  thinking 
 among  the  Romans  in  the  days  of  Ennius.  This  is  ex- 
 emplified, not  merely  by  his  translation  of  Euhemerus, 
 and  the  definition  of  the  nature  of  Jupiter  m  his  Epi- 
 charmus, but  by  various  passages  in  dramas  adapted 
 for  public  representation,  and  which  deride  the  super- 
 stitions of  augurs  and  soothsayers,  as  well  as  the  false 
 ideas  entertained  of  the  worshipped  divinities.  Polyb- 
 ius,  too,  who  flourished  shortly  after  Ennius,  speaks 
 of  the  fear  of  the  gods  and  the  inventions  of  augury 
 merely  as  an  excellent  political  engine,  at  the  same 
 time  that  he  reprehends  the  rashness  and  absurdity  of 
 those  who  were  endeavouring  to  extirpate  such  useful 
 opinions. — The  fragments  of  Ennius  will  be  found  in 
 the  Fragmcnta  Veterum  Poctarum  Latiyionim,  by 
 Robert  and  Henry  Stephens,  Paris,  1564;  in  the 
 Fragmenta  Veler.  Tragic.  Latin.,  by  Scriverius,  L. 
 Bat.,  1620  ;  in  the  Opera  et  Fragmcnta  Vetcr.  Poet. 
 Lot.,  by  Maittaire,  Lond.,  1713  (vol.  2,  p.  1456,  seqq.); 
 in  the  Poctm  Sccnici  Latinorum  of  Bothe,  Halberst, 
 1823  (vol.  5,  pt.  1,  Fragment.  Tragic;  pt.  2,  Fragm. 
 Com.);  in  the  Fragmenta  Ennii  of  Columna,  Neap., 
 1590,  improved  by  Hesselius,  Amst.,  1707,  4to,  &c. 
 {Dmilop,  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  84,  seqq. — Sckbll,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  1,  p.  114. — Id.  ib.,  p.  142.  —  B'dhr, 
 Gcsch.  Rom.  Lit.,  p.  78,  scqq.) 
 
 Entella,  a  city  of  Sicily,  in  the  western  quarter  of 
 the  island,  near  the  river  Hypsa  and  northeast  of  Seli- 
 nus.  It  was  one  of  the  three  cities  said  to  have  been 
 founded  by  ^gestes,  a  fable  which  clearly  indicates 
 the  great  antiquity  at  least  of  the  place,  and  marks  it 
 as  of  Sicanian  origin.  We  find  it  at  one  time  under 
 the  power  of  Carthage,  though  with  a  free  constitution. 
 At  a  subsequent  period  it  received  a  body  of  Campa- 
 nian  troops,  which  had  been  disbanded  by  Dionysius 
 the  elder,  and  it  met  with  the  same  fate  that  all  those 
 cities  encountered  which  had  received  the  Campani 
 within  their  walls  ;  the  male  inhabitants  were  slaugh- 
 tered, and  the  city  became  the  property  of  these  mer- 
 cenaries. This  change  of  masters,  however,  made  no 
 alteration  in  the  affairs  of  Entella  as  far  as  its  standing 
 with  Carthage  was  concerned :  the  Campani  sided 
 with  the  last- mentioned  power  as  the  former  inhabi- 
 tants had  done,  and  were,  in  consequence,  besieged 
 by  Dionysius,  who  finally  captured  the  city.  (Diod. 
 Sic,  14^  9.— 7rf.,  15,  Ti.  —  M.,  16,  67.)  We  hear 
 little  of  the  place  in  later  times.  The  ruins  of  the 
 ancient  city  are  still  called  Entella,  and  are  situate  to 
 the  east  of  Poggio  Reale,  near  the  modern  river  Bali- 
 ci.     {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  444  ) 
 
 Entellus,  a  Sicilian,  who,  though  advanced  in 
 years,  entered  the  lists  against  the  Trojan  Dares,  and 
 conquered  him  in  a  pugilistic  encounter.  He  had 
 been,  in  earlier  years,  the  friend  and  companion  in 
 arms  of  Eryx.     (Virg.,  JEn.,  5,  387,  seqq.) 
 
 Enyalius  ('Ewdi(of),  a  surname  frequently  given 
 to  Mars  in  the  Iliad,  and  corresponding  with  the  name 
 Enyo  ('Ei'yw)  given  to  Bellona.  (Horn.,  II.,  8,- 264. 
 —Id.  lb.,  13,  519.— Id.  lb.,  17,  259,  &c.) 
 
 Enyo  {'Evvu),  the  daughter  of  Phorcys  and  Ceto, 
 according  to  Hesiod  (Theog.,  273).  She  was  a  war- 
 goddess,  and  one  of  the  companions  of  Mars,  and  an- 
 swers to  the  Bellona  of  the  Romans.  Some  mytholo- 
 gists  make  her  the  sister,  others  the  wife,  of  Mars. 
 {Vid.  Bellona.) 
 
 Eos  ('H(if),  the  name  of  Aurora  among  the  Greeks, 
 whence  the  epithet  Eous  is  applied  to  all  the  eastern 
 parts  of  the  world.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  3,  406  ;  A.  A.,  3, 
 537;  6,  478.— Fzr^-.,  G.,  1,  28(1;  2,  115  ) 
 
 Epaminondas,  a'^Theban  statesman  and  soldier,  in 
 whose  praise,  for  both  talents  and  virtue,  there  is  a 
 ^  473 
 
EPAMINONDAS. 
 
 EPH 
 
 remarkable  concurrence  of  ancient  writers.  Nepos 
 observes  that,  before  Epaininondas  was  born,  and  after 
 his  death,  Thebes  was  always  in  subjection  to  some 
 other  power  :  on  the  contrary,  while  he  directed  her 
 councils,  she  was  at  the  head  of  Greece.  His  public 
 life  extends  from  the  restoration  of  democracy  by  Pe- 
 lopidas  and  the  other  exiles,  B.C.  379,  to  the  battle 
 of  Mantinea,  B.C.  362.  In  the  conspiracy  by  which 
 that  revolution  was  effected  he  took  no  part,  refu- 
 sing to  stain  his  hands  with  the  blood  of  his  country- 
 men ;  but  thenceforward  he  became  the  prime  mover 
 of  the  Theban  stale.  His  policy  was  first  directed  to 
 assert  the  right,  and  to  secure  the  power  to  Thebes 
 of  controlling  the  other  cities  of  BcEOtia,  several  of 
 which  claimed  to  be  independent.  In  this  cause  he 
 ventured  to  engage  his  country,  single  handed,  in  war 
 with  the  Spartans,  who  marched  into  Bceotia,  B.C. 
 371.  with  a  force  superior  to  any  which  could  be 
 brought  against  them.  The  Theban  generals  were  di- 
 vided in  opmion  whether  a  battle  should  be  risked ; 
 for  to  encounter  the  Lacedaemonians  with  inferior 
 numbers  was  universally  esteemed  hopeless.  Epami- 
 nondas  prevailed  with  his  colleagues  to  venture  it ;  and 
 devised  on  this  occasion  a  new  method  of  attack.  In- 
 stead of  joining  battle  along  the  whole  line,  he  concen- 
 trated an  overwhelming  force  on  one  point,  directing 
 the  weaker  part  of  his  Hne  to  keep  back.  The  Spartan 
 right  being  broken  and  their  king  slain,  the  rest  of  the 
 army  found  it  necessary  to  abandon  the  field.  This 
 memorable  battle  was  fought  at  Leuctra.  The  moral 
 effect  of  it  was  much  more  important  than  the  mere 
 loss  inflicted  upon  Sparta,  for  it  overthrew  the  pre- 
 scriptive superiority  in  arms  claimed  by  that  state  ever 
 since  its  reformation  by  Lycurgus.  This  brilliant  suc- 
 cess led  Epaminondas  to  the  second  object  of  his  pol- 
 icy, the  overthrow  of  the  supremacy  of  Sparta,  and  the 
 substitution  of  Thebes  as  the  leader  of  Greece  in  the 
 democratic  interest.  In  this  hope  a  Theban  army, 
 under  his  command,  marched  into  the  Peloponnesus 
 early  in  the  winter,  B.C.  369,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
 the  Eleans,  Arcadians,  and  Argives,  invaded  and  laid 
 waste  a  large  part  of  Laconia.  Numbers  of  the  He- 
 lots took  that  opportunity  to  shake  off  a  most  oppress- 
 ive slavery  ;  and  Epaminondas  struck  a  deadly  blow 
 at  the  power  of  Sparta,  by  establishing  these  descend- 
 ants of  the  old  Messenians  on  Mount  Ithome  in  Mes- 
 senia,  as  an  independent  state,  and  inviting  their  coun- 
 trymen, scattered  through  Italy  and  Sicily,  to  return  to 
 their  ancient  patrimony.  Numbers  obeyed  the  call. 
 This  memorable  event  is  known  in  history  as  the  re- 
 turn of  the  Messenians,  and  two  hundred  years  had 
 elapsed  since  their  expulsion.  In  368  B.C.,  Epami- 
 nondas again  led  an  army  into  the  Peloponnesus  ;  but, 
 not  fulfilling  the  expectations  of  the  people,  he  was 
 disgraced,  and,  according  to  Diodorus  (1.5,  71),  was 
 ordered  to  serve  in  the  ranks.  In  that  capacity  he  is 
 said  to  have  saved  the  army  in  Thessaly,  when  entan- 
 gled in  dangers  which  threatened  it  with  destruction  ; 
 being  required  by  the  general  voice  to  assume  the  com- 
 mand. He  is  not  again  heard  of  in  a  public  capacity 
 till  B.C.  366,  when  he  was  sent  to  support  the  demo- 
 cratic interest  in  Achaia,  and  by  his  moderation  and 
 judgment  brought  that  whole  confederation  over  to  the 
 Theban  alliance,  without  bloodshed  or  banishment.  It 
 soon  became  plain,  however,  that  a  mere  change  of 
 masters,  Thebes  instead  of  Sparta,  would  be  of  no  ser- 
 vice to  the  Grecian  states.  Achaia  first,  then  Elis,  then 
 Mantinea  and  great  part  of  Arcadia,  returned  to  the  La- 
 cedaemonian alliance.  To  check  this  defection,  Epam- 
 inondas led  an  army  into  the  Peloponnesus  for  the 
 fourth  time,  B.C.  362.  Joined  by  the  Argives,  Mes- 
 senians, and  part  of  the  Arcadians,  he  entered  Laco- 
 nia, and  endeavoured  to  take  Sparta  by  surprise  ;  but 
 the  vigilance  of  Agesilaus  just  frustrated  his  scheme. 
 Epaminondas  then  marched  against  Mantinea,  near 
 which  was  fought  the  celebrated  battle  in  which  he  fell. 
 474 
 
 The  disposition  of  his  troops  on  this  occasion  was  an 
 
 improvement  on  that  bv  which  he  had  gained  the  bat- 
 tle of  Leuctra,  and  would  have  hud  the  same  decisive 
 success,  but  that,  in  the  critical  moment,  when  the 
 Lacedaemonian  line  was  just  broken,  he  received  a 
 mortal  wound.  The  Theban  army  was  paralyzed  fay 
 this  misfortune  ;  nothing  was  done  to  improve  a  vic- 
 tory which  might  have  been  made  certain ;  and  this 
 battle,  on  which  the  expectation  of  all  Greece  waited, 
 led  to  no  important  result.  "  Each  party,"  says  Xen- 
 ophon,  "  claimed  the  victory,  and  neither  gained  any  ad- 
 vantage :  indecision,  trouble,  and  confusion,  more  than 
 ever  before  that  battle,  pervaded  Greece." — Whether 
 Epaminondas  could  much  longer  have  upheld  Thebes 
 in  the  rank  to  which  he  had  raised  her,  is  very  doubt- 
 ful :  without  him  she  fell  at  once  to  her  former  obscu- 
 rity. His  character  is  certainly  one  of  the  fairest  re- 
 corded in  Greek  history.  His  private  life  was  moral 
 and  refined  ;  his  public  conduct  uninfluenced  by  per- 
 sonal ambition  or  by  personal  hatred.  He  was  a  sin- 
 cere lover  of  his  country  ;  and  if,  in  his  schemes  for  her 
 advancement,  he  was  indifferent  to  the  injury  done  to 
 other  members  of  the  Grecian  family,  this  is  a  fault 
 from  which,  perhaps,  no  Greek  statesman  except  Aris- 
 tides  was  free.  {Xcn.,  Hist.  Gr. — Plut.,  Vit.  Pelop. 
 — Encycl.  Us.  Knoivl.,  vol.  9,  p.  466.) 
 
 Epaphus,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  lo.  This  mytholo- 
 gical personage  is  the  instrument  by  which  Grecian 
 vanity  derived  the  rulers  of  more  ancient  countries 
 from  its  own  gods  and  princes.  Epaphus,  according 
 to  the  legend,  was  born  in  Egypt,  and  married  Mem- 
 phis, the  daughter  of  the  Nile,  by  whom  he  had  a 
 daughter  named  Libya.  The  same  fable  made  him  the 
 founder  of  Memphis.  {jEsch.,  Prom.  Vinct.,  850, 
 seqq. — Herod.,  2,  153.— Owrf,  Met.,  1,  699,  seqq.) 
 Libya  bore  to  Neptune  Agenor,  the  father  of  Cadmus 
 and  Europa,  and  also  Belus,  who  had  by  another  daugh- 
 ter of  the  Nile,  named  Auchinoe,  two  sons,  Danaus 
 and  ^gyptus.  (Apollod.,  2,  1,  4.)  For  some  re- 
 marks on  the  name  Epaphus,  and  on  the  whole  legend, 
 vid.  lo. 
 
 Epei,  a  people  of  Elis.     {Vid.  Elis  I.) 
 
 Epeus,  son  of  Panopeus,  was  the  fabricator  of  the 
 famous  wooden  horse  which  proved  the  ruin  of  Troy. 
 {Virg.,  ^71.,  2,  2M.— Justin,  20,  2.—Pausan.,  10, 
 26.) 
 
 Ephesus,  a  celebrated  city  of  Ionia,  near  the  mouth 
 of  the  river  Cayster,  called  by  Pliny  (5,  29),  "  AUerum 
 lumen  Asice."  Mythology  assigns,  as  its  founders, 
 Ephesus  the  son  of  the  river  Cayster,  and  Cresus 
 (Kp7/(70f)  a  native  of  the  soil.  {Pausan.,  7,  2.)  An- 
 other account  makes  it  to  have  been  settled  by  Ephe- 
 sus, one  of  the  Amazons.  {Sl-cph.  Byz.,  s.  v. — Ety- 
 mol.  Mag.,  s.  v. — Bcrkcl,  ad  Steph.  Byz.,  I.  c.)  Ac- 
 cording to  a  third  tradition,  the  place  owed  its  origin 
 to  the  Amazons,  who  were  permitted  to  settle  here  by 
 Hercules  their  conqueror.  Hence  the  name  of  the 
 city,  "Ecpeaog,  from  tfeaig,  permission.  A  fourth  le- 
 gend makes  the  Amazons,  when  pursued  by  Hercu- 
 les and  Theseus,  to  have  fled  for  refuge  to  an  altar  of 
 Diana,  and  supplicated  the  protection  of  the  goddess, 
 which  she  accordingly  granted :  (KaracpEvyoi'iaag  eTri 
 Tiva  (iufibv  'Aprifiidog,  ddadai  aurrjpiaq  rvxnv,  ttjv 
 8e  i<l>Eivai,  avraic  ttjv  aurrjpiav  odev  'EipeGov  nhjO^vai 
 TO  x<^piov,  Kal  T!/v  'Aprefuv  'Efpeolav.  Etym.  Mag.) 
 It  is  curious  to  observe  how  the  name  of  the  Amazons 
 mingles  in  with  some  of  these  traditions.  (Consult 
 remarks  under  that  article.)  If  we  follow  the  graver 
 authority  of  Strabo  (640),  we  will  find  a  settlement  to 
 have  been  first  made  in  this  quarter  by  the  Carians  and 
 Leleges.  Androclus,  the  son  of  Codrus,  came  subse- 
 quently with  a  body  of  Ionian  colonists.  {Pausan., 
 7,  2.)  He  protected  the  natives  who  had  settled  from 
 devotion  about  the  temple  of  Diana,  and  incorporated 
 them  with  his  followers  ;  but  expelled  those  who  in- 
 habited the  town  above,  which  the  Carians  and  Lele- 
 
EPHESUS. 
 
 EPHESITS. 
 
 ges  nad  built  on  Mount  Prion.     (Pausan.,  I.  c.)    It 
 IS  recorded  that  Prion  had,  in  former  times,  been  call- 
 ed Lcfre  Akte  (Aenp?/  ukti])  ;  and  a  part  behind  Prion 
 was  still  called  the  Back  of  Lepre  when  Strabo  wrote. 
 Pliny  (5,  29)  enumerates  other   names  for  the  city, 
 such   as  Ortygia,   Smyrna,    Trachea,    &c.  —  Lysima- 
 chus,    wishing   to  protect  Ephesus  from  the  inunda- 
 tions to  which  it  was  yearly  exposed  by  the  overflow- 
 ings of  the  Cayster,  built  a  city  up  on  the  mountain, 
 and  surrounded  it  with  walls.     The  inhabitants  were 
 unwilling  to  remove  into  this,  but  a  heavy  rain  falling, 
 and  Lyslmachus  stopping  the  drains  and  flooding  their 
 houses,  they  were  glad  to  exchange.     (Strabo,  640.) 
 The  port  of  Ephesus  had  originally  a  wide  mouth,  but 
 foul  with  mud  lodging  in  it  from  the  Cayster.     Attalus 
 Philadelphus  and  his  architect  were  of  opinion  that, 
 if  the  entrance  were  contracted,  it  would  become  deep- 
 er, and  in  time  be  capable  of  receiving  ships  of  bur- 
 den.    But  the  slime,  which  had  before  been  moved 
 by  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tide,  and  carried  off,  be- 
 intr  stepped,  the  whole  basin,  quite  to  the  mouth,  was 
 rendered  shallow.     This  port  is  a  morass,  which  com- 
 municates with  the  Cayster,  as  might  be  expected,  by  a 
 narrow  mouth  ;  and  at  the  water's  edge,  near  the  ferry, 
 as  well  as  in  other  places,  may  be  seen  the  wall  in- 
 tended to  embank  the  stream,  and  give  it  force  by  con- 
 finement.    The  masonry  is  of  that  kind  termed  incer- 
 turn,  in  which  the  stones  are  of  various  shapes,  but 
 nicely  joined.     The  situation  was  so  advantageous  as 
 to  overLialance  the  inconveniences  attending  the  port. 
 The  town  increased  daily,  and  under  the  Romans  was 
 considered  the  chief  emporium  of  Asia  this  side  of  Tau- 
 rus.    In  the  arrangement  of  the  provinces  under  the 
 Eastern  emperors  it  became  the  capital  of  the  province 
 of  Asia.    {Hierocles,  p.  658.)    Towards  the  end  of  the 
 eleventh  century,  Ephesus  experienced  the  same  fate  as 
 Smyrna.     A  Turkish  pirate,  named  Tangripanes,  set- 
 tled  here.     But  the  Greek  admiral,  John  Ducas,  de- 
 feated him  in  a  bloody  battle,  and  pursued  the  flying 
 Turks  up  the  Maeander  to  Polybotum.     In  1306  it  was 
 among  the  places  which  suffered  from  the  exactions  of 
 the  Grand  Duke  Roger ;  and,  two  years  after,  it  surren- 
 dered to  Sultan  Saysan,  who  to  prevent  future  insur- 
 rections, removed  most  of  the  inhabitants  to  Tyriajum, 
 where  they  were  massacred.     In  the  conflicts  which 
 desolated  Asia  iMinor  at  a  subsequent  period,  Ephesus 
 was  again  a  sufferer,  and  the  city  became  at  length  re- 
 duced to  a  heap  of  ruins.     The  modern  name  is  Aias- 
 aluk,  or,  more   properly,  this  is  the  appellation  of  a 
 small  village   inhabited    by  a   few  Turkish   families, 
 standing  chiefly  on  the  south   side  of  the  castle  hill, 
 among  bushes  and  ruins.     The  name  is  supposed  to 
 be  a  corruption  of  Agios  Thcologos,  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  a  famous  church  of  St.  John  the  Divine  hav- 
 ing once  stood  near  the  spot.     When  Smith  wrote  in 
 1677,  Ephesus  was  already  -'reduced  to  an  inconsid- 
 erable number  of  cottages,  wholly  inhabited  by  Turks." 
 Rycaut  confirms  this  observation.    "  This  place,  where 
 once   Christianity   so    flourished   as  to   be   a  mother 
 church  and  the  see  of  a  metropolitan  bishop,  cannot 
 now  show  one  family  of  Christians  :  so  hath  the  secret 
 providence  of  God  disposed  affairs,  too  deep  and  mys- 
 terious  for  us  to   search   into."     From  Chishull   we 
 learn  that,  in    1699,  "the   miserable  remains  of  the 
 church  of  Ephesus  resided,  not  on  the  spot,  but  at  a  vil- 
 lage called  KirkingecuiV     Tournefort,  however,  says 
 there  were  thirty  or  forty  Greek  families ;  but  as  he 
 wrote  about  the  same  time  as  Chishull,  this  is  probablv 
 a  mistake.     Pococke,  who  visited  Ephesus  about  1740, 
 says  that  there  was  not  at  that  time  a  single  Christian 
 within  two  leagues  round  Ephesus.     "  I  was  at  Eph- 
 esus in  January,  1824,"  says  Mr.  Arundell ;   "  the  des- 
 olation was  then  complete  ;  a  Turk,  whose  shed  we 
 occupied,  his  Arab  servant,  and  a  single  Greek,  com- 
 posed the  entire  population,  some  Turcomans  except- 
 ed, whose  black  tents  were  pitched  among  the  ruins. 
 
 The  Greek  revolution,  and  the  predatory  excursions 
 of  the  Samiotes,  in  great  measure  accounted  for  this 
 desertion."     In  the  records  of  our  religion  Ephesus  is 
 ennobled  as  the  burying-place  of  Timothy,  the  com- 
 panion of  St.  Paul,  and  the  first  bishop  of  Ephesus, 
 whose  body  was  afterward  translated  to  Constantino- 
 ple by  the  founder  of  that  city,  or  by  his  son  Constan- 
 tius,  and  placed  with  Saint  Luke  and  Saint  Andrew 
 in  the  church  of  the  apostles.     The  story  of  St.  John 
 the  Divine  was  deformed  in  an  early  age  with  gross 
 fiction  ;  but  he  also  was  interred  at  Ephesus,  and,  as 
 appears  from  one  narration,  on  Mount  Prion. — Ephe- 
 sus was  famed  for  its  splendid  temple  of  Diana.     The 
 statue    of  the    goddess   was  regarded   with   peculiar 
 veneration,  and  was  believed  by  the  vulgar  to  have 
 fallen  from  the  skies.     It  was  never  changed,  though 
 the  temple  had  been  more  than  once  restored.     This 
 rude  object  of  primeval  worship  was  a  block  of  wood, 
 said  by  some  to  be  of  beech  or  elm,  by  others  cedar, 
 ebony,' or  vine,  and  attesting  its  very  great  antiqui- 
 ty by  the   fashion  in  which  it  had  been  formed.     It 
 was  carved  into  the  similitude  of  Diana,  not  as  the 
 elegant  huntress,  but  an  Egyptian  hieroglyphic,  which 
 we   call   the  goddess   of  nature,  with  many  breasts, 
 and  the  lower  parts  formed  into  an  Hermcean  statue, 
 grotesquely  ornamented,  and  discovering  the  feet  be- 
 neath.    It  was  gorgeously  apparelled  ;  the  vest  em- 
 broidered with  emblems  and  symbolical  devices  ;  and, 
 to  prevent  its  tottering,  a  bar  of  metal,  it  is  likely  of 
 gold,  was  placed  under  each  hand.     A  veil  or  curtain, 
 which  was  drawn  up  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  hid 
 it  from  view,  except  while  service  was  performing  in 
 the  temple.     This  image  was  preserved  till  the  later 
 ages  in  a  shrine,  on  the  embellishment  of  which  mines 
 of  wealth  were  consumed.     The  priests  of  Diana  suf- 
 fered emasculation,  and  virgins  were  devoted  to  invi- 
 olable  chastity.     They  were  eligible  only  from  the  su- 
 perior ranks,  and  enjoyed  a  great  revenue,  with  priv- 
 ileges, the  eventual  abuse  of  which  induced  Augustus 
 to  restrain  them.    It  may  be  imagined  that  many  stories 
 of  her  power  and  interposition  were  current  and  be- 
 lieved at  Ephesus.     A  people  convinced  that  the  self- 
 manifestations  of  their  deity  were  real,  could  not  easily 
 be  turned  to  a  religion  which  did  not  pretend  to  a  sim- 
 ilar or  equal  intercourse  with  its  divinity.     And  this 
 is,  perhaps,  the  true  reason    ■        in  the  early  ages  of 
 Christianity,  a  belief  of  su|    '      ural  interposition  by 
 the  Panagia,  or  Virgin  Mary,  ai.d  by  saints  appearing 
 in  daily  or  nightly  visions,  was  encouraged  and  incul- 
 cated.    It  helped  by  its  currency  to  procure  and  con- 
 firm the  credulous  votary,   to  prevent  or  refute  the 
 cavils  of  the  heathen,  to  exalt  the  new  religion,  and  to 
 deprive  the  established  of  its  ideal  superiority.— The 
 address  of  the  town  clerk  to  the  Ephesians  :    "  Ye 
 men  of  Ephesus,  what  man  is  there  who  knoweth  not 
 that  the  city  of  the  Ephesians  is  a  worshipper  of  the 
 great  goddess  Diana,  and  of  the  image  that  fell  down 
 from  Jupiter  1"  is  curiously  illustrated  by  an  inscription 
 found  by  Chandler  near  the  aqueduct,  commencing  as 
 follows:  "Inasmuch  as  it  is  notorious  that,  not  only 
 among  the  Ephesians,  but  also  everywhere  among  the 
 Greek  nations,  temples  are  consecrated  to  her,  and 
 sacred  portions,"  &c.— The  reputation  and  the  riches 
 of  their  goddess  had  made  the  Ephesians  desirous  of 
 providing  for  her  a  magnificent  temple.    The  fortunate 
 discovery  of  marble  in  Mount  Prion  gave  them  new 
 vigour.    The  cities  of  Asia,  so  general  was  the  esteem 
 for  the  soddess,  contributed  largely  ;  and  Crwsus  was 
 at  the  expense  of  many  of  the  columns.      1  he  spot 
 chosen  for  it  was  a  marsh,  as  most  likely  to  Preserve 
 the  structure  free  from  gaps,  and  uninjured  by  earth- 
 quakes.    The    foundation   was   made   with   charcoal 
 Cammed,  and  with  fleeces.     The  souterra.n  consun^ed 
 immense  quantities  of  marble.     The  edifice  was  exalt- 
 ed on  a   basement  with    ten  steps.     The   architects 
 were  Ctesiphon  of  Crete  and  hi.s  son  Melagenes,  541 
 
EPHESUS. 
 
 EPHESUS. 
 
 B.C.  ;  and  their  plan  was  continued  by  Demetrius,  a 
 iriest  of  Diana  ;  but  the  whole  was  completed  by 
 Daphnis  of  Miletus,  and  a  citizen  of  Ephcsus,  the 
 building  having  occu[)ied  220  years.  It  was  the  first 
 specimen  of  the  Ionic  style,  in  which  the  fluted  col- 
 ufiin  and  capital  with  volutes  were  introduced.  The 
 whole  length  of  the  temple  was  425  feet,  and  the 
 breadth  220  ;  with  127  columns  of  the  Ionic  order 
 and  Parian  marble,  each  of  a  single  shaft,  and  sixty 
 feet  high.  These  were  donations  from  kings,  accord- 
 ing to  Pliny  (36,  14),  but  there  is  reason  to  doubt 
 the  correctness  of  the  text  where  this  assertion  is 
 made.  Of  these  columns  thirty-six  were  carved  ;  and 
 one  of  them,  perhaps  as  a  model,  by  Scopas.  The 
 temple  had  a  double  row  of  columns,  fifteen  on  either 
 side  ;  and  Vitruvius  has  not  determined  if  it  had  a 
 roof;  probably  over  the  cell  only.  The  folding  doors 
 or  gates  had  been  continued  four  years  in  glue,  and 
 were  made  of  cypress  wood,  which  had  been  treasured 
 up  for  four  generations,  highly  polished.  These  were 
 found  by  Mulianus  as  fresh  and  as  beautiful  400  years 
 after  as  when  new.  The  ceiling  was  of  cedar  ;  and 
 the  steps  for  ascending  the  roof  (of  the  cell  1)  of  a 
 single  stem  of  a  vine,  which  attested  the  durable  na- 
 ture of  that  wood.  The  dimensions  of  this  great  tem- 
 ple e.xcite  ideas  of  uncommon  grandeur  from  mere 
 massiveness  ;  but  the  notices  we  collect  of  its  inter- 
 nal ornament  will  increase  our  admiration.  It  was 
 the  repository  in  which  the  great  artists  of  antiquity 
 dedicated  their  most  perfect  works  to  posterity.  Prax- 
 iteles and  his  son  Cephisodorus  adorned  the  shrine  ; 
 Scopas  contributed  a  statue  of  Hecate  ;  Timarete,  the 
 daughter  of  Micon,  the  first  female  artist  upon  record, 
 finished  a  picture  of  the  goddess,  the  most  ancient  in 
 Ephesus  ;  and  Parrhasius  and  Apelles  employed  their 
 skill  to  embellish  the  walls.  The  excellence  of  these 
 performances  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  propor- 
 tionate to  their  price ;  and  a  picture  of  Alexander 
 grasping  a  thunderbolt,  by  the  latter,  was  added  to  the 
 superb  collection  at  the  expense  of  twenty  talents  of 
 gold.  This  description,  however,  applies  chiefly  to 
 the  temple  as  it  was  rebuilt,  after  the  earlier  temple 
 had  been  partially  burned,  perhaps  the  roof  of  timber 
 only,  by  Herostratus,  who  chose  that  method  to  ensure 
 to  himself  an  immortal  name,  on  the  very  night  that 
 Alexander  the  Great  was  born.  Twenty  years  after, 
 that  magnificent  prince,  during  his  expedition  against 
 Persia,  ofi'ercd  to  appropriate  his  spoils  to  the  restora- 
 tion of  it,  if  the  Ephesians  would  consent  to  allow  him 
 the  sole  honour,  and  would  place  his  name  on  the 
 temple.  They  declined  the  proposal,  however,  with 
 the  flattering  remark,  that  it  was  not  right  for  one  deity 
 to  erect  a  temple  to  another  :  national  vanity  was, 
 however,  the  real  ground  of  their  refusal.  The  archi- 
 tect who  superintended  the  erecti(*n  of  the  new  edi- 
 tice  was  Dinocrates,  of  whose  aid  Alexander  afterward 
 availed  himself  in  building  Alexandrea.  (Vitniv.,  2, 
 praf. — Compare  Straho,  640. — Plut.,  Vit.  Alex.,  72. 
 — Plin.,  7,  37. — Solin.,  40.)  The  extreme  sanctity 
 of  the  temple  inspired  universal  awe  and  reverence. 
 It  was  for  many  ages  a  repository  of  foreign  and  do- 
 mestic treasure.  There  property,  whether  public  or 
 private,  was  secure  amid  all  revolutions.  The  conduct 
 of  Xerxes  was  an  example  to  subsequent  conquerors, 
 and  the  impiety  of  sacrilege  was  not  extended  to  the 
 Ephesian  goddess.  But  Nero  deviated  from  this  rule. 
 He  removed  many  costly  ofTerings  and  images,  and  an 
 immense  quantity  of  silver  and  gold.  It  was  again 
 plundered  by  the  Goths  from  beyond  the  Danube  in 
 the  time  of  Gallienus  ;  a  party  under  Raspa  crossing 
 the  Hellespont  and  ravaging  the  country  imtil  com- 
 pelled to  retreat,  when  they  carried  off  a  prodigious 
 booty.  {Treb.  Pollio,  in  Gallien.,  c.  6.)  The  de- 
 struction of  so  illustrious  an  edifice  deserved  to  have 
 been  carefully  recorded  by  contemporary  historians. 
 We  may  conjecture  that  it  followed  the  triumph  of 
 476 
 
 Christianity.  The  Ephesian  reformers,  when  author- 
 ized by  the  imperial  edicts,  rejoiced  in  the  opportunity 
 of  insulting  Diana,  and  deemed  it  piety  to  demolish  the 
 very  ruin  of  her  habitation.  When,  under  the  auspices 
 of  Constantiqc  and  Theodosius,  churches  were  erect- 
 ed, the  pagan  temples  were  despoiled  of  their  orna- 
 ments, or  accommodated  to  other  worship.  The  im- 
 mense dome  of  Santa  Sophia  now  rises  from  the  col- 
 umns of  green  jasper  which  were  originally  placed  in 
 the  temple  of  Diana,  and  were  taken  down  and  brought 
 to  Constantinople  by  order  of  Justinian.  Two  pil- 
 lars in  the  great  church  at  Pisa  were  also  transported 
 thence.  The  very  site  of  this  stupendous  and  celebra- 
 ted edifice  is  even  yet  undetermined.  The  following 
 are  the  principal  data  which  may  assist  in  fixing  it.  The 
 distance  between  the  site  of  the  temple  and  the  quar- 
 ries on  Mount  Prion  did  not  exceed  8000  feet,  and  no 
 rising  intervened,  but  the  whole  space  was  level  plain. 
 It  was  distinct  from  the  city,  at  the  distance  of  nearly  a 
 stadium  ;  for  Marc  Antony  allowing  the  sanctuary  to 
 reach  somewhat  more  than  a  stadium  from  it,  a  part 
 of  the  city  was  comprised  within  those  limits.  It  was 
 without  the  Magnesian  gate,  which  Chandler  supposes 
 to  be  that  next  to  Aiasaluc  ;  and  in  the  second  cen- 
 tury was  joined  to  the  city  by  Damianus,  a  sophist, 
 who  continued  the  way  down  to  it  through  the  Mag- 
 nesian gate,  by  erecting  a  stoa  or  portico  of  marble,  a 
 stadium  in  length,  inscribed  with  the  name  of  his  wife, 
 and  intended  to  prevent  the  absence  of  ministers  when 
 it  rained.  It  was  near  the  agora  or  market  place  of 
 the  first  city,  besieged  by  Croesus,  though  distant  seven 
 stadia,  or  a  mile  wanting  half  a  quarter,  from  it.  The 
 monument  of  Androclus  was  shown  in  the  second 
 century  near  the  road  going  from  the  temple  of  Diana 
 by  the  Olympian  towards  the  Magnesian  gate.  The 
 ancient  city  was  built  on  Tracheia,  and  by  the  Athe- 
 nsum  and  Hypelaeus.  The  Athenseum  was  without 
 the  new  city  of  Lysimachus,  and  the  fountain  Hype- 
 lasus  was  near  the  sacred  port.  In  the  plain  of  Ephe- 
 sus were  anciently  two  lakes,  formed  partly  by  stagnant 
 water  from  the  river  Selinus,  which  ran  opposite  the 
 temple  of  Diana,  probably  from  Mount  Gallcsus.  Pliny 
 says  :  "  Teinplum  Diana  complexi  e  divcrsis  rcgioni- 
 biis  duo  Sdinuntes y  It  has  been  supposed,  adds 
 Chandler,  that  the  souterrain  by  the  morass  or  city- 
 port,  with  two  pieces  of  ancient  wall,  of  square  stone, 
 hy  one  of  which  is  the  entrance  to  it,  are  relics  of  the 
 temple  ;  but  this  was  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  city 
 of  Lysimachus  ;  and  Dallaway  says,  "  Close  upon  the 
 brink  of  the  present  morass,  once  covered  by  the  sea, 
 upon  a  rising  ground,  are  accumulated  walls  of  brick, 
 faced  with  large  slabs  of  marble,  and  of  sufficient  ex- 
 tent to  encourage  Tournefort  and  the  English  travel- 
 lers in  a  conjecture  that  this  structure  was  the  far- 
 famed  temple  of  Diana."  Every  circumstance  of  de- 
 scription, adds  Arundcll,  accords  with  this  spot,  except 
 the  distance  from  the  city  wall  ;  and  among  the  fall- 
 en masonry  are  broken  shafts  of  porphyry,  twelve  feet 
 long  and  four  in  diameter,  more  complete  and  polished 
 than  others  which  surround  them.  Might  not  this  have 
 been  the  church  dedicated  by  Justinian  to  St.  John  ' 
 The  souterrain  under  the  supposed  site  is  said  by  Ry- 
 caut  to  have  a  descent  of  about  thirty  stairs,  and  by 
 Van  Egmont  to  be  a  very  narrow  and  difficult  passage, 
 having  spacious  caverns,  composed  of  amazingly  large 
 black  stones.  But  these  may  as  well  have  been  the 
 foundations  of  other  ancient  buildings  as  of  the  temple , 
 and  evidently  Chandler  docs  not  agree  in  the  opinion 
 that  this  was  the  site  :  for  he  says,  "  the  vaulted  sub- 
 structions by  the  stadium  might,  it  is  believed,  furnish 
 an  area  corresponding  better,  and  more  suited  to  re- 
 ceive the  mighty  fabric  ;  which,  however,  it  has  been 
 shown  above,  was  in  the  plain,  and  distinct,  though 
 not  remote,  from  the  present  city."  Count  Caylus, 
 {Memoires  de  Literature,  vol.  53)  says  :  "  Les  fonda- 
 tions  qui  subsistent  encore  aujourd'hui,  ne  ressemblent 
 
EPH 
 
 E  PH 
 
 point  h  la  description  de  Piine,"  &c.,  and  he  has  no 
 other  mode  of  accounting  for  this  difference,  than  by 
 supposing  it  might  have  been  rebuilt  after  the  time  of 
 Pliny,  perhaps  in  the  reign  of  Gallienus,  after  it  had 
 been  pillaged  and  burned  by  the  Goths.  Dallaway 
 suggests,  that  the  massive  walls  of,  and  adjoining  to, 
 the  gymnasium  may  be  those  of  the  temple.  The 
 grandeur  of  its  plan  and  dimensions,  which  are  still 
 marked  by  a  long  nave,  finished  by  an  arch  of  great  ex- 
 panse at  either  termination,  seems  to  favour  the  j)re- 
 tensions  of  this  edifice  above  those  of  the  other.  In 
 various  points  of  description  they  correspond,  except- 
 ing that  this  was  beyond  the  limits  of  the  city  walls  ; 
 for  the  circumstance  of  having  been  washed  by  the  sea 
 applies  equally  to  both  ruins.  But  the  Turks,  from 
 whose  barbarous  corruptions  or  analogous  terms  the 
 real  and  more  ancient  name  is  in  some  instances  to  be 
 collected,  call  this  particular  ruin  "  Kislar  Serai,^''  or 
 the  palace  of  virgins.  The  same  name  induced  Dr. 
 Pococke,  when  investigating  Alexandrea  Troas,  to  de- 
 cide on  a  building  as  another  temple  of  Diana.  Per- 
 haps the  most  probable  solution  of  the  difficulty  will 
 be,  that  the  entire  remains  of  the  temple  are  buried 
 under  the  soil.  In  the  valley  above  Nolium  is  a  fine 
 Ionic  column,  evidently  in  its  original  situation,  but  of 
 which  not  more  than  three  or  four  feet  are  visible  ;  the 
 remainder  is  buried  by  the  rapid  accumulation  of  soil ; 
 and  Mr.  Cockerell  calculates,  that  of  the  temple  at 
 Sardis  25  feet  remain  still  covered  with  earth  :  the  ac- 
 cumulation from  the  Cayster  must  be  vastly  greater 
 and  more  rapid.  The  relative  position  of  the  temple 
 with  the  Selinusian  lakes  would  be  in  favour  of  a  con- 
 jecture that  it  stood  considerably  lower  down,  and  more 
 towards  the  northeast  than  the  spot  usually  assigned  to 
 it.  This  would  agree  better  with  the  distance  from 
 the  city,  and  its  situation  without  the  Magnesian  gate, 
 which  can  never  be  imagined  to  be  that,  as  Chand- 
 ler supposes,  next  to  Aiasaluc.  (ArundeWs  Seven 
 Churches  of  Asia,  p.  38,  seqq. — Hirt,  Geschichte  der 
 Baukunst  bet  den  Alten,  vol.  2,  p.  60,  scqq.) 
 
 Ephialtes,  a  giant,  sonof  Aloeus.  (t^icf.  Alo'idge.) 
 Ephori  ("E^opoi),  a  body  of  magistrates  at  Sparta, 
 who  were  possessed  of  great  privileges.  The  institu- 
 tion of  this  office  is  usually  ascribed  to  Theopompus, 
 the  grandson  of  Charilaus  the  Proclid  ;  but  it  has  been 
 inferred,  from  the  existence  of  an  ephoralty  in  other 
 Dorian  states  before  the  time  of  Theopompus,  and 
 from  its  being  apparently  placed  among  the  institu- 
 tions of  Lycurgus  by  Herodotus  (1,  65)  and  Xeno- 
 phcm  {de  Rep.  Lac.,  8,  3),  that  it  was  an  ancient  Do- 
 rian magistracy.  Arnold  supposes  that  the  ephori, 
 who  were  five  in  number,  were  coeval  with  the  first 
 settlement  of  the  Dorians  in  Sparta,  and  were  merely 
 the  municipal  magistrates  of  the  five  hamlets  which 
 composed  the  city  [Mullcr,  Dorians,  vol.  2,  p.  550, 
 Ensf.  transl.) ;  but, that  afterward,  when  the  Heracli- 
 dse  began  to  encroach  upon  the  privileges  of  the  other 
 Dorians,  and,  it  would  seem,  in  the  reign  of  Theo- 
 pompus, who  endeavoured  to  diminish  the  powers  of 
 the  general  assembly  of  the  Spartan  aristocracy,  the 
 Dorians,  in  the  struggle  which  ensued,  gained  for  the 
 ephori  an  extension  of  authority,  which  placed  them 
 virtually  at  the  head  of  the  state,  although  the  nominal 
 sovereignty  was  still  kept  in  the  hands  of  the  Heraclidas. 
 (Arnold,  ad  Thucyd.,  1,  87.  —  Append.,  2,  vol.  1,  p. 
 646.)  Thus  the  ephori  were  popular  magistrates,  as 
 far  as  the  Dorians  themselves  were  concerned,  and 
 were,  in  fact,  the  guardians  of  their  rights  from  the  en- 
 croachments of  the  kings ;  though  they  were,  in  rela- 
 tion to  the  Periojci  {XlcploiKOi),  the  oppressive  instru- 
 ments of  an  overbearing  aristocracy.  {Plato,  deLcg., 
 4,  p.  712,  (i. )  The  ephori  were  chosen  in  the  autumn  of 
 every  year  ;  the  first  gave  his  name  to  the  year.  Ev- 
 ery Spartan  was  eligible  to  the  office,  without  any  re- 
 gard to  age  or  wealth.  They  were  empowered  to  fine 
 whom  they  pleased,  and  exact  immediate  payment  of 
 
 the  fine.  They  could  suspend  the  functions  of  any 
 other  magistrate,  and  arrest  and  bring  to  trial  even 
 the  kings.  {Xcn.,  dc  Rep.  Lac,  8,  4.)  They  presided 
 and  put  the  vote  in  the  public  assemblies  (Thuci/d.,  I, 
 87),  and  performed  all  the  functions  of  sovereignty  in 
 receiving  and  dismissing  embassies  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr., 
 2,  13,  19),  treating  with  foreign  stales  {Herod.,  9,  8), 
 and  sending  out  military  expeditions  {Xen.,  Hist.  Or., 
 2, 4,  29).  The  king,  when  he  commanded,  was  always 
 attended  by  two  of  the  ephori,  who  exercised  a  con- 
 trolling power  over  his  movements.  (Herod.,  9,  76.) 
 The  ephori  were  murdered  on  their  seats  of  justice  by 
 Cleomenes  III.,  and  their  office  was  overthrown  (Plut., 
 Vtt.  Cleom.,  c.  8),  but  they  were  restored  by  Anti- 
 gonus  Doson  and  the  Achteans  in  222  B  0.  (Polyb., 
 2,  70. — Pausan.,  2,  9,  2) ;  and  the  office  subsisted 
 under  the  Roman  dominion.  (Bbekh,  Corp.  Inscript  , 
 1,  p.  GOi,  scqq.)  Some  able  remarks  on  this  magis- 
 tracy may  be  found  in  Mdllcr's  Dorians,  vol.  2,  p.  11 5, 
 seqq.,  and  Tittmann'' s  Darstellung  der  Griech.  Staats- 
 verfass.,  p.  104,  seqq.  (Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  9, 
 p.  469.) 
 
 Ephorus,  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Cyme  in  ^Eo- 
 lis,  405  B.C.  He  survived  the  passage  of  Alexander 
 into  Asia  (333  B.C.),  which  he  mentioned  in  his  his- 
 tory. (Clem.  Alex.,  Strom.  1,  p.  337,  a.)  He  studied 
 rhetoric  under  Isocrates,  but  with  so  little  success, 
 that,  after  he  had  returned  from  Athens,  his  father 
 Demophilus  sent  him  back  to  the  rhetorician  for  fresh 
 instruction.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Isocr.,  p.  366,  cd.  Wyttenb.) 
 Isocrates,  perceiving  his  unfitness  for  public  speaking, 
 recommended  him  to  turn  his  attention  to  historical 
 composition  (Seyiec.,  de  Tranq.  An.,  c.  6) ;  but  his 
 style  was  low  and  slovenly  even  m  his  histories,  and 
 Plutarch  remarks  upon  the  silliness  of  the  set  speeches 
 which  he  introduced.  (Polit.  Prcccon.,  p.  803,  b.) 
 Polybius  observes  that,  though  in  his  account  of 
 naval  matters  he  is  sometimes  happy,  he  always  fails 
 in  describing  battles  by  land,  and  was  entirely  igno- 
 rant of  tactics.  (Excerpt.  Vatican.,  p.  391.)  Epho- 
 rus wrote,  1.  A  History  of  Greece,  in  thirty  books,  be- 
 ginning with  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  terminating  with 
 the  siege  of  Perinthus  (340  B.C.).  Part  of  the  thir- 
 tieth book  was  written  by  his  son  Demophilus.  (Died. 
 Sic,  16,  14.)  2.  On  Inventions,  in  two  books.  3. 
 On  Goods  a7id  Ills,  in  twenty-four  books.  4.  On 
 Remarkable  Objects  in  various  Countries,  in  fifteen 
 books.  5.  The  Topography  of  Cyme.  6.  On  Dic- 
 tion.— The  fragments  of  these  works  have  been  collect- 
 ed bv  Marx,  Carlsruhe,  1815.  (Encycl.  Us,  KnowL, 
 vol.  9,  p.  4:69,— ScholL,  Hist.  Lit,  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  182.) 
 Ephyra,  I.  the  ancient  name  of  Corinth,  which  it 
 received  from  a  nymph  of  the  same  name,  and  hence 
 Ephyreus  is  equivalent  to  "  Corinthius."  (Vid.  Co- 
 rinthus.)— II.  A  city  of  Epirus,  at  the  head  of  the  bay 
 or  harbour  called  Glykys  Limen.  It  is  mentioned  by 
 Homer  and  other  writers.  Homer,  in  several  pas- 
 sages of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  alludes  to  one  or  more 
 citites  of  this  name.  The  Ephyra,  which  was  situated 
 on  the  banks  of  the  river  Selleis  (II.,  2,  659),  is  posi- 
 tively ascribed  by  Strabo  (338)  to  Elis  in  Peloponne- 
 s\!s,  though  he  allows  that  many  commentators  on  the 
 poet  were  of  opinion  that  he  there  adverted  to  the 
 Thesprotian  city  of  the  same  name.  Eustathius  ob- 
 serves on  the  verse  above  cited,  that,  as  there  were 
 nine  towns  so  called,  it  was  no  easy  matter  to  ascer- 
 tain to  which  reference  was  made.  It  seems  proba- 
 ble, however,  that  the  Ephvra,  which  is  twice  noH^ed 
 in  the  Odyssey  (1,  259,  and  2,  328)  as  a  land  abound- 
 ing in  poisonous  drugs,  is  the  one  in  question,  since 
 it  was  evidently  near  Ithaca,  and  the  river  Selleis  is 
 not  named  in  either  of  the  passages.  This  city  is  also 
 spoken  of  by  Pindar  (Nem.,  7,  53);  from  which  pas- 
 sa.rc  we  may  infer,  with  Pausanias,  that  it  was  the 
 camtal  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Thesprot.a,  and  where, 
 on  the  attempt  of  Theseus  and  Pirithous  ^o  carry  ofi 
 
E  PT 
 
 E  PI 
 
 the  wife  of  Aidoneus,  they  were  both  taken  prisoners 
 and  detained.  {I'ausan.,  1,  17. — Compare  Apolludo- 
 rus,  2,  7. — Diod.  Sic,  4,  36.)  It  appears  from  Stra- 
 bo  (324)  and  other  autliorities,  that  this  town  after- 
 ward look  the  name  of  Cichyrus,  but  on  what  occasion 
 we  are  not  informed.  Mr.  Hughes,  who  has  explored 
 with  great  attention  this  part  of  Epirus,  reports,  "that 
 the  ruins  of  Ephyra  are  to  be  seen  at  no  great  dis- 
 tance from  the  Acherusian  lake,  near  a  deserted  con- 
 vent dedicated  to  St.  John.  Though  the  walls  lie  for 
 the  most  part  in  a  confused  mass  of  ruins,  they  may 
 be  distinctly  traced  in  a  circular  figure  :  those  parts 
 which  remam  perfect  exhibiting  a  specimen  of  masonry 
 apparently  more  rude  even  than  Tiryns  itself,  though 
 tlie  blocks  used  are  not  of  so  large  dnnensions." 
 {Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  312. —  Cramer'' s  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  113,  scqq.) 
 
 Epich.4.rmus,  the  first  Greek  comic  writer  of  whom 
 we  have  any  certain  account.  He  was  a  Syracusan, 
 either  by  birth  or  emigration.  {Theocritus,  Epig.,  17.) 
 Some  make  him  a  native  of  Crastus,  some  of  Cos 
 {Stiidas  —  Eudocia,  p.  IfiG) ;  but  all  agree  that  he 
 passed  his  life  at  Syracuse.  It  was  about  B.C.  500, 
 Olymp.  70,  1,  thirty-five  years  after  Thespis  began  to 
 exhibit,  eleven  years  after  the  commencement  of  Phry- 
 nichus,  and  just  before  the  appearance  of  ^schylus  as 
 a  tragedian,  that  Epicharmus  produced  the  first  come- 
 dy properly  so  called.  Before  him  this  department  of 
 the  drama  was,  as  we  have  every  reason  to  believe, 
 nothing  but  a  series  of  licentious  songs  and  sarcastic 
 episodes,  without  plot,  connexion,  or  consistency.  He 
 gave  to  each  exhibition  one  single  and  unbroken  fable, 
 and  converted  the  loose  interlocutions  into  regular  dia- 
 logue. {Arislot.,  Foct.,  5,  5.)  The  subjects  of  his 
 comedies,  as  we  may  infer  from  the  extant  titles  of 
 thirty-five  of  them,  were  partly  parodies  of  mythologi- 
 cal subjects,  and,  as  such,  not  very  different  from  the 
 dialogue  of  the  satyric  drama,  and  partly  political,  and 
 in  this  respect  may  have  furnished  a  model  for  the 
 dialogue  of  the  Athenian  comedy.  Tragedy  had,  some 
 years  before  the  era  of  Epicharmus,  begun  to  assume 
 its  st?id  and  dignified  character^  The  woes  of  heroes 
 and  the  majesty  of  the  gods  had,  under  Phrynicus,  be- 
 come its  favourite  theme.  The  Sicilian  poet  seems 
 to  have  been  struck  with  the  idea  of  exciting  the  mirth 
 of  his  audience  by  the  exhibition  of  some  hidicrou» 
 matter  dressed  up  in  all  the  grave  solemnity  of  the 
 newly-invented  art.  Discarding,  therefore,  the  low  drol- 
 leries and  scurrilous  invectives  of  the  ancient  KufK^Sia, 
 he  opened  a  novel  and  less  invidious  source  of  amuse- 
 ment, by  composing  a  set  of  burlesque  dramas  upon  the 
 usual  tragic  subjects.  {AlhencBus,  15,  p.  698,  ed. 
 Schweigh.,  vol.  5,  p.  555.)  They  succeeded,  and  the 
 turn  thus  given  to  comedy  long  continued  ;  so  that 
 when  it  once  more  returned  to  ))crsonality  and  satire, 
 as  it  afterward  did,  tragedy  and  tragic  poets  were  the 
 constant  objects  of  its  parody  and  ridicule.  The  great 
 changes  thus  effected  by  Epicharmus  justly  entitled 
 him  to  be  called  the  Inventor  of  Comedy  {Theocritus, 
 Epig.,  17),  though  it  is  probable  that  Phormis  or  Phor- 
 mus  preceded  him  by  a  few  Olympiads.  {Aristot., 
 Foct.,  3,  5. — AthcncEus,  14,  p.  653,  a)  But  his  mer- 
 its rest  not  here  :  he  was  distinguished  for  elegance 
 of  composition  as  well  as  originality  of  conception. 
 Demetrius  Phalereus  (compare  Vussius,de  Foet.  Gr., 
 6,  p.  31)  says,  that  Epicharmus  excelled  in  the  choice 
 and  collocation  of  epithets  :  on  which  account  the 
 name  of  'Enixup/xio^  was  given  to  his  kind  of  style, 
 making  it  proverbial  for  elegance  and  beauty.  Aris- 
 totle {Rhct.,  3,  9)  lays  one  fault  to  his  charge  as  a 
 writer,  the  employment  of  false  antitheses.  So  many 
 were  his  dramatic  excellences,  that  Plato  terms  him 
 the  first  of  comic  writers  {Tkecctctus,  p.  33),  and  in  a 
 later  age  and  foreign  country,  Plautus  chose  him  as 
 his  model.  {Horat.,  Epist.,  2,  2,  58.)  The  plays  of 
 Epicharmus,  to  judge  from  the  fragments  still  left  us, 
 478 
 
 abounded  in  apophthegms,  little  consistent  with  the  idea 
 we  might  otherwise  have  entertained  of  their  nature, 
 from  our  knowledge  of  the  buffooneries  whence  his 
 comedy  sprung,  and  the  writings  of  Aristophanes,  his 
 partially  extant  successor.  But  Epicharmus  was  a 
 philosopher  and  a  Pythagorean.  {Oiog.  Laert.,  8, 
 78.)  In  the  midst  of  merriment,  he  failed  not  to  in- 
 culcate, in  pithy  gnoins,  the  otherwise  distasteful  les- 
 sons of  morality  to  the  gay  and  thoughtless,  and,  shel- 
 tered by  comic  license,  to  utter  offensive  political 
 truths,  which,  promulgated  under  any  other  circum- 
 stances, might  have  subjected  the  sage  to  the  ven- 
 geance of  a  despotic  government  We  find  Epichar- 
 mus still  composing  comedies  B.C  485  {Suidas,  s.  v. 
 'Enlx-) ;  and  again  during  the  reign  of  Hiero,  B.C. 
 477.  {Clinton,  Fasti  Hclle.mci,  B. C.  477.)  He  died 
 at  the  age  of  ninety  or  ninety-seven  years.  Epichar- 
 mus is  said  by  some  authorities  to  have  added  the 
 letters  f,  tj,  tp,  w,  to  the  Greek  alphabet.  ( Theatre  of 
 the  Greeks,  2d  ed.,  p.  162,  seqq.—Matlhm,  G.  G., 
 vol.  1,  p.  13,  Blonificld's  transl. — Compare,  however, 
 Thiersch's  G.  G.,  Sandford's  tra^isl.,  vol.  1,  p.  25, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Epictetus,  an  eminent  Stoic  philosopher,  born  in 
 a  servile  condition  at  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia.  The  year 
 of  his  birth  is  not  known,  nor  are  we  able  to  make 
 any  very  close  approximation  to  it.  He  must  have 
 been  born,  however,  before  the  end  of  Nero's  reign, 
 68  A.D.,  else  he  could  not  have  been  more  than  twen- 
 ty-one when  Domitian  published  that  edict  against 
 philosophers,  in  89  A.D.,  in  consequence  of  which 
 Epictetus  retired  from  Rome.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
 one  he  was  not  likely  to  have  attained  sufficient  noto- 
 riety to  bring  him  within  the  operation  of  such  an 
 edict.  Epictetus,  then,  was  born  most  probably  during 
 one  of  the  last  eight  years  of  Nero's  reign.  The 
 names  and  condition  of  his  parents  are  unknown  : 
 neither  do  we  know  how  he  came  to  be  brought  to 
 Rome.  But  in  this  city  he  was  for  some  time  a  slave 
 to  Epaphroditus,  a  freedman  of  Nero's,  who  had  been 
 one  of  his  body-guard.  An  anecdote  related  by  Ori- 
 gen,  which  illustrates  the  fortitude  of  Epictetus,  would 
 also  show,  if  it  were  true,  that  Epaphroditus  was  a 
 most  cruel  master.  Epictetus,  when  his  master  was 
 twisting  his  leg  one  day,  smiled  and  quietly  said, 
 "You  will  break  it ;"  and  when  he  did  break  it,  only 
 observed,  "Did  I  not  tell  you  that  you  would  do  sol" 
 {Ong.  c.  Cels.,  7,  p.  368  )  We  are  not  told  how  or 
 when  Epictetus  managed  to  effect  his  freedom  ;  but 
 he  could  not  have  been  still  a  slave  when  he  left  Rome 
 in  consequence  of  an  edict  against  philosophers.  This 
 event,  the  only  one  in  his  life  the  date  of  which  we 
 can  assign,  took  place,  as  has  been  said,  in  the  year 
 89  A.D.,  being  the  eighth  year  of  Domitian's  reign. 
 Epictetus  then  retired  to  Nicopolis  in  Epirus,  and  it  is 
 a  question  whether  he  ever  returned  to  Rome.  The 
 chief  ground  for  believing  that  he  did  is  a  statement 
 of  Spartian  {Vit.  Hadr.,  16),  that  Ejiictetus  lived  on 
 terms  of  intimacy  with  the  Emperor  Hadrian ;  while 
 it  is  agreed,  on  the  other  hand,  that  there  is  no  good 
 evidence  of  any  of  his  discourses  having  been  delivered 
 at  Rome,  but  that  they  contain  frequent  mention  of 
 Nicopolis.  Iliis  argument,  however,  is  h;irdly  suffi- 
 cient to  overthrow  the  express  testimony  of  Spartian. 
 We  do  not  know  when  he  died.  Suidas  says  that  he 
 lived  till  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius ;  but,  though  some 
 support  for  this  opinion  is  sought  to  be  obtained  from 
 Thcmistius  [Or.,  5,  ad  Jovian.  Imp.),  yet  the  authori- 
 ty of  Aulus  Gellius  is  strong  on  the  other  side,  who, 
 writing  during  the  reign  of  the  first  Antonine,  speaks 
 of  Epictetus,  in  two  places,  as  being  dead.  {Noct. 
 Att.,  2,  IS.— iA.,  17,  19.)  Epictetus  led  a  life  of  ex- 
 emplary contentment,  simplicity,  and  virtue,  practising 
 in  all  particulars  the  morality  which  he  taught.  He 
 lived  for  a  long  while  in  a  small  hut,  with  no  other 
 furniture  than  a  bed  and  lamp,  and  without  an  attend- 
 
EPI 
 
 EPICURUS. 
 
 ant ;  until  he  benevolently  adopted  a  child  whom  a 
 friend  had  been  compelled  by  poverty  to  expose,  and 
 hired  a  nurse  for  its  sake. — Epictetus  was  a  teacher  of 
 the  Stoic  philosophy,  and  the  chief  of  those  who  lived 
 during  the  period  of  the  Roman  empire.  His  lessons 
 were  principally,  if  not  solely,  directed  to  practical 
 morality.  His  favourite  maxim,  and  that  into  which 
 he  resolved  all  practical  morality,  was  "  bear  and  for- 
 bear,'''' avExov  nal  uttexov-  He  appears  to  have  dif- 
 fered from  the  Stoics  on  the  subject  of  suicide.  {Ar- 
 rian,  Epicl  ,  1,  8.)  We  are  told  by  Arrian,  in  his 
 Preface  to  the  "  Discourses,"  that  he  was  a  powerful 
 and  exciting  lecturer ;  and,  according  to  Origen  (c. 
 Ccls.,  7,  ad  init.),  his  style  was  superior  to  that  of 
 Plato.  It  IS  a  proof  of  the  estimation  in  which  Epic- 
 tetus was  held,  that,  on  his  death,  his  lamp  was  pur- 
 chased by  some  more  eager  than  wise  aspirant  after 
 philosophy  for  three  thousand  drachmas,  or  over  five 
 hundred  dollars  of  our  currency.  {Lucia7i,  adv.  In- 
 doct.  libr.  ement.,  vol.  8,  p.  15,  ed  Bip.)  Though  it 
 is  said  by  Suidas  that  Epictetus  wrote  much,  there  is 
 good  reason  to  believe  that  he  himself  wrote  nothing. 
 His  Discourses  were  taken  down  by  his  pupil  Arrian, 
 and  published  after  his  death  in  six  books,  of  which 
 four  remain.  The  same  Arrian  compiled  the  Enchi- 
 ridion, and  wrote  a  life  of  Epictetus,  which  is  lost. 
 Some  fragments  have  been  preserved,  however,  by 
 Stobffius.  Simplicius  has  also  left  a  commentary  on 
 his  doctrine,  in  the  Eclectic  manner.  The  best  edi- 
 tion of  the  remains  of  Epictetus  is  that  of  Schweig- 
 haeuser,  6  vols.  8vo,  Lips.,  1799.  The  same  editor 
 has  published  the  Enchiridion,  together  with  the  Ta- 
 blet of  Cebes,  in  a  separate  volume  {Lips.,  1797, 
 8vo).  There  is  an  English  version  of  the  Enchiridion 
 or  Manual  by  Mrs.  Carter.  (Fabric,  Bibl.  Gtcec,  ed. 
 Harks,  vol.  5,  p.  64. — Enfield,  Hist.  Philos.,  vol.2, 
 p.  Ul.—Encycl.  Us.  Knoid.,  vol.  9,  p.  471.) 
 
 EpiciJRUs,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  born  in  the  year 
 341  B.C.,  seven  years  after  the  death  of  Plato.  He 
 was  a  native  of  the  Island  of  Samos,  whither  his  father 
 had  gone  from  Athens,  in  the  year  352  B.C.,  among 
 2000  colonists  then  sent  out  by  the  Athenians.  (Stra- 
 bo,  638.)  Yet  he  was  an  Athenian  by  right,  belong- 
 ing to  the  borough  Gargettus,  and  to  the  tribe  JEgeis. 
 His  father  Neocles  is  said  to  have  been  a  schoolmas- 
 ter, and  his  mother  {^hajristrata  to  have  practised  arts 
 of  magic,  in  which  it  was  afterward  made  a  charge 
 against  Epicurus,  that,  when  he  was  young,  he  assist- 
 ed her.  {Diog.  Laert.,  10,  4.)  Having  passed  his 
 early  years  in  Samos  and  Teos,  he  went  lo  Athens  at 
 the  age  of  eighteen.  We  are  told  that  he  had  begun 
 to  study  philosophy  when  only  fourteen,  having  been 
 incited  thereto  by  a  desire,  which  the  teachers  to  whom 
 he  had  applied  had  failed  to  satisfy,  of  understanding 
 Hesiod's  description  of  chaos  ;  and  that  he  began  with 
 the  writings  of  Democritus.  In  Samos  he  is  said  to 
 have  received  lessons  from  Pamphilus,  a  follower  of 
 Plato.  (Suid.—Cic,  N.  D.,  1,  26.)— On  the  occa- 
 sion of  this  his  first  visit  to  Athens,  Epicurus  stayed 
 there  for  a  very  short  time.  He  left  it  in  consequence 
 of  the  measures  taken  by  Perdiccas  after  the  death  of 
 Alexander  the  Great,  and  went  to  Colophon  to  join  his 
 father.  In  his  32d  year,  310  B.C.,  he  went  lo  Myti- 
 lene,  where  he  set  up  a  school.  Staying  only  one  year 
 at  this  latter  place,  he  next  proceeded  to  Lampsacus, 
 where  he  taught  for  four  years.  He  returned  to  Athens 
 in  the  year  306  B.C.,  and  now  founded  the  school, 
 which  ever  after  was  named  from  him  the  Epicurean. 
 He  purchased  a  garden  for  80  minaj  (about  1400  dol- 
 lars), wherein  he  might  live  with  his  disciples  and  de- 
 liver his  lectures,  and' henceforth  remained  in  Athens, 
 with  the  exception  only  of  two  or  three  visits  to  his 
 friends  in  Asia  Minor,  until  his  death,  B.C.  270.  The 
 disease  which  brought  him  to  his  death  was  the  stone. 
 He  was  in  his  seventy-second  year  when  he  died,  and 
 he  had  then  been  settled  in  Athens  as  a  teacher  for  36 
 
 years.  Epicurus  is  said  by  Diogenes  Laertius  (10,  9; 
 to  have  had  so  many  pupils  that  even  whole  cities 
 could  not  contain  them.  Hearers  came  to  him  from 
 distant  places  ;  very  many  from  Lampsacus  ;  and  while 
 men  often  deserted  other  schools  to  join  that  of  Epi- 
 curus, there  were  only  two  instances,  at  most,  of  Epi- 
 curus being  deserted  for  any  other  teacher.  Epicurua 
 and  his  pupils  lived  together  in  the  garden  of  which 
 we  have  spoken,  in  a  state  of  friendship,  which,  as  it 
 is  usually  represented,  could  not  be  surpassed  ;  ab- 
 staining from  putting  their  property  together  and  en- 
 joying it  in  common,  for  the  quaint  yet  significant  rea-  ' 
 son  that  such  a  plan  implied  mutual  distrust.  The 
 friendship  subsisting  between  Epicurus  and  his  pupils 
 is  commemorated  by  Cicero  {de  Fin.,  1,  20).  In  this 
 garden,  too,  they  lived  in  the  most  frugal  and  virtuous 
 manner,  though  it  was  the  delight  of  the  enemies  of  Epi- 
 curus to  represent  it  differently,  and  though  I'lrnocra- 
 tes,  who  had  once  been  his  pupil,  and  had  abandoned 
 him,  spread  such  stories  as  that  Epicurus  used  to  vom- 
 it twice  a  day  after  a  surfeit,  and  that  many  immodest 
 women  were  inmates  of  the  garden.  ( Vid.  Leonti- 
 um.)  An  inscription  over  the  gate  of  the  garden  told 
 him  who  might  be  disposed  to  enter,  that  barley-cakes 
 and  water  would  be  the  fare  provided  for  him  {Scncc., 
 Ep  ,  31)  ;  and  such  was  the  chastity  of  Epicurus,  that 
 one  of  his  principal  opponents,  Chrysippus,  endeavour- 
 ed to  account  for  it,  so  as  to  deny  him  any  merit,  by 
 saying  that  he  was  without  passions.  {Stob.,  Serm., 
 117.)  Epicurus  did  not  marry,  in  order  that  he  might 
 be  able  to  prosecute  philosophy  without  interruption. 
 His  most  attached  friends  and  pupils  were  Hermachus 
 of  Mytilene,  whom  he  appointed  by  will  to  succeed 
 him  as  mastex  of  the  school ;  Metrodorus,  who  wrote 
 several  books  in  defence  of  his  system,  and  Polyaenus. 
 Epicurus's  three  brothers,  Neocles,  Charedemus,  and 
 Aristobulus,  also  followed  his  philosophy,  as  also  one 
 of  his  servants,  Mys,  whom  at  his  death  he  made  free. 
 Besides  the  garden  in  Athens,  from  which  the  followers 
 of  Epicurus,  in  succeeding  time,  came  to  be  named 
 the  philosophers  of  the  garden  {Juv.,  Sat.,  13,  122. — 
 Id.,  14,  319),  Epicurus  possessed  a  house  in  Melite,  a 
 village  near  Athens,  to  which  he  used  often  lo  retire 
 with  his  friends.  On  his  death  he  left  this  house,  to- 
 gether with  the  garden,  to  Hermachus,  as  head  of  the 
 school,  to  be  left  by  him  again  to  wjiosoever  might 
 be  his  successor. — In  physics  Epicurus  trod  pretty 
 closely  in  the  footsteps  of  Democritus ;  so  much  so, 
 indeed,  that  he  was  accused  of  taking  his  atomic  cos- 
 mology from  that  philosopher  without  acknowledg- 
 ment. He  made  very  few,  and  these  unimportant,  alter- 
 ations. (Cic,  de  Fin.,  1,  6.)  According  to  Epicurus, 
 as  also  to  Democritus  and  Leucippus  before  him,  the 
 universe  consists  of  two  parts,  matter  and  space,  or  vac- 
 uum in  which  matter  exists  and  moves  ;  and  all  matter, 
 of  every  kind  and  form,  is  reducible  to  certain  indivisible 
 particles  or  atoms,  which  are  eternal.  These  atoms, 
 moving,  according  to  a  natural  tendency,  straight  down- 
 ward, and  also  obliquely,  have  thereby  come  to  form 
 the  different  bodies  which  are  found  in  the  world,  and 
 which  differ  in  kind  and  shape,  according  as  the  atoms 
 are  differently  placed  in  respect  to  one  another.  It  is 
 clear  that,  in  this  system,  a  creator  is  dispensed  with  ; 
 and  indeed  Epicurus,  here  again  following  Democritus, 
 set  about  to  prove,  in  an  a  prion  way,  that  this  crea- 
 tor could  not  exist,  inasmuch  as  nothing  could  arise 
 out  of  nothing,  any  more  than  it  could  utterly  perish 
 and  become  nothing.  The  atoms  have  existed  always, 
 and  alwavs  will  exist  ;  and  all  the  various  physical 
 phenomena  are  brought  about,  from  time  to  time,  by 
 their  various  motions.— It  remains  to  speak  of  the  t>pi 
 curean  system  of  ethics.  Setting  out  from  the  two 
 facts  that  man  is  susceptible  of  pleasure  and  pain,  and 
 that  he  seeks  the  one  and  avoids  the  other,  Epicurus 
 propounded,  that  it  is  a  man's  duty  to  endeavour  to  in- 
 crease to  the  utmost  his  pleasures,  and  diminish  lo 
 
 479 
 
EPICURUS. 
 
 EPI 
 
 the  utmost  his  pains  ;  choosing  that  which  tends  to 
 pleasure  rather  than  that  which  tends  to  pain,  and 
 that  which  tends  to  a  greater  pleasure  or  to  a  lesser 
 pain  rather  than  that  which  tends  respectively  to  a 
 lesser  pleasure  or  a  greater  pain.  He  used  the  terms 
 pleasure  and  pain  in  the  most  comprehensive  way,  as 
 including  pleasure  and  pain  of  both  mind  and  body  ; 
 and  he  esteemed  the  pleasures  and  pains  of  the  mind 
 as  incomparably  greater  than  those  of  the  body.  Ma- 
 king, then,  good  and  evil,  or  virtue  and  vice,  depend 
 on  a  tendency  to  increase  pleasure  and  diminish  pain, 
 .  or  the  opposite,  he  arrived,  as  he  easily  nnght  do,  at 
 the  several  virtues  to  be  inculcated  and  vices  to  be 
 denounced.  And  when  he  got  thus  far,  even  his  ad- 
 versaries had  nothing  to  say  against  him.  It  is  strange 
 that  they  should  have  continued  to  revile  the  principle, 
 no  matter  by  what  name  it  might  be  called,  when  they 
 saw  that  it  was  a  principle  which  led  to  truth. — The 
 period  in  which  Epicurus  opened  his  school  was  pecu- 
 liarly favourable.  In  the  room  of  the  simplicity  of  the 
 Socratic  doctrine,  nothing  now  remained  but  the  sub- 
 tlety and  affectation  of  Stoicism,  the  unnatural  severity 
 of  the  Cynics,  err  the  debasing  doctrine  of  indulgence 
 taught  and  practised  by  the  followers  of  Aristippus. 
 The  luxurious  refinement  which  now  prevailed  in 
 Athens,  while  it  rendered  every  rigid  scheme  of  phi- 
 losophy, as  well  as  all  grossness  of  manners,  unpopular, 
 inclined  the  younger  citizens  to  listen  to  a  preceptor 
 who  smoothed  the  stern  and  wrinkled  brow  of  philos- 
 ophy, and,  under  the  notion  of  conducting  his  follow- 
 ers to  enjoyment  in  the  bower  of  tranquillity,  led  them 
 unawares  into  the  path  of  moderation  and  virtue. 
 Hence  the  popularity  of  his  school.  It  cannot  be  de- 
 nied, however,  that,  from  the  time  when  this  philosopher 
 appeared  to  the  present  day,  an  uninterrupted  course 
 of  censure  has  fallen  upon  his  memory  ;  so  that  the 
 name  of  his  sect  has  almost  become  a  proverbial  ex- 
 pression for  everything  corrupt  in  principle  and  infa- 
 mous in  character.  Tiie  charges  brought  against  Epi- 
 curus are,  that  he  superseded  all  religious  principles  by 
 dismissing  the  gods  from  the  care  of  the  world  ;  that 
 if  he  acknowledged  their  existence,  it  was  only  in  con- 
 formity to  popular  prejudice,  since,  according  to  his 
 system,  nothing  exists  in  nature  but  material  atoms ; 
 that  he  discovered  great  insolence  and  vanity  in  the 
 disrespect  with  which  he  treated  the  memory  of  for- 
 mer philosophers,  and  the  characters  and  persons  of 
 his  contemporaries  ;  and  that  both  he  and  his  disciples 
 were  addicted  to  the  grossest  sensuality.  These  ac- 
 cusations, too,  have  been  not  only  the  voice  of  common 
 rumour,  but  more  or  less  confirmed  by  men  distinguish- 
 ed for  their  wisdom  and  virtue — Zeno,  Cicero,  Plutarch, 
 Galen,  and  a  long  train  of  Christian  fathers.  With 
 respect  to  the  first  charge,  it  certainly  admits  of  no  ref- 
 utation. The  doctrine  of  Epicurus  concerning  nature 
 militated  directly  against  the  agency  of  a  Supreme  Be- 
 ing in  the  formation  and  government  of  the  world  ;  and 
 his  misconceptions  with  respect  to  mechanical  motion, 
 and  the  nature  of  divine  happiness,  led  him  to  divest 
 the  Deity  of  some  of  his  primary  attributes.  It  does 
 not,  however,  appear  that  he  entirely  denied  the  exist- 
 ence of  superior  powers.  Cicero  charges  him  with 
 inconsistency  in  having  written  books  concerning  piety 
 and  the  reverence  due  to  the  gods,  and  in  maintaining 
 that  the  gods  ought  to  be  worshipped,  while  he  assert- 
 ed that  they  had  no  concern  in  human  affairs.  That 
 there  was  an  inconsistency  in  this  is  obvious.  But 
 Epicurus  professed,  that  the  universal  prevalence  of  the 
 ideas  of  gods  was  suflicient  to  prove  that  they  exist- 
 ed ;  and,  thinking  it  necessary  to  derive  these  ideas, 
 like  all  other  ideas,  from  serusations,  he  imagined  that 
 the  gods  were'  beings  of  human  form,  hovering  about 
 in  the  air,  and  made  known  to  men  by  the  customary 
 emanations.  He  believed  that  these  gods  were  eternal, 
 and  supremely  happy,  living  in  a  state  of  quiet,  and 
 meddling  not  with  the  affairs  of  the  world.  He  con- 
 480 
 
 tended  that  they  were  to  be  worshipped  on  account  of 
 the  excellence  of  their  nature,  noi  because  they  could 
 do  men  either  good  or  harm.  {Cic,  N.  D.,  1,  41. — 
 Scncc,  de  Bene/., 4, 19.) — Ourchief  sources  of  informa- 
 tion respecting  the  doctrines  of  Epicurus  are,  the  lOth 
 book  of  Diogenes  Laertius,  and  the  poem  of  Lucretius 
 "  De  Rcrum  Natiira."  Information  is  also  furnished 
 by  the  writings  of  Cicero,  especially  the  "Z)e  Fini- 
 lus''  and  the  '•  De  Natura  Deorum  ;"  by  those  of  Sen- 
 eca, and  by  the  treatise  of  Plutarch  entitled  "  Against 
 Colotes."  Epicurus,  according  to  Diogenes  Laertius, 
 was  a  more  voluminous  writer  than  any  other  philos- 
 opher, having  written  as  many  as  300  volumes,  in  all 
 of  which  he  is  said  to  have  studiously  avoided  making 
 quotations.  All  that  now  remains  of  his  works  are  the 
 Letters  contained  in  the  10th  book  of  Diogenes  Laer- 
 tius, and  parts  of  two  books  of  his  treatise  on  Nature 
 {rrepl  (jivasu^),  which  were  discovered  at  Herculanc- 
 um.  The  last  were  published  at  Leipzig  in  1818,  be- 
 ing edited  by  Orelli.  A  critical  edition  of  the  first 
 two  letters  was  given  by  Schneider,  at  Leipzig,  1813. 
 — The  Epicurean  school  was  carried  on,  after  Herma- 
 chus,  by  Polystralus  and  many  others,  concerning 
 whom  nothing  is  known  ;  and  the  doctrines  which 
 Epicurus  had  taught  underwent  few  modifications. 
 When  introduced  among  the  Romans,  these  doctrines, 
 though  very  much  opposed  at  first,  were  yet  adopted 
 by  many  distinguished  men,  as  Lucretius,  Atticus, 
 Horace.  Under  the  emperors,  Pliny  the  Younger,  and 
 Lucian  of  Samosata,  were  Epicureans.  {Enfield,  Hist. 
 Phil,  vol.  1,  p.  445,  seqq. — Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol. 
 9,  p  472. —  Good's  Lucretius,  Prolegom. — Id.,  Book  of 
 Nature,  vol.  1,  p.  48,  seqq.,  &c.) 
 
 Epidamnus,  a  city  of  lliyricum,  on  the  coast,  north 
 of  Apollonia.  Its  foundation  is  universally  ascribed 
 to  the  Corcyreans,  who,  in  compliment  to  Corinth, 
 their  metropolis,  invited  a  citizen  of  that  town  to  head 
 their  new  colony.  {Thucyd.,  1,  24.)  But  we  are  not 
 informed  what  circumstances  led  to  the  change  in  its 
 name  from  Epidamnus  to  that  of  Dyrrachium,  by 
 which  it  is  more  commonly  known  to  the  Latin  writers. 
 Some  have  thought  that  Epidamnus  and  Dyrrachium 
 were  two  difTerent  towns,  the  latter  of  which  was  the 
 emporium  of  the  former.  Others  affirmed,  that  the 
 ,Romans,  considering  the  word  Epidamnus  to  be  of  evil 
 omen,  called  it  Dyrrachium  from  the  ruggedness  of  its 
 situation.  {Ap'pian,  B.  C,  2,  39.— Pom;?.  MeL,  2,-3. 
 — Plm.,  H.  N.,  3,  23.)  It  is  pretty  evident,  however, 
 that  tlie  word  Avp^uxi-ov  is  of  Greek,  and  not  of  Latin 
 origin,  forvve  find  it  used  by  the  poet  Euphorion  of  Chal- 
 cis  in  a  verse  preserved  by  Stephanus  of  Byzantium,  s. 
 v.  Avpfmxcov.  The  fact  seems  to  be,  that  the  founders 
 of  Epidamnus  gave  the  name  of  Dyrrachium  or  Dyr- 
 rhachium  to  the  high  and  craggv  penin.^ula  on  which 
 they  built  their  town.  Strabo  (316)  ccrtamly  applies 
 this  appellation  to  the  Chersonese,  as  does  the  poet 
 Alexander  cited  by  Stephanus,  s.  v.  Av^pdxLov,  and 
 this,  in  time,  may  have  usurped  the  place  of  the  former 
 name.  It  is  probable,  also,  that  the  town  called  Dyr- 
 rachium did  not  exactly  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 Epidamnus;  indeed,  this  is  plainly  asserted  by  Pau- 
 sanias  (5,  10).  Eusebius  refers  the  foundation  of  Epi- 
 damnus to  the  second  year  of  the  38th  Olympiad,  or 
 about  625  B.C.  Periander  was  then  tyrant  of  Corinth, 
 and  nearly  at  the  same  period  Cyrene  was  founded  by 
 Battus.  Placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  Hadriatic,  in  a 
 situation  most  advantageous  for  commerce,  which  was 
 also  favoured  by  its  relations  with  Corcyraand  Corinth, 
 Epidamnus  early  attained  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
 opulence  and  power.  It  possessed  a  treasury  at  Olym- 
 pia  {Pausaii.,  6,  19),  and  its  citizens  vied  with  those 
 of  the  most  celebrated  states  of  Greece  in  wealth  and 
 accomplishments.  (Herodot.,  6,  127.)  And  though 
 the  jealousy  of  the  neighbouring  barbarians  had  often 
 prompted  them  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the  rising  colo- 
 ny, it  successfully  withstood  all  their  attacks  until 
 
E  PI 
 
 EPIDAURUS. 
 
 dissension  and  faction,  that  bane  of  the  Grecian  states, 
 entailed  upon  the  city  their  attendant  evils,  and  so  im- 
 paired its  strength  that  it  was  forced  to  seek  from  the 
 Corey reans  that  aid  against  foreign  as  well  as  domes- 
 tic enemies  which  its  necessities  required.  The  re- 
 fusal of  Corcyra  compelled  the  Epidamnians  to  apply 
 to  Corinth,  which  gladly  sought  this  opportunity  of  in- 
 creasing its  inHuenee  at  the  expense  of  that  of  Corcyra. 
 A  Corinthian  force,  together  with  a  fresh  supjjly  of  col- 
 onists, was  accordingly  despatched  by  land  to  the  aid 
 of  Epidamnus,  and  contributed  greatly  to  restore  or- 
 der and  tranquillity.  The  Corcyreans,  however,  who 
 were  on  no  friendly  terms  with  the  Corinthians,  could 
 not  brook  this  interference  in  the  affairs  of  their  colony  ; 
 they  also  equipped  a  fleet,  which,  on  its  arrival  at  Epi- 
 damnus, summoned  that  town  to  receive  back  those 
 citizens  who  had  been  banished,  and  to  send  away  the 
 Corinthian  reinforcement.  On  the  rejection  of  this 
 proposal  by  the  Epidamnians,  the  Corcyreans,  in  con- 
 junction with  the  neighbouring  Illyrians,  besieged  the 
 town,  and,  after  some  days,  compelled  it  to  surrender. 
 These  are  the  events  which  Thucydides  has  related  at 
 length,  from  their  intimate  connexion  with  the  origin 
 of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  We  know  but  little  of  the 
 fortunes  of  Epidamnus  from  this  period  to  its  conquest 
 by  the  Romans.  Aristotle,  in  his  Politics  (5,  1),  no- 
 tices a  change  which  took  place  in  its  constitution, 
 from  the  government  of  magistrates  called  phylarchs  tc 
 that  of  a  senate.  The  character  of  its  inhabitants, 
 which  was  once  virtuous  and  just,  was  also  impaired 
 by  luxury  and  vice,  if  we  mav  credit  Plautus,  who 
 portrays  them  in  his  Menaechmi.  {Act.  2,  Sc.  1.) 
 That  Venus  was  particularly  worshipped  here  we  learn 
 from  Catullus  (36,  11).  —  Dyrrachium  became  the 
 scene  of  the  contest  between  (Jaesar  and  Pompey. 
 'i'he  latter  general,  having  been  compelled  to  withdraw 
 from  Italy  by  his  enterprising  adversary,  retired  to 
 Dyrrachium  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Illyria,  and  hav- 
 ing collected  all  his  forces  round  that  city,  deter- 
 mined to  make  a  stand  against  the  enemy.  Csesar 
 soon  followed  him  thither,  having  formed  the  bold  de- 
 sign of  blockading  his  adversary  in  his  intrenched 
 camp  close  to  the  town.  This  led  to  a  series  of  op- 
 erations, which  are  detailed  at  length  by  Cassar  him- 
 self; the  success  of  which  continued  doubtful  until 
 Pompey  at  length  forced  his  enemy  to  retire,  and  was 
 thus  enabled  to  transfer  the  seat  of  war  into  Thessaly. 
 {Cces.,  B.  C,  3.  41,  seqq.—Appian,  R.  C,  2,  40.) 
 In  addition  lo  the  strength  of  its  situation,  Dyrrachium 
 was  of  importance  to  the  Romans  from  its  vicinity  to 
 Brundisium.  Cicero  landed  there  on  his  banishment 
 from  Italy,  and  speaks  of  the  kindness  he  experienced 
 from  the  mhabitants.  (Bp.  ad  Fam.,  14,  1.)  We 
 learn,  indeed,  from  ^lian  (V.  H.,  13,  16),  that  the 
 laws  of  this  city  were  particularly  favourable  to  stran- 
 gers. Dio  Cassius  observes,  that  Dyrrachium  sided 
 with  Antony  during  the  last  civil  wars  of  the  republic  ; 
 and  thence  it  was  that  Augustus,  after  his  victory,  re- 
 warded his  soldiers  with  estates  in  its  territory.  The 
 Byzantine  historians  speak  of  it  as  being  still  a  con- 
 siderable place  in  their  time.  (Ann.  Comncn.,  1,  41. 
 —  Ccdrcn.,  Basil.  Imp.,  p.  703. — Niccph.,  Cullist., 
 17,  3.)  But  it  is  now  scarcely  more  than  a  village, 
 which  is  rendered  unhealthy  by  its  proximity  to  some 
 marshes.  Its  modern  name  is  Durazzo.  {Cramer's 
 Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  49,  seqq.) 
 
 Epidauria,  a  festival  at  Athens  in  honour  of  JEs- 
 culapius. 
 
 Epidaurus,  I.  a  city  of  Argolis,  on  the  shores  of  the 
 Saronic  Gulf,  opposite  the  island  of  ^Egina.  Its  ter- 
 ritory extended  along  the  coast  for  the  space  of  fifteen 
 stadia,  while  towards  the  land  it  was  encircled  by  lofty 
 .mountains,  which  contributed  to  its  security.  (Stra- 
 bo,  374.)  The  more  ancient  appellation  of  this  city 
 was  Epicanis ;  its  founders  having  been  Carians,  as 
 Aristotle  reported,  who  were  afterward  joined  by  an 
 
 P  e  p 
 
 fonian  colony  from  Attica  (ap.  Strah.,  I.  c).  On  the 
 arrival  of  the  Heraclidaj  and  Dorians,  Epidaurus  sub- 
 mitted to  their  arms,  and  received  a  colony  from  Ar- 
 gos  under  Deiphontes.  {Pausan.,2,M.)  It  afterward 
 contributed,  as  Herodotu.s  informs  us  (1,  146,  and  7, 
 99),  to  the  foundation  of  several  Dorian  cities  in  Asia 
 Minor.  The  constitution  of  Epidaurus  was  originally 
 monarchical ;  in  the  time  of  Periander  of  Corinth,  his 
 father-in-law,  Proclcs,  was  tyrant  of  Epidaurus.  {He- 
 rod., 3,  53.)  Afterward  the  government  was  aristo- 
 cratical ;  the  chief  magistrates  being  called  Artynae  or 
 Artyni,  as  at  Argos  {Thicyd.,  5,  47),  and  being  the 
 presidents  of  a  council  of  one  hundred  and  eighty. 
 The  common  people  were  termed  Konipcdcs  {Kovi- 
 TTOfJff)  or  dusty-feet,  in  allusion  to  their  agricultural 
 pursuits.  {Plut.,  QucEst.  Gr.,l.)  Epidaurus  was  the 
 mother-city  of  ^gina  and  Cos,  the  former  of  which 
 was  once  dependant  upon  it ;  afterward,  however,  the 
 ^ginetse  emancipated  themselves  from  this  slate  of 
 vassalage,  and,  by  means  of  their  navy,  did  much  in- 
 jury to  the  Epidaurian  territory.  {Herod.,  5,  83.)  The 
 Epidaurians  sent  ten  ships  to  Salamis,  and  800  heavy- 
 armed  soldiers  to  Plataea.  {Herodot.,  8,  1,  and  9, 102.) 
 They  were  the  allies  of  Sparta  during  the  Peloponne- 
 sian war  {Thucyd.,  1,  105,  and  2,  56),  and  successfully 
 resisted  the  Argives,  who  besieged  their  city  after  the 
 battle  of  Amphipolis.  {Thicyd.,  5,  53,  scqq.)  Du- 
 ring the  Boeotian  war  they  were  still  in  alliance  with 
 Lacedsmon  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  4,  2,  16 —Id.,  7,  2,  2), 
 but  in  the  time  of  Aralus  we  find  them  united  with 
 the  Achffian  league.  {Polyb.,2,  5.)  Epidaurus  was  still 
 a  flourishing  city  when  Paulus  .(Emilius  made  the  tour 
 of  Greece  {Liv.,  45,  28.— Polyb.,  30,  15,  1) ;  and  Pau- 
 sanias  informs  us,  that  many  of  its  buildings  were  in 
 good  preservation  when  he  visited  Argolis,  more  than 
 three  centuries  later. — Epidaurus  was  famed  for  having 
 been,  in  the  mythological  legends  of  Greece,  the  natal 
 place  of  .(^sculapius  ;  and  it  derived  its  greatest  ce- 
 lebrity from  a  neighbouring  temple  to  that  god,  which 
 was  the  resort  of  all  who  needed  his  assistance.  The 
 temple  of  ^sculapius  was  situate  at  the  upper  end  of 
 a  valley,  about  five  miles  from  the  city.  In  293  B.C., 
 it  was  so  celebrated  that,  during  a  pestilence  at  Rome, 
 a  deputation  was  sent  from  this  city  to  implore  the  aid 
 of  the  Epidaurian  god.  {Liv.,  10,  47.)  The  temple 
 was  always  crowded  with  invalids,  and  the  priests,  who 
 were  also  physicians,  contrived  to  keep  up  its  reputa- 
 tion, for  the  walls  were  covered  with  tablets  describing 
 the  cures  which  they  had  wrought,  even  in  the  timeol 
 Strabo.  This  sacred  edifice  had  been  raised  on  the 
 spot  where  .^sculapius  was  supposed  to  have  been 
 born  and  educated.  It  was  once  richly  decorated  with 
 offerings,  but  these  had  for  the  most  part  disappeared, 
 either  by  open  theft  or  secret  plunder.  The  greatest 
 depredator  was  Sylla,  who  appropriated  the  wealth  de- 
 posited in  this  shrine  to  the  purpose  of  defraying  the 
 expenses  of  his  army  in  the  war  against  Mithradates. 
 {Phit.,  Vit.  Syll.—Diod.  Sic,  Excerpt.,  406.)— Chan- 
 dler states,  that  the  site  of  this  ancient  city  is  now 
 called  Epithauro ;  but  the  traces  are  indistinct,  and  it 
 has  probably  long  been  deserted.  {Travels,  vol.  2,  p. 
 272.)  Dodwell  observed  "  several  masses  of  ruin  at 
 the  foot  of  a  promontory,  which  are  covered  by  the 
 sea ;  also  some  Doric  remains  and  Roman  fragments, 
 on  that  side  which  is  towards  the  plain."  {Class. 
 Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  263.)  The  ruins  of  the  temple  ft 
 .^sculapius  are  to  be  seen  on  the  spot  now  called  Ge- 
 rao,  probably  a  corruption  of  Hieron.  Near  the  tem- 
 ple was  a  remarkably  beautiful  theatre,  built  by  Poly- 
 clitus.  {Pausan.,  2,  27,  5.)  This  is  now  in  better 
 preservation  than  any  other  theatre  in  Greece,  except 
 that  at  Trametzus,  near  loannina,  and  was  capable  ol 
 containing  12,000  spectators.  {Leake  s  3Iorea,y ol 
 2,  p.  A2-S.— Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  270) 
 —II  A  town  of  Laconia,  surnamed  I;imera,  on  the 
 eastern  coast,  about  200  stadia  from  Epidelium.     U 
 
 481 
 
EPI 
 
 EPI 
 
 had  been  founded  by  the  Argives,  to  whom,  indeed, 
 according  to  Herodotus,  the  whole  of  this  coast,  as  far 
 as  the  Malean  promontory,  once  belonged.  Apollo- 
 dorus  {ap.  Strab.,  368)  pretended,  that  Liincra  was 
 only  a  contraction  for  Linienera,  by  which  allusion  was 
 made  to  the  convenience  of  the  harbour.  The  town 
 was  situate  on  an  eminence  near  the  sea,  and  con- 
 tained, among  other  buildings,  a  celebrated  temple  of 
 .'Esculapius.  The  ruins  of  Epidaurus  Limera  are  to 
 be  seen  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  modern  Moncm- 
 hasia.  (It in.  of  Morea,  p.  235.)  Its  site  is  now  known 
 by  the  name  of  Palaio  Embasia.  {Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  201.)— III.  A  maritime  city  of  lUy- 
 ria,  south  of  the  river  Naro.  Mannert  identifies  it  with 
 the  Arbona  of  Polybius  (2,  11. — Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  7,  p.  350). 
 
 EpiuIum,  I.  one  of  the  Ebudas  Insula,  supposed  by 
 Mannert  to  be  the  same  with  the  modern  Ila.  {Geogr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  231.) — II.  A  promontory  of  Caledonia,  cor- 
 responding to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula 
 of  Cantyre.     {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  204.) 
 
 Ehigoni  {'Y.nlyovoi,  descendants),  the  sons  of  the 
 Grecian  heroes  who  were  killed  in  the  first  Theban 
 war.  {Vid.  Polynices.)  The  war  of  the  Epigoni  is 
 famous  in  ancient  history.  It  was  undertaken  ten  years 
 after  the  first.  The  sons  of  those  who  had  perished 
 in  the  first  war  resolved  to  avenge  the  death  of  their 
 fathers.  The  god,  when  consulted,  promised  them  vic- 
 tory, if  led  by  Alcmaeon,  the  son  of  Amphiaraus.  Alc- 
 mseon  accordingly  took  the  command.  Another  ac- 
 count, however,  given  by  Pausanias  (9,  9,  2),  makes 
 Thersander,  son  of  Polynices,  to  have  been  at  the  head 
 of  the  expedition.  The  other  leaders  were  Amphilo- 
 chns,  brother  of  Alcmaeon  ;  Jilgialeus,  son  of  Adras- 
 tus  ;  Diomedes,  of  Tydeus ;  Promachus,  of  Parthe- 
 nopaeus  ;  Sthenelus,  of  Capaneus  ;  and  Eurypylus,  of 
 Mecisteus.  The  Argives  were  assisted  by  the  Mes- 
 senians.  Arcadians,  Corinthians, and  Megarians.  The 
 Thebans  obtained  aid  from  the  neighbouring  states. 
 The  invaders  ravaged  the  villages  about  Thebes.  A 
 battle  ensued,  in  which  Laodamas,  the  son  of  Eteocles, 
 slew  ^Egialeus,  and  fell  himself  by  the  spear  of  Alc- 
 maeon. The  Thebans  then  fled  ;  and,  by  the  advice  of 
 Tiresias,  they  secretly  left  their  city,  which  was  en- 
 tered and  plundered  by  the  Argives,  and  Thersander 
 was  placed  on  the  throne. — With  the  exception  of  the 
 events  of  the  Trojan  war  and  the  return  of  the  Greeks, 
 nothing  was  so  closely  connected  with  the  Iliad  and 
 Odyssey  as  the  war  of  the  Argives  against  Thebes, 
 since  many  of  the  principal  heroes  of  Greece,  particu- 
 larly Diomede  and  Sthenelus,  were  themselves  among 
 the  conquerors  of  Thebes,  and  their  fathers  before 
 them,  a  bolder  and  wilder  race,  had  fought  on  the  same 
 spot,  in  a  contest  which,  although  unattended  with 
 victory,  was  still  far  from  inglorious.  Hence,  also,  re- 
 puted Homeric  poems  on  the  subject  of  this  war  were 
 extant,  which  perhaps  really  bore  a  great  affinity  to  the 
 Homeric  time  and  school.  For  we  do  not  find,  as  in 
 the  other  poems  of  the  cycle,  the  name  of  one,  or 
 those  of  several  later  poets,  placed  in  connexion  with 
 these  compositions,  but  they  are  either  attributed  to 
 Homer,  as  the  earlier  Greeks  in  general  appear  to  have 
 done ;  or  if  the  authorship  of  Homer  is  doubted,  they 
 are  usually  attributed  to  no  author  at  all.  Thus  the 
 second  part  of  the  Thebais,  which  related  to  the  ex- 
 ploits of  the  Epigoni,  was,  according  to  Pausanias  (9, 
 9,  2),  ascribed  by  some  to  Homer.  The  true  reading 
 in  Pausanias,  in  the  passage  just  referred  to,  is  un- 
 doubtedly KaXklvo^,  and  neither  Kalalvor  (more  cor- 
 rectly KdXatvof),  as  the  common  text  has  it,  nor  KaA- 
 Xlfiaxof;,  as  Ruhnken  conjectures  {ad  Callim.,  vol.  1 
 p.  439,  cd.  Erjiest.).  This  ancient  elegiac  poet,  there- 
 fore, about  the  twentieth  Olympiad,  quoted  the  Thebaid 
 as  Homeric.  The  Epigojii  was  still  commonly  as- 
 cribed to  Homer  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  (4,  32. 
 
 Muller,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  p.  70,  scq.). 
 482 
 
 Epimenides,  a  Cretan,  contemporary  with  Solon, 
 born  in  the  year  659  B.C.,  at  Phseslus,  in  the  island  of 
 Crete,   according   to   some   accounts,  or   at     Census 
 according  to  others.     Many  marvellous  tales  are  re- 
 lated of  him.     It  is  said,  that  going,  by  his  father's 
 order,  in  search  of  a  sheep,  he  laid  himself  down  in  a 
 cave,  where  he  fell  asleep,  and  slept  for  fifty  years. 
 He  then  made  his  appearance  among  his  fellow-citi- 
 zens with  long  hair  and  a  flowing  beard,  and  with  a 
 knowledge  of  medicine  and  natural  history  which  then 
 appeared  more  than  human.     Another  idle  story  told 
 of  this  Cretan  is,  that  he  had  a  power  of  sending  his 
 soul  out  of  his  body  and  recalling  it  at  pleasure.    It  is 
 added,  that  he  had  familiar  intercourse  with  the  gods, 
 and  possessed  the  power  of  prophecy.     The  event  of 
 his  life  for  which  he  is  best  known,  was  his  visit  to 
 Athens  at  the  request  of  the  inhabitants,  in  order  to 
 pave  the  way  for  the  legislation  of  Solon  by  purifica- 
 tions  and  propitiatory  sacrifices.     These   rites    were 
 calculated,  according  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  to  allay 
 the  feuds  and  party  dissensions  which  prevailed  there  ; 
 and,  although  what  he  enjoined  was  mostly  of  a  reli- 
 gious nature  (for  instance,  the  sacrifice  of  a  human  vic- 
 tim, the  consecration  of  a  temple  to  the   Eumenides, 
 and  of  two  altars  to  Hybrisand  Anaideia,  ilie  two  evil 
 powers  which  were  exerting  their   influence   on  the 
 Athenians),  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  his  object 
 was  political,  and  that  Solon's  constitution  would  hardly 
 have  been  accepted,  had  it  not  been  recommended  and 
 sanctioned  by   some   person,  who,  like    Epimenides, 
 claimed  from  men  little  less  than  the  veneration  due  to 
 a  superior  being.     The  Athenians  wished  to  reward 
 Epimenides  with  wealth  and  public  honours,  but  he 
 refused  to  accept  any  remuneration,  and  only  demand- 
 ed a  branch  of  the  sacred  olive-tree,  and  a  decree  of 
 perpetual  friendship  between   Athens  and  his  native 
 city. — We  probably  owe  most  of  the  wonderful  tales, 
 relative  to  Epimenides,  to  the  Cretans,  who  were,  to 
 a  proverb,  famous  for  their  powers  of  invention.    All 
 that  is  credible  concerning  him  is,  thai  he  was  a  man 
 of  superior  talents,  who  pretended  to  have  intercourse 
 with  the  gods;  and,  to  support  his  pretensions,  lived 
 in  retirement  upon  the  spontaneous  productions  of  the 
 earth,  and  practised  various  arts  of  imposture.     Per- 
 haps, in  his  hours  of  pretended  inspiration,  he  had  the 
 art  of  appearing  totally  insensible  and  entranced,  which 
 would  easily  be  mistaken,  by  ignorant  spectators,  for 
 a  power  of  dismissing  and  recalling  his  spirit.     Epi- 
 menides is  said  to  have  lived,  after  his  return  to  Crete, 
 to  the  age  of  157  years.      Divine  honours  were  paid 
 him  after  his  death  by  the  superstitious  Cretans.     He 
 has  no  other  claims  to  be  mentioned  among  philoso- 
 phers, except  that  he  composed  a  theogony,  and  other 
 poems  concerning  religious  mysteries.     He  wrote  also 
 a  poem  on  the  Argonautic  expedition,  and  other  works, 
 which  are  entirely  lost.      His  treatise  on  oracles  and 
 responses,  mentioned  by  St.  Jerome,  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  work  from  which  St.  Paul  quotes  in  the  epis- 
 tle to  Titus  (1,     12. —  Consult  Hcinrich.  Epimenides 
 avs  Kreta,  Leipz.,  1801. — Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol. 
 9,  p.  M&.—Drog.  Laert.,  1,  109.— -Fa/.  Max.,S,  13. 
 —Plin.,  7,  ^^.—Aristot.,  Met.,  3,  Q.— Enfield's  His- 
 tory of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  138,  scqq.) 
 
 Epimetheus,  a  son  of  lapetus  and  Clymene,  one 
 of  the  Oceanides.  He  inconsiderately  married  Pan- 
 dora, by  whom  he  had  Pyrrha,  the  wife  of  Deucalion. 
 The  legend  connected  with  his  name  will  be  found  un- 
 der the  article  Pandora. 
 
 Epimethis,  a  patronymic  of  Pyrrha,  the  daughter 
 of  Epimetheus.     {Ovid,  Met.,  1,  390.) 
 
 Epiphanea,  I.  a  town  of  Cilicia  Campestris,  south- 
 east of  Anazarbus,  and  situate  on  the  small  river  Car- 
 sus,  near  the  range  of  Mount  Amanus.  It  is  now 
 Surfendkar.  {Plin.,  o,  27.)— U.  A  city  of  Syria,  on 
 the  Orontes,  below  Apamea.  Its  Oriental  and  true  name 
 was  Hamalh,  and  it  was  reckoned  by  the  people  of  the 
 
E  PI 
 
 E  PI 
 
 East  one  of  the  most  magnificent  cities  in  the  world, 
 having  been  founded,  as  they  imagined,  by  Hamath, 
 one  of  the  sons  of  Canaan.  Allusion  is  frequently 
 made  to  Hamath  in  the  Old  Testament.  (Compare 
 Genesis,  10,  18.— 2  Samuel,  8,  9.-2  Ki7igs,  48,  34. 
 — Jerenu,  49,  23. — Amos,  0,2.)  Its  name  was  chan- 
 ged to  Epiphanea,  in  honour  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
 It  is  now  Hama,  and  was  in  modern  times  the  seat  of 
 an  Arabian  dynasty,  to  which  the  geographer  Abulfeda 
 belonged.  (Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p.  KiS.—Pococke, 
 vol.  2,  p.  210. — Mannert,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  461.) 
 
 Epiphanes  (illuslrious),  I.  a  surname  of  Antiochus 
 IV.,  King  of  Syria. — II.  A  surname  of  Ptolemy  V., 
 King  of  Egypt. 
 
 Epiphanius,  a  bishop  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus,  in  the 
 fourth  century.  He  was  born  of  Jewish  parents,  at  a 
 village  called  Besanducan,  near  Eleutheropolis,  in  Pal- 
 estine, about  A.D.  320,  and  appears  to  have  been  edu- 
 cated in  Egypt,  where  he  imbibed  the  principles  of  the 
 Gnostics.  At  length  he  left  those  heretics,  and,  be- 
 coming an  ascetic,  returned  to  Palestine  and  adopted 
 the  discipline  of  St.  Hilarion,  the  founder  of  monachism 
 in  that  country.  Epiphanius  erected  a  monastery  near 
 the  place  of  his  birth,  over  which  he  presided  till  he 
 was  made  bishop  of  Salamis  in  367.  Here  he  remain- 
 ed about  36  years,  and  composed  most  of  his  writings. 
 In  391  he  commenced  a  controversy  with  John,  bishop 
 of  Jerusalem,  relative  to  the  Platonic  doctrines  of  the 
 learned  and  laborious  Origen,  against  which  he  wrote 
 and  preached  with  implacable  bitterness.  John  fa- 
 voured Origen's  views,  but  Epiphanius  found  in  The- 
 ophilus,  the  violent  bishop  of  Alexandrea,  a  worthy 
 coadjutor,  who,  in  399,  convened  a  council,  and  con- 
 demned all  the  works  of  Origen.  Epiphanius  himself 
 then  called  a  council  in  Cyprus,  A.D.  401,  and  reit- 
 erated this  condemnation,  after  which  he  wrote  to  St. 
 Chrysostom,  then  bishop  of  Constantinople,  requesting 
 him  to  do  the  same.  On  finding  this  prelate  disin- 
 clined to  sanction  his  violent  proceedings,  he  forthwith 
 repaired  to  Constantinople,  for  the  purpose  of  e.\citing 
 the  bishops  of  that  diocese  to  join  in  executing  the  de- 
 crees which  his  Cyprian  council  had  issued  ;  but,  hav- 
 ing entered  a  church  in  the  city  in  order  to  repeal  his 
 anathemas,  he  was  forewarned  by  Chrysostom  of  the 
 illegality  of  his  conduct,  and  was  obliged  to  desist. 
 Exasperated  at  this  disappointment,  he  applied  to  the 
 imperial  court  for  assistance,  where  he  soon  embroiled 
 himself  with  fhe  Empress  Eudoxia  ;  for,  on  the  occa- 
 sion of  her  asking  him  to  pray  for  the  young  Theodo- 
 81US,  who  was  dangerously  ill,  he  replied  that  her  son 
 should  not  die,  provided  she  would  not  patronise  the 
 defenders  of  Origen.  To  this  presumptuous  message 
 the  empress  indignantly  answered,  that  her  son's  life 
 was  not  in  the  power  of  Epiphanius,  whose  prayers 
 were  unable  to  save  that  of  his  own  archdeacon,  who 
 had  recently  died.  After  thus  vainly  endeavouring  to 
 gratify  his  sectarian  animosity,  he  resolved  to  return 
 to  Cyprus  ;  but  he  died  at  sea  on  the  passage,  A.D. 
 403.  The  principal  works  of  Epiphanius  are,  1.  lla- 
 vdpiov,  or  a  Treatise  on  Heresies,  that  is,  peculiar  sects 
 (alpeaetc).  This  is  the  most  important  of  his  writings. 
 It  treats  of  eighty  sects,  from  the  time  of  Adam  to  the 
 latter  part  of  the  4th  century.  2.  'AvaKF<pa2.aLuai^, 
 or  an  Epitome  of  the  Panarion.  3.  'kyKvpuTov,  or 
 a  Discourse  on  the  Faith,  explaining  the  doctrine  of 
 the  Trinity,  Resurrection,  &c.  4.  A  treatise  on  the 
 jncient  weights,  measures,  and  coins  of  ihe  Jews. — 
 Epiphanius  was  an  austere  and  superstitious  ascetic, 
 and,  as  a  bitter  controversialist,  he  often  resorts  to  very 
 false  arguments  for  the  refutation  of  heretics.  That 
 his  inaccuracy  and  credulity  were  equal  to  his  religious 
 zeal,  is  apparent  from  his  numerous  mistakes  in  im- 
 portant historical  facts,  and  his  reliance  on  any  false 
 and  foolish  reports.  Jerome,  however,  admires  Epi- 
 phanius for  his  skill  in  the  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Egyptian, 
 Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  and  accordingly  styles  him 
 
 "  Pentaglottus"  (UEVT-ayAwrrof ),  or  the  Five-tongiied. 
 But  Scaliger  calls  him  an  ignorant  man,  who  cotnrtiit- 
 ted  the  greatest  blunders,  told  the  greatest  falsehonJs, 
 and  knew  next  to  nothing  about  either  Hebrew  or 
 Greek.  Still  his  writings  are  of  great  value,  as  con- 
 taining numerous  citations  from  curious  works  which 
 are  no  longer  extant.  The  best  edition  of  his  works 
 is  that  of  Petavius,  Pans,  2  vols,  fol.,  1622,  and  Col., 
 1682.  {Du  Pm,  Bibl.  EccL,  vol.  2.— Cave's  Lit. 
 Hist. — Bayle,  Diet.,  s.  v. —  Clarke's  Suceesston  of  Sa- 
 cred Literature. — Encyc.  Useful  Knowledge,  vol.  9,  p. 
 477.) 
 
 Epip6l.iE,  apiece  of  elevated  and  broken  ground, 
 sloping  down  towards  the  city  of  Syracuse,  but  pre- 
 cipitous on  the  other  side.  It  received  its  name  from 
 the  circumstance  of  its  overlooking  Syracuse.  Hence 
 Thucydides  (6,  9G)  remarks,  uvoiiaarai  invb  tuv  Tlvp- 
 UKovaiov,  6ia  to  kniTroTifj^  rov  uA/Iod  eivai,  'ETrtTTo- 
 Xal.  (Consult  Gbller,  dc  Sitic  et  Origine  Syracus- 
 arum,  p.  53,  scqq.) 
 
 Epirus,  a  country  to  the  west  of  Thessaly,  lying 
 along  the  Hadriatic.  The  Greek  term  7} Trcipof,  which 
 answers  to  the  English  word  mainland,  appears  to  have 
 been  applied  at  a  very  early  period  to  that  northwest- 
 ern portion  of  Greece  which  is  situated  between  the 
 chain  of  Pindus  and  the  Ionian  Gulf,  and  between  the 
 Cerauiiian  Mountains  and  the  river  Acheloiis  ;  this 
 name  being  probably  used  to  distmguish  it  from  the 
 large,  populous,  and  wealthy  island  of  Corcyra,  which 
 lay  opposite  to  the  coast.  It  appears  that,  in  very 
 ancient  times,  Acarnania  was  also  included  in  the  term, 
 and  in  that  case  the  name  must  have  been  used  in 
 opposition  to  all  the  islands  lying  along  the  coast. 
 {Strab.,  Ar>3.—Hom..,  Od.,  14,  100)  The  ancient 
 geography  of  Epirus  was  attended  with  great  diflicuities 
 even  in  the  time  of  Strabo.  The  country  had  not  then 
 recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  destruction  caused  by 
 Paulus  .^milius  in  167  B.C.,  who  destroyed  seventy 
 towns,  and  reduced  to  slavery  1.50,000  of  the  inhabi- 
 tants. (I'olyh.,  ap.  Strab.,  p.  322. — Liv.,  45,  34. — 
 Plut ,  Vit  Paul.  JEmU  ,  c.  29.)  After  this  the  great- 
 er part  of  the  country  remained  in  a  state  of  absolute 
 desolation,  and,  where  there  were  any  inhabitants,  they 
 had  nothing  but  villages  and  ruins  to  dwell  in.  {Strab., 
 327.) — The  inhabitants  of  Epirus  were  scarcely  consid- 
 ered Hellenic.  The  population  in  early  times  had 
 been  Pelasgic.  {Strab.,  221.) — The  oracle  at  Dodona. 
 was  always  called  Pelasgic,  and  many  names  of  places 
 in  Epirus  were  also  borne  by  the  Pelasgic  cities  of 
 the  opposite  coast  of  Italy.  {Niebuhr,  Hist.  Rom., 
 vol.  1,  p.  34.)  But  irruptions  of  Illyrians  had  barba- 
 rized the  whole  nation  ;  and  though  Herodotus  speaks 
 of  Thesprotia  as  a  part  of  Hellas,  he  refers  rather  to 
 its  old  condition,  when  it  was  a  celebrated  seat  of 
 the  Pelasgians,  than  to  its  state  at  the  time  when  he 
 wrote  his  history.  In  their  mode  of  cutting  the  hair, 
 in  their  costume,  and  in  their  language,  the  Epirotes 
 resembled  the  Macedonians,  who  were  an  Illyrian 
 race.  {Strab.,  327.)  Theopompus  (ap.  Strab.,  323) 
 divided  the  inhabitants  of  Epirus  into  fourteen  differ- 
 ent tribes,  of  which  (he  most  renowned  were  the  Cha- 
 onians  and  Molossians,  who  successively  maintained 
 a  preponderance  in  this  country.  The  Molossians 
 claimed  descent  from  Molossus,  son  of  Neoptolemus 
 and  Andromache.  Tradition  reported,  that  the  son  of 
 Achilles,  Neoptolemus,  or  Pyrrhus,  as  he  is  also  called, 
 having  crossed  from  Thessaly  into  Epirus  on  his  re- 
 turn from  the  siege  of  Troy,  was  induced,  by  the  ad- 
 vice of  an  oracle,  to  settle  in  the  latter  country,  where, 
 having  subjugated  a  considerable  extent  of  territory, 
 he  transmitted  his  newly-formed  kingdom  to  Molos.sus, 
 his  son  by  Andromache,  from  whom  his  subjects  de- 
 rived the  name  of  Molossi.  (Pind.,  Nem.,  7,  56.) 
 Scvmnus  of  Chios  conceives  Pyrrhus  to  have  been  the 
 son  of  Neoptolemus  (v.  440).  The  history  of  Molossia 
 is  involved  in  great  obscurity  until  the  period  of  the 
 "  483 
 
EPIRUS. 
 
 E  PO 
 
 Persian  invasion,  when  the  name  of  Admetus,  king  of 
 the  Moiossi,  occurs  from  the  circumstance  of  his  hav- 
 ing generously  afforded  shelter  to  Themistocles  when 
 in  exile  and  pursued  by  his  enemies,  although  the  in- 
 fluence of  that  celebrated  statesman  had  previously 
 been  exerted  against  him  in  some  negotiations  which 
 he  had  carried  on  at  Athens.  The  details  of  this  in- 
 teresting anecdote,  as  they  are  furnished  by  Thucyd- 
 ides,  serve  to  prove  the  weakness  as  well  as  poverty 
 of  the  Molossian  chiefs  compared  with  the  leading 
 powers  of  Greece  at  that  time.  {Thucyd.,  1,  136.) 
 Admetus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Tharypas  or  Tha- 
 rymbas,  who  appears  to  have  been  a  mmor  towards 
 the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when  we 
 find  his  subjects  assisting  the  Ambraciots  in  their  in- 
 vasion of  Acarnania.  Thucydides,  on  that  occasion, 
 reports,  that  Sabylinthus,  prince  of  Atinlania,  was 
 guardian  to  Tharybas  (2,  80).  Tharybas  is  represent- 
 ed by  Plutarch  {Vil.  Pyrrh.)  as  a  wise  and  able  mon- 
 arch, and  as  encouraging  science  and  literature.  His 
 successor  is  not  known  ;  but  some  years  after  we  hear 
 of  a  prince  called  Alcetas,  who  was  dethroned  by  his 
 subjects,  but  restored  by  Dionysius  of  Syracuse. 
 {Dtod.  Sic,  15,  13. — Pausan.,  1,  11.)  Neoptolemus, 
 his  son,  reigned  but  for  a  short  time,  and  left  the 
 crown  to  his  brother  Arybas,  together  with  the  care  of 
 his  children.  Alexander,  the  eldest  cf  these,  succeed- 
 ed his  uncle,  and  was  the  first  sovereign  of  Epirus 
 who  raised  the  character  and  fame  of  that  country 
 among  foreign  nations  by  his  talents  and  valour.  His 
 sister  Olympias  had  been  married  to  Philip  of  Mace- 
 don,  before  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Epirus  ;  and 
 the  friendship  thus  cemented  between  the  two  mon- 
 archs  was  still  farther  strengthened  by  the  union  of 
 Alexander  with  Cleopatra,  the  daughter  of  Philip. 
 It  was  during  the  celebration  of  these  nuptials  at 
 Edessa  that  the  King  of  Macedon  was  assassinated. 
 Alexander  of  Epirus  seems  to  have  been  an  ambitious 
 prince,  desirous  of  conquest  and  renown  ;  and,  though 
 we  have  no  certain  information  of  the  events  which 
 occurred  during  his  reign,  there  is  good  reason  for  be- 
 lieving that  he  united  the  Chaonians,  Thesprotians, 
 and  other  Epirotic  clans,  together  with  the  Molossians, 
 under  his  sway ;  as  we  find  the  title  of  King  of  Epirus 
 first  assumed  by  him.  {Diod.  Sic,  16,  72. — Strabo, 
 280.)  Having  been  applied  to  by  the  Tarenlines  to 
 aid  them  against  the  attacks  of  the  Lucani  and  Brutii, 
 he  eagerly  seized  this  opportunity  of  adding  to  his 
 fame  and  enlarging  his  dominions.  He  therefore 
 crossed  over  into  Italy  with  a  considerable  force,  and, 
 had  he  been  properly  seconded  by  the  Tarentines 
 and  the  other  colonies  of  Magna  Gra?cia,  the  barba- 
 rians, after  being  defeated  in  several  engagements, 
 must  have  been  conquered.  But  Alexander,  being  left 
 to  his  own  resources  and  exertions,  was  at  length  sur- 
 rounded by  the  enemy,  and  slain  near  the  fated  walls 
 of  Pandosia,  in  the  Brutian  territory.  (Liv.,  8,  24. — 
 Strabo,  2.55.)  On  the  death  of  Alexander  the  crown 
 devolved  on  his  cousin  ^acides,  the  son  of  Arybas 
 the  former  king,  of  whom  little  is  known,  except  that, 
 having  raised  an  army  to  assist  Olympias  against  Cas- 
 sander,  his  soldiers  mutinied  and  deposed  him  ;  not 
 long  after,  however,  he  appears  to  have  been  reinstated. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  19,  36.)  His  brother  Alcetas,  who  suc- 
 ceeded him,  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Cassander, 
 which  proved  unfortunate  ;  for,  being  defeated,  his  do- 
 minions were  overrun  by  the  forces  of  his  victorious  en- 
 emy, and  he  himself  was  put  to  death  by  his  rebellious 
 subjects.  (Diod.  Sic,  19,36.)  The  name  of  Pyrrhus, 
 who  now  ascended  the  throne,  sheds  a  lustre  on  the  an- 
 nals of  Epirus,  and  gives  to  its  history  an  importance 
 it  never  would  otherwise  have  possessed.  (Vid.  Pyr- 
 rhus.) Alexander,  the  eldest  son  of  Pyrrhus,  succeed- 
 ed his  father,  whom  he  sought  to  emulate  by  attemptincr 
 afresh  the  conquest  of  Macedon.  On  this  occasion  An- 
 ligonus  Gonatas  was  again  vanquished  and  driven  from 
 484 
 
 his  dominions.  But  Demetrius,  his  son,  naving  raised 
 another  army,  attacked  Alexander,  and  [iresently  com- 
 pelled him  to  evacuate  the  Macedonian  territory.  (Ju.^- 
 tin,  26,  3. — Frontin.,  Strat.,  3.)  At  the  expiration  of 
 two  other  insignificant  reigns,  the  royal  line  of  the 
 ^EacidsB  becoming  extinct,  the  Epirols  determined  to 
 ado))t  a  republican  form  of  government,  which  pre- 
 vailed until  the  subjugation  of  Macedon  by  the  Ro- 
 mans. Having  been  accused  of  favouring  Perseus  in 
 the  last  Macedonian  war,  they  became  the  objects  of 
 the  bitterest  vengeance  of  the  Romans,  who  treated 
 this  unfortunate  nation,  as  we  have  already  remarked, 
 with  unexampled  and  detestable  severity.  Epirus, 
 having  lost  its  independence,  was  thenceforth  annexed 
 as  a  province  to  the  Roman  empire. — We  may  consider 
 Epirus  as  bounded  on  the  north  by  Illyria  and  part  of 
 Macedonia,  from  the  Acroceraunian  mountains  to  the 
 central  chain  of  Pindus.  In  this  direction  the  river 
 Aous  would  be  the  natural  line  of  separation  between 
 these  two  countries.  The  Peravaei  and  Tymphaei, 
 who  occupied  the  upper  valleys  of  that  river,  being 
 generally  looked  upon  as  Epirotic  tribes,  while  the 
 Orestae  and  Elymiotaj,  contiguous  to  them  on  the 
 north,  were  certainly  included  within  the  limits  ot 
 Macedonia.  On  the  side  of  Thessaly,  Pindus  formed 
 another  natural  barrier,  as  far  as  the  source  of  the  river 
 Arachihus,  which  served  to  part  the  Cassopsi  and  oth- 
 er Molossian  clans  from  the  country  of  the  Athainanes. 
 But  as  the  republic  of  Ambracia,  which  occupied  both 
 banks  of  this  river  near  its  entrance  into  the  Ambra- 
 cian  gulf,  became  a  portion  of  Epirus  after  it  ceased 
 to  enjoy  a  separate  political  existence,  we  must  remove 
 the  southern  boundary  of  this  province  to  the  vicin- 
 ity of  Argos  and  the  territory  of  the  Amphilochians. 
 Epirus,  though  in  many  respects  wild  and  mountain- 
 ous, was  esteemed  a  rich  and  fertile  country.  Its 
 pastures  produced  the  finest  oxen,  and  horses  un- 
 rivalled for  their  speed.  It  was  also  famous  for  a 
 large  breed  of  dogs,  thence  called  Moiossi ;  and  mod- 
 ern travellers  have  noticed  the  size  and  ferocity  of 
 these  dogs  at  the  present  day.  Epirus  corresponds  to 
 the  Lower  Albania  of  modern  times.  The  follow- 
 ing is  the  account  given  of  the  present  aspect  of  the 
 country  by  Malte-Brun.  "  The  climate  of  Lower  Al- 
 bania is  colder  than  that  of  Greece ;  the  spring  does  not 
 set  in  before  the  middle  of  March,  and  the  heat  of  sum- 
 mer is  oppressive  in  July  and  August :  in  these  months 
 many  streams  and  rivers  are  drained,  the  grass  and 
 plants  are  withered.  The  vintage  begins  in  Septem- 
 ber, and  the  heavy  rains  during  December  are  suc- 
 ceeded in  January  by  some  days  of  frosty  weather. 
 (Pouqueville,  vol.  2,  p.  263,  scqq.)  The  oak-trees, 
 and  there  is  almost  every  kind  of  them,  arrive  at  great 
 perfection  :  the  plane,  the  cypress,  and  manniferous 
 ash  appear  near  the  seacoast,  beside  the  laurel  and 
 the  lentisk ;  but  the  forests  on  Pindus  consist  chiefly 
 of  cedars,  pine,  larch,  and  chestnut-trees.  {Pouqueville, 
 vol.  2,  ]).  186  and  27i.—Id,  vol.  4,  p.  412.)  Many 
 of  the  mountains  are  arid  and  steril ;  such  as  are  suf- 
 ficiently watered  are  verdant,  or  covered  with  the  wild 
 vine  and  thick  groups  of  elders;  in  spring  their  sides 
 are  covered  with  flowers  ;  the  violet,  the  narcissus,  and 
 hyacinth  appear  in  the  same  jirofusion  as  in  the  mild 
 districts  of  Italy.  The  inhabitants  cultivate  cotton  and 
 silk  ;  but  the  olive,  for  want  of  proper  care,  does  not 
 yield  an  abundant  harvest ;  the  Amphilochian  peach,  the 
 Aria  nut,  and  the  quince,  grow  in  a  wild  state  in  .he 
 woods  and  uncultivated  land.  Epirus  was  once  fa- 
 mous for  its  oxen  ;  the  breed  was  improved  by  King 
 Pyrrhus  {Plin.,  7,  ii.—Aristot.,  Hist.  An.,  3,  16) : 
 it  has  now  degenerated  ;  they  are  small,  stunted,  and 
 ill-shaped.  -  The  horses  of  the  same  country  are  still 
 excellent."  {Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  p.  179, 
 Am.  cd.) 
 
 Eporedorix,  I.  a  leading  chieftain  among  the  ^Edui 
 in  Gaul      He  commanded  the  forces  of  his  country- 
 
EQU 
 
 EQU 
 
 men  in  their  war  with  the  Sequani,  before  Caesar's  ar- 
 rival in  Gaul.  (B.  G.,  7,  67.)  He  afterward  went 
 over  to  the  side  of  Vercingetorix,  in  the  great  insur- 
 rection against  the  Roman  power,  but  was  taken  pris- 
 oner by  Cffisar.  {B.  G.,  7,  55.— /A.,  63.—//-.,  67.) 
 — ir.  Another  ^Eduan  leader,  metitioned  by  Caesar. 
 (B.G.,  7,  76.) 
 
 Epvtides,  a  patronymic  given  to  Periphantes,  the 
 son  of  Epvtus,  and  the  companion  of  Ascanius.  {Virg., 
 Mn..  5,  .547.) 
 
 Ec'JiRiA,  a  festival  established  at  Rome  by  Romu- 
 lus in  honour  of  Mars,  when  horse-races  and  games 
 were  exhibited  in  the  Campus  Marlius.  It  took  place 
 on  the  27th  of  February.  (Vano,  de  L.  L.,  5,  3. — 
 Ovid,  Fast.,  2,  859.) 
 
 Equites,  the  name  of  an  order  in  the  Roman  state. 
 Their  origin,  according  to  the  old  tradition,  was  this: 
 Romulus,  having  divided  his  subjects  into  three  tribes, 
 chose  from  each  100  young  men,  whom  he  destined 
 to  serve  on  horseback,  and  act  as  his  body-guard.    This 
 body  of  cavalry  was  called  the  Ccleres,  and  afterward 
 the  Equifes.     {Dion.  Hal.,  2,  13  )     Niebuhr  supposes 
 {Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  325),  that  whereas  Patres  and 
 Pat.ricii  were  titles  of  honour  for  individuals,  Ccleres 
 was  the  name  of  the  whole  class  as  distinguished  from 
 the  rest  of  the  nation.     The  three  centuries  of  the  Cc- 
 leres were  called  by  the  same  names  as  the  three  tribes 
 of  the  patricians,  namely,  Ramnes,  Titles,  and  Luceres. 
 Their  tribunes  are  spoken  of  as  a  college  of  priests 
 {Dion.  Hal.,  2,  64),  and   it  appears  that  the  tribes  of 
 the  patricians  had  also  tribunes.     {Uion.  Hal.,  2,  7.) 
 Moreover,  when  it  is  said  that  Tarquinius  Priscus  made 
 three  new  centuries,  which  he  added  to  the  former  three, 
 and  that  the  whole  went  under  the  name  of  the  iS't'x 
 Suffragia,  or  the  Six  Equestrian  Centuries,  we  cannot 
 doubt  that  the  alteration  which  he  introd-uced  was  a  con- 
 stitutional, and  not  merely  a  military  one  ;  that,  in  fact, 
 the  centuries  which  he  formed  were,  like  the  original 
 three,  tribes  of  houses  ;  that  his  innovation  was  nothing 
 but  an  extension  of  the  political  division  of  Rome  un- 
 der Romulus.     {Nicbuhr,  Rnm.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  391.) 
 When  Servius  Tullius  established  the  comitia  of  the 
 centuries,  he  received    the  Sex    Suffragia,  which  in- 
 cluded all  the  patricians,  into  his  first  class,  and  to 
 them  he  added  twelve  other  equestrian  centuries,  made 
 up  of  the  richest  of  the   plebeian   order.     (Niebuhr, 
 vol.  1,  p.  427.)     The  ancient  writers  appear  to  have 
 laboured  under  some  great  confusion  with  regard  to 
 this  arrangement.     Livy  (1,  43)  makes  a  proper  dis- 
 tinction between  the  twelve  equestrian  centuries  cre- 
 ated by  Servius,  and  the  six  which  existed  before  ;  but 
 when  he  states  (I,  36)  that  the  cavalry  in  the  reign  of 
 Tarquinius  Priscus  amounted  to  1800,  he  appears  to 
 be  antedating  the  origin  of  the  eighteen  equestr.an  cen- 
 turies which  formed  part  of  the  constitution  of  Servius. 
 To  the  establishment  of  the  Comitia  Centuriata.  the  cre- 
 ation of  a  body  of  Equites,  as  a  distinct  order,  seems  to 
 !)e  due.     The  plan  of  Servius  was,  to  a  certain  extent, 
 identical  with  that  of  Solon.     The  object  of  both  legis- 
 lators was  to  break  down  the  limits  to  which  the  old 
 aristocracy  was  confined,  and  to  set  np  an  order  of 
 wealth  by  the  side  of  the  order  of  birth  ;  not,  however, 
 that  when  a  person  could   produce  his  400,000  ses- 
 terces, he  became  ipso  facto  a  knight,  as  was  the  case 
 in  after  times.     {Hor.,  Epist.,  1,  1,  57.)     According 
 to  the  Servian  constitution,  good  birth  or  the  sanction 
 of  the  censors  was  necessary  for  gaining  a  place  in  the 
 equestrian  order.     {Folyb.,'  G,  lO.—Zonaras,  7,  19.) 
 When  Cicero  says  {Dc  Repuh.,  2,  20)  that  Tarquinius 
 established  the  equestrian  order  on  the  same  footing  as 
 that  on  which  it  stood  in  his  time,  and  also  attributes 
 to  the  same  king  the  assigning  of  money  to  the  equites 
 for  the  purchase  and  keep  of  their  horses,  he  is  evi 
 
 on  horseback  (just  as  the  'IrrTretc  at  Athens  were  a 
 poorer  class  than  the  ntvTaKoaio/iedifivoi,  Pint.,  Vit. 
 Sol.,  c.  18),  should  be  furnished  with  the  means  for 
 doing  so.  But  the  case  was  different  with  the  equites, 
 after  the  establishment  of  an  order  of  wealth.  A  man 
 might  then  be  of  equestrian  rank,  and  yet  have  no 
 horse  assigned  him.  Thus,  on  the  one  hand,  we  find, 
 at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Veil,  a  number  of  equites 
 serving  on  horseback  at  their  own  expense  {Liv.,  5,  7)  ; 
 and,  on  the  contrary,  L.  Tarquitius,  who  was  a  patri 
 cian,  was  obliged  to  serve  on  foot  from  his  poverty. 
 {Liv.,  3,  27.)  From  this  it  appears  probable  that  a 
 i-.ertain  sum  was  fixed,  which  it  was  not  necessary  for 
 every  eqnes  to  have,  but  the  possessor  of  which  war. 
 obliged  to  serve  on  horseback  at  his  own  expense  if 
 no  horse  could  be  given  him  by  the  public  ;  and  that 
 those  whose  fortune  fell  short  of  this,  were  obliged  io 
 serve  in  the  infantry  under  the  same  circumstances. — 
 The  lieutenant  of  the  dictator  was  called  "the  chief 
 of  the  equites''  {magister  e  qui  turn) ;  and  akhough  in 
 later  times  he  was  appointed  to  this  office  by  the  dic- 
 tator himself,  it  is  probable,  as  Niebuhr  conjectures 
 (vol.  1,  p.  559),  that  he  was  originally  elected  by  the 
 12  centuries  of  plebeian  equites,  just  as  the  dictator  or 
 magister  populi  was  chosen  by  the  sex  svffragia,  or, 
 in  other  words,  by  the  populus  or  patricians. — With  re- 
 gard to  the  functions  of  the  equites,  besides  their  mil- 
 itary duties,  they  had  to  act  asjudices  or  jurymen  un- 
 der the  Sempronian  law  :  under  the  Servilian  law  the 
 judices  were  chosen  from  the  senate  as  well  as  from 
 the  equites  :  by  the  Glaucian  law,  the  equites  alone 
 performed  the  office  ;  and  so  on,  by  alternate  changes, 
 till  the  law  of  Aurelius  Cotta,  B.C.  70,  by  which  the 
 judices  were  chosen  from  the  senators,  equites,  and 
 tribuni  aerarii. — The  equites  also  farmed  the  public 
 revenues.  Those  who  were  engaged  in  this  business 
 were  called  the  publicayii ;  and  though  Cicero,  who 
 was  himself  of  the  equestrian  order,  speaks  of  these 
 farmers  as  ''  the  flower  of  the  Roman  equites,  the  or- 
 nament of  the  state,  the  safeguard  of  the  republic" 
 [pro  Plane,  9),  it  appears  that  they  were  a  set  of  de- 
 testable oppressors,  who  made  themselves  odious  in 
 all  the  provinces  by  their  avarice  and  rapacity. — The 
 equites,  as  may  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  already 
 said,  gradually  lost  the  marks  of  their  distinctive  origin, 
 and  became,  as  they  were  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  for  in- 
 stance, an  ordo  or  class  of  persons,  as  distinguished 
 from  the  senate  and  the  plebs.  They  had  particular 
 seats  assigned  them  in  the  circus  and  theatre.  The 
 insignia  of  their  rank,  in  addition  to  the  horse,  were  a 
 golden  ring,  and  the  angustns  clavus,  or  narrow  border 
 of  purple  on  their  dress,  as  distinguished  from  the  latus 
 clavus,  or  broad  band  of  the  senators.  The  last  two  in- 
 signia seem  to  have  remained  after  the  former  ceased 
 to  possess  its  original  and  distinctive  character.  {En- 
 cycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  9,  p.  492.) 
 
 Equus  Tuticus,  a  town  of  Samnium,  on  the  Ap- 
 pian  Way,  distant,  according  to  the  Itineraries,  twen- 
 ty-two ancient  miles  from  Cluvia,  which  is  itself  ten 
 miles  northeast  of  Beneventum.  {Romanellt,  vol.  2, 
 p.  331.)  The  term  Tuticus  is  Oscan,  equivalent  to 
 the  Latin  Magnus.  {Lanzi,  vol.  3,  p.  608  )  Much 
 discussion  has  arisen  among  geographers  as  to  the  pre- 
 cise situation  of  this  place.  Cluverius  was  of  opinion 
 that  it  ought  to  be  placed  at  Ariano  {Ital.  Ant.,  2, 
 12) ;  others  near  Ascoli  {PratUli,  Via  Appia,  bb.  4, 
 c.  10) ;  D'Anville  at  Castcl  Franco  {Annal.  Geogr. 
 de  Vital,  p.  218),  which  supposition  is  nearly  correct ; 
 but  the  exact  site,  according  to  the  report  of  local  an- 
 tiquaries, is  occupied  by  the  ancient  church  otM 
 Eleuterio,  a  martyr  who  is  stated,  in  old  ecclesiastical 
 records,  to  have  suffered  at  ^quum.  1  his  place  is 
 about  five  miles  distant  from  Ariano,  ma  northerly  di- 
 Thc  branch  of  the  Appian  A\  ay  on  which 
 
 dently  inconsistent.    In  Tarquin's  time,  that  is,  before  i  recuuu.      i  ni;  u.a. .....>-.  --      ..  .,     , 
 
 there  was  any  plebeian  order,  it  was  natural  enough    Equus  Tuticus  stood,  runs  nearly  parallel  witli  inai 
 that  the  poorer  patricians,  who  were  obliged  to  serve    which  Horace  seems  to  have  followed  in  fits  weii- 
 
 485 
 
ERA 
 
 ERATOSTHENES. 
 
 known  journey  to  Brundisium.  He  informs  us,  that 
 he  passed  the  first  night  after  having  left  Benevcnlum 
 at  a  villa  close  to  '^J'nvicum,  a  place  situated  among 
 the  mountains  separating  Samniuin  from  Apulia.  Hor- 
 ace, in  speaking  of  Eijuus  Tulicus,  pleasantly  alludes 
 to  the  unmanageable  nature  of  the  name  in  verse  : 
 *'  Mansuri  oppidulo,  quod  vcrsu  diccre  iion  est."  {Sat., 
 1,  5,  87.) 
 
 Erasistr.Xtus,  a  physician  of  lulls,  in  the  island  of 
 Ceos,  and  grandson  of  Aristotle  by  a  daughter  of  this 
 philosopher's.  (Straho,  486. — Stcph.  Byzan.,  s.  v. 
 '\ov7ii^.)  After  having  frequented  the  schools  of  Chry- 
 sippus,  Metrodorus,  and  Theophrasius,  he  passed  some 
 time  at  the  court  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  where  he  gained 
 great  reputation  by  his  discovering  the  secret  malady 
 which  preyed  upon  the  young  Antiochus,  the  son  of 
 the  king,  who  was  in  love  with  his  mother-in-law. 
 Queen  Slratonice.  {Appian,  Bell.  Syr.,c.  126. — Lu- 
 cian,  de  Dca  St/r.,c.  17.)  It  was  at  Alexandrea,  how- 
 ever, that  he  principally  practised.  At  last  he  refused 
 altogether  to  visit  the  sick,  and  devoted  himself  en- 
 tirely to  the  study  of  anatomy.  The  branches  of  this 
 study  which  are  indebted  to  him  for  new  discoveries, 
 are,  among  others,  the  doctrine  of  the  functions  of  the 
 brain,  and  that  of  the  nervous  system.  He  has  im- 
 mortalized himself  by  the  discovery  of  the  vitp  lactece ; 
 and  he  would  seem  to  have  come  very  near  that  of  the 
 circulation  of  the  blood.  Comparative  anatomy  fur- 
 nished him  with  the  means  of  describing  the  brain 
 much  better  than  had  ever  been  done  before  him.  He 
 also  distinguished  and  gave  names  to  the  auricles  of  the 
 heart.  {Galen,  do  Dogm.  Hipp,  et  Plat.,  lib.  7,  p.  311, 
 seqq. — Id.,  de  Usii  Part.,  lib.  8,  p.  458. — Id.,  de  Ad- 
 ministr.  Anat.,  lib.  7,  p.  184. — Id.,  an  Sanguis,  &c., 
 p.  223  )  A  singular  doctrine  of  Erasistratus  is  that 
 of  the  nvEVfia  {pneuma),  or  the  spiritual  substance 
 which,  according  to  him,  fills  the  arteries,  which  we  in- 
 hale in  respiration,  which  from  the  lungs  makes  its  way 
 into  the  arteries,  and  then  becomes  the  vital  principle 
 of  the  human  system.  As  long  as  this  spirit  moves 
 about  in  the  arteries,  and  the  blood  in  the  veins,  man 
 enjoys  health  :  but  when,  from  some  cause  or  other, 
 the  veins  become  contracted,  the  blood  then  spreads 
 into  the  arteries  and  becomes  the  source  of  maladies: 
 it  produces  fever  when  it  enters  into  some  noble  part 
 or  into  the  great  artery  ;  and  inflammations  when  it 
 is  found  in  the  less  noble  parts  or  in  the  extremities  of 
 the  arteries.  {Galen,  Comm.,  1,  in  lib.  de  Nat.  Hum., 
 p.  3.)  Erasistratus  rejected  entirely  blood-letting,  as 
 well  as  cathartics  :  he  supplied  their  place  with  dieting, 
 tepid  bathing,  vomiting,  and  exercise.  In  general,  he 
 was  attached  to  simple  remedies ;  he  recognised  what 
 was  subsequently  termed  Idiosyncrasy,  or  the  pecu- 
 liar constitution  of  different  individuals,  which  makes 
 the  same  remedy  act  differently  on  different  persons. 
 A  few  fragments  of  the  writings  of  Erasistratus  have 
 been  preserved  by  Galen.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  3,  p.  406,  seqq. — Sprengel,  Hist.  Med.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 439,  seqq.) 
 
 Erato,  one  of  the  Muses,  who  presided  over  lyric, 
 tender,  and  amorous  poetry.  She  is  said  to  have  in- 
 vented also  hymns  to  the  gods,  and  to  have  presided 
 likewise  over  pantomimic  dancing.  Hence  Ausonius 
 says,  "  Plectra  gerens  Erato  sallat  pcdc,  carmine,  vul- 
 tu."  {Idyl,  ult.,  v.  6.)  She  is  represented  as  crown- 
 ed with  roses  and  myrtle,  holding  a  lyre  in  her  hand. 
 She  appears  with  a  thoughtful,  and  sometimes  with  a 
 gay  and  animated,  look.  (Compare  Midler,  Archdol. 
 der  Kunst,  p.  594,  seqq  ) 
 
 Eratosthenes,  a  distinguished  contemporary  of 
 Archimedes,  born  at  Gyrene,  B.C.  276.  He  pos- 
 sessed a  variety  of  talents  seldom  united  in  the  same 
 individual,  but  not  all  in  the  same  eminent  degree. 
 His  mathematical,  astronomical,  and  geographical  la- 
 bours are  those  which  have  rescued  his  name  from  ob- 
 livion. The  Alexandrean  school  of  sciences,  which 
 486 
 
 flourished  under  the  first  Ptolemies,  had  already  pro 
 duced  Timochares  and  Aristyllus,  whose  solstitial  ob- 
 servations, made  probably  by  the  shadows  of  a  gnomon, 
 and  by  the  armillary  circles  imitative  of  those  of  the 
 celestial  vault,  retained  considerable  credit  for  cen- 
 turies afterward,  though,  from  these  methods  of  obesr- 
 vation,  they  must  have  been  extremely  rude  and  im- 
 perfect. Eratosthenes  had  not  only  the  advantages 
 arising  from  the  instruments  and  observations  of  his 
 predecessors,  but  the  great  Alexandrean  library,  which 
 probably  contained  all  the  Phcenician,  Chaldaic,  Egyp- 
 tian, and  Greek  learning  of  the  time,  was  intrusted 
 to  his  superintendence  by  the  third  Ptolemy  (Euerge- 
 tes)  who  invited  him  to  Alexandrea  ;  and  we  have 
 proof,  in  the  scattered  fragments  which  remain  to  us 
 of  this  great  man,  that  these  advantages  were  duly 
 cultivated  to  his  own  fame  and  the  progress  of  in- 
 fant astronomy.  The  only  work  attributed  to  Era- 
 tosthenes which  has  come  down  to  us  entire,  is  en- 
 titled KaraffTEpiafiol  {Catasterismi),  and  is  merely  a 
 catalogue  of  the  names  of  forty-four  constellations, 
 and  the  situations  in  each  constellation  of  the  princi- 
 pal stars,  of  which  he  enumerates  nearly  five  hundred, 
 but  without  one  reference  to  astronomical  measure- 
 ment. We  find  Hipparchus  quoted  in  it,  and  mention 
 made  of  the  motion  of  the  pole,  that  of  the  polar  star 
 having  been  recognised  by  Pytheas.  These  circum- 
 stances, taken  in  conjunction  with  the  vagueness  of 
 the  descriptions,  render  its  genuineness  extremely 
 doubtful ;  at  all  events,  it  is  a  work  of  httle  value.  If 
 Eratosthenes  be  really  the  author  of  the  "  Catasteris- 
 mi," it  must  have  been  composed  merely  as  a  vade 
 niecum,  for  we  find  him  engaged  in  astronomical  re- 
 searches far  more  exact  and  more  worthy  of  his  ge- 
 nius. By  his  observations  he  determined,  that  the 
 distance  Jaetween  the  tropics,  that  is,  twice  the  obliqui- 
 ty of  the  ecliptic,  was  J  J  of  an  entire  circumference,  or 
 47°  42'  39",  which  makes  the  obliquity  to  be  23°  51 
 19. 5",  nearly  the  same  as  that  supposed  by  Hippar- 
 chus and  Ptolemy.  As  the  means  of  observation  were 
 at  that  time  very  imperfect,  the  instruments  divided 
 only  to  intervals  of  10',  and  corrections  for  the  greater 
 refraction  at  the  winter  solstice,  for  the  diameter  of 
 the  solar  disc,  &c.,  were  then  unknown,  we  must  re- 
 gard this  conclusion  as  highly  creditable  to  Eratos- 
 thenes. His  next  achievement  was  to  measure  the 
 circumference  of  the  earth.  He  knew  that  at  Syene 
 (the  modern  Assouan)  the  sun  was  vertical  at  noon 
 in  the  summer  solstice ;  while  at  Alexandrea,  at  the 
 same  moment,  it  was  below  the  zenith  by  the  fiftieth 
 part  of  a  circumference  :  the  two  places  are  nearly  on 
 the  same  meridian  (error  2°).  Neglecting  the  solar 
 parallax,  he  concluded  that  the  distance  from  Alexan- 
 drea to  Syene  is  the  fiftieth  part  of  the  circumference 
 of  the  earth  ;  this  distance  he  estimated  at  five  thou- 
 sand stadia,  which  gives  two  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
 sand stadia  for  the  circumference.  Thus  Eratosthe- 
 nes has  the  merit  of  pointing  out  a  method  for  finding 
 the  circumference  of  the  earth.  But  his  data  were  not 
 sufliiciently  exact,  nor  had  he  the  means  of  measuring 
 the  distance  from  Alexandrea  to  Syene  with  sufficient 
 precision. — Eratosthenes  has  been  called  a  poet,  and 
 Scaliger,  in  his  commentary  on  Manilius,  gives  some 
 fragments  of  a  poem  attributed  to  him,  entitled  'Epfj^c 
 {Hermes),  one  of  which  is  a  description  of  the  tsncs- 
 trial  zones.  It  is  not  improbable  that  these  are  au- 
 thentic.— That  Eratosthenes  was  an  e.tcellent  geome- 
 ter we  cannot  doubt,  from  his  still  extant  solution  of 
 the  problem  of  two  mean  proportionals,  preserved  by 
 Theon,  and  a  lost  treatise  quoted  by  Pappus,  "  De 
 Locis  ad  Medielates,^'  on  which  Montucla  has  offered 
 some  conjectures.  {Hist,  des  Math.,  an.  7,  p.  280.) — • 
 Eratosthenes  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the-  first 
 who  attempted  to  form  a  system  of  geography  His 
 work  on  this  subject,  entitled  Tet,)ypa<f)r.Kd  {Geogra- 
 jthica),  was  divided  into  three  books.     The  first  c«a- 
 
ERE 
 
 ERE 
 
 tained  a  history  of  geography,  a  critical  notice  of  the 
 authorities  used  by  ium,  and  the  elements  of  physical 
 geography.  I'he  second  booit  treated  of  mathemati- 
 cal geography.  The  third  contained  the  political  or 
 historical  geography  of  the  then  known  world.  The 
 whole  work  was  accompanied  with  a  map.  The  geog- 
 raphy of  Eratosthenes  is  lost ;  the  fragments  which 
 remain  have  been  chiefly  preserved  by  Slrabo,  who 
 was  doubtless  much  indebted  to  them. — Eratosthenes 
 also  busied  himself  with  chronology.  Some  remarks 
 on  his  Greek  chronology  will  be  found  in  Clinton's 
 Fasti  Hellemci  (vol.  I,  p.  3. — I/i.,  p.  408)  ;  and  on 
 his  list  of  Theban  kings  in  Rask's  work  on  the  An- 
 cient Egyptian  Chronology  (Altona,  1830). — The  prop- 
 erties ol'  numbers  attracted  the  attention  of  philoso- 
 phers from  the  earliest  period,  and  Eratosthenes  also 
 distinguished  himself  in  this  branch.  He  wrote  a  work 
 on  the  "  Duplication  of  the  Cube,"  KvSov  (htr?.a(jcaa- 
 u6(,  which  we  only  know  by  a  sketch  that  Eudoxus 
 has  given  of  it,  in  his  treatise  on  the  Sphere  and  Cyl- 
 inder of  Archimedes.  Eratosthenes  composed,  also, 
 another  work  m  this  department,  entitled  Kookivov,  or 
 "  the  Sieve,"  the  object  oi'  which  was  to  separate 
 prime  from  composite  numbers,  a  curious  memoir  on 
 which  was  published  by  Horseley,  in  the  "  Philosophi- 
 cal Transactions,"  1772. — Eratosthenes  arrived  at  the 
 age  of  eighty  years,  and  then,  becoming  weary  of  life, 
 died  by  voluntary  starvation.  (Suid.,  s.  v.)  Montu- 
 cla,  with  his  usual  naivete,  says,  it  would  have  been 
 more  philosophical  to  have  awaited  death  "de  pied 
 ferine." — The  best  editions  of  the  Catasterisini  are 
 that  of  Schaubach,  with  notes  by  Heyne,  G'dft.,  1795, 
 and  that  of  Matthias,  in  his  Aratus,  Franco/.,  1817, 
 Svo.  The  fragments  of  Eratosthenes  have  been  col- 
 lected by  Bernhardy,  BeroL,  1823.  iMon/.uda,  Hist, 
 des  Math.,  p.  239. — Delambre,  Hist,  de  I'Astron.  Anc, 
 p.  86. — Encycl.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  9,  p.  497.) 
 
 Ekbessus,  a  strongly-fortihed  town  of  Sicily,  north- 
 east of  Agrigentum,  which  the  Romans  made  their 
 principal  place  of  arms  in  the  siege  of  the  last-men- 
 tioned city.  It  was  soon  after  destroyed.  (Polyb.,  1, 
 18.) — When  mention  is  made,  in  other  passages  of  the 
 ancient  writers,  of  Erbessa,  we  must,  no  doubt,  refer 
 it  to  the  city  of  Herbessa,  which  lay  nearer  Syracuse. 
 {Miinnert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.2,  p.  441.) 
 
 Erohia,  one  of  the  boroughs  of  Attica,  and  be- 
 longing to  the  tribe  ./Egeis.  Its  position  has  not  been 
 clearly  ascertained.  This  was  the  native  demus  of 
 Xenophon  and  Isocrates.     (Diog.  Laert.,  2,  48.) 
 
 Erkbus,  I.  a  deity  of  the  lower  world,  spruno-  from 
 Chaos.  From  him  and  his  sister  Nox  {Night)  came 
 iEther  and  the  Day.  {Hesiod,  Theog.,  123,  seqq.) — 
 II.  A  dark  and  gloomy  region  in  the  lower  world, 
 where  all  is  dreary  and  clieerless.  Accordinof  to  the 
 Homeric  notion,  Erebus  lay  between  the  earth  and 
 Hades,  beneath  the  latter  oi  which  was  Tartarus.  It 
 was  therefore  not  an  abode  of  the  departed,  but  merely 
 a  passage  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  world.  {Heyne, 
 ad  Iliad,  8,  368.  —  Fassuw,  Lex.  Gr.,  s.  v.)  This 
 mode  of  explaining  is  opposed,  however,  by  some, 
 though  oa  no  sufficient  grounds.  (Keightley's  My- 
 thology, p.  90.)  Oriental  scholars  derive  the  name 
 Erebus  from  the  Hebrew  creh,  evening. 
 
 Ekkoktheis,  the  well  of  salt  water  lu  the  Acropolis 
 at  .Athens.     {^Vid.  Erechtheus.) 
 
 Eeechtheus,  one  of  the  early  Attic  kings,  said  to 
 have  been  the  son  of  Pandion  I.,' and  the  sixth  in  the 
 ^ries  of  moitarchs  of  Atti<;a.  He  was  father  of  Ce- 
 crops  11. — We  have  already  given  some  remarks  on 
 the  fabulous  history  of  the  Attic  kings,  under  the  arti- 
 cle Cecrops.  It  may  be  a.dded  here,  that  Erechtheus 
 irs  all  probabihty  was  only  a  title  of  Neptune.  This 
 appears  plainly,  as  far  as  such  a  point  can  be  said  to 
 oe  plauj,  both  from  the  etymology  of  the  name  and 
 the  testimony  oi  ancient  writers.  Thus  we  have  in 
 Hesv'chius,  'Epsx^^^i-  Hoatiftoi;  kv  'Ad^vaic,  and  in 
 
 the  scholia  of  Tzetzes  to  Lycophron  (v.  158),  'Epex- 
 dsvc,  6  UoaEL^uu  f/  6  Zeiif  {napu  ro  kpixOu,  to  kivu). 
 Many  other  writers  declare  the  identity  of  Neptune 
 and  Erechtheus.  The  Erechtheum  of  the  Acropolis 
 was  contiguous  to  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  and 
 its  principal  altar  was  dedicated  to  Neptune,  "  on 
 which,"  Pausanias  says  (1,  26),  "  they  also  sacrificed 
 to  Erechtheus  ;"  a  very  natural  variation  of  the  story, 
 when  it  was  forgotten  that  Neptune  and  Erechtheus 
 were  the  same.  'Epex^siX  means  "  the  shaker,"  and 
 is  equivalent  to  ivoatxOi^v  or  kvvoaiyaLo^,  the  most 
 frequent  epithets  of  the  god  of  the  sea.  That  Erech- 
 theus was  really  Neptune  is  farther  evident  from  the 
 circumstance,  that  the  well  of  salt  water  in  the  Acropo- 
 lis, which  was  said  to  be  the  memorial  of  the  contest 
 of  Neptune  with  Minerva  for  the  honour  of  being  the 
 tutelary  deity  of  Athens,  was  called  ^uXaaaa  'Epe,\-- 
 Oip^.     {Philol.  Museum,  No.  5,  p.  360.) 
 
 Erechthides,  a  name  given  to  the  Athenians,  from 
 their  king  Erechtheus.     {Oind,  Met.,  7,  430.) 
 
 Eressus  or  Eresus  (on  coins  the  name  is  always 
 written  with  one  2),  a  city  of  Lesbos,  situate  on  a  hill, 
 at  the  distance  of  twenty-eight  stadia  from  Cape 
 Sigrium.  It  derives  celebrity  from  having  given  birth 
 to  Theophrastus.  Phanias,  another  disciple  of  the 
 great  Stagirite,  was  likewise  a  native  of  this  place. 
 (Strab.,  616. — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'Epeaaoc.)  Accord- 
 ing to  Archestratus,  quoted  by  Alhenaeus,  Eressus 
 was  famous  for  the  excellence  of  its  wheaten  flour. 
 The  site  yet  preserves  the  name  of  Eresso.  {Pocorke, 
 vol.  1,  b.  3,c.  4. —  Cramer^s  Asia  Minor, \-o\.  l,p.  163.) 
 
 Eretria,  I.  a  town  of  the  island  of  EubcEa,  situate 
 on  the  coast  of  the  Euripus,  southeast  of  Chalcis.  It 
 was  said  by  some  to  have  been  founded  by  a  colony 
 from  Triphylia  in  Peloponnesus  :  by  others  its  origin 
 was  ascribed  to  a  party  of  .Athenians  belonging  to  the 
 demus  of  Eretria.  {Strabo,  447.)  The  latter  opin- 
 ion is  far  more  probable,  as  this  city  was  doubtless 
 of  Ionic  origin.  (Herodot.,  8,  46.)  We  learn  from 
 Strabo,  that  Eretria  was  formerly  called  Melaneis  and 
 Arotria ;  and  that,  at  an  early  period,  it  had  attained 
 to  a  considerable  degree  of  prosperity  and  power.  The 
 Eretrians  had  conquered  the  islands  of  Ceos,  Teos, 
 Tenos,  and  others.  And  in  their  festival  of  Diana, 
 which  was  celebrated  with  great  pomp  and  splendour, 
 three  thousand  soldiers  on  foot,  with  six  hundred  cav- 
 alry, and  sixty  chariots,  were  often  employed  to  attend 
 the  procession.  {Strabo,  448.  —  Compare  Lwy,  35, 
 38.)  Eretria,  at  this  period,  was  frequently  engaged 
 in  war  with  Chalcis  ;  and  Thucydides  reports  (1,  15), 
 that  on  one  occasion  most  of  the  Grecian  states  took 
 part  in  the  contest.  The  assistance  which  Eretria 
 then  received  from  the  Milesians  induced  that  city  to 
 co-operate  with  the  Athenians  in  sending  a  fleet  and 
 troops  to  the  support  of  the  lonians,  who  had  revolted 
 from  Persia  at  the  instigation  of  Aristagoras  {Herodot., 
 
 5,  99) ;  by  which  measure  it  became  exposed,  in  con- 
 junction with  Athens,  to  the  vengeance  of  Darius. 
 This  monarch  accordingly  gave  orders  to  his  com- 
 manders, Datis  and  .A.rtaphernes,  to  subdue  both  Ere- 
 tria and  Athens,  and  bring  the  inhabitants  captive  be- 
 fore him.  Eretria  was  taken  after  six  days'  siege,  and 
 the  captive  inhabitants  brought  to  Asia.  They  are 
 said  to  have  been  in  number  only  four  hundred,  among 
 whom  were  ten  women.  The  rest  of  the  Eretrians 
 escaped  from  the  Persians  among  the  rocks  of  the  isl- 
 and. Darius  treated  the  prisoners  kindly,  and  settled 
 them  at  Ardericca,  in  the  district  of  Cissia.     {Herodot 
 
 6,  119.)  According  to  Philostratus,  they  occupied 
 the  same  spot  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era 
 Eretria  recovered  from  the  effects  of  this  disaster,  and 
 was  rebuilt  soon  after.  We  And  it  mentioned  by  Thu- 
 cydides, towards  the  close  of  his  history  (8,  94),  as 
 revolting  from  Athens  on  the  approach  of  a  Spartan 
 fleet  under  Hegesandridas,  and  mainly  contributing  to 
 the  success  obtained  by  that  commander.     After  th« 
 
 487 
 
ERI 
 
 ERI 
 
 death  of  Alexander,  this  city  surrendered  to  Ptolemy, 
 a  general  in  the  service  of  Antigonus  (Dwd.  Sic,  19, 
 78) ;  and  in  the  Macedonian  war,  to  tlie  combined 
 fleets  of  the  Romans,  tlie  Rhodians,  and  Alalus.  {Liv., 
 
 32,  16.)  It  was  subsequently  declared  free,  by  order 
 of  the  Roman  senate.  {Polyb.,  18,  28,  seqq.)  I'his 
 place,  as  we  learn  from  Alhena>us,  was  noted  for  the 
 excellence  of  its  flour  and  bread.  {Snpat.,  Com.  ap. 
 Athen.,  4,  50.)  At  one  time  it  possessed  a  distin- 
 guished school  of  philosophy  and  dialectic,  as  we  learn 
 from  Strabo  (444. — Compare  Diog.  Lacrt.,  Vu.  Ar- 
 ces. — Plm.,  4,  12 — Steph.  By:.,  s.  v.  'EptrpLa).  The 
 rums  of  Erctria  are  still  to  be  observed  close  lo  a  head- 
 land which  lies  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Asopus 
 in  Boeotia.  D'AnviUe  gives  the  modern  name  as  Gra- 
 mlinais.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  136,  seqq.) 
 —II.  A  demus  of  Attica.  {Sirahu,  447.)  —  III.  A 
 town  of  Thessaly,  near  Pharsalus,  and  between  that 
 city   and  Pherffi.     {Polyb.,  fra>rm.,   18,  3,   5. — Liv., 
 
 33,  6.) 
 
 Ebetum,  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  north  of  Nomen- 
 tum  and  northeast  of  Fidenas,  and  at  no  great  distance 
 from  the  Tiber.  Its  name  frequently  occurs  in  the 
 Roman  historians.  The  antiquity  of  the  place  is  at- 
 tested by  Virgil  (7,  711),  who  enumerates  it  in  his  list 
 of  the  Sabine  towns  which  sent  aid  to  Turnus.  It 
 was  subsequently  the  scene  of  many  a  contest  between 
 the  Romans  and  Sabines,  leagued  with  the  Etruscans. 
 {Liv.,  3,  29. — Dwn.  Hal,  3,  59.)  Hannibal,  accord- 
 ing to  CkHus,  the  historian,  when  advancing  by  the 
 Via  Salaria  towards  Rome,  to  make  a  diversion  in  fa- 
 vour of  Capua,  turned  olf  at  Eretum  to  pillage  the 
 temple  of  Feronia.  In  Sirabo's  lime  Eretum  appears 
 to  have  been  little  more  than  a  village.  {Strab.,  228.) 
 The  modern  Rimanc  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of 
 the  ancient  Eretum,  and  not  Muntc  Ritondo,  as  was 
 generally  believed  until  the  Abbe  Chaupy  pointed  out 
 the  error.  {Desc.  do  la  rnajson  d' Horace,  vol.  3,  p. 
 f^5. — Nibby,  delle  Vie  d'gli  Anlichi,  p.  89. —  Cramer''s 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  308.) 
 
 Erichthonius,  one  of  the  early  Attic  kings,  and 
 the  immediate  successor  of  Ainphictyon.  He  was  fa- 
 bled to  have  been  the  oifspring  of  Vulcan  and  Miner- 
 va, a  legend  which  we  have  explained  under  the  arti- 
 cle Cecrops.  {Vid.  remarks  at  the  close  of  that  arti- 
 cle.) Not  inconsistent  with  this  account  is  the  other 
 tradition,  which  ascribes  to  Erichthouius  the  honour 
 of  having  been  the  first  to  yoke  four  horses  to  a  car; 
 a  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  barren  land  of  Atti- 
 ca, where  the  horse  was  reared  with  difficulty,  and 
 maintained  at  a  considerable  expense,  and  which  was 
 therefore  the  most  expressive  indication  that  could 
 have  been  adopted,  of  the  greater  diffusion  of  wealth 
 consequent  on  the  successful  cultivation  of  those  arts 
 and  manufactures  which  began  to  flourish  at  this  pe- 
 riod.    {WordswortKs  Greece,  p.  95.) 
 
 Ericusa,  one  of  the  Lipari  isles,  now  Varcusa. 
 ( Vid.  ^.oliae.) 
 
 Ekidanus,  a  river  of  Italy,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  called 
 also  Padus,  now  the  Po.  D'AnviUe  states,  that  the 
 name  Eridanus,  though  a  term  for  the  entire  river,  was 
 specially  applied  to  the  Ostium  Spineticuin,  or  Spinetic 
 mouth,  which  last  received  its  name  from  a  very  an- 
 cient city  in  its  vicinity,  founded  by  the  Greeks,  and 
 called  Spina.  Some  writers  consider  the  name  Erida- 
 nus as  coming,  in  fact,  from  a  river  in  the  north  of 
 Europe,  the  modern  Roduun,  which  flows  into  the 
 Vistula  near  Dajitzic.  Here  the  PhcEiiicians  and  Car- 
 thaginians traded  for  amber,  and  their  fear  of  rivalry 
 in  this  lucrative  trade  induced  them  to  keep  the 
 source  of  their  traffic  involved  in  so  much  obscurity, 
 that  it  became,  in  time,  the  subject  of  j)oetic  embellish- 
 ment. The  Rhodanus,  or  Rhone,  is  thought  by  some 
 to  have  received  its  ancient  name  from  this  circum- 
 stance, being  confounded  by  the  Greeks,  in  the  in- 
 fancy of  their  geographical  knowledge,  with  the  true 
 488 
 
 stream.  This  probably  arose  from  amber  being  found 
 among  the  Gallic  nations,  to  whom  it  may  have  come 
 by  an  over-land  trade.  In  like  manner,  amber  being 
 obtained  afterward  in  large  quantities  among  the  Ve- 
 neti  on  the  Adriatic,  induced  the  Greeks  lo  remove 
 the  Eridanus  to  this  quarter,  and  identify  it  with  the 
 Po,  off  the  mouth  of  which  stream  they  placed  then 
 imaginary  amber-islands,  the  Electrides.  The  Veneli 
 obtained  their  amber  in  a  similar  way  with  the  Gallic 
 nations.  Thus  the  true  Eridanus,  and  the  fable  ot 
 Phacthon  also,  both  refer  to  a  northern  origin  ;  and  a 
 curious  subject  of  discussion  arises  with  regard  to  th» 
 earlier  climate  of  the  regions  bordering  on  the  Baltic, 
 for  remarks  on  which,  vid.  Pliaethon.  {Cic.  in  Arat., 
 \i5.—  Clundian,  de  Cons.  Hon.,  6,  175.— Owd,  Met., 
 2,  3.—Pausan.,  1,  3.~Lucan,  2,  409.— Fir^.,  G., 
 1,482.) 
 
 Erigone,  daughter  of  Icarius.  Her  father  having 
 been  taught  by  Bacchus  the  culture  of  the  grape,  and 
 having  made  wine,  gave  of  it  to  some  shepherds,  who, 
 thinking  themselves  poisoned  by  the  draught,  killed 
 him.  When  they  came  to  their  senses,  they  buried 
 him ;  and  his  daughter  Erigone,  being  guided  to  the 
 spot  by  her  father's  faithful  hound  Msra,  hung  herself 
 through  grief  {Apollod.,3, 14, 7. — Hygin.,  fab.,  130.) 
 Jupiter  translated  the  father  and  daughter,  along  with 
 the  faithful  Maera,  to  the  skies  :  Icarius  became  Bootes  ; 
 and  Erigone,  Virgo;  while  the  hound  was  changed, 
 according  to  Hyginus  {Poet.  Astron.,  2,  4),  into  Pro- 
 cyon  ;  but,  according  to  the  scholiast  on  Germanicus 
 (p.  128),  into  the  Canis  Major,  which  is  therefore 
 styled  by  Ovid  {Fast.,  4,  939),  "  Canis  Icarius." 
 Propertius  (2,  24,  24)  calls  the  stars  of  the  Greater 
 Bear,  "  Boves  Icarii."     {Idcler,  Sternnamen,  p.  48.) 
 
 Erinna,  I.  a  poetess,  and  the  friend  of  Sappho. 
 She  flourished  about  the  year  595  B.C.  All  that  is 
 known  of  her  is  contained  in  the  following  words  of 
 Eustalhius  {ad  II.,  2,  p.  327).  "  Erinna  was  born  in 
 Lesbos,  or  in  Rhodes,  or  in  Teos,  or  in  Telos,  the  lit- 
 tle island  near  Cnidus.  She  was  a  poetess,  and  wrote 
 a  poem  called  '  the  Distaff'  {''iHaKaT-q)  in  the  iEolic 
 and  Doric  dialect :  it  consisted  of  300  hexameter  lines. 
 She  was  the  friend  of  Sappho,  and  died  unmarried.  It 
 was  thought  that  her  verses  rivalled  those  of  Homer. 
 She  was  only  19  years  of  age  when  she  died."  Chain- 
 ed by  her  mother  to  the  spinning-wheel,  Erinna  had  as 
 yet  known  the  charm  of  existence  in  imagination  alone. 
 She  probably  expressed  in  her  poem  the  restless  and 
 aspiring  thoughts  which  crowded  on  her  youthful  mind, 
 as  she  pursued  her  monotonous  work.  We  possess  at 
 the  present  day  no  fragments  of  Erinna.  {Miillcr, 
 Hist.  Grac.  Lit.,  p.  180.) — II.  A  poetess  mentioned 
 by  Eusebius  under  the  year  354  B.C.  This  appears 
 to  be  the  same  person  who  is  spoken  of  by  Pliny  (34, 
 8),  as  having  celebrated  Myro  in  her  poems.  No  frag- 
 ments of  her  poetry  remain.  {Encycl.  Us.  Knmvl., 
 vol.  9,  p.  508.) 
 
 Erinnvs,  a  name  applied  to  the  Furies,  so  that 
 Erinnycs  ('Epdvvi'ff)  is  equivalent  to  Dira;  or  Furia. 
 Miiller  makes  the  Greek  term  tpivvf  indicate  "  a  feel- 
 ing of  deep  offence,  of  bitter  displeasure,  at  the  impi- 
 ous violation  of  our  sacred  rights,  by  those  most  bound 
 to  respect  them."  {MQller,  Euvicn.,  p.  186.)  'i'his 
 perfectly  accords  with  the  origin  of  the  Erinnyes  in 
 the  Thcogony,  and  with  those  passages  of  the  Homeric 
 poems  in  which  they  are  mentioned  ;  for  they  are  there 
 invoked  to  avenge  the  breach  of  filial  duly,  and  are 
 named  as  the  punishcrs  of  perjury.  {Hotn.,  IL,  9, 
 4.54,  568. — Id.  ib.,  19,  258.)  Even  beggars  have  their 
 Erinnyes,  that  ihey  may  not  be  insulted  with  impunity 
 (Of/.,  17,  475) ;  and  when  a  horse  has  spokon,  in  vio- 
 lation  of  the  order  of  nature,  the  Erinnyes  deprive  hinu 
 of  the  power  of  repeating  the  act.  (//.,  19,  418.) 
 The  Erinnyes,  these  personified  feelings,  may  there- 
 fore be  regarded  as  the  maintainers  of  order  bath  in 
 the  moral  and  natural  world.     There  is,  howevei,  &»• 
 
ERO 
 
 ERY 
 
 other  view  taken  of  these  goddesses,  in  which  they  are 
 only  a  form  of  Ceres  and  Proserpina,  the  great  god- 
 desses of  the  earth.  For  everything  in  nature  hav- 
 ing injurious  as  well  as  beneficial  effects,  the  bounte- 
 ou's  earth  itself  becomes  grim,  as  it  were,  and  displeased 
 with  mankind,  and  this  is  Ceres-Erinnys.  In  the  Ar- 
 cadian legends  of  this  goddess,  and  in  the  concluding 
 choruses  of  the  Eunienides  of  ^schylus,  may  be  dis- 
 cerned ideas  of  this  nature.  {Mullcr,  Eumcn.,  p.  191, 
 seqq. — Kcighlley's  Mythology,  p.  196,  seq.) 
 
 Eriphyle,  a  sister  of  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos,  who 
 married  Amphiaraus.  She  was  daughter  of  Talaus  and 
 Lysimache.  (For  an  account  of  the  legend  connected 
 with  her  name,  consult  the  article  Amphiaraus.) 
 
 Eris,  the  Greek  name  for  the  goddess  of  Discord. 
 {Vid  Discordia.) 
 
 Erisichthon,  a  Thessalian,  son  of  Triops,  who  de- 
 rided Ceres,  and  cut  down  her  sacred  grove.  This 
 impiety  irritated  the  goddess,  who  afflicted  him  with 
 continual  hunger.  I'his  infliction  gave  occasion  for 
 the  exercise  of  the  filial  piety  and  power  of  self-trans- 
 formation of  the  daughter  of  Erisichthon,  who,  by  her 
 assuming  various  forms,  enabled  her  father  to  sell  her 
 over  and  over  again,  and  thus  obtain  the  means  of  liv- 
 incr  after  all  his  property  was  gone.  (Nica/ider,  ap. 
 Anton.  Lib.,  17.)  He  was  driven  at  lasi  by  hungerio 
 feed  on  his  own  limbs.  (Odd,  Met.,  8,  738,  seqq. — 
 Tzctz.  ad  Lycophr  ,  1393. — Compare  the  account  of 
 Callimachus,  H.  in  Ccr.,  32,  seqq.) — This  legend  ad- 
 mits of  a  very  simple  explanation.  Erisichthon  is  a 
 name  akin  to  Erusihe  (epvalGij)  or  "  mildew  ;"  and 
 Hellanicus  (ap.  Allien.,  10,  p.  416)  said  that  he  was 
 also  called  JEthon  {kldcd^i)  or  "  burning,"  from  his  in- 
 satiate hunger.  The  destructive  mildew  is  therefore 
 the  enemy  of  Ceres,  to  whom,  under  the  title  of  Ery- 
 sibia,  the  Rhodians  prayed  to  avert  it.  {MiXllcr,  Pro- 
 legom.,  162. — Keightlcy's  Mythology,  p.  177.) 
 
 Eros,  the  god  of  Love,  the  same  with  the  Cupido 
 of  the  Latins.     This  deity  is  unnoticed  by  Homer.    In 
 the  Theogony  (v.  120)  he  is  one  of  the  first  of  beings, 
 and  produced  without  parents.     In  the  Orphic  hymns 
 he  is  the  son  of  Kronos.     {Schol.  ad  Apoll.  Rhod.,  3, 
 26.)     Sappho  made  him  the  offspring  of  Heaven  and 
 Earth  {Id.  lb.),  while  Simonides  assigned  him  Venus 
 and  Mars  for  parents.     {Id.  ib)     In  Olen's  hymn  to 
 Ilithyia  {Pausan.,  9,  27,  2),  this  goddess  was  termed 
 the  mother  of  Love;  and  Alca;us  said,  that   "well- 
 sandaled  Iris  bore  Love  to  Zephyrus  of  golden  locks" 
 {ap.  Plut.,  Amat.,    20). — The   cosmogonic   Eros   of 
 Hesiod  is  apparently  a  personification  of  the  principle 
 of  attraction,  on  which  the  coherence  of  the  material 
 world   depends.     Nothing  was  more  natural  than  to 
 term  Venus  the  mother  of  Love  ;  but  the  reason  for  so 
 calling  Ilithyia,  the  goddess  who  presides  over  child- 
 birth, is  not  equally  apparent :  it  was  possibly  meant 
 to  express  the  increase  of  conjugal  affection  produced 
 by  the  birth  of  children.     The  making  Love  the  off- 
 spring of  the  Westwind  and  the  Rainbow  would  seem 
 to  be  only  a  poetic  mode  of  expressing  the  well-known 
 fact,  that  the  Spring,  the  season  in  which  they  most 
 prevail,  is  also  that  of  Love.     {Thcognis,  1275.)    In 
 the  bucolic   and  some  of  the  Latin  poets,  the  Loves 
 are  spoken  of  in  the  plural  number,  but  no  distinct 
 offices  are  assigned  them.     {Theocrit-,  7,  96. — Bion, 
 1,  passim. — Horat.,  Od.,  1,  19,  1.) — Thespiae  in  Boeo- 
 tia  was  the  place  in  which  Eros  was  most  worshipped. 
 The  Thespians  used  to  celebrate  games  in  his  honour 
 on  Mount  Helicon.    These  were  called  Erotia.    Eros 
 had  also  altars  at  Athens  and  elsewhere.     The  god  of 
 love  was  usually  represented  as  a  plump-cheeked  boy, 
 rosy  and  naked,  with  light  hair  floating  on  his  shoul- 
 ders.   He  is  always  winged,  and  armed  with  a  bow  and 
 arrows.     Nonnus  (7,  194)  seems  to  represent  his  ar- 
 rows as  tipped  with  flowers.    The  arrows  of  Cama,  the 
 Hindu    Eros,  are  thus  pointed. — The  adventures  of 
 Eros  are  not  numerous.     The  most  celebrated  is  that 
 
 Qqq 
 
 contained  in  the  legend  of  Psyche.     {Vid.  Psycne.  — 
 Keightley'' s  Mythology,  p.  146,  seqq.) 
 
 Erostratus.      Vid.  Herostralus. 
 
 Erycina,  a  surname  of  Venus,  from  Mount  Eryx 
 in  Sicily,  where  she  had  a  temple.  The  Erycinian 
 Venus  appears  to  have  been  the  same  with  the  Phoe- 
 nician Astarte,  whose  worship  was  brought  over  by  the 
 latter  people,  and  a  temple  erected  to  her  on  Mount 
 Eryx.  In  confirmation  of  this,  we  learn  from  Diodo- 
 rus  Siculus,  that  the  Carthaginians  revered  the  Erycin- 
 ian Venus  equally  as  much  as  the  natives  themselves. 
 {Died.  Sic,  4,83.) 
 
 Erv.manthus,  I.  a  mountain-chain  in  the  northwest 
 angle  of  Arcadia,  celebrated  in  fable  as  the  haunt  of 
 the  savage  boar  destroyed  bv  Hercules.  {Apollod.,  2, 
 5,  Z.— Pausan.,  8,  Hi.— Homer,  Od.,  6,  102.)  Apol- 
 lonius  places  the  Erymanthian  monster  in  the  wilds  of 
 Mount  Lampia  ;  but  this  mountain,  as  we  learn  from 
 Pausanias  (8,  24),  was  that  part  of  the  chain  where 
 the  river  Erymanthus  took  its  rise.  The  modern  name 
 of  Mount  Erymanthus,  one  of  the  highest  ridges  in 
 Greece,  is  Olonos.  {Ilin.  of  the  Morea,  p.  122.) — II. 
 A  river  of  Arcadia,  descending  from  the  mountain  of 
 the  same  name,  and  flowing  near  the  town  of  Psophis. 
 After  receiving  another  small  stream,  called  the  Aro- 
 anius,  it  joins  the  Alpheus  on  the  borders  of  Elis. 
 The  modern  name  of  the  Erymanthus  is  the  Dogana. 
 {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  320.) 
 
 Erythea,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Iberia,  in  the 
 Atlantic.  It  lay  in  the  Sinus  Gaditanus,  or  Bay  of 
 Cadiz,  and  was  remarkable  for  its  fertihty.  It  was 
 called  by  the  inhabitants  Junonis  Insula  ;  and  by  later 
 writers,  Aphrodisias.  Here  Gcryon  was  said  to  have 
 reigned  ;  and  the  fertility  of  the  island  seems  to  have 
 given  rise  to  the  fable  of  his  oxen.  Vid.  Hercules 
 and  Geryon.  {Plin,  4,  22.— Mela,  3,  6.)  Many  com- 
 mentators have  agreed  to  identify  with  Erythea  the 
 Isla  de  Leon.  (Compare  Classical  Journal,  vol.  3,  p. 
 140.) — II.  A  daughter  of  Geryon.  {Pausanias,  10, 
 37.) 
 
 EuYTHRiE,  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Ionia,  situate 
 near  the  coast,  opposite  Chios.  {Herodot ,  1,  142.) 
 Its  founder  was  said  to  have  been  Erythrus,  the  son 
 of  Rhadamanthus,  who  established  himself  here  with 
 a  body  of  Cretans,  Carians,  and  Lycians.  At  a  later 
 period  came  Cleopus,  son  of  Codrus,  with  an  Ionian 
 colony.  {Scylax,  p.  37.)  The  city  did  not  lie  exactly 
 on  the  coast,  but  some  little  distance  inland  :  it  had  a 
 harbour  on  the  coast  named  Kissus.  {Liv.,  36,  43.) 
 Erythroe  was  famous  as  the  residence  of  one  of  the 
 Sibyls  at  an  early  period,  and  in  the  time  of  Alexan- 
 der we  find  another  making  her  appearance  here,  with 
 similar  claims  to  prophetic  inspiration.  {Stralo,  643  ) 
 According  to  Pausanias  (10,  12),  the  name  of  the  elder 
 Sibyl  was  Herophile.  The  same  writer  informs  us, 
 that  there  was  at  Erythra;  a  very  ancient  temple  of 
 Hercules  (7,  5).  Either  this  city  had  disappeared  at 
 the  time  Hierocles  wrote,  or  else  he  means  it  under 
 the  name  of  Satrote  {"ZaTpuTj]),  which  he  places  near 
 ClazomenEe,  and  which  is  mentioned  by  no  other  wri- 
 ter. {Hi:rocles,p.GC)0.)  According  to  Tavernier( vol. 
 2,  lett.  22),  the  modern  Gesme  {Dscliesme)  occupies 
 the  site  of  the  ancient  city  :  Chandler,  however,  found 
 the  old  uxlls  some  distance  to  the  north  of  this,  with 
 the  name  of  Rythre  still  remaining.  {Mannert,  Gcogr., 
 vol   6,  pt.  3,  p.  321,  seqq.)  ,.,     n      h 
 
 Ervthr^um  Mare,  a  name  applied  by  the  y^ee^Ks 
 to  the  whole  ocean,  extending  from  the  coast  of  Ethi- 
 opia to  the  island  of  Taprobana,  when  their  geograph- 
 ical knowledge  of  India  was  in  Us  infancy,  {ym- 
 ccnCs  Periplus,  p.  4.-Commerce  and  ISamgation  of 
 the  Ancients,  vol.  2.)  They  derived  the  name  from 
 an  ancient  monarch  who  reigned  along  the.^e  coasts, 
 by  the  name  of  Erythras,  and  believed  hat  h.s^avt 
 was  to  be  found  in  one  of  the  adjacent  islands.  {WaU. 
 Asien,  p.  316  and  &2Q.-Agatharchidas,^^A,  Gcogr. 
 
ESQ 
 
 ETE 
 
 Mvn.,ed.  Hudson. — Ctesias,  cd.  B'dhr,  p.  359. — Cut- 
 tius,  8,  9,  14.)  Afterward,  when  the  Greeks  learned 
 the  existence  of  an  Indian  Ocean,  the  term  Erythra?an 
 Sea  was  applied  merely  to  the  sea  below  Arabia,  and 
 to  the  Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs.  In  this  latter  sense 
 Strabo  uses  the  name.  Herodotus  follows  the  old  ac- 
 ceptation of  the  word,  according  to  the  opinion  prev- 
 alent in  his  age.  The  appellation  was  probably  de- 
 rived from  Edom  (Esau),  whose  descendants  were 
 called  Idumspans,  and  inhabited  the  northern  parts  of 
 Arabia.  (^Wahl,  Asim,  p.  316)  They  navigated 
 upon  the  Red  Sea  and  Persian  Gulf,  and  also  upon  the 
 Indian  Ocean  ;  and  the  Oriental  name  Idiimrean  signi- 
 fying red,  the  sea  of  the  Idumsans  was  called  the  Red 
 Sea  and  the  Erythrasan  Sea  {'Epvdpa  x^d^.aacra).  Vid. 
 Arabicus  Sinus.  {Curtius,  8,  9. — Plin.,  6,  23. — Hc- 
 rodot.,  1,  180,  189  ;  3,  93;  4,  37.— Mf/«,  3,  8.) 
 
 Ekyx,  I.  a  son  of  B'utes  and  Venus,  who,  relying 
 upon  his  strength,  challenged  all  strangers  to  fight  with 
 him  in  the  combat  of  the  cestus.  Hercules  accepted 
 his  challenge  after  many  had  yielded  to  his  superior 
 dexterity,  and  Eryx  was  killed  in  the  combat,  and 
 buried  on  the  mountain  where  he  had  built  a  temple 
 to  Venus.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  5,  402.) — II.  A  mountain 
 of  Sicily,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  island,  and 
 near  the  city  of  Drepanum.  It  was  fabled  to  have  re- 
 ceived its  name  from  Eryx,  who  was  buried  there.  On 
 its  summit  stood  a  famous  temple  of  Venus  Erycina 
 {vid.  Erycina),  and  on  the  western  declivity  was  situ- 
 ated the  town  of  Eryx,  the  approach  to  which  from  the 
 plain  was  rocky  and  difficult.  At  the  distance  of  30 
 stadia  stood  the  harbour  of  the  same  name.  {Polyb., 
 1,  55.—Diod.,  24.,  \.—Cic.  in  Vcr.,  2,  8.)  The 
 Phoenicians  most  probably  were  the  founders  of  the 
 place,  and  also  of  the  temple  ;  and  the  Erycinian  Ve- 
 nus appears  to  be  identified  with  the  Astarte  of  the 
 latter  people.  (Compare  Diod.,  4,  83.)  The  native 
 inhabitants  in  this  quarter  were  called  Elymi,  and  Eryx 
 is  said  by  some  to  have  been  their  king.  {Diod.,  4, 
 83.—  Virg.,  JE71.,  5,  Ib'i.—Ueync,  Exciirs.  2,  ad  JEn., 
 5—Apollod.,  1,  9.— Id.,  2,  b.—Hijgin.,  fab.,  260.) 
 Virgil  makes  jEneas  to  have  founded  the  temple  :  in 
 this,  however,  he  is  contradicted  by  other  authorities. 
 iEneas,  in  fact,  never  was  in  Sicily,  and  therefore 
 the  whole  is  a  mere  fable.  The  town  was  destroyed 
 by  the  Carthaginians  in  the  time  of  Pyrrhus,  who  a 
 short  time  previous  had  taken  it  by  storm,  and  the  in- 
 habitants were  removed  to  Drepanum.  {Diod.,  22,  14. 
 — Id.,  23,  9.)  It  soon,  however,  revived,  owing  to 
 the  celebrity  of  the  adjacent  temple.  In  the  first  Pu- 
 nic war  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  {Poli/b., 
 1,  58. — Id  ,  2,  7),  but  was  surprised  by  Barcas,  the 
 Carthaginian  commander,  and  the  inhabitants  who  es- 
 caped the  slaughter  were  again  removed  to  Drepanum. 
 (Diod.,  24,  2.)  The  place  never  recovered  from  this 
 blow  :  the  sanctity  of  the  temple  drew,  indeed,  new 
 inhabitants  around,  but  the  city  was  never  rebuilt. 
 No  traces  of  the  temple  remain  at  the  present  day. 
 On  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  now  called  St.  Giuli- 
 ano,  is  an  ancient  castle,  supposed  to  have  been  erect- 
 ed by  the  Saracens.  {Manner t,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2, 
 p.  383,  seqq.) 
 
 EsQuu-i^  and  EsquilTnus  Mons,  one  of  the  seven 
 hills  of  Rome,  added  to  the  city  by  Servius  Tullius, 
 who  enclosed  the  greater  part  of  it  within  the  circuit 
 of  his  walls,  and  built  his  palace  upon  it,  which  he 
 continued  to  inhabit  till  the  day  of  his  death.  We  are 
 informed  by  Varro  (L.  L.,  4,  8),  that  the  Esquiline  de- 
 rived its  name  from  the  Latin  word  excultus ;  in  proof 
 of  which  he  mentions,  that  Servius  had  planted  on  its 
 summit  several  sacred  groves,  such  as  the  Lucus  Quer- 
 quelulanus,  Fagutalis,  and  Esquilinus.  It  was  the 
 most  extensive  of  the  seven  hills,  and  was  divided  into 
 two  principal  heights,  which  were  called  Cispius  and 
 Oppius.  The  Campus  Esquilinus  was  granted  by  the 
 senate  as  a  burying-place  for  the  poor,  and  stood  with- 
 490 
 
 out  the  Esquiline  gate.  As  the  vast  number  of  bodies 
 here  deposited  rendered  the  places  adjoining  very  un- 
 healthy, Augustus  gave  part  of  it  to  his  favourite  Mae- 
 cenas, who  built  there  a  magnificent  residence,  with 
 extensive  gardens,  whence  it  became  one  of  the  most 
 healthy  situations  of  Rome.  (Horal.,  Sat.,  8,  10, 
 segq. — Id.,  Epod.,  5,  100.)  The  Esquiline  had  the 
 honour  of  giving  birth  to  Julius  Cssar,  who  was  born 
 in  that  part  of  the  Suburra  which  was  situated  on  this 
 hill.  Here  also  were  the  residences  of  Virgil,  of  the 
 younger  Pliny  ;  and  here  were  situate  a  part  of  Nero'i 
 golden  house,  and  the  palace  and  baths  of  the  Em- 
 peror Titu.*.  The  Esquiline,  at  the  present  day,  is 
 said  to  be  the  most  covered  with  ruins,  and  the  most 
 deserted  of  the  three  eastern  hills  of  Rome.  (Rome 
 in  the  I9th  Century,  vol.  1,  p.  204,  Am.  ed) 
 
 EssEDo.NEs,  a  people  of  Sarmatia  Asiatica,  to  the 
 east  of  the  Palus  Masotis.  Ptolemy,  however,  places 
 them  in  Serica,  and  in  Scythia  e.itra  Imaum  ;  while 
 Herodotus  assigns  them  to  the  country  of  the  Massa- 
 getae,  and  Pliny  to  Sarmatia  Europsea.  {Herod.,  1, 
 201. — Id.,  4,  25. — Plin.,  6,  7.)  Some  writers  seek 
 to  identify  them  with  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don.  {Vid. 
 Issedones,  and  consult  Bischoff  und  Mbllcr,  Worterb. 
 der  Geograph.,  p.  485.) 
 
 EsTi^oTis,  according  to  Strabo  (430),  that  portion 
 of  Thessaly  which  lies  near  Pindus,  and  between  that 
 mountain  and  Upper  Macedonia.  The  same  writer 
 elsewhere  informs  us  (p.  437),  that,  according  to  some 
 authorities,  this  district  was  originally  the  country  of 
 the  Dorians,  who  certainly  are  stated  by  Herodotus 
 (1,  56)  and  others  to  have  once  occupied  the  regions 
 of  Pindus  ;  but  that  afterward  it  look  the  name  of  Es- 
 tioeotis,  from  a  district  in  Eubopa,  so  called,  the  inhabi- 
 tants of  which  were  transplanted  into  Thessaly  by  the 
 Perrhsbi.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  352.) 
 
 Ete6ci.es,  a  son  of  CEdipus  and  Jocasta.  After 
 his  father's  death,  it  was  agreed  between  him  and  his 
 brother  Polynlces  that  they  should  both  share  the  king- 
 dom, and  reign  alternately,  each  a  year.  Eteocles,  by 
 right  of  seniority,  first  ascended  the  throne  ;  but,  after 
 the  first  year  of  his  reign  was  expired,  he  refused  to  give 
 up  the  crown  to  his  brother  according  to  their  mutual 
 agreement.  Polynices,  resolving  to  punish  so  gross  a 
 violation  of  a  solemn  engagement,  fled  to  the  court  of 
 Adrastus,  king  of  Argos,  where  he  married  Argia  the 
 daughter  of  that  monarch  ;  and,  having  prevailed  upon 
 Adrastus  to  espouse  his  cause,  the  latter  undertook 
 what  was  denominated  the  Theban  war,  twenty-seven 
 years,  as  is  said,  before  the  Trojan  one.  Adrastus 
 marched  against  Thebes  with  an  army,  of  which  he 
 took  the  command,  having  with  him  seven  celebrated 
 chiefs,  Tydeus,  Amphiaraus,  C;ipaneus,  Parthenopaeus, 
 Hippomedon,  Eteoclus  son  of  Iphis,  and  Polynlces. 
 The  Thcbans  who  espoused  tlie  cause  of  Eteocles 
 were,  Melanippus  and  Ismarus,  sons  of  Astacus,  Poly- 
 phontes,  Megareus,  Lasthenes,  and  Hyperbius.  All 
 the  Argive  leaders,  with  the  exception  of  Adrastus, 
 fell  before  Thebes,  Eteocles  also  being  slain  in  single 
 combat  with  Polynlces.  Ten  years  after  the  conclu- 
 sion of  this  war  arose  that  of  the  Epigoni,  or  the  sons 
 of  the  slain  chieftains  of  Argos,  who  took  up  arms  to 
 avenge  the  death  of  their  sires.  {Vid.  Epigoni.) 
 Lists  of  the  seven  Argive  commanders  are  given  by 
 ^Eschylus  in  his  "  Seven  against  Thebes  ;"  by  Eurip- 
 ides in  his  PhoenisssB  and  Supplices  ;  and  by  Sopho- 
 cles in  his  "  Qildipus  at  Colonus."  They  all  agree, 
 except  that  in  the  Phoenissaj  the  name  of  Adrastus  is 
 substituted  for  that  of  Eteoclus.  The  tragic  poets 
 vary  also  in  other  particulars  from  each  other.  Eu- 
 ripides, whom  we  have  followed  as  to  the  age  of  Ete- 
 ocles, makes  him  the  elder  of  the  two  brothers ;  but 
 Sophocles,  on  the  contrary,  calls  him  the  younger. 
 {(Ed.  Col.,  1292.) 
 
 Eteoclus,  one  of  the  seven  chiefs  of  the  army  of 
 Adrastus,  in  his  expedition  against  Thebes      He  was 
 
EVA 
 
 EUB 
 
 killed  by  Megareus,  the  son  of  Creon,  under  the  walls 
 of  Thebes.     (Apollod.,  3,  6.) 
 
 Etesi/e  {'ETjjaiai),  winds  blowing  every  year  (erof) 
 at  a  slated  period,  over  the  ^gean  Sea.  'I'hcy  came 
 from  the  north,  and  are  hence  sometimes  called  'Ettj- 
 OLOi  fiopeai.  The  Etesian  winds  prevailed  for  foriy 
 days  after  the  setting  of  the  Dog-star.  Arrian  speaks 
 of  Etesian  winds  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  blowing  from 
 the  south,  by  which  he  evidently  means  the  monsoons. 
 {Arrian,  Exp.  Alex.,  6,  21. — Indic,  31.) 
 
 Etkuria.      Vid.  Hetruria. 
 
 Ev.^DNK,  a  daughter  of  Iphis  or  Ipliicles  of  Argos, 
 who  slighted  the  addresses  of  Apollo,  and  married  Ca- 
 paneiis,  one  of  the  seven  chiefs  who  went  against 
 Thebes.  When  her  husband  had  been  struck  with 
 thunder  by  Jupiter  for  his  blasphemies  and  impiety, 
 and  his  ashes  had  been  separated  from  those  of  the  rest 
 of  the  Argives,  she  threw  herself  on  his  burning  pile, 
 and  perished  in  the  flames.  (Virg.,  JEn.,  6,  447. — 
 Fropert.,  1,  15,  21— Stat.,  Theb.,  12,  800.) 
 
 Evagoras,  I.  a  king  of  Salamis  in  the  island  of  Cy- 
 prus, and  a  descendant  of  Teucer  son  of  Telamon,  the 
 founder  of  that  city.  When  Evagoras  saw  the  light, 
 the  throne  of  Salamis  was  occupied  by  a  Phoenician 
 ruler,  who  had  obtained  it  by  treachery.  This  Phoeni- 
 cian was  afterward  slain  by  one  of  the  leading  chief- 
 tains of  the  country,  who  thereupon  usurped  the  su- 
 preme power,  and  endeavoured  to  seize  Evagoras, 
 whose  right  to  the  throne  was  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
 his  ambition.  Evagoras  fled  to  Soli  in  Cilicia,  assem- 
 bled there  a  small  band  of  followers,  returned  to  Cy- 
 prus, and,  deposing  the  tyrant,  mounted  the  throne  of 
 his  ancestors.  All  this  took  place  while  the  enfeebled 
 empire  of  Persia  was  scarcely  able  to  withstand  the 
 attacks  of  the  victorious  Greeks  prior  to  the  Pelopon- 
 resian  war,  and  had  therefore  no  time  to  attend  to  the 
 affairs  of  Cyprus.  Evagoras  showed  himself  a  wise 
 and  politic  prince,  and  raised  the  glory  of  his  native 
 island  to  a  much  higher  pitch  than  it  had  ever  attained 
 before.  He  became  the  patron  also  of  arts  and  litera- 
 ture, and  entertained  at  his  court  distinguished  men  of 
 all  nations.  It  was  in  his  dominions  that  Conon,  the 
 Athenian  general,  sought  refuge  after  the  fatal  baitle 
 of  ^Egos  Fotamos,  and  by  his  aid  was  enabled  to  pre- 
 pare a  fleet,  which  restored  the  naval  ascendancy  of 
 his  country.  {Isocr.,  Eva.g.,  p.  200.  —  Xen..  Hist. 
 Gr.,2,  1,  19.  — Corn.  Nep.,  Vit.  Con.-Diod.  Sic, 
 14,  39.)  Judging  from  the  splendid  panegyric  passed 
 upon  his  character  by  Isocrates,  Evagoras  was  cer- 
 tainly a  prince  of  rare  and  distinguished  virtue  and 
 merit ;  and  his  fortune  for  a  time  kept  pace  with  his 
 shining  qualities.  Unfortunately,  however,  he  met  with 
 reverses  towards  the  close  of  his  reign.  Arta.xerxes 
 Mnemon  attacked  his  power,  after  the  peace  of  Antal- 
 cidas  had  left  the  Asiatic  Greeks  at  the  mercy  of  the 
 Persian  king.  Evagoras  was  aided  in  his  resistance 
 to  the  Persian  arms  by  Amasis  of  Egypt,  and  also  se- 
 cretly by  the  Athenians;  but  his  efforts  were  unsuc- 
 cessful, and  he  saw  himself  eventually  compelled  to 
 renounce  his  authority  over  the  other  cities  of  Cyprus, 
 and  confine  himself  to  Salamis,  paying  besides  an  annual 
 tribute  to  Persia.  He  was  assassinated  by  a  eunuch, 
 B.C.  374.  His  son  Nicocles  succeeded  him.  (Died. 
 Sic,  1.5,  2,  seqq.) — II.  Grandson  of  the  preceding. 
 Being  deprived  of  his  possessions  by  his  uncle  Prota- 
 goras, he  fled  to  Artaxer-tes  Ochus,  by  whose  order  he 
 was  put  to  death. 
 
 EvANDER,  a  son  of  the  prophetess  Carmenta,  and 
 king  of  Arcadia.  An  accidental  murder  obliged  him 
 to  leave  his  country,  and  he  came  to  Italy,  where  he 
 drove  the  aborigines  from  their  ancient  possessions, 
 and  reigned  in  that  part  of  the  country  where  Rome 
 was  afterward  founded.  (Tid  Italia.)  He  kindly  re- 
 ceived Hercules  when  he  returned  from  the  conquest 
 of  Geryon  ;  and  he  was  the  first  who  raised  him  altars. 
 He  gave  ^Eneas  assistance  against  the  Rutuli,  and  dis- 
 
 tinguished himself  by  his  hospitality.  It  is  said  tha\ 
 he  first  brought  the  Greek  alphabet  into  Italy,  and  in- 
 troduced there  the  wort.hip  of  the  Greek  deities.  (  Vid. 
 Pelasgi.)  He  was  honoured  as  a  god  after  death,  and 
 his  6ubjects  raii^ed  him  an  altar  on  Mount  Avenline. 
 {Vid.  Ceicas.—Pau.<!an.,  8,  A3.—L>v.,  \,7.—Sil.  Ital., 
 7,  \8.—0vid,  Fast.,  1,  500,  91.—  Virg.,JEn.,8,  100.} 
 
 Ev.iRCHUs,  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  flowing  uito  the 
 Euxine,  to  the  southeast  of  Sinope.  'J"he  name  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  changed  in  process  of  time  to  Eve- 
 chus.  It  formed  the  ancient  boundary  between  Paph- 
 lagonia  and  Cappadocia,  or  the  White  Syrians,  who 
 had  spread  themselves  to  the  west  of  the  Halys.  {Man 
 nert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  11.) 
 
 EuBOiA,  a  large  and  celebrated  island,  lying  alono 
 the  coast  of  Locris,  Bceotia,  and  Attica.  Its  most  an 
 cient  name,  as  we  learn  from  Strabo  (444),  was  Ma- 
 cris,  which  it  obtained,  as  he  affirms,  from  its  great 
 length  in  comparison  with  its  breadth.  Besides  this, 
 it  was  known  at  different  times  by  the  various  appel- 
 lations of  Oche,  Ellopia,  Asopia,  and  Abantia.  {Strab., 
 I.  c. — Flui.,  4,  12.)  The  latter,  which  frequently  oc- 
 curs in  the  poets,  was  either  derived  from  the  'I'hra- 
 cians,  who  had  founded  Abae  in  Phocis,  and  thence 
 crossed  over  into  the  island,  or  from  a  hero  named 
 .\bas.  (Aristot.,  ap.  Strab.,  I  c.)  Homer,  as  Strabo 
 observes,  though  he  designates  the  island  by  the  name 
 of  Eubcea,  always  employs  the  appellation  of  Abantes 
 to  denote  the  inhabitants.  (//.,  2,  536.— Ibid  ,  540.) 
 The  name  of  Euboea  originated  traditionally  from  the 
 passage  of  To,  who  was  even  said  to  have  given  birth 
 to  Ejjaf)hus  in  this  island.  {Hesiod,  ap.  Sleph.  Byz., 
 s.  V.  'ACuvTic-)  Its  inhabitants  were  among  the  ear- 
 liest navigators  of  Greece,  a  circumstance  which  seems 
 to  confirm  the  notion  preserved  by  Strabo.  of  its  hav- 
 ing been  occupied,  in  distant  ages,  by  a  Phoenician 
 colony.  We  hear  also  of  the  Pelasgi  and  Dryopea 
 being  settled  there.  {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  25. — Diod.  Sic, 
 4,  37.)  Herodotus  affirms  (1,  146),  that  the  greatest 
 part  of  the  Ionian  cities  in  .'Xsia  Minor  had  been  col- 
 onized by  the  Abantes  of  EubcEa,  who  were  not  other 
 wise,  however,  connected  with  the  lonians.  This 
 people  also  founded  settlements,  at  an  early  period,  in 
 Illyria,  Sicilv,  and  Campania.  {Strabo,  449. — Fau- 
 san.,  5,  22.)  Euboea,  divided  into  a  number  of  small 
 independent  republics,  like  the  other  states  of  Greece, 
 presents  no  features  for  a  common  history.  In  fact, 
 where  each  city  requires  a  separate  narrative,  it  is  dif- 
 ficult to  embody  what  belongs  to  them  collectively  in 
 one  general  account.  Its  fertility  and  abundant  re- 
 sources appear  at  an  early  period  to  have  attracted  the 
 attention  of  the  Athenian  people,  and  to  have  inspired 
 them  with  the  desire  of  acquiring  a  territory  situated 
 so  near  their  own,  and  adequate  to  the  supply  of  all 
 their  wants.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Pisistratida;, 
 when  the  energy  of  the  Athenian  character  had  received 
 a  fresh  impulse  from  the  recovery  of  liberty,  Athens 
 readily  availed  itself  of  the  pretence  afforded  by  the 
 Chalcidians,  who  occupied  the  principal  city  of  the  isl- 
 and, for  invading  Euboea,  these  having  assisted  the 
 Boeotians  in  the  war  then  carrying  on  against  that  pow- 
 er. The  Athenians,  after  defeating  their  nearest  en- 
 emy, suddenly  crossed  the  Euripus,  and,  having  routed 
 the  forces  of  Chal'-is,  seized  upon  their  territory,  where 
 they  established  four  thousand  of  their  own  citizens  as 
 colonists.  (Herodot.,  5,  77.)  They  were  obli-fd. 
 however,  to  evacuate  this  new  acquisition,  in  ord:  i  to 
 defend  their  own  country  against  a  threatened  attack 
 of  the  Persian  armament  commanded  by  Datis  and 
 Artaphernes  :  nevertheless,  they  did  not  lose  sight  of 
 the  important  advantages  attending  the  possession  of 
 Eubcea.  When  the  alarm  created  by  the  Persian  in- 
 vasion had  subsided,  the  maritime  states  of  Greece 
 united  themselves  into  a  confederacy,  of  which  Ath- 
 ens took  the  lead,  and  thus  acquired  an  ascendency 
 which  proved  so  fatal  to  the  liberties  of  those  who 
 ^  491 
 
ETJBCEA. 
 
 EUC 
 
 had  unguardedly  cemented  that  impolitic  union.  This 
 was  oeculiarly  the  case  with  the  Eubcean  cities,  since 
 we  learn  from  Thuiydides  (1,  114),  that  the  whole  isl- 
 and aclinovvledged  tlie  supremacy  and  sway  of  Athens 
 prior  to  the  Peloponnesian  war ;  but  neither  that  his- 
 torian nor  Herodotus  has  informed  us  precisely  when, 
 and  in  what  matmer,  their  subjugation  was  effected. 
 On  the  Athenians  being  compelled,  after  their  defeat  at 
 Coronea,  to  evacuate  Bosotia,  of  which  they  had  been 
 for  some  time  masters,  the  Eubceatis  took  advantage 
 of  that  circumstance  to  attempt  emancipating  them- 
 selves from  a  foreign  yoke.  But  success  did  not  at- 
 tend their  efforts.  As  soon  as  the  news  of  the  revolt 
 had  reached  Athens,  Pericles  was  despatched  at  the 
 head  of  a  considerable  force  to  quell  the  insurrection, 
 in  which  he  succeeded  so  effectually,  notwithstanding 
 the  frequent  diversions  made  by  the  Peloponnesians  in 
 favour  of  the  islanders,  that  they  were  reduced  to  a 
 more  abject  state  of  subjection  than  ever  {Thucyd.,  1, 
 114) ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  unfortunate  Sicilian  ex- 
 pedition had  compelled  Athens  to  fight  for  existence 
 rather  than  conquest,  that  the  Eubceans  ventured  once 
 more  to  assert  their  right  to  independence  {Thucyd., 
 8,  5) ;  but  such  was  the  want  of  zeal  and  energy  dis- 
 played by  the  Lacedemonian  government,  that  they 
 obtained  no  aid  from  that  quarter  until  nearly  the  ter- 
 mination of  the  twenty-first  year  of  the  war,  when  at 
 length  Hegesandridas,  a  Spartan  admiral,  came  to  their 
 support,  and  gained  a  victory  over  the  Athenian  fleet ; 
 the  Eretrians  then  openly  revolted,  and  their  example 
 being  quickly  followed  by  the  other  towns,  the  whole 
 of  Euboea  recovered  its  independence.  This  island, 
 however,  derived  but  little  advantage  from  the  change 
 which  then  took  place.  Each  city,  being  left  to  its 
 own  direction,  soon  became  a  prey  to  faction  and  civil 
 broil,  which  ended  in  a  more  complete  slavery  under 
 the  dominion  of  tyrants.  Towards  the  commence 
 ment  of  the  war  between  the  Boeotians  and  Spartans, 
 we  are  told  by  Diodorus  (15,  30),  that  the  Eubceans 
 manifested  a  desire  to  place  themselves  once  more 
 under  the  protection  of  Athens.  Another  party,  how- 
 ever, having  declared  in  favour  of  the  Thebans,  a  civil 
 war  ensued,  which  equally  exhausted  both  factions, 
 and  forced  them  to  make  peace  (16,  7).  By  the  abil- 
 ity and  judgment  of  Timotheus,  the  Athenian  general, 
 a  preponderance  of  opinion  was  decidedly  created  in 
 favour  of  that  state  {Demoslh.,  de  Cor.,  p.  108. — 
 JEsck.  contr.  Clcs.,  p.  479.  —  Mitford's  Greece,  vol. 
 7,  p.  384),  which  continued  until  overthrown  by  the 
 arts  and  machinations  of  Philip.  Phocion  was  em- 
 powered by  the  Macedonian  government  to  take  all 
 the  requisite  measures  for  restoring  tranquillity,  and 
 he  obtained  some  important  successes  over  the  Eubce- 
 an forces  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  much  advan- 
 tage was  ultimately  derived  from  his  victory.  After 
 this  period  Eubosa  became  attached  to  the  Macedonian 
 interests,  until  it  was  once  more  restored  to  freedom 
 by  the  Romans,  who  wrested  it  from  Philip,  the  son  of 
 Demetrius.  (Lie,  34,  51.)— This  island,  according 
 to  Strabo  (444),  extends  from  the  Maliac  Gulf  along 
 the  coast  of  Locris,  Boeotia,  and  Attica,  a  distance  of 
 about  one  thousand  two  hundred  stadia ;  its  greatest 
 breadth  nowhere  exceeds  one  hundred  and  fifty  stadia. 
 (Compare  Scylax,  p.  23.)  "Torn  from  the  coast  of 
 Boeotia,"  says  Pliny,  "it  is  separated  by  the  Euripus, 
 the  breadth  of  which  is  so  insignificant  as  to  allow  a 
 bridge  to  be  thrown  across.  Of  its  two  southern  prom- 
 ontories, Geraestus  looks  towards  Attica,  Caphareus 
 towards  tne  Hellespont ;  Cenaum  fronts  the  north.  In 
 breadth  this  island  never  exceeds  twenty  miles,  but  it 
 is  nowhere  less  than  two.  Reaching  from  Attica  to 
 Thessaly,  it  extends  for  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles 
 in  length.  Its  circuit  is  three  hundred  and  sixty- five. 
 On  the  side  of  Caphareus  it  is  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
 five  miles  from  the  Hellespont." — The  abundance  and 
 fertility  of  this  extensive  island  in  ancient  times  are 
 492 
 
 sufficiently  attested  by  Herodotus,  who  compares  it 
 with  Cyprus  (5,  31),  and  also  by  Thucydides  (7,  23, 
 and  8,  96).  Its  opulence  is  also  apparent  from  the 
 designation  and  value  affixed  to  the  talent,  so  frequent- 
 ly referred  to  by  classic  writers  under  the  name  of  Eu- 
 boicum.  From  Strabo  we  learn  that  it  was  subiccl  to 
 frequent  earthquakes,  which  he  ascribes  to  the  subter- 
 ranean cavities  with  which  the  whole  island  abounds 
 (447).  The  modern  name  of  Eubcea  is  Negropoiit, 
 formed,  by  a  series  of  corruptions,  from  the  word  Eu- 
 ripus, which  designated  the  narrow  channel  separating 
 the  island  from  the  BcEotian  coast.  {Cramer's  An- 
 cient Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  121,  seqq.) 
 
 EuBoicus,  belonging  to  Euhma.  The  epithet  is  also 
 applied  to  CumsB,  because  that  city  was  built  by  a  col- 
 ony from  Chalcis,  a  town  of  Euboea.  {Ovid,  Fast., 
 4,  257.— F/r«-.,  jEn.,  6,  2  ;  9,  710.) 
 
 EuBULiDEs,  a  native  of  Miletus,  and  successor  of 
 Euclid  in  the  Megaric  school.  He  was  a  strong  op- 
 ponent of  Aristotle,  and  seized  every  opportunity  of 
 censuring  his  writings  and  calumniating  his  character. 
 He  introduced  new  subtleties  into  the  art  of  disputa- 
 tion, several  of  which,  though  often  mentioned  as  proof 
 of  great  ingenuity,  deserve  only  to  be  remembered  as 
 examples  of  egregious  trifling.  Of  these  sophistical 
 modes  of  reasoning,  called  by  Aristotle  Eristic  syllo- 
 gisms, a  few  examples  may  suffice.  1.  Of  the  soph- 
 ism, called  from  the  example,  The  Lying :  if,  when 
 you  speak  the  truth,  you  say,  you  lie,  you  lie:  but  you 
 say  you  lie  when  you  speak  the  truth ;  therefore,  in 
 speaking  the  truth,  you  lie.  2.  The  Occult.  Do  you 
 know  your  father  1  Yes.  Do  you  know  this  man 
 who  is  veiled  1  No.  Then  you  do  not  know  your 
 father,  for  it  is  your  father  who  is  veiled.  3.  Electra. 
 Electra,  the  daughter  of  Agamemnon,  knew  her  brother 
 and  did  not  know  him :  she  knew  Orestes  to  be  her 
 brother,  but  she  did  not  know  that  person  to  be  her 
 brother  who  was  conversing  with  her.  4.  Sorites.  Is 
 one  grain  a  heap  1  No.  Two  grains  1  No.  Three 
 grains'!  No.  Go  on,  adding  one  by  one  ;  and  if  one 
 grain  be  not  a  heap,  it  will  be  impossible  to  say  what 
 number  of  grains  make  a  heap.  5.  The  Harried.  You 
 have  what  you  have  not  lost ;  you  have  not  lost  horns  ; 
 therefore  you  have  horns. — In  such  high  repute  were 
 these  silly  inventions  for  perplexing  plain  truth,  that 
 Chrysippus  wrote  six  books  on  the  first  of  these  soph- 
 isms ;  and  Philetas,  a  Coan,  died  of  a  consumption, 
 which  he  contracted  by  the  close  study  which  he  be- 
 stowed upon  it.  {Diog.  Laert.,  7,  (^  196 — Enfield's 
 History  cif  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  199). 
 
 EuBiJLUs,  a  comic  poet  of  Athens,  born  in  the  bor 
 ough  of  Atarnea.  He  exhibited  about  B.C.  375.  Eu- 
 bulus,  from  his  date,  stood  on  the  debateable  ground 
 between  the  first  and  second  species  of  comedy  ;  and 
 to  judge  from  the  fragments  in  AthenKus,  who  quotes 
 more  than  fifty  of  his  comedies  by  name,  he  must  have 
 written  plays  of  both  sorts.  He  composed,  in  all,  104 
 comedies.     {Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p.  119,  4th  cd.) 
 
 EucHiR,  I.  a  painter,  related,  as  is  said,  to  Daedalus, 
 and  who,  according  to  Tlieophrastus  {up.  Plin.,  7,  56), 
 introduced  painting  into  Greece.  The  name,  in  truth, 
 howeyer,  is  merely  a  figurative  one  for  a  skilful  artist 
 generally.  {Evxci-p, ''^  skilful,''''  '■'■  dexterous.''') — II.  A 
 modeller,  styled  also  Euchirus  {Pausan.,  6,  4,  2),  and 
 one  of  the  most  ancient.  He  and  Eugrammus  are 
 said  to  have  accompanied  Demaratus  in  his  flight  from 
 Corinth  to  Etruria.  {Plin.,  35,  12,  43.)  Here  again 
 both  names  are  figurative. — III.  An  Athenian  sculptor. 
 He  made  a  Siatue  of  Mercury,  which  was  placed  at 
 Phenea.  {Pausanias,  8,  14,  7.)  Pliny  (34,  8.  19) 
 places  him  among  those  artists  who  excelled  in  form- 
 ing brazen  statues  of  combatants  at  the  public  games, 
 armed  men,  huntsmen,  &c.  On  this  account,  Thiersch 
 correctly  infers  that  he  flourished  in  a  later  age. 
 {Epoch.  11,  Adnot.,  p.  33.) 
 
 EucLiDEs,  I.  a  native  of  Megara,  founder  of  the  Me- 
 
EUCLIDES. 
 
 EUD 
 
 garic  or  Eristic  sect.  Endowed  by  nature  with  a 
 subtle  and  penetrating  genius,  lie  early  applied  him- 
 self to  the  study  of  philosophy.  Tiie  writings  of  Par- 
 menides  first  taught  him  the  art  of  disputation.  Hear- 
 ing of  the  fame  of  Socrates,  Euclid  determined  to  at- 
 tend upon  his  instructions,  and  for  this  purpose  remo- 
 ved from  Megara  to  Athens.  Here  he  long  remained  a 
 constant  hearer  and  zealous  disciple  of  the  moral  phi- 
 losopher. And  when,  in  consequence  of  the  enmity 
 which  subsisted  between  the  Athenians  and  Megare- 
 ans,  a  decree  was  passed  by  the  former,  that  any  inhab- 
 itant of  Megara  who  should  be  seen  in  Athens  should 
 forfeit  his  life,  he  frequently  came  to  Athens  by  night, 
 from  the  distance  of  about  twenty  miles,  concealed  in 
 a  long  female  cloak  and  veil,  to  visit  his  master.  {Aul. 
 GelL,  6,  10.)  Not  finding  his  natural  propensity  to 
 disputation  sufficiently  gratified  in  the  tranquil  method 
 of  philosophizing  adopted  by  Socrates,  he  frequently 
 engaged  in  the  business  and  disputes  of  the  civil 
 courts.  Socrates,  who  despised  forensic  contests,  ex- 
 pressed some  dissatisfaction  with  his  pupil  for  indul- 
 ging a  fondness  for  controversy.  {^Diog.  Laerf.,  2, 30.) 
 This  circumstance  probably  proved  the  occasion  of  a 
 separation  between  Euclid  and  his  master  ;  for  we  find 
 him,  after  this  time,  at  the  head  of  a  school  in  Megara 
 (Diorr.  Laert.,3,  6),  in  which  his  chief  employment  was 
 to  teach  the  art  of  disputation.  Debates  were  con- 
 ducted with  so  much  vehemence  among  his  pupils,  that 
 Timon  said  of  Euclid,  that  he  had  carried  the  madness 
 of  contention  from  Athens  to  Megara.  {Dioo-.  Lacrl., 
 6,  22.)  That  he  was,  however,  capable  of  commanding 
 his  temper,  appears  from  his  reply  to  his  brother,  who, 
 in  a  quarrel,  had  said.  "  Let  me  perish  if  I  be  not  re- 
 venged on  you  ;"  "  and  let  me  perish,"  returned  Euclid, 
 "if  I  do  not  subdue  your  resentment  by  forbearance, 
 and  make  you  love  me  as  much  as  ever." — In  dispu- 
 tation, Euclid  was  averse  to  the  analogical  method  of 
 reasoning,  and  judged  that  legitimate  argumentation 
 consists  in  deducing  fair  conclusions  from  acknowledg- 
 ed premises.  He  held  that  there  is  one  supreme 
 good,  which  he  called  bv  the  different  names  of  Intel- 
 ligence, Providence,  God;  and  that  evil,  considered  as 
 an  opposite  principle  to  the  sovereign  good,  has  no  ex- 
 istence. The  supreme  good,  according  to  Cicero,  he 
 defined  to  be,  that  which  is  always  the  same.  In  this 
 doctrine,  in  which  he  followed  the  subtlety  of  Parmen- 
 ides  rather  than  the  simplicity  of  Socrates,  he  seems  to 
 have  considered  good  abstractedly  as  residing  in  the 
 Deity  ;  and  to  have  maintained,  that  all  things  which 
 exist  are  good  by  their  participation  of  the  first  good, 
 and,  consequently,  that  there  is,  in  the  nature  of  things, 
 no  real  evil. — It  is  said,  that  when  Euclid  was  asked 
 his  opinion  concerning  the  gods,  he  replied,  "  I  know 
 nothing  more  of  them  than  this,  that  they  hate  inquis- 
 itive persons."  If  this  apophthegm  be  justly  ascribed  to 
 Euclid,  it  may  serve  to  prove,  either  that  he  had  learn- 
 ed, from  the  precepts  of  Socrates,  to  think  soberly  and 
 respectfully  concerning  the  Divine  Nature,  or  that  the 
 fate  of  that  good  man  had  taught  him  caution  in  de- 
 claring his  opinions.  {EnflehVs  History  of  Philoso- 
 phy, vol.  I.  p.  198,  seqq.) — II.  A  celebrated  mathe- 
 matician of  Alexandrea,  considered  by  some  to  have 
 been  a  native  of  that  city,  though  the  more  received 
 opinion  makes  the  place  of  his  birth  to  have  been  un- 
 known. He  flourished  B.C.  280,  in  the  reign  of  Ptol- 
 emy Lagus,  and  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
 capital  of  Egypt.  His  scholars  were  numerous,  and 
 among  them  was  Ptolemy  himself  It  is  related,  that 
 the  monarch  having  inquired  of  Euclid  if  there  was 
 not  some  mode  of  learning  mathematics  less  barbarous, 
 and  requiring  less  attention  than  the  ordinary  one,  Eu- 
 clid, though  otherwise  of  an  amiable  character,  dryly 
 answered,  that  there  was  "  no  royal  road  to  geometry." 
 It  is  to  this  little  incident  that  nearly  all  our  knowl- 
 edge of  the  particulars  of  his  life  is  limited.  Euclid 
 was  the  first,  in  fact,  who  established  a  mathematical 
 
 school  at  Alexandrea,  and  it  existed  and  maintained  its 
 reputation  till  the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  Egypt. 
 Many  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  pure  mathe- 
 matics had  been  discovered  by  Thales,  Pythagoras, 
 and  other  predecessors  of  Euclid  ;  but  to  him  is  due  the 
 merit  of  having  given  a  systematic  form  to  the  science, 
 especially  that  part  of  it  which  relates  to  geometry. 
 He  likewise  studied  the  cognate  sciences  of  Astronomy 
 and  Optics  ;  and,  according  to  Proclus,  be  was  the  au- 
 thor of  "  Elements,"  "  Data,"  "  An  introduction  to 
 Harmony,"  "  Phaenomena,"  "  Optics,"  "  Catoptrics," 
 a  treatise  "  On  the  division  of  Surfaces,"  "  Porisms," 
 &c.  His  most  valuable  work,  "  The  Elements  of  Ge- 
 ometry," has  been  repeatedly  published.  All  his  works 
 extant  were  published  at  Oxford,  1703,  folio,  by  the 
 Savilian  professor  of  astronomy,  David  Gregory.  The 
 edition  of  Peyrard,  however,  is  entitled  to  the  praise  of 
 being  the  best.  It  appeared  at  Paris  in  18)4  and 
 some  of  the  following  years,  in  3  vols.  4to  This  edi- 
 tion is  accompanied  with  a  double  translation,  one  in 
 Latin  and  the  other  in  French.  M.  Peyrard  consulted 
 a  manuscript  of  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century, 
 which  had  belonged  to  the  Vatican  library,  and  was  at 
 that  time  in  the  French  capital.  By  the  aid  of  this  he 
 was  enabled  to  fill  various  lacuncE,  and  to  re-establish 
 various  passages  which  had  been  altered  in  all  the  other 
 manuscripts,  and  in  all  the  editions  anterior  to  his  own. 
 Hence  Peyrard  is  the  only  one  that  has  given  a  com- 
 plete text  of  the  "  Elements"  and  "  Data ;"  for  the 
 "  Phenomena,"  and  the  other  works  of  Euclid,  are  re- 
 jected by  him  as  spurious. — For  some  remarks  on  Eu- 
 clid, consult  Dclambre,  Hist,  dc  V Astron.  Ancicn.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  49,  seqq.,  and  the  preface  to  Peyrard's  edition. 
 
 EunAMiDAS,  I.  a  son  of  .\rchidamus  IV.,  brother  to 
 Agis  IV  He  succeeded  to  the  Spartan  throne,  after 
 his  brother's  death,  B.C.  330.  {Pausan.,  3,  10.)— II. 
 A  son  of  Archidamus,  king  of  Sparta,  who  succeeded 
 B.C.  268. 
 
 EuDociA,  I.  a  Roman  empress,  wife  to  Theodosius 
 the  Younger.  Her  original  name  was  Athenais,  and 
 she  was  the  daughter  of  Leontius,  an  Athenian  philos- 
 opher ;  but  on  her  marriage  she  embraced  Christiani- 
 ty, and  received  the  baptismal  name  of  Eudocia.  She 
 was  a  female  of  beauty  and  talent.  She  put  into  verse 
 several  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  wrote  sev- 
 eral paraphrases  on  some  of  the  Jewish  prophets,  but 
 became  suspected  by  her  husband  of  conjugal  infideli- 
 ty, and,  being  degraded,  was  allowed  to  seek  a  refuge 
 in  the  Holy  Land.  Here  she  devoted  herself  to  reli- 
 gious studies,  but  the  jealousy  of  her  suspicious  hus- 
 band still  pursued  her ;  and  having  learned  that  two 
 priests,  whom  she  had  chosen  as  the  companions  of 
 her  exile,  were  accustomed  to  pay  her  frequent  visits, 
 and  were  loaded  by  her  with  presents,  Theodosius  sent 
 Saturninus,  one  of  the  officers  of  his  court,  to  Jerusa- 
 lem, who  put  to  death  the  two  priests  without  even  tho 
 formality  of  a  trial.  Irritated  at  this  new  insult,  Eudc- 
 cia  caused  Saturninus  to  be  slain,  a  deed  more  likely 
 to  darken  than  avenge  her  innocence.  The  emperor 
 contented  himself  with  depriving  her  of  all  the  badges 
 of  her  rank,  and  reducing  her  to  the  condition  of  a  pri- 
 vate individual.  She  lived  twenty  years  after  this 
 event,  in  the  bitterest  penitence,  endeavouring  to  ef- 
 face, by  acts  of  piety,  the  crime  which  outraged  honour 
 had  led  her  to  commit.  She  died  at  the  age  of  67 
 years.  (Le  Beau,  Hist,  dii  Bas-Empirc,  vol.  7,  p.  149.) 
 The  principal  work,  ascribed  by  some  to  Eudocia,  is 
 Hmne.rocenira  COfiripSnevrpa),  or  a  life  of  our  Saviour, 
 in  2443  hexameters,  formed  from  verses  and  hcrn\s- 
 thics  selected  out  of  the  poems  of  Homer.  Others, 
 however,  make  Pelagius,  surnarned  Patricius,  who 
 lived  in  the  fifth  century,  its  author.  From  a  passage 
 of  Zonaras  (Annal.,  vol.  3,  p.  37)  a  clew  may  be  ob- 
 tained for  solving  this  difficulty.  Pelagius  would  seen, 
 to  have  commenced  the  work  in  question,  and  Eudo- 
 cia  to  have  finished  it.     This  princess  has  left,  also,  a 
 
EVE 
 
 EUH 
 
 poem  on  nie  martyrdom  of  Cyprian.  The  best  edition 
 of  the  Hoinerocentra  is  that  of  Teucher,  Lips.,  1798, 
 8vo — [I.  The  Younger,  daugliter  of  tlie  preceding  and 
 of  Theodosiiis  H.,  married  Valcnlinian  III.  After  the 
 assassination  of  her  husband  by  Petroiiius  Maxaiius, 
 she  was  obliged  to  marry  the  usurper.  Eudocia,  out 
 of  indignation  and  revenge,  called  in  Cienseric,  king  of 
 the  Vandals,  who  came  to  Italy,  plundered  Rome,  and 
 carried  Eudocia  with  him  to  Africa.  Some  years  af- 
 terward she  was  sent  back  to  Constantinople,  where 
 she  died,  A.D.  462. — III.  The  widow  of  Constantino 
 Ducas,  married  llomanus  Diogenes,  an  officer  of  dis- 
 tinction, A.D.  IOCS,  and  associated  him  with  her  on 
 the  throne.  Three  years  after,  Michael,  her  son,  by 
 means  of  a  revolt,  was  [)roclaimed  emperor,  and  caused 
 his  mother  to  be  shut  up  in  a  convent,  where  she  spent 
 the  rest  of  her  life.  She  left  a  treatise  on  the  geneal- 
 ogies of  the  gods  and  heroes,  which  displays  an  ex- 
 pensive acquaintance  with  the  subject.  It  is  printed 
 in  Viiloison's  Anccdola  Graca,  Vend.,  1781,  2  vols. 
 4to. 
 
 EcDoxus,  I.  a  celebrated  astronomer  and  geometri- 
 cian, born  at  Cnidus,  who  flourished  about  370  B.C. 
 He  studied  geometry  under  Archytas,  and  afterward, 
 in  the  course  of  his  travels,  went  to  Egypt,  and  was  in- 
 troduced to  the  notice  of  Nectanebis  II.,  and  by  him  to 
 the  Egyptian  priests.  He  is  highly  celebrated  for  his 
 skill  in  astronomy  by  the  ancients,  though  none  of  his 
 writings  on  this  or  any  other  branch  of  science  are  ex- 
 tant. The  honour  of  bringing  the  celestial  sphere  and 
 the  regular  astronomy  from  Egypt  to  Greece,  belongs 
 to  him.  After  his  return  from  Egypt,  he  taught  astron- 
 omy and  philosophy  with  great  applause  at  Cyzicus, 
 and  afterward  removed  to  Athens,  where  he  opened  a 
 school,  and  was  in  such  high  repute  as  to  be  consulted 
 on  subjects  of  policy  as  well  as  science  by  deputies 
 from  all  parts  of  Greece.  Eudo.xus  is  said,  in  fact,  to 
 have  supported  his  school  with  so  much  reputation  as  to 
 have  excited  the  envy  of  even  Plato  himself.  Proclus 
 informs  us,  that  Euclid  very  liberally  borrowed  from 
 the  elements  of  geometry  composed  by  Eudoxus.  Ci- 
 cero calls  him  the  greatest  astrono.mer  that  ever  lived  ; 
 and  we  learn  from  Petronius,  that  he  retired  to  the  top 
 of  a  very  high  mountain,  that  he  might  observe  the  ce- 
 lestial phenomena  with  more  convenience  than  he 
 could  on  a  plain  or  in  a  crowded  city.  Strabo  says, 
 that  the  observatory  of  Eudoxus  was  at  Cnidus.  Vi- 
 truvius  describes  a  sundial  constructed  by  him.  {Diog. 
 Laert  ,  8,  86,  seqq. — Cic,  de  Div.,  2.  42. — Petron., 
 Arb.,  88,  i.—Slrnh,  119.— Vi/ruv.,  9,  9.)  He  died 
 B.C.  352.  His  works  are  lost,  but  they  served  as  ma- 
 terials to  Aratus  for  the  comjosition  of  his  poem  enti- 
 tled the  Phenomena.  {SckoU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3, 
 p.  8  ) — II.  A  native  of  Cyzicus,  sent  by  Ptolemy  VII., 
 Euergetes,  on  a  voyage  to  India,  and,  some  years  af- 
 ter, on  a  second  voyage  by  Cleopatra,  widow  of  that 
 prince.  It  appears  that  he  subsequently  attempted  the 
 circumnavigation  of  Africa.  (For  an  account  of  his 
 movements,  consult  remarks  under  the  article  Africa, 
 page  79,  col.  2.) 
 
 EoEMERUS.      Vid.  Euhemerus. 
 
 EvENUs.  I.  a  name  common  to  several  epigrammatic 
 poets,  for  some  account  of  whom,  consult  Jacobs,  Ca- 
 tal.  Pod.  Epig.  —  Anlhol.  Grcpc,  vol.  13,  p.  893.— 
 II.  A  river  of  yEtolia,  rising,  as  Strabo  (451)  reports, 
 m  the  country  of  the  Bomienses,  who  occupied  the 
 northeast  extremity  of  ^'Etolia.  Ptolemy  says  (p.  87) 
 that  it  flowed  from  Mount  (^allidromus,  meaning  the 
 chain  of  QEta;  which  is  sufficiently  correct.  Dicasar- 
 chus,  with  less  truth,  aflirms  that  it  rises  in  Mount 
 Pindus.  {Slat,  Gr(FC,y.  61)  According  to  Strabo, 
 it  does  not  flow  at  first  through  the  ancient  Curetis, 
 which  is  the  district  of  Pleuron,  but  more  to  the  east, 
 by  Chalcis  and  Calydon,  after  which  it  turns  to  the 
 west,  towards  the  plains  in  which  the  ancient  Pleuron 
 f/as  situated ;  and  finally,  proceeding  in  a  southerly 
 494 
 
 direction,  falls  into  the  sea.  Its  more  ancient  name 
 was  Lyconnas.  (Strabo,  I.  c. — Compare  Apollodorvs, 
 1,  7,  8.)  The  Evenus  is  rendered  celebrated  in  fable, 
 from  the  story  of  Nessus,  who  was  slain  here  by  Her- 
 cules for  offering  violence  to  Deianira.  The  modern 
 name  of  the  river  is  the  FiJari.  Near  its  mouth  stood 
 MissoUmghi.    (Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  75.^ 
 
 EuERGETTE,  a  people  of  Upper  Asia,  whose  true 
 name  was  Ariaspae.  The  Greeks  called  them  Euer- 
 getae,  or  benefactors,  translating  the  Persian  appella- 
 tion which  was  added  to  their  name,  arid  which  Frein- 
 shemius  sus[)ects,  from  Herodotus  (8,  85),  to  have 
 been  OrosangcE.  This  title  they  are  said  to  have  re- 
 ceived in  return  for  succours  afforded  to  the  army  of 
 Cyrus,  when  it  was  suffering,  in  these  regions,  from 
 cold  and  hunger.  (Curt.,  7,  3.)  They  dwelt  iiear 
 the  river  Etymander,  the  modern  Hindnicnd  (Arnan, 
 Exp.  Alex.,  4,  G,  12),  between  Drangiana  and  Aracho- 
 sia,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  modern  city  of  Dcrcasp, 
 in  whose  name  traces  of  the  ancient  one  appear.  (Com- 
 pare Schmicder,  ad  Curt.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Euergetes,  a  surname,  signifying  benefactor,  gi\ en 
 to  Ptolemy  III.  and  IV.  of  Egypt,  as  also  to  some 
 kings  of  Syria,  Pontus,  &,c. 
 
 EuG.tNEi,  an  ancient  nation  of  Italy,  said  to  have 
 once  occupied  all  the  country  to  which  the  Vencti, 
 its  subsequent  possessors,  communicated  the  name 
 of  Venetia.  (Liv.,  1,  1.)  Driven  from  their  ancient 
 abodes,  they  appear  to  have  retired  across  the  Adige 
 (Athesis),  and  to  have  settled  on  the  shores  of  the 
 lakes  Benacus  and  Issus,  and  in  the  adjacent  valleys 
 Pliny  (5,  20)  says,  on  the  authority  of  Cato,  that  they 
 held  at  one  time  thirty-four  towns:  these  were  admit- 
 ted to  the  rights  of  Latin  cities  under  Augustus.  (Cra- 
 mer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  74.) 
 
 EuGENius,  I.  a  general  who  opposed  Dioclesian, 
 A.D.  290;  but  was  slain  the  very  same  day  at  the 
 gates  of  Antioch,  while  attempting  to  make  himself 
 master  of  that  city.  —  II.  A  usurper  in  the  reign  of 
 Theodosius  the  Great,  of  Gallic  extraction,  A.D.  392. 
 He  was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death, 
 after  having  held  power  for  two  years.  (Zosim.,  4, 
 54,  seqq.) 
 
 Euhemerus,  a  native  of  Messene,  as  is  generally 
 supposed,  though,  according  to  Brucker  and  others,  he 
 was  of  the  island  of  Sicily.  Being  sent  on  a  voyage 
 of  discovery  by  Cassander,  king  of  Macedon,  he  came, 
 as  he  himself  stated,  to  an  island  called  Panchaia,  in 
 the  capital  of  which,  Panara,  he  found  a  temple  of  the 
 Triphylian  Jupiier,  whore  stood  a  column  inscribed 
 with  a  register  of  the  births  and  deaths  of  many  of  the 
 gods.  Among  these  he  specified  Uranus,  his  sons 
 Pan  and  Saturn,  and  his  daughters  Rhea  and  Ceres; 
 as  also  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Neptune,  who  were  the  off- 
 spring of  Saturn.  Accordingly,  the  design  of  Euhe- 
 merus was  to  show,  by  investigating  their  actions,  and 
 recording  the  places  of  their  births  and  burials,  that 
 the  mythological  deities  were  mere  mortal  men,  raised 
 to  the  rank  of  gods  on  account  of  the  benefits  which 
 they  had  conferred  upon  mankind.  Ennius  translated 
 this  celebrated  work  of  Euhemerus,  which  was  entitled 
 'lepa  'kvaypaipfj.  The  translation,  as  well  as  the  ori- 
 ginal work,  excepting  some  fragments,  is  lost ;  but 
 many  particulars  concerning  Euhemerus,  and  the  ob- 
 ject of  his  history,  are  mentioned  in  a  fragment  of 
 Diodorus  Siculus,  preserved  by  Eusebius.  Some  frag- 
 ments have  also  been  saved  by  St.  Augustine  ;  and 
 long  quotations  have  been  made  by  Lactantius,  in 
 his  treatise  ^'' De  Falsa  Religions."  This  work  was 
 a  covert  attack  on  the  established  religion  of  the 
 Greeks.  Plutarch,  who  was  associated  with  the  priest- 
 hood, and  all  who  were  interested  in  the  support  of  the 
 popular  creed,  maintained  that  the  whole  work  of 
 Euhemerus,  with  the  voyage  to  Panchaia,  was  an  im- 
 pudent fiction  ;  and,  in  particular,  it  was  urged,  that 
 no  one  except  Euhemerus  had  ever  seen  or  heard  of 
 
EUM 
 
 EUMENES. 
 
 the  land  of  Panchaia  (De  Is.  et  Os.) :  that  the  Pan- 
 chaia  lellus  had  been  described  in  a  flowery  and  poet- 
 ical style,  both  by  Diodorus  Siculus  and  Virgil  {Gcorg., 
 2,  139),  but  not  in  such  a  manner  as  to  determine  its 
 geographical  position.  The  truth  of  the  relation  con- 
 tained m  the  work  of  Euhemerus  has  been  vindicated 
 by  modern  writers,  who  have  attempted  to  prove  that 
 Panchaia  was  an  island  of  the  Red  Sea,  which  Eu- 
 i  hemerus  had  actually  visited  in  the  course  of  his  voy- 
 '  age.  {Mem.  de  I' Acad,  dcs  Jnscrip.,  vol.  15.)  But 
 whether  Euhemerus  merely  recorded  what  he  had  seen, 
 or  whether  the  whole  book  was  not  rather  a  device 
 and  contrivance  of  his  own,  it  seems  highly  probable 
 that  the  translation  of  Ennius  gave  rise  to  the  belief 
 of  many  Roman  philosophers,  who  maintained  or  in- 
 sinuated their  conviction  of  the  mortality  of  the  gods, 
 and  whose  writings  have  been  so  frequently  appealed 
 to  by  Farmer,  in  his  able  disquisition  on  the  preva- 
 lence of  the  Worship  of  Human  Spirits.  {Dunlop''s 
 Roman  Literature,  vol.  1,  p.  133  ) 
 
 Euius,  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  given  him,  according 
 to  the  poets,  by  Jupiter,  whom  he  was  aiding  in  the 
 contest  with  the  giants.  Jupiter  was  so  delighted 
 with  his  valour,  that  he  called  out  to  him,  ev  vie, 
 "  Well  done,  oh  son!'"  Others  suppose  it  to  have  ori- 
 ginated from  a  cry  of  the  Bacchantes,  Eiioi.  {Horat., 
 Od.,  1,  18,  9;  2,  11,  17.) 
 
 EuljEus  or  Choaspes,  a  river  of  Persia,  flowing 
 near  the  city  of  Susa.  The  kings  of  Persia,  according 
 to  Herodotus  (1,  188),  drank  of  no  other;  and,  wher- 
 ever they  went,  they  were  attended  by  a  number  of 
 four-wheeled  carriages,  drawn  by  mules,  in  which  the 
 water  of  this  river,  being  first  boiled,  was  deposited  in 
 vessels  of  silver.  yEIian  relates  (F.  H.,  12,  40),  that 
 Xerxes,  during  his  march  into  Greece,  came  to  a  des- 
 ert place,  and  was  exceedingly  thirsty  ;  his  attendants 
 with  his  baggage  were  at  some  distance,  and  procla- 
 mation was  made,  that  whosoever  had  any  of  the  water 
 of  the  Choaspes  should  produce  it  for  the  use  of  the 
 king.  One  person  was  found  who  possessed  a  small 
 quantity,  but  it  was  quite  putrid.  Xerxes,  however, 
 drank  it,  and  considered  the  person  who  supplied  it  as 
 his  friend  and  benefactor,  since  he  must  otherwise 
 have  perished  with  thirst. — Wahl  (Asien,  p.  736)  de- 
 rives the  name  Choaspes  from  the  Persian  Khooh  asp, 
 i.  e.,  "strength  of  the  mountain,"  '"mountain-power," 
 and  considered  it  as  applicable  to  all  mountain-streams. 
 The  appellation  of  Eula;us,  in  Scripture  Ulai  {Daniel, 
 8,  2),  IS  deduced  by  the  same  writer  from  the  Pehlvi 
 Av  hiilaeh,  i.  e.,  "clear,  pure  water."  D'Anviile  sup- 
 poses the  Choaspes  to  be  the  modern  Karoon;  but  it 
 is  more  probably  the  Abzal,  which  flows  by  the  ruins 
 which  both  Major  Rennel  and  Mr.  Kmneir  have  deter- 
 mined to  be  those  of  Susa. 
 
 EuMiEus,  son  of  Ctesius,  king  of  Syros.  He  was 
 carried  otf  when  quite  young  by  Phoenician  pirates,  and 
 sold  to  Laertes,  father  of  Ulysses,  who  brought  him  up 
 carefully,  and  found  in  him  a  faithful  follower  and  friend. 
 Euinajus  acted  as  the  steward  of  Ulysses,  and  recog- 
 nised his  master,  on  the  return  of  the  latter,  though  af- 
 ter an  absence  of  many  years.      {Od.,  14,  5,  scqq.) 
 
 Eu.MELUs,  I.  a  son  of  Admetus,  king  of  Pherae  in 
 Thessaly,  by  Alcestis,  daughter  of  Pelias,  and  who 
 married  Iphthime  the  sister  of  Penelope.  He  went  to 
 the  Trojan  war,  and  had  the  fleetest  horses  in  the 
 Grecian  army.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  funer- 
 al games  of  Patroclus.  {11,  2,  714.— W.,  763,  scqq.) 
 — II.  Son  of  Ainphilytus,  and  one  of  the  Corinthian 
 line  termed  Bacchiadaj.  He  was  the  author  of  a  his- 
 tory of  Corinth  in  heroic  verse.  {Pausan.,  2,  1.) 
 Eumelus  joined  Archias  when  the  latter  went  to  found 
 Syracuse.  {Clem.  AUx,  Strom.,  Wb.  I,  p.  298.)  Eu- 
 sebius  makes  him  to  have  flourished  in  the  third  Olym- 
 piad.    {Larcher,  Chron.  Herod.,  vol  7,  p.  448,  515.) 
 
 EuMENEs,  I.  a  native  of  Cardia,  a  town  of  the  Thra- 
 riin  Chersonese,  and,  though  of  humble  birth,  yet  an 
 
 important  actor  in  the  troubled  times  which  followed 
 the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Being  early  taken 
 into  the  service  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  he  served  him 
 for  seven,  and  Alexander  for  thirteen  years,  in  the  con- 
 fldential  office  of  secretary.  He  also  displayed  great 
 talent  for  military  affairs  through  the  Persian  cam- 
 paigns, and  was  one  of  Alexander's  favourite  and  most 
 esteemed  officers.  After  Alexander's  death,  in  the 
 general  division  of  his  conquests,  Cappadocia,  Paphla- 
 gonia,  and  the  coast  of  the  Euxine,  as  far  east  as  Trape- 
 zus,  fell  to  Eumenes'  share.  This  was  an  expectancy 
 rather  than  a  provision,  for  the  Macedonian  army  had 
 passed  south  of  these  countries  in  the  march  to  Per- 
 sia, and  as  yet  they  were  unsubdued.  Perdiccas, 
 however,  took  arms  to  establish  Eumenes  in  his  newr 
 government,  and  did  so  at  the  expense  of  a  single  bat- 
 tle. To  Perdiccas  as  regent,  and,  after  his  death,  to 
 the  royal  family  of  Macedon,  Eumenes  was  a  faithful 
 ally  through  good  and  evil ;  indeed,  he  is  the  only  one 
 of  Alexander's  oflScers  in  whose  conduct  any  appear- 
 ance of  gratitude  or  disinterestedness  can  be  traced. 
 When  war  broke  out  between  Ptolemy  and  Perdiccas, 
 B.C.  321,  he  was  appointed  by  the  latter  to  the  chief 
 command  in  Asia  Minor,  between  Mount  Taurus  and 
 the  Hellespont  {Corn.  Nep.,  Vit.  Eum.),  to  resist  the 
 expected  invasion  of  Antipater  and  Craterus.  The 
 latter  he  defeated ;  but  the  death  of  Perdiccas  in 
 Egypt  threw  the  balance  of  power  into  Antipater's 
 hands,  who  made  a  new  allotment  of  the  provinces,  in 
 which  Eumenes  was  omitted,  and  Cappadocia  given  to 
 another.  The  task  of  reducing  him  was  assigned  to 
 .\ntigonus,  about  B.C.  320.  The  rest  of  his  life  was 
 spent  in  open  hostility  to,  or  doubtful  alliance  with, 
 Antigonus,  by  whom  he  was  at  last  put  to  death,  hav- 
 ing been  delivered  up  to  the  latter  by  a  portion  of  his 
 own  army.  Eumenes  was  an  admirable  partisan  sol- 
 dier, brave,  full  of  resources,  and  of  unbroken  spirit. 
 We  have  his  life  written  by  Plutarch  and  Cornelius 
 Nepos.  (Consult  Z))-oy.se«,  GcschicIUe  der  Nachfolger 
 Alexanders,  Hamb.,  1836.)  Those  parts  of  Diodorus 
 Siculus  (lib.  18)  which  relate  to  him,  and  Plutarch's 
 Life,  will  be  read  with  pleasure  by  all  who  are  fond  oi 
 military  adventure.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  10,  p. 
 68.) — II.  A  king  of  Pergamus,  the  first  of  his  name. 
 He  succeeded  his  uncle  Phiietaerus  on  the  throne, 
 B.C.  263,  and  added  much  to  the  territory  which  ha 
 inherited  from  the  latter,  having  even  gained  a  victory, 
 near  Sardis,  over  Antiochus,  son  of  Seleucus.  After 
 a  reign  of  twenty-two  years,  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
 cousin  Attains,  whose  father  Attains  was  the  young- 
 er brother  of  Philetserus.  The  death  of  Eumenes 
 was  occasioned  by  his  intemperate  habits. — HI.  The 
 second  of  the  name,  was  son  of  Attains  L  He  as- 
 cended the  throne  on  his  father's  death,  which  took 
 place  at  an  advanced  age,  after  a  prosperous  reign  of 
 43  or  44  years.  The  new  sovereign  continuing  to 
 tread  in  his  father's  steps,  and  adhering  to  his  policy, 
 remained  the  firm  friend  of  the  Romans  during  all 
 their  wars  against  Antigonus  and  the  kings  of  Mace- 
 donia, and  received  from  them,  in  recompense  of  his 
 fidelity  and  valuable  assistance,  all  the  territory  con- 
 quered from  Antiochus  on  this  side  of  Mount  Taurus. 
 Prior  to  this  period  the  territory  of  Pergamus  did  not 
 extend  beyond  the  gulfs  of  Elaea  and  Adramyttium. 
 Waylaid  by  the  hired  assassins  of  Perses,  king  of  Ma- 
 cedonia, he  had  nearly  perished  at  Delphi  (Ln'.,  42, 
 14,  scqq.),  and  yet  he  is  represented  by  the  Roman 
 historian  as  subsequently  favouring  the  cause  of  the 
 man  who  sought  to  destroy  him,  and  of  having  thereby 
 incurred  the  ill-will  and  anger  of  the  Roman  people. 
 {Liv.,  44,  13.— 7(Z.,  46,  1,  scqq.)  With  that  arrogant 
 nation  past  services  were  reckoned  as  nothing,  if  they 
 were  not  accompanied  by  the  most  abject  and  slavish 
 depcndance.  The  King'of  Pergamus  employed  him- 
 self, during  the  leisure  which  a  profound  peace  now 
 aftbrded  him,  in  embellishing  his  capital,  and  patroni- 
 
 495 
 
EUM 
 
 E  UP 
 
 sing  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  most  lasting  monu- 
 ment of  his  liberality  in  this  respect  was  the  great  li- 
 brary which  he  founded,  and  which  yielded  only  to 
 that  of  Alcxandrea  in  extent  and  vahie.  (Strab.,  624.) 
 It  was  from  their  being  first  used  for  writing  in  this  li- 
 brary, that  parchment  skins  were  called  "  Fcrgamenm 
 Charts."  {Varr.,ap.  Plin.,\2,\\.)  Plutarch  informs 
 us,  that  this  vast  collection,  which  consisted  of  no  less 
 than  200,000  volumes,  was  given  by  Antony  to  Cleopa- 
 tra. (  Vit.  Anion.,  c.  25.)  Eumenes  reigned  49  years, 
 leaving  an  infant  son,  under  the  care  of  his  brother  At- 
 tains, who  administered  affairs  as  regent  for  21  years, 
 with  great  success  and  renown.     {Vid.  Pergamus.) 
 
 EoMENiA,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  north  of  Pelta},  which 
 probably  derived  its  name  from  Eumenes,  king  of  Per- 
 gamus.    {Steph.  Bi/z.,  s.  V.  'Ev/j.Kveia.) 
 
 EuMENiDEs  (the  kind  goddesses),  a  name  given  to 
 the  Erinnyes  or  Furies,  goddesses  whose  business  it 
 was  to  avenge  murder  upon  earth.  They  were  also  call- 
 ed Semncc  (Se//ra()  or  "  venerated  goddesses^  The 
 name  Eumenides  is  commonly  thought  to  have  been 
 used  through  a  superstitious  motive.     {Vid.  Furias.) 
 
 EoMENiniA,  a  festival  in  honour  of  the  Eumenides 
 or  Furies.  It  was  observed  once  a  year  with  sacri- 
 fices and  libations.  At  Athens  none  but  freeborn  citi- 
 zens were  allowed  to  participate  in  the  solemnity,  and 
 of  these,  none  but  such  as  were  of  known  virtue  and 
 integrity.    {Vid.  Eumenides.) 
 
 EcjMOLPiD^,  a  sacerdotal  family  or  house,  to  which 
 the  priests  of  Ceres  at  Eleusis  belonged.  They  claim- 
 ed descent  from  the  mythic  Eumolpus.  The  Eumol- 
 pidae  had  charge  of  the  mysteries  by  hereditary  right, 
 and  to  this  same  sacerdotal  line  was  expressly  in- 
 trusted the  celebration  of  the  Thesmophoria.  ( Vid  Eu- 
 molpus, and  consult  Crcuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  4,  p.  355, 
 442,  482,  seqq.) 
 
 EuMOLPOs,  son  of  Neptune  and  Chione,  daughter 
 of  Boreas  and  Orithyia.  Chione,  to  conceal  her  weak- 
 ness, threw  the  babe  into  the  sea,  to  the  protection  of 
 his  father.  Neptune  took  him  to  ^Ethiopia,  and  gave 
 him  to  his  daughter  Benthesicyme  to  rear.  When 
 Eumolpus  was  grown  up,  the  husband  of  Benthesicy- 
 me gave  him  one  of  his  two  daughters  in  marriage  ; 
 but  Eumolpus,  attempting  to  offer  violence  to  the  sis- 
 ter of  his  wife,  was  forced  to  fly.  He  came  with  his 
 son  Ismarus  to  Tegyrius,  a  king  of  Thrace,  who  gave 
 his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Ismarus.  But  Eumolpus, 
 being  detected  plotting  against  Tegyrius,  was  once 
 more  forced  to  fly,  and  came  to  Eleusis.  Ismarus 
 dying,  Tegyrius  became  reconciled  to  Eumolpus,  who 
 returned  to  Thrace,  and  succeeded  him  in  his  king- 
 dom. War  breaking  out  between  the  Athenians  and 
 Eleusinians,  the  latter  invoked  the  aid  of  their  former 
 guest.  A  contest  ensued,  and,  according  to  the  ac- 
 count given  by  Apollodorus  (3,  15,  4),  Eumolpus  fell 
 in  battle  against  Erechtheus.  Pausanias,  however, 
 states  (1,  38,  3),  that  there  fell  in  this  conflict,  on  the 
 one  side  Erechtheus,  and  on  the  other  Immaradus,  son 
 of  Eumolpus  ;  and  that  the  war  was  ended  on  the  fol- 
 lowing terms  :  the  Eleusinians  were  to  acknowledge 
 the  power  of  Athens,  but  were  to  retain  the  rites  of 
 Ceres  and  Proserpina,  and  over  these  Eumolpus  and 
 the  daughters  of  Celeus,  king  of  Eleusis,  were  to  pre- 
 side. Other  authorities,  however,  make  the  agree- 
 ment to  have  been  as  follows  :  the  descendants  of  Eu- 
 molpus were  to  enjoy  the  priestly  office  at  Eleusis, 
 while  the  descendants  of  Erechtheus  were  to  occupy  the 
 Attic  throne.  {Schol.  msr.r.  Arislid.  ad  Panathen.,  p. 
 118. — Crcuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  4,  p.  344,  not.) — Here 
 we  find  a  physical  myth  in  unison  with  an  historical 
 legend.  It  was  a  tradition  in  Attica,  that  the  sacred 
 family  of  the  EumolpidoB  belonged  to  the  mythic  Thra- 
 cians,  whom  we  find  sometimes  on  Helicon,  some- 
 times in  Thrace.  The  present  legend,  by  making 
 Eumolpus  a  son  of  the  sea-god,  and  grandson  of  the 
 north  wind,  and  giving  him  a  son  named  Ismarus,  plain- 
 496 
 
 ly  intended  to  deduce  the  Eumolpidse  from  Thrace, 
 while  the  name  Tegyrius  would  seem  to  point  to  Boeo- 
 tia,  where  there  was  a  town  named  Tegyra.  {Kcighl- 
 la/s  Mythology,  p.  383.) 
 
 EunapTus,  a  native  of  Sardis  in  Lydia.  He  flour- 
 ished in  the  fourth  century,  and  was  a  kinsman  of  the 
 sophist  Chrysanthus,  at  whose  request  he  wrote  the 
 lives  of  the  philosophers  of  his  time.  The  work  has 
 been  characterized  by  Brucker  as  a  mass  of  extravao-ant 
 tales,  discovering  a  feeble  understanding,  and  an  nna- 
 gination  prone  to  superstition.  Besides  being  a  soph- 
 ist, he  was  an  historian,  and  practised  physic.  He 
 wrote  a  history  of  the  Cssars  from  Claudius  II.  to 
 Arcadius  and  Honorius,  of  which  only  a  fragment  re- 
 mains. The  lives  of  the  philosophers  was  published 
 with  a  Latin  version  by  Junius,  Antv.,  1568,  and  by 
 Commelinus  in  1596. 
 
 Eup.vTOR,  a  surname  given  to  many  of  the  Asiatic 
 princes,  particularly  to  Milhradates  VII.  of  Pontus, 
 and  Antiochus  V.  of  Syria. 
 
 EupATORiA,  I.  a  town  of  Pontus,  at  the  confluence 
 of  the  Lycus  and  Iris.  It  was  begun  by  Mithradates 
 under  the  name  Eupatoria,  and  received  from  Pom- 
 pey,  who  finished  it,  the  title  of  Magnopolis.  {Sirab., 
 556.)  Its  site  appears  to  correspond  with  that  of  the 
 modern  Tchenikeh.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2, 
 p.  471.) — II.  A  town  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
 Tauric  Chersonese,  on  the  Sinus  Carcinites.  It  was 
 founded  by  one  of  the  generals  of  Mithradates,  and  is 
 supposed  to  answer  to  the  modern  Koslof  ov  Goslcve. 
 {Manner/,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p.  294.) 
 
 EupHAES,  succeeded  Androcles  on  the  throne  of 
 Messenia,  and  in  his  reign  the  first  Messenian  war  be- 
 gan.    He  died  B.C.  730.     {Pausan  ,  4,  5,  6.) 
 
 EuPHORBUs,  a  Trojan,  son  of  Panthoiis,  renowned 
 for  his  valour  ;  he  wounded  Patroclus,  and  was  killed 
 by  Menelaus.  {II,  17,  60.)  Pausanias  relates  (2, 
 17)  that  in  the  temple  of  Juno,  near  Mycena',  a  votive  ■ 
 shield  was  shown,  said  to  be  thai  of  Euphorbus,  sus- 
 pended there  by  Menelaus.  Pythagoras,  who  main- 
 tained the  transmigration  of  souls,  aflirmed,  that,  in  the 
 time  of  the  Trojan  war,  his  soul  had  animated  the 
 body  of  Euphorbus  ;  and  as  a  proof  of  the  truth  of  his 
 assertion,  he  is  said  to  have  gone  into  the  temple 
 where  the  shield  was  hanging,  and  to  have  recognised 
 and  taken  it  down.  Maximus  Tyrius  (28,  p.  288,  cd. 
 Dav.)  speaks  of  an  inscription  on  the  shield,  which 
 proved  it  to  have  been  offered  by  Menelaus  to  Miner- 
 va. Ovid  {Met.,  15,  160)  lays  the  scene  of  the  fable 
 in  the  temple  of  Juno  at  Argos  ;  while  Tertullian  {de 
 Aninia,  p.  215)  makes  the  shield  to  have  been  an 
 offering  at  Delphi.  Diogenes  Laertius,  finally,  gives 
 the  temple  of  Apollo  among  the  Branchidai,  near  the 
 city  of  Miletus,  as  the  place  where  the  wonder  was 
 worked  (8,  4,  seq.) 
 
 EuPHORioN,  I.  a  tragic  poet  of  Athens,  son  of  NLs- 
 chylus.  He  conquered  four  times  with  posthumous 
 tragedies  of  his  father's  composition,  and  also  wrote 
 several  dramas  himself  One  of  his  victories  is  com- 
 memorated in  the  argument  to  the  Medea  of  Euripi- 
 des, where  we  are  told  that  Euphorion  was  first,  Soph- 
 ocles second,  and  Euripides  third  with  the  Medea. 
 Olymp.  87,  2,  B.C.  431.  {Suid.  — Theatre  of  the 
 Greeks,  p.  95,  4th  ed.)  —  II.  An  epic  and  epigram- 
 matic poet,  born  at  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  B.C.  276,  and 
 who  became  librarian  to  Antiochus  the  Great.  Ho 
 wrote  various  poems,  entitled  "  Hesiod,"  "  Alexan- 
 der," "Arius,"  "Apollodorus,"  &c.  His  "Mopsopia" 
 or  "  Miscellanies"  {Moijionta  y  araKTo)  was  a  collec- 
 tion, in  five  books,  of  fables  and  histories  relative  to 
 Attica,  a  very  learned  work,  but  rivalling  in  obscurity 
 the  Cassandra  of  Lycophron.  The  fifth  book  bore  the 
 title  of"  Chiliad'"  {XiXidc),  either  because  it  consisted 
 of  a  thousand  verses,  or  because  it  contained  the  an- 
 cient oracles  that  referred  to  a  period  of  a  thousand 
 years.     Perhaps,  however,  each  of  the  five  books  con- 
 
EUP 
 
 E  U  P 
 
 Ained  a  thousand  verses,  for  the  passage  of  Suidas  re- 
 specting this  writer  is  somewhat  obscure  and  defective, 
 and  Eudoxia,  iii  ilie  "  Garden  of  Violets,"  speaks  of 
 a  hfth  Chiliad,  entitled  Repi  Xprj(j/J.O)v,  "  Of  Oracles." 
 Qiiintilian  recommends  the  reading  of  this  poet,  and 
 Virgil  is  said  to  have  esteemed  his  productions  very 
 highly.  A  passage  in  the  tenth  Eclogue  (v.  50,  seqq.), 
 and  a  remark  made  by  Servius  {ad  EcLog.,  6,  72), 
 have  led  Hcync  to  suppose,  that  C.  Cornelius  Gallus, 
 the  friend  of  Virgil,  had  translated  Euphorion  into 
 Latin  verse.  This  poet  was  one  of  the  favourite  au- 
 thors of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  one  of  those  whom  he 
 imicaled,  and  whose  busts  he  placed  in  his  library. 
 The  fragments  of  Euphorion  were  collected  and  pub- 
 lished by  Meineke,  in  his  work  "  De  Eiiphorionis 
 Chalc.  vita  el  sc7-iptis,"  Gcdani,  1823,  8vo.  (Schbll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  122.) 
 
 EuPHRANOR,  an  eminent  statuary  and  painter  of  Cor- 
 inth. He  flourished  about  the  104lh  Olympiad,  B.C. 
 302.  Pliny  gives  an  enumeration  of  his  works.  {Plin., 
 35,  8,  19. — Compare  I'ausan.,  1,  3,  2,  and  the  remarks 
 of  Fuseii,  in  his  Lecture  on  Ancient  Painting,  p.  67.) 
 
 EuPHR.iTEs,  I.  a  native  of  Oreus  in  Eubcea,  and  a 
 disciple  of  Plato.  He  quitted  Athens  for  the  court  of 
 Perdiccas,  king  of  Macedonia,  with  whom  he  became 
 a  favourite.  After  the  death  of  this  monarch  he  re- 
 turned to  his  country,  and  headed  a  party  against  Phil- 
 ip, the  successor  of  Perdiccas  and  father  of  Alexander. 
 Being  shut  up,  however,  within  the  walls  of  Oreus, 
 he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.  According  to  some, 
 he  was  killed  by  order  of  Parmenio.  —  H.  A  Stoic 
 philosopher,  and  native  of  Ale.xandrea,  who  flourished 
 in  the  second  century.  He  was  a  friend  of  the  phi- 
 losopher Apollonius  Tyaneus,  who  introduced  him  to 
 Vespasian.  Pliny  the  youngev  {Epist.,  1,  10)  gives  a 
 very  high  character  of  him.  When  he  found  his 
 strength  worn  out  by  disease  and  old  age,  he  volunta- 
 rily put  a  period  to  his  life  by  drinking  hemlock,  hav- 
 ing hrst,  for  some  unknown  reason,  obtained  permis- 
 sion from  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  (Enfield,  Hist.  Phi- 
 los.,  vol.  2,  p.  119,  scqq.) — HI.  One  of  the  most  con- 
 siderable and  best  known  rivers  of  Asia.  The  Eu- 
 phrates rises  near  Arze,  the  modern  Erze-Roum.  Its 
 source  is  among  mountains,  which  Strabo  makes  to  be 
 a  part  of  the  most  northern  branch  of  Taurus.  At 
 first  it  is  a  very  inconsiderable  stream,  and  flows  to 
 the  west,  until,  encountering  the  mountains  of  Cappa- 
 docia,  it  turns  to  the  south,  and,  after  flowing  a  short 
 distance,  receives  its  southern  arm,  a  large  river  com- 
 ing from  the  east,  and  rising  in  the  southern  declivity 
 of  the  range  of  Mount  Ararat.  This  southern  arm  of 
 the  Euphrates  is  the  Arsanias,  according  to  Mannert, 
 and  is  the  river  D'Anville  mentions  as  the  Euphrates 
 which  the  ten  thousand  crossed  in  their  retreat  {Anab., 
 4,  5),  and  of  which  mention  is  made  by  Pliny  in  ref- 
 erence to  the  campaigns  of  Corbulo.  The  Euphra- 
 tes, upon  this  accession  of  waters,  becoming  a  very 
 considerable  stream,  descends  rapidly,  in  a  bending 
 course,  nearly  W.S.W.  to  the  vicinity  of  Samosa- 
 ta.  The  range  of  Amanus  here  preventing  its  farther 
 progress  in  this  direction,  it  turns  off  to  the  S.E., 
 a  course  which  it  next  pursues,  with  some  little  va- 
 riation, until  It  reaches  Circesium.  To  the  south  of 
 this  place  it  enters  the  immense  plains  of  Sennar ; 
 but,  being  repelled  on  the  Arabian  side  by  some  sandy 
 and  calcareous  heights,  it  is  forced  to  run  again  to  the 
 S.E.  and  approach  the  Tigris.  In  proportion  as  these 
 two  rivers  now  approximate  to  one  another,  the  inter- 
 mediate land  loses  its  elevation,  and  is  occupied  by 
 meadows  and  morasses.  Several  artificial  communi- 
 cations, perhaps  two  or  three  which  are  natural,  form 
 a  prelude  to  the  approaching  junction  of  the  rivers, 
 which  finally  takes  place  near  Coma.  The  river 
 formed  by  their  junction  is  called  Shat-al-Arab,  or  the 
 river  of  Arabia.  It  has  three  principal  mouths,  be- 
 sides a  small  outlet  ;  these  occupy  a  space  of  thirty- 
 
 R  R  R 
 
 six  miles.  The  southernmost  is  the  deepest,  and  t'reest 
 in  its  current.  Bars  of  sand,  casued  by  the  river,  and 
 which  change  in  their  form  and  situation,  render  the 
 approach  dangerous  to  the  mariner.  The  tide,  which 
 rises  above  Bassora,  and  even  beyond  Coma,  meeting 
 with  violence  the  downward  course  of  the  stream, 
 raises  its  waters  in  the  form  of  frothy  billows. — Some 
 of  the  ancients  describe  the  Euphrates  as  losing  itself 
 in  the  lakes  and  marshes  to  the  south  of  Babvion. 
 {Arria7i,  7,  7.— Mela,  3,  8.—Plin.,  5,  26.)  Others 
 consider  the  river  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  as 
 entitled  to  a  continuation  of  the  name  of  Euphrates. 
 (Strab.,  2,  p.  132  ;  15,  p.  1060.)  According  to  some, 
 the  Euphrates  originally  entered  the  sea  as  a  sep- 
 arate river,  the  course  of  which  the  Arabs  stopped  up 
 by  a  mound.  {Plin.,  6,  27.)  This  last  opinion  has 
 been  in  some  measure  revived  by  Niebuhr,  who  sup- 
 poses that  the  canal  of  Naar-Sares,  proceeding  from 
 the  Euphrates  on  the  north  of  Babylon,  is  cor^tinued 
 without  interruption  to  the  sea.  But  uncertainty 
 must  always  prevail  with  regard  to  this  and  other 
 points  connected  with  the  Euphrates,  both  from  the 
 inundations  of  the  river,  which  render  this  flat  and 
 moveable  ground  continually  liable  to  change,  as  well 
 as  from  the  works  of  human  labour.  The  whole  length 
 of  the  Euphrates,  including  the  Shat-al-Arab,  is  1147 
 English  miles.  Its  name  is  the  Greek  form  of  the 
 original  appellation  Phrath,  which  signifies  fruitful  or 
 fertilizing ;  the  prefix  cu,  being  corrupted  from  the 
 Oriental  article.  The  Oriental  name  is  sometimes 
 also  written  Perath,  as  in  Gen.,  2,  14,  15,  18,  and 
 Joshua,  1,  4.  By  the  Arabians  the  river  is  called 
 Forat.  The  efhhet  fertilis  is  applied  to  it  by  Lucan, 
 Sallust,  Solinus,  and  Cicero.  The  modern  name  ot 
 the  Arsanias  is  Morad-Siai,  or  the  waters  of  desire. 
 {Malle-Brun,  vol.  2,  p.  100,  seqq..  Am.  ed.) 
 
 EupHRosYNE  {Joy),  oiie  of   the  Graces,  sister  to 
 Aglaia  and  Thalia.     {Pausan.,  9,  35.) 
 
 EupoLis,  a  writer  of  the  old  comedy,  was  bom  at 
 Athens  about  the  year  446  B.C.  {Clinton,  Fast. 
 Hell.,  vol.  1,  p.  63)  He  was  therefore  a  contsmpo- 
 rary  of  Aristophanes,  who,  in  all  probability,  was  born 
 a  year  or  two  after.  Eupolis  is  supposed  to  have  ex- 
 hibited for  the  first  time  in  B.C.  429.  In  B.C.  425  he 
 was  third  with  his  Nov/iT/viai,  when  Cratinus  was  sec- 
 ond, and  Aristophanes  first.  In  B.C.  421  ho  brought 
 out  his  MapiKu^  and  his  KolaKtg  ;  one  at  the  Dionysia 
 Ev  Aijvaioic,  the  other  at  those  h>  uarei. ;  and  in  a 
 similar  way  his  KvtoTivko^  and  'AarpaTevTol  the  fol- 
 lowing year.  {Schol.  in  Aristoph.,  Nut).,  552,  592. — 
 Athen.,  5,  p.  216.— Schol.  in  Aristoph.,  Pac,  803.) 
 The  titles  of  more  than  twenty  of  his  comedies  have 
 been  collected  by  Meursius.  A  few  fragments  remain. 
 Eupolis  was  a  bold  and  severe  satirist  on  the  vices  of 
 his  day  and  city.  Persius  (1,  124)  terms  him  "tra- 
 turn."  {Comi)aTeHorat.,Sat.,l,4:,l,seqq.)  In  the 
 MapiKuc  he  attacked  Hyperbolus.  {Aristoph.,  Nubes, 
 551.)  In  the  AvtoTivkoc  he  ridiculed  the  handsome 
 pancratiast  of  that  name  ;  in  the  'AaTpurevrot,  which 
 was  probably  a  pasquinade,  he  lashed  the  useless  and 
 cowardly  citizens  of  Athens,  and  denounced  Melan- 
 thus  as  an  epicure.  In  the  Banrai  he  inveighed 
 against  the  effeminacy  of  his  countrymen.  {Schol.  in 
 Aristoph.,  Pac,  808. )  In  his  AaKedaifiovrc  he  assailed 
 Cimon,  accusing  him,  among  other  charges,  of  an  un- 
 patriotic bias  towards- everything  Spartan.  (Compare 
 Plutarch,  Vit.  Cim.,  c.  16,  who  says  that  this  play  had 
 a  great  influence  on  the  public  feeling  )  .Aristophanes 
 seems  to  have  been  on  bad  terms  with  Eupolis,  whom 
 he  charges  with  having  pillaged  the  materials  for  his 
 UapiKdc:  from  the  'Itttt;??  {Nuhes,  551,  scqq.),  and  with 
 making  scurrilous  jokes  on  his  premature  ba.dness. 
 {Schol.  ad  Nub.,  532.)  Eupolis  appears  to  have  been 
 a  warm  admirer  of  Pericles  as  a  statesman  and  as  a  man 
 {Schol.  ad  Aristoph.,  Acharn.,  p.  794,  Dindorf),  ^» 
 it  was  reasonable  that  such  a  comedian  should  be,  if  it 
 
 497 
 
EUR 
 
 EURIPIDES. 
 
 be  true  that  he  owed  his  unrestrained  license  of  speech 
 to  the  patronage  of  that  celebrated  minister.  His  death 
 was  generally  ascribed  to  the  vengeance  of  Alcibiades, 
 whom  he  had  lampooned,  probably  in  the  BcwTai. 
 {Cicero,  ad  Alt.,  C,  1  ■>  By  his  orders,  according  to 
 the  common  account,  Eupolis  was  thrown  overboard 
 during  the  passage  of  the  Athenian  armament  to  Sicily 
 (B.O.  415).  Cicero,  however,  calls  this  story  a  vul- 
 gar error;  since  Eratosthenes,  the  Aicxandrean  li- 
 brarian, had  shown  that  several  comedies  were  com- 
 posed by  Eupolis  some  time  after  the  date  assigned  to 
 this  pseudo-assassination.  His  tomb,  too,  according 
 to  Pausanias,  was  erected  on  the  banks  of  the  Aso- 
 pus  by  the  Sicyonians,  which  makes  it  most  probable 
 that  this  was  the  place  of  his  death.  {Theatre  of  the 
 Greeks,  p.  102,  seq.,  4th  ed.) 
 
 Euripides,  I.  a  celebrated  Athenian  tragic  poet, 
 son  of  Mnesarchus  and  Clito,  of  the  borough  Phlya, 
 and  the  tribe  Cecropis.  {Diog.  Lacrt.,  2,  45. — Sui- 
 das,  s.  V.  Evpin. — Compare  the  Life  by  Thorn.  Ma- 
 gister,  and  the  anonymous  Life  published  by  Elmsley.) 
 He  was  born  Olymp.  75,  1,  B.C.  480,  in  Salamis,  on 
 the  very  day  of  the  Grecian  victory  near  that  island. 
 {Plut.,  Symp.,  8,  1.)  His  mother  (Jlito  had  been  sent 
 over  to  Salamis,  with  the  other  Athenian  women,  when 
 Attica  was  given  up  to  the  invading  ar.my  of  Xerxes  ; 
 and  the  name  of  the  poet,  which  is  formed  like  a  pa- 
 tronymic from  the  Euripus,  the  scene  of  the  first  suc- 
 cessful resistance  to  the  Persian  navy,  shows  that  the 
 minds  of  his  parents  were  full  of  the  stirring  events 
 of  that  momentous  crisis.  Aristophanes  repeatedly 
 imputes  meanness  of  extraction,  by  the  mother's  side, 
 to  Euripides.  {Thesmoph.,  v.  .386. — Ibtd.,  v.  455. — 
 Acharn.,v  478. — Equit.,  v.  17. — Rana;,\.  840.)  He 
 asserts  that  she  was  an  herb-seller ;  and,  according  to 
 Aulus  Gellius  (15,  20),  Theophrastus  confirms  the 
 comedian's  sarcastic  insinuations.  Philochorus,  on 
 the  contrary,  in  a  work  no  longer  extant,  endeavoured 
 to  prove  that  the  mother  of  our  poet  was  a  lady  of  no- 
 ble ancestry.  {Suidas,  s.  v.  EvpiTr.)  Moschopulus 
 also,  in  his  life  of  Euripides,  quotes  this  testimony  of 
 Philochorus.  A  presumptive  argument  in  favour  of 
 the  respectability  of  Euripides,  in  regard  to  birth,  is 
 given  in  Athenaeus  (10,  p.  424),  where  he  tells  us 
 Qlvuxoovv  TE  nnpu  tolq  upx'^ioig  ol  evycviaTaTot  ival- 
 (5ef  a  fact  which  he  instances  in  the  son  of  Menelaus 
 and  in  Euripides,  who,  according  to  Theophrastus, 
 officiated,  when  a  boy,  as  cup-bearer  to  a  chorus  com- 
 posed of  the  most  distinguished  Athenians  in  the  festi- 
 val of  ihe  Delian  Apollo.  Whatever  one  or  both  his  pa- 
 rents might  originally  have  been,  the  costly  education 
 which  the  young  Euripides  received  intimates  a  cer- 
 tain degree  of  wealth  and  consequence  as  then  at  least 
 possessed  by  his  family.  The  pupil  of  Anaxagoras, 
 Protagoras,  and  Prodicus  (an  instructer  so  notorious 
 for  the  extravagant  terms  which  he  demanded  for  his 
 lessons),  could  not  have  been  the  son  of  persons  at 
 that  time  very  mean  or  poor.  It  is  most  probable, 
 therefore,  that  his  father  was  a  man  of  property,  and 
 made  a  marriage  of  disparagement.  In  early  life  we 
 are  told  that  his  father  made  Euripides  direct  his  at- 
 tention chiefly  to  gymnastic  exercises,  and  that,  in  his 
 seventeenth  year,  he  was  crowned  in  the  Eleusinian 
 and  Thesean  contests.  {Aul.  GelL,  15,  20.)  The 
 scholiast  memoirs  of  Euripides  ascribe  this  determina- 
 tion of  the  father  to  an  oracle,  which  was  given  him 
 when  his  wife  was  pregnant  of  the  future  dramatist, 
 wherein  he  was  assured  that  the  child 
 
 — ef  K^t'of  ea62,bv  opovaet, 
 Kat  aTe(j)EO)V  IspCov  yTiVKeprjv  x<^p^'^  u/i(j>i6a?ielTai. 
 
 This  he  interpreted  of  gymnastic  glory  and  garlands. 
 It  docs  not  appear,  however,  that  Euripides  was  ever 
 actually  a  candidate  in  the  Olympic  games. — The  ge- 
 nius of  the  young  poet  was  not  dormant  while  he  was  oc- 
 cupied in  these  mere  bodily  accomplishments ;  and  even 
 498 
 
 at  this  early  age  he  is  said  to  have  attempted  dramatic 
 composition.  {Aul.  GelL,  15,20.)  He  seems  to  have 
 also  cultivated  a  natural  taste  for  painting.  {Thorn. 
 Mag.  in  Vit. —  Vit.  Anonym. —  Vit.  Moschop.)  Some 
 of  his  pictures  were  long  afterward  preserved  at  Me- 
 gara.  At  length,  quitting  the  gymnasium,  he  applied 
 himself  to  philosophy  and  literature.  Under  the  cele- 
 brated rhetorician  Prodicus,  one  of  the  instructers  of 
 Pericles,  he  acquired  that  oratorical  skill  for  which  his 
 dramas  are  so  remarkably  distinguished.  It  is  on  this 
 account  that  Aristophanes  tauntingly  terms  him  ■jtoijj- 
 Ttjv  pT/fiaTiiov  (kKavcKuv  {Fax.,  534).  He  likewise 
 repeatedly  ridicules  him  for  his  dvTLXoyiai,  Xoyiajioi, 
 and  arpoijiai  {Rana,  775) ;  his  ■KepmaToi,  aoi^iapaTa, 
 &c.  Quintilian,  however,  in  comparing  Sophocles 
 with  Euripides,  strongly  recommends  the  latter  to  the 
 young  pleader  as  an  excellent  instructer.  Cicero,  too, 
 was  a  great  admirer  of  Euripides,  perhaps  more  par- 
 ticularly so  for  the  oratorical  excellence  commended  by 
 Quintilian.  He  was  no  less  a  favourite  with  his 
 brother  Quintus.  {Ep.  ad  Fum.,  16,  8.) — P'rom  Anax- 
 agoras he  iyibibed  those  philosophical  notions  which  are 
 occasionally  brought  forward  in  his  works.  (Compare 
 Valckenacr,  Diatrib.,  4,5,6. — Kouterwcck,  de  Fhiioso- 
 phia  Eunpidea,  published  in  Miscell.  Grac.  Dramat., 
 p.  163,  seqq..  Grant,  Cambridge.)  Here,  too,  Peri- 
 cles was  his  fellow-disciple.  With  Socrates,  who  had 
 studied  under  the  same  master,  Euripides  was  on  terms 
 of  the  closest  intimacy,  and  from  him  he  derived  those 
 moral  gnomaj  so  frequently  interwoven  into  his  speeches 
 and  narrations.  Indeed,  Socrates  was  even  suspected 
 of  largely  assisting  the  tragedian  in  the  composition 
 of  his  plays. — Euripides  began  his  public  career  as  a 
 dramatic  writer,  Olymp.  81,  2,  B.C.  455,  in  the  twen- 
 ty-fifth year  of  his  age.  On  this  occasion  he  was  the 
 third  with  a  play  called  the  Flciades.  In  Olymp.  84, 
 4,  B.C.  441,  he  won  the  prize.  In  Olymp.  87,  2,  B.C. 
 431,  he  was  third  with  the  Medea,  the  Fhiiocletes,  the 
 Dictys,  and  the  Thcristcc,  a  satyric  drama.  His  com- 
 petitors were  Euphorion  and  Sophocles.  He  was  first 
 with  the  Hippolytus,  Olymp.  88,  1,  B.C.  428,  the  year 
 of  his  master's  (Anaxagoras's)  death  :  second,  Olymp. 
 91,2,  B.C.  415,  with  the  Alexander  (or  Faris),  the 
 Falamedes,  the  Troades,  and  the  Sisyphus,  a  satyric 
 drama.  It  was  in  this  contest  that  Xenocles  was  first. 
 {JElian.,  V.  H.,  2,  8.)  Two  years  after  this  the  Athe- 
 nians sustained  the  total  loss  of  their  armament  before 
 Syracuse.  In  his  narration  of  this  disaster,  Plutarch 
 gives  an  anecdote  {Vtt.  Nic.),  which,  if  true,  bears  a 
 splendid  testimony  to  the  high  reputation  which  Eu- 
 ripides then  enjoyed.  Those  among  the  captives,  ho 
 tells  us,  who  could  repeat  any  portion  of  that  poet's 
 works,  were  treated  with  kindness,  and  even  set  at 
 liberty.  The  same  author  also  informs  us,  that  Eu- 
 ripides honoured  the  soldiers  who  had  fallen  in  that 
 siege  with  a  funeral  poem,  two  lines  of  which  he  has 
 preserved.  The  Andromeda  was  exhibited  Olymp. 
 92,  1,  B.C.  412;  the  Orestes,  Olymp.  93,  1,  B.C. 
 408.  Soon  after  this  time  the  poet  retired  into  Mag- 
 nesia, and  from  thence  into  Macedonia,  to  the  court 
 of  Archelaiis.  As  in  the  case  of  .^schylus,  the  mo- 
 tives for  this  self-exile  are  obscure  and  uncertain. 
 We  know,  indeed,  that  Athens  was  by  no  means  th« 
 most  favourable  residence  for  distinguished  literary 
 merit.  The  virulence  of  rivalry  raged  unchecked  ;n 
 a  licentious  democracy,  and  the  caprice  of  a  petulant 
 multitude  would  not  afford  the  most  satisfactory  pa- 
 tronage to  a  high-minded  and  talented  man.  Report, 
 too,  insinuates  that  Euripides  was  unhappy  in  his  owi; 
 family.  His  first  wife,  Melilo,  he  divorced  for  adul- 
 tery ;  and  in  his  second,  Choerila,  he  was  not  more 
 fortunate  on  the  same  score.  To  the  poet's  unhappi- 
 ness  in  his  matrimonial  connexions  Aristophanes  re- 
 fers in  his  Rana.  (v.  1045,  seqq).  Envy  and  enmity 
 among  his  fellow-citizens,  infidelity  and  domestic  vex- 
 ations at  home,  would  prove  no  small  inducements  to 
 
EURIPIDES. 
 
 EURIPIDES. 
 
 the  poet  to  accept  the  invitations  of  Archela'us.  Per- 
 haps, too,  a  prosecution  in  which  he  became  involved, 
 on  a  charge  of  impiety,  grounded  upon  a  line  m  the 
 Hippolytus  (Aristut.,  RItet.,  3,  15),  might  have  had 
 some  share  in  producing  this  determination  to  quit 
 Athens  ;  nor  ought  we  to  omit,  that,  in  all  likelihood, 
 his  political  sentiments  may  have  exposed  him  to  con- 
 tinual danger.  In  Macedonia  he  is  said  to  have  writ- 
 ten a  play  in  honour  of  Archelaiis,  and  to  have  in- 
 scribed it  with  his  patron's  name,  who  was  so  much 
 pleased  with  the  manners  and  abilities  of  his  guest  as 
 to  appoint  him  one  of  his  ministers.  He  composed  in 
 this  same  country  also  some  other  dramatic  pieces,  in 
 one  of  which  (the  Bacchct)  he  seems  to  have  been  in- 
 spired by  the  wild  scenery  of  the  land  to  which  he  had 
 come.  No  farther  particulars  are  recorded  of  Euripi- 
 des, except  a  few  apocryphal  anecdotes  and  apojJh- 
 thegtns.  His  death  is  said  to  have  been,  like  that  of 
 .^schylus,  in  its  nature  extraordinary.  Either  from 
 chance  or  malice,  the  aged  dramatist  was  exposed,  ac- 
 cording to  the  common  account,  to  the  attack  of  some 
 ferocious  hounds,  and  by  them  so  dreadfully  mangled 
 as  to  expire  soon  afterward,  in  his  seventy-fifth  year. 
 This  story,  however,  is  clearly  a  fabrication,  for  Aris- 
 tophanes in  the  Frogs  would  certainly  have  alluded  to 
 the  manner  of  his  death,  had  there  been  anything  re- 
 markable in  it.  He  died  B.C.  406,  on  the  same  day  on 
 which  Dionysius  assumed  the  tyranny.  {Cltnton,  Fast. 
 Hcllen.,  vol.  1,  p.  81  )  The  Athenians  entreated  Ar- 
 chelaiis to  send  the  body  to  the  poet's  native  city  for 
 interment.  The  request  was  refused,  and,  with  every 
 demonstration  of  grief  and  respect,  Euripides  was 
 buried  at  Fella.  A  cenotaph,  however,  was  erected  to 
 his  memory  at  Athens.  — "  If  we  consider  Euripides 
 by  himself,"  observes  Schlegel  (vol.  1.  p.  198,  seqq.), 
 "  without  any  comparison  with  his  predecessors  ;  if  we 
 select  many  of  his  best  pieces,  and  some  single  pas- 
 sages of  others,  we  must  bestow  extraordinary  praise 
 upon  him.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  view  him  in  con- 
 nexion with  the  history  of  his  art ;  if  in  his  pieces  we 
 always  regard  the  whole,  and  particularly  his  object,  as 
 generally  displayed  in  those  which  have  come  down  to 
 us,  we  cannot  forbear  blaming  him  strongly,  and  on 
 many  accounts.  There  are  few  writers  of  whom  so 
 much  good  and  so  much  ill  may  be  said  with  truth. 
 His  mind,  to  whose  ingenuity  there  were  no  bounds, 
 was  exercised  in  every  intellectual  art ;  but  this  pro- 
 fusion of  brilliant  and  amiable  qualities  was  not  gov- 
 erned in  him  by  that  elevated  seriousness  of  disjjosi- 
 tion,  or  that  vigorous  and  artist-like  moderation,  which 
 we  revere  in  yEschylus  and  Sophocles.  He  always 
 strives  to  please  alone,  careless  by  what  means. 
 Hence  he  is  so  unequal  to  himself.  He  sometimes 
 has  passages  overpovveringly  beautiful,  and  at  other 
 times  sinks  into  real  lowness  of  style.  With  all  his 
 faults,  he  possesses  astonishing  ease,  and  a  sort  of  fas- 
 cinating charm. — We  have  some  cutting  sayings  of 
 Sophocles  concerning  Euripides,  although  the  former 
 was  so  void  of  all  the  jealousy  of  an  artist  that  he 
 mourned  over  the  death  of  the  latter  ;  and,  in  a  piece 
 which  he  shortly  after  brought  upon  the  stage,  did  not 
 allow  his  actors  the  ornament  of  a  garland.  I  hold 
 myself  justified  in  applying  to  Euripides  particularly, 
 those  accusations  of  Plato  against  the  tragic  })oets,  that 
 they  gave  up  men  too  much  to  the  power  of  the  pas- 
 sions, and  made  them  effeminate  by  putting  immod- 
 erate lamentations  into  the  mouths  of  their  heroes,  be- 
 cause their  groundlessness  would  be  too  clear  if  refer- 
 red to  his  predecessors.  The  jeering  attacks  of  Aris- 
 tophanes are  well  known,  but  have  not  always  been 
 properly  estimated  and  understood.  Aristotle  brings 
 forward  many  important  causes  for  blame  ;  and  when 
 he  calls  Euripides  'the  most  tragic  of  poets'  {Poet., 
 13,  10),  he  by  no  means  ascribes  to  him  the  greatest 
 perfection  in  the  tragic  art  generally  ;  but  he  means, 
 by  this  phrase,  the  effect  which  is  produced  by  unhap- 
 
 py catastrophes  ;  since  he  immediately  subjoins  '  al 
 though  he  does  not  arrange  the  rest  well.'  Lastly,  tha 
 scholiast  oil  Euripides  contains  many  short  and  solid 
 critiques  on  single  plays,  among  which  may  possibly 
 be  preserved  the  judgments  of  the  Alexandrcaii  critics, 
 of  whom  Aristarchus,  by  his  soundness  and  acuteness, 
 deserved  that  his  name  should  be  proverbially  used  to 
 signify  a  genuine  critic.  In  Euripides  we  no  longer 
 find  the  essence  of  ancient  tragedy  pure  and  unmixed  ; 
 its  characteristic  features  are  already  partly  effaced. 
 These  consist  principally  in  the  idea  of  destiny  which 
 reigns  in  them,  in  ideal  representation,  and  the  impor- 
 tance of  the  chorus.  The  idea  of  destiny  had,  indeed, 
 come  down  to  him  from  his  predecessors  as  his  inher- 
 itance, and  a  belief  in  it  is  inculcated  by  him,  accord- 
 ing to  the  custom  of  the  tragedians  ;  but  still,  in  Eu- 
 rifiides,  destiny  is  seldom  considered  as  the  invisible 
 spirit  of  all  poetry,  the  fundamental  thought  of  the 
 tragic  world.  It  will  be  found  that  this  idea  may  be 
 taken  in  a  severe  or  mild  point  of  view  ;  and  that  the 
 gloomy  fearfulness  of  destiny,  in  the  course  of  a  whole 
 trilogy,  clears  up,  till  it  indicates  a  wise  and  good  prov- 
 idence. Euripides,  on  the  other  hand,  drew  it  from 
 the  regions  of  infinity,  and,  in  his  writings,  inevitable 
 necessity  often  degenerates  into  the  caprice  of  chance. 
 HencG  he  can  no  longer  direct  it  to  its  proper  aim, 
 namely,  that  of  elevating,  by  its  contrast,  the  moral 
 free-will  of  man.  Very  few  of  his  pieces  depend  on  a 
 constant  combat  against  the  dictates  of  destiny,  or  an 
 equally  heroic  subjection  to  them.  His  men,  in  gen- 
 eral, suffer,  because  they  must,  and  not  because  they 
 are  willing.  The  contrasted  subordination  of  ideal 
 loftiness  of  character  and  passion,  which  in  Sophocles, 
 as  well  as  in  the  graphic  art  of  the  Greeks,  we  find  ob- 
 served in  this  order,  are  in  him  exactly  reversed.  In 
 his  plays  passion  is  the  most  powerful  ;  his  secondary 
 care  is  for  character ;  and  if  these  endeavours  leave 
 him  sufficient  room,  he  seeks  now  and  then  to  bring  in 
 greatness  and  dignity,  but  more  frequently  amiability. 
 The  dramatis  persons  of  a  tragedy  cannot  be  all  alike 
 free  from  faults,  as  otherwise  hardly  any  strife  could 
 take  place  among  them,  and  consequently  there  could 
 be  no  coin[)lication  of  plot.  But  Euripides  has,  ac- 
 cording to  the  doctrine  of  .\ristotle  {Pod.,  15,  7- — 
 Ibid.,  26,  31),  frequently  represented  his  personages  as 
 bad  without  any  necessity  ;  for  example,  Menelaus  in 
 the  Orestes.  Tradition,  hallowed  by  popular  belief, 
 reported  great  crimes  of  many  ancient  heroes  ;  but 
 Euripides,  from  his  own  free  choice,  falsely  imputes  to 
 them  traits  at  once  mean  and  malicious.  More  espe- 
 cially, it  is  by  no  means  his  object  to  represent  the  race 
 of  heroes  as  pre-eminent  above  the  present  one  by 
 their  mighty  stature,  but  he  rather  takes  pains  to  fill  up 
 or  to  arch  over  the  chasm  between  his  contemporaries 
 and  that  wondrous  olden  time,  and  secretly  to  espy  the 
 gods  and  heroes  of  the  other  side  in  their  undress; 
 against  which  sort  of  observation,  as  the  saying  goes, 
 no  man,  however  great,  can  be  proof  His  manner  of 
 representation,  as  it  were,  presumes  to  be  intimate 
 with  them  :  it  does  not  draw  the  supernatural  and  the 
 fabulous  into  the  circle  of  humanity,  but  into  the  lim- 
 its of  an  imperfect  individual.  This  is  what  Sophocles 
 meant  when  he  said  that  he  himself  represented  men  as 
 they  should  be,  Euripides  as  they  were.  Not  as  if  his 
 own  characters  could  always  be  held  up  as  patterns  of 
 irreproachable  behaviour  :  "his  saying  referred  to  their 
 ideal  loftiness  of  character  and  manners.  It  seems  to 
 be  a  design  of  Euripides  always  to  remind  his  specta- 
 tors, •  See,  those  beings  were  men  ;  they  had  just  such 
 weaknesses,  and  acted  from  exactly  the  same  motives 
 that  vou  do,  that  the  meanest  among  you  does. 
 Hence  he  paints  with  great  delight  the  weak  sides  and 
 moral  failings  of  his  personages  ;  nay,  more,  he  even 
 makes  them  exhibit  them  in  frank  self-confessions. 
 They  frequently  are  not  only  mean,  but  boast  of  it  as 
 if  it  must  be  so.— In  his  dramas  the  chorus  is  generally 
 
 499 
 
EURIPIDES. 
 
 EURIPIDES. 
 
 an  unessential  ornament ;  its  songs  are  often  altogether 
 episodical,  without  reference  to  the  action  ;  more  glit- 
 tering than  energetic  or  really  inspired.  '  The  cho- 
 rus,' says  Aristotle  {Poet.,  18,  21),  *  must  be  consid- 
 ered as  one  of  the  actors,  and  as  a  part  of  the  whole  ; 
 t  must  endeavour  to  assist  the  others  ;  not  as  Eurip- 
 ides, but  as  Sophocles,  employs  it.'  The  ancient 
 comic  writers  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  sometimes  ma- 
 King  the  chorus  address  the  audience  in  their  own 
 name  ;  this  was  called  a  Parabasis.  Although  it  by 
 no  means  belongs  to  tragedy,  yet  Euripides,  according 
 to  the  testimony  of  Julius  Pollux,  often  employed  it, 
 and  so  far  forgot  himself  in  it,  that,  in  the  piece  called 
 '  The  Daughters  of  Danaus,'  he  made  the  chorus, 
 eonsisiing  of  women,  use  grammatical  forms  which  be- 
 longed to  the  masculine  gender  alone.  Thus  our  poet 
 took  away  the  mternal  essence  of  tragedy,  and  injured 
 the  beautiful  symmetry  of  its  exterior  structure.  He 
 generally  sacrifices  the  whole  to  parts,  and  in  these, 
 again,  he  rather  seeks  after  extraneous  attractions  than 
 genuine  poetic  beauty.  In  the  music  of  the  accompa- 
 niments he  adopted  all  the  innovations  of  which  Timo- 
 theus  was  the  author,  and  selected  those  measures 
 which  are  most  suitable  to  the  effeminacy  of  his  poe- 
 try. He  acted  in  a  similar  way  as  regarded  prosody  ; 
 the  construction  of  his  verses  is  lu.xuriant,  and  ap- 
 proaches irregularity.  This  melting  and  unmanly  turn 
 would  indubitably,  on  a  close  examination,  show  itself 
 in  the  rhythm  of  his  choruses.  He  everyv^here  su- 
 perfluously brings  in  those  merely  corporeal  charms, 
 which  Wmckelmann  calls  a  flattery  of  the  coarse  out- 
 ward sense  ;  everything  which  is  stimulating  or  stri- 
 king, or,  in  a  word,  which  has  a  lively  effect,  without 
 any  real  intrinsic  value  for  the  mind  and  the  feelings. 
 He  strives  after  effect  m  a  degree  which  cannot  be  con- 
 ceded even  to  a  dramatic  poet.  Thus,  for  example, 
 he  seldom  lets  any  opportunity  escape  of  having  his 
 personages  seized  with  sudden  and  groundless  terror ; 
 his  old  men  always  complain  of  the  infirmities  of  old 
 age,  and  are  particularly  given  to  mount,  with  totter- 
 ing knees,  the  ascent  from  the  orchestra  to  the  stage, 
 which  frequently,  too,  represented  the  declivity  of  a 
 mountain,  while  they  lament  their  wretchedness.  His 
 object  throughout  is  emotion,  for  the  sake  of  which  he 
 not  only  offends  against  decorum,  but  sacrifices  the 
 connexion  of  his  pieces.  He  is  forcible  in  his  deline- 
 ations of  misfortune  ;  but  he  often  lays  claim  to  our 
 pity,  not  for  some  internal  pain  of  the  soul,  a  pain  too 
 retiring  in  its  nature,  and  borne  in  a  manly  manner,  but 
 for  mere  corporeal  suffering.  He  likes  to  reduce  his 
 heroes  to  a  state  of  beggary  ;  makes  them  suffer  hun- 
 ger and  want,  and  brings  them  on  the  stage  with  all  the 
 exterior  signs  of  indigence,  covered  with  rags,  as  Aris- 
 tophanes so  humorously  throws  in  his  teeth  in  the 
 Acharnians  (v.  410-448). — Euripides  had  visited  the 
 schools  of  the  philosophers,  and  takes  a  pride  in  allu- 
 ding to  all  sorts  of  philosophical  theories  ;  in  my  opin- 
 ion, in  a  very  imperfect  manner,  so  that  one  cannot  un- 
 derstand these  instructions  unless  one  knows  them  be- 
 forehand. He  thinks  it  too  vulgar  to  believe  in  the 
 gods  in  the  simple  way  of  the  common  people,  and 
 therefore  takes  care,  on  every  opportunity,  to  insinuate 
 something  of  an  allegorical  meaning,  and  to  give  the 
 world  to  understand  what  an  equivocal  sort  of  creed 
 he  has  to  boast  of.  We  can  distinguish  in  him  a  two- 
 fold personage :  the  poet,  whose  productions  were 
 dedicated  to  a  religious  solemnity,  who  stood  under  the 
 protection  of  religion,  and  must  therefore  honour  it  on 
 that  account  likewise,  and  the  sophist,  with  philosoph- 
 ical pretensions,  who,  in  the  midst  of  the  fabulous  mir- 
 acles connected  with  religion,  from  which  he  drew  the 
 subjects  of  his  pieces,  endeavoured  to  bring  out  his 
 sceptical  opinions  and  doubts.  While  on  the  one  hand 
 he  shakes  the  foundations  of  religion,  on  the  other  hand 
 he  plays  the  part  of  a  moralist  ;  in  order  to  become 
 popular,  he  applies  to  the  heroic  ages  what  would  hold 
 500 
 
 good  only  of  the  social  relations  of  his  contemporaries. 
 He  strews  up  and  down  a  multitude  of  moral  maxims, 
 in  which  he  contradicts  himself,  that  arc  generally  trite 
 and  often  entirely  false.  With  all  this  ostentation  of 
 morality,  the  intention  of  his  pieces,  and  the  impression 
 which,  on  the  whole,  they  produce,  is  sometimes  ex- 
 tremely immoral.  It  is  related  of  him,  that  he  made 
 Bellerophon  come  on  the  stage  with  a  contemptible 
 panegyric  on  riches,  in  which  he  preferred  them  before 
 every  domestic  joy;  and  said,  at  last,  '  If  Venus  (who 
 had  the  epithet  of  golden)  shone  like  gold,  she  would 
 indeed  deserve  the  love  of  men  '  (Seneca,  Epjst., 
 115.)  The  audience,  enraged  at  this,  raised  a  great 
 tumult,  and  were  proceeding  to  stone  the  orator  as 
 well  as  the  poet.  Euripides,  on  this,  rushed  forward 
 and  exclaimed,  '  Wait  patiently  till  the  end  ;  he  will 
 fare  accordingly.'  Thus  also  he  is  said  to  have  ex- 
 cused himself  against  the  accusation,  that  his  Ixion 
 spoke  too  abominably  and  blasphemously,  by  replying, 
 that,  in  return,  he  had  not  concluded  the  piece  without 
 making  him  revolve  on  the  wheel.  But  this  shift  of 
 poetic  justice,  to  atone  for  the  representation  of  wick- 
 edness, does  not  take  j)lace  in  all  his  dramas.  The 
 bad  frequently  escape  ;  lies  and  other  knavish  tricks 
 are  openly  taken  into  protection,  especially  when  he 
 falsely  attributes  to  them  noble  motives.  He  has  also 
 great  command  of  that  treacherous  sophistry  of  the  pas- 
 sions which  gives  things  only  one  appearance.  The 
 following  verse  {HippoL,  608)  is  notorious  for  its  apol- 
 ogy for  perjury  ;  indeed,  it  seems  to  express  what  cas- 
 uists call  mental  reservation  : 
 
 '  My  tongue  took  an  oath,  but  my  mind  is  unsworn.' 
 
 In  the  connexion  in  which  this  verse  is  sfioken,  it 
 may  indeed  be  justified,  as  far  as  regards  the  reason 
 for  which  Aristophanes  ridicules  it  in  so  many  ways; 
 but  still  the  formula  is  pernicious  on  account  of  the 
 turn  which  may  be  given  it.  Another  sentiment  of 
 Euripides  (Phceniss.,  .534),  '  It  is  worth  while  com- 
 mitting injustice  for  the  sake  of  empire,  in  other  things 
 it  is  proper  to  be  just,'  was  continually  in  the  mouth 
 of  CsBsar,  in  order  to  make  a  wrong  application  of  it. 
 {Sueton.,  Vit.  C<rs.,  30.— Compare  Cic.,  de  Of.,  3, 
 21.) — Seductive  enticements  to  the  enjoyment  of  sen- 
 sual love  were  another  article  of  accusation  against 
 Euripides  among  the  ancients.  Thus,  for  example,  it 
 must  excite  our  indignation  when  Hecuba,  in  order  to 
 stir  up  Agamemnon  to  punish  Polymnestor,  reminds 
 him  of  the  joys  Cassandra  had  afforded  him  ;  who, 
 having  been  taken  in  war,  was  his  slave,  according  to 
 the  law  of  the  heroic  ages  :  she  is  willing  to  purchase 
 revenge  for  a  murdered  son,  by  consenting  to  and  rat- 
 ifying the  degradation  of  a  daughter  who  is  still  alive. 
 This  poet  was  the  first  to  take  for  the  principal  subjec- 
 of  a  drama  the  wild  passion  of  a  Medea,  or  the  un- 
 natural love  of  a  Phaedra  ;  as,  otherwise,  it  may  be  ea- 
 sily understood,  from  the  manners  of  the  ancients,  whv 
 love,  which  among  them  was  far  less  ennobled  by  del- 
 icate feelings,  played  merely  a  subordinate  part  in  their 
 earlier  tragedies.  Notwithstanding  the  importance  im- 
 parted to  female  characters,  he  is  notorious  for  his  ha- 
 tred of  women  ;  and  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  he  brings 
 out  a  great  multitude  of  sayings  concerning  the  weak- 
 nesses of  the  female  sex,  and  the  superiority  of  men, 
 as  well  as  a  great  deal  drawn  from  his  experience  in 
 domestic  relations,  by  which  he  doubtlessly  intended 
 to  pay  court  to  the  men,  who,  although  they  did  not 
 compose  the  whole  of  the  public  to  which  he  addressed 
 himself,  yet  formed  the  most  powerful  portion  of  it.  A 
 cutting  saying,  as  well  as  an  epigram,  of  Sophocles 
 (Alhcn.,  13,  p.  558. — Id.  ib.,  p.  605),  have  been  hand 
 ed  down  to  us,  in  which  he  explains  the  pretended  ha- 
 tred of  Euripides  for  women  hy  supposing  that  he  hao 
 the  opportunity  of  learning  their  frailty  through  his  own 
 unhallowed  desires.  In  the  whole  of  Euripides'  meth- 
 od of  delineating  women,  we  may  perceive    indeed. 
 
EURIPIDES. 
 
 EURIPIDES. 
 
 great  susceptibility  even  for  the  more  lofty  charms  of 
 womanly  virtue,  but  no  real  respect. — That  independ- 
 ent freedom  in  the  method  of  treating  the  story,  which 
 was  one  of  the  privileges  of  the  tragic  art,  frequent- 
 ly, in  Euripides,  degenerates  into  unbounded  caprice. 
 It  is  well  ktiown  that  the  fables  of  Hyginus,  which 
 differ  so  much  from  the  relations  of  other  writers,  are 
 partly  extracted  from  his  pieces.  As  he  often  over- 
 turned what  had  hitherto  been  well  known  and  gener- 
 ally received,  he  was  obliged  to  use  prologues,  in 
 which  he  announces  the  situation  of  affairs  according 
 to  his  acceptation,  and  makes  known  the  course  of 
 events.  (Compare  the  amusing  scene  in  Aristopha- 
 nes, Rana,  1177,  seqq.,  and  Porson's  explanation  of 
 the  employment  of  such  prologues  by  Euripides,  Frd- 
 lect.  in  Eunp.,  p  8,  scqq.)  These  prologues  make 
 the  beginnings  of  the  plays  of  Euripides  very  uniform; 
 it  has  the  appearance  of  great  deficiency  of  art  when 
 somebody  comes  out  and  says,  'I  am  so  and  so;  such 
 and  such  things  have  already  happened,  and  this  is  what 
 is  going  to  happen.'  This  method  may  be  compared 
 to  the  labels  coming  out  of  tlie  mouths  of  the  figures  in 
 old  pictures,  which  can  only  be  excused  by  the  great 
 simplicity  of  their  antique  style.  But  then,  all  the  rest 
 must  harmonize  with  it,  which  is  by  no  means  the  case 
 with  Euripides,  whose  personages  discourse  according 
 to  the  newest  fashion  of  the  manners  of  his  time.  In 
 his  prologues,  as  well  as  in  the  denouement  of  his  plots, 
 he  is  very  lavish  of  unmeaning  appearances  of  gods, 
 who  are  elevated  above  men  only  by  being  suspended 
 in  a  machine,  and  might  very  easily  be  spared.  He 
 pushes  to  excess  the  method  which  the  ancient  tragic 
 writers  have  of  treating  the  action,  by  throwing  ev- 
 erything into  large  masses,  with  repose  and  motion 
 following  at  stated  intervals.  At  one  time  he  unrea- 
 sonably prolongs,  with  too  great  fondness  for  vivacity  of 
 dialogue,  that  change  of  speakers  at  every  verse  which 
 was  usual  even  with  his  predecessors,  in  which  ques- 
 tions and  answers,  or  reproaches  and  replies,  are  shot  (o 
 and  fro  like  darts  ;  and  this  he  sometimes  does  so  arbi- 
 trarily, that  half  of  the  lines  might  be  dispensed  with. 
 At  another  time  he  pours  forth  long,  endless  speeches; 
 he  endeavours  to  show  his  skill  as  an  orator  in  its  ut- 
 most brilliancy,  by  ingenious  syllogisms,  or  by  exciting 
 pity.  Many  of  his  scenes  resemble  a  suit  at  law,  in 
 which  two  persons,  who  are  the  parties  opposed  to  one 
 another,  or  sometimes  in  the  presence  of  a  third  per- 
 son as  judge,  do  not  confine  themselves  to  what  their 
 present  situation  requires  ;  but,  beginning  their  storv 
 at  the  most  remote  period,  accuse  their  adversary  and 
 justify  themselves,  doing  all  this  with  those  turns 
 which  are  familiar  to  pleaders,  and  frequently  with 
 those  which  are  usual  among  sycophants.  Thus  the 
 poet  attempted  to  make  his  poetry  entertaining  to  the 
 '  Athenians  by  its  resemblance  to  their  daily  and  favour- 
 ite pursuit,  carrying  on  and  deciding,  or  at  least  listen- 
 ing to,  lawsuits.  On  this  account  Quintilian  particu- 
 larly recommends  him  to  the  young  orator,  who  may 
 learn  more  by  studying  him  than  the  older  tragedians  ; 
 an  opinion  marked  with  his  usual  accuracy.  But  it  is 
 pasy  to  see  that  such  a  recommendation  conveys  no 
 high  eulogium,  since  eloquence  may  indeed  find  place 
 in  the  drama  when  it  is  suitable  to  the  capacity  and 
 object  of  the  (lerson  who  is  speaking  ;  but  when  rhet- 
 oric steps  into  the  place  of  the  immediate  expression 
 of  the  soul,  it  is  no  longer  poetical. — The  style  of  Eu- 
 ripides is,  on  the  whole,  not  compressed  enough,  al- 
 though it  presents  us  with  some  very  happily-drawn 
 pictures  and  ingenious  turns  of  language  ;  it  has  nei- 
 ther the  dignity  and  energy  of  ^Eschylus,  nor  the  chaste 
 grace  of  Sophocles.  In  his  expressions  he  fre(]uently 
 aims  at  the  extraordinary  and  strange,  and,  on  the  oth- 
 er hand,  loses  himself  in  commonplace  ;  and  too  of- 
 ten the  tone  of  his  speeches  becomes  quite  everyday, 
 and  descends  from  the  height  of  the  buskin  to  level 
 grouad.     For  the.se  reasons,  ae  well  as  on  account  of 
 
 his  almost  ludicrous  delineation  of  many  characterisiio 
 peculiarities  (such  as  the  clumsy  deportment  of  Pen- 
 theus  in  a  female  garb,  when  befooled  by  Bacchus 
 {Bacchce,  v.  782,  seqq.),  or  the  greediness  of  Hercules 
 {Alccslis,  V.  764,  seqq  ),  and  his  boisterous  demands 
 on  the  hospitality  of  Admetus),  Euripides  was  a  fore- 
 runner of  the  new  comedy  ;  for  which  he  has  an  evi- 
 dent inclination,  since,  under  the  names  belonging  to 
 the  age  of  heroes,  he  frequently  paints  real  personages 
 of  his  own  time.  Menander  also  expressed  an  extra- 
 ordinary admiration  for  him,  and  declared  himself  to 
 be  his  scholar  ;  and  there  is  a  fragment  of  Philemon, 
 full  of  such  extravagant  admiration  of  him  that  it  al- 
 most seems  to  be  intended  as  a  jest.  '  If  the  dead,' 
 he  says,  or  makes  one  of  his  personages  say,  'really 
 possessed  sensation,  as  some  suppose,  I  would  hang 
 myself  in  order  to  see  Euripides.'  The  sentiments 
 of  the  more  ancient  Aristophanes,  his  contemporary, 
 form  a  striking  contrast  to  the  veneration  which  the 
 later  comic  writers  had  for  him.  Aristophanes  re- 
 proaches or  banters  him  for  his  lowering  the  dignity  of 
 tragedy,  by  exhibiting  so  many  heroes  as  whining  and 
 tattered  beggars  {Rana,  v.  841,  1063. — Acharn.,  395, 
 seqq. — Pax,  v,  147) ;  by  introducing  the  vulgar  affairs 
 of  ordinary  life  (Ranee,  v.  9.59') ;  by  the  sonorous  un- 
 meaningness  of  his  choral  odes,  and  the  feebleness  «f 
 his  verses  {Ranee,  v.  1300,  scqq. — Pax,  v.  532);  and 
 by  the  loquacity  of  all  his  personages,  however  low 
 their  rank  or  unsuitable  their  character  might  be.  He 
 charges  his  dramas  with  an  immoral  tendency  {Ranee, 
 v.  8.50,  1043,  \Qm.  —  Nuhes,  v.  1371),  and  himself 
 with  contempt  for  the  gods  and  fondness  for  newfan- 
 gled doctrines.  {Ranee,  v.  887,  scqq.)  He  laughs  at 
 his  affectation  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric.  {Rana,  v. 
 815,  826,  966,  970,  1073,  1076.)  Aristophanes,  in- 
 deed, persecutes  him  indefatigably  and  inexorably  ;  he 
 was  ordained  to  be,  as  it  were,  his  perpetual  scourge, 
 that  none  of  his  vagaries  in  morals  or  in  art  might  re- 
 main uncensured.  Although  Aristophanes,  as  a  comic 
 dramatist,  is,  by  means  of  his  parodies,  the  foe  of  the 
 tragic  poets  in  general,  yet  he  nowhere  attacks  Soph- 
 ocles ;  and  even  in  the  places  in  which  he  fastens  on 
 the  weak  side  of  ^schylus.  his  reverence  for  him  is 
 manifest,  and  he  everywhere  opposes  his  gigantic  pro- 
 portions to  the  petty  ingenuity  of  Euripides.  He  has 
 laid  open,  with  immense  understanding  and  inexhaust- 
 ible wit,  his  sophistical  subtlety,  his  rhetorical  and  phil- 
 osophical pretensions,  his  immorality  and  seductive  ef- 
 feminacy, and  the  merely  sensual  emotions  he  excites. 
 As  modern  judges  of  art  have  for  the  most  part  es- 
 teemed Aristophanes  to  be  nothing  better  than  an 
 extravagant  and  slanderous  buffoon,  and,  moreover, 
 have  not  understood  the  art  of  translating  the  humour- 
 ous dress  he  gives  subjects  into  the  truths  which  lie 
 at  the  bottom,  they  have  attached  but  little  importance 
 to  his  opinion. — After  all  that  has  gone  before,  we  must 
 not  lose  sight  of  the  fact,  that  Euripides  was  yet  a 
 Greek,  and  a  contemporary,  too,  of  many  of  the  great- 
 est men  that  Greece  possessed  in  politics,  philosophy, 
 history,  and  the  graphic  art.  If.  when  compared  with 
 his  predecessors,  he  stands  far  below  them,  when  com- 
 pared with  many  moderns  he  is  far  superior  to  them. 
 He  is  [larticularly  strong  in  the  representation  of  a  dis- 
 tempered and  erring  mind,  given  up  to  its  passions  to 
 a  degree  of  pi  rensy.  {Longinus,  15,  3.)  He  is  excel- 
 lent when  the  subject  leads  principally  to  emotion,  and 
 has  no  higher  claims;  and  still  more  en  occasions 
 when  even  moral  beauty  demands  pathos.  Few  of  his 
 pieces  are  without  single  passages  that  are  charmingly 
 beautiful.  Take  him  altogether,  it  is  by  no  means  my  in- 
 tention to  deny  that  he  possesses  extraordinary  talents  ; 
 I  only  maintain  that  they  were  not  united  to  a  dispo- 
 sition honouring  the  rigour  of  moral  principles  and  the 
 holiness  of  religious  feelings  above  everything  else^ 
 {Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  2dcd.,  p.  133,  *a/?.)-Of  the 
 1  120  dramas  which  Euripides  is  said  to  have  composed. 
 
EURIPIDES. 
 
 EURIPIDES. 
 
 we  have  remaining  at  the  present  day  only  eighteen 
 tragedies  and  one  satyric  piece.  The  following  are 
 the  titles  and  subjects  ;  1.  'EkuStj,  Hecuba.  The  sac- 
 rifice of  Polyxena,  whom  the  Greeks  immolate  to  the 
 manes  of  .\chilles,  and  the  vengeance  which  Hecuba, 
 doubly  unfortunate  in  having  been  reduced  to  captivity 
 and  deprived  of  her  children,  takes  upon  Polymnestor, 
 the  murderer  of  her  son  Polydorus,  form  the  subject  of 
 this  tragedy.  The  scene  is  laid  in  the  Grecian  camp 
 in  the  Thracian  Chersonese.  The  shade  of  Polydorus, 
 whose  body  remains  without  the  riles  of  sepulture,  has 
 the  prologue  assigned  it.  Ennius  and  L.  Accius,  and 
 in  modern  times  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  have  trans- 
 lated this  play  into  Latin  verse.  Ludovico  Dolce  has 
 given  an  Italian  version  of  it;  several  passages  have 
 been  rendered  into  French  by  La  Harpe  ;  Racine  owes 
 to  it  some  fine  verses  in  his  Andromache  and  Iphigenia, 
 and  Voltaire  has  imitated  some  parts  in  his  M6rope. — 
 2  'OpiaTjjg,  Orestes.  The  scene  of  this  play  is  laid 
 at  Argos,  the  seventh  day  after  the  murder  of  Clytem- 
 nestra.  It  is  on  this  day  that  the  people,  in  full  as- 
 sembly, are  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  Orestes  and  Elec- 
 tra.  The  only  hope  of  the  accused  is  in  Menelaus, 
 who  has  just  arrived  ;  but  this  prince,  who  secretly 
 aims  at  ihe  succession,  stirs  up  the  people  in  private 
 to  pronounce  sentence  of  condemnation  against  the 
 parricides.  The  sentence  is  accordingly  pronounced, 
 but  the  execution  of  it  is  left  to  the  culprits  themselves. 
 They  meditate  taking  vengeance  by  slaying  Helen  ; 
 but  this  princess  is  saved  by  the  intervention  of  Apol- 
 lo, who  brings  about  a  double  marriage,  by  uniting 
 Orestes  with  Hermione,  the  daughter  of  Helen,  and 
 Electra  with  Pylades.  This  denouement  is  unworthy 
 of  the  tragedy.  The  piece,  moreover,  is  full  of  comic 
 and  satiric  traits.  Some  commentators  think  they  rec- 
 ognise the  portrait  of  Socrates  in  that  of  the  simple 
 and  virtuous  citizen  who,  in  the  assembly  of  the  people, 
 undertakes  the  defence  of  Orestes.  This  play  is  as- 
 cribed by  some  to  Euripides  the  younger,  nephew  of 
 the  former. — 3.  ^oiviaaai,  Phoenissa.  The  subject 
 of  this  piece  is  the  death  of  Eteocles  and  Polynices. 
 The  chorus  is  composed  of  young  PhcE7iicia?i  females, 
 sent,  according  to  the  custom  established  by  Agenor, 
 to  the  city  of  Thebes,  in  order  to  be  consecrated  to 
 the  service  of  the  temple  at  Delphi.  The  prologue  is 
 assigned  to  Jocasta.  Grotius  regards  the  Phcenissfe 
 as  the  chef-d'oeuvre  of  Euripides  :  a  more  elevated  and 
 heroic  tone  prevails  throughout  it  than  is  to  be  found  in 
 any  other  of  his  pieces.  The  subject  of  the  Phoenis- 
 sse  is  that  also  of  the  Thebais  of  Seneca.  Statius  has 
 likewise  imitated  it  in  his  epic  poem,  and  Rotrou  in 
 the  first  two  acts  of  his  Antigone. — 4.  Mj/Jem,  Medea. 
 The  vengeance  taken  by  Medea  on  the  ungrateful  Ja- 
 son, to  whom  she  has  sacrificed  all,  and  who,  on  his 
 arrival  at  Corinth,  abandons  her  for  a  royal  bride,  forms 
 the  subject  of  this  tragedy.  What  constitutes  the 
 principal  charm  of  the  piece  is  the  simplicity  and  clear- 
 ness of  the  action,  and  the  force  and  natural  cast  of 
 the  characters.  The  exposition  of  the  play  is  made  in 
 a  monologue  by  the  nurse  :  the  chorus  is  composed  of 
 Corinthian  females,  a  circumstance  which  does  not  fail 
 to  give  an  air  of  great  improbability  to  this  portion  of 
 the  plot.  It  is  said  that  Euripide;;  gave  to  the  world 
 two  editions  of  this  tragedy,  and  that,  in  the  first,  the 
 children  of  Medea  were  put  to  death  by  the  Corintiii- 
 ans,  while  in  the  second,  which  has  come  down  to  us,  it 
 is  their  mother  herself  who  slays  them.  According  to 
 this  hypothesis,  the  1378th  verse  and  those  immediate- 
 ly following,  in  which  Medea  says  that  she  will  impose 
 on  Corinth,  contemptuously  styled  by  her  the  land  of 
 Sisyphus,  an  expiatory  festival  for  this  crime,  have 
 been  retained  by  mistake  in  the  revision  in  which  they 
 should  have  disappeared.  Medea  has  no  expiation  to 
 demand  of  the  Corinthians,  if  they  are  not  guilty  of 
 the  murder  of  her  sons.  (Compare  Bottiger,  de  Me- 
 dea Euripidea,  &.c.  —  Matthm,  Misc.,  vol.  1,  p.  1, 
 5U2 
 
 seqq. — Bockh,  Grczcce  Tragadia  Principum  mint  ea 
 qu<i-  supersunt  genuina,  &c.,  p.  165.)  yElian  informs 
 us  (F.  H.,  5,  21),  that  the  Corinthians  prevailed  upon 
 Euripides  to  alter  the  tradition  in  question:  he  makes 
 no  mention,  however,  of  any  change  in  the  piece  itself 
 According  to  others,  they  purchased  this  compliance 
 for  the  sum  of  five  talents.  The  subject  of  the  Medea 
 was  a  favourite  one  with  the  dramatic  writers  of  for- 
 mer times,  and  has  proved  no  less  so  with  the  mod- 
 erns. Among  the  former  may  be  mentioned  Neophron 
 of  Sicyonia,  Ennius,  Pacuvius,  Accius,  Ovid,  and  Sen- 
 eca ;  among  the  latter,  Ludovico  Dolce,  Glover,  Cor- 
 neille,  &c. — 5.  'IiTTroAtTOf  are^avo^opog,  Hippoly- 
 tus  Coronifer,  "  Hippolytus  wearing  a  crown."  The 
 subject  of  this  tragedy  is  the  same  with  that  which 
 Racine  has  taken  for  the  basis  of  his  Phedre,  a  subject 
 eminently  tragical.  It  presents  to  our  view  a  female, 
 a  feeble-minded  woman,  the  victim  of  the  resentment 
 of  Venus,  who  has  inspired  her  with  a  criminal  pas- 
 sion. An  object  of  horror  to  him  whom  she  loves, 
 and  not  daring  to  reveal  her  own  shame,  she  dies,  after 
 having  engaged  Theseus,  by  her  misrepresentations,  to 
 become  the  destroyer  of  his  own  son.  The  title  of 
 this  tragedy  is  probably  derived  from  the  crown  which 
 Hippolytus  offers  to  Diana.  Euripides  at  first  gave  it 
 the  name  of  'linroXvTog  KaXvTVTo/ievoc.  He  afterward 
 retouched  it,  and,  changing  the  catastrophe  and  the 
 title,  reproduced  it  in  the  year  that  Pericles  died.  It 
 gained  the  prize  over  the  pieces  of  lophon  and  Ion, 
 which  had  competed  with  it  in  the  contest.  It  is  some- 
 times cited  under  the  title  of  the  Phaedra,  and  the  cel- 
 ebrated chef-d'oeuvre  of  Racine  is  an  imitation  of  it, 
 as  well  as  the  tragedy  of  Seneca,  which  last,  however, 
 rather  merits  the  name  of  a  parody.  A  comparison 
 between  the  Hippolytus  of  Euripides  and  the  Phedre 
 of  Racine,  is  given  by  Louis  Racine,  in  the  Mcmoires 
 de  rAcademie  des  Inscrip.  et  Belles- Lettres,  vol.  8, 
 p.  300  ;  and  by  the  Abbe  Batteux  in  the  same  collec- 
 tion, vol.  42,  p.  452.  Consult  also  the  work  of  Aug. 
 Wilhelm  Schlegel,  Paris,  1805,  8vo,  "  Comparaisun 
 enire  la  Phedre  de  Racine  et  celle  d'Euripide." — 
 6.  'AlKijaTig,  Alcestis.  The  subject  of  this  tragedy 
 is  moral  and  affecting.  It  is  a  wife  who  dies  for  the 
 sake  of  prolonging  her  husband's  existence.  Its  ob- 
 ject is  to  show,  that  conjugal  affection  and  an  observ- 
 ance of  the  rites  of  hospitality  are  not  suffered  to  go 
 without  their  reward.  Hercules,  whom  .Admetus  had 
 kindly  received  while  unfortunate,  having  learned  that 
 Alcestis,  the  wife  of  the  monarch,  had  consummated 
 her  mournful  sacrifice,  seeks  her  in  the  shades,  and  re- 
 stores her  to  her  husband.  In  this  piece,  as  in  some 
 others  of  Euripides,  the  introduction  of  comic  traits 
 into  a  tragic  subject  is  open  to  just  criticism.  Al- 
 though the  character  of  Hercules  is  interesting  and 
 well-drawn,  and  though  the  play,  in  general,  offers 
 many  beauties,  it  is,  notwithstanding,  regarded  as  one 
 of  the  most  feeble  productions  of  our  author. — 7.  'Av- 
 dpofidxJ),  Andromache.  The  death  of  the  son  of  Achil- 
 les, whom  Orestes  slays,  after  having  carried  off  from 
 him  Hermione,  forms  the  subject  of  the  piece.  The 
 scene  is  laid  in  Thetidium,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  near 
 Pharsalus.  Some  have  pretended,  that  the  aim  of  Eu- 
 ripides in  writing  this  tragedy  was  to  render  odious  the 
 law  of  the  Athenians  which  permitted  bigamy.  (Con- 
 sult Reflexions  siir  V Andromaque  d'Euripide  :t  svr 
 FAndromaque  de  Racine,  pur  Louis  Raciite,  in  the 
 Mem.  de  VAcad  des  Inscnp.,  &c.,  vol.  10,  p.  311.) 
 Racine,  in  the  preface  to  his  Andromaque,  holds  the 
 following  language  in  relation  to  the  mode  of  treating 
 the  subject  which  he  has  adopted  in  his  own  piece. 
 "  Andromaque,  dans  Euripide,  crainl  pour  la  vie  do 
 Molossus,  qui  est  un  fils  qu'elle  a  eu  de  Pyrxhus.  e» 
 qu'Hermione  veut  faire  mourir  avec  sa  mere.  Maia 
 iei  il  ne  s'agit  point  de  Molossus.  Andromaque  ne 
 connoit  pas  d'autre  mari  qu'Hector,  ni  d'autre  fils 
 qu'Astyanax.     J'ai  cru  en  cela  me  conformer  &  I'idee 
 
EURIPIDES. 
 
 EURIPIDES. 
 
 que  nous  avons  maintenant  de  cette  princesse.  La 
 plupart  de  ceiix  qui  out  eiitendu  parler  d'Andromaque 
 ne  la  connoissent  que  pour  la  veuve  d'Hector,  et  pour 
 la  mere  d'Astyanax.  On  ne  croit  pas  qu'elle  doivc 
 aimer  un  autre  mari  ni  un  autre  fils  ;  et  je  doute  que 
 les  larmes  d'Andromaque  eussent  fait  sur  I'esprit  de 
 mes  spectateurs  ['impression  qu'elles  ont  faite,  si  elles 
 avoicnt  coule  pour  un  autre  fils  que  celui  qu'elle  avoit 
 d'Hector."  It  is  easy  to  perceive  from  this  how  much 
 the  French  poet  has  ennobled  by  the  change  the  char- 
 acter of  his  heroine  — 8.  'I/cfrtdff,  Suppiices,  "  The 
 Female  Suppliants."  The  scene  of  this  tragedy  is  laid 
 in  front  of  the  temple  of  Ceres  at  Eleusis,  whither  the 
 Argive  females,  whose  husbands  have  perished  before 
 Thebes,  have  followed  their  king  Adrastus,  in  the  hope 
 of  engaging  Theseus  to  take  up  arms  in  their  behalf, 
 and  obtain  the  rites  of  sepulture  for  their  dead,  whose 
 bodies  were  withheld  by  the  Thebans.  Theseus  yields 
 to  their  request  and  promises  his  assistance.  In  e.x- 
 hibiting  this  play  the  third  year  of  the  90lh  Olympiad, 
 the  fourteenth  of  the  Pelopotmesian  war,  Euripides 
 wished,  it  is  said,  to  detach  the  Argives  from  the  Spar- 
 tan cause.  His  attempt,  however,  failed,  and  the 
 treaty  was  signed  by  which  Mantinea  was  sacrificed  to 
 the  ambition  of  Lacedaemon.  The  exposition  of  this 
 piece  has  not  the  same  fault  as  the  rest  :  it  is  impo- 
 sing and  splendid,  and  made  without  the  intervention 
 of  an  actual  prologue  ;  for  the  monologue  by  which 
 ./Ethra,  the  mother  of  Theseus,  makes  known  the  sub- 
 ject of  the  piece,  is  a  prayer  addressed  to  Ceres,  in 
 which  the  recital  naturally  finds  a  place. — 9.  'IdLyevcia 
 i]  kv  kvTiiSi,  Iphiffcnia  in  Aulidc,  "  Iphigenia  at 
 Aulis."  The  subject  of  this  tragedy  is  the  intended 
 sacrifice  of  Iphigenia,  and  her  rescue  by  Diana,  who 
 substitutes  another  victim.  It  is  the  only  one  of  the 
 plays  of  Euripides  that  has  no  prologue,  for  it  is  well 
 known  that  the  Rhesus,  which  is  also  deficient  in  this 
 respect,  had  one  formerly.  Hence  Musgrave  has  con- 
 jectured that  the  present  play  had  also  once  a  prologue, 
 in  which  the  exposition  of  the  piece  was  made  by  Di- 
 ana ;  and  ^lian  {Hist.  An.,  7,  39)  cites  a  passage  of 
 the  Iphigenia  which  we  do  not  now  find  in  it,  and 
 which  could  only  have  been  pronounced  by  Diana  ;  it 
 announces  what  she  intends  to  do  for  the  purpose  of 
 saving  Iphigenia.  Eichstadt,  however,  and  Bockh, 
 maintain,  that  the  Iphigenia  which  we  at  present  have 
 could  not  have  been  furnished  with  a  prologue,  since, 
 if  it  had  been,  this  prologue  ought  to  have  contained 
 the  recital  which  is  put  in  the  mouth  of  Agamemnon 
 at  verse  49,  seqq.  Hence  Bockh  concludes,  that  there 
 were  two  tragedies  with  this  name,  one  written  by  Eu- 
 ripides and  having  a  prologue,  the  other  composed  by 
 Euripides  the  younger,  and  which  is  also  the  one  that 
 we  now  possess.  {Eichstadt,  de  Dram.  Grcccornm 
 Comico-Satyrico,  p.  99. — Biiclch,  GrcEcie  Tra^aidicE 
 Princijmm,  &c.,  p.  216. — Consult  also  Brcmi,  Philo- 
 log.  Bey t> age  aug  der  Schipeiz,  p.  143,  and  Jacobs, 
 Zvisatze  zu  Sulzer,  vol.  5,  pt.  2,  p.  401.)  Racine  has 
 made  the  story  of  Iphigenia  the  subject  of  one  of  his 
 chefs-d'oeuvre.  (Consult  the  Comparaison  de  Vlphi- 
 gtnie  d'Eurivide  arec  Vlphigenie  de  Racine,  par  Louis 
 Rdcine,  in  the  Mim.  de  CAcad.  dcs  Inscrip.,  &c.,  vol. 
 8.  p.  288.)  [t  has  also  been  treated  by  Ludovico 
 Dolce  and  by  Rotrou. — 10.  '[(jnyiveia  7)  EvTavjin(^, 
 Ipkiffcnia.  in  Tauride,  "  Iphigenia  in  Tauris."  The 
 daughter  of  Agamemnon,  rescued  by  Diana  from  the 
 knife  <»f  the  sacrificer,  and  transported  to  Tauris,  there 
 serves  the  goddess  as  a  priestess  in  her  temple.  Ores- 
 tes has  been  cast  on  the  inhospitable  shores  of  this 
 country,  along  with  hi«  friend  Pylades,  and  by  the  laws 
 of  Tauris  they  must  be  sacriticed  to  Diana.  Recog- 
 nised by  his  sister  at  the  fatal  moment,  Orestes  con- 
 ducts her  back  to  their  common  country.  A  mono- 
 Jogue  by  Iphigenia  occupies  the  place  of  a  prologue 
 and  exposition.  The  scene  where  Iphigenia  and  her 
 knothei  became  known  to  each  other  in  of  a  deep  and 
 
 touching'  interest :  nevertheless,  Guimond  de  la  Toucho 
 is  said,  m  this  respect,  to  have  surpassed  his  model. 
 —  II.  Tpwarfcf,  Troades,  '-The  Trojan  females." 
 The  action  of  this  piece  is  prior  to  that  of  the  Hecuba. 
 The  scene  is  laid  in  the  Grecian  camp,  under  the  walls 
 of  Troy,  which  has  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  foe.  A 
 body  of  female  captives  have  been  distributed  by  lot 
 among  the  victors.  Agamemnon  has  reserved  Cas- 
 sandra for  himself;  Polyxena  has  been  immolated  to 
 the  manes  of  Achilles ;  Andromache  has  fallen  to 
 Neoptoleinus,  Hecuba  to  Ulysses.  The  object  of  the 
 poet  is  to  show  us  in  Hecuba  a  mother  bowed  down 
 by  misfortune.  The  Greeks  destroy  .Astyanax,  and  his 
 mangled  body  is  brought  in  to  the  mother  of  Hector, 
 his  own  parent  being  by  this  time  carried  away  in  the 
 train  of  Neoptolemus.  Ilium  is  then  given  as  a  prey 
 to  the  flames.  This  succession  of  horrors  passes  in 
 mournful  review  before  the  eyes  of  the  spectator ;  yet 
 there  is  no  unity  of  action  to  constitute  a  subject  for 
 the  piece,  and  consequently  the  play  has  no  denoue- 
 ment. Neptune  appears  in  the  prologue.  Seneca  and 
 M.  de  Chateaubrun  have  imitated  this  tragedy. — 
 12.  BuKxai,  BacchcB,  "The  female  Bacchanalians." 
 The  arrival  of  Bacchus  at  Thebes  and  the  death  of 
 Pentheus,  who  is  torn  in  pieces  by  his  mother  and  sis- 
 ter— such  is  the  subject  of  this  piece,  in  which  Bac- 
 chus opens  the  scene  and  makes  himself  known  to  the 
 spectators.  Brumoy  regards  this  as  a  satyric  drama  ; 
 in  this,  however,  he  is  mistaken,  as  the  chorus  of  satyrs 
 can  never  be  dispensed  with  in  such  compositions. 
 The  action  of  the  Bacchic  is  very  defective  :  it  is  a  suc- 
 cession of  rich  paintings,  of  tragic  situations,  of  brill- 
 iant verses,  connected  together  by  a  very  feeble  inter- 
 est. The  spectacle  which  this  tragedy  presented  must 
 have  been  at  once  imposing  and  well  calculated  to  keep 
 alive  curiosity.  (Compare  the  remarks  of  Prevost, 
 Examen  de  la  tragedic  des  Bacchaules,  in  the  Theatre 
 des  Grccs,  by  Rnoid-Rochette,  vol.  9,  p.  376.)  There 
 is  some  probability  for  supposing  that  we  have  this 
 play  in  a  second  edition. — 13.  'YlpauAdiaL,  HcraclidcE. 
 The  descendants  of  Hercules,  persecuted  by  Eurys- 
 theus,  flee  for  refuge  to  Athens,  and  implore  the  pro- 
 tection of  that  city.  The  Athenians  lend  aid,  and 
 Eurystheus  becomes  the  victim  of  the  vengeance  he 
 was  about  bringing  upon  them.  lolas,  an  old  compan- 
 ion of  Hercules,  explains  the  subject  to  the  spectators. 
 The  poet  manages  to  impart  an  air  of  great  interest  to 
 the  piece. — 14.  'F.'kevii,  Helena.  The  scene  is  laid  in 
 Egypt,  where  Menelaus,  after  the  destruction  of  Troy, 
 finds  Helen,  who  had  been  detained  there  by  Proteus, 
 king  of  that  country,  when  Paris  wished  to  convey  her 
 to  Iliuin.  Euripides  follows  in  this  the  account  of 
 Herodotus,  to  which  he  adds  some  particulars  of  his 
 own  that  border  on  romance.  The  action  passes  at  the 
 isle  of  Pharos,  where  Theoelymenus,  the  son  and  suc- 
 cessor of  Proteus,  kee[)s  Helen  in  custody  with  the 
 view  of  espousing  her.  She  employs  a  stratagem  in 
 order  to  escape  from  his  power.  The  denouement  of 
 this  piece  resembles  that  of  the  Iphigenia  in  Tauris. — 
 15.  'I(jv,  Ion.  Ion,  son  of  Apollo  and  Creiisa,  daugh- 
 ter of  Erechtheus,  king  of  Athens,  has  been  brought 
 up  among  the  priests  at  Delphi.  The  design  of  .\pollo 
 is  to  make  him  pass  for  the  son  of  Xuthus,  who  has 
 married  Creiisa.  The  interest  of  the  piece  consists  in 
 the  double  danger  which  Creiisa  and  Ion  run  ;  the 
 former  of  being  slain  by  Ion,  and  the  latter  of  perishing 
 by  the  poison  prepared  for  him  by  a  mother  who  is  ig- 
 norant of  his  being  her  son.  the  play,  however,  is 
 somewhat  complicated,  and  has  need  of  a  long  expo- 
 sition, which  is  assigned  to  Mercury.  The  scene  is 
 laid  at  the  entrance  of  Apollo's  temple  in  Delphi,  a 
 place  expressly  chosen  in  order  to  give  to  the  specta- 
 cle an  air  of  pomp  and  solemnity.  A  religious  tone, 
 full  of  crravity  and  softness,  pervades  the  whole  piece 
 There  Ts  much  resemblance  between  this  tragedy  and 
 the  Athalie   of  Racine.  — 16.  'HpoKlij^  naivofievoc, 
 
 503 
 
EURIPIDES. 
 
 EURIPIDES. 
 
 Hercules  fur  ens.  After  having  killed,  in  his  phrensy, 
 his  wife  and  children,  Hercules  proceeds  to  submit 
 himself  to  certain  expiatory  ceremonies,  and  to  seek 
 repose  at  Athens.  Amphitryon  appears  in  the  pro- 
 logue :  the  scene  is  laid  at  Thebes. — 17.  'HAf/crpa, 
 Eleclra.  The  sul)ject  of  this  piece  has  been  treated 
 also  by  .(Eschylus  and  Sophocles,  but  by  each  in  his 
 peculiar  way.  Euripides  transfers  the  scene  from  the 
 palace  of  ^Egisthus  to  the  country  near  Argos :  the 
 ex[)osition  of  the  play  is  made  by  a  cultivator,  to 
 whom  Electra  has  been  compelled  to  give  her  hand, 
 but  who  has  taken  no  advantage  of  this,  and  has  re- 
 spected in  her  the  daughter  of  a  royal  line.  On  com- 
 paring Euripides  with  Sophocles,  we  will  find  him  in- 
 ferior to  the  latter  in  the  manner  of  treating  the  subject : 
 he  has  succeeded,  however,  in  embellishing  it  with  in- 
 teresting episodes. — 18.  Tz/ffof,  Rhesus.  A  subject 
 derived  from  the  tenth  book  of  the  Iliad.  Some  able 
 critics  have  proved  that  this  piece  was  never  written  by 
 Euripides.  (Consult  Disserlalion  sur  la  tragedie  tie 
 Rhesus,  par  Haidion,  m  the  Mem.  de  V Acad,  des 
 Inscr.  et  Belles-Lctlres,  vol.  10,  p.  323. —  Valckenaer, 
 Dialnbe  Euripidea,  c.  9,  scqq. — Beck's  Euripides, 
 vol.  3,  p.  444,  seqq.,  &c.) —  19.  ^usduv,  Phaethon. 
 Of  this  play  we  have  about  eighty  verses  remaining. 
 Clymene,  the  mother  of  Phaethon,  is  the  wife  of  Me- 
 rops,  king  of  the  Ethiopians,  and  Phaethon  passes  for 
 the  son  ot  this  prince.  The  young  man,  having  con- 
 ceived some  doubts  respecting  his  origin,  addresses 
 himself  to  the  Sun.  The  catastrophe,  which  cost  him 
 his  life,  is  well  known.  In  the  tragedy  of  Euripides, 
 the  body  of  her  son  is  brought  to  Clymene,  at  the  very 
 moment  when  Merops  is  occupied  with  the  care  of 
 procuring  for  him  a  bride. — 20.  Aavd?/,  Danae.  Of 
 this  play  we  have  the  commencement  alone,  unless  the 
 si.\ty-five  verses,  which  commonly  pass  for  a  part  of 
 the  prologue,  are  rather  to  be  considered  as  the  produc- 
 tion of  some  imitator,  who  has  proceeded  no  farther  in 
 his  attempt  to  ape  the  style  of  Euripides.  This  last 
 is  the  hypothesis  of  Wolf.  {Litl.  Anal  ,  vol.  2,  p.  394.) 
 — The  ancient  writers  cite  also  a  poem  of  Euripides, 
 to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  under  the  title  of 
 'E-tKT/dewv,  "  Funeral  hymn,"  on  the  death  of  Nicias 
 and  Demosthenes,  as  well  as  of  the  other  Athenians 
 who  perished  in  the  disastrous  e.xpedition  against  Syra- 
 cuse. We  possess  also  two  Epigrams  of  Euripides, 
 each  consisting  of  four  verses,  one  of  which  has  been 
 preserved  for  us  in  the  Anthology,  and  the  other  in 
 Athenoeiis.  There  have  also  come  down  to  us  five 
 letters,  ascribed  to  Euripides,  and  written  with  suffi- 
 cient purity  and  simplicity  of  style  to  warrant  the  belief 
 that  they  are  genuine  productions.  (Compare  the  re- 
 marks of  Beck  in  his  edition  of  the  poet — vol.  7,  cd. 
 Glasg.,  p.  720.)— Of  the  numerous  fragments  of  Eurip- 
 ides that  have  reached  us,  it  seems  unnecessary  here 
 to  speak.  The  only  production  worth  mentioning,  af- 
 ter those  already  noticed,  is  the  satyric  drama  entitled 
 Cyclops  {KvKluip).  The  Greek  satyric  drama  must 
 not  be  confounded  with  the  satire  of  the  Romans, 
 from  which  it  was  totally  distinct.  (Benllcy  on  Fhal- 
 aris,  p.  246,  cd.  Lond..  1816.)  It  was  a  novel  and 
 mixed  kind  of  play,  first  e.xhibited  by  Pratinas,  proba- 
 bly at  a  period  not  long  subsequent  to  Olymp  70  2 
 B.C.  499.  (Theatre  of  the  Greeks.  2d  cd.,  p.  113.) 
 The  poet,  borrowing  from  tragedy  its  external  form 
 and  mythological  materials,  added  a  chorus  of  satyrs, 
 with  their  lively  songs,  gestures,  and  movements.  This 
 species  of  composition  quickly  obtained  great  celebri- 
 ty. The  tragic  poets,  in  compliance  with  the  humour 
 of  their  auditors,  deemed  it  advisable  to  combine  this 
 ludicrous  exhibition  with  their  graver  pieces.  One  sa- 
 tyric drama  was  added  to  each  tragic  trilogy,  as  long 
 as  the  custom  of  contending  with  a  series  of  plays, 
 and  not  with  single  pieces,  continued.  J^^schylus, 
 Sophocles,  and  Euripides  were  all  distinguished  satyr- 
 ic composers  ;  and  in  the  Cyclops  of  the  latter  we  pos- 
 504 
 
 sess  the  only  extant  specimen  of  this  singular  exhibi- 
 tion. Notwithstanding,  however,  its  burlesque  ingre- 
 dients, the  tragic  character  was  so  far  preserved  in  the 
 satyric  play,  that  the  subject  appears  to  have  been 
 always  historical,  and  the  action  partly  serious,  though 
 with  a  fortunate  catastrophe.  No  less  than  tragedy 
 and  comedy,  the  satyric  drama  had  its  peculiar  and  ap- 
 propriate stage  decorations,  representing  woods,  caves, 
 mountains,  and  other  diversities  of  the  sylvan  landscape. 
 Satyrs  old  and  young,  with  Silenus  in  his  various  ages, 
 were  distinguished  troin  one  another  by  the  variety  of 
 their  grotesque  masks,  crowned  with  long,  shaggy  goat's 
 hair ;  while  the  Satyrs  were  negligently  clad  in  skins 
 of  beasts,  and  the  Sileni  decorated  with  garlands  of 
 flowers  skilfully  woven.  The  satyr-parts,  too,  appear 
 to  have  been  sometimes  acted  by  pantomimic  perform- 
 ers, moving  on  a  kind  of  stilts,  to  give  more  completely 
 the  appearance  of  goat's  legs.  The  choral  dance,  it  is 
 hardly  necessary  to  remark,  was  thoroughly  rustic,  pe- 
 culiarly lively,  and  quite  opposite  in  character  to  the 
 solemn  and  impressive  movements  which  accompanied 
 the  serious  tragedy.  (Compare  Casaubon,  de  Sat. 
 Pocs.,  1,  5.)  The  fable  of  the  Cyclops  of  Euripides 
 is  drawn  from  the  Odyssey.  The  subject  is  Ulysses 
 depriving  Polyphemus  of  his  eye,  after  having  intox- 
 icated him  with  wine.  In  order  to  connect  with  the 
 story  a  chorus  of  satyrs,  the  poet  has  recourse  to  the 
 following  expedient.  He  supposes  that  Silenus,  and 
 his  sons,  the  Satyrs,  in  seeking  over  every  sea  for  Bac- 
 chus, whom  pirates  have  carried  away,  have  been  ship- 
 wrecked on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  where  they  have  fallen 
 into  the  hands  of  Polyphemus.  The  Cyclops  has 
 made  slaves  of  them,  and  has  compelled  them  to  tend 
 his  sheep.  Ulysses,  having  been  east  on  the  same 
 coast,  and  having  been,  in  like  manner,  made  captive 
 by  Polyphemus,  finds  in  these  satyrs  a  willing  band  of 
 accomplices.  They  league  with  him  against  their  mas- 
 ter, but  their  excessive  cowardice  renders  them  very 
 useless  auxiliaries.  They  profit,  however,  by  his  vic- 
 tory, and  embark  along  with  him. — Among  the  numer- 
 ous editions  of  Euripides  v;hich  have  issued  from  the 
 press,  the  following  are  particularly  worthy  of  notice  : 
 that  of  Beck,  commenced  by  Morus,  Lips.,  1778-88, 
 3  vols.  4to  :  that  of  Musgrave,  Oxon.,  1778,  4  vols. 
 4to:  that  of  Matthias,  Ltps.,  1813-37,  lOvols.  8vo.  ; 
 and  the  variorum  Glasgow  edition,  1820,  9  vols.  8vo. 
 — Of  the  separate  plays,  the  best  editions  are  those  of 
 Porson,  Brunck,  Valckenaer,  Monk,  &c.  The  Diatribe 
 of  Valckenaer  {Diatribe  in  Eurrpulis  perdilorum  dra- 
 matumreliquias,  Luifd.  Bat.,  1767,  4to)  is  a  choice 
 piece  of  criticism,  and  contains  some  happy  corrections 
 of  the  text  of  the  fragments.  It  is  an  excellent  work 
 for  those  who  wish  to  be  acquainted  with  the  philo- 
 sophical opinions  of  Euripides,  and  with  the  peculiar 
 character  of  his  style,  as  distinguished  from  that  o( 
 Sophocles. — II.  A  nephew  of  the  preceding  {Suid., 
 s.  V. — Bockh,  de  Trag.  G-rtxc,  xiv.  and  xviii  ),  com- 
 monly styled  Euripides  Junior.  He  was  a  dramatic 
 poet,  like  his  uncle,  and  exhibited,  besides  his  own 
 compositions,  several  plays  of  the  latter,  then  dead  ; 
 one  of  these  gained  the  prize.  Bockh  and  others  sus- 
 pect that  he  reproduced  the  Iphigcnia  nt  Avlis.  and 
 perhaps  the Palamcdcs.  (ViVi.  preceding  article.)  'i'o 
 this  Euripides  is  ascribed,  by  Suidas,  an  cdiiioi;  of 
 Homer.     (Theatre  of  Ike  Greeks.  2(i  ed  ,  p.  158.) 
 
 EuRiPus,  a  narrow  stniit,  dividing  Eubcea  from  tie 
 main  land  of  Greece,  and  supposed  to  have  been  iormed 
 by  an  earthquake,  or  some  other  convulsion  of  nature, 
 which  tore  Euboea  from  the  Boeotian  coast.  (Eur^p.^ 
 ap.  Strab..  60  )  Several  of  the  ancients  have  refn>ned, 
 that  the  tide  in  this  strait  ebbed  and  flowed  seven  limes 
 in  the  day,  and  as  many  times  during  the  night,  and 
 that  the  current  was  so  strong  as  to  arrest  the  pvoaress 
 of  ships  in  full  sail.  (Pomp.  Mela,  S,  l.-^Stfitha, 
 5.5._/(Z.,  403.— P/«7i.  2,  J  00.)  According  to  the  pop- 
 ular  account,  Aristotle  drowned  himself  here  oul  ol 
 
EURIPUS. 
 
 EUR 
 
 chagrin,  from  not  being  able  to  account  for  so  unusual 
 a  motion  of  the  water.  The  story,  however,  is  devoid 
 of  foundation.  {Vid.  Aristoteles.) — From  this  rapid 
 movement  of  the  current,  the  Euripus  derived  its  an- 
 cient name  (kj),  bene,  and  pinTu,  jacio).  Livy's  ac- 
 count of  this  strait  appears  the  most  rational.  "  A 
 more  dangerous  station  for  a  fleet,"  observes  this  wri- 
 ter, "  can  hardly  be  found  ;  besides  that  the  winds  rush 
 down  suddenly  and  with  great  fury  from  the  high 
 mountains  on  each  side,  the  strait  itself  of  the  Euripus 
 does  not  ebb  and  tlow  seven  times  a  day,  at  stated 
 hours,  as  report  says  ;  but  the  current  changing  irreg- 
 ularly, like  the  wind,  from  one  point  to  another,  is 
 hurried  along  like  a  torrent  tumbling  from  a  steep 
 mountain ;  so  that,  night  or  day,  ships  can  never  lie 
 quiet."  {Liv.,  28,  6.)  The  straits  are  now  called,  by 
 a  corruption  of  the  ancient  name,  the  straits  of  Negro- 
 ponl.  Hobhouse  visited  the  Euripus,  and  the  account 
 given  by  this  intelligent  traveller  of  its  appearance  in 
 our  own  days  is  deserving  of  being  cited.  "  What  I 
 witnessed  of  the  Euripus  was,  that  the  stream  flows 
 with  violence,  like  a  mill-race,  under  the  bridges,  and 
 that  a  strong  eddy  is  observable  on  that  side  from  which 
 it  is  about  to  run,  about  a  hundred  yards  above  the 
 bridges  ;  the  current,  however,  not  being  at  all  appa- 
 rent at  a  greater  distance,  either  to  the  south  or  north. 
 Yet  the  ebbing  and  flowing  are  said  to  be  visible  at 
 ten  or  a  dozen  leagues  distance,  at  each  side  of  the 
 strait,  by  marks  shown  of  the  rising  and  falling  of  the 
 water  in  several  small  bays  on  both  coasts.  The  depth 
 of  the  stream  is  very  inconsiderable,  not  much  more 
 than  four  feet.  The  account  which  Wheler  copied 
 from  the  Jesuit  Babin,  respecting  the  changes  of  the 
 Euripus,  and  which  he  collected  on  the  spot,  though 
 not  from  his  personal  experience,  he  not  being  long 
 enough  in  the  place,  was,  that  it  was  subject  to  the 
 same  laws  as  the  tides  of  the  ocean  for  eighteen  days 
 of  every  moon,  and  was  irregular,  having  twelve,  thir- 
 teen, or  fourteen  flowings  and  ebbings  for  the  other 
 eleven  days ;  that  is,  that  it  was  regular  for  the  three 
 last  days  of  the  old  moon  and  the  eight  first  of  the 
 new,  then  irregular  for  five  davs,  regular  again  for  the 
 next  seven,  and  irregular  for  the  other  six.  The  water 
 seldom  rose  to  two  feet,  and  usually  not  above  one  ; 
 and,  contrary  to  the  ocean,  it  flowed  towards  the  sea, 
 and  ebbed  towards  the  main  land  of  Thessaly,  north- 
 ward. On  the  irregular  days  it  rose  for  half  an  hour, 
 and  fell  for  three  quarters  ;  but,  when  regular,  was  six 
 hours  in  each  direction,  losing  an  hour  a  day.  It  did 
 not  appear  to  be  influenced  by  the  wind.  A  Greek  of 
 Athens,  who  had  resided  three  years  at  Egripo,  told 
 me  that  he  considered  the  changes  to  depend  chiefly 
 on  the  wind,  which,  owing  to  the  high  lands  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  the  strait,  is  particularly  variable  in  this  place. 
 The  two  great  gulfs,  for  so  they  may  be  called,  at  the 
 north  and  south  of  the  strait,  which  present  a  large 
 surface  to  every  storm  that  blows,  and  receive  the 
 whole  force  of  the  Archipelago,  communicate  with 
 each  other  at  this  narrow  shallow  channel  ;  so  that  the 
 Euripus  may  be  a  sort  of  barometer,  indicative  of  every 
 change,  and  of  whatever  rising  and  falling  of  the  tide, 
 not  visible  in  the  open  expanse  of  waters  there  may  be 
 in  these  seas.  I  did  not,  however,  see  any  marks  of 
 the  water  being  ever  higher  at  one  time  than  at  ?nother. 
 The  Greek  had  observed  also,  that,  when  the  wind  was 
 north  or  south,  that  is,  either  up  or  down  the  strait,  the 
 alteration  took  place  only  four  times  in  the  twenty-four 
 hours  ;  but  that,  when  it  was  from  the  east,  and  blew 
 str  )ngly  over  the  mountains  behind  Egripo,  the  refluxes 
 took  place  more  frequently,  ten  or  twelve  times  ;  and 
 that,  in  particular,  immediately  before  the  full  of  the 
 moon,  the  turbulence  and  eddies,  as  well  as  the  rapid- 
 ity of  the  stream,  were  very  much  increased.  There 
 was  never,  at  any  season,  any  certain  rule  with  respect 
 either  to  the  period  or  the  number  of  changes.  Those 
 of  the  ancients  who  inquired  into  this  phaenomenon 
 S  s  8 
 
 were  aware,  that  the  story  of  the  Euripus  changing  its 
 course  always  seven  times  during  the  day  was  un- 
 founded ;  and  the  account  given  ot  it  by  Livy  (28,  6) 
 corresponds,  in  some  measure,  with  that  of  my  Athe- 
 nian informant.  The  bridge  which  anciently  connect- 
 ed the  main  land  and  the  island  was  considerably  long- 
 er than  that  which  at  present  serves  the  same  purpose. 
 We  are  informed,  that  the  strait  was  made  more  nar- 
 row by  a  dike,  which  the  inhabitants  of  Chalcis  con- 
 structed to  lessen  the  passage  ;  and  it  is  by  no  means 
 improbable,  that  the  whole  of  the  flat  on  which  the 
 fortified  part  of  Egripo  now  stands,  and  which  is  sur- 
 rounded on  the  land  side  by  a  wide  mansh,  was  for- 
 merly covered  by  the  waters  of  the  Euripus."  {Hob- 
 house's  Journeij,\o\.  1,  Lett.  29,  p.  372, se(jq.,  Am.  cd.) 
 EuBOPA,  I.  one  of  the  three  main  divisions  of  the 
 ancient  world.  With  the  northern  parts  of  this  the 
 ancients  were  very  slightly  acquainted,  viz.,  what  are 
 now  Prussia,  Siccden,  Denmark,  Noricay,  and  Russia. 
 They  applied  to  this  quarter  the  general  name  of  Scan- 
 dinavia, and  thought  it  consisted  of  a  number  of  islands. 
 From  the  Portuguese  cape,  denominated  by  manners 
 the  Rock  of  Lisbon,  to  the  Uralian  Mountains,  the  length 
 of  modern  Europe  may  be  reckoned  at  about  3300 
 British  miles,  and  from  Cape  Nord,  in  Danish  Lapland, 
 to  Cape  Matapan,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Morea, 
 it  may  be  about  2350.  As  regards  the  limits  of  Eu- 
 rope, it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  chain  of  the  Ural 
 Mountains,  the  river  of  the  same  name,  the  Caspian 
 Sea,  and  the  lowest  level  of  the  isthmus  between  it 
 and  the  Sea  of  Azof  (a  level  indicated  by  the  course  of 
 the  Manytch  and  the  Kuma),  are  boundaries  between 
 Europe  and  Asia  in  the  part  in  which  they  are  con- 
 tiguous. That  frontier  ends  at  the  Tanais  or  Don, 
 which  for  a  short  space  terminates  the  two  continents. 
 The  remaining  limits  are  more  easily  determined  ;  they 
 are  the  Sea  of  .Azof,  the  Black  Sea,  the  Bosporus,  the 
 Propontis,  and  the  Hellespont.  The  line  is  taken  across 
 the  Archipelago  ;  '^I'enedos,  Mytilene,  Chios,  Samos, 
 Nicaria,  Cos,  and  Rhodes,  belong  to  Asia  ;  Naxos, 
 Stampalia,  and  Scarpanto,  to  Europe.  The  Mediter- 
 ranean divides  Africa  and  Europe  ;  but  it  is  not  ascer- 
 tained whether  Malta,  Gozo,  Comino,  Lampedosa,  and 
 Linosa  are  African  or  European  islands.  The  Cana- 
 ries, Madeira,  and  the  Azores  are,  in  a  physical  poin 
 of  view,  appendages  of  Africa,  being  parts  of  a  sub- 
 marine continuation  from  the  chain  of  Atlas. — With 
 respect  to  the  name  of  Europe,  it  must  be  confessed 
 that  its  etymology  is  altogether  uncertain.  Bochart  de- 
 rives the  word  from  the  Phoenician  Ur-appa,  which  he 
 makes  equivalent  to  the  Greek  ^.evKoirpoaoTrog,  "  of  a 
 white  or  fair  aspect ;"  and  considers  it  as  applying  not 
 only  to  the  sister  of  Cadmus,  but  also  to  the  Continent  of 
 Europe,  from  the  fairer  visages  and  complexions  of  its 
 inhabitants  :  "  quta  Europai  Africanos  candore  faciei 
 multum  superant."  {Geogr.  Sacr.,  4,  33,  col.  298.) 
 M.  Court  de  Gebelin,  on  the  other  hand,  deduces  the 
 name  from  the  Phognician  Wrab,  i.  e.,"  West,"  as  indi- 
 cating the  country  lying  in  that  direction  with  refer- 
 ence to  Asia.  His  explanation,  however,  of  the  mode 
 in  which  the  same  appellation  came  to  be  applied 
 to  the  lunar  divinity,  is  far  less  plausible:  "  Ce  nom 
 ne  convint  pas  moins  a  la  Lune  ;  car  on  ne  la  voit  que  le 
 soir  ;  et  lorsqu'on  commence  a  I'apercevoir  h  la  Neo- 
 menie,  c'est  toujours  au  couchant :  d'ailleurs  n'est 
 elle  pas  la  Reine  de  la  Nuit  1  elle  fut  done  appellee 
 avec  raison  Europe."  (Monde  Primitif,  vol.  1,  p 
 250.)— As  regards  the  progress  of  geographical  dis- 
 covery, it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  earliest  notices 
 of  Europe  are  in  the  writings  of  the  Greeks,  who  in- 
 habited the  southeastern  corner  of  the  continent.  From 
 this  country  the  geographical  knowledge  of  Europe  ex- 
 tended by  degrees  to  the  west  and  north.  Homer  was 
 acquainted  with  the  countries  round  the  .^gean  Sea 
 or  Archipelago.  He  had  also  a  pretty  accurate  gen- 
 eral notion  respecting  those  which  lie  on  the  south 
 
EUROPA. 
 
 EUROPA. 
 
 coast  of  the  Black  Sea  ;  but  what  he  says  about  the 
 countries  west  of  Greece,  on  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
 terranean, is  a  mixture  of  fable  and  truth,  in  which 
 the  fabulous  part  prevails.  It  would  seem  that,  in  his 
 age,  these  seas  were  not  yet  visited  by  his  country- 
 men, and  that  he  obtained  his  knowledge  from  the 
 Phoctucians,  who  had  probably  for  sonic  tnne  sailed  to 
 these  regions,  but  who,  according  to  the  common  poli- 
 cy of  trading  nations,  spread  abroad  false  accounts  of 
 these  unknown  countries,  in  order  to  deter  other  na- 
 tions from  following  their  track,  and  participating  in 
 the  advantages  of  this  distant  commerce.  It  is  proba- 
 ble, also,  that  the  Phoenicians  long  excluded  the  Greeks 
 from  the  navigation  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  for  when 
 the  latter  began  to  form  settlements  beyond  their  na- 
 tive country,  they  first  occupied  the  shores  of  the  ■^Ege- 
 rn,  and  afterward  those  of  the  Black  Sea.  As  the 
 European  shores  of  this  last-mentioned  sea  are  not 
 well  adapted  for  agriculture,  e.Ycept  a  comparatively 
 small  tract  of  the  peninsula  of  Crimea,  their  early  set- 
 tlements were  mostly  on  the  Asiatic  coasts,  and,  con- 
 sequently, little  addition  was  made  by  these  colonies 
 to  the  geographical  knowledge  of  Europe.  But  the 
 navigation  of  the  Phoenicians  was  checked  in  the  mid- 
 dle of  the  si.xth  century  before  Christ,  apparently  by 
 their  being  subjugated  by  the  Persians.  About  this 
 time,  also,  the  Greeks  began  to  form  settlements  in 
 the  southern  parts  of  Italy  and  on  the  island  of  Sicily, 
 and  to  navigate  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  its  full  ex- 
 tent. Accordingly,  we  find  that,  in  the  time  of  Herodo- 
 tus (450  B.C.),  not  only  the  countries  on  each  side  of 
 the  Mediterranean,  and  the  northern  shores  of  the  Black 
 Sea,  were  pretty  well  known  to  the  Greeks,  but  that, 
 following  the  track  of  the  Phoenicians,  they  ventured  to 
 pass  the  Columns  of  Hercules,  and  to  sail  as  far  as  the 
 Cassiterides,  or  Tin  Islands,  by  which  name  the  Scil- 
 ly  Isles  and  a  part  of  Cornwall  must  be  understood. 
 It  is  even  reported,  that  some  of  their  navigators  sailed 
 through  the  English  Channel  and  entered  the  North 
 Sea,  and  perhaps  even  the  Baltic.  It  must  be  ob- 
 served, however,  that  Herodotus  professes  himself  to- 
 tally unacquainted  with  the  islands  called  Cassiterides 
 (3,  115),  and  Strabo  (p.  104,  &c.)  expresses  a  very 
 unfavourable  opinion  of  the  alleged  northern  voyages 
 of  Pytheas.  Thus  a  considerable  part  of  the  coasts  of 
 Europe  was  discovered,  while  the  interior  remained 
 almost  unknown.  When  the  Romans  began  their  con- 
 quests, this  deficiency  was  partly  filled  up.  The  con- 
 quest of  Italy  was  followed  by  that  of  Spain  and  the 
 southern  parts  of  Gaul,  and.  not  long  afterward,  Sicily, 
 Greece,  and  Macedonia  were  added.  Caesar  conquer- 
 ed Gaul  and  the  countries  west  of  the  Rhine,  together 
 with  the  districts  lying  between  the  different  arms  by 
 which  that  river  enters  the  sea.  His  two  expeditions 
 into  Britain  made  known  also,  in  some  measure,  the 
 nature  of  that  island  and  the  character  of  its  inhabi- 
 tants. Thus,  in  the  course  of  little  more  than  two 
 hundred  years,  the  interior  of  all  those  countries  was 
 discovered,  the  shores  of  which  had  been  previously 
 known.  In  the  mean  time,  nothing  was  added  to  the 
 knowledge  of  the  coasts,  the  Greeks  having  lost  their 
 spirit  of  discovery  by  sea  along  with  their  liberty,  and 
 the  Romans  not  being  inclined  to  naval  enterprise. 
 After  the  establishment  of  imperial  [)ower  at  Rome, 
 the  conquests  of  the  Romans  went  on  at  a  much  slower 
 rate,  and  the  boundaries  of  the  emjiire  soon  became 
 stationary.  This  circumstance  must  be  chiefly  at- 
 tributed to  the  nature  of  the  countries  which  were  con- 
 ti'TUOUS  to  those  boundaries.  The  regions  north  of  the 
 Danube  are  mostly  plains,  and  at  that  time  were  only 
 inhabited  by  wandering  nations,  who  could  not  be  sub- 
 jected to  a  regular  government.  Such,  at  least,  are  the 
 countries  extending  between  the  Carpathian  mount- 
 ains and  the  Black  Sea,  and  therefore  the  conquest 
 of  Dacia  by  Trajan  was  of  short  continuance  and 
 speedily  abandoned.  The  countries  between  the  Alps 
 506 
 
 and  the  Danube  were  soon  added  to  the  empire  ;  but, 
 as  the  nations  who  inhabited  the  tracts  north  of  that 
 river  had  not  given  up  a  wandering  life,  they  were 
 enabled  to  elude  the  Roman  yoke.  The  most  im- 
 portant addition  to  the  empire  and  to  geographical 
 knowledge  was  the  conquest  of  England  duriii"  the 
 first  century  after  Christ,  to  which,  m  the  following 
 century,  the  south  of  Scotland  was  added.  Noll)iiig 
 seems  to  have  been  added  afterward.  The  Geogra- 
 phy of  Ptolemy  contains  a  considerable  number  of 
 names  of  nations,  places,  and  rivers  in  those  coun- 
 tries which  were  not  subjected  to  the  Romans.  Proba- 
 bly they  were  obtained  from  natives  and  from  Roman 
 traders,  who  had  ventured  to  penetrate  beyond  the 
 boundaries  of  the  empire.  But  these  brief  notices 
 are  very  vague,  and  in  most  cases  it  is  very  difficult  to 
 determine  what  places  and  persons  are  indicated. 
 {Enajcl.  Us.  Knnui.,  vol.  10,  p.  79.) — II.  A  daughter 
 of  Agenor  (called  by  some  Phoenix)  king  of  Phoenicia. 
 Jupiter,  becoming  enamoured  of  her,  according  to  the 
 old  legend,  changed  himself  into  a  beautiful  white 
 bull,  and  approached  her,  "  breathing  saffron  from  his 
 mouth,"  as  she  was  gathering  flowers  with  her  com- 
 panions in  a  mead  near  the  seashore.  Europa,  de- 
 lighted with  the  tameness  and  beauty  of  the  animal, 
 caressed  him,  crowned  him  with  flowers,  and  at  length 
 ventured  to  mount  on  his  back.  The  disguised  god 
 immediately  made  oH'  with  his  lovely  burden,  plunged 
 into  the  sea,  and  swam  with  Europa  to  the  Island  of 
 Crete,  landing  not  far  from  Gortyna.  Here  he  re- 
 sumed his  own  form,  and  beneath  a  plane-tree  caress- 
 ed the  trembling  maid.  The  offspring  of  their  union 
 were  Minos,  Rhadamanthus,  and  Sarpedon.  Asie- 
 rius,  king  of  Crete,  espoused  Europa  subsequently,  and 
 reared  her  sons.  {Apollod.,  3,  1. — Hcs.,  el  BacchijL, 
 ap.  Schol.  ad  II.,  12,  292.— MoscA.,  Id  ,  2.— Ovid, 
 Met.,  2,  833,  scqq.—Id.,  Fast.,  5,  605 — Keightlei/s 
 Mythology,  p.  455.)  The  fable  of  Europa  is  made  by 
 the  mythological  expounders  of  the  old  school  to  rest 
 on  an  historical  basis.  In  this  they  are  decidedly 
 wrong.  Instead  of  perceiving  that  this  and  other  le- 
 gends of  mythology  bear  only  an  analogy  to  the  truth, 
 that  they  are  false  when  understood  literally,  but  fre- 
 quently true  when  interpreted  metaphorically,  they 
 have  taken  them  as  narratives  of  real  facts,  embellish- 
 ed by  credulity  or  a  poetical  imagination,  and,  hav- 
 ing struck  out  the  wonders,  they  look  the  caput  mor- 
 tuiim  which  remained  for  real  history.  Thus,  in  the 
 present  instance,  the  foundation  of  the  story  of  Europa 
 is  said  to  have  been,  that  a  commander  of  a  Cretan 
 vessel,  either  himself  named  Taurus,  or  whose  vessel 
 bore  that  title,  carried  off  the  Phoenician  princess  Eu- 
 ropa, daughter  of  Agenor,  from  the  city  of  Tyre  : 
 others  again  make  her  to  have  been  borne  away  by 
 some  Cretan  merchants,  whose  ship  had  the  emblem 
 of  a  white  bull,  and  who  intended  her  as  a  prize  for 
 their  king  Asterius,  who  had  assumed  the  name  of  Ju- 
 piter! (Consult  Banier's  Mythology,  vol.  3,  p.  400, 
 seqq.)  The  truth  is,  however,  that  Europa  was  no- 
 thing more  than  the  lunar  divinity  or  the  moon.  In 
 order  to  make  this  more  apparent,  let  us  review  the 
 whole  ground  of  this  singular  fable.  We  find  the  le- 
 gend of  Jupiter  and  Europa  known  already  to  Homer 
 (7/.,  14,  321)  and  Hesiod.  {Schol.  ad  II.,  12,  397.) 
 The  old  genealogical  poet  Asms  {Pansan.,  7,  4),  and 
 the  Logographers  Pherecvdes  (cd.  Sturz,  p.  Ill)  and 
 Hellanicus  (p.  65),  found  already,  in  their  time,  a  rich 
 fund  of  materials  in  this  fabulous  legend.  What  Apoi- 
 lodorus,  in  particular,  gives  (3,  1),  appears  to  have 
 been  taken  from  these  writers.  Antimachus  and  An- 
 ticlides  are  named  as  having  written  on  this  same  sub- 
 ject {Schol.  ad  Apoll.  Rhod.,  2,  178),  but  more  espe 
 cially  Eumclus  {Schol.  ad.  II.,  6,  130)  and  Stesicho 
 rus.  {Schol.  ad  Eurip.,  Pha7i.,  v.  674. — Compare 
 Fragm.  Stesich.,  ed.  Suchfort,  p.  13.)  Amid  such  a 
 number  of  writers,  it  is  no  wonder  if  the  topic  proved 
 
EUROPA. 
 
 EUROPA. 
 
 sufficiently  attractive  to  occupy  tlie  attention  of  many  ! 
 of  the   later  Greek  and  Roman  authors.     Hence  we 
 find  it  reappearing,  after  some  lapse  of  time,  in  Mos- 
 chus  {Idyll.,  2),   Lucian   {Dial.  Mar.— 0pp.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  125,  cd.  Hip.),  and   Achilles  Tatius  {de  Am.  Clit. 
 et  Leuc,  1,  1. — Compare  also  Anacrcon,   Od.,  35. — 
 HaraL,  Od.,  3,  Tl.—Omd,  Mel.,  2,  833.— W.,  Fast., 
 5,  605.  —  Gcrimnici   Aral.  Phizn.,   533.)— The  an- 
 cient writers  themselves  attempt  an  explanation  of  the 
 fable,  with  which  the  mythological  expounders  of  later 
 days  are   in  full  accordance,  as  we  have   already  ob- 
 served.    Thus  Palffiphatus  (p.  72,  ed.  Fisch.)  makes 
 the  individual  who  carried  off  Europa  to   have  been 
 called  Taurus  (compare  Tzelzcs,  ad  Lycophr.,  v.  1299, 
 and  Meursius,  p.  250),  and  Julius  Pollux  says  {Ono- 
 tnast.,  I,  83)  the  ship  in  which  she  was  carried  away 
 had  a  bull  for  its  napuarjixov.     If  there  be  any  ancient 
 fable  which  requires,  in  its  explanation,  a  careful  sep- 
 arating of  the  earlier  and  original  portions  from  what 
 is  of  later  addition,  it  is  this  of  Europa.     If  we  follow 
 the  narrative  of  Apollodorus,  we  will  find  the  legend 
 dividing  itself  into  two  distinct  parts  ;  the  carrying  off 
 of  Europa,  and  the  search  made  for  her  by  Cadmus, 
 Cilix,  &c.     These  two  portions,  however,  are  not  ne- 
 cessarily connected  with  each  other,  as  evidently  ap- 
 pears from  the   former  of  the  two  having  alone  been 
 handled  by  many  writers. — What,  now,  were  the  ideas 
 entertained  by  the  earlier  mythologists  on  the  subject 
 of  this  fable  !     Homer,  in  the  well-known  passage  (//., 
 14,  315)  where  he  speaks  of  the   reunion  of  Jupiter 
 and  Juno  on  Mount  Ida,  merely  mentions  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Phcenix  as  having  been  one  of  the  objects  of 
 Jupiter's  love.     This,  most  probably,  was  the  earliest 
 form  of  the  legend  ;   at  least  the  bearing  away  of  Eu- 
 ropa by  that  deity  appears  to  have  been  a  later  addition. 
 According  to  Acusilaus  {ap.  Apollod.,  2,  5,  7),  it  was  a 
 real  bull  that  brought  Europa  to  Crete  ;  and,  according 
 to  another  authority,  the  animal  was  selected  by  Nep- 
 tune for  this  purpose,  and  was  sent  to  Sidon  by  Jupiter, 
 for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  maiden  {Nieidius, 
 ap.  SchoL  ad   Germ.  Arat.  Pfioen.,  ed.   Buhle,  2,  p. 
 55),  for  which  service  he  was  afterward  placed  among 
 the  stars.     {Eurrp.,  Phryx.  ap.  EraXosth.,  cat.   14. — 
 Tfiengnis,  Schol.  ad  Arat.,  p.  48,  ed.  Buhle. — Hygin., 
 Poet.  Astr.,  21.)     It  is  easy  to   perceive,    that   this 
 niythus  loses  all  its  meaning  the  moment  this  bull  be- 
 comes the  transformed    Jupiter.     (Compare  Gruber's 
 Lexicon,  2,  p.  9.)     We  find,  it  is  true,  that   even  as 
 early  a  writer  as  Hesiod  is  acquainted  with  the  meta- 
 morphosis of  Jupiter  into  a  bull  {Schol.  ad  Ham.,  II., 
 12,  397,  ed.  Aid.,  1521,  p.  215),  but  this  only  shows 
 at  how  early  a  period  the  addition  to  which  we  allude 
 was  made  to  the  original  fable.     The  germe  of  that  fa- 
 ble, however,  still  remained,  and  was.  in  effect,  simply 
 this,  Jove  indulged  his  passion  with  Europa  in  Crete. 
 The  elucidation  of  the  mythus  mainly  depends  upon 
 the  clearing  up  of  another  question  :   what  means  the 
 term  Europa  primitivehj,  a  land  or  a  person  1     The 
 former  of  these  interpretations  can  in  no  way  whatever 
 be  the  true  one.     Homer   and  Hesiod,  to  whom  Eu- 
 ropa is  known  as  the  daughter  of  Phoenix,  have  no  ac- 
 quaintance with  Asia  and  Europe  as  parts  of  the  world. 
 The  Asian  meadow  or  field  ('Aaiof  7iEifi(Jv)  in  Homer 
 {Iliad,    2,    461),    is  merely  a   small  tract   of  land    in 
 the  vicinity  of  the  Cayster.     The  name  of  Asia  only 
 began  to  be  more  extensively  applied  as  the  interior  of 
 Lower  .\sia  began  to  be  better  known  to  the  Greeks. 
 (Compare  Hermann,  ad  Hymn,  in  ApolL,  250  )     Eu- 
 rope, as  a   land,  is  entirely  unknown   to  Homer  :   the 
 first    traces  of  the  name  are  found  in  the  Hvmn  to 
 Apollo  (v.  250,  scijq.,  and  290,  seqq.),  where  it  is  used 
 in  oppo.sition  to  the  Peloponnesus  and  the  islands,  and 
 seems  to  indicate   the  remaining  portion  of  what  was 
 subsequently  called  Hellas.      It  is  more  than  probable 
 that  the  appellation  itself  originated  in  Lower   Asia. 
 Compare  the  remarks  of  Butlmann,  "  Ueher  die  my- 
 
 thische  Verbindung  von  Griechenland  mil  Asien,"  in 
 the  Memoirs  of  the  Berlin  Academy  for  1818,  p.  219, 
 seqq.)     In  Euripides  (Iph.  in  Taur.,  v.  627),  the  epi- 
 thet evpunoc  occurs  in  the  sense  of  "  dark,"  and  with 
 this  the  explanation  of  Hesychius  coincides  :   EvpuTTjj, 
 X<^pa  Tfjg  dvaeuc,  ij  ctkoteivt/.    The  name  Europe,  then, 
 will  have  been  given  by  the  Asiatics  to  the  country 
 which  lay  west  of  them,  towards  the  evening  (Ereb) 
 sun,  or  the  quarter  of  darkness.     At  what  period  this 
 appellation  was  extended  to  the  whole  continent  can- 
 not now   be  ascertained   {Ukcrt's   Geogr.,   vol.  2,   p. 
 210);    as,   however,  Pherecydes  already  divided   the 
 earth  into  two  hemispheres  {Schol.  ad  Apoil.  Rhad.,  4, 
 1396),  placing   Europe   in    the  north,  and   Asia,   in- 
 cluding Africa,  in  the  south,  we  may  suppose  this  ar- 
 rangement to  have  been  generally  received  about  the 
 time  of  the  Logographers.     Now  it  is  manifest,  from 
 what  has  just  been  stated,  that  the  original  mythus  of 
 Europa  had   no  symbolical  reference  whatever  to  the 
 continent  of  that  name.     Before,  however,  proceeding 
 farther  in  the  examination  of  this  fable,  it  becomes  im- 
 portant to  consider  the  lineage  assigned  to  the  female 
 in  question.     Homer  (/^.,  14,  321)  names  her  as  the 
 daughter   of  Phoenix  ;    so   also   Hesiod,    Bacchylides 
 {Schol.  Didymi,  ed.  Aid.,  1521,  p.  215),  Asms  {Pan- 
 san.,  7,  4),   and  Moschus  {Idyll.,  2,  40).     With  the 
 I'Ogographers  a  discrepance  presents  itself.     Some  re- 
 gard her  as  a  daughter  of  Agenor,  others  still   as  the 
 offspring  of  Phoenix  {Schol.  ud  Apoll.  Rhod.,  3,  1186) : 
 that  the  former  of  these  two  accounts,  however,  is  the 
 more  commonly-received  one,  appears  in  the  extracts 
 from  the  Logographers  as  made  by  Apollodorus  (3,  1). 
 In  the  original  mythus,  therefore,  Europa  is  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Phrenix,  in  the  later  and  altered  legend  she  is 
 the  child  of  Agenor.     Phoenix  now,  according  to  the 
 custom  observed  in  similar  fables,  of  naming  a  land 
 after  its  first  monarch,  becomes  the  king  of  Phoenicia, 
 and   hence   the  leading  idea  involved  in   the  legend, 
 that  Europa  came  from  Phoenicia.     Let  us  now  turn 
 our  attention  more  immediately  to  the  being  and  per- 
 son of  Europa.     The  first  passage  that  arrests  our  no- 
 tice is  one   occurring  in  the  treatise   on   the  "  Syrian 
 Goddess,"  ascribed  to    Lucian   {Opp.,  ed.  Bip.,  vol. 
 9,  p.  87.)     "  There  is  in  Phoenicia,"  says  the  writer, 
 "  another  large  temple  also,  which  is  in  the  possession 
 of  the  Sidonians,  and  which,  as  they  say,  is  the  tem- 
 ple of  Astarte.    Astarte  I  suppose  to  be  the  same  with 
 the  moon.     As,  however,  one  of  the  priests  told  me, 
 it  was   the  temple  of  Europa,  the  sister  of  Cadmus. 
 This  daughter  of  King  Agenor  was  honoured  with  a 
 temple  after  her  disappearance  ;  and  they  have  a  sa- 
 cred tradition  {7Myov  iepov)  respecting  her,  that,  being 
 very  beautiful,  she  was  beloved  by  Jupiter,  who  chan- 
 ged himself  into  a  bull  and  carried  her  away  into  Crete. 
 I  heard  this  also  from  other  Phoenicians;  and,  moreover, 
 the  Sidonian  money  has  represented  on  it  Europa  sit- 
 ting upon  the  back  of  a  bull,  that  is,  of  Jupiter.     They 
 do  not  all  agree,  however,  in  making  the  temple  to  be 
 that  of  Europa."     In  the  case  of  so  early  a  worship  as 
 that  connected  with  the  Sidonian  temple,  it  is  no  won 
 der  if  the  accounts  of  later  days  exhibit  some  discrep- 
 ances.    According   to  the  more  common  statement, 
 the  temple  was  that  of  Astarte.  whom  the  writer  jusl 
 quoted  makes  identical  with  the  moon.     Creuzer  has 
 shown  with  great  ability  {Symbolik,  vol.  2,  p.  65),  that 
 the  greater  part  of  the  Syro- Phoenician  goddesses  con- 
 veyed the  idea  of  the  humid,  receiving,  fruit-yielrting 
 Earth,  and  the  impregnated  and  in  turn  impregnating 
 Moon.     This  last  idea  shows  itself  very  clear  y  in  the 
 attributes  of  the  Phcemcian  Astarte      Not  only  is  she 
 regarded  by  Lucian  and  others  {Sclden,  de  Uns  byr., 
 p.   244)   as  identical    with    Selene,   but   she   .s    even 
 Ltyled,  on  that  account,  the  Queen  of  Heaven  (J.rm.. 
 7,  17) ;  and  the  etymology  given  by  Herodian    though 
 of  no  value  in  itself,  yet  is  of  importance  to   the  pres- 
 ent discussion  as  showing  -he  union  of  idea  with  ro 
 
 9U7 
 
EUROPA, 
 
 EUR 
 
 spect  to  Selene  and  Astarte.  {^oiviKe^  Se  'Aarpodp- 
 XTjv  bvofidC,ovc!i,  geTJivtiv  elvai  ^iXovTSf.  Herodian, 
 6,  G,  10.)  This  goddess  had  the  principal  seat  of  her 
 worship  in  Sidon.  (2  Kings,  23,  13.)  As  lunar  god- 
 dess, Astarte  had,  among  her  other  symbols,  some  of 
 the  attributes  of  the  bull  ;  she  wore,  says  Sanchonia- 
 thon  {ap.  Euscb.,  Prap.  Evansr.,  l,  lO),  the  hide  of 
 a  bull  as  an  ornament  for  the  head  when  she  wandered 
 over  the  earth.  In  a!i  the  physico-religious  systems 
 of  Lower  Asia  there  existed  a  great  uniformity  in 
 the  leading  principles  (Creuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  2,  p. 
 II,  seqq.),  and  throughout  a  large  portion  of  this  coun- 
 try the  worship  of  the  moon  was  firmly  established. 
 Without  stopping  to  discover  any  traces  of  this  in  the 
 Phrygian  rites,  or  in  those  of  the  goddess  of  (>omana, 
 it  will  be  sufficient  to  refer  to  Artemis  Tauropoios,  who 
 would  seem,  in  many  respects,  to  have  been  the  same 
 with  the  Phoenician  Astarte.  (Compare  Crcuzcr,  Sym- 
 bolik,  vol.  4,  p.  199.— MUlni,  Galcrie  Mxjth.,  vol.  1, 
 pi.  34,  Nr.  121.)  It  is  curious  to  observe,  moreover, 
 that  Artemis  Tauropoios  was  worshipped  on  the  shores 
 of  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Phoenician 
 race.  (Euslath.  ad  Dionys.  Pcrieg.,  609.  —  Com- 
 pare Duputs,  Memoires  de  V instil,  rial.,  an.  XII., 
 Lilt,  el  b.  arts,  vol.  5,  p.  11.)  Nor  should  we  omit 
 to  notice,  that,  from  the  researches  of  Creuzer,  the 
 worship  of  Diana  Luna  would  appear  to  have  extended 
 not  only  along  the  Persian  Gulf,  but  also  in  various  parts 
 of  middle  Asia ;  and  that  the  symbolical  mode  of  rep- 
 resenting this  goddess  was  a  female  figure  riding  on  a 
 bull,  with  a  crescent-shaped  veil  over  her  head.  Such 
 is  the  way  in  which  she  appears  on  a  medal  of  the  Isl- 
 and Icaria  (Harduin,  de  Num.  Antiq.,  p.  217),  where 
 this  worship  also  prevailed.  {Strab.,  638.)  It  is  ex- 
 tremely probable,  that  some  early  statue  of  Diana  Luna, 
 represented  in  precisely  the  same  posture  as  the  figure 
 on  the  Icarian  medal,  gave  rise  to  the  mythus  of  the  car- 
 rying away  of  Europa  by  a  bull ;  and  thus  Europa  be- 
 longs, as  an  imaginary  personage,  to  the  cycle  of  the 
 lunar  worship.  To  place  this  in  a  still  clearer  light, 
 let  us  turn  our  attention  to  the  testimony  afforded  by 
 ancient  works  of  art.  Achilles  Tatius  (p.  10. — Com- 
 pare Plin.,  36,  10)  saw,  in  the  Sidonian  temple  of  As- 
 tarte, among  the  sacred  offerings,  a  painting  which 
 had  for  its  subject  the  carrying  off  of  Europa.  The 
 description  of  this  dififers  only  in  some  collateral  points 
 from  that  of  a  painting  preserved  to  us  in  the  tomb  of 
 the  Nasonii,  of  which  Belloir  makes  mention.  {Pic- 
 ture Anliqua  scpulchri  Nasoniorum  in  via  Flaminia. 
 —GrcBv.,  Thes.  Ant.  Rom.,  vol.  12,  p.  1059.)  The 
 scene  is  laid  on  the  shore  near  Sidon  :  the  bull  hastens 
 with  his  lovely  burden  over  the  waves,  and  the  play- 
 mates of  Europa  stand  lost  in  astonishment  and  grief. 
 The  bearing  away  of  Europa  is  the  subject  also  of 
 many  sculptured  stones  that  have  come  down  to  us. 
 (Consult  Montfaucon,  Ant.  ExpL,  vol.  1,  pi.  19,  Nr. 
 4. — Gori,  Museum.  FLorent.,  vol.  1,  tab.  56,  Nr.  9. — 
 Augustini  Gemma,  ed.  Gron.,  tab.  185. — Gcmmc  An- 
 ticlie,  p.  2,  tab.  27. —  Winckelmann,  Catal.  de  SloscL, 
 p-  57.  —  Thesaurus  Brandcnb.,  p.  195.) — Even  the 
 name  Europa  itself  has  reference  to  this  female's  iden- 
 tity with  the  moon.  It  is  derived,  most  probably,  from 
 tvpvutjj,  "  broad- visaged,"  and  alludes  to  the  appear- 
 ance of  the  moon  when  at  its  full.  Her  mother's  name, 
 moreover,  is  Tj]'k((^uaaa,  "  she  that  enlightens  from 
 afar."  In  Crete  she  subsequently  marries  'kc-ypio^, 
 "  the  Starry,"  and  gives  birth  to  Minos,  which  con- 
 nects her  name  with  that  of  Pasiphae  {JlaaK^urj), 
 "she  that  enlightens  all." — The  conclusion,  then,  to 
 which  we  would  come,  is  this,  that  the  legend  of  Eu- 
 ropa relates  to  the  introduction  of  the  lunar  worship, 
 by  Phoenician  colonists,  into  Crete.  (Hock's  Krcta, 
 vol.  I,  p.  83,  seqq.) — The  identity  of  Europa  and  the 
 Moon  is  also  recognised  by  Knight.  {Inquiry  into  the 
 Symb.  Lang.,  &c. — Class.  Journ.,  vol.  25,  p.  247.) 
 His  words  are  as  follows  :  "  It  is  in  the  character  of 
 5U8 
 
 the  destroying  attribute,  that  Diana  is  called  TAYPO- 
 nOAA,  and  BOflN  EAATEIA,  in  allusion  to  her  be- 
 ing borne  or  drawn  by  bulls  ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
 some  such  symbolical  composition  gave  rise  to  the 
 fable  of  Jupiter  and  Europa ;  for  it  appears  that,  in 
 Phoenicia,  Europa  and  Astarte  were  only  different  ti- 
 tles for  the  same  personage,  who  was  the  deity  of  the 
 Moors ;  comprehending  both  the  Diana  and  Celestial 
 Venus  of  the  Greeks." — III.  A  district  of  Macedonia, 
 in  which  was  situate  the  town  of  Europus.  Some  ge- 
 ographers make  it  to  have  been  a  part  of  Thrace;  but 
 without  any  good  reason.  It  was  also  called  Europia. 
 {Vid.  Europus.) 
 
 Europus,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  situate,  according  to 
 Pliny  (4,  10),  on  the  river  Axius,  and  in  the  district 
 of  Emathia.  Piolemy  does  not  ascribe  it  to  this  dis- 
 trict, however,  but  to  one  which  he  calls  Matia  (p.  84). 
 But,  according  to  Pliny,  there  was  another  Europus, 
 situated  on  the  river  Rhoedias  (perhaps  Ludias),  of 
 which  Strabo  also  speaks.     {Slrabo,  327.) 
 
 EuRoTAs,  I.  a  river  of  Laconia,  and  the  largest  in 
 the  Peloponnesus.  It  rises  in  Arcadia,  near  Asea,  a 
 little  to  the  southwest  of  Tegea,  and,  after  running  a 
 short  distance,  disappears  under  ground.  On  the  op- 
 posite side  of  the  mountains  which  separate  Arcadia 
 from  Laconia,  it  reappears  in  the  latter  country,  in 
 the  district  of  Belmina.  It  then  traverses  that  prov- 
 ince, and  passes  by  Sparta  to  Helos,  near  which  town 
 it  empties  into  the  sea.  {Strabo,  342. — Dionys.  Pc- 
 rieg., V.  411.)  The  Eurotas  flowed  to  the  east  of 
 Sparta,  as  we  are  informed  by  Poiybius ;  its  stream 
 was  full  and  rapid,  and  could  seldom  be  forded.  Eu- 
 rotas, the  third  king  after  Lelex,  enlarged  and  regu- 
 lated its  bed,  drew  a  canal  from  it,  drained  the  neigh- 
 bouring country,  and,  from  feelings  of  gratitude  on  the 
 part  of  his  subjects,  had  his  name  given  to  the  stream. 
 {Pausan.,  3,  1.)  The  modern  name  is  Basilipotamo 
 (pronounced  Vasilipotamo),  and  signifying  the  royal 
 river,  in  allusion  to  certain  petty  prmces,  dependant 
 upon  the  eastern  emperors,  who  possessed  a  small 
 kingdom  in  this  quarter  during  the  middle  ages. 
 {Mannerl,  Geogr.,  vol.  8,  p.  595.)  Dodwell,  how- 
 ever, states  that  the  most  common  appellation  for  the 
 Eurotas  at  the  present  day  is  Iri.     {Class.  Tour,  vol. 
 
 2,  p.  409.) — II.  A  river  of  Thessaly,  called  also  Ti- 
 taresius,  rising  in  Mount  Titarus,  a  branch  of  Olym- 
 pus, and  falling  into  the  Peneus,  a  little  above  the  vale 
 of  Tempe.  Its  modern  name  is  the  Saranta  Poros. 
 Its  having  been  called  Eurotas  as  well  as  Titaresius 
 is  stated  by  various  authorities.  (Compare  Slrabo, 
 Epil.  7,  p.  329,  and  the  author  of  the  Sibylline  verses, 
 
 3,  p.  227.)  Although,  however,  the  Titaresius  fell 
 into  the  Peneus,  the  waters  of  the  two  rivers  did  not 
 mingle  ;  as  those  of  the  Peneus  were  clear  and  limpid, 
 while  those  of  the  Titaresius  were  impregnated  with  a 
 thick  unctuous  substance,  which  floated  like  oil  on  the 
 surface.  Hence  the  fabulous  account  of  its  being  a 
 branch  of  the  infernal  Styx.  {Strabo,  441. — Horn., 
 It.,  2,  1b\.— Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  369.) 
 
 EuRus,  a  wind  blowing  from  the  southeast.  It  was 
 sometimes  called  by  the  Latin  writers  Vulturniis. 
 {Senec.,  QucEst.  Nat.,  5,  16.)  Those,  however,  who 
 recognised  only  four  winds,  made  Eurus  the  East  wind, 
 and  attempted  to  confirm  this  opinion  by  a  fictitious 
 derivation  of  the  name,  making  'Evpoc  indicate  uTro 
 r/}f  lo)  psuv,  "blowing  from  the  east,"  i.  e.,  the  point 
 of  the  heavens  where  Aurora  first  appears. 
 
 EuRVALUs,  a  Trojan,  son  of  Opheltius,  and  one  of 
 the  followers  of  ^Eneas.  Virgil  has  immortalized  the 
 inseparable  friendship  between  him  and  Nisus.  (  Vtd. 
 Nisus.) 
 
 EuRVBATEs,  I.  a  herald  of  Agamemnon,  in  the 
 Trojan  war,  who,  with  Talthybius,  took  Brisei's  away 
 from  Achilles,  under  the  orders  of  that  monarch. 
 {Horn.,  11,  1,  320.)— II.  A  herald  of  Ulysses.  {Horn., 
 II.,  2,  184.) 
 
EUR 
 
 EUR 
 
 EoRYBiADES,  a  Spartan,  commander  of  the  com- 
 bined Grecian  fleet  at  the  battles  of  Artemisium  and 
 Salamis.  He  was  appointed  to  this  office,  although 
 Sparta  sent  only  ten  ships,  by  the  desire  of  the  allies, 
 who  relused  to  obey  an  Athenian.  {Herod.,  8,  3. — 
 Bdhr,  ad  loc.)  An  allusion  to  the  famous  scene  be- 
 tween Eurybiades  and  Themistocles  will  be  found 
 under  the  latter  article.     {Vid.  Themistocles.) 
 
 EuKYDicK,  I.  the  wife  of  Amyntas,  king  of  Mace- 
 donia.     She  had,  by  her  husband  Ale.xander,  Perdiccas 
 and  Philip,  and  one  daughter  called  Euryone,  who  was 
 married   to   Ptolemy  Alorites.     A  criminal  partiality 
 for  her  daughter's  husband,  to  whom  she  offered  her 
 hand    and    the    kingdom,   made  her  conspire  against 
 Amyntas,  who  must  have  fallen  a  victim  to  her  infi- 
 delity, had  not  Euryone  discovered  it.      Amyntas  for- 
 gave her.      Alexander  ascended  the  throne  after  his 
 father's  death,  and  perished  by  the  ambition  of  his 
 mother.      Perdiccas,  who  succeeded  him,   shared  his 
 fate  ;  but  Philip,  who  was  the  next  in  succession,  se- 
 cured himself  against  all  attempts  from  his  mother, 
 and    ascended    the    throne  with  peace  and  universal 
 satisfaction.     Eurydice  fled  to  Iphicrates,  the  Athe- 
 nian general,  for  protection.     The  manner  of  her  death 
 is  unknown.     (C.  Nep.,  Vit.  Iphicl ,  3.) — II.  A  daugh- 
 ter of  Antipater,  and  the  wife  of  Ptolemy  I.  of  Egypt, 
 by  whom  she  had  several  children.     After  the  death 
 of  Alexander  the  Great,  she  proceeded  to  Alexandrea 
 for   the   purpose   of  rejoining  her  husband,  and   she 
 brought  with  her  Berenice,  her  niece,  who  proved  the 
 source  of  all  her  misfortunes.      For  Berenice  inspired 
 Ptolemy  with  so  strong  a  passion,  that  he  took  her  as 
 his  second  wife,  and  allowed  himself  to  be  controlled 
 entirely  by  her  influence.     Eurydice  and  her  children 
 retired  to  the  court  of  Seleucus,  king  of  Syria.     One 
 of  her  daughters  subsequently  married  Agathocles,  son 
 of  Lysimachus  ;   and  another,  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 
 Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  the  eldest  of  her  sons,  seized  upon 
 the  kingdom  of  Macedonia.     Eurydice  followed  him 
 to  that  country,  and  contributed  to  conciliate  towards 
 him  the  minds  of  the  Macedonians,  through  the  respect 
 which  they  entertained   for  the  memory  of  her  father 
 Antipater.     Ptolemy  Ceraunus  having  been  slain,  B.C. 
 280,  in  a  battle  against  the  Gauls,  Macedonia  was  de- 
 livered up  to  the  ravages  of  these  barbarians,  and  Eu- 
 rydice fled  for  protection  to  the  city  of  Cassandrea. 
 In  order  to  attach  the  inhabitants  more  strongly  to  her 
 interests,  she  gave  them  their  freedom  ;    and    they, 
 through  gratiiude,  established  a  festival  called  after 
 her  Eun/dtcca.     The  rest  of  her  history  is  not  known. 
 — III.  A  daughter  of  Amyntas  and  Cynane.     Her  pre- 
 vious name  was  Adea,  afterward  changed  to  Eurydice. 
 {Arria7i,  ap.  Phot.,  cod.,  92 — vol.  1,  p.  70,  ed.  Bckker.) 
 She  married  Aridaeus,  the  half-brother  of  Alexander, 
 and  for  some  time,  through  the  aid  of  Cassander,  de- 
 fended Macedonia  against  Polysperchon  and  Olympias. 
 Having  been  forsaken,  at  length,  by  her  own  troops, 
 she  fell  into  the  hands  of  Olympias,  together  with  her 
 husband.     Both  were  put   to  death    by  that    queen. 
 (Justin,  14,  5.) — IV.  Wife  of  Orpheus.     As  she  fled 
 before  Arista^us  she  was  bitten  by  a  serpent  in  the 
 grass,  and  died  of  the  wound.      Her  disconsolate  hus- 
 band determined  to  descend  to  the  lower  world,  to  en- 
 deavour to  procure  her  restoration  to  life.     Pluto  and 
 Proserpina  listened  to  his  prayer;  and  Eurydice  was 
 allowed  to  return,  on  the  express  condition  that  Or- 
 pheus should  not  look  back  upon  her  till  they  were  ar- 
 rived in  the  regions  of  day.     Fearing  that  she  might 
 not  be  following  him,  the  anxious  husband  looked  back, 
 and  thereby  lost  her.     {Vid.  Orpheus.) 
 
 EuKYMEOON,  a  river  of  Pamphylia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
 rising  in  the  chain  of  Mount  Taurus,  and,  after  passing 
 the  city  of  Aspendus,  falling  into  the  Mediterranean 
 below  that  place.  {Scylax,  p.  40. — Mela,  1,  14. — 
 Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  124.)  Near  it  the  I  ened  with  war  Uey 
 Persians  were  defeated  by  the  Athenians  under  Ci-  [they  had  taken  shelter 
 
 mon,  B.C.  470,  in  both  a  naval  and  land  fight.  The 
 Persian  ships  were  drawn  up  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
 to  the  number  of  350,  or,  as  some  affirm,  600  ;  but,  on 
 the  first  attack,  they  fled  to  the  shore  and  were  stranded. 
 Cimon  then  landed  his  forces,  and,  after  a  severe  en- 
 gagement, routed  the  enemy,  and  took  their  camp  and 
 baggage.  {Flul.,Vit.  Cim.—Thuct/d,  \,  100.)  This 
 signal  victory  annihilated  the  Persian  navy.  The  Eu- 
 rymedon  is  now  the  Capri-sou,  and  appears  to  have 
 undergone  considerable  changes  since  ancient  times, 
 for  the  bar  at  the  mouth  is  now  so  shallow  as  to  be 
 impassable  to  boats  that  draw  more  than  one  foot  of 
 water.     {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  281.) 
 
 EuRYPHON,  a  Cnidian  physician,  a  contemporary  of 
 Hippocrates,  but  probably  older  in  years,  since  he  is 
 deemed  the  author  of  the  Cnidian  a()horisms  which  are 
 quoted  by  Hippocrates.  {Galen,  Comment,  in  Hipp, 
 de  virAu  acut.,  p.  43.) 
 
 EuRYPON,  a  king  of  Sparta,  son  of  Soiis.  Accord- 
 ing to  Pausanias  (3,  7),  his  reign  was  so  glorious  a  one, 
 that  his  descendants  were  called  from  him  Eunjponti- 
 d(t,  although  the  family  belonged  to  the  Proclidae. 
 Plutarch,  however  {Vit.  Lijcurg.,  c.  2).  says  that  the 
 change  of  name  was  owing  to  Eurypon's  having  relax- 
 ed the  strictness  of  kingly  government,  and  inclined  to 
 the  interests  of  the  people.  (Consult  Yalckenacr,  ad 
 Theocrit.  Adoniaz.,  p.  271.) 
 
 EuRVSTHENEs,  a  son  of  Aristodemus,  who  reigned 
 conjointly  with  his  twin-brother  Procles  at  Sparta.     It 
 was  not  known  which  of  the  two  was  horn  first ;  the 
 mother,  who  wished  to  see  both  'ner  sons  raised  on  the 
 throne,  refused  to  declare  it ;  and  they  were  both  ap- 
 pointed kings  of  Sparta  by  order  of  the  oracle  of  Del- 
 phi, B.C.  1 102.     After  the  death  of  the  two  brothers, 
 the  Lacedaemonians,  who  knew  not  to  what  family  the 
 right  of  seniority  and  succession  belonged,  permitted 
 two  kings  to  sit  on  the  throne,  one  of  each  family. 
 The  descendants  of  Eurysthenes  were  called  Eurys- 
 thenidcE,  and  those  of  Procles,  ProclidcB.     It  was  in- 
 consistent with  the  laws  of  Sparta  for  two  kings  of  the 
 same  family  to  ascend  the  throne  together,  yet  that  law 
 was  sometimes  violated  by   oppression  and  tyranny. 
 Eurysthenes   had  a  son  called  Agis,  who  succeeded 
 him.     His  descendants  were  called  Agida.    There  sat 
 on  the  throne  of  Sparta  31  kings  of  the  family  of  Eu- 
 rysthenes, and  only  24  of  the  Proclidse.     The  former 
 were  the  more  illustrious,     (/icrorfo^,  4,  147;  6,52. — 
 Fausan,  3,  \.—C.  Nep.,  Vit.  Ages.) 
 EuRYSTHENiD^.      Vjd.  Eurysthenes. 
 EuRYsTHEus,  a  king  of  Argos  and  Mycenae,  son  of 
 Sthenelus  and  Nicippe  the  daughter  of  Pelops.     Juno 
 hastened  his  birth  by  two  months,  that  he  might  come 
 into  the  world  before  Hercules,  the  son  of  Alcmena, 
 as  the  younger  of  the  two  was  doomed  by  order  of  Ju- 
 piter to  be  subservient  to  the  will  of  the  other.     ( Vid. 
 Alcmena.)     The  right  thus  obtained  was  cruelly  exer- 
 cised by  Eurystheus,  and  led  to  the  performance  of  the 
 twelve  celebrated  labours  of  Hercules.     The  success 
 of  the  hero  in  achieving  these  so  alarmed     Eurysth- 
 eus, that  he  furnished    himself  with  a  brazen  vessel, 
 where  he  might  secure  himself  a  safe  retreat  in  case  of 
 danger.     Apollodorus  says  that  it  was  a  vessel  of  brass 
 {niOov  xalKoi'v,  Apollod.,  2,  5,  1 ),  which  he  construct- 
 ed secretly  under  ground.     It  appears,  in  fact,  to  have 
 been  a  subterraneous  chamber,  covered  within  witb 
 plates  of  brass.    The  remains  of  the  treasury  of  Atreus 
 at  Mycenre  indicate  a  building  of  a  similar  descriplion, 
 the  nails  which  probably  served  to  fasten  plates  of  this 
 metal  to  the  walls  still  appearing.     These  nails  consist 
 of  88  parts  of  copper  and  12  of  tin.     A  similar  ex- 
 planation may  be  given  of  the  brazen  temple  ol  Miner- 
 va at  Sparta       Vid.   ChalcicBcus.     {Cells  I>'nerary, 
 p.  33.)     After  Hercules  had  been   translated   to  the 
 
 .)     After  Hercules  haO   uecu   u.....-,......-   ^^  -..^ 
 
 .Eurystheus  persecuted  his  children,  and  threat 
 with  war  Ceyx,  king  of  Trachis,  at  whose  court 
 
 :ourl 
 They  thereupon  fled  to  Alh 
 509 
 
E  U  S 
 
 EUSEBIUS. 
 
 en«,  and  received  protection  from  tlie  inhabitants,  who 
 refused  to  deliver  them  up  to  Eurysthcus.  A  war  en- 
 sued, in  which  Eurystheus  and  his  five  sons  were  slain, 
 the  former  by  the  hand  of  Hyllus,  son  of  Hercules. 
 The  head  of  the  monarch  was  sent  to  Alcmena,  who 
 dug  out  the  eyes  with  a  weaving- shuttle.  (Apollod., 
 2,  8,  1,  where  for  KspKlai  we  are  to  read  KcpKuh.) 
 Other  accounts  of  his  end,  however,  are  given  by  other 
 writers.  {Ettnp.,  Hcraclid.,  928,  seqq.  —  Compare 
 Isocr  ,  Paneg.,  15.) 
 
 EuKYTis  (idos),  a  patronymic  of  lole,  daughter  of 
 Eurytus.     {Omd,  Met.,  9,  395.) 
 
 EuRVTUs,  a  monarch  of  CEchalia,  who  taught  Her- 
 cules the  use  of  the  bow.  (Apollod.,  2,  4,  9. — Heync, 
 ad  loc.)  He  offered  his  daughter  lole  to  him  who 
 should  surpass  himself  and  his  sons  in  archery.  Her- 
 cules conquered,  but  Eurytus  refused  to  give  his 
 daughter  to  the  hero,  who  therefore  put  him  and  his 
 sons  to  death,  and  led  away  lole  captive.  {Apollod., 
 2,  6,  I.— W.,  2,  7,  7.) 
 
 EosKnius  Pamphim,  I.  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
 among  the  earlier  Christian  writers,  and  the  friend  of 
 Constantine,  was  born  in  Palestine,  probably  at  Car>sa- 
 rea,  about  264  A.D.  He  pursued  his  studies  at  Anti- 
 och,  and  is  believed  to  have  received  holy  orders  from 
 Agapius,  bishop  of  Cssarea.  After  having  been  or- 
 damed  presbyter,  he  set  up  a  school  in  his  native  city, 
 and  formed  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  Pamphilus, 
 bishop  of  Cffisarea,  who  suffered  martyrdom  under 
 Galerius.  A.D  309,  and  in  memory  of  whose  friendship 
 he  added  to  his  name  the  term  Pamphili,  i.  e.,  "(the 
 friend)  of  Pamphilus."  After  the  martyrdom  of  his 
 friend  he  removed  to  Tyre,  and  thence  to  Egypt,  where 
 he  himself  was  imprisoned.  On  his  return  from 
 Egypt,  he  succeeded  Agapius  in  the  see  of  Ceesarea, 
 A.D.  315.  In  common  with  many  other  bishops  of 
 Palestine,  he  at  first  espoused  the  cause  of  Arius  ;  but 
 at  the  council  of  Nice,  in  325,  where  the  Emperor  Con- 
 stantine assigned  to  Eusebius  the  office  of  opening  the 
 session  of  the  assembly,  the  opinions  of  the  heresiarch 
 were  condemned.  He  is  said,  however,  to  have  raised 
 some  objections  to  the  words  "  consubstantial  with  the 
 Father,"  as  applied  to  the  Son  in  the  Nicene  creed. 
 His  intimacy  with  his  namesake  Eusebius,  bishop  of 
 Nicomedia,  who  openly  espoused  the  cause  of  Arius. 
 led  him  also  to  favour  the  same,  and  to  use  his  influ- 
 ence with  the  emperor  for  the  purpose  of  reinstating 
 Arius  in  the  church,  in  defiance  of  the  opposition  of 
 Athanasius.  The  party  to  which  he  attached  himself 
 were  called  Eusebians,  from  their  leader  Eusebius  of 
 Nicomedia,  and  they  seem  to  have  acted  in  a  great 
 degree  through  hostility  towards  Athanasius  and  his 
 supporters,  as  they  did  not,  as  yet,  openly  advocate  the 
 objectionable  tenets  of  Arius,  who  had  himself  appa- 
 rently submitted  to  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Nice. 
 Eusebius  afterward,  in  330,  assisted  at  the  council  of 
 Antioch,  where  the  Arians  triumphed,  and  he  was  pres- 
 ent at  the  council  of  Tyre  in  335,  and  jomed  those 
 bishops  who  censured  the  proceedings  of  Athanasius, 
 the  great  champion  of  orthodo.xy.  Eusebius  was  de- 
 puted by  this  council  to  defend  before  Constantine  the 
 judgment  which  they  had  passed  against  Athanasius  ; 
 and  he  appears  to  have  used  his  influence  with  the  em- 
 peror to  have  Athanasius  banished.  The  part  which 
 he  took  in  this  unfortunate  controversy  caused  him  to 
 be  stigmatized  as  an  Arian.  though  it  appears  that  he 
 fully  admitted  the  divinity  of  Christ  ;  and  all  that  his 
 accusers  can  prove  is,  that  he  believed  there  was  a  cer- 
 tain subordination  among  the  persons  of  the  Trin- 
 ity. He  was  much  in  favour  with  Constantine,  with 
 whom  he  maintained  an  epistolary  correspondence, 
 many  specimens  of  which  he  has  inserted  in  his  life  of 
 that  prince.  He  died  soon  after  his  imperial  patron,  in 
 339  or  340.  Eusebius  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
 met  of  his  time.  "  It  appears  from  his  works,"  says 
 Tillemont.  "  that  he  had  read  all  sorts  of  Greek  au- 
 510 
 
 thors,  whether  philosophers,  historian?,  or  divines,  of 
 Egypt,  PhcEnicia.  Asia,  Europe,  and  Africa."  Though 
 his  industrious  researches  render  his  writmgs  valuable, 
 they  are  defective  in  judgment  and  accuracy.  All  the 
 studies  of  Eusebius  were  directed  towards  the  religion 
 which  he  professed,  and  if  he  cultivated  chronology,  it 
 was  with  the  view  of  establishing  on  a  solid  basis  the 
 confidence  to  which  the  historical  books  of  the  Old 
 Testament  present  so  fair  a  claim.  He  displayed  the 
 fruits  of  his  researches  in  a  Chronicle,  or  Universal 
 History  {YiavTodanrj  tarop/a),  divided  into  two  books. 
 In  the  first  of  these,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
 Chroiwgra.phy  {Xpovoypa(pia),  he  relates  the  origin  and 
 the  history  of  all  nations  and  empires,  from  the  crea- 
 tion of  the  world  down  to  325  A.D.  He  pursues  an 
 ethnographic  order,  devoting  a  particular  section  to 
 each  people.  The  duration  of  the  reigns  of  princes  was 
 fixed  m  it,  and  the  author  entered  into  details  on  certain 
 events.  In  this  first  portion  of  the  work,  Eusebius  in- 
 troduced extracts  from  various  historical  writers  whose 
 productions  are  lost,  such  as  Alexander  Polyhistor, 
 Berosus,  Amydenus,  Manetho,  &c.  The  second  part, 
 entitled  •'  Chronical  Canon'''  {XpoviKoc  Kavuv),  con- 
 sisted of  synchronistic  tables,  giving,  by  periods  of  ten 
 years  each,  the  names  of  sovereigns,  and  the  principal 
 events  which  had  taken  place,  from  the  call  of  Abra- 
 ham (B.C.  2017).  In  compiling  this  part  of  his  la- 
 bours Eusebius  availed  himself  of  the  Chronography 
 of  Sextus  Julius  Africanus,  which  he  inserted  almost 
 entire  in  his  (Janon,  completing  it  by  the  aid  of  Mane- 
 tho, Josephus,  and  other  historians.  This  he  contin- 
 ued also  to  his  own  times.  We  possess  a  Latin  trans- 
 lation of  this  chronicle,  made  by  St.  Jerome  ;  it  is  not, 
 after  all,  however,  a  simple  version,  since  this  father 
 continued  the  dates  down  to  the  year  378,  and  made 
 several  changes  also  in  the  first  part  of  the  work.  The 
 Greek  text  itself  is  lost ;  and  though  George  Syncelius 
 has  inserted  many  fragments  of  it  in  his  Chronicle,  and 
 Eusebius  himself  has  done  the  same  in  his  Prcepara- 
 lio  Evangelica,  the  remembrance  of  this  original  text 
 was  so  far  lost,  that  doubts  began  to  be  entertained 
 whether  that  of  the  first  book  had  ever  existed,  some 
 critics  being  persuaded  that  Eusebius  had  written  no 
 other  chronological  work  besides  his  Canon.  Joseph 
 Scaliger,  however,  undertook  to  reconstruct  the  first 
 book  of  the  work,  by  uniting  all  the  fragments  scatter- 
 ed throughout  the  writings  of  the  various  authors  to 
 whom  allusion  has  been  made.  The  whole  subject 
 has  at  length  been  cleared  up  in  our  own  days,  and  all 
 uncertainty  on  this  point  has  been  put  completely  to 
 rest.  In  1792,  an  Armenian  of  Constantinople,  named 
 Georgius  Johannis,  discovered  an  Armenian  translation 
 of  the  entire  work.  He  made  a  copy  of  this,  and 
 transmitted  it  in  1794  to  Dr.  Zohrab  at  Venice.  The 
 precise  date  of  the  manuscript  in  question  is  unknown  ; 
 but  as  the  version  is  mentioned  by  Moses  of  Chorene, 
 it  ought  to  be  as  old  at  least  as  the  fifth  century.  The 
 first  book  of  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius,  with  which  we 
 are  made  acquainted  through  the  medium  of  this  trans- 
 lation, is  preceded  by  a  preface,  in  which  the  author 
 gives  an  account  of  the  plan  and  difficulty  of  his  'jn- 
 dertaking.  It  is  divided  into  forty-eight  chapters,  ot 
 which  the  first  twenty-two  embrace  the  chronology  ol 
 the  Chalda'ans,  Assyrians,  Medes,  J,ydians,  Persians, 
 Hebrews,  and  Egyptians,  comprehending  under  the 
 latter  head  the  dynasty  of  the  Ptolemies.  Almost  all 
 that  these  chapters  contain  existed  already  in  Syncel- 
 ius and  in  the  Praparatio  Evangelica ;  and  hence  we 
 have  not  been  very  great  gainers  by  the  discovery  of 
 the  Armenian  version,  as  far  as  this  portion  of  it  is 
 concerned.  According  to  M.  Raoul-Rochette  (Jour- 
 nal des  Savans,  1819,  p.  545),  the  remaining  chapters, 
 from  the  twenty-third  to  the  forty-eighth,  are  devoted 
 to  the  chronology  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  down 
 to  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  he  has  promised  to 
 communicate  to  the  world  whatever  he  may  find  there- 
 
EUSEBIUS. 
 
 EUSEBIUS. 
 
 in  sufficiently  novel  in  its  nature  to  merit  such  riotico. 
 An  account  of  the  Armenian  version  is  also  given  by 
 Saint  Martin  {^Journal  des  Savaiis,  1820,  p.  106). 
 The  conclusion  to  which  the  last-mentioned  writer  ar- 
 rives, is  as  follows  :  that  the  great  advantages  ex- 
 pected to  have  been  derived  from  the  version  to  which 
 we  are  referring,  must  be  graduated  much  lower  than 
 they  originally  were  ;  and  yet,  at  the  same  time,  that 
 this  discovery  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  merit  hon- 
 ourable mention,  since  it  gives  a  great  degree  of  cer- 
 tainty to  many  particulars,  of  which  we  were  before 
 put  in  possession  relative  to  ancient  history,  and  ren- 
 ders incontestable  the  authority  of  the  Greek  fragments 
 published  by  Scaliger. — Euscbius  was  also  the  author 
 of  an  Ecclesiastical  History  ('EKKhjaiadTiKT!  laropia), 
 in  ten  books,  from  the  origin  of  Christianity  down  to 
 A.D.  324,  a  year  which  immediately  preceded  the 
 triumph  of  the  Catholic  church  over  Arianism.  This 
 work  contains  no  express  history  of  church  dogmas. 
 The  author  proposed  to  himself  a  different  object, 
 which  he  specifies  in  the  first  book.  It  was  to  make 
 known  the  succession  of  the  apostles,  and  the  individ- 
 uals who,  placed  at  the  head  of  the  different  churches, 
 distinguished  themselves  by  their  firmness  and  apos- 
 tolic virtues,  or  who  defended  the  word  of  God  by  their 
 writings  ;  to  make  mention  of  the  persons  who  had 
 endeavoured  to  propagate  false  doctrines  ;  to  describe 
 the  misfortunes  and  sufferings  that  had  befallen  the 
 Jewish  nation,  as  a  punishment  for  their  rejection  of 
 the  Saviour ;  as  well  as  the  persecutions  to  which  the 
 faithful  had  been  exposed,  and  the  triumph  procured 
 for  Christianity  by  the  Emperor  Constantino.  A  sec- 
 ondary object  which  Eusebius  had  in  view,  although 
 he  does  not  expressly  mention  it,  was  to  transmit  to 
 posterity  literary  notices  of  those  writers  who  had 
 treated  before  him  of  detached  portions  of  the  sacred 
 history.  What  he  proposed  to  himself,  however,  was 
 less  to  instruct  and  edify  the  faithful,  than  to  place  in 
 the  hands  of  the  Gentiles  a  work  which  might  induce 
 them  to  renounce  the  errors  of  their  religious  systems 
 and  the  prejudices  of  education.  One  is  tempted,  at 
 least,  to  ascribe  this  intention  to  him,  when  we  call  to 
 mind  ihat  his  work  contains  a  number  of  things  known 
 to  every  Christian  reader ;  such  as,  for  example,  all 
 that  relates  to  the  person  of  our  Saviour,  and  the  au- 
 thenticity of  the  sacred  writings  ;  and  also  when  we 
 consider  the  skill  he  has  displayed  in  placing  in  a 
 prominent  point  of  view  the  claims  of  Christianity, 
 without,  at  the  same  time,  making  any  direct  attack  on 
 the  absurdities  of  paganism.  As  Eusebius  makes  no 
 mention  of  the  troubles  occasioned  in  the  church  by 
 the  doctrines  of  Arianism,  it  has  been  concluded  that 
 his  history  was  not  continued  by  him  during  the  last 
 sixteen  years  of  his  life  (for  he  lived  until  340) ;  but 
 that,  being  brought  down  by  him  to  an  epoch  anterior 
 to  the  council  of  Nice,  it  was  concluded  in  324.  In 
 support  of  this  opinion  it  may  be  remarked,  that  Pau- 
 linas, the  bishop,  to  whom  he  addresses  himself  at  the 
 commencement  of  the  tenth  book,  was  dead  in  325. 
 (Consult  Haake,  dc  Byzanlinarum  rcrum  scriptoribus 
 liber,  Lips.,  1677,  4to,  pt.  1,  c.  \,  ()  222.)  In  gen- 
 eral, Eusebius  may  be  called  a  moderate,  impartial, 
 and  judicious  writer.  His  history  was  translated  into 
 Latin  by  Rutinus,  a  priest  of  Aquileia,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
 tury :  he  has  made,  however,  retrenchments  as  well  as 
 additions,  and  has  added  a  supplement  in  two  books, 
 which  extends  to  the  death  of  Theodo.sius  the  Great. 
 'I'his  supplement  was,  in  turn,  translated  into  Greek  by 
 Gelasius  of  Cyzicus,  about  476.  Fabricius  (Bibl. 
 Giccc,  vol.  8.  p.  445)  says,  that  the  work  of  Ilufinus 
 was  translated  by  St.  Cyrili  of  Jerusalem,  and  he  re- 
 fers to  Photius  as  his  authority  for  this  assertion.  The 
 patriarch  of  Conslantitiople  speaks  of  this  translation 
 from  hearsay,  for  he  never  saw  it :  indeed,  it  never 
 could  have  existed ;  since  St.  Cyrili  died  in  386,  and 
 the  supplement  of  Rufinus  appeared  subsequent   to 
 
 395.  The  Latin  translation  of  Rufinus  still  exists, 
 but  the  Greek  version  of  his  supplement  is  lost.  Ni- 
 cephorus  Callistus,  a  compiler  of  the  fourteenth  centu- 
 ry, has  incorporated  into  his  ecclesiastical  history  the 
 greater  part  of  that  of  Eusebius. — The  other  works  of 
 Eusebius  which  have  relation  to  the  department  of  ec- 
 clesiastical history  are  the  following  ;  Tlepl  tuv  tv  Ha- 
 XaiGTivy  /xapTvpTjddvTuv,  "  Of  those  who  suffered  mar 
 tyrdom  m  Palestine."  The  period  referred  to  is  the 
 persecution  of  Dioclesian  and  Maximin,  from  303  to 
 309.  —  Auyog  rpiaKOVTaeTrjpiKot;,  "  Thirty-year  dis- 
 course," i.  e.,  an  Eloge  on  Constantine,  pronounced 
 in  ihe  thirlielh  year  of  his  reign,  A.D.  335. — Jlepi  tov 
 Kara  -Qeov  jilov  tov  nanapiom  ^LuvoTavrivov  tov  Ba- 
 aileu^.  A  life  of  Constantine,  in  four  books.  It  is 
 rather  an  eloge  than  a  biographical  sketch. — Tuv  ap- 
 Xaiuv  fiapTvpov  avvajuyij,  '•  A  Collection  of  Ancient 
 .Martyrs."  This  work  is  lost,  but  many  fragments 
 have  been  preserved  by  the  legendary  writers  of  sub- 
 sequent ages. —  A  life  of  Pamphilus,  of  which  there 
 remains  a  solitary  fragment. — Jlepl  tCiv  hutu  diaipdp- 
 ovc  Kaipovg  iv  6ia(pdpoic  ttoXeolv  adTirjcuvTuv  ujiuv 
 fiaprvpuv,  "  Of  the  holy  martyrs  that  have  contended 
 for  the  faith  at  various  times  and  in  various  places." 
 — We  now  come  to  another  work  of  Eusebius,  which 
 forms  the  principal  one  of  his  theological  writings. 
 This  is  his  Eva-yy£?iiK7/c  uTrotSciffwf  TrponapaaKcvri, 
 or  "  Prcrparatio  Evangelica."  This  work,  though  its 
 subject  is  one  entirely  sacred  in  its  nature,  yet  con- 
 tains a  great  number  of  valuable  notices  respecting  the 
 mythology  of  the  pagan  nations,  and  the  philosophy  of 
 the  Greeks  in  particular.  We  find  in  it,  also,  numer- 
 ous passages  taken  from  more  than  four  hundred  pro- 
 fane writers,  and  in  this  list  are  many  whose  produc- 
 tions are  lost  for  us.  The  Prcparaho  Evangelica  is 
 addressed  to  Theodolus,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  and  is 
 divided  into  fifteen  books.  To  prepare  his  readers  for 
 a  demonstration  of  evangelical  truths  by  reasons  pure- 
 ly philosophical,  and,  by  collecting  together  a  crowd  of 
 passages  drawn  from  profane  authors,  to  show  how  far 
 superior  Christianity  is  to  all  the  systems  of  the  pagan 
 world — such  is  the  object  of  Eusebius  in  the  work  we 
 are  considering.  In  the  first  six  books  he  proves  the 
 futility  of  the  heathen  doctrines  ;  the  nine  following 
 ones  develop  the  motives  which  have  induced  the 
 followers  of  Christianity  to  prefer  to  them  the  Jewish 
 system  of  theology  as  contained  in  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment. In  the  first  book  Eusebius  gives  the  tradi- 
 tions of  the  Greeks  respecting  the  origin  of  the  world. 
 He  then  directs  his  attention  to  the  Phoenician  theol- 
 ogy, and  it  is  on  this  occasion  that  he  gives  the  cel- 
 ebrated fragment  of  Sanchoniathon.  In  the  second 
 book  he  examines  the  religious  doctrines  of  the  Egyp- 
 tians, as  given  by  Manetho  ;  and  those  of  the  Greeks 
 after  Diodorus  Siculus,  Euhcmerus,  and  St.  Clement 
 of  Alcxandrea.  He  undertakes  to  show  that  the  Pla- 
 tonic was  as  inconsistent  and  defective  as  the  popular 
 theology,  and  that  even  the  Romans  themselves  re- 
 jected the  allegorical  interpretations  which  the  Greeks 
 gave  to  their  own  mythological  legends.  The  third 
 book  shows  how  vain  and  nugatory  have  been  the  ef- 
 forts of  those  writers  who  have  attempted  to  explain 
 the  Egyptian  and  Grecian  fables  on  physical  and  moral 
 principles.  The  fourth  and  fifth  books  continue  this 
 demonstration,  and  seek  to  prove  that  the  objects  of 
 worship  and  sacrifice  among  the  Greeks  were  the  de- 
 mons whom  our  Saviour  drove  from  the  world.  I  he 
 sixth  book  refutes  the  pagan  doctrine  of  destiny,  and 
 that  relative  to  the  influence  supposed  to  be  exercised 
 by  the  heavenly  bodies  on  human  actions.  Jn  the 
 seventh  the  excellence  of  the  religious  system  of  the 
 Jews  is  demonstrated,  and  the  nature  of  this  system 
 explained.  In  the  eighth  book  the  sources  of  this 
 religion  are  pointed  out,  and  in  this  part  of  his  vvork 
 Euscbius  gives,  after  Aristeas,  the  history  of  the  Sep- 
 tuagint,  or  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament.     I« 
 
EUS 
 
 EUT 
 
 itie  following  books,  down  to  the  thirteenth  inclusive, 
 the  author  undertakes  to  show,  that  the  Greek  writers 
 have  derived  ironi  the  Sacred  volume  whatever  they 
 have  taught  of  valuable  or  good  in  matters  of  philoso- 
 phy :  such,  according  to  him,  is  the  case  ei^pecially 
 with  Plato.  The  fourtcen/k  and  fifteenth  books  la- 
 bour to  prove,  that  in  the  philosophical  opinions  of  the 
 Greeks  there  reign  evident  contradictions;  that  the 
 majority  of  these  opinions  have  no  belter  foundation 
 than  mere  hypothesis,  and  swarm  with  errors. — We 
 must  not  omit  another  work  of  our  author's,  entitled, 
 llepl  Tuv  TOniKuv  'OvofiUTuf  tv  T7)  i!^f/(z  ypaffj,  "  Of 
 the  places  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings."  It  was 
 in  two  books.  The  second  book,  which  treats  of  Pal- 
 estine, has  alone  reached  us  ;  we  have  it  in  Greek,  and 
 also  in  a  Latin  version  by  St.  Jerome.  The  version 
 would  be  preferable  to  the  original,  by  reason  of  the 
 corrections  which  Jerome  made  in  the  work,  from  his 
 intimate  acquaintance  with  the  country,  if  it  had  not 
 reached  us  in  a  very  corrupt  state. — The  best  editions 
 of  the  work  on  chronology  are,  that  of  Scaliger,  Lugd. 
 Bat.,  1659,  fol.,  and  that  of  Mai  and  Zohrab,  Medio- 
 Ian.,  1818,  4to  :  the  best  editions  of  the  Ecclesiasti- 
 cal History  are,  that  of  H.  Stephens,  Paris,  1544, 
 fol.,  reprinted  with  the  Latin  version  of  Christophor- 
 son,  at  Geneva,  1612  ;  and  that  of  Hemichen,  Lips., 
 1827,  1  vol.  8vo.  The  life  of  Constantine  accom- 
 panies the  first  of  these.  — The  best  edition  of  the 
 Praeparatio  Evangelica  is  that  of  Vigier,  Paris,  1638, 
 fol  ,  reprinted  at  Leipzig,  1688,  fol. — II.  A  native 
 6f  Emesa,  surnamed  Pittacus,  slain  in  554  by  order 
 of  the  Emperor  Gallus,  and  to  whom  Ammianus  Mar- 
 cellinus  (14,  7)  gives  the  title  of  '■'■  concitatus  orator.'''' 
 — III.  A  native  of  Myndus,  in  Garia,  a  contemporary 
 of  the  preceding.  Eunapius  makes  mention  of  him  in 
 the  life  of  Maximus  ;  and,  according  to  Wyttenbach 
 {Eunap.,  cd.  Boissonade,  p.  171),  he  is  the  same  with 
 a  third  Eusebius,  of  whom  Stobaeus  has  left  us  two 
 fragments. 
 
 EusT.ATHius,  I.  archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  flour- 
 ished in  the  12th  century  under  the  emperors  Manuel, 
 Alexius,  and  Andronicus  Comnenus.  He  is  celebra- 
 ted for  his  erudition  as  a  grammarian,  and  is  especially 
 known  as  a  commentator  on  Homer  and  Dionysius 
 the  geographer.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that 
 in  the  former  of  these  commentaries  he  is  largely 
 indebted  to  the  Deipnosophistae  of  Athenaeus,  and 
 Schweighaeuser  holds  the  following  strong  language 
 relative  to  the  extent  of  these  obligations  {Praf.  ad. 
 Athen.,  p.  xix.);  "■  Li  Eustathii  in  Homcrum  Com- 
 mentariis  Athcnceus  nosier  a  captte  ad  calcem  (veris- 
 sime  dixeris)  utiamque  paginam  facit :  adeoque  est 
 incredcbilis  et  pttne  infinitus  locornm  numerus,  quihus 
 doctiLS  ilk  prcBsul  ex  una  Athencri  fonle  hortidos  suos 
 irrigavit,  ut  scepe  etiam  notissimorum  nobilissimorum- 
 que  auctorurn,  quorum  ubivis  obvia  ipsa  scripta  smil, 
 unius  ejusdem  Alhencei  verbis  produxerit  testimonia ; 
 utque,  nisi  de  viri  doclrina  aliunde  satis  constaret, 
 subinde  propemodum  videri  ille  posset  e  solo  Naucrat- 
 ica  Detpnosophista  sapuisse.'"  (Compare  the  note  of 
 the  same  editor,  and  Fabricius,  Bild.  Gnec,  vol.  1, 
 p.  316,  seqq.)  The  commentary  of  Euslathius  was 
 united  to  the  edition  of  Homer  which  appeared  at 
 Rome  in  1542,  1548,  1550,  in  3  vols,  folio;  and  was 
 reprinted  at  Bale  in  1560,  also  in  3  vols,  folio.  The 
 latest  edition  is  the  Leipzigone  of  1825-30,  6  vols.  4to  ; 
 for  that  of  Politus,  undertaken  in  1730,  with  a  Latin 
 version,  was  never  finished.  The  three  volumes  of 
 it  which  appeared  at  Florence,  1730-35,  in  folio,  ex- 
 tend only  to  the  end  of  the  fifth  book  of  the  Iliad. 
 Miiller  and  Baumgarlen-Cnisius  have  performed  a 
 valuable  service  for  the  student,  in  publishing  extracts 
 from  Eustathius  along  with  the  text  of  the  Iliad  and 
 Odyssey.  (Compare  the  Memoir  of  Andres  on  the 
 Commentary  of  Eustathius,  and  the  various  transla- 
 tions which  have  been  made  of  it ;  Mem.  della  Reg. 
 512 
 
 Academia  Ercolanense,  vol.  1,  p.  97,  Naples,  1822. 
 — Bulletin  des  Sciences  Historiques,  vol.  4,  p.  337, 
 seqq.)  The  commentary  on  Dionysius  is  less  valu- 
 able, from  the  scanty  nature,  most  probably,  of  the 
 materials  employed.  A  commentary  on  Pindar  is 
 lost.  Some  unpublished  letters  of  the  archbishop's 
 are  to  be  found  in  the  public  libraries  of  Europe. — il. 
 A  native  of  Egypt,  called  by  some  Eumathius,  and 
 styled  in  one  manuscript  WpurovofjL'kiaaipo^  Koi  fiiyat, 
 XapTO(pvXai,  "  Protonobilissimus  and  great  archivist." 
 He  was  the  author  of  a  romance,  entitled,  To  Kaff 
 'Ta^ivijv  Kol  'Tofiiviav  dpu/ua,  "  Hysmine  and  Hys- 
 minias."  It  is  a  cold,  flat,  and  lifeless  performance. 
 The  work  has  been  twice  published  ;  first  at  Paris, 
 1618,  in  8vo,  with  the  version,  and  under  the  care,  of 
 Gaulmin  ;  and  again  by  Teucher,  Lips.,  1792.  This 
 last  contains  merely  the  text  and  the  version  of  Gaul- 
 min, without  either  preface  or  noies, — III.  An  ancient 
 jurist,  who  has  left  a  work  on  Prescriptions,  entitled, 
 Ilept  Tuv  xpoviKuv  6iaGTT//LiuTojv,  "  Of  intervals  of 
 time."  It  was  published  by  Cujas  in  the  1st  volume 
 of  his  works.  Bale,  1561,  8vo  ;  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
 by  Schard,  in  the  collection  of  Lowenklau,  vol.  2,  and 
 at  Leipzig,  in  1791,  8vo,  by  Teucher. 
 
 Euterpe,  one  of  the  Muses.  She  presided  over 
 music,  and  is  generally  represented  as  holding  two 
 flutes.  To  her  was  ascribed  by  the  poets  the  invention 
 of  the  tragic  chorus.  Ausonius  says  of  her,  ''  Dulct- 
 loquos  calamos  Euterpe  flattbus  urget."  {Idyll,  ult., 
 4.)  The  name  means  "  the  well-delighting  one,"  from 
 ev,  well,  and  repnu,  to  delight.     i^Vid.  Museb.) 
 
 EuTHVcR.iTEs,  a  sculptor  of  .Sicyon,  son  and  pupil 
 of  Lysippus,  flourished  in  Olymp.  120.  He  was  pecu- 
 liarly happy  in  the  proportions  of  his  statues.  Those 
 of  Hercules  and  .Alexander  were  in  general  esteem, 
 and  particularly  that  of  Medea,  which  was  borne  on  a 
 chariot  by  four  horses.  (Plin.,  34,  8.)  As  regards 
 the  last  of  these  subjects,  however,  consult  the  remarks 
 of  Sillig,  where  a  new  reading  in  the  text  of  Pliny  is 
 suggested.     (Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Eutkapelus  ("  the  rallier,"  evrpuTreTiOf),  an  epithet 
 given  to  P.  Volumnius,  a  Roman,  on  account  of  his 
 wit  and  pleasantry.  {Horat,  Epist.,  I,  18,  31.)  Hav- 
 ing forgotten  to  put  his  surname  or  title  of  Eutrapelus 
 to  a  letter  he  wrote  to  Cicero,  the  orator  tells  him  he 
 fancied  it  came  from  Volumnius  the  senator,  but  was 
 undeceived  by  the  eulrapelia  {evrpanEAia),  "  the  spirir 
 and  vivacity,"  which  it  displayed.  (Compare  Ernesi>^ 
 Clav.  Cic.  Lid.  Hist.,  s.  v.  Volumnius,  and  Ina 
 GrcEc.,  s.  V.  Evrpane'kia,  from  which  it  would  appear 
 that  the  evrpawsMa  of  Volumnius  was  rather  a  "  7nim- 
 ica  et  scurrilis  facelia.") 
 
 EuTRopius,  I.  a  Latin  historian  of  the  4th  century. 
 He  bore  arms  under  Julian  in  his  expedition  against 
 the  Parthians,  as  he  himself  informs  us  (9,  16),  and  is 
 thought  to  have  risen  to  senatorian  rank.  Suidas  makes 
 him  of  Italian  origin,  while  some  modern  writers,  on 
 the  other  hand,  advance  the  hypothesis  that  he  was  a 
 native  of  Gaul,  or,  at  least,  had  possessions  in  the  neigh 
 bourhood  of  .Auch,  and  was  identical  with  the  Eutropius 
 to  whom  some  of  the  letters  of  Symmachus  are  address- 
 ed. (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  161,  seqq. — 
 Compare  the  remarks  of  Tzschucke  on  the  life  of  Eu- 
 tropius, prefixed  to  his  edition.)  The  manuscripts  give 
 him  the  title  of  Vir  CI.,  which  may  stand  either  for 
 Vir  Clarissimus  or  Vir  Consularis,  but  which  in 
 either  sense  indicates  an  advancement  to  some  of  the 
 highest  offices  in  the  state.  He  wrote  several  works, 
 of  which  the  only  one  remaining  is  an  abridgment  of 
 the  Roman  History  in  ten  books.  It  is  a  brief  and 
 dry  outline,  without  either  elegance  or  ornament,  yet 
 containing  certain  facts  which  are  nowhere  else  men- 
 tioned. The  work  commences  with  the  foundation  of 
 the  city,  and  is  carried  on  to  the  death  of  Jovian,  A.D. 
 364.  At  the  close  of  this  work,  Eutropius  announces 
 his  intention  of  continuing  the  narrative  in  a  more  cle* 
 
FAB 
 
 FAB 
 
 vated  style,  inasmuch  as  he  will  have  to  treat  of  great 
 personages  still  living;  "quia  ad  incly/os  principes 
 vcnerandosque  pervcnlum  cs<."  It  does  not  appear 
 that  he  ever  carried  this  plan  into  execution.  The 
 best  edition  is  that  of  Tzschucke,  Lips.,  1797,  8vo. — 
 II.  A  eunuch  and  minister  of  the  Emperor  Arcadius, 
 who  rose  by  base  and  infamous  practices  from  the  vilest 
 condition  to  the  highest  pitch  of  opulence  and  power. 
 He  was  probably  a  native  of  Asia,  was  made  chamber- 
 lain to  the  emperor  in  the  year  395,  and,  after  the  fall  of 
 Rufinus,  succeeded  that  minister  in  the  confidence  of 
 his  master,  and  rose  to  unlimited  authority.  He  even 
 was  created  consul,  a  disgrace  to  Home  never  before 
 equalled.  An  insult  offered  to  the  empress  was  the 
 cause  of  his  overthrow  ;  and  he  was  sent  into  perpet- 
 ual exile  to  Cyprus.  He  was  soon  afterward,  however, 
 brought  back  on  another  charge  ;  and,  after  being  con- 
 demned, was  beheaded  A.D.  399.  {Zosim.,  5,  10. — 
 Id.,  5,  18,  &c.) 
 
 EuxiNUs  PoNTUs.      Vid.  Pontus  Euxinus. 
 
 ExAMPJEUs,  a  fountain  whicli,  according  to  Herod- 
 otus, flows  into  the  Hypanis,  where  the  river  is  four 
 days'  journey  from  the  sea,  and  renders  its  waters  bit- 
 ter, that  before  were  sweet.  Herodotus  places  this 
 fountain  in  the  country  of  the  ploughing  Scythians, 
 and  of  the  Alazones.  It  takes,  he  adds,  the  name  of 
 the  place  where  it  springs,  which,  in  the  Scythian 
 tongue,  is  Exampseus,  corresponding  in  Greek  to  lepal 
 66oi,  or  "  the  sacred  ways."     {Herodot.,  4,  52.) 
 
 F. 
 
 Fabaris,  now  Far/a,  a  river  of  Italy,  in  the  terri- 
 tory of  the  Sabines,  called  also  Farfaris.  (  Virg.,  Mn., 
 7,  715.) 
 
 Fabia  Gens,  a  numerous  and  powerful  patrician 
 hcuse  of  ancient  Rome,  which  became  subdivided  into 
 several  families  or  branches,  distinguished  by  their  re- 
 spective cognomina,  such  as  Fabii  Maximi,  Fabii  Am- 
 busti,  Fabii  Vibulani,  &.c.  Pliny  says  that  the  name 
 of  this  house  arose  from  the  circumstance  of  its  found- 
 ers having  excelled  in  the  culture  of  the  bean  (faha), 
 the  early  Romans  having  been  remarkable  for  their  at- 
 tachment to  agricultural  pursuits.  (P/f«.,  18,  3.)  Ac- 
 cording to  Festus,  however,  the  Fabii  traced  their  ori- 
 gin to  Hercules  {Fcsl.,  s.  v.  Fabii),  and  their  name, 
 therefore,  is  thought  to  have  come  rather  from  the 
 Etrurian  term  Fabu  or  Fabiu,  which  Passeri  makes 
 equivalent  to  "august"  or  "venerable."  (Tab.  Eu- 
 gubin,  vii.,  lin.  22  )  But  this  etymology  is  less  prob- 
 able, since  the  Fabii  are  said,  by  the  ordinary  author- 
 ities, to  have  been  of  Sabine  origin,  and  to  have  set- 
 tled on  the  Quirinal  from  the  time  of  the  earliest  Ro- 
 man kings.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquinii,  the 
 Fabian,  as  one  of  the  older  houses,  exercised  consider- 
 able influence  in  the  senate.  Caeso  Fabius,  being 
 quaestor  with  L.  Valerius,  impeached  Spurius  Cassius, 
 B.C.  48G,  A.U.C.  2G8,  and  had  him  executed.  It  has 
 been  noted  as  a  remarkable  fact,  that,  for  seven  consec- 
 utive years  from  that  time,  one  of  the  two  annual  con- 
 sulships was  filled  by  three  brothers  Fabii  in  rotation. 
 Niebuhr  has  particularly  investigated  this  period  of 
 Roman  history,  and  speculated  on  the  causes  of  this 
 long  retention  of  ofl^ice  by  the  Fabii,  as  connected  with 
 the  struggle  then  pending  between  the  patricians  and 
 plebeians,  and  the  attempt  of  the  former  to  monopolize 
 the  elections.  {Rom.  Hist ,  vol.  2,  p.  174,  sc/q.) 
 One  of  the  three  brothers,  Q.  Fabius  Vibulanus,  fell  in 
 battle  against  the  Veientes  in  the  year  of  Rome  274. 
 In  the  following  year,  under  the  consulship  of  Caeso 
 Fabius  and  Titus  Virginius,  the  whole  house  of  the 
 Fabii  proposed  to  leave  Rome,  and  settle  on  the  bor- 
 ders of  the  territory  of  Veil,  in  order  to  take  the  war 
 against  the  Veientes  entirely  into  their  own  hands. 
 After  performing  solemn  sacrifices,  they  left  Rome  in 
 a  body,  mustering  306  patricians,  besides  their  fami- 
 Ttt 
 
 lies,  clients,  and  freedmen,  and  encamped  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Cremera  in  sight  of  Veil.  There  they  fortified 
 themselves,  and  maintained  for  nearly  two  years  a 
 harassing  warfare  against  the  Veientes  and  other  peo- 
 ple of  Etruria.  At  last,  in  one  of  their  predatory  in- 
 cursions, they  fell  into  an  ambuscade,  and,  fighting 
 desperately,  were  all  exterminated.  {Livy,  2,  48, 
 seqq.)  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  gives  also  another 
 account  of  this  disaster,  which  he  considers  less  cred- 
 ible. According  to  this  latter  form  of  the  legend,  the 
 306  Fabii  set  off  for  Rome,  in  order  to  offer  up  a  sac- 
 rifice in  the  chapel  of  their  house.  As  they  went  to 
 perform  a  pious  ceremony,  they  proceeded  without 
 arms  or  warlike  array.  The  Etrurians,  however, 
 knowing  their  road,  placed  troops  in  ambush,  and,  fall- 
 ing on  the  Fabii,  cut  them  to  pieces.  (Consult  the  re- 
 marks of  Dionysius,  9,  19,  and  of  Niebuhr,  Rom. 
 Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  200.)  It  is  said  that  one  only  of  the 
 Fabii  escaped  this  massacre,  having  been  left  quite 
 young  at  Rome.  (Liv.,  2,  50. — Dion.  Hal.,  9,  22.) 
 His  name  was  Q.  Fabius  Vibulanus,  and  he  became 
 the  parent  stock  of  all  the  subsequent  Fabii.  He  was 
 repeatedly  consul,  and  was  afterward  one  of  the  de- 
 cemviri with  Appius  Claudius  for  two  consecutive 
 years,  in  which  office  he  disgraced  himself  by  his  con- 
 nivance at  the  oppressions  of  his  colleague,  which 
 caused  the  fall  of  the  decemvirate.     {Vid.  Decemviri.) 
 
 Fabia  Lex,  I.  de  ambilu,  was  to  circumscribe  the 
 number  of  Sectatorcs  or  attendants  which  were  allow- 
 ed to  candidates  in  canvassing  for  some  high  office. 
 It  was  proposed,  but  did  not  pass.  {Cic.  pro  Muren., 
 34.)  The  Sectatorcs,  who  always  attended  candidates, 
 were  distinguished  from  the  Sahitatores,  who  only 
 waited  on  them  at  their  houses  in  the  morning,  and 
 then  went  away  ;  and  from  the  Deduclorcs,  who  went 
 down  with  them  to  the  Forum  and  Campus  Marcius. 
 — II.  There  was  another  law  of  the  same  name,  en- 
 acted against  kidnapping,  or  stealing  away  and  retain- 
 ing freemen  or  slaves.  The  punishment  of  this  of- 
 fence, at  first,  was  a  fine,  but  afterward  to  be  sent  to 
 the  mines  ;  and  for  buying  or  selling  a  freeborn  citizen, 
 death.    {Cic.  pro  Rab.,  3. — Ep.  ad  Quint.  Fr.,  1,  2.) 
 
 Fabia,  a  vestal  virgin,  sister  to  Terentia,  Cicero's 
 wife.  She  was  accused  of  criminal  intercourse  with 
 Catiline,  and  brought  to  trial  in  consequence,  but  was 
 defended  by  Cicero  and  acquitted.  (Middleton' s  Life 
 of  Cicero,  vol.  1,  p.  139  ) 
 
 Fabii.      Vid.  Fabia  Gens. 
 
 Fabius,  I.  M.  Ambustus,  was  consul  A.U.C.  393. 
 and  again  several  times  after.     He  fought  against  the 
 Hernici  and  the  Tarquinians,  and  left  several  sons. — 
 II.  Q.  Maximus  Rullianus,  son  of  the  preceding,  at- 
 tacked and  defeated  the  Samnites,  A.U.C.  429,  in  the 
 absence  and   against   the  orders  of  his   commanding 
 officer,  the  Dictator  Papirius,  who  would  have  brought 
 him  to  punishment  for  disobedience,  but  was  prevented 
 by  the  intercession   of  the    soldiers  and   the   people. 
 This  Fabius  was  five  times  consul,  and  dictator  twice. 
 He  triumphed    over   the  Samnites,  Marsi,  Gauls,  and 
 Etrurians.     His   son,  Q.   Fabius  Gurges,  was  thrice 
 consul,  and   was  grandfather  of  Q.  Fabius  Maximus 
 Verrucosus,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  generals  of 
 Rome. — III.   Q.  Maximus  Verrucosus,  the  celebrated 
 opponent  of  Hannibal.     He  is  said  to  have  been  called 
 Verrucosus  from  a  wart  on  his  lip,  verruca  being  the 
 Latin  name  for  "  a  wart."     In  his  first  consuKship  he 
 triumphed  over  the  Ligurians.     After  the  victory  of 
 Hannibal   at   the  Lake  Trasymenus,   he   was   named 
 Prodictator  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  people,  and 
 was  intrusted  with  the  preservation  of  the  republic. 
 The  system  which  he  adopted  to  check  the  adwnce  of 
 Hannibal  is  well  known.     By  a  succession  of  skilfui 
 movements,    marches,    and    countermarches,    alway,s 
 choosing  good  defensive  positions   he  harassed  his  an- 
 ta^onistTwho  could  never  dravv  him  into  ground  fa- 
 vo°urable  for  his  attack,  while  Fabius  watched  every  op- 
 
 Olo 
 
FAIilUS. 
 
 FAB 
 
 portunity  of  availing  himself  of  any  error  or  neglect  on 
 the  part  of  the  Carthaginians.  This  mode  of  warfare, 
 which  was  new  to  the  Romans,  acquired  for  Fabius 
 the  name  of  Cunclalor  or  "  delayer,"  and  was  cen- 
 sured by  the  young,  the  rash,  and  the  ignorant ;  but 
 it  probably  was  the  means  of  saving  Rome  from  ruin. 
 Minucius,  who  shared  with  Fabius  the  command  of  the 
 army,  having  imprudently  engaged  Hannibal,  was 
 saved  from  total  destruction  by  the  timely  assistance 
 of  the  dictator.  In  the  following  year,  however, 
 A.U.C.  536,  Fabius  being  recalled  to  Rome,  the  com- 
 mand of  the  army  was  intrusted  to  the  consul  Teren- 
 tius  Varro,  who  rushed  imprudently  to  battle,  and  the 
 defeat  at  Cannae  made  manifest  the  wisdom  of  the  dic- 
 tator's previous  caution.  Fabius  was  chosen  consul 
 the  next  year,  and  was  again  employed  in  keeping 
 Hannibal  in  check.  In  A.U.C.  543,  being  consul  for 
 the  fifth  time,  he  retook  Tarentum  by  stratagem,  after 
 which  he  narrowly  escaped  being  caught  himself  in  a 
 snare  by  Hannibal  near  Metaponlum.  {Liv  ,  ?7,  15, 
 seq.)  When,  some  years  after,  the  question  was  dis- 
 cussed in  the  senate,  of  sending  Scipio  with  an  army 
 into  Africa,  Fabius  opposed  it,  saying  that  Italy  ought 
 first  to  be  rid  of  Hannibal.  Fabius  died  some  time 
 after  at  a  very  advanced  age.  His  son,  called  likewise 
 Quintus  Fabius  Maximus,  who  had  also  been  consul, 
 died  before  him.  His  grandson  Quintus  Fabius  Max- 
 imus Servilianus,  being  proconsul,  fought  against  Vir- 
 iathus  in  Spain,  and  concluded  vvith  him  an  honour- 
 able peace.  {Livy,  Epit.,  54.)  He  was  afterward 
 consul  repeatedly,  and  also  censor.  He  wrote  An- 
 nals, which  are  quoted  by  Macrobius.  {Sat.,  1,  16.) 
 His  brother  by  adoption,  Quintus  Fabius  Maximus 
 ^milianus,  the  son  of  Pauhis  ^milius  {Liv.,  45,41), 
 was  consul  A.U.C.  609,  and  vv'as  the  father  of  Fabius, 
 called  Allobrogicus,  who  subdued  not  only  the  Allo- 
 broges,  but  also  the  people  of  southern  Gaul,  which  he 
 reduced  into  a  Roman  province,  called  from  that  time 
 Provincia.  Quintus  Fabius  Maximus,  a  grandson  of 
 Fabius  Maximus  Servilianus,  served  in  Spain  under 
 Julius  Ca?sar,  and  was  made  consul  A.U.C.  709.  Two 
 of  his  sons  or  nephews  were  consuls  in  succes- 
 sion under  Augustus.  There  was  also  a  Fabius  con- 
 sul under  Tiberius.  Panvinius  and  others  have  reck- 
 >oncd  that,  during  a  period  of  about  five  centuries,  from 
 the  time  of  the  first  Fabius  who  is  mentioned  as  con- 
 sul, to  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  forty-eight  consulships, 
 seven  dictatorships,  eight  censorships,  seven  augur- 
 ships,  besides  the  offices  of  master  of  the  horse  and 
 military  tribune  with  consular  power,  were  filled  by 
 individuals  of  the  Fabian  house.  It  could  also  boast 
 of  thirteen  triumphs  and  two  ovations.  {Augusiimis 
 de  Familiis  Romanorum. — Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol. 
 10,  p.  151  ) — IV.  A  loquacious  personage  alluded  to 
 by  Horace  {Sat.,  1,  1,  14).— V.  Pictor,  the  first  Ro- 
 man who  wrote  an  historical  account  of  his  country. 
 This  historian,  called  by  Livy  scriptorum  ontiquissi- 
 mus,  appears  to  have  been  wretchedly  qualified  for  the 
 labour  he  had  undertaken,  either  in  point  of  judgment, 
 fidelity,  or  research  ;  and  to  his  carelessness  and  inac- 
 curacy, more  than  even  to  the  loss  of  monuments,  may 
 be  attributed  the  painful  uncertainty  which  to  this  day 
 hangs  over  the  early  ages  of  Roman  history.  Fabius 
 lived  in  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war.  The  fam- 
 ily received  its  cognomen  from  Caius  Fabius,  who,  hav- 
 ing resided  in  Etruria,  and  there  acquired  some  knowl- 
 edge of  the  fine  arts,  painted  with  figures  the  temple 
 of  Salus,  in  the  year  of  the  city  450.  The  historian 
 was  grandson  of  the  painter.  He  served  in  the  second 
 Punic  war,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Trasy- 
 menus.  After  the  defeat  at  Cannse,  he  was  sent  by 
 the  senate  to  inquire  from  the  oracle  at  Delphi  what 
 would  be  the  issue  of  the  war,  and  to  learn  by  what 
 supplications  the  wrath  of  the  gods  might  be  appeased. 
 His  annals  commenced  with  the  foundation  of  the  city 
 and  the  antiquities  of  Italy,  and  brought  down  the  se- 
 514 
 
 ries  of  Roman  affairs  to  the  author's  own  time,  that  is, 
 to  the  end  of  the  second  Punic  war.  We  are  inform- 
 ed by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  that,  for  the  great 
 proportion  of  tlie  events  which  preceded  his  own  age, 
 Fabius  Pictor  had  no  better  authority  than  vulgar  tra- 
 dition. He  probably  found,  that,  if  he  had  confined 
 himself  to  what  was  certain  in  these  early  times,  his 
 history  would  have  become  dry,  insipid,  and  incom- 
 plete. This  may  have  induced  him  to  adopt  the  fa- 
 bles, which  the  Greek  historians  had  invented  concern- 
 ing the  origin  of  Rome,  and  to  insert  whatever  he 
 found  in  family  traditions,  however  contradictory  or 
 uncertain.  Dionysius  has  also  given  us  many  exam- 
 ples of  his  improbable  narratives,  his  inconsistencies, 
 his  negligence  in  investigating  the  truth  of  what  he  re- 
 lates as  facts,  and  his  inaccuracy  in  chronology.  In 
 particular,  as  we  are  told  by  Plutarch  in  his  life  of 
 Romulus,  Fabius  followed  an  obscure  Greek  author, 
 Diodes  the  Peparethian,  in  his  account  of  the  founda- 
 tion of  Rome,  and  from  this  tainted  source  have  flowed 
 all  the  stories  concerning  Mars,  the  Vestal,  the  Wolf, 
 Romulus,  and  Remus.  He  is  even  guilty  of  inaccu- 
 rate and  prejudiced  statements  in  relation  to  the  affairs 
 of  his  own  time  ;  and  Polybius,  who  flourished  shortly 
 after  those  times,  and  was  at  pains  to  inform  himself 
 accurately  concerning  all  the  events  of  the  second  Pu- 
 nic war,  apologizes  for  quoting  Fabius  on  one  occasion 
 as  an  authority,  and,  at  the  same  time,  strongly  express- 
 es his  opinion  of  his  violations  of  truth  and  his  gross 
 inconsistencies.  The  account  here  given  of  this  writer 
 is  rather  confirmed  by  the  few  fragments  that  remain 
 of  his  work,  which  are  trifling  and  childish  in  the  ex- 
 treme.   {Dunlop's  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  117,  scqq.) 
 
 Fabrateru,  a  town  of  Latium,  on  the  river  Liri-s 
 and  near  its  junction  with  the  Trerus.  The  modern 
 name  is  Fahaterra.  This  town  appears  at  first  to 
 have  belonged  to  the  Volsci,  but  as  early  as  424 
 A.U.C.  it  placed  itself  under  the  protection  of  Rome. 
 {Liv.,8,  19.) 
 
 Fabricius,  Caius,  surnamed  Luscinus,  was  consul 
 for  the  first  time  in  the  year  471  of  Rome,  283  B.C., 
 when  he  triumphed  over  the  Boii  and  Etrurians.  Af- 
 ter the  defeat  of  the  Romans,  under  the  consul  Lsevi- 
 nus,  by  Pyrrhus  (B.C.  281),  Fabricius  was  sent  by  the 
 senate  as  legate  to  the  king,  to  treat  for  the  ransom  of 
 the  prisoners,  or,  according  to  others,  to  propose  terms 
 of  peace.  Pyrrhus  is  said  to  have  endeavoured  to 
 bribe  him  by  large  offers,  which  Fabricius,  poor  as  he 
 was,  rejected  with  scorn,  to  the  great  admiration  of  the 
 king.  Fabricius  being  again  consul,  B.C.  279,  was 
 sent  against  Pyrrhus,  who  was  then  encamped  near 
 Tarentum.  The  physician  of  the  king  is  said  to  have 
 come  secretly  to  the  Roman  camp,  and  to  have  pro- 
 posed to  Fabricius  to  poison  his  master  for  a  bribe. 
 The  consul,  indignant  at  this,  had  him  put  in  fetters, 
 and  sent  back  to  Pvrrhus,  on  whom  this  instance  of 
 Roman  integrity  made  a  strong  impression.  Pyrrhus 
 soon  after  sailed  for  Sicily,  whither  he  was  called  by 
 the  Syracusans,  then  hard  pressed  by  the  Carthagini- 
 ans. Fabricius,  having  defeated  the  Samnites,  Luca- 
 nians,  and  Brutii,  who  had  joined  Pyrrhus  against 
 Rome,  triumphed  over  these  nations.  Pyrrhus  after- 
 ward returning  to  Italy,  was  finally  defeated  and  driven 
 away  by  M.  Curius  Dentatus,  B.C.  276.  Two  years 
 after,  Fabricius  being  consul  for  the  third  time,  with 
 Claudius  Cinna  for  his  colleague,  ambassadors  came 
 from  King  Ptolemy  of  Egypt  to  contract  an  alliance 
 with  Rome. — Several  instances  are  related  of  the  ex- 
 treme frugality  and  simplicity  which  marked  the  man- 
 ners of  Fabricius.  When  censor,  he  dismissed  from 
 the  senate  P.  Cornelius  Rufinus,  who  had  been  twice 
 consul,  and  had  also  held  the  dictatorship,  because  he 
 had  in  his  possession  ten  pounds'  weight  of  silver  plate. 
 Fabricius  died  poor,  and  the  senate  was  obliged  to 
 make  provision  for  his  daughters.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Pyrrh. — 
 Liv.jEpit.,  I3etli. — Enc.  Us.  KnowL, \.  10,  p.  153.) 
 
FAL 
 
 FALERNUS  AGER. 
 
 F^suL^E,  now  Fiesoli,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Elruria, 
 outheast  of  Pistoria,  whence  it  is  said  the  augurs 
 passed  to  Rome.  Catiline  made  it  a  place  of  arms. 
 The  Goths,  when  they  entered  Italy  under  the  consu- 
 late of  Stilichoand  Aurelian,  A.D.  400,  were  defeated 
 in  its  vicinity.  {Cic.  pro  Mar.,  24. — Sil.  Ital.,  8,  478. 
 Sallust,  Cat.,  27.) 
 
 Falcidia  Lex,  proposed  by  the  tribune  Falcidius, 
 A.U.G.  713,  enacted  that  the  testator  should  leave  at 
 least  the  fourth  part  of  his  fortune  to  the  person  whom 
 he  named  his  heir.     {Dio  Cass.,  48,  33.) 
 
 Falekia,  a  town  of  Picenum,  southwest  of  Firmum, 
 now  FaUcroni.     {Plin.,  3,  13.) 
 
 Falerii  (or  ium),  a  city  of  Etruria,  southwest  of 
 Fescennium,  and  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Falisci, 
 so  well  known  from  their  connexion  with  the  early  his- 
 tory of  Rome.  Much  uncertainty  seems  to  have  ex- 
 isted respecting  the  ancient  site  of  this  place  ;  but  it 
 is  now  well  ascertained  that  it  occupied  the  posi- 
 tion of  the  present  Civita  Caslclluna.  Cluver,  and 
 after  him  Holstenius  {ad  Steph.  By::.,  p.  67),  have 
 satisfactorily  established  this  point.  The  doubt  seems 
 to  have  originated  in  the  notion  that  there  was  a  city 
 named  Faliscum,  as  well  as  Falerii.  {Slrabo,  226.) 
 The  situation  of  the  ancient  Falerii  is  made  to  agree 
 with  that  of  Civita  Castellana,  from  the  language  of 
 Plutarch  {Vit.  Camill.)  and  Zonaras  (^m«.,  2),  who 
 both  describe  it  as  placed  on  a  lofty  summit ;  and  the 
 latter  states  that  the  old  town  was  destroyed,  and  a 
 new  one  built  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  This  fact  is  con- 
 firmed by  the  identity  of  the  new  Falerii  with  the 
 church  of  St.  Maria  Falaii,  on  the  track  of  the  Fla- 
 minian  way,  where  the  Itineraries  place  that  city. 
 We  learn,  too,  from  Pliny  (3,  5),  that  Falerii  became 
 a  colony  under  the  name  of  Falisca,  a  circumstance 
 which  sufficiently  reconciles  the  apparent  contradic- 
 tion in  the  accounts  of  this  city.  {Front.,  de  Col.,  p. 
 130.)  Falerii,  according  to  Dionysius  of  Halicarnas- 
 sus  (1,  21),  belonged  at  first  to  the  Siculi  ;  but  these 
 were  succeeded  by  the  Pelasgi,  to  whom  the  Greek 
 fofm  of  its  name  is  doubtless  to  be  ascribed,  as  well 
 as  the  temple  and  rites  of  the  Argive  Juno,  and  other 
 indications  of  a  Grecian  origin  which  were  observed 
 by  that  historian,  and  with  which  Ovid,  who  had  mar- 
 ried a  lady  of  this  city,  seems  also  to  have  been  struck, 
 though  he  has  followed  the  less  authentic  tradition, 
 which  ascribed  the  foundation  of  Falerii  to  Ilalesus, 
 son  of  Agamemnon.  {Am.,  3,  13.  —  Fast.,  4,  73.) 
 The  early  wars  of  the  Falisci  with  Rome  are  chiefly 
 detailed  in  the  fifth  book  of  Livy,  where  the  celebra- 
 ted story  of  Camillus  and  the  schoolmaster  of  Falerii 
 occurs.  When  the  Roman  commander  was  besie- 
 ging this  place,  the  schoolmaster  of  the  city  (since  the 
 higher  classes  of  Falerii  had  a  public  one  for  the  com- 
 mon education  of  their  children)  committed  a  most 
 disgraceful  and  treacherous  act.  Having  led  his  schol- 
 ars forth,  day  after  day,  under  pretence  of  taking  ex- 
 ercise, and  each  time  farther  from  the  city  walls,  he 
 at  last  suddenly  brought  them  within  reach  of  the  Ro- 
 man outposts,  and  surrendered  them  all  to  Camillus. 
 Indignant  at  the  baseness  of  the  deed,  the  Roman  gen- 
 eral ordered  his  lictors  to  strip  the  delinquent,  tie  his 
 hands  behind  hiin,  and  supply  the  boys  with  rods  and 
 scourges  to  punish  the  traitor,  and  whip  him  into  the 
 city.  This  generous  act  on  the  part  of  Camillus  pro- 
 duced so  strong  an  impression  on  the  minds  of  the  in- 
 habitants, that  they  immediately  sent  ambassadors  to 
 treat  of  a  surrender  {Liv.  .5,  27. — Compare  Val.  Max., 
 6,  5. — Front.,  Slrat ,  5,  4).  It  was  not,  however,  till 
 the  third  year  after  the  first  Punic  war  that  this  people 
 was  finally  reduced.  {Folybius,  1,  65. — Livy,  Epit., 
 19. — Oros.,  4,  11.)  The  waters  of  the  Faliscan  ter- 
 ritory were  supposed,  like  those  of  the  Clitumnus,  to 
 have  the  peculiar  property  of  communicating  a  white 
 colour  to  cattle.  {Plin.,  2,  103.  —  Cramer's  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  226.) 
 
 Fai-ernus  Acer,  a  part  of  Italy  famed  for  its  wine. 
 Few  portions  of  the  Italian  peninsula  were  unfriendly 
 to  the  vine,  but  it  flourished  most  in  that  tract  of  the 
 southwestern  coast  to  which,  from  its  extraordinary 
 fertility  and  delightful  climate,  the  name  of  Campania 
 Felix  was  given.  Some  doubt  concerning  the  extent 
 of  the  appellation  seems  to  exist ;  but  Pliny  and  Strabo 
 confine  it  to  the  level  country  reaching  from  Sinuessa 
 to  the  promontory  of  Sorrento,  and  including  the 
 Campi  i.aborini,  from  whence  the  present  name  of 
 Terra  di  Lavoro  has  arisen.  In  ancient  times,  in- 
 deed, the  hills  by  which  the  surface  is  diversified  seem 
 to  have  been  one  continued  vineyard.  Falernus  is 
 spoken  of  by  Florus  as  a  mountain,  and  Martial  de- 
 scribes it  under  the  same  title  ;  but  Pliny,  Polybius, 
 and  others,  denominate  it  a  field  or  territory  [aircr) ; 
 and,  as  the  best  growths  were  styled  indiscriminately 
 Massicum  and  Falernum  {vinum),  it  is  thought  that 
 Massicus  was  the  proper  appellation  of  the  hills  which 
 arose  from  the  Falernian  plain.  The  truth  seems  to 
 be,  that  the  choicest  wines  were  produced  ou  the 
 southern  declivities  of  the  range  of  hills  which  com- 
 mence in  the  neighbourhood  of  ancient  Sinuessa,  and 
 extend  to  a  considerable  distance  inland,  and  which 
 may  have  taken  their  general  name  from  the  town  or 
 district  of  Falernus  ;  but  the  most  conspicuous  or  the 
 best  exposed  among  them  may  have  been  the  Massic  ; 
 and  as,  in  process  of  time,  several  inferior  growths 
 were  confounded  under  the  common  denomination  of 
 Falernian,  correct  writers  would  choose  that  epithet 
 which  most  accurately  denoted  the  finest  vintage.  If 
 we  are  to  judge,  however,  by  the  analogy  of  mcdeni 
 names,  the  question  of  locality  will  be  quickly  decided, 
 as  the  mountain  which  is  generally  allowed  to  point  to 
 the  site  of  ancient  Sinuessa  is  still  known  by  the  name 
 of  Monte  Massico.  Pliny's  account  of  the  wines  of 
 Campania  is  the  most  circumstantial.  {Pirn.,  14,  6.) 
 "  Augustus,  and  most  of  the  leading  men  of  his  time," 
 observes  this  writer,  "  gave  the  preference  to  the  Se- 
 line  wine  that  was  grown  in  the  vineyards  above  For- 
 um Appii,  as  being  of  all  kinds  the  least  calculated  to 
 injure  the  stomach.  Formerly  the  Csecuban  wine, 
 which  came  from  the  poplar  marshes  of  Amyclae,  was 
 most  esteemed,  but  it  has  lost  its  repute  through  the 
 negligence  of  the  growers,  and  partly  from  the  limited 
 extent  of  the  vineyards,  which  have  been  nearly  de- 
 stroyed by  the  navigable  canal  begun  by  Nero  from 
 Avernus  to  Ostia.  The  second  rank  used  to  be  as- 
 signed to  the  growths  of  the  Falernian  territory,  and 
 among  them  chiefly  to  the  Faustianum.  The  territory 
 of  Falernus  begins  from  the  Campanian  bridge,  on  the 
 left  hand,  as  you  go  to  Urbana.  The  Faustian  vine- 
 yards are  situate  about  4  miles  from  the  village,  in  the 
 vicinity  of  Cedise,  which  village  is  six  miles  from  Sin- 
 uessa. The  wines  produced  on  this  soil  owe  their 
 celebrity  to  the  great  care  and  attention  bestowed  on 
 their  manufacture  ;  but  latterly  they  have  somewhat 
 degenerated,  owing  to  the  rapacity  of  the  farmers,  who 
 are  usually  more  intent  upon  the  quant«y  than  the 
 quality  of  their  vintage.  They  continue,  however,  in 
 the  greatest  esteem,  and  are,  perhaps,  the  strongest  of 
 all  wines,  as  they  burn  when  approached  by  a  flame. 
 There  are  three  kinds,  the  dry,  the  light,  and  the 
 sweet  Falernian.  The  grapes  of  which  the  wine  is 
 made  are  unpleasant  to  the  taste."  From  this  and 
 other  accounts,  it  appears  that  the  Falernian  wme  was 
 strong  and  durable;  so  rough  in  its  recent  state  as  not 
 to  be  drunk  with  pleasure,  and  requiring  to  be  kept 
 many  years  before  it  grew  mellow.  Horace  calls  it  a 
 fiery  wine  ;  Persius,  indomitum,  i.  e.,  possessing  very 
 heady  qualities.  According  to  Galen,  the  best  was 
 that  from  10  to  20  years  ;  after  this  period  it  became 
 bitter.     Among  the  wines  of  the  present  day,  Xcres 
 
 and  Madeira  most  closely  approximate  to  the  Faler- 
 nian of  old,  though  the  difference  IS  still  very  consid- 
 I.   «in.P  the  ancient  wines  of  Italy  and  Greece 
 
 515 
 
 erable,  since  the  ancient 
 
FAU 
 
 FAU 
 
 were  usually  mixed  with  certain  quantities  of  pitch, 
 aromatic  herbs,  sea- water,  &c.,  which  must  have  com- 
 municated to  ihcm  a  taste  that  we,  at  least,  should 
 consider  very  unpalatable.  Among  the  ancient,  and 
 especially  the  Greek  wines,  it  was  no  uncommon 
 thing  for  an  age  of  more  than  20  years  to  leave  no- 
 thing in  the  vessel  but  a  thick  and  bitter  mixture,  ari- 
 sing, no  doubt,  from  the  substances  with  which  the 
 wine  had  been  medicated.  We  have  an  exception, 
 however,  to  this,  in  the  wine  made  in  Italy  during  the 
 consulship  of  Opimius,  A.U.C.  633,  which  was  to  be 
 met  with  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  nearly  200  years  after. 
 This  may  have  been  owing  to  the  peculiar  qualities  of 
 that  vintage,  since  we  are  informed  that,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  great  warmth  of  the  summer  in  that 
 year,  all  the  productions  of  the  earth  attained  an  ex- 
 traordinary degree  of  perfection.  Vid.  Caccubus  Ager. 
 (Henderson'' s  History  of  ancient  and  modern  Wines,  p. 
 81,  seqq.) 
 
 Falisci,  a  people  of  Etruria.     {Vid.  Falerii.) 
 
 Faliscus  Gratius.      Vid.  Gratius. 
 
 Fannia  Lex,  dc  Sumptibus,  enacted  A.U.C.  588. 
 It  limited  the  expenses  of  one  day,  at  festivals,  to  100 
 asses,  whence  the  law  is  called  by  Lucilius  Cenlussis; 
 on  ten  other  days  every  month  to  30,  and  on  all  other 
 days  to  10  asses  :  also,  that  no  other  fowl  should  be 
 served  up  except  one  hen,  and  that  not  fattened  for  the 
 purpose.     {Aul.  GelL,  2,  24.— ilfrtcro J.,  Sat.,  2,  13.) 
 
 Fannius,  an  inferior  poet,  ridiculed  by  Horace 
 (Sat;  1,  4,  21).  It  seems  the  legacy-hunters  of  the 
 day  carried  his  writings  and  bust  to  the  liBrary  of  the 
 Palatine  Apollo,  a  compliment  only  paid  to  produc- 
 tions of  merit.  The  satirist  remarks,  that  this  was 
 unasked  for  on  the  part  of  Fannius  {ultra  delatis  cap- 
 sis  ct  imag27ie) ;  an  expression  of  double  import,  since 
 ultra  may  also  contain  a  sly  allusion  to  the  absence  of 
 all  mental  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  poet.  {Schol.  et 
 Heindorf,  ad  Horat.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Fanum  Vacun^,  a  temple  of  Vacuna,  in  the  vicin- 
 ity of  Horace's  Sabine  villa.  {Hor.,  Ep.,  1,  10,  49.) 
 It  is  supposed  to  have  stood  on  the  summit  of  Rocca 
 Giovanc. 
 
 Farfaris.     Vid.  Fabaris. 
 
 Fauna,  a  goddess  of  the  Latins.  According  to  the 
 old  Roman  legends,  by  which  all  the  Italian  deities 
 were  originally  mortals,  she  was  the  daughter  of  Picus, 
 and  the  sister  and  wife  of  Faunus.  One  account  makes 
 her  to  have  never  left  her  bower,  or  let  herself  be  seen 
 of  men;  and  to  have  been  deified  for  this  reason,  be- 
 coming identical  with  the  Bona  Dea,  and  no  man  be- 
 ing allowed  to  enter  her  temple.  {Macrob.,  1,  12.) 
 According  to  another  tradition,  she  was  not  only  re- 
 markable for  her  modesty,  but  also  for  her  extensive 
 and  varied  knowledge.  Having,  however,  on  one  oc- 
 casion, made  free  with  the  contents  of  a  jar  of  wine, 
 she  was  beaten  to  death  by  her  husband  with  myrtle- 
 twigs  !  Repenting,  however,  soon  after  of  tlie  deed,  he 
 bestowed  on  her  divine  honours.  Hence,  in  the  cele- 
 ])ration  of  her  sacred  riles,  myrtle  boughs  were  care- 
 fully excluded ;  nor  was  any  wine  allowed  to  be 
 brought,  under  that  name,  into  her  temple  ;  but  it  was 
 called  "  honey,"  and  the  vessel  containing  it  also  was 
 termed  mc.Uarium  (scil.  vas),  i.  e.,  "a  honey-jar." 
 (Consult  Macrob..  Sat.,  1,  12,  and  Spangenberg,  dc 
 Vet.  Lat.  Relig.  Domest.,  p.  64,  where  other  versions 
 of  the  story  are  given.)  Fauna  is  said  to  have  given 
 oracles  from  her  temple  after  death,  which  circum- 
 stance, according  to  some,  affords  an  etymology  for 
 the  name  Fahia  or  FatucUa,  which  was  often  borne 
 by  her  (from /ari,  "to  declare").  A  different  explana- 
 tion, however,  is  given  in  Macrobius  {Labeo,  ap.  Ma- 
 '  crob.,  Sat.,  1,  12). — There  can  be  little  doubt  but  that 
 Fauna  is  identical  not  only  with  the  Bona  Dea,  but 
 with  Terra,  Tellus,  and  Ops  ;  in  other  words,  with  the 
 Earth  personified.  {Macrob.,  I.  c.)  The  name  ap- 
 pears to  come  from  (pdu,  (pavu,  connected  with  which 
 516 
 
 are  <f>avaKu  and  (j>aivc),  "  to  bring  forth  into  the  hght," 
 "to  cause  to  appear."  {Creuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  I, 
 p.  51,  not. — Spangenberg,  I.  c.) 
 
 FaunalTa,  festivals  at  Rome  in  honour  of  Faunus. 
 They  were  celebrated  on  the  13th  of  February,  or  the 
 ides  of  the  month.  On  this  same  day  occurred  the 
 slaughter  of  the  Fabii.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  2,  193,  seqq.) 
 There  was  another  festival  of  the  same  name,  which 
 was  celebrated  on  the  nones  (5th)  of  December. 
 {Horat.,  Od.,  3,  18.) 
 
 Fauni,  certain  deities  of  the  country,  represented 
 as  having  the  legs,  feet,  and  ears  of  goats,  and  the  rest 
 of  the  body  human.  The  peasants  offered  them  a 
 lamb  or  a  kid  with  great  solemnity.  When  the  spring 
 brought  back  new  life  to  the  fields,  the  vivid  imagina- 
 tion of  the  ancient  poets  saw  them  animated  by  the 
 presence  of  these  frolic  divinities,  and  hence,  no  doubt, 
 the  origin  of  their  name,  from  the  Greek  (jiuo  or  (pavu 
 ("  to  show  forth,''''  "  to  display  to  the  vieiv'"),  the  Fauns 
 being,  if  the  expression  be  allowed,  the  rays  of  the 
 genial  spring-light  personified.  {Creuzer,  Symbolik, 
 vol.  2,  p.  921.) — The  Fauns  of  the  Latin  mythology 
 are  somewhat  analogous  to  the  Satyrs  of  the  Greeks. 
 There  are  points,  however,  in  which  the  ancient  art- 
 ists made  them  differ  as  to  appearance.  The  Fauns 
 are  generally  represented  as  young  and  frolic  of  mien; 
 their  faces  are  round,  expressive  of  merriment,  and 
 not  without  an  occasional  mixture  of  mischief.  The 
 Satyrs,  on  the  contrary,  bear  strong  resemblance  to 
 different  quadrupeds  ;  their  faces  and  figures  partake 
 of  the  ape,  the  ram,  or  the  goat ;  they  have  sometimes 
 goats'  legs,  but  always  either  goats'  or  horses'  tails. 
 (^Flaxman,  Lectures  on  Sculpture,  p.  152.)  Accord- 
 ing to  Lanzi,  there  is,  in  general,  in  the  lower  limbs 
 of  the  Faun,  more  of  the  goat,  in  those  of  the  Satyr 
 more  of  the  horse.  {Vasi,  p.  98,  seqq.  —  Compare 
 Visconti,  Mus.  Pio- Clement.,  vol.  3,  p.  54,  seq. — 
 Virg.,  G.,  1,  10.— Ovid,  Met.,  6,  392.) 
 
 Faunus,  a  rural  deity  of  the  ancient  Latins,  resem- 
 ling  the  Grecian  Pan,  to  whom  he  is  not  very  dissimi- 
 lar in  name,  and  with  whom  he  was  often  identified. 
 {Ovid,  Fast.,  2,  A2i.— Id.  ib.,  4,  650.  — Herat.,  Od., 
 1,  17,  1.)  Indeed,  some  writers  think  that  his  wor- 
 ship was  originally  Pelasgic,  and  was  brought  by  this 
 race  from  Arcadia,  the  well-known  centre  of  the  wor- 
 ship of  Pan.  (Compare  Creuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  3, 
 p.  203.)  Faunus  was  held  to  have  the  power  of  tell- 
 ing the  future.  {Ovid,  I.  c. — Virg.,  JEn.,  7,81,  seq.) 
 In  later  times  he  was  mortalized,  like  all  the  other 
 Italian  gods,  and  was  said  to  have  been  a  just  and 
 brave  king,  greatly  devoted  to  agriculture,  the  son  of 
 Picus  and  father  of  Latinus.  {Virg.,  jEn.,  7,  47. — 
 Probus,  Geor.,  I,  10.)  Like  Pan,  too,  he  was  multi- 
 plied ;  and  as  there  were  Pans,  so  we  also  meet  abun- 
 dant mention  of  Fauns.  {Vid.  Fauni.)  The  poets 
 gave  to  Faunus  the  same  personal  attributes  as  they 
 did  to  the  Fauns,  making  his  shape  half  human,  half 
 that  of  a  goat.  As  Fauna  was  nothing  more  than  the 
 Earth  (  Vid.  Fauna),  so  Faunus  appears  to  be  the  same 
 with  Tellumo.  {Spangenberg,  de  Vet.  Lat.  Rel.  Dom., 
 p.  63. — Hcyne,  Excuts.,  5,  ad.  Mn.,  7. — Ruperli,  ad 
 Juv.,  8,  131. — Antias,  ap.  Arnob.  adv.  gent.,  5,  1,  p. 
 483.— C;Y7/icr's  Symbolik,  vol.  3,  p.  203.) 
 
 Favorixus.      Vid.  Phavorinus. 
 
 Fausta,  I.  daughter  of  Sylla,  married  Milo  the 
 friend  of  Cicero.  She  disgraced  herself  by  a  criminal 
 affair  with  the  historian  Sallust.  {Herat.,  Sat.,  1,  2. 
 41. — Schol.  Cruq.  et  Acr.,  ad  he.) — II.  Daughter  of 
 Maximian,  and  wife  of  Constantino  the  Great.  When 
 her  father  wished  her  to  join  him  in  a  plot  for  assassi- 
 nating her  husband,  she-discovered  the  whole  affair  to 
 the  latter.  After  exercising  the  most  complete  ascend- 
 ancy over  the  mind  of  her  husband,  she  was  eventually 
 put  to  death  by  him,  on  his  discovering  the  falsity  of  a 
 charge  which  she  had  made  against  Crispus,  the  son 
 of  Constantine  by  a  previous  marriage.    {Amm.  Mar- 
 
FEL 
 
 FER 
 
 cell ,  14,  1. — Crevier,  Hist,  dcs  Emp.  Rom.,  vol.  6,  p. 
 356.) 
 
 Faustina,  I.  Annia  Galeria,  daughter  of  Annius 
 Verus,  prefect  of  Rome.  She  married  Antoninus  be- 
 fore his  adoption  by  Hadrian,  and  died  in  the  third 
 year  of  her  husband's  reign,  36  years  of  age.  She  was 
 notorious  for  her  licentiousness,  and  yet  her  husband 
 appeared  bhnd  to  her  frailties,  and  after  her  death  even 
 accorded  unto  her  divine  honours.  Her  effigy  appears 
 on  a  large  number  of  medals.  {Dio  Cass.,  17,  30. — 
 CapiloL,  Vit.  Anton.  P.,  c.  3.) — II.  Annia,  or  the 
 Younger,  daughter  of  the  preceding,  married  her  cousin 
 Marcus  Aurelius,  and  died  A.D.  176,  in  a  village  of 
 Cappadocia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus,  on  her  hus- 
 band's return  from  Syria.  She  is  represented  by  Dio 
 Gassius  and  Gapitolinus  as  even  more  profligate  in  her 
 conduct  than  her  mother;  and  yet  Marcus,  in  his  Med- 
 itations (1,  17),  extols  her  obedience,  simplicity,  and 
 affection.  Her  daughter  Lucilla  married  Lucius  Ve- 
 rus, whom  Marcus  Aurelius  associated  with  him  in  the 
 empire,  and  her  son  Commodus  succeeded  his  father 
 as  emperor.  {CapiloL,  Vit.  Ant.  Phil.,  c.  19.)  Mar- 
 chand  {Mcrcure  de  Fiance,  1745)  and  Wieland  have  at- 
 tempted to  clear  this  princess  of  the  imputations  against 
 her  character.  {Encydop.  Use.  Knowledge,  vol.  10, 
 p.  209.) 
 
 Faustitas,  a  goddess  among  the  Romans,  supposed 
 to  preside  over  cattle,  and  the  productions  of  the  sea- 
 sons generally.  Faustitas  is  frequently  equivalent  to 
 the  Felicitas  Temporum  of  the  Roman  medals.  {Ho- 
 rat.,  Od.,  4,  5,  17.) 
 
 Faustulus,  the  name  of  the  shepherd  who,  in  the 
 old  Roman  legend,  found  Romulus  and  Remus  getting 
 suckled  by  the  she-wolf.  He  took  both  the  children 
 to  his  home  and  brought  thern  up.  (Fid.  Romulus, 
 and  Roma.) 
 
 Febroalia,  a  feast  at  Rome  of  purification  and 
 atonement,  in  the  month  of  February  :  it  continued 
 for  12  days.  The  month  of  February,  which,  together 
 with  January,  was  added  by  Numa  to  the  ten  months 
 constituting  the  year  of  Romulus,  derived  its  name 
 from  this  general  expiatory  festival,  the  people  being 
 then  purified  {februali)  from  the  sins  of  the  whole  year. 
 (Ovid,  Fast.,  2,  19.)  Some,  however,  deduce  the 
 name  Fchruarius  from  the  old  Latin  word  fiber,  men- 
 tioned by  Varro  (L.  L.,  4,  13),  and  meaning  the  "  end" 
 or  "  extremity"  of  anything,  whence  comes  the  term 
 fimbria,  "  the  hem  or  edge  of  a  garment."  In  this 
 sense,  therefore,  February  will  have  been  so  called  from 
 its  having  been  the  last  month  in  the  earlier  Roman 
 year.  (Nark,  Etymol.  Handwort.,  vol.  1,  p.  338.) 
 
 Felix,  M.  Antonius,  I.  a  Roman  governor  of  Ju- 
 dasa,  who  succeeded  in  office  Cumanus,  after  the  latter 
 had  been  exiled  for  malversation.  (Josephus,  Ant. 
 .Tud.,  20,  6.)  He  was  the  brother  of  the  freedman 
 Pallas,  the  favourite  of  Claudius.  On  reaching  his 
 government,  A.D.  53,  Felix  became  enamoured  of  the 
 beautiful  Drusilla,  daughter  of  Agrippa,  at  that  time 
 married  to  Azizus,  king  of  Ernesa ;  and  by  dint  of 
 magnificent  promises,  and  through  the  intervention  of 
 a  reputed  sorcerer  named  Simon,  he  succeeded  in  de- 
 tacliing  her  from  her  husband,  and  in  making  her  his 
 own  wife.  Josephus  charges  this  governor  {Ant.  Jud., 
 20,  8)  with  having  caused  the  assassination  of  the  high- 
 priest  Jonathas,  to  whom,  in  a  great  measure,  he  owed 
 his  place.  Felix,  it  seems,  wished  to  rid  himself  of  one 
 who  was  continually  remonstrating  with  him  about  the 
 oppression  of  his  government.  And  yet  the  Roman 
 governor  proved  in  one  instance  of  considerable  bene- 
 fit to  tliose  under  his  charge,  by  delivering  them  from 
 the  robbers  who  had  previously  infested  their  country. 
 (Joseph.,  I  :.)  It  was  before  this  Felix  that  St.  Paul 
 appeared  at  Caesarea,  on  that  memorable  occasion 
 when  the  startling  subjects  discussed  by  the  apostle 
 made  the  corrupt  Roman  tremble  on  his  judgment-seat. 
 iAcLs,  24, 25.)     Two  years  after,  this  Felix  was  suc- 
 
 ceeded by  Porcius  Festus,  and  left  Paul  still  in  prison, 
 in  order  to  please  the  Jews.  The  latter,  however,  sent 
 a  deputation  to  Rome  to  accuse  him  of  various  mal- 
 practices, but  he  was  screened  from  punishment  by  the 
 influence  of  his  brother  Pallas  with  iS'ero,  who  had  suc- 
 ceeded Claudius  on  the  imperial  throne.  {Joseph.,  Ant. 
 Jud.,  20,  8.) — II.  A  native  of  Rome,  who  succeeded 
 Dionysius  the  Calabrian  as  bishop  of  that  city,  A.D. 
 271,  and  suffered  martyrdom  in  275.  He  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  Eutychianus,  bishop  of  Luna.  There  is  ex- 
 tant an  epistle  of  Felix  to  Maximus,  bishop  of  Alex- 
 andrea,  against  Paul  of  Samosata. — III.  A  bishop  of 
 Rome,  the  second  of  the  name  in  the  list  of  Popes, 
 though  some  call  him  Felix  III.,  on  account  of  an  an- 
 ti-pope who  assumed  the  title  of  Felix  II.  in  the  schism 
 against  Liberius  (A.D.  355-66).  He  succeeded  Sim- 
 plicius  A.D.  483.  Felix  had  a  dispute,  upon  ques- 
 tions of  ecclesiastical  supremacy,  with  .\cacius,  bishop 
 of  Constantinople,  who  was  supported  by  the  emperor 
 and  most  of  the  eastern  clergy,  in  consequence  of  which 
 a  schism  ensued  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches. 
 Felix  died  A.D.  492,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gelasius 
 I.  He  was  canonized  by  the  Romish  church.  (Con- 
 sult Moreri,  Diet.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  503.) 
 
 Felsina,  an  Etrurian  city  in  Gallia  Cisalpina,  after- 
 ward called  Bononia,  and  now  Bologna.  Pliny  (3, 
 15)  makes  it  to  have  been  the  principal  seat  of  the 
 Tuscans  ;  but  this  must  be  understood  to  apply  only 
 with  reference  to  the  cities  founded  by  that  nation 
 north  of  the  Apennines.  Bononia  received  a  Roman 
 colony  653  A.U.C.  {Liv.,  37,  57.  — Veil.  Paterc,  1, 
 15.)  Frequent  mention  of  this  city  is  made  in  the 
 civil  wars.  {Cic.,Ep.ad  Fa.m.,  11,  '\Z.—Id.  ib.,  12,  5. 
 — Appian,  4,  2.)  As  it  had  suffered  considerably  du- 
 ring this  period,  it  was  restored  and  aggrandized  by 
 Augustus  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  and  continued  to 
 rank  high  among  the  great  cities  of  Italy.  {Tacit., 
 Hist.,  2,  b'S.—Straho,  ^16.— Pomp.  Mel.,  2,  i.—Cra- 
 mefs  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  88.) 
 
 Feltria,  a  town  of  Italy,  now  Feltre,  in  the  district 
 of  Venetia.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  small  commu- 
 nity called  Feltrini. 
 
 Fenesteli.a,  a  Roman  historian,  who  lived  in  Ulie 
 time  of  Augustus.  Pliny  and  Eusebius  place  his  death 
 in  the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  A.D.  21. 
 Fenestella  wrote  an  historical  work  entitled  Annalcs, 
 from  which  Asconius  Pedianus  has  derived  many  ma- 
 terials in  his  Commentaries  on  Cicero's  Orations.  Of 
 this  work  only  fragments  remain.  Another  production, 
 "  De  Sacerdotiis  et  Magistratihus  Rvmanorum,'"  is 
 sometimes  attributed  to  him,  but  incorrectly.  It  is 
 from  the  pen  of  Fiocchi  {Floecus),  a  native  of  Flor- 
 ence, and  was  written  at  the  commencement  of  the 
 14th  century.  Fenestella  was  seventy  years  old  at  the 
 time  of  his  death.  {Voss.,  de  Hist.  Lat.,  1,  19. — 
 Funcc.  de  Viril.  at.  L.  L.,  p.  2,  c.  5,  %.  —  Madvig, 
 de  Ascon.  Pcdtan.,  p.  64.)  The  fragments  of  Fen- 
 estella's  Annals  are  given,  among  others,  by  Haver- 
 camp,  in  his  edition  of  Sallust,  vol.  2,  p.  385.  {Bahr, 
 Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  412.) 
 
 Feralia,  a  festival  at  Rome  of  the  Dii  Manes,  on 
 the  21st  of  February,  but,  according  to  Ovid,  on  the 
 17th.  Festus  derives  the  word  from/cro,  on  account 
 of  a  repast  carried  to  the  sepulchres  of  relations  and 
 friends  on  that  occasion,  or  from  ferio,  on  account  of 
 the  victims  sacrificed.  Vossius  observes,  that  the 
 Romans  termed  death  fera,  cruel,  and  that  the  word 
 feralia  might  arise  thence.  (Compare,  however,  the 
 remarks  of  Nork,  Etymol,  Handwort.,  vol.  1,  p.  341, 
 s.  V.  feria  )  It  continued  for  1 1  days,  during  which 
 time  presents  were  carried  to  the  graves  of  the  de- 
 ceased, marriages  were  forbidden,  and  the  temples  oJ 
 the  gods  were  shut.  Friends  and  relations  also  kept, 
 after  the  celebration,  a  feast  of  peace  and  love,  for 
 settling  differences  and  quarrels  among  one  another, 
 if  any  such  existed.     It  was  umversally  believed  that 
 
 517 
 
FE  R 
 
 FES 
 
 the  manes  of  departed  friends  came  and  hovered  over 
 their  graves,  and  feasted  upon  the  ofTerings  which  the 
 hand  of  piety  and  affection  had  prepared  for  them. 
 In  the  case  of  the  poor  these  offerings  were  plain  and 
 simple,  consisting  generally  of  a  few  grains  of  salt, 
 flour  mixed  with  wine,  scattered  violets,  &c.  The 
 wealthy,  however,  offered  up  sumptuous  banquets. 
 {Ovid,  Fa^t.,  2,  535,  seqq.  —  Kirchmann,  de  Funeri- 
 biis,  p.  560.) 
 
 Fkrentinum,  I.  a  town  of  Etruria,  southeast  of 
 V'ulsinii,  now  Fercnti.  From  Vitruvius,  who  speaks 
 of  some  valuable  stone-quarries  in  its  neighbourhood 
 (2,  7),  we  collect  that  it  was  a  municipium.  The  Em- 
 peror Otho's  family  was  of  this  city.  {Suet.,  Vit.  0th., 
 l.—Scxt.,Aur.  Vict. — Taat.,Hist.,  2,50. — Compare 
 Ann.,  15,  33.) — II.  A  town  of  Latium,  about  eight 
 miles  beyond  Anagnia,  on  the  Via  Latina,  now  Feren- 
 tino.  It  appears  to  have  belonged  originally  to  the 
 Volsci,  but  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Romans  and 
 given  to  the  Hernici.  {Ltv.,  4,  51 .)  It  subsequently 
 fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Samnites.  (Liv.,  10,  34. — 
 Compare  Steph.  Bijz.,  s.  v.  —  Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  80,  seqq.) 
 
 Ferentum,  or,  more  properly,  Forentom,  as  Pliny 
 (3,  11)  writes  it,  a  town  of  Apulia,  about  eight  miles 
 to  the  southeast  of  Venusia,  and  on  the  other  side  of 
 Mount  Vullur.  It  is  now  Forcnza.  {Horat.,  Od., 
 3,  4,  \5.— Diod.  Sic,  19,  65) 
 
 Feretrius,  an  appellation  of  Jupiter  among  the 
 Romans,  who  was  so  called  from  the  ferelrum,  a 
 frame  supporting  the  spolia  opima,  dedicated  to  him 
 by  Romulus,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Ceeninenses,  and 
 the  death  of  their  king.  This  derivation,  however,  is 
 opposed  by  some,  who  think  it  better  to  derive  the 
 term  from  the  Latin  fcrirc,  to  smile.  This  is  the  opin- 
 ion of  Plutarch,  and  he  adds,  that  Romulus  had  prayed 
 to  Jupiter  that  he  might  have  power  to  smite  his  ad- 
 versary and  kill  him.  {Liv.,  1,  10. — Plut.,  Vit.  Rom.) 
 Fert^e  Latin.^:,  the  Latin  Holydays.  { V id.  ha.- 
 tium.) 
 
 Feroni.^,  a  goddess  worshipped  with  great  solem- 
 nity by  both  the  Sabines  and  Latins,  but  more  espe- 
 cially the  former.     She  is  commonly  ranked  among 
 the  rural  divinities.     Feronia  had  a  temple  at  the  foot 
 of  Mount  Soracte,  and  in  her  grove  around  this  tem- 
 ple great  markets  used  to  be  held  during  the  time  of 
 her  festival.     Her  priests  at  this  place  used  to  walk 
 unhurt  on  burning  coals.     {Dion.  Hal.,  3,  32. — Strab., 
 226.— Heync,  ad  Virg.,  Mn.,  7,  800.— Fabretti,  In- 
 script.,  p.  452.)     She  had  also  a  temple,  grove,  and 
 fount  near  Anxur,   and   in   this  temple  manumitted 
 slaves  went  through  certain  formalities  to  complete 
 their  freedom,  such  as  cutting  off  and  consecrating 
 the  hair  of  their  head,  and  putting  on  a  pileus  or  cap. 
 {Liv.,  32,  \.—Serv.  ad  Vtr!r.,JEn.,  7,  564.)     Flowers 
 and  first-fruits  were  the  offerings  to  her,  and  the  in- 
 terpretation of  her  name  given  in  Greek  was  Flower- 
 hearing    or   Garlayid-luving,  while  some  rendered    it 
 Persephone  (Proserpina).     Thus  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
 carnassus   remarks,   lepov   tan  .  .  .  i^i«f  ^epuvelar 
 ovojuai^ofiEVTjC,  fjv  oi  /xera^pu^ovTsc  £tf  ri/v  'EX/idda 
 yAdaoav  oi  fikv  ' kvdrj(j)bpov,  ni  Ss  'Pt7^oaTi^nvov,  oi 
 66  ^epo£<p6vr]v  KaXovaw.     {Dion.   Hal  ,  3,  32,  where 
 for  ^epcjveiac  we  must  evidently  read  ^epuviar,  to 
 suit  the  text  in  another  part  of  Dionysius,  2,  49,  as 
 also  the  quantity  given  by  the  l-atin  poets  )     Feronia 
 was  also  said  to  have  been  called  Juno  Virgo  {Scrv. 
 ad  JEn.,  7,  799);  but  this,  according  to  Spangenberg, 
 is  a  mere  error,  arising  from  the  Sabine  form  of  the 
 name  (Heronia)  being  confounded  with  the  Greek  ap- 
 pellation for  Juno  (Hera).       {Spangrnberg.  dc   Vel. 
 Lilt.  Rel.  Dom.,  p.  48.)     In  the  vicinity  of  the  tem- 
 ;)le  of  Feronia,  at  Soracte,  was  another  to  the  god  So- 
 .-iinus,  and  the  worship  of  these  two  divinities  was 
 connected,    in   a   measure,   by   common    ceremonies. 
 Hence  Miiller  compares  these  two  divinities  with  the 
 518 
 
 Mania  and  Mantus  of  the  Etrurians.    {Muller,  Elrusk., 
 vol.  2,  p.  65.) 
 
 Fescennia  {iorum)  or  Fesclnnium,  a  city  of  Etru- 
 ria, east  of  the  Ciminian  Lake,  and  near  the  Tiber. 
 It  seems  to  have  occupied  the  site  of  the  modern  Ga- 
 Use.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  informs  us  (1,  21), 
 that  this  place  was  first  possessed  by  the  Siculi,  who 
 were  afterward  expelled  by  the  Pelasgi ;  and  he  adds, 
 that  some  slight  indications  of  the  occupation  of  this 
 city  by  the  latter  people  might  still  be  observed  in  his 
 day.  It  is  on  this  account,  probably,  that  Solinus  (c. 
 8)  says,  it  was  founded  by  the  Argives.  Fescennium 
 s  quoted  in  the  annals  of  Latin  poetry  for  the  nuptial 
 songs,  called  Carmina  Fescennina,  to  which,  accord- 
 ing to  Festus,  it  gave  its  name.  (Compare  Pliny, 
 15,  22.)  The  Fescennine  verses,  however,  derive 
 their  appellation,  according  to  others,  from  the  obscene 
 deity  Fascinus,  whom  it  was  their  object  to  propi- 
 tiate. Traces  of  these  gross  effusions  were  to  be 
 found  at  Rome  even  in  the  latest  periods  of  the  em- 
 pire, more  particularly  in  the  couplets  which  the  young 
 men  sang  at  the  nuptials  of  their  friends,  and  the  songs 
 of  the  soldiers  who  followed  the  triumphal  car  of  the 
 general.  The  origin  of  the  Fescennine  verses  is  to  be 
 traced  to  the  rude  hilarity  attendant  upon  the  celebra- 
 tion of  harvest.  They  were,  therefore,  in  their  prim- 
 itive character,  a  sort  of  rustic  dialogue  spoken  ex- 
 tempore, in  which  the  actors  exposed  before  their  au- 
 dience the  failings  and  vices  of  their  adversaries,  and, 
 by  a  satirical  humour  and  merriment,  endeavoured  to 
 raise  the  laughter  of  the  company.  They  would  seem 
 to  have  speedily  run  into  excess,  since  one  of  the  laws 
 of  the  Twelve  Tables  prohibits  this  license  under  pain 
 of  death  ;  a  punishment  afterward  commuted  for  beat- 
 ing with  sticks.  (Consult  Henrichs,  Versus  ludicri  in 
 Romanorum  CcEsares  priorcs  olim  compositi,  Halce,  ■ 
 1810,  p.  6.) 
 
 Festus,  I.  Sextus  Pomponius  (or,  according  to 
 others,  Pompeius),  a  grammarian,  supposed  to  have 
 lived  during  the  latter  half  of  the  third  century.  He 
 made  an  abridgment,  in  alphabetical  order,  of  the  large 
 work  of  Verrius  Flaccus,  on  the  signification  of  Word? 
 {''■  De  Verborum  Significationc").  This  abridgmen' 
 has  been  divided  by  editors  into  20  books,  each  o 
 which  contains  a  letter.  Festus  has  passed  over  ir 
 silence  those  words  which  Verrius  had  declared  obso 
 lete,  and  he  intended,  it  would  seem,  to  have  treater 
 of  them  in  a  separate  work.  Sometimes  he  does  no 
 coincide  in  the  opinions  of  Verrius,  and  on  these  oc 
 casions  he  gives  his  own  views  of  the  subject  matter 
 The  abridgment  of  Festus  is  one  of  the  most  usefu 
 books  we  possess  for  acquiring  an  accurate  knowledgf 
 of  the  Latin  tongue;  it  has  experienced,  however,  ir 
 some  respects,  an  unhappy  lot.  It  existed  entir 
 down  to  the  8th  century,  when  Paul  Winifred  con 
 ceived  the  idea  of  making  a  small  and  meager  extrac 
 from  it.  This  compilation  henceforward  sup]  lantef 
 the  original  work  in  the  libraries  of  the  day,  and  the 
 latter  was  so  far  lost  to  modern  times  that  but  a  sin- 
 gle manuscript  was  found  of  it,  and  this  an  impel  ect 
 one,  commencing  with  the  letter  M.  (Dacicr,  Prcef. 
 ad  Fest.)  Aldus  Manucius,  into  whose  hands  the 
 manuscript  fell,  amalgamated  its  contents  with  the  la- 
 bours of  Paul  Winifrid,  and  made  one  work  of  them, 
 which  he  printed  in  1513,  at  the  end  of  the  Cornuco- 
 pia de  PeroLto.  Another  individual,  whose  name  is 
 unknown,  made  a  similar  union,  but  mote  complete 
 than  that  of  Aldus  :  the  work  of  this  lattei  nas  pub- 
 lished in  1560  by  Antonio  Agostina,  bishop  .)f  Lerida, 
 who  afterward  became  archbishop  of  Saragossa.  Oth- 
 er fragments  of  Festus  were  found  in  the  library  of 
 Cardinal  Farn6se  ;  they  were  published  by  Fulvius 
 Ursinus,  at  Rome,  in  1581.  The  best  editions  are, 
 that  of  Dacier  {In  Usum  Dclphini),  Paris,  4to,  1681, 
 that  of  C.  O.  Muller,  4to,  Lcips.,  1839,  and 
 that  of  Lindemann,  in  the   Corpus  Grammaticorun 
 
FID 
 
 Latinorum  Veterum,  vol.  2,  4to,  Lips  ,  1832. — II. 
 Porcius,  governor  of  Judaea  after  Felix,  whom  the 
 Jews  solicited  to  condemn  St.  Paul  or  to  order  him 
 up  to  Jerusalem.  The  apostle's  appeal  to  Ca2sar(the 
 Emperor  Nero)  frustrated  the  intentions  of  both  Fes- 
 tus  and  the  Jews.     (Acts,  25,  1,  scqq.) 
 
 FiBRENUs,  a  small  stream  of  Latium,  running  into 
 the  Liris,  and  forming  before  its  junction  a  small  isl- 
 and. This  island  belonged  to  Cicero,  and  is  the  spot 
 where  the  scene  is  laid  of  his  dialogues  with  Atticus 
 and  his  brother  Quintus  on  legislation.  He  describes 
 it  in  the  opening  of  the  book  as  the  property  and  resi- 
 dence of  his  ancestors,  who  had  lived  there  for  many 
 generations  ;  he  himself  was  born  there,  A.U.C.  646. 
 The  Fibrenus,  in  another  passage  of  the  second  book, 
 is  mentioned  as  remarkable  for  the  coldness  of  its  wa- 
 ters. The  river  is  now  called  Fiume  della  Posta  : 
 the  island  has  taken  the  name  of  <S.  Domcnico  Abate. 
 {Romanelli,  vol.  3,  p.  366,  seqq. —  Cramei-'s  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  113.) 
 
 FicuLEA  or  FicuLNEA,  a  town  of  Latium,  beyond 
 Mount  Sacer,  to  the  north  of  Rome.  Cicero  had  a  villa 
 there,  and  the  road  that  led  to  the  town  was  called  Fi- 
 cidncnsis,  afterward  Nomcnlana  Via.  {Cic  ,  Att.,  12, 
 34. — Lw.,  1,  38;  3,  52.)  It  is  supposed  by  Nibby 
 to  have  stood  at  Monte  Gentile,  about  nine  miles  from 
 Rome.     {Delle  Vie  degii  Anticki,  p.  94.) 
 
 FiDEN^,  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  between  four  and 
 five  miles  from  Rome.  It  was  at  first  a  colony  of  Alba 
 (Dion.  Hal.,  2,  54),  but  fell  subsequently  into  the  hands 
 oi'  the  Etrurians,  or  more  probably  the  people  of  Veil. 
 Fidense,  according  to  Dionysius  (2,  23),  was  conquered 
 bv  Romulus  soon  after  the  death  of  Tatius  ;  he  repre- 
 sents it  as  being  at  that  period  a  large  and  populous 
 town.  It  made  several  attempts  to  emancipate  itself 
 from  the  Roman  yoke,  sometimes  with  the  aid  of  the 
 Etruscans,  at  others  in  conjunction  with  the  Sabines. 
 Its  last  revolt  occurred  A.U.C.  329,  when  the  dictator 
 .^milius  Mamercus,  after  having  vanquished  the  Fide- 
 iiates  in  the  field,  stormed  their  city,  which  was  aban- 
 doned to  the  licentiousness  of  his  soldiery.  {Liv.,  4, 
 9.)  From  this  time  we  hear  only  of  Fidense  as  a  de- 
 serted place,  with  a  few  country-seats  in  its  vicinity. 
 (Straho,  226.— Cic,  ile  Leg.  Agr.,  2,  25.—Horat., 
 Epist.,  1,  2,  7.)  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  a  terrible 
 disaster  occurred  here  by  the  fall  of  a  wooden  amphi- 
 theatre, during  a  show  of  gladiators,  by  which  accident 
 50,000  persons,  as  Tacitus  reports  {Ann.,  4,  62),  or 
 20,000,  according  to  Suetonius  {Tib.,  40),  were  killed 
 or  wounded.  From  the  passage  of  Tacitus  here  cited, 
 it  appears  that  Fidense  had  risen  again  to  the  rank  of  a 
 municipal  town.  (Compare  Juvenal,  10,  99.)  '  The 
 distance  of  five  miles,  which  ancient  writers  reckon 
 between  Rome  and  Fidena?,  and  the  remains  of  anti- 
 quity which  are  yet  to  be  seen  there,  fix  the  site  of 
 this  place  near  Ca.stel  Giubileo.  {Nibby,  Viaggio  An- 
 tiq.,  vol.  1,  p.  85. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.1,  p.  302.) 
 
 FiDius  Dius,  a  Roman  deity,  whose  name  often  oc- 
 curs in  adjurations.  The  expression  Me  dius  fidius, 
 which  is  found  so  frequently  in  the  Roman  classics,  has 
 been  variously  explained.  Festus  makes  dms  fidius 
 to  be  put  for  ^i.o(;  filius,  the  son  of  Jupiter,  i.  e.,  Her- 
 cules ;  he  cites,  at  the  same  time,  other  opinions,  as 
 that  it  is  the  same  with  swearing  ^c?-  divifidem  or  per 
 diurni  tcmporis  (i.  e.,  diei)  fidem.  All  these  etymolo- 
 gies, however,  are  decidedly  erroneous.  A  passage  in 
 Plautus  {Asin.,  1,  1,  8)  furnishes  a  safer  guide,  which 
 is  as  follows  :  "  Per  diicm  fidiiim  quceris  ;  jurato  mihi 
 video  necesse  esse  eloqui,  quidquid  rages."  From  this 
 passage  we  may  fairly  infer,  that,  in  the  phrase  under 
 consideration,  dius  is  the  same  as  deus  or  divus,  and 
 fidius  an  adjective  formed  ham  fides.  Hence  dms  fi- 
 dius, "  the  god  of  honour,"  or  "  of  good  faith,"  will  be 
 the  same  as  the  Zevf  Tr/crriOf  of  the  Greeks  ;  and,  if  we 
 follow  the  authority  of  Varro,  identical  with  the  Sabine 
 Sancus  and  Roman  Hercules.     (Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  10.) 
 
 FLA. 
 
 FiRMUM,  a  city  of  Picenum,  about  five  miles  Irom 
 the  sea,  below  the  river  Tinna.  It  was  called  Firmum 
 Picenum,  and  was  so  termed  probably  to  distinguish 
 it  from  some  other  city  of  the  same  name,  now  un 
 known.  (Mick.  Catalani,  Orig.  e  Anlich.  Fcrmane, 
 pt.  2,  p.  32.)  It  was  colonized,  as  Velleius  Patercu- 
 lus  informs  us  (1,  14),  towards  the  beginning  of  the 
 first  Punic  war.  Ancient  inscriptions  give  it  the  name 
 of  Colonia  Augusta  Firma.  The  modern  town  of  Fer- 
 mo  is  yet  a  place  of  some  note  in  the  Marca  dAnco- 
 na ;  and  the  Porto  di  Fcrmo  answers  to  the  Castel- 
 !um  Firmanorum  of  Pliny  (3,  13. — Cramer's  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  283). 
 
 FiRMUs  or  FiBMius,  one  of  those  ephemeral  Roman 
 emperors  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  tyrants,  be- 
 cause they  were  usurpers  of  empire  under  legitimate 
 sovereigns.  He  was  born  in  Seleucia  in  Syria,  and 
 owned  extensive  possessions  in  Egypt.  Urged  on  by 
 the  impetuosity  and  love  of  change  peculiar  to  the 
 Egyptian  Greeks,  he  seized  upon  Alexandrea,  and  as- 
 sumed the  title  of  Augustus,  one  of  his  objects  being 
 to  aid  the  cause  of  Zenobia,  who  had  already  been  con- 
 quered by  Aurelian,  but  whose  power  was  still  not  com- 
 pletely overthrown.  Aurelian  marched  against  Fir- 
 mus  with  his  usual  rapidity,  defeated  him,  took  him 
 prisoner,  and  inflicted  on  him  the  punishment  of  the 
 cross.  Firmus  is  described  as  having  been  of  ex- 
 traordinary stature  and  strength  of  body.  His  aspect 
 was  so  forbidding  that  he  obtained  in  derision  the  sur- 
 name of  Cyclops.     (Vopisc,  Vit.  Firm.) 
 
 FiscELLUs,  that  part  of  the  chain  of  the  Apennines 
 which  separates  the  Sabines  from  Picenum.  {Plin., 
 3,  12.)  Mount  Fiscellus  was  reported  by  Varro  to 
 be  the  only  spot  in  Italy  in  which  wild  goats  were  to 
 be  found.     (Varro,  R.  R  ,  2,  1.) 
 
 Flaccus;  I.  a  poet.  (Vid.  Valerius.) — II.  Verrius,  a 
 grammarian,  tutor  to  the  two  grandsons  of  Augustus, 
 and  author  of  a  work  entitled  "  De  Verborum  Signifi- 
 catione."  (Vid.  Festus,  I  ) — III.  One  of  the  names 
 of  Horace.     (I7(i.  Horatius.) 
 
 Flaminia  Via,  one  of  the  Roman  roads.  It  was 
 constructed  by  C.  Flaminius  when  censor  (A.U.C. 
 533,  B.C.  221),  and  was  carried,  in  the  first  instance, 
 from  Rome  to  Narnia  ;  whence  it  branched  off  in  two 
 directions,  to  Mevania  and  Spoletum,  uniting,  however, 
 again  at  Fulginia.  From  this  place  it  continued  its 
 course  to  Nuceria,  and  was  there  divided  a  second  time, 
 one  branch  striking  off  through  Picenum  to  Ancona ; 
 whence  it  followed  the  coast  to  Fanum  Fortiinse  ;  here 
 it  met  the  other  branch,  which  passed  the  Apennines 
 more  to  the  north,  and  descended  upon  the  sea  by  the 
 pass  of  Petra  Perlusa  and  Forum  Sempronii.  These 
 two  roads,  thus  reunited,  terminated  at  Ariminum. 
 (Craincr's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  292.) 
 
 Flaminius,  C.  Nepos,  was  consul  A.U.C.  531  and 
 537  (B.C.  223  and  217).  Having  been  sent  this  latter 
 year  against  Hannibal,  his  impetuous  character  urged 
 him  to  hazard  the  battle  of  the  Lake  Trasymenus,  in 
 which  conflict  he  was  slain,  with  the  greater  part  of  his 
 army.     (Liv.,  22,  3.—Flor.,  2,  6.— Fa^.  Max.,  1,  6.) 
 
 Flami  NiNUs,  Titus  QuiNTius,  was  made  consul  B.C. 
 198,  before  he  was  thirty  years  of  age,  and  had  the 
 province  of  Macedonia  assigned  to  him,  with  the  charge 
 of  continuing  the  war  against  Philip,  which  had  now 
 lasted  for  two  years,  without  any  definite  success  oil 
 the  part  of  the  Romans.  In  his  first  campaign  he  drove 
 Philip  from  the  banks  of  the  Aoiis,  and,  among  other 
 important  movements,  succeeded  in  detaching  the 
 Achseans  from  the  Macedonian  alliance.  In  the  (ol- 
 lowing  year  Flamininus,  being  confirmed  by  the  senate 
 in  his  command  as  proconsul,  before  commencing  ho.s- 
 tilities  afresh,  held  a  conference  with  Philip  on  the  coast 
 of  the  Maliac  Gulf,  and  allowed  him  to  send  ambassa- 
 dors to  Rome  to  negotiate  a  peace  These  negotia 
 tions,  however,  proving  fruitless  Flaminmus  marched 
 into  Thessaly,  where  Philip  had  taken  up  a  position. 
 
FLAMININUS. 
 
 FLO 
 
 and  totally  defeated  him  in  the  battle  of  Cynoscepha- 
 iae,  in  a  spot  broken  by  small  hills,  between  Pherac  and 
 Larissa.  The  Macedonians  lost  8000  killed  and  5000 
 prisoners.  After  granting  peace  to  the  Macedonian 
 monarch  on  severe  and  humiliating  terms,  Flamini- 
 nus  was  continued  in  his  command  for  another  year, 
 B.C.  196,  to  see  these  conditions  executed.  In  that 
 year,  at  the  meeting  of  the  Isthmian  Games,  where 
 multitudes  had  assembled  from  every  part  of  Greece, 
 Flamininus  caused  a  crier  to  proclaim,  "  that  the  senate 
 and  people  of  Rome,  and  their  commander  Titus  Quin- 
 tius,  having  subdued  Philip  and  the  Macedonians,  re- 
 stored the  Corinthians,  Phocians,  Locrians,  Eubceans, 
 Thessalians,  Achaeans,  &c.,  to  their  freedom  and  in- 
 dependence, and  to  the  enjoyment  of  their  own  laws." 
 Bursts  of  acclamation  followed  this  announcement,  and 
 the  crowd  pressed  forward  to  express  their  gratitude 
 to  Flamininus,  whose  conduct  throughout  these  mem- 
 orable transactions  was  marked  by  a  wisdom,  modera- 
 tion, and  liberality  seldom  found  united  in  a  victorious 
 Roman  general.  He  was  thus  the  means  of  protract- 
 ing the  independence  of  the  Greek  states  for  half  a  cen- 
 tury longer.  In  the  following  year,  B.C.  195,  Flamini- 
 nus was  intrusted  with  the  war  against  Nabis,  tyrant  of 
 LacedKmon,  who  had  treacherously  seized  on  the  city  of 
 Argos.  The  Roman  commander  marched  into  Laco- 
 nia,  and  laid  siege  to  Sparta,  but  he  met  with  a  brave 
 resistance,  and  at  last  agreed  to  grant  peace  to  Nabis, 
 on  condition  that  he  should  give  up  Argos  and  all  the 
 other  places  which  he  had  usurped,  and  restore  their 
 lands  to  the  descendants  of  the  Mcssenians.  His 
 motives  for  granting  peace  to  Nabis  were,  he  said,  part- 
 ly to  prevent  the  destruction  of  one  of  the  most  illus- 
 trious of  the  Greek  cities,  and  partly  the  great  prepara- 
 tions which  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  was  then  making 
 bn  the  coast  of  Asia.  Livy  suggests,  as  another  prob- 
 able reason,  that  Flamininus  wished  to  terminate  the 
 war  himself,  and  not  to  give  time  to  a  new  consul  to 
 supersede  him  and  reap  the  honours  of  the  victory. 
 The  senate  confirmed  the  peace  with  Nabis,  and  in  the 
 following  year,  194  B.C.,  Flamininus,  having  settled 
 the  affairs  of  Greece,  prepared  to  return  to  Italy. 
 Having  repaired  to  Corinth,  where  deputations  from  all 
 the  Grecian  cities  had  assembled,  he  look  a  friendly 
 leave  of  them,  withdrew  his  garrisons  from  all  their 
 cities,  and  left  them  to  the  enjoyment  of  their  own 
 freedom.  On  returning  to  Italy,  both  he  and  his  sol- 
 diers were  received  with  great  demonstrations  of  joy, 
 and  the  senate  decreed  him  a  triumph  for  three  days. 
 Before  the  car  of  Flamininus,  in  the  celebration  of  this 
 triumph,  appeared,  among  the  hostages,  Demetrius  son 
 of  Philip,  and  Armenes  son  of  Nabis,  and  in  the  rear 
 followed  the  Roman  prisoners,  who  had  been  sold  as 
 slaves  to  the  Greeks  by  Hannibal  during  the  second 
 Punic  war,  and  whose  liberation  Flamininus  had  ob- 
 lained  from  the  gratitude  of  the  Grecian  states.  The 
 Achaoans  alone  are  said  to  have  liberated  1200,  for 
 whom  they  paid  100  talents  as  compensation-money 
 to  their  masters.  Altogether,  there  was  never,  per- 
 iiaps,  a  Roman  triumph  so  satisfactory  as  this  to  all 
 parties,  and  so  little  offensive  to  the  feelings  of  human- 
 ity. In  the  year  183  B.C.,  Flamininus  was  sent  to 
 Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia,  upon  the  ungracious  mission 
 of  demanding  the  person  of  Hannibal,  then  in  his  old 
 age,  and  a  refugee  at  the  court  of  Prusias.  The  mon- 
 arch was  prevailed  upon  to  violate  the  claims  of  hosjii- 
 tality,  but  the  Carthaginian  prevented  his  treachery 
 by  destroying  himself  with  poison.  In  the  year  168 
 B.C.,  Flamininus  was  made  augur,  in  the  room  of  C. 
 Claudius  deceased.  (Liv.,  45,  44.)  After  this  he  is 
 lio  longer  mentioned  in  history.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Flamin.) 
 — II.  Lucius,  brother  of  the  preceding,  commanded  the 
 Roman  fleet  during  the  first  campaign  of  Quintius,  and 
 Bcoured  the  coasts  of  Euboea,  Corinth,  and  other  dis- 
 tricts at  that  time  allied  or  subject  to  the  King  of 
 Macedonia.  He  was  afterward  expelled  from  the  sen- 
 520 
 
 ate  by  Cato,  when  censor,  for  having  put  to  death  a 
 Gallic  prisoner  to  gratify  a  minion  of  his.  (Plut  Vit 
 Flamin  ) 
 
 Flanaticus  Sinus,  a  gulf  lying  between  Istria  and 
 Liburnia,  in  the  Adriatic.  It  was  also  called  Polati- 
 cus  Sinus,  from  the  town  of  Pola  in  its  vicinity.  The 
 name  Flanaticus  was  derived  from  the  adjacent  town 
 of  Flano.  The  modern  appellation  is  the  Gulf  of 
 Qimrnaro.     (Plbi.,  3,  19.) 
 
 Flano,  a  town  on  the  Illyrian  side  of  the  Sinus  Fla- 
 naticus, and  giving  name  to  the  gulf.  {Sleph.  Byz., 
 s.  V.)     The  modern  name  is  Fiannona. 
 
 Flevus,  a  canal  intersecting  the  country  of  the  Fri- 
 sii,  made  by  Drusus.  This  in  time  expanded  to  such 
 a  degree  as  to  form  a  considerable  lake  or  lagune 
 whose  issue  to  the  sea  was  fortified  by  a  castle  bear- 
 ing the  same  name.  This  lagune,  having  been,  in  prog- 
 ress of  time,  much  increased  by  the  sea,  assumed  the 
 name  ^f  Zuydcr  Zee,  or  the  Southern  Sea  ;  and  of 
 severat  channels  which  afford  entrance  to  the  ocean, 
 that  named  Vlic  indicates  the  genuine  egress  of  the 
 Flevus.  {Tacit., Ann, "i,  6;  4,  Ti.—Plin.,  4,  15.— 
 Mela,  3,  2.) 
 
 Flora,  the  goddess  of  flowers.  She  was  a  very 
 ancient  Italian  deity,  being  one  of  those  said  to  have 
 been  worshipped  by  Tatius.  Her  festival  was  termed 
 Floralia,  and  was  celebrated  at  the  end  of  April  and 
 beginning  of  May.  It  greatly  degenerated,  however, 
 in  the  course  of  time,  and  became  so  offensive  to 
 purity  as  not  to  bear  the  presence  of  virtuous  charac- 
 ters. The  story  of  Cato  the  Censor  in  relation  to 
 this  festival,  is  well  known.  {Val.  Max,  2,  10. > 
 The  Romans,  who  in  general  displayed  very  little  ele- 
 gance of  imagination  in  the  origins  which  they  invent- 
 ed for  their  deities,  said  that  Flora  had  been  a  courte- 
 san, who,  having  acquired  immense  wealth  (at  Rome 
 in  the  early  days  of  the  republic  !),  left  it  to  the  Ro- 
 man people,  on  condit'on  of  their  always  celebrating 
 her  birthday  with  feasts.  {Plut.,  Quast.  Rom.,  35. 
 — Laciant.,  1,  24.)  Flora  being  an  ancient,  original 
 Latin  deity,  was  addressed  by  the  honorific  title  ol 
 Mater,  "Mother."  {Cic.  m  Verr.,  5,  14. — Lucret., 
 5,  TSS.—Keightley,  ad  Ov.,  Fast.,  5,  183,  seqq.—Id., 
 Mythology,  p.  540.) — II.  A  name  assumed  by  a  cour- 
 tesan at  Rome.     (Plut.,  Vit.  Pomp) 
 
 Flora LiA,  games  in  honour  of  Flora  at  Rome. 
 {Vid.  Flora.) 
 
 Florentia,  a  town  of  Etruria,  on  the  river  Arnus, 
 now  Florence,  or,  as  the  Italians  call  the  name,  Fir enze. 
 It  has  no  pretensions  to  a  foundation  of  great  antiqui- 
 ty, as  we  find  no  mention  made  of  it  before  the  time 
 of  Caesar,  by  whom  Frontinus  says  it  was  colonized  ; 
 unless  we  think,  with  Cluverius,  that  the  town  called 
 Fluenlia  by  Florus  (1,  2),  and  mentioned  with  many 
 other  distinguished  cities,  as  having  severely  suffer- 
 ed in  the  civil  wars  of  Sylla  and  Marius,  might  be 
 identified  with  it.  However  that  may  be,  we  find 
 distinct  mention  made  of  Florentia  in  the  reign  of  Ti- 
 berius ;  when,  as  Tacitus  informs  us,  the  inhabitants 
 of  that  city  petitioned  that  the  waters  of  the  Clanis,  a 
 river  which  was  very  injurious  from  its  perpetual  in- 
 undations, might  be  carried  off  into  the  Arnus.  ( Tac, 
 Ann.,  1,  79. — Compare  Plm  ,  3,  5.)  At  a  later  peri- 
 od this  city  was  destroyed  by  Totila,  and  rebuilt  by 
 Charlemagne.     {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  183.) 
 
 Florus,  I.  L.  Ann.«:us,  a  Latin  historian,  born,  ac- 
 cording to  the  common  opinion,  in  Spain,  but,  as  others 
 maintain,  in  Gaul,  and  who  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Tra- 
 jan. He  was  still  living  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  and 
 is  perhaps  the  same  individual  to  whom,  according  to 
 Spartianus,  this  emperor  addressed  some  sportive  ver- 
 ses. By  some  critics  also  he  is  regarded  as  the  au- 
 thor of  the  Pervigilium  Veneris.  A  modern  philolo- 
 gist, Titze,  has  attempted  to  prove  that  the  historian 
 Florus  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  that  he  is 
 identical  with  the  Lucius  Junius  Florus  to  whom  Hot- 
 
FOR 
 
 FOR 
 
 ace  has  addressed  two  of  his  epistles.  It  is  true  that 
 some  manuscripts  give  the  historian  the  name  of  Julius ; 
 in  order,  however,  to  admit  the  hypothesis  of  Titze, 
 we  must  regard  as  interpolated  a  passage  of  the  Pro- 
 oemium  of  Florus,  where  mention  is  made  of  Trajan. 
 (Consult  the  work  of  Titze,  "  De  Epitome  rerum  Ro- 
 manarum,  r.ua  sub  nomine  Lucii  Annai,  sive  Flori, 
 Seneca  fertur,  cetatc  probabilissima,  vera  auc/.ore, 
 operis  antiqui  forma,''''  Lincii,  1804,  8vo.)  Florus 
 has  left  us  an  abridgment  of  Roman  History,  entitled 
 "  Epitome  de  geslis  Romanorum,'"  divided  into  four 
 books.  It  commences  with  the  origin  of  Rome,  and 
 extends  to  A.U.C.  725,  when  Augustus  closed  the 
 temple  of  Janus,  a  ceremony  which  had  not  taken  place 
 for  206  years  previous.  This  work  is  an  extract  not 
 merely  from  Livy,  but  from  many  other  ancient  his- 
 torians, no  part  of  whose  works  any  longer  remain. 
 It  is  less  a  history  than  an  eulogium  on  the  Roman 
 people,  written  with  elegance,  but,  at  the  same  time,  in 
 an  oratorical  style,  and  not  without  alfectation.  Of- 
 tentimes facts  are  merely  hinted  at,  events  are  passed 
 over  with  a  flourish  of  rhetoric  ;  while  the  declamatory 
 lone  which  everywhere  prevails,  and  the  concise  and 
 sententious  phrases  in  which  he  is  fond  of  indulging, 
 impart  an  air  of  coldness  to  his  writings,  and  render 
 Ihem  monotonous,  and  sometimes  obscure.  Florus 
 likewise  commits  many  errors  of  a  geographical  nature, 
 and  on  many  occasions  is  defective  in  point  of  chro- 
 nology. His  te.xt  has  reached  us  in  a  very  corrupt  state, 
 and  abounds  with  interpolations. — Some  manuscripts 
 give  to  the  author  of  this  work  the  name  of  Seneca : 
 in  fact,  a  branch  of  the  Annsan  family  bore  the  name 
 of  Seneca ;  and  there  is  even  reason  to  believe  that 
 this  family  took  indiscriminately  the  surname  of  Sene- 
 ca or  Florus.  (Consult  Wernsdorff,  Poet.  Lat.  Min., 
 vol.  3,  p.  452.)  From  this  title,  as  given  by  certain 
 manuscripts,  and  from  a  passage  of  Lactantius,  some 
 critics  have  concluded  that  the  Epitome  is  the  work  of 
 Seneca  the  philosopher.  Lactantius  {Inst,  divin.,  7, 
 15)  says,  that  Seneca  divided  the  history  of  the  Ro- 
 man people  into  four  periods  ;  that  of  infancy,  youth, 
 manhood,  and  old  age.  This  division  occurs  also  in 
 Florus,  but  in  no  other  writer  of  antiquity,  which  would 
 tend  to  strengthen  the  opinion  that  Lactantius  has  ci- 
 ted Florus  under  the  name  of  Seneca.  To  this,  how- 
 ever, it  may  be  objected,  that,  though  Florus  adopts 
 four  periods  or  divisions  in  his  work,  his  arrangement 
 is  not  exactly  the  same  with  that  mentioned  by  Lactan- 
 tius ;  besides,  Florus  might  have  borrowed  from  Sen- 
 eca. The  best  edition  of  Florus  is  that  of  Duker, 
 Lugd.  Bat.,  1722,  and  1744,  2  vols.  8vo.  The  edi- 
 tion of  Fischer  is  also  valuable.  Lips.,  1760,  8vo. 
 {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  389,  seqq. — B'dhr, 
 Gcsch.  R'om.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  452,  seqq.) — II.  A  young 
 Roman,  the  friend  of  Horace,  who  accompanied  Ti- 
 berius in  his  expedition  into  Dalmatia  (A.U.C.  731), 
 and  subsequently  into  Armenia  (A.U.C.  734).  Hor- 
 ace addresses  two  epistles  to  him  (1,  3,  and  2,  2). 
 Some  make  him  the  same  with  Florus  the  historian. 
 (Consult  preceding  article.) 
 
 FoNS  SoMS.      Vid.  Ammon. 
 
 FoNTEius,  Capito,  I.  an  intimate  friend  of  Horace, 
 and  who,  in  the  conference  at  Brundisium,  acted  for 
 Antony,  while  Maecenas  had  charge  of  the  interests  of 
 Octavius.  {Horat.,  Sat.,  1,  5,  32.)  —  II.  A  Roman 
 who  raised  commotions  in  Germany  during  the  reign 
 of  Galba.  He  was  put  to  death  by  the  lieutenants 
 stationed  there,  before  even  orders  reached  them  from 
 home.     {Tacit.,  Hist.,  1,  7.) 
 
 Formic,  a  town  of  Latium,  to  the  northeast  of  Caie- 
 ta.  It  was  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  is  looked 
 upon  by  the  most  ancient  writers  as  the  abode  and 
 capital  of  the  Laestrygones,  of  which  Homer  speaks  in 
 the  Odyssey,  and  where  his  hero  met  with  so  inhospi- 
 table a  reception.  The  description  of  the  place,  how- 
 ever, is  so  indefinite,  though  it  may  agree  in  the  prin- 
 U  u  u 
 
 cipal  features,  that,  unless  the  consenting  voice  ofan-- 
 tiquily  had  fixed  upon  this  spot  as  the  scene  of  Ulys- 
 ses' disaster,  we  could  have  had  no  clew  for  discover- 
 ing in  Formise  the  seat  of  these  savage  cannibals. 
 Every  one,  however,  is  at  liberty  to  indulge  his  fancy 
 with  the  supposition  that  the  harbour  which  Homer 
 describes  was  actually  that  of  Gaeta  (the  ancient  For- 
 mic), and  he  may  there  recognise  in  it  the  towering 
 rocks,  the  prominent  shores,  and  the  narrow  entrance. 
 {Odyss.,  10,  80. — Eustace's  Classical  Tour,  vol.  2,  p. 
 367.)  According  to  Strabo  (233),  Formic  was  a  La- 
 conian  colony,  and  its  first  appellation  was  Hormise,  in 
 allusion  to  the  excellent  anchorage  which  its  port  af- 
 forded to  vessels.  (Compare  Plin.,  3,  5.)  This  place, 
 however,  is  chiefly  interesting  from  having  been  lonor 
 a  favourite  residence  of  Cicero,  and  finally  the  scene  of 
 the  tragical  event  which  terminated  his  existence.  He 
 sometimes  talks  of  his  retreat  here  as  his  Caietan  vil- 
 la {Ep.  ad  Att.,  1,  2,  and  3),  but  more  commonly  terms 
 it  his  Formianum.  He  appears  to  have  resided  there 
 during  the  most  turbulent  part  of  the  civil  war  between 
 Caesar  and  Pompey  ;  for,  in  one  of  his  letters  to  Atti- 
 cus  (7,  8),  he  mentions  a  long  conference  he  held  with 
 the  latter  at  this  place,  and  from  which  he  inferred  that 
 no  alternative  was  left  but  that  of  war.  In  the  reign 
 of  Augustus  we  find  Formise  distinguished  as  the  birth- 
 place and  residence  of  Mainurra,  a  Roman  senator  of 
 enormous  wealth  :  hence  the  appellation  by  which  Hor- 
 ace designates  it  in  the  narrative  of  his  journey  to 
 Brundisium,  "/w  Mamurrarum  lassi  deindc  urbe  ma- 
 nemus,"  &c.  {Sat.,  1,  5,  37.)  The  retirement  and 
 ease  which  this  delightful  spot  afforded  is  well  descri- 
 bed by  Martial  {Ep.,  10,  30).  The  Formian  hills 
 are  often  extolled  for  the  superior  wine  which  they  pro- 
 duced. {Horat.,  Od.,  1,  20.— Id.  ibid.,  3,  16.)  The 
 modern  name  of  Formioe  is  Mola  di  Gaeta.  {Cramer^s 
 Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  125.) 
 
 FoRMiANu.M,  a  villa  of  Cicero  near  Formias,  near 
 which  the  orator  was  assassinated.     {Vid.  Formias.) 
 
 FoRMio,  a  small  river  of  Venetia,  now  the  Risano, 
 considered  before  the  reign  of  Augustus  as  the  bound- 
 ary of  Italy  towards  its  northeastern  extremity ;  but, 
 when  Histria  was  included  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  this  lim- 
 it was  removed  to  the  little  river  Arsia.    {Plin.,  3,  18.) 
 
 FoRTUNA  (in  Greek  Tvxr/),  the  Goddess  of  Fortune, 
 or  that  unseen  power  which  was  believed  to  exercise 
 such  arbitrary  dominion  over  human  affairs.  By  Hesi- 
 od  and  by  one  of  the  Homeridae  {Theog.,  260. — Horn., 
 Hymn,  ad  Cer.,  420)  she  is  classed  among  the  Ocean- 
 nymphs.  Pindar  in  one  place  {01.,  13,  1)  calls  her 
 "the  child  of  Jupiter  Eleutherius  ;"  elsewhere  he  says 
 that  she  is  one  of  the  Destinies.  {Frag.,  Incert.,  75.) 
 Alcman  called  her  the  sister  of  Law  and  Persua- 
 sion, and  daughter  of  Forethought  {Upo/li]deia. — Ap. 
 Pint,  de  Fort.  Rom..,  4).  In  her  temple  at  Thebes 
 Fortune  held  Wealth  {IlXovrog)  in  her  arms,  whether 
 as  mother  or  nurse  was  uncertain.  {Pausan.,  9,  16.) 
 The  image  of  this  goddess  made  by  Bupalus  for  the 
 people  of  Smyrna  had  a  hemisphere  (TroAof )  on  its  head, 
 and  a  horn  of  Amalthaea  in  its  hand.  {Pausan.,  4,  30, 
 6. — Compare  Siebelis,  ad  Pausan.,  2,  10,  4.)  The 
 Goddess  Fortune  was,  however,  of  much  greater  im- 
 portance in  the  eyes  of  the  Italians  than  in  those  of 
 the  Greeks.  Under  the  name  of  Nortia  she  was  adored 
 in  Etruria.  She  was  also  worshipped  at  Antium, 
 where  she  had  a  splendid  temple,  at  Prreneste,  and  else- 
 where. At  Rome  there  were  two  temples  to  her,  both 
 ascribed  to  Servius  Tullius,  the  one  of  Bona  or  Vtrgo 
 For  tuna,  the  other  of  Fors  For  tuna.  { Ovid,  Fast.  ,6, 
 569, scqq.—Keightley, ad  loc.—Id.,  Mythology,  p.  203, 
 533.)  ^   , 
 
 FoRTUNATiE  Insui.vE,  islands  lying  ofl^  the  western 
 coast  of  Africa,  and  deriving  their  name  from  their  re- 
 markable beauty,  and  the  abundance  of  all  things  de- 
 sirable which  they  were  supposed  to  contain.  IheK 
 climate  was  one  continual  spring,  their  soil  was  covered 
 
 o21 
 
FOR 
 
 FRA 
 
 with  eternal  verdure,  and  bloomed  with  the  richest 
 flowers  ;  while  the  productions  of  earth  were  poured 
 forth  spontaneously  in  the  utmost  profusion.  The  le- 
 gend of  the  Island  of  the  Blessed  in  the  Western  Ocean 
 may  possibly  have  given  rise  to  the  tale  of  the  Fortu- 
 nate Islands.  {Vid.  Elysium.) — Many  at  the  present 
 day  regard  the  Fortunate  Islands  of  antiquity  as  geo- 
 graphical realities.  Some  make  them  identical  with 
 the  Canaries,  and  this  opinion  is  grounded  upon  the 
 situation  and  temperature  of  those  islands,  and  the  de- 
 licious fruits  which  they  produce.  {Plin.,  6,  32. — 
 Diod.  Sic,  5,  19.) 
 
 Forum  Romanum,  Velus  vel  Magnum,  a  large  open 
 space  between  the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  Hills,  called 
 until  lately  Campo  Vaccina,  or  the  Cow-field,  or  mar- 
 ket. The  Italians,  however,  have  grown  ashamed  of 
 so  vulgar  a  name,  and  have  restored  to  the  place  its 
 ancient  appellation  of  Forum  Romanum.  It  is  now 
 a  mere  open  space,  strewed  for  the  most  part  with 
 ruins.  It  is  collected  from  Livy  (1,  12)  and  Dio- 
 nysius  of  Halicarnassus  (2,  66),  that  the  Forum  was 
 situate  between  the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  Hills  ;  and 
 from  Vitruvius  we  learn  that  its  shape  was  that  of  a 
 rectangle,  the  length  of  which  exceeded  the  breadth  by 
 one  third.  From  these  data,  which  agree  with  other 
 incidental  circumstances,  it  is  generally  thought  that 
 the  four  angles  of  the  Roman  forum  were  formed  by 
 the  arch  of  Severus  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol ;  the 
 Fabian  arch,  at  the  termination  of  the  Via  Sacra; 
 the  church  of  Si.  Theodore,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pala- 
 tine ;  and  that  of  the  Consolazione,  below  the  Capi- 
 tol. Here  the  assemblies  of  the  people  used  general- 
 ly to  be  held,  and  here  also  justice  was  administered, 
 and  public  business  transacted.  It  was  formed  by 
 Romulus,  and  surrounded  with  porticoes,  shops,  and 
 buildings  by  Tarquinius  Priscus.  {Liv.,  1,  35. — Dion. 
 Hal.,  3,  67.)  Around  the  Forum  were  built  spacious 
 halls,  called  Basilicas,  where  courts  of  justice  might 
 sit,  and  other  public  business  be  transacted.  The 
 present  surface  of  the  Forum  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
 feet  above  its  ancient  level. — There  was  only  one  For- 
 um under  the  republic;  Caesar  added  another;  Au- 
 gustus a  third  ;  a  fourth  was  begun  by  Domitian,  and 
 finished  by  Nerva,  after  whom  it  was  named.  But  the 
 most  splendid  was  that  of  Trajan,  adorned  wiih  the 
 spoils  he  had  taken  in  war.  Besides  these,  there  were 
 various  fora  or  places  where  commodities  were  sold. 
 Forum,  a  name  given  in  Roman  geography  to  many 
 places  where  there  was  either  a  public  market,  or 
 where  the  praetor  held  his  court  {Forum  sive  Conven- 
 tus) ;  of  these  the  most  nnportant  were  :  I.  Forum, 
 a  town  of  Latium,  on  the  Appian  Way,  about  twenty- 
 three  miles  from  Aricia,  and  si.xteen  from  Tres  Ta- 
 bernae.  It  is  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  in  the  account  of 
 his  journey  to  Rome  {Ads,  28,  15),  and  is  also  well 
 known  as  Horace's  second  resting-place  in  his  jour- 
 ney to  Brundisium.  Holstenius  and  Corradini  agree 
 in  fi.\ing  the  position  of  Forum  Appii  at  Casarillo  di 
 Santa  Maria.  But  D'Anville,  from  an  exact  compu- 
 tation of  distances  and  relative  positions,  inclines  to 
 place  it  at  Borgo  Lungo,  near  Trcponti,  on  the  present 
 road  {Anal.  Geogr.  de  lUtalie,  p.  18G) ;  and  he  would 
 seem  to  be  correct,  especially  as  it  appears  clear  from 
 Horace,  that  here  it  was  usual  to  embark  on  a  canal, 
 which  ran  parallel  to  the  Via  Appia,  and  which  was 
 called  Decennovium,  its  length  being  nineteen  miles. 
 {Procop.,  Rer.  Got.,  I,  2.)  Vestiges  of  this  canal 
 may  still  be  traced  a  little  beyond  Borgo  Lungo.  It 
 must  be  observed,  too,  that  the  name  of  this  modern 
 place  agrees  very  well  with  the  idea  which  Horace 
 gives  us  of  Forum  Appii.  —  II.  Allieni,  a  town  of 
 Gallia  Cisalpina,  mentioned  by  Tacitus  (Hist.,  3,  6). 
 Cluverius  conceives,  with  considerable  probability, 
 that  this  ancient  town  occupied  the  present  site  of 
 Ferrara,  that  modern  name  being  evidently  a  corrup- 
 tion of  Forum  Allieni,  contracted  to  Forum  Arrii. — 
 523 
 
 III.  Aurelii,  a  town  of  Etruria,  now  Montalto  (Cu., 
 Cat.,  1,  9.) — IV.  Claudii,  another  in  Etruria,  now  Orio- 
 lo. — V.  Cornelii,  another,  now  Imola,  in  the  Pope's 
 dominions.  {Pliny,  3,  16. —  Cic.,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  12, 
 5.) — VI.  Domitii,  a  town  of  Gaul,  now  Froniignan, 
 in  Languedoc. — VII.  Flaminii,  a  town  of  Umbria, 
 now  San  Giovane.  {Plin.,  3,  14.) — VIII.  Gallorum, 
 a  town  of  Gallia  Togata,  now  Castel  Franco,  in  the 
 Bolognese.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  10,  30.) — IX.  Julii 
 a  town  of  Venetia,  called  Forajuliensis  urbs,  now  Fri- 
 uli. — X.  Julii,  a  town  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  now 
 Frejus,  in  Provence.     (Cjc,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  10,  17.) 
 
 Fosi,  a  people  of  Germany,  lying  north  of  the  Che- 
 rusci,  along  the  Visurgis  or  Wcscr.  TLey  shared  the 
 fate  of  the  Cherusci  when  the  Langobardi  conquered 
 the  latter  people.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been 
 a  branch  of  the  Cherusci.  {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  3, 
 p.  175,  208.) 
 
 Fossa,  I.  the  straits  of  Bonifacio,  between  Corsica 
 and  Sardinia,  called  also  Taphros.  {Plin.,  3,  6.) — II. 
 Drusi,  a  canal  eight  miles  in  length,  opened  by  Drusus 
 from  the  Rhine  to  the  Yssel.  {Vid.  Drusus,  I.) — III. 
 Philistina,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Po,  now  the  Po 
 grandc.  It  is  spoken  of  as  a  very  considerable  canal, 
 having  seven  arms  or  cuts,  called  Septcm  Maria,  or 
 Fossiones  Philistina..  These  were  drawn  off  from  it 
 to  the  sea.  The  works  in  question  were  undertaken 
 by  the  Tuscans,  for  the  purpose  of  draining  the  marshy 
 grounds  about  Hadria.  Mazocchi  sees  in  the  term 
 PhilistincB  traces  of  a  reference  to  Phoenicia.  {Ma- 
 zocch..  Dissert.  Corton.,  vol.  3,  diss.  1,  dialr.  1,  dc 
 selte  Mari.) 
 
 FossioNEs  PniLisTiNiE.      Vid.  Fossa,  III. 
 
 Franci,  a  confederation  of  Germanic  tribes,  which 
 first  appeared  on  the  stage  of  history  in  the  last  quar- 
 ter of  the  second  century  of  our  era.  As  the  Franks 
 are  first  mentioned  during  the  reign  of  the  philosophic 
 and  pacific  Antonine,  Mannert  concludes  that  their 
 confederation  was  not  the  result  of  hostile  aggression 
 from  Rome,  but  of  internal  wars  ;  and  these  wars  he 
 coi  ceives  to  have  been  chiefly  of  self-defence  against 
 the  Saxon  confederation,  which,  occupying  the  north 
 of  Germany,  sought  to  extend  itself  westward  to  the 
 Rhine.  The  Germans  lying  between  the  Saxons  and 
 that  river  found  it  necessary  to  unite  in  order  to  re- 
 sist their  northen  invaders,  and  did  so  successfully 
 under  their  new  name  of  Franks.  {Geschichte  der  al- 
 ten  Dcufschen,  hesonders  der  Frankeri,  p.  79,  seqq.) 
 Various  etymologies  have  been  assigned  to  this  ap- 
 pellation :  some  deduce  it  from  the  German  term 
 frank,  meaning  "  free,"  and  indicating  a  race  of  Free- 
 men ;  others  from  the  francisca,  a  favourite  weapon 
 of  this  people  ;  but  Luden,  in  his  Geschichle  dcs  Tcut- 
 schcn  Volkes  (Gotha,  1825-30),  derives  the  name  from 
 the  word  wrangcn,  still  used  in  Lower  Saxony  for 
 "  to  fight"  or  "brawl"  (compare  the  English  "  wran- 
 gle"); whence  the  epithet  might  mean  quarrelsome, 
 or,  perhaps,  bold  warriors.  The  Franks  soon  became 
 powerful  enough  to  act  on  the  offensive,  and,  crossing 
 the  Rhine  to  meet  other  foes,  they  spread  their  de- 
 vastations from  the  banks  of  that  river  to  the  ("oot  of 
 the  Pyrenees  :  nor  were'they  stopped  by  these  moun- 
 tains. Spain,  in  turn,  was  overrun;  and,  when  the 
 exhausted  country  no  longer  supplied  a  variety  of  plun- 
 der, the  Franks  seized  on  some  vessels  and  transpx)rted 
 themselves  into  Mauritania.  They  were  afterward 
 driven  out  of  Gaul  by  the  Roman  arms,  and  from  the 
 reign  of  Probus  (.A.D.  277)  to  that  of  Honorius,  seem 
 to  have  contented  themselves  with  occasional  irrup- 
 tions. They  obtained  a  permanent  footing  in  Gaul 
 during  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of  Honorius.  About 
 the  year  500,  Clovis,  or  Chlodwig  (his  proper  Teutonic 
 name),  by  reducing  the  several  Frank  principalities  un- 
 der his  own  sceptre,  and  conquering  the  last  remnant 
 of  the  western  Roman  empire  in  Gaul,  is  held  to  have 
 founded  the  French  monarchy.     His  Frank  kingdom 
 
FKE 
 
 FRO 
 
 Vi^s,  nevertheless,  by  no  means  commensurate  with 
 modern  France,  consisting  of  merely  the  northern  Ger- 
 man provinces  on  probably  both  banks  of  the  Rhine, 
 of  the  present  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  of  so 
 much  of  France  as  lies  north  of  the  Loire,  with  the 
 exception  of  Brittany,  where  large  bodies  of  Britons, 
 expelled  from  their  msular  home  by  the  Saxons,  had 
 established  themselves,  and  long  maintained  their  in- 
 dependence. Of  the  southern  half  of  France,  the  lar- 
 ger part,  situated  to  the  west  of  the  Rhone,  was  in- 
 cluded in  the  Visigothic  kingdom  of  Spain ;  while  the 
 provinces  to  the  east  of  that  river  were  held,  together 
 with  Savoy  and  Switzerland,  by  the  Burgundians. 
 Chlodwig  attacked  both.  Against  the  Burgundians  he 
 effected  little  or  nothing,  but  he  was  more  successful 
 against  their  western  neighbours.  Assisted  by  the 
 hatred  which  the  Catholic  natives  entertamed  towards 
 their  Arian  master,  he,  before  his  death,  reduced  the 
 Visigothic  dominions  in  Gaul  to  the  single  province 
 of  Languedoc,  incorporating  all  the  rest  in  his  Frank 
 realm.  His  sons  and  grandsons,  in  time,  not  only  sub- 
 dued Burgundy,  but  brought  many  German  states,  as 
 the  Thurmgians,  Allemans,  and  Bavarians,  into  com- 
 plete feudal  subjection.  {Fareign  Quarterly  Review, 
 No.  13,  p.  169,  seqq.) 
 
 Fkegell^,  a  city  of  Latium,  situate  near  the  Liris, 
 and  close  to  the  Via  Latina,  as  appears  from  the  men- 
 tion of  a  station  called  Fregellanuin  in  the  Itineraries 
 which  describe  that  route.  Fregellae  is  stated  by  Stra- 
 bo  (238)  to  have  been  once  a  place  of  some  conse- 
 quence, and  the  capital  of  a  considerable  district.  It 
 was  taken  by  the  Romans  A.U.C.  427.  After  suffer- 
 ing from  Pyrrhus,  and  subsequently  from  Hannibal, 
 this  place  attained  to  so  considerable  a  degree  of  im- 
 portance and  prosperity  as  to  suppose  that  it  could 
 compete  even  with  Rome  ;  its  inhabitants  revolted, 
 and  probably  under  circumstances  peculiarly  offensive 
 to  the  Romans.  L.  Opimius  was  ordered  to  reduce 
 the  Frcgellani.  Their  town  was  immediately  besieged, 
 and,  afi.er  a  vigorous  resistance,  was  taken  through 
 the  treachery  of  Numitorius  PuUus,  one  of  their  own 
 citizens,  whose  name  has  been  handed  down  to  us 
 by  Cicero.  (De  Fin.,  5,  22.— Phil.,  3,  6.)  Fregel- 
 lae was  on  this  occasion  destroyed,  the  discontented 
 state  of  the  allies  of  Rome  at  that  period  probably  ren- 
 dering such  severe  measures  necessary.  {Liv.,  Epit., 
 eO.—Rhet.  ad  Her.,  A,  9.  — Veil.  Patera.,  2,  6.— 
 Val.  Max.,  2,  8.)  In  Strabo's  time  the  condition  of 
 this  city  was  little  better  than  that  of  a  village,  to 
 which  the  neighbouring  population  resorted  at  certain 
 periods  for  religious  purposes.  Its  ruins,  according  to 
 Cluverius,  are  to  be  seen  at  Cepcrano,  a  small  town 
 on  the  right  of  the  Garigliavo.  {Ilal.  Ant.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 1036.— Compare  Hoist,  ad  Slcph.  Byz.,  p.  220,  and 
 De  Chaiipy,  vol.  3,  p.  474  )  A  more  modern  writer, 
 however,  hxes  this  ancient  site  at  S.  Giovanni  Incari- 
 co,  about  three  miles  farther  down  the  river.  [Pas- 
 qualc  Cayro,  Citla  del  Lazio,  vol.  1 . — Romanelli,  vol. 
 3,  p.  380. — Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  111.) 
 
 Frentani,  a  people  of  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic  coast, 
 east  of  Samnium  and  northwest  of  Apulia,  who  re- 
 ceived their  name  from  the  river  Frento,  now  Fortore, 
 which  runs  through  the  eastern  part  of  their  country, 
 and  falls  into  the  Adriatic  opposite  the  islands  of  Dio- 
 mede.  The  Frentani  appear  to  have  possessed  a 
 separate  political  existence,  independent  of  the  Sain- 
 nitic  confederacy,  though  we  are  assured  that  they  de- 
 rived their  descent  from  that  warlike  and  populous 
 race.  {Slraho,2\\.)  Their  history,  in  other  respects, 
 bears  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  neighbouring 
 tribes,  the  Vestini,  Peligni,  and  Marrucini.  Together 
 with  these,  the  Frentani,  as  Livy  reports,  voluntarily 
 submitted  to  the  Romans,  and  sent  deputies  to  obtain 
 a  treaty  from  that  power,  which  was  readily  granted. 
 {Liv.,  9,  45.)  We  find  the  Frentani  also  numbered 
 with  the  Marsi,  Marrucini,  and  Vestini,  by  Polybius, 
 
 as  the  allies  of  Rome  before  the  invasion  of  Hannibai 
 (2,  24).  From  Plutarch  we  learn,  that  they  distin 
 guished  themselves  in  the  war  agaiifst  Pyrrhus  (Vit. 
 Pyrrh. — Compare  Florus,  1,  18),  and  it  appears  that 
 they  faithfully  adhered  to  the  Roman  cause  throughout 
 the  whole  of  the  second  Punic  war.  Appian  is  the. 
 only  author  who  has  particularly  mentioned  the  Fren- 
 tani, as  having  joined  the  coalition  of  the  petty  states 
 of  central  Italy  against  Rome  {Civ.  Bell.,  I,  39),  but 
 even  without  the  authority  of  this  writer  we  could  not 
 doubt  that  this  people  would  unite  in  support  of  the 
 common  cause  with  the  surrounding  states,  to  whom 
 they  were  bound  by  consanguinity  and  other  political 
 ties.  Whatever  may  have  been  their  former  extent 
 of  territory,  we  find  it  restricted  by  the  geographers  of 
 the  Augustan  age  to  the  tract  of  country  lying  be- 
 tween the  mouths  of  the  Aternus  and  Tifernus,  which 
 separated  it  from  the  Marrucini  to  the  north,  and  from 
 Apulia  to  the  south.  {Mela,2,A. — Plin.,%\\,seqq. — 
 PtoL,  p.  66.)  Though  it  extended  also  into  the  interior 
 towards  Samnium,  and  the  sources  of  the  rivers  just 
 mentioned,  the  few  cities  of  the  Frentani  with  which 
 we  are  acquainted  appear  to  have  been  situated  on 
 the  coast.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  254, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Frisii,  a  people  of  Germany,  havmg  for  their  bound- 
 aries the  eastern  mouth  of  the  Rhine  on  the  west,  the 
 ocean  on  the  north,  the  Amisia  or  Ems  on  the  east, 
 and  the  Vechta  or  Vecht  on  the  south.  They  occu- 
 pied, consequently,  what  answers  at  the  present  day 
 to  West  Fnesland,  Groningen,  and  the  northern  angle 
 of  Ober-Yssel,  together  with  the  islands  which  lie 
 partly  to  the  north  in  the  ocean,  and  partly  to  the  east- 
 ern mouth  of  the  Rhine.  Pliny  and  Tacitus  {AnJi., 
 1^  60.— Ih.,  4,  72,  &c.)  name  this  people  Frisii ;  Ptol- 
 emy and  Dio  Cassius,'  ^piaatoc  and  <^pei(noi  {PtoL,  2, 
 ll'—Dio  Cass.,  54,  32) ;  but  by  later  writers  they  are 
 styled  <^plaaovec  {Proeop.,  4,  20),  Frisiones  {Chrome. 
 Moisiac.,  797),  Frisones  {Paul.  Warnefr.,  de  Gest. 
 Longob.,  6,  37),  &c.  From  a  very  early  period  the 
 Frisii  appear  to  have  been  on  friendly  terms  with  the 
 Romans.  Drusus  not  only  marched  unimpeded  through 
 their  territory  and  entered  their  harbour  with  his  fleet, 
 but  also  received  from  them  the  most  active  assistance, 
 not  as  from  a  conquered  people,  but  allies.  They  aided 
 also  Germanicus.  Their  enmity  to  the  Cherusci  would 
 seem  to  have  been  the  real  motive  of  their  friendship 
 with  the  Romans.  At  a  subsequent  period,  however, 
 they  discovered  the  true  nature  of  the  alliance  which 
 the  latter  had  formed  with  them,  and  fell  an  easy  prey 
 to  their  conquering  arms.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  3, 
 p.  272.) 
 
 Fbontinus,  Sex.  Jul  ,  a  Latin  writer,  born  of  a 
 plebeian  family  {Polcni,  Vit.  Front.,  ],scqq.),  but  who 
 attained,  by  his  integrity,  valour,  and  intelligence,  to 
 some  of  the  highest  offices  of  the  state.  In  A.D.  7() 
 he  was  praetor,°but  abdicated  this  office  to  please  Do- 
 mitian,  who  wished  to  add  it  to  the  dignity  of  consul, 
 with  which  he  himself  was  already  invested.  (Com- 
 pare Tacitus,  Hist.,  A,  39.  — Suetonius,  Domit.,  1.) 
 Five  years  after  Frontinus  obtained  the  command  ot 
 Britain,  and  was  intrusted  with  the  subjugation  of  the 
 Sihires;  which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  he  had 
 been  consul  in  A.D.  74,  though  the  Fasti  Consulares, 
 which  are  not,  however,  very  complete  as  regards  the 
 consules  suffecti,  make  no  mention  of  him.  He  ac- 
 complished the  object  of  his  mission,  notwilhstandir.g 
 the  difficulties  of  the  enterprise.  Agncola,  the  lainer- 
 in-law  of  Tacitus,  was  appointed  his  successor.  Unoer 
 Nerva  he  received  the  consulship  a  second  *""«,  A.u. 
 97,  and  was  appointed  the  same  year  Cnralor  Aqua- 
 rum,  or  general  superintendent  of  the  waters  and 
 aqueducts^of  the  capital,  and  in  this  capacity  brought 
 the  waters  of  the  Anio  to  Rome  by  means  of  a  ^Pjen- 
 did  aqueduct.  He  died  about  A.D.  106,  and  filled  at 
 the  time  of  his   death,  the   office  of  augur  m  wh.ck 
 
FRO 
 
 FUL 
 
 be  was  succeeded  by  Pliny.  Frontiims  wrote  a  work 
 on  the  Roman  aqueducts,  and  another  on  military 
 stratagems.  Tfie  former  of  these,  to  which  the  copy- 
 ists ot  the  middle  ages  have  given  the  barbarous  title 
 of  "  De  aquaducdbus  urbis  Ruma.  Commenlarius,"  is 
 written  in  an  easy  style,  but  without  the  least  elegance. 
 It  is  important,  however,  for  archseology,  since  we  find 
 in  it  a  detailed  history  of  those  remarkable  monuments, 
 Ihe  aqueducts  of  Rome.  As  regards  the  title  of  the 
 work,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  term  aquaduclus 
 does  not  appear  in  the  treatise  itself:  and  an  old  edi- 
 lion  gives  as  the  superscription,  "  De  Aquis,  qua:  in 
 Urbem  influunt,  libellus  mirabilis."  The  other  work, 
 entitled  "  Stratagematicon  libri  IV.,"  is  partly  of  a 
 military  and  partly  of  an  historical  character ;  it  is  a 
 mere  compilation,  sometimes  written  with  great  neg- 
 ligence, especially  in  the  historical  part.  JStill,  even 
 in  an  historical  point  of  view,  the  work  is  not  with- 
 out interest,  since  it  contains  some  particulars  which 
 are  not  to  be  found  in  the  other  historians  that  have 
 come  down  to  us.  To  Frontinus  are  ascribed  other 
 productions,  which  are,  however,  of  a  later  age.  One 
 is  entitled  "  De  Re  Agraria"  or  "  De  Agrorum  Qual- 
 itate ;"  the  others,  "  De  Limitibus"  and  "  De  Colo- 
 niis."  The  last  two  are  merely  fragments,  and  their 
 authors  lived  after  the  time  of  the  Antonines,  who  are 
 mentioned  in  them.  The  best  edition  of  Frontinus  is 
 that  of  Oudendorp,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1779,  8vo.  {B'dhr, 
 Gesch.  RiJm.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  671,  seqq.) 
 
 Fronto,  I.  a  Latin  writer,  born  at  Cirta,  in  Africa, 
 of  an  Italian  family.  After  studying  in  his  own  coun- 
 try, he  came  to  Rome  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  and  ac- 
 quired great  reputation  as  a  rhetorician  and  gramma- 
 rian. Antoninus  Pius  appointed  him  preceptor  to  his 
 two  adopted  sons  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus, 
 whose  confidence  and  affection  he  gained,  as  is  proved 
 by  their  letters.  After  being  consul,  Fronto  was  ap- 
 pointed to  a  government  in  Asia,  which  his  bad  health 
 prevented  him  from  filling.  His  learning  and  his  in- 
 Btructive  conversation  are  mentioned  with  praise  by 
 Aulus  Gellius,  the  historian  Appian,  and  others  of  his 
 contemporaries.  He  died  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Au- 
 relius, at  an  advanced  age.  {Klugling,  Suppl.  ad. 
 Harles.  Notit.  Brev.,  p.  320. — Mai,  Comment,  prcev., 
 ^  iv.,  seqq. — B'dhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  595.) 
 — Until  of  late  years  we  had  nothing  of  Fronto's  works, 
 except  fragments  of  his  treatise  "  De  Differentia  Ver- 
 borum,"  being  a  vocabulary  of  the  so-called  synonyms. 
 But  in  1815,  Angelo  Mai  having  discovered  in  the 
 Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan  a  palimpsest  MS.,  on 
 which  had  been  originally  written  some  letters  of 
 Fronto  to  his  two  pupils,  deciphered  the  text  wherever 
 the  writing  was  not  entirely  obliterated,  and  published 
 it  with  notes.  It  happened,  by  singular  good  fortune, 
 that  Mai,  being  some  years  after  appointed  librarian 
 of  the  Vatican,  discovered  in  another  palimpsest  vol- 
 ume another  part  of  Fronto's  letters,  with  the  answers 
 of  .Marcus  Aurelius  and  Verus.  Both  the  volumes  came 
 originally  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Columbanus,  at 
 Bobbio,  the  monks  having  written  them  over  with  the 
 Acts  of  the  First  Council  of  Chalcedon.  It  happened, 
 that  one  of  the  volumes  was  transferred  to  Milan,  and 
 the  other  to  Rome.  Mai  published  the  whole  in  a  new 
 edition,  entitled,  "  M.  Comelii  Fronlonis  el  M.  Au- 
 relii  impcraloris  epistulce;  L.  Veri  et  Antonini  Pii 
 et  Appiani  epistidarum  retiqi/ice  :  Fragmenta  Froyito- 
 tUs  et  Scripta  Grammatica,  8vo,  Rom.,  1823."  These 
 letters  are  very  valuable,  as  throwing  additional  light 
 on  the  age  of  the  Antonines,  confirming  what  we 
 know  of  the  excellent  character  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
 and  also  showing  his  colleague  Verus  in  a  more  fa- 
 vourable light  than  he  had  been  viewed  in  before. 
 The  affectionate  manner  in  which  both  emperors  con- 
 tinue to  address  their  former  preceptor  is  very  touch- 
 ing. Two  or  three  short  epistles  of  Antoninus  Pius 
 are  also  interesting.  There  are,  besides,  many  letters 
 524 
 
 of  Fronto  to  various  friends,  a  few  of  which  are  m 
 Greek.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  10,  p.  498.) — II. 
 A  native  of  Emesa,  a  rhetorician,  who  lived  at  Rome 
 in  the  time  of  Alexander  Severus.  He  taught  elo- 
 quence also  at  Athens,  and  was  the  rival  of  the  first 
 Philostratus.  The  critic  Longinus  was  his  nephew. 
 He  wrote  various  works,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments 
 remain.  {Said. — Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p. 
 204.) 
 
 Frusino,  a  city  of  Latium,  now  Frosinone,  situate 
 on  the  river  Cosa.  {Strabo,  238.)  This  place  was 
 deprived  by  Rome  of  its  territory  for  having  incited 
 the  Hernici  to  war,  A.U.C.  450.  Frontinus  names  it 
 among  the  colonies,  and  Festus  among  the  prasfecturae. 
 
 FuciNus,  a  lake  of  Italy,  in  the  country  of  the  Marsi, 
 now  sometimes  called  Lago  Fucino,  but  more  com- 
 monly Lago  di  Celano.  It  is  of  considerable  extent, 
 being  not  less  than  forty  miles  in  circumference.  As 
 it  was  subject  to  inundation  (Strabo,  241),  Julius  Cae- 
 sar, it  appears,  had  intended  to  find  a  ven't  for  its  wa- 
 ters (Sueton.,  Vit.  Cces.,  44),  but  this  design  was  not 
 carried  into  execution  till  the  reign  of  Claudius.  After 
 a  continued  labour  of  three  years,  during  which  30,000 
 men  were  constantly  employed,  a  canal  of  three  miles 
 in  length  was  carried  through  a  mountain  from  the 
 lake  to  the  river  Liris.  On  its  completion,  the  splen- 
 did but  sanguinary  show  of  a  real  naumachia  was  ex- 
 hibited on  the  lake  in  the  presence  of  Claudius  and 
 Agrippina,  and  a  numerous  retinue,  while  the  sur- 
 rounding hills  were  thronged  with  the  population  of 
 the  neighbouring  country.  The  reader  will  find  these 
 events  fully  detailed  in  Suetonius  {Vit.  Claud.,  20), 
 .Tacitus  (Anna!.,  12,  56),  and  Dio  Cassius  (60,  11). 
 Hadrian  afterward  is  said  to  have  repaired  this  work 
 of  Claudius.  {JSl.,  Spart.,  Vit.  Hadr.)  Considerable 
 remains  of  this  undertaking  of  Claudius  are  yet  to  be 
 seen  between  Avezzano  and  Lugo.  (Consult  Fa- 
 bretti,  Dissert,  de  Emissario  Lacus  Fucini. — Roma- 
 nelli,  vol.  3,  p.  194. —  Cramer'' s  Ancient  Italy,  vol. 
 1,  p.  328.) 
 
 FuLviA  Gens,  an  illustrious  family  at  Rome,  the 
 branches  of  which  were  those  of  Curvus,  Nobilior, 
 Flaccus,  Pastinus,  Maximus,  Centumalus,  &c. 
 
 FuLviA,  I.  a  female  of  good  family,  but  licentious 
 principles.  She  disclosed  to  Cicero  the  details  of  the 
 conspiracy  of  Catiline,  which  she  had  learned  from 
 Quintus  Curius.  {Sail,  Cat.,  c.  23.) — II.  A  bold, 
 ambitious  woman,  at  first  the  wife  of  Clodius  the  tur- 
 bulent tribune,  and,  after  his  death,  of  Marcus  Anto- 
 nius  the  triumvir.  She  first  came  into  notice  on  the 
 assassination  of  Clodius,  when,  having  caused  the 
 corpse  to  be  brought  into  the  vestibule  of  her  dwelling, 
 and  having  assembled  the  populace,  she  caused,  by  ^ 
 her  tears  and  language,  a  violent  sedition.  Some 
 years  after  this,  on  having  become  the  spouse  of  An- 
 tony, she  took  an  active  part  in  the  proscriptions  of 
 her  husband,  and  is  said  to  have  even  sacrificed  to  her 
 own  vengeance  several  individuals  who  had  given  her 
 offence.  After  the  head  of  Cicero  was  brought  to 
 x\ntony,  she  took  it  on  her  knees,  broke  forth  into 
 cowardly  insult  of  the  character  of  the  deceased,  and 
 then,  with  fiendish  malice,  pierced  the  tongue  with 
 her  golden  bodkin.  Having  been  left  at  Rome  by  An- 
 tony during  the  war  against  Brutus  and  Cassius,  she 
 became  all  powerful  in  that  city,  named  the  prastors 
 at  her  own  pleasure,  sold  the  government  of  the  prov- 
 inces, and  even  decreed  a  triumph  to  Lucius,  the 
 brother  of  Antony,  who  had  no  claim  whatever  to  one. 
 W^hen,  after  the  battle  of  Philippi,  Antony  had  pass- 
 ed into  the  East  to  regulate  affairs  in  that  quarter, 
 Fulvia,  irritated  by  his  intercourse  with  Cleopatra,  tri- 
 ed to  induce  Octavius  to  take  up  arms  against  him. 
 Not  succeeding  in  this,  she  took  them  up  against  Oc- 
 tavius himself,  in  conjunction  with  her  brother-in-law 
 Lucius,  who  now  professed  open  opposition  to  the  ille- 
 gal power  of  the  Triumvirate.     After  very  bold  and 
 
FUL 
 
 FUR 
 
 spirited  efforts,  however,  on  her  part,  she  was  besieged 
 wUh  her  brother-in-law  at  Perusia,  and  compelled  to 
 surrender  to  the  power  of  Octavius.  Fulvia,  after 
 this,  retired  to  Greece,  and  rejoined  her  husband,  but 
 was  coldly  received  by  him.  She  died  at  Sicyon, 
 A.U.C.  712,  through  chagrin  and  wounded^  pride,  as 
 was  believed,  at  her  husband's  attachment  to  Cleo- 
 patra. {Veil.  Palcrc,  2,  7i.—Plu(.,  Vit.  Ant.— Id., 
 Vit.  Cic.) 
 
 FuLvius,  I.  L.  Curvus,  was  consul  A.U.C.  432, 
 B.C.  320,  and  six  years  after  master  of  the  horse  to 
 the  dictator  L.  .^milius.     {Ltv.,  8,  38.— Id.,  9,  21.) 
 — II.  M.  Curvus  Paetinus,  wasconsul  in  place  of  T. 
 Minucius,  A.U.C.  449,  B.C.  305.     He  took  the  city 
 of  Bovianum,  in  the  country  of  the  Samnites.     {Liv., 
 9,  44.)— III.  Cn.   Pffitinus,  was  consul  A.U.C.  454, 
 B.C.  300.     He  gained  a  memorable  victory  over  the 
 Samnites   near   Bovianum,    and    enjoyed   a    triumph. 
 Three  years  after  he  carried  on  successful  operations 
 in  Etruria  in  quality  of  propraetor.     {Liv.,  9,  44. — Id., 
 15,  91.)— IV.  S.  Pastinus  Nobilior,  was  consul  A.U.C. 
 499,  B.C.  255,  along  with  ^milius  Paulus  Lepidus. 
 These   two  commanders   sailed   for   Africa   after  the 
 overthrow  of  Regulus  by  the  Carthaginians,  gained  a 
 naval  victory,  compelled  the  foe  to  raise  the  siege  of 
 Clypea,  and  carried  off  an  immense  booty  from  the 
 Carthaginian    territories.      They   were    shipwrecked, 
 however,  on  their  return  to  Italy,  and  of  200  vessels 
 only   80    were    saved. — V.    Q.    Flaccus,  was    consul 
 A.U.C.  517,  530,  542,  and  545  (B.C.  237,  224,  212, 
 and  209.)     He  defeated  Hanno  near  Bovianum,  and 
 laid  siege  to  Capua,  which  surrendered  to  him  after 
 the  lapse  of  a  year.     The  conquered  were  treated  with 
 great  cruelty.     (Fifi.  Capua.)     Some  time  subsequent 
 to   this,  he  marched   against  the  Hirpini,  Lucanians, 
 and  other  nations  of  Italy,  who,  alarmed  at  the  severi- 
 ties inflicted  on  Capua,  surrendered  to  him  the  garri- 
 sons which  had  been  placed  in  their  cities  by  Hannibal. 
 (Livy,  23,  21.— M,  24,   29.— Id.,  25,  2.)— VI.  M. 
 Nobilior,  was  praetor  in  Spain  A.U.C.  588,  B.C.  196, 
 and  carried  the  Roman  arms  to  the  Tagus,  making  him- 
 self master  also  of  Toletum  {Toledo),  up  to  that  period 
 deemed  impregnable.    Having  obtained  the  consulship, 
 A.U.C.  565,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  war  in  Greece, 
 during  which  he  took  Ambracia,  traversed  Epirus  as 
 conqueror,  and  reduced  to  submission  the  island  of 
 Cephallenia.      Two  years  after  this  he  was  accused 
 before  the  senate  of  having  maltreated  the  allies  of  the 
 Roman  people,  but  was  acquitted  of  the  charge,  and 
 received  the  honour  of  a  triumph.     In  the  year  573 
 he  was  elected  censor  along  with  .^milius  Lepidus, 
 his  bitter  foe.     Apprehending  injury  to  the  state  from 
 their  known  enmity,  the  leading  men  of  the  senate  ad- 
 jured both  individuals  to  lay  aside  their  differences  for 
 the  good  of  their  country.     A  reconciliation  accord- 
 ingly took  place,  and  nothing  occurred  to  disturb  these 
 friendly  feelings  during  the  rest  of  their  joint  magis- 
 tracy.    Fulvius  raised  many  public  structures,  a  basil- 
 ica, a  forum,  &c.     He  also  constructed  a  port  at  the 
 mouth  of  the  Tiber.     {Liv.,  33.  42.— /(Z,  35,  7.— Id., 
 20,  22,  &c.)— VII.  Q.   Flaccus,  was  prastor  A.U.C. 
 573,  B.C.  181.     He  took,  in  this  capacity,  the  city  of 
 Urbicua  in  Farther  Spain,  and  defeated  the  Celtiberi 
 in  the  battle  of  Ebura,  killing  in  this  and  in  another 
 encounter  35,000  men.     On  his  return  to  Rome  he 
 received  a  triumph,  and  in  the  same  year  (575)  the 
 consulship.     In  A.U.C.   580  he  was   elected  censor 
 along  with  Posthumius  Albinus.     These  two  censors 
 were  the  first  that  paved  the  streets  of  Rome,  B.C. 
 174.     The  next  year  he  built  a  temple  to  Fortune, 
 and,  to  adorn  it,  carried  off  a  large  portion  of  the  mar- 
 ble  tiles   from  the  temple  of  the   Lacinian   Juno  in 
 Lower    Italy.     {Vid.   Lacinium.)     The   senate  com- 
 pelled  him  to  restore  these.     The   popular  account 
 made  him  to  have  been  deprived  of  reason  for  this  act 
 of  sacrilege.     {Liv.,  39,  56  et  40.— M,  40,  16.— Veil. 
 
 Paterc,  1, 10.)— VIII.  M.  Flaccus,  was  consul  A.U.O. 
 629,  B.C.  125.  He  seconded  the  projects  of  Tibe 
 rius  Gracchus  to  obtain  for  the  states  of  Italy  the 
 rights  of  citizenship.  Being  afterward  sent  against 
 the  Gauls,  he  defeated  them,  and  obtained  a  triumph. 
 Four  years  subsequently  he  became  involved  in  the 
 seditious  movements  of  the  Gracchi  relative  to  the 
 agrarian  law,  and  perished  in  an  affray  which  arose. 
 {Vid.  Gracchus.) 
 
 FuNDANUs,  a  lake  near  Fundi  m  Italy,  which  dis- 
 charges itself  into  the  Mediterranean.  {Tacit.,  Hist., 
 3,  69.)  According  to  Pliny,  the  Lacus  Fundanus  was 
 originally  called  Amyclanus,  from  the  city  of  Amyclae 
 in  its  vicinity.     {PUn.,  14,  6.) 
 
 Fundi,  a  town  of  Latium,  on  the  Appian  Way,  near 
 the  Lacus  Fundanus,  and  not  far  from  Caieta.  It  is 
 now  Fondi.  The  first  mention  of  this  place  in  history 
 occurs  at  the  end  of  the  Latin  war,  A.U.C.  417,  when, 
 with  the  exception  of  the  right  of  voting,  it  obtained 
 the  privileges  of  a  Roman  city,  for  having  allowed  a 
 free  passage  to  the  Roman  troops  in  their  march  into 
 Campania.  {Liv.,  8,  14.)  Not  long  after,  however, 
 the  Fundani  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  senate  for 
 having  secretly  aided  the  city  of  Privernum  in  a  hostile 
 incursion  into  the  Roman  territory,  but,  by  a  timely 
 submission,  they  escaped  the  threatened  vengeance 
 Fundi  received  the  right  of  voting  A.U.C.  564,  and 
 its  citizens  were  enrolled  in  the  .(Emilian  tribe.  {Liv., 
 38,  36.)  It  was  subsequently  colonized  by  the  veter- 
 an soldiers  of  Augustus.  Horace's  description  of  the 
 ridiculous  importance  assumed  by  the  praetor  of  Fundi 
 will  be  in  the  recollection  of  most  readers.  {Sat.,  1, 
 5,  34,  scqq. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  122.) 
 
 FuRi.4.  Lex,  de  Testamenlis,  by  C.  Furius  the  tri- 
 bune. It  forbade  any  person  to  leave  as  a  legacy 
 more  than  a  thousand  asses,  and  that  he  who  look 
 more  should  pay  Iburfold.  By  the  laws  of  the  twelve 
 tables,  one  might  leave  what  legacies  he  pleased. 
 {Cic,  Vcrr.,  1,  42  ) 
 
 FuRi^,  the  Furies,  called  also  VircB  and  Eumeni- 
 des.  These  goddesses  are  frequently  named  by  Homer, 
 but  he  says  nothing  of  their  origin.  In  the  Theogony, 
 they  spring  from  the  blood  of  Uranus,  when  mutilated 
 by  his  son  Saturn,  whose  own  children  they  are  ac- 
 cording to  Empedocles  ;  while  yEschylus  and  Sopho- 
 cles call  them  the  children  of  Night.  {JEsch.,  Eu- 
 men.,  317,  4:13.— Soph.,  (Ed.  Col.,  40,  106.)  The 
 Orphic  Hymns  assign  them  the  rulers  of  Erebus  for 
 parents.  {Hymn.,  70.)  In  the  time  of  the  Alexandie- 
 an  writers,  the  Furies,  like  the  Fates,  were  three  in 
 number,  and  were  named  Alecto  {Unceasing),  Megae- 
 ra  {Envicr  or  Denier),  and  Tisiphone  {Blood-avenger). 
 The  Furies  were  worshipped  at  Athens  as  the  revered 
 {asjivai)  goddesses ;  and  at  Sicyon  as  the  kind  (Ei- 
 /ievlSe^)  deities.  It  is  generally  thought  that  both  of 
 these  appellations  were  propitiatory  ones,  and  meant 
 to  appease.  Miiller,  however,  is  of  opinion,  tliat  the 
 term  Eumenides,  as  applied  to  the  Furies,  is  connect- 
 ed with  old  religious  ideas,  according  to  which,  death 
 and  ruin,  as  well  as  life  and  welfare,  were  supposed  to 
 emanate  from  one  and  the  same  source.  {Miiller,  Eu- 
 mcnid.,  p.  204.) — The  external  representation  oi  these 
 goddesses,  in  the  play  of  ^schylus  called  after  them,  is 
 founded  entirely  on  the  fearful  aspect  of  their  ideal  na- 
 ture. In  their  exterior  configuration  the  poet  seems  to 
 have  drawn  a  good  deal  on  his  own  invention  ;  for  the 
 earlier  bards  had  no  definite  image  of  these  goddesses 
 before  their  eyes  ;  and  though  there  were  in  their  temple 
 at  Athens  old  carved  images  of  the  Scmna,  still  their 
 figure  could  not  be  adapted  to  dramatic  purposes. 
 From  the  Gorgons  ^schylus  borrowed  the  snaky  hair 
 of  the  Furies.  He  took,  no  doubt,  from  these  also 
 the  pendent  tongue,  red  with  the  lapped  gore,  and 
 the  grinning  mouth,  which  regularly  characterizes  the 
 Gorcron  head  in  ancient  works  of  art.  The  long  pen- 
 dent" tongue,  moreover,  is  most  likely  the  main  type 
 ^  525 
 
GAB 
 
 GAB 
 
 oy  which  their  resemblance  to  hounds  was  expressed. 
 (Mailer,  Etimenid.,  p.  216,  sc/j.)  According  to  the 
 snore  common  mode  of  delineating  the  Furies,  they 
 are  represented  as  brandishing  each  a  torch  in  one 
 hand,  and  a  scourge  of  snakes  m  the  other. — For  some 
 remarks  on  the  term  Erinnyes,  consult  that  article. 
 [Kcigklley's  Mythology,  p.  196.) 
 
 Fc'Kii,  a  family  which  migrated  from  Mcdullia  in 
 Latium,  and  came  to  settle  at  Rome  under  Romu- 
 lus, and  was  admitted  among  the  patricians.  Cainil- 
 .us  was  of  this  family,  and  it  was  he  who  first  raised 
 it  to  distinction.    {PtiU.,  Vit.  Camill.) 
 
 Fuuiv.i,  an  early  Latin  goddess,  whose  name,  in  the 
 time  of  Varro,  was  hardly  known  to  a  few.  ( Varro, 
 L.  L.,  5,  3  )  There  was  a  sacred  grove  of  this  god- 
 dess beyond  the  Tiber  (in  which  Caius  Graccims  was 
 slain),  and  this,  with  the  similitude  of  the  name,  led 
 Cicero  and  others  to  identify  Fiirina  with  the  Furies. 
 (Cic,  N.  D.,  3,  18— PhU.,  Vit.  a.  Gracch.,  c.  17. 
 — Martian,  de  Nupt.,  2,  40.)  The  Furinalia  were 
 celebrated  on  the  25th  July.  (Keightlcy's  Mythology, 
 p.  5i0,seq.) 
 
 FcRius,  M.  Bibaculus,  a  Latin  poet  of  Cremona, 
 who  wrote  a'.inals  in  Iambic  verse.  {Quintil.,  10,  1, 
 96.)  Horace  ridicules  him  as  a  turgid  and  bombastic 
 writer.     (^Sat.,  2,  5,  39,  stqq.) 
 
 Fuscus,  Aristius,  a  friend  of  Horace,  as  conspic- 
 uous for  integrity  as  for  learning  and  abilities.  The 
 poet  addressed  to  him  the  22d  Ode  of  the  First  Book, 
 and  also  the  10th  Epistle,  1st  Book. 
 
 FusiA  Le.\,  \.  passed  A.U.C.  690,  ordained  that, 
 in  the  Comiiia  Tnbuta,  the  different  kinds  of  people 
 in  each  tribe  should  vote  separately,  that  thus  the  sen- 
 timents of  each  rank  might  be  known. — H.  Caninia, 
 another,  enacted  A.U.C.  7.51,  to  check  the  manu- 
 mission of  slaves ;  limiting  this  manumission  to  a 
 certain  number,  proportioned  to  the  whole  amount 
 of  slaves  which  one  possessed  ;  from  two  to  ten,  the 
 half ;  from  ten  to  thirty,  the  third  ;  from  thirty  to  a 
 hundred,  the  fourth  part;  but  not  above  a  hundred, 
 whatever  was  the  number.  (Heinecc,  Anliq.  Rom., 
 1,  7,  1. — Blair,  on  Slavery  among  the  Romans,  p. 
 174.) 
 
 G. 
 
 G\BM,  a  city  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Persis, 
 placed  by  Ptolemy  southeast  of  Pasargada,  on  the 
 confines  of  Carmania.  Mannert  makes  it  coincide 
 with  the  modern  Darahghcrd.  {Geogr.,  vol.  5,  pt.  2, 
 p.  530,  scqq.) — H.  A  city  of  Sogdiana,  southwest  of 
 Cyreschata.  D'Anville  supposes  it  to  be  the  modern 
 Kauos  ;  Mannert,  on  the  contrary,  is  in  favour  of  the 
 modern  Rabas,  on  the  river  Kvcssel,  north  of  Samar- 
 cand.  {Gcogr.,  vol.  4,  p.  460,  489.)  Gabaj  was  one 
 of  the  first  places  to  which  the  exploits  of  Alexander 
 gave  celebrity  in  (his  country.  It  is  the  same  with 
 ttie  Gubaza  of  Curtius.     {Quint.  Curt.,  8,  4,  1.) 
 
 GadIi,  I.  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  near  the  Via  Salaria, 
 and  not  far  from  Cures.  Its  site  is  now  called  Grottc  di 
 Torri,  or  simply  Toiri.  {Galclti,  Gahio,  aniicacilta  di 
 Sal)i7ia,  scopcria  ov'  e  ora.  Torri,  ovvcro  Ic  Grottc  di  Tor- 
 ri, Roma,  4to,  1757.) — II.  An  ancient  city  of  Latium, 
 somewhat  to  the  northwest  of  Tusculum,  and  beyond 
 the  little  river  Vcrcsis,  (Sirabo,  239.)  which  corre- 
 sponds, as  is  thought,  to  the  modern  VOsa.  Strabo 
 mentions  that  it  was  on  the  Via  Praencstina,  and  about 
 100  stadia  from  Rome.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
 gives  the  same  distance  (4,  53) ;  and  Appian  places  it 
 midway  between  Rome  and  Praeneste.  {Bell.  Civ.,  5, 
 23.)  The  Itineraries  reckon  twelve  miles  from  Rotne 
 to  this  town.  These  data  enabled  Ilolstenius  and  Fa- 
 brelli  to  fix  the  position  of  Gabii  with  suHicient  accura- 
 cy at  a  place  called  I'Osteria  del  Pantano;  and  this 
 opinion  was  satisfactorily  confirmed  by  the  discoveries 
 made  here  in  1792,  under  the  direction  of  Gavin  Ham- 
 526 
 
 ilton,  on  an  estate  of  Prince  Borghese,  knawn  by  the 
 name  of  Pantano  dii  Gnjfi.  {Vi.sconti,  Monument! 
 Gabmi,  Roma,  1792. — Nibby,  Viaggio  Antiq.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  235.)  Gabii  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  numer- 
 ous colonies  founded  by  Alba  {Dion.  Hal, 4,  53),  and 
 an  obscure  tradition  represented  it  as  the  place  in 
 which  Romulus  and  Remus  were  brought  up.  {Dion. 
 Hal.,  1,  84 — Pint  ,  Vit.  Rom.)  The  artful  manner 
 in  which  Tarquinius  Superbus  obtained  possession  of 
 Gabii,  after  he  had  failed  in  the  attempt  by  force  of 
 arms,  is  well  known,  as  recorded  by  Livy  (1,  58, 
 seqq. — Dion.  Hal.,  4,  53).  The  treachery  of  Sextus 
 Tarquinius  did  not  remain  unpunished;  for,  after  the 
 expulsion  of  his  family  from  Rome,  he  fell  at  Gabii, 
 a  victim  to  his  tyranny  and  oppression.  {Liv.,  1,  60.) 
 According  to  the  same  historian,  the  Gauls  received 
 their  final  defeat  from  Camillus  near  this  city  (5,  49). 
 This  place  sufl'ered  so  much  during  the  civil  wars,  that 
 it  became  entirely  ruined  and  deserted.  We  learn, 
 however,  from  several  monuments  discovered  in  the 
 excavations  already  referred  to,  that  Gabii  was  raised 
 from  this  state  of  ruin  and  desolation  under  Antoninus 
 and  Commodus,  and  that  it  became  a  thriving  town. 
 {Visconti,  Monumenti  Gabini.)  In  its  more  flourish- 
 ing days,  Juno  seems  to  have  been  held  in  jieculiar 
 honour  at  Gabii,  and  the  remains  of  her  temple  are 
 said  to  be  still  visible  on  the  site  of  that  city.  {Nibby, 
 Viaggio  Anliquario,  vol.  1,  p.  236.)  The  inhabi- 
 tants of  Gabii  had  a  peculiar  mode  of  folding  or  gird- 
 ing the  toga,  in  order  to  give  more  freedom  to  the 
 person  when  in  motion.  In  this  mode  of  wearing 
 the  toga,  which  was  called  the  ductus  Gabinus,  or 
 "Gabine  Cincture,"  the  lappet  was  thrown  back  over 
 the  left  shoulder,  and  brought  round  under  the  right 
 arm  to  the  breast;  so  that  it  girded  the  individual, 
 and  made  the  toga  shorter  and  closer.  According  to 
 Servius  {ad  Virg.,JEn.,  7,  612),  the  inhabitants  of  Ga- 
 bii, while  engaged  in  sacrificing,  were  suddenly  attack- 
 ed by  the  enemy,  whereupon,  not  having  time  to  array 
 themselves  in  arms,  they  tucked  up  their  togas  in  this 
 manner,  and  advanced  to  meet  the  foe.  Virgil  {Mn., 
 7,  612)  represents  the  Roman  consul  thus  arrayed 
 when  he  opens  the  gates  of  the  temple  of  Janus  ;  and 
 in  this  garb  the  Decii  devoted  themselves  to  death. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol   2,  p.  50.) 
 
 Gabina,  the  name  of  Juno,  worshipped  at  Gabii. 
 {Virg.,JEn.,  7,  682.— Fzrf.  Gabii,  II.) 
 
 Gabinia  Lex,  I.  de  Comitiis,  proposed  by  A.  Ga- 
 binius,  the  tribune,  A.U.C.  614.  It  required,  that, 
 in  the  public  assemblies  for  electing  magistrates,  the 
 votes  should  be  given  by  ballots,  and  not  viva  voce. 
 {Cic.,de  Leg.,  3,  16.)— II.  Another,  brought  forward 
 by  A.  Gabinius  the  tribune,  A.U.C.  685.  It  granted 
 Pompey  the  power  of  carrying  on  the  war  against  the 
 pirates  during  three  years,  and  of  obliging  all  kings, 
 governors,  and  states  to  sup])ly  him  with  all  the  ne- 
 cessaries he  wanted,  over  all  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
 and  in  the  maritime  provinces  as  far  as  400  stadia 
 from  the  sea.  (C;c  ,  pro  Leg.  Man  ,  17. — Dio  Cass., 
 3G,  7.) — III.  Another,  do  Usura,  by  Aul.  Gabinius 
 the  tribune,  A.U.C.  685.  It  ordained  that  no  action 
 should  be  granted  for  the  recovery  of  any  money  bor- 
 rowed upon  small  interest  to  be  lent  upon  larger.  This 
 was  a  usual  practice  at  Rome,  which  obtained  the 
 name  of  versnram  faccrc.  Compare  the  remarks  of 
 Heineccius,  Rom.  Ant.,  3,  15,  14,  p.  54S,  ed.  Haubold. 
 Gabinius,  I.  Aubis,  the  author  of  what  were  termed, 
 from  him,  the  Gabinian  Laws,  attached  himself  at  first 
 to  Sylla,  and  afterward  to  Pompey.  When  tribune 
 of  the  commons,  B.C.  69,  he  proposed  a  law  giving 
 Pompey  almost  absolute  control  over  the  coasts  of 
 the  Mediterranean,  together  with  the  command  of  the 
 sea  itself,  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  the  Cilician 
 pirates.  The  leading  men  in  the  stale  endeavoured, 
 but  in  vain,  to  prevent  the  passage  of  this  law.  They 
 succeeded,  however,  in  thwarting  Gabinius'  wish  to 
 
GAD 
 
 go  as  one  of  Pompey's  lieutenants,  although  the  latter 
 expressly  asked  for  him  as  such.  Gabinius  very  prob- 
 ably was  recompensed  by  Potnpey  in  some  other  way, 
 since,  according  to  Cicero,  he  was  so  needy  at  the 
 time,  and  so  corrupt  in  principle,  that,  had  this  law  not 
 been  passed,  he  would  have  turned  pirate  himself 
 Having  obtained  the  consulship,  B.C.  58,  he  took 
 part  with  Clodius  against  Cicero,  and  powerfully  con- 
 tributed to  the  e.xile  of  the  latter.  The  next  year  he 
 obtained  the  government  of  Syria.  Judaea,  which 
 was  comprised  in  this  province,  was  at  that  period  a 
 scene  of  trouble,  owing  to  the  rival  claims  of  Hyrca- 
 nus  and  Aristobulus  to  the  throne.  Gabinius  defeat- 
 ed Aristobulus  in  a  great  battle  near  Jerusalem,  and 
 then  wrote  home  to  the  senate,  and  claimed  a  thanks- 
 giving for  his  victory.  This  was  refused  him,  and  he 
 was  ordered  to  return.  Disobeying  the  authority  of 
 the  senate,  he  continued  in  command,  and  acted  in 
 the  most  arbitrary  and  oppressive  manner.  He  even 
 had  the  hardihood  to  march  into  Egypt,  thus  violating 
 a  positive  law  by  making  war  beyond  the  boundaries 
 of  his  own  province.  His  object  in  passing  into  this 
 country  was  to  reinstate  Ptolemy,  which  he  success- 
 fully effected,  after  two  victories  over  his  rebellious 
 subjects.  The  senate,  highly  incensed  at  his  conduct, 
 ordered  him  at  last  to  return  home  and  defend  him- 
 self. Having  obeyed  this  mandate,  he  was  immedi- 
 ately accused  of  high  treason.  The  interest  of  Cae- 
 sar and  Pompey,  however,  obtained  his  acquittal.  He 
 was  immediately  after  accused  of  extortion,  and  was 
 less  successful,  notwithstanding  the  same  powerful 
 influence  was  exerted  in  his  behalf;  and  even  Cicero 
 himself,  yielding  to  the  solicitations  of  Pompey,  ac- 
 tually appeared  as  his  advocate.  Gabinius  was  con- 
 demned to  perpetual  banishment.  After  an  exile  of 
 some  years  he  was  recalled  by  Caesar,  and  remained 
 thenceforth  attached  to  the  party  of  the  latter.  Sub- 
 sequently to  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  he  was  sent  into 
 lUyricum  with  some  newly  levied-legions,  but  his  army 
 was  almost  destroyed,  in  several  encounters,  by  the 
 barbarians,  and  he  was  compelled  to  shut  himself  up 
 in  Salona,  where  he  died  of  a  malady  brought  on 
 by  chagrin  at  his  discomfiture.  His  death  happened 
 about  .\.U.C.  707.  {Cic,  pro  Dom.,  9. — Id,  pro 
 Le<^.  Man.,  17.— Id.,  J'hil.,  14,  S.—Plut.,  Vit.  Pomp. 
 — Id.,  Vit.  Cic,  &c.) — II.  A  Roman  general  under 
 Claudius,  about  A.D.  31,  who  gained  some  successes 
 over  the  Germans. 
 
 Gabinus  Cinciiis.  Vid.  Gabii. 
 Gaues  {mm),  Gadis  {is),  and  GAniRA,  a  flourishing 
 commercial  city  of  Spain,  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  the 
 arms  of  the  Baetis,  now  Cadiz.  It  was  founded  by 
 a  Phoenician  colony  about  1500  B.C.,  according  to 
 some  ;  others,  however,  make  its  foundation  coeval 
 with  that  of  Utica,  and  this  last  to  have  been  287 
 years  before  Carthage.  Its  name  in  Phoenician  was 
 Gaddir,  and  signified  a  hedge  or  limit,  as  it  was  thought 
 that  here  were  the  western  limits  of  the  world.  Thus 
 Pliny  (4,  36)  remarks,  "  Pceni  Gaddir,  ila  Punica  lin- 
 gua septum  signijicanlc,''''  and  Solinus(c.  23),  "  Quam 
 Tyrii,  a  Rubra  prof ecli  mari,  Erylhrcam,  Fani  lingua 
 sua  Gaddir,  id  est  scpem,  oiominarunt.''' — The  Greek 
 name  is  Vu6sLpa,  and  hence  we  have  in  Hesyehius, 
 Vu6ci.pa-  Tu  nepiibpuy/.iaTa,  ^oiviKeg.  (Com])are  the 
 Hebrew  form  Gederah,  which  Gesenius  defines  a 
 place  surrounded  with  a  wall,  into  which  the  shep- 
 herds drove  their  flocks  by  night,  for  security  against 
 wild  animals.  Consult  also  Gesenius,  Gcschichte  dcr 
 Hebraischcn  Sprache  und  Schrift,  p.  227.)  It  was 
 situate  on  a  small  island  of  the  same  name,  which 
 was  separated  from  the  main  land  by  a  strait  only  one 
 stadium  wide.  This  island  is  said  to  have  abounded 
 at  an  early  period  with  wild  olive-trees,  and  to  have 
 been  hence  named  Cotiniisa  {KoTtvovaa),  not  by  the 
 early  inhabitants  of  the  land,  however,  as  some  of  the 
 ancient  writers  thought,  but  by  the  Greeks ;  for  the 
 
 G  A  r 
 
 appellation  is  a  Grecian  one.  Near  it  lay  the  smaJl 
 island  Erythea,  called  by  the  inhabitants  Juno's  island. 
 {Vid.  Erythea.)  Gades  came  into  the  power  of  the 
 Carthaginians  in  the  first  Punic  war,  and  in  the  sec- 
 ond surrendered  itself  voluntarily  to  the  Romans 
 From  Julius  Cssar  it  received  the  name  and  privi- 
 leges of  a  Roman  colony  ;  and  in  a  later  age  it  was 
 styled  Augusta  Julia  Gaditana.  Hercules,  surnamed 
 Gaditanus,  had  here  a  celebrated  temple.  {Plin  ,  I. 
 c.—Flor.,  2,  \1.—Liv.,  28,  ^1.— Justin.,  44,  5.) 
 
 Gaditanus  Sinus,  now  the  Bay  of  Cadiz. 
 
 Gadit.Inum  Fretum,  now  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 
 {Vid.  Abyla  and  Calpe.) 
 
 Cetulia,  a  country  of  Africa,  south  of  Numidia, 
 and  now  answering  in  some  degree  to  Bilcdulgtrid, 
 or  the  region  of  locusts.  Its  situation  and  limits  are 
 not  properly  ascertained,  and,  indeed,  do  not  seem  to 
 have  been  always  the  same.  Isidorus  (c.  9)  gives  a 
 curious  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Gastuli :  "  GcEtuli 
 Gcta  dicuntur  fuisse,  quiingenti  agmine  a  locis  suis 
 navibus  conscendentes  loca  Sijrtium  -in  Libya  occupav- 
 erunt :  et,  quia  ex  Gelis  vcnerarit,  derivato  nomine 
 Gatuli  cognominali  sunt.'"  This  statement  is  very 
 properly  refuted  by  the  president  Des  Brosses  ;  but 
 he  himself  assigns  an  etymology  just  as  uncertain, 
 namely,  from  the  Phoenician  term  Geth,  "a  flock,"  on 
 the  supposition  that  they  were  a  shepherd-race.  {Flor., 
 4,  \2.—Mela,  1,  i.—Plin.,  5,  I.— Id.,  21,  13,  &c.) 
 
 Gaius  {vid.  remarks  under  Caius),  one  of  the  Ro- 
 man classical  jurists,  whose  works  entitle  him  to  a 
 place  among  the  great  writers  on  law,  such  as  Papin- 
 ian,  Paulus,  and  Ulpian.  Nothing  is  known  of  the 
 personal  history  of  Gaius  beyond  the  probable  fact 
 that  he  wrote  under  Antoniiws  Pius  and  Aurelius. 
 His  works  were  largely  used  in  the  compilation  of 
 the  "Digest"  or  "Pandects,"  which  contain  extracts 
 from  his  writings  under  various  heads.  The  "  Insti- 
 tutions" of  Gaius  were  probably  the  earliest  attempt 
 to  present  a  sketch  of  the  Roman  law  in  the  form  of 
 an  elementary  text-book.  This  work  continued  in 
 general  use  till  the  compilation  of  the  Institutes  of 
 Justinian,  which  were  not  only  mainly  based  on  the 
 Institutions  of  Gaius,  but,  like  this  earlier  work,  were 
 divided  into  four  books,  with  the  same  general  distri- 
 bution of  the  subject-matter  as  that  adopted  by  him. 
 The  Institutions  of  Gaius  appear  to  have  been  neg- 
 lected after  the  promulgation  of  Justinian's  compila- 
 tion, and  were  finally  lost.  All  that  remained  was 
 the  detached  pieces  collected  in  the  Digest,  and  what 
 could  be  gathered  from  the  "  Breviarium  Alarici- 
 anum,"  as  the  code  of  the  Visigoths  is  sometimes 
 called.  But  in  1816,  Nicbuhr  discovered  a  manu- 
 script in  the  library  of  the  chapter  of  Verona,  which 
 he  ascertained  to  be  a  treatise  on  the  Roman  law,  and 
 which  Savigny,  founding  his  opinion  on  the  specimens 
 published  by  Niebuhr,  conjectured  to  be  the  Institu- 
 tions of  Gaius.  This  conjecture  was  soon  fully  con- 
 firmed, though  the  MS.  has  no  author's  name  on  it. 
 Goschen,  Bekker,  and  Hollweg  undertook  to  exam- 
 ine and  copy  this  MS.,  an  edition  of  which  appear- 
 ed at  Berlin  in  1820,  by  the  first  of  these  scholars. 
 To  form  some  idea  of  the  labour  necessary  to  deci- 
 pher this  MS.,  and  of  the  patient  perseverance  of 
 those  who  undertook  this  formidable  task,  the  reader 
 is  referred  to  the  report  of  Goschen  to  the  Acade- 
 my of  Berlin,  Nov.  6th,  1817.  A  second  examination 
 of  this  MS.  was  made  by  Bluhme,  and  a  new  edition 
 of. the  Institutions  was  published  by  Goschen,  at  Ber- 
 lin,  in  1824,  which  presents  us  with  an  exact  copy  o 
 the  MS.,  with  all  its  deficiencies,  and  contains  a  mos 
 copious  list  of  all  the  abbreviations  used  by  the  copyist 
 of  Gaius.-The  Institutions  of  Gains  f^o^"^  °";=  ^^^^^ 
 most  valuable  additions  that  have  been  mac  e  in  mod- 
 em times  to  our  knowledge  of  the  Roman  law.  Tne 
 o"r  L  book  is  particularly  useful  for  the  ■n^'-maUon 
 which  it  contains  on  actions  and  the  forms  of  proce- 
 
GAL 
 
 GAI 
 
 dure.  The  style  of  Gaius,  like  that  of  all  the  classi- 
 cal Roman  jurists,  is  perspicuous  and  yet  concise. 
 One  of  the  most  useful  editions  is  that  by  Klenze 
 and  Booking  (Berlin,  1829),  which  contains  the  Insti- 
 tutions of  Gaius  and  Justinian,  so  arranged  as  to  pre- 
 sent a  parallelism,  and  to  furnish  a  proof,  if  any  yet 
 were  wanting,  that  the  MS.  of  Verona  is  the  genuine 
 work  of  Gaius.  {Enajcl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  11,  p.  S4. 
 ■ — Consult  Goschen,  on  the  "Res  Quotidicince"  of 
 Gaius,  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Geschichliiche  Rcchtwis- 
 senschafl,  Berlin,  1815,  and  Hugo,  Lchrbiich  der 
 Gesch.  des  Rom.  Rcckls.) 
 
 Galanthis,  a  servant-maid  of  Alcmcna,  whose  sa- 
 gacity eased  the  sufferings  of  her  mistress.  When 
 Juno  resolved  to  retard  the  birth  of  Hercules,  and 
 hasten  the  labours  of  the  wife  of  Sthenelus,  she  soli- 
 cited the  aid  of  Lucina,  v\'ho  immediately  repaired  to 
 the  dwelling  of  Alcmcna,  and,  in  the  form  of  an  aged 
 female,  sat  near  the  door  with  her  feet  crossed  and 
 fingers  joined.  In  this  posture  she  uttered  some  ma- 
 gical words,  which  served  to  prolong  the  sufferings 
 of  Alcmena.  Alcmcna  had  already  passed  some  days 
 in  the  most  excruciating  torments,  when  Galanthis  be- 
 gan to  suspect  the  jealousy  of  Juno  ;  and  concluded 
 that  the  female,  who  continued  at  the  door  always  in 
 the  same  posture,  was  the  instrument  of  the  anger  of 
 the  goddess.  Influenced  by  these  suspicions,  Galan- 
 this ran  out  of  the  house,  and  with  a  countenance  ex- 
 pressive of  joy,  she  informed  the  aged  stranger  that 
 lier  mistress  had  just  brought  forth.  Lucina,  at  these 
 words,  rose  from  her  posture,  and  that  instant  Alcme- 
 na was  safely  delivered.  The  laugh  which  Galanthis 
 raised  upon  this,  made  Lucina  suspect  that  she  had 
 been  deceived.  She  seized  Galanthis  by  the  hair, 
 threw  her  on  the  ground,  and  transformed  her  into 
 a  weasel.  {Ovid,  Met.,  9,  306,  seqq.)  —  This  whole 
 fable  is  connected  with  a  legend  prevalent  among  the 
 Thebans,  that,  when  Alcmena  was  suffering  from  the 
 pangs  of  parturition,  a  weasel  (ya?i!})  ran  by  and  terri- 
 fied her  by  its  sudden  appearance,  and  that  the  terror 
 thus  excited  eased  her  throes  and  produced  a  happy 
 delivery.  {j.Elian,  V.  H.,  12,  5.)  Hence  the  weasel 
 was  highly  revered  by  the  Thebans,  and  was  called 
 by  them  the  nurse  of  Hercules.  {Clem.  Alex.,  Prolr., 
 p.  2-5,  6.) 
 
 Galaxy,  the  inhabitants  of  Galatia.  {Vid.  Ga- 
 latia.) 
 
 Galatjea  and  Galath^a,  a  sea-nymph,  daughter 
 of  Nereus  and  Doris.  She  was  passionately  loved  by 
 the  Cyclops  Polyphemus,  whom  she  treated  with  dis- 
 dain ;  while  Acis,  a  shepherd  of  Sicily,  enjoyed  her 
 unbounded  affection.  The  union,  however,  of  the 
 two  lovers  was  destroyed  by  the  jealousy  of  Polyphe- 
 mus, who  crushed  his  rival  with  a  fragment  of  rock, 
 which  he  rolled  on  him  from  an  overhanging  height. 
 Galatcca  was  inconsolable  for  the  loss  of  Acis,  and 
 as  she  could  not  restore  him  to  life,  she  changed  him 
 into  a  stream.  {Ovid,  Met.,  13,  789. — Virg.,  Mn., 
 9,  103.) 
 
 Galatia  or  Gallogr^ecia,  a  country  of  Asia 
 Minor,  lying  south  of  Paphlagonia,  west  of  Pontus, 
 and  northeast  of  Phrygia.     {Vid.  Gallo-Graecia.) 
 
 Gai,da,  I.  Sergius,  an  orator  anterior  to  Cicero. 
 While  holding  the  government  of  Spain,  he  treacher- 
 ously murdered  30,000  Lusitanians.  Having  been 
 accused  for  this  by  Cato  the  Censor,  he  was  about  to 
 be  condemned,  when  he  wrought  upon  the  feelings 
 of  the  people  by  embracing  before  them  his  two  sons, 
 still  quite  young.  This  saved  him.  {Cic,  Oral.,  1, 
 53  1 — II.  Servius  Sulpilius,  a  celebrated  Roman  law- 
 yer, father  of  the  emperor.  —  III.  Servius  Sulpitius, 
 born  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  of  a  patrician  family, 
 served  with  distinction  in  Germany,  was  afterward 
 proconsul,  first  in  Africa,  and  subsequently  in  His- 
 pania  Tarraconensis,  in  which  office  he  gained  a  repu- 
 tation for  justice  and  moderation.  He  was  still  in 
 528 
 
 Spain  when  Julius  Vindex,  the  proconsul  of  Celtic 
 Gaul,  rose  against  Nero.  Galba  joined  Vindex,  and 
 Otho,  governor  of  Lusitania,  followed  his  example. 
 The  assembled  multitudes  saluted  Galba  as  emperor 
 and  Augustus  ;  but  he  declared  that  he  was  only  act- 
 ing as  the  lieutenant  of  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome, 
 in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  disgraceful  tyranny  of 
 Nero.  The  praetorian  guards  soon  after,  having  re- 
 volted against  Nero,  proclaimed  Galba,  and  the  senate 
 acknowledged  him  as  emperor.  Galba  hastened  from 
 Spain  to  Rome,  where  he  began  by  calling  to  account 
 those  favourites  of  Nero  who  had  enriched  themselves 
 by  proscriptions  and  confiscations,  and  by  the  senseless 
 prodigality  of  that  prince  ;  but  it  was  found  that  most 
 of  them  had  already  dissipated  their  ill-gotten  wealth. 
 Galba,  or,  rather,  his  confidants  who  governed  him, 
 then  proceeded  against  the  purchasers  of  their  property, 
 and  confiscations  became  again  the  order  of  the  day. 
 The  new  emperor,  at  the  same  time,  exercised  great 
 parsimony  in  his  administration,  and  endeavoured  to 
 enforce  a  strict  discipline  among  the  soldiers,  who  had 
 been  used  to  the  prodigality  and  license  of  the  previous 
 reign.  Being  past  seventy  years  of  age,  Galba,  on 
 this  and  other  accounts,  soon  became  the  object  of 
 popular  dislike  and  ridicule,  his  favourites  were  hated, 
 and  revolts  against  him  broke  out  in  various  quarters, 
 several  of  which  were  put  down  and  punished  severe- 
 ly. Galba  thought  of  strengthening  himself  by  adopt- 
 ing Piso  Licinianus,  a  young  patrician  of  considerable 
 personal  merit,  as  Cssar  and  his  successor ;  upon 
 which  Otho,  who  had  expected  to  be  the  object  of  his 
 choice,  formed  a  conspiracy  among  the  guards,  who 
 proclaimed  him  emperor.  Galba,  unable  to  walk, 
 caused  himself  to  be  carried  in  a  litter,  hoping  to  sup- 
 press the  mutiny  ;  but,  at  the  appearance  of  Otho's 
 armed  partisans,  his  followers  left  him,  and  even  the 
 litter-bearers  threw  the  old  man  down  and  ran  away. 
 Some  of  the  legionaries  came  up  and  put  Galba  to  death 
 after  a  reign  of  only  seven  months,  counting  from  the 
 time  of  Nero's  death,  A.D.  68.  Galba  was  72  years 
 old  when  he  was  taken  off.  He  was  succeeded  by 
 Otho,  but  only  for  a  short  time,  as  Vitellius  superse- 
 ded him,  and  Vespasian  soon  after  superseded  Vitel- 
 lius. {Sucton.,  Vit.  Galb. —  Tacit.,  Hist.,  \,^,seqq. 
 —Dio  Cass.,  63,  29.— Id.,  64,  1,  seqq.) 
 
 Galenus,  Claudius,  a  celebrated  physician,  born  at 
 Pergamus  about  131  A.D.  His  father,  an  able  archi- 
 tect and  good  mathematician,  gave  him  a  liberal  edu- 
 cation. His  anatomical  and  medical  studies  were  com- 
 menced under  Satyrus,  a  celebrated  anatomist ;  Stra- 
 tonicus,  a  disciple  of  the  Hippocratic  school ;  and  ^-Es- 
 chrion,  a  follower  of  the  Empirics.  After  the  death 
 of  his  father  he  travelled  to  Alexandrea,  at  that  time 
 the  most  famous  school  of  medicine  in  the  world. 
 His  studies  were  so  zealously  and  successfully  pursued, 
 that  he  was  publicly  invited  to  return  to  his  native 
 country.  At  the  age  of  34  he  settled  himself  at  Rome, 
 when  his  celebrity  became  so  great  from  the  success 
 of  his  practice,  and  more  especially  from  his  great 
 knowledge  of  anatomy,  that  he  quickly  drew  upon  him- 
 self the  jealousy  of  all  the  Roman  physicians.  He  be- 
 came physician  to  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius.  At 
 the  solicitation,  also,  of  many  philosophers  and  men  of 
 rank,  he  commenced  a  course  of  lectures  on  Anatomy  ; 
 but  the  jealousy  of  his  rivals  quickly  compelled  him  to 
 discontinue  them,  and  eventually  to  leave  Rome  en- 
 tirely. Many  particulars  of  his  life  may  be  gathered 
 from  his  own  writings  ;  we  are  unacquainted,  however, 
 with  the  period  of  his  return  home,  as  well  as  that  of 
 his  death.  All  that  we  can  learn  is  merely  that  he 
 was  still  living  in  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus. — 
 Galen  was  a  most  prolific  writer.  Though  a  portion 
 of  his  works  were  lost  by  the  conflagration  of  his  dwell- 
 ing, or  have  been  destroyed  by  the  lapse  of  time,  still 
 we  have  the  following  productions  of  his  surviving  and 
 in  print.     1.  Eighty-two  treatises,  the  genuineness  of 
 
GALENUS. 
 
 GALENUS. 
 
 which  is  now  well  established.  2.  Eighteen  of  rather 
 doubtful  origin.  3.  Nineteen  fragments,  more  or  less 
 extensive  in  size.  4.  Eighteen  commentaries  on  the 
 works  of  Hippocrates. — To  these  published  works 
 niu-st  be  added  thirty  or  forty  treatises  or  parts  of  trea- 
 tises, which  still  exist  in  manuscript  in  the  public  li- 
 braries of  Europe.  The  number  of  works  that  are  lost, 
 among  which  were  fifty  that  treated  on  medical  subjects, 
 is  supposed  to  have  beenone  hundred  and  sixty-eiglit. — 
 The  mstruction  which  Galen  had  received  in  the  princi- 
 plt-s  of  the  different  sects  of  medical  philosophy,  had 
 given  him  an  acquaintance  with  the  various  errors  of 
 each,  and  he  speaks  of  them  at  all  times  in  the  lan- 
 guage of  no  measured  contempt.  The  school  which  was 
 founded  by  himself  may  justly  merit  the  title  of  Eclec- 
 tic, for  its  doctrines  were  a  mi.xture  of  the  philosophy 
 of  Plato,  of  the  physics  and  logic  of  Aristotle,  and  of 
 the  |)ractical  knowledge  of  Hippocrates.  On  many  oc- 
 casions he  expresses  himself  strongly  on  the  superiority 
 of  theory  to  mere  empiricism  ;  but  upon  those  matters 
 which  do  not  admit  of  being  objects  of  experience,  such 
 as  the  nature  of  the  soul,  he  confesses  his  ignorance, 
 and  his  inability  to  give  any  plausible  explanation. — 
 Among  the  productions  of  Galen  that  are  of  a  philo- 
 soi)hical  character,  may  be  enumerated  the  following: 
 A  treatise  "On  the  best  Doctrine"  against  Phavorinus  ; 
 a  dissertation  "  On  the  opinions  of  Hippocrates  and 
 Plato  ;"  "  a  commentary  on  the  Tiinwus  of  Plato," 
 and  several  pieces  "  On  Dialectics."  Galen  has  been 
 frequently  censured  for  impiety  ;  but  his  Demonstration 
 of  Divine  Wisdom  from  the  structure  of  the  human 
 body,  in  his  treatise  "  On  the  uses  of  the  parts  of  the 
 human  body,"  is  a  sufficient  refutation  of  this  calum- 
 ny.— The  following  sketch  of  the  professional  charac- 
 ter of  this  celebrated  physician  is  given  by  Dr.  Adams. 
 "  Galen,  to  whom  medicine,  and  every  science  allied 
 to  it,  are  under  so  great  obligations,  was  a  man  skilled 
 in  all  philosophy,  a  profound  reasoner,  an  ardent  ad- 
 m  rcr  of  truth,  a  worthy  member  of  society,  and  a  dis- 
 til guished  ornament  of  his  profession.  Though,  ac- 
 cording to  his  own  account,  unambitious  of  fame,  he 
 acquired  a  name  which  for  fourteen  centuries  was  above 
 every  other  name  in  his  profession,  and  even  now 
 stands  pre-eminently  illustrious.  We  shall  give  a 
 hasty  sketch  of  his  merits  in  the  different  branches  of 
 medical  science  to  which  he  directed  his  attention. 
 Wisely  judging  that  an  acquaintance  with  the  minute 
 structure  of  the  human  bodv  was  an  indispensable  prep- 
 aration to  a  knowledge  of  its  derangements,  he  de- 
 voted himself  ardently  to  the  study  of  anatomy,  in 
 which  his  works  evince  that  he  was  eminently  skilled. 
 Ill  his  AdminisLrationes  Anatoinica  particularly,  almost 
 every  bone  and  process  of  bone,  every  twig  of  nerve, 
 every  ramification  of  bloodvessel,  every  viscus,  mus- 
 cle, and  gland,  with  which  modern  anatomists  are  ac- 
 quainted, are  described  by  him  with  a  degree  of  minute- 
 ness which  will  surprise  those  who  entertain  a  mean 
 ojiinion  of  the  Galenical  anatomy.  Vesalius,  indeed,  a 
 zealot  for  human  dissection  in  the  days  of  the  Emperor 
 Charles  the  Fifth,  strenuously  attacks  the  accuracy  of 
 his  anatomical  descriptions  ;  and  as  he  was  constantly 
 on  the  lookout  for  mistakes,  he  is  no  doubt  sometimes 
 successful  in  attaining  the  object  of  his  search ;  but, 
 in  other  instances,  while  endeavouring  to  set  Galen 
 right,  he  only  goes  wrong  himself.  For  example,  he 
 tinds  fault  with  Galen  for  saying  that  the  fourth  ven- 
 tricle of  the  brain  is  lined  by  a  membrane  ;  but  it  is 
 now  well  ascertained  that  here  Galen  was  right,  while 
 his  censurer  was  wrong.  In  fact,  the  justness  of  Ve- 
 salius' strictures  has  been  too  easily  acquiesced  in, 
 although  most  of  them  had  been  previously  rebutted 
 by  the  learned  Eustachius. — Galen's  treatise  '  De  usu 
 Partiuni'  is  replete  with  accurate  anatomical  descrip- 
 tions, ingenious  pliysiological  theory,  and  sound  theolo- 
 gy, and  in  all  these  respects  need  not  fear  a  com- 
 parison with  our  Paley's  work  on  natural  theology. 
 X  X  X 
 
 Throughout,  as  the  learned  Mr.  Harris  has  well  re- 
 marked, he,  in  imitation  of  Aristotle,  inculcates,  with 
 irresistible  strength  of  argument,  the  great  doctrine  of 
 Final  Causes,  maintaining,  in  opposition  to  the  Epi- 
 cureans, that  Means  do  not  lead  to  Ends,  but  Ends  to 
 Means.  As  to  his  Physiology,  it  is  in  general  found- 
 ed upon  careful  dissection,  accurate  experiment,  and 
 philosophical  induction  ;  so  that,  in  most  instances 
 where  it  has  been  departed  from,  subsequent  experi- 
 ence has  shown  the  correctness  of  its  doctrines.  Thus 
 the  distribution  of  the  nerves  into  nerves  of  sensation 
 and  nerves  of  muscular  motion,  and  the  distinction  be- 
 tween the  characters  of  the  cerebral  and  spinal  nerves, 
 although  clearly  pointed  out  by  him,  and  acquiesced  in 
 by  Oribasius,  Theophilus,  and  Nemesius  among  his 
 countrymen,  and  by  Rhazes,  Serapion,  Avicenna, 
 Avenzoar,  and  Averrhoes  among  the  Arabians  ;  nay, 
 though  admitted  by  his  modern  rival  Vesalius,  were 
 overlooked  or  denied  by  subsequent  physiologists,  un- 
 til the  doctrine  was  lately  revived  by  an  intelligent  lec- 
 turer on  anatomy  in  London.  In  the  hands  of  several 
 English  and  French  experimentalists,  this  theory  has 
 undergone  different  modifications  ;  but  I  will  venture 
 to  predict,  that,  when  time  has  deprived  it  of  the  charm 
 of  novelty,  the  additions  and  alterations  which  have 
 been  made  by  modern  hands  upon  the  ancient  doc- 
 trine, will  be  found  to  be  rather  blemishes  than  im- 
 provements. With  regard  to  the  functions  of  the  ar- 
 teries and  veins,  Galen's  views  must  be  admitted  to 
 be  not  very  distinctly  defined  ;  but  has  the  celebrated 
 theory  of  Harvey  removed  all  the  difficulties,  and  clear- 
 ed away  all  the  obscurity,  which  hung  over  this  im- 
 portant department  of  physiology  1  Let  the  following 
 declaration,  by  one  of  the  most  distinguished  among 
 the  present  physiologists  of  France,  be  taken  as  a  test 
 of  the  degree  of  precision  which  now  prevails  upon  this 
 subject :  '  II  n'existe  pas  deux  ouvrages  de  Physiologic, 
 deux  traites  de  Medicine,  oii  la  circulation  soit  decrite 
 et  consideree  dans  le  meme  maniere.'  {Magendre, 
 Jour,  dc  Phys.)  At  all  events,  it  is  clear  that  Galen 
 had  the  merit  of  establishing  two  important  facts  re- 
 garding the  function  of  the  arteries  ;  first,  that  they 
 contain  blood,  and  not  vapour  or  gas,  as  mentioned  by 
 Erasistratus  ;  and,  secondly,  that  it  is  the  expansion  or 
 diastole  of  the  artery  which  is  the  cause  of  the  influx  of 
 the  blood,  and  not  the  influx  of  the  blood  which  is  the 
 cause  of  the  expansion  of  the  artery.  The  former  of 
 these  facts  Harvey  himself  does  him  the  justice  of  allow- 
 ing that  he  maintained  ;  and  a  late  French  physiologist, 
 Dumas,  compliments  him  for  having  held  the  latter  opin- 
 ion, although  it  is  at  variance  with  Harvey's  views  re- 
 specting the  circulation.  In  his  work  on  the  Natural 
 Faculties  he  has  expressed  fully  his  sentiments  upon  a 
 subject  which  is  still  far  from  being  cleared  up ;  but  it  is 
 remarkable,  that  very  lately  a  theory  has  been  advanced, 
 which  corresponds,  in  a  great  degree,  with  the  doctrine 
 advocated  by  Galen.  I  allude  to  Dutrochet's  famous 
 theory  of  the  Endosmose  and  E.xosmose,  which  powers, 
 if  I  mistake  not,  are  but  different  names  for  the  Attract- 
 ive and  Expulsive  Faculties  of  Galen. — Operative  Sur- 
 gery is  the  department  of  his  profession  which  is  least 
 indebted  to  him ;  and  yet  even  here  he  has  left  some 
 monuments  of  his  boldness  and  ingenuity.  He  has 
 described  minutely  an  operation  performed  by  him  upon 
 the  chest  of  a  young  man,  by  which  he  perforated  the 
 breast-bone,  and  laid  bare  the  heart,  in  order  to  give 
 vent  to  a  collection  of  matter  seated  in  the  thorax. 
 The  subject  of  Ulcers  is  handled  by  him  very  scientiti- 
 cally  in  his  book  De  Melhodo  Mcdendi.  It  is  to  be 
 remarked,  that  his  definitions  and  divisions  of  ulcers 
 are  the  same  as  those  adopted  by  one  of  our  best  Eng- 
 lish writers  on  this  subject,  Mr.  Benjamin  Bell.  His 
 Commentaries  on  Hippocrates  show  his  acquaintance 
 with  Fractures  and  Dislocations.— 0///i/A''«"e,  or  ttie 
 Art  of  Preserving  Health,  he  treated  at  great  length  in 
 a  work  consisting  of  six  books.— His  treatise  Dc  Fac- 
 
GAL 
 
 GAL 
 
 ultate  Alimentorum  contains  very  important  observa- 
 tions on  the  nature  of  aliments,  and  furnishes  an  ex- 
 position of  his  opinion  on  the  subject  of  Dietetics.  It 
 need  not  fear  a  comparison  with  the  work  lately  pub- 
 lished on  Diet  by  Dr.  Paris.  I  do  not  state  this  in  dis- 
 paragement of  the  latter,  whom  I  esteem  to  be  a  very 
 judicious  authority,  but  to  mtimate  my  opinion  that  we 
 have  not  advanced  much  in  the  knowledge  of  this 
 branch  since  the  time  of  Galen. — Of  most  diseases 
 he  has  treated  either  fully  or  cursorily  in  some  part  or 
 other  of  his  works,  but  upon  the  whole  he  has  given  no 
 comprehensive  treatise  upon  the  practice  of  physic. 
 His  most  complete  treatises  are  those  entitled  Dc  Cu- 
 ratione,  ad  Glauconem,  and  the  Ratio  Curandi. — The 
 jMateria  Medica  and  Pharmacy  appear  to  have  been  the 
 objects  of  his  particular  study,  and  both  are  handled  by 
 him  in  several  of  his  works.  Though  his  list  of  me- 
 dicinal articles,  taken  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  be 
 less  numerous  than  that  of  Dioscorides,  he  has  de- 
 scribed more  animal  and  mineral  substances.  His 
 treatise  De  Mcdicinis  secundum  locos  contains  a  copi- 
 ous list  of  pharmaceutical  preparations  ;  and  that  part 
 of  it  on  Compositions  for  the  Eyes  might,  I  am  con- 
 vinced, be  consulted  with  advantage  by  the  oculists  of 
 the  present  day. — Of  all  his  works,  none  was  long  so 
 much  studied  and  commented  upon  as  the  one  entitled 
 Ars  Medica,  respecting  which  Kiihn  remarks  :  '  Est 
 is  in  Galeni  libris,  qjiem  grata  erga  lantum  virum  pos- 
 teritas  cestimavit  longe  maximi,  qucm  omncs  schola  ex- 
 plicabant,  quern  medici  diurna  nocturnaque  manu  vcr- 
 sabant,  quern  legisse  debebant  ecu  librum  Galeni  max- 
 ime  aiUhenticum  omnes,  cujusque  puncta  debebant  ex- 
 plicare,  speciminis  causa  prius,  quam  licentiam  prax- 
 eos  medica:  exercendce  conseqverentur.^  Of  a  treatise 
 long  so  celebrated,  and  now  so  little  known,  it  is  scarce- 
 ly safe  to  express  an  opinion,  lest  we  should  be  reduced 
 to  the  alternative  of  either  reproaching  antiquity  for 
 want  of  sense,  or  modern  times  for  want  of  discern- 
 ment. At  all  events,  however,  we  may  venture  to  af- 
 firm, that,  if  the  Doctrine  of  the  Temperaments  have 
 any  foundation  in  nature,  no  one  had  ever  studied  them 
 more  attentively,  or  described  them  with  greater  pre- 
 cision, than  Galen  has  done  in  this  treatise. — In  sev- 
 eral works  he  gives  an  elaborate  system  of  the  Arteri- 
 al Pulses,  which,  as  usual  with  his  doctrines,  was  ta- 
 ken up  by  all  subsequent  writers ;  and  abridged  ex- 
 positions of  it  may  be  found  in  Philaretus,  Paulus 
 ^gineta,  Actuarius,  Rhazes,  and  Avicenna.  The 
 reader  may  find  some  candid  remarks  upon  it  in  Bor- 
 den's Physiology,  who,  although  an  advocate  for  a  new 
 system,  gives  not  an  unfair  statement  of  the  system  of 
 Galen." — The  best  edition  of  Galen  is  that  of  Kiihn, 
 19  vols.  8vo,  Lips.,  1821-1830. 
 
 Galerius,  a  Roman  emperor.  {Vid.  Marimianus.) 
 Galesus,  I.  now  Galeso,  a  river  of  Calabria,  flow- 
 ing into  the  bay  of  Tarentum.  The  poets  have  cele- 
 brated it  for  the  shady  groves  m  its  neighbourhood,  and 
 the  fine  sheep  which  fed  on  its  fertile  banks,  whose 
 fleeces  were  said  to  be  rendered  soft  by  bathing  in  the 
 stream.  {Martial,  Ep.,2, 43 ;  4, 28. — Virg.,  G.,  4, 126. 
 —Herat.,  Od.,  2,  6,  10,)— 11.  A  rich  inhabitant  of  La- 
 tium,  killed  as  he  attempted  to  make  a  reconciliation 
 between  the  Trojans  and  Rutulians,  when  Ascanius 
 had  killed  the  favourite  stag  of  Tyrrheus,  which  was 
 the  prelude  of  all  the  enmities  between  the  hostile  na- 
 tions.    (FiVg-.,  ^n.,  7,  535.) 
 
 GaliljEa,  a  celebrated  country  of  Palestine,  form- 
 ing the  northern  division.  Josephus  (Bell.  Jud.,  3,  3) 
 divides  it  into  Upper  and  Lower,  and  he  states  that 
 the  limits  of  Galilee  were,  on  the  south,  Samaris  and 
 Scythopolis  to  the  flood  of  Jordan.  It  contained  four 
 tribes,  Issachar,  Zebulon,  Naphthali,  and  Asher ;  a 
 part  also  of  Dan,  and  part  of  Pera;a,  or  the  country 
 beyond  Jordan.  Upper  Galilee  was  mountainous, 
 and  was  called  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles,  from  the  hea- 
 then nations  established  there,  who  were  enabled,  by 
 530 
 
 the  mountainous  nature  of  the  country,  to  maintain 
 themselves  against  all  invaders.  Strabo  enumerates 
 among  its  inhabitants,  Egyptians,  Arabians,  and  Phoe- 
 nicians. (Strab.,  760.)  J.ower  Galilee,  which  con- 
 tained the  tribes  of  Zebulon  and  Asher,  was  adjacent 
 to  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  or  Lake  of  Gennesarelh.  Gal- 
 ilee, according  to  Josephus,  was  very  populous,  con- 
 tained 204  cities  and  towns,  and  paid  200  talents  in 
 tribute.  Its  principal  city  was  Cassarea  Philippi.  The 
 inhabitants  of  Galik-ea  were  very  industrious,  and,  be- 
 ing bold  and  intrepid  soldiers,  they  bravely  resisted  the 
 nations  around  them.  The  Jews  of  Judaea  regarded 
 them  with  much  contempt.  Their  language  was  a 
 corrupt  and  unpolished  dialect  of  Syriac,  with  a  mix- 
 ture of  other  languages.  It  was  probably  this  corrupt 
 dialect  that  led  to  the  detection  of  Peter  as  one  of 
 Christ's  disciples.  {Mark,  14,  70.)  Our  Saviour 
 was  called  a  Galilean  {Matt.,  26,  69),  because  he  was 
 brought  up  at  Nazareth,  a  city  of  Galilaea  ;  and  as  his 
 apostles  were  mostly,  if  not  all,  natives  of  this  prov- 
 ince, they  also  are  called  Galileans  and  "  men  of  Gal- 
 ilee." (Acts,  1,  11.)  This  country  was  most  hon- 
 oured by  our  Saviour's  presence.  To  this  part  Jo- 
 seph and  Mary  returned  with  him  from  Egypt ;  here 
 he  lived  till  he  was  thirty  years  of  age,  and  was  bap- 
 tized by  John  ;  hither  he  relumed  after  his  baptism 
 and  temptation  ;  and  in  this  province  was  his  place  of 
 residence  when  he  commenced  his  ministry.  The 
 population  being  very  great,  he  had  more  opportuni- 
 ties of  doing  good  here  than  in  any  other  portion  ;  on 
 which  account,  probably,  he  made  it  his  principal 
 abode.  After  his  resurrection  he  directed  his  apostles 
 to  come  to  Galilee  to  converse  with  him.  {Matt., 
 28,  7. — Consult,  in  relation  to  this  country,  the  fol- 
 lowing parts  of  Scripture  :  Josh.,  20,  7,  and  21,  32. — 
 1  Kings,  9,  11.— 2  Kings,  15,  29.-1  Chron.,  6,  76. 
 —Isaiah,  9,  \.—Matt.,  2,  22;  3,  13;  4,  12— Luke, 
 4,  W.—John,  7,  M.—Acts,  5,  37,  and  10,  37.) 
 
 Gali.i,  I.  a  warlike  race  of  antiquity.  {Vid.  Gal- 
 lia.)— II.  A  name  borne  by  the  priests  of  Cybele. 
 {Vid.  Cybele.) 
 
 Gallia,  an  extensive  and  populous  country  of  Eu- 
 rope, bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic,  on  the 
 north  by  the  Insula  Batavorum  and  part  of  the  Rhe- 
 nus  or  Rhine,  on  the  east  by  the  Rhenus  and  the  Alps, 
 and  on  the  south  by  the  Pyrenees.  The  greatest 
 breadth  was  600  English  miles,  but  much  diminished 
 towards  each  extremity,  and  its  length  was  from  480 
 to  620  miles.  It  was  therefore  more  extensive  than 
 modern  France  before  the  Revolution,  though  inferior 
 to  the  kingdom  under  Napoleon,  which  was  650  miles 
 long  from  east  to  west,  and  660  broad  from  north  to 
 south.  Gaul  was  originally  divided  among  the  three 
 great  nations  of  the  Belga;,  the  Celta?,  and  the  Aqui- 
 tani.  The  Romans  called  the  inhabitants  of  this 
 country  by  one  general  name,  Galli,  while  the  Greeks 
 styled  them  Celtae.  The  Greeks  called  the  country 
 itself  Galatia,  Celtica  {Ke7.TiKr]),  and  Celto-Galatia ; 
 the  last  for  distinction'  sake  from  Galatia  in  Asia  Mi- 
 nor. Of  the  three  great  nations  of  Gaul,  the  Celtae 
 were  the  most  extensive  and  indigenous,  and  the  Bel- 
 gae  the  bravest.  The  Celtae  extended  from  the  Sequa- 
 na  or  Seine  in  the  north,  to  the  Garumna  or  Garonne 
 in  the  south.  Above  the  Celtae  lay  the  Belgae,  between 
 the  Seine  and  Lower  Rhine.  They  were  intermixed 
 with  Germanic  tribes.  The  Aquitani  lay  between  the 
 Garonne  and  Pyrenees,  and  were  intermingled  with 
 Spanish  tribes.  These  three  great  divisions,  however, 
 were  subsequently  altered  by  Augustus,  B.C.  27,  who 
 extended  Aquitania  into  Celtica  as  far  as  the  Liger  or 
 Loire  ;  the  remainder  of  Celtica  above  the  Liger  was 
 called  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  from  the  colony  of  Lug- 
 dunum,  Lyons  ;  and  the  rest  of  Celtica  towards  the 
 Rhine  was  added  to  the  Belgas  under  the  title  of  Bcl- 
 gica ;  lastly,  the  south  of  Gaul,  which,  from  having 
 been  the  first  provinces  possessed  by  the  Romans,  had 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 been  styled  Gallia  Provincia,  was  distinguiehed  by  the 
 name  of  Narbonensis,  from  the  city  of  Narbo  or  Nar- 
 bonne.  This  province  was  anciently  called  also  Gal- 
 lia Braccata,  from  the  bracccz  or  under-gannents  worn 
 by  the  inhabitants  ;  while  Galha  Oeltica  was  styled 
 Comata,  from  the  long  hair  worn  by  the  natives.  These 
 four  great  provinces,  in  later  ages,  were  called  the  four 
 Gauls,  and  subdivided  into  17  others. 
 
 1.   General  remarks  on  the  Gallic  race. 
 As  far  back  as  we  can  penetrate  into  the  history  of 
 the  West,  we  find  the  race  of  the  Gauls  occupying  that 
 part  of  the  continent  comprehended  between  the  Rhine, 
 the  Alps,  the  Mediterranean,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the 
 Ocean,  as  well  as  the  two  great  islands  situate  to  the 
 northwest,  opposite    the  mouths    of  the    Rhine    and 
 Seine.     Of  these  two  islands,  the  one  nearer  the  con- 
 tinent was  called  Alb-in,  "  White  Island."     (Alb  sig- 
 nifies "  high"  and  "  white  :"  inn,  contracted  from  m7iis, 
 means  ''island." — Compare  the  remark  of  Pliny,  14, 
 16,  "Albion  insula,  sic  dicta  ab  albis  rupibus  quas 
 mare  alluit.'''')     The  other  island    bore    the  name  of 
 Er-in,  "  Isle  of  the  West"  (from  Eir  or  lar,  "  the 
 west").     The  continental  territory  received  the  spe- 
 cial appellation  of  Galllachd,  "Land  of  the  Galls." 
 The    term   Gacltachd,  or,  more   correctly,   Gaidheal- 
 tachd,  is  still  applied   to  the  highlands  of  Scotland. 
 From  this  word  the  Greeks  formed  Talaria  (Galalia), 
 and  from  this  latter  the   generic    name  of  Fa/lurat. 
 The  Romans  proceeded  by  an  inverse  method,  and 
 from  the  generic  term  Galli  deduced  the  geographical 
 denomination   Gallia.     The  population  of  Gaul  was 
 divided  into  families  or  tribes,  forming  among  them- 
 selves many  distinct  communities  or  nations.     These 
 nations  generally  assumed  names  deduced  from  some 
 feature  of  the  country  in  which  they  dwelt,  or  from 
 some  peculiarity  in  their  social  state.     Oftentimes  they 
 united  together,  in  their  turn,  and  formed  confedera- 
 tions or  leagues.     Such  were    the  confederations  of 
 the  Celts,  ^i'^dui,  Armorici,  Arverni,  &c. — The  Gaul 
 was  robust  and  of  tall  stature.     His  complexion  was 
 fair,  his  eyes  blue,  his  hair  of  a  blond  or  chestnut  col- 
 our, to  which  he  endeavoured  to  give  a  red  or  flaming 
 hue  by  certain  applications.    (Plin.,  28,  12. — Martial, 
 8,  33.)     The  hair  itself  was  worn  long,  at  one  time 
 floating  on  the  shoulders,  at  another  gathered  up  and 
 confined  on  the  top  of  the  head.     {Diod.  Sic,  5,  28.) 
 The  beard  was  allowed  to  grow  by  the  people  at  large ; 
 the  nobles,  on  the  other  hand,  removed  it  from  the 
 face,  excepting  the  upper  lip,  where  they  wore  thick 
 mustaches.     (Diod.  Sic,  I.  c.)     The  attire  common 
 to  all   the  tribes  consisted   of  pantaloons  or  bracca: 
 (braca,  bracca,  braga  ;  brykan  in  Cymraig  ;   bragu  in 
 Armoric).      These    were    of  striped    materials.      (In 
 Celtic  breac  means  "  a  stripe.")     They  wore  also  a 
 short  cloak,  having  sleeves,  likewise  formed  of  striped 
 materials,  and  descending  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh. 
 (Sirabo,  196.)     Over  this  was  thrown  a  short  cloak  or 
 sagum  (sac,  Armoric. — Compare  Isidor.,  Origin.,  19, 
 24),  striped  like  the  shirt,  or  else  adorned  with  flowers 
 find  other  ornamental  work,  and,  among  the  rich,  su- 
 perbly embroidered  with  silver  and  gold.    (Virg.,  JEii , 
 8,  mQ.—Sil.  Ital.,  4,  m^.—Diod.  Sic,  5,  28.)     It 
 covered  the  back  and  shoulders,  and  was  secured  under 
 the  chin  by  a  clasp  of  metal.     The  lower  classes,  how- 
 ever, wore  in  place  of  it  the  skin  of  some  animal,  or 
 else  a  thick  and  coarse  woollen  covering,  called,  in 
 the  Gallo-Kimric  dialects,  linn  or  lenn.     (In  Armoric 
 ten  means  "  a  covering  ;"  and  in  Gaelic  leiu  signifies 
 "a  soldier's  cloak." — Compare  the  Latin  Icena  and 
 the  Greek  Zoiva  atid  ;\;Aaa'a.) — The  Gauls  possessed 
 a  strong  taste  for  personal  decoration  :  it  was  custom- 
 ary with  the  rich  and  powerful  to  adorn  themselves 
 with  a  profusion  of  collars,  bracelets,  and  rings  of  gold. 
 (Strabo,  196.) — The  offensive  arms  of  the  nation  were, 
 at  first,  hatchets  and  knives  of  stone  ;  arrows  pointed 
 
 with  flint  or  shells ;  clubs ;  spears  hardened  in  th© 
 fire,  and  named  gais  (in  Latin  gasum,  in  Greek  yai- 
 aov  and  yaiaog) ;  and  others  called  cateies,  which  they 
 hurled  all  on  fire  against  the  enemy.  (In  Gaelic,  gatli- 
 teth,  pronounced  ga-te,  signifies  "  a  fiery  dart.")  For- 
 eign trafric,  however,  made  them  acquainted,  in  pro- 
 cess of  time,  with  arms  of  iron,  as  well  as  with  the 
 art  of  manufacturing  them  for  themselves  from  tha 
 copper  and  iron  of  their  own  mines.  Among  the  arms 
 of  metal  which  thenceforward  came  into  use,  may  be 
 mentioned  the  long  sabre  of  iron  or  copper,  and  a  pike 
 resembling  our  halberds,  the  wound  inflicted  by  which 
 was  considered  mortal.  For  a  long  time  the  Transal- 
 pine, as  well  as  the  Cisalpine,  warriors  of  the  Gallic 
 race  had  rejected  the  use  of  defensive  armour  as  in- 
 consistent with  true  courage  ;  and,  for  a  long  period, 
 an  absurd  point  of  honour  had  induced  them  even  to 
 strip  off  their  vestments,  and  engage  naked  with  the 
 foe.  This  prejudice,  however,  the  fruit  of  an  osten- 
 tations feeling  natural  to  the  race,  was  almost  entirely 
 effaced  in  the  second  century.  The  numerous  rela- 
 tions formed  between  the  Gauls  and  the  Massiliots, 
 Italians,  and  Carthaginians,  had  at  first  spread  a  taste 
 for  armour,  as  a  personal  decoration,  among  the  Gallic 
 tribes  ;  in  a  short  time  the  conviction  of  its  utility  wag 
 superadded  ;  and  the  military  costume  of  Rome  and 
 Greece,  adopted  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire,  the  Rhone, 
 and  the  Saone,  formed  a  singular  combination  with 
 the  ancient  array  of  the  Gaul.  To  a  helmet  of  metal, 
 of  greater  or  less  value  according  to  the  fortune  of  the 
 warrior,  were  attached  the  horns  of  an  elk,  buffalo,  or 
 stag;  while  for  the  rich  there  was  a  headpiece  repre- 
 senting some  bird  or  savage  beast;  the  whole  being 
 surmounted  by  a  bunch  of  plumes,  which  gave  to  the 
 warrior  a  gigantic  appearance.  (Diod.  Sic,  5,  28.) 
 Similar  figures  were  attached  to  their  bucklers,  which 
 were  long,  quadrangular,  and  painted  with  the  bright- 
 est colours.  These  representations  served  as  devices 
 for  the  warriors  ;  they  were  emblems  by  means  of 
 which  each  one  sought  to  characterize  himself  or  strike 
 terror  into  the  foe.  (Compare  Vegctius,  2,  18. — Sil. 
 Jtal.,  4,  148.)— A  buckler  and  casque  after  this  model ; 
 a  cuirass  of  wrought  metal,  after  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
 man fashion,  or  a  coat  of  mail  formed  of  iron  rings, 
 after  the  manner  of  Gaul  (Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  20);  an 
 enormous  sabre  hanging  on  the  right  thigh,  and  sus- 
 pended by  chains  of  iron  or  brass  from  a  belt  glittering 
 with  gold  and  silver,  and  adorned  with  coral  ;  a  col- 
 lar, bracelets,  rings  of  gold  around  the  arm  and  on  the 
 middle  finger  (Plin.,  33.  1);  pantaloons;  a  sagum 
 hanging  from  the  shoulders  ;  in  fine,  long  red  mus- 
 taches ;  such  were  the  martial  equipments  and  such 
 the  appearance  of  an  Arvernian,  iEduan,  or  Biturigan 
 noble.— Hardy,  daring,  impetuous,  born,  as  it  were, 
 for  martial  enterprises,  the  Gallic  race  possessed,  at 
 the  same  time,  an  ingenious  and  active  turn  of  mind. 
 They  were  not  slow  in  equalling  their  Phrenician  and 
 Grecian  instructers  in  the  art  of  mining.  The  same 
 superiority  to  which  the  Spaniards  had  attained  m  tem- 
 pering steel,  the  Gauls  acquired  in  the  preparation  of 
 brass.  Antiquitv  assigns  to  them  the  honour  of  vari- 
 ous useful  inventions,  which  had  hitherto  escaped  the 
 earlier  civilization  of  the  East  and  of  Italy.  1  he  pro- 
 cess of  tinning  was  discovered  by  the  Bitunges  ;  that 
 of  veneering  bv  the  ^dui.  (Piin,  34,  l^)  Ihe 
 dyes,  too,  of  Gaul  were  not  without  reputation,  {rlin-, 
 8,  48.)  In  agriculture,  the  wheel-plough  and  boulter 
 were  Gallic  discoveries.  (PUn.l^.  •^,r^'Vn,ot' 
 1&,  1 1 .)  With  the  Gauls,  too,  originated  he  ernploy- 
 ment  of  marl  for  enriching  the  soil.  (^;'«-  ^V,^' 
 seqq.)  The  cheeses  of  Mount  Lnzerc,  among  the  Ga- 
 half;  those  of  Nemausus  ;  and  two  kinds  made  among 
 the  Alps,  became,  m  time,  much  sought  a^'^r  by  J^^ 
 .  1  '^  .  r  T.  1  /  Pi:^  1 1  49) ;  a  though  the  Ital- 
 mhabitants  of  ^'^'y  f.^^^^'he  Gall  c  cheeses  a  savour 
 lans  generally  ascribed  to  me  vjim  „,. 
 
 Of  too  acid  a  nature  and  somewhat  medicmal.    (P/tn., 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 /.  c.)  The  Gauls  also  prepared  various  kinds  of  fer- 
 mented drinks  ;  such  as  barley-beer,  called  cercvisia 
 (Plin.,  22,  15. — In  old  French,  Cervoise ;  in  Cym- 
 raig,  Cwrv.);  and  likewise  another  kind  of  beer,  made 
 from  corn,  and  in  which  honey,  cumin,  and  other  in- 
 gredients were  mmgled.  {Posidon.,  ap  Alhen.,  4,  13.) 
 'i'he  froth  of  beer  was  employed  as  a  means  for  leav- 
 ening bread  :  it  was  used  also  as  a  cosmetic,  and  the 
 Gallic  females  frequently  applied  it  to  the  visage,  un- 
 der the  belief  that  it  imparted  a  freshness  to  the  com- 
 plexion. {Flin.,  22,  2.5.)  As  regarded  wine,  it  was 
 to  foreign  traders  that  the  Gauls  and  Ligurians  were 
 indebted  for  its  use ;  and  it  was  from  the  Greeks  of 
 Massilia  that  they  learned  the  process  of  making  it,  as 
 well  as  the  culture  of  the  vine. — The  dwellings  of  the 
 Gauls,  spacious  and  of  a  round  form,  were  construct- 
 ed of  posts  and  hurdles,  and  covered  with  clay  both 
 withm  and  without ;  a  large  roof,  composed  of  oak- 
 shingles  and  stubble,  or  of  straw  cut  and  kneaded  with 
 clay, covered  the  whole.  {Strabo,  196. — Vitruv.,  1, 1.) 
 — Gaul  contained  both  open  villages  and  cities  :  the 
 latter,  surrounded  by  walls,  were  defended  by  a  system 
 of  fortification,  of  which  we  find  no  e.xample  elsewhere. 
 Cffisar  gives  the  following  description  of  these  ram- 
 parts (B.  G.,  7,  23).  "  Straight  beams,  placed  length- 
 wise at  equal  intervals,  and  two  feet  distant  from  each 
 Other,  are  laid  along  the  ground.  These  are  mortised 
 together  on  the  inside,  and  covered  deep  with  earth ;  but 
 the  intervals  are  stopped  in  front  with  large  stones. 
 These  being  fixed  and  cemented  together,  another 
 range  is  put  over,  the  same  distance  being  preserved, 
 2nd  the  beams  not  touching  each  other,  but  intermit- 
 ting at  equal  spaces,  and  each  bound  close  together 
 by  a  single  row  of  stones.  In  this  manner  the  whole 
 work  is  intermixed  till  the  wall  is  raised  to  its  full 
 height.  By  this  means  the  work,  from  its  appearance 
 and  variety,  is  not  displeasing  to  the  eye  :  the  beams 
 and  stones  being  placed  alternate,  and  keeping  their 
 own  places  in  exact  right  lines:  and  besides,  it  is  of 
 great  advantage  in  the  defence  of  cities  ;  for  it  is  se- 
 cured by  the  stone  from  fire,  and  from  the  battering- 
 ram  by  the  wood,  which,  consisting  of  entire  beams, 
 forty  feet  long,  for  the  most  part  mortised  on  the  in- 
 side, could  neither  be  forced  in  nor  torn  asunder." — 
 Such  would  seem  to  have  been  the  fortifications  of  the 
 cities  in  the  civilized  and  populous  part  of  Gaul.  To 
 the  north  and  east,  among  the  more  savage  tribes, 
 there  were  no  cities  properly  so  called  ;  the  inhabi- 
 tants resided  for  the  most  part  in  large  enclosures, 
 formed  of  trunks  of  trees,  and  calculated  to  repel  by 
 these  rude  intrenchmenls  the  assaults  of  a  disciplined 
 as  well  as  undisciplined  foe. — Besides  his  habitation  in 
 the  city,  the  rich  Gaul  generally  possessed  another  in 
 the  country,  amid  thick  forests  and  on  the  banks  of 
 some  river.  (Cces.,  B.  G.,  6,30.)  Here,  during  the 
 beat  of  summer,  he  reposed  from  the  fatigues  of  war; 
 but  he  brought  along  with  him,  at  the  same  time,  all 
 his  equipments  and  retinue,  his  arms,  his  horses,  his 
 esquires.  In  the  midst  of  the  storms  of  faction  and 
 the  civil  dissensions,  which  marked  the  history  of 
 Gaul  in  the  first  and  second  centuries,  these  precau- 
 tions were  anything  else  but  superfluous. 
 
 2.  General  habits  of  the  Gallic  race. 
 It  was,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  in  war,  and 
 in  the  arts  applicable  to  war,  that  the  genius  of  the 
 Gauls  displayed  itself  to  most  advantage.  This  peo- 
 ple made  war  a  regular  profession,  while  the  manage- 
 ment of  arms  became  their  favourite  employment.  To 
 have  a  fine  martial  mien,  to  retain  for  a  long  period 
 strength  and  agility  of  body,  was  not  only  a  point  of 
 honour  for  individuals,  but  a  duty  to  the  state.  At 
 regular  intervals,  the  young  men  went  to  measure 
 their  size  by  a  girdle  deposited  with  the  chief  of  the 
 village,  and  those  whose  corpulence  exceeded  the  of- 
 ficial standard  were  severely  reprimanded  as  idle  and 
 533 
 
 intemperate  persons,  and  were,  besides,  punished  with 
 a  heavy  fine.  {Strabo,  196.) — In  preparing  for  for- 
 eign expeditions,  a  chieftain  of  acknowledged  valour 
 generally  formed  a  small  army  around  him,  consisting, 
 for  the  most  part,  of  adventurers  and  volunteers  who 
 had  flocked  to  his  standard  :  these  were  to  share  with 
 him  whatever  booty  might  be  obtained.  In  internal 
 wars,  however,  or  defensive  ones  of  any  importance, 
 levies  of  men  were  forcibly  made ;  and  severe  pun- 
 ishments were  inflicted  on  the  refractory,  such  as  the 
 loss  of  noses,  ears,  an  eye,  or  some  one  of  the  limbs. 
 {Cas.,  B.  G.,  7,  4.)  If  any  dangerous  conjuncture 
 occurred ;  if  the  honour  or  safety  of  the  stale  were 
 about  to  be  compromised,  then  the  supreme  chief  con- 
 vened an  armed  counsel  {Cas.,  B.  G.,  5,  66).  I'his 
 was  the  proclamation  of  alarm.  All  persons  able  to 
 bear  arms,  from  the  youth  to  him  advanced  in  years, 
 were  compelled  to  assemble  at  the  place  and  day  indi- 
 cated, for  the  purpose  of  deliberating  on  the  situation 
 of  the  country,  of  electing  a  chief,  and  of  discussing 
 the  plan  of  the  campaign.  It  was  expressly  provided 
 by  law,  that  the  individual  who  came  last  to  the  place  of 
 rendezvous  should  be  cruelly  tortured  in  the  presence 
 of  the  assembled  multitude.  {Cces  ,  B.  G.,  .5,  66  ) 
 This  form  of  convocation  was  of  rare  occurrence  ;  it 
 was  only  resorted  to  in  the  last  extremity,  and  more 
 frequently  in  the  democratic  cities  than  in  those  where 
 the  aristocracy  had  the  preponderance.  Neither  in- 
 firmities nor  age  freed  the  Gallic  noble  from  the  neces- 
 sity of  accepting  or  sueing  for  military  commands. 
 Oftentimes  were  seen,  at  the  head  of  the  forces, 
 chieftains  hoary  and  almost  enfeebled  by  age,  who 
 could  even  scarcely  retain  their  seats  on  the  steed 
 which  supported  them.  {Hirt.,  B.  G.,  8,  12.)  This 
 people  would  have  believed  that  they  dishonoured 
 their  aged  warriors  by  making  them  die  elsewhere 
 than  on  the  field  of  battle. — To  the  fierce  vivacity  of 
 the  attack  and  to  the  violence  of  the  first  shock,  were 
 reduced  nearly  all  the  military  tactics  of  the  Gauls, 
 on  level  ground  and  in  pitched  battle.  In  the  mount- 
 ainous regions,  on  the  other  hand,  and  especially  in 
 the  vast  and  thick  forests  of  the  north,  war  had  a  close 
 resemblance  to  the  chase :  it  was  prosecuted  in  small 
 parties,  by  ambuscades  and  all  sorts  of  stratagems; 
 and  dogs,  trained  up  to  pursue  men,  tracked  out,  and 
 aided  in  conquering  the  foe.  These  dogs,  equally 
 serviceable  for  the  chase  and  for  war,  were  obtained 
 from  Belgic  Gaul  and  from  Britain.  {Strabo,  196. 
 —Sil.  Ital,  10.  77.— Ovid,  Met.  ,  1,  533.— Martial, 
 3,  47  )  A  Gallic  army  generally  carried  along  with 
 it  a  multitude  of  chariots  for  the  baggage,  which  em- 
 barrassed its  march.  {Hirt.,  B.  G.,8,  14. — Ccbs.,  B. 
 G.,  1,  51.)  Each  warrior  bore  a  bundle  of  straw, 
 put  up  like  a  sack,  on  which  he  was  accustomed  to 
 sit  in  the  encampment,  or  even  in  the  line  of  battle 
 while  waiting  the  signal  to  engage.  {Hirt..  B.  G., 
 8,  15.) — The  Gauls,  like  other  nations,  for  a  long  pe- 
 riod were  in  the  habit  of  killing  their  prisoners  of  war, 
 either  by  crucifixion,  or  by  tying  them  to  trees  as  a 
 mark  for  their  weapons,  or  by  consigning  them  to  the 
 flames  amid  horrid  rites.  Long  prior,  however,  to  the 
 second  century  of  our  era,  these  barbarous  practices 
 were  laid  aside,  and  the  captives  of  transalpine  nations 
 had  nothing  to  fear  but  servitude.  Another  custom,  not 
 less  savage,  that  of  cutting  off  the  heads  of  their  slain 
 enemies  on  the  field  of  battle,  was  not  slower  in  disap- 
 pearing. It  was  long  a  settled  rule  in  all  wars,  that  the 
 victorious  army  should  possess  itself  of  such  trophies  as 
 these ;  the  common  soldiers  fixed  them  on  the  points 
 of  their  spears,  the  horsemen  wore  them  suspended 
 by  the  hair  from  the  poitrels  of  their  steeds  ;  and 
 in  this  way  the  conquerors  returned  to  their  homes, 
 making  the  air  resound  with  their  triumphal  accla- 
 mations. {Strabo,  197.)  Each  one  then  hastened 
 to  nail  up  these  hideous  testimonials  of  his  valour  to 
 the  gate  of  his  dwelling  ;  and,  as  the  same  thing  was 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 done  with  the  trophies  of  the  chase,  a  Gallic  village 
 bore  no  faint  resemblance  to  a  large  charnel-house. 
 Carefully  embalmed,  and  saturated  with  oil  of  cedar, 
 the  heads  of  hostile  chieftains  and  of  famous  war- 
 riors were  deposited  in  large  coffers,  and  arranged  by 
 their  possessor  according  to  the  date  of  acquisition. 
 (Slraho,  198.)  This  was  the  book,  in  which  the 
 young  Gallic  warrior  loved  to  study  the  exploits  of 
 his  forefather;!;  and  each  generation,  as  it  passed  on- 
 ward, strove  to  add  to  the  contents.  To  part,  for 
 money,  with  the  head  of  a  foe.  acquired  either  by 
 one's  own  exertions  or  those  of  his  ancestors,  was 
 regarded  as  the  height  of  baseness,  and  would  have 
 fi.\ed  a  lasting  stain  on  him  who  should  have  been 
 guilty  of  tne  deed.  Many  even  boasted  of  having  re- 
 fused, when  offered  by  the  relations  or  countrymen  of 
 the  deceased,  an  equal  weight  of  gold  for  a  head  thus 
 obtained.  {Diod.Sic,5,29.)  Sometimes  the  scull, 
 cleansed  and  set  in  gold  or  silver,  served  as  a  cup  in 
 the  temples,  or  circulated  in  the  festivilie.s  of  the  ban- 
 quet, and  the  guests  drank  out  of  it  to  the  glory  of  the 
 victor  and  the  triumphs  of  their  country.  These  fierce 
 and  brutal  manners  prevailed  for  a  long  period  over 
 the  whole  of  Gaul.  Civilization,  in  its  onward  march, 
 abolished  them  by  degrees,  until,  at  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  second  century,  they  were  confined  to  the 
 savage  tribes  of  the  North  and  West.  It  was  there 
 that  Posidonius  found  them  still  existing  in  all  their 
 vigour.  The  sight  of  so  many  human  heads,  disfig- 
 ured by  outrages,  and  blackened  by  the  air  and  the 
 rain,  at  first  excited  in  his  bosom  the  mingled  emo- 
 tions of  horror  and  disgust :  "  however,"  adds  the 
 stoic  traveller,  with  great  naivete,  "  my  eyes  became 
 gradually  accustomed  to  the  view."  {Slrabo,  198.) — 
 The  Gauls  affected,  as  more  manly  in  its  character,  a 
 strong  and  rough  tone  of  voice  (Diod.  Sic,  5,  31),  to 
 which,  moreover,  their  harsh  and  guttural  idioms 
 greatly  contributed.  They  conversed  but  little,  and 
 by  means  of  short  and  concise  phrases,  which  the  con- 
 stant use  of  metaphors  and  hyperboles  rendered  ob- 
 scure and  almost  unintelligible  to  strangers.  (Diod. 
 Sic,  I.  c.)  But,  when  once  animated  by  dispute,  or 
 incited  by  something  that  was  calculated  to  interest 
 or  arouse,  at  the  head  of  armies  or  in  political  assem- 
 blies, they  expressed  themselves  with  surprising  co- 
 piousness and  fluency,  and  the  habit  in  which  they  in- 
 dulged, of  employing  figurative  language,  furnished 
 them,  on  such  occasions,  with  a  thousand  lively  and 
 picturesque  images,  either  for  exalting  their  own 
 merit  or  putting  down  an  opponent. — The  Gauls,  in 
 general,  were  accused  of  drinking  to  excess  ;  a  habit 
 which  took  its  rise  both  in  the  grossness  of  their  man- 
 ners and  in  the  wants  of  a  cold  and  humid  climate. 
 The  Massilian  and  Italian  traders  were  not  slow  in  fur- 
 nishing the  necessary  aliment  for  the  indulgence  of  this 
 baneful  vice.  Cargoes  of  wine  found  their  way,  by 
 means  of  the  navigable  rivers,  into  the  very  heart  of 
 the  country.  The  tempting  beverage  was  also  con- 
 veyed over  land  in  wagons  (Diod.  Sic,  5,  26),  and  in 
 various  quarters  regular  establishments  were  opened 
 for  vending  the  article.  To  these  places  the  Gauls 
 flocked  from  every  part,  and  gave,  in  exchange  for  the 
 wines  of  the  south,  their  metals,  peltries,  gram,  cattle, 
 «n(l  staves.  So  lucrative  was  this  traffic  to  the  ven- 
 der, that  oftentimes  a  young  slave  could  be  procured 
 for  H  jar  of  the  inebriating  liquor.  (Diod.  Sic  ,  5,  26.) 
 About  the  first  century,  however,  of  our  era,  this  vice 
 began  gradually  to  disappear  from  among  the  higher 
 classes,  and  to  be  confined  to  the  lower  orders,  at 
 least  with  the  nations  of  the  south  and  east. — Milk 
 and  the  flesh  of  animals,  especially  that  of  swine, 
 formed  the  principal  aliment  of  the  Gauls.  A  curious 
 account  of  their  repasts,  traced  by  one  who  had  often 
 «at  with  them  at  table,  is  given  by  Posidonius  {Ap. 
 Athen.,  4,  13).  After  an  excessive  indulgence  in  the 
 pleasures  of  the  banquet,  they  loved  to  seize  their 
 
 arms  and  defy  each  other  to  the  combat.  At  first  it 
 was  a  mere  sportive  encounter  ;  but,  if  either  party 
 chanced  to  be  wounded,  passion  got  so  far  the  better 
 of  them,  that,  unless  separated  by  their  friends,  they 
 continued  to  engage  till  one  or  the  other  of  them  was 
 slain.  So  far,  indeed,  did  they  carry  iheir  contempt 
 of  death  and  their  ostentatious  display  of  courage, 
 that  they  might  be  seen  agreeing,  for  a  certain  sum 
 of  money  or  for  so  many  measures  of  wine,  to  let 
 themselves  be  slain  by  others ;  mounted  on  some 
 elevated  place,  they  distributed  the  liquor  or  gold 
 among  their  most  intimate  friends,  and  then  re- 
 clining on  their  bucklers,  presented  their  throats 
 to  the  steel.  (Posidonius,  ap.  Athcn  ,  4,  13.)  Oth- 
 ers made  it  a  point  of  honour  not  to  retire  from 
 their  dwellings  when  falling  in  upon  them,  nor  from 
 tiie  flames,  nor  from  the  tides  of  ocean  and  the  in- 
 undations of  rivers  ;  and  it  is  to  these  fooli.sh  bra- 
 vadoes that  the  Gauls  owed  their  fabulous  renown  of 
 being  an  impious  race,  who  lived  in  open  war  with 
 nature,  who  drew  the  sword  against  the  waves,  and 
 discharged  the  arrow  at  the  tempest. — The  working  of 
 mines,  and  certain  monopolies  enjoyed  by  the  heads 
 of  tribes,  had  placed  in  tiie  hands  of  some  individuals 
 enormous  capitals  ;  hence  the  reputation  for  opulence 
 which  Gaul  enjoyed  at  the  period  of  the  Roman  inva- 
 sion, and  even  still  later.  It  was  the  Peru  of  the  an- 
 cient world.  The  riches  of  Gaul  even  passed  into  a 
 proverb.  (Cic,  Phil.,  12. — losephus,  2,  2S.—Pl.nt., 
 Vit.  CcES. — Suet.,  Cces.,  &.C.)  I'he  sight  of  the  vari- 
 ous articles  in  use  among  the  people  at  large,  both 
 plated  and  tinned,  whether  for  domestic  use  or  for  war, 
 such  as  utensils  for  cooking,  arms,  harness  for  horses, 
 yokes  for  mules,  and  even  sometimes  entire  chariots 
 (Florus,  3,  2),  could  not  fail  to  inspire  the  first  travel- 
 lers into  this  country  with  an  exaggerated  idea  of  its 
 wealth,  and  contributed,  no  doubt,  to  spread  a  romantic 
 colouring  over  the  accounts  that  were  given  of  it.  To 
 this  was  added  the  lavish  prodigality  of  the  Gallic  chief- 
 tains, who  freely  spent  the  resources  of  their  families, 
 and  also  those  of  their  dependants,  for  the  purpose  of  at- 
 taining to  office  or  securing  the  favour  of  the  multitude. 
 Posidonius  makes  mention  of  a  certain  Luern  or  Luer 
 (Aovipvio^.  Posidon.,  ap.  A/hen.,  4,  13. — Aovepioc, 
 Straho,  191),  king  of  the  Arverni,  who  caused  a  shower 
 of  gold  and  silver  to  descend  upon  the  crowd  as  often 
 as  he  appeared  in  public.  He  also  gave  entertainments 
 in  a  rude  style  of  barbarian  magnificence ;  a  large 
 space  of  ground  was  enclosed  for  the  purpose,  and  cis- 
 terns were  dug  in  it,  which  were  filled  with  wine, 
 mead,  and  beer.  (Posidon.,  I.  c.) — Proj)erly  speaking, 
 there  was  no  domestic  union  or  family  intercourse 
 among  the  Gallic  nations  ;  the  females  were  held  in 
 that  dependancc  and  servitude  which  denotes  a  very 
 imperfect  condition  of  the  social  state.  The  husband 
 had  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  his  wife  as  well  as 
 over  his  offspring.  When  a  person  of  high  rank  sud- 
 denly died,  and  the  cause  of  his  decease  was  not 
 clearly  ascertained,  his  wife  or  wives  (for  polygamy 
 was  practised  among  the  rich)  were  seized  and  put  to 
 the  torture  ;  if  the  least  suspicion  was  excited  of  their 
 having  been  privy  to  his  death,  the  unfortunate  victims 
 perished  in  the  midst  of  the  flames,  after  the  most 
 frightful  punishments.  (C<rs.,  B  G.,  6,  19.)  A  cus- 
 tom, however,  which  prevailed  in  this  country  about 
 the  commencement  of  our  era,  shows  that  even  then 
 the  condition  of  females  had  undergone  some  degree 
 of  melioration  :  this  was  the  community  of  goods  be- 
 tween husband  and  wife.  Whatever  sum  the  husband 
 received  with  his  wife  as  a  dowry,  the  same  amount 
 he  added  to  it  from  his  own  resources  ;  a  common 
 stock  was  thus  formed,  the  interest  or  profits  resulting 
 from  which  were  preserved,  and  the  whole  fell  to  the 
 lot  of  the  surviver.  The  children  remained  under  the 
 care  of  their  mother  until  the  age  of  puberty  ;  a  father 
 would  have  blushed  to  allow  his  son  to  appear  pubhcly 
 
 533 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 in  his  presence,  before  the  latter  could  wield  a  sabre 
 and  make  a  figure  on  the  list  of  warriors.  {Cas.,  B. 
 G.,  6,  18.) — Among  some  nations  of  Belgic  Gaul, 
 where  the  Rhine  was  an  object  of  superstitious  adora- 
 tion, a  whimsical  custom  prevailed  ;  the  river  was 
 made  the  means  of  testing  the  fidelity  of  the  conjugal 
 state.  When  a  husband  had  doubts  respeciing  his  pa- 
 ternity, he  took  the  new-born  infant,  placed  it  on  a 
 board,  aiid  exposed  it  to  the  current  of  the  stream.  If 
 the  plank  and  its  helpless  burden  floated  safely  upon 
 the  waters,  the  result  was  deemed  favourable,  and  all 
 the  father's  suspicions  were  dissipated.  If,  on  the 
 contrary,  the  plank  began  to  sink,  the  infant  perished, 
 and  the  parent's  suspicions  were  confirmed.  {Julian, 
 Epist.,  15,  ad  Maxim,  -philos. — Id.,  Oral.,  2,  in  Con- 
 stant, imp. — Anthol.  Gr.,  1,  43,  1.) 
 
 3.    Civil  and  Religious  Institutions  of  the  Gauls. 
 
 Two  privileged  orders  ruled  in  Gaul  over  the  rest  of 
 the  population  :  the  priests  and  nobles.  The  people 
 at  large  were  divided  into  two  classes,  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  country  and  the  residents  of  cities.  The  former 
 of  these  constituted  the  tribes  or  clients  appertaining 
 to  noble  families.  The  client  cultivated  his  patron's 
 domains,  followed  his  standard  in  war,  and  was  bound 
 to  defend  him  with  his  life.  To  abandon  his  patron  in 
 the  hour  of  peril  was  regarded  as  the  blackest  of  crimes. 
 The  residents  of  cities,  on  the  other  hand,  found  them- 
 selves beyond  the  control  of  this  system  of  clientship, 
 and,  consequently,  enjoyed  greater  freedom.  Below 
 the  mass  of  the  people  were  the  slaves,  who  do  not 
 appear,  however,  to  have  been  at  any  time  very  nu- 
 merous. The  two  privileged  orders  of  which  we  have 
 just  made  mention,  imposed  each  in  its  turn  a  heavy 
 yoke  of  despotism  upon  Gaul ;  and  the  government  of 
 this  country  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct  forms, 
 prevailing  at  three  distinct  intervals  of  time  ;  that  of 
 the  priests,  or  a  theocracy  ;  that  of  the  chieftains  of 
 tribes,  or  a  military  aristocracy  ;  and  that,  finally,  of 
 the  popular  constitutions,  founded  on  the  principle  of 
 free  choice  by  a  majority  of  voters. — When  we  exam- 
 ine attentively  the  character  of  the  facts  relative  to  the 
 religious  belief  of  Gaul,  we  are  led  to  acknowledge 
 the  existence  of  two  classes  of  ideas,  two  systems  of 
 symbols  and  superstitions  entirely  distinct  from  each 
 other ;  in  a  word,  two  religions :  one,  altogether  sen- 
 sible in  its  character,  based  on  the  adoration  of  nat- 
 ural phenomena,  and  recalling  by  its  forms  much  of 
 the  polytheism  of  Greece  ;  the  other,  founded  on  a 
 material,  metaphysical,  mysterious,  and  sacerdotal 
 pantheism,  presenting  the  most  astonishing  conformity 
 with  the  religions  of  the  East.  This  latter  has  re- 
 ceived the  name  of  Druidism,  from  the  Druids,  who 
 were  its  first  founders  and  priests  ;  the  other  system 
 has  been  called  the  Gallic  Polytheism.  Even  if  no 
 other  testimony  existed  to  prove  the  priority  of  the  lat- 
 ter, in  point  of  time,  to  Druidism,  the  natural  and  in- 
 Tariable  progress  of  religious  ideas  among  all  the  na- 
 tions of  the  globe  would  tend  to  establish  the  fact. 
 It  is  not  so,  however.  The  old  and  valuable  traditions 
 of  the  Cymric  race  attribute  to  this  people,  in  the  most 
 formal  and  exclusive  manner,  the  introduction  of  the 
 Druidical  doctrines  into  Gaul  and  Britain,  as  well  as 
 the  organization  of  sovereign  priesthood.  According 
 to  these  traditions,  it  was  the  chief  of  the  first  invasion, 
 Hu,  Heus,  or  Hesus,  surnamed  "  the  powerful,"  who 
 implanted  in  this  territory,  which  had  been  conquered 
 by  his  horde,  the  religious  and  political  system  of  Dru- 
 idism, A  warrior,  a  priest,  and  a  legislator  during  his 
 life,  Hesus  enjoyed,  besides  this,  a  privilege  common  to 
 all  founders  of  theocracies:  he  became  a  god  after  death. 
 If  the  question  be  now  put,  how  Druidism  arose  among 
 the  Cymric  race,  and  from  what  source  originated 
 those  striking  points  of  resemblance  between  its  fun- 
 damental doctrines  and  those  of  the  secret  religions  of 
 the  East,  between  many  of  its  ceremonies  and  those 
 &34 
 
 practised  in  Samothrace,  in  Asia,  and  in  India,  we  find 
 no  light  thrown  upon  this  subject  by  history.     INeilher 
 the  facts  collected  by  foreign  writers,  nor  any  national 
 traditions,  furnish  us  with  a  positive  solution  of  the 
 difficulty.     It  may  be  reasonably  conjectured,  however, 
 that  the  Cymri,  during   their  long   sojourn  either   in 
 Asia  or  on  the  borders  of  Asia  and  Europe,  were  initi- 
 ated into  religious  ideas  and  institutions,  which,  circu- 
 lating at  that  lime  from  one  people  to  another,  event- 
 ually spread  themselves  over  all  the  eastern  quarter  of 
 the  world.     Druidism,  introduced  into  Gaul  by  con 
 quest,  organized  itself  in  the  domains  of  the  conquerors 
 with  greater  energy  than  it  had  ever  done  elsewhere ; 
 and  after  it  had  converted  to  its  dogmas  the  whole 
 Gallic   population,  and   probably  a  portion  of  the  Li- 
 gures,  it  continued  to  have,  in  the  midst  of  the  Cymri, 
 in  Armorica,  and  in  Britain,  its  most  powerful  colleges 
 of  priests  and  its  most  secret  mysteries.     The  empire 
 of  Druidism,  however,  did  not  completely  stifle  that 
 religion  of  nature  which  prevailed  before  its  introduc- 
 tion in  Britain  and  Gaul.     Every  wise  and  mvsterious 
 system  of  religion  tolerates  a  fetichism  more  or  less 
 gross  in  its  character,  and  calculated  to  take  hold  of 
 and  keep  alive  the  superstition  of  the  multitude  ;  and 
 this  fetichism  it  seeks  to  hold  always  stationary.     Sta- 
 tionary it  therefore  remained  in  the  island  of  Britain. 
 In  Gaul,  therefore,  in  the  eastern  and  southern  sections 
 of  the  country,  where  Druidism  had  not  been  imposed 
 by  arms,  although  it  had  become  the  ruling  religion, 
 the  early    national  form   of   worship   preserved  more 
 independence,  even  under  the  ministry  of  the  Druids 
 who  had  constituted  themselves  its  priests.     It  con- 
 tinued, then,  to  be  here  cultivated,  and,  following  the 
 progressive  march  of  civilization  and  intelligence,  it 
 gradually  elevated  itself  from  the  rudeness  of  mere 
 fetichism  to  religious  conceptions  which  became  more 
 and  more  elevated  in  character.     Thus  the  immediate 
 adoration  of  brute  matter,  of  natural  agents  and  phe- 
 nomena, such  as  stones,  trees  {Max.  Tyr.,  38),  winds, 
 and,  in  particular,  the  terrible  blast  denominated  Kirk 
 or  Circius  {Sencc.,  Qucest.  Nat.,  5,  17),  lakes,  rivers 
 {Posidon.,   ap.    Strah.,    188. — Oros.,   4,    16.  —  Greg. 
 Turon.,  de  Glor.  confess.,  c.  5),  thunder,  the  sun,  &c., 
 gave  place,  in  process  of  time,  to  the  abstract  notion 
 of  spirits  or  divinities  regulating  these  phenomena,  and 
 imprinting  a  will  on  these  agents.     Hence  we  have, 
 in  a  later  age,  the  god  Tarann,  the  spirit  of  the  thun- 
 der {Lucan,  Pharsal,  1,  466.  —  Torann  in  Gaelic, 
 and  Tarann  in  Cymraig  and  Armoric,  mean  "  thun- 
 der") ;  the  god  Peiinin,  the  deity  of  the  Alps  {Liv., 
 21,    38);    the   goddess   Arduinna,    presiding  divinity 
 over  the    forest   of  Ardennes,  and  numerous  others. 
 By  a  still  farther  eflibrt  of  abstraction,  the  general  pow- 
 ers of  nature,  that  of  the  human  soul,  and  even  of  civij 
 society,  were  also  deified.      Tarann  became  the  god 
 of  the  skies,  the  mover  of  the  universe,  the  supreme 
 judge  who  hurled  his  angry  thunder  at  mortals.     The 
 sun,  under  the  name  of  Bel  and  Bclen  (Auson.,  Carm., 
 2,  de   Profess.  Burdigal.  —  TerlulL,  ApolL,  c.  24  — 
 Hcrodian,  8,  3),  became  a  beneficent  deity,  causing 
 salutary  plants  to  spring  up  and  presiding  over  medi- 
 cine.    Heus  or   Hesus,  notwithstanding  his  Druidic 
 origin,  took  a  station  in  the  polytheism  of  Gau),  as  the 
 god  of  war  and  conquests  ;  this  was  probably  an  inter- 
 calation of  the  Druids.     In  the  Cymric  traditions  Hens 
 has  the  character  of  chief  deity,  the  supreme  being. 
 {Davies,    Welsh  Arckttol.,  p.   110.)     The  gewius   of 
 commerce  also  received  the  adoration   of  the  Gauls 
 under  the  name  of  Tuclatts  {Laclant.,  Div.  Insi.,  1, 
 21. — 'Min.  Fehx,  c.  30);  he  was  regarded  as  the  in- 
 ventor of  all  arts  and  the  protector  of  routes.     The 
 manual  arts   had  also  their  particular  divinities.     In 
 fine,  the  symbol  of  the  liberal  arts,  of  eioquence,  and 
 of  poesy,  was  deified  under  the  form  of  an  old  man, 
 armed  like  ihe  Grecian  Hercules  with  a  club  and  bow, 
 but  whom  his  captives  gayly  followed,  attached  by  Uw 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 car  to  chains  of  gold  and  amber,  which  proceeded 
 from  his  mouth.  He  was  named  Ogmius.  (Lweian, 
 Here.  —  0pp.,  ed.  Bip.,  vol.  7,  p.  312. — Compare 
 Jiitter,  Vorhalle,  p.  368,  seqq.) — Coincidences  of  so 
 striking  a  nature  with  their  own  mythology  could  not 
 fail  to  surprise  Roman  observers,  nor  was  it  difficult 
 for  them  to  discover,  as  they  thought,  all  their  own 
 gods  in  the  polytheism  of  Gaul.  Caesar  consequently 
 informs  us,  that  they  acknowledged  among  their  divin- 
 ities Mercury,  Apollo,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Minerva. 
 "Mercury,"  observes  this  writer,  "is  the  deity  whom 
 they  chiefly  adore :  they  have  many  images  of  him  : 
 they  a;coutit  him  the  inventor  of  arts  ;  their  guide  in 
 travelling  and  journeys ;  and  imagine  that  he  has  a 
 very  great  influence  over  trade  and  merchandise.  After 
 him  they  adore  Apollo,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Minerva, 
 of  whom  they  have  the  same  opinion  with  other  na- 
 tions:  that  Apollo  averts  diseases  ;  that  Minerva  first 
 introduced  needlework  and  manufactures  ;  that  Jupiter 
 holds  the  supreme  power  of  the  heavens ;  that  Mars 
 presides  over  war.  To  him,  whenever  they  have  de- 
 termined on  gomg  to  battle,  they  usually  devote  the 
 spoil  they  have  taken."  {Ccbs.,  B.  G.,  6,  17.) — .This 
 resemblance  between  the  two  systems  of  religion 
 changed  into  identity  when  Gaul,  subjected  to  the  do- 
 minion of  Rome,  had  felt  for  some  years  the  influence 
 of  Roman  ideas.  It  was  then  that  the  Gallic  polythe- 
 ism, honoured  and  favoured  by  the  emperors,  ended  its 
 career  by  becoming  totally  merged  in  the  polytheism 
 of  Italy;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Druidism,  its  mys- 
 teries, its  doctrine,  and  its  priesthood,  were  cruelly 
 proscribed,  and  extinguished  amid  streams  of  blood. 
 
 4.   Origin  of  the  Gauls. 
 
 The  question  to  be  considered  here  is  this,  whether 
 there  existed  a  Gallic  family  distinct  from  the  other 
 families  of  nations  m  the  West,  and  whether  it  was  di- 
 vided into  two  races.  The  proofs  which  we  shall  ad- 
 duce in  favour  of  the  affirmative  are  of  three  kinds  : 
 1st,  philological,  deduced  from  an  examination  of  the 
 primitive  languages  of  the  west  of  Europe  :  2d,  his- 
 torical, drawn  from  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers : 
 3d,  likewise  historical,  deduced  from  national  tradi- 
 tions among  the  Gauls. 
 
 I.    Proofs  drawn  from  an  examination  of  languages. 
 
 In  the  countries  of  Europe,  called  by  the  ancients 
 Transalpine  Gaul  and  Britain,  embracing,  at  the  pres- 
 ent day,  France,  Switzerland,  the  Low  Countries,  and 
 the  British  Isles,  various  languages  are  spoken,  which 
 all,  however,  range  themselves  under  two  great  classes : 
 one,  that  of  the  languages  of  the  South,  draws  its  ori- 
 gin from  the  Latin,  and  embraces  all  the  dialects  of 
 the  Romans  and  French  ;  the  other,  that  of  the  North- 
 ern languages,  is  descended  from  the  ancient  Teutonic 
 or  Gerftian,  and  prevails  in  a  part  of  Switzerland  and 
 the  Low  Countries  in  England,  and  in  the  lowlands 
 of  Scotland.  Now  we  know  historically  that  the  Latin 
 language  was  introduced  into  Gaul  by  the  Roman 
 arms  ;  we  know,  also,  that  the  Teutonic  languages, 
 spoken  in  Gaul  and  in  Britain,  may  be  in  like  manner 
 traced  to  the  conquests  of  the  Teutonic  or  German 
 tribes :  these  two  main  languages,  therefore,  intro- 
 duced from  without,  are  strangers  to  the  primitive 
 population,  that  is  to  say,  to  the  population  which  oc- 
 cupied the  countries  in  question  anterior  to  these  con- 
 quests. But  in  the  midst  of  so  many  new-Latin  and 
 uew-Tc-utonie  dialects,  we  find  in  some  parts  of  France 
 and  Britain  the  remains  of  primitive  languages,  com- 
 pletely distinct  from  the  two  great  classes  of  which  we 
 have  just  made  mention.  Of  these,  France  contains 
 two,  the  Basque,  spoken  in  the  western  Pyrenees,  and 
 tlie  Bas-Breton,  more  extensively  spread  not  lonora<ro, 
 but  at  present  confined  to  the  extremity  of  ancient 
 Afisoxica-    Bcilaia  likewise  possesses  two,  the  Welsh, 
 
 spoken  in  the  principality  of  Wales,  and  called  by 
 those  who  speak  it  the  Cymraig ;  and  the  Gaelic,  used 
 in  the  highlands  of  Scotland  and  in  Ireland.  History 
 gives  us  no  information  relative  to  these  original  lan- 
 guages, whether  they  were  introduced  into  the  coun- 
 tries where  they  are  spoken  posterior  to  the  Roman 
 and  German  conquests  ;  neither  does  it  furnish  us 
 with  any  grounds  for  surmising  by  whom  they  might 
 have  been  so  introduced  :  we  are  led,  therefore,  lo  re- 
 gard them  as  anterior  to  these  conquests,  and,  conse- 
 quently, as  belonging  to  the  primitive  population.  The 
 question  of  antiquity  being  thus  disposed  of,  two  other 
 inquiries  present  themselves.  1.  Did  these  languages 
 belong  to  the  same  people  or  to  different  ones  !  2. 
 Have  we  any  historical  proofs  that  they  were  spoken 
 anterior  to  the  establishment  of  the  Romans,  and,  con- 
 sequently, of  the  Germans,  and  in  what  portions  of 
 territory  1  We  will  attempt  to  solve  these  two  ques- 
 tions by  examining  each  of  these  languages  in  suc- 
 cession ;  and  first,  we  will  remark,  that  the  Bas-Bre- 
 ton attaching  itself  very  closely  to  the  Cymraig,  the 
 original  idioms,  of  which  we  are  speaking,  are  reduced 
 in  fact  to  three .  1 .  The  Basque.  2.  The  Gaelic  or 
 Gallic.     3.  The  Cymraig  or  Cymric. 
 
 I.   Of  the  Basque  Language. 
 
 This  language,  called  Euscara  by  the  people  who 
 speak  it,  is  used  in  some  cantons  in  the  southeast  of 
 France  and  northeast  of  Spain,  on  both  sides  of  the 
 Pyrenees  :  the  singularity  of  its  radicals  and  its  gram- 
 matical construction  distinguish  it  no  less  Irom  the 
 Cymric  and  Gallic  tongues,  than  from  the  derivatives 
 of  the  Latin  and  Teutonic.  Its  antiquity  cannot  be 
 doubted,  when  we  see  that  it  has  furnished  the  oldest 
 appellations  for  the  rivers,  mountains,  cities,  and  tribes 
 of  ancient  Spain.  Its  great  extension  is  no  less  cer- 
 tain. The  learned  researches  of  Humboldt  have  dis- 
 covered its  imprint  in  the  geographical  nomenclature 
 of  almost  the  whole  of  Spain,  especially  the  eastern 
 and  southern  provinces.  {Humboldt,  Priifung  der 
 Untersuchungen  iibcr  die  Urbewohncr  Hispaniens,  ver- 
 mittclst  der  Vaskischcn  Sprache,  Berlin,  1821.)  In 
 Gaul,  the  province  called  Aquitania  by  the  Romans, 
 and  comprehended  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
 course  of  the  Garonne,  presents  also,  in  its  earliest 
 geography,  numerous  traces  of  this  language.  Similar 
 traces  may  be  found,  more  altered  and  of  rarer  occur- 
 rence, it  is  true,  along  the  Mediterranean,  between  the 
 Oriental  Pyrenees  and  the  Arno,  in  the  region  called 
 by  the  ancients  Liguria,  Celto-Liguria,  and  Ibero-Li- 
 guria.  A  large  number  of  names  of  men,  dignities, 
 and  institutions,  mentioned  in  history  as  belonging  to 
 the  Iberians,  or  else  to  the  Aquitani,  are  easily  ex- 
 plained by  the  aid  of  the  Basque  language.  From  all 
 this  we  may  deduce  the  legitimate  presumption  that 
 the  Basque  is  a  remnant  of  the  ancient  Spanish  or  Ibe- 
 rian language,  and  the  population  who  speak  it  at  the 
 present  day  are  a  fragment  of  the  Iberian  race.  2. 
 That  this  race,  in  language  at  least,  had  nothing  in 
 common  with  the  nations  speaking  the  Gaelic  and 
 Cymric.  3.  That  they  occupied,  in  Gaul,  the  two 
 great  cantons  of  Aquitania  and  Gallic  Liguria. 
 
 2.  Of  the  Gaelic  or  Gallic  tongue. 
 The  Gaelic  or  Gallic,  according  to  the  mode  of 
 pronouncing  the  name,  is  spoken  in  the  highlands  of 
 Scotland,  in  Ireland,  the  Hebrides,  and  the  Isle  of 
 Man.  There  is  no  trace  of  any  other  idiom  having 
 been  in  use  previously  in  these  quarters,  since  most 
 of  the  denominations  of  places,  communities,  and  in- 
 dividuals belong  exclusively  to  this  language.  It  we 
 follow  its  vestiges  by  means  of  geographical  and  his- 
 torical nomenclatures,  we  will  find  that  the  Gaelic 
 has  prevailed  in  the  whole  of  the  lowlands  of  .Scotland 
 and  in  England,  whence  it  appears  to  have  been  driven 
 out  by  the  Cymric  tongue  :  we  may  ^cognise  it  also 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 in  a  portion  of  the  south,  and  in  all  the  east  of  Gaul, 
 in  upper  Italy,  in  Illyria,  and  in  central  and  western 
 Spain.  It  is  the  eastern  and  southern  provinces,  how- 
 ever, of  Gaul  that  bear  the  most  evident  marks  of  the 
 passage  of  this  tongue.  It  is  only  by  the  aid  of  a 
 Gaelic  glossary  that  wc  can  discover  the  signification 
 of  geographical  names,  dignities,  institutions,  individu- 
 als, &c.,  belonging  to  the  primitive  population  of  this 
 country.  Still  farther,  the  patois  of  the  east  and  soiith 
 of  France  at  the  present  day  swarms  with  words  that 
 are  strangers  to  the  Latin,  and  which  are  discovered 
 to  be  taken  from  the  Gaelic  tongue.  From  these 
 facts  we  may  deduce  the  following  mferences  :  1.  that 
 the  race  which  spoke  Gaelic,  in  distant  ages,  occu- 
 pied the  British  isles  and  Gaul,  and  that  from  this 
 centre  the  language  spread  itself  over  many  cantons 
 of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Illyria.  2.  That  it  preceded  in 
 Britain  the  race  which  spoke  the  Cymric. 
 
 3.  Of  the  Cymric  tongue. 
 That  part  of  Britain  which  is  called  the  country  or 
 principality  of  Wales,  is  inhabited,  as  is  well  known, 
 by  a  people  who  bear  in  their  mother-tongue  the  name 
 of  Cymn  or  Kymri  ;  and  from  the  most  distant  period 
 they  have  known  no  other.  Authentic  literary  monu- 
 ments attest  that  this  language,  the  Cymraig  or  Cym- 
 ric, was  cultivated  with  great  eclat  about  ihe  si.xth 
 century  of  our  era,  not  only  within  the  actual  limits  of 
 the  principality  of  Wales,  but  along  the  whole  west- 
 ern coast  of  England,  while  the  Anglo-Sa.\ons,  a  Ger- 
 manic population,  occupied  by  conquest  the  centre  and 
 the  east.  An  examination  of  the  geographical  and  his- 
 torical nomenclatures  of  Britain,  anterior  to  the  arrival 
 of  its  German  invaders,  proves  also,  that,  before  this 
 epoch,  the  Cymric  prevailed  throughout  the  whole 
 southern  part  of  the  island,  where  it  had  succeeded  to 
 the  Gaelic,  which  had  been  banished  to  the  north.  We 
 have  already  stated,  that  the  Bas-Breton,  or  Armoric 
 tongue,  spoken  in  a  part  of  Brittany,  was  a  Cymric 
 dialect.  The  intermixture  of  a  great  number  of  Latin 
 and  French  words  has  altered,  it  is  true,  the  aspect 
 of  this  dialect  ;  yet  historical  monuments  bear  full  tes- 
 timony to  the  fact,  that,  about  the  fifth  century,  it  was 
 almost  identically  the  same  with  that  of  the  island  of 
 Britain,  since  the  natives  of  this  island,  who  fled  to 
 Armorica  to  escape  from  the  Anglo-Saxons,  found  in 
 this  latter  country,  it  is  said,  a  people  who  spoke  the 
 same  language  with  themselves.  {Adclung,  Mithra- 
 dates,  vol.  2,  p.  157.)  The  names,  moreover,  drawn 
 from  geography  and  history,  clearly  show,  that  this 
 idiom  was  spoken  anterior  to  the  fifth  century  in  the 
 whole  of  the  west  and  north  of  Gaul.  This  tract  of 
 country  then,  as  well  as  the  southern  portion  of  the 
 isle  of  Britain,  must  have  been  anciently  peopled  by 
 the  race  that  spoke  the  Cymric  tongue.  But  what 
 is  the  generic  name  of  this  racel  Is  it  the  Armori- 
 can  1 — Is  it  the  Breton  1 — Armorican,  which  signifies 
 "maritime,"  is  a  local,  not  a  generic,  appellation; 
 while,  on  the  other  hand,  Bretmi  appears  to  have  been 
 nothing  more  than  the  name  of  a  particular  tribe.  We 
 will  adopt  then,  provisorily,  as  the  true  name  of  this 
 race,  that  of  Cymri,  which  Irom  the  sixth  century  has 
 served  to  designate  it  in  the  isle  of  Britain. — As  re- 
 gards the  two  idioms  of  the  Cymric  and  Gaelic,  it  may 
 not  be  amiss  to  state  the  following  general  particulars. 
 The  basis  of  both  is  undoubtedly  the  same,  and  both 
 spring  from  some  common  tongue.  By  the  side,  how- 
 ever, of  this  striking  similitude  in  the  roots  and  in  the 
 general  system  of  the  composition  of  words,  we  can- 
 not fail  to  observe  great  discrepances  in  the  gram- 
 matical structure,  discrepances  essential  m  their  char- 
 arter,  and  which  constitute  two  distinct  languages, 
 two  separate  tongues,  though  sisters  to  each  other,  and 
 not  two  dialects  of  the  same  tongue.  It  should  also 
 be  remarked,  that  the  Gallic  and  the  Cymric  belong  to 
 that  great  family  of  languages,  the  source  of  which  is 
 536 
 
 GALLTA. 
 
 connected  by  philologists  with  the  Sanscrit,  the  an- 
 cient and  sacred  idiom  of  India. 
 
 Having  completed  our  examination  of  the  languages 
 in  question,  wc  may  deduce  from  this  review  of  them 
 the  following  historical  inferences.  1.  An  Iberian  pop- 
 ulation, distinct  from  the  Gallic,  inhabited  several  can- 
 tons in  the  south  of  Gaul,  under  the  names  of  Aqui- 
 tani  and  Ligures.  2.  The  Gallic  population,  properly 
 so  called,  was  divided  into  Galli  and  Cymri.  3.  The 
 Galli  had  preceded  the  Cymri  on  the  soil  of  Britain, 
 and  probably  also  on  that  of  Gaul.  4.  The  Galli  aFid 
 the  Cymri  formed  two  races,  belonging  to  one  and  the 
 same  human  family. 
 
 II.  Proofs  drawn  from  the  Greek  and  Roman  histo- 
 rians. 
 
 1.   Gallic  Nations  hcyond  the  Alps. 
 
 Cagsar  acknowledges  throughout  the  whole  extent 
 of  Gaul,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  province  of 
 Narbonne,  three  nations,  "  differing  in  language,  in- 
 stitutions, and  laws  :  the  Aquilani,  dwelling  between 
 the  Pyrenees  and  the  Garonne  ;  the  Belga?,  occupying 
 the  northern  parts  of  the  country,  from  the  Rhine  to 
 the  Marne  and  Seine ;  and  the  Galli,  called  also  Cel- 
 tae,  established  in  the  central  quarter  of  the  land." 
 He  gives  to  these  three  communities,  taken  collect- 
 ively, the  general  name  of  Galli,  which  in  this  case 
 is  nothing  more  than  a  mere  geographical  designation. 
 Strabo  adopts  the  division  of  CiEsar,  but  with  an  im- 
 portant change.  In  place  of  limiting  the  Belgae,  as 
 Cffisar  does,  to  the  course  of  the  Sein  ,  he  adds  to 
 them,  under  the  name  of  parnceanitcs,  or  maritime 
 {■KapuneavLTUv),  all  the  tribes  established  between  the 
 mouth  of  this  river  and  that  of  the  I^oire,  and  known 
 in  Gallic  geography  by  the  appellation  of  Armoricans, 
 which  equally  signifies  "maritime,"  and  of  which  the 
 term  paroccanites  appears  to  be  merely  a  Greek  trans- 
 lation. This  arrangement  of  Strabo's  merits  the  great- 
 er attention,  not  only  because  that  great  geographer 
 was  well  acquainted  with  the  Roman  authors  who 
 had  written  upon  Gaul,  but  also  derived  much  infor- 
 mation from  the  travels  of  Posidonius,  and  the  la- 
 bours of  the  learned  among  the  people  of  Massilia 
 or  Marseilles.  These  two  opinions,  however,  relative 
 to  the  Belgne,  may  be  easily  reconciled,  as  we  shall  see 
 in  the  sequel.  The  geographers  of  a  later  period,  Me- 
 la, Pliny,  Ptolemy,  &;c  ,  either  conform  to  the  ethno 
 graphic  division  given  by  Cresar,  or  to  the  one  traced 
 by  Augustus  after  the  reduction  of  Gaul  to  a  Roman 
 province.  In  all  this  the  Narbonnaise  is  not  com])re- 
 hended  :  now,  we  find  in  the  ancient  writers  that  it 
 contained,  besides  the  Celtae  or  Galli,  Ligurians,  stran- 
 gers to  the  Gauls  (eripoedveic- — Strah.,  137).  and  also 
 Phocean  Greeks,  who  composed  the  population  of 
 Massilia  and  its  dependencies. — There  existed  then, 
 in  the  indigenous  population  of  Gaul,  four  different 
 branches:  1.  The  Aqnrtnni ;  2.  The  Lisures ;  3. 
 The  Gain  or  Celta ;  4.  The  Belga.— We  wiW  con- 
 sider each  of  these  in  succession. 
 
 \.    The  Aquitani. 
 
 "  The  .'\quitani,"  observes  Strabo  (189.— 7c^..  176X 
 "differ  essentially  from  the  Gallic  race,  not  only  Jr 
 language,  but  also  in  physical  conformation  :  ihey  re- 
 semble the  Iberians  more  than  they  do  the  G»uls.'' 
 He  adds,  that  the  contrast  afforded  by  two  Gallic  na- 
 tions confined  within  the  limits  of  Aquilania.  made  the 
 distinctive  features  of  the  race  we  are  considering  the 
 more  apparent.  According  to  CsRsar,  ihe  Aquilani 
 had,  besides  a  jieculiar  dialect,  institutions  oi  a  jwcu- 
 liar  and  separate  character.  Now.  historical  farts 
 show  that  these  inslitntions  bore,  for  the  most  pnrt,  the 
 stamp  of  the  Iberian  character;  that  the  national  dres9 
 was  Iberian  ;  that  there  existed  stronger  ties  of  auF^ity 
 and  alliance  between  the  Aquitanian  and  Iberian  uibMk 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 than  between  the  former  and  the  Gauls,  who  were 
 separated  from  them  merely  by  the  Garonne  ;  in  fine, 
 that  their  virtues  and  their  vices  were  assimilated  in 
 the  closest  manner  to  that  standard  of  good  and  evil 
 qualities  which  appears  to  have  constituted  the  moral 
 type  of  the  Iberian  race.  We  find,  then,  a  concordance 
 between  the  proofs  drawn  from  history  and  those  de- 
 duced from  an  examination  of  languages  ;  the  Aqui- 
 tani  were,  beyond  doubt,  an  Iberian  population. 
 
 2.  Ligures. 
 
 The  Ligures,  whom  the  Greeks  call  Ligyes,  are  des- 
 ignated by  Strabo  as  strangers  to  Gaul.  Sextus  Avi- 
 enus,  whose  labours  were  based  upon  documents  which 
 had  been  left  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  who,  conse- 
 quently, must  have  been  put  in  possession  of  much 
 Valuable  matter  connected  with  the  ancient  history  of 
 Iberia,  places  the  primitive  seats  of  the  Iberi  in  the 
 southwest  of  Spain,  whence,  after  a  long  succession 
 of  conflicts,  the  invasion  of  the  conquering  Celts  had 
 compelled  them  to  remove.  (Avien.,  v.  132,  scqq.) 
 Stephanus  of  Byzantium  also  places  in  the  southwest 
 of  Spain,  near  Tartessus,  a  city  of  the  Ligures,  which 
 he  calls  Ligystine  (Aiyvarivrj).  Thucydides  subse- 
 quently shows  us  the  Ligures,  expelled  from  the  south- 
 western part  of  the  peninsula,  arriving  on  the  eastern 
 borders  of  the  Sicoris  or  Segre,  and  driving  away  in 
 their  turn  the  nation  of  the  Sicani.  {Thucyd.,  6,  2.) 
 He  does  not  give  this  as  a  simple  tradition,  but  as 
 an  incontestibie  fact.  Ephorus  and  Philistus  of  Syra- 
 cuse held  the  same  language  in  their  writings,  and  Stra- 
 bo believes  that  the  Sicani  were  originally  Iberians. 
 The  Sicani,  driven  from  their  country,  forced  their 
 way  through  the  eastern  passes  of  the  Pyrenees,  trav- 
 ersed the  Mediterranean  shore  of  Gaul,  and  entered 
 Italy.  The  Ligures  must  have  followed  them,  since 
 we  find  the  latter  nearlv  at  the  same  time  spread  over 
 the  whole  Gallic  and  Italian  coasts,  from  the  Pyrenees 
 as  far  as  the  .'\rno.  We  know,  by  the  unanimous  tes- 
 timony of  the  ancient  writers,  that  the  west  and  the 
 centre  of  Spain  had  been  conquered  by  the  Celtae  or 
 Galli  ;  but  we  are  uninformed  as  to  the  period  when 
 this  took  place.  The  movements  of  the  Sicani  and 
 Ligures  show  us  that  the  invasion  was  made  by  the 
 western  passes  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  that  the  Iberian 
 tribes,  driven  back  on  the  eastern  coast,  began  to  move 
 onward  into  Gaul  and  even  Italy.  They  furnish  us 
 also  with  an  approximation  to  the  date  when  this  took 
 place  :  the  Sicani,  expelled  from  Italy,  as  they  had 
 been  from  Spain,  seized  upon  the  island  of  Sicily  about 
 the  year  1400  B.C.  {Freret,  CEuvr.  compl.,  vol.  4,  p. 
 200),  which  places  the  irruption  of  the  Celtas  into  Ibe- 
 ria about  the  sixteenth  century  before  the  Christian 
 era. — Although,  after  what  has  been  said,  the  Iberian 
 origin  of  the  Ligures  appears  to  be  placed  beyond  the 
 reach  of  doubt,  it  must  nevertheless  be  acknowledged, 
 that  their  manners  did  not  bear  so  strong  an  Iberian 
 stamp  as  those  of  the  Aquitani :  the  reason  would 
 seem  to  be,  that  they  did  not  preserve  themselves 
 from  foreign  intermixture.  History  tells  us  of  power- 
 ful Celtic  tribes  intermingled  with  them  in  Celto-Li- 
 guria,  between  the  Alps  and  the  Rhone  ;  at  a  still  la- 
 ter period.  Ibero-Liguria,  between  the  Rhone  and 
 Spain,  was  subjugated  almost  entirely  by  a  people  who 
 were  total  strangers  to  the  Ligures,  and  who  bore  the 
 name  of  Volca;.  The  date  of  this  invasion  of  the 
 Voica?  into  Ibero-Liguria  (now  Languedoc)  cannot  be 
 fixe«l  with  any  precision.  The  most  ancient  recitals, 
 whether  mythological  or  historical,  and  the  peripluses 
 down  to  that  of  Scylax,  which  appears  to  have  been 
 written  about  3.50  B.C.,  make  mention  only  of  the 
 Ligures,  Elesyces,  Bebryces,  and  Sodes,  in  the  whole 
 canton  ;  the  Elesyces  are  even  represented  as  a  pow- 
 erful nation,  whose  capital  Narbo  (now  Narbonne) 
 flourished  in  commerce  and  in  arms.  About  the  year 
 38],  the  Volcae  Tectosages,  inhabiting  what  is  now 
 
 Y  Y  Y 
 
 upper  Languedoc,  are  rendered  conspicuous  all  of  a 
 sudden,  and  for  the  first  time,  by  an  expedition  which 
 they  sent  into  Greece.  {Justm,  24,  4.  —  Strabo, 
 187.)  About  the  year  218,  at  the  time  of  Hannibal's 
 passage,  the  VoIcib  Arecomici,  inhabiting  lower  Lan- 
 guedoc, are  also  cited  {Liv.,  21,  26)  as  a  numerous 
 people,  giving  the  law  throughout  all  the  surroundmg 
 country.  It  is,  then,  between  340  and  281  that  we 
 must  place  the  arrival  of  the  Volc»  and  the  conquest 
 of  Ibero-Liguria.  —  The  manuscripts  of  Caesar,  in 
 speaking  of  the  Volcae,  have  indifferently  Volca  or  Vol- 
 ga:. Ausonius  {Clar.  Urb.  Narb.,  9)  informs  us,  that 
 the  primitive  name  of  the  Tectosages  was  Bolgce  ;  and 
 Cicero  {Pro  M.  Fontcio. — Dom.  Boug.,  Rec.  des  Hisl., 
 &c.,  p.  656)  calls  them  Beigae.  Saint  Jerome  relates, 
 that  the  idiom  of  their  colonies  established  in  Gala- 
 tia  in  Asia  Minor,  was  still  in  his  lime  the  same  with 
 that  of  Treves,  the  capital  of  the  Belgae,  and  Saint 
 Jerome  had  travelled  both  in  Gaul  and  the  East. 
 {Hieron.,  I.  2,  Comment.  Epist.  ad  Galat.,  c.  3.)  Af- 
 ter this,  it  is  hardly  permitted  us  to  doubt  but  that  the 
 VolcjB  were  BelgJB,  or,  rather,  that  these  two  names 
 were  one  and  the  same  ;  and  the  details  of  their  his- 
 tory, for  they  played  an  important  part  in  the  affairs  ol 
 Gaul,  furnish  numerous  proofs  in  support  of  their  Bel- 
 gic  origin.  We  must  therefore  separate  this  people 
 from  the  Ligurian  population,  with  which  they  have 
 nothing  in  common. — In  conclusion,  we  infer,  that  the 
 Ligures  were  Iberians  ;  a  second  accordance  of  his- 
 tory with  philological  inductions. — We  have  therefore 
 remaining  only  the  Galli  or  Celtas,  and  the  Belga;,  as 
 containing  the  elements  of  the  Gallic  population  prop- 
 erly so  called. 
 
 3.    CellcB. 
 
 There  is  no  necessity  whatever  for  our  demonstra- 
 ting the  identity  of  the  CeltiB  and  Galli  ;  it  is  given, 
 as  fully  established,  by  all  the  ancient  writers.  The 
 signification,  however,  of  the  term  Celt  is  a  subject 
 open  to  inquiry.  Caesar  informs  us  (B.  G.,  1,1),  that 
 it  is  drawn  from  the  language  of  the  Gauls  :  and,  in 
 fact,  it  does  indeed  belong  to  the  present  Gallic  idiom, 
 in  which  ceilt  and  ceiltach  mean  "  an  inhabitant  of  the 
 forests."  This  signification  leads  to  the  presumption 
 that  the  name  was  a  local  one,  and  was  appUed  either 
 to  a  tribe,  or  to  a  confederation  of  tribes,  occupying 
 certain  cantons  ;  and  that  it  consequently  had  a  special 
 and  restricted  meaning.  Indeed,  the  great  Gallic  con- 
 federations were  for  the  most  part  local.  The  testi- 
 mony of  Strabo  may  be  cited  in  support  of  this  hy- 
 pothesis. The  geographer  informs  us,  that  the  Gauls 
 of  the  province  of  Narbonne  were  formerly  called 
 Celtae ;  and  that  the  Greeks,  particularly  the  Massili- 
 ots,  entering  into  commercial  relations  with  them  be- 
 fore becoming  acquainted  with  the  other  nations  of 
 Gaul,  erroneously  took  their  name  as  the  common  ap- 
 pellation for  the  whole  Gallic  race.  {Slrab.,  189.) 
 Some,  and  Ephorus  among  the  rest,  even  extended  it 
 beyond  the  limits  of  Gaul,  and  made  of  it  a  geograph- 
 ical denomination  for  all  the  races  of  the  West. 
 (Slrab.,  34.)  Notwithstanding,  however,  these  erro- 
 neous ideas,  which  throw  much  obscurity  over  the  ac- 
 counts of  the  Greek  writers,  many  authors  of  this  na- 
 tion speak  of  the  Ceitse  in  the  special  and  limited  sense 
 which  accords  with  the  opinion  of  Strabo.  Polybius 
 (3,  37)  places  them  '"around  Narbo;"  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus  (5,  32),  •'  above  Massilia,  in  the  interior  of  the  coun- 
 try, between  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees  ;"  Aristotle  {Ge7i. 
 Anim.,  2,  8),  "  above  Iberia  ;"  Dionysius  Periegeies, 
 "  beyond  the  sources  of  the  Po"  (v.  280).  Finally, 
 Eustathius,  in  his  commentary  on  the  last-mentioned 
 writer,  revives  the  vulgar  error,  which  attributes  to  the 
 whole  of  Gaul  the  name  of  a  single  canton.  V  ague 
 though  they  are,  these  designations  appear  clearly  to 
 specify  the  country  situate  between  the  Ligunan  fron- 
 tier to  the  east,  the  Garonne  to  the  south    the  plateau 
 
 DOS 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 o!  the  Arvcrnian  Mountains  to  the  west,  and  the  ocean 
 to  the  north  :  all  this  tract,  and  the  coast  likewise  of 
 the  Mediterranean,  so  unproductive  and  arid  at  the 
 present  day,  were  for  a  long  time  covered  with  dense 
 forests.  {Liv.,  5,  34.)  Plutarch  places  also  between 
 the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  in  the  earliest  ages,  a  people 
 called  Oeltorii.  {Vit.  Camill.)  This  race  is  thought 
 by  some  to  have  formed  part  of  the  league  or  confeder- 
 ation of  the  Celtae,  for  lor  signifies  "  elevated,"  and  also 
 "a  mountain,"  and  hence  Ccltor  is  supposed  to  desig- 
 nate an  inhabitant  of  the  woody  mountains.  Thus  it 
 would  seem  that  the  Celtic  confederation,  in  the  time 
 of  its  greatest  power,  was  subdivided  into  Celts  of  the 
 plain  and  Cells  of  the  mountain.  Historians  unani- 
 mously inform  us,  that  it  was  the  Celts  who  conquered 
 the  west  and  the  centre  of  Spain  ;  and,  in  fact,  we 
 find  their  name  attached  to  great  masses  of  the  Gallo- 
 Iberian  population,  such  as  the  Celt-Ibtri,  a  mixture  of 
 Celts  and  Iberians,  who  occupied  the  centre  of  the 
 peninsula  ;  and  the  Celtici,  who  had  seized  upon  the 
 northwest.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  that  the  invasion 
 must  have  commenced  with  the  Gallic  tribes  nearest 
 the  Pyrenees.  The  Celtic  confederation,  however,  did 
 not  alone  accomplish  this  conquest;  other  Gallic  tribes 
 either  accompanied  or  followed  them  :  witness,  for  ex- 
 ample, the  people  established  in  what  is  now  Gallicia, 
 and  was  anciently  denominated  Galloecia,  and  who,  as 
 is  well  known,  belonged  to  the  general  Gallic  race. 
 Thus  much  for  Spain. — As  for  upper  Italy,  though 
 twice  inundated  by  transalpine  nations,  it  presents  no 
 trace  of  the  name  of  Celt  :  no  tribe,  no  territory,  no 
 river,  recalls  their  peculiar  appellation.  Everywhere 
 and  on  every  occasion  we  meet  merely  with  the  gen- 
 eral name  of  Gauls.  The  word  Celtaa  became  known 
 to  the  Romans  only  at  a  late  period. — As  to  the  asser- 
 tion of  Caesar,  that  the  Gauls  were  called  in  their  own 
 language  Celtae,  it  is  possible  that  the  Roman  com- 
 mander, more  occupied  with  combating  the  Gauls  than 
 studying  their  language  and  institutions,  and  finding, 
 in  effect,  that  the  word  Celt  was  Gallic,  and  recog- 
 nised by  the  Gauls  for  one  of  their  national  denomi- 
 nations, may,  without  farther  investigation,  have  con- 
 cluded that  the  two  terms  were  synonymous.  It  is 
 possible,  too,  that  the  Gauls  of  the  eastern  and  central 
 sections  may  have  adopted,  in  their  commercial  and 
 political  relations  with  the  Greeks,  a  name  by  which 
 the  latter  were  accustomed  to  designate  them  ;  just  as 
 we  sec,  in  our  own  days,  some  of  the  tribes  of  Amer- 
 ica and  Africa,  accepting,  under  similar  circumstances, 
 appellations  which  are  either  quite  inexact  or  else  totally 
 erroneous. — From  what  has  thus  far  been  remarked,  it 
 would  seem  to  follow,  1.  That  the  name  Celt  had, 
 among  the  Gauls,  a  limited  and  local  application.  2. 
 That  the  confederation  of  the  tribes  denominated  Cel- 
 tic dwelt  in  part  among  the  Ligures,  in  part  between 
 the  Cevennes  and  the  Garonne,  and  along  the  Arver- 
 nian  plateau  and  the  ocean.  3,  That  the  Celtic  con- 
 federation exhausted  its  strength  in  the  invasion  and 
 conquest  of  Spain,  and  took  no  share  consequently  in 
 two  successive  invasions  of  Italy. 
 
 4.  BcIgtE. 
 
 The  Belgas  are  unanimously  acknowledged  by  the 
 ancient  writers  as  forming  part  of  the  Gallic  race. 
 The  word  Belgae  belongs  to  the  Cymric  idiom,  in  which, 
 under  the  form  Belgiaidil,  the  radical  of  which  is  Belg-. 
 it  signifies  "  warlike."  It  would  seem,  then,  that  this 
 was  not  a  generic  appellation,  but  a  title  of  some  mili- 
 tary expedition,  some  armed  confederation.  It  is  a 
 stranger  to  the  present  Gaelic  dialect  (for  bolff,  "a 
 sack,"  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  present  inquiry),  but 
 not  to  the  national  traditions  of  the  Gaelic  race,  as  still 
 existing,  in  which  the  Bolg  or  Fir-Bolg  play  an  im- 
 portant part,  as  conquerors  come  from  the  mouths  of 
 the  Rhine  into  ancient  Ireland.  The  name  of  Belgae 
 was  unknown  to  the  Greek  writers  ;  it  appears,  indeed, 
 S38 
 
 to  have  been  comparatively  recent  in  Gaul,  when  con- 
 trasted with  that  of  the  Celtas,  Ligures,  &c.  The 
 BelgK  had  established  themselves  in  Britain  on  the 
 southern  coast  of  the  island,  in  the  midst  of  the  Breton 
 race,  who  were  not  of  Gallic  origin  ;  for  the  Gallic 
 race  vvere  by  this  time  driven  to  the  north,  beyond  the 
 Frith  of  Forth.  Neither  Casar  nor  Tacitus  has  re- 
 marked any  difTerence  of  origin  or  language  betv/een 
 these  Bretons  and  the  Belgae.  The  names  of  individ- 
 uals, moreover,  as  well  as  those  of  a  local  nature  in 
 the  cantons  occupied  by  the  two  races,  belong  to  one 
 and  the  same  language,  the  Cymric.  In  Gaul  Caesar 
 has  given  the  Seine  and  Marne  as  the  southern  limits 
 of  the  Belgae.  Strabo  adds  to  this  Belgica  another 
 which  he  calls  Paroceanite  or  Maritime,  and  which 
 comprehends  the  tribes  situate  to  the  west,  between 
 the  mouth  of  the  Seine  and  that  of  the  Loire,  that  is 
 to  say,  the  tribes  which  Csesar  and  the  other  Roman 
 writers  call  Armorican,  from  a  Gaelic  term  which  sig- 
 nifies '^maritime."  The  testimony  of  Caesar  is  un- 
 doubtedly hard  to  be  contested  in  what  relates  to  Gaul. 
 On  the  other  hand,  however,  Strabo  was  acquainted 
 with  the  writings  of  the  Massiliots,  he  had  studied  the 
 works  of  Posidonius,  that  celebrated  Greek,  who  had 
 traversed  Gaul,  in  the  time  of  Marius,  as  a  man  of 
 learning  and  a  philosopher.  There  must,  of  necessity, 
 have  been  a  great  many  points  of  resemblance  between 
 the  Armorican  tribes  and  the  Belgre  to  induce  Posido- 
 nius and  Strabo  to  declare  them  members  of  one  and 
 the  same  race  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  there  must  have 
 been  some  very  marked  difl'erences  which  could  lead 
 Csesar  to  make  two  distinct  nations  of  them.  An  ex- 
 amination of  historical  facts  shows  us  the  Armorican 
 tribes  united  in  a  sort  of  political  and  independent  con- 
 federation, but,  in  the  event  of  wars  and  general  alli- 
 ances, uniting  themselves  more  willingly  to  the  Belgse 
 than  to  the  race  of  the  Gauls.  Again,  a  philological 
 investigation  proves  that  the  same  language  was  spoken 
 in  Belgica  in  the  time  of  Csesar  as  in  that  of  Strabo. 
 We  may  hence  boldly  conclude,  that  the  Armoricans 
 and  the  Belga*  were  two  communities  or  confederations 
 of  the  same  race,  which  had  arrived  in  Gaul  at  two 
 different  periods  :  we  may  also  infer  still  farther  :  1. 
 That  the  north  and  west  of  Gaul,  and  the  south  of 
 Britain,  were  peopled  by  one  and  the  same  race,  form- 
 ing the  second  branch  of  the  Gallic  population  properly 
 so  called  :  2.  That  the  language  of  this  race  was  one, 
 the  fragments  of  which  are  preserved  in  two  cantons 
 of  ancient  Armorica  and  in  the  island  of  Britain  :  3. 
 That  the  generic  name  of  the  race  is  entirely  unknown 
 to  us,  as  far  as  history  is  concerned  ;  but  that  philology 
 gives  it  to  us  under  the  form  of  Cymri. 
 
 2.  Gallic  Nations  of  Italy. 
 The  most  credible  of  the  learned  Romans  who  han- 
 dled the  subject  of  early  Italian  history,  recognised  two 
 distinct  conquests  of  upper  Italy  by  nations  which  had 
 migrated  from  ancient  Gaul.  The  first  of  these  in- 
 roads they  carried  back  to  the  earliest  periods  in  the 
 history  of  the  West ;  and  they  designated  these  first 
 transalpine  conquerors  by  the  appellation  of  "  Old 
 Gauls,"  Vetercs  GalU,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
 transalpine  invaders  who  achieved  the  second  conquest. 
 This  latter  conquest,  being  the  more  recent  of  the  two, 
 is  the  better  known.  It  commenced  in  the  year  587 
 B.C.,  under  the  conduct  of  the  Biturigan  Bellovesus, 
 and  it  was  continued  by  the  successive  invasions  of 
 four  other  bands,  during  the  space  of  sixty-six  years. — 
 First  concjuest.  These  Old  Gauls,  according  to  the 
 ancient  writers,  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Umbrians. 
 Cornelius  Bocchus,  the  freedman  of  Sylla,  is  cited  by 
 Solinus  (c.  8)  as  having  fully  established  this  point. 
 This  was  also  the  opinion  maintained  by  Gnipho,  the 
 preceptor  of  Julius  Csesar,  and  who,  born  in  Cisalpine 
 Gaul,  had  probably  directed  his  careful  attention  to  the 
 history  of  his  own  nation.     Isidorus  bkewise  adopted 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 It  (Orig.,  9,  2)  ;  as  did  also  Solinus  and  Servius.  The 
 Greek  writers  also  followed  in  the  same  train,  with 
 few  exceptions,  notwithstanding  an  etymology  very 
 popular  in  Greece,  which  made  the  word  tJmbrian 
 (Ombrian)  to  be  derived  from  '0/i6poc,  "  a  shower," 
 "  rain,"  because  the  nation  in  question  had,  according 
 to  some,  escaped  from  a  deluge.  The  Umbrians  were 
 regarded  as  one  of  the  most  ancient  nations  of  Italy. 
 {Plin.,  2,  li—Florus,  1,  17.)  After  long  and  bloody 
 conflicts,  they  drove  the  Siculi  from  the  country  around 
 the  Po.  Now,  as  the  Siculi  passed  into  Sicily  about 
 1364  B.C.,  the  Umbrian  invasion  may  have  taken 
 place  in  the  course  of  the  15th  century.  They  be- 
 came a  very  powerful  race,  and  their  sway  extended 
 from  the  upper  to  the  lower  sea,  as  far  south  as  the 
 mouths  of  the  Tiber  and  Trento.  The  Etrurian  power 
 eventually  put  an  end  to  their  wide-spread  dominion. 
 The  words  Umhri,  Omhri.  and  Omhrici,  by  which  the 
 Romans  and  the  Greeks  designated  this  people,  would 
 seem  to  have  been  nothing  else  but  the  Gaelic  Amhra 
 or  Amhra,  which  signifies  "  valiant,"  "  noble  ;"  and  to 
 have  been  appropriated  to  itself  as  a  military  title  by 
 some  invading  horde. — The  geographical  division  es- 
 tablished by  the  Umbrians  is  not  only  in  conformity 
 with  the  customs  of  the  Gallic  race,  but  belongs  to 
 their  very  language.  Uinbria  was  divided  into  three 
 provinces:  Oll-Omhria,  or  "High  Umbria,"  which 
 comprised  the  mountainous  country  between  the  Apen- 
 nines and  the  Ionian  Sea  :  Is-Ombria,  or  "  Low  Um- 
 bria," which  embraced  the  country  around  the  Po : 
 and  Vil-Ombria,  or  "  Umbria  along  the  shore,"  which 
 last,  at  a  later  period,  became  Etruria.  Although  the 
 Etrurian  influence  produced  a  rapid  change  in  the  lan- 
 guage, religion,  and  social  order  of  the  Umbrians, 
 there  still  were  preserved  among  the  mountaineers  of 
 Oll-Ombria  some  remarkable  traces  of  the  character 
 and  customs  of  the  Gauls  :  for  example,  the  gaesum  or 
 gais,  a  weapon  both  in  its  invention  and  name  pointing 
 to  a  Gallic  origin,  was  always  the  national  javelin  of 
 the  Umbrian  peasant.  (Liv.,  9,  36.)  The  Umbrians, 
 who  had  been  dispersed  by  the  Etrurian  conquerors, 
 were  received  as  brothers  on  the  banks  of  the  Saone 
 and  among  the  Helvetian  tribes,  where  they  perpetu- 
 ated their  name  of  Insubres  (Isombres).  "  Insuhres," 
 observes  Livy,  "  pagus  ^^duorum"  (5,  23).  Others 
 found  a  hospitable  reception  among  the  Ligurians  of 
 the  Maritime  Alps  {Plin.,  3,  17,  seqq),  and  carried 
 thither  their  name  of  Ambrones.  This  alone  can  ex- 
 plain a  point  which  has  occasioned  much  perplexity  to 
 historians,  and  has  given  rise  to  numerous  contradic- 
 tory theories ;  how,  namely,  a  tribe  of  Alpine  Ligurians, 
 and  another  of  Helvetii,  warring  against  each  other 
 under  the  respective  banners  of  the  Romans  and  the 
 Cimbri,  found,  to  their  great  astonishment,  that  they  had 
 each  the  same  name  and  the  same  war-cry.  (Pint., 
 Vit.  Mar) — From  what  has  been  said,  it  would  seem 
 to  result,  that  upper  Italy  was  conquered  in  the  I5th 
 century  before  our  era  by  a  confederation  of  Gallic 
 tribes  bearing  the  name  of  Ambra  or  Ambrones. — Sec- 
 ond conquest.  The  first  invasion  had  been  made  en 
 masse,  with  something  of  order,  and  by  a  single  con- 
 federation ;  the  second  was  successive  and  tumultuous. 
 During  the  space  of  sixty-six  years,  Gaul  poured  her 
 population  upon  Italy  by  the  Maritime,  the  Graian,  and 
 the  Pennine  Alps.  If  we  bear  in  mind  that,  about  the 
 same  epoch  (B.C.  .587).  an  emigration  not  less  consid- 
 erable took  place  from  Gaul  to  Illyria,  under  the  con- 
 duct of  Sigovesus,  we  cannot  but  believe  that  these 
 great  movements  were  the  result  of  causes  far  more 
 serious  than  those  mentioned  by  Livy  (5,  34).  Gaul, 
 in  fact,  presents  at  this  period  the  aspect  of  a  country 
 deeply  agitated  by  some  violent  commotion. — But  of 
 what  elements  were  these  bands  composed,  which  de- 
 Bccnded  from  the  Alps  to  seize  upon  upper  Italy  1.  Livy 
 makes  them  to  have  come  from  Celtica,  that  is,  from 
 tJie  domains  of  the  Gauls,  the  forces  conducted  by  Bel- 
 
 lovesus  and  Elitovius  ;  and  the  enumeration  of  the 
 tribes  which  formed  this  expedition,  such  as  they  are 
 given  by  Polybius,  proves,  in  fact,  that  the  first  wave 
 belonged  to  the  Gallic  population. — Every  one  baa 
 heard  of  the  famous  combat  between  T.  Manlius  Tor- 
 quatus  and  a  Gaul  of  gigantic  stature.  Trueoi  false, 
 the  incident  was  very  popular  at  Rome  :  it  became  a 
 subject  for  the  painter's  skill ;  and  the  head  of  the  Gaul, 
 making  horrible  grimaces,  figured  as  a  sign  for  a  bank- 
 er's shoj)  in  the  Roman  forum.  This  sign,  rounded 
 into  the  form  of  a  buckler,  bore  the  name  of  Scutum 
 Cimbriciim.  It  existed  at  Rome  in  the  year  of  the  city 
 586,  and  168  before  our  era.  (Compare  Remesius,  p. 
 342.)  The  word  Cimbrkum  is  here  employed  as  sy- 
 nonymous with  Gallicum. — At  a  later  period,  when  the 
 invasion  of  the  Cimbri  from  the  north  renewed  in  Italy 
 the  terror  of  this  name,  the  victorious  commander  of 
 Rome  caused  a  buckler  to  be  adorned  with  this  ancient 
 device.  The  shield  of  Marius,  according  to  Cicero  {de 
 Or.,  2,  66),  had  depicted  on  it  a  Gaul,  with  cheeks 
 hanging  down,  and  projecting  tongue. — The  term  Cim- 
 bri, then,  designated  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Gallic 
 population,  and  this  branch  had  colonies  in  Gallia  Cis- 
 padana  :  we  have  ascertained,  however,  the  previous 
 existence  of  Gallic  colonies  in  Gallia  Transpadana: 
 the  Gallic  population,  then,  of  Italy  was  divided  into 
 two  distinct  branches,  the  Galli  and  the  Cimbri  or 
 Kimbri. 
 
 3.  Gauls  beyond  the  Rhine. 
 First  brarick. 
 We  have  spoken  of  a  double  series  of  emigrations, 
 commenced  B.C.  587,  under  the  conduct  of  Bellovesus 
 and  Sigovesus.  Livy  informs  us,  that  the  expedition 
 of  Sigovesus  set  out  from  Celtica,  and  that  its  leader 
 was  a  nephew  of  the  Biturigan  Ambigatus,  who  reign- 
 ed over  the  whole  country  ;  which  means  that  Sigove- 
 sus and  his  followers  were  Gauls.  The  same  historian 
 adds,  that  they  directed  their  course  towards  the  Her- 
 cynian  forest  (5,  34).  This  designation  is  a  very  vague 
 one  ;  but  we  know  from  Trogus  Pompeius,  who,  being 
 born  in  Gaul,  drew  his  information  from  more  exact 
 and  precise  traditions,  that  these  Gauls  established 
 themselves  in  Pannonia  and  Illyria.  {Justin,  24,  4.) 
 Ancient  historians  and  geographers  show  us,  in  fact, 
 a  multitude  of  Gallic  or  Gallo-IUyrian  communities 
 spread  between  the  Danube,  the  Adriatic,  and  the  fron- 
 tiers of  Epirus,  Macedonia,  and  Thrace.  Among  the 
 number  of  these  are  the  Carni,  inhabiting  the  Alpes 
 Carnica,  to  the  east  of  the  great  Alpine  chain  (com- 
 pare the  Celtic  Cam,  "  a  rock'') ;  the  Taurisci,  a 
 purely  Gallic  race  (compare  the  Celtic  Tanr  or  Tor, 
 "  elevated,"  "  a  mountain." — Strabo,  293) ;  the  lapodes 
 {Strabo,  313),  a  Gallo-IUyrian  race  occupying  the  val- 
 leys of  Carinthia  and  Siiria  ;  the  Scordisci,  dwelling 
 around  Mount  Scordus,  whose  power  was  feared  even 
 by  the  Romans.  The  frequent  recurrence  of  termi- 
 nations in  dunn,  mag,  dur,  &lc.,  the  names  of  mount- 
 ains, such  as  Alpius  and  Albnis ;  the  country  called 
 Albania  ;  in  fine,  a  great  number  of  Gallic  words, 
 found  even  at  the  present  day  in  the  Albanian  tongue, 
 are  so  many  proofs  of  the  Gauls  having  at  one  time  or 
 other  taken  up  their  residence  in  this  country. 
 
 Second  branch. 
 Historical  testimonies,  remounting  to  the  time  of 
 Alexander  the  Great,  attest  the  existence  of  a  people 
 called  Cimmerii  or  Cimbri,  on  the  borders  of  the  Nor- 
 thern Ocean,  in  the  present  peninsula  of  Jutland.  In 
 the  first  place,  critics  acknowledge  the  identity  of  the 
 names  Cimmerii  and  Cimhri,  conformed  as  they  arc. 
 the  one  to  the  genius  of  the  Greek,  the  other  to  that 
 of  the  Latin  tongue.  (Straho,  203.)  The  most  an- 
 cient writer  that  makes  mention  of  the  Cimbri  i*  Phil- 
 emon :  according  to  him,  they  called  their  ocean  Mon- 
 Marusa,  i.  e.,  "Dead  Sea,"  as  far  as  the  promontory 
 
 909 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 Kubeas ;  beyond  this  they  styled  it  Cronium.  (Plin., 
 4,  13  )  These  two  names  are  easily  explained  by  the 
 Cymric  language  :  mar  there  signifies  "  sea  ;"  marw, 
 "  to  die  ;"  nmrwsts,  "  death  ;"  and  ciwmi,  "  congeal- 
 ed," "  frozen  :"  in  Gaelic,  croin  has  the  same  force  : 
 Mnrchroinn  is  "  the  frozen  sea."  {Adelung,  altcste 
 Gesch.  dcr  Tcutscheii,  p.  48. — Toland's  several  pieces, 
 pt.  1,  p.  150.) — Ephorus,  who  lived  about  the  same 
 period,  knew  the  Ciinbri,  and  gives  them  the  name  of 
 Celts  ;  but  in  his  geographical  system,  this  very  vague 
 denomination  designates  at  the  same  time  a  Gaul  and 
 an  inhabitant  of  Western  Europe.  {Slrabo,  203.) 
 When,  between  the  years  113  and  101  before  our  era, 
 a  deluge  of  Cimbri  poured  its  desolating  fury  on  Gaul, 
 Spain,  and  Italy,  the  belief  was  general,  that  they  came 
 from  the  extremities  of  the  West,  from  the  frozen  re- 
 gions bordering  on  the  Northern  Ocean,  from  the  Cim- 
 bric  Chersonese,  from  the  shores  of  the  Cimbric  The- 
 tis. {Florus,  3,  3. — Polymi.,  8,  10. — Ammian.  Mar- 
 tell.,  31,  b.—Claudian,  Bell.  Get.,  v.  &m.—Flut.,  Vit. 
 Mar.)  In  the  time  of  Augustus,  the  Ciinbri  occupied 
 a  portion  of  Jutland,  and  they  acknowledged  them- 
 selves to  be  the  descendants  of  those  who,  in  a  pre- 
 ceding age,  had  committed  so  many  ravages.  Alarmed 
 at  the  conquests  of  the  Romans  beyond  the  Rhine,  and 
 supposing  that  their  object  was  to  inflict  vengeance 
 upon  them  for  the  inroad  of  their  ancestors,  they  sent 
 an  embassy  to  the  emperor  to  supplicate  for  pardon. 
 {Slrabo,  292.)  Strabo  and  Mela  (3,  3)  place  these 
 Cimbri  to  the  north  of  the  Elbe.  Tacitus  found  them 
 there  in  his  own  time.  {Germ.,  c.  37.)  Pliny  gives 
 a  much  more  extensive  signification  to  this  name  of 
 Cimbri ;  he  would  seem  to  make  it  a  generic  term. 
 He  not  only,  for  example,  recognises  the  Cimbri  of  the 
 present  Jutland,  but  he  speaks  also  of  the  Mediterra- 
 nean Cimbri  (4,  3)  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Rhine,  com- 
 prehending, under  this  common  appellation,  various 
 tribes  which  in  other  writers  bear  widely  difTerent 
 names.  These  Cimbri,  inhabiting  Jutland  and  the 
 countries  round  about,  were  generally  regarded  as 
 Gauls,  that  is  to  say,  as  belonging  to  one  of  the  two 
 races  which  then  held  possession  of  Gaul.  Cicero,  in 
 speaking  of  the  great  invasion  of  Cimbri,  says  in  many 
 places  that  Marius  had  conquered  the  Gauls.  In  like 
 manner.  Sallust  {Bell.  Jug.,  c.  1 14)  makes  Caepio,  who 
 was  defeated  by  the  Cimbri,  to  have  been  so  by  Gauls. 
 Most  of  the  subsequent  writers  hold  the  same  lan- 
 guage ;  finally,  the  Cimbric  buckler  of  Marius  bore  the 
 figure  of  a  Gaul.  To  this  we  m.iy  add,  that  Ceso-rix, 
 Bdio-rix,  &c.,  names  of  chieftains  in  the  Cimbric  ar- 
 my, are  to  all  appearance  Gallic  appellations. — When 
 we  read  the  details  of  this  terrible  invasion,  we  are 
 struck  with  the  promptitude  and  facility  with  which 
 the  Cimbri  and  Belga»,  came  to  an  understanding  and 
 arranged  matters  among  themselves,  while  all  the  ca- 
 lamities of  the  inroad  appear  to  have  fallen  on  central 
 and  southern  Gaul.  Cajsar  informs  us,  that  the  Belgse 
 vigorously  sustained  the  first  shock  of  the  invaders,  and 
 arrested  the  torrent  on  their  frontiers.  This  may  all 
 have  been  so  ;  but  we  see  them  almost  immediately 
 after  entering  into  an  agreement  with  each  other.  The 
 Belga  cede  to  the  invaders  one  of  their  fortresses, 
 Aduaticum,  in  which  to  deposite  their  baggage ;  and  the 
 Cimbri,  on  their  part,  leave  as  a  guard  for  their  bag- 
 gage, which  contained  all  their  riches,  a  body  of  only 
 six  thousand  men,  and  continue  on  their  way  ;  they 
 must  have  been  well  assured,  then,  of  the  fidelity  of  the 
 Belgae.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Cimbri  in  Italy, 
 the  garrison  of  Aduaticum  still  remain  in  possession  of 
 the  fortress  and  its  territory,  and  become  a  Belgic  tribe. 
 When  the  Cimbri  wish  to  attack  the  province  of  Nar- 
 bonne,  they  make  an  alliance  with  the  Volcae  Tecto- 
 sages,  a  Belgic  colony,  while  their  proposals  are  re- 
 jected by  the  other  Gallic  tribes.  These  facts,  and 
 many  others  that  might  be  adduced,  prove,  that  if  there 
 were  a  community  of  origin  and  language  between  the 
 540 
 
 Cimbri  and  one  of  the  races  that  dwelt  in  Gaul,  it  was 
 more  likely  the  race  of  which  the  BelgK  formed  a  part 
 than  any  of  the  Gallic  ones.  A  remark  of  Tacitus 
 sheds  a  new  light  on  the  subject.  He  states,  that  the 
 ^stii,  a  community  dwelling  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 Cimbri,  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  and  in  all  proba- 
 bility belonging  to  the  Cimbric  race,  spoke  a  language 
 approximating  closely  to  the  insular  Breton  {"lingua 
 BrHannica  propior,"  Tac.,  Germ.,  c.  45).  Now  we 
 have  seen  that  the  language  of  the  Bretons  was  also 
 that  of  the  Belgce  and  of  the  Armoric  tribes. — All  iho 
 ancient  historians  attribute  to  a  Gallic  army  the  inva- 
 sion of  Greece,  in  the  years  279  and  280  13. C.  Ap- 
 pian  {Bell.  Ilhjr.,  4)  calls  these  Gauls  Cimbri. — Again, 
 the  Gallic  nations,  whether  pure,  or  intermingled  with 
 Sarmatian  and  German  tribes,  were  numerous  on  the 
 northern  bank  of  the  lower  Danube  and  in  the  vicinity  : 
 the  most  famous  of  all,  that  of  the  Bastarnse  (Tac, 
 Germ.,  c.  46— P/in.,  4,  \2.—Liv.,  34,  26.— id.,  30, 
 50,  seqq. — Polyb.,  excerpt.,  leg.  62),  intermingled  prob- 
 ably with  Sarmatians,  dwelt  between  the  Black  Sea 
 and  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  Mithradates,  wishing 
 to  form  a  powerful  league  against  Rome,  addressed 
 himself  to  this  powerful  nation.  "  He  sent,"  says 
 Justin  (38,  3),  "  ambassadors  to  the  Cimbri,  Sarmatae, 
 and  Bastarns."  It  is  evident,  that  the  Cimbri  of  Jut- 
 land cannot  here  be  meant,  separated  as  they  were  from 
 the  King  of  Pontus  by  the  whole  extent  of  the  Conti- 
 nent of  Europe,  but  those  Cimbri  who  dwelt  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  the  Bastarnse  and  Sarmatse,  and  on  whom  had 
 been  reflected  the  glory  gained  by  their  brethren  in 
 Gaul  and  in  Noricum.  The  existence  of  Cimbric  na- 
 tions, extending  at  various  intervals  from  the  lower 
 Danube  as  far  as  the  Elbe,  would  seem  to  establish  the 
 fact,  that  all  the  country  between  the  Pontus  Euxinus 
 and  the  Ocean,  following  the  courses  of  the  rivers,  was 
 possessed  by  the  race  of  the  Cimbri  anterior  to  the  in- 
 crease and  development  of  the  Germanic  race. 
 
 Proofs  drawn  from  National  Traditions. 
 There  are  few  persons  at  the  present  day  who 
 have  not  heard  of  those  curious  monuments,  as  well 
 in  prose  as  in  verse,  which  compose  the  literature 
 of  the  Welsh  or  Cymri,  and  which  go  back,  almost 
 without  interruption,  from  the  16th  to  the  6th  cen- 
 tury of  our  era :  a  literature  not  less  remarkable  for 
 the  originality  of  its  forms,  than  for  the  light  which 
 it  throws  upon  the  early  history  of  the  Cymri.  Con- 
 tested at  first  with  the  greatest  obstinacy  by  a  spirit 
 of  criticism  alike  superficial  and  contemptuous,  the 
 authenticity  of  these  ancient  records  is  now  es- 
 tablished beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt.  (Consult 
 Myvyrian,  Archeology  of  Wales.  —  Turner,  Authen- 
 ticity of  the  ancient  British  poems,  &c.)  From  the 
 national  traditions  detailed  in  these  early  effusions,  the 
 following  results  may  be  established.  1.  The  duality 
 of  the  two  races  is  recognised  by  the  Triads :  the 
 Gwyddelad  (Gauls)  who  inhabit  Alben  are  regarded 
 as  a  stranger  and  hostile  people.  {Trioeddynys  Pry- 
 dain,  n.  41. — Archceol.  of  Wales,  vol.  2.)  —  2.  The 
 identity  of  the  Armorican  Belgse  with  the  Cymric  Brit- 
 ons is  also  recognised  ;  the  Armorican  tribes  are  there 
 designated  as  deriving  their  origin  from  the  primitive 
 race  of  the  Cymri,  and  holding  communication  with 
 them  by  the  aid  of  one  and  the  same  language.  {Tri- 
 oed.,  5.) — 3.  The  Triads  make  the  race  of  the  Cymri 
 to  have  come  from  that  part  of  the  land  of  Haf  (the 
 country  of  summer  or  of  the  south)  called  Dejfroba- 
 ni,  and  where  at  present  is  Constantinople.  (These 
 words,  "and  where  at  present  is  Constantinople,"  ap- 
 pear to  be  the  addition  of  some  copyist ;  still  they  are 
 not  without  value,  as  being  founded  on  the  traditions 
 of  the  country.)  "They  arrived  at  the  foggy  sea" 
 (the  German  Ocean),  "and  proceeded  thence  to  Brit- 
 ain and  the  country  of  Lydau'"  (Armorica),  "  where 
 they  settled."     {Triocdd.,  n.  4  )     The  bard  Taliessin 
 
GALLIA. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 simply  says,  that  the  Cymri  came  from  Asia.  (Welsh 
 ArchceoL,  vol.  1,  p.  76.)  The  Triads  and  JDruidic 
 bards  agree  in  many  particulars  respecting  the  settle- 
 ment of  the  Cymri  on  their  arrival  in  Western  Eu- 
 rope. It  was  Hu,  the  powerful,  who  conducted  them: 
 a  priest,  a  warrior,  a  legislator,  and,  after  death,  a  god, 
 he  united  in  himself  all  the  attributes  requisite  for  the 
 chief  of  a  theocracy.  Now  we  know  that  a  part  of  the 
 Galhc  race  was  long  subject  to  the  theocratic  govern- 
 ment of  the  Druids.  This  name  of  Hu,  was  not  un- 
 known to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  give  the  ap- 
 pellation of  Heus  and  Hesus  to  one  of  the  deities  of 
 Druidisin. — The  Irish  have  also  their  national  tradi- 
 tions, but  so  confused  and  evidently  fabulous,  that  it 
 would  be  improper  to  employ  them  on  the  present 
 occasion.  They  contain,  however,  one  thing  which 
 ought  not  to  be  omitted  here,  the  mention  of  a  people 
 termed  Bolg  (Fir-Bolg),  who  came  from  the  borders 
 of  the  Rhine  and  conquered  the  south  of  Ireland.  It 
 is  not  difficult  to  recognise  in  these  strangers  a  colo- 
 ny of  the  Belgic  Cymri,  though  nothing  probable  is 
 stated  respecting  their  historv  or  their  settlement. — 
 Ammianus  Marcelliniis  (1.5,  9),  or  rather  Tiinagenes, 
 whom  he  appears  to  be  quoting,  gives  an  ancient  tra- 
 dition of  the  Gallic  Druids  concerning  the  origin  of  the 
 nations  of  Gaul.  This  tradition  stated,  that  a  part  of 
 the  Gallic  population  was  indigenous,  but  that  another 
 part  had  come  from  far  distant  islands  and  countries  be- 
 yond the  Rhine,  whence  they  had  been  driven  by  fre- 
 quent wars  and  by  inundations  of  the  sea. — We  find, 
 then,  in  the  traditional  history  of  the  Gauls,  as  well  as 
 in  the  testimony  of  foreign  writers,  and  in  the  charac- 
 ters of  the  languages  spoken  throughout  the  country, 
 the  fact  well  established  of  the  division  of  the  Gallic 
 family  into  two  distinct  branches  or  races. 
 
 General  Conclusions. 
 
 1.  The  Aquitani  and  Ligures,  though  inhabitants  of 
 Gaul,  were  not  of  Gallic  blood,  but  belonged  to  the 
 Iberian  stock. 
 
 2.  The  nations  of  Gallic  blood  were  divided  into 
 two  branches,  the  Galli  and  the  Cymri.  The  relation- 
 ship of  these  two  branches  to  each  other  is  conllrmed 
 by  their  idioms,  their  manners  and  customs,  and  their 
 national  characters  in  general.  It  becomes  still  more 
 apparent,  however,  when  we  compare  with  them  the 
 other  communities  that  dwelt  in  their  vicinity,  name- 
 ly, the  Iberians,  the  Italians,  and  the  Germans.  And 
 yet  there  exists  a  sulficient  diversity  in  their  respective 
 manners,  idioms,  and  moral  characters,  to  authorize 
 us  to  trace  a  line  of  demarcation  between  these  two 
 branches,  which  is  warranted  also  as  well  by  their  na- 
 tional traditions  as  by  the  testimony  of  history. 
 
 3.  The  origin  of  the  Gallic  race  belongs  to  the 
 East.  Their  language,  their  traditions,  their  history, 
 in  fine,  point  to  .'Vsia  as  the  cradle  of  their  nation. 
 (Thierry,  Histoire  dcs  Gaulois,  vol.  1,  IrUrod.,  p.  xii.- 
 Ixviii.)  At  what  period,  however,  they  left  their  pa- 
 rent-home and  commenced  their  migration  to  the  West, 
 is  beyond  the  reach  of  positive  history.  On  this 
 point  we  are  left  in  a  great  measure  to  our  own  con- 
 jectures, although  Linguistic,  or  the  science  of  com- 
 parative philology,  furnishes  us  with  aids  to  the  prose- 
 cution of  this  inquiry,  by  no  means  unimportant  in 
 their  character.  One  thing,  at  least,  is  certain,  from 
 an  attentive  examination  of  the  Celtic  language,  that 
 the  nee  who  spoke  this  tongue  came  first  into  the 
 Wes' ,  and  in  all  probability  was  the  first  too  that  sep- 
 arated from  the  parent  stock.  This  circumstance, 
 perhaps,  may  serve  to  explain  why  the  Celtic  idioms, 
 along  with  the  greatest  richness  in  Indo-European 
 radicals,  display  a  less  complete  system  of  grammati- 
 cal forms  than  most  other  branches  of  the  same  great 
 family  of  languages;  whether  it  be  that,  at  the  time  of 
 the  Celtic  separation  from  home,  these  grammatical 
 forms  had  not  yet  reached  their  full  number  and  de- 
 
 velopment, or,  what  is  more  probable,  that  a  longer  pe- 
 riod of  separation,  than  in  the  case  of  other  races,  has 
 exercised  a  more  injurious  effect.  Whichever  of  the 
 two  be  the  correct  opinion,  it  is  nevertheless  apparent, 
 that  the  analogies  between  the  Celtic  and  Sanscrit 
 carry  us  back  to  a  period  the  earliest  that  we  can 
 reach  by  the  aid  of  comparative  philology,  and  furnish 
 us  hence  with  most  important  data  for  ascertaining,  to 
 what  degree  of  development  the  mother-tongue  itself 
 had  attained  before  the  separation  in  question  took 
 place.  Thus,  for  example,  an  examination  of  the  Celtic 
 idioms  appears  conclusively  to  show,  that,  at  the  time 
 when  this  separation  took  place,  the  mother- tongue 
 possessed  already  an  entire  system  of  euphonic  laws, 
 which  the  Sanscrit  has  preserved  the  best  of  any  Indo- 
 European  tongue,  and  which  it  has,  in  fact,  preserved 
 so  well,  that  certain  anomalies  of  the  Celtic  still  find 
 their  explanation  in  the  euphonic  rules  of  the  sacred 
 language  of  India.  {Pictet,  de  V Ajjiniti  des  Langues 
 Celtiqucs  avec  le  Sanscrit,  p.  172.) 
 
 General  History  of  Gaul. 
 The  history  of  Gaul  divides  itself  naturally  into  four 
 periods.     The  first  of  these  comprises  the  movements 
 of  the  Gallic  tribes  while  yet  in  their  Nomadic  state. 
 None  of  the  races  of  the  West  ever  passed  through  a 
 more  agitated  or  brilliant  career.     Their  course  em- 
 braced Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ;    their  name  is  re- 
 corded with  terror  in  the  annals  of  almost  every  na- 
 tion.    They  burned  Rome  ;  they  wrested  Macedonia 
 from  the  veteran  legions  of  Alexander;   they  forced 
 Thermopylaj  and  pillaged  Delphi  ;  they  then  proceed- 
 ed to  pitch  their  tents  on  the  plains  of  the  Troad,  in 
 the  public   places  of  Miletus,  on  the  borders  of  the 
 Sangarius,  and  those  of  the  Nile ;   they  besieged  Car- 
 thage, menaced  Memphis,  and  numbered  among  their 
 tributaries  the  most  powerful  monarchs  of  the  East ; 
 they  founded  in  upper  Italy  a  powerful  empire,  and  in 
 the  bosom  of  Phrygia  they  reared  another  empire,  that 
 of  Galatia,  which  for  a  long  time  exercised  its  sway 
 over  the  whole  of  Lower  Asia. — During  the  second 
 period,  that  of  their  sedentary  state,  we  see  the  gradual 
 development  of  social,  religious,  and  political  institu- 
 tions, conformable   to   their   peculiar  character   as   a 
 people  ;   institutions  original  in  their  nature  ;  a  civili- 
 zation full  of  movement  and  of  life,  of  which  Trans- 
 alpine   Gaul    offers    the    purest    and    most    complete 
 model.      One  might  say,  in  following  the  animated 
 scenes  of  this  picture,  that  the  theocracy  of  India,  the 
 feudal  system  of  the  middle  ages,  and  the  Athenian 
 democracy,   had  met  on  the  same   soil   for  the  pur- 
 pose of  contending  with  each  other  and  reigning  by 
 turns.      Soon   this   civilization  undergoes  a   change; 
 foreign  elements  are  introduced,  brought  in  by  com- 
 merce, by  the  relations  of  neighbourhood,  by  reaction 
 from  subjugated  nations.     Hence  arose  multiplied  and 
 often  whimsical  combinations.     In  Italy  it  is  the  Ro- 
 man influence  that  exerts  itself  on   the  manners  and 
 institutions  of  the  Gauls  ;  in  the  south  of  Gaul  it  is 
 that  of  the  Massiliots  ;  while  in  Phryg;ia  we  have  a 
 most  singular  compound  of  Gallic,  Grecian,  and  Phry- 
 gian civilization. — To  this  succeeds  the  third  period 
 in  the  history  of  the  Gallic  race,  that  of  national  strug- 
 gles and  subjugation.     By  a  singular  coincidence,  it 
 IS  always  by  the  Roman  sword  that  the  power  of  the 
 Gallic  tribes  is  destined  to  fall  ;  in  proportion  as  the 
 Roman  dominion  extends,  that  of  the  Gauls  recedes 
 and  declines.      It  would  seem,  indeed,  that  the  victors 
 and  the  vanquished,  in  the  battle  on  the  banks  of  the  .\\- 
 lia,  followed  each  other  over  the  whole  earth  to  decide 
 the  ancient  quarrel  of  the  Capitol.     In  Italy,  the  Cis- 
 alpine Gauls  were  reduced,  but  only  after  two  centu- 
 ries  of  obstinate  resistance.     When  the  rest  of  Asia 
 had  submitted   to  the  voke,  the  Ga  atre  still  defend- 
 ed  acainst  Rome  the  independence  of  the  East.      Gaul 
 eventually  fell,  but  through  complete  exhaustion,  after 
 
 oil 
 
GAL 
 
 GAL 
 
 a  century  of  partial  conflicts  and  nine  years  of  general 
 war  under  Caesar.  In  fine,  the  names  of  Caractacus 
 and  Galgacus  shed  a  splendour  on  the  last  and  ineflFect- 
 ual  efforts  of  British  freedom,  It  is  everywhere  an 
 unequal  conflict  between  ardent  and  undisciplmed  val- 
 our on  the  one  hand,  and  cool  and  steady  perseverance 
 on  the  other. — The  fourth  period  comprehends  the  or- 
 gantiaiion  of  Gaul  into  a  Roman  province,  and  the 
 gradual  assimilation  of  transalpine  manners  to  the  cus- 
 toms and  institutions  of  Italy  ;  a  work  commenced  by 
 Augustus  and  completed  by  Claudius.  {Thierry, 
 Histoire  des  Gaulois,  vol.  1,  Inlrod.,  p.  vi.,  seqq.) 
 
 Gallia  CisalpIina,  Gaul  this  side  of  the  Alps,  with 
 reference  to  Rome,  a  name  given  to  tlie  northern  part 
 of  Italy,  as  occupied  by  the  Gallic  tribes  which  had 
 poured  over  the  Alps  into  this  extensive  tract  of  coun- 
 try. Livy  assigns  to  these  migrations  of  the  Gauls  as 
 early  a  date  as  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  that 
 is,  about  600  B.C.  Having  securely  established  them- 
 selves in  their  new  possessions,  they  proceeded  to 
 make  farther  inroads  into  various  parts  of  Italy,  and 
 thus  came  into  contact  wiih  the  forces  of  Rome. 
 More  than  two  hundred  years  had  elapsed  from  the 
 time  of  their  first  invasion,  when  they  totally  defeated 
 the  Roman  army  on  the  banks  of  the  Allia,  and  became 
 masters  of  Rome  itself  The  defence  of  the  Capitol 
 and  the  exploits  of  Gamillus  (Lm,  5,  47,  seqq.),  or,  ra- 
 her,  if  Polybius  be  correct  (2,  18),  the  gold  of  the  van- 
 quished, and  the  dangers  which  threatened  the  Gauls  at 
 home,  preserved  the  state.  From  that  time,  the  Gauls, 
 though  they  continued,  by  frequent  incursions,  to  threat- 
 en, and  even  ravage,  the  territory  of  Rome,  could  make 
 no  impression  on  that  power.  Though  leagued  with 
 the  Samnites  and  Etruscans,  they  were  almost  always 
 unsuccessful.  Defeated  at  Sentium  in  Umbria,  near 
 the  Lake  Vadimonis  in  Etruria,  and  in  a  still  more  de- 
 cisive action  near  the  port  of  Telamo  in  the  same 
 province  (Polyb.,  2,  19,  seqq.),  they  soon  found  them- 
 selves forced  to  contend,  not  for  conquest,  but  for 
 e.xistenco.  The  same  ill  success,  however,  attended 
 their  efforts  in  their  own  territory.  The  progress  of  the 
 Roman  arms  was  irresistible  ;  the  Gauls  were  beaten 
 back  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Po,  from  the  Po  to  the 
 Alps,  and  soon  beheld  Roman  colonies  established  and 
 flourishing  in  many  of  the  towns  which  had  so  lately 
 been  theirs.  Notwithstanding  these  successive  disas- 
 ters, their  spirit,  though  curbed,  was  still  unsubdued; 
 and  when  the  enterprise  of  Hannibal  afforded  them  an 
 opportunity  of  retrieving  their  losses  and  wreaking  their 
 vengeance  on  the  foe,  they  eagerly  embraced  it.  It  is 
 to  their  zealous  co-operation  that  Polybius  ascribes  in 
 a  great  degree  the  primary  success  of  that  expedition. 
 By  the  efficient  aid  which  they  afforded  Hannibal,  he 
 was  enabled  to  commence  operations  immediately  af- 
 ter he  had  set  foot  in  Italy,  and  to  follow  up  his  ear- 
 ly success  with  promptitude  and  vigour.  {Polybius, 
 3,  66.)  As  long  as  that  great  commander  maintained 
 his  ground  and  gave  employment  to  all  the  forces  of 
 the  enemy,  the  Gauls  remained  unmolested,  and  en- 
 joyed their  former  freedom,  without  being  much  bur- 
 dened by  a  war  which  was  waged  at  a  considerable 
 distance  from  their  borders.  But  when  the  tide  of 
 success  had  again  changed  in  favour  of  Rome,  and 
 the  defeat  of  Hasdrubal,  together  with  other  disasters, 
 had  paralyzed  the  efforts  of  Carthage,  they  once  more 
 saw  their  frontiers  menaced ;  Gaul  still  offered  some 
 resistance,  even  after  that  humbled  power  had  been 
 obliged  to  sue  for  peace  ;  but  it  was  weak  and  una- 
 vailing ;  and  about  twelve  years  after  the  termination 
 of  the  second  Punic  war,  it  was  brought  under  en- 
 tire subjection,  and  became  a  Roman  province.  {Car- 
 li,  Antichita  ItaUche,  vol.  2,  p.  5.)  Under  this  de- 
 nomination it  continued  to  receive  various  accessions 
 of  territory,  as  the  Romans  extended  their  dominions 
 towards  the  Alps,  till  it  comprised  the  whole  of  that 
 portion  of  Italy  which  lies  between  those  mountains 
 54S 
 
 ':  and  the  rivers  Magra  and  Rubicon.  It  was  some- 
 times known  by  the  name  of  Gallia  Togata  {Mela,  2, 
 4. — Plin.,  3,  14),  to  distinguish  it  from  Transalpine 
 Gaul,  to  which  the  name  of  Gallia  Comata  was  applied. 
 {Cic,  Phil.,  8,  9.)  This  latter  name  refers  to  the 
 Gallic  custom  of  wearing  the  hair  long.  The  epithet 
 Togata  alludes  to  the  circumstance  of  the  rights  of 
 citizenship  having  been  conferred  on  the  natives  of 
 the  country.  The  towns  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  obtained 
 the  privileges  of  Latin  cities,  and,  consequently,  the 
 right  of  wearing  the  Roman  toira,  by  a  law  of  Pom- 
 peius  Strabo  {Ascon.  coin,  in  Or.  in  Pison.,  p.  490), 
 about  665  A.U.C. — According  to  Polybius,  Cisalpine 
 Gaul  was  included  in  the  figure  of  a  triangle,  which 
 had  the  Alps  and  Apennines  for  two  of  its  sides,  and 
 the  Adriatic,  as  far  as  the  city  of  Sena  Gailica,  for  the 
 base.  This  is,  however,  but  a  rough  sketch,  which 
 requires  a  more  accurate  delineation.  The  foyowing 
 limits  will  be  found  sufficiently  correct  to  answer  ev- 
 ery purpose.  The  river  Orgus,  Orca,  will  define  the 
 frontier  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  to  the  northwest,  as  far  as 
 its  junction  with  the  Po,  which  river  will  then  serve 
 as  a  boundary  on  the  side  of  Liguria,  till  it  receive3 
 the  Tidonc  on  its  right  bank.  Along  this  small  stream 
 we  may  trace  the  western  limit,  up  to  its  source  in 
 the  Apennines,  and  the  southern  along  that  chain  to 
 the  river  Rubicon.  To  the  north,  a  line  drawn  nearly 
 parallel  with  the  Alps  across  the  great  Italian  lakes 
 will  serve  to  separate  Gaul  from  Rhaetia  and  other  Al- 
 pine districts.  The  Athesis,  Adige,  from  the  point 
 where  it  meets  that  line,  and  subsequently  the  Po, 
 will  distinguish  it  on  the  east  and  south  from  Venetia, 
 and  the  Adriatic  will  close  the  last  side  of  this  irregular 
 figure.  The  character  which  is  given  us  of  this  por- 
 tion of  Italy  by  the  writers  of  antiquity  is  that  of  the 
 most  fertile  and  productive  country  imaginable.  Po- 
 lybius describes  it  as  abounding  in  wine,  corn,  and 
 every  kind  of  grain.  Innumerable  herds  of  swine, 
 both  for  public  and  private  supply,  were  bred  in  its 
 forests ;  and  such  was  the  abundance  of  provisions 
 of  every  kind,  that  travellers  when  at  an  inn  did  not 
 find  it  necessary  to  agree  on  the  price  of  any  article 
 which  they  required,  but  paid  so  much  for  the  whole 
 amount  of  what  was  furnished  them  ;  and  this  charge, 
 at  the  highest,  did  not  exceed  half  a  Roman  as.  {Po- 
 lyb., 2,  15.)  As  a  proof  of  the  richness  of  this  coun- 
 try, Strabo  remarks,  that  it  surpassed  all  the  rest  oi 
 Italy  in  the  number  of  large  and  opulent  towns  which 
 it  contained.  The  wool  grown  here  was  of  the  finest 
 and  softest  quality ;  and  so  abundant  was  the  supply 
 of  wine,  that  the  wooden  vessels  in  which  it  was  com 
 monly  stowed  were  of  the  size  of  houses.  {Strabo, 
 218.)  Lastly,  Cicero  styles  it  the  flower  of  Italy,  the 
 support  of  the  empire  of  the  Roman  people,  the  or- 
 nament of  its  dignity.  {Phil.,  3,  5. — Cramer's  An- 
 cient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  40,  seqq.) 
 
 Gallienus,  PuBLins  Licmius,  son  of  the  Emperor 
 Valerian,  was  made  CiEsar,  and  colleague  to  his  father, 
 A.D.  253.  He  defeated,  in  a  great  battle  near  Mediola- 
 num  {Milan),  the  Alemanni  and  other  northern  tribes, 
 which  had  made  an  irruption  into  Upper  Italy,  and 
 gave  evidence  on  that  occasion  of  his  personal  bravery 
 and  abilities.  He  was  also  well-informed  in  literature, 
 and  was  both  ayi  orator  and  a  poet.  When  Valerian  was 
 taken  prisoner  by  the  Persians,  A.D.  260,  Gallienus 
 took  the  reins  of  government,  and  was  acknowledged 
 as  Augustus.  He  appears  to  have  given  himself  up  to 
 debauchery  and  the  company  of  profligate  persons,  neg- 
 lecting the  interests  of  the  empire,  and  taking  no  pains 
 to  effect  the  release  of  his  father  from  his  hard  captiv- 
 ity, in  which  he  died.  The  barbarians  attacked  the 
 empire  on  every  side,  revolts  broke  out  in  various  prov- 
 inces, where  several  commanders  assumed  the  title  of 
 emperor,  while  Gallienus  was  loitering  at  Rome  with 
 his  favourites.  Vet  now  and  then  he  seemed  to  awa- 
 ken from  his  torpor,  at  the  news  of  the  advance  of  the 
 
GAL 
 
 GALLOGR^CIA. 
 
 invaiers ;  and,  putting  himself  at  the  head  of  the  le- 
 gions, he  defeated  Ingenus,  who  had  usurped  the  im- 
 perial title  in  lUyricum.  But  he  disgraced  his  victory 
 by  horrible  cruellies.  Meantime  Probus,  Aurelianus, 
 and  other  able  commanders,  were  strenuously  sup- 
 porting the  honour  of  the  Roman  arms  in  the  East, 
 where  Odenatus,  prince  of  Palmyra,  acted  as  a  useful 
 ally  to  the  Romans  against  the  Persians.  Usurpers 
 arose  in  Egypt,  in  the  Gauls,  in  Thrace,  in  almost 
 every  province  of  the  empire,  from  which  circumstance 
 this  period  has  been  styled  the  reign  of  the  thirty  ty- 
 rants. At  last  Aureolus,  a  man  of  obscure  birth,  some 
 say  a  Dacian  shepherd  originally,  but  a  brave  soldier, 
 was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  troops  in  Illyricum,  en- 
 tered Italy,  took  possession  of  Mediolanum,  and  even 
 marched  against  Rome  while  Gallicnus  was  absent. 
 Gallienus  returned  quickly,  repulsed  Aureolus,  and  de- 
 feated ^m  in  a  great  battle,  near  the  Addua,  after 
 which  the  usurper  shut  himself  up  in  Mediolanum. 
 Here  he  was  besieged  by  Gallienus  ;  but,  during  the 
 siege,  the  emperor  was  murdered  by  some  conspira- 
 tors. (AureL  Vicl.,  c.  33. —  Eutrop.,  9,  8.' — Zona- 
 ras,  12,  24,  seqq.) 
 
 Gallinaria  Sylva,  a  wood  in  Campania,  near  Li- 
 ternum,  that  furnished  timber  for  the  fleet  with  which 
 Sextus  Pompeius  infested  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
 ranean. {Strabo,  243.)  Juvenal  mentions  the  spot 
 as  a  noted  haunt  of  robbers  and  assassins.  (^Sat.,  3, 
 305.)  Cicero  leads  us  to  suppose  that  this  wood  lay 
 on  the  road  from  Sinuessa  to  Naples.  {Ad  Fam.,  9, 
 23.)  It  is  now  called  Pineta  di  Castcl  Volturno. 
 (Praiilli  de.lla  Via  Appia,  p.  183.) 
 
 GALLOGRiEciA  or  Galatia,  an  extensive  country  of 
 Asia  Minor,  occupied  by  a  horde  of  Gauls.  This  re- 
 gion being  merely  a  dismembered  portion  of  ancient 
 Phrygia,  it  will  only  be  necessary  here,  in  inquiring 
 into  its  former  history,  to  account  for  its  being  occu- 
 pied by  the  Gauls  or  Gallo-Graeci,  from  whom  its  new 
 appellations  were  derived.  We  collect  from  Polybius 
 and  Livy  (the  latter  of  whom,  however,  only  copies 
 from  the  former),  that  this  Asiatic  colony  was,  in  fact, 
 hut  a  detachment  of  those  vast  hordes  which  had  wan- 
 dered from  Gaul  under  the  conduct  of  Brennus,  and 
 with  which  that  leader  had  invaded  Greece.  On  their 
 arrival  in  Dardania,  a  dispute  arose  between  some  of 
 the  chiefs  and  the  principal  commander,  when  the  dis- 
 contented troops,  to  the  number  of  20,000,  determined 
 to  abandon  the  main  body,  and  seek  their  fortunes  else- 
 where, under  the  direction  of  Leonorius  and  Lutarius. 
 They  traversed  the  plains  of  Thrace,  and,  encamping 
 near  Byzantium,  were  for  a  time  the  bane  and  terror 
 of  the  citizens,  by  the  devastations  they  committed, 
 and  the  galling  tribute  they  imposed.  At  length,  how- 
 ever, tempted  by  the  beautiful  aspect  of  the  shores  of 
 Asia,  and  the  reputed  wealth  and  fertility  of  that  coun- 
 try, they  were  easily  induced  to  listen  to  the  offers  of 
 Nicomedes,  king  ol'  Bilhynia,  for  entering  into  his  ser- 
 vice. They  accordingly  crossed  the  Bosporus,  and 
 having  joined  the  troops  of  Nicomedes,  were  of  great 
 assistance  to  him  in  his  wars  with  Ziboetes.  They 
 now  obtained  a  firm  footing  in  Asia  Minor;  and,  though 
 not  more  than  20,000  men,  and  of  these  not  more  than 
 one  half  furnished  with  arms,  they  spread  alarm  and 
 consternation  throughout  the  peninsula,  and  compelled 
 whole  provinces  and  even  empires  to  pay  them  tribute. 
 They  even  proceeded  to  divide  the  whole  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor among  their  three  tribes,  allotting  to  each  a  por- 
 tion on  which  it  was  to  levy  impositions.  The  Hel- 
 lespont was  assigned  to  the  Trocmi,  ^ohs  and  Ionia 
 to  the  Tolistoboii,  and  the  interior  of  the  peninsula  to 
 the  Tectosages.  The  settled  abode,  however,  of  the 
 three  tribes  was  in  the  country  between  the  Sangarius 
 and  Halys,  which  they  had  seized,  without  resistance 
 or  difficulty,  from  the  unwarlike  Phrygians.  As  their 
 numbers  increased,  they  became  more  formidable,  and 
 also  more  imperious  in  their  exactions ;    so  that  at 
 
 length  even  the  kings  of  Syria  thought  it  prudent  to 
 comply  with  their  demands.  Attalus,  king  of  Perga- 
 mus,  was  the  only  sovereign  who  had  the  resolution 
 to  refuse  at  length  to  submit  to  this  ignominious  ex- 
 tortion. He  met  the  barbarians  in  the  field,  and,  sec- 
 onded by  the  bravery  of  his  troops,  obtained  a  victory 
 over  these  Gallo-Graeci,  as  they  were  now  called,  from 
 their  intermixture  with  the  Greeks  of  Phryoia  and 
 Bithynia.  {Liv.,  38,  16.)  Prusias,  king  of  Biihynia, 
 not  long  after,  cut  to  pieces  another  body  of  Gauls, 
 and  freed  the  Hellespont  from  their  depredations. 
 (Polijb.,  5,  111.)  These,  however,  were  only  paTtial 
 advantages,  and  the  Gauls  remained  the  terror  and  ty- 
 rants of  Asia  Minor,  so  says,  at  least,  the  Roman  his- 
 torian, till  the  war  with  Antiochus  brought  the  Roman 
 armies  into  Asia.  The  victory  of  Magnesia  having 
 driven  that  monarch  across  the  range  of  Taurus,  there 
 remained  the  Gallo-Graeci  only  between  the  Romans 
 and  the  entire  possession  of  the  peninsula.  There 
 wanted  but  a  slight  pretext  to  justify  an  invasion  of 
 these  barbarous  hordes  in  their  own  fastnesses.  It 
 was  asserted  that  they  had  aided  Antiochus  in  the  cam- 
 paign which  had  just  terminated ;  and  on  this  pretence 
 war  was  declared  against  them,  and  the  consul  Manli- 
 us  was  ordered  to  march  into  their  country,  and  re- 
 duce them  hy  force  of  arms.  That  genera!,  being 
 joined  by  Attalus,  brother  of  Eumenes,  king  of  Perga- 
 mus,  with  a  select  body  of  troops,  defeated  the  Tolis- 
 toboii and  Trocmi  with  prodigious  slaughter,  and  by  a 
 victory  over  the  Tectosages,  no  less  decisive  than  the 
 former,  terminated  the  war  ;  the  small  remnant  of  the 
 Gauls  being  content  to  sue  for  peace  on  any  condi- 
 tions. The  Roman  senate,  satisfied  with  having  bro- 
 ken the  power  of  the  Gallo-Graeci,  allowed  them  to  re- 
 tain possession  of  their  country,  on  condition  of  giving 
 no  offence  to  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamns,  who  might 
 be  considered  as  their  lieutenant  in  Asia,  and  forsaking 
 their  former  wandering  and  marauding  habits.  Previ- 
 ously, as  Strabo  informs  us,  the  whole  of  Galatia  had 
 been  divided  into  four  parts,  each  governed  by  a  sep- 
 arate chief  named  teirarch.  Each  tetrarch  had  under 
 him  a  judge  and  military  commander,  who  appointed 
 two  lieutenants.  These  collectively  had  the  power  of 
 assembling  the  general  council,  which  met  in  a  spot 
 called  Drynemetum,  and  consisted  of  300  members. 
 This  assembly  decided  only  criminal  cases :  all  other 
 business  was  transacted  by  the  tetrarchs  and  judges. 
 Subsequently  the  number  of  tetrarchs  was  reduced  to 
 three,  and  finally  to  one.  The  latter  change  was 
 made  by  the  Romans  in  favour  of  Deiotarus,  who  had 
 rendered  their  arms  essential  service  in  the  Mithra- 
 datic  war  {Appian,  Bell.  Milhr.,  114),  and  who  is  so 
 often  mentioned  by  Cicero  in  terms  of  the  greatest 
 esteem  and  friendship.  {Vnl.  Deiotarus.)  On  his 
 death,  which  took  place  at  an  advanced  age,  part  of 
 his  principality  was  annexed  to  Paphlagonia  and  Pon- 
 tus  under  Polemo ;  and  part  to  the  dominions  of 
 Amyntas,  chief  of  Lycaonia.  On  the  demise  of  the 
 latter,  the  whole  of  Galatia  came  into  the  possession  of 
 the  Romans,  and  formed  one  province  of  their  vast  em- 
 pire. {Sirab.,  ^m.—Plin.,  5,  32.)  — Though  inter- 
 mixed with  Greeks,  the  Galatsans retained  throughout 
 their  original  tongue,  since  we  are  assured  by  St.  Je- 
 rome that  in  his  day  they  spoke  the  same  language  as 
 the  Treviri  in  Gaul.  (Proles;om.  in  Epist.  ad  Gala- 
 tas.)  Neither  did  they  entirely  lose  their  original  sim- 
 plicity of  manners  ;  for  Cicero,  in  his  defence  of  Ueio- 
 tarus  (c.  9),  praises  him  as  an  extensive  cultivator  and 
 breeder  of  cattle.  Less  effeminate  also  and  debased 
 by  superstition  than  the  natives  of  Phrygia,  they  were 
 more  ready  to  embrace  the  tidings  of  salvation  brought 
 to  them  by  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  he 
 ecclesiastical  notices  assign  sixteen  bishoprics  to  Ga- 
 latia, under  two  divisions;  one  called  Galatia  Cart 
 sulaus,  the  other  SahUans.  (Hicroc,  p.  696.)-No 
 ancient  geographer  has  laid  down  w.th^ccuracy  the 
 
GAL 
 
 GALLUS. 
 
 limits  of  Gallo-Graecia.  It  is  known  generally,  that  to 
 the  west  it  bordered  upon  Phrygia  Epictetus,  and  a 
 portion  of  Bithynia,  north  of  the  Saiigariiis :  on  the 
 north  It  ranged  along  the  Bilhynian  and  Paphlagonian 
 chains,  till  it  met  the  Haiys,  whieh  separated  it  from 
 Cappadocia  towards  the  east :  on  the  south  it  was  con- 
 tiguous to  Lycaonia  and  part  of  Pisidia,  till  it  met 
 again  the  Phrygian  frontier,  somewhere  between  the 
 sources  of  the  Sangarius  and  Alander  on  the  norih. 
 {Cramers  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  79,  scqq.) 
 
 Gai.i.i's,  I.  Caius  or  Ciikus  Sulpitms,  was  consul 
 B.C.  166.  His  name  is  honourably  connected  with 
 the  history  of  ancient  science,  since  he  may  be  regard- 
 ed as  the  first  individual  among  the  Romans  that  turn- 
 ed his  attention  to  astronomical  studies.  Livy  states, 
 that,  when  a  tribune  in  the  army  of  Paulus  yEmilius 
 in  Macedon,  he  foretold  an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  first 
 to  the  consul,  and  then,  with  his  leave,  to  the  Roman 
 army.  The  eclipse  took  place  on  the  evening  before 
 the  great  battle  of  Pydna,  and  the  Romans,  being  pre- 
 pared for  it,  were  under  no  alarm,  while  their  oppo- 
 nents were  terrified,  and  deemed  it  an  omen  of  the  fall 
 of  their  king  Perses.  (iy2u.,44,  37. — Compare  Cic, 
 de  Scnect.,  16.)  The  date  of  this  eclipse  was  168 
 B.C.  Now  as  the  tables  of  Hipparchus  only  began 
 with  162  B.C  ,  Gallus  must  have  availed  himself  of 
 some  (probably  Oriental)  mode  earlier  than  that  of 
 Hipparchu.s,  but  which  has  not  come  down  to  us.  A 
 passage  in  Pliny  (2,  19)  would  seem  to  have  reference 
 to  a  work  comjjosed  by  Gallus,  which  mav  have  been  a 
 treatise  on  eclipses,  and  such,  indeed,  is  the  opinion  of 
 Hardouin  (Ad  Piin.,  I.  c).  Cicero  praises  the  as- 
 tronomical knowledge  of  Gallus  {de  Scnect.,  16),  and 
 Livy,  Valerius  Maximus,  and  Frontmus  have  not  for- 
 gotten \n%  name.  He  is  said  to  have  repudiated  his 
 wife  because  she  appeared  on  one  occasion  in  public 
 without  a  veil.  {Val.  Max.,  6,  3,  10.) — II.  Cornelius, 
 a  distinguished  Roman,  ranked  among  the  chief  of  the 
 I^atin  elegiac  writers,  and  compared  by  Quintilian  with 
 TibuUus,  Propertius,  and  Ovid.  He  was  born  of  poor 
 and  ignoble  parents,  A.U.C.  685.  Forum  Julii  is  said 
 to  have  been  the  place  of  his  birth  (Chron.  Euseb.), 
 but  there  svere  two  towns  of  that  name  within  the 
 boundaries  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  one,  since  call- 
 ed Fnuii,  lay  within  the  district  of  that  name  ;  the  other 
 (now  Frejus,  in  Provence)  was  situate  on  the  south- 
 ern coast  of  the  Roman  province  of  Gallia  Narbonen- 
 sis.  Some  writers  have  fixed  on  the  former  as  tlie 
 birthplace  of  Gallus  (Hist.  Lit.  Aquileiensis,  lib.  1,  8. 
 ■ — Liruli,  Notiz.  deW  Vitc  ed  Opcre  de  Let.  de  Fnuli, 
 vol.  1,  p.  2. — Tiraboschi,  vol.  1,  pt.  1,  lib.  3,  1),  but  a 
 greater  number  have  maintained  that  he  was  a  native  of 
 Frejus.  (Htst.  Litt.  de  la  France,  par  les  Bcncdictins. 
 • — Fuhrmunn,  Handbuch,  &c.,  p.  286. — Harks,  In- 
 trad,  in  Not.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  I,  p.  333.— Mw/Zcr,  Ein- 
 Icitung,  vol.  2,  p.  232  )  The  Eusebian  chronicle  is 
 the  authority  which  places  his  birth  at  Forum  Julii ; 
 but,  owing  to  a  corruption  in  some  of  the  manuscripts 
 of  that  chronicle.  Forum  Livii  being  substituted  in  its 
 room,  a  few  writers  have  supposed  that  he  was  born 
 at  that  town,  now  Forh,  in  the  Romagna.  (Flavius 
 Blondus,  Ital.  llluslrala. — Morgagni,  Opusc.  Misccll.) 
 From  the  obscurity  of  his  birth  and  of  his  original  sit- 
 'jation,  little  is  known  concerning  the  early  years  of 
 Gallus.  He  is  first  mentioned  in  history  as  accompany- 
 ing Octavius  when  he  marched  to  Rome,  after  the  bat- 
 tle of  Modena,  to  demand  the  consulship.  He  had 
 soon  so  far  ingratiated  himself  with  this  leader,  that  we 
 find  him  among  the  innnber  of  his  advisers  after  the 
 battle  of  Philippi,  and  counselling  him,  along  with 
 Msecenas,  to  write  in  gentle  terms  to  the  senate,  with 
 assurances  that  he  would  offer  no  violence  to  the  city, 
 but  would  regulate  all  things  with  clemency  and  mod- 
 eration. On  the  partition  of  the  lands  which  followed 
 the  defeat  of  Brutus,  Gallus  was  appointed  to  collect, 
 from  the  cantons  on  the  banks  of  the  Po,  a  tribute 
 544 
 
 which  had  been  imposed  on  the  inhabitants  in  place  of 
 depriving  them  of  their  lands.  When  the  young  tri- 
 umvir became  the  undisputed  master  of  the  western 
 half  of  the  Roman  empire,  he  raised  Gallus  to  the  high- 
 est honours  of  the  state  ;  and  when  he  meditated  the 
 appropriation  of  the  eastern  half  likewise,  he  invested 
 him  with  an  important  military  command.  After  the 
 battle  of  Aclium,  he  was  opposed  to  Antony  in  person 
 on  the  invasion  of  Egypt ;  and  while  Augustus  took 
 possession  of  Pelusium,  its  eastern  key,  Gallus  was 
 employed  to  make  himself  master  of  Parretonium, 
 which  was  considered  its  western  barrier.  Gallus 
 proved  eminently  successful  in  this  enterprise.  He 
 thwarted  all  the  attempts  of  Antony  to  shake  the  fidel- 
 ity of  the  soldiers,  many  of  whom  had  at  one  time 
 served  under  that  leader ;  and  by  a  skilful  stratagem 
 he  surprised  and  destroyed  a  number  of  vessels  which 
 belonged  to  his  adversary.  When  Augustus,^having 
 at  length  encamped  near  Alexandrea,  received  intelli- 
 gence that  Antony  had  laid  violent  hands  on  himself, 
 he  despatched  Proculeius  to  the  city,  in  order,  if  pos- 
 sible, to  save  the  treasures  and  get  (Jleopatra  alive  into 
 his  power.  But  she  refused  to  confer  with  this  emis- 
 sary otherwise  than  from  within  the  monument  she 
 had  constructed,  Proculeius  standing  without  the  gate, 
 which  was  strongly  barred.  Having  heard  her  propo- 
 sals and  observed  the  situation  of  the  place,  Proculei- 
 us returned  and  made  his  report  to  Augustus.  It  was 
 then  that  Gallus  undertook  to  perform  a  part  still  more 
 perfidious  and  despicable.  He  advanced  to  the  gate 
 of  the  monument,  and  contrived  to  lengthen  out  a  con- 
 ference with  the  queen,  till  Proculeius,  in  the  mean 
 while,  having  fixed  his  scaling-ladders  to  the  walls,  en- 
 tered the  tower  by  one  of  the  windows,  and  then  de- 
 scended to  the  gate  where  Cleopatra  was  discoursing 
 with  his  coadjutor.  She  immediately  turned  round 
 from  Gallus,  and,  seeing  that  she  was  thus  surprised, 
 attempted  to  stab  herself,  but  Proculeius  wrested  the 
 dagger  from  her  hands. — Egypt  having  been  reduced 
 to  complete  submission,  its  conqueror  directed  his 
 whole  attention  towards  the  administration  of  its  in- 
 ternal affairs.  Its  importance  as  the  granary  from 
 which  Italy  derived  the  chief  supplies  of  corn.  Us 
 wealth,  its  population,  and  the  levity  of  its  inhabitants, 
 all  contributed  to  render  this  recent  acquisition  a  sub- 
 ject of  much  care  and  solicitude  to  Augustus.  He 
 considered  it  inexpedient  to  allow  any  native  assembly 
 or  council  to  meet.  He  even  thought  it  dangerous  to 
 permit  any  authority  to  be  exercised  over  this  realm 
 bv  the  Roman  senate  ;  and  he  accordingly  took  into 
 his  own  hands  the  whole  administration,  which,  on  his 
 return  to  Rome,  he  determined  to  devolve  on  a  vice- 
 roy, supported  by  a  great  military  force  stationed  in 
 difl'erent  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Gallus  was  the  per- 
 son whom  he  first  invested  with  this  prefecture  ;  and 
 his  long-tried  fidelity,  his  attachment  to  his  master, 
 and  his  talent  for  conciliation,  gave  every  prospect  of 
 a  government  which  would  be  exercised  wilh  advan- 
 tage to  the  prince  who  trusted  him,  and  the  people 
 who  were  confided  to  his  care  ;  and  so  long  as  he  act- 
 ed under  the  direction  of  Augustus,  he  manifested  no 
 defect  either  in  capacity  or  zeal.  He  opened  new 
 conduits  from  the  Nile,  and  caused  the  old  channels 
 to  be  cleared  ;  he  restored  the  vigour  of  the  laws,  pro- 
 tected commerce,  and  encouraged  arts  ;  and  he  found- 
 ed another  Alexandrean  library,  the  former  magnificent 
 collection  of  books  having  been  in  part  destroyed  by 
 fire  in  the  time  of  Julius  Cassar.  By  these  means 
 Egypt  for  a  while  enjoyed,  under  the  government  of 
 Gallus,  a  prosperity  and  happiness  to  which  she  had 
 long  been  a  stranger  during  the  sway  of  the  Ptolemies. 
 But  the  termination  of  the  rule  of  this  first  prefect  of 
 Egypt  did  not  correspond  with  its  auspicious  com- 
 mencement. Elated  with  power,  he  soon  forgot  the 
 respect  that  was  due  to  his  benefactor.  He  ascribed 
 everything  to  his  own  merit,  erecting  statues  to  himself 
 
CALLUS. 
 
 CALLUS. 
 
 throughout  all  Egypt,  and  engraving  a  record  of  his 
 exploits  on  the  pyramids.  In  unguarded  hours,  and 
 when  under  tlie  influence  of  the  double  intoxication  of 
 prosperity  and  wine,  he  applied  to  his  master  the  most 
 opprobrious  and  insulting  expressions.  {Dio  Cass., 
 M,  23.)  Indiscretion  and  vanity  were  quickly  fol- 
 lowed by  acts  of  misgoverninent  and  rapine.  He 
 plundered  the  ancient  city  of  Thebes,  and  stripped  it 
 of  its  principal  ornaments  (Aynmianus  MarcelL,  16,  4), 
 and  he  is  even  said,  though  on  no  very  certain  au- 
 thority, to  have  filled  up  the  measure  of  his  offences 
 by  conspiring  against  the  life  of  the  emperor.  In  con- 
 sequence of  his  misconduct,  and  of  those  unguard- 
 ed expressions,  which  were  probably  conveyed  to  his 
 master,  with  exaggeration,  by  some  false  friend  or 
 enemy,  he  was  recalled  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  gov- 
 ernment ;  and  immediately  after  his  return  to  Rome, 
 one  of  his  most  intimate  friends,  called  Largus,  stood 
 forth  as  his  accuser.  Augustus,  in  the  mean  while, 
 forbade  him  his  presence  ;  and  the  charges,  which  now 
 multiplied  from  every  quarter,  were  brought  before  the 
 senate.  Though  Gallus  had  many  friends  among  the 
 jioets,  he  had  few  among  the  senators.  No  one  x;ould 
 refuse  verses  to  Gallus,  but  a  fair  hearing  was  proba- 
 bly denied  him.  He  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  exile, 
 and  his  whole  properly  was  confiscated.  (Dio  Cass., 
 53,  23.)  Unable  to  endure  the  humiliation,  which 
 presented  such  a  contrast  to  his  former  brilliant  for- 
 tune, he  terminated  his  existence  by  a  voluntary  death. 
 This  sad  conclusion  to  his  once  prosperous  career  took 
 j)lacc  A.U.C.  727,  when  he  was  in  the  forty-third  year 
 of  bis  age.  Augustus  is  said  to  have  mourned  the 
 death  which  his  severity  had  thus  occasioned  ;  and 
 Suetonius,  in  the  life  of  that  emperor  (c.  66),  has  de- 
 scribed the  feelings  which  he  expressed  on  receiving 
 intelligence  of  his  melancholy  fate.  But  his  sorrow 
 firobably  was  not  sincere  ;  and,  if  we  may  believe 
 Donatus,  he  ungenerously  carried  his  resentment  so  far 
 bevond  the  tomb,  as  to  command  Virgil  to  expunge 
 an  eulogy  on  Gallus,  which  he  had  introduced  near 
 the  conclusion  of  the  Georgics,  and  to  substitute  in  its 
 place  the  story  of  Aristaeus  and  the  bees,  which,  how- 
 ever beautiful  in  itself,  does  not  compensate  for  the 
 loss  of  the  poet's  delineation  of  an  eminent  friend,  by 
 whom  he  was  warmly  patronised,  and  whom,  in  re- 
 turn, he  warmly  loved. — The  guilt  or  the  misfortunes 
 of  Gallus  as  a  statesman  have  been  long  since  forgot- 
 ten, and  he  is  now  remembered  only  as  a  distinguished 
 patron  of  learning,  and  as  an  elegant  poet.  Gallus 
 was  the  friend  of  Pollio  and  Msscenas,  and  rivalled 
 them,  through  life,  as  an  eminent  promoter  of  the  in- 
 terests of  literature.  He  protected  Parthenius  Nice- 
 nus,  a  Greek  author,  who  had  been  brought  to  Rome 
 during  the  Mithradatic  war,  and  who  inscribed  to  him 
 his  collection  of  amorous  mythological  stories,  entitled 
 lIf/)£  fpuTtKuv  TTadrjfiuuov,  declaring,  in  his  dedica- 
 tion, that  he  addressed  the  work  to  Gallus,  as  likely  to 
 furnish  incidents  which  might  be  employed  by  him  in 
 the  poems  he  was  then  writing.  But  Gallus  is  best 
 known  to  posterity  as  the  patron  of  Virgil,  whom  he 
 introduced  to  the  notice  of  Ma:cenas,  and  as  also  in- 
 strumental in  obtaining  for  him  restitution  of  his  farm, 
 after  the  partition  of  the  lands  among  the  soldiery. 
 {Prolius,  Vit.  Virg.)  In  gratitude  for  these  and  other 
 favours  conferred  on  him,  the  Mantuan  bard  has  in- 
 troduced an  elegant  compliment  to  Gallus  in  the  sixth 
 eclogue  ;  and  has  devoted  the  tenth  to  the  celebration 
 of  his  passion  for  Lycoris.  The  real  name  of  this  fe- 
 male is  said  to  have  been  Cytheris.  {Servius,  ad 
 Virg.,  Eclog.,  10.)  She  was  an  actress  of  Mimes, 
 who  to  exquisite  beauty  joined  all  the  accomplish- 
 ments of  her  profession.  Besides  having  engaged  the 
 affections  of  Gallus,  she  had  captivated  Antony,  and 
 is  said  in  her  earlier  years  to  have  touched  the  heart 
 of  Brutus.  The  passion  of  Gallus  may  be  supposed 
 to  have  been  at  its  height  when  Virgil  wrote  his  tenth 
 
 Z  E  Z 
 
 pclogue,  A.U.C.  716,  at  which  period  Gallus  was 
 about  thirty  years  of  age.  At  this  time  (Cytheris  had 
 forsaken  him  for  a  rival,  who  was  then  engaged  in  a 
 military  expedition  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps,  and 
 she  had  even  accompanied  her  new  lover  to  that  in- 
 hospitable region. — 'I'he  elegies  of  Gallus  consisted 
 of  four  books,  but  they  have  now  all  perished  ;  they 
 were  held,  however,  in  high  estimation  so  long  as  they 
 survived.  Ovid  speaks  of  Tibullus  as  the  successor 
 of  Gallus,  and  as  his  companion  in  the  Elysian  fields 
 {Am.,  3,  9)  ;  and  he  ofiener  than  once  alludes  to  the 
 extensive  celebrity  which  his  verses  had  procured  for 
 him  as  well  as  to  his  mistress.  {Am.,  1,  1.5  )  Quin- 
 tilian  ranks  him  as  an  elegiac  poet  with  Tibullus  and 
 Propertius,  though  he  thinks  his  style  was  somewhat 
 harsher  than  that  of  either.  Besides  the  four  books 
 of  elegies,  Gallus  translated  or  imitated  from  the  Greek 
 of  Euphorion  a  poem  on  the  Grynean  grove,  written 
 in  the  manner  of  Hesiod.  He  likewise  translated  from 
 the  same  Euphorion  a  number  of  ancient  mythological 
 fables,  such  as  the  stories  of  Scylla  and  Philomela. 
 Gallus  also  wrote  a  number  of  epigrams. — The  four 
 elegies,  which  were  first  published  m  the  year  1500 
 by  Pomponius  Gaiiricus,  as  the  work  of  Cornelius 
 Gallus,  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  written 
 by  Maximianus  Gallus,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  An- 
 astasius.  They  are  chiefly  filled  with  complaints  of 
 the  miseries  and  deprivations  of  extreme  old  age,  a 
 theme  not  likely  to  be  chosen  by  Gallus,  who  died  at 
 the  age  of  forty-two.  Aldus  Manutius,  the  son  of 
 PauUus,  published  another  elegy,  under  the  name  of 
 .\sinius  Gallus,  the  son  of  Pollio,  whom  he  appears 
 to  have  confounded  with  Cornelius  Gallus.  Though 
 superior  to  the  others  in  point  of  poetical  style,  it  has 
 no  better  claims  to  authenticity.  {Dunlop,  Hist.  Rom. 
 Lit.,  vol.  3,  p.  429,  seqr].)  The  best  edition  of  the 
 pieces  and  fragments  attributed  to  Gallus  is  that  of 
 Wernsdorff  in  ihePoela:  Lat mi M mores. —  III.  .521ius, 
 the  first  and  the  only  Roman  that  ever  penetrated  with 
 an  army  into  the  interior  of  Arabia.  He  was  of 
 equestrian  rank,  and  was  appointed  by  Augustus  im- 
 perial procurator  in  Egypt.  The  Arabians  of  that  day 
 had  accumulated  great  riches  by  the  trade  with  India. 
 This  excited  the  cupidity  of  the  Romans,  and  ^lius 
 Gallus  was  sent  to  subdue  them.  The  expedition, 
 however,  signally  failed,  in  consequence  of  the  treach- 
 ery of  Syllseus,  the  commander  of  the  Arabian  auxil- 
 iaries who  formed  part  of  the  Roman  force.  This 
 leader,  influenced  by  patriotic  motives,  guided  the  ar- 
 my of  the  invaders  into  sandy  deserts,  from  which  they 
 were  glad  to  retreat  with  considerable  loss.  The  fleet, 
 in  like  manner,  which  accompanied  the  expedition, 
 was  led  into  shoals  where  a  large  number  of  vessels 
 were  lost.  Syllsus  paid  for  his  patriotic  treachery 
 with  his  life.  An  account  of  the  whole  affair  is  given 
 by  Strabo,  who  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Gallus. 
 {Strab.,  779,  seqq.)  Pliny  and  Dio  Cassius  also  fur- 
 nish us  with  information  on  this  subject  which  is  not 
 contained  in  the  narrative  of  Strabo.  {Dio  Cass.,  53, 
 29.)  Great  difficulty  arises,  however,  in  attempting 
 to  adopt  the  accounts  which  we  thus  obtain  with  the 
 state  of  geographical  knowledge  at  the  present  day. 
 (Consult  Gossellin,  Rechcrchcs,  vol.  2,  p.  116. — Ve 
 Saci/,  Mem.  de  I' Acad,  dcs  Inscr.,  &c  ,  vol.  48,  p.  514. 
 —Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  p.  116,  seqq.)  \alesius 
 (Valois),  Burmann,  and  Simson  have  noticed  the  error 
 of  Casaubon  {ad  Strab.,  I.  c),  who  confounds  this  .^Ji- 
 us  Gallus  with  Cornelius  Gallus  the  poet —I V.  !■  !a- 
 vius  Claudius  Constantinus,  brother  of  the  hmperor 
 Julian,  and  nephew  to  Constantine  the  Great.  Jn 
 351  A.D.,  Constantius,  the  son  of  Constantine,  granted 
 him  the  dignity  of  Ca>sar,  and  sent  him  to  Antioch 
 But  the  power  with  which  he  was  invested  called  fortl 
 nothing  but  vice,  and  Constantius  having  recalled  him, 
 A.D.  354,  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death  m  prison,  » 
 the  age  of  twenty-nine. 
 
 bio 
 
GAN 
 
 GAR 
 
 GangarTd^,  a  people  near  the  mouths  of  the  Gan- 
 ges. Ptolemy  assigns  them  a  capital,  called  Ganga 
 Regia,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Ganges,  which 
 D'Anville  places  in  latitude  24°  50',  and  makes  the 
 site  to  coincide  with  that  of  Raji-nwhol.  The  Gan- 
 garida;  were  allies  of  the  Prasii,  who  lay  nearer  the 
 Indus  towards  the  northwest.  The  united  forces  of 
 these  two  nations  awaited  the  army  of  Alexander  on 
 the  other  side  of  the  Hyphasis  ;  but  report  made  them 
 so  formidable  for  numbers  and  valour,  that  the  wearied 
 and  alarmed  Macedonians  refused  to  cross  the  stream, 
 in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  and  remonstrances  of  their 
 king.  {Justin,  12,  8.— Curt.,  9,  2.—Virg.,  JEn.,  3, 
 27.) 
 
 Ganges,  a  famous  river  of  India,  which,  in  the  lan- 
 guage of  Hindustan,  is  called  Padda,  and  is  also 
 named  Burra  Gonga,  or  the  Great  River,  and  Gonga, 
 or  the  river,  by  way  of  eminence  ;  and  hence  the  Eu- 
 ropean name  of  the  stream  is  derived.  The  Sanscrit 
 name  of  the  Ganges  (Padda)  signifies  foot,  because 
 the  Brahmins,  in  their  fabulous  legends,  make  the 
 riv-er  to  flow  from  the  foot  of  Beschan,  who  is  the 
 same  with  Vischnou,  or  the  preserving  deity.  This 
 great  stream,  together  with  the  Burrampooter,  whose 
 twin-sister  it  has  not  unaptly  been  denominated,  has 
 its  source  in  the  vast  mountains  of  Thibet.  It  seeks 
 the  plains  of  Hindustan  by  the  west,  and  pursues  the 
 early  part  of  its  course  through  rugged  valleys  and  de- 
 files. After  wandering  about  eight  hundred  miles 
 through  these  mountainous  regions,  it  issues  forth  a  | 
 deity  to  the  superstitious  yet  gladdened  Hindu.  This  I 
 river  was  unknown  to  Herodotus,  as  he  does  not  men- 
 tion it,  though  it  became  famous  in  a  century  after- 
 ward. Its  source  was  for  a  long  period  involved  in 
 obscurity.  A  survey,  however,  has  been  recently  made 
 by  the  British-Indian  government,  and  it  has  been 
 found  to  issue  in  a  small  stream,  under  the  name  of 
 Bhagirathy,  from  under  a  mass  of  perpetual  snow,  ac- 
 cumulated on  the  southern  side  of  the  Hinunaleh 
 Mountains,  between  31°  and  32°  north  latitude,  and 
 78°  and  79°  east  longitude.  It  is  computed  to  be 
 1500  miles  in  length,  and  at  five  hundred  miles  from 
 its  mouth  is,  during  the  rainy  season,  four  miles  broad 
 and  sixty  feet  deep.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  the 
 Jumna,  the  Gogra,  and  the  Burrampooter.  The  whole 
 number  of  streams  which  flow  into  it  are  eleven. 
 About  two  hundred  miles  from  the  sea,  the  Delta  of 
 the  Ganges  commences  by  the  dividing  of  the  river. 
 Two  branches,  the  Cossimbazzar  and  the  lellinghy, 
 are  given  off  to  the  west.  These  unite  to  form  the 
 Hooglcy,  or  Bhagirathy,  on  which  the  port  of  Cakulta 
 is  situated.  It  is  the  only  branch  commonly  navi- 
 gated by  ships,  and  in  some  years  it  is  not  navigable 
 for  two  or  three  months.  The  only  secondary  branch 
 which  is  at  all  navigable  for  boats,  is  the  Chandah 
 River.  That  part  of  the  Delta  which  borders  on  the  sea 
 is  composed  of  a  labyrinth  of  creeks  and  rivers,  called 
 the  Sunderbunds,  with  numerous  islands,  covered  with 
 the  profuse  and  rank  vegetation  called  jungle,  afford- 
 ing haunts  to  numerous  tigers.  These  branches  oc- 
 cupy an  extent  of  two  hundred  miles  along  shore. 
 The  Ganges  rises  fifteen  feet  by  the  end  of  June, 
 owing  to  the  heavy  rains.  The  remainder  of  its  rise, 
 which  is  in  all  thirty-two  feet,  is  occasioned  by  the 
 rains  which  fall  in  Bengal.  By  the  end  of  July,  all 
 the  lower  parts  of  the  country  adjoining  the  Ganges, 
 as  well  as  the  Burrampooter,  are  overflowed  for  a 
 width  of  one  hundred  miles,  nothing  appearing  but 
 villages,  trees,  and  the  sites  of  some  places  that 
 have  been  deserted.  The  line  of  the  Ganges  which 
 lies  between  Gangotree,  or  the  source  of  the  leading 
 stream,  and  Sagor  island,  below  Calcutta,  is  held 
 particularly  sacred.  The  main  body,  which  goes  east 
 to  join  the  Brahmapootra,  is  not  regarded  with  equal 
 veneration.  Wherever  the  river  happens  to  run  from 
 south  to  north,  contrary  to  its  usual  direction,  it  is 
 546 
 
 considered  peculiarly  holy.  The  places  most  super- 
 stitiously  revered  are  the  junctions  of  rivers,  called 
 Prayags,  the  principal  of  which  is  that  of  the  Jumna 
 with  the  Ganges  at  Allahabad.  In  the  British  courts 
 of  justice,  the  water  of  the  Ganges  is  used  lor  swear- 
 ing Hindus,  as  the  Koran  is  for  Mohammedans,  and 
 the  Gospel  for  Christians.  {Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 3,  p.  18,  seqq.) 
 
 Gangeticus  Sinus,  now  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  into 
 which  the  Ganges  falls. 
 
 Ganvmedes,  son  of  Tros  and  of  Callirhoe  daughter 
 of  the  Scamander.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  beau- 
 ty, and  on  this  account,  according  to  the  legend,  was 
 carried  off  to  Olympus  by  an  eagle,  to  be  the  cup- 
 bearer of  Jove,  who  gave  Tros,  as  a  compensation, 
 some  horses  of  the  Olympian  breed.  {Horn.,  11. ,  5, 
 265,  seg. — Id.  ib.,  20,  234,  seq.—Hom.,  Hymn.,  4, 
 202.)  One  of  the  Cyclic  poets  (ap.  Schol.  ad  Eunp  , 
 Orcst.,  1390)  said,  that  Jupiter  gave  Laomedon  a  gold- 
 en vine  for  Ganymede.  The  son  of  Tros  succeeded 
 Hebe  as  cup-bearer  of  the  skies.  (FnZ.  Hebe.)  They 
 who  wish  to  give  an  historical  aspect  to  this  legend, 
 make  Ganymedes  to  have  been  carried  off  by  Tantalus. 
 The  truth  is,  however,  that  the  fable  of  Ganymedes, 
 according  to  Knight,  seems  to  have  arisen  from  some 
 symbolical  composition,  representing  the  act  of  fructi- 
 fying nature,  attended  by  Power  and  Wisdom  :  and 
 this  composition  would  appear  to  have  been  at  first 
 misunderstood,  and  afterward  misrepresented  in  poeti- 
 cal fiction.  For  the  lines  in  the  Iliad  alluding  to  it 
 are,  as  Knight  maintains,  spurious  ;  and,  according  to 
 Pindar,  the  most  orthodox,  perhaps,  of  all  the  poets, 
 Ganymede  was  not  the  son  of  Tros,  but  a  niightj 
 genius  or  deity,  who  regulated  or  caused  the  over- 
 flowings of  the  Nile  by  the  motion  of  his  feet.  {Schol. 
 in  Arat.  Phanom.,  v.  282.)  His  being,  therefore, 
 the  cup-bearer  of  Jupiter,  means  no  more  than  that  he 
 was  the  distributor  of  the  waters  between  heaven  and 
 earth,  and,  consequently,  a  distinct  personification  of 
 that  attribute  of  Jupiter,  which  is  otherwise  signified 
 by  the  epithet  Pluvius.  Hence  he  is  only  another 
 modification  of  the  same  personification  as  Atlis,  Ado- 
 nis, and  Bacchus  ;  who  are  all  occasionally  represented 
 holding  the  patera  or  cup  ;  which  is  also  given,  with 
 the  cornucopia,  to  their  subordinate  emanations,  tho 
 local  genii ;  of  which  many  small  figures  in  brass  are 
 extant.  (Inquiry  into  the  Symb.  Lang.,  &c.,  (/  121. 
 — Class.  Journ.,  vol.  25,  p.  42.) 
 
 Garamantes  (sing.  Garamas),  s  people  of  Africa, 
 south  of  Fazania,  deriving  their  name  from  the  city  of 
 Garama,  now  Garmes.  They  were  slightly  known  to 
 the  Romans  under  Augustus,  in  whose  time  some 
 claim  was  made  to  a  triumph  over  them,  on  which  ac- 
 count they  are  mentioned  by  Virgil.  (Virg.,  JEn.,  4, 
 198  ;  6,  7'95.— LHcan,  4,  334.— P/jn.,  5,  9.—Sil.  Ital, 
 1,  142;   11,  181.) 
 
 Garamantis,  a  nymph,  mother  of  larbas,  by  Jupi- 
 ter.    (Virg.,  /En.,  4,  198.) 
 
 Garganus,  a  mountain  of  Apulia,  terminating  in  a 
 bold  promontory  of  the  same  name  (Garganum  Pro- 
 montorium),  now  Punta  di  Viesti.  Strabo  (284)  seems 
 to  have  considered  the  whole  of  that  extensive  neck  of 
 land,  lying  between  the  bay  of  Rodi  and  that  of  Man- 
 fredonia,  as  the  Garganum  Promontorium,  for  he  de- 
 scribes it  as  running  out  to  sea  for  the  space  of  300 
 stadia,  or  37  miles.  Scylax  seems  to  refer  to  this 
 mountain  under  the  name  of  Arion.  (Periplus,  ]>. 
 5.)  Fre(|i]cnt  allusion  is  made  to  this  celebrated 
 ridge  and  headland  by  the  Latin  poets,  especially  on 
 account  of  its  fine  groves  of  oaks.  (Horat.,  Od.,  2, 
 9.— W.,  Ep.,  2,  1,  200.— .SiZ.  Ital,  8,  630.— Lmcati, 
 5,  378.) 
 
 Gargapiiia,  a  valley  near  Plataea,  with  a  fountain 
 of  the  same  name,  where  Actason  was  torn  to  pieces 
 by  his  dogs.  (Ovid,  Met.,  3,  1.%.)  The  fountain  of 
 Gargaphia  was  situate  about  a  mile  and  a  half  distant 
 
G  A  Z 
 
 GEL 
 
 Irom  Plataea,  on  Mount  Cithseron,  towards  the  Athe- 
 nian frontier.     (Gell,  Itin.,  p.  113.) 
 
 Gargaros  (plur.  a,  orum),  one  of  the  summits  of 
 Ida,  the  roots  of  which  formed  the  promontory  of  Lec- 
 tum.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  high- 
 est peai{  of  the  range,  but  this  honour  must  be  assigned 
 to  the  ancient  Colylus.  {Hobhoiisc' s  Travels,  Lett.  42.) 
 On  Gargarus  was  a  town  named  Gargara.  {Strabo, 
 621.)  Dr.  Hunt  gives  an  interesting  account  of  his 
 ascent  of  Gargarus.  He  found  the  summit  covered 
 with  snow,  and  mentions  the  following  particular  rela- 
 tive to  its  ancient  name.  "  I  have  ventured  to  record 
 a  circumstance  which  proves  on  how  fanciful  a  founda- 
 tion etymological  reasonings  are  founded.  Our  guide, 
 when  he  pointed  expressively  to  the  snow  on  the  top 
 of  the  mountain,  repeated  the  words  Gar,  gar, '  Snow, 
 snow,'  in  which  an  enthusiastic  topographer  of  the  Iliad 
 would  easily  have  traced  the  ancient  name  of  Garga- 
 rus." {WalpoWs  Memoirs,  vol.  1,  p.  122.  —  Cora- 
 pare,  in  relation  to  Gargarus,  Clarke'^s  Travels,  Greece, 
 Egvpt,  (fee,  vol.  3,  p.  166  ) 
 
 Garoettus,  a  demus  or  borough  of  the  tribe  .^ge'i's 
 in  Atfica,  where  Eurystheus  is  said  to  have  been  bu- 
 ried. {Sfepk.  Byz.,  s.  v. — Strabo,  377.)  It  was  the 
 birthplace  of  Epicurus.  (Diog.  Laert.,  10,  1.)  The 
 modern  Krabato  is  supposed  to  occupy  its  site.  (Stu- 
 arVs  Ant.  of  Ath.,  3,  p.  IQ.—Spon.,  vol.  2,  p.  104.— 
 GeWs  Ilin.,  p.  75.) 
 
 Garumna,  now  the  Garonne,  a  river  of  Gaul,  which 
 rises  in  the  valley  of  Arran,  to  the  south  of  Bertrand, 
 among  the  Pyrenees,  and  falls  into  the  Occanus  Can- 
 tabricus,  or  Bay  of  Biscay.  The  general  course  of 
 this  river,  which  extends  to  about  250  miles,  is  north- 
 west. After  its  junction  with  the  Duranius  or  Dor- 
 dogne,  below  Burdegala  or  Bourdeaxix,  it  assumes  the 
 name  of  Glrondc.  According  to  Julius  Caesar's  divis- 
 ion of  Gallia,  the  Garumna  was  the  boundary  of  Aqui- 
 •ania,  and  separated  that  district  from  Gallia  Celtica. 
 This  river  is  navigable  to  Tolosa  or  Toulouse,  and 
 rommunicates  with  the  Mediterranean  by  means  of  the 
 :anal  of  Louis  XIV.,  about  180  miles  long,  made 
 through  Lansuedoc.  {Mela,  3,  2. — Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  117.) 
 
 Gaugamela,  a  village  of  Assyria,  in  the  district  of 
 .Vturia,  and  about  500  stadia  from  Arbela.  (Arrian, 
 6,  1  )  The  battle  between  Alexander  and  Darius  took 
 place  near  this  spot;  but,  as  Arbela  was  a  considera- 
 ble town,  the  Greeks  chose  to  distinguish  the  conflict 
 by  the  name  of  the  latter.  Gaugamela  is  said  to  have 
 signified,  in  Persian,  "  the  house  of  the  camel,''''  and  to 
 have  been  so  called  because  Darius,  the  son  of  Hys- 
 taspes,  having  escaped  upon  his  camel  across  the  des- 
 erts of  Scythia,  when  retreating  from  the  latter  coun- 
 try, placed  the  animal  here,  and  appointed  the  revenue 
 of  certain  villages  for  its  maintenance.  {Plut.,  Vit. 
 Alex.,  c.  31.) 
 
 Gaui.us,  I.  a  small  island  adjacent  to  Melite  or 
 Malta,  now  called  Gozo.  (Plin.,  3,  8.) — II.  Another 
 below  the  south  shore  of  Crete,  now  called  Gozo  of 
 Candia,  for  distinction'  sake  from  Gozo  of  Malta. 
 
 Gaurus,  a  ridge  of  mountains  bordering  on  Lake 
 \vernus,  and  now  called  Monte  Barbara.  It  was  fa- 
 mous for  its  wines.  {Lucan,  2,  665,  scqq — Sil.  Ilal., 
 S,  53i.—Stat.  Silv.,  3,  5,  99.) 
 
 Gaza,  one  of  the  five  Philistine  satrapies  or  princi- 
 palities, situate  towards  the  southern  extremity  of  Ca- 
 naan, about  16  miles  south  of  Ascalon  (//m.  Am.,  p. 
 1.50),  and  a  small  distance  from  the  Mediterranean. 
 Its  port  was  called  Gazaeorum  Portus.  As  the  name 
 of  the  city  of  Gaza  appears  in  the  first  book  of  Moses 
 (10,  18),  Mela  must  of  course  be  mistaken,  who  says 
 it  is  of  Persian  origin,  and  states  that  Cambyses 
 made  this  place  his  chief  magazine  in  the  expedition 
 against  Egypt.  {Mela,  1,  11.)  It  was,  however,  an 
 important  and  strongly-fortified  place,  as  being  situate 
 so  near  the  borders  of  that  country.     Alexander  took 
 
 and  destroyed  it,  after  it  had  made  a  powerful  resist- 
 ance for  the  space  of  two  months.  {Arrian,  2,  27. — 
 Quintus  Curtius,  4,  6.)  Antiochus  the  Great  sacked 
 it,  and  it  was  several  times  taken  from  the  Syrians  by 
 the  Maccabees.  {Polyb.,  excerpt.  'Vales.— Maccab.,  1, 
 1 1,  61. — Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.,  13,  21.)  It  was  after- 
 ward subjected  to  new  losses,  so  that  St.  Luke  states 
 {Acts,  8,  26)  that  it  was,  in  his  time,  a  desert  place. 
 Erasmus  Schmid,  Beza,  and  Le  Moyne,  however,  fol- 
 lowing the  Syriac  version,  refer  the  word  tpri/ioc,  in  the 
 original,  not  to  Gaza,  but  to  the  way  leadnig  towards 
 it.  They  are  refuted  by  Reland.  Strabo  notices 
 •'  Gaza,  the  desert,"  which  agrees  with  the  .Acts. 
 The  place  was  called  Constantia  afterward.  It  is 
 now  termed  by  the  Arabs  Rassa,  with  a  strong  guttu- 
 ral expression.  The  ancient  name  in  Hebrew  signifies 
 strong.  (Compare  Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p. 
 263.) 
 
 Gehenna  or  Cevenna,  now  Cevennes,  a  chain  of 
 mountains  in  Gaul,  which  separated  the  Helvii  from 
 the  Arverni,  in  that  part  of  the  Roman  province  cor- 
 responding to  the  modern  Languedoc.  The  Pyrenees 
 join  the  Cevennes,  these  last  the  Vosges,  which  in 
 their  turn  unite  with  Jura  to  the  south,  and  form  the 
 Ardennes  to  the  north.  The  name  Cebenna  appears 
 to  contain  the  Celtic  radical  Pen  or  Ben,  "  a  summit, " 
 so  that  the  name  probably  meant  "  the  lofty  range." 
 {Matte- Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p.  389,  Brussels   ed.) 
 
 Gedrosia,  a  sandy  and  barren  province  of  Persia, 
 south  and  southeast  of  Carmania,  and  lying  along  the 
 Mare  Erylhrsum.  It  is  now  called  McAra?i.  In  pass- 
 ing through  this  country,  the  army  of  Alexander  under- 
 went very  great  hardships,  from  want  of  water  and 
 provisions,  and  from  columns  of  moving  sand.  Its 
 principal  city  was  Pura,  now  Fohrea.  {Strabo,  720. 
 — Arrian,  6,  23,  scqq.)  Wahl  compares  the  name 
 Gedrosia  with  the  Persian  dshiaaduruscht,  "  rough," 
 "  stormy,"  "  boisterous,"  from  the  boisterous  and 
 stormy  waves  that  beat  upon  its  coast.  ( Vorder  und 
 Mittel-Asien,  p.  585.) 
 
 Gela.  I.  a  river  of  Sicily,  to  the  east  of  the  Hime- 
 ra,  and  falling  into  the  sea  on  the  southeastern  coast, 
 near  the  city  of  the  same  name.  The  appellation  Gela 
 is  said  to  have  been  given  to  it  from  the  icy  coldness 
 of  its  waters,  the  term  gela  (compare  the  Latin  gehi) 
 having  the  meaning  of  "ice"  in  the  languages  of  the 
 Opici  and  Siculi.  {Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.)  Virgil  applies 
 the  epithet  immanis  to  Gela,  meaning,  according  to 
 some,  the  city,  or,  as  others  think,  the  river.  The  for- 
 mer opinion  is  the  more  correct  one.  The  city  was 
 termed  by  the  poet  "immanis"  {"  of  monster-symbol.'^), 
 in  allusion  to  the  Minotaur  on  its  coins.  Those,  how- 
 ever, who  refer  the  epithet  to  the  river,  make  it  sig- 
 nify "cruel,"  i.  e.,  perilous,  and  consider  it  as  allu- 
 ding to  the  numerous  whirlpools  in  this  stream,  whence 
 Ovid  remarks,  "  Et  te  vorticibus  non  adeundc  Gela.'''' 
 {Fast.,  4,  MQi.—Virg.,  .En.,  3,  702.)  The  modern 
 name  of  the  Gela  is,  according  to  Cluverius,  the  Ghi- 
 ozzo,  or  "  Icy  river." — II.  A  city  of  Sicily,  on  the 
 southeastern  coast,  a  short  distance  from  the  sea  and 
 from  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name.  (  Vid. 
 Gela,  I.)  It  was  founded  by  a  joint  colony  from 
 Crete  and  from  Lindus  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  45 
 years  after  the  foundation  of  Syracuse.  {Herod.,  7, 
 IFi^.—  Thucyd.,  6,  4.)  Gela  became  one  of  the  most 
 powerful  of  the  Grecian  colonies  in  Sicily,  and,  108 
 years  after  its  own  foundation,  it  colonized  .Xgrigen- 
 tum.  This  state  of  prosperity  continued  until  the 
 time  of  Gclon,  who  removed  a  large  part  of  its  in- 
 habitants to  Syracuse.  After  this  it  sank  in  impor- 
 tance, and  never  recovered  its  former  power,  but  re- 
 ceived another  blow  at  a  later  period,  when  Dionysius 
 the  elder,  being  unable  to  save  the  place  from  th« 
 Carthaginians,  carried  off  all  the  people  to  his  capital 
 (Vid.  Dionysius  I.)  The  Geloans  subsequently  re 
 turned  to  their  city,  but  only  to  encounter  new  ra . 
 
 047 
 
GEL 
 
 GEM 
 
 fortunes.  Agathocles,  suspecting  the  inhabitants  of 
 favouring  the  Carthaginians,  suddenly  made  himself 
 master  of  Gcia,  put  to  death  4000  of  the  weahhiest 
 citizens,  confiscated  their  property,  and  placed  a  gar- 
 rison in  the  city.  The  final  blow  was  at  last  received 
 from  its  own  colony  Agrigenturn.  Phintias,  tyratit  of 
 this  latter  place,  wishing  to  perpetuate  his  name,  built 
 the  small  but  commodious  city  of  Phintias,  called  after 
 himself,  and  transferred  to  it  all  the  inhabitants  of  Gela. 
 From  this  period,  therefore,  404  years  after  its  found- 
 ation, the  city  of  Gela  ceased  to  exist.  On  a  part  of 
 (he  ancient  site  stands  the  modern  Terra  Nova.  The 
 plains  around  Gela  {Campi  Gcloi)  were  famed  for 
 their  fertility  and  beauty.  (Diod.  Stc,  11,  25. — Id., 
 13,  98.  — Id.,  19,  108.  — M.,  20,  31.  — 7c/.,  22,  2.— 
 Strabo,  418. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  345.) 
 
 Gei.mus,  Aulus  (or,  as  some  manuscripts  give  the 
 name,  Agellius),  a  Latin  grammarian,  born  ai  Rome 
 in  the  early  part  of  the  second  century,  and  who  died 
 at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  We 
 have  but  few  particulars  of  his  life.  We  know  that  he 
 studied  rhetoric  utider  Cornelius  Fronto  at  Rome,  and 
 philosophy  under  Phavorinns  at  Athens,  and  that,  on 
 his  return  to  Rome,  while  still  at  an  early  age,  he  was 
 made  one  of  the  centumviri  or  judges  in  civil  causes. 
 {Noel.  All.,  14,  2.)  Gellius  has  left  behind  him  one 
 work  entitled  Nodes  Attica:,  "Attic  Nights."  It  was 
 written,  as  he  informs  us  in  the  preface,  during  the 
 winter  evenings  in  Attica,  to  amuse  his  children  in 
 their  hours  of  relaxation.  It  appears,  from  his  own 
 account,  that  he  had  been  accustomed  to  keep  a  com- 
 monplace book,  in  which  he  entered  whatever  he  heard 
 in  conversation,  or  met  with  in  his  private  reading,  that 
 appeared  worthy  of  remembrance.  In  composing  his 
 "  Nodes  Attica"  he  seems  merely  to  have  copied  the 
 contents  of  his  commonplace  book,  with  a  little  altera- 
 tion in  the  language,  but  without  any  attempt  at  class- 
 ification or  arrangement.  The  work  contains  anec- 
 dotes and  arguments,  scraps  of  history  and  pieces 
 of  poetry,  and  dissertations  on  various  points  in  phi- 
 losophy, geometry,  and  grammar.  Amid  much  that 
 is  trifling  and  puerile,  we  obtain  information  on  many 
 subjects  relating  to  antiquity,  of  which  we  must  other- 
 wise have  been  ignorant.  It  is  divided  into  twenty 
 books,  which  are  still  extant,  excepting  the  eighth  and 
 the  beginning  of  the  seventh.  He  mentions,  in  the 
 conclusion  of  his  preface,  his  intention  of  continuing 
 the  work,  which  he  probably,  however,  never  carried 
 into  effect. — The  style  of  Aulus  Gellius  is  in  general 
 negligent  and  incorrect.  In  his  eagerness  to  imitate 
 the  old  writers,  he  is  often  carried  too  far,  and  intro- 
 duces too  many  forms  of  expression  from  the  earlier 
 comic  poets,  whom  he  seems  most  anxious  to  take  for 
 his  models  in  this  respect.  That  he  invented,  how- 
 ever, any  new  terms  himself  seems  hardly  credible. 
 The  best  editions  of  Aulus  Gellius  are,  that  of  Grono- 
 vius,  Lugd.  Bal  ,  1706,  4to,  and  that  of  Lion,  G'ot- 
 ting.,  1824,  2  vols.  8vo.  [Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.  3,  p.  310. — Kdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 718.) 
 
 Gelon,  a  native  of  Gela  in  Sicily,  who  rose  from 
 the  station  of  a  private  citizen  to  be  su[)reme  ruler  of 
 (iela  and  Syracuse.  He  was  descended  from  an  an- 
 cient family,  which  originally  came  from  Telos,  an  isl- 
 and off  the  coast  of  Caria,  and  settled  at  Gela,  when 
 it  was  first  colonized  by  the  Rhodians.  Durinir  the 
 lime  that  Hippocrates  reigned  at  Gela  (B.C.  498-491), 
 Gelon  was  appointed  commander  of  the  cavalry,  and 
 greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  various  wars  which 
 Hippocrates  carried  on  against  the  Grecian  cities  in 
 Sicily.  On  the  death  of  Hippocrates,  who  fell  in  bat- 
 tle against  the  Siculi,  Gelon  seized  the  supreme  power, 
 B.C.  491.  Soon  afterward  a  more  splendid  prize  fell 
 in  his  way.  The  nobles  and  landholders  (ydnopoi)  of 
 Syracuse,  who  had  been  driven  from  the  city  by  an  in- 
 aurreclion  of  their  slaves,  supported  by  the  rest  of  the 
 548 
 
 people,  applied  to  Gelon  for  assistance.  This  crafty 
 prince,  gladly  availing  himself  of  the  opportunity  of  ex- 
 tending his  dominions,  marched  to  Syracuse,  into 
 which  he  was  admitted  by  the  popular  parly  (B  C. 
 485),  who  had  not  the  means  of  resisting  so  formidable 
 an  opponent.  (Hcrodot.,  7,  154,  seq.)  Having  thus 
 become  master  of  Syracuse,  he  appointed  his  brother 
 Hiero  governor  of  Gela,  and  exerted  all  his  endeav- 
 ours to  promote  the  prosperity  of  his  new  acquisition. 
 In  order  to  increase  the  population  of  Syracuse,  he  de- 
 stroyed Camarina,  and  removed  all  its  inhabitants,  to- 
 gether with  a  great  number  of  the  citizens  of  Gela,  to 
 his  favourite  city.  By  his  various  conquests  and  his 
 great  abilities,  he  became  a  very  powerful  monarch  ; 
 and  therefore,  when  the  Greeks  expected  the  invasion 
 of  Xerxes,  ambassadors  were  sent  by  them  to  Syra- 
 cuse, to  secure,  if  possible,  his  assistance  in  the  war. 
 Gelon  promised  to  send  to  their  aid  two  hundred  tri- 
 remes, twenty  thousand  heavy-armed  troops,  two  thou- 
 sand cavalry,  and  six  thousand  light-armed  troops,  pro- 
 vided the  supreme  command  were  given  to  him.  'I'his 
 offer  being  indignantly  rejected  by  the  Lacedaemonian 
 and  Athenian  ambassadors,  Gelon  sent,  according  to 
 Herodotus,  an  individual  named  Cadmus  to  Delphi, 
 with  great  treasures,  and  with  orders  to  present  them 
 to  Xerxes  if  he  proved  victorious  in  the  coming  war. 
 {Herod.,  7,  157-164.)  This  statement,  however,  was 
 denied  by  the  Syracusans,  who  said  that  Gelon  would 
 have  assisted  the  Greeks,  if  he  had  not  been  prevented 
 by  an  invasion  of  the  Carthaginians,  with  a  force 
 amounting  to  three  hundred  thousand  men,  under  the 
 command  of  Hamilcar.  This  great  army  was  entirely 
 defeated  near  Himera  by  Gelon,  and  Theron  monarch 
 of  Agrigenturn,  on  the  same  day,  according  to  Herod- 
 otus, on  which  the  battle  of  Salamis  was  fought.  {He- 
 rod., 7,  165,  seqq.)  An  account  of  this  expedition  is 
 also  given  by  Uiodorus  Siculus  (11,  21),  who  states, 
 that  the  battle  between  Gelon  and  the  (Carthaginians 
 was  fought  on  the  same  day  as  that  at  Thermopylae. 
 There  seems,  indeed,  to  have  been  a  regular  under- 
 standing between  Xerxes  and  the  Carthaginians,  in  ac- 
 cordance with  which  the  latter  were  to  attack  the 
 Greeks  in  Sicily,  while  the  Persian  monarch  was  to 
 move  down  upon  Attica  and  the  Peloponnesus. — Ge- 
 lon appears  to  have  used  with  moderation  the  power 
 which  he  had  acquired  by  violence,  and  to  have  en- 
 deared himself  to  the  Syracusans  by  the  equity  of  hi* 
 government,  and  by  the  encouragement  he  gave  to 
 commerce  and  the  fine  arts.  We  are  informed  by 
 Plutarch,  that  posterity  remembered  with  gratitude  the 
 virtues  and  abilities  of  Gelon,  and  that  the  Syracusans 
 would  not  allow  his  statues  to  be  destroyed  together 
 with  those  of  the  other  tyrants,  when  Tiinoleon  be- 
 came master  of  the  city.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Titnol.)  He 
 died  B.C.  478,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
 Hiero.  {Aristot.,  Folit.,  5,  12. — Encycl.  Us.  K?towi., 
 vol.  11,  p.  108  ) 
 
 Geloi,  the  inhabitants  of  Gela.  {Virg.,  ^n.,  3, 
 701.) 
 
 Gelones  and  Celoni,  a  people  of  Scythia,  included 
 by  Herodotus  (4,  108)  among  the  Budini.  The  his- 
 torian speaks  of  their  wooden  city  called  Gelonus,  and 
 makes  them  to  have  been  originally  a  Grecian  race, 
 who  transplanted  themselves  from  the  trading  ports 
 of  Greece  and  settled  among  the  Budini,  where  they 
 used  a  language  partly  Scythian  and  partly  Grecian. 
 This  account,  however,  appears  very  unsatisfactory. 
 It  is  better  to  refer  the  Geloni  to  that  curious  chain 
 which  connects  the  earlier  history  of  Grecian  civiliza- 
 tion with  the  regions  of  the  remote  East,  by  means  of 
 sacerdotal  colonies  scattered  throughout  the  wilds  of 
 Scythia.  (Compare  the  remarks  of  Hitter,  Vorhalle, 
 p.  266.) 
 
 GemonIv^c  ScALiE,  steps  at  Rome,  near  tne  prison 
 called  TuUianum,  down  which  the  bodies  of  those  who 
 had  been  executed  in  prison  were  thrown  into  the  To- 
 
GEN 
 
 GEO 
 
 rum,  to  be  exposed  to  the  gaze  of  the  multitude.  (Val. 
 Max.,  6.  9.—Liv.,3S,  59.) 
 
 Genabum,  a  town  of  the  Aureliani,  on  the  Ligeris 
 or  Loire,  which  ran  through  it.  It  was  afterward  called 
 Aureliani,  (rem  the  name  of  the  people,  and  is  now 
 Orleans.     {Cces.,  B.  C,  7,  3.  —  Lucan,  1,  440.) 
 
 Gknauni,  a  peo{)le  of  Vindelicia.     {Vid.  Brenni.) 
 
 GKNiVA,  a  city  of  the  Allobroges,  at  the  western 
 extremity  of  the  Lacus  Lemanus  or  Lake  of  Geneva, 
 on  the  south  bank  of  the  Rhodanus  or  Rhone.  The 
 modern  name  is  the  same  as  the  ancient.  {Cces., 
 B.  G.,  1,  6.) 
 
 Gknseric  (more  correctly  Geiserich),  king  of  the 
 Vandals,  was  the  illegitimate  brother  of  Gonderic, 
 whom  he  succeeded  .\.D.  429.  In  the  same  year  he 
 left  Spain,  which  had  been  partly  conquered  by  the  Van- 
 dals, and  crossed  over  into  A.l^rica,  at  the  solicitation 
 of  Boniface,  governor  of  that  province,  who  had  been 
 induced,  by  the  arts  of  his  rival  Aetius,  to  rebel  against 
 Valentinian  III.,  emperor  of  the  West.  Boniface  soon 
 repented  of  the  step  he  had  taken,  and  advanced  to 
 meet  the  invader.  But  his  repentance  came  too  late. 
 'I"he  Moors  joined  the  standard  of  Genseric,  and  the 
 powerful  sect  of  the  Donatists,  who  had  been  cruelly 
 persecuted  by  the  Catholics,  assisted  him  against  their 
 oppressors.  Boniface  was  defeated,  and  obliged  tore- 
 tire  into  Hippo  Regius,  where  he  remained  till  he  ob- 
 tained a  fresh  supply  of  troops.  Plaving  ventured  upon 
 a  second  battle,  and  being  again  defeated,  he  abandon- 
 ed the  f)rovince  to  the  barbarians,  and  sailed  away  to 
 Italy.  A  peace  was  concluded  between  Genseric  and 
 the  Emperor  of  the  West,  by  which  all  Africa  to  the 
 west  of  Carthage  was  ceded  to  the  Vandals.  This, 
 however,  did  not  long  continue,  and  the  city  of  Car- 
 thage was  taken  by  the  Vandals,  by  surprise,  A.D.  4.39. 
 The  Emperors  of  the  West  and  East  made  great  prep- 
 arations for  the  recovery  of  the  province,  but  an  alli- 
 ance which  Genseric  made  with  Attila,  king  of  the 
 Huns,  effectually  secured  him  against  their  attempts. 
 Genseric's  next  object  was  the  formation  of  a  naval 
 power :  an  immense  number  of  ships  were  built,  and 
 his  fleets  ravaged  the  shores  of  Sicily  and  Italy.  In- 
 vited by  the  Empress  Eudoxia,  he  sailed  up  the  Tiber, 
 A.D.  45.5,  and  permitted  his  soldiers,  for  the  space  of 
 fourteen  days,  to  pillage  Rome.  In  A.D.  460  he  de- 
 stroyed the  fleet  which  the  Emperor  Majorian  had  col- 
 lected for  the  invasion  of  Africa  ;  and,  as  his  power 
 increased,  his  ravages  became  more  extensive.  The 
 island  of  Sardinia  was  conquered,  and  Spain,  Italy, 
 Sicily,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor  were  plunder- 
 ed every  year  by  the  Vandal  pirates.  Leo,  the  emper- 
 or of  the  East,  at  last  resolved  to  make  a  vigorous 
 effort  for  the  recovery  of  .\frica.  A  great  army  was 
 assembled,  and  the  command  was  given  to  Basilicus. 
 He  landed  at  Bona,  and  at  first  met  with  considerable 
 success,  but  was  at  length  obliged  to  retire  from  the 
 province.  After  this  victory  Genseric  met  with  no 
 farther  opposition,  but  remained  undisturbed  master  of 
 the  sea  till  his  death,  which  happened  A.D.  477.  He 
 was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hunneric.  Genseric  was  an 
 Arian,  and  is  said  to  have  persecuted  the  Catholics 
 with  great  cruelty.  (Procop.,  de  Bell.  Vand. — Gib- 
 bm.  Decline  awl  Pall,  c.  33-36.) 
 
 Gkntius,  kiiig  of  the  Illyrians,  sold  his  services  to 
 Perses,  king  of  Macedonia,  for  ten  talents,  and  threw 
 inta  prison  the  Roman  ambassadors.  He  was  addicted 
 to  intemperance,  and  hated  by  his  subjects.  The  prastor 
 Anieius  conquered  him  in  the  space  of  twenty  or  thirty 
 days,  and  led  Getitius  himself,  his  wife,  brother,  and 
 children  in  triumph  at  Rome.    (L?e  ,  43,  19,  seqt/.) 
 
 Genui,  now  Genoa,  a  celebrated  town  of  Liguria. 
 In  the  second  Punic  war,  Genua,  then  a  celebrated 
 emjKJrium,  took  part  with  the  Romans,  and  was,  in 
 consequence,  plundered  and  burned  by  Macro  the  Car- 
 thaginian. (L?».,  28,  46.)  It  was  ailerward  rebuilt 
 by  the  Romans  (L/».,  30,  1),  and  was  made  a  municip- 
 
 ium.  A  curious  fact,  illustrative  of  tne  i  istory  of 
 Genua,  was  brought  to  light  by  the  discovery  of  a  bra- 
 zen tablet,  in  1506,  near  the  city.  This  monument 
 informs  us,  that  a  dispute  having  arisen  between  the 
 Genuatffi  and  Veiturii,  on  the  suliject  of  their  respect- 
 ive boundaries,  commissioners  were  appointed  by  the 
 Roman  senate,  A.U.C.  636,  to  settle  the  limns  of  the 
 two  territories  ;  and  the  tablet  gives  the  result  of  their 
 labours.  In  the  time  of  Strabo,  Genua  seems  to  have 
 been  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  [larticularly  in  tim- 
 ber, which  was  brought  from  the  mountains,  where  it 
 grew  to  a  great  size.  Some  of  it,  being  richly  veined, 
 was  used  lor  making  tables,  which  were  thought 
 scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  cedar-wood.  Other  com 
 modities  were  cattle,  skins,  and  honey,  which  the  Li- 
 gurians  exchanged  for  oil  and  Italian  wine,  none  being 
 grown  on  their  coast. — In  later  limes  we  find  the  name 
 written  Janua,  from  an  idea  that  it  was  founded  by 
 Janus,  which  Cluver  justly  rejects  as  absurd,  {llal. 
 AnL,  vol.  1,  p.  70. — Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  25,  scqq.) 
 
 Genucia  Lex,  proposed  by  the  tribune  Genucius, 
 A.U.C.  411,  that  no  one  should  enjoy  the  same  office 
 twice  within  ten  years,  nor  be  invested  with  two  offi- 
 ces in  one  year.     {Liv.,  7,  42.) 
 
 Genusus,  a  river  of  Illyricum.  Cellarius  places  it 
 to  the  south  of  the  Apsus  and  north  of  Apollonia  ;  but 
 Kruse  and  others  make  it  the  same  with  the  Panyasus 
 of  Ptolemy,  to  the  south  of  Dyrrhachiuin.  The  mod- 
 ern name,  if  Cellarius  be  correct,  is  the  Semno  or  Sio- 
 mini.  Kruse,  however,  makes  it  the  Iscumi.  {Bis- 
 choff  und  Moller,  Wbrterh.,  p.  551.) 
 
 Geoponica  (TeoiiToviKu),  or  "  a  treatise  on  .Agricul- 
 ture" (from  yea,  yij,  "  the  earth,''''  and  Tvovecj,  "  to  he- 
 stow  labour  XLpon"),  the  title  of  a  compilation,  in  Greek, 
 of  precepts  on  rural  economy,  extracted  from  ancient 
 writers.  The  compiler,  in  his  procemium,  shows  that 
 he  was  livinw  at  Constantinople,  and  dedicated  his  work 
 to  the  Emperor  Constantine,  "  a  successor  of  Constan- 
 tine,  the  first  Christian  emperor,"  stating  that  he  wrote 
 it  in  compliance  with  his  desire,  and  praising  him  for 
 his  zeal  for  science  and  philosophy,  and  also  for  his 
 philanthropic  disposition.  The  emperor  here  meant  is 
 supposed  by  some  to  have  been  Constantine  Porphy- 
 rogenitus,  and  the  compilation  is  generally  ascribed  to 
 Cassianus  Bassus,  a  native  of  Bithynia,  who,  however, 
 is  stated  by  others  to  have  lived  some  centuries  before 
 the  time  of  Porphyrogenitus.  The  question  respecting 
 the  authorship  of  the  Geoponica  has  excited  much  dis- 
 cussion, and  Needham,  in  his  edition  of  the  work  (Ca«- 
 tab.,  1704),  has  treated  the  subject  at  great  length.  The 
 work  is  divided  into  twenty  books,  which  are  subdi- 
 vided into  short  chapters,  ex[)laining  the  various  pro- 
 cesses of  cultivation  adapted  to  various  soils  and  crops, 
 and  the  rural  labours  suited  to  the  different  seasons  of 
 the  year ;  together  with  directions  for  sowing  the  va- 
 rious kinds  of  corn  and  pulse  ;  for  training  the  vine, 
 and  the  art  of  wine-making,  upon  which  the  author  is 
 very  diffuse.  He  also  treats  of  olive-plantations  and 
 oil-making,  of  orchards  and  fruit-trees,  of  evergreens, 
 of  kitchen-gardens,  of  the  insects  and  reptiles  that  are 
 injurious  to  plants,  of  the  economy  of  the  poultry-yard, 
 of  the  horse,  the  ass,  and  the  camel  ;  of  horned  cattle, 
 sheep,  goats,  pigs.  &c..  and  the  care  they  require  ;  of 
 the  method  of  salting  meat ;  and,  lastly,  of  the  various 
 kinds  of  fishes.  Every  chapter  is  inscribed  with  the 
 name  of  the  author  from  whom  it  is  taken,  and  the 
 compiler  gives,  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  book,  a 
 list  of  the  principal  authorities.  Other  authors  besides 
 these  are  quoted  in  the  course  of  the  work.  I  vvo  or 
 three  chapters  are  inscribed  with  the  name  of  (.assi- 
 anus,  who  speaks  of  himself  in  them  as  a  native  of 
 Maratonymus  in  Bithynia,  where  he  had  an  estate 
 (Geopon.,  5,  6,  et  36.)'  The  work  is  curious  as  giv- 
 ing a  course  of  ancient  agriculture,  collected  from  the 
 mSst  approved  authorities  then  extant.     The  best  edi- 
 
 54» 
 
GER 
 
 GERMANIA. 
 
 tion  of  the  Geoponica  is  that  of  Niclas,  Lips.,  1781, 
 4  vols.  8vo.  (Encycl.  Us.  KnuwL,  vol.  11,  p.  156. — 
 Scholl,  Gcsch.  Gricch.  Lill.,  vol.  3,  p.  439.) 
 
 Georgica,  the  title  of  Virgil's  poem  on  husbandry. 
 {^Yid.  Virgilius.) 
 
 GeBiEsTUs,  a  promontory  of  Eubcea,  terminating 
 the  island  to  the  southwest.  It  is  now  Caj)e  Mantelo. 
 {Homer,  Od.,  3,  176.— £un>.,  Orcsl.,\.  992.)  There 
 was  a  well-frequented  haven  near  the  promontory. 
 {Plm.,  4,  1-2.— Sleph.  Bijz  ,  s.  v.) 
 
 Gergis  or  Gergitha,  a  city  of  Dardania  in  Troas, 
 a  settlement  of  the  ancient  Teucri,  and,  consequent- 
 ly, a  town  of  very  great  antiquity.  (Herod.,  5,  122. 
 — Id.,  7,  43.)  Cephalo,  an  early  historian,  who  is 
 cited  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  Athensus,  and 
 others  as  having  written  a  history  of  Troy,  was  a  na- 
 tive of  this  place.  {Dio7i.  Hal.,  A.  K.,  1,  p.  180. — 
 Athcn.,  9,  p.  393.— 67rai.,  589. — Steph.  Byz  ,  s.  v. 
 ApiaSjj,  TpaiKog)  Gergis,  according  to  Xenophon, 
 was  a  place  of  strength,  having  an  acropolis  and  very 
 lofty  walls,  and  one  of  the  chief  towns  held  by  Mania, 
 the  Dardanian  princess.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  3,  1,  12.) 
 It  had  a  temple  sacred  to  Apollo  Gergithius,  and  was 
 said  to  have  given  birth  to  the  sibyl,  who  is  sometimes 
 called  Erythraea,  from  Erythrae,  a  small  place  on  Mount 
 Ida  (Dion.  Hal ,  1,  55),  and  at  others  Gergithia.  In 
 confirmation  of  this  fact,  it  was  observed  that  the  coins 
 of  this  city  had  the  effigy  of  the  prophetess  impressed 
 upon  them.  {Phlegon,  ap.  Sleph.  Byz.,s.  v.  tipji^.) 
 Some  of  these  coins  are  still  extant,  and  accord  with 
 the  testimony  of  Phlegon.  They  are  thus  described 
 by  numismatic  writers:  "Caput  muliebre  adversum 
 laureatuin  cum  stola  ad  coUum  It.  PEP.  Sphinx  alata 
 sedens  ^,3."  {Sestini,  Lett.  Nximism.,  t.  1,  p.  88.) 
 It  appears  from  Strabo  that  Gergitha  having  been  taken 
 by  Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  he  removed  the  inhab- 
 tants  to  the  sources  of  the  Caicus,  where  he  founded 
 a  new  town  of  the  same  name.  {Slrab.,  616.)  The 
 Romans,  according  to  Livy,  made  over  the  territory  of 
 the  old  town  to  the  Ilienses  (38,  39).  Herodotus,  in 
 describing  Xerxes'  march  along  the  Hellespont,  states 
 that  he  had  the  town  of  Dardanus  on  his  left,  and  Ger- 
 githa on  the  right ;  it  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the 
 latter  must  have  been  situated  inland,  and  towards 
 Mount  Ida.  {Herod.,  7,  43. —  Cramer''s  Asia  Minor, 
 vol.  1,  p.  84,  seqq.) 
 
 G ERGO VI A,  a  strong  town  and  fortress  of  Gaul,  be- 
 longing to  the  Arverni.  It  was  situate  on  a  very  high 
 mountain,  and  of  difficult  access  on  all  sides.  It  is 
 now  Gergovie.     {Gas.,  B.  G.,  7,  9.) 
 
 Gebmania.  The  word  Germania  was  employed  by 
 the  Romans  to  designate  a  country  of  greater  extent 
 than  modern  Germany.  They  included  under  this  name 
 all  the  nations  of  Europe  east  of  the  Rhine  and  north 
 of  the  Danube,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  German 
 Occnn  and  the  Baltic,  including  Denmark  and  the 
 neighbouring  islands,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Sarma- 
 tians  and  Dacians.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  ascer- 
 tain how  far  Germany  stretched  to  the  East.  Accord- 
 ing to  Strabo  (289),  Germanic  tribes  dwelt  nearly  as  far 
 as  the  mouths  of  the  Borysthenes  (or  Dnieper).  The 
 northern  and  northeastern  parts  of  Gaul  were  also 
 known  under  the  name  of  Germany  in  the  time  of  the 
 Roman  emperors,  after  the  province  of  Belgica  had 
 been  subdivided  into  Germania  Frima  and  Germania 
 Secunda. 
 
 1.  Origin  of  the  Germanic  rtnlions. 
 The  origin  of  the  Germanic  nations  is  involved  in 
 uncertainty.  The  inhabitants  of  the  beautiful  re- 
 gions of  Italy,  who  had  never  known  a  rougher  coun- 
 try, could  hardly  believe  that  any  nation  had  desert- 
 ed its  native  soil  to  dwell  in  the  forests  of  Germany, 
 where  severe  cold  prevailed  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
 year,  and  where,  even  in  summer,  impenetrable  for- 
 ests prevented  the  genial  rays  of  the  sun  from  reach- 
 550 
 
 ing  the  ground.  They  thought  that  the  Germaiw 
 must  have  lived  there  from  the  bcginnincr,  and  there- 
 fore called  them  indigence,  or  "natives  of  the  soil." 
 {Tacit.,  de  Mor.  Germ.,  2.)  Modern  inquiries,  how- 
 ever, have  traced  the  descent  of  the  Germanic  race 
 from  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  ;  since  it  is  now  indisputa- 
 bly established  that  the  Teutonic  dialects  belong  la 
 one  great  family  with  the  Latin,  the  Greek,  the  San- 
 scrit, and  the  other  languages  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
 chain.  Von  Hammer  calls  the  Germans  a  Bactriano- 
 Median  nation.  He  makes  the  name  Germani  or  Ser- 
 mani,  in  its  primitive  import,  to  have  meant  those  who 
 followed  the  worship  of  Buddha,  and  hence  the  Ger- 
 mans, according  to  him,  are  that  ancient  and  primitive 
 race  who  came  down  from  the  mountains  of  Upper 
 Asia,  the  cradle  of  the  human  species,  and,  spreading 
 themselves  over  the  low  country  more  to  the  south, 
 gave  origin  to  the  Persian  and  other  early  nations. 
 Hence  the  name  Dschermama  applied  in  early  times 
 to  all  that  tract  of  country  which  lay  to  the  north  of 
 the  Oxus.  The  land  of  Erman,  therefore,  which  was 
 situate  beyond  this  river,  and  which  corresponds  to 
 the  modern  Clwrusin,  is  made  by  Von  Hammer  the 
 native  home  of  the  Germanic  race,  and  the  Germans 
 themselves  are,  as  he  informs  us,  called  Dscherviani, 
 their  primitive  name,  by  the  Oriental  writers  down 
 to  the  fourteenth  century.  {Von  Hammer,  Wien. 
 Jahrb.,  vol.  2,  p.  319. — Compare  vol.  9,  p.  39.)  An- 
 other remarkable  circumstance  is,  that,  besides  the 
 name  referred  to,  that  of  the  modern  Prussians  may  be 
 found  under  its  primitive  form  in  the  Persian  tongue. 
 We  have  there  the  term  Pruschan  or  Peruschan,  in 
 the  sense  of  "  a  people."  In  Meninski  (1,  j).  533)  we 
 have  Berussan  and  Beruschan,  in  the  sense  of  "com- 
 munitas  ejusdcm  religioriis,''  while,  in  Ferghengi  Schu- 
 uri,  Peruschan  or  Porvsthan  more  than  once  occurs. 
 (Vol.  1,  B.  182,  V.  I.  Z.  and  S.  183,  e.  Z.)  Even  the 
 name  Sachsen  or  Sassen  (Saxons)  is  to  be  found  in  the 
 Persian  tongue,  under  the  form  Sassan,  as  indicating 
 not  only  the  last  dynasty  of  the  Persian  empire  (the 
 Sassanides),  but  also  those  acquainted  with  the  doc- 
 trines of  the  Dessatin,  the  old  Persian  dialect  of  which 
 is  far  more  nearly  related  to  the  Gothic  than  the  mod- 
 ern Persian  to  the  German.  In  the  Oriental  histories, 
 moreover,  mention  is  made  of  the  dynasty  of  the  sons 
 of  Boia,  in  whom  we  may  easily  recognise  the  pro- 
 genitors of  the  Boii ;  while  traces  of  the  name  of 
 the  Catti  may  be  found  in  that  of  Kal,  in  Chorasin. 
 {Fcrgh.  Schuuri,  B.  231.)  The  Getae,  too,  frequently 
 appear  under  the  appellation  of  the  Dschctc  in  the  his- 
 tory of  Timour  ;  and  finally,  the  name  of  the  Franks 
 has  been  traced  to  the  Persian  Fcrheng,  "  reason"  or 
 "  understanding."  (  Von  Hammer,  in  Krusc's  Archiv. 
 dcr  Gcrmanischen  \"6U:crslamme,  hfl.  2,  p.  124,  seqq.) 
 Even  as  early  as  the  time  of  Herodotus,  the  name  of  it>e 
 Tepfiuvioi  (G'c)7Jia?jH)  appears  among  the  ancient  Per 
 sian  tribes  (Herod.,  1,  125),  while  the  analogies  be- 
 tween the  Persian  and  German  are  so  striking  as  to 
 have  excited  the  attention  of  every  intelligent  scholar. 
 Von  Hammer  has  promised  to  show  remarkable  affin- 
 ities between  upward  of  4000  German  and  Persian 
 words.  {Archie.,  p.  126,  not.)  And,  besides  all  this, 
 an  ancient  Georgian  MS.  of  laws,  recently  brought  to 
 light,  proves  conclusively,  that  the  Georgian  nation  had 
 among  them  ordeals  precisely  similar  to  those  of  the 
 early  Germans,  and  also  the  same  judicial  forms  of 
 proceeding,  and  the  same  system  of  satisfactions  to  ba 
 paid  in  cases  of  homicide,  according  to  the  rank  of  the 
 party  slain.  (Annul,  dc  Icgislal.  el  dt  Jitrisprudenct, 
 Nro.  40,  Paris.  1829. —  Compare,  on  the  genera! 
 question  of  German  and  Persian  affinities,  Adelung, 
 Mithradates,  vol.  1,  p.  278.  seqq.  —  Id.  ih.,  vol.  2  p. 
 170,  segq.  —  Rittcr.  Erdkunde,  vol.  2,  p.  614. —/«/., 
 Vorhalk,  p.  307. — Norherg,  de  Orig.  Germ.,  p.  591. — 
 Ltiik,  Uru'clt,  p.  170. — PjisUr,  Gesch.  der  Denlstk, 
 vol.  1,  p.  24,  seqq.,  p.  519,  seqq.)     Now,  if  these  prem- 
 
GERMANIA. 
 
 GERMANIA. 
 
 ises  be  true,  and  they  are  acknowledged  to  be  so  by 
 every  scholar  who  has  examined  ihem,  the  commonly- 
 received  derivation  of  the  name  Germani  falls  to  the 
 ground.  The  advocates  for  this  etymology  maintain, 
 chat  the  appellation  in  question  comes  from  wer,  "  war," 
 and  mann,  "a  man,"  and  that  "  Gcrmani"  therefore 
 means  "  men  of  war"  or  "  warriors,"  the  Roman  al- 
 phabet, in  consequence  of  its  not  having  any  w,  con- 
 verting this  ietler  into  a  soft  g.  They  refer  also  to 
 Tacitus,  who  states,  that  the  Tungri  first  assumed  this 
 name  on  crossing  the  Rhine,  and  that  it  gradually 
 spread  over  the  whole  nation.  {De  Mor.  Germ.,  2.) 
 Others  again  assert,  that  the  term  is  of  Celtic  origin, 
 and  was  first  applied  by  the  Gauls  to  their  German 
 conquerors,  and  they  deduce  it  from  the  Celtic  gcrr, 
 "  war,"  and  mann,  "  a  man."  {Lcmaire,  hid.  Geogr., 
 «.i  C(F.s.,  s.  p.,  p.  269.)  The  true  origin  of  the  name, 
 /lowever,  as  has  already  been  remarked,  must  he  sought 
 in  the  remote  East. — There  was  also  another  nation- 
 al name  which  the  Germans  applied  to  themselves, 
 and  that  was  Tciitones.  In  this  we  recognise  at  once 
 ihe  root  of  the  modern  term  Deutsche  ox  Teutsche;  and 
 the  appellation  would  seem  to  have  come  from  the 
 old  German  word  Diet,  "  a  people,"  and  to  have  been 
 used  as  a  name  for  the  whole  German  race,  consid- 
 ered as  forming  but  one  people,  though  divided  into 
 many  independent  tribes.  {Klemm,  Germ.  Aller- 
 tkumsk.,  p.  79.) 
 
 2.  Geographical  acquaintance  with  Ancient  Germany. 
 The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  very  little  knowledge 
 of  Germany  before  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  met 
 with  several  Germanic  tribes  in  Gaul,  and  crossed  the 
 Rhine  on  two  occasions,  rather  with  the  view  of  pre- 
 venting their  incursions  into  Gaul,  than  of  making 
 any  permanent  conquests.  His  acquaintance  was, 
 however,  limited  to  those  tribes  which  dwelt  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Rhine.  Under  the  early  Roman  emper- 
 ors many  of  these  tribes  were  subdued,  and  the  coun- 
 try west  of  the  Visurgis  (or  Weser)  was  frequently 
 traversed  by  the  Roman  armies.  But  at  no  period 
 had  the  Romans  any  accurate  knowledge  of  the  coun- 
 try east  of  this  river ;  and  it  is  therefore  difficult  to 
 fix  with  certainty  the  position  of  the  German  tribes, 
 particularly  as  the  Germans  were  a  nomade  people. 
 Some  parts  of  Germany  were  inhabited  by  the  Gauls, 
 who  were,  according  to  CoBsar  (B.  G.,  6,  24),  the 
 more  warlike  nation  in  early  times.  Tacitus,  at  a  later 
 day,  divides  the  Germans  into  three  great  tribes, 
 which  were  subdivided  into  many  smaller  ones:  1. 
 the  [ngaevones,  bordering  on  the  ocean.  2.  Hermi- 
 ones,  inhabiting  the  central  parts.  3.  Istaevones,  in- 
 cluding all  the  others.  Plmy  (4,  14)  makes  five  divis- 
 ions ;  I.  Vindili,  including  the  Burgundiones,  Varini, 
 Carini,  and  Gullones.  2.  logsevones,  including  the 
 Cirnbri,  Teutones,  and  Chauci.  3.  Istajvones,  near 
 the  Rhine,  including  the  midland  Cimbri.  4.  Her- 
 miones,  inhabiting  the  central  parts,  including  the 
 Suevi,  Hermunduri,  Catti,  and  Chcrusci.  5.  Peuci- 
 tii  and  Baetsrnae,  bordering  on  the  Dactans. 
 
 3.  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Germans. 
 Our  principal  information  on  this  subject  is  derived 
 from  Tacitus,  who  wrote  a  separate  treatise  on  the  man- 
 ners and  cuMoins  of  the  Germanic  tribes,  entitled  "  Dc 
 Situ,  Monbus,  tt  Populis  Germ.anie..''''  Occasional 
 notices  and  scattered  hints  are  also  found  in  the  works 
 of  other  ancient  authors,  particularly  in  the  Gallic  com- 
 mentaries of  Caesar. — A  nation  free  from  any  foreign 
 intermixture  (say  the  Roman  writers),  ag  is  proved  by 
 their  p€c<iliar  national  physiognomy,  inhabits  the  coun- 
 tries beyond  the  Rhine,  with  fierce  blue  eyes,  deep 
 yellow  hair,  a  robust  frame,  and  a  gigantic  height ;  in- 
 ured to  cold  and  hunger,  but  not  to  thirst  and  heat, 
 warlike,  honest,  faithful,  friendly  and  unsuspicious 
 towards  fftends,  but  towards  enemies  cunning  and  dis- 
 
 sembling ;  scorning  every  restraint,  considering  inde- 
 pendence as  the  most  precious  of  all  things,  and  there- 
 fore ready  to  give  up  life  rather  than  liberty.  Unac- 
 quainted with  the  arts  of  civilization,  ignorant  of  agri- 
 culture and  of  the  use  of  metals  and  letters,  the  Ger- 
 man lives  in  his  forests  and  pastures,  supported  by  the 
 chase,  and  the  produce  of  his  herds  and  flocks;  his 
 life  being  divided  between  inaction,  sensual  pleasures 
 and  great  hardships.  In  time  of  peace,  sleep  and  idle- 
 ness, by  day  and  night,  are  the  sole  pleasure  of  the  in- 
 dolent, discontented  warrior,  who  longs  for  war,  and 
 manly,  dangerous  adventures.  Till  these  arrive,  he 
 surrenders  himself,  with  all  the  passion  of  unrestrained 
 nature,  to  drinking  and  gaming.  A  beverage,  prepared 
 with  little  art  from  wheat  and  barley,  indemnifies  him 
 for  the  absence  of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  which  nature 
 has  denied  him,  and  exhilarates  his  noisy  feasts.  His 
 personal  liberty  is  not  too  precious  to  be  staked  on  the 
 cast  of  a  die  ;  and,  faithful  to  his  word,  he  suffers  him- 
 self to  be  fettered,  without  resistance,  by  the  lucky 
 winner,  and  sold  into  distant  slavery.  The  form  oi 
 government,  in  the  greater  part  of  Germany,  is  demo- 
 cratic. The  German  obeys  general  and  positive  laws 
 less  than  the  casual  ascendancy  of  birth  or  valour,  ot 
 eloquence  or  superstitious  reverence.  On  the  shores 
 of  the  Baltic  there  are  several  tribes  which  acknowl- 
 edge the  authority  of  kings,  without,  however,  resign- 
 ing the  natural  rights  of  man.  Mutual  protection 
 forming  the  tie  which  unites  the  Germans,  the  neces- 
 sity was  early  felt  of  rendering  individual  opinion  sub- 
 ject to  that  of  the  majority  ;  and  these  few  rude  out- 
 lines of  political  society  are  sufficient  for  a  nation  des- 
 titute of  high  ambition.  The  youth,  born  of  free  pa- 
 rents and  ripened  to  manhood,  is  conducted  into  the 
 general  assembly  of  his  countrymen,  furnished  with  the 
 shield  and  spear,  and  received  as  an  equal  and  worthy 
 member  of  their  warlike  republic.  These  assemblies, 
 consisting  of  men  able  to  bear  arms,  and  belonging  to 
 the  same  tribe,  are  summoned  at  fixed  periods  or  on 
 sudden  emergencies.  The  free  vote  of  the  members 
 of  these  councils  decides  on  public  offences,  the  elec- 
 tion of  magistrates,  on  war  or  peace.  For  though  the 
 leaders  are  allowed  to  discuss  all  subjects  previously, 
 yet  the  right  of  deciding  and  executing  is  solely  with 
 the  people.  Impatient  of  delay,  and  obeying  the  im- 
 pulse of  their  passions,  without  regard  to  justice  or 
 policy,  the  Germans  are  quick  in  adopting  resolutions. 
 Their  applause  or  dissatisfaction  is  announced  by  the 
 clashing  of  their  arms  or  by  a  murmur.  In  times  of 
 danger  a  leader  is  chosen,  to  whom  several  tribes  sub- 
 mit. The  most  valiant  is  selected  for  this  purpose,  to 
 lead  his  countrymen  more  by  his  example  than  his  au- 
 thority. As  soon  as  the  danger  is  past,  his  authority, 
 reluctantly  borne  by  his  free-minded  countrymen, 
 ceases.  In  times  of  peace,  no  other  superior  is  known 
 than  the  princes,  who  are  chosen  in  the  assemblies  to 
 distribute  justice,  or  compose  differences  in  their  re- 
 spective districts.  Every  prince  has  a  guard  and  a 
 council  of  100  persons,  .\lthough  the  Romans  called 
 several  German  princes  kings,  yet  these  rulers  had  not 
 so  much  as  the  right  of  punishing  a  freeman  with  death, 
 or  imprisonment,  or  blows.  A  nation  to  which  every 
 kind  of  restraint  was  thus  odious,  and  which  acknowl- 
 edged no  authority,  respected  no  obligations  but  those 
 which  they  imposed  upon  themselves.  To  leaders  of 
 approved  valour  the  noblest  youths  voluntarily  devoted 
 their  arms  and  services  ;  and  as  the  former  vied  with 
 each  other  in  assembling  the  bravest  companion.^ 
 around  them,  so  the  latter  contended  for  the  favour  of 
 their  leaders.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  leader  to  be  the 
 first  in  courage  in  the  hour  of  danger,  and  ibc  duty  of 
 his  companions  not  to  be  inferior  to  him.  To  survive 
 his  fall  was  an  indelible  disgrace  to  his  companions, 
 for  it  was  their  most  sacred  duty  to  defend  his  person, 
 and  to  heighten  his  glory  by  their  own  deeds.  The 
 leader   fought   for  victory,  his  companions,  for  their 
 
 551 
 
GERMANIA. 
 
 GERMANIA. 
 
 leader.     Valour  was  the  grace  of  man,  chastity  the  I  ened   to   the  Rhine,  erected  fortifications   along   the 
 virtue  of  woman      The  primitive  nations  of  German    banks  of  this  river  to  oppose  the  progress  of  the  ene- 
 
 origin  attached  something  of  a  sacred  character  to  the 
 female  sex.  Polygamy  was  only  permitted  to  the 
 princes  as  a  means  of  extending  their  connexions ; 
 divorce  was  forbidden  rather  by  a  sense  of  propriety 
 than  by  law.  Adultery  was  considered  an  inexpiable 
 crime,  and  was,  therefore,  very  rare.  Seduction  was 
 not  to  be  excused  on  any  consideration.  The  religious 
 notions  of  this  race  could  not  but  be  rude  and  imper- 
 fect. The  sun  and  moon,  fire  and  earth,  were  their 
 deities,  whom  they  worshipped,  with  some  imaginary 
 beings  to  whom  they  ascribed  the  direction  of  the  most 
 important  circumstances  of  life,  and  whose  will  the 
 priests  pretended  to  divine  by  secret  arts.  Their  tem- 
 ples were  caverns,  rendered  sacred  by  the  veneration 
 of  many  generations.  The  ordeals  so  famous  in  the 
 middle  ages  were  considered  by  them  infallible  in  all 
 dubious  cases.  Religion  afforded  the  most  powerful 
 means  for  inflaming  their  courage.  The  sacred  stand- 
 ards, preserved  in  the  dark  recesses  of  consecrated 
 caverns,  were  raised  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  their 
 enemies  were  devoted,  with  dreadful  imprecations,  to 
 the  gods  of  war  and  thunder.  The  valiant  only  en- 
 joyed the  favour  of  the  gods  ;  a  warlike  life,  and  death 
 in  battle,  were  considered  as  the  surest  means  of  at- 
 taining the  joys  of  the  other  world,  where  the  heroes 
 were  rejoiced  by  the  relation  of  their  deeds,  while  sit- 
 ting around  the  festal  table,  and  quaffing  beer  out  of 
 large  horns  or  the  sculls  of  their  enemies.  But  the 
 glory  which  the  priests  promised  after  death  was  con- 
 ferred by  the  bards  on  earth.  They  celebrated  in  the 
 battle  and  at  the  triumphal  feasts  the  glorious  heroes 
 of  past  days,  the  ancestors  of  the  brave  who  listened 
 to  their  simple  but  fiery  strains,  and  were  inspired  by 
 ihem  with  contempt  of  death,  and  kindled  to  glorious 
 deeds 
 
 4.  History  of  Ancient  Germany. 
 ,  The  Romans  first  became  acquainted  with  the  an- 
 cient Germans  in  B.C.  113,  when  they  appeared  un- 
 der the  name  of  Teutones  and  Gimbri,  on  the  confines 
 of  the  Roman  dominion,  and  then  moving  south,  car- 
 ried the  terror  of  their  arms  over  Gaul  and  part  of  Nor- 
 thern Italy,  until  overthrown  bv  Marius  and  Catulus 
 (103  and  101  B.C.).  When  Julius  Cssar  had  estab- 
 lished himself  in  Gaul,  he  became  acquainted  with  a 
 nation  then  designated  by  the  name  of  Germans.  Ari- 
 ovistus,  the  leader  of  the  nation,  which  had  previously 
 inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  attempted  to  es- 
 tablish himself  in  Gaul,  but,  being  defeated  by  Caesar, 
 he  was  obliged  to  flee  beyond  the  Rhine.  Of  the  fu- 
 gitives who  returned  over  the  Rhine,  the  nation  of  the 
 Marcomanni  seems  to  have  been  formed.  Cajsar  cross- 
 ed the  Rhine  twice  ;  not  with  the  view  of  making  con- 
 quests in  that  wilderness,  but  to  secure  Gaul  against 
 the  destructive  irruptions  of  the  barbarians.  He  even 
 enlisted  Germans  in  his  army,  first  against  the  Gauls, 
 then  against  Pompcy.  He  obtained  an  accurate  knowl- 
 edge of  those  tribes  only  that  lived  nearest  to  the 
 Rhine,  as  the  Ubii,  Sygambri,  Usipetes,  and  Tencteri. 
 The  lest  of  Germany,  he  was  told,  was  inhabited  by 
 the  Suevi,  who  were  divided  into  100  districts,  each 
 of  which  annually  sent  1000  men  in  quest  of  booty. 
 Thsy  lived  more  by  hunting  and  ()asture  than  by  agri- 
 culture, held  their  fields  in  common,  and  prevented  the 
 approach  of  foreign  nations  by  devastating  their  bor- 
 ders. This  account  is  true,  if  it  is  applied  to  the  Ger- 
 mans in  general,  and  if  by  the  100  districts  are  under- 
 stood different  tribes. — The  civil  wars  diverted  the 
 attention  of  the  Romans  from  Germany.  The  confed- 
 eracy of  the  Sygambri  made  inroads  into  Gaul  with 
 impunity,  and  Agrippa  transferred  the  Ubii,  who  were 
 hard  pressed  by  them,  to  the  west  side  of  the  Rhino. 
 But  the  Sygambri  having  defeated  J>ollius,  the  legate 
 of  Augustus  (A.U.G.  739),  the  emperor  himself  hast- 
 
 552 
 
 my,  and  gave  his  stepson  Drusus  the  chief  command 
 against  them.     This  general  was  victorious  in  several 
 expeditions,  and  advanced  as  far  as  the  Elbe.     He  died 
 A.U.C.  745.    Tiberius,  after  him,  held  the  chief  com- 
 mand on  the  Rhine  during  two  vears,  and  exercised 
 more  cunning  than  force  against  the  Germans.     He  in- 
 duced them  to  enter  the  Roman  service.     The  body- 
 guard of  Augustus  was  composed  of  Germans,  and  the 
 Cheruscan    Arminius  was   rai.sed    to    the   dignity  of 
 knight.     From  740  to  755,  different  Roman  generals 
 commanded   in  those  regions.     'J'lberius,  havino  re- 
 ceived  the   chief  command  a   second   time  (A  U.C. 
 756),  advanced  to  the  Elbe;  and  the  Romans  would 
 probably  have  succeeded  in  making  Germany  a  Roman 
 province,   but  for  the    imprudence   of  his    successor, 
 Quintilius    Varus,  by  which  all  the  advantages  which 
 had  been  previously  gained  were  lost.     His  violent 
 measures  for  changing  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
 Germans  produced  a  general  conspiracy,  headed  by  the 
 (3heruscan  Arminius,  who  had  received  his  education  in 
 Rome.     Decoved  with  three  legions  into  the  forest  of 
 Teutoberg,  Varus  was  attacked  and  destroyed  with  his 
 army.     A  few  fugitives  only  were  saved  by  the  legate 
 Asprenas,  who  was  stationed  with  three  legions  in  the 
 vicinity  of  Cologne.    The  consequence  of  this  victory, 
 gained  by  the  Germans  A.D.  9,  was  the  loss  of  all  the 
 Roman  possessions  beyond  the  Rhine  ;  the  fortress  of 
 Aliso,  built  by  Drusus,  was  destroyed.    The  Cherusci 
 then  became  the  principal  nation  of  Germany.     Four 
 years  after,  the  Romans,  under  the  command  of  Gcr- 
 manicus,  made  a  new  expedition  against  the  Germans  ; 
 but,  notwithstanding  the  valour  and  military  skill  of  the 
 young  hero,  he  did  not  succeed  in  re-establishing  the 
 Roman  dominion.     The  Romans  then  renounced  the 
 project  of  subjugating  the  Germans,  whose  invasions 
 they  easily  repelled,  and  against  any  serious  attacks 
 from  whom  they  were  secured  by  the  internal  dissen- 
 sions which  had  arisen  in  Germany.     Maroboduus,  who 
 had  been  educated  at  the  court  of  Augustus,  had  united, 
 partly  by  persuasion  and  partly  by  force,  several  Su- 
 evian  tribes   into  a  coalition,  which  is  known  under 
 the  name  of  the  Marcomannic  confederacy.     At  the 
 head  of  this  powerful    league,  he  attacked    the  great 
 kingdom  of  the  Boii,  in  the  southern  part  of  Bohemia 
 and  Franconia,  conquered  it,  and  founded  a  formidable 
 state,  whose  authority  extended  over  the  Marcomanni, 
 Hermuiiduri,  Quadi,  Longobardi,  and  Semnones,  and 
 which  was  able  to  send  70,000  fighting  men  into  the 
 field.      Augustus  had  ordered  Til)ejius,   with   twelve 
 legions,  to  attack  Maroboduus  and  destroy  his  pow- 
 er ;  but  a  general  rebellion  in  Dalmatia  obliged  him  to 
 conclude    a    disadvantageous   peace.      The   disasters 
 which  afterward    befell    the  Romans  in   the  west  of 
 Germany,   prevented   them   from    renewing    their  at- 
 tempts against  the  Marcomanni,  who  ventured  to  make 
 frequent  incursions  into  the  southern  parts  of  Germa- 
 ny.    Two  powerful  nations,  therefore,  now  existed  in 
 Germany,  the  Marcomanni  and   the   Cherusci,  who, 
 however,  soon  became  engaged  in  disputes.      On  the 
 one  hand,  the  Longobardi  and  Semnones,  disgu.sted 
 with  the  oppressions  of  Maroboduus,  deserted  his  con- 
 federacy and  joined  the  Cherusci  ;   and,  on  the  other, 
 Inguiomerus,  the  uncle  of  Arminius,  having  become 
 jealous  of  his  nephew,  went  over  to  Marohoduns.     Af- 
 ter the  war  between  the  two  rivals  had  been  carried  on 
 for  a  considerable  time,  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
 military   art,   which   Arminius    and    Maroboduus  had 
 learned  in  the  school  of  the  Romans,  the  victory  at 
 last  remained  with  the  Cherusci.      Tiberius,  instead  of 
 assisting  Maroboduus,  who  had  solicited  his  help,  ii> 
 sligated  Catualda,  king  of  the  Goths,  to  fall  upon  him, 
 forced   him  to  leave  his  country,  and   to  seek  lefugo 
 with  the  Romans.     Catualda,  however,  soon  experi- 
 enced tho  same  fate  from  the  Hermunduri,  who  i^9W 
 
GERMANIA. 
 
 GER 
 
 appear  as  the  principal  tribe  among  the  Marcomanni. 
 The  Cherusci,  after  the  loss  of  their  great  leader,  Ar- 
 minius,  A.D.  21,  fell  from  their  high  rank  among  the 
 German  nations.  Weakened  by  internal  dissensions, 
 they  tinally  received  a  kmg  from  Rome,  by  the  name 
 of  Ilalicus,  who  was  the  last  descendant  of  .'^rmmius. 
 During  his  reign  they  quarrelled  with  their  confeder- 
 ates, the  Longobardi,  and  sunk  to  an  insignificant  tribe 
 on  the  south  side  of  the  Hercynian  forest.  On  the 
 other  hand,  the  Catti,  who  lived  in  the  western  part  of 
 CJennany,  rose  into  importance.  The  Frisians  rebelled 
 on  account  of  a  tribute  imposed  upon  them  by  the 
 Romans,  and  were  with  dilFieuliy  overpowered  ;  while 
 the  Catti,  on  the  II|)por  Rliine,  made  repealed  assaults 
 on  the  Roman  fortresses  on  the  opposite  bank.  Their 
 pride,  however,  was  humbled  by  Galba,  who  compell- 
 ed them  to  abandon  the  country  between  the  Lahn,  the 
 Maine,  and  the  Rhine,  which  was  distributed  among 
 Roman  veterans.  Eighteen  years  later  a  dispute 
 arose  between  the  Hermunduri  and  Catti,  on  account 
 of  the  salt-springs  of  the  Franconian  Saale.  Mean- 
 while the  numerous  com[)anions  of  Maroboduus  and 
 Catualda,  having  settled  on  the  north  of  the  Danube, 
 between  the  rivers  Gran  and  Morava,  had  founded  un- 
 der Vannius,  whom  they  had  received  as  king  from  the 
 Romans,  a  new  kingdom,  which  began  to  grow  op- 
 pressive to  the  neighbouring  tribes.  Although  Van- 
 nius had  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Sarmatian 
 lazygee,  he  was  overpowered  by  the  united  arms  of 
 the  Hermunduri,  Lygii,  and  western  Quadi  (A.D. 
 50),  and  was  compelled  to  fly  for  refuge  to  the  Ro- 
 mans. His  son  in-law,  Sido,  was  now  at  the  head  of 
 the  government.  He  was  a  friend  of  the  Romans,  and 
 rendered  important  services  to  Vespasian.  In  the 
 West,  the  jiower  of  the  Romans  was  shaken  by  the 
 Batavi,  so  that  they  maintained  themselves  with  the 
 greatest  difficulty.  A  war  now  broke  out,  that  was  ter- 
 minated only  with  the  downiall  of  Rome.  The  Suevi, 
 being  attacked  by  the  Lvgii,  asked  for  assistance  from 
 Domitian,  who  sent  them  100  horsemen.  Such  pal- 
 try succours  only  ofi'ended  the  Suevi.  Entering  into 
 an  alliance  with  the  lazyga^,  in  Dacia,  they  threatened 
 Pannonia.  Domitian  was  defeated.  Nerva  checked 
 them,  and  Trajan  gained  a  complete  victory  over  them. 
 But,  from  the  time  of  Antoninus  the  philosopher,  the 
 flames  of  war  continued  to  blaze  in  those  regions. 
 The  Roman  empire  was  perpetually  harassed,  on  two 
 sides  by  the  barbarians,  on  one  side  by  a  number  of 
 small  tribes,  who,  pressed  by  the  Goths,  were  forced 
 to  invade  Dacia  in  quest  of  new  habitations.  The 
 southern  regions  were  assigned  to  them  in  order  to 
 pacify  them.  But  a  war  of  more  moment  was  car- 
 ried on  against  Rome  on  the  other  side,  by  the  iinited 
 forces  of  the  Marcomanni,  Hermunduri,  and  Quadi, 
 which  is  commonly  called  the  Marcomannic  war. 
 Marcus  Aurelius  fought  against  them  to  the  end  of  his 
 life,  and  Commodus  bought  a  peace,  ,\.D.  180.  Mean- 
 time the  Catti  devastated  Gaul  and  Rhajtia,  the  Che- 
 rusci forced  the  Longobardi  back  to  the  Elbe.  A.D. 
 220,  new  barbarians  appeared  in  Dacia,  the  Visigoths, 
 Ge()idaB,  and  Heruli,  and  waged  war  against  the  Ro- 
 mans. At  the  same  time,  in  the  reign  of  Caracalla, 
 a  new  confederacy  appeared  in  the  southern  part  of 
 Germany,  the  Alemanni,  consisting  of  Istaevonian 
 tribes.  Rome,  in  order  to  defend  its  provinces  against 
 them,  erected  the  famous  Vallum  Romanoruvi,  the 
 ruins  of  which  are  still  visible  from  laxthausen  to 
 CEhringen.  But  the  power  of  the  Romans  sank  more 
 and  more,  partly  by  the  incessant  struggle  against  the 
 barbarians,  partly  by  internal  agitations.  At  the  time 
 when  the  Roman  power  had  been  weakened  by  civil 
 wars,  in  the  frequent  military  revolutions  during  the 
 government  of  the  emperors,  the  Franks  forced  their 
 v.;ay  as  far  as  Spain,  and  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
 Probus  they  also  conquered  the  island  of  the  Batavi. 
 Thus  the  Franks  and  Alemanni  weie  now  the  most 
 4A 
 
 powerful  German  nations.  Under  Julian,  the  former 
 lost  the  island  of  the  Batavi,  which  was  conquered  by 
 the  Saxons,  and  the  latter  were  humbled  by  the  armies 
 of  Rome.  But  this  was  Rome's  last  victory.  In  the 
 beginning  of  the  5lh  century  barbarians  assailed  the 
 Roman  empire  on  all  sides.  The  Vandals,  Suevi,  and 
 Alans  occupied  Gaul  and  spain.  The  Burgundians 
 followed  them  to  Gaul,  the  Visigoths  to  Italy  and 
 Spain  ;  the  Burgundians  were  followed  by  the  Franks, 
 the  Visigoths  by  the  Ostrogoths,  and  these  by  the 
 Longobardi.  Thus  began  those  migrations  of  the  in- 
 numerable hosts,  that  spread  themselves  from  the  Nonh 
 and  East  over  all  Europe,  subduing  everything  in  their 
 course.  This  event  is  called  the  great  migration  of 
 the  nations.  {Encyclopadia  Americana,  vol.  5,  p.  452, 
 scqq.) 
 
 Germanicus  CyESAR,  the  eldest  son  of  Drusus  Nero 
 Germanicus,  and  of  Antonia  the  younger,  born  B.C. 
 14.  He  was  the  nephew  of  Tiberius  and  brother  of 
 Claudius,  afterward  emperor.  Augustus,  on  adopting 
 Tiberius,  made  the  latter  adopt  his  nephew  Germani- 
 cus. At  the  age  of  twenty  Germanicus  served  with 
 distinction  in  Dalmatia,  and  afterward  in  Pannonia, 
 and,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  obtained  the  honours  of 
 a  triumph.  He  married  Agrippina  the  elder,  grand- 
 daughter of  Augustus,  by  whom  he  had  nine  children, 
 among  others  Caligula,  and  Agrippina  the  younger,  the 
 mother  of  Nero.  In  A.D.  13,  Germanicus  was  made 
 consul,  and  soon  after  he  was  sent  by  Augustus  to 
 command  the  legions  on  the  Rhine.  On  the  news  of 
 the  death  of  Augustus,  some  of  the  legions  mutinied, 
 while  Germanicus  was  absent  collecting  the  revenue  in 
 Gaul.  He  hastened  back  to  the  camp,  and  found  it 
 one  scene  of  tumult  and  confusion.  The  young  sol- 
 diers demanded  an  increase  of  pay,  the  veterans  their 
 discharge.  They  had  already  driven  the  centurions 
 out  of  the  camp.  Some  offered  their  assistance  to 
 raise  Germanicus  to  the  supreme  power,  but  he  re- 
 jected their  offers  with  horror,  and  left  his  judgment- 
 seat,  heedless  of  the  clamour  and  threats  of  the  muti- 
 neers. Having  retired  with  a  few  friends  to  his  tent, 
 after  some  consultation  on  the  danger  to  the  empire 
 if  the  hostile  Germans  should  take  advantage  of  the 
 confusion  caused  by  this  sedition  of  the  troops,  he  de- 
 termined upon  exhibiting  to  the  soldiers  fictitious  let- 
 ters of  Tiberius,  which  granted  most  of  their  demands, 
 and,  the  better  to  appease  them,  he  disbursed  to  them 
 immediately  a  considerable  sum  by  way  of  bounty. 
 He  found  still  greater  difficulty,  however,  in  quelling 
 a  second  mutiny,  which  broke  out  on  the  arrival  of 
 legates  from  the  senate,  who  brought  to  Germanicus 
 his  promotion  to  the  rank  of  proconsul.  The  soldiers 
 suspected  that  they  came  with  orders  for  their  punish- 
 ment, and  the  camp  became  again  a  scene  of  confn- 
 sion.  Germanicus  ordered  his  wife  Agrippina.  with 
 her  son  Caius  Caligula,  attended  by  other  officers' 
 wives  and  children,  to  leave  the  camp,  as  being  no 
 longer  a  place  of  safety  for  them.  This  sight  affected 
 and  mortified  the  soldiers,  who  begged  their  command- 
 er to  revoke  the  order,  to  punish  the  guilty,  and  to 
 march  against  the  enemy.  They  then  began  to  inflict 
 summary  execution  on  the  ringleaders  of  the  mutiny, 
 without  waiting  for  the  sanction  of  their  general.  A 
 similar  scene  took  place  in  the  camp  of  two  other 
 legions,  which  were  stationed  in  another  part  of  the 
 country,  under  the  orders  of  Csecina.  Availing  him- 
 self of  the  state  of  excitement  on  the  part  of  the  sol- 
 diers, Germanicus  crossed  the  Rhine,  attacked  the 
 Marsi,  the  Bructeri,  and  other  German  tribes,  and  rout- 
 ed them  with  great  slaughter.  The  following  year  he 
 defeated  the  Catti,  and,  after  having  burned  their  city 
 of  Mattium  (according  to  Mannert,  Marpurg),  he  vic- 
 toriously returned  over  the  Rhine.  Here  some  depu- 
 ties  of  Segestes  afipeared  before  him,  soliciting,  m  the 
 name  of  their  master,  his  assistance  against  Arminius, 
 the  son-in-law  of  Segestes,  by  whom  the  latter  was  be- 
 
 553 
 
GER 
 
 GES 
 
 sieged.  Germauiciis  hastened  to  his  rescue,  delivered 
 him,  and  made  Thusnelda,  wife  of  Arininius,  prisoner. 
 Arminius  then  prepared  for  war,  and  Gernianicus  col- 
 lected his  forces  on  the  Amisia  or  Ems.  A  battle 
 ensued.  The  Roman  legions  were  already  receding, 
 when  Germanicus  renewed  the  attack  with  fresh  troops, 
 and  thus  happily  averted  the  rout  that  threatened  him. 
 Arminius  retreated,  and  Germanicus  was  content  to  re- 
 gain the  banks  of  the  Ems,  and  retire  with  honour 
 from  a  contest  which  his  army  could  no  longer  sustain. 
 After  having  lost  another  part  of  his  troops  during  his 
 retreat,  by  a  violent  storm,  which  wrecked  the  vessels 
 in  which  they  were  embarked,  he  reached  the  mouths 
 of  the  Rhine  with  a  feeble  remnant  of  his  army,  and 
 employed  the  winter  in  making  new  preparations  for 
 war  against  the  Germans.  He  built  a  fleet  of  one  thou- 
 sand vessels,  in  order  to  avoid  the  difficult  route  by  land 
 through  forests  and  morasses,  and  landed  at  the  mouth 
 of  the  Ems.  Proceeding  thence  towards  the  Visurgis 
 or  Weser,  he  found  the  Cherusci  assembled  on  the 
 opposite  bnnk,  with  the  intention  of  contesting  the 
 passage.  Nevertheless,  he  effected  it,  and  fought  a 
 battle  which  began  at  daybreak,  and  terminated  to  the 
 advantage  of  the  Romans.  On  the  succeeding  day 
 the  Germans  renewed  the  contest  with  fury,  and  car- 
 ried disorder  into  the  ranks  of  the  Romans,  but  Ger- 
 manicus maintained  possession  of  the  field.  The  Ger- 
 mans returned  into  their  forests.  Germanicus  re-em- 
 barked, and,  after  having  experienced  a  terrible  storm, 
 by  which  part  of  his  fleet  was  dissipated,  went  into 
 winter-quarters,  but  not  until  he  had  made  another  in- 
 cursion into  the  territory  of  the  Marsi.  Meantime  Ti- 
 berius wrote  repeatedly  to  his  nephew,  that  he  had 
 earned  enough  of  glory  in  Germany,  and  that  he  ought 
 to  return  to  Rome  to  enjoy  the  triumph  which  he  had 
 merited.  Germanicus  asked  for  another  year  to  com- 
 plete the  subjugation  of  Germany,  but  Tiberius,  who 
 felt  jealous  of  the  glory  of  his  nephew,  and  of  his  pop- 
 ularity with  the  troops,  remained  infle.xible,  and  Ger- 
 manicus was  obliged  to  retiirn  to  Rome,  where  he 
 triumphed  in  the  following  year,  A.D.  17.  The  year 
 after,  he  was  consul  for  the  second  time  with  Tiberius 
 himself,  and  was  sent  to  the  East,  where  serious  dis- 
 turbances had  broken  out,  with  most  extensive  powers. 
 But  Tiberius  took  care  to  have  a  watch  over  him,  bv 
 placing  in  the  government  of  Syria  Cna3us  Piso,  a 
 violent  and  ambitious  man,  who  seems  to  have  been 
 well  qualified  for  his  mission,  as  he  annoyed  Germani- 
 cus in  every  possible  way,  and  his  wife  Plancina  sec- 
 onded him  in  his  purpose.  The  frank  and  open  na- 
 ture of  Germanicus  was  no  match  for  the  wily  intrigues 
 of  his  enemies.  After  making  peace  with  Artabanus, 
 king  of  the  Parthians,  and  calming  other  disturbances 
 in  the  East,  Germanicus  fell  ill  at  Antioch,  and,  after 
 lingering  for  some  time,  died,  plainly  expressing  to  his 
 wife  and  friends  around  him  that  he  was  the  victim  of 
 the  wickedness  of  Piso  and  Plancina,  meaning  most 
 probably  that  some  slow  poison  had  been  administered 
 to  him.  His  wife  Agri[)pina,  with  her  son  Caius  and 
 her  other  children,  returned  to  Rome  with  the  ashes 
 of  her  husband.  Germanicus  was  generally  and  deep- 
 ly regretted.  Like  his  father  Drusus,  he  was,  while 
 living,  an  object  of  hope  to  the  Romans.  He  died 
 A.D.  19,  in  the  thirty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  Ger- 
 manicus has  been  praised  for  his  sincerity,  his  kind 
 nature,  his  disinterestedness,  and  his  love  of  informa- 
 tion, which  he  exhibited  in  his  travels  in  Greece  and 
 Egypt.  His  military  talents  appear  to  have  been  of  a 
 high  order.  And  yet,  in  the  midst  of  warlike  opera- 
 tions, he  still  found  leisure  for  literary  pursuits,  and  fa- 
 voured the  world  with  two  Greek  comedies,  some  epi- 
 grams, and  a  translation  of  Aratus  into  Latin  verse. 
 The  translation  has  come  down  to  us  in  part.  {Vid. 
 Aratus  L  —  Tacit.,  A7in.,  I,  31,  se^q — Id.,  Ann.,  2, 
 6 — Id.  ib.,  2,  53,  scqq. — Dio  Cass.,  57,  5,  seqq.) 
 Gkemanii,  one  of  the  ancient  tribes  of  Persia.  {He- 
 551 
 
 rod.,  1,  125  )  This  circumstance  forms  an  important 
 argument  in  the  question  respecting  the  affinity  be- 
 tween the  early  Germanic  and  Persian  races.  (Con- 
 sult remarks  under  the  article  Germania,  (}  1.) 
 
 Geronthr^,  a  town  of  I^aconia,  to  the  north  of 
 Helos,  founded  by  the  Achaeans  long  before  the  inva- 
 sion of  the  Dorians  and  the  Heraclidse,  and  subse- 
 quently colonized  by  the  latter.  When  Pausanias  vis- 
 ited Laconia,  he  found  Geronthrre  in  possession  of  the 
 Eleuthero-Lacones.  It  contained  a  temple  and  grove 
 of  Mars,  and  another  temple  of  Apollo.  This  ancient 
 town  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated  near  the  vil- 
 lage of  Hieraki,  where  there  are  some  vestiges.  {Pau- 
 san.,  3,  22. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  218.) 
 
 Gerba,  L  a  city  of  Arabia  Deserta,  on  the  Sinus 
 Persicus.  It  was  enriched  by  commerce,  and  the 
 principal  articles  of  trade  were  the  perfumes  brought 
 from  the  Sabaei,  sent  up  the  Euphrates  to  Thapsacus, 
 and  across  the  desert  to  Petra.  {Plin.,  6,  28. —  Schol. 
 ad  Nicand.,  Alexiph.,  v.  107.)  This  city,  for  the  con- 
 struction of  whose  houses  and  ramparts  stones  of  salt 
 were  used,  appears  to  be  represented  by  that  now 
 named  El-Kalif — II.  A  city  of  .(Egyptus  Inferior,  or 
 lower  Egypt,  in  the  eastern  (juarter,  about  eight  miles 
 from  Pelusium.  Now  probably  Mascli. — III.  A  city 
 of  Syria,  in  the  district  of  Cyrrhestica,  between  Be- 
 ihammaria  and  Arimara,  and  near  the  Euphrates. 
 Now  Suruk — IV.  According  to  Ptolemy,  a  city  on 
 the  Island  Meninx,  in  the  Syrtis  Minor,  west  of  the 
 city  of  Meninx.  {Bischojf  u?id  Moller,  Worlerb.  der 
 Gcogr.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Gebrhi,  a  people  of  Scythia,  in  whose  country  the 
 Borysthenes  rises.  The  kings  of  Scythia  were  buried 
 in  their  territories.     {Herodot.,  4,  71.) 
 
 Gerrhus,  a  river  of  Scyihia,  which,  according  to 
 Herodotus  (4,  56),  separated  from  the  Borysthenes, 
 near  the  place  as  far  as  which  that  river  was  first 
 known.  It  flowed  towards  the  sea,  dividing  the  ter- 
 ritories of  the  Herdsmen  from  those  of  the  Royal  Scy- 
 thians, and  then  fell  into  the  Hypacris.  D'Anville 
 makes  it  the  same  with  the  modern  Molosznijawodi. 
 Reiinell,  however,  inclines  in  favour  of  the  Tasczenac. 
 {Geogr.  of  Herodotus,  p.  71.) 
 
 Geryon,  Gervoneus,  and  Geev5nes,  a  celebrated 
 monster,  born  from  the  union  of  Chrysaor  with  Galli- 
 rhoe.  He  had  the  bodies  of  thiee  men  united  :  they 
 cohered  above,  but  below  the  loins  they  were  divided 
 into  three.  He  lived  in  the  island  of  Erythea,  in 
 the  Sinus  Gaditanus.  Geryon  was  the  possessor  of 
 remarkable  oxen.  They  were  of  a  purple  hue,  and 
 were  guarded  by  a  herdsman  named  Eurytion,  and  by 
 the  two-headed  dog  Orthos,  the  progeny  of  Echidna 
 and  Typhon.  The  tenth  labour  of  Hercules  was  to 
 bring  the  oxen  of  Geryon  from  the  island  where  ihey 
 were  pastured.  Having  reached  Erythea  in  the  golden 
 cup  of  the  Sun-god,  he  passed  the  night  on  Mount 
 Abas.  The  dog  Orthos,  discovering  him,  flew  at  him, 
 but  Hercules  struck  him  with  his  club,  and  killed  Eu- 
 rytion who  came  up  to  his  aid.  Menoetius,  who  kept 
 in  the  same  place  the  oxen  of  Hades,  having  informed 
 Geryon  of  what  had  happened,  the  latter  pursued  and 
 overtook  Hercules  as  he  was  driving  the  cattle  along 
 the  river  Anthemus.  Geryon  there  attacked  him,  but 
 was  slain  by  his  arrows  ;  and  Hercules,  placing  the  oxen 
 in  the  cup,  brought  them  over  to  the  Continent.  ( Vid. 
 Hercules,  where  an  explanation  is  given  of  the  whole 
 legend  respecting  the  hero,  and  consult  ApoHod.,  2, 
 5,  10.) — According  to  some  ancient  writers,  the  oxen 
 of  Geryon  were  brought,  not  from  the  island  of  Ery- 
 thea, but  from  Acarnania.  Consult  on  this  subject  the 
 remarks  of  Creuzer  {Hist.  GrcBC.  Antiquiss.  Fragm., 
 p.  51,  not.). 
 
 Gessoriacum,  a  town  of  the  Morini,  in  Gaul  ;  it 
 was  afterward  named  Bononia,  or  Bolonia,  and  is  now 
 Boulogne.  It  appears  to  be  the  same  with  the  Mon- 
 norum  Partus  Britannicus  of  Pliny  (4,  extr.).     Man- 
 
G  IG 
 
 GIH 
 
 nert  makes  it  identical  with  the  Partus  Ictus  or  Ilius. 
 {Mela,  3,  2.—Su€ton.,  Vit.  Claud.,  17.— Eutrop.,  9, 
 8.—Zosim.,  6,  2.) 
 
 Geta,  Antonius,  younger  son  of  the  Emperor  Sep- 
 timius  Severus,  was  born  A.D.  190,  and  made  Caesar 
 and  colleague  with  his  father  and  brother,  A.D.  208. 
 The  most  remarkable  circumstance  recorded  of  him  is 
 the  dissitnilarity  of  his  disposition  to  that  of  his 
 father  and  brother,  who  were  both  cruel,  while  Geta 
 was  distinguished  by  his  mildness  and  affability.  He 
 is  said  to  have  several  times  reproved  his  brother  Cara- 
 calla  for  his  proneiiess  to  shed  blood,  in  consequence 
 of  which  he  incurred  his  mortal  hatred.  When  Seve- 
 rus died  at  Eboracum  (York),  A.D.  211,  he  named  his 
 two  sons  as  his  joint  successors  in  the  empire.  The 
 soldiers,  who  were  much  attached  to  Geta,  withstood 
 all  the  insinuations  of  Caracalla,  who  wished  to  reign 
 alone,  and  insisted  upon  swearing  allegiance  to  both 
 emperors  together.  After  a  short  and  unsuccessful 
 campaign,  the  two  brothers,  with  their  mother  Julia, 
 proceeded  to  Rome,  where,  after  performing  the  fu- 
 neral rites  of  their  father,  they  divided  the  imperial 
 palace  between  them,  and  at  one  time  thought  of  di- 
 viding the  empire  likewise.  Geta,  who  was  fond  of 
 tranquillity,  proposed  to  take  Asia  and  Egypt,  and  to 
 reside  at  Antioch  or  Alexandrea;  but  the  Empress  Ju- 
 lia with  tears  deprecated  the  partition,  saying  that  she 
 could  not  bear  to  part  from  either  of  her  soris.  After 
 repeated  attempts  of  Caracalla  to  murder  Geta,  he 
 feigned  a  wish  to  be  reconciled  to  his  brother,  and  in- 
 vited him  to  a  conference  in  their  mother's  apartment. 
 Geta  unsuspectingly  went,  and  was  stabbed  by  some 
 centurions  whom  Caracalla  had  concealed  for  the  pur- 
 pose. His  mother  Julia  tried  to  shield  him,  but  they 
 murdered  him  in  her  arms,  and  she  was  stained  by  his 
 blood,  and  wounded  in  one  of  her  hands.  This  hap- 
 pened A.D.  212.  After  the  murder  Caracalla  began  a 
 fearful  proscription  of  all  the  friends  of  Geta,  and  also 
 of  those  who  lamented  his  death  on  public  grounds. 
 {Spariian.,  Vit.  Get. — Herodian,  4,  1,  seqq.  —  Dio 
 Cass.,  77,  2,  seqq.) 
 
 Gkt^,  the  name  of  a  northern  tribe  mentioned  in 
 Roman  history,  inhabiting  the  country  on  both  banks 
 of  the  Danube  near  its  aestuary,  and  along  the  western 
 shores  of  the  Eu.vine.  Those  who  lived  south  of  the 
 Danube  were  brought  into  a  kind  of  subjection  lo 
 Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus  {Dio  Cass.,  51)  ;  and 
 their  country,  called  Scythia  Parva,  and  also  Pontus,  is 
 well  known,  under  the  latter  name,  through  the  poems 
 which  Ovid,  in  his  exile,  wrote  from  Tomi,  the  place  of 
 his  residence.  He  gives  in  many  passages  a  dismal 
 account  of  the  appearance  and  manners  of  the  Getae, 
 especially  in  elegies  seventh  and  tenth  of  the  fifth  book 
 of  his  Tristia.  The  maritime  parts  of  the  country  had 
 been  in  former  times  colonized  by  the  Greeks,  and  this 
 may  account  for  the  partial  civilization  of  the  Getae 
 south  of  the  Danube,  while  their  brethren  north  of  the 
 same  river  remained  in  a  state  of  barbarism  and  inde- 
 pendence. The  Getae  are  described  by  Herodotus 
 (4,  93)  as  living  in  his  time  south  of  the  Ister  (Dan- 
 iil)e).  He  calls  them  the  bravest  of  the  Thracians. 
 The  Goths  are  supposed  to  have  had  a  common  ori- 
 gin with  the  Getae.  {Plin.,  4,  11. — Mela,  2,  2. — 
 Jurnand.,  de  Rcgn.  Success.,  p.  50,  seq.) 
 
 Gii; ANTES,  the  sons  of  Coelus  and  Terra,  who,  ac- 
 cording to  Hesiod,  sprang  from  the  blood  of  the  wound 
 which  Coelus  received  from  his  son  Saturn  ;  while  Hy- 
 ginus  calls  thein  sons  of  Tartarus  and  Terra.  They  are 
 represented  as  of  uncommon  stature,  with  strength  pro- 
 portioned lo  their  gigantic  size.  Some  of  them,  as 
 Cotius,  Briareus,  and  Gyes,  had  fifty  heads  and  one 
 hundred  arms.  The  giants  are  fabled  by  the  poets  to 
 have  made  war  upon  the  gods.  The  scene  of  the 
 conflict  is  said  to  have  been  the  peninsula  of  Pallene  ; 
 and  svith  the  aid  of  Hercules  the  gods  subdued  their 
 formidable  foes.    The  principal  champions  on  the  side 
 
 of  the  giants  were  Porphyrion,  Alcyoneus,  and  Encel- 
 adus,  on  the  last  of  Khom  Minerva  flung  the  island 
 of  Sicily,  where  his  i:^,otions  cause  the  eruptions  of 
 iEtna.  {Find.,  Pijth.,  8,  15.— W.,  Nein.,  1,  100.— 
 Apollod.,  1,  6.)— It  is  said  that  Earth,  enraged  at  the 
 destruction  of  the  giants,  brought  forth  the  huge  Ty- 
 phon  to  contend  with  the  gods.  The  stature  of  this 
 monster  reached  the  sky  ;  tire  flashed  from  his  eyes  ; 
 he  hurled  glowing  rocks  with  loud  cries  and  hissing 
 against  heaven,  and  flame  and  storm  rushed  from  his 
 mouth.  The  gods,  in  dismay,  fled  lo  Egypt,  and  con- 
 cealed themselves  under  the  forms  of  various  animals. 
 Jupiter,  however,  after  a  severe  conflict,  overcame  bim, 
 and  placed  him  beneath  ^tna.  {Pmd.,  Pylh.,  1,  29, 
 seqq. — Id.,  frag.  Epinic,  5. — JEsch.,  Prvm.  V.,  351, 
 seqq.)  The  flight  of  the  gods  into  Egypt  is  a  bung- 
 ling attempt  at  connecting  the  Greek  mythology  with 
 the  animal  worship  of  that  country.  {Keightliifs  My- 
 thology, p.  262,  seq.)  The  giants  appear  to  have  been 
 nothing  more  than  the  energies  of  nature  personified, 
 and  the  conflict  between  them  and  the  gods  must  al- 
 lude to  some  tremendous  convulsion  of  nature  in  very 
 early  times.  {Vid.  Lectoiiia,  and  compare  Hermann 
 und  Crcu^er,  Briefc,  &.C.,  p.  164.) — .-^s  regards  the 
 general  question,  respecting  the  possible  existence  in 
 former  days  of  a  gigantic  race,  it  need  only  be  observed, 
 that,  if  their  structure  be  supposed  to  have  been  simi- 
 lar to  that  of  the  rest  of  our  species,  they  must  have 
 been  mere  creatures  of  poetic  imagination  ;  they  could 
 not  have  existed.  It  is  found  that  the  bones  of  the 
 human  body  are  invariably  hollow,  and,  consequently, 
 well  calculated  to  resist  external  violence.  Had  they 
 been  solid,  they  would  have  proved  too  heavy  a  burden 
 for  man  to  bear.  But  this  hollowness,  while  it  is  ad- 
 mirably well  fitted  for  the  purpose  which  has  just  been 
 mentioned,  and  likewise  subserves  many  other  impor- 
 tant ends  in  the  animal  economy,  is  not  by  any  means 
 well  adapted  for  supporting  a  heavy  superincumbent 
 weight ;  on  the  contrary,  it  renders  the  bone  weaker, 
 in  this  respect,  than  if  the  latter  had  been  solid.  The 
 inference  from  all  this  is  very  plain.  Man  never  was 
 intended  by  his  Maker  for  a  gigantic  being,  since  his 
 limbs  could  not,  in  that  event,  have  supported  him  ; 
 and,  if  giants  ever  did  exist,  they  must  necessarily 
 have  been  crushed  by  their  own  weight.  Or,  had  their 
 bones  been  made  solid,  the  weight  of  their  limbs  would 
 have  been  so  enormous,  that  these  lofty  beings  must 
 have  remained  as  immoveable  as  statues.  That  many 
 of  our  species  have  attained  a  very  large  size  is  indis- 
 putable, but  the  world  has  never  seen  giants ;  and  in 
 all  those  cases  where  the  bones  of  giants  are  said  to 
 have  been  dug  up  from  the  earth,  the  remains  thus  dis- 
 covered have  been  found  to  be  merely  those  of  some 
 extinct  species  of  the  larger  kind  of  animals.  A  sim- 
 ple mode  of  life,  abundance  of  nutritious  food,  and  a 
 salubrious  atmosphere,  give  to  all  organic  beings  large 
 and  graceful  forms.  The  term  giant,  as  used  in  scrip- 
 ture, originates  in  an  error  of  translation.  In  our  ver- 
 sion of  holy  writ  six  different  Hebrew  words  are  ren- 
 dered by  the  same  term  giants,  whereas  they  merely 
 mean,  in  general,  persons  of  great  courage,  wicked- 
 ness, &c.,  and  not  men  of  enormous  siaiure,  as  js 
 commonly  supposed.  Thus,  too,  when  Niinrod  is 
 styled  in  the  Greek  version  a  giant  before  the  Lord, 
 nothing  more  is  meant  than  that  he  was  a  man  of  ex- 
 tensive power. 
 
 GiNDES.      Vid.  Gyndcs. 
 
 GiK,  a  river  of  Africa,  which  Ptolemy  delineates  as 
 equal  in  length  to  the  Niger,  the  course  of  each  being 
 probably  about  1000  British  miles.  It  ran  (roin  east 
 to  west,  until  lost  in  the  same  lake,  marsh,  or  desert 
 as  the  Niger.  The  Arabian  geographer  Ednsi  seems 
 to  indicate  the  Ghir  when  he  speaks  of  the  Nile  of  the 
 negroes  as  running  lo  the  west,  and  being  lost  m  an 
 inland  sea,  in  which  was  the  island  Llil.  Some  have 
 supposed  the  Gir  of  Ptolemy  to  be  the  river  of  Bornon, 
 
GL  A 
 
 GLA 
 
 rr  Wad-al-Gazcl,  which,  joining  another  considerable* 
 rivor  flowing  from  Kiiku,  discharges  itself  into  the 
 Nubia  Palus  or  Kangra,  and  it  is  so  delineated  in 
 Renne^l's  map  ;  Ijut  others,  seemingly  with  better 
 reason,  apprehend  the  Gir  of  Ptoiemv  to  be  the  Bahr- 
 KulLa  of  Browne,  \u  his  history  of  Africa. 
 
 Gladiatokii  Ludi,  combats  originally  exhibited  at 
 the  grave  of  deceased  persons  at  Rome.  They  were 
 first  introduced  there  by  the  IJniti,  upon  the  death  of 
 their  father,  A.U.C.  490,  and  they  thus  formed  ori- 
 ginally a  kind  of  funeral  sacrifice,  the  shades  of  the 
 dead  being  supposed  to  be  pro[iitinted  with  blood.  For 
 some  time  after  this  they  were  exhibited  only  on  such 
 occasions.  Subsequently,  however,  the  magistrates, 
 to  entertain  the  people,  gave  shows  of  gladiators  at  the 
 Saturnalia  and  the  festival  of  Minerva.  Incredible 
 numbers  of  men  were  destroyed  in  this  manner.  Af- 
 ter the  triumph  of  Trajan  over  the  Dacians,  .opectacles 
 of  this  kind  were  exhibited  for  123  days,  in  which 
 10,000  gladiators  fought.  Gladiators  were  kept  and 
 maintained  in  schools  by  persons  called  lanislcz,  .vhe 
 purchased  and  trained  them.  The  whole  number  'jn- 
 der  one  lamsta  was  caMed  familia.  Gladiators  srere  at 
 first  composed  of  captives  and  slaves,  or  of  condemned 
 malefactors.  But  afterward  also  freeborn  citiiens,  in- 
 duced by  hire  or  bv  inclination,  fought  on  '.he  &rer.a  ; 
 some  even  of  noble  birth  ;  and,  what  is  ^lill  more  won- 
 derful, women  of  rank^  and  dwarfs.  When  there  were 
 io  be  any  shows,  handbills  were  circrlated  to  give  no- 
 lice  to  the  people,  and  to  meution  the  place,  number, 
 Mme,  and  every  circumstance  requisite  to  be  known. 
 When  they  were  first  brought  upon  the  arena,  they 
 talked  round  the  place  wvch  great  pomp  and  solemnity, 
 ind  after  that  tb'^y  were  matched  in  equal  pairs  with 
 great  nice'.y.  They  first  had  a  skirmish  with  wooden 
 filer,  called  rv'jis  cr  arma  lusoria.  After  this  the  ef- 
 'iect'7e  weapons,  such  as  swords,  daggers,  &c.,  called 
 irm^.  decreloria,  were  given  them,  and  the  signal  for 
 .he  engagement  was  given  by  the  sound  of  a  trumpet. 
 As  they  had  all  previously  bound  themelves  to  contend 
 kill  the  last,  the  fight  was  bloody  and  obstinate  ;  and 
 t\-hen  one  signified  his  submission  by  surrendering  his 
 arms,  the  victor  was  not  permitted  to  grant  him  his  life 
 without  the  leave  and  approbation  of  the  multitude. 
 This  was  done  by  pressing  down  their  thumbs,  with 
 the  hands  clenched.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  people 
 wished  him  slain,  they  turned  their  thumbs  upward. 
 The  first  of  these  signs  was  called  polliccm.  prcmere ; 
 the  second,  polliccm  vcrlere.  The  combats  of  gladia- 
 tors were  sometimes  different,  either  in  weapons  or 
 dress,  whence  they  were  generally  distinguished  into 
 the  following  orders.  The  sccutorcs  were  armed  with 
 a  sword  and  buckler,  to  keep  off  the  net  of  their  antag- 
 onists, the  retiarii.  These  last  endeavoured  to  throw 
 their  net  over  the  head  of  their  opponent,  and  in  that 
 manner  to  entangle  him,  and  prevent  him  from  striking. 
 If  this  did  not  succeed,  they  betook  themselves  to  flight. 
 Their  dress  was  a  short  coat,  with  a  hat  tied  under  the 
 chin  with  broad  riband.  They  bore  a  trident  in  their 
 left  hand.  The  Threces,  originally  Thracians,  were 
 armed  with  a  falchion  and  small  round  shield.  The 
 niyrmillones,  called  also  Galli,  from  their  Gallic  dress, 
 were  much  the  same  as  the  sccutorcs.  They  were, 
 like  them,  armed  with  a  sword,  and  on  the  top  of  their 
 headpiece  they  wore  the  figure  of  a  fish  embossed, 
 called  uopfivpoi;,  whence  their  name.  The  hoplomachi 
 were  completely  armed  from  head  to  foot,  as  their 
 name  implies.  The  Samnites,  armed  after  the  man- 
 ner of  the  Samnites,  wore  a  large  shield,  broad  at  the 
 top,  and  growing  more  narrow  at  the  bottoin,  more 
 conveniently  to  defend  the  up[)er  parts  of  the  body. 
 The  cssedarii  generally  fought  from  the  cssedum,  or 
 chariot  used  by  the  ancient  Gauls  and  Britons.  The 
 andabatcz,  uvadiiTai,  fought  on  horseback,  with  a  hel- 
 met that  covered  and  defended  their  faces  and  eyes. 
 Hence  andahatarum  more  pugnare  is  to  fight  blind- 
 556 
 
 'bided.  The  meridiani  engaged  in  the  afternoon. 
 I'he  poshdalitii  were  men  of  great  skill  and  experi- 
 ence, and  such  as  were  generally  produced  liy  the 
 emperors.  The  fiscales  were  maintained  out  of  the 
 emperor's  treasury,  fiscus.  The  dimachceri  fought 
 with  two  swords  in  their  hands,  whence  their  name. 
 After  these  cruel  exhibitions  had  been  continiud  ior 
 the  amusement  of  the  Roman  populace,  they  wtre 
 abolished  by  Constantine  the  Great,  near  600  years 
 from  their  first  institution.  They  were,  however,  re- 
 vived under  the  reign  of  Constantius  and  his  two  suc- 
 cessors, but  Honorius  for  ever  put  an  end  to  these 
 cruel  barbarities. 
 
 Gt.AUCE,  I.  a  daughter  of  Creon,  king  of  Corinth, 
 callod  also  Creiisa,  married  to  Jason  after  his  separa- 
 tion from  Medea. — II.  A  fountain  at  Corinth,  which 
 was  said  to  have  received  its  name  from  Glauce,  who 
 threw  herself  into  it  in  order  to  be  freed  from  the  en- 
 chantments of  Medea.     {Pausan,  2,  3.) 
 
 Gi.AUcus,  I.  son  of  Hippolochus,  and  grandson  of 
 Beilerophon.  He  was,  with  Sarpedon,  leader  of  the 
 Lycian  auxiliaries  of  King  Priam.  Upon  the  discov- 
 ery made  on  the  field  of  battle  by  him  and  Diomede, 
 that  their  grandfathers,  Beilerophon,  king  of  Ephyre  or 
 Corinth,  and  ffineus,  king  of  ^tolia,  had  been  re- 
 markable for  their  friendship,  they  mutually  agreed  to 
 exchange  their  armour,  that  of  Glaucus  being  of  gold, 
 and  that  of  Diomede  of  brass.  Hence  arose  the  prov- 
 erb, "  It  is  the  exchange  of  Glaucus  and  Diomede," 
 to  denote  inequality  in  things  presented  or  exchanged. 
 Glaucus  was  slain  by  Ajax.  {Horn.,  II.,  6,  119,  scqq. 
 —  Virg.,  JEn.,  6,  483.)  — II.  A  sea  deity,  probably 
 only  another  form  of  Poseidon  or  Neptune,  whose  son 
 he  is.  according  to  some  accounts.  {Euanthes,  ap. 
 Athen  ,  7,  p.  296.)  Like  the  marine  gods  in  general, 
 he  had  the  gift  of  prophecy  ;  and  we  find  him  appear- 
 ing to  the  Argonauts  (Apoll.  Rh.,  I,  1310,  scq.),  and 
 to  Menelaus  {Eurip.,  Orcst.,  356,  seqq.),  and  telling 
 them  what  had  happened,  or  what  was  to  happen.  In 
 later  times,  sailors  were  continually  making  reports  of 
 his  soothsaying.  (Pausan.,  9,  22.)  Some  said  that 
 he  dwelt  with  the  Nereides  at  Delos,  where  he  gave  re- 
 sponses to  all  who  sought  them.  {Arislot.,  ap.  Athen., 
 I.  c.)  According  to  others,  he  visited  each  year  all 
 the  isles  and  coasts,  with  a  train  of  monsters  of  the 
 deep  {K?/Tea),  and,  unseen,  foretold  in  the  .f]olic  dia- 
 lect all  kinds  of  evil.  The  fishermen  watched  for  his 
 approach,  and  endeavoured  by  fastings,  prayer,  and  fu- 
 migations to  avert  the  ruin  with  which  his  prophecy 
 menaced  the  fruits  and  cattle.  At  times  he  was  seen 
 among  the  waves,  and  his  body  appeared  covered  with 
 muscles,  seaweed,  and  stones.  He  was  heard  ever- 
 more to  lament  his  fate  in  not  being  able  to  die.  (Pi'at., 
 Rep.,  10.  611. — SchoL,  ad  loc.) — This  last  circum- 
 stance refers  to  the  common  pragmatic  history  of 
 Glaucus.  He  was  a  fisherman,  it  is  said  (Pausa>i., 
 I.  c. — Ovid,  Met.,  13,  904,  seqq.),  of  Anthedon,  in 
 Boeotia.  Observing  one  day  the  fish  which  he  had 
 caught  and  thrown  on  the  grass  to  bite  it,  and  then  to 
 jump  into  the  sea.  his  curiosity  excited  him  to  taste  it 
 also.  Immediately  on  his  doing  so  he  followed  their 
 example,  and  thus  became  a  sea-god.  Another  ac- 
 count made  him  to  have  obtained  his  immortality  by 
 tasting  the  grass,  which  had  revived  a  hare  he  had  run 
 down  in  -Etolia.  (Nicajid.,  ap.  Athen.,  I.  c  )  He 
 was  also  said  to  have  built  and  steered  the  Argo,  and  to 
 have  been  made  a  god  of  the  sea  by  Jujiiter  during 
 the  voyage.  (Possis,  ap.  Athen.,  I.  c.)  An  account 
 of  the  story  of  his  love  for  Scylla  will  be  found  under 
 the  latter  article.  {Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  248, 
 seqq.) — HI.  A  son  of  Sisyjihus,  king  of  Corinth,  by 
 Merope,  the  daughter  of  Atlas,  born  at  Potnia3,  a  vil- 
 lage of  Bosotia.  According  to  one  account,  he  re- 
 strained his  mares  from  having  intercourse  with  the 
 steeds  ;  upon  which  Venus  inspired  the  former  with 
 such  fury,  that  they  tore  his  body  to  pieces  as  he  re- 
 
GON 
 
 GOR 
 
 turned  from  the  games  which  Adraslus  had  celebrated 
 in  honour  olhis  father.  Another  version  of  the  story 
 makes  them  to  have  run  mad  after  eating  a  certain 
 plant  at  Potnias.  {Etymol.  Mag.,  s.  v.  HoTVLude^  — 
 Hygtn.,fab.,  "ibi).  — Virgil,  Georg.,  3,  2G8.—Heyne, 
 ad  Virg.,  I.  c. —  Palajih.,  dc  Incred.,  c.  26. — Schot.  ad 
 Eiirip.,  Phmn.,  1141  ) — IV.  A  son  of  Minos  and  Pas- 
 iphae,  who,  pursuing,  when  a  child,  a  mouse,  fell  into 
 a  vessel  of  honey  and  was  smothered.  His  father, 
 ignorant  of  his  fate,  consulted  the  oracle  to  know 
 where  he  was,  and  received  for  answer  that  there  was 
 a  three-coloured  cow  in  his  herd,  and  that  he  who  could 
 best  tell  what  she  was  like,  could  restore  his  son  to  life. 
 The  soothsayers  were  all  assembled,  and  Polyidus, 
 the  son  of  Goiranus,  said  that  her  colour  was  that  of 
 the  berry  of  the  brier,  green,  red,  and,  lastly,  black. 
 Minos  thereupon  desired  him  to  find  his  son  ;  and 
 Polyidus,  by  his  skill  in  divination,  discovered  where 
 he  was.  Minos  then  ordered  him  to  restore  him  to 
 life  ;  and,  on  his  declaring  his  incapacity  so  to  do, 
 shut  him  up  in  a  chatnber  with  the  body  of  his  child. 
 While  here,  the  soothsayer  saw  a  serpent  approach 
 the  body,  and  he  struck  and  killed  it.  Another  im- 
 mediately appeared,  and  seeing  the  first  one  dead,  re- 
 tired, and  came  back  soon  after  with  a  plant  in  its 
 mouth,  and  laid  it  on  the  dead  one,  which  instantly 
 came  to  life.  Polyidus,  by  employing  the  same  herb, 
 recovered  the  child.  Minos,  before  he  let  him  depart, 
 insisted  on  his  communicatmg  his  art  to  Glaucus.  He 
 did  so  ;  but,  as  he  was  taking  leave,  he  desired  his 
 pupil  to  spit  into  his  mouth.  Glaucus  obeyed,  and 
 lost  the  memory  of  all  he  had  learned.  {Apollod.,  3, 
 3,  I. — Ticlz.,  ad  Lye,  811.)  Hyginus  makes  him  to 
 have  been  restored  to  life  by  ^sculapius.  {Hygin., 
 Poet.  Aslron.,  2,  14.) 
 
 GLAUcas  Sinus,  a  gulf  of  Lycia,  at  the  head  of 
 ■which  stood  the  city  of  'I'elmissus  or  Macri,  whence 
 in  ancient  times  the  gulf  was  sometimes  also  called 
 Sinus  Telmissius,  and  whence  comes  likewise  its  mod- 
 ern name.  Gulf  of  Macri. 
 
 Gt.oTA  or  Clota,  a  river  of  Britain,  now  the  Clyde, 
 falling  into  the  Glota  iEstuarium,  or  Frith  of  Clyde. 
 
 Gnatia,  a  town  of  Apulia,  the  same  as  Egnatia, 
 the  name  being  merely  shortened  by  dropping  the  ini- 
 tial vowel.     (Vid.  Egnatia.) 
 
 Gnious.      Vid.  Cnidus. 
 
 Gnossus.      Vid.  Cnosus. 
 
 GoBRYAs,  a  Persian,  one  of  the  seven  noblemen 
 who  conspired  against  the  usurper  Smerdis.  {Vid. 
 Darius  ) 
 
 GoMi'Hi,  a  city  of  ITiessaly,  of  considerable  strength 
 and  importance,  and  the  key  of  the  country  on  the  side 
 of  Epirus.  It  v\'as  situate  on  the  borders  of  the  Atha- 
 manes,  and  was  occupied  by  that  people  not  long  be- 
 fore the  battle  of  Cynosccphalre.  When  Cssar  enter- 
 ed Thessaly,  after  his  joining  Domitius  at  ^Egitiuin, 
 the  inhabitants  of  Gomphi,  aware  of  his  failure  at  Dyr- 
 rhachium,  closed  their  gates  against  him  ;  the  walls, 
 however,  were  presently  scaled,  notwithstanding  their 
 great  height,  and  the  town  was  given  up  to  plunder. 
 In  his  account  of  this  event,  Cagsar  describes  Gomphi 
 as  a  large  and  opulent  city.  {Bell.  Civ.,  3,  80. — 
 Compare  Appian,  B.  C,  2,  64.)  The  Greek  geoara- 
 pher  Meletiiis  places  it  on  the  modern  site  of  S/agous, 
 or  Kalaiachi  as  it  is  called  by  the  Turks  {Gcogr.,  p. 
 388) ;  but  Pouqueville  was  informed  that  its  ruins 
 were  to  be  seen  at  a  place  called  Clcisoura,  not  far 
 from  Stagous.     (Vol.  3,  p.  339.) 
 
 GoNATAS,  one  of  the  Antigoni.     {Vid.  Gonni.) 
 
 GoNNi,  a  town  of  Thessaly,  twenty  miles  from  La- 
 rissa,  according  to  Livy  (36,  10),  and  close  to  the  en- 
 trance of  the  gorge  of  Tempe.  It  was  strongly  forti- 
 fied by  Perses  in  his  first  campaign  against  the  Ro- 
 mans, who  made  no  attempt  to  render  themselves 
 masters  of  this  key  of  Macedonia.  {Liv..  42,  54.) 
 Antigonus,  surnamed  Gonatas,  was  probably  born  here, 
 
 since  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  gives  it  as  the  ethnic 
 derivative  of  Gonni.  The  scholiast  on  Lycophron  (v. 
 904),  in  commenting  on  a  passage  of  the  poet  where 
 this  town  is  alluded  to,  says  it  was  also  called  Go- 
 nussa.     {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  380.) 
 
 GoRDi^i,  mountains  ui  Armenia,  where  the  Tigris 
 rises. 
 
 GoRDiANUs,  I.,  Marcus  Antoninus  Africanus, 
 born  during  the  reign  of  the  first  Antoiiine.  of  one  of 
 the  most  illustrious  and  wealthy  families  of  Rome,  made 
 himself  very  popular  during  his  quaestorship  by  his  mu- 
 nificence, and  the  large  sums  which  he  spent  in  provi- 
 ding games  and  other  amusements  for  the  people.  He 
 also  cultivated  literature,  and  wrote  several  poems, 
 among  others  one  in  which  he  celebrated  the  virtues 
 of  the  two  Antonines.  Being  intrusted  with  the  gov- 
 ernment of  several  provinces,  he  conducted  himself  in 
 such  a  manner  as  to  gain  universal  approbation.  He 
 was  proconsul  of  Africa  A.D.  237.  When  an  insur- 
 rection broke  out  in  that  province  against  Maximinus, 
 on  account  of  his  exactions,  and  the  insurgents  saluted 
 Gordianus  as  emperor,  he  j)rayed  earnestly  to  be  ex- 
 cused, on  account  of  his  age,  being  then  past  eighty, 
 and  to  be  allowed  to  die  in  peace  ;  but  the  insurgents 
 threatening  to  kill  him  if  he  refused,  he  accepted  the 
 perilous  dignity,  naming  his  son  Gordianus  as  his  col- 
 league, and  both  made  their  solemn  entry  into  Carthage 
 amid  universal  applause.  The  senate  cheerfully  con- 
 firmed the  election,  proclaiming  the  two  Gordiani  ait 
 emperors,  and  declaring  Maximinus  and  his  son  to  be 
 enemies  to  their  country.  Meantime,  however,  Capel- 
 lianus,  governor  of  Mauritania,  collected  troof)s  in  fa- 
 vour of  Maximinus,  and  marched  against  Carthage. 
 The  younger  Gordianus  came  out  to  oppo.se  him,  but 
 was  defeated  and  killed,  and  his  aged  father,  on  learn- 
 ing the  sad  tidings,  strangled  himself.  Their  reign 
 had  not  lasted  two  months  altogether,  yet  they  were 
 greatly  regretted,  on  account  of  their  personal  quali- 
 ties, and  the  hopes  which  the  people  had  founded  on 
 them.  {Capitid.,  Vit.  Gnrdian.  Tr.) — II.  M.  Anto- 
 nius  Africanus,  son  of  Gordianus,  was  instructed  by 
 Serenus  Samonicus,  who  left  him  his  library,  which 
 consisted  of  62,000  volumes.  He  was  well  informed, 
 and  wrote  several  works,  but  was  intemperate  in  his 
 pleasures,  which  latter  circumstance  seems  to  have 
 recommended  him  to  the  favour  of  the  Einfieror  Heli. 
 ogabalus.  Alexander  Severus  advanced  him  subse- 
 quently to  the  consulship.  He  afterward  passed  into 
 Africa  as  lieutenant  to  his  father,  and,  when  the  lattei 
 was  elevated  to  the  throne,  shared  that  dignity  with  him. 
 But,  after  a  reign  of  not  quite  two  months,  he  fell  in 
 battle  at  the  age  of  forty-six,  against  Capellianus,  a 
 partisan  of  Maximinus.  {Vid.  Gordianus,  I. — Capi- 
 tnlinus,  Vit.  Goidian.  Tr.)  —  III.  Marcus  Antoninus 
 Pius,  grandson,  on  the  mother's  side,  of  the  elder  Gor- 
 dianus, and  nephew  of  Gordianus  the  younger,  was 
 twelve  years  of  age  when  he  was  proclaimed  C*sar  by 
 general  acclamation  of  the  people  of  Rome,  after  the 
 news  had  arrived  of  the  death  of  the  two  Gordiani  in 
 Africa.  The  senate  named  him  colleague  of  the  two 
 new  emperors  Maximus  and  Balbinus,  but  in  the  fol- 
 lowing year  (A.D.  238,  according  to  Blair  and  oiher 
 chronologers)  a  mutiny  of  the  praetorian  soldiers  took 
 place  at  Rome,  Balbinus  and  Maximus  were  murdered, 
 and  the  boy  Gordianus  was  proclaimed  emperor.  His 
 disposition  was  kind  and  amiable,  but  at  the  begin- 
 ning of  his  reign  he  trusted  to  the  insinuations  of  a 
 certain  Maurus  and  other  freedmen  of  the  palace,  who 
 abused  his  confidence,  and  committed  many  acts  of 
 injustice.  In  the  second  year  of  his  reign  a  revolt 
 broke  out  in  Africa,  where  a  certain  Sabinianus  was 
 proclaimed  emperor,  but  the  insurrection  was  soon  pat 
 down  by  the  governor  of  Mauritania.  In  the  following 
 year,  Gordianus  being  consul  with  Claudius  Ponipeia- 
 nus,  marrved  Furia  Sabina  Tranquillina,  daughter  of 
 Misitheus,  a  man  of  the  greatest  personal  merit,  who 
 
 557 
 
GOR 
 
 GOR 
 
 ^•as  then  placed  at  the  head  of  the  emperor's  guards. 
 Misiiheus  disclosed  to  Gordianus  the  disgraceful  con- 
 duct of  Maurus  and  his  friends,  who  were  immediately 
 deprived  of  their  offices  and  driven  away  from  court. 
 From  that  moment  Gordianus  ])laced  implicit  trust  in 
 his  father-in-law,  on  whom  the  senate  conferred  ihe 
 title  of  "  Guardian  of  the  Republic."  In  the  next 
 year,  news  came  to  Rome  that  the  Persians  under 
 Sapor  had  invaded  Mesopotamia,  had  occupied  Nisihis 
 and  CarfhoB,  entered  Syria,  and,  eccording  to  Capito- 
 iinus,  had  taken  Aniioch.  Gordianus,  resolving  to 
 march  in  person  against  this  formidable  enemy,  opened 
 the  temple  of  Janus,  according  to  an  ancient  custom 
 which  had  been  long  disused,  and,  setting  out  from 
 Rome  at  the  head  of  a  choice  army,  look  his  way  by 
 lllyricum  aitd  Moesia,  where  he  defeated  the  Goths 
 »nd  Sarmatians,  and  drove  them  beyond  the  Danube. 
 In  the  plains  of  Thrace,  however,  he  encountered  an- 
 other tribe,  the  Alani,  from  whom  he  experienced  a 
 check;  but  they  having  also  retired  towards  the  north, 
 Gordianus  crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  landed  in  Asia, 
 whence  he  proceeded  into  Syria,  delivered  Antioch, 
 defeated  the  Persians  in  several  battles,  retook  Nisibis 
 and  Carrhx,  and  drove  Sapor  back  to  his  own  domin- 
 ions. The  senate  voted  him  a  triumph,  and  also  a 
 statue  to  Misitheus,  to  whose  advice  much  of  the  suc- 
 cess of  Gordianus  was  attributed.  Unfortunately, 
 however,  that  wise  counsellor  died  the  following  year, 
 not  without  suspicions  of  foul  play  being  raised  against 
 Philippus,  an  officer  of  the  guards,  who  succeeded  him 
 in  the  command.  In  the  year  after,  A.D  244,  Gordi- 
 anus advanced  into  the  Persian  territory,  and  defeated 
 Sapor  on  the  banks  of  the  Chaboras  ;  but  while  he 
 was  preparing  to  pursue  him,  the  traitor  Philippus, 
 who  had  contrived  to  spread  discontent  among  the 
 soldiers  by  attributing  their  privations  to  the  inexpe- 
 rience of  a  boyish  emperor,  was  proclaimed  by  the 
 army  his  colleague  in  the  empire.  Gordianus  con- 
 sented, but  soon  after  was  murdered  by  the  ambitious 
 Phili[)pus.  A  monument  was  raised  to  him  by  the 
 soldiers,  with  an  inscription,  at  a  place  called  Zaitha, 
 twenty  miles  east  of  the  town  of  Circesium,  not  far 
 from  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  which  continued 
 to  be  seen  until  it  was  destroyed  by  Licinius,  who 
 claimed  to  be  a  descendant  of  Philippus.  Gordianus 
 was  about  twenty  years  old  when  he  died.  His  body,< 
 according  to  Eutropius,  was  carried  to  Rome,  and  he 
 was  numbered  among  the  gods.  His  short  reign  was 
 a  prosperous  one  for  Rome.  {Capitol.,  Vit.  Gord. 
 Tcrt. — Herodian,  7,  10,  scqq. — Id.,  8,  6,  seqq. — Eu- 
 Irop.,  9,  2.) 
 
 GoRDiuM,  a  city  of  Galatia  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
 liver  Sangarius,  a  little  to  the  east  of  Pessinus.  Here 
 was  preserved  the  famous  Gordian  knot  which  Alex- 
 ander cut.  {Vid.  Gordius.)  This  place  changed  its 
 name  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  to  Juliopolis,  which  was 
 given  it  by  Cieo,  a  leader  of  some  predatory  bands  in 
 this  quarter.  After  the  battle  of  Actium,  he  declared 
 for  Augustus  ;  and  being  thus  left  in  safe  possession  of 
 this  city,  which  was  his  birthplace,  changed  its  name 
 out  of  compliment  to  the  memory  of  Caesar.  {Justin, 
 11^7. — Lir.,  38,  IS. —  Curt. ,2,  1. — Mannerl,  Geogr., 
 vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  72.) 
 
 Gordius,  a  Phrygian,  who,  though  originally  a  peas- 
 ant, was  raised  to  the  throne.  During  a  sedition,  the 
 Phrygians  consulted  the  oracle,  and  were  told  that  all 
 theii  troubles  would  cease  as  soon  as  they  chose  for 
 their  king  the  first  man  they  met  going  to  the  temple 
 of  Jupiter  mounted  on  a  chariot.  Gordius  was  the 
 object  of  their  choice,  and  he  immediately  consecrated 
 his  chariot  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  The  knot  which 
 tied  the  yoke  to  the  draught-tree  was  made  in  such  an 
 artful  manner,  that  the  ends  of  the  cord  could  not  be 
 perceived.  From  this  circumstance,  a  report  was  soon 
 spread  that  the  empire  of  Asia  was  promised  by  the 
 oracle  to  him  that  could  untie  the  Gordian  knot. 
 558 
 
 Alexander,  in  his  conquest  of  Asia,  passed  bv  Gordi- 
 um  ;  and  as  he  wished  to  leave  nothing  undone  which 
 might  inspire  his  soldiers  with  courage,  and  make  his 
 enemies  believe  that  he  was  born  to  conquer  Asia,  he 
 cut  the  knot  with  his  sword,  and  from  that  circum- 
 stance asserted  that  the  oracle  was  realjv  fulfilled,  and 
 that  his  claims  to  universal  empire  were  fully  justified. 
 {Justin,  \l,7.—Curt.,  3,  1.) 
 
 GoKGiAs,  a  celebrated  statesman,  orator,  and  soph- 
 ist, born  at  Leontini  in  Sicily,  whence  he  was  sur- 
 namcd  Leontinus.  He  flourished  in  the  fifth  century 
 before  the  Christian  era,  during  the  most  brilliant  pe- 
 riod of  the  literary  activity  of  Greece,  and  has  been 
 immortalized  by  the  dialogue  of  Plato  which  bears  his 
 name.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  alike  un- 
 certain, but  the  number  of  his  years  far  outran  the  or- 
 dinary length  of  human  existence,  and,  in  the  different 
 statements,  ranges  between  100  and  109.  Whatever 
 may  have  been  the  speculative  errors  of  Gorgias,  his 
 long  life  was  remarkable  for  an  undeviating  practice  of 
 virtue  and  temperance,  which  secured  to  his  last  days 
 the  full  possession  of  his  faculties,  and  imparted  cheer- 
 fulness and  resignation  in  the  hour  of  death.  Accord- 
 ing to  Eusebius,  Gorgias  flourished  in  the  86lh  Olym 
 piad,  and  came  to  Athens  Olymp.  88,  2,  or  B.C.  427, 
 to  seek  assistance  for  his  native  city,  the  independence 
 of  which  was  menaced  by  its  powerful  neighbour  Syr- 
 acuse. In  this  mission  he  justified  the  opinion  which 
 his  townsmen  had  formed  of  his  talents  for  business 
 and  political  sagacity,  and,  upon  its  successful  termi- 
 nation, withdrew  from  public  life  and  returned  to 
 Athens,  which,  as  the  centre  of  the  mental  activity  of 
 Greece,  offered  a  wide  field  for  the  display  of  his  in- 
 tellectual powers  and  acquirements.  He  did  not, 
 however,  take  up  his  residence  permanently  in  that 
 city,  but  divided  his  time  between  it  and  Larissa  in 
 Thessaly,  where  he  is  said  to  have  died  shortly  before 
 or  after  the  death  of  Socrates.  To  the  84th  Olympiad 
 is  assigned  the  publication  of  his  philosophical  work 
 entitled  "  Of  the  Non- Being,  or  of  Nature"  {nepi  tov 
 jxTj  ovToc,  f/  Tzepl  (piJaeu^),  in  which,  according  to  the 
 extracts  from  it  in  the  pseudo-Aristotelian  work  "  De 
 Xenophane,  Zcnone,  et  Oorgia,"  and  in  Sextus  Em- 
 piricus,  he  purposes  to  show:  1.  that  absolutely  no- 
 thing exists  :  2.  that  even  if  anything  subsists,  it  can- 
 not be  known  :  and,  3.  that  even  if  aught  subsists  and 
 can  be  known,  it  cannot  be  expressed  and  communi- 
 cated to  others.  In  the  arguments,  however,  by  which 
 he  sought  to  establish  these  positions,  and,  generally 
 speaking,  in  his  physical  doctrines,  Gorgias  deferred, 
 in  some  measure,  to  the  testimony  of  sense,  which  the 
 stricter  Eleatics  rejected  absolutely,  as  inadequate  and 
 contradictory.  On  this  account,  although  the  usual 
 statement  which  directly  styles  him  the  disciple  of 
 Empedocles  is  erroneous,  it  is  probable  that  he  drew 
 from  the  writings  of  that  philosopher  his  acquaintance 
 with  the  physiology  of  the  Eleatic  school.  Subse- 
 quently it  would  appear  that  Gorgias  devoted  himself 
 entirely  to  the  practice  and  teaching  of  rhetoric,  and 
 in  this  career  his  professional  labours  seem  to  have 
 been  attended  with  both  honour  and  profit.  Accord. 
 ing  to  Cicero  {de  Oral.,  1,  22— lb.,  3,  32),  he  was  the 
 first  who  engaged  to  deliver  impromptu  a  public  dis- 
 course upon  any  given  subject.  These  oratorical  dis- 
 plays were  characterized  by  the  poetical  ornament  and 
 elegance  of  the  language,  and  the  antithetical  structure 
 of  the  sentences,  rather  than  by  the  depth  and  vigour 
 of  the  thought ;  and  the  coldness  of  his  eloquence 
 soon  passed  into  a  proverb  among  the  ancients.  As  a 
 teacher  of  rhetoric,  Gorgias  is  said  to  have  first  intro- 
 duced numbers  into  prose,  and  to  have  attached  much 
 importance  to  antitheses  both  in  individual  words  and 
 in  the  members  of  a  sentence.  (Consult  Hardion, 
 Dissert  ,  11. — Mem.  de  V Aead.  des.  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol. 
 19,  p.  204.)  It  is  said,  that  after  a  display  of  eloquence 
 made  by  him  at  the  Olympic  and  Pythian  Games,  a 
 
GOR 
 
 GOT 
 
 goiden  statue  was  erected  to  him  at  Delphi. — Besides 
 some  fragments,  there  are  still  extant  two  entire  ora- 
 tions ascribed  to  him,  entitled  respectively,  "  The  En- 
 comium of  Helen,'"  and  "  The  Apology  of  Palamedes" 
 two  tasteless  and  insipid  compositions,  which  may, 
 however,  not  be  the  works  of  Gorgias.  On  this  point 
 consult  Foss,  "  De  Gorgia  Leonlino  Conunenlalio,'" 
 Hal.,  1828,  who  denies  their  authenticity,  which  is 
 maintained,  on  the  other  hand,  by  Schonhdrn,  "i>e  -4m- 
 thentia  Declamationum  qua  Gorgia  Leoniini  nomine 
 extant;'  Bresl.,  1826.  {Flat.,  Hipp.  Maj.,  p.282.— 
 Id.,  Gorg. — Dion.  Hal.,  Jud.  de  Lys.,  3,  p.458,  ed. 
 Reiske.— Diogenes  Laert.,  8,  58. — Sext.,  Emp.  adv. 
 Math.,  7,  6n.— Clinton,  Fast.  HclL,  vol.  1,  p.  377. 
 — Prcller,  Hist.  Fkilus.,  p.  134,  seqq. — Schbll,  Gesch. 
 Gr.  Liti.,  vol.  1,  p.  363.) 
 
 GoRGO,  1.  wife  of  Leonidas,  king  of  Sparta.  A  fine 
 repartee  of  hers  is  given  by  Plutarch.  When  a  stran- 
 ger female  observed  to  her,  "  You  Spartan  women  arc 
 the  only  ones  that  rule  men,"  she  replied,  "True,  for 
 we  are  the  only  ones  that  give  birth  to  men."  {Plut., 
 Lacon.  Apophth.,  p.  227.) — 11.  The  capital  of  the 
 Chorasmii  in  Bactnana.  It  is  supposed  to  correspond 
 to  the  modern  Urghenz.  {Bischo^  und  Mbllcr,  W'or- 
 terl.  der  Geogr.,  p.  567.) 
 
 GoRGoNEs,  three   celebrated   sisters,  daughters   of 
 Phorcys  and  Ceto,  whose  names  were  Stheno,  Euryale, 
 and  Medusa,  and  who  were  all  immortal  except  Me- 
 dusa.    According  to  the  mythologists,  their  hairs  were 
 entwined  with  serpents,  they  had  wings  of  gold,  their 
 hands  were  of  brass,  their  body  was  covered  with  im- 
 penetrable scales,  their  teeth  were  as  long  as  the  tusks 
 of  a  wild  boar,  and  they  turned  to  stone  all  those  on 
 whom   they  fi.ied   their   eyes.     (Apallod.,  2,  4,   2. — 
 Tzetz.,  ad  Lye.,  838.) — Homer  speaks  of  an  object  of 
 terror  which  he  calls  Gorgo,  and  the  Gorgonian  head. 
 He  places  the  former  on  the  shield  of  .■Agamemnon  {II., 
 1 1,  36),  and,  when  describing  Hector  eager  for  slaugh- 
 ter, he  says   that  he  had  ''  the  eyes  of  Gorgo  and  of 
 man-destroying  Ares."     {11,  8,  348.)     The  Gorgeian 
 head  was  on  the  aegis  of  Jupiter  {II.,  5,  741),  and  the 
 hero  of  the  Odyssey  fears  to  remain  in  Erebus,  lest  Pro- 
 serpina should  send  out  '■  the  Gorgeian  head  of  the  dire 
 monster"  against  him.     {Od.,   11,  633.)     /EschyUis 
 calls  the  Gorgons   the   "  three  sisters  of  the   Grais, 
 winged,  serpent  fleeced,  hateful  to  man,  whom  no  one 
 can    look    on    and   retain    the   breath    of  existence." 
 {Prom,  v.,  804,  seqq.)     The  Gorgons  and  Graiae  are 
 always  mentioned  together ;  and  it  was  while  the  Graias 
 were  handing  to   one  another  their  single  eye  {Vid. 
 Phorcydes)  that  Perseus  intercepted  it ;  and,  having 
 thus  blinded  the  guards,  was  enabled  to  come  on  the 
 Gorgons  unperceived.     (For  an  account  of  the  legend 
 of  Perseus  and  Medusa,  consult  each  of  those  articles.) 
 According  to  R.  P.  Knight,  the  Gorgon,  or  Medusa, 
 in  the  centre  of  Minerva's  aegis,  appears  to  have  been 
 a  symbol  of  the  Moon  {Orph.  in  Clem.  Alex  ,  Strom., 
 lib.  5,  p.  675) ;   exhibited  sometimes  with  the  charac- 
 ter and  expression  of  the  destroying,  and  sometimes 
 with  those  of  the  generative  or  preserving,  attribute  ; 
 the  former  of  which  is  expressed  by  the  title  of  Gorgo, 
 and  the  latter  by  that  of  Medusa.      It  is   sometimes 
 represented  with  serpents,  and  sometimes  with  fish,  in 
 the  hair  ;   and  occasionally  with  almost  every  symbol 
 of  the  passive  generative  or  productive  power  ;   it  being 
 the  female  personification  of  the  Disk,  by  which  almost 
 all  the  nations  of  antiquity  represented  the  sun  ;   and 
 this  female  personiticatioii  was  the  symbol  of  the  Moon. 
 {Inquiry  into  the  Symh.  Lang.,  &c.,  I)  179. —  Class. 
 Journal,  vol.    26,  p.  46.) — Hermann,  however,  with 
 more  probability,  makes  both  the  Graiae  and  Gorgons 
 to  be  merely  personilications  of  the  terrors  of  the  sea, 
 the  former  denoting  the  u^/u^c-crested  waves  that  dash 
 against  the  rocks  on  the  coast ;   the  latter,  the  strong 
 billows  of  the  wide  open  main.     (Hcrm.,  Opusc.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  179,  seq.)     He  therefore  makes  Stheno  equivalent 
 
 to  Valeria,  "  the  powerful ;"  Euryale  to  Ijalivotva, 
 "the  wide-rolling;"  and  Medusa  to  Guberna,  "the 
 directress,"  from  her  ruling  the  course  of  the  billows. 
 And  he  adds,  in  farther  explanation,  "  nam  et  vis  un- 
 datum  semper  manet  eadem,  et  fluctnatio  :  cursus  au- 
 tern  mutalur,  ventts,  annivc  tempestattbus  mutatis." 
 Hesiod,  therefore,  who  places  the  Gorgons  in  Oceanic 
 isles  {Theog  ,  274,  seqq.),  is  more  consistent  with  the 
 early  legend  than  later  poets,  who  almost  all  assign 
 the  Gorgons  a  dwelling-place  in  some  part  or  other  o( 
 Libya.  Hence  there  is  great  probability  in  Vblcker'a 
 reading  of  Kvpr'/vrjc  for  Kiad^vTiQ  in  yEschylus  {Prom, 
 v.,  799.— Kaghtlcys  Mythology,  p.  252,  seqq.) 
 
 GoRTYS  or  GoRTVNiA,  I.  a  city  of  Crete,  next  to 
 Cnosus  in  splendour  and  importance.  Strabo  writes, 
 that  these  two  cities  had  in  early  times  entered  into  a 
 league,  which  enabled  them  to  reduce  nearly  the  whole 
 of  Crete  under  their  subjection  ;  subsequently,  bow- 
 ever,  dissensions  having  arisen  between  them,  they 
 were  constantly  engaged  in  hostilities.  Homer  speakt 
 of  Gortys  as  a  place  of  great  strength  (7/.,  2,  646), 
 with  a  territory  extending  to  the  sea.  {Od.,  3,  293.) 
 From  other  authors  we  learn  that  it  stood  in  a  plain, 
 watered  by  the  river  Lethaeus,  and  at  a  distance  of 
 ninety  stadia  from  the  Libyan  Sea,  on  which  were  sit- 
 uate its  two  havens,  Lebena  and  Metallum.  Formerly 
 this  city  was  of  very  considerable  size,  since  Strabo 
 reckons  its  circuit  at  fifty  stadia  ;  but  when  he  wrote 
 it  was  very  much  diminished.  He  adds,  that  Ptolemy 
 Philopator  had  begun  to  enclose  it  with  fresh  walls  ; 
 but  the  work  was  not  carried  on  for  more  than  eight 
 stadia.  {Strabo,  478.) — According  to  the  Arcadian 
 traditions,  it  h.id  been  founded  by  Gortys,  the  son  of 
 Tegeates  ;  a  fact  which  was.  however,  denied  by  the 
 Cretans,  who  aflTirmed  that  Gortys  was  the  son  of 
 Rhadamanthus.  {Pausan.,  8,  1.  —  Compare  Stcph. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.)  It  was  most  probably  a  Pelasgic  city, 
 since,  according  to  Stephanus,  it  once  bore  the  appel- 
 lation of  Larissa.  Apollo  was  especially  revered  here, 
 whence  he  is  sometimes  called  Gortynius.  {Anton., 
 Lib.,  25.)  Jupiter  was  also  worshipped  in  this  place 
 under  the  title  of  Hecatombaeus.  The  ruins  of  this 
 ancient  city  have  been  visited  by  Tournefort,  Pococke, 
 and  still  more  recently  by  Mr.  Cockerell,  who  observ- 
 ed the  remains  of  a  theatre  and  other  considerable 
 vestiges.  He  likewise  explored  some  remarkable  ex- 
 cavations near  the  town,  consisting  of  numerous  cham- 
 bers and  galleries,  which  have  been  supposed  to  be- 
 long to  the  celebrated  Cretan  labyrinth,  though  this  is 
 generally  stated  to  have  been  situated  at  Cnosus. — 
 As  regards  the  form  of  the  ancient  name,  consult  re- 
 marks under  the  article  Cortona.  {Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  383,)— II.  .\  town  of  Arcadia,  near  the 
 river  Gortynius,  and  southeast  of  Heraea.  It  was  dis- 
 tinguished for  its  temple  of  Pentelic  marble  dedicated  to 
 .^sculapius.  The  statue  of  the  god,  as  well  as  that 
 of  Hygieia,were  by  Scopas.  {Pausan.,  8,  28.)  The 
 site  of  Gortys  is  now  called  Atchicolo  Castro. 
 
 GoTHi,  a  powerful  northern  nation,  who  acted  an 
 important  part  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire. 
 The  name  "  Gotlit,"  or  Goths,  appears  first  in  history 
 in  the  third  century,  and  it  was  then  used  by  the  Ro- 
 man writers  as  synonymous  with  the  more  ancient  one 
 of  Geta;,  a  people  who  lived  on  the  banks  of  the  lower 
 Danube,  near  the  shores  of  the  Euxine.  The  Greek 
 writers  generally  considered  the  Getae  or  Goths  as 
 a  Scythian  tribe.  There  has  been  much  discussion 
 on  the  question  whether  the  Gets  or  Goths  came  ori- 
 ginally from  Scandinavia,  or  migrated  thither  from  .^sia. 
 The  old  Scandinavian  tradition  in  the  Edda  makes 
 their  chief,  Odin  or  Woden,  to  have  come  from  the 
 banks  of  the  Dniester  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  man 
 centuries  before  the  Christian  era  {vid  Odmus)  and 
 it  is  to  Asia,  therefore,  that  we  must  look  as  the  na- 
 tive country  of  the  Golhic.  or,  rather,  Teutonic,  race 
 (Consult  remarks  under  the  article  t-erm^"'^.  ^   ^O 
 
G  JIA 
 
 GRACCHUS. 
 
 About  the  middle  of  the  third  century  of  our  era,  the 
 Goths  are  recorded  to  have  crossed  llic  Dniester,  and 
 to  have  devastated  Dacia  and  Thrace.  The  Emperor 
 Decius  lost  his  hfe  in  opposing  iheui  in  Moesia  (A.D. 
 251),  after  which  his  successor  Gallus  niduced  ihem 
 by  money  to  withdraw  agam  to  their  old  dwelhngs  on 
 the  Dniester.  They  then  seem  to  have  spread  east- 
 ward, and  to  have  occupied  the  country  about  the 
 Cimmerian  Bosporus,  whence  they  sailed  across  the 
 Euxine,  occupied  Trebisond,  and  ravaged  Biihynia. 
 In  the  year  269  they  landed  in  Macedonia,  but  were 
 defeated  by  the  Emperor  Claudius  II.  Three  years 
 after,  Aurelian  gave  up  Dacia  to  a  tribe  of  Goths,  who 
 are  believed  to  have  been  the  Visigoths  or  Western 
 Goths,  while  those  who  ravaged  Asia  Minor  were  the 
 Ostrogoths  or  Eastern  Goths.  This  distinction  of  the 
 race  into  two  grand  divisions  appears  about  this  time. 
 Under  Constantine  I.  the  Goths  from  Dacia  invaded 
 Illyricum,  but  were  repelled.  Constantine  II.  after- 
 ward allowed  a  part  of  them  to  settle  in  Moesia,  who 
 seem  to  have  soon  after  embraced  Christianity,  as  it 
 was  for  them  that  Ulphilas  translated  the  Scriptures, 
 about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century,  into  the  dialect 
 called  Maeso-Gothic.  About  the  year  375,  the  Huns, 
 corning  from  the  East,  fell  upon  the  Ostrogoths,  and 
 drove  them  upon  the  Visigoths,  who  were  livmg  north 
 of  the  Danube.  The  latter,  being  hard  pressed,  im- 
 plored permission  of  the  Roman  commander  to  be  al- 
 lowed to  cross  that  river,  and  take  shelter  on  the  ter- 
 ritory of  the  empire.  The  Emperor  Valens  consented, 
 and  a  vast  multitude  of  them  were  allowed  to  settle  in 
 MoDsia,  but  soon  afterward  they  quarrelled  with  the 
 Roman  authorities,  invaded  Thrace,  and  defeated  and 
 killed  Valens,  who  came  to  oppose  them.  From  that 
 time  they  exercised  great  intkience  over  the  Byzantine 
 court,  either  as  allies  and  mercenaries,  or  as  formida- 
 ble enemies.  Towards  the  end  of  the  4th  century, 
 Alaric,  being  chosen  king  of  the  Visigoths,  invaded 
 Northern  Italy,  but  was  defeated  by  Stilicho  near  Ve- 
 rona. He  came  again,  however,  about  two  years  af- 
 ter, and  took  and  plundered  Rome.  His  successor 
 A  taulphus  made  peace  with  the  empire,  and  repaired 
 to  the  south  of  Gaul,  where  the  Visigoths  founded  a 
 kingdom,  from  which  they  afterward  passed  into  Spain, 
 where  a  Visigothic  dynasty  reigned  for  more  than  two 
 centuries  till  it  was  conquered  by  the  Moors.  Mean- 
 while the  Ostrogoths  or  Eastern  Goths,  who  had  set- 
 tled in  Pannonia,  after  the  destruction  of  the  kingdom 
 of  the  Huns,  extended  their  dominion  over  Noricum, 
 Rhaetia,  and  Illyricum,  and  about  the  year  489  they  in- 
 vaded Italy,  under  their  king  Theodoric,  and  defeated 
 Odoacer,  king  of  the  Heruli,  who  had  assumed  the 
 title  of  King  of  Italy,  a  title  which  Theodoric  then 
 took  for  himself,  with  the  consent  of  the  Eastern  em- 
 peror. Theodoric  was  a  great  prince  ;  his  reign  was 
 a  period  of  rest  for  Italy,  and  his  wise  administration 
 did  much  towards  healing  the  wounds  of  that  country. 
 But  his  successors  degenerated,  and  the  Gothic  do- 
 minion over  Italy  lasted  only  till  544,  when  it  was 
 overthrown  by  Narses,  the  general  of  Justinian.  From 
 this  time  the  Goths  figure  no  longer  as  a  power  in  the 
 history  of  Western  Europe,  except  in  Spain.  We 
 find,  however,  their  name  perpetuated  long  after  in 
 Scandinavia,  where  a  kingdom  of  Gothia  existed  until 
 the  12ih  century,  distinct  from  Sweden  Proper,  until 
 both  crowns  were  united  on  the  head  of  Charles  Swerk- 
 erson,  A.D.  1161,  who  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
 the  Swedes  and  the  Goths,  which  his  successors  bear 
 to  this  day. — On  the  early  history  of  the  Goths,  con- 
 sult Jornandes,  "  De  Getarum  she  Galhorum  Originc 
 el  Rebus  Gcstis ;"  Isidorus,  "  Ckronicon  Gothorum;''' 
 and  Procopius,  " Dc  Bcllo  Gothico."  The  first  two, 
 however,  are  not  to  be  trusted  implicitly  when  they 
 treat  of  the  remote  genealogy  and  origin  of  the  Gothic 
 race.  (Enajcl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  11,  p.  '328,  seq.) 
 Gracchus,  I.  Tiberius  Sempronius,  the  father  of 
 560 
 
 the  Gracchi,  married  Cornelia,  daughter  of  Scipio 
 Africanus  the  Elder.  He  died  while  his  sons  were 
 young,  having  twice  filled  the  office  of  consul,  and,  ac- 
 cording to  Plutarch,  obtained  two  triumphs.  After 
 the  death  of  her  husband,  Cornelia  refused  all  offers 
 of  marriage,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  charge  and  ed- 
 ucation of  her  children,  who,  as  Plutarch  tells  us 
 were  less  the  inheritors  of  manly  virtue  by  beintr 
 sprung  from  the  noblest  blood  in  Rome,  than  they 
 were  its  possessors  from  the  careful  nurture  of  their 
 mother  Cornelia.  (Plui  ,  VU.  Gracch.) — II.  Tiberius, 
 elder  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  B  C.  163.  His 
 mother  was  the  celebrated  Cornelia,  daughter  of  the 
 elder  Africanus.  Tfberius  served  his  first  campaign 
 in  Africa  under  his  uncle  Scipio,  and  having  obtained 
 the  office  of  consul's  quajstor,  we  find  him  next  under 
 Mancinus,  the  unfortunate  commander  in  the  Numan 
 tine  war.  His  name,  which  the  Numantines  respect- 
 ed from  remembering  his  father's  virtues,  is  said  to 
 have  procured  the  terms  under  which  Mancinus  ob- 
 tained safety  for  his  army  ;  but  the  senate,  on  his  re- 
 turn, was  so  much  displeased  at  the  unfavourable  na- 
 ture of  these  conditions,  that  they  resolved  on  giving 
 up  all  the  principal  officers  to  the  Numantines.  By 
 the  good-will,  however,  of  the  popular  assembly,  influ- 
 enced, as  it  would  seem,  by  the  soldiers  and  their 
 connexions  in  the  lower  classes,  it  was  decided  to 
 send  Mancinus  as  the  real  criminal,  and  to  spare  the 
 other  officers  for  the  sake  of  Gracchus.  Treatment 
 of  this  nature  was  likely  to  rouse  Gracchus  against 
 the  senate,  and  make  him  the  friend  of  the  poor;  and 
 accordingly,  in  three  years  afterward,  we  find  hun  be- 
 ginning his  short  career  as  a  political  agitator.  He 
 was  elected  tribune  of  the  commons  B.C.  128,  and 
 immediately  began  to  attempt  the  revival  of  the  Licin- 
 ian  Rogations.  {V^d.  Agraria;  Leges.)  In  so  doing 
 he  appears  to  have  had  in  view  the  two  grand  princi- 
 ples which  that  law  involved,  namely,  the  employment  ' 
 of  freemen  in  cultivating  the  soil  in  preference  to 
 slaves,  and  especially  the  more  generally  recognised 
 principle  of  the  equitable  division  of  the  public  land. 
 Three  commissioners  were  appointed  to  superintend 
 the  working  of  the  new  law,  which  Gracchus  had  pro- 
 posed, if  we  may  trust  Plutarch,  with  the  approval  of 
 some  of  the  most  eminent  persons  of  the  times,  among 
 whom  were  Mucius  Sca;vola  and  Crassus  the  orator. 
 Such  general  interest  was  excited  by  the  (jueslion, 
 that  crowds  arrived  from  all  parts  of  the  country  to 
 support  either  side  ;  and  there  appeared  no  doubt 
 which  wav  the  matter  would  go  when  left  to  the  tribes. 
 The  aristocracy,  however,  secured  the  veto  of  M.  Oc- 
 tavius,  one  of  the  tribunes,  and  thereby  quashed  the 
 proceedings  whenever  the  law  was  brought  on,  which 
 violent  mode  of  opposition  led  Gracchus  to  exercise 
 his  veto  on  other  questions,  stop  the  supplies,  and 
 throw  the  government  into  the  most  comjilete  help- 
 lessness. Thus  far  the  contest  had  been  lawful ;  but 
 at  this  juncture,  Gracchus,  irritated  by  continual  op- 
 position, invited  Octavius  to  propose  his  (Gracchus') 
 ejection  from  the  office  of  tribune  ;  and  on  his  refusal, 
 pleading  the  nttcr  uselessness  of  two  men  so  different 
 in  sentiment  holding  the  same  office,  he  put  the  ques- 
 tion to  the  tribes  that  Octavius  be  ejected.  When 
 the  first  seventeen  out  of  the  thirty-five  tribes  had  vo- 
 ted for  it,  Gracchus  again  implored  him  to  resign  ;  and, 
 on  his  entreaty  proving  unsuccessful,  polled  another 
 tribe,  constituting  a  majority,  and  sent  his  officers  to 
 drag  Octavius  from  the  tribune's  chair.  The  Agrarian 
 law  was  forthwith  passed;  and  Gracchus  himself,  his 
 brother  Caius,  and  his  father-in-law  Appius  C'laudius, 
 were  appointed  the  commissioners.  But  the  senate, 
 to  show  their  opinion  of  the  whole  proceeding,  with- 
 held from  him  the  usual  allowance  of  a  public  officer, 
 giving  only  about  one  shilling  a  day.  While  things 
 were  in  this  state,  the  dominions  and  treasures  of  At- 
 talus,  king  of  Pergamus,  were  by  him  bequeathed  to 
 
GRACCHUS. 
 
 GRACCHUS. 
 
 the  Roman  people  ;  and,  to  enhance  his  own  populari- 
 ty, Gracchus  proposed  to  divide  the  treasure  among 
 the  recipients  of  land  under  the  new  law,  to  enable 
 them  to  stock  their  farms  ;  and  to  commit  the  man- 
 agement of  the  i<ingdom  of  Pergamus  to  the  popular 
 assembly.  This  brought  matters  to  a  greater  pitch  of 
 distrust  than  ever.  Gracchus  was  accused  by  one 
 senator  of  aspiring  to  tyranny,  and  by  another  of  hav- 
 ing violated  the  sanctity  of  the  tribunitian  office  in  de- 
 I'osing  Octavius.  On  this  point  Gracchus  strove  to 
 justify  himself  before  the  people,  but  his  opponent 
 seemed  to  have  gained  an  advantage  so  great  as  to  in- 
 duce him  to  postpone  the  assembly.  \\'hen  at  last 
 he  did  make  his  defence,  it  rested,  if  .Plutarch  is  cor- 
 rect, on  false  analogies,  and  on  avoiding  the  question 
 of  the  inviolabibty  of  a  public  officer.  At  this  juncture 
 Gracchus  seems  to  have  trembled  for  that  popularity 
 which  alone  preserved  him  from  impeachment  ;  and, 
 est  It  should  fail,  endeavoured  to  secure  his  own  re- 
 rlection  to  the  office  of  tribune.  The  other  party  had 
 demurred  as  to  his  eligibility  to  the  office  two  years 
 in  succession,  and  on  the  day  of  election  this  point 
 occupied  the  assembly  till  nightfall.  Ne.xt  morning, 
 accompanied  by  a  crowd  of  partisans,  he  went  to  the 
 Capi;ol;  and,  on  hearing  that  the  senate  bad  deter- 
 mined to  oppose  hitn  by  force,  armed  his  followers 
 with  staves,  and  prepared  to  clear  the  Capitol.  At 
 this  juncture,  Scipio  Nasica,  having  in  vain  called  on 
 the  consul  to  take  measures  for  the  safety  of  the  state, 
 issued  from  the  temple  of  Faith,  where  the  senate  had 
 assembled,  followed  by  the  whole  nobility  of  Rome, 
 awed  the  mob  into  flight,  seized  their  weapons,  and  at- 
 tacked all  who  fell  in  their  way.  About  three  hun- 
 dred fell,  and  among  the  slain  was  Gracchus,  who 
 was  killed  by  repeated  blows  on  the  head,  B.C.  133. 
 (Plut.,  Vit.  Tib.  Gracch.)  —  HI.  Caius,  was  nine 
 years  younger  than  his  brother  Tiberius,  and  at  his 
 death  was  left  with  Appius  Claudius  as  commissioner 
 fur  carrying  out  the  Agrarian  law.  By  the  death  of 
 Appius,  and  of  Tiberius'  successor,  Licinius  Crassus, 
 the  commission  became  composed  of  Fulvius  Flaccus, 
 Papirius  Carbo,  and  himself  -,  but  he  refrained  from 
 taking  any  part  in  public  affairs  for  more  than  ten 
 years  after  the  death  of  Tiberius.  During  this  time 
 the  provisions  of  his  brother's  law  were  being  carried 
 out  by  Carbo  and  Flaccus  ;  but  he  does  not  seem  to 
 have  begun  his  career  as  an  independent  political 
 leader  until  the  year  123  B.C.,  when,  on  his  return 
 from  Sardinia,  where  he  had  been  for  two  years,  he 
 was  elected  tribune  of  the  commons.  His  first  act 
 was  to  propose  two  laws,  one  of  which,  directed 
 against  the  degraded  tribune  Octavius,  disqualified  all 
 who  had  been  thus  degraded  from  holding  any  magis- 
 tracy ;  and  the  other,  having  in  view  Pompilius,  a 
 prominent  opponent  of  the  popular  party,  denounced 
 the  banishment  of  a  Roman  citizen  without  trial  as  a 
 violation  of  the  Roman  laws.  The  first  was  never 
 carried  through  ;  to  the  latter  was  added  a  third,  by 
 which  Pompilius  was  banished  from  Italy,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  technical  phraseology,  mterdicted  from  fire  and 
 water.  These  measures  of  offence  were  followed  by 
 others,  by  which  he  aimed  at  establishing  his  own 
 popularity.  One  of  these  was  a  poor-law,  by  which 
 L  monthly  distribution  of  corn  was  made  to  the  people 
 at  an  almost  nominal  price.  The  effect  of  this  law 
 was  to  make  the  population  of  Rome  paupers,  and  to 
 attract  all  Italy  to  partake  of  the  bounty.  Ne.xt  came 
 organic  changes,  as  they  would  now  be  called  ;  and 
 of  these  the  most  important  was  the  transference  of 
 the  judicial  power  from  the  senators,  wholly  or  in  part, 
 to  the  equestrian  order.  This  measure,  according  to 
 Cicero,  worked  well ;  but,  in  taking  his  opinion,  we 
 must  remember  his  partiality  to  the  equites,  and  add  to 
 this  the  fact  that  his  eulogiums  occur  in  an  advocate's 
 speech.  (In  Verr.  Act.,  1.)  Gracchus  now  pos- 
 sessed unlimited  power  with  the  populace ;  and,  at 
 4B 
 
 the  end  of  the  year,  not  more  than  ten  candidates  hav- 
 ing started  for  the  office  of  tribune,  he  was  again  elect- 
 ed. His  second  tnbuneship  was  mostly  employed  m 
 passing  laws  respecting  the  colonies,  in  wliich  mat- 
 ter the  aristocratical  agent,  Livius  Drusus,  ouldid  him; 
 and,  having  won  the  confidence  of  the  people  by  his 
 apparent  disinterestedness,  ventured  (being  himself 
 a  tribune)  to  interpose  his  veto  on  one  of  Gracchus' 
 measures.  The  appointment  of  Gracchus,  soon  alter, 
 to  the  office  of  commissioner  for  |)lanting  a  colony  near 
 Carthage  took  him  away  from  the  scenes  of  his  popu- 
 larity ;  and,  soon  after  his  return,  a  proposal  was  made 
 to  repeal  the  very  law  which  he  had  been  engaged  in 
 carrying  out,  relative  to  the  colony  in  Africa.  This 
 law  was  not  his  own  measure,  but  that  of  one  Rubri- 
 us,  another  of  the  tribunes,  and  was  one  of  those  enact- 
 ments which  had  weaned  from  Gracchus  the  favour  of 
 the  people,  it  having  been  represented  by  his  oppo- 
 nents as  an  impious  act  to  build  again  the  walls  of  Car- 
 thaoe,  which  Scipio  had  solemnly  devoted  to  perpetual 
 desolation.  Gracchus  was  now  a  private  man,  his 
 second  tnbuneship  having  expired  ;  but  yet,  as  such,  he 
 opposed  the  proposition  to  repeal,  and,  unfortunately 
 for  himself,  united  with  M.  Fulvius  Flaccus,  one  of 
 the  commissioners  of  the  agrarian  law,  and  a  man 
 whose  character  was  respected  by  no  party  in  the  re- 
 public. The  reputation  of  Gracchus  had  already  suf- 
 fered from  his  connexion  with  Fulvius  ;  and  now  he 
 took  part  with  him  in  designs  which  can  be  considered 
 as  nothing  less  than  treasonable.  Charging  the  sen- 
 ate with  spreading  false  reports,  in  order  lo  alarm  the 
 religious  scruples  of  the  people,  the  two  popular  lead- 
 ers assembled  a  numerous  body  of  their  partisans, 
 armed  with  daggers,  and,  being  thus  prepared  lor  vio- 
 lence, they  proceeded  lo  the  Capitol,  where  the  people 
 were  to  meet  in  order  to  decide  on  the  repeal  of  the 
 law  of  Rubrius.  Here,  before  the  business  of  the  day 
 was  yet  begun,  a  private  citizen,  who  happened  to  be 
 engaged  in  offering  a  sacrifice,  was  murdered  by  the 
 partisans  of  Fulvius  and  Gracchus,  for  some  words  or 
 gestures  which  they  regarded  as  insulting.  This  out- 
 rage excited  a  general  alarm  ;  the  assembly  broke  up 
 in  consternation  ;  and  the  popular  leaders,  after  trying 
 in  vain  to  gain  a  hearing  from  the  people,  while  they 
 disclaimed  the  violence  committed  by  their  followers, 
 had  no  other  course  left  than  to  withdraw  to  their  own 
 homes.  There  they  concerted  jilans  of  resistance, 
 which,  however  they  might  believe  them  to  be  justi- 
 fied on  the  plea  of  self-defence,  were  rightly  consid- 
 ered by  the  bulk  of  the  people  as  an  open  rebellion 
 against  the  government  of  their  country.  The  consul 
 Opimius,  exaggerating,  perhaps,  the  alarm  which  he 
 felt  from  the  late  outrage,  hastily  summoned  the  sen- 
 ate together  ;  the  body  of  the  murdered  man  was  ex- 
 posed to  the  view  of  the  people,  and  the  Capitol  was 
 secured  by  break  of  day  witii  an  armed  force.  The 
 senate,  being  informed  by  Opimius  of  the  state  of  af- 
 fairs, proceeded  lo  invest  him  with  absolute  power  to 
 act  in  defence  of  the  commonwealth,  in  the  usual  form 
 of  a  resolution,  "  that  the  consul  should  provide  for  the 
 safety  of  the  republic."  At  the  same  time  Gracchus- 
 and  Fulvius  were  summoned  to  appear  before  the  sen- 
 ate, to  answer  for  the  murder  laid  to  their  charge.  In- 
 stead of  obeying,  they  occupied  the  Aventine  Hill  with- 
 a  body  of  their  partisans  in  arms,  and  invited  the  slaves- 
 to  join  them,  promising  them  their  freedom.  Opimius,, 
 followed  by  the  senators  and  the  members  of  the  eques- 
 trian order,  who,  with  their  dependants,  had  armed 
 themselves  bv  his  directions,  and  accompanied  by  a 
 body  of  regular  soldiers,  advanced  against  the  rebels, 
 who  had  made  two  fruilless  attempts  at  negotiation, 
 by  sending  to  the  consul  the  son  of  Fulvius.  In  the 
 mean  time  the  conduct  of  Cams  Gracchus  was  tha  of 
 a  man  irresolute  in  the  course  which  he  pursued,  and 
 with  too  much  regard  for  his  ^°""'^y '°  ^"g^/^'i^"', 
 ily  m  the  criminat  attempt  into  which  he^ad  suffered 
 
GRA 
 
 GR  A 
 
 himself  to  be  drawn.  He  had  left  his  house,  it  is  said, 
 in  his  ordinary  dress  ;  he  had  been  urgent  with  Ful- 
 vius  to  propose  terms  of  accommodation  to  the  senate  ; 
 and  now,  when  the  Aventine  was  attacked,  he  tooit 
 personally  no  part  in  the  action.  The  contest,  indeed, 
 was  soon  over ;  the  rebels  were  presently  dispersed  ; 
 Fulvius  was  dragged  from  the  place  to  which  he  had 
 fled  for  refuge,  and  was  put  to  death  ;  while  Gracchus, 
 linding  himself  closely  pursued,  fled  across  the  Tiber, 
 and,  taking  shelter  in  a  grove  sacred  to  the  Furies 
 more  correctly,  perhaps,  to  the  goddess  Furina),  was 
 Killed,  at  his  own  desire,  by  a  single  servant  who  had 
 accompanied  his  flight.  His  head,  together  with  that 
 of  Fulvius,  was  cut  off  and  earned  to  the  consul,  in 
 order  to  obtain  the  price  which  had  been  set  upon  both 
 by  a  proclamation  issued  at  the  beginning  of  the  en- 
 gagement ;  and  the  bodies,  as  well  as  those  of  all  who 
 had  perished  on  the  same  side,  were  thrown  into  the 
 river.  In  addition  to  this,  the  houses  of  Gracchus  and 
 Fulvius  were  given  up  to  plunder,  their  property  was 
 confiscated,  and  even  the  wife  of  Gracchus  was  de- 
 prived of  her  own  jointure.  It  is  said  that  in  this  se- 
 dition there  perished  altogether  of  the  partisans  of  the 
 popular  leaders  about  3000,  partly  in  the  action,  and 
 partly  by  summary  executions  afterward,  under  the 
 consul's  orders. — The  career  of  the  two  Gracchi  was, 
 m  many  respects,  so  similar,  and  the  circumstances  of 
 their  death  bore  so  much  resemblance  to  each  other, 
 that  it  is  not  wonderful  if  historians  should  have  com- 
 prehended both  the  brothers  under  one  common  judg- 
 ment, and  have  pronounced  in  common  their  acquittal 
 or  their  condemnation.  But  the  conduct  of  Caius  ad- 
 mits of  far  less  excuse  than  that  of  Tiberius;  and  his 
 death  was  the  deserved  punishment  of  rebellion,  while 
 that  of  his  brother  was  an  unjustifiable  murder.  The 
 character  of  Caius  is  by  no  means  as  stainless  as  his 
 brother's  ;  he  was  more  of  a  popular  leader,  and  much 
 less  of  a  patriot  than  Tiberius  ;  the  one  was  injured 
 by  power,  but  the  other  seems  from  the  beginning  to 
 have  aimed  at  little  else.  The  elder  brother  was  head 
 of  a  party  which  owed  its  existence  to  his  principles 
 as  a  politician.  The  younger  took  the  lead  in  that 
 party  when  it  had  been  regularly  formed,  and,  in  his 
 eagerness  to  obtain  that  post,  he  regulated  his  conduct 
 by  his  wishes.  The  death  of  Tiberius  may,  as  we 
 have  already  remarked,  be  justly  called  a  murder  ;  that 
 of  Caius,  or  that  which  he  would  have  suffered  had 
 not  the  slave  jjrevented  it,  was  nothing  more  than  an 
 execution  under  martial  law.  {Plat.,  Vit.  C.  Gracch. 
 — Encycl.  MetropoL,  div.  3,  vol.  2,  p.  97,  scqq.) — IV. 
 Sempronius,  a  Roman  nobleman,  banished  to  Cerci- 
 na,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Africa,  for  his  adulterous 
 intercourse  with  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus, 
 After  an  exile  of  14  years,  he  was  put  to  death  by  a 
 party  of  soldiers  sent  for  that  purpose  by  Tiberius. 
 {Tacit.,  Ann.,  I,  53.) 
 
 Gkadivus,  an  appellation  for  Mars  among  the  Ro- 
 mans, the  etymology  of  which  is  quite  uncertain. 
 The  common  derivation  is  from  gradior,  *'  to  ad- 
 vance,"" i.  e.,  against  the  foe.  There  appears  to  be 
 some  analogy  in  its  formation  to  that  of  the  Sanscrit 
 Mahadeva,  i.  e.,  "  magnus  deus."  {Pott,  Etymol. 
 Forsch.,  p.  Ivii.) 
 
 GRiEciA,  the  country  of  Greece.     {Vid.  Hellas.) 
 
 Gr^ecia  Magna.      Fw/.  Magna  Graicia. 
 
 Grai^.      Vid.  Phorcydes. 
 
 Grampius  Mons,  a  mountain  of  Caledonia,  forming 
 one  of  a  large  range  of  mountains  extending  from  east 
 to  west  through  almost  the  whole  breadth  of  modern 
 Scotland,  from  Loch  Lomond  to  Stonehaven.  The 
 rancre  is  now  called  the  Grampian  Hills,  and  the  name 
 is  derived  from  the  Mons  Grampius,  which  is  men- 
 tioned by  Tacitus  as  the  spot  where  Galgacus  wait- 
 ed the  approach  of  Agricola,  and  where  was  fought 
 the  battle  so  fatal  to  the  brave  Caledonians.  To  the 
 Grampian  chain  belong  Ben  Lomond,  3262  feet  high ; 
 5&2 
 
 Ben  Ledy,  3009  ;   Ben  More,  3903  ;   Ben  Laurcs,  th 
 chief  summit,  4015,  &.c. 
 
 Granicus,  a  river  of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  which, 
 according  to  Demetrius  of  Sce))sis,  had  its  source  in 
 Mount  Colylus,  belonging  to  the  chain  of  Ida.  {Strub., 
 602.)  It  flowed  through  the  Adrastean  plain,  and 
 emptied  into  the  Propontis,  to  the  west  of  Cyzicus. 
 I'his  stream,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  mouniaia 
 torrent,  is  celebrated  in  history  on  account  of  the  sig- 
 nal victory  gained  on  its  banks  by  Alexander  the  Great 
 over  the  Persian  army,  B.C.  334.  {Arrmn,  Eip.  Ai, 
 1,  V3.—Plut.,  Vit.  Alex.,  c.  24  )  The  Granicus  is 
 the  river  of  Demotiko  mentioned  by  Chishull  {Travels 
 m  Turkey,  p.  60),  and  not,  as  some  maintain,  the 
 Ousvola.     {Cramcr''s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  35,  seg.) 
 
 Gratis,  in  Greek  Charites  (Xupjref),  are  repre- 
 sented in  classical  mythology  as  three  young  and 
 beautiful  sisters,  the  attendants  of  Venus.  Their 
 names  were  Aglaia  {Splendour),  Euphrosyne  {Joy), 
 and  Thalia  {Pleasure).  The  Lacedsemonians  had  only 
 two,  whom  they  called  Kleta  or  Klyta,  and  Phaenne, 
 and  a  temple  in  honour  of  them  existed  in  the  time  of 
 Pausanias,  between  Sparta  and  Amycls  (3,  18;  9, 
 35).  Some  poets  name  Pasithea  as  one  of  the  Graces. 
 Nonnus  gives  their  names  as  Pasithea,  Peitho,  ana 
 Aglaia.  {Dionys.,  24,  263.) — The  idea  of  the  Graces 
 was,  according  to  some,  a  symbolical  personification  : 
 Aglaia  represented  the  harmony  and  splendour  of  the 
 creation  ;  Euphrosyne,  cheerfulness  and  mirth  ;  and 
 Thalia,  feasts  and  dances.  In  short,  they  were  an 
 aesthetic  conception  of  all  that  is  beautiful  and  attract- 
 ive in  the  physical  as  well  as  in  the  social  world.  Ac- 
 cording to  Hesiod  {Theog.,  907),  the  Graces  were  the 
 offspring  of  Jupiter  and  Eurynome  the  daughter  of 
 Ocean.  Antimachus,  on  the  other  hand,  made  them 
 the  daughters  of  Helius  and  M^e.  Some,  again, 
 called  them  the  children  of  Bacchus  and  Venus.  Their 
 worship  is  said  to  have  originated  in  Boeotia,  and  Or- 
 chomenus,  in  this  country,  was  its  chief  seat.  The 
 introduction  of  this  worship  was  ascribed  to  Eteocles, 
 the  son  of  the  river  Ccphissus.  The  Graces  were  at 
 all  times,  in  the  creed  of  Greece,  the  goddesses  presi- 
 ding over  social  enjoyment,  the  banquet,  the  dance, 
 and  all  that  tended  to  inspire  gayety  and  cheerfulness. 
 {Pind.,  01.,  14,  7,  seqq.)  They  are  represented  as 
 dancing  together,  or  else  standing  with  their  arms  en- 
 twined. They  were  originally  depicted  as  clothed, 
 but  afterward  the  artists  represented  them  as  nude. 
 In  the  ordinary  position  of  the  Graces,  two  face  the 
 observer,  while  the  central  one  has  her  look  averted. 
 This  some  fancifully  explain  as  follows  :  on  receiv- 
 ing gifts  from  friends  we  ought  to  be  thrice  thankful  ; 
 first,  when  the  gift  is  conferred  ;  secondly,  when  away 
 from  the  party  who  has  conferred  them  ;  and,  thirdly, 
 when  returning  the  favour  !  {Millin,  Gall.  Mylhol., 
 s.  V. — Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  192.) 
 
 Gratianus,  I.  eldest  son  of  Valentinian  I.,  succeed- 
 ed, after  his  father's  death,  A.D.  375,  to  a  share  of  the 
 Western  Empire,  having  for  his  portion  Gaul,  Spain, 
 and  Britain.  His  brother,  Valentinian  II.,  then  an  in- 
 fant under  five  years  of  age,  had  Italy,  Illyricum,  and 
 Africa,  under  the  guardianship,  however,  of  Gratianus, 
 who  was  therefore,  in  reality,  ruler  of  all  the  West. 
 His  uncle  Valens  had  the  empire  of  the  East.  Gratia- 
 nus began  his  reign  by  punishing  severely  various  pre- 
 fects and  other  officers  who  had  committed  acts  of  op- 
 pression and  cruelty  during  his  father's  reign.  At  the 
 same  time,  through  some  insidious  charges,  Count 
 Theodosius,  father  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  and  one 
 of  the  most  illustrious  men  of  his  age,  was  beheaded 
 at  Carthage.  In  the  year  378  Valens  perished  in  the 
 battle  of  Adrianopie  against  the  Goths,  and  Gratianus, 
 who  was  hastening  to  his  assistance,  was  hardly  able 
 to  save  Constantinople  from  falling  into  the  hands  of 
 the  enemy.  In  consequence  of  the  death  of  his  uncle, 
 I  Gratianus,  finding  himself  ruler  of  the  whole  Roman 
 
GRE 
 
 GREGORIUS. 
 
 empire  during  the  minority  of  his  brother  Valentinian, 
 called  to  him  young  Theodosius,  who  had  distinguish- 
 ed himself  in  the  Roman  armies,  but  had  retired  into 
 Spain  after  his  father's  death.  Gratianus  appointed 
 him  his  colleague,  a  choice  equally  creditable  to  both 
 and  fortunate  for  the  empire,  and  gave  him  the  prov- 
 inces of  the  East.  Gratianus  returned  to  Italy,  and 
 resided  for  some  time  at  Mediolaiium  (Milan),  where 
 he  became  intimate  with  St.  Ambrose.  He  was 
 obliged,  however,  soon  after  to  hasten  to  lUyricum, 
 to  the  assistance  of  Theodosius,  and  he  repelled  the 
 Goths,  who  were  threatening  Thrace.  Thence  he  was 
 obliged  to  hasten  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  to  fight 
 the  Alemanni  and  other  barbarians.  Having  returned 
 to  Mediolanum  in  the  year  381,  he  had  to  defend  the 
 frontiers  of  Italy  from  other  tribes,  who  were  advan- 
 cing on  the  side  of  Rha>tia.  Gratianus  enacted  sev- 
 eral wise  laws,  by  one  of  which  he  checked  mendicity, 
 which  had  spread  to  an  alarming  extent  in  Italy.  He 
 also  showed  himself  stern  and  unyielding  towards  the 
 remains  of  the  heathen  worship.  At  Rome  he  over- 
 threw the  altar  of  Victory,  which  had  continued  to 
 exist ;  he  confiscated  the  properly  attached  to  it,  as 
 well  as  all  that  which  belonged  to  the  other  priests 
 and  the  vestals.  He  also  refused  to  assume  the  title 
 and  insignia  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  a  dignity  till  then 
 considered  as  annexed  to  that  of  emperor.  These 
 measures  gave  a  final  blow  to  the  old  worship  of  the 
 empire  ;  and  although  the  senators,  who,  for  the  most 
 part,  were  still  attached  to  it,  sent  him  a  deputation, 
 at  the  head  of  which  was  Symmachus,  they  could  not 
 obtain  any  mitigation  of  his  decrees.  In  the  year  383, 
 a  certain  Maximus  revolted  in  Britain,  and  was  pro- 
 claimed emperor  by  the  soldiers,  to  whom  he  promised 
 to  re-establish  the  temples  and  the  old  religion  of  the 
 empire.  He  invaded  Gaul,  where  he  found  numerous 
 partisans.  Gratianus,  who  was  then,  according  to 
 some,  on  the  Rhine,  advanced  to  meet  him,  but  was 
 iorsaken  by  most  of  his  troops,  and  obliged  to  hasten 
 towards  Italy.  Orosius  and  others,  however,  state 
 that  the  emperor  received  the  news  of  the  revolt  while 
 in  Italy,  and  that  he  hurried  across  the  Alps  with  a 
 small  retinue  as  far  as  Lugdunum  {Lyons).  All,  how- 
 ever, agree  in  saying  that  he  was  seized  at  Lugdunum, 
 and  put  to  death  by  the  partisans  of  Maximus.  He 
 was  little  more  than  24  years  of  age,  and  had  reigned 
 about  eight  years.  Historians  agree  in  praising  him 
 for  his  justice  and  kindness,  and  his  zeal  for  the  pub- 
 ''ic  good  ;  and  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  who  is  not  lia- 
 bli!  to  the  charge  of  partiality  towards  the  Christians, 
 adds,  that,  had  he  lived  longer,  he  would  have  rivalled 
 .he  best  emperors  of  ancient  Rotne.  {he  Beau,  Bas- 
 Empire,  vol.  2,  p.  492,  seqq.  —  Encycl.  Us.  KnowL, 
 rol.  10,  p.  365.) 
 
 Gr.\tius  Fai.tscus,  a  Latin  poet,  contemporary  with 
 Ovid,  by  whom  he  is  once  mentioned  (2?p.  ex  Po7ifo, 
 t,  ult.  33).  He  wrote  a  poem  on  hunting,  entitled 
 Cynegetica,  of  which  we  have  540  verses  remaining. 
 From  the  sdence,  however,  preserved  respecting  him 
 ^y  the  writers  after  his  time,  we  may  fairly  inl'er  that 
 his  poem  remained  in  great  obscurity,  and  was  only 
 /arely  copied  :  hence  we  have  but  one  manuscript  of 
 it  remaining.  The  production  in  question  is  not  with- 
 out merit  ;  still,  however,  it  is  somewhat  dry.  The 
 style  is,  in  general,  pure.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
 Wernsdorff,  in  the  Poeta  Latini  Minorcs.  {Bdhr, 
 Gescli.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  204.) 
 
 GREGORias,  I.  surnamed  Thaumaturgus,  or  Won- 
 ler-workcr,  from  the  miracles  which  he  pretended  to 
 perform.  Before  his  conversion  to  Christianity,  he 
 was  known  by  the  name  of  Theodorus.  He  was  born 
 It  Neo-Caesarea,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Origen,  from 
 whom  he  imbibed  the  principles  of  the  Christian  faith. 
 He  was  afterward  made  bishop  of  his  native  city,  and 
 IS  said  to  have  left  only  seventeen  idolaters  in  his  dio- 
 «;ese,  where  he  had  found  only  seventeen  Christians. 
 
 Of  his  works  there  are  extant,  a  panegyrical  oration  on 
 his  master  Origen  upon  leaving  his  school,  a  canonical 
 epistle,  and  some  other  treatises  in  Greek,  the  best 
 edition  of  which  is  that  of  Paris,  fol.,  1622. — II.  Sur- 
 named Nazianzenus  (of  Nazianzus),  a  celebrated  fa- 
 ther of  the  church,  was  born  in  the  early  part  of  the 
 fourth  century,  at  Arianzus,  a  village  near  the  town  of 
 Nazianzus  in  Cappadocia,  of  which  his  father  was 
 bishop.  He  studied  first  at  ('a^sarea  in  ('appadocia,  af- 
 terward at  Alexandrea,  and  lastly  at  Athens,  where  he 
 became  the  friend  and  companion  of  Basilius,  and 
 where  he  also  met  Julian,  afterward  emperor.  At  a 
 subsequent  period  he  joined  Basilius,  who  had  retired 
 to  a  solitude  in  Pontus  during  the  reign  of  Julian. 
 VV'hen  Basilius  was  made  archbishop  of  Cajsarea,  he 
 appointed  his  friend  bishop  of  Zazime,  a  place  of  which 
 Gregory  gives  a  dismal  account,  and  which  he  soon 
 after  left  to  join  his  father,  and  assist  him  in  the  ad- 
 ministration of  the  church  of  Nazianzus.  He  there 
 made  himself  known  for  his  eloquence  in  the  orations 
 which  he  addressed  to  his  father's  flock.  These  com- 
 positions are  remarkable  for  a  certain  poetical  turn  of 
 imagery,  and  for  their  mild,  persuasive  tone.  Above  all 
 things,  he  preaches  peace  and  conciliation  ;  peace  to  the 
 clergy,  agitated  by  the  spirit  of  controversy  ;  peace  to 
 the  people  of  Nazianzus,  distracted  by  sedition  :  peace 
 to  the  imperial  governor,  who  had  come  to  chastise, 
 the  town,  and  whose  wrath  he  endeavours  to  disarm 
 by  appealing  to  the  God  of  mercy.  In  an  age  of  sec- 
 tarian intolerance  he  showed  himself  tolerant.  He  had 
 suffered  with  his  brethren  from  Arian  persecution  un- 
 der the  reign  of  Valens ;  and  after  that  emperor  had 
 taken  by  violence  all  the  churches  of  Constantinople 
 from  the  orthodox  or  Nicsans,  the  inhabitants,  who 
 had  remained  attached  to  that  faith,  looking  about  for 
 a  man  of  superior  merit  and  of  tried  courage  to  bo 
 their  bishop,  applied  to  Gregory,  who  had  left  Nazian- 
 zus after  his  father's  death  and  had  retired  into  Isauria. 
 Gregory  came  to  Constantinople  and  took  the  direc- 
 tion of  a  private  chapel,  which  he  named  Anastasia, 
 and  whither  his  eloquence  soon  attracted  a  numerous 
 congregation,  to  the  great  mortification  of  the  Arians. 
 Theodosius  having  assumed  the  reins  of  government 
 and  triumphed  over  his  enemies,  declared  himself  in 
 favour  of  the  orthodox  communion,  retook  the  churches 
 which  the  Arians  had  seized,  and  came  himself  with 
 soldiers  to  drive  them  from  Santa  Sophia,  an  act  which 
 Gregory  says  looked  like  the  taking  of  a  citadel  by 
 storm.  Gregory  being  now  recognised  as  metropoli- 
 tan, did  not  retaliate  upon  the  Arians  for  the  past  per- 
 secutions, but  endeavoured  to  reclaim  them  by  mild- 
 ness and  persuasion.  In  the  midst  of  the  pomp  of  the 
 imperial  court  he  retained  his  former  habits  of  simpli- 
 city and  frugality.  His  conduct  soon  drew  upon  him 
 the  dislike  of  the  courtiers  and  of  the  fanatical  zealots. 
 Theodosius  convoked  a  council  of  all  the  bishops  of 
 the  East,  to  regulate  matters  concerning  the  vacant  or 
 disputed  sees,  which  had  been  for  many  years  in  pos- 
 session of  the  Arians.  The  council  at  first  acknowl- 
 edged Gregory  as  archbishop,  but  soon  after  factions 
 arose  in  the  bosom  of  the  assembly,  which  disputed 
 his  title  to  the  see,  and  stigmatized  his  charity  towards 
 the  now  persecuted  Arians  as  lukewarmness  in  the 
 faith.  Gregory,  averse  to  strife,  offered  his  resigna- 
 tion, which  the  emperor  readily  accepted.  Having  as- 
 sembled the  people  and  the  fathers  of  the  council,  to 
 the  number  of  one  hundred  and  fifty,  in  the  church  of 
 St  Sophia,  he  delivered  his  farewell  sermon,  which  is  a 
 fine  specimen  of  pulpit  eloquence.  After  recapitu- 
 lating the  tenourof  his  past  life,  his  trials,  the  proofs 
 of  attachment  he  had  given  to  the  orthodox  faith  m  the 
 midst  of  dangers  and  persecution,  he  replies  to  tho 
 charge  of  not  having  avenged  that  persecution  upon 
 thoslwho  were  now  persecuted  in  their  turn,  by  ob- 
 ,-in2,  that  to  forego  the  opportunity  of  revenging 
 selves  uoon  a  fallen  enemy  is  the  greatest  of  all  tri- 
 
 serv 
 ourselves  upon 
 
 563 
 
GREGORIUS. 
 
 G  RY 
 
 umphs.  He  then  pleads  guilty  to  the  charge  of  not 
 keeping  up  the  s|)leiidour  of  his  office  by  a  luxurious 
 table  and  a  magiiiticent  retinue,  saying  that  he  was  not 
 aware  that  the  ministers  of  the  sanctuary  were  to  vie 
 in  pomp  with  the  consuls  and  commanders  of  armies. 
 After  rebuking  the  ambition  and  rivalry  of  his  col- 
 leagues, which  he  compares  to  the  factions  of  the  cir- 
 cus, he  terminates  by  taking  an  aflectionate  leave  of 
 all  those  around  him,  and  of  the  places  dear  to  his 
 memory.  This  valedictory  address  is  a  touching  spe- 
 cimen of  the  [)alhetic  style,  dignified  and  unmixed  with 
 querulous.ness.  The  orator  salutes  for  the  last  time 
 the  splendid  temple  in  which  he  is  sjieaking,  and  then 
 turns  towards  his  humble  but  beloved  chapel  of  Anas- 
 lasia,  to  the  choirs  of  virgins  and  matrons,  of  widows 
 and  orphans,  so  often  gathered  there  to  hear  his  voice  ; 
 and  he  mentions  the  short-hand  writers  who  used  to 
 note  down  his  words.  He  next  bids  "  farewell  to 
 kings  and  their  palaces,  and  to  the  courtiers  and  ser- 
 vants of  kings  ;  faithful,  I  trust,  to  your  master,  but 
 for  the  most  part  faithless  towards  God  ;  farewell  to 
 the  sovereign  city,  the  friend  of  Christ,  but  yet  open 
 to  correction  and  repentance  ;  farewell  to  the  Eastern 
 and  Western  world,  for  whose  sake  I  have  striven,  and 
 for  whose  sake  I  am  now  slighted."  He  concludes 
 with  recommending  his  flock  to  the  guardian  angels  of 
 peace,  in  hopes  of  hearing  from  the  place  of  his  retire- 
 ment that  it  is  daily  growing  in  wisdom  and  virtue. 
 'S.  Gregorii  Naztamtni,  Opera,  Oral.  32,  ed.  Billy.) 
 This  oration  was  delivered  in  June,  A.D.  381,  and  a 
 few  days  after  Gregory  was  on  his  way  to  his  native 
 Cappadocia.  Arrived  at  Caesarea,  he  delivered  an  im- 
 pres.=ive  funeral  oration  to  the  memory  of  his  friend 
 Basilius,  who  had  died  there  some  time  before,  in 
 which  he  recalls  to  mind  their  juvenile  studies  at 
 Athens,  their  long  intimacy,  and  the  events  of  their 
 checkered  lives  {Oral.  20).  After  paying  this  last 
 tribute  to  the  memory  of  his  friend,  he  withdrew  to 
 his  native  Arianzus,  where  he  spent  the  latter  years 
 of  his  life,  far  from  the  turmoil  of  courts  and  councils, 
 busy  in  the  cultivation  of  his  garden  and  in  writing 
 poetry,  a  favourite  occupation  with  him  from  his  youth. 
 Gregory  died  A.D.  389.  Most  of  his  poems  are  reli- 
 gious meditations.  Occasionally  the  poet  attempts  to 
 dive  into  the  mysterious  destiny  of  man,  and  some- 
 times appears  lost  in  uncertainty  and  doubt  as  to  the 
 object  of  human  existence  ;  but  he  recovers  himself  to 
 do  homage  to  the  Almighty  wisdom  whose  secrets  will 
 become  revealed  in  another  sphere.  The  adept  in  the 
 philosophy  of  ancient  Greece  is  here  seen  striving  with 
 the  submissive  Christian  convert.  St.  Jerome  and 
 Suidas  say  that  Gregory  wrote  no  less  than  thirty  thou- 
 sand lines  of  poetry.  Some  of  his  poems  were  pub- 
 lished in  the  edition  of  his  works  by  the  Abbe  de 
 Billy,  Paris,  1609-11,  which  contains  also  his  orations 
 and  epistles ;  twenty  more  poems,  under  the  title  of 
 •'  Carmina  Cygnea."  were  afterward  published  by  Tol- 
 lius,  in  his  "  Insignia  Itinerarii  Italici,"  4to,  Utrecht, 
 1696  ;  and  Muralori  discovered,  and  published  in  his 
 "  Anecdota  Gra^ca,"  Padua,  1709,  a  number  of  Grego- 
 ry's epigrams.  Of  his  orations  some  few  turn  upon 
 dogmas,  especially  on  that  of  the  Trinity,  but  most  of 
 them  are  upon  morality.  He  is  a  soberer  writer  than 
 his  successor  Chrysostom,  and  has  more  of  the  calm, 
 impressive  eloquence  of  conviction.  He  and  his  friend 
 Basilius  brought  the  oratorical  arts  of  ancient  Greece 
 mto  the  service  of  Christian  preaching,  and  one  of 
 Gregory's  greatest  complaints  against  Julian  is,  that 
 that  emperor  had  forbidden  Christians  the  study  of 
 Greek  literature.  In  his  two  orations  ao-ainst  Julian 
 he  somewhat  departs  from  his  usual  style,  and  assumed 
 that  of  a  powerful  invective  in  reply  to  the  panegyrics 
 of  Libanius,  Eunapius,  and  other  admirers  of  that  em- 
 peror. Gregory  of  Nazianzus  has  been  styled  the 
 "  Theologian  of  the  Eastern  Church  :"  he  miuht,  with 
 •s  much  truth,  be  styled  its  most  poetical  writer 
 564 
 
 (Suidas,  s.  v.  —  Encyd.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  2,  p.  442 
 sci/q.) — HI.  A  bishop  of  Nyssa,  in  Cappadocia.  the 
 brother  of  Basilius.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
 Arian  controversy,  and  died  A.D.  396. — IV.  Conn- 
 tluus,  archbishop  of  Corinth  in  the  twelfth  century. 
 He  is  chiefly  known  by  his  work  on  dialects  (Ilfpi 
 ftiaktKTuv),  the  best  edition  of  which  is  that  of  Schaf- 
 fer,  L?ps,  1811,  8vo. 
 
 Grubii,  a  people  of  Gallia  Belgica,  to  the  northwest 
 of,  and  tributary  to,  the  Nervii.  Traces  of  their  name 
 remain,  according  to  D'Anville,  in  la  terre  de  Groudc, 
 above  VEclusc,  towards  the  north,  in  a  j)art  of  the 
 country  called  Let-Sand.  Turpin  de  Crisse  is  wrong 
 in  making  the  country  of  the  Grudii  answer  to  that  of 
 Britses.  (Cces.,  B.  G.,  5,  39. — Lemaire,  Ind.  Geogr. 
 ad  Cits.,  p.  272.) 
 
 Gkyi-lus,  a  son  of  Xenophon,  who  killed  Epami- 
 nondas,  and  was  himself  slain,  at  the  battle  of  Manti- 
 nea,  B.C.  363.  His  father  was  offering  a  sacrifice 
 when  he  received  the  news  of  his  death,  and  he  threw 
 down  the  garland  which  was  on  his  head,  but  replaced 
 it  when  he  heard  that  the  enemy's  general  had  fallen 
 by  his  hands.  {JElian,  V.  H ,  3,  3.) — Such  is  iho 
 common  account.  The  variations  of  tradition,  how- 
 ever, as  to  the  hand  by  which  E[)aininondas  fell,  prove 
 the  importance  which  his  contemporaries  attached  to 
 that  event.  Among  the  claimants,  besides  the  son  of 
 Xenophon,  were  a  Spartan,  and  a  Locrian  of  Amphis- 
 sa.  The  Spartan's  descendants  became  a  privileged 
 family.  The  Locrian's  received  heroic  honours  from 
 the  Phocians.  But  the  Athenians,  and  the  Thebans 
 themselves,  assigned  the  deed  to  Gryllus,  and  he  was 
 honoured  by  the  Mantineans  with  a  public  funeral  and 
 statue,  and  by  his  fellow-citizens  with  a  conspicuous 
 place  in  a  painting  of  the  battle,  representing  him  in 
 the  act  of  jriving  the  mortal  wound  Yet,  as  he  served 
 in  the  Athenian  cavalry,  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
 how  he  could  have  encountered  Epaminondas,  who 
 was  at  the  head  of  theTheban  infantry.  (ThirlwaWs 
 Greece,  vol.  5,  p.  151.) 
 
 Gbyneu.m  or  Grvne.*.  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of 
 ^Eolis,  situate  on  the  coast  of  Lydia,  near  the  north- 
 ern confines,  and  northwest  of  Cuma;  or  Cyme.  It 
 was  celebrated  for  the  worship  of  .'\ polio,  who  thence 
 derived  the  surname  of  Gryneiis.  {Virg.,  Eclog.,  6, 
 72. — M)i.,  4,  345  )  The  temple  of  the  god  was  re- 
 markable  for  its  size,  and  for  the  beauty  of  the  whilp 
 marble  of  which  it  was  built.  {Sirabn,  622.)  Krasc 
 makes  the  site  of  the  ancient  place  correspond  with 
 the  modern  C/mc//A-.  (Bischoffund  Moller,  Wortcrb. 
 dcr  Gcogr.,  p.  577.) 
 
 Grvphes,  more  correctly  Grypks  (Tpvirec),  griffons^ 
 certain  animals  which,  according  to  Herodotus  (3, 
 116),  guarded  the  gold  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 Arimaspians,  a  Scythian  race,  fr.-jm  the  attempts  of 
 that  people  to  possess  themselves  of  it.  (Vid.  Ari- 
 maspi.)  Herodotus  makes  only  a  passing  allusion  to 
 the  contests  between  the  griffons  and  Arimaspians, 
 because  probably  he  attached  little,  if  any,  belief  to  it. 
 Ctesias,  however,  ibmore  diffuse.  (Ind.,  ()  12. — Com- 
 pare ^E//an,  N.  A.,  4,  ll.—Plin.,  7,  2.)  The  ques- 
 tion respecting  the  .\rimaspians  has  already  been  dis- 
 cussed. (Vid.  Arimaspi.)  With  regard  to  the  grif- 
 fons, muc.i  diversity  of  opinion  prevails  among  modern 
 scholars.  Von  Veltheim  thinks  the  story  refers  to  the 
 washing  of  gold  in  the  desert  of  Cobi.  He  supposei< 
 this  to  have  been  done  by  slaves  for  the  monarchs  of 
 northern  India,  and  the  spot  to  have  been  carefully 
 guarded  by  armed  men  and  fierce  dogs,  the  most  alarm- 
 ing tales  having  been  at  the  same  time  spread  concern, 
 ing  these  regions,  in  order  to  keep  off  adventurers. 
 ( Von  den  goldgrabenden  Ameisen  nnd  Greifcn  der  Al- 
 ien.—  Vermischte  Aufs.,  vol.  2,  p.  267,  seqq.)  Wahl 
 takes  the  griffons  to  be  a  nation  in  the  northeastern 
 part  of  Upper  Asia,  and  identical  with  the  t{hipa?i.  Ha 
 assigns  them  for  a  habitation  the  range  of  Mount  Altaic 
 
G  Y  G 
 
 G  YN 
 
 and  regards  them  as  having  practised  mining  in  Up- 
 per Asia.  Hence,  according  to  hiin,  the  gold  of  the 
 griffons  is  nothing  more  than  the  gold  obtained  from 
 mines.  (Enlbcschr.  von  OsL,  p.  488,  scqq.)  Malte- 
 Brun  remarks,  that  in  the  mountains  where  the  Indus 
 rises,  and  where  there  are  gold-mines,  eagles  and 
 vultures  of  an  enormous  size  are  found,  which  may 
 have  giver,  rise  to  the  fable  respecting  the  griffons. 
 (NouBclL,  Annal.  dcs  Vvyag.,  vol.  2,  p.  380,  seqq.) 
 Rhode  seeks  to  identify  the  griffons  with  the  Dews, 
 or  evil  genii  of  Per.sian  mythology  {Hciligc  Sage,  p. 
 227,  seq),  for  which  he  is  justly  censured  by  Von 
 Hammer  (  Wan.  Jahrh.,  vol.  9,  p.  53) ;  and  Wilford, 
 with  as  little  ]irobability,  refers  the  account  of  the  grif- 
 fons to  that  of  the  fabled  bird  of  Vischnu,  named  Ga- 
 ronda.  {AsiaL  Researches,  vol.  14,  p.  373.) — As  re- 
 gards the  name  ypvip  itself,  it  evidently  comes  from  the 
 Persian  gcreifcn,  "  to  seize"  (compare  the  German 
 greifcu),  the  root  of  which,  greif,  has  a  strong  analogy 
 to  yfjvip.  {Tychsen,  ap.  Hecren,  Ideen,  vol.  1,  pt.  2, 
 p.  386. — Bahr,  ad  Herod  ,  3,  116,  Excurs.,  5.) 
 
 GvAKCis,  a  small  island  of  the  Archipelago,  classed 
 by  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  among  the  Sporades,  but 
 belonging  rather  to  the  Cyclades.  It  lay  southwest  of 
 Andros,  off  the  coast  of  Attica.  So  wretched  and  poor 
 was  this  barren  rock,  being  inhabited  only  by  a  few 
 fishermen,  that  they  deputed  one  of  their  number  to 
 wait  upon  Augustus,  then  at  Corinth,  after  the  battle 
 of  Actium.  to  petition  that  their  taxes,  which  amount- 
 id  to  150  drachmae  (about  25  dollars),  might  be  dimin- 
 ished, as  they  were  unable  to  raise  more  than  100. 
 {Strab.,  485.)  This  island  became  subsequently  no- 
 torious, as  the  spot  to  which  criminals  or  suspected 
 persons  were  banished  by  order  of  the  Roman  em- 
 perors. (Jicv.,  Sat.,  l,'^3.— Id,  Sat.,  10,  70.— Tacit., 
 3,  68.)  The  modern  name  is  Ghioura.  {Cramer'' s 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  412.) 
 
 GvAs,  I.  one  of  the  companions  of  vEneas,  who  dis- 
 tinguished himself  at  the  games  e.^hibited  after  the 
 death  of  Anchises  in  Sicily.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  5,  118.) — 
 n.  A  Rutulian,  son  of  Melampus,  killed  by  ^'Eneas  in 
 Italy.     (Id  ,  10,  318.) 
 
 Gyges  (TvyrK),  more  correctly  Gyes  {Tvij(;),  a  son 
 of  Coslus  and  Terra,  represented  as  having  a  hundred 
 hands.  He,  with  his  brothers,  made  war  against  the 
 gods,  and  was  afterward  punished  in  Tartar^us.  {Vid. 
 Cottus.)  ■■' 
 
 Gyges,  a  Lydian,  to  whom  Candaules,  king  of  the 
 country,  showed  his  wife  with  her  person  exposed. 
 The  latter  was  so  incensed,  although  she  concealed 
 her  anger  at  the  time,  that,  calling  Gyges  afterward 
 into  her  presence,  she  gave  him  his  choice  either  to 
 submit  to  instant  death,  or  to  slay  her  husband.  Gyges 
 chose  the  latter  alternative,  married  the  queen,  and  as- 
 cended the  vacant  throne,  about  718  years  before  the 
 Christian  era.  He  was  the  first  of  the  Mermnads 
 who  reigned  in  Lydia.  He  reigned  38  years,  and  dis- 
 tinguished himself  iiy  the  presents  which  he  made  to 
 the  oracle  oi  Delphi.  {Herodot.,  1,  8,  se.qq.)  The 
 wife  of  Candaules  above  mentioned  was  called  Nyssia 
 according  to  Hephaestion. — The  story  of  Rosamund, 
 (jueen  of  the  I.,oinbards,  as  related  by  Gibbon,  bears  an 
 exact  reKemtilance  to  this  of  Candaules.  (Compare 
 Sckl«g.icr,  Weltgcschichtc,  vol.  2,  pt.  I,  p.  83.) — Pla- 
 lo  relates  a  curious  legend  respecting  this  Gyges, 
 which  differs  essentially  from  the  account  given  by 
 Herodotus.  He  makes  him  to  have  been  originally 
 one  of  the  shepherds  of  Candaules,  and  to  have  de- 
 Kceuded  into  a  chasm,  formed  by  heavy  rains  and  an 
 earthquake  in  the  quarter  where  he  was  pasturing  his 
 flocks.  Ill  this  chasm  he  discovered  many  wonderful 
 things,  and  particularly  a  brazen  horse  having  doors  in 
 St,  through  which  he  looked,  and  saw  within  a  corpse  of 
 more  than  mortal  size,  having  a  golden  ring  on  its  fin- 
 ger. This  ring  he  took  off  and  reascended  to  the  sur- 
 face of  the  earth.     Attending,  after  this,  a  meeting  of 
 
 his  fellow-shepherds,  who  used  to  assemole  once  a 
 month  for  the  purpose  of  transmitting  an  account  of 
 their  flocks  to  the  king,  he  accidentally  discovered 
 that,  when  he  turned  the  bezil  of  the  ring  inward  to- 
 wards himself,  he  became  invisible,  and  when  he  turn- 
 ed It  outward,  again  visible.  Upon  this,  having  caused 
 himself  to  be  chosen  in  the  number  of  those  who  were 
 sent  on  this  occasion  to  the  king,  he  murdered  the  mon- 
 arch, with  the  aid  of  the  queen,  whom  he  previously 
 corrupted,  and  ascended  the  throne  of  Lydia.  {Plat., 
 deRejJub.,  2,  p.  359,  .ve^.— Compare  Cic.,dc  Off' ,  3,  9.) 
 
 Gylippus,  a  Lacedajinonian,  sent,  B.C.  414,  by  his 
 countrymen  to  assist  Syracuse  against  the  Athenians, 
 which  he  effected  i)y  the  overthrow  of  Nicias  and  De- 
 mosthenes. He  afterward  joined  Lysandcr  off  Athens, 
 and  aided  him  by  his  advice  in  the  capture  of  that  ciiy. 
 Lysander  sent  him  to  LacedjBinon  with  the  money  and 
 spoils  which  had  been  taken,  the  former  amounting  to 
 1500  talents.  But  Gylippus,  unable  to  resist  the 
 temptation,  unsewed  the  bottom  of  the  baas,  thus 
 leaving  the  seals  untouched  at  the  top,  and  abstracted 
 300  talents.  His  theft,  however,  was  discovered  by 
 means  of  the  memorandum  contained  in  each  bag,  and 
 to  avoid  punishment  he  went  into  voluntary  exile 
 {Plut.,  Vit.  Nic.—Diod.  Sic,  13,  106.) 
 
 Gymnesi^te.      Vid    Baleares. 
 
 GvMN0S0PHisT.(E  {Tv/j.vo(jO(pi(TTai),  or  "  naked  wise 
 men,"  a  name  given  by  the  Greek  writers  to  a  certain 
 class  of  Indian  ascetics  belonging  to  the  caste  of  the 
 Brahmins,  and  who,  in  accordance  with  the  prevalent 
 belief,  thought  that,  by  subjecting  the  body  to  suffer- 
 ings and  privations,  and  by  withdrawing  from  all  inter- 
 course with  mankind,  they  could  effect  a  reunion  ot 
 the  spiritual  nature  of  man  with  the  divine  essence. 
 Most  of  these  ascetics  dispensed  almost  entirely  with 
 the  use  of  clothes,  and  many  of  them  went  entirely 
 naked.  Hence  the  name  applied  to  them  by  the 
 Greeks.  It  is  expressly  commanded  in  the  laws  ot 
 Manu  (6,  2,  3),  that  a  Brahmin,  when  his  children  have 
 attained  maturity,  should  retire  from  the  world,  and 
 take  refuge  in  a  forest.  He  is  required  to  spend  his 
 time  in  studying  the  Vedas  and  in  performing  pen- 
 ances, for  the  purpose  of  "  uniting  his  soul  with  the 
 divine  spirit."  {Manu,  6,  29.)  Many  of  these  her- 
 mits appear  in  former  times  to  have  studied  the  ab- 
 stract sciences  with  great  success  ;  and  they  have  al- 
 ways been  considered  by  the  orthodox  Hindus  as  the 
 wisest  and  holiest  of  mankind.  (Consult  the  Bhaga- 
 vad  Gltd,  a  philosophical  poem,  forming  an  episode  to 
 the  Mahabh&rata,  which  has  been  translated  into  Eng- 
 lish by  Wilkins,  Land.,  1787,  and  into  Latin  by  Schlc- 
 gel,  who  also  edited  the  Sanscrit  text,  Bonn,  1823.) 
 The  Gymnoso[)hists  often  burned  themselves  alive,  as 
 Calanus  did  in  the  presence  of  Alexander.  {Arrian, 
 Exp.  AL,  7,  18. — Plat.,  Vit.  Alex.,  c.  65,  seqq. — Dwd. 
 Sic.,  17,  107.) 
 
 GvNDKs,  now  Zcindeh,  a  river  of  Assyria,  falling 
 into  the  Tigris.  When  Cyrus  marched  against  Baby- 
 lon, his  army  was  stopped  by  this  river,  in  which  one 
 of  the  sacred  horses  was  drowned.  This  so  irritated 
 the  monarch,  that  he  ordered  the  river  to  be  divided 
 into  360  different  channels  by  his  army,  so  that  after 
 this  division  it  hardly  reached  the  knee.  {Herod.,  \, 
 189.)  This  portrait  of  Cyrus  seems  a  little  over- 
 charged. The  hatred  which  the  Greeks  bore  the  Per- 
 sians is  sufficientlv  known.  The  motive  oi  (.'yrus  for 
 thus  treating  the  Gyiides  could  not  be  such  as  is  de- 
 scribed by  Herodotus.  That  which  happened  to  the 
 sacred  horse  might  make  him  apprehend  a  similar  fate 
 for  the  rest  of  his  army,  and  compel  him  to  divert  the 
 river  into  a  great  number  of  canals  in  order  to  render 
 it  fordable.  The  Gyndes.  at  the  present  day.  has  reas- 
 sumed  its  course  to  the  Tigris,  and  its  entrance  into 
 that  river  is  called  Foum-el-Saleh,  or  the  river  of  peace, 
 in  Arabic.  The  name  given  it  by  the  Turks  in  the 
 place  whence  it  issues,  is  Kara- Sou,  or  the  black  river. 
 ^  565 
 
HAD 
 
 HADRIANUS. 
 
 Oytheum,  the  port  of  Sparta,  about  40  stadia  from 
 Las  {Fausan.,  3,  24),  and  240  from  Sparta  itself 
 {Siraho,  363.)  Pliny  says  it  was  the  nearest  point  to 
 embark  from  for  the  island  of  Crete  (4,  5).  Gytheum 
 was  taken  by  the  Athenians  under  Tolmidas,  who 
 burnt  the  docks  before  the  Peloponnesian  war.  {Di- 
 odoTus  Sic,  11,  84.)  It  was  also  attacked  by  the 
 Thebans  in  their  first  invasion  of  Laconia,  for  three 
 days,  but  without  success.  (Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  6,  5,  32.) 
 li,  was  afterward  besieged  by  the  Roman  army  under 
 the  command  of  T.  Q.  Fbnnninus  and  his  brother  Lu- 
 cius, and  compelled  to  surr«^nder.  Livy  says  it  was  a 
 strong  and  populous  town,  and  well  provided  with  the 
 means  of  resistance  (34,  29).  On  the  renewal  of  the 
 war,  it  was,  however,  retaken  by  Nabis.  {Liv.,  35, 
 26.  — Compare  Pohjh.,  2,  69.)  The  Gytheata;  pre- 
 tended that  their  city  had  been  built  by  Hercules  and 
 Apollo,  whose  statues  were  placed  in  the  forum.  Po- 
 iybius  states  (5,  19),  that  the  port,  distant  30  stadia 
 from  the  citv  itself,  was  both  commodious  and  secure. 
 Strabo  remarks,  that  it  was  an  artificial  haven.  Gy- 
 theum stood  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  present  town  of 
 Marathonisi.  The  site  is  now  called  PalcEopoli,  but 
 no  habitation  is  left  upon  it.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol   3,  p.  192,  seqq.) 
 
 H. 
 
 Hades  (aJ7?c))  the  place  of  departed  spirits,  accord- 
 intT  to  the  Grecian  mythology  ;  from  a,  not,  and  eldu, 
 to  see,  as  denoting  the  lower  or  invisible  world.  Its 
 divisions  were  Elysium  and  Tartarus,  the  respective 
 abodos  of  the  good  and  bad.  In  the  Homeric  times, 
 however,  this  arrangement  formed  no  part  of  the  pop- 
 ular creed.  The  prevalent  belief  was  merely  as  fol- 
 lows ;  that  the  souls  of  the  departed,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  those  who  had  personally  offended  against  the 
 fods,  were  occupied  in  the  lower  world  witii  the  un- 
 real performance  of  the  same  actions  that  had  formed 
 their  chief  objects  of  pursuit  in  the  regions  of  day. 
 All  the  other  accompaniments  of  the  fable,  the  judges, 
 the  tribunals,  the  trials  of  the  dead,  &c.,  are  merely 
 posthomeric  additions.  {Constant,  de  la  Religion, 
 vol.  3,  p.  383.)  As  regards  the  analogy  between  the 
 terms  hades  and  our  English  word  hell,  it  may  be  re- 
 marked, that  the  latter,  in  its  primitive  signification, 
 perfectly  corresponded  to  the  former.  For,  at  first,  it 
 denoted  only  what  was  secret  or  concealed  ;  and  it  is 
 found,  moreover,  with  little  variation  of  form,  and  pre- 
 cisely with  the  same  meaning,  in  all  the  Teutonic  dia- 
 lects. (Compare  Junius' s  Gothic  Glossary,  subjoined 
 to  the  Code.x  Argenteus,  on  the  word  hcrlyan ;  and  the 
 Diversions  of  Purlcy,  vol.  2,  p.  377,  ed.  1829. )  With 
 regard  to  the  situation  of  hades,  it  seems  always  to 
 have  been  conceived,  by  both  Jews  and  pagans,  as  in 
 the  lower  parts  of  the  earth,  near  its  centre,  as  we 
 should  term  it,  or  its  foundation  (according  to  the  no- 
 tion of  the  Hebrews,  who  knew  nothing  of  its  spheri- 
 cal figure),  and  answering  in  depth  to  the  visible 
 heavens  in  height.  (Compare,  on  this  whole  subject, 
 Campbell's  Gospels,  vol.  1,  p,  272,  seqq.,  Disc.  6, 
 pt.  2.) 
 
 Hadranum,  a  town  of  Sicily,  near  Mount  ^Etna, 
 having  in  its  vicinity  a  river  of  the  name  of  Hadranus. 
 {Stej)h.  Byz.,  s.  v.)  It  was  founded  by  Dionysius. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  14.  38 — Comy)are  Sitiiis  Ilalicus,  14,  250.) 
 Hadrianus  (Publius  ^lius),  I.  a  Roman  emperor, 
 born  at  Rome  A.D.  76.  He  lost  his  father  when  ten 
 vears  of  age,  and  had  for  his  guardians  Trajan,  who 
 was  his  relation,  and  Cornelius  Tatianus,  a  Roman 
 knight.  His  parent's  name  was  ^lius  Hadrianus 
 Afer,  and  it  is  conjectured  that  the  surname  of  Afer 
 was  criven  the  latter  because  he  had  been  govern- 
 or of  Africa,  and  that  he  is  the  same  with  the  Hadri- 
 anus who  put  the  martyr  Leontius  to  death  at  Tripo- 
 lis,  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  {Bayle,  Hist.  Diet.,  s. 
 566 
 
 v.,  vol.  5,  p.  670.)  Hadrian's  father  was  Trajan's 
 first  cousin  ;  for  he  was  the  son  of  Ulpia.  ilie  sister  o1 
 Marcus  Ulpius  Trajanus,  the  Emperor  Trajan's  father. 
 (Compare  Tzschucke,  ad  Eutrop.,  s.  6.)  Hadrian  be- 
 gan very  early  to  serve  in  the  army,  and  was  tribune 
 of  a  legion  before  Domitian's  death.  The  forces  in 
 Lower  MoBsia  chose  him  to  congratulate  Trajan  upon 
 his  being  adopted  by  Ncrva,  and  it  was  he  that  ac- 
 quainted Trajan  with  the  first  news  of  iNerva's  death. 
 He  regained  the  emperor's  favour,  which  he  had  al- 
 most entirely  lost  by  his  extravagant  expenses  and  the 
 debts  which  he  had  in  consequence  incurred,  and 
 married  the  grand  niece  of  this  prince,  Sabina,  chieHy 
 through  the  aid  of  Plotina  the  empress.  His  subse- 
 quent rise  was  rapid,  and  he  was  the  companion  of 
 i'rajan  in  most  of  his  expeditions.  He  particular- 
 ly distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the  Da- 
 cians,  and  was  successively  appointed  pra;ior,  govern- 
 or of  Pannonia,  and  consul.  The  orations  he  com- 
 posed for  Trajan  increased  his  credit.  {Spartian., 
 Vit.  Hadr.)  After  the  siege  of  Atra,  in  Arabia,  Tra- 
 jan left  him  in  command  of  his  army,  and  when  he 
 found  his  death  approaching,  adopted  him,  although 
 the  reality  of  this  adoption  is  disputed  by  some  au- 
 thorities, who  attribute  his  elevation  to  the  intrigues 
 and  good  offices  of  Plotina.  {Dio  Cass.,  c.  69,  vol.  2, 
 p.  1148,  ed.  Rcimdr. — Spartian.,  Vii.  Hadr.,  c.  4,  p. 
 45. — Bayle,  Hist.  Dirt.,  s.  v.  Plotina,  vol.  8,  p  433.) 
 On  the  death  of  Trajan  he  assumed  the  reins  of  gov- 
 ernment, with  the  concurrence  of  the  .Syrian  army  ; 
 and  the  senate  readily  ratified  the  act.  The  first 
 care  of  Hadrian  was  to  make  a  peace  with  the  Per- 
 sians, and  to  restore  all  the  provinces  just  taken  from 
 them,  making  the  Euphrates  the  boundary  of  the  Ro- 
 man empire.  He  had  then  to  turn  his  attention  to 
 certain  revolts  and  insurrections  in  Egypt,  Libya,  and 
 Palestine  ;  and,  after  quickly  concluding  a  peace  witb 
 the  Parthians,  returned  to  Rome,  A.D.  118.  The 
 senate  decreed  him  a  triumph,  and  honoured  him  with 
 the  title  of  Father  of  his  Country  ;  but  he  refused  both, 
 and  required  that  Trajan's  image  should  triumph.  He 
 sought  popularity  by  a  repeal  of  fifteen  years  accumu- 
 lation of  arrears  of  public  debt,  by  a  vast  reduction 
 of  taxation  generally,  and  by  immense  largesses  to  the 
 people.  He  was  less  generous  to  certain  senators 
 accused  of.a  plot  against  him,  four  of  whom,  although 
 of  consular  rank  and  intimates  of  Trajan,  he  caused  to 
 be  put  to  death.  A  year  after  his  return  to  Rome. 
 Hadrian  marched  against  the  Alani,  the  Sarmatians, 
 and  the  Dacians,  but  showed  a  greater  desire  to  make 
 peace  with  these  barbarians  than  to  extend  the  prog- 
 ress of  the  Roman  arms.  This  policy  has  been  at- 
 tributed to  envy  of  the  fame  of  his  warlike  predeces- 
 sor ;  but  a  due  consideration  of  the  subsequent  history 
 of  the  empire  will  amply  justify  him  against  the  impu- 
 tation ;  for  it  had  reached  an  extent  which  rendered 
 all  increase  to  its  limits  a  source  of  weakness  rather 
 than  of  strength.  Hadrian  was  an  active  prince  and 
 a  great  traveller,  visiting  every  province  in  the  empire, 
 not  simply  to  indulge  his  curiosity,  but  to  inspect  the 
 administration  of  government,  repress  abuses,  erect 
 and  repair  public  edifices,  and  exercise  all  the  vigi- 
 lance of  personal  examination.  In  A.D.  120,  be 
 passed  over  from  Gaul  to  Britain,  where  he  caused  a 
 wall  to  be  built  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  to  Solway 
 Frith,  in  order  to  secure  the  Roman  provinces  from 
 the  incursions  of  the  Caledonians.  (Consult  Htfllon's 
 Roman  Wall,  Land.,  1802.)  Like  Trajan,  he  lived 
 familiarly  with  his  friends,  but  was  much  nioie  suspi- 
 cious, and  could  not  repose  in  them  the  same  confi- 
 dence. VN'hen  at  Rome  he  cultivated  all  kinds  of  hl- 
 erature,  conversing  with  learned  men,  and  giving  and 
 receiving  information  in  their  society,  but  not  witbo-,;t 
 occasionally  displaying  an  unbecoming  jealousy  and 
 caprice.  Hadrian  had  again  to  visit  the  East  to  re- 
 press the  Parlhians,  who  paid  little  regard  to  Ueatiea 
 
HADRIANUS. 
 
 H^M 
 
 On  his  return  be  passed  the  winter  at  Athens,  and 
 was  initiated  in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  He  pub- 
 lished no  edict  against  the  Christians,  yet  they  never- 
 theless endured  considerable  persecution,  until,  upon 
 the  remonstrance  of  Quadratus,  bishop  of  Athens,  and 
 Aristides,  an  eminent  Christian,  he  ordered  the  perse- 
 cution to  cease  ;  but  no  credit  is  due  to  the  unauthor- 
 ized assertion  of  Lampridius,  that  he  thought  of  build- 
 ing a  temple  to  our  Saviour.  His  treatment  of  the 
 Jews,  on  the  other  hand,  was  extremely  severe,  though 
 ample  provocation  had  been  given  by  that  turbulent 
 nation.  They  had  raised  disturbances  towards  the 
 end  of  Trajan's  reign,  which  were  not  completely 
 quelled  until  the  second  year  of  Hadrian.  But  now  a 
 more  formidable  insurrection  broke  out  under  Barco- 
 chebas  ("  Son  of  a  Star''),  who,  though  a  robber  by 
 profession,  had  given  himself  out  for  the  Messiah.  It 
 required  a  war  of  three  years  to  reduce  the  revolted 
 Jews  to  complete  subjection,  and  after  this  was  ac- 
 complished, there  was  scarcely  any  indignity  that  was 
 not  inflicted  on  the  conquered  nation.  Jerusalem  was 
 rebuilt  under  the  new  title  of  /Elia  Capitolina,  uniting 
 the  family  name  of  the  em[)eror  with  the  Roman  sur- 
 name of  Jupiter,  and  in  the  execution  of  his  plan  Ha- 
 drian studiously  profaned  all  the  places  which  had 
 been  most  revered  by  both  Jews  and  Christians,  whom 
 he  seems  on  tliis  occasion  to  have  purposely  con- 
 founded together.  He  built  a  temple  in  honour  of 
 Jupiter  Capitolinus  upon  the  mountain  where  had 
 stood  that  of  the  true  God  ;  he  placed  a  hog  of  mar- 
 ble upon  the  gate  of  the  city  which  looked  towards 
 Bethlehem;  he  erected  in  the  place  where  Jesus  was 
 crucified  a  statue  of  Venus ;  and  in  that  where  he 
 rose  from  the  dead  one  of  Jupiter ;  in  the  grotto  of 
 Bethlehem,  where  our  Saviour  was  born,  he  establish- 
 ed the  worship  of  .adonis.  The  Jews  were  also  for- 
 bidden the  very  sight  of  Jerusalem,  which  they  were 
 not  permitted  to  enter  but  on  one  day  in  the  year,  the 
 anniversary  of  the  destruction  of  the  city.  After  the 
 conclusion  of  the  Jewish  war  Hadrian  returned  to  Ita- 
 ly, where  a  lingering  illness  put  a  stop  to  his  unsettled 
 mode  of  life,  and  eventually  terminated  his  existence. 
 Having  no  children  of  his  own,  Hadrian  first  adopted 
 for  his  successor  L.  Ceronius  Commodus,  more  gen- 
 erally known  by  the  name  of  Verus,  to  which  last  he 
 prefixed  that  of  .Elius  after  his  adoption  by  the  em- 
 peror. Verus,  however,  who  was  remarkable  for 
 nothing  but  his  excessive  effeminacy  and  debauched 
 mode  of  life,  died  soon  after,  and  Hadrian  made  a 
 second  selection  in  the  person  of  the  virtuous  Antoni- 
 nus. (Vid.  Antoninus  Pius.)  Hadrian  died  not  long 
 after  at  Baiae,  A.D.  136,  in  the  63d  year  of  his  age 
 and  22d  of  his  reign.  His  disorder  was  the  dropsy, 
 from  which  disease  his  sufferings  were  so  great  as  ap- 
 parently to  affect  his  reason.  The  character  of  this 
 monarch  presents  a  strange  mixture  of  virtues  and 
 vices.  If  he  cultivated  literature  and  courted  the  so- 
 ciety of  the  learned,  he  yet  occasionally  displayed  to- 
 wards them  a  degree  of  jealousy  and  caprice  aUogeth- 
 er  unworthy  of  his  station  and  abilities  If  he  was,  in 
 general,  a  just  and  able  ruler,  yet  there  were  times 
 when  he  showed  himself  revengeful,  suspicious,  and 
 crueL  His  treatment  of  his  wife  Sabina  does  no  hon- 
 our to  his  memory,  his  disgraceful  predilection  for  An- 
 tino'us  loads  it  with  infamy  ;  nor  docs  his  excessive 
 superstition,  to  which  even  that  favourite  fell  a  victim, 
 entitle  him  to  any  other  than  feelings  of  contempt. 
 The  better  portion  of  the  Romans  appear  to  have 
 formed  a  just  estimate  of  his  character  long  before  his 
 death,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  Antoninus  could 
 obtain  from  the  senate  the  usual  compliment  of  having 
 him  ranked  among  the  gods.  Their  dread  of  the  sol- 
 diery, by  whom  Hadrian  was  greatly  beloved,  appears 
 to  have  conquered  their  reluctance.  Hadrian  wrote 
 several  works.  He  was  fond  of  entering  the  lists 
 •gainst  the  poets,  philosophers,  and  orators  of  the  day, 
 
 and  Photius  mentions  several  declamations  of  the  em- 
 peror's, written  for  such  occasions,  as  still  existing  in 
 his  time,  and  not  devoid  of  elegance.  Hadrian  com- 
 posed a  history  of  his  own  times,  which  he  published 
 under  the  name  of  his  freedman  Phlegou,  and  Dori- 
 theus  the  grammarian  made  at  a  subsequent  period  a 
 collection  of  his  decisions  and  rescripts.  All  that  we 
 have  of  his  productions  at  the  present  day  are,  a  frag- 
 ment of  a  work  on  military  operations,  entitled  'Em- 
 Ti'idecjia,  and  an  epigrammatic  address  to  his  soul, 
 written  a  short  time  before  his  death,  and  as  re- 
 markable for  its  elegance  as  its  scepticism.  It  is  as 
 follows ; 
 
 '■^  Animula,  vagula,  hlandula, 
 Hospes  comcsque  corporis, 
 Qua.  nunc  ahibis  in  loca, 
 Pallidula,  rigida,  nudula, 
 Ncc,  ut  soles,  dabis  jocos  V 
 
 (Pausanias,  I,  18. — Id.,  8,  9. — Aurel.  Vicl. —  Vapt- 
 loL,  Vit.  Anton.,  c.  2. — Euscb.,  Chron.,  p.  281,  seqq., 
 ed.  Mail  et  Zohrabi.  —  Id.,  Hist.  Ecclcs.,i,Q.)  —  II. 
 A  philosopher  of  Tyre,  who  studied  under  Herodes, 
 and  taught  eloquence  after  him  at  Athens.  He  was 
 also  secretary  to  the  Emperor  Commodus.  ('Avti- 
 ypacpei'g  tuv  hiriaToTiCtv .)  He  died  at  Rome  alter 
 having  attained  the  age  of  80  years.  We  have  only 
 some  fragments  remaining  of  the  works  of  this  writer, 
 which  cause  no  regret  for  what  are  lost.  They  arft 
 found  in  the  Excerpla  of  Allatius,  and  at  the  end  of 
 Orellius's  edition  of  Philo  of  Byzantium.  {Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lilt.  Grccquc,  vol.  4,  p.  233.) 
 
 Hadriaticum  Mare.      Vid.  Adriaticum. 
 
 Ha:mon,  a  son  of  Creon  king  of  Thebes.  Ac- 
 cordincr  to  Apollodorus  (3,  5,  8),  he  was  devoured  by 
 the  Sphinx.  I'he  tragic  writers,  however,  assigned 
 him  a  different  fate.     {Vid.  Antigone.) 
 
 H.EMONiA,  one  of  the  earlier  ajipellations  of  Thes- 
 salv,  and  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  name  ot 
 an  ancient  monarch  Hsmon.  (Strabo,  443  )  Other 
 writers  give  the  name  less  correctly  without  the 
 initial  aspirate.  {Stephanus  Byz  ,  s.  v. — ed.  Ber- 
 kel,  p.  G3.)  In  Brunck's  edition  of  Apollonius  Kho- 
 diiis,  the  true  form  is  given  in  both  the  text  and  scholia. 
 It  is  more  than  probable,  that  the  name  Haemonia  was 
 brought  in  by  the  Pelasgi ;  and  to  this  same  race,  no 
 doubt,  must  the  appellation  of  Hamus,  given  to  the 
 northern  boundary  of  Thrace,  be  in  strictness  attribu- 
 ted.    {Vid.  Hajmus.) 
 
 H^.MUs,  a  chain  of  mountains  forming  the  northern 
 boundary  of  Thrace,  and  separating  it  from  Moesia. 
 The  ancients  had  such  an  idea  of  the  elevation  of  this 
 chain,  that  Pomponius  Mela  (2,  2)  affirms  that  the 
 Euxine  and  Hadriatic  could  be  seen  from  it  at  the 
 same  time.  Polybius  also  makes  the  same  assertion, 
 but  this  Strabo  (313)  expressly  contradicts.  The 
 historian,  however,  is  doubtless  correct  in  another  re- 
 mark of  his,  that  the  chain  of  Haemus  is  higher  than 
 that  of  the  Alps.  Livy  relates  (40,  22),  that  Philip, 
 king  of  Macedonia,  having  heard  it  reported  that  from 
 the  summit  of  Hsmus  could  be  seen  at  once  the 
 Euxine,  the  Adriatic,  the  Danube,  and  the  Alps,  de- 
 termined to  ascend  the  mountain,  in  order  to  take  a 
 view,  as  it  were,  of  the  approaching  scene  of  action 
 between  himself  and  the  Romans.  He  was  three 
 days  in  reaching  the  summit,  after  a  difficult  and  toil- 
 some march  ;  the  weather,  however,  proved  unfavour- 
 able for  the  view.  Pliny  (4,  2)  makes  Ha;mus  six  miles 
 high.  It  is  remarkable  that  Herodotus  should  have 
 taken  no  notice  of  it  in  his  mention  of  the  expedition 
 of  Darius  against  the  Scythians,  though  it  must  have 
 presented  so  formidable  a  barrier  to  the  army  of  that 
 monarch.  He  speaks  of  it,  however,  on  another  oc- 
 casion (4  49)  According  to  Stephanus  of  Byzan- 
 tium (p.  64,  ed.  Berk.),  the  mountain  derived  its  name 
 from  Haemus,  or  .Emus,  a  son  of  Boreas  and  Orithyia 
 
 567 
 
HAL 
 
 HAL 
 
 Apollodorus,  however  (6,  3),  says  the  chain  was  call- 
 Bd  Hanius  from  a:ija,  "blood,"  because  Typlion  hav- 
 ing been  chused  hilher  by  Jupiter,  waged  battle  in  this 
 place  against  the  monarch  of  the  skies,  and  covered 
 the  mountain  with  his  blood.  (Compare  the  remark  of 
 Heync,  ad  Apvllod.,  I.  c,  where  this  etymology  is  sta- 
 led to  be  the  offspring  of  later  ages.)  'I'lie  true  root  is 
 found  in  the  Sanscrit  Hcma,  which  connects  togeth- 
 er the  names  of  Iinaus,  Himmala,  HcP-mus,  Hijmet- 
 tus,  in  ancient  geography,  and  the  apijellation  Himmcl, 
 given  to  various  mountains  in  Sa.xoiiy,  Jutland,  and 
 elsewhere.  {Creuzer,  Si/mbolik,  vol.  1,  53G  — Creu- 
 zer,  Symbolik,  par  Guigniaiit,  vol.  1,  \>.  135.  —  Got- 
 tmg.  Gel.  auz  ,  1815,  No.  36,  p.  357.)  This  root 
 Hcma,  otherwise  written  Himeras,  Imos,  Jcnna,  &c., 
 appears  to  carry  with  it  the  idea  of  height  (compare 
 the  German  himmcl,  "  heaven"),  and  also  that  of  a 
 snowy  or  wintry  elevation.  (Compare  the  Latin  hi- 
 ems  and  the  Greek  x^'l'"- — Klaproih,  Mcmoircs  rcla- 
 tifs  a  IWsie,  vol.  1,  p.  432.) — The  length  of  the  chain 
 of  Hsemus  is  not  less  remarkable  than  its  height,  ex- 
 tending for  500  miles  ;  one  end  resting  on  the  Gulf 
 of  Venice,  and  the  other  on  the  Black  Sea.  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  Bateau,  which  signifies  a  difficult  defile; 
 and  It  IS  properly  divided  into  high  and  low,  the  latter 
 advancing  on  each  side,  like  outworks  before  the  great 
 natural  rampart.  {Walsh's  Journey  from  Constanti- 
 nople to  Englajtd,  p.  104,  Am.  ed.)  The  passage  of 
 the  Balcan  by  the  Russian  forces,  in  their  conflict 
 with  the  Mussulman  power,  has  e.xcited  great  interest 
 and  called  forth  considerable  applause.  From  the  re- 
 marks, however,  of  a  very  recent  traveller,  it  would 
 appear  that  the  undertaking  was  anything  but  difficult. 
 (Keppcl's  Journey  across  the  Balcan,  vol.  1,  p.  301.) 
 
 Hai.esus,  I.  an  Argive,  who,  after  the  murder  of 
 Agamemnon  by  Clytemnestra  and  ^^gisthus,  settled 
 in  Italy,  in  the  vicinity  of  Mons  Massacus,  a  mountain 
 of  Campania.  At  the  head  of  the  Aurunci  and  Osci, 
 he  assisted  Turnus  against  .^neas,  but  fell  by  the  hand 
 of  Pallas.  {Virg.,  Mr,.,  7,  724.— M.  ?i.,  10,  532.) 
 Halesus  is  said  by  Virgil  to  have  been  the  son  of  a 
 soothsayer,  who  foretold  the  fate  of  his  child  ;  and,  in 
 order  to  avert  this,  if  possible,  brought  him  up  in  the 
 woods.  The  epithet  Agamcmnonius,  therefore,  which 
 Virgil  applies  to  him  {Ain.,  7,  724),  and  which  some 
 suppose  has  reference  to  his  being  the  son  of  Aga- 
 memnon, is  merely  used  by  the  |)oet  to  denote  the  [ire- 
 •endcd  origin  of  his  race.  {Hcyne,  Excurs.,  8,  ad 
 Mn.,  7.) — !I.  or  Hales  ('A/l7?f,  -frrof),  a  river  of  Asia 
 Minor,  running  near  the  city  of  Colophon,  and  said  to 
 have  the  coldest  water  of  all  the  streams  of  Asia. 
 (Plin.,  5,  29.)  It  took  its  rise  in  Mount  Gallesus  or 
 Gallesium,  and  fell  into  the  Sinus  Ephesius.  {Strah., 
 642. — Ciamcr''s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  359.) 
 
 Haliacmon,  a  large  and  rapid  stream  of  Macedonia, 
 flowing  into  the  sea  a  short  distance  below  Pydna. 
 It  rises  in  the  chain  of  mountains  called  Carnbunii,  or 
 by  Ptolemy  Canalovii,  on  the  northern  confines  of 
 Thessaly.  The  modern  name  of  this  river  is  Inidge- 
 Carason,  or  Jenicora,  according  to  Dr.  Brown,  who 
 must  have  crossed  it  in  its  course  through  Eliinsa. 
 [Travels,  p.  46.  So  also  the  editors  of  the  French 
 Strabo,  vol.  3,  p.  124.)  Dr.  Clarke  calls  \llnje- Maura. 
 The  epitoinist  of  Stralio  (7,  p.  330)  seems  to  place 
 the  Haliacmon  soon  after  Dium,  as  does  also  Ptolemy 
 (p.  82).  This  is,  however,  an  error,  whicli  apparently 
 misled  Dr.  Holland,  who  imagined  he  had  forded  this 
 stream  about  two  miles  beyond  Kaiima  ;  but  what  he 
 speaks  of  is  probably  the  Baphyrus  of  Livy  and  Pau- 
 sanias  (vol.  2,  p.  31).  According  to  (3»sar  {B.  C, 
 3,  36),  it  formed  the  line  of  demarcation  between  Ma- 
 cedonia and  Thessaly.  {Cratner's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  217.) 
 
 Haliartus,  I.  a  son  of  Thersander,  said  to  have 
 founded  the  city  of  Haliartus  in  Biuotia.  He  was 
 adopted  by  Aihamas,  though  he  did  not  succeed  hiin, 
 568 
 
 but  gave  up  the  throne  willingly  to  Presbon,  grandsos 
 of  this  prince.  (I'ausan.,  9,  34.) — II.  A  city  of  Bceo- 
 tia,  situate,  according  to  Strabo,  on  the  lower  shore  of 
 the  Co[)aic  lake,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Permcssus, 
 which  flows  from  Helicon.  The  epithet  of  Tivir/evra 
 is  attached  to  this  city  by  Homer  {11.,  2,  503. — Hymn. 
 in  ApolL,  243),  from  the  numerous  meadows  and 
 marshes  in  its  vicinity,  on  the  side  of  Orchomenns. 
 (Sirab.,  407.)  Pausanias  affirms  that  Haliartus  wag 
 the  only  Boeotian  city  which  did  not  favour  the  Per- 
 sians, for  which  reason  its  territory  was  ravaged  with 
 lire  and  sword  by  their  army  (9,  32).  Haliartus,  hav 
 ing  favoured  the  cause  of  Perseus,  king  of  Macedonia, 
 was  besieged  by  the  Romans,  under  the  command  of 
 the  praetor  Lucretius,  and,  though  obstinately  defended, 
 was  taken  hy  assault,  sacked,  and  utterly  destroyed, 
 the  inhabitants  being  sold  and  their  territory  given  to 
 ihe  Athenians.  {Liv.,  42,  ^S.—Polyh.,  30,  18. — 
 Strab.,  411.)  The  remains  of  Haliartus,  according  to 
 Dodwell  (vol.  l,p.  248),  are  situated  al)out  fifteen  miles 
 from  Lebadea,  and  at  nearly  an  equal  distance  from 
 Thebes.  The  place  is  now  called  Mikrokouza.  Sir 
 W.  Gell  says,  "The  ruins  of  Haliartus  lie  just  belov/ 
 the  village  of  Mazi,  on  the  road  from  Thebes  to  Leba- 
 dea."    {Itinerary,  \).  l'2i) 
 
 Hai.ias,  a  district  of  Argolis,  so  called  apparently 
 from  the  fisheries  established  along  the  coast,  and  lymg 
 between  Hermione  and  Cape  Scylloeum.  Its  territory 
 was  twice  ravaged  by  the  Athenians  during  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesian  war.  {Thucyd.,  2,  56. — Id.,  4,  45.)  The 
 name  of  AHki  is  still  attached  to  a  spot  situated  a  little 
 to  the  east  of  Caslri.     {Pougueville,  vol.  4,  p.  255.) 
 
 Halicarnassus,  the  principal  city  of  Caria,  situate 
 on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Sinus  Ceramicus.  It 
 was  founded  by  a  Doric  colony  from  I'rcezene,  in  Ar- 
 golis, according  to  Strabo  (656).  These  were  joined 
 afterward  by  some  Argives,  headed  by  Melas  and  Are- 
 nanias.  {Vitruv.,2,S.- — Compare  Pausan., 2. '.iO.)  He- 
 rodotus, however,  only  recognises  the  former  colonists 
 (7,  99).  This  city,  on  account  of  its  origin,  had  natu- 
 rally been  included  in  the  Dorian  confederation,  which 
 consisted  originally  of  six  states.  But  Agasicles,  a 
 citizen  of  Halicarnassus,  having,  contrary  to  prescribed 
 custom,  carried  off  the  tripod  assigned  to  him  in  the 
 games  celebrated  in  honour  of  the  Triopian  Apollo, 
 instead  of  dedicating  it  to  the  god,  the  other  five  cities, 
 i-ri  consequence  of  this  offence,  determined  to  exclude 
 Halicarnassus  from  any  participation  in  these  festivi- 
 ties, which  amounted,  in  fact,  to  an  e.xclusion  from  the 
 Dorian  confederacy,  which  thenceforth  was  named  Pen- 
 tapolis.  (//crorf.,  1,  144  )  Not  long  after  this  event, 
 Halicarnassus  may  be  supposed  to  have  lost  its  inde- 
 pendence, Lygdamis,  one  of  the  principal  citizens,  hav- 
 ing usurped  the  authority.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
 daughter  Artemisia,  of  whom  Herodotus  has  made 
 such  honourable  mention  in  his  history.  {Vid.  Arte- 
 misia, I  )  This  princess,  in  all  probability,  transmitted 
 the  sovereign  power  to  her  son,  named  Lygdamis,  like 
 his  natural  grandfather;  and  it  was  during  his  reign 
 that  Herodotus,  unwilling  to  see  his  native  city  under 
 the  denomination  of  a  despot,  abandoned  it  for  Samos, 
 where  he  completed  his  studies  Subsequent  to  this 
 period  we  have  little  knowledge  of  what  occurred  in 
 Halicarnassus  ;  but  from  Thucydides  (2,  9)  we  learn 
 that  Caria  and  Doris  were  tributary  to  Athens,  and 
 Halicarnassus  itself  is  mentioned,  towards  ilie  close 
 of  his  history,  as  being  in  the  hands  of  her  troops  (8, 
 42).  Somewhat  later  we  find  it  subject  to  princes 
 of  Carian  extraction.  The  first  of  these  was  He- 
 catomnus,  who  had  three  sons,  Mausolus,  Hidrieus, 
 and  Phxodarus  ;  and  two  daughters,  Artemisia  and 
 Ada,  who  married  the  two  elder  brothers.  Mausolus 
 succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne  of  Caria,  and,  dymg 
 without  oflfspring,  left  the  crown  to  his  sister  and  con- 
 sort Artemisia,  Slie  erected  to  his  memory  the  splen- 
 did mausoleum,  or  tomb  called  after  his  name.    (VoL 
 
HAL 
 
 HAM 
 
 Mausoleum.)  Artemisia,  dying  of  grief  for  the  loss  of 
 her  husband,  was  succeeded  by  Hidrieus,  who,  having 
 no  issue,  left  the  crown  to  his  wife  Ada.  But  Pi.\o- 
 darus,  the  youngest  of  Hecalomnus"  sons,  formed  a 
 party  against  her,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  Oronto- 
 bates,  a  Persian  satra|),  succeeded  in  expelling  her 
 from  Haiicarnassus.  Orontobates,  having  married  the 
 daughter  of  Pixodarus,  remained,  on  the  death  of  the 
 latter,  \n  possession  of  Haiicarnassus.  It  was  at  this 
 period  that  Alexander  arrived  with  his  forces  in  Caria, 
 and  laid  siege  to  the  city.  It  was  a  long  and  severe 
 one,  owing  to  the  natural  strength  of  the  place,  and 
 the  number  and  description  of  the  troops  which  de- 
 fended it,  under  the  command  of  Memnon,  the  best 
 general  in  the  Persian  service.  Alexander,  however, 
 eventually  took  the  place,  razed  it  to  the  ground,  and 
 restored  Ada  to  the  sovereignty  of  Caria.  Haiicar- 
 nassus was  afterward  rebuilt,  and,  to  compensate  for 
 its  losses,  had  six  towns  annexed  to  it.  {Pun.,  6,  29  ) 
 The  citadel  of  this  place  was  named  Salmacis,  from 
 the  fountain  celebrated  m  Ovid  {Met.,  4,  11).  Ac- 
 cording to  Scylax,  there  were  two  ports  at  Haiicarnas- 
 sus, [irotected  by  the  little  island  Arconnesus.  Haii- 
 carnassus could  boast  of  having  produced  Herodotus, 
 Dionysius,  and  Heraclitus  the  poet.  It  appears  to 
 have  suffered  in  the  Mithradatic  war.  and  to  have  been 
 restored  to  a  great  degree  of  its  former  prosperity  by 
 Cicero's  brother  Quintus.  {Up-  ad  Q.  Fratr.,  1,  8.) 
 — The  ruins  of  Haiicarnassus  exist  at  Boudroun,  and 
 Captain  Beaufort  has  given  a  plan  of  the  harbour  and 
 the  Turkish  town,  with  the  adjacent  coast.  {Beau- 
 fort's Karamania,  p.  95,  seqq.  —  Cramer's  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, vol.  2,  p.  176,  seqq.)  Dr.  Clarke,  quoting  from 
 Walpole's  MS.  journal,  remarks,  that  Budriai  is  a  cor- 
 ruption, through  Petrumi,  as  the  Turks  write  if,  from 
 Pietro,  referring  to  the  fort  or  castle  of  San  Pietro 
 (caslellian  Sancti  Petri),  which  corresponds  to  the  an- 
 cient citadel.     {Travels,  vol.  3,  p.  256,  seqq.) 
 
 }r{.\iAc.yjE,  {'XAiKvat),  a  town  of  Sicily,  between 
 Entella  and  Lilybasum.  The  modern  name  is  Saleme. 
 {Stepfi.  Byz  ,  s.  v. — Diod.  Sic,  14,  53.) 
 
 H.\LiRKHOTHius,  a  SOU  of  Neptuue  and  Euryte,  who 
 committed  an  outrage  on  Alcippe,  daughter  of  Mars, 
 and  was,  in  consequence,  slain  by  that  deity.  Nep- 
 tune summoned  Mars  to  trial  for  the  murder  of  his 
 son.  The  cause  was  heard  before  the  twelve  gods, 
 sitting  as  judges,  on  the  Areopagus  at  Athens  ;  which 
 hil!  derived  its  name  {'Apetog  -rrdyoq,  '■^  Hill  of  Mars") 
 from  this  circumstance.  The  trial  ended  in  the  ac- 
 quittal of  the  accused  deity.  {Apollod.,  3,  14. — Schol. 
 ad  Eurjp  ,  Orest.,  1665.)  Meier  considers  'ApeioQ 
 equivalent  here  to  (poviKog.  {Rhcin.  Mus.,  2,  p.  266.) 
 Halmvdessus.  Vid.  Sahnydessus. 
 Halonnksus,  a  small  island  at  the  opening  of  the 
 Sinus  Thermai'cus,  and  northeast  of  Scopelus.  It  is 
 celebrated  in  history  as  having  been  a  subject  of  con- 
 tention between  Philip  the  son  of  Amyntas,  and  the 
 Athenians  ;  on  which  occasion  one  of  their  orators 
 composed  an  harangue,  which  is  to  be  found  in  the 
 ■works  of  Demosthenes,  and  has  been  ascribed  by  some 
 to  that  celebrated  orator.  {Oral.  7,  Demoslh.,  p.  75. 
 —  Strab.,  r35.—Pomp.  Mel.,  2,  7.)  It  is  now  called 
 Chclidromi.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  451.) 
 Hai.ys,  a  celebrated  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising  on 
 the  confines  of  Pontus  and  Armenia  Minor,  and  which, 
 after  flowing  westwardly  through  Cappadocia  to  the 
 borders  of  Phrygia,  turns  to  the  northwest,  and  enters 
 the  Euxine  some  distance  to  the  northwest  of  Amisus. 
 Herodotus  (1,  72)  and  Strabo  (546)  both  speak  of  its 
 rising  in  the  region  we  have  mentioned,  and  pursuintr 
 the  route  described.  Pliny  (5,  2),  however,  makes  il 
 rise  in  a  far  different  quarter,  viz.,  in  the  southern  part 
 of  Cataonia,  near  Tyana,  at  the  foot  of  the  chain  of 
 Mount  Taurus  Larcher  {Hist.  d'Herod.,  vol.  8,  p. 
 239. — Table  Geogr.)  and  others  seek  to  reconcile 
 these  opposite  statements,  by  giving  the  Halys  two 
 4  0 
 
 branches,  an  eastern  and  a  southern  one.  This,  how- 
 ever, merely  increases  the  difficulty  ;  for  why  should 
 Strabo,  a  native  ofAmasea,  be  ignorant  of  the  course 
 of  a  river  so  near  his  native  city  \  and  why  docs  he 
 make  no  mention  of  the  southern  Halys,  when  he  de- 
 scribes the  very  ground  over  which  il  is  supposed  to 
 have  flowed  1  Mannert  {Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pi.  2,  p.  455) 
 thinks,  that  this  southern  arm  is  the  river  which  'I'a- 
 vernier  calls  the  Jckel  Ermak,  or  green  river,  which 
 D'Anville,  on  the  contrary,  makes  the  modern  name 
 of  the  ancient  Iris.  The  modern  name  of  the  Halys 
 is  the  Kiztl  Ermak,  or  red  river.  According  to  Stra- 
 bo (546),  the  ancient  name  of  the  river  is  owing  to  its 
 passage  in  its  course  by  some  salt-works.  This,  how- 
 ever, is  a  mere  arbitrary  derivation,  and  so,  in  fact, 
 Eustathius  evinces,  who  states  that  the  river  was  called 
 Halys  by  those  who  derived  its  name  from  salt;  bv 
 others,  however,  Alys.  {Eustalh  ,ad  Dion.  Perug., 
 v.  784.)  This  river  formed  the  western  boundary  of 
 the  dominions  of  Croesus,  with  which  was  connected 
 a  famous  oracle.      {Vtd.  Croesus.) 
 
 Hamadrvades.      Vid.  Nymphoe. 
 
 Hamilcar  (for  the  orthography  and  derivation  of  the 
 name,  consult  remarks  at  the  end  of  the  article),  I.  a 
 Carthaginian  general,  son  of  Mago,  or,  according  to 
 others,  of  Hanno,  conquered  by  Gelon,  in  Sicily,  the 
 same  day  that  Xerxes  was  defeated  at  Salamis.  He- 
 rodotus (7,  165)  states,  that  he  was  never  seen  either 
 living  or  dead,  after  the  battle  m  which  his  army  was 
 defeated.  According  to  Polysnus,  however  (1  27, 
 2),  Gelon  destroyed  him  by  a  stratagem  while  sacrifi- 
 cing.— II.  Surnamed  Rhodanus,  a  Carthaginian  gen- 
 eral of  considerable  talent.  Perceiving  his  fellow- 
 citizens  to  be  greatly  disquieted  at  the  projects  of  Al- 
 exander of  Macedon,  he  betook  himself  to  that  prince, 
 in  order,  if  possible,  to  penetrate  his  designs,  and  give 
 his  countrymen  timely  notice  of  them.  After  the  death 
 of  that  monarch  he  returned  to  Carthage,  where  he 
 was  j)ut  to  death,  on  false  pretensions  of  treason,  as 
 the  recompense  of  his  devotion  to  his  country.  {Jus- 
 tin, 21,  5.) — III.  A  Carthaginian  general,  in  the  time 
 of  Agathocles,  tyrant  of  Sicily.  He  came  to  the  suc- 
 cour of  Syracuse  when  besieged  by  this  usurper.  Be- 
 ing gained  over,  however,  by  the  gold  of  Agathocles, 
 he  prevailed  on  the  Syracusans  to  make  peace,  and 
 favoured  by  his  inaction  the  schemes  of  the  tyrant. 
 The  Carthaginian  senate  condemned  him  to  lose  his 
 head,  but  he  died  at  Syracuse,  B.C.  311,  before  the 
 sentence  could  be  made  public.  {Justin,  22,  2.) — 
 IV.  The  son  of  Giscon,  a  Carthaginian  general,  sent 
 into  Sicily  about  311  B.C.,  to  oppose  the  progress  of 
 Agathocles.  On  his  arrival  he  gained  a  victory,  which 
 opened  to  him  the  gates  of  several  large  cities.  In 
 attempting  to  make  himself  master  of  Syracuse,  during 
 the  absence  of  Agathocles  in  Africa,  he  was  taken 
 prisoner  and  put  to  death,  B.C.  309. — V.  Surnamed 
 Barcas,  the  leader  cf  the  popular  party  at  Carthage, 
 was  appointed  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the  first  Punic 
 war  (B.C.  247)  to  tlie  command  of  the  Carthaginian 
 forces.  We  possess  no  particulars  respecting  his  early 
 life  or  the  time  of  his  birth  ;  but  we  learn  from  Nepos 
 {Vtt.  Hamil.,  c.  1)  that  he  was  very  young  when  he 
 obtained  the  command.  He  ravaged  with  his  fieel 
 the  coast  of  the  Brutii  and  the  Epizephynan  I.ocrians, 
 and  afterward  seized  upon  a  strong  fortress  in  Sicily, 
 which  was  situated  between  Eryx  and  Panoriniis.  In 
 this  place  he  continued  for  some  years,  with  very  little 
 support  from  the  Carthaginian  government ;  and,  al- 
 though the  Romans  were  masters  of  almost  the  whole 
 of  the  island,  they  were  unable  to  dislodge  him.  He 
 frequently  ravaged  the  southern  coasts  ot  Italy  as  far 
 as  Cuma?,  and  defeated  the  Roman  troops  in  Sicily. 
 On  one  occasion  he  took  Eryx.  which  he  held  till  the 
 conclusion  of  the  war.  The  Romans  at  length  fitted 
 out  a  fleet  to  cut  off  all  communication  between  Ham- 
 ilcar and  Carthage  :  the  Carthaginian  fleet  sent  to  hi* 
 
 569 
 
HAN 
 
 HANNIBAL. 
 
 assistance  was  defeated  by  the  Roman  consul  Liitatius 
 Catulns,  B.C.  211,  and  die  Carthaginians  were  obhged 
 to  sue  for  peace.  Th:s  was  granted  tiy  the  Koiiians  ; 
 and  Hamdcar  led  his  troops  from  Eryx  to  Lilybseuin, 
 whence  they  were  conveyed  to  Africa.  But  a  new 
 danger  awaited  Carthage.  The  Carthaginian  treasury 
 was  exhausted  ;  and  it  was  proposed  to  the  troops  that 
 they  should  relinquish  a  part  of  the  jiay  which  was  due 
 to  them.  The  soldiers  rejected  the  [iroposal,  appointed 
 two  of  their  number,  Spendius  and  Matho,  command- 
 ers, and  proceeded  to  enforce  their  demands.  Being 
 joined  by  many  of  the  native  tribes  of  Africa,  they 
 defeated  Hanno,  the  Carthaginian  general  sent  against 
 them,  and  brought  Carthage  to  the  brink  of  ruin.  In 
 these  desperate  circumstances  Hamilcar  was  appointed 
 to  the  command,  and  at  length  succeeded  in  subduing 
 them  after  the  war  had  lasted  three  years  and  four 
 months.  After  the  end  of  this  war  Hamilcar  was  sent 
 into  Spain,  B  C.  238.  He  remained  in  Spain  nearly 
 nine  years,  during  which  time  he  extended  the  do- 
 minion of  Carthage  over  the  southern  and  eastern 
 parts  of  that  country.  He  fell  in  a  battle  against  the 
 natives,  B.C.  229.  The  abilities  of  Hamilcar  were  of 
 the  highest  order  ;  and  he  directed  all  the  energies  of 
 his  mind  to  diminish  the  power  of  Rome.  Polybius 
 states  his  belief  (/ti.  3),  that  his  administration  would 
 soon  have  produced  another  war  with  the  Romans,  if 
 he  had  not  been  prevented  by  the  disorders  in  which 
 his  country  vvas  involved  through  the  war  of  the  mer- 
 cenaries. Hamilcar  was  succeeded  in  his  command 
 in  Spain  by  his  son-in-law  Hasdrubal,  who  must  not 
 be  confounded  with  Hasdrubal  the  brother  of  Hanni- 
 bal. ■  He  carried  on  the  conquests  of  Hamilcar,  and 
 reduced  almost  the  whole  of  the  country  south  of  the 
 Iberus,  which  river  was  fixed  by  a  treaty  between  the 
 Carthaginians  and  the  Romans,  B.(J.  226,  as  the  fron- 
 tier of  the  Carthaginian  dominions.  Hasdrubal  was 
 murdered  in  his  tent  by  a  Gaul,  B.C.  221,  after  holding 
 the  command  eight  years.  {Polyh.,  1,2 — Corn.  Ncp., 
 vit.  Hamilc,  c.  3. — Encycl.  Useful  KnowL,  vol.  12, 
 p.  25.) — VI.  A  Carthaginian  general,  son  of  Boinil- 
 car,  conquered  by  the  Scipios  (B.C.  215)  when  be- 
 sieging liitingis,  m  Hispania  Boetica,  along  with  Has- 
 drubal and  iMago.  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
 same  with  the  Hamilcar  who,  fifteen  years  after,  at 
 the  head  of  a  body  of  Gauls,  took  and  sacked  Placen- 
 tia,  and  v.'as  defeated  and  slain  before  Cremona.  Oth- 
 ers affirm,  that  he  was  taken  prisoner  three  years  later 
 in  a  battle  fought  near  the  Mincius,  and  served  to 
 adorn  the  victory  of  the  conqueror.  {Liv.,  23,  49. — 
 Id,  31,  10.  — /(/.,  32,  23.— Plin.,  3,  l.)-The  name 
 Hamilcar  was  equivalent  in  Punic  to  "(quem)  dona- 
 vit  MUcar.'"  The  true  orthography  is  with  the  initial 
 aspirate.  Consult  Heins  ,  ad  Stl  ItaL,  1,  39. — Dra- 
 kcnb.,  ad  Liv.,  21,  1. — Ge.9enius,  P/iasn.  Man.,  p.  407. 
 — The  interpretation  given  by  Hamaker  (diatr.  47)  to 
 the  name  Hamilcar  is  rejected  by  Gesenius  (I.  c). 
 
 Hannibai,  (equivalent  in  Punic  io^' gratia  Baalis"). 
 son  of  Hamilcar  Barcas  (vid.  Hamilcar  V.),  was  born 
 B.C.  247.  .'Xt  the  age  of  nine  he  accompanied  his 
 father  to  Spain,  who,  previous  to  his  departure,  took 
 his  son  to  the  altar,  and,  placing  his  hand  on  the  vic- 
 tim, made  him  swear  that  he  would  never  be  a  friend 
 to  the  Romans.  It  does  not  appear  how  long  Hannibal 
 remained  in  Spain,  but  he  was  at  a  very  early  age  as- 
 sociated with  Hasdrubal,  who  succeeded  his  father  in 
 the  command  of  the  Carthaginian  army  in  that  coun- 
 try. On  the  death  of  Hasdrubal,  B.C.  221,  he  ob- 
 tained the  undivided  command  of  the  army,  and  quickly 
 conquered  the  Olcades,  Vaccasans,  Carpesians,  and  the 
 other  Spanish  tribes  that  had  not  been  subdued  by 
 Hasdrubal.  The  inhabitants  of  Saguntum,  alarmed  at 
 his  success,  sent  messengers  to  Rome  to  inform  the 
 Romans  of  their  danger.  A  Roman  embassy  was  ac- 
 cordingly sent  to  Hannibal,  who  was  passing  the  win- 
 ter at  New  Carthage,  to  announce  to  hini  that  the  in- 
 670 
 
 dependence  of  Saguntum  was  guarantied  by  a  treaty 
 between  the  Carthaginians  and  Romans  (concluded 
 B.C.  226),  and  that  they  should  consider  any  injury 
 done  to  the  Saguntines  as  a  declaration  of  war  agamst 
 themselves.  Hannibal,  however,  paid  no  regard  to 
 this  remonstrance.  More  than  twenty  years  had 
 elapsed  since  the  termination  of  the  first  Punic  war, 
 during  which  period  the  Carthaginians  had  recovered 
 their  strength,  and  had  obtained  possession  of  the 
 greater  part  of  Spain;  and  the  favourable  opportunity 
 had  arrived  for  renewing  the  war  with  the  Romans. 
 In  B.C.  219,  Hannibal  took  .Saguntum,  after  a  sicgo  of 
 eight  months,  and  em))loyed  the  winter  in  making 
 preparations  for  the  invasion  of  Italy.  He  first  provi- 
 ded for  the  security  of  Africa  and  Spain  by  leaving  an 
 army  of  about  16,000  men  in  each  country  ;  the  army 
 in  Africa  consisted  principally  of  Spanish  troops,  and 
 that  in  S[)ain  of  Africans,  under  the  comniand  of  his 
 brother  Hasdrubal.  He  had  already  received  promise 
 of  support  from  the  Gauls  who  inhabited  the  north  of 
 Italy,  and  who  were  anxious  to  deliver  themselves 
 from  the  Roman  dominion.  Having  thus  made  every 
 necessary  preparation,  he  set  out  from  New  Carthage 
 late  in  the  spring  of  B.C.  218,  with  an  army  of  80,000 
 foot  and  12,000  horse.  In  his  march  from  the  Iberus 
 to  the  Pyrenees  he  was  opposed  by  a  great  number 
 of  the  native  tribes,  but  they  were  quickly  defeated, 
 though  with  loss.  Before  crossing  the  Pyrenees,  he 
 left  Hanno  to  secure  his  recent  conquests  with  a  detach- 
 ment from  his  own  army  of  1 1,000  men.  He  sent  back 
 the  same  number  of  Spanish  troops  to  their  own  cities, 
 and  with  an  army  now  reduced  to  50,000  foot  and 
 9000  horse,  he  advanced  to  the  Rhone.  Meantime, 
 two  Roman  armies  had  been  levied  ;  one,  commanded 
 by  the  consul  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  was  intended  to 
 oppose  Hannibal  in  Spain  ;  and  a  second,  under  the 
 consul  T.  Sempronius,  was  designed  for  the  invasion 
 of  Africa.  The  departure  of  Scipio  was  delayed  by  a 
 revolt  of  the  Boian  and  Insubrian  Gauls,  against  whom 
 the  army  was  sent  which  had  been  intended  for  the  in- 
 vasion of  Spain,  under  the  command  of  one  of  the 
 praetors.  Scipio  was  therefore  obliged  to  remain  in 
 Rome  till  a  new  army  could  be  raised.  When  the 
 forces  were  ready,  he  sailed  with  thern  to  the  Rhone, 
 and  anchored  in  the  eastern  mouth  of  the  river  ;  being 
 persuaded  that  Hannibal  must  still  beat  a  considerable 
 distance  from  him,  as  the  country  through  which  he 
 had  to  march  was  difficult,  and  inhabited  by  many  war- 
 like tribes.  Hannibal,  however,  quickly  surmounted 
 all  these  obstacles,  crossed  the  Rhone,  though  not 
 without  some  opposition  from  the  Gauls,  and  continued 
 his  march  up  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Scipio  did 
 not  arrive  at  the  place  where  the  Carthaginians  had 
 crossed  the  river  till  three  days  afterward  ;  and,  de- 
 spairing of  overtaking  them,  he  sailed  back  to  Italy 
 with  the  intention  of  meeting  Hannibal  when  he  should 
 descend  from  the  Alps.  Scipio  sent  his  brother  CnsBus 
 into  Spain,  with  the  greater  part  c{  the  troops,  to  op- 
 pose Hasdruiial.  Hannibal  continued  his  march  up  the 
 Rhone  till  ho  came  to  the  Isara.  Marching  along  that 
 river,  he  crossed  the  Alps,  descended  into  the  valley 
 of  the  Dora  Baltea,  and  followed  the  course  of  the 
 river  till  he  arrived  in  the  territories  of  the  Insubiian 
 Gauls.  (The  particular  route  will  be  given  at  the 
 close  of  this  article  ) — Hannibal  completed  his  march 
 from  New  Carthage  to  Italy  in  five  months,  during 
 which  he  lost  a  great  number  of  men,  especially  in  his 
 passage  over  the  Alps.  According  to  a  statement  en- 
 graved by  his  order  on  a  column  at  Lacinium,  in  the 
 country  of  the  Brutii,  which  Polybius  saw,  his  army 
 vvas  reduced  to  12,000  Africans,  8000  .Spaniards,  and 
 6000  cavalry  when  he  arrived  in  the  territories  of  the 
 Insubrian  Gauls.  After  remaining  some  time  in  the 
 territories  of  the  Insubrians  to  recruit  his  army,  he 
 marched  southward,  and  encountered  P.  Cornelius 
 Scipio  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Ticinus.     In  tU« 
 
HANNIBAL. 
 
 HANNIBAL. 
 
 battle  which  ensued  the  Romans  were  defeated,  and 
 Scipio,  with  the  remainder  of  the  army,  retreating  along 
 the  left  banii  of  the  Po,  crossed  the  river  before  Han- 
 nibal could  overtake  him,  and  encamped  near  Piacen- 
 tia.  He  afterward  retreated  more  to  the  south,  and 
 intrenched  himself  strongly  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
 IVebia,  where  he  waited  for  the  arrival  of  the  army 
 under  the  other  consul  T.  Sempronius.  Sempronius 
 had  already  crossed  over  into  Sicily  with  the  intention 
 of  sailing  to  Africa,  when  he  was  recalled  to  join  his 
 colleague.  After  the  union  of  the  two  armies,  Sem- 
 pronius determined,  against  the  advice  of  Scipio,  to 
 risk  another  battle.  I'he  skill  and  fortune  of  Hannibal 
 again  prevailed  ;  the  Romans  were  entirely  defeated, 
 and  the  troops  which  survived  took  refuge  in  the  for- 
 tified cities.  In  consequence  of  these  victories,  the 
 whole  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  fell  into  the  hands  of  Hanni- 
 bal ;  and  the  Gauls,  who,  on  his  first  arrival,  were  pre- 
 vented from  joining  him  by  the  presence  of  Scipio's 
 army  in  their  country,  now  eagerly  assisted  him  with 
 men  and  supplies.  In  the  following  year,  B.C.  217, 
 the  Romans  made  great  preparations  to  oppose  their 
 formidable  enemy.  Two  new  armies  were  levied  ; 
 one  was  posted  at  Arretium,  under  the  command  of 
 the  consul  P'laminius,  and  the  other  at  Ariminum, 
 under  the  consul  Servilius.  Hannibal  determined  to 
 attack  Flaminius  first.  In  his  march  southward  through 
 the  swamps  of  the  basin  of  the  Arnus,  his  army  suf- 
 fered greatly,  and  he  himself  lost  the  sight  of  one  eye. 
 After  resting  his  troops  for  a  short  time  in  the  neigh- 
 bourhood of  Faesulae,  he  marched  past  Arretium,  rava- 
 ging the  country  as  he  went,  with  the  view  of  drawing 
 out  Flaminius  to  a  battle.  Flaminius,  who  appears  to 
 have  been  a  rash,  headstrong  man,  hastily  followed 
 Hannibal ;  and,  being  attacked  in  the  basin  of  the  Lake 
 Trasimenus,  was  completely  defeated  by  the  Cartha- 
 ginians, who  were  posted  on  the  mountains  which 
 encircled  the  valley.  Three  or  four  days  after  Hanni- 
 bal cut  off  a  detachment  of  Roman  cavalry,  amounting 
 to  4000  men,  which  had  been  sent  by  Servilius  to  as- 
 sist his  colleague.  Hannibal  appears  to  have  enter- 
 tained hopes  of  overthrowing  the  Roman  dominion, 
 and  to  have  e.tpected  that  the  other  states  of  Italy 
 would  take  up  arms  against  Rome,  in  order  to  recover 
 their  independence.  To  conciliate  the  alllections  of 
 the  Italians,  he  dismissed  without  ransom  all  the 
 prisoners  whom  he  took  in  battle  ;  and,  to  give  them 
 an  opportunity  of  joining  his  army,  he  marched  slowly 
 along  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula,  through  Um- 
 bria  and  Picenum,  into  Apulia  ;  but  he  did  not  meet 
 with  that  co-operation  which  he  appears  to  have  ex- 
 pected. After  the  defeat  of  Flaminius,  Q.  Fabius 
 Maximus  was  appointed  dictator,  and  a  defensive  sys- 
 tem of  warfare  was  ado|)ted  by  the  Romans  till  the 
 end  of  the  year.  In  the  following  year,  B.C.  216,  the 
 Romans  resolved  upon  another  battle.  An  army  of 
 80,000  foot  and  6000  horse  was  raised,  which  was 
 commande.d  by  the  consuls  L.  ^milius  Paulus  and 
 C  Terentius  Varro.  The  Carthaginian  army  now 
 amounted  to  40,000  foot  and  10,000  horse.  The  ar- 
 nnes  were  encamped  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cannae 
 in  .\pulia.  In  the  battle  which  was  fought  near  this 
 place,  the  Romans  were  defeated  with  dreadful  car- 
 nage, and  with  a  loss  which,  as  stated  by  Polybius,  is 
 quite  incredible  ;  the  whole  of  the  infantry  engaged  in 
 battle,  amounting  to  70.000,  was  destroyed,  with  the 
 exception  of  3000  men,  who  escaped  to  the  neiah- 
 honring  cities,  and  also  all  the  cavalrv,  with  the  ex- 
 ception of  300  belonging  to  the  allies,  and  70  that  es- 
 caped with  Varro.  A  detachment  of  10,000  foot, 
 which  had  been  sent  to  surprise  the  Carthaginian 
 camp,  was  olliged  to  surrender  as  prisoners.  The 
 consul  L.  .it^milius,  and  the  two  consuls  of  the  for- 
 mer year,  Servilius  and  Attilius,  were  also  amono-  the 
 slain.  Hannibal  lost  only  4000  Gauls,  1500  Africans 
 and  Spaniards,  and  200  horse..     This  victory  placed 
 
 the  whole  of  Lower  Italy  in  the  power  of  Hannibal , 
 but  it  was  not  followed  by  such  important  results  aa 
 might  have  been  expected.  Capua  and  most  of  the 
 cities  of  Campania  espoused  his  cause,  but  the  major- 
 ity of  the  Italian  states  continued  firm  to  Rome.  The 
 defensive  system  was  now  strictly  adopted  by  the  Ro- 
 mans, and  Hannibal  was  unable  to  make  any  active 
 exertions  for  the  farther  conquest  of  Italy  till  he  re- 
 ceived a  reinforcement  of  troops.  He  was  in  hopes 
 of  obtaining  support  from  Philip  of  Macedon  and  from 
 the  Syracusans,  with  both  of  whom  he  formed  an  alli- 
 ance ;  but  the  Romans  found  means  to  keep  Philip 
 employed  in  Greece,  and  Syracuse  was  besieged  and 
 taken  by  Marcellus,  B.C.  214-12.  In  addition  to 
 this,  Capua  was  taken  by  the  Romans,  B.C.  211. 
 Hannibal  was  therefore  obliged  to  depend  upon  the 
 Carthaginians  for  help,  and  Hasdrubal  was  accordingly 
 ordered  to  march  from  Spain  to  his  assistance.  Cnaeus 
 Scipio,  as  already  observed,  was  left  in  Spain  to  op- 
 pose Hannibal.  He  was  afterward  joined  by  P.  Cor- 
 nelius Scipio,  and  the  war  was  carried  on  with  various 
 success  for  many  years,  till  at  length  the  Roman 
 army  was  entirely  defeated  by  Hasdrubal,  B  C.  212. 
 Both  the  Scipios  fell  in  the  battle.  Hasdrubal  was 
 now  preparing  to  join  his  brother,  but  was  prevented 
 by  the  arrival  of  young  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  in  Spain, 
 B.C.  210,  who  quickly  recovered  what  the  Romans 
 had  lost.  In  B.C.  210  he  took  New  Carthage;  and 
 it  was  not  till  B.C.  207,  when  the  Carthaginians  had 
 lost  almost  all  their  dominions  in  Spain,  that  Hasdrubal 
 set  out  to  join  his  brother  in  Italy.  He  crossed  the 
 Alps  without  meeting  with  any  opposition  from  the 
 Gauls,  and  arrived  at  Placentia  before  the  Romans 
 were  aware  that  he  had  entered  Italy.  After  besieg- 
 ing this  town  without  success,  he  continued  his  march 
 southward  ;  but,  before  he  could  elTect  a  junction  with 
 Hannibal,  he  was  attacked  by  the  consuls  C.  Claudius 
 Nero  and  M.  Livius,  on  the  banks  of  the  Metaurus  in 
 Umbria  ;  his  army  was  cut  to  pieces,  and  he  himself 
 fell  in  the  battle.  This  misfortune  obliged  Hannibal 
 to  act  on  the  defensive  ;  and  from  this  time  till  his  de- 
 parture from  Italy,  B.C.  203,  he  was  confined  to  Bru- 
 tium;  but,  by  his  superior  military  skill,  he  maintained 
 his  army  in  a  hostile  country  without  any  assistance 
 from  his  government  at  home.  After  effecting  the 
 conquest  of  Spain,  Scipio  passed  over  into  Africa  to 
 carry  the  war  into  the  enemy's  country,  B.C.  204. 
 With  the  assistance  of  Masinissa,  a  Numidian  prince, 
 he  gained  two  victories  over  the  Carthaginians,  who 
 hastily  recalled  their  great  commander  from  Italy  to 
 defend  his  native  state.  Hannibal  landed  at  Septis, 
 and  advanced  near  Zama,  five  days'  journey  from  Car- 
 thage towards  the  west.  Here  he  was  entirely  de- 
 feated by  Scipio,  B.C  202;  20,000  Carthaginians  fell 
 in  the  battle,  and  an  ecjual  number  were  taken  pris- 
 oners. The  Carthaginians  were  obliged  to  sue  for 
 peace,  and  thus  ended  the  second  Punic  war,  B.C. 
 201.  After  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  Hannibal  vig- 
 orously applied  himself  to  correct  the  abuses  which 
 existed  in  the  (Carthaginian  government.  He  reduced 
 the  power  of  the  perpetual  judges  (as  Livy,  23,  48, 
 calls  them),  and  provided  for  the  proper  collection  of 
 the  public  revenue,  which  had  been  embezzled.  He 
 was  supported  by  the  people  in  these  reforms;  but  he 
 incurred  the  enmity  of  many  powerful  men,  who  rep- 
 resented to  the  Romans  that  he  was  endeavouring  to 
 persuade  his  countrymen  to  join  Antiochu.s,  king  of 
 Syria,  in  a  war  against  them.  A  Roman  embassy 
 wasconsequentlv  sent  to  Carthage,  to  demand  the  pun- 
 ishment of  Hannibal  as  a  disturber  of  the  public  peace  ; 
 but  Hannibal,  aware  that  he  should  not  be  able  to  re- 
 sist his  enemies  supported  bv  the  Roman  power,  es- 
 caped from  the  city  and  sailed  to  Tyre,  From  Tyre 
 he  went  to  Ephesus  to  join  Antiochus,  B  C.  1  9G,  and 
 contributed  to  fix  him  in  his  determination  to  mane 
 war  against  the  Romans.  If  Hannibal's  advice  as  to 
 ^  571 
 
HANNIBAL. 
 
 HANNIBAL. 
 
 the  conduct  of  the  war  had  been  followed,  the  result 
 of  the  contest  might  have  been  different ;  but  he  was 
 only  employed  in  a  subordinate  command,  and  had  no 
 opportunity  for  the  exertion  of  his  great  military  tal- 
 ents. At  the  conclusion  of  this  war  Hannibal  was 
 oblitred  to  seek  refuge  at  the  court  of  Prusias,  king  of 
 Bithynia,  where  he  remained  about  live  years,  and  on 
 one  occasion  obtained  a  victory  over  Eumenes,  king  of 
 Pergainus.  But  the  Romans  appear  to  have  been  un- 
 easy as  long  as  their  once  formidable  enemy  was  alive. 
 An  embassy  was  sent  to  demand  him  of  Prusias,  who, 
 being  afraid  of  offending  the  Romans,  agreed  to  give 
 him  up.  To  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  ungen- 
 erous enemies,  Hannibal  destroyed  himself  by  poison 
 at  Nicomedia  in  Bnhynia,  B.C.  183,  in  the  si.xty-tifth 
 year  of  his  age.  The  personal  character  of  Hannibal 
 is  only  known  to  us  from  the  events  of  his  public  life, 
 and  even  these  have  not  been  commemorated  by  any 
 historian  of  his  own  country  ;  but  we  cannot  read  the 
 history  of  these  campaigns,  of  which  we  have  here 
 presented  a  mere  outline,  even  in  the  narrative  of  his 
 enemies,  without  admiring  his  great  abilities  and  cour- 
 age. Polybius  remarks  (li.h.  .\i.),  "  How  wonderful 
 is  it,  that  in  a  couAe  of  sixteen  years,  during  which 
 he  maintained  the  war  in  Italy,  he  should  never  once 
 dismiss  his  army  from  the  field,  and  yet  be  able,  like  a 
 good  governor,  to  keep  in  sub|ection  so  great  a  multi- 
 tude, and  to  confine  them  within  the  bounds  of  their 
 duty,  so  that  they  never  mutinied  against  him  nor 
 quarrelled  among  themsevles.  Though  his  army  was 
 composed  of  peofile  of  various  countries,  of  Africans, 
 Spaniards,  Gauls,  Carthaginians,  Italians,  and  Greeks 
 — men  who  had  different  laws,  different  cusioms,  and 
 different  language,  and,  in  a  word,  nothing  among 
 them  that  was  common — yet,  so  dexterous  was  his 
 management,  that,  notwithstanding  this  great  diversity, 
 he  forced  all  of  them  to  acknowledge  one  authority, 
 and  to  yield  obedience  to  one  command.  And  this,  too, 
 he  effected  in  the  midst  of  very  various  fortune.  How 
 high  as  well  as  just  an  o|iinion  must  these  things  con- 
 vey to  us  of  his  ability  in  war.  It  may  be  affirmed 
 with  confidence,  that  if  he  had  first  tried  his  strength 
 in  the  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  had  come  last  to  at- 
 tack the  Romans,  he  could  scarcely  have  failed  in  any 
 part  of  his  design."  {Polyh.,  3.  —  Ih.,  7,  8,  9.  —  lb., 
 14,  16.— Liry,  21-39. — Ncpos,  Vit.  Hanmb.—En- 
 cyd.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  12,  p.  40,  seq.) 
 
 The  passage  of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal  has  already 
 been  alluded  to  in  the  course  of  the  present  article. 
 Before  concluding  the  biography  of  the  Carthaginian 
 general,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  direct  the  student's  at- 
 tention more  particularly  to  this  point.  "  This  won- 
 derful undertaking,"  observes  a  recent  writer,  "  would 
 naturally  have  attracted  great  notice,  if  considered 
 only  with  reference  to  its  general  consequences,  and 
 to  Its  particular  effects  on  the  great  contest  carried  on 
 between  Rome  and  Carthage  ;  for  this  march,  which 
 carried  the  war  from  a  distant  province  to  the  very 
 gates  of  the  former,  totally  changed  the  character  of 
 the  struggle,  and  compelled  the  Romans  to  fight  for 
 eiistence  instead  of  territory.  These  events,  however, 
 are  not  the  only  causes  which  have  thrown  so  much 
 interest  on  the  passage  of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal ;  for 
 the  doubt  and  uncertainty  which  have  existed,  even 
 from  very  remote  times,  as  to  the  road  by  which  the 
 passage  was  effected  ;  the  numerous  and  distinguished 
 writers  who  have  declared  themselves  on  different  sides 
 of  the  question  ;  the  variation  between  the  two  great 
 historians  of  the  transactions  of  those  times,  Polybius 
 and  Livy  ;  all  these  things  united  have  involved  the 
 subject  in  difficulties  which  have  increased  its  impor- 
 tance, and  which  have  long  exercised  many  able  wri- 
 ters in  vain  attempts  to  elucidate  them.  The  relation 
 of  Polybius,  who  lived  very  soon  after  the  transactions 
 which  he  describes,  and  who  had  himself  examined  the 
 country  for  the  purpose  of  writing  his  history,  would 
 572 
 
 naturally  appear  the  most  authentic,  on  account  of  its 
 early  date,  as  well  as  of  the  internal  evidence  which 
 it  bears  of  the  truth.  Unfortunately,  Polybius  was 
 writing  to  Greeks,  and  was  therefore,  as  he  himself 
 tells  them,  not  anxious  to  introduce  into  his  narrative 
 names  of  places  and  of  countries  in  which  they  were 
 little  interested,  and  which,  if  inserted,  would  rather 
 have  injured  than  assisted  the  unity  of  his  story.  In 
 consequence  of  this,  although  he  has  been  remarkably 
 careful  in  giving  us  the  distances  performed  by  ihe 
 Carthaginian  army  in  their  inarch  from  the  Pyrenees 
 to  the  plains  of  Italy,  as  well  as  the  time  in  which  they 
 were  completed,  he  has  been  generally  sparing  of  his 
 proper  names,  and  he  has  not  positively  slated  in  terms 
 the  name  of  that  passage  of  the  Alps  through  which 
 Hannibal  marched.  Now,  though  the  distances  (which 
 are  positive),  and  the  general  description  of  the  coun- 
 try, and  the  names  of  the  nations  (when  these  latter 
 are  mentioned)  which  the  army  passed  through,  afford 
 sufficient  data  to  prove  beyond  all  doubt  that  Hannibal 
 passed  by  the  Alpis  Grata,  or  Little  St.  Bernard;  yet, 
 as  this  is  not  expressly  stated,  Livy,  who,  without  ac- 
 knowledgment, has  borrowed  the  greater  part  of  his 
 own  narrative  from  Polybius,  has  asserted  that  he  went 
 over  the  Aipis  Coltia.  or  Mont  Genevre  ;  and  as  Livy 
 is  much  more  read  than  Polybius,  his  account  has  ob- 
 tained much  more  credit  than  it  deserves,  and  has  been 
 considered  as  almost  decisive  of  the  question.  It  has 
 been  particularly  adopted  by  almost  all  the  French 
 writers  upon  the  subject,  and  though  they  differ  frona 
 each  other  as  to  the  road  which  the  army  took  to  ar- 
 rive at  that  passage,  and,  farther,  though  the  account 
 itself  is  absolutely  inconsistent  in  many  parts,  yet  the 
 authority  of  so  great  a  name  has  almost  set  criticism 
 at  defiance,  and  his  commentators  have  endeavoured 
 to  reconcile  his  contradictions  as  well  as  they  were 
 able.  It  was  evident,  however,  to  those  who  were  in 
 the  habit  of  looking  a  little  deeper  than  the  surface, 
 that  Livy's  account,  which,  even  when  taken  by  itself, 
 was  far  from  satisfactory,  was,  when  compared  with 
 that  of  Polvbius,  with  which  it  had  been  generally  sup- 
 posed to  agree,  very  different  in  its  conclusion  ;  and 
 this  variation  between  them  was  so  decided,  that  it 
 was  quite  impossible  that  both  could  be  right.  Gib- 
 bon was  so  much  struck  with  this  variation,  as  well 
 as  with  the  respective  characters  of  the  two  authors  as 
 historians,  that  he  would  have  given  up  Livy  at  once, 
 had  he  not  been  unable,  from  his  ignorance  of  the  pas- 
 sage alluded  to  by  Polybius,  to  decide  the  question  in 
 favour  of  the  latter.  The  opinion  of  Gibbon  apfieara 
 also  to  have  been  very  much  influenced  by  that  of 
 D'Anville,  an  authority  to  be  respected  above  all  oth- 
 ers for  wonderful  accuracy  and  depth  of  research  in 
 matters  relating  to  ancient  topography.  D'Anville, 
 however,  is  guided  in  his  opinion  by  the  idea  that  the 
 guides  of  Hannibal  were  Taurini,  a  mistake  which  is 
 the  more  extraordinary  as  Livy  himself  (21,  29)  states 
 them  to  be  Boii.  Mr.  Holdsworth,  who  had  devoted 
 much  of  his  time  and  attention  to  subjects  of  this  na- 
 ture {Spruce's  Anecdotes  of  Men  and  Books),  appears 
 to  have  detected  Livy's  inconsistencies  as  well  as  Gib- 
 bon, and  to  have  been  of  opinion  that  the  army  crossed 
 the  Alps  to  the  north  of  the  Mont  Genevre  ;  but  as  he 
 was,  as  well  as  Gibbon,  unacquainted  with  the  passage 
 of  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  he  was  unable  to  fix  u|)on 
 the  exact  spot.  It  is  to  General  Melville  that  the  lit- 
 erary world  has  been  indebted,  in  later  times,  for  the 
 suggestion  of  this  latter  pass  ;  and  it  is  by  this  sug- 
 gestion that  a  question  so  long  doubtful  has  received 
 a  most  satisfactory  explanation.  This  gentleman,  on 
 his  return  from  the  West  Indies,  where  he  had  held  a 
 high  military  command,  turned  his  whole  altentioti  to 
 the  investigation  of  the  military  antiquities  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, and  for  this  purpose  spent  some  years  in  travel- 
 ling over  France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  and  examined 
 with  great  attention  the  countries  which  had  been  the 
 
HANNIBAL. 
 
 HANNIBAL. 
 
 scenes  of  the  most  celebrated  battles  and  events  re- 
 corded in  liotiiari  history.  From  his  thorough  knowl- 
 edge of  Polyl'ius,  he  was  early  .struck  with  the  great 
 authority  that  his  narrative  carried  with  it,  and  he  de- 
 termined, if  [lossible,  to  set  at  rest  the  much  agitated 
 question  of  the  passage  of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal.  As 
 he  perceived  that  no  perusal  of  the  historian,  however 
 close  and  attentive,  no  critical  sagacity  and  discern- 
 ment, could  alone  enable  him  to  arrive  at  the  truth, 
 unless  he  verified  the  observations  of  his  author  on  the 
 same  ground,  and  com|iared  his  descriptions  with  the 
 same  scenes  as  those  which  that  author  had  himself 
 visited  and  examined,  the  general  surveyed  attentively 
 all  the  known  passages  of  the  Alps,  and  more  particu- 
 larly those  which  were  best  known  to  the  ancients. 
 The  result  of  all  these  observations  was  a  firm  convic- 
 tion that  the  passage  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard  was 
 that  by  which  Hannibal  had  crossed  over  into  Italy, 
 both  as  being  most  probable  in  itself,  and  also  as  agree- 
 ing beyond  all  comparison  more  closely  than  any  other 
 with  the  description  given  by  P'olyhius.  The  general 
 must  be  looked  upon  as  the  first  who  has  solved  the 
 problem  in  history.  It  is  not,  indeed,  meant  that  he 
 was  absolutely  the  first  who  made  the  Carthaginian 
 army  penetrate  by  that  pass  into  Italy,  since  the  oldest 
 authority  on  this  point,  that  of  (Jcelius  Antipater,  rep- 
 resents it  as  having  taken  that  route  ;  hut  it  is  affirmed 
 that  he  was  the  first  to  revive  an  opinion  concerning 
 that  passage,  which,  although  existing  in  full  force  in 
 the  traditions  of  the  country  itself,  appears  to  have 
 been  long  laid  aside  as  forgotten,  and  to  have  rested 
 that  opinion  on  arguments  the  most  solid  and  plausi- 
 ble. General  Melville  never  published  any  account  of 
 his  observations,  and  they  would  most  probably  have 
 been  lost  to  the  world,  had  he  not  found  in  M.  De  Luc, 
 of  Geneva,  nephew  of  the  late  distinguished  philoso- 
 pher of  that  name,  a  person  eminently  qualified  to  un- 
 dertake the  task  which  he  himself  declined,  and  even 
 materially  to  improve  upon  his  labours.  The  verv  able 
 and  learned  work  which  that  gentleman  published  at 
 Geneva  in  1818,  entitled  His/oirc  liu  Passafre  flcs 
 Aipes  par  Atviihal,  contains  a  very  full  and  clear  re- 
 port of  the  observations  of  General  Melville,  supported 
 by  arguments  and  by  evidence  entirely  original,  and 
 which  must  be  admitted  by  every  candid  and  judicious 
 inquirer  to  be  clear  and  conclusive.  A  second  edition 
 of  this  work  was  published  in  1825,  considerably  aug- 
 mented." {Dissertation  on  the  Passage  of  Hannihal 
 over  the  Alps,  by  Wickham  and  Cramer,  pref..  p.  xi., 
 seqq  )  In  the  work  here  quoted,  the  route  which  Han- 
 nihal is  conceived  to  have  taken  is  stated  as  follows  : 
 after  crossing  the  Pyrenees  at  Bellegarde,  he  went  to 
 Nismes,  through  Perpignan,  Narbonne,  Beziers,  and 
 Montpellier.  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  exact  track  of 
 the  great  Roman  road.  From  Nismes  he  marched  to 
 the  Rhone,  which  he  crossed  at  Roquemaure,  and  then 
 went  up  the  river  to  Vienne,  or  possibly  a  little  higher. 
 From  thence,  marching  across  the  flat  countrv  of  Dau- 
 phiny  in  order  to  avoid  the  angle  which  the  river  makes 
 at  Lyons,  he  rejoined  it  at  St.  Genis  d'Aouste.  He 
 then  crossed  the  Mont  du  Chat  to  Chambery,  joined 
 the  Iserc  at  Montnreillan,  ascended  it  as  far  as  Scez, 
 crossed  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  and  descended  upon 
 Aosta  and  Ivrea  by  the  banks  of  the  Doria  Baltea. 
 After  halting  for  some  time  at  Ivrea,  he  marched  upon 
 Turin,  which  he  took,  and  then  prepared  himself  for 
 ulterior  operations  against  the  Romans  {pref.,  p.  xxii., 
 stq.).  The  Alpis  Graia,  or  Little  St.  Bernard,  forms, 
 it  should  be  remembered,  the  communication  between 
 the  vallev  of  the  Isere  and  that  of  Aosta.  It  is  situa- 
 ted a  little  to  the  south  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  is  the 
 most  northerly  of  the  passages  of  that  division  of  the 
 A.lps  which  runs  from  north  to  south.  In  corrobora- 
 tion of  the  theory  which  assigns  the  Little  St.  Bernard 
 as  the  route  of  Hannihal,  may  be  cited  a  very  able  ar- 
 tide  on  the  subject,  which  appeared  in  the  Edinburgh 
 
 Review  for  November,  1825.  This  theory,  however, 
 has  been  attacked  in  a  recent  publication  {HatmibaV.t 
 Passage  of  the  Alps,  by  a  Member  of  the  Vnwersity 
 of  Cambridge),  the  author  of  which  contends  for  the 
 passage  over  Monte  Viso,  where  the  Maritime  Alps 
 terminate.  His  arguments  are  far  from  conclusive. 
 The  passage  by  Mont  Cenis  has  also  found  many  ad- 
 vocates, the  most  distinguished  of  whom  is  Mannert. 
 This  learned  scholar,  in  the  introduclorv  chapter  to  his 
 Geography  of  Ancient  Italy,  m  which  he  gives  an  ac- 
 count of  the  Alps  and  the  various  passes  by  which  they 
 were  formerly  traversed,  expresses  his  belief  that  Han- 
 nibal crossed  the  great  chain  by  the  route  of  Mont 
 Cenis.  In  forming  his  opinion,  he  appears  to  have 
 been  solely  guided,  and  no  doubt  most  judiciously,  by 
 the  narrative  of  Polybius  ;  and  he  professes  to  have 
 found  the  distances,  as  given  in  the  best  modern  maps, 
 accurately  agreeing  with  the  statement  of  the  Greek 
 historian.  This  fact  is  open  to  dispute  ;  for,  although 
 the  route  of  the  Mont  Cenis  deviates  at  first  very  littit 
 from  that  on  which  tlie  theory  respecting  the  Little 
 St.  Bernard  is  founded,  yet  the  immediate  descent 
 upon  Turin  shortens  the  total  distance  very  consider- 
 ably, and  it  will  be  impossible  to  make  up  150  miles 
 from  the  first  ascent  of  the  Alps  to  the  descent  at  Su- 
 sa,  without  very  much  overrating  the  actual  distances. 
 Moreover,  it  cannot  be  conceded  to  the  learned  pro- 
 fessor, that  the  plains  of  Italy  can  be  seen  from  the 
 summit  of  Mont  Cenis,  and  froin  thence  only.  It  is 
 most  certain  that  he  has  been  misinformed  on  this  point, 
 though  it  has  also  been  maintained  by  others.  Even 
 De  Saussure,  who  ascended  the  Roche  Michel  far 
 above  the  Hospice  of  the  Grande  Croix,  could  not 
 perceive  the  plains  from  that  elevated  sumtnit.  The 
 Roche  Melon  is  the  only  point  in  this  vicinity  from 
 which  it  is  possible  to  have  a  view  of  Piedmont ;  but 
 it  is  not  accessible  from  the  Grande  Croix,  or  any 
 point  in  the  road  of  Mont  Cenis.  {Wickham  and 
 Cramer,  p.  173,  seqq.,  2d  ed.) — It  remains  to  say  a 
 few  words  on  the  opinion  of  Napoleon  on  this  subject, 
 as  stated  in  his  "  Notes  sur  Vourrage  intitule  Consid- 
 eratiojis  sur  VArt  de  la  Guerre,^''  in  the  second  vol- 
 ume of  his  Melanges  Historiques.  In  these  notes  he 
 gives  a  very  concise  account  of  the  road  which  he 
 conceives  Hannibal  to  have  taken,  and  which  is  as  fol- 
 lows :  he  crossed  the  Rhone  a  little  below  Orange, 
 and  in  four  days  reached  either  the  confluence  of  the 
 Rhone  and  Isere.  or  that  of  the  IVac  and  Isere,  set- 
 tled the  affairs  of  the  two  brothers,  and  then,  after  six 
 days'  march,  arrived,  on  the  former  supposition,  at 
 Montureillan,  and  from  thence,  in  nine  days,  at  Susa, 
 by  the  passage  of  Mont  Cenis ;  or,  in  the  latter  case, 
 if  he  arrived  at  Grenoble  at  the  end  of  the  four  days, 
 he  would  reach  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne  in  six  days, 
 and  Susa  in  nine  days  more  ;  from  Susa  he  marched 
 upon  Turin,  and,  after  the  capture  of  the  city,  he  ad- 
 vanced to  Milan.  The  reasoning  by  which  Napoleon 
 supports  his  hypothesis,  is  principally  founded  on  what 
 the  French  call  "  la  raison  de  la  guerre,"  that  is,  Han- 
 nibal did  this  because,  as  a  military  man,  he  ought  t< 
 have  done  it  ;  and,  if  we  were  discussing  prospective 
 operations,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  opinion  of  so 
 great  a  general  as  Napoleon  would  be  almost  conclu- 
 sive ;  but,  in  reasoning  upon  the  past,  the  elements  of 
 the  discussion  are  as  open  to  civil  as  to  military  wri- 
 ters, and  the  former  are  quite  as  capable  of  conducting 
 an  argument  logically  as  the  latter.  Napoleon  has 
 been  guilty  of  several  inaccuracies  in  his  statement, 
 and  his  argument  is  conducted  in  that  decided  manner 
 which  bears  down  all  opposition,  and  which  supposes 
 that  whatever  he  says  must  he  right.  He  asserts 
 that  both  Polybius  and  Livy  state  the  army  to  have 
 arrived,  in  the  first  instance,  at  Turin,  and  he  loses 
 sight  altogether  of  the  detailed  narration  of  Polybius. 
 The  author  upon  whose  work  he  is  commenting  adopts 
 the  passaee  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  which  Napcleon 
 '         ^  573 
 
HAN 
 
 HANNO. 
 
 refuses  to  believe,  because  Hannibal  must  have  been 
 early  ac(]uainled  with  the  retreat  of  the  Romans  to- 
 wards ilicir  fleet,  and  would  not,  in  that  case,  have 
 marched  to  the  north.  The  explanation  of  all  this  may 
 be  found  in  Napoleon's  own  words  :  "  La  marche 
 d'Annihal  dcpiiis  Collioure  jusqu'a  Turin  a  ete  toute 
 simple  ;  elle  a  6te  celle  d'un  voyageur  ;  il  a  pris  la 
 route  la  plus  courte."  Hardly  so,  since  the  road  by 
 Mont  Genevre  was  shorter  than  that  by  Mont  Ceiiis, 
 as  he  himself  allows,  a  few  pages  before.  In  a  word, 
 if  we  had  no  historical  details  to  guide  us.  Napoleon 
 would  probably  be  right ;  but  as  we  profess  to  be 
 guided  by  those  details,  and  as,  from  his  omitting  to 
 notice  the  greater  part  of  them,  he  appears  either  to 
 have  been  ignorant  of  thetn,  or  to  have  been  unable 
 to  make  them  agree  with  his  hypothesis,  we  must 
 come  to  the  conclusion,  that  what  he  says  rests  upon 
 no  proof,  and  is  to  be  merely  considered  as  the  opinion 
 of  a  great  general  upon  an  hypothetical  case.  (  Wick- 
 ham  and  Cramer,  p.  188,  seqq  ) 
 
 Hanno  (meaning  in  Punic  '■'merciful'"  or  '■'mild"'), 
 I.  a  commander  sent  by  the  Carthaginians  on  a  voyage 
 of  colonization  and  discovery  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
 of  Africa.  This  expedition  is  generally  supposed  to 
 have  taken  place  about  570  B.C.  Gail,  however, 
 places  it  between  633  and  530  B.C.  {Geogr.  Gr. 
 Min  ,  vol.  1,  p.  82.)  On  his  return  to  Carthage,  Han- 
 no deposited  an  account  of  his  voyage  in  the  temple  of 
 Saturn.  A  translation  of  this  account  from  the  Punic 
 into  the  Greek  tongue,  has  come  down  to  us  ;  and  its 
 authenticity,  attacked  by  Dodwell,  has  been  defended 
 by  Bougainville  {Mem.  Acad,  dcs  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  26, 
 26),  Falconer,  and  others.  Gail  also  declares  in  its 
 favour,  though  he  admits  that  the  narrative  may,  and 
 probably  does,  contain  many  wilful  deviations  from  the 
 truth,  in  accordance  with  the  jealous  policy  of  the  Car- 
 thaginians in  misleading  other  nations  by  erroneous 
 statements.  The  title  of  the  Greek  work  is  as  follows : 
 "Avvuvoc,  Kapj?/c5oi'('wr  ftaaiX^u^,  HepiirXov^  tCjv 
 VTisp  Ta^  'HpaK?Jovc  aT/j?MC  Ai6vku>v  rfiq  yfig  jiepuv, 
 ov  Kal  dvf-.driKev  kv  tu  tov  Kpovuv  re/isvei.  "  The 
 Voyage  of  Hanno,  commander  of  the  Carthaginians, 
 round  the  parts  of  Libya  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Her- 
 cules, which  he  deposited  in  the  temple  of  Saturn." 
 With  regard  to  the  extent  of  coast  actually  explored 
 by  this  expedition,  some  remarks  have  been  offered  in 
 another  article  {vid.  Africa,  col.  2,  p.  80)  ;  it  remains 
 but  to  give  an  English  version  of  the  Periplus  itself 
 — "  Il  was  decreed  by  the  Carthaginians,"  begins  the 
 narrative,  "  that  Hanno  should  undertake  a  voyage  be- 
 yond the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and  found  Libyphoenician 
 cities.  He  sailed  accordingly  with  sixty  ships  of  fifty 
 oars  each,  and  a  body  of  men  and  women  to  the  num- 
 ber of  thirty  thousand,  and  provisions  and  other  neces- 
 saries. When  we  had  passed  the  Pillars  on  our  voy- 
 age, and  had  sailed  beyond  them  for  two  days,  we 
 founded  the  first  city,  which  we  named  Thymiaterium. 
 Below  it  lay  an  extensive  plain.  Proceeding  thence 
 towards  the  west,  we  came  to  Soloeis,  a  promontory 
 of  Libya,  a  place  thickly  covered  with  trees,  where  we 
 erected  a  temple  to  Neptune  ;  and  again  proceeded  for 
 the  space  of  half  a  day  towards  the  coast,  until  we  ar- 
 rived at  a  lake  lying  not  far  from  the  sea,  and  filled 
 with  abundance  of  large  reeds.  Here  elephants,  and 
 a  great  number  of  other  wild  beasts  were  feeding. 
 Having  passed  the  lake  about  a  day's  sail,  we  founded 
 cities  near  the  sea,  called  (/ariconticos,  and  Gytte,  and 
 Acra,  and  Melitta,  and  Arambys.  Thence  we  came 
 to  the  great  river  Lixus,  which  flows  from  Libya.  On 
 its  banks  the  Lixitse,  a  shepherd  tribe,  were  feeding 
 flocks,  among  whom  we  continued  some  time  on 
 friendly  terms.  Beyond  the  Lixitae  dwell  the  inhospi- 
 ..able  Ethiopians,  who  pasture  a  wild  country  intersect- 
 ed by  large  mountains,  from  which  they  say  the  river 
 Lixus  flows.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mountains 
 'ived  the  Troglodytae,  men  of  various  appearances, 
 574 
 
 whom  the  Lixitas  described  as  swifter  in  running  than 
 horses.      Having  procured   interpreters  from  them,  we 
 coasted  along  a  desert  country  towards  the  south  two 
 days.     Thence  we    proceeded   towards   the   east   the 
 course  of  a  day.      Here  we  found,  in  a  recess  of  a  cer- 
 tain bay,  a  small  i.'^land,  containing  a  circle  of  five  sta- 
 dia, where  we  settled  a  colony,  and  called  it  Cerne. 
 We  judged  from  our  voyage  that  this  place  lay  in  a  di- 
 rect line  with  Carthage  ;   for  the  length  of  our  voyage 
 from   Carthage  to  the  Pillars  was  equal  to  that  from 
 the  Pillars  to  Cerne.      We  then  came  to  a  lake,  which 
 we  reached  by  sailing  up  a  large  river  called  Chretes. 
 This  lake  had  three  islands,  larger  than  Cerne  ;  from 
 which,  proceeding  a  day's  sail,  we  came  to  the  extrem- 
 ity of  the  lake,  that  was  overhung  by    large  mount- 
 ains, inhabited  by  savage  men,  clothed  in  skins  of  wild 
 beasts,  who  drove  us  away  by  throv^ing  stones,  and 
 hindered  us  from  landing.     Sailing  thence,  we  came  to 
 another  river,  that  was  large  and   broad,  and   full  of 
 crocodiles  and  river  horses  ;  whence  returning  back  we 
 came  again  to  Cerne.     Thence  we  sailed  towards  the 
 south  twelve  days,  coasting  the  shore,  the   whole  of 
 which  is  inhabited  by  Ethiopians,  who  would  not  wait 
 our  approach,  but  fled  from  us.     Their  language  was 
 not  intelligible  even  to  the  Lixitae  who  were  with  us. 
 Towards  the  last  day  we  approached  some  large  mount- 
 ains covered  with  trees,  the  wood  of  which  was  sweet- 
 scented  and  variegated.    Having  sailed  by  these  mount- 
 ains for  two  days,  we  came  to  an  immense  opening  of 
 the  sea  ;  on  each  side  of  which,  towards  the  continent, 
 was  a  plain  ;   from  which  we  saw  by  night  fire  arising 
 at  intervals  in  all  directions,  either  more  or  less.    Hav- 
 ing taken  in  water  there,  we  sailed  forward  five  days 
 near  the  land,  until  we  came  to  a  large  bay,  which  our 
 interpreters  informed  us  was  called  the  Western  Horn. 
 In  this  was  a  large  island,  and  in  the  island  a  salt-water 
 lake,  and  in  this  another  island,  where,  when  we  had 
 landed,  we  could  discover  nothing  in  the  daytime  ex- 
 cept trees ;  but  in  the  night  we  saw  many  fires  burn- 
 ing, and  heard  the  sound  of  pipes,  cymbals,  drums,  and 
 confused  shouts.     We  were  then  afraid,  and  our  di- 
 viners  ordered    us   to  abandon   the   island.      Sailing 
 quickly  away  thence,  we  passed  a  country  burning  with 
 fires  and  perfumes,  and  streams  of  fire  supplied  from 
 it  fell  into  the  sea.     The  country  was  impassable  on 
 account  of  the  heat.     We  sailed  quickly  thence,  being 
 much  terrified  ;  and  passing  on  for  four  days,  we  dis- 
 covered at  night  a  country  full  of  fire.   In  the  middle  was 
 a  lofty  fire,  larger  than  the  rest,  which  seemed  to  touch 
 the  stars.     When  day  came,  we  discovered  it  to  be 
 a  large  hill  called  the  Chariot  of  the  Gods.     On  the 
 third  day  after  our  departure  thence,  having  sailed  by 
 those  streams  of  fire,  we  arrived  at  a  bay  called  the 
 Southern  Horn  ;  at  the  bottom  of  which  lay  an  island 
 like  the  former,  having  a  lake,  and  ni  this  lake  another 
 island,  full  of  savage  people,  the  greater  part  of  whom 
 were  women,  whose  bodies  were  hairy,  and  whom  our 
 interpreters  called  Gorillae.     Though  we  pursued  the 
 men,  we  could  not  seize  any  of  them  ;  but  all  fled 
 from  us,  escaping  over  the  precipices,  and  defending 
 themselves  with  stones.     Three  women  were  however 
 taken  ;  but  they  attacked  their  conductors  with  their 
 teeth  and  hands,  and  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to 
 accompany  us.     Having  killed  them,  we  flayed  them, 
 and  brought  their  skins  with  us  to  Carthage.     We  did 
 not  sail  farther  on,  our  provisions  having  failed  us." — 
 The  streams  of  fire  alluded  to  by  Hanno  are  con- 
 jectured to  have  been  nothing  more  than  the  burning 
 of  the  dry  herbage  ;    a   practice  which   takes  place, 
 more  or  less,  in  every  country  situated  in  the  warm 
 climates,  and  where  vegetation  is  also  rank.     Its  ta- 
 king the  appearance  of  a  river  of  fire,  running  into  the 
 sea,  is  accounted  for  from  the  more  abundant  herbage 
 of  the  valleys  or  ravines  ;  which,  as  Bruce  observes, 
 are  shaded  by  their  depth,  and  remain  green  the  long- 
 est.    Consequently,   being  the  last  burned,  the  fir" 
 
H  AR 
 
 will,  at  that  period,  be  confined  to  the  hollow  parts  of 
 the  country  only  ;  and,  when  fired  from  above,  will 
 have  the  appearance  of  rivers  of  fire  running  towards 
 the  sea.  The  adventure  of  the  hairy  women  presents 
 much  less  ditiiculty  than  did  the  others  ;  since  it  is 
 well  known  that  a  species  of  ape  or  baboon,  agreeing 
 in  description  with  those  of  Haiino,  is  found  in  the 
 quarter  referred  to,  which  appears  to  have  been  near 
 Sierra  Leone.  Nor  did  the  interpreters  call  them  imm- 
 en,  but  gorilla  :  meaning  no  doubt  to  describe  apes, 
 and  not  human  creatures  possessing  the  gift  of  speech. 
 {Rennell,  Geogr.  of  Herodotus,  p.  720,  scqq.) — II.  A 
 Carthaginian  commander,  who  aspired  to  the  sover- 
 eignty in  his  native  city.  His  design  was  discovered, 
 and  he  thereupon  retired  to  a  fortress,  with  20,000 
 armed  slaves,  but  was  taken  and  put  to  death,  with  his 
 son  and  all  his  relations.  (Justin,  21,  4.) — III.  A 
 commander  of  the  Carthaginian  forces  in  Sicily  along 
 with  Bomilcar  (B.C.  310).  He  was  defeated  by  Agath- 
 ocles,  although  he  had  45,000  men  under  his  orders, 
 and  his  opponent  only  about  14,000.  (Justin,  22,  &.) 
 — IV.  A  Carthaginian  commander,  defeated  by  the 
 Romans  near  the  iKgades  Insulae  (B.C.  242).  On  his 
 return  home  he  was  put  to  death. — V.  A  leader  of  the 
 faction  at  Carthage,  opposed  to  the  Barca  family.  He 
 voted  for  surrendering  Hannibal  to  the  foe,  after  the 
 ruin  of  Saguntum,  and  also  for  refusing  succours  to 
 that  commander  after  the  battle  of  Cannae.  {Liv.,  21, 
 3. — /(/ ,  23,  12.) — VI.  A  Carthaginian,  who,  wishing 
 to  pass  for  a  god,  trained  up  some  birds,  who  were 
 taught  by  him  to  repeat  the  words,  "  Hanno  is  a  god." 
 He  only  succeeded  in  rendering  himself  ridiculous. 
 (JSlian,  Var.  Hist.,  15,  32.) 
 
 HarmodIus,  an  Athenian,  who,  together  with  Aris- 
 loglton,    became   the  cause  of  the  overthrow  of  the 
 Pisistratidae.     The  names  of  Harmodius  and  Aristo- 
 giton  have  been  immortalized  by  the  ignorant  or  prej- 
 udiced gratitude  of  the  Athenians  :  in  any  other  his- 
 tory they  would  perhaps  have  been  consigned  to  ob- 
 livion, and  would   certainly  never   have   become  the 
 themes  of  panegyric.      Aristogiton  was  a  citizen  of  the 
 middle  rank  ;  Harmodius  a  youth  distinguished  by  the 
 comeliness  of  his  person.     They  were  both  sprung 
 from  a  house  supposed  to  have  been  of  Phoenician  ori- 
 gin, were  perhaps  remotely   allied  to  one  another  by 
 blood,  and  were  united  by  ties  of  the  closest  intimacy. 
 The  youth  had  received  an  outrage  from  Hipparchus, 
 which,  in  a  better  state  of  society,  would  have  been 
 deemed  the  grossest  that  could  have  been  offered  him  : 
 it  roused,  however,  not  so  much  the  resentment  as  the 
 fears  of  his  friend,  lest  Hipparchus  should  abuse  his 
 power,  to  repeat  and  aggravate  the  insult.      But  Hip- 
 parchus, whose  pride  had  been  wounded  by  the  con- 
 duct of  Harmodius,  contented  himself  with  a  less  di- 
 rect mode  of  revenge  ;  an  affront  aimed  not  at  his  per- 
 son, but  at  the  honour  of  his  family.     By  his  orders, 
 the  sister  of  Harmodius  was  invited  to  take  part  in  a 
 procession,  as  bearer  of  one  of  the  sacred  vessels. 
 When,  however,  she   presented  herself  in   her  festal 
 dress,  she  was  publicly  rejected,  and  dismissed  as  un- 
 worthy of  the  honour.     This  insult  stung  Harmodius 
 to  the  quick,  and  kindled  the  indignation  of  Aristogi- 
 ton.    They  resolved  not  only  to  wash  it  out  with  the 
 blood  of  the  offender,  but  to  engage  in  the  desperate 
 enterprise,  which  had  already  been  suggested  by  differ- 
 ent motives  to  the  thoughts  of  Aristogiton,  of  over- 
 throwing   the   ruling  dynasty.     They    communicated 
 their  plan  to  a  few  friends,  who  promised  their  assist- 
 ance ;   but  they  hoped  that,  as  soon  as  the  first  blow 
 should  be  struck,  they  would  be  joined  by  numbers, 
 who  would  joyfully  seize  the  opportunity  of  recovering 
 their  freedom.     The  conspirators  fixed  on  the  festival 
 of  the  Panathenaea  as  the  most  convenient  season  for 
 effecting  their  purpose.     This  festival  was  celebrated 
 with  a  procession,  in  which  the  citizens  inarched  armed 
 with  spears  and  shields,  and  was  the  only  occasion  on 
 
 H  AR 
 
 which,  in  time  of  peace,  they  could  assemble  under 
 arms  without  exciting  suspicion.      It  was  agreed  that 
 Harmodius  and  Aristogiton  should  give  the  signal  by 
 stabbing  Hi[)pias,  while  their  friends  kept  off  his  guards, 
 and  that  they  should  trust  to  the  general  disposition  in 
 favour  of  liberty  for  the  farther  success  of  their  under- 
 taking.     Whet)  the  day  came,  the  conspirators  armed 
 themselves  with  daggers,  which  they  concealed  in  the 
 myrtle-boughs  that  were  carried  on  this  occasion.    But 
 while  Hippias,  surrounded  by  his  guards,  was  in  the 
 subuib  called  the  Ceramicus,  directing  the  order  of  the 
 procession,  one  of  the  conspirators  was  observed  to  go 
 up  to  him,  for  he  was  easy  of  access  to  all,  and  to  en- 
 ter into  familiar   conversation   with   him.     The  two 
 friends,  on  seeing  this,  concluded  that  they  were  be- 
 trayed, and  that  they  had  no  hope  left  but  of  revenge. 
 They  instantly  rushed  into  the  city,  and,  meeting  Hip- 
 parchus, killed  him  before  his  guards  could  come  up 
 to  his  assistance.     They  however  arrived  in  lime  to 
 avenge  his  death  on  Harmodius  :  Aristogiton  escaped 
 for  the  moment  through  the  crowd,  but  was  afterward 
 taken.     When  the  news  was  brought  to  Hippias,  in- 
 stead of  proceeding  to  the  scene  of  his  brother's  mur- 
 der, he  advanced  with  a  composed  countenance  towards 
 the  armed  procession,  which  was  yet  ignorant  of  the 
 event,  and,  as  if  he  had  some  grave  discourse  to  ad- 
 dress to  them,  desired  them  to  lay  aside  their  weapons, 
 and  meet  him  at  an  appointed  place.     He  then  ordered 
 his  guards  to  seize  the  arms,  and  to  search  every  one 
 for  those  which  he  might  have  concealed  upon  his  per- 
 son.    All  who  were  found  with  daggers  were  arrested, 
 together  with  those  whom,  on  any  other  grounds,  he 
 suspected   of  disaffection.     The    fate   of  Aristogiton 
 may  be  easily  imagined  :  he  was  put  to  death,  accord- 
 ing to  some  authors,  after  torture  had  been  applied,  to 
 wring  from  him  the  names  of  his  accomplices.     It  is 
 said  that  he  avenged  himself  by  accusing  the  truest 
 friends  of  Hippias,  and  that  a  girl  of  low  condition, 
 named  Lcaena,  whose  only  crime  was  to  have  been  the 
 object  of  his  affection,  underwent  the  like  treatment. 
 She  was  afterward  celebrated  for  the  constancy  with 
 which  she  endured  the  most  cruel  torments.     (Herod. , 
 5,  55. — Id,  7,  123. — Tkucyd.,  1,  2il—Schol.,  adloc. 
 — Id.,  6,  54,  seqq.) — After  the  expulsion  of  Hippias, 
 the  fortunate  tyrannicides  received  almost  heroic  hon- 
 ours.    Statues  were  erected  to  them  at  the  public  e,\- 
 pense.     Their  names  never  ceased  to  be  repeated  with 
 affectionate  admiration  in  the  convivial  songsof  Athens, 
 which   assigned  them  a  place  in  the  islands   of   the 
 Blessed,  by  the  side  of  Achilles  and  Tydides  (Athe- 
 nceus,  15,  p.  695)  ;  and  when  an  orator  wished  to  sug- 
 gest the  idea  of  the  highest  merit  and  of  the  noblest 
 services  to  the  cause  of  liberty,  he  never  failed  to  re- 
 mind his  hearers  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton.     No 
 slave  was  ever  called  by  their  names.     Plutarch  has 
 preserved  a  smart  reply  of  Antipho,  the  orator,  to  Dio- 
 nysius  the  elder,  of  Syracuse.     The  latter  had  put  the 
 question,  which  was  the  finest  kind  of  brass  1    "  That," 
 replied  Antipho,  "  of  which  the  statues  of  Harmodius 
 and  Aristogiton  were  made."     He  lost  his  life  in  con- 
 sequence.    (Plut.,  Vit.  X.,  Oral.,  p.  833.)     It  is  prob- 
 able enough,  that  much  of  this  enthusiasm  was  spuri- 
 ous and  artificial,  as  well  as  misplaced.     (Thirlwalls 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  67,  seqq.) 
 
 Harmonia,  a  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus,  who 
 married  Cadmus.  (Hcsiod,  Tlieog,  'i^T-)  The  ge- 
 nealogy of  Harmonia  has  evidently  all  the  appearance 
 of  a  phvsical  myth  ;  for,  from  Love  and  Strife  (i.  e.,  at- 
 traction and  repulsion)  arises  the  order  or  harm o?n/  of 
 the  universe.  (Pint.,  de  Is.  ct  Os.,  iS.-Anst.,  1  ol., 
 2,  G.—  Welcker,  Kret.  Col,  p.  40.) 
 
 Harpagus,  a  general  of  Cyrus.  He  revo  ted  from 
 Astyages,  who  had  cruelly  caused  him,  without  his 
 1  •       '.    .    „„t  ii,„  flpsh  of  his  son,  because  he  had 
 
 knowing  it,  to  eat  the  tiesn  oi  i"=        >  ■   r  „, 
 
 disobeyed  his  orders  in  not  putting  to  death  the  infant 
 Cyrus.     (VhI  remarks  under  the  article  Cyrus.) 
 
H  AR 
 
 HA  R 
 
 HarpaH's,  I.  an  early  and  favoured  friend  of  Alex- 
 ander the  Great.  Having  been  left  at  13ahylon  aw  sa- 
 trap of  the  province,  and  treasurer  of  a  more  consider- 
 able Dortioii  of  the  empire,  he  abused  his  trust  so  gross- 
 ly, that,  on  the  kuig's  return,  he  was  compelled  to  flee 
 through  fear  of  punishment.  He  was  accompanied  by 
 si.K  thousand  soldiers,  and  with  these  he  landed  in  La- 
 coiiia,  in  the  hope,  it  may  be  sup[)Osed,  of  engaging 
 llie  Lacedaemonians  to  renew  their  opposition  to  Al- 
 exander. Failing  there  of  su[iport,  he  left  his  army 
 and  went  to  Athens  as  a  suppliant,  but  carrying  with 
 him  money  to  a  large  amount.  His  cause  was  taken 
 up  by  many  eminent  orators  hostile  to  Alexander  ;  and 
 Demosthenes  himself,  who  had  at  first  held  back,  was 
 prevailed  upon  to  espouse  it.  It  failed,  however  ;  the 
 Athenians  adhered  to  the  existing  treaties  ;  and  Har- 
 palus,  being  obliged  to  quit  Athens,  carried  his  troops 
 itito  Crete,  where  he  perished  by  assassination.  It 
 was  said  that  his  gold  had  been  largely  distributed 
 among  his  Athenian  supporters,  and  a  prosecution  was 
 instituted  against  Demosthenes  and  his  associates,  as 
 having  been  bribed  to  tniscounsel  the  people.  They 
 were  convicted  before  the  Areopagus;  and  Demos- 
 thenes, being  fined  in  the  sum  of  50  talents  (about 
 53,0(»0  dollars),  withdrew  to  JEg'ma.  (Vul.  Demos- 
 thenes— Diod.  Sic,  17,  108.  seqq.)—U.  An  astrono- 
 mer of  Greece,  who  flourished  about  400  B  C.  He 
 corrected  the  cycle  of  Cleostratus.  This  alteration, 
 from  a  revolution  of  eight  to  one  of  nine  years,  was, 
 in  the  fourth  year  of  the  eighty-second  Olympiad,  again 
 improved  by  Meton,  who  increased  the  cycle  to  a  pe- 
 riod of  nineteen  years.  {Vid.  Meton. —  L'Arl  de 
 verifier  les  Dates,  vol.  3,  p.  133.) 
 
 H.tRrAi.YCE,  the  daughter  of  Harpalycus,  king  of 
 Thrace.  Her  mother  died  when  she  was  but  a  child, 
 and  her  father  fed  her  with  the  milk  of  cows  and  mares, 
 and  inured  her  to  martial  exercises,  intending  her  for 
 his  successor  in  the  kingdotn.  When  her  father's 
 kingdom  was  invaded  by  Neoptolemus,  the  son  of 
 Achilles,  she  repelled  and  defeated  the  enemy  with 
 manly  courage.  The  death  of  her  father,  which  hap- 
 per>\tl  in  a  sedition,  rendered  her  disconsolate;  she 
 flea  'he  society  of  mankind,  and  lived  in  the  forests 
 upo"!  plunder  and  rapine.  Every  attempt  to  secure 
 her  \\oved  fruitless,  till  her  great  swiftness  was  over- 
 coniv  by  intercepting  her  with  a  net.  After  her  death 
 the  p".  iple  of  the  country  disputed  their  respective  right 
 to  thfc  possessions  she  had  acquired  by  rapine,  and 
 gamss  vveie  subsequently  instituted  as  an  expiation 
 (or  her  death.  (Hi/gin.,  fab.,  193. —  Virg.,  JEn.,  1, 
 321.) 
 
 H.vRPOCKATEs,  an  Egyptian  divinity,  represented  as 
 holding  one  finger  on  the  lips,  and  thence  commonly 
 deno.ninated  the  God  of  Silence.  The  name  Harpoc- 
 ratcs  is  said  to  designate  the  infant  Horus,  and  to 
 mean  "Horus  with  soft  or  delicate  feet"  {Har-phon- 
 krates,  Har-phoch-rat,  Har-pnkrat).  The  god  who 
 bore  this  appellation  was  confounded,  at  a  later  period 
 probably,  with  another  earlier  and  superior  deity, 
 PhlahSokari,  the  infant  "htah,  equally  surnamed  Po- 
 krat.  (Compare  Jablonski,  Fanlh.,  1,  p.  245,  sajq. — 
 Crrnzir's  Si/mMik,  par  Guiirniant,  vol.  I,  pt.  2,  p. 
 808  )  Porphyry  {de  aniro  Nymph.)  informs  us,  that 
 the  Egyptians  worshijipcd,  under  the  symbol  of  silence, 
 the  source  of  all  things,  and  that  hence  came  the  mvs- 
 terious  statue  of  Harpocrates,  with  the  finger  on  the 
 mouth.  (Pluf-,  de  Is.  el  Os.,  p.  378. — Constant,  de 
 la  Religion,  vol.  3,  p.  78  ) 
 
 Hakpocration,  Valerius,  a  graminarian  of  Alcxan- 
 drea,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same  with  the  one 
 that  'nstructed  L.  Verus  in  Greek  ;  whil<^  others  take 
 him  cO  be  identical  with  the  Harpocration  of  whom 
 mention  is  made  in  a  letter  of  Libanius  to  Arisla^netus. 
 He  was  the  author  of  a  Lexicon,  derived  principally 
 from  the  ten  Attic  orators,  and  entitled,  on  that  ac- 
 count, Ae^iKov  Tuv  deKa  pr/Tupuv.  It  is  a  very  useful 
 576 
 
 work.  Harpocration  composed  also  another  work,  en- 
 titled "A  collection  of  flowers,"  or  Anthology,  'AvOtj- 
 puv  mwayuyy,  which  has  not  reached  us.  'i"he  latest 
 edition  of  the  Lexicon  is  that  published  at  Leij)Sic  in 
 1824,  2  vols.  8vo,  by  an  anonymous  editor.  Many 
 places  in  Harpocration  are  corrected  by  Toup  {Emen- 
 u'aliones  in  Sitidam,  etc.,  vol.  4,  ed.  Burgcsx),  and  by 
 Schleusner  (Obseni.  in  Harp.  Lex. — Friedemann  mid 
 Scchode's  Miscell.  Crit.,  vol.  2,  pt.  4,  p.  744,  seqq  ). 
 
 Harpvi^,  winged  monsters,  who  had  female  faces, 
 and  the  bodies,  wings,  and  claws  of  birds.  They 
 were  three  in  number,  A'ello,  Oeijpcte,  and  Cclieno, 
 daughters  of  Neptune  and  Terra.  'Fhcy  were  sent  by 
 Juno  to  plunder  the  tables  of  Phineus,  whence  they 
 were  driven  to  the  islands  called  Strophadcs  by  Zethes 
 and  Calais.  {Vid.  Phineus  )  They  emitted  a  noi- 
 some stench,  and  polluted  whatever  they  touched.  Vir- 
 gil introduces  them  into  the  /Eneid,  as  plundering  the 
 table  of  yEneas  and  his  companions,  when  that  hero 
 touched  at  the  Strophades  ;  and  makes  Celajno,  one 
 of  their  number,  predict  to  the  Trojan  leader  the  ca- 
 lamities that  await  him.  {JEn.,  3,  210,  seqq.) — The 
 Harpies  are  nothing  more,  in  fact,  than  personifications 
 of  the  storm-winds,  and  they  appear  clearly  as  such  in 
 the  poems  of  Homer  and  Hesiod.  The  former  says 
 nothing  of  the-r  shape  or  parentage ;  the  latter  says 
 that  thev  were  sisters  of  Iris,  daughters  of  Thaumas 
 and  Electra,  swift  as  birds  or  as  the  blasts  of  wind. 
 {T/ieog.,  267.)  Their  names,  according  to  hiin,  are 
 Aello  and  Ocypete.  Homer  says,  that  Xanthus  and 
 Balius,  the  steeds  of  Achilles,  were  the  offspring  of 
 Zephyrus  by  the  harpy  Fodurge  {Swift-foot).  Virgil 
 gives  Celaeno  as  the  name  of  the  third  of  these  mon- 
 sters.— To  the  vivid  imagination  of  the  Greeks,  the 
 terrors  of  the  storm  were  intimately  associated  with 
 the  idea  of  powerful  and  active  demons  directing  its 
 blasts.  Hence  the  names  bestowed  on  these  fabulous 
 creations.  Thus  we  have  the  Harpies  or  "  Snatchers" 
 from  dpTTu^u,  in  allusion  to  the  storm-winds  seizing  a 
 vessel  and  hurrying  it  away  from  its  course  :  so  also 
 the  individual  appellations  of  the  three,  Aello,  "  a  tem- 
 pest;"  Ocypete,  "swift-flyer;"  and  Celctno,  "gloom." 
 The  mixed  form  commonly  assigned  them  was  the  ad- 
 dition of  a  later  age.  (On  the  subject  of  the  Harfiies, 
 compare  Salinas.,  ad  dedic.  Stat.  RcgilL,  p.  96,  241. 
 — Spanheim,  de  usu  et  press.,  num.  1,  p.  260,  seqq. — 
 Husehke,  de  Vasculo  Locris,mvento,  p.  17 — Creuzer, 
 Comment.  Herodot.,p.'MG, seqq  )  M.  LeClerc  has  a  cu- 
 rious though  unfounded  theory  respecting  the  Harpies. 
 He  supposes  them  to  have  been  a  swarm  of  locusts, 
 which,  after  thev  had  laid  waste  Bithynia  and  Paphlago- 
 nia,  produced  a  famine  there.  According  to  him,  the 
 word  arba,  of  which  he  maintains  that  of  harpy  is  form- 
 ed, signifies  a  locust ;  and  as  the  north  wind  rid  the  coun- 
 try of  them,  having  driven  them  as  far  as  the  Ionian 
 Sea,  where  they  ])erished,  it  was  fabled  that  the  sons 
 of  Boreas  had  put  them  to  flight.  Among  many  other 
 objections  to  this  explanation,  it  may  sutlice  to  urge 
 but  one  here,  namelv,  that  the  scene  of  the  adventure 
 of  King  Phineus  is  placed  by  the  poets  in  Thrace, 
 never  in  Asia.     {Vid.  Argonautae.) 
 
 HarospTces,  called  also  Extispices,  a  class  of 
 priests  at  Home,  who  examined  the  victims  and  their 
 entrails  {cxfa),  and  thence  derived  omens  respecting 
 the  future.  They  divined  also  from  the  flame,  smoke, 
 and  other  circumstances  attending  tlic  sacrifice.  If 
 the  victim  came  to  the  altar  without  resistance,  stood 
 there  quietly,  fell  by  one  stroke,  bled  freely,  &c.,  these 
 were  favourable  signs.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
 victim  struggled,  or  broke  away  from  those  who  were 
 leading  it ;  if  any  part  of  the  entrails  were  want- 
 ing, or  if  thev  fell  from  the  hand  of  the  officiating 
 priest ;  if  the  liver  were  double  ;  if  no  heart  appeared, 
 &c.,  all  these  were  ominous  of  evil.  It  will  easily 
 be  perceived  from  this  how  wide  a  door  was  left  for 
 imposition  ;  and  hence  probably  one  reason  why  the 
 
HA  S 
 
 HEB 
 
 haruspices  wore  not  esteemed  so  honourable  as  the 
 augurs.  When  Julius  Caesar  admitted  one  of  them, 
 Ruspina,  into  the  senate,  Cicero  represents  it  as  an 
 indignity  to  that  order.  Their  art  was  called  Hams- 
 picina,  or  Haruspicum  disciplina,  and  was  derived 
 from  Etruria,  whence  haruspices  were  often  sent  for  to 
 Rome  during  the  earlier  periods  of  her  history.  They 
 sometimes  also  came  from  the  East:  thus  we  have  in 
 Juveual  •'  Armcnius  vcl  Commagenus  haruspex'^  (6, 
 549).  The  college  of  the  haruspices  was  instituted 
 ay  Komulus,  according  to  the  popular  belief.  Of 
 whit  number  it  consisted  is  uncertain. — The  ordinary 
 derivation  of  the  terms  haruspices  and  extispiccs  makes 
 the  former  come  from  ara,  "  an  altar,"  and  specie, 
 "  to  examine"  or  "  observe  ;"  and  the  latter  from  exta, 
 "  the  entrails"  of  the  victim,  and  spccio.  Donatus, 
 however  {ad  Terent.,  Phorm.,  4,  28),  gives  a  different 
 etymology  for  Haruspex,  namely,  from  haruga  (the 
 name  ol  hostia,  a  victim)  and  spccio.  That  the  name 
 itself  is  not  an  Etrurian  one,  appears  very  evidently 
 from  the  Inscripiio  Bilinguis,  found  at  Pisaurum,  in 
 which  the  words  haruspex  fulgurialur  are  rendered 
 into  Tuscan  l)y  nclmfij  Irulnjl  phrunlac.  {Miillcr, 
 Elrusker,  vol.  2.  p.  13,  in  notis.)  A  critic  in  the  Halle 
 A/g.  Lit.  Zeit.,  1824  (vol.  3,  p.  45),  condemns  the 
 derivation  from  haruga,  and  deduces  the  name  harus- 
 pex from  a  Tuscan  word  here,  which  he  makes  equiva- 
 lent to  Isacra,  or  the  Greek  term  iepor.  In  inscrip- 
 tions, arespcx  and  arrcspex  also  occur.  (Compare 
 C renter,  Syinbolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  2,  p.  467, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Hasorubai,  (meaning  in  Punic  "(whose)  help  (is) 
 Baal'''),  I.  a  Carthaginian  general,  son  of  Mago,  who 
 succeeded  to  the  titles  and  glory  of  his  father.     It  was 
 under  his  conduct  that  the  Carthaginians  carried  the 
 war  into  Sardinia.     He  received  a  wound  in  that  island 
 w'hich  caused  his  death,  B.C.  420.     {Justin,   19,  1.) 
 — II.   Son  of  the  preceding,  made  war  upon  the  Nu- 
 inidians,  and  freed  Carthage  from  the  tribute  she  had 
 been  compelled  to  pay  for  being  permitted  to  establish 
 herself  on  the  coast  of  Africa.     {Justin,  19,  2.) — III. 
 A  son  of  Hanno,  sent  into  Sicily  at  the  head  of  a  pow- 
 erful army  to  oppose  the  Romans.     He  was  defeated 
 by  Metelhis,  the   Roman  proconsul,  B.C.  251.     Has- 
 drubal  ded  to  Lilyhoeum,  but  was  condemned  to  death 
 by  his  countrymen  at  home.     {Id.  ibid.) — IV.   Son-in- 
 law  of  Hamilcar,  distinguished  himself  under  the  or- 
 ders of  that  general  in  the  war  with  Numidia.     On  the 
 the  death  of  his  father-in-law  he  was  appointed  com- 
 mander, and  carried  on  military  operations  in   Spain 
 during  eight  years.     He  reduced  the  greater  part  of 
 this  country,  and  governed  it  with  wisdom  and  pru- 
 dence     He  founded   Carthago    Nova   {Carlhagena). 
 The  Romans,  wishing  to  put  a  stop  to  his  successes, 
 made  a  treaty  with  Carthage,  by  which  the  latter  bound 
 herself  not  to  carry  her  arms  beyond  the  Iberus.     Has- 
 drubal  faithfully  observed  the  terms  of  this  compact. 
 He  was  slain,  B.C.  220,  by  a  slave  whose  master  he 
 had  ()ul  to  death.     {Liv.,  21,  2.—Polyb.,  2,  \.—Id., 
 3,  12.— W,  2,  13— Id.,  10,  10.)— V.  Son  of  Hamil- 
 car, brought  from  Spain  large  reinforcements  for  his 
 brother  Hannibal.     He  crossed  the  barrier  of  the  Alps, 
 and  arrived  in  Italy,  but  the  consuls  Livius  Salinalor 
 and  (ylaudius  Nero,  having  intercepted  the  letters  which 
 he  had  written  to  Hannibal,  apprizing  him  of  his  arrival, 
 attacked  him  near  the  river  Metaurus,  and  gave  him  a 
 complete   defeat,    B.C.   208.      Hasdrubal   fell   in   the 
 battle,  with  56,000  of  his  troops.     The  Romans  lost 
 about  8000  men,  and  made  5400  prisoners.     The  head 
 of  Hasdrubal   was  severed   from  his  body,  and   was 
 thrown  a  few  days  after  into  the  camp  of  Hannibal. 
 Before  attempting  to  enter  Italy  by  land.  Hasdrubal  at- 
 tempted to  cross  the  sea  from  Spain,  but  was  defeat- 
 ed by  the  Roman  governor  of  Sardinia.     {Liv.,  21,  23. 
 — Polyb.,  11,   1.) — VI.  A  Carthaginian  commander, 
 4  D 
 
 son  of  Giscon,  who  commanded  the  forces  of  his  coun- 
 try in  Spain  during  the  time  of  Hannibal.  Being  sec- 
 onded by  Syphax,  he  afterward  carried  on  the  war 
 against  the  Romans  in  Africa,  but  was  defeated  by 
 Scipio.  He  died  B.C.  206.  {Lrv.,  24,  41.— W.,  29, 
 35. — Id.,  30,  5.)  —  VII.  A  Carthaginian,  surnamed 
 "  Kid"  {Lat.  Hoedus),  an  opponent  of  the  Barca  fac- 
 tion. He  advised  his  countrymen  to  make  peace  with 
 the  Romans,  and  censured  the  ironical  laugh  of  Han- 
 nibal in  the  Carthaginian  senate,  after  the  peace  wa« 
 concluded. — VIII.  .A.  Carthaginian  general,  who,  du- 
 ring the  siege  of  Carthage  by  ihe  Romans,  command- 
 ed an  army  of  20,000  men  without  the  walls,  with 
 which  he  kept  constantly  harassing  the  besiegers.  Be- 
 ing compelled  at  last  to  take  refuge  with  his  forces 
 within  the  city,  he  took  command  of  the  place,  and 
 for  a  long  time  bravely  withstood  the  attacks  of  the 
 Romans.  After  the  capture  of  the  city,  he  retired 
 with  the  Roman  deserters,  who  had  no  quarters  to  ex- 
 pect, into  the  temple  of  JEsculapius  in  the  citadel,  re- 
 solved to  bury  himself  under  its  ruins,  taking  with  him, 
 at  the  same  time,  his  wife  and  two  young  sons.  At 
 length,  however,  having  secretly  left  the  temple,  he 
 threw  himself  at  the  feet  of  Scipio,  and  supplicated  for 
 life.  Scipio  granted  his  request,  and  showed  him  as 
 a  suppliant  to  the  deserters  in  the  temple.  These 
 desperate  men,  after  venting  against  him  a  torrent  of 
 reproaches,  set  fire  to  the  temple,  and  perished  amid 
 the  flames.  His  wife,  when  the  fire  was  kindling,  dis- 
 played herself  on  the  walls  of  the  building  in  the  rich- 
 est attire  she  was  at  the  moment  able  to  assume,  and, 
 having  upbraided  her  husband  for  his  cowardice,  slew 
 her  two  sons,  and  threw  herself,  with  them,  into  the 
 burning  pile.     {Appian,  Bell.  Pun.,  131.) 
 
 Hebe,  the  goddess  of  Youth  ('H67?),  a  daughter  of 
 .lupiter  and  Juno.  Her  parentage  is  not  mentioned 
 in  the  Iliad.  Ovid  calls  her  the  step-daughter  of  Ju- 
 piter, in  allusion  to  the  fable  which  made  Juno  to  have 
 conceived  her  after  eating  of  lettuce.  {Ov.,  Mct.,Q, 
 416.)  In  Olympus  she  appears  as  a  kind  of  maid-ser- 
 vant ;  she  hands  round  the  nectar  at  the  banquets  of 
 the  gods  {II.,  4,  2. — Heyne,  ad  loc.)  ;  she  makes  ready 
 the  chariot  of  Juno  (//.,  5,  722),  and  she  bathes  and 
 dresses  Mars,  when  his  wound  has  been  cured.  (//., 
 5,  905.)  This  last,  however,  was  not  a  servile  office, 
 since  the  daughter  of  Nestor  renders  it  to  Telemachus. 
 {Od.,  3,  464.)  When  Hercules  was  translated  to  the 
 skies,  Hebe  was  given  to  him  in  marriage;  a  beautiful 
 fiction,  by  which  the  venerated  sun-god  was  united  to 
 immortal  youth.  According  to  the  vulgar  fable,  Hebe 
 was  dismissed  from  her  office  of  cup-bearer  in  the 
 skies,  and  superseded  by  Ganymedes,  because  she  had 
 fallen  in  an  awkward  and  unbecoming  manner  while 
 handing  around,  on  one  occasion,  the  nectar  to  the 
 gods.  Homer,  however,  merely  says  that  Ganymedes 
 was  carried  off  by  the  gods  to  be  their  cup-bearer  {II., 
 20,  234),  while  in  another  part  (4,  2)  be  represents 
 Hebe  as  still  ministering  to  the  gods.  At  Phlius,  in 
 the  Peloponnesus,  a  goddess  was  worshipped,  whom 
 the  ancient  Phliasians,  according  to  Pausanias,  call 
 Ganymede  {Tavvfiij^T}),  but  in  his  time  she  was  named 
 Hebe.  {Pausan.,  2,  13.)  Strabo  says,  that  Hebe 
 was  worshipped  at  Phlius  and  Sicyon  under  the  name 
 of  Dia.  In  the  arts,  Hebe  is  represented  with  the 
 cup  in  which  she  presents  the  nectar,  under  the  figure 
 of  a  charming  young  girl,  her  dress  adorned  with  roses, 
 and  wearing  a  wreath  of  flowers.  An  eagle  olten 
 stands  by  her,  as  at  the  side  of  Ganymedes,  which  she 
 is  caressing.  {KeighLley's  Mythology,  p.  1 1 1- — -^tul- 
 ler,  Archaeol.  dcr  Kunst,  p.  025.) 
 
 Hebrus,  a  large  river  of  Thrace,  and  one  of  the 
 most  considerable  in  Europe.  It  rises  m  the  central 
 chain  that  separates  the  plains  of  Thrace  from  the 
 great  valley  of  the  Danube.  Thucydides  says  (2.  96). 
 that  it  takes  its  source  in  Mount  Scomius,  and  Phw; 
 
 577 
 
HEC 
 
 HECAT^US. 
 
 (4,  11)  in  Nfount  Rhodope.  After  receiving  several 
 tributary  streams,  it  falls  into  the  JEge.an,  near  the  city 
 of  /Enus.  An  estuary,  which  it  forms  at  its  mouth, 
 was  known  to  Herodotus  by  the  name  of  Stentoris 
 Palus  (2rfvropt(5of  A.ljj,v7j — 7,  58. — Compare  Flin., 
 4.  11).  The  Hebriis  is  now  called  the  Maritza.  Dr. 
 Clarke  found  the  Marilza  a  broad  and  muddy  stream, 
 much  swollen  by  rains.  {Travels,  vol.  8,  p.  94,  Lon- 
 don td.)  Plutarch  (df  Fluv.)  states,  that  this  river 
 once  bore  the  name  of  Rhombus  ;  and  there  grew  upon 
 its  banks,  perhaps  the  identical  plant  now  constituting 
 a  principal  part  of  the  commerce  of  the  country  ;  be- 
 ing then  used,  as  it  is  now,  for  its  intoxicating  quali- 
 ties. It  is,  moreover,  related  of  the  Hebrus  by  Pliny 
 (33,  4),  that  its  sands  were  auriferous  ;  and  Uelon  has 
 confirmed  this  observation,  by  stating  thai  the  inhabi- 
 tants annually  collected  the  sand  for  the  gold  it  con- 
 tained. {Observat.  en  Grcce,  p.  63,  Paris,  1555.) 
 According  to  the  ancient  mythologists,  after  Orpheus 
 had  been  torn  in  pieces  by  the  Thracian  Bacchantes, 
 his  head  and  lyre  were  cast  into  the  Hebrus,  and,  being 
 carried  down  that  river  to  the  sea,  were  borne  by  the 
 waves  to  Methymna,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos.  The 
 Methymneans  buried  the  head  of  the  unfortunate  bard, 
 and  suspended  the  lyre  in  the  temple  of  Apollo.  ( Ooid, 
 Met.,  11,  b^.—Philarg.  ad  Virg.,  Georg.,  4,  523.— 
 Eustath.  in  Dionys.,  v.  536. — Hygin.,  Astron.  Poet., 
 2,  7.)  Servius  adds,  that  the  head  was  at  one  time 
 carried  to  the  bank  of  the  river,  and  that  a  serpent 
 thereupon  sought  to  devour  it,  but  was  changed  into 
 stone,  {ad  Virg.,  Georg.,  I.  c.)  Dr.  Clarke  thinks, 
 that  this  part  of  the  old  legend  may  have  originated  in 
 an  appearance  presented  by  one  of  those  extraneous 
 fossils  called  Serpent-stones  or  Ammonitce,  found  near 
 this  river.  {Travels,  vol.  8,  p.  100,  Land,  ed.)  At 
 the  junction  of  the  Hebrus  with  the  Tonsus  and  Ar- 
 discus,  Orestes  is  said  to  have  purified  himself  from 
 his  mother's  blood.     {Vid.  Orestias.) 
 
 Hecalesia,  a  festival  at  Athens,  in  honour  of  Jupi- 
 ter Hecaiesius.  It  was  instituted  by  Theseus,  in  com- 
 memoration of  the  kindness  of  Hecale  towards  him, 
 when  he  was  going  on  his  enterprise  against  the  Ma- 
 cedonian bull.  This  Hecale  was  an  aged  female,  ac- 
 cording to  the  common  account,  while  others  referred 
 the  name  to  one  of  the  borough  towns  of  the  Leon- 
 tian  tribe  in  Attica.  {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v. — Plut.,  Vit. 
 Thcs.  —  Castellanus,  de  Fest.  Grcec,  p.  108.) 
 
 Hecat.*;  Fanu.m,  a  celebrated  temple  sacred  to  Hec- 
 ate, near  Stratonicea  in  Caria.     {Strabo,  660.) 
 
 Hecat^ijs,  I.  a  native  of  Miletus.  We  learn  from 
 Suidas,  *.  V.  'UKaraioc,  that  his  father's  name  was 
 Hegesander ;  that  he  flourished  about  the  sixty-fifth 
 Olympiad,  during  the  reign  of  Darius,  who  succeeded 
 Cainbyses  ;  that  he  was  a  scholar  of  Protagoras,  and 
 the  first  who  composed  a  history  in  prose ;  and  that 
 Herodotus  was  much  indebted  to  his  writings.  Under 
 the  word  'E/lAui'i/coc,  Suidas  says  that  Hecataeus  flour- 
 ished during  the  Persian  wars.  This  account  is  in 
 part  confirmed  by  Herodotus,  who  tells  us  that,  when 
 .■^ristagoras  planned  the  revolt  of  the  Ionian  cities 
 from  Darius  (5,  36),  Hecataeus,  in  the  first  instance, 
 condemned  the  enterprise  ;  and  afterward  (5,  125), 
 when  the  unfortunate  events  of  the  war  had  demon- 
 ctrated  the  wisdom  of  his  former  opinion,  he  recom- 
 mended Aristagoras,  in  case  he  found  himself  under 
 ihe  necessity  of  quitting  Ionia,  to  fortify  some  strong 
 position  in  the  island  of  Leros,  and  there  to  remain 
 quiet  until  a  favourable  opportunity  occurred  of  reoc- 
 cupying  Miletus.  We  learn  also  from  Herodotus  (2, 
 143),  that  Hecatasus  had  visited  Egypt.  According 
 to  Diogenes  Laertius,  Protagoras  flourished  in  the 
 eighty-fourth  Olympiad  ;  consequently  Hecatceus  could 
 not  have  been  his  scholar,  as  Suidas  supposes.  The 
 Abb(5  Sevin  {Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscr.,  vol.  6,  p. 
 472)  has  two  conjectures  on  this  point ;  he  suggests 
 that  we  should  either  read  Pythagoras  instead  of  Pro- 
 578 
 
 tagoras,  or  that  Suidas  has,  by  mistake,  said  of  the 
 Milesian  Hecataeus  what  was  true  of  another  Heca- 
 liBUs,  a  native  of  Teos.  Vossius,  from  misunderstand- 
 ing a  passage  in  Diogenes,  erroneously  conceives  our 
 Hecataeus  to  have  been  a  scholar  of  Heraclilus.  {De 
 Hist.  Gritc,  p.  439.)  As  regards  the  assertion  of 
 Suidas,  alluded  to  above,  that  Hecataeus  was  the  first 
 prose-writer,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  lexicog- 
 rapher IS  not  altogether  consistent  on  this  point.  He 
 asserts,  in  another  place,  that,  in  the  opinion  of  some 
 persons,  Cadmus  was  the  first  that  wrote  in  Greek 
 prose.  Under  the  word  ^eptKv6i]^,  he  divides  the  hon- 
 our of  being  the  first  prose-writer  between  Cadmus 
 and  Pherecydes.  Pliny  (2,  59,)  makes  Cadmus  the 
 first  who  wrote  in  prose ;  but  in  another  passage  (7, 
 56)  we  find  the  following  :  "  Prosam  orattonem  con- 
 dcre  Pherecydes  Syrius  insliluit,  Cyri  regis  ce.late ; 
 historia.m  Cadmus  Milesius.'''  Cadmus,  after  all,  ap- 
 pears best  entitled  to  the  honour  of  having  been  the 
 earliest  Grecian  prose-writer. — But  to  return  to  He- 
 cataeus ;  the  references  to  his  works  are  numerous, 
 and  show  that  he  was  a  very  voluminous  writer.  Sui- 
 das tells  us  that  he  wrote  a  history  ;  Strabo  (17)  men- 
 tions it.  It  is  also  referred  to  by  Stephanus  under 
 the  words  Alvrj  and  ^dlavva,  and  by  the  scholiast  on 
 ApoUonius  Rhodius  (1,  551).  Hecataeus  also  wrote 
 a  genealogical  work  ;  it  contained  several  books,  the 
 first  and  second  of  which  are  mentioned  by  Stepha- 
 nus {s.  V.  MeTiia. — s.  v.  'A/Kpaval. — s.  v.  Xadiartu) ; 
 the  second  by  Harpocration  {s.  v.  u6e'X(pi^eiv) ;  the 
 third  by  Athenasus  (2,  p.  148)  ;  the  fourth  by  Stepha- 
 nus {s.  V.  MvyLaoi. — *.  v.  Tpefii'kr]).  We  have  the 
 testimony  of  Strabo,  that  Hecatseus  was  one  of  the 
 earliest  writers  on  geographical  subjects.  Agatheme- 
 rus  (p.  2,  ed.  Huds.)  says,  that  Hecataeus  corrected  a 
 map  of  the  world  which  had  been  delineated  by  Anaxi- 
 inandcr.  Ammianus  Marcellinus  also  (22,  8)  men- 
 tions him  as  a  writer  on  geographical  subjects.  {Mus. 
 Crit.,  vol.  1,  p.  88,  seqq.)  Whether  the  treatises 
 which  we  find  quoted  in  various  writers,  under  the  ti- 
 tles of  Eip6J7r?;f  TTEpiudoc,  'kaiag  TTEpirjyTiaic,  At.6v7]( 
 ■KEpirjyrjCL^,  kiyviTTov  ■KEpLfijr]r!L<;,  were  distinct  works, 
 or  parts  of  his  larger  geographical  work,  cannot  now 
 be  ascertained.  The  remark  of  Suidas  has  already 
 been  cited  at  the  commencement  of  this  article,  that 
 Herodotus  was  much  indebted  to  the  writings  of  He- 
 cataeus, and  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  very  par- 
 ticular account  which  the  latter  gave,  in  his  work  on 
 Egypt,  of  the  history  of  Thebes,  was  the  reason  that 
 Herodotus  says  comparatively  so  little  on  this  interest- 
 ing topic.  {Creuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  1,  p.  240.)  Dio- 
 nysius  of  Halicarnassus  praises  the  simplicity  and  c'f  ar- 
 ness  which  distinguished  the  style  of  Hecataeus.  The 
 fragments  of  this  writer  that  have  reached  our  times 
 were  collected  by  Creuzer,  and  jiublishod  in  his  His- 
 toricorum  GrcEcorum  Antiqmss.  Fragmenta,  8\o,  Hci- 
 delb.,  1806.  A  separate  edition  of  them,  to  which  is 
 appended  the  Periplus  of  Scylax,  was  given  in  1831, 
 8vo,  by  Klausen,  from  the  Berlin  press.  {Hoffmann, 
 Lex.  Bihiiogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  334.) — II.  A  native  of  Ab- 
 dera,  who  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  into  Asia. 
 He  was  a  disciple  of  Pyrrho.  the  head  of  the  Sceptic 
 school.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  Antiquities  of  the 
 Jews,  cited,  under  the  title  Utpl  'lovSalui'  f3i62.Lov,  by 
 Origen  {Contra  Cels.,  1,  p.  13),  and  under  that  of 
 'lov6alui>  laTopia  by  Eusebius.  {Prcep.  Ev.,  lib.  3,  p. 
 239,  ed.  R.  Steph.)  It  is  from  this  work  that  Photiu.s 
 has  preserved  for  us  an  interesting  extract,  with  which, 
 however,  he  credits  Hecataeus  of  Miletus.  Clemens 
 Alexandrinus  {Strom.,  5,  p.  717,  ed.  Potter)  speaks 
 of  a  work  of  Hecataeus's  on  Abraham  and  Egypt, 
 which  is  probably  the  same  with  the  one  just  mentioned. 
 Scaliger  {Epist.  115),  Eichhorn  {Bibl.  der  Biblischen. 
 Lit.,\o].  5,  pt.  3,  p.  431),  and  others,  have  thought 
 that  this  work  or  these  works,  of  which  Josephus  and 
 Photius  (after  Diodorus)  have  jireserved  an  extract 
 
HEC 
 
 H  EC 
 
 must  be  referred  to  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  as  a  fabri- 
 cation of  theirs.  Sainte-Croix,  on  the  other  hand, 
 undertakes  to  support  their  authenticity.  {Examen 
 des  Historiens  d'Alexandre-le- Grand,  p.  558.)  It  ap- 
 pears, however,  that  Hecatasus  of  Abdera  actually  wrote 
 a  work  on  Egypt,  for  Diodorus  Siculus  (I,  47)  and 
 Plutarch  {De  Is.  et  0*.,  p.  143,  ed.  Wyllcnb.  —  ed. 
 Reiske,  vol.  7,  p.  392)  both  cite  it.  The  fragments 
 o(  Hecatffius  of  Abdera  were  published  by  Zorn,  Al- 
 tona,  1730,  8vo,  and  are  given  in  part  also  by  Creuzcr, 
 in  his  Hist.  Greec.  Antiquiss.  Fragm.,  p.  28,  seqq. — 
 III.  A  native  of  Teos,  supposed  to  have  flourished 
 about  the  ninetieth  Olympiad.  Compare  the  remarks 
 of  Creuzer,  {Hist.  Gr.  Ant.  Fragm.,  p.  6,  scqq.) — IV. 
 A  native  of  Erelria,  who  wrote  Wept  Noarov,  "  On 
 the  wanderings  of  the  Grecian  chieftains  returning  from 
 Troy."  He  is  mentioned  also  by  Plutarch  among  the 
 historians  of  Alexander.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Litt.  Gr.,  vol. 
 4,  p.  133.) 
 
 Hecate  {'Kkutti),  the  name  of  a  goddess  in  the 
 Grecian  mythology.  In  the  Theogony  of  Hesiod  (v. 
 411),  this  deity  is  made  the  daughter  of  Perses  and 
 Asteria.  Bacchylidcs  speaks  of  her  as  the  daughter 
 of  Night,  while  MusaRus  gave  her  Jupiter  as  a  sire  in 
 place  of  Perses.  {Sckol.  ad  ApolL  Rh.,  3,  467.) 
 Others  again  made  her  the  oflTspnng  of  the  Olympian 
 king  by  Pherasa,  the  daughter  of  JEolus  {Tzetz.,  ad 
 Lye,  1180),  or  by  Ceres  {Schol.  ad  Theocrit.,  2,  12). 
 According  to  Pherecydes,  her  sire  was  Arist»us. 
 (Schol.  ad  ApolL  Rh.,  I.  c.)  It  is  said  in  the  Theog- 
 ony (412,  seqq.),  that  Hecate  was  highly  honoured  by 
 Jupiter,  who  allowed  her  to  exercise  extensive  power 
 over  land  and  sea,  and  to  share  in  all  the  honours  en- 
 joyed by  the  children  of  Heaven  and  Earth.  She  re- 
 wards sacrifice  and  prayer  to  her  with  prosperity. 
 She  presides  over  the  deliberations  of  the  popular  as- 
 sembly, over  war,  and  the  administration  of  justice. 
 She  gives  success  in  wrestling  and  horse-racing.  The 
 fisherman  prays  to  her  and  Neptune  ;  the  herdsman  to 
 her  and  Hermes  ;  for  she  can  increase  and  diminish 
 at  her  will.  Though  an  only  child  (in  contrast  to 
 Apollo  and  Diana,  who  have  similar  power),  she  is  hon- 
 oured with  all  power  among  the  immortals,  and  is,  by 
 the  appointment  of  Jupiter,  the  rearer  of  children, 
 whom  she  has  brought  to  see  the  light  of  day. — This 
 passage,  however,  is  plainly  an  interpolation  in  the 
 Theogony,  with  which  it  is  not  in  harmony.  It  has 
 all  the  appearance  of  being  an  Orphic  composition, 
 and  is,  perhaps,  the  work  of  the  notorious  forger  Ono- 
 macritus.  {Gdltling,  ad  loc. —  Thiersch,  kber  Hesio- 
 dus,  p.  24. — Keightlcy^s  Mythology,  p.  66.) — Hecate 
 is  evidently  a  stranger-divinity  in  the  mythology  of 
 the  Greeks.  It  would  appear  that  she  was  one  of  the 
 hurtful  class  of  deities,  transported  by  Hesiod,  or  his 
 interpolator,  into  the  Grecian  mythology,  and  placed 
 behind  the  popular  divinities  of  the  day,  as  a  being  of 
 earlier  existence.  Hence  the  remark  of  the  bard,  that 
 Jupiter  respected  all  the  prerogatives  which  Hecate  had 
 enjoyed  previous  to  his  ascending  the  throne  of  his 
 father.  Indeed,  the  sphere  which  the  poet  assigns  her, 
 places  her  out  of  the  reach  of  all  contact  with  the  act- 
 ing divinities  of  the  day.  She  is  mentioned  neither 
 in  the  Iliad  nor  Odyssey,  and  the  attributes  assigned 
 her  in  the  more  recent  poem  of  the  Argonauts  are  the 
 .same  with  those  of  Proserpina  in  Homer.  {Creuzer, 
 Symbolik,  vol.  1,  p.  158.— W.,  2,  \2Q.  —  Goerres, 
 Uti/lhcng.,  vol.  1,  p.  254.  —  Hermann,  Handb.  der 
 Myth.,  vol.  2,  p.  45.)  Jablonski  {Panth.  JEgypt.)  re- 
 gards Hecate  as  the  same  with  the  Egyptian  Tith- 
 rambo.  Her  action  upon  nature,  her  diversified  attri- 
 butes, her  innumerable  functions,  are  a  mixture  of 
 physical,  allegorical,  and  philosophical  traditions  re- 
 ppecting  the  fusion  of  the  elements  and  the  generation 
 of  beings.  Hecate  was  the  night,  and,  by  an  exten- 
 sion of  this  idea,  the  primitive  night,  the  primary 
 cause  or  parent  of  all  things.     She  was  the  moon,  and 
 
 hence  were  connected  with  her  all  those  accessary 
 ideas  which  are  grouped  around  that  of  the  moon:  she 
 is  the  goddess  that  troubles  the  reason  of  men,  the 
 goddess  that  presides  over  nocturnal  ceremonies,  and, 
 consequently,  over  magic  ;  hence  her  identity  with 
 Diana  for  the  Grecian  mythology,  with  Isis  for  the 
 Egyptian  ;  and  hence  also  alt  her  cosmogonical  attri- 
 butes, assigned  to  Isis  in  Egypt.  {Constant,  de  la. 
 Religion,  vol.  4,  p.  139,  m  nolis.)— As  regards  the 
 etymology  of  her  name,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the 
 most  probable  one  seems  to  be  that  which  deduces  it 
 from  the  Greek  Ikutti,  the  feminine  of  sKaroc,  deno- 
 ting either  "  her  that  operates  from  afar,"  or  "  her 
 that  removes  or  drives  off"."  (Creuzer,  Symbolik, 
 vol.  2,  J).  124.)  Expiatory  sacrifices  were  olfercd  to 
 this  goddess  on  the  thirtieth  of  every  month,  in  which 
 eggs  and  young  dogs  formed  the  principal  objects. 
 The  remains  of  these  animals  and  of  the  other  offer- 
 ings, together  with  a  large  quantity  of  all  sorts  of  co- 
 mestibles, were  exposed  in  the  crossroads,  and  called 
 the  "  Supper  of  Hecate"  {'Ekutjj;  ddnvov).  The 
 poorer  class  and  the  Cynics  seized  upon  these  viands 
 with  an  eagerness  that  passed  among  the  ancients  as 
 a  mark  of  extreme  indigence,  or  the  lowest  degree  of 
 baseness.  (Compare  the  note  of  Hemsterhuis,  ad  Lu- 
 cian.  Dial.  Mart.,  I.  — Op.,  cd.  Bip.,  vol.  2,  p.  397, 
 seqq.)  Her  statues  were  in  general  dog-headed,  and 
 were  set  up  at  Athens  and  elsewhere,  in  the  market- 
 places and  at  cross-roads.  It  is  probable,  indeed,  that 
 the  dog-headed  form  was  the  ancient  and  mystic  one  of 
 Hecate,  and  that  under  which  she  was  worshipped  in 
 the  mysteries  of  Samothrace,  where  dogs  were  immo- 
 lated in  her  honour.  Hecate  had  also  her  mysteries, 
 celebrated  at  JEg\n&,  and  the  establishment  of  which 
 was  ascribed  to  Orpheus.  Another  name  of  this  god- 
 dess was  Brimo (hom  jipFjiu,  "to  roar'^).  I'his  seems 
 to  have  been  chiefly  employed  to  denote  her  terrific 
 appearance,  especially  when  she  came  summoned  by 
 magic  arts.  Apollonius  of  Rhodes  (Arg.,  3,  1214, 
 scqq.)  describes  her  as  having  her  head  surrounded 
 by  serpents,  twining  through  branches  of  oak,  while 
 torches  flamed  in  her  hands,  and  the  infernal  dogs 
 howled  around.  liucian's  "  liar  of  the  first  magni- 
 tude," Eucrates,  gives  a  most  terrific  description  of 
 her  appearance.  (Philopseud.,  22,  seqq.)  In  this 
 character  she  was  also  sometimes  called  Empusa. 
 (Eudocia,  147.)  These,  however,  were  evidently  late 
 ideas  and  fictions.     (Keighlley's  Mythology,  p.  67.) 
 
 Hec^tomboia,  a  festival  celebrated  in  honour  of 
 Juno  by  the  .'\rgives  and  people  of  ^Egina.  It  received 
 its  name  from  eaaTuv  and  fiovg,  being  a  sacrifice  of  a 
 hundred  oxen,  which  were  always  offered  to  the  god- 
 dess, and  the  flesh  distributed  among  the  poorest  citi- 
 zens. There  were  also  public  games,  first  instituted 
 by  Archinus,  a  king  of  Argos,  in  which  the  prize  was 
 a  shield  of  brass  with  a  crown  of  myrtle. — There  was 
 also  an  anniversary  sacrifice  called  by  this  name  in 
 Laconia,  and  offered  for  the  preservation  of  the  100 
 cities  which  once  flourished  in  that  country. 
 
 Hecatomphonia  (from  tKarov,  "a  hundred,"  and 
 (povevu,  "  to  kill"),  a  solemn  sacrifice  offered  by  the 
 Messenians  to  Jupiter  when  any  of  them  had  killed  a 
 hundred  enemies.  Aristomenes  is  said  to  have  oflered 
 up  this  sacrifice  three  times  in  the  course  of  the  Mcs- 
 senian  wars  against  Sparta.     (Pausan.,  4,  19) 
 
 Hecatompolis,  an  epithet  given  to  Crete,  from)  the 
 hundred  cities  which  it  once  contained.  (Horn.,  II. , 
 2,  649.)  The  same  epithet  was  also  applied  to  La- 
 conia. (Strabo,  362.— Sleph.  By:.,  s.  v.  'AfivKUi) 
 The  greater  part  of  these,  however,  were  probably,  hke 
 the  demi  of  Attica,  not  larger  than  villages.     (I'd. 
 
 Laconia.)  t^l  u      ■ 
 
 Hecatompylos,  I.  an  epithet  applied  fo^  I  hebes  in 
 Egypt,  on  account  of  its  hundred  gates.  ( 1  id.  remarks 
 under  the  article  Thebas,  I.)— II.  The  metropolis  of 
 Parthia,  and  royal  residence  of  the  Arsacids,  situate 
 
 579 
 
HE  C 
 
 HEG 
 
 in  the  district  of  Comisene,  and  southwest  part  of  the 
 province  of  Parthiene.  The  name  is  of  Grecian  origin, 
 probably  a  translation  of  the  native  term,  and  has  a 
 figurative  allusion  to  the  numerous  routes  which  di- 
 verge from  this  place  to  the  adjacent  country.  D'An- 
 ville  makes  it  correspond  with  the  modern  Dcme<:;an. 
 {Plin.,  6,  \b.—Curt.,  6,  2.~Ammian.  MarccIL,  23, 
 2i.—Fol,jb,  10,  25.— Diod.  Sic,  17,  25.) 
 
 Hecatonnesi,  small  islands  between  Lesbos  and 
 Asia.  They  derived  their  names,  according  to  Stra- 
 bo  (13),  from  t/iorof,  an  epithet  of  Apollo,  that  deity 
 being  particularly  worshipped  along  the  continent  of 
 Asia,  off  which  they  lay.  It  seems  more  probable, 
 however,  that  they  had  their  name  from  tKarov,  a  hun- 
 dred, and  were  called  so  from  their  great  number, 
 which  is  about  forty  or  over.  And  Herodotus,  in  fact, 
 writes  the  name  'EKarov  'Nijaoi  (1,  151).  The  mod- 
 ern appellation  is  Musco-Nisi.  (^Cramer's  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, vol.  1,  p.  165.) 
 
 Hector,  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  was  the  most 
 valiant  of  all  the  Trojan  chiefs  that  fought  against  the 
 Greeks.  He  married  Andromache,  daughter  of  Eetion, 
 by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Astyanax.  Hector 
 was  appointed  commander  of  all  the  Trojan  forces,  and 
 for  a  long  period  proved  the  bulwark  of  his  native  city. 
 He  was  not  only  the  braveni  and  most  powerful,  but 
 also  the  most  amiable,  of  his  countrymen,  and  particu- 
 larly distinguished  himself  in  his  conflicts  with  Ajax, 
 Diomede,  and  many  other  of  the  most  formidable  lead- 
 ers. The  fates  had  decreed  that  Troy  should  never 
 be  destroyed  as  long  as  Hector  lived.  The  Greeks, 
 therefore,  after  the  death  of  Patroclus,  who  had  fallen 
 by  Hector's  hand,  made  a  powerful  effort  under  the 
 command  of  Achilles ;  and,  by  the  intervention  of 
 Minerva,  who  assumed  the  form  of  Deiphobus,  and 
 urged  Hector  to  encounter  the  Grecian  chief,  contrary 
 to  the  remonstrances  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  their  effort 
 was  crowned  with  success.  Hector  fell,  and  his  death 
 accomplished  the  overthrow  of  his  father's  kingdom. 
 The  dead  body  of  the  Trojan  warrior  was  attached  to 
 the  chariot  of  Achilles,  and  insultingly  dragged  away 
 to  the  Grecian  fleet ;  and  thrice  every  day,  for  the 
 space  of  twelve  days,  was  it  also  dragged  by  the  victor 
 around  the  tomb  of  Patroclus.  (7/.,  22,  399,  seqq. — 
 Jb.,  24,  14,  scqq.)  During  all  this  time,  the  corpse 
 of  Hector  was  shielded  from  dogs  and  birds,  and  pre- 
 served from  corruption,  by  the  united  care  of  Venus 
 and  Apollo.  (7/.,  23,  185,  seqq.)  The  body  was  at 
 last  ransomed  by  Priam,  who  went  in  person,  for  this 
 purpose,  to  the  tent  of  Achilles.  Splendid  obsequies 
 were  rendered  to  the  deceased,  and  with  these  the  ac- 
 tion of  the  Iliad  terminates. — Virgil  makes  Achilles  to 
 have  dragged  the  corpse  of  Hector  thrice  round  the 
 walls  of  Troy.  (ASn.,  1,  483)  Homer,  however,  is 
 silent  on  this  point.  According  to  the  latter.  Hector 
 fled  thrice  round  the  city-walls  before  engaging  with 
 Achilles  ;  and,  after  he  was  slain,  his  body  was  imme- 
 diately attached  to  the  car  of  the  victor,  and  dragged 
 away  to  the  ships.  (7/.,  22,  399.)  The  incident, 
 therefore,  alluded  to  by  Virgil  must  have  been  borrowed 
 from  some  one  of  the  Cyclic  bards,  or  some  tragic 
 poet,  for  these,  it  is  well  known,  allowed  themselves 
 great  license  in  diversifying  and  altering  the  features 
 of  the  ancient  heroic  legends.  {Heyne,  Excurs.,  18, 
 ad  Vii-ff.,  jEn.,  I. —  Wernsdorff,  ad  Epit.  11.  in  Poet. 
 Lat.  Mill.,  vol.  4.  p.  742.) 
 
 Hecuba  {'EkMtj),  daughter  of  Dymas,  a  Phryorian 
 prince,  or,  according  to  others,  of  Cisseus,  a  Thracian 
 king,  while  others,  again,  made  her  the  daughter  of  the 
 river-god  Sangarius  and  Metope,  was  the  second  wife 
 of  Priam,  king  of  Troy.  {Apollod.,  3,  12,  6.)  She 
 bore  him  nineteen  children  (7/.,  24,  49G),  of  whom  the 
 chief  were  Hector,  Paris,  Deiphobus,  Helemis,  Tro'ilus, 
 Polites,  Polydorus,  Cassandra,  Creiisa,  and  Polyxena. 
 "When  she  was  pregnant  of  Paris,  she  dreamed  that 
 •he  brought  into  the  world  a  burning  torch,  which  re- 
 580 
 
 duced  her  husband's  palace  and  all  Troy  to  a.'slics. 
 On  her  telling  this  dream  to  Priam,  he  sent  for  his  son 
 .^sacus,  by  a  former  wife  Arisbe,  the  daughter  of 
 Merops,  who  had  been  reared  and  taught  to  interpret 
 dreams  by  his  grandfather,  il^sacus  declared,  that 
 the  child  would  be  the  ruin  of  his  country,  and  recom- 
 mended to  expose  it.  As  soon  as  born,  the  babe  was 
 given  to  a  servant  to  be  left  on  Ida  to  perish  ;  but  the 
 attempt  proved  a  fruitless  one,  and  the  prediction  of  iho 
 soothsayer  was  fulfilled.  (Fk7  Paris)  After  the  ruin 
 of  Troy  and  the  death  of  Priam,  Hecuba  fell  to  the 
 lot  of  Ulysses,  and  she  embarked  with  the  conquerori 
 for  Greece.  The  fleet,  however,  was  detained  off  thf 
 coast  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese  by  the  appearancr. 
 of  the  spectre  of  Achilles  on  the  summit  of  his  tomb, 
 demanding  to  be  honoured  with  a  new  offering.  Po- 
 lyxena  was,  in  consequenec,  torn  from  Hecuba  and 
 immolated  by  Neoptolemus  on  the  grave  of  his  sire. 
 The  grief  of  the  mother  was  increased  by  the  sight  of 
 the  dead  body  of  her  son  Polydorus,  washed  upon 
 the  shore,  who  had  been  cruelly  slain  by  Polymestor, 
 king  of  Thrace,  to  whose  care  Priam  had  consigned 
 him.  Bent  on  revenge,  Hecuba  managed,  by  artifice, 
 to  get  Polymestor  and  his  two  children  in  her  power, 
 and,  by  the  aid  of  her  fellow-captives,  she  effected 
 the  murder  of  his  sons,  and  then  put  out  the  eyes  of 
 the  father.  {Vtd.  Polydorus,  Polymestor.)  This  act 
 drew  upon  her  the  vengeance  of  the  Thracians  :  they 
 assailed  her  with  darts  and  showers  of  stones  ;  and,  in 
 the  act  of  biting  a  stone  with  impotent  rage,  she  was 
 suddenly  metamorphosed  into  a  dog.  {Ovid,  Mel.,  13, 
 429,  seqq.) — Hyginus  says,  that  she  threw  herself  into 
 the  sea  (fab.  Ill),  while  Servius  states,  that  she  was 
 changed  into  a  dog  when  on  the  point  of  casting  her- 
 self into  the  waters,  (ad  JEn.,  3,  6. — Consult  Schol. 
 ad  Eurip.,  Hec,  1259.  — Tzelz.,  ChiL,  111,  74.— 
 Schol.  ad  JuB.,  Sat.,  10.271. — Plant.,  Menach.,  1  — 
 Hcync,  ad  Apollod.,  3,  12,  5.) 
 
 Hegemon,  a  native  of  Thasos,  and  author  of  satyric 
 dramas  in  the  age  of  .Mcibiades.  This  distinguished 
 individual  was  his  friend,  and  managed  to  get  him 
 freed  from  an  accusation  that  had  been  brought  against 
 him.  A  piece  of  this  poet,  entitled  Gigantomachia, 
 was  getting  represented  when  the  news  arrived  of  the 
 defeat  of  Nicias  in  Sicily.  This  Hegemon  bore  the 
 appellation  of  Phace  {(paKfj,  "a  lentil"),  conferred  on 
 him  as  a  nickname.  He  wrote  also  a  comedy  entitled 
 Philintta.  (Bockh,  Staatsh.  der  Athener,  vol.  1,  p.  435. 
 —Schbll,  Gesch.  Griech.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  269,  290.) 
 
 HEGEsi.iNAX,  a  Greek  writer,  a  native  of  Alexan- 
 drea-Troas,  and  contemporary  with  Antiochus  the 
 Great,  by  whom  he  was  patronised.  He  was  the  author 
 of  an  historical  work  ;  and  indulged  also  in  poetic  com- 
 position, having  written  a  poem  entitled  tH  TpuiKti, 
 "  Trnjan  Affairs.'"  Some  ascribed  to  him  the  "  Cyp- 
 rian Epic."  He  was  likewise  a  writer  of  tragedies  ; 
 and,  according  to  AthentEUs,  from  whom  all  these  par- 
 ticulars are  obtained,  was  also  a  tragic  actor,  having 
 improved  and  strengthened  his  voice,  which  was  natu- 
 rally weak,  by  abstaining  for  eighteen  years  from  eat- 
 ing'figs.  {Athen.,  3,  p.  80,  d.—Id.,  4,  p.  155,  h.—Id., 
 9, "p.  393,  d.) 
 
 HegesTas,  I.  a  Cyclic  poet,  born  at  Salamis,  in  the 
 island  of  Cyprus,  and,  according  to  some,  the  author 
 of  the  Cyprian  Epic.  {Vid.  Stasinus.) — II.  A  native 
 of  Magnesia,  who  wrote  an  historical  work  on  the  com- 
 panions in  arms  of  Alexander  the  Great.  His  style 
 was  loaded  with  puerile  ornaments,  and  betrayed  a  to- 
 tal want  of  taste.  (Dion.  Hal,  de  Struct.  Oral.,c.  18.) 
 He  wrote  also  some  discourses,  which  are  lost.  The 
 ancients  regarded  him  as  the  parent  of  that  species  o' 
 eloquence  denominated  the  Asiatic,  which  had  taken 
 the  place  of  the  simple  and  elegant  Attic.  (Com- 
 pare Quintil.,  Inst.  Or.,  12,  10.)— III.  A  philosopher, 
 surnamed  TleiaiddvaToc,  or  "Advocate  of  Death." 
 He  pushed  the  principles  of  the  Cyrenaic  sect,  to 
 
H  E  L 
 
 HELENA. 
 
 which  he  belonged,  even  to  absurdity,  and,  by  the  force 
 of  consequences,  came  to  a  result  directly  opposite  to 
 that  of  the  founder  of  the  school.  From  the  position 
 that  pleasure  is  the  sovereign  good,  he  deduced  the 
 inference  that  man  cannot  be  truly  happy,  since,  as  his 
 body  is  exposed  to  too  many  evils,  of  which  the  soul 
 alsii  partakes,  he  cannot  attain  to  the  sovereign  good  : 
 hence  it  follows  that  death  is  more  desirable  than  life. 
 Hegesias  upheld  this  doctrine  with  so  much  ability 
 and  success,  that  many  of  his  auditors,  on  leaving  his 
 lectures,  put  an  end  to  their  existence.  Ptolemy  I. 
 judged  it  necessary  to  send  him  into  exile.  (Scholl, 
 Hist.  LiU.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  219.) 
 
 Hkglisippus,  I.  an  historian,  mentioned  by  Diony- 
 sius  of  Halicarnassus  {Ant.  Rom.,  1,  49  ct  72).  He 
 wrote  on  the  anlKjuities  of  Pallene.  a  peninsula  of 
 Thrace,  where  ^Eiieas  was  supposed  to  have  taken 
 refuge  after  the  capture  of  'Troy.  He  made  the  Tro- 
 jan chief  to  have  ended  his  days  here. — H.  A  comic 
 poet,  a  native  of  Tarentuin,  surnamed  Crobylus  (Kpu- 
 Cti/lof),  or  "  Toupee,"  from  his  peculiar  manner  of 
 wearing  his  hair.  His  pieces  have  not  reached  us  : 
 we  have  eight  epigrams  ascribed  to  him,  which  are 
 remarkable  for  their  simplicity. — HI.  An  ecclesiastical 
 historian,  by  birth  a  Jew,  and  educated  in  the  religion 
 of  his  fathers.  He  was  afterward  converted  to  Chris- 
 tianity, and  became  bishop  of  Rome  about  the  year  177, 
 where  he  died  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Cominodus, 
 about  the  year  180.  He  was  the  author  of  an  eccle- 
 siastical history,  from  the  period  of  our  Saviour's  death 
 down  to  his  own  time,  which,  according  to  Eusebius, 
 contained  a  faithful  relation  of  the  apostolic  preaching, 
 written  in  a  very  simple  style.  The  principal  value 
 of  the  existing  fragments,  which  have  been  preserved 
 for  us  by  Eusebius  and  Photius,  arises  from  the  testi- 
 mony that  may  be  deduced  from  scriptural  passages 
 quoted  in  them  in  favour  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
 books  of  the  New  Testament.  There  has  been  as- 
 cribed to  Hegesippus  a  history  of  the  destruction  of 
 Jerusalem,  written  in  Latin,  under  the  title  of  "  Dc 
 BcUo  Judaico  et  urbis  HierosolymitanoR  excidio  histo- 
 ria.'^  It  is  not,  however,  by  Hegesippus  ;  and  appears, 
 indeed,  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  somewhat  enlarged 
 translation  of  Josephus.  A  Milan  manuscript  ascribes 
 it  to  St.  Ambrose,  and  perhaps  correctly,  since  there 
 is  a  great  conformity  between  its  style  and  that  of  the 
 prelate  just  mentioned.  The  fragments  of  the  eccle- 
 siastical history  of  Hegisijipus  were  published  at  Ox- 
 ford in  1698,  in  the  2d  volume  of  Grabe's  Spicileg. 
 ss.  Palrvnu  p.  205  ;  in  the  2d  volume  of  Halloix's 
 work  "  De  Scriplorum  Oriental,  vitts,'"  p.  703  ;  and  in 
 Gallatid's  Bihlioth.  Gr.  Lat.  Vet.  Pair.,  Veriet.,  1788, 
 fol..  vol.  2,  p.  59. 
 
 Hbi.ena,  the  most  beautiful  woman  of  her  age. 
 There  are  different  accounts  of  her  birth  and  parentage. 
 The  common,  and  probably  the  most  ancient,  one  is, 
 that  she  was  the  daughter  of  Leda  by  Jupiter,  who  took 
 the  form  of  a  white  swan.  According  to  the  Cyprian 
 Epic,  she  was  the  offspring  of  Jupiter  and  Nemesis, 
 who  had  long  fled  the  pursuit  of  the  god,  and,  to  elude 
 him,  had  taken  the  form  of  all  kinds  of  animals. 
 {Athen.,  8,  p.  334.)  At  length,  while  she  was  under 
 that  of  a  goose,  the  god  became  a  swan,  and  she  laid 
 an  egg,  which  was  found  by  a  shepherd  in  the  woods. 
 He  brought  it  to  Leda,  who  laid  it  up  in  a  coffer,  and 
 in  due  time  Helena  was  produced  from  it.  {Apiillod., 
 3,  10,  4.)  Hesiod,  on  the  other  hand,  calls  Helena 
 the  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethy.s.  {Schol.  ad 
 Find  ,  Nim  ,  10,  150  )  In  the  Iliad,  Helena  is  term- 
 ed "  begotten  of  Jupiter"  {II  ,  3,  418) ;  and  she  calls 
 Castor  and  PoHuk  "  her  own  brothers,  whom  one 
 mother  bore  with  her."  (ft.,  3.  238.)  In  the  Odys- 
 sey these  are  cxjiressly  called  the  sons  of  Tyndarus. 
 This,  however,  does  not  prove  that  Helena  was  held 
 to  be  his  jaughter. — The  beauty  of  Helena  was  pro- 
 verbial    She  was  so  renowned,  indeed,  for  her  per- 
 
 sonal attractions,  even  in  her  infancy,  that  Theseus, 
 in  company  with  his  friend  Pirithoiis,  carried  her  off, 
 when  only  a  child,  from  a  festival  at  which  they  saw 
 her  dancing  m  the  temple  of  Diana  Ortiiia.  It  was 
 agreed,  during  their  flight,  that  he  who  should,  by  lot, 
 become  possessor  of  the  prize,  should  assist  in  pro- 
 curing a  wife  for  the  other.  The  lot  fell  to  Theseus, 
 and  he  accordingly  conveyed  Helen  to  .Aphidnae,  and 
 there  placed  her  under  the  care  of  his  mother  .-Ethra  till 
 she  should  have  attained  to  years  of  maturity.  F-  9m 
 this  retreat,  however,  her  brothers.  Castor  and  Pollux, 
 recovered  her  by  force  of  arms,  and  restored  her  to  her 
 family.  According  to  Pausanias,  however,  she  was  of 
 nubile  years  when  carried  off  by  Theseus,  and  became 
 by  him  the  mother  of  a  daughter,  who  was  given  to 
 Clytemnestra  to  rear.  (Pausan.,  2,  22.) — Among  the 
 most  celebrated  of  the  young  princes  of  Greece,  who, 
 from  the  reputation  of  her  personal  charms,  subse- 
 quently became  her  suiters,  were,  Ulysses,  son  of  La- 
 erte.s  ;  Antilochus,  son  of  Nestor;  Sthenelus,  son  of 
 Capaneus  ;  Diomedes,  son  of  Tydeus  ;  .^mphilochus, 
 son  of  Cteatus  ;  Meges,  son  of  Phileus  ;  Agapenor, 
 son  of  AnccBUs  ;  Thalpius,  son  of  Eurytus  ;  Mnesth- 
 eus,  son  of  Peteus  ;  Schedius,  son  of  Epistrophus ; 
 Polyxeiuis,  son  of  Agasthenes  :  Amphilochus,  son  of 
 .\m[)hiaraus  ;  Asralaphus  and  lalmus,  sons  of  the  god 
 Mars  ;  Ajax,  son  of  (Jileus  ;  Eumelus,  son  of  Adme- 
 tus ;  Polypoetes,  son  of  Pirithoiis;  B^lpcnor,  son  of 
 Chalcodon  ;  Podalirius  and  Marhaon,  sons  of  .I'Escula- 
 pius  ;  Leontus,  son  of  Coronus  ;  Philoctetes,  son  of 
 Pasan  ;  Protesilaus,  son  of  Iphiclus ;  Eurypylus,  son 
 of  Evemon  ;  Ajax  and  Teucer,  sons  of  Telamon  ;  Pa- 
 troclus,  son  of  Mencetius  ;  Menelaiis,  son  of  Atreus  ; 
 Thoas,  Idomeneus,  and  Merion.  Tyndarus  was  rath- 
 er alarmed  tiian  pleased  at  the  sight  of  so  great  a 
 number  of  illustrious  princes,  who  eagerly  solicited 
 each  to  become  his  son-in-law.  He  knew  that  he 
 could  not  prefer  one  without  displeasing  all  the  rest, 
 and  from  this  perplexity  he  was  at  last  extricated  by 
 the  artifice  of  Ulysses,  who  began  to  be  already  known 
 in  Greece  by  his  prudence  and  sagacity.  This  prince, 
 who  clearly  saw  that  his  pretensions  to  Helen  would 
 not  probably  meet  with  success  in  opposition  to  so 
 many  rivals,  proposed  to  free  Tyndarus  from  all  his 
 difficulties  if  he  would  promise  him  his  niece  Penel- 
 ope in  marriage.  Tyndarus  consented,  and  Ulysses 
 advised  the  king  to  bind,  by  a  solemn  oath,  all  the 
 suiters,  that  they  would  approve  of  the  uninfluenced 
 choice  which  Helen  should  make  of  one  among  them, 
 and  engage  to  unite  together  to  defend  lier  person 
 and  character,  if  ever  any  attempts  were  made  to  car- 
 ry her  oft'  from  her  husband.  The  advice  of  Ulysses 
 was  followed,  the  princes  consented,  and  Helen  fixed 
 her  choice  upon  Menelaiis,  and  married  him.  Her- 
 mione  was  the  early  fruit  of  this  union,  which  con- 
 tinued for  three  years  with  mutual  happiness.  After 
 this,  Paris,  son  of  Priair.,  king  of  Troy,  came  to  Lace- 
 da;mon  on  pretence  of  sacrificing  to  Apollo.  He  was 
 kindly  received  by  Menelaiis  ;  hut,  taking  advantage 
 of  the  temporary  absence  of  the  latter  in  Crete,  cor- 
 rupted the  fidelity  of  Helen,  and  persuaded  her  to  flee 
 with  him  to  Troy.  Menelaiis,  returning  from  Crete, 
 assembled  the  Grecian  princes,  and  reminded  them  of 
 their  solemn  promises.  They  resolved  to  make  war 
 against  the  Trojans  ;  but  they  previously  sent  ambas- 
 sadors to  Priam  to  demand  the  restitution  of  Helen. 
 The  influence  of  Pans  at  his  father's  court  prevented 
 her  restoration,  and  the  Greeks  returned  home  without 
 receiving  the  satisfaction  they  required.  Soon  after 
 their  return,  their  combined  forces  asscnibleil  and  sail- 
 ed for  the  coast  of  Asia.-When  Paris  had  been  slain, 
 in  the  ninth  year  of  the  war.  Helen  married  De.pho- 
 bus,son  of  Pnam  ;  but.  on  the  capture  of  the  city,  be- 
 trayed him  into  the  hands  of  .Menelaus  through  a  wish 
 of  ingratiating  herself  into  the  favour  of  her  former  hus- 
 band     On  her  return  to  Greece,  Helen  lived  many 
 
HELENA. 
 
 HELLiNA. 
 
 years  with  Menelaus,  who  forgave  her  infidelity  ;  but, 
 upon  his  death,  she  was  driven  from  the  Peloponnesus 
 by  Megapenthes  and  Nicoslratus,  the  illegilnnate  sons 
 of  her  husband,  and  she  retired  to  Rhodes,  where  at 
 that  time  Polyxo,  a  native  of  Argos,  reigned  over  the 
 country.  Polyxo  remembered  that  her  widowhood  ori- 
 ginated in  Helen,  and  that  her  husband,  Tlepolemus, 
 had  been  killed  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  she  therefore 
 resolved  upon  revenge.  While  Helen  one  day  retired 
 to  bathe  in  the  river,  Polyxo  disguised  her  attendants  in 
 the  liabits  of  Furies,  and  sent  them  with  orders  to  mur- 
 der her  enemy.  Helen  was  tied  to  a  tree  and  stran- 
 gled, and  her  misfortunes  were  afterward  commemo- 
 rated, and  the  crime  of  Polyxo  expiated,  by  the  tem- 
 ple which  the  Rhodians  raised  to  Helena  Dendntis,  or 
 Helena  '■'■tied  to  a  tree.'''' — There  is  a  tradition  men- 
 tioned by  Herodotus,  which  says  that  Paris  was  driven, 
 as  he  returned  from  Sparta,  upon  the  coast  of  Egypt, 
 where  Proteus,  king  of  the  country,  expelled  him  from 
 his  dominions  for  his  ingratitude  to  Menelaiis,  and 
 confined  Helen.  From  that  circumstance,  therefore, 
 Priam  informed  the  Grecian  ambassadors  that  nei- 
 ther Helen  nor  her  possessions  were  in  Troy,  but  in 
 the  hands  of  the  King  of  Egypt.  In  spite  of  this  as- 
 sertion, the  Greeks  besieged  the  city,  and  took  it  after 
 ten  years'  siege  ;  and  Menelaiis,  visiting  Egypt  as  he 
 returned  home,  recovered  Helen  at  the  court  of  Pro- 
 teus, and  was  convinced  that  the  Trojan  war  had  been 
 undertaken  upon  unjust  grounds.  Herodotus  adds, 
 that,  in  his  opinion.  Homer  was  acquainted  with  these 
 circumstances,  but  did  not  think  them  so  well  calcu- 
 lated as  the  popular  legend  for  the  basis  of  an  epic 
 poem.  {Herod.,  2,  112,  116,  scqq.) — It  was  fabled, 
 that,  after  death,  Helen  was  united  in  marriage  with 
 Achilles,  in  the  island  of  Leuce,  in  the  Euxiiie,  where 
 she  bore  him  a  son  named  Euphorion.  {I'ausanias, 
 3,  l9.—  C'onon,  18.— Plol.,  Hqikast.,  4.)  Nothing, 
 however,  can  he  more  uncertain  than  the  whole  history 
 of  Helen.  The  account  of  Herodotus  has  been  al- 
 ready given  in  the  course  of  this  article.  According 
 to  Euripides  {Helena,  25,  seqq.),  Juno,  piqued  at  be- 
 holding Venus  bear  away  the  prize  of  beauty,  caused 
 Mercury  to  carry  away  the  true  Helen  from  Greece  to 
 Egypt,  and  gave  Pans  a  phantom  in  her  stead.  After 
 the  destruction  of  Troy,  the  phantom  bears  witness  to 
 the  innocence  of  Helen,  a  storm  carries  Menelaiis  to 
 the  coast  of  Egypt,  and  he  there  regains  possession  of 
 his  bride.  Others  pretend  that  Helen  never  married 
 Menelaiis  ;  that  she  preferred  Paris  to  all  the  princes 
 that  sought  her  in  marriage  ;  and  that  Menelaiis,  irri- 
 tated at  this,  raised  an  army  against  Troy.  Some  wri- 
 ters think  they  see,  in  these  conflicting  and  varying 
 statements,  a  confirmation  of  the  opinion  entertained  by 
 many,  that  the  ancient  quarrel  of  Hercules  and  Laome- 
 don,  and  the  violence  offered  to  Hesione,  the  daughter 
 of  that  monarch,  and  not  the  carrying  off  of  Helen,  were 
 the  causes  of  the  Trojan  war.  Others  treat  the  story 
 of  the  oath  exacted  from  the  suiters  with  very  little  cer- 
 emony, and  make  the  Grecian  princes  to  have  followed 
 Agamemnon  to  the  field  as  their  liege  lord,  and  as  stand- 
 ing at  the  head  of  the  Achaean  race,  to  whom  therefore 
 the)',  as  commanding  the  several  divisions  and  tribes 
 of  that  race,  were  bound  to  render  service.  But  the 
 more  we  consider  the  history  of  Helen,  the  greater  will 
 be  the  difficulties  that  arise.  It  seems  strange  indeed, 
 supposing  the  common  account  to  be  true,  that  so 
 many  cities  and  slates  should  combine  to  regain  her 
 when  she  went  away  voluntarily  with  Paris,  and  that 
 not  a  single  hamlet  should  rise  in  her  favour  when  she 
 was  forcibly  carried  away  by  Theseus.  Again,  the 
 beauty  of  Helen  is  often  mentioned  by  the  poet.  The 
 very  elders  of  Troy,  when  they  saw  her  pass  by,  could 
 not  help  expressing  their  admiration.  (//.,  3,  l.'iS.) 
 Agamemnon  'promises  to  Achilles  the  choice  of  twen- 
 ty female  captives,  the  fairest  after  Helen.  (//.,  9, 140.) 
 By  this  he  strongly  intimates  the  superiority  of  her 
 582 
 
 charms.  But  if  there  were  the  least  truth  in  the 
 history  of  this  personage  and  in  the  chronology  ol 
 the  times,  she  must  have  been  at  this  period  a  very 
 old  woman.  For  her  brothers  were  in  the  Argo- 
 nautic  expedition,  and  in  a  stale  of  complete  man- 
 hood. One  of  them  is  mentioned  as  contending  in 
 fight  with  Amycus,  the  Bebrycian,  a  jierson  of  ur 
 common  stature  and  strength:  his  opponent,  therefore, 
 could  not  have  been  a  stripling.  We  cannot  well  al- 
 low less  than  twenty-five  years  for  his  time  of  life. 
 Now,  from  the  Argonautic  expedition  to  the  taking 
 of  Troy,  there  were,  according  to  Scaliger  {Animad-o. 
 in  Euseb.,  p.  46),  seventy-nine  years.  If,  then,  we  add 
 to  these  her  age  at  the  time  of  the  Argonauts,  which 
 we  have  presumed  to  have  been  twenty-five  years,  it 
 makes  her  no  less  than  a  hundred  and  four  m  the  last 
 year  of  the  siege.  Or  if  we  allow  her  to  have  been 
 only  twenty  at  the  time  of  the  expedition,  still  she  will 
 prove  sufficiently  old  to  have  been  Hecuba's  mother. 
 Hence  Seneca  says  very  truly  {Epist.,  384),  when 
 he  is  treating  of  the  priority  of  Hesiod  and  Homer, 
 "  Ulrum  major  alatefaeril  Homcrus  art  Hcsiodiis,  non 
 magis  ad  remperlmei  quam  scire,  an  minor  Hecuba  fu- 
 erit  quam  Helena;  et  quare  lam  male  lulcril  alatem." 
 Pelavius  makes  the  interval  between  this  celebrated 
 expedition  and  the  fall  of  Troy  of  the  same  extent 
 as  Scaliger.  {Rationale  Temp.,  p.  290,  seqq.)  The 
 former  he  places  in  the  year  3451  of  the  Julian  period, 
 and  the  latter  in  3530.  The  difi'erence  in  both  is  79. 
 To  these,  if  we  add  25  for  her  age  at  that  era,  it  will 
 amount  to  104.  After  the  seduction  of  Helen  by  Par- 
 is, the  Grecians  are  said  to  have  been  ten  years  in 
 preparing  for  the  war,  and  ten  years  in  carrying  it  on. 
 This  agrees  with  the  account  given  by  Helen  of  her- 
 self in  the  last  year  of  the  siege,  which  was  the  twen- 
 tieth from  her  first  arrival  from  Sparta.  {II.,  24,  75.) 
 If  we  then  add  these  twenty  years  to  the  seventy-nine, 
 and  likewise  twenty-nve  for  her  age  at  the  time  of  the 
 .Argonautic  expedition,  it  will  make  her  still  older  than 
 she  was  estimated  above,  and  increase  her  years  to  124. 
 Telemachus,  the  son  of  Ulysses,  is  said  to  have  seeii 
 her  at  Sparta  ten  years  afterward,  and  she  is  repre- 
 sented even  then  to  have  been  as  beautiful  as  Diana 
 {Od.,  4,  122),  though  at  that  time,  if  these  computa- 
 tions are  true,  she  must  have  been  134  years  old. 
 These  things  are  past  all  belief.  Another  difficulty 
 will  be  found  in  the  history  of  those  princes,  who,  ac- 
 cording to  the  common  account,  formed  the  grand  con- 
 federacy in  order  to  recover  her,  if  she  should  at  any 
 time  be  stolen  away.  They  are  said  to  have  been  for 
 the  most  part  her  suiters,  who  bound  themselves  by  an 
 oath  to  unite  for  that  purpose  whenever  they  should  be 
 called  upon.  At  what  time  of  life  may  we  suppose  Hel- 
 en to  have  been,  when  these  engagements  were  made 
 in  her  favour,  in  consequence  of  her  superior  beau- 
 ty 1  We  may  reasonably  conclude  she  was  about  hei 
 twentieth  or  twenty-fifth  year;  and  her  suiters  cxlid 
 not  well  be  younger.  But,  at  this  rate,  the  principal 
 leaders  of  the  Grecians  at  the  siege  of  Troy  must  have 
 been  100  years  old.  But  the  contrary  is  evinced  in 
 every  part  of  the  poem,  wherever  these  heroes  are  intro- 
 duced. Still  farther  ;  it  has  been  mentioned,  that,  be- 
 fore the  seduction  of  Helen  by  Paris,  she  was  said  to 
 have  been  stolen  from  her  father's  house  by  Theseus  ; 
 and  we  are  told  by  some  writers  that  she  was  then  but 
 seven  years  old.  This  has  been  said  in  order  to  lower 
 the  time  of  her  birth,  that  she  may  not  appear  so  old 
 in  the  last  year  of  the  war.  But  ibis  is  a  poor  expe- 
 dient, which  in  some  degree  remedies  one  evil,  but,  at 
 the  same  time,  creates  another.  How  can  it  lie  con- 
 ceived that  a  king  of  Athens  should  betake  himself  to 
 Sparta,  in  order  to  run  away  with  a  chiid  seven  year* 
 old  1  and  how  could  she,  at  that  age,  have  been  »S£c»- 
 ating  at  the  altar  of  Diana  Orthia  ?  This  leads  to  an- 
 other circumstance  equally  incredible.  For  if  she 
 were  so  young,  her  brothers  must  have  been  j.«ecise.V]| 
 
HEL 
 
 HEL 
 
 of  the  same  age  ;  for  one,  if  not  both,  was  hatched 
 from  the  same  egg.  Yet  these  children,  so  little  past 
 their  infant  state,  are  said  to  have  pursued  Theseus, 
 and  to  have  regained  their  sister.  They  must  have 
 been  sturdy  urchins,  and  little  short  of  the  sons  of 
 Aloeus.  (Consult,  on  this  whole  subject,  Bryant,  Dis- 
 sertatwn  on  the  War  of  Troy,  p.  9,  seqq.) — It  is  more 
 than  probable,  indeed,  that  the  whole  legend  relative  to 
 Helen  was  originally  a  religious  and  allegorical  myth. 
 The  remarkable  circumstance  of  her  two  brothers  liv- 
 ing and  dying  alternately,  leads  at  once  to  a  suspicion 
 of  their  oeing  personifications  of  natural  powers  and 
 objects.  This  is  confirmed  by  the  names  in  the  myth, 
 all  of  which  seem  to  refer  to  light  or  its  opposite. 
 Thus  Leda  differs  little  from  Leto,  and  may  therefore 
 be  regarded  as  darkness.  She  is  married  to  Tyndarus, 
 a  name  which  seems  to  belong  to  a  family  of  words 
 relating  to  light,  flame,  or  heat  {Viil.  Tyndarus) ;  her 
 children  by  hiin  or  Jupiter,  that  is,  by  Jupiter- Tynda- 
 rus, the  bright  god,  are  Helena,  Brightness  (tAo, 
 *' light");  Ca.sloT,  Adorncr,  (kuC<^,  "  to  adorn") ;  and 
 Polydeukes,  Deirfal  (Sevo,  devicijc).  In  Helen,  there- 
 fore, we  have  only  another  form  of  Selene;  the  Adorn- 
 er  is  a  very  appropriate  term  for  the  day,  the  light 
 of  which  adorns  all  nature  ;  and  nothing  can  be  more 
 apparent  than  the  suitableness  of  Dev^ful  to  the  night. 
 {Keightky's  Mythology,  p.  432.)  —  II.  (commonly 
 known  in  ecclesiastical  history  by  the  name  of  St. 
 Helena),  the  first  wife  of  Constantius  Chlorus,  was 
 born  of  obscure  parents,  in  a  village  called  Drepanum, 
 in  Bilhynia,  which  was  afterward  raised  by  her  son 
 Constantine  to  the  rank  of  a  city,  under  the  name  of 
 Helenopolis.  Her  husband  Constantius,  on  being 
 made  Caesar  by  Dioclesian  and  Ma.\imian(A.D.  292), 
 repudiated  Helena,  and  married  Theodora,  daughter 
 of  Maximian.  Helena  withdrew  into  retirement  until 
 her  son  Constantine,  having  become  emperor,  called 
 his  mother  to  court,  and  gave  her  the  title  of 'Augus- 
 ta. He  also  supplied  her  with  large  sums  of  money, 
 which  she  employed  in  building  and  endowing  church- 
 es, and  in  relieving  the  poor.  About  A.D.  325  she 
 set  out  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine,  and,  having  ex- 
 plored the  site  of  Jerusalem,  she  thought  that  she  had 
 discovered  the  sepulchre  of  Jesus,  and  also  the  cross 
 on  which  he  died.  The  identity  of  the  cross  which 
 she  found  has  been,  of  course,  much  doubted  :  she, 
 however,  built  a  church  on  the  spot,  supposed  to  be 
 that  of  the  Sepulchre,  which  has  continued  to  be  ven- 
 erated by  that  name  to  the  present  day.  She  also  built 
 a  church  at  Bethlehem,  in  honour  of  the  nativity  of 
 our  Saviour.  From  Palestine  she  rejoined  her  son  at 
 Nicomedia,  in  Bithynia,  where  she  expired,  in  the  year 
 327,  at  a  very  advanced  age.  She  is  numbered  by  the 
 Koinan  church  among  the  saints.  {Euieh.,  Vit.  Const. 
 — Hiibntr,  de  Crucis  Dominicce  per  Helenam  iiivcn- 
 tione,  Helmstadt,  1724.) — III.  A  deserted  and  rugged 
 island  in  the  yEgean,  opposite  to  Thorikos,  and  ex- 
 teudmg  from  that  parallel  to  Sunium.  It  received  its 
 name  from  the  circumstance  of  Paris's  having  landed 
 on  it,  as  was  said,  in  company  with  Helena,  when  they 
 were  fleeing  from  Sparta.  (Plin.,  4,  12. — Mela,  2, 
 7.)  Strabo,  who  follows  Artemidorus,  conceived  it 
 was  the  Cranae  of  Homer.  {II.,  3,  444.)  Pliny  calls 
 it  Maeris.     The  modern  name  is  Macrotiisi. 
 
 HcLBVUs,  an  eminent  soothsayer,  son  of  Priam  and 
 Hecuba,  and  the  only  one  of  their  sons  who  survived 
 ti»e  siege  of  Troy.  He  was  so  chagrined,  according 
 to  same,  at  having  failed  to  obtain  Helen  in  marriage 
 after  the  death  of  Paris,  that  he  retired  to  Mount  Ida, 
 and  was  there,  by  the  advice  of  Calchas,  surprised  and 
 carried  away  to  the  Grecian  camp  by  Ulysses.  Among 
 other  predictions,  Helenus  declared  that  Troy  could 
 not  be  taken  unless  Philoctetes  could  be  prevailed  on 
 to  quit  his  retreat  and  repair  to  the  siege.  After  the 
 destruction  of  Troy,  he,  together  with  Andromache, 
 (eU  to  the  share  of  Pyrrhus,  whose  favour  he  concili- 
 
 ated by  deterring  him  from  sailing  with  the  rest  of  the 
 Greeks,  who  (he  foretold)  would  be  exposed  to  a  se- 
 vere tempest  on  leaving  the  Trojan  shore.  Pyrrhus 
 not  only  manifested  his  gratitude  by  giving  him  An- 
 dromache in  marriage,  but  nominated  him  his  succes- 
 sor in  the  kingdom  of  Elpirus,  to  the  exclusion  of  his 
 son  Molossus,  who  did  not  ascend  the  throne  until  af- 
 ter the  death  of  Helenus.  A  son  named  Cestrinus 
 was  the  offspring  of  the  union  of  Helenus  with  An- 
 dromache. {Virg.,  ^En.,  3,  294,  segq. — Consult  the 
 authorities  quoted  by  Heyne,  Excurs.  10,  ad  JE71.,  3.) 
 
 Heliaoks,  I.  the  daughters  of  the  Sun  and  Cly- 
 mene.  They  were  three  in  number,  Lampetie,  Phae- 
 tusa,  and  Lampethusa  ;  or  seven,  according  to  Hygi- 
 nus,  Merope,  flelie,  ^gle,  Lampetie,  Phoebe,  ^Ethe 
 ria,  and  Dioxippe.  They  were  so  afflicted  at  the  death 
 of  their  brother  Phaethon  {Vid.  Phaethon),  that  they 
 were  changed  by  the  gods  into  poplars,  and  their  tear.s 
 into  amber,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Po.  {Ovid,  Met., 
 2,3^0.— Hygin,  fab  ,  154.)— II,  Children  of  the  Sun 
 and  the  nymph  Rhodus.  They  were  seven  in  number, 
 and  were  fabled  to  have  been  the  first  inhabitants  of 
 the  island  of  Rhodes.     (Vid.  Rhodus.) 
 
 Heliast^,  a  name  given  to  the  judges  of  the  most 
 numerous  tribunal  at  Athens.  {Harpocr.,  p.  138. — 
 Bckk.,  Anecd.  Gr.,  p.  310,  32.)  Of  all  the  courts 
 which  took  cognizance  of  civil  affairs,  the  'HA<aia  was 
 the  most  celebrated  and  frequented.  It  derived  its 
 name,  urvd  tov  u?J^£a0ai,  from  the  thronging  of  the 
 people  ;  or,  according  to  others,  utto  tov  ijXiov,  from 
 the  sun,  because  it  was  in  an  open  place,  and  exposed 
 to  the  sun's  rays.  {Dorv.,  ad  Charit.,  p.  242.)  The 
 judges,  or,  rather,  jurymen  of  the  Helia?a,  amounted  in 
 all  to  6000,  being  citizens  of  above  thirty  years  of  age, 
 selected  annually  by  the  nine  archons  and  their  secre- 
 tary ;  probably  600  from  each  tribe.  The  Heliastse, 
 however,  seldom  all  met,  being  formed  into  ten  divis- 
 ions, the  complement  of  each  of  which  was  strictly 
 .500,  although  it  varied  according  to  circumstances  ; 
 sometimes  diminishing  to  200  or  400,  while  on  other 
 occasions  it  appears  to  have  been  raised  to  1000  or 
 1500,  bv  the  union  of  two  or  three  divisions.  The 
 1000,  therefore,  to  make  up  the  full  6000,  must  have 
 acted  as  supernumeraries.  (Wachsmuth,  Hellcn.  Al- 
 terthumsk.,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  314.)  Every  one  to  whose 
 lot  it  fell  to  serve  as  jurvman,  received,  after  taking  the 
 oath,  a  tablet  inscribed  with  his  name,  and  the  num- 
 ber of  the  division  to  which  he  was  to  belong  during 
 the  year.  On  the  morning  of  every  court  day,  re- 
 course was  again  had  to  lots,  to  decide  in  which  court 
 the  divisions  should  respectively  sit  for  that  day. — For 
 other  particulars,  consult  Hermann,  Polit.  Antiq.,  p. 
 2G5.—Tiltman}i,  Darslell.  der  Gr.  Slaatsverf,  p.  213, 
 scqq. 
 
 Heuce,  I.  another  name  for  the  Ursa  Major,  or 
 "  Greater  Bear."  (  Vid.  Arctos.)— II.  One  of  the  chief 
 cities  of  Achaia,  situate  on  the  shore  of  the  Sinus  Co- 
 rinthiacus,  near  Bura.  {Herod.,  1,  46.)  It  was  cele- 
 brated for  the  temple  and  worship  of  Neptune,  thence 
 called  Heliconius.  Here  also  the  general  meeting  of 
 the  lonians  was  convened,  while  yet  in  the  possession 
 of  .-Egialus,  and  the  festival  which  then  took  place  is 
 supposed  to  have  resembled  that  of  the  Panionia,  which 
 they  instituted  afterward  in  Asia  Minor.  (Pausan., 
 7,  2i.—Strab.,  384.)  A  prodigious  influx  of  the  sea, 
 caused  by  a  violent  earthquake,  overwhelmed  ar.c 
 completely  destroyed  Helice  two  years  before  the  bat- 
 tle of  Leuctra,  B:C.  373.  The  details  of  this  catas- 
 trophe will  be  found  in  Pausanias  (7,  24)  and  .tlmi 
 (Hist.  Anim.  11.  19).  It  was  said,  that  some  vesti- 
 ges of  the  submerged  city  were  to  be  seen  long  alter 
 the  terrible  event  had  taken  place.  {Onid,  l^lf^..  to, 
 293.)  Eratosthenes,  as  Slrabo  reports,  beheld  the  site 
 of  this  ancient  city,  and  he  was  assured  by  manners 
 that  the  bronze  statue  of  Neptune  was  still  visible  be- 
 neath the  waters,  holding  an  hippocampc  or  sea-horse 
 
 000 
 
HEL 
 
 HELIODORUS. 
 
 m  his  hand,  and  that  it  formed  a  dangerous  shoal  for 
 their  vessels.  Heraclides,  of  Pontus,  relates  that  this 
 disaster,  which  took  place  in  his  time,  occurred  during 
 the  night;  the  town,  and  all  that  lay  between  it  and 
 the  sea,  a  distance  of  twelve  stadia,  being  inundated 
 in  an  instant.  Two  thousand  workmen  were  after- 
 ward sent  by  the  Achasans  to  recover  the  dead  bodies, 
 but  without  success.  The  same  writer  affirmed,  that 
 this  inundation  was  commonly  attributed  to  divine 
 vengeance,  in  consequence  of  the  inhal)il;ints  of  Hel- 
 ice  having  obstinately  refused  to  deliver  up  the  statue 
 of  Neptune  and  a  model  of  the  Temple  to  the  lonians 
 after  they  had  settled  in  Asia  Minor,  (ap.  Strah.,  385. 
 — Compare  the  remarks  of  Bcnikardi/,  Eralosthcnka,  p. 
 M.—biod.  Sic,  15,  ^9.—Pausan.,'7.  2^.—JEhan,  H. 
 A.,  11,  19.)  Seneca  affirms,  that  Callisthenes  the 
 philosopher,  who  was  put  to  death  by  Alexander  the 
 Great,  wrote  a  voluminous  work  on  the  destruction  of 
 Helice  (9,  23 — Compare  Aristot.,  de  Mund.,  c.  4. — 
 Polyb.,  2,  41).  Pausanias  informs  us,  that  there  was 
 still  a  small  village  of  the  same  name  close  to  the 
 sea,  and  forty  stadia  from  ^Egiuin.  {Cramer's  An- 
 cient Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  61.) 
 
 HelTcon,  a  famous  mountain  in  Breotia,  near  the 
 Gulf  of  Corinth.  It  was  sacred  to  Apollo  and  the 
 Muses,  who  were  thence  called  Heliconiades.  This 
 mountain  vvas  famed  for  the  purity  of  its  air,  the  abun- 
 dance of  its  waters,  its  fertile  valleys,  the  goodness 
 of  its  shades,  and  the  beauty  of  the  venerable  trees 
 which  clothed  its  sides.  Strabo  (409)  affirms,  that  Hel- 
 icon nearly  equals  in  height  Mount  Parnassus,  and  re- 
 tains its  snow  during  a  great  part  of  the  year.  Pau- 
 sanias observes  (9,  28),  that  no  mountain  of  Greece 
 produces  such  a  variety  of  plants  and  shrubs,  though 
 none  of  a  poisonous  nature ;  on  the  contrary,  several 
 have  the  property  of  counteracting  the  effects  produced 
 by  the  sting  or  bite  of  venomous  reptiles.  On  the 
 summit  was  the  grove  of  the  Muses,  where  these  di- 
 vinities had  their  statues,  and  where  also  were  statues 
 of  A[)ollo  and  Mercury,  of  Bacchus  by  Lysippus,  of 
 Orpheus,  and  of  famous  poets  and  musicians.  (Pau- 
 san.,  9,  30.)  A  little  below  the  grove  was  the  fount- 
 ain of  Aganippe.  The  source  Hippocrcne  was  about 
 twenty  stadia  above  the  grove  ;  it  is  said  to  have  burst 
 forth  when  Pegasus  struck  his  foot  into  the  ground. 
 {Pausan.,  9,  31. — Strab  ,  9,  410.)  These  two  springs 
 supplied  two  small  rivprs  named  Olmius  and  Permcs- 
 sus,  which,  afler  uniting  their  waters,  flowed  into  the 
 lake  Copais,  near  Haliarlus.  Hesiod  makes  mention 
 of  these  his  favourite  haunts  in  the  opening  of  his 
 Theogonia.  The  modern  name  of  Helicon  is  Palmo- 
 vouni  or  Ztigora.  The  latter  is  the  more  general  ap- 
 pellation :  the  name  of  Palsovouni  is  more  correctly 
 applied  to  that  part  of  the  mountain  which  is  near  the 
 modern  village  Kakosia,  that  stands  on  the  site  of  an- 
 cient Thisbe.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p. 
 204.— Compare  Dodivell,  Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  260.)— H. 
 A  river  of  Macedonia,  near  Dium,  the  same,  according 
 <o  Pausanias  (9,  30),  with  the  Baphyrus.  The  same 
 aut!K)r  informs  ns,  that,  after  flowing  for  a  distance 
 of  seventy-five  stadia,  it  loses  itself  under  ground 
 for  the  space  of  twenty-two  stadia  ;  it  is  navigable  on 
 its  reappearance,  and  is  then  called  Baphyrus.  Ac- 
 cording to  Dr.  Clarke,  it  is  now  known  as  the  Maw^o 
 ncro.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  209.) 
 
 Hemcon'iaues,  a  name  given  to  the  Muses,  from 
 their  fabled  residence  on  Mount  Helicon,  which  was 
 sacred  to  them.     {Ltirrcf.,  3,  1050  ) 
 
 Hkliodorus,  I.  a  Greek  poet,  si.xteen  hexameters 
 of  whose  are  cited  by  Stobajus  ('SV/vrt,  98),  containing 
 a  description  of  that  part  of  Campania  situate  between 
 the  Lucrino  Lake  and  Puteoli,  and  where  Cicero  had 
 a  country  residence.  The  verses  in  question  make 
 particular  mention  of  certain  mineral  waters  at  the 
 foot  of  Mount  Gyarus,  reputed  to  have  a  salutary  efifcct 
 in  cases  of  ophthalmia.  Now,  as  these  waters  were 
 584 
 
 discovered  a  short  time  after  the  death  of  Cicero,  when 
 the  villa  of  the  orator  had  come  into  the  possession  of 
 Anlistius  Vetus  {Plin.,  31,  1),  the  poet  Heliodorus 
 must  have  been  subsequent  to  (J^icero's  lime,  while,  on 
 the  other  hand,  the  elegance  of  his  description  forbids 
 his  being  placed  lower  than  the  first  or  second  century 
 of  our  era.  Some  suppose  him  to  have  been  the  same 
 with  the  rhetorician  Heliodorus  mentioned  by  Horace 
 {Sal  ,  1,  5,  2),  as  one  of  the  companions  of  his  journey 
 to  Brundisium.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p  65, 
 seqq.)—ll.  An  Athenian  physician,  of  whom  Galen 
 makes  mention  {Dc  AnluL,  2,  p.  77,  ed.  Aid.),  and 
 who  also  wrote  a  didactic  poem,  under  the  title  of  'Arro- 
 /ivTiKu,  "justification,"  of  which  Galen  cites  seven  hex- 
 ameters. The  fragment  preserved  by  Stobacus,  and 
 alluded  to  in  the  preceding  article,  might  have  belonged, 
 perhaps,  to  this  Heliodorus,  and  not  to  the  individual 
 mentioned  under  No.  I.  (Compare  Mtinekc,  Cum- 
 mcnt.  misc.  fasc,  1,  Hala,  1822,  p.  36,  and  also  the 
 addenda  to  that  work.) — HI.  A  native  of  Larissa,  who 
 has  left  us  a  treatise  on  optics,  under  the  title  of  Kfrf>- 
 dlaia  Tuv  'Otttlkuv,  which  is  scarcely  anything  more 
 than  an  abridgment  of  the  optical  work  ascribed  to  Eu- 
 clid. He  cites  the  optics  of  Ptolemy.  The  time 
 when  he  flourished  is  uncertain  ;  from  the  manner, 
 however,  in  which  he  speaks  of  Tiberius,  it  is  probable 
 that  he  lived  a  long  time  after  that  emperor.  Onba- 
 sius  has  preserved  for  us  a  fragment  of  another  work 
 of  Heliodorus's,  entitled  YVepl  6i.a(popuc  KarapTLa/xuiv. 
 This  fragment  treats  of  the  KoxMa^,  a  machine  for 
 drawing  water  furnished  with  a  screw.  Some  MSS. 
 call  this  writer  Damianiis  Heliodorus.  The  besi  edi- 
 tion is  that  of  Bartholini,  Paris,  1657,  4to.  The  work 
 also  appears  in  the  Opuscula  Mythologica,  Et/iica  et 
 Phi/s-ica,  of  Gale,  Cantabr.,  1670,  12mo.  —  IV.  A 
 Greek  romance-writer,  who  was  born  at  Emesa  in 
 Phoenicia,  and  flourished  under  the  Emperors  Theodo- 
 sius  and  Arcadius  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  century. 
 He  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  bishop  of  Tricca  in 
 Thessaly  (Socrates,  Hist,  Eccles.),  and  is  supposed  to 
 have  written  an  Iambic  poem  on  Alchymy,  entitled, 
 Tlepl  TTjg  tC)v  (pi?Mc;6(j)uv  /nvariKiig  rexvrji;,  "  On  the 
 occult  science  of  the  philosophers."  It  contains  169 
 verses.  The  authorship  of  this  poem  is  assigned  to 
 Heliodorus  by  Georgius  Cedrenus  (compare  Amyot's 
 remarks  in  his  French  translation  of  the  ^ihiopica) ; 
 but,  notwithstanding  the  testimony  of  Cedrenus,  this 
 point  has  never  been  clearly  ascertained.  Heliodorus 
 is  better  known  as  the  author  of  a  Greek  romance,  en- 
 titled, AldioTTiKd,  being  the  history  of  Theagenes  and 
 Chariclea,  the  latter  a  daughter  of  a  king  of  ^Ethiopia. 
 It  is  in  ten  books.  This  woik  was  unknown  in  the 
 West  until  a  soldier  of  Anspach,  under  the  Margrave 
 Casimir  of  Brandenburgh,  assisting  at  the  pillage  of 
 the  library  o-f  Matthias  Corvinus,  at  Buda,  in  1526, 
 being  attracted  by  the  rich  binding  of  a  manuscript, 
 carried  it  off.  He  sold  the  prize  afterward  to  Vincent 
 Obsopaeus,  who  published  it  at  Basle  in  1534.  This 
 was  the  celebrated  rotnance  of  Heliodorus.  "  Until 
 this  period,"  observes  Huet,  in  his  treatise  on  the  ori- 
 gin of  romances,  "nothing  had  been  seen  better  con- 
 ceived, or  better  executed,  than  these  adventures  of 
 Theagenes  and  Chariclea.  Nothing  can  be  more 
 chaste  than  their  loves,  in  which  the  author's  own  vir- 
 tuous mind  assists  the  religion  of  Christianity,  which 
 he  professed,  in  diffusing  over  the  whole  work  that  air 
 of  honncteti,  in  which  almost  all  the  earlier  romances 
 are  deficient.  The  incidents  are  iiuinerous.  novel, 
 probable,  and  skilfully  unfolded.  The  denouement  is 
 admirable  ;  it  is  natural ;  it  grows  out  of  the  subject, 
 and  is  in  the  highest  degree  touching  and  pathetic." 
 Scholl  {Hist.  Lift.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p.  229)  remarks,  that 
 "  the  romance  of  Heliodorus  is  well  conceived,  and 
 wrought  up  with  great  power;  the  episodes  are  to  tha 
 purpose,  and  the  characters  and  manners  of  the  per 
 sonages  skiti'ulty  sustained."     "No  one  can  douhi,** 
 
HEL 
 
 HELIOGABALUS. 
 
 ooserves  Villemain,  "  that  Heliodorus,  when  he  wrote 
 the  work,  was  at  least  initiated  in  Christian  senti- 
 ments. This  is  felt  by  a  kind  of  moral  purity  which 
 contrasts  strongly  with  the  habitual  license  of  the 
 Greek  fables;  and  the  style  even,  as  the  learned  Coray 
 remarks,  contains  many  expressions  familiar  to  the  ec- 
 clesiastical writers.  This  style  is  pure,  polished,  sym- 
 metrical ;  and  the  language  of  love  receives  a  charac- 
 ter of  delicacy  and  reserve,  which  is  very  rare  among 
 the  writers  of  antiquity."  It  must  not  be  disguised, 
 however.,  that  Huet,  a  courtier  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  the 
 contemporary  and  admirer  of  Mademoiselle  de  Scu- 
 dery,  judged  after  the  models  of  romance  which  were 
 fashionable  ni  his  own  century.  Poetry,  battles,  cap- 
 tivities, and  recognitions  till  up  the  piece  ;  there  is  no 
 picture  of  the  mind,  no  history  of  the  character  carried 
 on  with  the  development  of  the  action.  The  incidents 
 point  to  no  particular  era  of  society,  although  the  learn- 
 ed in  history  may  perceive,  from  the  tone  of  sentiment 
 throughout,  ihat  the  struggle  had  commenced  between 
 the  pure  and  lofty  spirit  of  Christianity  and  the  gross- 
 ness  of  pagan  idolatry.  Egypt,  as  ViUemain  remarks, 
 is  neither  ancient  Egypt,  nor  the  Egypt  of  the  Ptole- 
 mies, nor  the  Egypt  of  the  Romans.  Athens  is  nei- 
 ther Athens  free  nor  Athens  conquered;  in  short, 
 there  is  no  individuality  either  in  the  places  or  persons; 
 and  the  vague  pictures  of  the  French  romances  of  the 
 seventeenth  century  give  scarcely  a  caricatured  idea 
 of  the  model  from  which  they  were  drawn. — It  may 
 not  he  amiss  to  mention  here  an  incident  relative  to 
 the  poet  Racine  and  the  work  of  Heliodorus  which  we 
 have  been  considering.  When  Racine  was  at  Port 
 Royal  learning  Greek,  his  imagination  almost  smoth- 
 ered to  death  by  the  dry  erudition  of  the  pious  fathers, 
 he  laid  hold  instinctively  on  the  romance  of  Heliodo- 
 rus, as  the  only  prop  by  which  he  might  be  preserved 
 for  his  high  destiny,  even  then,  perhaps,  shadowed  dim- 
 ly forth  in  his  youthful  mind.  A  tale  of  love,  how- 
 ever, sur[)riscd  in  the  hands  of  a  Christian  boy,  filled 
 his  instructers  with  horror,  and  the  book  was  seized 
 and  thrown  into  the  fire.  Another  and  another  copy 
 met  the  same  fate  ;  and  poor  Racine,  thus  e.xcluded 
 from  the  benefits  of  the  common  typographical  art, 
 printed  the  romance  on  his  memory.  A  first  love,  woo- 
 ed by  stealth,  and  won  in  difficulty  and  danger,  is  always 
 among  the  last  to  loose  her  hold  on  the  affections:  and 
 Racine,  in  riper  age,  often  fondly  recurred  to  his  for- 
 bidden studies  at  Port  Royal.  From  early  youth,  his 
 son  tells  us,  he  had  conceived  an  extraordinary  pas- 
 sion for  Heliodorus;  he  admired  both  his  style  and 
 the  wonderful  art  with  which  the  fable  is  conducted. 
 — In  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Nicephorus  Calistus, 
 a  story  is  told  of  Heliodorus,  which,  if  true,  would  ex- 
 hibit, on  the  part  of  the  Thessalian  church,  somewhat 
 of  the  fanatical  spirit  which  in  Scotland  expelled  Home 
 from  the  administration  of  the  altar.  Some  young 
 persons  having  fallen  into  peril  through  the  reading  of 
 such  works,  it  was  ordered  by  the  provincial  council, 
 that  all  books  whose  tendency  it  might  be  to  incite  the 
 rising  generation  to  love,  should  be  burned,  and  their 
 authors,  if  ecclesiastics,  deprived  of  their  dignities. 
 Heliodorus,  rejecting  the  alternative  which  was  offered 
 him  of  suppressing  his  romance,  lost  his  bishopric. 
 This  story,  however,  is  nothing  more  than  a  mere  ro- 
 mance itself,  as  Bayle  has  shown,  by  proving  that  the 
 requisition  to  suppress  it  could  neither  have  been  given 
 nor  refused  at  a  time  when  the  work  was  spread  over 
 all  Greece.  {Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  No.  9,  p. 
 125,  seqq) — Various  editions  have  been  publi.shed  of 
 the  romance  of  Heliodorus.  The  best  is  that  of  Coray, 
 Paris,  1804,  2  vols.  8vo.  The  edition  of  Mitscher- 
 jich.  Argent,  1798,  2  vols.  8vo,  forming  part  of  his 
 Erot.ici  GriLci,  is  not  held  in  much  estimation. 
 
 HELioGAB.iLUs  or  El.^oabalus,   I.  a  deity  among 
 the  Phoenicians.     This  deity,  according  to  Capitolinus 
 {Vit.   Macrin.,  c.   9)  and  Aurelius  Victor,  was   the 
 4E 
 
 Sun.  Lampridius,  however  (Vit.  Heliog.,  c.  1),  flue 
 tuates  between  the  Sun  and  Jupiter,  while  Spartianus 
 {Vit.  CaracalL,  c.  11)  leaves  it  uncertain.  The  or- 
 thography of  the  name  is  also  disputed,  some  writing  it 
 Elagabalus,  others  Eleagabalus  and  Alagabalus.  Sca- 
 liger  {ad  Euscb  ,  p.  212)  makes  the  name  of  this  di- 
 vinity equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  Eluh-GebaL,  i.  e., 
 "Gcbalitartim  Deus."  (Consult,  for  other  etymologies 
 of  the  term,  the  remarks  of  Hamuker,  Mincdl.  Fha- 
 nic,  p.  119,  scqq.)  Herodian  gives  us  an  accurate 
 description  of  the  form  under  which  this  deity  was 
 worshipped  (5,  3,  10,  seqq.);  he  also  informs  us  that 
 by  this  appellation  the  Sun  was  meant,  and  that  the 
 deity  in  question  was  revered  not  only  by  the  Syr- 
 ians, but  that  the  native  satraps  and  barbarian  kings 
 were  accustomed  to  send  splendid  presents  to  his 
 shrine.  According  to  Herodian,  the  god  Heliogabalus 
 was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  a  large  black  stone, 
 round  below,  and  terminating  above  in  a  point;  in 
 other  words,  of  a  conical  shape.  This  description  is 
 confirmed  by  the  medals  of  Emesa,  the  principal  seat 
 of  his  worship,  on  which  the  conical  stone  is  repre- 
 sented. So  also,  on  the  medals  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
 struck  in  this  same  city,  an  eagle  appears  perched  oi> 
 a  cone.  {Mtonnet.,  Rcc.  de  Med.,  vol  5,  p.  227, 
 seqq.)  The  same  thing  appears  on  medals  of  Cara- 
 calla  \^Id.,  p.  229,  n.  608),  and  on  one  {n.  607),  an  eagle 
 with  expanded  wings  stands  before  a  conical  stone  in 
 the  middle  of  a  hexastyle  temple. — II.  M.  Aurelius 
 Antoninus,  a  Roman  emperor.  He  was  the  grandson 
 of  Ma.=sa,  sister  to  the  Empress  Julia,  the  wife  of  Sep- 
 timius  Severus.  Msesa  had  two  daughters,  Socemis  or 
 Semiamira,  the  mother  of  the  subject  of  this  article, 
 and  Mammaea,  mother  of  Alexander  Severus.  The 
 true  name  of  Heliogabalus  was  Varius  Avitus  Bassia- 
 nus,  and  he  was  reported  to  have  been  the  illegitimate 
 son  of  Caracalla.  He  was  born  at  Antioch,  A.D. 
 204.  Majsa  took  care  of  his  infancy,  and  placed  him, 
 when  five  years  of  age,  in  the  temple  of  the  Sun  at 
 Emesa,  to  be  educated  as  a  priest ;  and  through  her 
 mfiuence  he  was  made,  while  yet  a  boy,  high-piiest  of 
 the  Sun.  That  divinity  was  called  in  Syria  Helagabal 
 or  Elagabal,  whence  the  young  Varius  assumed  the 
 name  of  Heliogabalus  or  Elagabalus.  After  the  death 
 of  Caracalla  and  the  elevation  of  Macrinus,  the  latter 
 having  incurred  by  his  severity  the  dislike  of  the  sol- 
 diers, Majsa  availed  herself  of  this  feeling  to  induce 
 the  officers  to  rise  in  favour  of  her  grandson,  whom 
 she  presented  to  them  as  the  son  of  the  murdered  Car- 
 acalla. Heliogabalus,  who  was  then  in  his  fifteenth 
 year,  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legion  stationed 
 at  Emesa.  Having  put  himself  at  their  head,  be  was 
 attacked  by  Macrinus,  who  at  first  had  the  advantage; 
 but  he  and  his  mother  Sosinis,  with  great  spirit,  brought 
 the  soldiers  again  to  the  charge,  and  defeated  Macri- 
 nus, who  was  overtaken  in  his  flight  and  put  to  death, 
 A.D.  218.  Heliogabalus,  having  entered  Antioch, 
 wrote  a  letter  to  the  senate,  professing  to  take  for  his 
 model  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  a  name  revered  at 
 Rome  ;  and  he  also  assumed  that  emperor's  name. 
 The  senate  acknowledged  him,  and  he  set  out  for 
 Rome,  but  tarried  several  months  on  his  way  amid 
 festivities  and  amusements,  and  at  last  stopped  at  Ni- 
 comedia  for  the  winter.  In  the  following  year  he  ar- 
 rived at  Rome,  and  began  a  career  of  debauchery,  e.x- 
 travagance,  and  cruelty,  which  lasted  the  remaining 
 three  years  of  his  reign,  and  the  disgusting  details  of 
 which  are  given  by  Lampridius,  Herodian,  and  Dio 
 Cassius.  Some  critics  have  imagined,  especially  from 
 the  shortness  of  his  reign,  that  there  must  be  some  ex- 
 aggeration in  these  accounts,  for  he  could  hardly  have 
 done,  in  so  short  a  time,  all  the  mischief  tliat  is  attrib- 
 uted to  him.  That  he  was  extremely  dis.sohite,  and  to- 
 tally unfit  for  reigning,  is  certain  ;  and  this  is  not  to  be 
 wondered  at,  from  his  previous  Eastern  education,  his 
 extreme  youth,  the  corrupt  example  of  his  mother,  his 
 
 585 
 
HEL 
 
 HEL 
 
 eudden  elevation,  'and  the  general  profligacy  of  the 
 tunes.  He  surrounded  himself  with  gladiators,  actors, 
 and  other  base  favourites,  wiio  made  an  unworthy  use 
 of  their  influence.  He  married  several  wives,  among 
 others  a  Vestal.  The  imperial  palace  became  a  scene 
 of  debauch  and  open  prostitution.  Heliogabalus,  being 
 attached  to  the  superstitions  of  the  East,  raised  a  tem- 
 ple on  the  Palatine  Hill  to  the  Syrian  god  whose  name 
 he  bore,  and  plundered  the  temples  of  the  Roman  gods 
 to  enrich  his  own.  He  put  to  death  many  senators  ; 
 he  established  a  senate  of  women,  under  the  presidency 
 of  his  mother  Sosniis,  which  body  decided  all  questions 
 relative  to  female  dresses,  visits,  precedences,  amuse- 
 ments, &c.  He  wore  his  pontifical  vest  as  high-priest  of 
 the  Sun,  with  a  rich  tiara  on  his  head.  His  grandmother 
 Mffisa,  seeing  his  folly,  thought  of  conciliating  the  Ro- 
 mans by  associating  with  him,  as  Ca'sar,  his  younger 
 cousin.  Alexander  Severus,  who  soon  became  a  favour- 
 ite with  the  people.  Heliogabalus,  who  had  consented 
 to  the  association,  became  afterward  jealous  of  his 
 cousin,  and  wished  to  deprive  him  of  his  honours,  but 
 he  could  not  obtain  the  consent  of  the  senate.  His 
 next  measure  was  to  spread  the  report  of  Alexander's 
 death,  which  produced  an  insurrection  among  the  pras- 
 torians.  And  Heliogabalus,  having  repaired  to  the 
 camp  to  quell  the  mutiny,  was  murdered,  together  with 
 his  mother  and  favourites,  and  his  body  was  thrown 
 into  the  Tiber,  A.D.  222.  He  was  succeeded  by 
 Ale.xander  Severus.  Heliogabalus  was  eighteen  years 
 of  age  at  the  time  of  his  death,  and  had  reigned  three 
 years,  nine  months,  and  four  days.  (Lainprid.,  Vjt. 
 Helwgah. — Hcrodian,  5,  3,  seqq. — Dio  Cass.,  78,  30, 
 seqq. — Id.,  79,  1,  seqq.) 
 
 Heliopolis,  a  famous  city  of  Egypt,  situate  a  little 
 to  the  east  of  the  apex  of  the  Delta,  not  far  from  mod- 
 ern Cairo.  (Slrab.,  805.)  In  Hebrew  it  is  styled 
 On  or  Ann.  (WeWs  Sacred  Geography,  s.  v. — Ex- 
 curs.,  560. — Compare  the  remarks  of  Cellarius,  Gcog. 
 ArUiq.,  vol.  1,  p.  802  )  In  the  Septuagint  it  is  call- 
 ed Heliopolis  ('HA/oTro/lfc),  or  the  city  of  the  Sun. 
 {Schleusncr,  Lex.  Vet.  Test ,  vol.  2,  p.  20,  cd.  Glasg. 
 — In  Jeremiah,  xliii.,  13,  "  Beth  Sheniim,"  i.  e.,  Domus 
 Solis.)  Herodotus  also  mentions  it  by  this  name,  and 
 speaks  of  its  inhabitants  as  being  the  wisest  and  most 
 ingenious  of  all  the  Egyptians  (2,  3. — Compare  Nic. 
 Datnascenus,  in  Euseb  ,  Pracp.  Evang.,  9,  16).  Ac- 
 cording to  Berosus,  this  was  the  city  of  Moses.  It 
 was,  in  fact,  a  place  of  resort  for  all  the  Greeks  who 
 visited  Egypt  for  instruction.  Hither  came  Herodo- 
 tus, Plato,  Eudoxus,  and  others,  and  imbibed  much  of 
 the  learning  which  they  afterward  disseminated  among 
 their  own  countrymen.  Plato,  in  particular,  resided 
 here  three  years.  The  city  was  built,  according  to 
 Strabo  (I.  c),  on  a  long,  artificial  mound  of  earth,  so 
 as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  inundations  of  the  Nile. 
 It  had  an  oracle  of  Apollo,  and  a  famous  temple  of 
 the  Sun.  In  this  tcmj)le  was  fed  and  adored  the  sa- 
 cred ox  Mnevis,  as  .\pis  was  at  Memphis.  This  city 
 wais  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword  by  Cambyses,  and 
 its  college  of  priests  all  slaughtered.  Strabo  saw  it 
 in  a  deserted  state,  and  shorn  of  all  its  splendour. 
 Heliopolis  was  famed  also  for  its  fountain  of  excellent 
 water,  which  still  remains,  and  gave  rise  to  the  sub- 
 sequent Arabic  name  of  the  place,  Ain  Shems,  or  the 
 fountain  of  the  stm.  The  modern  name  is  Maiarea, 
 or  cool  water.  For  some  valuable  remarks  on  the  site 
 of  the  ancient  Heliopolis,  in  opposition  to  Larcher  and 
 Bryant,  consult  Clarkc''s  Travels,  vol.  5,  prcpf.,  xv., 
 seqq.,  and  p.  140,  in  notis.  Larcher  erroneously  pre- 
 tends, that  Heliopolis  was  situate  within  the  Delta,  and 
 that  Jfa/'area  stands  on  the  site  of  an  insignificant 
 town  of  the  same  name,  which  has  been  confounded 
 with  the  more  ancient  city.  A  solitary  obelisk  is  all 
 that  remains  at  the  present  day  of  this  once  celebrated 
 place.  Other  monuments,  however,  exist  no  doubt 
 around  this  pillar,  concealed  only  by  a  thin  superficies 
 586 
 
 of  «oil.  For  a  description  of  this  obelisk,  consult  Oie 
 work  of  the  learned  traveller  just  mentioned,  vol.  5,  p. 
 H3. — II.  A  celebrated  city  of  Syria,  southwest  of 
 Emcsa,  on  the  ofiposite  side  of  the  Oronies.  Its  Gre- 
 cian name,  Heliopolis  {'YiTiiovnoXi^),  "  City  of  the 
 Sun,"  is  merely  a  translation  of  the  native  term  Baal- 
 heck,  which  appellation  the  ruins  at  the  present  day 
 retain.  Heliopolis  was  famed  for  its  temple  of  the 
 Sun,  erected  by  Antoninus  Pius  (Malala,  Chrnn.,  11, 
 p.  1 19),  and  the  ruins  of  this  celebrated  pile  still  attest 
 its  former  magnificence.  Venus  was  also  revered  in 
 this  city,  and  its  maidens  were  therefore  said  to  be 
 the  fairest  in  the  land.  {Expositio  Mundi,  &c.,  Ge- 
 nev.,  p.  14.) 
 
 Helium,  a  name  given  to  the  mouth  of  the  Maese 
 in  Germany.     {Pli7i.,  4,  15.) 
 
 Helius  ('H/liof),  the  Greek  name  of  the  Sun  oi 
 Apollo. 
 
 HellanTcus,  a  Greek  historian,  a  native  of  Myti- 
 lene,  who  flourished  about  460  B.C.  He  wrote  an  ac- 
 count of  various  countries,  both  Grecian  and  Barba- 
 rian, in  which  he  availed  himself  of  the  labours  of  He- 
 cataeus  and  Hippys.  Various  productions  of  his  are 
 referred  to  by  the  ancient  writers,  under  the  titles  of 
 Ar/VTTTiaKu,  AioliKu,  'Ap-yo?.iKu,  &c.  In  order  to 
 arrange  his  narratives  in  chronological  order,  he  made 
 use  of  the  catalogue  of  the  priestesses  of  Juno  at  Ar- 
 gos,  deposited  in  the  temple  at  Sicyon.  This  is  the 
 first  attempt  that  we  find  of  the  employment  of  chro- 
 nology in  history. — According  to  the  ordinary  deriva- 
 tion of  this  name,  from  'E/./iuc,  "  Greece,"  and  vikij, 
 '■'■victory"  the  penult  ought  to  be  long.  As,  however, 
 Hellanicus  was  of  ^Eolic  origin,  it  is  more  than  proba- 
 ble, as  Sturz  remarks,  that  his  name  is  the  .iEolic 
 form  merely  of  'Y.XXrjVLKor,  and  hence  has  the  penult 
 short.  I.obeck  {ad  Phryn.,  p.  670)  opposes  this,  how- 
 ever, and  derives  the  name  from  'E/l/df  and  vlktj,  as 
 above,  citing  at  the  same  time  Tzetzes   {Postkom., 
 
 778),  with  whom  it  occurs  as  a  fourth  Epilrite  ( 
 
 —  ■.-').  And  hence  Passow  {Lex.  Gr.)  considers  the 
 penult  doubtful.  The  opinion  of  Siurz,  however, 
 seems  more  deserving  of  being  followed. — The  frag- 
 ments which  remain  of  the  writings  of  Hellanicus  were 
 published  by  Sturz  in  1787,  Lips.,  8\o;  and  a  sec- 
 ond edition  in  1826.  They  are  given  also  in  the  Mu- 
 seum Criiicum,  vol.  2,  p.  90,  seqq.,  Catnhr.,  1826. 
 
 Hell.^s,  a  term  first  applied  to  a  city  and  region  of 
 Thessaly,  in  the  district  of  Phthiotis,  but  afterward  ex- 
 tended to  all  Thessaly,  and  finally  made  a  general  ap- 
 pellation for  the  whole  of  Greece.  "  It  is  universally 
 acknowledged,"  observes  Cramer,  "  that  the  name  of 
 Hellas,  which  afterward  served  to  designate  the  whole 
 of  what  we  now  call  Greece,  was  originally  applied  to 
 a  particular  district  of  Thessaly.  At  that  early  period, 
 as  we  are  assured  by  Thucydides,  the  common  de- 
 nomination of  Hellenes  had  not  yet  been  received  in 
 that  wide  acceptation  which  was  afterward  attached 
 to  it,  hut  each  separate  district  enjoyed  its  distinctive 
 appellation,  derived  mostly  from  the  clan  by  which  it 
 was  held,  or  from  the  chieftain  who  was  regarded  as 
 the  parent  of  the  race.  In  proof  of  this  assertior ,  the 
 historian  appeals  to  Homer,  who,  though  much  later 
 than  the  siege  of  Tioy,  never  applies  a  common  term 
 to  the  Greeks  in  general,  but  calls  them  Danai,  Ar- 
 givi,  and  x'\chaei.  The  opinion  thus  advanced  by  Thu- 
 cvdides  finds  support  in  ApoUodorus,  who  states,  that 
 when  Homer  mentions  the  Hellenes,  we  nmst  under- 
 stand him  as  referring  to  a  peo()le  who  occupied  a  par- 
 ticular district  in  Thessaly.  The  same  writer  ob- 
 serves, that  it  is  only  from  the  time  of  Hesiod  and 
 Archilochus  that  we  hear  of  the  Panhellenes.  {Apol- 
 lud.,  aj).  Strah.,  370.)  It  is  true  that  the  word  occurs 
 in  our  present  copies  of  Homer,  as  in  11.,  2,  530,  but 
 Aristarchus  and  other  critics  rejected  it  as  spurious. 
 {Schol.  ad  II..,  I.  c.)  From  Strabo,  however,  we  learn 
 that  this  was  a  disputed  point ;  and  he  himself  seema 
 
HELLAS. 
 
 inclined  to  imagine  that  Homer  did  not  assign  to  the 
 word  "E/lAac  so  hinited  a  signification  as  Thucydides 
 supposed.  But,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  testi- 
 mony of  Homer  in  regard  to  this  question,  we  can 
 have  no  doubt  as  to  the  extension  which  the  terms 
 "EAAaf  and  "E/l/.T^vef  acquired  in  the  time  of  Herodo- 
 tus, Scylax,  and  Thucydides.  Scylax,  whose  age  is 
 disputed,  but  of  whom  we  may  safely  affirm  that  he 
 wrote  about  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  in- 
 cludes under  Hellas  all  the  country  situated  south  of 
 the  Ambracian  gulf  and  the  Pcneus.  (PeripL,  p.  12, 
 et  25  )  Herodotus  extends  its  lunits  still  farther  north, 
 by  taking  in  Thesprotia  (2,  56),  or,  at  least,  that  part 
 of  it  which  is  south  of  the  river  Acheron  (8,  47).  But 
 it  is  more  usual  to  exclude  Epirus  fromGrajcia  Pro- 
 pria, and  to  place  its  northwestern  extremity  at  Am- 
 bracia,  on  the  Ionian  Sea,  while  Mount  Homole,  near 
 the  mouth  of  the  Peneus,  was  looked  upon  as  forming 
 its  boundary  on  the  opposite  side.  This  coincides 
 with  the  statement  of  Scylax,  and  also  with  that  of 
 Dicsarchus  in  his  descriptions  of  Greece  (v.  31,  seqq.) 
 The  name  Graecia,  whence  that  of  Greece  has  de- 
 scended unto  us,  was  given  to  this  country  by  the 
 Romans.  It  comes  from  the  Graeci,  one  of  the  an- 
 cient tribes  of  Epirus  {Aristot.,  Meteor.,  1,  14),  who 
 never  became  of  any  historical  importance,  but  whose 
 name  must  at  some  period  have  been  extensively 
 spread  on  the  western  coast,  since  the  inhabitants  of 
 Italy  appear  to  have  known  the  country  at  first  under 
 this  name. 
 
 1 .   History  of  Greece  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
 Trojan  War. 
 
 The  people  whom  we  call  Greeks  (the  Hellenes) 
 were  not  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  country. 
 Among  the  names  of  the  many  tribes  which  are  said 
 to  have  occupied  the  land  previous  to  the  Hellenes, 
 the  most  celebrated  is  that  of  the  Pelasgi,  who  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  settled  in  most  parts  of  Greece,  and 
 from  whom  a  considerable  part  of  the  Greek  popula- 
 tion was  probably  descended.  The  Caucones,  Le- 
 leges,  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  who  also  inhabited 
 Greece,  are  all  regarded  by  a  modern  wiiter  {Thirlwall, 
 History  of  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  32-61)  as  parts  of  the 
 Pelasgic  nation.  He  remarks,  "that  the  name  Pelas- 
 gians  was  a  general  one,  like  that  of  Saxons,  Franks, 
 or  Alemanni,  and  that  each  of  the  Pelasgian  tribes  had 
 also  one  peculiar  to  itself."  All  these  tribes,  how- 
 ever, were  obliged  to  submit  to  the  power  of  the  Hel- 
 lenes, who  eventually  spread  over  the  greater  part  of 
 Greece.  Their  original  seat  was,  according  to  Aris- 
 totle {Meteor.,  1,  14),  near  Dodona,  in  Epirus,  but  they 
 first  appeared  in  the  south  of  Thessaly  about  B.C. 
 1384,  accordmg  to  the  received  chronology.  In  ac- 
 cordance with  the  common  method  of  the  Greeks,  of 
 inventing  names  to  account  for  the  origin  of  nations, 
 the  Hellenes  are  represented  as  descended  from  Hel- 
 leri,  who  had  three  sons,  Dorus,  Xuthus,  and  ^olus. 
 Achajus  and  Ion  are  represented  as  the  sons  of  Xu- 
 thus ;  and  from  these  four,  Dorus.  iEolus,  Achoeus,  and 
 Ion,  the  Dorians,  JEol inns,  Achcaans,  and  lonians  were 
 descended,  who  formed  the  four  tribes  into  which  the 
 Hellenic  nation  was  for  many  centuriesdivided,  and  who 
 were  distinguished  from  each  other  by  many  peculiari- 
 ties in  language  and  institutions.  At  the  same  time 
 that  the  Hellenic  race  was  spreading  itself  over  the 
 whole  land,  numerous  colonies  from  the  East  are  said  to 
 have  settled  in  Greece,  and  to  their  influence  many  wri- 
 ters have  attributed  the  civilization  of  the  inhabitants. 
 Thus  we  read  of  Egyptian  colonies  in  Argos  and  At- 
 tica, of  a  Phcenician  colony  at  Thebes  in  Ba?otia. 
 and  of  a  Mysian  colony  led  by  Pelops,  from  whom  the 
 southern  part  of  Greece  derived  its  name  of  Pelopon- 
 nesus. The  very  existence  of  these  colonies  has  been 
 doubt-ed  by  some  writers  ;  but,  though  the  evidence  of 
 each  one  individually  is  perhaps  not  sufficient  to  satis- 
 
 HELLAS. 
 
 fy  a  critical  inquirer,  yet  the  uniform  tradition  of  th« 
 Greeks  authorizes  us  in  the  belief,  that  Greece  did  in 
 early  times  receive  colonies  from  the  East ;  a  supposi- 
 tion which  is  not  in  itself  improbable,  considering  the 
 proximity  of  the  Asiatic  coast.  The  time  which 
 elapsed  from  the  appearance  of  the  Hellenes  in  Thes- 
 saly to  the  siege  of  Troy  is  usually  known  by  the 
 name  of  the  Heroic  Age.  Whatever  opinion  we  mav 
 form  of  the  Homeric  poems,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted 
 that  they  present  a  correct  picture  of  the  manners  and 
 customs  of  the  age  in  which  the  poet  lived,  which,  in 
 all  probability,  differed  little  from  the  manners  and 
 customs  of  the  Heroic  Age.  The  slate  of  society 
 describb.'  \>;  Homer  very  much  resembled  that  which 
 existed  in  rniope  during  the  feudal  ages.  No  great 
 power  had  yec  ai>en  in  Greece  ;  it  was  divided  into 
 a  number  of  si^ial'.  slitea,  governed  by  hereditary  chiefs, 
 whose  powei  w.^s  ht.iited  by  a  martial  aristocracy. 
 Piracy  was  an  honuUiibiO  occupation,  and  war  the  de- 
 light of  noble  souU.  Th.'c/C'des  informs  us  (1,  4), 
 that  the  commencement  i''t  *i  x  -iun  civilization  is  to  be 
 dated  from  the  reign  of  M^n.^*  of  Crete,  who  acquired 
 a  naval  power  and  cleared  uV  .^Jjean  Sea  of  pirates. 
 Among  the  most  celebrated  hvvej  of  this  period  vve-e 
 Bellerophon  and  Perseus,  whi;s,>  *q  .'entures  were  laid 
 in  the  East;  Theseus,  the  king  of  A'hens,  and  Her- 
 cules. Tradition  also  preserved  th.i  .-"Cccunt  of  expe- 
 ditions undertaken  by  several  chiefs  united  togethe., 
 such  as  that  of  the  Argonauts,  of  the  Seven  agaim'. 
 Thebes,  and  of  the  Siege  of  Troy,  B.C.  1184. 
 
 2.  From  the  Siege  of  Troy  to  the  Commencement  c' 
 the  Persian  wars,  B.C.  500. 
 
 We  learn  from  Thucydides  (1,  12),  that  the  popula 
 tion  of  Greece  was  in  a  very  unsettled  state  for  soin/ 
 time  after  the  Trojan  war.  Of  the  various  migration 
 which  appear  to  have  taken  place,  the  most  importan 
 in  their  consequences  were  those  of  the  Boeotians  fron 
 Thessaly  into  the  country  afterward  called  Boeotia 
 and  of  the  Dorians  into  Peloponnesus,  the  former  ii. 
 the  sixtieth  and  the  latter  in  the  eightieth  year  after  the 
 Trojan  war.  About  the  same  period  the  western 
 coast  of  .^sia  Minor  was  colonized  by  the  Greeks. 
 The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Boeotia,  who  had  been  driven 
 out  of  their  homes  by  the  invasion  of  the  Boeotians, 
 together  with  some  Cohans,  whence  it  has  acquired 
 the  name  of  the  ^olian  migration,  left  Boeotia  B.C. 
 1124,  and  settled  in  Lesbos  and  the  northwestern 
 corner  of  .\sia  Minor.  They  were  followed  by  the 
 lonians  in  B.C.  1040,  who,  having  been  driven  from 
 their  abode  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  had  taken  refuge 
 in  Attica,  whence  they  emigrated  to  Asia  Minor  and 
 settled  on  the  Lydian  coast.  The  southwestern  part 
 of  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  was  also  colonized  about 
 the  same  period  by  Dorians.  The  number  of  Greek 
 colonies,  considering  the  extent  of  the  mother  country, 
 was  very  great ;  and  the  readiness  with  which  the 
 Greeks  left  their  homes  to  settle  in  foreign  parts  forms 
 a  characteristic  feature  in  their  national  character.  In 
 the  seventh  century  before  Christ  the  Greek  colonies 
 took  another  direction  :  Cyrene,  in  Africa,  was  found- 
 ed by  the  inhabitants  of  Thera,  and  the  coasts  of  Sici- 
 ly and  the  southern  part  of  Italy  became  studded  with 
 so  many  Greek  cities,  that  it  acquired  the  surname 
 of  the  Great,  or  Greater,  Greece. — The  two  states  of 
 Greece  which  attained  the  greatest  historical  ccleiirity 
 were  Sparta  and  .\thens.  The  power  of  Athens  was 
 of  later  growth  ;  but  Sparta  h.id,  from  the  time  of  the 
 Dorian  conquest,  taken  the  lead  among  the  Pelopon- 
 nesian states,  a  position  which  she  maintained  by  ihe 
 conquest  of  the  fertile  country  of  Messenia.  B.C.  688. 
 Her  superiority  was  probably  owing  to  the  nature  ol 
 her  political  institutions,  which  arc  said  to  have  l)€en 
 fixed  on  a  firm  basis  by  her  celebrated  lawgiver  Ly- 
 curgus,  B.C.  884  At  the  head  o{  the  polity  were 
 two  hereditary  chiefs,  but  their  power  was  greatly  hm- 
 
 587 
 
HELLAS. 
 
 HELLAS. 
 
 .ted  by  a  jealous  aristocracy.  Her  territories  were 
 also  increased  by  the  conquest  of  Tegea  in  Arcadia. 
 Athens  only  rose  to  importance  in  the  century  prece- 
 ding the  Persian  wars;  but  even  in  this  period  iicr 
 power  was  r.oi  more  than  a  match  for  the  little  states 
 of  Megaris  and  -Egina.  The  city  was  long  harassed 
 by  intestine  commotions  till  the  time  of  Solon,  B.C. 
 594.  who  was  chosen  by  his  follow-citizens  to  frame 
 a  ii°vv  constitution  and  a  new  code  of  laws,  to  which 
 mu:h  of  the  future  greatness  of  .Atliens  must  be  as- 
 cribed. We  have  already  seen  that  the  kingly  form 
 of  government  was  prevalent  in  the  Heroic  Age.  But, 
 during  the  period  that  elapsed  between  the  Trojan 
 war  and  the  Persian  invasion,  hereditary  political  pow- 
 er was  abolished  in  almost  all  the  Greek  states,  with 
 the  exception  of  Sparta,  and  a  republican  form  of 
 government  established  iu  its  stead.  In  studying 
 the  history  of  the  Greeks,  we  must  bear  in  mind 
 that  almost  every  city  formed  an  independent  state, 
 and  that,  with  the  excejition  of  Athens  and  Sparta, 
 which  exacted  obedience  from  the  other  towns  of  At- 
 tica and  Laconia  respectively,  there  was  hardly  any 
 state  which  possessed  more  than  a  few  miles  of  terri- 
 tory. Frequent  wars  between  each  other  were  the 
 almost  unavoidable  consequence  of  the  existence  of 
 so  many  small  states  nearly  equal  in  power.  The 
 evils  which  arose  from  this  state  of  things  were  partly 
 remedied  by  the  influence  of  the  Amphictyonic  coun- 
 cil, and  by  the  religious  games  and  festivals  which 
 were  held  at  stated  periods  in  different  parts  of  Greece, 
 and  during  the  celebration  of  which  no  wars  were  car- 
 ried on.  In  the  sixth  century  before  the  Christian 
 era  Greece  rapidly  advanced  in  knowledge  and  civili- 
 zation. Literature  and  the  fine  arts  were  already  cul- 
 tivated in  Athens  under  the  auspices  of  Pisistraius 
 and  his  sons  ;  and  the  products  of  remote  countries 
 were  introduced  into  Greece  by  the  merchants  of  Cor- 
 inth and  ^gina. 
 
 3.  From  the  Commencement  of  the  Persiaji  Wars  to  the 
 Death  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  B.C.  336. 
 
 This  was  the  most  splendid  period  of  Grecian  histo- 
 ry. The  Greeks,  in  their  resistance  to  the  Persians, 
 and  the  part  they  took  in  the  burning  of  Sardis,  B.C. 
 499,  drew  upon  them  the  vengeance  of  Darius.  After 
 the  reduction  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  a  Persian  army 
 was  sent  into  Attica,  but  was  entirely  defeated  at 
 Marathon,  B.C.  490,  by  the  Athenians  under  Miltia- 
 des.  Ten  years  afterward  the  whole  power  of  the 
 Persian  empire  was  directed  against  Greece  ;  an  im- 
 mense army,  led  in  person  by  Xerxes,  advanced  as  far 
 as  Attica,  and  received  the  submission  of  almost  all 
 the  Grecian  states,  with  the  exception  of  Athens  and 
 Sparta.  But  this  expedition  also  failed  ;  the  Persian 
 fleet  was  destroyed  in  the  battles  of  Artemisium  and 
 Salamis  ;  and  the  land  forces  were  entirely  defeated 
 in  the  following  year,  B.C.  479,  at  Platxa  in  Bceotia. 
 Sparta  had,  previous  to  the  Persian  invasion,  been 
 regarded  by  the  other  Greeks  as  the  first  power  in 
 Greece,  and  accordingly  she  obtained  the  supreme 
 command  of  the  army  and  fleet  in  the  Persian  war. 
 But,  during  the  course  of  this  war,  the  Athenians  had 
 made  greater  sacrifices  and  had  shown  a  greater  de- 
 gree of  courage  and  patriotism.  After  the  battle  of 
 Platffla  a  confederacy  was  formed  by  the  Grecian 
 stales  for  carrying  on  the  war  against  the  Persians. 
 Sparta  was  at  first  placed  at  the  head  of  it;  but  the 
 allies,  disgusted  with  the  tyranny  of  Pausanias,  the 
 Spartan  commander,  gave  the  supremacy  to  Athens. 
 The  allies,  who  consisted  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  isl- 
 ands and  coasts  of  the  yEgean  Sea,  were  to  furnish  con- 
 tributions in  money  and  ships,  and  the  delicate  task  of 
 assessing  the  amount  which  each  state  was  to  pay  was 
 assigned  to  Aristides.  The  yearly  contribution  was 
 settled  at  460  talents,  about  $485,500,  and  Delos  was 
 •hosen  as  the  common  treasury.  The  Athenians,  un- 
 588 
 
 der  the  command  of  Cimon,  carried  on  the  war  vig- 
 orously, defeated  the  Persian  fleets,  and  plundered 
 the  maritime  provinces  of  the  Persian  empire.  During 
 this  period  the  power  of  Athens  rapidly  increased  ;  she 
 possessed  a  succession  of  distinguished  statesmen, 
 Themistocles,  Aristides,  Cimon,  and  Pericles,  who  all 
 contributed  to  the  advancement  of  her  power,  though 
 differing  in  their  political  views.  Her  maritime  great- 
 ness was  founded  by  Themistocles,  her  revenues  were 
 increased  by  Pericles,  and  her  general  prosperity,  in 
 connexion  with  other  causes,  tended  to  produce  a 
 greater  degree  of  refinement  than  existed  in  any  other 
 part  of  Greece.  Literature  was  cultivated,  and  the 
 arts  of  architecture  and  sculpture,  which  were  employ- 
 ed to  ornament  the  city, were  carried  to  a  degree  of  ex- 
 cellence that  has  never  since  been  surpassed.  While 
 Athens  was  advancing  in  power,  Sparta  had  to  main- 
 tain a  war  against  the  Messenians,  who  again  revolted, 
 and  were  joined  by  a  great  number  of  the  Spartan  slaves 
 (B.C.  464-455).  But,  though  Sparta  made  r.o  efforts 
 during  this  period  to  restrain  the  Athenian  power,  it 
 was  not  because  she  wanted  the  will,  but  the  means. 
 These,  however,  were  soon  furnished  by  the  Atheni- 
 ans themselves,  who  began  to  treat  the  allied  states 
 with  great  tyranny,  and  to  regard  them  as  subjects, 
 not  as  independent  states  in  alliance.  The  tribute 
 was  raised  from  460  to  600  talents,  the  treasury  was 
 removed  from  Delos  to  Athens,  and  the  decision 
 of  all  important  suits  was  referred  to  the  Athenian 
 courts.  When  any  state  withdrew  from  the  alliance, 
 its  citizens  were  considered  by  the  Athenians  as  reb- 
 els, and  immediately  reduced  to  subjection.  The 
 dependant  states,  anxious  to  throw  off  the  Athenian 
 dominion,  entreated  the  assistance  of  Sparta,  and 
 thus,  in  conjunction  with  other  causes,  arose  the  war 
 between  Soaria  and  Athens,  which  lasted  for  twenty- 
 seven  years  (B.  C.  431-404),  and  is  usually  known 
 as  the  Peloponnesian  war.  It  terminated  by  again 
 placing  Sparta  at  the  head  of  the  Grecian  states. 
 Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  this  war,  Sparta  engaged 
 in  a  contest  with  the  Persian  empire,  which  lasted 
 from  B.C.  400  to  394.  The  splendid  successes  which 
 Agesilaus,  the  Spartan  king,  obtained  over  the  Persian 
 troops  in  Asia  Minor,  and  the  manifest  weakness  of  the 
 Persian  empire,  which  had  been  already  shown  by  the 
 retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  Greeks  from  the  heart  of 
 the  Persian  empire,  appear  to  have  induced  Agesilaus 
 to  entertain  the  design  of  overthrowing  the  Persian 
 monarchy  ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  his  native 
 country  to  defend  it  against  a  powerful  confederacy, 
 which  had  been  formed  by  the  Corinthians,  Thebans, 
 Argives,  Athenians,  and  Thessalians,  for  the  purpose 
 of  throwing  off  the  Spartan  dominion.  The  confeder- 
 ates were  not,  however,  successful  in  their  attempt ; 
 and  the  Spartan  supremacy  was  again  secured  for  a 
 brief  period  by  a  general  peace,  made  B.C.  387,  iisu-- 
 ally  known  by  the  name  of  the  peace  of  Antalcidas. 
 Ten  years  afterward  the  rupture  between  Thebes  and 
 Sparta  began,  which  led  to  a  general  war  in  Greece, 
 and  for  a  short  time  placed  Thebes  at  the  head  of  the 
 Grecian  states.  The  greatness  of  Thebes  was  princi- 
 pally owing  to  the  wisdom  and  valour  of  two  of  her 
 citizens,  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas.  After  the 
 death  of  Efiaminondas  at  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  B.C. 
 362,  Thebes  again  sunk  to  its  former  obscurity.  The 
 Spartan  supremacy  was  however  destroyed  by  this 
 war,  and  her  power  still  more  humbled  by  the  restora- 
 tion of  Messenia  to  independence,  B.C.  369.  F'rom 
 the  conclusion  of  this  war  to  the  reign  of  Philip  of 
 Macedon  Greece  remained  without  any  ruling  pow- 
 er. It  is  only  necessary  here  to  mention  the  part 
 which  Philip  took  in  the  sacred  tvar,  which  last- 
 ed ten  years  (B.C.  356-346),  iu  which  he  appeared 
 as  the  defender  of  the  Amphictyonic  council,  and 
 which  terminated  by  the  conquest  of  the  Phocians 
 The  Athenians,  urged  on  by  Demosthenes,  made  an  al : 
 
HEL 
 
 H£L 
 
 Jiance  with  the  Thebans  for  the  purpose  of  resisting 
 Philifi ;  but  their  defeat  at  Chseronea,  B.C.  388,  se- 
 cured for  the  Macedonian  king  the  supremacy  of 
 Greece.  In  the  same  year  a  congress  of  Grecian 
 states  was  held  at  Corinth,  in  which  FhiHp  was  chosen 
 generalissimo  of  the  Greeks  in  a  projected  war  against 
 the  Persian  empire  ;  but  his  assassination  in  B.C.  336 
 caused  this  enterprise  to  devolve  on  his  son  Ale.xander. 
 
 4.   From  the  Accession  of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the 
 Romayi  Conquest,  B.C.  146. 
 
 The  conquests  of  Alexander  extended  the  Grecian 
 influence  over  the  greater  part  of  Asia  west  of  the  In- 
 dus. After  his  death  the  dominion  of  the  East  was 
 contested  by  his  generals,  and  two  powerful  empires 
 were  permanently  established  ;  that  of  the  Ptolemies 
 in  Egypt  and  the  Seleucidge  in  Syria.  The  dominions 
 of  tiie  early  Syrian  kings  embraced  the  greater  part  of 
 western  Asia  ;  but  their  empire  was  soon  divided  into 
 various  independent  kingdoms,  such  as  that  of  Bactria, 
 Pergamus,  &c.,  in  all  of  which  the  Greek  language 
 was  spoken,  not  merely  at  court,  but  to  a  considera- 
 ble extent  in  the  cities.  From  the  death  of  Alexander 
 to  the  Roman  conquest,  Macedon  remained  the  ruling 
 power  in  Greece.  The  ^Etolian  and  Achaean  leagues 
 were  formed,  the  former  B.C.  284,  the  latter  B.C. 
 281,  for  the  purpose  of  resisting  the  Macedonian 
 kings.  Macedonia  was  conquered  by  the  Romans 
 B.C.  197,  and  the  Greek  states  declared  independent. 
 This,  however,  was  merely  nominal  ;  they  only  ex- 
 changed the  rule  of  the  Macedonian  kings  for  that  of 
 the  Roman  people  ;  and  in  B  C.  146,  Greece  was  re- 
 duced to  ihe  form  of  a  Roman  province,  called  Achaia, 
 though  certain  cities,  such  as  Athens,  Delphi,  &c., 
 were  allowed  to  have  the  rank  of  free  towns.  The 
 history  of  Greece,  from  this  period,  forms  part  of  the 
 Roman  empire.  It  was  overrun  by  the  Goths  in 
 A.D.  267,  and  again  in  A.D.  398,  under  Alaric;  and, 
 after  being  occupied  by  the  Crusaders  and  Venetians, 
 at  last  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  on  the  con- 
 quest of  Constantinople  ;  from  whom,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  Macedonia,  Thessaly,  and  Epirus,  it  is  now 
 again  liberated.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  12,  p.  426, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Heli.e,  a  daughter  of  Athamas  and  Nephele,  sister 
 to  Phrixus.  She  and  her  brother  Phrixus,  in  order 
 to  avoid  the  cruel  persecution  of  their  stepmother  Iiio, 
 Hed  from  Thessaly  on  the  back  of  a  golden  fleeced  ram, 
 which  transported  them  through  the  air.  They  pro- 
 ceeded safely  till  they  came  to  the  sea  between  the 
 promontory  of  Sigasum  and  the  Chersonese,  into  which 
 Helle  fell,  and  it  was  named  from  her  Hellespontus 
 {Hellers  Sea).  Phrixus  proceeded  on  his  way  to  Col- 
 chis. {Vid.  Athamas,  Argonaiitae,  Phrixus.)  The 
 tomb  of  Helle  was  placed,  according  to  Herodotus,  on 
 the  shores  of  the  Chersonese,  near  Cardia.  {Herod., 
 7,  ^8.) 
 
 Heli.en,  the  fabled  son  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha, 
 and  progenitor  of  the  Hellenic  race.  (Vid.  Hellas,  I) 
 1,  History  of  Greece,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
 Trojan  war  ) 
 
 Hellenes  CE?Ariveg),  the  general  name  of  the  Gre- 
 cian race.  It  was  first  borne  by  the  tribes  that  came 
 in  from  the  north,  at  an  early  period,  and  eventually 
 spread  themselves  over  the  whole  of  Greece.  Their 
 original  seat  was,  according  to  Aristotle  {Meteor.,  1, 
 14),  near  Dodona,  in  Epirus  ;  but  they  first  appeared 
 in  the  south  of  Thessaly,  about  B.C.  1384,  according 
 to  the  common  chronology.  {Vid.  Hellas,  ()  1,  His- 
 tory of  Greece,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  Trojan 
 war.) 
 
 Hellespontus,  now  the  Dardanelles,  a  narrow  strait 
 between  Asia  and  Europe,  near  the  Propontis,  which  re- 
 ceived its  name,  it  is  said,  from  Helle,  who  was  drown- 
 ed there  in  her  voyage  to  Colchis.  {Vid.  Helle.)  Its 
 modern  name  of  Dardanelles  is  supposed  to  come  from 
 
 the  ancient  Dardania  in  its  vicinity.  Homer's  epithet 
 of  nAarvc,  "  broad,"  applied  to  so  narrow  a  strati  {IL, 
 7,  86.— Compare  II. ,  17,  432.  — 0(/.,  24,  82.—^*- 
 chyL,  Pers.,  880),  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion, 
 and  is  one  of  those  points  which  have  a  bearing  on  the 
 long-agitated  question  respecting  the  sue  of  Troy. 
 Hobhouse  undertakes  to  explain  the  seeming  incon- 
 sistency of  Homer's  term,  by  showing  that  The  Hel- 
 lespont should  be  considered  as  extending  down  to 
 the  promontory  of  Lectum,  the  northern  boundary  of 
 ^olia,  and  that  the  whole  line  of  coast  to  this  pomt 
 from  Ahydus,  was  considered  by  Strabo  as  beintr  the 
 shores  of  the  Hellespont,  not  of  the  JEgean.  {Jour- 
 ney, Let.  42.— Vol.  2,  p.  206,  seqq.,  Am.  ed.)  The 
 same  writer  observes,  with  regard  to  the  breadth  of 
 the  Hellespont,  that  it  nowhere  seems  to  be  less  than 
 a  mile  across  ;  and  yet  the  ancient  measurements  owe 
 only  seven  stadia,  or  eight  hundred  and  seventy-five  pa- 
 ces. Walpole,  on  the  other  hand,  as  cited  by  Clarke 
 {Travels,  vol.  3,  p.  91,  in  notis,  Eng.  ed.),  assiana  to 
 the  epithet  TT/lartJf  the  meaning  of  ''salt,'"  or  '^brack- 
 ish," referring,  in  support  of  this  conjecture,  to  Aris- 
 totle {MetcoroL,  2,  3.— Op.,  ed.  Ducal,  vol.  1,  p.  556, 
 D.  et  E.),  who  uses  it  three  times  in  this  sense,  and  to 
 Hesychius.  (Compare  Herod.,  2,  108,  and  Sr.hv;eigh., 
 ad  loc.)  This,  however,  is  at  best  a  very  forced  ex- 
 planation. Horner  appears  to  consider  the  Hellespont 
 rather  as  a  mighty  river  than  a  winding  arm  of  the  sea  ; 
 and  hence  Tr/lariif,  "  broad,"  becomes  no  inappropri- 
 ate term,  more  especially  if  we  take  into  the  connex- 
 ion the  analogous  epithets  of  uydppooQ  ("  rapidly  flow - 
 '".if")!  3nd  aTveipuv  ("  boundless"),  which  are  else- 
 where applied  by  him  to  the  same  Hellespont.  (//., 
 2,  845 — II ,  24,  545.)  Casaubon,  in  his  commentary 
 on  Athenseus,  adduces  the  passage  quoted  above  by 
 Walpole,  together  with  one  or  two  others,  likewise 
 from  Aristotle,  in  favour  of  TrXarvg  meaning  "salt;" 
 and  a  critic  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  (vol.  21,  p.  136), 
 whom  Blomfield  quaintly  designates  aa  "  censor  qui- 
 dam  semidoctus,"  seeks  to  advocate  the  same  opinion. 
 It  has  few  if  any  advocates,  however,  at  the  present 
 day.  (Consult  Blomf.,  Gloss,  ad  ^sch.,  Pers.,  880.) 
 — Some  scholars  suppose,  that  when  Homer  speaks  of 
 the  "broad  Hellespont,"  he  actually  means  the  north- 
 ern part  of  the  ^gean.  Thus,  Heyne  observes,  "  Ho- 
 mer always  places  the  camp  on  the  Hellespont,  in  the 
 more  extensive  signification  of  that  term,  as  meaning 
 the  northern  part  of  the  .f]gean  Sea  {II.,  18,  150  ;  24, 
 346  —0(Z.,  24,  82.— IL,  7,  86,  &c.),  and  hence  should 
 be  derived  the  explanation  of  the  epithets  nXarvQ  and 
 aTreipcov."  {Beschreib.,  dcr  Eb.  von  Troja,  p.  250.; 
 — Whether  the  denomination  Hellespont  was  derived 
 from  'EAAuf,  Greece  at  large  {Pind.,  Pyth.,  7,  7. — 
 Id.  ibid.,  10,  29),  or  from  'EAXug,  the  province  or 
 city  (S/rai.,  431),  or  from  Helle,  according  to  the  popu- 
 lar legend,  cannot  now  be  ascertained. — Stephanus  of 
 Byzantium  (p.  232,  ed.  Bcrkcl)  says  the  earlier  name 
 of  the  Hellespont  was  the  Borysthenes  {BopvaOii'r/g). 
 (Compare  Rider,  Vorhallc,  p.  174.)  Perhaps  a  care- 
 ful investigation  of  the  subject  would  lead  to  the  con- 
 clusion, that  Homer  gives  the  name  of  Hellespont  to 
 the  whole  Propontis.  {Classical  Journal,  vol.  16,  p. 
 64.) — The  Hellespont  is  celebrated  for  the  love  and 
 death  of  Leander.  {Vid.  Hero,  and  Leander,  and  the 
 remarks  under  the  latter  article).  It  is  famed  also  for 
 the  bridge  of  boats  which  Xerxes  built  over  it  when 
 he  invaded  Greece.  {Vid.  remarks  under  the  article 
 Abydus,  I.)  . 
 
 Hellopia,  a  district  of  Euboea,  in  which  Histisa 
 was  situated.   (S/raft.,  445.— Compare  Herodol,8, 23.) 
 
 Helorus,  I.  a  river  of  Sicily,  near  the  southern  ex- 
 tremity of  the  island,  now  the  A/nso.  It  is  mention- 
 ed by  several  of  the  ancient  poets,  on  account  of  the 
 remarkably  fertile  country  through  which  it  flows. 
 (  Virg  ,  JEn  ,  3,  659.— Owf/,  Fast.,  4,  487,  &c.)  Sil- 
 ius  Italicus  (14,  270)  gives  it  the  epithet  of  clamosua, 
 
 589 
 
HEL 
 
 HELOTS. 
 
 referring  either  to  the  noise  of  its  waters  in  the  numer- 
 ous caverns  found  along  its  batiks,  or  to  the  laments 
 occasioned  Ity  its  inundations  of  the  neighbourhood. 
 {Manncrl,  Geos^r.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  340  )  — II.  A  town 
 of  Sicily,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Hclorus.  {Sleph. 
 Byz  ,  s.  V.  "EAwpof.)  Pliny  speaks  of  it,  however,  as 
 a  mere  castle  or  fortified  post,  with  a  good  fishery  at- 
 tached to  it.  But  it  was,  in  truth,  a  very  ancient  city, 
 and  very  probably  a  place  of  some  importance  before 
 the  arrival  of  the  Greeks.  The  adjacent  country  was 
 very  fertile  and  beautiful.  Hence  Ovid  (/.  c  )  speaks 
 of  the  "  Helorian  Tempe,"  and  Diodorus  Siculus  (13, 
 19)  of  the  'KKup'.ov  te^iov,  "  Helorian  plain."  Com- 
 pare also  Virgil  {L  c),  "  Pra-pinguc  solum  stagnanlis 
 Helori.'"'  The  remains  of  this  city  are  called  Muri 
 Ucci. 
 
 Hklos,  I.  a  town  of  Laconia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
 Eurotas,  and  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  that  river.  It 
 was  said  to  have  owed  its  origin  to  Helius,  the  son  of 
 Perseus.  The  inhabitants  of  this  town,  having  re- 
 volted against  the  Dorians  and  Heraclidae,  were  re- 
 duced to  slavery,  and  called  Helots,  which  name  was 
 afterward  extended  to  the  various  people  who  were 
 held  in  Iwndage  by  the  Spartans.  {Pausan.,  3,  20.) 
 Ephorus,  as  cited  by  Strabo  (364),  makes  Agis  to  have 
 reduced  the  Helots  to  subjection  ;  but  Pausanias  (3, 
 2)  speaks  of  a  much  later  reduction  of  the  place.  To 
 reconcile  the  statements  of  these  two  writers,  we  must 
 suppose,  that,  at  the  subjugation  of  Helos  by  Agis, 
 about  200  years  before,  some  of  the  inhabitants  had 
 been  sufTered  to  remain,  and  that,  at  the  time  mention- 
 ed by  Pausanias,  they  were  finally  destroyed  or  re- 
 moved. Helos  itself  remained  to  the  time  of  Thu- 
 cydides  (4,  54)  and  of  Xenophon  {Hist.  Gr.,  6,  5,  32) : 
 perhaps  a  fortress  on  the  coast.  {Clinton,  Fasti  Hel- 
 lenici,  2d  ed.,  p.  405,  note  z.)  Polybius  says  (5,  19, 
 8  ;  20,  12),  that  the  district  of  Helos  was  the  most 
 extensive  and  fertile  part  of  Laconia  ;  hut  the  coast 
 was  marshy.  In  Strabo's  time  Helos  was  only  a  village, 
 and  some  years  later  Pausanias  informs  us  it  was  in 
 ruins.  In  Lapie's  map  the  vestiges  of  Helos  are  placed 
 at  Tsyli,  about  five  miles  from  the  Eurotas,  and  Sir 
 W.  Gell  observes  that  the  marsh  of  Helos  is  to  the 
 east  of  the  mouth  of  that  river.  {GeWs  Itin.  of  the 
 Morea,  p.  233. — Cramer^s  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p. 
 193,  seqq  ) 
 
 Helots  {m?MTai),  and  Het.otes  (EIXute^),  the 
 Helots  or  bondsmen  of  the  Spartans.  The  common 
 account,  observes  Miiller  {Dorians,  vol.  2,  p.  30,  Eng. 
 trans. — Vol.  2,  p.  33,  German  work),  of  the  origin  of 
 this  class  is,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  maritime  town 
 of  Helos  were  reduced  by  Sparta  to  this  state  of  deg- 
 radation, after  an  insurrection  against  the  Dorians  al- 
 ready established  in  power.  This  explanation,  how- 
 ever, rests  merely  on  an  etymology,  and  that  by  no 
 means  probable,  since  such  a  Gentile  name  as  EtAwf 
 (which  seems  to  be  the  more  ancient  form)  cannot  by 
 any  method  of  formation  have  been  derived  from  "EXof. 
 The  word  El2.u^  is  probably  a  derivative  from  "EAw  in 
 a  passive  sense,  and  consequently  means  "a  prisoner." 
 This  derivation  was  known  in  ancient  times.  (Com- 
 pare SchoL,  Plat.,  Alcib.,  1,  p.  78,  and  Lennep,  Ety- 
 moL,  p.  257.)  Perhaps  the  word  signifies  those  who 
 were  taken  after  having  resisted  to  the  uttermost.  It 
 appears  to  me,  however,  that  they  were  an  aboriginal 
 race,  which  was  subdued  at  a  very  early  period,  and 
 which  immediately  passed  over  as  slaves  to  the  Doric 
 conquerors.  In  speaking  of  the  condition  of  the  He- 
 lots, we  will  consider  their  political  rights  and  their 
 personal  treatment  under  diflferent  heads,  though  in  fact 
 the  two  subjects  are  very  nearly  connected.  The  first 
 were  doubtless  exactly  defined  by  law  and  custom, 
 though  the  expressions  made  use  of  by  ancient  authors 
 are  frequently  vague  and  ambiguous.  "  They  were," 
 Bays  Ephorus  {ap.  Strab.,  365),  "  in  a  certain  point  of 
 view,  public  slaves.  Their  possessor  could  neither 
 590 
 
 liberate  them,  nor  sell  them  beyond  the  borders." 
 From  this  it  is  evident  that  they  were  considered  as 
 belonging  properly  to  the  state,  which  to  a  certain  de- 
 gree permitted  them  to  be  possessed  by,  and  appor- 
 tioned them  out  to,  individuals,  reserving  to  itself  the 
 power  of  enfranchising  them.  But  to  sell  them  out  of 
 the  country  was  not  in  the  power  even  of  the  state  ;  and, 
 to  the  best  of  our  knowledge,  such  an  event  never  oc- 
 curred. It  is,  upon  the  whole,  most  probable,  that  in- 
 dividuals had  no  power  to  sell  ihcm  at  all,  as  they  j>e- 
 longed  chiefly  to  the  landed  property,  and  this  was  un- 
 alienable. On  these  lands  they  had  certain  fixed  dwell- 
 ings of  their  own,  and  particular  services  and  payments 
 were  prescribed  to  them.  They  paid  as  rent  a  fixed 
 measure  of  corn  ;  not,  however,  like  the  Perioeci,  to 
 the  state,  but  to  their  masters.  As  this  quantity  had 
 been  definitively  settled  at  a  very  early  period  (to  raise 
 the  amount  being  forbidden  under  heavy  imprecations), 
 the  Helots  were  the  persons  who  profited  by  a  good, 
 and  lost  by  a  bad,  harvest,  which  must  have  been  to 
 them  an  encouragement  to  industry  and  good  husband- 
 ry ;  a  motive  which  would  have  been  wanting  if  the 
 profit  and  loss  had  merely  affected  the  landlords.  And 
 by  this  means,  as  is  proved  by  the  accounts  respecting 
 the  Spartan  agriculture,  a  careful  management  of  the 
 cultivation  of  the  soil  was  kept  up.  By  means  of  the 
 rich  produce  of  the  lands,  and  in  part  by  plunder  ob- 
 tained in  war,  they  collected  a  considerable  property, 
 to  the  attainment  of  which  almost  every  access  was 
 closed  to  the  Spartans.  The  cultivation  of  the  land, 
 however,  was  not  the  only  duty  of  the  Helots  ;  they 
 also  attended  upon  their  masters  at  the  public  meals, 
 who,  according  to  the  Lacedaemonian  principle  of  a 
 community  of  property,  mutually  lent  them  to  one  an- 
 other. {Xen.,  Rep.  Lac,  6,  3. — Arislol.,  Pol.,  2,  2, 
 5.)  A  large  number  of  them  was  also  employed  by 
 the  state  in  public  works.  In  the  field  the  Helots  nev- 
 er served  as  Hoplita3,  except  in  extraordinary  cases  ; 
 and  then  it  was  the  general  practice  afterward  to  give 
 them  their  liberty.  (Compare  Thucyd.,  7,  19,  and  4, 
 80.)  On  other  occasions  they  attended  the  regular 
 army  as  light-armed  troops  (i/'tAo<) ;  and  that  their 
 numbers  were  very  considerable  may  be  seen  from 
 the  battle  of  Platsea,  in  which  5000  Spartans  were 
 attended  by  35,000  Helots.  Although  they  did  not 
 share  the  honour  of  the  heavy-armed  soldiers,  they 
 were  in  turn  exposed  to  a  less  degree  of  danger.  For, 
 while  the  former,  in  close  rank,  received  the  onset  of 
 the  enemy  with  spear  and  shield,  the  Helots,  armed 
 only  with  their  sling  and  javelin,  were  in  a  moment 
 either  before  or  behind  the  ranks,  as  TyrtKUs  accurate- 
 ly describes  the  relative  duties  of  the  light-armed  sol- 
 dier {yvfivriq)  and  the  Hoplite.  Sparta,  in  her  better 
 days,  is  never  recorded  to  have  unnecessarily  sacrificed 
 the  lives  of  her  Helots.  A  certain  number  of  them 
 was  allotted  to  each  Spartan  {Herodot.,  9,  28. —  Thu- 
 cyd., 3,  8) ;  at  the  battle  of  Platoea  this  number  was 
 seven.  Those  who  were  assigned  to  a  single  mas- 
 ter were  probably  called  ('i/nviTrapeg.  Of  these,  how- 
 ever, one  in  particular  was  the  servant  (■dcparruv)  of 
 his  master,  as  in  the  story  of  the  blind  Spartan,  who 
 was  conducted  by  his  Helot  into  the  thickest  of  the 
 battle  of  Thermopyla?,  and,  while  the  latter  fled,  fell 
 with  the  other  heroes.  {Herod.,  7,  229.)  It  appears 
 that  the  other  Helots  were  in  the  field  placed  more  im- 
 mediately under  the  command  of  the  king  than  the  rest 
 of  the  army.  {Herod.,  Q,%Q  et  S\.)  In  the  fleet  they 
 composed  the  large  mass  of  the  sailors  {Xen.,  Hist. 
 Gr.,  7,  1,  12),  in  which  service  at  Athens  the  inferior 
 citizens  and  slaves  were  employed.  It  is  a  matter  of 
 much  greater  difficulty  to  form  a  clear  notion  of  the 
 treatment  of  the  Helots,  and  of  their  manner  of  life  ; 
 for  the  rhetorical  spirit  with  which  later  historians  have 
 embellished  their  philanthropic  views,  joined  to  our 
 own  ignorance,  has  been  productive  of  much  confusion 
 and  misconception.     Myron  of  Priene,  in  his  romance 
 
HELOTiE. 
 
 HELOTS. 
 
 on  the  Messenian  war,  drew  a  very  dark   picture  of 
 Sparta,  and  endeavoured  at  the  end  to  rouse  the  feel- 
 ings of  his  readers  by  a  description  of  the  fate  which 
 the  conquered   underwent.     "  The  Helots,"  says  he 
 {ap.  Atlien.,  14,  p.  657,  D),  "perform  for  the  Spartans 
 every  ignominious  service.     They  are  compelled  to 
 wear  a  cap  of  dog's  skin  (kvvt/),  to  have  a  covering  of 
 sheep's  skin  (dLipdepa),  and  are  severely  beaten  every 
 year  without  havnig  committed  any  fault,  in  order  that 
 they  may  never  forget  they  are  slaves.      In  addition  to 
 this,  those  among  them  who,  either  by  their  stature 
 or  their  beauty,  raise  themselves  above  the  condition 
 of  a  slave,  are  condemned  to  death,  and  the  masters 
 who  do  not  destroy  the  most  manly  of  them  are  liable 
 to  punishment.'*     The  partiality  and  ignorance  of  this 
 writer  are  evident  from  his  very  first  statement.     The 
 Helots  wore  the  leathern  cap  with  a  broad  band,  and 
 the  covering  of  sheep's  skin,  simply  because  it  was  the 
 original  dress  of  the  natives,  which,  moreover,  the  Ar- 
 cadians had  retained  from  ancient  usage.     (Sophocles, 
 Inaclms,  ap.  Schol.,  Anstoph.,  ai\  1203. — Valck.,  ad 
 Thcocrit.  Adoniaz.,  p.  345.)     Laertes,  the   father  of 
 Ulysses,  when  he  assumed  the  character  of  a  peasant, 
 is  also  represented  as  wearing  a  cap  of  goat's  skin. 
 {Od.,  24,  230.)     The  truth  is,  that  the  ancients  made 
 a  distinction  between    town    and    country    costume. 
 Hence,  when  the  tyrants  of  Sicyon  wished  to  accustom 
 the  unemployed  people,  whose  numbers  they  dreaded, 
 to  a  country  life,  they  forced  them  to  wear  the  kut- 
 uviiKi],  which  had  underneath  a  lining  of  fur.    {Pollux, 
 7,  4,  68.)     Thus  also  Theognis  describes  the  country- 
 men of  Megara  as   clothed  with  dressed  skins,   and 
 dwelling  around  the  town  like  frightened  deer.     The 
 diphthera  of  the    Helots,  therefore,  signified  nothing 
 more  humiliating  and  degrading  than  their  employment 
 in  agiicultural  labour.     Now,  since  Myron  purposely 
 misrepresented  this  circumstance,  it  is  very  probable 
 that  his  other  objections  are  founded  in  error  ;  nor  can 
 misrepresentations  of  this  political  state,  which  was 
 unknown  to  the  later  Greeks,  and  particularly  to  wri- 
 ters, have  been  uncommon.      Plutarch,  for  example, 
 relates  that  the  Helots  were  compelled  to  intoxicate 
 themselves,   and    to    perform   indecent   dances,   as  a 
 warning  to  the  Spartan  youth  ;   but  common  sense  is 
 opposed  to  so  absurd  a  mode  of  education.     Is  it  pos- 
 sible that  the  Spartans  should  have  so  degraded  the 
 men  whom  they  appointed  as  tutors  over  their  chil- 
 dren 1      Female  Helots  also  discharged  the  office  of 
 nurse  in  the  royal  palaces,  and  doubtless  obtained  all 
 the  affection  with  which  the  attendants  of  early  youth 
 were  honoured  in  ancient  times.     It  is,  however,  cer- 
 tain that  the  Doric  laws  did  not  bind  servants  to  strict 
 temperance ;    and    hence    examples   of   drunkenness 
 among  them  might  have  served  as  a  means  of  recom- 
 mending sobriety.     It  was  also  an  established  regula- 
 tion, that  the  national  songs  and  dances  of  Sparta  were 
 forbidden  to  the  Helots,  who,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
 some   extravagant   and  lascivious  dances  peculiar  to 
 themselves,  which  may  have  given  rise  to  the  above 
 report.     But  are  we  not  labouring  in  vain  to  soften  the 
 bad  impression  of  Myron's  account,  since  the  fearful 
 word  crypleia  is  of  itself  sufficient  to  show  the  un- 
 happy fate  of  the  Helots  and  the  cruelty  of  their  mas- 
 ters 1      By  this  word  is  generally  understood  a  chase 
 of  the  Helots,  annually  undertaken  at  a  fixed  time  by 
 the  youth  of  Sparta,  who  either  assassinated  them  by 
 night,  or  massacred  them  formally  in  open  day,  in  or- 
 der to  lessen  their  numbers  and  weaken  their  power. 
 Isocrates  speaks  of  this  institution  in  a  very  confused 
 manner,  and  from  mere  report.     Aristotle,  however, 
 as  well  as  Heraclides  of  Ponlus,  attribute  it  to  Lvcur- 
 gus,  and  represent  it  as  a  war  which  the  Ephori  them- 
 selves, on  entering  upon  their  yearly  office,  proclaimed 
 against  the  Helots.     Thus  it  was  a  regularly  legalized 
 massacre,  and  the  more  barbarous  as  its  periodical  ar- 
 ,  ;val  could  be  foreseen  by  its  unhappy  victims.     And 
 
 yet  were  not  these  Helots,  who  in  many  districts  lived 
 entirely  alone,  united  by  despair  for  the  sake  of  com- 
 mon protection,  and  did  ihey  not  every  year  kindle  a 
 most  bloody  and  determined  war  throughout  the  whole 
 of  Laconia  1     Such  are  the  inextricable  difficulties  in 
 which  we  are  involved  by  giving  credit  to  the  received 
 accounts  :   the  solution  of  which  is,  in  my  opinion,  to 
 be  found  in  the  speech  of  Megillus  the  Spartan,  in  the 
 laws  of  Plato,  who  is  there  celebrating  the  manner  of 
 inuring  his  countrymen  to  hardships.      "  There  is  also 
 among  us,"  he   says,  "what    is    called    the    crypleia 
 {KpvnTELa),  the  pain  of  undergoing  which  is  scarcely 
 credible.     It  consists  in  going  barefoot  on  stones,  in 
 enduring  the  privations  of  the  camp,  performing  me- 
 nial offices  without  a  servant,  and  wandering  night  and 
 day    throughout   the   whole  country."     The  same  is 
 more  clearly  expressed  in  another  passage  (6,  p.  763, 
 B.),  where  the  philosopher  settles,  that  in  his  state 
 sixty  agronomi  or  phylarchs  should  each  choose  twelve 
 young  men  from  the  age  of  twenty-five  to  thirty,  and 
 send  them  as  guards  in  succession  through  the  several 
 districts,  in  order  to  inspect  the  fortresses,  roads,  and 
 public    buildings  in  the  country  ;  for  which  purpose 
 they    should   have    power   to  make  free    use  of   the 
 slaves.     During  this  lime  they  were  to  live  sparingly, 
 to  minister  to  their  own  wants,  and  range  through  the 
 whole  country  in  arms  without  intermission,  both  in 
 winter  and  summer.     These  persons  were  to  be  called 
 KpvTTToi.  or  iiyopavofioi.     Can  it  be  supposed  that  Pla- 
 to would  have  here  used  the  name  of  crypleia,  if  it 
 signified  a  secret  murder  of  the  Helots,  or,  rather,  if 
 there  were  not  an  exact  agreement  in  essentials  be- 
 tween the  institution  which  he  proposed  and  that  in 
 existence  at  Sparta,  although  the  latter  was  perhaps 
 one  of  greater  hardship  and  severity  \     The  youth  of 
 Sparta  were  also  sent  out  under  certain  officers,  partly 
 for  the  purpose  of  training  them  to  hardships,  partly  of 
 inspecting  the  territory  of  Sparta,  which  was  of  con- 
 siderable extent,  and  who  kept,  we  may   suppose,  a 
 strict  watch  upon  the  Helots,  who,  living  by  them- 
 selves, and  entirely  separated  from  their  masters,  must 
 have  been  for  that  reason  more  formidable  to  Sparta. 
 We  must  allow  that  oppression  and  severity  were  not 
 sufficiently  provided  against ;  only  the  aim  of  the  cus- 
 tom was  wholly  different ;  though  perhaps  it  was  reck- 
 oned  by  Thucydides  (4,  80)  among  those  institutions 
 which,  as  he  says,  were  established  for  the  purpose  of 
 keeping  a  watch  over  the  Helots.     It  is  hardly  neces- 
 sary to  remark,  that  this  established  institution  of  the 
 crypteia  was  in  no  way  connected  with  those  measures 
 to  which  Sparta  thought  herself  compelled  in  hazard- 
 ous circumstances  to  resort.     Thucydides  leaves  us 
 to  guess  the  fate  of  the  2000  Helots,  who,  after  hav- 
 ing been  destined  for  the  field,  suddenly  disappeared. 
 It  was  the  curse  of  this  bondage  (which  Plato  terms 
 the  hardest  in  Greece),  that  the  slaves  abandoned  their 
 masters  when  they  stood  in  greatest  need  of  their  as- 
 sistance ;  and  hence  the  Spartans  were  even  compelled 
 to  stipulate  in  treaties  for  aid  against  their  own  sub- 
 jects.    {Thucyd.,  1, 1\S.— Id.,  5,  14.— Compare  ylm- 
 tot.,  Pol.,  2,  6,  2). — A  more  favourable  side  of  the 
 Spartan  system  of  bondage  is,  that  a  legal  way  to  lib- 
 erty and  citizenship  stood  open  to  the  Helots.     The 
 many  intermediate  steps  seem  to  prove  the  existence 
 of  a  regular  mode  of  transition  from  the  one  rank  to 
 the  other.     The  Helots  who  were  esteemed  worthy  of 
 an  especial  confidence  were  called  apydoi ;  the  u<p^Tat 
 were  probablv  released  from  all  service.  The  i^toTrocf- 
 lovavrai,    who  served  in  the  fleets,  resembled  proba- 
 bly the  freedmen  of  Attica,  who  were  called  the  otit- 
 dwellers  (ol  x<'>pk  oIkovvtec).     When  they  received 
 their  liberty,  they  also  obtained  permission  to  J"ell 
 where  the/wished  {Tf^vcyd.,  5,  34.-W.,  4,  80),  and 
 probably,  at  the  same  time,  a  portion  of  land  was  grant- 
 ed them  without  the  lot  of  their  former  masters.     Af- 
 ter they  had  been  in  possession  of  liberty  for  some 
 
HEP 
 
 HEP 
 
 time,  they  appear  to  have  been  called  Neodamodcn 
 {Thuryd.,  7,  bb),  the  number  of  whom  soon  came 
 near  to  that  of  the  citizens.  {Piut.,  Vil.  Ages.,  6.) 
 The  Motkones  or  Mothaccs  were  Helots,  who,  being 
 brought  up  together  with  the  young  Spartans,  ohtained 
 freedom  without  the  rights  of  citizenship.  {Athcnmus, 
 6,  p.  271  E.) — The  number  of  the  Helots  may  be 
 determined  with  sufficient  accuracy  from  the  account 
 of  the  army  at  Plataea.  We  find  that  there  were  pres- 
 ent in  this  battle  5000  Spartans,  35,000  Helots,  and 
 10,000  Perioeci.  The  whole  number  of  Spartans  that 
 bore  arms  amounted  on  another  occasion  to  8000, 
 which,  according  to  the  same  proportion,  would  give 
 56,000  for  the  number  of  Helots  capable  of  bearing 
 arms,  and  for  the  whole  population  about  224,000.  If, 
 then,  the  state  of  Sparta  possessed  9000  lots  {K?.f/poL), 
 there  were  twenty  male  Helots  to  each,  and  there  re- 
 mained 44,000  for  the  service  of  the  state  and  of  in- 
 dividuals. (Muller,  Dorians,  \o\.  2,  p.  30,  seqq.,  Eng. 
 trans. — vol.  2,  p.  33,  German  work.) 
 
 Helvetii,  a  nation  of  Gaul,  conqviered  by  Caesar. 
 Their  country  is  generally  supposed  to  have  answered 
 to  modern  Switzerland;  but  ancient  Helvetia  was  of 
 less  extent  than  modern  Switzerland,  being  bounded 
 on  the  north  by  the  Rhenus  and  Lacus  Brigantinus, 
 or  Lake  of  Constance  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Rhodanus 
 and  the  Lacus  Lemanus,  or  Lake  of  Geneva ;  and  on 
 the  west  by  Mons  Jura.  {Cas.,  B.  G.,  I,  &c. — Tacit., 
 Hist..  I,  67  ct  69.) 
 
 Helvii,  a  people  of  Gaul,  north  of  the  Arecomici, 
 on  the  western  bank  of  the  Rhodanus.  The  mountain 
 range  of  Gehenna  {Ccvenncs)  separated  them  from  the 
 Arverni.  Their  territory  answers  to  what  is  now  the 
 Diocese  of  Viviers,  and  some  traces  of  their  capital, 
 Alba  Augusta,  exist  at  the  present  day  in  the  village 
 of  Alps.  {Ccts.,  B.  G.,  7,  7,  seqq. — Lemaire,  Ind. 
 Geogr.,  ad  Cas.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Heneti,  a  people  of  Paphlagonia,  along  the  coast 
 of  the  Euxine,  of  whom  there  was  an  old  tradition 
 that  they  had  migrated  to  the  north  of  Italy,  near  the 
 mouths  of  the  Padus  or  Po,  where  they  became  the 
 forefathers  of  the  Veneti.  {Scymn.,  Ch.,  v.  388,  seq. 
 —Strah.,  543  —Id.,  608.)  Virgil  makes  Antenor  to 
 have  led  the  colony  from  Asia,  after  the  destruction  of 
 Troy,  and  to  have  settled  near  the  little  river  Timavus, 
 which  flows  into  the  head  waters  of  the  Adriatic.  The 
 whole  legend,  however,  is  purely  fabulous.  The  He- 
 neti never  came  to  Italy,  and  the  Veneti  in  the  latter 
 country  were  of  northern,  perhaps  German,  descent. 
 (Vid.  Veneti.)  The  whole  question  respecting  the 
 Heneti  is  discussed  by  Heyne.  {Excurs.,  ad  JEji.,  1, 
 242. — Excurs.,  vii.,  de  Timav.  fluv.) 
 
 Heniochi,  a  people  of  Asiatic  Sarmatia,  near  Col- 
 chis, who  were  said  to  have  been  descended  from 
 Amphytus  and  Telchius,  the  charioteers  {yvioxoi)  of 
 Castor  and  Pollux.  {Mela,  1,  19.— W.,  6,  b.—Strab., 
 490.)  This  account  is,  of  course,  a  mere  fable,  ari- 
 sing out  of  some  accidental  resemblance  between  the 
 true  name  of  this  people  and  the  Greek  term  tjvIoxol. 
 The  Heniochi  are  mentioned  by  the  ancient  writers  as 
 bold  and  skilful  pirates.  {Plin.,  6,  4. — Mela,  I.  c. — 
 Veil.  Palcrc.,  2,  40.— ^mm.  MarcelL,  22,  l5.—Solin., 
 c.  15.) 
 
 HKPH.«STiA,  I.  one  of  the  two  principal  towns  in 
 the  island  of  Lemnos,  the  other  being  Myrina.  (He- 
 rod.,  7,  UO.—Stepk.  Byz.,  s.  v  'H(!>ai<yria).—U.  A 
 festival  at  Athens,  celebrated  annually,  in  honour  of 
 Vulcan  ("Hi/iatdrof).  On  this  occasion  there  was  a 
 race  with  torches,  called  ayuv  lanwaiovxo^,  from  the 
 altar  of  Prometheus  in  the  Acadeinia  to  the  city  gates. 
 The  competitors  were  young  men,  three  in  number, 
 one  of  whom  being  chosen  by  lot  to  take  his  turn  first, 
 took  a  lighted  torch  in  his  hand  and  began  his  course. 
 If  the  torch  was  extinguished  before  he  arrived  at  the 
 goal,  he  made  way  for  the  second  competitor,  and  gave 
 up  the  torch  to  him.  If  the  second  in  like  manner 
 592 
 
 failed,  he  made  way  for  the  third.  If  none  performed 
 the  feat,  a  new  race  on  the  part  of  new  conip'-iitors 
 took  place.  If  any  of  the  contending  parlies,  through 
 fear  of  extinguishing  the  torch  by  too  violent  a  motion, 
 relaxed  his  pace,  the  spectators  used  to  strike  him 
 with  the  palms  of  their  hands,  in  order  to  urge  him  on. 
 (Pausan.,  1,  30. — Schol.  ad  Aristoph.,  Ran.,  131.) 
 There  are  several  beautiful  allusions  to  this  torch-race 
 in  the  ancient  writers,  who  usually  compare  it  to  the 
 changing  scenes  and  vicissitudes  of  life,  the  genera- 
 tions of  men  succeeding  one  another,  and  the  passage 
 from  life  to  death.  The  most  striking  of  these  occurs 
 in  Lucretius  (2,  75,  seqq. — Compare  Plato,  Leg.,  6, 
 p.  776). 
 
 Hephvestiades,  a  name  applied  to  the  Lipari  Isl- 
 ands, from  the  Volcanic  character  of  the  group.  The 
 appellation  is  a  Greek  one,  and  comes  from  "Hi/>a<(T7-of 
 (Hephsstus),  the  Greek  name  for  Vulcan,  the  god  of 
 fire.  (Plm.,  3,  9. — Vid.  Lipara,  Strongyle,  and  -'Eo- 
 liae  Insulae.) 
 
 Heph^stion,  I.  a  grammarian  of  Alexandrea,  one 
 of  the  preceptors  of  the  Emperor  Verus  (Capitol.,  Vu. 
 Ver.,  c.  2),  and  who  consequently  flourished  about  the 
 middle  of  the  second  century.  He  has  left  us  a  Trea- 
 tise on  Greek  metres,  entitled  'Ev\;f(p((5iov  nepl  fiir- 
 puv,  containing  a  large  portion  of  all  that  we  are  ac- 
 quainted with  on  this  subject.  The  best  edition  iH 
 that  of  Gaisford,  Oxon.,  1810,  8vo.  The  English  cdi 
 tor  has  joined  to  it  the  Chrestomathia  of  Proclus. — H. 
 A  native  of  Thebes,  whose  age  is  uncertain.  He  wrote 
 on  astrological  subjects.  We  have  some  parts  of  a 
 work  of  his  on  the  names  and  powers  of  the  signs  of 
 the  Zodiac  ('A7roTE2-ea/iaTLKU  nepl  rrir  i6'  fiopiuv  bvo- 
 finaia^  kol  dwufieug).  We  have  also  some  hexame- 
 ters by  him  on  the  signs  under  which  certain  countries 
 or  certain  cities  are  situated.  They  are  part  of  a  work 
 entitled  Ilepi  rtjv  Karapxuv.  The  fragments  on  the 
 signs  of  the  zodiac  arc  given  by  Camerarius  in  his  as- 
 trological collection  ;  the  hexameters  by  Iriarte,  Cat.  ' 
 Cod.  MSS.  Gr.  Bibl.  Matrit.,  vol.  1,  p.  244.  (Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr  ,  vol.  7,  p.  47,  seqq.) — HI.  A  native  of 
 Macedonia,  and  intimate  friend  of  Alexander  the 
 Great.  He  accompanied  the  latter  in  his  eastern  ex- 
 pedition, and  held  an  important  command  under  him. 
 Alexander,  in  speaking  of  the  intimacy  that  subsisted 
 between  them,  used  to  say  that  Craterus  was  the  friend 
 of  the  king,  but  Hephaestion  the  friend  of  Alexander. 
 After  a  long  succession  of  faithful  and  arduous  ser- 
 vices, Hephffistion  was  seized  with  a  fever  at  Ecbala 
 na,  B.C.  324,  and  died  on  the  seventh  day  of  his  ill- 
 ness. His  malady  has  been  ascribed  by  some  writers 
 to  excessive  drinking  ;  but  the  hardships  which  he  had 
 undergone  only  a  short  time  previous,  and  the  con- 
 tinual change  of  climate,  would  be  sufllcient  of  them- 
 selves to  break  down  his  strength.  Alexander  was 
 presiding  at  the  games  on  the  seventh  day  of  Hephans- 
 tion's  illness,  and  the  stadium  was  full  of  spectators, 
 when  a  messenger  brought  mtelligence  that  Hephs^s- 
 tion's  malady  had  assumed  a  very  alarming  character. 
 The  monarch  hurried  away,  but  his  friend  was  dead 
 before  he  arrived. — The  following  passage  from  Arrian 
 affords  some  curious  information  on  this  subject,  and 
 shows  also  from  what  a  mass  of  contradictory  matter 
 the  historian  had  to  select  his  facts. — "  Various  writers 
 have  given  various  accounts  of  Alexander's  sorrow  on 
 the  occasion  of  Hephaestion's  death.  All  agree  that  it 
 was  excessive  ;  but  his  actions  are  differently  descri- 
 bed, as  the  writers  were  biased  by  affection  or  hostility 
 to  Hephanstion,  or  even  to  Alexander.  Some,  who 
 have  described  his  conduct  as  frantic  and  outrageous, 
 regard  all  his  extravagant  deeds  and  words  on  the  loss 
 of  his  dearest  friend  as  honourable  to  his  feelings, 
 while  others  deem  them  degrading,  and  unworthy  of  a 
 king  and  of  Alexander.  Some  write,  that  for  the  re- 
 mainder of  that  day  he  lay  lamenting  upon  the  body 
 of  his  friend,  which  he  would  not  quit  until  he  wa« 
 
HE'R 
 
 HERACLEA. 
 
 torn  away  by  his  companions ;  others,  that  he  remain- 
 ed there  for  a  day  and  a  night.  Others,  again,  write, 
 that  he  hanged  the  physician  Glaucias  ;  because,  ac- 
 cording to  one  statement,  he  gave  him  wrong  medi- 
 cine ;  according  to  another,  because  he  stood  by,  and 
 allowed  his  patient  to  fill  himself  with  wine.  I  thinli 
 it  probable,  that  he  cut  olf  his  hair  in  memory  of  the 
 dead,  both  for  other  reasons,  and  from  emulation  of 
 Achilles,  whom  from  his  childhood  he  had  chosen  for 
 his  model.  But  those  who  write  that  Alexander  drove 
 the  hearse  which  conveyed  the  body,  state  what  is  in- 
 credible. Nor  are  they  more  entitled  to  belief  who 
 say  that  he  destroyed,  the  temple  of  ^'Esculapius  at 
 Ecbatana.  Almost  all  agree,  however,  that  he  or- 
 dered Hephaestion  to  be  honoured  with  the  minor  re- 
 ligious ceremonies  due  to  deified  heroes.  Some  say 
 that  he  consulted  Ammon,  whether  he  might  not  sac- 
 rifice to  Hephaestion  as  to  a  god,  and  that  the  answer 
 forbade  him.  All  agree  in  the  following  facts  :  that  for 
 three  days  he  tasted  no  food,  nor  permitted  any  atten- 
 tion to  his  person,  but  lay  down  either  lamenting  or 
 mournfully  silent ;  that  he  ordered  a  funeral  pile  to  be 
 constructed  at  an  expense  of  10,000  talents  (some  say 
 more)  ;  that  all  his  barbarian  subjects  were  ordered  to 
 go  into  mourning  ;  and  that  several  of  the  king's  com- 
 panions, in  order  to  pay  their  court,  dedicated  them- 
 selves and  their  arms  to  the  deceased."  {Arrian,  Exp. 
 AL,  7,  14. —  Williams's  Life  of  Alexander,  p.  324.) 
 
 Heph^stium,  a  name  given  to  a  region  in  the  ex- 
 'remity  of  Lycia,  near  Fhaselis,  from  which  fire  issued 
 ;vhen  a  burning  torch  was  applied  to  the  surface.  This 
 ;vas  owing  to  the  naphtha  with  which  the  soil  was  im- 
 pregnated. (Seneca,  Epist.,  79. — Plin.,2,  lOG. — Com- 
 oare  Photius,  Cod.,  73,  p.  146. — Vid.  Chiinsera,  and  re- 
 marks under  that  article.) 
 
 Heptapylos,  a  surname  of  Thebes  in  Boeotia,  from 
 Its  seven  gates. 
 
 Hera  ("Hpa),  the  name  of  Juno  among  the  Greeks. 
 (Vid.  Juno  ) 
 
 Heraclea,  a  name  given  to  more  than  forty  towns 
 m  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  islands  of  the  Medi- 
 terranean. They  are  supposed  to  have  derived  this 
 appellation  from  the  Greek  name  of  Hercules,  'Kpa- 
 «/l//f,  and  to  have  either  been  built  in  honour  of  him,  or 
 placed  under  his  protection.  The  most  famous  of 
 these  places  were; 
 
 1.  In  Greece. 
 
 T.  A  city  of  Elis,  near  the  centre  of  the  province,  to 
 tbe  southeast  of  Pisa,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Cy- 
 therus  and  Alpheus. — H.  A  city  of  Acarnania,  on  the 
 shore  of  the  Ionian  Sea,  and  opposite  the  island  of 
 Camus. — HI.  A  city  of  Epirus,  on  the  confines  of 
 Athamania  and  Molossis,  and  near  the  sources  of  the 
 Aras. — IV.  Lyncestis,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  at  the 
 foot  of  the  Candavian  Mountains,  on  the  confines  of 
 Illyria.  Its  ruins  still  retain  the  name  of  Erckli. 
 (French  Slraho,  vol.  3,  p.  102.)  Mention  is  made 
 of  this  town  in  Caesar.  (B.  Civ.,  3,  79. — Compare 
 PloL,  p.  S3.—  Strabo,  322,)  — V.  Sintica,  the  prin- 
 cipal town  of  the  Sinti  in  Thrace.  (Livy,  45,  29.) 
 We  are  informed  by  Livy  (40,  24),  that  Demetrius, 
 the  son  of  Philip,  was  here  imprisoned  and  murdered. 
 Mannert  thinks  it  the  same  with  the  Heraclea  built  by 
 Amyntas,  the  brother  of  Philip.  The  Table  Itinerary 
 assigns  a  distance  of  fifty  miles  between  Philippi  and 
 Heraclea  Sintica:  we  know  also  from  HIerocles  (p. 
 639),  that  it  was  situated  near  the  Sirymon,  as  he 
 terms  it  Heraclea  Strymonis. — VI.  Trachinia,  a  town 
 of  Thessaly,  founded  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  a 
 colony  from  Trachis,  about  426  B.C.,  in  the  sixth  year 
 of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  (Tkucyd.,  3,  92.)  It  was 
 distant  about  sixty  stadia  from  Thermopylae,  and  twen- 
 ty from  the  sea.  Jason,  tyrant  of  Phers,  took  pos- 
 session of  this  city  at  one  period,  and  caused  the  walls 
 to  be  pulled  down.     (Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  6, 4,  27.)     Her- 
 
 4r 
 
 aclea,  however,  again  arose  from  its  ruins,  and  became 
 a  flourishing  city  under  the  /Etolians,  who  sometimes 
 held  their  general  council  withm  its  walls.  (Liv.,  25, 
 5.)  It  was  taken  by  the  Roman  consul,  Acilius  Gla- 
 brio,  after  a  long  and  obstinate  siege.  (Liv.,  37.  24. 
 —  Polyh.,  10,  i2.  —  Pltn.,  4,  7.)  Sir  W.  Gell  ob- 
 served the  vestiges  of  this  city  on  a  high  flat,  on  the 
 roots  of  Mount  (Eta.     (Itm.,  p.  241.) 
 
 2.  In  Italy,  Gaul,  &c. 
 
 VII.  A  city  of  Lucania  in  Italy,  and  situate  between 
 the  Aciris  and  Sins.  It  was  founded  by  the  Taren- 
 tini  after  the  destruction  of  the  ancient  city  of  Siris, 
 which  stood  at  the  mouth  of  the  latter  river  (13. C.  428). 
 This  city  is  rendered  remarkable  in  history,  as  havinc 
 been  the  seat  of  the  general  council  of  the  Greek  states. 
 Antiquaries  seem  agreed  in  fixing  its  site  at  Policoro. 
 (Slrabo,  2&3.—Diud.  Sic,  12.  36.)— VIII.  A  city  of 
 Campania,  more  commonly  known  by  the  name  of 
 Herculaneum. — IX.  Caccabana,  a  city  on  the  confines 
 of  Italy  and  Gaul,  in  Narbonensis  Secunda.  It  was 
 situate  on  the  coast,  to  the  south  of  Forum  Julii. — X. 
 Minoa,  a  city  of  Sicily  on  the  southern  coast,  northeast 
 of  Agrigentum,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Camicus.  It 
 was  founded  by  Minos  when  he  pursued  Dasdalus  hither, 
 and  was  subsequently  called  Heraclea  from  Hercules, 
 after  his  victory  over  Eryx  :  so  at  least  said  the  fables 
 of  the  day.  Some  authorities  make  the  original  name 
 to  have  been  Macara,  and  Minos  to  have  been,  not  the 
 founder,  but  the  conqueror  of  the  place.  (Mela,  2,  7. 
 — Liv.,  34,  35. — Cic,  de  Jar.  Sic,  c.  50. — Pohjb., 
 1,  25. — Diod.  Sic,  16,  11.)  Among  the  ruins  of  the 
 present  day  stands  a  tower  called  Toire  de  Capo  Bi 
 anco,  a  portion  of  which  fell  recently  into  the  sea. 
 
 3.  In  Asia,  Egypt,  &c. 
 
 XI.  Pontica  ('Hpa/cAeia  Hovtov,  PloL),  a  city  on 
 the  coast  of  Biihynia,  about  twelve  stadia  from  the 
 river  Lycus.  It  was  founded  by  a  colony  of  Megare 
 ans,  strengthened  by  some  Tanagreans  from  Boeotia  • 
 the  numbers  of  the  former,  however,  so  predominated, 
 that  the  city  was  in  general  considered  as  Doric.  (Ar- 
 rian, PeripL,  p.  14. — Milller,  Dorians,  vol.  1,  p.  140, 
 Encr.  transl.)  This  place  was  famed  for  its  naval 
 power  and  its  consequence  among  the  Asiatic  states, 
 and  a  sketch  of  its  history  is  presented  to  us  in  the 
 Fragments  of  Memnon,  collected  by  Photius.  (Cod., 
 214.)  Memnon  composed  a  history  of  the  tyrants 
 who  reigned  at  Heraclea  during  a  space  of  eighty-four 
 years  ;  l)Ut  we  have  only  now  the  abridgment  of  Pho- 
 tius, which  is  confirmed  by  incidental  notices  contain- 
 ed in  Aristotle.  (Polit.,  6,  5.) — Some  traces  of  the 
 ancient  name  are  still  apparent  in  the  modern  Erekli. 
 (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  205.)— XII.  A  city 
 of  jEolis,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Adramyttium, 
 opposite  Mytilene. — XIII.  A  city  in  southern  .Eolis, 
 on  the  seacoast,  near  Cumas. — XIV.  A  city  of  Caria, 
 on  the  seacoast,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Latmus, 
 between  Miletus  and  Priene.  (Ptol,  5,  10.)  It  was 
 called,  for  distinction'  sake  from  other  places  of  the 
 same  name,  Heraclea  Latmi.  The  site  corresponds 
 nearly  with  the  village  of  Oufa  Baft..  (Cramer's  Asia 
 Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  393.)— XV.  A  city  of  Syria,  in  the 
 district  of  Cyrrhestica,  northwest  of  Hierapolis,  and 
 northeast  of  Bercea,  near  the  confines  of  Comagene. 
 —XVI.  A  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  situate  in  the  Delta, 
 to  the  northeast  of  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile.— 
 XVII.  or  Heracleopolis  Magna,  a  city  of  Egypt,  in 
 the  Heracleotic  nome,  of  which  it  was  '"e  capital 
 The  ichneumon  was  worshipped  here.  (Strab.,Hl^.) 
 —XVIII.  or  Heracleopolis  Parva,  a  city  ol  F,gypt, 
 southwest  of  Pelusium,  within  the  limits  of  the  L)elle. 
 The  ruins  are  now  called  Dclborn.  (Bischoff  mid 
 Muller,  Worlcrb.  der  Geogr.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Heracleum,  I.  a  town  of  Macedonia  half  way  be- 
 tween Dium  and  Tempe.     (Liv.,  44,  80^  It  corro- 
 
HER 
 
 HER 
 
 spends  to  the  modem  Litochoi.  (Cramer'' s  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  206.) — II.  A  promontory  of  Pontus, 
 now  Txcherschembi.  There  was  a  harbour  near  it, 
 called  also  Heracleum.  (Arriari,  PeripL,  p.  16.) — 
 HI.  A  place  on  the  coast  of  Colchis,  near  the  mouth 
 of  the  river  Cianesus.  {PIm.,  6,  5.)— ,1V.  A  city  on 
 the  northern  coast  of  Crete;  north  of  Cnosus,  and 
 properly  its  harbour.  The  modern  Carlero  seems  to 
 correspond  to  it.  {Strubo,  4:76.— Plin.,  4,  12.) — V. 
 A  city  of  Pontus,  360  stadia  from  the  mouth  of  the 
 Iris,  and  forty  stadia  west  of  the  Thermodon.  {Arri- 
 an,  PeripL) — VI.  A  city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
 Chersonesns  Taurica,  now  Arabat.  (Ptolemy.) — VII. 
 Promontorium,  a  promontory  of  Sarmatia  Asiatica,  on 
 the  Pontus  Euxinus,  near  the  country  of  the  Hen- 
 jochi. 
 
 HeraciJi)^,  a  name  given  in  ancient  history  to  a 
 powerful  Achaean  race  or  family,  the  fabled  descend- 
 ants of  Hercules.  According  to  the  unanimous  ac- 
 count of  the  ancient  writers,  the  children  of  Hercules, 
 after  the  death  of  that  hero,  being  persecuted  by  Eu- 
 rystheus,  took  refuge  in  Attica,  and  there  defeated  and 
 slew  the  tyrant.  When  their  enemy  had  fallen,  they 
 resumed  possession  of  their  birthright  in  the  Pelopon- 
 nesus ;  but  they  had  not  long  enjoyed  the  fruits  of 
 their  victory,  before  a  pestilence,  in  which  they  recog- 
 nised the  finger  of  Heaven,  drove  them  again  into  ex- 
 ile. Attica  again  afforded  them  a  retreat.  When 
 their  hopes  had  revived,  an  ambiguous  oracle  encour- 
 aged them  to  believe,  that,  after  they  had  reaped  their 
 third  harvest,  they  should  find  a  prosperous  passage 
 through  the  isthmus  into  the  land  of  their  fathers. 
 ■But,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Peloponnesus,  they  were 
 met  by  the  united  forces  of  the  Achaeans,  lonians,  and 
 Arcadians.  Their  leader  Hyllus,  the  eldest  son  of 
 Hercules,  proposed  to  decide  the  quarrel  by  single 
 combat ;  and  Echemus,  king  of  Tegea,  was  selected 
 by  the  Peloponnesian  confederates  as  their  champion. 
 Hyllus  fell ;  and  the  Heraclidte  were  bound  by  the 
 terms  of  the  agreement  to  abandon  their  enterprise  for 
 a  hundred  years.  Yet  both  CleodaBus,  son  of  Hyllus, 
 and  his  grandson  Aristomachus,  renewed  his  attempt 
 with  no  better  fortune.  After  Aristomachus  had  fall- 
 en in  battle,  the  ambiguous  oracle  was  explained  to  his 
 sons  Aristodemus,  Temenus,  and  Cresphontes ;  and 
 they  were  assured,  that  the  time,  the  third  generation, 
 had  now  come,  when  they  should  accomplish  their  re- 
 turn;  not,  however,  as  they  had  expected,  over  the 
 guarded  isthmus,  but  across  the  mouth  of  the  western 
 gulf,  where  the  opposite  shores  are  parted  by  a  channel 
 only  a  few  furlongs  broad.  Thus  encouraged,  with 
 the  aid  of  the  Dorians,  ./Etolians,  and  Locrians,  they 
 crossed  the  straits,  vanquished  Tisamenus,  son  of 
 Orestes,  and  divided  the  fairest  portion  of  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus among  them.  (Vid.  Doris.) — The  belief  that 
 the  Dorians  were  led  to  the  conquest  of  the  Pelopon- 
 nesus by  princes  of  Achaean  blood,  the  rightful  heirs 
 of  its  ancient  kings,  has  the  authority  of  all  antiquity 
 on  its  side.  It  had  become  current  so  early  as  the 
 days  of  Hesiod  ;  and  it  was  received  not  only  among 
 the  Dorians  themselves,  but  among  foreign  nations. 
 The  protection  afforded  by  the  Athenians  to  the  Her- 
 aclidffi  against  Eurystheus,  continued  to  the  latest 
 times  to  be  one  of  the  favourite  themes  of  the  At- 
 tic poets  and  orators  ;  and  the  precise  district  that 
 had  been  assigned  for  the  abode  of  the  exiles  was 
 nointed  out  by  tradition.  The  weak  and  unsettled 
 state  of  the  Dorians,  in  the  earliest  periods  of  their 
 history,  renders  it  probable  thiit  they  were  always 
 willing  to  receive  foreigners  among  them,  who  came 
 recommended  by  illustrious  birth,  wealth,  or  merit. 
 Nevertheless,  possible  as  this  is,  the  truth  of  the  story 
 has  been  questioned,  on  grounds  that  arc  certainly  not 
 light  or  arbitrary,  if  they  do  not  outweigh  all  that  has 
 been  alleged  in  its  support.  What  is  said  to  have 
 happened  might  have  been  invented,  and  the  occasion 
 394 
 
 and  motives  for  the  fabrication  may  be  conceived  still 
 more  easily  than  the  truth  of  the  fact ;  for  such  facts 
 in  the  early  history  of  Greece  were  undoubtedly  much 
 less  common  than  such  fictions.  It  is  much  less  prob- 
 able, that  the  origin  of  the  Dorian  tribes,  as  ef  all  sim- 
 ilar political  forms  which  a  nation  has  assumed  in  the 
 earliest  period  of  existence,  should  have  been  distinctly 
 remembered,  than  that  it  should  have  been  forgotten, 
 and  have  been  then  attributed  to  imaginary  persons. 
 (ThirlwalVs  History  of  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  255,  seqq.} 
 — The  theory  of  Miiller,  which  is  referred  to  in  the 
 preceding  remarks,  makes  the  Heraclidaj  to  have  been 
 hereditary  princes  of  the  Doric  race,  descended  fronri 
 a  Dorian  Hercules;  and  it  attempts  to  show,  that  the 
 story  of  the  Heraclids  being  descended  from  the  Ar- 
 give  Hercules,  who  performed  the  commands  of  Eu- 
 rystheus, was  not  invented  until  after  the  conquest  of 
 the  Peloponnesus.  (Mullefs  Dorians  vol.  1,  p.  67, 
 Eng.  transl. — But  consult  remarks  under  the  article 
 Doris.) 
 
 HeraclIdes,  a  name  common  to  numerous  individ- 
 uals : 
 
 1.  Magistrates,  &c. 
 I.  A  Greek,  minister  of  Seuthes,  king  of  Thrace, 
 who  promised,  and  afterward  refused,  succours  to  the 
 ten  thousand  during  their  retreat.  (Xen.,Anab.,  7,  3, 
 15.)— II.  A  governor  of  Delphi,  B.C.  360.  The  temple 
 was  pillaged  by  the  Phocians  during  his  magistracy. 
 (Puusan.,  10,  2.) — III.  A  Syracusan  of  high  birth,  who 
 united  himself  to  Dion  for  the  purpose  of  overthrow- 
 ing the  younger  Dionysius.  He  was  appointed  ad- 
 miral through  the  influence  of  Dion,  but  abused  his 
 power  in  corrupting  the  people,  and  in  encouraging  a 
 spirit  of  mutiny  and  dissatisfaction.  After  various  in- 
 stances of  lenity  and  forgiveness  on  the  part  of  Dion 
 towards  this  individual,  the  friends  of  the  former,  find- 
 ing that,  as  long  as  Heraclides  existed,  his  turbulent 
 and  factious  spirit  would  produce  disorder  in  the  state, 
 broke  into  his  house  and  put  him  to  death.  (Plut., 
 Vit.  Dion.) — IV.  An  individual  who  governed  Syra- 
 cuse along  with  Agathocles  and  Sosicrates,  B.C.  317. 
 — V.  A  son  of  Agathocles,  slain  by  his  father's  sol- 
 diers. (Justin,  22,  5.) — VI.  The  murderer  of  Cotys, 
 I.  (Dcmoslh.,  conir.  Arist.) — VII.  Commander  of  the 
 garrison  sent  to  Athens  bv  Demetrius,  after  his  cap- 
 ture of  that  city. — VIII.  A  native  of  Tarentum,  min- 
 ister of  Philip  V.  of  Macedon.  He  drew  down  upon 
 himself  the  hatred  of  the  people  by  his  wicked  con- 
 duct, and  was  finally  disgraced. — IX.  A  young  Syracii- 
 san  of  high  birth,  who  brought  on  the  naval  conflict  in 
 which  the  Syracusans  were  completely  victorious  over 
 the  Athenians,  B.C.  414.     (Plut.,  Vit.  Nic.) 
 
 2.  Philosophers,  Authors,  &c. 
 
 X.  Surnamed  Ponticus,  a  native  of  Heraclea  Pon- 
 tica,  and  not,  as  some  maintain,  of  Sinope,  was  of  rich 
 parentage.  Having  travelled  into  Greece  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  philosophy, 
 he  became  one  of  the  auditors  of  Speusippus  ;  or,  ac- 
 cording to  Suidas,  of  Plato  himself.  He  afterward  at- 
 tached himself  to  Aristotle,  and  Diogenes  Laertius 
 ranks  him  among  the  Peripatetics.  Following  the  ex- 
 ample of  this  last-mentioned  school,  he  piqued  himself 
 on  a  great  variety  of  knowledge  ;  he  wrote  on  subjects 
 of  all  kinds,  and  even  composed  a  tragedy,  which  he 
 published  under  the  name  of  Thespis.  He  was  always 
 attired  with  much  elegance,  which  made  the  Athenians 
 change  his  name,  in  sport,  from  UovTtKoc  to  rio/zTrtKof 
 ("  Ostentatious").  Diogenes  Laertius  informs  us, 
 that  he  had  reared  a  domestic  serpent  in  secret,  and, 
 when  about  to  die,  besought  his  friends  to  conceal  his 
 body,  and  let  the  serpent  occupy  its  place.  The  arti- 
 fice, however,  was  discovered  ;  the  serpent,  having  be- 
 come alarmed  at  some  noise  made  in  the  house,  fled 
 from  it  before  the  philosopher  had  breathed  his  last 
 
HER 
 
 HERAGLITUS. 
 
 This  story,  however,  is  entitled  to  little,  if  any  credit, 
 as  well  as  another  related  by  the  same  Suidas,  of  the 
 Pythia's  having  been  bribed  by  Heraclides,  and  having, 
 in  consequence,  directed  the  people  of  Heraclea,  during 
 a  period  of  famine,  to  present  a  crown  of  gold  to  him, 
 and  to  decree  him  funeral  honours  after  death.  We 
 have  remaining  of  this  writer  some  portions  of  a  work 
 of  his  on  the  constitutions  of  various  states  {Tcepl  Uo- 
 AcTeiuiv),  which  Coray  thinks  is  an  abridgment  of  Aris- 
 totle's larger  work  on  this  subject.  These  extracts, 
 which  have  several  times  been  appended  to  editions  of 
 various  history  and  to  other  collections,  were  given 
 separately  with  a  Latin  translation,  another  in  German, 
 and  with  notes,  by  Kohler,  HalcB,  1804,  8vo.  The 
 best  edition,  however,  is  that  of  Coray,  which  follows 
 -(Elian  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Bibliotheca  Graeca, 
 Paris,  1805,  8vo.  We  have  also,  under  the  name  of 
 Heraclides,  a  treatise  on  the  Allegories  of  Homer 
 (' k7i2.r)yopLKal  'OftrjpLKal).  It  is  not,  however,  by  the 
 individual  of  whom  we  have  just  been  speaking  ;  but 
 is  merely  an  e.\tract  from  the  Stoic  doctrines  on  this 
 subject.  The  latest  edition  of  this  work  is  that  of 
 Schow,  GoUing.,  1782,  8vo.  A  new  and  more  correct 
 edition  was  expected  from  Hase,  based  on  a  MS.  more 
 complete  than  any  preceding  one,  and  which  he  had 
 discovered  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris  ;  but  none  has 
 ever  appeared.  (Btogr.  Univ.,  vol.  20,  p.  214.) — XI. 
 A  native  of  Tarentum,  celebrated  for  his  medical 
 knowledge.  He  wrote  on  tlie  Materia  Medica,  on  poi- 
 sons, and  on  the  virtues  of  plants.  His  works  are 
 lost.  {Fabr.,  Bibl.  Gr.,  vol.  13,  p.  77.  —  Compare 
 Sckweigh.,  ad  Athcn.  Ind.  Auct.,  vol.  9,  p.  121,  scqq.) 
 He  appears  to  have  flourished  about  the  126th  Olym- 
 piad, or  B.C.  276.  We  have  a  dissertation  on  this 
 writer  by  Kuhn  (Opiisc.  Acad.,  Lips.,  8vo,  vol.  2,  p. 
 150,  se(]q.). — XII.  A  native  of  Cyme  in  .iEolis,  whose 
 work  on  the  Persians  {liEpaLnu)  is  mentioned  in 
 Athenaeus  (2,  p.  48,  c. — Id.,  4,  p.  145,  a. — Consult 
 Schweigh.,  ad  Athcn.  Ind.  Auct.,  vol.  9,  p.  120.) — 
 XIII.  Surnamed.  Ponticus  Junior,  a  writer  who  flour- 
 ished during  the  first  century  of  our  era.  (Athcn.,  14, 
 p.  649,  c. — Schweigh.,  ad  loc.) — XIV.  A  Macedonian 
 painter,  who  lived  at  the  time  of  the  overthrow  o(  the 
 Macedonian  empire.  He  at  first  painted  ships.  On 
 the  defeat  and  captivity  of  Perses  he  retired  to  Athens, 
 according  to  Pliny,  which  would  be  168  B.C.  The 
 same  writer  also  slates,  that  he  attained  to  a  degree  of 
 reputation,  but  was  yet  entitled  to  only  a  cursory  men- 
 tion. (Piin.,  35,  11.) — XV.  An  Epiiesian  sculptor, 
 son  of  Agasias,  who  made,  in  conjunction  with  Harrna- 
 tius,  the  statue  of  Mars  now  in  the  Paris  Museum.  His 
 age  is  uncertain.  {Clara/:,  Dcscr.  dcs  Antiques  du 
 Musee  Royal,  nr.  411,  p.  173.) 
 
 Her.vclitus,  a  natii'e  of  Ephesus,  was  surnamed 
 "  Ike  Naturalist"'  (o  fvaixoc),  and  belongs  to  the  dy- 
 namical school  of  the  Ionian  philosophy.  He  is  said 
 to  have  been  born  about  500  B.C.,  and,  according  to 
 Aristotle,  died  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age.  The 
 title  he  assumed  of  "  self-taught"  (avrocUdaKroc),  re- 
 futes at  once  the  claims  of  the  various  masters  whom 
 he  :s  said  to  have  had,  and  the  distinguished  position 
 that  he  held  in  political  life  attests  the  wealth  and  lus- 
 tre of  his  descent.  The  gloomy  haughtiness  and  mel- 
 ancholy of  his  temperament  led  him  to  despise  all  hu- 
 man pursuits,  and  he  expressed  unqualified  contempt 
 as  well  for  the  political  sagacity  of  his  fellow-citizens 
 as  for  the  speculations  of  all  other  philosophers,  which 
 had  mere  learning,  and  not  wisdom,  for  their  object. 
 It  is  utterly  untrue,  therefore,  though  commonly  re- 
 lated of  him,  that  he  was  continually  shcddinir  tears 
 on  account  of  the  vices  and  follies  of  mankind,  and 
 the  story  is  as  little  entitled  to  sober  belief  as. that  of 
 the  perpetually-laughing  Democritus.  Of  the  work  of 
 Heraclitus  "  On  Nature"  {irepl  (pvaeu^),  the  difficulty 
 of  which  obtained  iot  him  the  surname  of  aKoreivor, 
 or  "  the  obscure,"  many  fragments  are  still  extant,  and 
 
 exhibit  a  broken  and  concise  style,  hinting  at  rather 
 than  explaining  his  opinions,  which  are  often  conveyed 
 in  mythical  and  half  oracular  images.  On  this  ac- 
 count he  well  compares  himself  to  the  Sibyl,  "  who," 
 he  says,  "  speaking  with  inspired  mouth,  smileless,  in- 
 ornate, and  unperfuined,  pierces  through  centuries  by 
 the  •power  of  the  gods."  According  to  Heraclitus,  the 
 end  of  wisdom  is  to  discover  the  ground  and  principle 
 of  all  things.  "^Fhis  principle,  which  is  an  eternal, 
 ever-living  unity,  and  pervades  and  is  in  all  phenom- 
 ena, he  called  Jire.  By  this  term,  however,  Heracli- 
 tus understood,  not  the  elemental  fire  or  flame,  which 
 he  held  to  be  the  very  excess  of  fire,  but  a  warm  and 
 dry  vapour ;  which,  therefore,  as  air,  is  not  distinct 
 from  the  soul  or  vital  energy,  and  which,  as  guiding 
 and  directing  the  mundane  development,  is  endued 
 with  wisdom  and  intelligence.  This  supreme  and  per- 
 fect force  of  life  is  obviously  without  limit  to  its  ac- 
 tivity ;  consequently,  nothing  that  it  forms  can  remain 
 fixed  ;  all  is  constantly  in  a  process  of  formation. 
 This  he  has  thus  figuratively  expressed :  "  No  one 
 has  ever  been  twice  on  the  same  stream."  Nay,  the 
 passencrer  himself  is  without  identity  :  "  On  the  same 
 stream  we  do  and  we  do  not  embark ;  for  we  are  and 
 we  are  not." — The  vitality  of  the  rational  fire  has  in  it 
 a  tendency  to  contraries,  whereby  it  is  made  to  pass 
 from  gratification  to  want,  and  from  want  to  gratifica- 
 tion, and  in  fixed  periods  it  alternates  between  a  swifter 
 and  a  slower  flux.  Now  these  opposite  tendencies 
 meet  together  in  determinate  order,  and,  by  the  ine- 
 quality or  equality  of  the  forces,  occasion  the  phenom- 
 ena of  hfe  and  death.  The  quietude  of  death,  how- 
 ever, is  a  mere  semblance,  which  exists  only  for  the 
 senses  of  man.  For  man,  in  his  folly,  forms  a  truth 
 of  his  own,  whereas  it  is  only  the  universal  reason  that 
 is  really  cognizant  of  the  truth.  Lastly,  the  rational 
 principle,  which  governs  the  whole  moral  and  physical 
 world,  is  also  the  law  of  the  individual ;  whatever, 
 therefore,  is,  is  the  wisest  and  the  best — and  "it  is  not 
 for  man's  welfare  that  his  wishes  should  be  fulfilled — ■ 
 sickness  makes  health  pleasant,  as  hunger  does  grati- 
 fication, and  labour  rest." — The  physical  doctrines  of 
 Heraclitus  form  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  eclec- 
 tic system  of  the  later  Stoics  ;  and,  in  time.s  still  more 
 recent,  there  is  much  in  the  theories  of  Scheliing  and 
 Hegel  that  presents  a  striking  though  general  resem- 
 blance thereto. — According  to  the  ancient  writers, 
 neither  critics  nor  philosophers  were  able  to  explain 
 his  productions,  on  account  of  their  extreme  obscurity  ; 
 and  they  remained  in  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus, 
 where  he  himself  had  deposited  them,  for  the  use  of 
 the  learned,  until  they  were  made  public  by  Crates,  or, 
 as  Tatian  relates  the  matter  (ado.  Grcec,  p.  143),  till 
 the  poet  Euripides,  who  frequented  the  temple  of  Di- 
 ana, committing  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  Hera- 
 clitus to  meinorv,  accurately  repeated  them.  From  the 
 fragments  of  this  work,  as  preserved  by  Sextus  Em- 
 piricus,  it  appears  to  have  been  written  in  prose,  which 
 makes  Tatian's  account  less  credible.  Heraclitus  is 
 said  to  have  eventually  shunned  intercourse  with  the 
 world,  and  devoted  himself  to  retirement  and  medita- 
 tion. His  place  of  residence  was  a  mountainous  re- 
 treat, and  his  food  the  produce  of  the  earth.  This 
 diet  and  mode  of  life  at  length  occasioned  a  dropsy, 
 for  which  he  could  obtain  no  relief  by  medical  advice. 
 It  seems  that  the  philosopher,  who  was  always  fond 
 of  enigmatical  languacre,  proposed  the  following  ques- 
 tion to  the  physicians  :  "  Is  it  possible  to  bring  dryness 
 out  of  moisture  1"  and  upon  their  answering  in  the 
 necrative,  in  place  of  stating  his  case  more  plainly  to 
 them,  he  turned  his  own  physician,  and  attempted  to 
 effect  a  cure  by  placing  himself  in  the  sun,  and  causing 
 a  slave  to  cover  his  body  with  the  dung  of  cattle.  The 
 experiment  proved,  as  may  easily  be  imagined,  to 
 be  anvthmg  but  a  successful  one.-Ihe  fragments  of 
 Heraclitus  have   been  collected   from   Plutarch,  Sto- 
 
H  ER 
 
 HERCULANEUM. 
 
 toaeus,  Olemens  of  Alexandrea,  and  Sexlus  Empincus, 
 and  explained  by  Schleiermacher,  in  Wolf  and  Butt- 
 mann's  Museum  dcr  Altcrlhumswissenschajl,  vol.  1, 
 p.  313-533.  —  Consult  also  Braiulis,  Handbuch  dcr 
 Geschichlc  dcr  Gricchisch.  und  Rom.  I'hilos.,  Berlin, 
 1835. — Kilter'' s  History  of  Ancient  Philosophy,  vol. 
 1,  p.  230,  scqq.,  Eiig.  transl.  —  Encycl.  Us.  Knowl., 
 vol.  12,  p.  137.) 
 
 Hek.«a,  I.  a  city  of  Arcadia,  on  the  slope  of  a  hill 
 rising  gently  above  the  right  bank  of  the  Alpheus,  and 
 near  the  frontiers  of  Elis,  which  frequently  disputed 
 its  possession  with  Arcadia.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  6,  5, 
 22.)  Before  the  Cleoinenic  war,  this  town  had  joined 
 the  Achaean  league,  but  was  then  taken  by  the  .^to- 
 lians,  and  recaptured  by  Antiuonus  Doson,  who  re- 
 stored it  to  the  Acha:ans.  {Pulyh.,  2,  54. — Id.,  4, 
 77. — Liv.,  28,  7.)  In  Strabo's  time  Heraea  was  great- 
 ly reduced  ;  but  when  Pausanias  visited  Arcadia  it  ap- 
 pears to  have  recovered  from  this  state  of  decay 
 {Pausan.,  8,  26. — Compare  Thucyd.,  5,  67.)  Stepha- 
 nus  remarks,  that  this  place  was  also  known  by  the 
 name  of  Sologorgus  {s.  v.  'Rpaia).  Its  site  is  now 
 occupied  by  the  village  of  Agiani.  {Gell,  Ittn.,  p. 
 1 13.) — II.  A  festival  at  Argos  in  honour  of  Juno,  who 
 was  the  patroness  of  that  city.  It  was  also  observed 
 by  the  colonies  of  the  Argives,  which  had  been  planted 
 at  Samos  and  yEgina.  There  were  always  two  pro- 
 cessions to  the  temple  of  the  goddess  without  the  city 
 walls.  The  first  was  of  the  men  in  armour,  the  sec- 
 ond of  the  women,  among  whom  the  priestess,  a  wom- 
 an of  the  first  rank,  was  drawn  in  a  chariot  by  white 
 oxen.  The  Argives  always  reckoned  their  year  from 
 her  priesthood,  as  the  Athenians  from  their  archons,  or 
 the  Romans  from  their  consuls.  When  they  came  to 
 the  temple  of  the  goddess,  they  offered  a  hecatomb  of 
 oxen.  Hence  the  sacrifice  is  often  called  e/caro^goja, 
 and  sometimes  Tiixepva,  from  '^txoq,  a  bed,  because 
 Juno  presided  over  marriage,  births,  &c.  There  was 
 a  festival  of  the  same  name  in  Elis,  celebrated  every 
 fifth  year,  at  which  sixteen  matrons  wove  a  garment 
 for  the  goddess. 
 
 HerjEum,  I.  a  temple  and  grove  of  Juno,  situate 
 about  forty  stadia  from  Argos,  and  ten  from  Mycenas. 
 The  structure  was  embellished  with  a  lofty  statue  of 
 Juno,  made  of  ivory  and  gold  ;  a  golden  peacock,  en- 
 riched with  precious  stones,  and  other  equally  splendid 
 ornafflients.  —  II.  A  large  and  magnificent  temple  of 
 Juno  in  the  island  of  Samos,  built  by  the  architect 
 RhoBcus,  who  is  said  to  have  invented  the  art  of  cast- 
 ing in  brass.  {Pausan.,  8,  14. — Herod.,  3,  60. — Plin., 
 35^  12.) 
 
 Herculaneum,  a  city  of  Campania,  on  the  coast, 
 and  not  far  from  Neapolis.  Cicero  writes  the  name 
 Herculanum  {ad  Att  ,  7,  3).  The  situation  of  this 
 place  is  no  longer  doubtful  since  the  discovery  of  its 
 ruins.  Cluverius  was  right  in  his  correction  of  the 
 Tabula  Theodosiana,  which  reckoned  twelve  miles 
 between  this  place  and  Neapolis  instead  of  six,  though 
 he  removed  it  too  far  from  Poriici  when  he  assigned 
 to  it  the  position  of  Torre  del  Greco.  Nothing  is 
 known  respecting  the  origin  of  Herculaneum,  except 
 that  fabulous  accounts  ascribed  its  foundation  to  Her- 
 cules on  his  return  from  Spain.  {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  44.) 
 It  may  be  inferred,  however,  from  a  passage  in  Strabo, 
 that  this  town  was  of  great  antiquity.  It  may  be  rea- 
 sonably conjectured,  too,  that  Herculaneum  was  a 
 Greek  city,  but  that  its  name  was  altered  to  suit  the 
 Latin  or  Oscan  pronunciation.  At  first  it  was  only  a 
 fortress,  which  was  suc(?essively  occupied  by  the  Osci, 
 Tyrrheni,  Pelasgi,  Samnites,  and  lastly  by  the  Ro- 
 mans. Being  situated  close  to  the  sea,  on  elevated 
 ground,  it  was  exposed  to  the  southwest  wind,  and 
 from  that  circumstance  was  reckoned  particularly 
 healthy.  (S/ra/;o,  247.)  We  learn  from  Velleius  Pa- 
 terculus,  that  Herculaneum  suffered  considerably  du- 
 ring the  civil  wars.  (Compare  i^^rws,  1,  16.)  This 
 596 
 
 place  is  mentioned  also  by  Mela  (2,  4),  and  by  Si-iea 
 na,  a  more  ancient  writer  than  any  of  the  former  j  b« 
 is  quoted  by  Nonius  Marcellus  {De  Indiscr.  Gen.^  v. 
 Fluvius).  Ovid  likewise  notices  it  under  the  name 
 o( '' Urbcm  Herculeam."  {Mel.,  15,711.}  Hercula 
 neum,  according  to  the  common  account,  was  ovep 
 whelmed  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius-  in  the  first  ycaj 
 of  the  reign  of  Titus,  A.D.  79.  Pompeii,  which  stood 
 near,  shared  the  same  fate.  It  is  probable,  however, 
 that  the  subversion  of  Herculaneum  was  not  sudden, 
 but  progressive,  since  Seneca  mentions  a  partial  dem- 
 olition which  it  sustained  from  an  earthquake.  {Nat. 
 Quccst.,  6,  1.)  After  being  buried  for  more  than  six- 
 teen hundred  years,  ihcsecities  were  accidicntally  dis- 
 covered :  Herculaneum  in  1713,  by  labourers  digging 
 for  a  well  ;  and  Pompeii  forty  years  after,  it  ap- 
 pears that  Herculaneum  is  in  no  part  lesa  than  seventy 
 feet,  and  in  some  parts  one  hundred  and  twelve  feet 
 below  the  surlace  of  the  ground,  while  Pompeii  is 
 buried  ten  or  tv/elve  feet  deep,  more  or  less.  Sir  W. 
 Hamilton  thinks,  that  the  matter  which  covers  theeity 
 of  Herculaneum  is  not  the  produce  of  a  single  erap- 
 tion,  but  that  the  matter  of  six  eruptions  has  taken  lis 
 course  over  that  with  which  the  town  is  covered,  and 
 which  was  the  cause  of  its  destruction.  Many  valua- 
 ble remains  of  antiquity,  such  as  busts,  manuscripts, 
 &c.,  have  been  recovered  from  the  ruins  of  this  an- 
 cient city,  and  form  the  most  curious  museum  in  the 
 world.  They  are  all  preserved  at  Portici,  and  the  en- 
 gravings taken  from  them  have  been  munificently  pre- 
 sented to  the  different  learned  bodies  of  Europe.  The 
 plan  also  of  many  of  the  public  buildings  has  been  laid 
 out,  and  especially  that  of  the  theatre.  Sir  W.  Ham- 
 ilton thinks,  that  the  matter  which  first  issued  from 
 Vesuvius  and  covered  Herculaneum  was  in  the  state 
 of  liquid  mud,  and  that  this  has  been  the  means  of 
 preserving  the  pictures,  busts,  and  other  relics,  which 
 otherwise  must  have  been  either  entirely  destroyed  by 
 the  red-hot  lava,  or  else  have  become  one  solid  body 
 along  with  it  when  cooled.  In  illustration  of  this  re- 
 mark, we  may  cite  the  following  from  a  periodical 
 work,  {Edinburgh  Review,  vol.  45,  p.  304.)  "An 
 enormous  quantity  of  aqueous  vapour  is  exhaled  in 
 every  volcanic  eruption,  which,  being  condensed  by  the 
 cold  in  t'ne  regions  of  the  atmosphere  beyond  the  reach 
 of  the  volcano's  heat,  falls  down  again  in  the  form  of 
 rain,  and,  when  it  mixes  with  the  clouds  of  ashes,  it 
 forms  that  compound  which  has  been  sometimes  mis- 
 taken for  an  actual  eruption  of  mud  from  the  crater. 
 It  was  such  a  compound  as  this  that  overwhelmed 
 Herculaneum,  and  it  is  found  to  consolidate  very 
 speedily  into  a  hard,  compact  substance."  Among  the 
 excavations  at  Herculaneum,  in  the  remains  of  a  house 
 supposed  to  have  belonged  to  L.  Piso,  was  found  a 
 great  number  of  volumes  of  burn^id  'papyrus.  Many 
 of  these  papyri,  as  they  have  since  been  generally 
 termed,  were  destroyed  by  the  workmen  ;  but  as  soon 
 as  it  was  known  that  they  were  the  remnatits  of  an- 
 cient manuscripts,  their  development  became  an  ob- 
 ject of  no  common  interest  to  the  learned  world.  Fa- 
 ther Piaggi  invented  a  machine  for  unrolling  them, 
 which  has  been  described  by  several  writers.  When 
 we  reflect  on  the  number  of  valuable  works  which  have 
 been  lost  since  the  period  when  Herculaneum  was  de- 
 stroyed, we  ought  not  to  be  surprised  at  the  sanguine 
 expectations  which,  upon  the  first  discovery  of  the 
 MSS.,  were  entertained,  of  adding  some  important  ac- 
 quisitions to  the  treasures  of  ancient  literature  which 
 we  already  possess.  The  lost  books  of  Livy,  and  the 
 comedies  of  Menander,  presented  themselves  to  the 
 imagination  of  almost  every  scholar.  Each,  indeed, 
 anticipated,  according  to  his  taste,  the  mental  pleas- 
 ures and  the  literary  labours  which  awaited  him. 
 These  enthusiastic  hopes  were  perhaps  too  suddenly 
 repressed,  as  they  had  been  too  easily  excited.  The 
 first  papyrus  which  was  opened  contained  a  treatise 
 
HER 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 upon  music,  by  Philodemus  the  Epicurean.  It  was 
 in  vain  that  Mazocchi  and  Rosini  wrote  their  learned 
 comHieiits  on  tins  dull  performance  :  the  sedative  was 
 too  strong ;  and  the  curiosity  which  had  been  so  sud- 
 denly awakened,  was  as  quickly  lulled  to  repose.  A 
 few  men  of  letters,  indeed,  lamented  that  no  farther 
 search  was  made  for  some  happier  subjects,  on  which 
 learned  industry  might  have  been  employed  ;  but  the 
 time,  the  difficulty,  and  the  e.xpense  which  such  an 
 enterprise  required,  and  the  uncertainty  of  producing 
 anything  valuable,  had  apparently  discouraged  and 
 disgusted  the  academicians  of  Portici.  Things  were 
 in  this  state  when  the  Prince  of  Wales,  afterward 
 George  iV.,  proposed  to  the  Neapolitan  government 
 to  delray  the  expenses  of  unrolling,  deciphering,  and 
 publishing  the  manuscripts.  This  offer  was  accepted 
 by  the  court  of  Naples  ;  and  it  was  consequently 
 judged  necessary  by  his  royal  highness  to  select  a 
 proper  person  to  superintend  the  undertaking.  The 
 reputation  of  Mr.  Hayter  as  a  classical  scholar  jus- 
 tified his  appointment  to  the  place  which  the  munifi- 
 cence of  the  prince,  and  his  taste  for  literature,  had 
 created.  This  gentleman  arrived  at  Naples  in  the 
 beginning  of  the  year  1802,  and  was  nominated  one 
 of  the  directors  for  the  development  of  the  manuscripts. 
 During  a  period  of  several  years,  the  workmen  con- 
 tinued to  open  a  great  number  of  the  papyri.  Many, 
 indeed,  of  these  frail  substances  were  destroyed,  and 
 had  crumbled  into  dust  under  the  slightest  touch  of 
 the  operator.  When  the  French  invaded  the  king- 
 dom of  Naples  in  the  year  1806,  Mr.  Hayter  was 
 compelled  to  retire  to  Sicily.  It  is  to  be  deeply  re- 
 gretted that  all  the  papyri  were  left  behind.  {Quar- 
 terly Review,  vol.  3,  p.  2.)  An  account  of  more  re- 
 cent operations,  including  the  interesting  experiments 
 of  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  will  be  found  in  the  latest  edi- 
 tion of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  under  the  article 
 Herculaneum. 
 
 Heecoles,  a  celebrated  hero,  son  of  Jupiter  and 
 Alcmena,  who,  after  death,  was  ranked  among  the 
 gods,  and  received  divine  honours.  His  reputed  fa- 
 ther was  Amphitryon,  son  of  Alcaeus,  who,  having  ac- 
 cidentally killed  his  father-in-law  Electryon,  was  com- 
 pelled to  leave  Mycenae  and  take  refuge  in  Thebes, 
 where  Hercules  was  born.  While  yet  a  mere  infant, 
 or,  according  to  others,  before  he  had  completed  his 
 eighth  month,  the  jealousy  of  Juno,  intent  upon  his  de- 
 struction, sent  two  snakes  to  devour  him.  'I'he  child, 
 not  terrified  at  the  sight  of  the  serpents,  boldly  seized 
 them  in  both  his  hands,  and  squeezed  them  to  death, 
 while  his  brother  Iphiclus  alarmed  the  house  with  his 
 shrieks.  {Vid.  Iphiclus.)  He  was  early  instructed 
 in  the  liberal  arts,  and  Castor,  the  son  of  Tyndarus, 
 taught  hitn  the  use  of  arms,  Eurytus  how  to  shoot 
 with  a  bow  and  arrows,  Autolycus  to  drive  a  chariot, 
 Linus  to  play  on  the  lyre,  and  Eumolpus  to  sing. 
 Like  the  rest  of  his  illustrious  contemporaries,  he  soon 
 after  became  the  pupil  of  the  centaur  Chiron.  In  the 
 18th  year  of  his  age,  he  resolved  to  deliver  the  neigh- 
 bourhood of  Mount  Cithaeron  from  a  huge  lion  which 
 preyed  on  the  flocks  of  Amphitryon,  his  supposed  father, 
 and  which  laid  waste  the  adjacent  country.  After  he 
 had  destroyed  the  lion,  he  delivered  his  country  from  the 
 annual  tribute  of  a  hundred  oxen  which  it  paid  to  Ergi- 
 nus.  {Vul.  Erginus, )  Such  public  services  became 
 universally  known  ;  and  Creon,  who  then  sat  on  the 
 throne  of  Thebes,  rewarded  the  patriotic  deeds  of  Her- 
 cules by  giving  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  in- 
 trusting him  with  the  government  of  his  kingdom. 
 As  Hercules,  by  the  will  of  Jupiter,  was  subjected  to 
 the  power  of  Eurystheus(»;<Z.  Eurystheus),  and  obliged 
 to  obey  him  in  every  respect,  Eurystheus,  acquainted 
 with  his  suoxcesses  and  rising  power,  ordered  him  to 
 appear  at  Mycenae  and  perform  the  labours  which,  by 
 priority  of  birth,  he  was  empowered  to  impose  upon  him. 
 Hercules  refused ;  and  Juno,  to  punish  his  disobedi- 
 
 ence, rendered  him  delirious,  so  that  he  killed  his  own 
 children  by  Megara,  supposing  them  to  be  the  offspring 
 of  Eurystheus.  {Vul.  Megara.)  When  he  recover- 
 ed his  senses,  he  was  so  struck  with  the  misfortunes 
 which  had  proceeded  from  his  insanity,  that  he  con- 
 cealed himself  and  retired  for  some  time  from  the 
 society  of  men.  He  afterward  consulted  the  oracle  of 
 Apollo,  and  was  told  that  he  must  be  subservient  for 
 twelve  years  to  the  will  of  Eurystheus,  in  compliance 
 with  the  commands  of  Jupiter  ;  and  that,  after  he  had 
 achieved  the  most  celebrated  labours,  he  should  be 
 translated  to  the  gods.  So  plain  and  expressive  an 
 answer  determined  him  to  go  to  Mycenae,  and  to  bear 
 with  fortitude  whatever  gods  or  men  imposed  upon 
 him.  Eurystheus,  seeing  the  hero  totally  subjected  to 
 him,  and  apprehensive  of  so  powerful  an  enemy,  com- 
 manded him  to  achieve  a  number  of  enterprises  the 
 most  difficult  and  arduous  ever  known,  generally  called 
 the  twelve  labours  of  Hercules.  The  favour  of  the 
 gods  had  completely  armed  him  when  he  undertook  his 
 labours.  He  had  received  a  sword  from  Mercury,  a 
 bow  from  Apollo,  a  golden  breastplate  from  Vulcan, 
 horses  from  Neptune,  a  robe  from  Minerva.  He  him- 
 self cut  his  club  in  the  Ncinean  wood.  The  first  la- 
 bour imposed  upon  Hercules  by  Eurystheus  was  to 
 kill  the  lion  of  Nemea,  which  ravaged  the  country  near 
 Mycense.  The  hero,  unable  to  destroy  him  with  his 
 arrows,  boldly  attacked  him  with  his  club,  pursued  him 
 to  his  den,  and,  after  a  close  and  sharp  engagement, 
 choked  him  to  death.  He  carried  the  dead  beast  on 
 his  shoulders  to  Myccnte,  and  ever  after  clothed  him- 
 self with  the  skin.  Eurystheus  was  so  astonished  at 
 the  sight  of  the  beast  and  at  the  courage  of  Hercules, 
 that  he  ordered  him  never  to  enter  the  gates  of  the  city 
 when  he  returned  from  his  expeditions,  but  to  wait  for 
 his  orders  without  the  walls.  He  even  made  himseh 
 a  brazen  subterranean  apartment,  into  which  he  retired 
 whenever  Hercules  returned.  {Vid.  Chalcioecus  and 
 Eurystheus.) — The  second  labour  of  Hercules  was  to 
 destroy  the  Lernaean  hydra,  which  abode  in  the  marsh 
 of  Lerna.  whence  it  used  to  come  out  on  the  land,  and 
 kill  the  cattle  and  ravage  the  country.  This  hydra 
 had  a  huge  body,  with  nine  heads,  eight  of  them  mor- 
 tal, and  one  in  the  middle  immortal.  Hercules  mount- 
 ed his  chariot,  which  was  driven  by  lolaus,  son  of  Iphi- 
 clus, and,  on  coining  to  Lerna,  he  stopped  the  horses 
 and  went  in  quest  of  the  hydra,  which  he  found  on  a 
 rising  ground,  near  the  springs  of  Amymone,  where  its 
 hole  was.  He  shot  at  the  animal  with  fiery  darts  till 
 he  made  it  come  out ;  and  he  then  grasped  and  held 
 It,  while  it  twisted  itself  about  his  legs.  The  hero 
 crushed  its  heads  with  his  club,  but  to  no  purpose  ;  for, 
 when  one  was  crushed,  two  sprang  up  in  its  stead.  A 
 huge  crab  also  aided  the  hydra,  and  bit  the  feet  of  Her 
 cules.  He  killed  the  crab, 'and  then  called  upon  lola- 
 us to  come  to  his  assistance.  lolaus  immediately  set 
 fire  to  the  neighbouring  wood,  and  with  the  flaming 
 brands  searing  the  necks  of  the  hydra  as  the  heads  were 
 cut  off',  etTectually  checked  their  growth.  Having  thus 
 got  rid  of  the  mortal  heads,  Hercules  cut  off"  the  im- 
 mortal one  and  buried  it,  setting  a  heavy  stone  on  the 
 top  of  it.  in  the  road  leading  from  Lerna  to  Eleus.  He 
 cut  the  body  of  the  hydra  into  pieces,  and  dipped  his 
 arrows  in  its  gall,  which  made  their  wounds  incurable. 
 Eurystheus,  however,  denied  that  this  was  to  be  reck- 
 oned among  the  twelve  labours,  since  he  had  not  de- 
 stroyed the  hydra  alone,  but  with  the  assistance  of  lo- 
 laus.—He  was  ordered,  in  his  third  labour,  to  bring, 
 alive  and  unhurt,  into  the  presence  of  Eurystheus,  a 
 stag,  famous  for  its  incredible  swiftness  and  golden 
 horns.  This  celebrated  animal  frequented  the  neigh- 
 bourhood of  CEnoe,  and  Hercules  was  employed  ,or  a 
 whole  year  continually  pursuing  it.  When  at  last  the 
 animal' was  tired  with  the  chase,  she  took  i^fuge  in 
 Mount  Artemisium.  then  fled  to  the  river  Ladon,  and. 
 as  she  was  about  to  cross  the  stream,  Hercules  struck 
 
 59" 
 
HERCULES. 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 her  with  an  arrow,  caught  her,  jmt  her  on  liis  shoul- 
 der, and  was  going  with  his  burden  through  Ar  adia, 
 when  he  met  Diana  and  Apollo.  The  goddess  took 
 the  hind  from  hun,  and  reproached  him  for  violaiing 
 her  sacred  animal.  But  the  hero  excusing  himself  on 
 the  plea  of  necessity,  and  laying  the  blame  on  Eurys- 
 theus,  Diana  was  mollified,  and  allowed  him  to  take 
 the  hind  alive  to  Mycenfe. — The  fourth  laiiour  was  to 
 bring  alive  to  Etirystheus  a  wild  boar  which  ravaged 
 the  neighbourhood  of  Erymanthus.  In  this  expedition 
 he  destroyed  the  Centaurs  {vid.  Centauri  and  Chiron), 
 and  then  caught  the  boar  by  driving  him  from  his  lair 
 with  loud  cries,  and  chasing  him  into  a  snow-drift, 
 where  he  seized  and  bound  him,  and  then  took  him  to 
 Mycenae.  Euryslheus  was  so  frightened  at  the  sight  of 
 the  boar,  that,  according  to  Diodorus,  he  hid  himself  in 
 his  brazen  apartment  for  several  days. — In  his  fifth  la- 
 bour Hercules  was  ordered  to  cleanse  the  stables  of 
 Augeas,  where  numerous  o.xen  had  been  confined  for 
 many  years.  (Vid.  Augeas  ) — For  his  sixth  labour  he 
 was  ordered  to  kill  the  carnivorous  birds  which  rav- 
 aged the  country  near  the  Lake  Slymphalus  in  Arcadia. 
 While  Hercules  was  deliberating  how  he  should  scare 
 them,  Minerva  brought  him  brazen  rattles  from  Vulcan. 
 He  took  his  station  on  a  neighbouring  hill,  and  sound- 
 ed the  rattles  :  the  birds,  terrified,  rose  in  the  air,  and 
 he  then  shot  them  with  his  arrows. — In  his  seventh 
 labour  he  brought  alive  into  Peloponnesus  a  prodigious 
 wild  bull,  which  laid  waste  the  island  of  Crete. — He 
 then  let  him  go,  and  the  bull  roved  over  Sparta  and 
 Arcadia,  and,  crossing  the  isthmus,  came  to  Marathon 
 in  Attica,  where  he  did  infinite  mischief  to  the  inhab- 
 itants.— In  his  eighth  labour  he  was  employed  in  ob- 
 taining the  mares  of  Diomcdes,  the  Thracian  king, 
 which  fed  on  human  flesh.  (  Vid.  Diomedes  II.) — For 
 his  ninth  labour  he  was  commanded  to  obtain  the  gir- 
 dle of  the  queen  of  the  Amazons.  {Vid.  Hippolyta.) 
 — In  his  tenth  labour  he  killed  the  monster  Ceryon, 
 king  of  Erythea,  and  brought  his  oxen  to  Eurystheus, 
 who  sacrificed  them  to  Juno.  {Vid.  Cieryon.) — The 
 eleventh  labour  was  to  obtain  the  apples  from  the  gar- 
 den of  the  Hesperides.  {Vid.  Hesperides.) — The 
 twelfth,  and  last,  and  most  dangerous  of  his  labours, 
 was  to  bring  upon  earth  the  three-headed  dog  Cerbe- 
 rus. When  preparing  for  this  expedition,  Hercules 
 went  to  Eurnolpus  at  Eleusis,  desirous  of  being  initia- 
 ted ;  but  he  could  not  be  admitted,  as  he  had  not  been 
 purified  of  the  blood  of  the  centaurs.  Eurnolpus, 
 however,  purified  him.  and  he  then  saw  the  mysteries  ; 
 after  which  he  proceeded  to  the  Tasnarian  promontorvr 
 in  Laconia,  where  was  the  entrance  to  the  lower  world, 
 and  went  down  to  it,  accompanied  by  Mercury  and 
 Minerva.  The  moment  the  shades  saw  him  they  fled 
 away  in  terror,  all  but  Meleager  and  Medusa  the  Gor- 
 gon. {Od.,  11,  633.)  Ho  was  drawing  his  sword  on 
 the  latter,  when  Mercury  reminded  him  that  she  was 
 a  mere  phantom.  Near  the  gates  of  the  palace  of 
 Hades  he  found  Theseus  and  Pirilhoiis,  who  had  at- 
 tempted to  carry  off  Proserpina,  and  had,  in  conse- 
 quence, been  fixed  on  an  enchanted  rock  by  the  offend- 
 ed monarch  of  Erebus.  When  they  saw  Hercules, 
 they  stretched  forth  their  hands,  hoping  to  be  relieved 
 by  his  might.  He  took  Theseus  by  the  hand  and 
 raised  him  up  ;  but  when  he  would  do  the  same  for 
 Pirilhoiis,  the  earth  quaked,  and  he  left  him.  He  then, 
 after  several  other  acts  of  prowess,  asked  Pluto  to  give 
 him  Cerberus  ;  and  the  god  consented,  provided  he 
 would  take  him  without  using  any  weapons.  He  found 
 him  at  the  gates  of  Acheron  ;  and  protected  only  by  his 
 r.oislet  and  lion's  skin,  he  flung  his  arms  about  his 
 head,  and,  grasping  him  by  the  neck,  made  him  submit, 
 though  the  dragon  in  his  tail  bit  him  severely.  He 
 brought  him  through  Troezene  to  Eurystheus,  and, 
 when  he  had  shown  him,  took  him  back  to  the  lower 
 world. — Besides  these  arduous  labours,  which  the  jeal- 
 ousy of  Eurystheus  imposed  upon  him.  he  also  achieved 
 598 
 
 others  of  his  own  accord,  equally  great  and  celebrated 
 {V^cd.  Cacus,  Antajus,  liusiris,  Eryx,  &c.),  and  he  had 
 also,  according  to  some,  accompanied  the  Ar^onaula  to 
 Colchis  before  he  delivered  himself  up  to  the  King  of 
 Mycen».  Wishing  after  this  to  marry  again,  having 
 given  Megara  to  lolaus,  and  hearing  that  Euiyius,  king 
 of  CEchaha,  had  declared,  that  he  would  give  his  daugh- 
 ter lole  to  him  who  should  overcome  himself  and  his 
 sons  in  shooting  with  the  bow,  he  went  thither  and  won 
 the  victory,  but  did  not  obtain  the  promised  prize.  Iph- 
 itus,  the  eldest  son,  was  for  giving  his  sister  to  Hercu 
 les,  but  Eurytus-  and  his  other  sons  refused,  lest  he 
 should  destroy  her  children,  if  she  had  any,  as  he  had 
 done  those  of  Megara.  Shortly  afterward,  the  oxen  ol 
 Eurytus  being  stolen  by  Autolycus,  his  suspicions  fell 
 on  Hercules.  Iphiius,  whogave  no  credit  to  the  charge, 
 betook  himself  to  that  hero,  and  besought  him  to  join 
 in  the  search  for  the  lost  oxen.  Hercules  promised  to 
 do  so,  and  entertained  him  ;  but,  falling  into  madness, 
 he  precipitated  Ipbitus  from  the  walls  of  Tiryns.  In 
 order  to  be  purified  of  this  murder,  he  went  to  Neleus, 
 who,  being  a  friend  of  Eurjtus,  refused  to  comply  with 
 his  desire.  Hercules  then  proceeded  to  Aniycloe, 
 where  he  was  purified  by  De'iphobus,  the  son  of  Hip 
 polytus.  But  he  fell,  notwithstanding,  into  a  severe 
 malady  on  account  of  the  murder  of  Iphitus  ;  and,  go- 
 ing to  Delphi  to  seek  relief,  he  was  refused  a  response 
 by  the  Pythia.  In  his  rage  at  her  denial  he  went  to 
 plunder  the  temple,  and,  taking  the  tripod,  was  about 
 establishing  an  oracle  for  himself,  when  Apollo  came 
 to  oppose  him  ;  but  Jupiter  hurled  a  thunderbolt  be- 
 tween the  combatants,  and  put  an  end  to  the  contest. 
 Hercules  now  received  a  response,  that  his  malady 
 would  be  removed  if  he  let  himself  be  sold  for  three 
 years  as  a  slave,  and  gave  the  purchase-money  to  Eu- 
 rytus as  a  compensation  for  the  loss  of  his  son.  Ac- 
 cordingly, in  obedience  to  the  oracle,  he  was  conduct- 
 ed by  Mercury  to  Lydia,  and  there  sold  to  Omphale, 
 the  queen  of  the  country.  {Vtd.  Omphale.)  The 
 purchase-money  (three  talents,  it  is  said)  was  offered 
 to  Eurytus,  but  he  refused  to  accept  it.  When  the 
 term  of  this  servitude  had  expired,  he  prepared,  being 
 now  relieved  of  his  disease,  to  take  vengeance  on  La- 
 omedon,  for  having  refused  the  promised  reward  for  de- 
 livering Hesione.  {Vid.  Hippolyta  and  Laomedon.) 
 After  succeeding  in  this  enterprise,  and  slaying  La- 
 omedon, he  collected  an  army  and  marched  against  and 
 slew  Augeas  and  his  sons.  Elis  was  the  scene  of  this 
 warfare,  and  here,  when  victory  had  declared  for  him, 
 he  established  the  Olympic  games,  raised  an  altar  to 
 Pelops,  and  built  altars  also  to  the  twelve  great  deities. 
 After  the  conquest  of  Elis  he  marched  against  Pylo.s, 
 took  the  city,  and  killed  Neleus  and  all  his  sons,  ex- 
 cept Nestor,  who  was  living  with  the  Gerenians.  (//., 
 11,  689.)  He  is  said  also  to  have  wounded  Pluto  and 
 Juno,  as  they  were  aiding  the  Pylians.  Some  time 
 after  this,  Hercules  went  to  Calydon,  where  he  sought 
 the  hand  of  Deianira,  the  daughter  of  CEneus.  He 
 had  to  contend  for  her  with  the  river-god  Acheloiis, 
 who  turned  himself  into  a  bull,  in  which  form  one  of 
 his  horns  was  broken  off  by  the  victorious  hero.  (  Vid. 
 Acheloiis.) — One  day,  at  the  table  of  CEneus,  as  Eu- 
 nomus,  son  of  Architeles,  was,  according  to  custom, 
 pouring  water  on  the  hands  of  the  guests,  Hercules 
 happening  unawares  to  swing  his  hand  suddenly,  struck 
 the  boy  and  killed  him.  As  it  was  evidently  an  acci- 
 dent, the  father  forgave  the  death  of  his  son;  but  Her- 
 cules resolved  to  banish  himself,  agreeably  to  liie  law 
 in  such  cases,  and  he  set  out  with  his  wife  for  Tra- 
 chis,  the  realm  of  his  friend  Ceyx.  On  his  journey  to 
 this  quarter  the  affair  of  Nessus  took  place.  ( Vid. 
 Deianira  and  Nessus  )  While  residing  with  CeyA, 
 he  aided  yEgimius,  king  of  the  Dorians,  against  whom 
 the  Lapithae,  under  the  command  of  Coronus,  had  made 
 war,  on  account  of  a  dispute  respecting  boundaries. 
 As    he  was  passing,   on  a  subsequent   occasion,  by 
 
HERCULES. 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Pagasas,  he  was  opposed  by 
 Cycnug,  the  son  of  Mars,  who  was  in  the  habit  of 
 plundering  those  that  brought  the  sacrifices  to  Delphi. 
 Cyciius  fell  in  the  combat ;  and  when  Mars,  who  had 
 witnessed  the  fate  of  his  son,  would  avenge  hini,  he 
 received  a  wound  in  the  thigh  from  the  spear  of  the 
 hero.  Returning  to  Trachis,  Hercules  collected  an 
 army,  and  made  war  on  Eurytus,  king  of  CEchalia, 
 whom  he  killed,  together  with  his  sons,  and,  plundering 
 the  town,  led  away  lole  as  a  captive.  At  the  EubcE- 
 an  promontory  Caenaeum  he  raised  an  altar  to  Jupiter, 
 and,  wishing  to  offer  a  sacrifice,  sent  to  Ceyx  for  a 
 splendid  robe  to  wear.  Dei'anira,  hearing  about  lole 
 from  the  messenger,  and  fearmg  the  effect  of  her 
 chartns  on  the  heart  o{  her  husband,  resolved  to  try 
 the  efficacy  of  the  philtre  of  Nessus  (vid.  De'iauira), 
 and  tinged  with  it  the  tunic  that  was  sent.  Hercules, 
 suspecting  nothing,  put  on  the  fatal  garment,  and  pre- 
 pared to  offer  sacrifice.  At  first  he  felt  no  effect  Irom 
 it ;  but  when  it  warmed,  the  venom  of  the  hydra  began 
 to  consume  his  fiesh.  In  his  fury,  he  caught  Lichas, 
 the  lU-fated  bearer  oi'  the  tunic,  by  the  foot,  and  hurled 
 him  into  the  sea.  He  attempted  to  tear  off  the  tunic, 
 but  it  adhered  closely  to  his  skin,  and  the  flesh  came 
 away  with  it.  In  this  wretched  stale  he  got  on  ship- 
 board, where  Deianira,  on  hearing  the  consequences 
 of  what  she  had  done,  hanged  herself;  and  Hercules, 
 charging  Hyllus,  his  eldest  son  by  her,  to  marry  lole 
 when  he  was  of  sufficient  age,  had  himself  carried  to 
 the  summit  of  Mount  CEta,  and  there  causing  a  pyre 
 to  be  erected,  ascended  it,  and  directed  his  followers 
 to  set  it  on  fire.  But  no  one  would  venture  to  obey  ; 
 till  Posas,  happening  to  arrive  there  in  search  of  his 
 stray  cattle,  complied  with  the  desire  of  the  hero,  and 
 received  his  bow  and  arrows  as  his  reward.  While  the 
 pyre  was  blazing,  a  thunder-cloud  conveyed  the  suf- 
 ferer to  heaven,  where  he  was  endowed  with  immor- 
 tality ;  and,  being  reconciled  to  Juno,  he  espoused  her 
 daughter  Hebe,  by  whom  he  had  two  children,  Alexi- 
 ares  (Aider-ill-war)  and  Anicetus  (Unsubdued).  The 
 legend  of  Hercules  is  given  in  full  detail  by  Apollo- 
 dorus  (2,  4,  8,  seqq.).  Other  authorities  on  the  sub- 
 ject are  as  follows  :  Diod.  Sic,  4,  9,  seqq. — Thcocnt., 
 Idyll.,  25.  — Find.,  01.,  3,  bb.  —  Theocnt.,  Idyll.,  1, 
 149. — Pkerecydes,ap.  Schol.  adApoll.  Rliod.,  2,  1054. 
 — //.,  8,  8Q7. —Pherecyd.,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Od.,  21,  23  — 
 Hesiod.,  Scut.  Here  — Ovid,  Met.,  9,  165,  et  217.—- 
 Sopk.,  Trachin. — Homer  arms  Hercules  with  a  bow 
 and  arrows.  (//.,  5,  393.— 0(Z.,  S,  224.)  Hesiod 
 describes  him  with  shield  and  spear.  Pisander  and 
 Stesichorus  were  the  first  who  gave  him  the  club  and 
 Jion's  skin.  {Athenaus,  12,  p.  513.) — The  mythology 
 of  Hercules  is  of  a  very  mixed  character  in  the  form  in 
 which  It  has  come  down  to  us.  There  is  in  it  the 
 identification  of  one  or  more  Grecian  heroes  with  Mel- 
 carth,  the  sun-god  of  the  Phoenicians.  Hence  we  find 
 Hercules  so  frequently  represented  as  the  sun-god, 
 and  his  twelve  labours  regarded  as  the  passage  of  the 
 sun  through  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac.  He  is  the 
 powerful  plarfet  which  animates  and  imparts  fecundity 
 to  the  universe,  v^hose  divinity  has  been  honoured  in 
 every  quarter  by  temples  and  altars,  and  consecrated 
 in  the  religious  strains  of  all  nations.  From  Meroe 
 in  Ethiopia,  and  Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt,  even  to 
 Britain,  and  the  icy  regions  of  Scythia ;  from  the  an- 
 cient Taprobana  and  Palibothra  in  India,  to  Cadiz 
 and  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  ;  from  the  forests  of 
 Germany  to  the  burning  sands  of  Africa  ;  everywhere, 
 in  short,  where  the  benefits  of  the  luminary  of  day  are 
 experienced,  there  we  find  established  the  name  and 
 worship  of  a  Hercules.  Many  ages  before  the  period 
 when  Alcmena  is  said  to  have  lived,  and  the  pretended 
 Tyrinthian  hero  to  have  performed  his  wonderful  ex- 
 ploits, Egypt  and  Phoenicia,  which  certainly  did  not 
 bjrrow  their  divinities  from  Greece,  had  raised  tem- 
 ples to  the  Sun,  under  a  name  analogous  to  that  of 
 
 Hercules,  and  had  carried  his  worship  to  the  is.e  ot 
 Thasus  and  to  Gades.  Here, was  consecrated  a  tern 
 pie  to  the  year,  and  to  the  months  which  divided  it 
 into  twelve  parts,  that  is,  to  the  twelve  labours  or  vi."  ■ 
 tories  which  conducted  Hercules  to  mimortality.  It 
 is  under  the  name  of  Hercules  Astrochyton  {'Aarpo- 
 x'tTuv),  or  the  god  clothed  with  a  mantle  of  stars, 
 that  the  poet  Nonnus  designates  the  Sun,  adored  by  the 
 Tyrians.  (D(o«y*.,  40,  415.— 7Z/<(Z.,  375.)  "  He  is 
 the  same  god,"  observes  the  poet,  "  whom  different 
 nations  adore  under  a  multitude  of  different  names  ; 
 Belus  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  Ammon  in  Lib- 
 ya, Apis  at  Memphis,  Saturn  in  Arabia,  Jupiter  in  As- 
 syria, Serapis  in  Egypt,  Helios  among  the  Babyloni- 
 ans, Apollo  at  Delphi,  /Esculapius  throughout  Greece," 
 &,c.  Martianus  Capella,  in  his  hymn  to  the  Sun,  as 
 also  Ausonius  (Epegr.,  2,  4)  and  Macrobius  {Sat.,  1, 
 20),  confirm  the  fact  of  this  multiplicity  of  names  given 
 to  a  single  star.  The  Egyptians,  according  to  Plu- 
 tarch (Be  Is.  et  Os.,  p.  367.— 0;;.,  ed.  Reiske,  vol.  7, 
 p.  449),  thought  that  Hercules  had  his  seat  in  the  Sun, 
 and  tliat  he  travelled  with  it  around  the  moon.  The 
 author  of  the  hymns  ascribed  to  Orpheus,  fixes  still 
 more  strongly  the  identity  of  Hercules  with  the  Sun. 
 He  calls  Hercules  "  the  god  who  produced  time, 
 whose  forms  vary,  the  father  of  all  things,  and  de- 
 stroyer of  all.  He  is  the  god  who  brings  back  by 
 turns  Aurora  and  the  night,  and  who,  moving  onward 
 from  east  to  west,  runs  through  the  career  of  his 
 twelve  labours,  the  valiant  Titan,  who  chases  away 
 maladies,  and  delivers  man  from  the  evils  which  afflict 
 him."  (Orph.,  Hymn.,  12. — ed.  Herin.,  p.  272,  scq.) 
 The  Phoenicians,  it  is  said,  preserved  a  tradition  among 
 them,  that  Hercules  was  the  Sun,  and  that  his  twelve 
 labours  indicated  the  sun's  passage  through  the  twelve 
 signs.  Porphyry,  who  was  born  in  Phcenicia,  assures 
 us  that  they  there  gave  the  name  of  Hercules  to  the 
 sun,  and  that  the  fable  of  the  twelve  labours  represer.ts 
 the  sun's  annual  path  in  the  heavens  (ap.  Euseb.,  Frcep. 
 Ev.,  3,  11)  In  like  manner  the  scholiast  on  Hesiod 
 remarks,  "  the  zodiac,  in  which  the  sun  performs  his 
 annual  course,  is  the  true  career  which  Hercules  trav- 
 erses in  the  fable  of  the  twelve  labours  ;  and  his  mar- 
 riage with  Hebe,  the  goddess  of  youth,  whom  he  es- 
 poused after  he  had  ended  his  labours,  denotes  the  re- 
 newal of  the  year  at  the  end  of  each  solar  revolution." 
 (J.  Diaconus,  Schol.  ad  Hes.,  Tkcog.,p.  165.)  Among 
 the  different  epochs  at  which  the  year  in  ancient  times 
 commenced  among  different  nations,  that  of  the  sum- 
 mer solstice  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable.  It  was 
 at  this  period  that  the  Greeks  fixed  the  celebration  of 
 their  Olympic  game,  the  establishment  of  which  is  at- 
 tributed to  Hercules.  (Corshii,  Fast.  Att.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 235.)  It  was  the  origin  of  the  most  ancient  era  of  the 
 Greeks. — If  we  fix  from  this  point  the  departure  of  the 
 sun  on  his  annual  career,  and  compare  the  progress  of 
 that  luminary  through  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  with  the 
 twelve  labours  of  Hercules,  altering  somewhat  the  or- 
 der ii:  which  they  are  handed  down  to  us,  a  very  striking 
 coincidence  is  instantly  observed.  A  few  examples 
 will  be  adduced.  In  the  first  month  the  sun  passes 
 into  the  sign  Leo ;  and  in  his  first  labour  Hercules 
 slew  the  Nemean  lion.  Hence,  too,  the  legend,  that 
 the  Nemean  lion  had  fallen  from  the  skies,  and  that  it 
 was  produced  in  the  regions  bordering  on  the  sphere 
 of  the  moon.  (Tatian,  Conlr.  Gent,  p.  IG4.)  In 
 the  second  month  the  sun  enters  the  sign  Vngo,  when 
 the  constellation  of  the  Hvdra  sets  ;  and  in  his  second 
 labour  Hercules  destrovcd  the  Lenwan  hydra.  It 
 should  also  be  remarked,  that  the  head  of  the  celestial 
 hydra  rises  with  the  constellation  Cancer,  or  the  Crab, 
 aiid  hence  the  fable  that  Hercules  was  annoyed  by  a 
 crab  in  his  conflict  with  the  hydra,  (Cyncsins  Calv., 
 p.  64.)  The  hydra,  moreover,  is  remarkable  among 
 the  constellations  for  its  great  length  ;  its  head  nsmg, 
 as  has  just  been  remarked,  with  Cancer ;  its  body  be- 
 
HERCULES. 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 ing  extended  >:nder  the  sign  Leo,  and  only  ending  at 
 the  later  degrees  of  the  sign  Virgo.  On  this  is  based 
 the  fable  of  the  continual  reappearance  of  the  mon- 
 ster's heads  ;  the  constellation  being  of  so  great  a 
 length,  that  the  stars  of  one  part  reappear  after  the 
 sun  has  passed  onward  to  another  part,  and  while  the 
 stars  of  this  latter  part  are  merged  in  the  solar  fires. 
 In  the  third  month  the  sun  enters  the  sign  Libra,  at 
 the  beginning  of  autumn,  when  the  constellation  of  the 
 centaur  rises,  represented  as  bearing  a  wine-skin  full 
 of  liquor,  and  a  thyrsus  adorned  with  vine-leaves  and 
 grapes.  Bayer  represents  him  in  his  tables  with  a 
 thyrsus  in  one  hand  and  a  flask  of  wine  in  the  other. 
 {(Iran.,  tabl.,  41.)  The  Alphonsine  tables  depict  him 
 with  a  cup  or  goblet  in  his  hand.  (Tab.,  Alph.,  p. 
 209.)  At  this  same  period,  what  is  termed  by  some 
 astronomers  the  constellation  of  the  boar  rises  in  the 
 evening ;  and  in  his  third  labour  Hercules,  after  be- 
 ing hospitably  entertained  by  a  centaur,  encountered 
 and  slew  the  other  centaurs  who  fought  for  a  cask 
 of  wine  :  he  slew  also  in  this  labour  the  Eryman- 
 thian  boar.  In  the  fourth  month  the  sun  enters 
 the  sign  of  Scorpio,  when  Cassiopeia  rises,  a  con- 
 stellation in  which  anciently  a  stag  was  represented  ; 
 and  in  his  fourth  labour  Hercules  caught  the  famous 
 stag  with  golden  horns  and  brazen  feet.  It  is  said 
 also  to  have  breathed  fire  from  its  nostrils.  {Quint. 
 Smyrn.,  6,  226.)  The  horns  of  gold  and  the  breath- 
 ing of  flames  are  traits  that  harmonize  well  with  a 
 con.stellation  studded  with  blazing  stars,  and  which, 
 in  the  summer  season,  unites  itself  to  the  solstitial 
 tires  of  the  sun,  by  rising  in  the  evening  with  its  spouse 
 Cepheus.  In  the  fifth  month  the  sun  enters  the  sign 
 Sagittarius,  consecrated  to  Diana,  who  bad  a  temple 
 at  Stymphalus,  in  which  were  seen  the  birds  called 
 Stymphalides.  At  this  same  lime  rise  the  three  birds; 
 namely,  the  constellations  of  the  vulture,  swan,  and 
 eagle  pierced  with  the  arrows  of  Hercules  ;  and  in  his 
 fifth  labour  Hercules  destroyed  the  birds  near  Lake 
 Stymphalus,  which  are  represented  as  three  in  number 
 on  the  medals  of  Perinthus.  {Med.  du  Cardin.  Alban., 
 vol.  2,  p.  70,  n.  1.)  In  the  si.^th  month  the  sun  passes 
 into  the  sign  Capricornus,  who  was,  according  to 
 some,  a  grandson  of  the  luminary.  At  this  period  the 
 stream  which  flows  from  Aquarius  sets  ;  its  source  is 
 between  the  hands  of  Arist^us,  son  of  the  river  Pene- 
 us.  In  his  si-xth  labour  Hercules  cleansed,  by  means 
 of  the  Peneus,  the  stables  of  Augeas,  son  of  Phoebus. 
 Augeas  is  made  by  some  to  have  been  a  son  of  Nvc- 
 teus,  a  name  which  bears  an  evident  reference  to  the 
 night  {vvS),  and  which  contains,  therefore,  in  the  pres- 
 ent mstance,  an  allusion  to  the  long  nights  of  the  win- 
 ter solstice.  In  the  seventh  month  the  sun  passes  into 
 the  sign  Aquarius.  The  constellation  of  the  Lyre,  or 
 celestial  vulture,  now  sets,  which  is  placed  by  the  side 
 of  the  constellation  called  Prometheus,  and  at  this 
 same  period  the  celestial  bull,  called  the  bull  of  Pasi- 
 phae,  the  bull  of  Marathon,  in  fine,  the  bull  of  Europa, 
 passes  the  meridian.  In  his  seventh  labour,  Hercules 
 brings  alive  into  the  Peloponnesus  a  wild  bull,  which 
 laid  waste  the  island  of  Crete.  He  slays  also  the  vul- 
 ture that  preyed  upon  the  liver  of  Prometheus.  It  is 
 to  be  remarked  that,  as  the  constellation  sets  at  this 
 period,  Hercules  is  said  to  have  killed  that  bird ; 
 whereas  the  bull,  which  crosses  the  meridian  merely, 
 is  made  to  have  been  brought  altvc  into  Greece.  The 
 bull  in  question  was  also  fabled  to  have  vomited  flames 
 (An\..  Gell.,  1,  1),  an  evident  allusion  to  the  celestial 
 bull  which  glitters  with  a  thousand  fires.  It  is  at  the 
 close  of  this  seventh  labour,  and  under  the  same  title 
 with  it,  that  Hercules  is  supposed  to  have  arrived  in 
 Elis,  mounted  on  the  steed  Arion,  and  to  have  estab- 
 lished there  the  Olympic  games  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Alpheus.  Now,  when  ihe  sun  passes  into  the  sign 
 Aquarius,  he  comes  into  that  quarter  of  the  heavens 
 which  is  marked  by  the  full  moon  from  year  to  year. 
 600 
 
 !  The  full  moon  of  the  summer-solstite  was  the  period 
 for  celebrating  the  Olympic  Games ;  and  hence  the 
 poets,  observing  the  phenomenon  of  the  full  moon  du- 
 ring every  year  in  the  sign  of  Aquarius,  ascribed  to 
 Hercules  the  institution  of  these  games,  of  which 
 Aquarius,  by  its  union  with  the  full  moon,  was  every 
 year  the  symbol.  In  the  immediate  vicmity  of  Aqua- 
 rius, moreover,  we  find  the  constellation  Pegasus  iden- 
 tical with  the  fabled  steed  Arion.  Hence  the  fzt  je  of 
 Hercules  having  come  on  this  latter  animal  to  the  land 
 of  Elis.  In  the  eighth  month  the  sun  enters  into  the 
 sign  Pisces,  when  the  celestial  horse  rises  in  the  morn- 
 ing, known  by  the  name  of  Pegasus  and  Arion,  ».■»  we 
 have  just  remarked  ;  and  in  his  eighth  labour  Hercules 
 overcame  and  carried  off  the  horses  of  Diomede. 
 Eurystheus  consecrated  these  steeds  to  Juno,  to  v.'hom, 
 in  the  division  of  the  zodiac  among  the  twelve  great 
 gods,  the  sign  Aquarius  was  given  as  her  peculiar 
 domain  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  Tbra- 
 cian  Diomede  is  fabled  to  have  been  the  son  of  Cy- 
 rene,  who  was  also  the  mother  of  Arista;us,  and  that 
 this  last  personage  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  been 
 the  same  with  Aquarius.  In  the  ninth  month  the  sun 
 passes  into  the  sign  Aries,  sacred  to  Mars,  which  all 
 the  ancient  authors  who  have  written  on  astronomy 
 make  to  be  the  same  with  the  ram  of  the  golden  fleece. 
 When  the  sun  enters  into  this  sign,  the  celestial  ship, 
 called  Argo,  rises  in  the  evening.  At  this  same  pe- 
 riod Cassiopeia  and  Andromeda  set.  Andromeda  is 
 remarkable  for  many  beautiful  stars,  one  of  which  is 
 called  her  girdle.  Hyginus  makes  this  girdle  consist 
 of  three  stars.  Aratus  designates  it  particularly  by 
 the  name  of  Cc'm'i).  Now,  in  his  ninth  lahour,  Hercules, 
 according  to  one  version  of  the  legend,  embarked  on 
 board  the  Argo  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece  ;  he  con- 
 tends with  the  female  warriors,  and  takes  from  Hippol- 
 yta,  their  queen,  the  daughter  of  Mars,  a  famous  girdle. 
 He  also  rescues  Hesione  from  a  sea-monster,  as  Per- 
 esus  did  Andromeda.  In  the  tenth  month  the  sun  en- 
 ters into  the  sign  Taurus.  The  constellation  of  Orion, 
 who  was  fabled  to  have  pursued,  through  love,  the  Plei- 
 ades, or  daughters  of  Atlas,  now  sets  :  the  herdsman, 
 or  conductor  of  the  oxen  of  Icarus,  also  sets,  as  does 
 likewise  the  river  Eridanus.  At  this  period,  too,  the 
 Pleiades  rise,  and  the  she-goat  fabled  to  have  been  the 
 spouse  of  Faunus.  Now,  in  his  tenth  labour,  Hercu- 
 les restores  to  their  father  the  seven  Pleiades,  whose 
 beauty  and  wisdom  had  inspired  with  love  Busiris, 
 king  of  Egypt,  an^  who,  wishing  to  become  master  of 
 their  persons,  had  sent  pirates  to  carry  them  off.  He 
 slew  also  Busiris,  who  is  here  identical  with  Orion.  In 
 this  same  labour  he  bore  away  from  Spain  the  oxen  o{ 
 Geryon,  and  arrived  in  Italy,  where  he  overcame  Ca- 
 cus,  and  was  hospitably  received  by  Faunus.  In  the 
 eleventh  month  the  sun  passes  into  the  sign  of  Gemini. 
 This  period  is  marked  by  the  setting  of  Procyon,  and 
 the  cosmical  rising  of  the  dog-star.  The  constellation 
 of  the  Swan  also  rises  in  the  evening.  In  his  eleventh 
 labour,  Hercules  conquers  Cerberus,  the  dog  of  Hades. 
 He  triumphs  also  over  Cycnus  (Swan),  aird  at  the  very 
 time,  too,  according  to  Hesiod  (Scut.  Here,  393), 
 when  the  dog-star  begins  to  parch  the  fields,  and  the  ci- 
 cada announces  the  summer  by  its  song.  It  is  to  be  re- 
 marked, moreover,  that  the  constellation  of  the  Swan 
 gave  rise,  in  a  dilferent  legend,  to  the  fable  of  the  amour 
 of  Leda  and  Jove,  and  the  birth  of  the  /!(i'i'(-brothers  Cas- 
 tor and  Pollux.  {Eratosth.,  c.  2!))  In  the  twelfth 
 month  the  sun  enters  the  sign  Cancer,  the  last  of  the 
 twelve  commencing  with  Leo.  The  consiellatians  of 
 the  river  and  the  centaur  set,  that  of  Hercules  Ingenicu- 
 lus  also  descends  towards  the  western  regions,  or  those 
 of  Hespcria,  followed  by  the  dragon  of  the  pole,  the 
 guardian  of  the  golden  apples  of  the  Hesperides,  whose 
 head  he  crushes  with  his  foot.  In  his  twelfth  labour, 
 Hercules  travelled  to  Hesperia  in  quest  of  the  golder* 
 fruit,  guarded  by  the  dragon.     After  this  he  prepare* 
 
HERCULES. 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 to  offer  up  a  solemn  sacrifice,  and  clothes  himself  in  a 
 robe  dipped  in  the  blood  of  the  Centaur,  whom  he  had 
 slain  in  crossing  a  river.  The  robe  takes  fire,  and  the 
 hero  perishes  amid  the  flames,  but  only  to  resume  his 
 3routh  in  the  heavens,  and  become  a  partaker  of  immor- 
 tality. The  Centaur  thus  terminates  the  mortal  career 
 of  Hercules  ;  and  in  like  manner  the  new  annual  period 
 commences  with  the  passage  of  the  sun  into  Leo, 
 marked  by  a  group  of  stars  in  the  morning,  which 
 glitter  like  the  flames  that  issued  from  the  vestment 
 of  Nessus. — If  Hercules  be  regarded  as  having  actually 
 existed,  nothing  can  be  more  monstrous,  nothing  more 
 at  variance  with  every  principle  of  chronology,  nothing 
 more  replete  with  contradictions,  than  the  adventures 
 of  such  an  individual  as  poetry  makes  him  to  have 
 been.  But,  considered  as  the  luminary  that  gives 
 light  and  life  to  the  world,  as  the  god  who  impregnates 
 all  nature  with  his  fertilizing  rays,  every  part  of  the  le- 
 gend teems  with  animation  and  beauty,  and  is  marked 
 by  a  pleasing  and  perfect  harmony.  The  sun  of  the 
 summer  solstice  is  here  represented  with  all  the  attri- 
 butes of  that  strength  which  he  has  acquired  at  this 
 season  of  the  year.  He  enters  proudly  on  his  course, 
 in  obedience  to  the  eternal  order  of  nature.  It  is  no 
 longer  the  sign  Leo  that  he  traverses  ;  he  combats  a 
 fearful  lion  which  ravages  the  plains.  The  Hydra  is 
 the  second  monster  that  opposes  the  hero,  and  the 
 constellation  in  the  heavens  becomes  a  fearful  animal 
 on  earth,  to  which  the  language  of  poetry  assigns  a  hun- 
 dred heads,  with  the  power  of  reproducing  them  as 
 they  are  crushed  by  the  weapon  of  the  hero.  All  the 
 obstacles  that  array  themselves  against  the  illustrious 
 champion  are  gifted  with  some  quality  or  attribute  that 
 exceeds  the  bounds  of  nature  :  the  horses  of  Diomede 
 feed  on  human  fesh  ;  the  females  rise  above  the  timid- 
 ity of  their  sex,  and  become  formidable  heroines  ;  the 
 apples  of  the  Hesperides  are  of  gold  ;  the  stag  has 
 brazen  hoofs  ;  the  dog  of  Hades  bristles  with  serpents ; 
 everything,  even  down  to  the  very  crab,  is  formidable; 
 for  everything  is  great  in  nature,  and  must,  therefore, 
 be  equally  so  in  the  various  symbols  that  are  used  to 
 designate  her  various  powers.  (Consult,  on  this  whole 
 subject,  the  remarks  of  Diipuis,  Origine  de  lous  les 
 Cidtes,  vol.  2,  p.  168,  seqq. — Abrege,  p.  116,  seqq.) 
 The  conclusion  to  which  we  have  here  arrived,  will 
 appear  still  plainer  if  we  take  a  hasty  sketch  of  the  Ori- 
 ental origin  of  the  fable  of  Hercules,  and  its  passage  from 
 the  East  into  the  countries  of  the  West.  And  it  will  be 
 seen  that  the  Greeks,  in  conformity  with  their  national 
 character,  appropriated  to  themselves,  and  gave  a  hu- 
 man form  to,  an  Oriental  deity  ;  and  that,  metamor- 
 phosing the  stranger-god  into  a  Grecian  hero,  they 
 took  delight  in  making  him  an  ideal  type  of  that  heroic 
 courage  and  might  which  triumphs  over  every  obstacle. 
 Hercules,  the  invincible  Hercules,  has  strong  analogies 
 with  the  Persian  Mithras,  the  type  of  the  unconquered 
 sum.  (Crciizer,  Symbolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  1,  p. 
 376,  &c.)  Mithras,  Perseus,  and  Hercules  the  de- 
 scendant of  Perseus,  connect  together  the  two  families 
 of  Bekis,  that  of  Asia  and  that  of  Egypt.  According 
 to  the  Greek  genealogies,  the  son  of  Amphitryon  and 
 Alcmena  was  of  Egyptian  blood  both  on  the  father's 
 and  mother's  side,  while  he  was  descended  by  Perseus 
 from  Belus,  the  solar  god.  (Consult  the  tables  of  ge- 
 nealogy, X,  Xa,  and  Xb,  at  the  end  of  Heyne's  Apol- 
 lodorus.)  But,  added  the  tradition,  the  figure  of  Am- 
 phitryon only  served  as  a  mask  to  the  king  of  gods  and 
 men  when  he  wished  to  give  birth  to  Hercules.  The 
 origin  of  the  latter,  then,  was  mediately  and  immediately 
 divine,  and  we  have  a  son  of  Jupiter  in  the  Hellenic 
 Hercules,  as  well  as  in  the  Sem-Hercules  of  Egypt. 
 But,  in  every  other  respect,  what  a  difference  between 
 the  two.  Herodotus,  full  of  the  ideas  imbibed  from 
 the  national  poems  on  Hercules,  the  illustrious  chief 
 of  the  heroic  races  of  Greece,  arrives  in  Egypt.  There 
 be  finds  a  Hercules  quite  different  from  the  one  with 
 4G 
 
 which  he  is  familiar.  In  vain  does  he  endeavour  to 
 reconcile  the  mythic  legends  of  Greece  with  the  foreign 
 dogmas  that  he  encounters.  After  a  scrupulous  ex- 
 amination, and  imploring  the  favour  of  the  gods  of  bis 
 country,  he  declares  that  the  name  HerukUs  is  origi- 
 nally from  Egypt,  not  from  Greece.  Hercules  with  the 
 Egyptians  was  the  sun  of  the  spring  in  all  his  force, 
 an  idea  to  which  his  very  name  alluded,  which  was 
 in  the  Egyptian  tongue  Scm,  Som,  or  Djom,  "the 
 Strong."  Sem-Herakles  passed  for  a  god  of  the  sec- 
 ond class  in  Egypt.  He  was  the  type  of  the  divine 
 power,  appearing  with  glory  at  the  period  of  the  spring, 
 after  having  conquered  the  gloomy  winter.  He  was 
 the  sun  traversing  his  celestial  career,  contending 
 against  the  numerous  obstacles  with  which  his  path  is 
 supposed  to  be  strewed,  and  obtaining  by  his  immortal 
 vigour  a  prize  worthy  of  his  numerous  triumphs.  On 
 the  monuments  of  Egypt  he  was  seen  traversing  the 
 fields  of  air  in  the  bark  of  the  star  of  day  {Pint.,  de 
 Is.  el  Os.,  p.  506,  ed.  Wyitenb.);  at  other  times  the 
 phoenix  was  placed  in  his  hand,  as  a  pledge  of  eternal 
 victory,  and  a  symbol  of  the  great  year,  to  which  the 
 renewal  of  each  solar  year  was  supposed  to  allude. — 
 From  the  Egyptian  let  us  pass  to  the  Phcenician  Her- 
 cules. Here  he  was  denominated  Melkarth,  and  be- 
 longed to  the  line  of  Bel  or  Baal,  called  Cronos  by  the 
 Greeks.  ( Creuzer,  Symbolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  3, 
 p.  15.)  Melkarth  was  the  tutelary  divinity  of  the  pow- 
 erful city  of  Tyre,  and  the  Tyrian  navigators  spread 
 his  worship  from  island  to  island,  and  from  shore  to 
 shore,  even  to  the  farthest  west,  even  to  Gades,  where 
 a  flame  burned  continually  in  his  temple,  as  at  Olympia 
 on  the  altar  of  Jupiter.  (Heeren,  Idecn,  vol.  1,  p.  2, 
 seqq.)  His  name  signified,  according  to  some,  "the 
 king  of  the  city  ;"  according  to  others,  and  with  greater 
 probability,  "  the  powerful  king"  {Bochart,  Geogr 
 Sacr.,  2,  2. — Selden,  de  D.  S.,  1,  6),  an  idea  closely 
 analogous  to  that  intended  to  be  conveyed  by  the  Egyp- 
 tian appellation  Sem.  The  King  of  the  City,  or  the 
 powerful  King,  was  a  true  incarnation  of  the  sun. 
 He  was  the  sun  of  spring,  growing  gradually  more  and 
 more  powerful  as  it  mounts  to  the  skies,  sending  rains 
 upon  the  eartli,  and  causing  the  seed  to  shoot  forth 
 from  the  ground.  Hence  the  Phoenicians  regarded 
 him  as  the  god  of  harvests  and  of  the  table,  the  god 
 who  brings  joy  in  his  train.  {Nonnus,  Dionys.,  40, 
 418.)  A  mercantile  and  commercial  people,  they  also 
 made  him  (in  a  still  more  special  sense,  perhaps)  the 
 protector  of  commerce  and  colonies.  It  is  to  this  idea 
 that  many  seek  to  refer  the  etymology  of  the  Greek 
 and  Latin  names  Herakles  and  Hercules.  Thus,  some 
 assign  as  the  root  the  Phoenician  or  Hebrew  term 
 Harkel,  "  circuitor,"  "  mercator"  {Mimter,  Relig.  der 
 Carlhag.,  p.  41,  ed.  2),  but  which  applies  equally  well 
 to  the  sun  moving  along  in  his  celestial  career  (vne- 
 piuv).  Others  write  the  name  Archies,  which  recalls 
 the  old  Latin  or  Etrurian  Ercle,  Hercole.  (Bcllcr- 
 mann,  1,  22.)  The  perilous  and  fertilizing  course  of 
 the  sun  in  the  heavens  may,  in  fact,  have  passed  for  a 
 natural  type  of  those  adventurous  courses  by  land  and 
 sea  which  enriched  the  hardy  navigators  of  Pbnenicia  ; 
 and  beyond  a  doubt  the  mythus  of  Hercules  borrowed 
 more  than  one  incident  from  their  distant  expeditions. 
 The  ancient  nations  had  a  custom  of  loading  with 
 chains  the  statues  of  their  gods,  when  the  state  was 
 menaced  with  danger,  in  order  to  prevent  their  flight. 
 Among  the  Phoenicians,  the  idol  Melkarth  was  almost 
 constantly  chained.  In  the  same  manner,  the  nations 
 of  Italy  chained  their  Saturn  every  year  until  the  tenth 
 month,  and  at  his  festival  in  December  they  gave  hinr. 
 his  freedom.  {Macrob.,  Sat.,  1,  8.)  The  fundamen- 
 tal idea  of  this  symbolical  usage  was  originallv  the 
 same  amon^'  all  these  nations,  though  afterward  differ- 
 ently expressed,  and  variously  modified  m  various  sys- 
 tems  of  religion.  In  the  infantine  conceptions  of  the 
 earliest  times,  it  was  believed  that  the  course  of  the 
 
 601 
 
HERCULES. 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 lun  could  be  retarded  by  chaining  his  image,  and  ac- 
 telerated  by  removing  the  fetters.  Hence,  m  this  way, 
 they  wished  to  represent  his  strength  and  his  weak- 
 sess. — The  worship  of  Hercules  prevailed  also  ia 
 Phrygia,  Hercules,  according  to  Euscbius  {Citron., 
 I,  p.  26. — Bochart,  Geogr.  Sacr.,  p.  472),  here  bore 
 ihe  name  of  Diodas,  or,  as  the  Latin  version  gives  it, 
 Desanaus,  which  last  Vossius  makes  equivalent  to 
 ''  strong,"  "  powerful,"  an  idea  conveyed  also  by  the 
 Tyrian  appellation  oi  Melkarlh.  {Voss,  de  IdoloL,  1, 
 22.) — As  a  colony  from  Tyre  had  carried  the  worship 
 of  Hercules  into  Boeotia  by  the  way  of  Thasus,  so 
 another  colony  conveyed  it  to  the  lonians  of  lower 
 Asia.  At  Erythrae,  on  the  coast  of  Ionia,  was  to  be 
 seen  a  statue  of  Hercules,  of  an  aspect  completely 
 Egyptian.  The  worship  of  the  god  was  here  cele- 
 brated by  certain  Thracian  females,  because  the  females 
 of  the  country  were  said  to  have  refused  to  make  to  the 
 god  an  offering  of  their  locks  on  his  arrival  at  Erythras. 
 {Pau^an.,  7,  5.)  The  females  of  Byblos  sacrificed  to 
 Adonis  their  locks  and  their  chastity  at  one  and  the 
 same  time,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  worship  of  Her- 
 cules was  not  more  exempt,  in  various  parts  of  the 
 ancient  world,  from  the  same  dissolute  offerings.  In 
 Lydia,  particularly,  it  seems  to  have  been  marked  by 
 an  almost  delirious  sensuality.  Married  and  unmar- 
 ried females  prostituted  themselves  at  the  festival  of 
 the  god.  {Hcrodot.,  1,  93. — Compare  Clearch.,  ap. 
 Athen.,  12,  p.  416,  ed.  Schweigh.)  The  two  sexes 
 changed  their  respective  characters  ;  and  tradition  re- 
 ported that  Hercules  himself  had  given  an  example  of 
 this,  when,  assuming  the  vestments  and  occupation 
 of  a  female,  he  subjected  himself  to  the  service  of  the 
 voluptuous  Omphale.  {Creuzcr,  Fragm.  Hist.  An- 
 hq.,  p.  187.)  The  Lydian  Hercules  was  named  San- 
 don,  after  the  robe  dyed  with  sandyx,  in  which  Om- 
 phale had  arrayed  him,  and  which  the  females  of  the 
 country  imitated  in  celebrating  his  licentious  worship. 
 (7.  Laurent.  Lydus,  de  Mag.  Rom.,  3,  64,  p.  268.) 
 This  Sandon  reappears  in  the  Cilician  Sandacus,  sub- 
 jected to  his  male  companion  Pharnaces,  as  the  Lydian 
 Hercules  was  to  Omphale.  {Creuzcr,  Symbolzk,  par 
 Guigniaut,  vol.  3,  p.  179.)  •  We  find  here,  as  in  the 
 religion  of  Phoenicia,  the  same  opposition,  the  same 
 alternation  of  strength  and  weakness,  of  voluptuous- 
 ness and  courage.  Hercules  with  Omphale,  is  the  so- 
 lar god  descended  into  the  omphalos,  or  "  navel"  of 
 the  world,  amid  the  signs  of  the  southern  hemisphere  ; 
 and  it  was  the  festival  of  this  powerful  star,  enervated 
 in  some  degree  at  the  period  of  the  winter  solstice, 
 which  the  Lydian  people  celebrated  by  the  changing  of 
 the  vestments  of  the  weaker  and  the  stronger  sex. — 
 The  fable  of  Hercules  Melampyges  and  the  Cercopes 
 has  a  similar  reference.  According  to  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus  (4,  31),  the  Cercopes  dwelt  iu  the  vicinity  of 
 Ephesus,  and  ravaged  the  country  far  and  wide,  while 
 Hercules  led  a  life  of  pleasure  and  servitude  in  the 
 arms  of  Omphale.  In  vain  had  their  mother  warned 
 them  to  beware  of  the  powerful  hero  :  they  contemned 
 her  exhortations,  and  Melampyges,  in  consequence, 
 was  sent  to  chastise  them.  He  soon  brought  them  to 
 the  queen,  loaded  with  chains.  A  different  tradition 
 places  the  Cercopes  in  the  islands  that  face  the  coast 
 of  Campania.  Jupiter,  says  the  legend,  being  in- 
 volved in  war  with  the  Titans,  came  to  these  islands 
 to  demand  aid  from  the  people  called  Arimi.  But  the 
 Arimi,  after  having  promised  him  assistance,  refused  to 
 fulfil  that  promise,  and  trifled  with  the  god.  As  a 
 punishment  for  this  conduct,  Jove  changed  them  into 
 monkeys,  or,  according  to  others,  into  stones,  and  from 
 this  period  the  isles  of  Inarime  and  Prochyta  have 
 taken  the  name  of  Pithecusa,  or  "Monkey  Islands." 
 {licOrjKovaai,  from  nWrjKO^,  "a  monkey.")  We  have 
 here  the  Cercopes,  both  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  the  vol- 
 canic islands  of  Campania.  The  meaning  of  the  fable 
 js  evident.  The  Lydian  Hercules  is  the  sun,  pale  and 
 €02 
 
 feeble  at  the  period  of  the  winter  solstice,  which  in 
 some  sense  turns  his  back  upon  the  earth,  and  shows 
 his  obscurer  parts.  (Compare  the  literal  meaning  of 
 Me/ia^Trvyof,  and  the  note  of  Guigniaut,  vol.  3,  p. 
 182.)  As  long  as  the  solar  god  abandons  himself  to 
 an  inglorious  life,  and  divides  his  attention  between 
 the  pleasures  and  the  servile  employments  of  women, 
 that  is,  during  the  entire  winter  solstice,  the  Cercopes, 
 who  are  the  divisions  of  this  period  of  languor,  crowd 
 around  and  insult  him  with  impunity.  But  no  sooner 
 does  the  approach  of  the  vernal  equinox  reinvigorate 
 the  solar  luminary,  than  Hercules,  coming  forth  from 
 degrading  repose,  attacks  and  subjugates  his  revilers. 
 Jupiter,  placed  in  opposition  to  the  same  creatures,  so 
 full  of  artifice  and  so  fair  a  symbol  of  it,  may  equally 
 be  explained  in  an  astronomical  and  calendary  sense. 
 This  god  was  the  sun  of  suns  ;  the  supreme  force  that 
 combats,  subdues,  and  dissipates  whatever  tends  to 
 obscure  the  light  and  disturb  the  harmony  of  the  uni- 
 verse. The  Cercopes  are  here  opposed  to  him  in  the 
 same  manner  as  in  other  legends  the  Titans. — It  may 
 be  as  well,  before  leaving  this  part  of  the  subject,  to 
 remark,  that  the  monkey,  and  also  various  other  ani- 
 mals or  natural  objects,  consecrated  in  public  worship 
 both  among  the  Egyptians  and  elsewhere,  were  re- 
 garded as  having  a  direct  and  permanent  relation  to 
 the  stars,  their  revolutions,  and  the  periods  of  the  year. 
 Apes  appear  to  have  been  honoured  with  a  species  of 
 worship,  not  only  in  India  and  Egypt,  but  also  along 
 the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  perhaps  even  at  Carthage 
 itself.  {Guigniaut,  vol.  3,  p.  183.)  —  Hercules,  ac- 
 cording to  the  traditions  of  Lydia,  became  the  father, 
 in  this  country,  by  a  female  slave,  perhaps  the  same 
 with  Omphale,  of  the  chief  of  a  new  dynasty  of  kings. 
 The  dynasty  preceding  this  had  in  like  manner  for  its 
 founder  a  chieftain  of  the  name  of  Atys,  homonymous 
 with  the  solar  god  of  Phrygia  and  Lydia.  The  sec- 
 ond royal  race  was  that  of  the  Heraclidae,  or  rathe: 
 of  the  Candaulidae  ;  for,  according  to  some,  the  Lydi- 
 an Hercules  was  named  Candaules.  {Hesych.,  s.  v. 
 'Viny6av7.rig.)  This  name  recalls  to  mind  the  last  mon- 
 arch of  the  race,  who,  like  his  divine  progenitor,  fell 
 into  the  snare  laid  for  him  by  an  artful  woman,  and, 
 still  more  unfortunate  than  he,  lost  at  one  and  the  same 
 time  his  throne  and  his  life.  {Hcrodot.,  \,  12.)  Witii- 
 out  speaking  of  the  marvellous  incidents  with  which 
 the  later  accounts  of  this  work  are  adorned,  such,  for 
 example,  as  the  magic  ring  of  Gyges,  the  narrative  of 
 Herodotus  alone  evidently  shows  a  mythic  side  in  the 
 whole  history  of  the  kings  of  Lydia  :  the  very  fall  of 
 the  monarchy  is  related  with  accompanying  circum- 
 stances that  bear  the  imprint  of  old  religious  symbols. 
 If  King  Meles,  said  the  legend,  had  carried  the  lion, 
 which  one  of  his  concubines  brought  forth,  all  around 
 the  walls  of  Sardis,  that  city  never  would  have  fallen 
 into  the  hands  of  Cyrus.  {Hcrodot.,  1,  84.)  We  have 
 here  a  royal  lion,  born  of  a  young  female,  in  the  fam- 
 ily of  the  Heraclida) ;  and  the  lion  was  always  a  sym- 
 bol of  the  valiant  and  victorious  Hercules,  an  em- 
 blem of  the  sun  in  its  protecting  force.  It  remained 
 the  sacred  attribute  of  the  monarchs  of  Lydia.  Among 
 the  rich  offerings  which  Crcesus  sent  to  the  temple  of 
 Apollo  at  Delphi,  the  principal  one  was  a  golden  lion. 
 {Hcrodot.,  1,  50.)  Even  Sardis  itself  was,  as  the  very 
 name  denoted,  the  city  of  the  year,  and,  under  this  ap- 
 pellation, consecrated  to  the  god  who  directed  the 
 movements  of  the  year.  {Xanthus,  ap.  1.  Lyd.  de 
 Mens.,  p.  42.)  It  was  the  city  of  Hercules,  as  the 
 Egyptian  Thebes  was  the  city  of  Ammon  ;  Babylon, 
 the  city  of  Belus ;  Ecbatana,  with  its  walls  of  seven 
 different  colours,  the  city  of  the  planets. — India  had 
 also  her  Hercules,  if  we  credit  the  ancient  writers, 
 though  their  accounts  are  of  a  date  comparatively  re- 
 cent. He  was  named  Dorsanes  or  Dosanes  {Hesy- 
 chius,  s.  V.  Aopa. — Alberti,  ad  loc.),  an  appellation 
 which  recalls  the  Desanaus  of  Phrygia.     The  accounl 
 
HERCULES. 
 
 HER 
 
 given  by  Megaslhenes  (ap.  Arrian,  Ind.,  c.  8,  seqq.), 
 is  in  many  respects  so  very  similar  to  that  which  has 
 already  been  stated  with  regard  to  the  Lydiaii  Hercu- 
 les, as  to  lead  to  the  belief  that  the  legends  of  Lower 
 Asia  had  emanated  in  some  degree  from  the  plains  of 
 the  Indian  peninsula.  The  Kama  of  Hindustan,  with 
 his  warlike  apes,  reminds  us,  under  various  striking 
 aspects,  of  Hercules  and  the  Cercopes. — The  religion 
 of  Hercules,  passing  from  the  East  like  the  god  whom 
 it  was  intended  to  commemorate,  made  its  way  to  the 
 farthest  limits  of  the  then  known  West.  The  Phoeni- 
 cians, and  after  them  the  Carthaginians,  extended  on 
 every  side  the  worship  of  Melkarth,  the  divine  pro- 
 tector of  their  colonies.  It  was  from  them  that  the 
 nations  of  Spain,  after  those  of  Africa,  learned  to  re- 
 vere his  name  ;  and,  not  content  with  placing  his  col- 
 umns at  the  entrance  of  the  Atlantic,  the  PhcEnician 
 Hercules  undertook,  on  this  vast  extent  of  ocean,  long 
 and  perilous  expeditions.  Pursuing  also  another  di- 
 rection, he  crossed  the  barriers  of  the  Pyrenees  and 
 the  Alps  :  he  and  his  descendants  founded  numerous 
 cities,  both  in  Gaul  and  in  the  countries  adjacent  to  it. 
 He  was  here  styled  Deusonicnsts,  an  appellation  which 
 again  recalls  that  of  Desanaits.  Indeed,  the  occiden- 
 tal mythology  seems  here  to  correspond  in  every  par- 
 ticular with  that  of  the  East.  The  cup  of  the  sun,  in 
 which  Hercules  traverses  the  ocean  for  the  purpose  of 
 reaching  the  isle  of  Erythea,  represents  the  marvellous 
 cup  of  the  Persian  Dschemschid.  Under  the  empire 
 of  the  latter,  no  corruption  or  decay  of  any  kind  pre- 
 vailed ;  and  the  columns  of  wood  in  the  temple  of 
 Hercules  at  Gades  were  never  carious.  The  Dschem- 
 schid of  Persia  and  the  Sem  of  Egypt  gave  health  to 
 their  votaries  ;  the  Romans  recognised  the  same  power 
 in  their  victorious  Hercules.  (Z.  Lyd.  de  Mens.,  p. 
 92.)  Rome  herself  counted  among  her  citizens  cer- 
 tain individuals  who  claimed  to  bo  his  descendants. 
 The  heroic  family  of  the  Fabii,  for  example,  traced 
 their  origin  to  the  son  of  Alcmena.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Fah. 
 Max.,  c.  1.)  The  Latins,  as  well  as  the  Lydians,  as- 
 signed various  concubines  to  this  powerful  deity, 
 among  whom  are  mentioned  Fauna,  and  Acca  Laren- 
 tia,  the  nurse  of  Romulus.  {Macer,  ap.  Macrob., 
 Sat.,  1,  \0.— August.,  de  Civ.  Dei,  6,  7.)  Thus,  then, 
 at  the  same  time  that  we  find  even  in  the  West  the 
 traces  of  a  sensual  worship  rendered  to  Hercules,  we 
 see  reproduced  that  peculiar  tendency,  so  prevalent  in 
 the  East,  of  making  heroes  and  kings  the  descendants 
 of  the  divine  sun  ;  the  children  of  that  victorious  and 
 beneficent  star,  which  continually  brings  us  both  the 
 day  and  the  year  as  the  prizes  of  his  glorious  combats. 
 And,  indeed,  what  idea  can  be  more  natural  than  thisi 
 Is  not  the  sun  himself  a  powerful  king,  a  hero,  placed 
 in  a  situation  of  continual  combat  with  the  shades  of 
 darkness  and  with  the  evil  spirits  to  which  they  give 
 birth  ]  His  numerous  adversaries,  in  the  career  of  the 
 zodiac  which  he  traverses,  are  principally  the  signs  of 
 winter.  The  solemn  rites  offered  to  him,  such  as  the 
 games  celebrated  at  Chemmis  and  Olympia ;  the 
 chains  with  which  the  statue  of  the  Tyrian  Hercules 
 was  loaded  ;  the  circle  of  female  figures  surrounding 
 his  statue  at  Sardis,  were  intended  to  represent  the 
 alternations  of  strength  and  weakness,  of  victory  and 
 defeat,  which  mark  the  course  of  this  courageous 
 wrestler  of  the  year,  whose  very  death  is  a  triumph. 
 Hence,  among  the  numerous  incarnations  of  the  star 
 of  day,  the  warlike  spirit  of  the  earlier  nations  of  an- 
 tiquity would,  in  order  to  propose  it  as  an  example  to 
 chiefs  and  monarchs,  give  a  preference  to  that  one 
 which  represented  the  sun  under  the  character  that  we 
 have  just  been  considering.  Nor  could  the  heads  of 
 communities  have  a  nobler  model.  If  their  orio-in  was 
 regarded  as  divine,  it  imposed  upon  them  the  obliga- 
 tion of  a  continual  struggle,  in  order  to  render  mani- 
 fest to  all  eyes  the  principle  of  light,  of  streno-th,  and 
 of  goodness,  which  they  were  supposed  to  have  within 
 
 them.  Besides,  it  was  on  the  solar  year,  and  its  sev- 
 eral subdivisions  and  periods,  that  the  ordinances  vi 
 the  earliest  social  state  were  based.  In  maintainiv-g 
 this  sacred  order,  they  only  imitated  the  god  of  the 
 year,  at  once  the  author  of  it  and  of  their  race.  It  is 
 for  these  reasons  that  we  find,  throughout  all  antiquity, 
 a  solar  hero  at  the  head  of  royal  dynasties.  This  so- 
 lar hero  is  Hercules,  who  is  everywhere  found  to  be 
 the  same  personage,  though  under  diflerent  appella- 
 tions.— In  Greece,  the  painful  and  protracted  delivery 
 of  Alcmena,  the  mother  of  Hercules,  already  announces 
 the  god  of  light,  destined  to  struggle  painiully  against 
 the  powers  of  darkness.  Ilithyia  herself,  the  light 
 coming  forth  from  the  bosom  of  night,  sits  with  folded 
 arms  before  the  door  of  Amphitryon,  and  the  coura- 
 geous mother  is  a  prey  to  cruel  pangs  until  the  cause 
 of  her  anguish  is  removed  by  the  artifice  of  Galan- 
 this.  [Vtd.  Alcmena.)  Long  did  Juno,  according  to 
 the  early  traditions,  put  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
 the  birth  of  the  hero.  (7/.,  19,  119.)  This  hostile 
 power  persecutes  the  son  after  the  mother,  and  her  ob- 
 stinate hatred  becomes  the  means  that  enable  him  to 
 develop  in  all  its  splendour  the  divine  power  with 
 which  he  is  endowed.  Thus  the  oracle  gave  him  the 
 name  of  Herakles  {'lipaK?.?/^),  because  by  means  of 
 Jimo  ("Hpa)  he  was  destined  to  gain  immortal  glory 
 (KXiog),  and  live  in  the  praises  of  posterity.  (Diod. 
 Sic.,  4,  10.— Schol.  ad  Find.,  01,  6,  115.— Compare 
 Macrobius,  Sat.,  1,  20,  who  makes  Hercules  the  glory 
 of  Hera,  or  the  lower  air,  the  native  darkness  of 
 which  is  illumined  by  the  sun  )  False  as  this  etymol- 
 ogy undoubtedly  is,  it  still  proves  that  the  Greeks 
 themselves  attached  to  their  Hercules  the  fundamental 
 idea  of  a  hero  constantly  at  variance  with  a  contrary 
 power.  As  regards  the  name  itself,  it  may  be  re- 
 marked, that  it  is  most  probably  of  Oriental  origin, 
 though  various  attempts  have  been  made  by  different 
 scholars  to  trace  it  to  a  Grecian  source.  The  Latin 
 Hercules,  {Hercole,  Ercle)  is,  to  all  appearance,  a  more 
 ancient  form  than  the  Greek  'Hpa/cA?/f.  {Lennep, 
 Etymol.  L.  G.,  p.  245.  —  Lanzi,  Saggio  di  Ling. 
 Etrusca,  vol.  2,  p.  206,  seqq.)  Hermann  considers 
 Hercules  as  virtue  personified,  and  carrying  off  glory 
 and  praise  ('HpaK/l//c,  of  TJparo  kXkoc.  Brief e  iiber 
 Homer  und  Hesiod,  p.  20),  while  Knight  gives  to  the 
 fable  of  the  hero  a  physical  basis,  borrowed  from  the 
 worship  of  the  sun  ("  the  glorifier  of  the  earth,"  from 
 fpa  and  K/leof. —  Enquiry  into  Synib.  Lang.,  ^  130). 
 For  other  theories  relative  to  Hercules,  consult  Miil- 
 ler,  Dorians,  b.  2,  c.  11,  seq.,  and  Buttmann,  Mytho- 
 logus,  vol.  1,  p.  246,  seqq. 
 
 Herculeum,  I.  Promontorium,  a  promontory  in  the 
 Bruttiorum  Ager,  forming  the  most  southern  angle  of 
 Italy  to  the  east,  now  Capo  Spartivento.  (Strabo, 
 259.— Chiver.,  Ital.  Antiq.,  2,  p.  Vi^iO .-Romanelli, 
 vol.  l,p.  140  )— II.  Fretum,  the  strait  which  forms  the 
 communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterra- 
 nean.    {Vid.  Abila,  Caipe,  and  Herculis  Columnae.) 
 
 Hercijms,  I.  Columns,  or  Columns  of  Hercules,  a 
 name  given  to  Calpe  and  Abila,  or  Gibraltai  on  the 
 Spanish,  and  Cape  Serra  on  the  African,  shore  of  the 
 straits.  Hercules  was  fabled  to  have  placed  them  there 
 as  monuments  of  his  progress  westward,  and  beyond 
 which  no  mortal  could  pass.  {Vid.  Calpe,  Abila,  and 
 Mediterraneum  Mare.)— II.  Monaeci  Portus,  or  Arx 
 Herculis  Mon»ci,  a  town  and  harbour  of  Liguna,  near 
 Nicsa.  The  surname  of  Monscus,  given  to  Hercules, 
 who  was  worshipped  here,  shows,  as  Strabo  observes, 
 the  Greek  origin  of  this  place.  Fabulous  accounts  at- 
 tributed its  foundation  to  Hercules  himse  f.  (Am.  Mar- 
 cell,  15.)  The  harbour  is  well  described  by  Lucan 
 (1,  405)  It  is  now  Afonaca-HL  Liburn.  Portus, 
 now  Uvorno  or  Leghorn,  a  part  of  Etrur.a,  bdow  ho 
 mouth  of  the  Arnus!  Cicero  calls  it  Portus  Here  us 
 Labroms  {ad  Q.unt.  Fratr.,  2,  6).-IV.  Portus,  a  har- 
 bour of  Etruria,  now  Porto  d'Ercole.     It  was  situate 
 
 bUo 
 
HER 
 
 HER 
 
 between  Arminia  and  Incitaria,  and  served  as  a  port  to 
 the  city  of  Cosa.  It  was  one  of  the  principal  stations 
 for  the  Roman  fleets  on  the  lower  sea.  {Liv.,  22,  1 1. 
 —Id.,  30,  39.) 
 
 Hkrcyni.*,  a  very  e.xtensivo  forest  of  Germany,  the 
 breadth  of  which,  according  to  Caesar,  was  nine  days' 
 journey,  while  its  length  exceeded  sixty.  It  extend- 
 ed from  the  territories  of  the  Helvetii,  Nemetes,  and 
 Rauraci,  along  the  Danube  to  the  country  of  the  Daci 
 and  Auartes.  Then  turning  to  the  north,  it  spread 
 over  many  large  tracts  of  land,  and  is  said  to  have  con- 
 tained many  animals  unknown  in  other  countries,  of 
 which  Cffisar  describes  two  or  three  kinds.  Caesar, 
 following  the  Greek  geographers  {Arist.,  Meteor.,  1, 
 13. — Compare  Apoll.  Khod.,  4,  140),  confounds  all 
 the  forests  and  all  the  mountains  of  Central  Germany 
 under  the  name  of  Hcrcyma  Silva.  This  vague  tra- 
 dition was  propagated  among  the  Roman  geographi- 
 cal writers,  nor  could  either  Pliny  or  Tacitus  form  a 
 more  exact  idea  of  its  extent.  {Plin.,  4,  12. — Tac, 
 Germ.,  28  and  30.)  Ptolemy  had  obtained  more  pos- 
 itive information  on  the  subject :  besides  his  Mount 
 Abnoba,  he  distinguished  the  Hartz  Forest  under  the 
 name  of  Melibocus,  &c.  On  the  country's  becoming 
 more  inhabited,  the  grounds  were  gradually  cleared, 
 and  but  few  vestiges  of  the  ancient  forest  remain  in 
 modern  times.  These  now  go  bv  particular  names,  as 
 the  Blar.k  Forest,  which  separates  Alsace  from  Swa- 
 bia ;  the  Stei/ffcr  in  Franconia  ;  the  Spissard  on  the 
 Mayn  ;  the  Thuringer  in  Thuringia  ;  Hessev>ald  in  the 
 duchy  of  Cleves  ;  the  Bohcrnerwald,  which  encompass- 
 es Bohemia,  and  was  in  the  middle  ages  called  Her- 
 cynia  Silva  ;  and  the  Hartz  Forest  in  Lunenburgh. 
 Some  of  the  German  writers  at  the  present  day  derive 
 the  ancient  name  from  the  term  hart,  high  ;  others  sup- 
 pose it  to  come  from  hartz,  resin,  and  consider  the  old 
 name  as  remaining  in  the  present  Hartz  Forest. 
 {Malte-Brun,  Precis.,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p.  108,  Brussels  ed. 
 — Manner/,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  410.) 
 
 Herennius,  I.  Senecio,  a  native  of  Spain,  and  a 
 senator  and  qusestor  at  Rome  under  Domitian.  His 
 contempt  for  public  honours,  his  virtuous  character, 
 and  his  admiration  of  Helvidius  Priscus,  whose  life  he 
 wrote,  rendered  him  odious  to  the  emperor,  and  caused 
 him  to  be  accused  of  high  treason.  He  was  condemn- 
 ed to  death,  and  his  work  burned  by  the  public  execu- 
 tioner. (Tac,  Vit.  Agnc.,  c.  S.—Flin.,  Ep.,  3,  33.) 
 — II.  The  father  of  Pontius  the  Samnite  commander, 
 who  advised  his  son  either  to  give  freedom  to  the  Ro- 
 mans ensnared  at  the  Caudine  Pass,  or  to  exterminate 
 them  all.  {Liny,  9,  1,  seqq.) — III.  Caius,  a  Roman, 
 to  whom  the  treatise  on  rhetoric,  ascribed  by  some  to 
 Cicero,  is  addressed.  The  treatise  in  question  is  gen- 
 erally regarded  as  not  having  been  written  by  the 
 Roman  orator,  but  either  by  Antonius  Gnipho  or  Q. 
 Cornificius.  (Consult  on  this  point  the  remarks  of 
 Schutz,  in  his  edition  of  Cicero,  vol.  1,  p.  Iv.,  seqq., 
 and  those  of  Le  Clerc,  in  his  more  recent  edition, 
 Paris,  1827,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  1,  seqq.) 
 
 HERM^,statuesof  Mercury,  which  the  Athenians  had 
 in  the  vestibules  of  their  dwellings.  They  were  made 
 like  terminal  figures  of  stones,  of  a  cubical  form,  and 
 surmounted  with  a  head  of  Mercury.    ( Vid.  Mercurius.) 
 
 HerMjEa,  a  festival  celebrated  at  Cydonia,  in  the 
 island  of  Crete,  at  which  the  slaves  enjoyed  complete 
 freedom,  and  were  waited  upon  by  their  masters. 
 {Ephorus,  ap.  Athen.,  6,  p.  263,  /. — Cari/s/ius,  ap. 
 eund.,  14,  p.  G^9.—H'6ck,  Krela,  vol.  3,  p.  39.) 
 
 Herm/Eum,  I.  Promontorium,  or  Promontory  of 
 Mercury  {'Eipfifi^,  Mercurius),  on  the  southern  shore 
 of  Crete,  between  the  Promontory  Criu  Metopon  and 
 Phoenix. — II.  A  promontory  of  Sardinia,  on  the  west- 
 ern shore,  a  little  to  the  north  of  Bosa,  now  Capodella 
 Caeca. — III.  A  promontory  of  Africa,  in  the  district 
 Zeugitana,  now  Cape  Bon.  (Polyb.,  1,  29. — Pli?i., 
 5,  i.—Mela,  1,  7. -Liv.,  29,  27.) 
 604 
 
 Hermaphroditus,  a  son  of  Mercury  {'Epp/g)  and 
 Venus  {' kibpodirri),  the  fable  relative  to  whom  and  the 
 nymph  Salmacis  may  be  found  in  Ovid  {Met.,  4,  28.'i, 
 seqq.).  It  is  evidently  copied  after  some  Eastern  le- 
 gend, although  the  Grecian  spirit  has  moulded  it  into 
 a  more  pleasing  form,  perhaps,  than  was  possessed  by 
 its  original.  'J'he  doctrine  of  androgynous  divinities 
 lies  at  the  very  foundation  of  the  earliest  pagan  wor- 
 ship. The  union  of  the  two  sexes  was  regarded  by  the 
 early  priesthoods  as  a  symbol  of  the  generation  of  the 
 universe,  and  hence  originated  those  strange  tvpes  and 
 still  stranger  ceremonies,  which,  conceived  at  first  in 
 a  pure  and  simple  spirit,  became  eventually  the  source 
 of  so  much  licentiousness  and  indecency.  The  early 
 believer  was  taught  by  his  religious  instructer,  that, 
 before  the  creation,  the  productive  power  existed  alone 
 in  the  immensity  of  space.  When  the  process  of  crea- 
 tion commenced,  this  power  divided  itself  into  two 
 portions,  and  discharged  the  functions  of  an  active  and 
 a  passive  being,  a  male  and  a  female.  Hence  arose 
 the  beauteous  frame  of  the  universe.  This  is  the  doc- 
 trine, in  particular,  of  the  Hindu  Vedas,  and  it  is  ex- 
 plicitly established  in  the  Manara-Dharma-Sastra,  and 
 also  in  the  laws  of  Menou.  The  Adonis  of  Syria 
 {Creuzer,  Synibolik,  vol.  2,  p.  12);  the  Adagoiis  of 
 Phrygia  {Herodotus,  1,  105. — Creuzer,  1,  150);  the 
 Phtha  and  Neith  of  Egypt ;  the  Mithras  of  Persia 
 {Jid.  Firmicus,  p.  1,  seqq. —  Goerres,  vol.  1,  p.  254); 
 the  Freya  of  Scandinavia  {Goerres,  vol.  2,  p.  574) ;  the 
 Cenrezi  of  Thibet  {Wagner,  p.  199);  the  Brama, 
 Schiva,  Vishnou,  and  Krishna,  of  India  {Roger,  Pa- 
 gan. In.,  2,  2. — Paulin.,  Sysl.  Brahman.,  p.  195. — 
 Porphyr.,  in  Stob.  Eclog.  Phys.,  1,  4. — Bagavadam. 
 Wagner,  j).  167. — Bhagavat  Geta,  &c.);  the  Moon 
 among  various  nations  of  Asia  {Spartian.,  Vit.  Cara 
 call.,  c.  7. — Casaubon,  ad  loc.) ;  all  these  objects  of  ad 
 oration  reunited  the  two  sexes,  and,  by  a  consequence 
 of  this  symbolical  idea,  the  priests  changed  their  ordi- 
 nary vestments,  and  assumed  those  of  the  other  sex  in 
 the  ceremonies  instituted  in  honour  of  these  gods,  for 
 the  purpose  of  expressing  their  double  nature.  How 
 different  from  all  this  is  the  Grecian  legend  !  and  yet 
 its  origin  is  one  and  the  same. 
 
 HERMATHENA,a  sort  of  statue,  raised  on  a  square  ped- 
 estal, in  which  the  attributes  of  Mercury  {'Epfifjg)  and 
 Minerva  ('Aflr/v??)  were  blended.  (Consult  the  remarks 
 under  the  preceding  article  ;  and  Creuzer,  Symbolik, 
 vol.  2,  p.  750.)  M.  Spon  gives  various  figures  of  Her- 
 mathenae.     {Recherch.  Curieuses  de  VAntiq.,  p.  93.) 
 
 Hermes  ('Ep/i^f),  I.  the  name  of  Mercury  among 
 the  Greeks.  {Vid.  Mercurius  I.) — II.  Trismegistus. 
 {Vid.  Mercurius  II.) 
 
 Hermesi.inax,  a  poet  of  Colophon,  who  flourished 
 in  the  time  of  Philip  and  his  son  Alexander.  He  com- 
 posed three  books  of  elegies,  and  entitled  the  collec- 
 tion Lcontium  {Aeovnov),  in  honour  of  his  mistress, 
 who  is  the  same,  perhaps,  with  the  one  connected  with 
 the  history  of  Epicurus  and  his  discijile  Metrodorus. 
 Athenaeus  has  preserved  for  us  a  fragment  of  nearly  a 
 hundred  verses  of  this  poet,  which  makes  us  regret 
 what  we  have  lost.  This  fragment  was  published  in 
 1782,  bv  Ruhnken,  in  an  aj)pendix  to  his  Epislola 
 Critica,  2,  p.  283.  It  was  also  edited  by  Weston, 
 Land.,  1784,  8vo,  and  by  Ilgen,  in  his  Opuscula  Varia, 
 Erf  art.,  1797.  8vo,  vol.  1,  p.  248,  seqq.  The  best 
 edition,  however,  is  that  of  Hermann,  1828,  4to,  in 
 his  Program.  Acad,  in  mcmoriam  I.  A.  Ernesti,  Lips 
 (Consult  Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bibliogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  353.) 
 
 Hermias,  a  Christian  writer  towards  the  close  of  the 
 second  century,  and  a  native  of  Galatia,  who  has  left 
 us  a  short  but  elegant  discourse  in  ridicule  of  the  pagan 
 philosophers,  entitled  Aiaavpfio^  ruv  l-^u  (fuTioaocpuv. 
 It  appears  to  be  an  imitation  of  a  discourse  of  Tatian's, 
 but  it  is  an  imitation  by  a  man  of  spirit  and  ability. 
 He  ridicules  the  want  of  harmony  that  prevails  among 
 the  systems  of  tho  Greek  philosophers,  which  is  the 
 
H-ER 
 
 HER 
 
 cause  of  oil  their  speculations  being  crowned  with  no 
 positive  result.  He  is  accused  by  some  critics  of 
 putting  nothing  in  the  place  of  the  edifice  which  he 
 has  destroyed  by  his  sarcasms.  Such,  however,  was 
 not  the  end  he  had  proposed  to  himself.  It  was  suffi- 
 cient for  him  to  show  that  the  systems  of  ancient  phi- 
 losophy v/ere  untenable.  The  one  which  was  to  oc- 
 cupy its  place  they  had  only  to  seek  for,  and  Hermas 
 points  it  out  to  them  without  naming  it.  This  treatise 
 was  published  by  Sciber,  Basil,  1533,  8vo,  and  with 
 the  notes  of  Wolf  in  Morell's  Compend.  de  Orig.  Vet. 
 Phil.,  Basil,  1530,  8vo.  It  is  found  also  in  the  Auc- 
 tar.  Biblioth.  Painim,  Pans,  1624  ;  and  in  the  0.xford 
 edition  of  Tatian,  8vo,  1700.  The  best  edition,  how- 
 ever, is  that  of  Dommerich,  Hal.,  1774,  8vo.  {Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  213. — Laidncr,  Credibilily 
 of  Gospel  History,  pt.  2,  vol.  2,  p.  555.) 
 
 HfiR-MtoNE,  I.  more  correctly  Harmonia,  daughter 
 of  Mars  and  Venus,  and  wife  of  Cadmus.  {Vid.  Har- 
 monia.)— II.  Daughter  of  Menelaiis  and  Helen.  She 
 was  privately  engaged  to  her  cousin  Orestes,  the  son 
 of  Agamemnon  ;  but  her  father,  on  iiis  return  from 
 Troy,  being  ignorant  of  this,  gave  her  in  marriage  to 
 Pyrrhus,  otherwise  called  Neoptolemus.  After  the 
 murder  of  that  prince  {md.  Pyrrhus),  she  married  Ores- 
 tes, and  received  the  kingdom  of  Sparta  as  her  dowry. 
 {Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  327,  scqq. — Heyne,  Ezcurs.,  12,  ad 
 Virg.,  JSn.,  3. — Eurip.,  Androm.) — III.  A  city  of  Ar- 
 golis,  on  the  southern  coast,  opposite  Hydrea.  It  was 
 founded,  according  to  Herodotus  (8,  43),  by  the  Dry- 
 opes,  whom  Hercules  and  the  Melians  had  e.xpelled 
 from  the  banks  of  the  Sperchius  and  the  valley  of  Q3ta. 
 Pausanias  describes  this  city  as  situate  on  a  hill  of 
 moderate  height,  and  surrounded  by  walls.  It  con- 
 tained, among  others,  a  temple  of  Ceres,  the  sanctuary 
 of  which  afforded  an  inviolable  refuge  to  supplicants, 
 whence  arose  the  proverb  avd'  'Epfiiovijc,  "  as  safe  an 
 asylum  as  that  of  Hermione."  Not  far  from  this 
 structure  was  a  cave,  supposed  to  communicate  with 
 the  infernal  regions.  It  was  probably  owing  to  this 
 speedy  descent  to  Orcus,  that  the  llermionians,  as 
 Strabo  informs  us,  omitted  to  put  a  piece  of  money  in 
 the  mouths  of  their  dead.  (Strah.,  373. — Callim.,  ap. 
 Elym.  Mag.,  s.  v.  AavuKTjg.)  Lasus,  an  early  poet 
 of  some  note,  said  to  have  been  the  instructer  of  Pin- 
 dar, was  a  native  of  Hermione.  We  are  informed  by 
 Sir  W.  Gell,  that  the  ruins  of  this  place  are  to  be  seen 
 on  the  promontory  below  Kastri,  a  town  inhabited  by 
 Albanians,  nearly  opposite  to  the  island  of  Hydra. 
 {Ilin.  of  the  Movea,  p.  199.)  Pausanias  affirms  (2, 
 34),  that  Hermione  originally  stood  at  the  distance  of 
 four  stadia  from  the  site  it  occupied  in  his  day,  and, 
 though  the  inhabitants  had  long  removed  to  the  new 
 city,  there  yet  remained  several  edifices  to  mark  the 
 spot.     {Cramer^s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  258,  seq.) 
 
 Hermiones,  one  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  the 
 Germanic  tribes,  according  to  Tacitus  {Germ.,  c.  2), 
 and  occupying  the  central  parts  of  the  country.  Man- 
 nert  is  of  opinion,  that  a  tribe  or  division  of  the  name 
 Hermiones  never  in  fact  existed,  but  that  this  appella- 
 tion originated  from  the  early  legend  of  Greece  re- 
 specting the  fabulous  land  Hermionia,  remarkable  for 
 its  productions,  and  placed  by  the  early  writers  in  the 
 distant  regions  of  the  north.  The  Romans,  borrowing 
 this  fable  from  the  Greeks,  imagined  that  they  had 
 found  Hermionia  in  the  regions  of  Germany.  (Com- 
 pare Mela,  3,  3. — Manncrt,  Geog.,  vol.  3,  p.  146.) 
 
 Hek-mionicos  Sinus,  a  bay  on  the  coast  of  Argolis, 
 near  Hermione.  (Strab.,  G35.)  It  is  now  the  Gulf 
 of  Castri. 
 
 Hermodorus,  a  philosopher  of  Ephesus,  who  is  said 
 to  have  assisted,  as  interpreter,  the  Roman  decemvirs 
 in  the  composition  of  the  ten  tables  of  laws  which 
 had  been  collected  in  Greece.  {Cic,  Tusc.,  5,  36.) 
 "An  ancient  tradition  mentions,"  observes  Niebuhr, 
 "  as  an  au.xiliary  to  the  Decemviri,  in  this  code,  Her- 
 
 modorus, an  Ephesian,  the  friend  of  the  sage  Hera- 
 chlus,  whom  his  fellow-citizens  had  banished  because 
 he  filled  them  with  shame,  and  they  desired  to  be  all 
 on  an  equality  in  profligacy  of  conduct.  {Mcnag.,  oil 
 Diog.  Laert.,  9,  c.  2.)  It  cannot,  indeed,  be  well  ex- 
 plained, how  this  story  could  have  been  invented,  foi 
 which  nothing  but  a  celebrated  name  could  have  given 
 occasion,  while  that  of  Hermodorus  appears  to  have 
 been  known  to  the  Greeks  themselves  only  by  the  say- 
 ing of  his  friend.  On  this  ground,  the  naming  of  the 
 statue,  which  was  inscribed  as  his  at  Rome,  may  pass 
 for  genuine.  But  if  ever  he  lived  there,  honoured  by, 
 and  useful  to,  his  contemporaries,  the  legislators,  "jl 
 does  not  therefore  follow,  that,  by  his  council,  many  of 
 the  Greek  laws  were  transferred  to  the  Twelve  Tables, 
 which  are  lost  to  us.  The  Romans  adhered  too  tena- 
 ciously to  their  own  hereditary  laws,  lo  e.xchange  them 
 for  any  foreign  institution ;  and  the  difference  be- 
 tween them  and  the  Grecians  was  so  great,  that  the 
 sage  Hermodorus  could  not  have  suggested  an  imita- 
 tion." {Niebuhfs  Roman  History,  vol.  2,  p.  Ill, 
 Walter's  transl.) 
 
 Hermogenes,  a  celebrated  sophist,  a  native  of  Tar- 
 sus, who  flourished  under  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus.  He 
 was  remarkable  for  the  precocity  of  his  intellect.  At 
 the  age  of  fifteen  he  openly  professed  his  art  in  the 
 presence  of  the  emperor,  and  excited  his  astonishment 
 by  the  ability  and  eloquence  which  he  displayed.  This 
 rapid  growth,  however,  of  the  mental  powers,  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  as  rapid  a  decline,  and,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
 five,  he  lost  his  memory  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  in- 
 capable of  pursuing  his  usual  avocations.  In  this  sad 
 condition  he  lingered  to  an  advanced  age.  It  is  said 
 that,  on  opening  his  body  after  death,  his  heart  was 
 found  of  an  enormous  size,  and  covered  with  hair. 
 He  left  a  work  on  Rhetoric,  which  was  introduced  into 
 the  Grecian  schools,  and  continued  to  be  a  text-book 
 in  the  rhetorical  art  until  the  decline  of  the  latter. 
 Two  editions  of  the  entire  work  were  published,  one 
 in  1614,  8vo,  by  Laurentius,  Colon.  Allobrog. ;  the 
 other  in  1799,  4io,  by  an  anonymous  editor  (2.  B.  A.). 
 There  have  been  several  editions  of  parts  of  the  work, 
 for  which  consult  Hoffmann  (Lex.  Bibliogr.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 355,  scqq.). — II,  A  lawyer  in  the  age  of  Constantine, 
 who,  together  with  Gregorius  or  Gregorianus,  made 
 a  collection  of  the  constitutions  or  edicts  of  the  em- 
 peror. Gregorius  comprehended  in  his  collection  the 
 laws  published  from  Hadrian  to  Constantine;  Her- 
 mogenes complied  a  supplement  to  the  work.  This 
 collection,  though  made  without  public  authority,  was 
 yet  cited  in  courts  of  law.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  7,  p.  215,  seqq.) 
 
 Her.molaus,  a  young  Macedonian  nobleman,  and 
 one  of  the  royal  pages  of  Alexander  the  Great.  In  the 
 heat  of  a  boar-hunt  on  one  occasion,  he  forgot  his 
 duty,  and  slew  the  animal,  perhaps  unfairly  (for  the 
 laws  of  the  chase  have  in  all  ages  and  climes  been 
 very  arbitrary),  certainly  in  such  a  way  as  to  interfere 
 with  the  royal  sport.  The  page  was.  in  consequence, 
 deprived  of  his  horse,  and  ordered  to  be  flogged.  In- 
 censed at  the  indignity  thus  offered  him,  he  resolved 
 to  efface  it  in  the  blood  of  his  sovereign,  and  for  this 
 purpose  formed  a  conspiracy  with  some  of  his  brother- 
 pages,  as  well  as  other  individuals.  The  plot,  how- 
 ever, was  discovered,  and  the  culprits  were  stoned  to 
 death.  Hermolaus,  in  his  defence,  insisted  that  the 
 tyranny  and  drunken  revelries  of  Alexander  were  more 
 than  could  be  tolerated  by  freemen.  {Arrian,  Exp. 
 Al,  4,  13,  scqq.) 
 
 Hermopolis,  or  the  city  of  Hermes  (Mercury),  the 
 name  of  two  towns  of  Egvpt.  The  first  was  in  the 
 Delta,  oast  of  the  Canopic  branch  of  the  lS\\c,  and 
 northeast  of  Andropolis.  For  distinction' sake  the  ep- 
 ithet mKod  [Parva)  was  added  to  its  name.  Ptolemy 
 makes  it  the  chief  city  of  the  nome  in  which  Alcxan- 
 drea  was  situate.     (Manncrt,  Geog.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p. 
 
 605 
 
HER 
 
 HER 
 
 698."  Its  position  corresponds  with  that  of  the  mod- 
 ern Dcmenhur.  The  second  was  termed  'M.eyukr] 
 [Ma<;na),  or  the  great,  and  was  situate  in  the  Heplan- 
 omis,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  opposite  Anti- 
 noopoHs.  It  is  spoken  of  as  a  large  city  by  Atnmianus 
 Marceliiniis  (22,  16).  The  inhabitants  worshipped 
 ihe  Cynocephalus,  or  dog-headed  deity  Anubis.  (Man- 
 Hert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  397.)  The  name  of 
 the  place  is  now  Ashmuneim. 
 
 Hermon'duri,  the  first  of  the  Hermionic  tribes  iri 
 Germany.  They  were  a  great  and  powerful  nation, 
 and  lay  to  the  east  and  northeast  of  the  Allemanni. 
 Tacitus  says,  that  in  process  of  time  they  became  al- 
 lies to  the  Romans,  who  distinguished  them  above  the 
 other  Germans  by  peculiar  privileges.  {Germ.,  c.  41.) 
 Mannert  makes  them  a  branch  of  the  great  Suevic 
 race.     {Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  201.) 
 
 Hermus,  a  considerable  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising, 
 according  to  Strabo  (626),  in  Mount  Dindymus,  in 
 Phrygia,  and  flowing  through  the  northern  part  of 
 Lydia  until  it  falls  into  the  .^gaean.  Pliny,  however, 
 makes  its  source  to  have  been  near  Dorylaeum  in 
 Phrygia.  {Plin.,  5,  31.)  It  received  in  its  course 
 the  rivers  Pactolus,  Hyllus,  called  also  Phrygius,  and 
 other  less  celebrated  streams,  and  discharged  itself  into 
 the  sea  between  Phocasa  and  Smyrna.  (Strab.,  I.  c. — 
 Herod.,  1,  80. — Arrian,  Exp.  AL,  5,  5.)  The  plains 
 which  this  river  watered  were  termed  the  plains  of 
 Hermus,  and  the  gulf  into  which  it  discharged  itself 
 was  anciently  called  the  Hermaean  Gulf;  but  when 
 Theseus,  according  to  some  accounts,  a  person  of  dis- 
 tinction in  Thessaly,  migrated  hither,  and  founded  a 
 town  on  this  gulf  called  Smyrna  after  his  wife  {Vit. 
 Horn.,  c.  2),  the  gulf  was  termed  Smyrnagus  Sinus,  or 
 Gulf  of  Smyrna,  a  name  which  it  still  retains.  The 
 sands  of  the  Hermus  were  said  to  be  auriferous,  a  cir- 
 cumstance for  which  it  was  probably  indebted  to  the 
 Pactolus.  {Virg-,  Gcorg.,  2,  136.) — The  modern 
 name  of  this  fine  river  is  the  Sarabal.  {Cramcfs 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  336.) 
 
 Hernici,  a  people  of  New  Latium,  bordering  on  the 
 .^qui  and  Marsi.  {Slrabo,  ^^\ .)  It  was  maintained 
 by  some  authors,  that  they  derived  their  name  from 
 the  rocky  nature  of  their  country  ;  herna,  in  the  Sabine 
 language,  signifying  a  rock.  {Serv.,  ad  ^n.,  7,  682.) 
 Others  were  of  opinion,  that  they  were  so  called  from 
 Hernicus,  a  Pelasgic  chief;  and  Macrobius  {Sat.,  5, 
 18)  thinks  that  Virgil  alluded  to  that  origin  when  he  de- 
 scribed this  people  as  going  to  battle  with  one  leg  bare. 
 The  former  etymology,  however,  is  more  probable,  and 
 would  also  lead  us  to  infer  that  the  Hernici,  as  well  as 
 the  yEqui  and  Marsi,  were  descended  from  the  Sabines, 
 or  generally  from  the  Oscan  race.  There  is  nothing  in 
 the  history  of  this  petty  nation  which  possesses  any  pe- 
 culiar interest,  or  distinguishes  them  from  their  equally 
 hardy  and  warlike  neighbours.  It  is  merely  an  account 
 of  the  same  ineffectual  struggle  to  resist  the  systematic 
 and  overwhelming  preponderance  of  Rome,  and  of 
 the  same  final  submission  to  her  transcendent  genius 
 and  fortune.  It  may  be  remarked,  that  it  was  upon 
 the  occasion  of  a  debate  on  the  division  of  some  lands 
 conquered  from  the  Hernici,  that  the  celebrated  agra- 
 rian law  was  first  brought  forward  (A.U.C.  268. — 
 Liv.,  2,  Al.—Dion.  Hal.,  8,  69).  The  last  effort 
 made  by  this  people  to  assert  their  independence  was 
 about  the  year  447  A.U.C. ;  but  it  was  neither  long-  nor 
 vigorous,  though  resolved  upon  unanimously  by  a  gen- 
 eral council  of  all  their  cities.  {Liv.,  9,  43. — Cramer's 
 Anciejit  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  78,  scqq.) 
 
 Hero,  I.  a  beautiful  priestess  of  Venus  at  Sestus, 
 attached  to  Leander,  a  youth  of  Abydos,  who  every 
 nifht  escaped  from  the  vigilance  of  his  family,  and 
 swam  across  the  Hellespont,  while  Hero,  in  Sestus,  di- 
 rected his  course  by  holding  a  burning  torch  on  the 
 top  of  a  high  tower.  Leander,  however,  was  at  last 
 drowned  in  a  tempestuous  night,  as  he  attempted  his 
 606 
 
 usual  course,  and  Hero,  in  despair,  threw  herself  down 
 from  her  tower  and  perished  in  the  sea.  Musceus,  a 
 Greek  poet  of  the  fifth  century  of  our  era,  made  this 
 story  the  subject  of  a  pleasing  little  poem  that  has 
 come  down  to  us.  {Vid.  Muss;us  III.)  Ovid  de- 
 votes two  of  his  Heroides  to  this  same  theme.  {Her., 
 Ep.,  18  et  19.)  As  regards  the  feat  of  Leander  in 
 swimming  across  the  Hellespont  nightly,  consult  re- 
 marks under  the  article  Leander. — II.  The  name  of 
 two  writers  on  mechanical  subjects.     {Vid.  Heron.) 
 
 Herodes,  I.  surnamed  the  Great  and  Ascalonila, 
 second  son  of  Antipater  the  Idumaean,  was  born  B.C. 
 71,  at  Ascalon,  in  Judaea.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
 he  was  made  by  his  father  governor  of  Galilee,  and 
 distmguished  himself  by  the  suppression  of  a  band  of 
 robbers,  and  the  execution  of  their  leader,  with  sev- 
 eral of  his  comrades.  He  was  summoned  before  the 
 Sanhedrim  for  having  done  this  by  his  own  authority, 
 and  having  put  these  men  to  death  without  a  trial ;  but, 
 through  the  strength  of  his  party  and  the  zeal  of  his 
 friends,  he  escaped  censure.  He  at  first  embraced 
 the  party  of  Brutus  and  Cassius  ;  but,  after  their  death, 
 reconciled  himself  to  Antony,  who  appointed  him 
 and  Phasael  tetrarchs  of  Judasa;  In  B.C.  40  the  Par- 
 thians  invaded  Judaea,  and  placed  Antigonus  on  the 
 throne,  making  Hyrcanus  and  Phasael  prisoners.  Her- 
 od escaped  to  Rome,  where,  by  the  influence  of  An- 
 tony, he  was  appointed  King  of  the  Jews.  But  the 
 Roman  generals  in  Syria  assisted  him  very  feebly, 
 and  it  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  year  38  B.C.  that 
 Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Sossins.  The  commence- 
 ment of  Herod's  reign  dates  from  the  following  year. 
 In  the  year  38  he  had  married  Mariamne,  the  grand- 
 daughter of  Hyrcanus,  hoping  to  strengthen  his  power 
 by  this  match  with  the  Asmonaean  family,  which  was 
 very  popular  in  Jud^a.  On  ascending  the  throne 
 Herod  appointed  Ananel  oLBabylon  high-priest,  to  the 
 exclusion  of  Aristobulus,  the  brother  of  Mariamiif.. 
 But  he  soon  found  himself  compelled,  by  the  entreaties 
 of  Mariamne  and  the  artifices  of  her  mother  Alex- 
 andra, to  depose  Ananel,  and  appoint  Aristobulus 
 in  his  place.  Not  long  after,  however,  Aristobulus 
 was  secretly  put  to  death  by  the  command  of  Herod. 
 Alexandra  having  informed  Cleopatra  of  the  murder, 
 Herod  was  summoned  to  answer  the  accusation  before 
 x\ntony,  whom  he  pacified  by  liberal  bribes.  When 
 setting  out  to  meet  Antony,  he  had  commanded  his 
 brother  Joseph  to  put  Mariamne  to  death  in  case  he 
 should  be  condemned,  that  she  might  not  fall  into  An- 
 tony's power.  Finding,  on  his  return,  that  his  brother 
 had  revealed  this  order  to  Mariamne.  Plerod  put  him 
 to  death.  In  the  civil  war  between  Octavius  and  An- 
 tony, Herod  joined  the  latter,  and  undertook,  at  his 
 command,  acampaign  against  the  Arabians,  whom  he 
 defeated.  After  the  battle  of  Actium,  he  went  to 
 meet  Qctavius  at  Rhodes  ;  having  first  put  to  death 
 Hyrcanus,  who  had  been  released  by  the  Parthians, 
 and  had  placed  himself  under  Herod's  protection  some 
 years  before.  He  also  imprisoned  Mariamne  and  Al- 
 exandra, commanding  their  keepers  to  kill  them  upon 
 receiving  intelligence  of  his  death.  Octavius,  how- 
 ever, received  him  kindly,  and  reinstated  him  in  his 
 kingdom.  On  his  return,  Mariamne  reproached  him 
 with  his  intentions  towards  her,  which  she  had  again 
 discovered.  This  led  to  an  estrangement  between 
 Herod  and  his  queen,  which  was  artfully  increased  by 
 his  sister  Salome  ;  till,  on  one  occasion,  enraged  at  a 
 new  affront  he  had  received  from  Mariamne,  Her- 
 od assembled  some  of  his  friends  and  accused  her  of 
 adultery.  She  was  condemned  and  executed.  After 
 her  death  Herod  suffered  the  deepest  remorse,  and 
 shut  himself  up  in  Samaria,  where  he  was  seii.ed  with 
 a  sickness  which  nearly  proved  fatal.  In  the  year  26 
 B.C.  he  put  to  death  the  sons  of  Babas,  the  last 
 princes  of  the  Asmonajar  family.  He  now  openly  dis- 
 regarded the  Jewish  law,  and  introduced  Roman  cus- 
 
HER 
 
 HERODIANUS. 
 
 toms,  a  conduct  which  increased  the  hatred  of  the  peo- 
 ple towards  him,  and  he  particularly  shocked  their 
 prejudices  by  erecting  a  stately  theatre  and  an  am- 
 phitheatre in  Jerusalem,  in  the  latter  of  which  he  cele- 
 brated games  in  honour  of  Augustus.  Ten  men  con- 
 spired against  his  life,  but  were  detected  and  executed 
 with  the  greatest  cruelty.  To  secure  himself  against 
 rebellion,  he  fortified  Samaria,  which  he  named  Se- 
 baste  (equivalent  to  the  Latin  Augusta),  and  he  built 
 Cssarea  and  other  cities  and  fortresses.  In  the  year 
 17  B.C.  he  began  to  rebuild  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
 The  work  was  completed  in  eight  years,  but  the  deco- 
 rations were  not  finished  for  many  years  after.  {John, 
 2,  20.)  Herod's  power  and  territories  continued  to 
 increase,  but  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  was  disturbed 
 by  the  most  violent  dissensions  in  his  family,  of  which 
 a  minute  account  is  given  by  Josephus.  He  died  in 
 March,  B.C.  4,  in  the  thirty-fourth  year  of  his  reign, 
 and  the  seventieth  of  his  age.  Josephus  relates,  that, 
 shortly  before  his  death,  he  shut  up  many  of  the  prin- 
 cipal men  of  the  Jewish  nation  in  the  Hippodrome, 
 commanding  his  sister  Salome  to  put  them  to  death  as 
 soon  as  he  expired,  that  he  might  not  want  mourners. 
 They  were  released,  however,  by  Salome  upon  Her- 
 od's death. — The  birth  of  our  Saviour  took  place  in 
 the  last  year  of  Herod's  reign,  four  years  earlier  than 
 the  era  from  which  the  common  system  of  chronology 
 dates  the  years  A.D.  {Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  14,  17, 
 seqq. — Id.  ib.,  15,  1,  seqq. — Id.  ib.,  16,  \,scqq. — Id., 
 Bell.  Jud.,  1,  17,  &c. — Noldius,  dc  Vita  et  Gestis 
 Herodum,  ^  7.)  It  was  Herod  of  whom  Augustus 
 said,  after  he  had  heard  of  the  former's  having  put  to 
 death  his  own  sons,  Alexander  and  Aristobulus,  that 
 he  would  rather  be  Herod's  hog  {vv)  than  his  son 
 {vLov),  punning  upon  the  similarity  of  the  two  terms, 
 and  alluding  at  the  same  time  to  the  aversion  with 
 which  the  hog  was  regarded  by  the  Jews.  {Macroh., 
 Sat.,  2,  4.) — II.  Antipas,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great, 
 whom  his  father,  in  his  first  will,  declared  his  succes- 
 sor in  the  kingdom,  but  to  whom  he  afterward  gave 
 merely  the  oflSce  of  tetrarch  over  Galilee  and  Persa, 
 while  he  appointed  his  other  son  Archelaus  king  of  Ju- 
 dcsa.  Antipas,  after  being  confirmed  in  those  terri- 
 tories by  Augustus,  married  the  daughter  of  Aretas, 
 king  of  Arabia.  He  divorced  her,  however,  A.D.  33, 
 that  he  might  marry  his  sister-in-law  Herodias,  the 
 wife  of  his  brother  Philip,  who  was  still  living.  John 
 the  Baptist,  exclaiming  against  this  incest,  was  seized, 
 and  subsequently  beheaded.  Afterward,  A.D.  39,  He- 
 rodias, being  jealous  of  the  prosperity  of  her  brother 
 Agrippa,  who,  from  a  private  person,  had  become  King 
 of  Judaja,  persuaded  her  husband  Herod  Antipas  to 
 visit  Rome,  and  to  desire  the  same  dignity  from  Tibe- 
 rius. Agrippa,  being  apprized  of  his  design,  wrote  to 
 the  emperor,  accusing  Antipas  of  being  implicated  in 
 the  affair  of  Sejanus,  upon  which  he  was  banished  to 
 Lugdunum,  in  Gaul.  This  is  that  Antipas  who,  be- 
 ing at  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's  suffer- 
 ing, ridiculed  Jesus,  whom  Pilate  had  sent  to  him, 
 dressed  him  in  mock  attire,  and  sent  him  back  to  the 
 Roman  governor  as  a  king  whose  ambition  gave  him 
 no  umbrage.  The  year  of  his  death  is  unknown, 
 though  it  is  certain  that  he  and  Herodias  ended,  their 
 days  in  exile,  according  to  Josephus,  in  Spain.  {Nol- 
 dius, de  Vita  et  Gestis  Herodum,  I)  37.) — III.  Agrip- 
 pa, I.  son  of  Aristobulus,  and  grandson  of  Herod  the 
 Great.  (F/ri  Agrippa  V.)— IV.  Agrippa,  II.  son  of 
 the  preceding.  (Fi(i.  Agrippa VI.)— V.  Atticus.  {Vid. 
 Alticus  II  ) 
 
 Herodi.Inus,  I.  a  Greek  historian,  who  flourished 
 during  the  first  part  of  the  third  century  of  our  era, 
 and  died  about  A.D.  240,  at  the  age  of  seventy  years. 
 Few  particulars  of  his  life  are  known,  and  even  his  na- 
 tive place  has  not  been  clearly  ascertained,  though 
 generally  supposed  to  have  been  Alcxandrea.  He 
 filled  various  honourable  stations,  both  in  the  service 
 
 of  the  emperors  and  fl  that  of  the  state.  (Compare 
 b.  1,  c.  4  of  his  history.)  The  tone  of  moderation 
 which  everywhere  shows  itself  in  his  writings,  would 
 seem  to  indicate  that  his  life  had  been  as  peaceful  as 
 his  character ;  and  we  may  conjecture,  from  a  remark 
 which  he  makes  at  the  commencement  of  his  work, 
 that  it  was  at  an  advanced  age,  and  in  the  bosom  of  a 
 pleasing  retreat,  that,  collecting  together  the  reminie- 
 cences  of  a  long  life,  and  the  valuable  fruits  of  his  ex- 
 perience, he  wrote  the  history  of  those  emperors  whose 
 reigns  he  had  seen  and  whose  persons  he  had  ap- 
 proached. This  history,  divided  into  eight  books, 
 commences  with  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  is 
 carried  down  to  the  accession  of  Gordian  III.,  embra- 
 cing, from  A.D.  180  to  238,  a  period  of  fifty-eight 
 years,  under  seventeen  princes  who  reigned  either 
 successively  or  conjointly.  This  period,  though  short, 
 was  a  most  eventful  one  in  the  annals  of  the  empire, 
 on  account  of  the  numerous  and  violent  changes  in  the 
 persons  who  held  the  sovereign  power,  and  also  with 
 respect  to  the  domestic  and  foreign  wars,  the  depravity 
 of  manners,  and  the  public  calamities  which  character- 
 ized the  age.  The  series  of  emperors  which  the  his- 
 tory of  Herodian  embraces,  comprises  Comniodus,  Per- 
 tinax,  Julian,  Niger  and  Albinus,  Severus,  Caracalla 
 and  Geta,  Macrinus,  Heliogabalus,  Alexander  Severus, 
 Maximinus,  the  two  Gordiani,  and  Balbinus.  We  per- 
 ceive from  this  theimportanceof  Herodian's  work,  form- 
 inor,  as  it  does,  a  grave  and  almost  solitary  chronicle  of 
 this  portion  of  Roman  history ;  for  the  writers  of  the 
 Augustan  history,  who  lived  long  after  him,  hardly  do 
 more  than  copy  his  narrative,  and,  when  they  deviate 
 from  him,  merit,  in  general,  a  far  less  degree  of  confi- 
 dence This  is  a  testimony  rendered  in  his  favour  even 
 by  Julius  Capitolinus  himself,  who  ( Vit.  Alhm.,  c.  12)  in- 
 vites his  readers,  if  desirous  of  more  lengthened  details, 
 to  seek  for  them  in  Marius  Maximus  or  Herodian, 
 who,  adds  he,  are  equally  distinguished  by  their  accu- 
 racy and  fidelity.  And  yet  it  is  on  the  authority  of 
 the  same  Capitohnus  that  many  modern  critics  have 
 grounded  their  charge  against  Herodian,  of  having 
 been  too  partial  to  Maximinus,  and  too  severe  on  Alex- 
 ander Severus.  {Jul.  Cap.,  Vit.  Max.,c.  13.)  From 
 this  charge,  however,  Herodian  has  been  successfully 
 defended  by  Isaac  Casaubon  and  the  Abbe  dc  Mon- 
 crault. — The  style  of  Herodian  is  plain  and  unaffected, 
 and  his  narrative  in  general  seems  written  in  a  spirit 
 of  sincerity,  but  it  has  no  claims  to  philosophy  or  crit- 
 ical art.  The  harangues  which  he  has  inserted  in  his 
 narrative  are  elegant,  but  they  want  simplicity.  His 
 greatest  fault  is  having  neglected  chronology. — .\mong 
 the  editions  of  Herodian  may  be  mentioned  that  of  Ir- 
 misch,  Lrps.,  1789,  5  vols.  8vo,  and  that  of  Bekker, 
 BcroL,  1826,  8vo.  The  former  is  remarkable  for  its 
 excessive  load  of  commentary  ;  the  latter,  which  con- 
 tains merely  the  text  and  various  readings,  presents 
 the  latest  and  best  te.xt  of  the  historian.— Politian  gave 
 to  the  world  in  1490  a  Latin  version  of  Herodian,  re- 
 markable for  its  elegance  rather  than  fidelity,  and  ded- 
 icated it  to  Innocent  VIII.  He  was  liberally  rewarded 
 by  the  pontiff.  {Folilian,  Epist.,  8,  1-5.)  It  is  as- 
 certained, however,  now,  that  he  merely  corrected  the 
 version  of  Omnibonus  Vincentius.  (Consult  Tira- 
 baschi,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  3-39. —Hceren,  Gesvh.  der 
 Class.  Lit.  in  Mittelalter.,  vol.  2,  p.  301,  seq.,Got- 
 tino.,  1822.— Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  192,— 
 Bioirr.  Unw.,  vol.  20,  p.  273,  seqq.)-U  A  gramma- 
 rian'of  Alexandrca,  often  confounded  with  the  Histori- 
 an above  mentioned.  He  was  a  son  of  the  celebrated 
 Apollonius  Dvscolus,  and  flourished  n.  the  second 
 century  of  the  Christian  era.  He  dedicated  to  the 
 Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  his  general  gram  n a  of 
 whiih  we  have  only  some  unpublished  -;^  ^^-^  f  j 
 extracts  remaining.  We  have  also  some  ^ag  'Us  o 
 •  L  1         „„i^Pior«nti  has  civen  in  his  edition  o! 
 
 other  works  ;  and  t  lerson  ua=  t,  „i,„;„„  „f 
 
 ««■  ^      •■     „f  tVio  same  writer  on  the  choice  oi 
 
 .Moens  a  treatise  ot  the  same  wuwi  v 
 
HER 
 
 HERODOTUS. 
 
 words,  cnlilkd  Philetaerus.  The  treatise  published 
 by  Valckenacr,  at  the  end  of  his  Arnmonius,  on  barba- 
 risms and  solecisms,  and  the  name  of  the  author  of 
 which  that  scholar  did  not  know,  was  discovered  by 
 Viiloisoii  to  have  been  written  by  this  same  Herodian. 
 0(her  minor  productions  of  his  are  given  by  the  last- 
 mentioned  scholar,  in  his  Aficcdola,  and  by  Hermann 
 in  his  treatise  Dc  Emendanda  ralione  G.  G. — Consult 
 the  remarks  q(  Hase,  as  given  by  SchoU  {Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  25). 
 
 HfiRODorus,  1.  a  celebrated  Greek  historian,  born 
 at  HalicQrna.ssus,  B.C.  484.  {Larchcr,  Vie  d''Hcrod., 
 p.  1. —  CliHlon''s  Fasti  Hellcnici,  vol.  1,  p.  29,  "Zd  ed.) 
 He  was  of  Dorian  extraction,  and  of  a  distinguished 
 family.  {Smdas,  s.  v.'UpoS.)  Panyasis,  an  eminent 
 poet,  whom  some  ranked  next  to  Homer  (Suidas,  s. 
 V.  Uavvda.).  while  others  place  him  after  Hesiod  and 
 Antimachus,  was  his  uncle  either  by  the  mother's  or 
 father's  side.  Herodotus  is  regarded  by  many  as  the 
 father  of  profane  history,  and  Cicero  (Leg.,  1,  1)  calls 
 him  "  kistorice  palrem  y  by  this,  however,  nothing 
 more  must  be  meant,  than  that  he  is  the  first  profane 
 historian  whose  work  is  distinguished  for  its  finished 
 form,  and  has  come  down  to  us  entire.  Thus  Cicero 
 himself,  on  another  occasion,  speaks  of  him  as  the 
 first  "  qui  princcps  gemis  hoc  (scribendi)  ornavit''' 
 (De  Orat.,  2,  13) ;  while  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
 has  given  us  a  list  of  many  historical  writers  who  pre- 
 ceded him.  (Consult  Creuzer,  Fragm.  HisL.  Antiq. 
 Heidelh.,  1826,  8vo.)  The  facts  of  his  life  are  few  and 
 doubtful,  except  so  far  as  we  can  collect  them  from 
 his  own  works.  Not  liking  the  government  of  Lyg- 
 damis,  who  was  tyrant  of  Halicarnassus,  Herodotus 
 retired  for  a  season  to  the  island  of  Samos,  where  he 
 is  said  to  have  cultivated  the  Ionic  dialect  of  the  Greek, 
 which  was  the  language  there  prevalent.  Before  he 
 was  thirty  years  of  age  he  joined  in  an  attempt,  which 
 proved  successful,  to  expel  Lygdamis.  But  the  ban- 
 ishment of  the  tyrant  did  not  give  tranquillity  to  Hali- 
 carnassus, and  Herodotus,  who  himself  had  become 
 an  object  of  dislike,  again  left  his  native  country,  and 
 joined,  as  it  is  said,  a  colony  which  the  Athenians  sent 
 to  Thorium  in  Southern  Italy,  B.C.  443.  He  is  said 
 to  have  died  in  Thurium,  and  to  have  been  buried  in 
 the  Agora. — Herodotus  presents  himself  to  our  con- 
 sideration in  two  points ;  as  a  traveller  and  observer, 
 and  as  an  historian.  The  extent  of  his  travels  may 
 be  ascertained  pretty  clearly  from  his  History  ;  but  the 
 order  in  which  he  visited  each  place,  and  the  time  of 
 visiting,  cannot  be  determined.  The  story  of  his  read- 
 ing his  work  at  the  Olympic  games,  on  which  occasion 
 he  is  said  to  have  received  universal  applause,  and  to 
 have  had  the  names  of  the  nine  Muses  given  to  the 
 nine  books  of  his  History,  has  been  well  discussed  by 
 Dahlmann,  and  we  may  perhaps  say  disproved.  (Hc- 
 rodot.,  aus  seinem  Buchc,  scin  Lcbcn,  Altona,  1823.) 
 The  story  is  founded  upon  a  small  piece  by  Lucian, 
 entitled  "  Herodotus  or  Aetion,"  which  apparently  was 
 not  intended  by  the  writer  himself  as  an  historical 
 truth ;  and,  in  addition  to  this,  Herodotus  was  only 
 about  twenty-eight  years  old  {Suid.,  s.  v.  QovKvSidti^) 
 when  he  is  said  to  have  read  to  the  assembled  Greeks 
 at  Olympia  a  work  which  was  the  result  of  most  ex- 
 tensive travelling  and  research,  and  which  bears  in 
 every  part  of  it  evident  marks  of  the  hand  of  a  man  of 
 mature  age.  The  Olympic  recitation  is  not  even  al- 
 luded to  by  Plutarch,  in  his  treatise  on  the  "Malignity 
 of  Herodotus  "  At  a  later  period  Herodotus  read  his 
 History,  as  we  are  informed  by  Plutarch  and  Eusebius, 
 at  the  Panathenaean  festival  at  Athens,  and  the  Athe- 
 nians are  said  to  have  presented  him  with  the  sum  of 
 ten  talents  for  the  manner  in  which  he  had  spoken  of 
 the  deeds  of  their  nation.  The  account  of  this  sec- 
 ond recitation  may  be  true. — With  a  simplicity  which 
 characterizes  his  whole  work,  Herodotus  makes  no  dis- 
 fllay  of  the  great  extent  of  his  travels.  He  frequently 
 608 
 
 avoids  saying  in  express  terms  that  he  was  at  a  place, 
 but  he  uses  words  which  are  as  conclusive  as  any  pos- 
 itive statement.  He  describes  a  thing  as  standina  be- 
 hind the  door  (2,  182),  or  on  the  right  hand  as  you  en- 
 ter a  temple  (1,  51);  or  he  was  told  something  bv  a 
 person  in  a  particular  place  (2,  28);  or  he  uses  other 
 words  equally  significant.  In  Ai'rica  he  visited  Egypt, 
 from  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  to  Elephantine, 
 the  southern  extremity  of  the  country  (2,  29) ;  and  he 
 travelled  westward  as  far  as  Cyrene  (2,  32,  181),  and 
 probably  farther.  In  Asia  he  visited  Tyre,  Babylon, 
 Ecbatana  (1,  98),  and  probably  Susa  (5,  52,  scqq.  ;  6, 
 119).  He  also  travelled  to  various  parts  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, and  probably  went  as  far  as  Colchis  (2,  104).  lu 
 Europe  he  visited  a  large  part  of  the  country  along  the 
 Black  Sea,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  the 
 Crimea,  and  went  some  distance  into  the  interior.  He 
 seems  to  have  examined  the  line  of  the  march  of  Xerxes 
 from  the  Hellespont  to  Attica,  and  certainly  had  seen 
 numerous  places  on  this  route.  He  was  well  ac- 
 quainted with  Athens  (1,98;  5,  77),  and  also  with 
 Delphi,  Dodona,  Olympia,  Delos,  and  many  other 
 places  in  Greece.  That  he  had  visited  some  parts  of 
 Southern  Italy  is  clear  from  his  work  (4,  99  ;  5,  44). 
 The  mention  of  these  places  is  sufficient  to  show 
 that  he  must  have  seen  many  more.  So  wide  and 
 varied  a  field  of  observation  has  rarely  been  present- 
 ed to  a  traveller,  and  still  more  rarely  to  any  histori- 
 an, either  of  ancient  or  modern  times  ;  and,  if  we  can- 
 not affirm  that  the  author  undertook  his  travels  with 
 a  view  to  collect  materials  for  his  great  work,  a  sup- 
 position which  is  far  from  improbable,  it  is  certain  that, 
 without  such  advantages,  he  could  never  have  written 
 it,  and  that  his  travels  must  have  suggested  much  in- 
 quiry, and  supplied  many  valuable  facts,  which  after- 
 ward found  a  place  in  his  History.  The  nine  books  of 
 Herodotus  contain  a  great  variety  of  matter,  the  unity 
 of  which  is  not  perceived  till  the  whole  work  has  been  ' 
 thoroughly  examined  ;  and  for  this  reason,  on  a  first  pe- 
 rusal, the  History  is  seldom  well  understood.  But  the 
 subject  of  his  History  was  conceived  by  the  author  both 
 clearly  and  comprehensively.  His  aim  was  to  com- 
 bine a  general  history  of  the  Greeks  and  the  barbari- 
 ans (that  is,  those  not  Greeks)  with  the  history  of  the 
 wars  between  the  Greeks  and  Persians.  According- 
 ly, in  the  execution  of  his  main  task,  he  traces  the 
 course  of  events  from  the  lime  when  the  Lydian  king- 
 dom of  Croesus  fell  before  the  arms  of  Cyrus,  the  found- 
 er of  the  Persian  monarchy  (B.C.  546),  to  the  capture 
 of  Sestus  (B.C.  478),  an  event  which  crowned  the  tri- 
 umph of  the  Greeks  over  the  Persians.  The  great 
 subject  of  his  work,  which  is  comprised  within  the 
 space  of  68  years,  not  more  than  the  ordinary  term  of 
 human  life,  advances,  with  a  regular  progress  and  tru- 
 ly dramatic  development,  from  the  first  weak  and  di- 
 vided efforts  of  the  Greeks  to  resist  Asiatic  numbers, 
 to  their  union  as  a  nation,  and  their  final  triumph  in 
 the  memorable  battles  of  Thermopylaj,  Salamis,  and 
 Platsea.  But  with  this  subject,  which  has  a  complete 
 unity,  well  maintained  from  its  commencement  to  its 
 close,  the  author  has  interwoven,  conformably  to  his 
 general  purpose,  and  by  way  of  occasional  digression, 
 sketches  of  the  various  people  and  countries  which  he 
 had  visited  in  his  widc-exlended  travels.  The  more 
 we  contemplate  the  difiiculty  of  thus  combining  a  kind 
 of  universal  history  with  a  substantial  and  distinct  nar- 
 rative, the  more  we  admire,  not  the  art  of  the  historian 
 (for  such,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  he  could  not 
 well  possess),  but  that  happy  power  of  bringing  togeth- 
 er and  arranging  his  materials,  which  was  the  result  ot 
 the  fulness  of  his  information,  the  distinctness  of  his 
 knowledge,  and  the  clear  conception  of  his  subject 
 Tliese  numerous  digressions  are  among  the  most  valua- 
 able  parts  of  his  work  ;  and,  if  they  had  been  omitted  or 
 lost,  barren  indeed  would  have  been  our  investigation 
 into  the  field  of  ancient  history,  over  which  the  labour 
 
HERODOTUS 
 
 HER 
 
 of  one  man  now  throws  a  clear  and  steady  light. — The 
 style  of  Herodotus  is  simple,  pleasing,  and  generally 
 perspicuous  ;  often  highly  poetical  both  in  expression 
 and  sentiment.      But  it  bears  evident  marks  of  belong- 
 ing to  a  period  when  prose  composition  had  not  yet 
 become  a  subject  of  art.      His  sentences  are  often  ill- 
 constructed  and  hang  loosely  together ;  but  his  clear 
 comprehension  of  his  own  meaning,  and  the  sterling 
 worth  of  his  matter,  have  saved  him  from  the  reproach 
 of  ditluseness   and    incoherence.      His    acquirements 
 were  ajjparently  the  result  of  his  own  experience.     In 
 physical   knowledge  he  was  certainly  behind  the  sci- 
 ence of  his  day.     He  had,  no  doubt,  reflected  on  politi- 
 cal questions  ;  but  he  seems  to  have  formed  his  opinions 
 mainly  from  what  he  himself  had  observed.      To  pure 
 philoso[)hical  speculations  he  had  no  inclination,  and 
 there  is  not  a  trace  of  such  in  his  writings.     He  had 
 a  strong  religious  feeling  bordering  on  superstition, 
 though  even  here  he  could  clearly  distinguish  the  gross 
 and  ab.surd  from  that  which  was  decorous.      He  seems 
 to  have  viewed  the  manners  and  customs  of  all  nations 
 in  a  more  truly  philosophical  way  than  many  so-called 
 philosophers,  considering   them   as   various    forms   of 
 social    existence    under    which    happiness    might    be 
 found.      He  treats  with  decent  respect  the  religious 
 observances  of  every  nation  ;  a  decisive  proof,  if  any 
 were  wanting,  of  his  great  good  sense. — That   He- 
 rodotus was  not  duly  appreciated  by  all  his  country- 
 men, and  that  in  modern  times  his  wonderful  stories 
 have  been  the  subject  of  merriment  to  the  half-learn- 
 ed, who  measure  his  experience  by   their  own  igno- 
 rance, we  merely  notice,  without  thinking  it  necessary 
 to  say  more.      The  incidental  confirmations  of  his  ve- 
 racity, which  have  been  accumulating  of  late  years  on 
 all  sides,  and  our  more  exact  knowledge  of  the  coun- 
 tries which  he  visited,  enable  us  to  appreciate  him  bet- 
 ter than  many  of  the  Greeks  themselves  could  do  ;  and 
 it  cannot  now  be  denied,  that  a  sound  and  comprehen- 
 sive study  of  antiquity  must  be  based  upon  a  thorough 
 knowledge  of  the  work  of  Herodotus. — Plutarch  ac- 
 cused Herodotus  of  partiality,  and  composed  a  treatise 
 on  what   he   termed   the  "  malignity"  of  this  writer 
 (-fpt  TTjg  'HpodoTov  KaKOTjdsia^),  taxing  him  with  in- 
 justice towards  the  Thebans,  Corinthians,  and  Greeks 
 in  general  ;   but  the  whole  affair  is  a  weak  and  frivo- 
 lous one.     The  historian  has  also  found   two  new  an- 
 tagonists in  more  recent  times.     M.VI.  Chahan  de  Cir- 
 bicd  and  F.  Martin,  authors  of  a  work  entitled  "  Re- 
 cltcrches  Curieuses  sur  Vhist.orie  ancicnne  de  Z'ylsic," 
 drawn  from  Oriental  manuscripts  in  the  "  Bibliotheque 
 du  Roi'"  {Paris,  1806),  oppose  to  him  the  testimony  of 
 Mar-Ibas-Cadina,  a  Syrian,  and  the  secretary  of  Vala- 
 sarces,  king  of  Armenia.     This  writer  pretends  to  have 
 found  in  the  archives  of  Nineveh  a  Greek  translation, 
 made  by  order  of  Alexander  the  Great,  of  a  Chaldean 
 work  of  very  remote  antiquity.     The  history  of  Mar- 
 Ibas-Cadina  no  longer  exists,  but  it  was  the   source 
 whence   Moses  of  Chorene  in  the  fifth  century,  and 
 John  Caiholicos  in  the  tenth,  drew  the  materials  for 
 iheir  respective  works.     This  attack,  however,  on  the 
 credibility  of  the  Greek  writer,  is  undeserving  of  any 
 serious  consideration,  more  especially  as   the  French 
 editors  themselves,  just  mentioned,  confess  that  Mar- 
 Ibas-Cadina  deals  largely  in  fable. — A  life  of  Homer  is 
 cotnmonly  ascribed  to  Herodotus,  and  appears  in  most 
 editions  of  his  history;  but  it  is  now  deemed  supposi- 
 titious.    The  three  best  editions  of  Herodotus   are, 
 that  of  Wesseling,  Arnst.,  1763,  fol.  ;  that  of  Schweig- 
 haeuser,    Argent,  1816,    6   vols.    8vo ;    and    that    of 
 Bahr,  Lips.,  1830-35,  4  vols.  8vo.     The  edition   of 
 Schweighaeuser  has  a  "  Lexicon  Herodoteum,"  form- 
 ing a  seventh  volume,  which  is  a  useful  aid    to  stu- 
 dents, though  far   from  being  complete.     Some  time 
 after  the  appearance  of  Schweighaeuser's  Herodotus, 
 Gaisibrd  collated  anew  the  Sancroft  MS.  (one  of  the 
 best  manuscripts  of  the  historian),  and  published  an 
 4H 
 
 edition  from  the  Oxford  press,  in  1824  ;  but  the  result 
 of  the  collation  has  added  nothing  of  any  value  to 
 Schweighaeuser's  text.  The  edition  of  Bahr  is,  per- 
 haps, the  most  useful  of  the  three.  It  contains  an  ex 
 cellent  body  of  notes,  many  of  them  selected  from  the 
 writings  of  Creuzer,  especially  from  his  "  Commenta- 
 tiones  Herodoteaj,"  and  refers  constantly  to  the  most 
 recent  speculations  of  the  German  scholars  on  the  dif- 
 ferent topics  discussed  by  Herodotus.  There  is  also 
 a  French  translation  of  the  history  by  Larcher,  Paris, 
 1802,  9  vols.  8vo,  of  great  fidelity,  and  highly  esteem- 
 ed for  its  very  valuable  commentary.  Very  important 
 aid  may  likewise  be  obtained  by  the  student  from  Ren- 
 nell's  and  Niebuhr's  respective  dissertations  on  the 
 geography  of  Herodotus.  A  reprint  of  the  former  ap- 
 peared from  the  London  press  in  1830,  2  vols.  8vo ; 
 and  a  translation  of  the  latter  from  the  German  was 
 published  at  Oxford,  1830,  8vo.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL, 
 vol.  12,  p.  163,  seqq. — SclioU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  140,  seqq.) — II.  The  author  of  an  ancient  glossary 
 on  Hippocrates,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the 
 same  with  Herodotus  of  Tarsus  (No.  III.).  Others 
 think  that  the  glossary  in  question  is  merely  intended 
 as  a  collection  of  words  found  in  the  history  of  Herod- 
 otus of  Halicarnassus,  and  that  it  has  been  incorpora- 
 ted with  the  works  of  Hippocrates  for  no  other  reason 
 than  because  this  physician  wrote  in  the  Ionic  dialect, 
 and  many  terms  occur  both  in  his  works  and  in  the 
 history  of  Herodotus.  (Scltbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  f), 
 p.  6.) — III.  A  physician  of  Tarsus,  of  the  empiric 
 school,  and  successor  to  Menodotus  of  Nicomedia.  A 
 work  of  his,  entitled  "  The  Physician,"  is  mentiotied  by 
 Galen  {Sect.  2,  Comment,  in  vi.  Epiil.  Hippocr.  text., 
 42). 
 
 Heroes  ("Hpwff),  the  plural  of  Hekos  ("Hpof).  a 
 name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  a  class  of  persons  sup- 
 posed to  be  intermediate  between  gods  and  men,  and 
 usually  of  divine  descent  on  at  least  one  si'de.  Such 
 were  worshipped  with  divine  honours  by  those  cities 
 and  races  of  men  which  claimed  them  as  their  fathers 
 or  ancestors.  This  divine  origin,  however,  was  not 
 essential :  thus  Philippus  of  Crotona,  who  fell  in  the 
 battle  against  the  Phujnicians  and  Egestaeans,  was 
 made  a  hero  for  his  beauty  ;  a  heroum  or  shrine  was 
 built  on  the  spot  where  he  was  buried,  and  sacrifices 
 were  offered  to  him.  {Herod.,  5,  47.)  At  a  later  age, 
 Aratus  and  Brasidas  were  worshipped  as  heroes  at 
 Sicyon  and  Amphipolis  respectively  ;  and  the  Atheni- 
 ans slain  at  Marathon  received  similar  honours.  Con- 
 cerning these  last,  legends  were  current,  which  show 
 that  a  supernatural  and  mythological  character  was 
 really  ascribed  to  them,  and  they,  probably,  were  the 
 latest  of  the  Greeks  to  whom  such  a  character  was  at- 
 tributed. The  Heroic  Age,  properly  so  called,  appears, 
 however,  to  have  terminated  with  the  immediate  de- 
 scendants of  the  Greeks  who  returned  from  Troy,  and 
 to  have  extended  backward  for  an  uncertain  length  of 
 time,  estimated  by  Thirlwall  at  six  generations,  or 
 about  200  years.  This  is  the  fourth  or  Heroic  Age 
 of  Hesiod,  in  which  Jupiter  "  made  the  divine  brood  ol 
 heroes,  better  and  braver  than  the  third  or  brazen  race." 
 {Op.,  et  D.,  157.)  These  were  the  princes  and  war- 
 riors of  mythological  history,  such  as  Theseus,  Perseus, 
 and  those  who  fought  at' the  sieges  of  Thebes  mid 
 Troy.  In  Homer,  the  word  Hero  occurs  frequently, 
 but  in  quite  a  different  sense  :  it  is  applied  collectively 
 to  the  whole  body  of  fighters,  Argeii,  Daiiai,  and  Achxi, 
 without  reference  to  individuals  of  peculiar  merit ;  and. 
 indeed,  often  appears  to  be  used  for  little  more  than  ati 
 expletive,  when  he,  or  the  vian,  or  the  u-arrtor,  would 
 have  done  equally  well.  Indeed,  the  application  of  the 
 word  is  not  even  limited  to  warriors,  but  is  extended 
 to  heralds,  wise  counsellors,  kings,  &c.  It  has  been 
 suggested,  with  considerable  plausibility,  that  the  word 
 origmally  denoted  the  members  of  those  roving  band, 
 who  in  the  earliest  tunes  overran  Greece  issuing  from 
 
 nuy 
 
HER 
 
 HER 
 
 tiie  south  of  Thessaly,  and  giving  extension  to  the 
 name,  first  of  Achaeans,  and  afterward  of  Hellenes,  as 
 we  learn  from  the  legends  in  Pausanias  and  Thucydi- 
 des  ;  so  thai  in  tlie  same  sense  the  Normans  who  col- 
 onized Italy,  or  the  Saxons  who  settled  in  England, 
 might  justly  be  called  heroes.  The  root  of  the  word 
 seems  to  be  her,  whence  come  the  Latin  and  German 
 forms  of  hcrus  and  herr  ("  master") ;  vir,  virtus,  &c. 
 The  Sanscrit  word  sfcra  appears  to  contain  the  same 
 element  as  "  heros.'" — The  promiscuous  (or  Homeric) 
 use  of  the  word  "  hero"  disappeared  in  the  age  suc- 
 ceeding tiie  Homeric  poems.  It  seems  probable  that 
 the  Hellenic  invasion,  commonly  called  the  return  of 
 the  Heraclidae,  put  an  end  to  it.  The  new  conquerors 
 of  Southern  Greece  do  not  seem  themselves  to  have 
 borne  or  used  the  title  ;  and  afterward,  when  they  or 
 their  descendants  looked  back  to  the  warlike  legends 
 of  the  earlier  race  who  had  borne  the  title,  the  lays,  ex- 
 ploits, and  legends  were  called  heroic  ;  and  from  the 
 combined  effect  of  poetical  exaggeration,  reverence  for 
 antiquity,  and  traditions  of  national  descent,  the  more 
 modern  use  of  the  word  arose,  carrying  with  it  notions 
 of  mythical  dignity,  and  of  superiority  to  the  later  races 
 of  mankind.  The  custom  of  showing  respect  or  af- 
 fection by  making  precious  offerings,  and  celebrating 
 costly  sacrifices  at  the  tombs  of  the  dead  ;  the  imagi- 
 native temper  of  the  Greeks,  which,  as  it  loved  to  as- 
 cribe a  divine  genealogy  to  the  great,  was  equally  will- 
 ing to  admit  them  to  a  share  of  the  divine  nature  and 
 enjoyments  after  death ;  and  the  love  of  magnifying 
 past  ages,  common  to  all  nations,  will  sufficiently  ex- 
 plain the  change  of  earthly  leaders  into  protecting  genii 
 or  dasmons,  who  were  believed  to  be  immortal,  invisi- 
 ble, though  frequenting  the  earth,  powerful  to  bestow 
 good  or  evil,  and  therefore  to  be  appeased  or  propitia- 
 ted like  the  gods  themselves.  In  the  age  of  Hesiod, 
 as  is  evident  from  the  passage  above  referred  to,  the 
 day  of  heroes  was  past,  and  they  were  already  invest- 
 ed with  their  mythological  character,  which  appears  to 
 furnish  one  among  other  reasons  for  believing  him  to 
 have  lived  after  the  Homeric  age.  ( TktrlwaWs  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  123,  seqq. — Philological  Museum,  No.  4,  p. 
 72,  seqq. — Ericycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  12,  p.  160,  scq.) 
 Heron  or  Hero,  I.  a  native  of  Alexandrea,  and  dis- 
 ciple of  Ctesibius  flourished  about  217  B.C.  He  was 
 celebrated  as  a  mechanician,  and  invented  the  hydrau- 
 lic clock,  and  the  machine  called  "  the  fountain  of 
 Hero."  He  must  have  enjoyed  a  high  reputation, 
 since  he  is  mentioned  by  Gregory  Nazianzen  with 
 Euclid  and  Ptolemy.  He  is  now,  however,  principally 
 known  by  some  fragments  of  his  writings  on  mechan- 
 ics, which  are  to  be  found  in  the  "  Mathemattci  Vete- 
 rcs,''''  published  at  Paris  in  1693.  His  extant  writings 
 are,  1.  "On  the  Machine  called  the  Chiroballistra" 
 {'X.ELpofmTOiiaTpaQ  KaraoKevr]  koL  av/j/ieTpia).  This  is 
 found  in  the  "  Mathematici  Veteres"  already  cited. 
 — 2.  Barulcus  (Bapov2.Koc),  a  treatise  on  the  raising  of 
 heavy  weights,  which  is  mentioned  by  Pappus,  and 
 was  found  by  Golius  in  Arabic.  A  translation  of  it 
 into  German,  by  Burgman,  was  published  in  the  Com- 
 ment. Goc/t.,  7,  77. — 3.  Belopocica  (BeAottou/cu),  a 
 treatise  on  the  manufacture  of  darts,  published  by 
 Baldi,  with  an  account  of  Hero,  at  Augsburg,  in 
 1616,  and  also  in  the  Math.  Vet. — 4.  On  Pneumatic 
 Machines  {Uvev/iaTiKu).  In  this  work  is  the  first  and 
 only  notice  among  the  ancient  writers  of  the  applica- 
 tion of  steam  as  a  moving  power.  {Stuart's  History 
 of  the  Steam-Enginc,  4to.)  It  was  published  by 
 Commandine  at  Urbino  in  1575,  and  at  Amsterdam 
 in  1680,  and  also  in  the  Math.  Vet.,  with  the  addi- 
 tions of  Aleotti,  who  had  previously  published  an  Ital- 
 ian version  at  Bologna  in  1542,  and  at  Ferrara  in 
 1589. — 5.  On  the  Construction  of  Automata  {ntpl 
 KvTOfiaTonoirjTLKdv),  contained  in  the  Math.  Vet. — 6. 
 On  Dioptrics,  from  which  Heliodorus,  a  mathemati- 
 cian who  flourished  after  the  commencement  of  the 
 610 
 
 Christian  era,  has  left  an  extract,  and  of  which  a  MS, 
 
 exists  in  the  Strasburg  library.  Other  works  of  Hero, 
 now  lost,  are  mentioned  by  Pappus,  Eutocius,  Heli- 
 odorus, &ic.  {Schmidt,  Hieronis  Alcxandrini  Vita 
 Scripta  et  quadam  inventa,  Hclmstad.,  1714,  4to.) — • 
 II.  Commonly  called  the  Younger,  is  supposed  to 
 have  flourished  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  He- 
 raclius,  which  commenced  A.D.  610.  He  also  wrote 
 on  mechanical  and  mathematical  subjects.  His  native 
 country  is  uncertain.  In  a  work  attributed  to  hira 
 (On  Geodesy),  he  states,  that  the  procession  of  the 
 equinoxes  had  produced  seven  degrees  of  efl^ect  since 
 the  time  of  Ptolemy,  so  that  he  must  have  been  about 
 500  years  later  than  Ptolemy.  He  is  generally  placed, 
 however,  as  already  remarked,  under  the  reign  of  He- 
 raclius.  The  writings  of  Hero  the  Younger  are,  1. 
 A  book  "  On  Machines  of  War"  {TloliopKTjriKu),  ed- 
 ited in  Latin  by  Barocius,  Venice,  1572,  together  with, 
 2.  A  book  of  "  Geodesy,"  a.  term  then  meaning  practi- 
 cal geometry. — 3.  "  On  the  Attack  and  Defence  of 
 Towns,"  printed  in  the  Math.  Vet. — 4.  A  book  '•  On 
 Military  Tactics,"  said  by  Lambecius  to  exist  in  MS. 
 in  the  library  at  Vienna. — 5.  On  the  Terms  in  Geom- 
 etry, printed  at  Strasburg,  1571,  and  also  edited  by 
 Hasenbalg,  Stralsund,  1826,  4to,  with  notes. — 6.  Ge- 
 ometncal  Extracts,  printed  by  the  Benedictines,  in  the 
 first  volume  of  the  Analecta  GrcEca,  Paris,  1688,  from 
 a  copious  MS.  in  the  royal  library  at  Paris. — 7.  A  ge- 
 ometrical manuscript,  stated  by  Lambecius  to  be  in 
 the  library  at  Vienna. — III.  A  mathematician,  who 
 flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  5lh  century,  and 
 was  the  teacher  of  Proclus.  None  of  his  works  have 
 reached  us. 
 
 Heroopolis,  a  city  of  Egypt,  about  equidistant  from 
 Pelusium,  the  apex  of  the  Delta,  and  the  city  of  Arsi- 
 noe,  on  the  extremity  of  the  western  branch  of  the 
 Sinus  Arabicus.  It  gave  to  that  branch  the  name  of 
 Sinus  Herobpolites,  now  Bahr-Assuez.  It  was  a  city 
 of  comparatively  recent  origin,  founded  by  the  Greeks 
 for  commercial  purposes;  and  its  very  name,  which 
 Pliny  translates  by  Heroum  Oppidum,  shows  the  Gre- 
 cian origin  of  the  place.  Stephanus  of  Byzantium, 
 however,  asserts  that  the  previous  name  of  the  city 
 was  Hsemos  (A'///of),  because  Typhon  was  here  wound- 
 ed by  lightning,  and  his  blood  gushed  forth  upon  the 
 ground.  Haemos  is  a  Grecian  name  as  well  as  Hero- 
 opolis, and  the  Egyptian  fable  must  therefore  have 
 been  invented  after  the  foundation  of  the  place  by  the 
 Greeks.  Heroopolis  remained  a  place  of  importance 
 as  long  as  the  canal  of  Ptolemy  formed  one  of  the 
 channels  of  communication  in  this  quarter.  It  be- 
 longed, however,  to  no  nome,  but,  like  Arsinoe,  was 
 a  separate  establishment.  It  sunk  with  the  canal,  and 
 the  ruins  are  said  to  be  no  longer  visible,  being  buried 
 probably  beneath  the  sand.  {Maiinert,  Gcogr.,  vol. 
 10,  pt.  2,  p.  516,  seqq.) 
 
 Herophilus,  a  celebrated  physician,  a  native  of 
 Chalcedon,  of  the  family  of  the  Asclepiades,  and  a 
 disciple  of  Praxagoras.  Galen,  indeed,  has  called  him 
 a  Carthaginian  ;  but  in  the  book  entitled  "  Introduc- 
 tion," which  is  ascribed  to  Galen,  he  is  said  to  be  of 
 Chalcedon.  Herophilus  lived  under  Ptolemy  Soter, 
 and  was  contemporary  with  the  philosopher  Diodorus, 
 and  with  the  celebrated  physician  Erasistratus,  with 
 whose  name  his  own  is  commonly  associated  in  the 
 history  of  anatomical  science.  As  a  physician,  He- 
 rophilus is  mentioned  with  praise  by  both  the  ancient 
 and  the  early  modern  writers.  Cicero,  Plutarch,  and 
 Pliny,  in  particular,  praise  him.  Galen  says  that  he 
 carried  anatomy  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection, 
 {De  disscc.  matric,  p.  211. — Dc  dogm.  Hipp,  et  Plat., 
 lib.  8,  p.  318.)  With  such  zeal,  indeed,  did  Herophi- 
 lus pursue  this  science,  that  he  is  said  to  have  dissect- 
 ed 700  subjects,  and  it  was  against  him  and  Erasistra- 
 tus that  the  very  improbable  charge  was  first  made,  ol 
 having  frequently  opened  living  criminals,  that  they 
 
HER 
 
 HES 
 
 •night  discover  the  secret  springs  of  life.  (Celsus, 
 free/.)  From  the  peculiar  advantages  which  the 
 school  of  Aiexandrea  presented  by  this  authorized  dis- 
 section of  the  human  body,  it  gained,  and  for  many 
 centuries  preserved,  the  first  reputation  for  medical 
 education,  so  that  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  who  hved 
 about  650  years  after  its  estabhshmeiit,  says,  that  it 
 was  sufficient  to  secure  credit  to  any  physician  if  he 
 could  say  that  he  had  studied  at  Aiexandrea.  {Amm. 
 Marc,  22,  16.)  Herophilus  made  great  discoveries 
 in  anatomy,  and  Fallopius  calls  him  the  evangelist  of 
 anatomists.  {Fallop.,  Ohscrv.,  p.  395.)  He  is  to  be 
 regarded  as  the  inventor  of  pathological  anatomy,  hav- 
 ing been  the  first  that  thought  of  opening  the  bodies 
 of  men  after  death,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  nature  of 
 the  malady  which  had  caused  their  dissolution.  His 
 principal  discoveries  have  reference  to  the  nervous 
 system,  which  he  acknowledged  as  the  seat  of  the  sen- 
 sations. {Galen,  dc  loc.  affect.,  lib.  3,  p.  282. — Rvf- 
 fus,  de  appcUat  part.  corp.  hum.,  lib.  2,  p.  65.)  He 
 first  determined  that  the  nerves  are  not  connected  with 
 the  membranes  that  cover  the  brain,  but  with  the  bram 
 itself,  though  as  yet  the  distinction  of  the  nerves  from 
 the  tendons  and  other  white  tissues  had  not  been  made 
 out  The  description  which  Herophilus  gave  of  the 
 brain  itself  was  far  superior  to  those  of  previous  au- 
 thors. He  discovered  the  arachnoid  membrane,  and 
 showed  that  it  lined  the  ventricles,  which  he  supposed 
 were  the  seat  of  the  soul  ;  and  the  chief  meetmg  of 
 the  sinuses,  into  which  the  veins  of  the  brain  pour  their 
 blood,  still  bears  the  name  of  torcular  Hcropkili.  He 
 noticed  the  lacteals,  though  he  was  not  aware  of  their 
 use.  He  pointed  out  that  the  first  division  of  the  in- 
 testinal canal  is  never  more  than  the  breadth  of  twelve 
 fingers  in  length,  and  from  this  fact  proposed  for  it  a 
 name,  the  Latin  form  of  which  {duodenum)  is  still  ap- 
 plied to  it.  He  described  with  great  exactness  the 
 organ  of  sight,  and  gave  to  its  various  membranes  the 
 names  which  have  still,  in  a  great  measure,  remained 
 to  them.  He  operated  on  the  cataract  by  extracting 
 the  crystalline  humour.  The  ancient  physicians  praise 
 his  descriptions  of  the  os  hyoidcs,  which  he  called 
 napaaTciTiir,  of  the  liver,  and  of  the  parts  of  genera- 
 tion. {Ruffus,  I.  c.,  p.  37.  —  Galen,  de  Administr. 
 Anat.,  lib.  6,  p.  172.)  Herophilus  was  the  first,  also, 
 that  had  just  notions  respecting  the  pulse,  of  which  his 
 master,  Praxagoras,  had  taught  him  some  of  the  value, 
 as  a  means  of  discriminating  diseases.  ( Galen,  dc  diff. 
 puis.,  lib.  2,  p.  'Zi.—Plm.,  11,  27.— Id.,  29,  1.)  He 
 does  not  appear  to  have  drawn  many  pathological  con- 
 clusions from  his  knowledge  of  the  healthy  structure. 
 It  was  he,  however,  who  first  showed  that  paralysis  is 
 the  result,  not  of  a  vitiated  state  of  the  humours,  as 
 was  previously  imagined,  but  of  an  affection  of  the 
 nervous  system.  Herophilus  seems  to  have  founded 
 a  school  which  took  its  name  from  him.  He  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  the  first  that  commented  on  the 
 aphorisms  of  Hippocrates.  His  commentary  exists  in 
 manuscript  in  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan.  All 
 his  other  works,  among  which  was  one  on  respiration, 
 are  lost.  {Sprcngcl,  Hist,  de  la  Med.,  vol.  1,  p.  433, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Herostratus,  less  correctly  Erostr.Xtus,  the  in- 
 cendiary who  set  fire  to  the  famous  temple  of  Diana 
 at  Ephesus.  When  put  to  the  torture,  he  confessed 
 that  his  only  object  was  to  gain  himself  a  name  among 
 posterity.  The  states-general  of  Asia  endeavoured, 
 very  foolishly,  to  prevent  this,  by  ordering  that  his 
 name  should  never  be  mentioned  ;  but  the  natural 
 consequence  was,  that  it  is  mentioned  by  all  contem- 
 porary historians,  and  has  reached  even  our  own  time, 
 ill  full  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  man  who 
 bore  it.  {Plut.,  Alex.,  c.  3.  — Ctc,  N.  D.,  2,  27.— 
 Val.  Max..  8,  li.S(rab.,6iO.—Vid.  Ephesus.) 
 
 Herse,  a  daughter  of  Cecrops,  king  of  Athens,  be- 
 loved by  Mercury.     The  god  disclosed  his  love  to  Ag- 
 
 lauros,  Herse's  sister,  and  entreated  her  good  offices  to 
 his  suit.  These  she  promised  on  condition  of  receiv- 
 ing a  large  quantity  of  gold,  and  drove  him  out  of  the 
 palace  until  he  should  have  given  it.  Minerva,  in- 
 censed at  her  cupidity,  and  provoked  with  her  also  for 
 other  causes,  sent  Envy  to  fill  her  bosom  wiih  that 
 baneful  passion.  Unable  thereupon  to  endure  the 
 idea  of  her  sister's  felicity,  she  sat  down  at  the  door, 
 determined  not  to  permit  the  god  to  enter.  Mercury, 
 provoked  by  her  obstinacy,  changed  her  into  a  black 
 stone.  Herse  became  the  mother  of  Cephalus.  {Ovid, 
 Met.,  2,  708,  seqq.—Apollod.,  3,  lA.—  Vid.  Cecrops.) 
 
 Hersilia,  one  of  the  Sabine  females  carried  away 
 by  the  Romans  at  the  celebration  of  the  Consualia. 
 She  was  given  to  Romulus  as  a  spouse,  and,  after  his 
 death,  became  herself  a  divinity,  under  the  name  of 
 Hora  {Youtk).  The  common  reading,  Ora,  is  wrong. 
 (Consult  Gierig,  ad  Ovid,  Met.,  14,  851.) 
 
 Hertha,  a  goddess  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Ger- 
 mans, and,  according  to  Tacitus  {Germ.,  c.  40),  the 
 same  with  the  earth.  ("  Herthatn,  id  est,  Terram  ma- 
 Irem,  colunt.")  She  was  supposed  to  take  part  in  hu- 
 man affairs,  and  even  sometimes  to  come  among  mor- 
 tals. She  had  a  sacred  grove  in  an  island  of  the  ocean, 
 and  a  chariot,  covered  with  a  veil,  standing  in  the 
 grove  and  consecrated  to  her  service.  Whenever  it 
 was  known  that  the  goddess  had  descended  into  this 
 her  sanctuary,  her  car  was  got  ready,  cows  were  yoked 
 to  it,  and  the  deity  was  carried  around  in  the  covered 
 vehicle.  Festivity  reigned  in  every  place  which  the 
 goddess  honoured  with  her  presence  :  wars  ceased, 
 arms  were  laid  aside,  and  peace  and  harmony  prevail- 
 ed, until  the  priest  declared  that  the  goddess  was  sated 
 with  human  converse,  and  once  more  enclosed  hel 
 within  the  temple.  {Tarit.,  ibid.)  The  very  name 
 Hertha,  and  its  close  resemblance  to  our  English  word 
 Earth,  proves  Tacitus  to  be  right  in  making  Hertha 
 and  the  Earth  identical.  (Compare  the  Anglo-Saxon 
 Hearth,  i.  e.,  "Earth.")  The  island  mentioned  by- 
 Tacitus  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  been  that  of  Ru- 
 gen,  in  the  Baltic,  while  others  have  sought  for  it  in 
 the  Northern  Ocean.  Certain  traditions  in  the  island 
 of  Rugen  seem  to  favour  the  former  opinion.  (Con- 
 sult Voyage  dans  Visle  dc  Rugen,  par  ZoUner,  and 
 Panckoucke's  Germany  of  Tacitus,  p.  204,  in  notis.) 
 
 Hkkuli,  a  barbarian  race,  who  attacked  the  Roman 
 empire  on  its  decline.  Their  first  appearance  was  on 
 the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  They  were  subsequently 
 defeated  by  the  Ostrogoths  ;  but,  after  the  death  of 
 Attila,  they  founded  a  powerful  empire  on  the  Danube. 
 According  to  Jornandes  {De  Rch.  Get.),  they  first 
 dwelt  in  Scandinavia,  and,  being  driven  thence  by  the 
 Danes,  wandered  eastward  as  far  as  the  Palus  Maeotis, 
 and  settled  in  that  neighbourhood.  They  continued 
 making  frequent  incursions  into  the  empire  until  the 
 reign  of  Anastasius,  when  great  numbers  of  them  were 
 cut  off  by  the  Lombards,  and  the  rest  migrated  to  the 
 West.  They  began  to  invade  the  empire  about  A.D. 
 526.  {Paul.  Warnef.,  dc  Gest.  Longoh.,  1,  20. — 
 Prpcop.,  Bell.  Goth.,  2,  11.)  The  Heruli  made  them- 
 selves masters,  at  one  time,  of  Rome  itself,  under  their 
 king  Odoacer,  and  from  this  period,  A.D.  476,  is  dated 
 the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire. 
 
 Hesiopus  ('H<7io(5oc),  a  celebrated  Grecian  poet, 
 commonly  su[)posed  to  have  been  born  at  Gums  or 
 Cyme,  in  JEoYis,  and  to  have  been  brought,  at  an  early 
 aae,  to  Ascra  in  Bceotia.  {Scholl,  Gesch.  Gricch. 
 Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  130.— L?/.  Gyrahl,  Vit.  Hcs)  Gott- 
 lintT,  however,  has  shown  very  clearly,  from  the  poet  s 
 own  words  {Op.  et  D.,  648,  seq.).  that  he  must  have 
 been  born  at  Ascra.  His  father,  it  .seems,  had  migra- 
 ted from  Cyme  to  Ascra  in  consequence  of  his  pov- 
 erty, and  resided  at  the  latter  place  for  some  time, 
 though  without  obtaining  the  rights  of  a  citi/.cn.  Still, 
 however,  he  left  at  his  death  a  considerable  property  to 
 his  two  sons,  Hesiod,  and  a  younger  brother  named  I  er- 
 
 611 
 
HESIODUS. 
 
 HESIODUS. 
 
 ges.  The  brothers  divided  the  inheritance  ;  but  Pcr- 
 ses,  by  means  of  bribes  to  the  judges,  contrived  to  de- 
 fraud his  elder  brother.  Hchiod  thereupon  migrated 
 to  Orchomenus,  as  Gottling  supposes,  and  the  harsh 
 epitiiets  which  ho  applies  to  his  native  village  {Op.  et 
 D.,  637,  seq.)  were,  in  all  probability,  prompted  by  re- 
 sentment at  the  wrong  which  he  had  suffered  from  the 
 Ascrean  judges,  in  relation  to  the  division  of  his  patri- 
 mony. {Gottling,  Pro:/,  ad  Hcs.,  p.  iv.)  From  a 
 passage  in  the  proem  to  the  'I'heogony,  it  has  been  in- 
 ferred that  Hcsiod  was  literally  a  shepherd,  and  tended 
 his  flocks  on  the  side  of  Helicon;  and  this  supposition, 
 though  directly  at  variance  with  the  statement  of  Pau- 
 sanias.  who  makes  him  a  priest  of  \k\e.  Muses  on  Mount 
 Helicon,  seems  decidedly  the  most  rational  one.  He 
 was  evidently  born  in  an  humble  station,  and  was  him- 
 self engaged  in  rural  pursuits  ;  and  this  perfectly  accords 
 with  the  subject  of  the  poem  which  was  unanimously 
 ascribed  to  him,  namely,  the  Works  and  Days,  which 
 is  a  collection  of  reflecrions  and  precepts  relating  to 
 husbandry,  and  the  regulation  of  a  rural  household. 
 The  only  additional  fact  that  can  be  gathered  from 
 Hesiod's  writings  is,  that  he  passed  into  the  island  of 
 Euboea,  on  occasion  of  a  poetical  contest  at  Chalcis, 
 which  formed  part  of  the  funeral  games  instituted  in 
 honour  of  Arnphidamas  :  that  he  obtained  a  tripod  as 
 the  prize,  and  consecrated  it  to  the  Muses  of  Helicon. 
 This  latter  passage,  however,  is  suspected  by  Guietus 
 and  Wolf;  but  it  seems  to  have  formed  a  part  of  the 
 poem  from  time  immemorial ;  and  it  may  not  be  un- 
 reasonable to  infer  its  authenticity  from  the  tradition 
 respecting  an  imaginary  contest  between  Homer  and 
 Hesiod.  That  the  passage  should  have  been  raised 
 on  the  basis  of  the  tradition  is  impossible,  because,  in 
 that  case,  jt  is  obvious  that  the  name  of  Homer  would 
 have  appeared  in  the  verses;  but  it  is  highly  probable 
 that  the  tradition  was  built  on  the  passage.  If  the 
 passage  be  a  forgery,  it  is  a  forgery  without  any  os- 
 tensible purpose  ;  it  is  a  mere  gratuitous  imposture 
 which  tends  to  nothing ;  and  it  seems  impossible  that 
 any  person  should  take  the  trouble  of  foisting  suppos- 
 ititious lines  into  Hesiod's  poem,  for  the  barren  object 
 of  inducing  a  belief  that  he  had  won  a  poetical  prize 
 from  somebody.  This  nullity  of  purpose  could  not  but 
 strike  those  who,  being  themselves  willing  to  believe 
 that  Homer  was  the  competitor  at  Chalcis,  were  anx- 
 ious for  proofs  to  convince  others :  and  hence  an  in- 
 terpolation of  this  very  passage  has  been  practised  ; 
 which  alone  shows  that,  if  a  forgery,  it  was  an  un- 
 meaning and  useless  forgery.  For  the  verse,  "  Vic- 
 tor in  song  a  tripod  bore  away,"  it  has  been  attempted 
 to  substitute,  "  Victor  in  song  o'er  Homer  the  divine." 
 Connected  with  the  same  design  of  making  Homer  and 
 Hesiod  contemporaries,  is  an  imposture  on  a  large 
 scale,  which  professes  to  be  an  historical  account  of 
 the  contest  between  Homer  and  Hesiod,  and  which 
 appears  to  be  erected  on  the  above  tradition  as  related 
 by  Plutarch  ;  for  it  is  evident,  from  a  passage  in  the 
 work  itself,  that  it  was  not  composed  till  the  time  of 
 the  Emperor  Hadrian.  As  to  the  tradition  of  this  im- 
 aginary meeting,  for  which  not  a  shadow  of  evidence 
 appears  in  Hesiod's  own  writings,  Robinson  offers  a 
 very  probable  conjecture  :  that  it  originated  in  a  coin- 
 cidence between  this  passage  of  the  work  and  a  pas- 
 sage in  one  of  Homer's  hymns,  where  the  writer  sup- 
 ])licates  Venus  to  grant  him  the  victory  in  some  ap- 
 proaching contest. — The  following  account  is  given  as 
 lo  the  manner  of  Hesiod's  death.  Hesiod  is  said  to 
 have  consulted  the  oracle  of  Del[)hi  as  to  his  future 
 destinies,  and  the  Pythia  directed  him,  in  reply,  to  shun 
 the  grove  of  Nemean  Jupiter,  since  there  death  await- 
 ed him.  There  were  at  Argos  a  temple  and  a  brazen 
 statue  of  Nemean  Jove  ;  and  Hesiod,  believing  this  to 
 be  the  fatal  spot,  directed  his  course  to  Qilnoe,  a  town 
 of  the  Locri;  but  the  ambiguity  of  the  oracle  had  de- 
 ceived him,  for  this  place  also,  by  obscure  report,  was 
 612 
 
 sacred  to  Nemean  Jupiter.  He  was  here  the  guest  o( 
 two  brothers.  It  happened  that  their  sister  Ctemene 
 was  violated  in  the  night  time  by  the  person  who  had 
 accompanied  Hesiod,  and  hung  herself  in  consequence 
 of  the  outrage.  This  man  they  accordingly  slew  ; 
 and,  suspecting  the  connivance  of  Hesiod,  killed  him 
 also,  and  threw  his  body  into  the  sea.  The  murdei 
 is  said  to  have  been  detected  by  the  sagacity  of  He- 
 siod's dog  ;  by  some  it  is  related  that  his  corpse  was 
 brought  to  the  shore  by  a  company  of  dolphins,  at  ilie 
 moment  that  the  people  were  celebrating  the  festival 
 of  Neptune.  The  body  of  Hesiod  was  recognised,  ihe 
 houses  of  the  murderers  were  razed  to  the  founda-  ' 
 tion,  and  the  murderers  themselves  cast  into  the  sea. 
 Another  account  states  them  to  have  been  consumed  by 
 lightning  ;  a  third,  to  have  been  overtaken  by  a  tem- 
 pest while  escaping  to  Crete  in  a  fishing-boat,  and  to 
 have  perished  in  the  wreck.  In  truth,  the  summary 
 justice  which  these  brothers  executed  on  the  man 
 whom  they  honestly  supposed  to  be  the  accomplice  of 
 their  sister's  dishonour,  was  not  of  a  nature  to  call  for 
 miraculous  interference  ;  but  the  fable  displays  the  sa- 
 credness  attached  by  Grecian  enthusiasm  to  the  poet's 
 character. — The  only  works  that  remain  under  the  name 
 of  Hesiod  are,  1.  'Epya  kol  'H/xepai,  (''  Works  and 
 Days");  2.  Qeoyovia  {A  ^^  Theogony') ;  3.  'Aatrii 
 'UpaKliovg  {^'■Thc  Shield  of  Hercules'''). — The  "Works 
 and  Days"  (which,  according  to  Pausanias,  the  Boeo- 
 tians regarded  as  the  only  genuine  production  of  He- 
 siod), is  so  entirely  occupied  with  the  events  of  com- 
 mon life,  that  the  author  would  not  seem  to  have  been 
 a  poet  by  profession,  as  Homer  was  described  by  the 
 ancients,  but  some  Boeotian  husbandman,  whose  mind 
 had  been  so  forcibly  moved  by  peculiar  circumstances 
 as  to  give  a  poetical  tone  to  the  whole  course  of  his 
 thoughts  and  feelings.  The  poem  consists  of  advice 
 given  by  Hesiod  to  his  brother  Perses,  on  subjects  re- 
 lating for  the  most  part  to  agriculture  and  the  general 
 conduct  of  life.  The  object  of  the  first  portion  of  the 
 poem  is  to  improve  the  character  and  'nabits  of  Perses, 
 to  deter  him  from  seeking  riches  by  litigation,  and  to 
 incite  him  to  a  life  of  labour,  as  the  only  source  of 
 permanent  prosperity.  Mythical  narratives,  fables,  de- 
 scriptions, and  moral  apophthegms,  partly  of  a  prover- 
 bial kind,  are  ingeniously  chosen  and  combined,  so  as 
 to  illustrate  and  enforce  the  principal  idea. — In  the 
 second  part  Hesiod  shows  Perses  the  succession  in 
 which  his  labours  must  follow,  if  he  determines  to  lead 
 a  life  of  industry.  But  as  the  j)oet's  object  was  not  to 
 describe  the  charms  of  a  country  life,  but  to  teach  all 
 the  means  of  honest  gain  which  were  then  open  to  the 
 Ascr<"Ean  countryman,  he  next  proceeds,  after  having 
 coin])letcd  the  subject  of  husbandry,  to  treat  with 
 equal  detail  that  of  navigation.  Here  we  perceive 
 how,  in  the  time  of  Hesiod,  the  Boeotian  farmer  him- 
 self shipped  the  overplus  of  his  corn  and  wine,  and 
 transported  it  to  countries  where  these  products  were 
 less  abundant.  All  these  precepts  relating  to  the 
 works  of  industry  interruj)t  somewhat  suddenly  the 
 succession  of  economical  rules  for  the  management  of  a 
 family.  The  poet  now  speaks  of  the  time  of  life  when 
 a  man  should  marry,  and  how  he  should  look  out  for  a 
 wife.  He  then  especially  recommends  to  all  to  bear 
 in  mind  that  the  immortal  gods  watch  over  the  actions 
 of  men  ;  in  all  intercourse  with  others  to  keep  the 
 tongue  from  idle  and  provoking  words,  and  to  preserve 
 a  certain  purity  and  care  in  the  commonest  occurrences 
 of  everyday  life.  At  the  same  time,  he  gives  many 
 curious  precepts,  which  resemble  sacerdotal  rules, 
 with  respect  to  the  decorum  to  be  observed  in  acts  of 
 worship,  and  which,  moreover,  have  much  in  common 
 with  the  symbolic  rules  of  the  Pythagoreans,  that  as- 
 cribed a  deep  and  spiritual  import  to  many  unimpor- 
 tant acts  of  ordinary  life.  Of  a  very  similar  nature  is 
 the  last  part  of  the  poem,  which  treats  of  the  days  on 
 which  it  is  expedient  or  inexpedient  to  do  this  or  that 
 
HESIODUS. 
 
 HES 
 
 business.     These  precepts,  which  do  not  relate  to  par- 
 ticular seasons  of  the  year,  but  to  the  course  of  each 
 lunar  month,  are  exclusively  of  a  superstitions  charac- 
 ter, and  are  in  great  part  connected  with  the  dilferent 
 worships  which  were  celebrated  upon  these  days  :  but 
 our  knowledge  is  far  too  insufficient  to  explain  them 
 all. — One  thing  must  be  very  evident  to  all  who  read 
 the  "  Works   and  Days,"  that  in  its  present  stale  it 
 shows  a  want  of  purpose  and  of  unity  too  great  to  be 
 accounted  for  otherwise  than  on  the  supposition  of  its 
 fragmentary   nature.      Ulrici  considers  the  moral   and 
 the  agricultural   instruction  as  genuine  ;   the  story  of 
 Prometheus,  and  that  of  the  Five  Ages,  as  much  al- 
 tered from  their  original  Hesiodic  form;  and   the  de- 
 scription of  Winter  as  latest  of  all.    {Ulrici,  Geschichle 
 der  Hellcn.  Dichtkunst,  vol.  1,  p.  360.) — The   "  The- 
 ogony"  is  [jcrhaps  the  work  which,  whether  genuine 
 or  not,  most  emphatically  expresses  the  feeling  which 
 is  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  the  Hieratic  school. 
 It  consists,  as  its  name  expresses,  of  an  account  of  the 
 origin  of  the  world,  including  the  birth  of  the  gods, 
 and   makes  use  of  numerous  personifications.     This 
 has  given  rise  lo  a  theory,  that  the  old  histories  of 
 creation,    from    which    Hesiod    drew    without    under- 
 standing  them,   were   in    fact   philosophical,   and    not 
 mythological,  speculations;  so  that  the  names  which  in 
 after  limes  were  applied  to  persons,  had  originally  be- 
 longed only  to  qualities,  attributes,  &:c.,  and  that  the 
 inventor  had   carefully  excluded   all   personal   agency 
 from  his  system.     Thus  much  we  may  safely  assert 
 respecting  the  '•  Theogony,"  that  it  points  out  one  im- 
 portant feature  in  the  Greek  character,  and  one  which, 
 when  that  character  arrived  at  maturity,  produced  re- 
 sults, of  which  the  Theogony  is  at  best  but  a  feeble 
 promise  ;  we  mean  that  speculative  tendency  which 
 lies  at  the  root  of  Greek  philosophy. — Even  as  early  as 
 the  time  of  Pausanias  (8,  18,  and  9,  31),  it  was  doubt- 
 ed whether   Hesiod  was   actually   the   author  of  this 
 poem.     According  to  a  learned  German  critic,  it  is  a 
 species  of  melange,  formed  by  the  union  of  several 
 poems  on  the  same  subject,  and  which  has  been  ef- 
 fected by  the  same  copyists  or  grammarians.     Such  is 
 the  theory  of  Hermann,  who  has  advanced  this   hy- 
 pothesis in  a  letter  addressed  to  Ilgen,  and  which  the 
 latter  has  placed  at  the  head  of  his  edition  of  Homer's 
 Hvmns.     Hermann  thinks  that  he  has  discovered  seven 
 different   exordia,  composed  of  the  following  verses  : 
 the  first,  of  verses    1,  22-24,  26-52;   the  second,  of 
 verses    1-4,    11-21;   the  third,  of  verses    1,  2,  5-21, 
 75-93;  the  fourth,  of  verses   1,  53-64,  68-74;  the 
 fifth,  of  verses  1,  53-61,  65,  66  ;   in  the  sixth,  the  60th 
 ajid  6 1  St  verses  were  immediately  followed  by  the  67th ; 
 the  sccentk,  of  verses   1,  94-103. — The  Theogony  is 
 interesluig  as  being  the  most  ancient  monument  that 
 we  have  of  the  Greek  mythology.     When  we  consider 
 it  as  a  {wem,  we  find  no  composition  of  ancient  times 
 so  stamped  with  a  rude  simplicity  of  character.     It 
 j-s  without  luminous    order  of   arrangement,   abounds 
 with  dry  and  insipid  details,  and  only  by  snatches,  as 
 it  were,  rises  to  any  extraordinary  elevation  of  fancy. 
 It  eshibits  that  crude  irregularity,  and  that  mixture  of 
 meanness  and  grandeur,  which  characterize  a  strong 
 luit  uncultivated  genius.     The  censure  of  Quintilian, 
 that  "  H<?siod  rarely  rises,  and  a  great  part  of  him  is 
 occupied    in   mere    names,"   is   confessedly    merited. 
 Considered,  however,  as  a  general  critique,  the  judg- 
 rncnl  which  Quiutiiian  pronounces  on  Hesiod  is  liable 
 to  objection.     The  sentence  just  quoted  refers  plainly 
 to  the  Theogony   alone  :    while   the  following  seems 
 exclusively  applicable  to  the  Works  and  Days  :  "  yet 
 he  is  distinguished  by  useful  sentences  of  morality,  and 
 a  commendable  sweetness  of  diction  and  expression, 
 and  he  deserves  the  palm  in  the   middle  style  of  wri- 
 ting."     The    Battle    of  the    Gods,    however,    cannot 
 »arely  be  classed  among  the  specimens  of  the  middle 
 style.     This  passage,  together  with  the  combat  of  Ju- 
 
 piter and  Typhoeus.  astonishes  the  reader  by  sudden 
 bursts  of  enthusiasm,  for  which  the  prolix  and  nerve- 
 less narrative  of  the  general  poem  had  little  prepared 
 him.  Milton  has  borrowed  some  images  from  these 
 descriptions  :  and  the  arming  of  the  Messiah  for  battle 
 is  obviously  imitated  from  the  magnificent  piclure 
 of  Jupiter  summoning  all  the  terrors  of  his  omnip- 
 otence for  the  extirpation  of  the  Titans.  {Eltoiis 
 Hesiod,  p.  Ifi.) — M'e  have  also,  under  the  name  of 
 Hesiod,  a  fragment  of  a  poem  entitled  the  Heroogony, 
 or  the  genealogy  and  history  of  the  demi-gods."  To 
 this  poem  some  unknown  rhapsodist  has  attached  a 
 piece  on  the  combat  between  Hercules  and  Cycnus, 
 containing  a  description  of  the  hero's  shield  It  is 
 from  this  part  that  the  fragment  in  question  bears  the 
 title  of  the  "  Shield  of  Hercules"  {'XgtvIq  'UpaKA.inv^). 
 Modern  critics  think  that  to  the  Heroogony  of  Hesiod 
 belonged  two  works  which  are  cited  by  the  ancients, 
 the  one  under  the  title  of  "  Catalogue  of  Women" 
 (Kard/'.oyof  jvvaiKCiv),  giving  the  history  of  those 
 mortal  females  who  had  become  the  mothers  of  demi- 
 gods ;  and  the  other  under  the  title  of  the  "  Great 
 Eoeix'''  (MeydXat  'Hoiai),  so  named  because  the  his- 
 tory of  each  female  or  heroine  mentioned  therein  com- 
 menced with  the  words  7/,  oh/  {or,  such  as).  Any  in- 
 quiry into  the  character  and  extent  of  the  Eocce  is  ren- 
 dered very  difficult  by  the  obscurity  which  rests  upon 
 the  relation  of  this  poem  to  the  Catalogue  of  Women. 
 For  this  latter  poem  is  sometimes  slated  to  be  the 
 same  with  the  Eoes  ;  and,  for  example,  the  fragment 
 on  Alcmena,  which,  from  its  beginning,  manifestly  be- 
 longs to  the  Eoes,  is  in  the  scholia  to  Hesiod  placed 
 in  the  fourth  book  of  the  Catalogue  :  sometimes,  again, 
 the  two  poems  are  distinguished,  and  the  statements  of 
 the  Eoese  and  the  Catalogue  are  opposed  to  each  other. 
 {Schol.  ad  Apoll.  Rhod.,  2,  181.)  We  are  compelled 
 to  suppose,  therefore,  that  originally  the  Eoes  and 
 Catalogue  were  different  in  plan  and  subject,  only  that 
 both  were  especially  dedicated  to  the  celebration  of 
 women  of  the  heroic  age,  and  that  this  then  caused  tfee 
 compilation  of  a  version,  in  which  both  poems  were 
 moulded  together  into  one  whole. — Hesiod  wrote  in 
 the  Ionic  dialect,  with  some  ^Eolisms  intermingled. 
 We  have  scholia  on  his  poems  by  Proclus,  Jolin 
 Tzefzes,  Moschopulus,  and  John  Protospatharius.  We 
 have  to  regret  the  loss  of  the  commentary  upon  him 
 by  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium. — The  latest  and  best 
 editions  of  Hesiod  are,  that  of  Dindorf,  Lips.,  1825, 
 8vo,  and  that  of  Gottling  (in  the  Bibliotheca  Grseca), 
 Gotha:  el  Erford.,  1831,  8vo.  {Muller's  Hist.  LU. 
 Gr. —  Libr.  Us.  Knoid.,  p.  77,  seqq.) 
 
 Hesione,  a  daughter  of  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy,  by 
 Strymno  (called  also  Placia  or  Leucippe),  daughter  of 
 the  river-god  Scamander.  When  Apollo  and  Neptune, 
 after  having  erected  the  walls  of  Troy,  had  been  refu- 
 sed by  Laomedon  the  stipulated  remuneration,  Apollo 
 wreaked  his  vengeance  by  the  infliction  of  a  pesti- 
 lence ;  and  Neptune  sent  a  sea-monster  which  ravaged 
 the  coasts  of  the  country,  making  its  appearance  with 
 every  full  tide.  The  oracle  being  consulted,  declared 
 that  there  would  be  no  deliverance  from  these  calami- 
 ties, until  Laomedon  should  expose  his  own  daughter 
 Hesione  as  a  prey  to  the  monster.  The  monarch  ac- 
 cordingly exposed  her,  having  attached  her  person  to 
 the  rocks  on  the  seashore.  Hercules,  while  reluming 
 in  his  vessel  from  the  Euxine,  with  the  girdle  of  the 
 Amazon,  saw  the  princess  in  this  situation,  and  offered 
 to  deliver  her  if  Laomedon  would  give  hiin  the  marcs 
 which  Jupiter  had  presented  to  Tros  in  exchange  for 
 his  son  Ganymedes.  Laomedon  assented,  and  Ilercu 
 les  slew  the' monster  and  delivered  Hesione  ;  but  the 
 faithless  Trojan  refused  to  keep  his  word,  and  the  hero 
 sailed  away,' threatening  to  return  and  make  war  on 
 Troy.  Some  time  after  this,  when  Hercules  had  ac- 
 complished all  his  labours,  and  had  also  completed  the 
 term  of  his  servitude  with  Omphale,  he  resolved  to 
 
 613 
 
HES 
 
 HESPERIDES. 
 
 taKe  his  long-threatened  vengeance  on  Laomedon. 
 He  accordingly  collected  a  fleet  of  eighteen  fifty-oared 
 vessels  (Homer,  //.,  5,  641,  says  six),  manned  by  a  val- 
 iant band  of  volunteer  warriors,  and,  sailing  to  Ilium, 
 took  the  city,  having  been  powerfully  aided  by  his  friend 
 and  follower  Telamon.  Hercules  slew  with  his  arrows 
 Jjaoincdon  and  all  his  sons  except  Podarces,  who  had 
 »dvised  his  father  to  give  the  stipulated  reward  to  the 
 hero  for  the  destruction  of  the  monster.  He  then 
 gave  Hesionc  to  Telarnon  as  a  reward  of  his  valour, 
 and  allowed  her  to  choose  one  an^ong  the  captives  to 
 be  set  at  liberty.  M^hen  she  had  fixed  upon  her 
 brother  Podarces,  Hercules  replied  that  he  must  first 
 be  made  a  slave,  and  then  she  nnght  give  something 
 for  him  and  redeem  him.  She  took  her  golden  veil  off 
 her  head,  and  with  it  bought  him,  and  hence  he  was  after- 
 ward named  Priainus  {Purchased)  instead  of  Podarces 
 {Swift-foot).  Hesione  was  taken  to  Greece  by  Tela- 
 mon, where  she  became  the  mother  of  Teucer.  {Apol- 
 lod.,  2,  5,  9,  scqq.—Id.,  2,  6,  A.—KeigJuUy's  Mythol- 
 ogy, p.  359,  365.) 
 
 Hesperia,  a  name  applied  by  the  poets  to  Italy,  as 
 lying  to  the  west  of  Greece.  It  is  of  Greek  origin 
 ('EGirepia),  and  is  derived  from  eanipa,  "  evening,'''' 
 so  that  Hesperia  properly  means  "the  evening-land," 
 i.  e..  the  western  region.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  1,  530. — Id. 
 ib.,5Q9.—  Ovid,  Met.,  2,  i^S.—Lucan,  1,  224.)  It 
 is  also,  though  less  frequently,  applied  to  Spain,  as  ly- 
 ing west  of  Italy.  {Horat.,  Od.,  1,  36,  4. — Lucan, 
 4,  14.) 
 
 Hespeeides,  or  "  the  Western  Maidens,"  three  cel- 
 ebrated nymphs,  whose  genealogy  is  differently  given 
 by  various  writers.  According  to  Hesiod  {Theog., 
 215),  they  were  the  daughters  of  Night,  without  a  fa- 
 ther. Diodorus,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  them  to 
 have  had  for  their  parents  Atlas  and  Hesperis  daugh- 
 ter of  Hesperus  (Diod.  Sic.,  4,  27),  an  account  which 
 is  followed  by  Milton  in  his  Comus  (v.  981).  Others, 
 however,  to  assimilate  them  to  their  neighbours  the 
 Graiffi  and  Gorgons,  call  the  Hesperides  the  offspring 
 of  Phorcys  and  Ceto.  {Schol.  ad  Apnll.  Rh.,  4,  1399.) 
 Apollonius  gives  their  names  as  ^Egle,  Hespera,  and 
 Erytheis  (4,  1427),  while  Apollodorus,  who  increases 
 the  number  to  four,  calls  them  ^Egle,  Erylhea,  Hestia, 
 and  Arethusa.  {Apollod.,  2,  5,  11.)  Hesiod  makes 
 them  to  have  dwelt  "  beyond  the  bright  ocean,"  op- 
 posite to  where  Atlas  stood  supporting  the  heavens 
 (Theog.,  518),  and  when  Atlas  had  been  fixed  as  a 
 mountain  in  the  extremity  of  Libya,  the  dwelling  of 
 the  Hesperides  was  usually  placed  in  his  vicinity, 
 though  some  set  it  in  the  country  of  the  Hyperboreans. 
 {Apollod.,  I.  c.) — According  to  the  legend,  when  the 
 bridal  of  Jupiter  and  Juno  took  place,  the  different  dei- 
 ties came  with  nuptial  presents  for  the  latter,  and 
 among  them  the  goddess  of  Earth,  with  branches  hav- 
 ing golden  apples  growing  on  them  ("  Ttrrarii  vemssc 
 Jertntem  aurca  mala  cum  raniis."  Hygin.,  Poet. 
 Astro7i.,  2,  3.)  Juno,  greatly  admiring  these,  begged 
 of  Earth  to  plant  them  in  her  gardens,  which  extended 
 as  far  as  Mount  Atlas  {''qui  crant  usque  ad  Atlanlem 
 monlem.'"  Hijgin,  I.  c.)  The  Hesperides,  or  daugh- 
 ters of  Atlas,  were  directed  to  watch  these  trees  ;  but, 
 as  they  were  somewhat  remiss  in  discharging  this  duty, 
 and  frequently  plucked  off  the  apples  themselves,  Ju- 
 no sent  thither  a  large  serpent  to  guard  the  precious 
 fruit.  This  monster  was  the  offspring  of  Typhon  and 
 Echidna,  and  had  a  hundred  heads,  so  that  it  never 
 slept.  {Hygin.,  I.  c.)  According  to  Pisander,  the 
 name  of  the  reptile  was  Ladon.  {Schol.  ad  Apoll. 
 Eh.,  4,  1396.) — One  of  the  tasks  imposed  upon  Her- 
 cules by  Eurystheus  was  to  bring  him  some  of  this 
 golden  fruit.  On  his  way  in  quest  of  it,  Hercules 
 came  to  <hc  river  Eridanus,  and  to  the  nymphs,  the 
 daughters  of  Jupiler  and  Themis,  and  inquired  of 
 them  where  the  apples  were  to  be  obtained.  They 
 directed  him  to  Nereus,  whom  he  found  asleep ;  and, 
 614 
 
 in  spite  of  his  numerous  changes  of  form,  he  bound 
 and  held  him  fast  untU  he  had  mentioned  where  the 
 golden  apples  were.     Having  obtained  this  inlormation, 
 Hercules  went  on  to  Tartessus,  and,  crossing  over  to 
 Libya,  proceeded  on  his  way  until  he  came  to  Irassa, 
 near  the  lake  Tritonis,  where  Antaius  reigned.     Af- 
 ter destroying  this  opponent  {vid.  Antaeus)  he  visited 
 Egypt,  and  slew  Busiris,   the   monarch  of  that  land. 
 {Vid.  Busiris.)     He  then  roamed  through  Arabia,  and 
 after  this  over  the  mountains  of  Libya,  which  he  cleared 
 of  savage  beasts.     Reaching  then  the  eastern  course 
 of  the  ocean,  he  was  accommodated,  as  in  the  adven- 
 ture against  Geryon,  with  the  radiant  cup  of  the  Sun- 
 god,  in  which  he  crossed  to  the  opposite  side.     He 
 now  came  to   where   Prometheus  lay   chained,  and, 
 moved   by   his  entreaties,  shot   the  bird  that  preyed 
 upon  his  liver.     Prometheus,  out  of  gratitude,  warned 
 him  not  to  go  himself  to  take  the  golden  apples,  but  to 
 send  Atlas  for  them,  and,  in  the  mean  time,  to  support 
 the  heavens  in  his  stead.     The  hero  did  as  desired, 
 and  Atlas,  at  his  request,  went  and  obtained  three  ap- 
 ples from  the  Hesperides  ;  but  he  said  he  would  take 
 them  himself  to  Eurystheus,  and  that  Hercules  might 
 continue  to  support  the  heavens.     At  the  suggestion 
 of  Prometheus,  the  hero  feigned  assent,  but  begged 
 Atlas  to  hold  the  heavens  again  until  he  had  made  a 
 pad  (aneipav)  to  put  on  his  head.     Atlas  threw  down 
 the    apples    and   resumed    his   burden,  and  Hercules 
 picked  them  up  and  went  his  way.     {Pherer.yd.,  ap 
 Schol.,  I.  c. — Apollod., I.  c.)     Another  account,  how- 
 ever, made  Hercules  to  have  killed  the   serpent,  and 
 to  have    taken    the  apples   himself.      (Eurip.,  Here. 
 Fur.,  394.,  seqq. — Apollod.,  I.  c.)     The  hero  brought 
 the  apples  to  Eurystheus,  who  returned  them  to  him, 
 and  he   then  gave  them  to  Minerva.     The  goddess 
 carried  them  back  to   the  garden  of  the  Hesperides. 
 {Apollod.,  I.  c. — Keightlnfs  Mythology,  p.  251,  361, 
 seqq.) — The  explanation  given  to  this  fable  by  some 
 of  the  pragmatisers  is  dull  enough  :   the  He&perides, 
 say  they,  were  the  daughters  of  Hesperus,  a  Milesian, 
 who  dwelt  in  Caria.     This  Hesperus  had  sheep  with 
 very  fine  fleeces,  and  so  remarkably  beautiful  m  every 
 respect  that  they  were  called,  by  a  figure  of  speech, 
 ''■golden.'"     Hercules,  having  chanced  to  espy  these 
 valuable  animals,  as  they  were  feeding  on  one  occa- 
 sion  near  the  shore,  under  the  care   of  a   shepherd 
 named  Draco  ((JpuKui',  "■snake'''),  drove  them  on  board 
 of  his  ship,  along  with  their  keeper,  Hesperus  being 
 dead  at  the  time,  and  his  daughters  inheriting  his  pos- 
 sessions.    Now,  continue  these  expounders,  since  the 
 same  word  in  Greek  {/ifjXa)  means  both  "sheep'"  and 
 "  apples,''  the  fable  of  the  golden  fruit  eventually  look 
 its  rise  !     (Palaphal.,  c.  19. — Compare  Varro,  R.  R., 
 2,  1 ,  6. — Diod.  Sic,  4,  27.) — Dupuis,  who  makes  Her- 
 cules to  have  been  the  Sun,  and  refers  his  twelve  la- 
 bours to  the  passage  of  that  luminary  through  the  signs 
 of  the  zodiac,  explains  the  fable  of  the  Hesperides  as 
 follows.     In  the  twelfth  month,  making  the  first  coin- 
 cide with  Leo,  ihe  sun  enters  the  sign  Cancer.     At 
 this  period  the  constellation  of  Hercules  Ingeniculns 
 descends  towards  the  western  regions,  called  Hespe- 
 ria, followed  by  the  polar  dragon,  the  guardian  of  the 
 apples  of  the    Hesperides.      On   the  celestial   sphere 
 Hercules  tramples  the  dragon  under  foot,  which  falls 
 towards  him  as  it  sets.     Hence  the  fable.     (Compare 
 remarks  under  the  article  Hercules.) — The  gardens  of 
 the  Hesperides  are  placed  by  those  geographical  wri- 
 ters who  seek  to  convert  a   fable  into  reality,  in  tbe 
 neighbourhood  of  the  ancient  Berenice,  now  Bcng^zi, 
 in  Cyrenaica,  on  tbe  Mediterranean  coast  of  Africa. 
 A   modern  traveller.  Captain  Beechey,  has  given   us 
 some  curious  information  on  this  point.      He  remarks 
 (p.  316,  seqq.),  that  some  very  singular  pits  or  cbastns, 
 of  natural  formation,  were  discovered  by  him   in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Bengazi.     "  They  consist  of  a  leyel 
 surface  of  excellent  soil,  several  huudred  feel  ia  «»• 
 
HES 
 
 HES 
 
 lent,  enclosed  within  steep,  and,  for  the  most  part,  per- 
 pendicular, sides  of  solid  rock,  rising  sometimes  to  a 
 height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet,  or  more,  before  they 
 reach  the  level  of  the  plain  in  which  they  are  situated. 
 The  soil  at  the  bottom  of  these  chasms  appears  to 
 have  been  washed  down  from  the  plain  above  by  the 
 heavy  rains,  and  is  frequently  cultivated  by  the  Arabs  ; 
 so  that  a  person,  in  walking  over  the  country  where 
 ihey  exist,  conies  suddenly  upon  a  beautiful  orchard 
 or  garden,  blooming  in  secret,  and  in  the  greatest  lux- 
 uriance, at  a  considerable  depth  beneath  his  feet,  and 
 defended  on  all  sides  by  walls  of  solid  rock,  so  as  to 
 be  at  first  sight  apparently  inaccessible.  The  effect 
 of  these  secluded  little  spots,  protected,  as  it  were,  from 
 the  intrusion  of  mankind,  by  the  steepness  and  depth 
 of  the  barriers  which  enclose  them,  is  singular  and 
 pleasing  in  the  extreme  ;  they  reminded  us  of  some 
 of  those  secluded  retreats  which  we  read  of  in  fairy 
 legends  or  tales.  It  was  impossible  to  walk  along  the 
 edge  o{  these  precipices,  looking  everywhere  for  some 
 part  less  abrupt  than  the  rest,  by  which  we  might  de- 
 scend into  the  gardens  beneath,  without  calling  to 
 mind  the  description  given  by  Scylax  of  the  far-famed 
 gardens  of  the  Hesperides." — It  has  been  supposed  by 
 many,  and  among  the  rest  by  Gossellin  and  Pacho, 
 that  the  Hesperian  gardens  of  the  ancients  were  no- 
 thing more  than  some  of  those  verdant  caves  which 
 stud  the  Libyan  desert,  and  which,  from  their  con- 
 cealed and  inaccessible  position,  their  unknown  origin, 
 and  their  striking  contrast  to  the  surrounding  waste, 
 might  well  suggest  the  idea  of  a  terrestrial  paradise, 
 and  become  the  types  of  the  still  fairer  creations  of 
 poetic  fable.  Possibly,  therefore,  supposing  the  fable 
 to  rest  on  a  real  basis,  the  first  of  these  Elysian  groves 
 mav  have  been  at  the  extremity  of  Cyrena'ica  mentioned 
 by  Beechey,  and  the  original  idea  of  the  legend  may 
 have  been  taken  from  a  subterranean  garden  of  the 
 above  description. — The  garden  of  the  Hesperides  is 
 stated  by  Scylax  (p.  46)  to  have  been  an  enclosed  spot 
 of  ten  stadia  each  way,  filled  with  thickly-planted  fruit- 
 trees  of  various  kinds,  and  inaccessible  on  all  sides. 
 It  was  situated  at  six  hundred  and  twenty  stadia  (fifty 
 geographical  miles)  from  the  port  of  Barce  ;  and  this 
 agrees  precisely  with  that  of  the  place  described  by 
 Captain  Beechey  from  Ptolemata.  The  testimony  of 
 Plmy  (5,  5)  is  very  decided  in  fixing  the  site  of  the 
 Hesperides  m  the  neighbourhood  of  Berenice.  "  Not 
 far  I'rom  the  city"  (Berenice),  "  is  the  river  Lethon, 
 and  the  sacred  grove  where  the  gardens  of  the  Hes- 
 perides are  said  to  be  situated.  We  do  not  mean," 
 remarks  Captain  B.,  "  to  point  out  any  one  of  these 
 subterranean  gardens  as  that  which  is  described  in  the 
 passage  above  quoted  from  Scylax ;  for  we  know  of 
 no  one  which  will  correspond,  in  point  of  extent,  to 
 the  garden  which  that  author  has  mentioned.  All 
 those  which  we  saw  were  considerably  less  than  the 
 fifth  of  a  mile  in  diameter  (the  measurement  given  by 
 Scylax)  ;  and  the  places  of  this  nature  which  would 
 best  agree  with  the  dimensions,  are  now  filled  with 
 water  sufficiently  fresh  to  be  drinkable,  and  take  the 
 form  of  roiuautie  little  lakes.  Scarcely  any  two  of  the 
 gardens  we  met  with  were,  however,  of  the  same  depth 
 or  extent ;  and  we  have  no  reason  to  conclude  that, 
 because  we  saw  none  which  were  large  enough  to  be 
 fixed  upon  for  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides,  there  is 
 therefore  no  place  of  the  dimensions  required  ;  par- 
 ticularly as  the  singular  formation  alluded  to  continues 
 to  the  foot  of  the  Cyrenaic  chain,  which  is  fourteen 
 (niSes  distant  in  the  nearest  parts  from  Berenice." 
 (Compare  Ediiib.  Rev.,  n.  9.5,  p.  228.) 
 
 HEfefEKiDtiM  IstiULM,  are  generally  thought  to  cor- 
 respond with  the  Cape  de  Verd  islands  ;  but,  as  these 
 are  loo  far  from  the  coast,  they  possibly  may  have  been 
 ratlier  the  small  islands  called  liis'igog,  lying  a  little 
 above  Sieira  Leone.  In  these,  some  place  the  gar- 
 ieas  q(  tbe  Hesperides,  which  others  will  have  to  be 
 
 on  the  Continent.     Consult  remarks  under  the  pre- 
 ceding article. 
 
 Hespebis,  I.  daughter  of  Hesperus  She  married 
 Atlas,  her  father's  brother,  and  became  mother  of  the 
 Hesperides,  according  to  one  legend.  (Diod.  Sic.,  4, 
 27.)— II.  A  city  of  Cyrena'ica.   "(Fjrf.  Berenice  IX.) 
 
 Hesperium  Coknu  (Eaivepiov  Kcpac),  a  promontory 
 on  the  western  coast  of  Africa;  according  to  Mannert, 
 the  present  Cape  Verd.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  pen 
 plus  of  Hanno.  Rennell,  however,  makes  the  Western 
 Horn  to  have  been  a  bay  and  not  a  promontory,  and 
 identifies  it  with  the  modern  bay  or  gulf  of  Bissarro. 
 {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  ^31.  — Rennell, 
 Geogr.  of  Herod.,  vol.  2,  p.  424.) 
 
 HesperIus  Sinus,  a  bay  on  the  western  coast  of 
 Africa,  and  now  the  bay  or  gulf  of  Bissago.  Consult 
 preceding  article. 
 
 Hesperus,  I.  son  of  lapetus  and  Asia,  and  brother 
 of  Atlas.  He  became  the  father  of  Hesperis,  who 
 married  her  uncle  Atlas,  from  which  union,  according 
 to  one  account,  sprang  the  Hesperides.  Hesperus, 
 like  Atlas,  was  fabled  by  some  to  have  been  a  great 
 astronomer,  and  when  ascending  Mount  Atlas,  on  one 
 occasion,  for  the  purpose  of  making  his  observations, 
 was  blown  away  by  a  tempest  and  no  more  seen. 
 Divine  honours  were  accordingly  rendered  to  him,  and 
 the  evening  star  was  called  after  his  name.  {Diod. 
 Sic.,  3,  59.)  By  some  he  is  termed  the  son  of  At- 
 las, as,  for  example,  by  Diodorus  in  the  passage  just 
 cited  ;  and  yet  the  same  writer,  with  the  contradiction 
 that  usually  marks  ancient  fables,  elsewhere  calls  him 
 the  brother  of  Atlas  (4,  27. — Consult  Wessclmg,  ad 
 Diod.  Sic,  3,  59).  —  Another  version  of  the  story 
 makes  Hesperus  to  have  been  the  son  of  Aurora  and 
 Cephalus,  and  so  remarkable  for  beauty  as  to  have 
 contested  the  palm  with  Venus,  from  which  circum- 
 stance the  beautiful  star  of  eve  was  called  after  him, 
 and  the  name  of  Venus  was  also  given  to  the  same 
 planet.  {Hxjgin.,  Poet.  Astron.,  2,  42. — Eralosth.,  Ca- 
 tast.,  c.  44.) — II.  A  name  given  to  the  star  of  even- 
 ing. (Consult  preceding  article.)  The  same  planet, 
 when  it  appeared  as  the  morning  star,  was  called  Phos- 
 phorus {iua(p6po()  and  Lucifer,  both  appellations 
 meaning  "the  bearer  of  light."  (Hygin.,  I.  c. — Ca- 
 t.iill.,  62,  34,  seqq. — Scrv.,  ad  Virg.,  Georg.,  1,  250. — 
 Id.,  ad  Virg.,  Jin.,  8,  590. — Muiicker,  ad  Hygin.,fab., 
 65. — Van  Stavcren,  ad  eurid.  loc.)  Pythagoras  is  said 
 to  have  first  pointed  out  the  identity  of  Hesperus  and 
 Lucifer.  {Menag.,ad  Diog.  Laert.,  8,  14.)- — Radloff 
 has  written  a  curious  work  on  the  planets  Hesperus  and 
 Phaethon,  and  on  their  having  been  respectively  shat- 
 tered by  coming  in  collision  with  some  comet  or  other 
 heavenly  body.  He  makes  the  present  planet  Venus 
 to  be  but  a  portion  of  the  original  star,  and  among 
 other  learned  and  curious  arguments  in  sup[)ort  of  his 
 singular  position,  refers  to  the  well-known  passage  of 
 Scripture  as  illustrating  the  tradition  of  the  great 
 event :  "  How  art  thou  fallen,  Lucifer,  star  of  the 
 morning!"  {Radloff,  Zertrilmmerung  dcr  grosse7i 
 Planetcn  Hesperus  und  Phaithon,  Berlin,  1823.) 
 
 Hesus,  a  deity  among  the  Gauls,  the  same  as  the 
 Mars  of  the  Romans.  {Lucan,  1,  445.)  Lactantius 
 {Die.  List,  1,  21)  writes  the  name  Heusus.  Com- 
 pare the  Hu-Cadarn  ("  Hu  the  powerful")  m  the  tra- 
 ditions and  ballads  of  the  Welsh.  The  god  Hesus  or 
 Heusus,  in  the  polytheism  of  Gaul,  was  prohably  an 
 intercalation  of  the  Druids.  (Consult  remarks  under 
 the  article  Gallia,  p.  534,  col.  2.) 
 
 liEsvcHitis,  I.  an  Egyptian  bishop,  mentioned  by 
 St.  Jerome  as  having  published  a  critical  edition  of  the 
 Septuagint  in  the  third  century.  It  was  introduced 
 into  the  churches  of  this  country  ;  and  .lerome  usually 
 cites  It  under  the  title  of  Exemplar  Alciandnnum.— 
 II.  A  lexicographer  of  Ale.vandrea,  who  lived,  accord- 
 ino-  to  the  common  opinion,  towards  the  close  of  the 
 fourth  century.     The  question  still  remains  undecided 
 
HESYCHIUS. 
 
 H  ET 
 
 whether  the  glossary  which  has  reached  us  under  the 
 name  of  this  writer  be  really  his,  or  whether  it  be  not 
 merely  an  abrids^nient  of  his  work.  What  has  inclined 
 some  to  favour  the  latter  opinion  is  the  circumstance 
 of  the  citations  being  omitted.  Others  think,  and  with 
 Siome  appearance  of  reason,  that  this  lexicon  was  ori- 
 ginally a  small  volume,  and  that  the  numerous  biblical 
 glosses  which  are  at  present  found  in  it  have  been  in- 
 l?rcalated  by  the  copyists,  who  have  taken  the  remarks 
 made  in  the  margin  by  the  possessors  of  manuscripts 
 for  portions  of  the  te.xt  itself.  However  this  may  be, 
 the  work  of  Hesychius  is  very  miportant  towards  ac- 
 quiring a  full  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language.  It 
 has  preserved  for  us  a  large  number  of  passages  from 
 poets,  orators,  historians,  and  physicians,  whose  works 
 are  lost.  Hesychius  explains,  moreover,  various  words 
 that  depart  from  the  ordmary  usage  of  the  Greek 
 tongue,  as  well  as  terms  used  m  sacrifices,  gymnastic 
 encounters,  &,c.  And  yet  it  must  be  acknowledged 
 that  his  text  is  in  a  most  corrupt  state,  and  that  when 
 he  is  a  solitary  witness  his  testunony  ought  to  be  re- 
 ceived with  caution.  (Mns.  Cnt.,  vol.  1,  p.  503.) 
 The  work,  in  fact,  has  all  the  appearance  of  rough 
 notes,  put  down  in  the  course  of  reading,  rather  than 
 of  a  finished  production.  It  was  not  known  until  the 
 sixteenth  century.  Only  one  MS.,  in  the  library  of 
 St.  Mark,  at  Venice,  is  said  to  be  preserved,  and  that 
 is  full  of  abbreviations,  and  has  many  erasures  ;  which 
 accounts  for  the  great  corruption  of  the  text,  in  spite 
 of  the  labours  of  many  able  editors.  It  appears,  how- 
 ever, that  in  the  seventeenth  century  there  existed  a 
 second  manuscript  in  the  Florence  librarv.  {Ebert''s 
 Bihliogr.  Lexicon,  vol.  1,  p.  772.)— The  best  edition 
 of  Hesychius  is  that  of  Alberti,  completed  by  Ruhn- 
 ken,  Liigd.  Bat.,  1746-1776,  2  vols.  fol.  It  is  to  be 
 regretted,  however,  that  Alberti  could  not  avail  him- 
 self of  the  valuable  MS.  notes  of  Bentley  on  this  lexi- 
 cographer.— The  cditioprinccpsof  Hesychius  was  pub- 
 lished by  the  elder  Aldus,  Venire,  1514,  fol.,  under  the 
 care  of  Marcus  Musurus.  The  manuscript  followed  was 
 the  Venice  one.  This,  however,  being,  as  we  have  al- 
 ready remarked,  very  difficult  to  decipher,  and  in  other 
 respects  extremely  inaccurate,  Musurus  took  great 
 pains  to  correct  and  restore  it.  This  is  often  done 
 with  intelligence  and  success  ;  but  often  also  he  de- 
 ceives himself  in  his  corrections,  and  in  general  treats 
 his  original  in  too  arbitrary  a  manner.  Schow,  of  Co- 
 penhagen, being  at  Venice,  collated  the  manuscript 
 with  the  edition  of  Alberti,  and  took  note  of  all  the 
 variations.  He  published  this  collation  at  Leipsic, 
 1792,  8vo,  under  the  title,  "  Hcsychti  Lexicon  ex  cod. 
 Ms.  hihliolhcc(E  S.  Marci  restitiitnm,  et  ah  omnibus 
 Musuri  correctionihils  repurgatum.'^  By  the  help  of 
 this  volume,  the  possessor  of  any  edition  of  Hesychius, 
 for  they  are  all  based  upon  this  manuscript,  can  make 
 the  necessary  corrections.  The  glosses,  taken  from 
 the  Scriptures,  that  are  found  in  Hesychius,  were  col- 
 lected and  published  by  J.  G.  G.  Ernesti,  Lips.,  1785, 
 8vo.  We  may  regard  as  the  second  volume  of  this 
 production  the  work  published  by  Ernesti  in  1786, 
 8vo,  under  the  title,  "  SuidcE  et  Phavomii  Glossa  sa- 
 cra,^' in  which  are  found  two  hundred  and  twenty-nine 
 glosses  of  Hesychius,  forgotten  in  the  first  volume. 
 To  this  may  be  joined  the  work  of  Schleusner,  Ob- 
 servat.  in  Suid.  et  Hesych.,  Witlemb.,  1810,  4to. 
 Among  the  subsidiary  works  that  illustrate  Hesvchius, 
 may  be  mentioned  Toup's  Emendations  {Tonpii Emen- 
 daiiones  in  Suidam  et  Hesychium,  Oxon.,  1790,  4 
 vols.  8vo),  and  the  Dissertation  of  Ranke  {De  Lexici 
 Hcsychiani  vera  origine  et  genuina  forma  commen- 
 tatio,  Lips.,  1831,  8vo). — III.  A  native  of  Miletus, 
 surnamed,  by  reason  of  the  office  with  which  be  was 
 invested,  Illustris  ("Illustrious").  He  is  supposed  to 
 have  lived  under  the  emperors  Justin  and  Justinian,  and 
 was  the  author  of  a  chronicle  ('laropiKhv  dig  h  avvoipet 
 KoafiiKTjg  laropiar),  from  Belus  king  of  Assyria  to  the 
 616 
 
 end  of  the  reign  of  Anastasius  I.  This  work,  em- 
 bracing  the  history  of  1 190  years,  was  divided  into  six 
 sections  or  epochs  (Tfjij/mTa),  viz.,  I.  Events  ante- 
 rior to  the  Trojan  war.  2.  From  this  latter  period  to 
 the  building  of  Rome.  3.  From  the  building  of  Home 
 to  the  abolition  of  royalty  in  that  city.  4.  From  the 
 latter  period  to  the  death  of  Julius  Ca?sar.  ft.  From 
 the  death  of  Ca;sar  to  the  reign  of  Coiistantine  the 
 Great.  6.  From  the  latter  period  to  the  death  of  An- 
 astasius I.  The  last  section,  of  which  we  have  a  val- 
 uable fragment  remaining,  entitled  TluTpia  Kovaravri- 
 voviroTieuc  ("Of  the  origin  of  (.-onstantinople"),  served 
 as  an  aid  to  George  Codinus  in  his  description  of  this 
 city.  Hesychius  also  composed  Memoirs  on  the  reign 
 of  Justinian  the  elder  ('Ertpa  fii^'kog,  kv  ^  Trcpicx^Tiu 
 Tu  'lovarivov  TvpaxOevra).  This  work  has  entirely  per- 
 ished. The  fragment  of  Hesychius,  mentioned  above, 
 has  been  published  under  the  name  of  Codinus  by 
 Douza,  Heidelb.,  1596,  8vo.  Hesychius  also  wrote 
 an  Onomasticon,  or  Table  of  Men  distinguished  in  the 
 various  branches  of  knowledge  {Yllva^  tC)V  tv  nauhia 
 ovofianTuv),  of  which  Suidas  professes  to  have  availed 
 himself.  We  have  likewise,  under  the  name  of  Hesy- 
 chius, a  small  work  entitled  Tlepl  tCiv  Traidein  dia^a/i- 
 TpuvTuv  (yo(j)cjv,  "  Of  Philosophers  celebrated  for  their 
 learning."  It  is  nothing  more  than  a  very  careless 
 compilation  either  from  Diogenes  Laertius,  or  from  the 
 lost  Onomasticon  of  the  writer  whom  we  are  at  present 
 considering.  It  contains,  however,  some  things  which 
 are  not  found  elsewhere,  and  this  serves  to  stamp  a 
 certain  value  on  the  work.  The  latest  and  best  edi- 
 tion of  these  two  works  is  that  of  Orellius,  Lips.,  1820, 
 8vo.  —  IV.  A  native  of  Jerusalem,  who  died  about 
 428  A.D.  He  was  a  priest,  and  wrote  an  ecclesiasti- 
 cal nistory,  which  is  lost. — V.  This  name  was  also 
 borne  by  many  other  ecclesiastics,  among  whom  are 
 reckoned  several  martyrs.  (Consult  Fabnc/ius,  Bib!.. 
 GrcEc,  lib.  5,  c.  5,  and  the  Prolegomena  to  Alberti's 
 edition  of  the  Lexicon  of  Hesychius.) 
 
 Hetkuri.^  (more  commonly  Etrubi.*),  a  celebra- 
 ted country  of  Italy,  lying  to  the  west  and  north  of  the 
 Tiber.  Of  all  the  nations  of  Italy,  none  appear  to 
 have  such  claims  on  our  notice  as  that  of  the  Etru- 
 rians. The  origin  of  this  nation,  however,  was  in- 
 volved in  a  degree  of  uncertainty  at  the  time  when 
 the  earliest  of  our  ancient  historians  wrote,  which 
 was  hardly  to  have  been  expected,  considering  their 
 extended  dominion,  their  immemorial  possession  of 
 an  alphabet,  the  existence  among  them  of  a  sacer- 
 dotal caste,  and  their  acknowledged  superiority  in 
 civilization  to  all  their  European  contemporaries  ex- 
 cept the  Greeks.  Their  subsequent  history  is  chiefly 
 known  from  their  connexion  with  other  nations  ;  for, 
 never  having  cultivated  their  language  so  as  to  attain 
 to  the  possession  of  a  literature,  their  writings  have 
 long  since  perished  ;  and  what  they  recorded  on  brass 
 or  marble  is  far  less  intelligible  than  the  hieroglyphics 
 of  Egypt.  Even  in  ancient  times  it  was  a  disputed 
 question  whether  the  Etrurians  were  Pelasgi  from 
 Greece,  or  Lydians  from  Asia,  or  indigenous  in  Italy. 
 According  to  Herodotus  (1,  94),  the  Lydians  ought  to 
 be  considered  as  the  [)arent  stock  of  the  Etrurian  na- 
 tion. The  former  had  a  tradition  among  them,  that  a 
 great  famine  arose  in  Lydia  during  the  reign  of  .Alys, 
 one  of  their  earliest  kings.  When  it  had  lasted  for 
 several  years,  it  was  at  length  determined  that  the 
 nation  should  divide  itself  into  two  parts,  under  the 
 respective  command  of  Lydus  and  Tyrrhenus,  the  two 
 sons  of  Atys,  one  of  which  was  to  migrate,  and  the 
 other  to  remain  in  Lydia.  It  fell  to  the  lot  of  Tyr- 
 rhenus  to  abandon  Lydia  with  the  people  under  his 
 charge.  He  accordingly  equipped  a  ileet  at  .Smyrna, 
 and  set  sail  in  quest  of  a  country  to  settle  in  ;  when, 
 after  passing  by  various  countries  and  nations,  ha 
 finally  arrived  among  the  Umbri,  in  Italy,  where  ba 
 founded  several  cities,  which  the  people,  who,  from 
 
HETRURIA. 
 
 HETRURIA. 
 
 him,  were  called  Tyrrhenians,  occupied  up  to  the  time 
 of  Herodotus.  If  we  divest  the  Lydian  tradition  of 
 some  marvellous  circumstances  which  are  attached  to 
 it,  particularly  those  that  relate  to  the  famine,  which 
 may  be  fairly  charged  toOrienlal  hyperbole,  there  still 
 remains  the  record  of  an  important  event,  which,  con- 
 sidering the  character  of  the  historian  who  has  handed 
 it  down  to  us,  and  the  geographical  information  he 
 possessed,  is  certainly  entitled  to  our  attention  if  it 
 does  not  recommend  itself  to  our  belief  The  great- 
 est argument,  however,  in  favour  of  this  tradition, 
 must  be  allowed  to  consist  in  the  weight  of  testimony 
 which  can  be  collected  in  support  of  it  from  the  wri- 
 ters of  antiquity,  especially  those  of  Rome,  who,  with 
 few  exceptions,  seem  to  concur  in  admitting  the  fact 
 (if  the  Lydian  colony.  (Consult  Virff.,  .-E«.,  8,  479, 
 et  pass.  —  CatulL,  31,13. — Horat.,  Sat.,  1,6.— Slat. 
 Sdv.,  1,2.— Id.,  4,4.— Scftcc,  ad  Helv.—Jusiin,  20, 
 1.  — Fa/.  Max.,  2,4.— Plut.,  Vit.  Rom.— Pliny,  3,  5.) 
 — Strabo,  who  has  entered  more  fullv  into  the  discus- 
 sion of  the  Tyrrhenian  origin,  does  not  seem  to  enter- 
 tain any  doubt  of  the  event  which  we  are  now  con- 
 sidering, and  he  quotes  Anticlides,  an  historian  of 
 some  authority,  who  reports  that  the  first  Pelasgi 
 settled  in  the  islands  of  Iinbros  and  Lcmnos,  and  that 
 some  of  them  sailed  with  Tyrrhenus,  the  son  of  Atys, 
 to  Italy.  (Strabo,  2\9.)  In  short,  the  presumption 
 would  appear  so  strong  in  favour  of  this  popular  ac- 
 count of  the  origin  of  the  Tyrrheni,  that  we  might 
 consider  the  question  to  be  decided,  were  not  our  at- 
 tention called  to  the  opposite  side  by  some  weighty  ob- 
 jections, advanced  long  since  by  Dionysiusof  Halicar- 
 nassus,  and  farther  strongly  urged  by  some  modern 
 critics  of  great  reputation  and  learning.  Dionysius 
 seems  to  stand  alone  among  the  writers  of  antiquity 
 as  invalidating  the  facts  recorded  by  Herodotus  ;  and 
 though  his  own  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  Tyr- 
 rhenians is  evidently  inconsistent  and  unsatisfactory, 
 still  it  must  be  owned  that  his  arguments  tend  greatly 
 to  discredit  the  colony  of  the  Lydian  Tyrrhenus.  He 
 maintains,  in  the  first  place,  that  it  is  fabulous,  from 
 the  silence  on  so  important  an  event  of  Xanthus  the 
 historian  of  Lydia,  a  writer  of  great  research  and  au- 
 thority, and  more  ancient  than  Herodotus.  Xanthus 
 acknowledges  no  Lydian  prince  of  the  name  of  Tyr- 
 rhenus ;  the  sons  of  Atys,  according  to  him,  were  Ly- 
 dus  andTorybus,  who  both  remained  in  Asia.  Again, 
 Dionysius  asserts  that  there  was  no  resemblance  to 
 be  discovered  either  in  the  religion,  customs,  or  lan- 
 guage of  the  Lydians  and  Tuscans  ;  and,  lastly,  from 
 the  discrepance  to  be  observed  in  the  various  state- 
 ments of  the  genealogy  of  Tyrrhenus  and  the  period 
 of  his  migration,  he  feels  justified  in  rejecting  that 
 event  as  a  mere  fiction.  {Ant.  Rom.,  1,30.)  The 
 advocates  of  Herodotus,  however,  have  not  been  in- 
 timidated by  these  arguments,  but  have  endeavoured 
 to  prove  their  insufliiciency.  Among  these  may  be 
 reckoned  Ryckius  {de  primis  Itnlim  colonis,  c.  6)  ; 
 Bishop  Cumberland  {Comiexion  of  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
 man Antiquities.  Tract.  7,  c.  2) ;  Dempster  {Elrur. 
 Rcs^al.,  1,  4);  Larcher  {Hist.  d'Herod..  vol.  1,  p.)  ; 
 and  Lanzi  {Sagsio,  &c.,  vol.  2,  p.  102).  On  the 
 other  hand,  the  reasons  advanced  by  the  Greek  histo- 
 rian have  appeared  convincing  to  some  eminent  critics, 
 such  as  Cluverius  {Ilal.  Antiq.,  vol.  1,  lib.  1,  c.  1)  ; 
 Freret  {Mem.  de  I' Acad.,  vol.  18,  p.  97)  ;  and  Heync 
 {Comment.,  4-c.,  Nov.  Soc.  Gott.,  vol.  3,  p.  39) ;  who 
 have,  besides,  added  other  objections  to  those  already 
 started.  At  length,  in  1826,  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
 at  Berlin,  by  proposing  the  Etruscans  as  the  subject  of 
 a  prize  essay,  showed  their  opinion  that  the  time  was 
 come  when  the  scattered  notices  of  the  ancient  writers 
 should  be  combined  with  the  discoveries  in  Etruscan 
 antiquities  which  the  last  century  brought  to  light,  and 
 the  historical  truth  separated  from  the  mass  of  contra- 
 dictory theories  beneath  which  successive  writers  had 
 41 
 
 buried  it.  Professor  K.  O.  Miilier,  whose  essay  oo- 
 tained  the  prize,  had  already  distinguished  himself  by 
 his  Orchomenus  und  die  Minycr  ("  Orchomcnus  and 
 theMinyans"),  and  Doner  ("The  Dorians"),  two  works 
 in  which  an  e.vtraordinary  extent  of  reading  in  arrhafe- 
 ology  and  ancient  literature  is  united  to  great  sagacity 
 in  reconstructing  from  its  fragments  the  ruined  edifice 
 of  early  Greek  history.  The  dissertation  on  the  Etru- 
 rians forms  in  every  respect  a  suitable  accompaniment 
 to  these — We  have  already  remarked,  that  even  in 
 ancient  times  it  was  a  disputed  question,  whether  the 
 Etruscans  were  Pelasgi  from  Greece,  or  Lydians  from 
 Asia,  or  indigenous  in  Italy;  and  that  the  moderns 
 had  added  more  than  an  equal  number  to  the  hypothe- 
 ses of  the  ancients.  Thus  some  have  supposed  that 
 the  Etrurians  might  be  descended  from  the  Egyptians 
 {Bonarolti,  ad  Monum.) ;  others,  from  the  Canaanites 
 {Maffci,  Ra.oion.  dclli  Itali  primitivi,  p.  218,  seqq. — 
 Mazocchi,  Comment,  in  Tab.  HcracL,  p.  15,  &.C.); 
 others,  from  the  I'hcenicians  (Siinnton,de  Ling.  Etru- 
 ri(E  regalis  Vcrnacula,  Oxon.,  1738);  others  again 
 contended  for  their  Celtic  origin  {Pellovticr,  Hist,  des 
 Ccltes,  lib.  1,  p.  178. —  Bardetti,  dei  primi  ahit.  d'ltai, 
 vol.  1).  Freret  ascribed  it  to  the  Raeti  {Mem.  de 
 PAcad.,&c.,\o\.  18) ;  Hcrvas  to  the  ancient  Cantabri 
 {Idea  del  Universo,  vol.  17,  c.  4)  ;  while  some  again 
 gave  up  all  hope  of  arriving  at  any  certain  conclusion 
 in  this  puzzling  question,  and  seemed  to  consider  it  as 
 one  of  those  historical  problems  which  must  for  ever 
 remain  without  a  solution.  Miiller's  theory  appears 
 ingenious  and  plausible.  He  admits  a  primitive  pop- 
 ulation of  Etruria,  whom  he  calls,  after  Dionysius,  the 
 RascncE,  on  whose  origin  he  does  not  decide,  but 
 thinks  there  are  grounds  for  assuming,  that  these  were 
 mingled  with  a  body  of  Pelasgian  colonists  from  the 
 coast  of  Lydia.  We  find  in  Greece  a  people  bearing 
 the  name  of  Pelasgian  Tyrrheni,  driven  from  Boeotia 
 by  the  Dorian  migration,  appearing  as  fugitives  in 
 Athens,  and  thence  betaking  themselves  to  Lemnos, 
 Imbros,  and  Samothiace,  where,  as  well  as  on  Mount 
 Athos.  they  remained  in  the  historic  times.  The 
 name  Tyrrhenian  is  applied  to  the  Etrurians  in  Hesiod 
 {Thcog.,  101.5),  and,  in  the  Homeric  hymn  to  Bacchus, 
 to  this  people  of  the  ^■Egean.  That  ihey  were  not  the 
 Tyrrhenians  of  Italy  by  whom  the  god  was  carried  off 
 is  evident;  the  pirates  intended  to  carry  him  to  Egypt 
 or  to  Cyprus,  not  to  Italy  ;  and  from  other  sources  it 
 appears  that  the  mythus  was  a  Naxian  legend.  Ovid 
 {Met.,  3,  577,  seqq.)  relates  it  at  great  length,  and 
 represents  the  Tyrrhenians  as  Mseonians.  Now,  on 
 the  coast  of  Ma^onia  or  Lydia  there  was  a  place  named 
 Tv[jf)a,  from  which  .Miilier  deduces  the  name  Tyrrhe- 
 nian ;  in  all  probability  radically  the  same  with  Tor- 
 rhebian,  the  name  borne  by  the  southern  district  of 
 Lydia.  He  is  inclined,  however,  to  consider  the  peo- 
 ple, to  whom,  from  their  occupation  of  Tvpfia,  the 
 name  Tyrrhenian  was  given,  not  as  Lydians,  but  as 
 Pelasgians,  who  settled  for  a  time  on  this  part  of  the 
 coast,  and  having  thence  acquired  their  name,  and 
 made  it  notorious  by  their  piracies  in  the  JEgean, 
 migrated  first  to  the  Malean  promontory,  and  then  to 
 Etruria.  In  deriving  them,  however,  immediately 
 from  the  Pelasgians  who  came  from  Attica  to  Lcmnos 
 and  Imbros,  and  thence  to  Lydia,  he  seems  to  embar- 
 rass his  hypothesis  with  an  unneces.sary  difficulty.  He 
 himself  makes  the  worship  of  the  phaliic  Hermes  to  be 
 characteristic  of  the  Pelasgi  in  Attica  and  the  ishinds; 
 yet  of  this  he  admits  that  hardly  a  trace  is  to  be  found 
 in  the  Etrurian  religion.  It  is  remarkable  ho\v  late  is 
 the  application  of  the  name  Pelasgian  to  the  iyrrhe- 
 nians.  Herodotus  not  only  never  calls  them  so,  but 
 even  bv  referring  to  the  Grestonians,  who  live  cWc 
 the  Tyrrhenians,  for  a  proof  of  what  the  Pelasgic  .an- 
 guacre  was,  he  seems  to  imply  that  the  Tyrrhenian., 
 themselves  were,  m  his  view,  not  Pelasgians  ;  else 
 why  not  take  them  at  once  for  his  lUus^ranon  1     No 
 
HETRURIA. 
 
 HETRURIA. 
 
 ancient  author  describes  the  Tyrrhenians  of  Lydia  as 
 Pelasgians  from  Atlica  and  tlie  islands.  The  gene- 
 alogy  of  Herodotus  from  the  Lydiaii  authors  makes 
 Tyrrheiius  a  son  of  Atys,  king  uf  Lydia  ;  in  that  given 
 in  Diouysius  without  the  author's  name,  Lydus  and 
 Tyrrlienus  are  t)rothers  ;  in  that  of  Xanlhus  the  broth- 
 ers are  called  Lydus  and  Torybus  or  Torrhubus,  i.  e., 
 according  to  MiiUer,  Tyrrhenus.  Whichever  of  these 
 wj  argue  from,  it  appears  very  improbable  that  the 
 lineage  of  a  band  of  Pelasgian  pirates,  who  had  settled 
 on  the  coasts  of  Lydia,  should  have  been  carried  up 
 to  the  ancient  kings  or  gods  of  the  country  ;  and  that, 
 too,  not  by  the  Greeks,  but  by  the  Lydians  themselves. 
 We  cannot,  therefore,  avoid  the  conclusmn,  that  the 
 Tyrrhenians  were  much  more  intimately  connected 
 with  the  Lydian  population  than  Muller's  account  of 
 them  supposes.  Niebuhr  makes  the  Ma3onians  (the 
 Homeric  name  for  the  Lydians)  to  be  Pelasgians,  ar- 
 guing from  the  name  of  their  stronghold,  Larissa, 
 which  is  found  in  all  countries  occupied  by  Pelasgians; 
 Midler  represents  them  as  wholly  difTerent,  alleging 
 that  no  ancient  author  calls  the  Moeonians  Pelasgians. 
 This  is  true  ;  but  they  make  the  Tyrrhenians  Moeoni- 
 ans and  also  Pelasgians,  and  therefore  imply,  though 
 ihey  do  not  assert,  the  identity  of  the  people  who  bore 
 these  three  names.  The  whole  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
 appeai-s  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  Pelasgi,  or  na- 
 tions differing  from  them  only  in  name.  Menecrates 
 (ap.  S/rab.,  571)  related,  that  the  Pelasgi  had  occu- 
 pied the  whole  of  Ionia,  from  Mycale  northward,  and 
 the  adjacent  islands  ;  the  Carians,  the  Leieges,  and 
 the  Caucones,  the  Trojans,  and  Mysians,  were  of  the 
 same  race,  and  also  allied  to  the  Lydians,  as  appears 
 from  the  genealogy  given  by  Herodotus  (1,  171).  The 
 Greeks  themselves  attribute  the  Pelasgic  population 
 of  Asia  Minor  to  colonies  sent  from  Greece  or  from 
 the  islands  ;  bu'  their  accounts  of  colonies  before  the 
 Homeric  age,  being  founded  on  no  contemporary  au- 
 thority, must  generally  be  regarded  as  historical  hy- 
 potheses, chiefly  grounded  upon  similarity  of  names, 
 which  may  often  be  more  rationally  explained  from 
 other  causes.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  probable 
 that  the  Lydians  were  wholly  a  Pelasgic  people.  The 
 phenomena  of  the  history  of  Asia  Minor  are  most 
 easily  solved  by  the  supposition  that  a  nation  of  Syr- 
 ian origin  was  mingled  in  its  two  principal  districts, 
 Lydia  and  Phrygia,  with  another  nearly  allied  to  the 
 Greeks.  The  Mosaic  genealogy  of  nations  {Gen.,  10, 
 22)  assigns  a  Semitic  origin  to  the  Lydians  ;  while  it 
 refers  most  of  the  tribes  of  Asia  Minor,  along  with  the 
 Greeks,  to  the  stock  of  Japheth.  The  mythology  of 
 Lydia,  the  basis,  as  usual,  of  its  dynasties  of  kings, 
 betrays  its  Syrian  as  well  as  Grecian  affinities.  Their 
 deities  'Arrtjc  or  "Xrvc  (the  same  as  IIciTraf,  Hes.), 
 and  Ma,  father  and  mother,  have  probably  given  their 
 name  to  the  Atyades  and  the  Moeonians;  and  their 
 worship  is  clearly  the  same  with  that  of  the  Syrian 
 goddess,  who  was  variously  denominated  Atargatis, 
 Derceto,  Semiramis,  Rhea,  Juno,  and  Venus.  The 
 chief  seat  of  her  worship  at  Hierapolis,  was  the  resort 
 of  the  people  of  Asia  Minor ;  and  Ascalon,  in  Phoe- 
 nicia, appears  to  have  been  considered  as  a  colony  of 
 the  Lydians  {Stepli.  Bi/z  ,  s.  v)  for  no  other  reason 
 than  that  the  traditions  of  the  great  goddess  were  in 
 a  peculiar  manner  connected  with  this  place.  In  the 
 list  of  the  kings  of  Troy,  whose  names  are  generally 
 of  Grecian  etymology,  the  Oriental  name  of  Assara- 
 cus  points  to  a  mixture  of  Oriental  mythology  ;  and 
 this  remark  is  still  more  applicable  to  the  genealogy 
 of  the  Hcraclid  kings  of  Lydia,  in  which  Greek  and 
 Assyrian  personages  are  so  strongly  mixed,  Hercules, 
 Alcasus,  13elus,  Ninus,  Agron.  (Herod.,  1,  7.)  If, 
 then,  the  Lydians  were  a  people  partly  Asiatic,  partly 
 allied  to  the  Greeks,  there  is  really  no  contradiction 
 between  those  historians  who  call  the  Tyrrhenians 
 lydians,  and  those  who  speak  of  Tyrrhenian  Pelas- 
 618 
 
 gians.  The  settlement  of  the  Tyrrhenians  at  Malea, 
 on  their  progress  from  Lydia  to  Italy,  rests  on  very 
 slight  grounds.  A  passage,  namely,  in  the  commen- 
 tator Lactantius  or  Lutatius  on  Statins  (T/tcA.,  4,  224), 
 who  calls  the  inventor  of  the  Tyrrhenian  trumpet  Ma- 
 leus  ;  but  the  resemblance  between  the  Tuscan  and 
 the  Lydian  or  Phrygian  music,  really  adds  considera 
 ble  weight  to  the  other  arguments  in  favour  of  thf. 
 (Oriental  colonization  of  Elruria.  The  musical  instru 
 ment  of  the  Greeks,  in  the  heroic  and  Homeric  age, 
 was  the  lyre  ;  the  flute  was  unknown,  or,  at  least,  not 
 in  use.  It  has  been  long  since  remarked  that  Homer 
 mentions  the  avlog  only  in  two  passages  (7/.,  10,13; 
 18,  495).  In  the  first  of  these  he  is  describing  the 
 nightly  noise  of  the  Trojan  camp,  and  the  Villoison 
 scholiast  observes,  that  these  instruments  were  known 
 only  to  the  Barbarians.  This  observation,  though 
 limited,  is  not  contradicted  by  the  other  passage,  in 
 which  youths  are  represented  as  dancing  at  a  wedding 
 to  the  sound  of  lyres  and  flutes.  To  say  nothing  of 
 the  suspicions  which  have  been  entertained,  that  the 
 description  of  the  shield  of  Achilles,  of  which  this  is 
 a  part,  is  not  of  the  same  age  with  the  rest  of  the 
 Iliad,  it  is  very  possible  that  the  Greeks  of  Ionia  may 
 have  employed  the  flute-players  of  Lydia  or  Phrygia  at 
 their  festivities  ;  or,  should  it  be  supposed  that  in  the 
 days  of  Homer  the  use  of  the  flute  was  familiar  to 
 the  lonians  themselves,  the  entire  absence  of  all  men- 
 tion of  it  in  the  Odyssey  shows  that  in  Greece  itself 
 it  had  not  yet  been  introduced.  It  came  in  there 
 along  with  the  worship  of  Bacchus,  which,  whatever 
 may  have  been  its  remoter  origin,  certainly  passed 
 from  Lydia  and  Phrygia  to  Thrace,  and  thence  into 
 southern  Greece,  devouring  with  its  stormy  music  the 
 feebler  notes  of  the  lyre.  The  double  flute,  of  which 
 the  left  hand  played  a  treble  to  the  bass  of  the  right 
 hand,  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (1,  7)  under  the 
 name  of  avXbg  uvdpeloc  and  yvvannioc,  as  used  by 
 the  Lydians  in  war.  Now  the  double  flute,  as  we 
 know  both  from  ancient  authors  and  from  monuments 
 {Inghirami,  Monumenli  Elruschi,  pt.  3,  pi.  20 ;  pt.  2, 
 pi.  96),  was  in  use  among  the  Etrurians;  and  the  Ro- 
 mans not  only  borrowed  their  flute-music  from  them, 
 but  generally  employed  at  sacrifices  and  festive  dances 
 a  Tuscan  flute-player.  (Compare  Virg.,  Gcorg.,  2, 193. 
 — Ovid,  A.  A.,  1,  111.)  It  is  very  improbable  that 
 such  a  coincidence  between  the  Etruscan  and  Asiatic 
 customs  should  be  accidental ;  and  no  more  probable 
 explanation  of  it  can  be  given  than  that  the  Tyrrhe- 
 nians were  really  a  colony  of  Pelasgi  from  Lydia. 
 They  were  probably  not  numerous,  compared  with 
 the  Rasenae,  whom  they  found  in  possession  of  the 
 country  ;  and  hence,  though  some  of  their  arts  were 
 communicated  to  the  nation  among  whom  they  settled, 
 they  were  soon  so  completely  absorbed  in  it,  that  the 
 language  of  Etruria  bore  no  traces  either  of  a  Greek 
 or  a  Lydian  mixture.  The  adoption  of  a  story  of  a 
 Lydian  origin  by  no  means  requires  that  we  should 
 reject  the  accounts  of  migrations  of  Pelasgi  from  Thes- 
 saly,  and  from  the  opposite  shore  of  the  Adriatic  to 
 the  mouths  of  the  Po,  which  we  find  in  other  writers 
 on  Etrurian  history.  Professor  Miiller  thus  sums  up 
 this  part  of  his  researches  :  "It  remains,  then,  that  we 
 regard  the  Tuscan  nation  as  an  original  and  peculiar 
 people  of  Italy  ;  their  language  is  widely  diflTerenl 
 from  the  Greek  ;  the  names  of  their  gods  are  not 
 those  which  we  find  among  the  earliest  Greeks  whonr 
 we  call  Pelasgi,  and  which  passed  from  them  to  the 
 Hellenes ;  there  is  much,  too,  in  the  doctrine  of  theil 
 priests  entirely  foreign  to  the  Greek  theology.  But 
 it  appears  to  have  been  the  fate  of  this  nation,  whici 
 never  displayed  any  independent  civilization,  but  onlj 
 adopted  that  of  the  Greeks,  to  have  been  indebted  foi 
 its  first  impulse  towards  improvement  to  a  Greek,  or, 
 at  best,  half- Greek  tribe.  The  Tuscans  themselves, 
 in  their  native  legends,  referred  their  polity  and  civili- 
 
HETRURIA. 
 
 HETRURIA. 
 
 sation  to  the  maritime  town  Tarquinii,  and  the  hero 
 Tarchon,  both  probably  only  variations  of  the  name 
 Tyrrheni.  Here  it  was  that  the  much-dreaded  Pelas- 
 gians  of  Lydia  landed  and  settled,  bringing  with  them 
 the  arts  they  had  acquired  at  home  or  on  their  way. 
 For  ihe  first  time  the  barbarous  land  saw  men  covered 
 with  brass  array  themselves  for  battle  to  the  sound  of 
 the  trumpet  ;  here  first  they  heard  the  loud  sound  of 
 the  Lydo-Phrygian  flute  accompanying  the  sacrifice, 
 und  perhaps  witnessed  for  the  first  lime  the  rapid 
 course  of  the  fifty-oared  ship.  As  the  legend,  in  its 
 propagation  from  mouth  to  mouth,  swells  beyond  all 
 bounds,  the  whole  glory  of  the  Tuscan  name,  even 
 that  which  did  not  properly  belong  to  the  colonists, 
 attached  itself  to  the  name  of  Tarchon,  the  disciple 
 of  Tages,  as  the  author  of  a  new  and  better  era  in  the 
 history  of  Etruria.  The  neighbouring  Umbrians  and 
 Latins  named  the  nation,  which  from  this  time  began 
 to  increase  and  diffuse  itself,  not  from  the  primitive 
 inhabitants,  but  from  these  new  settlers.  For  since, 
 in  the  Eugubine  tables,  Trusce  occurs  along  with 
 Tuscom  and  Tuscer,  it  is  impossible  not  to  conclude, 
 that  from  the  root  TUR  have  been  formed  Trusicus. 
 Truscus,  Tuscus  ;  as  from  the  root  OP,  Opscus  and 
 Oscus  ;  so  that  Tvpprjvo'i.  or  Tvparjvoi,  and  Tusci, 
 are  only  the  Asiatic  and  Italic  forms  of  one  and  the 
 same  name."  {Etrusker,  vol.  1,  p.  100  )  The  time 
 of  such  a  colonization  can,  of  course,  only  be  fixed  by 
 approximation.  Miiller  supposes  it  to  have  coincided 
 with  the  Ionic  migration,  and  to  have  been  occasioned 
 by  it.  The  Umbrians  were  powerful  in  the  land  of 
 which  the  new  colonists  took  possession,  and  long 
 wars  must  have  been  carried  on  with  them  before 
 they  were  dispossessed  of  the  three  hundred  towns 
 which  Pliny  (3,  19)  says  they  once  held  in  the  coun- 
 try afterward  called  Etruria.  To  the  south  the  Etru- 
 rians extended  themselves  to  the  banks  of  the  Tiber, 
 and  even  beyond  it  into  Latium,  as  the  name  of  Tus- 
 culum  proves.  According  to  their  own  traditions,  the 
 same  Tarchon  who  founded  the  twelve  cities  of  Etru- 
 ria led  a  colony  across  the  Apennines  and  founded 
 twelve  other  cities.  Of  such  a  tradition,  the  historian 
 can  receive  no  more  than  the  fact,  that  Etruria,  in  the 
 valley  of  the  Po,  was  colonized  from  the  southern 
 Etruria.  Bologna,  anciently  Felsina,  which  stands 
 where  the  Apennines  descend  into  the  fertile  plains 
 which  border  the  Po,  was  probably  the  first  of  these 
 colonies,  as  it  is  called  by  Pliny  (3,  20),  '■'■  princeps 
 quondam  Etrurt(Z  ;"  the  names  of  most  of  the  others 
 are  uncertain.  A  stone,  with  an  Etruscan  inscription, 
 has  been  found  {^Lanzi,  vol.  2,  p.  649)  as  far  to  the 
 westward  as  Alessandria.  Atria  and  Spina,  near  the 
 mouth  of  the  Po,  were  certainly  Tuscan  cities,  and 
 very  important  from  their  commerce  with  the  Adriatic  ; 
 but  the  foundation  of  both  was  claimed  for  the  Pelas- 
 gians  of  Thessaly  or  the  followers  of  Diomede.  The 
 same  story  of  twelve  colonies  is  repeated  in  reference 
 to  the  settlement  of  the  Etruscans  in  Campania.  Miil- 
 ler supposes  these  to  be  really  colonies  from  Etruria, 
 in  0[)position  to  the  opinion  of  Niebuhr,  who  thinks 
 they  were  founded  by  Pelasgian  Tyrrhenians,  con- 
 founded with  the  Etruscans  from  identity  of  name. 
 At  all  events,  the  amount  of  Etruscan  population  in 
 Camjjania  cannot  have  been  great,  since  the  Oscan 
 language,  not  the  Etruscan,  prevailed  there  ;  and  not 
 a  single  Etruscan  inscription  has  been  found  in  this 
 whole  district.  This  land  of  luxurious  indulgence 
 appears  to  have  exerted  its  usual  influence  on  the 
 Etruscans,  and  they  yielded  the  possession  of  it  with 
 lit'.le  resistance  to  the  Samnites,  who  poured  down 
 from  the  hills  on  the  fertile  plains  of  Campania.  In 
 their  Italian  settlement,  the  Tyrrhenians  appear  to 
 have  retained  long  the  practice  of  piracy,  which  had 
 made  their  name  notorious  in  the  Grecian  seas  ;  in- 
 deed, it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  decide  whether  the 
 imputation  falls  on  the  Etruscans  or  the  Tyrrhenians  of 
 
 the  ^gean.  Possessing  harbours  on  both  seas,  they 
 maintained  the  command  of  both,  and  made  them'- 
 selves  formidable  not  only  to  merchant  ships  by  their 
 corsairs,  but  to  the  naval  powers  by  their  armaments. 
 To  their  predominance  in  the  lower  sea,  Miiller  at- 
 tributes the  circumstance,  that  the  Greeks,  while  ihey 
 had  numerous  colonies  on  the  eastern  and  southerii\ 
 coasts  of  Sicily,  had  only  one,  Himera,  on  the  north,  | 
 as  late  as  the  age  of  Thucydides.  Indeed,  the  dread] 
 of  the  Etruscans  long  prevented  the  Greeks  from  pass- 1 
 ing  the  straits  of  Rhegium  with  their  ships  ;  and  it 
 was  not  till  the  rise  of  the  naval  power  of  the  Pho- 
 cians  that  either  the  Adriatic  or  Tyrrhene  seas  were 
 well  explored  by  them.  Rivalry  soon  followed  ;  both 
 nations  endeavoured  to  possess  themselves  of  Corsica; 
 and  the  Etruscans,  being  joined  by  the  Carthaginians, 
 fought  a  desperate  battle  with  their  Phocian  antago- 
 nists, in  which  victory  ultimately  sided  with  the  latter. 
 They  were  equally  unfortunate  in  their  naval  wars 
 with  the  Dorians  of  Cnidos  and  Rhodes,  who  had 
 made  a  settlement  on  the  island  of  Lipara.  In  the 
 time  of  Pausanias,  a  consecrated  oft'ering  of  the  Lipa- 
 reans  was  seen  at  Delphi,  made  from  the  spoils  of  the 
 Tyrrhenians.  Another  trophy  of  the  victory  of  the 
 Greeks  over  them  has  been  brought  to  light  in  our 
 own  times.  In  the  year  474  B.C.,  the  people  of  Cu- 
 maj,  in  Campania,  being  engaged  in  war  with  tl>e  Tyr- 
 rhenians, called  in  the  aid  of  Hiero,  tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
 by  whom  they  were  totally  defeated  ;  and  Greece,  as 
 Pindar  says  {Pylh.,  1,72),  was  delivered  from  slavery. 
 In  1817,  a  brazen  helmet  was  discovered  among  the 
 ruins  of  Olympia,  with  an  inscription  to  the  following 
 effect :  "  Hiero,  son  of  Dinomeus,  and  the  Syracusans 
 (consecrate)  to  Jupiter,  Tyrrhenian  (arms)  from  Cu- 
 mae."  Two  other  helmets  without  inscriptions,  but  no 
 doubt  part  of  the  same  votive  offering,  were  found  at 
 the  same  time.  (Boeckh,  Corp.  InscripC,  1,  34. — Id. 
 ad  Find.,  vol.  1,  p.  224.) — In  opposition  to  the  theory 
 of  Miiller,  however,  another  one  has  been  advocated, 
 with  his  usual  ability  and  learning,  by  the  celebrated 
 Niebuhr.  He  makes  the  name  Tyrseni  or  Tyrrheni, 
 in  Italy,  to  have  belonged  originally  and  properly  to 
 the  Pelasgian  population,  and  the  Etruscans  to  have 
 come  in  from  the  Rhetian  Alps,  and  to  have  conquer- 
 ed the  previous  inhabitants.  These  new-comers  he 
 makes  to  have  been  the  Rascna  of  Dionysius,  where- 
 as Miiller,  it  will  be  remembered,  considers  the  Ra- 
 senaB  to  have  formed  the  primitive  population  of  the 
 land,  and  to  have  been  conquered  l)y  the  Tyrrheni. 
 In  reply  to  the  question  that  very  naturally  preaenta 
 itself,  why,  if  the  Etruscans  were  a  foreign  and  distinct 
 race,  the  Greek  writers,  nevertheless,  invariably  called 
 them  Tyrseni,  and  Etruria  Tyrscniu,  Niebuhr  re- 
 marks, that  the  Etruscans  had  no  more  title  to  the 
 name  of  Tyrsenians,  than  the  English  to  that  of  Brit- 
 ons, or  the  Spanish  Creoles  to  that  of  Mexicans  or 
 Peruvians:  the  strange  name  was  acquired  in  all  these 
 cases,  according  to  him,  in  precisely  the  same  way. 
 The  whole  theory  is  undoubtedly  a  very  plausible 
 one;  but  the  difficulties  with  which  it  is  encumbered 
 are  so  numerous,  that  we  cannot  hesitate  to  yield  an 
 assent  to  the  more  rational  view  taken  by  Miiller  of 
 this  interesting  but  difllicult  subject.  (Consult  Nte- 
 buhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  82,  seqrj.,  and  89,  ed.  2,  p. 
 38  and  108,  ed.  3.— Hist,  of  Rome,  p.  78,  Lihr.  Vs. 
 Knowl.) 
 
 Domestic  Manners,  National  Character,  tfc,  of  the 
 Etrurians. 
 
 It  is  not  an  easy  task  to  paint  the  domestic  manners 
 and  national  character  of  a  people  who  have  transmit- 
 ted no  living  image  of  themselves  to  posterity  in  lite- 
 rary  compositions.  The  basis  of  the  national  prosper- 
 ity of  the  Etrurians  was  agriculture,  to  which  then 
 soil  and  climate  were  well  adapted,  and  which  has  al- 
 ways flourished  in  Tuscany,  when  the  beneficence  ol 
 
 ^  619 
 
HETRURIA. 
 
 HETRURIA. 
 
 nature  has  not  been  counteracted  by  misgovernment 
 and  absurd  legislation.  But  Etruria  was  not,  like 
 Campania,  a  land  of  spontaneous  fertility  ;  the  industry 
 and  ingenuity  of  man  were  required  to  adapt  cultivation 
 to  the  various  qualities  of  the  land,  and  to  curb  the  in- 
 undations of  the  Po  in  the  provinces  on  the  Adriatic. 
 Their  primitive  manners  were  simple  ;  the  distaff  of 
 Tanaquil  was  long  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Sancus 
 at  Rome  ;  and  a  passage  of  Juvenal  (6,  288)  seems  to 
 imply,  that  in  domestic  industry  and  virtue  there  was 
 a  close  resemblance  between  the  Tuscan  and  the  Ro- 
 man nations  in  early  times.  Their  extensive  con- 
 quests, and  bold  and  skilful  navigation,  are  a  sufficient 
 proof  of  the  energy  of  their  national  character.  But 
 when  commerce  and  conquests  in  Southern  Italy  had 
 placed  in  their  reach  the  means  of  indulgence,  they 
 seized  upon  them  with  the  avidity  of  a  half-barbarous 
 people;  and  luxury,  instead  of  being  the  handmaid  of 
 refinement  and  elegance,  ministered  to  vain  splendour 
 and  sensual  voluptuousness.  Diodorus  (5,  40)  de- 
 scribes, from  Posidonius,  their  tables  loaded  twice  a 
 day  (which,  to  abstemious  Greeks,  seemed  the  excess 
 of  gluttony),  their  embroidered  draperies,  their  drink- 
 ing-vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  and  their  hosts  of  slaves. 
 Athenffius  gives  much  darker  shades  to  his  picture  of 
 the  corruption  of  manners  produced  by  wealth  expend- 
 ed wholly  in  the  gratification  of  the  senses.  That  the 
 epithets  o{ pinguis  and  obtsus,  which  the  Komans  ap- 
 plied to  the  Etruscans,  were  not  wholly  suggested  by 
 national  malice,  is  evident  from  the  recumbent  figures 
 on  the  covers  of  the  sarcophagi.  From  the  Etruscans 
 the  Romans  borrowed  their  combats  of  gladiators.  It 
 should  seem,  however,  that  the  horrible  practice  of  in- 
 troducing them  at  banquets  belonged  chiefly  to  the 
 Etrurians  of  Campania,  and  especially  to  Capua  ;  the 
 focus  of  all  the  vices  which  spring  from  luxury,  neither 
 softened  by  humanity  nor  refined  by  taste.  Of  the 
 Etrurian  music  we  have  spoken  in  mentioning  the 
 proofs  of  their  Lydian  origin.  It  was  almost  the  only 
 branch  of  art  in  which  invention  is  attributed  to  them 
 by  the  ancients  ;  and  even  here  the  invention  related 
 only  to  the  instrument ;  we  read  of  no  7Jiood  ascribed 
 to  them.  Their  celebrity,  both  in  this  and  the  plastic 
 art,  was  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  their  being  the 
 neighbours  of  a  people  whose  genius  was  so  decidedly 
 averse  from  both  as  that  of  the  Romans  ;  who,  till  they 
 became  acquainted  with  the  Greeks,  derived  all  the 
 decorative  part  of  their  system  of  public  and  private 
 life  from  the  Etrurians.  We  have  no  historical  means 
 of  determining  whether  the  Etrurians  borrowed  from 
 the  Greeks  their  successive  improvements  in  sculpture 
 and  statuary,  or  proceeded  in  an  independent  track  : 
 the  fact  which  we  shall  have  to  produce  respecting 
 their  alphabet,  renders  the  former  supposition  more 
 probable.  If  this  communication  existed,  it  was  only 
 to  a  certain  point ;  the  Tuscan  style  in  art  always  bore 
 a  resemblance  to  that  of  Egypt,  and  their  most  perfect 
 works  had  that  rigidity,  and  want  of  varied  and  living 
 expression,  which  characterized  Grecian  sculpture  be- 
 fore Phidias  had  fired  his  imagination  with  Homer's  de- 
 scription of  Jupiter  and  Minerva,  or  Praxiteles  had 
 imbodied  in  marble  his  vision  of  the  Queen  of  Beauty. 
 In  all  that  department  of  art,  or  the  contrary,  in  which 
 mechanism  without  mind  may  attain  perfection,  the 
 Etrurians  were  little  inferior  to  the  Greeks  themselves. 
 An  Athenian  poet  {ap.  Alhcri.,  1,  28)  celebrated  their 
 works  in  metal  as  the  best  of  their  kind  ;  alluding 
 probably  to  their  drinking-vessels  and  lamps,  candelabra 
 and  tripods.  The  religion  of  the  Greeks  lent  a  pow- 
 erful aid  in  perfecting  the  plastic  art ;  that  of  the  Etru- 
 rians, as  far  as  it  was  peculiar  to  them,  had  nothing  to 
 impregnate  the  native  fancy  of  the  artist,  or  to  exalt 
 his  conceptions  to  sublimity.  They  appear  to  have 
 held  an  opinion,  which  we  find  both  in  the  Northern 
 and  Hindu  theology,  that  the  gods  themselves  were 
 like  the  system  over  which  they  presided,  the  effects 
 620 
 
 of  a  power  exerted  only  at  long  intervals  in  the  pro- 
 duction of  being,  and  absorbing  into  itself  all  that  it 
 had  produced,  to  create  again.  The  symbols  of  this 
 power  were  the  Dii  involuti  of  Etruiian  theology, 
 whose  names  were  unknown,  and  who  were  not  ob- 
 jects of  popular  worship ;  of  them  Jupiter  himself 
 asked  counsel :  the  Dii  Consantes,  twelve  in  number, 
 six  of  either  sex,  presided  over  the  existing  order  of 
 things,  and  received  homage  and  sacrifice.  Their  in- 
 tervention in  human  affairs  was  chiefly  manifested  in 
 omens  of  impending  evil,  to  be  averted  by  gloomy,  and 
 often  cruel  expiations.  If  morality  may  have  gained 
 something  by  the  Etrurian  religion's  having  furnished 
 nothing  answering  to  the  sportive,  but  licentious  my- 
 thology of  the  Greeks,  poetry  and  art  undoubtedly  suf- 
 fered. The  same  want  of  lively  and  cheerful  imagina- 
 tion characterized  their  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of 
 the  soul :  their  subterranean  world  was  a  Tartarus 
 without  an  Elysium.  Nowhere  was  superstition  re- 
 duced so  comjiletely  to  system.  The  regions  of  the 
 heavens  were  divided  and  subdivided  according  to  the 
 Etrurian  discipline,  that  every  portent  might  have  its 
 accurate  interpretation  ;  the  phenomena  of  the  atmo- 
 sphere, especially  thunder  and  lightning,  were  observed 
 and  classed  with  a  minuteness  which  might  have  fur- 
 nished the  rudiments  of  a  science,  had  the  observers 
 been  philosophers  instead  of  priests  ;  but  which,  in 
 fact,  only  augmented  the  subservience  of  the  multitude 
 to  those  who  claimed  the  exclusive  knowledge  of  the 
 methods  by  which  the  gods  might  be  propitiated.  It 
 is  unnecessary  to  say  that  philosophy,  in  the  Grecian 
 sense  of  the  word,  free  speculation  on  man,  nature,  and 
 providence,  combining  its  results  into  a  system,  was 
 unknown  in  Etruria.  Some  practical  knowledge  of 
 the  laws  of  nature  cannot  be  denied  to  a  people  who 
 executed  such  works  in  architecture  and  hydraulics 
 as  the  Etruscans  ;  but  we  are  not  aware  that  the  dis- 
 covery or  demonstration  of  a  single  scientific  truth  can 
 be  claimed  for  them.  The  form  of  the  Etrurian 
 government,  in  which  the  same  order  were  both  aris- 
 tocracy and  priesthood,  effectually  prevented  the  mind 
 of  the  nation  from  expending  itself  in  its  natural 
 growth.  To  the  Lucumones,  an  hereditary  nobility, 
 Tages  revealed  the  religious  usages  which  the  people 
 were  to  observe ;  and  they  kept  to  themselves  the 
 knowledge  of  this  system,  with  the  power  of  applying 
 it  as  they  thought  best  for  perpetuating  their  own  mo- 
 nopoly. In  their  civil  capacity,  the  IjUcumones  form- 
 ed the  ruling  body  in  all  the  cities  of  Etruria.  In  ear- 
 lier times  we  read  of  kings,  not  of  the  whole  country, 
 but  of  separate  states,  whose  power,  no  doubt,  was 
 greatly  narrowed  by  that  of  the  aristocracy  ;  but  they 
 disappear  after  a  time  altogether,  as  from  the  Grecian 
 and  Roman  history  ;  while  no  body  corresponding  to 
 the  plebs  arose  to  represent  the  popular  element  of 
 the  constitution.  It  is  difficult  to  fix  the  exact  rela- 
 tion of  the  great  body  of  the  ruling  caste.  Miiller  in- 
 clines to  the  opinion,  that  the  cultivators  of  the  soil 
 were  chiefly  bondsmen  to  the  land-owners,  as  the  Pe- 
 nestas  in  Thessaly,  and  the  Helots  in  Sparta.  That 
 such  a  class  existed  in  Etruria  is  certain  ;  that  it  in- 
 cludes so  large  a  proportion  of  the  people  is  not  prob- 
 able ;  and  the  only  argument  adduced  in  support  of  it 
 is  the  very  doubtful  assumption  that  the  clients  at 
 Rome  were  bondsmen  of  the  patricians.  Unquestion- 
 ably the  Etrurian  aristocracy  kept  the  lower  orders  in 
 political  subjection,  and  the  nation  was  thus  prevented 
 from  rising  to  that  eminence  to  which  it  might  have 
 attained ;  but  its  general  prosperity  is  a  proof  that  the 
 government  was  not  tyrannically  exercised.  The 
 spirit  of  democracy  appears  not  even  to  have  stirred, 
 so  as  to  awaken  the  fears  of  the  ruling  caste,  and  lead 
 them  to  severity.  The  insurrections  of  which  we  read 
 are  especially  attributed  to  the  slaves.  Etruria  was 
 fertile  in  corn,  especially  in  spell ,  the  far  or  uilm  of 
 I  the  Romans ;  of  which  the  meal  furnished  the  jtuls. 
 
HETEJtjRIA. 
 
 HETRURIA. 
 
 which  was  the  ancient  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  all 
 this  part  of  Italy  ;  and  agriculture  formed  the  most 
 honourable  occupation.  The  iron-mines  of  Ilva,  now 
 Eliia,  and  others  on  the  mainland  of  Etruria  connected 
 with  them,  furnished  a  richer  supply,  and  of  a  purer 
 quality  than  any  other  in  the  ancient  world  ;  the  same 
 island  produced  the  copper  for  their  coinage,  and  for 
 their  works  in  brass. 
 
 Works  of  Art,  Antiquities,  cj-c,  of  the  Etrurians. 
 
 Enough  remains  of  Etruscan  art  to  justify  what  an- 
 cient authors  have  said  of  the  population,  wealth,  and 
 luxury  of  this  people.  The  walls  of  their  cities  rarely 
 exhibit  that  gigantic  species  of  dike-building  which  has 
 been  called  the  Cyclopean  architecture,  and  which  is 
 found  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  re- 
 mains of  the  ancient  towns  of  Latium  and  Samnium. 
 Micali  considers  the  walls  of  Cosa  as  the  only  specimen 
 in  Etruria  of  the  Cyclopean  manner ;  but  if  the  cri- 
 terion be  the  use  of  polygonal  masses  of  stone  without 
 cement,  instead  of  parallelopipedal,  the  plate  {pi.  12) 
 which  he  has  given  of  the  gate  and  wall  of  Signium 
 (Segni)  shows  that  it  partakes  of  the  character  of  this 
 class.  But,  in  general,  they  built  their  walls,  as  may 
 be  seen  at  Vollorra,  Populonia,  and  Rusells,  of  vast 
 blocks  of  paralielojiipedal  form,  which  their  own  weight 
 retained  in  their  places,  without  the  use  of  mortar. 
 The  gate  of  Segni,  before  mentioned,  shows  something 
 of  the  earliest  attempt  at  constructing  an  arch,  by 
 the  gradual  approximation  of  the  stones  which  form 
 the  sides.  Etruria  does  not  exhibit  any  specimens 
 of  the  mode  of  building  practised  in  the  treasuries  of 
 Atreus  and  Minyas,  in  which  the  walls  of  a  circular 
 building  converge  so  as  to  meet  at  ihe  top  in  the  form 
 of  a  beehive.  A  recent  traveller,  Delia  Marmora,  has 
 discovered  several  of  this  kind  in  the  island  of  Sar- 
 dinia. We  are  indebted  for  by  far  the  most  numerous 
 of  our  Etruscan  antiquities  to  the  care  with  which  this 
 people  provided  themselves  with  durable  places  of 
 sepulture,  and  their  custom  of  interring  with  the  body 
 various  articles  of  metal  and  of  clay.  To  the  opening 
 of  the  hypogea  of  Vollerra,  wc  owe  the  revival  of  this 
 branch  of  antiquarian  lore.  Some  of  these  repositories 
 belonged  to  ancient  towns,  whose  existence  might  have 
 been  unknown  but  for  the  necropolis  which  marks 
 their  vicinity.  Inghirami  has  given  an  interesting  ac- 
 count {Scr.  4)  of  two  of  these;  one  at  Castellaccio, 
 not  far  from  Viterbo,  the  other  at  Orchia,  about  four- 
 teen miles  to  the  southwest  of  that  city.  Castellaccio 
 was  the  Castellum  Axium  mentioned  by  Cicero  in  his 
 oration  for  Caecina  (c.  7),  the  site  of  which  Cluverius 
 declared  to  be  unknown.  The  traces  of  the  walls 
 themselves  arc  very  visible  in  the  large  oblong  blocks 
 of  pepcrino  joined  without  cement,  and  convex  out- 
 ward, in  the  usual  style  of  the  old  Etruscan  fortifica- 
 tions. The  steep  banks  of  the  stream,  being  composed 
 of  a  tufo  easily  wrought,  have  been  hewn  out  for 
 nearly  a  mile  into  grotto-sepulchres,  the  face  of  the 
 rock  being  cut  into  the  representation  of  a  doorway, 
 while  the  real  entrance  to  the  hypogeum  is  below,  and 
 closed  with  large  stones.  Examples  of  this  kind  of 
 sepulchre  are  found  in  Persia,  in  Palestine,  and  in 
 Asia  Minor  {WalpoWs  Memoirs,  vol.  1,  p.  231  ; 
 vol.  2,  p.  206,  524) ;  but  in  these  the  entrance  is  by 
 the  sculptured  portal,  which  in  the  Etrurian  sepul- 
 chres served  only  as  an  ornament.  The  architecture 
 of  these  tombs  is  evidently  of  an  age  when  the  Greek 
 enibellishments  had  become  known  in  Etruria ;  but 
 the  shortness  of  the  pillars,  the  length  of  the  inter- 
 columniation,  and  the  heaviness  of  the  upper  parts, 
 agree  very  well  with  the  character  which  Vitruvius 
 (3,  3)  gives  to  the  Tuscan  buildings,  "  Varica,  lari- 
 cephala  ct  humiles  et  lat(E.'"  As  time  has  not  spared 
 a  single  public  edifice  of  the  Etrurians,  it  is  only  by 
 means  of  their  sepulchres,  or  the  representations  of 
 their  buildings  in  pamtings  and  bas-reliefs,  that  we  can 
 
 judge  what  their  architecture  really  was ;  and  even  1  eie 
 we  find  very  few  traces  of  it.  {Midler,  Elruskcr, 
 vol.  2,  p.  24.)  It  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Doric,  and  not 
 properly  a  distinct  order;  whether  so  allied  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  affinity  of  the  Etrurians  and  Greeks,  or 
 borrowed  by  the  former,  and  varied  to  adapt  it  to  edifice.^ 
 of  wood,  as  theirs  commonly  were,  appears  doubtful. 
 Within  these  sepulchral  chambers  were  disposed  cin- 
 erary urns  of  stone,  sometimes  ranged  around  the  sides 
 on  the  ground  ;  sometimes  on  an  amphitheatre  of  steps ; 
 and  sometimes  in  niches,  like  the  Roman  columbaria. 
 Instances  of  bodies  interred  without  burnintr  are  very 
 rare.  The  urns  themselves  are  commonly  of  tufo  or 
 alabaster,  and  of  an  oblong  form,  about  two  feet  in 
 length,  and  of  the  same  height,  including  the  cover,  on 
 which  the  recumbent  figure  of  the  deceased  is  often 
 carved.  In  the  sepulchres  of  Yolterra,  urns  of  baked 
 earth  are  very  rare,  stone  being  there  abundant ;  in 
 those  of  Chusium  and  Montepulciano  they  are  com- 
 mon. The  urns  of  baked  clay  were  meant  to  contain 
 ashes,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  fictile 
 vases  which  are  very  commonly  found  in  the  Etrurian 
 sepulchres.  As  they  were  first  discovered  in  Etruria, 
 the  name  of  Etruscan  was  given  to  them,  and  contin- 
 ued to  be  used  after  it  was  known  that  they  were  found 
 more  abundantly  in  the  sepulchres  of  Magna  GrEEcia, 
 and  even  in  Attica  and  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean. 
 That  the  custom  of  depositing  them  in  sepulchres,  for 
 whatever  purpose,  was  common  to  Etruria  and  to  the 
 south  of  Italy,  is  certain  ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to 
 suppose  that  it  originated  in  Etruria,  or  that  those 
 which  are  found  in  Campanian  or  Sicilian  sepulchres 
 are  of  Etrurian  manufacture.  On  the  contrary,  it  i; 
 probable  that  those  found  in  Etruria  are  the  productioi''- 
 of  Greek  artists  ;  their  subject,  their  style  of  painting 
 and  design,  are  completely  Greek  ;  and  though  the 
 Etruscans  have  inscribed  every  other  work  of  art  with 
 their  own  characters,  no  painted  vase  has  yet  been 
 found  with  any  other  than  a  Greek  inscription.  The 
 single  exception  found  probably  at  Volterra,  and  men- 
 tioned by  Inghirami  {Ser.  5,  Tab.  55,  N.  8),  is  Greek 
 both  in  its  style  and  its  words.  The  ancients  fre- 
 quently celebrate  the  pottery  of  the  Etrurians,  but  do 
 not  attribute  to  them  any  particular  skill  in  painting 
 them.  The  vases  of  Arretium,  so  frequently  men- 
 tioned in  the  classics,  are  of  quite  a  difl^erent  kind 
 from  those  found  in  sepulchres  ;  fragments  of  them 
 abound  in  the  neighbourliood  of  Arezzo,  and  Inghira- 
 mi has  engraved  some  of  them.  They  are  of  very 
 fine  clay,  of  a  bright  red  colour,  and  with  figures  in 
 relief,  modelled  after  Greek  patterns  probably,  but 
 with  Latin  inscriptions.  Statues  of  the  gods  in  clay, 
 of  Tuscan  fabric,  were  the  chief  ornaments  of  the  Ro- 
 man temples  in  the  earliest  times.  {Juv.,  11,  115.) 
 Every  collection  of  antiquities  contains  specimens  of 
 what  are  called  Etruscan  patera,  very  generally  found 
 with  the  urns  and  vases  in  the  sepulchral  chambers. 
 They  are  shallow  disks  of  brass,  frequently  without 
 any  concavity,  but  bordered  by  a  rim  slightly  raised, 
 and  having  a  handle  of  the  same  metal.  On  the  disk 
 are  generally  engraved  scenes  of  mythological  and  he- 
 roic history,  with  legends  in  the  heroic  character  ;  a 
 circumstance  which  has  rendered  them  peculiarly  im- 
 portant to  the  antiquary  for  comparing  the  Etruscan 
 mythology  with  the  Greek.  It  seems  singular  that 
 the  name  of  patera  should  ever  have  been  applied  to 
 them  ;  far  from  being  suitable  for  drinking-vessels, 
 they  could  not  even  hold  the  small  quantity  of  wine 
 necesfary  for  a  libation  ;  and,  wherever  a  libation  is 
 represented  on  ancient  monuments,  it  is  performed 
 with  a  vessel,  comparatively  shallow,  indeed,  as  its 
 name  implies,  but  very  different  from  an  Etruscan  pa- 
 tera, and  always  without  a  handle,  except  in  some  un- 
 skilful restorations.  Inghirami,  who  has  published 
 two  series  of  these  antiquities,  contends  at  great  lengtt 
 against  the  common  name,  and  calls  them  specchi  m.s- 
 ^  621 
 
HETRURIA. 
 
 HETRURIA. 
 
 tici.  That  they  were  really  mirrors  we  have  little 
 doubt ;  Inghirami  easily  finds  a  mystical  meaning  for 
 everything  belonging  to  them.  The  metal  of  which 
 they  are  invariably  composed,  brass,  alludes  to  the  fir- 
 manient,  conceived  by  the  ancients  to  be  a  xi^'^'J^<^'''^C 
 6ij,  "  s|)read  out  like  a  molten  mirror"'  (Jt/i,  xxvii  ,  18); 
 their  circular  form  to  the  perfection  of  which  this  fig- 
 ure is  an  emblem.  If  they  had  happened  to  be  oval, 
 he  would  still  have  been  at  no  loss,  for  he  explains  the 
 usually  elliptical  forms  of  the  fictile  vases  as  alluding 
 to  that  deterioration  of  its  nature  which  the  soul  un- 
 dergoes when  it  enters  into  union  with  the  body.  As 
 many  articles  of  female  ornament  have  been  found  in 
 sepulchres — fibulae,  hair-bodkins,  collars,  bracelets 
 it  is  an  obvious  conjecture,  that  the  mirrors  were  a 
 real  part  of  the  toilet  of  the  deceased,  consigned  to  the 
 same  grave  with  her  ;  on  the  principle  that  what  was 
 most  used  and  valued  in  life  should  be  the  companion 
 in  death.  Yet  to  this  supposition  it  is  an  objection, 
 that  the  slight  convexity  which  some  of  them  have  is 
 on  the  polished  side,  a  circumstance  which,  as  it  would 
 interfere  with  their  use  as  real  mirrors,  suggests  that 
 they  may  have  been  emblematical  of  the  sacerdotal  of- 
 fice borne  by  the  female  with  whom  they  were  interred. 
 
 Etrurian  Language  and  Literature. 
 The  literature  of  the  Etrurians  presents  the  singu- 
 lar phenomenon  of  an  alphabet  perfectly  deciphered, 
 along  with  a  language  completely  unintelligible.  Such 
 a  combination  is  so  strange,  that  we  find  more  than 
 one  writer  alleging  that  the  language  is  Greek,  and  ap- 
 pealing in  proof  to  the  alphabet,  without  suspecting 
 the  want  of  connexion  between  premises  and  conclu- 
 sions. When  the  Eugubine  tables  were  discovered  in 
 1444,  they  were  supposed  to  be  in  the  Egyptian  char- 
 acter ;  Reinesius  suspected  them  to  be  Punic  ;  and. 
 though  they  gradually  acquired  the  name  of  Etruscan, 
 the  real  force  of  the  letters  was  not  discovered  till 
 1732,  when  Bourguet  ascertained  it  by  comparing  the 
 two  tables  which  are  in  the  Latin  character  with  one 
 in  the  Etruscan,  which  he  had  happily  divined  to  be 
 nearly  equivalent  in  sense.  Gori,  a  few  years  later, 
 published  his  alphabet,  which,  in  all  important  points, 
 has  been  confirmed  by  subsequent  inquiries:  the  great 
 improvement  made  in  it  by  Lanzi  was,  that  he  detect- 
 ed a  2  in  the  letter  M,  which  till  then  had  been  taken 
 for  an  m.  The  principles  of  Greek  paleography  have 
 been  lately  established,  on  a  more  solid  basis  than  be- 
 fore, by  Bockh  ;  and  by  the  help  of  these  and  the  la- 
 bours of  his  predecessors,  Miiller  has  arrived  at  the 
 conclusion,  that  the  Etruscan  alphabet  has  not  been 
 derived  immediately  from  the  Phosnicians,  but  from 
 the  Greeks.  Very  few  forms  occur  in  it  which  are 
 not  found  in  the  early  Greek  inscriptions  :  while,  on 
 the  other  hand,  it  does  not  contain  some  of  those  which 
 the  Greeks  retained  a  considerable  time  after  they  re- 
 ceived them  from  the  Phoenicians  ;  and,  again,  the 
 Etruscans  have  some  letters  which  the  Greeks  added 
 to  their  Phoenician  alphabet.  Other  Etruscan  letters 
 have  never  yet  been  found  in  any  Greek  inscription, 
 so  that  it  is  impossible  to  point  out  any  specific  age  or 
 form  of  the  Greek  alphabet  which  the  Etruscans  may 
 be  supposed  to  have  adopted  once  for  all.  The  Phry- 
 gian inscription  from  the  tomb  of  Midas  {^Walpolc,  vol. 
 2,  p.  207)  bears  no  closer  resemblance  to  the  Etruscan 
 than  other  very  old  Greek  inscriptions :  in  the  Carian 
 inscription  {lb.,  p.  530)  there  are  many  letters  which 
 differ  from  the  Etruscan.  The  letters  B,  F,  A  do  not 
 appear  to  have  had  any  corresponding  sounds  in  the 
 Etruscan  language,  and  the  first  and  last  never  occur. 
 r  is  found  in  the  form  C,  in  which  it  appears  on  the 
 coins  of  Magna  Graecia.  The  digamma  F  occurs  both 
 in  this  form  and  in  that  of  3,  which  is  found  in  Greek 
 inscriptions  and  on  coins  ;  they  had  also  for  the  same 
 sound  the  character  8,  for  which  a  circular  square  with 
 crossing  lines  is  also  used,  as  in  the  oldest  Greek  in- 
 623 
 
 scriptions.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  Etruscan  F,  in 
 proper  names,  always  answers  to  the  Latin  V,  as  Fiii 
 to  Vibius,  Felethri  to  Volaterra,  Menarfe  to  Minerva  ; 
 whence  Miiller  (vol.  2,  p.  300)  takes  occasion  to  dis- 
 pute the  opinion  of  Bishop  Marsh,  that  the  Latin  F  rep- 
 resented the  digainina,  observing  that  it  is  only  before 
 R  that  the  digamma  becomes  F.  The  same  charac- 
 ter was  also  used  for  H  and  Th.  So  that  there  seems 
 in  fact  to  have  been  one  letter  for  the  labial,  dental, 
 and  guttural  aspirate.  The  vowel  O  appears  to  have 
 been  unknown  to  the  Tuscan  language  ;  for  Q  they 
 used  chf  and  cf.  Of  the  Greek  forms  V  and  Y,  which 
 both  occur  on  early  monuments,  they  have  chiefly  used 
 the  former,  but  not  exclusively,  f^or  X  they  have  the 
 form  which  is  frequent  in  Boeotian  inscri[itions,  resem- 
 bling an  inverted  anchor  ;  for  S  a  double  cross  ;  i', 
 Z,  and  the  long  vowels  H  and  i2,  are  unknown  to  their 
 alphabet.  With  very  few  excej)tions,  their  writing  is 
 from  right  to  left ;  and  as  this  mode  had  been  depart- 
 ed from  by  the  Greeks  in  their  earliest  extant  inscrip- 
 tions, which  may,  perhaps,  ascend  to  the  fortieth  Olym- 
 piad (620  B.C.),  it  seems  reasonable  to  admit  that  the 
 introduction  of  writing  into  Elruria  was  something  ear- 
 lier. Demaratus,  who  is  said  to  have  brought  both 
 painting  and  letters  from  Corinth,  if  really  expelled  by 
 Cypselus,  must  have  lived  about  the  thirtieth  Olympiad. 
 A  more  recent  character,  which  is  commonly  found  in 
 sepulchral  inscriptions,  seems  to  have  been  introduced 
 about  the  end  of  the  third  century  after  the  building  of 
 Rome  ;  at  which  lime,  according  to  Miiller  (vol.  2,  p. 
 301),  the  Latin  alphabet  was  also  formed  ;  but  from 
 the  Greek,  not  from  the  Etruscan.  The  Umbrians  ap- 
 pear to  have  adopted  the  Etruscan  alphabet,  though 
 their  language  was  essentially-  different,  and  more  re- 
 sembling the  Oscan  than  the  Latin.  The  Oscan  al- 
 phabet also  appears  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the 
 Etruscan,  not  immediately  from  the  Greek.  It  is  dil- 
 ficult  to  say  when  the  Etruscan  character  fell  into  en- 
 tire disuse  ;  the  style  of  ornament  on  some  of  the  urns 
 on  which  it  is  found  refers  them  to  the  times  of  the 
 Roman  empire.  The  language  of  Etruria  never  hav- 
 ing been  polished  by  the  influence  of  literature  (for  its 
 histories  were  probably  mere  chronicles,  and  its  theo- 
 logical writings,  liturgies  and  manuals  of  a  gloomy  su- 
 perstition), remained  harsh  to  the  ear  and  uncouth  to 
 the  eye.  Such  combinations  of  letters  as  aplc,  srancxl, 
 thunchidthl  {Miiller,  vol.  2,  p.  288),  can  scarcely  have 
 been  pronounced  at  all  without  the  intervention  of  a 
 short  vowel,  after  the  manner  of  the  Oriental  langua- 
 ges. In  regard  to  the  interpretation  of  the  language, 
 it  must  be  acknowledged,  that  all  the  labour  which  has 
 hitherto  been  bestowed  upon  it,  though  valuable  for  its 
 collateral  results,  has  been  nearly  fruitless  in  respect 
 to  its  direct  object.  When  Lanzi,  abandoning  the  for- 
 mer method  of  Oriental  and  Northern  etymology,  en- 
 deavoured to  explain  the  Etruscan  from  the  Pelasgic, 
 it  was  natural  to  expect  a  more  favourable  issue  :  a 
 close  affinity,  if  not  identity,  of  the  two  nations,  was 
 maintained  by  many  of  the  ancients,  and  the  alphabets 
 were  visibly  the  same.  For  many  years  after  the  ap- 
 pearance of  his  Saggio  di  Lingua  Etrusca  (3  vols. 
 8vo,  1789),  his  explanations  were  generally  acquiesced 
 in,  and  made  the  basis  of  other  etymological  specula- 
 tions. But,  when  time  had  been  given  for  examina- 
 tion, it  could  not  but  be  perceived  that  his  modes  of 
 proceeding  were  too  arbitrary  to  warrant  confidence  ; 
 that  he  could  produce  no  evidence  of  the  actual  exist- 
 ence of  many  of  the  words  and  forms  which  he  sup- 
 posed to  be  Greek,  in  order  to  identify  them  with  the 
 Etruscan  ;  and  that  other  monuments,  discovered  since 
 his  time,  could  not  be  in  any  way  explained  by  his  sys 
 tem.  Niebuhr,  in  his  Roman  history,  avers  that,  among 
 all  the  Etruscan  words  of  which  explanations  have  been 
 pretended,  only  two,  avil  ril  ("  vixit  annas'"),  seem  to 
 have  been  really  explained  ;  and  of  these  Miiller  as- 
 sures us  (vol.  1,  p.  64),  and  apparently  with  goad  rea- 
 
HIE 
 
 HIE 
 
 •on,  that  avil  ("  (Evum")  signifies,  not  vixit,  but  atatis. 
 Miiller's  observations  on  this  subject  are  particularly 
 deserving  of  attention  at  the  present  moment,  when 
 extravagant  expectations  appear  to  be  entertained  of 
 the  enlargement  of  our  historical  knowledge  by  the 
 comparison  of  languages.  "  We  might  give  much 
 ampler  information,  if,  after  Lanzi's  method,  we  sought 
 in  the  monuments  of  the  Etruscan  language  for  single 
 sounds  resembling  the  Greek  and  Latin  ;  and,  per- 
 suaded that  similar  sounds  must  have  a  similar  mean- 
 ing, endeavoured  to  explain  all  that  could  not  be 
 brought  to  agree  by  an  arbitrary  prosthesis,  epenthe- 
 sis,  paragoge,  and  similar  cheap  expedients.  With- 
 out blaming  the  learned  Italian,  in  whose  time  the 
 most  eminent  literati  had  very  confused  ideas  of  the 
 formation  of  language,  we  may  maintain  that  his  lead- 
 ing principle,  that  analogy  is  the  character  only  of 
 cultivated  languages,  and  that  the  ruder  any  lan- 
 guage is,  the  greater  liberty  might  be  taken  in  the 
 use  of  it,  is  entirely  false.  This  may  justify  us  for 
 having  paid  so  little  regard  to  etymologies,  which,  as 
 they  are  arbitrary  in  themselves,  suppose  an  arbitrary 
 character  in  the  language  to  which  they  are  applied. 
 If  we  use  only  genuine  monuments,  and  require  a 
 certain  evidence  for  every  explanation  of  a  root  or  a 
 grammatical  form,  our  apparent  knowledge  of  the 
 Etruscan  language  shrinks  almost  to  nothing.  It  is 
 not  probable  that  the  application  of  the  still  existing 
 remains  of  the  languages  of  the  north  and  northwest 
 of  Europe  should  have  those  beneficial  results  for  our 
 knowledge  of  the  Etruscan  which  some  appear  to  an- 
 ticipate. The  Germans  and  Celts  are  originally  di- 
 vided from  the  nations  on  the  Mediterranean  by  their 
 locality  in  a  very  marked  manner  ;  they  onlv  gradually 
 approach  these  and  come  into  collision  with  them  ; 
 and,  even  though  the  languages  of  both  nations  may 
 belong  to  that  great  family  which,  from  lime  immemo- 
 rial, has  diffused  itself  through  Europe  and  Asia,  yet 
 they  have  distinct  peculiarities,  which  we  have  no 
 reason  to  believe  are  found  in  those  of  Italy.  The 
 <"undamental  and  indelible  characteristic  of  the  Celtic 
 .anguages  seems  to  be,  that  they  mark  grammatical 
 forms  by  aspirations  and  other  changes  of  the  mitial 
 consonants  ;  a  thing  not  practised  in  any  other  Euro- 
 pean language,  but  found  in  all  branches  of  the  Celtic, 
 Welsh,  Cornish,  GkHc,  Irish,  and  Bas  Breton.  This 
 mutability  of  the  consonants  is  a  circumstance  which 
 must  be  perceptible,  even  in  a  small  number  of  writ- 
 ten remains,  and  which  could  not  well  have  escaped 
 us  had  the  Etruscan  been  the  Celtic.  The  Iberian 
 family,  once  widely  diffused  on  the  shores  of  the  Med- 
 iterranean, may  have  dwelt  in  close  vicinity  to  the 
 Etruscans  ;  but  the  remains  of  its  language  in  the 
 Basque  are  completely  different  from  those  of  the  rest 
 of  Europe,  and  its  grammar  shovifs  so  little  affinity  with 
 what  we  know  of  the  Etruscan  as  to  afford  very  slight 
 support  to  the  opinion  of  the  affinity  of  the  two  nations. 
 What  may  have  been  the  relation  of  the  Tuscan  to  the 
 extinct  Ligurian,  or  to  the  language  of  those  Alpine 
 tribes  whose  names  alone  are  preserved  in  history,  is 
 a  question  respecting  which  we  have  not  even  a  glim- 
 mering of  knowledge."  {Midler,  Efrusker,  \o\.  1,  p. 
 64,  scqq.— Edinburgh  Review,  vol.  50,  p.  372-396.) 
 HiBERNiA.      Vid.  lerne. 
 
 HiEUAPoi.is,  I.  a  city  of  Syria  near  the  Euphrates, 
 south  of  Zeugma.  It  derived  its  Greek  name  {Holy 
 City)  from  the  circumstance  of  the  Syrian  goddess 
 Atergatis  being  worshipped  there.  By  the  Syrians  it 
 was  called  Bambyce  or  Mabog.  With  the  introduc- 
 tion of  Christianity,  its  reputation  and  prosperity  of 
 course  declined.  Constantino,  it  is  true,  made  it  the 
 capital  of  the  newly-erected  province  of  Euphratesia- 
 but  this  proved  of  little  avail.  It  suffered  much  du- 
 ring subsequent  reigns  from  the  inroads  of  the  Per- 
 sians. It  is  now  Mamhedsch  or  Bambig,  a  deserted 
 phce,  with  many  parts  of  the  ancient  wall  standing. 
 
 {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  pt.  1,  p.  510.) — II.  A  city 
 in  the  southwestern  angle  of  Phrygia,  near  the  confines 
 of  Lydia,  and  northwest  of  Laodicea.  This  city  waa 
 celebrated  for  its  warm  springs.  (Strabo,  629. — Dio 
 Cass.,  68,  27.—Plmy,  5,  32.)  The  waters  of  Hier- 
 apolis  were  remarkable  for  their  petrifying  or  sialac- 
 tital  properties,  and  Chandler  affirms,  that  a  cliff  near 
 the  ancient  town  was  one  entire  incrustation.  {Trav- 
 els in  Asia  Minor,  p.  287.)  Besides  this  singular 
 property,  the  waters  of  this  town  possessed,  in  a  re- 
 markable degree,  that  of  serving  for  the  purposes  of 
 the  dyer.  {Strabo,  630.)  It  is  now  called  by  the 
 Turks  Pambuk-Kalassi,  or  the  Castle  of  Cotton,  be- 
 cause the  neighbouring  rocks  resemble  that  substance 
 in  their  whiteness,  a  colour  produced  by  the  stalactita! 
 incrustations  already  alluded  to.  {Chandler,  p.  290. 
 —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  37,  seq.) 
 
 HiERicHiia  (gen.  -unlis ;  in  Greek  'lepixov^,  gen 
 -ovvTo^.)     Vid.  Jericho. 
 
 HiERo,  I.  succeeded   his  brother  Gelon,  as  tyrant 
 or  ruler  of  Syracuse,  B.C.  478.     He  committed  many 
 acts  of  violence,  encouraged  spies,  and  kept  a  merce- 
 nary guard  around  his  person.     He  was  ambitious  of 
 extending  his  dominion,  and  his  attempts  proved  suc- 
 cessful.    After  the  death  of  Theron,  prince  of  Agri- 
 genlum,  Hiero  defeated  his  son  Thrasydaeus,  who  was 
 soon   after   expelled   by   his    countrymen.      He   took 
 Naxus  and  Catana,  and,  having  driven  away  the  in- 
 habitants from  both  towns,  he  replaced  them  by  Syra- 
 cusan  and  Peloponnesian  colonists.     He  changed  the 
 name  of  Catana  to  -Etna,  and  he  himself  assumed  the 
 title  of  ^Etna3U3  {KhvaloQ).     Having  joined  his  fleet 
 to  that  of  the  people  of  Cuma;,  he  succeeded  in  clear- 
 ing the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  of  the  Etruscan  and  other  pi- 
 rates who   infested   it.     His  chariots  repeatedly  won 
 the  prize  at  the  Olympic  games,  and  his  success  on 
 those  occasions  formed  the  theme  of  some  of  the  odes 
 of  Pindar,  who  was  his  guest  and  friend.     .^Eschylus, 
 Simonides,    Bacchylides,  and  Epicharmus  were  also 
 well  received  at  the  court  of  Hiero,  who  was  fond  oi 
 the  society  of  learned  men.     Hiero  died  at  Catana, 
 B.C.  476,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Thrasy- 
 bulus,  who  had  all  his  faults  without  any  of  his  good 
 qualities,  and  was  at  last  driven  away  by  the  Syracu- 
 sans,  who  restored  the  government  to  the  common- 
 wealth.    {Diod.    Sic.,    11,   48,   seqq.)     .Elian    gives 
 Hiero  credit  for  a  much  better  character  than  Diodo- 
 rus  ;   probably  because  the  latter  part   of  his   reign, 
 after  he  had  firmly  established  his  authority,  was  better 
 than  the   commencement.     {.Elian,  9,   1.) — H.  The 
 second  of  the  name,  son  of  Hierocles,  a  wealty  citizen 
 of  Svracuse,  and  a  descendant  of  Gelon,  distinguish- 
 ed himse'.f  in  early  life  by  his  brilliant  qualities,  and 
 served  with  distinction  also  under  Pyrrhus  in  his  Si- 
 cilian campaigns.      After  Pyrrhus  had  suddenly  aban- 
 doned Sicily,  the  Syracusans  found  themselves  threat- 
 ened on  one   side  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  on  the 
 other  by  the  Mamertines,  a  band  of  Campanian  mer- 
 cenaries, who  had  treacherously  taken  possession  of 
 Messana.     The  Syracusan  troops,  being  in  want  of  a 
 trusty   leader,  chose   Hiero  by   acclamation,  and  the 
 senate   and   citizens,  after   some  demur,   ratified  the 
 choice,  B.C.  275.      After  various  successful  operations 
 against  the  Mamertines,  Hiero  returned  to  Syracuse, 
 where,  through  the  influence  of  Leptines,  his  father-in- 
 law,  a  leading  man  among  the  aristocratic  party,  ho 
 was  proclaimed   king,   B.C.  270.     Shortly  after,  the 
 Mamertines  at  Messana  quarrelled  with  the  Oartna- 
 (Tinians,  who  had  managed  to  introduce  a  garrison  into 
 the  citadel,  and  drove  them  out,  upon  which  the  tartna- 
 ginians  invited  Hiero  to  join  his  forces  to  theirs    m 
 order  to  drive  the  Mamertines  out  of  Sicily.     Hiero 
 having  assented,  encamped  under  the  walls  of  Messana 
 on  one  side,  and  the  Carthaginians  ^^^d   'heir  camp 
 on  the  other,  while  their  squadron  ?"^[fd  the  strait 
 The  Mamertines,  meanwhile,  had  applied  to  the  Romans 
 
HIE 
 
 HIE 
 
 for  assistance,  claiming  a  common  origin  with  them, 
 as  being  descended  from  Mars,  called  Mamers  or  Ma- 
 mertus  in  the  Oscan  language ;  and  Rome  eagerly 
 seized  this  opportunity  of  obtaining  a  footing  in  Sicily. 
 The  consul  Appius  Claudius  marched  to  Rhegium, 
 and,  having  contrived  to  pass  the  strait  in  the  night  un- 
 observed by  the  Carthaginian  cruisers,  he  surprised 
 Hiero's  camp,  routed  the  soldiers,  and  obliged  the 
 monarch  himself  to  seek  safety  in  flight.  The  consul 
 next  attacked  the  Carthaginian  camp  with  the  same 
 success,  and  this  was  the  beginning  of  the  first  Punic 
 War,  265  B.C.  In  the  following  year  the  Romans 
 took  Tauromenium  and  Catana,  and  advanced  to  the 
 walls  of  Syracuse,  when  Hiero  sued  for  peace,  which 
 he  obtained  on  condition  of  paying  100  talents  of  silver, 
 and  supplying  the  Roman  army  with  provisions.  He 
 punctually  fulfilled  his  engagements,  remaining  faithful 
 to  Rome  during  the  whole  of  the  war,  and  by  his  sup- 
 plies was  of  great  service  to  the  Roman  armies,  espe- 
 cially during  the  long  sieges  of  Agrigentum  and  Lilyboe- 
 um.  Hiero  was  included  in  the  peace  between  Rome 
 and  Carthage,  by  which  his  territories  were  secured  to 
 him,  and  he  remained  in  friendship  with  both  states. 
 He  even  assisted  Carthage  at  a  very  critical  moment, 
 by  sending  her  supplies  of  provisions  during  the  war 
 which  she  had  to  sustain  againsi  ner  .nercenaries. 
 The  period  of  peace  which  elapsed  between  the  end  of 
 the  first  and  the  beginning  of  the  second  Punic  wars, 
 from  241  to  218  B.C  ,  was  most  glorious  for  Hiero, 
 and  most  prosperous  for  Syracuse.  Commerce  and 
 agriculture  flourished,  and  wealth  and  population  in- 
 creased to  an  e.\traordinary  degree.  Hiero  paid  par- 
 ticular attention  to  the  administration  of  the  finances, 
 and  made  wise  regulations  for  the  collection  of  the 
 tithe  or  tax  on  land,  which  remained  in  force  through- 
 out Sicily  long  after  his  time,  and  are  mentioned  with 
 praise  by  Cicero  as  the  Lex  Hteronica.  {Cic.  in 
 Verr.,  2  et  3.)  Hiero  introduced  the  custom  of  letting 
 the  tax  to  farm  every  year  by  auction.  He  embel- 
 lished and  strengthened  Syracuse,  and  built  large 
 ships,  one  of  which,  if  we  are  to  trust  the  account 
 given  of  it  by  Athenaeus  (5,  p.  206),  was  of  most  extra- 
 ordinary dimensions  and  magnificence.  This  ship  he 
 sent  as  a  present  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  Archim- 
 edes lived  under  Hiero's  reign.  When  the  second 
 Punic  war  broke  out,  Hiero  continued  true  to  his  Ro- 
 man alliance,  and,  after  the  Trasymenian  defeat,  he 
 sent  a  fleet  to  Ostia  with  provisions  and  other  gifts, 
 and  a  body  of  light  troops  to  the  assistance  of  Rome. 
 He  lived  to  see  the  battle  of  Cannos,  after  which  his 
 son  Gelon  embraced  the  part  of  the  Carthaginians. 
 Gelon,  however,  died,  not  without  suspicion  of  vio- 
 lence, and  Hiero  himself,  being  past  ninety  years  of 
 age,  ended  his  days  soon  after  (B.C.  216),  leaving  the 
 crown  to  his  grandson  Hieronyinus.  With  Hiero  the 
 prosperity  and  independence  of  Syracuse  may  be  said 
 to  have  expired.  (Liv.,  lib.  22  et  23 — Polyh.,  lib. 
 I.—Encyd.  Us.  Knowl,  vol.  12,  p.  195.) 
 
 HiKRocLEs,  I.  a  rhetorician  of  Alabanda,  in  Caria, 
 who  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  before 
 the  Christian  era.  He  excelled  in  what  Cicero  termed 
 the  Asiatic  style  of  eloquence.  {Cic,  de  Orat.,  2, 
 23. — Id.,  Brut  ,  c.  95.) — H.  A  lawyer,  who  wrote  a 
 work  on  veterinary  medicine,  addressed  to  Cassianus 
 Bassus,  of  which  three  chapters  are  preserved  in  the 
 sixteenth  book  of  the  "  Geoponica."  {Vid.  Geoponi- 
 ca.) — HI.  Surnamcd  the  grammarian,  for  distinction' 
 sake  from  the  philosopher  of  the  same  name,  a  Greek 
 writer  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Jus- 
 tinian, but  of  whom  one  thing  at  least  is  certain,  that 
 he  was  anterior  to  the  tenth  century.  He  composed, 
 under  the  title  of  2i'i'f'/c(5;?//of  ("  Travelling  Compan- 
 ion"), a  description  of  the  sixty- four  provinces  that 
 formed  the  Byzantine  empire,  and  of  the  nine  hundred 
 and  thirty-five  cities  situate  in  them.  The  best  edi- 
 tion is  that  of  Wcsseling,  in  the  Itineraria  Veterum 
 624 
 
 Rom.,  Amst.,  1735,  4to. — IV.  A  new  Platonisl,  who 
 flourished  at  Alcxandrea  about  the  middle  of  the  tifih 
 century.  He  has  left  us  a  commmiary  "  on  the  Gold- 
 en Verses  of  Pythagoras,"  and  a  treatise  "on  I'rovi- 
 dence,  Destiny,  and  Free-will."  The  end  of  Hiero- 
 cles  is  to  show  the  agreement  which  exists  in  respect 
 of  these  doctrines  between  Plato  and  Aristotle  ;  to  re- 
 fute the  systems  of  Epicurus  and  the  Stoics  ;  to  con- 
 found those  who  pretend  to  read  the  decrees  of  destiny 
 in  the  nativities  of  men,  or  who  believe  that  the  deter- 
 minations of  Providence  may  be  influenced  by  en- 
 chantments or  mystic  ceremonies;  those,  in  fine,  who 
 have  the  misfortune  to  deny  an  existing  Providence. 
 We  have  only  extracts  from  this  latter  work  made  by 
 Photius,  and  an  abridgement  by  an  unknown  hand. 
 Stoba;us  has  preserved  for  un  some  fragments  of  a 
 work  of  Hierocles  on  the  worship  of  the  gods  (IIwc 
 Tolg  QeoIc  xp^f^^iov),  or,  rather,  a  chapter  belonging  to 
 some  large  work  which  treated  of  various  points  of 
 ethics.  The  same  Stobsus  has  preserved  fragments 
 of  other  productions  of  Hierocles,  "  On  Justice,"  "On 
 the  Conduct  due  towards  Parents,"  "On  Marrriagc," 
 "  On  Fraternal  Love,"  &c.  There  exists  also,  un- 
 der the  name  of  Hierocles,  a  collection  of  insipid 
 Facetiffi  {'AoTeia),  containing  an  account  of  the  ridic- 
 ulous actions  and  sayings  of  book-learned  men  and 
 pedants.  In  all  likelihood,  however,  it  was  written  by 
 some  other  individual  of  the  same  name,  and  not  by 
 the  philosopher  — The  best  edition  of  the  Commentary 
 on  the  Golden  Verses,  and  of  the  Fragments,  6cc.,  is 
 that  of  Needham,  Lond ,  1709,  8vo.  The  editor, 
 however,  has  made  some  rash  emendations,  which  di- 
 minish the  value  of  the  work.  The  edition  of  Pearson, 
 Lond.,  1654,  8vo,  is  also  a  very  good  one.  The  best 
 separate  edition  of  the  Commentary  is  that  of  Ashton 
 and  Warren,  Lond.,  1742,  8vo,  and  of  the  Face/icB, 
 that  of  Schier,  Lrps.,  1750-1768.  8vo.— V.  A  prefect 
 of  Bithynia,  and  afterward  of  .'\lexandrea,  who  is  said 
 by  Lactantius  to  have  been  the  principal  adviser  of  the 
 persecution  of  the  Christians  in  the  reign  of  Diode- 
 sian.  (Lactanf.,  Inst.  Div,,  5.  2. — Id  ,  de  Morte  Per- 
 scc,  c.  17.)  He  also  wrote  two  works  against  Chris- 
 tianity, entitled  \dyoL  (!)i?MAj/6cig  irpbc  roi'f  XpioTia- 
 voi'c  ("  Tntth-loving'  words  to  the  ChristiaTis^'),  in 
 which,  according  to  Lactantius,  he  endeavoured  to 
 show  that  the  Scriptures  overthrow  themselves  by  the 
 contradictions  with  which  they  abound  He  also  re- 
 viled Paul,  and  Peter,  and  the  other  disciples,  as  piop- 
 agators  of  falsehood.  He  endeavoured  to  destroy  the 
 effect  of  our  Saviour's  nriracles,  though  he  did  not 
 deny  the  truth  of  them  ;  and  he  aimed  to  show,  that 
 like  things,  or  even  greater,  had  been  done  by  Apollo- 
 nius  of  Tyana.     {Lac/ant.,  Inst.  Div.,  5,  2,  seq.) 
 
 HiERONiCA  Lex.      Vid.  Hiero  II. 
 
 HiERONYMUs,  I.  grandson  of  Hiero  II.,  monarch  of 
 Syracuse,  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  at  the  age 
 of  fifteen  (B.C.  216).  He  was  left  by  Hiero  under 
 the  guardianship  of  several  individuals,  among  whom 
 was  Andronorns,  his  aunt's  husband,  who,  seconded 
 by  other  courtiers,  and  with  the  view  of  monopolizing 
 the  confidence  of  the  young  king,  indulged  hnn  in  all 
 his  caprices  and  follies.  The  court  of  Syracuse, 
 which,  under  Hiero,  was  orderly  and  respectable,  soon 
 became  as  profligate  as  it  had  been  under  the  youn- 
 ger Dionysius.  Andronorus  persuaded  Hieronymus, 
 against  the  dying  injunctions  of  his  grandfather,  to  for- 
 sake the  Roman  alliance  for  that  of  Carthage,  and 
 messengers  for  that  purpose  were  sent  to  Hannibal  in 
 Italy,  and  also  to  the  senate  of  Carthage,  which  gladly 
 agreed  to  an  alliance  with  Syracuse,  in  order  to  eifect 
 a  diversion  against  the  Romans.  War  being  at  length 
 declared  by  Rome,  Hieronymus  took  the  field  with 
 15.000  men  ;  but  a  conspiracy  broke  out  among  the 
 soldiers,  and  he  was  murdered  after  a  reign  of  about 
 thirteen  months.  On  the  news  of  this,  a  popular  n- 
 snrrection  took  place  at  Syracuse  ;  the  daughters  and 
 
HIERONYMUS. 
 
 HIERONYMUS. 
 
 grand-daughters  of  Hiero  were  murdered,  and  royalty 
 was  abolished.  But  the  people  were  distracted  by  fac- 
 tions, and  by  the  mercenaries  in  their  pay,  and  revo- 
 lution succeeded  revolution,  until  two  adventurers  of 
 Syracusan  extraction,  but  natives  of  Carthage,  wlio 
 had  been  sent  by  Hannibal  to  keep  in  countenance  the 
 Carthaginian  party  in  Syracuse,  became  possessed  of 
 the  chief  power,  and  so  provoked  the  Roman  com- 
 mander Marcellus  that  he  laid  siege  to  and  took  Syr- 
 acuse. (^Vid.  SyracusoB. — Dwd.Sic.,fragtn.,  lib.  26, 
 vol.  9,  p.  369,  ed.  Bip.  —  Liv.,2i,A.—ld.,  24,  7, 
 sfgq.) — II.  A  native  of  Cardia,  in  the  Thracian  Cher- 
 sonese. He  was  one  of  the  companions  of  Alexander 
 the  Great,  and  afier  his  death  attached  himself  to  Eu- 
 menes.  Made  prisoner  in  the  battle  in  which  that 
 chieftain  was  betrayed  by  his  own  followers,  he  was 
 kindly  treated  by  Antigonus,  and  entered  into  his  ser- 
 vice. This  prince  intrusted  him  with  the  government 
 of  Ccelesyria  and  Phoenicia,  and  charged  him  with  an 
 expedition,  the  object  of  which  was  to  seize  upon  the 
 country  around  the  Lake  Asphaltites.  The  expedition 
 did  not  succeed,  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  neigh- 
 bouring Arabs,  who  supported  themselves  by  vending 
 the  bitumen  obtained  from  the  lake.  After  the  defeat 
 of  Antigonus  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  and  his  death, 
 Hieronymus  remained  faithful  to  his  son  Demetrius. 
 At  a  later  period  he  entered  into  the  service  of  Pyr- 
 rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  and  accompanied  him  in  his  Ital- 
 ian campaign.  He  survived  this  prince,  and  attained 
 the  age  of  104  years.  The  principal  work  of  Hieron- 
 ymus, and  that  on  which  his  reputation  was  founded, 
 was  entitled  'laropiKu  'T7^o^^7///ara  ("  Historic  Me- 
 moirs"). In  this  production  he  developed  the  move- 
 ments which  followed  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  ca- 
 bals and  jealousies  of  the  principal  officers,  the  bloody 
 wars  to  which  their  ambitious  views  gave  rise,  the  de- 
 struction of  the  royal  house  of  Macedonia,  and  the 
 birth  of  the  new  monarchies  which  dismembered  the 
 empire  of  Alexander.  The  ancients,  however,  ac- 
 cused him  of  having  been  influenced  too  much  by  the 
 hatred  he  bore  to  Seleucus,  Cassander,  Ptolemy,  but 
 above  all  to  Lysimachus,  by  whose  orders  Cardia,  his 
 native  city,  had  been  destroyed.  They  charge  him 
 also  with  partiality  towards  Eumenes,  Antigonus,  and 
 Pyrrhus.  A  particular  worthy  of  remark,  and  one 
 which  makes  us  regret  more  earnestly  the  loss  of  Plie- 
 ronymus's  work,  is,  that  he  is  the  first  Greek  writer 
 who  entered  into  any  details  on  the  origin  and  antiqui- 
 ties of  Rome  ;  the  war  of  Pyrrhus  with  the  republic 
 afforded  him  probably  an  occasion  for  this.  Diodorus 
 Sicuius  derived  considerable  aid  from  the  commenta- 
 ries of  Hieronymus,  as  did  Plutarch  also  in  his  life  of 
 Eumenes  (Consult  Rcchcrchcs  sur  la  vie  cL  sur  Ics 
 outrages  dc  Jerome  dc  Cardie,  par  VAlbi  Scvin. — 
 Mem  dc  VAcad.  des  laser.,  &c.,  vol.  18,  p.  20. — 
 Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3.  p.  204,  seqq.)—\\\.  A 
 peripatetic  philosopher,  born  in  the  island  of  Rhodes, 
 towards  the  close  of  the  third  century  B.C.  Cicero 
 praises  his  ability,  but  doubts  the  propriety  of  his 
 being  ranked  under  the  peripatetic  sect,  since  he 
 placed  the  .lummum  honum  in  freedom  from  painful 
 emotion,  a  doctrine  belonging  to  the  Epicurean  school. 
 (Cic,  dc  Fin.,  5,  5.)— IV.  A  celebrated  father  of  the 
 church,  better  known  by  the  English  form  of  his  name, 
 St.  Jicoine,  and  accounted  the  most  learned  of  all  the 
 Ijatii-i  .""alhers.  He  was  born  of  Christian  parents, 
 A.D.  331,  on  the  confines  of  Pannonia  and  Dalmatia, 
 at  the  town  of  Stridon  or  Stridonium.  His  father, 
 who  was  a  man  of  rank  and  property,  sent  him  to 
 Rome  for  education,  where  he  was  placed  under  the 
 grammarian  Donatus,  known  for  his  commentaries  upon 
 Virgil  and  Terence.  He  had  also  masters  in  rhetoric, 
 Hebrew,  and  divinity,  in  which  he  made  a  great  prog- 
 ress. After  travelling  through  France  and  Italy,  he 
 gave  up  friends  and  worldly  pursuits  to  seek  retirement 
 in  the  East,  and  eventuallv  reached  Jerusalem,  whence 
 4K 
 
 he  proceeded  to  Antioch.     Here  he  endured  a  severe 
 attack  of  illness,  on  his  recovery  from  which  he  wan- 
 dered through  several  towns  and  districts  in  search  of 
 a  retreat  to  his  mind,  which  he  found  in  a  frightful  desert 
 of  Syria,  scarcely  inhabited  by  anything  but  wild  beasts, 
 and  a   few  human   beings  little   less   ferocious.      He 
 was  in  his  thirty-first  year  when  he  entered  on  this 
 life,  in   which   he    spent    four  years,   occupied    in   an 
 intense  study  of  the  Scriptures,  until  his  health  began 
 to  be  affected  by  this  application   and  ascetic  disci- 
 pline.    He  then  repaired  to  Antioch.  where   he  was 
 ordained  a  presbyter  in  378  by  Paulinus.     He  soon 
 after  visited  Constantinople,  in  order  to  avail  himself 
 of  the  advice  and  instruction  of  Gregory  Nazianzen  ; 
 and,  on  his  return,  accompanied  Paulinus  to  Rome, 
 where  his  merit  and  learning  soon  made  him  known  to 
 Pope  Damasus,  who  appointed  him  his  secretary,  and 
 also  director  to  the  Roman  ladies  who  had  devoted 
 themselves  to  a  religious  life.     During  his  residence 
 at  Rome  he  lodged  at  the  house  of  a  matron  of  the 
 name  of  Paula,  a  woman  of  rank  and  fortune,  who  af- 
 terward followed  him  with  her  daughters  into  the  East. 
 This  event  exposed  him  to  some  scandal  from  his  op- 
 ponents the  Origenists,  and  to  more  merited  censure 
 from  the  relations  and  friends  of  the  many  weak  females 
 whom  he  thus  encouraged  in  their  desertion  of  their 
 proper  duties,  and  in  the  misapplication  of  their  wealth 
 to  the  support  of  useless  or  pernicious  institutions.     On 
 the  death  of  Damasus,  finding  his  situation  at  Rome 
 an   uneasy  one,  Sericius,  the  successor  of  Damasus, 
 not   having   the  same  esteem  for  him  that  Damasus 
 had,  he  determined  to  return  to  the  East,  and  accord- 
 ingly embarked,  in  385,  with  a  great  number  of  monks 
 and   females  whom   he  had  induced   to   embrace  the 
 monastic  life.     He  touched  at  Cyprus,  where  he  vis- 
 ited Epiphanius,  and,  arriving  at  Antioch,  proceeded 
 thence  to  Jerusalem,  and  afterward  to  Egypt,  where, 
 to  his  great  grief,  he  found  the  tenets  of  Origen  almost 
 universally  prevalent.     He  at  length  settled  at  Bethle- 
 hem, where  the  wealthy  and  devout  Paula  founded  fout 
 monasteries,  three  for  females,  and  one  for  males  under 
 Jerome.    Here  he  pursued  his  studies  with  great  ardour, 
 and  wrote  many  of  his  best  treatises  ;  and  in  these  occu- 
 pations he  might  have  peaceably  closed  his  days,  but 
 for  his  detestation  of  the  opinions  of  Origen,  which 
 involved  him  in  the  most  acrimonious  controversy  for 
 many  years  with  John,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  his  former 
 friend  Rufinns  of  Aquileia,  and  Jovinian    an  Italian 
 monk.     In  the  year  410,  when  Rome  was  besieged  by 
 the  Goths,  he  afforded  an  asylum  to  many  who  fled 
 from  that  city  to  Jerusalem,  but  was  very  careful  to 
 exclude   all  whom  he  deemed  tinctured  with  heresy. 
 He  died  A.D.  422,  in  the  ninety-first  year  of  his  age. 
 — Many  of  the  writings  of  Jerome  have  come  down  to 
 us.    Several  of  them  are  merely  controversial;  but  there 
 are  others  of  a  more  sterling  and  lasting  value.    These 
 are,  his  Treatise  on  the  Lives  and    Writings  of  the 
 elder  Christian  Fathers,  and  his  Commentaries  on  the 
 Prophetical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  on  the  Gos- 
 pel of  St.  Matthew,  and  several  of  St.  Paul's  Epistlc«. 
 But  what  may  be  regarded  as   his  greatest  work  i.s  a 
 translation  of  the  Books  of  both  the  Old  and  New 
 Testament  into  Latin,  which  translation  has  been  al- 
 ways highly  valued  in  the  Latin  Church,  and  is  that 
 known  by  the  narrje  of  the  Vulgate.     It  is  a  question 
 among  the  learned,  how  far,  and  whether  at  all,  he  im- 
 bodied  an  older  Italic  version  in  his  translation.     It  was 
 the  first  effort  at  bringing  the  Scriptures  within  the  reach 
 of  the  creat  multitude,  who  knew  no  other  language 
 but  the  Latin.     It  was  a  great  and  noble  work,  which 
 ought  to  place  its   author  high  among  the  benefactors 
 of  mankind.     Bishop  Warburton  says  of  Jerome   that 
 "he  is  the  only  Father  who  can  be  called  a  critic  on 
 the  sacred  wrUings,  or  who  followed  a  just  »r  reason- 
 able method  of  criticising."-!  he  first  printed  edt.on 
 of  the  entire  works  of  Jerome,  as  far  as  ^hese  havt 
 
HIE 
 
 HIEROSOLYMA. 
 
 reached  us,  appeared  at  Basle,  from  the  press  of  Fro- 
 ben,  under  the  care  of  Erasmus,  1516,  9  vols.  fol. 
 Many  subsequent  editions  have  been  published  at  Ly- 
 ons, Rome,  Pans,  and  Antwerp,  but  the  best  is  that 
 of  Vallarsi,  Verona,  I734-I742,  11  vols,  fol  ,  and  Vc- 
 net,  1766,  scqq.,  aim.,  11  vols.  4to.  {Bdhr,  Gcsch. 
 Rom.  Lit. — Die  Christlich-Rdmische  Tkcologie,  p. 
 165,  scqq.) 
 
 HiERosoLYMA  (neut.  plur.)  (Jerusalem),  a  celebrated 
 city  of  Palestine,  the  capital  of  Judsa.  The  history  of 
 Abraham  mentions,  that  Mekhizedek,  king  of  Salem, 
 came  forth  to  meet  him  when  he  returned  from  the 
 slaughter  of  the  kings  (G'cw.,  14,  18),  and  it  has  been 
 generally  supposed,  that  this  Salem  was  the  original  of 
 the  city  which  we  are  now  considering.  It  is  more 
 certain,  however,  that,  when  the  Israelites  entered  Cc- 
 naan,  they  found  the  place  in  the  occupation  of  the 
 Jebusites,  a  tribe  descended  from  Jebus,  a  son  of  Ca- 
 naan, and  the  city  then  bore  the  name  of  Jebus  or  Jebu- 
 si.  {Josh.  15,  63.— /</.,  18,  28.— Consult  Rcland,  Pal- 
 (est.,  p.  834.)  The  lower  city  was  taken  and  burned 
 by  the  children  of  Judah  (Jud.  1,  8)  after  the  death 
 of  Joshua  ;  but  the  Jebusites  had  so  strongly  fortified 
 themselves  in  the  upper  city,  on  Mount  Zion,  that  they 
 maintained  themselves  in  possession  of  it  till  the  time 
 of  David.  That  monarch,  after  his  seven  years'  rule 
 over  Judah  in  Hebron,  became  king  of  all  Israel, 
 on  which  he  expelled  the  Jebusites  from  Mount  Zion, 
 and  established  here  the  metropolis  of  his  kingdom. 
 The  city  now  took  the  name  of  Jerusalem,  a  term 
 which  denotes  the  abode,  or  (according  to  another  de- 
 rivation), the  people,  of  peace.  (Consult  Rcland,  p. 
 833.  —  Gescnius,  Hcbr.  Lex.,  s.  v.)  The  Septuagint 
 version  gives  'lipovoahjfi  as  the  form  of  the  name, 
 while  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  the  place  is 
 called  Hierosolyma.  At  present  this  city  is  known 
 throughout  Western  Asia  by  the  Arabic  name  of  El- 
 Kads,  which  signifies  "  holiness."  (Vid.  Cadytis  ) — 
 Jerusalem  was  built  on  several  hills,  the  largest  of 
 which  was  Mount  Sion,  which  formed  the  southern 
 part  ol  the  city.  A  valley  towards  the  north  separ- 
 ated this  from  Acra,  the  second  or  lower  city,  on  the 
 east  of  which  was  Mount  Moriah,  the  site  of  the  tem- 
 ple of  Solomon.  Northeast  of  Mount  Moriah  was  the 
 Mount  of  Olives,  on  the  south  was  the  valley  of  Hin- 
 nom,  and  at  the  north  Mount  Calvary,  the  scene  of 
 our  Lord's  crucifixion.  Passing  over  the  history  of 
 this  celebrated  city,  so  fully  detailed  in  the  sacred  vol- 
 ume, we  come  to  the  memorable  period  of  its  capture 
 and  destruction  by  Titus.  The  date  of  this  event  was 
 the  8th  of  September,  A.D.  70.  During  this  siege 
 and  capture  1,100,000  persons  are  said  to  have  per- 
 ished, and  97,000  to  have  been  made  prisoners,  and 
 afterward  either  sold  for  slaves,  or  wantonly  exposed 
 for  the  sport  of  their  insolent  victors  to  the  fury  of 
 wild  beasts.  In  fact,  the  population,  not  of  Jerusa- 
 lem alone,  but  that  of  the  adjacent  districts,  many  who 
 had  taken  refuge  in  the  city,  more  who  had  assembled 
 for  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  had  been  shut  up  by 
 the  sudden  formation  of  the  siege.  The  ardent  zeal 
 of  the  Jewish  nation  for  their  holy  city  and  temple  soon 
 caused  both  to  be  again  rebuilt  ;  but  fresh  commotions 
 compelled  the  Emperor  Hadrian  to  interfere,  and  or- 
 dain that  no  Jew  should  remain  in,  or  even  approach 
 near  Jerusalem,  on  pain  of  death.  On  the  ruins  of 
 their  temple  the  same  emperor  caused  a  temple  m  hon- 
 our of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  to  be  erected,  and  the  im- 
 age of  a  hog  to  he  cut  in  stone  over  the  gate  leading 
 to  Bethlehem,  as  a  standing  insult  to  the  religious 
 feelings  of  this  unfortunate  people.  The  name  of  the 
 city  was  also  changed  to  ^lia  Capitolina,  the  first 
 part  of  the  name  alluding  to  the  family  of  the  Roman 
 emperor.  The  more  peaceful  Christians  were  per- 
 mitted, however,  to  establish  themselves  within  the 
 walls,  and  ^Elia  became  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  church 
 and  bishopric.  This  latter  name  became  afterward 
 626 
 
 the  ordinary  name  of  the  city,  and  Jerusalem  became 
 nearly  obsolete.  Upon  the  ascension  to  the  throne, 
 however,  of  the  Christian  emperors,  the  name  revived. 
 Jerusalem,  thus  restored,  was  much  less  in  compass 
 than  the  ancient  city.  Mount  Sion  and  Bezetha  being 
 excluded. — The  following  description  of  Jerusaltin,  as 
 it  appeared  just  before  the  siege  by  Titus,  is  given  by 
 Milman.  {History  of  the  Jews,  vol.  3,  p.  17,  seqq.) 
 ''  Jerusalem,  at  this  period,  was  fortified  by  three  walls, 
 in  all  those  parts  where  it  was  not  surrounded  by  ab- 
 rupt and  impassable  ravines ;  there  it  had  but  one. 
 Not  that  these  walls  stood  one  within  the  other,  each 
 in  a  narrower  circle  running  round  the  whole  city  ; 
 but  each  of  the  iimer  walls  defended  one  of  the  several 
 quarters  into  which  the  city  was  divided,  or,  it  might 
 be  almost  said,  one  of  the  separate  cities.  Since  the 
 days  in  which  David  had  built  his  capital  on  the 
 rugged  heights  of  Sion,  great  alterations  had  taken 
 place  at  Jerusalem.  That  eminence  was  still  occu- 
 pied by  the  upper  city  ;  but,  in  addition,  first  the  hill 
 of  Moriah  was  taken  in,  on  which  the  temple  stood  ■ 
 then  Acra,  which  was  originally,  although  a  part  o/ 
 the  same  ridge,  separated  by  a  deep  chasm  from  Mo- 
 riah. This  chasm  was  almost  entirely  filled  up,  and 
 the  top  of  Acra  levelled  by  the  Asmonean  princes,  so 
 that  Acra  and  Moriah  were  united,  though  on  the  side 
 of  Acra  the  temple  presented  a  formidable  front,  con- 
 nected by  several  bridges  or  causeways  with  the  lower 
 city.  To  the  south  the  height  of  Sion,  the  upper 
 city,  was  separated  from  the  lower  by  a  ravine,  which 
 ran  right  through  Jerusalem,  called  the  Tyropceon,  or 
 the  valley  of  the  cheesemongers  ;  at  the  edge  of  this 
 ravine,  on  both  sides,  the  streets  suddenly  broke  off, 
 though  the  walls  in  some  places  must  have  crossed  it, 
 and  it  was  bridged  in  more  than  one  place.  To  the 
 north  extended  a  considerable  suburb  called  Bezetha, 
 or  the  new  city.  The  first  or  outer  wall  encompassed 
 Bezetha.  Agrippa  the  First  had  intended  to  make  this 
 wall  of  extraordinary  strength  ;  but  he  had  desisted 
 from  the  work  on  the  interference  of  the  Romans,  who 
 seem  to  have  foreseen  that  this  refractory  city  would 
 hereafter  force  them  to  take  up  arms  against  it.  Had 
 this  wall  been  built  according  to  the  plan  of  Agrippa, 
 the  city,  in  the  opinion  of  Josephus,  would  have  been 
 impregnable.  This  wall  began  at  the  tower  of  Hippi- 
 cos,  which  stood,  it  seems,  on  a  point  at  the  extreme 
 corner  of  Mount  Sion  :  it  must  have  crossed  the  west- 
 ern mouth  of  the  valley  of  Tyropceon,  and  run  directly 
 north  to  the  tower  of  Psephina,  proved  clearly  by 
 D'Anville  to  have  been  what  was  called  during  the 
 crusades  Castel  Pisano.  The  wall  then  bore  towards 
 the  monument  of  Helena,  ran  by  the  royal  caverns  to 
 the  Fuller's  monument,  and  was  carried  into  the  val- 
 ley of  Kedron  or  Jehoshaphat,  where  it  joined  the  old 
 or  inner  wall  under  the  temple.  The  wall,  however  it 
 fell  short  of  Agrippa's  design,  was  of  considerable 
 strength.  The  stones  were  thirty-five  feet  long,  so 
 solid  as  not  easily  to  be  shaken  by  battering  engines, 
 or  undermined.  The  wall  was  seventeen  and  a  half 
 feet  broad.  It  had  only  been  carried  to  the  same  height 
 by  Agrippa,  but  it  had  been  hastily  run  up  by  the 
 Jews  to  thirty-five  feet  ;  on  its  top  stood  battlements 
 three  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  pinnacles  five  and  three 
 fourths ;  so  the  whole  was  nearly  forty  five  feet  high. 
 The  second  wall  began  at  a  gate  in  the  old  or  inner 
 one,  called  Gcnnalh,  the  gate  of  the  gardens;  it  inter- 
 sected the  lower  city,  and,  having  struck  northward 
 for  some  distance,  turned  to  the  east  and  joined  the 
 northwest  corner  of  the  tower  of  Antonia.  The  An- 
 tonia  stood  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  temple,  and 
 was  separated  from  Bezetha  by  a  deep  ditch,  which 
 probably  protected  the  whole  northern  front  of  the 
 temple  as  well  as  of  the  Antonia.  The  old  or  inner 
 wall  was  that  of  Sion.  Starting  from  the  southwestern 
 porticoes  of  the  temple  to  which  it  was  united,  it  ran 
 along  the  ridge  of  the  Tyropceon,  passed  first  the  Xys- 
 
HIEROSOLYMA. 
 
 HIEROSOLYMA. 
 
 las,  then  the  council  house,  and  abutted  on  the  tow- 
 er Hippicus,  whence  the  northern  wall  sprang.  The 
 old  wall  then  ran  southward  through  Bethso  to  the 
 gate  of  the  Essenes,  all  along  the  ridge  of  the  Valley 
 of  Hinnom,  above  the  pool  of  Siloam,  then  eastward 
 again  to  the  Pool  of  Solomon,  so  on  through  Opha, 
 probably  a  deep  glen  :  it  then  joined  the  eastern  por- 
 tico of  the  temple.  Thus  there  were,  it  might  seem, 
 four  distinct  towns,  each  requiring  a  separate  siege. 
 The  capture  of  the  first  wall  only  opened  Bezetha  ; 
 the  fortifications  of  the  northern  part  of  the  temple, 
 the  Antonia,  and  the  second  wall,  still  defended  the 
 other  quarters.  The  second  wall  forced,  only  a  part 
 of  the  lower  city  was  won  ;  the  strong  rock-built  cita- 
 del of  Antonia  and  the  temple  on  one  hand,  and  Sion 
 on  the  other,  were  not  the  least  weakened.  The  whole 
 circuit  of  these  walls  was  guarded  with  towers,  built 
 of  the  same  solid  masonry  with  the  rest  of  the  walls. 
 They  were  thirty-five  feet  broad  and  thirty-five  high  ; 
 but  above  this  height  were  lofty  chambers,  and  above 
 those  again  upper  rooms,  and  large  tanks  to  receive 
 the  rain-water.  Broad  flights  of  steps  led  up  to  them. 
 Ninety  of  these  towers  stood  in  the  first  wall,  fourteen 
 in  the  second,  and  sixty  in  the  third.  The  intervals 
 between  the  towers  were  about  three  hundred  and 
 fifty  feet.  The  whole  circuit  of  the  city,  according  to 
 Josephus,  was  thirty-three  stadia,  rather  more  than 
 four  miles.  The  most  magnificent  of  all  these  towers 
 was  that  of  Psephina,  opposite  to  which  Titus  en- 
 camped. It  was  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  and  a 
 half  feet  high,  and  commanded  a  noble  view  of  the 
 whole  country  of  Juda3a,  to  the  border  of  Arabia,  and 
 to  the  sea  ;  it  was  an  octagon.  Answering  to  this 
 was  the  tower  Hippicus,  and  following  the  old  wail 
 stood  those  of  Phasaslis  and  Mariamne.  built  by  Herod, 
 and  named  after  his  wife,  and  his  brother,  and  friend. 
 These  were  stupendous  even  as  works  of  Herod. 
 Hippicus  was  square;  forty-three  and  three  fourths  feet 
 each  way.  The  whole  height  of  the  tower  was  one 
 hundred  and  forty  feet ;  the  tower  itself  fifty-two  and 
 a  half,  a  deep  tank  or  reservoir  thirty-five,  two  stories 
 of  chambers  forty-three  and  three  fourths,  battlements 
 and  pinnacles  eight  and  three  fourths.  Phasaelis  was  a 
 solid  square  of  seventy  feet.  It  was  surrounded  by 
 a  portico  seventeen  and  a  half  feet  high,  defended  by 
 breastworks  and  bulwarks,  and  above  the  portico  was 
 another  tower,  divided  into  lofty  chambers  and  baths. 
 It  was  more  richly  ornamented  than  the  rest  with  bat- 
 tlements and  pinnacles,  so  that  its  whole  height  was 
 above  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven  feet.  It  looked 
 from  a  distance  like  the  tall  pharos  of  Ale.xandrea. 
 Mariamne,  though  not  equal  in  elevation,  was  more 
 luxuriously  fitted  up  ;  it  was  built  of  solid  wall  thirty- 
 five  feet  high,  and  of  the  same  width  :  on  the  whole, 
 with  the  upper  chambers,  it  was  about  seventy-six  and 
 three  fourths  feet  high.  These  lofty  towers  appeared 
 still  higher  from  their  situation.  They  were  built  on 
 the  old  wall,  which  ran  along  the  steep  brow  of  Sion. 
 The  masonry  was  perfect :  they  were  built  of  white 
 marble,  cut  in  blocks  thirty-five  feet  long,  seventeen 
 and  a  half  wide,  eight  and  one  fourth  high,  so  fitted 
 that  the  towers  seemed  hewn  out  of  the  solid  quarrv." 
 A  description  of  the  fortress  Antonia  is  given  under 
 that  article.  "  High  above  the  whole  city  rose  the 
 temple,  uniting  the  commanding  strength  of  a  citadel 
 with  the  splendour  of  a  sacred  edifice.  According  to 
 Josephus,  the  esplanade  on  which  it  stood  had  been  con- 
 siderably enlarged  by  the  accumulation  of  fresh  soil 
 since  thedays  of  Solomon,  particularly  on  the  north  side. 
 It  now  covered  a  square  of  a  furlong  on  each  side.  Sol- 
 omon had  faced  the  precipitous  sides  of  the  rock  on  the 
 past,  and  perhaps  the  south,  with  huge  blocks  of  stone  ; 
 the  other  sides  likewise  had  been  built  up  with  perpen- 
 dicular walls  to  an  equal  height.  These  walls  in  no 
 part  were  lower  than  three  hundred  cubits,  five  hun- 
 dred and    wenty-five  feet,  but  their  whole  height  was 
 
 not  seen  excepting  on  the  eastern  and  perhaps  tne 
 southern  sides,  as  the  earth  was  heaped  up  to  the 
 level  of  the  streets  of  the  city.  Some  of  the  stones 
 employed  in  this  work  were  seventy  feet  square. 
 On  this  gigantic  foundation  ran,  on  each  front,  a  strong 
 and  lofty  wall  without,  within  a  spacious  double  por- 
 tico or  cloister  52^  feet  broad,  supported  by  162  col- 
 umns, which  upheld  a  ceiling  of  cedar,  of  the  most  ex- 
 quisite workmanship.  The  pillars  w-ere  entire  blocks 
 hewn  out  of  solid  marble,  of  dazzling  whiteness,  43J 
 feet  high.  On  the  south  side  the  portico  or  cloister 
 was  triple.  This  quadrangle  had  but  one  gate  to  the 
 east,  one  to  the  north,  two  to  the  south,  four  to  the 
 west ;  one  of  these  led  to  the  palace,  one  to  the  city, 
 one  at  the  corner  to  the  Antonia,  one  down  towards 
 the  gardens.  The  open  courts  were  paved  with  va- 
 rious inlaid  marbles.  Between  this  outer  court  of  the 
 Gentiles  and  the  second  court  of  the  Israelites  ran 
 rails  of  stone,  but  of  beautiful  workmanship,  rather 
 more  than  five  feet  high.  Along  these,  at  regular  in- 
 tervals, stood  pillars,  with  inscriptions  in  Hebrew, 
 Greek,  and  Latin,  warning  all  strangers,  and  Jews 
 who  were  unclean,  from  entering  into  the  Holy  Court 
 beyond.  An  ascent  of  fourteen  steps  led  to  a  terrace 
 17^  feet  wide,  beyond  which  rose  the  wall  of  the  inner 
 court.  This  wall  appeared  on  the  outside  70  feet,  on 
 the  inside  43| ;  for,  besides  the  ascent  of  14  steps  to 
 the  terrace,  there  were  five  more  up  to  the  gates. 
 The  inner  court  had  no  gate  or  opening  to  the  west, 
 but  four  on  the  north,  and  four  on  the  south,  two  to 
 the  east,  one  of  which  was  for  the  women,  for  whom 
 a  portion  of  the  inner  court  was  set  apart,  and  beyond 
 which  they  might  not  advance  ;  to  this  they  had  access 
 likewise  by  one  of  the  northern  and  one  of  the  south- 
 ern gates,  which  were  set  apart  for  their  use.  Around 
 this  court  ran  another  splendid  range  of  porticoes  or 
 cloisters;  the  columns  were  quite  equal  in  beauty  and 
 workmanship,  though  not  in  size,  to  those  of  the  outer 
 portico.  Nine  of  these  gates,  or,  rather,  gateway  tow- 
 ers, were  richly  adorned  with  gold  and  silver,  on  the 
 doors,  the  door-posts,  and  the  lintels.  The  doors  of 
 each  of  the  nine  gates  were  .52^  feet  high,  and  half 
 that  breadth.  Within,  the  gateways  were  52|  feet 
 wide  and  deep,  with  rooms  on  each  side,  so  that  the 
 whole  looked  like  lofty  towers  :  the  height  from  the 
 base  to  the  summit  was  70  feet.  Each  gateway  had 
 two  lofty  pillars  21  feet  in  circumference.  But  what 
 excited  the  greatest  admiration  was  the  tenth,  usually 
 called  the  beautil'ul,  gate  of  the  temple.  It  was  ot 
 Corinthian  brass  of  the  finest  workmanship.  The 
 height  of  the  beautiful  gate  was  87j,  its  doors  70  feet. 
 The  father  of  Tiberius  Alexander  had  sheeted  these 
 gates  with  gold  and  silver ;  his  apostate  son  was  to 
 witness  their  ruin  by  the  plundering  hands  and  fiery 
 torches  of  his  Roman  friends.  Within  this  quadrangle 
 there  was  a  farther  separation,  a  low  wall  which  di- 
 vided the  priests  from  the  Israelites :  near  this  stood 
 the  great  brazen  altar.  Beyond,  the  temple  itselt 
 reared  its  glittering  front.  The  great  porch  or  pro- 
 pylon,  according  to  the  design  of  the  last,  or  Herod's 
 temple,  extended  to  a  much  greater  width  than  the 
 temple  itself:  in  addition  to  the  former  width  of  10.5 
 feet,  it  had  two  wings  of  3.5  each,  making  in  the  whole 
 175.  The  great  gate  of  this  last  quadrangle,  to  which 
 there  was  an  ascent  of  twelve  steps,  was  called  that 
 of  Nicanor.  The  gateway  tower  was  132i  high, 
 43i  wide;  it  had  no  doors,  but  the  frontispiece  was 
 covered  with  gold,  and  through  its  spacious  arch  was 
 seen  the  golden  gate  of  the  temple,  glittering  with  the 
 same  precious  metal,  with  large  plates  of  which  it  was 
 sheeted  all  over.  Over  this  gate  hung  the  celebrated 
 golden  vine.  This  extraordinary  piece  of  workman- 
 ship had  bunches,  according  to  Josephus,  as  large  as 
 a  man.  The  Rabbins  add,  that,  'like  a  true  natural 
 vine,  it  grew  greater  and  greater ;  men  would  be  offer- 
 ing;  some,  gold  to  make  a  leaf;  some,  agape;  some. 
 
HIEROSOLYMA. 
 
 HTM 
 
 a  bunch  :  and  these  were  hung  up  upon  it ;  and  so  it 
 was  increasing  continually'  The  temple  itself,  ex- 
 cepting in  the  extension  of  the  wings  of  the  propylon, 
 was  probably  the  same  in  its  dimensions  and  distribu- 
 tion with  that  of  Solomon.  It  contained  the  same 
 holy  treasures,  if  not  of  equal  magnificence,  yet,  by  the 
 zeal  of  successive  ages,  the  freijuent  plunder  to  which 
 it  had  been  exposed  was  constantly  replaced ;  and 
 withm,  the  golden  candlestick  spread  out  its  flowering 
 branches,  the  golden  table  supported  the  shew-bread, 
 and  the  altar  of  incense  flamed  with  its  costly  perfume. 
 The  roof  of  the  temple  hadjbecn  set  all  over,  on  the 
 outside,  with  sharp  golden  spikes,  to  prevent  the  birds 
 from  settling  on  and  defiling  the  roof  (vid.,  however, 
 remarks  under  the  article  Elicius),  "and  the  gales 
 were  still  sheeted  with  plates  of  the  same  splendid 
 metal.  At  a  distance  the  whole  temple  looked  liter- 
 ally like  a  mount  of  snow,  fretted  with  golden  pinna- 
 cles." (Milman,  History  of  the  Jews,  vol.  3,  p.  22, 
 seqq.) — Jerusalem,  in  more  modern  times,  has  not 
 ceased  to  be  an  object  of  inviting  interest  to  the  trav- 
 eller. About  the  year  70.5  of  our  era,  it  was  visited 
 by  Arculfus,  from  whose  report  Adamnam  composed 
 a  narrative,  which  was  received  with  considerable  ap 
 probation.  Eighty  years  later,  Willibald,  a  Saxon, 
 undertook  the  same  journey.  In  Jerusalem  he  saw 
 all  that  Arculfus  had  seen  ;  but  he  previously  visited 
 the  tomb  of  the  seven  sleepers,  and  the  cave  in  which 
 St.  John  wrote  the  Apocalypse.  Bernard  proceeded 
 to  Palestine  in  the  year  878.  The  crusades,  however, 
 threw  open  the  holy  places  to  the  eyes  of  all  Europe; 
 and,  accordingly,  so  long  as  a  Christian  king  swayed 
 the  sceptre  in  the  capital  of  Judsea,  the  merit  of  indi- 
 vidual pilgrimage  was  greatly  diminished.  But  no 
 sooner  had  the  warlike  Saracens  recovered  possession 
 of  Jerusalem,  than  the  wonted  difficulty  and  danger 
 returned.  In  1331,  William  de  Bouldesell  ventured 
 on  an  e.xpedition  into  Arabia  and  Palestine,  of  which 
 some  account  has  been  published.  A  hundred  years 
 afterward,  Bertrandon  de  la  Broquiere  sailed  from 
 Venice  to  Jaffa.  At  Jerusalem  he  found  the  Chris- 
 tians reduced  to  a  state  of  the  most  cruel  thraldom. 
 At  Damascus  they  were  treated  with  equal  severity. 
 The  beginning  of  the  17th  century  witnessed  a  higher 
 order  of  travellers,  who,  from  such  a  mixture  of  mo- 
 tives as  might  actuate  either  a  pilgrim  or  an  antiquary, 
 undertook  the  perilous  tour  of  the  Holy  Land.  Among 
 these,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  was  George 
 Sandys,  who  commenced  his  peregrinations  in  the 
 year  1610.  He  was  succeeded  by  Doubdan,  Cheron, 
 Thevenot,  Gonzales,  Morison,  Maundrell.  and  Po- 
 cocke.  Of  the  more  recent  travellers,  however,  the 
 most  interesting  and  intelligent  is  Dr.  Clarke.  "  We 
 had  not  been  prepared,"  remarks  this  writer,  descri- 
 bing his  approach  to  the  ancient  capital  of  Judaea,  "for 
 the  grandeur  of  the  spectacle  which  the  city  alone  ex- 
 hibited. Instead  of  a  wretched  and  ruined  town,  by 
 some  described  as  the  desolated  remnant  of  Jerusa- 
 lem, we  beheld,  as  it  were,  a  flourishing  and  stately 
 metropolis  ;  presenting  a  magnificent  assemblage  of 
 domes,  towers,  palaces,  churches,  and  monasteries  ; 
 all  of  which,  glittering  in  the  sun's  rays,  shone  with 
 inconceivable  splendour."  Dr.  Clarke  entered,  how- 
 ever, by  the  Damascus  gate.  He  confesses  that  there 
 is  no  other  point  of  view  in  which  the  city  is  seen  to 
 so  much  advantage,  as  the  one  from  which  he  beheld 
 it,  the  summit  of  a  hill  at  about  an  hour's  distance. 
 In  the  celebrated  prospect  from  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
 the  city  lies  too  low,  and  has  too  much  the  character 
 of  a  bird's-eye  view,  with  the  formality  of  a  topotrraph- 
 ical  plan.  Travellers  of  a  still  later  date  consider  Dr. 
 Clarke's  description  as  overcharged.  But  it  must  be 
 remembered  that  he  was  fortunate  in  catching  his  first 
 view  of  Jerusalem  under  the  illusion  of  a  brilliant 
 evening  sunshine.  Jerusalem  is  said  to  be  of  an  ir- 
 regular shape,  approaching  to  a  square ;  and  to  be 
 628 
 
 surrounded  by  a  high,  embattled  wall,  built,  for  tlie 
 most  part,  of  the  common  stone  of  the  country,  which 
 is  a  compact  limestone.  The  site  of  the  ancient  city 
 is  so  unequivocally  marked  by  its  natural  boundaries 
 on  th«  three  sides,  where  there  are  ravines,  that  there 
 can  be  no  difFiculty,  except  with  regard  to  its  extent 
 in  a  northern  direction  ;  and  this  may  be  ascertained 
 with  sufficient  accuracy  from  the  minute  description 
 given  by  Josephus.     {Bell.  Jud.,  5,4.) 
 
 HiLi-EvioNES,  a  people  of  Scandinavia.  Accordincr 
 to  Pliny  (4,  13),  they  occupied  the  only  known  part  of 
 this  country.  Among  the  various  names  of  countries  » 
 and  people  reported  by  Jornandes,  we  still  find,  ob- 
 serves D'Anville,  Hallin;  and  that  which  is  contigu- 
 ous to  the  province  of  Skane  is  still  called  Halland. 
 Some  erroneously  place  the  Hilleviones  in  the  country 
 answering,  at  the  present  day,  to  Blek'mgen  and  Scho- 
 nen.  (Bischoff  und  Mdller,  Wbrterh.  der  Geogr., 
 p.  61.5.) 
 
 HiMERA,  I.  a  river  of  Sicily,  falling  into  the  upper 
 or  Tuscan  Sea,  to  the  east  of  Panormus;  now,  accord- 
 ing to  Mannert,  Fiume  di  S.  Leonardo;  but,  according 
 to  others,  Fnime  Grande.  The  city  of  Himera  stood 
 a  short  distance  In  the  west  of  its  mouth. — II.  An- 
 other river  of  Sicily,  larger  than  the  former.  It  rises 
 in  the  same  quarter  with  it,  but  pursues  an  opposite 
 course,  to  the  south,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterraneari 
 near  Phintia,  and  to  the  west  of  Gela.  The  modern 
 name  is  Fiume  Salsa.  This  river  separated,  at  one 
 time,  the  Carthaginian  from  the  Syracusan  dependan- 
 cies  in  Sicily. — III.  A  city  of  Sicily,  near  the  mouth 
 of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  on  the  northern  coast. 
 It  was  founded,  according  to  Thucydides  (6,  5)  and 
 Scymnus  of  Chios  (y.  288,  scqq),  by  a  colony  of  Chal- 
 cidians  from  Zankle.  Strabo,  however,  ascribes  its 
 origin  to  the  Zankleans  at  Mylaj.  (Strab.,  272.)  In 
 this  he  is  wrong,  as  Myloe  was  not  an  independent 
 place,  but  entirely  under  the  control  of  Zankle  as  its 
 parent  city,  and  therefore  not  allowed  to  trade  and 
 colonize  at  pleasure.  Strabo's  error  appears  to  have 
 arisen  from  a  misconception  of  a  passage  in  Thucydi- 
 des. That  historian  informs  us  (6,  5)  that  Himera 
 had  some  Dorian  inhabitants  also  from  Syracuse,  con- 
 sisting of  some  of  the  expelled  party  of  the  Myletidae 
 (MvZr/r/Jai)  :  Strabo,  very  probably,  mistakes  these, 
 from  their  name,  for  inhabitants  of  Mylae. — Himera 
 came,  we  know  not  under  what  circumstances,  into 
 the  power  of  Theron  of  Agrigentum.  Subsequently, 
 however,  it  attempted  to  shake  off  this  yoke,  and 
 offered  to  surrender  itself  to  Hiero  of  Syracuse.  This 
 latter  apprized  Theron  of  the  fact,  and  the  enraged 
 tyrant  caused  many  of  the  citizens  to  be  executed. 
 To  prevent,  however,  the  city's  suffering  from  this 
 loss  of  the  inhabitants,  he  established  in  it  a  number 
 of  Dorians  and  other  Greeks,  and  from  this  time  the 
 remark  of  Thucydides  applies,  who  informs  us  that 
 the  inhabitants  of  Himera  spoke  a  middle  dialect  be- 
 tween the  Dorian  and  Chalcidian,  but  that  the  written 
 institutions  were  in  the  Chalcidian  dialect.  Himera 
 was  destroyed  by  the  Carthaginians,  240  years  after 
 its  founding,  and  never  recovered  from  the  blow. 
 {Died.  Sic,  11,48.)  The  Carthaginians  subsequently 
 established  a  number  of  the  old  inhabitants  in  the  nevi 
 city  of  Therma?,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Himera 
 This  spot  was  remarkable  for  its  warm  baths.  Thf 
 ruins  of  Therms  are  now  called  Termini.  {Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  9,  p.  403,  seqq.) 
 
 HiMiLco  (equivalent  in  Punic  to  gratia  Milcaris, 
 "  the  favour  of  Milcar"),  the  name  of  several  Cartha- 
 ginians. I.  A  Carthaginian  commander,  who  is  said 
 by  Pliny  (2,  67)  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Han 
 no  the  navigator.  He  was  sent  by  his  governmen' 
 to  e.xplore  the  northwestern  coast  of  Europe.  A  few 
 fragments  of  this  voyage  are  preserved  by  Avienus 
 (OraMarit.,  1,  90),  in  which  the  Hiberni  and  Albioni 
 are  mentioned,  and  also  a  promontory,   Oestrymnis, 
 
HIP 
 
 HIP 
 
 and  islands  called  Oestrymnides,  which  are  usually 
 considered  to  be  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  Islands. 
 (Gossellin,  Rcchcrches,  vol.  4,  p.  162,  seqq) — II.  A 
 Carthai];inian,  who  commanded  in  the  wars  with  Dio- 
 nysius  I.,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  B.C.405-3fi8.  Himil- 
 co  was  an  able  and  successful  general.  He  look  Gela, 
 Messana,  and  many  other  cities  in  Sicily,  and  at  length 
 besieged  Syracuse  by  sea  and  land,  but  he  was  de- 
 feated by  Dionysius,  who  burned  most  of  the  Cartha- 
 ginian vessels.  {Diod.  Sic,  lib  13  et  14.) — III.  A 
 sujiporter  of  the  Barca  party  at  Carthage.  {Liv.,  13, 
 12.) — He  was  sent  by  the  Carthaginian  government 
 to  oppose  Marcellus  in  Sicily.  {Liv.,  24,  35,  seqq. — 
 /f/.,2.5,  23,  seqq.) 
 
 Hipp.^KCHUs,  I.  a  son  of  Pisistratus,  who,  together 
 with  his  brother  Hippias.  succeeded  his  father  as  ty- 
 rant of  Athens.  An  account  of  their  government  wdl 
 be  found  under  the  article  Hippias.  Hipparchus  was 
 assassinated  by  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton,  for  an  ac- 
 count of  which  affair,  consult  remarks  under  the  arti- 
 cle Harmodius. — H.  The  first  astronomer  on  record 
 who  really  made  systematic  observations,  and  left  be- 
 hind him  a  digested  body  of  astronomical  science. 
 He  was  a  native  of  Nicsa  in  Bithynia,  and  flourished 
 between  the  154th  and  163d  Olympiads,  or  between 
 160  and  125  B.C.,  as  appears  from  his  having  made 
 astronomical  observations  during  that  interval.  He 
 resided  some  time  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  where  he 
 continued  the  astronomical  observations  which  he  had 
 probably  commenced  in  Bithynia  ;  and  hence  he  has 
 been  called  by  some  authors  the  Bithynian,  and  by 
 others  the  Rhodian,  and  some  even  suppose  two  as- 
 tronomers of  the  same  name,  which  is  certainly  incor- 
 rect. Hipparchus  is  also  supposed  to  have  made  ob- 
 servations at  Alexandrea;  but  Delambre,  comparing 
 together  such  passages  as  Ptolemy  has  preserved  on 
 the  subject,  is  of  Ofiinion  that  Hipparchus  never  speaks 
 of  Ale.xandrea  as  of  the  place  in  which  he  resided,  and 
 this  conclusion  of  the  French  astronomer  is  probably 
 correct.  The  period  of  his  death  is  not  known.  He 
 was  the  author  of  a  commentary  on  the  Phaenomena  of 
 Aratus,  published  by  Peter  Victorius  at  Florence,  in 
 1567  ;  and  also  by  Petavius,  with  a  Latin  version  and 
 notes,  in  his  Uranologia.  He  also  wrote  treatises  on 
 the  nature  of  the  ti.xed  stars  ;  on  the  motion  of  the 
 moon  :  and  others  no  longer  e.Ytant.  Hipparchus  has 
 been  highly  praised  both  by  the  ancients  and  moderns. 
 Pliny  the  Elder  styles  him  "  the  confidant  of  nature," 
 on  account  of  the  importance  of  his  discoveries  ;  and 
 M.  Bailly  has  bestowed  on  him  the  title  of  the  "  patri- 
 arch of  astronomy."  He  treated  that  science  with  a 
 philosophical  spirit,  of  which  there  are  no  traces  before 
 his  time.  He  considered  the  subject  in  a  general 
 point  of  view  ;  examined  the  received  opinions  ;  pass- 
 ed in  review  the  truths  previously  ascertained,  and  e.\:- 
 hihlted  the  method  of  reducing  them  so  far  into  a  sys- 
 tem as  to  connect  them  with  each  other.  He  was 
 the  first  who  noticed  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
 or  that  very  slow  motion  of  the  fixed  stars  from  west 
 to  east,  by  which  they  perform  an  apparent  revolution 
 in  a  great  number  of  years.  He  observed  and  calcu- 
 lated eclipses;  discovered  the  equation  of  time,  the 
 parallax,  and  the  geometrical  mensuration  of  distances  ; 
 and  he  thus  laid  the  solid  foundations  of  geographical 
 and  trigonometrical  science.  The  result  of  his  la- 
 bours in  the  observation  of  the  fixed  stare,  has  been 
 preserved  by  Ptolemy,  who  has  inserted  the  catalogue 
 of  Hipparchus  in  his  Almagest.  As  regards  the  gen- 
 eral merits  of  Hipparchus.  consult  the  work  of  Marcoz, 
 Astrotiomie  Solaire  (VHipparque,  Paris,  1828,  8vo  ; 
 the  account  given  by  Delambre,  in  the  Biographic 
 Universellc  {vol.  20,  p.  398,  seqq),  and  the  preface  of 
 the  same  writer  to  his  "  History  of  Ancient  Astron- 
 omy," in  which  work  will  he  found  the  most  com- 
 plete account  of  the  labours  of  Hipparchus.  {Histoirc 
 tie  rAstronomie  Ancienne,  jpar  M.  Delambre,  Paris, 
 
 1817,  2  torn.  4to.)  The  bias  of  Delambre  appears  to 
 be,  to  add  to  Hipparchus  some  of  the  fame  which  has 
 been  generally  considered  due  to  Ptolemy,  and  in  sup- 
 port of  this  opinion  he  advances  some  forcible  argu- 
 ments.— The  titles  of  the  writings  attributed  to  Hip- 
 parchus, on  whom  Ptolemy  has  fixed  the  epithets  of 
 (pMiTovog  Kal  iptlalridy^  (_"  a  lover  of  labour  and  of 
 truth"),  have  been  collected  by  Fabricius,  and  are  to 
 be  found  in  Weidler,  as  follows:  1.  Trepi  tuv  inrTia- 
 vCjv  uvaypacpni;  2.  nepi  p.e\f:6uv  Kal  u-rroaTrj/xuTuv; 
 3  De  XII  signorum  ascenswne ;  4.  TTfpi  tiiq  Kara 
 ■kIuto^  firjVLaiaQ  Tf]^  aE'krjvr}^  KLvriaeug;  5.  irepi  fiiiviai- 
 ov  xpoi'ov;  6.  Tvepi  kviavalov  fiEjedovg;  7.  nepl  ti/c 
 fiETaiTTuaeuQ  tuv  rpomKuv  Kal  iarjiiepivuv  crjjfjetuv ; 
 8.  Adversus  Eratoslheiiis  Gcographmm;  9.  Tuv'Apu- 
 Tov  Kal  Et)(ioj'ou  (paivoiitvuv  i^rjyijaeuv  (iifjXia  y'. — 
 The  only  one  of  these  which  has  come  down  to  us,  is 
 the  last  and  least  important,  of  which  we  have  already 
 spoken.  Hipparchus  also  wrote  a  work,  according  to 
 Achilles  Tatius,  on  eclipses  of  the  sun;  and  there  is 
 also  recorded  a  work  with  the  following  title  :  'H  tuv 
 c!vvavaTo2.uv  Trpay/iaTEia.  {Enajcl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol. 
 12,  p.  240,  seqq.—Nchm,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  376, 
 seqq.) — HI.  A  Pythagorean  philosopher,  an  extract 
 from  a  work  of  whose  on  "  Tranquillity  of  Soul"  (TVEpi 
 Evdv/ilag)  has  been  preserved  for  us  by  Stobaaus.  It 
 may  be  found  in  the  Opuscula  Mythologica,  Ethica,  et 
 Physica,  edited  by  Gale,  Cantab.,  1G7(»,  12mo. 
 
 HiPPASL's,  a  native  of  Metapontum,  and  follower  of 
 the  Pythagorean  doctrine.  He  is  said  to  have  excelled 
 in  the  application  of  mathematical  principles  to  music, 
 statics,  and  mensuration.  In  common  with  others  of 
 the  same  sect,  he  held  that  fire  was  the  originating 
 cause  of  all  things.  He  taught  also  that  the  universe 
 is  finite,  is  always  changing,  and  undergoes  a  periodi- 
 cal conflagration.     {Diog.  Laert.,  8.) 
 
 HiPPi.\s,  a  son  of  Pisistratus,  who,  together  with  his 
 two  brothers,  Hipparchus  and  Thessalus,  succeeded 
 their  father,  without  any  opposition,  in  the  government 
 of  Athens.  The  authority  of  Thucydides(6,  54)  seems 
 sufficient  to  prove,  that  Hippias  was  the  eldest,  though 
 his  reasons  are  not  of  themselves  convincing,  and  the 
 current  opinion,  in  his  own  day,  gave  the  priority  to 
 Hipparchus.  As  the  eldest,  Hippias  would  take  his 
 father's  place  at  the  head  of  affairs;  but  the  three 
 brothers  appear  to  have  lived  in  great  unanimity  to- 
 gether, and  to  have  co-operated  with  little  outward 
 distinction  in  the  administration  of  the  state.  Their 
 characters  are  described  as  very  different  from  each 
 other.  Hippias  seems  to  have  possessed  the  largest 
 share  of  the  qualities  of  a  statesman.  Hipparchus  in- 
 herited his  father's  literary  taste  ;  but  he  was  addicted 
 to  pleasure,  and  perhaps  to  amusements  not  becoming 
 the  dignity  of  his  station.  {Athcnccus,  12,  p.  533  ) 
 Indeed,  Hippias  also  would  seem  to  have  been  open 
 to  the  same  charge.  {Allien.,  I.  c)  Thessalus,  the 
 youngest  brother,  is  said  to  have  been  a  high-spirited 
 youth,  which  is  all  the  information  that  wo  possess  con- 
 cerning him.  The  successors  of  Pisistratus  for  some 
 years  trod  in  his  steps  and  prosecuted  his  plans.  They 
 seem  to  have  directed  their  attention  to  promote  the 
 internal  prosperity  of  the  country,  and  the  cultivation 
 of  letters  and  the  arts.  One  of  their  expedients  for  the 
 latter  purpose,  the  credit  of  which  seems  to  have  be- 
 longed principally  to  Hipparchus,  was  to  erect  a  num- 
 ber of  Henna;,  or  stone  busts  of  Mercury,  along  the 
 side  of  the  roads  leading  from  the  capital,  inscribed 
 on  one  side  with  an  account  of  the  distance  which  it 
 marked,  on  the  other  with  a  moral  sentence  in  verse^ 
 probably  the  composition  of  Hipparchus  himself,  though 
 he  often  received  the  first  poets  of  the  age  under  his 
 roof.  To  him  also  is  ascribed  the  establishment  of  the 
 order  in  which  the  Homeric  poems  continued  in  after 
 times  to  be  publicly  rccued  at  the  I'anathenaic  festi- 
 val. The  brothers  imitated  the  sage  policy  of  their 
 father,  in  dropping  the  show  of  power  as  much  as  was 
 
HIP 
 
 HIP 
 
 consistent  with  a  prudent  regard  to  securing  the  sub- 
 stance. They  kept  up  a  standing  force  of  foreign 
 mercenaries,  but  tliey  made  no  change  in  the  laws  or 
 the  forms  of  the  constitution,  only  taking  care  to  fill 
 the  most  important  offices  with  their  own  friends. 
 They  even  reduced  the  ta.\  imposed  by  Pisistratus  to 
 a  twentieth,  and,  without  laying  on  any  fresii  burdens, 
 provided  for  the  exigences  of  the  state,  and  continued 
 the  great  works  which  their  father  had  begun.  The 
 language  of  a  later  writer  (the  author  of  the  Hrppar- 
 chus,  p.  229),  who  speaks  of  their  dominion  as  hav- 
 ing recalled  the  happiness  of  the  golden  age,  seems 
 almost  justified  by  the  sober  praise  of  Thucydides, 
 when  he  says  that  these  tyrants  most  diligently  culti- 
 vated virtue  and  wisdom.  The  country  was  flourish- 
 ing, the  people,  if  not  perfectly  contented,  were  cer- 
 tainly not  impatient  of  the  yoke,  and  their  rule  seemed 
 likely  to  last  for  at  least  another  generation,  when  an 
 event  occurred  which  changed  at  once  the  whole  as- 
 pect of  the  government,  and  led  to  its  premature  over- 
 throw. This  was  the  aiifair  of  Harmodius  and  Aristo- 
 gilon,  in  which  Hipparchus  lost  his  life,  and  the  par- 
 ticulars of  which  have  been  given  under  a  different 
 article.  {Vid.  Harmodius.)  Previous  to  this  occur- 
 rence, Hippias  had  shown  himself  a  mild,  affable,  and 
 beneficent  ruler,  but  he  now  became  a  suspicious, 
 stern,  and  cruel  tyrant,  who  regarded  all  his  subjects 
 as  secret  enemies,  and,  instead  of  attempting  to  con- 
 ciliate them,  aimed  only  at  cowing  them  by  rigour. 
 He  was  now  threatened  not  only  by  the  discontent  of 
 the  people  at  home,  but  by  the  machinations  of  power- 
 ful enemies  from  without.  The  banished  Alcmoeonidae, 
 with  the  aid  of  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  induced  the  La- 
 cedaemonians to  espouse  their  cause,  and  Hippias  was 
 compelled  to  leave  Attica  in  the  fourth  year  after  his 
 brother's  death.  Having  set  sail  for  Asia,  he  fixed 
 his  residence  for  a  time  in  his  hereditary  principality 
 of  Sigeum.  The  Spartans,  subsequently  repenting  of 
 what  they  had  done,  sent  for  Hippias,  and,  on  his  arri- 
 val, summoned  a  congress  of  deputies  from  their  Pelo- 
 ponnesian  allies,  and  proposed,  as  the  only  means  of 
 curbing  the  growing  insolence  of  the  Athenian  people, 
 to  unite  their  forces  and  compel  Athens  to  receive 
 her  former  ruler.  All,  however,  with  one  accord, 
 loudlv  exclaimed  against  the  proposition  of  Sparta, 
 and  Hippias  soon  after  returned  to  Sigeum,  whence  he 
 proceeded  to  the  court  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  Here  he 
 remained  for  many  years;  and  when  the  expedition  of 
 Datis  and  Artaphernes  took  place,  an  expedition  which 
 he  himself  had  strenuously  urged,  he  guided  the  bar- 
 barian armament  against  his  country,  and  the  Persian 
 fleet,  by  his  advice,  came  to  anchor  in  the  bay  of 
 Marathon. — The  subsequent  history  of  Hippias  is  in- 
 volved in  uncertainty.  Thucydides  (6,  59)  merely  says 
 that  he  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  without 
 informing  us  whether  he  lost  his  life  there  or  not. 
 (Compare  Herodotus,  6,  107.)  Justin  (2,  9)  states 
 that  he  was  killed  in  the  fight,  and  Cicero  (Ep.  ad  Ait., 
 9,  10)  confirms  this.  Suidas,  however,  informs  us,  that 
 Hippias  fled  to  Lemnos,  where,  falling  sick,  he  died, 
 the  blood  issuing  from  his  eyes.  (Consult  Larcher, 
 ad  Herod.,  6,  117.) 
 
 Hippo,  I.  Rkgius  {'iTnriJv  Bam^-iKo^),  a  city  of  Af- 
 rica, in  that  part  of  Numidia  called  the  western  prov- 
 ince. It  was  situate  near  the  sea,  on  a  bay  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  the  promontory  of  Hij)[)i.  It  was  called  Hip- 
 po liegius,  not  only  in  opposition  to  Hippo  Zarytus 
 mentioned  below,  but  also  from  its  having  been  one  of 
 the  royal  cities  of  the  Numidian  kings.  The  place  was 
 of  Tyrian  origin.  Of  this  city  St.  Augustine  was 
 bishop.  The  ruins  are  spread  at  the  present  day  over 
 the  neck  of  land  ihat  lies  between  the  rivers  Boojcmah 
 and  Seibousb  Near  the  ancient  site  is  a  town  named 
 Bona. — II.  Zarytus,  a  town  of  .Africa,  on  the  coast  to 
 the  west  of  Utica.  It  was  thus  termed  to  distinguish 
 It  from  the  one  above  mentioned,  and  the  name  is  said 
 630 
 
 to  have  reference  to  its  situation  among  artificial  ca- 
 nals, which  afforded  the  sea  an  entrance  to  a  navigable 
 lagune  adjacent.  Some  of  the  Greek  writers  corrupt- 
 ed the  appellation  Zarytus  into  Aiupf)VTog,  in  which 
 the  same  idea  is  endeavoured  to  be  expressed.  The 
 modern  name  is  Beni-Zert,  which,  according  to  Shaw, 
 signifies  "the  son  of  the  canal."'  {Mannerl,  Geogr., 
 vol.  10,  pt,  2,  p.  298.) 
 
 HippocENTAURi  {'l-mvoKEVTavpoi),  fabulous  animals, 
 partly  human,  partly  resembling  the  horse.     They  are  : 
 the  same  with  the  Centauri.     (Vid   Centauri.) 
 
 HiPPOCR.iTES,  a  celebrated  physician,  born  in  the 
 island  of  Cos.  The  particulars  of  his  life,  as  far  as 
 they  have  reached  us,  are  few  in  number.  His  con- 
 temporaries have  commended  him  in  the  highest  terms 
 for  his  consummate  skill  and  his  profound  acquaint- 
 ance with  the  medical  art ;  but  they  have  left  us  little 
 information  relative  to  the  man  himself.  Hippocrates, 
 too,  in  those  of  his  writings,  the  authenticity  of  which 
 no  one  contests,  enters  into  very  few  details  respect- 
 ing his  long  and  honourable  career.  The  Greek  wri- 
 ter, who,  under  the  name  of  Soranus,  has  transmitted 
 to  us  some  biographical  information  concerning  this 
 eminent  physician,  relates,  that  the  father  of  Hippoc- 
 rates was  named  Heraclides,  and  deduced  his  descent, 
 through  a  long  line  of  progenitors,  from  .^Esculapius 
 himself.  On  the  side  of  his  mother,  who  was  named 
 Praxithe,  he  was  fabled  to  be  a  descendant  of  Hercules. 
 In  other  words,  he  belonged  to  the  race  or  family  of  the 
 Asclepiades,  who,  from  time  immemorial,  had  devoted 
 themselves  exclusively  to  the  service  of  the  god  of  med- 
 icine and  the  cultivation  of  the  medical  art.  It  ap- 
 pears, from  the  table  of  Meibomius  {Comment,  in  Hipp, 
 jiisjur.),  that  he  was  the  seventeenth  in  order  of  the 
 pretended  descendants  of  .^sculapius,  his  uncle  Hip- 
 pocrates I.  being  the  fifteenth.  The  birth  of  Hippoc- 
 rates II.,  or  the  Great,  is  fixed  by  Soranus  in  the  first 
 year  of  the  eighteenth  Olympiad,  B.C.  460  :  conse- 
 quently, he  was  contemporary  with  Socrates  and  Plato, 
 a  little  younger  than  the  former,  and  a  little  older  than 
 the  latter.  His  name  began  to  be  illustrious  during 
 the  Peloponnesian  war. — After  having  received  at  Cos 
 his  first  professional  instruction  from  his  father  Hera- 
 clides, Hippocrates  went  to  study  at  Athens  under 
 Herodicus  of  Selymbria.  He  had  also  for  one  of  his 
 masters  the  sophist  Gorgias.  Some  authors  pretend 
 that  he  was  also  a  disciple  of  Democritus  ;  it  is  even 
 said  that  he  conceived  so  high  an  esteem  for  this  phi- 
 losopher, as  to  show  it  by  writing  his  works  in  the 
 Ionic  dialect,  though  he  himself  was  a  Dorian.  Ii 
 would  seem,  however,  from  an  examination  of  his  wri- 
 tings, that  Hippocrates  preferred  the  doctrines  of  He- 
 raclitus  to  those  of  Democritus. — After  the  death  of 
 his  father  he  travelled  over  many  countries,  according 
 to  the  custom  of  the  physicians  and  philosophers  of  his 
 time ;  and  finally  established  himself  in  Thessaly, 
 whence  some  have  called  him  "the  Thessalian." 
 Soranus  informs  us,  that  Hippocrates  lived  at  the 
 court  of  Perdiccas,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  that  he 
 cured  this  prince  of  a  consumption  caused  by  a  violent 
 passion  which  he  had  conceived  for  his  mother-in-law 
 Phila.  This  fact  is  not,  indeed,  in  contradiction  of 
 chronology  ;  but  what  gives  it  a  suspicious  appearance 
 is,  that  a  story  almost  similar  is  related  by  the  ancietii 
 writers  as  having  happened  at  the  court  of  Selcucua 
 Nicator.  (Vid.  Erasistratus.)  It  is  possible,  how- 
 ever, that  Hippocrates  may  have  p^assed  some  time 
 with  Perdiccas ;  for  he  states  that  be  had  observed 
 many  maladies  in  the  cities  of  Pella,  Olynthus,  and 
 Acanthus,  situate  in  Macedonia.  He  appears  also  to 
 have  sojourned  for  a  while  in  Thrace,  for  he  frequent- 
 ly mentions,  in  his  accounts  of  epidemic  disorders,  th« 
 Thracian  cities  of  Abdera,  Datus,  Doriscus,  /Enos, 
 Cardia,  and  the  isle  of  Thasos  It  is  equally  prohaWe 
 that  he  travelled  in  Scythia  and  the  countries  imme- 
 diately contiguous  to  the  kingdom  of  Ponlus  and  ti>« 
 
HIPPOCRATES. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES. 
 
 Palus  Maeotis,  because  the  description  he  gives  of  the 
 manners  and  mode  of  life  of  the  Scythians  is  extreme- 
 ly exact  and  faithful.  According  to  Soranus,  the  cities 
 of  Athens  and  Abdera  owed  to  Hippocrates  the  bene- 
 fit of  having  been  delivered  from  a  plague  which  had 
 caused  great  ravages.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the 
 frightful  epidemic  is  here  meant  which  desolated  Ath- 
 ens during  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  which  Thucyd- 
 ides  has  so  faithfully  described,  or  some  other  malady  ; 
 for  the  historian,  who  was  an  eyewitness  of  the  rav- 
 ages of  the  disease,  makes  no  mention  of  Hippocrates. 
 However  this  may  be,  the  Athenians,  grateful  for  the 
 services  which  this  distinguished  physician  had  ren- 
 dered, either  in  delivering  them  from  a  pestilential 
 scourge,  or  in  publishing  valuable  works  on  the  art  of 
 preserving  life,  or  in  refusing  the  solicitations  of  the 
 enemies  of  Greece,  decreed  that  he  should  be  initiated 
 into  the  mysteries  of  Ceres,  should  be  gifted  with  a 
 golden  crown,  should  enjoy  the  rights  of  citizenship, 
 should  be  supported  all  his  days  at  the  public  expense 
 in  the  Prytaneum,  and,  finally,  that  all  the  children 
 born  in  Cos,  the  native  island  of  Hippocrates,  might 
 come  and  pass  their  youth  at  Athens,  where  they  would 
 be  .reated  as  if  offspring  of  Athenian  citizens.  Ac- 
 cording to  Galen,  it  was  by  kindling  large  fires,  and 
 burning  everywhere  aromatic  substances,  that  Hippoc- 
 rates succeeded  in  arresting  the  pestilence  at  Athens 
 The  reputation  of  this  eminent  physician  extended  far 
 and  wide,  and  Artaxerses  Longimanus  even  sent  for 
 him  to  stop  the  progress  of  a  malady  which  was  com- 
 mitting great  ravages  among  the  forces  of  that  mon- 
 arch. Hippocrates  declined  the  offer  and  the  splendid 
 presents  that  accompanied  it  ;  and  x\rtaxerxes  endeav- 
 oured to  accomplish  his  object  by  menacing  the  inhab- 
 itants of  Cos,  but  in  vain.  Though  the  correspond- 
 ence which  took  place  on  this  point  between  Hippoc- 
 rates and  the  satrap  Hystanes,  and  which  has  reached 
 our  days,  must  be  regarded  as  altogether  unauthentic, 
 yet  it  appears  that  credit  was  given  to  the  story  by  an- 
 cient writers,  two  of  whom,  Galen  and  Plutarch,  re- 
 late the  circumstance.  Stobajus  also  makes  mention 
 of  it,  but  commits,  at  the  same  time,  an  anachronism 
 in  giving  the  name  of  the  monarch  as  Xerxes,  and 
 not  Artaxerxes.  Certain  Arabian  authors  affirm,  that, 
 in  the  course  of  his  travels,  Hippocrates  spent  some 
 time  at  Damascus ;  there  is  no  authority,  however, 
 for  this,  and  the  assertion  is  altogether  destitute  of 
 probability.  An  individual  named  Andreas  or  An- 
 dron,  who  lived  under  Ptolemy  Philopator,  and  who 
 was  a  disciple  of  Herophilus,  undertook,  nearly  three 
 centuries  after  the  death  of  Hippocrates,  to  assign 
 a  very  disgraceful  motive  for  the  travels  of  this  phy- 
 sician. He  says  that  Hippocrates  was  compelled  to 
 flee  for  having  set  fire  to  the  library  at  Cnidus, 
 after  having  copied  the  best  medical  works  con- 
 tained iii  it.  Tzetzes,  agreeing  in  this  accusation, 
 states  that  it  was  the  library  at  Cos  which  became 
 a  prey  to  the  flames ;  and  Pliny,  without  charging 
 Hippocrates  with  the  deed,  and  without  speaking  of 
 any  iiifrary,  reduces  the  loss  to  that  of  a  few  votive 
 tablets,  which  were  consumed  together  with  the  tem- 
 ple of  .i'^scuiapius.  The  discrepance  of  these  state- 
 ments alone  is  sufficient  to  show  the  falsity  of  the  ac- 
 cusation. Besides,  all  contemporaneous  history  is  si- 
 lent oa  the  subject ;  nor  would  Plato  have  shown  so 
 much  esteem  for  the  physician  of  Cos,  nor  .\theiis  and 
 Greece,  in  general,  have  rendered  him  so  many  and  so 
 high  honours,  had  he  been  guiUy  of  the  disgraceful 
 trifwe  aiieged  against  him.  The  name  of  Hippocrates 
 is  etilS  keid  in  veneration  by  the  natives  of  Cos  (Stan- 
 Co),  and  they  show  a  Binall  building  which  they  pre- 
 tend wae  the  house  that  he  inhabited.  Hippocrates 
 passed  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  Thessaly,  at  La- 
 ri*«a  iii  particular,  as  well  as  at  Cranon,  Pherae,  Tric- 
 ca,  and  Meliboea,  as  appears  from  many  observations 
 Bsade  by  him  relative  to  the  maladies  of  these  different 
 
 cities.  The  period  of  his  death  is  unknown.  Sorantis 
 affirms,  that  he  ended  his  long  and  brilliant  career  in 
 his  85th  or  90th  year,  according  to  some  ;  in  his  hun- 
 dredth year,  according  to  others  ;  and  some  even  give 
 109  years  as  the  extent  of  his  existence.  The  num- 
 ber of  works  ascribed  to  Hippocrates  is  very  consid- 
 erable ;  they  are  made  by  some  to  amount  to  eighty  : 
 those,  however,  about  the  authenticity  of  which  there 
 is  no  doubt,  reduce  themselves  to  a  very  few.  Palla- 
 dius,  a  physician  of  the  6th  century  of  the  present  era, 
 who  wrote  scholia  on  the  treatise  of  Hippocrates  re- 
 specting fractures,  points  out  eleven  works  of  this 
 physician  as  alone  authentic.  One  thousand  years 
 after,  two  learned  men  turned  their  attention  to  a  crit 
 ical  review  of  the  works  of  Hippocrates;  these  were 
 Hieronymus  Mercurialis,  a  celebrated  physician  and 
 philologist  of  the  16lh  century,  and  a  native  of  Portu- 
 gal, Louis  de  Lemos.  These  two  scholars  conceived 
 the  idea,  at  the  same  period,  of  classifying  the  works 
 of  Hippocrates.  The  Paduan  professor  established 
 four  categories  of  them  :  1.  Works  in  which  the  doc- 
 trine and  style  of  this  distinguished  physician  plainly 
 present  themselves,  and  which  are  therefore  mani- 
 festly authentic.  2.  Works  written  by  Hippocrates, 
 but  published  by  his  sons  and  disciples.  3.  Works 
 composed  by  the  sons  and  disciples  of  Hippocrates, 
 but  which  are  in  conformity  with  his  doctrine.  4. 
 Works,  the  very  contents  of  which  are  not  in  accord- 
 ance with  his  doctrine.  {Ccnsura  Operum  Hippocra- 
 tis,  Venet.,  1583,  4to.)  Lemos,  after  having  criti- 
 cally examined  all  the  works  ascribed  to  Hippocrates, 
 acknowledges  only  nineteen  as  authentic.  {De  Optima 
 prcpilicandi  ratione  item  judicii  operum  magni  Hippoc- 
 ratis  liber  unus.  Salamanticcc,  1585,  12mo.)  When, 
 in  the  ISih  century,  the  critical  art,  long  neglected, 
 was  at  last  made  to  rest  on  sure  principles,  the  works 
 of  Hippocrates  were  again  subjected  to  rigorous  in- 
 vestigation. The  celebrated  Haller,  on  reprinting  a 
 Latin  translation  of  these  works,  discussed  their  au- 
 thenticity, and  allowed  only  fifteen  treatises  to  be  gen- 
 uine. Two  other  German  phvsicians,  M.M.  Gruner 
 and  Grimm  (Hippokratcs  Werke,  aus  dtm  Gr. — Ccn- 
 sura librorum  Hrppocrate^ismrn,  Vratislav,  1772,  8vo), 
 of  distinguished  reputaton,  employed  themselves 
 in  researches,  the  object  of  which  was  to  distinguish 
 what  was  authentic  from  what  was  falsely  ascribed  to 
 the  father  of  medicine.  In  pursuing  this  examina- 
 tion, they  combined  the  testimonies  of  ancient  writers 
 with  the  internal  characters  of  the  works  themselves. 
 The  result  is,  that,  according  to  Gruner,  there  exist 
 but  ten  authentic  works  of  Hippocrates,  while  Grimm 
 makes  the  number  still  less.  Linck,  a  professor  at 
 Berlin,  comes  to  a  bolder  conclusion.  He  maintains, 
 that  the  works  of  Hippocrates,  as  they  are  called,  are 
 a  mere  collection  of  pieces  by  different  authors,  who 
 all  lived  before  the  period  when  the  medical  art  flour- 
 ished at  Alexandrea.  A  full  list  of  the  works  of  Hip- 
 pocrates is  given  by  Scholl  {Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 19,  seqq.).  The  best  edition  of  all  the  works  is  that 
 of  Foesuis,  Franco/.,  1595,  fol,  reprinted  at  several 
 subsequent  periods,  and,  with  the  glossaries,  at  Gene- 
 va, in  16.57,  fol  The  edition  of  Kiihn,  in  the  Collec- 
 tion of  the  Greek  Medical  Writers  (Lips  ,  1825-1827, 
 3  vols.  8vo),  is  also  a  good  one.  In  1815  M.  de  Mer- 
 cy commenced  a  valuable  edition  of  select  works  of 
 Hippocrates,  with  a  French  translation  and  comment- 
 ary. The  learned  Coray  also  published  a  translation 
 in  French  of  the  treatise  on  Airs,  Waters,  and  I'laces, 
 at  Paris,  1801,  in  2  vols.  8vo,  enriched  with  critical, 
 historical,  and  medical  notes —"  Of  all  the  medical 
 authors,"  observes  Dr.  Adams,  '-of  ancient,  and,  I  be- 
 lieve I  may  add,  of  modern  times,  no  one  deserves  to 
 be  so  frequently  in  the  hands  of  the  student  of  medi- 
 cine as  Hippocrates  ;  for  his  works  not  only  contain 
 an  invaluable  treasure  of  practical  facts,  but  likewise 
 abound  in  preceots  inculcating  propriety  of  conduct 
 
 631 
 
H  1  P 
 
 H  I  P 
 
 and  purity  of  morals.  In  his  Oath,  he  exacts  from 
 those  who  enter  on  the  profession  a  solemn  promise 
 never  to  indulge  in  libertme  practices,  nor  to  degrade 
 their  art  by  applying  it  to  any  criminal  purposes.  In 
 his  other  works  he  is  at  great  pains  to  iniuilcate  the 
 necessity  of  attention  to  address  and  apjiarel ;  and 
 gives  particular  directions  to  assist  in  forming  a  cor- 
 rect prognostic.  With  regard  to  his  descriptions  of 
 the  phenomena  of  disease,  one  may  venture  to  affirm, 
 that  even  at  the  present  day  they  are  perfectly  unri- 
 valled. As  a  guide  to  practice,  he  may  be  followed 
 with  great  confidence  ;  for  his  indications  are  always 
 derived  from  personal  observation,  and  his  principles 
 are  never  founded  on  vague  hypothesis.  Indeed,  as 
 un  intelligent  American  author,  Dr.  Hosack,  remarks, 
 his  professional  researches  were  conducted  according 
 to  the  true  principles  of  the  Baconian  philosophy  ;  and 
 his  late  editor,  Kiihn,  relates,  that  a  zealot  for  the  Bru- 
 nonian  theory  of  medicine  was  convinced  of  its  being 
 untenable  by  an  attentive  perusal  of  the  works  of  Hip- 
 pocrates. His  treatment  of  acute  diseases  may  be 
 instanced  as  being  so  complete  that  the  experience  of 
 more  than  two  thousand  years  has  scarcely  improved 
 npon  ii.  Nay,  in  some  instances,  the  correctness  of 
 his  views  outstripped  those  of  succeeding  ages,  and 
 we  now  only  begin  to  recognise  the  projiriety  of  them. 
 Thus,  in  acute  attacks  of  anasarca,  he  approved  of 
 bloodletting,  which  is  a  mode  of  jiractice  now  ascer- 
 tained to  be  highly  beneficial  in  such  cases,  but  against 
 which  great  and  unfounded  prejudices  have  existed, 
 not  only  in  modern  times,  but  even  as  far  back  as  the 
 days  of  Galen,  who  found  great  difficulty  in  enforcing 
 the  treatment  recommended  by  Hippocrates.  In  his 
 work  on  Airs,  Places,  and  Waters,  he  has  treated  of 
 the  effects  of  the  seasons  and  of  situation  on  the  hu- 
 man form,  with  a  degree  of  accuracy  which  has  never 
 been  equalled.  His  Epidemics  contain  circumstantial 
 reports  of  febrile  cases  highly  calculated  to  illustrate 
 the  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatments  of  these  dis- 
 eases. Though  he  has  not  treated  of  the  capital  op- 
 erations of  Surgery,  which,  if  practised  at  all  in  his 
 day.  most  probably  did  not  come  within  his  province, 
 he  has  given  an  account  of  Fractures  and  Dislocations, 
 to  which  little  has  been  added  by  the  experience  of 
 after  ages.  He  has  also  left  many  important  remarks 
 upon  the  treatm"fent  of  wounds  and  ulcers,  and  the 
 American  author  alluded  to  above  ventures  to  assert, 
 that  the  surgeons  of  the  present  day  might  derive  an 
 important  lesson  from  him  on  the  use  of  the  Actual 
 Cautery.  The  following  aphorism  points  out  the  class 
 of  diseases  to  which  he  considered  this  mode  of  prac- 
 tice applicable.  '  Those  complaints  which  medicines 
 will  not  cure,  iron  will  cure  ;  what  iron  will  not  cure, 
 fire  will  cure  ;  what  fire  will  not  cure  are  utterly  in- 
 curable.' In  his  treatise  on  the  Sacred  Disease,  he 
 has  shown  himself  superior  to  the  superstition  of  his 
 age  ;  for  he  maintains  that  the  epilepsy  is  not  occa- 
 sioned by  demoniacal  influence,  but  by  actual  disease 
 of  the  brain  ;  and  he  mentions,  what  is  now  well 
 known  to  be  the  fact,  that  when  the  brains  of  sheep  or 
 goats  that  are  affected  with  this  complaint  are  opened, 
 they  are  found  to  contain  water.  Of  the  anatomical 
 treatises  attributed  to  him  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  any- 
 thing, as  it  appears  highly  [irobable  that  all,  or  most  of 
 them,  at  least,  are  not  genuine.  Dr.  Alston  counted, 
 in  his  Materia  Medica,  36  mineral.  300  vegetable,  and 
 150  animal  substances  ;  in  all  586,  and  he  could  not 
 pretend  to  have  overlooked  none.  Hippocrates  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  profoundly  skilled  in  the  principles 
 of  the  Ionian  philosophy,  of  which  lie  has  left  several 
 curious  samples.  He  has  treated  likewise  both  of  an- 
 imal and  vegetable  physiology  ;  and  Aristotle  and  The- 
 ophrastus  are  said  to  have  profited  by  his  labours  in 
 this  department  of  natural  science." 
 
 HiPPocRicNE,  a  fountain  of  Boeotia,  on  Mount  Heli- 
 con, sacred  to  the  Muses.    It  was  fabled  to  have  burst 
 632 
 
 forth  from  the  ground  when  Pegasus  struck  his  hool 
 into  the  side  of  the  mountain  ;  and  hence  tb^  name 
 applied  to  it,  'liTTroKp?/vri  or  'l7nT0VKp?'jVTj,  i.  e  ,  "/Ac 
 horse's  fountain,''''  from  tTTTrof  (genitive  Innov),  "  a 
 horse,''''  and  Kprjvrj,  ''a  fountain."  (Strut.,  410  — 
 Fausan.,   9,  31.) 
 
 HippooAMiA,  I.  a  daughter  of  ffinomaus,  king  of 
 Pisa,  in  Elis,  who  married  Pelops,  son  of  Tanialus. 
 (Vid.  Pelops,  where  the  full  legend  is  given.) — 11.  A 
 daughter  of  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos,  who  married  Pi- 
 rithoiis,  king  of  the  Lapithae.  The  festivity  v.'hich 
 prevailed  on  the  day  of  her  marriage  was  interrupted 
 by  the  violent  conduct  of  the  Centaurs,  which  led  to 
 their  conflict  with  the  Lapitha;.  ( Vid.  Cenlauri,  Lap- 
 ithffi.) 
 
 HippoLYTE,  I.  a  queen  of  the  Amazons.  She  was 
 mistress  of  the  belt  of  Mars,  ss  a  token  of  her  exceed- 
 ing all  the  Amazons  in  vaiour.  This  belt  Eurysiheus 
 coveted  for  his  daughter  Admeta,  and  he  ordered  Her- 
 cules to  bring  it  to  him.  The  hero,  having  drawn  to- 
 gether some  volunteers,  among  whom  were  Theseus, 
 Castor,  and  Pollux,  reached,  afier  some  incidental  ad- 
 ventures, the  haven  of  Themiscyra,  where  Hippolyta 
 came  to  inquire  the  cause  of  his  arrival  ;  and,  on  hear- 
 ing it,  promised  to  give  him  her  girdle.  But  Juno, 
 taking  the  form  of  an  Amazon,  went  and  persuaded 
 the  rest  that  the  strangers  were  carrying  off  their  queen. 
 They  instantly  armed,  mounted  their  horses,  and  came 
 down  to  the  ship.  Hercules,  thereupon,  thinking  that 
 Hippolyta  had  acted  treacherously,  slew  her,  and,  ta- 
 king her  belt,  made  sail  homeward.  {Apollod.,  2,  5, 
 9 — Diod.  Sic  ,  4,  16.)  Another  account  made  The- 
 seus to  have  received  Hippolyta  in  marriage  from  Her- 
 cules, and  to  have  become,  by  her,  the  father  of  Hip- 
 polytus.  (Compare  Hcyne,  ad  Apollod.,  I.  c.) — II. 
 The  wife  of  Acastus,  who  falsely  accused  Peleus, 
 while  at  her  husband's  court,  of  dishonourable  conduct. 
 {Vid.  Acastus.) 
 
 HippoLYTUs,  I.  a  son  of  Theseus  and  Hippolyte,  or, 
 according  to  others,  of  Theseus  and  Antiope.  The- 
 seus, after  the  death  of  his  first  wife,  married  Phsdra, 
 the  daughter  of  Minos,  and  sister  of  Ariadne.  This 
 princess  was  seized  with  a  violent  affection  for  the  son 
 of  the  Amazon,  an  affection  produced  by  the  wrath  of 
 Venus  against  Hippolytus,  for  neglecting  her  divinity, 
 and  for  devoting  himself  solely  to  the  service  of  Diana ; 
 or  else  against  Plia?dra  as  the  daughter  of  Pasiphae. 
 During  the  absence  of  Theseus,  the  queen  made  ad- 
 vances to  her  step-son,  which  were  indignantly  re- 
 jected by  the  virtuous  youth.  Filled  with  fear  and 
 hate,  on  the  return  of  her  husband  she  accused  his  in- 
 nocent son  of  an  attempt  on  her  honour.  Without 
 giving  the  youth  an  opportunity  of  clearing  himself, 
 the  blinded  monarch,  calling  to  mind  that  Neptune  had 
 promised  him  the  accomplishment  of  any  three  wishes 
 that  he  might  form,  cursed  and  implored  destruction 
 on  his  son  from  the  god.  As  Hippolytus,  leavinc  Troe- 
 zene.  was  driving  his  chariot  along  the  seashore,  a 
 monster,  sent  by  Neptune  from  the  deep,  terrified  his 
 horses  ;  they  burst  away  in  fury,  heedless  of  their  dri- 
 ver, dashed  the  chariot  to  pieces,  and  dragged  along 
 Hippolvtus,  entangled  in  the  reins,  till  life  abandoned 
 him.  Phaedra  ended  her  days  by  her  own  hand  ;  and 
 Theseus,  when  too  late,  learned  the  innocence  of  his 
 son.  Euripides  has  founded  a  tragedy  on  this  subject, 
 but  the  legend  assumes  a  somewhat  different  shape 
 with  him.  According  to  the  plot  of  the  piece,  Phae- 
 dra hangs  herself  in  despair  when  she  finds  that  she  is 
 slighted  by  her  step-son,  and  Theseus,  on  his  return 
 from  abroad,  finds,  when  taking  down  her  cor[)se,  a 
 writing  attached  to  it,  in  which  Pha?dra  accnsf  d  Hip- 
 polytus of  having  attempted  her  honour — According 
 to  another  legend,  ^iiseulapius  restored  Hippolytus  to 
 life,  and  Diana  transported  him,  under  the  rianie  of 
 Virbius,  to  Italy,  where  he  was  worshipped  in  the 
 grove  of  Aricia.     (Vid.  Virbius. — Apollod-.,  3,  10,  3, 
 
HIP 
 
 H  IR 
 
 — Heyne,  ad  loc. — Ovid,  Met.,  15,  492,  seqq. — Virg., 
 JEn.,  7,  761,  seqq. — Consult  Bultmann,  Mylhologus, 
 vol.  2,  p.  145,  scq.) 
 
 HippoMEDON,  a  son  of  Nisimachus  and  Mythidice, 
 was  one  of  the  seven  chiefs  that  went  against  Thebes. 
 He  was  killed  by  Ismarus,  son  of  Acastus.  {ApoUod., 
 3,  6.—Paumn.',  2,  36.) 
 
 HiPPoMENEs,  son  of  Megareus,  was,  according  to 
 some  authorities,  the  successful  suiter  of  Atalanta. 
 (Vid.  Atalanta,  and  consult  Heync,  ad  ApoUod.,  3,  9, 
 2,  and  the  authorities  there  cited.) 
 
 HippoMOLGi,  or,  more  correctly,  Hippemolgi  ('Itttd?- 
 HoTiyoi),  a  people  of  Sr.ythia,  who,  as  the  name  im- 
 ports, lived  on  the  milk  of  mares.  {Dionys.  Perieg., 
 309. —  Bernhardy,  ad  loc.) 
 
 HicpoNA,  a  goddess  who  presided  over  horses.  Her 
 statues  were  placed  in  horses'  stables.  (Juv.,  8,  157. 
 — Consult  Rupirti,  ad  loc,  who  gives  Epona  as  the 
 reading  demanded  by  the  line.) 
 
 HippoNAX,  a  Greek  poet,  who  flourished  about  the 
 60th  Olympiad,  or  540  B.C.  He  was  born  at  Ephe- 
 sus,  and  was  compelled  by  the  tyrants  Athenagoras 
 and  Comas  to  quit  his  home,  and  to  establish  him- 
 self in  another  Ionian  city,  Clazomenae.  This  politi- 
 cal persecution  (which  affords  a  presumption  of  his 
 vehement  love  of  liberty)  probably  laid  the  foundation 
 for  some  of  the  bitterness  and  disgust  with  which  he 
 regarded  mankind.  Precisely  the  same  fierce  and  in- 
 dignant scorn,  which  found  an  utterance  in  the  iam- 
 bics of  Archilochus,  is  ascribed  to  Hippona.x.  What 
 the  family  of  Lycambes  was  to  Archilochus,  Bupalus 
 (a  sculptor  belonging  to  a  family  of  Chios,  which  had 
 produced  several  generations  of  artists)  vvas  to  Hip- 
 ponax.  He  had  made  his  small,  meager,  and  ugly 
 person  the  subject  of  caricature  ;  an  insult  which  Hip- 
 ponax  avenged  in  the  bitterest  and  most  pungent  iam- 
 bics, of  which  some  remains  are  extant.  In  this  in- 
 stance, also,  the  satirist  is  said  to  have  caused  his  en- 
 emy to  hang  himself.  The  satire  of  Hipponax,  how- 
 ever, was  not  concentrated  so  entirely  on  certain  in- 
 dividuals. From  existing  fragments  it  appears  rather 
 to  have  been  founded  on  a  general  view  of  life,  taken, 
 however,  on  its  ridiculous  and  grotesque  side.  His 
 language  is  filled  with  words  taken  from  common  life, 
 such  as  the  names  of  articles  of  food  and  clothing,  and 
 of  ordinary  utensils,  current  among  the  working  peo- 
 ple. He  evidently  strives  to  make  his  iambics  local 
 pictures,  full  of  freshness,  nature,  and  homely  truth. 
 For  this  purpose,  the  change  which  Hipponax  devised 
 in  the  iambic  metre  was  as  felicitous  as  it  was  bold. 
 He  crippled  the  rapid,  agile  gait  of  the  iambus,  by 
 transforming  the  last  foot  from  an  iambic  into  a  spon- 
 dee, contrary  to  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  whole 
 mode  of  versification.  The  metre,  thus  maimed  and 
 stripped  of  its  beauty  and  regularity,  was  a  perfectly 
 appropriate  rhythmical  form  for  the  delineation  of  such 
 pictures  of  intellectual  deformity  as  Hipponax  de- 
 lighted in.  Iambics  of  this  kind  (called  choliambics, 
 or  trimeter  scazons)  are  still  more  cumbrous  and  halt- 
 ing when  the  fifth  foot  is  also  a  spondee  ;  which,  in- 
 deed, according  to  the  original  structure,  is  not  for- 
 bidden. These  were  called  broken-backed  (ischiorrho- 
 gic)  iambics,  and  a  grammarian  (ap  Tyrwkilt,  Dissert, 
 de  Babrio,  p.  17)  settles  the  dispute  (which,  accord- 
 ing to  ancient  testimony,  was  so  hard  to  decide),  how 
 far  the  innovation  of  this  kind  of  verse  ought  to  be  as- 
 cribed to  Hipponax,  and  how  far  to  another  iambogra- 
 pher,  Ananius,  by  pronouncing,  that  Ananius  invented 
 the  ischiorrhogic  variety,  and  Hipponax  the  common 
 scazon.  It  appears,  however,  from  the  fragments  at- 
 tributed to  him,  that  Hipponax  sometimes  used  the 
 spondee  in  the  fifth  place.  In  the  same  manner,  and 
 with  the  same  effect,  these  poets  also  changed  the 
 trochaic  tetrameter  by  regularly  lengthening  the  pe- 
 nultimate short  syllable.  Some  remains  of  this  kind 
 are  extant.  Hipponax  likewise  composed  pure  trime- 
 4L 
 
 ters  in  the  style  of  Archilochus ;  but  there  is  no  con- 
 clusive evidence  that  he  mixed  them  with  scazons. 
 Ananius  has  hardly  any  individual  character  in  hteraiy 
 history  distinct  from  that  of  Hipponax.  In  Alexan- 
 drea  their  poems  seem  to  have  been  regarded  as  form- 
 ing one  collection  ;  and  thus  the  criterion  by  which  to 
 determme  whether  a  particular  passage  belonged  to 
 the  one  or  the  other,  was  often  lost  or  never  existed. 
 Hence,  in  the  uncertainty  which  is  the  true  author,  the 
 same  verse  is  occasionally  ascribed  to  both  (as  in 
 Athenaeus,  14,  p.  625,  c.)  The  few  fragments  which 
 are  attributed  with  certainty  to  Ananius  are  so  com- 
 pletely in  the  tone  of  Hipponax,  that  it  would  be  a 
 vain  labour  to  attempt  to  point  out  any  characteristic 
 difference. — The  fragments  of  Hipponax  and  Ananius 
 were  edited  by  Welcker,  Gutting  ,  1817,  4to.  {Mul- 
 ler.  Hist.  Grccc.  Lit.,  p.  141,  seqq. — Philological  Mu- 
 seum, vol.  1,  p.  281.) 
 
 HiPPONiUM,  called  also  Vibo  Valentia,  a  town  of 
 Italy,  on  the  western  coast  of  the  territory  of  the  Bru- 
 tii,  southwest  from  Scylacium.  According  to  Sirabo 
 (56)  it  was  founded  by  the  Epizephyrian  Locri.  We 
 learn  from  Diodorus  (14,  107  ;  15,  24),  that  not  long 
 afterward  it  was  destroyed  by  Dionysius  the  elder,  who 
 transplanted  the  inhabitants  to  Syracuse.  It  was  re- 
 stored, however,  by  the  Carthaginians,  who  were  then 
 at  war  with  that  prince.  Subsequently  it  fell  into  the 
 hands  of  the  Brutii,  together  with  all  the  Greek  set- 
 tlements on  the  coast.  {Strab.,l.c.)  About  297  B.C., 
 Agathocles,  tyrant  of  Sicily,  seized  upon  the  harbour 
 of  Hipponium,  which  he  fortified,  and  even  succeeded 
 in  obtaining  possession  of  the  town  for  a  short  period. 
 He  vvas  soon,  however,  compelled  by  the  Brutii  to  re- 
 linquish it,  together  with  the  port.  (Diod.  Sic,  Ex- 
 cerpt., 31,  8. — Strab  ,  I.  c)  This  city  became  a  col- 
 ony of  the  Romans,  A.U.C.  560,  and  took  the  name 
 of  Vibo  Valentia.  (Liv.,  35,  40.)  Antiquaries  and 
 topographers  are  generally  of  opinion  that  the  modern 
 town  of  Monte  Leone  represents  the  ancient  Hipponi- 
 um, and  they  recognise  its  haven  in  the  present  har- 
 bour of  J5«yo«a.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  420.) 
 HippopoDEs,  a  people  of  Scythia,  who  were  fabled 
 to  have  horses''  feet  {'innov  TroJof),  whence  their  name. 
 The  Hippopodes  are  mentioned  by  Dionysius  Periege- 
 tes,  Mela,  Pliny,  and  St.  Augustine.  The  truth  ap- 
 pears to  be,  that  they  had  this  appellation  given  ihena 
 on  account  of  their  swiftness  of  foot.  (Dionys.  Pe- 
 rieg., 310.— i¥f/(7,  3,  6,  83.) 
 
 HiRA  or  Ai,Ex.\NDRE.4,  now  Mesjid-ali,  or  Meham- 
 ali,  a  town  of  Asia  in  Babylonia,  situate  on  a  lake,  a 
 short  distance  from  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates. 
 It  was  the  residence  of  a  dynasty  of  princes  who  aided 
 the  Persians  and  Parthians  against  the  Romans.  They 
 are  called  in  history  by  the  general  name  of  Alainun- 
 dari,  after  the  term  Al-Mondar,  common  to  many  of 
 these  princes  at  the  fall  of  their  dynasty  under  the  Mo- 
 hammedan power.  The  body  of  Ali  was  here  inter- 
 red ;  and  hence,  from  the  sepulchre  of  the  calif,  came 
 the  modern  name.  {Bischoff  und  Moller,  Wiirterb. 
 der  Geogr.,  p.  615.) 
 
 HiRPiNi,  a  people  of  Italy,  who  formed  a  part  of  the 
 Samnites,  and  were  situate  to  the  south  of  Samnium 
 Proper.  As  the  term  Hirpus  signified  in  the  Sain- 
 nite  dialect  a  wolf,  they  are  said  to  have  been  thus 
 called  from  their  having  followed  the  tracks  of  thess 
 animals  in  migrating  to  this  quarter.  Towards  the 
 end  of  the  second  Punic  war  they  began  to  be  distiri- 
 guished  from  the  rest  of  the  Samnites.  Their  terri- 
 tory comprehended  the  towns  of  Boneventum,  Caudi- 
 um,  .Abellinum,  and  Compsa.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  248.) 
 
 HiRTins  Aui-us,  a  Roman  of  a  distinguished  family. 
 He  applied  himself  in  early  life  to  the  study  of  rheto- 
 ric,  and  spoke  on  several  occasions  with  great  success. 
 He  followed  Ciesar  in  the  war  against  the  Gauls,  and 
 merited  the  esteem  of  that  great  captain.     On  his  re- 
 
 633 
 
HIS 
 
 HISPANIA. 
 
 turn  from  this  expedition,  be  eagerly  courted  the  friend- 
 ship of  Cicero,  and  accompanied  him  in  his  retreat  to 
 Tusculum.  Here  he  exercised  himself  in  declama- 
 tion, under  the  eyes  of  this  illustrious  orator,  who 
 speaks  highly  of  his  talents  in  many  of  his  letters,  and 
 particularly  in  that  addressed  to  Volumnius  (8,  32). 
 Cicero  sent  Hirtius  to  Caesar,  on  the  return  of  the  lat- 
 ter from  Africa,  with  the  view  of  bringing  about  a  rec- 
 onciliation with  the  dictator,  whom  the.  orator  had  of- 
 fended by  the  freedom  of  some  of  his  discourses. 
 Hirtius,  either  from  affection  or  gratitude,  was  always 
 attached  to  the  party  of  CaBsar  ;  but  after  the  death  of 
 the  dictator,  he  declared  against  Antony.  —  Being  cre- 
 ated consul  elect  along  with  C.  Vibius  Pansa,  he  fell 
 sick  soon  after  his  election,  and  Cicero  informs  us 
 {Phil.,  37),  that  the  people  testified  the  warmest  con- 
 cern in  his  recovery.  Hirtius  was  scarcely  restored 
 to  health,  when  he  set  out  with  his  colleague  to  attack 
 Antony,  who  was  besieging  Brutus  in  Mutina,  now 
 Modena.  They  gained  a  victory  over  Antony,  near 
 the  city,  B.C.  43  ;  but  Hirtius  fell  in  the  battle,  and 
 Pansa  died  a  few  days  after  of  his  wounds.  The  re- 
 port was  spread  abroad,  that  Octavius  had  caused  the 
 two  consuls  to  be  poisoned  in  order  to  appropriate 
 to  himself  all  the  glory  of  the  day.  {Sueton.,  Vit. 
 Aug.,  11.) — It  cannot  be  affirmed  with  any  degree  of 
 certainty  that  Hirtius  was  the  author  of  the  continua- 
 tion of  Ccesar's  Cominentanes  which  commonly  goes 
 by  his  name.  Even  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Sueto- 
 nius, great  difference  of  opinion  prevailed  on  this  point ; 
 some,  according  to  that  writer,  attributing  the  contin- 
 uation in  question  to  Oppius,  and  others  to  Hirtius  : 
 the  latter  opinion,  however,  has,  in  general,  gained  the 
 ascendancy.  This  continuation  forms  the  eighth  book 
 of  the  Gallic  war.  The  author  addresses  himself,  in  a 
 letter,  to  Balbus,  in  which  he  apologizes  for  having 
 presumed  to  termitjate  a  work  so  perfect  in  its  nature, 
 that  Cajsar  seems  to  have  had  in  view,  in  composing 
 it,  not  so  much  the  collecting  together  of  materials,  as 
 the  leaving  a  model  of  composition  to  historical  wri- 
 ters. We  learn  by  the  same  letter,  that  the  book  on 
 the  Alexandrine  War,  and  that  on  the  African  War, 
 proceeded  from  the  same  pen  ;  and  these  three  works, 
 in  a  style  at  once  simple  and  elegant,  do  not  appear 
 unworthy  of  the  friend  of  Caesar  and  Cicero.  We 
 have  also,  under  the  name  of  Hirtius,  a  book  on  the 
 Spanish  War,  so  inferior  to  the  preceding  that  judi- 
 cious critics  regard  it  as  the  mere  journal  of  a  soldier, 
 who  was  an  eyewitness  of  the  events  which  he  relates 
 (Biogr.  Unit).,  vol.  20,  p.  423,  seqq. — Bizhr,  Gcsch. 
 Rdm.  Lit  ,  vol.  1,  p.  360.) 
 
 HispIlis,  a  famous  city  of  Spain,  situate  on  the 
 B«t!s,  and  corresponding  to  the  modern  Seville. 
 Mannert  thinks  that  it  was  the  same  as  the  ancient 
 Tarlessus.  (Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  312.)  The  name  is 
 supposed  to  be  of  Phoenician  orij^in,  and,  according  to 
 Isidorus,  has  reference  to  the  city's  being  founded  on 
 piles  or  slakes  of  wood,  on  account  of  the  insecurity 
 of  the  ground  where  it  stood,  {hidor.,  bb.  etymol., 
 15,  I.)  Some  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  place  to  Her- 
 cules ;  probably,  however,  it  was  a  Phoenician  colony. 
 It  was  a  place  of  great  commerce,  the  Bastis  being 
 navigable  in  ancient  times  for  the  largest  ships  up  to 
 the  city.  Ni>w,  however,  vessels  drawing  more  than 
 ten  feet  of  water  are  compelled  to  unload  eight  miles 
 below  the  town,  and  the  largest  vessels  stop  at  the 
 mouth  of  the  river.  When  Hispalis  became  a  Roman 
 colony,  the  name  was  changed  to  Julia  Romulensis. 
 (Cczs.,  B.  C,  2,  18  —/i..  Hell.  Hisp  ,  27,  3.5,  seqq. 
 Isidor,  Chrnn.  Goth  ,  p.  168. — hi  .  Chron.  Vand.,  p. 
 176.  — H.,  Hist.  Siuv.,ip.  180.— Pliii.,  3,  1.) 
 
 H(sp.4nIa,  an  extensive  country,  forming  a  kind  of 
 peninsula,  in  the  southwest  of  Europe.  It  was  bound- 
 ed on  the  north  by  the  Pyrenees  and  Sinus  Cantabri- 
 cua  or  Bai/  of  Biscay,  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic. 
 on  the  south  by  the  Atlantic,  Prelum  Herculeum  or 
 6:H 
 
 Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  the  Mediterranean,  which 
 last  bounds  it  also  on  the  east.  Many  conjectures  have 
 been  formed  concerning  the  origin  of  the  name  Hispa- 
 7iia.  Bochart  (Geogr.  Sacr. — Phaleg.,  3,  7)  derives 
 its  name  from  the  Phojnician  (or  Hebrew)  saphan,  "a 
 rabbit,"  from  the  vast  numbers  of  those  animals  which 
 the  country  was  found  by  the  early  Phoenician  colo- 
 nists to  contain.  (Compare  Catullus,  37,  18. —  Varro, 
 R.  R.,3,  12.— jEhan,  de  An.,  13,  \5.—Plin.,  8,  29, 
 &c. — Bochnrl,  Geogr.  Sacr.  Canaan.,  1,  35.)  Others 
 deduce  the  name  in  question  from  the  Phoenician  span, 
 "  concealed,"  and  consider  it  as  referring  to  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  the  country's  being  little  known  at  an 
 early  period  to  the  Phoenician  traders.  Neither  of 
 these  etymologies  is  of  much  value,  though  the  former 
 is  certainly  the  better  of  the  two.  It  would  seem  to 
 have  been  adopted  by  the  Romans,  as  appears  from  a 
 medal  of  Hadrian,  on  which  Spain  is  represented  by 
 the  figure  of  a  woman  with  a  rabbit  at  her  side. 
 (Flares,  Medalles  de  Espania,  vol.  1,  p.  109.)  The 
 Romans  borrowed  the  name  Hispania,  appending  their 
 own  termination  to  it,  from  the  Phoenicians,  through 
 whom  they  first  became  acquainted  with  the  country. 
 The  Greeks  called  it  Iberia,  but  attached  at  different 
 periods  different  ideas  to  the  name.  Up  to  the  time 
 of  the  Achaean  league  and  their  more  intimate  ac- 
 quaintance with  the  Romans,  they  understood  by  this 
 name  all  the  seacoast  from  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to 
 the  mouth  even  of  the  Rhodanus  or  Rhone  in  Gaul. 
 {Scyliix,  p.  I,  seqq. — Scymnus  Chius,  v.  198. — Poly- 
 bins,  3,  37. — Strabo,  1 16. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 233.)  The  coast  of  Spain  on  the  Atlantic  they  called 
 Tartessis.     {Scymnus  Chius,  v.  164,  v.  198. — Herod., 
 
 1,  163.)  The  interior  of  the  country  they  termed  Cel- 
 tice  (Kf/lrt/c?/),  a  name  which  they  applied,  in  fact,  to 
 the  whole  northwestern  part  of  Europe.  {Aristot.,  de 
 Mundo.  —  Opp.,  ed.  Duval,  vol.  1,  p.  850.)  The 
 Greeks  in  after  ages  understood  by  Iberia  the  whole 
 of  Spain.  The  name  Iberia  is  derived  from  the  Iberi, 
 of  whom  the  Greeks  had  heard  as  one  of  the  most 
 powerful  nations  of  the  country.  The  origin  of  the 
 ancient  population  of  Spain  is  altogether  uncertain. 
 Some  suppose  that  a  colony  first  settled  on  the  shores 
 of  this  country  from  the  island  of  Atlantis ;  an  as- 
 sumption as  probable  as  the  opinion  supported  by  sev 
 eral  Spanish  authors,  that  the  first  inhabitants  were 
 descended  from  Tubal,  a  son  of  Noah,  who  landed  in 
 Spain  twenty-two  centuries  before  the  Christian  era. 
 The  Iberi,  according  to  the  ancient  writers,  were  di- 
 vided into  six  tribes ;  the  Cynetes,  Gletes,  Tartessii, 
 Elbysinii,  Mastieni,  and  Calpiani.  {Herodori,  fragm. 
 ap.  Const.  Porphyrog.  de  adm.  Imp.,  2,  23. — Compare 
 Steph.  Byz.,  ed.  Berkel,  p.  408. — Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 
 2,  pt.  1,  p.  252.)  Diodorus  Siculus  (5,  31,  seqq.) 
 mentions  the  invasion  of  Spain  by  the  Celts.  The 
 Iberi  made  war  against  them  for  a  long  time,  but,  after 
 an  obstinate  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  natives,  the  two 
 people  entered  into  an  agreement,  according  to  which 
 they  were  to  possess  the  country  in  common,  bear  the 
 same  name,  and  remain  for  ever  united  ;  such,  says  the 
 same  historian,  was  the  origin  of  the  Celtiberi  in  Spain. 
 These  warlike  people,  continues  Diodorus,  were  equally 
 formidalile  as  cavalry  and  infantry  ;  for,  when  the  horse 
 had  broken  the  enemy's  ranks,  the  men  dismounted 
 and  fought  on  foot.  Their  dress  consisted  of  a  sagitm, 
 or  coarse  woollen  mantle  ;  they  wore  greaves  made  of 
 hair,  an  iron  helmet  adorned  with  a  red  feather,  a  round 
 buckler,  and  a  broad  two-edged  sword,  of  so  fine  a  tem- 
 per as  to  pierce  through  the  enemy's  armour,  .\lthough 
 they  boasted  of  cleanliness  both  in  their  nourishment 
 and  their  dress,  it  was  not  unusual  for  them  to  wash 
 their  teeth  and  bodies  with  urine,  a  custom  which 
 they  considered  favourable  to  health.  Their  habitual 
 drink  was  a  sort  of  hydromel  ;  wine  was  brought  into 
 the  country  by  foreign  merchants.  The  land  was 
 equally  distributed,  and  the   harvests  were  divided 
 
HISPANIA. 
 
 HISPANIA. 
 
 among  all  the  citizens  ;  the  law  punished  with  death 
 the  person  who  appropriated  more  than  his  just  share. 
 They  were  hospitable  ;  nay,  they  considered  it  a  spe- 
 cial favour  to  entertain  a  stranger,  being  convinced 
 that  the  presence  of  a  foreigner  called  down  the  pro- 
 tection of  the  gods  on  the  family  that  received  him. 
 They  sacrificed  human  victims  to  their  divinities,  and 
 the  priests  pretended  to  read  future  events  in  the  pal- 
 pitating entrails.  At  every  full  moon,  according  to 
 Strabo,  they  celebrated  the  festival  of  a  god  without  a 
 name  ;  from  this  circumstance,  their  religion  has  been 
 considered  a  corrupt  deism.  —  The  Phoenicians  were 
 the  first  people  who  established  colonies  on  the  coast 
 of  Spain  :  Tartessus  was  perhaps  the  most  ancient  ; 
 at  a  later  period  they  founded  Gadcs,  now  Cadiz,  on 
 the  isle  of  Leon.  They  carried  on  there  a  very  lucra- 
 tive trade,  inasmuch  as  it  was  unknown  to  other  na- 
 tions ;  but,  in  time,  the  Rhodians,  the  Samians,  the 
 PhocaBans,  and  other  Greeks  established  factories  on 
 difierent  parts  of  the  coast.  Carthage  had  been  found- 
 ed by  the  Phoenicians  ;  but  the  inhabitants,  regardless 
 of  their  connexion  with  that  people,  took  possession  of 
 the  Phosnician  stations,  and  conquered  the  whole  of 
 maritime  Spain.  The  government  of  these  republi- 
 cans was  still  less  supportable  :  the  Carthaginians  were 
 unable  to  form  any  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Span- 
 iards in  the  interior  ;  their  rapine  and  cruelly  excited 
 the  indignation  of  the  natives.  The  ruin  of  Carthage 
 paved  the  way  to  new  invaders,  and  Spain  was  con- 
 sidered a  Roman  province  two  centuries  before  the 
 Christian  era.  Those  who  had  been  the  allies  became 
 masters  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  manners,  customs, 
 and  even  language  of  the  conquerors  were  introduced 
 into  the  peninsula.  But  Rome  paid  dearly  for  her 
 conquest  ;  the  north,  or  the  present  Old  Castile,  Ara- 
 gon,  and  Catalonia,  were  constantly  in  a  state  of  revolt ; 
 the  mountaineers  shook  ofi"  the  yoke,  and  it  was  not 
 before  the  reign  of  Augustus  that  the  country  was 
 wholly  pubdued.  The  peninsula  was  then  divided  into 
 Hispania  Ckcnor  and  Ulterior.  Hispania  Citerior 
 was  also  called  Tarraconensis,  from  Tarraco,  its  cap- 
 ital, and  extended  from  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
 mouth  of  the  Durius  or  Douro,  on  the  Atlantic  shore; 
 comprehending  all  the  north  of  Spain,  together  with 
 the  south  as  far  as  a  line  drawn  below  Carthago  Nova 
 or  Cart.hagcna,  and  continued  in  an  oblique  direction 
 to  Salamantica  or  Salamanca,  on  the  Durius.  His- 
 pania Ulterior  was  divided  into  two  provinces;  Bajtica, 
 on  the  south  of  Spain,  between  the  Anas  or  Gaudiana, 
 and  Citerior,  and  above  it  Lusitania,  corresponding  in 
 a  great  degree,  though  not  entirely,  to  modern  Portu- 
 gal. In  the  age  of  Dioclesian  and  Constantine,  Tar- 
 raconensis was  subdivided  into  a  province  towards  the 
 limits  of  Bsetica,  and  adjacent  to  the  Mediterranean, 
 called  Carlhaginiensis,  from  its  chief  city  Carthago 
 Nova,  and  another,  north  of  Lusitania,  called  Gallscia 
 from  the  Callaici.  The  province  of  Lusitania  was 
 partly  peopled  by  the  Cynctes  or  Cynesii,  the  earliest 
 inhabitants  of  Algarve.  The  Celtici  possessed  the 
 land  between  the  Guadiana  (Anas)  and  the  Tagus. 
 The  country  round  the  mountains  of  Credos  belonged 
 to  the  Vettones,  a  people  that  passed  from  a  state 
 of  inactivity  and  repose  to  the  vicissitudes  and  hard- 
 ships of  war.  The  Lusitani,  a  nation  of  freebooters, 
 were  settled  in  the  middle  of  Estremadura :  thev 
 were  distinguished  by  their  activity  and  patience  of 
 fatigue  ;  their  food  was  flour  and  sweet  acorns  ;  beer 
 was  their  common  beverage.  They  were  swift  in 
 the  race  ;  they  had  a  martial  dance,  which  the  men 
 danced  while  they  advanced  to  battle. — The  part  of 
 B:i'tica  near  the  Mediterranean  was  peopled  by  the 
 Bistuli  Pceni.  The  Turduli  inhabited  the  shores  of 
 the  ocean,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Bsetis.  The  Bajturi 
 dwelt  on  the  Montes  Mariani,  and  the  Turdetani  in- 
 habited the  southern  declivities  of  the  Sierra  d'Aracena. 
 The  last  people,  more  enlightened  than  any  other  in 
 
 Baetica,  were  skilled  in  different  kinds  of  industry  long 
 before  their  neighbours.     When  the  Phoenicians  ar- 
 rived on  their  coasts,  silver  was  so  common  amonj' 
 them   that   their  ordinary  utensils  were  made  of  it. 
 What  was  afterward  done  by  the  Spaniards  in  Amer 
 ica  was  then  done  by  the  Phosnicians  in  Spain  :  thej 
 exchanged  iron  and  other  articles  of  little  value  for  sil 
 ver  ;  nay,  if  ancient  authors  can  be  credited,  they  nol 
 only  loaded  their  ships  with  the  same  metal,  but  i\\ 
 their  anchors  at  any  time  gave  way,  others  of  silver 
 were  used  in  their  places. — The  people  in  Gallscia,  a  : 
 subdivision  of  Tarraconensis,  were,  the  Artabri,  who  ' 
 derived  their  name  from  the  promontory  of  Artabruin, 
 now  Cape  Finisterre  ;  the  Bracari,  whose  chief  town 
 was  Bracara,  the  present  Braga ;  and,  lastly,  the  Lu- 
 cences,  the  capital  of  whose  country  was  Lucus  Au- 
 gusti,    now    Lugo.     These   tribes    and    some    others 
 formed  the  nation  of  the  Callaici  or  Callspci,  who,  ac- 
 cording to  the  ancients,  had  no  religious  notions.    The 
 Astures,  now  the  Asturians,  inhabited  the  banks  of  the 
 Asturis,  or  the  country  on  the  east  of  the  Gallaecian 
 mountains.     Their  capital  was  Asturica  Augusta,  now 
 Astorga.     The  Vaccaei,  the  least  barbarous  of  the  Cel- 
 tiberians,  cultivated    the  country  on  the  east  of  the 
 Astures.     The  fierce  Cantabri  occupied  Biscay  and 
 part  of  Asturias  :  it  was  customary  for  two  to  mount 
 on  the  same  horse  when  they  went  to  battle.     The 
 Vascones,  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Gascons,  were 
 settled  on  the  north  of  the  Iherus  or  Ebro.     The  Jace- 
 tani  were  scattered  over  the  Pyrenaean  declivities  of 
 Aragon.     The  brave  Ilergetes  resided  in  the  country 
 round  Lerida.     As  to  the  country  on  the  east  of  these 
 tribes,  the  whole  of  Catalonia  was  peopled  by  the  Ce- 
 retani,  Indigetes,  Ausetani,  Cosetani,  and  others.    The 
 lands  on  the  south  of  the  Ebro  were  inhabited  by  the 
 Arevaci  and  Pelendones  ;  the  former  were  so  called 
 from  the  river  Areva  ;   they  were  settled  in  the  neigh- 
 bourhood o{  Arevola,  and  in  the  province  of  Segovia: 
 the  latter  possessed  the  high  plains  of  Soria  and  Mon- 
 cayo.     The  space  between  the  mountains  of  Alhara- 
 cino  and  the  river  was  peopled  by  the  Edetani,  one  of 
 the  most  powerful  tribes  of  Spain.     The  Ilercaones, 
 who  were  not  less  formidable,  inhabited  an  extensive 
 district  between  the  upper  Jucar  and  the  lower  Ebro. 
 The  country  of  the  Carpetani,  or  the  space  from  the 
 Guadiana  to  the  Somo-Sierra,  forms  at  present  the 
 archiepiscopal    see  of  Toledo.      The  people  on    the 
 south  of  the  last  were  the  Orctani,  between  the  Gua- 
 diana and  the  Montes  Mariani ;    and  the  Oicades,  a 
 small  tribe  near  the  confluence  of  the  Gabriel  and  Ju- 
 car.    Carthaginiensis,  a  subdivision  of  Tarraconensis, 
 was  inhabited  by  two  tribes  :  the  Bastitani,  in  the  cen- 
 tre of  Murcia,  who  often  made  incursions  into  Bselica; 
 and  the  Contestant  who  possessed  the  two  banks  of 
 the  Segura,  near  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  from 
 Cape  Palos  to  the  Jucar. — In  time  of  peace,  says  Di- 
 odorus  Siculus,  the  Iberi  and  Lusitani  amused  them- 
 selves in  a  lively  and  light  dance,  which  required  mnch 
 activity.     The  ancient  writer  alludes,  perhaps,  to  the 
 fandango,  a  dance  of  which  the  origin    is  unknown. 
 An  assembly,  composed  of  old  Celtiberians,  was  held 
 every  year  ;   it  was  part  of  their  duty  to  examine  what 
 the  women  had  made  with  their  own  hands  within  the 
 twelvemonth,  and    to  her  whose  work   the  assembly 
 thought  the  best  a  reward  was  given.     An  ancient  au- 
 thor mentions  that  singular  custom,  and  adds,  that  cor- 
 pulency was  considered  a  reproach  by  the  same  peo- 
 ple ;   for,  in  order  to  preserve  their  bodies  light  and 
 active,  the  men  were  measured  every  year  by  a  cinc- 
 ture of  a  certain  breadth,  and  some  sort  of  punishment 
 was  inflicted    on  those  who  had    become    loo    large. 
 (Nic.   Damasc,  frag.  ap.   Cons/.   Forphyrog.)     The 
 age  for  marriage  was  fi.xed  by  law  ;    the  girls  chost 
 their  husbands  from  among  the  young  warriors,  and  the 
 best  means  of  obtaining  the  preference  was  to  present 
 the  fair  one  with  the  head  of  an  enemy  slain  m  battle. 
 
 635 
 
H  IS 
 
 HOM 
 
 Strabo  enters  into  some  details  concerning  the  dress 
 of  the  ancient  Spaniards.  The  Lusitani  covered  them- 
 selves with  black  mantles,  because  their  sheep  were 
 mostly  of  that  colour.  The  Celliberian  women  wore 
 iron  collars,  with  rods  of  the  same  metal  rising  behind, 
 and  bent  in  front ;  to  these  rods  was  attached  the  veil, 
 their  usual  ornament.  Others  wore  a  sort  of  broad 
 turban,  and  some  twisted  their  hair  round  a  small  ring 
 about  a  foot  above  the  head,  and  from  the  ring  was 
 appended  a  black  veil.  Lastly,  a  shining  forehead  was 
 considered  a  great  beauty  ;  on  that  account  they  pull- 
 ed out  their  hair  and  rubbed  their  brows  with  oil. — 
 The  different  tribes  were  confounded  while  the  Ro- 
 mans oppressed  the  country  ;  but,  in  the  beginning  of 
 the  fifth  century,  the  Suevi,  V^andals,  and  Visigoths 
 invaded  the  Peninsula,  and,  mixing  wiih  the  Celts  and 
 Iberians,  produced  the  different  races  which  the  phys- 
 iologist still  observes  in  Spain.  The  first-mentioned 
 people,  or  Suevi,  descended  the  Durius  or  Ducro  under 
 the  conduct  of  Ermeric,  and  chose  Braga  for  the  cap- 
 ital of  their  kingdom.  Genseric  led  his  Vandals  to 
 the  centre  of  the  peninsula,  and  fixed  his  residence  at 
 Toletum  or  Toledo  ;  but  fifteen  years  had  not  elapsed 
 after  the  settlement  of  the  barbarous  horde,  when  The- 
 odoric,  conquered  by  Clovis,  abandoned  Tolosa  or 
 Toulouse,  penetrated  into  Spain,  and  compelled  the 
 Vandals  to  fly  into  Africa.  During  the  short  period 
 that  the  Vandals  remained  in  the  countrv,  the  ancient 
 province  of  Bstica  was  called  Vandalousia,  and  all  the 
 country,  from  the  Ebro  to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  sub- 
 mitted to  them.  The  ancient  Celtiberians,  who  had 
 so  long  resisted  the  Romans,  made  then  no  struggle 
 for  liberty  or  independence  ;  they  yielded  without  re- 
 sistance to  their  new  masters.  Powers  and  privileges 
 were  the  portion  of  the  Gothic  race,  and  the  title  of 
 hijo  del  Goda,  or  the  son  of  the  Goth,  which  the  Span- 
 iards changed  into  hidalgo,  became  the  title  of  a  noble 
 or  a  free  and  powerful  man  among  a  people  of  slaves. 
 A  number  of  petty  and  almost  independent  stales  were 
 formed  by  the  chiefs  of  the  conquering  tribes ;  but  the 
 barons  or  freemen  acknowledged  a  liege  lord.  Spain 
 and  Portugal  were  thus  divided,  and  the  feudal  sys- 
 tem was  thus  established.  Among  the  Visigoths, 
 however,  the  crown  was  not  hereditary,  or,  at  least, 
 the  law  of  regular  succession  was  often  set  at  defiance 
 by  usurpers.  The  sovereign  authority  was  limited  by 
 the  assemblies  of  the  great  vassals,  some  of  whom 
 were  very  powerful  ;  indeed,  the  Count  Julian,  to 
 avenge  himself  on  King  Roderic  for  an  outrage  com- 
 mitted on  his  daughter,  delivered  Spain  to  the  Moham- 
 medan yoke.  {MaUe-Bru7i,  Geog.,  vol.  8,  p.  18,  seqq., 
 Am.  ed.) 
 
 HisTi^A.      Vid.  Oreus. 
 
 HisTi^oTis.      Vid   Estiajotis. 
 
 HrsTi^Eus,  a  tyrant  of  Miletus,  who,  when  the 
 Scythians  had  almost  persuaded  the  Ionian  princes  to 
 destroy  the  bridge  over  the  Ister,  in  order  that  the 
 Persian  army  might  perish,  opposed  the  plan,  and  in- 
 duced them  to  abandon  the  design.  His  argument 
 was,  that  if  the  Persian  army  were  destroyed,  and  the 
 power  of  Darius  brought  to  an  end,  a  popular  govern- 
 ment would  be  established  in  every  Ionian  city,  and 
 tke  tyrants  expelled.  He  was  held  in  high  estimation 
 on  this  account  by  Darius,  and  rewarded  with  a  grant 
 of  land  in  Thrace.  But  Megabyzus  having  convinced 
 the  king  that  it  was  bad  policy  to  permit  a  Grecian 
 settlement  in  Thrace,  Darius  induced  Histisus,  who 
 was  already  founding  a  city  there,  to  come  to  Susa, 
 havincr  allured  him  by  magnificent  promises.  Here 
 he  was  detained  under  various  pretences,  the  king  be- 
 inc  afraid  of  his  influence  and  turbulent  spirit  at  home. 
 HistiaBus,  tired  of  this  restraint,  urged,  by  means  of 
 secret  messengers,  his  nephew  Aristagoras  to  effect  a 
 revolt  of  the  lonians.  This  was  done,  and  Histiajus 
 was  sent  by  Darius  to  stop  the  revolt.  Availing  him- 
 self of  the  earliest  opportunity  of  escape,  he  passed 
 636 
 
 over  to  the  side  of  the  Greeks,  and  eventually  'jbtaiii- 
 ed  the  command  of  a  small  squadron  of  eight  triremes, 
 with  which  he  sailed  to  Byzantium.  But  the  subju- 
 gation of  Ionia  by  the  arms  of  Persia  was  soon  effect- 
 ed, and  Histiaeus  himself  did  not  long  survive  the  mis- 
 ery he  had  brought  upon  his  countrymen.  Having 
 made  a  descent  on  the  Persian  territory,  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  reaping  the  harvest  in  the  vale  of  the  Caicus, 
 he  was  surprised  and  routed  by  Harpagus,  a  Persian 
 commander,  who  happened  to  be  at  hand  with  a  con- 
 siderable force  ;  and,  being  taken  prisoner,  was  led  to 
 Artaphernes,  the  king's  satrap  in  that  quarter,  who  or- 
 dered him  to  be  crucified,  and  sent  his  head  to  Susa. 
 (Hcrodot.,  4,  137.  —  Id.,  5,  11,  seqq.  —  Thniu-aWs 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  222,  seq.) 
 
 HoMERUs,  a  celebrated  Greek  poet,  whose  life  is 
 involved  in  great  obscurity.  The  only  accounts  which 
 have  been  preserved  on  this  subject  are  a  few  popular 
 traditions,  together  with  conjectures  of  the  grammari- 
 ans founded  on  inferences  from  different  passages  of 
 his  poems;  yet  even  these,  if  examined  with  patience 
 and  candour,  furnish  some  materials  for  arriving  at 
 probable  results.  With  regard  to  the  native  country 
 of  Homer,  the  traditions  do  not  differ  so  much  as 
 might  at  first  view  appear  to  be  the  case.  Although 
 seven  cities  contended  for  the  honour  of  having  given 
 birth  to  the  great  poet,  the  claims  of  many  of  them 
 were  only  indirect.  Thus  the  Athenians  only  laid 
 claim  to  Homer  from  their  having  been  the  founders  of 
 Smyrna,  as  is  clearly  expressed  in  the  epigram  on  Pis- 
 istratus  contained  in  Bekker's  Anecdota  (vol.  2,  p. 
 768),  and  the  opinion  of  Aristarchus,  the  Alexandrean 
 critic,  which  admitted  their  claim,  was  probably  quali- 
 fied with  the  same  explanation.  This  opinion  is  brief- 
 ly stated  by  the  pseudo-Plutarch  {Tit.  Horn.,  2,  2). 
 Even  Chios  cannot  establish  its  right  to  be  considered 
 as  the  original  source  of  the  Homeric  poetry,  although 
 the  claims  of  this  Ionic  island  are  supported  by  the 
 high  authority  of  the  lyric  poet  Simonides  (ap.  Pseu- 
 do-Plutarch, 2,  2.)  It  is  true  that  in  Chios  lived 
 the  race  of  the  Homerids,  who,  from  the  analogy  of 
 other  yhn],  or  races,  are  to  be  considered  not  as  a 
 family,  but  as  a  society  of  persons,  who  followed  the 
 same  art,  and  therefore  worshipped  the  same  gods,  and 
 placed  at  their  head  a  hero,  from  whom  they  derived 
 their  name.  {Niebuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  note  747.) 
 A  member  of  this  house  of  Homeridse  was  probably 
 "the  blind  poet,"  who,  in  the  Homeric  hymn  to  Apol- 
 lo, relates  of  himself,  that  he  dwelt  on  the  rocky  Chios, 
 whence  he  crossed  to  Delos  for  the  festival  of  the  lo- 
 nians and  the  contests  of  the  poets,  and  whom  Thu- 
 cydides  (3,  104)  took  for  Homer  himself;  a  supposi- 
 tion which  at  least  shows  that  this  great  historian  con- 
 sidered Chios  as  the  dwellipg-place  of  Homer.  But, 
 notwithstanding  the  ascertained  existence  of  this  clan 
 of  Homeridae  at  Chios  ;  nay,  if  we  even,  with  Thucyd- 
 ides,  take  the  blind  man  of  the  hymn  for  Homer  him- 
 self, it  would  not  follow  that  Chios  was  the  birthplace 
 of  Homer  ;  indeed,  the  ancient  writers  have  reconciled 
 these  accounts  by  representing  Homer  as  having,  in 
 his  wanderings,  touched  at  Chios,  and  afterwerd  fixed 
 his  residence  there.  A  notion  of  this  kind  is  evident- 
 ly implied  in  Pindar's  statements,  who  in  one  place 
 called  Homer  a  Smyrnean  by  origin,  in  another  a  Chian 
 and  Smyrnean.  {Bbckh,  Pind.,  Fragm.  inc.,  86.) 
 The  same  idea  is  also  indicated  in  the  passage  of  an 
 orator  incidentally  cited  by  Aristotle ;  which  says, 
 that  the  Chians  greatly  honoured  Homer,  although  he 
 was  not  a  citizen.  {Aristot.,  Rhet.,  2,  23.)  On  the 
 other  hand,  the  opinion  that  Homer  was  a  Smyrnean 
 not  only  appears  to  have  been  the  prevalent  belief  in 
 the  flourishing  times  of  Greece,  but  is  supported  by 
 the  two  following  considerations:  first,  the  important 
 fact  that  it  appears  in  the  form  of  a  popular  legend,  a 
 7nylhus,  the  divine  poet  being  called  a  son  of  a  nymph, 
 Cntheis,   and   the  Smyrnean  river  Meles  ;   secondly, 
 
HOMERUS. 
 
 HOMERUS. 
 
 that,  by  assuming  Smyrna  as  the  central  point  of  Ho- 
 mer's life  and  celebrity,  the  claims  of  ail  the  other  cities 
 which  rest  on  good  authority,  may  be  explained  and 
 reconciled  in  a  simple  and  natural  maimer. — If  one 
 may  venture  to  follow  the  faint  light  afforded  by  the 
 dawnings  of  tradition,  and  by  the  memorials  that  have 
 come  down  to  us  relative  to  the  origm  of  the  bard,  the 
 followuig  may  be  considered  as  the  sum  of  our  inqui- 
 ries. Homer  was  an  Ionian,  belonging  to  one  of  the 
 families  which  went  from  Ephesus  to  Smyrna,  at  a 
 time  when  ^Eolians  and  Achseans  composed  the  chief 
 part  of  the  population  of  the  city,  and  when,  more- 
 over, their  hereditary  traditions  respecting  the  expedi- 
 tion of  the  Greeks  against  Troy  excited  the  greatest 
 interest;  whence  he  reconciles,  in  his  poetical  capaci- 
 ty, the  conflict  of  the  contending  races,  inasmuch  as 
 he  treats  an  Achcean  subject  with  the  elegance  and 
 geniality  of  an  Ionian.  But  when  Smyrna  drove  out 
 the  loMians,  it  deprived  itself  of  this  poetical  renown; 
 and  the  settlement  of  the  Homeridas  in  Chios  was,  in 
 all  probability,  a  consequence  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
 lonians  from  Smyrna.  It  may,  moreover,  be  observed, 
 thai,  according  to  this  account,  founded  on  the  history 
 of  the  colonies  of  Asia  Minor,  the  time  of  Homer 
 would  fall  a  few  generations  after  the  Ionic  migration 
 to  Asia ;  and  with  this  determination  the  best  testi- 
 monies of  antiquity  agree.  Such  are  the  computa- 
 tions of  Herodotus,  who  places  Homer,  with  Hesiod, 
 400  years  before  his  time  {Herod.,  2,  53),  and  that 
 of  the  Alexandrean  chronologists,  who  place  him  100 
 years  after  the  Ionic  migration,  60  years  before  the  le- 
 gislation of  Lycurgus  {Apollod.,  Fragm.,  I,  p.  410, 
 ed.  Heijne) ;  although  the  variety  of  opinions  on  this 
 subject,  which  prevailed  among  the  learned  writers  of 
 antiquity,  cannot  be  reduced  within  these  limits. — It 
 is  said  by  Tatian  {Fabr.,  Bibl.  Gr.,  2,  1,  3),  that 
 Theagenes  of  Rhegium,  in  the  time  of  Cambyses, 
 Stesimbrotus  the  Thasian,  Antimachus  the  Colopho- 
 nian,  Herodotus  of  Halicarnassus,  Dionysius  the  Olyn- 
 thian,  Ephorus  of  Cumae,  Philochorus  the  Athenian, 
 Metaclides  and  Chamseleon  the  Peripatetics,  and  Zeii- 
 odotus,  Aristophanes,  Callimachus,  Crates,  Eratosthe- 
 nes, Aristarchus,  and  Apollodorus,  the  grammarians, 
 all  wrote  concerning  the  poetry,  the  birth,  and  the  age 
 of  Homer.  Of  the  works  of  all  these  authors  nothing 
 now  remains,  with  the  nominal  exception  of  a  life  of 
 Homer  attributed  to  Herodotus,  but  which,  as  well  on 
 account  of  its  minute  and  fabulous  details,  as  of  the  in- 
 consistency of  a  statement  in  it  with  the  undoubted 
 language  of  Herodotus,  is  now  almost  universally  con- 
 sidered as  spurious.  Such  as  it  is,  however,  the  life 
 of  Homer  is  a  very  ancient  compilation,  and  the  text 
 from  which  all  subsequent  stories  have  been  taken  or 
 altered.  There  is  a  short  life  of  Homer,  also,  bearing 
 the  name  of  Plutarch,  but  which  is,  like  the  former, 
 generally  condemned  as  a  forgery  ;  a  forgery,  however, 
 of  this  unusual  nature,  that  there  is  reason  to  believe 
 it  more  ancient  than  its  supposed  author.  Thus 
 Quintilian  (10,  1)  and  Seneca  {Ep.,  88),  both  more 
 ancient  than  Plutarch,  seem  clearly  aware  of  this  life 
 of  Homer.  Some  account  of  the  common  traditions 
 about  Homer  will  probably  be  looked  for  here,  and 
 the  story  will  explain  the  origin  of  several  epithets 
 which  are  fre(iuently  applied  to  him,  and  the  meaning 
 of  many  allusions  to  be  met  with  in  the  Greek  and 
 Latin  writers. — There  is,  then,  a  general  agreement 
 that  the  name  of  Homer's  mother  was  Critheis  ;  but  the 
 accounts  dilfer  a  good  deal  as  to  his  father.  Ephorus 
 says  (pseud- Plutarch,  Vit.  Horn.)  that  there  were  three 
 brothers,  natives  of  Cumae,  Atelles,  Mson,  and  Dius  ; 
 that  Dius,  being  in  debt,  migrated  to  Ascra  in  Bceotia, 
 and  there  became  the  father  of  Hesiod  by  his  wife  Py- 
 cimede  ;  that  Atelles  died  in  Cumae,  having  appointed 
 his  brother  Ma;on  guardian  of  his  daughter  Critheis; 
 that  Critheis,  becoming  with  child  by  her  uncle,  was 
 given  in  marriage  to  Phemius,  a  native  of  Smyrna, 
 
 and  a  schoolmaster  in  that  city,  and  that,  in  due  time 
 aferward,  while  she  was  in  or  near  the  baths  on  the 
 river  Meles,  she  gave  birth  to  a  child  who  was  called 
 Melesigenes  from  this  circumstance.  Aristotle  relates 
 (pseud- Plut.,  V.  //.),  that  a  young  woman  of  the  island 
 of  los,  being  with  child  by  a  daemon  or  genius,  a  familiar 
 of  the  Muses,  fled  to  the  coast,  where  she  was  seized 
 by  pirates,  who  presented  her  as  a  gift  to  Maaon,  king  of 
 the  Lydians,  at  that  time  resident  in,  and  ruler  over, 
 Smyrna.  Maaon  married  her;  she,  Critheis,  gave 
 birth  to  Melesigenes,  as  before  mentioned,  and  upon 
 her  death,  soon  after.  Mason  brought  up  the  child  as  his 
 own.  Here  we  have  an  origin  of  the  two  epithets  or 
 appellations  Melesigenes  and  M*onides  Ephorus  says 
 (pseud- Plut.,  V.  H.)  he  was  called  Homer  ("Ofiripoc) 
 when  he  became  blind,  the  lonians  so  styling  blind 
 men,  because  they  were  follotvers  of  a  guide  (ojajpev- 
 uv).  Aristotle's  account  is,  that  the  Lydians  beinw 
 pressed  by  the  ^Eolians,  and  resolved  to  abandon  Smvr- 
 na,  made  a  proclamation,  that  whoever  wished  to  fol- 
 low them  should  go  out  of  the  city,  and  that  thereupon 
 Melesigenes  said  he  would  follow  or  accompany  them 
 (ofiTjpeh') ;  upon  which  he  acquired  the  name  of  Ho- 
 mer. Another  derivation  of  the  name  is  from  6  fir/ 
 opoiv,  one  not  seeing;  as  to  which  notion  of  blind- 
 ness, Paterculus  says,  that  whoever  thinks  Homer  was 
 born  blind  must  needs  be  blind  himself  in  all  his 
 senses.  It  was  said  also  that  he  was  so  called  from 
 6  fir/poc  (the  thigh),  because  he  had  some  marks  on  his 
 thigh  to  denote  his  illegitimacy.  In  the  life  of  Homer 
 by  Proclus,  the  story  is,  that  the  poet  was  delivered  up 
 by  the  people  of  Smyrna  to  those  of  Chios  as  a  pledge 
 or  hostage  (ufirjpog)  on  the  conclusion  of  a  truce.  The 
 derivation  that  favours  the  theories  both  of  Wolfe  and 
 Heyne  is  from  oiiov  elpeiv,  "  to  speak  together,''''  or 
 from  6/j.7ipelv,  "  to  assemble  together.''^  Ilgen  derives 
 the  name  from  6/iov,  "  together,"  and  upu,  "  to  Jit," 
 whence  comes  Ofirjpcveiv,  synonymous  with  viraeideLV, 
 and  hence  "Ofj.7ipo^  means,  according  to  him,  a  poet 
 who  accompanies  the  lyre  with  his  voice,  "cantor  qui 
 citharani  pulsans  vno  koTiOV  ueidet."  The  stories 
 proceed  in  general  to  state  that  Homer  himself  became 
 a  schoolmaster  and  poet  of  great  celebrity  at  Smyrna, 
 and  remained  till  Mentes,  a  foreign  merchant,  induced 
 him  to  travel.  That  the  author  or  authors  of  the  Iliad 
 and  Odyssey  must  have  travelled  pretty  extensively  for 
 those  times,  is  unquestionable  ;  for,  besides  the  accurate 
 knowledge  of  Greece  proper  displayed  in  the  Catalogue, 
 it  is  clear  that  the  poet  had  a  familiar  acquaintance 
 with  the  islands  both  in  the  yEgean  and  Ionian  seas, 
 the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  from  the  Hellespont  indefinitely 
 southward,  Crete,  Cyprus,  and  Egypt ;  and  possessed 
 also  distinct  information  with  respect  to  Libya,  Caria, 
 and  Phrygia.  In  his  travels  Homer  visited  Ithaca, 
 and  there  became  subject  to  a  disease  of  the  eyes, 
 which  afterward  terminated  in  total  blindness.  From 
 this  island  he  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Italy  and  even 
 to  Spain  ;  but  there  is  no  sign  in  either  of  the  two  po- 
 ems of  any  knowledge  westward  of  the  Ionian  Sea. 
 Wherever  he  went.  Homer  recited  his  verses,  which 
 were  universally  admired  except  at  Smyrna,  where  he 
 was  a  prophet  in  his  own  country.  At  Phoc*a,  a 
 schoolmaster  of  the  name  of  Thestorides  obtained  from 
 Homer  a  copy  of  his  poetry,  and  then  sailed  to  Chios 
 and  recited  the  Homeric  verses  as  his  own.  Homer 
 followed,  was  rescued  by  Glaucus,  a  goatherd,  from 
 the  attack  of  his  dogs,  and  brought  by  him  to  Bolissus, 
 a  town  in  Chios,  where  he  resided  a  long  time  in  pos- 
 session of  wealth  and  a  splendid  reputation.  Thestor- 
 ides left  the  island  upon  Homer's  arrival.  According 
 to  Herodotus,  he  died  at  los,  on  his  way  to  Athens,  and 
 was  buried  near  the  seashore.  Proclus  says  he  died 
 in  consequence  of  falling  over  a  stone.  Plutarch  tells 
 a  very  different  story.  He  preserves  two  responses 
 of  an  oracle  to  Homer,  in  both  of  which  he  was  cau- 
 tioned to  beware  of  the  young  men's  riddle,  and  re 
 
 637 
 
HOMERUS. 
 
 HUMERUS. 
 
 lates  that  the  poet,  being  on  his  voyage  to  Thebes,  to 
 attend  a  musical  or  poetical  contest  at  the  feast  of  Sat- 
 urn it)  that  city,  landed  in  the  island  of  lo,  and,  while 
 sitiinjf  on  a  rock  l)y  the  seashore,  observed  some  young 
 fishermen  in  a  boat ;  that  Homer  asked  them  if  they 
 had  anything  (et  rt  e^wev),  and  that  the  young  wags, 
 who,  having  had  no  sport,  had  been  diligently  catch- 
 ing, and  killing  as  many  as  they  could  catch,  of  cer- 
 tain personal  companions  of  a  race  not  even  yet  ex- 
 tinct, answered,  "  as  many  as  we  caught  we  left ;  as 
 many  as  we  could  not  catch  we  carry  with  us."  The 
 catastrophe  is.  that  Homer,  being  utterly  unable  to 
 guess  the  meaning  of  this  riddle,  broke  his  heart  out 
 of  pure  vexation,  and  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  island 
 buried  him  with  great  magnificence. — There  has  been 
 as  much  doubt  and  controversy  about  the  age  of  Ho- 
 mer as  about  himself  and  his  poems.  According  to 
 the  argument  of  Wood  {Essai/  on  the  Original  Ge- 
 mus,  <^c.,  of  Homer),  Haller  {Hcyne,  Excurs.  4,  ad  II. , 
 24),  and  Mitford  {History  of  Greece,  c.  I),  he  lived 
 about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  before  Christ; 
 which  date  agrees  exactly  with  the  conjecture  of  He- 
 rodotus, who  wrote  B.C.  444,  and  is  founded  on  the 
 assumption  that  Homer  must  have  lived  before  the  re- 
 turn of  che  Heraclidffi  into  Peloponnesus,  an  event 
 which  took  place  within  eighty  years  after  the  Trojan 
 war.  The  Newtonian  calculation  is  also  adopted, 
 which  fixes  the  capture  of  Troy  as  low  as  B.C.  904. 
 The  argument  is  based  upon  the  great  improbability 
 that  Homer,  so  minute  as  he  is  in  his  descriptions  of 
 Greece,  and  so  full  of  the  histories  of  the  reigning 
 dynasties  in  its  various  districts,  should  never  notice 
 so  very  remarkable  an  occurrence  as  the  almost  total 
 abolition  of  the  kingly  government  throughout  Greece, 
 and  the  substitution  of  the  republican  form  in  its  stead. 
 Now  this  national  revolution  was  coincident  with,  or 
 immediately  consequent  on,  the  return  of  the  descend- 
 ants of  Hercules.  It  is  said,  also,  that  the  poet  men- 
 tions the  grandchildren  of  ^neas  as  reigning  in  Troy, 
 in  the  prophecy  of  Neptune  in  the  Iliad  (20,  308),  and 
 that,  in  another  speech  of  Juno's,  he  seems  to  intimate 
 the  insecure  state  of  the  chief  existing  dynasties  of 
 the  race  of  Pelops  ;  and  it  is  inferred  from  this,  that 
 he  flourished  during  the  third  generation,  or  upward  of 
 sixty  years  after  the  destruction  of  Troy.  Upon  this 
 argument  Heyne  remarks  {Excurs.,  ad  11.,  24),  that,  in 
 the  first  place,  a  poet  who  was  celebrating  heroes  of 
 the  Pelopid  race  had  no  occasion  to  notice  a  revolu- 
 tion by  which  their  families  were  expatriated  and  their 
 kingdoms  abolished  ;  and  next,  which  seems  an  in- 
 surmountable objection,  that  the  Ionic  migration  took 
 place  sixty  years  later  than  the  return  of  the  Heracli- 
 dK  ;  yet  that  Homer  was  an  Ionian,  and  a  resident  in, 
 or  at  least  perfectly  conversant  with,  Ionian  Asia,  is 
 admitted  on  all  hands,  and  is  indeed  incontestable  ; 
 and  as  he  never  notices  this  migration,  though  it  was 
 certainly  a  very  remarkable  event,  and  one  which  he 
 must  have  known,  he  may  just  as  well,  for  other  or 
 the  same  reasons,  have  been  silent  on  the  subject  of  a 
 revolution  by  which  that  migration  was  caused.  The 
 Arundelian  marbles  place  Homer  B.C.  907,  the  Ionian 
 migration  B.C.  1044,  the  return  of  the  Heraclidas  B.C. 
 1104,  and  the  capture  of  Troy  B.C.  1184.  Heyne 
 approves  of  this  calculation,  as,  upon  the  whole,  the 
 most  consistent  with  all  the  authorities  ;  but  it  is  at 
 variance  with  Newton's  Chronology,  and  is  therefore 
 a  calculation,  of  the  exactness  of  which  we  can  never 
 feel  confident. — The  vicissitudes  to  which  Homer's 
 reputation  and  influence  have  been  subject,  deserves 
 notice.  From  the  first  known  collection  of  the  Iliad 
 and  Odyssey  in  the  time  of  the  Pisistratidaj  to  the  pro- 
 mulgation of  Christianity,  the  love  and  reverence  with 
 .vhich  the  name  of  Homer  was  regarded  went  on  con- 
 stantly increasing,  till  at  last  public  games  were  insti- 
 tuted in  his  honour,  statues  dedicated,  temples  erected, 
 and  sacrifices  offered  to  him  as  a  divinity.  There 
 638 
 
 were  such  temples  at  Smyrna,  Chios,  and  Alexandrea; 
 and,  according  to  .(Elian  (F.  H.,  9,  15),  the  Argives 
 sacrificed  to,  and  invoked  the  names  and  presence  of 
 Apollo  and  Homer  together.      But  about  the  beginning 
 of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  when  the 
 struggle  between  the  old  and  new  religion  was  warm 
 and    active,    the    tide    turned.     "Heathenism,"   says 
 Pope  {Essay  on  Homer),  "was  then  to  be  destroyed, 
 and  Homer  appeared  the  father  of  it,  whose  fictions 
 were  at  once  the  belief  of  the  pagan  religion,  and  the 
 objections    of   Christianity   against    it.       He  became, 
 therefore,   deeply  involved   in   the   question,  and  not 
 with  that  honour  which  hitherto  attended  him,  but  as 
 a  criminal  who  had  drawn  the  world  into  folly.     He 
 was,  on  the  one  hand  {Just.  Mart.,  admon.  ad  gcntes), 
 accused  of  having  formed  fables  upon  the  works  of 
 Moses  ;    as    the    rebellion   of   the    Giants    from    the 
 building   of  Babel,  and    the    casting  of   Ate   out  of 
 Heaven  from  the  fall  of  Lucifer.     He  was  exposed,  on 
 the  other  hand,  for  those  which  he  is  said  to  invent, 
 as    when    Arnobius    {adv.  gcntes,   lib.   7)    cries    out, 
 '  This  is  the  man  who  wounded  your  Venus,  impris- 
 oned your  Mars,  who  freed  even  your  Jupiter  by  Bri- 
 areus,  and  who  finds  authority  for  all  your  vices,'  &c. 
 Mankind  were  derided  {Tertvll.,  Apollod.,  c.  14)  for 
 whatever  he  had  hitherto   made   them   believe  ;    and 
 Plato  {Arnobius,  ih. — Euscb.,  Prcep.  Evang.,  14,  10), 
 who  expelled  him  his  commonwealth,  has,  of  all  the 
 philosophers,  found  the  best  quarter  from  the  fathers 
 for  passing  that  sentence.     His  finest  beauties  began 
 to  take  a  new  appearance  of  pernicious  qualities  ;  and 
 because  they  might  be  considered  as  allurements  to 
 fancy,  or  supports  to   those   errors  with   which   they 
 were  mingled,  they  were  to  be  depreciated  while  the 
 contest  of  faith  was  in  being.     It  was  hence  that  the 
 reading  of  them  was  discouraged,  that  we  hear  Ru- 
 finus  accusing  St.  Jerome  of  it,  and  that  St.  Augustin 
 {Confess.,  1,  14)  rejects  him  as  the  grand  master  of 
 fable  ;  though  indeed  the  dulcissime  vanus  which  he 
 applies  to  Homer,  looks  but  like  a  fondling  manner  of 
 parting  with  him.     Those  days  are  past  ;  and,  happily 
 for  us,  the  obnoxious  poems  have  weathered  the  storms 
 of  zeal  which  might  have  destroyed  them.     Homer  will 
 have  no  temples,  nor  games,  nor  sacrifices  in  Chris- 
 tendom ;  but  his  statue  is  yet  to  he  seen  in  the  palaces 
 of  kings,  and  his  name  will  remain  in  honour  among 
 the  nations  to  the  world's  end.     He  stands,  by  pre- 
 scription, alone  and  aloof  on  Parnassus,  where  it  is  not 
 possible  notv  that  any  human  genius  should  stand  with 
 him,  the  father  and  the  prince  of  all  heroic  poets,  the 
 boast  and  the  glory  of  his  own  Greece,  and  the  love  and 
 the  admiration  of  all  mankind."     {Mailer,  Hist.  Greek 
 Lit.,  p.  41,  seqq. — Coleridge,  Introduction  to  the  Sttidy 
 of  the  Greek  Classic  Poets,  pt.  1,  p.  57,  seqq.) — This 
 Homer,  then  (of  the  circumstances  of  whose  life  we 
 know  so  little  that  may  be  relied  upon),  was  the  person 
 who  gave  epic  poetry  its  first  great  impulse.     Before 
 his  time,  in  general,  only  single  actions  and  adventures 
 were  celebrated  in  short  lays.     The  heroic  mythology 
 had  prepared  the  way  for  the  poets  by  grouping  the 
 deeds  of  the  principal  heroes  into  large  masses,  so  that 
 they  had  a  natural  connexion  with  each  other,  and  re 
 ferred  to  some  common  fundamental  notion.     Now, 
 as  the  general  features  of  the  more  considerable  le- 
 gendary collections  were  known,  the  poet  before  the 
 time  of  Homer  had  the   advantage  of  being  able  to 
 narrate  any  one  action  of  Hercules,  or  of  one  of  the 
 Argive  champions  against  Thebes,  or  of  the  Achasans 
 against  Troy  ;   and,  at  the  same  time,  of  being  certain 
 that  the  scope  and  purport  of  the  action  (namely,  the 
 elevation  of  Hercules  to  the  gods,  and  the  fated  de- 
 struction ot   Thebes  and  Troy)  would  be  present  to 
 the  minds  of  his  hearers,  and  that  the  individual  ad- 
 venture would  thus  be  viewed  in  its  proper  connexion. 
 Thus,  doubtless,  for  a  long  time,  the  bards  were  satis- 
 fied with  illustrating  single  points  of  the  heroic  mvthol- 
 
HOMERUS. 
 
 HUMERUS. 
 
 ogy  with  brief  epic  lays  ;  such  as  in  later  times  were 
 produced  by  several  poets  of  the  school  of  Hesiod. 
 It  was  also  possible,  if  it  were  desired,  to  form  from 
 them  longer  series  of  adventures  of  the  same  hero  ; 
 but  they  always  remained  a  collection  of  independent 
 poems  on  the  same  subject,  and  never  attained  to  that 
 unity  of  character  and  composition  which  constitutes 
 one  poem.  It  was  an  entirely  new  phenomenon, 
 which  could  not  fail  to  make  the  greatest  impression, 
 when  a  poet  selected  a  subject  of  the  heroic  tradition, 
 which  (besides  its  connexion  with  the  other  parts  of 
 the  same  legendary  circle)  had  in  itself  the  means  of 
 awakening  a  lively  interest  and  of  satisfying  the  mind; 
 and,  at  the  same  time,  admitted  of  such  a  development, 
 that  the  principal  personages  could  be  represented  as 
 acting  each  with  a  peculiar  and  individual  character, 
 without  obscuring  the  chief  hero  and  the  main  action 
 of  the  poem.  One  legendary  subject  of  this  extent 
 and  interest  Homer  found  in  the  Anger  of  Achilles, 
 and  another  in  the  Return  of  Ulysses.  The  former 
 of  these  gave  birth  to  the  Iliad,  the  latter  to  the 
 Odyssey.  Of  the  character  of  these  two  poems  we 
 will  treat  in  separate  articles  {vid.  Ilias,  Odyssea). 
 Our  attention  will  now  be  directed  to  other  parts  of 
 the  main  subject. 
 
 Origin  and  Preservation  of  the  Homeric  Poems. 
 
 Whether  the  Homeric  poems  were  in  reality  the 
 work  of  a  single  bard  or  not,  their  intrinsic  merit,  and, 
 consequently,  their  rank  in  Greek  literature,  must  re- 
 main the  same,  and  be  equally  a  worthy  object  of 
 studious  inquiry.  The  decision  of  that  question  can- 
 not in  the  slightest  degree  affect  our  estimate  of  their 
 quality.  Whether  all  the  poems  that  are  now  attrib- 
 uted to  Homer  were  his  production  ;  whether  the  Iliad 
 and  the  Odyssey,  both,  or  one  of  them  only,  can  lay 
 claim  to  such  parentage  ;  or  whether,  lastly,  any  such 
 person  as  Homer,  or,  indeed,  any  individual  author  of 
 the  poem  ever  existed,  whichever  of  these  propositions 
 be  true,  it  seems  to  be  a  matter  of  little  importance  to 
 those  whose  object  it  is  not  to  spell  the  inscriptions  on 
 mouldering  monuments,  but  to  inhale  the  breath  of  an- 
 cient grandeur  and  beauty  amid  the  undoubted  ruins 
 of  the  great.  The  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  exist;  we 
 have  them  in  our  hands  ;  and  we  should  not  set  them 
 the  less  in  honour  though  we  were  to  doubt  the  im- 
 press of  any  Homer's  hand,  any  more  than  we  should 
 cease  to  reverence  the  genius  or  the  ruins  of  Rome, 
 because  shepherds  or  worse  may  have  laid  the  first 
 stone  of  her  walls.  It  is  this  very  excellence,  howev- 
 er, of  the  Homeric  poetry,  and  the  apparent  peculi- 
 arity of  the  instance,  together  with  the  celebrity  of  the 
 controversy,  to  which  the  scepticism  of  some  modern 
 scholars  has  given  birth,  that  compels  us  to  devote  a 
 portion  ot  this  article  to  a  notice  of  the  points  in  ques- 
 tion. No  trace  appears  of  any  doubt  having  ever  been 
 entertained  of  the  personal  existence  of  Homer,  as  the 
 author  of  the  Iliad,  till  the  close  of  the  17th  and  be- 
 ginning of  the  18th  century,  when  two  French  writers, 
 Hedelin  and  Perrault,  first  suggested  the  outlines  of 
 a  theory  respecting  the  composition  of  that  poem, 
 which  has  since  been  developed  with  so  much  learning 
 and  talent  by  Heyne,  Wolfe,  and  others,  that  its  ori- 
 ginal authors  are  now  almost  forgotten.  The  substance 
 of  this  theory  is,  that,  whether  any  such  person  as 
 Homer  lived  or  not,  the  Iliad  was  not  composed  en- 
 tirely by  him  or  by  any  other  individual,  but  is  a  com- 
 pilation, methodized  indeed  and  arranged  by  success- 
 ive editors,  but  still  a  compilation  of  minstrelsies,  the 
 works  of  various  poets  in  the  heroic  age,  all  having 
 one  common  theme  and  direction,  the  wars  of  Troy, 
 and  the  exploits  of  the  several  Grecian  chiefs  engaged 
 in  them.  Wolfe,  in  particular,  believed  that  the  verses 
 now  constituting  the  Iliad,  were  written  (we  should 
 rather  say  made  or  invented)  by  one  Homer,  but  in 
 short  rhapsodies,  unconnected    purposely  with  each 
 
 other,  and  that  they  were  put  together  as  after  men- 
 tioned. Much  of  his  argument,  however,  of  the  im- 
 possibility of  one  man  having  composed  the  Iliad  in 
 form  as  we  now  have  it,  applies  to  the  theory  just 
 slated.  Bentley  expressed  an  opinion  similar  to  Wolfe's 
 on  the  history  and  compilation  of  the  Iliad.  "Homer 
 wrote  a  sequel  of  songs  and  rhapsodies  to  be  sung  by 
 himself,  for  small  earnings  and  good  cheer,  at  festivals 
 and  other  days  of  merriment :  the  Iliad  he  made  for  the 
 men,  and  the  Odyssey  for  the  other  sex.  These  loose 
 songs  were  not  collected  together  in  the  form  of  an 
 Epic  poem  till  about  500  years  after."  {Letter  to  N. 
 N.,  by  Phileleulh.  Lipsicns,  ^7.)  One  of  the  main  ar- 
 guments insisted  upon  by  those  who  deny  the  existence 
 of  a  Homer,  and  the  unity,  consequently,  of  the  Iliad 
 and  Odyssey,  is  the  question  of  writing.  It  is  said  that 
 the  art  of  writing,  and  the  use  of  manageable  writing 
 materials,  were  entirely,  or  all  but  entirely,  unknown 
 in  Greece  and  the  islands  at  the  supposed  date  of  the 
 composition  of  the  Iliad  ;  that,  if  so,  this  poem  could 
 not  have  been  committed  to  writing  during  the  time  of 
 such  its  composition  ;  that,  in  a  question  of  compara- 
 tive probabilities  like  this,  it  is  a  much  grosser  improb- 
 ability that  even  the  single  Iliad,  amounting,  after  all 
 curtailments  and  expungings,  to  upward  of  15.000 
 lines,  should  have  been  actually  conceived  and  per- 
 fected in  the  brain  of  one  man,  with  no  other  help  but 
 his  own  or  others'  memory,  than  that  it  should  be,  in 
 fact,  the  result  of  the  labours  of  several  distinct  authors ; 
 that,  if  the  Odyssey  be  counted,  the  improbability  is 
 doubled  ;  that  if  we  add,  upon  the  authority  of  Thu- 
 cydides  and  Aristotle,  the  Hymns  and  Margites,  not 
 to  say  the  Batrachomyomachia,  that  which  was  im- 
 probable becomes  absolutely  impossible  ;  that  all  that 
 has  been  so  often  said  as  to  the  fact  of  as  many  lines 
 or  more  having  been  committed  to  memory,  is  beside 
 the  point  in  question,  which  is  not  whether  15,000  or 
 30,000  lines  may  not  be  learned  by  heart  from  a  book 
 or  manuscript,  but  whether  one  man  can  compose  a 
 poem  of  that  length,  which,  rightly  or  not,  shall  be 
 thought  to  be  a  perfect  model  of  symmetry  and  con- 
 sistency of  parts,  without  the  aid  of  writing  mate 
 rials  ;  that,  admitting  the  superior  probability  of  such 
 a  thing  in  a  primitive  age,  we  know  nothing  analogous 
 to  such  a  case,  and  that  it  so  transcends  the  common 
 limits  of  intellectual  power,  as,  at  the  least,  to  merit, 
 with  as  much  justice  as  the  opposite  opinion,  the  char- 
 acter of  improbability. — When  it  is  considered  that 
 throughout  the  Homeric  Poems,  though  they  appear  to 
 embrace  the  whole  circle  of  the  knowledge  then  pos- 
 sessed by  the  Greeks,  and  enter  into  so  many  details 
 on  the  arts  of  life,  only  one  ambiguous  allusion  occurs 
 to  any  kind  of  writing  (7/.,  6,  169),  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
 sible to  avoid  the  conclusion,  that  the  art,  though 
 known,  was  still  in  its  infancy,  and  was  very  rarely 
 practised.  But  the  very  poems  from  which  this  con- 
 clusion has  been  drawn  would  seem  to  overthrow  it, 
 if  it  should  be  admitted  that  they  were  originally  com- 
 mitted to  writing ;  for  they  would  then  seem  to  af- 
 ford the  strongest  proof,  that,  at  the  time  of  their  com- 
 position, the  art  had  made  very  considerable  progress, 
 and  that  there  was  no  want,  either  of  materials  or  of 
 skill,  to  prevent  it  from  coming  into  common  use. 
 Hence  the  original  form  of  these  poems  becomes  a 
 question  of  great  historical  as  well  as  literary  impor- 
 tance. The  Greeks  themselves  almost  universally, 
 and  the  earliest  writers  the  most  unanimously,  believed 
 them  both  to  have  been  the  work  of  the  same  author, 
 who,  though  nothing  was  known  of  his  life,  or  even 
 his  birthplace,  was  commonly  held  to  have  been  ait 
 Asiatic  Greek.  The  doubt  whether  his  poems  wer« 
 written  from  the  first,  seems  hardly  to  have  been  se- 
 riously entertained  by  any  of  the  ancients,  and  in  mod- 
 ern times  it  has  been  grounded  chiefly  on  the  difficulty 
 of  reconciling  such  a  fact  with  the  very  low  degree  in 
 which  the  art  of  writing  is  supposed  to  have  been  cul- 
 
HOMERUS. 
 
 HOMERUS. 
 
 tjvated  in  the  Homeric  age.  It  has  likewise  been 
 urged,  that  the  structure  of  the  Homeric  verses  fur- 
 nishes a  decisive  proof,  that  the  state  of  the  Greeii 
 language,  at  the  time  when  these  poems  were  written, 
 was  ditlerent  from  that  in  which  they  must  liave  been 
 composed.  And  by  others  it  has  been  thought  incon- 
 sistent with  the  law  of  continual  change,  to  which  all 
 languages  are  subject,  that  the  form  m  which  these 
 works  now  appear  should  differ  so  slightly  as  it  does 
 from  that  of  the  Greek  literature,  if  it  really  belonged 
 to  the  early  period  in  which  they  were  firsi  recited. 
 These  ditficulties  are,  it  must  be  owned,  in  a  great 
 measure  removed  by  the  hypothesis  that  each  poem 
 is  an  aggregate  of  parts  composed  by  different  authors; 
 for  then  the  poet's  memory  might  not  be  too  severely 
 taxed  in  retaining  his  work  during  its  progress,  and 
 might  be  aided  by  more  frequent  recitations.  But  this 
 hypothesis  has  been  met  by  a  number  of  objections, 
 eome  of  which  are  not  very  easily  satisfied.  The  ori- 
 ginal unity  of  each  poem  is  maintamed  by  arguments 
 derived  partly  from  the  uniformity  of  the  poetical  char- 
 acter, and  partly  from  the  apparent  singleness  of  plan 
 which  each  of  them  exhibits.  Even  those  who  do  not 
 think  it  necessary  to  suppose  an  original  unity  of  de- 
 sign in  the  Iliad,  still  conceive  that  ail  its  parts  are 
 stamped  wiih  the  style  of  the  same  author.  {Clinton, 
 Fast.  Hcllen.,  vol.  3,  p.  375,  379.)  But  with  others, 
 from  the  time  of  Aristotle  to  our  own  day,  the  plan 
 itself  has  been  an  object  of  the  warmest  admiration  ; 
 and  it  is  still  contended,  that  the  intimate  coherence  of 
 the  parts  is  sucii  as  to  exclude  the  hypothesis  of  a 
 multiplicity  of  authors.  {Vid.  liias.)  If  the  parts  out 
 of  which  the  Iliad  or  the  Odyssey  was  formed  are 
 supposed  to  have  been  at  first  wholly  independent  of 
 each  other,  the  supposition  that  they  could  have  been 
 so  pieced  together  as  to  assume  their  present  appear- 
 ance is  involved  in  almost  insurmountable  difficulties. 
 For  how,  it  may  be  asked,  did  the  different  poets  in 
 each  instance  happen  to  confine  themselves  to  the 
 same  circle  of  subjects,  as  to  the  battles  before  Troy, 
 and  the  return  of  Ulysses  !  Must  we  suppose,  with  a 
 modern  critic  {Hermann,  Wicner-Jahrbuchcr,  vol.  54), 
 that  in  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  we  see  the  joint  labours 
 of  several  bards,  who  drew  their  subjects  from  an  ear- 
 lier Iliad  and  an  earlier  Odyssey,  which  contained  no 
 more  than  short  narratives  of  the  same  events,  but  yet 
 had  gained  such  celebrity  for  their  author,  that  the 
 greatest  poets  of  the  succeeding  period  were  forced  to 
 adopt  his  name,  and  to  content  themselves  with  filling 
 up  his  outline  1  This  would  be  an  expedient  only  to 
 be  resorted  to  in  the  last  emergency.  Or  must  we 
 adopt  the  form  which  this  hypothesis,  by  giving  it  a 
 difierent  turn,  has  been  made  by  others  to  assume,  that 
 the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  after  the  main  event  in  each 
 had  formed  the  subject  of  a  shorter  poem,  grew  un- 
 der the  hands  of  successive  poets,  who,  guided  in 
 part  by  popular  tradition,  supplied  what  had  been  left 
 wanting  by  their  [iredecessors,  until  in  each  case  the 
 curiosity  of  their  hearers  had  been  gratified  by  a  fin- 
 ished whole"!  {ThirlwaU's  Grcere,  vol.  1,  p.  246.) 
 This  supposition  is  involved  in  still  greater  difficulty 
 than  the  former,  for  we  have  here  a  race  of  bards, 
 who,  though  living  at  diflferent  periods,  and  though 
 the  language  was,  during  all  this  time,  undergoing 
 changes  of  some  kind  or  other,  yet  write  all  of  them 
 in  a  manner  so  similar,  and  display  so  few,  if  any,  dis- 
 crepances, that  their  various  jiroductions,  when  col- 
 lected together,  wear  all  the  appearance  of  a  poem  by 
 a  single  bard. — According  to  every  hypothesis,  the 
 origin  of  the  Homeric  poetry  is  wrapped  in  mystery  ; 
 as  must  be  the  case  with  the  beginning  of  a  new  pe- 
 riod, when  that  which  precedes  it  is  very  obscure. 
 And  it  would  certainly  be  r.o  unparalleled  or  surprising 
 coincidence,  if  the  production  of  a  great  work,  which 
 formed  the  most  momentous  epoch  in  the  history  of 
 Greek  literature,  should  have  concurred  with  either  the 
 640 
 
 first  introduction,  or  a  new  application  of  the  most  im- 
 portant of  all  inventions.  Still,  however,  we  are  not 
 driven  to  the  necessity  of  adopting  such  a  view  of  the 
 subject.  It  is  true,  we  are  perpetually  met  with  diffi- 
 culties in  endeavouring  to  form  a  notion  of  the  manner 
 in  which  these  great  epic  poems  were  composed,  at  a 
 time  anterior  to  ("he  use  of  writing.  But  these  diffi- 
 culties arise  much  more  from  our  own  ignorance  of 
 the  period,  and  our  own  incapability  of  conceivinj;  a 
 creation  of  the  mind  without  those  appliances  of  which 
 the  use  has  become  to  us  a  second  nature,  than  in  the 
 general  laws  of  the  human  intellect.  Who  can  deter- 
 mine how  many  thousand  verses  a  person,  thoroughly 
 impregnated  with  his  subject,  and  absorbed  in  the  con- 
 templation of  it,  might  produce  in  a  year,  and  confide 
 to  the  faithful  memory  of  disciples,  devoted  to  their 
 master  and  his  artl  Wherever  a  creative  genius  has 
 appeared,  it  has  met  with  persons  of  congenial  taste, 
 and  has  found  assistants,  by  whose  means  it  has  com- 
 pleted astonishing  works  in  a  comparatively  short  pe- 
 riod of  time.  Thus  the  old  bard  may  have  been  fol- 
 lowed by  a  number  of  younger  minstrels,  to  whom  it 
 was  both  a  pleasure  and  a  duty  to  collect  and  diffuse 
 the  honey  which  flowed  from  his  lips.  But  it  is  at 
 least  certain,  that  it  would  be  unintelligible  how  these 
 great  epics  were  composed,  unless  there  had  been  oc- 
 casions on  which  they  actually  appeared  in  their  in- 
 tegrity, and  could  charm  an  attentive  hearer  with  the 
 full  force  and  efl'ect  of  a  complete  poem.  Without  a 
 connected  and  continuous  recitation,  they  were  not 
 finished  works  ;  they  were  mere  disjointed  fragments, 
 which  might,  by  possibility,  form  a  whole.  But  where 
 were  there  meals  or  festivals  long  enough  for  such 
 recitations  1  What  attention,  it  has  been  asked,  could 
 be  sufficiently  sustained,  in  order  to  follow  so  many 
 thousand  verses  ? — If,  however,  the  Athenians  could 
 at  07ie  festival  hear  in  succession  about  nine  tragedies, 
 three  satyric  dramas,  and  as  many  comedies,  without  ) 
 ever  thinking  that  it  might  be  better  to  distribute  this 
 enjoyment  over  the  whole  year,  why  should  not  the 
 Greeks  of  earlier  times  have  been  able  to  listen  to  the 
 Iliad  and  Odyssey,  and  perhaps  other  poems,  at  the 
 same  festival]  At  a  later  date,  indeed,  when  the 
 rhapsodist  was  rivalled  by  the  player  on  the  lyre,  the 
 dithyrambic  minstrel,  and  by  many  other  kinds  of  po- 
 etry and  music,  these  latter  necessarily  abridged  the 
 time  allowed  to  the  epic  reciter ;  but,  in  early  times, 
 when  the  epic  style  reigned  without  a  competitor,  it 
 would  have  received  an  undivided  attention.  Let  us 
 beware  of  measuring,  by  our  loose  and  desultory  read- 
 ing, the  intension  of  mind  with  which  a  people  enthu- 
 siastically devoted  to  such  enjovments,  hung  with  de- 
 light on  the  flowing  strains  of  the  minstrel.  In  short, 
 there  was  a  time  (and  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  are  the 
 records  of  it)  when  the  Greek  people,  not  indeed  at 
 meals,  but  at  festivals,  and  under  the  patronage  of 
 their  hereditary  princes,  heard  and  enjoyed  these  and 
 other  less  excellent  poems  as  they  were  intended  to 
 be  heard  and  enjoyed,  namely,  as  complete  ^vholes. 
 Whether  they  were  at  this  early  period  ever  recited 
 for  a  prize,  and  in  competition  with  others,  is  doubtful, 
 though  there  is  nothing  improbable  in  the  supposition. 
 But  when  the  conflux  of  rhapsodists  to  the  contests 
 became  perpetually  greater ;  when,  at  the  same  time, 
 more  weight  was  laid  on  the  art  of  the  reciter  than  on 
 the  beauty  of  the  well-known  poem  which  he  recited; 
 and  when,  lastly,  in  addition  to  the  rhapsodizing,  a 
 number  of  other  musical  and  poetical  performances 
 claimed  a  place,  then  the  rhapsodists  were  permitted 
 to  repeat  separate  parts  of  poems,  in  which  they  hoped 
 to  excel ;  and  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  (as  they  had  not 
 yet  been  reduced  to  writing)  existed  for  a  time  only 
 as  scattered  and  unconnected  fragments.  { Wolffs 
 Prolegomena,  p.  cxiiii.)  And  we  are  still  indebted  to 
 the  regulator  of  the  contest  of  rhapsodists  at  the  Pana- 
 thenaea  (whether  it  was  Solon  or  Pisistratus)  for  having 
 
HOMERUS. 
 
 HUMERUS. 
 
 compelled  the  rhapsodists  to  follow  one  another,  ac- 
 cording to  the  order  ol  the  poem,  and  for  having  thus 
 restored  these  great  works,  which  were  falling  into 
 fragments,  to  their  pristine  integrity.  It  is  indeed 
 true,  that  some  arbitrary  additions  may  have  been  made 
 to  them  at  this  period  ;  which,  however,  we  can  only 
 hope  to  be  able  to  distmguish  from  the  rest  of  the 
 poem,  by  first  coming  to  some  general  agreement  as 
 to  the  original  form  and  subsequent  destiny  of  the  Ho- 
 meric compositions.  (Miiller,  Hist.  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  62, 
 seq.) 
 
 hitrodiiction  of  the  Homeric  Poems  into  Greece. 
 
 Two  different  accounts  are  given  on  this  head.  1. 
 First,  it  is  said  that  Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  legislator, 
 met  with  the  poems  of  Homer  during  his  travels  in 
 Asia,  and,  being  charmed  with  them,  carried  them 
 with  him  by  some  means,  and  irusome  shape  or  other, 
 back  to  his  native  city.  The  authority  for  this  is  a 
 passage  of  a  fragment  of  Heraclides  Ponticus,  in  which 
 he  says  that  Lycurgus,  "having  procured  the  poetry 
 of  Homer  from  the  descendants  of  Creophylus,  first 
 introduced  it  into  the  Peloponnesus."  yElian(F.  H., 
 13,  14)  repeats  this  with  advantage:  "Lycurgus  the 
 Spartan  first  carried  the  poetry  of  Homer  in  a  mass 
 into  Greece."  Plutarch  ( Vit.  Lycurg.)  finishes  off  the 
 story  in  his  usual  manner.  "  There  (in  Asia)  Lycur- 
 gus first  fell  in  with  the  poems  of  Homer,  probably  in 
 the  keeping  of  the  descendants  of  Cleophylus ;  he 
 wrote  them  out  eagerly,  and  collected  them  together 
 for  the  purpose  of  bringing  them  hither  into  Greece  ; 
 for  there  was  already  at  that  time  an  obscure  rumour 
 of  these  verses  among  the  Greeks,  but  some  few  only 
 possessed  some  scattered  fragments  of  this  poetry, 
 which  were  circulated  in  a  chance  manner.  Lycurgus 
 had  the  principal  hand  in  making  it  known."  This 
 Creophvlus  or  Cleophylus,  a  Samian,  is  said  to  have 
 been  Homer's  host  in  Samos,  and  a  poet  himself 
 The  nucleus  of  fact  in  this  story  may  probably  consist 
 in  this  ;  that  Lycurgus  became  more  acquainted  with 
 *he  Homeric  verses  among  the  Ionian  rhapsodists,  and 
 succeeded  in  introducing,  by  means  of  his  own  or  oth- 
 ers' memory,  some  connected  portions  of  them  into 
 Western  Greece.  That  lie  wrote  them  all  out  is,  as 
 we  may  see,  so  far  as  the  original  authority  goes,  due 
 to  the  ingenious  biographer  alone.  But  the  better 
 founded  account  of  the  introduction,  or,  at  least,  of 
 the  formal  collection  of  the  Homeric  verses,  though 
 not  inconsistent  with  the  other,  is,  that,  after  Solon  had 
 directed  that  the  rhapsodists  should,  u[)On  public  oc- 
 casions, recite  in  a  certain  order  of  poetical  narration, 
 and  not  confusedly,  the  end  before  the  beginning,  as 
 had  been  the  previous  practice,  Pisistratus,  with  the 
 help  of  a  large  body  of  the  most  celebrated  poets  of 
 his  age,  made  a  regular  collection  of  the  different  rhap- 
 sodies which  passed  under  Homer's  name,  committed 
 them  all  to  writing,  and  arranged  them  very  much  in 
 the  series  in  which  we  now  possess  them.  The  di- 
 vision of  the  rhapsodies  into  books  corresponding  with 
 the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  was  probably  the 
 work  of  the  Ale.xandrean  critics  many  centuries  after- 
 ward. Now  the  authorities  for  attributing  this  primary 
 reduction  into  form  to  Pisistratus,  are  numerous  and 
 express,  and  a  few  quotations  from  them  will  be  the 
 most  satisfactory  way  of  putting  the  student  in  pos- 
 session of  the  opinions  of  the  ancients  upon  this  sub- 
 ject.— "  Who,"  says  Cicero,  "  was  more  learned  in 
 that  age,  or  whose  eloquence  is  reported  to  have  been 
 more  refined  by  literature  than  that  of  Pisistratus, 
 who  is  said  first  to  have  disposed  the  books  of  Homer, 
 which  were  before  confused,  in  the  order  in  which  we 
 now  have  theml"  {Cic,  de  Orat.,  3,  34.) — "Pisis- 
 tratus," observes  Pausanias,  "  collected  the  verses  of 
 Homer,  which  were  dispersed,  and  retained  in  different 
 places  by  memory."  (Pausanias,  7,  26.) — "After- 
 ward," remarks  .(Elian,  "  Pisistratus,  having  collected 
 4M 
 
 the  verses,  set  out  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey."     (..Elian, 
 V.  H.,  13,   14.) — "We  praise  Pisistratus,"  observes 
 Libanius,  "for  his  collection  of  the  verses  made  by 
 Homer."     (Liban.,   I'an.  in  lal.,  vol.  1,   p.  170,  ed. 
 liciske.)—'-'  The  poetry  of  the  Iliad,"  says  Eustathius, 
 "is  one  continuous  body  throughout,  and  well  fitted 
 together ;  but  they  who  put  it  together,  under  the  di- 
 rection, as  is  said,  of  Pisistratus,"  &c.     (Wolf,  Pro- 
 legom.,  p.  cxliii.,  in  7wt.)~Thiit  this  collection  was 
 made  with  the  assistance,  and  probably  by  the  princi- 
 pal  operation   of  the  contemporary  poets,  rests   also 
 upon   good   authority.     Pausanias,  in  speaking  of  v. 
 573,  in  the  second  book  of  the  Iliad,  says  that^  Pisis- 
 tratus, or  some  one  of  his  associates,  had  changed  the 
 name  through  ignorance.     "  Afterward,"  remarks  Sui- 
 das,  "  this  poetry  was  put  together  and  set  in  order 
 by  many   persons,  and  in  particular  by  Pisistratus." 
 (Suid.,  s.  V.  "Ofii/poc.)     The  great  poets  with  whom 
 Pisistratus  lived  in  friendship,  and  of  whose  aid  he  is 
 supposed   to  have  availed   himself  on   this  occasion, 
 were  Orpheus  of  Crotona,  said  to  be  the  author  of  the 
 Argonautics,  Onomacritus   the   Athenian,  Simonides, 
 and    Anacreon.     In  the  dialogue  called    Hipparchus, 
 attributed  to  Plato,  it  is  said,  indeed,  of  the  younger 
 son  of  Pisistratus  of  that   name,  "  that   he  executed 
 many  other  excellent  works,  and  particularly  he  brought 
 the  verses  of  Homer  into  this  country,  and  compelled 
 the  rhapsodists  at  the  Panathenaic  festival  to  go  through 
 them  all  in  order,  one  taking  up  the  other,  in  the  same 
 manner  that  they  do  now."     There  seems,  however, 
 no  great    inconsistency   in   these   statements.     They 
 may  very  reasonably  be  reconciled,  by  supposing  that 
 this  great  work  of  collecting  and  arranging  the  scat- 
 tered verses  of  the  Homeric  rhapsodists   was  begun 
 in  an  imperfect  manner  by  Solon,  principally  executed 
 by   Pisistratus   and    his    friends,   and    finished    under 
 Hipparchus.     This   will   embrace  about  eighty  years 
 from  the  date  of  Solon's  law,  B.C.  594,  to  the  death 
 of  Hipparchus,  B.C.  513.     It  must  be  remembered, 
 however,  that,  although  the  Homeric  rhapsodies  were 
 undoubtedly  committed  to  writing,  and  reduced  into  8 
 certain  form  and  order  of  composition,  in   the  age  of 
 the  Pisistratidaj,  the  ancient  and  national  practice  of 
 recitation  still  continued  in  honour,  and  for  a  consid- 
 erable time  afterward  was,  perhaps,  the  only  mode  by 
 which    those   poems  were  popularly  known.     But  it 
 may  readily  be  believed,  that,  in  proportion  as  written 
 copies  became  multiplied,  a  power  of,  and  taste  for, 
 reading  generated,   and   a  literature,   in    the    narrow 
 sense  of  the  word,  created,  this  practice  of  publicly  re- 
 citing national  poetry,  which  was  as  congenial  as  it 
 was  indispensable  to  a  primitive  and  unlettered  people, 
 would  gradually  sink  in  estimation,  become  degraded 
 in    character,   and    finally    fall   into   complete    disuse. 
 This  we  find  to  have  been  precisely  the   case  from 
 about  the  year  B.C.  430,  till  the  age  of  the  Alexan- 
 drean  critics,  under  the  polite  and  civilized  government 
 of  the  Ptolemies.     The  old  manner  of  reciting  was  no 
 doubt  very  histrionic  ;  but  after  the  formation  of  a  reg- 
 ular theatre,  and  the  composition  of  formal  dramas  in 
 the  time  of  iEschylus,  the  heroic  verses  of  the  Ho- 
 meric age  must  have  seemed  very  unfit  vehicles  of,  or 
 accompaniments   to,   scenic   effect   of  any  kind.     In 
 this  interval,  therefore,  are  to  be  placed  a  third  and 
 last  race  of  rhapsodists,  now  no  longer  the  fellow-poets 
 and  congenial   interpreters   of  their  originals,  but,  in 
 general,  a  low  and  ignorant  sort  of  men,  who  were  ac- 
 ceptable only  to  the  meanest  of  the  people.     Xenophon 
 (Sympos.,  3)  and  Plato  (Ion,  passim)  bear  abundant 
 testimony  to  the  contempt  with  which  they  were  re- 
 garded, though  the  object  of  the  latter  in  the  Ion  or 
 Ionian  was  probably  to  sketch  a  true  and  exalted  pic- 
 ture of  the  duty  and  the  character  of  a  genuine  rhap- 
 sodist.     There  were  many  editions,  or  Aiopd<janc,  as 
 they  were  called,  of  the  Iliad,  after  this  primary  one 
 by  the  Pisistratids.     We  read  of  one  by  Antimachus, 
 '  641 
 
HOMERUS. 
 
 HOMERUS. 
 
 a  poet  of  Colophon  ;  and  of  another  very  celebrated 
 one  by  Aristotle,  which  edition  Alexander  is  said  to 
 have  himself  corrected  and  kept  in  a  very  precious 
 casket,  taken  among  the  spoils  of  the  camp  of  Darius. 
 This  edition  was  called  i]  in  tov  vupOrjKog.  The  edi- 
 tions by  any  known  individual  were  called  al  Kar'  uv- 
 6pa,  to  distinguish  them  from  several  editions  existing 
 in  different  cities,  but  not  attributed  to  any  particular 
 editors.  These  latter  were  called  at  Kara  nuXeiCt  oi 
 al  f/c  noXeuv.  The  Massiliotic,  Chian,  Argive,  Sino- 
 pic,  Cyprian,  and  Cretan  are  mentioned.  There  are 
 three  other  names  very  conspicuous  among  the  mul- 
 titude of  critics,  and  commentators,  and  editors  of 
 the  Iliad  in  subsequent  times  ;  these  are  Zenodotus, 
 Aristophanes,  the  inventor  of  accents,  and  Aristarchus. 
 This  last  celebrated  man  lived  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
 Philometor,  B.C.  150,  and,  after  a  collation  of  all  the 
 copies  then  existing,  he  published  a  new  edition,  or 
 Aiopduatc:,  of  the  Iliad,  divided  into  books,  the  text  of 
 which,  according  to  the  general  opinion  of  critics,  has 
 finally  prevailed  as  the  genuine  diction  of  Homer. 
 {Coleridge,  Introduction,  &c.,  p.  37-55.)  In  the 
 preface  to  Gronovius'  Thesaurus  (vol.  5),  there  is  a 
 particular  and  curious  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
 Pisistratus  put  together  the  poems  of  Homer.  It  is 
 taken  from  the  Commentary  of  Diomedes  Scholasticus 
 on  the  grammar  of  Dionysius  the  Thracian,  and  was 
 first  published  in  the  original  Greek  by  Bekker,  in  the 
 second  vol.  of  his  Anccdota  Grizca  (p.  767,  seqq.).  It 
 is  in  substance  as  follows  :  The  poems  of  Homer 
 were  in  a  fragmentary  state,  in  different  hands.  One 
 man  had  a  hundred  verses  ;  another  two  hundred ;  a 
 third  a  thousand,  &c.  Thereupon  Pisistratus,  not 
 being  able  to  find  the  poems  entire,  proclaimed  all 
 over  Greece,  that  whoever  brought  to  him  verses  of 
 Homer,  should  receive  so  much  for  each  line.  All 
 who  brought  any  received  the  promised  reward,  even 
 those  who  brought  lines  which  he  had  already  obtained 
 from  others.  Sometimes  people  brought  him  verses 
 of  their  own  for  those  of  Homer,  now  marked  with  an 
 obelus  {tovc  vvv  oBeli-^o/ievovg).  After  having  thus 
 made  a  collection,  he  employed  72  grammarians  to 
 put  together  the  verses  of  Homer  in  the  manner  they 
 thought  best.  After  each  had  separately  arranged  the 
 verses,  he  brought  them  all  together,  and  made  each 
 show  te  the  whole  his  own  particular  work.  Having 
 all  in  a  body  examined  carefully  and  impartially,  they 
 with  one  accord  gave  the  preference  to  the  composi- 
 tions of  Aristarchus  and  Zenodotus,  and  determined 
 still  farther,  that  the  former  had  made  the  better  one  of 
 the  two.     {Bekker,  Anec.  Grac,  I.  c.) 
 
 Iliad  and  Odyssey. 
 
 For  an  account  of  these  two  poems,  and  the  discus- 
 sions connected  with  them,  consult  the  articles  liias 
 and  Odyssca.  The  remainder  of  our  remarks  on  the 
 present  occasion  will  be  confined  to  a  brief  qonsider- 
 ation  of  a  few  minor  productions  that  are  commonly 
 attributed  to  Homer. 
 
 1.  Margitcs. 
 
 This  poem,  which  was  a  satire  upon  some  strenuous 
 blockhead,  as  the  name  implies,  does  not  now  exist ; 
 but  it  was  so  famous  in  former  times  that  it  seems 
 proper  to  select  it  for  a  slight  notice  from  among  the 
 score  of  lost  works  attributed  to  the  hand  of  Homer. 
 It  is  said  by  Harpocration  that  Callimachus  admired 
 the  Margites,  and  Dio  Chrysostom  says  {Diss.  53) 
 that  Zeno  the  philosopher  wrote  a  commentary  on  it. 
 A  genuine  verse,  taken  from  this  poem,  is  well  known : 
 
 Ild/l/l'  rjmaraTO  Ipya,  kokuc  d'jjiriaTaTo  nuvra. 
 "  For  much  he  knew,  but  everything  knew  ill." 
 
 Two  other  lines  in  the  same  strain  are  preserved  by 
 Aristotle,  and  one  less  peculiar  is  found  in  the  scho- 
 liast to  the  Birds  of  Aristophanes    (t.  914).      By 
 642 
 
 others,  however,  the  Margites  was  attributed  to  Pi- 
 gres  ;  and  Knight  is  of  opinion,  from  the  use  of  iho 
 augment  in  the  few  lines  still  preserved,  that  it  was 
 the  work  of  an  Athenian  earlier  than  the  time  ol 
 Xerxes,  but  long  after  the  lowest  time  of  the  compo- 
 sition of  the  Iliad.  {Coleridge,  Introduction,  &c.,  p 
 180.) 
 
 2.  Batrachomyomachia. 
 
 "  The  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice"  is  a  short 
 mock-heroic  poem  of  ancient  date.  The  text  varies 
 in  different  editions,  and  is  obviously  disturbed  and 
 corrupt  to  a  great  degree.  It  is  commonly  said  to 
 have  been  a  juvenile  essay  of  Homer's  genius ;  but 
 others  have  attributed  it  to  the  same  Pigres  mention- 
 ed above,  whose  reputation  for  humour  seems  to 
 have  invited  the  appropriation  of  any  piece  of  ancient 
 wit,  the  author  of  which  was  uncertain.  So  little  did 
 the  Greeks,  before  the  era  of  the  Ptolemies,  know  or 
 care  about  that  department  of  criticism  which  is  em- 
 ployed in  determining  the  genuineness  of  ancient 
 writings.  As  to  this  little  poem  being  a  youthful 
 prolusion  of  Homer's,  it  seems  sufficient  to  say,  that 
 from  the  beginning  to  the  end  it  is  a  plain  and  palpable 
 parody,  not  only  of  the  general  spirit,  but  of  numerous 
 passages  of  the  Iliad  itself;  and,  even  if  no  such  in- 
 tention to  parody  were  discoverable  in  it,  the  objection 
 would  still  remain,  that,  to  suppose  a  work  of  mere 
 burlesque  to  be  the  primary  effort  of  poetry  in  a  simple 
 age,  seems  to  reverse  that  order  in  the  development 
 of  national  taste,  which  the  history  of  every  other  peo- 
 ple in  Europe  and  of  many  in  Asia  has  almost  ascer- 
 tained to  be  a  law  of  the  human  mind.  It  is  in  a  state 
 of  society  much  more  refined  and  permanent  than  that 
 described  in  the  Iliad,  that  any  popularity  would  at- 
 tend such  a  ridicule  of  war  and  the  gods  as  is  con- 
 tained in  this  poem ;  and  the  fact  of  there  having  ex- 
 isted three  other  poems  of  the  same  kind,  attributed, 
 for  aught  we  can  see,  with  as  much  reason  to  Homer, 
 is  a  strong  inducement  to  believe  that  none  of  them 
 were  in  reality  of  the  Homeric  age.  Knight  infers, 
 from  the  usage  of  the  word  6e?.toc,  as  a  writing  tablet, 
 instead  of  dicpdepa  or  a  skin,  which,  according  to  He- 
 rodotus (5,  58),  was  the  material  employed  by  the  Asi- 
 atic Greeks  for  that  purpose,  that  this  poem  was  an- 
 other offspring  of  Attic  ingenuity  ;  and,  generally, 
 that  the  familiar  mention  of  the  cock  (v.  191)  is  a 
 strong  argument  against  so  ancient  a  date  for  its  com- 
 position. 
 
 3.  Hymns. 
 
 The  Homeric  Hymns,  including  the  hymn  to  Ceres 
 and  the  fragment  to  Bacchus,  which  were  discovered 
 in  the  last  century  at  Moscow,  and  edited  by  Ruhn- 
 ken,  amount  to  thirty-three  ;  but  with  the  exception 
 of  those  to  Apollo,  Mercury,  Venus,  and  Ceres,  they 
 are  so  short  as  not  to  consist  of  more  than  about  three 
 hundred  and  fifty  lines  in  all.  Almost  all  modern 
 critics,  with  the  eminent  exception  of  Hermann,  deny 
 that  any  of  these  hymns  belong  to  Homer.  Neverthe- 
 less, it  is  certain  that  they  are  of  high  antiquity,  and 
 were  commonly  attributed  by  the  ancients  to  Homer 
 with  almost  as  much  confidence  as  the  Iliad  and  Odys- 
 sey. Thucydides  (3,  104)  quotes  a  passage  from  the 
 Hymn  to  Apollo,  and  alleges  the  authority  of  Homer, 
 whom  he  expressly  takes  to  be  the  writer,  to  prove  an 
 historical  remark  ;  and  Diodorus  Siculus  (3,  66  ;  4,2), 
 Pausanias  (2,  4),  and  many  other  ancient  authors,  cite 
 different  verses  from  these  hymns,  and  always  treat 
 them  as  genuine  Homeric  remains.  On  the  other 
 hand,  in  the  Life  under  the  name  of  Plutarch,  nothing 
 is  allowed  to  be  genuine  but  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  ; 
 Athensus  (1, 19)  suspects  one  of  the  Homeridae  or 
 Homeric  rhapsodisls  to  be  the  author  of  the  Hymn  to 
 Apollo  ;  and  the  scholiast  to  Pindar  {Ncm.  2)  testifies, 
 that  one  Cynaethus,  a  Chian  rhapsodist,  who  flourished 
 
HOM 
 
 HON 
 
 in  great  reputation  at  Syracuse  about  500  B.C.,  was 
 supposed  by  many  to  be  the  real  Homer  of  this  par- 
 ticular poem.  One  thing,  however,  is  certain,  that 
 these  hymns  are  extremely  ancient,  and  it  is  probable 
 that  some  of  them  only  yield  to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey 
 in  remoteness  of  date.  They  vary  in  character  and 
 poetical  merit ;  but  there  is  scarcely  one  among  them 
 that  has  not  something  to  interest  us,  and  they  have 
 all  of  them,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  that  simple 
 Homeric  liveliness  which  never  fails  to  charm  us 
 wherever  we  meet  with  it. 
 
 4.  Epigrams. 
 
 Under  the  title  of  Epigrams  are  classed  a  few  verses 
 on  different  subjects,  chiefly  addresses  to  cities  or 
 private  individuals.  There  is  one  short  hymn  to  Nep- 
 tune which  seems  out  of  its  place  here.  In  the  fourth 
 epigram,  Homer  is  represented  as  speaking  of  his 
 blindness  and  his  itinerant  life.  As  regards  the  gen- 
 eral character  of  the  Greek  Epigram,  it  may  here  be 
 remarked,  that  it  is  so  far  from  being  the  same  with, 
 or  even  like  to,  the  Epigram  of  modern  times,  that 
 sometimes  it  is  completely  the  reverse.  In  general, 
 the  songs  in  Shakspeare,  Ben  Jonson,  Waller,  and, 
 where  he  writes  with  simplicity,  in  Moore,  give  a  better 
 notion  of  the  Greek  Epigrams  than  any  other  species 
 of  modern  composition. 
 
 5.  Fragments. 
 
 The  Fragments,  as  they  are  called,  consist  of  a  few 
 scattered  lines  which  are  said  to  have  been  formerly 
 found  in  the  Iliad,  the  Odyssey,  and  the  other  sup- 
 posed works  of  Homer,  and  to  have  been  omitted  as 
 spurious  or  dropped  by  chance  from  their  ostensible 
 context.  Besides  these,  there  are  some  passages  from 
 the  Little  Iliad,  and  a  string  of  verses  taken  from  Ho- 
 mer's answers  in  the  old  work,  called  the  Contests  of 
 Homer  and  Hesiod.  {Coleridge,  Introduction,  &c., 
 p.  235.) 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Since  the  Homeric  question  was  first  agitated  by 
 Wolf  and  Heyne,  it  has  been  placed  on  a  very  differ- 
 ent footing  by  the  labours  of  more  recent  scholars. 
 The  student  may  consult  with  advantage  the  following 
 works  :  Nitzsch,  de  Historia  Homcri  Melctcmata. — 
 Kreuser,  Vorfragen  ixber  Homeros. — Id.,  Homcrische 
 Rhapsodcn. —  Midler,  Homcrische  Vorschule.  —  Hci- 
 nccke,  Homer  und  Lycurg. — Knight,  Prolegomena  ad 
 Homerum.  —  London  Quarterly  Review,  No.  87.  — 
 Muller''s  Review  of  Nitzsch's  work,  in  the  Gottingen, 
 Gel.  Anzeigcn,  for  Febr.,  1831. — Hermann's  remarks 
 in  the  Wie7icr  Jahrbiicher,  vol.  54. — Hug,  Erjindung 
 der  Buchstahenschrift. — An  argument  which  confines 
 itself  to  the  writings  of  Wolf  and  Heyne,  can  now  add 
 but  little  to  our  means  of  forming  a  judgment  on  the 
 Homeric  question,  and  must  keep  some  of  its  most 
 important  elements  out  of  sight.  {ThirlwalVs  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p  248,  in  notis.) — The  best  edition  of  the  Iliad 
 is  that  of  Heyne,  Lips.,  1802-1822, 9  vols.  8vo.  The 
 most  popular  edition  of  the  entire  works  is  that  of 
 Clarke,  improved  by  Ernesti,  Lips.,  1759,  1824, 
 Glasg.,  1814,  5  vols.  8vo.  The  most  critical  one, 
 however,  is  that  of  Wolf,  Lips.,  1804-1807,  4  vols. 
 12mo.  A  good  edition  of  the  Odyssey  is  still  needed, 
 though  the  want  may  in  a  great  measure  be  supplied 
 by  the  excellent  commentary  of  Nitzsch,  Hannov., 
 l'826-1831,  2  vols.  8vo.— II.  A  poet,  surnamed,  for 
 distinction'  sake,  the  Younger.  He  was  a  native  of 
 Hierapolis  in  Caria,  and  flourished  under  Ptolemy 
 Philadelphas.  Homer  the  Younger  formed  one  of  the 
 Tragic  Pleiades.  {Scholl,  Gcsch.  Gr.  Lit,,  vol.  2, 
 p.  41.) 
 
 HoMONADA,  a  strong  fortress  of  CiliciaTrachea,  on 
 the  confines  of  Isauria.  This  place  Mannert  makes 
 to  belong  to  Pisidia.     (Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  166.) 
 
 The  Homonadenses  were  a  wild  and  plundering  peo- 
 ple, and  greatly  infested  the  neighbouring  country. 
 They  were  subdued,  however,  by  the  Roman  com- 
 mander Quirinus,  who  blocked  up'  the  passages  of  the 
 mountains,  and  reduced  them  by  famine.  D'Anville 
 was  of  opinion,  that  Homonada  was  represented  by 
 the  fortress  of  Ermenak,  situate  near  the  sources  of 
 the  Giuk-sou;  and  this  locality  has  been  adopted  by 
 Gossellin  and  others.  {French  Strabo,  vol.  4,  pt.  2, 
 p.  100.)  But  Col.  Leake,  in  his  map,  supposes  Er- 
 menak to  be  Philadelphia.  (Cramer's  Asia  Minor, 
 vol.  2,  p.  333.)  • 
 
 HoNORius,  son  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  and  young- 
 er brother  of  Arcadius,  was  born  at  Constantinople 
 A.D.  384.  After  the  death  of  his  father  in  395,  Ho- 
 norius  had  for  his  share  the  Empire  of  the  West,  under 
 the  guardianship  of  Stilicho,  a  distinguished  general 
 of  the  imperial  armies,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Mi- 
 lan. For  several  years  after,  Stilicho  was  the  real 
 sovereign  of  the  West ;  and  he  also  endeavoured  to 
 extend  his  sway  over  the  territories  of  Arcadius  in  the 
 East,  under  the  pretence  of  defending  them  against 
 the  Goths.  He  gave  his  daughter  Maria  in  marriage 
 to  Honorius,  and  recovered  the  province  of  Africa, 
 which  had  revolted.  About  A.D.  400,  the  Goths  and 
 the  Huns,  under  Alaric  and  Radagaisus,  invaded  Italy, 
 but  were  repelled  by  Stilicho.  In  the  year  402,  Alaric 
 came  again  into  Italy,  and  spread  alarm  as  far  as  Rome, 
 when  Stilicho  hastily  collected  an  army,  with  which  he 
 met  Alaric  at  Pollentia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Tanarus, 
 completely  defeated  him,  and  compelled  him  to  re- 
 cross  the  Noric  Alps.  After  this  victory  Honorius 
 repaired  to  Rome  with  Stilicho,  where  they  were  both 
 received  with  great  applause.  On  that  occasion  Ho- 
 norius abolished  by  a  decree  the  fights  of  gladiators, 
 and  he  also  forbade,  under  penalty  of  death,  all  sacri- 
 fices and  offerings  to  the  pagan  sods,  and  ordered 
 their  statues  to  be  destroyed.  In  the  year  404  Ho- 
 norius left  Rome  for  Ravenna,  where  he  established 
 his  court,  making  it  the  seat  of  his  empire,  like  another 
 Rome,  in  consequence  of  which,  the  province  in  which 
 Ravenna  is  situated  assumed  the  name  of  Romania, 
 Romaniola,  and  afterward  Ramagna,  which  last  it  re- 
 tains to  this  day.  In  the  following  year  Radagaisus 
 again  invaded  Italy  with  a  large  force  of  barbarians, 
 but  was  completely  defeated,  and  put  to  death  by  Stil- 
 icho, in  the  mountains  near  Fasulae  in  Etruria.  In 
 the  next  year,  the  Vandals,  the  Alani,  the  Alemanni, 
 and  other  barbarians,  crossed  the  Rhine  and  invaded 
 Gaul.  A  soldier,  named  Constantine,  revolted  in  Brit- 
 ain, usurped  the  imperial  power,  and,  having  passed 
 over  into  Gaul,  established  his  dominion  over  part  of 
 it,  and  was  acknowledged  by  Honorius  as  his  col- 
 league, with  the  title  of  Augustus.  Stilicho  now 
 began  to  be  suspected  of  having  an  understanding 
 with  the  barbarians,  and  especially  with  Alaric,  to 
 whom  he  advised  the  emperor  to  pay  a  tribute  of  4000 
 pounds'  weight  of  gold.  Honorius.  in  consequence, 
 gave  an  order  for  his  death,  which  was  executed  at 
 Ravenna,  in  August  of  the  year  408.  Historians  are 
 divided  concerning  the  fact  of  Stilicho's  treason.  Zos- 
 imus  and  the  poet  Claudian  consider  it  a  calumny. 
 His  death,  however,  was  fatal  to  the  empire,  oi  which 
 he  was  the  only  remaining  support.  Alaric  again  m- 
 vaded  Italy,  besieged  Rome,  and  at  last  took  it,  and 
 proclaimed  the  prefect  Attalus  emperor.  Honorius 
 meantime  remained  inactive,  and  shut  up  within  Ra- 
 venna. The  continued  indecision  and  bad  iaith  of 
 Honorius,  or,  rather,  of  his  favourites,  brought  Alaric 
 again  before  Rome,  which  was  this  time  plundered  by 
 the  invader  (AD.  410).  After  Alaric's  death,  his 
 son  Ataulphus  married  Placidia,  sister  of  Honorius, 
 and  took  possession  of  Spain.  The  rest  of  the  rcign 
 of  Honorius  was  a  succession  of  calamities.  1  lie 
 Empire  of  the  West  was  now  falling  to  pieces  on  ev- 
 ery side ;  and'in  the  midst  of  the  universal  rum,  Hono- 
 
 v43 
 
HO  R 
 
 HORATIUS. 
 
 rius  died  of  the  dropsy  at  Ravenna,  in  August,  423, 
 leaving  no  issue.  {Gihbun,  Decline  and  Fall,  c.  29, 
 scqq. — Encycl.  Us.  Knoiol.,  vol.  12,  p.  281.) 
 
 HoRAPOLLO,  or  HoRus  Apollo,  a  grammarian  of 
 Alexandrea,  according  to  Saidas,  in  the  time  of  the 
 Roman  emperor  Theodosius.  He  taught,  first  in  his 
 native  city,  and  afterward  in  Constantinople,  and 
 v/rote,  under  the  title  of  Te^fvlihl,  a  work  on  conse- 
 crated places.  Several  other  writers  of  this  name  are 
 mentioned  by  Suidas,  hy  Stephanus  of  Byzantium 
 (5.  V.  ^evsCtjOic),  by  Photius  (p.  536,  cd.  Bekker),  and 
 by  Uustathius  {ad  Od.  4).  It  is  doubtful  to  which  one 
 of  the  whole  number  a  treatise  which  has  come  down 
 to  us  on  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics  is  to  be  ascribed 
 According  to  the  inscription  that  is  found  in  most 
 MSS.,  the  work  was  originally  written  in  Egyptian, 
 and  translated  into  Greek  l)y  a  person  named  Philip. 
 But,  whatever  opinion  we  may  form  respecting  the 
 author,  it  is  evident  that  the  work  could  not  have  been 
 written  before  the  Christian  era,  since  it  contains  allu- 
 sions to  the  philosophical  tenets  of  the  Gnostics.  Its 
 merits  are  differently  estimated.  The  object  of  the 
 writer  appears  to  have  been,  not  to  furnish  a  key  to 
 the  Hieroglyphic  system,  but  to  explain  the  emblems 
 and  attributes  of  the  gods.  Champoilion,  and  Lee- 
 mans  in  his  edition  of  the  work,  are  disposed  to  at- 
 tribute greater  importance  to  it  than  former  critics  had 
 been  willing  to  allow.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Lee- 
 mans,  AmsL,  1834,  8vo.  Previous  to  the  appearance 
 of  this,  the  best  edition  was  that  of  De  Pauw,  Traj.  ad 
 Rhcn.,  1727,  4to. 
 
 HoRjE  {'Qpai),  the  Seasons  or  Hours,  who  had 
 charge  of  the  gates  of  Heaven.  Hesiod  says  that  they 
 were  the  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Themis  ;  and  he 
 names  them  Eunomia  (Order),  Dike  (Justice),  and 
 Eirene  (Pence).  "They  watch,"  adds  the  poet,  "over 
 the  works  of  mortal  man"  (tpy'  upaiovai  KaradvijToiai 
 fipoToloL. —  Thcog.,  903).  By  an  unknown  poet  (ap. 
 StohcEum. — Lobcck,  Aglaoph.,  p.  600),  the  Hor3  are 
 called  the  daughters  of  Time  ;  and  by  late  poets  they 
 were  named  the  children  of  the  year,  and  their  num- 
 ber was  increased  to  twelve.  (Nomiiis,  11,486. — Id., 
 12,  17.)  Some  made  them  seven  or  ten  in  number. 
 (Hy gin.,  fab.,  183.)— The  Horae  seem  to  have  been 
 originally  regarded  as  presiding  over  the  three  seasons 
 into  which  the  ancient  Greeks  divided  the  year. 
 (Welcker,  Trii,  p.  500,  not.)  As  the  day  was  simi- 
 larly divided  (//.,  21,  111),  they  came  to  be  regarded 
 as  presiding  over  its  parts  also  ;  and  when  it  was  far- 
 ther subdivided  into  hours,  these  minor  parts  were 
 placed  under  their  charge,  and  were  named  from  them. 
 (Quint.,  Srnyrn.,  2,  595. — Noijnus,  I.  c.)  Order  and 
 regularity  being  their  prevailing  attributes,  the  transi- 
 tion was  easy  from  the  natural  to  the  moral  world  ; 
 and  the  guardian  goddesses  of  the  seasons  were  re- 
 garded as  presiding  over  law,  justice,  and  peace,  the 
 great  producers  of  order  and  harmony  among  men. 
 (Kcightley's  Mythology,  p.  190,  seq.) 
 
 HoRATiA,  the  sister  of  the  Horatii,  killed  by  her 
 surviving  brother  for  deploring  the  death  of  her  be- 
 trothed, one  of  the  (yuriatii,  and  for  reproaching  him 
 with  the  deed  by  which  she  had  lost  her  lover.  (Vid. 
 Horatius  II.) 
 
 HoRATius,  I.  QuiXTUs  FL.Acrus,  a  celebrated  Ro- 
 man poet,  born  at  Veuusia  or  Vcnusium,  December 
 8lh,  13. C.  65,  during  the  consulship  of  I>.  Aurelius 
 Colta  and  L.  Manlius  Torquatus.  (Od.,  3,  21,  1. — 
 Epod.,  13,  6.)  His  father,  who  was  a  freedman  of 
 the  Horatian  family,  had  gained  considerable  property 
 as  a  coactor,  a  name  applied  to  the  servant  of  the  mon- 
 ey-brokers, who  attended  at  sales  at  auction,  and  col- 
 lected the  money  from  the  purchasers.  (Scrm.,  1,  6, 
 6.)  With  these  gains  he  purchased  a  farm  in  tlie 
 neicrhbourhood  of  Venusia,  on  the  banks  of  the  .\u(i- 
 dus.  In  this  place  Horace  appears  to  have  lived  until 
 iiis  eleventh  or  twelfth  year,  when  his  firther,  dissatis- 
 644 
 
 fied  with  the  country  school  of  Flavius  (Scrm.,  1,  6, 
 72),  removed  with  his  son  to  Pv,ome,  where  he  vca* 
 placed  under  the  care  of  a  celebrated  teacher,  Orbilius 
 Pupillus,  of  Beneventum,  whose  life  has  been  written 
 by  Suetonius.  (De  Illustr.  Gramm.,  c.  9.)  After 
 studying  the  ancient  Latin  poets  (Epist.,  2,  1,  70,  seq), 
 Horace  acquired  the  Greek  language.  (Epist.,  2,  2, 
 41,  scq.)  He  also  enjoyed,  during  the  course  of  his 
 education,  the  advice  and  assistance  of  his  father,  who 
 appears  to  have  been  a  sensible  man,  and  who  is  men- 
 tioned by  his  son  with  the  greatest  esteem  and  respect. 
 [Scrm.,  1,  4,  105,  scqq.  ;  1,6,  76,  scqq.)  It  is  prob- 
 able that,  soon  after  be  had  assumed  the  toga  virilis, 
 at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  v^-ent  to  Athens  to  pursue 
 his  studies  (Epist.,  2,  2,  43),  where  he  appears  to  have 
 remained  till  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  during 
 the  second  triumvirate.  In  this  contest  he  joined  the 
 army  of  Brutus,  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  military 
 tribune  (Scrm.,  1,  6,  48),  and  was  present  at  the  bat- 
 tle of  Philippi,  his  flight  from  which  he  compares  to 
 a  similar  act  on  the  part  of  the  Greek  poet  Alceeus. 
 (Od.,  2,  7,  9.)  Though  the  life  of  Horace  was  spared, 
 his  paternal  property  at  Venusia  was  confiscated  (Epist., 
 2,  2,  49),  and  he  repaired  to  Rome,  with  the  hope  of 
 obtaining  a  living  by  his  literary  exertions.  Some  of 
 his  poems  attracted  the  notice  of  Virgil  and  Varius, 
 who  introduced  him  to  Msecenas,  and  the  liberality  of 
 the  minister  quickly  relieved  the  poet  from  all  pecuni- 
 ary difficulties.  From  this  eventful  epoch  for  our  bard, 
 the  current  of  his  life  flowed  on  in  smooth  and  gentle 
 course.  Satisfied  with  the  competency  which  the  kind- 
 ness of  his  patron  had  bestowed,  Horace  declined  the 
 offers  made  him  by  Augustus,  to  take  him  into  his  ser- 
 vice as  private  secretary,  and  steadily  resisted  the 
 temptation  thus  held  out  of  rising  to  opulence  and 
 political  consideration ;  advantages  which,  to  one  of 
 his  philosophical  temperament,  would  have  been  dearly 
 purchased  by  the  sacrifice  of  his  independence.  For 
 that  he  was  independent  in  the  noblest  sense  of  the 
 word,  in  freedom  of  thought  and  action,  is  evidenced 
 by  that  beautiful  epistle  to  Maecenas,  in  which  he  states, 
 that  if  the  favour  of  his  patron  is  to  be  secured  by  a 
 slavish  renunciation  of  his  own  habits  and  feelings,  he 
 will  at  once  say.  Farewell  to  fortune,  and  welcome  pov- 
 erty !  (Epist.,  1,  7.) — Not  long  after  his  introduc- 
 tion to  Maecenas  the  journey  to  Brundisium  took 
 place,  and  the  gift  of  his  Sabine  estate  soon  followed. 
 Rendered  independent  by  the  bounty  of  Mseccnas,  high 
 in  the  favour  of  Augustus,  courted  by  the  proudest  pa- 
 tricians of  Rome,  and  blessed  in  the  friendship  of  hia 
 brother  poets,  Virgil,  Tibullus,  and  Varius,  it  is  diffi- 
 cult to  conceive  a  state  of  more  perfect  temporal  feli- 
 city than  Horace  must  have  enjoyed.  This  happiness 
 was  first  sensibly  interrupted  by  the  death  of  Virgil, 
 which  was  shortly  succeeded  by  that  of  Tibullus. 
 These  losses  must  have  sunk  deeply  into  his  mind. 
 The  solemn  thoughts  and  grave  studies  which,  in  the 
 first  epistle  of  his  first  book,  he  declares  shall  hence- 
 forward occupy  his  time,  were,  if  we  may  judge  from 
 the  second  epistle  of  the  second  book,  addressed  to 
 .Julius  Florus,  confirmed  by  those  sad  warnings  of  the 
 frail  tenure  of  existence.  The  severest  blow,  however, 
 which  Horace  had  to  encounter,  was  inflicted  by  the 
 dissolution  of  his  early  friend  and  best  jiatron  Maece- 
 nas. He  had  declared  that  he  could  never  survive  the 
 loss  of  one  who  was  "part  of  his  soul"  (Od.,2,  17,  5), 
 and  his  prediction  was  verified.  The  death  of  the 
 jioet  occurred  only  a  few  weeks  after  that  of  his  friend, 
 on  the  27th  of  November,  B.C.  8,  when  he  had  nearly 
 completed  his  58th  year,  and  his  remains  were  de- 
 posited next  to  those  of  Maecenas,  at  the  extremity  of 
 the  Esquiline  Hill. — When  at  Rome,  Horace  resided 
 in  a  small  and  plainly-furnished  mansion  on  the  Esqui- 
 line. When  he  left  the  capital,  he  either  betook  him- 
 self to  his  Sabine  farm  or  his  villa  at  Tibur,  the  mod- 
 ern Tivoli.     When  in  the  country,  as  the  whim  seized 
 
HORATIUS. 
 
 H  OR 
 
 him,  he  would  either  study  hard  or  be  luxuriously  idle. 
 Tiie  country  was  the  place  where  his  heart  abode,  and 
 here  he  displayed  all  the  kindness  of  his  disposition. 
 At  titnes  reclining  under  the  shade  of  a  spreading  tree, 
 by  the  side  of  some  "  bubbling  runnel,"  he  would  tem- 
 per his  Massic  witli  the  cooling  lymph  ;  at  others  he 
 would  handle  the  spade  and  mattock,  and  delight  in 
 the  good-humoured  jokes  of  his  country  neighbours 
 when  they  laughed  at  him,  with  his  little  punchy  fig- 
 ure, puffing  and  blowing  a',  the  unwonted  work.     But 
 his  supj)ers  here  were  the  chief  scene  of  his  enjoy- 
 ment.    He  would  then  collect  around  him  the  patri- 
 archs of  the  neighbourhood,  listen  to  their  homely  but 
 practical  wisdom,  and  participate  in  the  merriment  of 
 his  slaves  seated  around  the  blazing  fire.     Well  and 
 truly  might  he  exclaim,  "  Nodes  ciuriaque  Deum  V—r- 
 The  character  of  Horace  is  as  clearly  developed  in  his 
 wiitings,  as  the  manner  in  which  he  passed  his  time, 
 or  the  locality  of  his  favourite  haunts.     Good  sense 
 was  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  his  intellect ; 
 tenderness  that  of  his  heart.     He  acknowledged  no 
 master  in  philosophy,  and  his  boast  was  not  a  vain  one. 
 Altliough  leaning  to  the  tenets  of  Epicurus,  the  "sum- 
 mum  boiiuni''  of  Horace  soared  far  above  selfishness. 
 His  happiness  centred  not  in  self,  but  was  reflected 
 from  that  of  others.      Culling  what  was  best  from  each 
 sect,  he  ridiculed  unsparingly  the  vague  theories  of  all; 
 and,  notwithstanding  his  shafts  were  chiefly  directed 
 against  the  Stoics,  he  assented  to  the  loftier  and  better 
 part  of  their  doctrine,  the  superintendence  of  the  di- 
 vinity over  the  ways  of  man.     Like  those  of  every 
 other  mortal,   the  sterling  qualities  of  Horace   vi'ere 
 mixed  with  baser  alloy.    His  philosophy  could  not  pre- 
 serve him,  even  at  the  age  of  fifty,  from  the  weak- 
 nesses of  a  boy,  and  he  did  not  escape  unsullied  by  the 
 vices  of  the  time.     These  frailties  apart,  we  recognise 
 in  Horace  all  the  amenities,  and  most  of  the  virtues, 
 which  adorn  humanity. — The  productions  of  Horace 
 are  divided  into  Odes,  Epodes,  Satires,  and  Epistles. 
 The  Odes,  which  for  the  most    part    are  little  more 
 than  translations  or  imitations  of  the  Greek  poets,  are 
 generally  written  in  a  very  artificial  manner,  and  sel- 
 dom depict  the  stronger  and  more  powerful  feelings  of 
 human  nature.     The  best  are  those  in  which  the  poet 
 describes  the  pleasures  of  a  country  life,  or  touches  on 
 the  beauties  of  nature,  for  which  he  had  the  most  lively 
 perception  and  the  most  exquisite  relish  :  nor  yet,  at 
 the  same  time,  are  his  Ivrical  productions  altogether 
 without  those  touches  which  excite  our  warmer  sym- 
 pathies.    But  if  we  were  to  name  those  qualities  in 
 which   Horace  most  excels,  we  should  mention   his 
 strong  good  sense,  his  clear  judgment,  and   the  pu- 
 rity of  his  taste. — The  best  edition  of  Horace  is  that 
 of  Doring,    Lips.,    1803,    1815,    1828.   2    vols.   8vo, 
 reprinted  at  the  London  press,  and  also  at  Oxford, 
 1838,  in  one  volume  8vo. — Many  critics  have  main- 
 tained that  each  ode,  each  satire,  <Sic.,  was  published 
 separately  by  the  poet.      But  Bentley,  in  the  preface  to 
 his  edition  of  the  [loet's  works,  argues,  from  the  words 
 of  Suetonius,  the  practice  of  other  Latin  poets,  and 
 the  expressions  of  Horace  himself,  that  his  works  were 
 originally  published  in  books,   in  the  order  in  which 
 they  now  appear.     Consult  on  this  subject  the  "  Ho- 
 ratius  Roilitutus'"  of  Tate,    Cambr.,   1882  ;   2d  ed., 
 1837.     (Bdhr,  Gesch.  R'6m.  Lit ,  vol.  1,  p.  220,  seqq. 
 — Quarterly  Review,  No.  124. — Etieycl.  Us.  KnoioL, 
 vol.  12,  p.  290.) — H.   The  name  of  three  brave  Ro- 
 man twin-brothers,  who  fought,  according  to  the  old 
 Roman  legends,  against  the  Curiatii,  three  Alban  twin- 
 brothers,  about  667  years  before  the  commencement 
 of  our  era.     Mutual  acts  of  violence  committed  by  the 
 citizens  of  Rome  and  Alba  had  given  rise  to  a  war. 
 The  armies  were  drawn  up  against  each  other  at  the 
 Fossa  Cluilia,  where  it  was  agreed  to  avert  a  battle  by 
 a  combat  of  three  brothers  on  either  side,  namely,  the 
 Horalii  and  Curiatii,  whose  mothers  were  sisters.     Ev- 
 
 ery one  will  perceive  that  we  have  here  types  of  the  two 
 nations  regarded  as  sisters,  and  of  the  three  tribes  in 
 each.  In  the  first  onset,  two  of  the  Horatii  were  slain 
 by  their  opponents  ;  but  the  third  brother,  by  joining  ad- 
 dress to  valour,  obtained  a  victory  over  all  his  antago- 
 nists. Pretending  to  fly  from  the  field  of  battle,  he  sep- 
 arated the  three  Curiatii,  and  then,  attacking  them  one 
 by  one,  slew  them  successively.  As  he  relumed  tri- 
 umphant to  the  city,  his  sister  Horatia,  who  had  been 
 betrothed  to  one  of  the  Curiatii,  met  and  reproached  her 
 brother  bitterly  for  having  slain  her  intended  husband. 
 Horalius,  incensed  at  this,  stabbed  his  sister  to  the 
 heart.     He  was  tried  and  acquitted.     {Liv.,  1,  26.) 
 
 HoRESTi,  a  people  of  Scotland,  mentioned  by  Ta- 
 citus. In  Agricola"s  time,  they  seem  to  have  been 
 the  inhabitants  of  what  is  now  Angus.  They  were 
 probably  incorporated  with,  or  subdued  by,  the  Vaco- 
 mairi,  before  Ptolemy  wrote  his  geography.  Mannert 
 places  them  near  the  Fritli  of  Taij.  {Tacit.,  Vit 
 Agric.,  38.) 
 
 HoRTENsiA,  daughter  of  the  orator  Hortensius,  and 
 who  would  seem  to  have  inherited  a  portion  of  her  fa- 
 ther's eloquence.  When  the  members  of  the  second 
 triumvirate  had  imposed  a  heavy  tax  upon  the  Roman 
 matrons,  and  no  one  of  the  other  sex  dared  to  espouse 
 their  cause',  Hortensia  appeared  as  their  advocate,  and 
 made  so  able  a  speech  that  a  large  portion  of  the  bur- 
 den was  removed.  {Val.  Max.,  8,  3,  3  )  This  ha- 
 rangue was  extant  in  Quiiitilian's  time,  who  speaks  of 
 it  with  encomiums  Freinshemius  has  adumbrated  it 
 from  Appian  in  his  Supplement  to  Livy.  {QuinliL,  1, 
 1^  6—Freinsh.,  SuppL.  Liv.,  122,  44,  scq.) 
 
 HoRTKNsius,  QciNTUs,  a  celebrated  orator,  who 
 began  to  distinguish  himself  by  his  eloquence  in  the 
 Roman  forum  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  He  was  born 
 of  a  plebeian  family,  A.U.C.  640,  eight  years  beforf 
 Cicero.  He  served  at  first  as  a  common  soldier,  and 
 afterward  as  military  tribune,  in  the  Social  war.  In  the 
 contest  between  Marius  and  Sylla  he  remained  neuter, 
 and  was  one  of  the  twenty  quaestors  established  by 
 Sylla,  A.U.C.  674.  He  afterward  obtained  in  succes- 
 sion the  offices  of  aedile,  praitor,  and  consul,  the  last 
 of  these  A.U.C.  685.  As  an  orator  he  for  a  long  time 
 balanced  the  reputation  of  Cicero  ;  but,  as  his  orations 
 are  lost,  we  can  only  judge  of  him  by  the  account 
 which  his  rival  gives  of  his  abilities.  "  Nature  had 
 given  him,"  says  Cicero,  in  his  Brutus  (c.  88),  "so 
 happy  a  memory,  that  he  never  had  need  of  commit- 
 ting to  writing  any  discourse  which  he  had  meditated, 
 while,  after  his  opponent  had  finished  speaking,  he  could 
 recall,  word  by  word,  not  only  what  the  other  had  said, 
 but  also  the  authorities  which  had  been  cited  against 
 himself.  His  industry  was  indefatigable.  He  never 
 let  a  day  pass  without  speaking  in  the  forum,  or  pre- 
 paring himself  to  appear  on  the  morrow ;  oftentimes  he 
 did  both.  He  excelled  particularly  in  the  art  of  divi- 
 ding his  subject,  and  in  then  reuniting  it  in  a  luminous 
 manner,  calling  in,  at  the  same  time,  even  some  of  the 
 arguments  which  had  been  urged  against  him.  His 
 diction  was  noble,  elegant,  and  rich  ;  his  voice  strong 
 and  pleasing;  his  gestures  carefully  studied."  The 
 eloquence  of  Hortensius  would  seem,  in  fact,  to  have 
 been  of  that  showy  species  called  Asiatic,  which  flour- 
 ished in  the  Greek  colonies  of  Asia  Minor,  and  was 
 infinitely  more  florid  and  ornamental  than  the  oratory 
 of  Athens,  or  even  of  Rhodes,  being  full  of  brilliant 
 thoughts  and  of  sparkling  expressions.  This  glowing 
 style  of  rhetoric,  though  deficient  in  solidity  and  w_eight, 
 was  not  unsuitable  in  a  voung  man  ;  and,  being  farttier 
 recommended  by  a  beautiful  cadence  of  periods^,  met 
 with  the  utmost  applause.  But  Hortensius,  as  he  ad- 
 vanced in  life,  did  not  correct  this  exuberance,  nor 
 adopt  a  chaster  eloquence;  and  this  luxury  and  glit- 
 ter of  phraseology,  which,  even  in  his  earliest  years, 
 had  occasionally  excited  ridicule  or  disgust  among  the 
 graver  fathers  of  the  senatorial  order,  being  totally  m 
 
HORTENSIUS. 
 
 H  OR 
 
 consistent  with  his  advanced  age  and  consular  digni- 
 ty, which  required  something  more  serious  and  com- 
 posed, his  reputation  in  consequence  diminished  with 
 increase  of  years.  Besides,  from  his  decHning  health 
 and  strength,  which  greatly  failed  in  his  latter  years,  he 
 may  not  have  been  able  to  give  full  effect  to  that  showy 
 species  of  rhetoric  in  which  he  indulged.  A  constant 
 toothache  and  swelling  in  the  jaws  greatly  impaired 
 his  powers  of  elocution  and  utterance,  and  became  at 
 length  so  severe  as  to  accelerate  his  end.  A  few 
 mouths,  however,  before  his  death,  which  happened  in 
 703,  he  pleaded  for  his  nephew  Messala,  who  was  ac- 
 cused of  illegal  canvassing,  and  who  was  acquitted 
 more  in  consequence  of  the  astonishing  exertions  of  his 
 advocate  than  the  justice  of  his  cause.  So  unfavoura- 
 ble, indeed,  was  his  case  esteemed,  that,  however  much 
 the  speech  of  Hortensius  had  been  admired,  he  was  re- 
 ceived, on  entering  the  theatre  of  Curio  on  the  follow- 
 ing day,  with  loud  clamours  and  hisses,  which  were  the 
 more  remarked  as  he  had  never  met  with  similar  treat- 
 ment in  the  whole  course  of  his  forensic  career.  (Cic, 
 Ep.  ad  Fani.,  8,  2.)  The  speech,  however,  revived  all 
 the  ancient  admiration  of  the  public  for  his  oratorical 
 talents,  and  convinced  them  that,  had  he  possessed 
 the  same  perseverance  as  Cicero,  he  would  not  have 
 ranked  second  to  that  orator.  The  speeches  of  Hor- 
 tensius, as  has  already  been  mentioned,  lost  part  of 
 their  ctl'ect  by  the  orator's  advance  in  years,  but  they 
 suffered  still  more  by  being  transferred  to  writing.  As 
 his  chief  excellence  consisted  in  action  and  delivery, 
 his  writings  were  much  inferior  to  what  was  expected 
 from  the  high  fame  which  he  had  enjoyed  ;  and  ac- 
 cordingly, after  death,  he  retained  little  of  that  esteem 
 which  he  had  so  abundantly  possessed  during  life. 
 {QuiriL,  Inst.  Oral.,  11,  3.)  It  appears  from  Macro- 
 bius,  that  he  was  much  ridiculed  by  his  contempora- 
 ries on  account  of  his  affected  gestures.  In  pleading, 
 his  hands  were  constantly  in  motion,  whence  he  was 
 often  attacked  by  his  adversaries  in  the  forum  for  re- 
 sembling an  actor ;  and  on  one  occasion  he  received 
 from  his  oj)ponent  the  appellation  of  Dmiysia,  which 
 was  the  name  of  a  celebrated  dancing  girl.  {Aulus 
 Gellius,  1,8.)  ^sopus  and  Roscius  frequently  attend- 
 ed his  pleadings  to  catch  his  gestures  and  imitate  them 
 on  the  stage.  (Val.  Max.,  8,  10.)  Such,  indeed,  was 
 his  exertion  in  action,  that  it  was  commonly  said  that 
 it  could  not  be  determined  whether  people  went  to  hear 
 or  to  see  him.  Like  Demosthenes,  he  chose  and  put 
 on  his  dress  with  the  most  studied  care  and  neatness. 
 He  is  said  not  only  to  have  prepared  his  gestures,  but 
 also  to  have  adjusted  the  plaits  of  his  gown  before  a 
 mirror  when  about  to  issue  forth  to  the  forum  ;  and  to 
 have  taken  no  less  care  in  arranging  them  than  in 
 moulding  the  periods  of  his  discourse.  He  so  tucked 
 up  his  gown  that  the  folds  did  not  fall  by  chance,  but 
 were  formed  with  great  care  by  help  of  a  knot  care- 
 fully tied,  and  concealed  by  the  plies  of  his  robe,  which 
 apparently  flowed  carelessly  around  him.  {Macrohi- 
 us,  Sat.,  3,  13.)  Macrobius  also  records  a  story  of  his 
 instituting  an  action  of  damages  against  a  person  who 
 had  jostled  him  while  walking  in  this  elaborate  dress, 
 and  had  ruffled  his  toga  when  he  was  about  to  appear 
 in  public  with  his  drapery  adjusted  according  to  the 
 happiest  arrangement ;  an  anecdote  which,  whether 
 true  or  false,  shows  by  its  currency  the  opinion  enter- 
 tained of  his  finical  attention  to  everything  that  con- 
 cerned the  elegance  of  his  attire,  or  the  gracefulness 
 of  his  figure  and  attitudes.  This  appears  to  have  been 
 the  only  blemish  in  his  oratorical  character ;  and  the 
 only  stain  on  his  moral  conduct  was  his  practice  of 
 corrupting  the  judges  of  the  causes  in  which  he  was 
 employed,  a  practice  which  must  be  in  a  great  measure 
 imputed  to  the  defects  of  the  judicial  system  at  Rome ; 
 for,  whatever  might  be  the  excellence  of  the  Roman 
 laws,  nothing  could  be  worse  than  the  procedure  under 
 which  they  were  administered. — Hortensius  was,  from 
 646 
 
 A.U.C.  666  till  679,  a  space  of  thirteen  years,  at  the 
 head  of  the  Roman  bar ;  and  being,  in  consequence, 
 engaged  during  that  long  period  on  one  side  or  other 
 in  every  cause  of  importance,  he  soon  amassed  a  pro- 
 digious fortune.  He  lived,  too,  with  a  magnificence 
 corresponding  to  his  wealth.  His  house  at  Rome, 
 which  was  splendidly  furnished,  formed  the  centre  of 
 the  chief  imperial  palace,  which  increased  from  the 
 time  of  Augustus  to  that  of  Nero,  till  it  nearly  covered 
 the  whole  Palatine  Mount,  and  branched  over  other 
 hills.  Besides  his  mansion  in  the  capital,  he  possess- 
 ed sumptuous  villas  at  Tusculum,  Bauli,  and  Lauren- 
 tuin,  where  he  was  accustomed  to  give  the  most  ele- 
 gant and  expensive  entertainments.  His  olive  plan- 
 tations he  is  said  to  have  regularly  moistened  and  be- 
 dewed with  wine;  and,  on  one  occasion,  during  the 
 hearing  of  an  important  cause  in  which  he  was  en- 
 gaged along  with  Cicero,  he  begged  the  latter  to  change 
 with  him  the  previously  arranged  order  of  pleading,  as 
 he  was  obliged  to  go  to  the  country  to  pour  wine  on  a 
 favourite  jilnlanus,  which  grew  near  his  Tusculan  villa. 
 {Macrob.,  Sat.,  3,  13.)  Notwithstanding  this  profu- 
 sion, his  heir  found  not  less  than  10,000  casks  of  wine 
 in  his  cellar  after  his  death.  {Plin.,  14,  14.)  Besides 
 his  taste  for  wine  and  fondness  for  plantations,  he  in- 
 dulged in  a  passion  for  pictures  and  fish-ponds.  At  his 
 Tusculan  villa  he^built  a  hall  for  the  reception  of  a 
 painting  of  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  by  the 
 painter  Cydias,  which  cost  the  enormous  sum  ol 
 144,000  sesterces.  At  his  country  seat  near  Bauli,  on 
 the  seashore,  he  vied  with  LucuUus  and  Philippus  in 
 the  extent  of  his  fish-ponds,  which  were  constructed 
 at  immense  cost,  and  so  formed  that  the  tide  flowed 
 into  them.  ( Varro,  R.  R.,  3,  3  )  Yet  such  was  his 
 luxury,  and  reluctance  to  diminish  his  supply,  that, 
 when  he  gave  entertainments  at  Bauli,  he  generally 
 sent  to  the  neighbouring  town  of  Puteoli  to  buy  fish 
 for  supper.  {Id.,  3,  17.)  He  had  a  vast  number  of 
 fishermen  in  his  service,  and  paid  so  much  attention 
 to  the  feeding  of  his  fish,  that  he  had  always  ready  a 
 large  stock  of  small  fish  to  be  devoured  by  the  great 
 ones.  It  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  he  could  be 
 prevailed  upon  to  part  with  any  of  them  ;  and  Varro 
 declares  that  a  friend  could  more  easily  get  his  chariot- 
 mules  out  of  his  stable  than  a  mullet  from  his  ponds. 
 He  was  more  anxious  about  the  welfare  of  his  fish 
 than  the  health  of  his  slaves,  and  less  solicitous  that 
 a  sick  servant  might  not  take  what  was  unfit  for  him, 
 than  that  his  fish  might  not  drink  water  which  was 
 unwholesome.  It  is  even  said  {Plm.,  9.  55)  that  he 
 was  so  passionately  fond  of  a  particular  lamprey  as  to 
 shed  tears  for  its  untimely  death.  At  his  Laurentan 
 villa  Hortensius  had  a  wooded  park  of  fifty  acres,  en- 
 compassed with  a  wall.  This  enclosure  he  called  a 
 nursery  of  wild  beasts,  all  of  which  came  for  their 
 provender  at  a  certain  hour  on  the  blowing  of  a  horn  : 
 an  exhibition  with  which  he  was  accustomed  to  amuse 
 the  guests  who  visited  him  here.  Varro  mentions  an 
 entertainment  where  those  invited  supped  on  an  emi- 
 nence, called  a  Triclinium,  in  this  sylvan  park.  Du- 
 ring the  repast,  Hortensius  summoned  his  Orpheus, 
 who,  having  come  with  his  musical  instruments,  and 
 being  ordered  to  display  his  talents,  blew  a  trumpet, 
 when  such  a  multitude  of  deer,  boars,  and  other  quad- 
 rupeds rushed  to  the  spot  from  all  quarters,  that  the 
 sight  appeared  to  the  delighted  spectators  as  beautiful 
 as  the  courses  with  wild  animals  in  the  great  circus  of 
 the^Ediles.  {Dunlop.  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  222, 
 scjq.) 
 
 HoRus,  a  son  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  and  one  of  the  dei- 
 ties of  Egvpt.  Horus  is  the  sun  at  the  summer  sol- 
 stice. From  the  month  of  .^pril  until  this  season  of  the 
 year,  Typhon  was  said  to  bear  sway,  with  his  attendant 
 band  of  heats  and  maladies  :  the  earth  was  parched, 
 gloomy,  and  desolate.  Horus  thereupon  recalls  his  fa- 
 ther Osiris  from  the  lower  world,  he  revives  the  parent 
 
HUN 
 
 HUNNI. 
 
 m  the  son,  he  avenges  him  on  Typhon :  the  solstitial 
 sun  brings  back  the  Nile  from  the  bottom  of  Egypt, 
 where  it  had  appeared  to  be  sleeping  the  sleep  of 
 death ;  the  waters  spread  themselves  over  the  land, 
 everything  receives  new  life;  contagious  maladies, 
 hurtful  reptiles,  parching  heats  which  had  engendered 
 them,  all  disappear  before  the  conqueror  of  1'yphon  ; 
 through  him  nature  revives,  and  Egypt  resumes  her 
 fertility. — Horus  was  the  deity  of  ApoUinopolis  Magna 
 (Edfou),  where  he  had  a  magnificent  temple.  The 
 Greeks  compared  him  to  their  Apollo.  He  is  the  con- 
 queror of  Typhon,  as  Apollo  is  of  Python,  and  Crishna 
 of  the  serpent  Caliya.  {Creuzer,  SymboUk,  vol.  2,  p. 
 276. —  Creuzer,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  1,  p.  400. — Com- 
 pare the  remarks  of  Jomard,  in  the  "  Description  de 
 CEgyptc — Antiq."  vol.  1,  p.  26,  seqq.) 
 
 flosTiLiA,  a  village  on  the  Padus,  or  Po,  now  Os- 
 tiglta,  in  the  vicinity  of  Cremona.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  2, 
 40.) 
 
 HosTius,  a  Roman  poet,  contemporary  with  Liicil- 
 ius  the  satirist.  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the  Istrian  war, 
 which  took  place  576  A.U.C.,  or  B.C.  178.  Some 
 fragments  of  this  have  reached  our  time.  Hostius 
 wrote  also  metrical  annals,  after  the  manner  of  En- 
 nius.  (  Wcichert,  de  Hostio  poeta,  ejusque  carm.  reli- 
 quiis,  Commentatio,  p.  1-18.)  Some  make  him  to 
 have  been  the- father,  others  the  gratidfather,  of  the 
 Cynthia  of  Propertius.  (Consult  Brouckhus.,  ad  Pro- 
 pert.,  Eleg.,  3,  18,  8.) 
 
 HuNNi,  one  of  the  barbarian  nations  that  invaded 
 the  Roman  empire.  The  first  ancient  author  who 
 makes  mention  of  the  Huns  is  Dionysius  Periegetes. 
 This  geographer,  who  wrote  probably  about  30  years 
 before  our  era,  names  four  nations,  which,  in  the  order 
 of  his  narrative,  followed  from  north  to  south  along 
 the  western  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  viz.,  the  Scy- 
 thians, the  Huns  (Ovvvoi),  the  Caspians,  and  the  Al- 
 banians. Eratosthenes,  cited  by  Strabo,  places  these 
 nations  in  the  same  order  ;  but,  in  place  of  Huns,  he 
 calls  the  second  Ovlrioi,  Huitii,  who  were  probably 
 the  Hunnic  tribe  farthest  to  the  west.  Ptolemy,  who 
 lived  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  placed  the 
 Huns  (XoLTOi)  between  the  Bastarnae  and  Roxolani, 
 consequently  on  the  two  banks  of  the  Borysthenes. 
 The  Armenian  historians  know  this  people  under  the 
 denomination  of  Hounk,  and  place  them  to  the  north 
 of  Caucasus,  between  the  Wolga  and  the  Don.  Hence 
 they  call  the  defile  of  Derbend  the  "  Rampart  of  the 
 Huns."  In  the  geographical  work  falsely  attributed 
 to  Moses  of  Chorene,  the  following  passage  occurs : 
 "  The  Massagetas  dwell  as  far  as  the  Caspian  Sea, 
 where  is  the  branch  of  Mount  Caucasus  that  contains 
 the  rampart  of  Tarpant  (Derbend)  and  a  wonderful 
 tower  built  in  the  sea :  to  the  north  are  the  Huns 
 within  the  city  of  Varkatchan,  and  others  besides." 
 Moses  of  Chorene  relates,  in  his  Armenian  history, 
 the  wars  which  Tiridates  the  Great,  who  reigned  from 
 259  to  312,  sustained  against  certain  northern  nations 
 that  had  made  an  irruption  into  Armenia.  This  prince 
 attacked  and  defeated  them,  slew  their  king,  and  pur- 
 sued them  into  the  country  of  the  Hounk  (Hims). 
 Zonaras  states,  that,  according  to  some,  the  Emperor 
 Carus  was  slain  (A.D.  283)  in  an  e.xpeditioii  against 
 the  Huns.  From  all  that  has  been  stated,  we  see 
 clearly  that  this  people  were  already  known  before 
 their  invasion  of  Europe,  and  that,  when  Ammianus 
 MarceUiaus  speaks  of  them  as  a  nation  "  little  known 
 to  the  ancients,"  he  is  not  to  be  considered  as  mean- 
 ing that  there  was  no  knowledge  of  them  prior  to  A.D. 
 376.  "  They  live,"  remarks  the  same  writer,  "  be- 
 jond  the  Palus  Moeotis,  on  the  borders  of  the  Icy  Sea. 
 They  are  marked  by  extreme  ferocity  of  manners.  As 
 soon  as  a  child  is  born,  they  cut  deep  incisions  into 
 .ts  cheeks,  in  order  that  the  scars  thus  formed  may 
 prevent,  at  a  later  period,  the  first  growth  of  the  beard 
 from  appearing.     They  reach  an  advanced  age  without 
 
 having  any  beard,  and  they  are  as- deformed  as  eu- 
 nuchs. They  are  of  squat  figures,  and  have  strong 
 limbs  and  large  heads.  Their  figure  is  a  remarkable 
 one;  they  are  bent  to  such  a  degree  that  one  would 
 almost  fancy  them  to  be  brute  beasts  moving  on  two 
 legs,  or  those  rudely  carved  pillars  which  are  used  to 
 support  bridges,  and  which  are  cut  into  some  resem- 
 blance to  a  human  form."  Zosimus,  who  wrote  about 
 a  century  after  the  first  inroad  of  the  Huns  into  Eu- 
 rope, supposes  them  to  be  identical  with  the  royal 
 Scythians  of  Herodotus.  Jornandes  gives  a  fabulous 
 account  of  their  origin  from  some  sorceresses  who 
 had  united  themselves  with  the  impure  spirits  of  the 
 desert.  He  describes  them  as  a  race  which  showed 
 no  other  resemblance  to  the  human  species  than  what 
 the  use  of  the  faculty  of  speech  afforded.  The  i)or- 
 trait  of  these  barbarians  will  be  complete,  if  we  add 
 to  it  the  description  given  by  Sidonius  Apollinaris, 
 in  472  (2,  245,  seqq.).  The  terror  which  these  bar- 
 barians occasioned,  contributed,  no  doubt,  in  a  very 
 great  degree,  to  heighten  the  picture  which  the  ancient 
 writers  just  mentioned  have  given  us  of  their  personal 
 deformity.  We  must  also  take  into  consideration  the 
 following  circumstance  :  The  various  hordes  of  bar- 
 barians, such  as  the  Lombards,  Goths.  Vandals,  and 
 others,  which  made  inroads  into  the  Roman  empire 
 before  the  invasion  of  the  Huns,  were  of  the  Tndo- 
 Germanic  race ;  their  physiognomy,  therefore,  did  not 
 differ  much  from  that  of  the  European  nations  already 
 known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  On  a  sudden  the 
 Huns  presented  themselves,  belonging  clearly  to  a 
 different  race,  and  whose  figures  and  personal  ap- 
 pearance generally,  in  themselves  far  from  pleasing, 
 were  rendered  still  more  disagreeable  to  the  eye  by 
 artificial  means.  The  sudden  presence  of  such  a 
 race  could  not  but  produce  an  alarming  impression  ; 
 and  hence  the  writers  of  that  day  can  hardly  find 
 expressions  strong  enough  to  depict,  amid  the  ter- 
 ror-by  which  they  were  surrounded,  the  repulsive  de- 
 formity of  this  new  swarm  of  conquerors  ;  they  en- 
 deavour to  improve,  the  one  upon  the  other,  in  placing 
 before  their  readers  the  most  frightful  traits  of  savage 
 portraiture. — As  regards  the  origin  of  the  Hunnic  race, 
 it  must  be  confessed  that  great  uncertainty  has  for  a 
 long  time  prevailed.  Some  have  seen  in  them  the 
 progenitors  of  the  Mogul  and  Calmuc  Tartars  of  the 
 present  dav,  without  having  any  belter  foundation  for 
 this  opinion  than  vague  descriptions  of  the  forms  of 
 the  Huns.  These  writers  ought  to  have  reflected  that 
 the  descriptions  in  question  would  apply  equally  well, 
 to  a  large  number  of  the  races  of  northern  Asia,  to  the 
 Vogoules,  the  Samoiedes,  the  Toungouses,  and  oth- 
 ers. De  Guignes,  on  the  other  hand,  traces  up  the 
 Huns  to  a  nomadic  and  powerful  race  which  infested 
 the  borders  of  China,  and  who  are  called  by  the  his- 
 torians of  this  country  Hi.oung  nou.  The  simple  re 
 semblance  of  names  has  caused  this  theory  to  wear  a 
 plausible  appearance,  but  Klaproth  fully  establishes  its 
 fallacy.  This  writer,  in  following  as  his  guides  the 
 Byzantine  historians,  makes  the  Huns  to  have  been 
 of  the  same  origin  with  the  Avares,  and  to  have  been 
 a  branch  of  the  Oriental  Finns,  and  the  progenitors  of 
 the  present  Vougoules.  {Klaproth,  Tableaux  Htsto- 
 riques  de  VAsie,  p.  246.) — The  history  of  the  Huns, 
 in  its  more  important  features,  is  as  follows :  In  374 
 they  quitted  their  settlements  on  the  Woiga  and  Palus 
 Mffiolis,  under  the  conduct  of  their  monarch  Balamir, 
 and  subjected  the  Akatsires,  who,  according  to  the 
 statement  of  Priscus,  had  a  common  origin  with  them. 
 Reunited  to  this  people,  they  attacked  the  Alani, 
 called  Tanaita?  from  their  dwelling  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Tanais  or  Don.  The  Alani,  being  conquered,  made 
 common  cause  with  the  Huns,  and  in  376  the  united 
 hordes  invaded  the  country  of  the  Ostrogoths.  Her- 
 mannrich,  the  king  of  this  latter  people,  met  with  a 
 total  defeat,  and  killed  himself  in  despair.     His  suc- 
 
 647 
 
HY  A 
 
 H  Y  A 
 
 cessor  Vithimir  endeavoured  in  vain  to  make  head 
 against  the  victors  ;  he  was  slain  in  battle,  and  the 
 Ostrogoths  were  dispersed.  The  Visigoths,  to  the 
 number  of  200,000  combatants,  retreated  before  them, 
 and  obtamed  permission  of  the  Emperor  Valens  to 
 cross  the  Danube  and  retire  into  Thrace.  In  380 
 Balamir  or  Balamber  desolated  the  lloinan  provinces 
 and  destroyed  numerous  cities.  Their  farther  ravages, 
 however,  were  bought  off  by  an  annual  tribute  until 
 442,  when,  under  Attila  and  Eleda,  sons  of  Mound- 
 zoukh,  they  ravaged  Thrace  and  Illyria,  and  Theodo- 
 sius  11,  was  compelled  to  Hy  for  refuge  into  Asia,  and 
 to  conclude  from  that  country  a  shameful  peace  with 
 the  invaders.  In  444  Attila  became  sole  monarch, 
 and  in  447  entered  at  the  head  of  an  immense  army 
 into  the  countries  subject  to  the  Eastern  empire,  and 
 advanced  to  the  very  gates  of  Constantinople.  The 
 armies  of  Theodosius  II.  were  everywhere  defeated, 
 and  a  fresh  tribute  alone  saved  the  capital  of  the  East. 
 The  death  of  Theodosius,  which  happened  in  450,  ap- 
 peared to  Attila  to  ofl'er  a  new  opportunity  for  farther 
 exactions ;  but  Marcian,  the  new  emperor,  refused  to 
 listen  to  his  demands  ;  and  Attila,  tinding  menaces  in- 
 efTectual,  began  to  seek  various  prete.vts  for  carrying 
 the  war  into  the  West.  He  penetrated  into  Gaul  and 
 ravaged  various  parts  of  the  country,  but  was  defeated 
 in  the  battle  of  Chalons-sur-Marne.  Notwithstanding, 
 however,  this  overthrow,  he  soon  made  an  irruption 
 into  Italy,  ravaged  Cisalpine  Gaul,  took  Aquileia,  and 
 pillaged  Milan  and  Pavia.  He  died  this  same  year 
 (453),  on  the  night  of  his  nuptials.  The  power  of  the 
 Huns  fell  with  Attila,  and  the  nation  was  soon  after 
 dispersed.  A  portion  of  them  settled  in  the  country 
 which  from  them  was  called  Hungary.  Some  authors 
 state,  that  the  race  of  the  ancient  Huns  were  all  cut 
 off  in  the  long  war  waged  against  them  by  Charle- 
 magne, and  that  the  country  was  afterward  peopled 
 by  the  neighbouring  nations,  to  whom  the  present 
 Hungarians  owe  their  origin.  But  other  and  more  ac- 
 curate authors  make  the  Hungarians  of  the  present 
 day  to  be  descended  from  the  ancient  Huns  mingled 
 with  other  races.  Tlie  personal  appearance  of  the 
 Huns  does  not,  it  is  true,  favour  this  idea ;  but  the  Fin- 
 nic tribe,  which  formed  the  germe  of  the  Hungarian 
 nation,  becoming  intermingled  in  the  course  of  time 
 with  Turkish,  Slavonic,  and  Germanic  races,  may  be 
 said  to  have  almost  totally  changed  its  external  char- 
 acteristics. The  language  of  the  present  Hungarians, 
 too,  is  composed  of  Finnic,  Turkish,  Slavonic,  and 
 German  elements.  (Klapruth,  Tableaux  Historiqucs, 
 6lc.,  p.  247,  scqq.) 
 
 HvAuiNTHi.i,  a  festival,  celebrated  for  three  days  in 
 the  summer  of  each  year,  at  Amyclas,  in  honour  of 
 Apollo  and  his  unhappy  favourite  Hyacinthus.  {Vii. 
 Hyacinthus.)  Miilier  gives  strong  reasons  for  suppo- 
 sing that  the  Hyauinthia  were  originally  a  festival  of 
 Ceres.     {Dorians,  vol.  1,  p.  373.) 
 
 Hyacinthus,  a  beautiful  youth  of  Amyclse,  beloved 
 by  Apollo.  He  was  playing  one  day  at  discus-throw- 
 ing with  the  god,  when  the  latter  made  a  great  cast, 
 and  Hyacinthus  running  too  eagerly  to  take  up  the 
 discus,  it  rebounded  and  struck  him  in  the  face.  The 
 god,  unable  to  save  his  life,  changed  him  into  the  flow- 
 er which  was  named  from  him,  and  on  whose  petals 
 Grecian  fancy  saw  traced  ot,  at,  the  notes  of  grief. 
 {Ooid,  Met.,  10,  162,  scijq.—Apollod.,  1,  3,  3.— Id.,  3, 
 10,  'i.—Euri'p.,  Hel.,  1489,  seq.)—OiheT  versions  of 
 the  legend  say  that  Zephyrus  {/he  West  Wind.),  en- 
 raged at  Hyacinthus'  having  preferred  Apollo  to  him- 
 self, blew  the  discus,  when  flung  by  Apollo,  against 
 the  head  of  the  youth,  and  so  killed  him.  {Eudocia, 
 'lOS. —Nonniis,  10,  253,  seq.—Id.,  29,  95,  scq.—Lii- 
 cian,  D.  D  ,  U.—Keighllei/s  Mytholo^ir,/,  p.  120.) 
 
 HvADEs,  according  to  some,  the  daughters  of  Atlas 
 and  sisters  of  the  Pleiades.  The  best  accounts,  how- 
 ever, make  them  to  have  been  the  nymphs  of  Dodona, 
 648 
 
 unto  whom  Jupiter  confided  the  nurture  of  Bacchus. 
 (Consult  Guigniaut,  vol.  3,  p.  68.)  Pherecydes  givea 
 their  names  as  Ambrosia,  Coronis,  Eudora,  Dione, 
 ^i'^sula,  and  Polyxo.  {Fherecyd.,  ap.  Schul  ,  II. ,  18, 
 486.)  Hesiod,  on  the  other  hand,  calls  them  Fhwsula, 
 Coronis,  Cleea,  Phaeo,  and  Eudora.  {Ap.  Sckol.  ad 
 Aral.,  PhcEu.,  172.)  The  Hyades  went  about  with 
 their  divine  charge,  communicating  his  discovery  to 
 mankind,  until,  being  chased  with  him  into  the  sea  by 
 Lycurgus,  Jupiter,  in  compassion,  raised  them  to  the 
 skies  and  transformed  them  into  stars.  {I'herccyd., 
 I.  c.)  According  to  the  more  common  legend,  how- 
 ever, the  Hyades,  having  lost  their  brother  Hyas,  who 
 was  killed  by  a  bear  or  lion,  or,  as  Timajus  says,  by  an 
 asp,  were  so  disconsolate  at  his  death,  that  they  pined 
 away  and  died ;  and  after  death  they  were  changed  into 
 stars.  {Hygin.,  fah.,  192. — Muiicker,  ad  he.) — The 
 stars  called  Hyades  (Tddef)  derived  their  name  from 
 vw,  "  to  make  wet,''''  '■'■to  rain,'"  because  their  setting,  at 
 both  the  evening  and  morning  twilight,  was  for  the 
 Greeks  and  Romans  a  sure  presage  of  wet  and  stormy 
 weather,  these  two  periods  falling  respectively  in  the 
 latter  half  of  April  and  November.  {Idelcr,  Slernna- 
 ■men,p.  139.)  On  this  basis,  therefore,  both  the  above 
 legends  respecting  the  Hyades  were  erected  by  the  po- 
 ets. In  the  case  of  the  nymphs  of  Dodona,  the  Hy- 
 ades become  the  type  of  the  humid  principle,  the  nur- 
 turer  of  vegetation  ;  while  in  the  later  fable,  the  rain- 
 drops that  accompany  the  setting  of  the  Hyades  are  the 
 tears  of  the  dying  daughters  of  Atlas.  Hence  Horace, 
 with  a  double  allusion  to  both  fable  and  physical  phe- 
 nomena, calls  the  stars  in  question  "  tristes  Hyadas.'^ 
 {Od.,  1,  3,  14.) — The  Roman  writers  sometimes  call 
 these  stars  by  the  name  of  Suculce,  "  little  swine," 
 for  which  singularly  inelegant  epithet  Pliny  assigns  as 
 singular  a  derivation.  According  to  this  writer,  the 
 Roman  farmers  mistook  the  etymology  of  the  Greek 
 name  Hyades,  and  deduced  it,  not  from  veiv,  "to 
 rain,"  but  from  if,  gen.  ■uof,  "  a  sow.''''  {Plin.,  18,  26.) 
 The  reason  for  this  amusing  derivation  appears  to  have 
 been,  because  the  continual  rains  at  the  setting  of  the 
 Hyades  made  the  roads  so  miry,  that  these  stars 
 seemed  to  delight  in  dirt  like  swine  !  Isidorus  derives 
 the  term  Suculce  from  succus,  in  the  sense  of  "  moist- 
 ure" or  "wet"  ("a  sticco  et  pluviis." — Isid.,  Orig., 
 3,  70),  an  etymology  which  has  found  its  way  into 
 many  modern  works.  Some  grammarians,  again, 
 sought  to  derive  the  name  Hyades  from  the  Greek  T 
 (upsilon),  in  consequence  of  the  resemblance  which 
 the  cluster  of  stars  bears  to  that  letter.  {Sehol.  ad 
 II.,  I.  c.) — The  Hyades,  in  the  celestial  sphere,  are  at 
 the  head  of  the  Bull  {etzI  tov  fSovftpdvov).  The  num- 
 ber of  the  stars  composing  the  constellation  are  vari- 
 ously given.  Thales  comprehended  under  this  name 
 only  the  two  stars  a  and  e  ;  Euripides,  in  his  Phaethon, 
 made  the  number  to  be  three ;  Achseus  gave  four ; 
 Hesiod  five ;  and  Pherecydes,  who  must  have  inclu- 
 ded the  horns  of  the  Bull,  numbered  seven.  {Sehol. 
 ad  Arat.,  I.  c.)  The  scholiast  on  the  Iliad,  however, 
 gives  only  the  names  of  six  Hyades,  when  quoting 
 from  the  same  Pherecydes,  the  name  of  one  having 
 probably  been  dropped  by  him ;  for  the  Atlantides 
 were  commonly  reckoned  as  amounting  to  fourteen, 
 namely,  seven  Pleiades  and  seven  Hyades. — The 
 names  of  the  Hvades,  as  given  by  Hyginus,  are  evi- 
 dently in  some  degree  corrupted,  and  in  emending  ih«» 
 text  we  ought  to  employ  the  scholia  on  Homer  (//., 
 18,  486),  especially  those  from  the  Venetian  MS.,  to- 
 gether with  the  remarks  of  Valckenaer  {ad  Aiwnon., 
 p.  207,  scqq. — BiUtmann,  Bcmcrk.  zu  Ideler,  p.  315.) 
 HvAMPEi.4,  one  of  the  two  lofty  rocks  which  rose 
 perpendicularly  from  behind  Delphi,  and  obtained  for 
 Parnassus  the  epithet  of  diKopixpog,  or  the  two-headed. 
 {Eurip.,  Phaii.,  2'Si.—Herodat.,  8,  39.)  The  other 
 was  called  Naupleia.  It  was  from  these  elevated 
 crags   that  culprits  and   sacrilegious  criminals   were 
 
H  YD 
 
 HYG 
 
 hurled  by  the  Delphians,  and  in  this  manner  the  un- 
 fortunate ^sop  was  barbarously  murdered.  {I'lut., 
 de  Ser.  Num.  Vind. — Diod.  Sic,  16,  523. — Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  170.) 
 
 HvAMPOLis,  a  town  in  the  northern  extremity  of 
 Phocis,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  places  in  that  ter- 
 ritory. It  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Hy- 
 ant(  s,  one  of  the  earliest  tribes  of  Greece.  {Strabo, 
 423  )  Herodotus  places  Hyampolis  near  a  defile  lead- 
 ing towards  Thermopyls,  where,  as  he  reports,  the 
 Phi  '.ians  gained  a  victory  over  the  Thessalians,  who 
 had  invaded  their  territory.  {Herod.,  8,  28.)  He  in- 
 formi;  us  elsewhere  that  it  was  afterward  taken  and  de- 
 stroyed by  the  Persians.  {Herodot.,  8,  33.)  Diodo- 
 rus  s:,ates,  that  the  Boeotians  defeated  the  Phocians  on 
 one  c-ccasion  near  Hyampolis,  and  Xenophon  affirms 
 that  its  citadel  was  taken  by  Jason  of  Pherae.  (Diod. 
 Sic,  4j,  4.)  The  whole  town  was  afterward  destroyed 
 by  Pliilip  and  the  Amphictyons.  {Paxisan.,  10,  37.) 
 Both  Phny  (4,  7)  and  Ptolemy  (p.  87)  erroneously  as- 
 cribe this  ancient  city  to  Boeotia.  The  ruins  of  Hy- 
 ampolis may  be  seen  near  the  village  of  Bogdana, 
 upon  a  little  eminence  at  the  junction  of  three  valleys. 
 {GcWs  liin.,  p.  223. — Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2, 
 p.  184,  seqq.) 
 
 HvANTEs,  the  name  of  an  ancient  people  of  Bosotia, 
 who  succeeded  the  Ectene<!  in  the  p'^ssession  of  that 
 country  when  the  latter  were  exterminated  by  a  plague. 
 (Slrabo,  401. — Pausan.,  9,  5.)  Ovid  applies  the  epi- 
 thet Hyantius  to  Actaeon,  as  equivalent  to  Baotus. 
 {Met.,  3,  147.) 
 
 HvANTis,  an  ancient  name  of  Boeotia,  from  the  Hy- 
 antes.     {Vid.  Hyantes.) 
 
 HvAS,  the  son  of  Atlas,  and  brother  of  the  Atlanti- 
 des.  He  was  e.xtremely  fond  of  hunting,  and  lost  his 
 life  in  an  encounter  with  a  bear  or  lion,  or,  as  Timseus 
 relates,  from  the  bite  of  an  asp.  {Hyghi.,  fah.,  192. — 
 Muvck.,  ad  loc — Vid.  Hyades.) 
 
 HvBLA,  I.  the  name  of  three  towns  in  Sicily  ;  Hybla 
 Major,  Minor,  and  Parva.  The  first  was  situate  near 
 the  south  of  Mount  /Etna,  on  a  hill  of  the  same  name 
 with  the  city ;  near  it  ran  the  river  Simoethus.  This 
 was  the  Hybla  so  famous  in  antiquity  for  its  honey  and 
 bees.  {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v. — Pausan.,  5,  23.) — H.  The 
 second  place  was  called  also  Herar^a  ;  it  was  situate  in 
 the  southern  part  of  Sicily,  and  is  placed  in  the  itinerary 
 of  Antonine  on  the  route  from  Agrigentum  to  Syra- 
 cuse. On  D'Anville's  map  it  is  north  of  Camarina. 
 This  is  now  Calala  Girone.  (Liv.,  24,  30. — Steph. 
 By~.,  s.  V.) — HI.  The  last  place  was  a  maritime  one 
 on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  above  Syracuse.  It 
 was  also  denominated  Galaotis,  but  more  frequently 
 ^Tegara,  whence  the  gulf  to  the  south  of  it  was  called 
 Megarensis  Sinus.     (Plin..  3,  8.— Died.  Sic,  4,  80) 
 
 HvDASPEs,  a  river  of  India,  and  one  of  the  tributa- 
 ries of  the  Indus.  D'Anville  makes  it  to  be  the  mod- 
 ern .SAa»(/ro«;  Mannert  is  in  favour  of  the  Bc/ju/.  The 
 true  modern  name,  however,  is  the  Ilhum  or  Ihylum. 
 As  regards  the  variety  of  appellations  given  to  this 
 stream  in  both  ancient  and  modern  writers  (no  less 
 than  twelve  in  number),  consult  Vincent,  Voyage  of 
 Nearchus,  p-  91,  seq. — Ancient  Commerce,  vol.  1,  p. 
 91. 
 
 HvDRA,  a  celebrated  monster,  which  infested  the 
 Lernean  marsh  and  its  vicinity.  It  was  destroyed  by 
 Hercules  in  his  second  labour.  {Vid.  Hercules," where 
 a  full  account  is  given.) 
 
 HvDRAOTES,  a  tributary  to  the  Indus,  now  the  Ra- 
 tee.  Strabo  and  Qiiintus  Curtius  call  it  the  Hyarotes, 
 while  Ptolemy  styles  it  the  Rhuadis.  The  Sanscrit 
 name  is  Irawutti.  (Consult  Vincent,  Voyage  of  Ne- 
 archus, p.  98. — Ancient  Commerce,  vol.  1,  p.  98.) 
 
 HvdrophorTa,  a  festival  observed  at  Athens,  so  call- 
 ed drco  rov  (j>opelv  ij&up,  from  carrying  water.     It  was 
 celebrated  in  commemoration  of  those  who  perished 
 in  the  deluge.     {Plut.,  Vit.  Syll.—Suid.,  s.  v. — Theo- 
 4N 
 
 pomp.,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Arisf.,  Acharn.,  1075.)  There 
 was  also  another  festival  of  the  same  name,  which  is 
 said  to  have  originated  in  the  island  of  uEgina,  when 
 the  Argonauts  landed  there  for  water.  A  friendly 
 contest  took  place  between  the  crews  of  the  different 
 vessels,  as  to  who  should  display  the  most  speed  in 
 carrying  water  to  the  ships.  {Apollod.,  1,  9,  26.-5- 
 Apoll.  Rh.,  4,  1766.— i¥M«er,  JEginetica,  p.  24,  n.  v.) 
 
 Hydruntom  and  Hydrus  (Tdpovf,  gen.  'YJ/jow- 
 Toq),  I.  a  port  and  city  of  Calabria,  50  miles  south  of 
 Brundisium.  It  was  a  place  of  some  note  as  early  as 
 the  time  of  Scylax,  who  names  it  in  his  Periplua 
 (p.  5).  It  was  deemed  the  nearest  point  of  Italy  to 
 Greece,  the  distance  being  only  50  miles,  and  the 
 passage  might  be  effected  in  five  hours.  {Cic,  Ep. 
 ad  Alt..  15,  21.)  This  circumstance  led  Pyrrhus,  as 
 it  is  said,  to  form  the  project  of  uniting  the  two  coasts 
 by  a  bridge  thrown  across  from  Hydruntum  to  Apol- 
 lonia.  {Plin.,  3,  11.)  In  Strabo's  time,  Hydruntum 
 was  only  a  small  town,  though  its  harbour  was  still 
 frequented.  {Strabo,  281.)  Stephanus  Byzantinus 
 records  a  tradition,  from  which  it  would  appear  that 
 Hydruntum  was  founded  by  some  Cretans.  The 
 modern  name  is  Otranto.  {Cramer's  Ave.  Italy,  vol. 
 2,  p.  309.) — II.  A  small  river  running  close  to  Hy- 
 druntum.    It  is  now  the  Idro.     {Lucan,  5,  374.) 
 
 HvGEiA,  the  goddess  of  health,  daughter  of  .cEscu- 
 lapius,  held  in  great  veneration  among  the  ancients. 
 She  was  commonly  worshipped  in  the  same  temple 
 with  ^sculapius.  Her  statue,  moreover,  was  often 
 placed  by  the  side  of  that  of  Apollo,  who  then  derived 
 from  her  a  surname.  So  also,  on  the  Acropolis  at 
 Athens,  her  statue  stood  near  that  of  Minerva,  who 
 was  hence  called  Minerva-Hygeia.  {Pausan.,  1,  23.) 
 — Hygeia  was  usually  represented  holding  a  cup  in  one 
 hand,  and  a  serpent  in  the  other,  which  twines  round 
 her  arm  and  drinks  from  the  cup.  The  long  robe  in 
 which  she  is  attired,  as  well  as  the  serpent  which  she 
 holds,  sufficiently  distinguish  her  from  Hebe,  who  is 
 also  represented  holding  a  cup.  {Vollmcr,  Worterh. 
 der  MylhoL,  p.  899.) 
 
 Hyginus  Caius  Julius  (written  also  Higinus,  Hy- 
 genus,  Yginus,  or  Iginus),  a  celebrated  grammarian. 
 He  is  mentioned  by  Suetonius  as  a  native  of  Spain, 
 though  some  have  supposed  him  an  Alexandrean,  and 
 to  have  been  brought  to  Rome  after  the  capture  ol 
 that  city  by  Cffisar.  Hyginus  was  a  freedman  of  Au- 
 gustus Caesar's,  and  was  placed  by  that  emperor  over 
 the  library  on  the  Palatine  Hill.  He  also  gave  in- 
 struction to  numerous  pupils.  Hyginus  was  inti- 
 mately acquainted  with  Ovid  and  other  literary  char- 
 acters of  the  day,  and  was  said  to  be  the  imitator  of 
 Cornelius  Alexander,  a  Greek  grammarian.  Some 
 suppose  him  to  have  been  the  faithless  friend  of  whom 
 Ovid  complains  in  his  Ibis.  His  works,  which  were 
 numerous,  are  frequently  quoted  by  the  ancients  with 
 great  respect.  The  principal  ones  appear  to  have 
 been:  1.  De  Urbibus  Italicis :  2.  De  Trojanis  Fam- 
 iliis  :  3.  De  Claris  Viris  :  4.  De  Proprietatibv s  Dco- 
 rum  :  5.  Dc  Diis  Penatihus  :  6.  A  Commentary  on 
 Virgil :  7.  A  Treatise  on  Agriculture. — These  works 
 are  all  lost.  Those  which  are  extant,  and  are  ascribed 
 to  Hyginus,  were  probably  written  by  another  individ- 
 ual of  the  same  name.  These  are  :  1.  Fabu/arum 
 Liber,  a  collection  of  277  fables,  taken  for  the  most 
 part  from  Grecian  sources,  and  embracing  all  the  most 
 important  legends  of  antiquity.  It  is  written  in  a 
 very  inferior  style,  but  is  still  of  great  importance  for 
 the  mythologist.  2.  Poeticbn  Astronoynicdn.  This, 
 like  the  previous  work,  is  in  prose,  and  consists  of  four 
 books,  being  partly  astronomical  and  mathematical, 
 partly  mythological  and  philosophical  in  its  character, 
 since  it  gives  the  origin  of  the  Catasterisms  according 
 to  the  legends  of  the  poets.  The  proem  of  the  work 
 is  addressed  to  a  certain  Quintus  Fabius,  in  whom 
 some,  without  any  sufficient  reason  Vvhatsoever,  pre 
 
 649 
 
HYL 
 
 HYP 
 
 tend  to  recognise  Q.  Fabius  Quintilianus.  This  work 
 also  is  written  in  a  careless  and  inferior  manner,  and 
 yet  is  very  important  for  obtaining  a  iinowledge  of  an- 
 cient astronomy,  and  for  a  correct  understanding  of 
 the  poets.  The  principal  source,  whence  the  writer 
 obt&tned  his  materials,  was,  according  to  Salmasius 
 {dc  Ann.  Climact.,  p.  594),  the  Greek  Sphcera  {I,<l)atpa) 
 of  Nigidius  ;  but,  according  to  Scaliger  {Jos.  Seal,  ad 
 Manil.,  I,  p.  33. — Id.,  ad  Euseb.,  p.  10),  he  drew  them 
 from  Eratosthenes  and  others. — An  examination  of  the 
 style  and  character  of  these  two  works  will  leave  no 
 doubt  on  our  mind  that  the  author  of  them  was  not  the 
 celebrated  grammarian  of  the  Augustan  age  ;  but  that 
 these  were  written  at  a  later  period.  Many  regard  the 
 Fables  as  a  selection  made  from  several  earlier  works, 
 by  a  grammarian  of  a  later  day,  probably  Avianus,  whose 
 name  Barth  thought  he  had  discovered  in  one  of  the 
 MSS.  {Barth,  Advcrs.,\i),\2.— Id.,\0, 20.)  Schef- 
 fer  places  the  writer,  about  whose  name,  Hyginus, 
 there  cannot  well  be  any  doubt,  in  the  age  of  the  An- 
 tonines.  {De  Hygini  Script,  fabul.  cBlalc  atque  sty- 
 lo.) Muncker  thinks  that  many  parts  are  taken  from 
 the  earlier  Hyginus,  and  that  the  rest  is  the  produc- 
 tion of  a  very  inferior  writer.  {Munck.,  Prctf.  adHy- 
 gin.,  +ttt,  scqq.)  N.  Heinsius  makes  the  compiler 
 of  the  work  to  have  lived  under  Theodosius  the  young- 
 er ;  and  Van  Staveren  regards  the  collection  as  hav- 
 ing been  made  at  a  late  period,  with  the  name  of  an 
 ancient  grammarian  prefixed  to  it.  {Prcef.  ad  Auct. 
 Mylhogr.,  sub  Jin.)  Niebuhr,  finally,  thmks  that  a 
 mythological  fragment  found  by  him  {Fragmenl.um  de 
 rebus  Thcbanis  mythologicis)  formed  part  of  the  work 
 out  of  which,  by  the  aid  of  numerous  additions,  the 
 two  productions  that  now  go  by  the  name  of  Hyginus 
 appear  to  have  originated.  {Cic.,  Orat.  pro  Rabir., 
 &c.,  Fragm.,  p.  105,  seqq.,  Rom.,  1820,  8vo.)  The 
 best  editions  of  Hyginus  are  :  that  of  Muncker,  Amst., 
 1681,  2  vols.  8vo,  and  that  of  Van  Staveren,  Lugd. 
 Bat.,  et  Amst.,  1742,  4to.  {Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit., 
 vol.  1,  p.  712,  seqq.) 
 
 Hylactor,  one  of  Actaeon's  dogs,  named  from  his 
 barking  {vXaKrCt,  "  to  bark"). 
 
 Hylas,  I.  a  son  of  Theodamas,  king  of  Mysia,  and 
 of  Menodice,  who  accompanied  Hercules  in  the  Argo. 
 On  the  coast  of  Mysia  the  Argonauts  stopped  to  ob- 
 tain a  supply  of  water,  and  Hylas  having  gone  for 
 some,  was  seized  and  kept  by  the  nymphs  of  the 
 stream  into  which  he  dipped  his  urn.  Hercules  went 
 in  quest  of  him,  and  in  the  midst  of  his  unavailing 
 search  was  left  behind  by  the  Argo.  {Apollod.,  1,  9, 
 l9.—Apoll.  Rh.,  1,  1207,  seq. — Munck.,  ad  Anton. 
 Lib. ,2%. — Slurz,  ad  Hell anic.  fragm.,  p.  11 1 .) — It  was 
 an  ancient  custom  of  the  Bithynians  to  lament  in  the 
 burning  days  of  midsummer,  and  call  out  of  the  well, 
 into  which  they  fabled  he  had  fallen,  a  god  named 
 Hylas.  The  Maryandinians  lamented  and  sought  Bor- 
 rnos,  and  the  Phrygians  Lityorses,  with  dirges,  in  a 
 similar  manner.  This  usage  of  the  Bithynians  was 
 adopted  into  their  mythology  by  the  Greek  inhabitants 
 of  Gius,  near  which  the  scene  of  the  fable  was  laid, 
 and  it  was  connected  in  the  manner  just  narrated  with 
 the  Argonautic  expeditions,  and  the  history  of  Hercu- 
 les. {Miiller,  Orchom.,  p.  293. — Id.,  Dorians,  \o\.  1, 
 p.  367,  457.) — H.  A  river  of  Bithynia,  flowing  into 
 the  Sinus  Gianus,  near  the  town  of  Gius,  and  to  the 
 southwest  of  the  lake  Ascanius  and  the  city  of  Nicasa. 
 The  inhabitants  of  Gius  celebrated  yearly  a  festival  in 
 honour  of  Hylas,  who  was  carried  off  by  the  nymphs,  as 
 is  above  mentioned,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  river. 
 The  river  was  named  after  him.  At  this  celebration  it 
 was  usual  to  call  with  loud  cries  upon  Hylas.  {Plin., 
 5,  32.)     Gonsult  remarks  under  the  article  Hylas,  I. 
 
 HvLLUs,  I.  a  son  of  Hercules  and  Dejanira,  who, 
 
 after  his  father's  death,  married  lole.     According  to 
 
 the  common  legend,  he  was  persecuted,  as  his  father 
 
 had  been,  by  EuRystheus,  and  obliged  to  fly  from  the 
 
 650 
 
 Peloponnesus.  The  Athenians  gave  a  kind  reception 
 to  Hyllus  and  the  rest  of  the  Heraclidae,  and  marched 
 against  Eurystheus.  Hyllus  obtained  a  victory  over 
 his  enemies,  killed  with  his  own  hand  Eurystheus,  and 
 sent  his  head  to  Alcmena,  his  grandmother.  Some 
 time  after  he  attempted  to  recover  the  Peloponnesus 
 with  the  other  Heraclidae,  but  was  killed  in  single  com- 
 bat by  Echemus,  king  of  Arcadia.  {Vid.  Heraclidse, 
 Hercules. — Herodot.,  7,  204,  &c. — Ovid,  Met.,  9,  279. 
 — H.  A  river  of  Lydia,  which  falls  into  the  Hermus.  It 
 is  mentioned  by  Homer  (//.,  20,  392).  Strabo  states 
 that  it  was  named  in  his  time  the  Phrygius.  Pliny, 
 however,  distinguishes  between  the  Hyllus  and  the 
 Phryx  or  Phrygius  (5,  29);  and,  if  he  is  correct,  it  is 
 probable  that,  in  his  opinion,  the  Hyllus  was  the  river 
 of  Thyatira ;  but  the  Phrygius,  the  larger  branch, 
 which  comes  from  the  northeast,  and  rises  in  the  hills 
 of  the  ancient  Phrygia  Epictetus.  {Cramer's  Asia 
 Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  428.) 
 
 Hymen.«us  and  Hymen,  the  god  of  marriage,  was 
 said  to  be  the  offspring  of  the  muse  Urarua,  but  the 
 name  of  his  sire  was  unknown.  {Catullus,  61,  2. — 
 Nonnus,  33,  67.)  Those  who  take  a  less  sublime 
 view  of  the  sanctity  of  marriage,  give  him  Bacchus 
 and  Venus  for  parents.  {Servius,  ad  JEn.,  4,  127.) 
 He  was  invoked  at  marriage  festivals.  {Eurip.,  Tre- 
 ad., 310. — CatulL,  I.  c.)  By  the  Latin  poets  he  is 
 presented  to  us  arrayed  in  a  yellow  robe,  his  temples 
 wreathed  with  the  fragrant  plant  amaracus,  his  locks 
 dropping  perfume,  and  the  nuptial  torch  in  his  hand. 
 {CatulL,  I.  c. — Ovid,  Her.,  20,  157,  seqq. — Id.,  Met., 
 10,  \,seq.) 
 
 Hymettus,  a  mountain  of  Attica,  southeast  of 
 Athens,  and  celebrated  for  its  excellent  honey.  Ac- 
 cording to  Hobhouse,  Hymettus  approaches  to  within 
 three  miles  of  Athens,  and  is  divided  into  two  ranges  ; 
 the  first  running  from  east-northeast  to  southwest, 
 and  the  second  forming  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  first, 
 and  having  a  direction  from  west-northwest  to  east- 
 southeast.  One  of  these  summits  was  named  Hy- 
 mettus, the  other  Anydros,  or  the  dry  Hymettus. 
 {Tkcophr.,  de  Sign.  PL,  p.  419,  Heins.)  The  first  is 
 now  called  Trelo  Vouni,  the  second  Lambra  Vouni. 
 The  modern  name  of  Hymettus  {Trelo  Vouni)  means 
 "  the  Mad  Mountain."  This  singular  appellation  is  ac- 
 counted for,  from  the  circumstance  of  its  having  been 
 translated  from  the  Italian  Monte  Matto,  which  is  no- 
 thing else  than  an  unmeaning  corruption  of  Mons  Hy- 
 mettus. The  same  writer  states,  that  Hymettus  is 
 neither  a  high  nor  a  picturesque  mountain,  but  a  flat 
 ridge  of  bare  rocks.  The  sides  about  half  way  up  are 
 covered  with  brown  shrubs  and  heath,  whose  flowers 
 scent  the  air  with  delicious  perfume.  The  honey  of 
 Hymettus  is  still  held  in  high  repute  at  Athens,  being 
 distinguished  by  a  superior  flavour  and  a  peculiar  aro- 
 matic odour,  which  plants  in  this  vicinity  also  possess. 
 {Hobhouse' s  Journey,  vol.  1,  p.  320.)  Herodotus  af- 
 firms that  the  Pelasgi,  who,  in  the  course  of  their 
 wanderings,  had  settled  in  Attica,  occupied  a  district 
 situated  under  Mount  Hymettus  :  from  this,  however, 
 they  were  expelled  in  consequence,  as  Hecatseus  af- 
 firmed, of  the  jealousy  entertained  by  the  Athenians 
 of  the  superior  skill  exhibited  by  these  strangers  in 
 the  culture  of  land  (6,  137).  Some  ruins,  indicative 
 of  the  site  of  an  ancient  town  near  the  monastery  of 
 Syriani,  at  the  foot  of  Trelo  Vouni,  have  been  thought 
 to  correspond  with  this  old  settlement  of  the  Pelasgi, 
 apparently  called  Larissa.  {Strabo,  p.  440. — GeWt 
 Itinerary,  p.  94.  —  Kruse,  Hellas,  vol.  1,  p.  294.  - 
 Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  391.) 
 
 Hypanis,  I.  a  river  of  European  Scythia,  now  called 
 Bog,  which  falls  into  the  Borysthenes,  after  a  south- 
 east course  of  about  400  miles,  and  with  it  into  the 
 Euxine.  {Herod.,  i,52.) — II.  A  river  of  Asia,  rising 
 in  Mount  Gaucasus,  and  falling  into  the  Palus  Maeo- 
 tis.     {Vid.  Vardanus.) 
 
HYP 
 
 HYP 
 
 Hypata,  the  principal  town  of  the  ^Enianes,  in 
 Thessaly,  on  the  river  Sperchius.  Livy  mentions  it 
 as  being  in  the  possession  of  the  ^toHans,  and  as  a 
 place  where  their  national  council  was  frequently 
 convened  (36,  14).  Its  women  were  celebrated  for 
 their  skill  in  magic.  {Aful,  Met.,  1,  p.  104.— T/jc- 
 oyhr.,  Hist.  Plant.,  9,  2.)  Hypata  was  still  a  city  of 
 note  in  the  time  of  Hierocles  (p.  642).  Its  ruins 
 are  to  be  seen  on  the  site  called  Ca^tritza,  near  the 
 modern  Palragick,  which  represents  probably  the 
 Nea3  Patra;  of  the  Byzantine  historians.  (Nicephorus 
 GregoT.,  4,  p.  67. — Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1, 
 p.  447.) 
 
 HvPATiA,  a  female  mathematician  of  Alexandrea, 
 daughter  of  Theon,  and  still  more  celebrated  than  her 
 father.  She  was  born  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
 tury. Endowed  with  a  rare  penetration  of  mind,  she 
 joined  to  this  so  great  a  degree  of  ardour  in  the  path 
 of  self-instruction,  as  to  consecrate  to  study  her  entire 
 days  and  a  large  portion  of  the  night.  She  applied 
 herself  in  particular  to  the  philosophy  of  Plato,  whose 
 sentiments  she  preferred  to  those  of  Aristotle.  Fol- 
 lowing the  example  of  these  great  men,  she  resolved 
 to  add  to  her  information  by  travelling;  and,  having 
 reached  Athens,  attended  there  the  lectures  of  the 
 ablest  instructers.  On  her  return  to  her  native  city, 
 she  was  invited  by  the  magistrates  to  give  lessons  in 
 philosophy,  and  Alexandrea  beheld  a  female  succeed 
 to  that  long  line  of  illustrious  teachers  which  had  ren- 
 dered its  school  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  the 
 world.  She  was  an  Eclectic ;  but  the  exact  sciences 
 formed  the  basis  of  all  her  instructions,  and  she  ap- 
 plied their  demonstrations  to  the  principles  of  the 
 speculative  sciences.  Hence  she  was  the  first  who 
 introduced  a  rigorous  method  into  the  teaching  of  phi- 
 losophy. She  numbered  among  her  disciples  many 
 celebrated  men,  among  others  Synesius,  afterward 
 bishop  of  Ptolema'is,  who  preserved  during  his  whole 
 life  the  most  friendly  feelings  towards  her,  although 
 she  constantly  refused  to  become  a  convert  to  Chris- 
 tianity. Hypatia  united  to  the  endowments  of  mind 
 many  of  the  attractions  and  all  the  virtues  of  her  sex. 
 Her  dress  was  remarkable  for  its  extreme  simplicity  ; 
 her  conduct  was  always  above  suspicion  ;  and  she 
 knew  well  how  to  restrain  within  the  bounds  of  re- 
 spect those  of  her  auditors  who  felt  the  influence  of 
 her  personal  charms.  All  idea  of  marriage  was  con- 
 stantly rejected  by  her  as  threatening  to  interfere  with 
 her  devotion  to  her  favourite  studies.  Merit  so  rare, 
 and  qualities  of  so  high  an  order,  could  not  fail  to  ex- 
 cite jealousy.  Orestes,  governor  of  Alexandrea,  ad- 
 mired the  talents  of  Hypatia,  and  frequently  had  re- 
 course to  her  for  advice.  He  was  desirous  of  repress- 
 ing the  too  ardent  zeal  of  St.  CyriU,  who  saw  in  Hy- 
 patia one  of  the  principal  supports  of  paganism.  The 
 partisans  of  the  bishop,  on  their  side,  beheld  in  the 
 measures  of  the  governor  the  result  of  the  counsels  ot 
 Hypatia ;  the  most  seditious  of  their  number,  having 
 at  their  head  an  ecclesiastic  named  Peter,  seized  upon 
 Hypatia  as  she  was  proceeding  to  her  school,  forced 
 her  to  descend  from  her  chariot,  and  dragged  her  into 
 a  neighbouring  church,  where,  stripped  of  her  vest- 
 ments, she  was  put  to  death  by  her  brutal  foes.  Her 
 body  was  then  torn  to  pieces,  and  the  palpitating 
 members  were  dragged  through  the  streets  and  finally 
 consigned  to  the  flames.  This  deplorable  event  took 
 '  place  in  the  month  of  March,  A.D.  415. — The  works 
 of  Hypatia  were  lost  in  the  burning  of  the  Alexandrean 
 library.  In  the  number  of  these  were,  a  Commentary 
 on  Diophantus,  an  Astronomical  Canon,  and  a  Com- 
 mentary on  the  Conies  of  ApoUonius  of  Perga.  The 
 very  names  of  her  other  productions  are  lost.  The 
 letter  published  by  Lupus,  in  his  Collect.  Var.  Epist., 
 is  evidently  supposititious,  since  it  contains  mention  of 
 the  condemnation  of  Nestorius,  which  was  posterior 
 to  the  death  of  Hypatia.     In  the  works  of  Synesius, 
 
 published  by  Petavius  (1633,  fol),  are  found  seven  of 
 the  letters  written  by  that  prelate  to  Hypatia  ;  but  we 
 have  to  regret  the  loss  of  her  answers,  which  would 
 have  thrown  much  hght  on  the  subject  matter  of  the 
 epistles  in  question.  The  Greek  Anthology  contains 
 an  epigram  in  praise  of  Hypatia,  attributed  to  Paulus 
 Silentiarius.  For  farther  information  relative  to  this 
 celebrated  female,  consult  Menage,  Hist.  Mulier.  Phi- 
 losophor.,  p.  52,  seqq.  ;  a  Dissertation  of  Desvignoles, 
 in  the  Bibl.  German.,  vol.  3  ;  and  a  Letter  of  the  Ab- 
 be Goujet,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  volumes  of  the  Con- 
 tinuation des  Mcmoires  de  Literature,  by  Desmoleta. 
 Socrates  Scholasticus  also  gives  us  some  account  of 
 her  method  of  instruction.     {Hist.  Eccles.,  7,  15.) 
 
 Hyperborei,  a  name  given  by  the  ancient  writers 
 to  a  nation  supposed  to  dwell  in  a  remote  quarter  oi 
 the  world,  beyond  the  wind  Boreas,  or  the  region  where, 
 in  the  popular  belief,  this  wind  was  supposed  to  begin 
 to  blow.  Hence  they  were  thought  to  live  in  a  de- 
 licrhtful  climate,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  every  bless- 
 ing, and  to  attain  also  to  an  incredible  age,  even  to  a 
 thousand  years.  (Pind.,  01.,  3,  55. — Pherenicus,  ap. 
 Schol.  ad  Pind.,  I.  c.) — The  term  Hyperborean  has 
 given  rise  to  various  opinions.  Pelloutier  makes  the 
 people  in  question  to  have  been  the  Celtic  tribes  near 
 the  Alps  and  Danube.  Pliny  places  them  beyond  the 
 Rhipean  mountains  and  the  northeast  wind,  "  ultra 
 aquilonis  initia."  Mention  is  made  of  them  in  sev- 
 eral passages  of  Pindar  ;  and  the  scholiast  on  the  8th 
 Olympiad,  v.  63,  observes,  elg  "YKepdopeovg,  evda  'la- 
 rpog  Tof  TTrj-yuc  sx^'^'  ''^  ^^'^  Hyperboreans,  where  the  Is- 
 tcr  has  its  rise.  Protarchus,  who  is  quoted  by  Siepha- 
 nus  of  Byzantium  under  the  word  'TnepSopeoi,  states, 
 that  the  Alps  and  Rhipean  Mountains  were  the  same, 
 and  that  all  the  nations  dwelling  at  the  foot  of  this 
 chain  were  called  Hyperboreans.  It  would  appear 
 from  these  and  other  authorities  (an  enumeration  of 
 most  of  which  is  made  by  Spanheim,  ad  Calhm., 
 Hymn,  in  Del.,  v.  281),  that  the  term  Hyperborean 
 was  applied  by  the  ancient  writers  to  every  nation  sit- 
 uated much  to  the  north.  But  whence  arise  the  highly 
 coloured  descriptions  which  the  ancients  have  left  us 
 of  these  same  Hyperboreans  1  It  surely  could  not  be, 
 that  rude  and  barbarous  tribes  gave  occasion  to  those 
 beautiful  pictures  of  human  felicity  on  which  the  poets 
 of  former  days  delighted  to  dwell.  "  On  sweet  atid 
 fragrant  herbs  they  feed,  amid  verdant  and  grassy  pas- 
 tures, and  drink  ambrosial  dew,  divine  potation.;  all 
 resplendent  alike  in  coeval  youth,  a  placid  serenity  for 
 ever  smiles  on  their  brows,  and  lightens  in  their  eyes  ; 
 the  consequence  of  a  just  temperament  of  mind  and 
 disposition,  both  in  the  parents  and  in  the  sons,  dispo- 
 sing them  to  do  what  is  just  and  to  speak  what  is  wise. 
 Neither  diseases  nor  wasting  old  age  infest  this  holy 
 people  ;  but,  without  labour,  without  war,  they  con- 
 tinue to  live  happily,  and  to  escape  the  vengeance  of 
 the  cruel  Nemesis."  Thus  sang  Orpheus  and  Pindar. 
 If  an  opinion  might  be  ventured,  it  would  be  this,  that 
 all  the  traditions  respecting  the  Hyperborean  race 
 which  are  found  scattered  among  the  works  of  the  an- 
 cient writers,  point  to  an  early  and  central  seat  of  civ- 
 ilization, whence  learning  and  the  arts  of  social  life  di- 
 verged over  the  world.  Shall  we  place  this  seat  of 
 primitive  refinement  in  the  north  ]  But,  it  may  be  re- 
 plied, the  earliest  historical  accounts  which  we  have  of 
 those  regions  represent  them  as  plunged  in  the  de»p- 
 est  barbarism.  The  answer  is  an  easy  one.  Ages  of 
 refinement  may  have  rolled  away,  and  been  succeeded 
 by  ages  of  ignorance.  Who  will  venture  to  say  that 
 the  northern  regions  of  Europe  must  not,  at  an  early  pe- 
 riod, have  enjoyed  a  milder  cl.mate,  when  the  vast  quan- 
 tities of  amber  found  in  the  environs  of  the  Baltic  clear- 
 ly  show  that  the  forests,  now  imbedded  m  the  earth  in 
 which  amber  is  produced,  could  not  have  yie  ded  this 
 substance  if  a  very  elevated  temperature  had  not  pre- 
 vailed there.     We  will  abandon,  however,  this  argu- 
 
 661 
 
HYP 
 
 HYP 
 
 ment,  strong  as  it  is,  and  pursue  the  inquiry  on  other 
 and  clearer  grounds.  The  term  Hyperborean  means 
 a  nation  or  people  who  dwell  beyond  the  wind  Boreas. 
 The  name  Boreas  is  properly  applied  by  the  Greeks  to 
 the  wind  which  l)lovvs  from  the  north-northeast  {Fas- 
 sow,  Lex.,  s.  v.),  and  is  the  same  with  the  Aquilo  of 
 the  Latins.  Of  this  latter  wind  Pliny  remarks,  ^'■fat 
 inter  Seplcntrionetn  el  Orliim  solstilialem  ;"  and  For- 
 cellini  {Lex.  Tot.  Lat.)  observes,  that  it  is  often  con- 
 founded with,  and  mistaken  for,  the  north.  The  term 
 Hvperborei,  then,  if  we  consider  its  true  meaning,  re- 
 fers to  a  people  dwelling  far  to  the  northeast  of  the 
 Gieeks,  .ind  will  lead  us  at  once  to  the  plains  of  cen- 
 tral Asia,  the  cradle  of  our  race.  Here  it  was  that 
 man  existed  in  primeval  virtue  and  happiness,  and  here 
 were  enjoved  those  blessings  of  existence,  the  remem- 
 brance of  which  was  carried,  by  the  various  tribes  that 
 successively  migrated  from  this  common  home,  into 
 every  quarter  of  the  earth.  Hence  it  is  that,  even 
 among  the  Oriental  nations,  so  many  traces  are  found 
 ol  their  origin  being  derived  from  some  country  to  the 
 north.  Adelung  has  adopted  the  opinion  which  as- 
 signs central  Asia  as  the  original  seal  of  the  human 
 species,  and  has  mentioned  a  variety  of  considerations 
 in  support  of  it.  He  observes,  that  the  central  plains 
 of  Asia  being  the  highest  region  in  the  globe,  must 
 have  been  the  first  to  emerge  from  the  universal  ocean, 
 and,  therefore,  first  became  capable  of  affording  a  habit- 
 able dwelling  to  terrestrial  animals  and  to  the  human 
 species  :  hence,  as  the  subsiding  waters  gradually  gave 
 up  the  lower  regions  to  be  the  abode  of  life,  they  may 
 have  descended,  and  spread  themselves  successively 
 over  their  new  acquisitions.  The  desert  of  Kobi, 
 which  is  the  summit  of  the  central  sceppe,  is  the  most 
 elevated  ridge  in  the  globe.  From  its  vicinity  the 
 great  rivers  of  Asia  take  their  rise,  and  flow  towards 
 the  four  cardinal  points.  The  Selinga,  the  Ob,  the 
 Irtish,  the  Lena,  and  the  Jenisei,  send  their  water  to 
 the  Frozen  Ocean :  the  laik  flows  towards  the  setting 
 sun  ;  the  Amu  and  Hoang-ho,  and  the  Indus,  Ganges, 
 and  Burrampootcr,  towards  the  east  and  south.  On  the 
 declivities  of  these  high  lands  are  the  plains  of  Thibet, 
 lower  than  the  frozen  region  of  Kobi,  where  many  fer- 
 tile tracts  are  well  fitted  to  become  the  early  seat  of 
 animated  nature.  Here  are  found  not  only  the  vine, 
 the  olive,  rice,  the  legumina,  and  other  plants,  on 
 which  man  has  in  all  ages  depended,  in  a  great  meas- 
 ure, for  his  sustenance,  but  all  those  animals  run  wild 
 upon  these  mountains,  which  he  has  tamed  and  led 
 with  him  over  the  whole  earth  ;  as  the  ox,  the  horse, 
 the  ass,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  the  camel,  the  hog,  the 
 dog,  the  cat,  and  even  the  gentle  reindeer,  which  ac- 
 companies him  to  the  icy  polar  tracts.  In  Cashmere, 
 plants,  animals,  and  men  exist  in  the  greatest  physical 
 perfection.  A  number  of  arguments  are  suggested  in 
 favour  of  this  opinion.  Bailly  has  referred  the  origin 
 of  the  arts  and  sciences,  of  astronomy  and  of  the  old 
 lunar  zodiac,  as  well  as  of  the  discovery  of  the  planets, 
 to  the  most  northerly  tract  of  Asia.  His  attachment 
 to  Buffon's  hypothesis  of  the  central  fire,  and  the  grad- 
 ual refrigeration  of  the  earth,  has  driven  him,  indeed, 
 to  the  banks  of  the  Frozen  Ocean  ;  but  his  arguments 
 apply  more  naturally  to  the  centre  of  Asia.  In  our 
 Scriptures,  moreover,  the  second  origin  of  mankind  is 
 referred  to  a  mountainous  region  eastward  of  Shinar, 
 and  the  ancient  books  of  the  Hindoos  fix  the  cradle  of 
 our  race  in  the  same  quarter.  The  Hindu  paradise 
 is  on  Mount  Meru,  which  is  on  the  confines  of  Cash- 
 mere and  Thibet.     {Muller,  Univ.  Hist.,  vol.  4,  p.  19, 
 
 7Wt.) 
 
 Hyperea,  a  fountain  of  Thessaly,  placed  by  some 
 in  the  vicinity  of  Argos  Pelasgicum,  while  others  think 
 that  it  was  near  Pherae.  {Strabo,  432.  —  Heyne,  ad 
 Horn..,  II.,  6,  457. — Cramer^s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p. 
 395.) 
 
 Hyperesia,  the  more  ancient  name  of  ^-Egira  in 
 652 
 
 Achaia.  Pausanias  (7,  26)  relates  a  story  which  ac- 
 counts for  the  subsequent  change  of  name.  The  lo- 
 nians,  who  had  colonized  the  city,  being  attacked  by  a 
 superior  number  of  .Sicyonians,  collected  a  great  many 
 goats,  and,  having  lied  fagots  to  their  horns,  set  them 
 on  fire,  when  the  enemy,  conceiving  the  besieged  to 
 have  received  re-enforcements,  hastily  withdrew.  From 
 these  goats,  anb  tuv  aiyuv,  Hyperesia  took  the  name 
 of  iEgira,  though  its  former  appellation,  as  Pausanias 
 remarks,  never  fell  into  total  disuse.  {Fausan.,  I.  c. 
 —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  57,  acq.') 
 
 Hyferides,  a  celebrated  Athenian  orator,  contem- 
 porary with  Demosthenes.  After  having  completed 
 his  education,  he  employed  himself  in  writing  orations 
 and  pleadings  for  others,  until  he  was  of  an  age  that 
 qualified  him  for  the  practice  of  the  bar.  In  entering 
 on  his  political  career,  he  attached  himself,  like  De- 
 mosthenes, to  the  party  opposed  to  Philip,  king  of 
 Macedonia,  and  was  sent,  along  with  Ephialtes,  on  a 
 secret  mission  to  the  court  of  Persia,  the  territories  of 
 which  were  equally  threatened  by  Philip,  to  procure 
 aid  against  that  ambitious  and  powerful  prince.  When 
 Euboea  was  in  fear  of  an  invasion  by  Philip,  and  while 
 the  Athenians  were  wasting  their  time  in  idle  delibera- 
 tions, Hyperides  prevailed  upon  the  richer  citizens  to 
 unite  with  him  in  immediately  equipping  forty  vessels, 
 two  of  which  were  armed  at  his  own  expense.  He 
 was  engaged  also  in  the  expedition  which  the  Athe- 
 nians sent  to  the  aid  of  Byzantium,  under  the  orders 
 of  Phocion.  When  news  reached  Athens  of  the  dis- 
 astrous battle  of  Chseronea,  Hyperides  mounted  the 
 tribune,  and  proposed  that  their  wives,  children,  and 
 gods  should  be  placed  for  safe  keeping  in  the  Piraeus  ; 
 that  the  exiles  should  be  recalled  ;  that  their  rights 
 should  be  restored  to  those  citizens  who  had  been  de- 
 prived of  them  ;  that  the  sojourners  should  be  admit- 
 ted to  the  rank  of  citizens  ;  that  libeny  should  be 
 granted  to  the  slaves ;  and  that  all  classes  should  take 
 up  arms  in  defence  of  their  country.  These  measures 
 were  adopted,  and  to  them  the  republic  owed  the  hon- 
 ourable peace  which  it  subsequently  obtained.  When 
 this  danger  was  passed,  Hyperides  was  attacked  by 
 Aristogiton,  who  accused  him  of  having  violated,  by 
 the  decree  just  mentioned,  all  the  fundamental  laws  of 
 the  republic.  Hyperides  defended  himself  in  a  cele- 
 brated speech,  in  which  he  declared,  that,  dazzled  by 
 the  Macedonian  arms,  he  was  unable  to  see  the  laws  ; 
 and  he  gained  his  cause.  He  was  one  of  the  two  ora- 
 tors whom  Alexander  wished  to  have  delivered  into 
 his  hands  after  the  destruction  of  Thebes ;  but  the 
 anger  of  the  monarch  was  appeased  by  Demades,  and 
 Hyperides  remained  in  his  country.  He  was  one  of 
 the  small  number  whom  the  gold  of  Harpalus  could 
 not  gain  over ;  and  hence  it  is  that  he  became  the  ac- 
 cuser of  Demosthenes,  who  had  suffered  himself  to  be 
 corrupted.  We  find  Hyperides  subsequently  pronoun- 
 cing the  funeral  oration  over  Leosthenes,  who  fell  in 
 the  Lamiac  war,  and  which  the  ancients  considered 
 one  of  the  best  of  its  kind.  After  the  defeat  of  his 
 countrymen  he  was  exiled  from  Athens.  He  retired 
 first  to  ^gina,  where  he  became  reconciled  to  Demos- 
 thenes. Pursued,  however,  by  the  Macedonians,  he 
 took  refuge  in  the  temple  of  Neptune  at  Hermione. 
 From  this  asylum  he  was  torn  by  Archias,  who  was 
 charged  with  the  infamous  mission  of  delivering  up  to 
 Antipater  the  Athenian  orators  by  whom  his  schemes 
 had  been  opposed.  Antipater  caused  his  tongue  to  be 
 cutout,  and  put  him  to  death,  B.C.  322.  His  body, 
 which  had  been  left  without  burial,  was  carried  off  by 
 his  relatives,  and  interred  in  Attica. — Hyperides  is  re- 
 garded as  the  third  in  order  of  the  Athenian  orators,  or 
 the  first  after  Demosthenes  and  .Eschines.  Cicero, 
 however,  places  him  immediately  after  Demosthenes, 
 and  almost  on  the  same  level.  Dionysius  of  Halicar- 
 nassus  praises  the  strength,  the  simplicity,  the  order, 
 and  the  method  of  his  orations  {ei.  Reiske,  vol.  2.  p. 
 
HYP 
 
 H  YR 
 
 643).  Dio  Chrysostom  appears  to  have  given  him  the 
 preference  over  all  orators  with  the  exception  of  xKs- 
 chines.  {Or.,  18,  ed.  Reiske,  p.  372.)  Unfortunately, 
 there  exists  no  oration  which  we  can  with  certainty  as- 
 cribe to  Hyperides,  and  by  which  we  might  be  enabled 
 to  form  for  ourselves  some  idea  of  his  merits  and  style. 
 Libanius  believes  him  to  have  been  the  author  of  a 
 harangue  which  is  found  among  those  of  Demosthenes, 
 and  entitled  Hepl  tCjv  npoc  'AXi^avSpov  avvQ/jKuv, 
 "■  On  the  conventions  with  Alexander."  Reiske  is  in- 
 correct in  assigning  to  him  one  of  the  two  orations 
 against  Aristogiton,  found  among  the  works  of  Demos- 
 thenes. {Scholl,  Histoire  de  la  LuUraturc  Gr.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  220.) 
 
 Hyperion,  a  son  of  Ccelus  and  Terra,  who  married 
 Thea,  by  whom  he  had  Aurora,  the  sun  and  moon. 
 {Theog.,  371,  seq)  In  Homer,  Hyperion  is  identical 
 with  the  Sun.  (//.,  19,  398. — Compare,  however,  IL, 
 6,  513.)  It  is  very  probable  that  'YTTtpiuv  is  the  con- 
 traction of 'YTTSptoviuy.  {Passow,  Lex.,s.  v. —  Volck- 
 er,  Horn.  Geogr.,  p.  26.)  The  interpretation  given 
 by  the  ancients  to  the  name,  as  denoting  "  him  that 
 moves  above,"  seems  liable  to  little  objection.  Her- 
 mann renders  it  Tol.lo,  as  a  substantive :  "  Post  hos 
 videmus,  'Tireplova  et  'larzETov,  Tollinem  et  Mersi- 
 um.^'  {Opusc,  vol.  2,  p.  175. — Keightlcif  s  Mytholo- 
 gy, p.  b-2,scq.) 
 
 HypERMNESTRA,  One  of  the  fifty  daughters  of  Danaus, 
 who  married  Lynceus,  son  of  ^Egyptus.  She  disobey- 
 ed her  father's  bloody  commands,  who  had  ordered  her 
 to  murder  her  husband  the  first  night  of  her  nuptials, 
 and  suffered  Lynceus  to  escape  unhurt.  Her  father, 
 at  first,  in  his  anger  at  her  disobedience,  put  her  into 
 close  confinement.  Relenting,  however,  after  some 
 time,  he  gave  his  consent  to  her  union  with  Lynceus. 
 {Vid.  Dana'ides.) 
 
 HvpHASis,  a  tributary  of  the  Indus,  now  the  Beypa- 
 sha,  or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  written,  Beyah.  The 
 ancient  name  is  variously  given.  In  Arrian  it  is'Tir- 
 aaig  and"T0a(7if  ;  in  Diodorus  (17,  93)  and  in  Strabo, 
 "Tiravig  (Hypanis).  Pliny  (6,  17)  gives  the  form  Hyp- 
 asis.  This  river  was  the  limit  of  Alexander's  con- 
 quests, and  lie  erected  altars  on  its  banks  in  memory 
 of  his  expedition.  Some  writers  erroneously  give  the 
 modern  name  of  the  Hyphasis  as  the  Setledje.  {Vin- 
 cenCs  Voyage  of  Ncarchus,  p.  101.) 
 
 Hypsa,  now  Bclici,  a  river  of  Sicily  falling  into  the 
 Crinisus.     (Sil.  ItaL,  14,  228.) 
 
 HvpsicLES,  an  astronomer  of  Alexandres,  who 
 flourished  under  Ptolemy  Physcon,  about  146  B.C. 
 He  is  considered  by  some  to  have  been  the  author  of 
 the  14lh  and  15th  books  which  are  appended  to  Eu- 
 clid's Elements  ;  though  others  strenuously  deny 
 this.  No  one,  however,  disputes  his  claim  to  a  small 
 work  entitled  'A.va(popiKri,  in  which  he  gives  a  method, 
 far  from  exact,  of  calculating  the  risings  of  each  sign 
 or  portion  of  the  ecliptic.  Hypsicles  was  nearly  con- 
 temporary with  Hipparchus,  who  was  the  first  that  gave 
 an  exact  solution  to  this  problem.  He  may  have  been 
 ignorant  of  the  discoveries  of  Hipparchus,  and  this  may 
 serve  to  excuse  him  ;  but  it  is  hard  to  conceive  why 
 his  treatise  called  Anaphorice,  to  which  we  have  just 
 alluded,  should  have  been  included  in  ihe  collection 
 entitled  the  "Little  Astronomer,"  which  formed  a 
 text-book  in  the  Alexandrean  schools  preparatory  to 
 the  reading  of  the  astronomy  of  Ptolemy.  It  was  idle 
 to  show  the  pupil  a  very  vicious  solution  of  an  easy 
 problem,  which  they  would  subsequently  find  solved  in 
 the  work  itself  of  Ptolemy.  {Biographic  Univ.,  vol. 
 21,  p.  137.) 
 
 Hypsipyi.e,  daughter  of  Thoas  and  queen  of  Lem- 
 nos.  The  Leinnian  women,  it  is  said,  having  offend- 
 ed Venus,  the  goddess,  in  revenge,  caused  them  to  be- 
 come personally  disagreeable  to  their  husbands,  so  that 
 the  latter  preferred  the  society  of  their  female  captives. 
 Incensed  at  this  neglect,  the  Lemnian  wives  murdered 
 
 their  husbands.  Hypsipyle  alone  saved  her  father, 
 whom  she  kept  concealed.  About  a  twelvemonih  af- 
 ter this  event,  the  Argonauts  touched  at  Lemnos.  The 
 women,  taking  them  for  their  enemies  the  Thracians, 
 came  down  in  arms  to  oppose  their  landing;  but,  on 
 ascertaining  who  they  were,  they  retired  and  held  a 
 council,  in  which,  on  the  advice  of  Hypsipyle's  nurse, 
 it  was  decided  that  they  should  invite  them  to  land, 
 and  take  this  occasion  of  having  otTspring.  The  Ar- 
 gonauts accepted  the  invitation,  Hercules  alone  refu- 
 sing to  quit  the  vessel.  They  gave  themselves  up  to 
 joy  and  festivity,  till,  on  the  remonstrance  of  that  hero, 
 they  tore  themselves  away  from  the  Lemnian  fair  ones, 
 and  once  more  handled  their  oars.  When  her  coun- 
 trywomen subsequently  found  that  Hypsipyle  had  saved 
 the  life  of  her  father,  they  sold  her  into  slavery,  and 
 she  fell  into  the  hands  of  Lycurgus,  king  of  Kemea, 
 who  made  her  nurse  to  his  infant  son  Opheltes.  As 
 the  army  of  Adrastus  was  on  its  march  against  Thebes, 
 it  came  to  Nemea,  and,  being  in  want  of  water,  Hyp- 
 sipyle undertook  to  guide  them  to  a  spring.  She  left 
 the  child  Opheltes  lying  on  the  grass,  where  a  serpent 
 found  and  killed  him.  Amphiaraus  augured  ill-luck 
 from  this  event,  and  called  the  child  Archemorus  (Falc- 
 Beginncr),  as  indicative  of  the  evils  which  were  to  be- 
 fall the  chiefs.  They  then  celebrated  funeral  games 
 in  his  honour.  Lycurgus  endeavoured  to  avenge  the 
 death  of  his  child  ;  but  Hypsipyle  was  screened  from 
 his  resentment  by  Adrastus  and  the  other  chieftains. 
 {Apollod.,  1,  9,  17.— Id.,  3,  6,  4:.—Hygin.,fab.,  15, 
 74,  &c.) 
 
 Hyrcania,  a  large  country  of  x\sia,  situate  to  the 
 south  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  This 
 country  was  mountainous,  covered  with  forests,  and 
 inaccessible  to  cavalry.  Under  Alexander's  success- 
 ors, Hyrcania  was  restricted  to  narrow  limits ;  Nisssa 
 and  Margiana,  which  were  previously  portions  of  it, 
 being  converted  into  a  separate  province  ;  during  the 
 Parthian  rule,  these  two  became  an  appendage  to  Par- 
 thiene  ;  for,  under  the  feeble  Seleuco-Syrian  kings,  the 
 northern  noinades,  called  the  Parthians,  had  pressed  on- 
 ward and  founded  a  large  kingdom.  Hyrcania,  now 
 restricted,  contained  the  north  of  Comis,  the  east  of 
 Masanderan,  the  country  now  called  Corcan  or  Jor- 
 jan  {Dshwrdshian),  and  the  west  of  the  province  of 
 Chorasan.  The  name  Hyrcania  is  said  to  denote  a 
 waste  and  uncultivated  country.  {Wahl,  Vorder  und 
 Mittel  Asien,  p.  551.) 
 
 Hyrcanum  Mare,  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Cas- 
 pian, lying  along  the  shores  of  Hyrcania.  {Vid.  Cas- 
 pium  Mare.) 
 
 Hyrcanus,  I.  John,  high-priest  and  prince  of  the 
 Jewish  nation,  succeeded  his  father  Simon  Maccabje- 
 us,  who  had  been  treacherously  slain  by  the  orders  of 
 Ptolemasus,  his  son-in-law.  Hyrcanus  commenced 
 his  reign  by  punishing  the  assassin,  whereupon  Ptole- 
 inaeus  applied  for  aid  to  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  who 
 laid  siege  to  Jerusalem  and  compelled  Hyrcanus  to  pay 
 him  tribute.  At  the  death  if  Antiochus,  however,  he 
 profited  by  the  troubles  of  Syria  to  effect  the  deliver- 
 ance of  his  country  from  this  foreign  yoke.  He  took 
 several  cities  in  Judaja,  subjugated  the  Idumreans,  de- 
 molished the  temple  at  Gcrazim,  and  made  himself 
 master  of  Samaria.  He  died  not  long  after,  B.C.  106. 
 — II.  The  eldest  son  of  Alexander  I.,  succeeded  his 
 father  in  the  high-priesthood,  B.C.  78.  Aristobulus, 
 his  brother,  disputed  the  crown  with  him,  on  the  death 
 of  Alexandra,  their  mother,  and  proved  victorious,  B.C. 
 66.  Hyrcanus,  reduced  to  the  simple  office  of  the 
 priesthood,  had  recourse  to  Arctas,  king  of  Arabia, 
 who  besieged  Aristobulus  in  the  temple.  Scaurus, 
 the  lieutenant  of  Pompey,  however,  whom  Aristobulus 
 had  engaged  in  his  interests,  compelled  Aretas  to  raise 
 the  siege,  and  Hyrcanus  was  forced  to  content  him- 
 self with  the  office  of  high-priest.  He  was  put  to  death 
 by  Herod,  at  the  age  of  80  years,  B.C.  30.  on  his  at- 
 
 653 
 
I  AC 
 
 I  AM 
 
 tempting  to  take  refuge  once  more  among  the  Arabians. 
 \Jah.ns  Hist.  Hebrew  Com.,  p.  307  and  345.) 
 
 HvREiUM,  a  town  of  Apulia,  also  called  Uria.  {Vid. 
 Uria.) 
 
 HyrTa,  I.  a  city  of  Apulia,  in  the  more  northern 
 part  of  the  lapygian  peninsula,  between  Brundisium 
 and  Tarenlum.  It  is  now  Oria,  and  would  seem  to 
 have  been  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  since  its  found- 
 ation is  ascribed  by  Herodotus  to  some  Cretans,  that 
 formed  part  of  an  expedition  to  avenge  the  death  of 
 Minos,  who  had  perished  in  Sicily,  whither  he  went 
 in  pursuit  of  Dsdalus.  (Herod.,  7,  171.)  Strabo,  in 
 his  description  of  lapygia,  does  not  fail  to  cite  this 
 passage  of  Herodotus,  but  he  seems  undetermined 
 whether  to  recognise  the  town  founded  by  the  Cretans 
 in  that  of  Thyrsi  or  in  that  of  Veretum.  By  the  first, 
 which  he  mentions  as  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  isth- 
 mus, and  formerly  the  capital  of  the  country,  he  seems 
 to  designate  Oria  (Sirab.,  282).  It  is  probable  the 
 word  Thyraei  is  corrupt ;  for  elsewhere  Strabo  calls  it 
 Uria,  and  describes  it  as  standing  on  the  Appian  Way, 
 between  Brundisium  and  Tarentum,  as  above  remark- 
 ed. (Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  310.) — II.  A 
 town  of  Boeotia,  in  the  vicinity  of  Aulis.  (Horn.,  II. , 
 2,  'i'^Q.—Strab.,  404.) 
 
 Hyrieus,  I.  an  Arcadian  monarch,  for  whom  Aga- 
 medes  and  Trophonius  constructed  a  treasury.  (Vid. 
 Agamedes.) — II.  A  peasant  of  Hyria  in  Boeotia,  whose 
 name  is  connected  with  the  legend  of  the  birth  of  Ori- 
 on.    {Vid.  Orion.) 
 
 Hyktacus,  a  Trojan,  father  to  Nisus,  one  of  the  com- 
 panions of  ^neas.  (Fi)-^.,^M.,  9, 177,406.)  Hence 
 the  patronymic  of  Hyrtacid.es  applied  to  Nisus.  (JEn., 
 9,  176. — Compare  Horn.,  II.,  2,  837,  seq.) — The  same 
 patronymic  form  is  applied  by  Virgil  to  Hippocoon. 
 (JS«.,  5,  492.) 
 
 Hysia,  I.  a  town  of  Boeotia,  at  the  foot  of  Cithoeron, 
 and  to  the  east  of  Platsa.  It  was  in  ruins  in  the  time 
 of  Pausanias  (9,  2).  The  vestiges  of  this  place  should 
 be  looked  for  near  the  village  of  Platonia,  said  to  be 
 one  mile  from  Platsea,  according  to  Sir  W.  Cell. 
 'Jtin.,  p.  112.) — II.  A  small  town  of  Argolis,  not  far 
 from  the  village  of  Cenchreae,  and  on  the  road  from 
 Argos  to  Tegea  in  Arcadia.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
 Lacedaemonians  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  {Thucyd., 
 5,  83.) 
 
 Hystaspes,  a  noble  Persian,  of  the  family  of  the 
 Achsemenides.  His  son  Darius  reigned  in  Persia  af- 
 ter the  murder  of  the  usurper  Smerdis. — As  regards 
 the  meaning  of  the  name  Hystaspes,  consult  remarks 
 under  the  article  Darius,  page  416,  col.  2,  line  20. 
 
 I. 
 
 Iacchcs,  a  surname  of  Dionysus  or  the  Grecian 
 Bacchus,  as  indicative  of  his  being  the  son  of  Ceres, 
 and  not,  according  to  the  common  legend,  of  Semele. 
 In  accordance  with  this  idea,  Bochart  makes  it  of  Phoe- 
 nician origm,  and  signifying  an  infant  at  the  breast. 
 (Geogr.  Sacr.,  1,  18.)  A  similar  definition  is  found  in 
 Suidas  (s.  v.  "Iukxoc).  Sophocles  represents  the  young 
 god  on  the  breast  of  the  Eleusinian  Ceres.  {Antig., 
 132.)  Lucretius  (4,  1162)  gives  Ceres  the  epithet  of 
 Mammosa.  Orpheus,  cited  by  Clemens  Alesandri- 
 nus  (Adman,  ad  Gent. — Op.,  ed.  MorclL,  p  13),  also 
 speaks  of  lacchus  as  a  child  at  the  breast  of  Ceres. 
 According  to  the  Athenian  traditions,  Ceres  was  nur- 
 sing Bacchus  when  she  came  to  Attica  in  search  of 
 Proserpina.  A  great  number  of  ancient  monuments 
 represent  Ceres  with  lacchus  or  Bacchus  at  her  breast. 
 (Winckdmann,  Mon.  Ined.,  vol.  1,  p.  28,  68,  71.) 
 lacchus  was  also  called  Kovpog,  a  name  which  the 
 Greeks  gave  to  infant  deities.  (Salmas.,  ad  Inscr. 
 Her.  Attic,  et  Reg.  dc  Ann.  climact.,  p.  556,  seqg. — 
 Sainie-Croix,  Mystercs  du  Paganisme,\o\.  1,  p.  199.) 
 Demetrius  (^r/fiiiTpios)  was  also  a  surname  of  Bacchus. 
 654 
 
 (Sainte- Croix,  ih.,  p.  200.)  Ceres  was  called  koi/jo- 
 Tpo(pog,  "  nourisher  of  the  young."  She  has  been  rep- 
 resented with  two  children,  one  at  each  breast,  and 
 holding  a  horn  of  plenty.  Bochart  cites  the  mystic 
 van  of  lacchus  as  a  proof  of  the  correctness  of  this  in- 
 terpretation. This  van  is  called  in  Greek  AIkvoc,  a 
 word  which  not  only  denotes  a  van,  but  also  the  swad- 
 dling clothes  of  children.  According  to  Hesychius  (.?. 
 V.  AiKviTTig),  the  epithet  Liknites,  given  to  Bacchus, 
 comes  from  Xmvo^  in  the  sense  of  swaddling  clothes. 
 In  the  hymn  to  Jupiter  by  Callimachus  (v.  48),  Adras- 
 tea  envelops  him  in  swaddling  clothes  of  gold  after 
 his  birth,  and  to  denote  this  the  word  2,iKvog  is  em- 
 ployed. An  old  glossary  renders  Xtuvog  by  incunabu- 
 lum.  It  would  seem  also  that  there  is  a  close  analogy 
 between  the  name  lacchus  and  the  Oriental  lao,  the 
 great  appellation  for  the  deity  ;  from  which  both  Je- 
 hova  and  Jovis  would  appear  to  have  sprung.  lacchus, 
 moreover,  is  the  parent  form  of  the  Greek  Bacchus, 
 the  difference  being  merely  a  variation  in  dialect. 
 Moor,  in  his  Hindoo  Pantheon  (4to,  Land.,  1810),  as- 
 signs the  name  laccheo  to  the  Hindu  Iswara  or  Bac- 
 chus, and  makes  it  equivalent  to  "  lord  of  the  lacchi,"  or 
 followers  of  that  god.     (Edinb.  Rev.,  vol.  17,  p.  317.) 
 
 Ialysus,  a  town  of  the  island  of  Rhodes,  80  stadia 
 from  the  city  of  Rhodes.  Its  vicinity  to  the  capital 
 proved  so  injurious  to  its  growth,  that  it  became  re- 
 duced in  Strabo's  time  to  a  mere  village.  (Strabo, 
 655.— Man7icrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  227.) 
 
 Iambe,  a  servant-maid  of  Metanira,  wife  of  Celeus, 
 king  of  Eleusis,  who  succeeded  by  her  tricks  in  making 
 Ceres  smile  when  the  goddess  was  full  of  distress  at 
 the  loss  of  her  daughter.     (Apollod.,  1,  5,  1.) 
 
 Iamblichus,  I.  an  ancient  philosopher,  a  native  of 
 Syria,  and  educated  at  Babylon.  Upon  Trajan's  con- 
 quest of  Assyria  he  was  reduced  to  slavery,  but,  re- 
 covering his  liberty,  he  afterward  flourished  under  the 
 Emperor  Antoninus.  He  had  learned  the  Greek  lan- 
 guage, and  wrote  it  with  facility.  He  composed  a  ro- 
 mance in  this  language,  entitled  'laropiai  Badv/.u- 
 viaical,  and  turning  on  the  loves  of  Rhodane  and  Si- 
 nonis.  (Compare  Chardon  de  la  Rochette,  Melajiges, 
 vol.  1,  p.  18.)  It  consisted  of  sixteen  books,  from 
 which  Photius  has  left  us  an  extract.  Some  have 
 pretended,  that  a  manuscript  of  this  work,  which  had 
 belonged  to  Meibomins,  passed  in  1752  into  the  libra- 
 ry of  the  younger  Bnrmann.  Its  existence,  however, 
 is  very  uncertain.  A  fragment  was  preserved  by  Leo 
 Allatius,  accompanied  with  his  own  Latin  version,  in 
 his  selections  from  the  MSS.  of  Greek  rhetoricians 
 and  sophists,  Rome,  1641,  in  8vo. — II.  A  native  of 
 Chalcis  in  Syria,  who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of 
 the  fourth  century.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Porphyry's, 
 and,  pursuing  the  route  traced  by  Porphyry  and  Ploti- 
 nus,  he  carried  the  doctrines  of  the  new-Platonics  to 
 the  last  degree  of  absurdity.  Inferior  to  these  two 
 philosophers  in  talents  and  erudition,  without  having 
 made  any  important  discovery,  or  thrown  any  more 
 light  upon  the  new-Platonic  school,  he  nevertheless  at- 
 tained to  great  celebrity.  The  air  of  superior  sanctity 
 which  he  knew  so  well  how  to  assume,  the  fame  of  his 
 pretended  miracles,  his  zealous  efforts  for  the  preser- 
 vation of  paganism,  the  use  which  he  made  for  this 
 end  of  the  new-Platonic  doctrines,  and  perhaps  the 
 lucky  coincidence  of  his  having  lived  at  the  very  period 
 when  a  new  religion  was  supplanting  the  old ;  in  fine, 
 the  admiration  conceived  for  him  by  the  Emperor 
 Julian,  and  which  that  emperor  expressed  by  the  most 
 exaggerated  praise  ;  all  these  circumstances  combined 
 were  the  cause  of  this  individual's  arriving,  in  spite  of 
 his  moderate  abilities,  to  a  degree  of  reputation  far  su- 
 perior to  that  of  any  of  his  predecessors.  Plotinus 
 and  Porphyry  were  enthusiasts;  lamblichus,  however, 
 was  a  mere  impostor;  and  we  want  no  better  proof  of 
 this  than  the  recital  which  has  been  handed  down  to  us 
 of  those  pretended  miracles  that  acquired  for  him  the 
 
TAMBLICHUS. 
 
 JAN 
 
 name  of  a  performer  of  miracles  and  a  divine  per- 
 sonage.    His  merit  as  a  writer  is  entitled  to  little  if 
 any  notice.     He  compiled,  he  copied,  he  mingled  the 
 ideas  of  others  with  his  own  conceptions ;  nor  was  he 
 always  capable  of  imparling  clearness  or  method  to  his 
 compositions.     But  he  declared  himself  the  protector 
 of  mythology  and   paganism  ;    he  strove  to  preserve 
 them  by  working  miracles  in  their  behalf;  he  over- 
 threw the  barrier  which   enlightened   philosophy  had 
 placed  between  religion  and  superstition  ;  he  amalga- 
 mated into  one  system  all   that  various  nations  had 
 imagined,   in  popular  belief,  of  demons,  angels,  and 
 spirits  ;  and,  in  order  to  give  this  work  of  folly  a  phil- 
 osophic appearance,  he  attached  it  to  the  doctrine  of 
 Plato.     The  intuitive  'perception  of  the  divine  nature, 
 by  means  of  ecstasy,-\\zA  appeared  to  Plotinus  and  Por- 
 phyry the  most  sublime  point  to  which  the  mind  of 
 man  could  elevate  itself;  this,  however,  was  not  suf- 
 ficient for  lamblichus  ;    he   must  have  a  theurgy,  or 
 that  species  of  direct  communication  with  gods  and 
 spirits,  which  takes  place,  not  from  man's  raising  him- 
 self to  the  level  of  these  supernatural  intelligences, 
 but  because,  yielding  to  the  power  of  certain  formulae 
 and  ceremonies,  they  are  compelled  to  descend  unto 
 mortals  and  execute  their  commands. — We  have  no 
 edition  of  the  entire  works  of  lamblichus,  and  must 
 therefore  consider  his  productions  separately.     1.  Life 
 of  Pythagoras.     (ITept  rov  TLvdayoptKov  j3iov,  or,  as 
 it  is  named  in  some  manuscripts,  Aoyof  npuTog,  nepl 
 TrjcUvdayopiKTJg  a'lpiceuc-     Book  First:  Of  the  Pyth- 
 agorean Sect.)     It  was,  in  fact,  the  commencement  of 
 a  work  in  ten  books.     Although  a  most  wretched  com- 
 pilation, and  most  clumsily  put  together,  it  is  never- 
 theless instructive,  from  the  information  it  affords  re- 
 specting the  opinions  of  Pythagoras,  and  because  the 
 sources   whence  lamblichus    and  Porphyry   drew  no 
 longer  exist  for  us.     The  best  edition  of  this  work,  in- 
 cluding the  life  of  Pythagoras  by  Porphyry,  and  that 
 preserved  by  Plotinus,  is  Kiessling's,  Lips.,  1815,  2 
 vols.  8vo. — 2.   Second  Book,   Of  Pythagorean  expla- 
 nations, including  an  exhortation  to  Philosophy.     (Ilt;- 
 dayopeiuv    VTC0fj.V7j/xuTuv    Aoyof    devTepOQ,    Treptfjwi' 
 Tovg   TTpoTpeiTTiKovg  7i,6yovc   elg  (j>c?^oao<piav.)      This 
 work  formed  a  continuation  of  the  preceding,  and  is 
 the  second  book  of  the  great  compilation  treating  of 
 Pythagoras.     In  it  we  find  many  passages  from  Plato ; 
 or,  rather,  one  third  of  the  work  is  made  up  of  extracts 
 taken  from  the  dialogues  of  that  writer ;  and  lambli- 
 chus has  reunited  them  with  so  little  skill  and  with  so 
 much  negligence,  that  he  often  forgets  to  make  the 
 necessary  changes  in  the  tenses  of  verbs,  in  order  to 
 adapt  one  passage  to  another.     Sometimes  traces  of 
 the   Platonic   dialogue    are  even  allowed   to  remain. 
 The  most  interesting  part  is  the  last  chapter,  which 
 gives  an  explanation  of  thirty-nine  symbols  of  Pythag- 
 oras.    This  work  is  also  contained  in  Kiessling's  edi- 
 tion of  the  life. — 3.   Of  common  Mathematical  Sci- 
 ence {Hept  KOLvfiQ  fia6r]fiaTtK7ic  hnLarrjfiy^),  or,  third 
 book  of  the  great  work  on  the  philosophy  of  Pythago- 
 ras.    It  is  important,  by  reason  of  the  fragments  from 
 the  ancient  Pythagoreans,  such  as  Philolaus  and  Ar- 
 chytas,  which  it  contains.     These  fragments  are  writ- 
 ten in  the  Doric  dialect,  which  furnishes  an  argument 
 in  favour  of  their  authenticity.     This  work,  of  which 
 fragments  were  only  known  at  an  early  period,  was 
 published  entire  for  the  first  time  by  Villoison,  in  his 
 Anecdota  Graca,  vol.  2,  p.  188,  scqq.,  and  reprinted 
 by  Friis,  with  a  translation,  at  Copenhagen,  1790,  4to. 
 A  future  editor  will  find  various  readings,  from  a  man- 
 uscript of  Zeitz,  as  given  by  Kiessling  in  his  edition  of 
 the  life  of  Pythagoras. — 4.   On  the  Introduction  to  the 
 Arithmetic  of  Nicomachis.      (Ylepl    ttjc    'Niko/iuxov 
 upiOfiijTiKTJ^  shayuyrjc.)     We  have  only  one  edition 
 of  this  work,  that  of  Tennulius,  Davent.,  1667-8,  2 
 vols.    4to.      Kiessling's    life   of  Pythagoras  contains 
 manuscript  readings  for  this  work  also. — 5.  Theology 
 
 of  Numbers.     (To.  Qeo7.oyovjitva  rye  apiO/uyrcKyc-) 
 On  the  different  speculations  in  which  the  ancient  the- 
 ological and  philosophical  writers  indulged  relative  to 
 the  force  of  numbers.     This  work  does  not  bear  the 
 name  of  lamblichus  in  the  manuscripts,  but  Gale  {ad 
 Iambi,  de  Myst.  JEgypt.,  p.  201)  and  Fabricius  {Bibl. 
 Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  639,  ed.  Harles.)  agree  in  ascribmg  it 
 to  him.     It  is  certain  that  lamblichus  wrote  a  work 
 under  this  title,  which  made  the  sixth  book  of  his  great 
 compilation  respecting  Pythagoras.     This   work    has 
 only  been   twice  printed,  once   at   Paris,    1543,  4to, 
 and  again  by  Wechel,  at  Leipzig,  1817,  Svo,  with  the 
 notes  of  Ast. — 6.   Porphyry  had  addressed  a  letter  to 
 an  Eo-yptian  named  Anebo,  full  of  questions  relative 
 to  the  nature  of  gods  and  demons.     We  have  an  an- 
 swer to   this  epistle,  written  by  Abammon  Magister 
 {'A6unfiuv  A«5acr/fa/lof) ;  and,  according  to  a  scholium 
 found  in  many  manuscripts,  Proclus  declared  that  it 
 was  lamblichus  who  disguised  himself  under  this  name. 
 The  title  of  the  work  is  as  follows  :  ' kddfifiuvoQ  At- 
 6aaKakov  npbc  tt/v  T\.op<l>vpiov  npog  'kvedu  kniaTolyv 
 anSKpiaiQ,  Kal  tuv  tv  avry  ('nropy/xuTuv  IvGeir,  i.  e., 
 "  Answer  of  Abammon   the   Master  to   the   letter  of 
 Porphyry  addressed  to  Anebo,  and  the  solution  of  the 
 questions  which  it  contained."     It  is  often,  however, 
 cited  under  the  shorter  title  of  "  Mysteries  of  the  Egyp- 
 tians."    The  work  is  full  of  theurgic  and  extravagant 
 ideas,   and   Egyptian  theology.     Meiners  thinks  that 
 this  work  was  not  written  by  lamblichus  ;  but  his  rea- 
 sons for  this  opinion,  drawn  from  the  inequality  of  the 
 style  and  the  contradictions  contained  in  the  work,  have 
 been  refuted  by  Tennemann.     {Comment.  Soc.  Scient. 
 Gottino-.,   vol.  4,  p.   59.  —  Tennemann,   Gesch.   der 
 Phil.,%o\.  6,  p.  248.)      There  is  only  one  complete 
 edition  of  this  work,  by  Gale,  Oxon.,  1678,  fol. — lam- 
 blichus wrote  also  a  work  on  idols  or  statues  {irepl 
 'AyaXfiuTuv),  to  prove  that  idols  were  filled  with  the 
 presence  of  the    divinities  whom    they  represented. 
 We  only  know  it  through  the  refutation  of  John  Philop- 
 onns,  and  what  we  do  know  of  it  is  very  limited.     lam- 
 blichus composed  also  a  treatise  on  the  soul  {irepl  tpv- 
 Xvc),  of  which  Stobaeus  has   preserved  very  copious 
 extracts.     These   are  the    more  valuable,  as  lambli- 
 chus gives  in  them  the  opinions  of  various  philosophers, 
 without  troubling  us  with  his  own.     The  same  com- 
 piler has  preserved  several  fragments  of  the  letters  of 
 lamblichus.  {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5, p.  Ui,seqg.) 
 Iamid^,  certain  prophets   among  the  Greeks,  de- 
 scended from  lamus,  a  son  of  Apollo,  who  received 
 the  gift  of  prophecy  from  his  father,  and  which  remain- 
 ed among  his  posterity.     {Pausan.,  6,  2.) 
 
 Janicijlum,  a  hill  of  Rome,  across  the  Tiber,  and 
 connected  with  the  city  by  means  of  the  Sublician 
 bridge.  It  was  the  most  favourable  place  for  taking  a 
 view  of  the  Roman  capital ;  and  from  its  sparkling 
 sands  it  obtained  the  name  of  Mons  Aureus,  now  by 
 corruption  Montorio.  There  was  an  ancient  tradition, 
 that  Janus,  king  of  the  Aborigines,  contemporary  with 
 Saturn,  who  then  inhabited  the  Capitoline  Hill,  found- 
 ed a  city  opposite  to  the  residence  of  Saturn,  and, 
 dying,  left  his  name  to  the  hill  on  which  he  had  built. 
 (Virg.,  JEn.,  8,  355,  seqq.—Serv.,  ad  loc.)  The  Jani- 
 culu'm  therefore  comprised  the  site  of  the  church  of 
 S.  Pietro  in  Montorio,  and  the  present  Corsint  gar- 
 dens.  As  Ancus  Marcius  joined  it  to  the  Aventine  by 
 a  bridge  and  a  wall,  lest  an  enemy  should  make  it  a 
 citadel  for  attack,  it  is  natural  to  conclude  that  the  first 
 wall  would  enclose  the  bridge,  and  run  up  to  the  sum- 
 mit, which  it  was  desirable  to  preserve  from  the  pos- 
 session of  an  enemy  ;  on  the  other  hand,  smce  nothing 
 more  was  to  be  effected  than  the  defence  of  the  city, 
 it  is  also  deducible,  that  his  walls  would  only  enclose 
 a  narrow  space  of  territory,  extending  from  near  the 
 
 a  narrow  space  ui   iciu'-^'.t' "     „,  .  , 
 
 Pons  Sublicius,  or  Pontc  Orazio,io  the  Montorio  and 
 descending  again  to  the  river  at  the  Pon'e  Rot  o ;  (or 
 the  island  did  not  exist  in  those  days.     {Dwn.  Hal., 
 
JAN 
 
 JANUS. 
 
 3,  45.)  Such  a  circuit  of  wall  would  at  once  defend 
 the  passage  of  the  Tiber,  and  cover  the  three  impor- 
 tant hills  of  the  city. — The  summit  of  the  Janiculum 
 was  seen  from  the  Comitia,  and  also  from  the  place  of 
 popular  assemblies  in  the  Campus  Martius.  At  the 
 earliest  period  cf  the  republic,  when  the  Romans  were 
 surrounded  by  foes,  and  feared  lest,  while  they  held 
 these  assemblies,  the  enemy  might  come  upon  them 
 unawares,  they  placed  some  of  their  citizens  upon  the 
 Janiculum  to  guard  the  spot,  and  to  watch  for  the  safe- 
 ty of  the  state ;  a  standard  was  erected  upon  the  top 
 of  the  hill,  and  the  removal  thereof  was  a  signal  for 
 the  assembly  immediately  to  dissolve,  for  that  the  en- 
 emy was  near.  {Dio  Cassias,  '37,  28.)  This  act, 
 which  had  its  origin  in  utility  to  the  commonwealth, 
 afterward  dwindled  into  a  mere  ceremony;  it  was, 
 however,  made  subservient  to  the  designs  of  factious 
 citizens  in  those  times  when  there  was  no  danger 
 to  the  city  but  from  its  intestine  discords ;  and  the 
 taking  down  of  the  standard  on  the  Janiculum  more 
 than  once  put  a  stop  to  public  proceedings  at  the  Co- 
 mitia. (Burgess,  Topography  and  Antiquities  of 
 Rome,  vol.  1,  p.  67,  seqq.) 
 
 Janus,  an  ancient  Italian  deity,  usually  represented 
 with  two  faces,  one  before  and  one  behind,  and  hence 
 called  Bifrons  and  Biceps.  Sometimes  he  is  repre- 
 sented with  four  faces,  and  is  thence  denominated 
 Quadrifrons.  Janus  was  invoked  at  the  commence- 
 ment of  most  actions  ;  even  in  the  worship  of  the  other 
 gods,  the  votary  began  by  offering  wine  and  incense 
 to  him.  (Ovid,  Fast.,  1,  171.)  The  first  month  in 
 the  year  was  named  after  him  ;  and  under  the  title  of 
 Matutinus  he  was  regarded  as  the  opener  of  the  day. 
 [Herat.,  Serm.,  2,  6,  20,  scq.)  Hence  he  had  charge 
 of  the  gates  of  heaven,  and  hence,  too,  all  gates 
 (janucp.)  on  earth  were  called  after  him,  and  supposed 
 to  be  under  his  care.  In  this  way  some  e.xplain  his 
 double  visage,  because  every  door  looks  two  ways  ; 
 and  thus  he,  the  heavenly  porter,  can  watch  the  east 
 and  west  without  turning.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  1,  140.)  His 
 i?ur  visages,  on  the  other  hand,  when  he  is  so  repre- 
 sented, indicate  the  four  seasons  of  the  year. — 
 His  temples  at  Rome  were  numerous.  In  war  time, 
 the  gates  of  the  principal  one,  that  of  Janus  Quirinus, 
 were  always  open  ;  in  peace  they  were  closed,  to  re- 
 tain wars  within  {Ovid,  Fast.,  1,  124) ;  but  they 
 were  shut  only  once  between  the  reign  of  Numa  and 
 that  of  Augustus,  namely,  at  the  close  of  the  first  Punic 
 war.  Augustus  closed  them  after  he  had  given  repose 
 to  the  Roman  world.  The  temples  of  Janus  Quadri- 
 frons were  built  with  four  equal  sides,  each  side  con- 
 taining a  door  and  three  windows.  The  four  doors 
 were  emblematic  of  the  four  seasons  of  the  year,  while 
 the  three  windows  on  a  side  represented  the  three 
 months  in  each  season.  Janus  was  usually  represent- 
 ed as  holding  a  key  in  his  left  hand  and  a  staff  in  the 
 other.  He  was  called  by  different 'names,  such  as 
 Cunsiviiis  (from  consero),  because  he  presided  over 
 generation  and  production  ;  Quirinus,  because  presi- 
 ding over  war ;  and  Clusius  and  Patulcius  (from 
 cludo  and  pateo),  or  the  "  shutter"  and  "  opener," 
 with  reference  to  his  having  charge  of  gates. — After 
 Ennius  had  introduced  Euhemerism  into  Rome,  Janus 
 shared  the  fate  of  the  other  deities,  and  became  a 
 mortal  king,  famed  for  his  uprightness,  and  dwelling 
 on  the  Janiculum.  He  was  said  to  have  received 
 Saturn  when  the  latter  fled  to  Italy  ;  and  he  also  mar- 
 ried his  own  sister  Camesa  or  Camasane.  {Macrob., 
 Sat.,  I,  7. — Lydus,  dc  Mens.,  4,  1. — Athenaiis,  15, 
 p.  692.) — Thefollowing  remarks,  though  in  part  anti- 
 cipated, may  serve  to  throw  some  light  upon  the  my- 
 thological history  of  Janus.  Janus  occupies  a  place 
 among  the  first  class  of  Etrurian  divinities,  and  is  in 
 many  respects  identified  with  the  Tina  of  that  nation. 
 {Varro,  ap.  Augustin.  dc  Civ.  Dei,  7,  10. — Froclus, 
 Hymn,  in  Hec.  et  Janum.)  His  origin  is  to  be  traced 
 656 
 
 back  to  the  mythology  of  India.  Janus,  with  his  wija 
 and  sister  Camasane,  half  fish  and  half  human  being, 
 as  sometimes  represented,  can  only  bo  explained  by  & 
 comparison  with  the  avatars,  the  descents  or  incarna- 
 tions of  the  Hindu  deities.  (Compare  the  incarnation 
 of  Vishnou  in  a  fish,  and  the  legend  of  the  Babylonian 
 Cannes  and  Syrian  Atergatis.) — Viewed  in  another 
 way,  the  name  Janus  or  Djanus  assimilates  itself 
 very  closely  to  that  of  Diana.  These  two  a[)pellation» 
 resolve  themselves  into  the  simple  form  Dia,  or  the 
 goddess  by  way  of  excellence  ;  and  this  Dia  belongs 
 in  common  to  the  religions  of  Samothrace  and  Attica. 
 She  is  the  Pelasgic  Ceres,  frequently  found  under  this 
 denomination  in  the  songs  of  the  Fratres  Arvales. 
 {Marini,  Atti,  &c.,  p.  23,  seqq. — Crcuzer,  ad  Cic.  de 
 N.  D.,  3,  22.) — While  the  Jupiter  of  Dodona  was  pen- 
 etrating into  Italy  and  Latium,  with  his  spouse  Dione 
 (the  same  as  Juno),  Dia-Diana  and  Janus  arrived,  by 
 another  route,  in  Etruria,  from  the  borders  of  Pontua 
 and  the  isle  of  Samothrace.  From  this  view  of  the 
 subject  it  would  appear,  that  Jupiter  and  Janus  were 
 originally  distinct  from  each  other,  but  subsequently 
 more  or  less  amalgamated.  The  system  of  Dodona 
 and  that  of  Samothrace,  the  Latin  system  and  that  of 
 the  Etrurians,  based  on  ideas  mutually  analogous, 
 united,  but  did  not  become  completely  blended,  with 
 each  other. — On  the  soil  of  Italy  Janus  appears  at 
 one  time  as  a  king  of  ancient  days,  at  another  as  a 
 hero  who  had  rendered  his  name  conspicuous  by  great 
 labours  and  by  religious  institutions  {Arnob.,  adv. 
 Gen.,  3,  p.  147. — Lyd.,  dc  Mens.,  p.  57,  cd.  Schow  \ 
 at  another,  again,  as  a  god  of  nature.  At  first  he  is 
 called  the  Heavens,  according  to  the  Etrurian  doctrine. 
 {Lyd.,  ibid.,  p.  146,  cd.  Roeth.)  He  is  the  year  per- 
 sonified, and  his  symbols  contain  an  allusion  either  to 
 the  number  of  the  months  or  to  that  of  the  days  of  the 
 year.  The  month,  called  after  him  January,  formed 
 from  the  time  of  Numa  the  commencement  of  the  re- 
 ligious year  of  the  Ro.mans.  On  the  first  day  of  this 
 month  was  presented  to  Janus  what  was  called  the 
 Janual,  an  offering  consisting  of  wine  and  fruits.  On 
 this  same  day  the  image  of  the  god  was  crowned  with 
 laurel,  the  consul  ascended  in  solemn  procession  to 
 the  Capitol,  and  small  presents  were  made  to  one  an- 
 other by  friends.  By  virtue  of  his  title  of  god  of  na- 
 ture, Janus  is  represented  as  holding  a  key  ;  he  holds 
 this  as  the  god  who  {)resides  over  gates  and  openings. 
 He  opens  the  course  of  the  year  in  the  heavens ;  and 
 every  gate  upon  earth,  even  to  those  of  private  dwell- 
 ings, is  under  his  superintending  care.  {Spanheim, 
 ad  Callim.,  Hymn,  in  Cer.,  45. — Lydus,  de  Mens.,  p. 
 55,  144.)  This  attribute,  indeed,  is  given  him  in  a 
 sense  of  a  more  or  less  elevated  nature.  It  designates 
 him  at  one  time  as  the  genius  who  presides  over  the 
 goods  of  the  year,  and  who  dispenses  them  to  mortals; 
 who  holds  the  key  of  fertilizing  sources,  of  refreshing 
 streams  :  at  another  time  it  typifies  him  as  the  mas- 
 ter and  sovereign  of  nature  in  general,  the  guardian 
 of  the  whole  universe,  of  the  heaven,  the  earth,  and 
 the  sea.  {Ov.,  Fast.,  1,  117.)  As  holder  of  the  key, 
 Janus  took  the  name  of  Clusius ;  as  charged  with  the 
 care  of  the  world,  he  is  styled  Curiatius.  {Lyd.,  de 
 Mens.,  p.  55,  144.)  Thus,  under  these  and  similar 
 points  of  view,  Janus  reveals  himself  to  us  as  exactly 
 similar  to  the  gods  of  the  year  in  the  Egyptian,  Per- 
 sian, and  Phoenician  mythologies.  Like  Osiris,  Sem- 
 Heracles,  Dschemschid,  and  others,  he  represents  the 
 year  personified  in  its  development  through  the  tv\-elve 
 signs  of  the  zodiac,  with  its  exaltation  and  its  fall,  and 
 with  all  the  plenitude  of  its  gifts.  And  as  the  career 
 of  the  year  is  also  that  of  the  souls  which  traverse  in 
 their  migrations  the  constellations  of  the  zodiac,  Janus, 
 as  well  as  the  other  great  gods  of  nature,  becomes  the 
 guide  of  souls.  Similar  in  every  respect  to  Osiris- 
 Serapis,  he  is  called,  like  him,  the  Sun;  and  the  gate  ot 
 the  east,  as  well  as  that  of  the  west,  becomes  at  once 
 
JANUS. 
 
 f  AP 
 
 his  peculiar  care.  (Lutat.,  ap.  Lyd.,  p.  57.  Identi- 
 fying Janus  with  the  Sun,  we  ought  not  to  be  sur- 
 prised at  finding  the  Moon  called  Ja7ia  in  Varro.  (R. 
 R.,  1,  37,  3,  ed.  Schncid. — Compare  Scal.igcr,  de  vet. 
 ann.  Rom.  in  Grav  Thcs.,  8,  p.  311.)  In  like  man- 
 ner, as  the  lunar  goddess  is  styled  Dciva  Jana  {Veina, 
 Diana),  so  the  Salian  hymns  invoke  the  solar  god 
 under  the  name  of  Dennis  Janos,  contracted  into  Di- 
 arms  or  Djanus.  Nigidiiis  (ap.  Macrob.,  Sat.,  1, 
 9)  says  expressly,  "  Apollinem  Janum  esse,  Dianam- 
 que  Janam,  apposila  d  litera."  Butlmann,  regarding 
 Janus  and  Jana  as  the  solar  and  lunar  deities  re- 
 spectively, discovers  in  these  ancient  Italian  appella- 
 tions the  Zdv  and  Zav6  of  the  Greeks,  or,  rather,  the 
 ancient  and  originally  Oriental  name  of  the  Divinity, 
 Jah,  Jao,  Jova,  Jocis,  whence  Jom  or  Yum,  "  the 
 day."  {Mythologus,  vol.  2,  p.  73.) — Janus  also  as- 
 similates himself  to  the  Persian  Mithras,  and  becomes 
 the  mediator  between  mortals  and  immortals.  He 
 bears  the  prayers  of  men  to  the  feet  of  the  great  dei- 
 ties. {Cams  Bassus,  ap.  Lyd.,  p.  57,  146.)  It  is 
 in  reference  to  this  that  some  explain  his  double  vis- 
 age, turned  at  one  and  the  same  time  towards  both 
 heaven  and  earth.  Others,  however,  give  to  the  rep- 
 resentation of  Janus  with  two  faces  an  explanation 
 purely  historical,  and  consider  it  as  alluding  either  to 
 the  emigration  of  Saturn  or  Janus,  come  by  sea  from 
 Greece  into  Italy  ;  or  to  the  settling  of  the  latter 
 among  the  barbarous  nations  of  Italy,  and  the  estab- 
 lishment of  agriculture.  {Plut.,  QucEst.  Rom.,  22,  p. 
 209,  vol.2,  p.  100,  ed.  Wytt. — Serv.,ad  Virg.,  JEn., 
 
 1,  294  ;  7,  607;  8,  357.— Oy.,  Fast.,  1,  299.)  The 
 national  tradition  of  the  Romans  referred  it  to  the  al- 
 liance between  Romulus  and  Tatius  and  the  blending 
 of  the   two   nations.     (Compare  Lanzi,  Saggio,  vol. 
 
 2,  p.  94. — Eckhel,  Doclr.  Vet.  Num.,  vol.  5,  p.  14, 
 seqq.) — Similar  figures  with  a  double  face  are  found 
 on  medals  of  Etruria,  Syracuse,  and  Athens :  Cecrops, 
 for  example,  was  so  represented.  It  is  certainly  most 
 rational  to  suppose,  that  this  mode  of  representing  was 
 purely  allegorical  in  every  case.  It  recalls  to  mind 
 the  figures,  not  less  strange  and  significant,  of  the 
 Hindoo  divinities:  Janus,  with  four  faces  {Quadri- 
 frons. — Scrv.,  ad  Virg.,  JEii.,  8,  607 — Augustin.  de 
 Civ.  Dei,  7,  4),  is  identical  in  appearance  with  the 
 Brahma  of  India. — As  the  gods  who  preside  over  na- 
 ture and  the  year,  in  the  Oriental  systems,  raise  them- 
 selves to  the  higher  office  of  gods  of  time,  eternity, 
 and  infinity,  so  also  it  seems  to  have  happened  with 
 the  western  Janus.  He  is  called  the  inspector  of 
 time,  and  then  Time  itself;  in  a  cosmogonical  sense 
 he  passes  for  Chaos.  {Lyd.,  de  Mens.,  p.  57.)  Un- 
 der these  two  points  of  view  he  is  distinct  from  Jupi- 
 ter, the  supreme  ruler  and  the  universal  regulator  of 
 things,  in  that  Janus  had  specially  under  his  control 
 the  beginning  and  the  end.  {Cic,  de  N.  D.,  2,  27.) 
 In  the  higher  doctrine,  however,  all  distinction  between 
 the  two  disappears.  As  Clusius  or  bearer  of  the  key, 
 Janus  was  the  monarch  of  the  universe,  and  Greece 
 had  no  divinity  that  could  be  at  all  compared  with  him. 
 {Ov.,  Fast.,  1,  90.)  In  the  solemn  ceremonies  and 
 religious  songs  of  the  old  Romans,  he  figured  as  m- 
 augurator.  and  even  bore  the  name.  {Initiator. — Au- 
 gustin. de  Civ.  Dei,  4,  11.)  At  the  festivals  of  the 
 great  gods  he  had  the  first  sacrifice  offered  to  him. 
 {Cic.,  de  N.  D.,  2,  27.)  He  was  called  the  Father 
 {Brisson,  dc  Formed.,  1,  p.  45. — Mariiii,  Atti,  2,  p. 
 365),  and  the  Salii  invoked  him  in  their  hymns  as  the 
 god  of  gods.  {^' Dcorum  Dcus." — Macrob.,  Sat.,  1, 
 9. —Compare  Guibcrlelh,  dc  Saliis,  c.  20.)  This  crod 
 of  gods  they  named  also  Jajics  or  Eanus,  while  they 
 themselves  assumed  the  name  of  Janes  or  Eani,  in 
 accordance  with  the  ancient  usage  which  so  often  as- 
 similated the  priests  to  their  divinities.  {Vossius, 
 Jnst.  Orat.,  4,  1,  7.)  These  appellations,  Ja7ies  and 
 Eanus,  remfnd  us  of  Cicero's  derivation  from  eundo,  i 
 
 40 
 
 e.,  from  the  old  Greek  and  Latin  verb  to.  (iV.  D.,  2 
 27.)  The  Romans  also  invoked  Janus  when  they 
 made  a  lustration  or  consecration  of  their  fields. 
 {Cato,  R.  R.,  p.  92.  ed.  Schieider.)— But  why  multi- 
 ply proofs  to  show  that  the  Etrurian  priesthood  con- 
 ceived and  taught  its  dogmas  in  the  true  spirit,  and 
 under  the  very  forms  of  Oriental  mythology  1  In 
 Etruria,  as  in  the  East,  a  series  of  gods  sprinrr  from 
 a  supreme  being,  and  are  reflected  in  their  turn  in  a 
 dynasty  of  kings  or  chiefs,  their  children,  their  heirs, 
 and  the  imitators  of  their  actions.  Janus,  the  first 
 monarch,  founds  cities,  rears  ramparts,  erects  gates  ; 
 become  a  hero,  he  consecrates  sanctuaries,  institutes 
 religious  worship,  fixes  the  sacred  year,  and  arranges 
 all  civil  ordinances.  This  son  of  the  gods  is  no  less 
 the  Sun  moving  through  his  annual  career,  opening 
 with  his  powerful  key  the  reservoirs  of  the  empire  of 
 waters,  giving  drink  to  men  and  animals,  drying  up 
 the  earth,  and  ripening  the  fruit  by  his  vivifying  rays, 
 presiding  at  once  over  the  rising  and  setting,  and 
 guarding  the  two  gates  of  heaven  as  the  chief  of  the 
 army  of  the  stars. — He  was  invoked  also  in  war;  and 
 when  the  gate  of  his  temple  on  earth  was  opened,  it 
 was  the  signal  for  battles  ;  when  closed,  it  became  the 
 pledge  of  peace.  For  Janus  is  the  god  that  opens  the 
 new  year  in  the  spring,  the  period  when  warlike  move- 
 ments and  campaigns  begin  :  it  is  he  that  opens  at 
 this  season  the  career  of  combats,  to  which  he  sum- 
 mons warriors,  and  to  whom  he  becomes  a  guide  and 
 an  example.  Hence  his  names  of  Patulcius  and  Clu- 
 sius. He  is  the  defender,  the  combatant  by  way  of 
 excellence,  the  great  Qiiirinus  (a  name  derived  from 
 the  Sabine  word  curis,  "  a  spear"),  and  the  senate 
 could  find  no  appellation  more  glorious  to  bestow  on 
 the  valiant  Rom.ulus  after  he  had  disappeared  from 
 the  earth.  {Creuzer,  Symbohk,  par  Guigniaut,  vol. 
 3,  p.  430,  seqq.) — II.  In  the  Roman  forum,  by  the 
 side  of  the  temple  of  Janus,  there  were  three  arches 
 or  arcades  dedicated  to  Janus,  standing  at  some  dis- 
 tance apart,  and  forming  by  their  line  of  direction  a 
 kind  of  street  (for,  strictly  speaking,  there  were  no 
 streets  in  the  forum).  The  central  one  of  these  arches 
 was  the  usual  rendezvous  of  brokers  and  money-lend- 
 ers, and  was  termed  medius  Janus,  while  the  other 
 two  were  denominated,  from  their  respective  positions, 
 summus  Janus,  and  inftm-us  or  imus  Janus.  {Horat., 
 Scrm.,  2,  3,  18.) 
 
 I.tPETUS,  a  son  of  Coelus  and  Terra,  and  one  of  the 
 Titans.  According  to  the  Theogony  (v.  507,  seq.),  he 
 married  Clymene,  a  daughter  of  Oceanus,  by  whom 
 he  became  the  father  of  four  sons.  Atlas,  Menoetius, 
 Prometheus,  and  Epimetheus.  Some  authorities  made 
 him  to  have  espoused  iEthra  {Timceus,  ap.  Schol.  ad 
 II.,  18,  486),  others  Asia,  others  again  Libya:  these 
 last  two  refer  to  the  abodes  of  Prometheus  and  Atlas. 
 — We  find  lapetus  frequently  joined  with  Kronus, 
 apart,  as  it  were,  from  the  other  Titans ;  and  it  is 
 worthy  of  notice,  that,  in  the  Theogony,  the  account 
 of  lapetus  and  his  progeny  immediately  succeeds  that 
 of  Saturn  and  the  gods  sprung  from  him.  Tliesc  cir- 
 cumstances, combined  with  the  plain  meaning  of  tlic 
 names  of  his  children,  lead  to  the  conclusion  of  lape- 
 tus being  intended  to  represent  the  origin  of  the  human 
 race.  Buttmann,  however,  sees  in  lapetus  and  Japhet, 
 not  a  son  of  Noah,  but  the  Supreme  Being  himself  {Ja, 
 Jao,  and  pet,  pctos,  pctor,  the  Sanscrit  pitcr,  i.  e.,  pa- 
 ter, •'  father"),  and  identical  with  the  Zehc  Trar/ip,  or 
 Jupiter,  of  the  western  nations.  {Mythologus,  \o\.  1, 
 p.  224.) 
 
 I.\PYDEs  or  Iapodes,  a  people  of  Illyricum,  to  the 
 south  of  Istria,  whose  territory  would  appear,  from 
 Virgil  {Georg  ,  3,  474),  to  have  reached  at  one  tunc 
 to  the  banks  of  the  river  Timavus.  They  occupied  an 
 exteilt  of  coast  of  more  than  one  thousand  stadia,  from 
 the  river  Arsia,  which  separated  them  from  the  Istri, 
 to  the  neighbourhood  of  Zara,  a  district  which  forms 
 •=  657 
 
lAP 
 
 JAS 
 
 par;  of  the  present  Morlachia.  In  the  interior,  their 
 territory  was  spread  along  Mount  Albius,  which  forms 
 tlie  extremity  of  the  great  Alpine  chain,  and  rises  to  a 
 considerable  elevation.  On  the  other  side  of  this 
 mountain  it  stretched  towards  the  Danube,  on  the  con- 
 fines of  Pannonia.  The  lapydes  were  a  people  of  war- 
 like spirit,  and  were  not  reduced  until  the  time  of  Au- 
 gustus. {Slra.h.,^\b.—A-pp.,lll-yr.,\9.)  Their  prin- 
 cipal town  was  Metulum,  which  was  taken  by  that  em- 
 peror after  an  obstinate  defence.  {App  ,  lllyr.,  19.) 
 Its  site  remains  at  present  unknown.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  33  ) 
 
 Iapygia,  a  division  of  Italy,  forming  what  is  called 
 the  heel.  It  was  called  also  Messapia,  and  contained 
 two  nations,  the  Calabri  on  the  northeast,  and  the  Sa- 
 lentini  on  the  southwest  side.  The  name  of  Iapygia 
 was  not  known  to  the  Romans,  except  as  an  appella- 
 tion borrowed  from  the  Greeks,  to  whom  it  was  famil- 
 iar. Among  the  many  traditions  current  with  the  lat- 
 ter people  may  be  reckoned  their  derivation  of  this 
 name  from  lapyx,  the  son  of  Daedalus.  (Strab.,  279. 
 — Plin.,  3,  11.)  This  story,  however,  belongs  rather 
 to  fable  than  to  history.  We  have  no  positive  evidence 
 regarding  the  origin  of  the  lapyges,  but  their  existence 
 on  these  shores  prior  to  the  arrival  of  any  Grecian  col- 
 ony is  recognised  by  the  earliest  writers  of  that  nation, 
 such  as  Herodotus  (7,  170)  and  Hellanicus  of  Lesbos 
 {ap.  Dion.  Hal.,  1,  22).  Thucydides  evidently  con- 
 Kidered  them  as  barbarians  (7,  33),  as  well  as  Scylax. 
 in  his  Periplus  (p.  5),  and  Pausanias  (10,  1);  and 
 this,  in  fact,  is  the  idea  which  we  must  form  of  this 
 people,  whether  we  look  upon  them  as  descended  from 
 an  Umbrian,  Oscan,  or  lUyrian  race,  or  from  an  inter- 
 mixture of  these  earliest  Italian  tribes. — Very  little  is 
 knov;n  of  the  language  of  this  people  ;  but,  from  a  cu- 
 rious old  inscription  found  near  Otranto,  and  first  pub- 
 lished by  Galateo,  in  his  history  of  Iapygia,  it  appears 
 to  have  been  a  mixture  of  Greek  and  Oscan.  (Lanzi, 
 vol.  3,  p.  620.  —  Romanelli,  vol.  2,  p.  51.)  It  may 
 also  be  noticed,  that  the  name  of  the  lapyges  appears 
 m  one  of  the  Eugubian  tables  under  the  form  lapus- 
 com;  which  might  lead  us  to  suppose  that  some  con- 
 nexion once  existed  between  this  people  and  the  Um- 
 bri.  (Lanzi,  vol.  3,  p.  663.  —  Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  302.) 
 
 Iapygium,  or  Sali.entinum,  Promontorium  {Sal- 
 lust,  ap.  Serv.  ad  JEn.,  3,  400),  a  famous  promontory  of 
 Italy,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Iapygia,  now  Capo 
 di  Leuca.  When  the  art  of  navigation  was  yet  in  its 
 infancy,  this  great  headland  presented  a  conspicuous 
 landmark  to  mariners  bound  from  the  ports  of  Greece 
 to  Sicily,  of  which  they  always  availed  themselves. 
 The  fleets  of  Athens,  after  having  circumnavigated  the 
 Peloponnesus,  are  represented  on  this  passage  as  usu- 
 ally making  for  Corcyra,  whence  they  steered  straight 
 across  to  the  promontory,  and  then  coasted  alonV  the 
 south  of  Italy  for  the  remainder  of  their  voyage. 
 {Thucyd.,  6,  30.)  There  seems,  indeed,  to  have  been 
 a  sort  of  haven  here,  capable  of  affording  shelter  to  ves- 
 sels in  tempestuous  weather.  {Thucyd, %,\\.)  Stra- 
 bo  describes  this  promontory  as  defining,  together  with 
 the  Ceraunian  Mountains,  the  line  of  separation  be- 
 tween the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  Seas,  while  it  formed, 
 with  the  opposite  Cape  of  Lacinium,  the  entrance  to 
 the  Tarenline  Gulf;  the  distance  in  both  cases  being 
 700  stadia.  {Strab.,  281. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol. 
 2,  p.  315.) 
 
 Iapygum  Tria  Promontoria,  three  capes  on  the 
 coast  of  Magna  Grsecia,  to  the  south  of  the  Lacinian 
 promontory.  They  are  now  called  Capo  dclle  Cas- 
 tello,  Capo  iJjscwJo,  and  Capo  delta  Nave.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  397.) 
 
 Iapyx,  I.  a  son  of  Dffdalus,  who  was  fabled  to  have 
 given  name  to  Iapygia  in  Lower  Italy.     (Consult  re- 
 marks under  the  article  Iapygia.) — II.  A  name  given 
 to  the  west-northwest  wind.     It  was  so  called  from 
 658 
 
 Iapygia,  in  Lower  Italy,  w!iich  country  lay  partly  in 
 
 the  line  of  its  direction.  It  is  the  same  wiili  the  'Ap- 
 y^cTTjC  of  the  Greeks,  and  was  the  most  favourable 
 wind  for  sailing  from  Brundisium  towards  the  southern 
 parts  of  Greece.     {Hor.,  Od,  1,3,4.) 
 
 Iarbas,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Garamantis,  king  of 
 Gsetulia.     {Vid.  Dido.) 
 
 Ia SIDES,  a  patronymic  given  to  Palinurus,  as  de- 
 scended from  a  person  of  the  name  of  lasius.  {Vtrg., 
 ^u.,5,  813.) 
 
 Iasio.n  or  I.isus,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Electra,  one 
 of  the  Atlanlides  {Hellanicus,  ap.  Schcl.  ad  Od.,  5, 
 125),  while  others  made  him  a  son  of  Minos  or  Kratos 
 and  the  nymph  Phronia.  {Schol.  ad  Od.,  I.  c. — Schol. 
 ad  Theocrit.,  Id.,  3,  50.)  He  is  said  to  have  had  by 
 Ceres  a  son  named  Plutus  {Wealth),  whereupon  Ju- 
 piter, offended  at  the  connexion,  struck  the  mortal 
 lover  with  his  thunder.  {Horn.,  Od.,  5,  125.)  He- 
 siod  makes  Crete  the  scene  of  this  event.  {Theog., 
 969.)  lasion  is  also  named  as  the  father  of  the  swift- 
 fooled  Atalanta  {Vid.  Atalanta.) — We  have  here  an 
 agricultural  legend.  lasion  is  made  the  offspring  of 
 Force  and  Prudence.  (Kpdrof  and  ^povla. —  Creu- 
 zer,  Symbolik,  far  Gvigniaut,  vol.  3,  p.  325  )  In 
 other  words,  strength,  or  courage  in  enduring  labour, 
 and  prudence,  or  skill  in  the  application  of  that  strength, 
 excite  the  instinctive  powers  of  the  earth,  causing  fam- 
 ine to  disappear,  nourishing  the  human  race,  and  ren- 
 dering them  healthy  and  vigorous.  Hence  the  name 
 of  lasion,  "  he  that  saves"  (idoiiaL)  from  evil.  (Com- 
 pare remarks  under  the  article  Trophonius.) 
 
 Iasis,  a  name  given  to  Atalanta,  daughter  of  la- 
 sus. 
 
 Jason,  I.  a  celebrated  hero,  son  of  Alcimede,  daugh- 
 ter of  Phylacus,  by  .^Eson,  the  son  of  Cretheus,  and 
 Tyro,  the  daughter  of  Salmoneus.  Tyro,  before  her 
 union  with  Creiheus,  the  son  of  ^olus,  had  two  sons, 
 Pelias  and  Neleus,  by  Neptune.  yEson  was  king  of 
 lolcos,  but  was  dethroned  by  Pelias.  The  latter  also 
 sought  the  life  of  Jason;  and,  to  save  him,  his  pa- 
 rents gave  out  that  he  was  dead,  and,  meantime, 
 conveyed  him  by  night  to  the  cave  of  the  centaur 
 Chiron,  to  whose  care  they  committed  him.  {Apol- 
 lod.,  1,  9,  \Q.—Apoll.  Rh.,  1,  10.— Hygin,  fab.,  12, 
 13.)  An  oracle  had  told  Pelias  to  beware  of  the  "one- 
 sandaled  man,"  but  during  many  years  none  such  ap- 
 peared to  disturb  his  repose.  At  length,  when  Ja- 
 son had  attained  the  age  of  twenty,  he  proceeded, 
 unknown  to  Chiron,  to  loicos,  in  order  to  claim  the 
 rights  of  his  family.  He  bore,  says  the  Theban  po 
 et,  two  spears;  he  wore  the  close-fitting  Magnesian 
 dress,  and  a  pard  skin  to  throw  off  the  rain,  and  his 
 lono-  unshorn  locks  waved  on  his  back.  In  his  jour- 
 ney he  was  stopped  by  the  inundation  of  the  river 
 Evenus  or  Enipeus,  over  which  he  was  carried  by  Ju- 
 no, who  had  changed  herself  into  an  old  woman.  In 
 crossing  the  stream  he  lost  one  of  his  sandals,  and 
 on  his  arrival  at  lolcos,  the  singularity  of  his  dress  and 
 the  fairness  of  his  complexion  attracted  the  notice  of 
 the  people,  and  drew  a  crowd  around  him  in  the  mar- 
 ket-place. Pelias  came  to  see  him  with  the  rest,  and 
 as  he  had  been  warned  by  the  oracle  to  beware  of  a 
 man  who  should  appear  at  lolcos  with  one  foot  bare 
 and  the  other  shod,  the  appearance  of  Jason,  who  had 
 lost  one  of  his  sandals,  alarmed  him.  He  asked  him 
 who  he  was,  and  Jason  mildly  answered  his  question, 
 telling  him  he  was  come  to  demand  the  kingdom  of 
 his  fathers.  He  then  went  into  the  house  of  his  parent 
 ^son,  by  whom  he  was  joyfully  recognised.  On  the 
 intelligence  of  the  arrival  of  Jason,  his  uncles  Pheres 
 and  Amythaon,  with  their  sons  Admelus  and  Melam- 
 pus,  hastened  to  lolcos.  Five  days  they  feasted  and 
 enjoyed  themselves  ;  on  the  sixth  Jason  disclosed  to 
 them  his  wishes,  and  went,  accompanied  by  them,  to 
 the  dwelling  of  Pelias,  who  at  once  proposed  to  resign 
 the  kingdom,  retaining  the  herds  and  pastures,  at  the 
 
JASON. 
 
 I  AX 
 
 same  lime  stimulating  Jas«n  to  the  expedition  of  the    or,  as  another  account  has  it,  when  the  Argo  was  fall- 
 
 goiden  fleece.     {Pind  ,  Pylh.,  4,  193,  scj*/.)— Another 
 account  is,  that  Pehas,  being  about  to  offer  a  sacrifice 
 
 on  the  seashore  to  his  father  Neptune,  invited  ail  his    {Arg.  Earip.,  Med.)     Medea  herself,  we  are  told,  be 
 
 ing  to  pieces  with  time,  Medea  persuaded  him  to  sleep 
 under  the  prow,  and   it  fell  on  him  and  killed   him. 
 
 subjects.     Jason,  who  was  ploughing  on  the  other  side 
 of  the  Anaurus,  crossed  that  stream  to  come  to  it,  and 
 in  so  doing  lost  one  of  his  sandals.     It  is  said  that  Ju- 
 no, out  of  enmity  to  Pelias,  who  had  neglected  to  sac- 
 rifice to  her,  took  the  form  of  an  old  woman,  and  asked 
 Jason  to  carry  her  over,  which  caused  him  to  leave 
 one  of  his  sandals  in   the  mud.     Her  object  was  to 
 give  occasion  for  Medea's  coming  to  lolcos  and  de- 
 stroying Pelias.     When  Pelias  perceived  Jason  with 
 but  one  sandal,  he  saw  the  accomplishment  of  the  or- 
 acle, and,  sendnig  for  him  ne.xt  day,  asked  him  what 
 ke  would  do,  if  he  had  the  power,  had  it  been  predict- 
 ed to  him  that  he  should  be  slain  by  one  of  his  citizens. 
 Jason  replied,  that  he  would  order  him  to  go  and  fetch 
 the  golden  fleece.     Pelias  took  him  at  his  word,  and  im- 
 posed the  task  upon  Jason  himself.     (Pherecydes,  ap. 
 Schol.  ad  Find,  Pyth.,  4,  133.) — An  account  of  the 
 celebrated  expedition  which  Jason  in  consequence  un- 
 dertook, will  be  found  under  a  different  article.     (  Vid. 
 Argonautse  ) — During  the  absence  of  Jason,  Pelias  had 
 driven  the  father  and  mother  of  the  hero  to  self-de- 
 struction, and  had  put  to  death  their  remaining  child. 
 Desirous  of  revenge,  Jason,  after  he  had  delivered  the 
 fleece  to  Pelias,  entreated  Medea  to  exercise  her  art 
 in  his  behalf     He  sailed  with  his  companions  to  the 
 Isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  there  dedicated  the  Argo  to 
 Neptune  ;    and  Medea,  sHortly  afterward,  ingratiated 
 herself  with  the  daughters  of  Pelias,  and,  by  vaunting 
 her  art  of  restoring  youth,  and  proving  it  by  cutting  up 
 an  old  ram,  and  putting  the  pieces  into  a  pot,  whence 
 issued  a  bleating  lamb,  she  persuaded  them  to  treat 
 their  father  in  the  same  manner,  and  then  refused  to 
 restore  him  to  youth.     Acastus,  son  of  Pelias,  there- 
 upon drove  Jason  and  Medea  from  lolcos,  and  they  re- 
 tired to  Corinth,  where  they  lived  happily  for  ten  years, 
 till  Jason,   wishing  to  marry  Glauce  or  Creiisa,  the 
 daughter  of  Creon,  king  of  that  place,  put  away  Me- 
 dea.    The  Colchian  princess,  enraged  at  the  ingrati- 
 tude of  her  husband,  sent  a  poisoned  robe  and  crown 
 as  gifts  to  the  bride,  by  which  the  latter,  together  with 
 her    father  Creon,  miserably  perished.     Medea    then 
 killed  her  own  children,  mounted  a  chariot  drawn  by 
 winged  serpents,  and  fled  to  Athens,  where  she  mar- 
 ried King  JEgeus,  by  whom  she  had  a  son  named  Me- 
 dus.     But,  being  delected  in  an  attempt  to  destroy 
 Theseus,  she  fled  from  Athens  with  her  son.     Med  us 
 conquered  several  barbarous  tribes,  and  also  the  coun- 
 try which  he  named  Media  after  himself,  and  finally 
 fell  in  battle  against  the  Indians.     Medea,  returning 
 unknown  to  Colchis,  found  that  her  father  ^'Eetes  had 
 been  robbed  of  his  throne  by  her  brother  Perses.    She 
 restored  him,  and  deprived  the  usurper  of  life. — The 
 narrative  here  given  is  taken  from  Apollodorus,  who 
 seems  to  have  adhered  closely  to  the  versions  of  the 
 legend  found  in  the  Attic  tragedians.     The  accounts 
 of  others  will  now  be  stated.     In  the  Theogony,  Me- 
 dea is  classed  with  the  goddesses  who  honoured  mortal 
 men  with  their  love.     Jason  made  her  his  spouse,  and 
 she  bore  to  "  ihe  shepherd  of  the  people"  a  son  named 
 Medus,    whom  Chiron  reared  in  the  mountains,  and 
 "the  will  of  great  Jove  was  accomplished."    {Theog., 
 992,  seqg)      It  is  evident,   therefore,   that  this  poet 
 supposed  Jason  to  have  reigned  at  lolcos  after  his  re- 
 turn from  his  great  adventure. — .\ccording  to  the  poem 
 of  the  Nostoi,  Medea  restored  ^Eson  to  youth  {Argum. 
 Eurip.,  Medea. — Ovid,  Met.,  7,  159,  scqq.),  while  Si- 
 monides  and    Pherecydes  say  that   she  effected    this 
 change  in  Jason  himself  (ylr^.  Eur..  Med.);  and  .'Es- 
 chyliis,  that  she  thus  renewed  the  Hyades,  the  nurses 
 of  Bacchus,  and  their  husbands.     {Arg.  Eur.,  Med. — 
 Ovid,  Met.,   7,  294,  scqq.) — Jason  is  said  to  have  put 
 an  end  to  his  life  after  the  tragic  fate  of  his  children  ; 
 
 came  the  bride  of  Achilles  in  the  Elysian  fields.  (Ib- 
 ycus  el  Simonidcs,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Apoli  Rh..,  4,  815. 
 — Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  307,  scqq. — For  remarks 
 on  the  whole  Argonauiic  legend,  consult  the  article 
 Argonautte.) — II.  A  tyrant  of  Thessaly,  born  at  Phe- 
 rte,  and  descended  from  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
 distinguished  families  of  that  city.  He  usurped  the 
 supreme  power  in  his  native  place  while  still  quite 
 young,  about  375  B.C.  ;  reduced  nearly  all  Thessaly 
 under  his  sway  ;  and  caused  himself  to  be  invested 
 with  the  title  of  generalissimo,  which  soon  became,  in 
 his  hands,  only  another  name  for  monarch  of  the  coun- 
 try. The  success  which  attended  his  other  expedi- 
 tions also,  against  the  Dolopes,  the  Phocians,  &c.  ; 
 his  alliances  with  Athens,  Macedon,  and  Thebes ;  in 
 fine,  his  rare  military  talents,  iinboldened  him  to  think 
 of  undertaking  some  enterprise  against  Persia  ;  but, 
 before  he  could  put  these  schemes  into  operation,  he 
 was  assassinated  while  celebrating  some  public  games 
 at  Pheraj,  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign.  Jason  was  a 
 popular  tyrant  among  his  immediate  subjects.  He  cul- 
 tivated letters  and  the  oratorical  art,  and  was  intimate 
 with  Isocrates,  and  Gorgias  of  Leontini.  He  had 
 contracted  a  friendship  also  with  Timotheus,  the  son 
 of  Conon,  and  went  himself  to  Athens  to  save  him 
 from  a  capital  accusation.  — III.  A  native  of  Cyrene. 
 an  abridgment  of  a  work  of  whose,  on  the  exploits  of 
 the  Maccabees,  is  given  in  the  second  section  of  the 
 book  of  Maccabees.  St.  Augustine  speaks  of  this 
 abridgment  as  of  a  work  which  the  Church  had  placed 
 in  the  Canon,  by  reason  of  the  histories  of  the  martyrs 
 which  it  contains.  St.  Jerome,  however,  says  the 
 contrary.  The  councils  of  Carthage  in  397,  and  of 
 Trent,  have  declared  it  canonical.  (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  431.)— IV.  A  native  of  Argos,  who 
 flourished  during  the  second  century.  He  wrote  a 
 work  on  Greece,  in  four  books,  comprehending  the 
 earlier  times  of  the  nation,  the  wars  against  the  Per- 
 sians, the  exploits  of  Alexander,  the  actions  of  Antip- 
 ater,  and  ending  with  the  capture  of  Athens.  He  com- 
 posed also  a  treatise  on  the  Temples  (or,  as  others  ren- 
 der it.  Sacrifices)  of  Alexander,  Ufp?.  ruv  ' AXe^uvSpov 
 lepuv.  {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  172.— Fom., 
 Hist.  Gr.,  1,  10,  p.  Q2.—Athcnai  Op.,  ed.  Schwcigh., 
 vol.  9,  p.  136,  Ind.  Aiict.)—y.  A  Rhodian,  grandson 
 of  Posidonius,  who  succeeded  his  grandfather  in  the 
 Stoic  school  of  his  native  island.  His  works  have  not 
 reached  us. 
 
 Iasonium  Promontorium,  a  promontory  of  Pontus, 
 northeast  of  Polemonium.  It  was  so  called  from  the 
 ship  Argo  having  anchored  in  its  vicinity.  (Xe7i., 
 Anah.,  6,  2,  1.)  "it  is  also  mentioned  by  Strabo  (548), 
 and  it  preserves  evident  vestiges  of  the  ancient  appel- 
 lation in  that  of  lasoun.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor, 
 vol.  1,  p.  273.) 
 
 I.tssicus  Sinus,  a  gulf  of  Caria,  deriving  its  name 
 from  the  city  of  lassus,  situate  at  its  head.  It  is  now 
 caWcd  Asscrn-Kalessi.     {Thncyd.,fi,'26.) 
 
 Iassus,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  situate  on  a  small 
 island  very  near  the  coast  of  Caria,  and  giving  to  the 
 adjacent  bay  the  name  of  Sinus  lassicus.  It  was  a 
 rich  and  flourishing  city,  and  the  inhabitants  were 
 chiefly  occupied  with  fisheries  along  the  adjacent 
 coasts.  It  is  now  in  ruins,  though  many  vestiges  re- 
 main of  it.  The  name  of  the  place  is  Assem.  {fim., 
 5,  28.— L{«.,  32,  33;  37,  17.)  .  . 
 
 IAX..RTES,  a  large  river  of  Asia  rising  '"  the  ch^m 
 of  Mons  Imaus,  and  flowing  into  ihe  Sea  ./J ra/  after 
 a  course  of  1682  English  miles.  It  is  now  the  S.r,  or 
 »r  Darjah.  Ptolemy  makes  it  flow  into  the  Caspian, 
 as  he  was  unacquainted  with  the  existence  of  tjie  Sea 
 of  Aral.     Herodotus,  long  before,  had  called  the  lax- 
 
 u59 
 
lAZ 
 
 IBY 
 
 artes  by  the  name  of  Araxes,  and  confounded  it  with 
 the  Oxus  {\,  ZOi,  scqq.).  Rennell,  after  quoting  the 
 passage  just  referred  to,  remarks  as  follows  :  "  In 
 this  description  the  laxartes  and  Oxus  appear  to  be 
 confounded  together  (Herodotus  had  perhaps  heard 
 certain  particulars  of  both  rivers,  but  might  refer  them 
 to  one  only),  for  there  are  circumstances  that  may  be 
 applied  to  each  respectively,  although  most  of  them 
 are  applicable  only  to  the  former.  It  may  be  observed, 
 that  Herodotus  mentions  only  one  large  river  in  this 
 part  of  the  empire  of  Cyrus  ;  that  is,  the  river  which 
 separates  it  from  the  Massagetae,  and  which  was  un- 
 doubtedly the  laxartes  ;  for  there  is  no  question  that 
 Sogdia  was  included  in  the  empire  of  Cyrus,  and  it  lay 
 between  the  Oxus  and  laxartes.  The  Oxus,  there- 
 fore, has  no  distinct  place  in  the  geography  of  our 
 author,  although  a  river  of  much  greater  bulk  and  im- 
 portance than  the  laxartes.  But  that  the  Oxus  was  in- 
 tended, when  he  says  that  the  larger  stream  continued 
 Its  even  course  to  the  Caspian,  appears  probable;  al- 
 though the  numerous  branches  that  formed  the  large 
 islands,  and  were  afterward  lost  in  bogs  and  marshes, 
 agrees  rather  with  the  description  of  the  Aral  lake, 
 and  lower  part  of  the -Sir."  (Geography  of  Herod- 
 otus, vol.  1,  p.  270,  seqq.,  ed.  1830.) — With  regard  to 
 the  tribe  of  the  laxarta:,  and  the  origin  of  the  name 
 laxartes, the  same  writer  observes  as  follows:  "  Ptol- 
 emy mentions  the  laxartae  :  placing  them  along  the 
 northern  bank  of  the  laxartes,  throughout  the  lower 
 half  of  its  course.  These,  consequently,  occupy  the 
 place  of  the  Massagetse  of  Herodotus  and  Arrian,  and 
 of  the  Sacae  of  Strabo.  Ptolemy  may  possibly  have 
 named  them  arbitrarily  ;  but  as  there  is  a  remnant  of 
 a  tribe  named  Sarlcs,  now  existing  between  the  Oxus 
 and  laxartes,  and  which  are  reported  to  be  the  re- 
 mains of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country,  it  is 
 possible  that  this  was  one  of  the  tribes  of  the  iMassa- 
 getsp.  or  SacK  ;  while  laxarts  may  have  been  the  true 
 name  in  the  country  itself,  and  very  probably  gave 
 name  to  the  river  laxartes  at  that  period  ;  of  which 
 Sir  and  Sirt,  which  are  in  use  at  present,  may  be  the 
 remains.  Ammianus  speaks  of  the  laxartas  as  a  tribe, 
 and  of  good  account,  in  lib.  xxiii."  {Geogr.  of  He- 
 rod., vol.  2,  p.  295,  seqq.) — It  is  generally  supposed 
 that  the  Greeks  in  the  time  of  Alexander  were  guilty 
 of  an  error  in  confounding  this  river  with  the  Tanais. 
 Klaproth,  however,  shows  that  the  name  Tanais  was 
 common  to  both  the  laxartes  and  the  modern  Don,  a 
 people  of  the  same  race  occupying  at  that  time  the 
 banks  of  both  streams,  and  using  for  both  an  appella- 
 tion, the  root  of  which  (dan,  tan,  or  don)  has  a  gener- 
 al reference  to  water.  (Consult  remarks  under  the 
 article  Tanais. — Klaproth,  Tableaux  Historiqv.es  de 
 I'Asie,  p.  181.) 
 
 Iazyges,  a  people  of  Scythia.  Of  these  there  were 
 the  lazyges  Maotae,  who  occupied  the  northern  coast 
 of  the  Palus  Maeotis  ;  the  lazyges  Metanastae  (PloL, 
 — Compare  Ccllarius,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  83),  who  in- 
 habited the  angular  territory  formed  by  the  Tibiscus, 
 the  Danube,  and  Dacia ;  they  Jived  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Dacia,  and  are  called  by  Plmy  Sarmates.  The  lazy- 
 ges Basilii,  or  Royal  {Ovid,  Ep.  ex.  Pont.,  1,  2,  79.— 
 Id.,  Trist.y  2,  191),  were  a  people  of  Sarmatia,  joined 
 by  Strabo  to  the  lazyges  on  the  coast  of  the  Euxine, 
 between  the  Tyras  and  the  Borysthcnes.  Ptolemy 
 speaks  only  of  the  Mctanastas,  who  were  probably  the 
 most  considerable  of  the  three.  The  territory  of  this 
 latter  people  was,  towards  the  decline  of  the  empire, 
 occupied  by  the  Vandals,  and  afterward  became  a 
 part  of  the  empire  of  the  Goths.  About  the  year  350 
 they  were  expelled  by  the  Huns.  It  has  since  formed 
 a  part  of  Hungary,  and  of  the  Bannat  of  Temeswar. 
 According  to  some  writers,  the  lazyges  were  the  an- 
 cestors of  the  latwinges,  whom  the  Polish  authors 
 call  also  Pollcxiani.  {Balbi,  Introduction  a  V Atlas 
 Ethnogr.,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p.  188.) 
 660 
 
 IberTa,  I.  a  country  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  west 
 by  Colchis,  on  the  north  by  Mount  Caucasus,  on  the 
 east  by  Albania,  and  on  the  south  by  Armenia.  It 
 answers  now  to  Imeriti,  Georgia,  the  country  of  the 
 Gurians,  &c.  The  name  of  Imeriti  is  an  evident  der- 
 ivation from  the  ancient  one.  The  Cyrus,  or  Kur, 
 flowed  through  Iberia.  Ptolemy  enumerates  several 
 towns  of  this  country,  such  as  Agiuna,  Vasaeda,  Va- 
 rica,  &c.  The  Iberians  were  allies  of  Mithradates, 
 and  were  therefore  attacked  by  Pompey,  who  de- 
 feated them  in  a  great  battle,  and  took  many  pris- 
 oners. Plutarch  makes  the  number  of  slain  to  have 
 been  not  less  than  nine  thousand,  and  that  of  the 
 prisoners  ten  thousand.  (Vit.  Pomp.)  The  same 
 writer  states,  that  the  Iberians  had  never  been  subject 
 to  the  Medes  or  to  the  Persians ;  they  had  escaped 
 even  the  Macedonian  yoke,  because  Alexander  was 
 obliged  to  quit  Hyrcania  in  haste.  {Plin.,  6,  4. — Id., 
 10,  3.— ,S/m5.,499.— P<o/.,5,  \\.—Socrat.,Hist.,  1, 
 26. — Sozom.,  2,  7.) — II.  One  of  the  ancient  names  of 
 Spain,  derived  from  the  river  Iberus.  Consult  re- 
 marks under  the  article  Hispania. 
 
 Ibeei,  a  powerful  nation  of  Spain,  situate  along  the 
 Iberus,  and  who,  mingling  with  Celtic  tribes,  took  the 
 name  of  Celtiberi.  (Consult  remarks  under  the  article 
 Hispania.) 
 
 Iberus,  I.  one  of  the  largest  rivers  in  Spain.  It 
 rises  in  what  was  once  the  country  of  the  Cantabri, 
 from  the  ancient  Fons  Iberus,  in  the  valley  of  Rcynosa, 
 near  the  town  of  Juliobriga,  and  flows  with  a  south- 
 eastern course  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  a  little 
 distance  above  the  Tenebrium  Promontorium,  pass- 
 ing, not  far  from  its  mouth,  the  city  of  Dertosa,  now 
 Tortosa.  The  chain  of  Mons  Idubeda,  by  which  it 
 runs  for  a  great  part  of  its  course,  prevents  it  from 
 taking  a  western  course  along  with  the  other  rivers  of 
 Spain.  It  is  now  the  Ebro,  and  is  in  general  very 
 rapid  and  unfit  for  navigation,  being  full  of  rocks  and 
 shoals,  and  hence  the  Spanish  government  have  been 
 compelled  to  cut  a  canal  parallel  to  the  river  from  Tu- 
 dela  to  Sastaga.  The  deposites  which  the  river  carries 
 to  the  Mediterranean  have  formed  a  considerable  delta 
 at  its  embouchure,  and  it  has  been  necessary  to  cut  a 
 canal,  in  order  that  vessels  may  ascend  to  the  small 
 town  of  Amposta,  below  Tortosa.  {Malte-Brun,  vol. 
 8,  p.  10,  A7yi.  ed.)  This  river  was  made  the  boundary 
 between  the  Carthaginian  and  Roman  possessions  in 
 Spain  after  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  war.  {Lv- 
 can,  4,  335.— Plin.,  3,  3.— Mela,  2,  d.—Ltv.,  21,  5.) 
 — II.  A  river  of  Iberia  in  Asia,  flowing  from  .Mount 
 Caucasus  into  the  Cyrus,  probably  the  modern  Icra. 
 
 Ibis,  a  lost  poem  of  the  poet  Callimachus,  in  which 
 he  bitterly  satirizes  the  ingratitude  of  his  pupil  the  poet 
 ApoUonius.  (Vid.  Calhmachus.)  Ovid  also  wrote  a 
 poem  under  the  same  title,  in  imitation  of  Callimachus. 
 This  latter  has  come  down  to  us,  and  is  thought  to  be 
 directed  against  Hyginus,  a  false  friend  of  the  poet's 
 {Vid.  Ovidius.) 
 
 Ibycus,  a  lyric  poet,  a  native  of  Rhegium,  who 
 flourished  about  B.C.  52S.  Rhegium  was  peopled 
 partly  by  lonians  from  Chalcis,  partly  by  Dorians  from 
 the  Peloponnesus,  the  latter  of  whom  were  a  superioi 
 class.  The  peculiar  dialect  formed  in  Rhegium  had 
 some  influence  on  the  poems  of  Ibycus,  although  these 
 were  in  general  written  in  an  epic  dialect  with  a  Doric 
 tinge,  like  the  poems  of  Stesichorus.  Ibycus  was  a 
 wandering  poet,  as  is  intimated  by  the  story  of  his 
 death,  which  will  be  given  below;  but  his  travels  were 
 not,  like  those  of  Stesichorus,  confined  to  Sicily.  He 
 passed  a  part  of  his  time  in  Samos  with  Polycrates, 
 whence  the  flourishing  period  of  this  bard  may  be 
 fixed  as  we  have  already  given  it.  In  consequence 
 of  the  peculiar  style  of  poetry  which  was  admired  at 
 the  court  of  Polycrates,  Ibycus  could  not  here  compose 
 solemn  hymns  to  the  gods,  but  had  to  accommodate 
 his  Dorian  cithara,  as  he  was  best  able,  to  the  strains 
 
IC  A 
 
 ICH 
 
 of  Anacreon.  Accordingly,  it  is  probable  that  the 
 poetry  of  Ibycus  was  first  turned  mainly  to  erotic  sub- 
 jects during  his  residence  in  the  court  of  the  tyrant  of 
 Samos  ;  and  that  his  glowing  love-songs,  which  formed 
 his  chief  title  to  fame  in  antiquity,  were  composed  at 
 this  period.  But  that  the  poetical  style  of  Ibycus  re- 
 sembled that  of  Stesichorus,  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that 
 the  ancient  critics  often  doubted  to  which  of  the  two 
 a  particular  idea  or  expression  belonged.  (Compare 
 AthcncEus,  4,  p.  172,  d.—Sckol.  Yen.  ad  II.,  24,  259. 
 —  Hcsych,  s.  V.  (ipvakiKTaL. — Schol.  ad  Arisioph. 
 Av.,  [S02.— Schol.  Vratislav.  ad  Pind.,  01.  9,  128. 
 — Eiymol.  Gud.,  s.  v.  uTepnvo^,  p.  98,  31.)  The 
 metres  of  Ibycus  also  resemble  those  of  Stesichorus, 
 being  in  general  dactylic  series,  connected  together 
 into  verses  of  different  lengths,  but  sometimes  so  long 
 that  they  are  to  be  called  systems  rather  than  verses. 
 Besides  these,  Ibycus  frequently  used  logaosdic  verses 
 of  a  soft  or  languid  character  ;  and,  in  general,  his 
 rhythms  are  less  stately  and  dignified,  and  more  suited 
 to  the  expression  of  passion,  than  those  of  Stesicho- 
 rus. Hence  the  effeminate  poet  Agathon  is  repre- 
 sented by  Aristophanes  as  appealing  to  Ibycus  with 
 Anacreon  and  Alcaeus,  who  had  made  music  more 
 sweet,  and  had  worn  many-coloured  fillets  (in  the  Ori- 
 ental fashion),  and  led  the  Ionic  dance.  The  subjects 
 of  the  poems  of  Ibycus  appear  also  to  have  had  a 
 strong  affinity  with  those  of  Stesichorus  ;  and  so  many 
 particular  accounts  of  mythological  stories,  especially 
 relating  to  the  heroic  period,  are  cited  from  his  poems, 
 that  it  seems  as  if  he  too  had  written  long  poems  on 
 the  Trojan  war,  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  and 
 other  similar  subjects.  The  erotic  poetry,  however, 
 of  Ibycus  is  most  celebrated,  and  those  productions 
 breathed  a  fervour  of  passion  far  exceeding  that  ex- 
 pressed in  any  similar  pieces  throughout  the  whole 
 range  of  Grecian  literature.  The  death  of  the  poet 
 is  said  to  have  been  as  follows:  he  was  assailed  and 
 murdered  by  robbers,  and  at  the  moment  of  his  death, 
 be  implored  some  cranes  that  were  flying  over  head 
 to  avenge  his  fate.  Some  time  after,  as  the  murder- 
 ers were  in  the  market-place,  one  of  them  observed 
 some  cranes  in  the  air,  and  remarked  to  his  com- 
 panions, al  '\6vKov  ekSikoi  wdpeiaivl  '■'■Here  are 
 the  avengers  of  Ibycus!"  These  words  and  the  re- 
 cent murder  of  Ibycus  excited  suspicion  ;  the  assas- 
 sms  were  seized,  and,  being  put  to  the  torture,  con- 
 fessed their  guilt.  {Milller,  Hist.  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  205, 
 seqq.) 
 
 IcKKi.K,  an  island  of  the  .Egean,  near  Samos,  and, 
 according  to  Strabo,  eighty  stadia  due  west  from  Am- 
 pelos,  the  western  promontory  of  the  latter.  Pliny 
 (4,  12)  makes  the  distance  greater,  but  he  probably 
 measures  from  the  harbour  at  the  western  extremity. 
 Mythology  deduced  the  name  of  this  island  from  Ica- 
 rus, son  of  Daedalus,  whose  body  was  washed  upon  its 
 shores  after  the  unfortunate  termination  of  his  flight. 
 Bochart,  however,  inclines  towards  a  Phoenician  der- 
 ivation, and  assigns,  as  the  etymology  of  the  name, 
 1-caure,  i.e.,  "insula  piscium,"  the  island  of  fish.  In 
 support  of  this  explanation,  he  refers  to  Athenaeus 
 (1,  24),  Stephanus  Byzantinus,  and  others,  according 
 to  whom  one  of  the  early  Greek  names  of  the  island 
 was  Ichthyocssa  {'IxQvoeaaa),  i.  e.,  "  abounding  in 
 fish."  {Geogr.  Sacr.,  \,8,sub  fin.) — Icaria  was  of 
 small  extent,  being  long  but  narrow.  In  Strabo's 
 time  it  was  thinly  inhabited,  and  the  Samians  used  it 
 principally  for  the  pasturage  of  their  cattle.  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  Nicaria.  The  island  at  the  present  day 
 is  said  to  abound  in  timber,  but  to  be  otherwise  steril ; 
 and  to  be  inhabited  by  a  few  Greeks,  very  poor,  and 
 very  proud  of  their  pretended  descent  from  the  impe- 
 rial line  of  Constantine.  (Georgircnes,  Dcscrip.  de 
 Samos,  Nicaria,  &c.,  p.  304  ) 
 
 IcARis  and  Ic.*ri6tis,  a  name  given  to  Penelope, 
 as  daughter  of  Icarius. 
 
 Ic.\rTum  M.tRE,  a  part  of  the  .■Egean  Sea  near  the 
 islands  of  Myconus  and  Gyarus.  The  ancient  my- 
 thologists  deduce  the  name  from  Icarus,  who  fell  into 
 it  and  was  drowned.  But  compare  remarks  under  the 
 article  Icaria. 
 
 Icarius,  I.  an  Athenian,  father  of  Erigone.  Hav- 
 ing been  taught  by  Bacchus  the  culture  of  the  vine, 
 he  gave  some  of  the  juice  of  the  grape  to  certain  shep- 
 herds, who,  thinking  themselves  poisoned,  killed  him. 
 When  they  came  to  their  senses  they  buried  him ;  and 
 his  daughter  Erigone,  being  shown  the  spot  by  his 
 faithful  dog  Ma;ra,  hung  herself  through  grief.  (Apol- 
 lod.,  3,  14,  l.  —  Hygin.,  fab.,  130.)  Icarius  was  fa- 
 bled to  have  been  changed  after  death  into  the  con- 
 stellation Bootes,  Erigone  into  Virgo,  while  Moera  be- 
 came the  star  Canis.  {Vid.  Erigone.) — II.  A  son  of 
 CEbalus  of  Lacedsemon.  He  gave  his  daughter  Pe- 
 nelope in  marriage  to  Ulysses,  king  of  Ithaca,  but  he 
 was  so  tenderly  attached  to  her  that  he  wished  her 
 husband  to  settle  at  Lacedasmon.  Ulysses  refused  ; 
 and  when  he  saw  the  earnest  petitions  of  Icarius,  he 
 told  Penelope,  as  they  were  going  to  embark,  that  she 
 might  choose  freely  either  to  follow  him  to  Ithaca  or 
 to  remain  with  her  father.  Penelope  blushed  in  si- 
 lence, and  covered  her  head  with  her  veil.  Icarius, 
 upon  this,  permitted  his  daughter  to  go  to  Ithaca,  and 
 immediately  erected  a  temple  to  the  goddess  of  mod- 
 esty, on  the  spot  where  Penelope  had  covered  her 
 blushes  with  her  veil. 
 
 Icarus,  a  son  of  Dsedalus,  who,  with  his  father,  fled 
 with  wings  from  Crete  to  escape  the  resentment  of 
 Minos.  His  flight  being  too  high  proved  fatal  to  him  ; 
 for  the  sun  melted  the  wax  which  cemented  his  wings-, 
 and  he  fell  into  that  part  of  the  .■iCgean  Sea  which  was 
 called  after  his  name.  {Vid.  Icarium  Mare  ;  and  con- 
 sult also  remarks  under  the  article  Daedalus.) 
 
 IcENi,  a  people  of  Britain,  north  of  the  Trinobantcs. 
 They  inhabited  what  answers  now  to  the  counties  of 
 Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Cambridge,  and  Hmitingdon.  This 
 nation  is  called  by  several  different  names,  as  Simeni 
 by  Ptolemy,  Cenimagni  by  Cassar,  &c.  They  at  first 
 submitted  to  the  Roman  power,  but  afterward  revolt- 
 ing in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  were  defeated  in  a  great 
 battle  by  Ostorius  Scapula,  the  second  Roman  govern- 
 or of  Britain,  A.D.  50,  and  reduced  to  a  state  of  sub- 
 jection. They  again  revolted  under  the  command  of 
 the  famous  Boadicea,  but  were  entirely  defeated  with 
 great  slaughter  by  Suetonius  Pauhnus,  A.D.  61,  and 
 totally  subjugated.  Their  capital  was  Venla  Icenorum, 
 now  Caistcr,  about  three  miles  from  Norioirh.  {Ta- 
 cit., 12,  Z\.—Cizs.,  B.  G.,  3,  2l.  —  Cellarii,  Geogr. 
 A7U.,  vol.  2,  p.  339.) 
 
 IoiiNjE,  I.  a  town  of  Macedonia,  placed  by  Herodo- 
 tus in  Botioea,  and  situated  probably  at  the  mouth  of 
 the  Ludias.  (Herod  ,  7,  123.— Compare  Mela,  2,  3. 
 —  Pliyi.,  4,  10.)  From  other  authors,  cited  by  Ste- 
 phanus, it  appears  that  the  name  was  sometimes  writ- 
 ten Achne. — II.  A  city  of  Thessaly,  near  Phyllus,  and 
 in  the  district  of  Phthiotis.  The  goddess  Themis  was 
 especially  revered  here.  {Slrab.,  435. — Horn..  H'ymn. 
 in  Apoll ,  94.) 
 
 IcHNiJSA,  an  ancient  name  of  Sardinia,  which  it  re- 
 ceived from  its  likeness  to  a  human  foot.  'lYi'oiiaa, 
 from  Ix^'o^,  vestigium.  [Pausan.,  10,  17. — Plin.,  3, 
 7. — S>1.  Ital,  12,  881.)  It  was  also  called  Sandalio- 
 tis,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  sandal  {aavSuliov).  Rit- 
 ter,  however,  indulges  in  some  very  learned  and  curi- 
 ous speculations  to  prove  that  the  name  Ichnusa  refers, 
 not  to  the  shape  of  the  island,  but  to  the  establishment 
 in  it,  at  an  early  period,  of  the  religion  of  the  Sun. 
 And,  in  support  of  this  position,  he  avails  himself  very 
 skilfully  of  the  various  accounts  of  the  prints  of  human 
 footsteps  as  found  in  different  parts  of  the  ancient 
 world.     (Vorhalle,  p.  351,  scqq.) 
 
 IcHTHYopHAGi,  a  name  given  by  the  Greek  geogra- 
 nhers  to  seve'al  tribes  of  barbarians  in  different  parts 
 '  661 
 
ICO 
 
 IDA 
 
 of  the  ancient  world,  and  which  indicates  a  people 
 "  living  on  fish."  I.  A  people  of  Gedrosia,  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Mare  Erythraeum.  (Plin.,  6,  23. — Arrian, 
 6,  28. — Id.,  Lid.,  26.) — II.  A  people  in  the  northeast- 
 ern part  of  Arabia  Felix,  along  the  coast  of  the  Sinus 
 Persicus. — III.  A  people  of  Troglodiiica,  according  to 
 Strabo,  southwest  of  the  island  Tapozos  ;  probably 
 near  the  straits  of  Dira?,  or  Babd-Mandch.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  Peutinger  Table,  they  dwelt  between  Albus 
 Portus  and  Berenice. 
 
 IcHTHYOPHAGORUM  SiNus,  a  bay  on  the  northeast- 
 ern coast  of  Arabia  Felix. 
 
 IconIum,  a  very  ancient  city  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
 during  the  Persian  dominion  the  easternmost  city  of 
 Phrygia.  (Xen.,  Anah.,  1,  2.)  At  a  later  period  it 
 became  and  continued  the  capital  of  Lycaonia.  It  was 
 never  a  very  important  place  :  Strabo  (568)  calls  it  a 
 ■KoTiixvLov,  "  small  city."  Pliny,  it  is  true,  gives  it 
 the  appellation  of  urbs  celeberrima,  but  this  merely  re- 
 fers to  its  being  the  head  of  a  tetrarchy  of  fourteen 
 cities.  {Plin.,  5,  27.)  Strabo  praises  the  activity  of 
 the  inhabitants  and  the  fruitfulness  of  the  surrounding 
 country.  The  Greeks,  according  to  their  wonted  cus- 
 tom, brought  their  own  mythology  to  bear  on  the  name 
 of  this  place,  without  at  all  carina  for  the  fact  that  the 
 city  was  called  Iconium  long  before  any  of  their  nation 
 had  penetrated  into  inner  Asia.  They  deduced  the 
 appellation  from  sIkovlov  ("a  small  image"),  and  then 
 no  difficulty  presented  itself  as  to  the  mode  of  explain- 
 ing it.  According  to  some,  Prometheus  and  Minerva 
 were  ordered  by  Jupiter,  in  order  to  replenish  the  earth 
 after  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  to  make  human  forms 
 of  clay,  and  to  inspire  them  with  the  breath  of  life  by 
 calling  in  the  aid  of  the  winds.  The  scene  of  this  was 
 the  vicinity  of  Iconium,  whence  the  place  received  its 
 name.  {Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'Ikuviov.)  This  etymolo- 
 gy, however,  had  but  few  supporters  ;  another  and  a 
 more  popular  one  prevailed,  though  of  later  date  than 
 the  former,  since  Strabo  and  his  contemporaries  knew 
 nothing  of  it.  According  to  this  last,  Perseus  here 
 raised  a  column  with  an  image  of  Medusa  upon  it,  and 
 hence  the  name  of  the  place.  (Eustalh.,  Schol.  in 
 Dionys.  Perieg.,  v.  856.)  When  Constantino  the 
 Great  found  statues  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda  at 
 Iconium,  and  caused  them  to  be  transported  to  Con- 
 stantinople, this  discovery  only  served  to  confirm  the 
 previous  tradition  in  the  minds,  not  only  of  the  neigh- 
 bouring communities,  but  also  of  the  Bvzantines  them- 
 selves. {Anliq.  Constant.,  1.  2  cl  6. — Bandurii,  Imp. 
 Orient.,  vol.  1,  p.  24,  106.)  It  created  no  difficulty 
 whatever  that  the  name  of  Iconium  commenced,  not 
 with  the  diphthong  Et,  but  the  single  I.  Stephanus 
 (I.  c.)  asserts,  that  the  name  ought  to  be  written  with 
 the  initial  diphthong,  and  it  is,  in  fact,  so  written  by 
 Eustalhius  and  the  Byzantine  historians.  (Elkovlov 
 —  Chron.  Alcxandrin.,  Cedrenus.)  Eckhel  also  cites 
 medals  on  which  this  orthography  is  given  ;  but  other 
 and  earlier  ones  have  the  true  form,  and  the  gramma- 
 rian Chooroboscus  observes,  that  the  first  syllable  of 
 the  name  was  pronounced  short  by  Menander.  (Cod. 
 Bar occ  ,  50,  L  r31.)  —  The  most  interesting  circum- 
 stances connected  with  the  history  of  Iconium,  are 
 those  which  relate  to  St.  Paul's  preaching  there,  to- 
 wards the  commencement  of  his  apostolical  mission  to 
 the  Gentiles.  {Acts,  13,  51,  scqq.) — Under  the  By- 
 zantine emperors  frequent  mention  is  made  of  this  city  ; 
 but  it  had  been  wrested  from  them,  first  by  the  Sara- 
 cens, and  afterward  by  the  '^urks,  who  made  it  the 
 capital  of  an  empire,  the  sovereigns  of  which  took  the 
 title  of  Sultans  of  Iconium.  They  were  constantly  en- 
 gaged in  hostilities  with  the  Greek  emperors  and  the 
 crusaders,  with  various  success  ;  and  they  must  be 
 considered  as  having  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Otto- 
 man power  in  Asia  Minor,  which  commenced  under 
 Osman  Oglou  and  his  descendants,  on  the  termination  I 
 of  the  Iconian  dynasty,  towards  the  beginning  of  the 
 662 
 
 fourteenth  century. — This  place  has  been  included  in 
 the  domains  of  the  Grand  Seignior,  under  the  name  of 
 Konia,  ever  since  the  time  of  Bajazet,  who  finally  ex- 
 tirpated the  Ameers  of  Caramania.  It  is  the  residence 
 of  a  pacha.  Col.  Leake  gives  the  following  account 
 of  its  present  state  :  "  The  circumference  of  the  walls 
 of  Konia  is  between  two  and  three  miles,  beyond  which 
 are  suburbs  not  much  less  populous  than  the  town  it- 
 self The  walls,  strong  and  lofty,  and  flanked  with 
 square  towers,  which  at  the  gates  are  built  close  to- 
 gether, are  of  the  time  of  the  Seljukian  kings,  who 
 seem  to  have  taken  considerable  pains  to  exhibit  the 
 Greek  inscriptions,  and  the  remains  of  architecture  and 
 sculpture  belonging  to  the  ancient  Iconium,  which  they 
 made  use  of  in  building  the  walls.  The  town,  suburbs, 
 and  gardens  around  are  plentifully  supplied  with  water 
 from  streams  which  flow  from  some  hills  to  the  west- 
 ward, and  which  to  the  northeast  join  a  lake  varying 
 in  size  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  In  the 
 town  carpets  are  manufactured,  and  they  tan  and  dye 
 blue  and  yellow  leather.  Cotton,  wool,  hides,  and  a 
 few  of  the  other  raw  materials,  which  enrich  the  su- 
 perior industry  and  skill  of  the  manufacturers  of  Eu- 
 rope, are  sent  to  Smyrna  by  the  caravans."  {Journal 
 of  a  Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  p.  48.)  Cpl.  Leake  trav- 
 elled in  this  country  in  1800.  Mr.  Browne,  who  pass- 
 ed through  in  1802,  says,  that  "  the  scanty  population 
 and  shapeless  mud-hovels  of  Konia,  the  abode  of  pov- 
 erty and  wretchedness,  are  strongly  contrasted  with 
 what  still  remains  of  the  spacious  and  lofty  walls  of 
 the  Greek  city."  {WulpoWs  Memoirs,  &c.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 121.)  "The  modern  city,"  says  Capt.  Kinneir,  "has 
 an  imposing  appearance,  from  the  number  and  size  of 
 the  mosques,  colleges,  and  other  public  buildings  ;  but 
 these  stately  edifices  are  crumbling  into  ruins,  while 
 the  houses  of  the  inhabitants  consist  of  a  mixture  of 
 small  huts  built  of  sun-dried  brick,  and  wretched  hov- 
 els thatched  with  reeds."  The  same  traveller  also 
 gives  an  interesting  description  of  the  antiquities  of  the 
 place.  He  makes  the  present  number  of  inhabitants 
 about  80,000,  principally  Turks,  with  only  a  small  pro- 
 portion of  Christians. 
 
 Ida,  I.  a  chain  of  mountains  in  Troas,  or,  more 
 correctly  speaking,  a  mountainous  region,  extending 
 in  its  greatest  length  from  the  promontory  of  Lectum 
 to  Zelea,  and  in  breadth  from  the  Hellespont  to  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Adramyttium  ;  so  that  it  occupied 
 by  its  ridges  and  ramifications  the  whole  of  the  trad 
 anciently  called  Phrygia  Minor.  Among  a  number  of 
 ridges  or  ranges  and  irregular  masses  of  mountains  of 
 which  it  is  composed,  there  are  three  ridges  that  are 
 superior  in  point  of  elevation  to  the  rest,  and  one  of 
 them  eminently  so.  J'rom  their  relative  positions  to 
 each  other,  they  may  be  compared  collectively,  in  point 
 of  form,  to  the  Greek  Delta  ;  the  head  or  northeastern 
 angle  of  which  approaches  the  Hellespont,  near  the  site 
 of  the  ancient  Dardanus  ;  and  the  two  lower  angles 
 approach  the  promontory  of  Lectum  on  the  one  hand, 
 and  Adramyttium  on  the  other.  The  loftiest  of  these 
 ridges  is  that  which  forms  the  right  or  eastern  side  of 
 the  A;  extending  southeastward  between  the  Helles- 
 pont and  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Adramyttium.  and  ter- 
 minating in  the  lofty  summit  of  Gargarus,  which  over- 
 tops, in  every  distant  view,  the  great  body  of  Ida,  like 
 a  dome  over  the  body  of  a  temple.  The  second  ridge, 
 forming  the  left  of  the  A,  runs  parallel  to  the  coast  of 
 the  .^gean  Sea,  from  north  to  south,  at  the  distance 
 of  six  or  seven  miles.  Its  commencement  in  the  north 
 is,  like  that  of  Ida,  near  the  Hellespont,  and  it  extends 
 far  on  towards  the  promontory  of  Lectum.  In  a  gen- 
 eral view  from  the  west  it  appears  to  extend  to  the 
 promontory  itself ;  although,  in  reality,  it  is  separated 
 from  it  by  a  wide  valley,  through  which  flows  the 
 Touzla  or  Salt  River.  The  third  ridge,  forming  the 
 basis  of  the  A,  extends  along  the  southern  coast  of  the 
 Lesser  Phrygia,  from  the  summit  of  Mount  Gargarua 
 
ID^ 
 
 IDA 
 
 to  the  promontory  of  Lectum,  dimiriishing  in  altitude 
 as  it  proceeds  towards  the  latter.  Mr.  Hawkins  says 
 that  this  ridge  is  not  inferior  in  height  to  that  which 
 faces  the  plain  of  Troy.  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  and 
 Strabo  evidently  design  by  Ida  the  ridge  towards 
 Troy  ;  or  at  least  they  exclude  Gargarus.  The  for- 
 mer, in  describing  the  march  of  Xerxes  northward 
 from  Pergainus,  Thebes,  and  Antandros,  to  Ilium, 
 makes  the  Persian  monarch  leave  Ida  "  on  his  left 
 hand"  (7,  42),  that  is,  to  the  west.  Now  the  summit 
 of  Gargarus  being  little  short  of  an  English  mile  in  al- 
 titude, what  should  have  induced  Xerxes  to  lead  his 
 army  over  such  a  ridge,  when  he  might  have  gone  a 
 straighter  and  smoother  road  by  avoidmg  it,  and  when, 
 after  all,  he  must  of  necessity  have  crossed  the  west- 
 ern ridge  also  in  order  to  arrive  at  Ilium] — Again, 
 Xenophon  says  (Anah.,  7),  that  in  his  way  (southward) 
 from  Ilium  through  Antandros  to  Adramyttium,  he 
 crossed  Mount  Ida.  Of  course  it  must  have  been  the 
 western  and  southern  ranges,  as  is  done  at  present  by 
 those  who  travel  from  the  Dardanelles  to  Adramyt  or 
 Adramyttium.  Strabo  unquestionably  refers  the  ideas 
 of  Demetrius  respecting  the  mountains  of  Cotylus 
 (i.e.,  Gargarus)  and  its  views  to  the  Trojan  Ida;  nev- 
 er supposmg  that  the  lofty  mountain  over  Antandros 
 and  Gargara  was  Cotylus,  the  highest  point  of  Ida, 
 whence  Demetrius  derives  the  fountains  of  the  Sca- 
 mander,  the  ^sepus,  and  the  Granicus.  Strabo  con- 
 cluded that  all  these  rivers  sprang  from  that  chain  of 
 Ida  bordering  on  the  Trojan  plain  which  he  had  in 
 view  from  the  seacoast ;  and  which,  it  appears,  was 
 the  only  Ida  known  to  him.  {Renncirs  Observations 
 en  the  Topography  of  Troy,  p.  17,  seqq)  —  Ida  was 
 remarkable  for  its  thick  forests  and  excellent  timber. 
 Its  name  is  thought  to  De  derived  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  its  being  covered  with  woods,  Idrjat  Karrips- 
 9^f,  as  Herodotus  says  of  a  part  of  Media  (1,  110).  It 
 was  the  source  of  many  streams  (Horn.,  II.,  12,  19), 
 and  on  Ida  also  Paris  adjudged  to  Venus  the  prize  of 
 beauty. — II.  The  highest  and  most  celebrated  mount- 
 ain of  Crete,  rising  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  island. 
 According  to  Strabo,  it  was  600  stadia  in  circuit,  and 
 around  its  base  were  many  large  and  flourishing  cities. 
 (Slrab.,  Alb.  —  Compare  Dionys.  Perieg.,  v.  501.) 
 The  summit,  named  Panacra,  was  especially  sacred  to 
 Jove.  (Callim,  Hymn,  in  Jov,  50.)  Here  Jove  was 
 fabled  to  have  been  educated  by  the  Corybantes,  who 
 on  that  account  were  called  Idaei.  The  modern  name 
 of  the  mountain  is  Psiloriti.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p.  381.) 
 
 Idmk,  the  surname  of  Cybele,  because  she  was 
 worshipped  on  Mount  Ida.     {Lucr,  2,  611.) 
 
 Id^i  Dactyh,  priests  of  Cybele,  who,  according 
 lo  Ephorus  {ap.  Died.  Sic.,  5,  64. — Fragm.,  ed. 
 Marx,  p.  176),  were  so  called  from  Ida,  the  mountain 
 of  Phrygia,  where  they  had  their  abode.  The  poets 
 and  mythologists  vary  much  in  their  accounts  of  this 
 class  of  individuals.  Some  make  them  to  have  been 
 the  sons  of  Jupiter  and  the  nymph  Ida  ;  others  con- 
 found them  with  the  Curetes  or  Corybantes  ;  while 
 others,  again,  make  the  Curetes  their  offspring.  The 
 same  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  their  number. 
 Some  make  them  to  have  been  only  five  {Pausan.,  5, 
 7),  and  hence  they  suppose  them  to  have  been  called 
 Dactyli,  from  the  analogy  between  their  number  and  that 
 of  the  fingers  {SuktvXoi)  on  each  hand.  Others  make 
 the  number  much  larger.  Phcrecydcs,  one  of  the  early 
 Grecian  historians,  spoke  of  20  Idaei  Dactyli  placed 
 on  the  right,  and  of  32  on  the  left,  all  children  of  Ida, 
 all  workers  in  iron,  and,  moreover,  expert  in  sorcery. 
 (Schol  ad  ApoU.  Rh.,  1,  1129.— Pherecyd.,  fragm., 
 ed  Slurz.,  p.  146.)  Hellanicus  pretended  that  the 
 Dactyli  on  the  right  were  occupied  with  breaking  the 
 charm  formed  by  those  on  the  left.  In  one  thing  all 
 the  ancient  authorities  agree,  namely,  that  the  Idaei 
 Dactyli  first  taught  mankind  the  art  of  working  iron 
 
 and  copper.  (Clem.  Alex.,  Sirom.,  1,  p.  420.)  The 
 Chronicle  of  Pares  places  the  date  of  this  discover>' 
 under  the  reign  of  Pandion,  king  of  Athens,  that  is  to 
 say,  1432  years  before  the  Christian  era.  {Marm., 
 Oxon.  Epoch.,  11.)  Strabo  informs  us,  that,  accord- 
 ing to  some  ancient  writers,  the  Curetes  and  the  Cory- 
 bantes were  the  offspring  of  the  Idsei  Dactyli ;  that  100 
 men,  the  first  inhabitants  of  Crete,  were  called  by  this 
 latter  name  ;  that  these  begat  nine  Curetes,  and  that 
 each  one  of  these  nine  begat  in  his  turn  ten  sons, 
 named  Idaei  Dactyli  like  their  grandfathers.  {Strabo, 
 473,  seqq.)  Strabo  remarks  on  this  occasion,  with 
 great  good  sense,  that  early  antiquity  was  accustomed 
 to  throw  the  garb  of  fable  around  many  notions  based 
 in  reality  on  the  nature  of  things.  An  ingenious  an- 
 tiquary of  modern  times,  struck  by  the  truth  of  this 
 remark,  first  calls  our  attention  to  the  metrical  sense 
 of  6uKTv?iO(  {finger),  and  then  adds,  with  every  ap- 
 pearance of  reason,  that  the  numbers  100,  9,  and  10, 
 applied  to  the  Dactyli  and  the  Curetes,  belong  proba- 
 bly to  some  arithmetical  or  physical  theory.  As  to 
 the  name  Dactyli  itself,  whether  we  must  seek  its  ety- 
 mology in  the  number  of  fingers  on  each  hand,  or  else 
 in  the  idea  of  measure,  and,  consequently,  of  cadence, 
 equally  derived  from  the  movement  of  the  fingers,  and 
 identical,  besides,  with  the  idea  of  number,  still  it  is 
 thought  that,  in  forging  iron  by  the  aid  of  their  hands 
 and  fingers,  the  Dactyli  observed  at  first  a  species  of 
 dactylic  rhythm,  and  that  these  forgers  were  the  first 
 that  applied  the  dance  to  this  same  rhythm  ;  from  all 
 which  arose  their  peculiar  name.  {Jomard,  sur  le  Sys- 
 temc  Metrique  des  anciens  Egypliens. — Dcscript.  de 
 VEgypte,  Antiquites,  Memoires,  vol.  1,  p.  744,  seqq.) 
 
 Idalium,  a  height  and  grove  of  Cyprus,  near  the 
 promontory  of  Pedalium.  It  was  the  favourite  abode 
 of  Venus,  hence  called  Idalia,  and  here,  too,  Adonis 
 was  killed  by  the  tooth  of  the  boar.  Virgil  speaks  of 
 this  hill  or  mountain  under  the  name  of  Idalmm{JEn., 
 1,  681),  and  shortly  after  makes  mention  of  the  groves 
 of  Idalia  (1,  693).  By  this  last  is  meant  the  entire 
 region  {'IdaTiia  X'^P^- — Hexjne,  ad  Virg.,  I.  c).  On 
 another  occasion  {JEn.,  10,  86),  he  speaks  of  a  city 
 named  Idalium.  (Compare  Theocritus,  15,  101. 
 Fo/lyof  TE  Koi  'Ida/lioi.'. — Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.)  The  city 
 or  town  of  Idalium  is  passed  over  in  silence  by  the  an 
 cient  geographical  writers.  It  is  first  referred  to  by 
 the  later  scholiasts.  {Serv  ,  ad  Vtrg.,  jEn.,  1,  681. 
 Schol.  ad  Theocrit.,  15.  101.)  It  no  doubt  existed 
 from  an  early  period,  but  was  too  insignificant  to  ex- 
 cite attention.  D'Anville  is  inclined  to  make  the 
 modern  Dalin  correspond  to  the  ancient  grove  and 
 city.  Idalium  is  said  to  signify  literally,  "  the  place 
 of  the  goddess,"  in  the  Phoenician  tongue.  {Bochurt, 
 Geogr.  Sacr.,  lib.  1,  c.  3,  p.  356. — Compare  Gale's 
 Court  of  the  Gentiles,  as  cited  by  Clarke,  Travels, 
 vol.  4,  p.  36,  Lond.  ed.,  1817.) 
 
 Idas,  a  son  of  Aphareus,  famous  for  his  valour. 
 He  was  among  the  Argonauts,  and  married  Marpes- 
 sa,  the  daughter  of  Evenus,  king  of  ^tolia.  Mar 
 pessa  was  carried  away  by  Apollo,  and  Idas  pursued 
 him,  and  obliged  him  to  restore  her.  {Vid.  Mar- 
 pessa.)  .'According  to  Apollodorus,  Idas,  with  his 
 brother  Lynceus,  associated  with  Pollux  and  Castor 
 to  carry  away  some  flocks  ;  but,  when  they  had  ob- 
 tained a  sufficient  quantity  of  plunder,  they  refused 
 to  divide  it  into  equal  shares.  This  provoked  the 
 sons  of  Leda  ;  Lynceus  was  killed  by  Castor,  and 
 Idas,  to  revenge  his  brother's  death,  immediately  slew 
 Castor,  and  in  his  turn  perished  by  the  hand  of  Pol- 
 lux. According  to  Pausanias,  the  quarrel  between 
 the  sons  of  Leda  and  those  of  Aphareus  arose  from  a 
 different  cause.  Idas  and  Lynceus,  as  they  say.  were 
 going  to  celebrate  their  nuptials  with  Phoebe  and  Hil»- 
 ra,  the  two  daughters  of  Leucippus  ;  but  Castor  and 
 Pollux,  who  had  been  invited  to  partake  the  common 
 festivity,  carried  off  the  brides,  and  Idas  and  Lynceus 
 ■"  663 
 
IDU 
 
 JER 
 
 fell  Lr.  the  attempt  to  recover  their  wives.  {Hygin., 
 fab.,  14,  100,  &ic.—  Ovid,  Fast.,  5,  700. — Pausan., 
 4,  2;  5.  \8.—Apo!lod.,  3,  11,  2.) 
 
 Idist.wisus,  a  plain  of  Germany,  where  Germanicus 
 defeated  Arminius.  The  name  appears  to  have  some 
 affinity  to  the  German  word  wiese,  signifying  "  a  mead- 
 ow." Mannert  su[)poses  the  field  of  battle  to  have 
 been  on  the  east  of  the  Weser,  south  of  the  city  of 
 Minden.  (Mannert,  Anc.  Geogr.,  vol..  3,  p.  85. — 
 Tacit.,  Ann.,  2,  16.) 
 
 InwoN,  I.  son  of  Apollo  and  Asteria,  was  the  prophet 
 of  the  Argonauts.  He  was  killed  in  hunting  a  wild 
 boar  in  Bilhynia,  and  received  a  magnificent  funeral. 
 He  had  predicted  the  time  and  manner  of  his  death. 
 (Apollod.,  1,  9. — n.  A  dyer  of  Colophon,  father  to 
 Arachne.     {Ocid,  Met.,  6,  8.) 
 
 Ido.meneus  (four  syllables),  I.  succeeded  his  father 
 Deucalion  on  the  throne  of  Crete,  and  accompanied 
 the  Greeks  to  the  Trojan  war  with  a  fleet  of  90  ships. 
 During  this  celebrated  contest  he  rendered  himself  con- 
 spicuous by  his  valour.  At  his  return  he  made  a  vow 
 to  Neptupe,  in  a  dangerous  tempest,  that  if  he  escaped 
 from  the  fury  of  the  seas  and  storms,  he  would  offer 
 to  the  god  whatever  living  creature  first  presented  it- 
 self to  his  eye  on  the  Cretan  shore.  'I'his  was  no 
 other  than  his  own  son,  who  came  to  congratulate  his 
 father  upon  his  safe  return.  Idomeneus  performed  his 
 promise  to  the  god,  but  the  inhumanity  and  rashness  of 
 his  sacrifice  rendered  him  so  odious  in  the  eyes  of  his 
 subjects,  that  he  left  Crete,  and  went  abroad  in  quest  of 
 a  settlement.  He  came  to  Italy,  and  founded  a  city  on 
 ihe  coast  of  Calabria,  which  he  called  Sallentia.  (  Vid. 
 Sallentini.)  He  died  at  an  advanced  age,  after  he  had 
 the  satisfaction  of  seeing  his  new  kingdom  flourish 
 and  his  subjects  happy.  According  to  the  Greek 
 scholiast  on  Lycophrc^n  (v.  1218),  Idomeneus,  during 
 his  absence  in  the  Trojan  war,  intrusted  the  manage- 
 ment of  his  kingdom  to  Leucos,  to  whom  he  promised 
 his  daughter  Clisithere  in  marriage  at  his  return.  Leu- 
 cos at  first  governed  with  moderation  ;  but  he  was  per- 
 suaded by  Nauplius,  king  of  Euboea,  to  put  to  death 
 Meda,  the  wife  of  his  master,  with  her  daughter  Cli- 
 githere,  and  to  seize  the  kingdom.  After  these  violent 
 measures,  he  strengthened  himself  on  the  throne  of 
 Crete  ;  and  Idomeneus,  at  his  return,  found  it  impossi- 
 ble to  e.xpel  the  usurper.  {Ovid,  Met.,  13,  358. — 
 Hygin,  fab.,  92. — Horn,  II.,  11,  &c. — Pausan.,  5, 
 2b.—  Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  122  )— II.  A  Greek  historian  of 
 Lampsacus,  in  the  age  of  Epicurus.  He  wrote  a  his- 
 tory of  Samothrace. 
 
 Idothija,  a  daughter  of  Prostus,  king  of  Argos. 
 She  was  cured  of  insanity,  along  with  her  sisters,  by 
 Melampus.     {Vid.  Proetides.) 
 
 Idubeda,  a  range  of  mountains  in  Spain,  commen- 
 cing among  the  Cantabri,  and  extending  nearly  in  a 
 southeastern  direction  through  Spain  until  it  termi- 
 nates on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  near  Sagunlum, 
 which  lay  at  its  foot.  Such,  at  least,  is  its  extent,  ac- 
 cording to  Strabo.  Ptolemy,  however,  gives  merely 
 a  part  of  it,  from  CaBsar  Augusta,  or  Saragassa,  to 
 Saguntum.  {Strab.,  161. — Manyicrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  406.) 
 
 Idum^a,  a  country  of  Asia,  on  the  confines  of  Pal- 
 estine and  Arabia,  or,  rather,  comprehending  parts  of 
 each,  having  Egypt  on  the  west,  and  Arabia  Petra;a 
 on  the  south  and  east.  Its  extent  varied  at  differ- 
 ent periods  of  time.  Esau  or  Edom,  from  whom  it 
 derived  its  name,  and  his  descendants,  settled  along 
 the  mountains  of  Sein,  on  the  east  and  south  of  the 
 Dead  Sea,  whence  they  spread  themselves  by  degrees 
 through  the  western  part  of  Arabia  Petroea,  and  quite 
 to  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  time  of  Moses,  Joshua, 
 and  even  of  the  Jewish  kings,  they  were  hemmed  in 
 by  the  Dead  Sea  on  one  side,  and  the  Sinus  vElanitis 
 on  the  other.  But  the  Idumaeaof  the  New  Testament 
 applies  only  to  a  small  part  adjoining  Judaea  on  the 
 664 
 
 south,  and  including  even  a  portion  of  that  country, 
 which  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Edomitcs  or  Idu- 
 ma>ans,  while  the  land  lay  unoccupied  during  the  Baby- 
 lonian captivity.  The  capital  of  this  country  was  He- 
 bron, which  had  formerly  been  the  metropolis  of  the 
 tribe  of  Judah.  These  Idumaeans  were  so  reduced  by 
 the  Maccabees,  that,  in  order  to  retain  their  possesp- 
 ions,  they  consented  to  embrace  Judaism,  and  their 
 territory  became  incorporated  with  Juda?a ;  although, 
 in  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  it  still  retained  its  former 
 name  of  Idumasa.  Strabo  divides  it  into  Eastern  and 
 Southern  Idumoea,  with  reference  to  its  situation  from 
 Palestine.  The  capital  of  the  former  was  Bozra  or 
 Bossra,  and  of  the  latter,  Petra  or  Jacktael.  Idum»a 
 was  famous  for  its  palm-trees.  (  Virg.,  Geogr.,  3,  13.) 
 The  country  in  general  was  hot,  dry,  mountainous, 
 and  in  some  parts  barren.  It  is  now  inhabited  by 
 some  tribes  of  wild  Arabs.  {Plin.,  5,  13. — Juv.,  Sat., 
 8,  \60.—Stat.,Sylv.,5,  2.~Mart.,  10,  50. — TosepL, 
 Ant.  Jud.,  2,  l.—Id.,  Bell.  Jud.,  4,  30.) 
 
 Ienysus,  a  city  of  Syria,  not  far  from  Gaza.  The 
 modern  village  of  Kan-Jones  marks  the  ancient  site. 
 [Herod.,  3,  5. — Rennell,  Geogr.  Herod.,  vol.  1,  p.  342, 
 ed.  1830.) 
 
 Jericho  (in  Greek  'lepixov^,  gen.  -ovvto^),  a  city 
 of  Judasa,  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  about  seven  leagues 
 to  the  northeast  of  Jerusalem,  and  two  from  the  river 
 Jordan.  Jericho  was  the  first  city  of  Canaan  taken  by 
 Joshua,  who  destroyed  it.  A  new  city  was  afterward 
 built  by  Hiel  of  Bethel,  but  it  would  seem  that  before 
 the  time  of  Hiel  there  was  another  Jericho  built  neai 
 the  site  of  the  old.  The  situation  of  this  city  is  said 
 (2  Kings,  2,  19)  to  have  been  very  pleasant,  but 
 "  the  water  naught  and  the  ground  barren  ;"  when 
 Elisha,  at  the  entreaty  of  the  inhabitants,  "healed  the 
 water,"  and  rendered  it  wholesome  and  abundant.  It 
 is  probable  that,  before  this  miracle  of  Elisha,  the 
 only  water  which  supplied  the  city  and  adjoining  plain 
 was  both  scanty  and  bad  ;  so  that  the  inhabitants  were 
 destitute  of  this  essential  and  fertilizing  element,  and 
 the  soil  was  consequently  parched  and  barren.  The 
 place  which  is  by  nearly  all  authorities  considered  to 
 be  the  same  with  Jericho,  is  a  mean  and  miserable  vil- 
 lage called  Rieha  or  Rihha,  situated  in  a  plain  about 
 three  leagues  wide,  surrounded  by  barren  mountains, 
 and  about  three  miles  from  the  Jordan.  But  the  true 
 site  of  ancient  Jericho  may  be  proved  to  have  been 
 about  four  miles  higher  up  the  valley,  on  the  west  of 
 Rihha,  and  not  far  from  its  commencement  on  this 
 side,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  Here  Mr.  Buck- 
 ingham found  a  large  square  area,  enclosed  by  long 
 and  regular  mounds,  uniform  in  their  height,  breadth, 
 and  angle  of  slope,  v\hich  seemed  to  mark  the  place 
 of  enclosing  walls,  now  worn  into  mounds.  Besides 
 which,  the  foundations  of  other  walls  in  detached 
 pieces,  portions  of  ruined  buildings  of  an  indefinable 
 nature,  shafts  of  columns,  &c.,  were  seen  scattered 
 about  over  the  widely-extended  heaps  of  this  ruined 
 city,  which  seemed  to  cover  a  surface  of  square  miles. 
 These  remains,  nothing  of  which  kind  is  to  be  found 
 at  Rihha,  may  be  considered  as  sufficient  to  determine 
 the  position  of  ancient  Jericho  ;  besides  which,  to  re- 
 move all  doubt  upon  the  subject,  they  agree  exactly 
 with  the  required  distance  from  Jerusalem  on  one  side, 
 and  the  Jordan  on  the  other,  as  given  by  Josephus,  who 
 makes  it  150  furlongs  from  Ihe  former,  and  60  from  the 
 latter.  The  plain  of  Jericho  extends  eastward  to  the 
 Jordan,  and  is  nearly  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  barren 
 and  rugged  mountains.  This  circumstance,  with  the 
 lowness  of  its  level,  renders  it  extremely  hot  ;  so 
 much  so  as  to  enable  the  palm-tree  to  flQurish,  which 
 is  not  the  case  in  any  other  part  of  Judasa.  Jericho 
 itself  was  indeed  always  celebrated  for  the  abundant 
 growth  of  this  tree,  which  obtained  for  it  the  name  of 
 "the  city  of  palm-trees."  (Deut.,  34,  3. — Judges, 
 1,  16;  3,  13.)     Josephus  says,  that  in  his  time  the 
 
lER 
 
 IGN 
 
 neighbouring  country  abounded  in  thick  groves  of 
 these  trees,  together  with  the  tree  which  afforded  the 
 balm  or  balsam  of  Gilcad.  At  present,  however,  there 
 is  not  a  tree  of  any  kind,  either  palm  or  balsam,  and 
 scarcely  any  verdure  or  bushes,  to  be  seen  about  the 
 site  of  this  deserted  city.  But  the  desolation  with 
 which  its  ruins  are  surrounded  is  rather  to  be  ascribed, 
 according  to  Mr.  Buckingham,  to  the  cessation  of  the 
 usual  agricultural  labours  on  the  soil,  and  the  want  of 
 a  distribution  of  water  over  it  by  the  aqueducts,  the 
 remains  of  which  evince  that  they  were  constructed 
 chiefly  for  that  purpose,  than  to  any  change  in  the  cli- 
 mate or  the  soil ;  an  observation  which  may  be  ex- 
 tended to  many  parts  of  the  Holy  Land.  {Mansford's 
 Scripture  Gazetteer,  p.  208,  scgq.) 
 
 Ierne,  one  of  the  ancient  names  of  Ireland.  Pyth- 
 eas,  who,  to  his  own  personal  acquaintance  with  this 
 quarter  of  the  globe,  added  much  information  respect- 
 ing it,  which  he  had  obtained  from  the  early  inhabitants 
 of  Gades  in  Spain,  is  the  tirst  who  calls  Ireland  by  the 
 name  of  Ierne  (?)  'Upinj).  From  Aristotle,  a  contempo- 
 rary of  his,  we  learn  that  what  are  now  England  and 
 Ireland  were  then  denominated  BpsTaviKat  vijaoi. 
 {De  Mundo.  c.  3.)  In  Cipsar's  commentaries  a  change 
 of  appellation  appears.  England  is  there  styled  Bri- 
 tannia, and  Ireland,  Hibernia.  (B.  G.,  5,  12,  &c.) 
 The  idea  very  naturally  suggests  itself,  that  Cagsar 
 may  have  given  this  name  to  the  latter  island  of  his 
 own  accord,  for  the  purpose  of  denoting  the  severity 
 of  its  climate,  and  that  the  meaning  of  the  term  is 
 nothing  more  than  Winter-land.  Such  a  supposition, 
 however,  although  it  may  wear  a  plausible  appearance, 
 seems  to  have  no  foundation  whatever  in  fact.  It  is 
 more  than  probable  that  Caesar  gives  the  name  as  he 
 heard  it  from  others,  without  associating  with  it  any 
 idea  of  cold.  He  merely  places  the  island  to  the  west 
 of  Britain.  It  was  Strabo  who  made  it  lie  far  to  the 
 north,  and,  in  consequence  of  this  error,  first  gave  rise 
 to  the  opinion,  if  any  such  were  ever  in  reality  enter- 
 tained, that  the  climate  of  Ireland  was  cold  and  rig- 
 orous. But  a  question  here  presents  itself,  whether 
 Ierne  or  Hibernia  be  the  true  appellation  of  this  island. 
 The  latter,  we  believe,  will,  on  examination,  appear  en- 
 tilled  to  the  preference.  It  is  more  than  probable  that 
 Pyiheas  received  the  name  Ierne  from  the  mouths  of 
 the  neighbouring  nations,  contracted  from  Hibernia. 
 This  supposition  would  approach  to  certainty,  if  we 
 possessed  any  means  of  substantiating  as  a  fact,  that 
 the  appellation  Hiberni,  which  is  given  to  the  inhabi- 
 tants of  the  island,  was  used  in  the  old  accounts  re- 
 specting it,  and  not  first  introduced  by  so  late  a  writer 
 as  Avienus.  A  strong  argument  may  be  deduced, 
 however,  from  what  appears  to  have  been  the  ancient 
 pronunciation  of  the  word  Hibernia.  The  consonant 
 b  may  have  been  softened  down  so  as  to  resemble  ou 
 in  sound,  a  change  far  from  uncommon  ;  and  hence 
 Hibernia  would  be  pronounced  as  if  written  '\ovep- 
 via,  whence  Ierne  may  very  easily  have  been  formed. 
 (Consult  remarks  under  the  article  luverna.)  The 
 modern  name  Erin,  which  is  sometimes  applied  to 
 Ireland,  is  an  evidenc  derivation  from  Ierne,  if  not 
 itself  the  ancient  Erse  root  of  that  term.  Ireland 
 was  known  at  a  very  early  period  to  the  ancient  mar- 
 iners of  southern  Europe,  by  the  appellation  of  the 
 Holy  Island.  This  remarkable  title  leads  to  the  sus- 
 picion that  the  primitive  scat  of  the  Druidical  sys- 
 tem of  worship  may  have  been  in  Ireland.  Coesar, 
 it  is  true,  found  Druids  in  Gaul,  but  he  states,  at  the 
 same  time,  that  they  were  always  sent  to  complete 
 their  religious  education  in  Britain  ;  and  we  shall  per- 
 ceive, if  we  compare  later  authorities,  that  the  sanc- 
 tuary of  the  Druids  was  not  in  Britain  itself,  but  in  the 
 island  of  Anglesea,  between  which  and  the  adjacent 
 coast  of  Ireland  the  distance  across  is  only  85  miles. 
 Had  the  Romans  extended  their  inquiries  on  this  sub- 
 ject to  Ireland  itself,  we  should  evidently  have  received 
 4P 
 
 such  accounts  from  them  as  would  have  substantiated 
 what  has  just  been  advanced.  As  regards  the  early 
 population  of  this  island,  it  may,  we  believe,  be  safely 
 assumed  as  a  fact,  that  the  northern  half  of  the  coun- 
 try was  peopled  by  the  Scoti ;  not  only  because  in 
 later  years  we  find  Scoti  in  this  quarter  as  well  as  on 
 the  Isle  of  Man,  but  because  even  at  the  present  day 
 the  Erse  language  is  not  completely  obliterated  in 
 some  of  the  northern  provinces.  The  southern  half  of 
 the  island  seems  to  have  had  a  Celtic  population.  It 
 is  a  very  curious  fact,  however,  that  the  names  of 
 many  places  in  ancient  Ireland,  as  given  by  Ptolemy, 
 bear  no  resemblance  whatever  either  to  Scottish  or 
 Celtic  appellations.  This  has  given  rise  to  various 
 theories,  and,  in  particular,  to  one  which  favours  the 
 idea  of  migrations  from  the  Spanish  peninsula.  Taci- 
 tus considers  the  Silures  in  Britain  as  of  Spanish  ori- 
 gin ;  but  this  supposition  is  merely  grounded  on  an 
 accidental  resemblance  in  some  national  customs.  In- 
 quiries have  been  made  in  modern  days  into  the  Basque 
 lanauage,  which  is  supposed  to  contain  traces  of  the 
 ancient  Iberian,  but  no  analogy  has  been  discovered 
 between  it  and  the  modern  Irish.  The  Roman  arms 
 never  reached  Ireland,  although  merchants  of  that  na- 
 tion often  visited  its  coasts.  From  the  accounts  of 
 the  latter,  Ptolemy  obtained  materials  for  his  map  of 
 this  island.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  this  geogra- 
 pher does  not  name  a  single  place  in  northern  Scotland, 
 whereas,  in  the  same  quarter  of  the  sister  island,  he 
 mentions  as  many  as  10  cities,  one  of  them  of  consid- 
 erable size,  and  three  others  of  the  number  situate  on 
 the  coast.  Is  not  this  a  proof  that  Ireland,  at  this 
 early  period,  had  attained  a  considerable  degree  ot 
 civilization'!  A  barbarous  people  never  found  cities 
 on  the  coast.  In  addition  to  what  has  thus  far  been  re- 
 marked, it  may  be  stated  that  Herodotus  was  equally 
 ignorant  of  Ireland  and  Britain.  Eratosthenes  gives  a 
 general  and  rude  outline  of  the  latter,  but  knew  nothing 
 of  the  former.  Strabo  had  some  knowledge,  though 
 very  imperfect,  of  both.  Pliny's  information,  with  re- 
 gard to  both  Britain  and  Ireland,  greatly  surpasses 
 that  of  his  predecessors.  Diodorus  Siculus  calls  the 
 latter  Iris  or  Irin,  and  copies  a  foolish  story  of  the  na- 
 tives being  cannibals.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  pt. 
 2,  p.  33,  seqq.) 
 
 Jerus.\lem,  the  capital  of  Judcea.  {Vid.  Hierosol- 
 j-ma.) 
 
 Igilgilis,  a  town  of  Mauretania  Caesariensis,  west 
 of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Ampsagas,  and  north  of  Cirta. 
 It  is  now  Gigeri  oxJigcl.  {Pliny,  5,  2. — Amm.  Mar- 
 cell,  29,  5.) 
 
 Igilium,  now  Giglio,  an  island  of  Italy,  near  the 
 coast  of  Etruria,  off  the  promontory  of  Argentarius. 
 The  thick  woods  of  this  island  served  as  a  place  of 
 refuge  for  a  great  number  of  Romans,  who  fled  from 
 the  sack  of  Rome  by  Attila.  {Mela,  2,  7. — Rutilms, 
 It.  I,  32,5.) 
 
 Ignatius,  a  martyr  who  suffered  at  Rome  during 
 the  third  persecution  of  the  Christians.  He  was  a 
 Syrian  by  birth,  and  an  immediate  disciple  of  St.  John 
 the  Evangelist,  who,  in  the  67th  year  of  the  Christian 
 era,  cotnmitted  the  church  at  Antioch  to  his  pastoral 
 superintendence,  as  successor  to  Euodius.  Over  th?s 
 bishopric  he  presided  for  upward  of  40  years,  when  the 
 Emperor  Trajan,  after  his  triumph  over  the  Dacians,  tn- 
 tering  the  city,  exercised  many  severities  towards  th;Xe 
 who  professed  the  Christian  faith,  and  summoned  the 
 prelate  himself  before  him,  on  which  occasion  Ignatms 
 conducted  himself  with  such  boldness  in  the  imperial 
 presence,  that  he  was  forthwith  sent  to  Rome,  and  or- 
 dered to  be  exposed  in  the  amphitheatre  to  the  fury  of 
 wild  beasts.  This  dreadful  death  he  underweut  with 
 great  fortitude,  having  availed  himsell  of  the  interval  be- 
 Tween  his  sentence  and  its  execution  to  strengthen,  by 
 his  exhortations,  the  faith  of  the  Roman  converts.  Af- 
 ter his  decease,  which  took  place  A.D.  107  or,  accord- 
 
 605 
 
ILE 
 
 ILI 
 
 ing  to  some  accounts,  A.D.  116,  his  remains  were  carried 
 to  Antioch  for  interment. — If,  as  some  suppose,  Ignati- 
 us was  not  one  of  the  Utile  children  whom  Jesus  took  up 
 in  his  arms  and  blessed,  it  is  certain  that  he  conversed 
 familiarly  with  the  apostles,  and  was  perfectly  acquaint- 
 ed with  their  doctrine.  Of  his  works  there  remain 
 seven  epistles,  edited  in  1645  by  Archbishop  Usher, 
 republished  by  Cotelerius  in  1672,  in  his  collection  of 
 the  writings  of  the  apostolical  fathers  ;  and  again  print- 
 ed in  1697  at  Amsterdam,  with  notes,  and  the  com- 
 mentaries of  Usher  and  Pearson.  An  English  transla- 
 tion of  them,  from  the  pen  of  Archbishop  Wake,  is  to 
 be  found  among  tire  works  of  that  prelate.  There  are 
 some  other  letters  of  minor  importance,  which,  though 
 the  question  of  their  authenticity  has  met  with  sup- 
 porters, are  generally  considered  to  have  been  attribu- 
 ted to  him  on  insufficient  authority. — II.  A  patriarch 
 of  Constantinople,  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  cen- 
 tury. He  was  son  to  the  Emperor  Michael  Curopala- 
 ta,  and  on  the  deposition  of  his  father  assumed  the 
 ecclesiastical  habit.  The  uncompromising  firmness 
 which  he  displayed  after  his  elevation  to  the  patriar- 
 chal chair  in  847,  in  subjecting  Bardas,  a  court-favour- 
 ite, to  the  censures  of  the  church,  on  account  of  an  in- 
 cestuous connexion,  caused  him  to  undergo  a  tempo- 
 rary deprivation  of  office.  Under  Basil,  however,  he 
 was  restored  to  his  former  dignity,  and  presided  in  his 
 capacity  of  patriarch  at  the  eighth  general  council. 
 His  death  took  place  about  the  year  878.  {Gorton's 
 Biogr.  Diet.,  vol.2,  p.  162.) 
 
 Iguvium,  a  city  of  Umbria,  on  the  Via  Flaminia,  to 
 the  south  of  Tifernum,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  main 
 chain  of  the  Apennines.  It  is  now  Eugulbio,  or,  as 
 it  is  more  commonly  called,  Guhbio.  Iguvium  was  a 
 municipal  town ;  and,  as  it  would  seem  from  the  im- 
 portance attached  to  its  possession  by  Cajsar  when  he 
 invaded  Italy,  a  place  of  some  consequence.  {Cas., 
 Bell.  Civ.,  1,  2— Compare  CicadAlt.,  7,  IZ.—Plin., 
 3,  14.)  This  city  has  acquired  great  celebrity  in  mod- 
 Cin  times,  from  the  discovery  of  some  interesting 
 monuments  in  its  vicinity,  in  the  year  1440.  These 
 consist  of  several  bronze  tablets  covered  with  inscrip- 
 tions, some  of  which  are  in  Umbrian,  others  in  Latin 
 characters.  They  have  been  made  the  subject  of 
 many  a  learned  dissertation  by  modern  literati.  The 
 most  recent  work  on  the  subject  is  by  Grotefend,  en- 
 titled Rudimcnta  Lingucz  Umhriccz,  4lo,  Hannov., 
 1835-39. 
 
 Ilda  or  Ilva,  an  island  of  the  Tyrrhene  Sea,  off  the 
 coast  of  Etruria,  and  about  ten  miles  from  the  prom- 
 ontory of  Popuionium.  It  was  early  celebrated  for  its 
 rich  iron  mines ;  but  by  whom  they  were  first  discov- 
 ered and  worked  is  uncertain,  as  they  are  said  to  ex- 
 hibit the  marks  of  labours  carried  on  for  an  incalculable 
 time.  (Pini,  Osserv.  Mineral,  siilla  minicra  di  ferro 
 di  Rio,  &.C.,  mi,  8vo, — Leltre  sur  Vhistoire  naturelle 
 de  Vsle  d'Elhc,  far  Koesllin,  Vienne,  1780,  8vo.)  It 
 even  seems  to  have  been  a  popular  belief  among  the 
 ancients,  that  the  metallic  substance  was  constantly 
 renewed.  (Anstot.,  de  Mir.,  p.  1158.— Strab.,  223. 
 —Plin.,  34,  14  )  It  is  probable  that  the  Phcenicians 
 were  the  first  to  make  known  the  mineral  riches  of 
 this  island,  and  that  it  was  from  them  the  Tyrrheni 
 learned  to  estimate  its  value,  which  may  have  held 
 out  to  them  no  small  inducement  for  settling  on  a  coast 
 rtherwise  deficient  in  natural  advantages.  It  is  to 
 /he  latter  people  that  we  ought  to  trace  the  name  of 
 ^thalia,  given  to  this  island  by  the  Greeks,  and  which 
 fhe  latter  derived  from  aWu  {to  burn),  in  allusion  to  the 
 number  of  forges  on  the  island.  According  to  Polybi- 
 us  {ap.  Stepk.  Byz.),  the  same  appellation  was  given 
 to  Lemnos,  a  Tyrrhenian  settlement  in  early  times. 
 Ilva  is  now  Elba.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p 
 310.) 
 
 Ilercaones,  a  Spanish  tribe,  east  of  the  Edctani 
 on  both  sides  of  the  Iberus,  near  its  mouth.     Dertosa 
 666 
 
 (now  Tortosa)  and  Tarraco  (now  Tarragona)  were  two 
 of  their  towns.     {Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  418.) 
 
 Ilerda,  the  capital  city  of  the  llergetes  in  Spain, 
 situate  on  the  Sicoris  or  Segre,  a  tributary  of  the  Ibe- 
 rus. {Strabo,  161.)  The  situation  of  this  place,  near 
 the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  e.xposed  it  incessantly  to 
 the  horrors  of  war,  from  the  time  that  the  Romans  be- 
 gan to  penerate  into  Spain.  It  was  celebrated  for  the 
 resistance  it  made  against  Ca;sar,  under  the  lieutenants 
 of  Pompey,  Afranius  and  Petreius,  who  were,  how- 
 ever, finally  defeated.  {Cas.,  B.  Civ.,  1,  61. — Flm:, 
 4,  12. — Appian,  B.  Civ.,  2,  42.)  In  the  reign  of 
 Gallienus  it  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the  bar- 
 barians, who,  migrating  from  Germany,  ravaged  the 
 western  parts  of  the  empire.  It  is  now  Lerida  in 
 Catalonia.  {Auson.,  Epist.  ad  Paullin.,  26,  59. — Id., 
 Profess.,  23,  i.— Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  451.) 
 
 Ilergetes.      Vid.  Ilerda. 
 
 Ilia,  otherwise  called  Rhea  Silvia,  daughter  of  Nu- 
 mitor,  king  of  Alba,  was  appointed  one  of  the  vestal 
 virgins  by  Amulius,  after  the  latter  had  wrested  from 
 his  brother  Numitor  the  kingdom  of  Alba.  Amulius 
 made  his  niece  a  vestal  to  prevent  her  having  any  off- 
 spring, the  vestals  being  bound  to  perpetual  chastity. 
 Mars,  however,  according  to  the  old  legend,  overpow- 
 ered the  timid  maiden  in  the  sacred  grove,  whither 
 she  had  gone  to  draw  water  from  a  spring  for  the  ser- 
 vice of  the  temple.  She  became  the  mother  of  Rom- 
 ulus and  Remus,  and,  according  to  one  account,  was 
 buried  alive  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber.  Ennius,  how- 
 ever, as  cited  by  Porphyrion  {ad  Hor.,  Od.,  1,  2,  17), 
 makes  her  to  have  been  cast  into  the  Tiber,  previous  to 
 which  she  had  become  the  bride  of  the  Anio.  Horace, 
 on  the  contrary,  speaks  of  her  as  having  married  the 
 god  of  the  Tiber.  Servius  {ad  JEn.,  1,  274)  alludes 
 to  this  version  of  the  fable  as  adopted  by  Horace  and 
 others.  Acron  also,  in  his  scholia  on  the  passage  in 
 Horace  just  cited,  speaks  of  Ilia  as  having  married  the 
 god  of  the  Tiber.  According  to  the  account  which 
 he  gives,  Ilia  was  buried  on  the  bank  of  the  Anio,  and 
 the  river,  having  overflowed  its  borders,  carried  her 
 remains  down  to  the  Tiber ;  hence  she  was  said  to 
 have  espoused  the  deity  of  the  last- mentioned  stream. 
 
 Ilias,  a  celebrated  poem  composed  by  Homer,  upon 
 the  Trojan  war,  which  delineates  the  wrath  of  Achilles, 
 and  all  the  calamities  which  befell  the  Greeks,  from  the 
 refusal  of  that  hero  to  appear  in  the  field  of  battle. 
 It  finishes  with  the  funeral  rites  of  Hector,  whom  Achil 
 les  had  sacrificed  to  the  shade  of  his  friend  Patroclus, 
 and  is  divided  into  twenty-four  books. — Modern  crit- 
 ics differ  very  much  in  opinion  with  regard  to  the 
 proper  termination  of  the  Iliad.  Wolf  and  Heyne, 
 with  others,  think  that  there  is  an  excess  of  two  books, 
 and  that  the  death  of  Hector  is  the  true  end  of  the 
 poem.  The  23d  and  24th  books,  therefore,  they  con- 
 sider as  the  work  of  another  author.  Granville  Penn, 
 however,  has  undertaken  to  show  {Primary  Argument 
 of  the  Iliad,  Land.,  1821),  that  the  poem  is  to  be  taken 
 as  a  whole,  and  that  its  primary  and  governing  argu- 
 ment is  the  sure  and  irresistible  power  of  the  divine 
 will  over  the  most  resolute  and  determined  will  of 
 man,  exemplified  in  the  death  and  burial  of  Hector,  by 
 the  instrumentality  of  Achilles,  as  the  immediate  pre- 
 liminary to  the  destruction  of  Troy. — The  following 
 observations  on  the  unity  and  general  character  of  the 
 Iliad,  taken  from  an  able  critique  in  the  Quarterly  Re- 
 view (No.  87,  p.  147,  seqq.),  may  be  read  with  advan- 
 tage by  the  student.  "Does  the  Iliad  appear  to  have 
 been  cast,  whole  and  perfect,  in  one  mould,  by  the 
 vivifying  energy  of  its  original  creator,  or  does  it  bear 
 undeniable  marks  of  its  being  an  assemblage  of  uncon- 
 nected parts,  blended  together,  or  fused  into  one  mass 
 by  a  different  and  more  recent  compiler  1 — "We  cannot 
 but  think  the  universal  admiration  of  its  unity  by  the 
 better,  the  poetic  age  of  Greece,  almost  conclusive  tes- 
 timony to   its  original  uniform  composition.     It  was 
 
ILIAS. 
 
 ILIAS. 
 
 not  till  the  age  of  the  grammarians  that  its  primitive  in- 
 tegrity was  called  in  question  ;  nor  is  it  injustice  to 
 assert,  that  the  minute  and  analytical  spirit  of  a  gram- 
 marian is  not  the  best  qualification,  for  the  profound 
 feeling,  the  comprehensive  conception  of  an  harmoni- 
 ous whole.  The  most  exquisite  anatomist  may  be  no 
 judge  of  the  symmetry  of  the  human  frame,  and  we 
 would  take  the  opinion  of  Chantrey  or  Westmacott 
 on  the  proportions  and  general  beauty  of  a  form  rather 
 than  that  of  Mr.  Brodie  or  Sir  Astley  Cooper. — There 
 is  some  truth,  though  some  malicious  exaggeration,  in 
 the  lines  of  Pope  : 
 
 '  The  critic  eye,  that  microscope  of  wit. 
 Sees  hairs  and  pores,  examines  bit  hy  bit : 
 How  parts  relate  to  parts,  or  they  to  whole  ; 
 The  body^s  harmony,  the  beaming  soul ; 
 Are  things  which  Kuster,  Barman,  Wasse,  shall  see, 
 When  man's  whole  frame  is  obvious  to  aflea.^ 
 
 —We  v.-ould  not  comprehend,  under  this  sweeping 
 denunciation,  men  of  genius  as  well  as  critical  saga- 
 city, such  as  Heyne  and  Wolf,  still  less  those  of  the 
 highest  poetic  feeling,  who,  both  in  this  and  other 
 countries,  are  converts  to  their  system.  Yet  there  is 
 a  sort  of  contagion  in  literary  as  well  as  religious  scep- 
 ticism ;  we  like,  in  scholarship,  to  be  on  the  stronger 
 side,  and  the  very  names  of  Bentley,  Wolf,  and  Heyne 
 would  sweep  a  host  of  followers  into  their  train.  In 
 the  authors  of  a  paradox,  criticism,  like  jealousy,  fur- 
 nishes the  food  which  it  grows  on  ;  and  it  is  astonish- 
 ing, when  once  possessed  with  a  favourite  opinion, 
 how  it  draws  '  from  trifles  confirmation  strong,'  and 
 overlooks  the  most  glaring  objections  ;  while,  if  the 
 new  doctrine  once  forces  its  way  into  general  notice, 
 ardent  proselytes  crowd  in  from  all  quarters,  until  that 
 which  was  at  first  a  timid  and  doubtful  heresy,  be- 
 comes a  standard  article  of  the  scholar's  creed,  from 
 which  it  requires  courage  to  dissent.  Such  to  us  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  the  fate  of  the  hypotheses  before  us. 
 — For,  in  the  first  place,  it  seems  that  many  of  the  ob- 
 jections to  the  original  unity  of  the  poem  apply  with 
 equal  force  to  the  Pisistratid  compilation.  It  is,  for 
 instance,  quite  as  likely,  that  in  the  heat  of  composi- 
 tion the  bard  should  have  forgotten  something ;  that, 
 for  example,  owing  to  his  obliviousness,  the  Pyla»m- 
 enes,  whom  he  had  slain  outright  in  the  fifth  book, 
 should  revive,  gallantly  fighting,  in  the  thirteenth ; 
 and  thus,  in  a  different  way  from  the  warrior  of  the 
 Italian  poet : 
 
 '  Andare  combattendo,  ed  esser  morto.' 
 
 The  slow  and  cautious  compiler  is  even  less  likely  to 
 have  made  such  an  oversight  than  the  rapid  and  inven- 
 tive poet ;  and,  by-the-way,  Sancho  Panza's  wife's 
 name  is  changed,  through  Cervantes'  forgctfulness  of 
 such  trifles,  in  the  second  part  of  Don  Quixote  ;  but 
 no  such  lapsus  can  be  alleged  against  the  spurious 
 continuator  of  the  romance,  Avellenada.  Nor,  sec- 
 ondly, will  any  critical  reader  of  Homer  pretend  that 
 we  possess  the  Homeric  poems  entire  and  uninterpo- 
 lated.  That  they  were,  at  one  period  of  their  history, 
 recited  in  broken  fragments  ;  that  the  wandering  rhap- 
 sodists  would  not  scruple  to  insert  occasionally  verses 
 of  their  own  ;  that  certain  long  and  irrelevant  passages 
 of  coarser  texture  may  have  thus  been  interwoven  into 
 the  rich  tissue  of  the  work — all  these  points  will  read- 
 ily be  conceded  :  but  while  these  admissions  explain 
 almost  every  discrepance  of  composition  and  anomaly 
 of  language  and  versification,  they  leave  the  main  ques- 
 tion, the  unity  of  the  original  design,  entirely  un- 
 touched.— We  will  hazard  one  more  observation  be- 
 fore we  venture  to  throw  down  our  glove  in  defence 
 of  the  suspected  unity  of  the  Iliad.  If,  on  Heyne's 
 supposition  (for  the  objection  does  not  strictly  apply 
 to  that  of  Wolf),  the  Iliad  was  compiled  from  scat- 
 tered fragments  of  ancient  poetry  in  the  age  of  the 
 
 Pisistratidae,  it  is  surely  unaccountable  that,  consider 
 ing  the  whole  of  the  Trojan  war  must  have  been  a  fa- 
 vourite subject  with  these  wandering  bards,  all  the 
 more  valuable  part  of  this  poetry  should  easily  com- 
 bine into  a  plan,  embracing  only  so  short  a  period  of 
 these  ten  years  of  splendid  Grecian  enterprise.  Had 
 not  one  of  these  numerous  Homers  touched  with  Ho- 
 meric life  and  truth  any  of  the  other  great  poetical 
 events  which  preceded,  or  the  still  more  striking  inci- 
 dents which  followed  the  wrath  of  Achilles  and  the 
 death  of  Hector — the  destruction  of  the  city,  for  in- 
 stance— the  midnight  devastation  of  ancient  Ilium'! 
 We  are  far  from  asserting  that  many  passages  of  the 
 Iliad — as  the  adventures  of  Diomed,  the  night  enter- 
 prise of  Diomed  and  Ulysses,  with  the  death  of  Rhe- 
 sus— necessarily  belong  to  that  period  of  the  war  ;  it 
 is  possible  that  they  may  have  been  inlaid  into  the 
 work  by  a  later  and  a  foreign  hand  ;  but  it  is  some- 
 what incredible  that  the  compilers  should  have  been 
 able  to  condense  the  whole  of  the  nobler  Homeric 
 poetry  into  the  plan  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  ;  and  if 
 they  rejected  any  passages  of  equal  merit,  what  be- 
 came of  them  1  Did  they  form  the  poems  of  Arctinus, 
 Stasinus,  and  Leschesl  were  they  left  to  be  moulded 
 up  in  the  Cyclic  poems'!  But  how  immeasurably  in- 
 ferior, by  the  general  consent  of  Greece,  was  all  the 
 rest  of  their  epic  poetry  to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  !  It 
 is  probable  that  the  better  passages  in  the  poem  of 
 Quintus  Calaber  are  borrowed,  or  but  slightly  mod- 
 ified, from  the  Cyclic  poets ;  but  how  rarely  do  we 
 recognise  the  clear,  the  free,  the  Homeric  life  and  en- 
 ergy of  the  two  great  poems !  But  we  must  go  far- 
 ther. To  us,  we  boldly  confess,  the  fable  of  the  Iliad 
 is,  if  not  its  greatest,  among  its  greatest  perfections  ; 
 the  more  we  study  it,  like  a  vast  and  various  yet  still 
 uniform  building,  the  more  it  assumes  a  distinct  rela- 
 tion of  parts,  a  more  admirable  consonance  in  its  gen- 
 eral effect:  it  is  not  the  simple  unity  of  the  single 
 figure,  as  in  the  Odyssey,  but  it  is  the  more  daring 
 complexity  of  the  historical  design,  the  grouping  of  3 
 multitude  of  figures,  subordinate  to  the  principal,  which 
 appears  the  more  lofty  from  the  comparative  height 
 of  those  around  him.  The  greatness  of  Achilles  in 
 the  Iliad  is  not  that  of  TenerifTe,  rising  alone  from  the 
 level  surface  of  the  ocean,  but  rather  that  of  Atlas,  the 
 loftiest  peak  of  a  gradually  ascending  chain  ;  he  is  sur- 
 rounded by  giants,  yet  still  collo  supereminct  omnes. 
 Much  of  the  difficulty  has  arisen  from  seeking  in  the 
 Iliad  a  kind  of  technical  unity,  foreign  to  the  charac- 
 ter and  at  variance  with  the  object  of  the  primitive 
 epopee  :  it  is  a  unity,  as  a  French  critic.  La  Motte, 
 long  ago  remarked,  of  interest.  Mr.  Coleridge  has 
 seiisibly  observed,  '  it  may  well,  indeed,  be  doubted 
 whether  the  alleged  diflSculty  is  not  entirely  the  crit- 
 ic's own  creation  ;  whether  the  presumption  of  the 
 necessity  for  a  pre-arranged  plan,  exactly  commensu- 
 rate with  the  extent  of  the  poem,  is  not  founded  on  a 
 misconception  of  the  history  and  character  of  early 
 heroic  poetry.'  The  question  is  not,  whether  the 
 whole  fable  is  strictly  comprised  within  the  brief  prop- 
 osition of  the  subject,  in  the  simple  exordium,  but 
 whether  the  hearer's  mind  is  carried  on  with  constant 
 and  unfailing  excitement ;  whether,  if  the  bard  had 
 stopped  short  of  the  termination  of  his  poem,  he  would 
 not  have  left  a  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  on  the  mind  ; 
 at  least,  whether  every  event,  even  to  the  lamentations 
 over  the  body  of  Hector,  does  not  flow  so  naturally 
 from  the  main  design,  and  seem  so  completely  to  carry 
 us  on  in  an  unbroken  state  of  suspense  and  intense 
 curiosity,  that  even  to  the  last  verse  we  are  almost  in- 
 clined to  regret  that  the  strain  breaks  off  too  soon  : 
 
 "  The  angel  ended,  and  in  Adam's  ear 
 So  charming  left  his  voice,  that  he  a  while 
 Thought  him  still  speaking." 
 
 It  is  much  to  be  desired,  that,  as  the  x<->pi^ovreg,  IftB 
 
 667 
 
ILIAS. 
 
 ILIAS 
 
 dividers  of  the  Iliad,  have  zealously  sought  out  every 
 apparent  discrepance  and  contradiction  in  the  several 
 parts  of  the  poem,  some  diligent  student,  on  the  other 
 side,  would  examine  into  all  the  fine  and  delicate  al- 
 lusions between  the  most  remote  parts — the  prepara- 
 tions in  one  book  for  events  which  are  developed  in 
 another — the  slight  prophetic  anticipations  of  what  is 
 to  come,  and  the  equally  evanescent  references  to  the 
 past — those  inartificial  and  undesigned  touches  which 
 indisputably  indicate  that  the  same  mind  has  been 
 perpetually  at  work  in  a  subtler  manner  than  is  con- 
 ceivable in  a  more  recent  compiler.  This  has  been 
 done  in  a  few  instances  by  M.  Lange,  in  his  fervent 
 vindication  of  the  unity  of  the  Iliad,  addressed  to  the 
 celebrated  Goethe  ;  in  more  by  Mr.  Knight,  who  has 
 applied  himself  to  obviating  the  objections  of  Heyne, 
 but  still  not  so  fully  or  so  perfectly  as,  we  are  per- 
 suaded, might  be  done.  It  is  obviously  impossible 
 for  us,  in  our  limited  space,  to  attempt  an  investiga- 
 tion at  once  so  minute  and  so  e.xtensive,  nor  can  we 
 find  room  for  more  than  a  brief  and  rapid  outline  of 
 that  unity  of  interest  which  appears  to  us  to  combine 
 the  several  books  of  the  Iliad,  if  not  into  one  precon- 
 ceived and  predistributed  whole,  yet  into  one  con- 
 tinuous story  ;  in  which,  however  the  main  object  be 
 at  times  suspended,  and  apparently  almost  lost  sight 
 of,  it  rises  again  before  us,  and  asserts  its  predominant 
 importance,  while  all  the  other  parts  of  ihe  design, 
 however  prominent  and  in  bold  relief,  recede  and  ac- 
 knowledge their  due  subordination  to  that  which  is 
 the  central,  the  great  leading  figure  of  the  majestic 
 group.  The  general  design  of  the  Iliad,  then,  was  to 
 celebrate  the  glory  of  the  Grecian  chieftains  at  the 
 most  eventful  period  of  the  war  before  Troy ;  the  es- 
 pecial object,  the  pre-eminent  glory  of  the  great  Thes- 
 salian  chieftain,  during  this  at  the  same  time  the  most 
 important  crisis  of  his  life.  The  first  book  shows  us 
 at  once  who  is  to  be  what  is  vulgarly  called  the  hero  of 
 the  poem  :  Achilles  stands  forth  as  the  assertor  of  the 
 power  of  the  gods — the  avenger  of  the  injured  priest- 
 hood— taking  the  lead  with  the  acknowledged  superior- 
 ity due  to  his  valour,  bearding  the  sovereign  of  men, 
 the  great  monarch,  who  commands  the  expedition. 
 Wronged  by  Agamemnon,  so  as  to  enlist  the  generous 
 sympathies  on  his  side,  yet  without  any  disparagement 
 to  the  dignity  of  his  character,  he  recedes  into  inaction, 
 but  it  is  an  inaction  which  more  forcibly  enthrals  our 
 interest.  In  another  respect,  nothing  shows  the  good 
 fortune,  or,  rather,  the  excellent  judgment  of  the  poet, 
 60  much  as  this  dignified  secession  through  so  large  a 
 part  of  this  poem.  Had  Achilles  been  brought  more 
 frequently  forward,  he  must  have  been  successfully  re- 
 sisted, and  thus  his  pre-eminent  valour  have  been  dis- 
 paraged ;  or  the  poet  must  have  constantly  raised  up 
 antagonists  more  and  more  valiant  and  formidable,  in 
 the  same  manner  as  the  romancers  are  obliged,  in  or- 
 der to  keep  up  the  fame  of  their  Amadis  or  Esplandian, 
 to  go  on  creating  more  tall,  and  monstrous,  and  many- 
 headed  giants,  till  they  have  exhausted  all  imaginable 
 dimensions,  and  all  calculable  multiplication  of  heads 
 and  arms.  The  endless  diversity  of  his  adventures 
 permits  Ulysses,  in  the  Odyssey,  to  be  constantly  on 
 the  scene.  His  character  rises  with  the  dangers  to 
 which  he  is  exposed,  for  he  contends  with  the  elements 
 and  the  gods.  Achilles  could  scarcely  be  in  danger, 
 for  his  antagonists  must  almost  always  be  men.  It  is 
 surprising  how  much  the  sameness  of  war  is  varied  in 
 the  Iliad,  but  this  chiefly  arises  from  its  fluctuations, 
 which  could  scarcely  have  taken  place  in  the  presence 
 of  Achilles,  without  lowering  his  transcendent  powers. 
 Yet,  though  he  recedes,  Achilles  is  not  lost  to  our 
 sight ;  like  the  image  of  Brutus  in  the  Roman  proces- 
 sion, his  absence,  particularly  as  on  every  opportunity 
 some  allusion  is  made  to  his  superior  valour,  power, 
 or  even  beauty  and  swiftness,  rivets  our  attention.  In 
 the  mean  time,  the  occasion  is  seized  for  displaving 
 fi68 
 
 the  prowess  of  the  other  great  chieftains  ;  they  arc  led 
 forth  in  succession,  exhibiting  splendid  valour  and  en- 
 terprise, but  still  are  found  wanting  in  the  hour  of 
 trial  ;  the  gallantry  of  Diomed,  the  spirit  of  Menelaiis, 
 the  heavy  brute  force  of  Ajax,  the  obstinate  courage  of 
 Idomeneus — even  the  power  and  craft  of  the  deities, 
 are  employed  in  vain  to  arrest  the  still  advancing,  still 
 conquering  forces  of  Hector  and  the  Trojans,  till  at 
 last  they  are  thundering  before  the  outworks  of  the 
 camp,  and  forcing  their  way  into  its  precincts.  Not 
 that  the  progress  of  Trojan  success  is  rapid  and  con- 
 tinuous ;  the  war  fluctuates  with  the  utmost  variety  of 
 fortune  ;  the  hope  and  fear  of  the  hearer  is  in  a  con- 
 stant state  of  excitement,  lest  Hector  should  fall  by  a 
 meaner  hand,  and,  notwithstanding  the  proud  seces- 
 sion of  Achilles,  Greece  maintain  her  uninterrupted 
 superiority.  Still,  on  the  whole,  Jove  is  inexorable  ; 
 the  tide  of  Trojan  success  swells  onward  to  its  height; 
 Patroclus,  in  the  arms  of  Achilles,  arrests  it  for  a  time, 
 but  in  vain ;  it  recoils  with  redoubled  fury  ;  up  to  the 
 instant,  the  turning  point  of  the  poem,  the  tremendous 
 crisis  for  which  the  whole  Iliad  has  hitherto  been,  as  it 
 were,  a  skilful  prelude ;  when,  unarmed  and  naked, 
 Achilles,  with  his  voice  alone,  and  by  the  majesty  of 
 his  appearance,  blazing  with  the  manifest  terrors  of  the 
 deitv,  arrests  at  once  and  throws  back  the  tide  of  vic- 
 tory ;  and  from  that  moment  the  safety,  the  triumph 
 of  Greece,  are  secure,  the  fate  of  Hector  and  of  Troy 
 sealed  for  ever.  This  passage,  as  expressive  of  human 
 energy,  mingled  with  the  mysterious  awe  attendant  on 
 a  being  environed  by  the  gods,  is  the  most  sublime  in 
 the  whole  range  of  poetry.  (//.,  18,  245.)  The  only 
 parallel  to  this  untivalled  passage  is  the  crisis  or  turn- 
 ing point  in  the  fortunes  of  the  Odyssey,  when  Ulysses 
 throws  ofTat  once  his  base  disguise,  leaps  on  the  thresh- 
 old, and  rains  his  terrible  arrows  among  the  cowering 
 suiters.  There  is  the  same  mingling  of  the  supernatu- 
 ral as  Ulysses  tries  his  bow. — These  two  passages  we 
 have  never  read  and  compared,  without  feeling,  how- 
 ever from  all  other  reasons  sceptics  as  to  the  single  au- 
 thorship of  the  two  great  poems,  an  inward  and  almost 
 irresistible  conviction  of  the  identity  of  mind  from  which 
 they  sprang — this  convergence,  as  it  were,  of  the  whole 
 interest  to  a  single  point,  and  that  point — that  ■KcpiirsT- 
 eia,  as  the  Greek  critics  would  call  it — brought  out 
 with  such  intense  and  transcendent  energy,  the  whole 
 power  of  the  leading  character  condensed,  and  bursting 
 forth  in  one  unrivalled  effort.  Each  seems  too  original 
 to  be  an  imitation,  and  though  apparently  of  the  same 
 master,  of  that  master  by  no  means  servilely  copying 
 himself. — On  no  part  of  the  Iliad  has  so  much  been 
 written  as  on  the  armour  framed  by  Vulcan,  more  es- 
 pecially on  the  shield  of  Achilles.  We  would  only 
 point  out  the  singular  felicity  of  its  position,  as  a  quiet 
 relief  and  resting-place  between  the  first  sudden  break- 
 ing forth  of  the  unarmed  Achilles,  and  his  more  pre- 
 pared and  final  going  out  to  battle  ;  two  passages 
 which,  if  they  had  followed  too  close  upon  each  other, 
 would  have  injured  the  distinctness  and  completeness 
 of  each.  Of  the  final  going  forth  of  Achilles  to  battle, 
 his  irresistible  prowess,  his  conflict  with  the  River 
 God,  and  his  immediate  superiority  over  the  appalled 
 and  flying  Hector,  nothing  need  be  said,  but  that  it 
 fully  equals  the  high-wrought  expectations  excited  by 
 the  whole  previous  preparation.  That  single  trumpet- 
 sound,  which  preluded  with  its  terrific  blast,  grows 
 into  the  most  awful  din  of  martial  sound  that  ever  was 
 awakened  by  the  animating  power  of  poet. — Even  the 
 last  two  books,  if  we  suppose  the  main  object  of  the 
 poet  to  be  the  glory  of  the  great  Thessalian  hero,  with 
 only  such  regard  to  the  unity  of  his  fable  as  that  it 
 should  never  cease  to  interest,  are  by  no  means  su- 
 perfluous. The  religious  influence  which  funeral  rites 
 held  over  the  minds  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  opportunity 
 of  displaying  Achilles  in  the  interchange  of  free  and 
 noble  courtesy,  as  liberal  as  he  was  valiant,  might  well 
 
ILIAS. 
 
 ILI 
 
 tempt  the  poet,  assured  of  his  hearer's  profound  sym- 
 pathy, to  prolong  the  strain.  The  last  book,  unneces- 
 sary as  it  seems  to  the  development  of  the  wrath  of 
 Achilles,  yet  has  always  appeared  to  us  still  more  re- 
 markably condLicive  to  the  real  though  remote  design 
 of  the  Iliad.  We  have  before  observed,  that  the  pre- 
 mature and  preadvanced  mind  of  the  poet  seems  to 
 have  delighted  in  relieving  the  savage  conflict  with 
 traits  of  milder  manners  ;  and  the  generous  conduct  of 
 Achilles,  and  his  touching  respect  for  the  aged  Priam, 
 might  almost  seem  as  a  prophetic  apology  to  a  gentler 
 age  for  the  barbarity  with  which  the  poet  might  think 
 it  necessary  to  satisfy  the  implacable  spirit  of  vengeance 
 which  prevailed  among  his  own  warhke  compeers. 
 Hector  dragged  at  the  car  of  his  insulting  conqueror 
 was  for  the  fierce  and  martial  vulgar,  for  the  carousing 
 chieftain,  scarcely  less  savage  than  the  Northman,  de- 
 lighted only  by  his  dark  Sagas ;  Hector's  body,  pre- 
 served by  the  care  of  the  gods,  restored  with  honour 
 to  Priam,  lamented  by  the  desolate  women,  for  the 
 lieart  of  the  poet  himself,  and  for  the  few  congenial 
 spirits  which  could  enter  into  his  own  more  chastened 
 tone  of  feeling. — Still,  in  all  this  there  is  nothing  of 
 the  elaborate  art  of  a  later  age  ;  it  is  not  a  skilful  com- 
 piler, arranging  his  materials  so  as  to  produce  the  most 
 striking  effect :  the  design  and  the  filling  up  appear  to 
 us  to  be  evidently  of  the  same  hand  ;  there  is  the  most 
 perfect  harmony  in  the  plan,  the  expression,  the  versi- 
 fication ;  and  we  cannot,  by  any  effort,  bring  ourselves 
 to  suppose  that  the  separate  passages,  which  form  the 
 main  interest  of  the  poem,  the  splendid  bursts,  or  more 
 pathetic  episodes,  were  originally  composed  without 
 any  view  to  their  general  effect ;  in  short,  that  a  whole 
 race  of  Homers  struck  out,  as  it  were  by  accident,  all 
 these  glorious  living  fragments,  which  lay  in  a  kind  of 
 unformed  chaos,  till  a  later  and  almost  mightier  Homer 
 commanded  them  to  take  form,  and  combine  themselves 
 into  a  connected  and  harmonious  whole. — There  is  an- 
 other very  curious  fact,  on  which  we  do  not  think, 
 though  it  was  perceived  by  both  Wolf  and  Heyne,  that 
 sufficient  stress  has  been  laid — the  perfect  consistency 
 of  the  characters  in  the  separate  parts  of  the  poem.  It 
 is  quite  conceivable  that  there  should  have  been  a  sort 
 of  conventional  character  assigned  to  different  heroes 
 by  the  minstrels  of  elder  Greece.  To  take  Mr.  Cole- 
 ridge's illustration  of  the  ballads  on  Robin  Hood  ;  in 
 all  of  these  bold  Robin  is  still  the  same  frank,  careless, 
 daring,  generous,  half-comic  adventurer :  so  Achilles 
 may  have  been  by  prescription, 
 
 Impigcr,  iracundus,  inexorahilis,  acer; 
 
 Ajax  heavy  and  obstinate,  Ulysses  light  and  subtle  ; 
 but  can  we  thus  account  for  the  finer  and  more  deli- 
 cate touches  of  character,  the  sort  of  natural  consist- 
 encies which  perpetually  identify  the  hero,  or  even  the 
 female  of  one  book,  with  the  same  person  in  anotherl 
 — Take,  for  instance,  that  of  Helen,  perhaps  the  most 
 difficult  to  draw,  certainly  drawn  with  the  most  ad- 
 mirable success.  She  is,  observes  Mr.  Coleridge, 
 'a  genuine  lady,  graceful  in  motion  and  speech,  no- 
 ble in  her  associations,  full  of  remorse  for  a  fault,  for 
 which  higher  powers  seem  responsible,  yet  graceful 
 and  affectionate  towards  those  with  whom  that  fault 
 had  connected  her.'  Helen  first  appears  in  the  third 
 book,  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  admire  too  much  the 
 admiration  of  her  beauty  extorted  from  the  old  men, 
 who  are  sitting  TETTljeaaiv  eolkotcc 
 
 Ov  Vf/aeaic,  Tpua^  Kal  evKV^/ni6ag  'Axaioifc 
 Tof^d'  a.n(j)l  yuvaiKl  7to?.vv  xpovov  ulyea  nuaxEiV 
 Alvuc  udavdrym  i^e^?  etf  <^na  soikev. 
 
 {11;  3, 156,  seqq.) 
 No  wonder  svch  celestial  charms 
 For  nine  long'  years  have  set  the  world  in  arms. 
 What  winning  graces  !  what  majestic  mien  ! 
 She  moves  a  goddess,  cmd  she  looks  a  queen. 
 
 Nothing  can  equal  this,  except  the  modesty  with  which 
 she  alludes  to  her  own  shame  ;  the  courteous  respect 
 with  which  she  is  treated  by  Priam  and  Antenor;  the 
 touching  remembrance  of  her  home  and  of  her  broth- 
 ers ;  and  the  tender  emotions  excited  by  the  reminis- 
 cences which  flow  from  the  history  of  almost  each  suc- 
 cessive wariior  as  she  describes  them  to  Priam. — In 
 the  same  book,  we  find  her  soon  after  reproaching  the 
 recreant  Paris  ;  yet,  under  the  irresistible  influence  of 
 the  goddess,  yielding  to  his  embraces  in  that  well- 
 known  passage,  over  which  Pope  has  thrown  a  volup- 
 tuous colouring  foreign  to  the  chaster  simplicity  of  the 
 original. — The  companion  to  the  first  lovely  picture  is 
 the  interview  between  Hector  and  Helen,  in  book  vi., 
 I.  343,  when  she  addresses  her  brother. — We  turn  to 
 the  close  of  the  poem,  and  find  the  lamentation  of 
 Helen  over  the  body  of  Hector,  which  we  concur  with 
 Mr.  Coleridge  in  considering  almost  the  sweetest  pas- 
 sage of  the  poem.  But  beautiful  as  it  is  in  itself  as  an 
 insulated  fragment,  how  much  does  it  gain  in  pathetic 
 tenderness,  when  we  detect  its  manifest  allusions  to 
 the  two  earlier  scenes  to  which  we  have  referred  above ! 
 — Compare  all  these,  and  then  consider  whether  it  is 
 possible  to  suppose  that  the  Helen  of  the  Iliad  sprung 
 from  different  minds,  or  even  from  the  same  mind,  not 
 full  of  the  preconcerted  design  of  one  great  poem. 
 Could  even  Simonides,  if  Simonides  assisted  m  the 
 work  of  compilation,  have  imagined,  or  so  dexterously 
 inserted,  these  natural  allusions'!"  —  For  some  very 
 able  remarks  on  this  same  subject,  consult  Miillcr, 
 History  of  Grecian  Literature,  p.  48,  seqq. 
 
 Ilienses,  a  people  of  Sardinia,  fabled  to  have  been 
 descended  from  some  Trojans  who  came  to  that  island 
 after  the  fall  of  Troy.  They  were  driven  into  the 
 mountains  by  Libyan  colonies,  and  here,  according  to 
 Pausanias  (10,  17),  the  name  'llielQ  existed  even  in  his 
 time.     {Manncrt,  Gcogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  475.) 
 
 Ilione,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Priam,  who  married 
 Polymnestor,  king  of  TIjrace.  (.Virg.,  jEn.,  1,  657. 
 — Consult  Heyne,  Excurs.,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Ilissus,  a  small  stream  rising  to  the  northeast  of 
 Athens,  and  from  which  that  city  was  principally  sup- 
 plied with  water.  It  loses  itself,  after  a  course  of  a 
 few  miles,  in  the  marshes  to  the  south  of  the  place. 
 From  the  beautiful  passage  in  which  Plato  allud'es  to 
 it  {Phcedrus,  p.  229),  it  appears  to  have  been  at  that 
 period  a  perennial  stream,  whereas  now  it  is  almost 
 always  dry,  its  waters  being  either  drawn  off  to  irri- 
 gate the  neighbouring  gardens,  or  to  supply  the  arti- 
 ficial fountains  of  Athens.  The  modern  name  is  Eisse. 
 {Leakeys  Topogr.,  p.  49.) 
 
 Ilithyia,  a  goddess  who  presided  over  childbirth, 
 and  who  was  the  same  in  the  Greek  mythology  with 
 the  Juno  Lucina  of  the  Romans.  In  the  Iliad  (11, 
 270)  mention  is  made  of  Ilithyiae  in  the  plural,  and 
 they  are  called  the  daughters  of  Juno.  In  two  other 
 parts,  however,  of  the  same  poem  (16,  187,  and  19, 
 103),  the  term  Ilithyia  occurs  in  the  singular.  In  the 
 Odyssey  (19,  188)  and  in  Hesiod  {Theog.,  922)  the 
 number  is  reduced  to  one.  We  also  meet  with  but 
 one  Ilithyia  in  Pindar  {01.,  6,  72.— Nem.,  7,  I),  and 
 the  subsequent  poets  in  general. — It  is  not  by  any 
 means  an  improbable  supposition,  that  Ilithyia  was 
 originally  a  moon-goddess,  and  that  the  name  signifies 
 "  light  wanderer,"  from  'e?.?j,  "  light,'"  and  -^voi,  "  (o 
 move  rapidly.'"'  {Welckcr,  Kret.  KoL,  p-  H.  19.) 
 The  moon  was  believed  by  the  ancients  to  have  great 
 influence  over  growth  in  general  ;  and  as,  moreover, 
 a  woman's  time  was  reckoned  by  moons,  it  was  nat- 
 ural to  conceive  that  the  moon-goddess  presided  over 
 the  birth  of  children.     {Kcightlry's  Mythology,  p.  193, 
 
 seq.)  r        1         ■         I 
 
 Ilium  or  Ilion,  I.  another  name  for  the  city  of 
 Troy,  or,  more  properly,  the  true  one,  since  Troja,  the 
 appellation  given  to  the  place  by  the  Roman  writers, 
 was,  strictly  speaking,  the  name  of  the  district.     {\  id. 
 
ILIUM. 
 
 ILL 
 
 Troja  '< — II.  Novum,  a  city  of  the  Troad,  the  site  of 
 whicn  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  that  of  Troy. 
 Whatever  traces  might  remain  of  the  ruins  of  the  city 
 of  Priam,  after  it  had  been  sacked  and  burned  by  the 
 Greeks,  these  soon  disappeared,  as  Strabo  assures  us, 
 by  their  being  employed  in  the  construction  of  Sigae- 
 um,  and  other  towns  founded  by  the  ^olians,  who 
 came  from  Lesbos,  and  occupied  nearly  the  whole  of 
 Troas.  The  first  attempt  made  to  restore  the  town 
 of  Troy  was  by  some  Astypalseans,  who,  having  first 
 settled  at  Rhceteum,  built,  near  the  Simois,  a  tovi'n 
 which  they  called  Polium,  but  which  subsisted  only  a 
 short  time  ;  the  spot,  however,  still  retained  the  name 
 of  Polisina  when  Strabo  wrote.  Some  time  after, 
 a  more  advantageous  site  was  selected  in  the  neigh- 
 bourhood, and  a  town,  consisting  at  first  of  a  few  hab- 
 itations and  a  temple,  was  built  under  the  protection 
 of  the  kings  of  Lydia,  the  then  sovereigns  of  the 
 country.  This  became  a  rising  place  ;  and,  in  order 
 to  ensure  the  prosperity  of  the  colony,  and  to  enhance 
 its  celebrity,  the  inhabitants  boldly  affirmed  that  their 
 town  actually  stood  on  the  site  of  ancient  Troy,  that 
 city  having  never  been  actually  destroyed  by  the 
 Greeks.  There  were  not  wanting  writers  who  propa- 
 gated this  falsehood,  in  order  to  flatter  the  vanity  of 
 the  citizens  (Strabo,  601);  and  when  Xerxes  passed 
 through  Troas  on  his  way  to  the  Hellespont,  the  pre- 
 tensions of  New  Ilium  were  so  firmly  established,  that 
 the  Persian  monarch,  when  he  visited  their  acropolis, 
 and  otFered  there  an  immense  sacrifice  to  Minerva,  ac- 
 tually thought  that  he  had  seen  and  honoured  the  far- 
 famed  city  of  Priam.  (Herod.,  7,  42.)  In  the  treaty 
 made  with  the  successor  of  Xerxes,  Ilium  was  recog- 
 nised as  a  Greek  city,  and  its  independence  was  se- 
 cured ;  but  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  restored  it  again  to 
 Persia.  On  the  arrival  of  Alexander  in  Asia  Minor 
 (Arrian,  Exp.  At.,  1,  11,  12),  or,  as  some  say,  after 
 the  battle  of  the  Granicus  (Slrab.,  593),  that  prince 
 visited  Ilium,  and,  after  offering  a  sacrifice  to  Minerva 
 "in  the  citadel,  deposited  his  arms  there,  and  received 
 others,  said  to  have  been  preserved  in  the  temple  from 
 the  time  of  the  siege  of  Troy.  He  farther  granted 
 several  rights  and  privileges  to  the  Ilienses,  and  prom- 
 ised to  erect  a  more  s|)lendid  edifice,  and  to  institute 
 games  in  honour  of  Minerva;  but  his  death  prevented 
 the  execution  of  these  designs.  (Arrian,  I.  c. — Slrab  , 
 I.  c.)  Lysimachus,  however,  to  whose  share  Troas 
 fell  on  the  division  of  Alexander's  empire,  undertook 
 to  execute  what  had  been  planned  by  the  deceased 
 monarch.  He  enclosed  the  city  within  a  wall,  which 
 was  forty  stadia  in  circumference  ;  he  also  increased 
 the  population  by  removing  thither  the  inhabitants  of 
 several  neighbouring  towns.  (Slrabo,  593.)  At  a 
 subsequent  period  Ilium  farther  experienced  the  favour 
 and  protection  of  the  kings  of  Pergamus ;  and  the 
 Romans,  on  achieving  the  conquest  of  Asia  Minor, 
 sought  to  extend  their  popularity,  by  securing  the  in- 
 dependence of  a  city  from  which  they  pretended  to  de- 
 rive their  origin,  and  added  to  its  territory  the  towns 
 of  Rhoeteuin  and  Gergiiha.  (Lhy,  37,  37. — Id.,  38, 
 29.)  And  yet  it  would  appear,  that  at  that  time  Ilium 
 was  far  from  being  a  flourishing  city,  since  Demetrius 
 of  Scepsis,  who  visited  it  about  the  same  period,  af- 
 firmed that  it  was  in  a  ruinous  state,  many  of  the 
 houses  having  fallen  into  decay  for  want  of  tiling  (on 
 Slrab.,  I.  c).  During  the  civil  wars  between  c^ylla 
 and  Ginna,  Ilium  was  besieged  and  taken  by  assault 
 by  Fimbria,  a  partisan  of  the  latter.  This  general 
 gave  it  up  to  plunder,  butchered  the  inhabitants,  and 
 finally  destroyed  it  by  fire.  Not  long  after,  however, 
 Sylla  iirived  in  Asia,  defeated  Fimbria,  who  fell  by 
 his  ovvn  hand,  restored  Ilium  to  the  surviving  inhab- 
 itants, reinstated  them  in  their  possessions,  and  re- 
 stored the  walls  and  public  edifices.  (Appian,  Bell. 
 Mithr.,  c.  53.~P!iU.,  Vit.  Sy II. —Slrab.,  594.)  After 
 the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  Ilium  was  visited  by  Julius 
 670 
 
 Ca;sar,  who  explored,  if  we  may  believe  Lucan,  all 
 the  monuments  and  localities  which  claimed  any  inter- 
 est from  their  connexion  with  the  poem  of  Homer. 
 (Fhars.,  9,  961.)  Caesar,  in  consequence  of  his  visit, 
 and  his  pretended  descent  from  lulus,  conceded  fresh 
 grants  to  the  Ilienses;  he  also  instituted  those  games 
 to  which  Virgil  has  alluded  in  the  -Eneid,  and  which 
 the  Romans  called  "Lw/i  Troju7ii."  (jEn.,  5,  602. 
 —  Suel.,  Vil.  Cces  ,  c.  39.— D/c/  Cass.,  43,  23  )  Wo 
 trace  the  history  of  this  place  also  during  the  times 
 of  the  emperors.  It  preserved  its  [)rivileges  and  free- 
 dom- under  Trajan,  as  we  learn  from  Pliny,  who  styles 
 it,  "  Ilium  immune,  vnde  omnis  claritas"  (5.  30).  It 
 .subsisted  under  Dioclesian,  and  it  is  even  said  that  Con- 
 stantino had  entertained,  at  one  time,  serious  thoughts 
 of  transferring  thither  the  seat  of  empire.  (Sozom., 
 Hist.  Eccles.,  2,  3. — Zosim.,  2,  34.)  The  last  rec- 
 ords we  have  of  its  existence  are  derived  from  Hiero- 
 cles  (Sy7iecd.,  p.  663),  the  Itineraries,  and  the  notices 
 of  Greek  bishops  under  the  Byzantine  empire.  It  be- 
 came afterward  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the  Sara- 
 cens and  other  barbarians,  who  depopulated  the  Hel- 
 lespont and  Troad  ;  it  sunk  beneath  their  repeated  at- 
 tacks, and  became  a  heap  of  ruins.  The  surrounding 
 villages  are  yet  filled  with  inscriptions,  and  fragments 
 of  buildings  and  monuments,  which  attest  its  former 
 splendour  and  magnificence.  According  to  the  ac- 
 count of  a  modern  traveller,  who  has  minutely  explored 
 the  whole  of  Troas,  New  Ilium  occupied  a  gently  ri- 
 sing hill  about  seventy  feet  high,  above  the  adjacent 
 filain,  in  which  the  waters  of  the  Tumbrek-tchai  and 
 Kamar-sou  form  some  marshes.  The  Turks  call  the 
 site  of  New  Ilium  Hissardjick,  or  Eski  Kalafatli. 
 (Choisevl  Gouffier,  vol.  2,  pt.  3,  p.  381. — Barker 
 Webb,  Osservazioni  intorno  VArgo  Trojano,  Bibl. 
 ItaL,  JSo.  67,  Luglio,  1821.)  New  Ilium  was  twen- 
 ty-one miles  form  Abydus,  and  about  eleven  miles 
 from  Dardanus.  (Slrab.,  591. — Itin.,  Anton.,  p.  334.) 
 — We  must  be  careful,  as  has  already  been  remark- 
 ed, not  to  confound  the  site  of  New  Ilium  with  that 
 of  the  city  of  Priam,  an  error  into  which  many  care- 
 less travellers  have  fallen.  (Cramer's  Asia  Mmor, 
 vol.  1,  p.  104,  seqq.) 
 
 Illiberis  or  Eliberi,  a  city  of  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
 south  of  Ruscino,  and  in  the  territory  of  the  Sardones, 
 the  same  probably  with  the  Volcse  Tectosages.  It 
 was  a  flourishing  place  when  Hannibal  passed  through 
 on  his  march  into  Italy,  and  here  he  established  a  gar- 
 rison. It  sunk  in  importance  afterward,  until  Con- 
 stantine  almost  rebuilt  it,  and  called  it,  in  memory  of  his 
 mother  Helena,  Helenensis  ciritas.  In  this  place 
 Magnentius  slew  Constans,  and  here  Constantino  died 
 in  a  castle  built  by  himself.     It  is  now  Elnc.     (Mela, 
 
 2,  5.) 
 
 Illicis,  a  city  of  the  Contestani  in  Spain,  northeast 
 of  Carthago  Nova.     Now  Elche.    (Mela,  2,  6.—Flin., 
 
 3,  3.) 
 
 Illicit.\nus  Sinus,  a  bay  on  the  southeast  coast  of 
 Spain,  extending  from  Carthago  Nova  to  the  Dianium 
 Promontorium.  It  is  now  the  bay  of  ^/jV;a?i/e.  (Mela, 
 2,  6.) 
 
 Illiturgis,  Iliturgis,  or  Iliturgi,  a  city  of  Spain, 
 not  far  from  Castulo  and  Mentesa,  and  five  days' 
 march  from  Carthago  Nova.  It  was  situate  near  the 
 ^iBtis,  on  a  steep  and  rugged  rock,  and  was  called  in 
 Roman  times  Forum  lulium.  Appian  calls  it  Ilurgia 
 {Bell.  Hi.sp.,  c.  32),  and  it  is  the  same  also,  no  doubt, 
 with  the  Ilurgis  of  Ptolemy  (2,  4),  and  the  Ilurgea  of 
 Stepharius  of  Byzantium.  The  place  was  destroyed 
 by  Scipio  B.C.  210  (Liv.,  28,  19),  but  was  soon  af- 
 terward repeopled.  The  site  of  the  ancient  place  is 
 near  the  modern  Andujar,  where  the  church  of  St 
 Potenciana  stands.     (Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  380.) 
 
 Illvricum,  Ili.yris,  and  Illyria,  a  country  bor 
 dering  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  opposite  Italy.  The  name 
 of  lUyrians,  however,  appears  to  have  been  commor 
 
ILLYRICUM. 
 
 IMA 
 
 to  tho  numerous  tribes  which  were  anciently  in  pos- 
 session of  the  coutitries  situated  to  the  west  of  Mace- 
 donia, and  which  extended  along  the  coast  of  the  Adri- 
 atic from  the  confines  of  Italy  and  Istria  to  the  borders 
 of  Epirus.  Still  farther  north,  and  more  inland,  we 
 find  them  occupying  the  great  valleys  of  the  Saave 
 and  Dravc,  which  were  only  terminated  by  the  junc- 
 tion of  those  streams  with  the  Danube.  This  large 
 tract  of  country,  under  the  Roman  emperors,  constitu- 
 ted the  provinces  of  Illyricum  and  Pannonia. — Anti- 
 quity has  thrown  but  little  light  on  the  origin  of  the 
 lUyrians  ;  nor  are  we  acquainted  with  the  language  and 
 customs  of  the  barbarous  hordes  of  which  the  great  body 
 of  the  nation  was  composed.  Their  warlike  habits, 
 however,and  the  peculiar  practice  of  puncturing  their 
 bodies,  which  is  mentioned  by  Strabo  as  being  also  in 
 use  among  the  Thracians,  might  lead  us  to  connect 
 them  with  that  widely-e.xtended  people.  (Strabo,  315  ) 
 It  appears  evident,  that  they  were  a  totally  different 
 race  from  the  Celts,  as  Strabo  carefully  distinguishes 
 them  from  the  Gallic  tribes  which  were  incorporated 
 with  them.  {Strabo,  313.)  Appian,  indeed,  seems 
 to  ascribe  a  common  origin  to  the  Illyrians  and  Celts, 
 for  he  states  that  Illyrius  and  Celtus  were  two  broth- 
 ers, sons  of  Polyphemus  and  Galatea,  who  migrated 
 from  Sicily,  and  became  the  progenitors  of  the  two  na- 
 tions which  bore  their  names  {Hell.  Illyr.,  2);  but 
 this  account  is  evidently  too  fabulous  to  be  relied  on. 
 It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  Illyrians  contributed  to  the 
 early  population  of  Italy.  The  Liburni,  who  were  un- 
 doubtedly a  part  of  this  nation,  had  formed  settlements 
 on  the  Italian  shore  of  the  Adriatic  at  a  very  remote 
 period.  The  Veneti,  moreover,  were,  according  to 
 the  most  probable  account,  Illyrians.  But,  though  so 
 widely  dispersed,  this  great  nation  is  but  little  noticed 
 in  history  until  the  Romans  made  war  upon  it,  in  con- 
 sequence of  some  acts  of  piracy  committed  on  their  tra- 
 ders. Previous  to  that  time,  we  hear  occasionally  of  the 
 Illyrians  as  connected  with  the  affairs  of  Macedonia  ; 
 for  instance,  in  the  expedition  undertaken  by  Perdiccas, 
 in  conjunction  with  Brasidas,  against  the  Lyncestae, 
 which  failed  principally  from  the  support  afforded  to 
 the  latter  by  a  powerful  body  of  Illyrian  troops.  {Thii- 
 cyd  ,  4,  125.)  They  were  frequently  engaged  in  hos- 
 tilities with  the  princes  of  Macedonia,  to  whom  their 
 warlike  spirit  rendered  them  formidable  neighbours 
 This  was  the  case  more  especially  while  under  the 
 government  of  Bardylis,  who  is  known  to  have  been  a 
 powerful  and  renowned  chief,  though  we  are  not  pos- 
 itively acquainted  with  the  extent  of  his  dominions, 
 nor  over  what  tribes  he  presided.  Philip  at  length 
 gained  a  decisive  victory  over  this  king,  who  lost  his 
 life  in  the  action,  and  thus  a  check  was  given  to  the 
 risino-  power  of  the  Illyrians.  Alexander  was  likewise 
 successful  in  a  war  he  waged  against  Clytus,  the  son 
 of  Bardylis,  and  Glaucias,  king  of  the  Taulantii.  The 
 Illyrians,  hovv-ever,  still  asserted  their  independence 
 against  the  kings  of  Macedon,  and  were  not  subdued 
 till  they  were  involved  in  the  common  fate  of  nations 
 by  the  victorious  arms  of  the  Romans.  The  conquest 
 of  Illyria  led  the  way  to  the  first  interference  of  Rome 
 in  the  affairs  of  Greece  ;  and  Polybius,  from  that  cir- 
 cumstance, has  entered  at  some  length  into  the  ac- 
 count of  the  events  which  then  took  place.  He  in- 
 .  forms  us,  that  about  this  period,  520  A.U.C.,  the  Il- 
 lyrians on  the  coast  had  become  formidable  from  their 
 maritime  power  and  the  extent  of  their  depredations. 
 They  were  governed  by  Agron,  son  of  Pleurastus, 
 whose  forces  had  obtained  several  victories  over  the 
 ^tolians,  Epirots,  and  Achoeans.  On  his  death,  the 
 empire  devolved  upon  his  queen  Teuta,  a  woman  of 
 an  active  and  daring  mind,  who  openly  sanctioned,  and 
 even  encouraged  the  acts  of  violence  committed  by 
 her  subjects.  Among  those  who  suffered  by  these 
 lawless  pirates  were  some  traders  of  Italy,  on  whose 
 account  satisfaction  was  demanded  by  the  Roman  sen- 
 
 ate. So  far,  however,  from  making  any  concessiorjs, 
 Teuta  proceeded  to  a  still  greater  outrage,  by  causing 
 one  of  the  Roman  deputies  to  be  put  to  death.  The 
 senate  was  not  slow  in  avenging  these  injuries;  a  pow- 
 erful armament  was  fitted  out,  under  the  command  of 
 two  consuls,  who  speedily  reduced  the  principal  for- 
 tress held  by  Teuta,  and  compelled  that  haughty  queen 
 to  sue  for  peace.  {Polyb.,  2,  12. — Appian,  Bell. 
 Illyr.,  7.)  At  a  still  later  period,  the  Illyrians,  under 
 their  king  Gentius,  were  again  engaged  in  a  war  with 
 the  Romans,  if  the  act  of  taking  possession  of  an  un- 
 resisting country  may  be  so  called.  Gentius  had  been 
 accused  of  favouring  the  cause  of  Perseus  of  Macedon, 
 and  of  being  secretly  in  league  with  him.  His  t-erri- 
 tory  was  therefore  invaded  by  the  prsetor  Anicius,  and 
 in  thirty  days  it  was  subjugated  by  the  Roman  army. 
 Gentius  himself,  with  all  his  family,  fell  into  the  hands 
 of  the  enemy,  and  was  sent  to  Rome  to  grace  the 
 prajtor's  triumph.  (Liv.,  44,  31. — Appian,  Bell.  Il- 
 lyr., 9.)  Illyria  then  became  a  Roman  province,  and 
 was  divided  into  three  portions  ;  but  it  received  after- 
 ward a  considerable  accession  of  territory  on  the  re- 
 duction of  the  Dalmatians,  lapydes,  and  other  petty 
 nations  by  Augustus,  these  being  included  from  that 
 period  within  its  boundaries.  So  widely,  indeed,  were 
 the  frontiers  of  Illyricum  extended  under  the  Roman 
 emperors,  that  they  were  made  to  comprise  the  great 
 districts  of  Noricum,  Pannonia,  and  Moesia.  (Appian, 
 Bell.  Illyr.,  G  — Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  29.) 
 
 Ilus,  the  fourth  king  of  Troy,  was  the  son  of  Tros 
 and  of  Callirhoe,  the  daughter  of  the  Scamander.  He 
 married  Eurydice,  the  daughter  of  Adrastus,  king  of 
 Argos,  and  became  by  her  the  father  of  Themis  (the 
 grandmother  of  ^neas)  and  of  Laomedon,  the  prede- 
 cessor of  Priam.  Ilus  embellished  Troy,  which  had 
 been  so  called  from  his  father  Tros,  and  gave  to  it 
 the  name  of  Ilium.  According  to  tradition,  it  was  he 
 who  received  from  Jupiter  the  Palladium,  and  who,  in 
 the  wars  which  had  been  excited  by  the  animosity  of 
 Tantalus  and  Tros,  made  an  attempt  to  rescue  this 
 statue  from  the  flames,  in  which  the  temple  of  Minerva 
 was  wrapped,  although  he  was  aware  that  the  city 
 would  be  impregnable  as  long  as  it  remained  within 
 the  walls.  For  this  misplaced  zeal,  he  was,  at  the 
 moment,  struck  with  blindness  by  the  goddess,  but 
 was  subsequently  restored  to  sight.  (Apollod.,  3, 
 12,  3.) 
 
 Imaus,  the  name  of  a  large  chain  of  mountains, 
 which  in  a  part  of  its  course  divided,  according  to 
 the  ancients,  the  vast  region  of  Scythia  into  Scy- 
 thia  intra  Imaum  and  Scythia  extra  Imaum.  It  is, 
 in  fact,  merely  a  continuation  of  the  great  Tauric 
 range.  That  part  of  the  range  over  which  Alexander 
 crossed,  and  whence  the  Indus  springs,  was  called  Pa- 
 ro))amisus.  Farther  on  were  the  Emodi  Monies,  giv- 
 ing rise  to  the  Ganges  ;  and  still  farther  to  .the  east 
 the  range  of  Imaus.  extending  to  the  Eastern  Ocean. 
 Imaus  is  generally  thought  to  answer  to  the  Himalaya 
 Mountains  of  Thibet ;  strictly  speaking,  however,  this 
 name  belongs  to  the  Emodi  Montes  ;  and  Imaus,  in 
 the  early  part  of  its  course,  is  the  modern  Mustag,  or 
 the  chain  which  branches  off  to  the  northwest  from  the 
 centre  of  the  Himalaya  range.  The  word  Himalaya 
 is  Sanscrit,  and  is  compounded  of  hima,  "  snow,'  and 
 alaya,  "an  abode."  (Wilsun''s  Sanscrit  Diet.)  The 
 former  of  these  Sanscrit  roots  gives  rise  also  to  the  name 
 Imaus  and  Emodus  among  the  ancients,  and  it  also 
 brings  to  mind  the  Hcemus  of  Thrace,  the  Hyrnctivs 
 of  Attica,  the  Mons  Imczus  of  Italy,  and  the  difTeren 
 mountains  called  Himmel  in  Saxony,  Dutland,  and 
 other  countries.  It  is  the  radix,  also,  of  the  German 
 word  hinwicl,  denoting  heaven.— As  the  chain  ot 
 Imaus  proceeds  on  to  the  east,  it  ceases  to  be  charac- 
 terized  as  snowy,  and,  in  separating  the  region  of 
 Scythia  into  its  two  divisions,  answers  to  the  modern 
 range  of  Altai.     It  is  only  of  late  that  the  height  of 
 
INA 
 
 INACHUS. 
 
 the  Himalaya   Mountains  on  the  north  of  India  has 
 been  appreciated.     In  1802,  Col.  Crawford  made  some 
 measurements,  which  gave  a  much  greater  altitude  to 
 these  mountains  than  had  ever  before  been  suspected  ; 
 and  Col.  Colebrook,  from  the  plains  of  Rhohilcund, 
 made  a  series  of  observations  which  gave  a  height  of 
 22,000  feet.    Lieut.  Webb,  in  his  journey  to  the  source 
 of  the  Ganges,  executed  measurements  on  the  peak 
 of  lamunavatari,  which  gave  upward  of  25,000  feet. 
 The  same  officer,  in  a  subsequent  journey,  confirmed 
 his  former  observations.     This  conclusion  was  object- 
 ed to,  on  account  of  a  difference  of  opinion  respecting 
 the  allowance  which  ought  to  be  made,  for  the  deviation 
 of  the  light  from  a  straight  direction,  on  which  all  con- 
 clusions drawn  from  the  measurement  of  angles  must 
 depend.     In  a  subsequent  journey,  however,  this  same 
 officer  confirmed  his  conclusions  by  additional  measure- 
 ments, and  by  observing  the  fall  of  the  mercury  in  the 
 barometer  at  those  heights  which  he  himself  visited.     It 
 was  found  by  these  last  observations  that  the  line  of 
 perpetual  snow  does  not  begin  till  at  least  17,000  feet 
 above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  that  the  banks  of  the 
 Setledge,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  15,000  feet,  afford- 
 ed pasturage  for  cattle,  and  yielded  excellent  crops  of 
 mountain-wheat.     This  mild  temperature,  however,  at 
 so  great  a  height,  is  confined  to  the  northern  side  of 
 the  chain.      This   probably  depends   on    the   greater 
 height  of  the  whole  territory  on  the  northern  side,  in 
 consequence  of  which,  the  heat  which  the   earth  re- 
 ceives from  the  solar  rays,  and  which  warms  the  air 
 immediately  superincumbent,  is  not  so  much  expand- 
 ed by  the  time  the  ascending  air  reaches  these  greater 
 elevations,  as  in  that  which  has  ascended  from  a  much 
 lower  country.     Mr.  Frazer,  in  a  later  journey,  inferred 
 that  the  loftiest  peaks  of  the  Himalaya  range  varied 
 from  18,000  to  23,000  feet ;  but  he  had  no  instruments 
 for  measuring   altitudes,  and   no  barometer,   and   he 
 probably  did  not  make  the  due  allowance  for  the  ex- 
 traordinary height  of  the  snow-line.     The  point,  how- 
 ever, is  now  at  last  settled.     The  Himalaya  Mount- 
 ains far  exceed  the  Andes  in  elevation  ;    Chvmhorazo, 
 the  highest  of  the  latter,  being  only  21,470  feet  above 
 the  level  of  the  sea,  while  Gliosa  Cote,  in  the  Dhaiv- 
 alaghiri  rangt,  attains  to  an  elevation  of  28,000  feet, 
 and  is  the  highest  known  land  on  the  surface  of  the 
 globe. 
 
 Imbr.\cTjE.s,  a  patronymic  given  to  Asius,  as  son 
 of  ImbraM'j.      (Virg.,  jEii.,  10,  123.) 
 
 iMBRAt-'ji-Es,  a  patronymic  given  to  Glaucus  and 
 Ijades,  as  sons  of  Imbrasus.     {Virg.,  Mn.,  12,  343.) 
 
 Imbros,  an  island  of  the  ^gean,  22  miles  east  of 
 Lemnos,  according  to  Pliny  (4,  12),  and  now  called 
 Imbro  Like  Lemnos,  it  was  at  an  early  period  the 
 seat  of  the  Pelasgi,  who  worshipped  the  Cabiri  and 
 Mercury  by  the  name  of  Imbramus.  {Steph.  Byz., 
 s.  V.  '1^6/jof.)  Imbros  is  generally  mentioned  by  Ho- 
 mer in  conjunction  with  Lemnos.  {Hi/mn.  m  ApolL, 
 36. — lb.,  13,  32.)  It  was  first  conquered  by  the  Per- 
 sians {Herod..  5,  27),  and  afterward  by  the  Athenians, 
 who  derived  from  thence  excellent  darters  and  target- 
 eers.  {Tkitcyd.,  4,  28.)  There  was  a  town  probably 
 of  the  same  name  with  the  island,  the  ruins  of  which 
 are  to  be  seen  at  a  place  called  Castro.  (Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  342.) 
 
 iN.iCHiDyE,  the  name  of  the  first  eight  successors  of 
 Inachus  on  the  throne  of  Argos. 
 
 Inachides,  a  patronymic  of  Epaphus,  as  grandson 
 of  Inachus.     {Ovid,  Met.,  1,  704.) 
 
 Inachis,  a  patronymic  of  lo,  as  daughter  of  Inachus. 
 {Ovid,  Fast.,  1,  454.) 
 
 Inachus,  I.  a  son  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  father 
 of  lo.  He  was  said  to  have  founded  the  kingdom  of 
 Argos,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Phoroneus,  B.C. 
 1807.  Inachus  is  said,  in  the  old  legend,  to  have 
 given  his  name  to  the  principal  river  of  Argolis. 
 Hence  probably  he  was  described  as  the  son  of  Oce- 
 672 
 
 anus,  the  common  parent  of  all  rivers.     They  who 
 make  Inachus  to  have  come  into  Greece  from  bevond 
 the  sea,  regard  his  name  as  a  Greek  form  for  the  Ori- 
 ental term  Enak,  denoting  "great"   or  "powerful," 
 and  this  last  as  the  root  of  ihe  Greek  dva^,  "  a  king." 
 The  foreign  origin  of  Inachus,  however,  or,  rather,  his 
 actual   existence,  is  very  problematical. — According 
 to  the  mythological  writers,  Inachus  became  the  father 
 of  lo  by  his  sister,  the  ocean-nymph  Melia.     {Apollod., 
 2,  1,  1. — Hcync,  ad  loc.) — II.  A  river  of  Argolis,  flow- 
 ing at  the  foot  of  the  Acropolis  of  Argos,  and  empty- 
 ing into  the  bay  of  Nauplia.     Its  real  source  was  in 
 Mount  Lyrceius,  on  the  confines  of  Arcadia  ;   but  the 
 poets,  who  delighted  in  fiction,  imagined  it  to  be  a 
 branch  of  the  Inachus  of  Amphilochia,  which,  after 
 mingling  with  the  Acheloiis,  passed  under  ground,  and 
 reappeared  in  Argolis.    (S/'?aio, 271. — Zrf.,370.)   Ac- 
 cording to  Dodwell  (vol.  2,  p.  223),  the  bed  of  this 
 river  is  a  short  way  to  the  northeast  of  Argos.     It  is 
 usually  dry,  but  supplied  with  casual  floods  after  hard 
 rains,  and  the  melting  of  snow  on  the  surrounding 
 mountains.     It  rises  about  ten  miles  from  Argos,  at  a 
 place  called  Mushi,  in  the  way  to  Tripolitza  m  Arca- 
 dia.    In  the  winter  it  sometimes  descends   from  the 
 mountains  in  a  rolling  mass,  when  it  does  considerable 
 damage  to  the  town.     It  is  now  called  Xeria,  whick 
 means  dry.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  245.) 
 — III.  A  river  of  the  Amphilochian  district  in  Acarna- 
 nia.     There  were  phenomena  connected  with  the  de- 
 scription given  by  ancient  geographers  of  its  course, 
 which  have  led  to  a  doubt  of  its  real  existence.     It  is 
 from  Strabo  more  especially  that  we  collect  this  in- 
 formation.    Speaking  of  the  submarine  passage  of  the 
 Alpheus,  and  its  pretended  junction  with  the  waters 
 of  Arethusa,  he  says  a  similar  fable  was  related  of  the 
 Inachus,  which,  flowing  from  Mount  Lacmon,  in  the 
 chain  of  Pindus,  united  its  waters  with  the  Acheloiis, 
 and,  passing  under  the  sea,  finally  reached  Argos,  in 
 the  Peloponnesus.     Such  was  the  account  of  Sopho- 
 cles, as  appears  from  the  passage  quoted  by  the  geog- 
 rapher, probably  from  the  play  of  Inachus.     (Compare 
 Oxford  Strabo,  vol.  1,  p.  391,  in  notis.)     Strabo,  how- 
 ever, regards  this  as  an  invention  of  the  poets,  and 
 says  that  Hecatasus  was  better  informed  on  the  sub- 
 ject, when  he  affirmed  that  the  Inachus  of  the  Amphi- 
 lochians  was  a  diflTerent  river  from  that  of  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesian  Argos.     According   to    this   ancient   geo- 
 graphical writer,  the  former  stream  flowed  from  Mount 
 Lacmus  ;  whence  also  the  JEas,  or  Aoiis,  derived  its 
 source,  and  fell  into  the  Acheloiis,  having,  like  the 
 Amphilochian  Argos,    received    its    appellation   from 
 Amphilochus.     {Stiab.,  271.)     This  account  is  suffi- 
 ciently intelligible  :  and,  in  order  to  identify  the  Inach- 
 us of  HecatKus  with  the   modern  river    which    cor- 
 responds with  it,  we   have  only  to  search  in  modern 
 maps  for  a  stream  which  rises  close  to  the  Aous  or 
 Voioussa,  and,  flowing  south,  joins    the  Acheloiis  in 
 the  territory  of  the  ancient  Amphilochi.     Now  this  de- 
 scription answers  precisely  to  that  of  a  river  which  is 
 commonly  looked   upon   as   the   Acheloiis  itself,  but 
 which  would  seem,  in  fact,  to  be  the  Inachus,  since  it 
 agrees  so  well  with  the  account  given  by  Hecatjeus ; 
 and  it  should  be  observed,  that  Thucydides  places  the 
 source  of  the  Acheloiis  in  that  part  of  Pindus  which 
 belonged   to  the  Dolopcs,  a  Thessalian  people,  who 
 occupied  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  chain.    {Thu- 
 cyd.,  3,  102.)     Modern  maps,  indeed,  point  out  a  riv- 
 er coming  from  this  direction,  and  uniting  with  the 
 Inachus,  which,  though  a  more  considerable  stream, 
 was   not  regarded   as  the  main  branch  of  the  river. 
 Strabo  elsewhere  repeats  what  he   has    said    of  the 
 junction  of  the  Inachus  and  Acheloiis.     {Strab  ,  327.) 
 But  in  another  passage  he  quotes  a  writer  whose  re- 
 port of  the  Inachus  differed  materially,  since  he  rep- 
 resented it  as  traversing  the  district  of  Amphilochia, 
 and    falling  into  the  gulf     This  was   the  statement 
 
IND 
 
 madeby  Ephorus  {ap.  Slrab  ,  336),  and  it  has  led  some 
 modern  geographers  and  critics,  in  order  to  reconcile 
 these  two  contradictory  accounts,  to  suppose  that  there 
 was  a  stream  which,  branching  off"  from  the  Achelous, 
 fell  into  the  Ambraciau  Gulf  near  Argos.  This  is 
 more  particularly  the  hypothesis  of  D'Anville;  but 
 modern  travellers  assure  us  that  there  is  no  such  river 
 near  the  ruins  of  Argos  {Holland's  Travels,  vol.  2,  p. 
 235) ;  and,  in  fact,  it  is  impossible  that  any  stream 
 should  there  separate  from  the  Acheloiis,  on  account 
 of  the  Amphilochian  Mountains,  which  divide  the  val- 
 ley of  that  river  from  the  Gulf  of  Arta.  Mannert  con- 
 siders the  small  river  Knkeli  to  be  the  representative 
 of  the  Inachus  {Geogr,yo\.  8,  p.  65),  but  this  is  a  mere 
 torrent,  which  descends  from  the  mountains  above  the 
 gulf,  and  can  have  no  connexion  with  Mount  Lacmus 
 or  the  Achelous.  All  ancient  anthorities  agree  in  de- 
 riving the  Inachus  from  the  chain  of  Pindus.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  40,  sei]q.) 
 
 In  A  RIME,  an  island  otf  the  coast  of  Campania,  oth- 
 erwise called  ^naria  and  Pithecusa.  Under  an  ex- 
 tinguished volcano,  in  the  middle  of  this  island,  Jupiter 
 was  fabled  to  have  confined  the  giant  Typhojus.  (Con- 
 sult remarks  under  the  articles  ^'Enaria  and  Arima.) 
 Hcyne  thinks  that  some  one  of  the  early  Latin  poets, 
 in  translating  the  Iliad  into  the  Roman  tongue,  mis- 
 understood Homer's  elv  'kpl^oiq,  and  rendered  it  by 
 Inarimc  or  Inarima  ;  and  that  the  fable  of  Typhoeus, 
 travelling  westward,  was  assigned  to  .'Enaria  or  Pith- 
 ecusa as  a  volcanic  situation.  {Heytie,  Excurs.  ad 
 Virg.,Mn.,  9,  715.) 
 
 Inarus,  a  son  of  Psammeticus  {Thucyd.,  1,  104), 
 king  of  that  part  of  Libya  which  borders  upon  Egypt. 
 Sallying  forth  from  Marea,  he  drew  over  the  greater 
 part  of  Egypt  to  revolt  from  Artaxerxes,  the  Persian 
 emperor,  and,  becoming  himself  their  ruler,  called  in 
 the  Athenians  to  his  assistance,  who  happened  to  be 
 engaged  in  an  expedition  against  Cyprus,  with  two 
 hundred  ships  of  their  own  and  their  allies.  The  en- 
 terprise at  first  was  eminently  successful,  and  the 
 whole  of  Egypt  fell  under  the  power  of  the  invaders 
 and  their  ally.  Eventually,  however,  the  Persian 
 arms  triumphed,  and  Inarus,  being  taken  by  treachery, 
 was  crucified.  (T/^ttj/rf.,  1,  109  ;  1,  1 10.)  Herod- 
 otus and  Ctesias  say  he  was  crucified,  enl  rpial  arav- 
 polc,  which  might  more  properly  be  termed  impale- 
 ment. Bloomfield  {ad  Thucyd.,  I.  c.)  thinks  that  he 
 was  of  the  ancient  royal  family  of  Egypt,  and  descend- 
 ed from  the  Psammeticus  who  died  B.C.  617.  It  is 
 not  improbable,  he  adds,  that,  on  Apries  being  put  to 
 death  by  his  chief  minister  Amasis,  his  son,  or  some 
 near  relation,  established  himself  among  the  Libyans 
 bordering  oo  Egypt,  from  whom  descended  this  Psam- 
 meticus. 
 
 India,  an  extensive  country  of  Asia,  divided  by 
 Ptolemy  and  the  ancient  geographers  into  India  intra 
 Gangem  and  India  extra  Gangem,  or  India  on  this 
 side,  and  India  beyond,  the  Ganges.  The  first  divis- 
 ion answers  to  the  modern  Hindustan  ;  the  latter  to 
 ihe  Birman  Empire,  and  the  dominions  of  Pc^w,  Siam, 
 Laos,  Cambodia,  Cochin  China,  Tonqvin,  and  Ma- 
 lacca.— Commerce  between  India  and  the  western  na- 
 tions of  Asia  appears  to  have  been  carried  on  from 
 the  earliest  historical  times.  The  spicery,  which  the 
 company  of  Ishmaelites  mentioned  in  Genesis  (37,  25) 
 were  carrying  into  Egypt,  must  in  all  probability  have 
 been  the  produce  of  India ;  and  in  the  30th  chapter 
 of  Exodus,  where  an  enumeration  is  made  of  various 
 spices  and  perfumes,  cinnamon  and  cassia  are  express- 
 ly mentioned,  which  must  have  come  from  India,  or 
 the  islands  in  the  Indian  Archipelago.  It  has  been 
 thought  by  many,  that  the  Egyptians  must  have  used 
 Indian  spices  in  embalming  their  dead;  and  Diodorus 
 Siculus  says  (1,  91),  that  cinnamon  was  actually  em- 
 ployed by  this  people  for  that  purpose.  The  spice 
 trade  appears  to  have  been  carried  on  by  means  of  the 
 4Q 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 Arabs,  who  brought  the  produce  of  India  from  the 
 modern  Sinde,  or  ilie  Malabar  coast,  to  Hadrainunt  in 
 the  southwestern  part  of  Arabia,  or  to  Gerra  on  the 
 Persian  Gulf,  from  which  place  it  was  carried  by  means 
 of  caravans  to  Petra,  where  it  was  purchased  by  Phoe- 
 nician merchants.  A  great  quantity  of  Indian  articles 
 was  also  brought  from  the  Persian  Gulf  up  the  Eu- 
 phrates as  far  as  Circesium  or  Thapsacus,  and  thence 
 carried  across  the  Syrian  desert  into  Phoenicia.  Eu- 
 rope was  thus  supplied  with  the  produce  of  India  by 
 means  of  the  Phoenicians  ;  but  we  cannot  assent  to 
 the  opinion  of  Robertson  {Historical  Disquisition  on 
 India),  that  Phoenician  ships  sailed  to  India;  for  there 
 is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the  Phoenicians  had  any 
 harbours  at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea,  as  Robertson 
 supposes,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  Idumseans  remain- 
 ed independent  till  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon  ; 
 and  in  the  27th  chapter  of  Ezekiel,  which  contains  a 
 list  of  the  nations  that  traded  with  Tyre,  we  can  dis- 
 cover none  of  an  Indian  origin  ;  but  the  names  of  th'; 
 Arabian  tribes  are  specified  which  supplied  the  Phoe- 
 nicians with  the  products  of  India  (v.  19,  32).  The 
 conquest  of  Idumasa  by  David  gave  the  Jews  posses- 
 sion of  the  harbour  of  Ezion-geber  on  the  Red  Sea, 
 from  which  ships  sailed  to  Ophir,  bringing  "gold  and 
 silver,  ivory,  apes,  and  peacocks."  (1  Kings,  2,  28. — 
 lb.,  10,  11,  22.)  Considerable  variety  of  opinion  pre- 
 vails respecting  Ophir  ;  but  it  is  most  probable  that 
 it  was  an  emporium  of  the  African  and  Indian  trade 
 in  Arabia.  The  Arabian  merchants  procured  the  gold 
 from  Africa,  and  the  ivory,  apes,  and  peacocks  from 
 India.  The  Hebrew  words  in  this  passage  appear  to 
 be  derived  from  the  Sanscrit.  In  the  troubles  which 
 followed  the  death  of  Solomon,  the  tjrade  with  Ophir 
 was  probably  neglected  ;  and  till  the  foundation  of  Al- 
 exandrea  the  trade  with  India  was  carried  on  by  the 
 Arabians  in  the  way  already  mentioned.  The  produce 
 of  India  was  also  imported  into  Greece  by  the  Phoeni- 
 cians in  very  early  times.  Many  of  the  Greek  names 
 of  the  Indian  articles  are  evidently  derived  from  the 
 Sanscrit.  Thus,  the  Greek  word  for  pepper  {niTTnepi, 
 pepperi)  comes  from  the  Sanscrit  pippali :  the  Greek 
 word  for  emerald  is  aiidpaydoq  or  ^dpajSoq  {smarag- 
 dos,  maragdos),  from  the  Sanscrit  marakata:  the 
 [ivaaivr]  aivduv  {byssine  sindon),  "fine  linen"  or 
 "muslin,"  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (2,  86  ;  7,  181), 
 seems  to  be  derived  from  Si7idhu,  the  Sanscrit  name 
 of  the  river 'Indus:  the  produce  of  the  cotton-plant, 
 called  in  Greek  Kupiraaoq  {karpasos),  comes  from  the 
 Sanscrit  karpdsa,  a  word  which  we  also  find  in  the 
 Hebrew  {karpas.— Esther,  1,  6),  and  it  was  probably 
 introduced  into  Greece,  together  with  the  commodity, 
 by  the  Phcenician  traders.  That  this  was  the  case 
 with  the  word  cinnamon,  Herodotus  (3,  111)  inform* 
 us.  The  term  cinnamon  (in  Greek  invvu/iuiiov  or 
 Kivva/iov,  cinnamomum,  cinnamon ;  in  Hebrew /;z«/ia- 
 mon)  is  not  found  in  Sanscrit ;  the  Sanscrit  term  for 
 this  article  is  gudhatvach,  "  sweet  bark."  The  word 
 cinnamon  appears  to  be  derived  from  the  Cingalese 
 kakyn  nama,  "  sweet  wood,"  of  which  the  Sanscrit  is 
 probably  a  translation.  We  are  not,  however,  sur- 
 prised at  missing  the  Sanscrit  word  for  this  article, 
 since  the  languages  in  Southern  India  have  no  affinity 
 with  the  Sanscrit'  Tin  also  appears  to  have  been  from 
 early  times  an  article  of  exportation  from  India.  Ihe 
 Greek  term  for  tin,  Kaaairepoc  {kassiteros),  which^  oc- 
 curs even  in  Homer,  is  evidently  the  same  as  tli:  ,-  »ri- 
 scrit  kastira.  It  is  usually  considered  that  the  G-  ceks 
 obtained  their  tin,  by  means  of  the  Phcpnicians,  from 
 the  Scilly  Islands  or  Cormmll ;  but  there  is  no  di- 
 rect proof  of  this;  and  it  appears  probable,  from  the 
 Sans  rit  derivation  of  the  word,  that  the  Greeks  on- 
 ginally  obtained  their  tin  from  India.-The  westen 
 nation'^s  of  Asia  appear  to  have  had  no  connexion  wiU 
 India,  except  in  the  way  of  commerce,  till  the  time  of 
 Darius  HysUspis,  531  B.C.     The  tales  which  Diodo 
 
INDIA. 
 
 rus  relates  respecting  the  invasion  of  India  by  Sesostris 
 and  Senniramis,  cannot  be  estiinaiecl  as  historical  facts. 
 The  same  remark  may  perhaps  apply  to  the  alliance 
 which,  according  to  Xenophon,  in  his  Cyropadia  (6,  2, 
 1),  Cyrus  made  with  a  king  of  India.  But,  in  the 
 reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  Herodotus  infonns  us  (4, 
 44),  that  Scylax  of  Caryanda  was  scut  by  the  Persians 
 to  explore  the  course  of  the  Indus  ;  that  ho  set  out  for 
 the  city  Caspatyrus,  and  the  Pactyican  country  {Fa- 
 kali  7)  in  the  northern  part  of  India  ;  that  he  sailed 
 down  the  Indus  until  he  arrived  at  its  mouth,  and 
 thence  across  the  Indian  Sea  to  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and 
 that  this  voyage  occupied  30  months.  Darius  also,  it 
 is  said,  subdued  the  Indians  and  formed  them  into  a 
 satrapy,  the  tribute  of  which  amounted  to  360  talents 
 of  gold.  {Herod.,  3,  94.)  The  extent  of  the  Persian 
 empire  in  India  cannot  be  ascertained  with  any  degree 
 of  certainty.  The  Persians  appear  to  have  included 
 under  the  name  of  Indians  many  tribes  dwelling  to 
 the  west  of  the  Indus  ;  it  seems  doubtful  whether  they 
 ever  had  any  dominion  east  of  the  Indus  ;  and  it  is 
 nearly  certain  that  their  authority  did  not  extend  be- 
 yond the  Pe7ijab. — The  knowledge  which  the  Greeks 
 possessed  respecting  India,  previous  to  the  time  of  Al- 
 exander, was  derived  from  the  Persians.  We  do  not 
 find  the  name  of  Indian  or  Hindu  in  ancient  Sanscrit 
 works  ;  but  the  country  east  of  the  Indus  has  been 
 known  under  this  name  by  the  western  nations  of 
 Asia  from  the  earliest  times.  In  the  Zend  and  Pehlvi 
 languages  it  is  called  Heando,  and. in  the  Hebrew 
 Hoddu,  {Esther,  1,  1),  which  is  evidently  the  same  as 
 the  Hend  of  the  Persian  and  Arabic  geographers. 
 The  first  mention  of  the  Indians  in  a  Greek  author  is 
 in  the  "  Supplices"  of  ^Eschylus  (v.  287) ;  but  no 
 Greek  writer  gives  us  any  information  concerning  them 
 till  the  time  of  Herodotus.  We  may  collect  from  the 
 account  of  this  historian  a  description  of  three  distinct 
 tribes  of  Indians  :  one  dwelling  in  the  north,  near  the 
 city  ('aspatyrus,  and  the  Pactyican  country,  resem- 
 bling the  Bactrians  in  their  customs  and  mode  of  life. 
 The  second  tribe  or  tribes  evidently  did  not  live  un- 
 der Brahminical  laws  ;  some  of  them  dwelt  in  the 
 marshes  formed  by  the  Indus,  and  subsisted  by  fish- 
 ing ;  others,  called  Padaii,  with  whom  we  may  proba- 
 bly class  the  Calanti^  or  Calatiae,  were  wild  and  bar- 
 barous tribes,  such  as  exist  at  present  in  the  mountains 
 of  the  Deccan.  The  third  class,  who  are  described  as 
 eubsistitig  on  the  spontaneous  produce  of  the  earth, 
 and  never  killing  any  living  thing,  are  more  likely  to 
 have  been  genuine  Hindus.  {Herod.,  3,  98,  seqq.) 
 Herodotus  had  heard  of  some  of  the  natural  produc- 
 tions of  Hindustan,  such  as  the  cotton-plant  and  the 
 bamboo  ;  but  his  knowledge  was  very  limited. — Cte- 
 sias,  who  lived  at  the  court  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  for 
 many  years,  has  given  us  a  fuller  account  than  Herod- 
 otus of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Indians,  and 
 of  the  natural  productions  of  the  country.  He  had 
 heard  of  the  war-elephants,  and  describes  the  parrot, 
 the  monkey,  cochineal,  &c. — The  expedition  of  Alex- 
 ander into  India,  B.C.  326,  first  gave  the  Greeks  a 
 correct  idea  of  the  western  parts  of  this  country.  Al- 
 exander did  not  advance  farther  cast  than  the  Hypha- 
 sis  ;  but  he  followed  the  course  of  the  Indus  to  the 
 ocean,  and  afterward  sent  Nearchus  to  explore  the 
 coast  of  the  Indian  Ocean  as  far  as  the  Persian  Gulf. 
 The  Pcnjab  was  inhabited,  at  the  time  of  Alexander's 
 invasion,  by  many  independent  nations,  ivho  were  as 
 distinguished  for  their  courage  as  their  lescendants 
 the  Rajpoots.  Though  the  Macedonians  did  not  pen- 
 etrate farther  east  than  the  Hyphasis,  report  reached 
 them  of  the  Prasii,  a  powerful  people  on  the  banks  of 
 the  Ganges,  whose  king  was  prepared  to  resist  Alex- 
 ander with  an  immense  army.  After  the  death  of  Al- 
 exander, Seleucus  made  war  against  Sandrocottus, 
 king  of  the  Prasii,  and  was  the  first  Greek  who  ad- 
 vanced as  far  as  the  Ganges.  This  Sandrocottus, 
 674 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 '  called  Sandracoptus  by  Athensus  {Epit.,  1,  32),  Is 
 probably  the  same  as  the  Chandragupta  of  the  Hindus. 
 ;  (Consult  Sir  W.  Jones,  in  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  4, 
 '  \>.  11. —  Wilson'.^  Theatre  of  the  Hindi/s,  vol.  2,  p. 
 127,  seqq.,  2d  ed. — Sehlegel,  Indische  Bihliothek,  vol. 
 1,  p.  216.)  Sandrocottus  is  represented  as  kmu  of 
 the  Gangarida;  and  Prasii,  who  are  probably  one  and 
 the  same  people,  Garigaridse  being  the  name  given  to 
 them  by  the  Greeks,  and  signifying  merely  the  people 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Ganges,  and  Prasii  being 
 the  Hindu  name,  the  same  as  the  Prachi  (i.  e.,  "  east- 
 ern country")  of  the  Sanscrit  writers.  Seleucus  re- 
 mained only  a  short  time  in  the  country  of  the  Prasii, 
 but  his  expedition  was  the  means  of  giving  the  Greeks 
 a  more  correct  knowledge  of  the  eastern  part  of  India 
 than  they  had  hitherto  possessed  ;  since  Megasthenes, 
 and  afterward  Daimachus,  resided  for  many  years  as 
 ambassadors  of  the  Syrian  monarchs  at  Palibothra 
 (in  Sanscrit,  Pataliputra),  the  capital  of  the  Prasii. 
 From  the  work  which  Megasthenes  wrote  on  India, 
 later  writers,  even  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
 such  as  Strabo  and  Arrian,  appear  to  have  derived  their 
 principal  knowledge  af  the  country.  The  Seleucidaa 
 probably  lost  all  influence  at  Palibothra  after  the  death 
 of  Seleucus  Nicator,  B.C.  281  ;  though  we  have  a 
 brief  notice  in  Polybius  (11,  34)  of  an  expedition  which 
 Antiochus  the  Great  made  into  India,  and  of  a  treaty 
 which  he  concluded  with  a  king  Sophagasenus  (in  San- 
 scrit, probably,  Subhagas^na,  i.  e.,  "the  leader  of  9 
 fortunate  army"),  whereby  the  Indian  king  was  bound 
 to  supply  him  with  a  certain  number  of  war  elephants. 
 The  Greek  kingdom  of  Bactria,  which  was  founded 
 by  Theodotus  or  Diodotus,  a  lieutenant  of  the  Syrian 
 monarchs,  and  which  lasted  about  120  years,  appears 
 to  have  comprised  a  considerable  portion  of  northern 
 India. — After  the  foundation  of  Alexandrea,  the  In- 
 dian trade  was  almost  entirely  carried  on  by  the  mer- 
 chants of  that  city  ;  few  ships,  however,  appear  to 
 have  sailed  from  Alexandrea  till  the  discovery  of  the 
 monsoons  by  Hippalus ;  and  the  Arabians  supplied 
 Alexandrea,  as  they  had  previously  done  the  Phoeni- 
 cians, with  the  produce  of  India.  The  monsoons 
 must  have  become  known  to  European  navigators 
 about  the  middle  of  the  first  century  of  our  era,  since 
 they  are  not  mentioned  by  Strabo,  but  were  well 
 known  in  the  time  of  Pliny.  Pliny  has  given  us  (6, 
 23)  an  interesting  account  of  the  trade  between  In- 
 dia and  Alexandrea,  as  it  existed  in  his  own  time. 
 We  learn  from  hiin  that  the  ships  of  the  Alexandrean 
 merchants  set  sail  from  Berenice,  a  port  of  the  Red 
 Sea,  and  arrived,  in  about  30  days,  at  Ocelis  or  Carre, 
 in  Arabia.  Thence  they  sailed  by  the  wind  Hippalus 
 (the  southwest  monsoon),  in  40  days,  to  Muziris  (Man- 
 galore),  the  first  emporium  in  India,  which  was  not 
 muc-h  frequented,  on  account  of  the  pirates  in  the 
 neighbourhood.  The  port  at  which  the  ships  usually 
 stayed  was  that  of  Barace  (at  the  mouth,  probably,  of 
 the  Nelisuram  river).  After  remaining  in  India  till 
 the  beginning  of  December  or  Jaiiuary,  they  sailed 
 back  to  the  Red  Sea,  met  with  the  wind  Africus  or 
 .\uster  (south  or  southwest  wind),  and  thus  arrived  at 
 Berenice  in  less  than  a  twelvemonth  from  the  time 
 they  set  out.  The  same  author  informs  us,  that  the 
 Indian  articles  were  carried  from  Berenice  to  Coptos, 
 a  distance  of  258  Roman  miles,  on  camels  ;  and  that 
 the  dilferent  halting-places  were  determined  by  the 
 wells.  From  Coptos,  which  was  united  to  the  Nile 
 by  a  canal,  the  goods  were  conveyed  down  the  river 
 to  Alexandrea. — We  have  another  account  of  the  In- 
 dian trade,  written  by  Arrian,  who  lived,  in  all  proba- 
 bility, in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
 certainly  not  later  than  the  second.  Arrian  had  been 
 in  India  himself,  and  describes  in  a  small  Greek  trea- 
 tise, entitled  "  the  Periplusof  the  Erythrean  Sea,"  the 
 coast  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  western  parts  of  India ; 
 and  also  gives  a  list  of  the  most  impoBtant  exports  anrf 
 
INDIA. 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 imports.     According  to  this  account,  the  two  princi- 
 pal ports  in  India  were  Barygaza  on  the  northwestern, 
 jind  Barace  or  Nelcynda  on  the  southwestern  coast. 
 To  Barygaza  (the  modern  Baroack,  on  the  river  Ner- 
 budda)   goods    were    brought   from    Ozene   {Oujein), 
 Phthana  (Ptdtaneh),  and  Tagara  {Deoghur).     But  Ba- 
 race or  Nelcynda  seems,  from  the  account  of  Phny 
 and  Arrian,  to  have  been  the  principal  emporium  of 
 the  Indian  trade.     The  Roman  ships  appear  to  have 
 seldom  sailed  beyond  this  point;  and  the  produce  of 
 countries  farther  east  was   brought  to  Barace  by  the 
 native  merchants.     The  knowledge  which  the  Romans 
 possessed  of  India  beyond  Cape  Comorin  was  exceed- 
 ingly vague  and  defective.     Slrabo  describes  the  Gau- 
 ges as  flowing  into  the  sea  by  one  mouth  ;  and  though 
 Plmy  gives  a  long  list  of  Indian  nations,  which  had  not 
 been  previously  mentioned  by  any  Greek  or  Roman 
 writers,  we  have  no  satisfactory  account  of  any  part 
 of  India,  except  the  description  of  the  western  coast 
 by  Arrian.     Ptolemy,  who  lived  about  100  years  later 
 than  Pliny,  appears  to   have  derived   his  information 
 from  the  Alexandrean  merchants,  who  only  sailed  to 
 the  Malabar  coast,  and  could  not,  therefore,  have  any 
 accurate  knowledge  of  the  eastern  parts  of  India,  and 
 still  less  of  the  countries  beyond  the  Ganges ;   still, 
 however,  he  is  the  earliest  writer  who  attempts  to  de- 
 scribe the  countries  to  the  east  of  this  stream.     There 
 is  great  difficulty  in  determining  the  position  of  any 
 of  the  places  enumerated  by  him,  in  consequence  of 
 the  great  error  he  made  in  the  form  of  the  peninsula, 
 which  he  has  made  to  stretch  in  its  length  from  west 
 to  east  instead  of  from   north  to  south;    a  mistake 
 the   more  extraordinary,   since   all  preceding  writers 
 on   India  with  whom  we  are  acquainted    had  given 
 the  general  shape  of  the  peninsula  with  tolerable  accu- 
 racy.— The  Romans  never  extended  their  conquests 
 as  far  as  India,   nor  visited  the   country   except   for 
 the  purposes  of  commerce.     But  the  increase  of  the 
 trtide  between  Alexandrea  and  India  seems  to  have 
 produced    in    the   Indian  princes   a  desire    to  obtain 
 some  farther  information  concerning  the  western  na- 
 tions.    We  read  of  embassies  to  Augustus  Cssar,  sent 
 by  Pandion  and  Porus,  and  also  of  an  embassy  from 
 the  isle  of  Ceylon  to  the  Emperor  Claudius.     Bohlen, 
 in  his   work  on   the  Indians  (vol.   1,  p.  70),  doubts 
 whether  these  embassies  were  sent ;  but  as  they  are 
 both  mentioned  by  contemporary  writers,  the  former 
 by  Strabo    and  the   latter   by  Pliny,  we    can   hardly 
 question  the  truth  of  their  statements.     We  may  form 
 some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  Indian  trade  under 
 the  emperors  by  the  account  of  Pliny  (6,  23),  who  in- 
 forms  us,  that  the   Roman  world  was  drained   every 
 year  of  at  least  50   millions  of  sesterces  (upward  of 
 1,900,000  dollars)  for  the  purchase  of  Indian  commodi- 
 ties.    The  profit  upon  this  trade  must  have  been  im- 
 mense, if  we  are  to  believe  the  statements  of  Pliny, 
 that  Indian  articles  were  sold   at  Rome  at    100  per 
 cent,  above  their  cost  price.     The  articles  imported 
 by  the  Alexandrean   merchants  were  chiefly  precious 
 stones,  spices,  perfumes,  and  silk.     It  has  usually  been 
 considered,  that  the  last  article  was  imported  into  In- 
 dia from  China ;  but  there  are  strong  reasons  for  be- 
 lieving that  the   silkworm  has   been  reared  in  India 
 from  very  early  times.     Mr.  Colebrooke,  in  his  "  Essay 
 on  Hindu  Classes"  {Miscellaneous  Essays,  vol.  2,  p. 
 185),  informs  us,  that  the  class  of  silk-twisters  and 
 feeders  of  silkworms  is  mentioned  in  an  ancient  San- 
 scrit work  ;  in  addition  to  which,  it  may  be  remarked, 
 that  silk  is  known  throughout  the  Archipelago  by  its 
 Sanscrit  name  sutra.     (Marsdcn's  Malay  Dictionary, 
 s.  V.  sutra.)     Those  who  wish  for  farther  information 
 on  the  articles  of  commerce,  both  imported  a!id  ex- 
 ported   by  the  Alexandrean  merchants,  may  consult 
 with  advantage  the  Appendix  to  Dr.  Vincent's  "  Peri- 
 plus  of  the  Erythrean  Sea,"  in  which  he  has  given  an 
 alphabetical  list,  accompanied  with  many  e.^planations, 
 
 of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  Indian  trade,  whieh 
 are  enumerated  in  the  Digest,  and  in  Arrian's  "  Peri- 
 plus  of  the  Erythrean  Sea."— M'e  have  no  farther  ac- 
 count of  the  trade  between  Alexandrea  and  India  till 
 the  time  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  during  whose  reign 
 an  Alexandrean  merchant  of  the  name  of  Cosmas,  who 
 had  made  several  voyages  to  India,  but  who  afterward 
 turned  monk,  published  a  work,  still  extant,  entitled 
 "  Christian  Topography,"  in  which  he  gives  us  sever- 
 al particulars  respecting  ihe  Indian  trade.  But  his 
 knowledge  of  India  is  not  more  extensive  than  that  of 
 Arrian,  for  the  Alexandrean  merchants  continued  to 
 visit  merely  the  Malabar  coast,  to  which  the  produce 
 of  the  country  farther  east  was  brought  by  native  mer- 
 chants, as  in  the  time  of  Arrian.  Alexandrea  con- 
 tinued to  supply  the  nations  of  Europe  with  Indian  ar- 
 ticles till  the  discovery  of  the  passage  round  the  Cape 
 of  Good  Hope  by  Vasco  de  Gama  in  1498.  But  the 
 western  nations  of  Asia  were  principally  supplied  by 
 the  merchants  of  Basora,  which  was  founded  by  the 
 Calif  Omar  near  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates,  and  which 
 soon  became  one  of  the  most  flourishing  commercial 
 cities  of  the  East.  In  addition  to  which  it  must  be 
 recollected,  that  a  land-trade,  conducted  by  means  of 
 caravans,  which  passed  through  the  central  countries 
 of  Asia,  existed  from  very  early  times  between  India 
 and  the  western  nations  of  Asia.  {Encycl.  Useful 
 KnowL,  vol.  12,  p.  222,  seqq.) 
 
 Histwy  of  India  from  the  earliest  limes  to  the  Mo- 
 hammedan Conquest. 
 The  materials   for   the    history  of  this  period    are 
 very  few  and  unsatisfactory.     The  only  ancient  his- 
 tory written  in   the  Sanscrit  language  which  the  re- 
 searches  of  modern  scholars  have   been  able  to  ob- 
 tain, is  a  chronicle  of  the  kings  of  Cashmere,  entitled 
 "  Raja  Taringini,"  of  which   an  abstract  was  given 
 by  Abulfazl   in  the  "  Ayin-i-Akbery."     The  original 
 Sanscrit  was  obtained  for   the   first  time  by  English 
 scholars  in  the  present  century,    and   was  published 
 at    Calcutta    in   the  year  1835.      An  interesting  ac- 
 count of  the  work  is  given  by  Professor  Wilson,  in 
 the  I5th  volume  of  the  "Asiatic  Researches."    But, 
 though  this  volume  throws  considerable  light  upon  the 
 early  history  of  Cashmere,  it  gives  us  little  information 
 respecting  the  early  history  of  Hindustan.     The  exist- 
 ence of  this  chronicle,  however,  is  sufficient  to  dis- 
 prove the  assertion  which  some  persons  have  made, 
 that  the  Hindus  possessed  no  native  history  prior  to 
 the  Mohammedan  conquest ;  and  it  may  be  hoped  that 
 similar  works  may  be  obtained  by  the  researches  of 
 modern  scholars.     We  may  also  expect  to  obtain  far- 
 ther information  by  a  more  diligent  examination  of  the 
 various  inscriptions  which  exist  on  public  buildings  in 
 all  parts  of  Hindustan,  though  the  majority  of  such  in- 
 scriptions relate  to  a  period  subsequent  to  the  Moham- 
 medan conquest.     The  Brahmins  profess  to  give  a  his- 
 tory of  the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Hindustan,  with  the 
 names  of  the  monarchs  who  successively  reigned  over 
 them,  and  the  principal  events  of  their  reigns.     But 
 their  accounts  are  derived  from  the  legendary  tales  of 
 the  Puranas,  a  class  of  compositions  very  similar  to 
 the  Greek  Theogonies  ;  and  although  these,  and  es- 
 pecially the  two  great  epic  poems,  the  "  Ramayana" 
 and  "  Mahabharata,"  are  exceedingly  valuable  for  the 
 information  they  give  us  respecting  the  religion,  civil- 
 ization, and  customs  of  the  ancient  Hindus,  they  can- 
 not be  regarded  as  authorities  for  historical  events. — 
 The  invanable  tradition  of  the  Hindus  points  to  the 
 northern  parts  of  Hindustan  as  the  original  abode  of 
 their  race,  and  of  the  Brahminical  faith  and  laws.     It 
 appears  probable,  both  from  the  tradition  of  the  Hindus 
 and  from  the  similarity  of  the  Sanscrit  to  the  Zend, 
 Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  that  the  nation  from  which 
 the  genuine  Hindus  are  descended  must  at  some  pe- 
 riod have  inhabited  the  plains  of  Central  Asia,  froio 
 
 675 
 
INDIA. 
 
 IND 
 
 which  they  emigrated  into  the  northern  part  of  Hindu- '  Sanscrit.  The  modern  Concan  is  described  by  both 
 Btan.  lleer-cn  and  other  writers  have  supposed,  that '  Arrian  and  Pliny  as  the  pirate  coast ;  and  the  coast 
 the  Brahmins,  and  perhaps  the  Kshatriyas  and  Vaisyas,  I  of  the  modern  Orissa  is  said  by  Arrian  to  have  been 
 were  a  race  of  northern  conquerors,  who  subdued  the  inhabited  by  a  savage  race  called  Kirrhadce,  who  ap- 
 Sudras,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country.     But,    pear  to  be  identical  with  the  Kiratas  of  the  Sanscrit 
 
 whatever  opinion  may  be  entertained  respecting  the 
 origin   of  this  people,  it  is  evident  that  the  Hindus 
 themselves  never  regarded   the  southern  part  of  the 
 peninsula  as  forming  part  of  Aryavarta,  or  "  the  holy 
 land,"  the  name  of  the  country  inhabited  by  genuine 
 Hindus.     Aryavarta  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
 Himalaya,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Vindhya  Mount- 
 ains {Mann,  6,  21-24);  the  boundaries  on  the  east 
 and   west  cannot  be  so  easily  ascertained.     In   this 
 country,  and  especially  in  the  eastern  part,  there  ex- 
 isted great  and  powerful  empires,  at  least  a  thousand 
 years  before  the  Christian  era  (the  probable  date  of  the 
 kamayana-  and  Mahabharata),  which  had  made  great 
 progress  in  knowledge,  civilization,  and  the  fine  arts, 
 and  of  which  the  ancient  literature  of  the  Sanscrit  lan- 
 guages is  an  imperishable  memorial.     According    to 
 Hindu  tradition,  two  empires  only  existed  in  the  most 
 ancient  times,  of  which  the  capitals  were  Ayodhya  or 
 Oudc,    and    Pratishthana    or    Vitora.     Tlie    kings    of 
 these  cities,   who  are  respectively  denominated  chil- 
 dren of  the   Sun  and  of  the  Moon,  are  supposed  to 
 have  been  the  lineal  descendants  of  Satyavrata,  the 
 seventh  Manu,  during  whose  life  all  living  creatures, 
 with  the  exception  of  himself  and  his  family,  were  de- 
 stroyed by  a  general  deluge.     Another  kingdom  was 
 afterward  established  at  Magadha  or  Bahar,  by  Jaras- 
 audha,  appointed  governor  of  the  province  by  a  sover- 
 eiorn  of  the  Lunar  race.     A  list  of  these  kings  is  giv- 
 en by  Sir  William  Jones,  in  his  "  Essay  on  the  Chro- 
 nology of  the  Hindus."     {Asiat.  Research.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 Ill,  scq.,  8vo  ed.) — The  kings  of  Ayodhya  appear  to 
 have  conquered   the  Deccan,  and  to  have  introduced 
 the  Brahininical  faith  and  laws  into  the  southern  part 
 of  the  peninsula.     Such,  at  least,  appears  to  be  the 
 meaning  of  the  Ramayana,  according  to  which,  Rama, 
 an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  the  son  of  the  king  of 
 Ayodhya,  penetrates  to  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula, 
 and  conquers  the  giants  of  Lauka  (Ceylon).     This  is 
 in  accordance  with  all  the  traditions  of  the  peninsula, 
 which  recognise  a  period  when  the  inhabitants  were 
 not    Hindus.     We    have    no    means    of  ascertaining 
 whether  these  conquests  by  the  monarchs  of  Ayodhya 
 were  permanent;  but  we  know  that,  in  tiie  time  of  Ar- 
 rian and  Pliny,  the  Brahminical  faith  prevailed  in  the 
 southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  since  all  the  principal 
 places  mentioned  by  these  writers  have  Sanscrit  names. 
 We  learn  from  tradition,  and  from  historical  records 
 extant  in  the  Tamul  language  (Wilson's  Descriptive 
 Catalogue  of  the  Oriental  MSS.  collected  hy  the  late 
 Lieutenant- col.  Mackenzie. — Taylor's   Oriental  His- 
 torical MSS.  in  the   Tamul  language,  2  vols.   4lo, 
 Madras,  1835),  that  three  kingdoms  acquired,  in  early 
 times,  great  political  importance  in  the  southern  part 
 of  the  Deccan.     These  were  named  Pandya,  Chola, 
 and  Chera,  and  are  all  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
 natives  of  Ayodhya,  who  colonized  the  Deccan  with 
 Hindus  from  the  north.     Pandya  was  the  most  pow- 
 erful of  these  kingdoms  :  it  was  bounded  on  the  north 
 by  the  river  Velar,  on  the  west  by  the  Ghauts,  though 
 in  early  times  it  extended  as  far  as  the  Malabar  coast, 
 and  on  the  south  and  east  by  the  sea.      Its  principal 
 town  was  Madura.     The  antiquity  of  this  kingdom 
 is  confirmed  by  Pliny,  Arrian,  and   Ptolemy,  who  all 
 mention  Pandion  as  a  king  who  reigned  in  the  south 
 of  the  [)eninsula.     The  Brahminical  colonists  appear 
 to  have  settled  principally  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
 Deccan :  the  native  traditions  represent  the  northern 
 parts  as  inhabited  by  savage  races  till  a  much  later 
 period.     This  is  in  accordance  with  the  accounts  of 
 the  Greek  writers.     The  names  of  the  places  on  the 
 upper  part  of  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  are  not 
 676 
 
 writers,  and  who  are  represented  to  have  been  a  race 
 of  savage  foresters. — The  accounts  of  the  Greeks  who 
 accompanied  Alexander,  and  more  particularly  that  of 
 Megasthenes,  give  us,  as  we  have  already  shown,  some 
 information  respecting  the  northern  part  of  Hindustan 
 in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  before  the  Christian 
 era.     But  hardly  anything  is  known  of  the  history  of 
 Hindustan  from  this  period  to  the  time  of  the  Moham- 
 medan conquest.     There  are  only  a  very  few  historical 
 events  of  which  we  can  speak  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
 tainty.    After  the  overthrow  of  the  Greek  kingdom  of 
 Bactria  by  the  Tartars,  B.C.  126,  the  Tartars  (called 
 by  the  Greeks  Scythians,  and  by  the  Hindus  Sakas) 
 overran  the  greater  part  of  the  northwestern  provinces 
 of  Hindustan,  which  remained  in  their  possession  till 
 the  reign  of  Vicramaditya  I.,  B.C.  ."56,  who,  after  add- 
 ing numerous  provinces  to  his  empire,  drove  the  Tar- 
 tars beyond  the  Indus.     This  sovereign,  whose  date  is 
 pretty  well  ascertained,  since  the  years  of  the  Samvat 
 era  are  counted  from  his  reign,  resided  at  Ayodhya 
 and  Canoj,  and  had  dominion  over  almost  the  whole 
 of  northern  Hindustan,  from  Cashmere  to  the  Ganges. 
 He  gave  great  encouragement  to  learning  and  the  fine 
 arts,  and  his  name  is  still  cherished  by  the  Hindus  as 
 one  of  their  greatest  and  wisest  princes.     He  fell  in  a 
 battle  against  Salivahana,  raja  of  the  Deccan.     We 
 also  read  of  two  other  sovereigns  of  the  same  name : 
 Vicramaditya  II.,  A.D.   191,  and  Vicramaditya  III., 
 A.D.  441.     The  most  interesting  event  in  this  period 
 of  Hindu  history  is  the  persecution  of  the  Buddhists, 
 and  their  final  expulsion  from  Hindustan.     It  is  diffi- 
 cult to  conceive  the  reasons  that  induced  the  Hindu 
 sovereigns,  after  so  long  a  period  of  toleration,  to  aid 
 the  Brahmins  in  this  persecution  ;  more  especially  as 
 the  Jains,  a  sect  strikingly  resembling  the  Buddhists, 
 were  tolerated  in  all  parts  of  Hindustan. — Christianity 
 is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Hindustan  in  the 
 first   century  ;    according   to  some   accounts,   by   the 
 apostle   Thomas ;    and,   according   to   others,   by  the 
 apostle  Bartholomew.     But  there  is  very  little  depend- 
 ance  to  be  placed  upon  these  statements.     The  first 
 Christians  who  were  settled  in  any  number  in  Hindu- 
 stan appear  to  have  been  Nestorians,  who  settled  on 
 the  Malabar  coast  for  the  purposes  of  commerce.    Nes- 
 torius  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  ;  and  in 
 the  sixth  century  we  learn  from  Cosmas  that  Christian 
 churches  were  established  in  the  most  important  cities 
 on  the  Malabar  coast,  and  that  the  priests  were  ordain- 
 ed by  the  Archbishop  of  Seleucia,  and  were  subject  to 
 his  jurisdiction.     When  Vasco  de  Gama  arrived    at 
 Cochm,  on  the  Malabar  coast,  he  was  surprised  to  find 
 a  great  number  of  Christians,  who  inhabited  the  inte- 
 rior of  Travancore  and  Malabar,  and  who  had  more 
 than  a  hundred  churches.     But  these  Christians  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  the  descendants  of  those  Nestori- 
 ans who  emigrated  to  Hindustan  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
 centuries,  since  there  is  no  reason   for  believing  that 
 anv  Hindus  were   converted   by  their  means    to  the 
 Christian  religion.     {Encycl.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  12,  p 
 224,  seqq.) 
 
 iNnus,  a  celebrated  river  of  India,  falling,  after  a 
 course  of  1300  miles,  into  the  Indian  Ocean.  Ths 
 sources  of  this  river  have  not  yet  been  fully  explored. 
 Its  commencement  is  fixed,  by  the  most  probable  con- 
 jecture, in  the  northern  declivity  of  the  Calias  branch 
 of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  about  lat.  31°  20'  N., 
 and  long.  80°  30'  E.,  within  a  few  miles  of  the  source 
 of  the  Sclledge,  and  in  a  territory  under  the  dominion 
 of  China.  Its  name  in  Sanscrit  is  Sindh  or  Hindh,  an 
 appellation  which  it  receives  from  its  blue  colour. 
 Under  the  name  Sindus  it  was  known  even  to  the  Ro- 
 
INT 
 
 10 
 
 .  mans,  besides  its  more  common  appellation  of  Indus. 
 In  lat.  28°  28',  the  Indus  is  joined  by  five  rivers,  the 
 ancietit  names  of  which,  as  given  by  the  Greek  writers, 
 are,  the  Hydaspes,  Acesines,  Hydraotes,  Hyphasis, 
 and  Xeradrus.  These  five  rivers  obtained  for  the 
 province  which  they  watered  the  Greek  name  of  Pen- 
 tapotamia,  analogous  to  which  is  the  modern  appella- 
 tion of  Pendjab,  given  to  the  same  region,  and  signi- 
 fying in  Persian  "the  country  of  the  five  rivers." 
 (Consult  Lassen,  Comment,  de  Pentapot.  Indica,  4to, 
 BonncE,  1827. — Beck,  AUgeraeines  Repertormm,  vol. 
 1,  pt.  2,  p.  112.)  The  Xeradrus,  now  the  Setledge, 
 is  the  longest  of  the  five  rivers  just  mentioned,  and  the 
 longest  stream  also  within  the  Himalaya  range,  be- 
 tween the  Indus  and  the  Burravipooler.  The  union 
 of  all  the  five  rivers  into  one,  before  they  reach  the 
 Indus,  was  a  point  in  geography  maintained  by  Ptole- 
 my ;  but,  owing  to  the  obscurity  of  modern  accounts, 
 promoted  by  the  splittings  of  the  Indus,  and  the  fre- 
 quent approximation  of  streams  running  in  parallel 
 courses,  we  had  been  taught  to  regard  this  as  a  speci- 
 men of  that  author's  deficiency  of  information,  till  very 
 recent  and  more  minute  inquiries  have  re-established 
 that  questioned  point,  and,  along  with  it,  the  merited 
 credit  of  the  ancient  geographer.  The  five  rivers  form 
 one  great  stream,  called  by  the  natives  in  this  quarter 
 the  Ckerraub ;  but  in  the  other  countries  of  India  it  is 
 known  by  the  name  of  Punjund.  The  united  stream 
 then  flows  on  between  40  and  50  miles,  until  it  joins 
 the  Indus  at  Mltlun  Cote.  The  mouths  of  the  Indus 
 Ptolemy  makes  seven  in  number  ;  Mannert  gives  them 
 as  follows,  commencing  on  the  west:  Sagapa,  now 
 the  river  Piity ;  Sinthos,  now  the  Daridviay ;  Aureum 
 f)stium,  now  the  Ritchcl;  Chariphus,  now  the  Petty; 
 Sapara,  Sabala,  and  Lonibare,  of  which  last  three  he 
 professes  to  know  nothing  with  certainty.  According, 
 however,  to  other  and  more  recent  authorities,  the  In- 
 dus enters  the  sea  in  one  volume,  the  lateral  streams 
 being  absorbed  by  the  sand  without  reaching  the  ocean. 
 It  gives  off  an  easterly  branch  called  the  FuUalee,  but 
 this  returns  its  waters  to  the  Indus  at  a  lower  point, 
 forming  in  its  circuit  the  island  on  which  Hyderabad 
 stands.     (Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  13,  Am.  ed.) 
 
 I\o,  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia.  {Vid. 
 Athamas.) 
 
 Inopus,  a  river  of  Delos,  watering  the  plain  in  which 
 the  town  of  Delos  stood.  (Slrab.,  485. — Callim.,  H. 
 in  Del.,  206.) 
 
 Inoos,  a  patronymic  given  to  the  god  Palsemon,  as 
 son  of  Ino.     (Virg.,  JEn.,  5,  823.) 
 
 Insubres  (in  Greek  "laojitjpoi),  the  most  numerous 
 as  well  as  the  most  powerful  tribe  of  the  Cisalpine 
 Gauls,  according  to  Polybius  (2,  17).  It  would  ap- 
 pear indeed  from  Ptolemy  (p.  64)  that  their  dominion 
 extended  at  one  time  over  the  Libicii,  another  power- 
 ful Gallic  tribe  in  their  vicinity ;  but  their  territory, 
 properly  speaking,  seems  to  have  been  defined  by  the 
 rivers  Ticinus  and  Addua.  The  Insubres  took  a  very 
 active  part  in  the  Gallic  wars  against  the  Romans,  and 
 zealously  co-operated  with  Hannibal  in  his  invasion  of 
 Italy.  (Poiyb.,  2,  40.)  They  are  stated  by  Livy  (5, 
 34)  to  have  founded  their  capital  Mediolanum  (now 
 Milan)  on  their  first  arrival  in  Italy,  and  to  have  giv- 
 en it  that  name  from  a  place  so  called  in  the  territory 
 of  the  ^dui  in  Gaul.  [Plin.,  3,  17. — PloL,  p.  63.— 
 Consult  remarks  under  the  article  Gallia,  page  531, 
 col.  1.) 
 
 Insul.a.  Sacka,  an  island  formed  at  the  mouth  of 
 the  Tiber,  by  the  separation  of  the  two  branches  of 
 that  river.  {Procopius,  Rer.  Got,  I. — Rulil.  Itin., 
 3,  169.) 
 
 Intemelium  or  Ar.BiuM  Intemelium,  the  capital  of 
 the  Intemelii.     {Vid.  Albium  II.) 
 
 Interamna,  I.  acity  of  Umbria,  so  called  from  its  be- 
 ing situated  between  two  branches  [inter  amnes)  of  the 
 fiver  Nar.     {Varro^  L.  L.,  4,  5.)     Hence  also  the  in- 
 
 habitants of  the  place  were  known  as  the  Iiiteramnates 
 Nartes,  to  distinguish  them  from  those  of  Interamna 
 on  the  Liris.  (PLin.,  3,  14.)  If  an  ancient  inscrip- 
 tion cited  by  Cluverius  [Ital.  Ant.,  vol.  1,  p.  635)  be 
 genuine,  Interamna,  now  represented  by  the  well- 
 known  town  of  Terni,  was  founded  in  the  reign  of 
 Numa,  or  about  80  years  after  Rome.  It  is  noted  af- 
 terward as  one  of  the  most  distinguished  cities  of  mu- 
 nicipal rank  in  Italy.  This  circumstance,  however,  did 
 not  save  it  from  the  calamities  of  civil  war  during  the 
 disastrous  struggle  between  Sylla  and  Marius.  {Ptorus, 
 3,  21.)  The  plains  around  Interamna,  which  were 
 watered  by  the  Nar,  are  represented  as  the  most  pro- 
 ductive in  Italy  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  \,  69);  and  Pliny  as- 
 sures us  (18,  28),  that  the  meadows  were  cut  four 
 times  in  the  year.  Interamna  is  commonly  supposed 
 to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  the  historian  Tacitus, 
 and  also  of  the  emperor  of  the  same  name.  ( Cramer^s 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  l,p.  276.)— II.  A  city  of  Picenum,  in 
 the  territory  of  the  Praetutii ;  hence  called,  for  distinc- 
 tion' sake,  Prstutiana.  (Piol.,  p.  62.)  It  is  now  7'em- 
 mo,  situate  between  the  small  rivers  Viziola  and  Tur- 
 dino.  {Romanelli,  Antica  Topografia,  &c.,  pt.  3,  p. 
 298,  seqq.) — III.  A  city  of  New  Latium,  situate  on 
 the  Liris,  and  between  that  river  and  the  small  stream 
 now  called  Sogne,  but  the  ancient  name  of  which 
 Strabo,  who  states  the  fact,  has  not  mentioned.  It 
 was  usually  called  Interamna  ad  Lirim,  for  distinction' 
 sake  from  the  other  cities  of  the  same  name.  Accord- 
 ing to  Livy  (9,  28)  it  was  colonized  A.U.C.  440,  and 
 defended  itself  successfully  against  the  Samnites,  who 
 made  an  attack  upon  it  soon  after.  {Liv.,  10,  30.) 
 Interamna  is  mentioned  again  by  the  same  historian 
 (26,  9)  when  describing  Hannibal's  march  from  Capua 
 to  Rome.  We  find  its  name  subsequently  among 
 those  of  the  refractory  colonies  of  that  war.  (Liv  , 
 27,  9.)  Pliny  informs  us  that  the  Interamnates  were 
 surnamed  Lirinates  and  Succasini.  (Pirn.,  3,  5.) 
 Cluverius  imagined  that  Ponte  Corvo  occupied  the  site 
 of  Interamna ;  but  its  situation  agrees  more  nearly 
 with  that  of  a  place  called  Terame  Castrume,  in  old 
 records,  and  the  name  of  which  is  evidently  a  corrup- 
 tion of  Interamna.     ( Cramer^s  Anc.  It.,  vol.  2,  p.  117.) 
 
 Iniji  Castrum.      Vid.  Castrum  II. 
 
 lo,  daughter  of  lasus,  or,  as  the  dramatic  writers 
 said,  of  Inachus,  was  priestess  of  Juno  at  Argos,  and, 
 unhappily  for  her,  was  beloved  by  Jupiter.  When 
 this  god  found  that  his  conduct  had  exposed  him  to 
 the  suspicions  of  Juno,  he  changed  lo  into  a  white 
 cow,  and  declared  with  an  oath  to  his  spouse  that  he 
 had  been  guilty  of  no  infidelity.  The  goddess,  affect- 
 ing to  believe  him,  asked  the  cow  of  him  as  a  present; 
 and,  on  obtaining  her,  set  the  "all-seeing  Argus"  to 
 watch  her.  (FieZ.  Argus.)  He  accordingly  bound  her 
 to  an  olive-tree  in  the  grove  of  Mycenie,  and  there  kept 
 guard  over  her.  Jupiter,  pitying  her  situation,  directed 
 Mercury  to  steal  her  away.  The  god  of  ingenious  de- 
 vices made  the  attempt ;  but,  as  a  vulture  always  gave 
 Argus  warning  of  his  projects,  he  found  it  impossible 
 to  succeed.  Nothing  then  remaining  but  open  force. 
 Mercury  killed  Argus  with  a  stone,  and  hence  obtained 
 the  appellation  of  Argus-slayer  (' ApyEKpovTrjg).  The 
 vengeance  of  Juno  was,  however,  not  yet  satiated  ;  and 
 she  sent  a  gad-fly  to  torment  lo,  who  fled  over  the 
 whole  world  from  its  pursuits.  She  swam  through  the 
 Ionian  Sea,  which  was  fabled  to  have  hence  derived 
 its  name  from  her.  She  then  roamed  over  the  plains 
 of  Illyria,  ascended  Mount  Hsemus,  and  crossed  the 
 Thracian  strait,  thence  named  tlie  Bosporus  [vid.  Bos 
 porus),  she  rambled  on  through  Scythia  and  the  country 
 of  the  Cimmerians,  and,  after  wandering  over  various 
 regions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  arrived  at  last  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Nile,  where  slie  a.s.-^umed  her  original  form,  and 
 bore  to  Jupiter  a   son   named   I-:paphus.     {Via.  Epa- 
 
 phus.) The  legend  of  lo  would  not  appear  to  have 
 
 attracted  so  much  of  the  attention  of  the  earlier  poets 
 
 677 
 
10. 
 
 ION 
 
 as  might  have  been  expected.  Homer  never  alludes  to 
 it,  unless  his  employment  of  the  term  'Apyei^SvTT/c  {Ar- 
 geiphontcs)  is  to  be  regarded  as  intimating  a  knowl- 
 edge of  lo.  It  is  also  doubtful  whether  she  was  one 
 of  the  heroines  of  the  Eoeae.  Her  story,  however,  was 
 noticed  in  the  .^Egimius,  where  it  was  said  that  her  fa- 
 ther's name  was  Peiren,  that  her  keeper  Argus  had 
 four  eyes,  and  that  the  island  of  Euboea  derived  its 
 name  from  her.  {ApuUod.,  2,  1,  3.  —  Schol.  ad  Eu- 
 rip.,  Phxn.,  l\32.  —  Slcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'Mavrig.) 
 Pherecydes  said  that  Juno  placed  an  eye  in  the  back 
 of  Argus's  neck,  and  deprived  him  of  sleep,  and  then 
 set  him  as  a  guard  over  lo.  {Ap.  Schol.  ad  Eurip., 
 I.  c.)  .-Eschylus  introduces  To  into  his  "  Prometheus 
 Bound,"  and  he  also  relates  her  story  in  his  "  Suppli- 
 ants."— When  the  -Greeks  first  settled  in  Egypt,  and 
 saw  the  statues  of  Isis  with  cow's  horns,  they,  in  their 
 usual  manner,  inferred  that  she  was  their  own  lo,  with 
 whose  name  hers  had  a  slight  similarity.  At  Memphis 
 they  afterward  beheld  the  worship  of  the  holy  bull 
 Apis,  and  naturally  supposing  the  bull-god  to  be  the  son 
 of  the  cow-goddess,  they  formed  fiom  him  a  son  for 
 their  To,  whose  name  was  the  occasion  of  a  new  legend 
 relative  to  the  mode  by  which  she  wafe  restored  to  her 
 pristine  form.  {Miiller,  Proleg.,  p.  1S3,  seq. — Keight- 
 ley's  Mythology,  p.  406,  seqq.) — The  whole  story  of 
 lo  is  an  agricultural  legend,  and  admits  of  an  easy  ex- 
 planation, lo,  whether  considered  as  the  otTspring  of 
 lasus  (the  favourite  of  Ceres)  or  of  Peiren  (the  "ex- 
 perimenter" or  "tryer"),  is  a  type  of  early  agriculture, 
 progressing  gradually  by  the  aid  of  slow  and  painful 
 experience.  Jupiter  represents  the  firmament,  the  ge- 
 nial source  of  light  and  life  ;  Juno,  on  the  other  hand, 
 is  the  type  of  the  atmosphere,  with  its  stormy  and  ca- 
 pricious changes.  Early  agriculture  suffers  from  these 
 changes,  which  impede  more  or  less  the  fostering  in- 
 fluence of  the  pure  firmament  that  lies  beyond,  and 
 hence  man  has  to  watch  with  incessant  and  sleepless 
 care  over  the  labours  of  primitive  husbandry.  This 
 ever-watchful  superintendence  is  typified  by  Argus 
 with  his  countless  eyes,  save  that  in  the  legend  he  be- 
 comes an  instrument  of  punishment  in  the  hands  of 
 Juno.  If  we  turn  to  the  version  of  the  fable  as  given 
 in  the  ^gimius,  the  meaning  of  the  whole  story  be- 
 comes still  plainer,  for  here  the  four  eyes  of  Argus 
 are  types  of  the  four  seasons,  while  the  name  Euboea 
 contains  a  direct  reference  to  success  in  agriculture. 
 Argus,  continues  the  legend,  was  slain  by  Mercury, 
 and  lo  was  then  left  free  to  wander  over  the  whole 
 earth.  Now,  as  Mercury  was  the  god  of  language 
 and  the  inventor  of  letters,  what  is  this  but  saying,  that 
 when  rules  and  precepts  of  agriculture  were  intro- 
 duced, first  orally  and  then  in  writing,  mankind  were 
 released  from  that  ever-watching  care  which  early  hus- 
 bandry had  required  from  them,  and  agriculture,  now 
 reduced  to  a  regular  system,  went  forth  in  freedom 
 and  spread  itself  among  the  nations  ? — Again,  in  Egypt 
 lo  finds  at  last  a  resting-place;  here  she  assumes  her 
 original  form,  and  here  brings  forth  Epaphus  as  the  off- 
 spring of  Jove.  What  is  this  but  saying  that  agricul- 
 ture was  carried  to  perfection  in  the  fertile  land  of  the 
 Nile,  and  that  here  it  was  touched  (km  and  u(puu)  by  the 
 true  generative  influence  from  on  high,  and  brought 
 forth  in  the  richest  abundance  f — Still  farther,  the  eyes 
 of  Argus,  we  are  told,  were  transferred  by  Juno  to  the 
 plumage  of  her  favourite  bird;  and  the  peacock,  it  is 
 well  known,  gives  sure  indications,  by  its  cry,  of 
 changes  about  to  take  place  iii  the  atmosphere,  and  is 
 in  this  respect,  therefore,  intimately  connected  with 
 the  operations  of  husbandry.  We  see.  too,  from  this, 
 why,  since  Juno  is  the  type  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
 peacock  was  considered  as  sacred  to  the  goddess. 
 (Vid.  Juno.) — From  what  has  been  said,  it  would  seem 
 that  the  name  To  is  to  be  deduced  from  Ii2  (slfii),  ^^ to 
 go"  as  indicative  of  vegetation  going  forth  from  the 
 bosom  of  the  earth. 
 678 
 
 loBATEs,  a  king  of  Lycia,  father  of  Sthenobaea,  the 
 wife  of  Proetus,  king  of  Argos.     (Firf.  Bellerophon.) 
 
 JocASTA,  a  daughter  of  Menoeceus,  who  married 
 Laius,  king  of  Thebes,  by  whom  she  had  CEdipus. 
 She  was  afterward  united  to  her  son  Qi^dipus  without 
 knowing  who  he  was,  and  had  by  him  Eteocles,  Poly- 
 nices,  Ismene,  and  Antigone.  She  hung  herself  on 
 discovering  that  QEdipus  was  her  own  offspring.  ( Vid. 
 Laius,  and  CEdipus.) 
 
 loLAUs,  a  son  of  Iphiclus,  king  of  Thessaly,  who 
 assisted  Hercules  in  conquering  the  Hydra.  {Vid. 
 Hydra,  and  Hercules.) 
 
 loLcos,  a  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  district  of  Mag- 
 nesia, at  the  head  of  the  Pelasgicus  Sinus,  and  north- 
 east of  Demetrias.  It  was  celebrated  in  the  heroic 
 age  as  the  birthplace  of  Jason  and  his  ancestors.  lol- 
 cos  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pelion,  accord- 
 ing to  Pindar  {Ncm.,  4,  87),  and  near  the  small  river 
 Anaurus,  in  which  Jason  is  said  to  have  lost  his  san- 
 dal. (Apoll.  Rhod.,  1,  48.)  Strabo  affirms  that  civil 
 dissensions  and  tyrannical  government  hastened  the 
 downfall  of  this  place,  which  was  once  a  powerful  city ; 
 but  its  ruin  was  finally  completed  by  the  foundation  of 
 Demetrias  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  In  his  time  the 
 town  no  longer  existed,  but  the  neighbouring  shore 
 still  retained  the  name  of  lolcos.  {Strub.,  436. — Com- 
 pare Liv.,  43,  12. — Scylax,  p.  25. — Ste.ph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 'Iw/l/c6f. — Plin.,  4,  9.)  The  poets  make  the  ship  Ar- 
 go  to  have  set  sail  from  lolcos  ;  this,  however,  must 
 either  be  understood  as  referring  the  fact  to  Aphetae, 
 or  else  by  lolcos  they  mean  the  adjacent  coast.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  428.) 
 
 loLE,  a  daughter  of  Eurytus,  king  of  CEchalia. 
 {Vid.  Hercules,  page  598,  col.  2.) 
 
 Ion,  I.  the  fabled  son  of  Xuthus,  and  reputed  pro- 
 genitor of  the  Ionian  race.  {Vid.  lones.) — 11.  A  tra- 
 gic poet,  a  native  of  Chios,  and  surnamed  Xuthus. 
 He  began  to  exhibit  01.  82,  2,  B.C.  451.  The  num- 
 ber of  his  dramas  is  variously  estimated  at  from  twelve 
 to  forty.  Bentley  has  collected  the  names  of  eleven. 
 (Epist.  ad  Mill.  Chron.  I.  Malal.  subj.)  The  same 
 great  critic  has  also  shown  that  this  Ion  was  a  person 
 of  birth  and  fortune,  distinct  from  Ion  Ephesius,  a  mere 
 begging  rhapsodist.  Besides  tragedies,  Ion  composed 
 dithyrambs,  elegies,  &,c.  His  elegies  are  quoted  by 
 Athenasus  (10,  p.  436),  as  also  his  'ETndijfiiai,  a  work 
 giving  an  account  of  all  the  visits  paid  by  celebrated 
 men  to  Chios.  {Athenccus,  3,  p.  93.)  Ion  also  com- 
 posed several  works  in  prose,  some  of  them  on  philo- 
 sophical subjects.  Though  he  did  not  exhibit  till  after 
 Euripides  had  commenced  his  dramatic  career,  and 
 though  he  was,  like  that  poet,  a  friend  of  Socrates 
 {Diog.  Lacrt..  2,  23),  we  should  be  inclined  to  infer, 
 from  his  having  written  dithyrambs,  that  he  belonged 
 to  an  earlier  age  of  the  dramatic-art,  and  that  his  plays 
 were  free  from  the  corruptions  which  Euripides  had 
 introduced  into  Greek  tragedy  :  it  is,  indeed,  likely 
 that  a  foreigner  would  copy  rather  from  the  old  mod- 
 els than  from  modern  innovations.  Ion  was  so  de- 
 lighted with  being  decreed  victor  on  one  occasion,  that 
 he  presented  each  citizen  with  a  vase  of  Chian  pottery. 
 {Athen.,  1,  p.  4  )  We  gather  from  a  joke  of  Aris- 
 tophanes, on  a  word  taken  from  one  of  his  dithyrambs, 
 that  Ion  died  before  the  exhibition  of  the  Pax,  B.C. 
 419.  {Pax.  V.  823.  — Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p.  92, 
 4th  ed.) 
 
 loNES,  one  of  the  main  original  races  of  Greece. 
 The  origin  of  the  lonians  is  involved  in  great  obscuri- 
 ty. The  name  occurs  in  the  Iliad  but  once,  and  in  the 
 form  "  laones"  (//.,  13,  685);  but  not  many  years 
 after  the  war  of  Troy,  the  lonians  appear  as  settled  in 
 Attica,  and  also  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Peiopoime 
 sus,  along  the  coast  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  Herodo- 
 tus (8,  44)  says,  that  the  Athenians  were  originally 
 Pelasgi,  but  that  after  Ion,  the  son  of  Xuthus,  became 
 the  leader  of  the  forces  of  the  Athenians,  the  people 
 
ION 
 
 IONIA. 
 
 received  the  name  of  lonians.  It  appears  probable  that 
 the  lonians,  like  the  ^olians,  were  a  conquering  tribe 
 from  the  mountains  of  Thessaly,  and  that  at  an  un- 
 known period  they  migrated  southward,  and  settled  in 
 Attica  and  part  of  the  Peloponnesus,  probably  mixing 
 with  the  native  Pelasgi.  The  genealogy  of  Ion,  the 
 reputed  son  of  Xuthus,  seems  to  be  a  legend  under 
 which  is  veiled  the  early  history  of  the  Ionian  occupa- 
 tion of  Attica.  Euripides,  in  order  to  flatter  the  Athe- 
 nians, makes  Ion  the  son  of  Apollo.  Whatever  may 
 be  the  historical  origin  of  the  Ionian  name,  Athenians 
 and  lonians  came  to  be  considered  as  one  and  the  same 
 people.  In  the  Peloponnesus  the  lonians  occupied  the 
 northern  coast  of  the  peninsula,  which  was  then  called 
 Ionia,  and  also  iEgialaean  Ionia,  and  the  sea  which 
 separates  the  Peloponnesus  from  Southern  Italy  as- 
 sumed the  name  of  Ionian  Sea,  a  circumstance  which 
 would  seem  to  indicate  the  extent  and  prevalence  of 
 the  Ionian  name.  This  appellation  of  Ionian  Sea  was 
 retained  among  the  later  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  and 
 is  perpetuated  to  the  present  day  among  the  Italians. 
 When  the  Dorians  invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  about 
 1 100  years  B.C.,  the  Achaji,  being  driven  thence,  gath- 
 ered towards  the  north,  and  took  possession  of  Ionia, 
 which  thenceforth  was  known  by  the  name  of  Achaia. 
 The  lonians  of  the  Peloponnesus,  in  consequence  of 
 this,  migrated  to  Attica,  whence,  being  straitened  for 
 space,  and  perhaps,  also,  harassed  by  the  Dorians,  they 
 resolved  to  seek  their  fortune  beyond  the  sea,  under 
 the  guidance  of  Neleus  and  Androclus,  the  two  young- 
 er sons  of  Codrus,  the  last  king  of  Athens.  This  was 
 the  great  Ionic  migration,  as  it  is  called.  The  emi- 
 grants consisted  of  natives  of  Attica,  as  well  as  of  Io- 
 nian fugitives  from  the  Peloponnesus,  and  a  motley 
 band  from  other  parts  of  Greece.  (Herod.,  1,  146.) 
 But  this  migration  can,  perhaps,  hardly  be  considered 
 as  one  single  event :  there  seem  to  have  been  many 
 and  various  migrations  of  lonians,  some  of  which  were 
 probably  anterior  to  the  Dorian  conquest.  {Encycl. 
 Us.  KnowL,  vol.  13,  p.  13,  seq.) — For  the  history  of 
 the  Ionic  colonies  in  Asia  Minor,  consult  the  article 
 Ionia. — We  have  already  remarked,  that  the  origin  of 
 the  name  Ionian  is  altogether  uncertain.  It  is  gener- 
 ally thought  to  come  from  the  Hebrew  lavan  or  (if 
 pronounced  with  the  quiescent  vau)  Ion ;  and  in  like 
 manner  the  Hellenes  are  thought  to  be  the  same  with 
 Elisa,  in  the  sacred  writings,  more  especially  their 
 country  Hellas.  Hence  Bochart  makes  lavan,  the  son 
 of  laphet,  the  ancestor  of  the  lones.  The  Persians, 
 moreover,  would  seem  to  have  called  the  Greeks  by  a 
 similar  appellation.  Thus,  in  Aristophanes  {Acharn., 
 V.  104),  a  Persian,  who  speaks  broken  Greek,  is  in- 
 troduced, expressing  himself  as  follows  :  ov  Xijipi.  XP''^'' 
 ao  xavvonpioKT'  'laovav,  and  the  scholiast  remarks,  with 
 reference  to  the  last  word,  'laovav  uvtI  tov  KdrjvalE 
 
 (jf  TzavTa<;  tovq  "'E.XkT]vag  o'l  (iuptapOL  eku- 
 
 /loDv.  In  the  Coptic,  also,  the  Greeks  are  styled,  by  a 
 name  quite  analogous,  OHEININ,  as  at  the  end  of  the 
 Rosetta  inscription.  {Akerblad,  sur  Vmscrip.  Egypt, 
 de.  Rosette.  —  Krusc,  Hellas,  vol.  1,  p,  2,  in  noiis.) 
 They,  however,  who  favour  such  etymologies,  should 
 first  determine  whether  the  Hebrew  is  to  be  regarded 
 as  the  primitive  language  or  not ;  since,  if  the  latter 
 be  the  case,  the  names  that  are  given  in  Hebrew  scrip- 
 ture to  the  early  rulers  and  leaders  in  the  family  of 
 Noah,  are  mere  translations  from  the  primitive  tongue, 
 and  certainly  can  form  no  sure  basis  for  the  erection 
 even  of  the  slightest  superstructure  of  etymology. 
 
 Ionia,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  where  lonians  from 
 Attica  settled,  about  1050  B.C.  This  beautiful  and 
 fertile  country  extended  from  the  river  Hermus,  along 
 the  shore  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  to  Miletus,  and  the  tem- 
 ple of  the  Branchidae,  on  the  promontory  of  Posideum. 
 Its  southern  limit,  however,  probably  varied  at  differ- 
 ent times,  since  some  made  Ionia  reach  to  the  Sinus 
 lassius.     Strabo  makes  the  circuit  of  Ionia  3430  sta- 
 
 dia. (Strah.,  632. — Compare  Tzschucke,  ad  loc.) 
 The  breadth  is  nowhere  given.  Nothing,  indeed, 
 could  be  more  irregular  in  point  of  form  ;  it  consist- 
 ing, as  it  would  appear,  of  small  districts  around  the 
 different  cities  and  towns,  save  only  the  great  penin- 
 sula of  Erythrffi,  &c.,  and  the  islands  of  Samos  and 
 Chios. — Ionia,  or  the  Ionian  league,  originally  consist- 
 ed of  twelve  cities  of  considerable  note,  with  many 
 other  towns  of  minor  importance ;  besides  a  thirteenth 
 city,  Smyrna,  afterward  wrestecl  from  the  Cohans. 
 The  names  of  the  cities,  beginning  from  the  north,  are 
 Phocaea,  Smyrna,  Clazomenae,  Erythrs,  Chios,  Teos, 
 Lebedus,  Colophon,  Ephcsus,  Priene,  Samos,  My  us, 
 and  Miletus.  Others  of  less  note  were  Temnus,  Leu- 
 ce.  Metropolis,  Myonnesus,  and  Latmus.  The  lofiian 
 confederation  appears  to  have  been  mainly  united  by 
 a  common  religious  worship,  and  by  the  celebration 
 of  a  periodic  festival ;  and  it  seems  that  the  deputies 
 of  the  several  cities  only  met  in  times  of  great  diffi- 
 culty. The  place  of  assembly  was  the  Panionium,  at 
 the  foot  of  Mount  Mycale,  where  a  temple,  built  on 
 neutral  ground,  was  dedicated  to  Neptune.  In  the 
 old  Ionia  (afterward  called  Achaia)  Neptune  was  also 
 the  national  deity,  and  his  temple  continued  at  Helice 
 till  that  city  was  submerged.  That  the  settlers  in  Asia 
 should  retain  their  national  worship  is  a  circumstance 
 perfectly  in  accordance  with  the  history  of  colonization, 
 and  confirmatory,  if  confirmation  were  needed,  of  the 
 European  origin  of  the  lonians  of  Asia.  We  have  no 
 materials  for  a  history  of  these  cities  of  Ionia  as  ?, 
 political  community,  and  no  reason  for  supposing  that 
 their  political  union  came  near  the  exact  notion  of  a 
 federation,  as  some  have  conjectured. — In  almost  ev- 
 ery one  of  the  Ionian  cities  there  were  two  parties, 
 aristocratic  and  democratic,  and  the  Persian  kings  or 
 their  satraps  generally  favoured  the  former;  and  thus 
 it  happened  that  most  of  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  came 
 to  be  ruled  by  tyrants,  or  individuals  who  possessed 
 the  sovereign  power. — The  Ionian  cities  remained  in- 
 dependent of  a  foreign  yoke,  however,  until  the  time 
 of  Croesus,  by  whom  they  were  finally  subdued.  From 
 the  Lydian  they  passed  to  the  Persian  sway,  their  con- 
 querors, however,  in  both  instances  leaving  them  their 
 own  forms  of  government,  and  merely  subjecting  them 
 to  the  payment  of  tribute.  To  the  Persian  succeeded 
 the  Macedonian  dominion,  and  to  this  last  the  Roman 
 yoke.  Sylla  reduced  them  beneath  the  Roman  pow- 
 er, and  treated  them,  together  with  other  Asiatic  cities, 
 with  great  severity,  on  account  of  the  murder  of  so 
 many  thousand  Romans,  whom  they  had  inhumanly 
 put  to  death  in  compliance  with  the  orders  of  Mithra- 
 dates.  Ephesus  was  treated  with  the  greatest  rigour, 
 Sylla  having  suffered  his  soldiers  to  live  there  at  dis- 
 cretion, and  obliged  the  inhabitants  to  pay  every  of5- 
 cer  fifty  drachmae,  and  every  soldier  sixteen  denarii  a 
 day.  The  whole  sum  which  the  revolted  cities  of  Asia 
 paid  Sylla  was  20,000  talents,  near  four  millions  ster- 
 ling. This  was  a  most  fatal  blow,  from  which  they 
 never  recovered.  Ionia,  at  a  later  period,  was  totally 
 devastated  by  the  Saracens,  so  that  few  vestiges  of  an- 
 cient civilization  remain.  Its  inhabitants  were  con- 
 sidered effeminate  and  voluptuous,  but,  at  the  same 
 time,  highly  amiable.  Their  dialect  partook  of  their 
 character.  The  arts  and  sciences  flourished  in  this 
 happy  country,  particularly  those  which  contribute  to 
 embellish  life.  The  Asiatic  Greeks  became  the  teach- 
 ers and  examples  of  the  European  Greeks.  Homer 
 the  poet,  and  Parrhasius  the  painter,  were  lonians. 
 The  Ionic  column  proves  the  delicacy  of  their  taste. 
 [Encyclof.  Americ,  vol.  7,  p.  63.)  A  notice  of  the 
 principal  sites  on  the  coast  is  given  by  Leake  (Jour- 
 nal,  p.  260,  sco*?.— Compare  Rcuncn,  Geography  of 
 Western  Asia,  vol.  2",  p.  1,  seqq.).—l\.  An  ancient 
 name  given  to  Hellas  or  Achaia,  because  it  was  for 
 some  time  the  residence  of  the  lonians.  (Consult  re- 
 marks under  the  article  lones.) 
 
 679 
 
JOP 
 
 JO  R 
 
 Ionium  Mare,  a  name  given  to  that  part  of  the 
 Mediterranean  which  separates  the  Peloponnesus  from 
 Soolhcrn  Italy.  It.  was  fabled  to  have  received  its 
 appellation  from  the  wanderings  of  lo  in  this  quarter. 
 (Vid.  lo  )  The  more  correct  explanation,  however, 
 deduces  the  name  from  that  of  the  great  Ionic  race. 
 {Vid.  loncs.)  The  statements  of  the  ancient  writers  re- 
 Bpecting  the  situation  and  extent  of  the  Ionian  Sea  are 
 very  fluctuating  and  uncertain.  Scylax  (p.  11)  makes 
 it  the  same  with  the  Adriatic  ;  and  he  may  be  correct 
 in  so  doing,  since,  according  to  Herodotus,  the  true 
 and  ancient  name  of  the  Adriatic  was  the  Ionian  Gulf 
 (6,  127).  Both  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  gulfs  end, 
 according  to  Scylax,  at  the  straits  near  Hydruntum(p. 
 5).  Of  the  Ionian  Sea  he  says  nothing ;  Herodotus, 
 however,  makes  it  extend  as  far  south  as  the  Pelopon- 
 nesus. Thucydides  keeps  up  the  distinction  just  al- 
 luded to,  calling  the  Adriatic  by  the  name  of  the  Io- 
 nian Gulf  (being  probably  as  ignorant  as  Herodotus  of 
 any  other  appellation  for  this  arm  of  the  seal,  and 
 styling  the  rest,  as  far  as  the  western  coast  of  Greece, 
 the  Ionian  Sea  (1,  24).  In  later  times  a  change  of 
 appellation  took  place.  The  limits  of  the  Adriatic 
 were  extended  as  far  as  the  southern  coast  of  Italy  and 
 the  western  shores  of  Greece,  and  the  Ionian  Gulf  was 
 considered  to  be  now  only  a  part  of  it.  Eustathius 
 asserts  (ad  Dionys.  Pericg.,  v.  92),  that  the  more 
 accurate  writers  of  his  day  maintained  this  distinction. 
 Hence  the  remark  of  Ptolemy  is  rendered  intelligible, 
 who  makes  the  Adriatic  Sea  extend  along  the  whole 
 western  coast  of  Greece  down  to  the  southernmost 
 extremity  of  the  Peloponnesus.  (Mannert,  Gcogr., 
 vol.  9,  p.  12.) 
 
 loPiioN,  the  son  of  Sophocles,  is  described  by  Aris- 
 tophanes (Ran.,  73,  seqq.)  as  a  man  whose  powers 
 were,  at  the  time  of  his  father's  death,  not  yet  suffi- 
 riently  proved  to  enable  a  critic  to  determine  his  lit- 
 erary rank.  He  appears,  however,  to  have  been  a 
 creditable  dramatist,  and  gained  the  second  prize  in 
 428  B.C.,  when  Euripides  was  first  and  Ion  third. 
 (Arg.  ad  Eurip.,  Hrppol. — Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p. 
 9i,  seq.,  4th  ed.) 
 
 JopPA,  an  ancient  city  of  Palestine,  situ-ate  on  the 
 coast,  to  the  northwest  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  the  south 
 of  Cajsarea.  In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  called  Japho 
 {Joshua,  19,  46—2  Chron.,  2,  IQ.— Jonah,  1,  3). 
 It  was  the  only  harbour  possessed  by  the  Jews,  and 
 the  wood  for  the  temple,  which  was  cut  on  Mount 
 TjCbanon,  was  brought  in  floats  to  Joppa,  thence  to  be 
 sent  to  Jerusalem.  It  subsequently  became  a  Phoeni- 
 cian city,  and  fell  under  the  power  of  the  kings  of 
 Syria,  until  the  Maccabees  conquered  if,  and  restored 
 it  to  their  nation.  The  .lews,  not  being  a  commercial 
 people,  made  no  use  of  Joppa  as  a  place  of  trade; 
 and  hence  it  became  a  retreat  for  pirates.  (Siraho, 
 759  )  Under  the  Roman  power  the  pirates  were 
 made  to  disappear.  In  the  middle  ages  Joppa  changed 
 its  name  to  Jnffa  or  Yaffa  {Abidfed.,  Tab.  Syr.,  p. 
 80.) — Joppa  was  made  by  the  ancient  mythologists  the 
 scene  of  the  fable  of  Andromeda,  and  here  Cepheus 
 was  said  to  have  reigned.  {Stiaho,  I.  c.)  Pliny  (9,  .5) 
 even  gravely  informs  us,  that  M.  Scaurus  brought 
 away  from  this  place  to  Rome  the  bones  of  the  sea- 
 monster  to  which  the  princess  had  been  exposed,  and 
 which  were  of  a  remarkable  size.  They  were  probably 
 the  remains  of  a  large  whale.  The  Jews  saw  in  them 
 the  bones  of  the  whale  that  had  swallowed  Jonah  ;  the 
 Greeks,  on  the  other  hand,  connected  them  with  one  of 
 the  legends  of  their  fanciful  mythology. — Joppa  was  the 
 place  of  landmg  for  the  western  pilgrims,  and  here  the 
 promised  pardons  commenced.  It  possesses  still,  in 
 times  of  peace,  a  considerable  commerce  with  the 
 places  in  its  vicinity,  and  is  well  inhabited,  chiefly  by 
 Arabs.  Mr.  Wilson  says  the  harbour  is  rocky  and 
 dancrerous,  and  ■diflicult  of  access ;  in  which  state  it 
 has  been  since  the  time  of  Josephus,  who  says  that  a 
 680 
 
 more  dangerous  situation  for  vessels  cannot  be  ima- 
 gined. 'I'he  same  traveller  estimates  the  present  pop- 
 ulation at  5000.  The  ))lace  is  distinguished  for  its 
 fruits,  and  the  watermelons  that  grow  here  are  said  tc 
 be  superior  to  those  of  any  other  country.  Mr.  Buck- 
 ingham says,  "  that  Jaffa,  as  it  is  now  seen,  is  seated 
 on  a  promontory  jutting  out  into  the  sea,  and  rising  to 
 the  height  of  about  150  feet  above  its  level."  {Ma7i- 
 ncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  256.) 
 
 JoRD.iNEs,  a  famous  river  of  Palestine,  which,  ac- 
 cording to  Josephus,  had  its  source  in  the  lake  of 
 Phiala,  about  ten  miles  north  of  Caesarea  Philippi. 
 This  origin  of  the  river  was  ascertained  by  Philip  the 
 tetrarch,  who  made  the  experiment  of  throwing  some 
 chaff  or  straw  into  the  lake,  which  came  out  where 
 the  river  emerges  from  the  ground,  after  having  run 
 about  120  furlongs  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
 Mannert  deems  this  story  fabulous,  and  makes  the 
 river  rise  in  Mount  Paneas.  The  Talmudists  say 
 that  the  Jordan  rises  out  of  the  cave  of  Paneas.  They 
 assert,  moreover,  that  Leshem  is  Paneas.  Leshem 
 was  subdued  by  the  Danites,  and  Jeroboam  placed  one 
 of  his  golden  calves  in  Dan,  which  is  at  the  springs  of 
 Jordan.  Josephus  says  that  the  springs  of  Jordan  rise 
 from  under  the  temple  of  the  golden  calf.  Possibly  this 
 temple  might  stand  on  a  hill,  so  convenient  and  proper 
 for  such  an  edifice,  that  the  temple  of  Augustus  was  af- 
 terward built  upon  it.  Burckhardt,  however,  says  that 
 it  rises  about  four  miles  northeast  from  Caesarea  Philip- 
 pi,  in  the  plain,  near  a  hill  called  Tel-el-kadi.  There 
 are.  he  says,  two  spritigs  near  each  other,  one  smaller 
 than  the  other,  whose  waters  unite  immediately  below. 
 Both  sources  are  on  level  ground,  among  rocks  of 
 what  Burckhardt  calls  tufwacke.  The  larger  source 
 immediately  forms  a  river  12  or  15  yards  wide,  which 
 rushes  rapidly  over  a  stony  bed  into  the  lower  plain. 
 It  is  soon  after  joined  by  the  river  of  Paneas,  or  Caes- 
 area Philippi,  which  was  on  the  northeast  of  the  city. 
 Over  the  source  of  this  river  is  a  perpendicular  rock, 
 in  which  several  niches  have  been  cut  to  receive  stat- 
 ue.s,  the  largest  of  which  is  above  a  spacious  cavern, 
 beneath  which  the  river  rises.  This  niche,  the  editor 
 of  Burckhardt  conjectures,  contained  a  statue  of  Pan, 
 whence  the  name  of  Paneas  given  to  the  city,  and  of 
 Tlavelov  to  the  cavern.  Seetzen  differs  from  Burck- 
 hardt in  making  the  spring  of  the  river  Hasbeia,  which 
 rises  half  a  league  to  the  west  of  Hasbeia,  and  which, 
 he  says,  forms  the  branch  of  the  Jordan,  to  be  the 
 proper  head  of  that  river.  A  few  miles  below  their 
 junction,  the  united  rivers,  now  a  considerable  stream, 
 enter  the  small  lake  of  Houle,  the  ancient  Samochoni- 
 tis  or  Merom,  into  which  several  other  streams  from 
 the  mountains  discharge  themselves;  some  of  ihem, 
 perhaps,  having  equal  claims  to  the  honour  of  forming 
 the  Jordan  with  those  above  mentioned.  So  that,  in 
 truth,  the  Lake  of  Houle  may  best  be  considered  as  the 
 real  source  of  the  river.  After  quitting  this  small 
 lake,  the  river  runs  a  course  of  about  12  miles  to  the 
 Lake  Tabaria,  the  ancient  Sea  of  Tiberias  or  Galilee, 
 maintaining,  as  some  travellers  report,  a  distinct  cur- 
 rent in  the  centre,  through  its  whole  length,  without 
 mingling  its  waters  with  those  of  the  lake.  But  when 
 it  is  recollected  that  this  is  15  miles  in  length,  and  in 
 some  parts  nine  in  breadth,  such  a  fact  is  scarcely 
 credible.  From  this  lake  the  river  flows  about  70 
 miles  more,  through  the  Ghor,  or  valley  of  Jordan,  the 
 ancient  .\ulon,  until  it  is  finally  lost  in  the  Dead  Sea. 
 Its  whole  course  is  about  100  miles  in  a  straight  line 
 by  the  map;  perhaps  150,  computing  by  the  windings 
 of  its  channel.  The  Jordan,  it  appears,  anciently  over- 
 flowed (as  it  probably  does  sometimes  now)  in  the  first 
 month,  which  answers  to  our  March:  as  it  was  at  this 
 time  that  the  armies  enumerated  in  1  Chron.,  12, 
 passed  the  Jordan  to  David  at  Ziklag,  "  when  it  had 
 overflowed  all  its  banks."  This  was,  in  fact,  the  time 
 when  the  frequent  rains  and  the  melting  of  the  snowa 
 
JOS 
 
 JOSEPHUS. 
 
 on  the  mountains  at  its  source  would  be  most  likely  to 
 occasion  such  an  inundation.  Travellers  have  given 
 different  accounts  of  this  celebrated  stream.  Maun- 
 drell  assigns  it  a  breadth  of  20  yards  ;  but  represents 
 it  as  deep,  and  so  rapid  that  a  man  could  not  swim 
 against  the  current.  Volney  calls  it  from  60  to  80 
 feet  between  the  two  principal  lakes,  and  10  or  12 
 feet  deep  ;  but  makes  it  60  paces  at  its  embouchure ; 
 Chateaubriand,  about  the  same  point,  50  paces,  and 
 six  or  seven  feet  deep  close  to  the  shore.  Dr.  Shaw 
 computed  its  breadth  at  "30  yards,  and  its  depth  at  nine 
 feet ;  and  that  it  daily  discharges  6,090,000  tons  of 
 water  into  the  Dead  Sea.  Burckhardt,  who  crossed 
 it  higher  up,  calls  it  80  paces  broad,  and  three  feet 
 deep  ;  but  this  was  in  the  middle  of  summer.  Mr. 
 Buckingham,  who  visited  it  in  the  month  of  January, 
 1816,  states  it  to  be  little  more  at  the  part  where  he 
 crossed  it,  which  was  a  short  distance  above  the  par- 
 allel of  Jericho,  than  25  yards  in  breadth,  and  so  shal- 
 low as  to  be  easily  forded  by  the  horses.  At  another 
 point,  higher  up  in  its  course,  he  describes  it  as  120 
 feet  broad.  From  a  mean  of  these  and  other  accounts, 
 its  average  width  may  be  computed  at  30  yards.  It 
 rolls  so  powerful  a  volume  of  water  into  the  Dead  Sea, 
 that  the  strongest  and  most  expert  swimmer  would  be 
 foiled  in  any  attempt  to  swim  across  it  at  its  point  of 
 entrance  :  he  must  inevitably  be  hurried  down  by  the 
 stream  into  the  lake.  The  banks  of  the  Jordan  are  in 
 many  places  covered  with  bushes,  reeds,  tamarisks, 
 willows,  oleanders,  &c.,  which  form  an  asylum  for  vari- 
 ous wild  animals,  who  here  concealed  themselves  till  the 
 swelling  of  the  river  drove  them  from  their  coverts. 
 To  this  Jeremiah  alludes  (49,  19).  Previously  to  the 
 destruction  of  the  four  cities  of  the  plain,  it  is  probable 
 that  the  Jordan  flowed  to  the  Red  Sea,  through  the 
 valley  of  Glior  or  Arabia. — The  etymology  of  its 
 name  has  been  variously  assigned.  It  is  thought  by 
 some  to  come  from  the  Hebrew  jardcn,  a  descent, 
 from  its  rapid  descent  through  that  country.  Another 
 class  of  etymologists  deduce  its  name  from  the  He- 
 brew and  Syriac,  importing  the  caldron  of  judgment. 
 Others  make  it  come  from  Jar,  a  spring,  and  Dan,  a 
 small  town  near  its  source ;  and  a  third  class  deduce 
 It  from  Jar  and  Dan,  two  rivulets.  It  most  probably 
 derives  its  name  from  Yar-Dan,  "  the  river  of  Dan," 
 near  which  city  it  takes  its  rise.  The  Arabs  call  it 
 Arden  or  Harden,  the  Persians  Acrdun,  and  the  Ara- 
 bian geographer  Edrisi,  Zacchar,  or  swelling.  {Hans- 
 ford's Scripture  Gazetteer,  p.  251.) 
 
 JoRNANDUs  or  (as  he  is  called  in  the  Analecta  of 
 Mabilion)  JoRDANES,  a  Goth  by  birth,  secretary  to 
 one  of  the  kings  of  the  Alans,  and,  as  some  believe,  af- 
 terward bishop  of  Ravenna.  In  the  year  552  of  our 
 era  he  wrote  a  history  of  the  Goths  {Re  Rebus  Ge- 
 iicis).  This  is  merely  an  abridgment  of  the  history  of 
 Cassiodorus,  and  is  written  without  judgment  and 
 with  great  partiality.  He  composed  also  a  work  enti- 
 tled De  regnorum  et  tempnrum  successione,  or  a  Ro- 
 man history  from  Romulus  to  Augustus.  It  is  only 
 a  copy  of  the  history  of  Florus,  but  with  such  altera- 
 tions and  additions,  however,  as  to  enable  us  some- 
 times to  correct  by  means  of  it  the  te.vt  of  the  Roman 
 historian.     {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Lat.,  vol.  3,  p.  177.) 
 
 los,  an  island  in  the  jEgean  Sea,  to  the  north  of 
 Thera.  Here,  according  to  some  accounts.  Homer 
 was  interred.  {Strah.,  AQi.—Plin.,  4,  12.)  It  was 
 also  said,  that  the  poet's  mother  was  a  native  of  this 
 island.  {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'lof.)  The  modern  name 
 is  A'l'o,  for  which  ISondelmonti  assigns  a  totally  false 
 derivation,  since  it  merely  comes  from  a  Romaic  cor- 
 ruption. {Bondeim.,  Ins.  Archipel.,  p.  99,  ed.  De 
 Sinner. ) 
 
 JosEPHOs,  Flavius,  a  celebrated  Jew,  son  of  Ma- 
 
 thias,  a   priest,  born  in  Jerusalem.     The  date  of  his 
 
 birth  is  A.D.  37.     He  was  a  man  of  illustrious  race, 
 
 lineally  descended  from  a  priestly  family,  the  first  of 
 
 4R 
 
 the  twenty-four  courses,  an  eminent  distinction.  By 
 his  mother's  side  he  traced  his  genealogy  up  to  the  As- 
 monean  princes.  He  grew  up  with  a  high  reputation  for 
 early  intelligence  and  memory.  At  fourteen  years  old 
 (he  is  his  own  biographer)  he  was  so  fond  of  letters,  that 
 the  chief  priests  used  to  meet  at  his  father's  house  to  put 
 to  him  difficult  questions  of  the  law.  At  si.xteen  he 
 determined  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  three  prevail- 
 ing sects,  those  of  the  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Es- 
 senes  For  though  he  had  led  for  some  time  a  hardy, 
 diligent,  and  studious  life,  he  did  not  consider  himself 
 yet  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  character  of  each 
 sect  to  decide  which  he  should  follow.  Havinor  heard 
 that  a  certain  Essene  named  Banus  was  leading  in  the 
 desert  the  life  of  a  hermit,  making  his  raiment  from 
 the  trees  and  his  food  from  the  fruits  of  the  earth, 
 practising  cold  ablutions  at  all  seasons,  and,  in  short, 
 using  every  means  of  mortification  to  increase  his 
 sanctity,  Josephus,  ambitious  of  emulating  the  fame 
 of  such  an  example  of  holy  seclusion,  joined  him  in 
 his  cell.  _  But  three  years  of  this  ascetic  life  tamed 
 his  zealous  ambition  ;  he  grew  weary  of  the  desert, 
 abandoned  his  great  example  of  painful  devotion,  and 
 returned  to  the  city  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  There 
 he  joined  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees.  In  his  twenty- 
 sixth  year  he  undertook  a  voyage  to  Rome,  in  order 
 to  make  interest  in  favour  of  certain  priests,  who  had 
 been  sent  there  to  answer  some  unimportant  charge 
 by  Felix.  On  his  voyage  he  was  shipwrecked  and  in 
 great  danger.  His  ship  foundered  in  the  Adriatic,  six 
 hundred  of  the  crew  and  passengers  were  cast  into 
 the  sea.  eighty  contrived  to  swim,  and  were  taken  up 
 by  a  ship  from  Cyrene.  They  arrived  at  Puteoli,  the 
 usual  landing-place,  and  Josephus,  making  acquaint- 
 ance with  one  Aliturus,  an  actor,  a  Jew  by  birth,  and 
 from  his  profession  in  high  credit  with  the  Empress 
 Poppsea,  he  obtained  the  release  of  the  prisoners,  as 
 well  as  valuable  presents  from  Poppcea,  and  returned 
 home.  During  all  this  time  he  had  studied  diligently 
 and  made  himself  master  of  the  Greek  language,  which 
 few  of  his  countrymen  could  write,  still  fewer  speak 
 with  a  correct  pronunciation.  On  his  return  home  he 
 found  the  Jews  on  the  point  of  revolting  against  the 
 power  of  Rome.  After  vainly  endeavouring  to  oppose 
 this  rash  determination,  he  at  last  joined  their  cause, 
 and  held  various  commands  in  the  Jewish  army.  At 
 Jotapata,  in  Galilee,  he  signalized  his  military  abilities 
 in  supporting  a  siege  of  forty-seven  days  against  Ves- 
 pasian and  Titus,  in  a  small  town  of  Judea.  During 
 the  siege  and  capture,  40,000  men  fell  on  the  side  of 
 the  Jews  ;  none  were  spared  but  women  and  children  ; 
 and  the  number  of  captives  amounted  only  to  1200, 
 so  faithfully  had  the  Roman  soldiery  executed  their 
 orders  of  destruction.  Josephus  saved  his  life  by  fly- 
 intr  into  a  cave,  where  forty  of  his  countrymen  had 
 also  taken  refuge.  He  dissuaded  them  from  com- 
 mittino-  suicide,  and,  when  they  had  all  drawn  lots  to 
 kill  one  another,  Josephus,  with  one  other,  remained 
 the  last,  and  surrendered  themselves  to  Vespasian. 
 He  gained  the  conqueror's  esteem  by  foretelling  that 
 he  would  become  one  day  the  master  of  the  Roman 
 empire.  {Joseph.  Vit.,  I)  75. — MUman's  History  of 
 the  Jews.,  vol.  2,  p.  253,  seqq.) — Vossius  [Hist.  Gr., 
 2,  8)  thinks  that  Josephus,  who,  like  all  the  rest  of 
 his  fMtion,  expected  at  this  period  the  coining  of  the 
 Messiah,  applied  to  Vespasian  the  prophecies  which 
 announced  the  advent  of  our  Saviour.  He  remarks 
 that  Josephus  might  have  been  the  more  sincere  in  so 
 doing,  as  Jerusalem  was  not  besieged.  His  prophecy 
 having  been  accomplished  two  years  afterward  ho 
 obtained  his  freedom  and  took  the  prajnomen  of  Fla- 
 vins, to  indicate  that  he  regarded  himself  as  the  freed- 
 man  of  the  emperor.  Josephus  was  present  during 
 the  whole  siege  of  Jerusalem,  endeavouring  to  per- 
 suade his  countrymen  to  capitulate.  ,  Whether  he  se- 
 riously  considered  resistance   impossible,   or,   as  ho 
 
JOSEPHUS. 
 
 JOSEPHUS. 
 
 pretends,  recognising  the  hand  of  God  and  the  accom- 
 plishment of  the  prophecies  in  the  ruin  of  his  country, 
 he  esteemed  it  impious  as  well  as  vain ;  whether  he 
 was  actuated  by  the  baser  motive  of  self-interest,  or 
 the  more  generous  desire  of  being  of  service  to  his 
 miserable  countrymen,  he  was  by  no  means  held  in 
 the  same  estimation  by  the  Roman  army  as  by  Titus. 
 They  thought  a  traitor  to  his  country  might  be  a  trai- 
 tor to  them  ;  and  they  were  apt  to  lay  all  their  losses 
 •o  his  charge,  as  if  he  kept  up  secret  intelligence 
 with  the  besieged.  On  the  capture  of  the  city,  Titus 
 offered  him  any  boon  he  would  request.  He  chose 
 the  sacred  books,  and  the  lives  of  his  brother  and  fifty 
 friends.  He  was  afterward  permitted  to  select  190 
 of  his  friends  and  relatives  from  the  multitude  who 
 were  shut  up  in  the  Temple  to  be  sold  for  slaves. 
 The  estate  of  Josephus  lying  within  the  Roman  en- 
 campment, Titus  assigned  him  other  lands  in  lieu  of 
 't.  Vespasian  also  conferred  on  him  a  considerable 
 property  in  land.  Josephus  lived  afterward  at  Rome, 
 in  high  favour  with  Vespasian,  Titus,  and  Domitian. 
 The  latter  punished  certain  Jews  and  a  eunuch,  the 
 tutor  of  his  son,  who  had  falsely  accused  him  ;  ex- 
 empted his  estate  from  tribute,  and  advanced  him 
 to  high  honour.  He  was  a  great  favourite  with  the 
 Empress  Domitia.  The  time  of  his  death  is  uncer- 
 tain ;  he  was  certainly  alive  at  the  end  of  the  first  cen- 
 tury, and  probably  at  the  beginning  of  the  second. 
 After  his  surrender  he  had  married  a  captive  in  Cassa- 
 rea,  but,  in  obedience,  it  may  be  presumed,  to  the  law 
 which  prohibited  such  marriages  to  a  man  of  priestly 
 .ine,  he  discarded  her,  and  married  again  in  Alexan- 
 drea.  By  his  Alexandrean  wife  Josephus  had  three 
 sons  ;  one  only,  Hyrcanus,  lived  to  maturity.  Dissat- 
 isfied with  this  wife's  conduct,  he  divorced  her  also, 
 and  married  a  Cretan  woman,  from  a  Jewish  family, 
 of  the  first  rank  and  opulence  in  the  island,  and  of 
 admirable  virtue. — At  Rome  Josephus  first  wrote  the 
 History  of  the  Jcivish  War  {'lovdainT]  laropia  nepl 
 oAcJcewf),  in  the  Syro-Chaldaic  tongue,  for  the  use 
 of  his  own  countrymen  in  the  East,  particularly  those 
 beyond  the  Euphrates.  He  afterward  translated  the 
 work  into  Greek,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Western  Jews 
 and  the  Romans.  Both  King  Agrippa  and  Titus  bore 
 testimony  to  its  accuracy.  The  latter  ordered  it  to 
 be  placed  in  the  public  library,  and  signed  it  with  his 
 own  hands  as  an  authentic  memorial  of  the  times. 
 This  work  was  translated  into  Latin  in  the  fifth  cen- 
 tury by  Rufinus  of  Aquileia,  or  rather  by  Cassiodorus, 
 {Muratori,  Antiq.  Jlai,  vol.  3,  p.  920.)  Many  years 
 afterward,  about  A.D.  93,  Josephus  published  his  great 
 work  on  the  Antiquities  of  the  Jews  ('lonJoi/c?;  'Ap- 
 Xat-oXayia),  in  twenty  books.  It  forms  a  history  of  the 
 chosen  people  from  the  creation  to  the  reign  of  the 
 Emperor  Nero.  Josephus  did  not  write  this  work  for 
 the  use  of  his  countrymen,  nor  even  for  the  Hellenistic 
 Jews  :  his  object  was  to  make  his  nation  better  known 
 to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  to  remove  the  con- 
 tempt in  which  it  was  accustomed  to  be  held.  The 
 books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and,  where  these  failed, 
 traditions  and  other  historical  monuments,  were  the 
 sources  whence  he  drew  the  materials  for  his  work  ; 
 but,  in  making  use  of  these,  he  allowed  himself  an 
 unpardonable  license,  in  removing  from  his  narrative 
 all  that  the  religion  of  the  Jews  regarded  as  most 
 worthy  of  veneration,  in  order  not  to  shock  the  preju- 
 dices of  the  nations  to  whom  he  wrote.  He  not  only 
 treats  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  if  they  were 
 mere  human  compositions,  in  explaining,  enlarginor, 
 and  commenting  upon  them,  and  thus  destroyino-  the 
 native  and  noble  simplicity  and  pathos  which  renders 
 the  perusal  of  the  sacred  volume  so  full  of  attraction  ; 
 but  he  allows  himself  the  liberty  of  often  adding  to 
 the  recital  of  an  event  circumstances  which  change 
 its  entire  nature.  In  every  part  of  the  work  in  ques- 
 tion, he  represents  his  countrymen  in  a  point  of  view 
 682 
 
 calculated  to  conciliate  the  esteem  of  the  masters  of 
 the  world.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  however,  the 
 Antiquities  of  Josephus  are  extremely  intereslinw,  as 
 affording  us  a  faithful  picture  of  Jewish  manners  in 
 the  time  of  the  historian,  and  as  filling  up  a  void  ir 
 ancient  history  of  four  centuries  between  the  last 
 books  of  the  Old  Testament  and  those  of  the  New. 
 With  a  view  similar  to  that  which  dictated  the  work 
 just  mentioned,  Josephus  wrote  an  answer  to  Apion, 
 a  celebrated  grammarian  of  Egypt  (vid.  Apion,  No.  II.), 
 who  had  given  currency  to  many  of  the  ancient  fictiona 
 of  Egyptian  tradition  concerning  the  Jews.  He  like- 
 wise published  his  own  life,  in  answer  to  the  statements 
 of  his  old  antagonist,  Justus  of  Tiberias,  who  had  sent 
 forth  a  history  of  the  war,  written  in  Greek  with  con- 
 siderable elegance.  At  what  time  he  died  is  uncer- 
 tain ;  history  loses  sight  of  him  in  his  fifty-sixth  or 
 fifty- seventh  year.  A  work  entitled  Eif  MuKKaSaiovg 
 TMyoq,  fj  nepl  avTOKpuTopnq  ?i,oyiafiov,  has  been  erro- 
 neously ascribed  to  Josephus.  In  some  editions  of 
 the  Scriptures  it  appears  under  the  appellation  of  the 
 Fourth  Book  of  Maccabees.  A  fragment  also,  on  the 
 Cause  of  the  Universe  {ir-epl  rod  navToq),  preserved 
 by  John  Philoponus,  a  Christian  writer  of  the  seventh 
 century,  has  been  incorrectly  attributed  to  Josephus. 
 — Before  leaving  the  biography  of  this  writer,  we  must 
 say  a  few  words  relative  to  a  famous  passage  in  the 
 Jewish  Antiquities  concerning  our  Saviour.  It  occurs 
 in  the  third  chapter  of  the  eighteenth  book  {Jos.,  Op., 
 ed.  Hav.,  vol.  1,  p.  161),  and  is  as  follows  ;  "  At  this 
 time  there  exists  Jesus,  a  wise  man,  if  it  be  allowed 
 us  to  call  him  a  man  ;  for  he  performed  wonderful 
 works,  and  instructed  those  who  receive  the  truth  with 
 joy.  He  thus  drew  to  him  many  Jews  and  many  of 
 the  Greeks.  He  was  the  Christ.  Pilate  having  pun- 
 ished him  with  crucifixion  on  the  accusation  of  our 
 leading  men,  those  who  had  loved  him  before  still 
 remained  faithful  to  him.  For  on  the  third  day  he 
 appeared  unto  them,  living  anew,  just  as  the  prophets 
 of  God  had  announced,  who  had  predicted  of  him  ten 
 thousand  other  miraculous  things.  The  nation  of 
 Christians,  named  after  him,  continues  even  to  the 
 present  day."  This  passage,  placed  in  the  middle  of 
 a  work  written  by  a  zealous  Jew,  has  all  the  appear- 
 ance of  a  marginal  gloss  which  has  found  its  way  into 
 the  text :  it  is  too  long  and  too  short  to  have  formed 
 a  part  of  the  original  text.  It  is  too  long  to  have 
 come  from  the  pen  of  an  infidel,  and  it  is  too  short  to 
 have  been  written  by  a  Christian.  St.  Justin,  Tertul- 
 lian,  and  St.  Chrysostom  have  made  no  use  of  it  in 
 their  disputes  with  the  Jews  ;  and  neither  Origen  nor 
 Photius  make  any  mention  of  it.  Eusebius,  who 
 lived  before  some  of  the  writers  just  named,  is  the 
 first  who  adduces  it.  These  circumstances  have  suf- 
 ficed to  attach  suspicion  to  it  in  the  eyes  of  some 
 critics,  and  especially  of  Richard  Simon  (under  the 
 name  of  Sainjore,  in  the  Bihliotheque  ou  Recucii  de 
 diver ses  pieces  critiques,  Amst.,  1708,  8vo,  vol.  2, 
 ch.  2)  and  the  historian  Gibbon.  On  the  other  hand, 
 Henri  de  Valois  {ad  Euscb.,  p.  16,  20),  Huet,  bishop 
 of  Avranches  {Dcmonstr.  Evavg.,  p.  27),  Isaac  Vos- 
 sius  {De  LXX.  Intcrpr.,  p.  161),  and  others,  have  de- 
 fended its  authenticity.  Lambecius  {Biblioth.  Vin- 
 dob.,  vol.  8,  p.  5),  who  advocates  the  same  side,  has 
 pretended  that  the  words  of  Josephus  ought  to  be  con- 
 sidered as  expressing  contempt  for  our  Saviour,  al- 
 though, in  order  not  to  offend  either  party,  the  histo- 
 rian has  concealed  his  real  meaning  in  equivocal  terms. 
 However  paradoxical  this  last  opinion  may  seem,  it 
 has  assumed  an  air  of  considerable  probability,  in  con- 
 sequence of  a  slight  correction  in  the  text  and  punc- 
 tuation which  has  been  proposed  by  Knittel,  a  German 
 scholar.  {Neue  kritiken  iibcr  das  weltberuhmie  Zeug- 
 niss  des  altcn  Juden  Flavius  Josephus  von  Jesu  Chris- 
 to,  Braunschw.,  1799,  4to.)  A  celebrated  Protestant 
 divine,  Godfrey  Less,  after  having  carefully  and  crit- 
 
JO  V 
 
 IPH 
 
 ically  examined  both  sides  of  the  question,  has  pro- 
 nounced the  passage  to  be  supposititious,  and  adds, 
 that  the  silence  of  the  historian  respecting  our  Saviour 
 and  the  miracles  which  he  wrought,  affords  a  far  more 
 eloquent  testimony  in  favour  of  the  truth  of  our  Re- 
 deemer's mission  than  the  most  laboured  statement 
 could  have  yielded,  especially  when  we  consider  that 
 the  father  of  Josephus,  one  of  the  priests  of  Jerusalem, 
 could  not  but  have  known  our  Saviour,  and  since  Jo- 
 sephus himself  lived  in  the  midst  of  the  apostles. 
 Had  the  latter  been  able,  he  would  have  refuted  the 
 whole  history  of  our  Saviour's  mission  and  works. 
 His  silence  is  conclusive  in  their  favour.  The  efforts 
 of  deistical  writers,  therefore,  to  invalidate  the  authen- 
 ticity of  this  remarkable  passage,  have  literally  recoiled 
 upon  themselves,  and  Christianity  has  achieved  a  tri- 
 umph with  the  very  arms  of  infidelity.  {Disputaiio 
 super  Jos cphl  de  Christo  Teslimon.,  Gbtt.,  1781,  4to. 
 — Compare  Olshausen,  Historic  Ecclcs.  Vel.  pracip. 
 rnonnmenta,  BcroL,  1820,  8vo,  and  Paulus,  in  the 
 Heidelb.  Jahrb.,  1820,  p.  733,  as  also  Bohmcrt,  Ueber 
 des  Flav.  Joseph.  Zeugniss  von  Christo,  Leipz.,  1823, 
 8vo.) — The  best  editions  of  the  works  of  Josephus  are 
 Hudson's,  2  vols,  fol.,  Oxon.,  1720,  and  Havercamp's, 
 2  vols,  fol.,  Amst.,  1726.  A  new  edition,  however,  is 
 much  wanted.  Oberthtir  commenced  one,  of  which 
 three  volumes  appeared,  embracing  the  text  of  Haver- 
 camp  with  the  Latin  version,  in  the  8vo  form.  The 
 editor  had  promised  a  commentary,  in  which  was  to  be 
 contained  the  result  of  his  own  researches,  and  of  those 
 of  others  made  at  his  request  in  the  principal  libraries 
 of  Europe.  The  edition  was  to  be  accompanied  also 
 by  a  Lexicon  of  Josephus,  in  which  the  language  of 
 this  writer  would  be  compared  with  that  of  Philo,  of 
 the  Alexandrean  school,  and  of  the  writers  of  the 
 New  Testament.  His  death  prevented  the  comple- 
 ting of  his  design,  and  the  edition  still  remains  imper- 
 fect. In  1823-1827,  a  12mo  edition,  in  6  vols.,  ap- 
 peared from  the  Leipsic  press,  under  the  editorial  care 
 of  Richter.  The  text,  however,  is  merely  a  reprint  of 
 that  of  Hudson  and  Havercamp.  (Hoffmann,  Lex. 
 Bibliogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  588. — Scholl,  Gcsch.  der  Griech. 
 Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  383,  sej?.) 
 
 JoviANus,  Fl.wius  Claudius,  born  A  D.  331,  was 
 the  son  of  Veronianus,  of  an  illustrious  family  of  Moe- 
 sia,  who  had  filled  important  offices  under  Constan- 
 tine.  Jovianus  served  in  the  army  of  Julian,  in  his 
 unlucky  expedition  against  the  Persians;  and  when 
 that  emperor  was  killed,  A.D.  363,  the  soldiers  pro- 
 claimed him  his  successor.  His  first  task  was  to  save 
 the  army,  which  was  surrounded  by  the  Persians,  and 
 in  great  distress  for  provisions.  After  repelling  re- 
 peated attacks  of  the  enemy,  he  willingly  listened  to 
 proposals  for  peace,  which  were,  that  the  Romans 
 should  give  up  the  conquests  of  former  emperors  west- 
 ward of  the  Tigris,  and  as  far  as  the  city  of  Nisibis, 
 which  was  still  in  their  hands,  but  was  included  in  the 
 territory  to  be  given  up  to  Persia,  and  that,  moreover, 
 they  should  render  no  assistance  to  the  king  of  Arme- 
 nia, then  at  war  with  the  Persians.  These  conditions, 
 however  offensive  to  Roman  pride,  Jovian  was  obliged 
 to  submit  to,  as  his  soldiers  were  in  the  utmost  desti- 
 tution. It  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  Roman  no- 
 tions of  political  honesty,  that  Eutropius  reproaches 
 Jovian,  not  so  much  with  having  given  up  the  territory 
 of  the  empire,  as  with  having  observed  so  humiliating 
 a  treaty  after  he  had  come  out  of  his  dangerous  posi- 
 tion, instead  of  renewing  the  war,  as  the  Romans  had 
 constantly  done  on  former  occasions.  Jovian  delivered 
 Nisibis  to  the  Persians,  the  inhabitants  withdrawing 
 lo  Amida,  which  became,  after  this,  the  chief  Roman 
 town  in  Mesopotamia.  On  his  arrival  at  Antioch,  Jo- 
 vian, who  was  of  the  Christian  faith,  revoked  the  edicts 
 )f  Julian  against  the  Christians.  He  also  supported 
 the  orthodox  or  Nicene  creed  against  the  Arians,  and 
 he  showed  his  favour  to  the  bishops  who  had  previ- 
 
 ously suffered  from  the  Arians,  and  especially  to  Atna- 
 nasius,  who  visited  him  at  Antioch.  Having  been 
 acknowledged  over  the  whole  empire,  Jovian,  after 
 staying  some  months  at  Antioch,  set  off  during  the 
 winter  to  Constantinople,  and,  on  his  way,  paid  fu- 
 neral honours  to  Julian's  remains  at  Tarsus.  He  con- 
 tinued his  journey  in  very  severe  cold,  of  which  sev- 
 eral of  his  attendants  died.  At  Ancyra  he  assumed 
 the  consular  dignity  ;  but,  a  few  days  after,  being  at  a 
 place  called  Dadastana,  in  Galatia,  he  was  found  dead 
 in  his  bed,  having  been  suffocated,  as  some  say,  by 
 the  vapour  of  charcoal  burning  in  his  room  ;  according 
 to  others,  by  the  steam  of  the  plaster  with  which  it 
 had  been  newly  laid  ;  while  others,  again,  suspected  him 
 of  having  been  poisoned  or  killed  by  some  of  his 
 guards.  He  died  on  the  16th  of  February,  A.D.  364, 
 being  33  years  of  age,  after  a  reign  of  only  seven 
 months.  The  army  proclaimed  Valcntinianus  as  his 
 successor.  {Amm.  Marccll.,  25,  5,  scqq. — Le  Beau, 
 Hist,  dit  Bas- Empire,  vol.  2,  p.  I8fi,seqq.) 
 
 JoviNus,  born  of  an  illustrious  family  of  Gaul,  as- 
 sumed the  imperial  title  under  the  weak  reign  of  Ho- 
 norius,  and,  placing  himself  at  the  head  of  a  mixed  ar- 
 my  of  Burgundians,  Alemanni,  Alani,  &c.,  took  pos- 
 session of  part  of  Gaul,  A.D.  411.  Ataulphus,  king 
 of  the  Visigoths,  offered  to  join  Jovinus,  and  share 
 Gaul  between  them  ;  but  the  latter  having  declined  his 
 alliance,  Ataulphus  made  peace  with  Honorius,  at- 
 tacked and  defeated  Jovinus,  and,  having  taken  him 
 prisoner,  delivered  him  to  Dardanus,  prefect  of  Gaul, 
 who  had  him  put  to  death  at  Narbo  (Narbonne),  A.D. 
 412.  {Jornand.,  de  Reb.  Get.,  c.  32,  seqq. —  Olym- 
 piod.—Idac.  fast.  Chron. — Greg.  Tur.,  2,  9. — Tilletn., 
 Honor.,  art.  48.) 
 
 JpHicLEs,  a  son  of  Amphitryon  and  Alcmena,  born 
 at  the  same  birth  with  Hercules.  The  children  were 
 but  eight  months  old,  when  Juno  sent  two  huge  ser- 
 pents into  the  chamber  to  devour  them.  Iphicles 
 alarmed  the  house  by  his  cries,  but  Hercules  raised 
 himself  up  on  his  feet,  caught  the  two  monsters  by  the 
 throat,  and  strangled  them.  (Find.,  Nem.,  1,  49,seq. 
 — Theocr.,  Idyll.,  24. — Apollod  ,  2,  4.)  Iphicles,  on 
 attaining  to  manhood,  was  slain  in  battle  during  the 
 expedition  against  the  sons  of  Hippocoon,  who  had 
 beaten  to  death  CEonus,  the  son  of  Licymnius.  {Pan- 
 san.,  3,  15,  4  ) 
 
 Iphiclus,  a  king  of  Phylace  in  Phthiotis,  whose 
 name  is  connected  with  one  of  the  legends  relative  to 
 Melampus.     {Vid.  Melampus.) 
 
 Iphicrates,  an  Athenian  general,  of  low  origin,  but 
 distinguished  abilities.  He  was  most  remarkable  for 
 a  happy  innovation  upon  the  ancient  routine  of  Greek 
 tactics,  which  he  introduced  in  the  course  of  that  gen- 
 eral war  which  was  ended  B.C.  387,  by  the  peace  of 
 Antalcidas.  This,  like  most  improvements  upon  the 
 earlier  mode  of  warfare,  consisted  in  looking,  for  each 
 individual  soldier,  rather  to  the  means  of  offence  than 
 protection.  Iphicrates  laid  aside  the  very  weighty 
 panoply  which  the  regular  infantry,  composed  of  Greek 
 citizens,  had  always  worn,  and  substituted  a  light  tar- 
 get for  the  large  buckler,  and  a  quilted  jacket  for  the 
 coat  of  mail ;  at  the  same  time  he  doubled  the  length 
 of  the  sword,  usually  worn  thick  and  short,  and  in- 
 creased in  the  same,  or,  by  some  accounts,  in  a  greater 
 proportion,  the  length  of  the  spear.  It  appears  that 
 the  troops  whom  he  thus  armed  and  disciplined  (not 
 Athenian  citizens,  who  would  hardly  have  submitted 
 to  the  necessary  discipline,  but  mercenaries  following 
 his  standard,  like  the  Free  Companions  of  the  middle 
 ages)  also  carried  missile  javelins  ;  and  that  their  fa- 
 vourite mode  of  attack  was  to  venture  within  throw  of 
 the  heavy  column,  the  weight  of  whose  charge  they 
 could  not  have  resisted,  trusting  in  their  mdividual 
 agility  to  baffle  pursuit.  When  once  the  close  order 
 of  the  column  was  broken,  its  individual  soldiers  wer« 
 overmatched  by  the  longer  weapons  and  unencum- 
 •'  6S3 
 
IPH 
 
 IRE 
 
 bcrcd  movements  of  the  lighter  infantry.  In  this  way 
 Iphicrates  and  his  targeteers  (peltastae),  as  they  were 
 called,  gained  so  many  successes,  that  the  Peiopon- 
 iiesian  infantry  dared  not  encounter  them,  except  the 
 Lacedaemonians,  who  said,  in  scoft',  that  their  allies 
 feared  the  targeteers  as  children  fear  hobgoblms. 
 They  were  themselves,  however,  taught  the  value  of 
 this  new  force,  B.C.  392,  when  Iphicrates  waylaid  and 
 cut  off  nearly  the  whole  of  a  Lacedsemonian  battalion. 
 The  loss  in  men  was  of  no  great  amount;  but  that 
 heavy-armed  Lacedasmonians  should  be  defeated  by 
 light-arined  mercenaries  was  a  marvel  to  Greece,  and 
 a  severe  blow  to  the  national  reputation  and  vanity  of 
 Sparta.  Accordingly,  this  action  raised  the  credit  of 
 Iphicrates  extremely  high.  He  commanded  afterward 
 in  the  Hellespont,  B.C.  389  ;  in  Egypt,  at  the  request 
 of  the  Persians,  B.C.  374  ;  relieved  Corcyra  in  373, 
 and  served  with  reputation  on  other  less  important  oc- 
 casions. We  have  a  life  of  this  commander  by  Cor- 
 nelius Nepos.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  4,  5,  13.— M  ib.,  4, 
 8,  34,  scqq.—Id.  tb.,  6,  2,  l2.—Diod.  Sic,  15,  41.— 
 Id.,  15,  U.—Id.,  16,  85.— Cora.  Nep.,  Vit.  Iphicr.) 
 Iphige.nia,  »  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Clytem- 
 nestra.  The  Grecian  fleet  against  Troy  had  assem- 
 bled at  Auli?  ;  but  Agamemnon,  having  killed  a  deer 
 in  the  chase,  boasted  that  he  was  superior  in  skill  to 
 Diana,  and  the  offended  goddess  sent  adverse  winds  to 
 detain  the  fleet.  According  to  another  account,  the 
 stag  itself  had  been  a  favourite  one  of  Diana's.  Cal- 
 chas  thereupon  announced,  that  the  wrath  of  the  god- 
 dess could  only  be  appeased  by  the  sacrifice  of  Iphiae- 
 nia,  the  daughter  of  the  offender,  and  the  father, 
 though  most  reluctant,  was  compelled  to  obey.  The 
 maiden  was  accordingly  obtained  from  her  mother  Cly- 
 temnestra,  under  the  pretence  of  being  wanted  for  a 
 union  with  Achilles  ;  and,  having  reached  the  Grecian 
 camp,  was  on  the  point  of  being  sacrificed,  when  Di- 
 ana, moved  with  pity,  snatched  her  away,  leaving  a 
 hind  in  her  place.  The  goddess  carried  her  to  Tauris, 
 where  she  became  a  priestess  in  her  temple.  It  was 
 the  custom  at  Tauris  to  sacrifice  all  strangers  to  Di- 
 ana ;  and  many  had  been  thus  immolated  under  the 
 ministration  of  Iphigenia,  when  Orestes  and  his  friend 
 Pylades  chanced  to  come  thither,  in  obedience  to  the 
 oracle  at  Delphi,  which  had  enjoined  upon  the  son  of 
 Agatmemnon  to  convey  to  Argos  the  statue  of  the 
 Tauric  Diana.  When  Orestes  and  Pylades  were 
 brought  as  victims  to  the  altar,  Iphigenia,  perceiving 
 them  to  be  Greeks,  offered  to  spare  the  life  of  one  of 
 them,  provided  he  would  convey  a  letter  for  her  to 
 Greece.  This  occasioned  a  contest  between  them, 
 which  should  sacrifice  himself  for  the  other,  and  it  was 
 ended  in  Pylades'  yielding  to  Orestes,  and  agreeino  to 
 be  the  bearer  of  the  letter  :  a  discovery  was  the  con- 
 sequence ;  and  Iphigenia  accordingly  contrived  to  carry 
 off  the  statue  of  Diana,  and  to  accompany  her  brother 
 and  Pylades  into  Greece. — The  story  of  Iphigenia  has 
 been  made  by  Euripides  the  subject  of  two  plays,  in 
 which,  of  course,  several  variations  from  the  common 
 legend  are  introduced. — The  name  and  story  of  Iphi- 
 genia are  unnoticed  by  Homer.  Iphigenia  is  probably 
 a  mere  epithet  of  Diana.  She  is  the  same  with  the 
 Diana-Orthia  of  Sparta,  at  whose  altars  the  boys  were 
 scourged.  It  was  probably  this  rite  that  caused  Iphi- 
 genia to  be  identified  with  the  "  Virgin,"  to  whom  hu- 
 man victims  were  offered  by  the  Tauri.  (Herod.,  4, 
 103.)  The  story  of  Iphigenia  would  seem  to  have 
 been  then  invented  to  account  for  the  similarity.  Mijl- 
 ler  thinks  that  Lemnos  was  the  original  mythic  Tau- 
 ris, whence  the  name  was  transferred  to  the  Euxine. 
 (Dorians,  vol.  1,  p.  397,  scgq.)  The  Homeric  name 
 of  Iphigenia  is  Iphianassa.  (Horn.,  II.,  9,  144,  seq. — 
 Heync,  ad  lac. — Compare  Lucretius,  1,  86.) 
 
 Ii'HiTus,  I.  a   son  of  Eurytus,  king   of  CEchalia. 
 {Vid.  Hercules,  p.  598,  col.  2.)— II.   A  king  of  Elis, 
 •on  of  Praxonides,  in  the  age  of  Lycurgus.     He  re- 
 684 
 
 established  the  Olympic  games  470  years  after  tlieir 
 first  institution,  or  B  C.  884.  It  was  not.  however, 
 until  108  years  after  this  (B.C.  776)  that  the  custom 
 was  introduced  of  inscribing  in  the  gymnasium  at 
 Olympia  the  names  of  those  who  had  borne  off  the 
 prize  in  the  stadium.  The  first  whose  name  was  thus 
 mscribed  was  Coroebus.  {UArt  de  verifier  les  Dales, 
 vol.  3,  p.  167.— Pieot,  Tabl.  ChronoL,  vol.  1,  p.  322.) 
 
 Ipsus,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  near  Synnada,  in  the  plains 
 adjacent  to  which  was  fought  the  great  battle  belweea 
 Antigonus  and  his  son  Demetrius  on  the  one  side, 
 and  the  combined  forces  of  Cassander,  Lysimachus, 
 Ptolemy,  and  Seleucus,  on  the  other.  We  have  no 
 detailed  account  of  this  decisive  conflict,  in  which 
 Antigonus  lost  all  his  conquests  and  his  life.  The 
 reader  may  consult  Plutarch  in  his  life  of  Pyrrhus, 
 Appian  in  his  history  of  Syria,  and  the  mutilated  nar- 
 rative of  Diodorus,  as  the  best  authorities  to  be  pro- 
 cured. Little,  however,  is  to  be  gained  from  them 
 respecting  the  position  of  Ipsus.  Hierocles  (p.  677) 
 and  the  Acts  of  Councils  afford  evidence  of  its  having 
 been  the  see  of  a  Christian  bishop  in  the  seventh  and 
 eighth  centuries. — "  The  site  of  Ipsus,"  observes  Ren- 
 nell,  "is  unknown.  It  is  said  to  have  been  7icar  Syn- 
 nada, and  there  are  certainly  the  remains  of  several 
 ancient  towns  and  cities  on  the  great  road  leading 
 from  Synnada  towards  the  Bosporus,  and  one  of  them 
 within  a  few  miles  of  Synnada,  to  the  N.W. ;  but  it 
 may  be  doubted  whether  Ipsus  lay  on  that  side  of 
 Synnada.  The  contending  armies  approached  each 
 other  along  the  great  road  that  led  from  Syria  and  Cili- 
 cia,  through  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor,  towards  Synna- 
 da ;  but  whether  they  met  to  the  north  or  south  of  that 
 city  is  not  known.  A  town  named  Sakli,  and  also 
 Sclcukter  (probably  from  its  ancient  name  of  Seleucia), 
 is  situated  on  the  continuation  of  the  great  road,  at 
 about  25  miles  from  Synnada,  to  the  southward,  and 
 precisely  at  the  point  of  separation  of  the  roads  leading 
 to  Ephesus  and  to  Byzantium,  in  coming  from  Syria. 
 If  Seleucus  founded  any  city  on  occasion  of  his  vic- 
 tory, one  might  suspect  that  the  field  of  battle  was 
 near,  or  at,  Sakli,  from  the  above  circumstance.  No 
 point  was  more  likely  for  the  opposing  army  from  the 
 west  to  have  taken  post  at,  than  at  the  meeting  of 
 these  roads,  by  which  they  commanded  the  passage 
 through  a  plentiful  valley,  shut  up  by  ridges  of  hills 
 on  both  sides ;  the  line  of  communication  as  well  in 
 modern  as  in  ancient  times."  [Geography  of  Western 
 Asia,  vol.  2,  p.  145,  seqq.) 
 
 Ira,  I.  a  city  of  Messenia,  in  the  north,  towards  the 
 confines  of  Elis,  and  near  the  river  Cyparissus,  com- 
 monly supposed  by  some  to  have  been  one  of  the 
 cities  promised  by  Agamemnon  to  Achilles,  if  the  lat- 
 ter would  become  reconciled  to  him.  This  is  incor- 
 rect, as  Homer  names  the  place  to  which  Agamemnon 
 alludes  'Ipr},  and  not  E/pn.  Agamemnon  promised 
 Achilles  seven  cities  of  Messenia,  of  which  Ire  (not 
 Ira)  was  one,  and  the  poet  describes  all  seven  as  lying 
 near  the  sea,  whereas  Ira  was  inland.  {Horn.,  II.,  9, 
 150.)  This  place  is  famous  in  history  as  having  sup- 
 ported a  siege  of  eleven  years  against  the  Lacedaemo- 
 nians. Its  capture,  B.C.  671,  put  an  end  to  the  sec- 
 ond Messcnianwar.  {Strab.,  360. — Steph.  Bys.,  s.  v. 
 'Iprj.)  We  are  informed  by  Sir  W.  Gell,  that  "there 
 are  some  ruins  near  a  village  called  Kakoletri,  on  the 
 left  bank  of  the  Neda,  which  some  think  those  of  Ira, 
 the  capital  of  Messenia,  in  the  time  of  Aristomenes." 
 {Itin  ,  p.  84  ) — II.  A  citv  of  Messenia,  on  the  eastern 
 shore  of  the  Messenian  Gulf,  supposed  to  be  the  same 
 with  Abia.     {Vid.  A.h\a.) 
 
 Iren/eus,  a  native  of  Greece,  disciple  of  Polycarp, 
 and  bishop  of  Lyons,  in  France.  The  time  of  his 
 birth,  and  the  precise  place  of  his  nativity,  cannot  be 
 satisfactorily  ascertained.  Dodwell  refers  his  birth  to 
 the  reign  of  Nerva,  AD.  97,  and  thinks  that  he  did 
 not  outlive  the  year  190.     Grabe  dates  his  birth  about 
 
IRI 
 
 1  SJE 
 
 the  year  108.  Dupin  says  that  he  was  born  a  little 
 before  the  year  140,  and  died  a  martyr  in  202.  On  the 
 martyrdom  of  Photinus,  his  predecessor  in  the  see  of 
 Lyons,  Irenaius,  who  had  been  a  distinguished  mem- 
 ber of  the  church  in  that  quarter,  was  appointed  his 
 successor  in  the  diocese,  A.D.  174,  and  presided  in 
 that  capacity  at  two  councils  held  at  Lyons,  in  one  of 
 which  the  Gnostic  heresy  was  condemned,  and  in 
 another  the  Quartodecimani.  He  also  went  to  Rome, 
 and  disputed  there  publicly  with  Valentinus,  Florinus, 
 and  Blastus,  against  whose  opinions  he  afterward 
 wrote  with  much  zeal  and  ability.  He  wrote  on  dif- 
 ferent subjects  ;  but,  as  what  remains  is  in  Latin, 
 some  supposed  he  composed  in  that  language,  and 
 not  in  Greek.  Fragments  of  his  works  in  Greek  are, 
 however,  preserved,  which  prove  thai  his  style  was 
 simple,  though  clear  and  often  animated.  His  opinions 
 concerning  the  soul  are  curious.  Ho  suffered  martyr- 
 dom about  A.D.  202.  From  the  silence  of  Tertul- 
 lian,  Eusebius,  and  others,  concerning  the  manner  of 
 his  death.  Cave,  Basnage,  and  Dodwell  have  inferred 
 that  he  did  not  die  by  martyrdom,  but  in  the  ordinary 
 course  of  nature.  With  these  Lardner  coincides. 
 The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Grabs,  Oxon., 
 fol.,  1702.  Dodwell  published  a  series  of  six  essays 
 on  the  writings  of  this  father  of  the  church,  which  he 
 illustrates  by  many  historical  references  and  remarks. 
 
 Iresus,  a  beautiful  country  in  Libya,  not  far  from 
 Cyrene.  When  Battus,  in  obedience  to  the  oracle, 
 was  seeking  a  place  for  a  settlement,  the  Libyans,  who 
 were  his  guides,  managed  so  as  to  lead  hnn  through  it 
 by  night.  Milton  calls  the  name  Irassa,  for  which  he 
 has  the  authority  of  Pindar.  {Find  ,  Pyth.,  9,  185. — 
 Herod., A:,  158,  seqq.) 
 
 Iris,  L  the  goddess  of  the  rainbow.  Homer  gives 
 not  the  slightest  hint  of  who  her  parents  were  ;  He- 
 siod,  however,  makes  her  the  daughter  of  Thaumas 
 {Wonder),  by  the  ocean-nymph  Eiectra  (Brightness), 
 no  unapt  parentage  for  the  brilliant  and  wonder-exci- 
 ting bow  of  the  skies.  (Thcog.,  265.)  The  office  of 
 Iris  in  the  Iliad  is  to  act  as  the  messenger  of  the  king 
 and  queen  of  Olympus  ;  a  duty  which  Mercury  per- 
 forms in  the  Odyssey,  in  which  poem  there  is  not  any 
 mention  made  of  Iris.  There  is  little  mention,  also, 
 of  the  goddess  in  the  subsequent  Greek  poets  ;  but, 
 whenever  she  is  spoken  of,  she  appears  quite  distinct 
 from  the  celestial  phenomenon  of  the  same  name.  In 
 Callimachus  (//.  in  Dei,  216,  seq.)  and  the  Latin 
 poets.  Iris  is  appropriated  to  the  service  of  Juno  ;  and 
 by  these  last  she  is  invariably  (and  we  may  even  say 
 clumsily)  confounded  with  the  rainbow.  According 
 to  the  lyric  poet  Alcaeus,  who  is  followed  by  Nonnus, 
 Iris  was  by  Zephyrus  the  mother  of  Love.  {Alcmis, 
 ap.  Plu.t.,  Amator.,  20. — Nonnus,  31,  110,  seq.)  Ho- 
 mer styles  Iris  " gold-tvinged"  {II.,  8,  398. — Tb.,  9, 
 185),  the  only  line  in  the  poet  which  makes  against 
 Voss's  theory,  that  none  of  Homer's  gods  were  winged. 
 {Mylholog.  Bricfe,  vol.  1,  Br.  12,  scqq.)  The  name 
 Iris  ('Ip«c)  is  usually  derived  from  elpu,  kpib,  '^to  say," 
 an  etymology  which  suits  the  office  of  the  goddess, 
 and  which  accords  with  the  view  taken  of  the  rainbow 
 in  the  Book  of  Genesis.  Hermann,  however,  renders 
 Iris  by  the  Latin  term  Serlia,  from  Eipu,  "^o  ujiite,''^ 
 the  rainbow  being  formed  of  seven  united  or  blended 
 colours  :  "'Ipif,  Sertia,  quod  ex  septem  colorihus  con- 
 terta  est."  {Opusc,  vol.  2,  p.  179. — Keightlcy's 
 Mythology,  p.  200.) — II.  A  river  of  Pontus,  rising  on 
 the  confines  of  Armenia  Minor,  and  flowing  into  the 
 sea  southeast  of  Amisus.  It  receives  many  tributa- 
 ries, and  near  the  end  of  its  course  passes  through  the 
 district  of  Phanaroea.  The  Turks  call  it  the  Tokatlu, 
 and  near  its  mouth  it  is  more  usually  styled  Jekil-Er- 
 mak,  or  the  Green  River.  "  It  has  been  a  prevalent 
 opinion  among  geographers,  both  ancient  and  modern," 
 observes  Rennell  {Geography  of  Western  Asia,  vol. 
 1,  p.  269),  "that  the  Iris  made  a  course  to  the  east- 
 
 ward of  north,  from  Amasea  to  the  Sinus  Amisenus. 
 Ptolemy  allows  N.  20°  E.  and  64  miles  in  distance. 
 Dr.  Howell  allows  northeast-by-north  in  his  map ; 
 DWnville  north  exactly."  The  same  writer  has  the 
 following  ingenious  conjecture  respecting  the  origin  of 
 its  ancient  name.  "M.  D'Anville  says  that  its  name 
 is  Jekil-Ermak,  or  the  Green  River.  Tournefort  tells 
 us  that  the  Carmili  River  (the  same  with  the  Lycus, 
 the  larger  branch)  was  of  a  deep  red  colour,  from  that 
 of  the  soil.  May  it  not  be,  that,  if  the  river  was  red  at 
 some  seasons,  and  green  (or  fancied  to  be  so)  at  oth- 
 ers, this  may  have  occasioned  the  name  of  Iris,  from 
 the  Greeks  1"  {Geography  of  Western  Asia,  vol.  1, 
 p.  356.) 
 
 Irus,  a  beggar  of  Ithaca,  remarkable  for  his  large 
 stature  and  his  excessive  gluttony.  His  original  name 
 was  Arnaeus,  but  he  received  that  of  Irus,  as  being  the 
 messenger  of  the  suiters  of  Penelope.  ('Ipoc,  Kara  tov 
 TcoiTjTTjv,  Tvapu  70  dpu,  TO  Aiyo)  Kal  uTrayyeAXu. 
 Eustath.  ad  Od.,  18,  6.)  Irus  attempted  to  obstruct 
 the  entrance  of  Ulysses  into  the  palace,  under  the  mean 
 disguise  assumed  by  the  latter  on  his  return  home,  and 
 in  presence  of  the  whole  court  challenged  him  to  fight. 
 Ulysses  immediately  brought  him  to  the  ground  with  a 
 single  blow.     {Od.,  18,  1,  seqq.) 
 
 Is,  a  city  about  eight  days'  journey  from  Babylon, 
 according  to  Herodotus,  near  which  flows  a  river  ot 
 the  same  name,  which  empties  into  the  Euphrates. 
 With  the  current  of  this  river,  adds  the  historian,  par- 
 ticles of  bitumen  descended  towards  Babylon,  by  means 
 of  which  its  walls  were  constructed.  There  are  some 
 curious  fountains,  says  Rennell,  near  Hit,  a  town  on 
 the  Euphrates,  about  128  miles  above  Hillah,  reckon- 
 ing the  distance  along  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates. 
 This  distance  answers  to  eight  ordinary  journeys  of  a 
 caravan  of  16  miles  direct.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
 that  this  Hit  is  the  Is  of  Herodotus,  which  should  have 
 been  written  It.  {Rennell,  Geography  of  Herodotus, 
 vol.  1,  p.  461,  ed.  1830.) 
 
 IsADAS,  a  young  Spartan,  who,  when  Epaminondas 
 and  the  Thebans  had  attacked  Lacedasmon,  and  the 
 city  was  in  danger  of  falling  into  their  hands,  rushed 
 forth  from  his  dwelling  in  a  state  of  nudity,  and  newly 
 anointed  with  oil,  having  nothing  but  a  spear  in  one 
 hand  and  a  sword  in  the  other,  and  in  this  condition 
 contended  valiantly  against  the  foe.  The  Ephori  hon- 
 oured him  with  a  chaplet  for  his  gallant  achievement, 
 but,  at  the  same  time,  fined  him  1000  drachmas  for  hav- 
 ing dared  to  appear  without  his  armour.  {Plut.,  Vil. 
 Ages.)  This  story  is  introduced  by  Bludgell,  in  his 
 paper  upon  "  The  mixture  of  virtue  and  vice  in  the 
 human  character."     {Spectator,  No.  564.) 
 
 Is^us,  an  orator  of  Chalcis,  in  Euboea,  who  came 
 to  Athens,  and  became  there  the  pupil  of  Lysias,  and 
 soon  after  the  master  of  Demosthenes.  ( Clmton,  Fasti 
 Hellenici,  2d  ed.,  p.  1 17.)  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
 could  not  ascertain  the  time  of  his  birth  or  death.  So 
 much  as  this,  however,  appears  certain,  that  the  vig- 
 our of  his  talent  belonged  to  the  period  after  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesian  war,  and  that  he  lived  to  see  the  time  of 
 King  Philip.  His  style  bears  a  great  resemblance  to 
 that  of  Lysias.  He  is  elegant  and  vigorous  ;  but  Dio- 
 nyskis  of  Halicarnassus  does  not  find  in  him  the  sim- 
 plicity of  the  other.  He  understands  better  than  Lys- 
 ias the  art  of  arranging  the  several  parts  of  a  discourse, 
 but  he  is  less  natural.  When  we  read  the  exposition 
 of  a  speech  of  Lysias,  nothing  appears  artificial  therein ; 
 on  the  contrary,  everything  is  studied  in  the  orations 
 of  Isxus.  "  One  would  believe  Lysias,"  adds  Dionys- 
 ius, "  though  he  were  stating  what  was  false  ;  one 
 cannot,  without  some  feeling  of  distrust,  assent  to  Isae- 
 us,  even  when  he  speaks  the  truth."  Again  :  "  Lysias 
 seems  to  aim  at  truth,  but  Isjeus  to  follow  art :  the 
 one  strives  to  please,  the  other  to  produce  efTect." 
 Dionysius  farther  remarks,  that,  in  his  opinion,  with 
 Isaeus  originated  that  vigour  and  energy  of  style  {Set- 
 
 685 
 
ISA 
 
 ISI 
 
 voTt/^)  which  his  pupil  Demosthenes  carried  to  perfec- 
 tion. (Diun.  Hal.,  dc  Iscco  judicium. — Op.,  ed  RrAske, 
 vol.  5,  p.  613,  seqq.) — So  far  as  the  cxtap'  soecimens 
 of  Isasus  enable  us  to  form  an  opinion,  this  jiitlgmeiit 
 appears  to  be  just.  The  perspicuity  and  artless  sim- 
 plicity of  the  style  of  Lysias  are  admirable  ;  but,  on 
 reading  Iseus,  we  feel  that  we  have  to  do  with  a  subtle 
 disputant  and  a  close  reasoner,  whose  arguments  are 
 strong  and  pointed,  but  have  too  much  the  appearance 
 of  studied  effect,  and  for  that  reason  often  fail  to  con- 
 vince.— The  author  of  the  life  of  Isxus,  attributed  to 
 Plutarch,  mentions  si.xty-four  orations  of  his,  fifty  of 
 which  were  allowed  to  be  genuine.  At  present  there 
 are  only  eleven  extant,  all  of  which  are  of  the  forensic 
 class,  and  all  treat  of  matters  relating  to  wills,  and  the 
 succession  to  the  property  of  testators  or  persons  in- 
 testate, or  to  disputes  originating  in  such  matters. 
 These  orations  are  valuable  for  the  insight  they  give 
 us  into  the  laws  of  Athens  as  to  the  disposition  of 
 property  by  will  and  in  cases  of  intestacy,  and  also  as 
 to  many  of  the  forms  of  procedure. — The  best  edition 
 of  the  text  of  Isaens  is  by  Bekker,  forming  part  of  the 
 Oratores  Auici  (1822-1833,  8vo,  Berol.—Orat.  Alt., 
 vol.  3.)  The  most  useful  edition,  however,  is  that  of 
 Schomann,  Gryphisw.,  1831,  Svo.  Sir  W.  Jones  has 
 given  a  valuable  translation  of  Isaeus.  It  appeared  in 
 1779.  His  version,  however,  extends  only  to  ten  of 
 the  orations,  the  eleventh  having  been  discovered  since. 
 [SchUl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  215.)— II.  A  native  of 
 Assyria,  likewise  an  orator,  who  came  to  Rome  A.D. 
 17.  He  is  greatly  commended  by  Pliny  the  younger, 
 who  observes  that  he  always  spoke  extempore,  and 
 that  his  language  was  marked  by  elegance,  unlaboured 
 ease,  and  great  correctness.    {Plin.,  Ep.,  2,  3.) 
 
 IsAPis,  a  river  of  Umbria.  Its  ordinary  name  was 
 the  Sapis.  {Sirah.,  216. — Plol.,p.  64.)  Its  modern 
 appellation  is  the  Savio.  It  rose  not  far  from  Sarsina, 
 and  fell  into  the  Adriatic  to  the  northwest  of  the  Ru- 
 bicon.    {Lucan,  2,  406.) 
 
 IsAR  and  IsARA,  I.  now  the  here,  a  river  of  Gaul, 
 where  Fabius  routed  the  AUobroges.  It  rose  in  the 
 Graian  Alps,  and  fell  into  the  Rhodanus  near  Valentia, 
 the  modern  Valence. — II.  Another,  called  the  Oise, 
 which  falls  into  the  Seine  below  Paris.  The  Celtic 
 name  of  Briva  Isarae,  a  place  on  this  river,  has  been 
 translated  into  Pont-Oisc. 
 
 IsAURA  (<2  or  orum),  the  capital  of  Isauria,  near  the 
 confines  of  Phrygia.  Strabo  and  Stephanus  of  Byzan- 
 tium use  the  term  as  a  plural  one  {ru  'laavpa)  ;  Am- 
 mianus  Marcellinus,  however,  makes  it  of  the  first  de- 
 clension (14,  8).  It  was  a  strong  and  rich  place,  and 
 its  inhabitants  appear  to  have  acquired  their  wealth,  in 
 a  great  degree,  by  plundering  the  neighbouring  regions. 
 The  city  was  attacked  by  the  Macedonians  under  Per- 
 diccas,  the  inhabitants  having  put  to  death  the  govern- 
 or set  over  the  province  by  Alexander.  After  a  brave 
 resistance,  the  Isaurians  destroyed  themselves  and  their 
 city  by  fire.  The  conquerors  are  said  to  have  obtain- 
 ed much  gold  and  silver  from  the  ruins  of  the  place. 
 (Diod.  Sic,  18,  22.)  During  the  contentions  between 
 Alexander's  successors,  the  neighbouring  mountain- 
 eers rebuilt  the  capital,  and  commenced  plundering 
 anew  until  they  were  reduced  by  Servilius,  hence  sty- 
 led Isauricus,  and  the  city  was  again  destroyed.  A 
 new  Isaura  was  afterward  built  by  Amyntas,  king  of 
 Galatia,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  old  city,  and  the  stones 
 of  this  last  were  em[)loycd  in  its  construction.  {Strab., 
 591.)  This  new  Isaura  appears  to  have  existed  until 
 the  third  century,  when  Trebellianus  made  it  his  res- 
 idence, and  raised  here  the  standard  of  revolt.  He  was 
 slain,  and  Isaura  was  probably  again  destroyed,  since, 
 according  to  Ammianus,  its  remains  were  in  his  time 
 scarcely  perceptible.  {Amm.  MarcelL,  I.  c.  —  Trcb. 
 Pollio,  30  Tyranni.  c.  25.)  D'Anville  places  the  old 
 capital  near  a  lake,  about  whose  existence,  however, 
 the  ancients  are  silent ;  the  modern  nanie  he  makes 
 688 
 
 Bei-Shehri.  New  Isaura  he  places  on  another  Ibkc 
 southeast  of  the  former,  and  terms  it  Sidi-Shchri. 
 Mannert  opposes  this  position  of  the  last,  and  is  in  fa- 
 vour of  Scii-Serail,  a  small  village  east-northeast  of 
 Iconium.  {Manjicrt,  Anc.  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  part  2,  p. 
 188.) 
 
 IsAUKiA,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  north  of,  and  ad- 
 jacent to,  Pisidia.  The  inhabitants  were  a  wild  race, 
 remarkable  for  the  violence  and  rapine  which  they  ex- 
 ercised against  their  neighbours.  P.  Servilius  derived 
 from  his  reduction  of  this  peo[)le  the  surname  of  Isau- 
 ricus. A  conformity  in  the  aspect  of  the  country, 
 wiiich  was  rough  and  mountainous,  caused  Cilicia 
 Trachea,  in  a  subsequent  age,  to  have  the  name  of 
 Isauria  extended  to  it,  and  it  is  thus  denominated  in 
 the  notices  of  the  eastern  empire.  "  With  respect  to 
 Isauria,"  observes  Rennell,  "  Strabo  is  not  so  explicit 
 as  might  have  been  wished  ;  but  the  subject,  perhaps, 
 was  not  well  known  to  him.  He  no  doubt  regards 
 Isauria  as  a  province  or  a  part  of  Pisidia  at  large  :  and 
 mentions  its  two  capitals,  the  old  and  the  new.  But 
 then  he  speaks  of  the  expedition  of  Servilius,  which 
 was  sent  to  one  of  those  cities,  as  a  transaction  con- 
 nected with  the  modern  or  maritime  Isauria  ;  that  is, 
 Cilicia  Trachea.  This  may,  perhaps,  be  explained  by 
 the  circumstance  of  Servilius  being  at  the  time  pro- 
 consul of  Cilicia,  and  the  expedition  being  prepared 
 and  sent  forth  from  Caycus,  in  that  country,  as  a  con- 
 venient point  of  outset.  But  Strabo  describes  Cilicia 
 Trachea  under  its  proper  name,  and  fixes  its  boundary 
 westward  at  Coracesium,  on  the  seacoast ;  and  there- 
 fore seems  to  have  had  no  idea  of  any  other  Isauria 
 than  that  which  lay  inland.  The  Isauria  of  Pliny  in- 
 cludes both  the  original  province  of  that  name,  lying 
 north  of  Taurus,  and  also  Cilicia  Trachea,  vvhich  had 
 been  added  to  the  other ;  possibly  from  the  date  of 
 the  above-mentioned  expedition  of  Servilius.  About 
 a  century  and  a  half  had  elapsed  between  the  time  of 
 Servilius  and  Pliny  ;  and  great  changes  had  probably 
 taken  place  in  the  arrangement  of  boundaries  of  coun- 
 tries so  lately  acquired.  In  later  times,  the  name  of 
 Isauria  seems  to  have  become  appropriate  to  Cilicia 
 Trachea.  Ammianus  Marcellinus  wrote  at  so  much 
 later  a  period,  that  one  can  hardly  allow  his  descrip- 
 tion to  apply  to  ancient  geography.  He  describes 
 Isauria  as  a  maritime  country  absolutely  ;  and  per 
 haps  the  original  Isauria  was  not  known  by  that  name, 
 but  merged  into  the  larger  province  of  Pisidia."  {Ge- 
 ography of  Western  Asia,  vol.  2,  p.  73,  seqq.) 
 
 Isauricus,  a  surname  of  P.  Servilius,  from  his  con- 
 quests over  the  Isaurians.  (Ovid,  Fast.,  1,  594. — 
 Cic,  Att.,  5,  21. —  Vid.  Isaura  and  Isauria.) 
 
 IsinoRus,  I.  a  native  of  (.^harax,  near  the  mouth  of 
 the  Tigris,  who  published  in  the  reign  of  Caligula  a 
 "  Description  of  Parthia."  (napdiaq  nefitrjyTjTiKov.) 
 It  no  longer  exists  ;  but  we  have  a  work  remaining, 
 which  appears  to  be  an  extract  from  it,  and  is  entitled 
 "Zradjiol  TlapdiKoL,  "  Parthian  Halting-places."  This 
 work  gives  a  list  of  the  eighiecn  provinces  into  which 
 the  Parthian  empire  was  divided,  with  the  principal 
 places  in  each  province,  and  the  distances  between 
 each  town.  The  list  was  probably  taken  from  official 
 records,  such  as  appear,  from  the  list  of  provinces, 
 &c.,  in  Herodotus,  to  have  been  kept  in  the  ancient 
 Persian  empire.  The  production  just  referred  to  has 
 been  printed  in  the  second  volume  of  Hudson's  "  Ge- 
 ographicR  vetcris  Scriptorcs  Grceci  Minorcs,"  with  a 
 dissertation  by  Dodwell.  There  is  also  a  memoir  on 
 Isidorus  by  Sainte-Croix,  in  the  50th  volume  of  the 
 Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.,  &-c. — II.  A  native  of 
 ^g3B,  an  epigrammatic  poet,  some  of  whose  produc- 
 tions are  preserved  in  the  Anthology.  {Jacobs,  An- 
 thol.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  177;  vol.  10,  p.  329,)— HI.  An 
 epigrammatic  poet,  a  native  of  Bolbitine  in  Egypt. 
 {Jacobs,  Anthol.  Gr.,  vol.  10,  p.  332.)— IV.  A  native 
 of  Miletus,  a  Greek  architect  of  the  sixth  century, 
 
rSIDORUS. 
 
 IS  I 
 
 who,  together,  with  Anthemius,  was  employed  by 
 Justinian,  emperor  of  the  east,  to  erect  the  church  of 
 St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople.  Anthemius  merely  laid 
 the  foundation  of  the  edifice,  and  was  then  arrested  by 
 the  hand  of  death,  A.D.  534.  Isidorus  was  charged 
 with  the  completion  of  this  structure.  This  church  is 
 a  square  building,  with  a  hemispherical  cupola  in  the 
 centre,  and  its  summit  400  feet  from  the  pavement 
 below.  This  edifice,  which  was  considered  the  most 
 magnificent  monument  of  the  age,  was  scarcely  fin- 
 ished before  the  cupola  was  thrown  down  by  an  earth- 
 quake. But  Justinian  had  it  immediately  rebuilt. 
 On  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  the 
 church  of  St.  Sophia  was  appropriated  to  the  worship 
 of  the  Mohammedan  conquerors. — V.  A  New  Plato- 
 nist,  a  native  of  Gaza,  who  succeeded  Hegias  in  the 
 chair  of  .\thens,  in  the  fifth  century,  or,  rather,  at  the 
 beginning  of  the  si.vth.  He  was  a  zealous  follower  of 
 Proclus,  but  deficient  in  talent  and  erudition,  and, 
 consequently,  soon  made  way  for  Zenodotus  as  his 
 successor.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  116.) 
 — VI.  A  native  of  Pelusium,  a  saint  in  the  Roman 
 Catholic  calendar,  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
 the  disciples  of  Chrysostom.  He  lived  m  the  fifth 
 century,  professed  the  monastic  life  from  his  youth, 
 and  composed  some  thousand  epistles,  of  which  two 
 thousand  and  twelve  remain,  in  five  books,  and  are 
 deemed  valuable,  especially  for  the  information  which 
 they  contain  in  relation  to  points  of  discipline  and  for 
 practical  rules.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Schottus, 
 Paris,  1638.  fol.  In  1738,  Heumann  attacked  the  au- 
 thenticity of  a  part  of  these  epistles,  in  a  tract  entitled 
 *•  EpislolcB  Isidori  Pclusiotm  maximam  partem  con- 
 fectiZ^^  (fee. — VII.  Another  saint  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
 olic calendar,  and  a  distinguished  Spanish  prelate  to- 
 wards the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  when  he 
 succeeded  his  brother  Leander  in  the  see  of  Seville. 
 Hence  he  is  commonly  called  Isidorus  Hispalensis, 
 "  Isidore  of  Seville."  He  was,  however,  a  native  of 
 Carthago  Nova  (Carthagena),  of  which  his  father 
 Severianus  was  governor.  He  presided  in  a  council 
 held  in  that  city,  A.D.  619  ;  and  at  the  fourth  national 
 council,  A.D.  633,  in  which  numerous  regulations 
 were  by  his  influence  adopted,  in  order  to  reform  ec- 
 clesiastical discipline  in  Spain.  He  was  well  acquaint- 
 ed with  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  was  considered  by 
 the  council  of  Toledo  as  the  most  learned  man  of  his 
 age.  The  style  of  his  works,  however,  is  not  very 
 clear,  and  his  judgment  appears  to  have  been  very  de- 
 fective. He  died  A.D,  636. — Isidorus  was  the  au- 
 thor of  many  works,  chiefly,  however,  compilations. 
 His  principal  production  is  entitled  "  Twenty  Books 
 of  Origins  and  Etymologies"  {Origivum  sive  Ety- 
 mologiarum  Libri  XX.).  Death  prevented  him  from 
 finishing  this,  and  it  was  completed  by  his  friend 
 Braulio,  bishop  of  Saragossa,  It  contains  far  more 
 than  the  title  would  seem  to  promise,  and  is,  in  fact, 
 a  species  of  encyclopsdia,  or  a  summary  of  all  the 
 sciences  cultivated  at  that  period.  The  first  book  is 
 divided  into  forty-three  chapters,  of  which  the  first 
 thirty-eight  explain  terms  connected  with  grammar. 
 The  remaining  five  have  reference  to  matters  connected 
 with  history.  The  second  book  is  devoted  principally 
 to  rhetorical  subjects;  it  contains  also  an  introduction 
 to  philosophy,  and  a  system  of  Dialectics  after  Porphy- 
 ry, Aristotle,  and  Victorinus.  The  third  book  treats 
 of  arithmetic,  music,  and  astronomy.  The  fourth 
 book  is  devoted  to  medicine.  The  fifth  book  con- 
 tains jurisprudence  and  chronology,  together  with  a 
 species  of  historical  summary,  terminating  at  the  sixth 
 year  of  the  reign  of  Heraclius.  In  the  sixth  book, 
 the  author  occupies  himself  with  the  Bible,  with  li- 
 braries and  manuscripts  ;  he  speaks  of  canons,  of 
 gospels,  and  councils  ;  he  then  explains  the  paschal 
 cycle,  the  calendar,  and  the  festivals  of  the  church. 
 The  seventh  and  eighth  books  treat  of  God,  of  angels 
 
 and  men,  of  faith,  of  heresies,  of  pagan  philosophers, 
 of  sibyls,  of  magicians,  and  of  the  gods  of  the  heathen. 
 The  ninlh  book  has  for  its  subjects  the  different  lan- 
 guages spoken  among  men,  names  of  communities, 
 official  dignities,  relationships,  affinities,  marriages. 
 The  last  ten  books  explain  and  define  a  large  r.umbeif 
 of  words,  the  origin  of  which  is  not  generally  known. 
 In  these  etymologies  the  author  has  no  doubt  commit- 
 ted a  number  of  errors,  neither  has  he  displayed  much 
 critical  acumen  in  many  of  his  remarks  ;  yet,  notwith- 
 standing these  defects,  his  work  is  valuable  on  account 
 of  the  extracts  from  lost  works  which  it  contains,  and 
 because  it  serves  to  show  to  what  state  of  advance- 
 ment each  of  the  sciences  of  which  it  treats  had  at- 
 tained among  the  ancients.  Isidorus  was  also  the  au- 
 thor of  a  work  entitled  "  Dc  Differenliis  sive  proprie^ 
 tale  verboruvi,"  in  three  books.  The  first  of  tliese  is 
 taken  from  Agrcctius  and  other  ancient  grammarians  ; 
 the  second  treats  "  de  differenliis  spiriluaHbus.''^  The 
 third,  more  complete  than  the  first,  is  arranged  in  al- 
 phabetical order.  We  have  also  various  glossaries 
 ascribed  to  Isidorus,  of  which  has  been  formed  a 
 liber  glossarum.  A  small  glossary,  containing  gram- 
 matical terms  in  Greek  and  Latin,  was  published  for 
 the  first  time  by  Heusinger,  in  his  second  edition  of 
 Mallius  Theodorus. — We  have  to  mention  also  a 
 Chronicle  by  Isidorus,  from  the  beginning  of  the  world 
 to  the  fifth  year  of  the  reign  of  Heraclius,  A.D.  615. 
 It  is  derived  from  ancient  chronicles,  and  contains 
 likewise  some  new  details  respecting  the  period  in 
 which  it  was  composed.  It  is  sometimes  cited  under 
 the  following  titles  :  "  De  Tcrnporibus  ;"  "  Abbrevia- 
 tor  Tcmporum  ;  "  De  'Sex  vnindi  cetatibus  ;"  "  Imago 
 Mundi."  Isidorus  wrote  also  two  abridged  histories 
 of  the  Germanic  tribes  that  settled  in  Spain  during  the 
 fifth  century  ;  one  entitled  '■  De  historia,  sii'e  Chron- 
 icon  Gothorum  ;"  and  the  other,  "  Chronicon  breve 
 regum  Visigothorum."  The  first  is  followed  by  an 
 appendix  on  the  Vandals  and  Suevi.  Other  works  of 
 Isidorus  are  as  follows:  "A  Treatise  on  Ecclesiasti- 
 cal Writers  ;"  "  Sentences  ;"  "  Commentaries  on  the 
 Historical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament ;"  "  Scriptural 
 Allegories  ;"  "  A  Book  of  Poems,  or  Prolegomena  to 
 the  Scriptures  ;"  "  A.  Treatise  on  Ecclesiastical  Dis- 
 cipline," in  which  he  mentions  seven  prayers  of  the 
 sacrifice  still  to  be  found  in  the  Mosarabic  mass,  which 
 is  the  ancient  Spanish  liturgy,  of  which  Isidorus  was 
 the  principal  author.  A  collection  of  canons,  attribu- 
 ted to  this  Isidorus,  were  by  a  later  priest  of  the  same 
 name,  Isidore  of  Seville,  who  is  more  admired  by  later 
 churchmen  for  learning  than  discrimination,  and  is 
 frequently  ranked  among  musical  writers,  much  being 
 said  by  him  on  the  introduction  of  music  into  the 
 church,  in  his  divine  offices.  The  best  edition  of  the 
 works  of  Isidorus  is  that  of  Arevali,  Romje,  1797- 
 1803,  2  vols  fol.  The  best  edition  of  the  Origines 
 is  that  of  Otto,  forming  the  third  volume  of  Linde- 
 mann's  Corpus  Grammatirorum  Latinorum,  Lips., 
 1833,  4to.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  180, 
 seqq.—Id.  ib.,  vol.  3,  p.  333.) 
 
 Isis,  one  of^the  chief  deities  of  the  Egyptians,  and 
 the  sister  and  spouse  of  Osiris.  She  was  said  to  have 
 first  taught  men  the  art  of  cultivating  corn,  and  was 
 regarded  as  the  goddess  of  fecundity.  Hence  the 
 cow  was  sacred  to  her.  The  annual  festival  of  Isis  in 
 Egypt'lasted  eight  days,  during  which  a  general  puri- 
 fication took  place.  The  priests  of  the  goddess  were 
 bound  to  observe  perpetual  chastity  ;  their  heads  were 
 shaved,  and  they  went  barefoot,  this  deity  was  often 
 represented  as  a  woman  with  the  horns  of  a  cow  She 
 also  appears  with  the  lotus  on  her  head  and  the  sis- 
 trum  in  her  hand  :  and  in  some  instances  her  head  is 
 seen  covered  with  a  hood.  Heads  of  Isis  are  frequent 
 ornaments  of  Egyptian  capitals  on  the  pillars  of  the 
 temples.— As  the  worship  of  Isis  passed  into  foreign 
 lands,  it  assumed  a  foreign  character  and  many  foreign 
 
 687 
 
ISIS. 
 
 ISIS. 
 
 attributes,  as  we  see  from  the  Greek  and  Roman  wri- 
 ters.    Sometimes   she   is  represented   like  Diana  of 
 Ephesus,   the   universal    mother,   with   a   number   of 
 breasts.     The  mysterious  rites  of  Isis  were  probably 
 in  their  origm  symbolical :  on  one  of  her  statues  was 
 this  inscri[)lion,  "  I  am  all  that  has  been  or  that  shall 
 be ;  no  mortal  has  hitherto  taken  off  my  veil." — But 
 the  Isiac  rites,  transplanted  to  Italy,  became  a  cloak 
 for  licentiousness,  and  they  were  repeatedly  forbidden 
 at  Rome.     Tiberius  caused  the  images  of  Isis  to  be 
 thrown  into  the  Tiber  ;  but  the  worship  subsequently 
 revived,  and  Juvenal  speaks  of  it  in  an  indignant  strain. 
 — The  Isiac  Table  in  the  Turin  Museum,  which  is 
 supposed  to  represent  the  mysteries  of  Isis,  has  been 
 judged  by  ChampoUion  to  be  the  work  of  an  uninitiated 
 artist,  little  acquainted  with  the  true  worship  of  the 
 goddess,  and  probably  of  the  age  of  Hadrian.     (Con- 
 sult Plutarch's  trcalisc  on  Isis  and  Osiris,  cd.  Wyt- 
 tenb.,  vol.  2,  p.  441. — Herod.,  2,  41,  scqq  — Pausan., 
 2,  13,  7.— Id.,  10,  32,  13  )— The  legend  of  Isis  and 
 Osiris  may  be  found  in  full  detail  in  Creuzer  (Sj/m- 
 holik,  vol.  1,  p.  'ihS,seqq.).     On  comparing  the  diifer- 
 ent  explanations  given  by  Plutarch  and  other  ancient 
 writers,  it  will  appear  that  Osiris  is  the  type  of  the  ac- 
 tive, generating,  and  beneficent  force  of  nature  and  the 
 elements  ;   Isis,  on  the  contrary,  is  the  passive  force, 
 the  power  of  conceiving  and  bringing  forth  into  life  in 
 the  sublunary  world.     Osiris  was  particularly  adored 
 in  the  sun,  whose  rays  vivify  and  impart  new  warmth, 
 to  the  earth,  and  who,  on  his   annual   return  in   the 
 spring,  appears  to  create  anew  all  organic  bodies.     He 
 was  adored  also  in  the  Nile,  the  cause  of  Egyptian  fer- 
 tility.    Isis  was  the  earth,  or  sublunary  nature  in  gen- 
 eral ;  or,  in  a  more  confined  sense,  the  soil  of  Egypt 
 inundated  by  the  Nile,  the  principle  of  all  fecundity, 
 the  goddess  of  generation  and  production.     United  to 
 one  another,  Osiris  and  Isis  typify  the  universal  Being, 
 the  soul  of  nature,  the  Pantheus  of  the  Orphic  verses. 
 (Symbolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  I,  pt.  2,  p.  806.) — In 
 accordance  with  this  general  view  of  the  subject  are 
 the  remarks  of  Knight :  "  Isis  was  the  same  with  the 
 goddess  of  generation,  e.\cept  that  by  the  later  Egyp- 
 tians the  personification  was  still  more  generalized,  so 
 as  to  comprehend  universal  nature  ;  whence  Apuleius 
 invokes  her  by  the  names  of  Eleusinian  Ceres,  Celestial 
 Venus,  and   Proserpina  ;  and   she  answers  him  by  a 
 general  e.xplanation  of  these  titles.     '  I  am,'  says  she, 
 '  Nature,  the  parent  of  things,  the  sovereign  of  the  ele- 
 ments, the  primary  progeny  of  time,  the  most  exalted 
 of  the  deities,  the  first  of  the  heavenly  gods  and  god- 
 desses, the  queen  of  the  shades,  the  uniform  counte- 
 nance ;  who  dispose  with  my  rod  the  numerous  lights 
 of  heaven,  the  salubrious  breezes  of  the  sea,  and  the 
 mournful  silence  of  the  dead  ;  whose  single  deity  the 
 whole  world  venerates   in  many  forms,  with  various 
 rites  and  many  names.     The  Egyptians,  skilled  in  an- 
 cient  lore,  worship   me   with  proper  ceremonies,  and 
 call  me  by  my  true  name.  Queen  Isis.'  "     {ApuL,  Met., 
 11,  p.  257.)     This  universal  character  of  the  goddess 
 appears,   however,  to  have   been   subsequent    to    the 
 Macedonian  conquest,  when  a  new  modification  of  the 
 ancient  systems  of  religion  and  philosophy  took  place 
 at  Ale.tandrea,  and   spread  itself  gradually  over  the 
 world.     The  statues  of  this  Isis  are  of  a  composition 
 and  form   quite  different   from    those  of  the  ancient 
 Egyptian  goddess  ;  and  all  that  we  have  seen  are  of 
 Greek  or  Roman  sculpture.     The  original   Egyptian 
 fi(Ture  of  Isis  is  merely  the  animal  symbol  of  the  cow 
 humanized,  with  the  addition  of  the  serpent  disc,  or 
 some   other   accessory   emblem  :    but  the  Greek  and 
 Roman   figures   of  her  are   infinitely    varied,   to   sig- 
 nify by  various  symbols  the  various  attributes  of  uni- 
 versal nature.     In   this  character  she  is  confounded 
 with    the    personifications   of   Fortune    and    Victory, 
 which  are,  in  reality,  no  other  than  those  of  Provi- 
 dence, and,  therefore,  occasionally  decked  with  all  the 
 688  / 
 
 attributes  of  universal  power.     The  allegorical   tales 
 of  the  loves  and  misfortunes  of  Isis  and  Osiris  are  an 
 exact  counterpart  of  those  of  Venus  and  Adonis  {Smd., 
 s.  V.  6ia-yvo)fxuv),  which  signify  the  alternate  exertion 
 of  the  generative  and  destructive  attributes.     (Enqui- 
 ry into  the  Symb.  Lang.,  &c.,  ij  1 18,  1 19.)     The  Disa 
 or  Isa  of  the  north  was  represented  by  a  conic  figure 
 enveloped  in  a  net,  similar  to  the  cortina  of  Apollo  on 
 the  medals  of  Cos,  Chersoncsus  in  Orele,  Neapolis  in 
 Iialy,  and  the  Syrian  kings  ;  but,  instead  of  having  the 
 serpent  coiled  round  it  as  in  the  first,  or  some  symbol 
 or  figure  of  Apollo  placed  upon  it  as  in  the  rest,  it  is 
 terminated  by  a  human  head.     {01.  Rudbeck,  Allant., 
 vol.  2,  c.  5,  p.  219.)     This  goddess  is  unquestionably 
 the  Isis  whom  the  ancient  Suevi,  according   to  Taci- 
 tus, worshipped  {Germ.,  c.  9) ;  for  the  initial  letter  of 
 the  first  name  appears  to  be  an  article  or  prefix  joined 
 to  it ;  and  the  Egyptian  Isis  was  occasionally  repre- 
 sented enveloped  in  a  net,  exactly  as  the  Scandinavian 
 goddess  was  at  Upsal.     {Isiac  Table,  and   01.  Rud- 
 beck, Atla.nt.,  p.  209.)     This  goddess  is  delineated  on 
 the  sacred  drums  of  the  Laplanders,  accompanied  by 
 a  child,  similar  to  the  Horus  of  the  Egyptians,  who  so 
 often  appears  in  the  lap  of  Isis  on  the  religious  mon- 
 uments of  that  people.     The  ancient  Muscovites  also 
 worshipped  a  sacred  group,  composed  of  an  old  woman 
 with  one  male  child  in  her  lap,  and  another  standing 
 by  her,  which  probably  represented  Isis  and  her  off- 
 spring.    They  had  likewise  another  idol,  called  the 
 golden  heifer,  which  seems  to  have  been  the  animal- 
 symbol  of  the  same  personage.     {01.  Rudbeck,  Al- 
 lant., p.  512,  seqq. — lb.,  p.  280. — Knight,  Enquiry 
 into  the  Symb.  Lang.,  (}   195.)     For  some  specula- 
 tions on  the  name  of  Isis,  Jablonski  may  be  consulted. 
 {Panth.  JEgypt.,  2,  29. — Id.   Opusc'l,  s.  v.)     Isis 
 received,    as   is  well    known,  the  names  of  "  Lady," 
 "Mistress,"  "Mother,"  "  Nurse,"  &c.,  common   to 
 many  other  Egyptian   deities.     Her  favourite  name, 
 however,  is  ^^  Myrionyma"  or  "  She  that  has  ten  thou- 
 sand names."     Creuzer  finds  an  analogy  between  the 
 Egyptian  Osiris  and  Isis,  and  the  Hindu  Isa  andlsam 
 or  Isi ;   and  this   analogy  displays  itself  not  only  in 
 their  respective  attributes  and  offices,  but  also  in  the 
 meaning  of  their  names  ;    they  arc  the  "  Lord"  and 
 "  Lady,"  two  titles  of  almost  all  great  popular  divia- 
 ties  among  the  pagan  nations  both  of  ancient  and  moa- 
 ern  times.     The  different  forms  of  the  Egyptian  year, 
 and  the  successive  efforts  made  to  correct  the  calen- 
 dar, could  not  fail  to  produce  considerable  variations 
 in  the  legend  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  which  had  itself  been 
 founded  originally  on  a  normal  period.     In  this  way, 
 perhaps,  we   may  explain  the  double  death  of  Osiris, 
 and  regard   it  as  typifying  those  variations  that  were 
 the  necessary  result  of  the  vague  state  of  the  year. 
 The  principal  festivals  of  Egypt,  moreover,  established, 
 like   those   of  most  oll^r  nations,  after  the   natural 
 epochs  of  the  year,  found  at  once  in  the  popular  my- 
 thology their  commentary  and   their   sanction.     The 
 most  solemn  one  of  these,  called  the  festival  (the  lam- 
 entations)  of  Isis,  or   the   disappearance  (death)   of 
 Osiris,  commenced  on  the  17th  of  the  month  Athyr, 
 or  the  13th  of  November,  according  to  Plutarch:  it 
 was  a  festival  of  mourning  and  tears.     {Plut.,  de  Is. 
 ct  Os.,  c.  39,  69,  p.  501,  549,  ed.  Wyttenb.-- Creu- 
 zer,  Comment.  Herod.,  p.  120,  scqg.)     Towards  the 
 winter  solstice  was  celebrated  the  finding  of  Osiris  ; 
 and  on  the  seventh  of  Tybi,  or  the  second  of  January, 
 the  arrival  of  Isis  from  Phccnicia.     A  few  days  after, 
 the  festival  of  Osiris  found  (a  second  time)  united  the 
 cries  of  gladness  on  the  part  of  all  Egypt  to  the  pure 
 joy  experienced  by  Isis  herself.     The  festival  oi grain- 
 sowing  and  that  of  the  burial  of  Osiris ;  the  festival 
 of  his   resurrection,    at   the   period  when  the  young 
 blade  of  grain  began  to  show  itself  out  of  the  ground; 
 the  pregnancy  of  Isis,   the   birth  of  Harpocrates,  to 
 whom  were  offered  the  first  fruits  of  the  approaching 
 
ISO 
 
 ISOCRATES. 
 
 harvest ;  the  festival  of  the  Pamylia  ;  all  these  fell  in 
 a  great  period  embracing  the  one  half  of  the  year,  from 
 the  autumnal  equinox  to  that  of  the  spring,  at  the 
 commencement  of  which  latter  season  was  celebrated 
 the  feast  of  the  purification  of  Isis.  A  little  before 
 this  the  Egyptians  solemnized,  at  the  new  moon  of 
 Phamenoth  (March),  the  entrance  of  Osiris  into  the 
 M"on,  which  planet  he  was  believed  to  fecundate, 
 that  it  might,  in  its  turn,  fecundate  the  earth.  (Plut., 
 lb.)  Finally,  on  the  30th  of  Epiphi  (24lh  of  July), 
 the  festival  of  the  birth  of  Horns  took  place  (of  Horus 
 the  representative  of  Osiris,  the  conqueror  of  Typhon), 
 in  the  second  great  period,  extending  from  the  month 
 Pharmuthi  (27lh  of  March)  toThoth  (29lh  of  August), 
 when  the  year  recommenced.  (Creiizer,  Symbulik, 
 note  3,  Guigniaut,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  801.) 
 
 IsmIrus  (Ismara,  plur.),  a  mountain  of  Thrace  near 
 the  mouth  of  the  Hebrus,  covered  with  vineyards. 
 This  part  of  Thrace  was  famous  for  its  wines.  Ulys- 
 6es,  in  the  Odyssey,  is  made  to  speak  in  commenda- 
 tion of  some  wine  given  him  by  Maron,  the  priest  of 
 Apollo.  Ismarus  was  situated  ni  the  territory  of  the 
 Cieoties,  whose  capital  was  also  called  by  the  same 
 name.  Homer  (Od.,  1,  40)  makes  Ulysses  to  have 
 taken  and  plundered  this  city  ;  but  the  natives  coming 
 down  from  the  interior  in  great  force,  he  was  driven 
 off  with  severe  loss  both  of  men  and  ships.  Ismarus 
 is  only  known  to  later  writers  as  a  mountain  celebrated 
 for  its  wine,  which  indeed  Horner  himself  alludes  to 
 in  another  passage.  {Od.,  1,  197. —  Virg.,  Georg.,  2, 
 37.) 
 
 IsMENE,  I.  a  daughter  of  Qildipus  and  Jocasta,  who, 
 when  her  sister  Antigone  had  been  condemned  to  be 
 buried  alive  by  Creon  for  giving  burial  to  her  brother 
 Polynices,  against  the  tyrant's  positive  orders,  declared 
 herself  as  guilty  as  her  sister,  and  insisted  upon  being 
 punished  along  with  her.  {Soph.,  Antig. — Apollod., 
 3,  5.) — II.  A  daughter  of  the  river  Asopus,  who  mar- 
 ried the  hundred-eyed  Argus,  by  whom  she  had  lasus. 
 {Apollod.,  2,  1.) 
 
 IsMENi.ts,  I.  a  celebrated  musician  of  Thebes. 
 "When  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Scythians,  Athe- 
 as,  the  king  of  the  country,  observed,  that  he  liked  the 
 neighing  of  his  horse  better  than  all  the  music  of  Is- 
 menias.  (Plut.  in  Apophth) — II.  A  Theban  gener- 
 al, sent  to  Persia  on  an  embassy  by  his  countrymen. 
 As  none  were  admitted  into  the  king's  presence  with- 
 out prostrating  themselves  at  his  feet,  Ismenias  had 
 recourse  to  artifice  to  avoid  performing  an  act  which 
 would  render  him  degraded  in  the  eyes  of  his  country- 
 men, and  yet,  at  the  same  time,  not  to  offend  against  the 
 ,  customs  of  Persia.  When  he  was  introduced  he 
 dropped  his  rinr.  and  the  motion  he  made  to  recover 
 it  from  the  ground  being  mistaken  for  the  required 
 homage,  Ismenias  had  a  satisfactory  audience  of  the 
 monarch.     {JEUaii,  V.  H.,  1,  21.) 
 
 IsMENUs,  I.  a  son  of  Apollo  and  Melia,  one  of  the 
 Nereides,  who  gave  his  name  to  a  river  of  Boeotia, 
 near  Thebes. — II.  A  river  of  Boeotia,  in  the  immediate 
 vicinity  of  Thebes,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill.  It  was  sacred 
 to  Apollo,  hence  called  Ismonius,  who  had  a  temple 
 here.  {Pi7id.,  Pyth.,  11,  G.—Soph.,  CEd.  Tyr.,  19.) 
 The  Ismenus  is  more  frequently  alluded  to  in  conjunc- 
 tion with  the  celebrated  fountain  of  Dirce.  (Eurip., 
 Pacch.,  h.—Id.,  Phmn.,  8S0.~Hcrc.,  Fur.,  572.— lb., 
 im.—Pind.,  Isthm.,  6,  108.)  Dodwell  observes,  that 
 the  Ismenus  has  less  pretensions  to  the  title  of  a  river 
 than  the  Athenian  Ilissus,  for  it  has  no  water  except 
 a^ter  heavy  rains,  when  it  becomes  a  torrent,  and  rusli- 
 63  into  the  I-ake  of  Hylika,  about  four  miles  west  of 
 Thebes.  {Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  2G8.)  Sir.  W.  Cell  states 
 that  it  is  usually  dry,  from  its  being  made  to  furnish 
 water  to  several  fountains.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  229,  scqq.) 
 
 IsocRATEs,  a  distinguished  orator,  or,  rather,  orator- 
 ical writer,  born  at  Athens,  B.C.  436.     His  principal 
 4  S 
 
 teachers  were  Gorgias,  Prodicus  and  Tisias.  On  ac- 
 count of  his  weak  voice  and  natural  timidity,  he  was 
 reluctant  to  speak  in  public  ;  but  he  applied  himself 
 with  the  greatest  ardour  to  instruction  in  the  art  of 
 eloquence  and  preparing  orations  for  others.  His  suc- 
 cess as  a  rhetorical  iustructer  was  most  brilliant.  He 
 taught  at  both  Chios  and  Athens,  and  some  of  the 
 greatest  orators  of  Greece,  such  as  Isaus,  Lycurgus, 
 liyperides,  and,  according  to  some  accounts,  Demos- 
 thenes, formed  themselves  in  his  school.  Hence  Ci- 
 cero compares  this  school  of  his  to  the  wooden  norse 
 at  Troy  :  since  the  latter  contained  the  most  famous 
 chieftains  of  the  Greeks,  the  former  the  leaders  in  elo- 
 quence. {De  Orat.,2,  22.)  Although  he  never  filled 
 any  public  station,  yet  he  rendered  himself  useful  to 
 his  country  by  the  discourses  which  he  published  on 
 various  topics  of  a  political  character.  He  is  said  to 
 have  charged  one  thousand  drachmae  (nearly  180 
 dollars)  for  a  complete  course  of  oratorical  instruction, 
 and  to  have  said  to  some  one  who  found  fault  with 
 the  largeness  of  the  amount,  that  he  would  willingly 
 give  ten  thousand  drachma;  to  any  one  who  should  im- 
 part to  him  the  self-confidence  and  the  command  of 
 voice  requisite  in  a  public  orator.  The  orations  of 
 Isocrates  were  either  sent  to  the  persons  to  whom 
 they  were  addressed,  for  their  private  perusal,  or  they 
 were  intrusted  to  others  to  deliver  in  public.  Heissaid 
 to  have  delivered  only  one  himself.  Isocrates  treated 
 of  great  moral  and  political  questions,  and  his  views 
 are  distinguished  by  a  regard  for  virtue,  and  an  aver- 
 sion to  all  meanness  and  injustice.  In  his  childhood 
 Isocrates  was  the  companion  of  Plato,  and  they  re- 
 mained friends  during  their  whole  lives.  He  had  a 
 great  veneration  for  Socrates.  After  the  death  of  that 
 distinguished  philosopher,  which  filled  his  scholars 
 with  fear  and  horror,  he  alone  had  the  courage  to  ap- 
 pear in  mourning.  He  gave  another  proof  of  his  cour- 
 age by  publicly  defending  Theramenes,  who  had  been 
 proscribed  by  the  thirty  tyrants.  Isocrates  was  par- 
 ticularly distinguished  for  a  polished  style  and  an  har- 
 monious construction  of  his  sentences.  In  Cicero's 
 opinion,  it  was  he  who  first  gave  to  prose  writing  its 
 due  rhythm.  The  art  of  Isocrates  is  always  apparent, 
 a  circumstance  which,  of  itself,  diminishes  in  some 
 degree  the  effect  of  his  writings,  and  is  almost  incon- 
 sistent with  vigour  and  force.  The  address  to  De- 
 mouicus,  for  example,  is  an  almost  uninterrupted  se- 
 ries of  antitheses..  Though  he  falls  far  below  the 
 great  orator  of  Athens,  Isocrates  is  still  a  perfect  mas- 
 ter in  the  style  which  he  has  adopted,  and  has  well 
 merited  the  high  encomiums  of  Dionysius  of  Halicar- 
 nassus  for  the  noble  spirit  and  the  rectitude  of  purpose 
 which  pervade  all  his  writings.  The  composition,  re- 
 vision, and  repeated  polishing  of  his  speeches  occu- 
 pied so  much  time  that  he  published  little.  His  cele- 
 brated "  Panegyrical  Oration,"  for  example,  is  said  to 
 have  occupied  him  ten  whole  years. — The  politics  of 
 Isocrates  were  conciliatory.  He  was  a  friend  of  peace  : 
 he  repeatedly  exhorted  the  Greeks  to  concord  among 
 the*mselves,  and  to  turn  their  arms  against  their  com- 
 mon enemies,  the  Persians.  He  addressed  Philip  of 
 Macedon  in  a  similar  strain,  after  his  peace  with  Ath- 
 ens (EC.  346),  exhorting  him  to  reconcile  the  states 
 of  Greece,  and  to  unite  their  forces  against  Persia. 
 He  kept  up  a  correspondence  with  Philip,  and  two  of 
 his  epistles  to  that  prince  are  still  extant,  as  well  as 
 one  which  he  wrote  to  the  then  youthful  Alexander, 
 congratulating  him  on  his  proficiency  in  his  studies. 
 Though  no  violent  partisan,  he  proved,  however,  a 
 warm-hearted  patriot;  for,  on  receiving  the  news  of 
 the  battle  of  Chsronea,  he  refused  to  take  food  for 
 several  days,  and  thus  closed  his  long  and  honourable 
 career  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight,  B.C.  338.  In  Plu- 
 tarch's time  sixty  orations  went  under  his  name,  not 
 half  of  which  were,  however,  deemed  genuine.  Twen- 
 ty-one now  remain.     Of  these,  the  most  remarkable 
 
ISOCRATES. 
 
 ISOCRATES. 
 
 is  the  discourse  entitled  TlavTjyvptKo^,  Pancgyricus, 
 or  "Panegyrical  Oration,"  i.  e  ,  a  discourse  pronounced 
 before  the  assembled  people.  The  Panegyric  of  Isoc- 
 rates  was  delivered  at  the  Olympic  games,  and  was 
 written  in  the  time  of  the  Lacedaemonian  ascendancy. 
 He  e.xhorts  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Athenians  to  vie 
 with  each  other  in  a  noble  emulation,  and  to  unite 
 their  forces  in  an  expedition  against  Asia  ;  and  he  de- 
 scants eloquently  on  the  merits  and  glories  of  the 
 Athenian  commonwealth,  on  the  services  it  had  ren- 
 dered to  Greece,  and  on  its  high  intellectual  cultiva- 
 tion ;  while  he  defends  it  from  the  charges,  urged  by 
 its  enemies,  of  tyranny  by  sea,  and  of  oppression  to- 
 wards its  colonies.  Among  the  other  twenty  dis- 
 courses of  Isocrates,  there  are  three  of  the  parenetic 
 or  moral  kind  :  1.  Tlpng  Atj/xovikov,  "Discourse  ad- 
 dressed to  Demonicus,^'  the  son  of  Hipponicus,  who, 
 with  his  brother  Callias,  belonged  to  the  highest  class 
 of  Athenian  citizens.  It  consists  of  moral  precepts 
 for  the  conduct  of  life  and  the  regulation  of  the  de- 
 portment of  the  young.  Many  critics  have  thought 
 that  this  piece,  abounding  with  excellent  morality,  and 
 resembling  an  epistle  rather  than  a  discourse,  is  not 
 the  work  of  the  Athenian  Isocrates,  but  of  one  of  two 
 other  orators  of  the  same  name,  of  whom  mention  is 
 made  by  the  ancient  writers,  namely,  Isocrates  of  Apol- 
 lonia,  or  Heraclea  in  Pentus,  who  was  a  disciple  of 
 the  Athenian  philosopher ;  and  Isocrates  the  friend  of 
 Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus.  One  thing  rs  certain, 
 that  Harpocration  cites  a  discourse  of  the  Apollonian 
 Isocrates,  under  the  title  of  JlapalvEaig  irphg  Ajjuov- 
 iKov,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  the  master  and  his 
 disciple  would  have  written  exhortations  addressed  to 
 the  same  individual.  As  regards  the  third  Isocrates 
 just  mentioned,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  he  ever 
 existed. — 2.  TTpof  N;/<(3«/lea,  Discourse  addressed  to 
 Nicocles  II.,  son  of  Evagoras,  and  prince  of  Salamis 
 in  Cyprus,  on  the  art  of  reigning. — 3.  N<Ko/c/l^f,  Nic- 
 ocles, a  discourse  composed  for  this  prince,  to  be  pro- 
 nounced by  him,  and  treating  of  the  duties  of  subjects 
 towards  their  sovereigns.  Nicocles  is  said  to  have 
 presented  Isocrates,  in  return,  with  twenty  talents. 
 This  piece  is  sometimes  cited  under  the  name  of  the 
 Cyprian  Discourse,  K.vKpMg  /Idyof .  Five  other  dis- 
 courses of  Isocrates  are  of  the  deliberative  kind.  I. 
 The  Panegyric,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken. — 
 2.  <i>i/l£777rof ,  or  ITpof  ^iTumrov,  "  Discourse  address- 
 ed to  Philip  of  Macedon,"  to  induce  him  to  act  as  me- 
 diator between  the  Greek  cities,  and  to  make  war 
 against  Persia. — 3.  'A.pxi^afj.og,  Archidamus.  Under 
 the  name  of  this  prince,  who  afterward  ascended  the 
 throne  of  Sparta,  the  orator  endeavours  to  persuade 
 the  Lacedaemonians,  after  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  not 
 to  relinquish  Mcssenia. — 4  'ApeiovajiTinoc,  Areopa- 
 giticus.  One  of  the  best  discourses  of  Isocrates.  In 
 it  he  counsels  the  Athenians  to  re-establish  the  con- 
 stitution of  Solon,  as  modified  by  Clisthenes. — 5.  Tlepl 
 eipiivTjc,  V  (TVjj./iaxLK6c,  "  Of  Peace,"  or,  "  Respectirig 
 the  Allies.''''  In  this  discourse,  pronounced  after^the 
 commencement  of  the  social  war,  Isocrates  advises 
 the  Athenians  to  make  peace  with  the  inhabitants  of 
 Chios,  Rhodes,  and  Byzantium.  We  have  also  four 
 discourses  by  this  writer  that  fall  under  the  head  of 
 eloges  {hyKuniaoTLKoi) :  viz.,  1.  Evayopac,  Evagoras. 
 A  funeral  oration  on  Evagoras,  king  of  Cyprus,  and 
 father  of  Nicocles,  who  had  been  assassinated,  01. 
 101,  3. — 2.  'EMvr/g  iyKUfziov,  Eloge  on  Helen,  a 
 piece  full  of  pleasing  digressions. — 3.  JiovaipL^,  Bu- 
 siris.  The  Grecian  mythology  speaks  of  this  son  of 
 Neptune  and  Lysianassa,  who  reigned  in  Egypt,  and 
 introduced  into  that  country  human  sacrifices.  Her- 
 cttles  delivered  the  earth  from  this  monster.  The 
 sophist  Polycrates  had  written  on  Busiris  ;  Isocrates, 
 who  hated  him  because  he  had  published  an  accusa- 
 tion of  Socrates,  wished,  in  treating  of  the  same  sub- 
 690 
 
 ject,  to  mortify  the  sophist  and  make  his  work  a  fail- 
 ure.— 4.  IlavaOrivaiKoc,  Panalhenutcns.  AnClogeon 
 the  Athenians  ;  one  of  the  best  pieces  of  Isocrates, 
 but  which  has  reached  us  in  a  defective  state — We 
 have  likewise  from  the  pen  of  Isocrates  eight  discour- 
 ses of  a  legal  nature,  or  )i6yoi  diKuviKoi. — 1.  II>laTa- 
 j«of.  Complaint  of  the  inhabitants  of  Plataa  against 
 the  Thebans. — 2.  Tlepl  rf/g  uvrtduceug,  "  Of  the  ex- 
 changing of  property  with  another.''''  According  to 
 the  Athenian  laws,  the  three  hundred  richest  citizens 
 were  obliged  to  equip  triremes,  furnish  the  common- 
 wealth with  necessary  supplies  of  money,  &c.  If  any 
 person  appointed  to  undergo  one  of  these  duties  could 
 find  another  citizen  of  better  substance  than  himself 
 who  was  not  on  the  list,  then  the  informer  was  excused 
 and  the  other  put  in  his  place.  If  the  person  named, 
 however,  denied  that  he  was  the  richer  of  the  two, 
 then  they  exchanged  estates.  Isocrates,  having  ac- 
 quired great  riches,  had  twice  to  undergo  this  species 
 of  prosecution.  The  first  time  he  was  defended  by 
 his  adopted  son  Alphareus,  and  gained  his  cause  ;  the 
 second  time  he  was  attacked  by  a  certain  Lysimachus, 
 was  unsuccessful  in  his  defence,  and  compelled  to 
 equip  a  trireme.  The  present  discourse  was  delivered 
 by  Isocrates  on  this  latter  occasion.  It  has  reached 
 us  in  an  imperfect  state,  but  has  been  completed  in 
 our  own  days  by  the  discoveries  of  a  modern  scholar, 
 Moustoxydes. — 3.  Tiepl  tov  ^evyovg.  A  pleading  re- 
 specting a  team  of  horses,  pronounced  for  the  son  of 
 Alcibiades. — 4.  Tpanei^iTiKog,  a  pleading  against  the 
 banker  Pasion,  pronounced  by  the  son  of  Sop^us,  w^ho 
 had  confided  a  sum  of  money  to  his  care.  Pasion  had 
 denied  the  deposite. — 5.  HapaypacpiKOC  ■npog  KaTCkifi- 
 axov.  An  "  actio  translativa"  against  Callimachus.^ 
 6.  AlyLvijTiKog,  a  pleading  pronounced  at  ^gina  in  a 
 matter  of  succession. — 7.  Kara  tov  Aoxi-Tov,  a  plead- 
 ing against  Lochites  for  personal  violence  against  a  cer- 
 tain individual  whose  name  is  not  given.  We  have 
 only  the  second  part  of  this  discourse. — 8.  'A/iuprvpog, 
 or  ITpof  'Evdvvovv  vnep  'NikIov,  ^^ Pleading  for  Nicias 
 against  Euthy7ms."  The  latter  was  a  faithless  de- 
 positary, who  reckoned  on  the  impossibility  of  proving 
 a  certain  deposite  through  want  of  witnesses  to  the 
 transaction. — We  have  finally  a  discourse  of  Isocrates 
 against  the  Sophists  (/caru  twv  ao<j)iGTuv),  which 
 must  be  placed  in  a  class  by  itself.  There  was  also  a 
 work  on  Rhetoric  composed  by  him,  more  commonly 
 called  a  Texptj,  "  Theory.'"  Cicero  states  that  he  was 
 unable  to  procure  this  work  {De  Invent.,  2,  2) :  it  is 
 cited,  however,  by  Quintilian  {Inst.  Or.,  3,  1,  et  14.) 
 — The  best  edition  of  the  Greek  text  is  that  of  Bek- 
 ker,  forming  part  of  his  Oratorcs  Allici.  (Berol., 
 1822-1823,  8vo. — Oral.  Atl.,  vol.  2.)  The  two  most 
 useful  editions  are,  that  of  Lange,  Hal.,  1803,  Svo, 
 and  that  of  Coray,  Paris,  1807,  8vo,  forming  the  sec- 
 ond volume  of  the  HtdXiodijKT;  ''EXkrjviK'^.  This  last 
 is  based  upon  a  MS.  brought  from  Italy  to  France, 
 which  is  the  earliest  one  extant  of  our  author.  Co- 
 ray's  edition  is  accompanied  with  very  learned  notes, 
 and  may,  upon  the  whole,  be  regarded  as  the  *:di- 
 tio  optima.  The  editions  of  Battle,  Cantab.,  1729, 
 2  vols.  Svo,  and  of  Auger,  Paris,  1782,  3  vols.  Svo, 
 are  not  remarkable,  especially  the  latter,  for  a  very  ac- 
 curate text.  Auger's  work  abounds  with  typographi- 
 cal errors,  and  he  is  also  charged  with  a  careless  col- 
 lating of  MSS.  The  best  edition  of  the  Pancgyricus 
 is  that  of  Morus  and  Spohn,  with  the  notes  and  addi- 
 tions of  Baiter,  Lips.,  1831,  Svo.  In  the  preface  of 
 this  edition  (p.  xxxi),  there  are  some  very  just  remarks 
 on  the  Greek  text  of  Bekker. — We  have  already  al- 
 luded to  the  completing  of  the  oration  Ilep^  uvridocreug, 
 by  Moustoxydes.  This  scholar  found  a  perfect  MS.  of 
 the  discourse  in  question  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at 
 Milan,  and  published  an  edition  of  the  entire  piece  in 
 1812  at  Milan.      It  is,  however,  very  inaccurately 
 
ISS 
 
 1ST 
 
 printed.  A  more  correct  edition  was  published  by 
 Orcllius,  in  1814,  8vo,  with  a  double  commentary, 
 critical  and  philological,  in  German  ;  and  also  a  small- 
 er edition,  containing  merely  the  Greek  text  with  va- 
 rious readings.  These  two  editions  are  more  accu- 
 rate than  that  of  Milan.  {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  208,  scqq. — Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bibliograph.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  620.) 
 
 IssA,  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  Dalmatian  islands, 
 but  the  best  known  in  history.  It  is  mentioned  by 
 Scylax  as  a  Greek  colony  (p.  8),  which,  according  to 
 Scymnus  of  Chios,  was  sent  from  Syracuse  (v.  412). 
 Issa  is  often  alluded  to  by  Polybius  in  his  account  of 
 the  Illyrian  war.  It  was  attacked  by  Teuta ;  but  the 
 siege  was  raised  on  the  appearance  of  the  Roman  fleet, 
 and  the  inhabitants  immediately  placed  themselves 
 under  the  protection  of  that  power.  {Appian,  Illyr., 
 7. — Polyb.,  2,  11.)  It  became  afterward  a  constant 
 station  for  the  Roman  galleys  in  their  wars  with  the 
 kings  of  Macedon.  (Lid.,  43,  9.)  In  Cassar's  time 
 the  town  appears  to  have  been  very  flourishing,  for  it 
 is  styled  "  nobilissimum  carum  regionum  oppiduni'^ 
 (S.  Alex.,  47),  and  Pliny  informs  us  that  the  mhabi- 
 tants  were  Roman  citizens.  (Plin.,  3,  21.)  Athe- 
 nasus  states  that  the  wine  of  this  island  was  much  es- 
 teemed (1,  22).  Its  present  name  is  Lissa.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  I,  p.  44.) 
 
 IssEDoNEs,  the  principal  nation  in  Serica,  whose 
 metropolis  was  Sera,  now  Kant-schu,  in  the  Chinese 
 province  of  Shen-Si,  without  the  great  wall.  This 
 city  has  been  erroneously  confounded  with  Pekin,  the 
 capital  of  China,  which  is  300  leagues  distant.  They 
 had  also  two  towns,  both  called  Issedon,  but  distin- 
 guished by  the  epithets  of  Serica  and  Scythica.  (Plol. 
 — Bischoff  und  Millle.r,  Worterb.  der  Geogr.,  p.  649.) 
 
 Issus,  a  town  of  Cilicia  Campestris,  at  the  foot  of 
 the  main  chain  of  Amanus,  and  nearly  at  the  centre 
 of  the  head  of  the  gulf  to  which  it  gave  its  name  (Issi- 
 cus  Sinus).  Xenophon  describes  Issus  ("laaoi,  in  the 
 plural)  as  a  considerable  town  in  his  time.  Cyrus 
 remained  here  three  days,  and  was  joined  by  his  fleet 
 from  the  Peloponnesus.  These  ships  anchored  close 
 to  the  shore,  where  Cyrus  had  his  quarters.  {Anab., 
 1,  4. — Compare  Arrian,  Exp.  Alex.,  2,  7.  —  Diod. 
 Sic,  17,  32.)  Issus  was  famous  for  the  victory  gained 
 here  by  Alexander  over  Darius.  The  error  on  the 
 part  of  the  Persian  monarch  was  in  selecting  so  con- 
 tracted a  spot  for  a  pitched  battle.  The  breadth  of 
 the  plain  of  Issus,  between  the  sea  and  the  mountains, 
 appears  from  Callisthenes,  quoted  by  Polybius,  not  to 
 exceed  fourteen  stadia,  less  than  two  miles,  a  space 
 very  inadequate  for  the  manoeuvres  of  so  large  an  ar- 
 my as  that  of  Darius.  The  ground  was,  besides,  bro- 
 ken, and  intersected  by  many  ravines  and  torrents 
 which  descended  from  the  mountains.  The  principal 
 one  of  these,  and  which  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
 narrative  of  this  momentous  battle,  is  the  Pinarus. 
 The  two  armies  were  at  first  drawn  up  on  opposite 
 banks  of  this  stream  ;  Darius  on  the  side  of  Issus,  Al- 
 exander towards  Syria.  A  clear  notion  of  the  whole 
 affair  may  be  obtained  from  the  narratives  of  Arrian, 
 Curtius,  and  Plutarch,  and  from  the  critical  remarks 
 of  Polybius  on  the  statement  of  Callisthenes.  The 
 town  of  Issus,  in  Strabo's  time,  was  only  a  small  place 
 with  a  port.  {Slrab.,  676.)  Stephanus  says  it  was 
 called  Nicopolis,  in  consequence  of  the  victory  gained 
 by  Alexander  (s.  v-  'laaog).  Strabo,  however,  speaks 
 of  Nicopolis  as  a  distinct  place  from  Issus.  Cicero 
 reports  that,  during  his  expedition  against  the  mount- 
 aineers of  Amanus,  he  occupied  Issus  for  some  days. 
 (Ep.  ad  Alt.,  5,  20.)  Issus  was  also  remarkable,  at  a 
 later  day,  for  the  defeat  of  Niger  by  Severus.  The 
 modern  Aiassc  appears  to  correspond  to  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  town.  ( Cramer'' s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  359, 
 gcqq, — Compare  Rcnnell,  Geography  of  Western  Asia, 
 vol.  2,  p.  94.) 
 
 IsTER,  I.  a  native  of  Cvrene,  who  flourished  undeT 
 Ptolemy  III.  of  Egypt.  Suidas  makes  him  to  have 
 been  a  disciple  of  (.Jallimachus.  Besides  his  'Attiku, 
 in  sixteen  books,  he  left  a  number  of  other  works,  on 
 Egypt,  Argolis,  Elis,  &,c.  A  few  fragments  only  re- 
 main, which  were  collected  and  published  with  those 
 of  Demon,  another  historian,  by  Siebelis  and  Lenz, 
 Lips.,  1812,  8vo. — II.  The  name  of  the  eastern  part 
 of  the  Danube,  after  its  junction  with  the  Savus  or 
 Saave.  The  term  is  evidently  of  Teutonic  or  Ger- 
 man origin  {Osten,  "  east"). 
 
 IsTHMi.\,  sacred  games  among  the  Greeks,  which 
 received  their  name  from  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  where 
 they  were  observed.  They  were  instituted  in  honour 
 of  Melicertes,  who  was  changed  into  a  sea-deity  when 
 his  mother  Ino  had  thrown  herself  into  the  sea  with 
 him  in  her  arms.  After  they  had  been  celebrated  for 
 some  time  with  great  regularity,  an  interruption  took 
 place,  at  the  expiration  of  which  they  were  re-estab- 
 lished by  Theseus  in  honour  of  Neptune.  These  games 
 were  celebrated  every  five  years.  {Alex,  ab  Alex., 
 Gen.  D.,  5,  8.)  When  Corinth  was  destroyed  by 
 Mummius,  the  Roman  general,  they  were  still  observed 
 with  the  usual  solemnity,  and  the  Sicyonians  were  in- 
 trusted with  the  superintendence,  which  had  been  be- 
 fore one  of  the  privileges  of  the  ruined  Corinthians. 
 Combats  of  every  kind  were  exhibited,  and  the  victors 
 were  rewarded  with  garlands  of  pine  leaves.  Some 
 time  after  the  custom  was  changed,  and  the  victor  re- 
 ceived a  crown  of  dry  and  withered  parsley.  At  a  sub- 
 sequent period,  however,  the  pine  again  was  adopted. 
 (Consult,  for  the  reason  of  these  changes,  the  remarks 
 of  Plutarch,  Sympos.,  5,  3. — Op.,  ed.  Reiske,  vol.  8, 
 p.  687,  seqq.) 
 
 Isthmus,  a  small  neck  of  land  which  joins  a  country 
 to  another,  and  prevents  the  sea  from  making  them 
 separate,  such  as  that  of  Corinth,  called  often  the  Isth- 
 mus by  way  of  eminence,  which  joins  Peloponnesus 
 to  Greece.     {Vtd.  Corinthi  Isthmus.) 
 
 IsTUiA  or  HisTRiA,  a  peninsula  lying  to  the  west 
 of  Liburnia,  and  bounded  on  the  south  and  west  by 
 the  Adriatic.  It  was  anciently  a  part  of  Illyricum. 
 Its  circuit  and  shape  are  accurately  described  and  de- 
 fined by  Strabo  (314)  and  Plniy  (3,  19).  Little  is 
 known  respecting  the  origin  of  the  people  :  but  an  old 
 geographer  describes  them  as  a  nation  of  Thracian 
 race  {Scymn.  Ch.,  Perieg.,  390),  and  this  opinion 
 seems  at  least  to  have  probability  in  its  favour.  There 
 is  little  to  interest  in  the  account  of  the  wars  waged 
 by  the  Romans  against  this  insignificant  people  ;  it  is 
 to  be  found  in  Livy  (41,  1,  seqq.)  :  they  were  com- 
 pletely subjugated  A.U.C.  575.  Augustus  included 
 Istria  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  or  rather  Italy,  removing  the 
 limit  of  the  latter  country  from  the  river  Formio  {Ri- 
 sano)  to  the  little  river  Arsia.  {Plin.,  3,  18.)  The 
 Greeks,  in  their  fanciful  mythology,  derived  the  name 
 of  Istria  from  that  of  the  Ister  or  Danube  ;  they  con- 
 veyed the  Argonauts  from  the  Euxine  into  the  Ister, 
 and  then,  by  an  unheard-of  communication  between 
 this  river  and  the  Adriatic,  launched  their  heroes  into 
 the  waters  of  the  latter.  ( Scylax,  PeripL,  p.  6. — Stra- 
 bo, 46. — Aristot.,  Hist.  Anim.,  8,  13.)  Not  satisfied, 
 however,  with  these  wonders,  they  affirmed  that  a  band 
 of  Colchians,  sent  in  pursuit  of  Jason  and  Medea,  fol- 
 lowed the  same  course,  and,  wearied  by  a  fruitless 
 search,  rested  in  Istria,  and  finally  settled  on  its  shores. 
 {Pomp.  Mel,  2,  3.)  This  strange  error  no  longer 
 prevailed  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  when  Istria  had  be- 
 come known  to  the  Romans,  and  formed  part  of  their 
 vast  empire.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  134, 
 seqq.)  . 
 
 IsTROPoLis,  a  citv  of  Thrace,  situate  on  the  coast  of 
 the  Euxine,  below 'the  mouth  of  the  Ister,  where  a  la- 
 gune  or  salt  lake,  called  Halmyris,  formed  by  an  arm 
 of  the  Danube,  has  its  issue  into  the  sea.  It  appears 
 to  be  succeeded  at  the  present  day  by  a  place  called 
 
 691 
 
IT  A 
 
 ITALIA. 
 
 Kara-Kermon,  or  "  the  black  fortress."  Istropolis  is 
 s;i)d  lo  have  been  founded  by  a  Milesian  colony. 
 (PI In,  4,  11.) 
 
 iT.vBVRius,  a  mountain  of  Galilaea  Inferior,  near  the 
 soiilhern  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulon,  and  southeast 
 from  Carmel.  According  lo  Josephus  (Bell.  Jud.,  4,  6), 
 it  was  30  stadia  high,  and  had  on  its  summit  a  plain 
 of  26  stadia  in  extent.  Its  modern  name  is  Thabor. 
 This  mountain  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the 
 scene  of  our  Saviour's  transfiguration.  Jerome,  Cy- 
 rill,  and  other  writers,  are  in  favour  of  the  position, 
 but  it  is  opposed  by  Reland  {Pahestin.,  p.  247).  The 
 name  Thabor  or  Tabor,  which  was  also  the  ancient 
 one  among  the  natives,  appears  to  be  derived  from  the 
 Hebrew /aiior,  "a  height"  or  "summit."  {Reland, 
 I.  c.)  The  Greek  writers  call  it  Qaljup  and  'Arafiv- 
 ptov  (OT  'IraOvpiov)  opor.  (Compare  the  Jupiter  Afa- 
 byrlus  of  llhodes  and  Agrigentuni,  and  the  remarks 
 of  Rittcr,  Vorhallc,  p.  339.)  On  the  summit  of  this 
 mountain  was  situate  a  fortified  town  called  Atabyrion. 
 {Polyh.,  5,  70. —  Vid.  Atabyrion.)  Mount  Thabor  is 
 situate  two  leagues  southeast  of  Nazareth,  rising  out 
 of  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon,  at  its  eastern  side.  Its 
 figure  is  that  of  a  truncated  cone,  and  its  elevation, 
 accordmg  to  Buckingham,  about  1000  feet ;  but,  from 
 the  circumstance  mentioned  by  Burckhardt,  of  thick 
 clouds  resting  on  it  in  the  morning  in  summer,  and  his 
 being  an  hour  in  ascending  it,  it  may  perhaps  be  con- 
 sidered as  higher  than  Buckingham  supposed,  though, 
 from  the  same  time  occupied  in  the  ascent,  not  more 
 than  400  or  500  feet,  or  from  1400  to  1500  in  all.  It 
 is  represented  as  entirely  calcareous.  Dr.  Richardson 
 describes  it  as  a  dark-looking,  insulated  conical  mount- 
 ain, rising  like  a  tower  lo  a  considerable  height  above 
 those  around  it.  On  the  summit  is  a  plain  about  a 
 mile  in  circumference,  which  shows  the  remains  of 
 the  ancient  fortress  mentioned  above.  The  view 
 from  this  spot  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
 ccuntry. 
 
 Italia,  a  celebrated  country  of  Europe,  bounded  on 
 the  north  by  the  Alps,  on  the  south  by  the  Ionian  Sea, 
 on  the  northeast  by  the  Adriatic  or  Mare  Superum, 
 and  on  the  southwest  by  the  Mare  Tyrrhenum  or  In- 
 ferum.  It  was  called  Hesperia  by  the  Greeks,  from 
 its  western  situation  in  relation  to  Greece  {Virg., 
 JEn.,  1,  530),  and  received  also  from  the  Latin  poets 
 the  appellation  of  Ausonia  {Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  54),  Sa- 
 turnia  {V'trg.,  Gcorg.,  2,  173),  and  CEnotria.  The 
 name  Italia  some  writers  deduce  from  Italus,  a  chief 
 of  the  CEnotri  or  Sicidi  {Anlioch.  Syrac,  ap.  Dion. 
 Hal.,  1,2. — Thucyd.,  6,  2).  Others  sought  the  origin 
 of  the  term  in  the  Greek  word  lTa?t,6r,  or  the  Latin 
 vitulus,  which  corresponds  to  it  {Varro,  R.  R.,  2,  5. 
 — Dion.  Hal.,  1,  35);  and  others  again  make  the 
 name  to  have  belonged  originally  to  a  small  canton  in 
 Calabria,  and  to  have  become  gradually  common  to 
 the  whole  country.  The  ancients  differed  from  us  in 
 their  application  of  names  to  countries.  They  re- 
 garded the  name  as  belonging  to  the  people,  not  to 
 the  land  itself;  and  in  this  they  were  more  correct 
 than  we  are,  who  call  nations  after  the  countries  they 
 inhabit.  Asia  Minor,  for  example,  was  an  appellation 
 ■unknown  to  the  earlier  classic  writers,  and  only  began 
 to  cernc  into  use  after  the  country  had  fallen  into  the 
 hands  of  the  Romans.  Previous  to  this,  the  different 
 nations  which  peopled  that  peninsula  had  their  re- 
 spective names,  and  were  known  by  these.  In  the 
 same  way,  a  general  name  for  what  we  now  term  Italy 
 was  not  originally  thought  of.  When  the  Greeks  be- 
 came first  acquainted  with  this  country,  they  observed 
 it  to  be  peopled  with  several  distinct  nations,  as  they 
 thought ;  and  hence  we  find  it  divided  by  them  about 
 the  time  of  Aristotle  into  six  countries  or  regions, 
 Ausonia  or  Opica,  Tyrrhenia,  lapygia,  Ombria,  Ligu- 
 ria,  and  Henetia.  Thucvdides,  for  instance,  in  speak- 
 ing of  Cumas,  says  that  it  is  situate  in  Opica ;  and 
 692 
 
 Aristotle, -cited  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  terma 
 Latium  a  part  of  this  same  Opica.  As  reo-ards  tha 
 origin  of  tlie  name  Italia,  ihc  truth  appears  to  be  this : 
 the  appellation  was  first  given  by  the  early  Greeks  to 
 what  is  now  denominated  Calabria  ulterior,  or  to  that 
 southern  extremity  of  the  boot  which  is  confined  be- 
 tween the  Sinus  I'erinffius  (Gulf  of  St.  Euphcmia)  and 
 the  Sinus  Scyllacius  (Gulf  o-f  Squillucc).  Such,  at 
 least,  is  the  account  of  Aristotle  {Polit.,  7,  10)  and 
 Strabo  (254).  This  was  not  done  because  the  name 
 was  in  strictness  confined  to  that  section  of  the  coun- 
 try, but  because  the  Greeks  knew  at  that  early  period 
 very  little,  comparatively  speaking,  of  the  interior,  and 
 were  as  yet  ignorant  of  the  fact,  that  most  of  the  nu- 
 merous nations  which  peopled  the  Italian  peninsula 
 were  the  descendants  of  one  common  race,  the  Itali, 
 who  originally  were  spread  over  the  whole  land,  evep 
 to  the  loot  of  the  Alps.  The  nations  in  the  south  ol 
 Italy,  with  whom  the  Greeks  first  became  acquainted, 
 were  found  by  them  to  be  descended  from  the  Itali, 
 or,  rather,  they  found  this  name  in  general  use  among 
 them:  hence  they  called  their  section  of  the  coimtry 
 by  the  name  of  Italia.  As  their  knowledge  of  the  in- 
 terior became  more  enlarged,  other  branches  of  the 
 same  great  race  were  successively  discovered,  and 
 the  name  Italia  thus  gradually  progressed  in  its  appli- 
 cation until  it  reached  the  southern  limits  of  Cisalpine 
 Gaul.  To  this  latter  country  the  name  of  Gallia  Cis- 
 alpina  was  originally  given,  because  it  was  peopled 
 principally  by  Gauls,  who  had  settled  in  these  parts, 
 and  dislodged  the  ancient  inhabitants.  In  confirmation 
 of  what  has  just  been  advanced,  we  find  that,  in  the 
 time  of  Antiochus,  a  son  of  Xenophanes,  who  lived 
 about  the  320th  year  of  Rome,  and  a  little  anterior  to 
 Thucydides,  the  appellation  Italia  was  given  to  a  part 
 of  Italy  which  lay  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  small 
 river  Laus  to  Metapontum.  {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  p.  59.) 
 Towards  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  of  Rome,  it  des- 
 ignated all  the  countries  south  of  the  Tiber  and  JEsis. 
 At  length,  in  the  pages  of  Polybius,  who  wrote  about 
 the  600th  year  of  Rome,  we  find  the  name  in  question 
 given  to  all  Italy  up  to  the  foot  of  the  Alps.  The  in- 
 cluding of  Cisalpine  Gaul  under  this  appellation  was 
 an  act  of  policy  on  the  part  of  the  second  triumvirate, 
 who  were  afraid  lest,  if  it  remained  a  province,  some 
 future  proconsul  might  imitate  Csesar,  and  overthrow 
 with  his  legrons  the  authority  of  the  republic.  At  a 
 still  later  period,  Augustus  divided  Italy  into  eleven 
 regions,  and  extended  its  limits  on  the  northeast  as  far 
 as  Pola,  thus  comprehending  Istria.  It  is  somewhat 
 remarkable,  that  the  name  Italia,  after  having  gradually 
 extended  to  the  Alps,  should  at  a  subsequent  epoch  be 
 limited  in  its  application  to  the  northern  parts  alone. 
 When  the  Emperor  Maximian,  towards  the  close  of  tjie 
 third  century  of  the  Christian  era,  transferred  his  resi- 
 dence to  Milan,  the  usage  prevailed  in  the  West  of 
 giving  the  name  of  Italy  exclusively  to  the  five  prov- 
 inces of  Emilia,  Liguria,  Flaininia,  Venetia,  and  Is- 
 tria. It  was  in  this  sense  that  the  kings  of  the  Lom- 
 bards were  styled  monarchs  of  Italy. — As  regards  the 
 other  names  sometimes  applied  to  Italy,  it  may  be  ob- 
 served, that  they  arc,  in  strictness,  names  only  of  par- 
 ticular parts,  extended  by  poetic  usage  to  the  whole 
 country.  Tlius  ffinotria  properly  applies  to  a  part  of 
 the  southeastern  coast,  and  was  given  by  the  Greeks 
 to  this  portion  of  the  country,  from  the  numerous  vines 
 which  grew  there,  the  name  importing  "wine-land." 
 Thus,  too,  Saturnia  in  fact  belongs  to  one  of  the  hills 
 of  Rome,  &c. — Italy  may  be  divided  into  three  parts, 
 the  northern,  or  Galiia  Cisalpina  ;  the  middle,  or  Italia 
 Propria ;  and  the  southern,  or  Magna  Grtecia.  Its 
 principal  states  were  Gallia  Cisalpina,  Etruria,  Um- 
 bria,  Picenum,  Latium,  Campania,  Samnium  and  Hir- 
 pini,  .Apulia,  Calabria,  Lucania,  and  Brutiorurn  Ager. 
 Originally  the  whole  of  Italy  appears  to  have  been 
 peopled  by  one  common  race,  the  Itali,  wdio  were 
 
ITALIA. 
 
 ITALIA. 
 
 spread  from  the  Alps  to  the  southernmost  extremity 
 of  the  laud.     This  position  receives  very  strong  sup- 
 port from  the  fact  inat  the  name  Italus  was  in  gen- 
 eral  use    amonij  the    various  nations    of   the    Italian 
 peninsula.      In  the  language  of  fable  it  was  the  appel- 
 lation of  an  ancient  monarch.     We  find  mention  made 
 of  a  King  Italus  among  the  Ausones  and  Opici,  and 
 likewise    among    the    Morgetes,    Siculi,   and    Sabini. 
 We    find,  moreover,  all   these  early  tribes  using  one 
 common  dialect,  the  Oscan.     Now,  that  such  a  being 
 as  Italus  ever  existed,  appears  extremely  improbable  ; 
 and  .'^till  more  so  the  assertion  that  Italy  was  named 
 after  this  ancient  king.      Daily  experience  proves  that 
 countries   are   called    after    the    nations    who    inhabit 
 them  ;  and  few,  if  anv,  e.xamples  can  be  adduced  of 
 nations  taking  an  appellation  from  their  rulers.     In  the 
 present  case  it  appears  scarcely  credible.     We  know 
 of  no  period  when   the  difTerent  Italian  tribes  were 
 under  the  control  of  a  single  ruler,  and  yet  each  have 
 their   Italus.     Was  there  a  monarch  of  this  name  in 
 every  district  cf  Italy?  and,  still  more,  did  each  sep- 
 arate community  form  the  resolution  of  deriving  from 
 their  respectivt'  monarch  a  name  for  themselves  and 
 the  region  they  inhabited,  so  that,  finallv,  the  common 
 name  for  the  w'lole  land  became  Italia]     Either  sup- 
 position is  absi'rd. — The  name  Italus,  then,  was  the 
 generic  name   of  the  whole  race,  and   the  land  was 
 called  after  it,  each  community  being  known  at  the 
 same  time  by  a  specific  and   peculiar  appellation,  as 
 Latini,  [Jmbri,  <fcc.     The  fact  of  the  universal  preva- 
 lence of  the  Osc  m  tongue  is  strongly  corroborative  of 
 what  has  just  hi;en  advanced.     But,  it  mav  be  con- 
 tended, no  proof 'Exists  that  any  kinof  named  Italus  was 
 acknowledged  by  the  traditions  of  the  Tusci  or  Umbri. 
 The  answer  is  an  easy  one.      Antiquity  makes-  monition 
 of  these  as  the  piogeuitors  of  the  Latini,  among  whom 
 a  King  Italus  apj:ears;   and   Scymnus  records  an  old 
 authority,  which   nakes  the  Umbri  to  have  been  de- 
 scended from  La'.inus,  the  son  of  Ulysses  and   Circe. 
 That  these  two   nations,  moreover,  spoke   a  language 
 based  on  the  old  Italic  or  Oscan  form  of  speech,  was 
 discovered  by  thf.  Romans  in  the  case  of  the  RhEeti,  a 
 branch    of  the   fcmer,  who  had    retired   to  the   Alps 
 upon  the  invasion  of  the  Gauls.     The  original  popula- 
 tion of  Italy  then  was   composed  of  the   Itali.     To 
 these  came  various;  nations,  which  we  shall  now  enu- 
 merate in  the  order  of  history.     The  earliest  of  these 
 new-cor,iers  appear  to  have  been  the  Illyrian  tribes, 
 and,  i'l  particular,  I  ho  Liburni,  who  mav,  with  truth,  be 
 reira'.ded  as  the  earliest  of  European  navigators.     They 
 extended  themselves  along  the  coast  of  the  .-Adriatic  as 
 far  as  lapygia.     INext  in  the  order  of  lime  were  the 
 Veneti,  a  branch  of  the  great  Sclavonic  race  (Vfid.  Ve- 
 neti),  who  settled  b'?tween  the  mouths  of  the   Po  and 
 the  Illyrian  Alps.      Were  they  the  earliest  possessors 
 of  this  part  of  Iialv,  or  did  they  expel  the  Tuscan  Eu- 
 ganei  1      All  is  unce  "tainty.      Of  the  origin  of  the  great 
 Etrurian  nation,  we  have  already  spoken  under  the  ar- 
 licle  Hotruria.     Thu  Siculi,  who  appear  to  have  been 
 •iie  original  inhabitants  of  Latium,  and  who  were  sub- 
 sequently driven  out  and  retired  to  Sicilv  (vid.  Siculi), 
 are  falsely  considtrnl  by  some  to  have  been  of  Iberian 
 origin.      A  fourth  pf.ople,  however,  who  actually  came 
 into  Italy,  were  './lo  Greeks.     Before  the  time  of  the 
 Trojan  war  th'  re  are  no  traces  of  any  such  emicrration  ; 
 but   after   t^.e   termination   of  that    contest,   accident 
 threw  mar.y  of  the  returning  bands  upon   the  Italian 
 coast.      We  find  them  in  Apulia,  on  the  Sinus  Tarcn- 
 (inift?  in  (Enotria,  at  Pisse,  and  in  Latium  as  the  chief 
 pa-tof  the  popvdation  of  Alba  Longa.     Their  language, 
 'he  ^"Eolic  Greek,  for  they  were  principally  Achoei,  op- 
 erating upon  the  old  Italic  or  Oscan  tongue,  then  prev- 
 alent in  Latium,  and  becoming  blended,  at  the  same 
 time,  with  many  peculiarities  and   forms  of  Pelasgic 
 origin,  gave  rise  to  the  Latin  tongue.     Trojan  female 
 capttves  were  brought  along  with  them  by  the  Greeks, 
 
 but  no  Trojan  men,  nor  any  prince  named  .-Eneas  ever 
 set  foot  in   the  Italian  peninsula.     The   last  ancient 
 people  who  formed  settlements  at  any  early  period   in 
 Italy  were  the  Gauls.     They  entered  during  the  reign 
 of  Tarquinius    Prisons,  and   successive  hordes  made 
 their  appearance  under  the    following   kings.      They 
 seized    upon   what   was   called,  from   them,  Cisalpine 
 Gaul,  and   one  division  of  them,  the   Senones,  even 
 penetrated  far  into  the  centre  of  Italy.     They  were 
 finally  subdued  by  the  Romans,  more  iiirough  the  want 
 of  union  than  of  valour  — On  the  subject,  however,  of 
 the  origin  of  the  Latin  tongue,  a  very  plausible  theory 
 was  started  by  Jakel,  which  assigns  it  to  the  German. 
 ( Der  Germamsche  Ursprung  der  Lalcinischcn  Sprachc, 
 &c.,   Brcslaw,    1831.)      He    makes   the  Latin  to   be 
 mainly  and  essentially  the  dialect  of  a  Teutonic  race, 
 that  migrated  from  Germany  into  Italy  by  the  way  of 
 the  Tyrol,  at   a  period  vastly  more  remote  than  that 
 to  which  Roman  history  reaches.      The  germe  of  this 
 theory,  however,  is  found  in  Funccius  {Dc  Originc  et 
 Pucr'itia,  L.  L.,  p.  fi4,  c.  5.     De  Matrc  LingucB  Lot- 
 ince    Germanka.)  —  Ancient    geographers    appear    to 
 have  entertained  different  ideas  of  the  figure  of  Italy. 
 Polybius  conf^idered  it,  in  its  general   form,  as  being 
 like  a  triangle,  of  which  the  two  seas  meeting  at  the 
 promontory  of  Cocinthus    {Capo  di  Sfilo)  as  the  vor- 
 tex, formed  the  sides,  and  the  Alps  the  base      {Fohjh., 
 2,  14.)     But  Strabo  is  more  exact  in  his  delineation, 
 and  observes,  that  its  shape  bears  more  resemblance 
 to  a  quadrilateral  than  a  triangular  figure,  with  its  out- 
 line rather  irregular  than  rectilineal      {Strabo.  .5,  810.) 
 Pliny  describes  it  in  shape  as  similar  to  an  elongated 
 oakieaf,  and  tertninating  in  a  crescent,  the  horns  of 
 which  would  be  the  promontories  of  Lencopetra  {Caj)o 
 dell''  Armi)  and  Lacinium  {Capo  dclle  Colonnc).     Ac- 
 cording to  Pliny  (3,  5),  the  length  of  Italy,  from  Au- 
 gusta Pretoria' (^osfa),  at   the   foot  of  the   Alps,  to 
 Rhegium,  the  other  extremity,  was   1020  miles  :  but 
 this  distance  was  to  be  estimated,  not  in  a  direct  line, 
 but  by  the  great  road  which  passed  through  Rome  and 
 Capua.      The  real  geographical  distance,  according  to 
 the   best  maps,   would    scarcely   furnish   600   modem 
 Italian  miles  of  60  to  the  degree,  which  are  equal  to 
 about  700  ancient  Roman    miles.     The  same  writer 
 estimates  its  breadth  from  the  Varus  to  the  Arsia  at 
 410   miles;    between  the   mouths   of  the   Tiber  and 
 Aternus  at  136  miles  ;  in  the  narrowest  part,  between 
 the  Sinus  Scyllacius  and  Sinus  Terinceus,  at  20  miles. 
 The  little  lake  of  Cutilia?,  near  Reate  {Rieti)  in  the 
 Sabine  country,  was  considered  as  the  umbilicus  or 
 centre  of  Italy.     (P/m  ,  3,  12  )— It  might  be  expected 
 that  the  classical  authors  of  Rome  would  dwell  with 
 fondness  on  the  peculiar  advantages  enjoyed  by  their 
 favoured  country.      Accordingly,  we  find  a  variety  of 
 passages,  which   Cluverius   has  collected  in  his  fifth 
 chapter  (De  Nafnra  cali  solique   Iialici  ac  Jaudihus 
 rpis),  where  the  happy  qualities  of  its  soil  and  climate, 
 the  variety  and  abundance  of  its  productions,  the  re- 
 sources of  every  kind  which  it  possesses,  are  proudly 
 and   eloquently  displayed.      Those  that  seem  princi- 
 pally deserving  of  notice  are  the  following  :   Plin.,  36, 
 13. —  Vir<r  .  Gcorg.,  2,  136,  seqq. — Dion.  Hal.,  Ant. 
 Rom.,  1,  36. 
 
 Climate  of  Ancient  Ilahj. 
 It  has  been  thought  by  several  modern  writers  that 
 the  climate  and  temperature  of  Italy  have  undergone 
 some  change  during  the  lapse  of  ages,  and  that  itwaa 
 anciently  colder  in  winter  than  it  is  at  the  present  day. 
 {Du  Bos.  R.flcx.,  vol.  2,  p.  298.— L'^We  Longiicrue, 
 Cited  hy  Gibbon,  Misc.  Works,  vol.  3,  p.  24.x  In  the 
 examination  of  this  question,  it  is  imi)ossible  not  to 
 consider  the  somewhat  analogous  condition  of  America 
 at  this  day.  Boston  is  in  the  same  latitude  with  Rome 
 but  the  severity  of  its  winter  far  exceeds  not  that  of 
 Rome  only,  but  of  Paris  and  London,     -^'lowing  that 
 
 693 
 
ITALIA. 
 
 ITALIA. 
 
 the  peninsular  form  of  Italy  must  at  all  times  have  had 
 an  etfect  in  softening  the  climate,  still  tiie  woods  and 
 marshes  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  the  perpetual  snows  of 
 the  Alps,  far  more  extensive  than  at  present,  owing  to 
 the  then  uncultivated  and  uncleared  state  of  Switzer- 
 land and  Germany,  could  not  but  have  been  felt  even 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  Rome.  Besides,  even  on  the 
 Apennines,  and  in  Etruria  and  Latium,  the  forests  oc- 
 cupied a  far  greater  space  than  in  modern  times  ;  this 
 would  increase  the  quantity  of  rain,  and,  consequently, 
 the  volume  of  water  in  the  rivers  ;  the  floods  would 
 be  greater  and  more  numerous,  and,  before  man's  do- 
 minion had  compielcly  subdued  the  whole  country, 
 there  would  be  large  accumulations  of  water  in  the  low 
 grounds,  which  would  still  farther  increase  the  coldness 
 of  the  atmosphere.  The  language  of  ancient  writers, 
 on  the  whole,  favours  the  same  conclusion,  that  the 
 Roman  winter,  in  their  days,  was  more  severe  than  it 
 is  at  present.  It  is  by  no  means  easy  to  know  what 
 weight  is  to  be  given  to  the  language  of  the  poets,  nor 
 how  far  particular  descriptions  or  expressions  may  have 
 been  occasioned  by  peculiar  local  circumstances.  The 
 statement  of  the  younger  Pliny  {Epist.,  2,  17),  that  the 
 bay-tree  would  rarely  live  through  the  winter  without 
 shelter,  either  at  Rome  or  at  his  own  villa  at  Lanuvium, 
 if  taken  absolutely,  would  prove  too  much ;  for,  although 
 the  bay  is  less  hardy  than  some  other  evergreens,  yet 
 how  can  it  be  conceived  that  a  climate  in  which  the 
 olive  would  flourish  could  be  too  severe  for  the  bay  1 
 There  must  either  have  been  some  local  peculiarity  of 
 winds  or  soil  which  the  tree  did  not  like,  or  else  the  fact, 
 as  is  sometimes  the  case,  must  have  been  too  hastily 
 assumed  ;  and  men  were  afraid,  from  long  custom,  to 
 leave  the  bay  unprotected  in  the  winter,  although,  in 
 fact,  they  might  have  done  it  with  safety.  Yet  the 
 elder  Pliny  (17,  2)  speaks  of  long  snows  being  useful 
 to  the  corn,  which  shows  that  he  is  not  speaking  of 
 the  mountains  ;  and  a  long  snow  lying  in  the  valleys 
 of  central  or  southern  Italy  would  surely  be  a  very  un- 
 heard-of phenomenon  now.  Again  :  the  freezing  of 
 the  rivers,  as  spoken  of  by  Virgil  and  Horace,  is  an 
 inr'age  of  winter  which  could  not,  we  think,  naturally 
 suggest  itself  to  Italian  poets  of  the  present  day,  at 
 any  point  to  the  south  of  the  Apennines.  Other  ar- 
 guments to  the  same  effect  may  be  seen  in  a  paper  by 
 Daines  Barrington,  in  the  58th  volume  of  the  Philo- 
 sophical Transactions.  Gibbon,  too,  after  stating  the 
 arguments  on  both  sides  of  the  question,  comes  to  the 
 same  conclusion.  {Misc.  Works,  I.  c.)  He  quotes, 
 however,  the  Abbe  de  Longuerue  as  saying  that  the 
 Tiber  was  frozen  in  the  bitter  winter  of  1709. — Again  : 
 the  olive,  which  cannot  bear  a  continuance  of  severe 
 cold,  was  not  introduced  into  Italy  till  long  after  the 
 vine  :  Fenestella  asserted,  that  its  cultivation  was  un- 
 known as  late  as  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus 
 {Plin.,  15,  1);  and  such  was  the  notion  entertained 
 of  the  cold  of  all  inland  countries,  that  Theophrastus 
 (Plin.,  15,  1)  held  it  impossible  to  cultivate  the  olive 
 at  the  distance  of  more  than  400  stadia  from  the  sea. 
 But  the  cold  of  winter  is  perfectly  consistent  with  great 
 Ueat  in  the  summer.  The  vine  is  cultivated  with  suc- 
 cess on  the  Rhine,  in  the  latitude  of  Devonshire  and 
 Cornwall,  although  the  winter  at  Coblentz  and  Bonn 
 is  far  more  severe  than  it  is  in  Westmoreland  ;  and 
 evergreens  will  flourish  through  the  winter  in  the 
 Westmoreland  valleys  far  belter  than  on  the  Rhine  or 
 in  the  heart  of  France.  The  summer  heat  of  Italy 
 was  probably  much  the  same  in  ancient  times  as  it  is 
 at  present,  e.xcppt  that  there  were  a  greater  number  of 
 spots  where  shade  and  verdure  might  be  found,  and 
 where  its  violence,  therefore,  was  more  endurable.  But 
 the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  summer  and 
 winter  may  be  safely  assumed  to  have  been  much 
 greater  than  it  is  now,  notwithstanding  the  arguments 
 of  Eustace  and  several  other  travellers,  (jirnold,  His- 
 tory of  Rome,  vol.  1,  p.  499,  segq.) 
 694 
 
 The  Malaria  in  Ancient  and  Modern  Timet. 
 
 It  now  becomes  a  question,  whether  the  greater  cold 
 of  the  winter,  and  the  greater  extent  of  wood  and  of 
 undrained  waters  which  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, may  not  have  had  a  favourable  influence  in  mit- 
 igating that  malaria  which  is  at  the  present  dav  the 
 curse  of  so  many  parts  of  Italy,  and  particularly  of  the 
 immediate  neighbourhood  of  Rome.  One  thing  i» 
 certain,  that  the  Campagna  of  Rome,  which  is  now  al- 
 most a  desert,  must,  at  a  remote  period,  have  been 
 full  of  independent  cities ;  and  although  the  greater 
 part  of  these  had  perished  long  before  the  fourth  cen- 
 tury of  Rome,  yet  even  then  there  existed  Ostia,  Lau- 
 rentum,  Ardea,  and  Antium  on  one  side,  and  Veii  and 
 Ccsre  on  the  other,  in  situations  which  are  now  regard- 
 ed as  uninhabitable  during  the  summer  months;  and 
 all  the  lands  of  the  Romans  on  which  they,  like  the 
 old  Athenians,  for  the  most  part  resided  regularly,  lie 
 within  the  present  range  of  the  malaria.  .Some  have 
 supposed,  that,  although  the  climate  was  the  same  as 
 it  is  now,  yet  the  Romans  were  enabled  to  escape 
 from  its  influence,  and  their  safety  has  been  ascribed 
 to  their  practice  of  wearing  woollen  next  to  the  skin 
 instead  of  linen  or  cotton.  But,  not  to  notice  other 
 objections  to  this  notion,  it  is  enough  to  say  that  the. 
 Romans  regarded  unhealthy  situations  with  the  same 
 apprehension  as  their  modern  descendants.  {Calo,  R. 
 R.,  2.—  Varro,  R.  R.,  1,  A.— Id.,  5,  3,  5.— Id.,  5,  3, 
 12.) — ^^On  the  other  hand,  Cicero  {de  Repuh.,  2,  6)  and 
 Livy  (7,  38)  both  speak  of  the  immediate  neighbour- 
 hood of  Rome  as  unhealthy  ;  but,  at  the  sauie  time, 
 they  extol  the  positive  healthiness  of  the  city  itself; 
 ascribing  it  to  the  hills,  which  are  at  once  airy  them 
 selves,  and  offer  a  screen  to  the  low  grounds  from  th«. 
 heat  of  the  sun.  It  is  true,  tliat  one  of  the  most  un- 
 healthy parts  of  modern  Rome,  the  Piazza  di  Spagna 
 and  the  slope  of  the  Pincian  Hill  above  it,  was  not 
 within  the  limits  of  the  ancient  city,  yet  the  praise  of 
 the  healthiness  of  Rome  must  be  understood  rather 
 comparatively  with  that  of  the  immediate  neighbour- 
 hood than  positively.  Rome,  in  the  summer  months, 
 cannot  be  called  healthy,  even  as  compared  with  the 
 other  great  cities  of  Italy,  much  less  if  the  standard  be 
 taken  from  Berlin  or  from  London.  Again:  the  neigh- 
 bourhood of  Rome  is  characterized  by  Livy  as  "a  pes- 
 tilential and  parched  soil."  The  latter  epithet  is  wor- 
 thy of  notice,  because  the  favourite  opinion  has  been, 
 that  the  malaria  is  connected  with  marshes  and  moist- 
 ure. But  it  is  precisely  here  that  we  may  find  the  ex- 
 planation of  the  spread  of  the  malaria  in  modern  times. 
 Even  in  spring  nothing  can  less  resemble  a  marsh  than 
 the  present  aspect  of  the  Campagna.  It  is  far  more 
 like  the  down  country  of  Dorsetshire,  and,  as  the  sum- 
 mer advances,  it  may  well  be  called  a  dry  and  parched 
 district.  But  this  is  exactly  the  character  of  the  plains 
 of  Estremadura,  where  the  British  forces  suffered  so 
 grievously  from  malaria  fever  in  the  autumn  of  1809 
 In  short,  abundant  experience  has  proved,  that  when 
 tlie  surface  of  the  ground  is  wet,  the  malaria  poison  is 
 far  less  noxious  than  when  all  aj)j)earance  of  moisture 
 on  the  surface  is  gone,  and  the  damp  makes  its  way 
 into  the  atmosphere  from  a  considerable  depth  under 
 ground.  If,  then,  more  rain  fell  in  the  Campagna  for- 
 merly than  now  ;  if  the  streams  were  fuller  of  water, 
 and  their  course  more  rapid  ;  above  all,  if,  owing  to 
 the  uncleared  state  of  central  Europe,  and  the  greater 
 abundance  of  wood  in  Italy  itself,  the  summir  heats 
 set  in  later,  and  were  less  intense,  and  more  often  re- 
 lieved by  violent  storms  of  rain,  there  is  every  reason 
 to  believe  that  the  Campagna  must  have  been  far 
 healthier  than  at  present ;  and  that  precisely  in  pro- 
 portion to  the  clearing  and  cultivation  of  central  Eu- 
 rope, to  the  felling  of  the  woods  in  Italy  itself,  the 
 consequent  decrease  in  the  quantity  of  rain,  the  shrink- 
 ing of  the  streams,  and  the  disappearance  of  the  wa- 
 
ITH 
 
 JUB 
 
 ter  from  the  surface,  has  been  the  increased  unhealthi- 
 ness  of  lUe  country,  and  the  more  extended  range  of 
 the  malaria.  {Anidd's  History  of  Rome,  vol.  1,  p. 
 501,  seqq.) 
 
 Italic*,  I.  the  capital  of  the  Pehgni  in  Italy.  {Vid. 
 Corfinium.) — II.  A  city  of  Spain,  north  of  Hispalis, 
 and  situate  on  the  western  side  of  the  river  Bstis. 
 {Strabo^  .141. — Oros.,  5,  23.)  It  was  founded  by  Pub- 
 iius  Scipio  in  the  second  Punic  war,  who  placed  here 
 the  old  soldiers  whom  age  had  incapacitated  from  the 
 performance  of  military  service.  {Appmn,  B.  Hisp., 
 c.  38.— C(Es.,  B.  Civ.,  2,  20.)  It  was  the  birthplace 
 of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  is  supposed  to  correspond 
 with  Scvilla  la,  Vieja,  about  a  league  distant  from  the 
 city  of  Seville.  {Surila,  ad  It.  A?U.,  p.  413,  432. — 
 Florez,  Esp.  S.  F.,  12,  p.  227.— Ukert,  Gcogr.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  372  ) 
 
 Italicus,  a  poet.     {Vid.  Silius  Italicus.) 
 
 Italus,  a  fabled  monarch  of  early  Italy.  (Consult 
 remarks  under  the  article  Italia,  page  693,  col.  1.) 
 
 Ithaca,  a  celebrated  island  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  north- 
 east of  Cephallenia.  It  lies  directly  eouth  of  Leuca- 
 dia,  from  which  it  is  distant  about  six  miles.  The  ex- 
 tent of  this  celebrated  island,  as  given  by  ancient  au- 
 thorities, does  not  correspond  with  modern  computa- 
 tion. Dicasarchus  describes  it  as  narrow,  and  meas- 
 uring eighty  stadia,  meaning  probably  in  length  {Grac. 
 Stat ,  V.  51),  but  Strabo  (455)  affirms,  in  circumfer- 
 ence, which  is  very  wide  of  the  truth,  since  it  is  not 
 less  than  thirty  miles  in  circuit,  or,  according  to  Pliny 
 (4,  12),  twenty-five.  Its  length  is  nearly  seventeen 
 miles,  but  its  breadth  not  more  than  four.  Ithaca  is 
 well  known  as  the  native  island  of  Ulysses.  Eusta- 
 thius  asserts  {ad  II.,  2,  632)  that  it  derived  its  name 
 from  the  hero  Ithacus,  who  is  mentioned  by  Homer 
 {Od.,  17,  207).  That  it  was  throughout  rugged  and 
 mountainous  we  learn  from  more  than  one  passage  of 
 the  Odyssey,  but  especially  from  the  fourth  book,  v. 
 605,  seqq. — It  is  evident,  from  several  passages  of  the 
 same  poem,  that  there  was  also  a  city  named  Ithaca, 
 probably  the  capital  of  the  island,  and  the  residence  of 
 Ulysses  (3,  80).  Its  ruins  are  generally  identified  with 
 those  crowning  the  summit  of  the  hill  of  Aito.  {Dod- 
 ivcll,  vol.  1,  p.  66.)  "The  Venetian  geographers," 
 observes  Sir  William  Cell,  "  have  in  a  great  degree 
 contributed  to  rai.se  doubts  concerning  the  identity  of 
 the  modern  with  the  ancient  Ithaca,  by  giving  in  their 
 charts  the  name  of  Val  di  Compare  to  this  island. 
 That  name,  however,  is  totally  unknown  in  the  coun- 
 try, where  the  isle  is  invariably  called  Ithaca  by  the 
 upper  ranks,  and  Thcaki  by  the  vulgar.  It  has  been 
 asserted  in  the  north  of  Europe,  that  Ithaca  is  too  in- 
 considerable a  rock  to  have  produced  any  contingent  of 
 ships  which  could  entitle  its  king  to  so  much  consider- 
 ation among  the  neighbouring  isles  ;  yet  the  unrivalled 
 excellence  of  its  port  has  in  modern  times  created  a 
 fleet  of  50  vessels  of  all  denominations,  which  trade  to 
 every  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  which  four 
 miglit  be  selected  ca[)able  of  transporting  the  whole 
 army  of  Ulysses  to  the  shores  of  Asia."  The  same 
 writer  makes  the  population  of  the  island  8000.  It  is 
 said  to  contain  sixty-six  square  miles.  {Gell's  Geog- 
 raphy and  Antiquities  of  Ithaca,  p.  30.) 
 
 ItkacesijE,  I.  three  islands  opposite  Vibo,  on  the 
 coast  of  Bruttium.  They  are  thought  to  answer  to 
 the  modern  Braces,  Praca,  and  Torricella.  {Bischoff 
 uni  MoUer,  Worterb.  der  Gcogr.,  p.  651.)— II.  Bais 
 is  called  by  Silius  Italicus  '■'  sedcs  Ilhaccsia  Baii,"  be- 
 cause founded  by  Baius,  the  pilot  of  Ulysses,  accord- 
 ing to  the  poetic  legends  of  antiquity.  {Sil.  IlaL,  8, 
 539.— Compare  Lycophron,  Cassxnd.,  694. — Tzetzcs, 
 ad  loc.) 
 
 Ithomk,  I.  a  town  of  The.ssaly,  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Metropolis.  It  is  conceived  by  some  modern  travel- 
 lers to  have  been  situated  on  one  of  the  summits  now 
 occupied  by  the  singular  convtuts  of  Meteora.     {Hoi- 
 
 land^s  Travels,  vol.  1,  349.  —  Pouqucville,  vol.  3,  p. 
 334.)  Cramer,  however,  thinks  it  ought  to  be  looked 
 for  to  the  north  of  the  Peneus,  near  Ardani  and  Pct- 
 chouri. — II.  A  fortress  of  Messenia,  on  a  mountain  of 
 the  same  name.  It  was  celebrated  for  the  long  and 
 obstinate  defence  (ten  years)  which  the  Messenians 
 there  made  against  the  Spartans  in  their  last  revolt. 
 The  mountain  was  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
 Ithome,  one  of  the  nymphs  that  nourished  Jupiter.  On 
 the  summit  was  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ilhomatas,  to 
 whom  the  mountain  was  especially  dedicated.  Strabo 
 compares  the  Messenian  Acropolis  to  Acrocormthus, 
 being  situated,  like  that  citadel,  on  a  lofty  and  steep 
 mountain,  enclosed  by  fortified  lines  which  connected  it 
 with  the  town.  Hence  they  were  justly  deemed  the  two 
 strongest  places  in  the  Peloponnesus.  When  Philip, 
 the  son  of  Demetrius,  was  planning  the  conquest  of 
 the  peninsula  with  Demetrius  of  Pharos,  the  latter  ad- 
 vised him  to  seize  first  the  horns  of  the  heil'er,  which 
 would  secure  to  him  possession  of  the  animal.  By 
 these  enigmatical  expressions  he  designated  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus, and  the  two  bulwarks  above  mentioned. 
 {Strah.,  3Gl.  —  Polyb.,  7.  11.)  Scylax  says  Ithome 
 was  eighty  stadia  from  the  sea.     {Pcripl,  p.  16.) 
 
 Itius  Portus,  a  harbour  of  Gaul,  whence  Caesar 
 set  sail  for  Britain.  Caesar  describes  it  no  farther  than 
 by  saying,  that  from  it  there  was  the  most  convenient 
 passage  to  Britain,  the  distance  being  about  30  miles. 
 {B.  G  ,  5,  2.)  Calais,  Boulogne,  and  Staples  have 
 each  their  respective  advocates  for  the  honour  of  being 
 the  Itius  Portus  of  antiquity.  The  weight  of  authority, 
 however,  is  in  favour  of  Witsand  or  Vissan;  and  with 
 this  opinion  D'AnviUe  coincides.  Caesar  landed  at 
 Portus  Lemanis  or  Lymne,  a  little  below  Dover.  For 
 a  long  time  this  was  the  principal  crossing-place.  In 
 a  later  age,  however,  the  preference  was  given  to  Ges- 
 soriacum  or  Boulogne  in  Gaul,  and  Rutupiae  or  Rich- 
 borough  in  Britain.  Lemaire,  however,  is  in  favour  of 
 making  the  Itius  Portus  identical  with  Gessoriacum, 
 as  others  had  been  before  him.  {Ind.  Geogr.  ad  Cas., 
 B.  G.,  p.  291.) 
 
 Itun^,  ^Estuarium,  now  Solway  Firth,  in  Scot- 
 land. 
 
 IturjEa,  a  country  of  Palestine,  so  called  from  Itur 
 or  Jetur,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ishmael,  who  settled  in  it ; 
 but  whose  posterity  were  either  driven  out  or  subdued 
 by  the  Amorites,  when  it  is  supposed  to  have  formed 
 part  of  the  kingdom  of  Bashan,  and  subsequently  of 
 the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of  Jordan  ;  but,  as  it 
 was  situated  beyond  the  southern  border  of  Mount 
 Hermon,  called  the  Djcbel  Heish,  this  is  doubtful.  It 
 lay  on  the  northeastern  side  of  the  land  of  Israel,  be- 
 tween it  and  the  territory  of  Damascus  or  Syria  ;  and 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  the  same  country  at  present 
 known  by  the  name  of  Djcdour,  on  the  east  of  the 
 Djcbel  Heish,  between  Damascus  and  the  Lake  of  Ti- 
 berias. The  Itureans  being  subdued  by  Aristobulus, 
 the  high-priest  and  governor  of  the  Jews,  B.C.  106, 
 were  forced  by  him  to  embrace  the  Jewish  religion, 
 and  were  at  the  same  time  incorporated  into  the  state. 
 Philip,  one  of  the  sons  of  Herod  the  Great,  was  te- 
 trarch  or  governor  of  this  country  when  John  the  Bap- 
 tist commenced  his  ministry.  {Plin.,  5,  23. — Jiseph., 
 Ant.  Jud.,  13,  19.  — Epiphan.,  Hares.,  19.—  Lv.ki, 
 3,  1.) 
 
 Itvs,  son  of  Tereus,  king  of  Thrace,  by  Procne, 
 daughter  of  Pandion,  king  of  Athens.  Ho  was  killed 
 by  his  mother  when  he  was  about  six  years  old,  and 
 served  up  before  his  father.  He  was  changed,  accord- 
 ing to  one  account,  into  a  pheasant,  his  mother  into  a 
 swallow,  and  his  father  into  an  owl.  ( Vtd.  Philomela,, 
 —  Ovid,  Met.,  6,  6W.-~Amor.,  2,  H,  29.— Hora^^ 
 Od,  4c,  12.)  ,.        ,  ^^      .,. 
 
 JoBA,  I.  a  son  of  Hiempsal.  king  of  Numidift^  s.uc- 
 ceeded  his  father  about  50  B.C.  Ho  was  j^  warm 
 supporter  of  the  senatorial  party  and  Pompey,  being 
 
JUD 
 
 JUD.EA. 
 
 moved,  it  is  said,  to  this  course  by  a  gross  insult  which, 
 in  his  youth,  lie  had  received  from  Caesar.  He  gained, 
 B.C.  49,  a  great  victory  over  Curio,  Cesar's  hcuten- 
 ant  in  Africa.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  and  the 
 death  of  Pompey,  he  continued  steady  to  his  cause  ; 
 and  when  Cfpsar  invaded  Africa,  B.C.  46,  he  support- 
 ed Sci[)io  and  Cato  with  all  his  power,  and  in  the  first 
 instance  reduced  the  dictator  to  nmch  ddticulty.  The 
 batilo  of  Thapsus,  however,  turned  the  scale  in  Cas- 
 sar's  favour.  Juba  tied,  and,  finding  that  his  subjects 
 would  not  receive  hirn,  put  an  end  to  his  life  in  de- 
 spair, along  with  Pelreius.  (  Vid.  Petreius.)  His  con- 
 ne.'iion  with  Cato  has  suggested  the  underplot  of  Ad- 
 dison's tragedy.  {Plul.,  Vit.  Puni-p. — Id.,  Vit.  Cces. 
 —  Flor.,  4,  12.  —  Suet  on.,  Vit.  Jul.,  35.  —  Lucan,  4, 
 690. — Palerc,  2,  54.) — II.  The  second  of  the  name, 
 was  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was  carried  to  Rome 
 by  Cajsar,  kindly  treated,  and  well  and  learnedly  ed- 
 ucated. He  gained  the  friendship,  and  fought  in  the 
 cause,  of  Augustus,  who  gave  him  the  kingdom  of 
 Mauritania,  his  paternal  kingdom  of  Numidia  having 
 been  erected  into  a  Koman  province.  Juba  cultivated 
 diligently  the  arts  of  peace,  was  beloved  by  his  sub- 
 jects, and  had  a  high  reputation  for  learning.  He 
 wrote,  in  Greek,  of  ."Arabia,  with  observations  on  its 
 natural  history  ;  of  Assyria  ;  of  Rome  ;  of  painting 
 and  painters;  of  theatres  ;  of  the  qualities  of  animals; 
 on  the  source  of  the  Nile,  &c.,  all  which  are  now  lost. 
 Juba  married  Cleopatra,  the  daughter  of  Antony  and 
 Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt.  Strabo.  in  his  sixth  book, 
 speaks  of  Juba  as  living,  and  in  his  seventeenth  and 
 last  book  as  then  just  dead.  This  would  probably  fix 
 his  death  aliout  A.D.  17.  {Clinton,  Fast.  Hetlcn., 
 vol.  2,  p.  551,  in  notis. — Phot.,  Cod.,  161. — Athena- 
 us,  8,  p.  343,  e.  —  Plut.,  Mor.,  p.  269,  c,  &c.— 
 Consult  the  dissertation  of  the  Abbe  Sevin,  Sur  la  Vie 
 ct  Ics  Ouvragcs  de  Juba,  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des 
 Jnscr.,  &c.,  vol.  4,  p.   457,  seqq.) 
 
 iwDMK,  a  province  of  Palestine,  forming  the  southern 
 division.  It  did  not  assume  the  name  of  Judaea  until 
 after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  cap- 
 tivity ;  though  it  had  been  denominated,  long  before, 
 the  kingdom  of  Judsa,  in  opposition  to  that  of  Israel. 
 After  the  return,  the  tribe  of  Judah  settled  first  at  Je- 
 rusalem;  but  afterward,  spreading  gradually  over  the 
 whole  country,  they  gave  it  the  name  of  Judaea.  Ju- 
 daea, being  the  seat  of  religion  and  government,  claimed 
 many  privileges.  It  was  not  lawiul  to  intercalate  the 
 year  out  of  Judaea,  while  they  might  do  it  in  that  coun- 
 try. Nor  was  the  sheaf  of  first-fruits  of  the  barley  to 
 be  brought  from  any  other  district  than  Judaea,  and  as 
 near  as  possible  to  Jerusalem.  The  extent  of  this  re- 
 markable country  has  varied  at  different  times,  accord- 
 ing to  the  nature  of  the  government  which  it  has  en- 
 joyed or  been  compelled  to  acknowledge.  When  it 
 was  first  occupied  by  the  Israelites,  the  land  of  Ca- 
 naan, properly  so  called,  was  confined  between  the 
 shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  western  bank  of 
 the  Jordan  ;  the  breadth  at  no  part  exceeding  fifty 
 miles,  while  the  length  hardly  amounted  to  three  times 
 that  space.  At  a  later  [leriod,  the  arms  of  David  and 
 of  his  immediate  successor  carried  the  boundaries  of 
 the  kingdom  to  the  Euphrates  and  Orontes  on  the  one 
 hand,  and  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  remotest  con- 
 fines of  Edom  and  Moab.  The  poi)ulation,  as  might 
 be  expected,  has  undergone  a  similar  variation.  It  is 
 true,  that  no  particular  in  ancient  history  is  liable  to  a 
 better  founded  suspicion,  than  the  numerical  statements 
 which  respect  nations  and  armies  ;  for  ])ride  and  fear 
 have  in  their  turn  contributed  not  a  little  to  exagger- 
 ate in  rival  countries  the  amount  of  persons  capable 
 of  taking  a  share  in  the  field  of  battle.  Proceeding  on 
 the  usual  grounds  of  calculation,  we  must  infer,  from 
 the  number  of  warriors  whom  Moses  conducted  through 
 the  desert,  that  the  Hebrew  people,  when  they  crossed 
 the  Jordan,  did  not  fall  short  of  two  millions  ;  while, 
 696 
 
 from  the  facts  recorded  in  the  book  of  Samuel,  we 
 may  conclude  with  greater  confidence  that  the  enrol 
 ment  made  under  the  direction  of  Joab  must  have  re- 
 turned a  gross  population  of  five  millions  and  a  lialf. 
 The  present  aspect  of  Palestine,  under  an  administra- 
 tion where  everything  decays  and  nothing  is  renewed, 
 can  afford  no  just  criterion  of  the  accuracy  of  such 
 statements.  Hasty  observers  have  indeed  pronounced, 
 that  a  hilly  country,  destitute  of  great  rivers,  could  not, 
 even  under  the  most  skilful  management,  supply  food 
 for  so  many  mouths.  But  this  precipitate  conclusion 
 has  been  vigorously  combated  by  the  most  com})etent 
 judges,  who  have  taken  pains  to  estimate  the  produce 
 of  a  soil,  under  the  fertilizing  influence  of  a  sun  which 
 may  be  regarded  as  almost  tropical,  and  of  a  well- 
 regulated  irrigation,  which  the  Syrians  knew  how  to 
 practise  with  the  greatest  success.  Canaan,  it  must 
 be  admitted,  could  not  be  compared  to  Egypt  in  re- 
 spect to  corn.  There  is  no  Nile  to  scatter  the  riches 
 of  an  inexhaustible  fecundity  over  its  valleys  and  plains. 
 Still  it  was  not  without  reason  that  Moses  described 
 it  as  "  a  good  land,  a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  of  fount- 
 ains, and  depths  that  spring  out  of  valleys  and  hills; 
 a  land  of  wheat,  and  barley,  and  vines,  and  fig-trees, 
 and  pomegranates  ;  a  land  of  oil-olive  and  honey  ;  a 
 land  wherein  thou  shalt  eat  bread  without  scarceness; 
 thou  shalt  not  lack  anything  in  it ;  a  land  whose 
 stones  are  iron,  and  out  of  whose  hills  thou  mayestdig 
 brass."  {Deuleron.,  8,  7,  scqq.)  The  reports  of  the 
 latest  travellers  confirm  the  accuracy  of  the  picture 
 drawn  by  this  divine  legislator.  Near  Jericho  the 
 wild  olives  continue  to  bear  berries  of  a  large  size, 
 which  give  the  finest  oil.  In  places  subjected  to  irri- 
 gation, the  same  field,  after  a  crop  of  wheat  in  May, 
 produces  pulse  in  autumn.  Several  of  the  tpees  are 
 continually  bearing  flowers  and  fruit  at  the  same  time, 
 in  all  their  stages.  The  mulberry,  planted  in  straight 
 rows  in  the  open  field,  is  festooned  by  the  tendrils 
 of  the  vine.  If  this  vegetation  seems  to  languish  or 
 become  extinct  during  the  extreme  heats — if  in  the 
 mountains  it  is  at  all  seasons  detached  and  interrup- 
 ted— such  exceptions  to  the  general  luxuriance  are  not 
 to  be  ascribed  simply  to  the  general  character  of  all  hot 
 climates,  but  also  to  the  state  of  barbarism  in  which 
 the  great  mass  of  the  present  population  is  immersed. 
 Even  in  our  day,  some  remains  are  to  be  found  of  the 
 walls  which  the  ancient  cultivators  built  to  support  the 
 soil  on  the  declivities  of  the  mountains  ;  the  form  of 
 the  cisterns  in  which  they  collected  the  rain-water; 
 and  traces  of  the  canals  by  which  this  water  was  dis- 
 tributed over  the  fields.  These  labours  necessarily 
 created  a  prodigious  fertility  under  an  ardent  sun, 
 where  a  little  moisture  was  the  only  requisite  to  re- 
 vive the  vegetable  world.  The  accounts  given  by 
 native  writers  respecting  the  productive  qualities  of 
 Juda;a  are  not  in  any  degree  opposed  even  by  the 
 present  aspect  of  the  country.  The  case  is  exactly 
 the  same  with  some  islands  in  the  Archipelago;  a 
 tract  from  which  a  hundred  individuals  can  hardly 
 draw  a  scanty  subsistence,  formerly  maintained  thou- 
 sands in  affluence.  Moses  might  justly  say  that  Ca 
 naan  abounded  in  milk  and  honey.  The  flocks  of  the 
 Arabs  still  find  in  it  a  luxuriant  pasture,  while  the 
 bees  deposite  in  the  holes  of  the  rocks  their  delicious 
 stores,  which  are  sometimes  seen  flowing  down  the 
 surface.  The  opinions  just  slated  in  regard  to  the 
 fertility  of  ancient  Palestine,  receive  an  ample  confir- 
 mation from  the  Roman  historians,  to  whom,  as  a  part 
 of  their  extensive  empire,  it  was  intimately  known. 
 Tacitus  especially  {Hist.,  5,  6),  in  language  which 
 he  appears  to  have  formed  for  his  own  use,  describes 
 its  natural  qualities  with  the  utmost  precision,  and,  as 
 is  his  manner,  suggests  rather  than  specifies  a  cata- 
 logue of  productions,  the  accuracy  of  which  is  verified 
 by  the  latest  observations.  The  soil  is  rich,  and  the 
 atmosphere    dry  ;    the    country  yields   all   the  fruits 
 
JUD^A. 
 
 JUD^A. 
 
 wriicn  are  known  in  Italy,  besides  balm  and  dates. 
 But  it  has  never  been  denied  that  there  is  a  remarka- 
 ble difference  between  the  two  sides  of  the  ridge  which 
 forms  the  central  chain  of  Judsa.  On  the  western 
 acclivity,  the  soil  rises  from  the  sea  towards  the  ele- 
 vated ground  in  four  distinct  terraces,  which  are  cov- 
 ered with  an  unfading  verdure.  The  shore  is  lined 
 with  mastic-trees,  palms,  and  prickly  pears.  Higher 
 up,  the  vines,  the  olives,  and  the  sycamores  amply  re- 
 pay the  labour  of  the  cultivator  ;  natural  groves  arise, 
 consisting  of  evergreen  oaks,  cypresses,  andrachnes, 
 and  turpentines.  The  face  of  the  earth  is  embellished 
 with  the  rosemary,  the  cytisus,  and  the  hyacinth.  In 
 a  word,  the  veofetation  of  these  mountains  has  been 
 compared  to  that  of  Crete.  European  visiters  have 
 dined  under  the  shade  of  a  lemon-tree  as  large  as 
 one  of  our  strongest  oaks,  and  have  seen  sycamores, 
 the  foliage  of  which  was  sufficient  to  cover  thirty  per- 
 sons, along  with  their  horses  and  camels.  On  the 
 eastern  side,  however,  the  scanty  coating  of  mould 
 yields  a  less  magnificent  crop.  From  the  summit  of 
 the  hills  a  desert  stretches  along  to  the  Lake  Asphal- 
 tites,  presenting  nothing  but  stones  and  ashes,  and  a 
 few  thorny  shrubs.  The  sides  of  the  mountains  en- 
 large, and  assume  an  aspect  at  once  more  grand  and 
 more  barren.  By  little  and  little,  the  scanty  vegeta- 
 tion languishes  and  dies  ;  even  mosses  disappear,  and 
 a  red,  burning  hue  succeeds  to  the  whiteness  of  the 
 rocks.  In  the  centre  of  this  amphitheatre  there  is  an 
 arid  basin,  enclosed  on  all  sides  with  summits  scat- 
 tered over  with  a  yellow- coloured  pebble,  and  afibrd- 
 ing  a  single  aperture  to  the  east,  through  which  the 
 surface  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  distant  hills  of  Ara- 
 bia present  themselves  to  the  eye.  In  the  midst  of 
 this  country  of  stones,  encircled  by  a  wall,  we  perceive 
 extensive  ruins,  stunted  cypresses,  bushes  of  the  aloe 
 and  prickly  pear,  while  some  huts  of  the  meanest  or- 
 der, resembling  whitewashed  sepulchres,  are  spread 
 over  the  desolated  mass.  This  spot  is  Jerusalem. 
 {BdoH,  Observations,  &.c.,p.  140. — Hasselguist,  Trav- 
 els, p.  56. — Shultze's  Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  86.) — This 
 melancholy  delineation,  which  was  suggested  by  the 
 state  of  the  Jewish  metropolis  in  the  third  century,  is 
 not  quite  inapj)licable  at  the  present  hour.  The  scen- 
 ery of  external  nature  is  the  same,  and  the  general  as- 
 pect of  the  venerable  city  is  very  little  changed.  But 
 as  beauty'  is  strictly  a  relative  term,  and  is  everywhere 
 greatly  affected  by  association,  we  must  not  be  sur- 
 prised when  we  read  in  the  works  of  Eastern  authors 
 the  high  encomiums  which  are  lavished  upon  the  vi- 
 cinity of  the  holy  capital.  Abulfeda,  for  e.xample, 
 maintains,  not  only  that  Palestine  is  the  most  fertile 
 part  of  Syria,  but  also  that  the  neighbourhood  of  Jeru- 
 salem is  one  of  the  most  fertile  districts  of  Palestine. 
 In  his  eye,  the  vines,  the  fig-trees,  and  the  olive- 
 groves,  with  which  the  limestone  cliffs  of  Judaaa  were 
 once  covered,  identified  themselves  with  the  richest 
 returns  of  agricultural  wealth,  and  more  than  com- 
 pensated for  the  absence  of  those  spreading  fields, 
 waving  with  corn,  which  are  necessary  to  convey  to 
 the  mind  of  a  European  the  ideas  of  fruitfulness,  com- 
 fort, and  abundance. — Following  the  enlightened  nar- 
 rative of  Malte-Brun,  the  reader  will  find  that  south- 
 ward of  Damascus,  the  point  where  the  modern  Pal- 
 estine may  be  said  to^  begin,  are  the  countries  called 
 DV  the  Romans  Auranitis  and  Gaulonitis,  consisting 
 of  one  e.\lcnsive  and  noble  plain,  bounded  on  the  north 
 by  Hermon  or  Djibel-cl-Sheik,  on  the  southwest  by 
 Djibel-Edjlan,  and  on  the  east  by  Haouran.  In  all 
 these  countries  there  is  not  a  single  stream  which  re- 
 tains its  water  in  summer.  The  most  of  the  villages 
 have  their  pond  or  reservoir,  which  they  fill  from  one 
 of  the  wadi  or  brooks  during  the  rainy  season.  Of 
 all  these  districts,  Haouran  is  the  most  celebrated  for 
 the  culture  of  wheat.  Nothing  can  exceed  in  gran- 
 deur the  extensive  undulations  of  their  fields,  movino- 
 4T 
 
 like  the  waves  of  the  ocean  in  the  wind.     Bothin,  or 
 Batanea,  on   the  other  hand,  contains  nothing  except 
 calcareous  mountains,  where  there  are  vast  caverns, 
 in  which  the  Arabian  shepherds  live  like  the  ancient 
 Troglodytes.     Here  a  modern  traveller.  Dr.  Seetzen, 
 discovered,  in  the  year  1816,  the  magnificent  ruins  of 
 Gerasa,  now  called  Djerash,  where  three  temples,  two 
 superb  amphitheatres  of  marble,  and  hundreds  of  col- 
 umns still  remain,  among  other  monuments  of  Roman 
 power.     But  by  far  the  finest  thing  that  he  saw  was 
 a  long  street,  bordered  on  each  side  with  a   splendid 
 colonnade  of  Corinthian  architecture,  and  terminating 
 in  an  open  space  of  a  semicircular  form,  surrounded 
 with  sixty  Ionic  pillars.     In  the  same  neighbourhood, 
 the    ancient  Gilead    is   distinguished   by  a  forest  of 
 stately  oaks,  which  supply  wealth  and  emplovment  to 
 the  inhabitants.     Persea  presents  on  its  numerous  ter- 
 races a  mixture  of  vines,  olives,  and  pomegranates. 
 Karak-Moab,  the  capital  of  a  district  corresponding  to 
 that  of  the  primitive  Moabites,  still  meets  the  eye,  but 
 is  not  to  be  confounded  with  another  town  of  a  similar 
 name  in  the  Stony  Arabia.     {Seetzen. — Annales  des 
 Voyages,  vol.  1,  p.  398 — Correspondence  de  M.  Zach. 
 p.  425  ) — The  countries  now  described  lie  on  the  east- 
 ern side  of  the  river  Jordan.     But  the  same  stream,  in 
 the  upper  part  of  its  course,  forms  the  boundary  be- 
 tween Gaulonitis  and  the  fertile  Galilee,  which  is  iden- 
 tical with  the  modern  district  of  Szafl'ad.     This  town, 
 which  is    remarkable  for  the   beauty  of  its  situation 
 amid  groves  of  myrtle,  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient 
 Bethulia,  which  was  besieged  by  Holofernes.     Taba- 
 ria,  an  insignificant  place,  occupies  the  site  of  Tibe- 
 rias, which  gave  its  name  to  the  lake  more  generally 
 known  by  that  of  Genesareth,  or  the  Sea  of  Galilee  ; 
 but  industry  has   now  deserted  its  borders,  and   the 
 fisherman  with  his  skiff  and  his  nets  no  longer  ani- 
 mates  the   surface  of  its  waters.     Nazareth  still   re- 
 tains some   portion   of  its  former  consequence.     Sii 
 miles  farther  south  stands  the  hill  of  Thabor,  some-  < 
 times    denominated   Itabyrius,    presenting  a  pyramiQ 
 of  verdure  crowned  with  olives  and  sycamores.      Frond 
 the  top  of  this   mountain,  the  reputed    scene  of  the 
 transfiguration,  we   look  down  on    the  river  Jordan, 
 the  Lake  of  Genesareth,  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
 {Maundrell,    p.    60.)  —  Galilee,    says    Chateaubriand 
 (Itin.,  2,  132),  would  be  a  paradise  were  it  inhabit- 
 ed by  an  industrious  people  under  an  enlightened  gov- 
 ernment.    Vine-stocks  are  to  be  seen  here  a  foot  and 
 a   half  in   diameter,  forming,  by  their  twining  branch- 
 es, vast  arches  and  extensive  ceilings  of  verdure.     A 
 cluster  of  grapes,  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  will  give 
 an   abundant  supper   to  a  whole  family.     The  plains 
 of   Esdraelon    are   occupied   by  Arab   tribes,   around 
 whose  brown  tents  the  sheep  and  lambs  gambol  to  the 
 sound  of  the  reed,  which  at  nightfall  calls  them  home. 
 — Proceeding  from  Galilee  towards  the  metropolis,  we 
 enter  the  land  of  Samaria,  comprehending  the  modern 
 districts  of  Areta  and  Nablous.     In  the  former  we  find 
 the  remains  of  Cesarea  ;  and  on  the  Gulf  of  St.  Jean 
 d'.\cre  stands  the  town  of  Caypha,  where  there  is  a 
 good  anchorage  for  ships.     On  the  southwest  of  this 
 gulf  extends  a  chain  of  mountains,  which  terminates 
 in  the  promontory  of  Carmel,  a  name  famous  in  the 
 annals  of  our  religion.     There  Elijah  proved  by  mira- 
 cles the  divinity  of  his  mission  ;    and  there,    in  the 
 middle  ages  of  the  church,  resided  thousands  of  Chris- 
 tian devotees,  who  sought  a  refuge  for  their  piety  in 
 the   caves   of  the   rocks.      Then  the    mountain   was 
 wholly  covered  with  chapels  and  gardens,  whereas  at 
 the  present  day  nothing  is  to  be  seen  but  scattered 
 ruins  amid  forests  of  oak  and  olives,  the  bright  ver- 
 dure being  only  relieved  by  the  whiteness  of  the  cal- 
 careous cliffs  over  which  they  are  suspended.     The 
 heights  of  Carmel,  it  has  been  frequently  remarked, 
 enjoy   a    pure  and  enlivening  atmosphere,  while  the 
 lower  grounds  of  Samaria  and  Galilee  are  obscured 
 ^  697 
 
JUDJEA. 
 
 JUG 
 
 Dy  the  densest  fogs. — The  Shechem  of  the  Scriptures, 
 successively  known  by  the  names  of  Neapohs  and  Nab- 
 lovLs,  still  contains  a  considerable  population,  although 
 its  dwellings  are  mean  and  its  inhabitants  poor.     The 
 ruins  of  Samaria  itself  are  now  covered  with  orchards  ; 
 and  the  people  of  the  district,  who  have  forgotten  their 
 native  dialect,  as  well,  perhaps,  as  their  angry  disputes 
 with  the  Jews,  continue   to  worship  the  Deity  on  the 
 verdant  slopes  of  Gerizim. — Palestine,  agreeably  to 
 the    modern  acceptation  of  the   term,   embraces  the 
 country  of  the  ancient  Philistines,  the  most  formida- 
 ble enemies  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  prior  to  the  reign 
 of  David.     Besides  Gaza,  the  chief  town,  we  recog- 
 nise the  celebrated  port  of  Jaffa  or  Yatfa,  correspond- 
 ing to  the  Joppa  mentioned  in  the   sacred  writings. 
 Repeatedly  fortified  and  dismantled,  this  famous  har- 
 bour has  presented  such  a  variety  of  appearances,  that 
 the  description  given  of  it  in  one  age  has  hardly  ever 
 been  found  to  apply  to  its  condition  in  the  very  next. 
 Bethlehem,  where  the  divine  Messias  was  born,  is  a 
 large  village  inhabited  promiscuously  by  Christians  and 
 Mussulmans,  who  agree  in  nothing  but  their  detestation 
 of  the  tyranny  by  which  they  are  both  unmercifully 
 oppressed.     The  locality  of  the  sacred  manger  is  oc- 
 cupied by  an  elegant  church,  ornamented  by  the  pious 
 offerings  of  all  the  nations  of  Europe.     It  is  not  our 
 intention  to  enter  into  a  more  minute  discussion  of 
 those  old  traditions,  by   which  the  particular  places 
 rendered  sacred  by  the  Redeemer's  presence  are  still 
 marked  out  for  the  veneration  of  the  faithful.     They 
 present  much  vagueness,  mingled  with  no  small  por- 
 tion of  unquestionable  truth.     At  all  events,  we  must 
 not  regard  them  in   the  same  light  in  which  we  are 
 compelled  to  view  the  .«tory  that  claims  for  Hebron 
 the  possession  of  Abraham's  tomb,  and  attracts  on  this 
 account  the  veneration  both  of  Nazarenes  and  Mos- 
 lems.— To  the  northeast  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  large  and 
 fertile  valley  called  El-Gaur,  and  watered  by  the  Jor- 
 dan, we  find  the  village  of  Rieha,  near  the  ancient  Jeri- 
 cho, denominated  by  Moses  the  City  of  Palms.     This 
 is  a  name  to  which  it  is  still  entitled  ;  but  the  groves 
 of  opobalsamum,  or  balm  of  Mecca,  have  long  disap- 
 peared ;  nor  is  the  neighbourhood  any  longer  adorned 
 with  those  singular  flowers  known  among  the  Crusa- 
 ders by  the  familiar  appeilation  of  Jericho  roses.     A 
 little  farther  south  two  rough  and  barren   chains  of 
 hills   encompass  with   their  dark  steeps  a  long  basin 
 formed  in  a  clay  soil  mixed  with  bitumen  and  rock- 
 salt.     The  water  contained  in  this  hollow  is  impreg- 
 nated with  a  solution  of  different  saline  substances, 
 having  lime,  magnesia,  and  soda   for  their  base,  par- 
 tially neutralized  with  muriatic   and   sulphuric    acid. 
 The  salt  which  it  yields  by  evaporation  is  about  one 
 fourth  of  its  weight.     The  bituminous  matter  rises 
 from  time  to  time  from  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  floats 
 on  the  surface,  and  is  thrown  out  on  the  shores,  where 
 it  is  gathered    for    various    purposes.     {Vid.     Mare 
 Morluum.) — This  brief  outline   of  the  geographical 
 limits  and  physical  character  of  the  Holy  Land  must 
 suffice   here.     Details  much  more   ample  are  to  be 
 found  in  numerous  works,  whose  authors,  fascinated 
 by   the   interesting  recollections  which  almost  every 
 object  in  Palestine  is  fitted  to  suggest,  have  endeav- 
 oured to  transfer  to   the  minds  of  their  readers   the 
 profound  impressions  which  they  themselves  experi- 
 enced from  a  personal  review  of  ancient  scenes  and 
 monuments.     But  we  purposely  refrain  from  the  mi- 
 nute description  to  which  the  subject  so  naturally  in- 
 vites us,  because,  by  pursuing  such  a  course  as  this, 
 we  wou'd  be  unavoidably  led  into  a  train  of  local  par- 
 ticularities, while  setting  forth  the  actual  condition  of 
 the  country  and  of  its  venerable  remains.     However, 
 we  supply,  in  the  following  table,  the  means  of  com- 
 paring the  division  or  distribution  of  Canaan  among 
 the  twelve  tribes,  with  that  which  was  afterward  adopt- 
 ed by  the  Romans. 
 698 
 
 Uraflitish  Division.  Homm  DivUon. 
 
 Tribe  of  Asher     (in> 
 
 Libanus)  I 
 
 Naphtali     (northwest  >Upper  Galilee. 
 
 of  the  Lake  of  Ge-  I 
 
 nesareth)  ) 
 
 Zebulun  (west  of  that^ 
 
 lake) 
 Issachar     (Valley  of  >  Lower  Galilee. 
 
 Esdraelon,   Mount  j 
 
 Tabor)  } 
 
 Half  tribe  of  Manas- ^ 
 
 seh  (Dora  and  Ces- 
 
 area)  >  Samaria. 
 
 (  Ephraim    (Shechem, 
 \      Samaria)  ) 
 
 (  Benjamin      (Jericho,  ^ 
 (      Jerusalem)  | 
 
 {  Judah    (Hebron,   Ju-  j 
 
 dsea  proper)  )■  Judaea. 
 
 Simeon      (southwest 
 of    Judah)      Dan 
 (Joppa) 
 Reuben      (Heshbon,  "n 
 Peraea) 
 Ammonites,  (  Gad  (Decapolis,  Am- 
 Gilead,  \      monitis)  )•  Peraea. 
 
 Half  tribe  of  Manas- 
 seh  (Gaulonitis, 
 Batanea) 
 
 Sidonians,     I 
 Unknown, 
 Perizzites, 
 The  same, 
 
 Hivites, 
 
 The  same, 
 
 Jebusites, 
 
 Amorites, 
 Hittite 
 
 Philistines 
 Moabites, 
 
 •[ 
 
 Kingdom 
 Bashan 
 
 .1 
 
 In  a  pastoral  country,  such  as  that  beyond  the  river 
 Jordan  especially,  where  the  desert  in  most  parts  bor- 
 dered upon  the  cultivated  soil,  the  limits  of  the  sev- 
 eral possessions  could  not  at  all  times  be  distinctly 
 marked.  It  is  well  known,  besides,  that  the  native  in- 
 habitants were  never  entirely  expelled  by  the  victo- 
 rious Hebrews,  but  that  they  retained,  in  some  in- 
 stances by  force,  and  in  others  by  treaty,  a  considera- 
 ble portion  of  land  within  the  borders  of  all  the  tribes  : 
 a  fact  which  is  connected  with  many  of  the  defec- 
 tions and  troubles  into  which  the  Israelites  subsequent- 
 ly fell.     {RusseWs  Palestine,  p.  26,  seqq.) 
 
 JuGURTHA,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Manastabal,  by 
 a  concubine,  and  grandson  of  Masinissa.  He  was 
 brought  up  under  the  care  of  his  uncle  Micipsa,  king 
 of  Numidia,  who  educated  him  along  with  his  two  sons. 
 .\s,  however,  Jugurtha  was  of  an  ambitious  and  aspi- 
 ring disposition,  Micipsa  sent  him,  when  grown  up, 
 with  a  body  of  troops,  to  join  Scipio  .^milianus  in  his 
 war  against  Numantia  in  Spain,  hoping  to  lose,  by  the 
 chances  of  war,  a  youth  who  might  otherwise,  at  some 
 subsequent  period,  threaten  the  tranquillity  of  his  chil- 
 dren. His  hopes,  however,  were  frustrated.  Jugurtha 
 so  distinguished  himself  as  to  become  a  great  favour- 
 ite with  Scipio,  who,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  sent 
 him  back  to  Africa  with  strong  recommendations  to 
 Micipsa.  Micipsa  then  adopted  him,  and  declared  him 
 joint  heir  with  his  own  two  sons  Adherbal  and  Hiemp- 
 sal.  After  Micipsa's  death  (B.C.  118),  Jugurtha,  as- 
 piring to  the  undivided  possession  of  the  kingdom, 
 effected  the  murder  of  Hiempsal,  and  obliged  Adher- 
 bal to  escape  to  Rome,  where  he  appealed  to  the  sen- 
 ate. Jugurtha,  however,  found  means  to  bribe  many 
 of  the  senators,  and  a  commission  was  sent  to  Af- 
 rica, in  order  to  divide  Numidia  between  the  two 
 princes.  The  commission  gave  the  best  portion  to 
 Jugurtha,  who,  not  long  after  their  departure,  invaded 
 the  territory  of  his  cousin,  defeated  him,  besieged  him 
 in  Cirta,  and,  having  obliged  him  to  surrender,  put 
 him  to  a  cruel  death  ;  and  this  almost  under  the  eyes 
 of  Scaurus  and  others,  whom  the  Roman  senate  had 
 sent  as  umpires  between  the  two  rivals  (B.C.  112). 
 .  This  news  caused  great  irritation  at  Rome,  and  war 
 I  was  declared  against  Jugurtha,     After  some  fightmg, 
 
JUL 
 
 JUL 
 
 however,  he  obtained  from  the  consul  Calpurnius, 
 under  the  most  favourable  conditions,  the  quiet  pos- 
 session of  the  usurped  kingdom.  But  this  treaty  was 
 not  ratified  at  Rome ;  Calpurnius  was  recalled,  and 
 the  new  consul  Posthumius  Albinus  was  appointed  to 
 the  command  in  Africa.  Meanwhile  Jugurtha,  being 
 summoned,  appeared  at  Rome  ;  but  as  he  then  suc- 
 ceeded in  bribing  several  of  the  senators,  and  also 
 Baebius,  a  tribune  of  the  people,  no  judgment  was  giv- 
 en. Imboldened  by  this  success,  he  thereupon  caus- 
 ed Massiva,  son  of  his  uncle  Gulussa,  whom  he  sus- 
 pected of  aiming  at  the  kingdom,  to  be  assassinated 
 in  the  Roman  capital.  The  crime  was  fixed  upon 
 him  ;  but  as  he  was  under  the  public  guarantee,  the 
 senate,  instead  of  bringing  him  to  trial,  ordered  him 
 to  leave  Rom.e  immediately.  It  was  while  departing 
 from  the  city  on  this  occasion  that  he  is  said  to  have 
 uttered  those  memorable  words  against  the  corrup- 
 tion of  the  Roman  capital  which  are  recorded  in  the 
 pages  of  Sallust:  ^^  Ah,  venal  city,  and  destined  quick- 
 ly to  perish,  if  it  could  but  find  a  purchaser  .'"  Pos- 
 thumius was  now  sent  to  his  province  in  Africa,  to 
 prosecute  the  war  ;  but  he  soon  returned  to  Rome 
 without  having  effected  anything,  leaving  the  army 
 under  the  command  of  his  brother  Aulus  Posthumius, 
 who  allowed  himself  to  be  surprised  in  his  camp  by 
 Jugurtha,  to  whom  he  surrendered  ;  and  his  troops, 
 having  passed  under  the  yoke,  evacuated  Numidia. 
 The  new  consul  Metellus,  arriving  soon  after  with 
 fresh  troops,  carried  on  the  war  with  great  vigour, 
 and,  being  himself  above  temptation,  reduced  Jugur- 
 tha to  the  last  e.xtremity.  Caius  Marius  was  serving 
 as  lieutenant  to  Metellus,  and  in  the  year  B.C.  107, 
 supplanted  him  in  the  command.  Jugurtha,  mean- 
 time, having  allied  himself  with  Bocchus,  king  of 
 Mauritania,  gave  full  employment  to  the  Romans. 
 Marius  took  the  townofCapsa,  and  in  a  hard-contest- 
 ed battle  defeated  the  two  kings.  Bocchus  now  made 
 offers  of  peace,  and  Marius  sent  to  him  his  quaestor 
 Sylla,  who,  after  much  negotiation,  induced  the  Mau- 
 ritanian  king  to  give  up  Jugurtha  into  the  hands  of 
 the  Romans,  as  the  price  of  his  own  peace  and  secu- 
 rity. Jugurtha  followed  in  chains  vyith  his  two  sons, 
 the  triumph  of  Marius,  after  which  he  was  thrown  into 
 a  subterraneous  dungeon,  where  he  was  starved  to 
 death,  or,  according  to  others,  was  strangled.  His 
 sons  were  sent  to  Venusia,  where  they  lived  in  ob- 
 scurity. The  war  against  Jugurtha  lasted  five  years  ; 
 it  ended  B.C.  106,  and  has  been  immortalized  by  the 
 pen  of  Sallust.  {Sail,  Bell.  Jug.—Plut.,  Vit.  Mar.) 
 "It  is  said,"  observes  Plutarch,  "  that  when  Jugurtha 
 was  led  before  the  car  of  the  conqueror,  he  lost  his 
 senses.  After  the  triumph  he  was  thrown  into  prison, 
 where,  in  their  haste  to  strip  him,  some  tore  his  robe 
 off  his  back,  and  others,  catching  eagerly  at  his  pen- 
 dants, pulled  off  the  tips  of  his  ears  along  with  them. 
 When  he  was  thrust  down  naked  into  the  dungeon,  all 
 confused,  he  said,  with  a  frantic  smile,  'Heavens!  how 
 cold  is  this  bath  of  yours  !'  There,  having  struggled 
 for  six  days  with  extreme  hunger,  and  to  the  last  hour 
 labouring  for  the  preservation  of  life,  he  came  to  such 
 an  end  as  his  crimes  deserved."     (Pint.,  Vit.  Mar.) 
 
 Julia  Lex,  I.  Agraria,  proposed  by  Julius  Caesar 
 in  his  first  consulship,  A.TJ.C.  694.  Its  object  was  to 
 distribute  the  lands  of  Campania  and  Stella  to  20,000 
 poor  citizens,  who  had  three  children  or  more.  (Cic., 
 Ep.  ad  Alt.,  2,  IG.—VclL  Palerc,  2,  44.)— II.  An- 
 other by  the  same,  entitled  de  Puhliranis,  about  re- 
 mitting to  the  farmers-general  a  third  part  of  what 
 they  had  stipulated  to  pay.  (Cic,  pro  Plane,  16. — 
 Stiel.,  Vit.  Jul,  20  ) — III.  Another  by  the  same,  for 
 the  ratification  of  all  Pompey's  acts  in  Asia.  (Suet., 
 I.  c.) — IV.  Another  by  the  same,  de  Provinciis  ordi- 
 nandis.  This  was  an  improvement  on  the  Cornelian 
 law  about  the  provinces,  and  ordained  that  those  who 
 had  been  praetors  should  not  command  a  province 
 
 above  one  year,  and  those  who  had  been  consuls  not 
 above  two  years.  It  also  ordained  that  Achaia,  Thes- 
 saly,  Athens,  and,  in  fact,  all  Greece,  should  be  free, 
 and  should  use  their  own  laws.  {Cic,  Phil,  1,  8. — 
 Id.  in  Pis.,  \G.—Dio  Cass.,  43,  25.)— V.  Another 
 by  the  same,  de  Judicibus,  ordering  the  Judices  to  be 
 chosen  from  the  senators  and  equites,  and  not  from 
 the  tribuni  ararii.  {Suelon.,  Vit.  Jul,  41. — Cic, 
 Phil,  1,  9.)  —  VI.  Another  by  the  same,  de  Rep- 
 elundis,  very  severe  against  extortion.  It  is  said 
 to  have  contained  above  100  heads.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad 
 Earn.,  8,  l.—Suet.,  Vit.  Jul.,^^.)~Wl\.  Another  by 
 the  same,  de  liheris  proscriptorum,  that  the  children 
 of  those  proscribed  by  Sylla  should  be  admitted  to 
 enjoy  preferments.  {Sueton.,  Vit.  Jul,  M.) — VIII. 
 Another  by  the  same.  This  was  a  sumptuary  law. 
 It  allowed  an  expenditure  of  200  sesterces  on  the  dies 
 profesti,  300  on  the  Calends,  nones,  ides,  and  some 
 other  festivals;  1000  at  marriage  feasts,  and  similar 
 extraordinary  entertainments.  Gellius  ascribes  this 
 law  to  Augustus,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  enacted  in 
 succession  by  both  Caesar  and  him.  By  an  edict  of 
 Augustus  or  Tiberius,  the  allowance  for  an  entertain- 
 ment was  raised,  in  proportion  to  its  solemnity,  from 
 300  to  2000  sesterces.  {Aulus  Gellius,  2,  24:.—Dio 
 Cass.,  54,  2.) — IX.  Another  by  Augustus,  concerning 
 marriage,  entitled  de  Maritandis  Ordinibus.  { Vid. 
 Papia-Poppaea  Lex.) — X.  Another  by  the  same,  de 
 adulteriis,  punishing  adultery. — XI.  Another,  de  tu- 
 toribus,  by  the  same.  It  enacted  that  guardians 
 should  be  appointed  for  orphans  in  the  provinces,  as  at 
 Rome,  by  the  Atilian  Law.  {Just.,  Inst.  Atil  Tut.) 
 Julia,  I.  a  daughter  of  Julius  Csesar  by  Cornelia, 
 celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  the  virtues  of  her  char- 
 acter. She  had  been  affianced  to  Serviiius  Caepio, 
 and  was  on  the  point  of  being  given  to  him  in  mar- 
 riage, when  her  father  bestowed  her  upon  Pompey. 
 {Pint  ,  Vtt.  Pomp.,  ir.—Appian,  Bel.  Civ.,  1,  14.) 
 Julia  possessed  great  influence  both  over  her  father  and 
 husband,  and,  as  long  as  she  lived,  prevented  any  out- 
 break between  them.  Her  sudden  death,  however,  in 
 childbed,  severed  the  tie  that  had  in  some  degree 
 bound  Pompey  to  his  father-in-law,  and  no  private 
 considerations  any  longer  existed  to  allay  the  jealousies 
 and  animosities  which  political  disputes  might  enkin- 
 ble  between  them.  The  amiable  character  of  Julia, 
 and  her  constant  afTection  for  her  husband,  gained  for 
 her  the  general  regard  of  the  people  ;  and  this  they 
 testified  by  insisting  on  celebrating  her  funeral  in  the 
 Campus  Martius,  a  compliment  scarcely  ever  paid  to 
 any  woman  before.  It  is  said  that  Pompey  had  al- 
 ways loved  her  tenderly,  and  the  purity  and  happiness 
 of  his  domestic  life  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  points 
 in  his  character.  {Sueton.,  Vit.  Jul,  21. — Id.  ib., 
 26. — Id.  ib.,  84.) — II.  The  sister  of  Julius  Cajsar. 
 She  married  M.  Attius  Balbus,  and  became  by  him 
 the  mother  of  Octavia  Minor  and  Augustus.  {Sue- 
 ton., Vit.  Jul,  74.— M,  Vit.  Aug.,  4.— Id.  ib.,  8.) 
 — III.  The  aunt  of  Julius  Caesar.  At  her  decease, 
 her  nephew  pronounced  an  eulogy  over  her  remains 
 from  the  rostra.  (Sueton.,  Vit.  Jul,  6.) — IV.  The 
 daughter  of  Augustus  by  his  first  wife  Scribonia.  As 
 he  had  no  children  by  Livia,  whom  he  had  subsequent- 
 ly espoused,  Julia  remained  sole  heiress  of  the  emper- 
 or, and  the  choice  of  her  husband  became  a  matter  of 
 great  importance.  She  was  first  married  to  hercousm 
 Claudius  Marcellus,  the  nephew  of  Augustus  by  his 
 sister  Octavia  (Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  3.— Sueton.,  Vit.  Aug., 
 63),  and  the  individual  celebrated  by  Virgil  in  those 
 famous  lines  of  the  sixth  ^Eneid,  for  which  Octavia  so 
 largely  rewarded  him.  But  Marcellus  dying  young 
 and  without  children,  Augustus  selected  for  the  second 
 husband  of  his  daughter  his  oldest  friend  and  most 
 useful  adherent,  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa.  This  mar- 
 riage seemed  to  answer  all  the  wishes  of  Augustus,  for 
 Julia  became  the  mother  of  five  children,  Caius,  Lu- 
 
 699 
 
JULIA. 
 
 JUL 
 
 cius,  Julia,  Agrippina,  and  Agrippa  Postumus.  Agrip- 
 padied  A.U  C.  741,  and  Julia  was  married,  for  the  third 
 time,  to  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero,  the  son  of  Livia,  and 
 afterward  emperor.  Tiberius  subsequently,  for  whatev- 
 er reasons,  thought  proper  to  withdraw  from  Rome  to 
 the  island  of  Rhodes,  where  he  lived  in  the  greatest 
 retirement. ,  During  his  absence,  his  wife  Julia  was 
 guilty  of  such  gross  infidelities  towards  him,  that  Au- 
 gustus himself  divorced  her  in'the  name  of  his  son-in- 
 )aw,  and  banished  her  to  the  island  of  Pandataria,  off 
 the  Campanian  coast,  where  she  was  closely  confined 
 for  some  time,  and  treated  with  the  greatest  rigour; 
 nor  would  Augustus  ever  forgive  her,  or  receive  her 
 again  into  his  presence,  although  he  afterward  removed 
 her  from  Pandataria  to  Rhegium,  and  somewhat  soft- 
 ened the  severity  of  her  treatment.  When  her  hus- 
 band Tiberius  ascended  the  throne,  she  was  again  se- 
 verely dealt  with,  and  finally  died  of  ill-treatment  and 
 starvation  {vTro  naKOvxiac  Kui  ?jfiov. — Zonaras,  p. 
 5iS.Sueton..,  Vit.  Aus-,  63.— i(i.,  Vil.  Aug.,  65.— 
 /(/.,  Vit.  Tib.,  7.— Id.  lb.,  50.— Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  53.) 
 — V.  The  grand-daughter  of  Augustus,  and  daughter 
 of  Agrippa  and  Julia  (IV).  She  was  married  to  L. 
 Paulus,  but,  imitating  the  licentious  conduct  of  her 
 mother,  she  was  banished  by  Augustus  for  her  adul- 
 terous practices  to  the  island  of  Tremitus,  off  the 
 coast  of  Apulia,  where  she  continued  to  live  for  the 
 space  of  20  years,  and  where  at  last  she  terminated 
 her  existence.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  4,  71.) — VL  A  daugh- 
 ter of  Drusus  Cassar,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  by  Livia  or 
 Livilla,  the  daughter  of  Nero  Claudius  Drusus.  She 
 was  married  first  to  Nero  Csesar,  son  of  Gerinanicus 
 and  Agrinpina,  and  afterward  to  Rubellius  Blandus 
 She  was  cut  off  by  the  intrigues  of  Messalina,  A.U.C. 
 796.  {Ta.nl.,  Ann.,  3,  29.— W.  ih.,  6,  21.— Id.  ih., 
 13^  19.) — VII.  Daughter  of  Caligula  and  Milonia  Ca;- 
 sonia.  Her  frantic  father  carried  her  to  the  temples 
 of  all  the  goddesses,  and  dedicated  her  to  Minerva, 
 as  to  the  patroness  of  her  education.  She  discovered  I 
 in  her  infancy  strong  indications  of  the  cruelty  that 
 branded  both  her  parents.  She  suffered  death  with 
 her  mother  after  the  assassination  of  Caligula.  {Sue- 
 ton.,  Vit.  Calig.,  25.— Id.  lb.,  59.)— VIII.  A  Syrian 
 female,  daughter  of  Bassianus,  priest  of  the  Sun. 
 She  became  the  wife  of  Severus  before  his  advance- 
 ment to  the  throne,  and  after  the  death  of  his  first 
 consort.  The  superstitious  Roman  was  determined, 
 it  seems,  in  his  choice,  by  hearing  that  Julia  had  been 
 born  with  a  royal  nativity  ;  in  other  words,  that  she 
 was  destined  to  be  the  wife  of  a  sovereign  prince. 
 {Spartian.,  Vit.  Sev.,  3,  segq.)  Ker  full  name  was 
 Julia  Dornna  {Salmas.,  ad  Sparl.,  Vit.  Sev.,  20),  the 
 latter  part  of  it  not  being  contracted,  as  some  sup- 
 pose, from  Domina,  but  being  the  actual  surname  of 
 a  family.  {Tristan,  Comment.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  119, 
 sc/jq  — Mcnasr.,  Amcsn.  Jur.,  c.  25.)  Julia  is  said 
 to  have  been  a  female  of  cultivated  mind  and  con- 
 siderable literary  attainments.  She  applied  herself 
 also  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  and  employed  a  large 
 portion  of  her  time  in  listening  to,  and  taking  part  in, 
 the  disputations  of  philosophers  and  sophists.  Hence 
 Philostratus  calls  her  ^iXocroi/iof  'lovlia.  {Vit.  Soph- 
 ist.—Philisc.— Op.,  ed.  Morell,  p.  617.)  She  dis- 
 graced herself,  however,  by  her  adulterous  practices, 
 and  is  even  said  to  have  conspired  on  one  occasion 
 against  the  life  of  her  own  husband.  {Spart.,  Vil. 
 Sev.,  18  )  Julia  became  by  Severus  the  mother 
 of  Caracalla  and  Geta,  the  latter  of  whom  was  slain 
 in  her  arms  by  the  orders  of  his  brother,  in  which 
 struggle  she  herself  was  wounded.  To  increase,  if 
 possible,  the  anguish  she  must  naturally  have  felt  on 
 this  occasion,  the  brutal  Caracalla  ordered  her  to  sup- 
 press every  token  of  grief.  {Spart.,  Vit.  Get.,  5.) 
 After  the  death  of  Caracalla  and  the  accession  of 
 Macrinus,  she  put  an  end  to  her  existence  by  starva- 
 tion, her  death  being  hastened  by  a  cancer  on  the 
 700 
 
 bosom,  which  she  had  purposely  irritated  by  a  blow. 
 {Dio  Cass.,  78,  23.)  On  the  nature  of  her  deaih,  as 
 well  as  on  the  question  of  her  incestuous  union  with 
 Caracalla,  consult  the  remarks  of  Bayle,  Hist.  Diet., 
 vol.  6,  p.  448,  seqq.,  in  notis. 
 
 JuLiANUs,  Flavius  Claudius,  son  of  Julius  Con- 
 stantius,  brother  of  Constantine  the  Great,  was  born 
 A.D.  331.  After  Constantine's  death,  the  soldiers 
 massacred  the  brothers,  nephews,  and  other  relatives 
 of  that  prince,  in  order  that  the  empire  should  pass 
 undisputed  to  his  sons.  {Vid.  Constantius.)  Two 
 only  escaped  from  this  butchery,  Julian,  then  six  years 
 old,  and  his  half-brother  Gallus,  then  thirteen  years  of 
 age.  Marcus,  bishop  of  Arethusa,  is  said  to  have 
 concealed  them  in  a  church.  After  a  time,  Constan- 
 tius exiled  Gallus  into  Ionia,  and  intrusted  Julian  to 
 the  care  of  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Nicomedia.  Julian 
 was  instructed  in  Greek  literature  by  Mardonius,  a 
 learned  eunuch,  who  had  been  teacher  to  his  mother 
 Basilina.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  he  was 
 sent  to  join  his  brother  Gallus  at  Macellum,  a  castle 
 in  Cappadocia,  where  they  were  treated  as  princes, 
 but  closely  watched.  The  youths  were  taught  the 
 Scriptures,  and  were  even  ordained  lecturers,  and  in 
 that  capacity  publicly  read  the  Bible  in  the  church  of 
 Nicomedia.  It  appears  that  Constantius  had  the  in- 
 tention of  making  a  priest  of  Julian,  who  had  no  in- 
 clination for  that  profession,  and  who  is  supposed  to 
 have  already  secretly  abandoned  the  belief  in  the 
 Christian  doctrines.  The  death  of  Constans  and  Con- 
 stantine having  left  Constantius  the  sole  master  of  the 
 Roman  world,  that  emperor,  who  was  childless,  sent 
 for  Gallus  in  March,  A.D.  351,  and  created  him  Ca;sar, 
 and  be  allowed  Julian  to  return  to  Constantinople  to 
 finish  his  studies.  There  Julian  met  with  the  sophist 
 Jjibanins,  who  afterward  became  his  friend  and  favour- 
 ite. Constantius  soon  after  again  banished  Julian  to 
 Nicomedia,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  some 
 Platonic  philosophers,  who  initiated  him  into  their 
 doctrines.  He  afterward  obtained  leave  to  proceed 
 to  Athens,  where  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  study. 
 .\fter  the  tragical  death  of  Gallus  in  355,  Julian,  who 
 had  again,  for  a  time,  awakened  the  jealous  suspicions 
 of  his  cousin,  was  recalled  to  court  by  the  influence 
 of  the  Empress  Eusebia,  his  constant  patroness,  when 
 Constantius  named  him  Csesar,  and  gave  him  the  gov- 
 ernment of  Gaul  (which  was  then  devastated  by  the 
 German  tribes),  together  with  his  sister  Helena  to  wife. 
 Julian  made  four  campaigns  against  the  Germans,  in 
 which  he  displayed  great  skill  and  valour,  and  freed 
 Gaul  from  the  barbarians,  whom  he  pursued  across  the 
 Rhine.  He  spent  the  winters  at  Lutetia  {Pans},  and 
 became  as  much  esteemed  for  his  equitable  and  wise 
 administration  as  for  his  military  success.  Constan- 
 tius, always  suspicious,  ordered  Julian  to  send  him 
 back  some  of  the  best  legions  in  Gaul,  to  be  employed 
 against  the  Persians.  When  the  time  for  marching 
 came  (A.D.  360),  Julian  assembled  the  legions  at  Lu- 
 tetia, and  there  bade  them  an  affectionate  farewell, 
 when  an  insurrection  broke  out  among  the  soldiers, 
 who  saluted  him  as  Augustus.  Julian  immediately 
 sent  messengers  to  Constantius  to  deprecate  his  wrath, 
 but  the  death  of  the  emperor  happening  at  the  time, 
 left  the  throne  open  for  him,  A.D.  361.  He  proceed- 
 ed to  Constantinople,  where,  being  proclaimed  emper- 
 or in  December  of  the  same  year,  he  reformed  the 
 pomp  and  prodigality  of  the  household,  issued  several 
 wise  edicts,  corrected  many  abuses,  and  established  a 
 court  at  Chalcedon,  to  investigate  the  conduct  of  those 
 who  had  abused  their  influence  under  the  preceding 
 reign.  Unfortunately,  some  innocent  men  were  con- 
 founded with  the  guilty,  among  others  Ursulus,  whose 
 condemnation  Ammianus  deplores  (22,  3).  On  assu- 
 ming the  purple,  Julian  had  openly  professed  the  old 
 religion  of  Rome,  and  had  sacrificed  as  high-priest  to 
 the  gods ;  and  though,  at  the  same  time,  he  had  issued 
 
JULIANUS. 
 
 JULIANUS. 
 
 Rn  edict  of  universal  toleration,  he  soon  showed  a 
 marked  hostility  to  tlic  Christians  :  lie  tooii  the  reve- 
 nues from  the  churches,  and  ordered  that  those  who 
 had  assisted  in  pulling  down  the  heathen  temples 
 should  rebuild  them.  This  was  the  signal  for  a  fearful 
 reaction  and  persecution  against  the  Christians  in  the 
 provinces,  where  many  were  imprisoned,  tormented, 
 and  even  put  to  death.  Julian  restrained  or  punished 
 some  o(  these  disorders,  but  with  no  very  zealous  hand. 
 There  was  evidently  a  determined  struggle  throughout 
 the  empire  between  the  old  and  the  new  religion,  and 
 Julian  wished  for  the  triumph  of  the  former.  He  for- 
 bade the  Christians  to  read,  or  teach  others,  the  works 
 of  the  ancient  classic  writers,  saying  that,  as  they  re- 
 jected the  gods,  thev  ought  not  to  avail  themselves 
 of  the  learning  and  genius  of  those  who  believed  in 
 them.  {Jidiam  Op.,  Epist.,  42,  al.  Spanh.)  He  also 
 forbade  their  filling  any  office,  civil  or  military,  and 
 subjected  them  to  other  disabilities  and  humiliations. 
 Julian  has  been  called  "  the  Apostate ;"  but  it  seems 
 very  doubtful  vi'hether,  at  any  period  of  his  life  after 
 his  bovhood,  he  had  been  a  Christian  in  heart.  The 
 bad  e.xample  of  the  court  of  Constantius,  and  the 
 schisms  and  persecutions  that  broke  out  in  the  bosom 
 of  the  church,  may  have  turned  him  against  religion 
 itself,  vifhile  his  vanity,  of  which  he  had  a  considerable 
 share,  and  which  was  stimulated  by  the  praises  of  the 
 sophists,  made  him  probably  consider  himself  as  des- 
 tined to  revive  both  the  old  religion  and  the  glories  of 
 the  empire.  That  he  was  no  believer  in  the  vulgar 
 mythological  fables  is  evident  from  his  writings,  es- 
 pecially the  piece  called  "the  Caesars;"  and  yet  he 
 possessed  great  zeal  for  the  heathen  divinities,  and  he 
 wrote  orations  in  praise  of  the  mother  of  the  gods  and 
 the  sun.  Making  every  allowance  for  the  difficulties 
 of  his  position  and  the  effect  of  early  impressions,  he 
 may  be  fairly  charged  with  a  want  of  candour  and  of 
 justice,  and  with  much  affectation  bordering  upon 
 hypocrisy.  If  we  choos-e  to  discard  the  invectives 
 of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  of  Cyril,  and  of  Jerome, 
 we  may  be  allowed,  at  least,  to  judge  him  by  the 
 narrative  of  Ammianus,  and  by  his  own  works,  and  the 
 result  IS  not  favourable  to  his  moral  rectitude  or  his 
 sobriety  of  judgment.  A  very  learned  and  very  tem- 
 perate modern  writer,  Cardinal  Gerdil,  in  his  "  Con- 
 siderations sur  Julicn"  in  the  lOlh  volume  of  his 
 works,  has  so  judged  him;  he  has  founded  his  opin- 
 ion, not  on  the  fathers,  but  on  the  accounts  of  Julian's 
 panegyrists,  Libanius  and  other  heathen  writers. — Ju- 
 lian, having  resolved  on  carrying  on  the  war  against 
 the  Persians,  repaired  to  Antioch,  where  he  resided 
 for  several  months.  His  neglected  attire,  his  un- 
 combed beard,  and  the  philosophical  austerity  of  his 
 habits,  drew  upon  him  the  sarcasms  of  the  corrupt  pop- 
 ulation of  that  city.  ']'he  emperor  revenged  himself 
 by  writing  a  satire  against  them,  called  M^croirwyuv 
 {Misopbgon),  and,  what  was  worse,  by  giving  them  a 
 rapacious  governor. — It  was  during  his  residence  at 
 Antioch  that  Julian  undertook  to  aim  what  he  thought 
 would  prove  a  deadly  blow  to  Christianity.  An  order 
 was  issued  for  rebuilding  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  ; 
 the  Jews  were  invited  from  all  the  provinces  of  the 
 empire,  to  assemble  on  the  holy  mountain  of  their  fa- 
 thers, and  a  bold  attempt  was  thus  made  to  falsify  the 
 language  of  ancient  prophecy,  and  annul,  if  we  may 
 venture  so  to  speak,  the  decree  which  had  been  pro- 
 nounced by  the  Almighty  against  his  once  chosen,  but 
 now  rejected,  people.  The  accomplishment  of  this  da- 
 ring and  impious  scheme  was  intrusted  to  Alypius, 
 who  had  been  governor  of  Britain,  and  every  effort  was 
 made  to  ensure  its  success,  as  well  on  the  part  of  the 
 "  imperial  sophist"  as  on  that  of  the  Jews  themselves. 
 But  the  attempt  was  an  unavailing  one,  and  was  sig- 
 rially  and  miraculously  interrupted.  Few  historical 
 facts,  indeed,  rest  on  graver  and  more  abundant  testi- 
 mony.    The  narratives  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and 
 
 of  Rufinus  are  confirmed  in  the  fullest  manner  by  Am- 
 mianus Marcellmus,  himself  a  heathen  writer:  "  When 
 Alypius,"  observes  Ammianus,  "  was  plying  the  work 
 vigorously,  and  the  governor  of  the  province  was  lend- 
 ing his  aid,  fearful  globes  of  fire,  bursting  forth  repeat- 
 edly from  the  earth  close  to  the  foundations,  scorched 
 the  workmen,  and  rendered  the  place,  after  frequent 
 trials  on  their  part,  quite  inaccessible."  {Amm.  Mar- 
 cellinus,  23,  1. — Compare  Rtifin.,  10,  37. — Cn.ssiod.,  6, 
 43. — Greg.  Nazimiz.,  Orat.,  4. — Chrysostom,  Homil.,  3, 
 adv.  Jud. — Socrates,  3,  20. — Sozomen,  5,  22. —  'J'heodo- 
 retus,  3,  15.)  The  Jewish  rabbis,  in  their  annals,  attest 
 the  same  fact ;  and  even  Basnage,  though  a  determined 
 enemy  to  such  miracles,  is  nevertheless  compelled, 
 when  speaking  of  this  Jewish  testimony,  to  remark, 
 "  Cet  aveu  des  Rabins  est  d'mttant  plus  considerable 
 qu'il  est  injurieux  a  la  nation,  et  que  ces  mfs.'iieurs  ne 
 so7i.t  pas  accoutumes  a  copier  hs  ouvrnges  des  Chretiens." 
 {Hist,  des  Juifs,  liv.  6.)  "This  specious  and  splendid 
 miracle,"  as  Gibbon  sneeringly  terms  it,  has  given 
 rise  to  much  diversity  of  opinion  m  modern  times. 
 Warburton  strenuously  advocates  its  authenticity,  and 
 most  of  the  sounder  theologians  agree  with  him  in 
 this  opinion.  Lardner,  however,  doubts  its  truth. 
 {Jewish  and  Heathen  Testimonies,  vol.  4,  p.  47,  seqq.) 
 More  sceptical  writers  speak  of  inflammable  air,  which 
 had  long  been  pent  up  in  the  vault  under  the  temple- 
 mountam,  igniting  and  bursting  forth  on  a  sudden. 
 (Consult  Michaelis,  GiJtting.  Mag.,  1783,  page  772.) 
 Salverte  promptly  settles  the  whole  affair  by  suppo 
 sing  that  it  was  merely  the  explosion  of  a  mine,  which 
 had  been  prepared  by  the  Christians  !  {Des  Sciences 
 Occidtes,  vol.  2,  p.  224.) — Let  us  now  return  to  Julian- 
 Having  set  off  at  length  from  Antioch  on  his  Persian 
 expedition,  with  a  brilliant  army  reckoned  at  sixty- 
 five  thousand  men,  he  crossed  the  Euphrates,  took 
 several  fortified  towns  of  Mesopotamia,  then  crossed 
 the  Tigris,  and  made  himself  master  of  Ctesphon. 
 Here  his  progress  ended.  The  close  Roman  legions 
 were  harassed  on  all  sides  by  the  light  cavalry  of 
 the  Persians,  and  reduced  to  great  distress  for  want , 
 of  provisions.  Still  they  presented  a  formidable  front 
 to  the  enemy,  and  Sapor,  the  Persian  king,  was  in- 
 clined to  come  to  terms,  when,  in  the  course  of  an 
 attack  made  upon  the  Roman  army  while  on  its  march 
 Julian,  whom  the  heat  of  the  weather  had  induced 
 to  lay  aside  his  cuirass,  received  a  mortal  wound  in 
 his  side  from  a  javelin.  Beintc  carried  to  his  tent, 
 he  expired  the  following  night  (June  26lh,  A.D.  .363). 
 He  died  with  perfect  calmness  and  composure,  sur- 
 rounded by  his  friends,  conversing  on  philosophical 
 subjects,  and  e.xpressing  his  satisfaction  at  his  own 
 past  conduct  since  he  had  been  at  the  head  of  the  em- 
 pire. His  remains  were  carried  to  Tarsus  in  Cilicia, 
 according  to  his  directions,  and  his  successor  Jovian 
 erected  a  monument  to  his  memory.  Such  was  the 
 end  of  Julian,  in  the  32d  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign 
 of  one  year  and  about  eight  months  from  the  death  of 
 Constantius.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  13,  p.  144, 
 seq. — Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  c.  21,  seqq.) — It  is 
 still  a  very  common  tradition,  that  when  Julian  felt 
 himself  wounded,  he  caught  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand 
 some  of  the  blood  that  issued  from  his  side,  and,  fling- 
 ing it  in  the  air,  exclaimed,  "  Take  thy  Jill,  Galilean  ,■ 
 thoit  ha,st  conquered  me,  but  still  do  I  renoimce  thecV' 
 and  that,  after  having  thus  blasphemed  against  our  Sa- 
 viour, he  indulged  m  a  thousand  imprecations  against 
 his  own  gods,  by  whom  he  saw  himself  abandoned, 
 (Compare  Sozom.,  6,  2.)  The  whole  is  a  mere  fable. 
 Equally  undeserving  of  credit  is  another  account,  that 
 Julian,' having  been  placed,  after  receiving  his  wound, 
 on  the  banks  of  a  river,  wished  to  precipitate  umscif 
 into  Us  waters,  that  he  might  pass  away  from  the  eyes 
 of  men,  and  be  regarded  as  an  immortal.— Julian  had 
 many  brilliant,  and  some  amiable  qualities ;  his  mor- 
 als were  pure,  and  even  austere ;  his  faults  were  chiefly 
 '  701 
 
JULIANUS. 
 
 JULIANUS. 
 
 those  of  judgment,  probably  influenced  by  the  impres- 
 sions of  early  yonth,  an  ardent  and  somewhat  mystic 
 imagination,  and  the  flattery  of  those  around  him.  Of 
 all  tlie  writers  of  antiquity  who  have  depicted  the 
 character  of  Julian,  Ainniianus  Marcellinus  appears  to 
 be  the  one  who  has  done  it  with  the  most  truth.  This 
 historian  renders  justice  to  the  eminent  qualities  of  Ju- 
 lian, without,  at  the  same  time,  concealing  his  defects. 
 The  perfect  impartiality,  the  candour  and  frankness  of 
 this  soldier,  merit  equal  confidence  both  when  he 
 praises  and  condemns.  As  a  writer,  Julian  deserves 
 praise  for  the  purity  and  eloquence  of  his  style.  It  is 
 apparent  from  his  works  that  he  had  read  all  the  clas- 
 sical authors,  for  thev  are  filled  with  allusions  to  pas- 
 sages of  these  authors,  to  their  opinions,  and  to  images 
 and  expressions  employed  by  them.  These  allusions 
 give  sometimes  to  the  writings  of  Julian  a  certain  ob- 
 scurity, because  many  of  the  productions  to  which  he 
 refers  no  longer  exist.  To  most  extensive  reading  he 
 united  much  talent  and  much  vigour  of  imagination. 
 Morals,  metaphysics,  and  theology,  the  last  of  which 
 is  with  him  nothing  more  than  a  species  of  allegorical 
 metaphysics,  were  the  subjects  of  which  he  treated  in 
 preference. — The  works  left  by  Julian  are  of  three 
 classes.  1.  Harangues.  2.  Satires.  3.  Letters. — 
 With  the  exception  merely  of  the  fragments  preserv- 
 ed by  St.  Cyrill  and  Socrates,  we  have  lost  the  work 
 Against  the  Christians  and  against  their  creed.  The 
 Emperor  Julian  adopted  every  means  by  which,  with- 
 out openly  persecuting  Christianity,  he  might  degrade 
 it.  and  cause  its  followers  to  fall  into  contempt.  A 
 philosopher  himself,  he  believed  that  there  existed  no 
 surer  mode  of  restoring  paganism,  at  the  expense  of 
 the  new  religion,  than  by  attacking  the  latter  through 
 the  means  of  a  work  full  of  strong  arguments,  and  in 
 which  satire  also  should  not  be  spared.  A  man  of  let- 
 ters, he  wanted  not  a  large  portion  of  self-complacency 
 and  conceit  ;  and  it  appeared  to  him,  that  no  one  was 
 more  proper  to  be  the  author  of  such  a  work,  than  he 
 who  had  studied  the  spirit  of  the  two  contending  sys- 
 tems of  religion,  and  who  had  publicly  declared  him- 
 self the  patron  of  a  form  of  worship  fast  sinking  into 
 oblivion,  and  the  enemy  of  a  religion,  to  the  triumph 
 of  which  he  should  have  reflected  that  the  safety  of 
 his  own  family  was  intimately  attached.  Such,  uo 
 doubt,  were  the  reasons  which  induced  Julian  to  enter 
 the  lists  against  Christianity.  He  wrote  his  work  da- 
 ring the  winter  evenings  which  he  spent  at  Antioch, 
 in  the  last  year  of  his  life.  Surrounded  by  pagan  phi- 
 losophers, who  expected  from  this  prince  the  complete 
 re-establishment  of  the  religion  of  their  fathers,  with 
 which,  in  their  blindness,  they  contiected  the  renova- 
 tion of  the  splendour  and  power  of  the  Roman  empire, 
 the  imperial  author  was  encouraged  by  their  suffrages, 
 and  no  doubt  aided  by  their  abilities.  Apollinarius  of 
 Laodicea  repelled  the  attack  of  Julian  by  the  arms  of 
 reason  alone ;  exposing,  in  a  treatise  which  he  wrote 
 "  on  Truth,"  the  dogmas  of  the  heathen  philosophers 
 respecting  Deity,  and  that,  too,  without  at  all  calling 
 in  the  Holy  Scriptures  to  the  aid  of  his  argument. 
 This  work  of  Apollinarius  must  have  been  composed 
 in  a  very  short  time  after  the  appearance  of  the  emper- 
 or's treatise,  since  Julian  appears  to  have  read  it  before 
 be  quitted  Antioch,  March  5th,  A.D.  36.3.  Julian  pre- 
 tended to  contemn  his  opponent,  and  wrote  to  certain 
 bishops  of  the  church  this  paltry  jcu  de  mots:  'Av- 
 iyvuv,  eyvcjv,  Kareyvuv,  "I  have  read,  comprehended, 
 condemned  it."  To  this  one  of  them,  probably  St. 
 Basil,  replied,  'Aveyvuf,  akX  ovk  iyvuQ'  el  yiip  iyvuc, 
 ovK  uv  Kareyvu^,  "  Thou  hast  read,  but  not  com- 
 prehended It ;  for  if  thou  hadst  comprehended  it  thou 
 wouldst  not  have  condemned  it."  Fifty  years,  how- 
 ever, elapsed  before  the  work  of  Julian  was  completely 
 refuted  by  productions  carefully  composed,  and  which 
 entered  into  a  detail  of  the  sophisms  which  had  been 
 idvanccd  against  Christianity  and  the  character  of  its 
 702 
 
 Divine  founder.     Either  the  subjeot  was  considered,  in 
 the  interval,  as  completely  exhausted,  or  else  the  dread- 
 ful catastrophe  which  terminated  the  life  of  Julian,  and 
 which  was  viewed  as  a  punishment  inflicted  by  Divine 
 vengeance,  had  caused  his  writings  to  fall  into  neglect. 
 After  the  period  of  time  above  alluded  to,  Philip  of 
 Side,  St.  Cyrill  of  Alexandrea,  and  Theodoret,  under- 
 took the  task  of  completely  prostrating  the  arguments 
 of  the  "apostate  emperor,"  and  it  is  to  the  work  of  St. 
 Cyrill  that  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  a  part  of  that  of 
 Julian.     From  this  refutation,  which  bears  the  follow- 
 ing title,  'Tnep  r^f  tuv  Xpiariavuv  Evayov^  •^prja- 
 Keiac,  npoc  to.  tov  hv  uOeotg  'lov'XiavoiJ,  "  Of  the  holy 
 religion  of  the  Christians,  in  reply  to  the  writings  of 
 the  impious  Julian"  we  learn  that  it  was  divided  into 
 seven  books,  each  of  small  extent  ;  and  that  the  first 
 three  bore  this  title  :    'Avaarpocpri    tuv  Ilvayye2.cuv, 
 "  The  Overthrow  of  the  Gospels."     These    are    the 
 only  ones  which  St.  Cyrill  has  taken  the  trouble  to 
 refute.     It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  that  an  adroit 
 sophist,  such  as  Julian  was,  could  easily  give  to  his 
 work  a  specious  appearance,  calculated  to  impose  on 
 weak  and  shallow  minds,  especially  when  the  author 
 himself  was  surrounded  by  all  the  adventitious  circum- 
 stances of  rank  and  power.     The  mode  adopted  by 
 Julian,  of  appearing    to  draw  his  arguments  against 
 Christianity  from  the  Scriptures  themselves,  gives  an 
 air  of  candour  and  credibility  to  a  work  ;   but  it  re- 
 quires no  great  acumen  to  show,  that  Julian  either  did 
 not  understand,  or  else  aflfected  to  misunderstand,  the 
 doctrines  which  he  combated  ;  and  that  he  has  pervert- 
 ed facts  and  denied  indubitable  truths.     The  success 
 which  his  work  would  no  doubt  have  had  if  his  life  had 
 been  prolonged,  would  only  have  been  due  to  the  tal- 
 ent which  he  possessed  in  wieldmg  the  arms  of  ridi- 
 cule ;  arms  the  more  dangerous,  because  the  wounds 
 which  they  inflict  never  cicatrize,  and  because  malevo- 
 lence, taking  pleasure  in  believing  what  is  false,  closes 
 its  eyes  against  the  truth  when  the  latter  undertakes 
 to  destroy  that  falsity.     It  was  by  the  aid  of  the  refu- 
 tation of  St  Cyrill,  mentioned  above,  that  the  Marquis 
 d'Argens  undertook  in  the  18th  century  to  restore  the 
 lost  work  of  Julian.     It  was  published  in  Greek  and 
 French,  at  Berlin,  1764,  in  8vo,  and  reprinted  in  the 
 same  city  in  1767.     Had  the  object  of  this  individual 
 been  to  manifest  to  the  world  the  errors  of  the  Ro- 
 man infidel,  and  to  teach  the  pretended  philosophers 
 of  the  day  how  little  philosophy  has  to  advance  that  is 
 worthy  of  reliance  when  religion  is  the  theme,  his  un- 
 dertaking would  have  been  a  laudable  one.      But  such 
 was  not  the  end  which  the  Marquis  d'Argens  had  in 
 view.      If  he  did  not  dare  to  declare  openly  for  Julian, 
 he  yet  could  find  a  thousand  reasons  for  excusing  his 
 conduct.      The  consequence  has  been,  that  the  produc- 
 tion of  D'Argens  has  been  attacked  by  two  German 
 scholars,  and  the  latter  of  the  two  has  combated  with 
 so  much  success  the  sophisms  and  falsities  in  question, 
 that,  after  having  read  the  two  works,  every  unpreju- 
 diced mind  will  acknowledge  that  the  production  of 
 the  French  philoso[)her  has  been  completely  refuted. 
 The  first  of  the  German  writers  just  alluded  to,  G.  F. 
 Meier,  published  his  work  in    1764,  at  Halle,  in  8vo, 
 under  the  following  title:  "  Beurthcilung  der  Betrach- 
 ttingen  des  herrn  Marquis  v.  Argens,  iiber  den  Kaiser 
 Julian ;"   the  other,    W.    CricMon,  who  was  subse- 
 quently a  clergyman  at  Konigsberg,  entitled  his  pro- 
 duction, "  Bclrachtiingcn  i'lhcr  des  Kaiser  Julian  Ab- 
 fall  vnn  dcr  Christlichrn  Religion,  und  Verthcidigung 
 des  Hcidr)i/hiims,"  Halle,  1765,  8vo. — We  will  now 
 pass  to  an  enumeration  of  the  works  of  Julian  that  have 
 come  down  to  our  own   times.     1.  'KyKU/^iiov   irpog 
 TOV  AvTOKpuTopa  KuvaTuvTiov,  "  Eloge  on  the  Em- 
 peror Constanfiics."     2.  Ilepl  tuv  avroKpuropog  Tvpa^- 
 euv,  7]  Tiepl   Paadeiac,  "  Of  the  actions  of  an  em- 
 peror, or  of  government."      3.  'EyKu/xiov   'EvcfeSiag 
 T^g  BacMdog,  "  Eloge  on  the  Empress  Eusebia." 
 
JULIANUS. 
 
 JULIANUS. 
 
 These  thrt-e  productions  were  composed  hy  Julian  in 
 his  youth,  when  he  was  striving  to  conciliate  the  fa- 
 vour of  Gonstantius,  on  whom  his  fortunes  depended. 
 They  contain  some  fine  thoughts,  and  are  written  with 
 more  simphcity  than  one  would  expect  in  composi- 
 tions at  this  period.  In  the  first  of  these  harangues, 
 Julian  had  to  pronounce  a  eulogy  on  one  who  had  been 
 the  murderer  of  his  father,  of  his  brother,  in  a  word, 
 as  he  himself  says  on  another  occasion,  the  execution- 
 er of  his  family,  and  his  personal  enemy.  It  was  a 
 theme  worthy  the  pliant  and  fertile  genius  of  the  art- 
 ful Julian,  but  just  decorated  with  the  title  of  Csesar 
 by  that  very  Gonstantius  who  had  on  other  occasions 
 sought  for  pretexts  to  destroy  him.  To  dissemble, 
 then,  the  faults  of  this  prince,  and  to  exaggerate  his 
 good  qualities,  in  such  a  panegyric,  would  be  the  aim 
 proposed  to  himself  by  the  writer;  and  yet,  it  must  in 
 justice  be  remarked,  that,  with  some  exceptions,  the 
 character  of  Gonstantius,  as  drawn  by  Julian,  coincides 
 in  its  general  features  with  that  delineated  by  the  his- 
 torians of  the  time.  In  the  second  harangue,  written 
 probably  after  he  had  resided  some  years  in  Gaul,  Ju- 
 lian but  ill  conceals  his  inclination  towards  paganism. 
 He  openly  professes  in  this  piece  the  doctrine  of  Plato 
 and  the  heathen  philosophers,  and  constantly  affects  to 
 substitute  the  plural  form  "gods"  for  the  singular 
 "  God."  The  third,  of  these  discourses,  addressed  to 
 the  princess  to  whom  Julian  owed  his  life  and  his  dig- 
 nity of  Cassar,  is  too  profusely  adorned,  and  burdened, 
 as  It  were,  with  erudition. — \.  Elr  rbv  QaaAea  "Yl7u- 
 ov,  "  In  honour  of  the  Sun,  the  monarch.'"  A  dis- 
 course addressed  to  the  prefect  Sallustius. — 5.  E(f 
 T?;v  fiijTEpa  ■&tC:v,  "  In  Honour  of  the  Mother  of  the 
 Gods."  These  two  productions  arc  full  of  enthusi- 
 asm, and  are  written  in  a  species  of  poetical  prose. 
 They  contain  many  allegorical  allusions,  which  to  us 
 can  only  appear  frigid  and  ridiculous.  In  the  system 
 of  Julian,  the  world  existed  from  all  eternity  ;  but 
 there  existed  at  the  same  time  a  succession  of  causes, 
 the  principal  one  of  which  was  the  Being  who  subsist- 
 ed of  himself,  the  Being  supremely  good,  the  primary 
 sun  :  the  other  causes  or  principles,  namely,  the  intel- 
 ligent world  without  any  sun,  and  the  visible  sun, 
 were  produced  from  the  primary  cause,  but  necessarily 
 and  from  all  eternity  :  Gybele,  or  the  mother  of  the 
 gods,  belongs  to  the  third  generative  principle,  and  ap- 
 pears to  identify  herself  with  it ;  Attis  or  Gallus  is  an 
 attribute  of  this  principle,  and  consequently  of  Gybele ; 
 and  seems,  moreover,  to  make  part  of  the  fifth  body, 
 which  is  the  soul  of  the  sun  and  the  soul  of  the  uni- 
 verse. Such  was  the  ridiculous  jargon  which  the 
 "  wise''''  and  '^  philosophic"  Ja\m\  preferred  to  the  rev- 
 elations of  Ghristianity  !  According  to  the  account  of 
 Libanius,  Julian  employed  only  a  single  night  in  the 
 composition  of  each  of  these  two  discourses  :  both 
 were  written  A.D.  362  ;  the  second  at  Pessinus  in 
 Phrygia,  whither  Julian  had  gone  to  re-establish  the 
 worship  of  Gybele. — 6.  Eif  Tovg  uTracdEvrov^  Kvfa^, 
 "  Affainst  the  ignorant  Cynics." — 7.   Ilpof 'HpaK/lfi- 
 
 OV  KVVLKOV,  TTEpt  TOV    TTUf  KWlGTeov,   KOL  El   TTpETTEL  TG) 
 
 Kvvt  /1V0OVC  tt'/mtteiv,  "  Unto  the  Cynic  Heraclius  ; 
 how  one  ought  to  be  a  Cynic,  and  whether  it  is  becom- 
 ing in  a  Cynic  to  compose  fables."  In  these  two  dis- 
 courses or  memoirs  Julian  defines  the  idea  which,  ac- 
 cording to  him,  ought  to  be  entertained  of  the  philos- 
 ophy of  Diogenes.  He  blames  the  false  cynics  of  his 
 time  for  openly  divulging  things  of  a  sacred  nature. 
 The  second  discourse  contains  some  very  curious  ma- 
 terials for  history.  Under  pretence  of  showing  to 
 Heraclius  how  one  may  introduce  a  fable  into  a  dis- 
 course of  a  serious  nature,  the  writer  has  inserted  an 
 allegorical  narrative,  which  is,  in  fact,  the  history  of 
 Constantine,  of  his  sons,  and  his  nephew. — 8.  'Etti  rfj 
 ^forfcj  TOiJ  uyaOuTuTov  'La'k'kovaTiov  TtapafxvdrjriKog, 
 «'  Consolation  on  the  departure  of  the  excellent  Sallus- 
 tius.'''    This  prefect  of  Gaul,  the  friend  and  adviser  of 
 
 Julian,  had  been  recalled  by  Gonstantius,  who  wished 
 to  deprive  his  cousin  of  the  aid  that  was  to  be  derived 
 from  his  great  information  and  experience,  and  to 
 which  the  jealousy  of  the  emperor  attributed  the  suc- 
 cesses of  the  young  prince.  The  farewell  which  Ju- 
 lian takes  of  his  friend  is  interesting  and  affecting,  and 
 does  honour  to  his  feelings:  he  puts  it  in  the  mouth  of 
 Pericles  compelled  to  part  from  Anaxagoras. — 9.  '^Me- 
 moir addressed  to  the  philosopher  Themistiiis.'"  This 
 morceau,  to  which  the  philosopher  has  given  the  form 
 of  a  letter,  has  no  title  :  the  editors  of  Julian,  how- 
 ever, have  separated  it,  on  account  of  its  length,  from 
 the  other  letters  of  this  prince.  Themistius  had  felici- 
 tated Julian  on  his  nomination  as  Gssar ;  and  foresee- 
 ing, no  doubt,  that  the  young  prince  would  succeed  to 
 the  empire,  had  traced  for  him  the  line  of  his  duty,  and 
 laid  before  him  what  the  world  expected  at  his  hands. 
 Julian  replies  to  this  letter  with  the  greatest  ability  and 
 moderation. — 10.  Manifesto  against  the  Emperor  Gon- 
 stantius, in  the  form  of  a  letter  to  the  senate  and  peo- 
 ple of  Athens.  Julian  addresses,  as  he  says,  his  justi- 
 fication for  taking  up  arms  against  Gonstantius,  to  the 
 people  of  Athens,  on  account  of  the  love  of  justice 
 exhibited  bv  them  in  ancient  times.  It  is  a  piece  ex- 
 tremely important  in  an  historical  point  of  view,  since 
 Julian,  no  longer  caring  for  his  cousin,  exposes  the 
 crimes  and  weaknesses  of  this  emperor.  The  letter 
 appears  to  have  been  written  a  short  time  previous  to 
 the  death  of  Gonstantius. — 11.  A  long  fragment  of  a 
 letter  to  a  pagan  pontiff,  containing  instructions  rela- 
 tive to  the  duties  to  be  performed  towards  the  minis- 
 ters of  paganism,  of  whom  Julian,  by  virtue  of  his  im- 
 perial station,  was  sovereign  pontiff.  This  letter  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  written  during  his  stay  at  Antioch. 
 Setting  aside  the  slanders  which  this  piece  contains 
 against  the  Ghristians,  it  may  be  regarded  as  well  de- 
 serving a  perusal. — 12.  Kaiaapec,  ij  "Lvfnroaiov,  '■''The 
 Cmsars,  or  the  Banquet.'''  This  is  one  of  the  most 
 talented  productions  of  Julian,  and,  if  we  throw  out  of 
 consideration  the  impious  allusions  which  it  contains, 
 one  of  the  most  agreeable  effusions  of  antiquity.  It 
 is  a  faithful  and  true  picture  of  the  virtues  and  vices  of 
 the  predecessors  of  Julian.  The  plan  of  the  work  is 
 as  follows.  He  relates  to  a  friend  a  story  in  the  form 
 of  a  dialogue,  after  the  manner  of  Lucian.  Romulus, 
 named  Quirinus  after  his  apotheosis,  gives  a  feast  at 
 the  Saturnalia,  and  invites  all  the  gods  to  it.  Wish- 
 ing, at  the  same  time,  to  regale  the  Caesars,  he  causes 
 a  separate  table  to  be  set  for  them  below  the  moon,  in 
 the  upper  region  of  the  air.  The  tyrants,  who  would 
 have  disgraced  the  society  of  gods  and  men,  are  thrown 
 headlong,  by  the  inexorable  Nemesis,  into  the  Tarta- 
 rean abyss.  The  rest  of  the  Gaesars  advance  to  their 
 seats,  and,  as  they  pass,  they  undergo  the  scrutiny  and 
 remarks  of  Silenus.  A  controversy  arises  about  the 
 first  place,  which  all  the  gods  adjudge  to  Marcus  Au- 
 relius.  This  recital  affords  Julian  an  opportunity  of 
 painting  the  character  of  his  uncle,  the  Emperor  Con- 
 stantine, whom  he  represents  as  an  effeminate  man 
 and  a  debauchee. — 13.  'KvTLoxiKo^,  V  MiaoKuyuv, 
 '*  The  inhabitant  of  Antioch,  or  the  Beard-hater.'''  In 
 this  satire,  filled  with  pleasantries  of  a  forced  charac- 
 ter, Julian  avenges  himself  on  the  people  of  Antioch, 
 who  had  amused  themselves  with  the  philosophic  cos- 
 tume which  he  affected.  He  draws,  in  a  pleasant  man- 
 ner, his  own  portrait,  describing  his  own  figure,  his 
 beard,  and  his  unpolished  manners  ;  and  while  he 
 makes  an  ironical  confession  of  his  own  faults,  he  in- 
 dulges in  a  severe  satire  on  the  licentious  and  efipm- 
 inare  manners  of  Antioch.  The  work  betrays  marks 
 of  the  precipitation  with  which  it  was  composed  ;  for 
 it  is  full  of  repetitions.— We  have  also  ninety  letters 
 of  Julian:  these  are  not  treatises  of  a  philosophical  or 
 moral  nature,  to  which  the  epistolary  form  has  been 
 given  ;  they  are  genuine  letters,  written  in  the  course 
 of  correspondenc"e  with  others  ;  though  occasionally 
 '  703 
 
JUN 
 
 JUN 
 
 a  rescript  or  decision  given  by  Julian  as  sovereign  is 
 found  among  tliem.  Tliese  letters  are  interesting  trom 
 the  light  which  they  shed  on  the  character  of  the  prince, 
 and  on  some  of  the  events  of  the  day.  The  43d  is  an 
 oixlinance  by  which  public  instruction  is  forbidden  to 
 the  Christians.  Among  the  correspondents  of  Julian, 
 they  to  whom  the  greater  number  of  letters  is  address- 
 ed are  the  sophist  Libanius,  and  the  New-I'latonist 
 lamblichus,  for  whom  Julian  professed  a  great  venera- 
 tion.— The  best  edition  of  the  Ccesars  of  Julian  is  that 
 of  Heusinger,  Gothce,  1786,  8vo.  It  contains  the  text 
 corrected  by  MSS.,  a  Latin  and  a  French  translation, 
 and  a  selection  of  notes  from  previous  commentators. 
 The  edition  of  Harlcss,  Erlang.,  1785,  Svo,  is  also 
 held  in  estimation.  The  best  edition  of  the  entire 
 works  is  that  of  Spanheim,  Ltps.,  1096,  fol.  None  of 
 the  editions  of  the  works  of  Julian  contain,  however, 
 all  his  letters.  To  those  in  the  edition  of  Spanheim, 
 we  must  add  the  letters  given  by  Muratori,  in  his  An- 
 ecdota  Grsca,  Patavli,  1709,  4to.  Fabricius  inserted 
 these  in  his  Btbliolhcca  Gneca,  vol.  7,  p.  84  (vol.  6, 
 p.  734  of  the  new  edition).  This  scholar  also  made 
 known  eleven  other  letters,  in  his  Lux  salataris  Evan- 
 gelii,  Hamb.,  1731.  These  form  altogether  a  collec- 
 tion of  seventeen  epistles,  which  may  be  found  in  the 
 third  volume  of  the  works  of  Julian,  translated  by 
 Tourlet,  Paris,  1821,  Svo.  (Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  6,  p.  188,  seqg.) 
 
 JuLii  or  Julia  Gens,  a  celebrated  Roman  family, 
 which  pretended  to  trace  its  origin  to  the  mythic  lu- 
 lus, son  of  ^neas.  Its  principal  branch  was  that  of 
 the  Libos,  which,  about  the  close  of  the  fifth  century 
 of  Rome,  took  the  name  of  Csesar.     (Vid.  Caesar.) 
 
 JuLiOMAGUs,  a  city  of  Gaul,  the  capital  of  the  An- 
 decavi,  situate  on  a  tributary  of  the  Liger  or  Loire, 
 near  its  junction  with  that  river,"and  to  the  northeast 
 of  Namnetes  or  Ncintz.  It  was  afterward  called  An- 
 decavi,  from  the  name  of  the  people,  and  is  now  An- 
 gers.    {Vid.  Andecavi.) 
 
 JuLiopoLis,  a  city  of  Galatia.  (Vid.  Gordium.) 
 luLts,  the  chief  town  of  the  island  of  Ceos,  situate 
 on  a  hill  about  25  stadia  from  the  sea,  and  which  is 
 probably  represented  by  the  modern  Zea,  which  gives 
 its  name  to  the  island.  (Note  to  the  French  Strabo, 
 vol.  4,  p.  164,  from  a  MS.  tour  of  Villoison.)  It  was 
 the  birthplace  of  two  of  the  greatest  lyric  poets  of 
 Greece,  Simonides  and  his  nephew  Bacchylides  ;  also 
 of  Erasisiratus  the  physician,  and  Ariston  the  Peripa- 
 tetic philosopher.  (Strabo,  486.)  It  is  said  that  the 
 laws  of  this  town  decreed  that  every  man,  on  reachino- 
 his  si.xtieth  year,  should  destroy  himself  by  poison,  in 
 order  to  leave  to  others  a  sufficient  maintenance. 
 This  ordinance  is  said  to  have  been  first  promulgated 
 when  the  town  was  besieged  by  the  Athenians.  (Sira- 
 bo,  I.  c. — HeracL,  Pont.  Polil.  fragm.,  9. — JElmyi.,  V. 
 H.,  3,  37. — Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  402.) 
 
 Julius,  I.  Caesar.  {Vid.  Caesar.)— II.  Agricola,  a 
 governor  of  Britain.  {Vid.  Agricola.)  — III.  Obse- 
 quens.  {ViM.  Obsequens.)  —  IV.  Solinus,  a  writer. 
 {Vid.  Solinus.)— V.  Titianus,  a  writer.  {Vid.  Titia- 
 nus.) — VI.  Africanus,  a  chronologer.  {Vid.  Africa- 
 nus  I.)  —  VII.  Pollux,  a  grammarian  of  Naucratis,  in 
 Egypt.     {Vid.  Pollux.) 
 
 luLUs,  I.  the  name  of  Ascanius,  the  son  of  ^neas. 
 {Vid.  Ascanius.)— II.  A  son  of  Ascanius,  born  in  La- 
 vinium.  In  the  succession  to  the  kingdom  of  Alba, 
 .^neas  Sylvius,  the  son  of  ^Eneas  and  Lavinia,  was 
 preferred  to  him.  He  was,  however,  made  chief  priest. 
 {Dion.  Hal,  1,  70.) — III.  .\  son  of  Antony  the  tri- 
 umvir, and  Fulvia.     {Vid.  Antonius  VII,) 
 
 JuNiA  I/Ex,  I.  a  law  proposed  by  M.  Junius  Pen- 
 nus,  a  tribune,  and  passed  A.LT.C.  627,  about  expell- 
 ing foreigners  from  the  city — II.  Another,  by  M.  Ju- 
 nius Silanus,  the  consul,  A.U.C.  614,  about  diminish- 
 ing the  number  of  campaigns  which  soldiers  should 
 serve. — III.  Licinia,  or  Junia  el  Licinia,  enforcincr 
 704 
 
 the  Didian  law  about  expenditure  by  severer  penal- 
 ties.— IV.  Norbana,  by  L.  Junius  Norbanus,  the  con- 
 sul, A.U.C.  771,  that  slaves  who  had  been  manu- 
 mitted in  any  of  the  less  solemn  ways  should  not  ob- 
 tain the  full  rights  of  Roman  citizens,  but  only  those 
 of  the  Latins  who  were  transplanted  into  colonies. 
 {Plm.,  Ep.,  10,  105.) 
 
 Juno,  a  Roman  di\inity,  identical  with  the  Grecian 
 Hera,  and  to  be  considered,  therefore,  in  one  and  tlic 
 same  article  with  the  latter.     In  Homer,  this  goddess 
 is  one  of  the  children  of  Saturn  and  Rhea,  and  the  sis 
 ter  and  wife  of  Jupiter.     When  the  latter  placed  his 
 sire  in  Tartarus,  Rhea  committed  Juno  to  the  care  of 
 Oceanus  and  Tethys,  by  whom  she  was  nurtured  in 
 their  grotto-palace.     (//.,  14,  202,  seq.)     Hesiod,  who 
 gives  her  the  same  parents,  says  that  she  was  the  last 
 spouse  of  Jove.     {Theog.,   921.)     According  to  the 
 Argive  legend,  Jupiter  effected  his  union  with  Juno  by 
 assuming  first  the  form  of  a  cuckoo.     {Schol.  ad  The- 
 ocr.,  15,  64. — Pausan.,  2,  17.)     In  the  Iliad  (for  she 
 does  not  appear  in  the  Odyssey),  Juno,  as  the  queea 
 of  Jupiter,  shares  in  his  honours.     The  god  is  repre- 
 sented as  a  little  in  awe  of  her  tongue,  yet  daunting 
 her  by  his  menaces.     On  one  occasion  he  reminds  her, 
 how  once,  when  she  had  raised  a  storm,  which  drove 
 his  son  Hercules  out  of  his  course  at  sea,  he  tied  her 
 hands  together,  and  suspended  her  with  anvils   at  her     ^ 
 feet  between  heaven  and  earth  {11.,  15,  18,  seqq.);  and 
 when  her  son  Vulcan  would  aid  her,  he  flung  him  down 
 from  Olympus.     {II.,  1,  590,  seqq. — Compare  //.,  15, 
 22.)     In  this  poem  the  goddess  appears  dwelling  in 
 peace  and  harmony  with  Latona,  Dione,  Themis,  and 
 their  children  :  later  poets  speak  much,  however,  of 
 the  persecution  which  Latona  underwent  from  the  en- 
 mity of  Juno,  who  also  visited  with  severe  inflictions 
 lo,  Semele,  Alcmena,  and  other  favourites  of  Jove. 
 The  children  of  Jupiter  and  Juno  were  Mars,  Hebe,   ^ 
 and   the    IluhyiK,   to   whom   some    add    the   Graces. 
 {Coluth.,  Rapt.  Hel,  88,  173.)     Vulcan  was  the  pro- 
 geny of  Juno  without  a  sire  ;  she  was  also   said  by 
 some  to  have  given  origin  to   the  monster  Typhon. 
 {Horn.,  Hymn.,  2,  127,  seqq.)     In  the  mythic  cycles 
 of  Bacchus  and  Hercules,  Juno  acts  a  prominent  part 
 as  the  persecutor  of  those  heroes,  on  account  of  their 
 being  the  ofl'spring  of  Jupiter  by  mortal  mothers.     In 
 like  manner,  as  the  goddess  of  Argos,  she  is  active  in 
 the  cause  of  the  Achaai  in  the  war  of  Troy.     In   the 
 Argonautic  cycle  she  is  the  protecting  deity  of  the  ad- 
 venturous Jason.     There  is,  in  fact,   no  one  of  the 
 Olympian  deities  more  decidedly  Grecian  in  feeling 
 and  character  than  Juno. — The  chief  seats  of  her  wor- 
 ship were  Argos,  Samos,  and  Plataea.      She  was  also 
 honoured  at  Sparta,  Corinth,  Corcyra,  and  other  places. 
 The  victims  offered  to  her  were  kine,  ewe- lambs,  and 
 sows.     The  willow,  the  pomegranate,  the  dittany,  the 
 lily,  were  her  lacred  plants.     Among  birds,  the  cuc- 
 koo, and  afterward  the  peacock,  were  appropriated  to 
 the  Olympian   queen.     {Vid.  Argus,   and  consult  re- 
 marks under  the  article  lo.)    The  peacock  is  an  Indian 
 bird,  and,  according  to  Theophrastus,  was  introduced 
 into  Greece  from  the  East.     Its  Persian  name  at  the 
 present  day  is   Taous.     (Compare  the  Greek  raug.) 
 Peafowl  were  first,  introduced  into  Samos ;  and  being 
 birds  that  gave  indications,  by  their  cry,  of  a  change 
 of  weather,  they  were  consecrated  to  Juno,  and  the  le- 
 gend was  gradually  spread,  that  Samos  was  their  na- 
 tive place. — The  marriage  of  Jupiter  and  Juno  was 
 viewed  as  the  pattern  of  those  of   mankind,  and  the 
 goddess  was  held  to  preside  over  the  nuptial  league. 
 Hence    she  was   surnamed    the    Yoker  {Zvyia),    the 
 Consecrafor   (Tsae/'o),    the    Marriage- Goddess    {Ta- 
 /iTj?ua. — Pronuba.) — Juno  was  represented  by   Poly- 
 cletus  as  seated  on    a  throne,  holding  in   one  hand  a 
 pomegranate,  the  emblem  of  fecundity,  in  the  other  a 
 sceptre,  with  a  cuckoo  on  its  top.     Her  air  is  dignified 
 and  matronly,  her  forehead  broad,  her  eyes  large,  and 
 
JUP 
 
 JUPITER. 
 
 her  arms  finely  formed.  She  is  attired  in  a  tunic  and 
 mantle. — The  term  "Hpa  is  evidently  the  feminine  of 
 'Hpug,  anciently  "Hpof,  and  thus  they  answer  to  each 
 other  as  liie  Latin  Herus  and  Hera,  and  the  German 
 Hcrr  and  Herrin,  and  therefore  signified  master  and 
 mistress. — The  name  JUNO,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
 evidently  derived  from  the  Greek  Ali2NH,  the  female 
 AI2  or  ZEYS. — The  quarrels  of  Jupiter  and  Juno  in 
 the  Homeric  mythology  are  evidently  mere  physical 
 allegories,  Jupiter  denoting  the  aether  or  upper  regions 
 of  air,  and  Juno  the  lower  strata,  or  our  atmosphere. 
 Hence  the  discord  and  strife  that  so  often  prevail  be- 
 tween the  king  and  queen  of  Olympus,  the  master  and 
 niistresfe  of  the  universe,  are  merely  so  many  types  of 
 the  storms  that  disturb  our  atmosphere,  and  the  ever- 
 varying  changes  that  characterize  the  latter  are  plainly 
 indicated  by  the  capricious  and  quick- changing  tem- 
 per of  the  spouse  of  Jove.  At  a  later  period,  how- 
 ever, a  new  element  appears  to  have  entered  into  the 
 mythology  of  Juno.  The  Earth,  as  the  recipient  of 
 fertilizing  showers  from  the  atmosphere,  became  in  a 
 manner  identified  with  the  spouse  of  Father  ^Ether ; 
 and  we  find  Juno,  now  resembling  in  many  of  her  at- 
 tributes both  Cybele  and  Ceres,  appearing  at  one  time 
 as  Earth,  at  another  as  the  passive  productive  princi- 
 ple. Hence  the  consecration  of  the  cow  to  Juno, 
 just  as,  in  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Germans,  the 
 cow  was  assigned  to  the  service  of  the  goddess  Her- 
 tha  or  Earth.  At  Argos,  the  chariot  in  which  the 
 priestess  of  Juno  rode  was  drawn  'Ey  o.xen.  {Herod., 
 1,  31.)  Cows  were  also  sacred  to  the  Egyptian  Isis, 
 the  goddess  of  fertility,  and  who  resembles  in  some 
 of  her  attributes  the  Grecian  Ceres  (Knight,  En- 
 quiry into  the  Sj/mb.  Lang.,  &c.,  ^  36. — Classical 
 Journ.,  vol.  23,  p.  227. — Keightley's  Mythology,  p. 
 96,  scqq. — Constant,  de  la  Religion,  vol.  1,  p.  198.) 
 
 JuNONiA,  one  of  the  Canary  islands,  or  Insulae  For- 
 tunatge.     It  is  now  Palina.     \Plin.,  6,  32.) 
 
 JuNONis  PROMONTORiaM,  a  promontory  of  Spain,  on 
 the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  It  is  now 
 Cape  Trafalgar.     (Mela,  2,  6.) 
 
 Jupiter,  the  supreme  Roman  deity,  identical  with 
 the  Grecian  ZeiV  (Zens). — Jupiter  was  the  eldest  son 
 of  Saturn  and  Rhea.  He  and  his  brothers,  Neptune 
 and  Pluto,  divided  the  world  by  lot  between  them, 
 and  the  portion  which  fell  to  him  was  the  "  extensive 
 heaven  in  air  and  clouds."  (//.,  13,  355.)  All  the 
 aerial  phenomena,  such  as  thunder  and  lightning,  wind, 
 clouds,  snow,  and  rainbows,  are  therefore  ascribed  to 
 him,  and  he  sends  them  either  as  signs  and  warnings, 
 or  to  punish  the  transgressions  of  man,  especially  the 
 perversions  of  law  and  justice,  of  which  he  is  ihe 
 fountain.  (//.,  1,  238,  seqq.)  Jupiter  is  called  the 
 "father  of  men  and  gods;"  his  power  over  both  is 
 represented  as  supreme,  and  his  will  is  fate.  Earthly 
 monarchs  obtain  their  authority  from  him  (//.,  2,  197, 
 205) ;  they  are  but  his  vicegerents,  and  are  distin- 
 guished by  epithets  derived  from  his  name  ;  such  as 
 Jove-sprimg  (Acoyev/'/c,),  Jove-reared  {AioTpeipijg),  Jove- 
 .bclovcd  {A.i,6<j)C?i,oc).  In  his  palace  on  Olympus,  Jove 
 lives  like  a  Grecian  prince  in  the  midst  of  his  family  : 
 altercations  and  quarrels  occur  between  him  and  his 
 queen,  Juno;  and  though,  in  general,  kind  and  affec- 
 tionate to  his  children,  he  occasionally  menaces  or 
 treats  them  with  rigour. — In  the  Odyssey,  the  char- 
 acter of  this  god  is,  agreeably  to  the  more  moral 
 tone  of  that  poem,  of  a  higher  and  more  dignified  or- 
 der. No  indecent  altercations  occur  ;  both  gods  and 
 men  submit  to  his  power  without  a  murmur,  yet  he 
 is  anxious  to  show  the  equity  of  his  decrees  and 
 to  "justify  his  ways."  (Od.,  1,  32.)— The  Theog- 
 ony  of  Ilesiod  represents  Jupiter  as  the  last-born 
 child  of  Saturn  and  Rhea,  and,  according  to  it,  the 
 supreme  power  was  freely  conferred  on  him  by  his 
 brothers,  and  he  thus  became  the  acknowledged  head 
 of  the  Olympian  gods,  the  objects  of  Grecian  wor- 
 4U 
 
 ship.    (For  his  warfare  with  the  Titans  and  Giants, 
 vid.  Titanes  and  Gigantes.) — Though  Homer  names 
 the  parents  of  nearly  all  the  gods  who  appear  in  his 
 poems,  and    it    follows   thence  that  they  must   have 
 been  born  in  some  definite  places,  he  never  indicates 
 any  spot  of  earth  as  the  natal  place  of  any  of  his  de- 
 ities.    A  very  ancient  tradition,  however  (for  it  oc- 
 curs in  Hesiod),  made  the  isle  of  Crete  the  birthplace 
 of  the  monarch  of  Olympus.     According  to  this  tradi- 
 tion, Rhea,  when  about  to  be  delivered  of  Jupiter,  re- 
 tired to  a  cavern  near  Lyctus  or  Cnosus    in    Crete. 
 She  there  brought  forth  her  babe,  whom  the  Melian 
 nymphs  received  in  their  arms.     Adrastea  rocked  him 
 in  a  golden  cradle ;  he  was  fed  with  honey  and  the  milk 
 of  the  goat  Amalihea,  while  the  Curetes  danced  about 
 him,  clashing  their   arms,  to  prevent  his  cries   from 
 reaching  the  ears  of  Saturn.     {Callim.,  Hymn,  in  Jov. 
 —  Vid.  Rhea,  and  Saturnus.)     According  to  another 
 account,  the  infant  deity  was  fed  on  ambrosia,  brought 
 by  pigeons  from  the  streams  of  Ocean,  and  on  nectar, 
 which  an  eagle  drew  each  day  with  his  beak  from  a 
 rock.     [AthencBus,    11,   p.   490.)      This   legend   was 
 gradually  pragmatized  ;  Jupiter  became  a  mortal  king 
 of  Crete ;  and  not  merely  the  cave  in  which  he  was 
 reared,  but  the  tomb  which  contained  his  remains,  was 
 shown  by  the  "  lying  Cretans."     {Kpf/re^  uel  ipeiaTai. 
 Callini ,  H.  in  Jov.,  v.  8. — Compare  St.  Paul,  Ep.  ad 
 Tit.,  1,  12.) — The  Arcadians,  on  the  other  hand,  as- 
 serted  that  Jupiter    first  saw  the  light   among  their 
 mountains,  and  made  Rhea  to  have  brought  him  forth 
 amid  the  thickets  of  Parrhasion.  —  All,  therefore,  that 
 we  can  collect  with   safety  from   these   accounts  is, 
 that  the  worship  of  the  Dictcean  Jupiter  in  Crete,  and 
 of  the  Lycaean  Jupiter  in  Arcadia  (for  he  was  reared, 
 said  the  Arcadians,  in  a  cavern  of  Mount  Lycaeus), 
 was  of  the  most  remote   antiquity,  and  that  thence, 
 when  the  Euhemeristic  principle  began  to  creep  in 
 among  the  Greeks,  each  people  supposed  the  deity  to 
 have  been  born  among  themselves.     The  Cretan  le- 
 gend must,  however,  be  regarded  as  the  most  ancient, 
 for  the  Arcadians  evidently  attempted  to  transfer  the 
 names  of  places  in  it  to  their  own  country. — In  the 
 Theogony,  the  celestial  progeny  of  Jove  are  enumera- 
 ted in  the  following  order.     {Theog.,  886,  seq.)     Ju- 
 piter first  espoused  Metis  {Prudence),  who  exceeded 
 gods  and  men  in  knowledge.     But  Heaven  and  Earth 
 having  told  him  that   her  first  child,   a  maid,  would 
 equal  him  in  strength  and  counsel,  and  her  second,  a 
 son,  would  be  king  of  gods  and  men,  he  cajoled  her 
 when  she  was  pregnant,  and  swallowed  her  ;  and,  after 
 a  time,   the  goddess  Minerva  sprang  from  his  head. 
 He  then  married  Themis;  who  bore  him  the  Seasons 
 and  Fates.     The  ocean-nymph  Eurynome  next  pro- 
 duced him  the  Graces.     Ceres  then  became  by  him 
 the  mother  of  Proserpina;  Mnemosyne  of  the  Muses: 
 and  Latona  of  Apollo  and  Diana.     His  last  spouse 
 was  Juno,  who  bore  him  Mars,  Hebe,  and  Ilithyia. — 
 According  to  Homer  {11,  5,  370,  seq.),  Venus  was 
 the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Dione.     The  Theogony 
 farther  says,  that  Maia,  the  daughter  of  Atlas,  bore 
 him   Hermes   {Thcog.,   938).      A    later   fable  stated 
 that  Asteria,  the  sister  of  Latona,  flying  the  love  of 
 Jupiter,  flung  herself  from  heaven  down  to  the  sea. 
 and  became  the  island  afterward  known  by  the  name 
 of  Delos. — Mortal  women  also  bore  a  numerous  pro- 
 geny to  the  monarch  of  the  sky,  and  every  species  of 
 transmutation  and  disguise  was  employed  by  him  to 
 further  his  views.      {Vid.  Alcmena,  Antiope,  Callisto.^ 
 Danae,  Europa,  Leda,  &.c.)     The  various  fables  of 
 which  the  monarch  of  the  gods  thus  became  the  sub- 
 ject, and  which,  while  they  derogate  from  his  charac- 
 ter of  sovereign  deity,  have  little,  if  anything,  to  recom- 
 mend them  on  the  score  of  moral  purity,  lose  all  their 
 groisness  if  we  regard  them  merely  as  so  many  alle- 
 gories, which  typify  the  great  generative  power  of  the 
 universe  displaying  itself  in  a  variety  of  ways,  tnd  un- 
 
 706 
 
JUPITER. 
 
 JUPITER. 
 
 der  the  greatest  diversity  of  forms. — It  was  the  habit 
 of  the  Greeks  to  appropriate  particular  plants  and  an- 
 imals to  the  service  of  their  deities.  There  was  gen- 
 erally some  reason  for  this,  founded  on  physical  or 
 moral  grounds,  or  on  both.  Nothing  could  be  more 
 natural  than  to  assign  the  oak  {<p>]ydg,  qucrcus  <xscu- 
 lus),  the  monarch  of  trees,  to  the  celestial  king,  whose 
 ancient  oracle,  moreover,  was  in  the  oak-woods  of  Do- 
 dona.  In  like  manner,  the  eagle  was  evidently  the 
 bird  best  suited  to  his  service.  The  celebrated  jEgis, 
 the  shield  which  sent  forth  thunder,  lightning,  and  dark- 
 ness, and  struck  terror  into  mortal  hearts,  was  formed 
 for  Jupiter  by  Vulcan.  In  Homer  we  see  it  sometimes 
 borne  by  Apollo  (//.,  l^,  508)  and  sometimes  by  Mi- 
 nerva (//.,  5,  739.— Od.,  22,  297). — The  most  famous 
 temple  of  Jupiter  was  atOlyinpia  in  Elis,  where,  every 
 fourth  year,  the  Olympic  Games  were  celebrated  in 
 his  honour;  he  had  also  a  splendid  fane  in  the  island 
 of  .-Egina.  But,  though  there  were  few  deities  less 
 honoured  with  temples  and  statues,  all  the  inhabitants 
 of  Hellas  conspired  in  the  duty  of  doing  homage  to  the 
 sovereign  of  the  gods.  His  great  oracle  was  at  Dodo- 
 na,  where,  even  in  the  Pelasgian  period,  the  Selli  an- 
 nounced his  will  and  the  secrets  of  futurity.  (/'.,  16, 
 233.) — Jupiter  was  represented  by  artists  as  the  model 
 of  dignity  and  majesty  of  mien  ;  his  countenance  grave 
 but  mild.  He  is  seated  on  a  throne,  and  grasping  his 
 sceptre  and  thunder.  The  eagle  is  standing  beside 
 the  throne. — An  inquiry,  of  which  the  object  should  be 
 10  select  and  unite  all  the  parts  of  the  Greek  mythol- 
 ogy that  have  reference  to  natural  phenomena  and 
 the  changes  of  the  seasons,  although  it  has  never  been 
 regularly  undertaken,  would  doubtless  show,  that  the 
 earliest  religion  of  the  Greeks  was  founded  on  the 
 same  notions  as  the  chief  part  of  the  religions  of  the 
 East,  particularly  of  that  part  of  the  East  which  was 
 nearest  to  Greece,  namely,  Asia  Minor.  The  Greek 
 mind,  however,  even  in  this  the  earliest  of  its  produc- 
 tions, appears  richer  and  more  various  in  its  forms, 
 and,  at  the  same  time,  to  take  a  loftier  and  wider  range, 
 than  is  the  case  in  the  religion  of  the  Oriental  neigh- 
 bours of  the  Greeks,  the  Phrygians,  Lydians,  and  Syr- 
 ians. In  the  religion  of  these  nations,  the  combina- 
 tion and  contrast  of  two  beings  (Baal  and  Astarte),  the 
 one  male,  representing  the  productive,  and  the  other 
 female,  representing  the  passive  and  nutritive  powers 
 cf  Nature  ;  and  the  alternation  of  two  states,  namely, 
 the  strength  and  vigour,  and  the  vCeakness  and  death, 
 ■of  the  male  personification  of  Nature,  the  first  of  which 
 was  celebrated  with  vehement  joy,  the  latter  with  ex- 
 cessive lamentation,  recur  in  a  perpetual  cycle,  that 
 must  have  wearied  and  stupificd  the  mind.  The  Gre- 
 cian worship  of  Nature,  on  the  other  hand,  in  all  the 
 various  forms  which  it  assumed  in  different  quarters, 
 places  one  Deity,  as  the  highest  of  all,  at  the  head  of  the 
 entire  system,  the  God  of  heaven  and  light,  the  Father 
 Mlhcr  of  the  Latin  poets.  That  this  is  the  true  mean- 
 ing of  the  name  Zeus  (Jupiter)  is  shown  by  the  occur- 
 rence of  the  same  root  (DIU).  with  the  same  significa- 
 tion, even  in  the  Sanscrit,  and  by  the  preservation  of 
 several  of  its  derivatives,  which  remained  in  common 
 use  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  all  containing  the  no- 
 tion of  Heaven  and  Day.  The  root  DIU  is  most  clearly 
 seen  in  the  oblique  cases  of  Zeus,  AtFof,  AtF/,  in  which 
 the  U  has  passed  into  the  consonant  form  F  (Digam- 
 ma) ;  whereas  in  ZcjVi  as  in  other  Greek  words,  the 
 sound  DI  has  passed  into  Z,  and  the  vowel  has  been 
 lengthened.  In  the  Latin  Jovis  {luvc  in  Umbrian)  the 
 D  has  been  lost  before  I,  which,  however,  is  preserved 
 in  many  other  derivatives  of  the  same  root,  as,  dies, 
 dium. — With  this  god  of  the  heavens,  who  dwells  in 
 the  pure  e.Kpanse  of  ether,  is  associated,  though  not  as 
 a  being  of  the  same  rank,  a  goddess  worshipped  under 
 the  name  of  Hera  or  Juno.  The  marriage  of  Zeus 
 with  this  divinity  was  regarded  as  a  sacred  solemnity, 
 and  typified  th"}  union  of  heaven  and  earth  in  the  fer- 
 706 
 
 tilizing  rains.  Besides  this  goddess,  other  beings  are 
 associated  on  one  side  with  the  Sujjreme  (iod,  who 
 are  personifications  of  certain  of  his  energies  ;  power- 
 ful deities,  who  carry  the  influence  of  light  over  the 
 earth,  and  destroy  the  opposing  powers  of  darkness 
 and  confusion  :  such  as  Minerva,  born  from  the  head 
 of  her  father,  in  the  height  of  the  heavens  ;  and  Apollo, 
 the  pure  and  shining  god  of  a  worship  belonging  to 
 other  races,  but  who,  even  in  his  original  form,  was  a 
 god  of  light.  On  the  other  side  are  deities  allied 
 with  the  earth,  and  dwelling  in  her  dark  recesses  ; 
 and  as  all  life  appears  not  only  to  spring  from  the  earth, 
 but  to  return  to  that  whence  it  sprung,  these  deities 
 are,  for  the  most  part,  also  connected  with  death  ;  as 
 Hermes  or  Mercury,  who  brings  uji  the  treasures  of 
 fruitfulness  from  the  depth  of  the  earth,  and  the  child, 
 now  lost  and  now  recovered  by  her  mother  Ceres, 
 Proserpina  (Cora)  the  goddess  both  of  flourishing  and 
 of  decaying  nature.  It  was  natural  to  expect  that 
 the  element  of  water  (Neptune  or  Poseidon)  should 
 also  be  introduced  into  this  assemblage  of  the  per- 
 sonified powers  of  Nature,  and  should  be  peculiarly 
 combined  with  the  goddess  of  the  Earth  :  and  that 
 fire  (Vulcan  or  Hephaestus)  should  be  represented  as  a 
 powerful  principle,  derived  from  heaven  and  having 
 dominion  on  the  earth,  and  be  closely  allied  with  the 
 goddess  who  sprang  from  the  head  of  the  god  of  ihe 
 heavens.  Other  deities  are  less  important  and  neces- 
 sary parts  of  this  same  system,  as  Venus  (x\phrodite), 
 whose  worship  was  evidently,  for  the  most  part,  prop- 
 agated over  Greece  from  Cyprus  and  Cythera,  by  the 
 influence  of  Syrophcenician  tribes.  As  a  singular  be- 
 ing, however,  in  the  assembly  of  the  Greek  divinities, 
 stands  the  changeable  god  of  flourishing,  decaying, 
 and  renovated  Nature,  Bacchus  or  Dionysus,  whose 
 alternate  joys  and  sufferings,  and  marvellous  adven- 
 tures, show  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  form  which 
 religious  notions  assumed  in  Asia  Minor.  Introduced 
 by  the  Thracians  (a  tribe  which  spread  from  the  north 
 of  Greece  into  the  interior  of  the  country),  and  not, 
 like  the  gods  of  Olympus,  recognised  by  all  the  races 
 of  the  Greeks,  Bacchus  always  remained  to  a  certain 
 degree  estranged  from  the  rest  of  the  gods,  although 
 his  attributes  had  evidently  most  affinity  with  those  of 
 Ceres  and  Proserpina.  But  in  this  isolated  position 
 Bacchus  exercises  an  important  influence  on  the  spirit 
 of  the  Greek  nation,  and  both  in  sculpture  and  poetry 
 gave  rise  to  a  class  of  feelings,  which  agree  in  dis- 
 playing more  powerful  emotions  of  the  mind,  a  bolder 
 flight  of  the  imagination,  and  more  acute  sensations 
 of  pain  and  pleasure,  than  were  exhibited  on  occasions 
 where  this  influence  did  not  operate.  In  like  manner, 
 the  Homeric  Poems  (which  instruct  us  not  merely  by 
 their  direct  statements,  but  also  by  their  indirect  allu- 
 sions ;  not  only  by  what  they  say,  but  also  by  what 
 they  do  not  say),  when  attentively  considered,  clearly 
 show  how  this  ancient  religion  of  nature  sank  into  the 
 shade  as  compared  with  the  salient  and  conspicuous 
 forms  of  the  deities  of  the  heroic  age.  The  gods  who 
 dwell  on  Olympus  scarcely  appear  at  all  in  connexion 
 with  natural  phenomena.  Zeus  chiefly  exercises  his 
 power  as  a  ruler  and  king ;  although  he  is  still  desig- 
 nated (by  epithets  doubtless  of  high  antiquity)  as  the 
 god  of  the  ether  and  the  storms  ;  as  in  much  later 
 times  the  old  picturesque  expression  was  used,  "  What 
 is  Zeus  doing?"  for  "  What  kind  of  weather  is  it?" 
 In  the  Homeric  conception  of  Minerva  and  AjioUo, 
 there  is  no  trace  of  any  reference  of  these  deities  to 
 their  earlier  attributes.  Vulcan  also  has  passed,  from 
 the  powerful  god  of  fire  in  heaven  and  on  earth,  into  a 
 laborious  smith  and  worker  of  metals,  who  performs 
 his  duty  by  making  armour  and  weapons  for  the  other 
 gods  and  their  favourite  heroes.  As  to  Mercury,  there 
 are  some  stories  in  which  he  is  represented  as  giving 
 fruitfulness  to  cattle,  in  his  capacity  of  the  rural  god 
 of  Arcadia ;  from  which,  by  means  of  various  meta- 
 
JUS 
 
 JUS 
 
 morphoscs,  he  is  transmuted  into  the  messenger  of 
 Zeus  and  the  servant  of  the  gods.  {MuUcr,  Hist. 
 Gr.  Lit.,  p.  13,  scqq.) 
 
 Jura,  a  chain  ol  mountains,  which,  extending  from 
 the  Rhodanus  or  Rhone  to  the  Rhenus  or  Rhine, 
 separated  Helvetia  from  the  territory  of  the  Sequani. 
 The  name  is  said  to  be  in  Celiic,  Jourag,  and  to  sig- 
 nify the  domain  of  God  or  Jupiter.  'I'he  most  ele- 
 vated parts  of  the  chain  are  the  Dole,  5082  feet  above 
 the  level  of  the  sea  ;  i\\e  Mont  Tendre,  5170;  and  the 
 Reculet  {ihe  summit  of  the  Thoiry),  5196.  {Flin.,  3, 
 A.—Cxs.,  B.  €.,  1,  2.—Ptol.,  2,  9.) 
 
 JusTiNiANUs,  Flavius,  bom  near  Sardica  in  McEsia, 
 A.D.  482  or  483,  of  obscure  parents,  was  nephew  by 
 his  mother's  side  to  Justinus,  afterward  emperor.  The 
 elevation  of  his  uncle  to  the  imperial  throne,  A.D.  518, 
 decided  the  fortune  of  Justinian,  who,  having  been 
 educated  at  Constantinople,  had  given  proofs  of  con- 
 siderable capacity  and  application.  Justinus  was  igno- 
 rant and  old,  and  the  advice  and  exertions  of  his  neph- 
 ew were  of  great  service  to  him  during  the  nine  years 
 of  his  reign.  He  adopted  Justinian  as  his  colleague, 
 and  at  length,  a  few  months  before  his  death,  feeling 
 that  his  end  was  approaching,  he  crowned  him  in  pres- 
 ence of  the  patriarch  and  senators,  and  made  over  the 
 imperial  authority  to  him,  in  April,  527.  Justinian  was 
 then  in  his  45th  vear,  and  he  reigned  above  38  years, 
 till  November,  565,  when  he  died.  His  long  reign 
 forms  a  remarkable  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
 Although  himself  un warlike,  yet,  by  means  of  his 
 able  generals,  Belisarius  and  Narses,  he  completely 
 defeated  the  Vandals  and  the  Goths,  and  reunited 
 Italy  and  Africa  to  the  empire.  Justinian  was  the  last 
 emperor  of  Constantinople,  who,  by  his  dominion  over 
 the  whole  of  Italy,  reunited  in  some  measure  the  two 
 principal  portions  of  the  ancient  empire  of  the  Caesars. 
 On  the  side  of  the  East,  his  arms  repelled  the  inroads 
 of  Chosroes,  and  conquered  Colchis  ;  and  the  Negus, 
 or  knig  of  Abyssinia,  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
 him  On  the  Danubian  frontier,  the  Gepida;,  Lango- 
 bardi,  Bulgarians,  and  other  hordes,  were  either  kept 
 in  check  or  repulsed.  The  wars  of  his  reign  are  re- 
 lated by  Procopius  and  Agathias. — Justinian  must  be 
 viewed  also  as  an  administrator  and  legislator  of  his 
 vast  empire.  In  the  first  capacity  he  did  some  good 
 and  much  harm.  He  was  both  profuse  and  penurious ; 
 personally  inclined  to  justice,  he  often  overlooked, 
 through  weakness,  the  injustice  of  subalterns  ;  he  es- 
 tablished monopolies  of  certain  branches  of  industry 
 and  commerce,  and  increased  the  taxes.  But  he  in- 
 troduced the  rearing  of  silkworms  into  Europe,  and 
 the  numerous  edifices  which  he  raised  {vid.  Isidorus 
 IV^.),  and  the  towns  which  he  repaired  or  fortified,  at- 
 test his  love  for  the  arts,  and  his  anxiety  for  the  secu- 
 rity and  welfare  of  his  dominions.  Procopius  ("De 
 cedificiis  Domini '  Justiniayii")  gives  a  notice  of  the 
 towns,  churches  (St.  Sophia  among  the  rest),  convents, 
 bridges,  roads,  walls,  and  fortifications  constructed  or 
 repaired  during  his  reign.  The  same  Procopius,  how- 
 ever, wrote  a  secret  history  ('Avt'/c(5ora)  of  the  court 
 and  reign  of  Justinian,  and  his  wife  Theodora,  both 
 of  whom  he  paints  in  the  darkest  colours.  Theodora, 
 indeed,  was  an  unprincipled  woman,  with  some  abili- 
 ties, who  exercised,  till  her  death  in  548,  a  great  inilu- 
 ence  over  the  mind  of  Justinian,  and  many  acts  of  op- 
 pression and  cruelty  were  coiimiilted  by  her  orders. 
 But  yet  the  Anecdota  of  Procopius  cannot  be  impli- 
 citly trusted,  as  many  of  his  charges  are  evidently 
 misrepresentations  or  malignant  exaggerations. — Jus- 
 tinian was  easy  of  access,  patient  of  hearinu-,  courte- 
 ous and  affable  in  discourse,  and  perfect  master  of  his 
 temper.  In  the  conspiracies  against  his  authority  and 
 person,  he  often  showed  both  justice  and  clemency. 
 He  excelled  in  the  private  virtues  of  chastity  arid 
 temperance  ;  his  meals  were  short  and  frugal ;  on  sol- 
 emn fast  he  contented  himself  with  water  and  vege- 
 
 tables, and  he  frequently  passed  two  days  and  as  many 
 nights  without  tasting  any  food.  He  allowed  himself 
 little  time  for  sleep,  and  was  always  up  before  the 
 morning  light.  His  restless  application  to  business 
 and  to  study,  as  well  ats  the  extent  of  his  learning,  have 
 been  attested  even  by  his  enemies  {'AviKdora,  c.  8, 
 13).  He  was,  or  professed  to  be,  a  poet  and  philoso- 
 pher, a  lawyer  and  theologian,  a  musician  and  archi- 
 tect ;  but  the  brightest  ornament  of  his  reign  is  the 
 compilation  of  Roman  law,  which  has  immortalized  his 
 name,  and  an  account  of  which  will  be  found  under 
 the  article  Tribonianus.  Unfortunately,  his  love  of 
 theological  controversy  led  hini  to  interfere  with  the 
 consciences  of  his  subjects,  and  his  penal  enactments 
 against  Jews  and  heretics  display  a  spirit  of  mischiev- 
 ous intolerance  which  has  ever  since  aflbrdcd  a  dan- 
 gerous authority  for  religious  persecution. — .Justinian 
 died  at  83  years  of  age,  on  the  14ih  of  November,  565, 
 leaving  no  children.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  neph- 
 ew Justinus  IV.  {Ludcwig,  Vita  J astimani  Magni. 
 — Gibbon,  Decliiie  and  Fall,  c.  40.  seqq.)  —  II.  The 
 second  of  the  name,  was  son  of  Constantino  III.,  and 
 lineal  descendant  of  the  Emperor  Heraclius.  He  suc- 
 ceeded his  father  on  the  throne  of  Constantinople, 
 A.D.  685,  but  his  reign,  which  lasted  ten  years,  was 
 marked  chiefly  by  wars  with  the  Saracens,  and  by  the 
 exactions  and  oppressions  of  his  ministers.  At  last, 
 his  general  Leontius  drove  him  from  the  throne,  and, 
 having  caused  his  nose  to  be  cut  off,  banished  him  to 
 the  Crimea,  A.D.  695.  Leontius,  however,  was  soon 
 after  deposed  himself,  and  banished  by  Tiberius  Apsi- 
 merus,  who  reigned  for  seven  years.  Meantime  Jus- 
 tinian had  escaped  from  the  Crimea  and  married  the 
 daughter  of  the  Kakan,  or  King  of  the  Gazari,  a  tribe 
 of  Turks  ;  and  he  afterward,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
 Bulgarians,  entered  Constantinople,  and  put  to  a  cruel 
 death  both  Leontius  and  Tiberius,  along  with  many 
 others.  He  ordered,  also,  many  of  the  principal  people 
 of  Ravenna  to  be  put  to  death.  At  last  Justinian  was 
 dethroned  and  killed  by  PhilippusBardanes,  AD.  711. 
 {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  13,  p.  166.) 
 
 JusTiiVus,  I.  M.  JuNiANUs,  or,  as  he  is  named  in 
 some  manuscripts,  M.  Justinus  Frontinus,  a  Latin  his- 
 torian, generally  supposed  to  have  flourished  in  the  age 
 of  the  Antonines.  The  chief  reason  for  assigning  him 
 to  this  period  is  the  dedication  of  his  work,  addressed 
 to  Marcus  Aurelius.  Many  critics,  however,  regard 
 the  line  in  the  manuscripts  which  expresses  this  ded- 
 ication as  an  addition  by  some  ignorant  copyist,  who 
 had  confounded  this  writer  with  Justinus  the  Martvr. 
 Nothing  is  known  of  the  particulars  of  Justin's  life. 
 He  made  an  epitome  of,  or,  rather,  a  selection  of  ex- 
 tracts from,  the  historical  work  of  Trogus  Pompeius. 
 This  epitome  is  entitled,  "  Hisloiiarwm Philippicarum 
 et  totius  mundi  originum,  ct  terr(E  situs,  ex  Trogo 
 Pompeio  cxccrptarum  libri  XLIV.  a  Nino  ad  Cissar- 
 em  Augiistum."  In  making  his  extracts,  Justin  gave 
 the  preference  to  those  facts  and  those  passages  which 
 he  considered  peculiarly  interesting.  (Compare  his 
 own  words  :  "  Oniissis  his  qua  nee  cognoscendi 
 volupta/e  jucunda,  nee  cxemplo  erant  neces.taria.^') 
 Other  events  are  only  mentioned  briefly,  and  by  way 
 of  transition.  Chronology  is  entirely  neglected  in  the 
 work  of  Justin,  as  in  the  greater  part  of  the  ancient 
 writers.  Justin  is  deficient  in  judgment  and  sagacity. 
 His  style  is  correct,  simple,  and  elegant,  but  une- 
 qual ;  it  is  far  preferable,  however,  to  that  of  Florus. 
 The  best  editions  are,  that  of  Groncvius,  L.  Bat., 
 1719,  8vo;  of  Ilearne,  Oxon.,  1705,  8vo;  of  Fischer, 
 Lips.,  1757,  8vo;  and  of  Wetzel,  Leign.,  1817,  8vo. 
 —The  value  of  Justin's  history  chiefly  depends  on  the 
 circumstance  of  Trogus's  work  having  been  compiled 
 from  some  of  the  best  of  the  ancient  historical  writers, 
 such  as  Theopompus,  Herodotus,  Ctesias,  Hierony- 
 mus  of  Cardia,  Tima;us,  Phylarchus,  Polybins,  Posi- 
 donius.  &c.  (Compare  Gatterer,  vom  Plan  des  Tro- 
 '  *^  707 
 
JUSTINUS. 
 
 JUSTINUS. 
 
 ffus,  &c.—Hisi.  Bill,  vol.  3,  p.  1  \S.—Borhek,  Mag- 
 azin  fur  Erklarune;,  d.  Gr.  m.  K.,  Vol.  1,  p.  180. — 
 Koch,  Prolcg.  ad  Theopomp.  Chium.,  Lips.,  1804,  p. 
 13. — Hcync,  de  Tragi  Pompeii  ejusquc  epitomatoris 
 Jusfini  fonlibus,  &c.,  Comment.  Soc.  Reg.  Gutting., 
 vol.  15,  p.  183,  scqq.)  In  order  that  the  student  may 
 be  belter  enabled  to  appreciate  the  extent  of  Trogus's 
 labours,  we  will  now  proceed  to  sketch  an  outline  of 
 his  work,  as  far  as  it  has  been  determined  by  the  re- 
 searches of  modern  scholars.  Book  1.  History  of  the 
 Assyrian,  Median,  and  Persian  empires,  down  to  the 
 reign  of  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes.  Book2.  Digression 
 respecting  the  Scythians,  Amazons,  and  Athenians  ; 
 the  kings  of  Athens,  the  legislation  of  Solon,  the  tyr- 
 anny of  the  Pisislratidffi,  the  expulsion  of  this  family, 
 and  the  war  with  Persia  which  ensued,  the  battle  of 
 Marathon,  the  history  of  Xerxes  and  of  his  contests 
 with  the  Greeks.  Book  3.  The  accession  of  Artaxerx- 
 es.  Digression  respecting  the  Lacedoemonians,  the 
 legislation  of  Lycurgus,  and  the  first  Mcssenian  war. 
 Commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Book  4. 
 Continuation  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  expedition  to 
 Sicily.  Digression  respecting  Sicily.  Book  5.  Close 
 of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The  thirty  tyrants,  and 
 their  expulsion  by  Thrasybulus.  The  expedition  of 
 the  younger  Cyrus,  and  the  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thou- 
 sand. Book  6.  The  expeditions  of  Dercyllidas  and 
 Agesilaus  into  Asia.  The  Theban  war.  The  peace 
 of  Antalcidas.  The  exploits  of  Epaminondas.  Philip 
 of  Macedon  begins  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Greece. 
 — In  these  first  six  books,  which  are  to  be  regarded  as 
 a  kind  of  introduction  to  the  history  of  the  Macedo- 
 nian Empire,  the  true  object  of  Trogus,  his  principal 
 guide  was  Theopompus.  He  has  also  occasionally 
 availed  himself  of  the  aid  of  Herodotus  and  Ctesias, 
 and  even  of  that  of  the  mythographers. — Book  7.  Di- 
 gression respecting  the  condition  of  Macedonia  ante- 
 rior to  the  reign  of  Philip.  Book  8.  History  of  Philip 
 and  of  the  Sacred  War.  Book  9.  End  of  the  history 
 of  Philip.  Book  10.  Continuation  and  end  of  the  Per- 
 sian history,  under  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  Ochus,  and 
 Darius  Codomanus. — In  these  four  books  Trogus  ap- 
 pears to  have  merely  translated  Theopompus. — Book 
 11.  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,  from  his  acces- 
 sion to  the  throne  until  the  death  of  Darius.  Book  12. 
 Occurrences  in  Greece  during  the  absence  of  Alexan- 
 der :  expeditions  of  this  prince  into  Hyrcania  and  In- 
 dia. His  death. — In  these  two  books,  no  fact  would 
 appear  to  have  been  stated  that  is  not  also  contained 
 in  other  works  which  have  reached  us. — Books  13, 
 14,  15.  History  of  the  wars  between  the  generals  of 
 Alexander  the  Great,  down  to  the  death  of  Cassander. 
 Book  16.  Continuation  of  the  history  of  Macedonia  to 
 the  accession  of  Lysimachus. — This  part  of  Justin's 
 history  is  so  imperfect,  that  we  find  it  impossible  to 
 divine  the  sources  whence  Trogus  derived  his  mate- 
 rials. It  has  been  supposed,  however,  that  the  digres- 
 sions on  Cyrene  (13,  7)  and  Heraclea  (16,  4)  are  ob- 
 tained from  Theopompus,  and  that  the  episode  on  In- 
 dia (15,  4)  is  from  Megasthenes.  Book  17.  History 
 of  Lysimachus.  Digression  respecting  Epirus  before 
 the  tune  of  Pyrrhus. — As  Justin  shows  himself,  in 
 this  book,  very  partial  towards  Seleucus,  and  the  re- 
 verse towards  Lysimachus,  it  has  been  conjectured 
 that  Hieronymus  of  Cardia  was  the  guide  of  Trogus 
 in  this  part  of  the  original  work. — Book  18.  Wars  of 
 Pyrrhus  in  Italy  atid  Sicily.  Digression  respecting 
 the  ancient  history  of  Carthage.  Book  19.  Wars  of 
 the  Carthaginians  in  Sicily.  Book  20.  Dionysius  of 
 Syracuse  transfers  the  theatre  of  the  war  to  Magna 
 Grcecia.  Digression  respecting  Metapontum.  Book 
 21.  History  of  Dionysius  the  younger.  Books  22  and 
 23.  History  of  Agathocles.— These  six  books  of  Jus- 
 tin are  very  important ;  they  embrace  nearly  all  that 
 we  know  respecting  the  Carthaginians  before  their 
 collision  with  the  Romans.  The  parts  that  relate  to 
 708 
 
 Syracuse  and  Magna  Graecia,  Trogus  appears  to  have 
 taken  from  Theopompus,  and,  by  way  of  supplement, 
 from  TimoEus  :  this  latter,  for  example,  seems  to  have 
 furnished  the  materials  for  the  history  of  Agathocles. 
 — Book  24.  Continuation  of  the  history  of  Macedonia. 
 Invasion  of  the  Gauls  under  Brennus.  Book  25.  An- 
 tigonus  Gonatas,  king  of  Macedonia,  Establishment 
 of  the  Gauls  in  Bithynia.  Book  26.  Continuation  of 
 the  history  of  Macedonia.  Book  27.  Seleucus,  king 
 of  Syria.  Book  28.  Continuation  of  the  history  of 
 Macedonia  to  the  accession  of  Philip.  Book  29.  War 
 of  Philip  with  the  Romans. — In  these  six  books  Phy- 
 larchus  has  been  the  principal  authority  of  Trogus. — 
 Book  30.  Continuation  of  the  Macedonian  war.  Al- 
 liance of  the^tolians  with  Antiochus  the  Great.  Book 
 31.  Hannibal  prevails  on  Antiochus  to  make  war 
 against  the  Romans.  War  in  Syria.  Book  32.  Death 
 of  Philopoemen.  War  of  the  Romans  with  Perseus. 
 Death  of  Hannibal.  Book'S'3.  Fall  of  the  Macedonian 
 empire.  Book'S4:.  Achaean  war.  Continuation  of  the 
 history  of  Syria.  Book  35.  Demetrius  I.  and  II., 
 kings  of  Syria. — These  six  books  are  taken  from  Po- 
 lybius.  Book  36.  Continuation  of  the  history  of  the 
 kings  of  Syria.  Digression  respecting  the  Jews.  The 
 kingdom  of  Pergamus  becomes  a  Roman  province. 
 Book  37.  History  of  Mithradates  the  Great.  Book  3S. 
 Continuation  of  the  history  of  Mithradates.  Ptolemy 
 Physcon,  king  of  Egypt.  Continuation  of  the  history 
 of  Demetrius,  king  of  Syria.  Book  39.  Continuation 
 of  the  history  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  Book  40.  End  of 
 the  kingdom  of  Syria.  Book  41.  History  of  the  Par- 
 thians.  Book  42.  Continuation  of  the  history  of  the 
 Parthians.  History  of  Armenia. — On  comparing  the 
 contents  of  these  six  books  with  the  fragments  of  Fos- 
 idonius  of  Rhodes  that  have  been  preserved  by  Ath- 
 enaeus,  it  would  appear  that  this  historian  has  here 
 been  the  guide  of  Trogus.  Posidonius,  who  was  a 
 friend  of  Trogus's,  had  published  a  history  of  the  period 
 that  had  intervened  between  the  destruction  of  Cor- 
 inth and  the  fail  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria.  It  was  a 
 large  work  in  fifty-two  books.  The  digression  re- 
 specting the  Jews  is  full  of  confusion  :  it  is  well 
 known  what  erroneous  ideas  were  prevalent  concern- 
 ing this  people  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  even  at 
 the  period  when  Tacitus  wrote  ;  but  one  is  surprised 
 to  find  that  Justin  was  not  able  to  rectify  the  mistakes 
 of  his  original. —  Book  43.  Earlier  history  of  Rome  and 
 Massilia.  In  the  latter  part  of  this  book  Diodes  the 
 Peparethian  furnished  the  materials.  Book  44.  His- 
 tory of  Spain,  derived  most  probably  from  Posidonius. 
 —.Such  appear  to  have  been,  in  general,  the  authorities 
 followed  by  Trogus,  and,  consequently,  by  his  abbre- 
 viator  Justin.  (Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  139, 
 .';cqq. — B'dhr,  Gcsch.  dcr  Rom.  Lit.,  p.  299,  scqq.) — 
 II.  Surnamed  the  Martyr,  one  of  t^e  earliest  and  most 
 learned  writers  of  the  Christian  church.  He  was  the 
 son  of  Priscus,  a  Greek  by  nation,  and  was  born  at 
 Flavia  Neapolis,  anciently  called  Sichem,  a  city  of  Sa- 
 maria in  Palestine,  towards  the  close  of  the  first  cen- 
 tury. He  was  educated  in  the  pagan  religion,  and,' 
 after  studying  in  Egypt,  became  a  Platonist,  until,  in 
 the  year  132,  he  was  led,  by  the  instructions  of  a 
 zealous  and  able  Christian,  to  embrace  tlie  religion  of 
 the  Gospel.  He  subsequently  went  to  Rome  in  the 
 beginning  of  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  and  drew  up 
 his  first  apology  for  Christianity  at  a  time  when  the 
 Christians  were  suffering  rather  from  popular  fury 
 than  from  the  bearing  upon  them  of  the  regular  au- 
 thority of  the  state,  and  it  prevailed  so  far  as  to  obtain 
 for  them  some  favourable  concessions  from  the  emper- 
 or. He  was  also  equally  zealous  in  opposing  alleged 
 heretics,  and  particularly  Marcion,  against  whom  he 
 wrote  and  published  a  book.  He  not  long  after  visited 
 the  East,  and  at  Ephesus  had  a  conference  with  Try- 
 phon,  a  learned  Jew,  to  prove  that  Jesus  was  the  Mes- 
 siah, an  account  of  which  conference  he  gives  us  in 
 
JUSTINUS. 
 
 JU  V 
 
 his  "  Dialogue  wiih  Tryphon."  On  his  return  to  Rome 
 he  had  frequent  disputes  with  Crescens,  a  Cyn- 
 ic philosopher,  in  consequence  of  whose  calumnies 
 he  published  his  second  apology,  which  seems  to  have 
 been  presented  to  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  A.D. 
 162.  It  produced  so  little  effect,  that  when  Crescens 
 preferred  against  him  a  formal  charge  of  impiety  for 
 neglecting  the  pagan  rites,  he  was  condemned  to  be 
 scourged  and  then  beheaded,  which  sentence  was  put 
 into  execution  A.D.  164,  in  the  seventy-fourth  or  sev- 
 enty-fifth year  of  his  age.  It  was  eminerttly  as  a  mar- 
 tyr or  witness  that  Justin  suffered  ;  for  he  might  have 
 saved  his  life  had  he  consented  to  join  in  a  sacrifice 
 to  the  heathen  deities.  Hence  with  his  name  has  de- 
 scended the  addition  of  ''The  Martyr,"  a  distinction 
 which,  in  a  later  age,  was  given  to  Peter,  one  of  the 
 Protestant  sufferers  for  the  truth.  Justin  Martyr  is 
 spoken  of  in  high  terms  of  praise  by  the  ancient  Chris- 
 tian writers,  and  was  certainly  a  zealous  and  able  ad- 
 vocate of  Christianity,  but  mixed  up  its  doctrines  with 
 too  much  of  his  early  Platonism.  He  was  the  first 
 father  of  the  church  who,  regarding  philosophy  and 
 revealed  religion  as  having  emanated  from  the  same 
 source,  wished  to  establish  between  them  an  intimate 
 union.  Justin  was  of  opinion  that  Plato  had  derived 
 his  doctrine,  if  not  from  the  Sacred  Writings  of  the 
 Jews,  at  least  from  the  works  of  others  who  were  ac- 
 quainted with  these  writings,  and  hence  he  concluded 
 that  the  system  and  the  tenets  of  Plato  could  be  easily 
 brought  back  to,  and  united  with,  the  principles  of 
 Christianity.  All  other  systems  of  philosophy,  how- 
 ever, except  the  Platonic,  he  utterly  rejected,  and 
 more  particularly  that  of  the  Cynics.  Even  in  the 
 Platonic  scheme  he  combated  one  point,  which  is  in 
 direct  opposition  to  revelation,  the  doctrine  of  the 
 eternal  duration  of  the  world.  There  are  several 
 valuable  editions  of  his  works,  the  best  of  which  are, 
 that  of  Maran,  Paris,  1742,  fol.,  and  that  of  Oberthiir, 
 Wurtzburgh,  1777,  3  vols.  8vo.  (Schbll,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  212.)— III.  The  first,  also  called  the 
 "  Elder,"  an  emperor  of  the  East,  born  A.D.  450,  of 
 Thracian  origin.  He  abandoned  the  employment  of 
 a  shepherd  for  the  profession  of  arms,  and,  passing 
 through  the  several  military  gradations,  attained  even- 
 tually to  the  highest  dignities  of  the  empire.  On  the 
 death  of  Anastasius  (A  D.  516)  he  held  the  command 
 of  the  imperial  guards,  and  was  commissioned  by 
 Amantius  to  distribute  a  sum  of  money  among  the 
 soldiers,  in  order  to  secure  the  elevation  of  one  of  the 
 creatures  of  the  former.  Justin  did  this,  but  in  his 
 own  name,  and  was  in  consequence  himself  proclaim- 
 ed emperor.  Justin  was  sixty-eight  years  of  age 
 when  he  ascended  the  throne.  Being  himself  unin- 
 formed in  civil  affairs,  he  relied  for  the  despatch  of 
 the  business  of  the  state  on  the  quoRstor  Proclus,  a 
 faithful  servant,  and  on  his  own  nephew  Justinian, 
 who  had  acquired  a  great  ascendancy  over  his  uncle. 
 By  Justinian's  advice,  a  reconciliation  was  effected 
 between  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  churches,  A.D. 
 620.  The  murder  of  Vitalianus,  who  had  been  raised 
 to  the  consulship,  but  was  stabbed  at  a  banquet,  casts 
 a  dark  shade  upon  the  character  of  both  Justin  and 
 Justinian.  In  other  respects  Justin  is  represented  by 
 historians  as  honest  and  equitable,  though  rude  and 
 distrustful.  After  a  reign  of  nine  years,  being  afflict- 
 ed by  an  incurable  wound,  and  having  become  weak 
 in  mind  and  body,  Justin  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
 nephew,  and  died  soon  after,  in  A.D.  527. — IV.  Ihe 
 second,  surnamed  the  "  Younger,"  an  emperor  of  the 
 East,  succeeded  his  uncle  Justinian,  A.D.  565.  His 
 reign  was  an  unfortunate  one.  The  Langobardi,  un- 
 der their  king  Alboin,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 invited  by  Narses,  invaded  Italy  by  the  Julian  Alps, 
 A.D.  568,  and  in  a  few  years  all  Northern  Italy  was 
 lost  to  the  Byzantine  emperor.  The  provinces  of 
 Asia  were  likewise  overrun  by  the  Persians.     Internal 
 
 discontent,  moreover,  prevailed  in  the  capital  and  prov- 
 inces, owing  to  the  malversations  of  the  governors  and 
 magistrates,  and  Justin  himself,  deprived  by  infirmity 
 of  the  use  of  his  feet,  and  confined  to  the  palace,  was 
 not  able  to  repress  abuses  and  infuse  vigour  into  the 
 administration.  Feeling  at  last  his  impotence,  he 
 chose  Tiberius,  the  captain  of  the  guards,  as  his  suc- 
 cessor, A.D.  578.  The  choice  was  a  good  one,  and 
 the  conduct  of  Tiberius  fully  justified  Justin's  discern- 
 ment. Justin  lived  four  years  after  his  abdication,  in 
 quiet  retirement,  and  died  in  the  year  578.  {Encycl. 
 Us.  Knowl.,\o\.  13,  p.  166.) 
 
 Jutes,  an  old  Teutonic  or  Scandinavian  tribe,  which, 
 in  the  fifth  century  of  our  era,  appear  to  have  been  set- 
 tled in  the  northern  part  of  the  Chersonesus  Cimbrica, 
 which  is  still  called,  after  their  name,  Jutland.  Man- 
 nert  thinks  that  they  were  a  colony  from  the  opposite 
 coast  of  Scandinavia,  of  the  same  race  as  the  Guthi 
 or  Gutae  mentioned  by  Ptolemy.  The  first  Germanic 
 invaders  of  Britain,  after  the  departure  of  the  Romans, 
 were  Jutes,  who,  under  their  leaders  Hengist  and  Hor- 
 sa  (A.D.  445),  landed  in  the  isle  of  Thanet,  and  settled 
 in  Kent.  The  Saxons,  under  Ella,  came  AD.  477, 
 and  the  Angles  did  not  come  until  the  following  cen- 
 tury.    {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  288.) 
 
 JuTURNA,  a  water-nymph  in  the  Italian  mythology. 
 Her  fountain  was  near  the  Numicins,  and  its  waters, 
 owing  to  her  name  (from  juvo,  "  to  as-nsC),  were  held 
 to  be  very  salubrious:  the  sick  drank  them  (Varro, 
 L.  L.,  4,  p.  21),  and  the  Romans  used  them  in  their 
 sacrifices.  A  temple  was  built  to  Juturna  in  the 
 Campus  Martius,  and  there  was  a  festival  named  the 
 Juturnalia.  (Scrv.  ad  Vtrg.,  12,  139. —  Ovid,  Fast, 
 1,  464.)  Virgil,  as  usual,  Euhemerizing  the  old  Ital- 
 ian deities,  makes  Juturna  the  sister  of  Turnus.  She 
 was,  he  says,  violated  by  Jupiter,  and  made  by  him, 
 in  recompense,  a  goddess  of  the  lakes  and  streams. 
 (^«.,  12,  139.— Keightlei/s  Mythology,  p.  542.) 
 
 Juvenilis,  Decius  Junius  (or,  according  to  some, 
 Decimus  Junius),  was  a  celebrated  Roman  satirist. 
 His  birthplace,  on  no  very  sure  grounds,  is  said  to 
 have  been  Aquinum,  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 born  somewhere  about  A.D.  40,  under  Caligula,  and 
 to  have  died  turned  of  80,  under  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
 But  few  particulars  of  his  life  are  known,  and  for  these 
 we  are  indebted  to  a  short  biographical  sketch  ascribed 
 to  Suetonius.  This  notice,  however,  is  found  in  so 
 corrupt  a  state  in  the  MSS.  as  to  have  given  rise  to 
 interpretations  directly  at  variance  with  each  other. 
 Without  stopping  to  inquire  into  the  discussions  which 
 have  thus  been  excited,  we  will  proceed  to  lay  before 
 the  student  the  results  at  which  the  best  and  most  re- 
 cent critics  have  arrived.  Juvenal's  birth  was  far  from 
 elevated.  The  author  of  his  life  doubts  whether  he 
 was  the  son  or  merely  the  foster-son  of  a  rich  frcedman. 
 From  the  period  of  his  birth  till  he  had  attained  the 
 age  of  forty,  nothing  more  is  known  of  him  than  that 
 he  continued  to  perfect  himself  in  the  study  of  elo- 
 quence by  declaiming,  according  to  the  practice  ot 
 those  days  :  yet  more  for  his  own  amusement  than 
 from  any  intention  to  prepare  himself  either  for  the 
 schools  or  the  courts  of  law.  About  this  time  he 
 seems  to  have  discovered  his  true  bent,  and  betaken 
 himself  to  poetry.  Domitian  was  now  at  the  head  of 
 the  government,  and  showed  symptoms  of  reviving  that 
 system  of  favouritism  which  had  nearly  ruined  the 
 empire  under  Claudius,  by  his  unbounded  partiality 
 for  a  young  pantomime  dancer  of  the  name  of  Paris. 
 Against  this  minion  Juvenal  serms  to  have  directed 
 the  first  shafts  of  that  satire  which  was  destined  to 
 make  the  most  "powerful  vices  tremble,  and  shake  the 
 masters  of  the  world  on  their  thrones.  He  composed 
 a  satire  on  the  influence  of  Paris  with  considerable 
 success,  but  dared  not  publish  it,  though  it  was  se- 
 cretly handed  about  among  his  friends.  Hence  Qum- 
 tilian,  who  wrote  A.D.  92,  makes  no  mention  of  Ju- 
 
 709 
 
JUVENALIS. 
 
 IXI 
 
 venal  among  the  Latin  satirists  ;  although  it  has  been 
 supposed  that  he  iiad  him  in  view  in  the  passage  where 
 he  remarks,  "  we  possess  at  the  present  day  some  dis- 
 tinguished ones,  whom  we  will  name  hereafter."  {Inst. 
 Or.,  10,  1.)  It  was  under  Trajan  that  Juvenal  wrote 
 the  greater  part  of  his  satires  ;  the  thirteenth  and  fif- 
 teenth were  composed  under  Hadrian,  when  the  au- 
 thor was  in  his  79th  year.  Then  for  the  first  time  he 
 recited  his  works  in  public,  and  met  with  the  most 
 unbounded  admiration.  The  seventh  satire,  however, 
 mvolved  him  \n  trouble.  It  was  the  one  he  had  first 
 composed,  and  in  it  the  poei  had  lashed  the  pantomime 
 I'aris,  the  favourite  of  Domitian.  Hadrian,  who  had 
 suffered  a  comedian  of  the  day  to  acquire  a  great  as- 
 cendancy over  him,  believed  that  the  poet  meant  to 
 reflect  upon  this  weakness  of  his,  and  resolved  to  have 
 revenge.  Under  pretext,  therefore,  of  honouring  the 
 old  man,  he  named  him  prefect  of  a  legion  stationed 
 at  Syene,  in  Egypt ;  according  to  others,  at  Pentapo- 
 lis,  in  Libya  ;  or,  according  to  others  again,  he  was 
 sent  to  one  of  the  Oases,  an  ordinary  abode  of  exiles. 
 He  died  a  few  years  after,  in  this  honourable  exile. — 
 We  have  sixteen  satires  from  the  pen  of  Juvenal.  In 
 some  editions  they  are  divided  into  five  books,  of  which 
 the  first  contains  five  satires ;  the  second  one  ;  the 
 third  three  ;  the  fourth  three  ;  and  the  fifth  four.  If 
 we  may  judge  of  the  character  of  a  writer  from  his 
 works,  Juvenal  was  a  man  of  rigid  probity,  and  wor- 
 thy of  living  in  a  better  and  purer  age.  His  satires 
 everywhere  breathe  a  love  of  virtue  and  abhorrence 
 of  vice.  Differing  widely  in  this  respect  from  Per- 
 sius,  he  does  not  give  himself  up  to  the  principles  of 
 one  particular  school  of  philosophy  ;  he  paints,  on  the 
 contrary,  in  strong  and  glowing  colours,  the  hypocrisy 
 and  the  vices  of  the  pretended  philosophers  of  his  time, 
 and  especially  of  the  Stoic  sect,  to  whose  failings  Per- 
 sius  had  shut  his  eyes.  He  differs,  moreover,  from 
 this  last-mentioned  satirist  in  not  borrowing  from  the 
 schools  of  philosophy  the  arms  with  which  he  attacked 
 their  failings  :  he  found  these  abundantly  supplied  by 
 the  resources  of  his  own  genius,  by  the  experience 
 which  a  long  acquaintance  with  the  world  had  gained 
 for  him,  and  by  the  indignation  which  warmed  his  bo- 
 som on  contemplating  the  gross  corruption  of  the  times. 
 His  genius  in  some  respect  resembled  that  of  Horace, 
 but  a  long-established  habit  of  familiarity  with  rhetor- 
 ical subjects  produced  an  influence  on  his  general  man- 
 ner, which  is  infinitely  graver  than  that  of  the  friend  of 
 Maecenas.  Horace  laughs  at  the  follies  of  his  age  ; 
 Juvenal  glows  with  indignation  at  the  vices  of  his  own. 
 The  former  passes  rapidly  from  one  topic  to  another, 
 and  seems,  as  it  were,  led  onward  by  his  subject ;  Ju- 
 venal, on  the  contrary,  follows  a  regular  and  method- 
 ical plan  ;  he  treats  his  subject  according  to  the  rules 
 of  the  oratorical  art,  and  is  careful  never  to  lose  the 
 thread  of  his  discourse.  The  distinctive  character  of 
 Juvenal's  satire  is  a  passionate  hatred  of,  and  an  inex- 
 orable severity  towards  vice,  and  on  this  theme  he 
 never  indulges  in  pleasantry  ;  neither  does  any  digres- 
 siori  ever  lead  hiin  olT  from  the  object  which  he  has  in 
 view.  It  is  this  manner  that  gives  to  the  satires  of 
 Juvenal  a  certain  appearance  of  dryness,  which  form  a 
 direct  contrast  to  the  agreeable  variety  that  pervades 
 the  satires  of  Horace.  A  circumstance  extremely  fa- 
 vourable to  llic  literary  reputation  of  Juvenal  is  to  be 
 found  in  the  fact,  of  his  not  having  dared  to  publish  his 
 satires  until  an  advanced  period  of  life.  Hence  he 
 was  enabled  to  revise  and  retouch  them,  to  purify  his 
 taste,  and  to  calm  the  fiery  spirit  which  animated  his 
 earlier  eiforts  by  the  sober  judgment  of  rnaturer  years. 
 Juvenal  is  said  to  have  spent  much  lime  in  attendance 
 on  the  schools  of  the  rhetoricians,  and  the  effect  of  this, 
 in  an  age  not  remarkable  for  purity  of  taste,  may  be 
 observed,  perhaps,  in  a  tendency  to  hyjierbolical  infla- 
 lion  of  both  thought  and  style,  which  would  soon  be- 
 tray a  writer  of  less  power  into  the  ridiculous.  From 
 710 
 
 this  his  wit,  command  of  language,  and  force  and  ful- 
 ness of  thought,  completely  preserve  him :  still,  per- 
 haps, he  would  produce  more  effect  if  the  effort  to  do 
 his  utmost  were  less  apparent. — The  writings  of  Ju- 
 venal are  addressed  to  the  encouragement  of  virtue  no 
 less  than  to  the  chastisement  of  vice ;  and  parts  of 
 them  have  been  recommended  by  Christian  divines  as 
 admirable  storehouses  of  moral  precepts.  Still  they 
 lie  open  to  the  objection  of  descending  so  minutely 
 into  the  details  of  vice,  as  to  minister  food  as  well  as 
 physic  to  the  depraved  mind.  To  the  scholar  they  are 
 invaluable  for  the  information  which  they  supply  con- 
 cerning private  life  among  the  Romans.  'I'he  best 
 editions  of  Juvenal  are,  that  of  Ruperti,  Lips.,  1819, 
 2  vols.  8vo,  and  that  of  Lemaire,  Pans,  1823,  3  vols. 
 8vo.  The  latter,  indeed,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
 Editio  Optima.  An  enumeration  of  the  previous  edi- 
 tions will  be  found  in  the  Prolegomena  appended  to 
 the  last  volume  of  Lemaire's  work. 
 
 JuvENTAS,  a  goddess  at  Rome,  who  presided  over 
 youth  and  vigour.  She  is  the  same  as  the  Hebe  of 
 the  Greeks.  The  altar  of  Juventas  stood  in  the  ves- 
 tibule of  the  temple  of  Minerva.  {Dion.  Hal.,  3,  69.) 
 There  was  a  temple  of  this  goddess  in  which  a  regis- 
 try was  kept  of  the  names  of  the  young  men  who  were 
 of  the  military  age.     {Dion.  Hal.,  4,  13.) 
 
 JuvERNiA  {'lovepvca),  a  name  for  Ireland,  found 
 among  the  Greek  writers.  {Agathem.,  2,  4. — Ptol., 
 2,  2.)  In  the  various  names  of  Ireland,  as  known  to 
 the  classic  writers,  namely,  Iris,  lernis,  Juvernis,  Ju- 
 vernia,  Hibernia,  &c..  the  radical  Ir  or  Eri,  by  which 
 it  is  still  known  to  its  own  natives,  is  plainly  traceable. 
 It  is  customary  among  the  Irish  to  indicate  a  country 
 by  the  prefix  Hy  or  Hua,  sometimes  written  O,  as  in 
 the  case  of  proper  names,  signifying,  literally,  "  the 
 (dwelling  of  the)  sons  or  family  of,"  such  as  Hy-Ma- 
 nia,  Hy-Tuirlre,  Hy- Brazil,  &.c.  In  adding  this  pre- 
 fix to  names  beginning  with  a  vowel,  it  is  optional  to 
 insert  a  consonant  to  prevent  the  concurrence  of  open 
 sounds;  thus,  Hy-v-Each  means  the  country  of  the 
 descendants  of  Each  or  .lEacus.  Again,  this  prefi.\ 
 requires  the  genitive,  which  in  Eri  is  Erin,  and  thus 
 all  variations  of  the  name,  from  the  his  of  Diodorus 
 Siculus,  and  the  Ir-land  or  Ire-land  of  modern  times, 
 to  the  lernis  {Hy-Ernis)  of  the  Orphic  poems,  and  the 
 Hibernia  {Hy-b-Ernia)  of  the  Latin  writers,  would 
 seem  to  be  accounted  for.     {Vid.  Hibernia.) 
 
 IxioN,  the  son  of  Antion  or  Peision,  or,  according 
 to  some,  of  Phlegyas.  Others,  again,  gave  him  the 
 god  Mars  for  a  sire.  He  obtained  the  hand  of  Dia, 
 the  daughter  of  Delioneus,  having,  according  to  the 
 usage  of  the  heroic  ages,  promised  his  futher-in-Iaw 
 large  nuptial  gifts  ;  but  he  did  not  keep  his  engage- 
 ment, and  De'ioneus  seized  his  horses  and  detained 
 them  as  a  pledge.  Ixion  then  sent  to  say  that  the 
 gifts  were  ready  if  he  would  come  to  fetch  them. 
 De'ioneus  accordingly  came,  but  his  treaclierous  son- 
 in-law  had  prepared  in  his  house  a  pit  filled  with  fire, 
 and  covered  over  with  bits  of  wood  and  with  dust,  into 
 which  the  unsuspecting  prince  fell  and  perished.  After 
 this  deed  Ixion  became  deranged,  and  the  atrocity  of 
 the  crime  was  such  that  neither  gods  nor  men  would 
 absolve  him,  till  at  length  Jupiter  took  pity  on  him  and 
 purified  him,  and  admitted  him  to  his  residence  and 
 table  on  Olympus.  But,  incapable  of  good,  Ixion  cE.st 
 an  eye  of  desire  on  the  wife  of  his  benefactor.  Juno 
 thereupon,  in  concert  with  her  lord,  formed  a  cloud  in 
 the  likeness  of  herself,  which  Ixion  embraced.  He 
 boasted  of  his  good  fortune,  and  Jupiter  precipitated 
 him  into  Erebus,  where  Mercury  fixed  him  with  brazen 
 bands  to  an  ever-revolving  fiery  wheel.  {Pind  ,  Pyth., 
 2.  39,  scqq.—  Schol.  ad  Pind,  Pyth.,  2,  39.—Hygin., 
 fab.,  62.) — This  myth  is  probably  of  great  antiquity, 
 as  the  customs  on  which  it  is  founded  only  prevailed 
 in  the  heroic  age.  Its  chief  object  seems  to  have  been 
 to  inspire  horror  for  the  violation  of  the  duties  of  hos- 
 
LAB 
 
 LAB 
 
 EUality  on  the  part  of  those  who,  having  committed 
 omicide,  were  admitted  to  the  house  and  table  of  the 
 prince,  who  consented  to  perform  the  rites  by  which 
 the  guilt  of  the  offender  was  supposed  to  be  removed. 
 The  extreniest  case  is  given,  by  making  Ixion,  that  is, 
 the  Suppliant,  and  the  first  shedder  of  kindred  blood, 
 as  he  is  expressly  called  (the  Cain  of  Greece),  act  with 
 such  base  ingratitude  towards  the  king  of  the  gods  him- 
 self, who,  according  to  the  simple  earnestness  of  early 
 mythology,  is  represented,  like  an  earthly  prince,  re- 
 ceiving his  suppliant  into  his  house  or  at  his  board. 
 The  punishment  inflicted  was  suited  to  the  offence, 
 and  calculated  to  strike  with  awe  the  minds  of  the 
 hearers. — {Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  314,  seq.) 
 
 Labarum,  the  sacred  banner  or  standard,  borne  be- 
 fore the  Roman  emperors  in  war  from  the  time  of 
 Constantino.  It  is  described  as  a  long  pike  intersect- 
 ed by  a  transverse  beam.  A  silken  veil,  of  a  purple 
 colour,  hung  down  from  the  beam,  and  was  adorned 
 with  precious  stones,  and  curiously  inwrought  with 
 the  images  of  the  reigning  monarch  and  his  children. 
 The  summit  of  the  pike  supported  a  crown  of  gold, 
 which  enclosed  the  mysterious  monogram  at  once  ex- 
 pressive of  the  figure  of  the  cross,  and  the  two  initial 
 letters  (X  and  P)  of  the  name  of  Christ.  (Lipsius,  de 
 Cruce,  lib.  3,  c.  15.)  The  safety  of  the  Labarum  was 
 intrusted  to  fifty  guards  of  approved  valour  and  fideli- 
 ty. Their  station  was  marked  by  honours  and  emol- 
 uments ;  and  some  fortunate  accidents  soon  intro- 
 duced an  opinion,  that,  as  long  as  the  guard  of  the  La- 
 barum were  engaged  in  the  execution  of  the  office, 
 they  were  secure  and  invulnerable  among  the  darts  of 
 the.  enemy.  In  the  second  civil  war  Licinius  fell  and 
 dreaded  the  power  of  this  consecrated  banner,  the 
 sight  of  which,  in  the  distress  of  battle,  animated  the 
 soldiers  of  Constantine  with  an  invincible  enthusiasm, 
 and  scattered  terror  and  dismay  through  the  adverse 
 legions.  Eusebius  {Vit.  Const.,  1.  2,  c.  7,  scqq  )  in- 
 troduces the  Labarum  before  the  Italian  expedition  of 
 Constantine  ;  but  his  narrative  seems  to  indicate  that 
 it  was  never  shown  at  the  head  of  an  army  till  Con- 
 stantine, above  ten  years  afterward,  declared  himself 
 the  enemy  of  Licinius  and  the  deliverer  of  the  church. 
 The  Christian  emperors,  who  respected  the  example 
 of  Constantine,  displayed  in  all  their  military  expedi- 
 tions the  standard  of  the  cross;  but  when  the  degen- 
 erate successors  of  Theodosius  had  ceased  to  appear 
 in  person  at  the  head  of  their  armies,  the  Labarum 
 was  deposited  as  a  venerable  but  useless  relic  in  the 
 palace  of  Constantinople.  Its  honours  are  still  pre- 
 served on  the  medals  of  the  Flavian  family.  Their 
 grateful  devotion  has  placed  the  monogram  of  (Christ 
 in  the  midst  of  the  ensigns  of  Rome.  The  solemn 
 epithets  of  "safety  of  the  republic,"  "glory  of  the 
 army,"  "restoration  of  public  happiness,"  are  equally 
 applicable  to  the  religious  and  military  trophies  ;  and 
 there  is  still  extant  a  medal  of  the  Emperor  Constan- 
 tius,  where  the  standard  of  the  Labarum  is  accom- 
 panied with  these  memorable  words,  "  By  this  sisn 
 thou  shall  conquer^  —  The  history  of  this  standard 
 is  a  remarkable  one.  A  contemporary  writer  (Cscil- 
 ius)  affirms,  that  in  the  night  which  preceded  the 
 last  battle  against  Maxentius.  Constantine  was  ad- 
 monished in  a  dream  to  inscribe  the  shields  of  his  sol- 
 diers with  the  celestial  sign  of  God,  the  sacred  mono- 
 gram of  the  name  of  Christ ;  that  he  executed  the 
 commands  of  Heaven,  and  that  his  valour  and  obedi- 
 ence were  rewarded  by  a  decisive  victory  at  the  Mil- 
 viaii  bridge.  The  dream  of  Constantine  may  be  nat- 
 urally explained  cither  by  the  enthusiasm  or  the  policy 
 of  the  emperor.  While  his  anxiety  for  the  approacli- 
 ing  day,  which  must  decide  the  fate  of  the  empire, 
 was  suspended  by  a  short  and  interrupted  slumber, 
 
 the  revered  form  of  our  Saviour  and  the  well-known 
 symbol  of  his  religion  might  forcibly  offer  themselves 
 to  the  active  fancy  of  a  prince  who  reverenced  the 
 name,  and  had,  perhaps,  secretly  implored  the  power,  of 
 the  God  of  the  Christians.  As  readily,  on  the  other 
 hand,  might  a  consummate  statesman  indulge  himself 
 in  the  use  of  one  of  those  military  stratagems,  one  of 
 those  pious  frauds,  which  Philip  and  Sertorius  had 
 employed  with  such  art  and  effect.  The  account 
 given  by  Eusebius,  however,  is  different  from  this. 
 According  to  his  statement,  Constantine  is  reported 
 to  have  seen  with  his  own  eyes  the  luminous  trophy 
 of  the  cross  placed  above  the  meridian  sun,  and  in- 
 scribed with  the  following  words  in  Greek,  "  By  this, 
 conquer."  This  appearance  in  the  sky  astonished  the 
 whole  army,  as  well  as  the  emperor  himself,  who  was 
 yet  undetermined  in  the  choice  of  a  religion  ;  but  his 
 astonishment  was  converted  into  faith  by  the  vision  of 
 the  ensuing  night.  Our  Saviour  appeared  before  his 
 eyes,  and  displayed  the  same  celestial  sign  of  the 
 cross,  directing  Constantine  to  frame  a  similar  stand- 
 ard, and  to  march,  with  an  assurance  of  victory, 
 against  Maxentius  and  all  his  enemies.  {Gibbon,  De- 
 cline and  Fall,  ch.  20,  vol.  3,  p.  2.56,  seqq.) — The 
 form  of  the  Labarum  and  monogram  may  be  seen,  as 
 we  have  already  said,  on  the  medals  of  the  Flavian 
 family.  The  etymology  of  the  term  itself  has  given 
 rise  to  many  conflicting  opinions.  Some  derive  the 
 name  from  labor;  others,  from  evTiuSeia,  "reverence;" 
 others,  from  ?i,afi6dvei.v,  "to  take;"  and  others,  again, 
 from  ?iU(pvpa,  "  spoils."  A  writer  in  the  Classical 
 Journal  assigns  the  following  derivation  ;  he  makes 
 Labarum  to  be,  like  S.  P.  Q.  R.,  only  a  notatio,  or 
 combination  of  initials  to  represent  an  equal  number  of 
 terms ;  and  thus,  L.  A.  B.  A.  R.  V.  M.  will  stand  for 
 "  Legionum  aquila  Byzantium  antiqud  Roma  urhe 
 mutavit."     {Class.  Journ.,  vol.  4,  p.  233.) 
 
 Labdacides,  a  name  given  to  CEdipus  as  descend- 
 ed from  Labdacus. 
 
 Labdacus,  a  son  of  Polydorus  by  Nycteis,  the 
 daughter  of  Nycteus,  king  of  Thebes.  His  father  and 
 mother  died  during  his  childhood,  and  he  was  left  to 
 the  care  of  Nycteus,  who,  at  his  death,  left  his  king- 
 dom in  the  hands  of  Lycus,  with  orders  to  restore  it 
 to  Labdacus  as  soon  as  of  age.  On  succeeding  to  the 
 throne,  Labdacus,  like  Pentheus,  opposed  himself  to 
 the  religion  of  Bacchus,  and  underwent  a  similar  fate. 
 He  was  father  to  Laius.  and  his  descendants  were 
 called  Labdacidae.     {Vid.  hiius.) 
 
 Labdalon,  a  hill  near  Syracuse,  forming  part  of 
 Epipoloe.  It  was  fortified  by  the  Athenians  in  their 
 contest  with  Syracuse.  {Thuajd.,  6,  97. — Compare 
 Goller,  de  Situ  et  Originc  Syracusarum,  p-  53,  seqq.) 
 
 Labeates,  a  people  of  Dalmatia,  in  the  lower  part, 
 whose  territory  constituted  the  principal  portion  of  the 
 dominions  of  Gent'us.  His  capital  was  Scodra.  In 
 the  country  of  th<'  Labeates  was  the  Labealus  Palus, 
 now  the  Lake  of  Scutari.  {Liv.,  43,  19. — Id.,  44, 
 3\.—Plin.,3,  22.) 
 
 Labeo,  a  surname  common  to  several  distinguished 
 Roman  far  ilies,  such  as  the  Asconii,  Antistii,  Atinii, 
 Ccthegi,  &,c.  It  is  derived  from  labium,  and  denote.'f 
 literally  one  who  is  thick-lipped.  {Chans.,  1,  p.  79. — 
 Putsch.,  ex  Vcrr.  Ftacc.)  Among  the  individuals  who 
 bore  this  name,  the  following  were  the  most  noted. 
 I.  Antistius.  {Vid.  Antistius  Labeo.)  — II.  Q.  Fa- 
 bius,  was  distinguished  as  a  commander,  but  was  re- 
 garded as  devoid  of  generosity  and  good  faith  towards 
 the  vanquished.  He  obtained  a  naval  victory  over 
 the  Cretans,  and  enjoyed  the  honours  of  a  triumph. 
 In  the  year  183  B.C.  he  was  created  consul  along 
 with  CI.  Marcellus,  and  commanded  the  army  sta- 
 tioned in  Liguria.  Cicero  relates  a  curious  anecdote 
 of  his  want  of  principle,  when  chosen  umpire  between 
 the  inhabitants  of  Neapolis  and  Nola,  on  the  subject 
 of  their  respective  boundaries.     {Off.,  1,  10.)     It  ts 
 
 111 
 
LAB 
 
 LAB 
 
 "said  also  that  Labco,  having  gained  a  victory  over  An-  ' 
 tiochus,  compelled  him  to  consent  to  cede  unto  the 
 llomans  the  one  half  of  his  fleet,  and  that,  taking  ad- 
 vantage of  the  equivocal  meaning  of  the  words  in  the 
 treaty,  he  caused  all  the  vessels  to  be  sawed  in  two. 
 {Val.  Max.,  7,  3.)  l^abeo  is  said  to  have  been  of  a 
 hterary  turn,  and  to  have  aided  Terence  in  the  com- 
 position of  his  comedies.  {Vid.  Tcrentius.) — III. 
 Attius,  a  wretched  poet  in  the  time  of  Perseus.  He 
 is  ridiculed  by  the  latter  on  account  of  a  wretched  ver- 
 sion which  he  had  made  of  the  Iliad,  but  which,  never- 
 theless, had  found  favour  with  Nero  and  his  courtiers. 
 (Per*.,  Sat ,  1,  50. — SchoL.ad  loc.) 
 
 L.tBERius,  Decimus,  a  Roman  knight  of  reEpeclable 
 character  and  family,  who  was  famed  for  his  talent  in 
 writing  mimes,  in  the  composition  of  which  fanciful  pro- 
 ductions he  occasionally  amused  himself.  He  was  at 
 length  requested  by  .Julius  Ca;sar  to  ajjpear  on  the  stage, 
 and  act  the  mimes  which  he  had  sketched  or  written. 
 {Macroh.,  Sal.,  2,  7.)  Laberius  was  si.\ty  years  of 
 age  when  this  occurrence  took  place.  Aware  that 
 the  entreaties  of  a  perpetual  dictator  are  nearly  equiv- 
 alent to  commands,  he  reluctantly  complied  ;  but,  in 
 tlie  prologue  to  the  first  piece  which  he  acted,  he  com- 
 plauied  bitterly  to  the  audience  of  the  degradation  to 
 which  he  had  been  subjected.  The  whole  prologue, 
 consisting  of  twenty-nine  lines,  which  have  been  pre- 
 served by  Macrobius,  is  written  in  a  fine  vein  of  poe- 
 try, and  with  all  the  high  spirit  of  a  Roman  citizen. 
 It  breathes  in  every  verse  the  most  bitter  and  indig- 
 nant feelings  of  wounded  pride,  and  highly  e.xalts  our 
 opinion  of  the  man,  who,  yielding  to  an  irresistible 
 power,  preserves  his  dignity  while  performing  a  part 
 which  he  despised.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  how,  in 
 this  frame  of  mind,  he  could  assume  the  jocund  and 
 unrestrained  gayety  of  a  mime,  or  how  the  Roman 
 people  could  relish  so  painful  a  spectacle.  He  is  said, 
 however,  to  have  represented  the  feigned  character 
 with  inimitable  grace  and  spirit.  But  in  the  course 
 of  his  performance  he  could  not  refrain  from  express- 
 ing strong  sentiments  of  freedom  and  detestation  of 
 tyranny.  In  one  of  the  scenes  he  personated  a  Syrian 
 slave ;  and,  while  escaping  from  the  lash  of  his  mas- 
 ter, he  exclaimed, 
 
 "  Porro,  Quiriles,  libtrtatem  perdidimus ;" 
 and  shortly  after  he  added, 
 
 "  Necesse  est  mxiltos  timcat  qucm  -multi  time7it," 
 on  which  the  whole  audience  turned  their  eyes  to- 
 waru?  Caesar,  who  was  present  in  the  theatre.  {Ma- 
 croh., l.c)  It  was  not  merely  to  entertain  the  people, 
 who  would  have  been  as  well  amused  with  the  repre- 
 sentation of  any  other  actoi  ,  nor  to  wound  the  private 
 feeling  of  Laberius,  that  Csesar  forced  him  on  the 
 stage.  His  sole  object  was  to  degrade  the  Roman 
 knighthood,  to  subdue  their  spirit  of  independence  and 
 honour,  and  to  strike  the  people  with  a  sense  of  his  un- 
 limited sway.  This  policy  formed  part  of  the  same  sys- 
 tem which  afterward  led  him  to  persuade  a  senator  to 
 combat  among  the  ranks  of  gladiators.  Though  Labe- 
 rius complied  with  the  wishes  of  Caesar  in  exhibiting 
 himself  on  the  stage,  and  acquitted  himself  with  ability 
 as  a  mimetic  actor,  it  would  appear  that  the  dictator 
 had  been  hurt  and  offended  by  the  freedoms  which  he 
 used  in  the  course  of  the  representation,  and,  either  on 
 this  or  some  subsequent  occasion,  bestowed  the  dra- 
 matic crown  on  Publius  Syrus  in  preference  to  the 
 Roman  knight.  Laberius  submitted  with  good  grace 
 to  this  fresh  humiliation  ;  he  pretended  to  regard  it 
 merely  as  the  ordinary  chance  of  theatric  competition 
 He  did  not  long  survive,  however,  this  double  mortifi- 
 cation, but  retired  from  Rome,  and  died  at  Puteoli 
 about  ten  months  after  the  assassination  of  Casar. 
 (Chron.  Euseb.,  ad  Olymp.  184.)  The  titles  and  a 
 few  fragments  of  forty-three  of  the  Mimes  of  Laberius 
 are  still  extant ;  but,  excepting  the  prologue  already 
 712 
 
 referred  to,  these  remains  are  too  inconsiderable  and 
 detached  to  enable  us  to  judge  of  their  subject  or 
 merits.  It  would  appear  that  he  occasionally  drama- 
 tized the  passing  follies  or  absurd  occurrences  of  the 
 day  ;  for  Cicero,  writing  to  the  lawyer  Trehonius, 
 who  expected  to  accompany  Csesar  from  Gaul  to  Brit- 
 ain, tells  him  he  had  better  return  to  Rome  quickly, 
 as  a  longer  pursuit  to  no  purpose  would  be  so  ridicu- 
 lous a  circumstance,  that  it  would  hardly  escape  the 
 drollery  of  that  arch  fellow  Laberius.  {Ep.  ad  Fam., 
 7,  11.)  According  to  Aulus  Gellius  (16,  7),  Laberius 
 had  taken  too  much  license  in  inventing  words  ;  and 
 that  author  also  gives  various  examples  of  his  use  of 
 obsolete  expressions,  or  such  as  are  only  employed  by 
 the  lowest  dregs  of  the  people.  {Dunlop's  Roman 
 Literature,  vol.  1,  p.  552,  seqq.) 
 
 LabIcum,  a  town  of  Italy,  about  fifteen  miles  from 
 Rome,  between  the  Via  Prasnestina  and  the  Via  La- 
 tina.  (Strabo,  237.)  A  great  difference  of  opinion, 
 however,  exists  as  to  its  actual  site.  Cluverius  erro- 
 neously supposes  it  to  coincide  with  the  modern  Zaga- 
 rolo.  Holstenius,  after  a  careful  examination  of  the 
 subject,  decides  in  favour  of  the  height  on  which  the 
 modern  town  of  Colonna  stands  {ad  Stcph.  Byz.,  p. 
 194),  and  his  opinion  is  strengthened  by  the  discovery 
 of  several  inscriptions  near  Colonna,  in  which  mention 
 is  made  of  Labicum.     {Cramer,  Anc.  It.,  vol.  2,  p.  75.) 
 
 Labienus,  I.  one  of  Cssar's  lieutenants  in  the  Gal- 
 lic war.  In  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  he  left 
 GsEsar  for  Pompey  {B.  Civ.,  3,  13),  escaped  from  the 
 battle  of  Pharsalia,  and  was  killed  in  that  at  Munda. 
 {B.  Hisp.,  c.  31.)  Labienus  appears  to  have  parted 
 with  almost  all  his  former  success  on  abandoning  the 
 side  of  his  old  commander.  A  detailed  biography  of 
 this  officer  is  given  in  the  Biographic  Universelle  (vol. 
 23,  p.  22,  seqq.) — II.  A  son  of  the  preceding,  who  in- 
 herited all  his  father's  hatred  to  the  party  of  Caesar. 
 After  the  defeat  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  he  refused  to 
 submit  to  the  triumvirs,  and  retired  to  Parthia,  where 
 he  was  invested  with  a  military  command,  and  proved 
 very  serviceable  to  his  new  allies  in  their  contests 
 with  the  Romans.  He  was  made  prisoner  in  Cilicia, 
 and  probably  put  to  death.  Labienus  caused  medals 
 to  be  struck,  having  on  the  obverse  his  head,  with  this 
 legend,  Q.  Labienus  Parthicus  Imper.,  and,  on  the  re- 
 verse, a  horse  caparisoned  after  the  Parthian  manner. 
 {Rasche,  Lex.  Rei  Numis7n.,  vol.  4,  col.  1402.) 
 
 Labradeiis,  a  surname  of  Jupiter  in  Caria.  The 
 name  was  derived,  according  to  Plutarch,  from  "kdSpv^, 
 the  Lydian  term  for  a  hatchet,  which  the  statue  of 
 Jove  held  in  its  hand,  and  which  had  been  offered  up 
 by  Arselis  of  Mylassa  from  the  spoils  of  Candaules, 
 king  of  Lydia.  {Pint.,  Qucest.  Gr.,  p.  301. — Op.,  ed. 
 Rehske,  vol.  7,  p.  205.) 
 
 Labronis  Portus,  or  Portus  Herculis  Liburni,  a 
 harbour  of  Etruria,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Arnus.  It 
 is  now  Livorno,  or,  as  we  pronounce  the  name,  Leg- 
 horn. Cicero  calls  it  Portus  Labronis  {ad  Q.  frat., 
 2,  6. — Compare  Zos.,  Ann.,  5),  but  the  other  is  the 
 more  usual  appellation. 
 
 Labvnetus,  a  king  of  Babylon,  mentioned  by  He- 
 rodotus (1,  74).  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
 same  with  Ncbuchodonosor.  {Wesseling  et  B'dhr, 
 ad  Herod.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Labyrinthus,  a  name  given  to  a  species  of  struc- 
 ture, full  of  intricate  passages  and  windings,  so  that, 
 when  once  entered,  it  is  next  to  impossible  for  an  in- 
 dividual to  extricate  himself  without  the  assistance  of 
 a  guide.  The  origin  of  the  term  will  be  considered 
 at  the  close  of  the  article.  There  were  four  very  fa- 
 mous labyrinths  among  the  ancients,  one  in  Egypt, 
 near  the  Lake  Mceris,  another  in  Crete,  a  third  at  Lem- 
 nos,  and  a  fourth  near  Clusium  in  Italy. — I.  The 
 Egyptian.  This  was  situate  in  Lower  Egypt,  near 
 Lake  Mcpris,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Arsinoe  or  Croco- 
 dilopolis.     The  accounts  which  the  ancient  writers 
 
LABYRINTHUS. 
 
 LAC 
 
 give  of  it  are  very  different  from  each  other.  Herod- 
 otus, who  saw  the  structure  itself,  assigns  to  it  twelve 
 courts.  {Herod.,  2,  148.)  Pliny,  whose  description 
 IS  much  more  highly  coloured  and  marvellous  than  the 
 former's,  makes  the  number  sixteen  {Plin.,  36,  19); 
 while  Strabo,  who,  like  Herodotus,  beheld  the  very 
 structure,  gives  the  number  of  courts  as  twenty-seven. 
 {Strab.,  810.)  The  following  imperfect  sketch,  drawn 
 from  these  different  sources,  may  give  some  idea  of 
 the  magnitude  and  nature  of  this  singular  structure. 
 A  large  edifice,  divided,  most  probably,  into  twelve 
 separate  palaces,  stretched  along  whh  a  succession  of 
 splendid  apartments,  spacious  halls,  &c  ,  the  whole 
 adorned  with  columns,  gigantic  statues,  richly  carved 
 hieroglyphics,  and  every  other  appendage  of  Egyptian 
 art.  With  the  north  side  of  the  structure  were  con- 
 nected six  courts,  and  the  same  number  with  the 
 southern.  These  were  open  places  surrounded  by 
 lofty  walls,  and  paved  with  large  slabs  of  stone. 
 Around  these  courts  ran  a  vast  number  of  the  most  in- 
 tricate passages,  lower  than  the  corresponding  parts  of 
 the  main  building  ;  and  around  all  these  again  was 
 thrown  a  large  wall,  affording  only  one  entrance  into 
 the  labyrinth ;  while  at  the  other  end,  where  the  laby- 
 rinth terminated,  was  a  pyramid  forty  fathoms  high, 
 with  large  figures  carved  on  it,  and  a  subterraneous 
 way  leading  within.  According  to  Herodotus,  the 
 whole  structure  contained  3000  chambers,  1500  above 
 ground,  and  as  many  below.  The  historian  informs 
 us,  that  he  went  through  all  the  rooms  above  the  sur- 
 face of  the  earth,  but  that  he  was  not  allowed  by  the 
 Egyptians  who  kept  the  place  to  examine  the  subter- 
 raneous apartments,  because  in  these  were  the  bodies 
 of  the  sacred  crocodiles,  and  of  the  kings  who  had 
 built  the  labyrinth.  "  The  upper  part,  however,"  re- 
 marks the  historian,  "  which  I  carefully  viewed,  seems 
 to  surpass  the  art  of  men  ;  for  the  passages  through 
 the  buildings,  and  the  variety  of  windings,  afforded 
 me  a  thousand  occasions  of  wonder,  as  I  passed  from 
 a  hall  to  a  chamber,  and  from  the  chamber  to  other 
 buildings,  and  from  chambers  into  halls.  All  the  roofs 
 and  walls  within  are  of  stone,  but  the  walls  are  farther 
 adorned  with  figures  of  sculpture.  The  halls  are  sur- 
 rounded with  pillars  of  white  stone,  very  closely  fitted." 
 — According  to  Herodotus,  the  labyrinth  was  built  by 
 twelve  kings,  who  at  one  time  reigned  over  Egypt, 
 and  it  was  intended  as  a  public  monument  of  their 
 common  reign.  {Herod.,  2,  148.)  Others  make  it 
 to  have  been  constructed  by  Psammeticus  alone,  who 
 was  one  of  the  twelve  ;  others,  again,  by  Ismandes  or 
 Petosuchis.  Mannert  assigns  it  to  Memnon.  Opin- 
 ions are  also  divided  as  to  the  object  of  this  singular 
 structure.  Some  regard  it  as  a  burial-place  for  the 
 kings  and  sacred  crocodiles,  an  opinion  very  prevalent 
 among  the  ancients.  Others  view  it  as  a  kind  of 
 Egyptian  Pantheon.  Others,  again,  make  it  to  have 
 been  a  place  of  assembly  for  the  deputies  sent  by  each 
 of  the  twelve  nomes  of  Egypt  (consult  article  Egyp- 
 tus,  p.  37,  col.  1);  while  another  class  think  that  the 
 Egyptian  mysteries  were  celebrated  here.  All  these 
 opinions,  however,  yield  in  ingenuity  and  acumen  to 
 that  of  Gatterer.  {Weltgesch.,  vol.  1,  p.  50,  scqq.) 
 According  to  this  writer,  the  labyrinth  was  an  archi- 
 tectural-symbolical representation  of  the  zodiac,  and 
 ■;he  course  of  the  sun  through  the  same.  The  twelve 
 palaces  are  the  twelve  zodiacal  signs  ;  the  one  half  of 
 the  building  above  ground,  and  the  other  below,  is  a 
 symbol  of  the  course  of  the  sun  above  and  below  the 
 horizon  ;  while  the  3000  chambers  in  the  whole  struc- 
 ture have  a  symbolical  reference  to  the  precession  of 
 the  equinoxes.  The  Egyptians  reckoned,  not  by  trop- 
 ical or  solar,  but  by  sidereal,  years.  The  difference 
 between  the  two,  which  depends  on  the  precession  of 
 the  equinoxes,  the  Egyptian  astronomers  made  too 
 small ;  since  they  reckoned  the  precession  at  one  de- 
 gree in  every  100  years,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  only 
 4  X 
 
 46"  per  year.  Hence  in  3000  years  it  amounts  to 
 30  degrees,  or  exactly  one  celestial  sign  ;  so  that  the 
 3000  chambers  of  the  labyrinth  indicated  symbolically 
 the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  for  each  sign  of  the  zo- 
 diac, or,  in  astrological  phraseology,  the  change  of 
 dwelling  on  the  part  of  the  gods,  and  their  advance  to 
 a  new  palace  or  abode.  Still  farther,  as  the  full  period 
 of  the  wandering  of  the  soul  from  the  body  amounted  to 
 exactly  3000  years,  the  3000  chambers  of  the  labyrinth 
 had  also  a  symbolical  reference  to  this  particular  article 
 of  Egyptian  faith. — (For  other  views  on  this  interest- 
 ing subject,  consult  Zocga,  de  Obelise,  p.  418, 7Wt.  10. 
 —  Beck,  A7ileit..  zu  Weltgesch.,  vol.  1,  p.  721. — Lar- 
 cher,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c. — Bdhr,  ad  Herod  ,  I.  c. — Id., 
 Ezciirs.  X.,  ad  Herod.,  vol.  1,  p.  918,  seqg. — De- 
 script,  de  VEgypte  Jnc,  vol.  2,  ch.  17,  sect.  3,  p.  32, 
 seqq. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  430. — Le- 
 tronne,  in  Nouv.  Ann.  des  Voyages,  par  Eyrie  et 
 Maltc-Bnm,  vol.  6,  p.  133,  seqq.) — As  regards  the 
 name  Labyrinth  itself,  much  diversity  of  opinion  ex- 
 ists. They  who  make  it  a  term  of  Grecian  origin, 
 derive  it  utto  tov  /li/  2.a6elv  -Qvpav,  from  its  diffi- 
 culty of  egress ;  or  from  ludu,  "  to  seize''''  or  "  cow- 
 fine,''''  with  reference  to  the  Cretan  labyrinth.  Others, 
 finding  in  Manetho  that  an  Egyptian  king,  named  La- 
 chares  or  Labaris,  had  erected  the  structure  in  ques- 
 tion, make  the  term  labyrinth  equivalent  to  "  the  abode 
 of  Labaris.  {Beck,  I.  c. — Jablo7isk.,  Voc.  jEgypt.,p. 
 123. — Te  'Water,  ad  loc,  p.  125,  not.  r.)  Jablonski 
 himself,  adopting  the  opinion  that  the  labyrinth  was 
 the  work  of  many  kings  in  succession,  makes  the 
 name  signify  "  the  work  of  many,'' ^  or  '^  of  a  great  mul- 
 titude,^'' and  thinks  that  the  labourers  employed  on  it 
 were  Israelites.  The  latest  etymology  is  that  of  Sickler, 
 who  makes  the  name  labyrinth  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew 
 Lavah-Biranilh,  i.  e.,  "cohcestt  arx.^'  for  cohcBrens  arx, 
 "the  connected  fortress  or  palace!"  {Handhuch,  der 
 Alt.  Geogr.,  p.  797.) — The  position  of  the  Egyptian 
 labyrinth  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  words  of  Herodo- 
 tus, oliyov  inrep  rf/g  Xifivrjg  T7'/c  Mot'ptof,  "  a  little  above 
 the  Lake  Maris,'"  so  that  D'Anville  is  evidently  in 
 error  when  he  speaks  of  two  labyrinths  in  Egypt. 
 Zoega  thinks  that  Paul  Lucas  discovered  in  1714  the 
 remains  of  the  ancient  labyrinth  at  Kesr-Caron  {de 
 Obelise.,  p.  418,  not.  10. — Paul.  Luc.,  Voyage  en 
 1714,  vol.  2,  p.  262).  This,  however,  is  erroneous. 
 The  ruins  at  Kesr-Caron  are  merely  those  of  some 
 temples.  {Descrip.  de  VEgypte  A71.,  I.  c.)  It  is 
 more  probable  that  the  remains  of  the  labyrinth  must 
 be  sought  for  near  the  village  of  Haoudrah,  where  a 
 canal  joins  the  Lake  Moeris,  and  where  a  pyramid  is 
 still  to  be  seen.  Vast  piles  of  rubbish  are  here  to  be 
 seen,  and  the  destruction  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to 
 the  Arabs,  who  may  have  thought  that  treasures  were  ' 
 concealed  under  ground  here.  {Rittcr,  Erdkunde,  vol. 
 1,  p.  810,  scqq. — Revue  Francaise,  1829,  Janv.,  p. 
 70.— Fon  Hammer,  Wien.  Jahrb.,  vol.  45  (1829),  p. 
 31.) — II.  For  an  account  of  the  Cretan,  Etrurian,  and 
 Lemnian  labyrinths,  consult  the  articles  Minotaurus, 
 Porsenna,  and  Lemnos  respectively. 
 
 Laced^mon,  I.  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Taygeta  the 
 daughter  of  Atlas,  who  married  Sparta,  the  daughter 
 of  Eurotas,  by  whom  he  had  Amyclas  and  Eurydice, 
 the  wife  of  Acrisius.  He  was  the  first  who  introduced 
 the  worship  of  the  Graces  into  Laconia,  and  who  built 
 them  a  temple.  From  Lacedoemon  and  his  wife  the 
 capital  of  Laconia  was  called  Lacedasmon  and  Sparta. 
 {Apollod.,  3,  10.— Hygin.,  fab.,  155.)— H.  A  city  of 
 Peloponnesus,  the  capital  of  Laconia,  called  also 
 Sparta.     {Vid.  Sparta.) 
 
 L.tCED^MONii  and  Laced^mones,  the  inhabitants 
 of  Lacedsmon.      {Vid.  Lacedsmon  and  Sparta.) 
 
 Lachesis,  one  ofthe  Parca3.     (7irf.  Pares.) 
 
 Lacinia,  a  surname  of  Juno,  from  her  temple  at  La 
 cinium  in  Italy. 
 
 Lacinium  Pbomontoriom,  a  celebrated  promontory 
 
 713 
 
LAC 
 
 LAC 
 
 of  M«gna  Grrecia,  in  the  territory  of  the  Brutii,  a  few 
 miles  to  the  south  of  Crotona,  which  runs  out  for  some 
 distance  into  the  sea,  and  with  the  opposite  lapygian 
 promontory  encloses  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum.  {Siraho, 
 261. — Scylax,  PcripL,  p.  4.)  Its  modern  names  arc 
 Capo  dellc  Colonnc  (Cape  of  the  Columns),  and  Capo 
 Nao  (Cape  of  the  Temple),  from  the  remains  of  the 
 temple  of  Juno  Lacinia,  which  are  still  visible  on  its 
 summit.  (Romanclli,  vol.  1,  p.  195.)  —  This  cele- 
 brated edifice,  remarkable  for  its  great  antiquity, 
 the  magnificence  of  its  decorations,  and  the  venera- 
 tion with  which  it  vvas  regarded,  was  surrounded  by  a 
 thick  grove  of  trees,  in  the  midst  of  which  were  spa- 
 cious meadows,  where  numerous  herds  and  flocks  were 
 pastured  in  perfect  security,  as  they  were  accounted 
 sacred.  From  the  profits  accruing  out  of  the  sale  of 
 these  cattle,  which  were  destined  for  sacrifices,  it  was 
 said  that  a  column  of  solid  gold  was  erected  and  con- 
 secrated to  the  goddess.  (Liv.,  24,  3. —  Cic.  de  Div., 
 1,  24.)  On  the  festival  of  Juno,  which  was  celebrated 
 annually,  an  immense  concourse  of  the  inhabitants  of 
 all  the  Italian  Greek  cities  assembled  here,  and  a 
 grand  display  of  the  most  rare  and  precious  productions 
 of  art  and  nature  was  exhibited.  {Aristot.,  de  Mirah. 
 — Alhenczus,  12,  10.)  Among  other  splendid  pictures 
 with  which  this  temple  was  adorned,  the  famous  Helen 
 of  Zeuxis  was  more  particularly  admired. — History  has 
 not  acquainted  us  with  the  founders  of  this  consecrated 
 pile.  According  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (4,  24),  some 
 ascribed  its  origm  to  Hercules.  This  sanctuary  was 
 respected  by  Pyrrhus,  as  well  as  by  Hannibal ;  the 
 latter  caused  an  inscription  in  Greek  and  Punic  char- 
 acters to  be  deposited  there,  recording  the  number  of 
 his  troops,  and  their  several  victories  and  achieve- 
 ments. {Polyb.,  3,  33  and  36.)  But  several  years 
 afterward  it  sustained  great  injury  from  Fulvius  Flac- 
 cus,  a  censor,  who  caused  a  great  portion  of  the  roof, 
 which  was  covered  with  marble,  to  be  removed,  for 
 the  purpose  of  adorning  a  temple  of  Fortune  construct- 
 ed by  him  at  Rome.  Such  an  outcry  was  raised 
 against  this  act  of  impiety,  that  orders  were  issued  by 
 the  senate  that  everything  should  be  restored  to  its 
 former  state  ;  but  this  could  not  be  effected,  no  archi- 
 tect bemg  found  of  sufficient  skill  to  replace  the  mar- 
 ble tiles  according  to  their  original  position.  (L7w,42, 
 3. —  Val.  Max.,  1,  1.) — From  the  ruins  of  this  cele- 
 brated edifice,  it  is  evident  that  it  was  of  the  early  Do 
 ric  style,  with  fluted  pillars,  broader  at  the  base  than 
 at  the  capital.  It  measured  about  132  yards  in  length 
 and  66  in  breadth ;  and,  as  it  faced  the  east,  its  prin- 
 cipal entrance  opened  to  the  west.  {Sicinhurne' s 
 Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  32. — Voyage  de  Rcidesel,  p.  151.) 
 It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  excavations  have  been 
 hitherto  made  on  this  spot,  as  it  is  very  probable  they 
 would  be  attended  with  satisfactory  results.  (Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  395,  scqq.) 
 
 LacobrIga,  I.  a  town  of  Spain,  near  the  Sacrum 
 Promontorium,  now  Lagoa.  {Mela,  3,  1. —  Vkert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  387.) — II.  A  town  of  Spain,  among 
 the  Vaccaei,  now  Lobera.     (Plin  ,  3,  4.) 
 
 LaconIca,  called  by  the  Roman  writers  Laconia, 
 a  country  of  Peloponnesus,  situate  at  its  southern  ex- 
 tremity, having  Messenia  on  the  west,  and  Arcadia 
 and  Argolis  on  the  north.  The  extent  of  Laconia 
 from  east  to  west,  where  it  reached  farthest,  was  1° 
 45',  but  it  became  narrower  towards  the  north,  and  its 
 extent  from  north  to  south  was  about  50  miles.  As 
 the  southern  parts  were  encompassed  by  the  sea,  and 
 the  east  and  northeast  parts  by  the  Sinus  Argolicus, 
 it  had  a  great  number  of  promontories,  the  chief  of 
 which  were  those  of  Malea  and  Ta;narus,  now  Capes 
 Malio  and  Malapan.  The  seacoast  of  Laconia  was 
 furnished  with  a  considerable  number  of  seaports, 
 towns,  and  commodious  harbours,  the  chief  of  which 
 were  Trinassus,  Acria,  Gythium,  and  Epidaurus.  The 
 Laconian  coasts  were  famous  for  yielding  a  shellfish, 
 714 
 
 whence  was  obtained  a  beautiful  purple  dye,  infenor 
 only  to  that  which  was  brought  from  the  Red  Sea  and 
 Phoenicia.  The  mountains  of  Laconia  were  numerous: 
 the  most  famous  was  Taygetus.  Its  principal  river 
 was  the  Eurotas,  on  which  stood  the  capital,  Sparta  or 
 Lacedasmon.  The  soil  was  very  rich,  especially  in 
 the  low  grounds,  and,  being  well  watered,  was  excel- 
 lent for  pasture  ;  but  the  number  of  its  mountains  and 
 hills  prevented  its  being  tilled  so  well  as  it  might  oth- 
 erwise have  been.  Among  the  animals  of  the  country 
 may  be  enumerated  wild  and  tame  goals,  wild  boars, 
 deer,  and  excellent  hounds.  A  blackish  green  marble 
 (probably  basalt)  was  obtained  at  Taenarus. —  (For  an 
 outline  of  Spartan  history,  consult  remarks  under  the 
 article  Sparta.) 
 
 Lactantius,  I.  Lucius  Coelius  (or  Caecilius  Firmi- 
 anus),  an  eminent  father  of  the  church,  according  to 
 some  a  native  of  Africa,  while  others  make  him  to 
 have  been  born  at  Firmium  in  Italy.  The  former  is 
 most  likely,  as  he  studied  rhetoric  at  Sicca,  a  city  of 
 Africa,  under  Arnobius,  and  attained  so  high  a  reputa- 
 tion by  a  production  called  Symposium,  or  "  the  Ban- 
 quet," that,  when  Dioclesian  entertained  a  design  to 
 render  Nicomedia  a  rival  to  Rome,  he  appointed  Lac- 
 tantius to  teach  rhetoric  in  that  city.  It  is  by  soma 
 supposed  that  he  was  originally  a  pagan,  and  convert- 
 ed, when  young,  to  the  Christian  faith  ;  but  Lardner 
 thinks  otherwise ;  and  that  he  was  a  Christian  during 
 the  persecution  of  Dioclesian  is  unquestionable.  It 
 appears  that,  owing  to  the  unprofitableness  of  his  pro 
 fession,  or  other  causes,  he  lived  in  very  narrow  cir 
 cumstances,  which  it  is,  however,  reasonable  to  con- 
 clude were  amended  when  appointed  by  the  Emperor 
 Constantino  Latin  preceptor  to  his  son  Crispus,  after 
 whose  untimely  death  he  appears  to  have  been  again 
 neglected.  Little  more  is  known  of  his  personal  his- 
 tory, except  that  he  lived  to  an  advanced  age,  but  the 
 exact  time  of  his  death  is  not  recorded.  As  a  Chris- 
 tian writer,  Lactantius  is  thought  to  treat  divinity  too 
 philosophically  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  he  is  deemed 
 the  most  eloquent  of  all  the  early  ecclesiastical  authors, 
 and  his  Latinily  has  acquired  him  the  title  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Cicero.  His  principal  object  was  to  expose  the 
 errors  and  contradictions  of  pagan  writers  on  the  sub- 
 jects of  theology  and  morals,  and  thereby  to  establish 
 the  credit  and  authority  of  the  Christian  religion,  and 
 his  works  are  written  with  much  purity  and  elegance 
 of  style,  and  discover  great  erudition.  The  testimony, 
 indeed,  to  his  learning,  eloquence,  and  piety,  is  most 
 abundant.  Le  Clerc  calls  him  the  most  eloquent  of 
 the  Latin  fathers  ;  and  Du  Pin  places  his  style  almost 
 on  a  level  with  Cicero's.  Many  writers,  however, 
 value  his  rhetoric  more  than  his  theology.  He  has 
 been  charged,  among  other  errors,  with  Manichsism, 
 from  which  Lardner  takes  great  pains  to  defend  him. 
 Middleton  has  shown,  in  his  "Free  Enquiry,"  that 
 Lactantius  was  not  free  from  the  credulity  with  which 
 many  of  the  earlv  Christian  writers  are  chargeable. 
 Several  material  defects,  moreover,  must  be  remarked 
 in  this  writer.  He  frequently  quotes  and  commends 
 spurious  writings  as  if  they  were  genuine,  and  makes 
 use  of  sophistical  and  puerile  reasonings.  Exam[)le3 
 of  this  may  be  seen  in  what  he  has  advanced  concern- 
 ing the  prc-existcnce  of  souls,  the  millennium,  the  com- 
 ing of  Ellas,  and  many  other  topics  in  theology.  Upon 
 the  subject  of  morals  Lactantius  has  occasionally  said 
 excellent  things  ;  but  they  are  mixed  with  others,  in- 
 judicious, triflmg,  or  extravagant.  He  maintains  that 
 war  is  in  all  cases  unlawful,  because  it  is  a  violation 
 of  the  commandment,  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill."  He 
 censures  navigation  and  foreign  merchandise,  con- 
 demns all  kinds  of  usury,  and  falls  into  other  absurdi- 
 ties on  moral  topics.  We  must  not,  however,  omit 
 to  remark,  to  the  credit  of  Lactantius,  his  acknowl- 
 edgment, that  when  Pythagoras  and  Plato  visited  bar- 
 barous nations  in  order  to  inform  themselves  concern- 
 
LA  C 
 
 L^L 
 
 Ing  their  sacred  doctrines  and  rites,  they  did  not  be- 
 come acquainted  with  the  Hebrews  ;  an  observation 
 which,  had  it  been  earlier  admitted,  might  have  pre- 
 vented many  mistakes  in  the  history  of  philosophy. 
 As  a  proof,  moreover,  that  Lactantius,  notwithstand- 
 ing all  his  defects,  was  capable  of  thinking  justly  and 
 liberally,  we  may  refer  to  an  excellent  passage  in  which 
 he  strenuously  asserts  the  right  of  private  judgment  in 
 religion,  and  calls  upon  all  men  to  employ  their  under- 
 standings in  a  free  inquiry  after  the  truth.  {Inslit. 
 Div.,  2,  7.)  We  have  five  prose  works  remaining  of 
 this  father  of  the  church  :  I.  De  Officio  Dei,  an  apol- 
 ogy for  Divine  Providence  against  the  Epicureans, 
 drawn  principally  from  the  miraculous  construction  of 
 the  human  frame. — 2.  De  morle  Perseculorum,  a  his- 
 tory of  the  persecutors  of  Christianity  from  Nero  to 
 Dioclesian.  The  object  of  the  writer  is  to  show,  by 
 the  violent  deaths  which  all  the  persecutors  of  Chris- 
 tianity experienced,  that  God  punished  their  crimes. 
 This  work  has  been  preserved  to  us  in  a  single  manu- 
 script, from  which  it  was  published  by  Baluze.  Nour- 
 ry  has  maintained  that  it  is  not  a  work  of  Lactantius, 
 but  of  a  certain  Lucius  Caecilius,  an  imaginary  being, 
 who  owes  his  e.xistence  merely  to  the  mutilated  title 
 of  a  manuscript. — 3.  The  principal  work  of  Lactantius 
 is  entitled  DivincE  Inslitutiones,  and  is  divided  into 
 seven  books.  It  was  written  in  reply  to  two  heathens, 
 who  wrote  against  Christianity  at  the  beginning  of  Di- 
 oclesian's  persecution.  The  date  of  the  composition 
 of  the  work  cannot  be  exactly  fixed.  Basnage,  Du 
 Pin,  and  others,  place  it  about  A.D.  320  ;  Cave  and 
 Lardner  about  A.D.  306.  Lardner  states  the  argu- 
 ments on  both  sides ;  and,  on  the  whole,  the  latter 
 opinion  seems  the  more  probable.  Of  this  treatise  he 
 published  an  abridgment, — 4,  entitled  Epitome  Institii- 
 tionum.  A  great  portion  of  this  was  already  lost  in 
 the  days  of  St.  Jerome  ;  Pfoff,  a  professor  of  Tubin- 
 gen, discovered  the  entire  abridgment  in  a  very  ancient 
 manuscript  of  the  Turin  library. — 5.  De  ira  Dei.  In 
 this  work  Lactantius  examines  the  question,  whether 
 we  can  attribute  anger  to  the  Deity,  and  decides  in 
 the  affirmative.  The  "  Banquet"  of  Lactantius  has 
 not  reached  us.  Some  ancient  manuscripts  assign  to 
 this  father  the  authorship  of  a  poem,  entitled,  "  De 
 Phoenice"  but  many  of  the  ablest  modern  critics  re- 
 gard it  as  a  spurious  production.  It  consists  of  170 
 verses,  and  turns  upon  the  well-known  fable  of  the 
 Phcenix,  which  the  early  Christians  regarded  as  an 
 emblem  of  the  resurrection.  The  editors  of  Lactan- 
 tius have  also  joined  to  his  works  two  other  poems, 
 one  on  the  passover,  "  De  Pascka"  and  the  other  on 
 our  Saviour's  passion,  "  De  Passione  Damini.'"  These 
 poems,  however,  were  written  by  Verrantius  Fortuna- 
 tus,  a  poet  of  the  sixteenth  century.  A  collection  also 
 of  enigmas,  in  verse,  has  been  assigned  by  some  to 
 Lactantius,  but  incorrectly.  Complete  editions  of  the 
 works  of  Lactantius  were  published  by  Heumann,  at 
 Gottingen,  in  1736  (the  preface  to  this  contains  a  cat- 
 alogue of  former  editions),  and  by  the  Abbe  Langlet, 
 Paris,  2  vols.  4to,  1748.  {SchoU,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.  4,  p.  26,  scqq. — Id.,  vol.  3,  p.  54. — B'dkr,  Gcsch. 
 Rom.  Lit.,  p.  124,  128,  248,  416.  484.)— II.  Placidus, 
 a  grammarian,  who  flourished  about  5.50  A.D.  {Sax. 
 Onomast.,  vol.  2,  p.  45  )  He  was  the  author  of  Ar- 
 gumenta  MctamorpJwscon  Ovidii,  in  prose.  {Midler, 
 V.  S.,  p.  139.  —  Muncker,  Praf.  ad  Fulgent,  in  My- 
 thogr.  Lat.) 
 
 Lacydes,  a  philosopher  of  Cyrene,  who  filled  the 
 chair  of  the  Platonic  school  at  Athens  after  the  death 
 of  Arcesilaus.  He  assumed  this  office  in  the  4th  year 
 of  the  134th  Olympiad.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
 founder  of  a  new  school,  not  because  he  introduced 
 any  new  doctrines,  but  because  he  changed  the  place 
 of  instruction,  and  held  his  school  in  the  garden  of 
 Attalus,  still,  however,  within  the  limits  of  the  Aca- 
 demic grove.     He  died  of  a  palsy,  occasioned  by  ex- 
 
 cessive dnnking,  in  the  second  year  of  the  14Ist  Olym- 
 piad. {Diog.  Laert.,  4,  59,  segq.—^lian,  V.  H.,  3, 
 41. — AthencBus,  10,  50.) 
 
 Ladon,  I.  a  small  stream  of  Elis,  flowing  into  the 
 Peneus,  and  passing  by  Pylos.  {Pausan.,  6,  22  )  In 
 modern  maps  it  is  called  the  Dcrviche  or  Tchcliber. — 
 II.  A  river  of  Arcadia,  rising  near  the  village  of  Lycu- 
 ria,  between  the  Peneus  and  Clitor.  It  was  accounted 
 the  most  beautiful  stream  in  Greece.  It  is  now  call- 
 ed, according  to  Dodwell  (vol.  2,  p.  442),  Kephalo- 
 Brusi,  a  general  name  in  Romaic  for  any  abundant 
 source  of  water.  He  describes  it  as  gnrglincr  in  con- 
 tinual eruptions  from  the  ground,  and  immediately 
 forming  a  fine,  rapid  river.  {Pausan.,  8,  20. — Dionys. 
 Pcrieg.,  V.  J^\l.—Ovid,  Met..  1,  702.— /rf,  Fast.,  5, 
 89. —  Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  317,  senq.) 
 
 L.«:lius,  I.  C,  surnamed  Ne'pos,  an  eminent  Ro- 
 man commander,  accompanied  the  elder  Africanus  into 
 Spain,  and  had  the  command  of  the  fleet  assigned  him, 
 which  was  to  co-operate  with  the  land  forces.  He 
 contributed  to  the  reduction  of  Carthago  Nova,  and 
 was  highly  honoured  by  Scipio,  both  for  his  services 
 on  this  occasion,  and  also  for  his  judicious  conduct  in 
 appeasing  a  commotion  produced  by  the  rivalry  that 
 prevailed  between  the  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  Ro- 
 mans. {Liv.,  25,  48.)  He  was  afterward  sent  to 
 Rome  to  give  an  account  of  the  successes  which  had 
 attended  the  arms  of  the  republic.  After  the  close  of 
 the  Spanish  war,  Laelius  was  despatched  by  Scipio  to 
 the  court  of  Syphax,  to  sound  that  prince,  and  engage 
 him  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  Romans.  The  fol- 
 lowing year  (A.U.C.  548,  B.C.  206),  Asdrubal,  the 
 son  of  Giscon,  having  renewed  the  war  in  Spain,  I.se- 
 lius  was  despatched  to  oppose  him,  and  nearly  succeed- 
 ed in  making  himself  master  of  Gades.  In  A.U.C. 
 549,  B.C.  205,  he  was  directed  by  Scipio  to  make  a 
 descent  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  which  he  effected,  and 
 obtained  an  immense  booty.  In  the  course  of  this 
 war  he  surprised  the  camp  of  Syphax  during  the  night, 
 in  conjunction  with  Masinissa,  set  fire  to  it,  pursued 
 and  overtook  the  prince  himself,  and  made  him  pris- 
 oner. He  conducted  Syphax  to  Rome,  and  then  has- 
 tened to  rejoin  Scipio,  and  share  his  glory  and  his  dan- 
 gers. Laelius  was  elected  praetor  A.U.C.  557,  B.C. 
 197,  and  obtained  the  government  of  Sicily.  He  af- 
 terward stood  candidate  for  the  consulship,  but  was 
 defeated  by  private  intrigues,  and  did  not  attain  to  that 
 office  until  A.U.C.  564,  B.C.  190.  After  his  election 
 to  the  consulship,  Laelius  had  some  difficulties  with 
 his  colleague,  L.  Cornelius  Scipio,  respecting  the  di- 
 vision of  the  provinces.  They  both  desired  the  gov- 
 ernment of  Greece;  but  the  senate,  to  whom  the  ques- 
 tion was  left,  decided  in  favour  of  Scipio,  and  Lselius 
 was  obliged  to  be  satisfied  with  a  government  in  Italy. 
 In  discharging  the  duties  of  this,  he  rcpeopled  Cremo- 
 na and  Placentia,  which  had  been  ruined  by  wars  and 
 contagious  disorders.  History,  after  this,  makes  no 
 farther  mention  of  him.  It  was  from  the  narratives  of 
 Laelius  that  Polybius  wrote  his  account  of  the  cam- 
 paigns of  Scipio  in  Spain  and  Africa.  {Polyh.,  10,  11. 
 —  Liv..  26,  42,  seqq.  —  Id.,  27,  7,  seqq.  —  Id.,  29,  1, 
 seqq.) — II.  Surnamed  Sapiens,  was  son  of  the  prece- 
 ding. He  studied  philosophy  in  early  life  under  Dio- 
 genes the  Stoic  and  Pana»tius,  and  learned,  from  these 
 two  eminent  philosophers,  to  contemn  the  allurements 
 of  pleasure,  and  to  cherish  an  ardent  love  for  wisdom 
 and  virtue.  Turning  his  attention  after  this  to  the 
 profession  of  the  bar,  he  took  a  high  rank  among  the 
 orators  of  his  lime.  His  eloquence  is  described  by 
 Cicero  as  mild  and  persuasive,  although  he  was  neg- 
 ligent in  point  of  style,  and  too  fond  of  employmg  an- 
 tiquated  terms.  {Cic,  Brut.,  21,  scqq.)  LieIius  ac- 
 companied his  friend,  the  younger  Africanus,  to  the 
 siege  of  Carthage,  where  he  signalized  his  valour. 
 After  the  destruction  of  this  celebrated  city,  he  was 
 sent  as  praetor  into  Spain,  and  there  broke  the  powei 
 ^  715 
 
L^S 
 
 L^  V 
 
 of  the  chieftain  Viriathus.  {Cic,  Off,  2,  11.)  He 
 was  afterward  elected  into  the  college  of  augurs,  B.C. 
 118,  and  defeated  before  the  comitia  the  proposition 
 of  L.  Cra.ssus,  to  deprive  the  senate  of  the  power  of 
 electing  the  members  of  the  augural  college,  and  to 
 transfer  this  right  to  the  people.  Cicero  {N.  D.,  3, 
 43)  calls  the  speech  which  he  delivered  on  this  oc- 
 casion "  ora/iunctila  aureola."  Bribery  and  intrigue 
 frustrated  for  some  time  his  applications  for  the  con- 
 sulship, notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  Scipio  in  his  be- 
 half, until  B.C.  140,  when  his  merit  triumphed  over 
 every  obstacle.  He  was  consul  with  C  Servilius 
 Csepio,  and  conducted  himself  in  this  high  office  with 
 a  moderation  well  calculated  to  conciliate  all  minds. 
 Still,  however,  he  could  not  obtain  a  re-election,  a  cir- 
 cumstance to  which  Cicero  alludes,  who  blames  the 
 people  for  depriving  themselves  of  the  services  of  so 
 wise  a  magistrate.  {Ctc,  Tusc,  5,  19.)  Laslius  liv- 
 ed a  country  life,  and,  when  there,  divided  his  time  be- 
 tween study  and  agriculture.  He  appears  to  have 
 been  of  a  cheerful  and  equable  temper,  and  to  have 
 looked  with  philosophic  calmness  on  both  the  favours 
 and  the  frowns  of  fortune.  Hence  Horace  {Scrm.,  2, 
 1,  72)  alludes  to  the  "  jnitis  sapienlia  Laiii."  He 
 numbered  among  his  friends  Pacuvius  and  Terence, 
 and  it  was  thought  that,  in  conjunction  with  Scipio, 
 he  aided  Terence  in  the  composition  of  his  dramas. 
 (But  consult  the  article  Terentius.)  The  friendship 
 that  subsisted  between  Lselius  and  Scipio  was  cele- 
 brated throughout  Rome,  and  it  was  this  which  in- 
 duced Cicero  to  place  the  name  of  the  former  at  the 
 head  of  his  beautiful  dialogue  "  ZJe  Amicitia,"  the  in- 
 terlocutors in  which  are  Laelius  and  his  two  sons-in- 
 law,  C  Fannius  and  Q.  Mutius  Scavola.  Quintilian 
 mentions  a  daughter  of  Lselius  who  was  celebrated  for 
 her  eloquence.     (Quint.,  1,  1,  6.) 
 
 Laertes,  I.  king  of  Ithaca  and  father  of  Ulysses. 
 He  was  one  of  the  Argonauts.  He  ceded  the  crown 
 to  his  son  and  retired  to  the  country,  where  he  spent 
 his  time  in  the  cultivation  of  the  earth.  Ulysses  found 
 him  thus  employed  on  his  return,  enfeebled  by  age  and 
 sorrow.  (Vid.  Ulysses.) — H.  A  town  and  harbour  of 
 Cilicia,  on  the  confines  of  Painphylia,  and  west  of 
 Selinus.  Strabo  makes  it  to  have  been  a  fortified  post 
 on  a  hill,  with  a  harbour  below  (669).  It  was  the  birth- 
 place-of  Diogenes  Laertius.     {Vid.  Diogenes  III.) 
 
 Laertius,  Diogenes,  a  Greek  writer.  {Vid.  Di- 
 ogenes III.) 
 
 L.ff:sTRYGONEs,  a  gigantic  and  androphagous  race, 
 mentioned  by  Homer  in  his  description  of  the  wander- 
 ings of  Ulysses.  The  country  of  the  Lsestrygones, 
 according  to  the  poet,  lay  very  far  to  the  west,  since 
 Ulysses,  when  driven  from  the  island  of  ^olus,  sailed 
 on  farther  for  six  days  and  nights,  at  the  end  of  which 
 time  he  reached  the  land  of  the  Laestrygonians.  Many 
 expounders  of  mythology,  therefore,  place  the  Lass- 
 trygones  in  Sicily.  But  for  this  there  is  no  good  rea- 
 son whatever,  since  Homer  makes  this  race  and  that 
 of  the  Cyclopes  to  dwell  at  a  wide  distance  from  each 
 other.  Equally  fabulous  is  the  account  given  by  some 
 of  the  ancient  writers,  that  a  colony  of  Laestrygones 
 passed  over  into  Italy  with  Lamus  at  their  head,  and 
 built  the  city  of  Formia;.  When  once  the  respective 
 situations  of  Circe's  island  and  that  of  ^-Eolus  were 
 thought  to  have  been  ascertained,  it  became  no  very 
 difficult  matter  to  advance  a  step  farther,  and,  as  the 
 Laestrygones  lay,  according  to  Homer,  between  these 
 two  islands,  to  make  Formia;  on  the  Italian  coast  a 
 city  of  that  people.  Formise  was,  however,  in  truth, 
 of  Pelasgic  origin,  and  seems  to  have  owed  a  large 
 portion  of  its  prosperity  to  a  Spartan  colony.  The 
 name  appears  to  come  from  the  Greek  'Opfiiai,  and  to 
 have  denoted  a  good  harbour.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 4,  p.  11,  seqq.) — Unlike  the  Cyclopes,  the  Laestrygo- 
 nes lived  in  the  social  state.  Their  king  was  named 
 Antiphates,  their  town  was  called  Laestrygonia  or  Te- 
 716 
 
 lepylus  (it  is  uncertain  which),  and  a  fountain  near  it 
 Artakia.  Such  was  the  state  of  things,  accordmg  to 
 Homer,  when  Ulysses  came  to  this  quarter  in  the 
 course  of  his  wanderings.  There  was  a  port  at  a  lit- 
 tle distance  from  the  city,  which  all  the  ships  of  Ulys- 
 ses, but  the  one  in  which  he  himself  was,  entered.  A 
 herald,  with  two  other  persons,  was  then  sent  to  the 
 city.  They  met  the  daughter  of  Antiphates  at  the 
 founta  in  Artakia,  and  were  by  her  directed  to  her  fa- 
 ther's house.  On  entering  it  they  were  terrified  at  the 
 sight  of  his  wife,  who  was  "  as  large  as  the  top  of  a 
 mountain."  She  instantly  called  her  husband  from 
 the  market-place,  who  seized  one  of  them,  and  killed 
 and  dressed  hirn  for  dinner.  The  other  two  made 
 their  escape,  pursued  by  the  Laestrygones,  who  with 
 huge  rocks  destroyed  all  the  ships  and  their  crews 
 which  were  within  the  harbour,  the  vessel  of  Ulysses, 
 which  had  not  entered,  alone  escaping.  (Horn.,  Od., 
 10,  81,  seqq  ) 
 
 L.<ETORiA  Lex,  I.  ordered  that  the  plebeian  magis- 
 trates should  be  elected  at  the  Comitia  Tributa:  pass- 
 ed A.U.C.  292.— II.  Another,  passed  A.U.C.  497, 
 against  the  defrauding  of  minors.  By  this  law  the 
 years  of  minority  were  limited  to  twenty-five,  and  no 
 one  below  that  age  could  make  a  legal  bargain. 
 (Heinccc,  Ant.  Rom.,  ed.  Hmibold,  p.  197,  seq  ) 
 
 L^viNUs,  I.  P.  Valerius,  was  consul  A  U.C.  472, 
 B.C.  280,  and  was  charged  with  the  conduct  of  the 
 war  against  Pyrrhus  and  the  Tarentines.  The  rapid- 
 ity of  his  advance  into  Southern  Italy  induced  Pyr- 
 rhus to  oflfer  him  terms  of  accommodation,  and  to  pro- 
 pose himself  as  an  umpire  between  the  Tarentines  and 
 Romans.  Laevinus  made  answer  to  the  monarch's 
 envoy,  that  the  Romans  neither  wished  his  master  for 
 an  arbitrator,  nor  feared  him  as  an  enemy.  A  bloody 
 battle  ensued  near  Heraclea,  which  Pyrrhus  eventually 
 gained  by  means  of  his  elephants,  these  monstrous  an- 
 imals having  never  before  been  encountered  by  the 
 Romans.  This  was  the  action  after  which  Pyrrhus 
 exclaimed,  that  another  such  victory  would  prove  his 
 ruin.  Laevinus,  not  disheartened  by  his  ill  success, 
 sent  to  Rome  for  fresh  levies,  and,  having  received 
 two  legions,  set  out  in  pursuit  of  Pyrrhus,  who  was 
 advancing  against  Rome,  and  by  a  forced  march 
 saved  Capua  from  falling  into  his  hands.  {Vid.  Pyr- 
 rhus.)— II.  M.  Valerius,  of  a  consular  family,  obtained 
 the  praetorship  A.U.C.  540,  B.C.  214,  and  command- 
 ed a  fleet  stationed  near  Brundisium,  in  the  Ionian 
 Sea.  Having  heard  of  some  warlike  movement  on 
 the  part  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  he  advanced 
 against  that  prince,  gained  various  successes  over  him, 
 and,  detaching  the  ^Etolians  from  his  side,  concluded 
 a  treaty  with  them,  which  gave  the  Romans  their  first 
 firm  foothold  in  Greece.  In  A.U.C.  544,  B.C.  210, 
 he  was  elected  consul,  though  absent,  and  obtained 
 the  government  of  Italy,  which  he  exchanged  with  his 
 colleague  M.  Marcellus,  at  the  instance  of  the  senate, 
 for  that  of  Sicily.  Before  setting  out  for  his  govern- 
 ment, he  distinguished  himself  at  Rome  by  his  patri- 
 otic conduct.  There  being  a  scarcity  of  money  in  the 
 public  treasury,  and  a  supply  of  rowers  being  required 
 for  the  fleet,  it  was  proposed  that  private  persons  should, 
 as  on  former  occasions,  in  proportion  to  their  fortunes 
 and  stations,  supply  rowers  with  pay  and  subsistence 
 for  thirty  days.  This  measure  exciting  much  mur- 
 muring and  ill  will  among  the  people,  and  a  sedition 
 being  apprehended,  Laevinus  recommended  to  the  sen- 
 ate that  the  rich  should  first  set  an  example,  and  con- 
 tribute to  the  common  fund  all  their  superfluous 
 wealth.  The  scheme  was  received  with  the  warmest 
 approbation;  and  so  great  was  the  ardour  on  the  part 
 of  the  rich  to  bring  in  their  gold  and  silver  to  the  treas- 
 ury, that  the  commissioners  were  not  able  to  receive, 
 nor  the  clerks  to  enter,  the  contributions.  (Livy,  26, 
 36.)  As  soon  as  Lsvinus  reached  Sicily  he  began 
 the  siege  of  Agrigentum,  the  only  important  city  which 
 
LAI 
 
 LAM 
 
 still  held  out  for  tlio  Carthaginians.  Its  reduction 
 brought  with  it  the  submission  of  the  whole  of  Sicily 
 to  the  Roman  arms.  Having  been  continued  in  com- 
 mand for  another  year,  he  collected  all  his  naval  forces, 
 made  a  descent  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and,  encoun- 
 tering on  his  return  the  Carthaginian  fleet,  gained  a 
 splendid  naval  victory.  He  was  afterward  deputed  to 
 visit  the  court  of  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus,  and  ob- 
 tain the  statue  of  Cybele.  {Vid.  Cyhele.)  In  A.U.C. 
 553,  B.C.  201,  Laevinus  was  sent  as  proprsetor  to  Ma- 
 cedonia, acrainst  King  Philip  ;  but  he  died  the  follow- 
 ing year.  His  sons  Publius  and  Marcus  celebrated 
 funeral  games  in  honour  of  their  father,  which  were 
 continued  for  the  space  of  four  days.  (Liv.,  24,  10, 
 xeqq.—LL,  24,  40,  seqq.—Id.,  26,  40,  seqq.—Id.,  29, 
 11.— M,  31,  3.— Id.,  31,  50.)— in.  P.  Valerius,  a 
 descendant  of  the  preceding,  despised  at  Rome  for  his 
 vices.     (Hurat.,  Serin.,  1,  6,  12. — SchoL,  ad  loc.) 
 
 L.\Gus,  a  Macedonian,  father  of  Ptolemy  I.,  of 
 Egypt  (Consult  remarks  at  the  beginning  of  the  ar- 
 ticle Ptolemaeus  I.) 
 
 Lag(jsa,  I.  an  island  in  the  Sinus  Glaucus,  near  the 
 northern  coast  of  Lycia,  now  Panagia  di  Cordialissa, 
 or,  according  to  some,  Christiana. — II.  or  Lagussae, 
 an  island,  or,  more  properly,  a  cluster  of  islands  off 
 the  coast  of  Troas,  to  the  north  of  Tenedos,  now  Tao- 
 chan  Adasi.  (Plin,  5,  31. — Bischoff  und  Moller, 
 Wurterl).  dcr  Gcogr.,  p.  676.) 
 
 LaiIdks,  a  patronymic  of  CEdipus,  son  of  LaVus. 
 iOvtd,  Met.,  6,  fab.  18.) 
 
 LAJis,  I.  the  most  celebrated  hetaerist  of  Greece. 
 She  was  born  at  Hyccara  in  Sicily,  and  was  made 
 captive  when  her  native  city  was  taken  by  the  Athe- 
 nians, in  the  course  of  the  expedition  against  Syracuse, 
 and  was  conveyed  to  Athens.  She  was  at  this  time 
 seven  years  of  age,  and  the  property  of  a  common  sol- 
 dier. Having  been  subsequently  sold  by  her  first 
 owner,  she  was  conveyed  by  her  purchaser  to  Corinth, 
 at  that  period  the  most  dissolute  city  of  Greece, 
 where,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years,  she  became  one 
 of  those  females  who  consecrated  themselves  in  that 
 city  to  the  service  of  Venus.  (Vid.  Corinthus,  to- 
 wards the  close  of  the  article.)  The  fame  of  her  ex- 
 traordinary beauty  drew  together  strangers  from  every 
 part  of  Greece,  while  the  extravagance  of  her  demands 
 gave  rise  to  the  well-known  proverb,  that  "  it  was  not 
 for  every  one  to  go  to  Corinth."  {Ov  navTug  uvSpo^ 
 EC  Kopivdov  tad'  6  TT/iovc.  Erasm.,  C'hiL,  col.  131. 
 — '''' Non  cuivis  homini  contingit  adire  Corinthum." 
 Horal.,  Epist.,  1,  17,  36.)  Pausanias  speaks  of  a 
 tomb  of  Lais  at  Corinth,  near  the  temple  of  Venus 
 Mela;nis,  on  which  was  placed  a  stone  lioness,  holding 
 a  rain  with  her  front  paws,  an  evident  allusion  to  the 
 unprincipled  rapacity  of  the  hetaerist.  The  same  wri- 
 ter makes  mention  also  of  a  tomb  of  Lais  in  Thessaly, 
 whither,  according  to  one  account,  she  had  gone, 
 through  attachment  for  a  youth  named  Hippostratus  ; 
 and  the  females  of  which  country,  dreading  her  evil 
 influence,  had  assassinated  her  in  the  temple  of  Venus. 
 — Numismatical  writers  refer  to  certain  coins  of  an- 
 cient Corinth,  which  have  on  one  side  a  lioness  hold- 
 ing down  a  ram,  and  on  the  other  a  female  head  ;  and 
 they  think  that  these  were  struck  in  honour  of  Lais, 
 the  female  head  being  intended  as  her  portrait.  (Con- 
 sult Visconti,  Iconogr.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  411.)  A  full 
 account  of  Lais  is  given  by  Bayle  {Diet.  Hist.,  s.  v.). 
 — II.  Another  hetasrist,  often  confounded  with  the  for- 
 mer, but  who  lived  fifty  or  sixty  years  later.  She  was 
 the  daughter  of  a  Corinthian  hetajrist  attached  to  Alci- 
 biades.  It  is  to  this  latter  Lais  that  we  must  refer  the 
 anecdote  related  of  Demosthenes.  (Consult  UHistoire 
 de  Lais,  par  B.  Le  Gouz  de  Gerla7id,  Paris,  1756, 
 12mo.  Some  writers,  refuted  by  Bayle,  make  this 
 Lais  to  have  been  a  daughter  of  Alcibiades.  Others, 
 misled  by  an  equivocal  expression  of  Paulmier  de 
 Grantemesnil  (Palmerius — Exercitat.,  p.  268),  have 
 
 taken  her  for  the  daughter  of  the  first  Lais ;  an  error 
 into  which  Brunck  has  also  fallen  {ad  Arisloph.  Plul.. 
 179). 
 
 Laius,  a  son  of  Labdacus,  who  succeeded'  to  the 
 throne  of  Thebes,  which  his  grandfather  Nycteus  had 
 left  to  the  care  of  his  brother  Lycus,  till  his  grandson 
 came  of  age.  He  was  driven  from  his  kingdom  by  Am- 
 phion  and  Zethus,  who  were  incensed  against  Lycus 
 for  the  cruelties  which  Antiope  had  sufl'ered.  {Vvl. 
 Antiope.)  On  the  death  of  Amphion,  Laius  succeeded 
 to  the  throne  of  Thebes,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
 Menoeceus,  called  by  Homer  Epicasta,  by  others  Jo- 
 casta.  An  oracle,  however,  warned  him  against  hav- 
 ing children,  declaring  that  he  would  meet  his  death 
 from  the  hands  of  a  son,  and  Laius,  in  consequence, 
 long  refrained  from  becoming  a  father.  At  length, 
 having  indulged  too  freely  in  wine  on  a  festal  occasion, 
 he  forgot  his  previous  resolution,  and  Jocasta  brought 
 forth  a  son.  The  child,  as  soon  as  born,  was  delivered 
 by  the  father  to  his  herdsman,  to  expose  on  Mount 
 Cithaeron.  The  herdsman,  moved  by  compassion, 
 gave  the  babe,  according  to  one  account  {Soph.,  (Ed. 
 T.,  1038),  to  a  neatherd  belonging  to  Polybus,  king 
 of  Corinth;  or,  as  others  say  {Eurip.,  Phosn.,  28), 
 the  grooms  of  Polybus  found  the  infant  after  it  had 
 been  exposed,  and  brought  it  to  the  wife  of  Polybus, 
 who,  being  childless,  reared  it  as  her  own,  and  named 
 it  CEdipus,  on  account  of  its  swollen  feet  (from  old^u, 
 to  swell,  and  Trouf,  a  foot),  for  Lai'us,  previous  to  the 
 exposure  of  the  child,  had  pierced  its  ancles  with  a 
 thong.  Many  years  afterward,  Laius,  being  on  his 
 way  to  Delphi,  to  learn  tidings  respecting  the  child 
 which  he  had  caused  to  be  exposed,  whether  it  had 
 perished  or  not,  and  being  accompanied  only  by  his 
 herald  Polyphontes,  met  in  a  narrow  road  in  Phocis  a 
 young  man  also  travelling  in  the  direction  of  the  ora- 
 cle. This  was  GEdipus,  who  was  anxious  to  ascertain 
 his  true  parentage  from  the  god.  V^'^hen  the  chariot 
 of  Laius  overtook  CEdipus,  who  was  on  foot,  the 
 driver  ordered  the  young  man  to  retire  from  the  path, 
 and  make  way  for  one  of  royal  blood.  On  his  refusal 
 a  contest  ensued,  in  which  CEdipus  slew  the  herald 
 and  his  own  father,  both  the  latter  and  his  son  being 
 ignorant  of  each  other.  The  body  of  Laius  was  found 
 and  honourably  buried  by  Damasistratus,  king  of  Pla- 
 taea  ;  and  Creon,  the  son  of  Menoeceus,  ascended  the 
 throne  of  Thebes.  The  account  here  given,  which  is 
 from  Euripides,  differs  in  some  respects  from  other 
 versions  of  the  legend.  Sophocles  makes  CEdipus  to 
 have  met  his  father  after  having  consulted  the  oracle. 
 {Soph.,  (Ed.  T.,  780,  seqq. — Compare  Apollod.,  3,  5, 
 T.—Diod.  Sic.,  4,  Gi.—Eudoc,  3,  12.) 
 
 Lalage,  I.  a  young  female  beloved  by  Horace. 
 {Od.,  1,  22,  23.)— II.  A  slave  of  Cynthia's.  (Pro- 
 pert.,  4,  7,  45.) 
 
 Lam.achus,  a  son  of  Xenophanes,  sent  into  Sicily 
 with  Nicias.  He  was  killed  B.C.  414,  before  Syra- 
 cuse. Lamachus  is  alluded  to  by  Aristophanes  in  his 
 play  of  the  Acharnenses,  and  with  some  degree  of  rid- 
 icule. That  he  was  a  man  of  high  courage,  the  com- 
 pliments directly  and  indirectly  paid  to  him  by  the 
 same  poet  {Thcsm.,  841. — Acharn.,  1073,  et  Voss,  ad 
 loc.),  sufficiently  indicate.  From  an  important  trust, 
 also,  that  was  reposed  in  him  by  Pericles  {Plut.,  Vi'. 
 PericL,  c.  20),  it  should  seem,  that  he  was  considered 
 by  that  great  statesman  a  man  of  talent  as  well  as  of 
 courage.  If  the  outward  merits  of  Lamachus  had 
 imposed  upon  the  penetration  of  Pericles,  they  had 
 not  on  that  of  Aristophanes  :  he  saw  more  froth  than 
 substance,  more  of  show  th.in  solid  worth,  m  the  young 
 soldier;  a  disposition  for  the  distinctions  and  emolu- 
 ments which  are  to  be  derived  from  soldiership,  but 
 no  evidence  of  those  high  talents  which  constitute  a 
 really  great  captain.  That  the  dramatist  had  formed 
 a  more  correct  estimate  of  the  powers  of  Lamachus 
 than  the  contemporary  statesman,  the  comparatively 
 
 717 
 
LAM 
 
 LAM 
 
 small  figure  which  he  afterward  made  in  history  suffi 
 ciently  proves.    (^Mitchell,  ad  Arislopk.,  Acharn.,  510.) 
 
 Lambrus  or  Lambkr,  a  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  is- 
 suing from  tlie  Eupilis  Lacus,  and  falling  inlo  the 
 Olotia,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Po.  It  is  now 
 the  Lambro  or  Lambrone.     {Plin.,  3,  19  ) 
 
 Lamia,  a  city  ijf  Thessaly  situate  inland  from  the 
 head  waters  of  the  Sinus  Maliacus,  and,  according  to 
 Stralio  (433),  about  thirty  stadia  from  the  Sperchius. 
 It  is  celebrated  in  history  as  the  principal  scene  of  the 
 war  which  was  carried  on  between  the  Macedonians 
 ur.der  Antipater,  and  the  Athenians,  with  other  con- 
 federate Greeks,  commanded  by  Leosthenes  ;  frotii 
 which  circumstance  it  is  generally  known  by  the  name 
 of  the  Lamiac  war.  Antipater,  having  been  defeated 
 in  the  first  instance,  retired  to  Lamia,  where  he  was 
 besieged  by  the  allies  ;  but  he  afterward  contrived  to 
 escape  from  this  place,  and  retire  to  the  north  of 
 Thessaly.  Soon  after,  with  the  assistance  of  the  army 
 of  Craterus,  brought  for  that  purpose  from  Asia,  he 
 gave  battle  to  and  defeated  his  opponents  at  Cranon, 
 and  compelled  them  to  sue  for  peace.  This  was 
 granted  them  on  severe  terms.  The  Athenians  were 
 required  to  pay  the  same  tribute  as  before,  to  receive 
 a  Macedonian  garrison,  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
 war,  and  deliver  u[)  their  orators,  whose  appeals  to  the 
 feelings  of  the  Athenian  people  had  always  occasioned 
 60  much  difliculty  for  the  Macedonians.  Demosthenes 
 and  Hyperides  were  particularly  aimed  at.  {Vid.  De- 
 mosthenes and  Hyperides) — Livy  reports  (27,  30) 
 that  Philip,  the  son  of  Demetrius,  twice  defeated  the 
 ^tolians,  supported  by  Attains  and  some  Roman 
 troops,  near  this  place.  Antiochus  was  afterward 
 received  there  with  acclamations.  {Livy,  35,  43.) 
 The  place  was  subsequently  retaken  by  the  Romans. 
 {Liv  ,  37,  b.—  Polyh.,  Excerpt.,  20,  1 1,  scqq. — Plimj, 
 4,  7.)  According  to  Dr.  Holland  (vol.  2,  p.  107), 
 there  is  very  little  doubt  that  the  site  of  Zeitoiin 
 corresponds  with  that  of  the  ancient  Lamia. — H. 
 iEUus.  a  Roman  of  distinguished  family,  claiming  de- 
 scent from  Lamus,  the  most  ancient  monarch  of  the 
 Laestrygones.  He  signalized  himself  in  the  war  with 
 the  Cantabri  as  one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Augustus. 
 (Horat.,  Od.,  3,  17.) — fll.  The  mistress  of  Deme- 
 trius Poliorcetes,  who  rendered  herself  celebrated  by 
 her  extravagances,  her  intrigues,  and  her  ascendancy 
 over  that  prince.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Dcmctr. — JElian,  V. 
 H.,  1,  13.) 
 
 TihUiJE,  fabulous  monsters,  commonly  represented 
 with  the  head  and  breast  of  a  female,  and  the  body  of 
 a  serpent.  According  to  some,  they  changed  their 
 forms  at  pleasure,  and,  when  about  to  ensnare  their 
 prey,  assumed  such  appearances  as  were  most  seduc- 
 tive and  calculated  to  please.  The  blood  of  young 
 persons  was  believed  to  possess  peculiar  attractions 
 for  them,  and  for  the  purpose  of  quaffing  this  they 
 were  wont  to  take  the  form  of  a  beautiful  female. 
 The  Lamice  possessed  also  another  means  of  accom- 
 plishing their  object.  This  was  a  species  of  hissing 
 sound  emitted  by  them,  so  soothing  and  attractive  in 
 its  nature,  that  persons  found  themselves  irresistibly 
 allured  by  it.  When  not  in  disguise,  and  when  they 
 had  sated  their  horrid  appetites,  their  form  was  hide- 
 ous, their  visages  glowed  like  fire,  their  bodies  were 
 besmeared  with  blood,  and  their  feet  appeared  of  iron 
 or  of  lead.  Sometimes  they  showed  themselves  com- 
 pletely blind,  at  other  times  they  had  a  single  eye, 
 either  in  the  forehead  or  on  one  side  of  the  visao-e. 
 The  popular  belief  made  them  frequent  Africa  and 
 Thessaly,  in  both  of  which  countries  they  watched  alono- 
 the  main  roads,  and  seized  upon  unwary  travellers. — 
 The  fable  of  Queen  Lamia  has  some  analogy  to  this 
 fiction,  and  both,  in  all  probability,  owe  their  origin  to 
 one  and  the  same  source.  Lamia,  according  to  Di- 
 odorus  Siculus  and  other  ancient  authorities,  was  a 
 queen  of  Africa,  remarkable  for  beauty,  who,  on  ac- 
 718 
 
 count  of  her  cruel  disposition,  was  eventually  trans- 
 formc<l  into  a  wild  beast.  Having  lost,  it  seems,  her 
 own  children  by  the  hand  of  death,  she  sought  to  con- 
 sole her  sorrow  by  seizing  the  children  of  her  subjects 
 from  their  mothers'  arms,  and  causing  them  to  be 
 slain.  Hence  the  transformation  inflicted  upon  her 
 by  the  gods.  (Diod.  Sic,  20,  41. — Compare  Schol. 
 ad  Arisloph.,  Pac,  757. — Caxauh,  ad  Stiub.,^6. — 
 Wcsseiiiig,  ad  Diod.,  I.  c.)  The  Lamis  figured  e.x- 
 tensivcly  in  the  nursery-legends  of  antiquity,  and  their 
 names  and  attributes  were  standing  objects  of  terror 
 to  the  young.  {Diod.,  I.  c. — Compare  Horat.,  Ep.  ad 
 Pi.9.,  340. —  Vid.  Lemures.) 
 
 Lampedo,  I.  a  Lacedaemonian  female,  wife  of  Ar- 
 chidamus  H.,  king  of  Sparta,  and  mother  of  Agis. 
 She  was  celebrated  as  being  the  daughter,  wife,  sister, 
 and  mother  of  a  king. — II.  A  queen  of  the  Amazons. 
 {Justin.  2,  4.) 
 
 Lamfetia,  L  a  daughter  of  Helios  (the  Sun-god) 
 and  Nea^ra.  She,  with  her  sister  Phaethusa,  took 
 care  of  the  flocks  and  herds  of  her  father,  in  the  island 
 of  Thrinakia.  There  were  seven  flocks  of  sheep  and 
 as  many  herds  of  o.xen,  fifty  animals  in  each  flock  and 
 herd.  They  neither  bred  nor  died.  Ulysses,  in  the 
 course  of  his  wanderings,  came  to  this  island,  which 
 both  Tiresias  and  Circe  had  strictly  charged  him  to 
 shun.  On  discovering  that  it  was  Thrinakia,  the  hero 
 was  desirous  of  obeying  the  irijimctions  he  had  re- 
 ceived ;  but  as  it  was  evening  when  he  arrived,  his 
 companions  forced  him  to  consent  to  their  landing, 
 and  passing  the  night  there.  They  promised  to  de- 
 part in  the  morning,  and  took  an  oath  to  abstain  from 
 the  cattle  of  the  sun.  During  the  night  a  violent 
 storm  came  on,  and  for  an  entire  month  afterward  a 
 strong  southeast  wind  blew,  which  confined  them  to 
 the  island.  When  their  provisions  were  exhausted, 
 they  lived  on  such  birds  and  fish  as  they  could  catch. 
 At  length,  while  Ulysses  was  sleeping,  Eurylochus 
 prevailed  on  the  rest  to  slaughter  some  of  the  sacred 
 oxen  in  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  and  to  vow,  by  way  of 
 amends,  a  temple  to  Helios.  Ulysses,  on  awakening, 
 was  filled  with  horror  at  what  they  had  done  ;  and  the 
 displeasure  of  the  gods  was  soon  manifested  by  prodi- 
 gies; for  the  hides  crept  along  the  ground,  and  the 
 flesh  lowed  on  the  spits.  Still  they  fed  for  six  days 
 on  the  sacred  cattle  ;  on  the  seventh  the  storm  lulled, 
 and  they  left  the  island  ;  but,  as  soon  as  they  had  lost 
 sight  of  land,  a  terrible  west  wind,  accompanied  by 
 thunder,  lightning,  and  pitchy  darkness,  came  on. 
 Jupiter  struck  the  ship  with  a  thunderbolt  :  it  went  to 
 pieces,  and  all  were  drowned  except  Ulysses.  {Od., 
 12,  2G0,  scqq.) — H.  or  Lampetie,  one  of  the  Helia- 
 des,  or  sisters  of  Phaethon.     {Ovid,   Met.,  2,  349.) 
 
 Lampridius,  ,'Ei,ius,  a  Latin  historian,  who  flour- 
 ished in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century,  under 
 Dioclesian  and  Consiantine  the  Great.  Of  his  works 
 there  are  extant  the  lives  of  the  emperors  Antoninus, 
 Marcus  Aurelius,  Luci\is  Verus,  Pertinax,  Alhinus, 
 Macrinus,  &c.  The  life  of  Alexander  Severus,  which, 
 accordino-  to  the  Palatine  manuscript,  is  the  work  of 
 Sparlianus,  has  been  by  some  authorities  ascribed  to 
 him.  The  lives  are  to  be  found  in  the  collection  of 
 the  '•HistoricB  Auguslcz  Scriptores,^'  2  vols.  8vo,  1671. 
 Some  critics  consider  Lampridius  as  identical  with 
 Spartianus.  (Consult  Voss  ,  de  Hist.  Lat.,  2,  7. — 
 Fabric,  Bihl.  Lat.,  3,  p.  93,  note  a.  —  Saxii  One- 
 mast.,  vol.  1,  p.  38  )  The  style  and  management  of 
 Lampridius  will  not  allow  him  a  place  among  histori- 
 ans of  a  superior  class,  yet  he  is  valuable  for  his  facts. 
 {Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit  ,  vol.  1,  p.  341.) 
 
 Lampsacus,  a  city  of  Mysia  in  Asia  Minor,  situate 
 on  the  Hellespont,  where  it  begins  to  open  into  the 
 Propontis,  and  northeast  of  Abydos.  The  early  name 
 of  the  spot  where  Lampsacus  stood  was  Pityusa^ 
 from  the  number  o(  pine-trees  which  grew  there  {ttitv^, 
 a  pine-tree).     A  Phocaean  colony  is  said  to  have  found- 
 
LAN 
 
 LAO 
 
 ed  this  city  and  given  it  its  name,  being  directed  by 
 the  oracle  to  settle  wherever  they  saw  lightning  first. 
 This  look  place  in  the  district  Pityusa,  and  hence  the 
 name  of  the  city,  from  Tiu^nru,  to  shine  forth.  (Mela, 
 1,  19. — Etyni.  Mug. — Holslen.,  ad  Steph.  Bijz.,  p. 
 508.)  Stralio  calls  Lampsacus  a  Milesian  colony  : 
 very  probatily  it  was  only  enlarged  by  a  colony  from 
 Miletus.  (.SVrai.,  588. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  \o\.  6,])t. 
 3,  p.  518.)  Another  account,  however,  makes  the 
 city  to  have  existed  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  Pho- 
 caeans,  and  merely  the  name  to  have  been  changed  by 
 them.  They  aided,  according  to  this  version  of  the 
 story,  a  king  of  the  Bebryces,  named  Mandro,  against 
 the  neighbouring  barbarians,  and  were  persuaded  by 
 him  to  occupy  a  part  of  his  territory.  Their  successes 
 in  war,  however,  and  the  spoils  they  had  obtained,  ex- 
 cited the  envy  of  the  Bebrycians,  and  the  Phocffians 
 would  have  been  secretly  destroyed,  had  not  Lamp- 
 sace,  the  king's  daughter,  apprized  them  of  the  plot. 
 Out  of  gratitude  to  her,  they  called  the  city  Lampsa- 
 cus, having  destroyed  the  former  inhabitants.  {Pol- 
 yxn.,  8,  37. — Steph.  Bi/z.,  s.  v.)  The  neighbouring 
 country  was  termed  Abarnis  or  Abarnus,  because  Ve- 
 nus, who  here  was  delivered  of  Priapus,  was  so  disgust- 
 ed with  his  appearance,  that  she  disowned  him  (dnrip- 
 veiTo)  for  her  offspring.  (Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'A6apvoc. 
 — Holslcnius,  ad  Steph.  Byz.,  I.  c.)  Priapus  was  the 
 chief  deity  of  the  place.  His  temple  there  was  the 
 asylum  of  lewdness  and  debauchery  ;  and  hence  the 
 epithet  Lampsacius  is  used  to  express  immodesty  and 
 wantonness.  Alexander  resolved  to  destroy  the  city 
 on  account  of  the  vices  of  its  inhabitants,  or  more 
 probably  for  its  firm  adherence  to  the  interest  of  Per- 
 sia. It  was,  however,  saved  from  ruin  by  the  artifice 
 of  Anaximenes.  (Vid.  Anaximenes.)  The  name  of 
 Lamsaki  is  still  atiached  to  a  small  town,  near  which 
 Lampsacus  probably  stood,  as  Lamsaki  itself  contains 
 no  remains  or  vestiges  of  antiquity.  A  modern  trav- 
 eller assures  us  besides,  that  "  its  wine,  once  so  cele- 
 brated, is  now  among  the  worst  that  is  made  in  this 
 part  of  Anatolia."  (Sibthorpe,  in  Watpole's  Collec- 
 tion, vol.  1.  p.  91.) 
 
 Lamus,  I.  a  fabled  king  of  the  Lasstrygones,  said  to 
 have  founded  Formiae.  ( FtfZ.  Lasstrygones.)  The  La- 
 mian  family  at  Rome  pretended  to  claim  descent  from 
 him.  (Rural  ,  Od.,  3,  17.)— II.  A  son  of  Hercules 
 and  Om[phale,  fabled  to  have  succeeded  his  mother  on 
 the  throne  of  Lydia. — III.  A  river  in  the  western  part 
 of  Cilicia  Campestris,  now  the  Lamas.  It  gave  to 
 the  adjacent  district  the  name  of  Lamotis.  (Cramer''s 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  338.) 
 
 Lancia,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  Lusitania,  dis- 
 tinguished by  the  appellations  of  Oppidana  and  Trans- 
 cudana.  The  first  was  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Lusi- 
 tani,  near  the  sources  of  the  river  Munda  or  Mondego. 
 It  is  now  La  Guarda.  The  latter  lay  to  the  east  of 
 the  former,  and  is  now  Ciudad  Kodrigo.  It  was  called 
 Transcudana,  because  it  lay  beyond  the  Cuda.  (Bis- 
 choff  und  Moller,  Wortcrb.  der  Gcogr.,  p.  679.) 
 
 Langobaiu)!,  a  people  of  Germany,  located  by  most 
 writers  on  the  Albis  or  EUic,  and  the  Viadrus  or  Oder, 
 in  part  of  what  is  now  called  Brandenburg.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  account,  however,  of  PaulusDiaconus,  him- 
 self one  of  this  nation,  they  originally  came  from  Scan- 
 dinavia, under  the  name  of  Wiiini,  and  were  called  by 
 the  German  nations  Long  Beards,  from  their  appear- 
 ance. (Paul  Dtac,  sloe  Warnefrid,  de  Gest.  Lon- 
 goh  ,  1,  9.)  The  German  term  Lang  Baerdt,  Latin- 
 ized, became  Langobardi.  They  seem  to  have  settled 
 on  the  Elbe,  probably  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  duchy 
 of  Lunenburg.  They  are  the  same  with  the  Lombards 
 who  overran  Italy  in  a  later  age.  (Mannert,  Anc. 
 Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  179. — Leo,  Enlwickelung  der  Verf. 
 der  Lombardischen  Stddte,  Hamburg,  1824,  8vo.) 
 
 Lanuvium,  a  town  of  Latium,  about  sixteen  miles 
 from  Rome,  situate,  according  to  Strabo,  to  the  riorht 
 
 of  the  Appian  Way,  and  on  a  hill  commanding  an  ex- 
 tensive prospect  towards  Antium  and  the  sea.  There 
 is  no  very  early  mention  of  Lanuvium  in  Roman  his- 
 tory ;  but  the  title  of  '' urbs  fidelissima,"  given  to  it 
 by  Livy  (6,  21),  indicates  that  it  very  soon  sought  the 
 protection  of  the  rising  city.  It  is  noticed,  however, 
 previous  to  this  period,  as  the  place  to  which  M.  Vol- 
 scins  Fictor,  whose  false  testimony  had  caused  the 
 banishment  of  Ca8so  Quinctius,  retired  into  exile. 
 (Liv.,  3,  29.)  Lanuvium  did  not  always  remain  at- 
 tached to  Rome,  but  took  |)art  in  the  Latin  wars  with 
 the  neighbouring  cities  against  that  power.  The  con- 
 federates were,  however,  routed  near  the  river  Astura, 
 not  far  from  Antium  (Liv.,  8,  13);  and  this  defeat 
 was  soon  followed  by  the  subjugation  of  the  whole  of 
 Latium.  Lanuvium  seems  to  have  been  treated  with 
 more  moderation  than  the  other  Latin  towns  ;  for,  in- 
 stead of  being  punished,  the  inhabitants  were  made 
 Roman  citizens,  and  their  privileges  and  sacred  rights 
 were  preserved,  on  condition  that  the  temple  and  wor- 
 ship of  Juno  Sospita,  which  were  held  m  great  ven- 
 eration in  their  city,  should  be  common  to  the  Romans 
 also.  (Liii ,  8,  14.)  It  then  became  a  mjjnicipium  ; 
 and  it  remained  ever  after  faithful  to  the  Romans,  par- 
 ticularly in  the  second  Punic  war,  as  we  learn  from 
 Livy  (26,  8)  and  Silius  Italicus  (8,  361  ;  13,  364).— 
 Lanuvium  and  its  district  had  the  honour  of  giving 
 birth  to  several  distinguished  characters  in  the  annals 
 of  Rome.  Milo,  the  antagonist  of  Clodius,  was  a  na- 
 tive of  this  place,  and  was  on  his  way  thither  to  create 
 a  priest,  probably  of  Juno,  in  virtue  of  his  office  of  dic- 
 tator of  the  city,  when  he  met  Glodius  on  the  Appian 
 Way,  and  the  rencounter  took  place  which  ended  in 
 the  death  of  the  latter.  (Cic,  pro  Mil.,  c.  10.)  The 
 famous  comedian  Roscius  was  likewise  born  near  La- 
 nuvium. (Cic.,  de  Div  ,  1,  36.— Id.,  N.  D.,  1,  28.) 
 We  learn  also  from  Jul.  Capitolinus  and  ^1.  Lampri- 
 dius,  that  the  three  Antonines  were  born  here — Th« 
 ruins  of  Lanuvium  still  bear  the  name  of  Civila  Lavi 
 nia,  or  Citta  della  Vigna.  (Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol 
 2,  p.  27,  seqq.) 
 
 Laocoon,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  others,  of  Antenor,  and  a  priest  of  Apollo  du- 
 ring the  Trojan  war.  While  offering,  in  the  exer- 
 cise of  his  sarcedotal  functions,  a  bullock  to  render 
 Neptune  propitious  to  the  Trojans,  two  enormous  ser- 
 pents issued  from  the  sea,  and,  having  first  destroyed 
 his  two  sons,  whom  he  vainly  endeavoured  to  save, 
 attacked  Laocoon  himself,  and,  winding  themselves 
 round  his  body,  crushed  him  to  death  in  their  folds. 
 This  dreadful  punishment  was  inflicted  by  the  goddess 
 Minerva,  for  the  part  Laocoon  had  taken  in  endeav- 
 ouring to  dissuade  the  Trojans  from  admitting  into 
 Troy  the  famous,  and,  as  it  afterward  proved  to  them, 
 fatal  wooden  horse,  which  the  crafty  Greeks  had  con 
 secrated  to  Minerva.  (Virgil,  JEneid,  2,  40,  seqq.) 
 Virgil,  in  speaking  of  Laocoon,  employs  the  words 
 ^'  ductus  Ncptuno  sorte  sarcedos"  (^tt.,2,201).  This 
 merely  means,  as  above  stated,  that,  although  a  priest 
 of  Apollo,  he  had  been  chosen  by  lot  to  propitiate 
 Neptune  with  a  sacrifice.  (Hcyne,  ad  loc.) — An  en- 
 during celebrity  has  been  gained  for  the  story  of  Lao- 
 coon, from  its  forming  the  subject  of  one  of  the  most 
 remarkable  groups  in  sculpture  which  time  has  spared 
 to  us.  It  represents  the  agonized  father  and  his 
 youthful  sons,  one  on  each  side  of  him,  writhing  and 
 expiring  in  the  complicated  folds  of  the  serpents.  The 
 figures  are  naked,  the  drapery  that  is  introduced  being 
 only  used  to  support  and  fill  up  the  composition. 
 This  superb  work  of  art,  which  Pliny  describes  inac- 
 curately as  consisting  of  only  a  single  block  of  marble 
 (for,  in  spite  of  this"^mistake,  there  seems  to  be  no 
 doubt,  in  the  opinion  of  the  learned,  that  this  is  the 
 identical  group  alluded  to  by  that  writer),  originally 
 decorated  the  baths  of  Titus,  among  the  ruins  of  which 
 it  was  found  in  the  year  1506.     The  names  of  the 
 
 719 
 
LAOCOON. 
 
 LAO 
 
 sculptors  who  executed  it  are  also  recorded.  They 
 are  Agesander,  Polydorus,  and  Athenodorus,  natives 
 of  Rhodes.  Pliny  (36,  5)  says,  "  Laocoon,  which  is  in 
 tlie  palace  (donio)  of  the  Emperor  Titus,  is  a  work  to 
 be  preferred  to  all  others  either  in  painting  or  sculp- 
 ture. Those  great  artists,  Agesander,  and  Polydorus, 
 and  Athenodorus,  Rhodians,  executed  the  principal 
 figure  (cum),  and  the  sons,  and  the  wonderful  folds  of 
 the  serpents,  out  of  one  block  of  marble." — There 
 has  been  much  difference  of  opinion  among  antiqua- 
 ries on  several  points  connected  with  this  group : 
 first,  as  to  the  date  of  the  artists ;  AVinckelmann  con- 
 tending that  they  are  of  a  good  period  of  Grecian  art, 
 and  as  early  as  Lysippus.  A  considerably  later  date, 
 however,  is  now  attributed  to  them.  The  next  ques- 
 tion discussed  has  been,  whether  the  sculptor  was  in- 
 debted for  the  subject  to  Virgil's  fine  description  {Mn., 
 2,  200,  seqq.),  or  whether  the  poet  was  indebted  to 
 the  artist.  With  respect  to  date,  the  most  careful 
 consideration  seems  to  fix  these  sculptors  as  late  as 
 the  early  emperors ;  and  Lessing,  whose  work  on  the 
 Laocoon  deserves  the  attention  of  all  who  take  an  in- 
 terest in  the  philosophy  and  capabilities  of  art,  believes 
 they  lived  in  the  reign  of  Titus.  With  regard  to  the 
 subject,  it  is  most  probable  that  the  story,  being  well 
 known,  offered  advantages  for  illustration  to  the  sculp- 
 tor, as  it  did  for  description  to  the  poet.  As  Virgil's 
 priest  was  habited  in  his  robes  during  the  exercise  of 
 his  priestly  functions,  and  the  group  under  considera- 
 tion is  entirely  naked,  the  argument  is  additionally 
 strengthened  against  the  assumption  that  the  artist 
 borrowed  from  the  poet.  It  is  more  natural  to  believe 
 that  each  drew  from  a  common  source,  and  treated 
 the  subject  in  the  way  best  adapted  to  the  difTerent 
 arts  they  exercised  ;  the  sculptor's  object  being  con- 
 centration of  effect,  the  poet's  amplification  and  brill- 
 iant description. — This  group  is  justly  considered,  by 
 all  competent  judges,  to  be  a  master-piece  of  art.  It 
 combines,  in  its  class,  all  that  sculpture  requires,  and, 
 we  may  say,  admits  of,  and  may  truly  be  studied  as  a 
 canon.  The  subject  is  of  the  most  affecting  and  in- 
 teresting kind  ;  and  the  expression  in  every  part  cf 
 the  figures  reaches,  but  does  not  exceed,  the  limits  of 
 propriety.  Intense  mental  suffering  is  portrayed  in 
 the  countenances,  while  the  physical  strength  of  all 
 the  three  figures  is  evidently  sinking  under  the  irresist- 
 ible power  of  the  huge  reptiles  wreathed  around  their 
 e.xhausted  limbs.  One  son,  in  whose  side  a  serpent 
 has  fixed  his  deadly  fangs,  seems  to  be  fainting ;  the 
 other,  not  yet  bitten,  tries  (and  the  futility  of  the  at- 
 tempt is  faithfully  shown)  to  disengage  one  foot  from 
 the  serpent's  embrace.  The  father,  Laocoon,  himself, 
 is  mighty  in  his  sufferings  :  every  muscle  is  in  extreme 
 action,  and  his  hands  and  feet  are  convulsed  with  pain- 
 ful energy.  Yet  there  is  nothing  frightful,  disgusting, 
 or  contrary  to  beauty  in  the  countenance.  Suffering 
 is  faithfully  and  strongly  depicted  there,  but  it  is  rather 
 the  exhibition  of  mental  anguish  than  of  the  repul- 
 sive and  undignified  contortions  of  mere  physical  pain. 
 The  whole  of  this  figure  displays  the  most  intimate 
 knowledge  of  anatomy  and  of  outward  form  ;  the  lat- 
 ter selected  with  care,  and  freed  from  any  vulgarity 
 of  common  individual  nature  :  indeed,  the  single  figure 
 of  Laocoon  may  be  fairly  referred  to,  as  one  of  the 
 finest  specimens  existing  of  that  combination  of  truth 
 and  beauty,  which  is  so  essential  to  the  production  of 
 perfect  sculpture,  and  which  can  alone  ensure  for  it 
 lasting  admiration.  The  youths  are  of  a  smaller 
 standard  than  the  proportion  of  the  father ;  a  liberty 
 hardly  justifiable,  but  taken,  probably,  with  the  view  of 
 heightening  the  effect  of  the  principal  figure.  The 
 ricrht  arm  of  Laocoon  is  a  restoration,  but  po  ably 
 done,  though  only  in  plaster,  that  the  deficiency  is 
 said  to  be  scarcely  a  blemish.  It  is  not  certain  what 
 modern  artist  has  the  merit  of  this  restoration,  though 
 it  is  thought  that  the  arm  it  now  bears  was  the  plas- 
 720 
 
 ter-model  of  Michael  Angelo,  who  was  charged  with 
 the  task  of  adding  a  marble  arm,  but  lefv  the  one 
 which  he  had  destined  for  this  object  unfinished,  in  a  fit 
 of  despair.  Some  antiquarians  have  thought  that  the 
 original  action  of  the  arm  was  not  extended,  but  that 
 this  limb  was  bent  back  towards  the  head  ;  and  they 
 have  supported  their  hypothesis  by  the  fact  of  there 
 being  a  rough  and  broken  surface  where  they  think  ihc 
 hand,  or  perhaps  a  fold  of  the  serpent,  may  have  come 
 in  contact  with  the  hair.  {E^icycl.  Us.  KnoioL,  vol. 
 13,  p.  323,  scq.  —  Heyne,  Aniiq.  Avff.,  vol.  2,  p.  34, 
 seqq. — Winckdmann,  Wcrke.,  vol.  6,  p.  101,  seqq. — 
 Id.,  vol.  5,  p.  \Qb.—Id.,  vol.  7,  p.  189.-— 7rf.,  voh  5, 
 p.  250. — Lessing,  Laocoon,  (}  5,  p.  76,  &c.) 
 
 Laodamia,  I.  a  daughter  of  Acastus  and  Astyda- 
 mia,  and  wife  of  Protesilaus.  {Vid.  Protesilaus.) 
 When  she  received  intelligence  of  the  death  of  her 
 husband  in  the  Trojan  war,  she  caused  an  image  of 
 him  to  he  formed,  which  she  would  never  allow  to  be 
 out  of  her  sight.  Her  father  ordered  the  image  to  be 
 burned,  that  her  thoughts  might  be  diverted  from  her 
 loss  ;  but  Laodamia  threw  herself  into  the  flames,  and 
 perished  along  with  it.  Thence  probably  the  tradition 
 adopted  by  some  poets,  that  the  gods  restored  life  to 
 Protesilaus  for  three  hours,  and  that  this  hero,  finding 
 the  decree  irreversible,  by  which  he  was  to  return 
 to  the  shades  below,  prevailed  on  Laodamia  to  ac- 
 company him  thither.  She  was  also  called  Phylacea. 
 {Virg.,  J5n.,6,  U7.—0vid,  Her.,  \3.—Hygin.,  fab., 
 104.) — II.  A  daughter  of  Bellerophon  by  Achemone, 
 the  daughter  of  King  lobates.  She  had  a  son  by  Ju- 
 piter, called  Sarpedon.     {Vid.  Sarpedon.) 
 
 Laodice,  I.  a  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  be- 
 came enamoured  of  Acamas,  son  of  Theseus,  when  he 
 came  with  Diomedes  from  the  Greeks  to  Troy  with 
 an  embassy  to  demand  the  restoration  of  Helen,  and 
 had  by  him  a  son  named  Munitus.  She  afterward 
 married  Telephus,  and,  on  his  desertion  of  her  at  the 
 time  he  abandoned  the  Trojan  cause,  she  became  the 
 wife  of  Helicaon,  the  son  of  Antenor.  The  rest  of 
 her  story  is  variously  related.  Some  make  her,  after 
 the  capture  of  Troy,  to  have  thown  herself  from  the 
 summit  of  a  rocky  ravine  when  pursued  by  the  Greeks ; 
 others,  to  have  been  swallowed  up  by  the  earth  in 
 accordance  with  her  own  prayer  ;  and  others  again, 
 to  have  been  recognised  by  Acamas,  when  Troy 
 was  taken,  and  to  have  returned  with  him  to  Greece. 
 (Tzctz.,  ad  Lycophr.,  314,  495.)— II.  One  of  the  three 
 daughters  of  Agamemnon,  called  also  Electra.  {Vid. 
 Electra.) — III.  The  wife  of  Antiochus,  one  of  Philip's 
 officers,  and  mother  of  Seleucus  Nicator.  (Consult 
 Justin,  15,  4.) — IV.  The  sister  and  wife  of  Antio- 
 chus Thcos,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Se- 
 leucus Callinicus  and  Antiochus  Hierax.  {Justin, 
 27,  9.) — V.  A  daughter  of  Mithradates,  king  of  Pon- 
 tus.  She  married  Antiochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria. 
 — VI.  The  sister  and  wife  of  Mithradates  Eupator. 
 (Consult  Justin,  37,  8.)— VII.  Wife  of  Ariarathes  V., 
 king  of  Cappadocia.     {Vid.  Ariarathes  V.) 
 
 Laodicea,  I.  a  city  of  Phrygia,  in  the  southwestern 
 angle  of  the  country.  It  was  situate  on  the  river  Ly- 
 cus  (hence  called  AaoSiKEia  hnl  Ai'kco,  Laodicea  ad 
 Lycum),  and  stood  on  the  borders  of  Phrygia,  Caria, 
 and  Lydia.  Its  situation  coincides  exactly  with  that 
 of  Cydrara  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (7,  30. —  Vid. 
 Cydrara).  Pliny,  however  (5,  29),  makes  its  early 
 name  to  have  been  ©iospolis,  changed  subsequently 
 to  Rhoas.  It  contained  three  boundary  stones,  as  be- 
 ing on  the  borders  of  three  provinces,  and  hence  is 
 commonly  called  by  the  ecclesiastical  writers  Trime- 
 taria.  Its  name  of  Laodicea  was  given  to  it  by  Anti- 
 ochus Theos,  in  honour  of  his  wife  Laodice.  He  re- 
 established it.  {Slcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.)  Under  the  Ro- 
 mans it  became  a  very  flourishing  commercial  city. 
 It  is  supposed  to  have  been  destroyed  during  the  in- 
 road of  Timur  Leng,   A.D.   1402.     {Ducas,  p.  43, 
 
LAO 
 
 L  AR 
 
 teqq. — Chalcond.,  p.  85.)  The  ruins  of  Laodicea  are 
 now  called  by  the  Turks  Eski  Hissar.  {Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  131. —  Leake's  Journal,  p. 
 154,  scqq.) — II.  Scabiosa,  a  city  of  Syria,  southwest 
 of  Emesa  and  of  the  Orontes.  It  is  sometimes,  though 
 erroneously,  styled  Cabiosa.  The  epithet  Scabiosa 
 must  have  reference  to  the  leprosy,  or  some  cutaneous 
 complaint,  very  prevalent  here  in  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
 man power.  Its  previous  name  under  the  Greeks  was 
 Aaoi'iiK^ia  ij  npo^  AtCavw,  Laodicea  ad  Libanum 
 {Strabo,  753. — Plin.,  5,  23),  and  it  must  have  been  sit- 
 uate, therefore,  near  the  northeastern  part  of  the  chain 
 of  Libanus,  in  the  plain  Marsyas,  which  Pococke  (2, 
 p.  204)  mentions,  though  he  is  silent  respecting  its 
 ancient  name.  Its  site  must  be  looked  for  to  the 
 west  of  the  modern  Hasseiah,  a  day's  journey  to  the 
 southwest  of  the  modern  Hems,  the  ancient  Emesa. 
 (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  428.)— III.  A  mar- 
 itime city  of  Syria,  on  an  eminence  near  the  coast, 
 called,  for  distinction'  sake,  AaodiKSia  km  ry  i^a'Adr- 
 T^,  Laodicea  ad  Mare.  (Strab.,  751. — Plin.,  21,  5.) 
 It  was  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  named  in  hon- 
 our of  his  mother ;  and  Strabo  ranks  it  among  the 
 four  principal  cities  of  the  country.  (Compare  Ap- 
 pian,  B.  Syr.,  c.  27.)  The  fruitfulness  of  the  adja- 
 cent country,  and  the  quantity  of  good  wine  made  in 
 this  quarter,  which  furnished  a  great  article  of  trade 
 with  Alexandrea,  were  the  chief  reasons  that  induced 
 Seleucus  to  found  this  city.  Laodicea  may,  in  fact, 
 be  regarded  as  the  harbour  of  Antiochia.  The  an- 
 cient writers  praise  its  excellent  port,  and  it  would 
 seem,  even  at  the  present  day,  to  show  traces  of  the 
 works  constructed  to  give  security  and  convenience 
 to  the  harbour.  {Pococke,  2,  p.  287. —  Walpole's  Me- 
 moirs, vol.  2,  p.  138.)  In  the  civil  war  after  Caisar's 
 death,  Dolabella  stood  a  long  siege  in  this  place  ;  it 
 was  finally  taken,  and  suffered  severely.  {Diu  Cass., 
 47,  30.  —  Appian,  B.  Civ.,  4,  62.)  Hence  Antony 
 declared  it  independent,  and  freed  it  from  all  tribute. 
 {Appian,  B.  Civ.,  5,  7.)  It  again  suffered  from  Pes- 
 cennius  Niger  {Malala,  Chron.,  11,  p.  125),  and  there- 
 fore his  more  successful  competitor  Severus  did  all  in 
 his  power  to  restore  it  to  its  former  condition.  Among 
 other  favours  shown  it,  he  made  the  place  a  colony 
 with  the  Jus  Ilalicum.  {Ulpian,  1.  50,  Digest.  Tit., 
 15,  de  censibus.)  The  modern  name  is  Ladikie. 
 The  modern  city  suffered  severely  from  an  earthquake 
 in  1797,  the  greater  part  of  the  buildings  having  been 
 thrown  down.  These  have  been  rebuilt,  though  less 
 substantially  than  before.  Scarcely  any  wine  is  now 
 made  here,  and  few  vines  are  planted.  ( WalpoWs 
 Memoirs,  vol.  2,  p.  138. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6, 
 pt.  1,  p.  450.) — IV.  Combusta  (^  KaraiieKavixevi]),  a 
 city  of  Asia  Minor  or  Lycaonia,  northwest  of  Iconium. 
 Its  name  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  the  frequent 
 breaking  forth  of  subterranean  fires  in  the  vicinity. 
 Strabo  mentions  this  as  peculiarly  the  case  in  the  parts 
 of  Phrygia  to  the  west  of  Laodicea,  which  were  hence 
 termed  Caiacecaumene  (KaTaKexavfiivrj.  —  Strabo, 
 579).  The  place  itself  was  unimportant,  and  would 
 only  seem  to  have  been  mentioned  by  Strabo  and 
 Pliny  from  the  circumstance  of  its  having  been  situ- 
 ated on  the  great  roid  from  the  western  coast  through 
 Melitene  to  the  Euphrates.  Leake  {Journal,  p.  25) 
 gives  the  modern  name  as  Yorgan  Ladtk,  and  speaks 
 of  numerous  fragments  of  ancient  architecture  found 
 there. — V.  A  city  of  Media,  on  the  confines  of  Persia. 
 {Pliny,  6,  26.)  —  VI.  A  city  of  Mesopotamia,  near 
 Seleucia.     {Pliny,  4,  26.) 
 
 Laomedon,  son  of  Ilus,  king  of  Troy,  married  Stry- 
 mo,  the  daughter  of  the  Scamander,  by  whom  he  had 
 Tithonus,  Lampus,  Clitius,  Hicetaon,  Podarces  (after- 
 ward called  Priam),  and  Hesione,  together  with  two 
 other  daughters.  He  had  also,  by  the  nymph  Calybe, 
 a  son  named  Bucolion.  (//.,  6,  23.)  The  two  dei- 
 ties Apollo  and  Neptune,  having  been  condemned  by 
 4  Y 
 
 Jupiter  to  be  subservient  for  one  year  to  the  will  of 
 Laomedon,  contracted  to  build  a  wall  around  Troy 
 for  a  stipulated  sum.  When,  however,  this  labour 
 was  accomplished,  Laomedon  refused  to  pay  the 
 amount  agreed  on,  and  dismissed  the  two  deities, 
 threatening  to  cut  off  their  cars.  He  even  menaced 
 to  tie  Apollo  hand  and  foot,  and  transport  him  to  the 
 distant  islands.  (//.,  21,  441.)  To  punish  him,  Apol- 
 lo sent  a  pestilence,  and  Neptune  a  flood  bearing  a 
 huge  sea-monster,  which  carried  off  all  the  people  to 
 be  found  in  the  plain. — For  the  rest  of  his  story,  con 
 suit  the  article  Hesione. 
 
 Laomedonteus,  an  epithet  applied  to  the  Troiana 
 from  their  king  Laomedon.  {Vtrg.,  JEn.,  4,  542; 
 7,  105;  8,  18.) 
 
 Laomedonti,Id.<e,  a  patronymic  given  to  the  Tro- 
 jans, from  Laomedon  their  king.     (Firg'.,iEr(.,3, 248.) 
 
 Laphystium,  a  mountain  in  Boeotia,  about  twenty  sta- 
 dia to  the  north  of  Coronea,  on  which  Jupiter  had  a  tem- 
 ple, whence  he  was  called  Laphystius.  It  was  here 
 that  Alhamas  prepared  to  immolate  Phrixus  and  HcUe, 
 whom  Jupiter  saved  by  sending  them  a  golden  ram. 
 {Pausan.,  9,  34.) 
 
 Lapith^,  a  tribe  or  people  of  Thessaly,  whose  con- 
 test with  the  Centaurs  forms  a  conspicuous  legend  in 
 classical  mythology.  {Vid.  Centauri,  where  a  full  ac- 
 count is  given.) 
 
 Lara  or  Larunda,  one  of  the  Naiads,  daughtei 
 of  the  river  Almon  in  Latium,  famous  for  her  beauty 
 and  her  loquacity,  which  her  parents  long  endeavour 
 ed  to  correct,  but  in  vain.  She  revealed  to  Juno  the 
 amours  of  her  husband  Jupiter  with  Juturna,  for  which 
 the  god  cut  off  her  tongue,  and  ordered  Mercury  to 
 conduct  her  to  the  infernal  regions.  The  god  violated 
 her  by  the  way,  and  she  became  the  mother  of  the 
 Lares.     {Vid.  Lares. — Ovid,  Fast.,  2,  585,  scqq.) 
 
 L.Xres,  gods  of  inferior  power  at  Rome,  of  human 
 origin,  who  presided  over  houses  and  families.  There 
 were  various  classes  of  them,  such  as  Lares  Urbani,  to 
 preside  over  the  cities ;  Familiares,  over  houses;  Rus- 
 tici,  over  the  country  ;  Compifales,  over  crossways  ; 
 Marini,  over  the  sea  ;  Viales,  over  the  roads,  &c.  If 
 we  closely  examine  into  the  nature  of  the  Penates  and 
 that  of  the  Lares,  we  will  readily  perceive  why  the  for- 
 mer have  a  higher  rank  assigned  them  in  the  hierarchy 
 of  the  Genii  than  the  latter.  In  fact,  the  Penates  were 
 originally  gods  ;  they  were  the  powers  of  nature  per- 
 sonified ;  powers,  the  wonderful  and  mysterious  action 
 of  which  produces  and  upholds  whatever  is  necessary 
 to  life,  to  the  common  good,  to  the  prosperity  of  indi- 
 viduals and  families ;  whatever,  in  fine,  the  human 
 species  cannot  bestow  upon  itself.  The  case  is  quite 
 different  with  the  Lares.  These  were  originally  hu- 
 man beings  themselves  ;  men  like  unto  us  in  every 
 respect,  who  lived  upon  the  earth,  and  who,  becoming 
 pure  spirits  after  death,  loved  still  to  hover  round  the 
 dwelling  which  they  once  inhabited,  to  watch  over  its 
 safety,  and  to  guard  it  with  as  much  care  as  the  faith- 
 ful dog  does  the  possessions  of  its  master.  Having 
 once  partaken  of  our  mortal  condition,  they  know  the 
 better  from  what  quarter  danger  is  wont  to  menace, 
 and  what  assistance  to  render  to  those  whose  situa- 
 tion was  once  in  every  respect  their  own  They  keep 
 off,  therefore,  danger  from  without,  while  the  Penates, 
 residing  in  the  interior  of  the  dwelling,  pour  forth 
 benefits  upon  its  inmates  with  bountiful  hands.  The 
 fundamental  idea  on  which  rests  the  doctrine  of  the 
 Lares,  is  intimately  connected  with  all  the  psychology 
 and  pneumatology  of  the  ancient  Italians.  According 
 to  Apuleuis  {De  Genio  Scrrat.,  vol.  2,  p.  237,  ed. 
 Bip.),  the  demons  which  once  had  inhabited,  as  souls, 
 human  bodies,  were  called  Lcmures:  this  name  there- 
 fore designated,  in  general,  the  spirit  separated  from 
 the  body.  Such  a  spirit,  if  it  adopted  its  posterity  ;  if 
 it  took  possession,  with  favourable  power,  of  the 
 abode  of  its  children,  was  called  Lar  familiaris.     If, 
 
 721 
 
LARES. 
 
 LARES. 
 
 on  the  contrary,  hy  reason  of  the  faults  committed  in 
 life,  it  found  in  the  grave  no  resting-place,  it  appeared 
 to  men  as  a  phantom  ;  inoffensive  to  the  good,  but 
 terrible  to  the  wicked.  Its  name  was  in  that  case  Lar- 
 va. {Festus,  p.  200,  ed.  Dacicr. — Bulenger,  de  Fro- 
 dig.,  4,  20.  — Grav.,  Thcs.  Avtiq.  Rom.,  5,  p.  480, 
 seqq.)  As,  however,  there  was  no  way  of  precisely 
 ascertaining  what  had  been  the  lot  of  a  deceased  per- 
 son, whether  he  had  become,  for  example,  a  Lar  or  a 
 Larva,  it  was  customary  to  give  to  ihe  dead  the  gen- 
 eral appellation  of  Manes.  (Deus  Mams.)  Varro, 
 in  a  more  extended  sense,  if  we  credit  Arnobius,  re- 
 garded the  Lares,  at  one  time,  as  identical  with  the 
 Manes,  the  tutelary  genii  of  the  living  and  the  dead; 
 at  another  time,  as  gods  and  heroes  roaming  in  the  air; 
 and  at  another,  again,  as  spirits  or  souls  separated  from 
 bodies,  as  Lemures  or  Larvs.  The  mother  of  the 
 Lares  was  called  Lara  or  Larunda.  (Arnobius,  adv. 
 Gent  ,'3,4:1. — Macrob.,  Sat.,  1,  7. — Marini,gli  Atti., 
 2,  p.  373.)  This  conception  of  the  Lares,  as  the  souls 
 of  fathers  and  of  forefathers,  protectors  of  their  chil- 
 dren, and  watching  over  the  safety  of  their  descend- 
 ants, necessarily  gave  rise  to  the  custom  of  burying 
 the  dead  within  the  dwelling.  (Serv.,  ad  Virg.,  JSn., 
 5,  64.— 7rf.,  adjEn.,6,  ]^2.—Isidor.,  Orig.,  15,  H. 
 — Zoega,  de  Obelise,  p.  269.)  Men  wished  to  have 
 near  them  these  tutelary  genii,  in  order  to  be  certain 
 of  their  assistance  and  support.  In  process  of  time, 
 however,  this  custom  was  prohibited  at  Rome  by  the 
 laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  (Cic,  de  Leg.,  2,  23.) 
 It  was  general  in  early  Greece,  and  among  the  prim- 
 itive population  of  Italy.  {Plat.,  Mtn.,  p.  254,  ed. 
 Bekker.) — The  meaning  attached  to  the  word  Lar 
 being  of  itself  extremely  general,  had  among  the  an- 
 cients different  acceptations.  (Compare  Miiller,  de 
 Diis  Romanorum  Larihus  ct  Penatihus,  p.  60.)  Anal- 
 ogous to  the  demons  (or  genii)  and  heroes  of  the 
 Greeks,  the  Lares,  pure  spirits,  invisible  masters  and 
 protectors,  and  everywhere  present,  limited,  as  little 
 as  the  Penates,  their  domain  to  the  domestic  hearth. 
 The  Etrurians,  and  the  Romans  after  them,  had  their 
 Lares  publici  and  Lares  privati.  (Hempel.,  de  Diis 
 Laribus,  p.  xx\\.,seqq.)  The  Lares  were  supposed  to 
 assist  at  all  gatherings  together  of  men,  at  all  public 
 assemblies  or  reunions,  in  all  transactions  of  men,  in 
 all  the  most  important  affairs  of  the  state  as  well  as  of 
 individuals.  Born  in  the  house,  in  the  bosom  of  the 
 family,  the  notion  of  Lares  went  forth  by  little  and  lit- 
 tle; extended  itself  to  the  streets,  to  the  public  ways; 
 above  all,  to  the  cross-roads,  where  the  peril  was  great- 
 er for  passengers,  and  where  assistance  was  more  im- 
 mediately necessary.  From  this  it  extended  itself  to 
 communities,  to  entire  cities,  and  even  to  whole  coun- 
 tries. Hence  the  numerous  classes  of  the  Lares  and 
 their  various  denominations,  such  as  viales,  males, 
 compitales,  grundiles,  hostiles,  &c.  If  each  individ- 
 ual had  his  Lar,  his  genius,  his  guardian  spirit,  even 
 the  infant  at  the  breast ;  so  entire  families,  and  whole 
 races  and  nations,  were  equally  under  the  protection 
 of  one  of  these  tutelar  deities.  Here  the  Lares  be- 
 came in  som.e  degree  confounded  with  the  Heroes, 
 that  is,  with  the  spirits  of  those  who,  having  deserved 
 well  of  their  country  while  on  earth,  continued  to 
 watch  over  and  protect  it  from  that  mansion  in  the 
 skies  to  which  their  merits  had  exalted  them.  It 
 would  seem,  too,  that  at  times,  the  worship  of  these 
 public  Lares,  like  that  of  the  public  Penates,  was  not 
 without  some  striking  resemblance  to  that  rendered 
 to  the  great  national  divinities.  The  proof  that  the 
 Lares  were  not  always  clearly  distinguished  from  the 
 gods,  or,  at  least,  were  closely  assimilated  to  the  de- 
 mons and  heroes,  is  found  in  an  ancient  inscription : 
 "The  Lares,  powerful  in  heaven"  (Lares  Coilo  po- 
 lentes),  that  is,  most  probably,  inhabitnig  the  region  of 
 the  air,  where  they  exercised  their  power.  {Grav., 
 Thes.,  5,  p.  686,  seqq. — Spanheim,  de  Vesta,  &c.) — 
 722 
 
 All  that  the  house  contained  was  confided  to  the  super- 
 intending care  of  these  vigilant  genii :  they  were  set 
 as  a  watch  over  all  things  large  and  small,  and  tience 
 the  name  of  Frcestiles,  which  is  sometimes  giverj 
 tliein.  (Ovi.d,  Fast.,  5,  128,  133.)  Hence  the  dog 
 was  the  natural  symbol  of  the  Lares;  an  image  of  this 
 animal  was  placed  by  the  side  of  their  statues,  or  else 
 these  were  covered  with  the  skin  of  a  dog.  (Creuzcr, 
 Comment.  Herod.,  1,  p.  239.) — The  ordinary  altar  on 
 which  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  Lares  was  the 
 domestic  hearth.  The  victims  consisted  of  a  hog 
 (Horal.,  Od.,  3,  23)  or  a  fowl  ;  sometimes,  with  the 
 rich,  of  a  young  steer ;  to  them  were  also  presented 
 the  first  of  all  the  fruits  of  the  season,  and  libations  of 
 wine  were  poured  out.  In  all  the  family  repasts,  the 
 first  thing  done  was  to  cast  a  portion  of  all  the  viands 
 into  the  fire  that  burned  on  the  hearth,  in  honour  of  the 
 Lares.  In  the  form  of  marriage,  called  coemtio,  the 
 bride  always  threw  a  piece  of  money  on  the  hearth  to 
 the  Lares  of  her  family,  and  deposited  another  in  the 
 neighbouring  cross-road,  in  order  to  obtain  admission, 
 as  It  were,  into  the  dwelling  of  her  husband.  {Non. 
 Marc,  de  propr.  Serm.,  c.  12,  p.  784,  ed.  Gothofred.) 
 Young  persons,  after  their  fifteenth  year,  consecrated 
 to  the  Lares  the  bulla  which  they  had  worn  from  in- 
 fancy. (Fers.,  Sat.,  5,  3L)  Soldiers,  when  their 
 time  of  service  was  once  ended,  dedicated  to  these 
 powerful  genii  the  arms  with  which  they  had  fought 
 the  battles  of  their  country.  (Ovid,  Trist.,  4,  8,  21.) 
 Captives  and  slaves  restored  to  freedom  consecrated 
 to  the  Lares  the  fetters  from  which  they  had  just  been 
 freed.  (Horat.,  Sat.,  1,  5.)  Before  undertaking  a 
 journey,  or  after  a  successful  return,  homage  was  paid 
 to  these  deities,  their  protection  was  implored,  or 
 thanks  were  rendered  for  their  guardian  care.  (Ovid, 
 Trist.,  1 , 3,  33. — Miiller,  de  Diis  Rom.  Lar.  et  Fenat., 
 p.  70.  —  Ev.  Otto,  de  Diis  vialibus,  c.  9.)  The  new 
 master  of  a  house  crowned  the  Lares,  in  order  to  ren- 
 der them  propitious  ;  a  custom  which  was  of  the 
 most  universal  nature,  and  which  was  perpetuated  to 
 the  latest  times.  (Flaut.,  Trinum.,  1,  2,  1. — Crcuzei, 
 Commeiit.  Herod.,  1,  p.  235.)  The  proper  place  for 
 worshipping  the  Lares,  and  where  their  images  stood, 
 was  called  Lararium,  a  sort  of  domestic  chapel  in 
 the  .\trium,  where  were  also  to  be  seen  the  images 
 and  busts  of  the  family  ancestors.  The  rich  had  often 
 two  Lararia,  one  large  and  the  other  small ;  they  had 
 also  "  Masters  of  the  Lares,"  and  "  Decurios  of  the 
 Lares,"  namely,  slaves  specially  charged  with  the  care 
 of  these  domestic  chapels  and  the  images  of  their  di- 
 vinities. As  to  the  poor,  their  Lares  had  to  be  con- 
 tent with  the  simple  hearth,  where  honours  not  less 
 simple  were  paid  to  them.  (For  farther  details  re- 
 specting the  Lararia,  consult  Guther.,  de  Vcteri  jure 
 Fonlijicio,  3,  10. — Grcev.,  Thes.,  5,  p.  139.) — Certain 
 public  festivals  were  also  celebrated  in  honour  of  the 
 Lares,  called  Lararia  and  Compitalia.  The  period 
 for  their  celebration  fell  in  the  month  of  December, 
 a  little  after  that  of  the  Saturnalia.  On  this  occasion 
 the  Lares  were  worshipped  as  propitious  deities  : 
 hence  these  festivals  were  marked  by  a  gay  and  joyful 
 character,  and  thus  formed  a  direct  contrast  to  the 
 gloomy  Lcmuria.  The  Compitalia,  dedicated  to  the 
 Lares  Compitales,  were  celebrated  in  the  open  air,  in 
 the  cross-roads  (ubi  vice  compe'.unt,  in  compitis. — Dio. 
 Hal,  4,  \4.—Aul.  Gell.,N.  A.,  10,  M.—Siccama  m 
 Fastos  Calend.  Rom. —  Grcev.,  Thes.,  8,  p.  69,  &c. ); 
 the  day  of  their  celebration  was  not  fixed.  They 
 were  introduced  at  Rome  by  Servius  Tullius,  who  left 
 to  the  senate  the  care  of  determining  the  period  when 
 they  should  be  held.  In  early  times,  children  were 
 immolated  to  the  goddess  Mania,  the  mother,  accord- 
 ing to  some,  of  the  Lares,  to  propitiate  her  favour  for 
 the  protection  of  the  family.  This  barbarous  rite  was 
 subsequently  abolished,  and  little  balls  of  wool  were 
 hung  up  in  the  stead  of  human  offerings  at  the  gates 
 
L  AR 
 
 L  A  R 
 
 of  dwellings.  Macrobius  {Sat.,  1,  7)  informs  us,  that 
 it  was  Junius  Brutus  who,  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
 Tarquins,  introduced  a  new  form  of  sacrifice,  by  vir- 
 tue of  which,  heads  of  garlic  and  poppies  were  offered 
 up  in  place  of  human  heads,  ul,  pro  capitihus,  capit- 
 ibus  sitppUcaretiir,  in  accordance  with  the  oracle  of 
 Apollo.  Every  family,  during  these  festivals,  brought 
 a  cake  for  an  offering  ;  slaves  enjoyed  a  perfect  equal- 
 ity with  their  masters,  as  on  the  Saturnalia  ;  and  it 
 was  slaves,  not  free  men,  that  assisted  the  priests  in 
 the  sacrifices  offered  up  on  this  occasion  to  the  tute- 
 lary genii  of  the  ways.  {Dion.  Hal. ,4.  — Cic,  ad  Alt., 
 7,  7. — HoraL,  Od.,  3,  17,  14,  and  Mitscherlkh,  ad. 
 Herat.,  I.  c.)  In  case  of  death  in  a  family,  a  sacrifice 
 of  sheep  was  offered  up  to  the  family  Lares.  ( Cic  ,  de 
 Leg.,  2,  22,  55,  where  we  must  read,  with  Gorenz, 
 vercecibus. — Marini,  AtlL,  &c.,  1,  p.  373.) — As'  re- 
 gards the  forms  under  which  the  Lares  were  repre- 
 sented, it  may  be  observed,  that  it  differed  often  but 
 little  from  that  of  the  Penates.  Thus,  on  the  coins 
 of  the  Caesian  family,  they  are  represented  as  two 
 young  men,  seated,  their  heads  covered  with  helmets, 
 and  holding  spears  in  their  hands,  while  a  dog  watch- 
 es at  their  feet.  Sometimes,  as  we  have  already  re- 
 marked, the  heads  of  the  Lares  are  represented  as 
 covered  with,  or  their  mantle  as  formed  of,  the  skin 
 of  a  dog.  At  other  times  we  find  the  Lares  resem- 
 bling naked  children,  with  the  bulla  hanging  from  the 
 neck,  and  always  accompanied  by  the  attribute  of  the 
 dog.  {Creuzer,  Symbolik,  par  Guigiiiaut,  vol.  2,  pt. 
 1,  p.  416,  seqq.) 
 
 Larinu.m,  a  town  of  Apulia,  which  appears  to  have 
 belonged  once  to  the  Frentani,  from  the  name  of  Lari- 
 iiates  Frentani  attached  to  its  inhabitants  by  Pliny  (3, 
 12).  It  was  situate  on  the  road  which  led  from  Pice- 
 num  into  Apulia.  {Liv.,  22,  18.)  Its  ruins,  which 
 are  said  to  be  considerable,  occupy  the  site  called  La- 
 rina  Vecchio.     {Romanelli,  vol.  3,  p.  20.) 
 
 Larissa,  I.  a  town  of  Syria,  on  the  western  side  of 
 the  Orontes,  southeast  of  Apamea.  It  was  either 
 founded  or  else  re-established  by  Selencus  Nicator. 
 {Appian,  B.  Syr.,  c.  57.)  Pliny  calls  the  inhabitants 
 Larissaei  (5,  23).  The  city  appears  to  have  made  no 
 figure  in  history.  Its  true  Oriental  name  would  seem 
 to  have  been  Sizara,  or  something  closely  resembling 
 it.  Stephanus  Byzantinus  (.9.  v  )  gives  Sizara  (S/^opa) 
 as  the  Syriac  name  of  the  place,  and  Abulfeda  {Tab. 
 Syr.,  p.  110)  and  other  Arabian  writers  speak  of  a 
 fortress  in  this  quarter  named  Schaizar  or  Sjaizar. 
 (Compare  Schukens,  Index  ad  Vitam  Snladini,  s.  v. 
 Siajzarum.) — II.  A  town  of  Lydia,  in  the  Caystrian 
 field,  and  territory  of  Ephesus.  It  had  a  famous  tem- 
 ple of  Apollo.  Larissa  was  situate  near  Mount  Tmo- 
 lus,  180  stadia  from  Ephesus,  and  30  stadia  from  Tral- 
 les,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Messogis.  The  adja- 
 cent country  produced  very  good  wine.  {Strabo,  620.) 
 — III.  A  town  on  the  coast  of  Troas,  north  of  Colonae 
 and  Alexandrea  Troas.  Whether  it  is  the  same  with 
 the  place  assigned  by  Homer  to  the  Pelasgi  (//.,  2, 
 841)  is  uncertain.  Strabo,  however,  decides  in  favour 
 of  the  Larissa  below  Cumae.     {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol. 
 
 6,  pt.  3,  p.  465.)— IV.  A  town  of  J^olis,  in  Asia  .Mi- 
 nor, to  the  southeast  of  Cyme,  and  on  the  northern 
 bank  of  the  Hermus.  {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3, 
 p.  394.)  It  is  supposed  by  Strabo  to  have  been  the 
 same  with  the  Larissa  mentioned  by  Homer  {11.,  2, 
 841),  and  was  called  by  the  .^olians,  after  it  was  ta- 
 ken by  them  from  the  Pelasgi,  Phriconis,  for  distinc- 
 tion' sake  from  the  other  Larissas.  Cyme  was  also 
 named  Phriconis.  {Strabo,  621.)  Another  appella- 
 tion given  to  the  place  was  Larissa  Mgypttaca,  be- 
 cause it  was  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  towns  which 
 Cyrus  the  elder  gave  to  the  Egyptians  who  had  come 
 over  to  him  from  the  army  of  Crcesus.     (Xen.,  Cyrop., 
 
 7,  1,  45.— Compare  Htst.  Gr.,  3,  1,  7.)  In  Strabo's 
 time  the  place  was  uninhabited. — V.  A  city  of  Assy- 
 
 ria, on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.  The  ten  thousand 
 found  it  deserted  and  in  ruins.  Xenophon  states  that 
 it  had  been  once  inhabited  by  the  Medes.  {Anab.,  3, 
 4,  7.)  Bochart  {Gcogr.  Sacr.,  4,  23)  considers  it 
 identical  with  the  city  mentioned  in  Genesis  (10,  12) 
 under  the  name  of  Resen;  but  Michaelis  opposes  this. 
 {Spicileg.  Gcogr.  Hcbr.,  vol.  1,  p.  247  ) — VI.  An  an- 
 cient and  flourishing  city  of  Thessaly,  on  the  river 
 Peneus,  to  the  northeast  of  Pharsalus.  It  is  not  men- 
 tioned by  Homer,  unless,  indeed,  the  Argos  Pelasgi- 
 cum  of  the  poet  is  to  be  identified  with  it  (//.,  2,  681), 
 and  this  notion  would  not  be  entirely  groundless  if,  as 
 Strabo  (440)  informs  us,  there  was  once  a  city  named 
 Argos  close  to  Larissa.  The  same  geographer  has 
 enumerated  all  the  ancient  towns  of  the  latter  name, 
 and  we  may  collect  from  his  researches  that  it  was  pe- 
 culiar to  the  Pelasgi,  since  all  the  countries  in  which 
 it  was  found  had  at  different  periods  been  occupied  by 
 that  people.  (Compare  Dion.  Hal.,  1,  21.)  This  city 
 was  placed  in  that  most  fertile  part  of  the  province 
 which  had  been  occupied  by  the  Perrhaebi,  who  were 
 partly  expelled  by  Larissseans,  while  the  rest  were 
 kept  in  close  subjection,  and  rendered  tributary.  Ac- 
 cording to  Aristotle,  the  constitution  of  this  city  was 
 democratical.  Its  magistrates  were  elected  by  the 
 people,  and  considered  themselves  as  dependant  on 
 their  favour.  {Anstot.,  de  Rep.,  5,  6.)  This  fact 
 will  account  for  the  support  which  the  Athenians  de- 
 rived from  the  republic  of  Larissa  during  the  Pelopon- 
 nesian  war.  {Thucyd.,  2,  32.)  The  Aleuadae,  men- 
 tioned by  Herodotus  as  princes  of  Thessaly  at  the  time 
 of  the  Persian  invasion,  were  natives  of  this  city. 
 {Herod.,  9,  58.)  Diodorus  Siculus  (16,  61)  informs 
 us,  that  the  citadel  of  Larissa  was  a  place  of  great 
 strength.  Though  the  territory  of  this  city  was  rich 
 and  fertile,  it  was  subject  to  great  losses,  caused  by 
 the  inundations  of  the  Peneus.  {Strabo,  440. — Plm., 
 4,  8.—Hicrocl.,  Synccdem.,  p.  642.)  Dr.  Clarke  states 
 that  he  could  discover  no  ruins  at  Larissa,  which  still 
 retains  the  ancient  name  ;  but  that  the  inhabitants  gave 
 the  name  of  Old  Larissa  to  a  Palseo  Castro,  which  is 
 situated  upon  some  very  high  rocks,  at  four  hours'  dis- 
 tance towards  the  east  (vol.  7,  p.  339).  Dr.  Holland 
 and  Mr.  Dodwell  are,  however,  of  opinion,  that  the 
 modern  Larissa  stands  upon  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
 city.  {Holland's  Travels,  p.  390. — DodwcWs  Tour, 
 vol.  2,  p.  100. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p  385, 
 scqq.) — VII.  Cremaste,  so  called  from  the  steepness 
 of  its  situation,  a  city  of  Thessaly  in  the  district  Phthi- 
 otis,  and  south  of  P'hthiotic  Thebe.  It  lay  in  the  do- 
 mains of  Achilles,  and  it  is  probably  from  that  circum- 
 stance that  Virgil  gives  him  the  title  of  Larissaus, 
 unless  this  epithet  is  a  general  one  for  Thcssalicus. 
 Dodwell  thought  he  discovered  the  ruins  of  this  place 
 at  about  three  quarters  of  an  hour's  distance  from  the 
 village  of  Gradista  (vol.  2,  p.  81. — Compare  GelVs 
 Itinerary  of  Greece,  p.  252  ) — VIII.  An  old  town  of 
 the  Pelasgi  in  Attica,  near  Mount  Hymettus.  Some 
 ruins,  indicative  of  the  site  of  an  ancient  town  near  the 
 monastery  of  Syriani,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Trelo  Vou- 
 ni.  have  been  thought  to  correspond  with  this  ancient 
 Pelasgic  settlement.  {Strabo,  440.)— IX.  A  town  on 
 the  confines  of  Elis  and  Achaia.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr., 
 3,  2,  17.)— X.  The  acropolis  of  Argos,  deriving  its 
 name,  as  was  said,  from  Larissa,  daughter  of  Pelas- 
 gus.  It  was  also  called  Aspis.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Clcum. 
 —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  244.) 
 
 LARISS.EUS,  an  epithet  applied  by  Virgil  {JSn.,  2, 
 197;  11,  404)  to  Achilles,  either  with  reference  to 
 the  town  of  Larissa  Cremaste,  which  lay  within  his 
 dominions  {vid.  Larissa  VII.),  or  as  equivalent  gen- 
 erally to  Thcssalicus.  Heyne  prefers  the  latter  inter- 
 pretation {ad  JEn.,  2,  197). 
 
 Lakissus,  a  river  of  Achaia,  forming  the  line  of  sep- 
 aration between  that  country  and  Elis.     {Pausan.,  7, 
 
 17 pi,„    4   5^     Strabo  informs  us  that  it  flowed 
 
 II.     J  •.III.,    ,    .1  ^^^ 
 
LAT 
 
 L  AT 
 
 from  Mount  Scollis,  which  Homer  (//.,  11,  757)  des- 
 ignates by  the  name  of  "  Olenian  rock."  {Slrabo, 
 387.)  The  modem  name  of  this  river  is  Kisso  or 
 Mana.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  73.) 
 
 L.vrT'js,  Lacus,  a  lake  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  north  of 
 the  Padus,  and  east  of  the  Lacus  Vcrhanus.  The 
 name  I,arius  is  supposed  to  have  been  of  Etrurian  ori- 
 gin. Whatever  truth,  however,  there  may  have  been 
 in  this  conjecture,  there  is  no  mention  of  the  name 
 prior  to  the  time  of  Polybius,  who,  as  Straho  (209)  re- 
 ports, estimated  its  length  at  300  stadia  and  its  breadth 
 at  30,  or  38  miles  by  4.  Servius  says  that  Cato  reck- 
 oned 60  miles  from  one  extremity  to  the  other,  and  the 
 real  distance,  including  the  Lake  of  Chiavenna,  is  not 
 short  of  that  measurement ;  so  that  Virgil  (Georg.,  2, 
 159)  seems  justified  in  saying,  "  Anne  lacus  tantosl 
 tc  Lari  maxime — "  The  younger  Pliny  had  two  vil- 
 las on  this  lake,  which  he  describes  {Epist.,  9,  7). 
 The  one  which  he  calls  his  Tragedy  stood  probably 
 at  Bcllagio.  as  from  thence  the  view  extends  over 
 both  arms  of  the  lake.  The  intermitting  fountain,  of 
 which  he  gives  an  account  (4,  20),  still  exists  under 
 the  name  of  Pliniana.  This  lake  receives  the  Addua 
 or  Adda,  which  again  emerges  from  it,  and  pursues  its 
 course  to  the  Po.  The  modern  name  is  Lago  di  Co- 
 mo,  from  the  modern  Como,  the  ancient  Comum.  The 
 surrounding  country  is  highly  picturesque,  being  cov- 
 ered with  vineyards,  interspersed  with  beautiful  villas, 
 and  skirted  by  lofty  mountains.  A  headland,  run- 
 ning boldly  into  the  lake  at  its  southern  end,  causes  it 
 to  branch  off  into  two  arms,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
 western  one  of  which  the  town  of  Como  is  situate. 
 
 Ii.\Rs  or  Lartes  ToLUMNius,  a  king  of  the  Veien- 
 tes,  slain  in  battle  by  Cornelius  Cossus.  {Vid.  Spo- 
 lia  Opima.— Liu.,  4,  \7.—Id.,  4.  19.) 
 
 Lartius  Florus,  L  T.,  a  consul,  who  appeased  a 
 sedition  raised  by  the  poorer  citizens,  and  was  the  first 
 dictator  ever  chosen  at  Rome,  B.C.  498.  {Liv.,  2, 
 18.) — 11.  Spurius,  one  of  the  three  Rop-ins  who  with- 
 stood the  fury  of  Porsenna's  army  at  ti.s  head  of  a 
 bridge  while  the  communication  was  cutting  down  be- 
 hind them.  His  companions  were  Co-ies  and  Her- 
 minius.  {Vid.  Codes. — Liv.,  2,  10,  18. — Dionys.  H. 
 —  Val.  Max.,  3,  2.) 
 
 Larv^,  a  name  given  to  the  wicked  spirits  and  ap- 
 paritions which,  according  to  the  notions  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, issued  from  their  graves  in  the  night,  and  came 
 to  terrify  the  world.  (Consult  remarks  under  the  ar- 
 ticle Lares.) 
 
 Lasus,  a  celebrated  dithyrambic  poet,  born  at  Her- 
 mione  in  Argolis,  and,  according  to  some  authorities, 
 the  instructer  of  Pindar.  {Thom.  Mag.,  Vit.  Find.) 
 He  was  contemporary  with  Simonidcs  {Aristoph., 
 Vf.sp.,  1401  —SchoL,  Vesp.,  1402),  and  flourished  in 
 the  reign  of  Hipparchus  at  Athens  {Herod.,  7,  6),  and 
 in  the  reign  of  Darius.  {SchoL,  Vesp.,  1401.)  He 
 was  the  first  that  introduced  the  dithyrambic  measure 
 into  the  celebrations  at  the  Olympic  games.  The 
 poet  Archilochus,  however,  who  was  much  older  than 
 Lasus,  uses  the  word  Dithyrambus  in  two  verses  cited 
 by  Athenffius  (p.  628),  so  that  Lasus  could  not  have 
 been  the  inventor  of  this  species  of  measure.  {Bent- 
 ley.  Diss,  on  I'halaris,  p.  254,  ed.  1816.) 
 
 Latin.^  Feri.*;,  or  Latin  Holydays,  a  festival 
 among  the  Romans.  It  was  originally  the  solemn 
 meeting  of  the  cantons  of  Latium,  and  afterward,  on 
 the  overthrow  of  the  Latin  republic,  was  converted 
 into  a  Roman  celebration.  At  first  the  Romans  took 
 part  in  it,  as  members  of  the  Latin  confederacy,  into 
 which  they  had  entered  by  virtue  of  an  old  treaty, 
 made  A.U  C.  261,  which  placed  the  thirty  cities  of  La- 
 tium on  a  perfect  equality  with  the  Romans.  The  place 
 for  holding  the  festival  was  the  Alban  Mount ;  and,  so 
 long  as  Latium  had  a  dictator,  none  but  he  could  offer 
 a  sacrifice  there,  and  preside  at  the  holydays.  He  sac- 
 rificed on  behalf  of  the  Romans  likewise,  as  they  did 
 724 
 
 in  the  temple  of  Diana  on  the  Aventine,  for  themselves 
 and  the  Latins.  Tarquinius  Priscus  assumed  the  pres- 
 idency on  the  Alban  Mount,  as  it  was  subsequently 
 exercised  by  the  chief  magistrates  of  Rome,  after  the 
 dissolution  of  the  Latin  state  ;  but  the  opinion  that 
 Tarquinius  instituted  the  festival  is  quite  erroneous, 
 as  its  antiquity  is  proved  to  have  been  far  higher. 
 Like  the  Greek  festivals,  this  Latin  one  ensured  a  sa- 
 cred truce.  It  lasted  four  days.  The  consuls  alwavs 
 celebrated  the  Latin  Holydays  before  they  set  out  to 
 their  provinces ;  and  if  they  had  not  been  rightly  per- 
 formed, or  if  anything  had  been  omitted,  it  was  neces- 
 sary that  they  should  be  repeated.  (Consult  on  this 
 whole  subject  Niebuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  2,  p.  16, 
 seqq.,  Eng.  transl  ) 
 
 Latini,  the  inhabitants  of  Latium.  {Vid  Latium.) 
 Latinl's,  I.  a  son  of  Faunus  by  Marica,  king  of  the 
 Aborigines  in  Italy,  who  from  him  were  called  Latini. 
 He  married  Amata,  by  whom  he  had  a  son  and  a  daugh- 
 ter. The  son  died  in  his  infancy,  and  the  daughter, 
 called  Lavinia,  was  secretly  promised  in  marriage  by 
 her  mother  to  Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutuli,  one  of  her 
 most  powerful  admirers.  I'he  gods  opposed  this  union, 
 and  the  oracles  declared  that  Lavinia  must  become  the 
 wife  of  a  foreign  prince.  The  arrival  of  ..Eneas  in  It- 
 aly seemed  favourable  to  the  realization  of  this  predic- 
 tion, and  Latinus  was  prompted  to  become  the  friend 
 and  ally  of  the  Trojan  prince,  and  to  offer  him  his 
 daughter  in  marriage.  Turnus,  upon  this,  declared 
 war  against  the  king  and  .^neas,  but  lost  his  life  in 
 battle  by  the  hand  of  the  latter,  who  thereupon  receiv- 
 ed Lavinia  as  his  spouse.  Latinus  died  soon  after,  and 
 ^neas  succeeded  him  on  the  throne  of  Latium.  So 
 says  the  fabulous  legend.  (  Vid.  ..Eneas. —  Virg.,  Ain., 
 9.  Aic.—Ovid,  Mel.,  13,  &;c.  ;  Fast.,  2,  &.c.—Dion'. 
 Hal.,  1,  13.— />V7>.,  1,  I,  &.C.— Justin,  43,  1.)  — IL 
 A  son  of  Sylvius  ..Eneas,  surnamed  also  Sylvius.  He 
 was  the  fifth  king  of  the  Latins,  and  succeeded  his  fa- 
 ther.    {Dion.  Hal.,  I,  15  ) 
 
 Latium,  a  country  of  Italy,  lying  south  of  Etruria, 
 from  which  it  was  separated  by  the  Tiber. — The  ear- 
 liest records  of  Italian  history,  as  we  are  assured  by 
 Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (1,  9),  represented  the 
 plains  of  Latium  as  first  inhabited  by  the  Siculi,  a 
 people  of  obscure  origin,  but  who  would  be  entitled  to 
 our  notice  from  the  circumstance  above  mentioned, 
 even  had  they  not  acquired  additional  historical  im- 
 portance from  their  subsequent  migration  to  the  cele- 
 brated island  from  them  named  Sicily.  {Vid.  Siculi.) 
 Ancient  writers  do  not  seem  agreed  as  to  the  name  of 
 the  people  who  compelled  the  Siculi  to  abandon  La- 
 tium. Dionysius  informs  us,  that  Philistus  ascribed 
 their  expulsion  to  the  Umbri  and  Pelasgi.  Thucydi- 
 des  refers  the  same  event  to  the  Opici  ;  while  Anti- 
 ochus  of  Syracuse,  a  still  more  ancient  writer,  repre- 
 sents the  Siculi  as  flying  from  the  ffinotri.  Notwith- 
 standing this  apparent  discrepance,  it  is  pretty  evident, 
 that  under  these  different  names  of  Umbri,  Opici,  and 
 CEnotri,  the  same  people  are  designated  whom  Dionys- 
 ius and  the  Roman  historians  usually  term  Aborigi- 
 nes. {Ant.  Rom.,  1,  10  )  The  Aborigines,  inter- 
 mixing with  several  Pelasgic  colonies,  occupied  La- 
 tium, and  soon  formed  themselves  into  the  several 
 communities  of  Latini,  Rutuli,  Hernici,  and  Volsci, 
 even  prior  to  the  Trojan  vvar  and  the  supposed  arrival 
 of  ^rieas. — The  name  of  Prisci  Latini  was  first  given 
 to  certain  cities  of  Latium,  supposed  to  have  been  col- 
 onized by  Latinus  Sylvius,  one  of  the  kings  of  Alba, 
 but  most  of  which  were  afterward  conquered  and  de- 
 stroyed by  Ancus  Marcius  and  Tarquinius  Priscus. 
 {Liv.,  1,  3.)  In  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Superbus 
 we  find  the  Latin  nation  united  under  the  form  ol  a 
 confederate  republic,  and  acknowledging  that  ambi- 
 tious prince  as  the  protector  of  their  league.  {Liv.,  1, 
 50.)  After  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrant  from  Rome, 
 we  are  told  that  the  Latins,  who  favoured  his  cause. 
 
LAT 
 
 •    LAT 
 
 experienced  a  total  defeat  near  the  Lake  Regillus,  and 
 were  obliged  to  sue  for  peace.  (Dion.  Hal.,  6,  18.) 
 According  to  this  historian,  the  Latins  received  the 
 thanks  of  the  Roman  senate,  some  years  afterward, 
 for  having  taken  no  advantage  of  the  disturbances  at 
 Rome,  which  finally  led  to  the  secession  of  the  people 
 to  Mons  Sacer,  and  for  having,  on  the  contrary,  offered 
 every  assistance  in  their  power  on  that  occasion  ;  he 
 adds  also  that  a  perpetual  league  was  formed  at  that  time 
 between  the  Romans  and  the  Latins.  However,  about 
 143  years  afterward,  we  find  the  latter  openly  rebell- 
 ing, and  refusing  to  supply  the  usual  quota  of  troops 
 which  they  had  agreed  to  furnish  as  allies  of  Rome. 
 Their  hold  demand,  which  was  urged  through  L.  An- 
 nuls Setinus,  in  the  Roman  senate,  that  one  of  the 
 consuls  at  least  should  be  chosen  out  of  their  nation, 
 led  to  an  open  rupture.  A  war  followed,  which  was 
 rendered  remarkable  from  the  circumstances  of  the 
 execution  of  the  young  Manlius  by  order  of  his  father, 
 and  the  devotion  of  Decius.  After  having  been  de- 
 feated in  several  encounters,  the  Latins  were  reduced 
 to  subjection,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  towns, 
 which  experienced  greater  lenity,  and  Latium  thence- 
 forth ceased  to  be  an  independent  state.  {Liv.,  8, 
 14. — Plin  ,  34,  5.)  At  that  time  the  rights  of  Roman 
 citizens  had  been  granted  to  a  few  only  of  the  Latin 
 cities;  but  at  a  later  period  the  Gracchi  sought  to 
 level  all  such  distinctions  between  the  Latins  and  the 
 Romans.  This  measure,  however,  was  not  carried. 
 The  Social  war  followed  ;  and  though  the  confederates 
 were  finally  conquered,  after  a  long  and  desperate 
 contest,  the  senate  thought  it  advisable  to  decree, 
 that  all  the  Latin  cities  which  had  not  taken  part  with 
 the  allies  should  enjoy  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens. 
 Many  of  these  towns  were,  however,  deprived  of  their 
 privileges  by  Sylla  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  close  of  the 
 republic  that  the  Latins  were  admitted  generally  to  par- 
 ticipate in  all  the  rights  and  immunities  enjoyed  by  the 
 Quirites.  {Suet.,  Vit.  Jul.,  8. — Ascon.,Pcd.  in  Pis., 
 p.  490. — On  the  Jus  Latii  and  Jus  Italicum,  consult 
 Lipsius,  ad  Tacit.,  Ann.,  11,  24.  —  Panvin.,  Comm. 
 Rap.  Rom.,  3,  p.  329.  —  Spanheim,  Orb.  Rom.,  1, 
 16.) — The  name  of  Latium  was  at  first  given  to  that 
 portion  of  Italy  only  which  extends  from  the  mouth  of 
 the  Tiber  to  the  Circaean  promontory,  a  distance  of 
 about  50  miles  along  the  coast ;  but  subsequently  this 
 latter  boundary  was  removed  to  the  river  Liris,  whence 
 arose  the  distinction  of  Latium  Antiquum  and  Novum. 
 {Strabo,  231.  —  Plin.,  3,  5.)  At  a  still  later  period, 
 the  southern  boundary  of  Latium  was  extended  from 
 the  Liris  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  V'ulturnus  and  the 
 Massic  hills.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  1,  seyq.) 
 Latmos,  a  mountain  of  Caria,  near  Miletus.  It  was 
 famous  as  having  been  the  scene  of  the  fable  of  En- 
 (tymion.  {Vid.  Endymion.)  In  the  vicinity  of  this 
 mountain  stood  the  city  of  Heraclea,  commonly  termed 
 'Hpa«?i.f«Q!  7]  VTib  AaTuov,  "  Heraclea  below,  or  at  the 
 foot  of,  Latmus."  The  mountain  gave  to  the  adja- 
 cent bay  the  name  of  Latmicus  Sinus.  {Mela,  1, 
 17.--Plin.,  5,  29.) 
 
 Latobbiui,  a  people  of  Belgic  Gaul,  in  the  vicinity 
 of  the  Tulingi,  Rauraci,  and  Helvetii,  whose  country 
 lay  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  about  90  miles  to  the 
 we«t  of  the  Lacus  Briganlinus,  or  Lake  of  Constance. 
 If  they  are  the  nation  called  by  Ptolemy  Latobici,  they 
 must  have  changed  their  settlements  before  that  geog- 
 rapher wrote,  as  he  includes  their  territories  in  Pan- 
 Bonia  near  Noricum.  {Cas.,  B.  G.,  1,  2. — Id.  ib., 
 3,  I.) 
 
 L.troMiiE.      Vid.  LautumisB. 
 
 Latona  (in  Greek  Leto),  was  the  daughter  of  the 
 Titans  Ctr.us  and  Phoebe.  In  Homer  (she  appears  as 
 one  o(  the  wives  of  Jupiter,  and  there  occur  no  traces 
 of  enmity  between  her  and  Juno.  {II.,  21,  499.) 
 Later  poets,  however,  fable  much  about  the  persecu- 
 tion she  underwent  from  that  goddess,  an  account  of 
 
 which  will  be  found  near  the  commencement  of  the 
 article  Apollo.     Her  children  by  Jupiter  were  Apollo 
 and  Diana. — While  wandering  from  place  to  place 
 with  her  offspring,  Latona,  says  a  legend  most  pretti- 
 ly told  by  Ovid  {Mctamorph.,  6,  313,  scqq.),  arrived  in 
 Lycia.     The  sun  was  shining  fiercely,  and  the  god- 
 dess was   parched  with  thirst.     She  saw  a  poo!   and 
 knelt  down  at  it  to  drink.     Some  clowns,  who  were 
 there  cutting  sedge  and  rushes,  refused  to  allow  her 
 to  slake  her  thirst.     In  vain   the  goddess  entreated, 
 representing  that  water  was  common  to  all,  and  ap- 
 pealing 10  their  compassion  for  her  babes.     The  brutes 
 were  insensible:   they  not  only  mocked  at  her  distress, 
 but  jumped   into  and  muddied  the  water.     The  god- 
 dess, though  the  most  gentle  of  her  race,  was  roused 
 to  indignation  :    she  raised  her  hand  to  heaven,  and 
 cried,  "  May  you  live  for  ever  in  that  pool !"'     Her 
 wish  was  instantly  accomplished,  and  the  churls  were 
 turned  into  frogs. — Niobe,  the  daughter  of  Tantalus 
 and  wife  of  .\mphion,  proud  of  her  numerous  offspring, 
 ventured  to  set  herself  before  Latona  ;    the  offended 
 goddess  called  upon  her  children,  Apollo  and  Diana, 
 and  soon  Niobc  was,  by  the  arrows  of  those  deities, 
 made  a  childless  mother,  and   became  stiffened  into 
 stone  vviih  grief.     {Vid.  Niobe.) — Tityus,  the  son  of 
 Earth,  or  of  Jupiter  and  Elara,  happened  to  see  Lato- 
 na one    time   as  she  was  going   to   Delphi   (Pytho). 
 Inflamed  with  love,  he  attempted  to  offer  her  violence. 
 The   goddess  called   her  children  to  her  aid,  and  he 
 soon  lay  slain  by  their  arrows.     His  punishment  did 
 not  cease  with  life,  but  vultures  preyed  upon  his  liver 
 in  Erebus.     {Vid.  Tityus  )— The  Greeks  personified 
 night  under  the  title  of  AHTfl  or  Latona,  and  BAYBi2 ; 
 the    one   signifying  oblivion,  and   the   other  sleep  or 
 qiaetudc  {Plutarch,  ap.  Euseb.,  Prcep.  Eoang  ,  3,  1. 
 — Hcsych.,  s.  V.  BauC(j) ;    both  of  which  were  meant 
 to  express  the  unmoved  tranquillity  prevailing  through 
 the  infinite  variety  of  unknown  darkness  that  preceded 
 the  creation  or  first  emanation  of  light.     Hence  she 
 was  said  to  have  been  the  first  wife  of  Jupiter  {Odyss., 
 11,  579),  the  mother  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  or  the  sun 
 and  moon,  and  the  nurse  of  the  earth  and  the  stars. 
 The  Egyptians  differed  a  little  from  the  Greeks,  and 
 supposed  her  to  be  the  nurse  and  grandmother  of  Ho- 
 rns and  Bubastis,  their  Apollo  and  Diana  {Herod.,  2, 
 156),  in  which  they  agree  more  exactly  with  the  an- 
 cient naturalists,  who  held  that  heat  was  nourished  by 
 the  humidity  of  night.     {Macrob.,  Sat.,  1,  23.)     Her 
 symbol  was  the  Mygale  or  Mus  Araneus,  anciently 
 supposed   to  be  blind  {Plut.,  Sympos.,  4,  p.  670. — 
 Anton.,  Liberal.  Fab.,  28)  ;  but  she  is  usually  repre- 
 sented upon  the  monuments  of  ancient  art  under  the 
 form  of  a  large  and  comely  woman,  with  a  veil  upon 
 her  head.     This  veil,  in  painting,  was  always  black  ; 
 and  in  gems  the  artists  generally  availed  themselves  of  a 
 dark-coloured  vein  in  the  stone  to  express  it ;   it  being 
 the  same  as  that  which  was  usually  thrown  over  the 
 symbol  of  the  generative  attribute  to  signify  the  nutri- 
 tive power  of  night  fostering  the  productive  power  of 
 the  pervading  spirit ;  whence  Priapus  is  called  in  the 
 poets   black-cloaked.     {Mosch  ,   Epitaph.  Bion.,  27.) 
 The  veil  is  often  stellated.     {Knight,  Inquiry  into  the 
 Symb.  Lang.,  &lc.,  ^  87. — Class.  Journ.,  vol.  24,  p. 
 214.) 
 
 Latopoi.is,  a  city  of  Egypt  in  the  ThebaVd,  between 
 Thebes  and  ApoUinopolis  .Magna.  It  derived  its  Greek 
 name  from  the  fish.  Lalos  worshipped  there,  which 
 was  regarded  as  the  largest  of  all  the  fishes  of  the  Nile. 
 {Athenaiis,  7,  17.— Strabo,  816  )  The  later  writers 
 drop  the  term  7ro2(f  (polls),  and  call  the  place  merely 
 Laton  {AuTuv,  Hierocles),  and  therefore,  in  the  Ilin. 
 Anton,  and  Notitia  Imperii,  the  ablative  form  Lato 
 occurs.  The  modern  Esnc  occupies  the  site  of  Latop- 
 olis,  and  is  an  important  place  in  the  caravan  trade 
 from  Darfur  and  the  more  southern  regions.  {Mart- 
 ncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  331.) 
 
LAU* 
 
 L  AU 
 
 Lavekna,  a  Roman  divinity,  the  patron-goddess  of 
 thieves,  who  were  anciently  called  Lavcrmoncs  {Fcs- 
 tus,  s.  v.),  and  of  all,  in  general,  who  practised  artifice 
 and  fraud.  {Moral.,  Ejnst.,  1,  16,  60.)  At  Rome 
 she  had  an  altar  by  the  temple  of  Tellus,  near  the  gate 
 which  was  called  from  her  the  gate  of  Laverna. 
 {Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  p.  45.)  There  was  also  a  temple 
 of  this  goddess  near  Famias.  (Cic,  Ep.  ad  All.,  7, 
 8  )  Her  name  is  probably  derived  from  laUo,  signifi- 
 catory  oi darkness  or  obscurity.  (Compare  the  change 
 of  t  and  V  in  rl'klij  and  vellu ;  •diXu  and  volo ;  k?atv( 
 and  clivus,  &c.  —  Kcighlley's  Mylhulogy,  p.  529. — 
 Consult  Mem.  Acad,  dcs  Inscripl.,  &c.,  vol.  7,  p.  77, 
 " De  la  Decssc  Laverne.") 
 
 Lavernium,  a  temple  of  Laverna,  near  Forinias. 
 (Cic,  Alt.,  7,  8.) 
 
 Lavinia,  a  daughter  of  King  Latinus  and  Amata, 
 promised  by  her  mother  in  marriage  to  Turnus,  but 
 given  eventually  to  .Eneas.  ( Firf.  Latinus.)  At  her 
 husband's  death  she  was  left  pregnant,  and  being  fear- 
 ful of  Ascanius,  her  step-son,  she  fled  into  the  woods, 
 where  she  brought  forth  a  son  called  yEneas  Sylvius. 
 (Vtrg  ,  JEn.,  6,  7.— Ovid,  Mel.,  14,  507.— Lit;.,  1,  1.) 
 
 Lavinium,  a  ciiy  of  Latmm,  situate  on  the  river 
 Numicius,  near  the  coast,  and  to  the  west  of  Ardea. 
 It  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  .-Eneas,  on  his 
 marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Latinus  {Dioy\.  Hal.,  1, 
 45. — Liv  ,  1,  1);  this  story,  however,  would  go  but 
 little  towards  proving  the  existence  of  such  a  town,  if 
 it  were  not  actually  enumerated  among  the  cities  of 
 Latium  by  Strabo  and  other  authors,  as  well  as  by 
 the  Itineraries.  Plutarch  notices  it  as  the  place  in 
 which  Tatius,  the  colleague  of  Romulus,  was  assas- 
 sinated. {Vil.  Rom.)  Strabo  mentions  that  Lavini- 
 um had  a  temple  consecrated  to  Venus,  which  was 
 common  to  all  the  Latins.  {Straho,  232.)  The  in- 
 habitants are  styled  by  Pliny  (3,  5)  Laviniates  Iliou- 
 enses.  Lavinium  and  Laurentum  were  latterly  united 
 under  the  name  of  Lauro-Lavinium.  {Front,  de  Col. 
 —  Symmachus,  1,  65. —  Vulp.,  Vet.  Lai.,  10,  6.) 
 Various  opinions  have  been  entertained  by  antiquaries 
 relative  to  the  site  which  ought  to  be  assigned  to  La- 
 vinium. Cluverius  placed  it  near  the  church  of  Si. 
 Petronclla  {Ital.  Ant.,  2,  p.  894) ;  Holstenius  on  the 
 hill  called  Monte  di  Livano  {ad  Slcph.  Byz.,  p.  175) ; 
 but  more  recent  topographers  concur  in  fixing  it  at  a 
 place  called  Praclica,  about  three  miles  from  the  coast. 
 [Vulp.,  Vet.  Lat.,  10,  l.—NMy,  Viaggio  Antiquario, 
 vol.  2,  p.  265. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  19.) 
 
 Lauke.\cum,  a  fortified  town  of  Noricum  Ripense, 
 the  station  of  a  Roman  fleet  on  the  Danube,  and  the 
 headcjuarters  of  the  second  legion.  {Notit.,  Imp. 
 Occident.)  It  lay  to  the  east  of  the  junction  of  the 
 CEnus  and  Danube.  The  modern  village  of  Lohr 
 stands  near  the  site  of  this  place,  a  short  distance  to 
 the  north  of  the  present  city  of  Ens.  {Mannerl, 
 Gcog".,  vol.  3,  p.  637.) 
 
 Laurentes  Agri,  the  country  in  the  neighbourhood 
 of  Laurentum.     {TibulL,  2,  5,  41.) 
 
 Laurentia.     Vid.  Acca. 
 
 Laurentum,  the  capital  of  Latium,  about  sixteen 
 miles  below  Ostia,  following  the  coast,  and  near  the 
 spot  now  called  Patcrno.  {Vulp.,  Vet.  Lai.,  10,  1. — 
 Nihby,  Viaggio  Antiq.,  vol.  2,  p.  313  )  Cluverius 
 and  Holstenius  are  both  wrong  in  assigning  to  Lau- 
 rentum the  position  of  San  Lorenzo.  Of  the  existence 
 of  this  city,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  /Eneas  and 
 the  Trojan  colony,  there  can  be  no  doubt :  without 
 going  so  far  back  as  to  Saturn  and  Picus,  it  may  be 
 asserted,  that  the  origin  of  Laurentum  was  most  an- 
 cient, since  it  is  mentioned  among  the  maritime  cities 
 of  Latium,  in  the  first  treaties  between  Rome  and 
 Carthage,  recorded  by  Polybius  (3,  22).  Though 
 Laurentum  joined  the  Latin  league  in  behalf  of  Tar- 
 quin,  and  shared  in  the  defeat  at  the  Lake  Regil- 
 lus  {Dion.  Hal.,  5,  61),  it  seems  afterward  to  have 
 7126 
 
 been  firmly  attached  to  the  Roman  interests.  (Livy, 
 8,  9.)  Of  its  subsequent  history  we  know  but  little; 
 Lucan  represents  it  as  havmg  fallen  into  ruins  and  be 
 come  deserted,  in  consequence  of  the  civil  wars  (7, 
 394).  At  a  later  period,  however,  Laurentum  appear 
 to  have  been  restored  under  the  name  of  Lauro-Lavin- 
 ium: a  new  city  having  been  formed,  as  it  is  sup- 
 posed, by  the  union  of  Laurentum  and  Lavinium. 
 {Front.,  de  Col. — Symmachus,  i,  65. —  Vulp.,  Vet. 
 Lat.,  10,  6.)  The  district  of  Laurentum  must  have 
 been  of  a  very  woody  and  marshy  nature.  The  Silva 
 Laurentina  is  noticed  by  Julius  Obsequens  (de  Prod), 
 and  by  Herodian  (1,  12),  the  latter  of  whom  reports, 
 that  the  Emperor  Commodus  was  ordered  to  this  part 
 of  the  country  by  his  physicians,  on  account  of  the 
 laurel-groves  which  grew  there,  the  shade  of  which 
 was  considered  as  particularly  salutary.  It  is  from 
 this  tree  that  Laurentum  is  supposed  to  have  derived 
 its  name.  The  marshes  of  Laurentum  were  famous 
 for  the  number  and  size  of  the  wild  boars  which  they 
 bred  in  their  reedy  pastures.  {Virg.,  JEn  ,  7,  59. — 
 Id.  ibid  ,  10,  7{)7. —Hor.,  Sal.,  2,  i— Martial,  9, 
 49.)  However  unfavourable,  as  a  place  of  residence, 
 Laurentum  may  be  thought  at  the  present  day,  on  ac- 
 count of  the  malaria  which  prevails  there,  it  appears 
 to  have  been  considered  as  far  from  unhealthy  by  the 
 Romans.  We  are  told  that  Scipio  and  Laelius,  when 
 released  from  the  cares  of  business,  often  resorted  to 
 this  neighbourhood,  and  amused  themselves  by  gath- 
 ering shells  on  the  shore.  {Val.  Max.,  8,  8. —  Ctc, 
 de  Oral.,  2,22.)  Pliny  the  Younger  says  Laurentum 
 was  much  frequented  by  the  Roman  nobles  in  winter; 
 and  so  numerous  were  their  villas,  that  they  presented 
 more  the  appearance  of  a  city  than  detached  dwellings. 
 Every  lover  of  antiquity  is  acquainted  with  the  elegant 
 and  .'r.inuie  uVscripti'jn  he  gives  of  his  own  retreat. 
 {Ep.,  2,  17.)  Hortensius,  the  celebrated  orator,  and  the 
 rival  of  Cicero,  had  also  a  villa  in  this  neighbourhood. 
 {Varro,' R.  R.,  3,  13. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2, 
 p.   16,  seqq.) 
 
 Laurion,  a  range  of  hills,  e.xtending  from  that  part 
 of  the  Attic  coast  which  lay  near  Azenia,  below  the 
 Astypalaea  Promontorium,  to  the  promontory  of  Su- 
 nium,  and  from  thence  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Prasis 
 on  the  eastern  coast.  This  tract  was  celebrated  for 
 its  silver  mines.  Herodotus  informs  us,  that  the  pro- 
 duce of  these  mines  was  shared  among  the  Athenians, 
 each  of  whom  received  ten  drachma; ;  but  we  are  not 
 informed  whether  this  division  took  place  annually. 
 Themistocles,  however,  during  the  war  with  ..Egina, 
 advised  them  to  apply  this  money  to  the  coTistructioa 
 of  200  galleys  ;  a  measure  which  contributed,  in  a 
 great  degree,  to  the  naval  ascendancy  of  the  Atheni- 
 ans. {Herod.,  7,  144.)  Thucydides  reports,  that  the 
 Lacediemonian  army,  in  their  second  invasion  of  At- 
 tica, advanced  in  this  direction  as  far  as  Laurium  (2, 
 55).  The  produce  of  the  mines  had  already  much  di- 
 minished in  the  time  of  Xenophon.  {Mem..  3,  6,  5.) 
 We  collect  from  his  account  that  they  then  were 
 farmed  by  private  persons,  who  paid  a  certain  sum  to 
 the  republic  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  ore  thev 
 extracted  ;  but  he  strongly  urged  the  government  to 
 take  the  works  into  their  own  bands,  conceivmg  thai 
 they  would  bring  a  great  accession  of  revenue  to  the 
 state.  {De  Prov.,  p.  293,  ed.  Steph.)  These  private 
 establishments  were  called  epyaaTi'ipia  iv  rol^  upyv- 
 peioi(.  {Mschin.  in  Ttmarck.,  p.  14)  Nicias  is 
 said  to  have  employed  at  one  lime  1000  slaves  in  the 
 mines.  {Xcn.,  I.  c. — Plul.,  Vit.  Nic. — Andociti.,  di 
 Myst. — Diod.  Sic,  5,  37.)  Strabo  informs  us>  thai 
 the  metallic  veins  were  nearly  exhausted  when  be 
 wrote  :  a  considerable  quantity  of  silver,  however, 
 was  extracted  from  the  old  scoriae,  as  the  anciest  miners 
 were  not  much  skilled  in  the  ait  of  smelting  the  oja 
 {Strabo,  399.)  —  The  mines  themselves  were  c»'il«id 
 Laureia  or  Lauria ;  and  the  distiict  Lauiiotice.     llmo' 
 
LAURION. 
 
 LAU 
 
 house  {Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  417,  Lond.  ed.)  describes 
 Laurium  as  a  hiffh  and  abrupt  hill,  covered  with  pine- 
 trees  and  abounding  with  marble.  Stewart  also  rec- 
 ognised in  Legrina  and  Lagriona,  near  Sunium,  the 
 name  Laurion,  which  has  also  evidently  been  preserved 
 in  the  names  Lauronoris,  Mauronoris,  Mauronorise 
 (Aavpiov  df)o^).  According  to  his  statement,  it  is  an 
 uneven  range  of  hills  lull  of  exhausted  mines  and  sco- 
 /isp.  {Antiq.  of  Attica,  vol.  3,  p.  13.)  Mr.  Hawkms, 
 ill  his  survey  of  this  part  of  the  Attic  coast,  discovered 
 many  veins  of  the  argentiferous  lead  ore,  with  which 
 the  country  seems  to  abound  ;  he  observed  traces  of 
 the  silver-mines  not  far  beyond  Keratia.  The  site  of 
 the  smelting  furnaces  may  be  traced  to  the  southward 
 of  Thorico  for  some  miles,  immense  quantities  of  sco- 
 riae occurring  there.  These  were  probably  placed  near 
 the  seacoast  for  the  convenience  of  fuel,  which  it  soon 
 became  necessary  to  import.  ( Walpole's  Memoirs, 
 vol.  1,  p  430.  —  GcIVs  Itinerary,  p.  79.  —  DodweWs 
 Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  358.) — The  mines  at  Laurium  were 
 worked  either  by  shafts  {(ppeara,  piitci)  or  adits  (inrov- 
 Ofioi,  curiet) ;  and  by  neither  of  these  two  modes  of 
 working  did  they,  in  the  time  of  Xenophon,  arrive  at  the 
 termination  of  the  ore  (Xc7i.,  de  Vectig.,  24,  6).  For 
 the  chambering  of  the  mines  timber  was  probably  im- 
 ported by  sea  {Demoslh.  in  Mid.,  p.  568, 17),  which,  ac- 
 cording to  Plmy  (33,  21),  was  the  case  also  in  Spain. 
 Hobhouse  mentions  {I.  c.)  that  one  or  two  shafts  have 
 been  discovered  in  a  small  shrubby  plain  not  far  from 
 the  sea,  on  the  eastern  coast ;  and  he  states  also  that 
 a  specimen  of  ore,  lately  found,  was  shown  to  him  at 
 Athens.  If  the  hole  which  Chandler  {Travels,  c.  30) 
 saw  upon  Mount  Hymeitus  was  really,  as  he  conjec- 
 tures, a  shaft,  It  follows  that  some,  at  least,  had  a  con- 
 siderable width,  for  the  circular  opening  was  of  more 
 than  forty  feet  in  diameter ;  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole 
 two  narrow  passages  led  into  the  hill  in  opposite  di- 
 rections. It  was  also  the  practice,  according  to  Vi- 
 truvius.  to  make  large  hollows  in  the  silver  mines  (7, 
 7).  The  pillars  which  were  left  standing  for  the  sup- 
 port of  the  overlying  mountain  were  called  op/ioi,  and 
 more  commonly  /leaoKptveic  {Plut.,  Vit.  X.,  Orat. — 
 Op.,  vol.  6,  p.  256,  ed.  Hutt.— Pollux,  3,  87.— Id., 
 7,  98),  as  they,  at  the  same  time,  served  for  the  di- 
 visions between  the  different  compartments,  or,  as 
 they  were  called,  workshops.  As  these  pillars  con- 
 tained ore,  the  proprietors  were  tempted  by  their  ava- 
 rice to  remove  them,  although  by  law  they  were  strictly 
 prohibited  from  doing  so  ;  in  the  time  of  the  orator 
 Lycurgus,  the  wealthy  Diphilus  was  condemned  to 
 death  for  this  offence.  {Vit.  X.,  Orat.,  I.  c.)  The 
 opening  of  new  mines  was  called  Kaivoroixia,  and  on 
 account  of  the  great  risk  and  expense,  no  one  would 
 willingly  undertake  it.  If  the  speculator  was  suc- 
 cessful, he  was  amply  remunerated  for  his  undertaking; 
 a  unsuccessful,  he  lost  ail  his  trouble  and  e.xpense  ; 
 on  which  account  Xenophon  proposed  to  form  compa- 
 nies for  this  purpose.  The  ancients  speak  in  general 
 terms  of  the  unwholesome  evaporations  from  silver- 
 mines  (Casa«S.,  a/l  Slrab.,  101),  and  the  no.xious  at- 
 mosphere of  those  in  Attica  is  particularly  mentioned 
 (Xcn.,  Mem.,  3,  6,  12.— Plut.,  Comp.  Nic.  et  Crass, 
 init.),  although  the  Greeks  as  well  as  the  Romans 
 were  acquainted  with  the  use  of  shafts  for  ventilation, 
 wlt\ch  the  former  called  ylivxayuyia.  {Lex.  Seg.,  p. 
 317.)  Ir  what  manner  the  water  was  withdrawn  from 
 the  mines  we  are  not  informed  ;  it  is,  however,  prob- 
 able that  the  Greeks  made  use  of  the  same  artificial 
 meaiis  as  the  Romans.  (Consult  Reilemcier,  Art  of 
 Mining,  &.€.,  among  the  Ancients,  p.  114,  of  the  Ger- 
 man work.)  The  removal  of  the  one  appears  to  have 
 been  performed  partly  by  machinery  and  partly  by 
 men,  as  was  the  case  in  Egypt  and  Spain,  in  which 
 latter  country  the  younger  slaves  brought  the  ore 
 through  the  adits  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  ;  whether, 
 ^however,  the  miners  in  Attica  used  leather  bags  for 
 
 this  purpose,  and  were  on  that  acco  jnt  caWed  hag-car- 
 riers {■&v?iaKo<p6poi),  is,  to  say  the  least,  uncertain ;  for, 
 according  to  the  grammarians,  these  bags  contained 
 their  food.  {Pollux,  7,  \00.— Id.,  10,  H9.—Hesych., 
 s.  V.)  The  stamping  of  the  ore  at  the  founderies,  in 
 order  to  facilitate  its  separation  from  the  useless  parts 
 of  the  stone,  was  generally  performed  in  stone  mortars 
 with  iron  pestles.  In  this  manner  the  Egyptians  re- 
 duced the  gold  ore  to  the  size  of  a  vetch,  then  ground 
 it  in  handmills  and  washed  it  on  separate  planks,  after 
 water  had  been  poured  over  it  ;  which  is  the  account 
 given  by  a  Hippocratean  writer  of  the  treatment  of 
 gold  ore.  {Diod.  Sic.,  13,  12. — Agalharch.,  ap.  Phot., 
 p.  1342. — Hippocrates,  de  rictus  rat.,  1,4:.)  In  Spain 
 it  was  bruised  in  the  same  manner,  and  then,  if  Pliny 
 does  not  invert  the  proper  order,  first  washed,  and  af- 
 terward calcined  and  pounded.  Even  the  quicksilver 
 ore,  from  which  cinnabar  was  prepared,  was  similarly 
 treated  ;  that  is,  first  burned  otf,  in  which  operation  a 
 part  of  the  quicksilver  flowed  off,  and  then  pounded 
 with  iron  pestles,  ground,  and  washed.  {Plin.,  33,  21.) 
 In  Greece,  the  labourers  in  the  founderies  made  use 
 of  a  sieve  for  washing  the  comminuted  ore,  and  it  is 
 mentioned  among  the  implements  of  the  miners  by  the 
 appropriate  name  (TaAaf.  {Poll. ,7,  27.)  This  method 
 of  treating  ore  was  not  only  in  use  in  ancient  times, 
 but  it  was  the  only  one  employed  either  during  the 
 middle  ages  or  in  more  recent  times,  until  the  dis- 
 covery of  stamp  works.  {Beckman's  History  of  In- 
 ventions, vol.  1,  pt.  5,  num.  3. — Reitemcier,  p.  121, 
 scqq.)  Of  the  art  of  smelting  in  the  founderies  of 
 Laurium,  nothing  definite  is  known.  That  the  Athe- 
 nians made  use  of  the  bellows  and  charcoal  is  not  im- 
 probable ;  the  latter,  indeed,  may  be  fairly  inferred, 
 from  the  account  of  the  charcoal-sellers,  or,  rather, 
 charcoal-burners,  from  which  business  a  large  portion 
 of  the  Acharnians  in  particular  derived  their  livelihood. 
 The  art  of  smelting  among  the  ancients  was  so  imper- 
 fect, that  even  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  when  it  had  re- 
 ceived considerable  improvements,  there  was  still  no 
 profit  to  be  gained  by  extracting  silver  from  lead  ore, 
 in  which  it  was  present  in  small  proportions ;  and  the 
 early  Athenians  had,  in  comparison  with  their  suc- 
 cessors (who  were  themselves  not  the  most  perfect 
 masters  of  chymistry),  so  slight  a  knowledge  of  the 
 management  of  ore,  that,  according  to  the  same  writer, 
 not  only  was  that  which  had  been  thrown  away  as 
 stone  subsequently  used,  but  the  old  scoria?  were 
 again  employed  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  silver. 
 {Strah.,  399.)  According  to  Pliny  (33,  31),  the  an- 
 cients could  not  smelt  any  silver  without  some  mix- 
 ture of  lead  {plumbum  nigrum)  or  gray  lead  {ga- 
 lena, molybdcBna) ;  he  appears,  however,  only  to  mean 
 ores  in  which  the  silver  was  combined  with  some 
 metal  to  which  it  has  a  less  powerful  affinity  than  to 
 lead.  At  Laurium  it  was  not  necessary,  at  least  in 
 many  places,  to  add  any  lead,  it  being  already  present 
 in  the  ores.  Pliny  states  in  general  terms  the  manner 
 in  which  argentiferous  lead  ores  were  treated  (34,  47), 
 and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  was  the  method 
 adopted  in  Attica.  According  to  his  account,  the 
 ore  was  first  melted  down  to  staniium,  a  comfiositioii 
 of  pure  silver  and  lead  ;  then  this  material  was  brought 
 to  the  refining  oven,  where  the  silver  was  separated, 
 and  the  lead  appeared  half  glazed  in  the  form  of  lith- 
 arge, which,  as  well  as  gray  lead,  the  ancients  call  ga- 
 lena and  molybdena  :  this  last  substance  was  afterward 
 cooled,  and  the  lead  {plumbum  nigrum,  fwAvMo(,  to 
 distinguish  it  from  tin,  plvmlmm  album,  or  candtdum, 
 Kaaairepoq)  was  produced.  {Boecklis  Dissertattmi 
 on  the  Mines  of  Laurmm,  Comment.  Acad.  Berol., 
 an.  1814  et  1815,  p.  S-i.—Boeckh's  Public  Economy 
 of  Athens,  \o\.  2,  V.  4:\5,  seijq.) 
 
 L^uRON,  a  town  of  Spain,  towards  the  eastern  lim- 
 its of  Bstica,  and  not  far  from  the  sea,  probably  among 
 the  Bastitani.     It  has  been  supposed  by  some  to  be 
 
 727 
 
LEA 
 
 LEG 
 
 •he  modem  Liria,  five  leagues  from  Valcntia.  It 
 was  this  city  of  which  Serlorius  made  himself  master 
 in  the  face  of  Poinpey's  army  ;  and  in  its  vicinity,  at 
 a  subsequent  period,  Cneius  Pompeius,  son  of  Pom- 
 pey  the  Great,  was  slain  after  the  battle  of  Munda. 
 {Plut.,  Vit.  Scrt.—Oros.,  5,  23.—Florus,  4,  2.—C(Zs., 
 Bell.  Hisp,  c.  37.) 
 
 Laus,  I.  a  river  of  Lucania,  now  Lao,  running  into 
 the  Sinus  Laiis,  or  Gu\{  o(  Policastro,  at  the  southern 
 extremity  of  the  province.  At  its  mouth  stood  the 
 city  of  Laiis. — II.  A  city  at  the  southern  cxtrcinity 
 of  Lucania,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Laiis,  and  on  the 
 gulf  of  the  same  name.  It  was  a  colony  of  Sybarites 
 {Herod,  6,  20. — Strab.,  253),  but  beyond  this  fact 
 we  are  very  little  acquainted  with  its  history.  Strabo 
 reports,  that  the  allied  Greeks  met  with  a  signal  de- 
 feat in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  place  from  the  Lu- 
 canians.  These  were  probably  the  Posidoniata;,  and 
 the  other  colonists  on  this  coast,  and  we  may  conjec- 
 ture that  this  disaster  led  to  the  downfall  of  their  sev- 
 eral towns.  In  Pliny's  time  Laiis  no  longer  existed. 
 {Plin.,  3,  5. — Ptoi,  p.  67.)  Cluverius  identified  its 
 site  with  the  present  Lama  {Ilal.  Ant.,  2,  p.  1262)  ; 
 but  later  topographers  have  justly  observed,  that  this 
 town  IS  fourteen  miles  from  the  sea,  whereas  the  Ta- 
 ble Itinerary  evidently  marks  the  position  of  Laiis  near 
 the  coast.  It  is  more  probable,  therefore,  that  Scalca 
 represents  this  ancient  city.  {Romanclli,  vol.  1,  p. 
 383.) 
 
 Laus  Pompeia,  a  town  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  next  in 
 importance  to  Mediolanum,  and  situate  to  the  south- 
 east of  that  ()lace,  near  the  river  Lambrus.  It  was 
 founded,  as  Pliny  reports,  by  the  Boii  (3,  17),  and 
 afterward  probably  colonized  by  Pompeius  Strabo, 
 father  of  the  great  Pompev.  In  a  letter  of  Cicero  to 
 his  brother,  it  is  simply  called  Laus  (2,  15).  Its  po- 
 sition answers  to  that  of  Lodi  Vccchio,  which,  having 
 been  destroyed  by  the  Milanese,  the  Emperor  Barba- 
 rossa  caused  the  new  town  of  Lodi  to  be  built  at  the 
 distance  of  three  miles  from  the  ancient  site.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  ll.aly,  vol.  1,  p.  53.) 
 
 LautumijE  or  LatomLe,  a  name  properly  denoting 
 a  quarry,  and  derived  from  the  Greek  Aaaf,  "  a  stone,''' 
 and  TE/ivu,  '■'■to  cut''''  or  "  quarry."  This  appellation 
 was  particularly  applied  to  certain  quarries  near  Syra- 
 cuse, one  of  which  still  bears  the  name  of  "  The  Ear 
 of  Dionysius,''  because  it  is  said  to  have  been  used 
 by  that  tyrant  for  a  prison,  and  to  have  been  so  con- 
 structed that  all  the  sounds  uttered  in  it  converged 
 to  and  united  in  one  particular  point,  termed,  in  con- 
 sequence, the  tympanum.  This  point  communicated 
 with  an  apartment,  where  Dionysius  placed  himself, 
 and  thus  overheard  all  that  was  said  by  his  unsuspect- 
 ing captives.  Such  is  the  popular  opinion  respecting 
 this  place,  an  opinion  which  has  no  other  support  save 
 the  narratives  of  travellers  and  the  accounts  of  some 
 modern  historians,  who  have  been  equally  misled  by 
 vulgar  tradition.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  but 
 that  these  quarries  actually  served  as  places  of  impris- 
 onment, and  Cicero  reproaches  Verres  with  having 
 employed  them  for  this  purpose  in  the  case  of  Roman 
 citizens.  (Cic.  rn  Verr  ,  5,  27.)  ^lian  informs  us, 
 that  some  of  the  workmen  in  the  quarries  near  Syra- 
 cuse remained  so  long  there  as  to  marry  and  rear  fam- 
 ilies in  them,  and  that  some  of  their  children,  having 
 never  before  seen  a  citv,  were  terrified  on  their  com- 
 ino-  to  Syracuse,  and  beliolding  for  the  first  time  horses 
 and  oxen.     {.Elian,  V.  H.,  12,  44.) 
 
 Leander,  a  youth  of  Abydos,  beloved  by  Hero. 
 The  story  of  his  fate  will  be  found  under  the  latter 
 article.  {Vid.  Hero.) — The  following  remarks  relate 
 to  his  alletfed  feat  of  swimming  across  the  Hellespont 
 and  returning  the  same  night.  "It  was  the  custom," 
 observes  Ilobhouse,  "for  those  who  would  cross  from 
 Abydos  to  Sestos  to  incline  a  mile  out  of  the  direct 
 Ibe,  and  those  making  the  contrary  voyage  were  obli- 
 728 
 
 ged  to  have  recourse  to  a  similar  plan,  in  order  to  take 
 advantage  of  the  current.  Leander,  therefore,  had  a 
 perilous  adventure  to  perform,  who  swam  at  least  four 
 miles  to  meet  Hero,  and  returned  the  same  distance 
 the  same  night.  It  is  very  possible,  however,  to  swim 
 across  the  Hellespont  without  being  the  rival  or  hav- 
 ing the  motive  of  Leander.  My  fellow-traveller  (Lord 
 Byron)  was  determined  to  attempt  it."  {Hohhouse's 
 Journey,  vol.  2,  p.  218,  A'm.  ed.)  It  appears,  from 
 what  follows,  that  Lord  Byron  failed  in  his  first  at- 
 tempt, owing  to  the  strength  of  the  current,  after  he 
 and  the  friend  who  accompanied  him  had  been  in  the 
 water  an  hour,  and  found  themselves  in  the  middle  of 
 the  strait,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  below  the  castles. 
 A  second  attempt  was  more  successful  ;  Lord  Byron 
 was  in  the  water  one  hour  and  ten  minutes,  his  com- 
 panion, Mr.  Ekenhead,  five  minutes  less.  Lord  Byron 
 represents  the  current  as  very  strong  and  the  water 
 cold  ;  he  states,  however,  that  they  were  not  fatigued, 
 though  a  little  chilled,  and  performed  the  feat  with  lit- 
 tle difficulty.  The  strait  between  the  castles  Mr. 
 Hobhouse  makes  a  mile  and  a  quarter,  and  yet  it  took 
 four  boatmen  five  minutes  to  pull  them  from  point  to 
 point.  All  this  tends  to  throw  a  great  deal  of  doubt 
 upon  the  feat  of  Leander,  who  could  hardly  have  been 
 a  more  expert  swimmer  than  Lord  Byron,  and  who, 
 besides,  had  a  longer  course  to  pursue.  Consult  Lord 
 Byron's  own  account  {Moore's  Life  of  Byron,  vol.  2, 
 p.  308,  seqq),  and  Mr.  Turner's  remarks  appended  to 
 the  volume  just  cited,  p.  560. 
 
 Lebadea,  a  city  of  Bceotia,  west  of  Coronea,  built 
 on  a  plain  adjacent  to  the  small  river  Hercyne.  It 
 derived  its  name  from  Lebadus,  an  Athenian,  having 
 previously  been  called  Midea.  This  city  was  celebra- 
 ted in  antiquity  for  the  oracle  of  Trophonius,  situated 
 in  a  cave  above  the  town,  into  which  those  who  con- 
 sulted the  Fates  were  obliged  to  descend,  after  per- 
 forming various  ceremonies,  which  are  accurately  de- 
 tailed by  Pausanias,  who  also  gives  a  minute  descrip- 
 tion of  the  sacred  cavern  (9,  39).  The  oracle  was 
 already  in  considerable  repute  in  the  time  of  Croesus, 
 who  consulted  it  {Herod  ,  1,  46),  as  did  also  Mardoni- 
 us.  {Id.,  8,  134.)  The  victory  of  Leuctra  was  said 
 to  have  been  predicted  by  Trophonius,  and  a  solemn 
 assembly  was  in  consequence  held  at  Lebadea,  after 
 the  action,  to  return  thanks.  This  was  known,  how- 
 ever, to  have  been  an  artifice  of  Epaminondas.  {Diod. 
 Sic.,  15,  53.)  Strabo  calls  the  presiding  deity  Jupiter 
 Trophonius  {Strab.,  413),  and  so  does  Ijivy  (45,  28), 
 who  says  the  shrine  was  visited  by  Paulus  .^milius 
 after  his  victory  over  Perseus.  The  geographer  Di- 
 caearchus,  as  we  are  informed  by  Athenaeus  (13,  p. 
 594,  e),  wrote  a  full  account  of  the  oracle.  The 
 modern  town  of  Libadea  stands  near  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  city  :  the  castle  occupies  the  site  of  the  Acrop- 
 olis. {Dodwell,  vol.  1,  p.  217.— Gell's  Ilin.,  p.  178. 
 —  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  7,  p.  168,  Loiid.  ed. —  Cra- 
 vier's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  240.) 
 
 Lebedus  {Ai6eSo(),  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Jo 
 nia,  northwest  of  Colophon,  on  the  coast.  It  was  at 
 first  a  flourishing  city,  but  upon  the  removal  of  a  large 
 portion  of  its  inhabitants  to  Ephesus  by  Lysimachus, 
 it  sank  greatly  in  importance.  {Piiusan.,  1,  9. —  Stra- 
 bo, 632.)  In  the  tune  of  Horace  it  was  deserted  and 
 in  ruins.  It  would  seem  to  have  been  subsequently 
 restored,  as  Hierocles,  in  the  seventh  century,  speaks 
 of  it  as  a  place  then  in  existence.  {Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  6.  pt.  3,  p.  316.) 
 
 LfiCHiEUM,  that  part  of  Corinth  which  was  situated 
 on  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus,  being  distant  from  the  city 
 about  12  stadia,  and  connected  with  it  by  means  of 
 two  long  walls.  {Strabo,  380.  — Xcn  ,  Hist.  Gr.,  4, 
 5,  1 1 .)  It  was  the  great  emporium  of  Corinthian  traf- 
 fic with  the  western  parts  of  Greece,  as  well  as  with 
 Italy  and  Sicily.  {Sirah.,  I.  e.—Polyh.,  5,  24.— J«i., 
 5,  34,  12.— Lib.,  32,  23.)    According  to  Sir  W.  GeU, 
 
LEG 
 
 LEL 
 
 "  Lechaeum  is  thirty-five  minutes  distant  from  Corinth, 
 and  consists  of  about  six  houses,  magazines,  and  a 
 customhouse.  East  of  it,  the  remains  of  the  port  are 
 yet  visible  at  a  place  where  the  sea  runs  up  a  channel 
 into  the  fields.  Near  it  are  the  remains  of  a  modern 
 Venetian  fort."     {Itin.  of  the  Morea,  p.  205.) 
 
 Lectoni.*.  Ancient  traditions,  as  well  as  physical 
 observations,  point  out  the  former  existence  of  the  land 
 of  Lectonia,  which  would  seem  to  have  occupied  a 
 part  of  the  space  now  filled  by  the  Grecian  Sea.  An 
 earthquake  probablv  broke  down  its  foundations,  and 
 the  whole  was  finally  submerged  under  the  waves. 
 Perhaps  this  event  happened  when  the  sea,  which  was 
 formerly  extended  over  the  Scythian  plains,  forced  its 
 way  through  the  Bosporus,  and  precipitated  itself  into 
 tht"  basin  of  the  Mediterranean.  (Compare  remarks 
 under  the  articles  Cyanca  and  Meditcrraneum  Mare.) 
 The  numerous  islands  of  the  Archipelago  appear  to  be 
 the  remains  of  Lectonia,  and  this  tract  of  land  proba- 
 bly facilitated  the  passage  of  the  first  colonists  out  of 
 Asia  into  our  part  of  the  world.  It  was  the  opinion  of 
 Pallas  that  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  Seas,  as  well  as 
 the  Lake  Aral  and  several  others,  are  the  remains  of 
 an  extensive  sea,  which  covered  a  great  part  of  the 
 north  of  Asia.  This  conjecture  of  Pallas,  which  was 
 drawn  from  his  observations  in  Siberia,  has  been  con- 
 firmed by  Klaprolh's  survey  of  the  country  northward 
 of  Mount  Caucasus.  Lastly,  M.  de  Choiseul  Gouffier 
 adds,  that  a  great  part  of  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  and 
 Besarabia  bears  evident  traces  of  having  been  form- 
 ed by  the  sea.  It  has  often  been  conjectured  that  the 
 opening  of  the  Bosporus  was  the  occasion  of  thedrain- 
 mg  of  this  ocean  in  the  rnidst  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
 The  memory  of  this  disruption  of  the  two  continents 
 was  preserved  in  the  traditions  of  Greece.  Strabo 
 (49),  Pliny  (2,  90),  and  Diodorus  Siculus  (5,  47),  have 
 collected  the  ancient  memorials  which  existed  of  so 
 striking  a  catastrophe.  The  truth  of  the  story,  how- 
 ever, has  been  placed  on  more  secure  grounds  by 
 jihysical  observations  on  the  districts  in  the  vicinity  of 
 the  Bosporus.  (Consult  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  and 
 particularly  a  Memoire  by  M.  de  Choiseul  Gouffier  in 
 the  Mcms.  de  Vlnstiliit.  Royal  de  France,  1815,  in 
 which  the  author  has  collected  much  curious  informa- 
 tion on  this  subject  )  It  appears  that  the  catastrophe 
 was  produced  by  the  operation  of  volcanoes,  the  fires 
 of  which  were  still  burning  is  the  era  of  the  Argonau- 
 tic  voyage,  and  enter  into  the  poetical  descriptions  of 
 Apollonius  and  Valerius  Flaccus.  According  to  the 
 false  Orpheus,  Neptune,  being  angry  with  Jupiter, 
 struck  the  land  of  Lectonia  with  his  golden  trident, 
 and  submerged  it  in  the  sea,  forming  islands  of  many 
 of  its  scattered  fragments.  There  seems  to  be  some 
 resemblance  between  the  name  Lectonia  and  Lycao- 
 nia,  but  then  we  must  refer  the  latter  term,  not  to  a 
 portion  of  Asia  Minor,  but  to  the  northern  regions  of 
 the  globe.  Thus  we  have  in  Ovid  {Fast.,  3,  793)  the 
 expression  "  Lycao7iia  Arctos,"  in  the  same  poet 
 {Trist.,  32,  2)  "  Lycaonia  sub  aze,"  and  in  Claudian 
 (Cons.  Mall.  Theod.,  299)  ^^  Lycaonia  astra."  By 
 the  northern  regions  of  the  globe,  however,  Italy  and 
 Greece  can  easily  be  meant,  since  they  were  both  re- 
 ferred by  the  ancients  to  the  countries  of  the  North. 
 (Muller's  Univer.  History,  vol.  1,  p.  32,  in  notis. — 
 Ukert,  Geographic  dcr  Griechen  und  Romer,  vol.  1, 
 p.  346. — Hermann  in  Orph.,  Arg..  1274.) 
 
 Lectum,  a  promontory  of  Troas,  below  the  island 
 of  Tencdos,  now  Cape  Baba.  It  formed  the  northern 
 limit,  in  the  time  of  the  eastern  empire,  of  the  prov- 
 ince of  Asia,  as  it  was  termed,  which  commenced  near 
 the  Masander,  and  extended  along  the  coast  upward  to 
 Lectum.  Dr.  Clarke  speaks  of  this  promontory  as 
 follows  :  "  Thence  we  sailed  to  the  promontory  of 
 Lectum,  now  Cape  Baba,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Adra- 
 myttian  Gulf:  the  southwestern  extremity  of  that  chain 
 of  mountains  of  which  Gargarus  is  the  summit.  This 
 4Z 
 
 cape  presents  a  high  and  bold  cliff,  on  whose  steep 
 acclivity  the  little  town  of  Baba  appears,  as  though 
 stuck  within  a  nook.  It  is  famous  for  the  manufac- 
 ture of  knives  and  poniards:  their  blades  are  distin- 
 guished in  Turkey  by  the  name  of  Baba  Leeks." 
 {Travels,  vol.  3,  p.  224,  seqq.,  Lmul.  ed.)  A  very 
 accurate  view  of  the  promontory  is  given  in  Gell's  To- 
 pography of  Troy,  p.  21.  The  place  was  called  Baba 
 from  a  dervish  {Baba)  buried  there,  who  always  gave 
 the  Turks  intelligence  when  any  rovers  were  in  the 
 neighbouring  seas.  {Clarke,  I.  c.,  in  notis. — Egmont 
 and  Heyman''s  Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  162.) 
 
 Leda,  a  daughter  of  King  Thestius  and  Eurythe- 
 mis,  who  married  Tyndarus,  king  of  Sparta.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  common  account,  she  became,  by  Jupiter 
 (who  assumed  for  that  purpose  the  form  of  a  swan), 
 the  mother  of  Pollux  and  Helen,  and  by  her  own 
 husband,  the  parent  of  Castor  and  Clytemnestra.  Two 
 eggs,  it  seems,  were  brought  forth  by  her,  from  which, 
 respectively,  came  the  children  just  named,  Pollux  and 
 Helen  being  in  one,  and  Castor  and  Clytemnestra  in  the 
 other.  Other  versions,  however,  are  given  of  the  le- 
 gend, for  which  consult  the  articles  Castor  and  Helena. 
 Led^a,  an  epithet  given  to  Hermione,  &c.,  as  re- 
 lated to  Leda.     (Fn-g-.,  ^«.,  3,  328.) 
 
 Ledus,  now  Lez,  a  river  of  Gaul,  near  the  modem 
 Montpelier.     {Mela,  2,  5.) 
 
 Legio  septima  gemina,  a  Roman  military  colony  in 
 Spain  among  the  Astures,  northeast  of  Asturica.  It 
 is  now  Leon.  {Ilin.  Ant.,  p.  395. — Ptolemy,  2,  6.) 
 Ptolemy  calls  it  Legio  Septima  Gerinanorum.  ( Ukert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  44 L) 
 
 Lei.aps  or  L/ELAPS,  I.  a  dog  that  never  failed  to 
 seize  and  conquer  whatever  animal  it  was  ordered  to 
 pursue.  It  was  given  to  Procris  by  Diana,  and  Pro- 
 cris  reconciled  iierself  to  her  husband  by  presenting 
 him  with  this  valuable  animal.  According  to  some, 
 Procris  had  received  it  from  Minos,  as  a  reward  for 
 the  dangerous  wounds  of  which  she  had  cured  him. 
 {Hygm.,fah.,  28.— Ovid,  Met.,  7,  771.)— II.  One  of 
 ActGEon's  dogs. 
 
 Lei.egeis,  a  name  applied  to  Miletus,  because  once 
 possessed  by  the  Leieges.     {Plin  ,  5,  29  ) 
 
 Leleges,  an  ancient  race,  whose  history  is  involved 
 in  great  obscurity,  in  consequence  of  the  various  and 
 almost  contradictory  traditions  which  exist  concern- 
 ing them ;  according  to  which,  they  are  on  the  one 
 hand  represented  as  among  the  earliest  inhabitants 
 of  Greece,  while  on  the  other  they  are  said  to  be 
 the  same  people  as  the  Carians.  Herodotus  states 
 (1,  171)  that  the  Carians,  who  originally  inhabited  the 
 islands  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  were  known  by  the  name 
 of  Leleges  before  they  emigrated  to  Asia  Minor;  and 
 according  to  Pausanias  (7,  2,  4),  the  Leleges  formed 
 only  a  part  of  the  Carian  nation.  The  Leieges  ap- 
 pear, from  numerous  traditions,  to  have  inhabited  the 
 islands  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  and  the  western  coasts  of 
 Asia  Minor  from  a  very  early  period.  In  Homer  thef 
 are  represented  as  the  allies  of  the  Trojans  ;  and  their 
 king  Altes  is  said  to  have  been  the  father-in-law  of 
 Priam.  (77.,  20,  96.-76.,  21,  86.)  They  are  said 
 to  have  founded  the  temjile  of  Juno  in  Samos  {Athe- 
 nceus,  15,  p.  672),  and  Strabo  informs  us  that  they 
 once  inhabited,  together  with  the  Carians,  the  whole 
 of  Ionia.  {Slra.h.,  331.)— On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
 numerous  traditions  respecting  them  in  the  north  of 
 Greece,  we  find  no  connexion  between  them  and  the 
 Carians.  According  to  Aristotle  (quoted  by  Strabo, 
 332),  they  inhabited  parts  of  Acarnania,  yEtolia,  Opun- 
 tian  Locris,  Leucas,  and  Bojotia.  In  the  south  of 
 Greece  we  again  meet  with  the  same  confusion  in  the 
 traditions  of  Megara  respecting  the  Leleges  and  the  Ca- 
 rians. Car  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  an- 
 cient kings  of  Megara,  and  to  have  been  succeeded  m 
 the  royal  power,  after  the  lapse  of  twelve  generations,  by 
 Lelex,  a  foreigner  from  Egypt.  {Pausan., 1,39, 'i,scq.) 
 '  ^  729 
 
LEM 
 
 LEM 
 
 Pylus,  the  grandson  of  this  Lelex,  is  said  to  have  led 
 a  colony  ol  Megarian  Leieges  into  Messeriia,  where 
 he  founded  the  city  of  Pylus.  {Pausan.,  4,  36,  1.) 
 The  Laccdffimonian  traditions,  on  the  contrary,  repre- 
 sent the  Leieges  as  the  original  inhaliitants  of  Laco- 
 nia.  {Pausan.,  3,  1,  1.) — It  can  scarcely  bo  doubted, 
 from  the  numerous  traditions  on  the  subject,  that  the 
 Leieges  were  in  some  manner  closely  connected  with 
 the  Carians.  {Vid.  Garia.)  The  most  probable  sup- 
 position IS,  that  the  Leieges  were  a  people  of  Pelas- 
 gian  race,  a  portion  of  whom  emigrated  at  a  very  ear- 
 ly period  from  the  continent  of  Greece  to  the  islands 
 of  the^^gean  Sea,  where  they  became  connected  with 
 the  Carians  (who  were  a  portion,  probably,  of  the  same 
 great  family),  and  subsequently  joined  them  in  their 
 descent  upon  Asia  Minor.  {ThidwalVs  History  of 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  44. — Philological  Museum,  No.  1, 
 *.  V.  Ancaeus. — Encycl.  Us  Knoid.,  vol.  13,  p.  417.) 
 
 Lelex,  an  Egyptian,  said  to  have  come  with  a  col- 
 ony to  Megara,  and  to  have  attained  to  kingly  power 
 there.     {Pausan.,  1,  39,  4. —  Vid.  Leieges.) 
 
 Lemanis  Portus,  or  Lymne,  a  harbour  of  Britain, 
 a  little  below  Dover,  where  Csesar  is  thought  to  have 
 landed  on  his  first  expedition  to  that  island,  having  set 
 out  from  the  Portus  Itius  in  Gaul,  a  little  south  of 
 Calais.     {Vid.  Itius  Portus.) 
 
 Lemannus  Laci's,  a  lake  of  Gaul,  in  the  southwest 
 angle  of  the  territory  of  the  Helvetii,  and  separating 
 them  in  this  quarter  from  the  Allobroges.  It  is  now 
 the  Lake  of  Geneva.  This  is  a  most  beautiful  expanse 
 of  water  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  the  concave  side 
 of  which  is  upward  of  45  miles  long.  Its  greatest 
 breadth  is  about  12  miles.  It  never  wholly  freezes 
 over  in  the  severest  winters,  and  it  rises  about  ten 
 feet  in  summer,  by  the  melting  of  the  snows  on  the 
 Alps.  Besides  the  Rhone,  which  traverses  its  whole 
 length,  it  receives  the  waters  of  forty  other  streams. 
 {Lucan,  1,  3m.— Mela,  2,  5.— Gas.,  B.  G.,  1,  2.— Id. 
 ib.,  1,  8.— Id.  ib.,  3,  1.) 
 
 Lemnos,  an  island  in  the  .5Cgean  Sea,  between 
 Tenedos,  Imbros,  and  Samolhrace.  According  to 
 Pliny  (4,  12)  it  was  87  miles  from  Mount  Athos  ;  but 
 there  must  be  an  error  in  the  MSS.  of  that  author, 
 for  the  distance  is  not  forty  miles  from  the  extreme 
 point  of  the  Acrothoan  Cape  to  the  nearest  headland 
 of  Lemnos.  (Compare  remarks  under  the  article 
 Athos.)  Lemnos  is  known  in  ancient  mythology  as 
 the  spot  on  which  Vulcan  fell,  after  being  hurled 
 down  from  heaven,  and  where  he  established  his  for- 
 ges. A  volcano,  which  once  was  burning  on  the 
 island,  may  have  afTorded  ground  for  the  fable.  A 
 story  is  also  recorded  by  Herodotus  and  other  ancient 
 writers  of  the  women  of  Lemnos  having  murdered  all 
 the  men.  {Vid.  Hypsipyle.)  Homer  states  that  the 
 earliest  inhabitants  of  this  island  were  the  Sintians, 
 a  Thracian  tribe  {II.,  1,  b^^.—Slrabo,  Etc.,  7,  p.  331), 
 whence  Apollonius  Khodius  terms  it  "ZivTrfida  Ay/ivov 
 (1,  60«.— Compare  Schol.  Thucyd,  2,  m.  —  Steyh. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  Aijfivog.)  To  these  succeeded  the  Tyr- 
 rhenian Pelasgi,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  Attica. 
 They  are  said  to  have  afterward  stolen  some  Athenian 
 women  from  Brauron,  and  carried  them  to  Lemnos  ; 
 and  it  is  also  said,  that  the  children  of  these  women 
 having  despised  their  half-brethren,  born  of  Pelascrian 
 women,  the  Pelasgi  took  the  resolution  of  murderintr 
 both  the  Athenian  women  and  their  offspring.  In  con- 
 sequence of  these  atrocities,  Lemnos  had  a  bad  name 
 among  the  ancient  Greeks.  (Consult  Erasm.,  CM., 
 col.,  297,  *.  v-  Xfjitviov  KaKov.)  Lemnos  was  still  in 
 the  possession  of  these  Pelasgi  when  it  was  invaded 
 and  conquered  by  Otanes,  a  Persian  general.  {Herod., 
 5,  26.)  But  on  his  death  it  is  probable  that  the  island 
 again  recovered  its  independence  ;  for  we  know  that, 
 subsequent  to  this  event,  Miltiades  conquered  it  for 
 Athens,  and  expelled  those  Pelasgi  who  refused  to 
 submit  to  his  authority.  {Herod.,  6,  140.)  During 
 730 
 
 the  Peloponnesian  war  Lemnos  remained  in  the  pos- 
 session of  Athens,  and  furnished  that  state  with  its 
 best  light-armed  troops.  {Thucyd. ,4,28. — Id  ,  7,57.) 
 Pliny  speaks  of  a  remarkable  labyrinth  which  existed 
 in  this  island,  and  of  which  some  vestiges  were  still 
 to  be  seen  in  his  time.  He  says  it  had  massive  gates, 
 so  well  poised  that  a  child  could  throw  them  oj)en, 
 and  one  hundred  and  fifty  columns,  and  was  adorned 
 with  numerous  statues,  being  even  more  extensive 
 and  splendid  than  those  of  Crete  or  Egypt  (36,  13). 
 Modern  travellers  have  in  vain  attempted  to  discover 
 any  trace  of  this  great  work.  Dr.  Hunt  says  (1,  p 
 61),  "  we  could  only  hear  a  confused  account  of  a 
 subterranean  staircase  in  an  uninhabited  part  of  the 
 island  called  Pouniah."  This  spot  the  Dr.  visited  ; 
 but  he  was  of  opinion  that  those  ruins  have  no  rela- 
 tion to  the  labyrinth  mentioned  by  Pliny.  He  con- 
 ceives them  rather  to  belong  to  Hephaestia. — Lemnos 
 contained  a  remarkable  volcano,  called  Mosychlus, 
 from  which  fire  was  seen  to  blaze  forth,  according  to 
 a  fragment  of  the  poet  Antimachus,  preserved  by  the 
 scholiast  on  Nicander  {ad.  Ther.,  472).  This  vol- 
 canic appearance  will  account  for  the  ancient  name  of 
 .(Ethalia,  which  Lemnos  is  said  to  have  borne  in  dis- 
 tant ages.  {Polyb.,  ap.  Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  AWuXtj.) 
 "  The  whole  island,"  say.sDr.  Hunt,  "  bears  the  strong- 
 est marks  of  the  appearance  of  volcanic  fire  ;  the  rocks 
 in  many  parts  are  like  burned  and  vitrified  scoriEe  of  fur- 
 naces." {Walpole's  Memoirs,  vol.  1,  p.  59. — Cra- 
 mer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  338.)  Sonnini,  also, 
 before  this,  remarked  respecting  this  island,  that  in- 
 ternal fires  were  very  probably  still  burning  there,  for 
 he  met  with  a  spring  of  hot  water  which  had  been 
 brought  to  supply  baths,  and  with  another  of  alumin- 
 ous water.  The  priests  of  Lemnos  were  reckoned 
 famous  for  the  cure  of  wounds,  and  the  efficacy  of 
 their  skill  depended,  it  is  said,  upon  the  quality  of  a 
 species  of  red  earth  found  in  the  island,  called  Lera- 
 tiian  earth.  This  the  ancients  thought  a  sovereign 
 remedy  against  poisons  and  the  bites  of  serpents,  but 
 it  is  now  held  in  little  or  no  esteem  in  Europe,  al- 
 though the  Greeks  and  Turks  still  believe  it  to  possess 
 wonderful  medicinal  properties.  It  is  dug  out  of  a 
 hill  in  the  island  with  great  ceremony  and  at  partic- 
 ular times,  in  presence  of  the  Turltish  sandjack  or 
 governor,  and  of  the  Greek  clergy,  and  is  shaped  into 
 little  balls  and  stamped  with  the  governor's  seal, 
 whence  it  has  derived  the  name  of  terra  sigillata 
 ("  sealed  earth").  The  governor  makes  a  traffic  of 
 it,  and  sends  it  to  Constantinople  and  other  places. 
 It  is  also  used  for  tanning  leather.  The  modern  name 
 of  Lemnos  is  Stalimene.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  338.) 
 
 Lemovices,  I.  a  people  of  Celtic  Gaul,  subse- 
 quently incorporated  into  Aquitania.  They  were  sit- 
 uated to  the  south  of  the  Bituriges  Cubi  and  to  the 
 west  of  the  Arverni.  Their  capital  was  Augustori- 
 tum,  afterward  called  Lemovices,  now  Limoges,  in  the 
 department  de  la  Haulc-Viennc.  {Cces.,  B.  G.,  7,  4.) 
 — II.  A  people  of  Gaul,  forming  part  of  the  Armoric 
 nations,  and  lying  to  the  east  and  northeast  of  the 
 Osismii.  {Cas.,  B.  G.,  7,  75.)  Some  scholars,  how- 
 ever, with  great  probability,  suppose  that  the  text  of 
 Cffisar,  where  mention  is  made  of  them,  requires  cor- 
 rection, and  that  for  Lemovices  we  ought  to  read  Leo- 
 nices.  (Consult  Lemaire,  Ind.  Geogr.,  ad  C(BS.,  p. 
 295.) 
 
 Lemukes,  a  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  the 
 spirits  of  the  departed,  also  called  Manes.  If  be- 
 neficent, they  were  termed  Lares ;  if  hurtful.  Lar- 
 va. {Vid.  Lares,  p.  721,  col.  2,  near  the  end.)  — 
 Solemn  rites  were  celebrated  in  honour  of  the  Le- 
 mures,  called  Lemuria.  They  began  on  the  night  of 
 the  9th  May,  and  were  continued  for  three  nights,  not 
 successively,  but  alternately  during  six  days.  Mid- 
 night was  the  time  for  their  celebration.     The  master 
 
LEN 
 
 LEO 
 
 oi  the  house  then  arose,  and  went  barefoot,  through 
 the  darkness,  to  a  fountain,  where  he  washed  his 
 hands.  He  proceeded  to  it  in  silence,  making  mere- 
 ly a  slight  noise  with  his  fingers,  to  drive  away  the 
 shades  that  might  be  gathering  around.  After  he  had 
 washed  his  hands  three  times,  he  returned,  casting 
 behind  him  at  the  same  time  some  black  figs  which 
 he  carried  in  his  mouth,  and  uttering  in  a  low  tone 
 the  following  words:  "With  these  figs  do  I  ransom 
 myself  and  my  family."  He  repeated  these  same 
 words  nine  times,  with  the  same  formalities,  and  with- 
 out looking  behind.  Then,  after  a  short  interval  of 
 silence,  he  exclaimed  with  a  loud  voice,  striking  at  the 
 same  time  on  a  brazen  vessel,  "  Paternal  Manes,  Le- 
 mures,  deities  of  the  lower  world,  depart  from  this 
 abode."  Fires  were  immediately  kindled  in  every 
 part  of  the  mansion,  and  the  ceremony  ended.  Du- 
 ring the  time  for  celebrating  these  rites  the  temples 
 were  closed,  and  no  one  could  be  united  in  marriage. 
 (Ovid,  Fast.,  5,  431,  seqq.—Pers.,  Sat.,  5,  185. — 
 Horat.,  Epist.,  2,  2,  209.) 
 
 Len^us,  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  from  Xrjvoq,  a 
 wine-press.  (Vid.  Bacchus,  and  also  Theatrum,  ()  2, 
 Dramatic  Contests.) 
 
 Lentui,us,  a  family  name  of  one  of  the  most  an- 
 cient and  distinguished  branches  of  the  Gens  Cornelia. 
 The  appellation  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
 circumstance  of  ong  of  the  line  having  been  born  with 
 a  wart  on  his  visage,  shaped  like  a  lentil  {lens,  gen. 
 lentis).  It  is  more  probable,  however,  that  the  appel- 
 lation arose  from  some  peculiar  skill  displayed  by  the 
 founder  of  the  family  in  the  culture  of  the  lentil. — The 
 most  eminent  or  best  known  of  the  liCntuli  were  the 
 following  :  I.  L.  Cornelius,  was  consul  A.U.C.  427, 
 B.C.  327,  and  cleared  Umbria  of  the  brigands  that  in- 
 fested it.  He  was  present,  si.x  years  afterward,  at  the 
 disastrous  affair  of  the  Furcae  Caudins,  and  was  one 
 of  those  who  exhorted  the  Roman  consuls  to  submit 
 to  the  humiliating  conditions  offered  by  the  Samnites, 
 in  order  to  save  the  whole  army.  {Liv.,  8,  22,  seqq. 
 — Id.,  9,  4.) — n.  P.  Cornelius,  surnamed  Sura,  a  Ro- 
 man nobleman,  grandson  of  P.  Cornelius  Lentulus, 
 who  had  been  Princeps  Senaliis.  He  married  Julia, 
 sister  of  L.  Julius  Caesar,  after  the  death  of  her  first 
 husband,  M.  Antonius  Creticus,  to  whom  she  had 
 borne  M.  Antonius  the  triumvir.  Lentulus  was  a  man 
 of  talents,  but  extremely  corrupt  in  his  private  charac- 
 ter. The  interest  of  his  family  and  the  affability  of 
 his  manners,  proceeding  from  a  love  of  popularity, 
 raised  him  through  the  usual  gradations  of  public  hon- 
 ours to  the  office  of  consul,  which  he  obtained  B.C. 
 73,  in  conjunction  with  Cn.  Aufidius  Oreslis.  Ex- 
 pelled subsequently  from  the  senate  on  account  of  his 
 immoral  conduct,  he  had  procured  the  prastorship,  the 
 usual  step  for  being  restored  to  that  body,  when  Cati- 
 line formed  his  design  of  subverting  the  government. 
 Poverty,  the  natural  consequence  of  excessive  dissipa- 
 tion, added  to  immoderate  vanity  and  extravagant  am- 
 bition, induced  him  to  join  in  the  conspiracy.  The 
 soothsayers  easily  persuaded  him  that  he  was  the  third 
 member  of  the  Cornelian  house,  destined  by  the  Fates 
 to  enjoy  the  supreme  power  at  Rome,  Cinna  and  Sylla 
 having  both  attained  to  that  elevation.  His  schemes, 
 however,  all  proved  abortive:  he  was  arrested,  along 
 with  others  of  the  conspirators,  by  the  orders  of  Cice- 
 ro, who  was  then  in  the  consulship,  and  having  been 
 brought  before  a  full  senate,  was  condemned  to  death, 
 and  strangled  in  prison.  Plutarch  informs  us  that  he 
 received  the  name  of  Sura  from  the  following  cir- 
 cumstance. Fie  had  wasted  a  large  sum  of  money  in 
 his  quajstorship  under  Sylla,  and  the  latter,  enrao-ed 
 at  his  conduct,  demanded  a  statement  of  his  accounts 
 in  the  senate.  Lentulus  thereupon,  with  the  utmost 
 indifference,  declared  he  had  no  accounts  to  produce, 
 and  contemptuously  presented  the  calf  (sura)  of  his 
 leg.     Among  the  Romans,  and  particularly  arnomr 
 
 the  boys,  the  player  at  tennis  who  missed  his  stroke 
 presented  the  calf  of  his  leg,  to  receive  as  a  punish- 
 ment a  certain  number  of  blows  upon  it.  Lentulus, 
 in  allusion  to  that  game,  acted  in  this  manner,  which 
 accounts  for  the  surname,  or,  rather,  nickname  of  Sura. 
 {Sail.,  Bell.  Cat.— Pint.,  Vit.  Cic.)  — 111.  P.  Corne- 
 lius, surnamed  Spinther,  held  the  office  of  curule 
 aedile  B.C.  65,  when  Cicero  and  Antonius  were 
 consuls.  His  great  wealth  enabled  him  to  display  a 
 magnificence  in  the  celebration  of  the  games  which 
 surpassed  what  had  ever  before  been  seen  at  Rome. 
 In  the  year  59  B.C.  he  was  propraetor  of  Hispania  Ci- 
 terior.  He  was  elected  consul  with  Q.  Cajcilius  Me- 
 tellus  Nepos,  and  procured,  with  others,  the  recall  of 
 Cicero  from  banishment.  In  the  civil  war  he  attached 
 himself  to  the  side  of  Pompey,  and,  havnig  been  taken 
 prisoner,  was  brought  before  Cajsar  at  Corfinium,  and 
 set  at  liberty.  He  fought  in  the  battle  of  Pharsalia, 
 and  fled  to  Rhodes  ;  but  the  Rhodians  refused  him  pro- 
 tection. Nothing  farther  is  known  respecting  him. 
 According  to  Valerius  Maximus,  he  received  the  sur- 
 name of  Spinther  from  his  resemblance  to  a  comedian 
 of  that  name.  {Val.  Max.,  9,  14,  4.  —  C?c.,  Of.,  2, 
 16. — Id.,  ad  Quir.  post.  Red.,  5. — /(/ ,  Ep.  ad  Fant., 
 13,  48,  &c.)  —  IV.  Cn.  Gaetulicus,  was  consul  A.D. 
 26,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Caligula  on  a  charge  of 
 conspiracy.  {Dio  Cass.,  59, 22. — Sucton.,  Vit.  Claud., 
 9.)  He  was  distinguished  as  an  historical  and  a  po- 
 etical writer.  {Voss.,  Hist.  Lat.,  1,  25.  —  Cms.  ad 
 Sueton.,  Vit.  Calig.,  8.) 
 
 Leo,  I.  a  philosopher  or  astronomer  of  Constantino- 
 ple, in  the  first  half  of  the  ninth  century.  He  is  spo- 
 ken of  in  high  terms  by  the  Byzantine  writers.  One 
 of  his  numerous  pupils  having  been  taken  prisoner  by 
 the  Arabians  and  conducted  to  Bagdad,  astonished,  it 
 is  said,  the  Caliph  Al-Mamoun  by  the  extent  of  his 
 astronomical  knowledge.  The  surprise  of  the  Mus- 
 sulman prince  was,  however,  greatly  increased  when 
 he  learned  that  his  captive  was  merely  a  scholar;  but 
 it  reached  its  height  when  he  was  informed  that  the 
 preceptor  from  whom  he  imbibed  his  learning  was  liv- 
 ing in  obscurity  at  Constantinople.  The  caliph  im- 
 mediately invited  Leo  to  leave  a  country  where  his 
 merits  found  no  reward,  and  come  to  a  court  where 
 the  sciences  were  honoured.  Leo  dared  not,  however, 
 leave  the  capital  of  the  East  for  such  a  purpose,  with- 
 out first  obtaining  the  permission  of  the  reigni?ig  em- 
 peror. The  monarch,  who  was  Tbeophilus,  refused  to 
 give  his  assent,  but  bestowed  many  appointments  on 
 the  hitherto  neglected  astronomer,  and  gave  him  the 
 use  of  a  church  for  his  public  lectures,  which  had  be- 
 fore been  delivered  in  a  mere  hut.  The  caliph  then 
 addressed  a  remarkable  letter  to  Tbeophilus,  request- 
 ing him  to  allow  Leo  to  spend  only  a  short  time  with 
 him,  and  promising  him,  in  return,  a  large  sum  of  mon- 
 ey, and  a  lasting  peace  and  alliance.  Theopbijus  per- 
 sisted in  his  refusal,  but  opened,  at  the  same  time,  a 
 public  school  for  Leo  in  one  of  the  imperial  palaces, 
 assigned  to  him  the  instruction  of  the  youth  of  the  cap- 
 ital, and  loaded  him  with  honours  and  privileges.  He 
 was  subsequently  appointed  to  the  archbishopric  of 
 Thessalonica  ;  but,  being  a  decided  enemy  to  images, 
 was  compelled  to  abandon  his  see  when  the  heresy  of 
 the  Iconoclasts  was  condemned,  AD.  849.  He  re- 
 turned upon  this  to  Constantinople,  and  resumed  his 
 former  station  of  professor  of  astronomy.  As  he  has 
 left  no  work  behind  him.  we  can  form  no  opinion  of 
 his  scientific  merits  ,•  for  the  reputation  which  his  pu- 
 pil gained  at  the  court  of  Bagdad,  and  the  enlogiums 
 bestowed  on  Leo  himself  by  the  Byzantme  writers, 
 ought  not  to  carry  any  very  great  weight  with  them. 
 It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that  Cassar  Bardas, 
 wishing  to  revive  the  sciences  at  Constantinople,  al- 
 lowed himself  to  be  directed  in  this  enterprise  by  the 
 advice  of  Leo.  {Le  Beau,  Histoire  du  Bas- Empire, 
 vol.  7,  p.  69,  seqq.— Vol  7,  p.  l^.—Scholl,  HisL 
 
 7ol 
 
LEO. 
 
 LEO. 
 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  58.) — II.  An  historical  writer,  sur 
 named  the  Carian,  who  published  a  continuation  of 
 Theophanes.  His  work,  which  extends  from  A.D. 
 813  to  949,  is  entitled  Xpovoyjia(^ia  ru  tCjv  veuv  (ia- 
 cikiuv  TTEpiixovaa,  "  Chronicle  of  the  laic  emperors.'''' 
 We  have  an  edition  of  this  work  by  Conibefis,  Paris, 
 1655,  fol. — III.  Surnamed  the  Deacon  (Atu/corof), 
 born  about  A.D.  950,  at  Ccelse,  a  village  of  Ionia  at 
 the  foot  oi  Mount  Tmolus.  He  was  attached,  by  vir- 
 tue of  his  office  of  A«d«ovof,  to  the  court  of  the  Greek 
 emperors,  which  is  nearly  all  that  we  know  of  h'.s  per- 
 sonal history.  He  wrote,  in  ten  books,  a  history  of 
 the  emperors  Romanus  II.  the  younger,  Nicephorus 
 Phocas,  and  John  Zimisces,  that  is,  of  the  years  in- 
 cluded between  959  and  975.  His  object  in  compo- 
 sing this  work  was  to  give  a  histoire  raisonnte  of  the 
 events  which  took  place  under  his  own  eyes.  Such  an 
 undertaking,  however,  was  beyond  his  strength.  His 
 style  is  neither  elegant  nor  clear,  and  we  are  often 
 startled  at  the  mtroduction  of  Latin  words  in  a  Greek 
 garb.  His  work  abounds  with  specimens  of  false  elo- 
 quence and  bad  taste  :  occasionally,  however,  we  meet 
 with  agreeable  and  pleasing  details.  The  best  edi- 
 tion at  present  is  that  of  Hase,  Paris,  1819,  folio. 
 The  work  will  form  a  part,  however,  of  the  new  edi- 
 tion of  Byzantine  writers  now  in  a  course  of  publica- 
 tion.— IV.  Magentenus  or  Magentinus,  a  metropolitan 
 of  Mytilene,  flourished  about  1340  A.D.  He  wrote 
 commentaries  on  the  works  of  Aristotle  "On  Inter- 
 pretation," and  the  "  first  Analytics."  The  first  of 
 these  commentaries  is  given  in  the  Aldine  collection 
 of  the  Peripatetic  writers,  1503  ;  the  second  at  the 
 end  of  the  Venice  edition  (1536)  of  John  Philoponus. 
 — V.  The  First,  surnamed  the  Great,  an  emperor  of 
 the  East,  born  in  Thrace  of  an  obscure  family,  and  who 
 owed  his  advancement  through  the  various  gradations 
 of  the  Roman  army  to  the  powerful  favour  of  Aspar, 
 a  Gothic  chief  who  commanded  the  au.\iliaries,  and 
 his  son  Ardaburius.  Leo  was  in  command  of  a  body 
 of  troops  encamped  at  Selymbria,  when  his  ambi- 
 tious protectors  made  him  ascend  the  throne  left  va- 
 cant by  the  death  of  the  virtuous  Marcian.  The 
 senate  confirmed  this  choice  ;  and  Leo  was  acknowl- 
 edged as  emperor  at  the  head  of  the  forces,  Feb. 
 7,  A.D.  457,  and  crowned  by  Anatolius,  patriarch 
 of  Constantinople.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  the 
 first  example  given  of  this  sacred  sanction  in  the  ele- 
 vation of  a  monarch  to  the  throne.  Aspar  soon  per- 
 ceived that  Leo  would  not  long  support  the  yoke  im- 
 posed upon  him.  A  quarrel  arose  between  them  rel- 
 ative to  the  party  of  the  Eutychians  who  had  massa- 
 cred their  bishop  and  appointed  another  in  his  stead. 
 Aspar  espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter,  but  Leo  drove 
 him  from  his  see,  and  nominated  an  orthodox  prelate 
 to  the  vacant  place.  Leo  had  already  before  this  ob- 
 tained some  signal  successes  over  the  barbarians,  and 
 had  restored  peace  to  the  empire  of  the  East.  He 
 wished  also  to  put  an  end  to  the  troubles  of  the  West- 
 ern Empire,  torn  by  the  ambition  and  fury  of  Ricimer, 
 desolated  by  Genseric,  and  governed  by  mere  phan- 
 toms of  emperors.  Genseric  braved  the  menaces  of 
 Leo.  The  latter,  whose  armies  had  just  repelled  the 
 Huns,  and  slain  one  of  the  sons  of  .\ttila,  united  all 
 his  forces,  and  sent  them  into  Africa  against  the  Van- 
 dal prince  ;  but  the  inexperience,  or,  according  to 
 Procopius,  the  treachery  of  Basiliscus  saved  Genseric, 
 and  the  Roman  army  returned  ingloriously  home. 
 Aspar  and  his  son  were  suspected  of  having  contribu- 
 ted by  their  intrigues  to  bring  about  these  reverses, 
 and  Leo,  wearied  out  with  their  audacity,  determined 
 to  put  an  end  to  it.  A.*"raid,  however,  of  their  power, 
 he  spread  a  snare  for  them  unworthy  of  a  monarch ; 
 he  flattered  Aspar  with  the  hope  of  a  union  between 
 Patricola,  a  son  of  the  latter,  and  Ariadne,  daughter 
 of  the  emperor.  A  report  of  this  intended  match,  pur- 
 posely circulated  abroad,  excited  the  indignation  of  the 
 732 
 
 populace,  who  hated  the  family  of  Aspar  on  account 
 of  their  Arian  principles.  A  sedition  ensued.  Aspar 
 and  his  sons  were  compelled  to  fly  for  refuge  to  the 
 church  of  St.  Euphemia,  and  were  only  induced  to 
 quit  this  asylum  on  the  urgent  invitations  of  Leo, 
 confirmed  by  oaths,  for  them  to  come  to  the  royal  pal- 
 ace. The  moment  they  arrived  there,  Aspar  and  Ar- 
 daburius were  beheaded.  The  Arians,  enraged  at 
 the  loss  of  their  protector,  incited  Ricimer  to  trouble 
 anew  the  repose  of  the  West,  and  prevailed  upon  the 
 Goths  to  attack  Constantinople.  The  environs  of  the 
 capital  were  in  consequence  laid  waste  for  the  space 
 of  two  years  by  these  barbarian  invaders,  until  Leo 
 succeeded  in  driving  them  off  and  concluding  a  peace. 
 He  died  A.D.  474,  leaving  the  empire  to  the  young 
 Leo,  the  son  of  his  daughter  Ariadne  and  of  Zeno,  an 
 Isaurian,  whom  he  had  made  a  patrician  and  captain 
 of  his  guards,  in  order  to  balance  the  power  of  Aspar. 
 He  had  first  vainly  endeavoured  to  fix  the  succession 
 upon  Zeno  himself.  Leo  has  preserved  the  reputation 
 of  an  active,  enlightened,  and  vigilant  monarch,  who 
 neglected  nothing  that  had  a  tendency  to  promote  the 
 welfare  of  his  subjects.  He  promulgated  wise  laws, 
 and  gave  the  example  of  moderation  and  economy 
 which  had  been  so  long  needed  in  the  state.  He  is 
 not  exempt,  however,  from  the  charge  of  avarice,  and 
 of  weakness  also,  in  allowing  the  ambition  of  Aspar 
 to  go  so  long  unpunished.  (Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  24, 
 p.  135.)  —  Vl.  The  second,  called  also  the  Youn- 
 ger, grandson  of  Leo  I.,  and  son  of  Ariadne  and 
 Zeno.  He  was  declared  Augustus  at  the  moment 
 of  his  grandfather's  death.  Although  scarcely  four 
 years  old  at  the  period  of  his  elevation,  this  choice 
 was,  notwithstanding,  very  agreeable  to  the  people, 
 who  detested  Zeno  on  account  of  his  Arian  tenets  and 
 his  Isaurian  origin.  Verina,  however,  the  widow  of 
 the  deceased  emperor,  and  Ariadne,  the  wife  of  Zeno, 
 neglected  neither  intrigues  nor  seductive  arts  to  con- 
 ciliate for  Zeno  the  favour  of  the  populace.  When 
 all  difficulties  were  believed  to  be  removed,  Ariadne 
 conducted  the  young  Leo  to  the  hippodrome,  and 
 placed  him  on  an  elevated  throne.  There  the  child,  a 
 feeble  tool  in  the  hands  of  two  ambitious  females, 
 called  Zeno  to  him,  and,  placing  the  crown  on  the 
 head  of  the  latter,  named  him  his  colleague  in  the  em- 
 pire. Leo  died  soon  after,  having  been  poisoned,  as 
 was  supposed,  by  Zeno,  his  own  fatiier,  after  a  reign 
 of  about  ten  months.  {Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  24,  p.  136.) 
 — VII.  The  third,  surnamed  the  Isaurian,  horn  in  Isau- 
 ria  of  a  mean  family,  and  originally  a  dealer  in  cattle. 
 His  true  name  was  Conon.  A  prediction  made  to 
 him  by  some  Jews,  who  declared  that  his  fortune 
 would  be  a  brilliant  one  if  he  changed  his  name  and 
 took  up  the  profession  of  arms,  induced  him  to  enter 
 on  a  new  career.  He  served  at  first  as  a  private  sol- 
 dier in  the  army  of  Justinian  II.  Here  his  zeal,  and 
 some  services  which  he  had  rendered,  attracted  the 
 notice  of  the  emperor,  who  received  him  into  his 
 guards,  and  raised  him  rapidly  to  the  highest  stations. 
 Justinian  having  at  length  begun  to  entertain  fears  of 
 his  ambition,  sent  him  on  a  dangerous  expedition 
 against  the  tribes  of  Caucasus.  After  having  signal- 
 ized his  valour  and  military  skill  in  the  execution  of 
 this  order,  Leo  returned  to  Constantinople,  and  Anas- 
 tasius,  who  was  now  on  the  throne,  appointed  him  to 
 the  command  of  the  troops  in  Asia.  On  receiving  in- 
 telligence of  the  deposition  of  Anastasius,  Leo  refused 
 to  acknowledge  Theodosius  III.,  whom  the  revolted 
 fleet  had  proclaimed  emperor.  The  Saracens,  who 
 were  then  ravaging  the  empire,  excited  Leo  to  seize 
 upon  the  sceptre,  having  promised  to  aid  him  with  all 
 their  forces.  He  had  great  need  of  prudence  and  ad- 
 dress for  managing  these  dangerous  allies.  Obliged 
 alternately  to  deceive  and  to  intimidate  them,  he 
 found  at  last  a  fit  moment  for  marching  on  Constanti- 
 nople, where  Theodosius  yielded  up  the  throne  to  him 
 
LEO. 
 
 LEO 
 
 with  scarcely  any  resistance.  Leo  was  crowned 
 emperor  March  25,  A.D.  717.  The  Saracens,  whom 
 he  had  amused  by  false  pretences,  now  advanced  to 
 the  capital,  and  besieged  it  by  sea  and  land.  In  this 
 extremity  Leo  redoubled  his  e.xenions  and  courage, 
 and,  after  long  and  obstinate  conflicts,  he  succeeded  in 
 repelling  his  dangerous  assailants.  In  7L9,  an  attempt 
 on  the  part  of  Anastasius  to  regain  the  throne  failed 
 through  the  activity  of  Leo,  and  the  unsuccessful  aspi- 
 rant lost  his  head.  He  sustained  also,  with  varied 
 success,  the  repeated  attacks  of  the  Saracens  in  Sicily, 
 Italy,  and  Sardinia.  So  many  services  rendered  to 
 the  empire  would  have  placed  Leo  in  the  rank  of 
 great  monarchs,  had  not  his  fondness  for  theological 
 quarrels,  too  common  in  those  ages  of  ignorance,  in- 
 volved him  in  long  and  dangerous  collisions.  He  es- 
 poused the  cause  of  the  Iconoclasts,  and  his  severity 
 drove  many  of  the  inhabitants  into  open  rebellion. 
 After  a  stormy  conflict,  marked  by  the  most  cruel  per- 
 secutions, Leo  died,  A.D.  741,  leaving  the  throne  to 
 his  son  Constantine  Copronymus.  {Biogr.  Univ., 
 vol.  24,  p.  \'36,seqq.) — VIII.  The  fourth,  an  emperor 
 of  the  east,  the  son  of  Constantine  Copronymus.  He 
 ascended  the  throne  A.D.  775,  and  died  A.D.  780, 
 after  an  unimportant  reign. — IX.  The  fifth,  surnamed 
 the  Armenian,  an  emperor  of  the  East,  who  rose  from 
 an  obscure  station  to  the  throne.  He  succeeded  the 
 emperor  Michael  Rhangabe,  whom  the  soldiers  re- 
 jected in  a  mutiny  secretly  fomented  by  the  ambi- 
 tious Leo.  His  reign  continued  for  seven  years  and 
 a  half,  and  was  remarkable  for  the  rigid  military  disci- 
 pline introduced  by  him  mto  the  civil  government. 
 He  was  an  Iconoclast,  but  his  religious  inconstancy 
 obtained  for  him,  in  fact,  the  name  of  Chameleon.  He 
 was  slain  by  a  band  of  conspirators  ac  the  very  foot 
 of  the  altar,  during  the  morning  celebration  of  the 
 festival  of  Christmas.  (Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  c. 
 48.) — X.  The  sixth,  surnamed  the  Philosopher,  an 
 emperor  of  tlie  East.  He  was  the  son  of  Eudoxia, 
 wife  of  Basil  I.  The  irregularities  of  his  mother  have 
 left  some  doubt  relative  to  his  legitimacy  ;  he  was  ac- 
 knowledged, however,  by  Basil,  as  his  son  and  suc- 
 cessor. Already  at  the  age  of  19  years,  the  young 
 prince  had  made  himself  beloved  by  all  the  empire. 
 Santabaren,  however,  the  favourite  of  Basil,  an  artful 
 and  dangerous  man,  irritated  at  the  contempt  and  ha- 
 ired which  Leo  testified  for  him,  sought  every  means 
 to  destroy  him,  and  at  last  succeeded  in  having  him 
 cast  into  prison  on  suspicion  of  plotting  against  his 
 father's  life.  A  cruel  punishment  at  first  threatened 
 him  ;  but  the  parent  relented,  and  his  son,  being  al- 
 lowed to  justify  his  conduct,  was  restored  to  all  his 
 former  honours.  A  little  while  after,  the  death  of 
 Basil  left  Leo  master  of  the  Eastern  empire.  He  as- 
 cended the  throne  with  his  brother  Alexander  in  886  ; 
 but  the  latter,  given  up  to  his  pleasures,  abandoned  to 
 Leo  the  whole  care  of  the  government.  Perhaps  the 
 effeminacy  and  licentiousness  of  Alexander  obtained 
 for  Leo,  by  the  mere  force  of  flattering  comparison, 
 the  title  of  Philosopher,  which  his  life  in  no  degree 
 lustified.  Scarcely  had  he  ascended  the  throne  when 
 he  deposed  Photius,  the  celebrated  patriarch,  who  was 
 secretly  connected  with  Santabaren  in  the  plot  for  his 
 destruction.  Santabaren  himself  underwent  a  cruel 
 ounishment,  and  was  then  driven  into  exile.  Leo 
 reigned  weakly,  and  the  ill  success  of  his  generals 
 igamst  the  Bulgarians  obliged  him  to  submit  to  such 
 terms  of  peace  as  those  barbarians  pleased  to  pro- 
 pose. A  total  defeat  of  his  fleet  by  the  Saracens 
 also  took  place  a  short  time  before  his  death,  which 
 happened  A.D.  911,  after  a  reign  of  25  years.  "  The 
 name  of  Leo  VI.  has  been  dignified,"  observes  Gib- 
 bon, "  with  the  title  of  Philosopher,  and  the  union  of 
 the  prince  and  the  sage,  of  the  active  and  the  specula- 
 tive virtues,  would  indeed  constitute  the  perfection  of 
 human  nature.     But  the  claims  of  Leo  are  far  short 
 
 of  this  ideal  excellence.  Did  he  reduce  his  passions 
 and  appetites  under  the  dominion  of  reason  1  His  life 
 was  spent  in  the  pomp  of  the  palace,  in  the  society  of 
 his  wives  and  concubines  ;  and  even  the  clemency 
 which  he  showed,  and  the  peace  which  he  strove  to 
 preserve,  must  be  imputed  to  the  softness  and  indo- 
 lence of  his  character.  Did  he  subdue  his  prejudices 
 and  those  of  his  subjects'!  His  mind  was  tinged 
 with  the  most  puerile  superstition  ;  the  influence  of 
 the  clergy,  and  the  errors  of  the  people,  were  conse- 
 crated by  his  laws,  and  the  oracles  of  Leo,  which  re- 
 veal, in  prophetic  style,  the  fates  of  the  empire,  are 
 founded  on  the  arts  of  astrology  and  divination.  If 
 we  still  inquire  the  reason  of  his  sage  appellation,  it 
 can  only  be  replied,  that  the  son  of  Basil  was  less  ig- 
 norant than  the  greater  part  of  his  contemporaries  in 
 church  and  stale  ;  that  his  education  had  been  direct- 
 ed by  the  learned  Photius  ;  and  that  several  books  of 
 profane  and  ecclesiastical  science  were  composed  by 
 the  pen  or  in  the  name  of  the  imperial  philosopher. 
 But  the  reputation  of  his  philosophy  and  religion  was 
 overthrown  by  a  domestic  vice,  the  repetition  of  his 
 nuptials."  {Decline  and  Fall,  c.  48.)  He  was  four 
 times  married,  and  had  a  son  by  each  of  these  unions, 
 but  he  lost  three  of  his  children  successively  at  an 
 early  age.  He  left  the  empire  to  Cons-tantine,  his  son 
 by  Zoe,  his  fourth  wife. — We  have  remaining  seven- 
 teen predictions  or  oracles  of  this  pretended  prophet, 
 written  in  iambic  verse.  Rutgersius  published  the 
 first  sixteen,  to  which  Leunclavius  added  the  seven- 
 teenth, up  to  that  time  unedited.  Leo  also  retouch- 
 ed and  reduced  to  a  better  form  the  body  of  law  com- 
 menced by  Basil,  and  which  took  the  name  of  BaffiA- 
 tual  diaru^Eic,  "  Imperial  ConstituLiojis'''  or  "  Basil- 
 ica.'''' He  also  promulgated  various  new  ordinances, 
 'Y.iTavopdi.}TLKal  Kadupaeic,  in  which  he  corrected  and 
 modified  the  Justinian  code.  Of  these  113  remain. 
 We  owe  to  his  orders,  likewise,  the  composition  of  an 
 'E/c/loy^,  or  abridgment  of  Roman  law,  promulgated 
 in  his  name  and  that  of  Constantine  his  son,  who 
 was  then  associated  with  him  in  the  empire.  Leo's 
 principal  work  is  that  on  Military  Tactics,  contain- 
 ing the  elements  of  this  branch  of  the  military  art: 
 T(ji'  €v  TToli/ioic;  TaKTiKuv  avvTO/.iog  TraptlSoai^,  or 
 Ilo?ie/itK(Jv  TtapaaKEvuv  diura^ig.  It  is  a  compilation 
 from  the  works  of  Arrian,  ^lian,  and  especially  One- 
 sander,  and  contains  some  curious  illustrations  of  the 
 state  of  military  knowledge  in  his  day.  The  best  edi- 
 tion is  that  of  Meursius,  Lugd.  But.,  1612,  4to.  It 
 was  translated  into  French  by  Maizeroi,  Paris,  1771, 
 2  vols.  8vo.  The  libraries  of  Florence  and  of  the 
 Vatican  are  thought  to  contain  manv  other  military, 
 and  likewise  some  religious  works,  of  this  same  em- 
 peror. {Biographic  Universclle,  vol.  24,  p.  141, 
 seqg) 
 
 Leoch.\res,  an  Athenian  statuary  and  sculptor,  men- 
 tioned by  Pliny  (34,  8,  19)  as  having  flourished  in  the 
 102d  Olympiad.  He  built  the  Mausoleum,  in  connex- 
 ion with  Scopas,  Bryaxes,  and  Timotheus,  to  whom 
 some  add  Praxiteles.  (Plin.,  36,  5,  4. —  Vitruv.,  VII., 
 Prccf.,  s.  13.)  .\  list  of  his  works  is  given  by  Sillig, 
 from  ancient  authorities.     {Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Leonatus,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander.  On 
 the  death  of  that  monarch  he  was  appointed  to  the 
 charge  of  Phrygia  Minor,  which  lay  along  the  Hel- 
 lespont. Not  long  after,  on  being  directed  by  Per- 
 diccas  to  establish  Eumenes  in  the  kingdom  of  Cap- 
 padocia,  he  communicated  to  the  latter  a  plan  which 
 he  had  in  view  of  seizing  upon  Macedonia.  Eume- 
 nes immediately  divulged  this  to  Perdiccas.  The 
 plan  thus  formed  by  Leonatus  was  based  upon  his  as- 
 sisting Antipater  in  the  Lamian  war.  Accordingly, 
 though  both  Eumenes  and  Perdiccas  knew  his  real  in- 
 structions, he  crossed  over  with  a  body  of  forces  into 
 Europe,  and  brought  succour  to  Antipater  against  the 
 I  confederate  Greeks  :  but  his  ambitious  designs  were 
 
 733 
 
LEO 
 
 LEP 
 
 frustrated  Lr  nis  being  slain  in  battle.     (Plut.,  Vit. 
 Akx.—Id.,  Vtl.  Phoc.—Id.,  ViC.  Eum.) 
 
 Leonidas,  I.  a  celebrated  king  of  Lacedsmon,  of 
 the  family  of  the  Eurysthenidaj,  sent  by  his  countrymen 
 to  maintain  the  pass  of  Thermopylas  against  the  inva- 
 ding army  of  Xerxes,  B.C.  480.  A  full  narrative  of 
 the  whole  affair,  together  with  an  examination  of  the 
 ancient  statements  on  this  subject,  will  be  found  under 
 the  article  Thermopylae. — II.  Son  of  Clconymus,  of  the 
 line  a(  the  Agidae,  succeeded  Areus  II.  on  the  throne 
 of  Sparta,  B.C.  267.  Agis,  his  colleague  in  the 
 sovere'.girty,  having  resolved  to  restore  the  institutions 
 of  Lycurgus  to  their  former  vigour,  Leonidas  opposed 
 his  views,  and  became  the  main  support  of  those  who 
 were  inclined  to  a  relaxation  of  ancient  strictness. 
 He  was  convicted,  however,  of  having  transgressed 
 the  laws,  and  was  obliged  to  yield  the  supreme  power 
 to  Cleombrotus,  his  son-in-law.  Not  long  after  he 
 wras  re-established  on  the  Spartan  throne,  and  avenged 
 the  affront  which  he  had  received  at  the  hands  of  Agis, 
 by  impeaching  him  and  effecting  his  condemnation. 
 (Paus<in.,  2,  9.— Id.,  3,  6.)— III.  A  native  of  Ale.xan- 
 drea,  who  flourished  at  Rome  as  a  grammarian  to- 
 wards the  close  of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
 era.  He  wrote,  among  other  things,  epigrams  denom- 
 inated tffdi/';?(^a,  arranged  in  such  a  manner,  that  the 
 numerical  value  of  all  the  letters  composing  any  one 
 distich  is  equal  to  that  of  the  letters  of  any  other.  He 
 was  very  probably  the  inventor  of  this  learned  species  of 
 trifling.  (Sckbll,  Hist.  Lit.,  vol.  4,  p.  50. — Compare 
 Jacobs,  Catal.  Poet.  Epigramm.,  s.  v.) — IV.  A  na- 
 tive of  Tarentiim,  who  flourished  about  275  B.C.  He 
 has  left  behind  a  hundred  epigrams  in  the  Doric  dialect, 
 and  which  belong  to  the  best  of  those  that  have  been 
 preserved  for  us.  {Jacobs,  Catal.  Poet.  Epigramm., 
 s.  V.) 
 
 Lkontini,  a  town  of  Sicily,  situate  about  five  miles 
 from  the  seashore,  on  the  south  of  Catana,  between  two 
 small  streams,  the  Lissus  and  Terias.  The  place  is 
 sometimes  called  by  modern  writers  Leontium  ;  this, 
 however,  is  not  only  a  deviation  from  Thucydides,  who 
 always  uses  the  form  AeovTivoi,  but,  in  fact,  is  employ- 
 ed by  no  ancient  author  except  Ptolemy ;  and  Cluve- 
 rius  there  suspec»ts  the  reading  to  be  a  corruption  for 
 AsovtIvov.  {Bloomfield,  ad  Thucyd.,  6,  3.)  It  was 
 founded  by  a  colony  of  Chalcideans  from  Euboea,  who 
 had  come  to  the  island  but  six  years  before,  and  had 
 then  settled  Naxos,  near  Mount  Taurus,  where  Tauro- 
 menium  was  afterward  founded.  That  they  should  have 
 settled  Leontini  only  six  years  after  their  own  coloniza- 
 tion may  indeed  seem  strange ;  but  it  may  be  accounted 
 for  from  the  superior  fertility  of  the  plain  of  Leontini, 
 which  has  ever  been  accounted  the  richest  tract  in  Si- 
 cily ;  for  the  very  same  reason  they  soon  afterward 
 settled  Catana.  {Thucyd.,  I.  c.  —  Bloomf.,  ad  loc.) 
 The  vSiculi  were  in  possession  of  the  territory  where 
 Leontini  was  founded  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  col- 
 ony, and  were  driven  out  by  force  of  arms.  Leontini 
 for  a  time  continued  flourishing  and  powerful,  but 
 eventually  sank  under  the  superior  power  and  prosper- 
 ity of  Syracuse.  Its  quarrel  with  this  last-mentioned 
 city  led  to  the  unfortunate  expedition  of  the  Athenians, 
 whose  aid  Leontini  had  solicited.  The  city  ultimate- 
 ly fell  under  the  Syracusan  power.  The  celebrated 
 Gorgias  was  a  native  of  this  place.  {Manncrt,  Geogr., 
 vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  301,  scqq.) 
 
 Leontium,  an  Athenian  female,  originally  an  hetserist, 
 although  afterward,  as  Gassendi  maintains,  the  wife 
 of  Metrodorus,  the  most  eminent  friend  and  disciple 
 of  Epicurus.  Many  slanders  were  circulated  respect- 
 ing her  intercourse  with  the  philosopher  and  his  fol- 
 lowers. She  herself  composed  works  on  philosophy. 
 {Diog.  Laert.,  10,  7. — Plut.,  non  posse  siiav.  v.  Sec. 
 Epic,  4,  16.— Czc,  N.  D.,  1,  33.)  A  detailed  biog- 
 raphy  of  Leontium  may  be  found  in  the  Biographic 
 Ihuverselle  (vol.  24,  p.  170.  —  Compare  Ritter,  Hist. 
 734 
 
 Philos.,  vol.  3,  p.  402).  Of  the  other  hetaerists  wno 
 frequented  the  garden  of  Epicurus,  it  may  be  supposed 
 that  they  were  only  brought  to  the  common  meals  in 
 accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  day.     {Riltcr,  I.  c.) 
 
 Leosthenes,  I.  one  of  the  last  successful  generals 
 of  Athens.  He  was  of  the  party  of  Demosthenes,  and 
 the  violence  of  his  harangues  in  favour  of  democracy 
 drew  the  well-known  reproof  frooi  Phocion:  "Young 
 man,  thy  words  are  like  the  cypress,  tall  and  large, 
 but  they  bear  no  fruit."  He  had,  however,  gained 
 reputation  enough  to  be  chosen  leader  of  a  large  body 
 of  mercenary  soldiers,  returned  from  Asia  shortly  be- 
 fore the  death  of  Alexander,  who,  on  that  event  being 
 known,  were  taken  openly  into  the  pay  of  the  republic. 
 His  first  exploit  was  the  defeat  of  the  Boeotians  near 
 PlatjEa.  After  this  he  took  post  at  PylsB,  to  prevent 
 the  entrance  of  Antipater  into  Greece,  defeated  him, 
 and  shut  him  up  in  Lamia,  a  town  of  Thessaly,  to 
 which  he  laid  siege  ;  and  from  that  siege  the  Lamian 
 war  has  its  name.  Leosthenes,  however,  was  killed 
 in  the  course  of  it ;  and  after  his  death  success  de- 
 serted the  Athenian  arms.  He  left  a  high  reputation  ; 
 and  his  picture,  painted  by  Arcesilaus,  is  mentioned  by 
 Pausanias  (1,  1)  as  one  of  the  objects  in  the  Piraeus 
 worthy  of  notice.  {Diod.  Sic,  18,  9.  —  Id.,  18,  11, 
 scqq.) — II.  An  Athenian  commander,  condemned  to 
 death,  B.C.  361,  for  being  defeated  by  Alexander  of 
 Phera;.     {Died.  Sic,  15,  95.) 
 
 Leotychides,  I.  a  king  of  Sparta,  son  of  Menares, 
 of  the  line  of  the  Proclidce.  He  ascended  the  throne 
 B.C.  491,  a  few  years  before  the  invasion  of  Greece 
 by  the  Persians,  and  succeeded  to  Demaratus.  Hav- 
 ing been  appointed,  along  with  Xanthippus  the  Athe- 
 nian, to  the  command  of  the  Grecian  fleet,  he  gained, 
 in  conjunction  with  his  colleague,  the  celebrated  vic- 
 tory of  Mycale.  He  afterward  sailed  along  the  coast 
 of  Asia  Minor,  causing  the  inhabitants  to  revolt,  and 
 received  into  alliance  with  the  Greeks  the  lonians 
 and  Samians,  who,  in  the  battle  of  Mycale,  had  been 
 the  first  to  declare  in  favour  of  their  ancient  allies. 
 Some  years  after  this,  Leotychides  having  been  sent 
 into  Thessaly  against  the  Aleuadae,  suff'ered  himself  to 
 be  influenced  by  their  presents,  and  retired  without 
 having  gained  any  advantage.  He  was  accused  on 
 his  return,  and,  not  deeming  himself  safe  at  Laceds- 
 mon,  he  took  refuge  at  Tegea,  in  the  temple  of  Mi- 
 nerva Alea  (499  B.C.).  Zeuxidamus,  his  son,  being 
 dead,  Archidamus,  his  grandson,  was  placed  on  the 
 throne.  Leotvchides  died  at  Tegea  467  B.C.  {He- 
 rod., 6,  65.— id.,  8,  131.— M,  9,  197.)— II.  Son  of 
 Agis,  king  of  Sparta.  He  passed,  however,  most 
 commonly  for  the  son  of  Alcibiades,  whom  Agis  had 
 received  into  his  abode  when  exiled  from  Athens. 
 Although  Agis  had  formally  recognised  his  legitimacy, 
 it  was  nevertheless  disputed,  and  Lysander  eventually 
 succeeded  in  having  Agesilaus  his  brother  appointed 
 king  in  his  place.  {Corn.  Nep.,  Vit.  Ages. — Pau- 
 san.,  3,  8.) 
 
 Lepida,  I.  Emilia,  daughter  of  Manius  Lepidus, 
 and  wife  of  Drusus  Cjesar.  She  was  engaged  in  an 
 adulterous  intercourse  with  Sejanus,  and  was  suborn- 
 ed by  that  ambitious  and  profligate  minister  to  become 
 the  accuser  of  her  own  husband  to  Tiberius.  Not- 
 withstanding her  crimes,  she  was  protected  during  her 
 father's  life,  but,  being  afterward  made  a  subject  of 
 attack  by  the  informers  of  the  day,  she  put  an  end  to 
 her  own  existence.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  i, 20. — Id.,  6,  40.) 
 — II.  A  Roman  female,  who  reckoned  among  her  an- 
 cestors Poinpey  and  Sylla.  She  was  accused  by  her 
 husband  Sulpicius  of  adultery,  poisoning,  and  treason- 
 able conduct,  and  was  condemned  to  exile,  notwith- 
 standing the  interest  which  the  people  testified  in  her 
 behalf.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  3,  22.)— III.  Domitia,  daugh- 
 ter of  Drusus  and  Antonia.  She  was  grand-niece  of 
 Augustus,  and  aunt  of  Nero,  who  destroyed  her  by- 
 poison.     CTacit^  Ann.,  13, 19.)— IV.  Domitia,  daugh 
 
LEP 
 
 LEP 
 
 ter  of  Antonia  the  younger,  by  Lucius  Domitius  ^no- 
 barbus.  She  was  the  wife  of  Valerius  Messala,  and 
 mother  of  Messalina,  and  is  described  as  having  been 
 a  woman  of  debauched  and  profligate  manners,  and  of 
 a  violent  and  impetuous  spirit.  In  point  of  beauty 
 and  vice,  she  was  the  rival  of  Agrippina,  Nero's  moth- 
 er. She  was  condemned  to  death  through  the  influ- 
 ence of  the  same  Agrippina.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  11,  37. 
 —Id.,  Ann.,  12,  &^.—Suelon.,  Vit.  Claud.,  26.— Id., 
 Vit.  Ner.,  7.) 
 
 Lehidi,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
 families  of  the  patrician  gens,  or  house,  of  the  yEmilii. 
 The  individuals  most  worthy  of  notice  in  this  family 
 are  the  following:  I.  M.  .iEmilius  Lepidus,  was  sent 
 as  an  ambassador  to  Ptolemy,  king  of  ^gypt,  at  the 
 close  of  the  second  Punic  war,  B.C.  201.  {Polyb., 
 16,  .34.— Lu'.,  31,2.— Compare  Taatus,Ann.,  2,  67.) 
 He  obtained  the  consulship  B.C.  187  (Liv.,  39,  5. 
 —Polyb.,  23,  1),  and  again  in  B.C.  175.  In  B.C. 
 179  he  was  elected  Pontifex  Maximus  and  Censor. 
 (Liv.,  40,  42.— ^m/.  GelL,  12,  8.)  He  was  also  Prin- 
 ceps  Senatus  six  times.  {Lzv.,  Epit.,  48.)  He  died 
 B.C.  1.50. — II.  M.  .^MiLius  Lepidus,  was  proetor 
 B.C.  81  ;  after  which  he  obtained  the  province  of 
 Sicily.  (Cic.  in  Vcrr.,  3,  91.)  In  his  consulship, 
 B.C.  78,  he  endeavoured  to  rescind  the  measures  of 
 Sylla,  but  was  driven  out  of  Italy  by  his  colleague 
 Quintus  Catulus  and  by  Pompey,  and  retired  to  Sar- 
 dinia, where  he  died  the  following  year,  while  making 
 preparations  for  a  renewal  of  the  war.  (Appian,  Bell. 
 Civ.,  1,  105.— L?i;.,  Epit.,  i)0.— Pint.,  Vit.  Pomp., 
 16.) — III.  M.  ^MiLius  Lepidus,  the  triumvir,  son 
 of  the  preceding,  was  aedile  B.C.  52,  and  praetor  B.C. 
 49,  in  which  year  Caesar  came  to  an  open  rupture 
 with  the  senatorian  party.  Lepidus,  from  his  first 
 entrance  into  public  life,  opposed  the  party  of  the 
 senate  ;  and  though  he  does  not  appear  to  have  pos- 
 sessed any  of  the  talent  and  energy  of  character  by 
 which  Antony  was  distinguished,  yet  his  great  riches 
 and  extensive  family  connexions  made  him  an  im- 
 portant accession  to  the  popular  cause.  On  the  first 
 expedition  of  Cssar  into  Spain,  Lepidus  was  left  in 
 charge  of  the  city,  though  the  military  command  of 
 Italy  was  intrusted  to  Antony.  During  Caesar's  ab- 
 sence, Lepidus  proposed  the  law  by  which  the  former 
 was  created  dictator.  In  the  following  year,  B.C. 
 48,  he  obtained  the  province  of  Hispania  Citerior,  with 
 the  title  of  proconsul ;  and  in  B.C.  46  was  made 
 consul  along  with  Caesar,  and  at  the  same  time  his 
 master  of  the  horse,  an  appointment  which  again  gave 
 him  the  chief  power  in  Rome  during  the  absence  of 
 the  dictator  in  the  African  war.  In  B.C.  44  he  was 
 again  made  master  of  the  horse,  and  appointed  to  the 
 provinces  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  and  Hispania  Citerior; 
 but  he  did  not  immediatelv  leave  Rome,  and  was  prob- 
 ably in  the  senate  house  when  Cassar  was  assassinated. 
 After  the  death  of  Ca3sar,  Lepidus  was  courted  by 
 both  parties  ;  and  the  senate,  on  the  motion  of  Cice- 
 ro, decreed  that  an  equestrian  statue  should  be  erect- 
 ed to  him,  in  any  part  of  the  city  he  might  fix  upon. 
 Lepidus  promised  to  assist  the  senate ;  but,  at  the 
 same  time,  carried  on  a  secret  negotiation  with  Antony. 
 On  his  arrival  in  his  province,  being  ordered  by  the 
 senate  to  join  Decimus  Brutus,  he  at  length  found 
 it  necessary  to  throw  off  the  mask ;  and,  instead  of 
 obeying  their  commands,  united  his  forces  with  those 
 of  Antony.  In  the  autumn  of  this  year,  B.C.  43, 
 the  celebrated  triumvirate  was  established  between 
 Antony,  Lepidus,  and  Octavius  (Augustus)  ;  and  in 
 the  division  of  the  provinces,  Lepidus  received  the 
 whole  of  Spain  and  Gallia  Narbonensis.  The  conduct 
 of  the  war  against  Brutus  and  Cassius  was  assicrned 
 to  Antony  and  Augustus  ;  while  the  charge  of  the 
 city  was  intrusted  to  Lepidus,  who  was  again  elected 
 consul  (B.C.  43).  After  the  defeat  of  Brutus  and 
 Cassius,  Antony  and  Augustus  found  themselves  suf- 
 
 ficiently powerful  to  act  contrary  to  the  advice  and 
 wishes  of  Lepidus;  and,  in  the  new  division  of  the 
 provinces  which  was  made  after  the  battle  of  Philip- 
 pi,  Spain  and  Gallia  Narbonensis  were  taken  from 
 Lepidus,  and  Africa  was  given  to  him  in  their  stead. 
 Lepidus  had  now  lost  all  real  authority  in  the  manage- 
 ment of  public  affairs  ;  but  he  was  again  included  in 
 the  triumvirate,  when  it  was  renewed  B.C.  37.  In 
 the  following  year  he  was  summoned  from  Africa  to 
 assist  Augustus  in  Sicily  against  Sextus  Pompeius  ; 
 and  he  landed  with  a  large  army,  by  means  of  which 
 he  endeavoured  to  regain  his  lost  power,  and  make 
 himself  independent  of  Augustus.  But  in  this  at- 
 tempt he  completely  failed.  Being  deserted  by  bis 
 own  troops,  he  was  obliged  to  implore  the  mercy  of 
 Augustus,  who  spared  his  life,  and  allowed  him  to 
 retain  his  private  property  and  the  dignity  of  Pontifex 
 Maximus,  which  he  had  obtained  on  the  death  of  Ju- 
 lius Caesar,  but  deprived  him  of  his  province  and  tri- 
 umvirate, and  banished  him,  according  to  Suetonius, 
 to  Circeii.  (Sueton.,  Vit.  ^w^g^.,  16.)  After  the  bat- 
 tle of  Actiuin,  his  son  formed  a  conspiracy  for  the  as- 
 sassination of  Augustus  on  his  return  from  the  East, 
 which  was  discovered  by  Maecenas ;  and  Lepidus, 
 having  incurred  the  suspicion  of  his  former  colleague, 
 repaired  to  Rome,  where  he  was  treated,  according 
 to  Dio  Cassius,  with  studied  insult  and  contempt. 
 {Encyd.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  13,  p.  438.)— IV.  A  com- 
 panion of  Caligula  in  his  career  of  debauchery.  The 
 prince  made  him  marry  his  sister  Drusilla,  and  gave 
 him  hopes  of  being  named  as  successor  to  the  empire. 
 Lepidus,  however,  who  would  seem  to  have  reckoned 
 but  little,  after  all,  on  the  promises  of  the  emperor, 
 conspired  against  him.  The  conspiracy  was  detected, 
 and  cost  its  author  his  life.  He  is  supposed  by  some 
 to  have  been  the  son  of  Julia,  grand-daughter  of  Au- 
 gustus, and  consequently  cousin-german  to  Caligula. 
 {Taat.,  Ann.,  14,  2.) — V.  A  poet  of  an  uncertain 
 period,  a  poem  of  whose,  entitled  Philodexios,  was 
 published  by  Aldus  Manutius  at  Lucca,  1.588. 
 
 Lepontii,  a  people  of  the  Alps,  near  the  source  of 
 the  Rhone,  on  the  south  of  that  river.  The  Lepon- 
 tine  Alps  separated  Italy  from  the  Helvetii.  The  Le- 
 pontii are  known  to  have  inhabited  that  part  of  the 
 Alps  which  lies  between  the  Great  St.  Bernard  and 
 St.  Golhard.  {Cas.,  B.  Gall,  4,  \Q.—Plin.,  3,  20. 
 —Strabo,  204.) 
 
 Leptines,  I.  a  son  of  Hermocrates,  and  brother  of 
 Dionysius  the  Elder.  He  was  sent  against  Mago, 
 general  of  the  Carthaginians,  with  the  whole  fleet  of 
 the  tyrant,  B.C.  396.  At  first  he  gained  some  ad- 
 vantages, but  having  separated  himself  too  much  from 
 the  main  body  of  the  fleet,  he  was  surrounded  by  the 
 enemy,  and  lost  a  large  number  of  his  vessels.  After 
 having  remained  for  some  time  in  a  state  of  disgrace, 
 he  recovered  the  favour  of  the  tyrant,  and  married  his 
 daughter.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  at  the  bat. 
 tie  of  Cronium  (B.C.  383),  where  be  fell  fighting  val- 
 iantly. His  fall  occasioned  the  defeat  of  the  army. 
 {Died.  Sic,  14,  48.— M,  14,  60.— W.,  15,  17.)— H. 
 A  Syracusan,  who,  in  conjunction  with  Callipus,  took 
 the  city  of  Rhegium,  occupied  by  the  troops  of  Dionys- 
 lus  the  Younger  (351  B.C.).  He  was  subsequent- 
 ly in  the  number  of  those  who  massacred  this  same 
 Callipus,  to  avenge  the  death  of  Dion.  {Died.  Sic, 
 16,  45.)— III.  A  tyrant  of  Apollonia  and  other  cities 
 of  Sicily,  taken  by  timoleon  (B.C.  342),  and  exiled  to 
 Corinth.  {Diod.  Sic,  16,  72.)— IV.  An  Athenian  or- 
 ator, who  proposed  that  certain  iminuniiies  from  the 
 burdensome  offices  of  choragus,  gymnasiarch,  and  hes- 
 tiator,  which  used  to  be  allowed  to  meritorious  citi- 
 zens, should  be  taken  away.  A  law  was  passed  in 
 accordance  with  this.  Demosthenes  attacked  it  and 
 procured  its  abrogation.-V.  A  Syrian,  general  of  De- 
 metrius, who  put  to  death  at  Laodicea,  Octavius,  a 
 commissioner  whom  '.he  Romans  had  sent  into  the 
 
 735 
 
LES 
 
 LESBOS. 
 
 East  to  arrange  the  afTiiirs  of  Syria.  He  was  sent  to 
 Rome,  to  be  delivered  up  along  with  Isocrates,  who 
 was  also  a  party  to  the  murder,  but  the  senate  refused 
 to  receive  hnn.  {Diod.  Sic.,fragm.,  lib.  31. — Op.,  ed. 
 Bip.,  vol.  10,  p.  29,  seqq.) 
 
 Leptis,  the  name  of  two  cities  in  Africa,  distin- 
 guished by  the  epithets  of  MeydXr;  (Magna)  and 
 MiKpu  (Parva  or  Minor). — I.  The  first  was  situate 
 towards  the  great  Syrtis,  at  the  southeast  extremity  of 
 the  district  of  Tripolis.  Leptis  Magna  was  founded 
 by  the  Phcenicians,  and  ranked  nc.\t  to  Carthage  and 
 Utica  among  their  maritime  cities.  Under  the  Ro- 
 mans it  was  signalized,  as  Sallust  informs  us,  by  its 
 fidelity  and  obedience.  On  the  occupation  of  Africa 
 by  the  Vandals,  its  fortifications  appear  to  have  been 
 destroyed  ;  but  they  were  probably  restored  under 
 Justinian,  when  the  city  became  the  residence  of  the 
 prefect  Sergius.  It  was  finally  demolished  by  the 
 Saracens  ;  after  which  it  appears  to  have  been  wholly 
 abandoned,  and  its  remains,  according  to  Leo  Afri- 
 canus,  were  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  mod- 
 ern Tripoli.  The  modern  name  is  Lehida.  An  ac- 
 count of  the  remains  of  the  ancient  city  will  be  found 
 in  Beecky''s  Travels,  p.  74,  seqq  ,  and  in  the  Modern 
 Traveller,  pt.  49,  p.  61.  Capt,  Beechy  describes  the 
 country  around  Lebida  as  beautiful  and  highly  pro- 
 ductive. {Mela,  1,7.— Plin.,  5,  4.—Strab.,  574.)— 
 II.  The  latter  was  in  the  district  of  Byzacium  or  Em- 
 porisB,  about  18  miles  below  Iladrumetum,  on  the 
 coast.  It  is  now  Lempta.  It  paid  a  talent  a  day  to 
 the  Carthaginians  as  tribute.  (Vid.  Emporias.)  The 
 Phognicians,  according  to  Sallust,  were  its  founders. 
 {Lucan,  2,  25l.—Plin.,  5,  19.— Sallust,  Jug.,  77.— 
 Mela,  1,  8.) 
 
 Lerina  or  PlanasTa,  a  small  island  in  the  Med- 
 iterranean, on  the  coast  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  south 
 of  NicesBa.  It  is  now  St.  Marguerite.  Strabo  gives 
 it  the  name  of  Planasia,  from  its  shape.  {Tacit.,  Ann., 
 1,  3.) 
 
 Lerna,  a  small  lake  in  Argolis,  near  the  western 
 coast  of  the  Sinus  Argolicus,  rendered  celebrated  by 
 the  fable  of  the  many-headed  hydra  slain  by  Hercules, 
 and  connected  also  with  the  legend  of  the  Danaides, 
 who  flung  into  its  waters  the  heads  of  their  murdered 
 husbands.  {Vid.  Hercules,  Hydra,  and  Danaides.) 
 The  Lern^an  Lake  was  formed  by  several  sources, 
 which  discharged  themselves  into  its  basin.  Minerva 
 is  said  to  have  purified  the  daughters  of  Danaus  by 
 means  of  its  waters;  which  circumstance  subsequent- 
 ly gave  rise  to  certain  mystic  riles  called  Lernaea,  in- 
 stituted, as  Pausanias  affirms,  by  Philammon,  son  of 
 Apollo  and  father  of  Thamyris,  in  honour  of  Ceres. 
 {Pansan.,  2,  37 — Strab.,  371. —  Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  237.) 
 
 Lekos,  a  small  island  off  the  coast  of  Caria,  and 
 forming  one  of  the  cluster  called  Sporades.  {Plin., 
 5,  31.)  It  was  peopled  from  Miletus,  and  very  prob- 
 ably belonged  to  that  city.  Strabo  gives  its  inhabi- 
 tants a  character  for  dishonesty.      {Strab.,  635.) 
 
 Lesbos,  now  Mctclin,  an  island  of  the  JEge&n,  ly- 
 ing oflf  the  coast  of  Mysia,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf 
 of  Adramyttiuin.  It  was  first  settled  by  a  body  of 
 Pelasgi,  who,  under  the  conduct  of  Xanthus  their  king, 
 having  been  driven  from  Argos,  passed  from  Lycia 
 into  this  island,  then  called  Issa,  and  named  by  them 
 Pelasgia.  Seven  generations  after  this,  and  a  short 
 time  subsequent  to  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  Macareus 
 passed  from  Attica,  then  denominated  Ionia,  with  a 
 colony  to  this  island.  From  him  it  received  the  name 
 of  Macarea.  Lcsbus,  an  .■Eolian,  joined  himself  to 
 this  colony,  married  the  daughter  of  Macareus,  who 
 was  called  Methymne,  and  gave  his  own  name  to  the 
 island  after  the  death  of  his  father-in-law.  The  elder 
 daughter  of  Macareus  was  named  Mytilene  ;  her  name 
 was  given  to  the  capital  of  the  whole  island.  This  is 
 said  to  have  taken  place  two  generations  before  the 
 736 
 
 Trojan  war.  Homer  speaks  of  the  island  under  the 
 name  of  Lesbos,  as  being  well  inhabited.  Other,  and 
 perhaps  more  accurate  accounts,  make  the  .^Eolians 
 to  have  led  colonies  into  the  island  for  the  first  lime, 
 130  years  after  the  Trojan  war.  Herodotus  makes 
 five  ..iJ^olian  cities  in  Lesbos.  Pliny  mention;)  other 
 names  besides  those  already  given,  which  seem,  how- 
 ever, to  have  been  merely  general  appellations,  deno- 
 tmg  some  circumstance  or  feature  in  the  island,  as  Hi- 
 merte,  the  wished-for,  Lasia,  the  woody,  &.c.  The 
 island  contained  forests  of  beech,  cypress,  and  fir 
 trees.  It  yielded  marble  of  a  common  quality,  and 
 the  plains  abounded  in  grain.  Warm  springs  were 
 also  found;  agates  and  precious  stones.  {Pococke, 
 vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  20.)  The  most  profitable  production 
 was  wine,  which  was  preferred  in  many  countries  to 
 all  the  other  Greek  wines.  To  the  present  day,  the 
 oil  and  figs  of  Lesbos  are  accounted  the  best  in  the 
 Archipelago.  The  island  anciently  contained  nine 
 cities,  for  the  most  part  in  a  flourishing  condition  ; 
 among  them  Mytilene,  Pyrrha,  Melhymna,  Arisba, 
 Eressus,  and  Antissa :  at  present  120  villages  are 
 enumerated.  From  an  insignificant  monarchy,  Les- 
 bos first  became  a  powerful  democracy.  The  Lesbi- 
 ans then  made  great  conquests  on  the  Continent,  and 
 in  the  former  territory  of  Troy,  and  even  resisted  the 
 Athenians  themselves.  Lesbos  was  next  disturbed 
 by  the  Samians,  and  afterward  by  the  Persians,  to 
 whom  it  was  finally  obliged  to  submit.  After  the 
 battle  of  Mycale,  it  shook  off  the  Persian  yoke,  and 
 became  the  ally  of  Athens.  During  the  Peloponne- 
 sian  war,  it  separated  more  than  once  from  Athens, 
 but  was  always  reduced  to  obedience.  A  distinguish- 
 ed citizen  of  Mytilene,  exasperated  that  several  rich 
 inhabitants  had  refused  his  sons  their  daughters  in 
 marriage,  publicly  accused  the  city  of  an  intention  to 
 conclude  a  league  with  the  Lacedaemonians,  by  which 
 false  accusation  he  induced  the  Athenians  to  send  a 
 fleet  against  Lesbos.  {Aristot.,  de  Rep  ,  5,  4.)  The 
 nearest  cities,  Melhymna  excepted,  armed  in  defence 
 of  their  capital,  but  were  overpowered,  the  walls  of 
 Mytilene  were  demolished,  and  a  thousand  of  the 
 richest  inhabitants  put  to  death.  The  territory  of 
 Melhymna  alone  was  spared.  The  island  itself  was 
 divided  into  3000  parts,  of  which  300  were  devoted 
 to  the  service  of  the  gods,  and  the  rest  divided  among 
 the  Athenians,  by  whom  they  were  rented  to  the  an- 
 cient proprietors.  {Thucyd.,  3,  50.)  The  cities  of 
 Lesbos,  nevertheless,  soon  rebelled  again. — The  Les- 
 bians were  notorious  for  their  dissolute  manners,  and 
 the  whole  island  was  regarded  as  the  abode  of  pleasure 
 and  licentiousness.  At  the  same  time  they  had  the 
 reputation  of  the  highest  refinement,  and  of  the  most 
 distinguished  intellecliia!  cultivation.  Poetry  and  mu- 
 sic made  great  progress  here.  The  Lesbian  scliool 
 of  music  was  highly  celebrated,  and  is  fabled  to  have 
 had  the  following  origin  :  When  Orpheus  was  torn  to 
 pieces  by  the  Bacchantes,  his  head  and  lyre  were 
 thrown  into  the  Thracian  river  Hebrus,  and  both  were 
 cast  by  the  waves  on  the  shores  of  Lesbos,  near  Me* 
 thymna.  Meanwhile  harmonious  sounds  were  emit- 
 ted by  the  moulh  of  Orpheus,  accompanied  by  the 
 lyre,  the  strings  of  the  latter  being  moved  by  the 
 breath  of  the  wind.  The  Methymneans,  therefore, 
 buried  the  head,  and  suspended  the  lyre  in  the  temple 
 of  Apollo  ;  and,  as  a  recompense  for  this,  the  god  be- 
 stowed upon  them  a  talent  for  music,  and  the  success- 
 ful culture  of  this  and  the  sister  art  of  poetry.  {Hy- 
 gin.,Poct.  Astron.,2,  7.)  In  reality,  Lesbos  produced 
 musicians  superior  to  all  the  other  musicians  of  Greece. 
 Among  these  the  most  distinguished  were  Arion  and 
 Terpander.  Alcaeus  and  Sappho,  moreover,  were 
 esteemed  among  the  first  in  lyric  poetry.  Pittacus, 
 Theophrastus,  Theophanes,  Hellanicus,  Myrtilus,  &c., 
 were  also  natives  of  this  island. — A  variety  of  hills, 
 clad  with  vines  and  olive-trees,  rise  round  the  numer- 
 
LEU 
 
 L  EU 
 
 ous  bays  of  this  island.  The  mountains  of  the  inte- 
 rior are  covered  with  mastic,  turpentine- trees,  pines 
 of  Aleppo,  and  the  cistus.  Rivulets  flow  under  the 
 shades  of  the  plane-tree.  The  island  contains  at  pres- 
 ent about  S5,000  inhabitants.  {Mannert,  Gcogr., 
 vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  433.  —  Barthdcmy ,  Voyage  d'Ana- 
 harsis,  vol,  2,  p.  59,  seqq,  12mo  ed.  —  Encyclop. 
 Americ,  vol.  7,  p.  516. — MaUe-Brun,  vol.  2,  p.  85, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Lesbus  or  Lesbos,  a  son  of  Lapithus,  grandson 
 of  ./Eolus,  who  married  Methymna,  daughter  of  Ma- 
 careus.  He  succeeded  his  father-in-law,  and  gave  his 
 name  to  the  island  over  which  he  reigned.  {Vid. 
 Lesbos.) 
 
 Lesches,  a  Cyclic  bard,  a  native  of  Mytilene,  or 
 Pyrrha,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  and  considerably  later 
 than  Arctinus.  The  best  authorities  concur  in  pla- 
 cing him  in  the  time  of  Archilochus,  or  about  the  18th 
 Olympiad  (B.C.  708^704).  Hence  the  account  which 
 we  find  in  ancient  authors,  of  a  contest  between  Arc- 
 tinus and  Lesches,  can  only  mean  that  the  latter  com- 
 peted with  the  earlier  poet  in  treating  the  same  sub- 
 jects. His  poem,  which  was  attributed  by  many  to 
 Homer,  and,  besides,  to  very  difi'erent  authors,  was 
 called  the  Little  Iliad  ('I/lmf  Mmpd),  and  was  clearly 
 intended  as  a  supplement  to  the  great  Iliad.  We 
 learn  from  Aristotle  (Poet.,  c.  23,  ad  fin.,  ed.  Bekk. — 
 c.  38,  ed.  Tyrwh.)  that  it  comprised  the  events  before 
 the  fall  of  Troy,  the  fate  of  Ajax,  the  exploits  of 
 rhiloctetcs,  Neoptolemus,  and  Ulysses,  which  led  to 
 the  taking  of  the  citv,  as  well  as  the  account  of  the 
 destruction  of  Troy  itself;  which  statement  is  con- 
 firmed by  numerous  fragments.  The  last  part  of  this 
 (like  the  first  part  of  the  poem  of  Arctinus)  was  call- 
 ed the  Destruction  of  Troy:  from  which  Pausanias 
 makes  several  quotations,  with  reference  to  the  sack- 
 ing of  Troy,  and  the  partition  and  carrying  away  of 
 the  prisoners.  It  is  evident,  from  his  citations,  that 
 Lesches,  in  many  important  events  (for  example,  the 
 death  of  Priam,  the  end  of  Astyanax,  and  the  fate  of 
 .Eneas,  whom  he  represents  Neoptolemus  as  taking 
 to  Pharsalus),  followed  quite  different  traditions  from 
 those  of  Arctinus.  The  connexion  of  the  several 
 events  was  necessarily  loose  and  superficial,  and  with- 
 out any  unity  of  subject.  Hence,  according  to  Aris- 
 totle, while  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  only  furni.shed  ma- 
 terials for  one  tragedy  each,  more  than  eight  might 
 be  formed  out  of  the  Little  Iliad.  {K.  0.  Mitller, 
 Hist.  Gr.  Lit. ,  p.  66.  —  C.  G.  MiiUer,  de  Lesche  Po- 
 eta.) 
 
 Lethe,  I.  one  of  the  rivers  of  the  lower  world, 
 the  waters  of  which  possessed  the  property  of  causing 
 a  total  forgetfulness  of  the  past.  Hence  the  name, 
 from  the  Greek  lift)  {kthe),  signifying  ''forgetful- 
 ness''' or  "■  ohlivion"'  The  shades  of  the  dead  drank 
 a  draught  of  the  waters  of  Lethe,  when  entering  on 
 the  joys  of  Elysium,  and  ceased  to  remember  the 
 troubles  and  sorrows  of  life. — II.  A  river  of  Spain. 
 Its  true  name,  however,  was  the  Limius,  according  to 
 Ptolemy,  or,  according  to  Pliny  (4,  34),  the  Limia. 
 Strabo  styles  it  the  Bolion.  It  was  in  the  territory 
 of  the  Calliaci,  a  little  below  the  Minius.  Its  name, 
 Lethe  (or,  as  it  should  be  rather  termed,  6  ti/c  Ij/Otjc, 
 the  river  of  forgetfulness),  was  given  to  it  from  the 
 circumstance  of  the  Celloe  and  Turduli,  who  had  gone 
 on  an  expedition  with  united  forces,  losing  here  their 
 common  commander,  becoming  disunited,  forgetting 
 the  object  of  their  expedition,  and  reluming  to  their 
 respective  homes.  There  was  so  much  superstitious 
 dread  attached  to  this  stream,  that  Brutus,  in  his  ex- 
 pedition against  the  Calliaci,  could  with  great  difficul- 
 ty induce  his  soldiers  to  cross.  {Ukcrt,  Gcogr.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  297.) 
 
 Leuca,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Messapia,  near  the  lapy- 
 gian  promontory.  It  was  in  the  country  of  the  Salen- 
 tini.  The  ancient  iiame  remains  in  the  modern  appel- 
 5  A 
 
 lation  of  the  lapygian  promontory,  and  also  in  the 
 name  of  a  church  dedicated  to  the  Virgin,  under  the 
 title  of  S.  Maria  di  Leuca.  {D'Anville,  Anal.  Geogr., 
 de  r Italic,  p.  233.) 
 
 Leuc^,  a  town  of  Ionia,  west  of  the  mouth  of  the 
 Hermus,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Smyrnaeus  Sinus.  It 
 was  situate  on  a  promontory,  which,  accordmg  tc 
 Pliny  (5,  29),  was  anciently  an  island.  Near  this 
 place,  Andronicus,  the  pretender  to  the  crown  of 
 Pergamus,  was  defeated  by  the  Roman  consid  Cras- 
 sus.  (Mela,  1,  17. — Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3, 
 p.  338.) 
 
 LaucAS  or  Leucadia,  an  island  in  the  Ionian  Sea, 
 off  the  coast  of  Acarnania.  It  once  formed  part  of 
 the  continent,  but  wan  afterward  separated  from  the 
 mainland  by  a  narrow  cut,  and  became  an  island. 
 The  modern  name  is  Santa  Maura.  In  Homer's 
 time  it  was  still  joined  to  the  mainland,  since  he  calls 
 It  'AKTyv^HneipoLO,  in  opposition  to  Ithaca  and  Ceph- 
 allenia.  (Od  ,  24,  377. —  Compare  Strabo,  451.) — 
 Scylax  also  affirms  "  that  it  had  been  connected  for- 
 merly with  the  continent  of  Acarnania."  It  was  first 
 called  Epileucadii,  and  extends  towards  the  Leuca- 
 dian  promontory.  The  Acarnanians  being  in  a  state 
 of  faction,  received  a  thousand  colonists  from  Co- 
 rinth. These  occupied  the  country  which  is  now  an 
 island,  the  isthmus  having  been  dug  through.  (Per- 
 ipL,  p.  13. — Compare  Scymnus,  Ch.,  v.  464. — Phil., 
 Vit.  Thcmist.)  Strabo  informs  us,  that  this  Corin- 
 thian colony  came  from  the  settlements  of  Ambracia 
 and  Anactorium  ;  and  he  ascribes  to  it  the  cutting  of 
 the  channel  of  Dioryctus,  as  it  is  commonly  called 
 (l.  c).  This  work,  however,  must  have  been  poste- 
 rior to  the  time  of  Thucydides,  for  he  describes  the 
 Peloponnesian  fleet  as  having  been  conveyed  across 
 the  isthmus  on  more  than  one  occasion  (3,  80  ;  4,  8). 
 Livy,  speaking  of  Leucas,  says,  that  in  his  time  it  was 
 an  island,  but  in  the  Macedonian  war  it  had  been  a 
 peninsula  (33,  17).  Pliny  reports,  that  it  was  once  a 
 peninsula  called  Neritos ;  and,  after  it  had  been  divided 
 from  the  mainland,  was  reunited  to  it  by  means  of  the 
 sand  which  accumulated  in  the  passage.  The  cut  it- 
 self, three  stadia  in  length,  was,  as  we  have  already  said, 
 called  Dioryctus  (4,  2. — Polyb.,  5,  5).  Strabo  says 
 that  ih  his  time  it  was  crossed  by  a  bridge.  (Strab., 
 452.)  Dodwell  states  (vol.  1,  p.  50),  that  the  canal 
 of  Santa  Maura  is  fordable  at  the  present  day  in  still 
 weather.  The  remains  of  a  bridge  are  seen,  which 
 joined  it  to  the  continent,  and  which  was  built  by  the 
 Turks  when  they  had  possession  of  the  island. — The 
 capital  of  the  island  was  Leucas.  Livy  (33,  17)  de- 
 scribes it  as  situated  on  the  strait  itself.  It  rested, 
 according  to  hiin,  on  a  hill  looking  towards  x\carnania 
 and  the  east.  Thucydides  (3,  94)  likewise  states,  that 
 the  town  was  situate  within  the  isthmus,  as  also  Strabo 
 (l.  c),  who  adds,  that  the  Corinthians  removed  it  to 
 its  situation  on  the  strait  from  Nericum.  Dr.  Hol- 
 land (vol.  2,  p.  91)  speaks  of  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
 city  about  two  miles  to  the  south  of  the  modern  town. 
 — The  island  was  famous  for  a  promontory  at  its 
 southwestern  extremity,  called  Leucate.  It  was  cel- 
 ebrated in  antiquity  for  being  the  lover's  leap,  and  is 
 said  by  Strabo  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the 
 ivhitc  colour  of  the  rock.  Sappho  is  said  to  have 
 been  the  first  to  try  the  remedy  of  the  leap,  when 
 enamoured  of  Phaon.  (Menand.,  ap.  Strab.,  I.  c. — 
 Ovid,  Her.,  15,  165.)  Artemisia,  queen  of  Caria,  so 
 celebrated  by  Herodotus,  perished,  according  to  some 
 accounts,  in  this  fatal  trial.  (Ptol.,  Hcp/icBst.,  ap. 
 Phot.,  p.  491.— Consult  Hardion,  Diss,  sur  le  saut 
 de  Leucadc.  Mem.  de  VAcad.  dcs  Iiiser.,  vol.  7,  p. 
 254.)  Virgil  represents  this  cape  as  dangerous  to 
 mariners.  (.En.,  3,  274  ;  8,  070  )  Sir  W.  Gell  de- 
 scribes it  as  a  white  and  perpendicular  cliff  of  consid- 
 erable elevation,  and  has  given  a  beautiful  represen- 
 tation of  it  in  one  of  the  plates  appended  to  his  work 
 
 737 
 
LEU 
 
 LEU 
 
 on  the  Geography  and  Antiquities  of  Ithaca.  On 
 the  summit  of  the  promontory  was  a  tenif)le  of  Apol- 
 lo. Strabo  status  a  curious  custom  which  prevailed, 
 of  casting  down  a  criminal  from  this  precipice  ev- 
 ery year,  on  the  festival  of  the  god  ;  and  adds,  that, 
 in  order  to  break  his  fall,  they  attached  to  him  birds 
 of  all  kinds.  If  he  reached  the  water  alive,  he  was 
 picked  up  by  boats  stationed  there,  and  allowed  to 
 depart  from  the  territories  of  I^eucadia.  {Strah., 
 452. — Cic,  Tusc.  Q.,  4,  18. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  13,  scqq.) 
 
 Leucate,  a  promontory  at  the  southwestern  extrem- 
 ity of  Leucas.     (Fi(Z.  Leucas.) 
 
 Leuce,  an  island  in  the  Euxine  Sea,  near  the  mouth 
 of  the  Borysthenes.  It  is  probable  that  it  was  the 
 same  with  the  westernmost  extremity  of  the  Dromos 
 Achilhs,  which  was  formed  into  an  island  by  a  small 
 arm  of  the  sea,  and  lay  facing  the  month  of  the  Borys- 
 thenes ;  now  named  Tentra.  It  derived  its  name 
 from  its  white  sandy  shores.  {Manner t,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 4,  p.  235.)  According  to  the  poets,  the  souls  of  the 
 ancient  heroes  were  placed  here  as  in  the  Elysian 
 fields,  and  enjoyed  perpetual  felicity.  Here,  too,  the 
 shade  of  Achilles  is  fabled  to  have  been  united  to  that 
 of  Helen.     (  FwZ.  Helena  I.) 
 
 Leuci,  I.  a  people  in  the  southeastern  quarter  of 
 Gallia  Belgica,  and  to  the  south  of  the  Mediomatrici. 
 Lucan  speaks  of  them,  in  conjunction  with  the  Remi, 
 as  very  expert  with  the  sling  (1,  424).  Their  territory 
 extended  from  the  Matrona  to  the  Mosella,  and  cor- 
 responds to  the  northeastern  part  of  the  department  of 
 the  Upper  Marne,  and  to  the  southern  part  of  the  de- 
 partment of  the  Mcuse  and  Mcurthc,  or,  in  other  words, 
 
 to  the  country  around  Tout.     {Cms.,  B.  G.,  2,  14. 
 
 Tacit.,  Hist.,  1,  6i.  —  Plin.,  4,  17.)— II.  Montes 
 {AevKu  oprj),  mountains  in  the  western  part  of  the  isl- 
 and of  Crete,  to  the  south  of  Cydonia  ;  now  Alprovo- 
 ana.     {Strabo,  475.) 
 
 Leucippus,  I.  a  celebrated  philosopher,  of  whose 
 native  country  and  preceptor  little  is  known  with  cer- 
 tainty. Diogenes  Laertius  (9,  30)  makes  him  to  have 
 been  a  native  of  Elea,  and  a  disciple  of  Zeno,  the  Ele- 
 atic  philosopher:  he  refers,  however,  at  the  same  time, 
 to  other  opinions,  which  assigned,  respectively,  Abdera 
 and  Miletus  as  his  birthplace.  (Compare  Tenytcmann, 
 Gesch.  dcr  Phil.,  vol.  1,  p.  257.)  He  wrote  a  treatise 
 concerning  nature,  now  lost  {Pseud.  Oris:.  Phil.,  c. 
 12,  p.  88.  — Fft^r.,  Bibl.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  >78),  from 
 which  the  ancients  probably  collected  what  they  relate 
 concerning  his  tenets.  Dissatisfied  with  the  meta- 
 physical subtleties  by  which  the  former  philosophers 
 of  the  Eleatic  school  had  confounded  all  evidence  from 
 the  senses,  Leucippus  and  his  follower  Democritus 
 determined,  if  possible,  to  discover  a  system  more 
 consonant  to  nature  and  reason.  Leaving  behind  them 
 the  whole  train  of  fanciful  conceptions,  numbers,  ideas, 
 proportions,  qualities,  and  elementary  forms,  in  vvhich 
 philosophers  had  hitherto  taken  refuge,  as  the  asylum 
 of  ignorance,  they  resolved  to  e.xamine  the  real  consti- 
 tutions of  the  material  world,  and  to  inquire  into  the 
 mechanical  properties  of  bodies,  that  from  these  they 
 might,  if  possible,  deduce  some  certain  knowledge  of 
 natural  causes,  and  hence  be  able  to  account  for  nat- 
 ural appearances.  Their  great  object  was,  to  restore 
 the  alliance  between  reason  and  the  senses,  which 
 metaphysical  subtleties  had  dissolved.  For  this  pur- 
 pose they  introduced  the  doctrine  of  indivisible  atoms, 
 possessing  within  themselves  a  principle  of  motion. 
 Several  other  philosophers  before  this  time  had  indeed 
 considered  matter  as  divisible  into  indefinitely  small 
 particles,  particularly  Anaxagoras,  Empedocles,  and 
 Heraclitus  ;  but  Leucippus  and  Democritus  were  the 
 first  who  taught,  that  these  particles  were  originally 
 destitute  of  all  qualities  except  figure  and  motion,  and 
 therefore  may  justly  be  reckoned  the  authors  of  the 
 atomic  philosophy.  The  following  summary  of  the  doc- 
 738 
 
 trine  of  Leucippus  will  exliibit  the  infan  slate  of  tbi* 
 system,  and,  at  the  same  time,  sufficiently  expose  it3 
 absurdities.  The  universe,  which  is  infinite,  is  in  part 
 a  plenum  and  in  part  a  vacuum.  The  plenum  contains 
 innumerable  corpuscles  or  atoms,  of  various  figures, 
 which,  falling  into  the  vacuum,  struck  against  each 
 other ;  and  hence  arose  a  variety  of  curvilinear  mo- 
 tions, which  continued  till  at  length  atoms  of  similar 
 forms  met  together,  and  bodies  were  produced.  The 
 primary  atoms  being  specifically  of  equal  weight,  and 
 not  being  able,  on  account  of  their  multitude,  to  move 
 in  circles,  the  smaller  rose  to  the  exterior  parts  of  the 
 vacuum,  while  the  larger,  entangling  themselves,  form- 
 ed a  spherical  shell,  which  revolved  about  its  centre, 
 and  which  included  within  itself  all  kinds  of  bodies. 
 This  central  mass  \)vas  gradually  increased  by  a  per- 
 petual accession  of  particles  from  the  surrounding 
 shell,  till  at  last  the  earth  was  formed.  {Diog.  Laert., 
 I.  c.  —  Theodoret,  Ser7n.,  i.—  Cic,  N.  D.,^\,  42.— 
 Plut  ,  de  Plac.  Phil,  2,  7.—Td.  ilnd.,  3,  12.)  In  the 
 mean  time,  the  spherical  shell  was  continually  sup- 
 plied with  new  bodies,  which,  in  its  revolution,  it 
 gathered  up  from  without.  Of  the  particles  thus  col- 
 lected in  the  spherical  shell,  some  in  their  combination 
 formed  humid  masses,  which,  by  their  circular  motion, 
 gradually  became  dry,  and  were  at  length  ignited  and 
 became  stars.  The  sun  was  formed  in  the  same  man- 
 ner, in  the  exterior  surface  of  the  shell ;  and  the  moon 
 in  its  interior  surface.  In  this  manner  the  world  was 
 formed,  and,  by  an  inversion  of  the  process,  it  will  at 
 length  be  dissolved.  {Diog.  Laert.,  I.  c. — Pseud. 
 Orig.  Phil.,  I  c.  —  Enfield's  History  of  Philosophy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  421,  seqq.  —  Tcnnemayin,  Gesch.  dcr  Phil., 
 vol.  I,  p.  258,  seqq.)  —  II.  A  brother  of  Tyndarus, 
 king  of  Sparta,  who  married  Philodice,  daughter  of  In- 
 achus,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters,  Hilaira  and 
 Phoebe,  known  by  the  patronymic  of  Leucippides. 
 They  were  carried  away  by  their  cousins,  Castor  and 
 Pollux,  as  they  were  going  to  celebrate  their  nuptials 
 with  Lynceus  and  Idas.  {Ovid,  F\tst.,  5,  701. — Apol- 
 lod.,  3,  10,  &c.—Pausan.,  3.  17.) 
 
 Leucopetra,  a  cape  of  Italy,  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Brutii,  and  regarded  by  all  ancient  writers  on  the  ge- 
 ography of  that  country  as  the  termination  of  the  Ap- 
 ennines. Strabo  (259)  asserts  that  it  was  distant  fifty 
 stadia  from  Rhegium;  but  this  computation  ill  accords 
 with  that  of  PUny  (3,  10),  who  removes  it  twelve  miles 
 thence.  (Compare  Cic.,  Phil.,  1,  3. — Mela,  2,  4.) 
 The  error  probably  lies  in  the  text  of  the  Greek  ge- 
 ographer, as  there  is  no  cape  which  corresponds  with 
 the  distance  he  specifies.  Topographers  are  not  agreed 
 as  to  the  modern  point  of  land  which  answers  to  Leu- 
 copetra ;  some  fixing  it  at  Capo  Pittaro  {D'Anville, 
 Anal.  Geogr.  de  Vital.,  p.  261),  others  at  the  Punta 
 della  Saetta  {Grimaldi,  Annul,  del.  Resn.  di  Nap., 
 vol.  1,  Introd.,  c.  28. — RomancUi,  vol.  f,  p.  97),  and 
 others  at  the  Capo  deW  Armi.  The  latter  opinion 
 seems  more  compatible  with  the  statement  of  Pliny, 
 and  is  also  the  most  generally  credited.  {Cluverius, 
 Ital.  Antiq.,  vol.  2,  p.  1299. — Holstcn.,  ad  Sleph. 
 Byz.,  p.  302.  —  Cella.r.,  Geogr.  Ant.,  1.  2,  c.  9. — 
 JSotcs  to  the  Frejich  Strabo,  I.  c. —  Cramer'' s  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  433.) 
 
 Leucophrys,  an  ancient  name  of  Tenedos,  given 
 to  it  probably  from  the  appearance  made  by  the  sum- 
 mits of  its  chalk-hills.  {Pausan.,  10,  14. — Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pi.  3,  p.  510.) 
 
 Leucosia,  a  small  island  in  the  Sinus  Psestanus. 
 It  was  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  one  of  the 
 Sirens.  {Lycophron,  v.  722,  seqq.  —  Strabo,  252.) 
 Dionysius  (1,  53)  calls  it  Leucasia.  It  is  now  known 
 by  the  name  of  Licosa  {Cluv  .  Ital.  Antiq.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 1259),  and  sometimes  by  that  of  Isola  piana.  {Vid. 
 Zannoni's  Ma.p  of  the  Kingdcm  of  Naples. )  It  was 
 once  probably  inhabited,  as  several  vestiges  of  build- 
 ings were  discovered  there  in  1696.     (,Anloni?i.,  della 
 
LEU 
 
 LIB 
 
 Lucan.,^.  2,  disc.  8.  —  Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2, 
 p.  369.) 
 
 LeucosyeTi,  the  Greek  form  of  a  name  applied  by 
 the  Persians  to  the  Cappadocians,  and  signifying  White 
 Sijrians.  {Herod.,  1,  12.— Id.,  5,  45.— K.,  7,  72.— 
 Strabo,  543.)  The  Persians  called  the  Cappadocians 
 by  this  appellation,  because  they  considered  them  to 
 be  a  branch  of  the  great  Syrian  nation,  from  the  re- 
 semblance of  their  language,  customs,  and  religion, 
 and  because  they  found  that  they  possessed  a  fairer 
 complexion  than  their  swarthy  brethren  of  the  south. 
 The  Greek  colonies  on  the  coast  of  Pontus  received 
 this  name  from  the  Persians,  and  expressed  it  by  the 
 forms  of  their  own  language,  but,  in  its  application,  re- 
 stricted it  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountainous  coun- 
 try lying  along  the  coast,  from  the  Promontorium  Ja- 
 sonium  in  the  east,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Halys  in  the 
 west,  while  they  called  the  people  in  the  interior  of  the 
 country  by  the  name  of  Cappadocians.  The  Leuco- 
 syrii  became  in  time  blended  into  one  people  with  the 
 Paphlagonians.  {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p. 
 329,  seqq.) 
 
 Leucothea,  I.  the  name  given  to  Ino  after  she 
 had  been  transformed  into  a  sea-goddess.  Both  she 
 and  her  son  Palajmon  were  held  powerful  to  save  from 
 shipwreck,  and  were  invoked  by  mariners.  The  name 
 Leucothea  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  ivhite 
 waves  riimiing  rapidly  on  (Asv/cof,  white,  and  i?£'w,  to 
 run). — II.  A  daughter  of  Orchamus,  dishonoured  by 
 Apollo,  and  buried  alive  by  her  incensed  father.  The 
 god  caused  the  frankincense  shrub  to  spring  up  from 
 her  grave.     {Ovid,  Met.,  4,  196,  seqq.) 
 
 Leuctra,  a  small  town  of  Boeotia,  southeast  of 
 Thespia?,  and  west  of  Plataea,  famous  for  the  victory 
 which  Epaminondas,  the  Theban  general,  obtained 
 over  the  superior  force  of  Cleombrotus,  king  of  Sparta, 
 on  the  8th  of  July,  B.C.  371.  {Pausan.,  9,  13.)  In 
 this  famous  battle  4000  Spartans  were  killed,  with 
 their  king  Cleombrotus,  and  no  more  than  300  The- 
 bans.  From  that  lime  the  Spartans  lost  the  empire 
 of  Greece,  which  they  had  held  for  so  many  years. 
 The  Theban  army  consisted  at  most  of  6000  men, 
 whereas  that  of  the  enemy  was  at  least  thrice  that 
 number,  including  the  allies.  But  Epaminondas  trust- 
 ed most  to  his  cavalry,  in  which  he  had  much  ad- 
 vantage both  as  to  quality  and  good  management;  the 
 wealthy  Lacedsmonians  alone  keeping  horses  at  that 
 time,  which  made  their  cavalry  most  wretched,  both 
 as  to  ill-fed,  undisciplined  steeds  and  unskilful  riders. 
 Other  deficiencies  he  endeavoured  to  supply  by  the 
 disposition  of  his  men,  who  were  drawn  up  fifty  deep, 
 while  the  Spartans  were  but  twelve.  When  the  The- 
 bans  had  gained  the  victory  and  killed  Cleombro- 
 tus, the  Spartans  renewed  the  fight  to  recover  their 
 king's  body,  and  in  this  object  the  Theban  general 
 wisely  chose  to  gratify  them  rather  than  hazard  the 
 success  of  another  onset. — According  to  Strabo  (414), 
 Leuctra  was  situate  on  the  road  from  Thespia;  to  Pla- 
 tseffi,  and,  according  to  Xenophon  [Hist.  Gr.,  6,  4),  in 
 the  territory  of  the  former.  An  oracle  had  predicted 
 that  the  Spartans  would  sustain  a  severe  loss  in  this 
 place,  because  some  of  their  youths  had  violated  two 
 maidens  of  Leuctra,  who  afterward  destroyed  them- 
 selves. {Pauxan.,  9, 13,  seqq. — Plutarch,  Vit.  Epam. 
 — Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  I.  c.)  The  spot  still  retains  in  some 
 degree  its  ancient  name,  Leuca,  pronounced  Ltfka. 
 Dr.  Clarke  noticed  here  several  tombs  and  the  remains 
 of  an  ancient  fortress  upon  a  lofty  conical  hill.  The 
 ground  in  the  plain  is  for  a  considerable  space  cov- 
 ered with  immense  fragments  of  marble  and  stone. 
 {Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  7,  p.  110,  Lond.  ed. — Com- 
 pare Dodiccll,\o\.  1,  p.  2t>l. —  Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.2,  p.  212.) 
 
 Leuctrum,  I.  a  town  of  Messenia,  on  the  coast, 
 sixty  stadia  from  Cardamyle.  (Pausan.,  4,  26.)  In 
 consequence  of  its  frontier  situation,  it  became  a  source 
 
 of  dispute  between  the  Messenians  and  Laconians. 
 Philip,  the  son  of  Amyntas,  who  acted  as  umpire, 
 awarded  the  place  to  the  Messenians.  {Strab.,  361.) 
 It  is  called  Leuctra  by  Thucydides  (5,  54)  and  Xeno- 
 phon. The  latter  informs  us  it  was  situated  above 
 the  promontory  of  Malca.  {Hist.  Gr.,  6,  5.)  It  was 
 said  to  have  been  founded  by  Pelops.  {Strab.,  360.) 
 The  ancient  site  is  still  distmguished  by  the  name  of 
 Leutro.  —  II.  A  small  town  of  Achaia,  on  the  Sinus 
 Corinthiacus,  above  ^"gium,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Rhyp33.  on  which  latter  place  it  was  dependant.  {Pau- 
 san., 7,  24.) — III.  A  town  of  Arcadia,  below  Mega- 
 lopolis. {Pausan.,  8,  27.)  It  is  perhaps  Leon/ari, 
 near  which  Sir  W.  Gell  remarked  the  site  of  a  small 
 ancient  city.     {Itin.  of  the  Morea,  p.  138.) 
 
 Lexovii,  a  people  of  Gaul  in  Lugdunensis  Secunda, 
 near  the  mouth  of  the  Sequana,  and  on  its  left  banks. 
 Their  capital  was  Noviomagus,  now  Lisieux.  {Cczs  , 
 B.  G.,  3,  9.—I/in.  Ant.,  385.) 
 
 LiBANius,  a  celebrated  sophist  of  Antioch,  in  the 
 age  of  the  Emperor  Julian,  born  A.D.  314,  of  a  good 
 family.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  frequented  a  school 
 of  certain  sophists,  of  whom  he  speaks  with  great 
 contempt  in  his  Biography,  calling  them  sidcjla  ao^- 
 iCTTuv.  Brought  back  to  the  true  path  of  learning  by 
 a  more  intelligent  preceptor,  he  studied  with  ardour 
 the  finest  models  of  antiquity.  He  continued  his 
 studies  during  four  months  at  Athens,  and  afterward 
 at  Constantinople,  where  the  grammarian  Nicocles, 
 one  of  the  instructers  of  Julian,  and  the  sophist  Be- 
 marchius,  were  his  teachers.  Having  failed  in  hia 
 expectation  of  obtaining  a  chair  at  Athens,  he  began 
 to  profess  eloquence,  or  the  sophistic  art,  at  Constan- 
 tinople. His  success  was  brilliant,  but  excited  th) 
 envy  of  his  contemporaries.  Beinarchius,  in  particu- 
 lar, having  been  worsted  by  him  in  an  oratorical  con- 
 test, to  which  he  had  challenged  his  former  pupil,  ha^i 
 recourse  to  a  vile  calumny  for  the  purpose  of  effect- 
 ing his  destruction.  He  charged  him  with  sorcery, 
 and  represented  him  as  a  man  covered  with  vices. 
 The  prefect  of  the  city  lent  a  favourable  ear  to  thr3 
 charge,  and  Libanius  was  in  consequence  compelled 
 to  leave  Constantinople  (A.D.  346).  He  retired  U3 
 Nicrea,  and  from  this  place  he  went  to  Nicomedia, 
 w'here  he  obtained  great  celebrity  as  an  instructer.  He 
 calls  the  five  years  which  he  spent  there  in  the  society 
 of  his  friend  Aristsnctus,  the  spring  time  of  his  life. 
 Recalled  at  length  to  Constantinople,  he  found  a  new 
 prefect  there,  who  became  the  protector  of  his  ene- 
 mies and  the  persecutor  of  himself.  Disgusted  at  this 
 state  of  things,  and  not  daring  to  accept  a  chair  at 
 Athens,  which  had  been  offered  him,  he  obtained  per- 
 mission from  Caesar  Gallus  to  return  for  four  months 
 to  his  native  city.  This  prince  having  been  slain  in 
 354,  Lii)anius  passed  the  rest  of  his  days  at  Antioch, 
 where  he  had  numerous  disciples.  The  Emperor  Ju- 
 lian, who,  before  his  expedition  into  Persia,  knew  him 
 only  by  his  writings,  was  his  constant  admirer.  He 
 named  him  quaestor,  and  addressed  many  letters  to 
 him,  the  last  of  which,  written  during  his  expedition 
 ao-ainst  the  Persians,  has  come  down  to  us.  The 
 death  of  Julian  was  a  double  loss  for  Libanius ;  it  took 
 away  a  protector,  who  had  shielded  him  from  the  at- 
 tacks of  calumny  ;  and  it  caused  to  vanish  the  hopes 
 which  he  had  entertained  of  witnessing  the  re-estab- 
 lishment o{  paganism.  Under  the  reign  of  Valens, 
 Libanius  was  exposed  anew  to  the  persecutitui  of  his 
 enemies,  and  was  charged  with  behig  engaged  in  a 
 plot  against  the  tranquillity  of  the  state.  He  succeed- 
 ed, however,  in  establishing  his  innocence.  He  would 
 even  appear  to  have  gained  the  good-will  of  the  mon- 
 arch, for  he  composed  a  panegyric  upon  lam,  and  ad- 
 dressed to  him  an  harangue,  in  which  he  requested  a 
 confirmation  of  the  law  that  awarded  to  natural  chil- 
 dren a  share  of  the  father's  properly  at  his  death.  This 
 law  interested  him  pcrsouGlly,  uom  the  r:--c;:.Tistance. 
 
 739 
 
LIBANIUS. 
 
 LIB 
 
 of  his  having  natural  children  of  his  own.  If  it  be 
 true  that  he  livtd  lo  tiie  lime  of  Arcadius,  he  must 
 have  attained  to  more  than  90  years  of  age. — Besides 
 his  Pi  jgymiiasmata,  Libaiiius  lias  left  harangues,  dec- 
 lamations, MeAtTat  (discourses  on  imaginary  sub- 
 jects), stories,  and  letters  on  various  points  of  morali- 
 ty, politics,  and  literature.  All  these  pieces  are  well 
 written,  and  though  the  style  of  Libanius  is  open  to 
 the  charge  of  too  much  study  and  elaborate  care,  we 
 may  notwithstanding  pronounce  him  the  greatest  ora- 
 tor that  Constantinople  ever  produced.  Gibbon,  there- 
 fore, would  seein  to  have  judged  him  altogether  too 
 harshly,  when  he  characterizes  his  writings  as,  for  the 
 most  part,  "  the  vain  and  idle  compositions  of  an  ora- 
 tor who  cultivated  the  science  of  words;  and  the  pro- 
 ductions of  a  recluse  student,  whose  mind,  regardless 
 of  his  contemporaries,  was  incessantly  fixed  on  the 
 Trojan  war  and  the  Athenian  commonwealth."  (Dc- 
 cUiie  and  Fall,  c.  24.)  It  is  no  little  glory  for  this 
 sophist  to  have  been  the  preceptor  oi  St.  Basil  and  St. 
 Chrysostom,  and  of  having  been  connected  in  intimate 
 friendship,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  their  re- 
 ligious sentiments,  with  these  two  pillars  of  the  church. 
 — Libanius,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  was  a  pa- 
 gan, and  attached  to  the  religion  of  his  fathers.  His 
 tolerance  forms  a  singular  contrast  with  the  persecu- 
 ting zeai  of  the  Christians  of  his  time  ;  and  a  remark- 
 able proof  of  this  may  be  seen  in  one  of  his  epistles. 
 (Ep.,  730,  p.  349.  ed.  Wolf.)  —  Among  the  writings 
 of  Libanius  may  be  mentioned  his  Progymnasmata 
 {Prccezcrcitaiioncs),  or  Examples  of  Rhetorical  Exer- 
 cises {Upoyvfivaa/iuTuv  TrapadeiyfiaTa),  divided  into 
 thirteen  sections,  and  each  one  containing  a  model  of 
 one  particular  kind.  Among  the  Discourses  or  Ha- 
 rangues of  Libanius  are  many  which  were  never  pro- 
 nounced, and  which  were  not  even  intended  to  be  de- 
 livered in  public:  they  partake  less  of  the  nature  of 
 discourses  than  of  memoirs,  or,  rather,  moral  disserta- 
 tions. One  of  them  is  a  biographical  sketch  of  Liba- 
 nius, written  by  himself,  at  the  age  of  60  years,  unless 
 there  be  some  in^iake  in  the  number,  and  retouched 
 by  him  wl:er  anou'  /O  years.  It  forms  the  most  in- 
 teresting production  o"  his  pen.  Another  of  these 
 pieces  is  entitled  Movu/6id,  and  is  a  Lament  on  the 
 death  of  Julian.  Libanius  does  not  pretend  to  con- 
 ceal, in  this  discourse,  that  one  ground  of  his  deplo- 
 ring the  death  of  the  monarch,  is  the  triumph  of  Chris- 
 tianity which  would  result  therefrom.  A  third  is  a 
 discourse  addressed  to  I'heodosius  on  the  preservation 
 of  the  temples  and  idols  of  paganism.  A  fragment  of 
 this  discourse  was  discovered  by  Mai,  in  1823,  in 
 Bome  of  the  Vatican  MSS.  A  fourth  is  entitled  'Tmp 
 Tuv  'lupuiv,  "Respecting  the  Temples.^''  In  this  dis- 
 course, pronounced  or  written  about  A.D.  390,  Liba- 
 nius entreats  the  Emperor  Theodosius  to  set  bounds 
 to  the  fanaticism  of  the  monks,  who  were  destroying 
 ^he  temples  of  paganism,  especially  those  in  the  coun- 
 ry,  and  to  order  the  bishops  not  to  connive  at  these 
 excesses. — The  Declamations,  or  exercises  on  imagin- 
 ary subjects,  exceed  forty  in  number.  Some  idea 
 may  be  formed  of  their  nature  by  the  titles  of  a  few  : 
 '•  Discourse  of  Menelaus,  addressed  to  the  Trojans, 
 and  demanding  back  his  spouse."  "Discourse  of 
 Achilles,  in  answer  to  Ulysses,  when  the  latter  was 
 sent  by  Agamemnon  to  propose  a  reconciliation." 
 "Discourse  of  a  parasite  who  dejilores  the  loss  of  a 
 dinner,"  &c. — A  very  interesting  part  of  the  works  of 
 Libanius  is  his  epistolary  correspondence.  There  are 
 more  than  2000  letters  written  by  hiin,  and  the  num- 
 ber of  persons  to  whom  they  are  addressed  exceeds 
 550.  There  are  among  these  some  illustrious  names, 
 such  as  the  Em[)eror  Julian,  and  his  uncle,  who  bore 
 the  same  name,  governors  of  provinces,  generals, 
 literary  men,  &.c.  There  are  also  among  his  corre- 
 spondents some  fathers  of  the  church,  such  as  St. 
 Athanasius,  St.  Basil,  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  St.  John 
 740 
 
 Chrysostom,  &c.  As  to  the  subjects  of  these  letter*, 
 there  are  many,  it  must  be  confessed,  of  a  very  unin 
 tercsting  nature,  containing,  for  e.\aniple,  mere  com 
 pliments,  recommendations,  or  the  recital  of  doinestir 
 affairs.  A  "large  number,  however,  have  claims  on 
 our  attention  by  the  beauty  of  the  ideas  and  senten- 
 ces, the  importance  of  the  subject  matter,  and  the 
 historical  illustrations  which  they  have  preserved  for 
 us. — \Ye  have  also  from  his  pen  Argumenls  to  the 
 Speeches  oj  Demoslhcnes. — There  is  no  compkle  edi- 
 tion ol  tlie  works  of  Libanius.  The  best  edition  of 
 the  Discourses  and  Declamations  is  that  of  Reiske, 
 published  by  his  widow  {"•prafata  est  Ernestina 
 Christina  Reiske"),  Lips.,  1791-1797,  4  vols.  8vo. 
 A  quarto  edition,  put  forth  by  Reiske  himself  in  1784, 
 was  interrupted  by  his  death,  after  only  the  first  vol- 
 ume had  ajipeared.  Still,  however,  a  good  edition  is 
 much  wanted,  as  Rciske's  has  neither  historical  intro- 
 ductions, commentary,  nor  even  tables,  and  is,  more- 
 over, burdened  with  the  inaccurate  version  of  Morell. 
 The  most  numerous  collection  of  the  Letters  will  be 
 found  in  the  edition  of  J.  C.  Wolf,  An\st.,  1738,  fol. 
 {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p.  159,  seqq.) 
 
 LiHA.NUs,  a  chain  of  mountains  in  Syria,  deriving 
 their  name  from  their  white  colour  {Relandi,  Paleestina, 
 p.  311),  the  eastern  part  in  particular  being  covered  with 
 continual  snow,  (jer.,  18, 14.)  Some  make  the  range 
 commence  from  Mens  Amanus,  on  the  confines  of  Ci- 
 licia,  and  give  the  general  name  of  Libanus  to  the  en- 
 tire chain  of  mountains  running  thence  to  the  south ; 
 it  is  more  accurate,  however,  to  make  it  begin  near 
 Aradus  in  Phoenicia,  and,  after  forming  the  northern 
 boundary  of  that  country,  run  to  the  south,  and  end 
 near  Sidon.  There  are,  however,  several  parallel 
 chains,  four  of  which,  towards  the  west,  have  the  gen- 
 eral name  of  Libanus  applied  to  them,  while  another 
 parallel  chain  to  the  east  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
 Antilibanus.  Between  Libanus  and  Antilibanus  is  a 
 long  valley  called  Ccele  Syria,  or  the  hollow  Syria.  Lib- 
 anus, then,  is  composed  of  four  chains  or  enclosures  of 
 mountains,  which  rise  one  upon  the  other  ;  the  first  is 
 very  rich  in  grain  and  fruits;  the  second  is  barren; 
 the  third,  though  higher  than  this,  enjoys  perpetual 
 spring,  the  trees  being  always  green,  and  the  orchards 
 full  of  fruit.  It  is  so  beautiful  that  some  have  called 
 it  a  terrestrial  paradise.  The  fourth  is  very  high,  so 
 that  it  is  almost  always  covered  with  snow,  and  is  un- 
 inhabitable by  reason  of  the  great  cold.  Volney  states 
 that  the  snow  remains  on  Libanus  all  the  year  round 
 towards  the  northeast,  where  it  is  sheltered  from  the 
 sea-winds  and  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Maundrell  found 
 that  part  of  the  mountain-range  which  he  crossed,  and 
 which,  in  all  probability,  was  by  no  means  the  highest, 
 covered  with  deep  snow  in  the  month  of  May.  Dr. 
 Clarke,  in  the  month  of  July,  saw  some  of  the  eastern 
 summits  of  Lebanon,  or  Antilibanus,  near  Damascus, 
 covered  with  snow,  not  lying  in  patches,  as  is  com- 
 mon in  the  summer  season  with  mountains  which  bor- 
 der on  the  line  of  perpetual  congelation,  but  do  not 
 quite  reach  it,  but  with  "that  perfect,  white,  smooth, 
 and  velvet-like  appearance  which  snow  only  exhibits 
 when  it  is  very  deep  ;  a  striking  spectacle  in  such  a 
 climate,  where  the  beholder,  seeking  protection  from 
 a  burning  sun,  almost  considers  the  firmament  to  be 
 on  fire."  At  the  time  this  observation  was  made, 
 the  thermometer,  in  an  elevated  situation  near  the  Sea 
 of  Tiberias,  stood  at  IO25  in  the  shade.  Sir  Frederic 
 Hennikcr  passed  over  snow  in  July  ;  and  Ali  Bey  de- 
 scribes the  same  eastern  ridge  as  covered  with  snow 
 in  September.  We  know  little  of  the  absolute  height, 
 and  less  of  the  mineralogy,  of  these  mountains.  Burck- 
 hardt  describes  Lebanon  as  composed  of  primitive 
 limestone  ;  but,  as  he  found  fossil-shells  on  the  sum- 
 mit, it  more  probably  consists  either  of  transition  or 
 mountain  limestone.  If  so,  it  must  be  considered  as 
 one  of  the  highest  points  at  which  either  of  these  sub- 
 
LIB 
 
 LIB 
 
 stances  is  found. — Of  the  noble  cedars  which  once 
 adorned  the  upper  part  of  this  mountain,  but  few  now 
 remain,  and  those  much  decayed.  Burckhardt,  who 
 crossed  Mount  Libarius  in  1810,  counted  about  36 
 large  ones,  50  of  middle  size,  and  about  300  smaller 
 and  young  ones ;  but  more  might  exist  in  other  parts 
 of  the  mountain.  The  wine,  especially  that  made 
 about  the  convent  of  Canobm,  still  preserves  its  an- 
 cient celebrity  ;  and  is  reported  by  travellers,  more 
 particularly  by  Rouwolff,  Le  Bruyn,  and  De  la  lloque, 
 to  be  of  the  most  exquisite  kind  for  flavour  and  fra- 
 grance.— The  rains  which  fall  in  the  lower  regions  of 
 Lebanon,  and  the  melting  of  the  snows  in  the  upper 
 ones,  furnish  an  abundance  of  perennial  streams, 
 which  are  alluded  to  by  Soloinon.  (Song,  4,  15.) 
 On  the  declivities  of  the  mountain  grew  the  vines  that 
 furnished  the  rich  and  fragrant  wines  which  Hosea 
 (14,  7)  celebrated,  and  which  may  still  be  obtained  by 
 proper  culture.  The  snow  of  Lebanon  was  probably 
 transported  to  a  distance,  for  the  purpose  of  cooling 
 wine  and  other  liquors.  Solomon  speaks  of  the  cold 
 of  snow  in  the  time  of  harvest  {Prov.,  25,  13),  which 
 could  be  obtained  nowhere  in  Judaea  nearer  than 
 Lebanon.  {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  341. — 
 Mansford's  Scripture  Gazetteer,  p.  314,  seqq.) 
 
 Liber,  the  name  of  an  ancient  Italian  deity,  identi- 
 fied with  the  Grecian  Dionysus  or  Bacchus.  His 
 festival,  named  Liberalia,  was  celebrated  on  the  17th 
 March,  when  the  young  men  assumed  the  toga  vrrilis 
 or  libera.  (Varro,  L.  L.,  5,  p.  55.  —  Ovid,  Fast.,  3, 
 713,  seqq.)  When  the  worship  of  Ceres  and  Proser- 
 pina was  introduced  at  Rome,  Proserpina  was  named 
 Libera,  and  the  conjoined  deities  were  honoured  as 
 Ceres,  Liber,  and  Libera.  The  name  Liber  is  com- 
 monly derived  from  liber,  "  free,"'  and  is  referred  to 
 the  influence  of  wine  in  freeing  from  care.  Others, 
 however,  prefer  deducing  it  from  libo,  "  to  pour  forth," 
 and  make  Liber  to  be  the  god  of  productiveness  ef- 
 fected by  moisture.  {Keightlci/s  Mythology,  p.  517.) 
 Libera,  a  name  given  to  Proserpina  among  the  Ro- 
 mans.    {Vid.  Liber.) 
 
 LiBER-^T,i\,  a  festival  celebrated  annually  in  honour 
 of  Liber,  the  Roman  Bacchus.  It  took  place  on  the 
 17th  of  March.     {Vid.  Liber.) 
 
 LiBKRTAs,  the  Goddess  of  Freedom,  the  same  with 
 the  Eleutheria  of  the  Greeks.  Hyginus  makes  her 
 the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Juno.  (Prcp.f.,  p.  10,  ed. 
 Mti.nck.)  Tiberius  Gracchus  is  said  to  have  erected 
 the  first  temple  to  her  at  Rome,  on  the  Aventine  Hill, 
 and  it  was  here  that  the  archives  of  the  state  were  de- 
 posited. The  goddess  was  represented  as  a  Roman 
 matron,  arrayed  in  white,  holding  in  one  hand  a  broken 
 sceptre,  and  in  the  other  a  pike  surmounted  by  a  pileus 
 or  cap  :  at  her  feet  lay  a  cat,  an  animal  that  is  an  eur 
 emy  to  all  restraint.  The  cap  alluded  to  the  Roman 
 custom  of  putting  one  on  the  heads  of  slaves  when 
 manumitted.  {Lip.,  24,  16.— W.,  25,  7.  — Ovid, 
 Trisl.,  3,  1,  72.— Phi t.,  Vit.  Gracch.) 
 
 LiBETHRA,  I.  a  city  of  Macedonia,  situate,  accord- 
 iing  to  Pausanias  (9,  30),  on  the  declivity  of  Olympus, 
 and  not  far  from  the  tomb  of  Orpheus.  An  oracle  de- 
 clared, that  when  the  sun  beheld  the  bones  of  the  poet, 
 the  city  should  be  destroyed  by  a  boar  {invb  avo^). 
 The  inhabitants  of  Libethra  ridiculed  the  prophecv  as  a 
 thing  impossible;  but  the  column  of  Orpheus's  monu- 
 ment having  been  accidentally  broken,  a  gap  was  made 
 by  which  light  broke  in  upon  the  tomb,  when  the  same 
 night  the  torrent  named  Sus,  being  prodigiously  swol- 
 len, rushed  down  with  violence  from  Mount  Olympus 
 upon  Libethra,  overthrowing  the  waits  and  all  the  pub- 
 lic and  private  edifices,  and  every  living  creature  in  its 
 furious  course.  Whether  Libethra  recovered  from  the 
 devastation  occasioned  by  this  inundation  is  not  stated 
 in  any  writer,  but  its  name  occurs  in  Livy  as  a  town 
 in  the  vicinity  of  Dium  before  the  battle  of  Pydna  (44, 
 6).     Strabo  also  allude.s  to  Libethra  when  speakincr  of 
 
 Mount  Helicon,  and  remarks,  that  several  places  around 
 that  mountain  attested  the  former  existence  of  the 
 Thracians  of  Pieria  in  the  Boeotian  districts.  {Strab., 
 409. — /(/.,  471.)  From  these  passages  it  would  seem 
 that  the  name  of  Libethrius  was  given  to  the  summit 
 of  Olympus  which  stood  above  the  town.  Hence  the 
 muses  were  surnained  Libethrides  as  well  as  Pierides. 
 {Virg.,  Eclog.,  7,  21. — Ciaincr's  Anc.  Greece,  vol. 
 1,  p.  210.)— II.  A  fountain  of  Thessaly,  on  Mount 
 Homole,  in  the  district  of  Magnesia,  at  the  northern 
 extremity.      (Plin.,  4,  9. — Mela.,  2,  3  ) 
 
 Libethrides,  a  name  given  to  the  Muses.  (Con- 
 sult remarks  under  Libethra,  I  ,  towards  the  end  of 
 the  article.      Vid.  also  Libethrius.) 
 
 LiDETHRii's,  I.  a  mountain  of  Ba30tia,  forty  stadia 
 to  the  south  of  Coronea,  and  forming  one  of  the  sum- 
 mits of  Helicon.     It  was  dedicated  to  the  Muses,  and 
 the  nymphs  called  Libethrides.      {Pausan  ,  9,  34.— 
 Strabo,  409.) — II.   A  fountain  en  Mount  Libethrius. 
 
 LiBiTiNA,  a  goddess  at  Rome  presiding  over  funer- 
 als. In  her  temple  were  sold  all  things  requisite  for 
 them.  By  an  institution  ascribed  to  Servius  Tullius, 
 a  piece  of  money  was  paid  her  for  every  one  who  died, 
 and  the  name  of  the  deceased  entered  in  a  book  called 
 LibitincB  ratio.  {Dion.  Hal.,  4,  15. — Sueton.,  Vit. 
 Ner.,  39.)  The  object  of  this  custom  was  to  ascertain 
 the  number  of  deaths  annually.  Libitina  and  Venus 
 were  regarded  as  one  and  the  same  deity,  because, 
 says  Plutarch,  the  same  goddess  superintends  birth 
 and  death.  It  would  be  more  correct,  however,  to 
 say  that  we  have  here  a  union  of  the  power  which 
 creates  with  that  which  destroys.  {Plut.,  Qucest. 
 Rom.,  23.) 
 
 LiBON,  an  architect  of  Elis,  who  built  the  temple  ot 
 Olympian  Jove,  in  the  sacred  grove  Allis,  out  of  the 
 proceeds  of  the  spoil  taken  from  the  Pisaeans  and  some 
 other  people  {Pausan.,  5,  10,  2.)  This  temple  was 
 built  in  the  Doric  style  ;  and  it  must  have  been  erect- 
 ed about  Olymp.  84  (B.C.  444-440),  since  in  Olymp. 
 85,  4,  Phidias  commenced  his  statue  of  the  Olympian 
 Jupiter,  and  it  can  scarcely  be  maintained  that  the 
 temple  was  built  long  before  the  statue  was  underta- 
 ken.    {Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 LiBOPHtENiCEs,  the  inhabitants  of  the  district  Byza- 
 ciuin,  in  Africa  Propria.  Their  name  indicates  that 
 they  were  a  mixture  of  Libyans  and  Phoenicians. 
 The  Libophcenices  are  a  proof  of  the  policy  pursued  by 
 the  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  settlers,  in  admitting 
 the  natives  to  a  participation  in  some  of  the  rights  of 
 citizenship.  Carthage  itself  was  in  this  sense  a  Li- 
 bophcenician  city.  Polybius  often  speaks  of  the  Li- 
 bophcenices. Diodorus  Siculus,  however,  gives  a 
 more  particular  account  of  them,  as  well  as  the  infor- 
 mation that  the  cities  on  the  coast  were  alone  strictly 
 included  in  this  denomination.  {Diod.  Sic  ,  20,  55.) 
 Pliny  limits  the  appellation  to  the  cities  on  the  coast 
 of  Byzacium  (5,  4).  It  ouuht  to  be  extended,  howev- 
 er, to  other  parts  also  of  the  African  coast. 
 
 LiBUR.NiA,  a  province  of  Illyricum,  along  the  Adri- 
 atic, over  against  Italy,  having  Dalinatia  on  the  south, 
 and  Istria  on  the  north.  Zara,  anciently  ladera,  and 
 afterward  Diodora,  was  once  its  capital.  The  ruins 
 of  Burnum,  the  Liburnia  of  Strabo,  are  to  be  seen  on 
 the  right  hand  of  the  Titius  or  Kcrka,  in  the  de.sert  of 
 Buhwiza.  The  Liburnians  were  an  Illyrian  tribe, 
 and  their  country  now  answers  to  part  of  Croatia. 
 They  appear  to  have  been  a  maritime  people  from  the 
 earliest  times  ;  and  the  Greeks,  who  colonized  Corcyia, 
 are  said,  on  their  arrival  in  that  island,  to  have  found  it 
 in  their  possession.  {Strabo,  270.)  Scylax  seems 
 to  distinguish  the  Liburni  from  the  Illyrians,  restrict- 
 ing probably  the  latter  appellation  to  that  part  of  the 
 nation  which  was  situate  more  to  the  south,  and  was 
 better  known  to  the  Greeks.  The  same  writer  alludes 
 to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Liburni  as  not  e.xcluding  fe- 
 males ;  a  fact  which  appears  to  have  reference  to  the 
 
 741 
 
LI  C 
 
 Lie 
 
 history  of  Teuta,  and  might  serve  to  prove  that  this 
 geographical  compilation  is  not  so  ancient  as  many 
 have  supposed.  {Scylax,  p.  7.)  Strabo  asserts,  that 
 the  Liburni  extended  along  the  coast  for  upward  of 
 1500  stadia.  (6Vrfl6.,  315.)  According  to  Pliny  (3, 
 13),  they  once  occupied  a  considerable  extent  of  terri- 
 tory on  the  coast  of  Picenum,  and  he  speaks  of  Tru- 
 ontum  as  the  only  remaining  establishment  of  theirs,  in 
 his  day,  in  this  quarter  of  Italy.  It  is  chiefly  on  this 
 information  of  Pliny  that  Freret  has  grounded  his  sys- 
 tem of  the  Illyrian  colonies  in  Italy.  He  conceives 
 that  these  Liburni,  as  well  as  all  the  others,  came 
 by  land.  But  it  would  be  more  natural  to  suppose 
 that  the  Liburni,  as  a  maritime  ]>eople,  had  crossed 
 over  from  the  opposite  coast  of  Dalmatia.  {Mini,  de 
 VAcad.  dcs  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  18,  p.  75. —  Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  285.)  The  galleys  of  the  Li- 
 burnians  were  remarkable  for  their  light  construction 
 and  swiftness,  and  it  was  to  ships  of  this  kind  that 
 Augustus  was  in  a  great  measure  indebted  for  his  vic- 
 tory over  Antony  at  Actium.  {Dio  Cass.,  29,  32.) 
 Hence,  after  that  time,  the  name  of  naves  Liburncs 
 was  given  to  all  quick-sailing  vessels,  and  few  ships 
 were  built  but  of  that  construction.  {Veget.,  4,  33.) 
 The  Libnrnians  were  a  stout,  able-bodied  race,  and 
 were  much  employed  at  Rome  as  porters,  and  sedan 
 or  litter-carriers.  Hence  Martial,  in  describing  the 
 pleasures  of  a  country-hfe  (1,  50),  exclaims,  '■'• -procul 
 horridus  Liburnus.'^  Compare  Juvenal,  3,  240. — 
 BoeUiger,  Sabina,  oder  Morgenscenen,  &c.,  Sc.  8,  p. 
 193. 
 
 LiBURNiDEs,  islands  off  the  coast  of  Liburnia,  said 
 to  amount  to  the  number  of  forty.  The  name  origi- 
 nated with  the  Greek  geographers.     {Strab.,  315.) 
 
 LiBURNUs,  a  chain  of  mountains  near  A[)ulia,  cross- 
 ed by  Hannibal  m  his  march  from  Samnium  and  the 
 Peligni  into  Apulia.  It  is  stated  that,  before  he  ar- 
 rived in  the  latter  province,  he  crossed  this  chain  ; 
 which  probably  answers  to  the  branch  of  the  Apen- 
 nines bordering  on  the  valley  of  the  Tifernus  to  the 
 north,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Monte  delta  Serra. 
 (Polyb.,  3,  \0l.— Roma7ielli,  vol.  3,  p.  20. — Cramer''s 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  270.) 
 
 LiBY.\,  I.  a  daughter  of  Epaphus  and  Cassiopeia, 
 who  became  mother  of  Agenor  and  Belus  by  Neptune. 
 {Apollod.,  2,  1  ;  3,  \.  —  Pausan.,  1,  44.)  — II.  The 
 name  given  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  poets  to  what 
 was  otherwise  called  Africa.  In  a  more  restrict- 
 ed sense,  the  name  has  been  applied  to  that  part  of 
 Africa  which  contauied  the  two  countries  of  Cyrenai- 
 ca  and  Marmarica,  together  with  a  very  extensive 
 region  in  the  interior,  of  which  little,  if  anything,  was 
 known,  and  which  was  generally  styled  Libya  Interior. 
 {Vid.  Africa.) 
 
 LiBYi  UM  Mare,  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
 which  lies  along  the  coast  of  Libya,  extending  east- 
 ward as  far  as  the  island  of  Crete.  {Mela,  1,  4. — 
 Strab.,  247.) 
 
 LiBYss.\,  a  small  village  of  Bilhynia,  west  of  Nico- 
 media,  and  near  the  shores  of  the  Sinus  Astacenus. 
 It  is  rendered  memorable  for  containing  the  tomb  of 
 Hannibal,  whence,  no  doubt,  its  name.  {Piut.,  Vit. 
 Flamin. — Ammian.  MarcelL,  22,  9. — Eulrop.,i,  11. 
 — Plm.,  5,  32.)  It  is  thought  to  answer  to  the  mod- 
 ern Gcbisse  or  Dsckebize.  If,  however,  Pococke  be 
 correct  (vol.  3,  1.  2,  c.  18)  in  making  Gebisse  24  Eng- 
 lish miles  from  Pontichium  or  Paniik,  we  ought  rather 
 to  decide  in  favour  of  the  Diacihe  or  Diacibiza  of  the 
 middle  ages  {Sozom.,  Hist.  Eccles.,  G,  14),  which  lies 
 on  the  same  coast,  nearer  Pontichium.  {Manncrl, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt  3,  p.  585,  seqq.) 
 
 Lic.Itf.s,  a  people  of  Vindelicia,  on  the  eastern 
 bank  of  the  Licus,  in  the  modern  Oberdonauhreis,  to 
 the  northeast  of  Fiissen.  {Plin.,  3,  20. — Bischoff 
 und  Mbller,  Wortcrb.  der  Geogr.,  p.  698.) 
 
 LicHADEs,  small  islands  near  Csneum,  a  promon- 
 742 
 
 tory  of  Eubcea,  called  so  from  Lichas.  (Vid.  Lichas.) 
 They  were  three  in  number,  Caresa,  Phocaris,  and 
 Scarphia.  They  are  thought  to  answer  to  the  modern 
 Ponticoncsi.     (Ovid,  Met.,  9,  165,  217.) 
 
 Lichas,  the  ill-fated  bearer  of  the  poisoned  tunic  from 
 Deianira  to  Hercules.  In  the  paroxysm  of  fury  oc- 
 casioned by  the  venom  of  the  hydra,  the  hero  caught 
 Lichas  by  the  foot  and  hurled  him  into  the  sea  from 
 the  summit  of  CEla.  (Ovid,  Mel.,  9,  165,  217.— 
 Compare  Milton,  P.  L.,  2,  545.)  He  was  changed 
 by  the  com])assion  of  the  gods  into  one  of  a  group  of 
 small  islands,  which  hence  derived  their  name.  (  Vid. 
 Lichades.) 
 
 LiciNiA  Lex.  (Consult  remarks  under  the  article 
 Licinius  I.) 
 
 LiciNiA,  I.  daughter  of  P.  Licinius  Crassus,  and 
 wife  of  Cains  Gracchus.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Gracch.)  —  II. 
 The  wife  of  Mascenas.  She  was  sister  to  Proculeius, 
 and  bore  also  the  name  of  Terentia.  She  is  thought 
 to  be  alluded  to  by  Horace  (Od.,  2,  12,  13)  under  the 
 name  of  Licymnia.  (Ben/ley,  ad  Herat.,  I.  c. — Com- 
 pare remarks  under  the  article  Ma3cenas.) 
 
 Licinius,  I.  C.  Licinius  Stole,  of  a  distinguished, 
 plebeian  family  at  Rome,  was  made  tribune  of  the 
 commons,  together  with  his  friend  L.  Sexlius  Latera- 
 nus,  in  the  year  375  B.C.  These  tribunes  brought 
 forward  three  "  rogations,"  that  is  to  say,  bills  or  pro- 
 jects of  laws,  for  the  comitia  or  assembly  of  the  tribes 
 to  decide  upon  :  1.  That  in  future  no  more  military 
 tribunes  should  be  appointed,  but  two  annual  consuls, 
 as  formerly,  and  that  one  of  the  two  should  always  be 
 a  plebeian.  The  occasional  appointment  of  military 
 tribunes,  part  of  whom  might  be  chosen  from  the  ple- 
 beians, was  a  device  of  the  senate  to  prevent  the  ple- 
 beians from  obtaining  access  to  the  consulship. — 2.  To 
 deduct  from  the  capital  of  all  existing  debts,  from  one 
 citizen  to  another,  the  sums  which  had  been  paid  by 
 the  debtor  as  interest,  and  the  remaining  principal  to 
 be  discharged  in  three  years  by  three  equal  payments. 
 This  seems,  according  to  our  modern  notions  of  money- 
 transactions,  a  very  summary,  and  not  very  honest, 
 way  of  settling  standing  engagements ;  but  if  we  carry 
 ourselves  back  to  that  remote  period  of  Roman  society, 
 and  take  into  consideration  the  enormous  rate  of  inter- 
 est demanded,  the  necessities  of  the  poorer  citizens, 
 who  were  called  from  their  homes  and  fields  to  fight 
 the  battles  of  their  country,  and  had  no  means  of  sup- 
 porting their  families  during  the  interval  except  the 
 ruinous  one  of  borrowing  money  from  the  wealthy,  who 
 were  mostly  patricians,  and  also  the  fearful  power  which 
 the  law  gave  to  the  creditor  over  the  debtor,  and  the 
 atrocious  manner  in  which  that  power  was  used,  or 
 abused,  in  many  instances,  such  as  those  reported  by 
 Livy  (2,  23  ;  6',  14  ;  8,  28),  we  shall  judge  more  dis- 
 passionately of  the  proposition  of  Licinius. — 3.  The 
 third  rogation  has  been  a  subject  of  much  perplexity 
 to  modern  inquirers.  Its  object,  as  briefly  expressed 
 by  Livy,  was,  that  no  one  should  possess  (fossidcrel) 
 more  than  500  jugera  (about  333  acre?)  of  land  ;  and 
 until  lately  it  has  been  literally  understood,  by  most 
 readers  of  Roman  history,  as  fixing  a  maximum  to  pri- 
 vate property.  But  Beaufort,  and  more  lately  Heyne, 
 Niebuhr,  and  Savigny,  have  shown,  that  the  limitation 
 referred  to  the  holding  of  land  belonging  to  the  ager 
 publicus,  or  public  domain  of  the  state.  It  appears 
 that  most  of  the  large  estates  possessed  by  the  patri- 
 cians must  have  been  portions  of  this  public  domain, 
 which  consisted  of  lands  conquered  at  various  times 
 from  the  surrounding  nations.  This  land  the  patricians 
 had  occupied,  cultivated,  and  held  as  tenants  at  will, 
 ihey  and  their  descendants  paying  to  the  state  a  tenth 
 of  all  grain,  a  fifth  on  the  produce  of  plantations  and 
 vineyards,  and  a  certain  tax  per  head  of  cattle  grazing 
 on  the  public  pasture.  This  was  the  kind  of  possession 
 which  the  Licinian  rogation  proposed  to  limit  and  reg- 
 ulate.    Licinius  proposed,  that  all  who  had  more  that! 
 
LIG 
 
 LIG 
 
 500  jugera  should  be  made  to  give  up  tlie  surplus, 
 which  was  to  be  distributed  among  those  who  had  no 
 property,  and  that  in  future  every  citizen  was  to  be 
 entitled  to  a  share  of  newly-conquered  land,  with  the 
 sAne  restriction,  and  subject  to  the  same  duties.  This 
 might  be  considered  as  a  bill  for  the  better  distribution 
 of  plunder  among  those  engaged  in  a  plundering  expe- 
 dition, for  the  land  thus  acquired  and  distributed  can- 
 not be  compared  to  real  property  as  held  throughout 
 Europe  in  our  own  day ;  and  this  reflection  may  perhaps 
 serve  to  moderate  somewhat  the  warmth  of  our  sympa- 
 thy in  reading  of  the  complaints  of  the  Roman  plebe- 
 ians concerning  the  unequal  distribution  of  land,  which 
 had  been,  in  fact,  taken  by  violence  from  a  third  party, 
 the  other  nations  of  Italy,  who  were  the  real  suflferers. 
 — 1'he  patricians,  who  had,  till  then,  the  best  share  of 
 the  conunon  plunder,  opposed  to  the  utmost  the  pas- 
 sage of  these  three  laws.  The  contest  lasted  during  ten 
 whole  years,  during  which  the  republic  at  one  time  fell 
 into  a  kind  of  anarchy.  Camillus  also,  at  one  period, 
 was  appointed  dictator,  as  a  last  expedient  on  the  part 
 of  the  nobility,  and  in  that  capacity  stopped  the  voting 
 at  the  Comitia  Tributa,  by  threatening  to  summon  the 
 people  to  the  Cam[)us  Martins,  and  to  enlist  and  march 
 them  into  the  iield.  At  last,  however,  the  three  roga- 
 tions passed  into  law.  Sextius  Lateranus,  the  col- 
 league of  Licinius,  the  first  plebeian  consul,  was  cho- 
 sen for  the  next  year,  36.5  B.C.,  together  with  a  pa- 
 trician, L.  .(Emilius  Mamercinus.  The  senate,  how- 
 ever, refused  to  confirm  the  election  of  Sextius,  and 
 the  plebeians  were  preparing  for  a  new  secession  and 
 other  fearful  threatenings  of  a  civil  war,  when  Camil- 
 lus inter[)Osed,  and  an  arrangement  was  made,  that, 
 while  the  patricians  conceded  the  consulship  to  the 
 plebeians,  the  latter  should  leave  to  the  patricians  the 
 praatorship,  which  was  then  for  the  first  time  separated 
 from  the  consulship.  Thus  was  peace  restored.  Li- 
 cinius, the  great  mover  of  this  change  in  the  Roman 
 constitution,  was  raised  to  the  consulship  363  B.C., 
 but  nothing  remarkable  is  recorded  of  him  while  in 
 that  office.  In  the  year  356  B.C.,  under  the  consul- 
 ship of  C.  Marcius  Rutilus  and  C.  Manlius  Imperiosus, 
 we  find  Licinius  charged  and  convicted  before  the 
 prretor  of  a  breach  of  his  own  agrarian  law,  and  fined 
 10,000  asses.  It  seems  that  he  possessed  1000  ;M^cr«,, 
 one  half  of  which  he  held  in  the  name  of  his  son,  whom 
 he  had  emancipated  for  the  purpose,  .^fter  this  we 
 hear  no  more  of  C.  Licinius  Stolo.  {Encycl.  Us. 
 Knowl.,  vol.  13,  p.  464,  seq. — Liv.,  lib.  6  et  7. — Nic- 
 buhr,  Rom.  Gesch.,  vol.  3,  p.  1,  seqq. — Val.  Max.,  8,  6. 
 — Savigny,  Das  Redd  dcs  Bcsitzes,  p.  175.) — II.  Mu- 
 raena.  {Vid.  Mursena.) — III.  Varro  Murfena,  a  broth- 
 er of  Proculeius,  who  conspired  against  Augustus  with 
 Fannius  Caepio,  and  suffered  for  his  crime.  Horace 
 addressed  to  him  his  10th  ode,  book  2. — IV.  C.  Fla- 
 vins Valerius,  a  Roman  emperor.  A  sketch  of  his 
 history  will  be  found  incorporated  with  that  of  Con- 
 fitantine.     {Vid.  Constantinus.) 
 
 LiciNUs,  a  Roman  barber,  made  a  senator  by  Julius 
 CfEsar  merely  because  he  bitterly  hated  Pompey. 
 Compare  the  language  of  the  scholiast  {ad  Horat.,  Ep. 
 ud  Pis..  301) :  "  Quod  odissei  Pompcium,  a  CcBsare 
 senator  factus  dicitur." 
 
 LiGARius,  Q.,  was  at  first  a  lieutenant  of  C.  Con- 
 eidius,  proconsul  of  Africa,  and  afterward  succeeded 
 him  in  that  province.  He  sided  with  the  republican 
 party  against  Caesar,  and  was  condemned  to  exile. 
 His  brothers  at  Rome  solicited  his  recall,  but  their  ap- 
 plication was  opposed  by  Tubcro,  who  openly  accused 
 Ligarius  before  the  dictator.  Cicero  appeared  as  the 
 advocate  for  Ligarius,  and  his  speech  on  the  occasion 
 has  come  down  to  us.  This  oration  was  pronounced 
 after  Caesar,  having  vanquished  Pompey  in  Thessaly, 
 and  destroyed  the  remains  of  the  republican  party  in 
 Africa,  assumed  the  supreme  administration  of  affairs 
 at  Rome.     Merciful  as  the  conqyeror  appeared,  he 
 
 was  understood  to  be  much  exasperated  against  those 
 who,  after  the  rout  at  Pharsalia,  had  renewed  the  war 
 in  Africa.  Ligarius,  when  on  the  pomt  of  obtaining 
 his  pardon,  was  formally  accused  by  his  old  enemy 
 Tubero  of  having  borne  arms  in  that  contest.  The 
 dictator  himself  presided  at  the  trial  of  this  cause, 
 much  prejudiced  against  Ligarius,  as  was  known  from 
 his  having  previously  declared  that  his  resolution  was 
 fixed,  and  was  not  to  be  altered  by  the  charms  of  elo- 
 quence. Cicero,  however,  overcame  his  preposses- 
 sions, and  extorted  from  him  a  pardon.  The  counte- 
 nance of  Ca?sar,  it  is  said,  changed  as  Cicero  proceed- 
 ed in  his  speech  ;  but  when  he  touched  on  the  battle 
 of  Pharsalia,  and  described  Tubero  as  seeking  his  life 
 amid  the  ranks  of  the  army,  he  was  so  agitated  that 
 his  body  trembled,  and  the  papers  which  he  held  drop- 
 ped from  his  hand.  The  oration  of  Tubero  against 
 Li'iarius  was  extant  in  Quintilian's  time,  and  probably 
 explained  the  circumstances  which  induced  a  man  who 
 had  fought  so  keenly  against  Ceesar  at  Pharsalia  to 
 undertake  the  prosecution  of  Ligarius.  {Plut.,  Vit. 
 C'lc. — Dunlop's  Roman  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  317,  Loyid.  ed.) 
 LiGER  or  LiGERis,  now  the  Loire,  the  largest  river 
 of  Gaul  ;  it  rises  in  Mons  Cebenna  or  Cevennes,  and 
 for  the  first  half  of  its  course  runs  directly  north,  thea 
 turns  to  the  west,  and  falls  into  the  Atlantic  between 
 the  territories  of  the  Pictones  and  Namnetes.  {Cces., 
 B.  G.,  3,  9.— Id.  ibid.,  7,  5.—Auson.,  MoselL,  v.  461. 
 —Lucaji,  1,439.) 
 
 LiGUREs,  the  inhabitants  of  Liguria.  ( Vid.  Liguria.) 
 LiGURiA,  a  country  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  lying  along 
 the  shores  of  the  Sinus  Ligusticus  or  Gulf  of  Genoa, 
 haviiiCT  the  Varus  on  the  west,  and  the  Macra  on  the 
 southeast,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Alps.  The 
 Ligures,  termed  Aiyvpec  and  Aiyvarivoi  by  the  Greeks 
 {Strabo,  203. — Polyb.,  2,  16),  appear  to  have  been  a 
 numerous  and  powerful  people,  extending,  in  the  days 
 of  their  greatest  strength,  along  the  shores  of  the  Med- 
 iterranean, from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhodanus  to  the  river 
 Arnus,  reaching  also  into  the  interior  of  Gaul  and  the 
 valleys  of  the  Maritime  Alps.  According  to  some  ac- 
 counts, they  had  penetrated  to  the  west  as  far  as  the 
 borders  of  Spain.  {Thiicijd.,  6,  2. — Sci/i,  PcripL,  p. 
 4.)  Of  the  origin  of  this  people  we  have  no  positive 
 information  ;  but  there  is  good  reason  for  supposing 
 that  they  were  Celts,  though  Strabo  (128)  distinguishes 
 them  from  the  Gauls.  The  story  which  is  told  by 
 Plutarch  of  the  Ligurians  in  the  army  of  Marius,  ac- 
 knowledging the  Ambrones  as  belonging  to  the  same 
 stock  with  themselves  ;  the  affinity  of  the  term  Ligur 
 to  the  Celtic  Lly-gour  or  Lly-gor,  together  with  other 
 words,  evidently  belonging  to  the  same  root,  which 
 Cluverius  has  collected  {Ital.  Ant.,  vol.  1,  p.  50),  may 
 be  considered  as  plausible  grounds  at  least  for  the  sup- 
 port of  such  an  opinion.  Though  the  period  of  their 
 settlement  in  Italy  cannot  be  determined,  we  may 
 safely  affirm  that  it  was  very  remote,  since  the  Tyr- 
 rheni,  themselves  a  very  ancient  people,  on  their  arri- 
 val in  Italy,  found  ihem  occupying  a  portion  of  what 
 was  afterward  called  Etruria,  and,  after  a  long  strug- 
 gle, succeeded  in  expelling  them.  {Lycophr.,  v.  1354.) 
 The  Greeks,  who  were  unacquainted  with  the  real  sit- 
 uation of  Liguria,  made  that  country  the  scene  of  some 
 of  their  earliest  and  most  poetical  fictions.  The  pas- 
 sage of  Hercules  {M.sr.h.,  Prom.,  Sol.  ap.  Sirab.,  183) 
 and  the  story  of  Cycnus  were  identilicd  with  it.  (  Virg., 
 JEn.,  10,  1S5.)  And  it  is  not  improbable,  that  the  fa- 
 ble of  Phaethon's  sisters  shedding  tears  of  anr.ber,  a, 
 substance  which  the  Greeks  called  Lingurium  {StraU,. 
 202),  had  its  origin  in  the  country  which  produced  I'mt 
 substance,  and  gave  it  its  name.  {iMiUm,  Voyagi  en 
 Ilalie,  vol.  2,  p.  336.)  Herodotus  was  better  acquaint- 
 ed with  the  Ligurians  (5,  9),  and  mentions  them  as 
 formincr  part  of  the  mercenary  forces  of  Carthage,  m 
 its  wars  against  the  Greeks  of  Sicily  (7,  165).  The 
 conquest  of  Liguria  by  the  Romans  was  not  ege.cl.e4 
 ^  743 
 
LIL 
 
 LIN 
 
 fill  long  after  the  second  Punic  war.  The  Ligurians 
 had  joined  Hannibal  with  a  considerable  force  soon 
 after  his  arrival  {Pohjb.,  3,  60),  a  circumstance  of  it- 
 self sufficient  to  provoke  hostilities  on  the  part  of  the 
 conquerors  ;  but  there  was  another  reason  wliich  ren- 
 dered the  subjugation  of  Liguria  extremely  desirable. 
 It  afforded  the  easiest  communication  with  Gaul  and 
 Spain  over  the  Maritime  Alps,  an  object  in  itself  of 
 the  greatest  iin[)ortance.  The  Ligurians  long  and  ob- 
 ttinately  resisted  their  invaders,  when  the  rest  of  Italy 
 had  been  subjugated  for  many  years.  The  Romans 
 could  only  obtain  a  free  passage  along  their  shore  of 
 twelve  stadia  from  the  coast  (Strabo,  180);  nor  was 
 it  till  the  Ligurians,  after  a  war  of  eighty  years'  dura- 
 tion, had  been  driven  fronr  every  hold  in  their  mount- 
 ains, and  whole  tribes  had  even  been  carried  out  of  the 
 country,  that  they  could  be  said  to  be  finally  conquered. 
 (Liu.,  40,  38.— id.,  41,  12.) — The  Ligurian  character 
 docs  not  appear  to  have  been  held  in  much  esteem  by 
 antiquity  ;  while  it  allows  them  all  the  hardihood  and 
 courage  usual  with  mountaineers  {Cic,  Agr.,  2,  35. — 
 Virg.,  Gcorg.,  2,  168),  qualities  which  were  even 
 shared  in  an  uncommon  degree  by  the  weaker  sex 
 {Diod.  Sic,  5,  39),  it  ta.\es  them  too  plainly  with 
 craft  and  deceit  to  be  misunderstood.  [Viro-.,  Mn., 
 1 1,  im.—Sermm,  ad  loc.—Claudian,  Idyl.,  12.)  Ac- 
 cording to  the  statement  of  Polybius  (2,  16),  the  bound- 
 aries of  the  Ligurians  in  Italy  seem  to  have  been  the 
 Maritime  Alps  to  the  northwest,  to  the  south  the  river 
 Arnus  ;  but  in  the  time  of  Augustus  this  latter  bound- 
 ary was  removed  northward  to  the  river  Macra.  {Plin., 
 3,  5.)  To  the  north  and  northeast,  the  Ligurians  ran- 
 ged along  the  .Mps  as  far  as  the  river  Orgus  (Orca), 
 which  separated  the  Taurini,  the  last  of  their  nation  on 
 that  side,  from  the  Cisalpine  Gauls  :  south  of  the  Po 
 they  bordered  on  the  Anamanni  and  Boii,  also  belong- 
 ing to  this  last-mentioned  people.  (^Cramer's  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  19,  scqq.) 
 
 LiGUSTirus  Sinus,  a  gulf  forming  the  upper  part  of 
 the  Mare  Tyrrhenum.  It  is  now  the  Gulf  of  Genoa. 
 (Flor.,  3,  6.)  It  is  also  called  Ligusticum  Mare. 
 (Colum.,  8,  2.— Plin.,  3,  6,  20.) 
 
 LiGYES,  a  people  of  Asia,  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
 (7,  72).  The  historian  informs  us,  that  the  Ligves, 
 the  Matieni,  the  Mariandyni,  and  the  Cappadocians 
 had  the  same  kind  of  arms,  and  that  the  Ligyes,  Ma- 
 riandyni, and  Cappadocians,  as  forming  part  of  the 
 army  of  Xerxes,  were  under  the  same  commander. 
 Larcher  infers  from  all  this,  that  the  nations  here 
 mentioned  were  contiguous  to  each  other,  and  that  the 
 Ligyes  were  to  the  east  of  the  Manandyni  and  Cappa- 
 docians, and  to  the  northeast  of  the  Matieni.  The 
 Ijigyes  were  reduced  in  point  of  numbers  in  the  time 
 of  Herodotus,  but  had  been  at  an  earlier  period  a  pow- 
 erful tribe;  and  we  are  even  informed  by  Eustathius 
 {ad  Dionys.  Perieg.,  76),  that,  according  to  Lyco- 
 phron,  a  portion  of  the  Ligyes  had  once  inhabited  a 
 part  of  Colchis,  and  that  Cytaea  was  a  Ligyan  city. 
 (Larcher,  Hist.  d'Herod.,  vol.  8,  p.  301,  scqq..  Table 
 Geogr.)  On  the  subject  of  the  Ligyes  generally,  as  a 
 very  early  people,  consult  the  remarks  of  Bernhardy 
 {ad  Dion.  Perieg.,  I.  c. — Geogr.  Gr.  Min.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 543.) 
 
 LiLYB^UM,  I.  a  city  of  Sicily  on  the  western  coast, 
 south  of  Drepanum,  and  near  a  famous  cape  called 
 also  Lilybaeum,  now  Cape  Boco.  {Diod.  Sic,  13,54) 
 It  was  the  princiiial  fortress  of  the  Carthaginians  in 
 Sicily,  and  was  founded  by  them  about  the  106th 
 Olympiad  {Diod.  Sic,  22,  14),  as  a  stronghold  in  this 
 quarter  against  Dionysius  of  Syracuse.  It  received 
 as  a  part  of  its  population  the  remaining  inhabitants 
 of  Motya,  which  place  had  been  taken  by  Dionysius. 
 The  strength  of  its  fortifications  was  evinced  in  the 
 war  with  Pyrrhus  All  the  other  Carthaginian  cities 
 in  Sicily  had  yielded  to  his  arms ;  Lilyba?um  alone 
 made  a  successful  resistance,  and,  after  three  months 
 744 
 
 of  close  investment,  he  was  compelled  to  raise  tfi» 
 siege.  {Diod.,  I.  c)  In  the  course  of  the  first  Ptnic 
 war,  Carthage  felt  more  than  once  that  the  pres- 
 ervation of  her  power  in  Sicily  depended  upon  Lily- 
 bseum,  since  she  could  always  send  with  the  oreateM 
 ease  to  this  quarter  the  necessary  supplies  by  sea,  and 
 could  always  find  in  it  an  easy  entrance  into  the  very 
 heart  of  the  island.  If  the  Romans,  too,  became  mas- 
 ters of  Lilyba3um,  they  would  have,  what  they  wanted 
 throughout  the  whole  war,  a  safe  harbour  on  the  west 
 em  and  southern  coasts  of  the  island,  whence  they 
 could  easily  threaten  Carthage  herself.  {Polyh.,  1, 
 41.)  The  moment,  therefore,  the  Carthaginians  per- 
 ceived that  the  Romans  were  about  to  attack  this 
 place,  they  made  every  possible  exertion  to  render  it 
 secure.  The  number  of  the  inhabitants  was  increased 
 by  accessions  from  Selinus,  and  a  strong  body  oi 
 troops  was  added  to  the  garrison.  {Polyh.,  1,  42, 
 scqq.)  The  resistance  made  by  the  place  was  eflectual, 
 and  the  Romans  only  obtained  possession  of  Lilybseum 
 by  the  conditions  of  the  peace  which  brought  the 
 whole  of  Sicily  under  their  power.  From  this  time 
 the  Romans  watched  with  the  greatest  care  so  impor- 
 tant a  city,  repelled  all  the  subsequent  attacks  of  the 
 Carthaginians,  who  made  the  greatest  exertions  to  re- 
 possess themselves  of  the  place,  and  used  it  as  the  har- 
 bour whence  their  fleets  sailed  for  the  reduction  of 
 Carthage.  In  a  later  age,  Cicero  calls  it ''  spleiididissi  ■ 
 ma  civitas'"  {m  Verr.,  5).  The  modern  town  of  Mar 
 sala  occupies  the  southern  half  of  the  ancient  city. 
 {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  376,  scqq.) — II. 
 The  western  one  of  the  three  famous  capes  of  Sicily, 
 now  Cajie  Boco.  The  earlier  Greeks  were  not  ac- 
 quainted with  this  headland,  as  they  rarely  navigated 
 along  this  part  of  the  Sicilian  coast ;  neither  did  they 
 make  any  settlements  near  it.  The  name  tirst  oc- 
 curs in  the  false  Orpheus  {Argoii.,  v.  1248).  In  a 
 later  age  it  was  mentioned  by  every  geographer,  not 
 so  much  from  anything  remarkable  m  its  appearance, 
 as  from  its  forming  the  westernmost  extremity  of  Sicily. 
 It  is  not  a  mountain-promontory,  but  a  low,  flat  point 
 of  land,  rendered  dangerous  to  vessels  by  its  sand- 
 banks and  concealed  rocks.  Lilybaeum  was  the  near- 
 est point  to  Carthage,  and  the  ancient  writers  inform 
 us,  that  vessels  could  be  seen  from  it  sailing  out  of 
 the  harbour  of  that  city.  {Strabo,  267. — Plin.,  7,  21. 
 —JFAiuJi,  Var.  Hist.,  11,  13.)  The  distance,  30  geo- 
 graphical miles,  shows  the  story  to  be  false.  Polybius 
 gives  the  cape  a  northwest  direction  :  this  is  true, 
 however,  only  as  regards  the  harbour  of  Ijilybaeum. 
 The  cape  itself  stretches  directly  to  the  west.  {Man- 
 ner!, Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  375,  scqq.) 
 
 LiMONUM,  a  town  of  Gallia  Aquitanica.  in  the  terri- 
 tory of  the  Pictones.  It  was  subsequently  called  Pic- 
 tavi,  and  is  now  Poitiers.     {Cas-,  B.  G.,  8,  26.) 
 
 LiNDUM,  a  town  of  Britain,  the  capital  of  the  Cori- 
 tani,  and  on  the  main  road  from  Londinium  to  Ebora- 
 cum.  {Cellar.,  Geogr.  Ant  ,  vol.  2,  p.  341.)  It  is 
 now  Lincohi.  Mannert  supposes  it  to  have  been  a 
 Roman  colony,  and  deduces  the  modern  name  from 
 Lindi  Colonia.  {Geography,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  149.) 
 Bede  writes  the  name  Lindi-collina.  {Hist.  Ecclcs-, 
 2,  16.) 
 
 LiNDus,  a  city  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  near  the 
 middle  of  the  eastern  coast.  It  was  the  old  capital  of 
 the  island  before  Rhodes  was  built,  and  is  said  to  have 
 been  founded  bv  the  Heliades.  Others  made  Tlepol- 
 emus  its  first  settler  {Slrabo,  654),  and  others,  again, 
 assigned  its  foundation  to  Danaus.  {Strab.,  I.  c — Diod. 
 Sic,  5,  58.)  Lindus  is  one  of  the  three  cities  alluded 
 to  by  Homer  (//.,  2,  668).  Notice  of  it  also  occurs 
 in  the  Parian  Chronicle.  It  contained  a  very  ancient 
 and  famous  temple  of  Minerva,  hence  called  the  Lin- 
 dian,  built,  according  to  a  tradition,  by  the  Dana'ides. 
 [Strab.,  I.  c.)  The  statue  of  the  goddess  was  a  shape- 
 less stone.     {Callim.,  ap.  Euseb.,  Prap.  Ev.,  3,  8.) 
 
LIN 
 
 LINUS. 
 
 Pindar's  Seventh  Olympic  Ode,  in  honour  of  Diagoras 
 the  lihodian,  was  consecrated  \n  this  temple,  beuig  in- 
 scribed in  letters  of  gold.  (Schol.  ad  }'ind.,  01.,  7, 
 intl.)  Here  also  was  a  temple  of  Hercules,  the  wor- 
 ship connected  with  which  consisted,  according  to 
 Lactantius  (1,  31),  in  revilings  and  execration  ("ma/- 
 edicUs  et  exsecratione  celebrantur,  eaque  pro  violalts 
 habent,  si  qiuindo  inter  solemnes  ritus  vel  imprudenti 
 aiicia  cxciderit  bonum  verbuni").  This  temple  con- 
 tained a  painting  of  the  god  by  Parrhasius.  {Athena- 
 M.v,  12,  p.  543.)  There  were  several  other  pictures  by 
 the  same  celebrated  master  at  Lindus,  inscribed  with 
 his  name.  {Allien.,  15,  p.  687.)  This  place  was  also 
 famous  for  having  produced  Cleobukis,  one  of  the  Sev- 
 en Sages  of  Greece  ;  and  also  Chares  (or  Cares)  and 
 Laches,  the  artists  who  designed  and  completed  the 
 Colossus.  A  mistake,  highly  characteristic  of  his  ig- 
 norance in  classical  matters,  was  committed  by  Vol- 
 taire, respecting  this  famous  statue  :  it  is  mentioned 
 by  Mentelle,  in  a  note  to  the  article  Lindus,  Encyclo- 
 pedic Mcthodique.  Voltaire,  having  read  Indian  for 
 Lindian,  relates  that  the  Colossus  was  cast  by  an  In- 
 dian ! — Lindus  was  the  port  resorted  to  by  the  fleets 
 of  Egypt  and  Tyre  before  the  founding  of  Rhodes. — 
 A  small  town,  with  a  citadel,  retaining  the  name  of 
 Lindo,  still  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  Sa- 
 vary  says  {Letter a  on  Greece,  p.  96,  Eng.  transl.)  that 
 the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  are  still  visible  on 
 an  eminence  near  the  sea.  The  ruins  at  Lindo  are 
 said  to  be  very  numerous.  {Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  3, 
 p.  281,  Land.  ed. — Tavernier,  Voyage,  vol.  1,  c.  74.) 
 
 LiNGONEs,  I.  a  people  of  Gaul,  whose  territories 
 included  Vogesus,  Vosges,  and,  consequently,  the 
 sources  of  the  rivers  Mosa  or  Mcuse  and  Matrona  or 
 Marne.  Their  chief  city  was  Andomadunum,  after- 
 ward Lingones,  now  Langrcs,  and  their  territory  cor- 
 responded to  the  modern  department  de  la  Haute- 
 Marne.  {Cczs.,  B.  G.,  1,  26  )—U.  A  Gallic  tribe  in 
 Gallia  Cisalpina,  occupying  the  extreme  northeastern 
 portion  of  (iallia  Cispadana.  They  were  a  branch  of 
 the  Transalpine  Lingones.  Polybius  is  the  only  au- 
 thor who  has  pointed  out  the  district  occu|)ied  by  this 
 people  in  Italy  (2,  17).  Ap[)ian  characterizes  the 
 Lingones  generally  as  the  fiercest  and  wildest  of  the 
 Gauls.     {Bell.  Gall.,  frogm.) 
 
 Linus,  said  to  have  been  a  native  of  Chalcis,  a  son  of 
 Apollo  and  Terpsichore  ;  according  to  others,  the  off- 
 spring of  Amphimarus  and  Urania  ;  and  according  to 
 others,  again,  of  Mercury  and  Urania.  {Suid.,  s.  v.  Ai- 
 voc- — Hes.,  fragm.  ap.  Euslath.,  p.  1 163. — Canon.,  c. 
 19. — Heyne,  ad  Apollod.,  1,  3,  1.)  ApoUodorus  makes 
 him  a  brother  of  Orpheus  (1,  3,  2;  2,  4,  9).  He  was 
 fabled  to  have  been  the  inslructer  of  Hercules  in  music, 
 and  to  have  been  killed  by  the  latter  in  a  fit  of  passion, 
 being  struck  on  the  head  with  a  lyre.  His  tragical 
 death  was  the  subject  of  a  solemn  festival  at  Thebes. 
 (Consult  Hauptmann,  Prolus.  de  Lino,  Gercz,  1760, 
 and  the  notes  of  Burette  on  Piutarch's  Dialogue  on 
 Music,  Mem.  de  I' Acad,  dcs  Inscriptions,  &c.,  vol. 
 10,  p.  195.)  Stobreus  has  [ireserved  twelve  pretend- 
 ed verses  of  this  poet:  they  have  reference  to  the  fa- 
 mous proposition  of  the  Eleatic  school,  adopted  subse- 
 quently by  the  New-Platonists  and  New-Pythagore- 
 ans: 'E/c  TvavTog  de  tu  ttuvtu,  km  sk  ttuvtuv  nuv  ian 
 — "  The  loholc  has  been  engendered  by  the  whole." 
 These  verses,  however,  were  fabricated  in  a  later  age. 
 In  the  Discourses  of  Slobaeus  {Eclog.,  1,  11)  there 
 are  two  other  verses  on  the  divine  power.  According 
 to  Archbishop  Usher,  Linus  flourished  about  1280 
 B.C..  and  he  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  among  the 
 poets  who  wrote  before  the  time  of  Moses.  Diodorus 
 Siculus  tells  us,  from  Dionysius  of  Mytilene,  the  his- 
 torian, who  was  contemporary  with  Cicero,  that  Linus 
 was  the  first  among  the  Greeks  that  invented  verse 
 and  music,  as  Cadmus  first  taught  them  the  use  of 
 letters  (3,  66).  The  same  writer  likewise  attributes 
 5B 
 
 to  him  an  account  of  the  exploits  of  the  first  Baccnus, 
 and  a  treatise  upon  the  Greek  mythology,  written  in 
 Pelasgian  characters,  which  were  also  those  used  by 
 Orpheus,  and  by  Pronapides,  the  preceptor  of  Homer. 
 Diodorus  says  likewise,  that  he  added  the  string  licha- 
 nos  to  the  Mercurian  lyre,  and  assigns  to  him  the  inven- 
 tion of  rhythm  and  melody,  which  Suidas,  who  regards 
 him  as  the  most  ancient  of  poets,  confirms.  He  is 
 said  by  many  ancient  writers  to  have  had  several  dis- 
 ciples of  great  renown,  among  whom  wtre  Hercules, 
 Thamyris,  and  Orpheus. — Thus  much  for  the  ordinary 
 learning  connected  with  the  name  of  Linus.  The 
 following  remarks,  however,  will  be  found,  we  think, 
 to  contam  a  far  more  correct  view  of  the  subject. 
 Among  the  plaintive  songs  of  the  early  Greek  hus- 
 bandmen is  to  be  numbered  the  one  called  Linus, 
 mentioned  by  Homer  {II.,  IS,  569),  the  melancholy 
 character  of  which  is  shown  by  its  fuller  names,  AtAt- 
 vof  and  OItoTilvo^  (literally,  "  Alas,  Linus .'"  and 
 "  Death  of  Linus'').  It  was  frequently  sung  in  Greece, 
 according  to  Homer,  at  the  grape-picking.  According 
 to  a  fragment  of  Hesiod  {up.  Eustath.,  p.  1163 — 
 fragm.  1,  ed.  Gaisf.),  all  singers  and  players  on  the 
 cithara  lament  at  feasts  and  dances  Linus,  the  beloved 
 son  of  Urania,  and  call  on  Linus  at  the  beginning  and 
 the  end,  which  probably  means  that  the  song  of  lam- 
 entation began  and  ended  with  the  exclamation  kl 
 Aive.  Linus  was  originally  the  subject  of  the  song, 
 the  person  whose  fate  was  bewailed  in  it  ;  and  there 
 were  many  districts  in  Greece  (for  example,  Thebes, 
 Chalcis,  and  Argos)  in  which  tombs  of  Linus  were 
 shown.  This  Linus  evidently  belongs  to  a  class  of 
 deities  or  demigods,  of  which  many  instances  occur  in 
 the  religions  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor ;  boys  of  ex- 
 traordinary beauty,  and  in  the  flower  of  youth,  who 
 are  supposed  to  have  been  drowned,  or  devoured  by 
 raging  dogs,  or  destroyed  by  wild  beasts,  and  whose 
 death  is  lamented  in  the  harvest  or  other  periods  of 
 the  hot  season.  It  is  obvious  that  these  cannot  have 
 been  the  real  persons  whose  death  excited  so  general 
 a  sympathy,  although  the  fables  which  were  offered  in 
 explanation  of  these  customs  often  speak  of  youths  of 
 royal  blood,  who  were  carried  off  in  the  prime  of  their 
 life.  The  real  object  of  lamentation  was  the  tender 
 beauty  of  spring  destroyed  by  the  summer  heat,  and 
 other  phenomena  of  the  same  kind,  which  the  imagi- 
 nation of  these  early  times  invested  with  a  personal 
 form,  and  represented  as  gods,  or  beings  of  a  divine 
 nature.  According  to  the  very  remarkable  and  explicit 
 tradition  of  the  Argives,  Linus  was  a  youth,  who,  hav- 
 ing sprung  from  a  divine  origin,  grew  up  with  the 
 shepherds  among  the  lambs,  and  was  torn  in  pieces  by 
 wild  dogs  ;  whence  arose  the  festival  of  the  lambs,  at 
 which  many  dogs  were  slain.  Doubtless  this  festival 
 was  celebrated  during  the  greatest  heat,  at  the  time 
 of  the  constellation  Sirius,  the  emblem  of  which, 
 among  the  Greeks,  was,  from  the  earliest  times,  a  ra- 
 ginc  doer.  It  was  a  natural  confusion  of  the  tradition, 
 that  Linus  should  afterward  become  a  minstrel,  one 
 of  the  earliest  bards  of  Greece,  who  begins  a  contest 
 with  Apollo  himself,  and  overcomes  Hercules  in  play- 
 ing on  the  cithara ;  even,  however,  in  this  character 
 Linus  meets  his  death,  and  we  must  probably  assume 
 that  his  fate  was  mentioned  in  the  ancient  song.  In 
 Homer  the  Linus  is  represented  as  sung  by  a  boy, 
 who  plays  at  the  same  time  on  the  harp,  an  accom- 
 paniment usually  mentioned  with  this  song;  the  yoi.ng 
 men  and  women  who  bear  the  grapes  from  the  vine- 
 yard follow  him,  moving  onward  with  a  measured 
 step,  and  uttering  a  shrill  cry,  in  which_^  probably  the 
 chief  stress  was  laid  on  the  exclamation  al  Xi.ve.  That 
 this  shrill  cry  (called  by  Homer  ivypog)  was  not  ne- 
 cessarily a  joyful  strain,  will  be  admitted  by  any  one 
 who  has  heard  the  Ivy^k  of  the  Swiss  peasants,  with 
 its  sad  and  plaintive  notes  resounding  from  hdl  to  hill. 
 {Mailer,  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  17.  seoq.) 
 
 745 
 
LIS 
 
 LIV 
 
 LiPARA,  the  largest  and  most  important  island  in 
 the  group  of  the  Aioli<£  Insula,  or  Lipari  Islands. 
 Its  original  name  was  Meligunis  (JsleALyavvic. — Cal- 
 lim.,  H.  in  Dtan.,  49),  and  it  was  uninhabited  until 
 Liparus,  son  of  King  Auson,  having  been  driven  out 
 by  his  brethren,  came  hither  with  a  body  of  followers, 
 colonized  the  island,  and  founded  a  city.  Both  tlie 
 island  and  city  then  took  the  name  of  Lipara.  He 
 colonized  also  some  other  islands  of  the  group.  {Stra- 
 bo,  275. — Diod.  Sic,  5,  7.)  The  original  inhabitants, 
 therefore,  according  to  this  tradition,  were  natives  of 
 Italy.  The  Greeks,  however,  contributed  their  part 
 also  to  the  ancient  legend,  and  made  /Eolus  come  to 
 this  same  quarter  with  a  body  of  companions,  and  re- 
 ceive in  marriage  Cyane,  the  daughter  of  Liparus. 
 .^olus  now  assumed  the  government,  and  established 
 his  aged  father-in-law  once  more  on  the  soil  of  Italy, 
 in  the  territory  of  Surrentum,  where  the  latter  contin- 
 ued to  reign  until  his  death. — Leaving  mythic,  we 
 now  come  to  real,  history.  In  the  50th  Olympiad 
 (B.C.  577-574),  a  colony  of  Cnidians,  along  with 
 many  Rhodians  and  Carians,  settled  in  Lipara.  They 
 had  previously  established  themselves  on  the  western 
 coast  of  Sicily,  but  had  been  driven  out  by  the  Elymaei 
 and  Phoenicians.  From  this  period  Lipara  was  re- 
 garded as  a  Doric  colony  {Scymn.,  Ch.,  261.)  The 
 inhabitants  began  to  be  powerful  at  sea,  having  been 
 compelled  to  defend  their  commerce  against  the  Tyr- 
 rhenian pirates,  whom  they  worsted  in  several  encoun- 
 ters. Eventually,  however,  they  followed  the  bad  ex- 
 ample set  them  by  their  maritime  neighbours,  and  be- 
 came pirates  themselves.  {Liv.,  5,  28.)  When  the 
 Carthaginians  were  striving  for  the  possession  of  Si- 
 cily, they  perceived  the  importance  of  Lipara  as  a 
 naval  station,  and  accordingly  made  it  their  own. 
 During  the  first  Punic  war  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
 the  Romans. — The  Lipari  isles  obtain  their  modern 
 name  from  the  ancient  Lipara.  They  were  anciently 
 Galled  Police  Insula,  from  having  been  fabled  to  be 
 tuled  over  by  /Eolus,  god  of  the  winds ;  and  they 
 were  also  styled  Vulcania  Insula,  from  their  volcanic 
 nature,  on  which  was  based  the  fable  of  Vulcan's  hav- 
 ing forges  in  Strongyle,  one  of  the  group,  besides  his 
 Bmithy  in  ^^tna.  The  ancients  knew  them  to  be  vol- 
 canic, but  did  not  narrowly  examine  them;  this  has 
 been  reserved  for  modern  philosophers.  The  Lipari 
 isles  are  commonly  reckoned  seven  in  number,  and 
 Lipari  is  the  largest  of  these,  being  19i  Italian  miles 
 in  circuit.  This  island  is  peculiarly  valuable  to  the 
 naturalist,  from  the  number  and  beauty  of  its  volcanic 
 products.  According  to  Diodorus,  all  the  ..lEolian  isles 
 were  subject  to  great  irruptions  of  fire,  and  their  craters 
 were  visible  in  his  time.  (Vid.  Strongyle. — Plin.,  3, 
 9. — Mela,  2,  7. — Jornand.,  de  Rcgn.  Succ,  p.  29. — 
 Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  459,  seqq.) 
 
 LtRis,  now  Garigliano,  a  river  of  Campania,  which 
 it  separated  from  Latium,  after  the  southern  boundary 
 of  the  latter  had  been  removed  from  the  Circa?an  prom- 
 ontory. (Vid.  Latium.)  It  falls  into  the  sea  near 
 Minturnae.  According  to  Strabo,  its  more  ancient 
 name  was  K/luvff:  according  to  Pliny,  Glanis.  (Slra- 
 bo,  233. — Fliny,  3,  5.)  Its  source  is  in  the  country 
 of  the  Marsi,  west  of  the  Lacus  Fucinus.  This  river 
 is  particularly  noticed  by  the  poets  for  the  sluggishness 
 of  its  stream.  {Horat.,  Od.,  1,  31.  —  Sil.  Ital,  4, 
 348.)  In  the  vicinity  of  Minturna;  the  Pontine  marsh- 
 es ended,  in  which  Marius  hid  himself,  and  whence 
 he  was  dragged  with  a  rope  round  his  neck  to  the 
 prison  of  Minturnas.     (Virf.  Marius.) 
 
 Lissus,  a  city  of  Illyria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Dri- 
 lo.  According  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (15,  13),  it  was 
 colonized  by  some  Syracusans  in  the  time  of  Dionys- 
 ius  the  Elder.  It  fell  subsequently,  however,  into 
 the  hands  of  the  Illyrians,  who  retained  it  with  the 
 consent  of  the  Romans,  after  they  had  concluded  a 
 pf ace  with  Teuta.  (Po/yJ.,  3,  12.)  Not  many  j'ears 
 746 
 
 intervened  before  Philip  of  Macedon,  having  surprised 
 the  Acrolissus,  its  citadel,  compelled  the  town  to  sur- 
 render. An  interesting  account  of  iliis  expedition  is 
 to  be  found  in  the  Fragments  of  Polybius  (8,  1ft). 
 We  are  not  informed  by  what  means  the  Illyrians  re- 
 covered possession  of  Lissus,  but  Livy  speaks  of  it 
 as  belonging  to  Gentius  (44,  30).  Caesar,  who  has 
 frequent  occasion  to  mention  this  city  during  the  prog- 
 ress of  the  civil  war  carried  on  by  him  in  Illyria,  in- 
 forms us,  that  he  had  previously  stationed  there  a 
 considerable  body  of  Roman  citizens,  who  readily  de- 
 livered up  the  town  on  the  appearance  of  his  forces. 
 (B.  Civ.,  3,  29.)  The  situation  of  the  ancient  Lis- 
 sus can  hardly  be  identified  with  the  modern  Alessio, 
 which  is  more  inland,  and  may  rather  answer  to  Acro- 
 lissus.    (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  43.) 
 
 LisTA,  the  old  cajiital  of  the  Aborigines,  in  the 
 country  afterward  settled  by  the  Sabines.  It  was  24 
 stadia  from  Tiora,  that  is,  three  miles  lower  down  in 
 the  valley  of  the  Sallo.  The  town  was  surprised  by 
 the  Sabines  in  an  expedition  by  night,  and  the  inhab- 
 itants were  driven  out.     {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  14.) 
 
 LiTERNUM,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Campania,  west  of 
 Atella,  and  north  of  Cumae.  Its  situation  has  been 
 disputed  ;  but  antiquaries  seem  now  agreed  in  fixing 
 the  site  of  the  town  at  a  place  called  Torre  di  Palna. 
 The  difficulty  arose  chiefly  from  the  mention  of  a  riv- 
 er of  the  same  name  by  some  of  the  ancient  writers. 
 {Strabo.  243. — Liv.,  32,  29.)  This  river  can  be  no 
 other  than  that  which  rises  in  the  Apennines  above 
 Nola,  and,  flowing  at  no  great  distance  from  Acerrae, 
 discharges  its  waters  into  the  sea  near  Liternum. 
 This  stream  is  apt  to  stagnate  near  its  entrance  into 
 the  sea,  and  to  form  marshes  anciently  known  as  the 
 Palus  Literna,  now  Lago  di  Patria.  Liternum  be- 
 came a  Roman  colony  in  the  same  year  with  Vultur- 
 num.  {Liv.,  34,  45.)  It  was  recolonized  by  Augus- 
 tus, and  ranked  among  the  praefecturae.  {Front.,  de 
 Col. — Festus.)  That  Scipio  Africanus  retired  here 
 in  disgust  at  the  injustice  of  his  countrymen,  seems  a 
 fact  too  well  attested  to  be  called  into  question  ;  but 
 whether  he  really  closed  his  existence  here,  as  far  as 
 we  can  collect  from  Livy's  account,  may  be  deemed 
 uncertain  :  his  tomb  and  statue  were  to  be  seen  both 
 at  Liternum,  and  in  the  family  vault  of  the  Scipios, 
 which  was  discovered  some  years  ago  outside  the 
 Porta  Capena.  {Liv.,  38,  51.)  Strabo  (243)  certain- 
 ly seems  to  imply  that  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
 life  at  Liternum,  and  also  makes  mention  of  his  tomb 
 there.  According  to  Valerius  Maximus  (5,  3,  2), 
 Scipio  himself  had  caused  to  be  engraved  on  it  this 
 inscription, 
 
 INGRATA.    PATRIA.    NE.    OSSA.    QVIDEM. 
 MEA.   HABES., 
 
 which  would  be  decisive  of  the  question.  It  is  not 
 improbable  that  the  little  hamlet  of  Patria,  which  is 
 supposed  to  stand  on  the  site  of  Scipio's  villa,  is  in- 
 debted for  its  name  to  this  circumstance.  Seneca 
 gives  an  interesting  description  of  a  visit  he  made  to 
 the  remains  of  the  villa,  and  of  the  reflections  to 
 which  it  gave  rise,  in  a  letter  to  one  of  his  friends. 
 {Ep.,  86.)  Pliny  asserts  that  there  were  to  be  seen 
 in  his  day,  near  Liternum,  some  olive-trees  and  myr- 
 tles said  to  have  been  planted  by  the  illustrious  exile. 
 (Plin.,  16,  44. — Cramer^s  Anc.  Italy.,  vol.  2,  p.  145, 
 seqq.) 
 
 LiviA,  I.  Drusilla  (Livia  Drusilla  Augusta,  or 
 Livia  Augusta),  a  celebrated  Roman  female  of  the 
 Claudian  line,  and  daughter  of  LiviusDrusillus  Clau- 
 dianus,  was  born  B.C.  59.  She  married  Tiberius  Clau- 
 dius Nero,  and  when  her  husband  was  compelled  to 
 flee  from  Italy  in  consequence  of  the  troubles  connect- 
 ed with  the  civil  war  {vid.  Claudius  II.),  she  accom- 
 panied him,  first  to  Sicily,  and  afterward  to  Greece. 
 1  In  this  latter  country  they  were  kindly  received  by  the 
 
LIVIA. 
 
 LIV 
 
 Lacedsemonians,  whom  she  subsequently  recompensed 
 for  the  asylum  they  had  afforded  her.  To  rare  per- 
 sonal attractions  Livia  added  the  charms  of  a  cultiva- 
 ted intellect ;  and  when  it  was  again  safe  for  her  hus- 
 band and  herself  to  return  to  Rome,  she  soon  drew 
 upon  her  the  notice  of  Augustus,  who  demanded  her 
 from  her  husband.  Tiberius  dared  not  refuse;  and 
 Augustus,  having  repudiated  his  own  wife  Scribonia, 
 made  Livia  his  spouse.  She  had  already  borne  two 
 sons  to  her  first  husband,  namely,  Tiberius,  who  was 
 afterward  emperor,  and  Drusus  Germanicus;  but  what 
 rendered  the  affair  most  disreputable,  was  the  circum- 
 stance of  her  being  six  months  gone  in  pregnancy  at 
 the  time  of  her  union  with  Augustus.  This  child,  the 
 only  one  she  had  after  her  marriage  with  the  emper- 
 or, died  almost  at  the  moment  of  its  birth.  Livia  was 
 twenty  years  of  age  when  she  was  thus  called  to  share 
 the  empire  of  the  world  ;  and,  availing  herself  skilfully 
 of  the  influence  which  she  soon  acquired  over  the  mind 
 of  Augustus,  she  began  to  concert  her  plans  for  secu- 
 ring the  succession  to  her  own  son  Tiberius.  With 
 this  view,  she  was  suspected  of  having  caused  the 
 death  of  the  young  Marcellus,  who  might  have  proved 
 an  obstacle  to  her  ambitious  views,  though  it  must 
 be  confessed  that  there  is  no  positive  testimony  which 
 would  seem  to  justify  the  suspicion.  She  soon  lost 
 her  own  son  Drusus  Germanicus;  but  she  did  not 
 imitate  Octavia,  who  had  actually  wearied  out  Au- 
 gustus by  the  excess  of  her  sorrow  :  on  the  contrary, 
 she  lent  an  ear  to  the  consolations  of  the  philosopher 
 Areus,  and  testified  her  gratitude  to  Augustus  for  the 
 honours  he  had  decreed  to  the  memory  of  her  son. 
 In  all  this,  no  doubt,  there  was  much  of  dissimulation, 
 even  if  we  make  the  fullest  allowance  for  the  feelings 
 of  a  parent.  After  the  premature  death  of  the  two  sons 
 of  Julia,  Livia  hastened  to  call  her  own  son  Tiberius 
 from  his  retirement  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  and  pre- 
 vailed upon  Augustus  to  adopt  him,  along  with  Agrip- 
 pa  Posthumus,  the  last  of  the  family  of  the  Csesars. 
 Her  next  care  was  to  exclude  this  same  Agrippa  from 
 the  succession,  an  object  which  she  easily  effected  by 
 means  of  secret  calumnies  ;  and  when  now  the  path 
 to  the  throne  stood  open  for  Tiberius,  she  is  said  by 
 some  to  have  hastened  the  end  of  Augustus  himself, 
 by  means  of  poisoned  figs  which  she  had  given  him 
 to  eat,  and  which  brought  on  an  attack  of  dysentery. 
 Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  it  is  at  least  certain  that 
 she  had  the  entire  control  of  his  last  moments.  Ev- 
 erything that  passed  within  the  walls  of  the  dwelling 
 where  he  lay  was  concealed  by  her  with  the  utmost 
 care.  Hasty  messengers  were  sent  after  Tiberius  to 
 recall  him  instantly  to  the  death-bed  of  the  emperor ; 
 and  with  so  much  secrecy  was  the  whole  afl'air  shroud- 
 ed, that,  although  it  was  given  out  that  Tiberius 
 found  his  adopted  father  still  alive  {Sucton.,  Vit.  Aug., 
 97,  seqq.),  and  had  a  long  and  aflfectionate  interview 
 with  him,  yet  Tacitus  informs  us,  that  it  was  never 
 clearly  ascertained  whether  these  stories  were  not 
 mere  fabrications;  and  whether  Augustus  was  not,  in 
 realitv,  already  dead  when  Tiberius  arrived  at  Nola. 
 By  a  singular  clause  in  his  will,  Augustus  adopted 
 Livia  herself,  directing  her  to  take  the  name  of  Julia 
 Augusta,  and  made  her  joint  sharer  in  the  inheritance 
 with  her  son.  The  latter,  however,  showed  but  little 
 gratitude  to  his  parent,  to  whom  he  was  in  every 
 sense  indebted  for  his  elevation.  When  the  senate 
 wished  to  decree  new  honours  to  her,  he  opposed  the 
 step  ;  he  never  consulted  her  about  public  affairs,  a 
 thing  which  Augustus  was  always  accustomed  to  do  ; 
 and  yet,  at  tlie  same  time,  he  took  care  to  conceal  his 
 ingratitude  under  the  most  studied  respect.  At  length, 
 however,  an  open  rupture  ensued,  which  continued 
 until  the  period  of  her  death.  Livia  died  at  Rome,  at 
 the  age  of  86  years.  Her  funeral  was  celebrated  with- 
 out any  kind  of  display,  and  her  great-grandson  Ca- 
 ligula pronounced  her  funeral  culogium,  which  was 
 
 almost  the  only  honour  then  rendered  to  her  memory. 
 Her  will  was  never  executed;  and  it  was  not  until 
 Claudius,  whom  she  had  never  liked,  ascended  the 
 throne,  that  divine  honours  were  caused  by  him  to  be 
 decreed  unto  her.  Livia  appears  to  have  been  a  wom- 
 an of  strong  mind,  and  she  is  said  to  have  been  al- 
 ways consulted  by  Augustus  on  public  afTairs,  and 
 often  to  have  given  him  the  most  judicious  advice. 
 That  she  was  an  ambitious  woman  is  most  evident ; 
 and  possibly,  in  the  furtherance  of  her  views,  she  may 
 have  been  a  guilty  one.  The  conduct  of  Tiberius, 
 indeed,  towards  her,  might  be  explained  in  this  way, 
 since,  by  one  of  those  strange  contradictions  that  some- 
 times present  themselves  even  m  the  character  of  the 
 most  vicious,  he  may  have  been  aware  of  all  her  secret 
 arts  for  his  own  advancement,  and,  though  so  larirely 
 benefited  thereby,  may  have  cherished  a  secret  de- 
 testation for  the  very  individual  to  whom  he  owed  his 
 elevation.  (Siieton.,  Vit.  Aug. — Id  ,  Vit.  Tib. —  Ta- 
 cit., Ann.,  5,  L — Veil.  Patcrc,  2,  7.5.)  —  H.  or  Li- 
 villa,  daughter  of  Nero  Claudius  Drusus,  by  his  wife 
 Anlonia  the  Younger,  was  sister  to  Germanicus,  and 
 grand-daughter  of  the  Empress  Livia.  Her  first  hus- 
 band was  Caius,  the  son  of  Agrippa  ;  after  his  death, 
 when  still  quite  young,  she  married  Drusus  the  son  of 
 Tiberius.  Sejanus  seduced  her  affections  from  the 
 latter.  Engaged  in  a  career  of  adultery  with  that  fla- 
 gitious minister,  she  hoped  to  rise  with  her  paramour 
 to  the  imperial  dignity,  and  with  this  view  conspired 
 against  her  husband.  Her  guilt  being  afterward  fully 
 detected,  she  was  put  to  death  bv  order  of  Tiberius. 
 {Sucton.,  Vit.  Tib.,  62.— Tacit.,  Aim.,  4,  3,  et  40.— 
 Id.  ih.,  6,  2.) — IIL  Orestilla,  called  by  Dio  Cassius 
 (.59,  8)  Cornelia  Orestina.  She  was  on  the  point  of 
 marrying  C.  Calpurnius  Piso,  when  Caligula,  enam- 
 oured of  her  beauty,  carried  her  off  from  the  very 
 midst  of  the  nuptial  ceremonies,  and  in  a  few  days 
 after  repudiated  her.  She  was  subsequently  con- 
 demned by  him  to  exile.  {Sueton.,  Vit.  Calig.,  25. 
 — Dio  Cass.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Livi^  Leges,  proposed  by  M.  Livius  Drusus,  a 
 tribune,  A.U.C.  662,  about  transplanting  colonies  to 
 different  parts  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  granting  corn 
 to  poor  citizens  at  a  low  price  ;  also,  that  the  judices 
 should  be  chosen  indiscriminately  from  the  senators 
 and  equites,  and  that  the  allied  states  of  Italy  should 
 be  admitted  to  the  freedom  of  the  city.  Drusus  was 
 a  man  of  great  eloquence  and  of  the  most  upright  in- 
 tentions ;  but,  endeavouring  to  reconcile  those  whose 
 interests  were  diametrically  opposite,  he  was  crushed 
 in  the  attempt,  being  murdered  by  an  unknown  as- 
 sassin in  his  own  house,  upon  his  return  from  the  fo- 
 rum, amid  a  number  of  clients  and  friends.  No  in- 
 quiry was  made  about  his  death.  The  states  of  Italy 
 considered  this  event  as  the  signal  of  a  revolt,  and  en- 
 deavoured to  extort  by  force  what  they  could  not  ob- 
 tain voluntarily.  Above  300,000  men  fell  in  the  con- 
 test in  the  space  of  two  years.  At  last  the  Romans, 
 although  upon  the  whole  they  had  the  advantage,  were 
 obliged  to  grant  the  freedom  of  the  city,  first  to  the 
 allies,  and  afterward  to  all  the  states  of  Italy.  {Veil. 
 Patcrc,  2,  13,  seqq.—Flor.,  3,  18.) 
 
 Livius,  I.  Andronicus,  a  dramatic  poet  who  flour- 
 ished at  Rome  about  240  years  before  the  Christian 
 era.  He  was  a  native  of  Magna  Graecia,  and,  when 
 his  country  was  finally  subdued  by  the  Romans,  was 
 made  captive  and  brought  to  Rome  (B  C.  267).  It 
 is  generally  believed  that  he  there  became  the  slave, 
 and  afterward  the  freedman,  of  Livius  Salinator,  from 
 whom  he  derived  one  of  his  names  ;  but  these  facts 
 do  not  seem  to  rest  on  any  authority  more  ancient  than 
 the  Eusebian  Chronicle.  (Hicron.  in  Euseb.,  Chron., 
 p.  ?i7.  —  ScaUger,  Thcs.  Temp. ,  cd.  Amstel.,  1658.) 
 The  precise  period  of  his  death  is  uncertain ;  but  m 
 Cicero's  dialogue  de  Seneclutc,  Cato  is  introduced, 
 savinff  that  heliad  seen  old  Livius  while  he  was  him- 
 
 ^    °  747 
 
LIVIUS. 
 
 LIVIUS. 
 
 self  a  youth  (c.  14).  Now  Cato  was  born  B.C.  235, 
 and  since  the  period  of  youth  among  the  Romans  was 
 considered  as  commencing  at  fifteen,  it  may  be  pre- 
 sumed that  the  existence  of  Livius  was  at  least  pro- 
 tracted till  B.C.  220.  It  has  been  frequently  said 
 «  that  he  lived  till  the  year  B.C.  208,  A.U.C.  546,  be- 
 cause Livy  (27,  37)  mentions,  that  a  hymn  composed 
 by  this  ancient  poet  was  publicly  sung  in  that  year,  to 
 avert  the  disasters  threatened  by  an  alarming  prodi- 
 gy ;  but  the  historian  does  not  declare  that  it  was 
 written  for  the  occasion,  or  even  recently  before.  Fes- 
 tus,  however,  informs  us  (s.  v.  Scribns),  that  the  Ro- 
 mans paid  distinguished  honour  to  Livius,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  success  which  attended  their  arms  in 
 the  second  Punic  war,  after  the  public  recitation  of  a 
 hymn  which  he  had  composed. — Livius  wrote  both 
 tragedies  and  comedies.  The  earliest  play  of  his  was 
 represented  B.C.  240,  A.U.C.  514,  about  a  year  after 
 the  termination  of  the  first  Punic  war.  Like  Thes- 
 pis,  and  most  other  dramatists  in  the  commencement 
 of  the  theatrical  art,  Livius  was  an  actor,  and  for  a  con- 
 siderable time  the  sole  performer  of  his  own  pieces. 
 Afterward,  however,  his  voice  failing,  in  consequence 
 of  the  audience  insisting  on  a  repetition  of  favourite 
 passages,  he  introduced  a  boy,  who  relieved  him  by 
 declaiming  the  recitative  part  in  concert  with  the  flute, 
 while  he  himself  executed  the  corresponding  gesticu- 
 lations in  the  monologues,  and,  in  parts  where  high 
 exertion  was  required,  only  employing  his  own  voice 
 in  the  conversational  and  less  elevated  scenes. — 
 "  Hence,"  observes  ]jivy  (7,  2),  ''  the  practice  arose 
 of  dividing  the  representation  between  two  actors,  and 
 of  reciting,  as  it  were,  to  the  gesture  and  action  of  the 
 comedian.  Thenceforth  the  custom  so  far  prevailed, 
 that  the  comedians  never  uttered  anything  except  the 
 verses  of  the  dialogue."  And  this  system,  apparent- 
 ly so  well  calculated  to  destroy  all  theatrical  illusion, 
 continued,  under  certain  modifications,  to  subsist  on 
 the  Roman  stage  during  the  most  refined  periods  of 
 taste  and  literature.  The  popularity  of  Livius  in- 
 creasing from  these  performances,  as  well  as  from  a 
 propitiatory  hymn  he  had  composed,  and  which  had 
 been  followed  by  great  public  success,  a  building  was 
 assigned  to  him  on  the  Aventine  Hill.  This  edifice 
 was  partly  converted  into  a  theatre,  and  was  also  in- 
 habited by  a  troop  of  players,  for  whom  Livius  wrote 
 his  pieces,  and  frequently  acted  along  with  them. 
 {Fesius,  s.  V.  Scribas.)  It  has  been  disputed  whether 
 the  first  drama  represented  by  Livius  Andronicus  at 
 Rome  was  a  tragedy  or  comedy.  {Osa7in.,  Analect. 
 Crit.,  c.  13.)  However  this  may  be,  it  appears  from 
 the  names  which  have  been  preserved  of  his  plays, 
 that  he  wrote,  as  we  have  already  said,  both  tragedies 
 and  comedies.  These  titles,  which  have  been  col- 
 lected by  Fabricius  and  other  writers,  are  Achilles, 
 Adonis,  JEgisthus,  Ajax,  Andromeda,  Anliopa,  Cen- 
 tauri,  Equus  Trojanus,  Helena,  Hermione,  Ino,  Lyd- 
 ius,  Protesilaodamia,  Serenus,  Tereus,  Tcucer,  Vir- 
 go. {Bihl.  Lat.,  vol.  3,  1.  4,  c.  1.)  Such  names  also 
 evince,  that  most  of  his  dramas  were  translated  or 
 imitated  from  the  works  of  his  countrymen  of  Magna 
 Grscia,  or  from  the  great  tragedians  of  Greece.  Thus, 
 .iEschylus  wrote  a  tragedy  on  the  subject  of  ^gis- 
 thus ;  there  is  still  a  play  of  Sophocles  extant  by  the 
 name  of  Ajax,  and  he  is  known  to  have  written  an 
 Andromeda:  Stobaeus  mentions  the  Antiopa  of  Eu- 
 ripides :  four  Greek  dramatists,  Sophocles,  Euripides, 
 Anaxandrides,  and  Phil«tus,  composed  tragedies  on 
 the  subject  of  Tereus  ;  and  Epicharmus,  as  well  as 
 others,  chose  for  their  comedies  the  story  of  the  Si- 
 rens.— Little,  however  except  the  titles,  remain  to  us 
 of  the  dramas  of  Livius.  The  longest  passage  we 
 possess,  in  connexion,  is  four  lines  from  the  tragedy 
 of  Ino,  forming  part  of  a  hymn  to  Diana,  recited  by 
 the  chorus,  and  containing  a  poetical  and  animated 
 exhortation  to  a  person- about  to  proceed  to  the  chase. 
 748 
 
 This  passage  testifies  the  vast  improvement  effect- 
 ed by  Livius  on  the  Latin  tongue;  and,  indeed,  the 
 polish  of  the  language,  and  metrical  correctness  of 
 these  hexameter  lines,  have  led  to  a  suspicion  that 
 they  are  not  the  production  of  a  period  so  ancient  as 
 the  age  of  Livius,  or,  at  least,  that  they  have  been 
 modernized  by  some  later  hand.  {Jos.  Scahger,  Led. 
 Auson.  —  Osann.,  Analect.  Crit.,  p.  36.)  Some  ver- 
 ses in  the  Carmen  de  Arte  Meirica  of  Terentianus 
 Maurus  are  the  chief  authority  for  these  hexameters 
 being  by  Liviu  i.  As  the  verses  in  the  chorus  of  the 
 Ino  are  the  onl/  passage  among  the  fragments  of  Liv- 
 ius from  which  a  connected  meaning  can  be  elicited, 
 we  must  take  our  opinion  of  his  poetical  merits  from 
 those  who  judged  of  them  while  his  writings  were  yet 
 wholly  extant.  Cicero  has  pronounced  an  unfavoura- 
 ble decision,  declaring  that  they  were  scarcely  worthy 
 a  second  perusal.  {Brutus,  c.  18.)  They  long,  how- 
 ever, contmued  popular  in  Rome,  and  were  read  by  the 
 youth  in  schools  even  during  the  Augustan  age  of  po- 
 etry. It  is  evident,  indeed,  that  at  that  period  of  Ro- 
 man literature  there  was  a  good  deal  of  what  corre- 
 sponds with  modern  black-letter  taste,  and  which  led  to 
 the  inordinate  admiration  of  the  works  of  Livius,  and 
 the  bitter  complaints  of  Horace,  that  they  should  be  ex- 
 tolled as  perfect,  or  held  up  by  old  pedants  to  the  imita- 
 tion of  youth,  in  an  age  when  so  much  better  models  ex- 
 isted. {Hor.,  Epist.,2,1.)  But,  although  Livius  may 
 have  been  too  much  read  in  the  schools,  and  too  much 
 admired  in  an  age  which  could  boast  of  models  so  great- 
 ly superior,  he  is  at  least  entitled  to  praise  as  the  first 
 inventor  among  the  Romans  of  a  species  of  poetry 
 which  was  afterward  carried  by  them  to  much  higher 
 perfection.  By  translating  the  Odyssey,  too,  into 
 Latin  verse,  he  adopted  the  means,  which,  of  all  oth- 
 ers, was  most  likely  to  foster  the  infant  literature  of 
 his  country,  as  he  thus  presented  it  with  an  image  of 
 the  most  pure  and  perfect  taste,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
 with  those  wild  and  romantic  adventures,  which  are 
 best  suited  to  attract  the  sympathy  and  interest  of  a 
 half-civilized  nation.  This  happy  influence  could  not 
 be  prevented  even  by  the  use  of  the  rugged  Saturnian 
 verses,  which  led  Cicero  to  compare  the  translation  of 
 Livius  to  the  ancient  statues  that  might  be  attributed 
 to  Daedalus.  {Brutus,  c.  18.  —  Dumlop's  Rom.  Lit., 
 vol.  1,  p.  66,  seqq.,  Lond.  cd.) — II.  M.  Salinator,  ob- 
 tained the  consulship  B.C.  219,  and  again  in  207. 
 During  his  first  term  of  office  he  carried  on  a  success- 
 ful war  m  Illyricum  ;  during  the  second  he  had  for 
 his  colleague  Claudius  Nero.  Livius  and  Nero  were 
 personal  enemies,  but  the  interests  of  their  commo\ 
 country  reunited  them  for  a  time  in  the  bonds  of 
 friendship.  They  marched  together  against  Hasdru- 
 bal,  and  gained  the  victory  at  the  Metaurus  in  Umbria. 
 Livius  received  the  honours  of  a  triumph  for  this  ex- 
 ploit, and  his  colleague  only  an  ovation,  although  the 
 former  insisted  that  his  colleague  was  entitled  to  the 
 same  distinctions  with  himself.  Three  years  after  he 
 was  censor  with  the  same  Nero,  and  caused  an  un- 
 popular tax  to  be  levied  on  salt,  whence  he  obtained 
 the  soubriquet  of  Salinator  (from,  salince,  "  salt-works"). 
 The  old  enmity  between  Livius  and  Nero  broke  out 
 afresh  in  their  censorship,  as  Livy  (29,  37)  informs 
 us.  {Liv;  27,  M.  —  Id.,  28,  9,  scqq.—Id.,  29,  5, 
 &e.) — III.  Drusus,  a  tribune.  {Vid.  Liviae  Leges.) 
 — IV.  Titus,  a  celebrated  historian.  He  was  born 
 at  Patavium,  the  modern  Padua,  of  a  consular  fam- 
 ily, in  the  year  of  Rome  695,  B.C.  59.  Titus  Liv- 
 ius Optimus  was  the  first  of  the  Livian  family  that 
 came  to  Rome  ;  and  from  him  was  descended  Caius 
 Livius,  the  father  of  the  historian.  {Zarahella,  Staria 
 della  gente  Livia.)  Livy  seems  to  have  received  his 
 early  instruction  in  his  native  city.  But,  though  his 
 education  was  provincial,  he  was  taught  all  the  useful 
 learning  of  his  age  ;  and  it  has  been  conjectured,  from 
 several  passages  of  his  history,  and  the  general  colour 
 
LIVIUS 
 
 LIVIUS. 
 
 of  his  styie,  that  he  had  acquired  some  superfluous  ac- 
 complishments in  a  school  of  declamation.  {Motihod- 
 do.  Origin  and  Progress  of  Language,  vol.  5,  b.  1,  c. 
 1.)  It  would  appear,  that  he  remained  at  Patavium 
 during  the  wtiole  period  of  the  civil  dissensions,  pro- 
 scriptions, and  violations  of  property  which  followed 
 the  assassination  of  Cffisar.  It  has  been  even  main- 
 tained bv  some  writers,  that  he  commenced  his  great 
 work  at  Patavium  ere  he  visited  the  capital.  {Kruse, 
 de  Fide  Livii,  Lips.,  1811.)  But  through  the  whole 
 of  the  first  Decade,  which  is  the  part  they  suppose  he 
 had  written  before  coming  to  Rome,  he  speaks  con- 
 cerning the  localities  of  the  city,  its  customs,  judicial 
 forms,  and  religious  ceremonies,  as  one  who  was  ac- 
 tually on  the  spot,  and  had  ocular  proof  of  all  he  re- 
 lates. At  whatever  time  he  came  to  Rome,  it  is  evi- 
 dent that  lie  commenced  his  history  between  the  years 
 725and730  A.U.CorB.O.  29  and  24;  for  in  the  first 
 book  (c.  19)  he  mentions,  that,  at  the  period  when  he 
 wrote,  the  temple  of  Janus  had  been  twice  shut  since 
 the  reign  of  Numa,  once  after  the  first  Punic  war,  and 
 again  in  his  own  time  by  Augustus.  Now  this  tem- 
 ple never  had  been  closed  by  Augustus  till  725,  so 
 .'hat  the  passage  could  not  have  been  written  prior  to 
 that  year;  and  it  could  not  have  been  written  subse- 
 quently to  730,  because  in  that  year  Augustus  again 
 shut  the  temple,  and  Livy,  of  course,  must  have  then 
 said  that  it  had  been  three  times,  and  not  twice,  closed 
 since  the  age  of  Numa.  Soon  after  his  arrival  at 
 Rome,  he  composed  some  dialogues  on  philosoph- 
 ical and  political  questions  (Seneca,  Kpist.,  100), 
 which  he  addressed  to  Augustus.  These  dialogues, 
 which  are  now  lost,  procured  for  him  the  favour  of  the 
 emperor,  who  gave  him  free  access  to  all  those  ar- 
 chives and  records  of  the  state  which  might  be  ser- 
 viceable in  the  prosecution  of  the  historical  researches 
 in  which  he  was  employed.  He  allotted  him  apart- 
 ments in  his  own  palace,  and  sometimes  even  conde- 
 scended to  afford  explanations,  that  facilitated  the 
 right  understanding  of  documents  which  were  impor- 
 tant to  his  investigations.  Livy  appears,  indeed,  to 
 have  been  on  intimate  terms  with  Augustus,  who 
 used,  according  to  Tacitus  {Ann.,  4,  34),  to  call  him 
 a  "Pompeian,"  on  account  of  the  praises  which  he 
 bestowed  on  Pompey's  party.  It  appears  that  Livy 
 availed  himself  of  the  good  graces  of  the  emperor 
 only  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  historical  re- 
 searches in  which  he  was  engaged.  We  do  not  hear 
 that  he  accepted  any  pecuniary  favours,  or  even  held 
 any  public  employment.  It  has  been  conjectured  by 
 some  writers,  from  a  passage  in  Suetonius  ( Vit.  Claud., 
 41),  that  he  had  for  a  short  time  superintended  the  edu- 
 cation of  Claudius,  who  afterward  succeeded  to  the 
 empire.  {Gibbon's  Misc.  Works,  vol.  4,  p.  425.)  But, 
 though  the  expressions  scarcely  authorize  this  infer- 
 ence, they  prove  that,  at  Livy's  suggestion,  Claudius 
 undertook  in  his  youth  to  write  a  history  of  Rome 
 from  the  death  of  Julius  Csesar,  and  thus  acquired  the 
 habits  of  historical  composition,  which  he  continued 
 after  his  accession;  being  better  qualified,  as  Gibbon 
 remarks,  to  record  great  actions  than  to  perform  them. 
 — Livv  continued  for  nearly  20  years  to  be  closely  oc- 
 cupied in  the  composition  of  his  history.  During  this 
 long  period  his  chief  residence  was  at  Rome,  or  in  its 
 immediate  vicinity ;  but  he  occasionally  retired  to 
 Naples,  that  he  might  there  arrange  with  leisure  and 
 tranquillity  the  materials  he  had  amassed  in  the  capi- 
 tal. {Funccius,  dc  Virili  JElate  Ling.  Lat.,  pars  2, 
 c.  4.)  He  also  paid  frequent  visits  to  his  native  city, 
 where  he  was  invariably  received  with  distinguished 
 honours.  Though  Livy's  great  work  was  not  finish- 
 ed till  the  year  745  A.U.G.,  B.C.  9,  he  had  pre- 
 viously published  parts  of  it,  from  time  to  time,  by 
 which  means  he  early  acquired  a  high  reputation  with 
 his  countrymen,  who  considered  him  as  holding  the 
 same  rank  among  their  historians  that  Virgil  occu- 
 
 pied-among  their  poets,  and  Cicero  among  their  ora- 
 tors. His  fame  reached  even  the  remotest  extremi- 
 ties of  the  Roman  empire.  An  inhabitant  of  Gades 
 was  so  struck  with  his  illustrious  character,  that  he 
 travelled  all  the  way  from  that  city  to  Rome  on  pur- 
 pose to  see  him,  and,  having  gratified  his  curiosity, 
 straightway  returned  home.  {Ptm., Ep.,2,3.)  Li\-y 
 continued  to  reside  at  Rome  till  the  death  of  Augus- 
 tus. On  the  accession  of  Tiberius  he  returned  to  Pa- 
 tavium, where  he  survived  five  years  longer,  and  at 
 length  died  at  the  place  of  his  birth,  in  A.U.C.  770, 
 A.D  17,  and  in  the  76th  year  of  his  age. — Livy  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  twice  married.  By  one  of  his 
 wives  he  left  several  daughters  and  a  son,  to  whom  he 
 addressed  an  epistle  or  short  treatise  on  the  subject  of 
 rhetoric,  in  which,  while  delivering  his  opinion  con- 
 cerning the  authors  most  proper  to  be  read  by  youth, 
 he  says,  that  they  ought  first  to  study  Demosthenes 
 and  Cicero,  and  next  such  writers  as  most  closely  re- 
 sembled these  excellent  orators.  {Quint.,  Inst.  Or., 
 10,  1.)  After  his  death,  statues  were  erected  to  Livy 
 at  Rome  ;  for  we  learn  from  Suetonius  that  the  mad 
 Caligula  had  nearly  ordered  that  all  his  images,  as 
 well  as  those  of  Virgil,  should  be  removed  from  the 
 public  libraries.  His  more  rational  subjects,  never- 
 theless, regarded  Livy  as  the  only  historian  that  had 
 yet  appeared,  whose  dignity  of  sentiment  and  majesty 
 of  expression  rendered  him  worthy  to  record  the  story  of 
 the  Roman  republic. — The  work  of  Livy  comprehended 
 the  whole  history  of  Rome,  from  its  foundation  to  the 
 death  of  Drusus,  the  brother  of  Tiberius,  which  hap- 
 pened in  the  year  B.C.  9.  It  consisted  of  142  books; 
 but  of  these,  as  is  well  known,  only  35,  with  some 
 fragments  of  others,  are  now  extant.  The  first  ten 
 books,  which  are  still  remaining,  and  which  have  been 
 termed  the  first  Decade,  bring  down  the  history  from 
 the  arrival  of  ^Eneas  in  Italy  to  B.C.  293,  or  to  within 
 a  few  years  of  the  commencement  of  the  war  with 
 Pyrrhus.  An  hiatus  of  the  following  ten  books,  or 
 second  Decade,  deprives  us  of  the  interesting  expedi- 
 tion of  Pyrrhus,  who  landed  in  Italy  in  order  to  suc- 
 cour the  Tarentines,  the  discomfiture  at  length  sus- 
 tained by  that  enterprising  monarch,  the  final  subjuga- 
 tion of  Magna  Graecia,  and  the  first  Punic  war.  The 
 narrative  recommences  at  the  twenty-first  book,  with 
 the  second  Carthaginian  contest,  B.C.  218,  in  which 
 Hannibal  invaded  Italy,  and  it  continues  with  little  in- 
 terruption till  the  end  of  the  forty-fifth  book,  or  the 
 period  when  the  Romans  resolved  on  the  destruction 
 of  Carthage,  and  began  the  third  war  which  they 
 waged  against  that  ill-fated  city  ;  thus  comprehending 
 in  one  unbroken  narration  the  complete  history  of  the 
 great  struggle  in  which  Hannibal  and  Scipio  were  the 
 chief  antagonists,  the  campaigns  in  Macedon  against 
 Philip,  those  against  his  successor  Perseus,  and  the 
 contest  with  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria.  Still,  how- 
 ever, it  must  be  admitted,  that  the  most  valuable  por- 
 tion of  Livy's  history  has  perished.  The  commence- 
 ment of  those  dissensions  which  ended  in  the  subver- 
 sion of  the  liberties  of  Rome,  and  the  motives  by 
 which  the  actors  on  the  great  political  stage  were  in- 
 fluenced, would  have  given  scope  for  more  interesting 
 reflection  and  more  philosophic  deduction  than  de- 
 tails of  the  wars  with  the  Sabines  and  Samnite?,  or 
 even  of  those  with  the  Carthaginians  and  Greeks. 
 Stronger  reliance  might  also  have  been  placed  on  this 
 portion  of  the  history  than  on  that  by  which  it  was 
 preceded.  The  author's  account  of  the  civil  wars  of 
 Marius  and  Sylla,  of  Pompev  and  Cs>sar,  may  have 
 been  derived  from  those  who  were  eye-witnesses  of 
 these  destructive  contests,  and  he  himself  was  living 
 an  impartial  and  intelligent  observer  of  all  the  subse- 
 quent events  which  history  recorded  Both  Lord 
 Bolinabroke  and  Gibbon  have  declared  that  they  would 
 wiUinaly  give  up  what  we  now  possess  of  Livy  on  the 
 terms^of  recovering  what  we  have  lost.     {Gibbon's 
 
 749 
 
LIVIUS. 
 
 LIVIUS. 
 
 Misc.  Works,  vol.  4,  p.  427.) — In  addition,  then,  to  the 
 first  ten  books  of  Livy's  history,  we  have  from  the 
 2lst  to  the  45th  books,  both  inclusive  ;  though  from 
 liie  40th  to  the  45th  they  are  full  of  lacunee.  We 
 possess  also  some  fragments,  and  among  them  one  of 
 the  9 1st  book,  discovered  in  1772,  in  a  palimpsest 
 mawuscript  in  the  Vatican  library.  This  last-men- 
 tioned fragment  was  first  published  by  Bruns  {Ham- 
 burs;,  1773),  and  afterward  by  Kreyssig  {Chem>iilz, 
 1807).  There  also  exist  brief  epitomes  of  the  lost 
 books,  as  well  as  of  those  which  have  come  down  to  us. 
 They  have  been  frequently  supposed,  though  without 
 sufficient  reason,  to  have  been  compiled  by  Florus. 
 We  have,  however,  only  epitomes  of  140  books  ;  but 
 it  has  been  satisfactorily  shown  by  Sigonius  and  Dra- 
 kenborch  (ad  Liv.,  Epit.,  136),  that  the  epitomes  of  the 
 136th  and  137th  books  have  been  lost,  and  that  the 
 epitome  of  the  136th  book,  as  it  is  called,  is  in  reality 
 the  epitome  of  the  138th. — With  the  aid  of  this  col- 
 lection of  epitomes,  and  that  of  other  ancient  writers, 
 both  Greek  and  Latin,  Freinshcmius,  a  learned  Ger- 
 man scholar  of  the  17th  century,  composed  a  collec- 
 tion of  supplements  to  replace  the  books  that  are  lost. 
 He  has  imitated  admirably  the  style  and  general  man- 
 ner of  Livy,  and  has  displayed  great  care  and  accuracy 
 in  citing  his  authorities. — Many  hopes  have  been  en- 
 tertained, at  various  periods,  of  recovering  the  lost 
 books  of  Livy's  work,  but  they  appear  at  last  to  have 
 been  put  to  rest.  Erpenius  and  others  stated  once 
 that  there  was  a  translation  of  them  in  Arabic,  but 
 none  such  has  ever  been  discovered. — Tacitus  (Ann., 
 4,  34)  and  Seneca  {Suaso7-.,  7),  among  the  later  Ro- 
 man writers,  speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  beauty 
 of  Livy's  style,  and  of  the  fidelity  of  his  history  ; 
 praises  which  have  been  constantly  repeated  by  mod- 
 ern writers.  But,  while  most  will  be  ready  to  admit 
 that  his  style  is  eloquent,  his  narrative  clear,  and  his 
 powers  of  description  great  and  striking,  it  can  scarce- 
 ly be  denied  that  he  was  deficient  in  the  first  and 
 most  important  requisites  of  a  faithful  historian,  a  love 
 of  truth,  diligence  and  care  in  consulting  authorities, 
 and  a  patient  and  pains-taking  examination  of  con- 
 flicting testimonies.  Livy  made  very  little  use  even 
 of  such  inscriptions  and  public  docTUments  as  were 
 within  his  reach.  He  appeals,  indeed,  to  the  treaty 
 of  Spurius  Cassius  with  the  Latins,  engraven  on  a 
 column  of  brass  (2,  33) ;  but  in  the  notable  instance 
 of  the  inscription  on  the  Spolia  Opima  of  Cornelius 
 Cossus,  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Feretrius, 
 which  was  at  variance  with  the  received  Fasti  (or 
 register  of  magistrates)  and  the  common  accounts 
 of  historians,  he  does  not  appear  to  have  had  the 
 curiosity  to  examine  the  monument  itself,  but  is 
 content  with  repeating  the  report  of  Augustus  Csb- 
 sar  (4,  20).  This  is  one  of  the  few  passages  in 
 which  he  descends  to  a  critical  comparison  of  evi- 
 dence and  authorities ;  and  it  will  serve  as  a  proof 
 how  little  expert  he  was  in  that  art  of  an  historian, 
 and  how  little  he  valued  its  results :  for,  though  in 
 his  digression  he  professes  to  believe  in  the  superior 
 authority  of  the  inscription,  in  the  main  course  of  his 
 narrative  he  follows  the  beaten  track  of  writers  who 
 had  gone  before  him.  Ho  makes  no  mention  of  other 
 monuments  which  we  know  to  have  existed ;  the 
 brazen  column  in  the  temple  of  the  Aventine  Diana, 
 on  which  was  engraven  the  treaty  of  Servius  Tullius 
 with  the  Latins,  with  the  names  of  the  tribes  who 
 were  members  of  the  league  (Dion.  Hal.,  4,  26) ; 
 the  treaty  of  Tarquinius  Supcrbus  with  Gabii,  writ- 
 ten on  a  bull's  hide,  and  preserved  in  the  temple  of 
 Dius  Fidius  (Dio7i.  Hal.,  4,  59) ;  a  treaty  with  the 
 Sabines,  in  the  time  of  the  kings  (Hor.,  Epist.,  2,  1, 
 25)  ;  the  treaty  with  Carthage  in  the  first  year  of  the 
 republic  {Polyb.,  3,  22)  (and  here  his  negligence  is 
 without  excuse  ;  for,  even  though  the  document  itself 
 might  have  perished  before  his  time,  he  could  have 
 750 
 
 found  the  translation  of  it  in  Polybius,  if  he  had  con- 
 sulted him  before  he  began  to  narrate  the  Punic  wars)  ; 
 and,  finally,  the  treaty  with  Porsenna,  which  was 
 known  to  Pliny  (34,  14).  He  does  not,  therefore, 
 found  his  narrative  upon  contemporary  records,  but 
 avowedly  draws  his  materials  from  the  works  of  ear- 
 lier annalists,  such  as  Fabius  Pictor,  Calpurnius  Piso, 
 Valerius  Antias,  liicinius  Macer,  ^Elius  Tubero,  and 
 reposes  upon  their  authority.  As  long  as  his  guides 
 agree  in  the  main  points  of  their  story,  he  follows 
 them  without  fear  or  doubt.  When  they  openly  con- 
 tradict each  other,  especially  on  questions  of  names 
 or  dates,  then  he  sometimes  honestly  confesses  the 
 difficulty,  and  acknowledges  in  general  terms  the  un- 
 certamty  of  the  history  of  the  first  centuries  of  the 
 city.  But  very  many  discrepances  less  flagrant,  and 
 even  some  as  important  as  those  which  he  has  speci- 
 fied, he  passes  over  without  notice  ;  and  yet  we  know 
 with  certainty  that  they  existed,  because  they  appear 
 in  the  narrative  of  Dionysius,  who  drew  from  the 
 same  authorities  as  Livy.  But,  though  the  course  of 
 his  narrative  is  sometimes  checked  by  the  conflict  of 
 external  testimony,  he  is  never  induced  to  pause,  or 
 doubt,  by  any  internal  difficulty,  any  inconsistency  or 
 contradiction,  or  perplexity  in  the  received  story. 
 Nothing  less  than  a  miracle  is  too  strange  for  his  ac- 
 quiescence. It  is  evident  that  he  has  bestowed  no  la- 
 bour upon  examining  the  probability  of  the  events 
 which  he  relates,  or  investigating  their  connexion  as 
 causes  and  effects. — There  are  also  sufficient  proofs 
 that  he  wrote  hastily  and  even  carelessly.  He  some- 
 times mentions  incidentally,  in  a  subsequent  part  of 
 his  history,  circumstances  which  he  has  omitted  in 
 their  proper  place.  Thus  it  is  only  by  his  remarks 
 on  the  proposal  for  communicating  the  dignities  of 
 pontiflF  and  augur  to  the  plebeians  (10,  6)  that  we  learn 
 from  him  that  Ramnes,  Tatienses,  and  Luceres  were 
 names  of  the  ancient  tribes.  He  sometimes  repeats 
 (35,  21  and  39),  sometimes  contradicts  himself  (30, 
 22,  and  34,  44).  It  is  an  instance  and  proof  of  botn 
 his  carelessness  and  his  want  of  familiarity  with  the 
 antiquities  of  his  country,  that,  tliough  he  expressly 
 informs  us  that  till  a  very  short  time  before  the  cap- 
 ture of  the  city,  the  Roman  way  of  fighting  was  in 
 close  phalanx,  with  long  spears,  yet  in  no  description 
 of  a  battle  does  he  allude  to  such  tactics,  but  com- 
 monly uses  of  the  older  times  the  terms  which  relate 
 to  the  more  modern  structure  of  the  Roman  army 
 We  cannot,  therefore,  feel  assured  that  he  always  reo- 
 resented  accurately  the  statements  of  the  older  annal- 
 ists from  whom  he  takes  his  materials. — Any  errors, 
 however,  which  might  arise  from  these  causes,  would 
 be  single  and  detached,  could  bear  but  a  very  small 
 ratio  to  the  bulk  of  the  history,  and  would  not  affect 
 its  general  spirit.  But  the  very  tone  and  maimer  of 
 Livy's  work,  however  great  rnay  be  his  powers  of  de- 
 scription, however  lucid  his  style  of  narrative,  how- 
 ever much  he  may  dazzle  the  imagination  or  interest 
 the  feelings  of  his  readers,  are  a  warning  against  im- 
 plicit belief.  He  excelled  in  narration  and  in  the  el- 
 oquent expression  of  excited  feelings,  and  he  obvious- 
 ly delighted  in  the  exercise  of  his  genius.  In  report- 
 ing the  traditions  of  the  early  ages  of  Rome,  he  seems 
 less  desirous  to  ascertain  the  truth  than  to  array  the 
 popular  story  in  the  most  attractive  garb.  He  is  not 
 so  much  an  historian  as  a  poet.  As  the  history  ad- 
 vances and  the  truth  of  facts  is  better  ascertained, 
 ho  is  of  course  compelled  to  record  them  with  great- 
 er fidelity  ;  but  still  his  whole  work  is  a  tiiumphal 
 celebration  of  the  heroic  spirit  and  military  glory  of 
 Rome.  Here,  then,  is  a  disturbing  force  which  has 
 borne  him  away  from  the  strict  line  of  hiistorical  truth. 
 To  this  desire  of  exalting  the  glory  of  his  country  (and, 
 no  doubt,  to  a  similar  impulse  actuating  those  from 
 whom  he  copied)  we  must  ascribe  the  singular  phe- 
 nomena which  appear  on  the  face  of  the  history,  that, 
 
LIVIUS. 
 
 LOG 
 
 in  perpetual  wars  with  the  surrounding  states,  the  Ro- 
 mans were  never  defeated  in  the  open  field  (9,  19); 
 that  when  they  were  distressed,  it  was  always  by  pes- 
 tilence, or  famine,  or  sedition  ;  and  that,  at  such  sea- 
 sons, their  enemies  abstained  from  attacking  them  ; 
 that  they  gained  victory  after  victory  without  subduing 
 their  opponents ;  that  taken  cities  reappear  in  the 
 power  of  their  original  possessors  ;  that  consuls  and 
 dictators  triumph  in  succession  over  nations  that  are 
 still  able  to  supply  subjects  for  new  triumphs  to  new 
 consuls  and  new  dictators  ;  that  slaughters,  which 
 must  have  exhausted  any  state  of  ancient  Italy,  dimin- 
 ished not  the  number  of  their  perpetually-renovated 
 adversaries.  To  this  passion  for  extolling  the  military 
 reputation  of  Rome  we  owe  the  comparative  neglect 
 of  the  ]ess  popular  and  less  ostentatious  subjects  of 
 domestic  history.  Every  war  and  triumph  of  which 
 any  memorial,  true  or  false,  existed,  is  scrupulously 
 registered  ;  but  the  original  constitution  of  the  state, 
 the  division  of  its  citizens,  the  several  rights,  the  con- 
 tests between  the  orders,  the  constitution  of  the  gen- 
 eral or  partial  assemblies  of  the  people,  the  powers  of 
 the  magistrates ;  the  laws,  the  jurisprudence,  their 
 progressive  melioration  ;  these  are  subjects  on  which 
 our  information  is  vague,  scanty,  and  ill-connected. 
 It  is  evident,  that  to  the  mind  of  Livy  they  possessed 
 comparatively  little  interest ;  and  that  on  these  mat- 
 ters, to  say  the  least,  he  did  not  exert  himself  to  cor- 
 rect the  errors  or  supply  the  defects  of  the  writers  who 
 preceded  him.  He  was  satisfied  if  from  a  popular 
 commotion  he  could  extract  the  materials  of  an  elo- 
 quent speech.  It  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  on  this 
 most  important  portion  of  Roman  history  he  was  re- 
 ally ignorant,  that,  with  all  his  powers  of  language,  he 
 does  not  convey  clear  and  vivid  ideas  to  the  minds  of 
 his  readers.  Who  has  risen  from  the  perusal  of  the 
 early  books  of  Livy  with  the  distinct  notion  of  a  client 
 or  of  an  agrarian  law"!  {Maiden,  History  of  Rome, 
 p.  39,  seqq.) — Inexperienced,  too,  in  military  affairs, 
 numerous  blunders  have  been  attributed  to  him  in  re- 
 lation to  encampments,  circumvallations,  sieges,  and 
 warlike  operations  of  all  kinds.  {Casauhon,  Prcef.  ad 
 Polyb. — Folard,  Comment. — Niebuhr,  Rom.  Gcsch., 
 vol.  2,  p.  499,  514.)  He  did  not,  like  Polybius,  visit 
 the  regions  which  had  been  the  theatre  of  the  great 
 events  which  he  commemorates,  and  hence  arise  many 
 mistakes  in  geography,  and  much  confusion  with  re- 
 gard to  the  situation  of  cities  and  the  boundaries  of 
 districts.  {Lachmann,  de  Fontihus  Hist.  Liv.,  p. 
 106.)  "  Considered  in  this  point  of  view,"  says  Gib- 
 bon, "  Livy  appears  merely  as  a  man  of  letters,  little 
 acquainted  with  the  art  of  war,  and  careless  in  point 
 of  geography."  (Misc.  Works,  \o\.  5,  p.  371.) — We 
 have  already  spoken  of  the  style  of  Livy.  One  point, 
 however,  connected  with  this  part  of  the  subject  re- 
 mains to  be  noticed.  That  fastidious  critic  and  envi- 
 ous detractor  of  his  literary  contemporaries,  Asiiiius 
 PoUio,  had  said  that  there  was  a  certain  Pataxrinily  in 
 the  style  of  Livy  ;  by  which  he  meant  to  convey  an 
 idea  that  there  was  something  in  his  expressions  which 
 bespoke  a  citizen  of  Patavium,  and  which  would  not 
 have  appeared  in  the  style  of  a  native  of  Rome. 
 {Quint.,  Inst.  Or.,  8,  1.)  It  is  evident,  from  the  pas- 
 sage of  Quintilian  just  referred  to,  where  this  criticism 
 of  PoUio's  is  recorded,  that  it  applied  entirely  to  pro- 
 vincial words  or  phrases,  not  altogether  consonant  to 
 the  refined  urbanity  of  Rome,  which  could  not  so 
 easily  be  communicated  to  strangers  as  the  freedom  of 
 the  city.  The  opinion  of  Bern,  who  supposed  that, 
 because  the  Patavians  were  all  staunch  republicans, 
 the  Patavinity  of  Livy  must  have  consisted  in  his  po- 
 litical partiality  to  the  faction  of  Poinpey,  appears  to 
 be  entirely  erroneous  ;  for  such  principles  would  not 
 have  been  blamed  by  Pollio,  who  rather  affected  old 
 republican  sentiments,  and  extolled  the  Pomneians. 
 {Tacit.,  Annai,  4,  34.)     The  notion  adopted  by  Bu- 
 
 dffius  {De  Philosophia,  fol.  22),  who  thinks  that  Livy's 
 Patavinity  lay  in  his  enmity  to  the  Gauls,  who  were 
 the  natural  foes  of  the  Patavians,  and  often  ravaged 
 their  territories,  is  equally  without  foundation.     Nor 
 is  the  conjecture  of  Barthius  and  Le  Vayer,  that  it 
 consisted  in  an  undue  partiality  for  his  native  district, 
 much  more  successful.     Morhof,  which  was  no  diffi- 
 cult task,  has  refuted  all  these  theories  (De  Patavini- 
 tate  Liviana  liber);  and,  justly  believing  that  the  Pa- 
 tavinity of  which  Livy  was  accused  was  solely  exhibit- 
 ed in  style,  he  has  entered  into  an  elaborate  discussion 
 concerning  what  defect  or  blem.ish  was  implied  in  the 
 word  Patavinity.    Some,  as  he  informs  us,  have  thought, 
 with  Laurentius  Pignorius  {Origine  Padnane,  c.  17), 
 that  it  appeared  in  a  certain  orthography  peculiar  to 
 the  Patavians,  as  sibe  for  sibi,  quase  for  quasi.     Ptol- 
 emaeus  Flavins  thinks  that  it  lay  in  the  diffuseness  of 
 style  to  which,  this  author  says,  the  Patavians,  both 
 ancient  and  modern,  have  been  addicted  in  all  theii 
 compositions.       {Centuria    Conjectaneorvm,    c.    45.) 
 This  is  the  opinion  which  seems,  on  the  whole,  to  be 
 adopted  by  Morhof  himself,  and  by  Funccius  ;  and  it 
 is  founded  on  Pollio's  having  affected  an  admiration  of 
 that  succinct  and  jejune  mode  of  composition,  which 
 was  erroneously  considered  as  approaching  the  Attic 
 taste,  and  which  Brutus  and  Calvus  employed  in  ora- 
 tory, in  opposition  to  the  more  copious  style  of  elo- 
 quence exercised  by  Cicero  and  Hortensius.     Pollio 
 himself  would  probably  have  been  puzzled  to  define 
 his  precise  notion  of  Patavinity  :  but  it  is  most  prob- 
 able that  it  applied  to  some  peculfarities  of  expression 
 which  were  tne  remains  of  the  ancient  dialect  of  Italy. 
 It  appears,  though  this  is  a  subject  of  controversy,  that 
 there  was  a  refined  and  vulgar  idiom  at  Rome,  and  the 
 difference  would  be  atill  wider  between  the  urban  and 
 provincial  tongues.     The  boast  of  the  former  was  to 
 be  free  from  everything  rustic  or  foreign,  and  to  pos- 
 sess a  certain  undefinable  purity,  simplicity,  and  grace. 
 It  was  either  in  a  want  of  this  charm,  or  in  some  pro- 
 vincial expressions,  that  Patavinity  must  have  consist- 
 ed, if,  indeed,  its  existence  in  the  work  of  Livy  was 
 not  altogether  imaginary  on  the  part  of  Pollio.     But 
 neither  Erasmus,  who  has  repeated  the  censure,  nor 
 any  other  writer,  has  pointed  out  an  example  of  Pata- 
 vinity.    Few  of  the  great  Latin  authors  were  Romans 
 by  birth.     The  only  names  of  which  the  capital  can 
 boast  are  those  of  Lucretius,  Cassar,  and  Varro.     Were 
 all  the  other  poets,  orators,  and  historians  free  from 
 provincial  idioms  ;  and  did  Livy  alone  retain  Patavin- 
 ity 1     He  was  older,  indeed,  when  he  first  visited  the 
 capital,  than  Horace  or  Ovid,  but  he  was  not  so  far 
 advanced  in  life  as  Virgil  or  Catullus  when  they  first 
 found  their  way  to  Rome  from  Mantua  and  Verona. 
 {Dunlop's  Roman  Literature,  vol.  3,  p.  469,  seqq.) — 
 The  best  editions  of  Livy  are,  that  of  Crevier,  Paris, 
 1735-41,  4to,  6  vols.  ;  Drakenborch,  Amst.,  1738-46, 
 4to,  7  vols.  ;   Ruddimann,  Edin.,  1751,  12mo,  4  vols. ; 
 Eraesti,  Lips.,  1769-1804,  8vo,  4  vols.  ;   Stroth,  im- 
 proved by  Doering,  Gotha,  1796-1813,  12mo,  7  vols.  ; 
 Ruperti,  Gbtting.,  1807-1809,  6  vols.  8vo  ;  and  that 
 of  Lemaire,  Pans,  1822-1825,  12  vols.  8vo. 
 
 LocRi,  I.  a  people  of  Greece.  The  Greeks  com- 
 prehended under  the  name  of  Locri  three  tribes  of  the 
 same  people,  which,  though  distinct  from  each  other  in 
 territory  as  well  as  in  nominal  designation,  were  doubt- 
 less derived  from  a  common  stock.  These  were  the 
 Locri  Ozolae,  the  Epicnemidii,  and  Opuntii.  A  colony 
 of  the  last  named  tribe,  who  at  an  early  period  had  set- 
 tled on  the  shores  of  Magna  Graria,  were  distinguished 
 by  the  name  of  Epizephyrii,  or  Western  Locri.  The 
 Epicnemidian  and  Opuntian  Locri  alone  appear  to  have 
 been  known  to  Homer,  as  he  makes  no  mention  of  the 
 Ozolce  ;  whence  we  might  conclude  that  they  were 
 not  so  ancient  as  the  rest  of  the  nation.  The  earliest 
 and  most  authentic  accounts  concur  in  ascribing  the 
 oritriu  of  this  people  to  the  Leleges.  {ArisLot.,  ap. 
 ^  751 
 
LOCRI. 
 
 LOL 
 
 Si  rah  ,  d2].—Hesiod.,  ap.  euncl. — Seym.,  Ch.,  590.— 
 Dic(tarch.,  v.  71.)  The  Locri  Ozola  occupied  a  nar- 
 row tract  of  country,  situated  on  the  northern  .shore  of 
 the  Corinthian  Gulf,  commencing  at  the  yEtolian  Rhi- 
 um,  and  terminating  near  Crissa.  To  the  west  and 
 north  they  adjoined  the  .^tolians,  and  partly  also,  in 
 the  latter  direction,  the  Dorians,  while  to  the  cast  they 
 boidered  on  the  district  of  Delphi,  belonging  to  Pho- 
 cis.  They  arc  said  to  have  been  a  colony  from  the 
 more  celebrated  Locrians  of  the  east  (Sirabo,  427. — 
 Eusta'.k.,  ad  II. ,  2,  531),  and  their  name,  according  to 
 fabulous  accounts,  was  derived  from  some  fetid  springs 
 {oi^u,  olco)  near  the  hill  of  Taphius  or  Taphiassus, 
 situated  on  their  coast,  and  beneath  which  it  was  re- 
 ported that  the  centaur  Nessus  had  been  entombed. 
 (Strah.,  i26.—Plut.,  QitcBst.  Grcec,  \b.  — Myrsil, 
 Lesb.,  ap.  Antigon.  Paradox.,  129.)  Other  explana- 
 tions of  the  name  are  given  under  the  article  Ozolae. — 
 Thucydides  represents  them  as  a  wild,  uncivilized 
 race,  and  addicted  from  the  earliest  period  to  theft 
 and  rapine  (1,  5).  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  they  ap- 
 pear to  have  sided  with  the  Athenians,  as  the  latter 
 held  possession  of  Naupactus,  their  principal  town 
 and  harbour,  probably  from  enmity  to  the  /Etolians, 
 who  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Peloponnesians. 
 {Thucyd.,  3,  95.)  —  The  Epicnemidian  Locri,  whom 
 we  must  next  describe,  occupied  a  small  district  im- 
 mediately adjoining  Thermopylcs,  and  confined  be- 
 tween Mount  Cnemis,  a  branch  of  CEta,  whence  they 
 derived  their  name,  and  the  sea  of  Eubcea.  (Strabo, 
 416,  425  —Eus/atk.,  ad  Dionys.  Pericg.,  v.  426.) 
 Homer  classes  them  with  the  Opnntii,  ufider  the  gen- 
 eral name  of  Locri.  {II.,  2,  535  )  They  derived  their 
 name  of  Epicnemidii  from  their  situation  in  the  vicin- 
 ity of  Mount  Cnemis. — The  Opuntlan  Locri  follow 
 after  the  Epicnemidii :  they  occupied  a  line  of  coast  of 
 about  fifteen  miles,  beginning  a  little  south  of  Cne- 
 mides,  and  e.xtendmg  to  the  town  of  Halae,  on  the 
 frontiers  of  Bceotia.  Inland  their  territory  reached  to 
 the  Phocian  towns  of  Hyampolis  and  Abae.  This  peo- 
 ple derived  their  name  from  the  city  of  Opus,  their 
 metropolis.  {Strabo,  425. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  104.) — II.  A  people  of  Magna  Grscia,  ori- 
 ginally a  colony  of  the  Locri  Opuntii  from  Greece. 
 They  first  settled  near  the  promontory  of  Zephyrium, 
 at  the  lower  extremity  of  Bruttium,  on  the  Ionian  Sea, 
 and  hence  obtained  the  appellation  of  Epizephyrii,  by 
 which  they  were  distinguished  from  the  Locri  of 
 Greece.  Here  they  budt  the  city  of  Locri.  They 
 removed,  however,  from  this  position  three  or  four 
 years  afterward,  and  built  another  city  on  a  height 
 named  Mount  Esopis.  Strabo,  however,  makes  the 
 Locri  who  settled  in  Bruttium  to  have  !peen  a  division 
 of  the  Ozolae  from  the  Crissaoan  Gulf,  and  remarks,  that 
 Ephorus  was  incorrect  in  ascribing  the  settlement  to 
 the  Locri  Opuntii;  but  it  is  certain  that  this  opinion 
 of  Ephorus  seems  to  be  supported  by  the  testimony  of 
 many  other  writers,  and  therefore  is  generally  preferred 
 by  modern  critics.  {Mazzoch.  in  Tab.  Heracl.  diatr., 
 1,  c.  5. — Heyne.  Opuse.  Acad.,  vol.  2,  p.  46. — Id.,  ad 
 Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  399.)  We  derive  some  curious  infor- 
 mation relative  to  the  origin  of  the  Epizephyrian  Locri 
 from  Polybius,  who  acquaints  us,  that,  from  his  having 
 been  the  means  of  obtaining  for  this  city  a  remission 
 of  heavy  contributions  on  more  than  one  occasion,  he 
 had  contracted  a  feeling  of  kindness  and  partiality  to- 
 wards its  inhabitants,  which  they,  on  the  other  hand,  re- 
 paid by  every  mark  of  gratitude  and  attention.  His 
 frequent  residence  among  them  enabled  him,  as  he 
 states,  to  inquire  minutely  into  their  laws  and  institu- 
 tions, so  much  admired  by  antiquity  as  the  work  of 
 the  celebrated  lawgiver  Zalcucus  ;  and  also  into  the 
 early  history,  as  well  as  origin,  of  their  city.  To  the 
 latter  point  he  had  paid  the  greater  attention,  from  the 
 obloquy  and  calumny  which  Timaeus,  the  Sicilian  his- 
 torian, had  heaped  upon  Aristotle,  in  his  endeavour  to 
 752 
 
 refute  what  he  deemed  his  false  representation  of  that 
 event.  The  great  philosopher,  in  his  work  on  the  Ital- 
 ian republics,  stated,  that  the  colony  which  founded 
 the  Epizephyrian  city  was  formed  principally  by  slaves, 
 who,  during  the  absence  of  their  masters,  had  carried 
 off  their  wives.  This  assertion,  which  called  forth  the 
 invective  of  Timaeus,  was,  however,  supported  by  Po- 
 lybius on  the  authority  of  the  I.iOcri  themselves;  from 
 whom  he  learned,  that  all  their  nobility  was  to  be  re- 
 ferred to  the  female  part  of  their  community,  who  had 
 accompanied  their  ancestors  from  Greece,  and  were 
 descended  from  the  most  illustrious  families  of  their 
 metropolis  ;  and  that,  so  far  from  having  derived  their 
 polity  and  customs  from  that  quarter,  as  the  Sicilian 
 historian  pretended,  they  had  borrowed  many  of  the 
 rites  and  usages  of  the  Siculi,  who  were  in  possession 
 of  the  country  at  the  time  of  their  arrival,  and  whom 
 they  afterward  expelled.  {Polyb  ,fra.gm.,  12,  5.) — But 
 it  was  to  the  institutions  of  their  great  legislator  Za- 
 leucus  that  this  city  was  mainly  indebted  for  its  pros- 
 perity and  fame.  His  laws,  which,  according  to  the 
 assertion  of  Demosthenes,  continued  in  full  force  for 
 the  space  of  200  years  {Orat.  in  Timocr.),  are  said  lo 
 have  been  a  judicious  selection  from  the  Cretan,  Lace- 
 daemonian, and  Areopagitic  codes,  to  which  were,  how- 
 ever, added  several  original  enactments  ;  among  these, 
 that  is  noticed  as  particularly  deserving  of  commenda- 
 tion by  which  every  offence  had  its  peculiar  penalty 
 attached  to  it  ;  whereas,  in  other  systems  of  pgisla 
 tion,  punishment  was  awarded  according  to  the  arbi- 
 trary decision  of  the  judge.  The  Thurians,  who  after- 
 ward adopted  the  code  of  Zaleucus,  injured  its  sim- 
 plicity by  their  additions,  in  which  too  much  atten- 
 tion was  paid  to  minute  points  and  matters  of  detail. 
 (Ephor.,ap.  Sfrab.,  260. — Compare  Plat.,  de  Leg.,  1, 
 p.  62S. —Diod.  Sic,  12,  W.—Athen.,  10,  l.  —  Cic, 
 de  Leg.,  2,  6.)  The  situation  of  the  ancient  city  of 
 Locri  has  not  been  hitherto  determined  with  accuracy, 
 though  the  most  judicious  antiquarians  and  travellers 
 agree  in  fixing  it  in  the  vicinity  of  Gerace.  {Barr.,  I. 
 3,  9. — Cluvcr.,  It.  Ajit.,  vol.  2,  p.  1301. — Romanelli, 
 vol.  1,  p.  151.)  This  modern  town  stands  on  a  hill, 
 which  is  probably  the  Mons  Esopis  of  Strabo,  and 
 where  the  citadel  was  doubtless  placed.  But  the 
 name  of  Paglrapoli,  which  is  attached  to  some  con- 
 siderable ruins  below  Gerace,  naturally  leads  to  the 
 supposition  that  this  was  the  site  of  the  Epizephyrian 
 Locri.  {Reidcsel,  Voyage  dans  la  Grande  Grece,  p. 
 140. — Swinburne's  Travels,  p.  340.)  D'Anville  re- 
 moved it  too  far  to  the  south  when  he  supposed  it  to 
 accord  with  the  Motta  di  Brurrano.  {Cramer,  I.  c.) 
 Niebuhr  states  the  curious  fact,  that  there  is  still  re- 
 maining at  the  present  day,  in  the  district  of  ancient 
 Locri,  a  population  that  speaks  Greek,  and  he  cites  in 
 support  of  this  assertion  the  testimony  of  Count  Zur- 
 lo,  an  Italian  noble.  {Roman  History,  vol.  1,  p.  51, 
 in  notis.  —  Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  404, 
 seqq.) 
 
 LocusT.\,  a  notorious  female  poisoner  at  Rome  du- 
 ring the  first  century  of  our  era.  She  poisoned  Clau- 
 dius by  order  of  Agrippina,  and  Britannicus  by  order 
 of  Nero.  The  latter  loaded  her  with  presents  after  the 
 perpetration  of  the  deed,  and  actually  placed  learners 
 under  her,  in  order  that  her  art  might  he  perpetuated. 
 She  was  put  to  death  by  Galba.  {Tacit.,  Ann.  13, 
 60— W.  ib.,  13,  Ib.—Saeton,  Vit.  Ner.,  'SS.—Juc., 
 Sat.,  1,  71.) 
 
 LoouTius.      Vid.  Aius. 
 
 LoLLiA  Paui.i.ina,  grand-daughter  of  Lollius  Paul- 
 linus,  who  made  himself  so  infamous  by  his  rapacity 
 in  the  provinces.  She  married  C.  Memmius,  a  man 
 of  consular  rank,  but  was  taken  from  him  by  Caligula, 
 who  made  her  his  own  wife,  but  soon  after  repudiated 
 her.  {Suct.on.,  Vit.  Calig.,  25.—Dio  Cass.,  59,  12.) 
 She  afterward,  on  the  death  of  Messalina,  aspired  to 
 a  union  with  Claudius,  but  was  put  to  death  through 
 
LON 
 
 LON 
 
 <lie  influence  of  Agrippina.  {Sueton.,  Vit:  Claud.,  26. 
 —Tacii.,  Ann.,  12,  22.) 
 
 LoLLius,  I.  M.  LoUius  Palicanus,  a  Roman  noble- 
 man in  the  time  of  Augustus,  who  gave  him  (A.U.C. 
 728,  B.C.  26)  the  government  of  Galatia,  with  the 
 title  of  proprstor.  lie  acquitted  himself  so  well  in 
 this  office,  that  the  emperor,  in  order  to  recompense 
 his  services,  named  him  consul,  in  732,  with  L.  Aure- 
 lius  Lepidus.  Being  sent  in  737  to  engage  the  Ger- 
 mans, who  had  made  an  irruption  into  Gaul,  he  had 
 the  misfortune,  after  some  successes,  to  experience  a 
 defeat,  known  in  history  by  the  appellation  of  cladcs 
 Lolliana,  and  in  which  he  lost  the  eagle  of  the  fifth  le- 
 gion. It  appears,  however,  that  he  was  able  to  repair 
 the  disaster,  and  regain  the  confidence  of  Augustus, 
 for  this  monarch  chose  him,  about  A.U.C.  751,  B.C. 
 
 3,  to  accompany  his  grandson  Caius  Ca;sar  (afterward 
 the  Emperor  Caligula)  mto  the  East,  as  a  kind  of  di- 
 rector of  his  youth  (•'  veluli  moderator  juventcz."  Veil. 
 Paterc,  2,  102).  In  the  course  of  this  mission,  he 
 became  guilty  of  the  greatest  depredations,  and  formed 
 secret  plots,  which  were  disclosed  to  Caius  Caesar  by 
 the  kingof  the  Parthians.  Lollius  died  suddenly  a  few 
 days  after  this,  leaving  behind  him  immense  riches, 
 but  a'  most  odious  memory.  (Pliny,  9,  35,  57.) 
 Whether  his  end  was  voluntary  or  otherwise,  Velleius 
 Paterculus  (/.  c.)  declares  himself  unable  to  decide. 
 Horace  addressed  to  him  one  of  his  odes  (the  ninth  of 
 the  fourth  book)  in  the  year  of  his  consulship  with  Lep- 
 idus, but  died  seven  or  eight  years  before  Lollius  had 
 disgraced  himself  by  his  conduct  in  the  East.  (Com- 
 pare Sanadon,  ad  Horat.,  I.  c.) — II.  A  son  of  the  pre- 
 ceding, to  whom  Horace  addressed  two  of  his  epistles 
 (the  second  and  eighteenth  of  the  first  book).  He  was 
 the  eldest  son  of  M.  Lollius  Palicanus,  and  is  therefore 
 styled  by  Horace  Maxime  {scil.  natu).  Several  mod- 
 ern scholars,  such  as  Torrentius,  Baxter,  Dacier,  Glan- 
 dorp  {Onomast.,  p.  547),  and  Moreri  {Diet.  Hist.,  vol. 
 
 4,  p.  192),  make  Horace,  in  the  epistle  just  referred  to, 
 address  Lollius  the  father,  not  the  son.  This,  how- 
 ever, violates  chronology,  since  it  appears  from  Epist. 
 2,  that  the  person  to  whom  it  is  inscribed  was  quite  a 
 young  man.  The  other  side  of  the  question  is  advo- 
 cated by  Noris  {ad  Cenotaph.  Pis  ,  2,  14,  p.  255), 
 Bayle  {Diet.  Hist.,  s.  v.),  Masson  {Vit.  Hor.,  p.  265), 
 and  among  the  editors  of  Horace  by  Sanadon,  Ges- 
 ner.  Coring,  &c.  The  epithet  maxime,  as  employed 
 by  Horace,  has  also  given  rise  to  considerable  discus- 
 sion. Torrentius,  Dacier,  and  many  other  commenta- 
 tors, refer  it  to  the  mental  qualities  of  the  individual ; 
 while  Scaliger,  Marcilius,  Meibomius,  Vanderbourg, 
 and  others,  consider  Maxime  a  family  or  proper  name. 
 The  authority,  however,  which  has  been  cited  from 
 Gruter  (638,  2),  to  substantiate  this  last  opinion,  is 
 fully  opposed  by  chronological  arguments.  (Consult 
 Obbarius,  ad  Horat.,  I.  c.)  Besides,  the  distinctive 
 family  name  of  the  Lollii  was  Palicanus,  or,  as  it  is 
 written  on  coins,  Palikarius.  (Compare  Burmann, 
 ad  Quintil.,  4,  2. — Ernes ti,  Cla.v.  Cic,  s.  v.  Palika- 
 nus.  —  Val.  Max.,  3,  8,  3.—Ellc7idt,  ad  Cic.,  Brut., 
 p.  162. — Raschc,  Lex.  Rei  Num.,  vol.  4,  col.  1815.) 
 
 LoNDiNiuM  {Ptol.  Aoi'Siviov. — Less  correctly  Lon- 
 ■dinum),  a  city  of  theTrinobantes,  in  Britain,  now  Lon- 
 don. The  place  appears  to  have  had  a  very  remote 
 antiquity,  and  already  existed  in  the  time  of  Cwsar, 
 though,  in  consequence  of  his  march  being  in  a  differ- 
 ent direction,  it  remained  unknown  to  him.  Tacitus 
 {Ann.,  14,  33)  speaks  of  it  as  a  place  of  great  com- 
 merce, and,  indeed,  its  favourable  situation  for  trade 
 must  have  given  the  place  a  very  early  origin.'  Its 
 later  name  was  Augusta  Trinobantum,  in  honour,  prob- 
 ably, of  some  Roman  empress.  (Compare  Ammianus 
 Marcellinus,  27,  8.  "  Lundinium,  vctiis  oppidum, 
 quod  Augustam  fostcritas  appellavit")  Bede  styles 
 it  Lundonia,  and  also  Civitas  Lundonia  (2,  4,  7  ;  2, 
 3).  Ancient  Londinium  is  generally  thought  to  have 
 5C 
 
 occupied  that  part  of  the  modern  city  which  lies  on 
 the  north  of  the  Thames,  near  the  tower  of  London. 
 As,  however,  Ptolemy  assigns  Londinium  to  the  Can- 
 tii,  many  have  been  led  to  decide  in  favour  of  the  bo- 
 rough of  Southwark,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  or, 
 rather,  to  the  part  immediately  west  of  this,  especially 
 as  here  many  remains  of  antiquity  have  been  found. 
 It  is  most  probable,  however,  that  the  ancient  city 
 lay  on  both  sides  of  the  stream,  so  that  Ptolemy  might 
 assign  it  as  well  to  the  Trinobantes  and  Atrebatii  as 
 to  the  Cantii.     {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  146.) 
 
 LoNGiMANUs,  a  surname  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  in  Greek 
 MaKpoxEip.  Plutarch  states  that  this  appellation  was 
 given  him  because  his  right  hand  was  longer  than  his 
 left ;  but  Strabo  says  that  he  was  so  called  from  the 
 extraordinary  length  of  his  arms,  which,  on  his  stand- 
 ing upright,  could  reach  his  knees.  {Slrab.,  735.) 
 He  makes  him  to  have  been,  in  other  respects,  one  of 
 the  handsomest  of  men  {Kd?:?icaTOV  uvdpuTcuv. —  Vid. 
 Artaxerxes  I.) 
 
 LoNGiNUs,  a  celebrated  Greek  critic  and  rhetorical 
 writer,  who   flourished   during  the  reigns  of  Flavins 
 Claudius  and  Aurelian.     {Photius,  Cod.  2G5,  p.  1470. 
 — Georg.   SyncelL,   Cliron.,  p.  384.)     The   place  of 
 his  birth  is  uncertain.     Some  make  him  to  have  been 
 a  native  of  Palmyra  {Seller.,  Ant.  Palmyr.,  p.  288), 
 others  of  Emesa  in  Syria  {Gabr.,  de  Petra. — Holstcn., 
 Vit.  Porphyr.,  c.  5),  and  others,  again,  as  for  example 
 Langbaen,"  of  Pamphylia,  confounding  him  with  Dio- 
 nysius  of  Phaselis.      The   most   probable   opinion  is 
 that  which  regards  him  as  an  Athenian.     {Jons.,  Hist. 
 Phil.,  3,  U.—Ruhnken,  Vit.  Long.,  ij  3.)     It  is  of 
 Longinus  that  Eunapius  first  made  the  remark  which 
 has  been  so  often  repeated  in  similar  cases  ;  he  called 
 him  a  living  library  and  a  umlking  study.     (Btfi/ljo- 
 dfjKi)  Tt<;  £fi->pvxog  nal  neptnaroiiv^l.ovaetov. — Eunap., 
 in  Vit.  Porph.,  p,  7,  ed.  Boissonade.)   Longinus  himself 
 informs  us,  in  the  preface  to  his  work  Ilept  rtAoDf,  pre- 
 served by  Porphyry  in  the  life  of  Plotinus,  p.  127,  that, 
 from  an  early  age,  he  travelled  much  in  company  with 
 his  parents,  surveyed  many  regions,  and  made  himself 
 acquainted  with  all  the  individuals,  distinguished  in 
 philosophy,  whom  his  various  journeyings  thus  threw 
 in  his  way.     He  became  the  pupil  of  Ammonius  Sac- 
 cas  at  Aiexandrea,  and  also  of  Origen,  a  disciple  of 
 Ammonius,  not  to  be  confounded,  however,  with  Ori- 
 gen, the  famous  Christian  writer.      He  was  a  genuine 
 Platonist,  as  appears  not  only  from  his  works,  or,  rather, 
 the  fragments  of  his  works,  that  have  come  down  to  us, 
 but  also  from  the  commentaries  on  Plato  composed  by 
 him,  and  of  which  Olympiodorus  and  Proclus  make 
 mention.     {Rahnken,  Vit.  Long.,  ()  6.)     The  loss  of 
 these  commentaries  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  by  us, 
 as  it  would  appear  that  Longinus  directed  his  attention 
 to  the  style  as  well  as  the  doctrines  of  Plato.     After 
 having  completed  his  course  of  study  and  preparation, 
 Longinus  opened  a  school  at  Athens,  giving  instruction 
 not  merely  in  the  oratorical  art,  but  in  criticism  and 
 also    in    philosophy.     {Ruhnkcn,    Vit.    Long.,    t^    9.) 
 Here  he  numbered  the  celebrated  Porphyry  among  his 
 disciples,  whose  Syrian  name  Malech  he  changed  into 
 Porphyrins  of  synonymous  import.     {Eunap.,  in  Vit. 
 Porph.,  p.  13  )     After  having  spent  a  large  portion  of 
 his  life  at  Athens  in  the  instruction  of  youth  and  the 
 composition  of  numerous  works,  Longinus  visited  the 
 East,  either  to  transact  some  business  at  Euiesa,  or 
 to  spend  a  short  time  with  certain  relations  of  his  who 
 dwelt  there.     It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he  became 
 known  to  Zenobia,  the  celebrated  Queen  of  Palmyra, 
 who  engaged  his  services  as  her  preceptor  in  Grerjt. 
 {Vopiseus,  Vit.  Aurcl,   30.)     He   was    subsequcntly 
 appointed  her  minister,  and  aided  her  with  his  coun- 
 sels.    Longinus  is  said,  in  his  new  capacity,  to  have 
 induced  Zenobia  to  shake  off  the  Roman  yoke   and  to 
 have  dictated  the  proud  and  spirited  letter  which  she 
 sent  to  the  Emperor  Aurelian  (c.  30).     This  letter  so 
 
LONGINUS. 
 
 LON 
 
 irritated  the  Roman  emperor,  that,  having  shortly  after 
 made  himself  master  of  Palmyra,  he  caused  Longinus 
 to  be  put  to  death  (A.D.  273).  Zenobia,  overcome 
 by  the  terrors  of  impending  destruction,  became  from 
 a  heroine  a  mere  woman,  and  sought  to  propitiate  the 
 forgiveness  of  her  conqueror  hy  nnpuliug  ihe  whole 
 blame  of  the  war  to  the  counsels  of  Longinus.  {Zos- 
 imus,  1,  56.)  The  spirit  of  the  minister,  however, 
 rose  in  proportion  to  the  danger,  and  he  met  his  fate 
 with  all  the  calmness  of  a  true  philosopher. — The 
 principal  wori<  of  Longinus  is  his  treatise  Ilept  "Ti/^ovf 
 ("  On  the  Sublime,^'  or,  more  accurately,  perhaps,  "On 
 elevation  of  thought  and  language").  This  is  one  of 
 the  most  celebrated  productions  of  antiquity,  and  is 
 probably  the  fragment  of  a  much  larger  work.  There 
 is,  however,  some  doubt  whether  this  treatise  was  in 
 reality  written  by  him.  Modern  editors  have  given 
 the  name  of  the  author  of  the  work  as  "  Dionysius 
 Longinus,"  but  in  the  best  manuscripts  it  is  said  to 
 be  written  "  by  Dionysius  or  Longinus"  {Aiovvalov  ij 
 Aoyylvov),  and  in  the  Florence  manuscript  by  an 
 anonymous  author.  Suidas  says,  that  the  name  of 
 the  counsellor  of  Zenobia  was  Longinus  Cassius. 
 Some  critics  have  conjectured  that  this  treatise  was 
 written  hy  Dionysius  of  lialicarnassusor  by  Dionysius 
 of  Pergamum,  who  is  mentioned  by  Strabo  (625)  as  a 
 distinguished  teacher  of  rhetoric  ;  but  the  difference 
 of  style  between  this  work  and  the  acknowledged 
 works  of  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  renders  this  con- 
 jecture very  improbable  ;  and  as  to  the  other  Dionys- 
 ius, the  conjecture  has  no  foundation.  (Consult  Re- 
 marks  on  ihe  supposed  Dionysius  Longinus,  &.C., 
 Londnji,  1826,  8vo.)  The  author  of  the  treatise  on 
 the  Sublime,  whoever  he  may  have  been,  develops  in 
 it,  with  a  truly  philosophical  spirit,  the  nature  of  sub- 
 limity in  thought  and  e.x'pression.  He  establishes  the 
 laws  for  its  use,  and  illustrates  these  by  examples, 
 ■which  constitute,  at  the  same  time,  an  ingenious  cri- 
 tique upon  the  highest  productions  of  antiquity.  The 
 style  of  the  work  is  animated  and  correct ;  though 
 critics  think  that  they  discover  in  it  forms  of  express- 
 ion which  could  not  have  been  employed  nrior  to  the 
 third  century,  and  which  stand  in  direct  opposition  to 
 the  theory  of  Amati,  this  scholar  making  the  work  to 
 have  been  composed  in  the  age  of  Augustus.  Rnhn- 
 ken  thought  he  discovered,  in  reading  Apsines,  a 
 Greek  rhetorician,  all  the  lost  work  of  Longinus  on 
 Rhetoric  excepting  the  first  chapter.  He  found  it  in- 
 termingled with  the  work  of  the  former,  and  recog- 
 nised it  by  its  style.  He  pronounces  it  not  inferior  to 
 the  treatise  on  the  Sublime.  A  communication  on 
 this  subject  was  transmitted  by  him  to  the  editor  of  a 
 French  periodical,  "  Bibliolhcgue  dcs  Sciences  el  des 
 Be'iux-Arls,"  and  appeared  in  1765  (vol.  24,  pt.  1,  p. 
 273).  The  accuracy  of  Ruhnken's  opinion,  however, 
 in  assigning  the  fragment  in  question  to  the  critic 
 Longinus,  is  far  from  being  generally  acceded  to. 
 "Weiske  gives  a  portion  of  the  fragment,  with  a  Latin 
 version,  in  his  edition  of  Longinus,  but  can  find  no 
 similarity  between  it  and  the  general  style  and  manner 
 of  Longinus.  His  decision  is  evidently  a  correct  one. 
 {Weiske,  Vraf.  ad  cd  Long.,  p.  xxiv.)  The  best  edi- 
 tion of  the  treatise  Ilfpl  "Tfovc  is  that  gf  Weiske, 
 Lips.,  1809,  8vo,  reprinted  at  London,  1820. — An 
 enumeration  of  the  works  of  Longinus,  as  far  they  can 
 be  ascertained,  is  given  by  Ruhnken,  in  his  disserta- 
 tion on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Longinus,  published 
 under  the  fictitious  name  of  Schardam,  and  reprinted 
 in  Weiske's  edition  (p.  LXIX.,  seqq.)  The  list  is 
 as  follows:  1.  Ot  ^MTioyoi,  or,  more  correctly,  per- 
 haps, ^MTiOyoL  6fi(2.iai.  ( Weiske,  ad  Ruhnk.,  Vit. 
 Long.,  p.  LVL,  in  nolis.)  It  was  a  work  in  more  than 
 twenty  hooks,  and  was  devoted  to  a  critical  examina- 
 tion of  the  writers  of  antiquity. — 2.  Uepi.  tov  Kara 
 'Meiicov  ("  On  Ihe  Oration  of  Demosthenes  against 
 Midias"). — 3.  'Anoprj/xara  'OfiijpiKa  {"Homeric  Di£i- 
 754 
 
 culties,"  i.  e.,  an  examination  of  difficult  points  relative 
 to  the  writings  of  Homer). — 4.  Ei  ^i?,6ao<po(:  "0/u7ipo( 
 ("  Whether  Homer  was  a  Philosopher"). — 5.  Ilpo6?i7j- 
 fxara  '0/ir/pov  kqI  ?t,va£ig  {''Homeric  Problems,  and 
 their  Solutions"). — 6.  Tiva  napa  ru^  laropia^  oi  ypafx- 
 fiariKol  (if  iaropiKU  e^riyovvrai  ("  What  things  con' 
 trary  to  history  grammarians  stale  as  if  they  were  m 
 accordance  with  it"). — 7.  Ilepl  tuv  nap  '0^7/pu  TroAAa 
 cijiiaivovauv  M^euv  ("  On  words  in  Homer  that  have 
 various  significations'"). — 8.  'AttikCjv  Xi^euv  tK66act( 
 (3'  ("  A  Lexicon  of  Attic  forms  of  expression"). — 9. 
 Ae^Eic  'AvTiiiaxov,  Kal  'Hpa/c/lt'wvof  {"  Peculiar  formj 
 of  expression  in  Anlimachus  and  Heracleon").  The 
 grammarians  called  by  the  name  of  Ai^ei^  those  words 
 which  were  remarkable  for  any  peculiarity  of  form  or 
 signification.  Antimachus  and  Heracleon  were  two 
 poets. — 10.  Ilfpi  tdviKuv  ("  On  names  of  Natirms." 
 Gentile  nouns). — 11.  ^x"^'-'^  ^'■C  ™  tov  'li(j)aiaTLuvoc 
 hyxeLpi^iov  ("  Scholia  on  the  Manual  of  Hephceslion"). 
 — 12.  liepl  (jvvOeaeuc  "kbyuv  {"On  the  Arrangement  of 
 Words"). — 13.  'Yex^ri  fjTjTopiKri  ("  Art  of  Rhetoric"). — 
 14.  Eif  TT]v  ^TjTopiKTjv  'Hp/xoyivovc  ("  On  the  Rhetoric 
 of  Hermogenes").  — 15.  Ylepl  "Ttpovg. — 16.  liepl  up- 
 ;^;(Jv  ("  On  the  Beginning  of  Things")  — 17.  Tlepi  ri- 
 /loi'f  ("  De  finibiis  bonorum  et  malorum"). — 18.  Ilspl 
 oppjjg  ("  On  Instinct^'). — 19.  'EttigtoAtj  npog  tov  'Afj.i- 
 "kiov  ("  Letter  to  Amelius") — 20.  Ilepi  Ti/g  Kara  YlXa- 
 Tuva  ^LKaioavvTjq  ("  On  the  Platonic  definition  of  just 
 Conduct)". — 21.  Tlepl  Tuv  IdecJv  {"On  Ideas").  There 
 appear  to  have  been  two  treatises  with  this  title,  one 
 against  Plotinus,  and  the  other  against  Porphyry. — 22. 
 Ilfpi  ijvxrjg{"  On  the  Soul"). — 23.  'Odaivadoq  {"Odce- 
 nathus."  An  eloge  on  Odsnathus,  the  deceased 
 husband  of  Zenobia). — 24.  Commentaries  on  Plato. 
 (Compare  the  remarks  of  Toup,  ad  fragm.,  VIII. — ■ 
 Long.,  p.  545,  cd.  Weiske,  p.  367,  cd.  Toup.) — II.  C. 
 Cassius  Longinus,  a  friend  of  Antony  the  orator,  and 
 distinguished  for  his  acquaintance  with  historical,  legal, 
 and  antiquarian  topics.  {Cic,  Or.,  1,  60. — Ernesti, 
 Clav.  Cic.,  s.  V.) 
 
 LoNGOBARDi.      Vid.  Langobardi. 
 
 LoNGUs,  a  Greek  writer,  author  of  a  prose  romance 
 entitled  JloifxeviKci.  TuKaru  Aucpviv  Kal  X?m7jv  {"Pas- 
 torals relative  to  Daphnis  and  Chloe"),  but  more  com- 
 monly cited  as  the  JloifieviKu  ("  Pastorals")  of  Longus, 
 or  the  Adipviq  koI  XMtj  ("  Daphnis  and  Chloe").  The 
 period  when  he  lived  is  uncertain,  and  he  is  neither 
 named  by  Suidas  nor  any  ancient  writer.  Perhaps  an 
 author  of  this  name  never  existed  ;  nor  is  the  matter 
 rendered  at  all  clearer  by  the  circumstance  of  Longus 
 being  a  Latin,  not  a  Greek,  word.  Harless,  in  fact, 
 supposes  that  the  name  originated  in  a  mistake.  The 
 celebrated  Florence  manuscript  has  no  author's  name 
 whatever.  The  tide  runs  s\m^\y  Aea^iaKuv  epuriKuv 
 T^oyoi  6',  the  last  word  of  which  may  have  been  taken 
 by  a  copyist  for  the  name  of  the  romancer.  All.  wri- 
 ters agree  in  assigning  to  the  ''  Daphnis  and  Chloe"  a 
 date  subsequent  to  the  Ethiopics  of  Heliodorus,  but 
 some  misapprehension  has  existed  among  the  superfi- 
 cially learned  with  regard  to  the  evidence  of  the  style 
 The  French  version  of  Amyot,  deformed  as  a  transla- 
 tion, but  beautiful  as  an  original  composition  by  its 
 naivete,  had  given  the  general  reader  an  idea  that  the 
 simplicity  of  the  subject  was  reflected  in  the  language 
 of  the  original.  The  fact,  however,  is  piticisely  the 
 reverse.  The  diction  of  Longus,  as  Villemain  remarks, 
 "  is  curiously  elegant,  ingeniously  concise,  and  richly 
 symmetrical."  The  art  of  composition  was  never 
 more  laboriously  or  more  skilfully  applied  ;  every  word 
 is  placed  in  its  proper  position  with  the  most  delicate 
 care  ;  the  adaptation  of  terms,  the  relation  even  of 
 sounds,  are  all  so  skilfully  adjusted,  as  to  make  the 
 same  writer  observe,  that  the  effect  of  the  whole  is  rather 
 coquettish  than  graceful.  This  very  care,  however,  this 
 laborious  elegance,  instead  of  identifying  the  author,  as 
 on  a  hasty  glance  it  would  seem  to  do,  with  the  classic 
 
LONGUS. 
 
 LOT 
 
 ages  of  antiquity,  proclaims  the  sophist.  The  singular 
 circumstance  is,  that  neither  Suidas  nor  Photius  so 
 much  as  allude  to  the  work  or  name  the  author, 
 which,  unaccountable  as  it  may  appear,  would  almost 
 induce  us  to  imagine,  in  spite  of  the  thing  being  pro- 
 nounced "  impossible"  by  Villemain,  that  the  romance 
 really  was  produced  in  the  mi<lst  of  the  bad  taste  and 
 wearisome  scholastics  of  the  eighth  century.  The 
 imitations  mentioned  by  Courier  rather  tend  to  strength- 
 en this  suspicion  than  otherwise;  for  if  the  work  were 
 really  pillaged  by  Achilles  Tatius,  Xenophon  of  Ephe- 
 sus,  Nicetas  Eugenianus,  Eumathius,  and  the  whole 
 host  of  scribblers  from  the  second  century  downward, 
 this  would  prove  incontestably  that  it  was  intimately 
 and  popularly  known  :  and  why  all  the  writers  and 
 critics  of  so  vast  a  space  of  time  should  have  conspired 
 to  preserve  an  inviolable  silence  on  the  subject,  to 
 conceal  the  author's  name,  to  refrain  from  the  slightest" 
 allusion  to  his  piece,  is  utterly  beyond  comprehension. 
 We  must  confess,  that  it  does  require  some  stretch  of 
 faith  to  believe  that  a  Longus  was  produced  in  the 
 eighth  century,  a  period  which  affords  no  name  better 
 known  than  that  of  the  chronicle-maker  Syncellus. 
 But,  if  this  were  granted,  it  would  be  easy  to  imagine 
 that  such  a  man  would  be  acquainted  with  the  literature 
 of  his  language  from  the  earliest  times,  and  more  es- 
 pecially with  those  productions  of  romantic  fiction 
 which  he  was  destined  to  imitate  and  surpass.  More- 
 over, without  a  particle  of  invention  himself,  and  gift- 
 ed rather  with  an  ingenious  industry  directed  by  an 
 acquired  and  fastidious  taste,  than  with  natural  grace 
 and  power,  he  would  be  thrown  upon  these  for  his  re- 
 sources :  he  would  gather  even  from  the  weeds  of  the 
 garden  of  literature  those  minute  events  which  would 
 become  visible  to  the  eye  only  when  collected  and  ar- 
 ranged in  his  cell ;  and  the  future  examiner,  by  a  nat- 
 ural mistake,  would  trace  the  theft  to  the  poor  rather 
 than  to  the  rich,  just  as  we  may  say  of  the  pulpy  end 
 of  the  grass-flower,  it  tastes  or  smells  of  honey,  and 
 not  of  the  fragrant  stores  of  the  bee,  they  taste  or 
 smell  of  the  grass-flower.  — "  Daphnis  and  Chloe" 
 is  the  romance,  jpar  excellence,  of  physical  love.  It 
 is  a  history  of  the  senses  rather  than  of  the  mind,  a 
 picture  of  the  development  of  the  instincts  rather 
 than  of  the  sentiments.  In  this  point  of  view  it  is 
 absolutely  original ;  and  the  subject,  pleasing,  indeed, 
 in  its  nature,  but  dangerous  and  seductive  to  the 
 youthful  imagination,  becomes,  when  treated  by  the 
 masterly  and  seldom  indelicate  pen  of  Longus,  philo- 
 sophically interesting.  Unlike  the  sensual  vulgari- 
 ties of  modern  Europe,  which  can  only  betray  the 
 heart  by  brutalizing  the  mind,  there  is  a  charm  about 
 its  freedoin,  a  purity  in  its  very  ignorance  of  virtue. 
 Vice  is  advocated  by  no  sophistry,  palliated  by  no  se- 
 ductions of  circumstances,  and  punished  by  no  suffer- 
 ings. Vice,  in  fact,  does  not  exist,  unless  ignorance 
 be  a  crime  and  love  an  impurity.  Daphnis  and 
 Chloe  have  been  brought  up  together,  free  denizens 
 of  the  fields,  and  groves,  and  streams  of  the  Lesbian 
 paradise  ;  their  eyes  have  rested  from  infancy  on  the 
 same  objects  ;  their  ideas  have  been  formed  by  the 
 same  train  of  circumstances ;  their  tastes,  feelings, 
 habits,  all  have  sprung  from  the  same  root,  and  grown 
 under  the  same  influence.  Their  hearts  understand 
 each  other;  the  poetry  of  nature  has  entered  their 
 souls,  and  is  reflected  in  their  eyes  ;  but  poor,  at  least 
 in  the  wealth  of  the  world  and  its  acquirements,  hum- 
 ble in  station,  solitary,  and  ignorant,  sentiment  finds 
 no  passage  into  language,  and  no  voice  but  the  voice 
 of  nature  is  heard  in  their  hearts.  "  Paul  and  Vir- 
 ginia" is  nothing  more  than  "  Daphnis  and  Chloe," 
 delineated  by  a  refined  and  cultivated  mind,  and  spirit- 
 ualized and  purified  by  the  influence  of  Christianity. 
 Taking  the  difference  of  time,  climate,  knowledo-e, 
 and  f%ith  into  account,  the  parallel  is  complete.  If 
 St.  I'ierre  had  made  his  lovers  shepherds  in  the  isl- 
 
 and of  Lesbos,  under  a  pagan  regime,  his  work,  in- 
 stead of  being  one  of  the  most  exquisite  and  delight- 
 ful of  all  modern  productions,  would  have  been  a  tis- 
 sue of  metaphysical  mechanism  and  absurdity.  Even 
 in  the  faults  of  the  two  works  there  is  a  striking  anal- 
 ogy. The  infidelity  committed  by  Daphnis  carries 
 his  ignorance  to  a  pitch  of  exaggeration  which  is  abso- 
 lutely repulsive  ;  while  the  ill-timed  and  extravagant 
 prudery  of  Virginia  in  the  catastrophe,  in  the  hands  ot 
 any  other  writer  than  St.  Pierre,  would  have  sur- 
 prised the  reader  into  a  smile.  "  The  expressions  of 
 Longus,"  says  Huet,  "  are  full  of  fire  and  vivacity  ; 
 he  produces  with  spirit ;  his  pictures  are  acrreeable, 
 and  his  images  arranged  with  skill.  The  characters 
 are  carefully  sustained  ;  the  episodes  grow  out  of  the 
 story  ;  and  the  passions  and  sentiments  are  depicted 
 with  a  delicacy  sufficiently  in  keeping  with  pastoral 
 simplicity,  but  not  always  with  the  rules  of  romance. 
 Probability  is  almost  never  violated,  except  in  the 
 machinery  which  is  employed  without  discretion,  and 
 which  mjures  the  denouement  of  the  piece,  in  other 
 respects  good  and  agreeable."  (Foreign  (^varUrbj, 
 No.  9,  p.  133,  seqq.)  —  The  best  editions  ot  Longus 
 are,  that  of  Boden,  Lips.,  Mil,  8vo;  Villoison,  Paris, 
 1778,  2  vols.  Svo;  Scha?fer,  Lips.,  1803,  12mo;  and 
 that  of  Courier,  re-edited  by  De  Sinner.  Paris,  1829, 
 Svo.  Courier's  text  contains  the  fragment  which  fills 
 up  the  hiatus  ir.  p.  13,  cd.  Villoison,  and  p.  15,  ed. 
 Schaffcr.  It  was  copied  from  a  Florentine  manu- 
 script, and  first  published  at  Rome  in  1810,  by  Cou- 
 rier, then  an  artillery  officer  in  the  French  service. 
 The  fragment  first  appeared  separately,  but  was  soon 
 after  inserted  into  an  edition  of  the  whole  romance  by 
 the  same  scholar.  The  manuscript  is  the  same  from 
 which  Chariton,  Xenophon  Ephesius,  and  De  Furia'e 
 ^sopean  Fables  have  been  published  ;  and  it  con- 
 tains also  Longus,'  four  books  of  Achilles  Tatius,  and 
 several  Opuscula  enumerated  by  De  Furia,  p.  xxxii.- 
 XXX vii.,  ed.  Lips.,  1810. 
 
 LoTis,  a  nymph,  daughter  of  Neptune,  pursued  by 
 Priapus,  and  who  escaped  from  him  by  being  changed 
 into  the  aquatic  lotus.     [Ovid,  Met.,  9,  348.) 
 
 LoTOPHAGi,  a  people  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  near 
 the  Syrtes.  They  received  this  name  from  their  liv- 
 ing upon  the  lotus.  Ulysses  visited  their  country  at 
 his  return  from  the  Trojan  war.  (Horn.,  Od.,  9,  9\.) 
 Homer  says,  that  whoever  ate  of  the  lotus  lo^t  all  wish 
 of  returning  home,  and  became  desirous  of  remaining 
 in  the  lau'd  that  produced  it.  Compare  Herodotus 
 (4,  177).  According  to  Rennell,  the  location  of  the 
 Lotophagi  merely  on  the  coast  of  Africa  arose  from 
 the  want  of  a  more  extended  knowledge  of  tho  coun- 
 tries bordering  on  the  desert,  on  the  pirt  of  tht  an- 
 cient writers.  He  states  that  the  tribe's  who  inhabit 
 these  countries,  and  whose  manners  are  '.n  any  degree 
 known  to  us,  eat  universally  of  this  frun.  The  ^hrub 
 or  tree  that  bears  the  lotus  fruit  is  disseminated  over 
 the  edge  of  the  Great  Desert,  from  the  coast  of  Gy- 
 rene, round  by  Tripolis  and  Africa  Propria,  to  the  bor- 
 ders of  the  Atlantic,  the  Senegal,  and  the  Niger.  (Ge- 
 ographij  of  Herodotus,  vol.  2,  p.  289,  seqq.,  ed.  1830.) 
 It  is  well  known,  remarks  this  same  writer,  that  a  great 
 difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed  among  the  mod- 
 erns concerning  what  the  ancients  intended  by  the 
 lotus:  for  the  history  of  it,  as  it  has  come  down  to  us, 
 is  mixed  with  fable,  from  having  previously  passed 
 through  the  hands  of  the  poets.  But  of  the  existence 
 of  a  fruit,  which,  although  growing  spontaneously, 
 furnished  the  popular  food  of  tribes  or  nations,  there 
 is  no  kind  of  doubt,  as  it  is  mentioned  by  various  au- 
 thors of  credit,  and  among  the  rest  by  Polybius,  who 
 appears  to  have  seen  it  in  the  proper  country  of  the 
 Lotophagi.  There  appear,  however,  to  have  been  two 
 distinct  species  of  lotus  designated  by  the  term,  be- 
 cause Herodotus  and  Pliny,  in  particular,  describe  a 
 marked  diJierence  betwceu  them  ;  the  one  bemg  an 
 
 755 
 
LUC 
 
 LUC 
 
 aquatic  plant,  whose  root  and  seeds  were  eaten  in 
 Egypt ;  the  other  the  fruit  of  a  shrub  or  small  tree, 
 on  the  sandy  coast  of  Libya.  Herodotus,  in  speak- 
 ing of  the  Libyan  lotus  (4,  177),  says,  that  the  fruit  of 
 the  lotus  is  of  the  size  of  the  mastic,  and  sweet  like 
 the  date,  and  that  of  it  a  kind  of  wine  is  made.  Pliny 
 (13,  17)  describes  two  different  kinds  of  lotus,  the 
 one  found  near  the  Syrtes,  the  other  in  Egypt.  The 
 former  he  describes  from  Cornelius  Nepos  as  the  fruit 
 of  a  tree  ;  in  size  ordinarily  as  big  as  a  bean,  and  of 
 a  yellow  colour,  sweet  and  pleasant  to  the  taste.  The 
 fruit  was  bruised,  and  made  into  a  kind  of  paste  or 
 dough,  and  then  stored  up  for  food.  Moreover,  a  kind 
 of  wine  was  made  from  it,  resembling  mead,  but  which 
 would  not  keep  many  days.  Pliny  adds,  that  "armies, 
 in  marching  through  that  part  of  Africa,  have  subsist- 
 ed on  the  lotus."  Perhaps  this  may  refer  to  the  army 
 of  Balbus,  which  the  same  writer  informs  us  (5,  5) 
 had  penetrated  to  Gadamis  and  Fezzan.  Polybius, 
 who  had  himself  seen  the  lotus  on  the  coast  of  Libya, 
 says,  that  it  is  the  fruit  of  a  shrub,  which  is  rough  and 
 armed  with  prickles,  and  in  foliage  resembles  the 
 rhamnus.  That  when  ripe  it  is  of  the  size  of  a  round 
 olive  ;  has  a  purple  tinge,  and  contains  a  hard  but 
 small  stone  ;  tlmt  it  is  bruised  or  pounded,  and  laid 
 by  for  use,  and  that  its  flavour  approaches  to  that  of 
 figs  or  dates.  And,  finally,  that  a  kind  of  wine  is 
 made  from  it,  by  expression,  and  diluted  with  water; 
 that  it  affords  a  good  beverage,  but  will  not  keep  more 
 than  ten  days.  {Polt/h.,  apud  Athcn.,  14,  p.  65.)  The 
 iotus  has  also  been  described  by  several  modern  trav- 
 ellers, such  as  Shaw,  Desfontaines,  Park,  and  Beechy. 
 Shaw  says  (vol.  1,  p.  263)  that  the  lotus  is  the  scedra 
 of  the  Arabs  ;  that  it  is  a  species  of  ziziphus  or  jujeb; 
 and  that  the  fruit  tastes  somewhat  like  gingerbread. 
 When  fresh,  it  is  of  a  bright  yellow.  Park's  descrip- 
 tion, however,  is  the  most  perfect  of  all.  "  They  are 
 small  farinaceous  berries,  of  a  yellow  colour  and  deli- 
 cious taste.  The  natives  convert  them  into  a  sort  of 
 bread,  by  exposing  them  some  days  to  the  sun,  and 
 afterward  pounding  them  gently  in  a  wooden  mortar, 
 until  the  farinaceous  part  of  the  berry  is  separated 
 from  the  stone.  This  mea!  is  then  mixed  with  a  little 
 water,  and  formed  into  cakes,  which,  when  dried  in 
 the  sun,  resemble  in  colour  and  flavour  the  sweetest 
 gingerbread.  The  stones  are  afterward  put  into  a 
 vessel  of  water  and  shaken  about,  so  as  to  separate 
 the  meal  which  may  still  adhere  to  them  ;  this  com- 
 municates a  sweet  and  agreeable  taste  to  the  water, 
 and,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  pounded  millet,  forms 
 a  pleasant  gruel  called  fondi,  which  is  the  common 
 breakfast  in  many  parts  of  Ladamar  during  the  months 
 of  February  and  March.  The  fruit  is  collected  by 
 spreading  a  cloth  upon  the  ground  and  beating  the 
 branches  with  a  stick"  (p.  99). 
 
 LucA,  a  city  of  Etruria,  northeast  of  Pisae,  on  the 
 river  Auser  or  Scrchio.  It  still  preserves  its  situation 
 and  name.  It  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  by  Livy, 
 as  the  place  to  which  Tiberius  Gracchus  retired  after 
 the  unfortunate  campaign  on  the  Trebia  (21,  59).  The 
 same  writer  states  it  to  have  been  colonized  A.U.C. 
 575  (4!,  13.— Veil.  Falcrc,  1,  15).  Cssar  frequent- 
 ly made  Luca  his  headquarters  during  his  command 
 in  the  two  Gauls.  (Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  1,  9. — Suel., 
 Cas.,  24.)  It  is  also  mentioned  by  Strabo  (217. — 
 Compare  Plin.,  3,  5. — Plvl.,  p.  61). 
 
 JjUcani,  the  inhabitants  of  Lucania.  (  Vid.  Lucania.) 
 JiUCANiA,  a  country  of  Magna  Grscia,  below  Apulia. 
 It  was  occupied,  in  common  with  the  other  provinces 
 of  southern  Italy,  by  numerous  Greek  colonies.  The 
 native  race  of  the  Lucani  were  numerous  and  warlike, 
 and  said  to  be  of  Samnitic  origin.  These,  as  their 
 numbers  increased,  gradually  advanced  from  the  inte- 
 rior to  the  coast,  and  were  soon  engaged  in  hostilities 
 with  the  Greeks,  who,  unable  to  make  good  their  de- 
 fence, gradually  retreated ;  thus  allowing  their  hardy 
 756 
 
 and  restless  foes  to  obtaiir  possession  of  all  the  settle- 
 ments on  the  western  coast.  These  aggressions  of 
 the  Lucani  were  for  a  season  checked  by  the  valour 
 and  ability  of  Alexander,  king  of  Epirus ;  but  upon 
 his  death  they  renewed  their  inroads  with  increased 
 confidence  and  success,  making  themselves  masters 
 of  Thurii,  Metapontum,  Heraclea,  with  several  other 
 towns,  and  finally  reducing  the  Grecian  league  to  an 
 empty  name,  with  only  the  shadow  of  its  former  brill 
 iancy  and  power.  Such  was  the  state  of  things  whei» 
 the  Romans  appeared  on  the  scene.  The  Lucani 
 unable  to  make  any  effectual  resistance  after  Pyrrhua 
 had  withdrawn  his  forces  from  Italy,  submitted  to  the 
 victors.  The  war  with  Hannibal,  carried  on  for  so 
 many  years  in  this  extremity  of  Italy,  completed  its 
 desolation  and  ruin  ;  for,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
 towns  restored  and  colonized  by  the  Romans,  this 
 once  flourishing  tract  of  country  became  a  dreary 
 waste,  retaining  only  the  ruins  of  deserted  cities,  aa 
 mournful  relics  of  the  late  abodes  of  wisdom  and  ge- 
 nius.— Lucania,  considered  as  a  Roman  province,  was 
 separated  from  Apulia  by  the  Bradanus,  and  a  line 
 drawn  from  that  river  to  the  Silarus  ;  which  latter 
 stream  served  also  for  a  boundary  on  the  side  of  Cam- 
 pania. To  the  southwest  the  river  Laos  divided  the 
 Lucani  from  the  Bruttii,  as  did  also  the  Crathis  to  the 
 southeast.  {Strabo,  255. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol. 
 2,  p.  347.) 
 
 LucANus,  M.  Ann.^us,  a  Latin  poet,  born  A.D 
 38,  at  Corduba,  in  Spain,  where  his  family,  originally 
 from  Italy,  had  been  settled  for  several  generations, 
 and  where  some  of  its  members  had  filled  public  of- 
 fices. (Suet.,  Vit.  Lucan. — Fahr.,  Bib.  Lai.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  141.)  His  father,  Annosus  Mela,  was  a  Roman 
 knight,  and  enjoyed  great  consideration  in  the  prov- 
 ince. Lucan  was  named  after  Anna3us  Lucanus,  hi? 
 maternal  grandfather,  who  was  distinguished  for  his 
 eloquence.  His  father  was  also  the  youngest  brothel 
 of  Seneca  the  philosopher.  At  a  very  early  age  Lu 
 can  was  sent  to  Rome,  whore  he  received  his  educa 
 tion.  Rhemnius  Palasmon  and  Flavius  Virginius  werr 
 his  teachers  in  grammar  and  eloquence.  The  princi 
 pies  of  the  Stoic  philosophy  were  taught  him  by  An 
 nsus  Cornutus,  a  Greek  philosopher,  who  instructec' 
 at  Rome  until  Nero,  offended  at  his  opinions  and  Ian 
 guage,  banished  him  to  an  island.  Lucaii's  talent  foi 
 poetry  developed  itself  at  an  early  period  ;  he  was  ac 
 customed  to  declaim  in  Greek  and  Latin  verse  whcr 
 only  fourteen  years  of  age.  Having  completed  his 
 education  at  Athens,  he  was  placed  by  Seneca,  his  pa 
 ternal  uncle,  who  had  charge  at  that  time  of  the  youth 
 of  Nero,  around  the  person  of  the  young  prince.  Nero 
 soon  became  attached  to  Lucan,  and  raised  him  to  the 
 dignity  of  an  augur  and  qu^slor  before  he  had  reached 
 the  proper  age  for  either  of  these  offices.  During  his 
 magistracy  Lucan  exhibited  to  the  populace  a  magnif- 
 icent show  of  gladiators.  The  folly  of  Nero,  who  pre- 
 tended 10  be  a  great  poet,  and  the  vanity  of  Lucan, 
 who  would  not  yield  the  palm  to  any  competitor,  soon 
 embroiled  the  two  friends.  Nero  offended  the  young 
 and  presumptuous  aspirant  by  abruptly  quitting,  on 
 one  occasion,  an  assembly  in  which  the  latter  was  re- 
 citing one  of  his  poetical  productions.  Lucan  sought  to 
 avenge  this  affront  by  presenting  himself  in  another  as- 
 sembly as  a  competitor  against  the  prince.  We  hardly 
 know  which  to  admire  the  more,  the  boldness  of  Lucan, 
 who  believed  the  poetical  art  about  to  be  degraded,  if 
 a  bad  piece,  though  composed  by  a  prince,  should 
 receive  the  crown  ;  or  the  courage  of  the  judges,  who 
 decreed  the  prize  to  a  subject  who  had  dared  to  com- 
 pete with  his  master.  The  vengeance  of  Nero  was 
 not  slow  in  overtaking  the  imprudent  poet :  it  wound- 
 ed him  in  the  most  sensible  part,  for  he  was  command- 
 ed to  abstain  in  future  from  declaiming  in  public. 
 Without  being  unjust  towards  the  memory  of  Lucan, 
 we  mav  attribute  to  the  hatred  which  from  this  time 
 
LUCANUS. 
 
 LUC 
 
 he  conceived  against  Nero,  the  part  that  he  subse- 
 quently took  in  the  conspiracy  of  Piso  ;  but  it  were 
 to  be  wished  that  he  could  in  any  way  be  defended 
 from  a  reproach  which  Tacitus  makes  against  him, 
 and  which  has  affixed  an  indelible  stigma  to  his  name. 
 It  is  said  that,  deceived  by  a  promise  of  pardon  in 
 case  he  should  discover  his  accomplices,  and  wishing 
 to  propitiate  the  favour  of  Nero,  who  had  destroyed 
 his  own  mother,  by  incurring  in  like  manner,  in  his 
 turn,  the  guilt  of  parricide,  he  declared  that  his  mother 
 Anicia  was  a  party  in  the  conspiracy.  The  admirers 
 of  Lucan  have  suggested,  that  this  tale  was  invented 
 by  Nero  or  his  flatterers,  to  heap  odium  on  the  char- 
 acter of  a  poet  from  a  contest  with  whom  he  had 
 brought  away  nothing  but  disgrace.  Unfortunately, 
 however,  for  the  correctness  of  this  assertion,  it  may 
 be  alleged  in  reply,  that  Tacitus,  a  close  scrutinizer 
 into  the  artifices  of  tyranny,  relates  the  charge  with- 
 out expressing  the  least  doubt  as  to  its  truth.  {Ann., 
 15,  56.)  But,  however  this  may  be,  the  cowardly 
 complaisance  of  the  poet,  if  he  were  really  guilty  of 
 the  conduct  ascribed  to  him,  could  not  prove  of  any 
 avail  ;  he  was  merely  permitted  to  choose  the  manner 
 of  his  death.  He  caused  his  veins  to  be  opened,  and 
 died  with  a  degree  of  courage  that  formed  a  strange 
 contrast  to  the  pusillanimity  in  which,  but  a  moment 
 before,  he  had  indulged.  It  is  even  said,  that,  feel- 
 ing himself  enfeebled  by  the  loss  of  blood,  he  recited 
 four  verses  which,  in  his  Pharsalia  (3,  639-42),  he 
 had  put  into  the  mouth  of  a  dying  soldier.  He  per- 
 ished A.D.  65,  at  the  age  of  27  years.  Although  ac- 
 cused of  being  an  accomplice,  his  mother  was  not  in- 
 volved in  his  disgrace.  Lucan  left  a  young  widow, 
 whose  character  and  merits  are  praised  by  both  Mar- 
 tial and  Statms.  She  was  named  Folia  Argentaria, 
 and  is  reckoned  by  Sidonius  ApoUinaris  (2,  10)  among 
 the  number  of  those  celebrated  females  whose  coun- 
 sels and  taste  have  been  of  great  use  to  their  hus- 
 bands in  the  composition  of  their  works.  The  various 
 poems  of  Lucan,  his  "  Combat  of  Hector  and  Achil- 
 les," which  he  composed  at  the  age  of  twelve  years  ; 
 his  "  Description  of  the  burning  of  Rome  ;"  his  "  Sat- 
 urnalia ;"  his  tragedy  of  "  Medea,"  left  unfinished  by 
 him,  have  all  perished.  We  have  remaining  only  one 
 poem,  the  "  Pharsalia,"  or  the  war  between  Caesar 
 and  Pompey.  It  is  comprised  in  ten  books  ;  but, 
 since  the  tenth  breaks  off'  abruptly  in  the  middle  of  a 
 narrative,  it  is  probable  that  some  part  has  been  lost, 
 or  that  the  poet  had  not  finished  the  work  at  the  time 
 of  his  death.  The  first  book  opens  with  the  most  ex- 
 travagant adulation  of  Nero,  in  which  the  poet  even 
 exceeds  the  base  subserviency  of  the  poets  of  the  age 
 of  Augustus.  The  Pharsalia  contains  many  vigorous 
 and  animated  descriptions,  and  the  speeches  are  char- 
 acterized by  considerable  rhetorical  merit,  but  the  lan- 
 guage is  often  inflated,  and  the  expressions  are  ex- 
 tremely laboured  and  artificial.  The  poem  is  also  de- 
 ficient in  that  truth  to  nature,  and  in  those  appeals  to 
 the  feelings  and  the  imagination,  which  excite  the 
 sympathy  of  every  class  of  readers.  Still,  great  al- 
 lowance must  be  made  for  the  youth  of  the  author, 
 who,  if  he  had  lived  longer,  would  probably  have  cured 
 himself  of  those  faults  and  defects  which  are  now  so 
 conspicuous  in  his  poem. — The  Pharsalia  cannot  be 
 regarded  as  an  epic  poem,  since  both  poetic  invention 
 and  machinery,  which  form  the  very  soul  of  the  epo- 
 pee, are  altogether  wanting  in  it.  The  event  on 
 which  the  action  is  based  was  not  sufficiently  far  re- 
 moved from  Lucan's  own  times  to  permit  him  to  in- 
 dulge his  imagination  in  adorning  it  with  fictions. 
 The  poem  should  rather  be  called  an  historical  one. 
 — The  principal  defect  in  the  Pharsalia,  admittincr 
 that  it  is  nothing  more  than  an  historic  poem,  is  the 
 want  of  unity  of  action.  One  cannot  perceive,  on 
 reading  the  work,  what  is  the  object  which  the  poet 
 bad  in  view,  what  is  the  point  to  which  everything 
 
 ought  to  tend.  Is  it  the  momentary  triumph  of  free- 
 dom, in  the  fall  of  Csesar,  which  Lucan  has  wished  to 
 celebrate  1  Or  was  it  his  intention  to  paint  in  vivid 
 colours  the  disastrous  consequences  of  civil  discord  1 
 Or  did  he  wish  to  dilate  on  some  moral  or  political 
 virtue  1  Great  uncertainty  accompanies  all  these 
 questions.  It  is  true,  the  poem  being  probably  left 
 unfinished,  it  becomes  proportionably  more  difficult  to 
 pronounce  upon  its  object ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
 this  object  ought  to  be  so  clearly  indicated  in  every 
 part  of  the  poem,  as  to  form,  as  it  were,  its  very  soul, 
 and  to  be  the  pivot  around  which  everj'thincr  should 
 turn.  Faithful  to  the  laws  of  history,  far  different  in 
 their  character  from  those  of  the  epopee,  Lucan  does 
 not,  in  the  commencement  of  his  poem,  transport  us 
 at  once  into  the  midst  of  affairs  ;  he  goes  back  to  the 
 origin  of  the  civil  war  between  Ca3sar  and  Pompev, 
 and  follows  events  in  chronological  order.  His  prin- 
 cipal heroes  are  Pompey,  CaBsar,  Cato,  and  Brutus. 
 But  we  may  charge  the  poet  with  not  having  fully 
 succeeded  in  the  delineation  of  their  characters,  and 
 with  producing  sometimes  a  different  impression  upon 
 his  readers  from  that  which  he  intended  to  effect. 
 The  character  of  Pompey  is  exalted,  even  at  the  ex- 
 pense of  historical  truth  ;  that  of  Cffisar  is  treated  with 
 injustice  ;  and  yet,  notwithstanding  all  this,  Lucan 
 has  failed  in  making  the  former  interesting,  and  Cse- 
 sar, in  spite  of  the  poet,  is  the  true  hero  of  the  Phar- 
 salia ;  he  is  the  centre  of  action,  the  soul  of  events  : 
 we  have  him  constantly  before  our  eyes,  while  we 
 only  see  and  hear  of  Pompey  in  the  exaggerated  eu- 
 logiums  lavished  upon  him  by  the  poet.  But  it  is 
 principally  in  his  digressions,  in  the  numerous  descrip- 
 tions with  which  he  adorns  his  narrative,  some  of 
 which,  at  the  same  time,  afford  proofs  of  distinguished 
 talent,  that  Lucan  betrays  a  want  of  judgment  and  of 
 good  taste,  the  immediate  results  of  his  youth,  and  of 
 his  imitation  of  models  selected  from  the  school  of 
 Alexandrea.  Erudition  often  supplies  the  place  of  va- 
 riety ;  and  the  brilliant  conceits  brought  into  vogue 
 by  his  uncle  Seneca,  together  with  the  maxims  of  the 
 Porch,  to  which  he  was  attached,  are  made  to  stand 
 in  lieu  of  that  enthusiasm  and  dignity  which  form  two 
 of  the  principal  features  of  epic  composition.  His 
 versification,  too,  wants  the  elegance  and  the  melody 
 of  Virgil's. — Besides  the  Pharsalia,  several  critics, 
 among  whom  are  Joseph  Scaliger  and  Vossius,  have 
 ascribed  to  Lucan  a  poem  in  261  verses,  which  has 
 come  down  to  us,  and  which  contains  a  eulogium  on 
 Calpurnius  Piso,  the  same  who  conspired  against  Ne- 
 ro. Barthius  thinks  that  this  production  formed  one 
 of  a  collection  of  fugitive  pieces  published  by  Lucan 
 under  the  title  of  Silvce ;  but  other  critics,  among 
 whom  may  be  cited  Fabricius  and  Wernsdorff,  have 
 clearly  shown  that  Lucan  cannot  be  regarded  as  the 
 author  of  the  poem.  The  expressions  employed  by 
 its  author  to  indicate  the  lowness  of  his  origin  and 
 the  scantiness  of  his  fortune,  do  not  apply  with  any 
 correctness  to  Lucan,  descended  as  he  was  from  a 
 good  family,  and  rich  as  well  in  his  own  as  in  the 
 property  brought  him  by  his  wife.  It  is  assigned  with 
 more  propriety  to  Saleius  Bassus,  a  friend  of  Lucan's. 
 — The  best  editions  of  Lucan  are,  that  of  Cortius, 
 Lips.,  1726,  8vo,  re-edited  and  completed  by  Weber, 
 Lips.,  1828,  2  vols.  8vo;  Oudendoip,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1728,  2  vols  ;  Burmann,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1740,  4to;  Le- 
 maire,  Paris,  1830-1832,  3  vols.  8vo,  and  that  of 
 Weise,  Quedlinb.,  1835,  8vo.  The  edition  [lublished 
 at  Glasgow  (1816,  8vo),  with  the  notes  of  Bentley  and 
 Grotius,  is  also  a  good  one.  (Schiill.  Hist.  Lit  Rom., 
 vol.  2,  p.  286,  seqq.—B'dhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  p.  94. 
 seqq.)—ll.  Ocellus,  a  Lucanian  philosojiher.  {Vid. 
 Ocellus.) 
 
 LucERiA,  a  city  of  Apulia,  about  twelve  miles  to 
 the  west  of  Arpi.  It  was  a  place  of  great  antiquity, 
 and  was   said   to   have  been    founded   by   Diomede 
 
 757 
 
LUC 
 
 LUCIANUS. 
 
 whose  offerings  to  Minerva  were  still  to  be  seen  in 
 the  temple  of  that  goddess  in  the  timeofStrabo  (294). 
 Luceria  was  the  first  Apulian  city  which  the  Romans 
 appear  to  have  been  solicitous  to  possess;  and  though 
 it  was  long  an  object  of  contention  with  the  Samnites, 
 they  Ihially  secured  their  conquest  and  sent  a  colony 
 there,  A.U.C.  440.  {Liv.,  9,  2.—Diod.  Sic,  18.— 
 Veil.  Patcrc,  1,  14.)  We  find  Luceria  afterward 
 enumerated  among  those  cities  which  remained  most 
 firm  in  their  allegiance  to  Rome  during  the  invasion 
 of  Hannibal.  {Lw.,  27,  lO.—Pulyh.,^,  88.)  In  the 
 civil  wars  of  Ponipey  and  Coesar,  Luceria  is  mention- 
 ed by  Cicero  as  a  place  which  the  former  was  an.xious 
 to  retain,  and  where  he  invited  Cicero  to  join  him. 
 (Ep.  ad  Alt.,  8,  l.  —  Cccs.,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  24.)  It 
 seems  to  have  been  noted  for   the  excellence  of  its 
 
 rhetorical  nature.  Eloquence  applied  to  so/ihistic  dec- 
 lamations and  improvisaziones,  if  we  may  be  allowed 
 the  expression,  opened  at  this  time  the  surest  path  to 
 fortune  and  fame.  The  sophists  were  constantly  en- 
 gaged in  travelling  to  and  fro  among  the  great  cities : 
 ihey  announced  a  discourse  as  an  itinerant  musician 
 at  the  present  day  would  announce  a  concert  ;  and 
 people  flocked  from  all  quarters  to  hear  and  see  them, 
 and  to  pay  liberally  for  the  harmonious  and  polished 
 periods  with  which  their  ears  were  gratified.  Luciau 
 yielded  to  the  fashion  of  the  day,  and  abandoned  the 
 bar  for  the  tribune.  He  again  directed  his  thoughts 
 to  travel,  and  visited  Asia,  Greece,  and  particularly 
 Gaul,  in  which  last-mentioned  country  he  settled  for  a 
 time  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  soon  obtained  great 
 celebrity  and  a  numerous  school.     He  appears  to  have 
 
 wool,  a  property,  indeed,  which,  according  to  Strabo    remained   in  Gaul  till  he  was  about  forty,  when  he 
 
 (284),  was  common  to  the  whole  of  Apulia.  Thi 
 place  still  retains  its  ancient  site  under  the  modern 
 name  of  Lucera.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 285,  scqg.) 
 
 Luce II  Es,  the  third  of  the  three  original  tribes  at 
 Rome.  These  three  original  tribes  were  the  Ram- 
 nenses  or  Ramnes,  the  Tatienses  or  Tilienses,  and 
 the  Luceres.     (Firf.  Roma.) 
 
 LuciANQS,  a  celebrated  Greek  writer,  born  at  Sa- 
 mosata  in  Syria.  The  period  when  he  flourished  is 
 uncertain.  Suidas,  who  is  the  only  ancient  writer  that 
 makes  mention  of  him,  informs  us  that  he  lived  in  the 
 time  of  Trajan,  and  also  before  that  prince  (/Ityerai  de 
 yeviadat  tnl  tov  Kaiuapoi;  Tpaiavov,  kuI  iireKeiva). 
 This,  however,  Vossius  denies  to  be  correct.  (Hist. 
 Gr.,  2,  15.)  The  same  Suidas  also  states,  that,  after 
 having  followed  the  profession  of  an  advocate  at  An- 
 tioch  with  little  success,  he  turned  his  attention  to  lit- 
 erary composition  ;  and  that  he  was  finally  torn  to 
 pieces  by  dogs,  which  this  writer  considers  a  well- 
 merited  punishment  for  his  impiety  in  attacking  the 
 Christian  religion.  Lucian  himself,  however  (Reviv., 
 ^  29),  assigns  as  the  reason  for  his  quitting  i.he  pro- 
 fession of  an  advocate,  his  disgust  at  the  fraud  and 
 chicanery  of  the  lawyers  of  the  day  ;  and  as  for  the 
 story  of  his  death,  we  may  safely  pronounce  it  a  pious 
 falsehood.  In  a  dissertation  on  Isidorus  of  Charax, 
 Dodwell  endeavours  to  prove  that  Lucian  was  born 
 A.D.  135  ;  which  will  coincide,  in  some  degree,  with 
 the  opinion  of  Hemsterhuys,  who  {Prcef.  ad  Jul.  Poll.) 
 places  him  under  the  Antonines  and  Coinmodus.  Vos- 
 sius also  {I.  c.)  makes  him  a  contemporary  of  Athenae- 
 us,  who  lived  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Isonius 
 (Script.  Hist.  Phil ,  3,  10,  p.  CO)  inclines  to  the  same 
 opinion,  considering  him  as  contemporary  with  Demo- 
 nax,  who  flourished  under  Antoninus  Pius  and  his 
 successor.  Reitz  (De  A^tate,  &c.,  Lucmni,  p.  C3. — 
 Op.,  ed.  Hemst.,  vol.  1 ),  agreeing  in  opinion  with  Hem- 
 sterhuys, places  him  under  the  Antonines  and  Corn- 
 modus,  and  makes  him  to  have  lived  from  120  B.C. 
 until  200. — Destined  at  first,  by  his  father,  who  was 
 in  humble  circumstances,  to  the  profession  of  a  sculp- 
 tor, he  was  placed  with  that  view  under  the  instruc- 
 tion of  his  uncle.  But,  becoming  soon  disgusted  with 
 the  employment,  he  turned  his  attention  to  literature. 
 and  travelled  into  Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  in  the  latter 
 of  which  countries  he  was  present,  according  to  the 
 computation  of  Dodwell,  at  the  celebration  of  the  233d, 
 234th,  and  235th  Olympiads  (A.D.  157,  161,  165),  an- 
 swering to  the  22d,  26th,  and  30lh  years  of  his  age. 
 In  his  29th  year  he  appears  to  have  heard  historical 
 lectures  in  Ionia.  His  principal  place  of  residence 
 while  in  this  country  was  the  city  of  Ephcsus.  Wheth- 
 er Lucian  entered  upon  the  profession  of  an  advocate 
 before  or  after  this  period  is  not  clearly  ascertained  : 
 the  latter  is  perhaps  the  more  correct  opinion.  Anli- 
 och  was  the  scene  of  his  labours  in  this  new  vocation  ; 
 but  he  soon  became  disgusted  with  forensic  pursuits, 
 
 gave  up  the  profession  of  rhetoric,  after  having  acqui- 
 red considerable  wealth.     On  his  return  from  Gaul  he 
 visited  Italy,  and  paints  in  vivid  colours,  in  his  "  Ni- 
 grinus,"  the  corruption  of  the  capital.     During  the  re- 
 mainder of  his  life  we  find  him  travelling  about  from 
 place  to  place,  and  visiting  successively  Macedonia, 
 Cappadocia,  Paphlagonia,  and  Bithynia.     The  greater 
 part  of  his  time,  however,  was  passed  in  Athens,  where 
 he  lived  on  terms  of  the  greatest  intimacy  with  Demo- 
 nax,  a  philosopher  of  great  celebrity.     Havmg  here 
 made  the  study  of  man  his  particular  object,  we  find 
 him  embracing  no  one  of  the  systems  then  in  vogue, 
 but  following,  as  far  as  he  could  be  said  to  have  fol- 
 lowed any  sect,  the  tenets  of  the  school  of  Epicurus. 
 In  his  old  age  he  obtained  from  Marcus  Aurelius  an 
 honourable  employment  in  Egypt.     Some  make  him 
 to  have  been  placed  over  a  part  of  this  province  ;  but 
 it  appears  more  probable  that  he  was  appomted  regis- 
 ter to  one  of  the  higher  tribunals.     He  died  at  a  very 
 advanced  age. — What  distinguishes  Lucian  as  a  writer 
 is  a  genius  eminently  satirical,  a  brilliancy  of  thought, 
 and  a  larger  share  of  humour  than  any  other  author  of 
 antiquity,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  Aristophanes 
 and  Horace.     His  irony  spares  no  folly  and  no  preju- 
 dice on   the   part  of  his   contemporaries,  but  wages 
 against  their  failings  a  continual  warfare.     The  wri- 
 tings of  Lucian  very  rarely  betray  any  marks  of  the 
 decline  of  taste  which  characterized  the  period  in  which 
 he  is  said  to  have  lived.     His  style,  formed  by  the 
 study  of  the  best  models,  and  especially  of  Aristopha- 
 nes, would  never  lead  us  to  suspect  that  he  was  a  na- 
 tive of  the  distant  province  of  northern  Syria  :  it  is  as 
 pure,  as  elegant,  and  as  Attic  as  if  he  had  flourished 
 in  the  classic  periods  of  Grecian  literature,  and  the 
 defects  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived  merely  show  them- 
 selves in  the  desire  to  coin  new  expressions,  and  to 
 divert  others  from  their  more  ancient  and  legitimate 
 meaning;  faults  from  which  he  has  not  been  able  to 
 save  himself,  although  he  ridicules  them  in  one  of  his 
 own  productions,  the  "  Lexiphanes."     Neither  has  he 
 been  always  able  to  resist  the  inclination  of  adorning 
 his  style  with  the  tinsel  of  quotations  and  phrases  bor- 
 rowed from  the  ancient  poets  and  historians,  and  fre- 
 quently misplaced.     The  greater  part  of  his  produc- 
 tions have  the  dialogue  form  ;  but  they  are  not,  like 
 the  dialogues  of  Plato,  dissertations  put  into  the  mouth 
 of   interlocutors,  merely  to  destroy  the    monotonous 
 uniformity  of  a  continued  discourse.     The  dialogues 
 of  Lucian  are  true  conversations  ;  they  are  in  every 
 sense  dramatic.     He  says  himself  (A(f  Karjjy-,  c.  33) 
 that  he  has  restored  dialogue  to  earth,  after  it  had  been 
 lost  in  the  regions  of  the  clouds  ;  and  that,  despoiling 
 it  of  its  tragic  garb,  he  has  brought  it  in  contact  with 
 pleasantry  and   the   comic  muse.  —  The  subjects  on 
 which  he  treats  are  various  and  interesting :  history, 
 philosophv,  and  all  the  sciences  furnish  him  with  ma- 
 terials.     Lucian  may,  in  fact,  be  regarded  as  the  Aris- 
 tophanes of  his  age,  and,  like  the  great  comic  poet,  he 
 
 and  turned  his  attention  lo  others  of  a  more  purely    had  recourse  to  raillery  and  satire  to  accomplish  the 
 758 
 
LUCIANUS. 
 
 LU  C 
 
 great  object  he  had  in  view.  This  object  was,  to  ex- 
 pose all  kinds  of  delusion,  fanaticism,  and  imposture  ; 
 the  quackery  and  imposition  of  the  priests,  the  folly 
 and  absurdity  of  the  superstitious,  and  especially  the 
 solemn  nonsense,  the  prating  insolence,  and  the  im- 
 lijoral  lives  of  the  philosophical  charlatans  of  his  age. 
 His  study  was  human  nature  in  all  its  varieties,  and 
 the  age  in  which  he  lived  furnished  ample  materials 
 for  his  observation.  Many  of  his  pictures,  though 
 drawn  from  the  circumstances  of  his  own  times,  are 
 true  for  every  age  and  country.  If  he  sometimes  dis- 
 closes the  follies  and  vices  of  mankind  too  freely,  and 
 occasionally  uses  expressions  which  are  revoltmg  to 
 our  ideas  of  morality,  it  should  be  recollected  that  ev- 
 ery author  ought  to  be  judged  by  the  age  in  which  he 
 lived,  and  not  by  a  standard  of  religion  and  morality 
 which  was  unknown  to  the  writer.  The  character  of 
 Lucian's  mind  was  decidedly  practical  :  he  was  not 
 disposed  to  believe  anything  without  sufficient  evidence 
 of  its  truth  ;  and  nothing  that  was  ridiculous  or  absurd 
 escaped  his  raillery  and  sarcasm.  The  tales  of  the 
 poets  respecting  the  attributes  and  exploits  of  the  gods, 
 which  were  still  firmly  believed  by  the  common  peo- 
 ple of  his  age,  were  especially  the  objects  of  his  satire 
 and  ridicule  in  his  dialogues  between  the  gods,  and  in 
 many  other  of  his  works ;  and  that  he  should  have  at- 
 tacked the  Christians  in  common  with  the  false  sys- 
 tems of  the  pagan  religion,  will  not  appear  surprising 
 to  any  one  who  considers  that  Lucian  probably  never 
 took  the  trouble  to  inquire  into  the  doctrines  of  a  re- 
 ligion which  was  almost  uinversally  despised  in  his 
 time  by  the  higher  orders  of  society. — The  greater 
 part,  if  not  all,  of  the  dialogues  of  Lucian  appear  to 
 have  been  written  after  his  return  from  Gaul  and 
 while  he  was  residing  at  Athens  ;  but  most  of  his  oth- 
 er pieces  were  probably  written  during  the  time  that  he 
 taught  rhetoric  in  the  former  country. — Our  limits,  of 
 course,  will  not  allow  an  examination  of  the  numerous 
 writings  of  Lucian.  We  will  content  ourselves  with 
 noticing  merely  one  piece,  partly  on  account  of  its  pe- 
 culiar character,  which  has  made  it  a  subject  of  fre- 
 quent reference,  and  partly  because  the  general  opin- 
 ion of  scholars  at  the  present  day  is  adverse  to  its 
 being  regarded  as  one  of  the  productions  of  Lucian. 
 It  is  the  <Pt2.6TraTpig,  rj  SidaoKofisvog  ("  The  lover  of 
 his  r.ountvy,  or  the  student").  The  author  of  this 
 piece,  whoever  he  was,  ridicules,  after  the  manner  of 
 Lucian,  the  absurdities  of  the  Greek  mythology  ;  but 
 his  satire  has,  in  fact,  no  other  end  than  to  serve  as  an 
 introduction  to  an  unsparing  attack  on  the  Christians  : 
 they  are  represented  as  wicked  men,  continually  offer- 
 ing up  prayers  for  the  evil  of  the  state.  The  authen- 
 ticity of  this  piece  has  been  much  disputed.  Mention 
 is  made  in  it  of  events,  which  some  place  under  Nero 
 or  even  under  Claudius,  others  under  Trajan  or  Mar- 
 cus Aurelius,  and  some  under  Julian.  The  first  of 
 these,  as,  for  example,  Theodore  Marcilius,  think,  in 
 consequence,  that  the  author  of  the  ])iece  lived  during 
 the  first  century.  What  appears  to  favour  this  opinion 
 is  a  passage  in  which  the  writer  alludes,  without  na- 
 ming him,  to  St.  Paul,  or  even,  according  to  the  So- 
 cinian  Crell,  to  our  Saviour  himself.  Some  orthodox 
 theologians  have  shown  themselves  favourably  inclined 
 to  this  system,  because  in  a  passage  of  the  dialogue 
 the  question  of  the  Trinity  is  openly  stated,  and  they 
 have  taken  this  as  a  proof  that  tins  doctrine  was  taught 
 prior  to  the  council  of  Nice.  Marcilius,  however,  is 
 mistaken.  Artemidorus,  author  of  the  Oneirocritica, 
 is  cited  in  the  Philopatris :  it  is  true,  critics  are  not 
 agreed  as  to  the  period  when  this  writer  flourished,  but 
 in  any  event  he  cannot  be  placed  lower  than  Hadrian. 
 In  the  dialogue  under  consideration,  so  stroncr  a  re- 
 semblance to  the  other  works  of  Lucian  is  perceptible, 
 there  occur  so  many  phrases  and  forms  of  expression 
 which  are  familiar  to  him,  that,  if  it  be  not  the  work  of 
 Lucian  himself,  it  could  only  have  been  composed  by 
 
 some  writer  that  came  after  him.  Huet  and  Gesner 
 have  found  in  it  a  much  more  accurate  acquaintance 
 with  Christianity  than  we  can  suppose  Lucian  to  have 
 possessed,  after  having  read  his  Peregrinus.  Schbli, 
 following  the  side  espoused  by  Gesner,  takes  the  Phil- 
 opatris to  have  been  the  work  of  a  man  who,  after  hav- 
 ing been  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  Christianity, 
 had  renounced  the  gospel,  not  to  return  to  paganism, 
 but  to  throw  himself  into  the  arms  of  incredulity.  The 
 tone  which  pervades  it  betrays  the  bitterness  of  an 
 apostate. — We  have  remaining,  besides  his  other 
 works,  fifty  Epigrams  ascribed  to  Lucian.  The  great- 
 er part  are  of  that  hyperbolic  cast  which  was  so  much 
 in  vogue  during  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 
 Lucian,  however,  has  not  carried  this  kind  of  poetry  to 
 that  point  of  extravagance  to  which  later  writers  push- 
 ed it.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  243,  seqq.) 
 The  best  editions  of  Lucian  are,  that  of  Hemsterhuys, 
 completed  by  Reitz,  Amst.,  1730-36,  4  vols.  4to,  ed- 
 ited in  a  more  complete  manner  by  Gesner,  Artist , 
 1743,  3  vols.  4to,  and  to  which  must  be  added,  al- 
 though of  inferior  value,  the  Lexicon  Luciancum  of  C. 
 R.  Reitz,  brother  to  the  former,  Ultraj.,  1746,  4to : 
 that  of  the  Bipont  editors,  in  10  vols.  8vo,  a  reprint  of 
 the  preceding,  but  containing,  besides,  the  various  read- 
 ings of  six  manuscripts  in  the  library  of  the  king  of 
 France,  collected  by  M.  Belin  de  Ballu  ;  and  that  of 
 Lehmann,  L/;)S.,  1822-1831,  8vo,  of  which  9  volumes 
 have  thus  far  appeared.  This  last  edition,  however, 
 is  much  disfigured  by  typographical  errors.  {Hoff- 
 mann, Lex.  Bibliograph.,  vol.  3,  p.  32.) 
 
 Lucifer,  the  name  of  the  planet  Venus,  or  morn 
 ing  star.  It  is  called  Lucifer  when  appearing  in  the 
 morning  before  the  sun  ;  but  when  it  follows  it,  and 
 appears  some  time  after  its  setting,  it  is  called  Hcspc 
 rus.     {Vid.  Hesperus.) 
 
 LuciLius,  I.  C,  a  Roman  knight,  born  at  Suessa, 
 a  town  in  the  Auruncian  territory,  A.U.C.  605,  B.C. 
 149.  He  was  descended  of  a  good  family,  and  was 
 grand-uncle,  by  the  mother's  side,  to  Pompey  the 
 Great.  In  early  youth  he  served  at  the  siege  of  Nu- 
 mantia,  in  the  same  camp  with  Marius  and  Jugurtha, 
 under  the  younger  Africanus,  whose  friendship  and  pro- 
 tection he  had  thus  the  good  fortune  to  acquire.  ( Veil. 
 Patera.,  2,  9.)  On  his  return  to  Rome  from  his  Span- 
 ish campaign,  he  dwelt  in  the  house  which  had  been 
 built  at  the  public  expense,  and  had  been  inhabited  by 
 Seleucus  Philopator,  prince  of  Syria,  while  he  resided 
 in  his  youth  as  an  hostage  at  Rome.  {Ascon.  Pedian., 
 in  Cic,  conlr.  L.  Pis.)  Lucilius  continued  to  live 
 on  terms  of  the  closest  intimacy  with  the  brave  Scip- 
 io  and  the  wise  Laelius.  {Herat.,  Serm.,  2,  1,  71.) 
 These  powerful  protectors  enabled  him  to  satirize  the 
 vicious  without  restraint  or  fear  of  punishment.  In 
 his  writings  he  drew  a  genuine  picture  of  himself,  ac- 
 knowledged his  faults,  made  a  frank  confession  of  his 
 inclinations,  gave  an  account  of  his  adventures,  and, 
 in  short,  exhibited  a  true  and  spirited  representation 
 of  his  whole  life.  Fresh  from  business  or  pleasure,  he 
 seized  his  pen  while  his  fancy  was  yet  warm  and  his 
 passions  were  still  awake,  as  elated  with  success  or 
 depressed  with  disappointment.  All  these  feelings  or 
 incidents  he  faithfully  related,  and  made  his  remarks 
 on  them  with  the  utmost  freedom.  {Horat ,  Serm., 
 2,  1,  30.)  Unfortunately,  however,  his  writings  are 
 so  mutilated,  that  few  particulars  of  his  life  and  man- 
 ners can  be  gleaned  from  them.  Little  farther  is 
 known  concerning  him  than  that  he  died  at  Naples,  but 
 at  what  age  has  been  much  disputed.  P'usebius  and 
 most  other  writers  have  fixed  it  at  45,  which,  as  he  was 
 born  in  A.Q.C.  605,  would  be  in  the  651st  year  of  the 
 city.  But  Dacier  and  Bayle  assert  that  he  must  have 
 been  much  older,  as  he  speaks  in  his  Satires  of  the 
 Licinian  law  against  exorbitant  expenditure  at  enter- 
 tainments, which  was  not  promulgated  till  B.C.  97  or  96 
 (A  U.C.  657  or  658).  The  expression,  moreover,  ap- 
 ^  759 
 
LUCILIUS. 
 
 LUCILIUS. 
 
 plied  by  Horace  to  Liicilius  (Scrm.,  2,  1,  34),  namely, 
 aenex  or  "old,"  seems  to  imply,  as  Clinton  lias  remark- 
 ed {Fast.  Hell.,  vol,  3,  p.  135),  that  he  lived  to  a  later 
 date. — The  period  at  which  Lucilius  wrote  was  favour- 
 able to  satiric  composition.  1'here  was  a  strmrgle  exist- 
 ing between  the  old  and  new  manners,  and  the  free- 
 dom of  speaking  and  writing,  though  restrained,  had  not 
 yet  been  totally  checked  by  law.  Lucilius  lived  with  a 
 people  among  whom  luxury  and  corruption  were  advan- 
 cing with  fearful  rapidity,  but  among  whom  some  virtu- 
 ous citizens  were  anxious  to  stem  the  tide  which  threat- 
 ened to  overwhelm  their  countrymen.  His  satires, 
 therefore,  were  adapted  to  please  those  stanch  '^lauda- 
 tores  temporis  arti"  who  stood  up  for  ancient  manners 
 and  discipline.  The  freedom  with  which  he  attacked 
 the  vices  of  his  contemporaries,  without  sparing  individ- 
 uals, the  strength  of  colouring  with  which  his  pictures 
 were  charged,  the  weight  and  asperity  of  the  reproaches 
 with  which  he  loaded  those  who  had  exposed  them- 
 selves to  his  ridicule  or  indignation,  had  nothing  re- 
 volting in  an  age  when  no  consideration  compelled  to 
 those  forbearances  necessary  under  different  forms  of 
 society  or  government.  By  the  time,  too,  in  which  he 
 began  to  write,  the  Romans,  though  yet  far  from  the 
 polish  of  the  Augustan  age,  had  become  familiar  with 
 the  delicate  and  cutting  irony  of  the  Greek  comedies, 
 of  which  the  more  ancient  Roman  satirists  had  no  con- 
 ception. Lucilius  chiefly  applied  himself  to  the  imi- 
 tation of  these  dramatic  productions,  and  caught,  it  is 
 said,  much  of  their  fire  and  spirit.  The  Roman  lan- 
 guage likewise  had  grovvn  more  refined  in  his  age,  and 
 was  thus  more  capable  of  receiving  the  Grecian  beau- 
 ties of  style.  Nor  did  Lucilius,  like  his  predecessors, 
 mix  iambic  with  trochaic  verses.  Twenty  books  of 
 his  satires,  from  the  commencement,  were  in  hexam- 
 eter verse,  and  the  rest,  with  the  exception  of  the  thir- 
 tieth, in  iambics  or  trochaics.  His  object,  too,  seems 
 to  have  been  bolder  and  more  extensive  than  that  of 
 his  predecessors,  and  was  not  so  much  to  excite  laugh- 
 ter or  ridicule  as  to  correct  and  chastise  vice.  Lu- 
 cilius thus  bestowed  on  satiric  composition  such  ad- 
 ditional grace  and  regularity  that  he  is  declared  by 
 Horace  to  have  been  the  first  among  the  Romans  who 
 wrote  satire  in  verse.  But,  although  he  may  have 
 greatly  improved  this  sort  of  writing,  it  does  not  fol- 
 low that  his  satires  are  to  be  considered  as  a  different 
 species  from  those  of  Ennius,  a  light  in  which  they 
 have  been  regarded  by  Casaubon  and  Ruperii  ;  "  for," 
 as  Dryden  has  remarked,  "  it  would  thence  follow  that 
 the  satires  of  Horace  are  wholly  different  from  those 
 of  Lucilius,  because  Horace  has  not  less  surpassed 
 Lucilius  in  the  elegance  of  his  writing,  than  Lucilius 
 surpassed  Ennius  in  the  turn  and  ornament  of  his." 
 The  satires  of  Lucilius  extended  to  not  fewer  than 
 thirty  books,  but  whether  they  were  so  divided  by  the 
 poet  himself,  or  by  some  grammarian  who  lived  short- 
 ly after  him,  is  uncertain.  He  was  reputed,  however, 
 to  be  a  voluminous  author,  and  has  been  satirized  by 
 Horace  for  his  hurried  copiousness  and  facility.  Of 
 the  thirty  books  there  are  only  fragments  extant ;  but 
 these  are  so  numerous,  that,  though  thev  do  not  capa- 
 citate us  for  catching  the  full  .spirit  of  the  poet,  we 
 perceive  something  of  his  manner.  His  merits,  too, 
 have  been  so  much  canvassed  by  ancient  writers,  who 
 judged  of  them  while  his  works  were  yet  entire,  that 
 their  discussion  enables  us  in  some  measure  to  appre- 
 ciate his  poetical  claims.  It  would  appear  that  he  had 
 great  vivacity,  and  humour,  uncommon  command  of 
 language,  intimate  ^knowledge  of  life  and  manners,  and 
 considerable  acquaintance  with  the  Grecian  masters. 
 Virtue  appeared  in  his  draughts  in  native  dignity,  and 
 he  exhibited  his  distinguished  friends,  Scipio  and  La>- 
 lius,  in  the  most  amiable  light.  At  the  same  time,  it 
 was  impossible  to  portray  anything  more  powerful 
 than  the  sketches  of  his  vicious  characters.  His  rogue, 
 glutton,  and  courtesan  are  drawn  in  strong,  not  to  say 
 760 
 
 coarse,  colours.  He  had,  however,  much  of  the  old 
 Roman  humour,  that  celebrated  but  undefined  urban- 
 i/as,  which  indeed  he  possessed  in  so  eminent  a  degree, 
 that  Pliny  says  it  began  with  Lucilius  in  composition 
 {Frcff-  Hist.  Nat.),  while  Cicero  declares  that  he  car- 
 ried it  to  the  highest  perfection,  and  that  it  almost  ex- 
 pired with  him.  But  the  chief  characteristic  of  Lu- 
 cilius was  his  vehement  and  cutting  satire.  Macro- 
 bius  {Sal.,  3,  16)  calls  him  "  Acer  et  violentus  poela," 
 and  the  well-known  lines  of  Juvenal,  who  relates  how 
 he  made  the  guilty  tremble  with  his  pen,  as  much  as 
 if  he  had  pursued  them  sword  in  hand,  have  fixed  his 
 character  as  a  determined  and  inexorable  persecutor 
 of  vice.  His  Latin  is  admitted  on  all  hands  to  have 
 been  sufficiently  pure  (^m/.  GelL,  18,  5. — Horat.,  Sat., 
 1,  10),  but  his  versification  was  rugged  and  prosaic. 
 Horace,  while  he  allows  that  he  was  more  polished 
 than  his  contemporaries,  calls  his  muse  '■'■  pedcstris,^'' 
 talks  repeatedly  of  the  looseness  of  his  measures,  "in- 
 composito  pcde  currere  versus,"  and  compares  his 
 whole  poetry  to  a  muddy  and  troubled  stream.  Quin- 
 tilian  does  not  entirely  coincide  with  this  opinion  of 
 Horace  ;  for,  while  blaming  those  who  considered  him 
 as  the  greatest  of  poets,  which  some  persons  still  did 
 in  the  age  of  Domitian,  he  says,  "  Ego  quantum  ah 
 illis,  tantum  ah  Horatio  dissenlio,  qui  Lucihum  jluere 
 lutulcntum,  et  esse  aliquid  quod  lollere  possis,  putat." 
 {Inst.  Or.,  10,  1.)  The  author  of  the  books  Rhctori' 
 corum,  addressed  to  Herennius,  and  which  were  at  one 
 time  ascribed  to  Cicero,  mentions,  as  a  singular  awk- 
 wardness in  the  construction  of  his  lines,  the  disjunc- 
 tion of  words,  which,  according  to  proper  and  natural 
 arrangement,  ought  to  have  been  placed  together,  as, 
 
 "Has  res  ad  te  scrip tas  Luci  misimus  Aeli." 
 
 Nay,  what  is  still  worse,  it  would  appear  from  Asconi- 
 us  that  he  had  sometimes  barbarously  separated  tbo 
 syllables  of  a  word, 
 
 "  Villa  Lucani — max  poiieris  aco." 
 
 As  to  the  learning  of  Lncilius,  the  opinions  of  antiqui- 
 ty are  different ;  and  even  those  of  the  same  author  of- 
 ten appear  somewhat  contradictory  on  this  point.  Quin- 
 tilian  says  that  there  is  "  Eruditio  in  eo  mira.'^  Cice- 
 ro, in  his  treatise  De  Finibus,  calls  his  learning  "  Me- 
 diocris  ;"  though  afterward,  in  the  person  of  Crassus, 
 in  his  treatise  De  Oratore,  he  twice  terms  him  "  doc- 
 lus"  (1,  16;  2,  6).  Dacier  suspects  that  Quintilian 
 was  led  to  consider  Lucilius  as  learned,  from  the  pedan- 
 tic intermixture  of  Greek  words  in  his  compositions,  a 
 practice  which  seems  to  have  excited  the  applause  of 
 his  contemporaries,  and  also  of  his  numerous  admirers 
 in  the  Augustan  age,  for  which  they  have  been  severe- 
 ly ridiculed  by  Horace,  who  always  warmly  opposed 
 himself  to  the  excessive  popularity  of  Lucilius  during 
 that  golden  period  of  literature.  It  is  not  unlikely  that 
 there  may  have  been  something  of  political  spleen  in 
 the  admiration  expressed  for  Lucilius  during  the  age 
 of  Augustus,  and  something  of  courtly  complaisance 
 in  the  attempts  of  Horace  to  counteract  it.  Augustus 
 had  extended  the  law  of  the  twelve  tables  respecting 
 libels,  and  the  people  who  found  themselves  thus  abridg- 
 ed of  the  liberty  of  satirizing  the  great  by  name,  might 
 not  improbably  seek  to  avenge  themselves  by  an  over- 
 strained attachment  to  the  works  of  a  poet,  who,  living, 
 as  they  would  insinuate,  in  better  times,  practised  with- 
 out fear  what  he  enjoyed  without  restraint.  {Gifford's 
 Juvenal,  Prcef.,  p.  43.)  Some  motive  of  this  sort 
 doubtless  weighed  with  the  Romans  of  the  age  of  Au- 
 gustus, since  much  of  the  satire  of  Lucilius  mu.st  have 
 been  unintelligible,  or,  at  least,  uninteresting  to  them. 
 Great  part  of  his  compositions  appear  to  have  been 
 rather  a  series  of  libels  than  legitimate  satire,  being  oc- 
 cupied with  virulent  attacks  on  contemporary  citizens 
 of  Rome.  Douza,  who  has  collected  and  edited  all 
 I  that  remains  of  the  satires  of  liUciiius,  mentions  the 
 
LUC 
 
 LUC 
 
 names  of  not  less  than  sixteen  individuals  who  are  at- 
 tacked by  name  in  the  course  even  of  these  fragments, 
 among  whom  are  Quintus  Opimius,  the  conqueror  of 
 Liguria,  Cascilius  Metellus,  whose  victories  acquired 
 for  him  the  surname  of  Macednnicus,  and  Cornelius 
 Lupus,  at  that  time  Pnnceps  Senalus.  Lucilius  was 
 equally  severe  on  contemporary  and  preceding  authors : 
 Ennius,  Pacuvius,  and  Accius  having  been  alternately 
 satirized  by  him.  {Aul.  GclL,  17,  21.)  In  all  this  he 
 indulged  with  impunity  {Horat.,  Sat.,  2,  1)  ;  but  he 
 did  not  escape  so  well  from  a  player  whom  he  had  ven- 
 tured to  censure,  and  who  took  his  revenge  by  expo- 
 sing Lucilius  on  the  stage.  The  poet  prosecuted  the  ac- 
 tor, and  the  cause  was  carried  on  with  much  warmth  on 
 both  sides  before  the  praetor,  who  finally  acquitted  the 
 player  {Rhct.,  adHerren.,  2,  13). — Lucilius,  however, 
 did  not  confine  himself  to  attacking  vicious  mortals.  In 
 the  first  book  of  his  satires  he  appears  to  have  decla- 
 red war  on  the  false  gods  of  Olympus,  whose  plurality 
 he  denied,  and  ridiculed  the  simplicity  of  the  people, 
 who  bestowed  on  an  infinity  of  gods  the  venerable 
 name  of  father,  which  should  be  reserved  for  one. — 
 Of  many  books  of  the  Satires  such  small  fragments  re- 
 main, that  it  is  impossible  to  conjecture  their  subjects. 
 Even  in  those  books  of  which  there  are  a  greater  num- 
 ber of  fragments  extant,  they  are  so  disjointed  that  it 
 is  as  difficult  to  put  them  legibly  together  as  the  scat- 
 tered leaves  of  the  Sibyl ;  and  the  labour  of  Douza, 
 who  has  been  the  most  successful  in  arranging  the  bro- 
 ken lines,  is  by  many  considered  as  but  a  conjectural 
 and  philological  sport.  Those  few  passages,  however, 
 which  are  in  any  degree  entire,  show  great  force  of  sa- 
 tire.— Besides  satirizing  the  wicked,  under  which  cate- 
 gory he  probably  classed  all  his  enemies,  Lucilius  also 
 employed  his  pen  in  praise  of  the  brave  and  virtuous. 
 He  wrote,  as  we  learn  from  Horace,  a  panegyric  on 
 Scipio  Africanus ;  but  whether  the  elder  or  younger,  is 
 not  certain.  Lucilius  was  also  author  of  a  comedy 
 entitled  Nummvlaria,,  of  which  only  one  line  remains  ; 
 but  we  are  informed  by  Porphyrion,  the  scholiast  on 
 Horace,  that  the  plot  turned  on  Pythias,  a  female  slave, 
 tricking  her  tnasler  Simo  out  of  a  sum  of  money,  with 
 which  to  portion  his  daughter.  {Dunloji's  Roman  Lit- 
 erature, vol.  1,  p.  393,  seqq.)  Douza's  edition  of  the 
 fragments  of  Lucilius  was  published  in  1593,  Lugd. 
 Bat.,  4to  :  a  later  but  inferior  edition,  C7ira  fratrum 
 Vuipiorum,  appeared  in  1713,  Patav.  Lemaire  has 
 subjoined  a  reprint  of  Douza's  Lucilius  to  the  third 
 volume  of  his  edition  of  Juvenal  and  Persius,  Paris, 
 1830. — II.  An  epigrammatic  poet  in  the  age  of  Nero. 
 We  have  more  than  one  hundred  of  his  epigrams  re- 
 maining. Wernsdorff  assigns  to  him  the  poem  entitled 
 /Etna,  commonly  supposed  to  have  been  written  by 
 Cornelius  Severus.  (Poel.  Lat.  Min.,  vol.  4,  pt.  2, 
 p.  3,  seqq.) 
 
 LuciLi.A,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius 
 and  of  Faustina,  was  born  A.D.  146.  At  the  age  of 
 seventeen  she  was  given  in  marriage  to  Lucius  Verus, 
 at  that  time  commanding  the  Roman  armies  in  Syria. 
 Verus  came  as  far  as  Ephesus  to  meet  her,  and  the 
 union  was  celebrated  in  this  city  ;  but,  habituated  to 
 debauchery,  Verus  soon  relapsed  into  his  former  mode 
 of  life;  and  Lucilla,  finding  herself  neglected,  took  a 
 woman's  revenge,  and  entered  on  a  career  of  similar 
 profligacy.  Returning  subsequently  with  her  hus- 
 band to  Rome,  she  caused  him  to  be  poisoned  there  ; 
 and  afterward,  in  accordance  with  her  father's  direc- 
 tions, contracted  a  second  union  with  Claudius  Pom- 
 peianus,  an  aged  senator,  of  great  merit  and  probity. 
 Her  licentious  conduct,  however,  underwent  no  change, 
 and  she  was  banished  to  the  island  of  Capreas  by  her 
 brother  Commodus,  against  whom  she  had  formed  a 
 conspiracy.  Not  long  after,  Commodus  sent  a  centu- 
 rion to  her  place  of  e-xile,  who  put  her  to  death,  in  the 
 S8th  year  of  her  age,  A.D.  184.  She  had  by  her  mar- 
 riage with  her  second  husband  a  son  named   Laetus 
 
 ^  5D 
 
 Pompeianjs,  put  to  death  by  order  of  Caracalla,  and  a 
 daughter.  (Dio  Cass.,  71,  I.— Id.,  72,  i.—JuL  Cap- 
 itol.,  Vit.  Aurel.,  7.— Id.,  Vit.  Ver.) 
 
 LuciNA,  a  surname  of  Juno,  as  the  goddess  who  pre- 
 sided over  the  delivery  of  females.  She  was  proba- 
 bly so  called  from  bringing  children  into  the  light. 
 (Lucina,  from  lux,  lucis,  ''light." — Vid.  Juno.) 
 
 LucRETiA,  a  celebrated  Roman  female,  daughter 
 of  Lucretius,  and  wife  of  Collatinus.  Her  name  is 
 connected  in  the  old  legend  with  the  overthrow  of 
 kingly  power  at  Rome,  and  the  story  is  related  as  fol- 
 lows :  Tarquinius  Superbus  waged  war  against  Ardea, 
 the  capital  of  the  Rutuli,  a  people  on  the  coast  of  La- 
 tium.  The  city  was  very  strong  by  both  nature  and 
 art,  and  made  a  protracted  resistance.  The  Roman 
 army  lay  encamped  around  the  walls,  in  order  to  re- 
 duce it  by  hunger,  since  they  could  not  by  direct  force. 
 W^hile  lying  half  idle  here,  the  princes  of  the  Tarquin 
 family,  and  their  kinsmen  Brutus  and  Collatinus,  hap- 
 pening to  feast  together,  began,  in  their  gayety,  to 
 boast  each  of  the  beauty  and  virtue  of  his  wife.  Col- 
 latinus extolled  his  spouse  Lucretia  as  beyond  all  ri- 
 valry. On  a  sudden  they  resolved  to  ride  to  Rome, 
 and  decide  the  dispute  by  ascertaining  which  of  the  re- 
 spective ladies  was  spending  her  time  in  the  most  be- 
 coming and  laudable  manner.  They  found  the  wives 
 of  the  king's  sons  entertaining  other  ladies  with  a  cost- 
 ly banquet.  They  then  rode  on  to  Collatia ;  and, 
 though  it  was  near  midnight,  they  found  Lucretia,  with 
 her  handmaids  around  her,  working  at  the  loom.  It 
 was  admitted  that  Lucretia  was  the  most  worthy  lady  ; 
 and  they  returned  to  the  camp  at  Ardea.  But  the 
 beauty  and  virtue  of  Lucretia  had  excited  in  the  base 
 heart  of  Sextus  Tarquinius  the  fire  of  lawless  passion. 
 After  a  few  days  he  returned  to  Collatia,  where  he  was 
 hospitably  entertained  by  Lucretia  as  a  kinsman  of  her 
 husband.  At  midnight,  however,  he  secretly  entered 
 her  chamber  ;  and,  when  persuasion  was  ineffectual, 
 he  threatened  to  kill  her  and  one  of  her  male  slaves,  and, 
 laying  the  body  by  her  side,  to  declare  to  Collatinus 
 that  he  had  slain  her  in  the  act  of  adultery.  The  dread 
 of  a  disgrace  to  her  memory,  from  which  there  could 
 be  no  possible  mode  of  effacing  the  stain,  produced  a 
 result  which  the  fear  of  death  could  not  have  done ;  a 
 result  not  unnatural  in  a  heathen,  v^^ho  might  dread  the 
 disgrace  of  a  crime  more  than  its  commission,  but  which 
 shows  the  conventional  morality  and  virtue  of  the  times, 
 how  ill-founded  and  almost  weakly  sentimental  in  even 
 that  boasted  instance  of  female  virtue. — Having  ac- 
 complished his  wicked  purpose,  Sextus  returned  to  the 
 camp.  Immediately  after  his  departure,  Lucretia  sent 
 for  her  husband  and  father.  Collatinus  came  from  the 
 camp  accompanied  by  Brutus,  and  her  father  Lucretius 
 from  the  city,  along  with  Publius  Valerius.  They 
 found  Lucretia  sitting  on  her  bed,  weeping  and  incon- 
 solable. In  brief  terms  she  told  what  had  befallen 
 her,  required  of  them  the  pledge  of  their  right  hands, 
 that  they  would  avenge  her  injuries,  and  then,  drawing 
 a  knife  from  under  her  robe,  stabbed  herself  to  the 
 heart  and  died.  Her  husband  and  father  burst  into  a 
 loud  cry  of  agony  ;  but  Brutus,  snatching  the  weapon 
 from  the  wound,  held  it  up.  and  swore,  by  the  chaste 
 and  noble  blood  which  stained  it,  that  he  would  pursue 
 to  the  uttermost  Tarquinius  and  all  his  accursed  race, 
 and  thenceforward  suffer  no  man  to  be  king  at  Rome. 
 He  then  gave  the  bloody  knife  to  her  husband,  her  fa- 
 ther, and  Valerius,  and  called  on  them  to  take  the  same 
 oath.  Brutus  thus  became  at  once  the  leader  of  the 
 enterprise.  They  bore  the  body  of  Lucretia  to  the 
 market-place.  There  Brutus  addressed  the  people 
 and  aroused  them  to  vengeance.  Part  remained  to 
 guard  the  town,  and  part  proceeded  with  Brutus  to 
 Rome.  Their  coming  raised  a  tumult,  and  drew  to- 
 gether great  numbers  of  the  citizens.  Brutus,  availing 
 himself  of  his  rank  and  authority  as  tribune  of  the  Ce- 
 leres  or  captain  of  the  knights,  summoned  the  people 
 ^  761 
 
LUC 
 
 LUCRETIUS. 
 
 to  the  Foram,  and  proceeded  to  relate  the  bloody  deed 
 which  the  villany  of  Sextus  Tarquinius  had  caused. 
 Nor  did  he  content  himself  with  that,  but  set  before 
 them,  in  the  most  anitnated  manner,  the  cruelty,  tyran- 
 ny, and  oppression  of  Tarquinius  himself;  the  guilty 
 manner  in  which  he  obtained  the  kingdom,  the  violent 
 means  he  had  used  to  retain  it,  and  the  unjust  repeal 
 of  all  the  laws  of  Scrvius  Tullius,  by  which  he  had 
 robbed  them  of  their  liberties.  By  this  means  he 
 wrought  so  effectually  upon  the  feelings  of  the  people, 
 that  they  passed  a  decree  abolishing  the  kingly  power 
 itself,  and  banishing  for  ever  Lucius  Tarquinius  Superb- 
 us,  and  his  wife  and  children.  {Liv.,  1,  57,  scqq. — 
 Dion.  Hal.,  4,  15.)  The  story  of  Lucretia  is  very  in- 
 geniously discussed  by  Verri,  and  the  conclusion  at 
 which  he  apparently  arrives  is  rather  unfavourable  than 
 otherwise  to  her  character.  {Notli  Romanc,  vol.  1,  p. 
 171,  seqq. — Compare  Augustin.,  Civ.  D.,  1,  19,  p.  68, 
 as  cited  by  Bayle,  Did.  Hist  ^  s.  v.)  In  all  likelihood, 
 however,  the  whole  story  is  false,  and  was  merely  in- 
 vented in  a  later  age,  to  account  for  the  overthrow  of 
 kingly  power  at  Rome. 
 
 LucRETiLis,  a  mountain  range  in  the  country  of  the 
 Sabines,  amid  the  windings  of  which  lay  the  farm  of 
 Horace.  It  is  now  Monte  Libretti.  {Horat.,  Od.,  1, 
 17,  1. — Compare  the  description  given  by  Eustace, 
 Classical  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  247,  scq.) 
 
 LucRETias,  I.  Titus  Lucretius  Carus,  a  celebrated 
 Roman  writer.  Of  his  life  very  little  is  known,  and 
 even  the  year  of  his  birth  is  uncertain.  According  to 
 the  chronicle  of  Eusebius,  he  was  born  A.U.C.  658, 
 B.C.  96,  being  thus  nine  years  younger  than  Cicero, 
 and  two  or  three  years  younger  than  Cassar.  To 
 judge  from  his  style,  he  would  be  supposed  older  than 
 either;  but  this,  as  appears  from  the  example  of  Sal- 
 lust,  is  no  certain  test,  as  his  archaisms  may  have 
 arisen  from  the  imitation  of  ancient  writers,  and  we 
 know  that  he  was  a  fond  admirer  of  Ennius.  A  taste 
 for  Greek  philosophy  had  been  excited  at  Rome  to  a 
 considerable  extent  some  time  previous  to  this  era. 
 and  Lucretius  was  sent,  with  other  young  Romans  of 
 rank,  to  study  at  Athens.  The  different  schools  of 
 philosophy  in  that  city  seem,  about  this  period,  to  have 
 been  frequented  according  as  they  received  a  tempo- 
 rary fashion  from  the  comparative  abilities  of  the  pro- 
 fessors who  presided  over  them.  Cicero,  for  example, 
 who  had  attended  the  Epicurean  school  at  Athens, 
 and  who  became  himself  an  academic,  intrusted  his 
 son  to  the  care  of  Cratippus,  a  peripatetic  philosopher. 
 After  the  death  of  its  great  founder,  the  school  of  Ep- 
 icurus had  for  some  time  declined  in  Greece  ;  but,  at 
 the  period  when  Lucretius  was  sent  to  Athens,  it  had 
 again  revived  under  the  patronage  of  L.  Memmius, 
 whose  son  was  a  fellow-student  of  Lucretius,  as  were 
 also  Cicero,  his  brother  Quintus,  Cassius,  and  Pom- 
 ponius  Atticus.  At  the  time  when  frequented  by 
 these  illustrious  youths,  the  gardens  of  Epicurus  were 
 superintended  by  Zeno  and  Phaedrus,  both  of  whom, 
 but  particularly  the  latter,  have  been  honoured  with 
 the  panegyric  of  Cicero.  One  of  the  dearest,  perhaps 
 the  dearest  friend  of  Lucretius,  was  this  Memmius, 
 who  had  been  his  schoolfellow,  and  whom,  it  is  sup- 
 posed, he  accompanied  to  Bithynia,  when  appointed 
 to  the  government  of  that  province.  {Good's  Lucre- 
 tius, Vra.f.,  p.  xxxvi.)  The  poem  Be  Rcrum  Natura,  if 
 not  undertaken  at  the  request  of  Memmius,  was  doubt- 
 less much  encouraged  by  him  ;  and  Lucretius,  in  a 
 dedication  expressed  in  terms  of  manly  and  eloquent 
 courtesy,  very  ditferent  from  the  servile  adulation  of 
 some  of  his  great  successors,  tells  him  that  the  hoped- 
 for  pleasure  of  his  sweet  friendship  was  what  enabled 
 him  to  endure  any  toils  or  vigils.  The  life  of  the  poet 
 was  short,  but  happily  was  sufficiently  prolonged  to 
 enable  him  to  complete  his  poem,  though  perhaps  not 
 to  give  some  portions  of  it  their  last  polish.  Accord- 
 ing to  Eusebius,  he  died  in  the  44th  year  of  his  age, 
 762 
 
 by  his  own  hands,  in  a  paroxysm  of  insanity  produced 
 by  a  philtre,  which  Lucretia,  his  wife  or  mistress,  had 
 given  him,  with  no  design  of  depriving  him  ol  life  or 
 reason,  but  to  renew  or  increase  his  passion.  Others 
 suppo.se  that  his  mental  alienation  proceeded  from 
 melancholy,  on  account  of  the  calamities  of  his  country 
 and  the  exile  of  Memmius,  circumstances  which  were 
 calculated  deeply  to  affect  his  mind.  There  seems  no 
 reason  to  doubt  the  melancholy  fact  that  he  perished 
 by  his  own  hand.  The  poem  of  Lucretius,  De  Rerum 
 Natura,  which  he  composed  during  the  lucid  intervals 
 of  his  malady,  is,  as  the  name  imports,  philosophic  and 
 didactic,  in  the  strictest  acceptation  of  these  terms, 
 and  contains  a  full  exposition  of  the  theological,  phys- 
 ical, and  moral  system  of  Epicurus.  It  has  been 
 remarked  by  an  able  writer,  "  that  all  the  religious 
 systems  of  the  ancient  pagan  world  were  naturally 
 perishable,  from  the  quantity  of  false  opinions,  and  vi- 
 cious habits  and  ceremonies  that  were  attached  to 
 them."  {Turner,  Hist,  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  vol.  3, 
 p.  311.)  He  observes  even  of  the  barbarous  Anglo- 
 Saxons,  that,  "as  the  nation  advanced  in  its  active 
 intellect,  it  began  to  be  dissatisfied  with  its  mythology. 
 Many  indications  exist  of  this  spreading  alienation, 
 which  prepared  the  northern  mind  for  the  reception  of 
 the  nobler  truths  of  Christianity  {ibid.,  p.  356).  A 
 secret  incredulity  of  this  sort  seems  to  have  been  long 
 nourished  in  Greece,  and  appears  to  have  been  import- 
 ed into  Rome  with  its  philosophy  and  literature.  The 
 more  pure  and  simple  religion  of  early  Rome  was 
 quickly  corrupted,  and  the  multitude  of  ideal  and  het- 
 erogeneous beings  which  superstition  introduced  into 
 the  Roman  worship  led  to  its  rejection.  {Pliny,  2, 
 7.)  This  infidelity  is  very  obvious  in  the  writings  of 
 Ennius,  who  translated  Euhemerus'  work  on  the  Dei- 
 fication of  human  spirits,  while  Plautus  dramatized 
 the  vices  of  the  father  of  the  gods  and  tutelary  deity 
 of  Rome.  The  doctrine  of  materialism  was  introduced 
 at  Rome  during  the  age  of  Scipio  and  Ljelius  {Cic, 
 de  Am.,  4),  and  perhaps  no  stronger  proof  of  its 
 rapid  progress  and  prevalence  can  be  given,  than  that 
 Ceesar,  though  a  priest,  and  ultimately  Pontifex  Maxi- 
 mus,  boldly  declared  in  the  senate  that  death  is  the 
 end  of  all  things,  and  that  beyond  it  there  is  neither 
 hope  nor  joy.  {Sallust,  Cat.,  51.)  This  state  of  the 
 public  mind  was  calculated  to  give  a  fashion  to  the 
 system  of  Epicurus.  According  to  this  distinguished 
 philosopher,  the  chief  good  of  man  is  pleasure,  of 
 which  the  elements  consist  in  having  a  body  free  from 
 pain,  and  a  mind  tranquil  and  exempt  from  perturba- 
 tion. Of  this  tranquillity  there  are,  according  to  Ep- 
 icurus, as  expounded  by  Lucretius,  two  chief  enemies, 
 superstition  or  slavish  fear  of  the  gods,  and  the  dread 
 of  death  (2,  43,  seqq.).  In  order  to  oppose  these  two 
 foes  to  happiness,  he  endeavours,  in  the  first  place,  to 
 show  that  the  world  was  formed  by  a  fortuitous  con- 
 course of  atoms,  and  that  the  gods,  who,  according  to 
 the  popular  mythology,  were  constantly  interposing, 
 take  no  concern  whatever  in  human  affairs.  We  do 
 injustice  to  Epicurus  when  we  estimate  his  tenets  by 
 the  refined  and  exalted  ideas  of  a  philosophy  purified 
 by  faith,  without  considering  the  superstitious  and  pol- 
 luted notions  prevalent  in  his  time.  With  respect  to 
 the  other  great  leading  tenet  of  Lucretius  and  his 
 master,  the  mortality  of  the  soul,  still  greater  injustice 
 is  done  to  the  philosopher  and  the  poet.  It  is  affirm- 
 ed, and  justly,  by  a  great  apostle,  that  "  life  and  im- 
 mortality have  been  brought  to  light  by  the  gospel ;" 
 and  yet  an  author,  who  lived  before  this  dawn,  is  re- 
 viled because  he  asserts  that  the  natural  arguments  for 
 the  immortality  of  the  soul,  afforded  by  the  analogies 
 of  nature  or  principle  of  moral  retribution,  are  weak 
 and  inconclusive.  In  fact,  however,  it  is  not  by  the 
 truth  of  the  system  or  general  philosophical  views  in 
 a  poem  (for  which  no  one  consults  it)  that  its  value 
 is  to  be  estimated ;   since  a  poetical  work  may  b« 
 
LUCRETIUS. 
 
 LUCRETIUS. 
 
 highly  moral  on  account  of  its  details,  even  when  its 
 systematic  scope  is  erroneous  or  apparently  dangerous. 
 Notwithstanding  passages  which  seem  to  echo  Spino- 
 zism,  and  almost  justify  crime,  the  Essay  on  Man  is 
 rightly  considered  as  the  most  moral  production  of 
 the  most  moril  among  the  English  poets.  In  like 
 manner,  where  shall  we  find  exhortations  more  elo- 
 quent than  those  of  Lucretius  against  ambition  and 
 cruelty,  and  luxury  and  lust ;  against  all  the  dishonest 
 pleasures  of  the  body,  and  all  ihe  turbulent  pleasures 
 of  the  mind  ! — In  versifying  the  philosophical  system 
 of  Epicurus,  Lucretius  appears  to  have  taken  Emped- 
 ocles  as  a  model.  All  the  old  Grecian  bards  of  whom 
 we  have  any  account  prior  to  Homer,  as  Orpheus, 
 Linus,  and  Musaeus,  are  said  to  have  written  poems 
 on  the  dryest  and  most  difficult  philosophical  questions, 
 as  cosmogony  or  the  generation  of  the  world.  The 
 ancients  evidently  considered  philosophic  poetry  as 
 of  the  highest  kind,  and  its  themes  are  invariably 
 placed  in  the  mouths  of  their  divinest  songsters. 
 Whether  Lucretius  may  have  been  indebted  to  any 
 such  ancient  poems,  still  extant  in  his  age,  or  to  the 
 subsequent  productions  of  Palaephatus  the  Athenian, 
 Antiochus,  or  Eratosthenes,  who,  as  Suidas  informs 
 us,  wrote  poems  on  the  structure  of  the  world,  it 
 is  impossible  now  lo  determine;  but  he  seems  to 
 have  availed  himself  considerably  of  the  work  of  Em- 
 pedocles.  The  poem  of  that  philosopher,  entitled 
 Trept  (jivaeuc,  and  inscribed  to  his  pupil  Pausanias, 
 was  chiefly  illustrative  of  the  Pythagorean  philosophy, 
 in  which  he  had  been  initiated.  Aristotle  speaks  on 
 the  subject  of  the  merits  of  Empedocles  in  a  manner 
 which  does  not  seem  to  be  perfectly  consistent  {ap. 
 Eichstidt,  Lucref.,  p.  Ixxxvii.,  ci.,  cii.,  ed.  Lips., 
 1801),  but  we  know  that  his  poem  was  sufficiently 
 celebrated  to  be  publicly  recited  at  the  Olympic  games 
 along  with  the  works  of  Homer.  His  philosophical 
 system  was  different  from  that  of  Lucretius  ;  but  he 
 had  discussed  almost  all  the  subjects  on  which  the 
 Roman  bard  afterward  expatiated.  In  particular,  Lu- 
 cretius appears  to  have  derived  from  his  predecessor 
 his  notion  of  ihe  original  generation  of  man  from  the 
 teeming  earth  ;  the  production,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
 world,  of  a  variety  of  defective  monsters,  which  were 
 not  allowed  to  multiply  iheir  kinds  ;  the  distribution 
 of  animals  according  to  the  prevalence  of  one  or  other 
 of  the  four  elements  over  the  rest  in  their  composition ; 
 the  vicissitudes  of  matter  between  life  and  inanimate 
 substance;  and  the  leading  doctrine,  ^' morltm  nihil 
 ad  nos  pertincre,"  because  absolute  insensibility  is  the 
 consequence  of  dissolution.  If  Lucretius  has  in  any 
 way  benefited  by  the  works  of  Empedocles,  he  has,  in 
 return,  been  most  lavish  and  eloquent  in  his  commend- 
 ations. One  of  the  most  delightful  features  in  the 
 character  of  the  Latin  poet,  is  the  glow  of  admiration 
 with  which  he  writes  of  his  illustrious  predecessors. 
 His  eulogium  of  the  Sicilian  philosopher,  which  he 
 has  so  happily  combined  with  that  of  the  country 
 which  gave  him  birth,  affords  a  beautiful  example  of 
 his  manner  of  infusing  into  everything  poetic  sweet- 
 ness. Ennius  had  translated  into  Latin  verse  the 
 Greek  poem  of  Epicharmus,  which,  from  the  fragments 
 preserved,  appears  to  have  contained  many  specula- 
 tions with  regard  to  the  productive  elements  of  which 
 the  world  is  composed,  as  also  concerning  the  preserv- 
 ative powers  of  nature.  To  the  works  of  Ennius 
 our  poet  seems  to  have  been  indebted,  partly  as  a 
 model  for  enriching  the  still  scanty  Latin  language 
 with  new  terms,  and  partly  as  a  treasury  or  store- 
 house of  words  already  provided.  Him  too  he  cel- 
 ebrates with  the  most  ardent  and  unfeigned  enthu- 
 siasm. These  writers,  Empedocles  and  Ennius,  were 
 probably  Lucretius'  chief  guides ;  and,  though  the 
 most  original  of  the  Latin  poets,  many  of  his  finest 
 passages  may  be  traced  to  the  Greeks.  The  beautiful 
 lamentation, 
 
 "  Nam  jam  non  domus  accipiet  (e  lala,  neque  uxor, 
 Optuma,  nee  dnlceis  occurrcnl  oscula  nati 
 Prccripere,  et  tacila  pectus  dulcedine  tangunt," 
 
 is  said  to  be.  translated  from  a  dirge  chanted  at  Athe- 
 nian funerals ;  and  the  passage  where  he  represents  the 
 feigned  tortures  of  hell  as  but  the  workings  of  a  guilty 
 and  unquiet  spirit,  is  versified  from  an  oration  of  .^s- 
 chines  against  Timarchus.  Notwithstanding,  indeed, 
 the  nature  of  the  subject,  which  gave  the  poet  little  oj)- 
 portunity  for  those  descriptions  of  the  passions  and 
 feelings  which  generally  form  the  chief  charm  in  poe- 
 try, Lucretius  has  succeeded  in  imparting  to  his  di- 
 dactic and  philosophical  work  much  of  the  real  spirit 
 of  poetry  ;  and  if  he  had  chosen  a  subject  which  would 
 have  afforded  him  greater  scope  for  the  exercise  of  his 
 powers,  he  might  have  been  ranked  among  the  first  of 
 poets.  Even  in  the  work  which  has  come  down  to 
 us,  we  find  many  passages  which  are  not  equalled  by 
 the  best  lines  of  any  Latin  poet,  and  which,  for  vigour 
 of  conception  and  splendour  of  diction,  will  bear  a 
 comparison  with  the  best  efforts  of  the  poets  of  any 
 age  or  country.  In  no  writer  does  the  Latin  language 
 display  its  majesty  and  stately  grandeur  so  effectively 
 as  in  Lucretius.  There  is  a  power  and  an  energy  in 
 his  descriptions  that  we  rarely  meet  with  in  the  Latin 
 poets ;  and  no  one  who  has  read  his  invocation  to  Venus, 
 at  the  beginning  of  the  poem,  or  his  delineation  of  the 
 Demon  of  Superstition  and  of  the  sacrifice  of  Iphi- 
 genia,  that  come  after  ;  or  his  beautiful  picture  of  the 
 busy  pursuits  of  men,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
 second  book,  or  the  progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences 
 in  the  fifth,  or  his  description  of  the  plague  which 
 desolated  Athens  during  the  Peloponnesian  war,  at 
 the  close  of  the  sixth,  can  refuse  to  allow  Lucre- 
 tius a  high  rank  among  the  poets  of  antiquity.  In 
 the  first  and  second  books  he  chiefly  expounds  the 
 cosmogony,  or  physical  part  of  his  system  ;  a  sys- 
 tem which  had  originally  been  founded  by  Leuoippus, 
 and  from  his  time  had  been  successively  improved  by 
 Democritus  and  Epicurus.  He  establishes  in  these 
 books  his  two  great  principles,  that  nothimg  can  be 
 made  from  nothing,  and  that  nothing  can  ever  be  an- 
 nihilated or  return  to  nothing;  and  that  there  is  in  the 
 universe  a  void  or  space  in  which  atoms  interact. 
 These  atoms  he  believes  to  be  the  original  component 
 parts  of  all  matter,  as  well  as  of  animal  life ;  and  the 
 modification  or  arrangement  of  such  corpuscles  oc- 
 casions, according  to  him,  the  whole  difference  in  sub- 
 stances. It  cannot  be  denied,  that  in  these  two  hooka 
 particularly  (but  the  observation  is  in  some  degree 
 applicable  to  the  whole  poem),  there  are  many  barren 
 tracts,  many  physiological,  meteorological,  and  geo- 
 logical details,  which  are  at  once  too  incorrect  for  the 
 philosophical,  and  too  dry  and  abstract  for  the  geiieral 
 reader.  It  is  wonderful,  however,  how  he  contrives, 
 by  the  beauty  of  his  images,  to  give  a  picturesque  col- 
 ouring and  illustration  to  the  most  unpromising  top- 
 ics. In  spite,  however,  of  the  power  of  Lucretiu.s,  it 
 was  impossible,  from  the  very  nature  of  his  subject,  but 
 that  some  portions  would  prove  altogether  unsuscep- 
 tible of  poetic  embellishment.  Yet  it  may  be  doubt- 
 ed whether  these  intractable  passages,  by  the  charms 
 of  contrast,  do  not  add,  like  deserts  to  oases  in  their 
 bosom,  an  additional  deliciousness  in  proportion  to 
 their  own  sterility.  The  philosophical  analysis  too, 
 employed  by  Lucretius,  impresses  the  mmd  with  the 
 conviction  that  the  poet  is  a  profound  thinker,  and 
 adds  great  force  to  his  moral  reflections.  It  is  his 
 bold  and  fearless  manner,  however,  that  most  of  all 
 produces  a  powerful  effect.  While  in  other  writers 
 the  eulocry  of  virtue  seems  in  some  sort  to  partake  ot 
 the  nature  of  a  sermon,  to  be  a  conventional  language, 
 and  words  of  course,  we  listen  to  Lucretius  as  to  one 
 who  will  fearlessly  speak  out;  who  has  shut  his  ears 
 to  the  murmurs  of  Acheron;  and  who,  if  he  eulogizes 
 
 763 
 
LUCRETIUS. 
 
 LUC 
 
 virtue,  extols  her  because  her  charms  are  real. — One 
 thing  very  remarkable  in  this  great  poet  is  the  admi- 
 rable clearness  and  closeness  of  his  reasoning.  He 
 repeatedly  values  himself  not  a  little  on  the  circum- 
 stance that,  with  an  intractable  subject,  and  a  language 
 not  yet  accommodated  to  philosophical  subjects,  and 
 scanty  in  terms  of  physical  as  well  as  metaphysical 
 science,  he  was  able  to  give  so  much  clearness  to  his 
 arguments  ;  and  this  object  it  is  generally  admitted 
 that  he  has  accomplished,  with  little  or  no  sacrifice 
 of  pure  Latinity. — The  two  leading  tenets  of  Epicu- 
 rus, concerning  the  formation  of  the  world  and  the 
 mortality  of  the  soul,  are  established  by  Lucretius  in 
 the  first  three  books.  A  great  portion  of  the  fourth 
 book  may  be  considered  as  episodical.  Having  ex- 
 plained the  nature  of  primordial  atoms,  and  of  the 
 soul,  which  is  formed  from  the  finest  of  them,  he  an- 
 nounces that  there  are  certain  images  {rcrum  simula- 
 cra) or  effluvia  which  are  constantly  thrown  oflT  from 
 the  surface  of  whatever  exists.  On  this  hypothesis 
 he  accounts  for  all  our  externa!  senses  ;  and  he  ap- 
 plies it  also  to  the  theory  of  dreams,  in  which  what- 
 ever images  have  occupied  the  senses  during  day 
 most  readily  recur.  The  principal  subject  of  the  fifth 
 book,  a  composition  unrivalled  in  energy  and  richness 
 of  language,  in  full  and  genuine  sublimity,  is  the  ori- 
 gin and  laws  of  the  visible  world,  with  those  of  its 
 mhabitants.  The  poet  presents  us  with  a  grand  rep- 
 resentation of  Chaos,  and  the  most  magnificent  account 
 of  the  creation  tliat  ever  flowed  from  mortal  pen.  In 
 consequence  of  their  ignorance  and  superstitions,  the 
 Roman  people  were  rendered  perpetual  slaves  of  the 
 most  idle  and  unfounded  terrors.  In  order  to  coun- 
 teract these  popular  prejudices,  and  to  heal  the  con- 
 stant disquietudes  that  accompanied  them,  Lucretius 
 proceeds,  in  the  sixth  book,  to  account  for  a  variety 
 of  extraordinary  phenomena,  both  in  the  heavens  and 
 on  the  earth,  which  at  first  view  seemed  to  deviate 
 from  the  usual  laws  of  nature.  Having  discussed  the 
 various  theories  formed  to  account  for  electricity, 
 water-spouts,  hurricanes,  the  rainbow,  and  volcanoes, 
 he  lastly  considers  the  origin  of  pestilential  and  en- 
 demic disorders.  This  introduces  the  celebrated  ac- 
 count of  the  plague,  which  ravaged  Athens  during  the 
 Peloponnesian  war,  with  which  Lucretius  concludes 
 this  book  and  his  magnificent  poem.  "  In  this  narra- 
 tive," says  a  late  translator  of  Lucretius,  "  the  true 
 genius  of  poetry  is  perhaps  more  powerfully  and  tri- 
 umphantly exhibited  than  in  any  other  poem  that  was 
 ever  written.  Lucretius  has  ventured  on  one  of  the 
 most  uncouth  and  repressing  subjects  to  the  muses 
 that  can  possibly  be  brought  forward,  the  history  and 
 symptoms  of  a  disease,  and  this  disease  accompanied 
 with  circumstances  naturally  the  most  nauseous  and 
 indelicate.  It  was  a  subject  altogether  new  to  nu- 
 merical composition  ;  and  he  had  to  strive  with  all 
 the  pedantry  of  technical  terms,  and  all  the  abstruse- 
 ness  of  a  science  in  which  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
 been  professionally  initiated.  He  strove,  however, 
 and  he  conquered.  In  language  the  most  captivating 
 and  nervous,  and  with  ideas  the  most  precise  and  ap- 
 propriate, he  has  given  us  the  entire  history  of  this 
 tremendous  pestilence.  The  description  of  the  symp- 
 toms, and  also  the  various  circumstances  of  horror 
 and  distress  attending  this  dreadful  scouro-e,  have 
 been  derived  from  Thucydides,  who  furnished  the 
 facts  with  great  accuracy,  having  been  himself  a  spec- 
 tator an.d  a  sufferer  under  this  calamity.  His  narra- 
 tive is  esteemed  an  elaborate  and  complete  perform- 
 ance ;  and  to  the  faithful  yet  elegant  detail  of  the 
 Greek  historian,  the  Roman  bard  has  added  all  that 
 was  necessary  to  convert  the  description  into  poetry." 
 — In  the  whole  history  of  Roman  taste  and  criticism, 
 nothing  appears  so  extraordinary  as  the  slight  mention 
 that  is  made  of  Lucretius  by  succeeding  Latin  au- 
 thors ;  and,  when  mentioned,  the  coldness  with  which 
 764 
 
 he  is  spoken  of  by  all  Roman  critics  and  poets,  with 
 the  exception  of  Ovid.  Perhaps  the  spirit  of  free 
 thinking  which  pervaded  his  writings  rendered  it  un 
 safe  to  extol  even  his  poetical  talents  ;  or  perhatjs, 
 and  this  is  the  more  probable  supposition,  the  nature 
 of  his  subject,  and  the  little  taste  which  the  Romans 
 in  general  manifested  for  speculations  like  those  of 
 Lucretius,  may  account  for  his  poetry  beinor  es- 
 timated below  its  real  merits.  —  The  doctrines  of 
 Lucretius,  particularly  that  which  impugns  the  super- 
 intending care  of  Providence,  were  first  formally  op- 
 posed by  the  Stoic  Manilius,  in  his  Astronomic  poem. 
 In  modern  times,  his  whole  philosophical  system  has 
 been  refuted  in  the  long  and  elaborate  poem  of  the 
 Cardinal  Polignac,  entitled  "  Anli-Ljicretius,  sive  de 
 Deo  et  Natura."  This  enormous  work,  though  in- 
 complete, consists  of  nine  books,  of  about  1300  lines 
 each,  and  the  whole  is  addressed  to  Quintius,  an  athe- 
 ist, who  corresponds  to  the  Lorenzo  of  the  Night 
 Thoughts.  Descartes  is  the  Epicurus  of  the  poem, 
 and  the  subject  of  many  heavy  panegyrics.  In  the 
 philosophical  part  of  his  subject,  the  cardinal  has 
 sometimes  refuted  at  too  great  length  propositions 
 which  were  manifestly  absurd  ;  at  others,  he  has  im- 
 pugned demonstrated  truths,  and  the  moral  system  of 
 Lucretius  he  throughout  has  grossly  misunderstood. 
 But  he  has  rendered  ample  justice  to  his  poetical 
 merit;  and,  in  giving  a  compendium  of  the  subject  of 
 his  great  antagonist's  poem,  he  has  caught  some  share 
 of  the  poetiical  spirit  with  which  his  predecessor  was 
 inspired.  {Dunlop's  Roman  Literature,  vol.  1,  p.  416, 
 seqq.) — The  work  of  Lucretius,  like  that  of  Virgil, 
 had  not  received  the  finishing  hand  of  its  author  al 
 the  period  of  his  death.  The  tradition  that  Cicero  re- 
 vised it  and  gave  it  to  the  public,  does  not  rest  on 
 any  authority  more  ancient  than  that  of  Eusebius  ; 
 and,  had  the  story  been  true,  it  would  probably  have 
 been  mentioned  in  some  part  of  Cicero's  voluminous 
 writings,  or  those  of  the  early  critics.  Eichstadt, 
 while  he  denies  the  revisal  by  Cicero,  is  of  opinion 
 that  it  had  been  corrected  by  some  critic  or  gramma- 
 rian ;  and  that  thus  two  manuscripts,  differing  in  many 
 respects  from  each  other,  had  descended  to  posterity, 
 the  one  as  it  came  from  the  hand  of  the  poet,  and  the 
 other  as  amended  by  the  reviser.  The  opinion,  how 
 ever,  though  advocated  with  much  learning  and  in- 
 genuity, is  an  untenable  one. — The  best  editions  of 
 Lucretius  are,  that  of  Lambinus,  Paris,  1564,  1570, 
 4to,  with  a  very  useful  commentary;  Creech,  Oxon., 
 1695,  8vo,  often  reprinted  ;  Ilavercamp,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1725,  2  vols.  4to;  Wakefield,  Lond.,  1796,  4to,  3 
 vols,  and  G/aso-.,  1813,  8vo,  4  vols.";  and  that  of  For- 
 biger  Lips.,  1828  ]2mo.  A  good  edition,  however,  is 
 still  much  wanted,  as  Wakefield's  is  at  best  an  un- 
 satisfactory performance,  and  Eichstadt's  has  never 
 been  completed. — II.  Spurius  Lucretius  Tricipitinus, 
 the  father  of  Lucretia,  was  chosen  as  colleague  in 
 the  consulship  to  Poplicola,  to  supply  the  place  of 
 Brutus,  who  had  fallen  in  battle.  He  died,  however, 
 soon  after  his  election,  and  M.  Horatius  was  appoint- 
 ed to  finish  the  year.     (Liv.,  1,  58— Id.,  2,  8.) 
 
 LucRiNus,  a  lake  in  Italy,  near  Cumse,  on  the  coast 
 of  Campania.  According  to  Dio  Cassius  (48,  50), 
 there  were  three  lakes  in  this  quarter  lying  one  be- 
 hind the  other.  The  outermost  was  called  Tyrrhenus, 
 the  middle  one  Lucrinus,  and  the  innermost  Avernus. 
 The  Lucrine  was  shut  in  from  the  outermost  lake  or 
 bay  by  a  dike  raised  across  the  narrow  inlet.  This 
 work,  according  to  Strabo,  was  eight  stadia  in  length, 
 and  of  a  chariot's  breadth :  tradition  ascribed  it  to 
 Hercules.  (^Slrah.,  245. )  Agrippa  cut  a  communi- 
 cation between  these  lakes  and  the  sea,  and  built  at 
 the  opening,  but  between  and  uniting  the  Lucrine 
 and  Avernian  lakes,  the  famous  Julian  Harbour.  The 
 object  in  doing  this  chiefly  was  to  procure  a  place 
 along  the  coast  fit  for  exercising  and  training  a  body 
 
LUC 
 
 LUG 
 
 ol  seamen  previous  to  the  contest  with  Sextus  Pom- 
 peius.  {Sueton.,  Vit.  Aug.,  16. —  Veil.  Paterc,  2, 
 79, — Compare  Virgil,  Georg.,  2,  161. — Horat.,  Ep. 
 ad  Pis.,  63.)  The  woods,  also,  which  surrounded 
 Avernus  in  particular,  were  cut  down,  and,  the  stag- 
 nant vapour  being  thus  dissipated,  the  vicinity  was 
 rendered  healthy.  By  this  operation  much  land  was 
 reclaimed,  which  before  had  been  covered  by  these 
 lakes,  an  outlet  being  afforded  to  their  waters  into  the 
 sea.  I'he  shores  of  the  Lucrine  lake  were  famous 
 for  oysters.  In  the  year  1538,  an  earthquake  formed 
 a  hill,  called  Monle  Nuovo,  near  two  miles  in  circum- 
 ference, and  200  feet  high,  consisting  of  lava,  burn- 
 ed stones,  scoria,  &c.,  which  left  no  appearance  of  a 
 a  lake,  but  a  morass,  filled  with  grass  and  rushes. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  159.) 
 
 LucULLUs,  Lucius  Licinius,  descended  from  a 
 distinguished  Roman  family,  was  born  about  B.C. 
 115,  and  served  under  Sylla  in  the  Marsian  war. 
 Sylla  had  a  very  high  opinion  of  the  talents  and  integ- 
 rity of  Lucullus,  and  employed  him,  though  he  was 
 very  young,  in  many  important  enterprises.  While 
 the  former  was  besieging  Athens  (B.C.  87),  Lucullus 
 was  sent  into  Egypt  and  Africa  to  collect  a  fleet;  and, 
 after  the  conclusion  of  the  war  with  Mithradates,  he 
 was  left  in  Asia  to  collect  the  money  which  Sylla  had 
 imposed  upon  the  conquered  states.  So  great,  in- 
 deed, was  the  regard  which  Sylla  had  for  him,  that  he 
 dedicated  his  commentaries  to  him,  and,  in  his  last 
 will,  made  him  guardian  to  his  son.  In  B.C.  74  Lu- 
 cullus was  elected  consul,  and  was  appointed  to  the 
 command  of  the  war  against  Mithradates.  During 
 the  following  eight  years  he  was  entirely  engaged  in 
 conducting  this  war;  and,  in  a  series  of  brilliant  cam- 
 paigns, completely  defeated  Mithradates,  and  his  pow- 
 erful son-in-law  Tigranes.  In  B.C.  73  he  overcame 
 Mithradates  at  Cyzicus,  on  the  Propontis  ;  and  in  the 
 following  year  again  conquered  him  at  Cabiri,  on  the 
 borders  of  Pontus  and  Armenia.  In  B.C.  69  he 
 marched  into  Armenia  against  Tigranes,  who  had  es- 
 poused the  cause  of  his  faiher-in-law,  and  completely 
 defeated  his  forces  near  Tigranocerta.  He  followed 
 up  his  victory  by  the  capture  of  this  place,  and  in 
 the  following  year  took  also  Nisibis,  in  the  northern 
 part  of  Mesopotamia ;  but  he  was  not  able  to  derive 
 all  the  advantage  he  might  have  done  from  his  victor- 
 ies, in  consequence  of  the  mutinous  disposition  of  his 
 soldiers.  Lucullus  never  appears  to  have  been  a  fa- 
 vourite with  his  troops  ;  and  their  disaffection  was 
 increased  by  the  acts  of  Clodius,  whose  sister  Lucul- 
 lus had  married.  The  popular  party  at'  home  were 
 not  slow  in  attacking  a  general  who  had  been  the  per- 
 sonal friend  of  Sylla,  and  who  was  known  to  be  a 
 powerful  supporter  of  the  patrician  party.  They  ac- 
 cused him  of  protracting  the  war,  on  account  of  the 
 facilities  it  afforded  him  of  acquiring  wealth  ;  and 
 eventually  carried  a  measure  by  which  he  was  re- 
 moved from  the  command,  and  succeeded  by  Pompey, 
 B.C.  66.  —  The  senate,  according  to  Plutarch,  had 
 looked  forward  to  Lucullus  as  likely  to  prove  a  most 
 powerful  supporter  of  the  patrician  order  :  but  in  this 
 they  were  disappointed  ;  for,  on  his  return  to  Rome, 
 he  took  no  part  in  public  affairs,  but  passed  the  re- 
 mainder of  his  life  in  retirement.  The  immense  for- 
 tune which  he  had  amassed  during  his  command  in 
 Asia  he  employed  in  the  erection  of  most  magnificent 
 villas  near  Naples  and  Tusculum  :  and  he  lived  in  a 
 style  of  magnificence  and  luxury  which  appears  to 
 kave  astonished  even  the  most  wealthy  of  his  contem- 
 poraries. Lucullus  was  a  man  of  refined  taste  and 
 liberal  education  :  he  wrote  in  his  youth  the  history 
 of  the  Marsian  war  in  Greek  {Pint.,  Vit.  LuculL, 
 c.  1. — Compare  Cic,  Ep.  ad  Att.,  1,  12),  and  was  a 
 warm  supporter  of  learning  and  the  arts.  His  houses 
 were  decorated  with  the  most  costly  paintings  and 
 Btatues,  and  his  library,  which  he  had  collected  at  an 
 
 immense  expense,  was  open  to  all  learned  men.  He 
 lived  on  intimate  terms  with  Cicero,  who  has  highly 
 praised  his  learning,  and  has  inscribed  one  of  his 
 books  with  the  name  of  his  friend,  namely,  the  4th 
 book  of  his  "  Academic  Questions,"  in  which  he  makes 
 Lucullus  define  the  philosophical  opinions  of  the  Old 
 Academy. — It  is  said  that,  during  the  latter  years  of 
 his  life,  Lucullus  lost  his  senses,  and  that  his  brother 
 had  the  care  of  his  estate.  He  died  in  his  67th  or 
 68th  year.  .We  have  a  life  of  him  by  Plutarch. 
 (Pint.,  Vit.Lucull. — Appian,  Bell.  Mithrad. — Encycl. 
 Us.  KnowL,  vol.  14,  p.  192.) 
 
 LucuMO,  the  title  applied  to  the  hereditary  chiefs 
 who  ruled  over  each  of  the  twelve  independent  tribes 
 of  the  Etrurian  nation.  It  would  seem  also  to  have 
 been  given  to  the  eldest  sons  of  noble  families,  who, 
 by  their  right  of  primogeniture,  would  have  a  fairer 
 claim  to  public  offices  and  the  honours  of  the  state. 
 (Milller,  Elrusker,  vol.  1,  p.  356.)  The  original 
 Etrurian  term  was  Lauchmc,  and  hence  among  the 
 Latin  writers  we  sometimes  meet  with  the  form  Luc- 
 mo,  as  in  Propertius  (4,  1,  29).  Nicbuhr  thinks  that 
 the  words  Lucumo  and  Lxiceres  may  be  both  referred 
 in  etymology  to  Luger,  the  old  German  for  "  a  seer," 
 and  may  have  had  reference  originally  to  divining  by 
 auspices,  a  privilege  reserved  for  the  rulers  of  the  state 
 and  the  heads  of  houses.  {Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  242, 
 Walter'' s  transl.) 
 
 LuDi,  I.  Apollinares,  games  in  honour  of  Apollo, 
 celebrated  annually  at  Rome  on  the  fifth  of  July,  and 
 for  several  days  thereafter.  They  were  instituted  du- 
 ring the  second  Punic  war,  for  the  purpose  of  propiti- 
 ating success,  and  at  first  had  no  fixed  time  of  cele- 
 bration, until  this  was  determined  by  a  law  which  P. 
 Licinius  Varus,  the  city  proetor,  had  passed.  After 
 this  they  were  held,  as  above  mentioned,  in  July. 
 (Liv.,  25,  12.— Id.,  27,  23.  — Manut.,  ad  Cic.,  Ep. 
 ad  Att.,  1,  16.) — II.  Cereales,  called  also  simply  Ce- 
 reaiia,  a  festival  in  honour  of  Ceres,  accompanied  with 
 public  games  in  the  circus,  at  which  the  people  sat 
 arrayed  in  white,  and  during  and  immediately  before 
 which  the  greatest  abstemiousness  was  enjoined. 
 The  injunction  vvas  removed  at  nightfall.  The  cele- 
 bration took  place  on  the  9th  of  April.  {Aul.  Cell., 
 18,  2,  seqq.— Plant.,  Aulul,  2,  6,  5.)— III.  Magni 
 or  Romani,  celebrated  in  honour  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and 
 Minerva.  They  were  the  most  famous  of  the  Roman 
 games.  {Cic.  in  Verr.,  7,  14.)  —  IV.  Megalenses, 
 called  also  simply  Mcgalcsia,  celebrated  in  honour  of 
 Cybele,  or  the  great  mother  of  the  gods.  Hence  the 
 name  horn  jneyd?.?/  (fern.  o( fiiyac),  "great,"  an  epithet 
 applied  to  Cybele  (p.eya7\.rj  p-firrip,  "  great  mother''''). 
 They  were  instituted  towards  the  end  of  the  second 
 Punic  war,  when  the  statue  of  the  goddess  was  brought 
 from  Pessinus  to  Rome.  (Lju.,  29,  14.)  Ovid  makes 
 the  time  of  celebration  the  4th  of  April,  {Fast.,  4, 
 179);  but  Livy  mentions  the  12th  of  the  same  month. 
 {Liv.,  29,  14.)  The  statement  of  Ovid  is  generally 
 considered  the  more  correct. 
 
 LuGDUNENSis  Gallia,  a  part  of  Gaul,  which  re- 
 ceived its 'name  from  Lugdunum,  the  capital  city  of 
 the  province.  (Consult  the  article  Gallia,  p.  530,  col, 
 2,  near  the  end.) 
 
 Lugdunum,  I.  a  city  of  Gaul,  situate  near  the  con- 
 fluence of  the  Rhodanus  or  Rhone,  and  the  Arar  or 
 Saone.  {Plin.,  4,  18.)  It  was  one  of  the  places 
 conquered  by  Caesar,  and,  a  short  time  after  his  death, 
 Munatius  Plancus  received  orders  from  the  Roman 
 senate  to  re-assemble  at  Lugdunum  the  inhabitants  of 
 Vienna  or  Viejine,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  their 
 city  by  the  Allobroges.  {Bio  Cass.,  46,  50.)  In  a 
 little  while  it  became  very  powerful,  so  that  Strabo 
 (192)  says,  it  was  not  inferior  to  Narbo  or  JS'arhonne 
 with  respect  to  the  number  of  inhabitants.  The  an- 
 cient city  did  not  occupy  exactly  the  same  spot  as  the 
 a  odern  one,  but  lay  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rhone 
 
 765 
 
LUP 
 
 LUS 
 
 and  Saonc,  while  the  chief  part  of  modern  Lyons  is  on 
 the  «ast  side,  at  Uie  very  confluence  of  the  two  streams. 
 At  the  extremity  of  the  point  of  land  formed  by  the  two 
 streams,  and,  of  course,  precisely  correspondmg  with 
 ihe  southern  extremity  of  the  modern  city,  stood  the 
 famous  altar  erected  by  sixty  Gallic  nations  in  honour 
 oi  Augustus.  {Liv.,  Epic,  137. — Slrabo,  I.  c.)  At 
 Lugdunum  was  cstablislicd  the  gold  and  silver  coinage 
 of  the  province,  and  from  this  city,  as  a  centre,  the 
 main  roads  diverged  to  all  parts  of  Gaul.  {Slrab.,  I. 
 (.)  In  the  third  century  it  declined  in  importance, 
 on  account  of  the  vicinity  and  rajiid  growth  of  Are- 
 late  and  Narho.  Lugdunum  is  said  by  Strubo  to  have 
 been  situate  at  the  foot  of  a  hill.  In  Celtic,  dun  sig- 
 nifies "  a  hill,"  and  from  this  comes  the  I^atin  termi- 
 nation dunum.  The  earlier  name  is  said  by  Dio  Cas- 
 sias (/.  c.)  to  have  been  Lugudunum  {Aovyoviovvov). 
 Plutarch  {de  Flueiis,  p.  1151.— 0;?..  cd.  Reiske,  vol. 
 10,  p.  732)  derives  the  name  from  Aovyog,  the  Cel- 
 tic, according  to  him,  for  "a  raven,"  and  6ovvog,  "a 
 hill,"  and  e.xplains  this  etymology  by  the  tradition  of 
 a  flock  of  ravens  having  appeared  to  the  first  settlers 
 Momorus  and  Atepomarus,  when  building  on  a  hill  in 
 obedience  to  an  oracle.  (Compare  Reimar,  ad  Dion. 
 Cass.,  I.  c. — Reiske,  ad  Phit.,  I.  c.  —  For  other  ety- 
 mologies of  the  name  of  this  city,  consult  Merula, 
 Cosmogr.,  p.  2,  1.  3,  c.  24. — Vossius,  Hist.  Grac.,  p. 
 34G.) — II.  A  city  of  the  Batavi,  in  Germania  Inferior, 
 now  Lcyden.  The  modern  name  is  said  to  be  de- 
 rived from  that  of  Leithis,  which  it  took  in  the  middle 
 ages.     (Manncrf,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  241.) 
 
 Luna,  I.  {the  Moon).  Vid.  Selene.— II.  A  city  of 
 Elruria,  in  the  northwestern  angle  of  the  country,  sit- 
 uate on  the  coast,  and  remarkable  for  its  beautiful  and 
 capacious  harbour.  The  modern  name  of  this  harbour 
 is  Golfo  di  Spazzia.  Before  the  new  division  under 
 Augustus,  Luna  had  formed  part  of  Liguria  ;  and  its 
 harbour,  situate  on  the  north  side  of  the  Macra,  cer- 
 tainly was  in  that  province.  Cluverius  contends  that 
 this  ancient  city  occujiied  the  site  of  the  modern  Leii- 
 ci ;  especially  as  Strabo  (222)  and  Mela  (2,  4)  seem 
 to  place  it  on  that  bank  of  the  Macra;  but  the  ruins 
 which  now  bear  the  name  of  Luni,  a  little  below  Sar- 
 zana,  and  the  denomination  of  Lunigiana  applied  to 
 the  adjacent  district,  together  with  the  authority  of 
 Ptolemy  (p.  61)  and  Pliny  (3,  5),  leave  no  doubt  as 
 to  the  true  position  of  Luna.  The  harbour  of  Luna 
 was  chiefly  resorted  to  by  the  Romans  as  a  rendezvous 
 for  the  fleets  which  they  sent  to  Spain.  (Liv.,  34,  8. 
 — Id.,  39,  21.)  Strabo  says  it  contained,  in  fact,  sev- 
 eral ports,  and  was  worthy  of  a  nation  which  so  long 
 ruled  the  sea.  The  town  itself  was  deserted  in  the 
 time  of  Lucan  (1,  586).  Luna  was  very  famous  for 
 its  white  marbles,  which  now  take  their  name  from  the 
 neighbouring  town  of  Carrara.  {Strab.,  I.  c. — Plin., 
 36,  5.)  Fliny  speaks  of  the  wine  and  cheese  made 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  Luna  ( 14,  16) ;  the  latter  were 
 sometimes  so  large  as  to  weigh  one  thousand  pounds. 
 {Id.,  11,  \2.— Martial,  Epigr.,  13,  27.)  Inscriptions 
 give  Luna  the  title  of  a  Roman  municipium.  {Cra- 
 mer's Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  171,  seqq.) 
 
 LuPA  (a  she-ioolf),  an  animal  held  in  great  venera- 
 tion at  Rome,  hecause  Romulus  and  Hemus  were  fa- 
 bled to  have  been  suckled  by  one.     {Vid.  Romulus.) 
 
 LuPERCAL,  a  cave  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine  Hill, 
 consecrated  by  Evander  to  the  god  Pan,  who  was 
 surnamed  Lupercus  by  the  Latins,  as  protecting  the 
 flocks  from  wolves  (lupos  arcens).     Such  at   least  is 
 
 the  common  derivation  of  the  name.     {Arnob.,\  3. 
 
 Serv.,  ad  JEn.,  8,  343.  —  Justin,  43,  1.)  Others 
 however,  deduced  the  term,  according  to  Quintilian 
 from  luo  and  capra,  by  a  transposition  of  letters  in  the 
 case  of  the  latter  word,  because  they  sacrificed  in  the 
 cave  above  meniioned  a  goat  {c.aprum  luebant),  and 
 purified  the  city  with  the  skin  of  the  animal  cut  into 
 thongs.  {Quint.,  1,,  5,  sub  fin. —  Vid.  Lupercalia.) 
 766 
 
 LupekcalTa,  a  yearly  festival,  observed  at  Rome 
 the  15th  of  February,  in  honour  o(  the  god  Pun,  and 
 said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Evander.  {Vid.  Lu- 
 pcrci  ) 
 
 LupERCi,  the  priests  of  Pan.  (  Vid.  Lupercal.)  On 
 the  festival  of  this  god,  which  was  termed  Lupercalia, 
 a  goat  was  sacrificed,  and  the  skin  of  the  victim  was 
 cut  up  into  thongs.  Thereupon  the  Luperci,  in  a  state 
 of  nudity,  except  having  a  girdle  of  goal's  skin  around 
 their  loins,  and  holding  these  thongs  in  their  hands, 
 ran  up  and  down  the  city,  striking  with  the  thongs  all 
 whom  they  met,  particularly  married  women,  who 
 were  thence  supposed  to  be  rendered  prolific.  {Serv., 
 ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  8,  M^.—Ooid,  Fast.,  2,  427.— M  ib., 
 5,  101.)  There  were  three  companies  of  Luperci ; 
 two  of  ancient  date,  called  Fabia?ii  and  Qaintiliani, 
 from  Fabius  and  Quintilius,  who  had  been  at  one  time 
 at  their  head  ;  and  a  third  order  called  Julii,  instituted 
 in  honour  of  Julius  Caesar,  at  the  head  of  which  was 
 Antony  ;  and  therefore,  as  the  leader  of  this,  he  went, 
 on  the  festival  of  the  Lupercalia,  although  consul,  al- 
 most naked  into  the  Forum  Julium,  attended  by  his 
 lictois,  and  having  made  a  harangue  before  the  peo- 
 ple, he,  according  to  concert,  as  it  is  believed,  pre- 
 sented a  royal  diadem  to  Ca;sar,  who  was  sitting  there 
 arrayed  in  his  triumphal  robes.  A  murmur  ran  through- 
 out the  multitude,  but  it  was  instantly  changed  into 
 loud  applause  when  (Jassar  rejected  the  proffered  or- 
 nament, and  persisted  in  his  refusal,  although  Antony 
 threw  himself  at  his  feet,  imploring  him,  in  the  name 
 of  the  Roman  people,  to  accept  it.  (Cic,  P/uZ.,  2,  31, 
 43.— Dio  Cass.,  45,  31.— /(/.,  46,  b.—Sucton.,  Vit. 
 Jul,  Id.—Plut.,  Vit.  Cas.) 
 
 Lupercus,  or  Sulpicius  Lupercus  Servastus  Junior, 
 a  poet,  who  appears  to  have  lived  during  the  latter 
 periods  of  the  western  empire.  He  has  left  an  elegy 
 "on  Cupidity,"  and  a  sapphic  ode  "on  Old  Age.'' 
 {Wernsdorff,  Poet.  Lat.  Mm.,  vol.  3,  p.  235.)  He  is 
 supposed  by  some  to  have  been  also  the  author  of  a 
 small  poem  "  on  the  Advantages  of  a  Private  Life  " 
 found  in  the  Anthology  of  Burmann  (vol.  1,  p.  508). 
 
 LuPiA  or  LippiA,  I.  a  small  river  in  Germany,  fall- 
 ing into  the  Rhine,  now  the  Lippe.  It  is  in  modern 
 Westphalia.  {Mela,  3,  3.— Veil.  Patera.,  2,  105.)— 
 II.  A  town  of  Italy,  southwest  of  Brundisium,  now 
 Lecce,  the  modern  capital  of  the  territory  of  Otranto. 
 {Plm.,  3,  II.— Mela,  2,  4.) 
 
 Lupus,  I.  a  native  of  Messana  in  Sicily,  who  wrote 
 a  poem  on  the  return  of  Menelaus  and  Helen  to  Spar- 
 ta. Ho  is  mentioned  by  Ovid  {ex  Pont.,  4,  16. — 
 Compare  Mongitor.,  Bibl.  Sicul ,  1,  p.  24).  —  II.  P. 
 Rutilius  Lupus,  a  powerful  but  unprincipled  Roman 
 nobleman,  lashed  by  Lucilius  in  his  satires.  {Pcrs., 
 Sat.,  1,  115. — Compare  Liv.,  Epit ,  73. — Jul.,  Obse- 
 quens,  115.) 
 
 Lusitania,  a  part  of  ancient  Hispania,  on  the  At- 
 lantic coast.  The  name  must  be  taken  in  two  senses. 
 All  the  old  writers,  whom  Strabo  also  follows,  under- 
 stood by  the  term  merely  the  territories  of  the  Lusitani, 
 and  these  were  comprehended  between  the  Durius  an<? 
 the  Tagus,  and  extended  in  breadth  from  the  ocean  tc 
 the  most  eastern  limits  of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Por- 
 tugal. {Strabo, 152.)  The  Lusitani  in  time  intermin- 
 gled with  the  Spanish  tribes  in  their  vicinity,  as,  for  ex- 
 ample, with  the  Vettones,  Calliaci,  &c.,  on  which  ac- 
 count the  name  of  Lusitania  was  extended  to  the  terri- 
 tories of  these  tribes,  and,  finally,  under  this  name  be- 
 came also  included  some  tracts  of  country  south  of 
 the  Tagus.  This  is  the  first  sense  in  which  the  terra 
 Lusitania  must  be  taken,  comprising,  namely,  the  ter- 
 ritories of  the  Lusitani,  the  Calliaci,  the  Vettones,  and 
 some  lands  south  of  the  Tagus.  The  Romans,  after 
 the  conquest  of  the  country,  made  a  new  arrangement 
 of  the  several  tribes.  The  territories  of  the  Calliaci, 
 lying  north  of  the  Durius,  they  included  in  Hispania 
 Tarraconensis,  but,  as  equivalent,  they  added  to  Lu- 
 
LYC 
 
 LYC 
 
 Bitania  all  the  country  south  of  the  Tagus,  and  west 
 of  the  lower  part  of  the  Anas,  as  far  as  the  sea.  Ac- 
 cording to  this  arrangennent,  Lusitania  was  bounded 
 on  the  south  by  a  part  of  the  Atlantic,  from  the  mouth 
 of  the  Anas  to  the  Sacrum  Promontorium  or  Cape 
 St.  Vincent ;  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  ;  on  the 
 north  by  the  Durius  ;  and  on  the  east  by  a  line  drawn 
 from  the  latter  river,  a  little  west  of  the  modern  city 
 of  Toro,  in  a  southeastern  direction  to  the  Anas, 
 touching  it  about  eight  miles  west  of  Merida,  the  an- 
 cient Emerita  Augusta.  The  modern  kingdom  of 
 Portugal,  therefore,  is  in  length  larger  than  ancient 
 Lusitania,  since  it  comprehends  two  provinces  beyond 
 the  Durius,  Entre  Douro  y  Mmho  and  Tras  los  Man- 
 tes, and  since  it  has  the  Minius  or  Minlio  for  its  north- 
 ern boundary,  but  from  west  to  east  it  is  much  smaller 
 than  Lusitania.  The  latter  embraced  also  Salaman- 
 ca, the  greater  part  of  Estrcmadura,  and  the  west- 
 ern extremity  of  Toledo.  The  most  southern  part  of 
 Lusitania  was  called  Cuneus,  or  the  wedge  {vid. 
 Cuneus),  and  is  now  termed  Algarve,  from  the  Ara- 
 bic Aigarb,  or  the  west.  Its  extreme  promontory 
 was  called  Sacrum.  {Vid.  Sacrum  Promontorium. — 
 Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  327.) 
 
 LuTETiA,  a  town  of  Belgic  Gaul,  on  an  island  in 
 the  Sequana  or  Seine,  and  the  capital  of  the  Pa- 
 risii.  Hence  it  is  often  called  Luttlia  Partstorum. 
 {CcBS.,  B.  G.,  7,  7.)  It  was  at  first  a  place  of  little 
 consequence,  but  under  the  emperors  it  became  a  city 
 of  importance,  and  the  Noliiia  Imperii  (c.  6.5)  speaks 
 of  it  as  the  gathering-place  for  the  seamen  on  the  riv- 
 er. In  this  passage,  too,  the  name  Parisii,  as  applied 
 to  the  city  itself,  first  appears.  At  Lutetia,  Julian  the 
 Apostate  was  saluted  emperor  by  his  soldiers.  He 
 had  here  his  usual  winter-quarters.  The  city  began 
 to  increase  in  importance  under  the  first  French 
 kings,  and  was  extended  to  the  two  banks  of  the  river, 
 the  island  being  connected  with  them  by  bridges.  It 
 is  now  Paris,  the  capital  of  France. — The  ancient 
 name  of  the  place  is  variously  written.  l"h\is  we 
 have  Lotitia  Parisiorum  {Ann.  Prudent.  Tree.,  ami. 
 842),  and  Loticia  Parisiorum  {Ann.  1,  ann.  845), 
 &.C.     {Mannert,  Geogr.,  \ol   2,  p.  168.) 
 
 Ly^us,  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  as  loosing  from  care 
 (Avatof,  from  Atiw,  "  io  loosen"  or  '■'■free."  —  Vid. 
 Liber). 
 
 Lycabettus,  a  mountain  near  Athens.  Plato  says 
 {in  Grit.)  that  it  was  oppo.'~ite  the  Pnyx ;  and  Anti- 
 gonus  Carystius  relates  a  fabulous  story,  which  would 
 lead  us  to  imagine  that  it  was  close  to  the  Acropolis. 
 {Hist.  Mirab.,  12.)  Statius  alludes  to  its  olive  plan- 
 tations. {Theb.,  63L — Leake's  Tnpogr.,  p.  70. — 
 Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  335.) 
 
 LycyEa,  I.  festivals  in  Arcadia  in  honour  of  Pan, 
 or  the  Lycaean  Jove.  They  were  the  same  in  origin 
 as  the  I.upercalia  of  the  Romans. — II.  A  festival  at 
 Argos  in  honour  of  Apollo  Lycaeus,  who  delivered  the 
 Argives  from  wolves. 
 
 Lyc^os,  a  mountain  in  the  southwestern  angle  of 
 Arcadia,  deriving  great  celebrity  from  the  worship  of 
 Jupiter,  who,  as  the  Arcadians  contended,  was  born 
 on  its  summit.  Here  an  altar  had  been  erected  to  the 
 god,  and  sacrifices  were  performed  in  the  open  air. 
 The  temenus  was  inaccessible  to  living  creatures, 
 since,  if  any  entered  within  its  precincts,  they  died  with- 
 in the  space  of  a  year.  It  was  also  said,  that  within 
 this  hallowed  spot  no  shadows  were  projected  from  the 
 bodies  of  animals.  Pausanias  affirms,  that  nearly  the 
 whole  of  Peloponnesus  might  be  seen  from  this  eleva- 
 ted point.  {Pausan.,  8,  28. — Compare  Slrab.,  388.) 
 Mount  Lycaeus  was  also  sacred  to  Pan,  whose  temple 
 was  surrounded  by  a  thick  grove.  Contiguous  to  this 
 were  the  stadium  and  hippodrome  in  which  the  Lycae- 
 an games  were  performed.  {Pausan.,  I.  c. —  Theocr., 
 Idyl.,  1,  \2-i.— Virgil,  Georg.,  1,  16.)  Mr.  Dodwell, 
 who  gives  an  animated  description  of  the  view  he  be- 
 
 held from  Mount  LycEus,  states  that  the  modem  name 
 is  Tetragi.  The  remains  of  the  altar  of  Jupiter  are 
 yet  visible  on  the  summit.  {Classiz-al  Tour,  vol.  3, 
 p.  392.— Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  336.) 
 
 Lycambes,  the  father  of  Neobule.  He  })romised 
 his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the  poet  Archilochus,  but 
 afterward  refused  to  lulfil  his  engagement  when  she 
 had  been  courted  ay  a  man  whose  opulence  had  more 
 influence  than  trie  fortune  of  the  poet.  This  irritated 
 Archilochus  ;  he  wrote  a  bitter  invective  against  Ly- 
 cambes and  his  daughter,  who  hung  themselves  in  de- 
 spair. {Horat.,Epod.,6,\3.  —  Ovid,ib.,&2)  Such 
 is  the  common  account.  The  story,  however,  appears 
 to  have  been  invented  after  the  days  of  .Archilochus  ; 
 and  one  of  the  scholiasts  on  Horace  remarks,  that 
 Neobule  did  not  destroy  herself  on  account  of  any  in- 
 jurious verses  on  the  part  of  Archilochus,  but  out  of 
 despair  at  the  death  of  her  father.  {Sclwd,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  201.) 
 
 Lycaon,  an  early  king  of  Arcadia,  son  of  Pelasgus. 
 He  built  Lycosura,  on  Mount  Lycaeus,  and  established 
 the  Lycaean  festival  in  honour  of  Jove.  Pausanias 
 makes  him  contemporary  with  Cecrops  (8,  2).  His 
 whole  history,  however,  appears  to  be  mythic,  as  will 
 presently  appear.  According  to  the  legend  given  by 
 Apollodorus  (3,  8,  1),  Lycaon  became,  by  different 
 wives,  the  father  of  fifty  sons;  and,  according  to  an- 
 other account,  mentioned  by  the  same  writer,  the  pa- 
 rent of  one  daughter,  Callisto.  Both  Lycaon  and  his 
 sons  were  notorious  for  their  cruel  and  impious  con- 
 duct, and  Jupiter,  in  order  to  satisfy  himself  of  the 
 truth  of  the  reports  that  reached  him,  disguised 
 himself  as  a  poor  man  and  sought  their  hospitality. 
 To  entertain  the  stranger  they  slaughtered  a  boy, 
 and,  mingling  his  flesh  with  that  of  the  victims,  set  it 
 before  their  guest.  The  god,  in  indignation  and  hor- 
 ror at  the  barbarous  act,  overturned  the  table  (whence 
 the  place  derived  its  future  name  of  Trapezus),  and 
 struck  with  lightning  the  godless  father  and  sons,  with 
 the  exception  of  Nyctimus,  whom  Earth,  raising  her 
 hands  and  grasping  the  right  hand  of  Jupiter,  saved 
 from  the  wrath  of  the  avenging  deity.  According  to 
 another  account,  Jupiter  destroyed  the  dwelling  of  Ly- 
 caon with  lightning,  and  turned  its  master  into  a  wolf 
 The  deluge  of  Deucalion,  which  shortly  afterward  oc- 
 curred, is  ascribed  to  the  impiety  of  the  sons  of  Ly- 
 caon. {Apollod  ,  I.  c.  —  Ornd,  Met.,  1,  216,  seqq. — . 
 Hygin.,  Poet.  Aslron.,  2,  A.— Id.,  Fab.,  \76.—  Tzetz., 
 ad  Lycophr.,  481.) — It  has  been  conjectured,  that  Ju- 
 piter Lycaeus  was  in  Arcadia  what  Apollo  Lycius 
 was  elsewhere ;  and  that  the  true  root  in  both  cases 
 was  AYKH  {lux),  "light."  The  similarity  of  sound 
 most  probably  gave  occasion  to  the  legends  of  wolves, 
 of  which  animal  there  were  many  in  Arcadia.  In  this 
 case  Lycaon  would  be  only  another  name  for  Jupiter, 
 to  whom  he  raised  an  altar,  and  he  could  not  therefore 
 have  been  described  as  impious  in  the  primitive  le- 
 gend. The  opposition  between  his  name  and  that  of 
 Nyctimus  strongly  confirms  this  hypothesis.  It  may 
 indeed  be  said,  that  Jupiter  derived  his  appellation 
 from  the  mountain  ;  but  against  this  it  is  to  be  ob- 
 served, that  there  was  an  eminence  in  the  territory  of 
 Cyrene  or  Barce,  in  Libya,  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Ly- 
 caeus. {Herod.,  4,  205.  — Keightlcy's  Mythology,  p. 
 424,  seq. — Schwenck,  Andeutung,    p.  40.) 
 
 Lycaonia,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  forming  the 
 southeastern  quarter  of  Phrygia.  The  origin  of  its 
 name  and  of  its  inhabitants,  the  Lycaones,  is  lost  in 
 obscurity.  The  Greeks  asserted  that  Lycaon  of  Ar- 
 cadia, in  obedience  to  the  commands  of  an  oracle, 
 founded  a  city  here,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  nation 
 and  country  ;'  this,  however,  is  mere  fable.  Accord- 
 ing to  others,  it  derived  its  name  from  ?iVKog,a  wolj, 
 the  country  abounding  with  these  animals.  Our  first 
 acquaintance  with  this  region  is  in  the  relation  of  the 
 
 expedition  of  the  younger  Gyrus. 
 
 '  The  ridges  lying 
 767 
 
LYC 
 
 LYC 
 
 to  the  northward  ofKonia  (Iconium)  and  Erfclc  (Archal- 
 la),"  observes  Leake,  "form  the  district  described  by 
 Strabo  as   the  cold   and   naked   downs   of  Lycaonia, 
 which  furnished  pasture  to  numerous  sheep  and  wild 
 asses,  and  where  was  no  water  except  in  very  deep 
 wells.     As  the  limits  of  Lycaonia  are  defined  by  Stra- 
 bo (568)  and   by  Artemidorus,   whom  he  quotes,  to 
 have  been  between  Philomelium  and  Tyriaeum  on  the 
 west,   and    Coropassus    and    Garsabora   on   the   east 
 (which  last  place  was  960  stadia  from  Tyriseum,  120 
 from  Coropassus,  and  680  from  Mazaca),  we  have  the 
 exact  extent  of  the  Lycaonian  hills  intended  by  the 
 geographer.     Branching  from  the  great  range  of  Tau- 
 rus, near   Philomelium,  and   separating   the  plain  of 
 Laodicea  from  that  of  Iconium,  they  skirted  the  great 
 valley  which  lies  to  the  southeastward  of  the  latter 
 city,  as  far  as  Archalla  {Erklc),  comprehending  a  part 
 of  the  mountains  of  Hassan  Daghi.     It  would  seem 
 that  the  depopulation  of  this  country,  which  rapidly 
 followed  the  decline  of  the  Roman  power  and  the  ir- 
 ruption of  the  Eastern  barbarians,  had  left  some  re- 
 mains of  the  vast  flocks  of  Amyntas,  mentioned  by 
 Strabo,  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the   Lycaonian 
 hills  to  a  very  late  period  :  for  Hadji  Khalfa,  who  de- 
 scribes the  want  of  wood  and  water  on  these  hills, 
 adds  that  there   was  a   breed  of  wild  sheep  on   the 
 mountain  of  Fudul  Baba,  above  Ismil,  and  a  tomb  of 
 the  saint  from  whom  the  mountain  receives  its  name  ; 
 and    that  sacrifices  were  offered  at  the  tomb  by  all 
 those   who    hunted   the   v^'ild    sheep,   and   who   were 
 taught  to  believe  that  they  should  be  visited  with  the 
 displeasure  of  heaven  if  they  dared  to  kill  more  than 
 two  of  these  animals  at  a  time.     Hadji  Khalfa  lived  in 
 the  middle  of  the  17th  century."     {Leake's  Journal, 
 p.  67,  seqq.)     With  respect  to  its  physical  geography, 
 Lycaonia  was,  like  Isauria,  included  in  a  vast  basin, 
 formed  by  Taurus  and  its  branches.     {Kennell,  Geog- 
 raphy of  Western  Asia,  vol.  2,  p.  99.)     Towards  the 
 east,  the   Lycaonians  bordered  on  Cappadocia,  from 
 which  they  were  separated  by  the  Halys  ;  while  to- 
 wards the  south  they  extended  themselves  from  the 
 frontiers  of  Cilicia   to  the  country  of  the  Pisidians. 
 Between  them  and  the  latter  people  there  seems  to 
 have  been  considerable  affinity  of  character,  and  prob- 
 ably of  blood  ;  both  nations,  perhaps,  being  originally 
 sprung  from  the  ancient  Solymi.     Subsequently,  how- 
 ever, they  would  appear  to  have  become  distinguished 
 from   one   another  by  the  various  increments  which 
 each  received  from  the  nations  in  their  immediate  vi- 
 cinity.     Thus,  while   the  Pisidians  were  intermixed 
 with  the  Carians,  Lycians,  and  Phrygians,   the   Ly- 
 caonians received  colonists  probably  from  Cappado- 
 cia, Cilicia,  Pamphylia,  Phrygia,  and  Galatia ;  at  the 
 same  time,  both,  in  common  with  all  the  nations  of 
 Asia  Minor,  had  no  small  proportion  of  Greek  settlers 
 in  their  principal  towns.     It  is  a  curious  fact,  which 
 we  derive  from  the  New  Testament  (.4c<s,  14,  11),  that 
 the  Lycaonians  had  a  peculiar  dialect,  wliich  therefore 
 must  have  differed  from  the  Pisidian  language;   but 
 even  that,  as  we  know  from  Strabo  (631),  was  a  dis- 
 tinct tongue  from  that  of  the  ancient  Solymi.     It  is, 
 however,  very  probable,  that  the  Lycaonian  idiom  was 
 only  a  mixture  of  these  and  the  Phrygian  language. 
 (Jablonski,  de  Ling.  Lycaon.,Opusc.,  vol.  3,  p.  8. — 
 Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  63.) 
 
 Lycastus,  an  ancient  town  Of  Crete,  in  the  vicinity 
 of  Gnossus,  bv  the  inhabitants  of  which  place  it  was 
 destroyed.  Strabo,  who  mentions  this  fact,  states 
 that  in  his  time  it  had  entirely  disappeared.  {Slrab., 
 479.)  Polybius  informs  us  (23,  15),  that  the  Lycas- 
 tian  district  was  afterward  wrested  from  the  Cnosi- 
 ans  by  the  Gortynians,  who  gave  it  to  the  neighbour- 
 ing town  of  Rhaucus.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3, 
 p.  370.) 
 
 Lyceum  (Av/cfjov),  a  sacred  enclosure  at  Athens, 
 dedi*cated  to  Apollo,  where  the  polemarch  originally 
 768 
 
 :  kept  his  court.  It  was  decorated  wath  fountains,  plan- 
 tations, and  buildings,  by  Pisistratus,  Pericles,  and 
 Lycurgus,  and  became  the  usual  place  of  exercise  for 
 the  Athenian  youths  who  devoted  themselves  to  mili- 
 tary pursuits.  (Pausan.,  1,  19. — Xen.,  Hipp  arch. — 
 Harpocral.  et  Suid.,  s.  v.)  Nor  was  it  less  frequent- 
 ed by  philosojjhers,  and  those  addicted  to  retirement 
 and  study.  We  know  that  it  was  more  especially  the 
 favourite  walk  of  Aristotle.and  his  followers,  who 
 thence  obtained  the  name  of  Peripatetics.  {Cic, 
 Acad.  QucBst.,  1,  4.)  Here  was  the  fountain  of  the 
 hero  Panops  (Plat.,  Lys.,  p.  203),  and  a  plane-tree  of 
 great  size  and  beauty,  mentioned  by  Theophrastus. 
 {Hist.  PL,  1,  11.  — Compare  Plat.,  Phadr.,  p.  229.) 
 The  position  commonly  assigned  to  the  Lyceum  is  on 
 the  right  bank  of  the  Ilissus,  and  nearly  opposite  to 
 the  church  of  Petros  Stauromenos,  which  is  supposed 
 to  correspond  with  the  temple  of  Diana  Agrotera,  on 
 the  other  side  of  the  river.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  340.) 
 
 Lychnidus,  a  city  of  Illyricum,  situate  in  the  inte- 
 rior,  on  a  lake  from  which  the  Drino  rises.  Its  found- 
 ation is  ascribed  by  a  writer  in  the  Greek  Anthology  to 
 Cadmus.  {Christod.,  epigr.  3.)  We  hear  of  its  be- 
 ing constantly  in  the  occupation  of  the  Romans  during 
 the  war  with  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon  {Liv.,  43,  9), 
 and  from  its  position  on  the  frontier  it  must  have  al- 
 ways been  a  place  of  importance.  This  was  more 
 especially  the  case  after  the  construction  of  the  great 
 Egnatian  Way,  which  passed  through  it.  {Polyb.,  ap. 
 Slrah.,  327.)  It  appears  to  have  been  still  a  large 
 and  populous  town  under  the  Greek  emperors.  Pro- 
 copius  relates,  that  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an 
 earthquake,  which  overthrew  Corinth  and  several  oth- 
 er cities  in  the  reign  of  Justinian.  {Hist.  Arch.,  18. 
 —  Compare  Mulch.,  Sophist.  Excerpt.,  p.  64.)  It  is 
 the  opinion  of  Palmerius,  who  has  treated  most  fully 
 of  the  history  of  Lychnidus  in  his  description  of  an- 
 cient Greece,  that  this  town  was  replaced  by  Achrida, 
 once  the  capital  of  the  Bulgarians  ;  and,  according  to 
 some  writers  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  also  the  na- 
 tive place  of  Justinian,  and  erected  by  him  into  an 
 archbishopric,  under  the  name  of  Justiniana  Prima. 
 This  opinion  of  the  learned  critic  has  been  adopted  by 
 the  generality  of  writers  on  comparative  geography. 
 {Grctc.  Ant.  Descript.,  p.  498. —  Wesseling,  ad  Itin., 
 p.  652. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  415.)  Cramer, 
 however,  shows  very  conclusively  that  the  modern 
 Ochrida  (as  it  is  now  called)  does  not  coincide  with 
 the  ancient  Lychnidus,  but  that  the  ruins  of  the  latter 
 place  are  still  apparent  near  the  monastery  of  St. 
 Naum  {Ponqucvillc,  vol.  3,  p.  49),  on  the  eastern 
 shore  of  the  lake,  and  about  fourteen  miles  south  ol 
 Ochrida.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  \o\.  l,p.  71,  seqq.) 
 Lychnitis  Palus,  a  lake  of  Illyria,  on  which  Lych- 
 nidus was  situate.  It  was  formed  principally  by  the 
 waters  of  what  is  now  the  black  Drino.  and  was  a  con- 
 siderable e.xpanse  of  water,  about  20  miles  in  length  and 
 8  in  breadth.  Diodorus  informs  us,  that  Philip,  son  of 
 Amyntas,  extended  his  conquests  in  Illyria,  as  far  as 
 this  lake  (16,  8).  Strabo  says  it  abounded  in  fish, 
 which  were  salted  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants.  {Stra- 
 bo, 327.)  He  also  mentions  several  other  lakes  in  the 
 vicinity  which  were  equally  productive.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  74.) 
 
 Lycia,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  south,  bounded 
 on  the  northeast  by  Pamphylia,  on  the  west  and  north- 
 west by  the  Carians,  and  on  the  north  by  Phrygia  and 
 Pisidia.  The  country  was  first  named  Milyas,  and  its 
 earliest  inhabitants  seem  to  have  been  the  Solymi.  Sar- 
 pedon,  however,  being  driven  from  Crete  by  his  brother 
 Minos,  came  hither  with  a  colony,  and  drove  the  Soly- 
 mi into  the  interior,  with  whom,  however,  they  had  still 
 to  wage  a  continual  warfare.  {Hom.,  II.,  6,  180. — Id. 
 ibid.,  10,  430.— 7f/.  ibid.,  12,  30.)  The  new-comers 
 took  the  name  of  Termilas,  as  Herodotus  writes  it  (1 
 
LYCIA. 
 
 LYC 
 
 173),  or  Tremilae,  as  others  give  it.  {Slcph.  Bys.,  s. 
 V.  'Yjyefi'L'Aai.)  Afterward,  Lycus,  driven  from  Athens 
 by  his  brother  -i^geus,  retired  to  the  Terrniiae,  where 
 he  was  well  received  by  Sarpedoii,  and  gave,  it  is  said, 
 the  appellation  of  Lycia  to  the  country,  and  Lycu  to  the 
 people,  Iron)  his  own  name.  In  the  Homeric  poems 
 the  country  is  always  called  Lycia,  and  the  Solymi  are 
 mentioned  as  a  warlike  people,  against  whom  Beller- 
 ophon  IS  sent  to  fight  by  the  King  of  Lycia.  (//.,  6, 
 184.)  The  Solymi,  however,  disappeared  from  history 
 after  Homer's  time,  and  the  name  Milyas  remained  for 
 ever  afterward  applied  to  the  region  commencing  in 
 the  north  of  Lycia,  and  extending  into  Phrygia  and  Pi- 
 sidia.  Into  this  region  the  Solymi  had  been  driven, 
 and  here  they  remained  under  the  appellation  of  Milyfe, 
 though  the  name  Solymi  still  continued  in  Mount  Sol- 
 yma,  on  the  northeastern  coast.  This  mountain,  call- 
 ed at  present  Takhallu,  rises  to  the  height  of  7800  feet. 
 Fi  jm  this  time,  in  fact,  they  were  reckoned  as  occu- 
 pying a  part  of  Pisidia,  and  havmg  nothing  more  to  do 
 with  Lycia.  On  D'Anville's  map,  however,  they  re- 
 tain the  name  of  Solymi.  According  to  the  ancients, 
 Lycia  was  the  last  maritime  country  within  Taurus. 
 It  did  not  extend  eastward  to  the  inner  part  of  the 
 Gulf  of  Pamphylia,  but  was  separated  from  that  coun- 
 try and  Its  gulf  by  the  southern  arm  of  Taurus,  whose 
 bold  and  steep  descent  to  the  shore  caused  it  to  re- 
 ceive the  name  of  Climax.  This  southern  arm  of 
 Taurus  is  so  lofty  as  to  be  generally  covered  with 
 snow,  and  by  its  course,  presenting  itself  across  the 
 line  of  the  navigation  along  shore,  forms  a  conspicu- 
 ous landmark,  particularly  from  the  eastward.  From 
 its  general  fertility,  the  natural  strength  of  the  country, 
 and  the  goodness  of  its  harbours,  Lycia  was  one  of  the 
 richest  and  most  populous  countries  of  Asia  in  propor- 
 tion to  its  extent.  The  products  were  wine,  wheat, 
 cedar-wood,  beautiful  plane-trees,  a  sort  of  delicate 
 sponge,  and  fine  officinal  chalk.  It  is  recorded,  to  the 
 honour  of  the  inhabitants,  that  they  never  committed 
 acts  of  piracy  like  those  of  Cilicia  and  other  quarters. 
 The  Lyeians  appear  to  have  possessed  considerable 
 power  in  early  times  ;  and  were  almost  the  only  people 
 west  of  the  Halys  who  were  not  subdued  by  Croesus. 
 {Herud.,  I,  28.)  They  made  also  an  obstinate  resist- 
 ance to  Harpagus,  the  general  of  Cyrus,  but  were  event- 
 ually conquered.  {Herod.,  1,  176  )  They  supplied 
 Xerxes  with  fifty  ships  in  his  expedition  against  Greece. 
 (Htrod.,  7,  92.)  After  the  downfall  of  the  Persian  em- 
 iiire,  thry  continued  subject  to  the  Seleucida;  till  the 
 overthrow  of  Antiochus  by  the  Romans,  when  their 
 country,  as  well  as  Caria,  was  granted  by  the  conquer- 
 ors to  the  Rhodians  ;  but  their  freedom  was  afterward 
 again  secured  to  them  by  the  Romans  {Polyb.,  30,  5), 
 who  allowed  them  to  retain  their  own  laws  and  their 
 political  constitution,  which  is  highly  praised  by  Stra- 
 bo  (665),  and,  in  his  opinion,  prevented  them  from  fall- 
 ing into  the  piratical  [iractices  of  their  neighbours,  the 
 Painphylians  and  Cilicians.  According  to  this  ac- 
 count, the  government  was  a  kind  of  federation,  con- 
 sisting of  23  cities,  which  sent  deputies  to  an  assembly, 
 in  which  a  governor  was  chosen  for  the  whole  of  Ly- 
 cia, as  well  as  judges  and  other  inferior  magistrates. 
 All  matters  relating  to  the  government  of  the  country 
 were  discussed  in  this  assembly.  The  six  principal 
 cities,  Xanthus,  Patara,  Pinara,  Olympus,  Myra,  and 
 Tlos,  had  three  votes  each,  other  cities  two  votes  each, 
 and  the  least  important  places  only  one  each.  In  con- 
 sequence of  dissensions  among  the  different  cities,  this 
 constitution  was  abolished  by  the  Emperor  Claudius 
 {Suelon-,  Vit.  Claud  ,  2.5. — Compare  Vit.  Vesp.),  and 
 the  country  united  to  the  province  of  Pamphylia.    (Dio 
 
 Cass.,  GO,  17. — Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  14,  p.  210. 
 
 Cramer's  Asia.  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  242,  seq.)  The  inte- 
 rior of  Lycia  was  entirely  unknown  to  Europeans  un- 
 til the  visit  of  Mr.  Fellows  in  1838,  who  travelled  over 
 a  large  portion  of  it.  According  to  this  individual,  the 
 5E 
 
 country  is  erroneously  represented  in  all  the  maps,  and 
 there  are  no  mountains  of  any  importance  in  the  inte- 
 rior. The  coast,  however,  is  surrounded  by  lofty 
 mountains,  which  rise  m  many  places  to  a  great  height. 
 {Enryd.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  14,  p.  210.) — It  was  at  Pa- 
 tara in  Lycia  that  Apollo  had  a  famous  temple  and 
 oracle,  and  there  he  was  fabled  to  pass  the  winter 
 months,  and  the  summer  at  Delos,  whence  the  epithet 
 hiberna  applied  to  Lycia  by  Virgil  {/En.,  4,  143. — 
 Hcync,  ad  loc). 
 
 LvciiMNiA,  a  female  alluded  to  by  Horace,  and 
 thought  by  Beniley  to  be  the  same  with  Terentia,  the 
 wife  of  Maecenas.  {Horai.,  Od.,  2,  12,  13. — Bentley, 
 ad  loc.) 
 
 Lvcius,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  given  to  that  deity  as 
 the  god  of  light,  and  derived  from  the  old  form  ATKH, 
 "  light,"  to  which  we  may  also  trace  the  Latin  lux. 
 (Compare  remarks  under  the  article  Lycaon.)  Ac- 
 cording to  the  common  but  erroneous  opinion,  Apol- 
 lo was  called  "  Lycius"  because  worshipped  with  pe- 
 culiar honours  at  Patara  in  Lycia.     {Vid.  Patara.) 
 
 Lycomedes,  a  king  of  Scyros,  an  island  in  the 
 ^Egean  Sea,  son  of  Apollo  and  Parthenope.  He  was 
 secretly  intrusted  with  the  care  of  young  Achilles, 
 whom  his  mother  Thetis  had  disguised  in  female  at- 
 tire to  prevent  his  going  to  the  Trojan  war,  where  she 
 knew  he  must  perish.  (Ftc/.  Achilles.)  Lycomedes 
 rendered  himself  infamous  for  his  treachery  to  Thes- 
 eus, who  had  implored  his  protection  when  driven  from 
 the  throne  of  Athens  by  the  usurper  Mnesthcus.  Ly- 
 comedes, as  it  is  reported,  either  envious  of  the  fame 
 of  his  illustrious  guest,  or  bribed  by  the  emissaries  of 
 Mnestheus,  led  Theseus  to  an  elevated  place  on  pre- 
 tence of  showing  him  the  extent  of  his  dominions,  and 
 perfidiously  threw  him  down  a  precipice,  where  he  was 
 killed.  According  to  another  account,  however,  his 
 fall  was  accidental.  (Phit ,  Vit.  Thcs. — Pausan.,  1, 
 17;  7,  i.—Apollod.,  3,  13.) 
 
 Lycon,  an  Athenian,  who  flourished  about  405  B.C., 
 and  who,  together  with  Anytus  and  Meiitus,  was  con- 
 cerned in  the  prosecution  instituted  against  Socrates. 
 {Vid.  Socrates.) — II.  A  Peripatetic  philosopher,  a  na- 
 tive of  Troas,  and  the  pufiil  and  successor  of  Strato 
 of  Lampsacus.  He  flourished  about  270  B.C.,  and 
 was  for  forty  years  the  head  of  the  Peripatetic  school 
 atAthens.  He  succeeded  Strato  at  the  date  just  men- 
 tioned ;  and  enjoyed  also  the  friendship  of  Attabus  and 
 Enmenes.  {Dion;.  Laert.,  5,  66. — Alheiuzus,  12,  p. 
 546.)  Lycon  appears  to  have  been  the  author  of  a 
 treatise  on  the  sovereign  good.  His  eloquence  in- 
 duced his  friends  to  change  his  name  from  Lycon  to 
 Glykon  {yXvKvg,  sweet).  Cicero  calls  him  "  oralione 
 locuplciem,  rebus  ipis  jejuniorem"  {Dc  Fin.,  5,  5). 
 
 Lycophron.  I.  a  son  of  Periander,  king  of  Corinth. 
 The  murder  of  his  mother  Melissa  by  his  father  had 
 such  an  effect  upon  him,  that  he  resolved  never  to 
 speak  to  a  man  who  had  been  so  wantonly  cruel  to 
 his  own  family.  This  resolution  was  strengthened  by 
 the  advice  of  Procles,  liis  maternal  uncle,  and  Perian- 
 der at  last  banished  to  Corcyra  a  son  whose  disobe- 
 dience and  obstinacy  had  rendered  him  odious.  Cyp- 
 selus,  the  eldest  son  of  Periander,  being  incapable  oJ 
 reigning,  Lycophron  was  the  only  surviving  child  who 
 had  any  claim  to  the  crown  of  Corinth.  But,  when 
 the  infirmities  of  Periander  obliged  him  to  look  for  a 
 successor,  Lycophron  refused  to  come  to  Corinth  while 
 his  father  was  there,  and  he  was  induced  to  leave  Cor- 
 cyra only  on  promise  that  Periander  would  come  and 
 dwell  there  while  he  remained  the  master  of  Corinth. 
 This  exchange,  however,  was  prevented.  The  Cor- 
 cyreans,  who  were  apprehensive  of  the  tyranny  of  Pe- 
 riander, murdered  Lvcophron  before  he  left  that  island. 
 {Herod.,  3,  51.)— II.  A  native  of  Chalcis.  in  Eubtra, 
 the  son  of  Socles,  and  adopted  by  the  historian  Lycus 
 of  Rhcgium,  was  a  poet  and  grammarian  at  the  court 
 of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  from  B.C.  280  to  B.C.  250, 
 •'  '^  769 
 
L  YC 
 
 LYC 
 
 where  he  formed  one  of  the  seven  poets  known  by  the 
 name  of  the  Tragic  Pleiades.  ( Vid.  Alexandrina 
 Schola,  towards  the  end  of  that  article.)  He  is  said 
 by  Ovid  to  have  been  killed  by  an  arrow.  (Ibis,  531.) 
 Lycophron  wrote  a  large  number  of  tragedies,  the  titles 
 of  many  of  which  are  preserved  by  Suidas.  Only  one 
 production  of  his,  however,  has  come  down  to  us,  a 
 poem  classed  by  the  ancients  under  the  head  of  tragic, 
 but  more  correctly  by  the  moderns  under  that  of  Lyr- 
 ic verse.  This  poem  of  Lycophron's  is  called  the 
 Alexandra  or  Cassandra.  It  is  a  monologue,  in  1474 
 verses,  in  which  the  Trojan  princess  Cassandra  predicts 
 to  Priam  the  overthrow  of  Ilium,  and  the  misfortunes 
 that  await  the  actors  in  the  Trojan  war.  The  work 
 is  written  in  Iambic  verse,  and  has  no  pretensions  to 
 any  poetical  merit ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  forms  an 
 inexhaustible  mine  of  grammatical,  historical,  and  my- 
 thological erudition.  Cassandra,  in  the  course  of  her 
 predictions,  goes  back  to  the  earliest  times,  and  de- 
 scends afterward  to  the  reign  of  Alexander  of  Macedon. 
 There  are  many  digressions,  but  all  contain  valuable 
 facts,  drawn  from  the  history  and  mythology  of  other 
 nations.  The  poet  has  purposely  enveloped  his  poem 
 with  the  deepest  obscurity,  so  much  so  that  it  has 
 been  styled  to  gkotclvov  noirj/iia,  '^  the  dark  poem." 
 There  is  no  artifice  to  which  he  does  not  resort  to  pre- 
 vent his  being  clearly  understood.  He  never  calls  any 
 one  by  his  true  name,  but  designates  him  by  some  cir- 
 cumstances or  event  in  his  history.  He  abounds  with 
 unusual  constructions,  separates  words  which  should 
 be  united,  uses  strange  terms  (as,  for  example,  KeXup, 
 Ivic,  ufivafio^,  and  (pirvfia,  in  place  of  vioc) ;  forms  the 
 most  singular  compounds  (such  as  udEanoleKTpoc,  ai- 
 voGuKxevTo^),  and  indulges  also  in  some  of  the  boldest 
 metapliors.  The  Alexandrean  grammarians  amassed 
 a  vast  collection  of  materials  for  the  elucidation  of 
 what  must  have  appeared  to  them  an  admirable  pro- 
 duction. Tzetzes  has  made  a  compilation  from  their 
 commentaries,  and  has  thus  preserved  for  us  a  part  at 
 least  of  those  illustrations,  without  which  the  poem, 
 after  the  lapse  of  more  than  2000  years,  would  be  un- 
 intelligible. He  has  refuted  also  the  opinion  that  Ly- 
 cophron was  not  the  author  of  the  poem.  The  loss  of 
 Lycophron's  dramatic  pieces  is  hardly  to  be  regretted, 
 if  we  can  form  any  opinion  of  his  poetic  merits  from 
 the  production  to  which  we  have  just  referred.  A 
 work,  however,  which  he  wrote  on  Comedy  (nepl  Ku- 
 fiudia^),  and  which  must  have  been  of  considerable  ex- 
 tent, since  Athenaeus  quotes  from  the  9th  book  of  it, 
 would  have  proved,  no  doubt,  a  valuable  accession  to 
 our  list  of  ancient  productions,  since  on  this  subject 
 the  learning  of  Lycophron  must  have  had  full  scope 
 allowed  it.  The  best  editions  of  Lycophron  are,  that 
 printed  at  Basle,  1546,  fol.,  enriched  with  the  Greek 
 commentary  of  Tzetzes  ;  that  of  Canter,  8vo,  apud 
 Commelin.,  1596;  that  of  Potter,  fol.,  Oxon.,  1702, 
 and  that  of  Bachmann,  Lips.,  1828,  2  vols.  8vo.  The 
 last  will  be  found  to  be  most  complete  and  useful,  since 
 it  contains,  among  other  subsidia,  the  Greek  paraphrase. 
 Bachmann  also  published,  in  1828,  in  the  second  vol- 
 ume of  his  A7iecdota  Graca,  a  Lexicon  Lycophroneum, 
 previously  unedited,  containing  a  very  ancient  collec- 
 tion of  scholia.  {SchiiU,  Gcsc/i.  Gr.  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  47, 
 seqq.) 
 
 LvcopoLis  {AvKuv  TTO/lff ),  or  the  "  city  of  wolves," 
 a  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Nile, 
 northwest  of  AntaBopolis.  It  derived  its  name  from 
 the  circumstance  of  extraordinary  worship  being  paid 
 here  to  wolves,  which,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus, 
 drove  back  the  Ethiopians  when  they  invaded  Egypt, 
 and  pursued  them  to  Elephantina.  (Diod.  Sic,  1, 
 88.)  Pliny  merely  writes  the  name  Lycon  as  that  of 
 the  city  (5,  9),  and  Hierocles  Aikwv.  D'Anville,  and, 
 after  him,  the  French  savavs  who  accompanied  Bona- 
 parte to  Egypt,  place  the  site  of  ancient  Lycopolis  near 
 the  modern  Syut.  Mannert,  however,  decides  in  fa- 
 770 
 
 vour  of  the  vicinity  of  Manfahth,  coinciding  in  tl)i« 
 with  Pococke.     {Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  387.) 
 
 Lycore.4,  I.  one  of  the  earliest  names  of  Parnassus. 
 The  modern  name  of  the  mountain  is  Liakoura.  {Dod- 
 well,  Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  189.) — II.  A  small  town  on  one 
 of  the  highest  summits  of  Parnassus.  {Strubo,  423. — 
 Pa^isan.,  10,  6.)  It  appears  to  have  been  a  place  of 
 the  highest  antiquity  since  it  is  stated  by  the  Arun- 
 delian  marbles  to  have  been  once  the  residence  of  Deu- 
 calion. Strabo  also  affirms  that  it  was  more  ancient 
 than  Del[)hi.  {Strab.,  418. — Compare  Fausan.,  I.  c. 
 —  StcpJi.  Byz.,  s.  V. — Etym.  Mas-,  s.  v.  —  Schol.  ad 
 Apollon.,  Arg.,  1,  U90— Schol.  ad  Find,  01,  9,  68.) 
 Among  other  etymologies,  Pausanias  states,  that  the 
 neighbouring  people  fled  to  it  during  the  deluge  of 
 Deucalion,  being  led  thither  by  the  howling  of  wolves 
 (XvKCJv).  Dodwell  was  informed  that  there  was  a  vil- 
 lage called  Liakoura  about  three  hours  from  Caslri 
 (Delphi),  which  was  deserted  in  winter  on  account  of 
 the  snow,  the  inhabitants  then  descending  to  the 
 neighbouring  villages.  Some  of  the  peasants  of  Lia- 
 koiira  informed  him  that  their  village  possessed  con- 
 siderable remains  of  antiquity.  {Dodwell,  I.  c. —  CVa- 
 nie?'s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  161.) 
 
 LvcoRis,  a  female  to  whom  Gallus,  the  friend  of 
 Virgil,  was  attached.  (Consult  remarks  on  page  545, 
 col.  1,  near  the  end.) 
 
 LvcoRMAs,  the  more  ancient  name  of  the  Evenus. 
 (Strab.,  451.) 
 
 LvcosiJRA,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  on  the  slope  of  Mount 
 Lycaeus,  regarded  by  Pausanias  (8,  38)  as  the  most 
 ancient  city  in  the  world  :  it  still  contained  some  few 
 inhabitants  when  he  made  the  tour  of  Arcadia.  Dod 
 well  is  inclined  to  identify  its  position  with  that  o. 
 Agios  Giorgios,  near  the  village  of  Slala,  where  there 
 are  walls  and  other  remains  which  manifest  signs  of 
 the  remotest  antiquity.  (Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  395.)  Gell, 
 in  his  Itinerary  of  the  Morea  (p.  101),  after  having 
 spoken  of  Delli  Hassan  in  the  road  from  Sincno  to 
 Karilena,  adds  as  follows  :  "  We  descend  again  to- 
 wards the  Alpheus.  This  is  the  road  which  Pausanias 
 seems  to  have  taken  to  Lycorma,  which  must  have 
 been  either  on  the  remarkable  peak  called  Sourias  to 
 Castro,  or  almost  on  the  summit  of  Diaphorte  (Ly- 
 cjEUs),  near  the  hippodrome,  where  are  the  ruins  of  a 
 fortification."  The  same  writer  remarks  (Narrative 
 of  a  Journey  in  the  Morea,  p.  124),  "  the  peaked 
 summit,  called  Sourias  to  Castro,  is  probably  the  an- 
 cient Lycorma."  (Siebelis,  ad  Puusan.,  8,  38. —  Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  336  ) 
 
 LvcTus,  one  of  the  most  considerable  cities  of  Crete, 
 situate  apparently  to  the  northeast  of  Prapsus,  and  at 
 no  great  distance  from  the  sea,  since  Strabo  assign."* 
 to  it  the  haven  of  Chersonesus.  It  was  already  an 
 important  city  in  the  days  of  Homer  and  Hesiod  ;  and 
 Idomeneus,  who  was  a  native  of  the  place,  obtains 
 from  it,  in  Virgil  (jEn  ,  3.  401),  the  epithet  of  Lyc- 
 tius.  (Compare  Homer,  II. ,  2,  647  ;  17,  610  )  Ac- 
 cording to  Hesiod  (Theog.,  477),  Jupiter  was  brought 
 up  in  Mount  .^Eganus,  near  Lyctus.  We  are  informea 
 by  Aristotle  (PoHt.,  2,  8)  that  Lyctus  subsequently 
 received  a  Lacedaemonian  colony  (compare  Polyb.,  4, 
 54),  and  we  learn  from  Diodorus  Siculus  that  it  was 
 indebted  to  the  same  people  for  assistance  against  the 
 mercenary  troops  which  Phalaecus,  the  Phocian  gen- 
 eral, had  led  into  Crete  after  the  termination  of  the 
 Sacred  war  (16,  62).  The  Lyctians,  at  a  still  latei 
 period,  were  engaged  in  frequent  hostilities  with  the 
 republic  of  Gnossus,  and  succeeded  in  creating  a  for 
 midable  party  in  the  island  against  that  city.  But  the 
 Gnossians,  having  taken  advantage  of  their  absence 
 on  a  distant  expedition,  surprised  Lyctus  and  utterly 
 destroyed  it.  The  Lyctians,  on  their  return,  were  so 
 disheartened  by  this  unexpected  calamity,  that  they 
 abandoned  at  once  their  ancient  abodes,  and  withdrew 
 to  the  city  of  Lampe,  where  they  were  kindly  and  hos- 
 
LYC 
 
 LYCURGUS. 
 
 pilaoly  received.  According  to  Polybius,  they  after- 
 ward recovered  tiieir  city,  with  the  aid  of  the  Gortyn- 
 ians,  who  gave  them  a  place  named  Diatonium,  which 
 they  had  taken  from  the  Cnosians  (23,  15  ;  24,  53). 
 Strabo  also  speaks  of  Lyctus  as  existing  in  his  time 
 {Sliab.,  479),  and  elsewhere  he  states  that  it  was 
 eighty  stadia  from  the  Libyan  Sea.  {Slrab.,  476.) 
 The  ruins  of  Lyctus  were  placed  by  D'Anville  at 
 Lassili;  but  the  exact  site,  according  to  the  latest 
 maps,  lies  to  the  northwest  of  that  place,  and  is  called 
 Panagia  Cardiolissa.  {Cramer^s  Anc.  Greece,  vol. 
 3,  p.  388,  seqq.) 
 
 LvcuRGUS,  I.  a  king  of  Thrace,  who,  when  Bac- 
 chus was  passing  through  his  country,  assailed  him  so 
 furiously  that  the  god  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  with 
 Thetis.  Bacchus  avenged  himself  by  driving  Lycur- 
 gus  mad,  and  the  latter  thereupon  killed  his  own  son 
 Dryas  with  a  blow  of  an  axe,  taking  him  for  a  vine- 
 branch.  The  land  became,  in  consequence,  steril ; 
 and  his  subjects,  having  been  informed  by  an  oracle 
 that  it  would  not  regain  its  fertility  until  the  monarch 
 was  put  to  death,  bound  Lycurgus,  and  left  him  on 
 Mount  Pangajus,  where  he  was  destroyed  by  wild 
 horses.  (Apoltod.,  3,  5,  1.) — IL  An  Athenian  orator, 
 was  one  of  the  warmest  supporters  of  the  democratical 
 party  in  the  contest  with  Philip  of  Macedon.  The 
 time  of  his  birth  is  uncertain,  but  he  was  older  than 
 Demosthenes  {Liban.,  Arg.  Aristogit.) ;  and  if  his  fa- 
 ther was  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  thirty  tyrants 
 (Vii.  X.  Orat.,  p.  841,  B),  he  must  have  been  born 
 previous  to  B.C.  404.  But  the  words  of  the  biogra- 
 pher are,  as  Clinton  has  justly  remarked,  ambiguous 
 (Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  2,  p.  151),  and  may  imply  that  it 
 was  his  grandfather  who  was  put  to  death  by  the 
 thirty.  Lycurgus  is  said  to  have  derived  instruction 
 from  Plato  and  Isocrates.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
 the  management  of  public  affairs,  and  was  one  of  the 
 Athenian  ambassadors  who  succeeded  (B.C.  343)  in 
 counteracting  the  designs  of  Philip  agamst  Ambracia 
 and  the  Peloponnesus.  {Demosth.,  Phil.,  3,  p.  129, 
 ed.  Reiske.)  He  filled  the  office  of  treasurer  of  the 
 public  revenue  for  three  periods  of  five  years,  that  is, 
 according  to  the  ancient  idiom,  twelve  years  {Died. 
 Sic,  16,  88)  ;  and  was  noted  for  the  integrity  and 
 ability  with  which  he  discharged  the  duties  of  his 
 office.  Bockh  (Public  Econ.  of  Athens,  vol.  2,  p.  183, 
 Erig.  trans.)  considers  that  Lycurgus  was  the  only 
 statesman  of  antiquity  who  had  a  real  knowledge  of  the 
 management  of  finance.  He  raised  the  revenue  to 
 twelve  hundred  talents,  and  also  erected,  during  his 
 administration,  many  public  buildings,  and  completed 
 the  docks,  the  armory,  the  theatre  of  Bacchus,  and 
 the  Patiathenaic  course.  So  great  confidence  was 
 placed  in  the  honesty  of  Lycurgus,  that  many  citizens 
 confided  to  his  custody  large  sums  ;  and,  shortly  be- 
 fore his  death,  he  had  the  accounts  of  his  public  ad- 
 ministration engraved  on  stone,  and  set  up  in  a  part  of 
 the  wrestling-school.  An  inscription,  preserved  to  the 
 present  day,  containing  some  accounts  of  a  manager  of 
 the  public  revenue,  is  supposed  by  Bockh  to  be  a  part  of 
 the  accounts  of  Lycurgus.  {Publ.  Econ.of  Alh.,\o\.  1, 
 p. 264. —  Corp.Inscript.  Grcec.,\-o\.  l,p.  250,  No.  157.) 
 After  the  battle  of  ChoBronea  (B.C.  388),  Lycurgus  con- 
 ducted the  accusation  against  the  Athenian  general  Lys- 
 icles.  He  was  one  of  the  orators  demanded  by  Alex- 
 ander after  the  destruction  of  Thebes  (B.C.  335).  He 
 died  about  B.C.  323,  and  was  buried  in  the  Academia. 
 (Pansan.,  1,  29,  15.)  Fifteen  years  after  his  death, 
 upon  the  ascendancy  of  the  democratical  party,  a  de- 
 cree was  passed  by  the  Athenian  people  that  public 
 honours  should  be  paid  to  Lycurgus  ;  a  brazen  statue 
 of  him  was  erected  in  the  Ceramicus,  which  was  seen 
 by  Pausanias  (1,8,  3),  and  the  representative  of  his 
 family  was  allowed  the  privilege  of  dining  in  the  Pry- 
 taneum.  This  decree,  which  was  proposed  by  Strat- 
 ocles,  has  come  down  to  us  at  the  end  of  the  "  Lives 
 
 of  the  Ten  Orators."  Lycurgus  is  said  to  have  pub- 
 lished fifteen  orations  (Vil.  X.  Oral.,  p.  843,  C. — 
 Phot.,  Cod.,  268),  of  which  only  one  has  come  down 
 to  us.  This  oiation,  which  was  delivered  B.C.  330, 
 is  an  accusation  of  Leocrates  (Kara  Agu/cpdrotif),  an 
 Athenian  citizen,  for  abandoning  Athens  after  the  bat- 
 tle of  Charonea,  and  settling  in  another  Grecian  state. 
 The  eloquence  of  Lycurgus  is  greatly  praised  by  Di- 
 odorus  Siculus  (16,  88),  but  is  justly  characterized  by 
 Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  as  deficient  in  ease  and 
 elegance  (vol.  5,  p.  433,  ed.  Reishe).  The  best  edi- 
 tions of  Lycurgus  are,  by  Taylor,  who  published  it 
 with  the  oration  of  Demosthenes  against  Midias,  Ca7i- 
 tab.,  1743,  8vo;  Osann,  Jen.,  1821,  8vo  ;  Pinzger, 
 Lips.,  1824,  8vo  ;  and  Blume,  Sund.,  1828,  8vo. — 
 The  best  text,  however,  is  that  of  Bekker,  in  his  "  Or- 
 atores  Atlici."  The  oration  of  Lycurgus  is  also  found 
 in  the  collections  of  Reiske  and  Dobson.  (Encycl. 
 Us.  KnowL,  vol.  14,  p.  212. — Hoffmann,  Lex.  Biblio- 
 graph.,  vol.  3,  p.  68,  seq.) — HI.  A  celebrated  Spar- 
 tan lawgiver,  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  son 
 of  King  Eunomus.  The  poet  Simonides,  however, 
 following  a  different  genealogy,  called  him  the  son  of 
 Prytanis,  who  is  commonly  believed  to  have  been  the 
 father  of  Eunomus.  The  chronological  discrepances 
 in  the  accounts  of  Lycurgus,  which  struck  Plutarch 
 as  singularly  great,  do  not,  on  closer  inspection,  ap- 
 pear very  considerable.  Xenophon,  indeed,  in  a  pas- 
 sage where  it  is  his  object  to  magnify  the  antiquity  of 
 the  laws  of  Sparta,  mentions  a  tradition  or  opinion, 
 that  Lycurgus  was  a  contemporary  of  the  Heraclidas. 
 {Rep.  Lac,  10,  8.)  This,  however, ought  not,  perhaps, 
 to  be  interpreted  more  literally  than  the  language  of 
 Aristotle  in  one  of  his  extant  works,  where  he  might 
 seem  to  suppose  that  the  lawgiver  lived  after  the  close 
 of  the  Messenian  wars.  {Pulit.,  2,  9.)  The  great 
 mass  of  evidence,  including  that  of  Aristotle  and  Thu- 
 cydides,  fixes  his  legislation  in  the  ninth  century  be- 
 fore our  era ;  and  the  variations  within  this  period,  if 
 not  merely  apparent,  are  unimportant. — But  to  return 
 to  the  immediate  history  of  Lycurgus.  Eunomus,  his 
 father,  is  said  to  have  been  killed  in  a  fray  which  he 
 was  endeavouring  to  quell,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
 eldest  son  Polydectes,  who,  shortly  after,  dying  child- 
 less, left  his  brother  Lycurgus  apparently  entitled  to  the 
 crown.  But,  as  his  brother's  widow  was  soon  discov- 
 ered to  be  pregnant,  he  declared  his  purpose  of  resign- 
 ing his  dignity  if  she  should  give  birth  to  an  heir.  The 
 ambitious  queen,  however,  if  we  may  believe  a  piece 
 of  court-scandal  reported  by  Plutarch,  put  his  virtue  to 
 a  severe  test.  She  secretly  sent  proposals  to  him,  of 
 securing  him  on  the  throne,  on  condition  of  sharing  it 
 with  him,  by  destroying  the  embryo  hopes  of  Sparta. 
 Stifling  his  indignation,  he  affected  to  embrace  her 
 offer ;  but,  as  if  tender  of  her  health,  bade  her  do  no 
 violence  to  the  course  of  nature  :  "  The  infant,  when 
 born,  might  be  easily  despatched."  As  the  time  drevir 
 near,  he  placed  trusty  attendants  around  her  person, 
 with  orders,  if  she  should  be  delivered  of  a  son.  to 
 bring  the  child  immediately  to  him.  He  happened  to 
 be  sitting  at  table  with  the  magistrates  when  his  ser- 
 vants came  in  with  the  newborn  prince.  Taking  the 
 infant  from  their  arms,  he  placed  it  on  the  royal  seat, 
 and,  in  the  presence  of  the  company,  proclaimed  it  King 
 of  Sparta,  and  named  it  Charilau's,  to  express  the  joy 
 which  the  event  diffused  among  the  people.  Though 
 proof  against  so  strong  a  temptation  as  that  which  has 
 just  been  described,  Lycurgus  nevertheless  had  the 
 weakness,  it  seems,  to  shrink  from  a  vile  suspicion. 
 Alarmed  lest  the  calumnies  propagated  by  the  incen- 
 sed queen-mother  and  her  kinsmen,  who  charged  him 
 with  a  design  against  the  life  of  his  nephew,  might 
 chance  to  be^seemingly  confirmed  by  the  untimely  death 
 of  Charilaus,  he  determined,  instead  of  staying  to  exer 
 cise  his  authority  for  the  benefit  of  the  young  king  and 
 of  the  state,  to  withdraw  beyond  the  reach  of  thndet 
 
 771 
 
LYCURGUS. 
 
 LY  D 
 
 ti!f  the  maturity  of  his  ward  and  the  birth  of  an  heir 
 should  have  removed  every  pretext  for  such  imputa- 
 tions. Thus  the  prime  of  his  Hfe,  notwitlislanding  the 
 regret,  and  the  repeated  invitations  of  his  countrymen, 
 was  spent  in  voluntary  exile,  which,  however,  he  em- 
 ployed in  maturing  a  plan,  already  conceived,  for  rem- 
 edying the  evils  under  which  Sparta  had  long  laboured, 
 by  a  great  change  in  its  constitution  and  laws.  With 
 this  view  he  visited  many  foreign  lauds,  observed  their 
 institutions  and  manners,  and  conversed  with  their  sa- 
 ges. Crete  and  the  laws  of  Minos  are  said  to  have 
 been  the  main  object  of  his  study,  and  a  Cretan  poet 
 one  of  his  instructers  in  the  art  of  legislation.  ]5ut  the 
 Egyptian  priests  likewise  claimed  bun  as  their  di.sciple  ; 
 and  reports  were  not  wanting  among  the  later  Spartans, 
 that  he  had  penetrated  as  far  as  India,  atid  had  sat  at 
 the  feet  of  the  Bramins.  On  his  return  he  found  the 
 disorders  of  the  state  aggravated,  and  the  need  of  a  re- 
 form more  generally  feU.  Having  strengthened  his  au- 
 thority with  the  sanction  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  which 
 declared  his  wisdom  to  transcend  the  common  level  of 
 humanity,  and  having  secured  the  aid  of  a  numerous 
 party  among  the  leading  men,  who  took  up  arms  to 
 support  him,  he  successively  procured  the  enactment 
 of  a  series  of  solemn  ordinances  or  compacts  {Rhclras), 
 by  which  the  civil  and  military  constitution  of  the  com- 
 monwealth, the  distribution  of  property,  the  education 
 of  the  citizens,  the  rules  of  their  daily  intercourse  and 
 of  their  domestic  life,  were  to  be  fi.xed  on  a  hallow- 
 ed and  immutable  basis.  Many  of  these  regulations 
 roused  a  violent  opposition,  which  even  threatened  the 
 life  of  Lycurgus  ;  but  his  fortitude  and  patience  finally 
 triumphed  over  all  obstacles,  and  he  lived  to  see  his 
 great  idea,  unfolded  in  all  its  beauty,  begin  its  steady 
 course,  bearing  on  its  front  the  marks  of  immortal  vig- 
 our. His  last  action  was  to  sacrifice  himself  to  the 
 perpetuity  of  his  work.  He  set  out  on  a  journey  to 
 Del[)hi,  after  having  bound  his  countrymen  by  an 
 oath  to  make  no  change  in  the  laws  before  his  re- 
 turn. When  the  last  seal  had  been  set  to  his  institu- 
 tions by  the  oracle,  which  foretold  that  Sparta  should 
 flourish  as  long  as  she  adhered  to  them,  having  trans- 
 mitted this  prediction  to  his  fellow-citizens,  he  resolved, 
 in  order  that  they  might  never  be  discharged  from 
 their  oath,  to  die  in  a  foreign  land.  The  place  and 
 manner  of  his  death  are  veiled  in  an  obscurity  befit- 
 ting the  character  of  the  hero  :  the  sacred  soils  of  Del- 
 phi, of  Crete,  and  of  Elis,  all  claimed  his  tomb  :  the 
 Spartans  honoured  him,  to  the  latest  times,  with  a 
 temple  and  yearly  sacrifices,  as  a  god. — Such  are  the 
 outlines  of  a  story,  which  is  too  familiar  to  be  cast 
 iway  as  an  empty  fiction,  even  if  it  should  be  admitted 
 that  no  part  of  it  can  bear  the  scrutiny  of  a  rigorous 
 'riticism  But  the  main  question  is,  whether  the  view 
 which  it  presents  of  the  character  of  Lycurgus  as  a 
 talesman  is  substantially  correct :  and  in  this  respect 
 ve  should  certainly  be  led  to  regard  him  in  a  very  dif- 
 ferent light,  if  it  should  appear  that  the  institutions 
 which  he  is  supposed  to  have  collected  with  so  much 
 labour,  and  to  have  founded  with  so  much  difficulty, 
 were  in  existence  long  before  his  birth  ;  and  not  only 
 in  Crete,  but  in  Sjjarta;  nor  in  Sparta  only,  but  in  other 
 Grecian  states.  And  this  we  believe  to  have  been  the 
 case  with  every  important  part  of  these  institutions. 
 As  to  most  of  those,  indeed,  which  were  common  to 
 Crete  and  Sparta,  it  seems  scarcely  to  admit  a  doubt, 
 and  is  equally  evident,  whether  we  acknowledge  or 
 deny  that  some  settlements  of  the  Dorians  in  Crete 
 preceded  the  conquest  of  Peloponnesus.  It  was  at 
 Lyctus,  a  Laconian  colony,  as  Aristotle  informs  us 
 thai  the  institutions  which  Lycurgus  was  supposed  to 
 have  taken  for  his  model  flourished  longest  in  iheir 
 original  purity :  and  hence  some  of  the  ancients  con- 
 tended that  they  were  transferred  from  Laconia  to 
 Crete  ;  an  argument  which  Ephorus  thought  to  con- 
 fute, by  remarking,  that  Lycurgus  lived  five  gen- 
 772 
 
 erations  later  than  Atha>mcnes,  who  founded  one 
 of  the  Dorian  colonies  in  the  island  But,  unless 
 we  imagine  that  each  of  these  colonies  produced  its 
 Minos  or  its  Lycurgus,  we  must  conclude  that  they 
 merely  retained  what  they  brought  with  thetn  from 
 the  mother  country.  Whether  they  fouud  the  same 
 system  established  already  in  Crete,  depends  on  the 
 question  whether  a  part  of  its  population  was  alrea- 
 dy Dorian.  On  any  other  view,  the  general  adoption 
 of  the  laws  of  Minos  in  the  Dorian  cities  of  Crete,  and 
 the  tenacity  with  which  Lvclus  adhered  to  them,  are 
 facts  unexplained  and  difficult  to  understand.  The 
 contemplation  of  the  Spartan  institutions  themselves 
 seems  to  justify  the  conclusion,  that  they  were  not  so 
 much  a  work  of  human  art  and  forethought  as  a  form 
 of  society,  originally  congenial  to  the  character  of 
 the  Dorian  people,  and  to  the  situation  in  which  they 
 were  placed  by  their  new  conquests  ;  and  in  its  lead- 
 ing features  not  even  peculiar  to  this,  or  to  any  sin- 
 gle branch  of  the  Hellenic  nation.  This  view  of  the 
 subject  may  seem  scarcely  to  leave  room  for  the  in- 
 tervention of  Lycurgus,  and  to  throw  sonye  doubt 
 on  his  individual  existence  :  so  that  Hellanicus,  who 
 made  no  mention  of  him,  and  referred  his  institutions 
 to  Eurysthenes  and  Procles,  would  appear  to  have  been 
 much  more  correctly  informed,  or  to  have  had  a  much 
 clearer  insight  into  the  truth  than  the  later  historians, 
 who  ascribed  everything  Spartan  to  the  more  cele- 
 brated lawgiver.  But,  remarkable  as  this  varintion  is, 
 it  cannot  be  allowed  to  outweigh  the  concurrent  testi- 
 mony of  the  other  ancient  writers  ;  from  which  we  at 
 least  conclude,  that  Lycurgus  was  not  an  imaginary 
 or  symbolical  person,  but  one  whose  name  marks  an 
 important  epoch  in  the  history  of  his  country.  Through 
 all  the  conflicting  accounts  of  his  life,  we  may  distin- 
 guish one  fact,  which  is  unanimously  attested,  and 
 seems  independent  of  all  minuter  discrepances — thai 
 by  him  Sparta  was  delivered  from  the  evils  of  anarchy 
 or  misrule,  and  that  from  this  date  she  began  a  long 
 period  of  tranquillity  and  order.  {ThirlwaWs  History 
 nf  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  293,  seqq.)  —  For  an  account  of 
 the  legislation  of  Lycurgus,  consult  the  article  Sparta. 
 
 Lyuus,  a  king  of  Bteotia,  successor  to  his  brothet 
 Nycteus,  who  left  no  male  issue.  He  was  intrusted 
 with  the  government  during  the  minority  of  Lahdacus, 
 the  son  of  the  daughter  of  Nycteus.     {Vid.  Antiope.) 
 
 Lydia,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  situate  between 
 the  waters  of  the  Hermus  and  Maeander,  to  the  north 
 and  south,  while  to  the  east  it  was  conterminous  with 
 the  greater  Phrygia.  Within  these  limits  was  inclu- 
 ded the  kingdom  of  the  Lydian  monarchs,  before  the 
 conquests  of  Croesus  and  of  his  ancestors  had  spread 
 that  name  and  dominion  from  the  coast  of  Caria  to  the 
 Euxine,  and  from  the  Maeander  to  the  Halys.  The 
 celebrity  of  Croesus,  and  his  wealth  and  power,  have 
 certainly  conferred  on  this  part  of  Asia  Minor  a  greater 
 interest  than  any  other  portion  of  that  extensive  coun- 
 try possesses,  Troas  perhaps  excepted  ;  and  we  be- 
 come naturally  anxious  to  ascend  from  this  state  of 
 opulence  and  dominion  to  the  primitive  and  ruder  pe- 
 riod from  which  it  drew  its  existence.  In  this  inqui- 
 ry, however,  we  are  unfortunately  little  likely  to  suc- 
 ceed ;  the  clew  which  real  history  affords  us  for  tracing 
 the  fortunes  of  Lydia  through  the  several  dynasties 
 soon  fails,  and  we  are  left  to  the  false  and  perplexing 
 directions  which  fable  and  legendary  stories  supply. 
 The  sum  of  what  we  have  is  this:  that  Lydia,  or  that 
 portion  of  Asia  Minor  already  specified,  appears  to 
 have  been  governed,  for  a  much  greater  space  of  timo 
 than  any  other  part  of  that  country,  by  a  line  of  sover- 
 eigns, broken,  it  is  true,  into  several  dynasties,  but  con- 
 tinuing without  interruption,  it  seems,  for  several  cen- 
 turies, and  thus  affording  evidence  of  the  higher  civil- 
 ization and  prosperity  of  their  empire. — Our  sources 
 of  information  respecting  the  history  of  Lydia  are  al- 
 most entirely  derived   from  Herodotus,  and  the  higt 
 
LYDIA. 
 
 L  YD 
 
 name  which  he  bears  doubtless  attaches  great  respect- 
 ability to  his  testimony  ;  but  as  we  have  no  opportu- 
 nity of  weighing  his  authenticity  on  this  particular  sub- 
 t'ect,  from  being  unacquainted  with  the  sources  whence 
 le  drew  his  information,  and  also  from  having  no  par- 
 allel historian  with  whom  to  compare  his  account,  it  is 
 evident  we  cannot  place  such  dependance  on  his  Lydi- 
 an  history  as  on  that  of  Egypt,  Babylon,  and  Persia 
 Our  suspicions,  of  course,  will  be  increased,  if  we  find 
 that  the  circumstances  he  relates  are  incredible  in 
 themselves,  and  at  variance  also  with  other  authorities. 
 I'ime  has  unfortunately  deprived  us  of  the  Lydian  an- 
 nals of  Xanthus,  a  native  of  the  country,  somewhat  an- 
 terior to  Herodotus,  and  whose  accounts  were  held  in 
 great  estimation  for  accuracy  and  fidelity  by  sound 
 judges  {Dion.  Hal,  Rom.  Anf.,  1,  ^iO.  — Slr'ab.,  579, 
 628,  680,  &c.)  ;  but  from  incidental  fragments  pre- 
 served by  later  writers  we  are  led  to  infer,  that  he 
 had  frequently  adojjted  traditions  materially  differing 
 from  those  which  Herodotus  followed,  and  that  his 
 history  also,  as  might  be  expected,  contained  several 
 important  facts  unknown  to  the  latter,  or  which  it  did 
 not  enter  into  the  plan  of  his  work  to  insert. — The 
 general  account  which  we  gather  from  Herodotus  re- 
 specting the  origin  of  the  Lydian  nation,  is  this  :  he 
 states  that  the  country  known  in  his  time,  by  the  name 
 of  Lydia,  was  previously  called  Msoiiia,  and  the  peo- 
 ple Ma>ones.  (Herodotus,  1,  7. — Id.,  7,  74.)  This 
 seems  confirmed  by  Homer,  who  nowhere  mentions 
 the  Lydians,  but  numbers  the  Maeonian  forces  among 
 the  allies  of  Priam,  and  assigns  to  them  a  country 
 which  is  plainly  the  Lydia  of  subsequent  writers.     (7/., 
 
 2,  864,  sci/q.)  Herodotus  further  states,  that  the  name 
 of  the  Lydians  was  derived  from  Lydus,  a  son  of  Atys, 
 one  of  the  earliest  sovereigns  of  the  country,  and  in 
 this  particular  he  closely  agrees  with  Dionysiusof  Hali- 
 carnassus,  however  he  may  differ  from  him  in  other 
 considerable  points.  But  the  period  to  be  assigned  to 
 this  Lydus  is  a  subject  likely  to  baffle  for  ever  the  re- 
 searches of  the  ablest  chronologist.  Herodotus  in- 
 forms us,  that,  after  a  number  of  generations,  which 
 he  does  not  pretend  to  reckon,  the  crown  passed  from 
 the  line  of  Lydus,  son  of  Atys,  to  that  of  Hercules. 
 This  hero,  it  is  said,  had  a  son  by  a  slave  of  lardanus, 
 who  was  then  apparently  sovereign  of  Lydia  ;  and 
 this  son,  succeeding  to  the  throne  by  the  command  of 
 an  oracle,  became  the  author  of  a  new  dynasty,  which 
 reigned  through  twoand-twenty  generations,  and  du- 
 ring the  space  of  505  years  (Herod.,  1,7)  The 
 introduction  of  the  name  of  Hercules  indicates  at  once 
 that  we  have  shifted  our  ground  from  history  to  my- 
 thology and  fiction.  The  doubts  and  suspicions  which 
 now  arise  are  rather  increased  than  lessened  on  in- 
 specting the  list  of  the  lineal  descendants  of  Hercules 
 who  reigned  at  Sardis.  Well  might  Scaliger  exclaim 
 with  astonishment  when  he  saw  the  names  of  Ninus 
 and  Belus  following  almost  immediately  after  that  of 
 Hercules  their  ancestor.     (Seal.,  Can.  Isagog.,  lib. 
 
 3.  p.  327.)  It  has  been  supposed  that  these  names 
 imply  some  distant  connexion  between  the  Lydian 
 dynasty  of  the  Heraclidae  and  the  Assyrian  empire  ; 
 and  there  are  some  curious  traditions  preserved,  ap- 
 parently by  Xanthus,  in  his  history  of  Lydia,  which 
 go  some  wav  towards  supporting  this  hypothesis.  It 
 is  probable  that  the  original  population  of  Lydia  came 
 from  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  the  Scriptural  name 
 of  Lud  or  Ludiin  tnay  have  some  connexion  with 
 this.  In  such  a  case  we  shall  be  no  longer  surprised 
 to  find  Nmus  and  Belus  among  the  sovereigns  of  the 
 country.  But  whatever  connexion  may  have  existed 
 between  the  Lydians  and  the  nations  to  the  east  of 
 the  Euphrates,  and  from  whatever  quarter  the  origi- 
 nal population  may  have  come,  it  is  evident  that  the 
 Lydians  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  were  no  lono-er 
 the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  ancient  Maeonia.  They 
 had  come  from  Thrace  and  Macedon  with  the  Phrygi- 
 
 ans, Carians,  and  Mysians,  and  were  much  mter- 
 mingled  with  the  Pelasgi.  Leleges,  Caucones,  and 
 other  primitive  tribes. — We  now  come  to  a  period 
 when  the  records  of  Lydia  are  moie  sure  and  faithful. 
 Candaules,  whom  the  Greeks  named  Myrsilus,  was 
 the  last  sovereign  of  the  Heraclid  dynasty.  He  was 
 assassinated,  as  Herodotus  relates,  by  his  queen  and 
 Gyges.  The  latter  succeeded  to  the  vacant  throne, 
 and  became  the  founder  of  a  new  line  of  kings.  Un- 
 der his  reign  it  is  probable  that  the  mines  of  'I'molus 
 and  other  parts  of  Lydia  were  first  brought  into  ac- 
 tivity. This  would  account  for  the  fabulous  stories 
 which  are  related  respecting  him  and  his  extraordinary 
 wealth.  (C/c,  0//".,  3,  9.)  Under  this  sovereign,  the 
 Lydian  emjiire  had  already  made  considerable  progress 
 ill  several  districts  of  Asia  Minor.  Its  sway  extended 
 over  a  great  part  of  Mysia,  Troas,  and  the  shores  of 
 the  Hellespont  (Straho,  590),  and  before  his  death 
 Gyges  had  succeeded  in  annexing  to  his  dominions 
 the  cities  of  Colophon  and  Magnesia.  (Herod.,  \,  14. 
 — Nic.  Daniasc,  Excerpt.)  After  Gyges  came,  in 
 succession,  Ardys,  Sadyattes,  Alyattes,  and  Croesus. 
 With  CrcEsus  ended  the  line  of  the  Mermnada^,  and 
 Lydia  became,  on  his  dethronement,  annexed  by  Cy- 
 rus to  the  Persian  empire.  (  F?(i,  CrcEsus  )  The  Lyd- 
 ians had  previously  been  a  warlike  people,  but  from 
 this  time  they  degenerated  totally,  and  became  the 
 most  voluptuous  and  efl'eminate  of  men.  (Herod.,  1, 
 79. — Id.,  1,  155,  seqq. — A/hcn<TUs,  2,  p.  515,  seq.) 
 They  were  celebrated  for  their  skill  in  music  and  other 
 arts,  and  are  said  to  have  invented  games,  and  to  have 
 been  the  first  to  coin  money.  (Athenaus,  14,  p.  617, 
 634.— /(/.,  10,  p.  432.— i/em/.,  1,  94.)  The  con- 
 quest of  Lydia,  so  far  from  really  increasing  the  powei 
 of  the  Persians,  tended  rather  to  weaken  it,  by  soften 
 ing  their  manners,  and  rendering  them  as  effeminate 
 as  the  subjects  of  Croesus  ;  a  contagion  from  which 
 the  lonians  had  already  suffered.  The  great  wealth 
 and  fertility  of  the  country  have  always  caused  it  to  be 
 considered  the  most  valuable  [lortion  of  Asia  Miner, 
 and  its  government  was  probably  the  highest  mark  of 
 distinction  and  trust  which  the  King  of  Persia  could 
 bestow  upon  a  subject.  In  the  division  of  the  empire 
 made  by  Darius,  the  Lydians  and  some  small  tribes, 
 apparently  of  M*onian  origin,  together  with  the  Mysi- 
 ans, formed  the  second  satrapv,  and  paid  into  the  royal 
 treasury  the  yearly  sum  of  500  talents.  (Herod.,  3, 
 90.)  Sardis  was  the  residence  of  the  satrap,  who  ap- 
 pears rather  to  have  been  the  king's  lieutenant  ia 
 lower  Asia,  and  superior  to  the  other  governors.  Lyd- 
 ia, somewhat  later,  became  the  principal  seat  of  the 
 power  usurped  by  the  younger  Cyrus,  and,  after  his 
 overthrow,  was  committed  to  the  government  of  his 
 enemy  Tissaphernes.  (Xcn.,  Anal.,  1,  1 — Id.,  Hist. 
 Gr.,  i,  5.— Id.  ib.,  3,  1.)  After  the  death  of  Alexan- 
 der we  find  it  subject  for  a  time  to  Antigonus  ;  then 
 to  Achaeus,  who  caused  himself  to  be  declared  king  at 
 Sardis,  but  was  subsequently  conquered  and  put  to 
 death  by  Antiochus.  (Folyh.,  5,  57,  4.)  Lydia,  after 
 the  defeat  of  the  latter  sovereign  by  the  Romans  at 
 Magnesia,  was  aimexed  by  them  to  the  dominions  of 
 Eumenes.  (L??;.,  38,  39  )  At  a  later  period  it  formed 
 a  principal  part  of  the  pro-consular  province  of  Asia 
 (Pirn.,  5,  29).  and  still  retained  its  name  through  all 
 the  vicissitudes  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  when  it 
 finally  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  who 
 now  call  its  northern  portion  Saroukhan,  and  the  south- 
 ern Aidin.  (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p  413, 
 seqq.)— As  regards  the  question  respecting  the  Lyd'an 
 origin  of  the  Etrurian  civilization,  consult  the  article 
 Hetruria.  .        . 
 
 Lydus,  I.  a  son  of  Atys,  from  whom  Lydia  is  said 
 by  Herodotus  to  have  derived  its  name.  ( I  id  Lydia.) 
 —II.  Johannes  Laurcntius,  a  native  of  Philadelphia  in 
 Lydia  (whence  his  name  Lydus),  was  born  A. D  490. 
 He  filled  various  civil  offices  in  the  palace  of  the  Greek 
 
 773 
 
L  YN 
 
 LYS 
 
 emperors  at  Constantinople,  and  under  Justinian  he 
 attained  to  the  rank  of  Coniicularius.  He  was  re- 
 garded as  a  man  of  erudition,  and  a  good  writer  both 
 in  prose  and  verse.  Among  other  productions,  he  com- 
 posed a  work  on  the  Roman  Magialralcs,  llepl  dp^iJv 
 T7;f  'Pufiaiijv  noTiLTcia^.  This  work,  important  for  the 
 light  which  it  throws  on  Roman  antit]aities,  was  re- 
 garded as  lost,  until  (^^hoiseul-Gouflier,  French  ambas- 
 sador at  Constantinople,  and  the  celebrated  Villoison, 
 discovered,  in  1784,  a  manuscript  of  it  in  the  library  of 
 Prince  Constantino  Morusi.  This  manuscript,  which 
 is  of  the  10th  century,  belongs  to  the  King  of  France, 
 Morusi  having  presented  it  to  ChoiaeulGoutfier,  who, 
 after  the  death  of  Villoison,  directed  Fuss  and  Hase 
 to  edit  it.  Their  edition  appeared  in  1812,  with  a 
 learned  commentary  on  the  life  and  writings  of  Lydus 
 by  Hase.  To  this  must  be  added  the  critical  epistle 
 of  Fuss  to  Hase,  Bonne,  1821.  Niebuhr  calls  the 
 work  of  Lydus  a  new  and  rich  source  of  Roman  his- 
 tory. Another  work  of  Lydus's  was  entitled  Yiepl  6lo- 
 crjiMEiuv,  "  On  Prodigies^  In  this  he  has  collected 
 together  all  that  was  known  in  the  days  of  Justinian  of 
 the  science  of  augury,  as  practised  by  the  Tuscans  and 
 Romans.  The  work  is  only  known  by  an  abridgment 
 in  Latin,  made  by  the  "  Venerable  Bede,"  and  by  two 
 fragments  in  Greek,  published,  the  one  under  the  title 
 of 'E0///zepof  (ipiivToGKonia,  "  Thunder  for  each  day," 
 and  the  other  under  that  of  llepl  ariofiuv,  "  Concern- 
 ing Earthquakes  V  The  first  of  these  is  merely  a  trans- 
 lation of  a  passage  extracted  from  the  work  of  P.  Ni- 
 gidius  Figulus,  the  contemporary  of  Cicero.  The 
 treatise  on  prodigies  itself,  however,  is  not  lost,  but 
 exists,  though  in  a  mutilated  state,  in  the  same  manu- 
 script of  Choiseul-Goutfier  from  which  the  work  on 
 magistrates  was  made  known  to  the  learned  world. 
 We  have  also  a  third  fragment,  a  species  of  Calendar, 
 but  only  in  a  Latin  translation. — The  fragment  'Ecp/jfie- 
 pof  PpovTOOKOTcia  was  published  among  the  Varia. 
 Leclioncs  of  Rulgersius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1618,  4to,  p. 
 247,  and  that  Yiepl  rreicr/iiJi'  by  Schow,  in  his  edition  of 
 Lydus's  wor'i  Uspl  fxrjvuv.  The  Calendar  is  given 
 in  the  Uranolosium  of  Petavius,  Paris,  1630,  fol.,  p. 
 94.  In  1823,  Hase  published  the  work  itself  on  Prod- 
 igies, from  the  manuscript  just  mentioned.  Lastly, 
 we  have  a  work  by  Lydus,  "  On  the  Months,'"  llepi 
 fijjvuv.  The  main  work  itself  is  lost,  but  there  exist 
 two  abridgments,  one  by  an  unknown  hand,  the  other 
 by  Maximus  Planudes.  It  contains  many  particulars 
 relative  to  the  mythology  and  antiquities  of  the  Greeks 
 and  Romans.  It  was  originally  published  by  Schow, 
 Lips.,  1794,  and  has  siiice  been  edited  by  RcEther, 
 Lips.,  1827.  The  best  edition  of  Lydus  is  by  Bekker, 
 Bonn,  1837,  and  forms  part  of  the  **  Corpus  Scrip- 
 torum  Historic  Byzantina.'" 
 
 LvGDA.viis  or  LvGDAMUs,  I.  a  Naxian,  who  aided 
 Pisistratus  in  recovering  his  authority  at  Athens,  and 
 received  as  a  recompense  the  government  of  his  native 
 island.  {Herod.,  1,  61,  64.)— II.  The  father  of  Ar- 
 temisia, the  celebrated  Queen  of  Halicarnassus.  (He- 
 rod.,  7,  99.) — III.  A  tyrant  of  Caria,  son  of  Pisiiide- 
 lis,  who  reigned  in  the  lime  of  Herodotus  at  Halicar- 
 nassus. He  put  to  death  the  poet  Panyasis.  Herod- 
 otus fled  from  his  native  city  in  order  to  avoid  his  tyr- 
 anny, and  afterward  aided  in  deposing  him.  {Vid. 
 Herodotus  ) 
 
 LvoyEs.      Vid.  Liguria. 
 
 Lynceus,  I.  (two  syllables'),  son  of  Apharens,  was 
 among  the  hunters  of  the  Caledonian  boar,  and  was  also 
 one  of  the  Argonauts.  According  to  the  old  legend, 
 he  was  so  sharp-sighted  as  to  have  been  able  to  see 
 throncrh  the  earth,  and  also  to  distinguish  objects  at 
 the  distance  of  many  miles.  He  was  slain  liy  Pollux. 
 (Vid.  Castor.) — Palrephatus  {de  Incrcd.,  c.  10)  has  ex- 
 plained the  fable  of  Lynceus'  seeing  objects  beneath  the 
 earth,  by  supposing  him  to  have  been  the  first  who  car- 
 ried on  the  operation  of  mining,  and  that,  descending 
 774 
 
 with  a  lamp,  he  thus  saw  things  under  the  ground. 
 Pliny  assigns  the  following  reason  for  Lynceus  being 
 fabled  to  be  so  keen-sighted.  "  Novissimamvcro pri- 
 mamqiic  {Lunam)  cadcm  die  vcl  node,  nulla  alio  in 
 signo  quum  Arietc,  conspici ;  id  qxioque  paucis  mor- 
 talium  contigit.  Et  inile  Jama  ccrncndi  Lijnceo." 
 {Plin.,  2,  17.) — II.  One  of  the  fifty  sons  of  ^gyptus. 
 He  obtained  Hypermnestra  for  his  bride,  and  was  the 
 only  one  of  the  fifty  whose  life  was  spared  by  his  spouse. 
 {Vid.  Danaus  and  Hypermnestra.) 
 
 Lyknkssus,  I.  a  city  of  Troas,  mentioned  by  Ho- 
 mer, and  situate  to  the  south  of  Adrainyttium.  It  dis- 
 appeared along  with  Thebe,  and  left  no  trace  of  its  ex- 
 istence beyond  the  celebrity  which  the  Iliad  has  con- 
 ferred upon  it.  Pliny  asserts,  that  it  stood  on  the 
 banks  of  the  little  river  Evenus,  whence,  as  we  learn 
 from  Strabo  (614),  the  Adramytteni  derived  their  sup- 
 ply of  water.  (Compare  Plin.,  5,  32.)  In  Strabo's 
 time,  the  vestiges  of  both  Thebe  and  Lyrnessus  were 
 still  pointed  out  to  travellers ;  the  one  at  a  distance 
 of  sixty  stadia  to  the  north,  the  other  eighty  stadia  to 
 the  south  of  Adramyttium.  {Strab.,  612. —  Cramefs 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  129.) — II.  A  town  of  Pam- 
 phylia,  between  Phaselis  and  Attalea,  on  the  coast. 
 It  was  founded,  as  Callisthenes  affirmed,  by  the  Cili- 
 cians  of  Troas,  who  quitted  their  country  and  settled 
 on  the  Pamphylian  coast.  {Strab.,  667.)  The  Sta- 
 diasmus  has  a  place  ia  the  same  interval,  named  Lyr- 
 nas,  which  is  probably  the  Lyrnessus  of  Strabo.  It  is 
 said  to  retain  the  name  of  Ernatia.  {Cramer's  Asia 
 Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  278.) 
 
 Lysanoer,  I.  a  Spartan,  who  rose  to  eminence  to- 
 wards the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  was 
 placed  in  command  of  the  Lacedaemonian  troops,  on 
 the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  B.C.  407.  Having  about 
 him  little  of  the  old  Spartan  severity,  and  being  ready 
 to  sacrifice  that  personal  and  national  pride  and  inflex- 
 ibility, which  were  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
 Spartan  institutions,  to  personal  or  national  interests, 
 he  gained  in  an  unusual  degree  the  regard  and  confi- 
 dence of  his  Persian  allies.  This  he  used  to  the  best 
 advantage,  by  seizing  a  favourable  moment  to  obtain 
 from  the  younger  Cyrus,  the  Persian  viceroy  in  .Asia 
 Minor,  in  place  of  any  personal  advantage,  the  addition 
 of  an  obolus  daily  (somewhat  more  than  two  cents  ol 
 our  money)  to  every  seaman  in  the  Peloponnesian 
 fleet.  During  his  year's  command  he  defeated  the 
 .Athenian  fleet  commanded  by  Antiochus,  as  lieuten- 
 ant of  Alcibiades,  at  Notium.  In  September,  B.C. 
 406,  he  was  superseded  by  Callicratidas,  who  was  de- 
 feated and  slain  in  the  memorable  battle  of  Arginusse. 
 The  allies  then  petitioned  that  Lysandcr  might  be  re- 
 appointed. It  was  contrary  to  Spartan  law  to  intrust 
 a  fleet  twice  to  the  same  person ;  but  this  difficulty 
 was  evaded,  by  nominating  another  individual  as  com- 
 mander-in-chief, and  sending  Lysander  as  lieutenant 
 with  the  command  in  .Asia.  He  soon  justified  the 
 preference  by  gaining  the  decisive  victory  of  .^^gos- 
 potamos,  in  the  Hellespont,  where  170  Athenian  ships 
 were  taken.  This,  in  effect,  finished  the  war.  Re- 
 ceiving, as  he  went,  the  submission  of  her  allies,  Ly- 
 sander proceeded  leisurely  to  Athens,  and  blockaded 
 her  ports,  while  the  Spartan  kings  marched  into  Atti- 
 ca and  invested  the  city,  which,  ujiassaulted,  was  re- 
 duced by  the  sure  process  of  famine,  '^he  eapitulatioa 
 being  settled,  B.C.  404,  Lysander  had  ine  proud  satis- 
 faction of  entering  as  victor  the  Pirtsus  or  harbour  of 
 .Athens,  which  had  been  unviolated  by  the  presence  of 
 an  enemy  since  the  Persian  invasion.  His  services 
 and  reputation  gained  for  him  corresponding  weight  at 
 Sparta  ;  and,  on  occasion  of  the  contested  succf-ssion, 
 his  influence  was  powerful  in  raisir>g  Agesilaus  to  the 
 throne.  He  accompanied  that  eminent  statesman  and 
 soldier  during  his  first  campaign  in  .Asia,  where  his  pop- 
 ularity and  renown  threw  his  superior  into  the  shade; 
 and  an  estrangement  resulted,  in  which  Lysander  con- 
 
LYS 
 
 LYS 
 
 ducked  himself  with  temper  and  wisdom.  About  B.C. 
 396  he  returned  to  Sparta.  In  the  following  year,  on 
 occasion  of  a  quarrel  with  Thebes,  he  was  sent  into  Pho- 
 cis  to  collect  contingents  from  the  northern  allies,  a  task 
 for  which  his  name  and  po|)ularity  rendered  him  pecu- 
 liarly fit.  Having  done  this,  and  being  on  his  way  to 
 join  the  I^acedasmonian  army,  he  was  surprised  and  slain 
 by  the  Thcbans  at  Hahartus  in  Bcsoiia.  The  force 
 which  he  had  collected  was  dispersed,  and  the  war  at 
 once  came  to  an  end,  with  no  credit  to  the  LacedaBmo- 
 nians,  B.C.  395. — It  is  said  that,  urged  by  ambitious 
 hopes,  he  meditated  a  scheme  for  abolishing  the  hered- 
 itary right  of  the  descendants  of  Hercules,  and  render- 
 ing the  Spartan  throne  elective,  and  that  he  had  tamper- 
 ed largely  with  different  oracles  to  promote  his  scheme. 
 Xeouphon,  however,  a  contemporary  historian,  makes 
 no  mention  of  this  rumour.  The  subject  has  been 
 discussed  by  Thirlwail,  in  ati  Appendi.x  to  the  fourth 
 volume  of  his  History  of  Greece.  This  writer  thinks 
 that  Lysander  actually  formed  such  a  project ;  and  that 
 the  same  motive  which  induced  the  Spartan  government 
 to  hush  up  the  affair,  would  certainly  have  led  Xeno- 
 phon  carefully  to  avoid  all  allusion  to  it.  (Hist,  of  Gr., 
 vol.  4,  p.  461.) — We  have  a  Life  of  Lysander  from  Plu- 
 tarch, and  another  from  Ncpos.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Lys. — 
 Ncpi  Vit.  Lys. — Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.  —  Erie.  Us.  KnowL, 
 vol.  14,  p.  227.) — H.  Oiie  of  the  ephori  in  the  reign  of 
 Agis. — III.  A  grandson  of  Lysander.  (Pausan.,  3,  6.) 
 Lysias,  one  of  the  ten  Athenian  orators,  was  born  at 
 Athens  B.C.  458.  His  father  Cephalus  was  a  native 
 of  Syracuse,  who  settled  at  Athens  during  the  time 
 of  Pericles.  Cephalus  was  a  person  of  considerable 
 wealth,  and  lived  on  intimate  terms  with  Pericles  and 
 Socrates  ;  and  his  house  is  the  supposed  scene  of 
 the  celebrated  dialogues  relative  to  Plato's  Republic. 
 Lysias,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  went  to  Thurii  in  Italy, 
 with  his  brother  Polemarchus,  at  the  first  foundation 
 of  the  colony.  Here  he  remained  for  thirty-two  years  ; 
 but,  in  consequence  of  his  supporting  the  Athenian  in- 
 terests, he  was  obliged  to  leave  Italy  after  the  failure 
 of  the  Athenian  expedition  to  Sicily  He  returned  to 
 Athens  B.C.  411,  and  carried  on,  in  partnership  with 
 his  brother  Polemarchus,  an  extensive  manufactory  of 
 shir  Ids,  in  which  they  employed  as  many  as  120  slaves. 
 Their  wealth  excited  the  cupidity  of  the  thirty  tyrants  ; 
 their  house  was  attacked  one  evening  by  an  armed 
 force  while  Lysias  was  entertaining  a  few  friends  at 
 supper ;  their  properly  was  seized,  and  Polemarchus 
 was  taken  to  prison,  where  he  was  shortly  after  execu- 
 ted (B.C.  404).  Lysias,  by  bribing  some  of  the  sol- 
 diers, escaped  to  the  Piraeus,  and  sailed  thence  to  Me- 
 gara.  He  has  given  us  a  graphic  account  of  his  es- 
 cape If)  his  oration  against  Eratosthenes,  who  had  been 
 one  of  the  thirty  tyrants.  Lysias  actively  assisted 
 Thrasybulus  in  his  enterprise  against  the  Thirty  ;  he 
 supplied  him  with  a  large  sum  of  money  from  his  own 
 resources  and  those  of  his  friends,  and  hired  a  consid- 
 erable body  of  soldiers  at  his  own  expense.  In  return 
 for  these  seriices  Thrasybulus  proposed  a  decree,  by 
 which  the  rights  of  citizenship  should  be  conferred 
 upon  Lysias  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  some  informality, 
 this  deccep  was  never  carried  into  effect.  He  was, 
 however,  allowed  the  peculiar  privileges  which  were 
 sometimes  granted  to  resident  aliens  (namely,  iao- 
 TcTiEia).  Lysias  appears  to  have  died  about  B.C. 
 378. — The  author  of  the  Life  of  Lysias  attributed  to 
 Plutarch  mentions  42.'>  orations  of  his,  230  of  which 
 were  allowed  to  he  genuine.  There  remain  only  34, 
 which  are  all  forensic,  and  remarkable  for  the  method 
 which  reigns  in  them.  The  purity,  the  perspicuity, 
 the  grace  and  simplicity  which  characterize  the  orations 
 of  Lysias,  would  have  raised  him  to  the  highest  rank 
 in  the  art  had  they  been  coupled  with  the  force  and 
 e<»ergy  of  Demosthenes.  His  style  is  elegant  without 
 bemg  overloaded  with  ornament,  and  always  preserves 
 iU  torn.    In  the  art  of  narration,  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
 
 carnassus  considers  him  superior  to  all  orators  in  be- 
 ing distinct,  probable,  and  persuasive  ;  but,  at  the  same 
 time,  admits  that  his  composition  is  belter  adapted  to 
 private  litigation  than  to  important  causes.  The  text 
 of  his  harangues,  as  we  now  have  it,  is  extremely  cor- 
 rupt. His  masterpiece  is  the  funeral  oration  in  hon- 
 our of  those  Athenians,  who,  having  been  sent  to  the 
 aid  of  the  Corinthians  under  the  command  of  Iphicra- 
 tes,  perished  in  battle.  Lysias  is  said  to  have  deliver- 
 ed only  one  of  the  orations  which  he  wrote.  Accord- 
 ing to  Siiidas  and  other  ancient  writers,  he  also  wrote 
 some  treatises  on  the  art  of  Oratory,  which  art  he  is 
 said  by  Cicero  {Brut.,  12)  to  have  taught,  and  also 
 discourses  on  love.  There  is  still  extant  a  treatise  on 
 love  which  bears  the  name  of  Lysias,  and  which  has 
 been  edited  by  Haenish,  Lips.,  1827  ;  but  this  work 
 evidently  belongs  to  a  much  later  period  in  Greek  lit- 
 erature. The  best  edition  of  Lysias,  for  the  text,  is 
 that  of  Bekker,  in  his  Oratores  AlLici.  Useful  editions 
 have  also  been  published  by  Taylor,  8vo,  Cantab., 
 1740;  Auger,  2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1783;  Reiske,  in 
 the  Corpus  Oratorum  Gmcorum,  Lips.,  1772,  2  vols. 
 8vo  ;  and  Dobson,  in  the  Oratores  Attici,  Lond.,  1828, 
 2  vols.  8vo.  {Eticycl.  Us.  KnoicL,  vol.  14,  p.  228. — 
 SehbU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  207.) 
 
 LvsimachIa,  I.  a  city  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese, 
 founded  by  Lysimachus,  near  the  site  of  Cardia,  then 
 fast  declining  in  prosperity,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
 which  latter  place  were  transferred  hither  by  him. 
 {Diod.  Sic.,  20,  29.— Scymn.,  Ch.,  702.)  On  his 
 death  Lysimachia  fell  successively  into  the  hands  of 
 Seleucus,  and  Ptolemy,  and  Philip  of  Macedon.  (Po- 
 lyb.,  18,  34.)  It  afterward  suffered  considerably  from 
 the  attacks  of  the  Thracians,  and  was  nearly  in  ruins 
 when  it  was  restored  by  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria. 
 {Lw.,  33,  S8.—Polyb,  23,  34.)  On  the  defeat  of  that 
 monarch  by  the  Romans,  it  was  bestowed  by  them  on 
 Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus.  (Polyb.,  22,  5.)  Lysi- 
 machia continued  to  exist  in  the  time  of  Pliny  (4,  11), 
 and  still  later,  in  the  time  of  Justinian.  (Arnm.  Mar- 
 celL,  22,  8. — Proeop.,  de  adif.,  4,  10.)  But  in  the 
 middle  ages  the  name  was  lost  in  that  of  Hexamilion, 
 a  fortress  constructed  probably  out  of  its  ruins,  and  so 
 called,  doubtless,  from  the  width  of  the  isthmus  on 
 which  Lysimachia  had  stood.  {Manncrt,  Gcogr.,  vol. 
 7,  202.— Cramer'*  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p  326.)— II. 
 A  town  of  .-Etolia,  near  a  lake  named  Hydra,  and  be- 
 tween Arsinoe  and  Pleuron.     (Slrabo,  460.) 
 
 Lysimachus,  one  of  the  officers  of  Alexander  the 
 Great,  was  born  of  an  illustrious  Macedonian  family. 
 {Justin,  15,  3.)  In  the  general  distribution  of  the 
 provinces  or  satrapies  among  the  chief  Macedonian  of- 
 ficers after  the  death  of  Alexander,  Lysimachus  re- 
 ceived Thrace  and  the  neighbouring  countries.  It  was 
 not,  however,  without  difficulty  that  he  obtained  pos- 
 session of  the  province  which  had  been  assigned  him  : 
 he  was  vigorously  op()osed  by  Seuthes,  king  of  Thrace, 
 and  other  native  princes,  and  it  was  some  time  before 
 his  power  was  firmly  established  in  that  country.  In 
 B.C.  314  he  joined  Cassander,  Ptolemy,  and  Seleucus, 
 in  their  endeavour  to  check  the  power  of  Antigonus; 
 but  he  does  not  appear  to  have  been  able  to  take  an  ac- 
 tive part  against  Antigonus,  in  consequence  of  the  revolt 
 of  many  Thracian  tribes,  who  had  been  excited  by  the 
 latter  to  make  war  upon  him.  The  peace  which  was 
 made  between  the  contending  parties,  B.C.  311,  last- 
 ed only  for  a  short  time  ;  and  the  war  was  continued, 
 with  various  success,  till  the  conquests  of  Demetrius, 
 the  son  of  Antigonus,  in  Greece,  roused  the  confeder- 
 ates to  make  more  vigorous  exertions  ;  and  Lysima- 
 chus accordingly  marched  into  Asia  Minor,  where  he 
 look  several  places,  and  acquired  immense  plunder. 
 Antigonus  hastened  to  meet  him,  but  could  not  force 
 him  to  a  battle.  In  the  following  year,  Lysimachus, 
 having  formed  a  junction  with  the  forces  of  Seleucus 
 and  the  other  confederates,  met  Antigonus  at  Ipsus,  ii; 
 
 775 
 
LYS 
 
 L  Y  S 
 
 Phrygia,  where  a  bloody  battle  was  fougnt,  in  which 
 Antigonus  was  slain  and  his  army  totally  defeated. 
 The  dominions  of  Antigonus  were  divided  among  the 
 conquerors,  and  Lysimaohus  obtained  the  northwestern 
 part  of  Asia  Minor.  He  shortly  after  married  Arsinoe, 
 the  sister  of  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  although  his  el- 
 dest son  Agathocles  had  already  married  Lysandra,  the 
 half  sister  of  Arsinoe.  In  B.C.  286  he  obtained  pos- 
 session of  the  throne  of  Macedon,  and  obliged  Pyrrhns, 
 king  of  Epirus,  who  had  laid  claims  to  tliat  country, 
 to  retire  to  his  native  dominions.  Hitherto  the  ca- 
 reer of  Lysimachus  appears  to  have  been  a  fortunate 
 one,  but  the  latter  {)arl  of  his  life  was  imbiitered  by 
 family  dissensions  and  intestine  commotions.  Arsinoe, 
 fearful  lest  her  children  siionld  be  exposed,  after  the 
 death  of  her  husband,  to  the  violence  of  Agathocles. 
 persuaded  Lysimachus  to  put  him  to  death.  Agarhocles 
 had  been  an  able  and  successful  general ;  he  was  also 
 a  great  favourite  with  the  people,  who  deeply  resent- 
 ed his  death  ;  and  Lysimachus  found  himself  involved 
 in  almost  open  war  with  his  own  subjects.  Lysandra, 
 the  widow  of  Agathocles,  fled  to  Babylon,  and  entreated 
 Selencus  to  make  war  against  I^ysimachus.  The  Sy- 
 rian king  was  willing  enough  to  take  advantage  of  the 
 troubled  state  of  his  rival's  kingdom  ;  but  Lysimachus, 
 anticipating  his  intentions,  marched  into  Asia,  and  fell 
 in  a  battle  with  the  forces  of  Seleucus,  in  the  seventi- 
 eth year  of  his  age  according  to  Appian  (Bell.  Syr., 
 c.  64),  or  in  his  seventy-fourth  according  to  Justin 
 (17,  1. — Compare  Pint.,  Vit.  Dcmclr.— Justin. — Pau- 
 sari.,  1,  9,  se(/.).  The  town  of  Lysimachia  was  found- 
 ed by  this  monarch.  (  Vid.  Lysimachia. — Encycl.  Us. 
 KnowL,  vol.  14,  p.  228  ) 
 
 I.,vsippus,  L  a  celebrated  sculptor  and  statuary,  born 
 at  Sicyon,  and  placed  by  Pl'my  in  the  114th  Olympiad, 
 B.C.  324.  He  was  contemporary,  therefore,  with  Al- 
 exander the  Great.  Lysippus  was  at  first  a  worker  in 
 brass,  and  then  applied  himself  to  the  art  of  painting, 
 until  his  talent  and  inclinations  led  him  to  fi.K  upon  the 
 profession  of  a  sculptor.  He  was  particularly  distin- 
 guished for  his  statues  in  bronze,  which  are  said  to 
 have  been  superior  to  all  other  works  of  a  similar  kind. 
 He  introduced  great  improvements  into  his  art,  by  ma- 
 king the  head  smaller,  and  giving  the  body  a  more 
 easy  and  natural  position,  than  was  usual  in  the  works 
 of  his  predecessors.  Pliny  informs  us,  that  his  statues 
 were  admired,  among  other  things,  for  the  beautiful 
 manner  in  which  the  hair  was  alwavs  executed.  (Plin., 
 34,  8.)  Lysippvis  is  said  to  have  been  self-taught,  and 
 to  have  attained  his  e.xcellence  by  studying  nature 
 alone.  His  talents  were  appreciated  by  his  contem- 
 poraries ;  the  different  cities  of  Greece  were  anxious 
 to  obtain  his  works  ;  and  Alexander  is  reported  to  have 
 said,  that  no  one  should  paint  him  but  Apelles,  and  no 
 one  represent  him  in  bronze  except  Lysippus.  (Plin., 
 7,  37. —  C'zc,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  5,  12.)  His  reputation 
 survived  his  death  ;  many  of  his  most  valuable  works 
 were  brought  to  Rome,  in  which  city  they  were  held 
 in  so  much  esteem,  that  Tiberius  is  said  to  have  al- 
 most excited  an  insurrection  by  removing  a  statue  of 
 Lysip|)Us,  called  Apoxyomenos,  from  the  warm  baths 
 of  Agrippa  to  his  own  palace. — Lysippus  is  said  to 
 have  executed  610  statues,  all  of  the  greatest  merit 
 (Plm.,  34,  7),  many  of  which  were  colossal  figures. 
 Pliny,  Pausanias,  Strabo,  and  Vitruvius  have  preserved 
 long  lists  of  his  works  ;  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
 appear  to  have  been,  various  statues  of  Alexander,  ex- 
 ecuted at  difTerent  periods  of  his  life  ;  a  group  of  eques- 
 trian statues  of  those  Greeks  who  fell  at  the  battle  of 
 the  Granicus  ;  the  Sun  drawn  in  a  chariot  by  four 
 horses,  at  Rhodes  ;  a  colossal  statue  at  Tarentum  ;  a 
 statue  of  Hercules,  at  Alyzia  in  Acarnania,  which  was 
 afterward  removed  to  Rome  ;  and  a  statue  of  Oppor- 
 tunity (/ca(/)6f),  represented  as  a  youth,  with  wings  on 
 his  ankles,  on  the  point  of  flying  from  the  earth. — 
 Among  the  numerous  pupils  of  Lysij)pus,  the  most 
 776 
 
 celebrated  was  Chares,  who  executed  the  Colossus  at 
 Rhodes.  (Junius,  de  Pict.  Vet.  CutaL,  p.  109,  seqq. 
 — Stllig;  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v. — Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol. 
 14,  p.  228,  seq.) — H.  A  painter,  whose  country  is  un- 
 certain, but  who  appears  to  have  been  acquainted  with 
 the  art  of  enamelling  ;  for  on  one  of  his  pictures  kept 
 at  ^Egina,  there  was  inscribed  the  word  ivcKaev. 
 (Plin.,  35,  l].—Silllg,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Lysis,  a  native  of  Tarentum,  and  member  of  the 
 Pythagorean  sect.  He  and  Philolaus  were  the  only 
 two  disciples  of  Pythagoras  who  escaped  the  destruc- 
 tion of  the  school  of  Crotona.  Lysis  upon  this  re- 
 tired to  Thebes,  where  he  ended  his  days,  and  where 
 he  is  said  to  have  had  the  illustrious  Epaniinondas  for 
 a  pupil.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  reconcile  this  fact 
 with  the  established  chronology,  although  it  is  vouched 
 for  by  the  best  writers.  Epaminondas  was  born  412 
 B.C.  ;  and,  su]iposing  that  Lvsis  was  only  20  years 
 old  at  the  death  of  Pythagoras,  he  must  have  been  120 
 years  of  age  when  Epaminondas  was  first  old  enough 
 to  profit  by  his  instruction.  In  making  this  calcula- 
 tion we  suppose  that  Pythagoras  died  B.C.  496.  The 
 anachronism,  however,  becomes  still  more  glaring,  if, 
 with  Nauze  and  Freret,  we  fix  the  birth  of  Pythagoras 
 at  B.C.  460.  Supposing,  on  the  other  hand,  that  this 
 philosopher  was  born  B.C.  576,  which  is  the  other  ex- 
 treme. Lysis  must  still  have  been  105  years  old  when 
 Epaminondas  was  16.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  sup- 
 pose that  there  were  two  Pythagoreans  named  Lysis, 
 who  have  been  confounded  by  the  ancient  writers. — 
 To  Lysis  are  ascribed  by  some  the  "  Golden  Verses" 
 of  Pythagoras.  (Burette,  Mem.  de  PAcad.  des  Inscr., 
 &c.,  vol.  13,  p.  226.)  He  wrote  a  commentary  on 
 the  doctrine  of  his  master,  and  also  a  letter  to  Hippar- 
 chus  of  Tarentum,  reproaching  him  for  his  indiscretion 
 in  having  divulged  the  secrets  of  their  common  mas- 
 ter. This  latter  production  has  come  down  to  us,  and 
 may  be  found  among  the  Greek  epistles  collected  by 
 Aldus,  and  also  among  the  Pythagorean  fragments  in 
 Casaubon's  edition  of  Diogenes  Laertius,  (Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  304.)  Many  of  the  MSS. 
 and  early  editions  of  Nepos  (Vit.  Epam.,  c.  2),  give 
 the  reading  Lysiam  instead  oi  Lysim,  on  which  varia- 
 tion consult  the  notes  of  Bos  and  Fischer. 
 
 LvsisTRATUs,  a  statuary  of  Sicyon,  who  flourished 
 in  the  114th  Olympiad.  He  was  the  brother  of  the 
 celebrated  Lysippus.  (Plin.,  35,  12,  44  )  He  is  said 
 to  have  been  the  first  artist  that  made  use  of  gypsum 
 moulds  for  wax  casts.     (Plin.,  I.  c.) 
 
 LvsTKA,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  placed  by  Ptolemy 
 in  Isauria  ;  but,  according  to  Pliny,  Hierocles,  and 
 the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  it  belonged  to  Lycaonia.  It 
 was  in  the  vicinity  of  Derbe.  Leake  has  the  following 
 remarks  relative  to  its  site,  which  go  to  confirm  the 
 opinion  of  Ptolemy  :  "  Lystra  appears  to  have  been 
 nearer  than  Derbe  to  Iconium  ;  for  St.  Paul,  leaving 
 that  city,  proceeds  first  to  Lystra  and  thence  to  Derbe, 
 and  in  like  manner  returns  to  Lystra,  to  Iconium,  and 
 to  Antiochia  of  Pisidia.  And  this  seems  to  agree  with 
 the  arrangement  of  Ptolemv,  who  places  Lystra  in 
 Isauria,  and  near  Isaura,  which  seems  evidently  to 
 have  occupied  some  part  of  the  valley  of  Sidy  Shehr 
 or  Biy-Shehr.  Under  the  Greek  empire,  Homonada, 
 Isaura,  and  Lystra,  as  well  as  Derbe  and  Laranda, 
 were  all  included  in  the  consular  province  of  Lyca- 
 onia, and  were  bishoprics  of  the  metropolitan  see  of 
 Iconium.  The  similarity  of  names  induced  me  first 
 to  believe  that  Lystra  was  situated  at  the  modern  lUi- 
 sera;  but  we  find,  as  well  in  the  civil  arrangement 
 of  the  cities  in  Hierocles,  as  in  two  ecclesiastical  )ists 
 in  the  Notitia  Episcopatnvm,  that  Lystra  and  llistra 
 were  distinct  places.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the 
 vestiges  of  Lystra  may  be  sought  for,  with  the  greatest 
 probability  of  success,  at  or  near  Wiran  Khal'ri>n  ftl 
 Khatoun  Serin,  about  30  miles  to  the  southward  of 
 Iconium."     {Journal,  p.  102.) 
 
MAC 
 
 MACEDONIA. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mac^,  I.  a  peopb  of  Africa  who  occupied  the  coast 
 to  the  northwest  of  and  near  the  Greater  Syrtis.  They 
 are  thought  to  have  been  the  same  with  those  named 
 Syrtites  by  Pliny.  Herodotus  states  that  ihey  had  a 
 curious  custom  of  leaving  only  a  tuft  of  hair  in  the 
 centre  of  their  head,  carefully  shaving  the  rest,  and 
 tliat,  when  they  went  to  war,  they  used  the  skins  of 
 ostriches  instead  of  shields  (4,  175).  The  river  Oinyps 
 flowed  through  their  territory.  (Compare  Diod.  Sic, 
 3,  48.)  —  II.  A  people  of  Arabia  Deserta,  on  a  pro- 
 jection of  land  where  the  Sinus  Persicus  is  narrowest. 
 Plolemy  calls  the  promontory  Assabo  :  its  modern 
 name,  however,  Cape  Masscndon,  bears  some  faint 
 resemblance  to  that  of  the  Macae.  {Bischqff  und  Mai- 
 ler, Worterb.  der  Gcogr.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Macaris,  an  ancient  name  of  Crete. 
 
 Macedo.via,  a  country  of  Europe,  lying  to  the  west 
 of  Thrace,  and  north  and  northeast  of  Thessaly,  The 
 boutidaries  of  this  country  varied  at  different  times. 
 When  Strabo  wrote,  Macedonia  included  a  considera- 
 ble part  of  Illyria  and  Thrace;  but  Macedonia  Proper 
 may  be  considered  as  separated  from  Thessaly,  on  the 
 south,  by  the  Cambunian  Mountains  ;  from  Illyria,  on 
 the  west,  by  the  great  mountain  chain  called  Scardus 
 and  Bernus,  and  which,  under  the  name  of  Pindus, 
 also  separates  Thessaly  from  Epirus  ;  from  Moesia,  on 
 the  north,  by  the  mountains  called  Orbelus  and  Sco- 
 mius,  which  run  at  right  angles  to  Scardus  ;  and  from 
 Tiirace,  on  the  east,  by  the  river  Strymon.  The  Ma- 
 cedonia of  Herodotus,  however,  was  still  more  limited, 
 as  is  afterward  mentioned.  Macedonia  Proper,  as 
 defined  above,  is  watered  by  three  rivers  of  considera- 
 ble size,  the  Axius,  Lydias,  and  Haliacmon,  all  which 
 flow  into  the  Sinus  Thermaicus,  the  modern  Gulf  of 
 Salotiiki.  The  whole  of  the  district  on  the  seanoast, 
 and  to  a  considerable  distance  into  the  interior,  be- 
 tween the  Axius  and  the  Haliacmon,  is  very  low  and 
 marshy. — The  origin  and  early  history  of  the  Macedo- 
 nians are  involved  in  much  obscurity.  Some  moderns 
 have  attemjited,  against  all  probability,  to  derive  the 
 name  from  the  Kiltim  mentioned  in  the  old  Testa- 
 ment (Gen.  10,  4:.  — Numb.  24,  'Z'i.—Jer.  2,  10.— 
 lizek.  27,  6 — Dan.  11,  30).  This  opinion  appears 
 to  have  arisen,  in  part,  from  the  description  of  the 
 country  inhabited  by  the  Kiltim,  which  is  supposed  to 
 answer  to  Macedonia  ;  but  still  more  from  the  fact, 
 that,  in  the  book  of  Maccabees,  Alexander  the  Great 
 is  said  to  have  come  from  the  land  of  Cheittieim  (e/c 
 rz/f  yz/f  XeiTTietfi,  1  Mace.  1,  I),  and  Perses  is  called 
 king  of  the  Kittians  (Ktrrtfoiv,  1  Mace.  8,  5). — In  in- 
 quiring into  the  early  history  of  the  Macedonians,  two 
 questions,  which  are  frequently  confounded,  ought  to 
 be  carefully  kept  distinct,  namely,  the  origin  of  the 
 Macedonian  people,  and  that  of  the  Macedonian  mon- 
 archy under  the  Temenidae  ;  for,  while  there  is  abun- 
 dant reason  for  believing  that  the  Macedonian  princes 
 were  descended  from  an  Hellenic  race,  it  appears  prob- 
 able that  the  Macedonians  themselves  were  an  Illyrian 
 people,  though  the  country  must  also  have  been  in- 
 habited in  very  early  limes  by  many  Hellenic  tribes. 
 The  Greeks  themselves  always  regarded  the  Macedo- 
 nians as  barbarians,  that  is,  as  a  people  not  of  Hellenic 
 origin  ;  and  the  similarity  of  the  manners  and  customs, 
 as  well  as  the  languages,  as  far  as  they  are  known,  of 
 the  early  Macedonians  and  Illyrians,  appear  to  estab- 
 lish the  identity  of  the  two  nations.  In  the  time  of 
 Herodotus,  the  name  of  Mttce</ow?s  comprehended  only 
 the  country  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  Lydias,  for 
 he  observes  that  Macedonis  was  separated  from  Bot- 
 tiae-is  by  the  united  mouth  of  the  Lydias  and  Haliac- 
 mon (Herod.,  7.  127).  How  far  inland  Herodotus 
 conceived  that  Macedonia  extended,  does  not  appear 
 5  F 
 
 from  his  narrative. — According  to  many  ancient  wri- 
 ters, Macedonia  was  anciently  called  Emathia  (Plin., 
 
 4,  17. Justin,  1,  l.—Aul.  GelL,  14,  6);  but  we  also 
 
 find  traces  of  the  name  Macedonians,  from  the  earli- 
 est times,  under  the  ancient  forms  of  Macetje  (Moke- 
 Tai),  and  Macedni  (Ma«f Jfot).  They  appear  to  have 
 dwelt  originally  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Macedo- 
 nia, near  Mount  Pindus.  Herodotus  says  thatthe  Do- 
 rians dwelling  under  Pindus  were  called  Macedonians 
 (1,  50. — Compare  8,  43);  and,  although  it  may  for 
 many  reasons  be  doubted  whether  the  Macedonians 
 had  any  particular  connexion  with  the  Dorians,  it  may 
 be  inferred,  from  the  statement  of  Herodotus,  that  the 
 Macedonians  once  dwelt  at  the  foot  of  Pindus,  whence 
 they  emigrated  in  a  northeasterly  direction. — The  ori- 
 gin of  the  Macedonian  dynasty  is  a  subject  of  some 
 intricacy  and  dispute.  I'here  is  one  point,  however, 
 on  which  all  the  ancient  authorities  agree;  namely, 
 that  the  royal  family  of  that  country  was  of  the  race 
 of  the  Temenidse  of  Argos.  The  difference  of  opin- 
 ion principally  regards  the  individual  of  that  family  to 
 whom  the  honour  of  founding  this  monarchy  is  to  be 
 ascribed.  The  account  of  Herodotus  seems  most 
 worthy  of  being  received.  According  to  this  writer, 
 three  brothers  named  Gavanes,  Aeropus,  and  Perdic- 
 cas,  descended  from  Tenienus,  left  Argos,  their  native 
 place,  in  quest  of  fortune,  and,  arriving  in  Illyria,  pass- 
 ed thence  into  Upper  Macedonia,  where,  after  experi- 
 encing some  singular  adventures,  which  Herodotus  de- 
 tails, they  at  length  succeeded  in  acquiring  possession 
 of  a  principality,  which  devolved  on  Perdiccas,  the 
 youngest  of  the  brothers,  who  is  therefore  considered, 
 both  by  Herodotus  (8,  137)  and  Thucydides  (2,  99), 
 as  the  founder  of  the  Macedonian  dynasty.  These 
 writers  have  also  recorded  the  names  of  the  succes- 
 sors of  this  prince,  though  there  is  little  to  interest 
 the  reader  in  their  history. — Before  the  time  of  Philip, 
 father  of  Alexander,  all  the  country  beyond  the  riv- 
 er Stryinon,  and  even  the  Macedonian  peninsula  from 
 Amphipolis  to  Thessalonica,  belonged  to  Thrace,  and 
 PoBonia  likewise  on  the  north.  Philip  conquered  this 
 peninsula,  and  all  the  country  to  the  river  INessus  and 
 Mount  Khodope  ;  as  also  Pseonia  and  Illyria  beyond 
 Lake  Lychnitis.  Thus  the  widest  limits  of  Macedo- 
 nia were  from  the  ^Egean  Sea  to  the  Ionian,  where 
 the  Drino  formed  its  boundary.  The  provinces  of 
 Macedonia  in  the  time  of  Philip  amounted  to  nineteen. 
 Macedonia  first  became  powerful  under  this  monarch, 
 who,  taking  advantage  of  the  strength  of  the  country 
 and  the  warlike  disposition  of  the  inhabitants,  reduced 
 Greece,  which  was  distracted  by  intestine  broils,  in 
 the  battle  of  Chseronea.  His  son  Alexander  sub- 
 dued Asia,  and  by  an  uninterrupted  series  of  victories 
 for  ten  successive  years,  made  Macedonia,  in  a  short 
 time,  the  mistress  of  half  the  world.  After  his  death, 
 this  immense  empire  was  divided.  Macedonia  re- 
 ceived anew  its  ancient  limits,  and,  after  several  bat- 
 tles, lost  its  dominion  over  Greece.  The  alliance  of 
 Philip  H.  with  Carthage,  during  the  second  Pumc  war, 
 gave  occasion  to  this  catastrophe.  The  Romans  de- 
 layed their  revenge  for  a  season  ;  but,  Philip  having 
 laid  siege  to  Athens,  the  Athenians  called  the  Romans 
 to  their  aid  ;  the  latter  declared  war  against  Macedo- 
 nia ;  Philip  was  compelled  to  sue  for  peace,  to  surren- 
 der his  vessels,  to  reduce  his  army  to  500  men,  and 
 defray  the  expenses  of  the  war.  Perseus,  the  succes- 
 sor of  Philip,  having  taken  up  arms  against  Home, 
 was  totally  defeated  at  Pydna  by  Paulus  .'Emiiius,  and 
 the  Romans  took  possession  of  the  country.  Indig- 
 nant at  their  oppression,  the  Macedonian  nobility  and 
 the  wliole  nation  rebelled  under  Andriscus;  bul^ after 
 a  lon(T  struogle,  they  were  overcome  by  Qumtus  Oacil- 
 ius,  surnamed,  from  his  conquest,  Macedonicus  ;  the 
 nobility  were  exiled,  and  the  country  became  a  Roman 
 province  B.C.  148.  It  is  very  diilicult,  however,  to 
 determine  the  boundaries  of  this  Roman  province  of 
 
 777 
 
MAC 
 
 MAC 
 
 Macedonia.  According  to  the  "  Epitomizer"  of  Stra- 
 bo  (lib.  7),  it  was  bounded  by  the  Adriatic  on  the  west ; 
 on  the  north  by  the  mountains  of  Scardus,  Orbclus, 
 Rhodope,  and  HsEmus  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Via  Eg- 
 natia  ;  while  on  the  east  it  extended  as  far  as  Cypsela 
 and  the  mouth  of  the  Hebrus.  But  this  statement 
 with  respect  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Macedonia 
 cannot  be  correct,  since  we  know  that  the  province  of 
 Macedonia  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  ihat  of  Ach- 
 aia  ;  and  although  it  is  extremely  difficult,  if  not  im- 
 possible, to  fix  the  precise  boundaries  of  these  provin- 
 ces, yet  it  does  not  appear  that  Achaia  extended  far- 
 ther north  than  the  south  of  Thessaly. — Macedonia 
 now  forms  part  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  under  the  name 
 of  Makcdonia  or  Filtha  Vdajcli,  and  contains  about 
 700,000  inhabitants,  consisting  of  Walachians,  Turks, 
 Greeks,  and  Albanians.  The  southeastern  part  is  un- 
 der the  pacha  of  Saloniki ;  the  northern  under  beys  or 
 agas,  or  forms  free  communities.  The  capital  Salon- 
 iki, the  ancient  Thessalonica,  is  a  commercial  town, 
 and  contains  70,000  inhabitants. — Ancient  Macedonia 
 was  a  mountainous  and  woody  region,  the  riches  of 
 which  consisted  chiefly  in  mines  of  gold  and  silver  ; 
 the  coasts,  however,  produced  corn,  wine,  oil,  and  fruits. 
 Modern  Macedonia  is  said  to  possess  a  soil  more  fruit- 
 ful than  the  richest  plains  of  Sicily,  and  there  are  few 
 districts  in  the  world  so  fertile  as  the  coast  of  Athos 
 or  the  ancient  Chalcidice.  The  land  in  the  valleys  of 
 Panorni  and  Cassandria,  when  grazed  by  the  lightest 
 plough,  yields,  it  is  said,  a  more  abundant  harvest  than 
 the  finest  fields  in  the  department  between  the  Eure 
 and  the  Loire,  or  the  granary  of  France  ;  if  the  wheat 
 in  its  green  state  be  not  browsed  by  sheep  or  cut  with 
 the  scythe,  it  perishes  by  too  much  luxuriance.  Mace- 
 donia IS  also  famous  for  its  cotton  and  tobacco,  and  its 
 wines  are  some  of  them  equal  to  those  of  Burgundy. 
 'Malte-Brun,  Geogr,  vol.  6,  p.  156,  senq.,  Eng.  transl. 
 —  darner's  Aitc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  164,  seqq.  —  En- 
 cycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  14,  p.  241.) — For  a  list  of  the 
 ancient  kings  of  Macedonia,  with  remarks  on  their 
 reign,  consult  Clintoti's  Fasti  Helicnici,  p.  221,  seqq., 
 2d.  ed. 
 
 M.4.CER,  I.  a  Latin  poet,  a  native  of  Verona.  He 
 was  the  author  of  a  poem  on  birds,  entitled  Ornitho- 
 gonia,  and  of  another  on  snakes,  under  the  title  of 
 T/ieriaca.  This  last  was  an  imitation,  in  some  de- 
 gree, of  the  Theriaca  of  Nicander.  {Quuit.,  Inst.  Or., 
 10,  I,  56.— Spalding,  ad  Quint.,  Inst.  Or.,  6,  3,  96.) 
 We  have  no  remains  of  either  of  these  works.  The 
 poem  De  Herbarum.  virtulibus,  commonly  ascribed  to 
 him,  is  now  regarded  as  a  production  of  the  middle 
 ages.  {Gyrald  ,  Dial.,  4,  p.  217,  seqq.  —  Broukhus., 
 ad  TibulL,  p.  274. —  Vecscnmyer,  BMiogr.  Analckt., 
 p.  84.) — n.  A  friend  of  Ovid's,  who  wrote  a  continu- 
 ation of  the  Iliad,  and  also  an  Antchomerica.  He  has 
 been  frequently  confounded  with  the  preceding,  but 
 flourished,  in  truth,  at  a  later  period.  The  former 
 died  in  Asia,  B.C.  17.  (Compare  the  remarks  of 
 Wernsdorff,  Poet.  Lat.  Min.,  vol.  4,  p.  579,  seqq.) 
 
 Machanidas,  a  powerful  tyrant  of  Sparta,  whose 
 views  at  one  time  extended  to  the  subjugation  of  all 
 Peloponnesus.  He  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Philo- 
 pocflien  in  battle  near  Mantinea.    (Plut.,  Vit.  Philop.) 
 
 Machao.n,  a  celebrated  physician,  son  of  ^scula- 
 fiius,  and  brother  to  Podalirius.  He  went  to  the  Tro- 
 jan war,  where  his  skill  in  surgery  and  the  healing  art 
 proved  of  great  service  to  his  countrymen.  Machaon 
 was  one  of  those  shut  up  in  the  wooden  horse,  and  is 
 by  some  supposed  to  have  fallen  on  the  night  that 
 Trov  was  taken.  He  received  divine  honours  after 
 death,  and  h^d  a  temple  erected  to  him.  {Horn.,  IL, 
 2,  731.  —  Virg.,  Mn.,  2,  263.)  —  Schwenck  derives 
 the  name  from  the  old  verb  fiaxu,  the  root  o(  /nixain'/, 
 and  makes  it  denote  one  who  is  skilful  with  the  hand. 
 {Andeiit.,  p.  206  )  "  Machaon,"  observes  the  Pres- 
 ident Goguet  {Origin  of  Lmws,  &c.,  vol.  2,  p.  267, 
 778 
 
 Eng.  transl.),  "  was  himself  a  very  able  physrcian. 
 He  was  a  soldier  as  well  as  a  physician.  He  was 
 wounded  dangerously  in  the  shoulder  in  a  sally  which 
 the  Trojans  had  made.  Nestor  immediately  brought 
 him  back  to  his  tent.  Scarce  are  they  entered  there, 
 before  Machaon  took  a  drink  mixed  with  wine,  in 
 which  they  had  put  the  scrapings  of  cheese  and  bar- 
 ley-flour. {11,  l\,  50G,  seqq.)  What  ill  effects  must 
 not  this  mixture  produce,  since  wine  alone  is  very  op- 
 posite to  the  healing  of  wounds  !  The  meats  which 
 Machaon  afterward  used  (//.,  11,  629)  do  not  appear 
 in  any  way  proper  for  the  state  in  which  he  found  him- 
 self. In  another  part  of  the  Iliad  (4,  218)  Menelaus 
 is  wounded  with  an  arrow  :  they  make  Machaon  im- 
 mediately come  to  heal  him.  The  son  of  .(Esculapius, 
 after  having  considered  the  wound,  sucks  the  blood, 
 and  puts  on  it  a  dressing  to  appease  the  pain.  Homer 
 does  not  specify  what  entered  into  that  dressing.  It 
 was  only  composed,  according  to  all  appearances,  of 
 some  bitter  roots.  This  conjecture  is  founded  on  the 
 following  circumstance  :  in  the  description  which  the 
 poet  gives  of  the  healing  of  such  a  wound,  he  says  ex- 
 pressly that  they  applied  to  the  wound  the  juice  of  a 
 bitter  herb  bruised  (11,  845).  It  appears  that  this  was 
 the  only  remedy  which  they  knew.  The  virtue  of 
 these  plants  is  to  be  styptic."  To  what  is  here  said 
 may  be  added  the  remarks  of  an  eminent  physician  of 
 our  own  country.  "  It  appears  that  the  practice  of 
 Machaon  and  Podalirius  was  very  much  confined  to 
 the  removal  of  the  darts  and  arrows  with  which  wounds 
 had  been  inflicted,  and  afterward  to  the  application  of 
 fomentations  and  styptics  to  the  wounded  jiarls  ;  for, 
 when  the  heroes  recorded  by  Homer  were  in  other  re- 
 spects severely  injured,  as  in  the  case  of  .^neas,  whose 
 thigh-bone  was  broken  by  a  stone  thrown  by  Diomede, 
 he  makes  no  mention  of  any  other  than  supernatural 
 means  employed  for  their  relief."  {Hosack's  Medical 
 Essays,  vol.  1,  p.  38.1 
 
 Macra,  a  river  flowing  from  the  Apennines,  and  di- 
 viding Liguria  from  Etruria,  now  the  Magra.  {Lu- 
 can,  2,  426. — Liv.,  39.  32.)  The  Arnus  formed  the 
 southern  boundarv  of  Liguria  until  the  reign  of  Au- 
 gustus.    {Plin.,  3,  5.) 
 
 Macrianus,  Titus  Fulvius  Julius,  a  Roman,  who, 
 from  a  private  soldier,  rose  to  the  highest  command  in 
 the  army,  and  proclaimed  himself  emperor  when  Va- 
 lerian had  been  made  prisoner  by  the  Persians,  A.D. 
 260.  He  is  one  of  the  so-called  "  thirty  tyrants"  of 
 later  Roman  history,  but  appears  to  have  been,  as  far 
 as  we  can  judge  from  his  brief  period  of  authority,  an 
 able  prince.  Macrianus  was  proclaimed  emperor  along 
 with  his  two  sons  Macrianus  (Junior)  and  Quietus. 
 W^hen  he  had  supported  his  dignity  for  a  year  in  the 
 eastern  parts  of  the  world,  Macrianus  inarched  to- 
 wards Rome  to  crush  Gallienus,  who  had  been  pro- 
 claimed emperor.  He  was  defeated  in  Illyricum  by 
 the  lieutenant  of  Gallienus,  and  put  to  death  with  his 
 elder  son,  A.D.  262.     {Trcb.  Poll ,  Vit.  Macrian.) 
 
 Macrinus,  I.  M.  Opilius  Severus,  a  native  of  Mau- 
 ritania, was  praetorian  prefect  under  Caracalla,  whom 
 he  accompanied  in  his  expedition  against  the  Parthi- 
 ans,  and  caused  to  be  murdered  on  the  march.  Ma- 
 crinus  was  immediately  proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
 army,  A.D.  217,  and  his  son  Diadumenianus,  who  was 
 at  Antioch,  was  made  Cssar ;  both  elections  were 
 confirmed  by  the  senate.  Macrinus.  after  a  battle  with 
 the  Parthians  near  Nisibis,  concluded  peace  with  them. 
 On  his  return  to  Antioch  he  reformed  many  abuses 
 introduced  by  Caracalla.  But  his  excessive  severity 
 displeased  the  soldiers,  and  an  insurrection,  excited 
 by  Mossa,  the  aunt  of  Caracalla,  broke  out  against 
 Macrinus,  who,  being  defeated  near  Antioch,  fled  as 
 far  as  Chalcedon,  where  he  was  arrested  and  put  to 
 death,  A.D.  218,  after  a  reign  of  about  14  months. 
 His  son  Diadumenianus  shared  his  fate.  He  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  Heliogabalus.     {Jul.  Capitol,  Vit.  Macrin. 
 
MAC 
 
 MAC 
 
 — Herodian,  4,  13,  2,  seqq.) — II.  A  friend  of  the  poet 
 Persius,  to  whom  his  second  satire  is  inscribed.  They 
 had  been  fellow-students  under  Servilius  Nuinanus. 
 {Lemaire,  ad  Fcrs.,  Sat.,  2,  I  ) 
 
 M.iCROBii,  a  people  of  .Ethiopia,  highly  celebrated 
 in  antiquity,  and  whom  Herodotus  has  copiously  de- 
 scribed. An  expedition  was  undertaken  against  them 
 by  Cambyses,  and  in  this  way  ihey  have  obtained  a 
 name  in  history.  A  rumour  of  the  vast  quantity  of 
 gold  which  they  possessed  determined  Cambyses  to 
 march  against  them.  He  sent,  however,  beforehand 
 some  spies  into  their  country,  from  the  nation  of  the 
 Ichthyophagi,  as  they  understood  their  language.  The 
 accounts,  which  the  neighbouring  people  gave,  repre- 
 sented the  Macrobii  as  a  tall  and  beautiful  race,  who 
 had  their  own  laws  and  institutions,  and  elected  the 
 tallest  among  them  to  the  dignity  of  king.  The  Ich- 
 thyophagi, on  asking  the  monarch  of  the  Macrobians, 
 to  whom  they  brought  presents  as  if  ambassadors  from 
 Cainbyses,  for  what  length  of  time  his  subjects  lived, 
 were  told  for  the  space  of  120  years,  and  sometimes 
 longer.  Hence  the  name  given  them  by  the  Greek 
 writers  of  Macrobii  (Ma/cpo6«ot,  "  long-lived").  Gold 
 was  the  metal  in  commonest  use  among  them,  even 
 for  the  fetters  of  their  prisoners.  Herodotus  adds, 
 that  Cambyses,  on  the  return  of  his  spies,  immediately 
 inarched  against  the  Macrobii,  but  was  compelled  to  re- 
 turn, from  want  of  provisions,  before  he  had  proceeded 
 a  fifth  part  of  the  way.  {Herod.,  3,  17,  seqq.) — Bruce 
 takes  the  Macrobii  for  a  tribe  of  the  ShaiigaUas,  dwell- 
 ing in  the  lower  part  of  the  gold  countries,  Cuba  and 
 Nuba,  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  to  the  north  oi  Fazuk- 
 la.  (Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  554,  seqq.)  Heeren,  how- 
 ever, more  correctly  thinks,  that  the  people  in  question 
 are  to  be  sought  for  farther  south,  in  another  region. 
 None  of  the  Shangallas,  that  we  know  of,  live  in  cit- 
 ies, or  have  reached  that  degree  of  civilization  imputed 
 to  the  Macrobii.  He  thinks  it  probable,  therefore,  that 
 the  Macrobii  of  Herodotus  should  be  sought  for  on  the 
 coast,  or  in  one  of  the  ports  of  Adel,  and  in  the  vicinity 
 of  Cape  Guardefui.  This  would  place  them  in  the 
 country  of  the  Somaulies,  who  are,  perhaps,  their  de- 
 scendants. {Heercii,  Idecn,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  333,  seqq.) 
 MacrobIus,  I.  a  Latin  writer,  who  flourished  in  the 
 first  half  of  the  fifth  century,  under  Theodosius  the 
 Younger.  His  full  name  is  Aureiius  Macrobius  Am- 
 brosius  Theodosius.  (Funrx.,dc  vegct.  L.  L.  senccl., 
 4,  21.  — Fabric,  Bib.  Lai.,  vol.  3,  p.  180.)  As  he 
 was  iwt  a  Roman  by  birth,  and  seeks  in  this  an  ex- 
 cuse for  his  ].,atin  style  (Sat.,  I,  1),  he  has  been  re- 
 garded by  some  critics  as  a  native  of  Greece.  (Fa- 
 bric, I.  c,  in  7iotis.)  In  the  manuscripts  he  bears  the 
 title  of  Vir  Considaris  ct  illustris ;  and  from  this 
 some  have  concluded,  that  he  is  the  same  with  the 
 Macrobius  mentioned  in  a  law  of  the  Theodosian  code 
 (lib.  6,  tit.  8)  as  Prcefcclus  sacri  cubiculi,  or  chamber- 
 lain of  the  royal  bedchamber.  Other  critics  have  re- 
 marked, however,  that  this  office  was  commonly  given 
 to  eunuchs,  and  that  Macrobius  the  writer  had  a  son. 
 It  is  also  uncertain  whether  Macrobius  was  a  Chris- 
 tian or  not.  The  supposition  that  he  held  the  office 
 of  chamberlain  under  a  Christian  emperor  has  been  the 
 chief,  or,  perhaps,  the  only  ground  for  imagining  him 
 to  have  been  a  Christian,  since  the  language  of  his 
 writings  and  the  interlocutors  in  the  dialogues  are  en- 
 tirely heathen.  (Consult  Mahu.1,  Dissertation  sur  la 
 Vic,  &c.,  dc  Macrobe.  —  Class.  Joiirn.,  vol.  20,  p 
 110.) — 'i"he  works  of  Macrobius  are  three  in  number: 
 1.  Commcntariorum  in  Somnium  Scipionis  libri  duo. 
 This  work  is  addressed  to  his  son  Eustathius.  Be- 
 sides an  explanatory  view  of  the  Somnium  Scipionis 
 of  Cicero,  it  contains  much  information  respecting  the 
 opinions  of  the  later  Plaionists  on  the  laws  which  gov- 
 ern the  earth  and  the  other  parts  of  the  universe. 
 There  is  a  Greek  version  by  .Maxiimus  Planudes, 
 which  was  first  published,  from  the  MS  in  the  King's 
 
 Library  at  Paris,  by  Hess,  Hal,  1833,  8vo.  Soma 
 critics  have  thought  that  the  commentary  we  have 
 just  been  considering  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  pari 
 of  the  second  work  of  this  writer,  of  which  we  are  go- 
 ing to  speak,  and  from  which  it  ha.'*  been  detached 
 through  the  carelessness  of  the  early  editors.  "^I'here 
 seems  no  good  reason  for  this  opinion. — 2.  Salurna- 
 lium  conviviorum  libri  septcm.  Likewise  addressed 
 to  his  son.  This  is  a  compilation  after  the  manner  of 
 the  Attic  Nights  of  Aulus  Gellius :  it  has,  bowevej; 
 the  dialogue  form,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  transcript 
 of  a  conversation  which  took  place  at  table  during  the 
 celebration  of  the  Saturnalia.  The  principal  interlo- 
 cutors are  a  certain  Vectius  Pra;lextatus,  Q.  Aureliua 
 Symmachus  and  his  brother  Flavianus,  Cjecinna  De- 
 cius  Albinus,  Avienus,  a  physician,  a  grammarian,  &c. 
 It  contains  discussions  of  a  great  variety  of  historical 
 and  mythological  topics,  explanations  of  many  pas- 
 sages of  ancient  authors,  remarks  on  the  manners  and 
 customs  of  the  Romans,  tScc.  An  idea  of  the  general 
 nature  of  the  work  may  be  formed  from  the  titles  of 
 some  of  the  chapters  :  Of  the  origin  of  some  Roman 
 words. — Of  the  origin  of  the  Saturnalia. — Of  the  Ro- 
 man year  and  its  divisions  — Proof  that  all  the  gods 
 of  fable  were  originally  syrabols  of  the  sun. — OJ  Ci- 
 cero's bans  mots.  —  Of  Augustus. — Of  Julia. — Details 
 on  the  luxury  of  the  Romans. — Observations  on  the 
 ^ncid,  and  a  comparison  between  Virgil  and  Horner. 
 —  V/hy  those  \cho  turn  round  are  attacked  with  verti- 
 goes.—  Why  women  have  softer  voices  than  men. —  Why 
 shame  makes  one  blush. —  Why  bodies  plunged  in  wa- 
 ter appear  larger  than  they  really  arc,  &tc.  Many 
 things  in  Macrobius  are  drawn  from  Aulus  Gellius, 
 and  some  from  Plutarch. — 3.  The  third  work  of  Ma- 
 crobius treated  of  the  difference  between  the  Greek 
 and  Latin  languages,  and  also  of  their  analogy  :  De 
 diffcrcntiis  et  socictatibus  Graci  Latinique  Verbi.  We 
 have  only  an  extract  from  this,  made  by  one  Joannes, 
 supposed  to  be  the  same  with  the  celebrated  Joannes 
 Scotus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Charles  the  Bald. 
 (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  322,  seqq. — Biihr, 
 Gesch.  Rcim.  Lit.,  p.  724,  seqq.)  The  best  edition 
 of  Macrobius  is  that  of  Gronovius,  Lvgd.  Bat.,  1670, 
 8vo.  The  edition  of  Zeune,  Lips.,  1774,  8vo,  has  a 
 very  faulty  text,  but  very  useful  and  extensive  notes. 
 The  text  is  a  careless  reprint  of  that  of  Gronovius. 
 The  Bipont  edition,  1788,  2  vols.  8vo,  has  no  notes, 
 but  a  very  correct  text.  The  Notitia  Literaria  prefix- 
 ed is  also  very  useful. — II.  An  ecclesiastical  writer, 
 who  lived  in  the  sixth  century.  He  was  at  first  a 
 priest  of  the  Catholic  church  in  Africa,  but  afterward 
 made  common  cause  with  the  Donatists.  We  have  a 
 fragment  remaining  of  a  letter  of  his  to  the  people  of 
 Carthage,  but  nothing  exists  of  a  treatise  which  he 
 wrote  while  yet  belonging  to  the  orthodox  persuasion, 
 entitled  "  Ad  confcssores  et  virgines." 
 
 Macrones,  a  nation  of  Asia,  occupying  the  north- 
 ern parts  of  Armenia,  probably  between  the  town  of 
 Arze  and  the  coast  of  the  Euxine.  They  are  mention- 
 ed in  the  Anabasis  as  one  of  the  nations  through  whose 
 territories  the  Greeks  marched.  The  Macrones  are 
 called  Maciocephali  by  Scylax  (p.  33),  but  Plniy  seems 
 to  distinguish  them  as  two  diflerent  people  (fi,  4). 
 Herodotus  informs  us  that  the  Macrones  used  ,-ircum- 
 cision,  having,  as  they  themselves  reported,  derived 
 the  practice  from  the  Colchians.  (Herod.,  2,  104.) 
 The  natural  inference  to  be  drawn  from  this  passage 
 is,  that  the  Macrones  were  of  Colchian  origin.  Slra- 
 bo  affirms,  that  this  people  were  in  his  time  no  long- 
 er called  by  their  ancient  appellation,  but  were  named 
 Sanni  (Slrah.,  548);  and  Eustathius,  who  confirms 
 this  statement,  writes  the  word  Tzani,  according  to 
 the  more  modern  Greek  orthography  (ad  Dwnys.  Pe- 
 riar.,  766).  Cramer  thinks,  that  the  modern  name  oI 
 Dj'anik  is  a  corruption  o*"  Sannice.     (Asia  Minor,  vol. 
 
 1,  p.  286.) 
 '^  '  779 
 
M^  A 
 
 M^C 
 
 Madaur*,  a  city  of  Numidia,  near  Tagaste,  and 
 porthwest  of  Sicca.  It  a[)pears  to  have  been  a  place 
 fcf  some  importance,  and,  in  tlie  Notilia  Numidice,  Pru- 
 deiitius  Mctaurensis  is  named  as  its  bishop.  It  is  com- 
 monly regarded  as  ihe  birthplace  of  Apulcius,  though 
 Mannert  is  in  favour  of  the  Roman  colony  Ad  Mcdcra. 
 No  traces  of  Madaura  remain.  In  an  inscri[)tion  of 
 Gruter's  (p.  600,  n.  10),  the  name  of  the  city  is  given 
 as  Medaura.  {^Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p. 
 321.) 
 
 M.(EANDER,  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising  near  Celfe- 
 iise  in  Phrvgia,  and,  after  forming  the  common  bound- 
 ary t>etween  Lydia  and  Caria,  falling  into  the  yEgean 
 below  the  promontory  of  Mycale.  It  was  remarkable 
 for  the  winding  nature  of  its  course  (gko'Aioc  uv  tf 
 vnep&(i7Jiv. — Strabo,  577),  and  hence  all  obliquities 
 or  wmdings  took  the  name  of  Ma?ander.  (Strah.,  I.  c.) 
 It  received  the  waters  of  various  streams,  the  Marsyas, 
 Orgas,  &c.,  but  was  not  remarkable  for  its  size  as  far 
 as  regarded  breadth,  though  a  deep  river,  and  fordable 
 only  m  a  few  places  in  the  early  part  of  its  course. 
 According  to  Xenophon  {Anab.,  1,  2),  the  Meander 
 rose  in  the  palace  of  Cyrus,  flowing  from  thence 
 through  his  park  and  the  city  of  CeloeriaB.  In  the  vi- 
 cinity rose  the  Marsyas,  which  formed  a  junction  with 
 the  Ma;arider  in  the  suburb  of  Cels'nae,  where  after- 
 ward stood  the  city  of  Apamea.  (Compare  the  re- 
 marks of  Leake,  Tour,  p.  158,  seqq.)  According  to 
 Strabo  (663),  the  common  boundary  of  Caria  and 
 Phrygia,  on  the  Ma?ander,  was  at  Carura.  After  the 
 river  had  reached  Lydia  and  Caria,  it  widened,  and 
 entered  upon  what  the  ancients  denominated  the  plain 
 of  the  Masander,  which  extended  from  the  borders 
 of  Phrygia  to  the  sea,  nearly  100  miles.  This  plain 
 varied  in  breadth  from  5  to  10  miles,  and  was  orna- 
 mented with  a  number  of  fine  cities  and  towns.  Great 
 changes  have  taken  place  on  the  coast,  at  the  mouth  of 
 the  Masander,  by  the  great  deposition  of  mud  and  earth 
 in  the  course  of  ages  :  changes  that  have  so  com- 
 pletely altered  the  face  of  things  as  described  by  the 
 ancients,  that  the  first  of  modern  geographers  was  to- 
 tally misled  in  his  estimate  of  the  ancient  geography, 
 by  attempting  to  reconcile  it  with  the  modern,  on  the 
 ground  of  the  imperfect  descriptions  of  it  in  the  ancient 
 books.  D'Anville  had  no  conception  that  the  Gulf  of 
 Latmus  received  the  Marauder,  hut  supposed  a  con- 
 siderable space  to  e.\ist  between  them.  Nor  v^-as  he 
 aware  that  the  gulf  itself  no  longer  existed  ;  that  its 
 wide  opening  to  the  sea  was  closed  up  by  alluvions  ; 
 and  that  the  island  of  Lade,  so  often  mentioned  as  a 
 rendezvous  in  the  history  of  the  naval  warfare  of  an- 
 cient times,  had  become  a  part  of  the  main  land,  rising, 
 like  the  rock  of  Dumbarton,  from  the  marshy  soil  ; 
 and,  moreover,  that  the  inner  part  of  the  gulf  was 
 transformed  into  a  fresh-water  lake.  The  mud  of  the 
 Masaiider,  having  been  deposited  across  the  southeast 
 arm  of  the  gulf,  formed  its  upper  part  into  a  lake  ; 
 which  soon  became  fresh,  when  the  access  of  the  sea- 
 water  was  barred  out,  as  it  receives  a  great  quantity 
 of  land  waters  from  the  surroundirig  mountains.  It  is 
 named  the  Lake  of  Bafi,  from  a  town  at  the  southeast 
 corner:  it  is  about  12  miles  in  length,  and  from  3  to 
 5  in  breadth.  Chandler  represents  the  water  as  in- 
 sipid and  not  drinkable.  The  modern  name  of  the 
 Masander  is  Minder.  {Renndl,  Geogr.  of  Western 
 Asia,  vol.  2,  p.  30,  seqq.)  Mr.  Turner  describes  the 
 Ma?ander  in  a  part  of  its  course  as  about  seventy  feet 
 wide,  and  having  a  current  towards  the  sea  of  about  a 
 mile  an  hour  :  he  observes,  however,  that  this  must 
 be  much  more  rapid,  when  the  streams,  formed  by 
 rain  and  melted  snow,  pour  into  it  from  the  mountains. 
 He  describes  the  water  as  very  thick  and  muddy  ;  and 
 the  mud  in  particular  at  the  bank  as  extremely  deep. 
 (Tour  in  the  Levant,  vol,  3,  p.  96.) 
 
 M^ATiE,  a  people  in  the  north  of  Britain,  near  the 
 vallum  Sevcri  or  wall  of  Severus,  comprising  the  Ota- 
 780 
 
 deni,  Gadeni,  Selgovse,  Novantae,  and  Damnii.     (Dio 
 Cass.,  76,  12  ) 
 
 M^CENAs,  Caius  Cii.nius,  was  descended,  it  is 
 said,  from  Elbius  Vollerrenus,  one  of  the  l.ucumones 
 of  Etruria,  who  fell  in  the  battle  at  the  lake  Vadmio- 
 nis,  A.U.C.  445,  which  finally  brought  his  country 
 under  total  subjection  to  the  Romans.  His  imme- 
 diate ancestors  were  Roman  knights,  who,  having  been 
 at  length  incorporated  into  the  state,  held  high  com- 
 mands in  the  army  {Herat.,  Sat.,  1,  6,  3),  and  Maece- 
 nas would  never  consent  to  leave  their  class  to  be  en- 
 rolled among  the  senators:  but  he  was  proud  (as  may 
 be  conjectured  from  its  frequent  mention  by  the  poets) 
 of  his  supposed  descent  from  the  old  Etrurian  princes. 
 It  is  not  known  in  what  year  he  was  born,  or  in  what 
 manner  he  spent  his  youth  ;  but  Meibomius  {Maccnas, 
 L.  Bat.,  1653,  4to)  conjectures  that  he  was  educated 
 at  Apollonia,  along  with  Augustus  and  .Agrippa  ;  and 
 that  this  formed  the  commencement  of  their  memora- 
 ble friendship.  He  is  not  mentioned  in  the  history  of 
 his  country  till  we  hear  of  his  accompanying  Augustus 
 to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Mutina.  He  was  also  with 
 him  at  Philippi,  and  attended  him  during  the  whole 
 course  of  the  naval  wars  against  Sextus  Pompey,  ex- 
 cept when  he  was  sent  at  intervals  to  Rome,  in  order 
 by  his  presence  to  quell  those  disturbances,  which, 
 during  this  period,  frequently  broke  out  in  the  capital. 
 In  the  battle  of  Actium  he  commanded  the  light  Li- 
 burnian  galleys,  which  so  greatly  contributed  to  gain 
 the  victory  for  Augustus,  and  he  gave  chase  with  them 
 to  Antony  when  he  fled  after  the  galley  of  Cleopatra. 
 During  the  absence  of  Augustus  in  Egypt,  Maecenas, 
 in  virtue  of  his  office  of  prefect,  was  intrusted  with  the 
 chief  administration  of  affairs  in  Italv,  and  particularly 
 with  the  civil  government  of  the  capital.  {Pedo  Albi- 
 nov.,  Epiced.  Macen.)  After  Augustus  had  returned 
 from  Egypt  without  a  rival,  and  the  affairs  of  the  empire 
 proceeded  in  a  regular  course,  M^cenas  shared  with 
 Agrippa  the  favour  and  confidence  of  his  sovereign. 
 While  Agrippa  was  intrusted  with  affairs  requiring  ac- 
 tivity, gravity,  and  force,  those  which  were  to  be  accom- 
 plished by  persuasion  and  address  were  committed  to 
 Maecenas.  The  advice  which  he  gave  to  Augustus 
 in  the  celebrated  consultation  with  regard  to  his  pro- 
 posed resignation  of  the  empire,  was  preferred  to  that 
 of  Agrippa:  Mcecenas  having  justly  represented  that 
 it  would  not  be  for  the  advantage  of  Rome  to  be  left 
 without  a  head  to  the  government,  as  the  vast  em- 
 pire now  required  a  single  chief  to  maintain  peace 
 and  order  ;  that  Augustus  had  already  advanced  too 
 far  to  recede  with  safety  ;  and  that,  if  divested  of  ab- 
 solute power,  he  would  speedily  fall  a  victim  to  the 
 resentment  of  the  friends  or  relatives  of  those  whom 
 he  had  formerly  sacrificed  to  his  own  security.  {Dio 
 Cassius,  52,  14,  seqq.)  Having  agreed  to  retain  the 
 government,  Augustus  asked  and  obtained  from  Mse- 
 cenas  a  general  plan  for  its  administration.  His  min- 
 ister laid  down  for  him  rules  regarding  the  reformation 
 of  the  senate,  the  nomination  of  magistrates,  the  col- 
 lection of  taxes,  the  establishment  of  schools,  the  gov- 
 ernment of  provinces,  the  levy  of  troops,  the  equaliza- 
 tion of  weights  and  measures,  the  suppression  of  tu- 
 multuous assemblies,  and  the  support  of  religious 
 observances.  His  measures  on  all  these  points,  as 
 detailed  by  Dio  Cassius,  show  consummate  political 
 wisdom,  and  knowledge  in  the  science  of  govern- 
 ment. Maecenas  had  often  mediated  between  Anlonj' 
 and  Augustus,  and  healed  the  mutual  wounds  which 
 their  ainl)ition  inflicted.  But  when  his  master  had  at 
 length  triumphed  in  the  contest,  the  great  object  of 
 his  attention  was  to  secure  the  permanence  of  the 
 government.  For  this  purpose  he  had  spies  in  ail  cor- 
 ners, to  pry  into  every  assembly,  and  to  watch  the 
 motions  of  the  people.  Bv  these  means  the  impru- 
 dent plots  of  Lepidus  {Veil.  Paterc.,  2,  88)  and  Mu- 
 raena  were  discovered  and  suppressed  without  danger 
 
M^CENAS. 
 
 MiECENAS. 
 
 or  (?"sturbance  ;  and  at  length  no  conspiracies  were 
 form^id.  At  the  same  time,  and  with  a  similar  object, 
 he  did  all  in  his  power  to  render  the  administration 
 of  Augustus  moderate  and  just  ;  and,  as  he  perfectly 
 understood  all  the  weaknesses  and  virtues  of  his  char- 
 acter, he  easily  bent  his  disposition  to  the  side  of  mer- 
 cy. While  he  himself,  as  prefect  of  the  city,  had  re- 
 tained the  capital  in  admirable  order  and  subjection, 
 he  was  yet  remarkable  for  the  mildness  with  which  he 
 exercised  this  important  office,  to  which  belonged  the 
 management  of  all  civil  affairs  in  the  absence  of  the 
 emperor,  the  regulation  of  buildings,  provisions,  and 
 commerce,  and  the  cognizance  of  all  crimes  committed 
 within  a  hundred  miles  of  the  capital.  Seneca,  who 
 is  by  no  means  favourable,  in  other  respects,  to  the 
 character  of  Mscenas,  allows  him  a  full  tribute  of 
 praise  for  his  clemency  and  mildness.  {Episf.,  114.) 
 So  sensible  was  Augustus  of  the  benefits  which  his 
 government  derived  from  the  counsels  and  wise  ad- 
 ministration of  Mcecenas,  and  such  was  his  high  opin- 
 ion of  his  sagacity,  hdelity,  and  secrecy,  that  every- 
 thing which  concerned  him,  whether  political  or  do- 
 mestic, was  confided  to  this  minister.  Such,  too, 
 were  the  terms  of  mtimacy  on  which  they  lived,  that 
 the  emj)eror,  when  he  fell  sick,  always  made  himself 
 be  c;irried  to  the  house  of  Mscenas  ;  so  difficult  was 
 it  to  tind  repose  in  the  habitation  of  a  prince  !  During 
 the  most  important  and  arduous  periods  of  his  admin- 
 istration, and  while  exercising  an  almost  unremitting 
 assiduity,  Maecenas  had  still  the  appearance  of  being 
 sunk  in  sloth  and  luxury.  Though  he  could  exert 
 himself  with  the  utmost  activity  and  vigilance  when 
 these  were  required,  yet  in  his  hours  of  freedom  he 
 indulged  himself  in  as  much  ease  and  softness  as  the 
 most  delicate  lady  in  Rome.  {Veil.  Pa/crc,  2,  88.) 
 He  was  moderate  in  his  desires  of  wealth  or  honours  ; 
 he  was  probably  indolent  and  voluptuous  by  nature 
 and  inclination  ;  and  he  rather  wished  to  exhibit  than 
 conceal  his  faults.  The  air  of  effeminate  ease  which 
 he  ever  assumed,  was  perhaps  good  policy  in  ref- 
 erence both  to  the  prince  and  people  Neither  could 
 be  jealous  of  a  minister  who  was  apparently  so  care- 
 less and  indifferent,  and  who  seemed  occupied  chiefly 
 with  his  magnificent  villas  and  cosily  furniture.  He 
 usually  came  abroad  with  a  negligent  gait  and  in  a 
 loose  garb.  When  he  went  to  the  theatre,  forum,  or 
 senate,  his  ungirl  robe  trailed  on  the  ground,  and  he 
 wore  a  little  cloak,  with  a  hood  like  a  fugitive  slave  in 
 a  pantomime.  Instead  of  being  followed  by  lictors  or 
 tribunes,  he  appeared  in  all  public  places  attended  by 
 two  eunuchs.  (Senec,  Episl ,  114.)  He  possessed 
 a  niaj^nificent  and  spacious  villa  on  the  Esquiline  Hill, 
 to  which  a  tower  adjoined  remarkable  for  its  height. 
 The  gardens  of  .Maecenas,  which  surrounded  the  villa, 
 were  among  the  most  delightful  in  Rome  or  its  vicin- 
 ity. Here,  seated  in  the  cool  shade  of  his  green 
 spreading  trees,  whence  the  most  musical  birds  con- 
 stantly warbled  their  harmoniou."  notes,  he  was  accus- 
 tomed to  linger,  and  pay  at  idle  hours  his  court  to  the 
 muses  Being  fond  of  change  and  singularity,  the 
 style  of  Maecenas's  enlertaiuinents  varied.  They  were 
 sometimes  profuse  and  magnificent,  at  others  elegant 
 and  private  ;  but  they  were  always  inimitable  in  point 
 of  taste  and  fancy.  He  was  the  first  person  who  in- 
 troduced at  Rome  the  luxury  of  young  mule's  flesh; 
 his  table  was  served  with  the  most  delicious  wines, 
 among  which  was  one  of  Italian  growth  and  most  ex- 
 quisite flavour,  called  from  his  name  Maccnaiianum 
 {Plin.,  8,  4;i)  ;  and  hence,  too,  the  luxurious  Trimal- 
 chio,  who  is  the  Magistcr  Cnnvivii  in  the  Satyricon 
 of  Petronius  Arbiter,  is  called  Maccnatianus,  from 
 his  imitating  the  style  of  Maecenas's  entertainments. 
 {Plin  ,  14,  6.)  His  sumptuous  board  was  thronged 
 with  parasites,  whom  he  also  frequently  carried  about 
 to  sup  with  his  friends,  and  his  house  was  filled  by 
 musicians,  buffoons,  and  actors  of  mimes  or  panto- 
 
 mimes, with  Bathyllus  at  their  head.  These  were 
 strangely  intermingled  in  his  palace  with  tribunes, 
 clerks,  and  lictors.  But  there,  too,  were  Horace,  and 
 Varius,  and  Valgius,  and  Virgil!  Of  these  distin- 
 guished poets,  and  of  many  other  literary  men,  Mae- 
 cenas was,  during  his  whole  life,  the  patron,  protector, 
 and  friend.  Desert  in  learning  never  failed,  in  course 
 of  time,  to  obtain  from  him  its  due  reward  ;  and  his 
 friendship,  when  once  procured,  continued  steady  to 
 the  last.  Among  the  distinguished  men  who  frequent- 
 ed the  house  of  Maecenas,  a  constant  harmony  seems 
 to  have  subsisted.  They  never  occasioned  uneasi- 
 ness to  each  other ;  they  were  neither  jealous  nor 
 envious  of  the  favour  and  felicity  which  their  rivals 
 enjoyed.  Thfe  noblest  and  most  aflluent  of  the  num- 
 ber were  without  insolence,  and  the  most  learned 
 without  j)resumption.  Merit,  in  whatever  shape  it 
 appeared,  occupied  an  honourable  and  unmolested 
 station.  Maecenas  is  better  known  to  posterity  as  a 
 patron  of  literature  than  as  an  author  ;  but,  living 
 in  a  poetical  court,  and  surrounded  with  poets,  it  was 
 almost  impossible  that  he  should  have  avoided  the 
 contagion  of  versification.  He  wrote  a  tragedy  called 
 Ortavia,  a  poem  entitled  Dc  Cultu,  and  some  Pha- 
 lajcian  and  Galliambic  verses.  All  these  have  perish- 
 ed except  a  few  fragments  cited  by  Seneca  and  the 
 ancient  grammarians.  To  judge  from  these  extracts, 
 their  loss  is  not  much  to  be  regretted  ;  and  it  is  a  cu- 
 rious problem  in  the  literary  history  of  Rome,  that 
 one  who  read  with  delight  the  works  of  Virgil  and 
 Horace,  should  himself  have  written  in  a  style  so  ob- 
 scure and  affected.  The  effeminacy  of  his  manners 
 appears  to  have  tainted  his  language  ;  though  hia 
 ideas  were  sometimes  happy,  his  style  was  loose,  flor- 
 id, and  luxuriant  {Sencc,  Episl.,  19)  :  and  he  always 
 aimed  at  winding  up  his  periods  with  some  turn  of 
 thought  or  expression  which  he  considered  elegant 
 or  striking  These  conceits  were  called  by  Augustus 
 his  calamistri  :  and  in  one  of  that  emperor's  letters, 
 which  is  preserved  in  Macrobius,  he  parodies  the  lux- 
 uriant and  sparkling  style  affected  by  his  minister. 
 Maecenas  continued  to  govern  the  state,  to  patronise 
 good  poets,  and  write  bad  verses,  for  a  period  of 
 twenty  years.  During  this  long  space  of  time,  the 
 only  interruption  to  his  felicity  was  the  conduct  of 
 his  wife  I'crentia.  I'his  beautiful  but  capricious 
 woman  was  the  sister  of  Proculeius,  so  eminent  for 
 his  fraternal  love  (Horat  ,  Od.,  2,  2,  5),  as  also  of  Li- 
 cinius  Murcena,  who  conspired  against  Augustus. 
 The  extravagance  and  bad  temper  of  this  fantastical 
 yet  lovely  female,  were  sources  of  perpetual  chagrin 
 and  uneasiness  to  her  husband.  Though  his  exist- 
 ence was  imbittered  by  her  folly  and  caprice,  he  con- 
 tinued, during  his  whole  life,  to  be  the  dupe  of  the 
 passion  which  he  entertained  for  her.  He  could  nei- 
 ther live  with  nor  without  her  ;  he  quarrelled  with  her 
 and  was  reconciled  almost  every  day,  and  put  her 
 away  one  moment  to  take  her  back  the  next ;  which 
 has  led  Seneca  to  remark,  that  he  was  married  a 
 thousand  times,  yet  never  had  but  one  wife.  Teren 
 tia  vied  in  personal  charms  with  the  Empress  Livia, 
 and  is  said  to  have  gained  the  affections  of  Augustus. 
 The  umbrage  Majcenas  took  at  the  attentions  paid  by 
 his  master  to  Terentia,  is  assigned  by  Dio  Cassius  as 
 the  chief  cause  of  that  decline  of  imperial  favour  which 
 Maecenas  experienced  about  four  years  previous  to 
 his  death.  For,  although  he  was  still  treated  exter- 
 nally with  the  highest  consideration,  thouirh  he  re- 
 tained all  the  outward  show  of  grandeur  and  interest, 
 and  still  continued  to  make  a  yearly  present  to  the 
 emperor  on  the  anniversary  of  his  birthday,  he  was 
 no  loncrer  consulted  in  stale  affairs  as  a  favourite  or 
 confida^'nt.  Others  have  supposed  that  it  was  not  the 
 intrioue  of  Augustus  with  Terentia  which  diminished 
 hi^  mfluence,  but  a  discovery  made  by  the  emperor, 
 that  he  had  revealed  to  his  wife  some  circumstances 
 
 781 
 
M^D 
 
 M^  O 
 
 concerning  the  conspiracy  in  which  her  brother  Mu- 
 raena  had  been  engaged.  Suetonius  informs  us,  that 
 he  had  felt  some  displeasure  on  that  account ;  but  Mu- 
 raena's  plot  was  discovered  in  the  year  732,  and  the 
 decline  of  Maecenas's  pohtical  power  cannot  be  placed 
 earlier  than  738.  The  disgust  conceived  by  masters 
 when  they  have  given  all,  and  by  favourites  who  have 
 nothirjg  more  to  receive,  or  arc  satiated  wiih  honours, 
 may  partly  account  for  the  coldness  which  arose  be- 
 tween Augustus  and  his  minister.  But  the  declining 
 health  of  Mscenas,  and  his  natural  indolence,  increas- 
 ing by  the  advance  of  years,  afforded  of  themselves 
 sufficient  cause  for  his  gradual  retirement  from  public 
 affairs.  His  constitution,  which  was  naturally  weak, 
 had  been  impaired  by  effeminacy  and  luxurious  living. 
 He  had  laboured  from  his  youth  under  a  perpetual 
 fever  iPlin.,  7,  51);  and  for  many  years  before  his 
 death  he  suffered  much  from  wakefulness,  which  was 
 greatly  aggravated  by  his  domestic  chagrins.  Msce- 
 iias  was  fond  of  life  and  enjoyment ;  and  of  life  even 
 without  enjoyment.  Hence  he  anxiously  resorted  to 
 different  remedies  for  the  cure  or  relief  of  this  distress- 
 ing malady.  Wine,  soft  music  sounding  at  a  dis- 
 tance, and  various  other  contrivances,  were  tried  in 
 vain.  At  length,  Antotiius  Musa,  the  imperial  physi- 
 cian, who  had  saved  the  life  of  Augustus,  but  accel- 
 erated the  death  of  Marcellus,  obtained  for  him  some 
 alleviation  of  his  complaint  by  means  of  the  distant 
 munnurings  of  falling  water.  The  sound  was  artifi- 
 cially procured  at  his  villa  on  the  Esquiline  Hill.  Du- 
 ring this  stage  of  his  complaint,  however,  Maecenas 
 resided  principally  in  his  villa  at  Tibur,  situated  on 
 the  banks  of  the  Anio,  and  near  its  celebrated  cas- 
 cades. This  was  indeed  a  spot  to  which  Morpheus 
 might  have  sent  his  kindest  dreams  ;  and  the  pure  air 
 of  Tibur,  with  the  streams  tumbling  into  the  valley 
 through  the  arches  of  the  villa,  did  bestow  on  the 
 worn-out  and  sleepless  courtier  some  few  moments  of 
 repose.  But  all  these  resources  at  length  failed. 
 The  I  ervous  and  feverish  disorder  with  which  Mae- 
 cenas was  afflicted  increased  so  dreadfully,  that  for 
 three  years  before  his  death  he  never  closed  his  eyes. 
 In  his  last  will,  he  recommended  Horace,  in  the  most 
 affectionate  terms,  to  the  protection  of  the  emperor  : 
 "  Horalii  Flacci,  ut  mci,  memor  esto."  He  died  in 
 745,  in  the  same  year  with  Horace,  and  was  buried  in 
 his  own  gardens  on  the  Esquiline  Hill.  He  left  no 
 child,  and  in  Mtecenas  terminated  the  line  of  the  an- 
 cient Etrurian  princes.  But  he  bequeathed  to  pos- 
 terity a  name,  immortal  as  the  arts  of  which  he  had 
 been  through  life  the  generous  protector,  and  which 
 is  deeply  inscribed  on  monuments  that  can  only  be 
 destroyed  by  some  calamity  fatal  to  civilization.  Mae- 
 cenas had  nominated  Augustus  as  his  heir,  and  the 
 emperor  thus  became  possessed  of  theTiburtine  villa, 
 which  had  formed  the  principal  residence  of  the  min- 
 ister during  the  close  of  his  life,  and  in  which  the 
 monarch  passed  a  great  part  of  the  concluding  years 
 of  his  reign.  The  death  of  his  old  favourite  revived 
 all  the  esteem  which  Augustus  had  once  entertained 
 for  him  ;  and,  many  years  afterward,  when  stung  with 
 regret  at  having  divulged  the  shame  of  his  daughter 
 Julia  and  punished  her  offence,  he  acknowledged  his 
 irreparable  loss  by  exclaiming,  that  he  would  have 
 been  prevented  from  acting  such  a  part  had  Msecenas 
 been  still  alive.  So  difficult  was  it  to  repair  the  loss 
 of  one  man,  though  he  had  millions  of  subjects  under 
 his  obedience.  "His  legions,"  says  Seneca,  "  being 
 cut  to  pieces,  he  recruited  his  troops — his  fleets,  de- 
 stroyed by  storms,  were  soon  refitted — public  edifices, 
 consumed  by  the  flames,  were  rebuilt  with  greater 
 magnificence  ;  but  he  could  find  no  one  capable  of 
 discharging  the  offices  which  had  been  held  by  Mae- 
 cenas with  equal  integrity  and  ability."  {Dunlop's 
 Roman  Literature,  vol.  3,  p.  26,  scqq,  Land,  ed.) 
 MiEDi,  a  people  of  Thrace,  above  the  Palus  Bisto- 
 782 
 
 nis,  noticed  by  Thucydides  in  his  narrative  of  the  ex- 
 pedition of  Sitalces  into  Macedonia,  but  of  whom  He- 
 rodotus seems  to  have  had  no  knowledge.  {Thucyd., 
 2,  98.) 
 
 MELIUS,  a  Roman,  slain  by  Ahala,  master  of  the 
 horse  to  the  dictator  Cincinnatus,  for  aspiring  to  su- 
 preme power.     {Liv  ,  4,  13,  scqq.) 
 
 M^NADEs  (MaivuSe^),  a  name  applied  to  the  Bac- 
 chantes or  priestesses  of  Bacchus,  and  alluding  to  their 
 phrensied  movements.  It  is  derived  from  fiaivo/xai, 
 "  to  rave." 
 
 MiENANUs  (p!ur.  Ma?nala),  I.  a  mountain  in  the 
 south-soulheastern  part  of  Arcadia,  sacred  to  the  god 
 Pan,  and  considered,  on  account  of  its  excellent  pas- 
 tures, to  be  one  of  the  favourite  haunts  of  that  rural 
 deity.  {Thcocr.,  Idyl.,  1,  123.— Fzr^.,  Georg.,  1,  17. 
 —  Ovid,  Met.,  1,  216.)  The  modern  name  is  Roino. 
 Dodwell  says  that  its  height  is  considerable,  and  that, 
 like  the  other  Peloponnesian  mountains  of  the  first  or- 
 der, it  is  characterized  by  intersecting  glens  and  val- 
 leys, watered  by  numerous  rivulets,  and  cultivated  with 
 sylvan  scenery.  It  is  not,  however,  as  he  remarks,  to 
 be  compared  with  Taygetus  either  for  grandeur  or  beau- 
 ty. Maenalus  extends  far  to  the  northeast,  bounding 
 the  western  side  of  the  plains  of  Mantinea  and  Orcho- 
 menus,  and  occupying  a  tract  of  country  anciently  call- 
 ed Mainalia  {^Pausan  ,  8,  9),  to  which  the  Delphic  ora- 
 cle gives  the  epithet  of  "  cold"  {dvaxdjiepoq. — Pau- 
 san.,  I.  c. — Dodwell,  vol.  2,  p.  418). — II.  A  town  of 
 Arcadia,  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Msenalus,  which  took 
 its  name,  according  to  Pausanias  (8,  3),  from  one  of 
 the  sons  of  Lycaon,  its  founder.  It  was  in  ruins  in 
 the  time  of  Pausanias,  and  its  situation  has  not  been 
 clearly  investigated  by  modern  travellers.  {Dodwell, 
 voL  2,  p.  418.) 
 
 M.ff:NUs  or  Mcenus,  a  river  of  Germany,  falling  into 
 the  Rhine  at  Moguntiacum  {Mayence  or  Mainz),  and 
 now  the  Main.  The  Romans  first  became  acquainted 
 with  it  on  getting  possession  of  Moguntiacum.  Ptole- 
 my makes  no  mention  of  this  river,  but  would  seem  to 
 have  been  acquainted  with  its  sources.  It  is  worthy 
 of  remark,  that  the  inhabitants  on  the  Main,  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  Wurtzburg,  still  call  the  river,  after  the  Ro- 
 man fashion,  the  M'on.  The  name  Maenus  is  a  later 
 form  than  the  other.  {Eumen.,  Paneg.  Const-,  c.  !3. 
 — Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  423.) 
 
 MiEONiA.  Vid.  Lydia. — The  Etrurians,  supposed 
 to  have  derived  their  civilization,  or,  according  to 
 others,  to  have  sprung,  from  a  Lydian  colony,  are  often 
 called  McRonidce  {Virg.,  Mn.,  II,  759),  and  the  Lake 
 Trasymenus  in  their  country  is  styled  by  Silius  Itali- 
 cus  Maonius  Lacus.     (Sil.  IlaL,  15,  35.) 
 
 MjEonTdes,  a  surname  of  Homer,  in  allusion  to  his 
 supposed  Lydian  or  Ma-onian  origin.    ( Vid.  Homerus.) 
 
 M^onjs,  I.  an  epithet  applied  to  Omphale  as  queen 
 of  Lydia  or  Ma-onia.  (Ovid,  Fast.,  2,  310,  352.)— IL 
 The  same  epithet  is  also  applied  to  Arachne  as  a  na 
 live  of  Lydia.     (Id.,  Met.,  6,  103.) 
 
 M^ot^,  a  general  name  for  the  tribes  dwelling 
 along  the  Palus  Msotis.  {Plin  ,  4,  12.— Sirab.,  495.) 
 Mela  (1,  2)  uses  the  epithet  Maotici,  and  Vopiscus 
 calls  them  McEotidcE. 
 
 M^oTis  Pai.us,  or  Sea  of  Azof,  a  large  marshy 
 lake  between  Europe  and  Asia,  northeast  of  the  Eux- 
 ine,  and  connected  with  it  by  the  Cimmerian  Bospo- 
 rus, or  Straits  of /cw/ca/i.  It  is  formed  by  the  Tanai's 
 (Don)  and  other  rivers.  Its  waters  are  brackish  ;  they 
 are  well  stored  with  fish,  but  are  shallow  to  a  great 
 distance  from  the  banks.  No  rock  has  been  observed 
 in  any  part  of  it.  The  surface  is  about  twelve  inches 
 higher  in  spring  than  in  the  rest  of  the  year.  (Maltc- 
 Brun,  vol.  6,  p.  405,  Am.  ed.) — The  Palus  Maeotis  is 
 said  by  Herodotus  to  have  been  also  called  Maelis  (rj 
 Mat^Tif  re  Kalefrai. — 4,  86,  45),  and  the  Mother  of 
 the  Pontus  Euxinus  {tj  Mtjttjp  tov  Hovtov. — 4,  86). 
 This  name,  Maetis,  is  the  earlier  and  general  form. 
 
MAG 
 
 MAGI. 
 
 (Compare  Wesseling,  ad  Herod.,  4,  45.) — We  have 
 here  a  curious  link  iti  the  chain  connecting  the  early 
 religion  of  India  with  that  of  the  countries  to  the  west. 
 The  leading  idea  appears  to  be  one  of  a  cosmogoni- 
 cal  nature,  and  to  refer  to  the  action  of  the  humid 
 principle  as  the  generating  cause  of  all  things.  Hence 
 the  Aphrodite  of  the  Greeks,  rising  from  the  bosom  of 
 the  waters  (Jivadvojiivq. — 'A(l>po6lTrj  novToyev^g.  Or- 
 pheus, H.,  54,  ed.  Hcrm.),  or,  in  other  words,  the 
 great  Mother  of  all  (M^/rj/p).  She  is  the  MovO  {Terra 
 Mater)  of  the  Egyptians,  the  same  with  their  Isis. 
 {Crcuza;  Symbol.,  vol.  1,  p.  354):  the  Mwr  {Mot) 
 of  Sanchoniathon  {iimus,  aut  aquosa  mixtioms  putre- 
 do. — Bochart,  Gcogr.  Sacr.,  2,  2,  p.  705) ;  the  Xdoc 
 of  Hesiod  {Thcog.,  123) ;  the  M?;T7/f,  to  whom  a  tem- 
 ple was  erected  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Hypanis  and  Bo- 
 rysthenes  {Herod.,  4,  53. —  Wess.,  ad  loc);  the  yfj 
 (irJTTip,  the  primitive  slime  {Creuser,  Symbol.,  vol.  4, 
 p.  329);  the  Mrjij/p,  i]  npecr6vTuT7i  nuaa  {Hcsych.,  ed. 
 Albe.rti,  p.  597) ;  the  M?/T«f  of  Hesiod  and  of  the  Or- 
 phic poets  {Orpheus,  Argon.,  ed.  Hcrm.  Aposp.,  6, 
 19,  n.,  p.  461);  and  the  Mala  of  the  Doric  dialect 
 {Iambi.,  Vit.  Pythag.,  ed.  Kiessling,  p.  114,  56). — 
 The  root  of  this  word  is  to  be  found  in  the  Sanscrit. 
 (Compare  Hesychius,  Mai,  fiiya.  'Ivdol.)  Mana- 
 Mai  {Magna  Mater)  is  worship[)ed  at  the  present  day 
 by  the  Buddhists  in  Nepaul.  {Kirkpatrick,  Account  of 
 Nepaul,  &.C.,  p.  1 14.) — The  worship  of  the  great  moth- 
 er {xOoviT]  fir'/TTjp  flaai'?yia. —  Orpheus,  Hymn.,  49,  4, 
 ed.  Herm.,  p.  313) ;  the  mother  of  gods  and  nurse  of 
 all  things  {-^euv  fifjTjjp,  Tpo(j)d(;  ttuvtuv. — Orpheus, 
 Hymn  ,  26  ct  27,  ed.  Herm.,  p.  286,  seqq.) ;  the  Metis 
 whom  Jove  espoused  as  his  first  consort,  after  the  con- 
 flict with  the  Titans  {Hesiod,  Theog.,  886),  appears 
 to  have  spread  from  east  to  west,  and  one  of  the  early 
 seats  of  this  worship  to  have  been  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 Paius  Mffiotis,  whose  slimy  waters  were  regarded  as  a 
 type  of  that  primitive  slime  from  whose  teeming  bosom 
 the  world  was  supposed  to  have  been  formed.  {Rit- 
 tcrs  Vorhalle,  p.  57. — Id.  ibid  ,  p.  161,  seqq.) 
 
 M^si.v  Sylva,  a  forest  in  Etruria,  southwest  from 
 Veii.  It  originally  belonged  to  this  city,  but  was  ta- 
 ken by  Ancus  Marcius.  {Liv  ,  1,  33.)  Pliny  reports 
 that  it  abounded  with  dormice.     {PUn.,  8,  58.) 
 
 MjEvius,  a  miserable  poet  of  the  Augustan  age, 
 who,  along  with  Bavius,  frequently  attacked  the  pro- 
 ductions of  Virgil,  Horace,  and  other  distinguished 
 writers  of  the  day.  They  are  both  held  up  to  ridicule 
 in  turn  by  Virgil  and  Horace,  and  owe  the  preserva- 
 tion of  their  names  to  this  circumstance  alone.  (  Virg., 
 Eclog.,  3,  90.  —  Voss,  ad  loc. — Servius,  ad  Virg., 
 Georg.,  1,  2\0. —  Ilorat.,  Epod.,  10,  "i.—  Weichert, 
 de  obtrcct.  Horat.,  p.  12. — Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit., 
 vol.  1,  p    125  ) 
 
 Magetobria,  a  city  of  Gaul,  the  situation  of  which 
 has  given  rise  to  much  discussion.  Some  place  it 
 near  Binga,  below  Moguiitia ;  and  they  found  this 
 opinion  on  the  opening  lines  in  the  poem  of  Ausonius 
 uj)on  the  Mosella.  D'Anville,  however,  and  subse- 
 quent writers,  discover  traces  of  the  ancient  name  in 
 the  spot  called  at  the  present  day  la  Muigle  de  Broie, 
 at  the  confluence  of  the  Arar  and  Ogno,  near  a  village 
 named  Ponlailler,  which  belonged  formerly  to  Burgun- 
 dy. This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  an  inscription  found 
 in  this  quarter  on  the  fragment  of  an  urn,  dug  up,  along 
 with  other  articles,  in  1802.  The  inscription  is  MA- 
 GETOB.  {Cces.,  B.  G.,  1,  21.— Lcmaire,  Ind.  Gc- 
 ogr., ad  C<Es.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Magi,  the  name  of  the  priests  among  the  Medes  and 
 Persians,  and  whose  order  is  said  to  have  been  found- 
 ed by  Zoroaster.  The  Magi  formed  one  of  the  six 
 tribes  into  which  the  Medes  were  originally  divided 
 {Herod.,  1,  101) ;  hut,  on  the  downfall  of  the  Median 
 empire,  they  continued  to  retain  at  the  court  of  their 
 conquerors  a  great  degree  of  power  and  authority.  It 
 would  appear,  however,  that  they  did  not  witness  with 
 
 indifTerence  the  sovereignty  pass  from  the  Medes  to 
 the  Persians  ;  and  it  was  probably  owing  to  the  in- 
 trigues of  the  vi'hole  order,  that  a  conspiracy  was  form- 
 ed to  deprive  Cainbyses  of  the  throne,  by  representing 
 one  of  their  number  as  Smerdis,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  who 
 had  been  previously  put  to  death  hy  his  brother.  He- 
 rodotus, who  has  given  the  history  of  this  conspiracy 
 at  length,  evidently  regarded  it  as  a  plot,  on  the  part 
 of  tlie  Magi,  to  restore  the  sovereignty  to  the  Medes, 
 since  he  represents  Cambyses  on  his  deathbed,  as 
 conjuring  the  Persians  to  prevent  the  Medes  from  again 
 obtaining  the  supremacy.  {Herod.,  3,  65.)  And  the 
 Persians  themselves  must  have  looked  upon  it  in  the 
 same  light,  since,  after  the  discovery  of  the  conspiracy, 
 and  the  murder  of  the  pretended  Smerdis  by  Darius 
 Hystaspis  and  his  companions,  a  general  massacre  of 
 the  Magi  ensued,  the  memory  of  which  event  was  an- 
 nually preserved  by  a  festival  called  "the  Slaughter  of 
 the  Magi"  (Mayo^or^a),  during  which  none  of  the  Magi 
 were  allowed  to  appear  in  public.  {Herod.,  3,  79. — 
 Ctes.,  Pers.,  c.  15.)  This  event,  however,  does  not 
 appear  to  have  impaired  their  influence  and  authority  ; 
 for  they  are  represented  by  Herodotus,  in  his  account 
 of  the  Persian  religion,  as  the  only  recognised  minis- 
 ters of  the  national  worship  (1,  132). — The  learning  of 
 the  Magi  was  connected  with  astrology  and  enchant- 
 ment, in  which  they  were  so  celebrated  that  their  name 
 was  applied  to  all  orders  of  magicians  and  enchanters. 
 Thus,  the  Septuagint  translates  the  Chaldee  Ashap  by 
 the  word  Magus  {Mdyoc.—Dan.,  1,  20.— Id.,  2,  2,  27. 
 — Compare  Acts,V3,  6,  8).  The  word  was  also  applied 
 to  designate  any  men  celebrated  for  wisdom  ;  whence 
 the  wise  men  of  the  East,  who  came  to  see  the  infant 
 Saviour,  are  called  simply  Magi.  {Matth.  2,  1.)  It 
 would  appear  from  a  passage  in  Jeremiah  (39,  3),  that 
 the  Babylonian  priests  were  also  called  Magi ;  if  at 
 least  the  interpretation  of  Rab-Mag,  "  chief  of  the 
 Magi,"  be  correct.  {Gescnius,  Hebr.  Lex.,  s.  v.  Mug.) 
 The  etymology  of  the  word  is  doubtful.  In  Per- 
 sian the  name  of  priest  is  mugh  ;  and  it  is  not  improb- 
 able, as  Gesenius  has  conjectured,  that  the  term  may 
 be  connected  with  the  root  meaning  "great,"  which 
 we  have  in  the  Greek  [liy-ag ;  the  Latin  magis  and 
 rnag-nus  ;  the  Persian  mih  ;  and  the  Sanscrit  mah-at. 
 It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  the  Hindu  grammarians  de- 
 rive mah-at  from  a  verb  mah,  signifying  "  to  worship." 
 {Wilson's  Sanscrit  Diet.,  s.  v.  Mah-at. — Encycl.  Us. 
 Knowl.,  vol.  14,  p.  280,  seq.) — The  Magi  were  divided 
 into  three  classes  :  the  first  consisted  of  the  inferior 
 priests,  who  conducted  the  ordinary  ceremonies  of  re- 
 ligion ;  the  second  presided  over  the  sacred  fire  ;  the 
 third  was  the  Archimagus  or  high-priest,  who  possess- 
 ed supreme  authority  over  the  whole  order.  They 
 had  three  kinds  of  temples;  first,  common  oratories, 
 in  which  the  people  performed  their  devotions,  and 
 where  the  sacred  fire  was  kept  only  in  lamps  ;  next, 
 public  temples,  with  altars,  on  which  the  fire  was  kep* 
 continually  burning,  where  the  higher  order  of  Magi 
 directed  the  public  devotions,  and  the  people  assem- 
 bled ;  and,  lastly,  the  grand  seat  of  the  Archimagus, 
 which  was  visited  by  the  people  at  certain  seasons  with 
 peculiar  solemnity,  and  to  which  it  was  deemed  an  in- 
 dispensable duty  for  every  one  to  repair,  at  least  once  m 
 his  life.  This  principal  temple  was  erected,  it  is  said, 
 by  Zoroaster,  in  the  city  of  Bactra  (the  modern  Balk), 
 and  remained  till  the  seventh  century,  when  the  .''ollow 
 ers  of  Zoroaster,  being  driven  by  the  MohaniT-trCiar.s 
 into  Carmania,  another  building  of  the  same  kind  wa? 
 raised,  to  which  those  who  still  adhered  to  the  old 
 Magian  religion  resorted.  They  were  divided  intr 
 several  sects  ;  but  this  division  probably  rather  re 
 spected  the  mode  of  conducting  the  offices  of  religion 
 than  religious  tenets.  No  images  or  statues  wero 
 permitted  in  the  Magian  worship.  Hence,  when  Xerx- 
 es found  idols  in  the  Grecian  temples,  he,  by  the  ad- 
 vice of  the  Magi,  set  them  on  fire,  saying  that  the 
 
 783 
 
MAGI. 
 
 MAG 
 
 ^ds,  to  whom  all  things  are  open,  are  not  to  be  con- 
 fined within  the  walls  of  a  temple.  The  account  which 
 Diogenes  Laeriius  gives  of  the  Magi  is  this  (I,  6, 
 seqq)  :  "They  are  employed  in  worshipping  the  gods 
 by  prayers  and  sacrifices,  as  if  their  worship  alone 
 would  be  accepted  ;  they  teach  their  doctrine  concern- 
 ing the  nature  and  origin  of  the  gods,  whom  they  think 
 to  be  fire,  earth,  and  water  ;  they  reject  the  use  of 
 pictures  and  miages,  and  reprobate  the  opinion  that  the 
 gods  are  male  and  female  ;  they  discourse  to  the  peo- 
 ple concerning  justice ;  they  think  it  impious  to  con- 
 sume dead  bodies  with  fire  ;  they  allow  of  marriage 
 between  mother  and  son  ;  they  practise  divination  and 
 prophecy,  pretending  that  the  gods  appear  to  them  ; 
 they  forbid  the  use  of  ornaments  in  dress  ;  they  clothe 
 themselves  in  a  white  robe ;  they  make  use  of  the 
 ground  as  their  bed,  of  herbs,  cheese,  and  bread  for 
 food,  and  of  a  reed  for  their  staff."  And  Strabo  re- 
 lates, that  there  were  in  Cappadocia  a  great  number 
 of  Magi,  who  were  called  Pyrethi,  or  worshippers  of 
 fire,  and  many  temples  of  the  Persian  gods,  in  the 
 midst  of  which  were  altars,  attended  by  priests,  who 
 daily  renewed  the  sacred  fire,  accompanying  the  cere- 
 mony with  music.  The  religious  system  of  the  Magi 
 was  materially  improved  by  Zoroaster.  Plutarch, 
 speaking  of  his  doctrine  (7s.  et  Os.,  p.  369. — Op.,  ed. 
 Reiskc,  vol.  7,  p.  468),  says  :  "  Some  maintain,  that 
 neither  is  the  world  governed  by  blind  chance  without 
 intelligence,  nor  is  there  one  mind  alone  at  the  head  of 
 the  universe  ;  but  since  good  and  evil  are  blended,  and 
 nature  produces  nothing  unmi.xed,  we  are  to  conceive, 
 not  that  there  is  one  storekeeper,  who,  after  the  manner 
 of  a  host,  dispenses  adulterated  liquors  to  his  guests,  but 
 that  there  are  in  nature  two  opfiosite  powers,  counter- 
 acting each  other's  operations,  the  one  accomplishing 
 good  designs,  the  other  evil.  To  the  better  power 
 Zoroaster  gave  the  name  of  Oromasdes,  to  the  worse 
 that  of  Arimanius  ;  and  affirmed  that,  of  sensible  ob- 
 jects, the  former  most  resembled  light,  the  latter  dark- 
 ness. He  also  taught  that  Miihras  was  a  divinity, 
 who  acted  as  a  moderator  between  them,  whence  he 
 was  called  by  the  Persians  the  Mediator."  After  re- 
 lating several  fabulous  tales  concerning  the  contests 
 between  the  good  and  evil  demon,  Plutarch,  still  re- 
 citing the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster,  proceeds:  "The 
 fated  time  is  approaching  in  which  Arimanius  himself 
 shall  be  utterly  destroyed  ;  in  which  the  surface  of  the 
 earth  shall  become  a  perfect  [)lain,  and  all  men  shall 
 speak  one  language,  and  live  happily  together  in  one 
 society."  He  adds,  on  the  authority  of  Theopompus, 
 "  It  is  the  Opinion  of  the  Magi,  that  each  of  these  gods 
 shall  subdue  and  be  subdued  by  turns,  for  six  thousand 
 years,  hut  that,  at  last,  the  evil  principle  shall  perish, 
 and  men  shall  live  in  happiness,  neither  needing  food 
 nor  yielding  a  shadow  ;  the  God  who  directs  these 
 things  taking  his  repose  for  a  time,  which,  though  it 
 may  seem  long  to  man,  is  hut  short."  Diogenes  Laer- 
 tius  (/.  c),  after  Hecatreus,  gives  it  as  the  doctrine  of 
 Zoroaster,  that  the  gods  (meaning,  doubtless,  those  of 
 whom  he  last  speaks,  Oroinasdes  and  Arimanius)  were 
 derived  beings. — It  will  appear  probable,  from  a  com- 
 parisim  of  these  with  other  authorities,  that  Zoroaster, 
 adopting  the  principle  commonly  held  by  the  ancients, 
 that  from  nothing,  nothing  can  be  produced,  conceived 
 light,  or  those  spiritual  substances  which  partake  of  the 
 active  nature  of  fire  and  darkness,  or  the  impenetrable, 
 opaque,  and  passive  mass  of  matter,  to  be  emanations 
 from  one  eternal  source  ;  that  to  derived  substances 
 he  gave  the  names,  already  apjilied  by  the  Magi  to  the 
 causes  of  good  and  evil,  Oromasdes  and  Arimanius  ; 
 and  that  the  first  fountain  of  being,  or  the  supreme  di- 
 vinity, he  called  Mithras.  These  active  and  passive 
 principles  he  conceived  to  be  perpetually  at  variance  ; 
 the  former  tending  to  produce  good,  the  latter  evil; 
 but  that,  through  the  mediation  or  intervention  of  the 
 Supreme  Being,  the  contest  would  at  last  terminate  in 
 784 
 
 favour  of  the  good  principle.  {Enfield's  History  of 
 Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  63,  scqq.) 
 
 Magna  Gk/Ecia  or  Major  Gr.«cia  {Liv.,Z\,  7. — 
 Justin,  20,  2),  an  a|)pellation  used  to  designate  the 
 southern  part  of  Italy,  in  consequence  of  the  numerous 
 and  flourishing  colonies  which  were  founded  by  the 
 Greeks  in  that  part  of  the  country.  There  is  some 
 difficulty  in  determining  how  far  this  name  extended, 
 but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  applied  to  the 
 country  beyond  Cumee  and  Neapolis  ;  and  some  geog- 
 raphers have  even  thought,  though  without  sufficient 
 reasons,  that  it  was  confined  to  the  colonies  on  the 
 Gulf  of  Tarentum.  Pliny  apparently  considers  Magna 
 Grscia  to  begin  at  the  Locri  Epizephyrii  (3,  15);  but 
 Strabo  (175)  even  includes  the  Grecian  towns  of  Sicily 
 under  this  name.  The  time  when  the  name  of  Magna 
 GriEcia  (Mf-ya/l??  'E/l/ldf)  was  first  applied  to  the 
 south  of  Italy  is  uncertain.  It  does  not  occur,  as  far 
 as  we  are  aware,  in  the  early  Greek  writers,  such  as 
 Herodotus,  Thucydides,  &c.,  but  it  is  used  by  Po- 
 lybius  (2,  39),  and  succeeding  Greek  and  Roman  wri- 
 ters. Taking  the  name  in  the  widest  signification 
 which  is  given  to  it  by  Strabo,  Magna  Graecia  may  be 
 justly  considered  as  an  appropriate  name ;  since  it 
 contained  many  cities  far  superior  in  size  and  popula- 
 tion to  any  in  Greece  itself.  The  most  important  of 
 these  were,  Tarentum,  founded  by  the  Laceda»moni- 
 ans  ;  Sybaris,  Crotona,  and  Metapontum,  by  the  Achee- 
 ans ;  Locri  Epizephyrii,  by  the  Locrians ;  and  Khe- 
 giuin,  by  the  Chalcidians;  and  in  Sicily,  Syracuse, 
 founded  by  the  Corinthians  ;  Gela,  by  the  Cretans  and 
 Rhodians  ;  and  Agrigentum,  by  the  inhabitants  of 
 Gela.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnoioL,  vol.  14,  p.  283. — Com- 
 pare Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  339.) 
 
 Magna  Mater,  a  name  given  to  Cybele.  {Vid. 
 Cybele,  Pessiiuis,  and  Ludi  Megalesii.) 
 
 Magnentius,  a  German  by  birth,  who,  from  being 
 a  private  soldier,  rose  to  the  head  of  the  Roman  em- 
 pire in  the  West.  He  was  at  first  a  prisoner  of  war, 
 but,  to  free  himself  from  chains,  he  joined  the  Roman 
 troo|)s,  and  became  distinguished  for  valour.  He  was 
 commander  of  the  Jovian  and  Herculean  bands,  sta- 
 tioned to  guard  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  at  the  time 
 when  Constaiis  I.  had  incurred  the  contempt  of  the  ar- 
 my by  his  indolence  and  voluptuousness,  and  having 
 revolted  against  that  prince,  and  caused  him  to  be 
 killed  near  the  Pyrenees,  A.D.  350,  he  proclaimed 
 himself  Emperor  of  the  West.  At  Rome  he  acted  with 
 great  tyranny,  and  by  his  extortions  was  enabled  to 
 keep  in  pay  a  large  army  to  support  his  usurped  au- 
 thority. So  formidable,  indeed,  did  he  a()pear,  that 
 Constantius,  emperor  of  the  East,  and  brother  of  the 
 deceased  Conslans,  offered  him  peace,  with  the  posses- 
 sion of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  but  his  offer  was  re- 
 jected. A  war  ensued,  and  Magnentius  was  totally 
 aviTeated.  He  fled  to  Aquileia,  and  afterward  obtained 
 a  victory  over  the  van  of  the  pursuing  army  at  Tici- 
 num.  Another  defeat,  however,  soon  followed,  and 
 Magnentius  took  refuge  in  Lugdunum  {Lyons).  Here 
 his  own  soldiers,  who  had  accompanied  him  in  his 
 flight,  surrounded  the  house  in  which  he  was,  and 
 sought  to  get  possession  of  his  person  and  deliver  hiin 
 up  to  the  conqueror  ;  but  he  prevented  this  by  de- 
 spatching himself  with  his  own  sword,  after  having  slam 
 several  of  his  relations  and  friends  who  were  around 
 him.  {Lc  Beau,  Hist,  du  Bas- Empire,  vol.  1,  p.  354, 
 seq.) 
 
 Magnesia,  I.  a  city  of  I.ydia,  described  by  Strabc 
 (14,  647)  as  situate  in  a  plain,  at  the  foot  of  a  mount- 
 ain called  Thorax,  and  not  far  from  the  Maeander. 
 Hence,  for  distinction'  sake  from  Magnesia  near  Mount 
 Sipylus,  it  was  usually  styled  "  Magnesia  at  the  Ma- 
 andcr'"  {Mayvjiaia  i-l  M.aiuvt'^pu}.  In  its  immedi- 
 ate neighbourhood  flowed  the  small  stream  Lethsus, 
 which  issued  from  Mount  Pactyas  lying  to  the  north, 
 and  joined  the  Msander  not  far  from  this  place.     Mag- 
 
MAG 
 
 MAGQ. 
 
 nesia,  according  to  Pliny  (5,  29),  was  fifteen  miles, 
 according  to  Artemidorus  {ap.  Sti'ab.,  663),  120  sta- 
 dia, from  Ephesus.  Strabo  makes  it  a  city  of  ^oiian 
 origin,  wliich  is  not  contradicted  by  another  statement 
 of  the  same  writer,  when  he  makes  the  Magnetes  to 
 have  been  descended  from  the  Delphians  who  occu- 
 pied the  Monies  Didymi  of  Thcssaly. — Magnesia  was 
 sacked  by  the  Cimmerians  during  their  inroads  i.nto 
 Asia  Minor.  It  was  afterward  held  by  the  Milesians, 
 «nd  was  one  of  the  cities  assigned,  for  his  support,  to 
 Themistocles,  by  the  King  of  Persia.  The  modern 
 Ghiuzel-hissar  (Beautiful  Castle)  had  been  generally 
 thought  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Magnesia. 
 M.  13arbie  du  Bocage,  however,  in  the  notes  to  his 
 Uanslation  of  Chandler,  gave  convincing  reasons  for 
 ".hinking  that  Ghmzcl-hissar  occupied  the  position  of 
 Tralles  ;  but  it  was  not  until  Mr.  Hamilton  explored 
 ihe  ruins  of  Magnesia  at  Inekbazar,  and  discovered 
 the  remains  of  the  celebrated  temple  of  Diana  Leuco- 
 phryene,  that  the  question  could  be  considered  as  sat- 
 isfactorily determined  in  favour  of  the  latter  place. 
 {Leakeys  Journal,  p.  242,  seqq.) — 11.  A  city  in  the 
 northern  part  of  Lydia,  southeast  of  CumEe,  and  in  the 
 immediate  vicinity  of  the  Hermus.  It  lay  close  to  the 
 foot  of  Mount  Sipylus,  and  hence,  for  distinction'  sake 
 from  the  other  Magnesia,  was  called  ^^  Magnesia  near 
 Sipylus"  {jAayvi^aia  irpb^  2(7r!;Aw).  Its  founder  is 
 not  known,  nor  its  earlier  history.  It  was  first  brought 
 into  notice  by  the  battle  fought  in  its  neighbourhood 
 between  Anliochus  and  the  Romans  (187  B.C.).  It 
 was  not  a  place  of  much  importance  under  the  Roman 
 dominion,  as  the  main  road  from  Pergamus  to  Sardis 
 passed  on  one  side  of  it.  At  the  close  of  theMithradatic 
 war  the  Romans  gave  it  its  freedom.  It  was  frequent- 
 ly injured  by  earthquakes,  and  was  one  of  the  twelve 
 cities  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  in  the  reign  of  Ti- 
 berius, which  that  emperor,  however,  quickly  rebuilt. 
 (Tacil.,  Ann.,  2,  i7.—Pim.,  2,  84.)  It  became  af- 
 terward the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  The  modern  name  is 
 Magnisa.  (Tavernier,  1,  7. — Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 6,  pt.  3,  p.  373.)— III.  A  district  of  Thessaly.  The 
 Greeks  gave  the  name  of  Magnesia  to  that  narrow 
 portion  of  Thessaly  which  is  confined  between  the 
 Peneus  and  Pagasaean  Bay  to  the  north  and  south,  and 
 between  the  chain  of  Ossa  and  the  sea  on  the  west  and 
 east  {Strabo,  441, — Scyl.,  PeripL,  p.  24. — Pliny, 
 4,  9.)  The  people  of  this  district  were  called  Mag- 
 netes, and  appear  to  have  been  in  possession  of  it  from 
 he  remotest  period.  (Horn.,  II.,  2,  756.  —  Pind., 
 Pytk.,  4,  no.— Id.,  Nem.,  5,  50.)  They  are  also 
 universally  allowed  to  have  formed  part  of  the  Amphic- 
 .yonic  body.  {JEschin.,  de  fals.  leg.,  p.  122. — Pau- 
 san.,  10,  y.  —  Harpocrat.,  s.  v.  'Afj.(ptKTiiovEC-)  The 
 Magnesians  submitted  to  Xerxes,  giving  earth  and 
 Water  in  token  of  subjection.  {Herod.,  7,  132.)  Thu- 
 cydides  leads  us  to  suppose  they  were  in  his  time 
 dependant  on  the  Thessalians  (2,  10).  They  passed 
 with  the  rest  of  that  nation  under  the  dominion  of  the 
 kings  of  Macedon  who  succeeded  Alexander,  and 
 were  declared  free  by  the  Romans  after  the  battle  of 
 Cynoscephate.  {Polyb.,  Excerpt.,  18,  29,  5. — Livy, 
 33,  32.)  Their  government  was  then  republican,  af- 
 fairs being  directed  by  a  general  council,  and  a  chief 
 magistrate  called  Magnetarch.  {Liv.,  34,  31. —  Strab., 
 9,  442. — Xen.,  Anab.,  6,  1. — Cramer\^  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  419,  seqq.) — IV.  A  city  of  Magnesia,  on  the 
 coast,  opposite  the  island  of  Sciathus.  It  was  con- 
 quered by  Philip,  son  of  Amyntas.  {Cramer'' s  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  427.) 
 
 Mago,  I.  a  Carthaginian  admiral,  who  gained  a  naval 
 victory  over  Leptines,  the  commander  of  Dionysius  the 
 elder,  off  Catana,  in  which  the  latter  lost  100  vessels, 
 and  more  than  20,000  men.  {Diod.  Sic.,  14,  90.) 
 Some  years  after  this  we  find  him  at  the  head  of  a 
 land  force,  endeavouring  to  make  head  against  Dio- 
 nysius in  person ;  but,  being  defeated,  he  was  com- 
 5G 
 
 pellcd  to  take  shelter  in  the  neighbouring  tow^  of 
 Abaca;num.  {Died.  Stc,  14,  90.)  Being  subse- 
 quently placed  at  the  head  of  another  expedition  into 
 Sicily,  he  met  with  equal  ill  success.  {Dwd.  Sic,  14, 
 95.)  He  fell  at  last  in  battle  against  Dionysius,  B.C. 
 383.  {Diod.  Sic.,  15,  15.)— II.  Son  of 'the  prece- 
 ding, succeeded  him  in  the  command  of  the  Cartha- 
 giinan  fleet  B.C.  383.  He  defeated  Dionysius  in  a 
 great  battle,  in  which  the  latter  lost  more  than  14,000 
 men,  and  compelled  him  to  sue  for  peace  and  pay 
 1000  talents  to  the  Carthaginians.  A  considerable 
 lime  after  this,  he  came,  at  the  head  of  150  vessels, 
 with  60,000  men,  to  take  possession  of  Syracuse, 
 which  was,  according  to  agreement,  delivered  up  to 
 him  by  Icetes,  excepting  the  citadel,  which  was  held 
 by  the  forces  of  Timoleon.  No  final  advantage,  how- 
 ever, accrued  to  Carthage ;  for  Mago,  suspecting 
 treachery  on  the  part  of  his  new  ally,  and  having  long 
 wished  for  a  pretence  to  depart,  weighed  anchor  on  a 
 sudden  and  sailed  back  to  Africa,  "  shamefully  and 
 unaccountably,"  says  Plutarch,  "  suffering  Sicily  to  slip 
 out  of  his  hands."  {Plut.,  Vtt.  Timol.) — III.  Grand- 
 father of  the  great  Hannibal.  He  succeeded  Mago  in 
 the  command  of  the  Carthaginian  fleet,  and  made 
 himself  conspicuous  for  the  rigid  discipline  which  he 
 introduced.  The  Carthaginian  senate,  fearing  lest 
 Pyrrhus  might  quit  Italy  in  order  to  seize  upon  Sicily, 
 sent  Mago,  at  the  head  of  120  vessels,  to  ofter  aid  to 
 the  Romans,  in  order  that  the  King  of  Epirus  might 
 find  sufficient  eniploy.ment  for  his  arms  in  Italy.  The 
 offer,  however,  was  declined.  Mago  was  succeeded 
 by  his  two  sons  Hasdrubal  and  Hamilcar.  {Justin, 
 18,  2,  seqq.— Id.,  19,  1.)— IV.  Son  of  Hamilcar  and 
 brother  of  Hannibal.  He  commanded  an  ambuscade 
 at  the  battle  of  Trebia  {Liv.,  21,  54),  and  was  also 
 present  at  the  battle  of  Cannas,  B.C.  216.  Having 
 been  sent  to  Carthage  to  carry  the  news  of  the  latter 
 victory,  he  is  said  to  have  poured  out  in  the  vestibule 
 of  the  senaie-house  the  golden  rings  obtained  from 
 the  fingers  of  the  Roman  knights  who  had  fallen  in 
 the  battle.  These,  when  measured,  filled,  according 
 to  the  common  account,  three  modii  and  a  half; 
 though  Livy,  with  true  national  feeling,  states  that 
 there  was  another  and  more  correct  tradition,  which 
 made  the  rings  to  have  filled  not  much  more  than  a 
 single  modius.  (Lw.,23,  12.)  The  modius  contain- 
 ed a  little  over  one  gallon,  three  quarts  dry  measure. 
 Mago  was  subsequently  sent  into  Spain,  where  he  was 
 defeated  by  the  Scipios  at  Iliturgis  {Liv.,  23,  49), 
 bur  he  afterward  joined  his  forces  with  those  of  Asdru- 
 bal  the  son  of  Gisgo,  and  defeated  and  slew  Publius 
 Scipio.  At  a  later  period,  he  was  himself  again  de- 
 feated along  with  Hanno,  Asdrubal's  successor,  by  Si- 
 lanus,  the  lieutenant  of  Scipio.  {Livy,  28,  2.)  On 
 fleeing  to  Gades,  he  was  ordered  by  the  Carthaginian 
 senate  to  cross  over  with  a  fleet  to  Sicily,  and  carry 
 succours  to  Hannibal.  He  conceived  thereupon  the 
 bold  design  of  seizing  upon  Carthago  Nova  as  he 
 sailed  along.  Failing,  however,  in  this,  he  was  obliged 
 to  slop  at  the  Balearic  Islands  in  order  to  procure  new 
 levies.  Here  he  made  himself  master  of  the  smaller 
 island  of  the  two  (the  modern  Minorca),  and  fortified 
 and  gave  his  name  to  the  harbour.  {Vid.  Magonis 
 Portus.)  The  following  summer  Mago  landed  on  the 
 coast  of  Liguria,  with  12,000  foot  and  200  horse,  took 
 Genua  by  surprise,  and  made  himself  master  also  of 
 the  harbour  and  town  of  Savo,  and  was  soon  at  the 
 head  of  a  numerous  army,  by  the  junction  of  a  po^"' 
 ful  body  of  Gauls  and  Ligurians  with  his  forces.  Held, 
 however,  in  check  by  the  consul  Cethegus,  who  prevent, 
 ed  him  from  uniting  with  Hannibal,  he  turned  his  arms  m 
 a  different  direction,  and  penetrated  into  Insubria,  bul 
 he  was  severely  wounded  in  battle  with  the  Romans. 
 He  reached,  however,  Liguria  by  an  able  retreat,  and 
 there  met  an  order  from  the  senate  at  home,  requiring 
 him  to  return  immediately  to  Carthage,  then  menaced 
 
 785 
 
M  AL 
 
 MAM 
 
 by  Scipio.  He  embarked  his  troops  and  set  sail,  but 
 died  of  his  wound  at  the  island  of  Sardinia,  B.C.  203. 
 (Liv.,  30,  18.)  Cornelius  Nepos  difi'ers  from  other 
 writers  as  to  the  manner  of  his  death,  and  says  that  he 
 either  perished  by  shipwreck  or  was  murdered  by  his 
 servants.  (Nep.,  Vit.  Hanmb.,  c.  8.) — V.  A  Cartha- 
 ginian who  wrote  a  work  on  agriculture  in  the  Punic 
 tongu-i,  which  was  translated  into  Latin  by  order  of 
 the  R:man  senate.  It  was  in  twenty-eight  books  ac- 
 cording to  Varro.  The  latter  informs  us  also,  that  it 
 was  translated  into  Greek  by  Cassius  Dionysius  of 
 Utica,  who  made  twenty  books  of  it ;  and  that  it  was 
 still  farther  condensed  by  Diophanes  of  Bithynia,  who 
 brought  it  down  to  six  books.    {Varro,  Dc  R.  R.,\,  1.) 
 
 Magon,  a  river  of  India  falling  into  the  Ganges. 
 According  to  Mannert,  the  modern  name  is  the  Ram- 
 gonga.     {Geogr.,  vol.  5,  pt.  1,  p.  92.) 
 
 Maharbal,  a  Carthaginian  officer  in  the  army  of 
 Hannibal,  appointed  to  carry  on  the  siege  of  Sagun- 
 tum  when  Hannibal  marched  against  the  Cretani  and 
 Garpetani.  {Liv.,  21,  12.)  After  the  battle  of  the 
 Lake  Trasymenus  in  Italy,  he  was  sent  in  pursuit  of 
 the  flying  Romans.  (L(y.,  22,  6.)  At  the  battle  of 
 Cannas  he  commanded  the  cavalry,  and  strenuously 
 advised  Hannibal,  after  the  latter  had  gained  his  deci- 
 sive victory,  to  march  at  once  upon  Rome.  {Liv.,  22, 
 51.— 7rf.,  23,  18.) 
 
 Maia,  daughter  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  and  the  moth- 
 er of  Mercury  by  Jupiter.  She  was  one  of  the  Plei- 
 ades ;  and  the  brightest  of  the  number,  according  to 
 some  authorities :  others,  however,  more  correctly 
 make  Halcyone  the  most  luminous.  {Vid.  Pleiades, 
 and  consult  Idder,  Slernnamcn,  p.  146.) 
 
 Majorlvnus,  Julius  Valerius,  grandson  of  the  Ma- 
 jorianus  who  was  master  of  the  horse  in  lUyria  during 
 the  reign  of  Theodosius.  He  distinguished  himself 
 early  as  a  brave  commander  under  Aeiius,  and  at  the 
 death  of  the  latter  he  rose  to  such  distinction  that  he 
 was  elected  Emperor  of  the  West  in  the  room  of  Avi- 
 tus,  whom  he  compelled  to  resign  the  imperial  dignity 
 in  457.  He  was  assassinated  by  Ricimer,  one  of  his 
 generals,  after  a  reign  of  four  years  and  a  half,  at  Der- 
 tona  in  Liguria.     {Fierer,  Lex.  Univ.,  vol.  13,  p.  98.) 
 
 Malea,  I.  a  promontory  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
 the  island  of  Lesbos,  now  Cape  St.  Marie. — II.  A 
 celebrated  promontory  of  the  Peloponnesus,  forming 
 the  extreme  point  to  the  southeast,  and  separating  the 
 Laconic  from  the  Argolic  Gulf.  Strabo  reckons  670 
 stadia  from  thence  to  Tasnarus,  including  the  sinuosi- 
 ties of  the  coast.  Cape  Malea  was  considered  by  the 
 ancients  the  most  dangerous  point  in  the  circumnavi- 
 gation of  the  peninsula,  even  as  early  as  the  days  of 
 Homer.  {Od.,  1,  80  ;  3,  286.)  Hence  arose  the  pro- 
 verbial expression,  "  After  doubling  Cape  Malea  forget 
 your  country."  {Strah.,  378. — Eustath.,  ad  Od.,  p. 
 1468.— Compare  Herod.,  4.  179.— Thucyd.,  4,  53.— 
 Sr.yl.,  p.  17.)  It  is  now  usually  called  Cape  St.  An- 
 gela, but  sometimes  Cape  Malio.  {Cramer'' s  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  196.)— HI.  A  city  of  Phthiotis. 
 (Vid.  Malia.) 
 
 Maleventum,  the  ancient  name  of  Beneventum. 
 {Liv.,  9,  27.) 
 
 Malia,  the  chief  city  of  the  Malienses,  in  the  dis- 
 trict of  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly,  from  which  they  proba- 
 bly derived  their  name.  {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  MaAtEj^-) 
 It  was  near  the  head-waters  of  the  Sinus  Maliacus, 
 now  the  Gulf  of  Zeitoun. 
 
 Maliacus  Sinus,  a  gulf  of  Thessaly,  running  up  in 
 a  northwest  direction  from  the  northern  shore  of  Eii- 
 boea,  and  on  one  side  of  which  is  the  Pass  of  Ther- 
 mopylas.  It  is  noticed  by  several  writers  of  antiquity, 
 such  as  Herodotus  (4,  33),  Thucydidcs  (3,  96),  and 
 Strabo  (432).  It  now  takes  its  name  from  the  neigh- 
 bouring city  of  Zeitoun.  It  should  be  observed  that 
 Livy,  who  often  terms  it  the  Maliacus  Sinus  (27,  30  ; 
 31,  46),  elsewhere  uses  the  appellation  of  .<Enianum 
 786 
 
 Sinus  (38,  5),  which  he  has  borrowed  from  Polybin* 
 (10,42. — Slcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Aivia. —  Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  435). 
 
 Malienses  or  Malii,  the  most  southern  tribe  of 
 Thessaly.  They  are  called  by  the  Attic  writers  Mt;- 
 /lifif,  Melians,  but  in  their  own  Doric  dialect  Ma/iielc. 
 Scylax,  indeed,  seems  to  make  a  distinction  between 
 the  Mt/Xielc  and  Maliclc,  which  is  to  be  found  in  no  oth- 
 er author.  Palmerius  (ad  Sc.yl.,  p.  32)  considers  tho 
 whole  passage  to  be  corrupt.  The  Malians  occupied 
 principally  the  shores  of  the  gulf  to  which  they  com- 
 municated their  name,  extending  as  far  as  the  narrow- 
 est part  of  the  Straits  of  Thermopylae,  and  to  the  val- 
 ley of  the  Sperchius,  a  little  above  its  entrance  into 
 the  sea.  {Herod.,  7,  198.)  They  are  admitted  by 
 ^schines,  Pausanias,  and  Harpocration,  in  their  lists 
 of  the  Amphictyonic  states;  which  was  naturally  to 
 be  expected,  as  this  celebrated  assembly  had  always 
 been  held  in  their  country.  The  Melians  offered  earth 
 and  water  to  Xerxes  in  token  of  submission.  {Herod., 
 7,  132.)  According  to  Herodotus,  their  country  was 
 chiefly  flat :  in  some  parts  the  plains  were  extensive, 
 in  others  narrow,  being  confined  on  one  side  by  the 
 Maliac  Gulf,  and  towards  the  land  by  the  lofty  and  in- 
 accessible mountains  of  Trachinia.  {Cramer'' s  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  435.) 
 
 Malli,  a  people  in  the  southwestern  part  of  India 
 intra  Gangem,  along  the  banks  of  the  Hydraotes. 
 {Strabo,  699.)  It  was  in  attacking  a  fortress  of  the 
 Malli  that  Alexander  was  severely  wounded.  {Phit., 
 Vit.  Alex.)  The  territory  of  this  people  would  seem 
 in  some  degree  to  correspond  to  the  modern  province 
 or  soobah  of  Moultan.  {Vincent's  Voyage  of  Near- 
 chus,  p.  130.) 
 
 Mallos,  a  town  of  Cilicia  Campestris,  eastward 
 from  the  river  Pyramus ;  now  a  small  village  called 
 Malo.     {Mela,  1,  VS.— Curt.,  3,  7.—Lucan,  3,  225.) 
 
 Malthinus,  a  name  occurring  in  Horace  {Serin., 
 1,  2,  27).  It  was  thought  very  effeminate  among  the 
 Romans  to  appear  in  public  with  the  tunic  carelessly 
 or  loosely  gilded.  For  this  Maecenas  was  blamed  ;  and 
 the  question  arises,  whether  Horace  means,  under  the 
 character  of  Malthinus,  to  portray  his  patron,  or  wheth- 
 er the  reference  is  merely  one  of  a  general  nature. 
 Opinions,  of  course,  are  divided  on  this  subject.  At 
 first  view,  it  appears  hardly  probable  that  the  poet 
 would  embrace  such  an  opportunity,  or  adopt  such  a 
 mode,  of  censuring  his  friend  and  benefactor,  one  to 
 whom  he  owed  so  large  a  share  of  his  own  elevation. 
 And  yet,  when  we  take  into  consideration  all  the  cir- 
 cumstances of  the  case,  the  respective  characters  of 
 the  bard  and  his  patron,  as  well  as  the  sincere  and 
 manly  nature  of  the  intimacy  which  existed  between 
 them,  it  would  seem  as  if  this  very  way  of  attacking 
 the  foibles  of  Maecenas  was  the  result  of  a  genuine 
 friendship,  the  applying  a  desperate  remedy  to  a  dis- 
 graceful failing.  But,  it  will  be  asked,  does  not  the 
 presence  of  sfulti  in  the  text  militate  against  this 
 ideal  We  answer,  by  no  means,  if  the  term  be  taken 
 in  a  softened  sense.  Bothe  regards  it  here  as  equiv- 
 alent merely  to  "  qideunqxie  imprudenlcr  aut  inepte 
 agunt,'^  and  this  explanation  derives  support  from  the 
 following  line  of  Afranius  {ap.  Isidor.,  10,  litt.  S.): 
 "  Ego  stullum  met  exislumo,  fatuum  esse  non  opi- 
 nor."  In  addition  to  what  is  here  stated,  we  may  ob- 
 serve, that  the  very  name  of  Malthvivs,  as  indicating 
 an  effeminate  person,  may  contain  a  covert  allusion  to 
 Maecenas,  whose  general  habits  in  this  respect  were 
 known  to  all.  The  word  is  derived  either  from  the 
 Greek  /iiu?Muv,  or  from  tho  old  Latin  term  maltha, 
 equivalent  to  mollis,  and  used,  according  to  Nonius, 
 by  Lucilius. 
 
 Mamertina,  a  name  of  Messana  in  Sicily.  {Vid. 
 MameiUm.— Martial,  13,  ep.  117. — Strab.  7.) 
 
 Mamertini,  a  band  of  Campanian  mercenaries,  ori- 
 ginally employed  in  Sicily  by  Agathocles.  After  having 
 
MAM 
 
 MAN 
 
 been  established  for  some  time  at  Syracuse,  a  tumult 
 arose  between  them  and  the  citizens,  in  consequence 
 of  their  being  deprived  of  the  right  of  voting  at  the 
 election  of  magistrates,  which  they  had  previously  en- 
 joyed. The  sedition  was  at  last  quelled  by  the  inter- 
 ference of  some  of  the  elderly  and  most  influential  cit- 
 izens, and  the  Mamertines  agreed  to  leave  Syracuse 
 and  return  to  Italy.  Having  reached  the  Sicilian 
 straits,  they  were  hospitably  received  by  the  inhabi- 
 tants of  Messana ;  but,  repaying  this  kindness  by  the 
 basest  ingratitude,  they  rose  upon  the  Messanians  by 
 night,  slew  the  males,  took  the  females  to  wife,  and 
 called  the  city  Mamertina.  {Diod.  Sic,  fragm.,  lib. 
 21.)  This  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  Mamertines  led 
 eventually  to  the  first  Punic  War.  {Vid.  Punicum 
 Bellum.) — The  origin  of  the  name  Mamertini  is  said 
 to  have  been  as  follows.  It  was  customary  with  the 
 Oscan  nations  of  Italy,  in  time  of  famine  or  any  other 
 misfortune,  to  seek  to  propitiate  the  favour  of  the 
 gods  by  consecrating  to  them  not  only  all  the  produc- 
 tions of  the  earth  during  a  certain  year,  but  also  all  the 
 male  children  born  during  that  same  space  of  time. 
 Mamers  or  Mars  being  their  tutelary  deity,  they  called 
 these  children  after  him  when  they  had  attained  ma- 
 turity, and,  under  the  general  and  customary  name  of 
 Mamertini,  sent  them  away  to  seek  new  abodes.  (Vid. 
 Mamertium.) 
 
 Mamertium,  a  town  of  the  Bruttii,  northeast  of  Rhe- 
 gium.  It  appears  to  have  been  originally  founded  by 
 a  band  of  Campanian  mercenaries,  who  derived  their 
 name  from  Mamers,  the  Oscan  Mars,  and  are  known 
 to  have  afterward  served  under  Agathocles  and  other 
 princes  of  Sicily.  (Vid.  Mamertini.)  Barrio  and  oth- 
 er native  antiquaries  have  identified  this  ancient  town 
 with  the  site  of  Martorana ;  but  this  place,  which  is 
 situated  between  Nicastro  and  Cosenza,  seems  too 
 distant  from  Locri  and  Rhegium  to  accord  with  Stra- 
 bo's  description.  {Strab.,  361.)  The  majority  of 
 modern  topographers,  with  Cluverius  at  their  head, 
 place  it  at  Oppido,  an  episcopal  see,  situate  above 
 Reggio  and  Gcrace,  and  where  old  coins  appertaining 
 to  the  Mamertini  are  said  to  have  been  discovered. 
 (Cramer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  438.) 
 
 M.\MiLi.i  Lex,  de  limitibus,  ordained  that  there 
 should  be  an  uncultivated  space  of  five  feet  broad  left 
 between  farms,  and  if  any  dispute  happened  about  this 
 matter,  that  a  single  arbiter  should  be  appointed  by  the 
 praetor  to  determine  it.  The  law  of  the  twelve  tables 
 required  three  arbiters. — This  law  was  proposed  by  C. 
 Mamilius  Tuninus,  A.U.C.  642,  who  had  been  consul 
 in  514  A.U.C.  (Consult  Ernesti,  Index  Leg.  ad 
 Cic,  s.  V.  Mamilia. —  Goerenz,  ad  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  1, 
 21.) 
 
 Mamurius  Veturius,  an  artificer  in  the  reign  of 
 Numa.  When  the  Ancile  or  sacred  shield  fell  from 
 heaven,  the  monarch  showed  it  to  ail  the  Roman  ar- 
 tists, and  ordered  them  to  exert  all  their  skill,  and 
 make  eleven  other  shields  exactly  resembling  it.  All 
 declined  the  attempt,  however,  except  Mamurius,  who 
 was  so  successful  in  the  imitation,  and  made  the  other 
 eleven  so  like  unto  it,  that  not  even  Numa  himself 
 could  distinguish  the  copies  from  the  original.  {Vid. 
 Ancile  and  Salii.)  Mamurius  asked  for  no  other  re- 
 ward but  that  his  name  might  be  mentioned  in  the 
 hymn  of  the  Salii,  as  they  bore  along  these  sacred 
 shields  in  procession.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Num. — Ovid,  Fast., 
 3,  392.) 
 
 Mamurra,  a  native  of  Formiae,  of  obscure  oricrin. 
 He  served  under  Julius  Cssar  in  Gaul,  as  Frcpfccliis 
 fabrorum,  and  rose  so  high  in  favour  with  him,  ihat 
 Cffisar  permitted  him  to  enrich  himself  at  the  expense 
 of  the  Gauls  in  any  way  he  was  alile.  Mamurra,  in 
 consequence,  became  possessed  of  enormous  wealth, 
 and  returned  to  Rome  with  his  ill-gotten  riches.  Here 
 he  displayed  so  little  modesty  and  reserve  in  the  em- 
 ployment of  his  fortune,  as  to  have  been  the  first  Ro- 
 
 man that  incrustcd  his  entire  house  with  marble.  Thia 
 structure  was  situate  on  the  Coelian  Hill.  We  have 
 two  epigrams  of  Catullus  against  him,  in  which  he  is 
 severely  handled.  Horace  also  alludes  to  him  with 
 sly  ridicule  in  one  of  his  satires  (1,  5,  87.)  He  calls 
 Formias  "  Mamurrarum  urbs,'"  the  city  of  the  La- 
 mian  line  being  here  named  after  a  race  of  whom  no- 
 thing was  known.     (Vid.  Formise.) 
 
 Mancinus,  C.  Hostilius,  a  Roman  consul,  who, 
 though  at  the  head  of  30,000  men,  was  defeated  and 
 stripped  of  his  camp  by  only  4000  Numantines.  {Liv., 
 Epit.,  55.)  The  remnant  of  the  Roman  army  was  al- 
 lowed to  retire,  upon  their  making  a  treaty  of  peace 
 with  the  Numantians,  but  the  senate  refused  to  ratify 
 the  treaty,  and  ordered  Mancinus  to  he  delivered  up  to 
 the  enemy  ;  but  they  refused  to  receive  him.  Manci- 
 nus thereupon  returned  to  Rome,  and  was  reinstated 
 in  his  rights  of  a  citizen,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  the 
 tribune  P.  Rutilius,  who  asserted  that  he  could  not 
 enjoy  the  right  of  returning  to  his  country,  called  by 
 the  Romans  jits  postlirmmi.  {Cic,  de  Oral. — Com- 
 pare Cic.,de  Off.,  3,  bO.—  Flor.,  2,  18.— /(/.,  3,  14.— 
 Veil.  Faterc,  2,  1. — Duker,  ad  FLor.,  I.  c) 
 
 Mand.ine,  a  daughter  of  King  Astyages,  and  moth- 
 er of  Cyrus  the  elder.     {Vid.  Astyages.) 
 
 Mandela,  a  village  in  the  country  of  the  Sabines, 
 near  Horace's  farm.  The  poet  alludes  to  its  cold 
 mountain  atmosphere.  It  is  now  perhaps  Bardela. 
 {Horat.,  Ep.,  1,  18,  105.) 
 
 Mandubii,  a  people  of  Celtic  Gaul,  clients  of  the 
 .(Edui,  whose  chief  city  was  Alesia,  now  Alise.  Their 
 territory  answered  to  what  is  now  the  department  de 
 la  Cote  d'or.     {Lemaire,  hid.  Geogr.,  ad  Ctzs.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Manduria,  a  city  of  Apulia,  nearly  half  way  be- 
 tween Brundisium  and  Tarentum.  It  still  retains  Us 
 ancient  name.  This  otherwise  obscure  town  has  ac- 
 quired some  interest  in  history  from  having  witnessed 
 the  death  of  Archidamus,  king  of  Sparta,  the  son  of 
 Agesilaus.  He  had  been  summoned  by  the  Taren- 
 tines  to  aid  them  against  the  Messapians  and  Lucani- 
 ans,  but  even  his  bravery  was  insufficient  to  subdue 
 their  foes.  He  fell  in  the  conflict,  and  his  body,  as 
 Plutarch  relates,  remained  in  possession  of  the  enemy, 
 notwithstanding  the  large  offers  made  by  the  Taren- 
 tines  to  recover  it.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the 
 only  instance  in  which  a  Spartan  king  was  debarred 
 the  rites  of  burial.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Agid. — Athen.,  12, 
 9. — Strabo,  280.)  Manduria  was  taken  by  the  Ro- 
 mans in  the  second  Punic  war.  {Liv.,  27,  15.)  A 
 curious  well  is  described  by  Pliny  as  existing  near 
 this  town.  According  to  his  account,  its  water  always 
 maintained  the  same  level,  whatever  quantity  was 
 added  to  or  taken  from  it.  {Plm.,  2,  103.)  This  phe- 
 nomenon may  still  be  observed  at  the  present  day. 
 {Sioinbiirne''s  Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  222.) 
 
 Manetho  {MdveOuc,  Maveru,  Mavalduv,  Maveduv), 
 a  celebrated  Egyptian  writer,  a  native  of  Diospolis, 
 who  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Phil- 
 adelphus,  at  Mende  or  Heliopolis,  and  to  have  been  a 
 man  of  great  learning  and  wisdom.  {JEUan,  de  An., 
 10,  16.)  He  belonged  to  the  priest-caste,  and  was 
 himself  a  priest,  and  interpreter  or  recorder  of  religious 
 usages,  and  of  the  sacred,  and  probably,  also,  historical 
 writings,  with  the  title  of  'lepoypofjfiarevc.  It  a[)iiears 
 probable,  however,  that  there  were  more  than  one  in- 
 dividual of  this  name ;  and  it  is  therefore  doubtful 
 whether  all  the  works  which  were  attributed  by  an- 
 cient writers  to  Manetho,  were  in  reality  written  by 
 the  Manetho  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
 delphus.  Manetho  wrote  a  history  of  Egypt  (Kiyvirri- 
 am)  in  three  books,  in  which  he  gave  an  account  of 
 this  country  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  death  of 
 Darius  Codomanus,  the  last  king  of  Persia.  There  is 
 every  reason  for  supposing  that  this  was  written  by 
 the  Manetho  who  lived  under  Philadelphus.  Consid- 
 erable frairments  are  preserved  in  the  treatise  of  Jose- 
 °  787 
 
MANETHO. 
 
 MAN 
 
 phus  against  Apioii ;  but  still  greater  portions  in  the 
 "  Chronicles"  ol  George  Syncellus,  a  monk  of  the  ninth 
 century.  The  "  Chronicles"  of  Syncellus  were  prin- 
 cipally compiled  from  the  "  Chronicles"  of  Julius  Af- 
 ricanus  and  from  Eusebius,  both  of  whom  made  great 
 use  of  Manetho's  "  History."  The  work  of  Africanus 
 is  lost  ;  and  we  only  possess  a  Latin  version  of  that  of 
 Eusebius,  which  was  translated  out  of  the  Armenian 
 version  of  the  Greek  text  preserved  at  Constantinople. 
 Manetho  indicates  as  his  principal  sources  of  informa- 
 tion certain  ancient  Egyptian  chronicles,  and  also,  if 
 Syncellus  has  rightly  comprehended  his  meaning,  the  in- 
 scriptions which  Thoth,  or  the  first  Hermes,  had  traced, 
 according  to  him,  in  the  sacred  language,  on  columns. 
 We  say,  if  Syncellus  has  rightly  comprehended  him, 
 because  it  appears  that  the  passage,  in  which  Manetho 
 speaks  of  the  columns  of  Egypt,  has  not  been  taken 
 from  his  history  of  Egypt,  but  from  another  work  of  a 
 mystic  character,  entitled  Sothis.  The  inscriptions 
 just  referred  to,  as  having  been  written  in  the  sacred 
 dialect,  Agathodasmon,  son  of  the  second  Hermes,  and 
 father  of  Taut,  had  translated  into  the  vulgar  dialect, 
 and  placed  among  the  writings  deposited  in  the  sanc- 
 tuary of  a  temple.  Manetho  gives  the  list  of  thirty 
 dynasties  or  successions  of  kings  who  reigned  in  the 
 same  city  ;  for  thus  are  we  to  understand  the  word 
 dynasty,  which,  in  Manetho,  is  not  synonymous  with 
 reigning  family.  Hence  some  of  his  dynasties  are 
 composed  of  several  families.  The  thirly-one  lists  of 
 Manetho  contain  the  names  of  113  kings,  who,  ac- 
 cording to  them,  reigned  in  Egypt  during  the  space  of 
 4465  years.  As  we  cannot  reconcile  this  long  dura- 
 tion of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  with  the  chronology  of 
 the  Scriptures,  some  writers  have  hence  taken  occasion 
 to  throw  discredit  on  Manetho,  and  have  placed  him 
 in  the  class  of  fabulous  historians.  (Compare,  in  par- 
 ticular, Pelav.,  Doctr.  Temp.,  lib.  9,  c.  15.)  A  circum- 
 stance, however,  which  would  seem  to  claim  for  this  his- 
 torian some  degree  of  co.nfidence  is,  that  the  succession 
 of  kings,  as  given  by  him,  does  not  by  any  means  corre- 
 spond to  the  pretensions  of  the  more  ancient  priests  of 
 Egypt,  who  enumerated  to  Herodotus  a  list  of  monarchs 
 which  would  make  the  duration  of  the  kingdom  of  Egypt 
 exceed  30,000  years  I  We  know  also,  from  Josephus, 
 that  Manetho  corrected  many  things  in  Herodotus 
 which  betrayed  a  want  of  exactness.  Larcher  accuses 
 Manetho  of  having  been  a  mere  flatterer  of  the  Ptol- 
 emies. {Hisl.  d' Herod.,  vol.  7,  p.  323.)  But  the  lat- 
 ter has  found  a  defender  in  M.  Dubois-Ayme.  {De- 
 scription de  VEgypte,  vol.  1,  p.  301.)  Other  and 
 more  equitable  cncics,  such  as  Calvisius,  Usher,  and 
 Capellus,  have  endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  chronol- 
 ogy of  Manetho  with  that  of  the  Scriptures,  by  reject- 
 ing as  fabulous  merely  the  first  fourteen,  fifteen,  or 
 sixteen  dynasties.  Marsham,  however,  was  the  first 
 to  accomplish  this  end,  and  that,  too,  without  re- 
 trenching any  part  of  Manelho's  catalogue.  {Chron- 
 icits  Canon  JEgypliacus,  Hchraicus,  Grcecus,  Land., 
 1672,  fol.)  He  has  made  it  appear,  that  the  first  sev- 
 enteen dynasties  of  Manetho  might  have  reigned  si- 
 multaneously in  diiTereut  parts  of  Egypt,  and  that  thus 
 the  interval  of  time  between  Mcnes  (whom  Marsham 
 believes  to  have  been  Ham,  the  son  of  Noah),  and  the 
 end  of  the  reign  of  Ainasis,  is  only  1819  years.  Two 
 great  men  of  the  17th  century,  Newton  and  Bossuct, 
 have  approved  of  the  system  of  Marsham  :  and  yet  it 
 would  certainly  seem  to  be  faulty,  in  placing,  contra- 
 ry to  all  probability,  the  commencement  of  the  Egyp- 
 tian monarchy  immediately  after  the  deluge,  and  in 
 limitincr  to  1400  years  the  jieriod  that  elapsed  between 
 Menes  and  Sesoslris.  To  remove  these  inconvenien- 
 ces, Pezron,  giving  the  preference  to  the  chronology 
 of  the  Septuagint,  modified  the  system  of  Manetho, 
 by  reckoning  2619  years  from  Menes  to  Nectanebus, 
 the  last  king  of  the  30th  dynasty  of  Manetho.  He 
 places  Menes  648  years  after  the  deluge,  at  the  epoch 
 788 
 
 of  Debora.  Whichever  of  these  systems  may  be  the 
 true  one,  it  would  seem  that  even  though  the  chro- 
 nology of  Manetho  presents  some  difficulties,  we  ought 
 not  for  that  reason  lo  refuse  him  all  confidence  as  an 
 historian.  As  Cambyses  had  destroyed,  or  transport- 
 ed into  Persia,  the  ancient  documents  of  Egyptian 
 history,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  priests  of 
 Egypt  replaced  them  by  new  chronicles,  in  which 
 they  must  necessarily  have  committed,  without  in- 
 tending it,  some  very  great  errors.  It  is  from  these 
 erroneous  sources  that  Manetho  would  appear  to  have 
 drawn,  in  good  faith,  his  means  of  information.  It 
 is  no  easy  matter,  however,  after  all,  to  ascertain  the 
 real  value  of  Manetho's  "  History,"  in  the  form  in 
 which  it  has  come  down  to  us.  The  reader  may 
 judge  of  the  use  that  has  been  made  of  it  for  Egyp- 
 tian chronology,  by  referring  to  Rask's  AUe  Mgyplis- 
 che  Zeilrechnung  (Alfona,  1830)  ;  to  the  works  of 
 Champollion,  Wilkinson's  Topography  of  Thebes,  and 
 the  other  authorities  which  will  be  indicated  by  a  ref- 
 erence to  these  works.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  14, 
 p.  379.) — Besides  this  work,  Manetho  wrote  some 
 others,  which  are  lost.  These  were,  1 .  'lepu  BiS'Aog 
 ("  Sacred  Book''),  treating  of  Egyptian  theology. — 2. 
 Bifj?iog  rz/f  Stj^fcjf  ("  Book  of  Sothis"),  an  astronom- 
 ical, or,  rather,  astrological  work,  addressed  to  Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus. —  3.  ^vaiKuv  hKiTojifj  Q' Epitome  of 
 Physics"). — 4.  A  poem,  in  six  cantos,  which  has 
 come  down  to  us  under  the  title  of  ' ATToreXeafiaTiKd, 
 and  treats  of  the  influence  of  the  stars.  It  is  evident- 
 ly the  production  of  a  much  later  age,  as  Holstensius 
 thought,  and  as  Tyrwhitt  has  demonstrated.  (Com- 
 pare Hcy7ie,  Opusc.  Acad.,  vol.  1,  p.  95.)  Among 
 the  works  published  by  the  credulous  Nanni,  of  Vi- 
 terbo,  there  is  a  Latin  one  ascribed  to  Manetho,  and 
 entitled  "  Dc  Regibus  Mgypti." — The  fragments  of 
 Manetho  have  been  collected  by  Joseph  Scaliger,  and 
 published  in  his  treatise  "  De  Emendalione  Tempo- 
 rum.''''  {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  215,  seqq.) 
 The  'ATvoreXeafiaruid  were  first  edited  by  Gronovius, 
 Lugd.  Bat.,  1608,  4to.  There  is  a  later  edition,  by 
 Axtius  and  Rigler,  Colon.,  1832,  8vo.  In  Ruperti's 
 and  Schlichthorst's  "  Neucs  Magazin  fur  Schullehr- 
 cr,"  G'olting.,  1793  (vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  90,  seqq.),  there 
 is  a  dissertation  of  Ziegler's  on  the  ' A.noTc7ieaiiaTiKa, 
 in  which  he  undertakes  to  show  that  this  poem  was 
 written  after  the  time  of  Augustus.  {Hoffmann,  Lex. 
 Bibliogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  76.) 
 
 Manilia  Lex,  I.  by  Manilius  the  tribune,  A.U.C. 
 687,  for  conferring  on  Pompey  the  charge  of  the  war 
 against  Mithradates.  Its  passage  was  supported  by 
 Cicero,  who  was  then  prajtor,  and  also  by  Julius  Cs- 
 sar,  but  from  different  views.  {Vid.  Pompeius.) — II. 
 Another,  by  the  same,  that  freedmen  might  vote  in  all 
 the  tribes,  whereas  formerly  they  voted  in  some  one  of 
 the  four  city  tribes  only.  This  law,  however,  did  not 
 pass.     {Cic,  pro  Murcen.,  23.  —  Ernesti,  Ind.  Lex., 
 
 s.  V.) 
 
 Manilius,  I.  Marcus  or  Caius,  a  Latin  poet,  known 
 only  by  his  poem  entitled  Astronoviica,  in  five  books. 
 The  manuscripts  do  not  agree  about  the  name  of  this 
 poet;  some  of  them  calling  him  Manlius,  others  Mal- 
 lius.  Bentley  believed  him  to  have  been  born  in  Asia. 
 Two  reasons  led  him  to  entertain  this  opinion  ;  the 
 strange  construction  which  appears  in  some  of  the 
 verses  of  Manilius,  and  the  improbability  that,  at  the 
 period  when  this  poet  ap))eared,  the  Romans  paid  any 
 great  attention  to  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  and 
 the  lessons  of  astrology.  It  is  true,  the  fourth  book 
 of  the  poem  contains  two  verses  (the  41st  and  776th) 
 in  which  Manilius  speaks  of  Rome  as  his  city;  but 
 these  two  lines  are  boldly  declared  by  the  great  Eng- 
 lish critic  to  be  interpolated.  He  endeavours  to  make 
 it  appear  that  the  author  of  the  Astronomica  is  neither 
 the  astrologer  Manilius  of  whom  Pliny  speaks  (35,  17), 
 nor  the  mathematician  of  the  same  name,  of  whom,  on 
 
MAN 
 
 MAN 
 
 another  occasion,  he  makes  mention  (36,  10).  Bent- 
 Jey  believes  that  the  poet  is  to  be  placed  in  the  age  of 
 Augustus  ;  but  he  has  no  other  ground  for  this  belief 
 than  the  observation  which  he  has  made,  that  Manilius 
 never  uses  the  genitive  termination  ii.  {auxilii,  ingemi, 
 imperil,  &c.),  but  the  contracted  form  in  i  {anxili, 
 ingeni),  which  marks  a  writer  of  the  Augustan  age. 
 Propertius  among  the  poets  first  used  the  form  in  li. 
 —  The  poem  of  Manilius  is  unfinished.  The  five 
 books  which  are  e.Ktant  treat  principally  of  the  fi.xed 
 stars  ;  but  the  poet  promises,  in  many  parts  of  his  work, 
 to  orive  an  account  of  the  planets.  The  language  is 
 in  many  instances  marked  by  great  purity,  many  po- 
 etic beauties  appear,  and  the  whole  betrays  no  incon- 
 siderable degree  of  talent  in  managing  a  subject  of 
 so  dry  and  forbidding  a  nature.  It  appears  from  many 
 parts  of  the  work  that  Manilius  was  a  stanch  adherent 
 of  the  Stoic  philosophy.  The  best  editions  are,  that 
 of  Bentley,  Land.,  1739,  4to,  and  that  of  Stoeber, 
 Argent,.,  1767,  8vo.  (Scholl,  Lit.  Romaine,  vol.  1, 
 p.  276.) — II.  An  epigrammatic  poet,  one  of  whose 
 epigrams  is  cited  by  Varro.  {Anth.  hat.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 673.)— III.  Manius,  a  Roman  consul,  A.U.C.  60.5. 
 He  left  a  work  qn  the  Civil  Law,  and  another  entitled 
 Manila  Monumcnta.  {Scholl,  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 182.) 
 
 Manlics,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
 patrician  gentes  of  Rome.  Those  most  worthy  of 
 notice  are  :  I.  Marcus  Manlius  Capitolinus,  who  was 
 consul  B.C.  390  {Liv.,  .5,  31),  and  was  the  means  of 
 preserving  the  Capitol  when  it  was  nearly  taken  by 
 the  Gauls  {Liv.,  5,  47),  from  which  e.xploit  he  re- 
 ceived the  surname  of  Capitolinus.  He  afterward  be- 
 came a  warm  supporter  of  the  popular  party  against 
 his  own  order,  and  particularly  distinguished  himself 
 by  the  liberality  with  which  he  assisted  those  who 
 were  in  debt.  He  publicly  sold  one  of  his  most  val- 
 uable estates,  and  declared  that,  as  long  as  he  had  a 
 single  pound,  he  would  not  allow  any  Roman  to  be 
 carried  into  bondage  for  debt.  In  consequence  of 
 his  opposition  to  the  patrician  order,  he  was  accused 
 of  aiming  at  kingly  power.  The  circumstances  at- 
 tending his  trial  and  death  are  involved  in  much  ob- 
 scurity. It  would  appear  that  he  was  accused  before 
 ths  centuries  and  acquitted  ;  and  that  afterward,  see- 
 ing that  the  patrician  order  were  bent  on  his  destruc- 
 tion, he  seized  upon  the  Capitol  and  prepared  to  de- 
 fend it  by  arms.  In  consequence  of  this,  CamiUus, 
 his  personal  enemy,  was  appointed  dictator,  and  the 
 curiae  (i.  e.,  the  patrician  assembly)  condemned  him 
 to  death.  According  to  Livy,  who  implies  that  Man- 
 lius did  not  take  up  arms,  he  was  thrown  down  from 
 the  Tarpeian  rock  by  the  tribunes  ;  but  Niebuhr  sup- 
 poses, from  a  fragment  of  Dio  Cassius  (lib.  31),  com- 
 pared with  the  narrative  of  Zonaras  (7,  24),  that  he 
 was  treacherously  pushed  down  from  the  rock  by  a 
 slave,  who  iiad  been  hired  for  that  purpose  by  the  pa- 
 trician party.  {Rom.  Hisl.,  vol.  2,  p.  610,  scq.,  Eng. 
 iransl.)  The  house  which  Manlius  had  occupied  was 
 razed  to  the  ground  ;  and  the  Manlian  gens  resolved 
 that  none  of  its  patrician  members  should  again  bear 
 the  name  of  Marcus.  Manlius  was  put  to  death  B.C. 
 381. — II.  Titus  Manlius  Capitolinus  Torquatus,  was 
 son  of  L.  Manlius  surnamed  Iinperiosus,  who  was  dic- 
 tator B.C.  361.  When  his  father  Lucius  was  accused 
 by  the  tribune  Pomponius,  on  account  of  his  cruelty 
 towards  the  soldiers  under  his  command,  and  also  for 
 keeping  his  son  Titus  among  his  slaves  in  the  coun- 
 try, Titus  is  said  to  have  obtained  admittance  to  the 
 house  of  Pomponius  shortly  before  the  trial,  and  to 
 have  compelled  him,  under  fear  of  death,  to  swear  that 
 he  would  drop  the  prosecution  against  his  father. 
 This  instance  of  filial  affection  is  said  to  have  opera- 
 ted so  strongly  in  his  favour,  that  he  was  appointed  in 
 the  same  year,  B.C.  359,  one  of  the  military  tribunes 
 {.Liv.,  7,  4,  scq.—Cic,  dc  Off.,  3,  31.)     In  the  fol- 
 
 lowing year  Manlius  distinguished  himself  by  slaying, 
 in  single  combat,  a  Gaul  of  gigantic  size,  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Anio.  In  consequence  of  his  taking  a  chain 
 {torques)  from  the  dead  body  of  his  opponent,  he  re- 
 ceived the  surname  of  Torquatus.  {Liv.,  7,  10.) 
 Manlius  filled  the  office  of  dictator  twice,  and  in  both 
 instances  before  he  had  been  elected  consul :  once  in 
 order  to  conduct  the  war  against*the  Csrites,  B.C. 
 351  ;  and  the  second  time  in  order  to  preside  at  the 
 comilia  for  the  election  of  consuls,  B.C.  346.  {Liv., 
 7,  19,  scqq.)  Manlius  was  consul  at  least  three  times. 
 {Cic,  de  Off.,  3,  31.)  In  his  third  consulship  he  de- 
 feated the  Latins,  who  had  formed  a  powerful  con- 
 federacy against  the  Romans.  In  this  same  campaign 
 he  put  his  own  son  to  death  for  having  engaged  in 
 single  combat  with  one  of  the  enemy  contrary  to  his 
 orders.  {Liv.,  8,  5,  scqq.) — III.  Titus  Manlius  Tor- 
 quatus, was  consul  B.C.  235,  and  obtained  a  triumph 
 on  account  of  his  conquests  in  Sardinia.  {Veil.  Pa- 
 terc,  2,  38. — Eutrop.,  3,  3  )  In  his  second  consul- 
 ship, B.C.  224,  he  conquered  the  Gauls.  {Polyb., 
 2,  31.)  He  opposed  the  ransom  of  the  prisoners  who 
 had  been  taken  at  the  battle  of  (Janns.  {Liv  ,  22,  60.) 
 In  B.C.  215  he  defeated  the  Carthaginians  in  Sardin- 
 ia {Liv.,  23,  34,  scqq.),  and  in  212  was  an  unsuc- 
 cessful candidate  for  the  office  of  Pontifex  Ma.ximus. 
 {Liv. ,25,  5.)  In  211  he  was  again  elected  consul, 
 but  declined  the  honour  on  account  of  the  weakness 
 of  his  eyes.  {Liv.,  26,  22.)  In  208  he  was  appointed 
 dictator  in  order  to  hold  the  comitia.  {Liv.,  27,  33.) 
 The  temple  of  Janus  was  closed  during  the  first  con- 
 sulship of  Manlius.  {Liv.,  1,  19. — Veil.  Palerc,  2, 
 38.)— IV.  Cneius  Manlius  Vulso,  was  consul  B.C.  189, 
 and  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  war  against  the 
 Gauls  in  Galatia,  whom  he  entirely  subdued.  An 
 account  of  this  war  is  given  by  Livy  (38,  12,  scqq.) 
 and  Polybius  (22,  16,  scqq.).  After  remaining  in  Asia 
 the  following  year  as  proconsul,  he  led  his  army  home 
 through  Thrace,  where  he  was  attacked  by  the  inhab- 
 itants in  a  narrow  defile,  and  plundered  of  part  of  his 
 booty.  He  obtained  a  triumph  B.C.  186,  though  not 
 without  some  difficulty.  {Lh.,  39,  6. — Encycl.  Us. 
 Knoiol.,  vol.  14,  p.  385,  scq.) 
 
 Mannus,  the  son  of  the  German  god  Tuiston,  of 
 whom  that  nation  believed  themselves  descendants. 
 {Tacit.,  G.,  2.)  The  god  Tuiston  evidently  marks 
 the  stem-name  of  the  Germans  (Tuistones,  Teutones, 
 Deutschen),  and  from  him  comes  forth  the  Man  of  the 
 race,  i.  e  ,  the  Teutonic  race  itself.  (Compare  Man- 
 nert,  Geschichte  der  altcn  Deutschen,  p.  2.) 
 
 Mantinea,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  celebrated 
 cities  of  Arcadia,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Man- 
 tineus,  son  of  Lycaon.  It  was  situate  near  the  centre 
 of  the  eastern  frontier,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Artemisi- 
 us,  on  the  banks  of  the  little  river  Ophis  {Pausan.,  8, 
 8),  and  was  at  first  composed  of  four  or  five  hamlets  ; 
 but  these  were  afterward  collected  into  one  city  {Xen., 
 Hist.  Gr  ,  5,  2,  6,  scqq. — Strab.,  337)^  which  became 
 the  largest  and  most  populous  in  Arcadia  previous  to 
 the  founding  of  Megalopolis.  {Polyb.,  2,  56.)  The 
 Mantineans  had  early  acquired  celebrity  for  the  wisdom 
 of  their  political  institutions  (Polyb.,  6,  43,  1),  and 
 when  the  Cyrcneans  were  distracted  by  factions,  they 
 were  advised  by  an  oracle  to  apply  to  that  people  for 
 an  arbiter  to  settle  their  differences.  Their  request 
 was  granted,  and  accordingly  Demonax,  one  of  the 
 principal  citizens  of  Mantinea,  was  sent  to  remodel  their 
 government.  {Herod.,  4,  161.)  The  Mantineans 
 fought  at  Thermopyte,  but  arrived  too  late  to  share  m 
 the'victory  of  Plataja,  a  circumstance  which,  according 
 to  Herodotus  (9,  77),  produced  so  much  vexation,  that 
 upon  their  return  home  they  banished  their  command- 
 ers. In  the  Peloponncsian  war  thoy  espoused  the 
 Lacedemonian  cause  ;  but  having  taken  offence  at  the 
 conclusion  of  the  treaty  between  that  people  and  the 
 Athenians  after  the  battle  of  Amphipolis,  they  were  in- 
 
 789 
 
MAN 
 
 MAR 
 
 duced  to  form  an  alliance  with  Argos  and  Elis,  with 
 which  confederates  they  finally  made  war  against  Spar-, 
 ta.  {Thucyd..  b,29,  scqq.)  In  the  battle  which  was 
 fought  on  iheir  territory,  ihey  obtained  at  first  a  deci- 
 ded advantage  against  the  Lacedaemonian  troops  op- 
 posed to  ihem ;  but  the  left  wing  of  the  allied  army 
 having  been  routed,  they  were  in  their  turn  vigorously 
 attacked,  and  forced  to  give  way  with  heavy  loss. 
 {Thuci/d.,  5,  66.)  This  ill  success  led  to  the  dissolu- 
 tion of  the  confederacy,  and  induced  the  Mantmeans, 
 not  long  after,  to  renew  their  former  alliance  with  Spar- 
 ta (Thucyd.,  5,  78),  to  which  they  adhered  until  the 
 peace  of  Antalcidas.  At  this  period  the  Lacedaemo- 
 nians, bent  on  strengthening  their  power  in  the  penin- 
 sula to  the  utmost,  peremptorily  ordered  the  Mantineans 
 to  pull  down  their  walls,  or  to  prepare  for  war,  as  the 
 thirty  years'  truce  agreed  upon  between  the  two  states 
 had  now  expired.  On  their  refusal  to  comply  with  this 
 unjust  and  arbitrary  demand,  a  Si)artan  army  enter- 
 ed the  Mantinean  territory,  and  laid  siege  to  the  city. 
 The  inhabitants  defended  themselves  with  vigour,  and 
 might  have  held  out  successfully,  had  not  Agesipolis 
 caused  the  waters  of  the  river  Ophis  to  be  diverted 
 from  their  channel,  and  directed  against  the  walls  of 
 the  town,  which,  being  of  brick,  were  easily  demolish- 
 ed. By  this  jVIantinea  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Spar- 
 tans, who  destroyed  the  fortifications,  and  compelled 
 the  inhabitants  to  change  their  constitution  from  a  de- 
 mocracy to  an  oligarchy,  and  to  separate,  as  formerly, 
 into  four  townships.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  5,  2,  7. — Pau- 
 san.,  8,  8.—Polyh.,  4,  27.)  After  the  battle  of  Leuc- 
 tra,  however,  the  Mantineans,  under  the  protection  of 
 Thebes,  again  united  their  population  and  refortified 
 their  city,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  Lace- 
 demonians. {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  5,  5.)  Mantinea  ac- 
 quired additional  celebrity  from  the  great  but  undeci- 
 sive battle  fought  in  its  plains  between  the  Boeotians 
 and  Spartans,  in  which  Epaininondas  terminated  his 
 glorious  career  (B.C.  362)  ;  and  it  continued  to  be  one 
 of  the  leading  cities  of  A  rcadia  till  it  joined  the  Achaean 
 league,  when  it  fell  for  a  short  time  into  the  hands  of 
 the  .^tolians  and  Cleomenes,  but  was  recovered  by 
 Aratus  four  years  before  the  battle  of  Sellasia.  {Po- 
 lybius,  4,  8.  4.)  The  Mantineans  having,  however, 
 again  joined  the  enemies  of  the  Achaeans,  they  treach- 
 erously put  the  garrison  of  the  latter  to  the  sword. 
 (Polyh.,  2,  58,  4  )  This  perfidious  conduct  drew  down 
 upon  them  the  vengeance  of  Antigonus  Doson  and  the 
 Acha;ans,  who,  making  themselves  masters  of  the  city, 
 gave  it  up  to  plunder,  and  sold  all  the  free  population 
 as  slaves  ;  a  chastisement  which  Polybius  considered 
 as  scarcely  equal  to  their  offence,  though  its  cruelty 
 had  been  set  forth  in  strong  colours  by  the  historian 
 Phylarchus.  The  name  of  the  city  was  now  changed 
 to  Antigonea,  in  compliment  to  Antigonus  Doson.  We 
 learn  also  from  Pausanias,  that  the  Mantineans  had 
 merited  the  protection  of  Augustus  from  having  es- 
 poused his  cause  against  Marc  Antony.  Their  town 
 still  continued  to  flourish  as  late  as  the  time  of  Hadri- 
 an, who  abolished  the  name  of  Antigonea  and  restored 
 its  ancient  appellation.— The  site  of  the  famous  battle  of 
 Mantinea  was  about  thirty  stadia  from  the  city,  on  the 
 road  to  Pallantium,  near  a  wood  named  Pelagus.  The 
 tomb  of  Epaininondas  had  been  erected  on  the  spot 
 where  he  breathed  his  last :  it  consisted  originally  of  one 
 pillar  only,  surmounted  by  a  shield  and  a  Bceotian  inscrip- 
 tion ;  but  another  pillar  was  afterward  added  by  the 
 Emperor  Hadrian.  (Pausan.,  8,  U.) — The  ruins  of 
 Mantinea  are  pointed  out  to  modern  travellers  on  the 
 site  now  called  Palaopoli.  (Gell's  I/in.  of  ihe  Morea, 
 [).  14L — Dodivell,  vol.  2,  p.  422. — Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  300,  seqq.) 
 
 Mantinorum  Ohpidum,  a  town  of  Corsica,  placed 
 
 by  Ptolemy  directly  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Vo- 
 
 lerius,  where  was  a  bay  which  now  answers  to  that  of 
 
 S.  Fioremo.     Hence  the  modern  Bastia  will  corre- 
 
 790 
 
 spond  to  the  ancient  town,  for  it  lies  directly  east  of 
 the  bay  just  mentioned.  (Mannerl,  Geogr.,  vol.  9, 
 pi.  2,  p.  519.) 
 
 Manto,  a  daughter  of  the  prophet  Tiresias,  endow- 
 ed with  the  gift  of  prophecy.  She  was  made  prisoner 
 by  the  Argives  when  the  city  of  Thebes  fell  into  their 
 hands  ;  and  as  she  was  the  worthiest  part  of  the  booty, 
 the  conquerors  sent  her  to  Apollo,  the  god  of  Delphi, 
 as  the  most  valuable  present  they  could  make.  Man- 
 to,  often  called  Daphne,  remained  for  some  time  at 
 Delphi,  where  she  gave  oracles.  From  Delphi,  in 
 obedience  to  the  oracle,  she  came  to  Claros  in  Ionia, 
 where  she  established  an  oracle  of  Apollo.  Here  she 
 married  I-ihakius,  the  sovereign  of  the  country,  by 
 whom  she  had  a  son  called  Mopsus.  Manto  afterward 
 visited  Italy,  where  she  married  Tiberinus,  the  king  of 
 Alba,  or,  as  the  poets  mention,  the  god  of  the  river 
 Tiber.  From  this  marriage  sprang  Ucnus,  who  built 
 a  town  in  the  neighbourhood,  which,  in  honour  of  his 
 mother,  he  called  Mantua.  {Schol.  ad  Afoll.  Rhod., 
 1,  mS.—Pausan.,  7,  Z.—Tzetz.,  ad  Lycophr.,  980. 
 —  Virg.,  JEn.,  10,  \^Q,  seqq. — Heyne,  Excurs.,  I,  ad 
 JEn.,  10.  — Mullcr,  Elrusk.,  vol.  1,  p  138.)  The 
 Italian  legend  about  Mantua  evidently  owed  its  origin 
 to  similarity  of  name.  {Keighlley,  Mytliul.,  p.  345, 
 in  not.) 
 
 Mantua,  a  city  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  situate  on  an 
 island  in  the  Mincius,  southeast  of  Brixia,  and  south 
 of  the  lake  Benacus.  It  is  supposed  to  date  its  found- 
 ation long  before  the  arrival  of  the  Gauls  in  Italy. 
 Virgil  tells  us  it  was  of  Tuscan  origin,  and  derived  its 
 name  from  the  prophetess  Manto,  the  daughter  of  Ti- 
 resias. (^E?i.,  10,  199,  seqq. — Compare  the  remarks 
 of  Miiller  on  this  passage,  Etrusker,  vol.  1,  p.  138,  in 
 not.)  Whatever  of  poetical  invention  there  may  have 
 been  in  the  origin  thus  ascribed  to  Mantua,  there  can 
 be  no  doubt  of  its  having  been  a  town  of  considerable 
 note  among  the  Etrurians,  when  they  were  in  posses- 
 sion of  that  part  of  Italy  where  it  was  situated.  The 
 position  of  the  ancient  place  was  not  different  from 
 that  which  the  modern  Mantua  at  present  occupies. 
 That  it  was  not  a  place  of  any  great  size  in  Virgil's  time 
 may  be  collected  from  what  the  poet  himself  says  of  it. 
 (Eclog.,  1,  20.)  Strabo  (213)  classes  it  with  Brixia, 
 Bergomum,  and  Comum,  but  Martial  attaches  to  it 
 the  epithet  of  '^  -parva"  (14,  193).  Its  vicinity  to  Cre- 
 mona was  an  unhappy  circumstance  to  Mantua  ;  for, 
 as  the  territory  of  the  former  city  was  not  found  suf- 
 ficient to  contain  the  veteran  soldiers  of  Augustus, 
 among  whom  it  had  been  divided,  the  deficiency  was 
 supplied  from  the  neighbouring  lands  of  the  latter;  a 
 loss  most  feelingly  deplored  by  Virgil,  though  he  was 
 fortunate  enough  to  escape  from  the  effects  of  this  op- 
 pressive measure.  {Georg.,  2,  198. — Eclog.,  9,  27; 
 1,  47.)  We  are  informed  by  the  grammarian  Dona- 
 tus,  in  his  Life  of  Virgil,  that  this  great  poet  was  born 
 at  Andes,  a  village  near  Mantua.  ( Cramer's  Anc.  Ita- 
 ly, vol.  1,  p.  67,  seqq.) 
 
 Marathon,  a  town  of  Attica,  northeast  of  Athens, 
 and  not  far  from  the  coast.  It  was  said  to  have  been 
 named  from  the  hero  Marathos  (Plvt.,  Vit.  Thcs. — 
 Suid  ,  s.  V.  MapaOuv),  and  was  already  a  place  of  note 
 in  the  days  of  Homer  {Od.,  7,  81.)  From  the  scho- 
 liast of  Sophocles  {(Ed.  Col,  1047),  who  quotes  Phi- 
 lochorus  on  the  Tetrapolis,  we  learn  that  ii  possessed 
 a  temple  consecrated  to  the  Pythian  Apollo.  Demos- 
 thenes re[)orts  that  the  sacred  galley  was  kept  on  this 
 coast,  and  that  on  one  occasion  it  was  captured  by 
 Philip.  {Phil.,  1,  p.  49.)  Eurystheus  was  said  to 
 have  been  defeated  here  by  lolaus  and  the  Heraclidae 
 {Strab.,  377),  and  Theseus  to  have  here  destroved  a  hull 
 by  which  the  country  was  infested.  {Plvt.,  Vit.  Thes. 
 — Strab.,  399.)  Marathon,  however,  is  most  famous 
 for  the  victory  obtained  by  the  Greeks  over  the  Per- 
 sians in  the  plain  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  The  Per- 
 sian army  was  commanded  by  Datis  and  Artaphernes, 
 
MARATHON 
 
 #( 
 
 MAR 
 
 rrtmle  the  Athenians,  who  had  eleven  generals  inclu- 
 ding the  polemarch,  were  for  the  day  under  the  orders 
 of  Miltiades.  According  to  Cornelius  Nepos  (Vit. 
 Miltiad),  the  Persians  were  a  hundred  thousand  effect- 
 ive foot  and  ten  thousand  horse ;  yet  Plato,  mean- 
 ing probably  to  include  the  seamen  and  the  various 
 multitude  of  attendants  upon  Asiatic  troops,  calls  the 
 whole  armament  five  hundred  thousand  ;  and  Trogus 
 Pompeius,  according  to  his  epitomizer  Justin  (2,  9), 
 did  not  scruple  to  add  a  hundred  thousand  more. 
 These  writers,  however,  did  not  perceive  that,  by  en- 
 cumbering the  Persians  with  such  useless  and  un- 
 manageable crowds,  they  were  not  heightening,  but 
 diminishing,  the  glory  of  the  conquerors.  The  Athe- 
 nians numbered  six-and-forty  different  nations  in  the 
 barbarian  host ;  and  the  Ethiopian  arrows,  remains  of 
 which  are  still  found  at  Marathon,  seem  to  attest  the 
 fact  that  Darius  drew  troops  from  the  remotest  provin- 
 ces of  the  empire.  Yet  our  calculations  must  be  kept 
 down  by  the  remark,  that  the  whole  invading  army 
 was  transported  over  the  sea,  according  to  Herodotus, 
 in  600  ships.  This,  on  the  footing  which  he  fixes  else- 
 where, of  200  men  to  each  trireme,  would  give  120,000 : 
 and  we  ought  probably  to  consider  this  as  the  utmost 
 limit  to  which  the  numbers  of  the  invaders  can  reason- 
 ably be  carried.  Those  of  the  Athenians,  including  the 
 Platoeans,  are  uniformly  rated  at  about  10,000.  It  is 
 possible  that  the  number  of  the  tribes  had  some  share  in 
 grounding  this  tradition  :  it  probably  falls  short  of  the 
 truth,  and  certainly  does  not  take  the  slaves  into  ac- 
 count, who  served  most  likely  as  light-armed  troops. 
 When  all  these  allowances  are  made,  the  numerical 
 inequality  will  be  reduced  to  a  proportion  of  five  to  one. 
 — It  is  remarkable,  that,  though  Herodotus  represents 
 the  Persians  as  induced  to  land  at  Marathon  with  a 
 view  to  the  operations  of  their  calvary,  he  does  not 
 say  a  word  either  of  its  movements  in  the  battle,  or  of 
 any  cause  that  prevented  them.  It  seems  not  to  have 
 come  into  action  ;  but  perhaps  he  could  not  learn  by 
 what  means  it  was  kept  motionless.  Yet  there  was 
 a  tradition  on  the  suljject,  probably  of  some  antiquity, 
 which  appears  to  have  assumed  various  forms,  one  of 
 which  was  adopted  by  Nepos,  who  relates,  that  Miltia- 
 des protected  his  flanks  from  the  enemy's  cavalry  by 
 an  abattis  :  a  fact  which  it  may  be  thought  Herodotus 
 could  scarcely  have  passed  over  in  silence  if  it  had 
 been  known  to  him,  but  which  might  have  been  the 
 foundation  of  a  very  obscure  account  of  the  matter, 
 which  is  given  by  another  author.  In  the  explanation 
 of  the  proverb,  x^P'^  Imrei^  (Suidas. —  Cent.,  14,  73, 
 Schotl),  we  read,  that  when  Datis  invaded  Attica,  the 
 lonians  got  upon  the  trees  (1),  and  made  signals  to  the 
 Athenians  that  the  cavalrv  had  gone  away  (wf  elev 
 Xf^P'i  ol  iTTKel^),  and  that  Miltiades,  on  learning  its  re- 
 treat, joined  battle  and  gained  the  victory  ;  which  was 
 the  origin  of  the  proverb,  em  tuv  tt/v  tu^lv  dia^vov- 
 Tuv.  CrhirlwaWs  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  241,  seq.) — The 
 Persians  lost  in  all  six;  thousand  four  hundred  men. 
 Of  the  Athenians  only  one  hundred  and  ninety-two 
 fell  ;  but  among  them  were  the  polemarch  Callima- 
 chiis  ;  Stesibius,  one  of  the  ten  generals  ;  Cynregirus, 
 brother  of  the  poet  jfEschylus,  and  other  men  of  rank, 
 who  had  been  earnest  to  set  an  example  of  valour  on 
 this  trying  occasion.  Cornelius  Nepos  observes  that 
 Marathon  was  ten  miles  from  Athens  ;  but  as,  in  fact, 
 it  is  nearly  double  that  distance,  it  is  probable  that  we 
 ought  to  read  twenty  instead  of  ten.  Pausanias  affirms 
 it  was  half  way  from  Athens  to  Carystus  in  Euboea. 
 In  the  plain  was  erected  the  tumulus  of  those  Atheni- 
 ans who  fell  in  the  battle,  their  names  being  inscribed 
 on  sepulchral  pillars.  Another  tumulus  was  raised 
 for  the  Platasans  and  the  slaves. — Still,  however,  after 
 the  defeat  at  Marathon,  the  Persian  armament  was 
 very  formidable ;  nor  was  Athens  immediately,  by  its 
 glorious  victory,  delivered  from  the  danger  of  that 
 •ubversion  with  which  it  had  been  threatened.     The 
 
 Persian  commanders,  doubling  the  promontory  of  Su- 
 nium,  coasted  along  the  southern  shore  of  Attica,  not 
 without  hope  of  carrying  that  city  by  a  sudden  assaJilt. 
 But  Miltiades  made  a  rapid  march  with  a  large  part  of 
 his  forces  ;  and  when  the  Persians  arrived  off  the  port 
 of  Phalerus,  they  saw  an  Athenian  armv  encamped  on 
 the  hill  of  Cynosarges  which  overlooks  it.  They 
 cast  anchor,  but,  without  attempting  anything,  weigh- 
 ed again  and  steered  for  Asia. — Marathon,  which  still 
 preserves  its  ancient  name,  is  situated,  according  to  a 
 modern  traveller,  "  at  the  northwestern  extremity  of  a 
 valley,  which  opens  towards  the  southeast  into  the 
 great  plain  in  which  the  battle  was  fought.  This  ex- 
 tends along  the  coast  from  the  northeast  to  the  south- 
 west. At  the  extremity  and  near  the  sea  is  seen  the 
 conspicuous  tomb  raised  over  the  bodies  of  the  Athe- 
 nians who  fell  in  the  battle  ;  and  close  to  the  coast 
 upon  the  right  is  a  marsh,  wherein  the  remains  of 
 trophies  and  marble  monuments  are  yet  visible." 
 {Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  7,  p.  23,  LoJid.  ed)  From  a 
 memoir  of  Col.  Squire,  inserted  in  Walpole's  Memoirs 
 (vol.  1,  p.  328),  we  farther  learn,  that  "the  la!id  bor- 
 dering on  the  Bav  of  Marathon  is  an  uninterrupted 
 plain  about  two  miles  and  a  half  in  width,  and  bounded 
 by  rocky,  difficult  heights,  which  enclose  it  at  either 
 extremity.  About  the  centre  of  the  bay  a  small  stream, 
 which  flows  from  the  upper  part  of  the  valley  of  Mara- 
 thon, discharges  itself  into  the  sea  by  three  shallow 
 channels.  A  narrow  rocky  point,  projecting  from  the 
 shore,  forms  the  northeast  part  of  the  bay,  close  to 
 which  is  a  salt  stream  connected  with  a  shallow  lake, 
 and  a  great  extent  of  marsh  land.  The  village  of 
 Marathon  is  rather  more  than  three  miles  from  the  sea. 
 Towards  the  middle  of  the  plain  may  be  seen  a  large 
 tumulus  of  earth,  twenty-five  feet  in  height,  resembling 
 those  on  the  plain  of  Troy."  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  2,- p.  385,  seqq.) 
 
 Marcella,  I.  daughter  of  Claudius  Marcellus  by 
 his  wife  Octavia,  and  sister  to  Marcus  Marcellus. 
 She  was  first  married  to  Apuleius,  and  afterward  to 
 Valerius  Messala.  {-Suclon.,  Vit.  Aug.,  53.)  —  II. 
 The  younger,  daughter  of  Claudius  Marcellus  by  his 
 wife  Octavia,  and  sister  of  the  preceding.  She  was 
 first  married  to  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa,  and  afterward 
 to  M.  Julius  Antonius.     {Sueton.,  Vit.  Aug.,  63.) 
 
 Marcellinus,  Ammianus,  the  last  Latin  writer  that 
 merits  the  title  of  an  historian.  He  was  born  at  An- 
 tioch,  and  lived  under  Justinian  and  his  successors 
 down  to  the  reign  of  Valentinian  II.  A  large  portion 
 of  his  life  was  spent  in  military  service  in  the  Roman 
 armies.  He  performed  campaigns  in  Gaul,  Germany, 
 and  Mesopotamia,  and  accompanied  Julian  on  his  ex- 
 pedition against  the  Persians.  The  modesty  of  Am- 
 mianus,  which  gives  us  but  little  information  relative 
 to  himself,  prevents  us  from  determining  what  rank  he 
 held  in  the  army,  or  wjiat  employment  he  pursued 
 after  quitting  the  profession  of  arms.  It  appears  that 
 he  was  invested  with  the  dignity  of  Comes  rei  pri- 
 vata:  we  find,  m  fact,  in  the  Theodosian  Code  (1.  xli., 
 de  appellat.),  a  rescript  of  the  emperors  Gratian,  Va- 
 lentinian, and  Theodosius,  addressed  to  a  certain  Am- 
 mianus, who  is  decorated  with  this  title.  He  died  at 
 Rome  subsequent  to  A.U.  390.  It  was  probably  m  this 
 city  that,  at  the  age  of  fifty  years,  he  composed  his  his- 
 tory of  the  Roman  emperors,  which  he  entitled  ''  Ke- 
 rum  sestarum  libn  xxxi."  It  commenced  with  the 
 accession  of  Nerva,  A.D.  96.  and  consequently  at  the 
 period  where  the  history  of  Tacitus  terminated.  It  is 
 not  known  whether  Ammianus  pretended  to  write  a 
 continuation  of  that  history,  or  if  any  other  motive 
 induced  him  to  select  the  time  when  this  h'slomn 
 brought  his  work  to  a  close.  It  is  very  probable  hat 
 he  had  no  intention  whatever  of  continuing  1  actus, 
 as  he  not  only  does  not  mention  him,  although  he  cites 
 Sallust  and  other  Roman  writers,  but  also  as  h.s  work 
 shows  no  imitation  whatever  of  the  peculiar  mannei 
 
 ID* 
 
MARCELLINUS. 
 
 M 
 
 ^l 
 
 of  Tacitus.  The  history  of  Ammianus  proceeds  as 
 far  as  378  A.D.  It  embraced,  consequently,  a  period 
 of  282  years  ;  but  the  first  tliirteen  books,  which  con- 
 tained a  sketch  of  the  history  of  256  years  (from  96 
 to  352),  are  lost,  and  we  have  only  the  last  eighteen. 
 These  eighteen,  however,  form  the  most  important 
 part  of  the  labours  of  Ammianus.  In  the  first  thir- 
 teen books  he  merely  arranged  materials  from  writers 
 who  had  gone  before  him  ;  dlthough  it  must  be  ac- 
 knowledged, that  even  this  part  would  have  been  m- 
 teresting  for  us,  as  many  of  the  works  from  which  he 
 selected  are  now  lost.  In  the  eighteen  books,  how- 
 ever, that  remain  to  us,  and  which  it  is  more  than 
 probable  the  copyists  transcribed  separately  from  the 
 rest,  Ammianus  relates  the  events  which  occurred  du- 
 ring his  own  time.  As  he  often  took  an  active  part  in 
 these,  or,  at  least,  was  an  eyewitness  of  most  of  them, 
 he  relates  them  in  the  first  person  :  when  he  details 
 what  did  not  pass  under  his  immediate  inspection,  he 
 is  careful  to  obtain  the  requisite  information  from  those 
 who  are  acquainted  with  the  subject,  and  who  took 
 part  in  the  matter  that  is  related  :  he  does  not  pretend, 
 however,  to  give  a  complete  history  of  his  time,  and 
 he  passes  in  silence  over  events  respecting  which  he 
 has  neither  accurate  information  nor  positive  docu- 
 ments. This  part  of  his  work,  therefore,  is  less  a  his- 
 tory than  what  we  would  call  at  the  present  day  me- 
 moirs of  his  time.  Ammianus  Marcellinus  was  a  well- 
 informed  man,  and  possessed  of  great  good  sense  and 
 e.xcellent  judgment.  No  writer  was  ever  more  entitled 
 to  praise  for  candour  and  impartiality.  He  understood 
 well  the  art  of  clearly  showing  the  connexion  of  events, 
 and  of  painting  in  striking  colours  the  characters  of 
 those  individuals  whom  he  introduces  into  his  narra- 
 tive. In  a  word,  he  would  in  all  probability  have 
 been  an  accomplished  historian  had  his  lot  been 
 cast  in  a  more  favourable  age.  Had  he  lived  in  the 
 golden  period  of  Roman  literature,  the  study  of  good 
 models  and  the  society  of  enlightened  men  would 
 have  perfected  his  historic  talent,  and  have  formed 
 his  style  in  a  purer  mould.  The  latter  would  not, 
 as  is  too  often  the  case  in  Ammianus,  have  been 
 destitute  of  that  simplicity  which  constitutes  one  of 
 the  great  beauties  of  historical  narrative,  nor  over- 
 loaded with  ornaments  and  disfigured  by  turgid  and 
 barbarous  forms  of  expression.  These  faults,  how- 
 ever, in  the  style  of  Ammianus,  find  an  excuse  in 
 the  circumstances  of  his  case.  He  was  a  stranger, 
 and  wrote  in  a  language  not  his  own  ;  neither  did  the 
 busy  life  which  he  had  led  in  camps  permit  him  to  cul- 
 tivate the  talent  for  writing  which  nature  had  bestovved 
 upon  him.  His  good  qualities  are  his  own  ;  his  de- 
 fects are  those  of  the  times  ;  and,  in  spite  of  these  de- 
 fects, his  style  is  conspicuous  among  all  the  writers 
 who  were  contemporary  with  him  for  a  purity  to  which 
 they  could  not  attain. — Ammianus  Marcellinus  is  the 
 last  pagan  historian  ;  for,  notwithstanding  all  that  some 
 maintain  to  the  contrary,  we  have  no  certain  proof  of 
 his  having  been  a  Christian.  A  public  man,  enriched 
 with  the  experience  acquired  amid  the  scenes  of  an 
 active  life,  he  relates  the  events  connected  with  the 
 new  religion  introduced  by  Constantino  with  sang-froid 
 and  impartiality,  and  perhaps  with  the  indifference  of 
 a  man  who  knew  how  to  raise  himself  to  a  point  of 
 view  where  he  could  perceive  naught  but  masses  and 
 results.  He  blames  with  equal  frankness  the  anti- 
 christian  mysticism  of  Julian,  and  the  religious  intol- 
 erance of  Constantius  and  his  bishops.  He  speaks 
 with  respect  both  of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  and 
 the  ceremonies  of  paganism.  A  remarkable  passage 
 occurs  in  the  sixteenth  chapter  of  the  twenty-first  book. 
 After  having  painted  the  bitterness  of  character  and  the 
 cruelties  of  Constantius,  the  historian  adds  :  "  Ckris- 
 tiaitam  rcli!zinncm  absolu/am  et  simpiiccm  anili  siipcr- 
 stitione  confundens ;  in  qua  sr.rutanda  pcrplcxius,  quam 
 convponcnda  gravius,  excitavit  disci  iia  plurima ;  qucB 
 792 
 
 progrcssa  fusius  aluit  concertatione  verhorum  :  ut  ca- 
 lervis  antistilnm  jumentis  publicis  ultra  citroque  dts- 
 curren/ibus,  per  synodos,  qiias  apjicllant,  dum  ritum 
 omnein  ad  suum  traherc  conantur  arbitrium,  rci  vehicu- 
 larice  surxidcrct  nervos."     On  another  occasion  (22, 
 11),  blaming  the  conduct  of  a   bishop,  he  remarks: 
 '■'■  Frnfcssionis  su(t  oblilus,  qua  nihil  nisi  justum  sua- 
 det  el  lene,  ad  delalorum  ausa  feralia  descincebat." 
 — The  narrative  of  Ammianus  is  often  interrupted  by 
 geographical   and    physical   digressions.      The  latter 
 show,  as  might  be  expected,  a  very  slight  acquaint- 
 ance with   principles  ;    but  the  descriptions  of  coun- 
 tries which  he  had  himself  seen  are  extremely  valu- 
 able.    He  is  one  of  the  principal  sources  that  we  have 
 for  the  geography  and  history  of  ancient  Germany,  d 
 country  in  which  he  passed  a  great  number  of  years. 
 We  find  in  him  also  some  excellent  obsei-vations  on 
 the  luxury  and  courts  of  the  Roman  emperors,  on  the 
 vices  which  prevailed  there,  and  on  the  manners  in 
 general  of  the  great.     Gibbon  (c.  26)  candidly  avows 
 his  obligations  to  this  writer  ;    and   from  the  period 
 when  he  can  no  longer  derive  materials  from  Ammia- 
 nus, the  work  of  the  English  historian  loses  a  great 
 portion  of  its  previous  interest.     (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Rom.,  vol   3,  p.  164,  seqq. — Fuhrntan,  Handbuch  der 
 Cla.is.  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  880,  seqq.)  —  The  best  edition 
 of  Ammianus  Marcellinus  is  that  of  Gronovius,  i!/o-(i. 
 Bat.,  1693,  4to.     The  edition  of  Wagner,  completed 
 by  Erfurdt,  Lips.,  1808,  3  vols.  8vo,  is  also  valuable. 
 Marcellus,  I.  Marcus  Claudius,  born  of  a  Ro- 
 man consular  family,  after  passing  through  the  offices 
 of  oedile   and   quaestor,  was   made   consul   B.C.  224. 
 The  Transpadane  Gauls  having  declared  war  against 
 Rome,    Marcellus    marched    against    them,    defeated 
 them   near  Acerra?,  on   the  Addua,  killed  their  king 
 Viridomarus,  and  bore  oflf  his  arms,  the  "  spolia  opi- 
 ma,"  which  were  exhibited  in  his  triumph.      At  the 
 beginning  of  the   second    Punic   war,  Marcellus  was 
 sent  into  Sicily  as  praetor,  to  administer  the  Roman 
 part  of  the  island,  and  had  also  the  task  of  keeping  the 
 Syracusans  firm  in  their  alliance  with  Rome.     After 
 the  battle  of  Cannae,  he  was  recalled  to  Italy  to  oppose 
 Hannibal.     Having  taken  the  command  of  the  relics 
 of  the  Roman  forces  in  Apulia,  he  kept  Hannibal  in 
 check   and   defended   Nola.     In  the  year  214  B.C., 
 being  again  consul,  he  took  Casilinum    by  surprise. 
 He  was  next  sent  to  Sicily,  where  Syracuse  had  de- 
 clared against  Rome.     After  a  siege  of  nearly  three 
 years,  the  city  was  taken  212  B.C.,  and  Marcellus  re- 
 turned to  Rome  with  the  rich  spoils.     It  was  on  occa- 
 sion of  the  taking  of  Syracuse  that  the  celebrated  Ar- 
 chimedes lost  his  life.     Marcellus  did  not,  however, 
 obtain  a  triumph,  but  only  an  ovation,  as  the  war  in 
 Sicily  was  not  entirely  terminated.     In  the  year  210 
 he  was  again  chosen  consul,  and  had  the  direction  of 
 the  war  against  Hannibal  in  Apulia,  when  he  took  the 
 town  of  Salapia,  and   fought  several  partial  engage- 
 ments with  the  Carthaginians,  without  any  defi^nite  re- 
 sult.    In  the  following  year  he  continued  in  command 
 of  the  army,  and   fought  a  battle  against  HanTiibal  at 
 Canusium,  in  which  the   Romans  were  defeated  ami 
 fled.      On  the  following  day  Marcellus  renewed  the 
 fight   and    defeated    the    Carthaginians,    upon    which 
 Hannibal  withdrew  to  the  mountains  of  the   Briittii. 
 In   the   next  year,  B.C.  208,  Marcellus   was  elected 
 consul  for  the  fifth  time  with  T.  Quintus  Crispiiius 
 He  continued  to  carry   on  the  war  against  Hannibal, 
 when,  being  encamped  near  Venusia,  he  rashly  ven 
 tured  out,  fell   into  an  ambuscade  of  advanced  posts, 
 and  was  slain,  in  the  60th  year  of  his  age.     Hannibal, 
 according  to  some  authorities,  caused  his  body  to  be 
 burned  with  military  honours,  and  sent  the  ashes  in  a 
 silver  urn  to  his  son.     According  to  others,  however, 
 he  did  not  even  bestow  upon  the  corpse  the  ordinary 
 rites  of  burial.     (Plut.,  Vit.  Marccll.)     Marcellus  was 
 one  of  the  most  distinguished  Roman  commanders 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 during  the  second  Punic  war,  and  was  accustomed  to 
 be  called  *,he  sword  of  the  Romans,  as  Fabius  was 
 denominated  their  shield.  We  have  a  life  of  him  by 
 Plutarch. — II.  Marcus  Claudius,  held  the  consulship 
 witli  Servius  Sulpicius,  B.C.  51.  He  was  remarkable 
 for  his  attachment  to  republican  principles,  and  his 
 uncompromising  hostility  towards  Caesar;  and  it  was 
 he  who  proposed  to  the  senate  to  recall  that  command- 
 er from  his  province  in  Gaul.  After  the  battle  of 
 Phersalia,  Marcellus  went  into  voluntary  exile,  and 
 was  not  pardoned  by  C*sar  until  some  considerable 
 interval  had  elapsed,  and  then  only  at  the  earnest  in- 
 tercession of  the  senate.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that 
 Cicero  delivered  his  speech  of  thanks  to  Caesar. 
 Marcellus,  however,  did  not  long  survive  to  enjoy  the 
 pardon  th'js  obtained,  having  been  assassinated  by  an 
 adherent  of  his,  P.  Magius  (3ilo.  He  was  then  on  his 
 return  to  Italy.  The  cause  that  prompted  Cilo  to  the 
 act  is  not  known.  Cicero  conjectures  that  the  latter, 
 oppressed  with  debts,  and  apprehending  some  trouble 
 on  that  score  in  case  of  his  return,  had  been  urging 
 Marcellus,  who  was  surety  for  some  part  of  them,  to 
 furnish  him  with  money  to  pay  the  whole,  and  that,  on 
 receiving  a  denial,  he  was  provoked  to  the  madness  of 
 killing  his  patron.  (Cjc,  JEp.  ad  Atl.,  13,  10. — Com- 
 pare Ep.  ad,  Fam.,  4,  12.)  According  to  others, 
 however,  he  was  prompted  to  the  deed  by  seeing  other 
 friends  more  highly  favoured  by  Marcellus  than  him- 
 self {Val.  Max.,0,  11.)  After  stabbing  his  patron, 
 Cilo  slew  himself. — III.  Marcus  Claudius,  commonly 
 known  as  the  "  Young  Marcellus,"  was  the  son  of 
 Octavia  the  sister  of  Augustus,  and  consequently  the 
 nephew  of  the  latter.  Augustus  gave  him  his  daugh- 
 ter Julia  in  marriage,  and  intended  him  for  his  suc- 
 cessor ;  but  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  18,  universally 
 regretted  on  account  of  the  excellence  of  his  private 
 character.  Virgil  has  immortalized  his  memory  by  the 
 beautiful  lines  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  book  of  the 
 .^neid,  and  which  are  said  to  have  drawn  from  Octa- 
 via so  munificent  a  recompense.  (Vid.  Virgilius.) 
 Livia  was  suspected,  though  without  reason,  it  would 
 seem,  of  having  made  away  with  Marcellus,  who  was 
 an  obstacle  to  the  advancement  of  her  son  Tiberius. 
 The  more  ostensible  cause  of  his  death  was  the  inju- 
 dicious application  of  the  cold  bath  by  the  physician 
 Antonius  Musa.     (Vid.  Musa.) 
 
 Marciana,  a  sister  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  who, 
 on  account  of  her  public  and  private  virtues  and  her 
 amiable  disposition,  was  declared  Augusta  and  empress 
 by  her  brother.     She  died  A.D.  113. 
 
 Marcianopolis,  a  city  of  Moesia  Inferior,  to  the 
 west  of  Odessus,  founded  by  Trajan,  and  named  in 
 honour  of  his  sister  Marciana.  {Amm.  Marcell.,  27, 
 4. — Jornaml.,  Get.,  c.  ItJ.)  It  soon  became  an  im- 
 portant place  in  consequence  of  its  lying  on  the  main 
 road  from  Constantinople  to  the  Ister,  and  of  its  being 
 the  place  where  preparations  were  made  for  all  the 
 expeditions  against  the  barbarians  in  this  quarter. 
 When  the  Bulgarians  formed  a  kingdom  out  of  what 
 was  previously  Moesia,  Marcianopolis  became  the  cap- 
 ital, under  the  name  of  Pristhlaha  (UpiadMda. — 
 Anna  Comn.,  p.  194)  or  Prcslaw.  It  still  retains  this 
 name,  and  also  that  of  Eski  Slamboul  with  the  Turks  : 
 the  modern  Greek  inhabitants,  however,  call  it  Mar- 
 cenupoli.  According  to  the  Itin.  Ant.  (p.  228. — Com- 
 pare Theopylact.,  7,  2),  Marcianopolis  was  18  miles 
 to  the  west  of  Odessus.  (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  7, 
 p.  138.) 
 
 Marci.anus,  I.  a  native  of  Thrace,  born  of  obscure 
 parents,  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  He 
 entered  the  army,  and  rose  gradually  by  his  merit 
 to  high  rank,  and  was  made  a  senator  by  Theodosius 
 II.  When  Theodosius  died  (A.D.  450),  his  sister 
 Pulcheria,  then  53  years  old,  offered  her  hand  to  Mar- 
 cianus,  who  was  near  60,  because  she  thought  him 
 capable  of  bearing  the  crown  with  dignity,  and  with 
 5H 
 
 advantage  to  the  state.  Marcianns  married  her,  and 
 was  proclaimed  emperor.  His  reign,  which  lasted 
 little  more  than  six  years,  was  peaceful,  and  his  ad- 
 ministration was  equitable  and  firm.  He  refused  to 
 pay  to  Attila  the  tribute  to  which  Theodosius  had 
 submitted.  In  the  year  455,  Marcianus  acknowledged 
 Avitus  as  Emperor  of  the  West.  Marcianus  died  in 
 457  ;  his  wife  Pulcheria  had  died  before  him.  He 
 was  succeeded  by  Leo  I.  {Encycl.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol. 
 14,  p.  412.)— II.  Capella.     (F?(t.  Capella.) 
 
 Marcomanni,  a  nation  of  Germany,  in  the  south- 
 eastern part  of  the  country.  According  to  some  au- 
 thorities, their  original  seats  were  in  Moravia,  whence, 
 on  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Romans,  they  retired 
 into  what  is  now  Bohemia.  {Veil.  Patcrc,  2,  108. 
 — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  110.)  Other  writers, 
 however,  such  as  Cluver,  Adelung,  Mascov,  &c., 
 make  them  to  have  lived  betvifeen  the  Maine  and 
 Neckar,  previous  to  their  departure  for  Bohemia. — 
 They  were  subdued  by  the  emperors  Trajan  and  An- 
 tonmus.  Their  name  denotes  "  border  men,'"  i.  e., 
 men  of  the  marches.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 382.  seqq.) 
 
 Marcus,  a  prsnomen  common  to  many  of  the  Ro- 
 mans.    {Vid.  ^■Emilius,  Lepidus,  &c.) 
 
 Mardi,  I.  a  people  of  Asia,  near  the  northern  fron- 
 tiers of  Media,  or  rather  of  Matiene,  which  formed  part 
 of  Media.  {Straho,  52-i. — Tzschic.kc,  ad  Strab.,  I.  c, 
 vol.  4,  p.  bbO.— Quint.  Curt.,  5,  5.)— II.  A  tribe  of 
 the  Persians,  according  to  Herodotus  (1,  125),  but, 
 according  to  other  writers,  a  distinct  race  in  their 
 immediate  neighbourhood.  {Arrian,  Hist.  Ind.,  40.) 
 They  are  represented  as  a  plundering  race.  {Arrian, 
 I  c.) — III.  A  nation  dwelling  to  the  south  of  Bactri- 
 ana,  and  to  the  north  of  the  chain  of  Paropamisus. 
 Pliny  (6,  16)  says  they  extended  from  Caucasus  to 
 Bactriana,  in  which  he  evidently  followed  the  histo- 
 rians of  Alexander,  who,  out  of  flattery  to  that  prince, 
 called  the  Paropamisus  by  the  name  of  Caucasus. 
 As  regards  these  three  nations,  consult  the  remarks 
 of  Lai-cher  {Hist,  d'' Herod. —  Table  Geogr.,  vol.  8, 
 p.  317,  seqq). 
 
 Mardonius,  a  general  of  Xerxes,  who,  after  the 
 defeat  of  his  master  at  Thermopylae  and  Salamis,  was 
 left  in  Greece  with  an  army  of  300,000  chosen  men, 
 to  subdue  the  country,  and  reduce  it  under  the  power 
 of  Persia.  His  operations  were  rendered  useless  by 
 the  courage  and  vigilance  of  the  Greeks  ;  and  in  a 
 battle  at  Plataea,  Mardonius  was  defeated  and  left 
 among  the  slain,  B.C.  479.  He  had  been  commander 
 of  the  armies  of  Darius  in  Europe,  and  it  was  chiefly 
 by  his  advice  that  Xv~rxes  invaded  Greece.  He  was 
 son-in-law  of  Darius.  {Vid.  Darius  I.,  where  some 
 other  particulars  are  gi.'en  respecting  him.) 
 
 Mare  Mortuum,  an  extensive  and  most  interest- 
 ing piece  of  water,  in  Judaea,  about  70  miles  long  and 
 20  broad.  It  was  anciently  called  the  "  Sea  of  the 
 Plain'"  {Beut.  3,  17;  4,  19),  from  its  situation  in 
 the  great  hollow  or  plain  of  the  Jordan ;  the  "  Salt 
 Sea"  {Deut.  3,  17. — Josh.  15,  5),  from  the  extreme 
 saltness  of  its  waters  ;  and  the  "  East  Sea"  {Ezek. 
 47,  18. — Joel  2,  20),  from  its  situation  relative  to 
 Judaea,  and  in  contradistinction  to  the  West  Sea,  or 
 Mediterranean.  It  is  likewise  called  by  Josephus, 
 and  by  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers  generally,  Laea.* 
 Asphaltites,  from  the  bitumen  {aaipa?.Toc)  found  m  n ; 
 and  the  "  Dead  Sea,"  its  more  frequent  modern  ap- 
 pellation, from  the  belief  that  no  living  creature  can 
 exist  in  its  saline  and  sulphureous  waters.  It  is  at 
 present  known  in  Syria  bv  the  names  of  Almotanah 
 and  Bahar  Loth  ;  and  occupies  what  may  be  consid- 
 ered as  the  southern  extremity  of  the  vale  of  Jordan. 
 This  sea,  so  important  and  so  often  mentioned  m 
 sacred  history,  still  bears  the  most  unequivocal  marks^ 
 of  the  catastrophe  of  which  it  has  been  the  site.  It 
 differs,  indeed,  so  essentially  in  situation  and  proper- 
 
 793 
 
MARE  MORTUUM. 
 
 MARE  MORTUUM. 
 
 ties  from  every  other  piece  of  water  in  the  known 
 world,  that  it  is  a  wonder  it  has  not  been  the  subject 
 of    more    frequent    and    extensive    observation.      Its 
 depth  seems  to  be  altogether  unknown  ;    and   it   is 
 only  of   late  that  a  boat    has   navigated   its   surface. 
 Towards  its  southern  extremity,  however,  in  a  con- 
 tracted part  of  the  lake,  is  a  ford,  about   six   miles 
 over,  made  use  of  by  the  Arabs  :  in  the  middle  of 
 which  they  report  the  water  to  be  warm,  indicating 
 the  presence  of  warm  springs  beneath.     In  general, 
 towards  the  shore  it  is  shallow  ;  and  it  rises  and  falls 
 with  the  seasons,  and  with  the  quantity  of  water  car- 
 ried into  it  by  seven  streams,  which  fall  into  this  their 
 common  receptacle,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  Jordan. 
 It  also  appears  either  to  be  on  the  increase,  or  to  be 
 lower   in   some  years  than   in  others,  whence   those 
 travellers  are  to  be  credited  who  assert  that  they  have 
 beheld  the  ruins  of    the  cities  either  exposed  or  in- 
 gulfed   beneath   the  waters.     Troilo   and  D'Arvieux 
 attest  that  they  observed  fragments  of  wall,  &,c.     Jo- 
 sephus  remarks,  that  one  might  still  see  there  "  the 
 shadows  of  the  five  cities"  {TTivre  /j.ev  'r:o}\.iuv  amag), 
 leaving  !t  somewhat  uncertain  what  he  means  by  this 
 figurative   language.     {Bell.  Jud.,  4,   8,  4.)     Strabo 
 gives  a  circumference  of  60  stadia  to  the  ruins  of  Sod- 
 om, according  to  the  traditions  of  the  neighbouring 
 communities  {uare  TaareveLV  tolq  ■&pv7J.ovfiivoLg  inro 
 tC)v  kyxupLuv,  wf  upa  ukovvto  irnTe  TpianaideKa  -Kok- 
 Eig  Evravda,  cjv  TTJg  fir/rpoTro^Jug,  ^oSo/iuv,  au^oiTo 
 KVK'kog  e^i/KovTu  tzov  gtuiUuv. — Strab.,  764).     Two 
 aged    and  respectable   inhabitants  of  Jerusalem   told 
 Maundrell   that  they  had  once  been  able  to  see  some 
 part  of  these  ruins  ;  that  they  were  near  the  shore,  and 
 the  water  so  shallow  at  the  time,  that  they,  together 
 with  some  Frenchmen,  went  into  it,  and  found  several 
 pillars  and  other  fragments  of  buildings.     These  sever- 
 al authorities  are  too  weighty  to  be  despised  ;  and  we 
 may  collect  from  them  some  support  to  the  opinion, 
 that,  at  the  destruction  of  the  guilty  cities,  they  were 
 not  entirely  overwhelmed  with  the  waters,  but  remain- 
 ed more  or  less  exposed  to  view,  as  monuments  of  the 
 judgments  of  God  ;  and  that,  from  the  slow  increase 
 of  the  waters  through  a  period  of  nearly  4000  years, 
 they  have  gradually  receded   from  our  sight,  and  are 
 now  only  to  be  seen  through  the  water,  if  seen  at  all, 
 after  seasons  of  long-continued  drought.       The  water 
 now  covering  these  ruins  occupies  what  was  formerly 
 the  Vale  of  Siddim  ;  a  rich  and  fruitful  valley,  in  which 
 stood  the    five  cities,  called   the  cities  of  the  plain, 
 namely,  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim,  andBela 
 or  Zoar.     The  first  four  of  these  were  destroyed,  while 
 the  latter,  being  "  a  little  city,"  was  preserved  at  the 
 intercession  of  Lot ;  to  which  he  tied  for  refuge  from 
 the  impending  catastrophe,  and  where  he  remained  in 
 safety  during  its  accomplishment.     Naturalists  have  in- 
 dulged themselves  in  many  speculations  as  to  the  man- 
 ner in  which  this  destruction  took  place,  and  the  im- 
 mediate causes  engaged  in  effecting  it  ;  as  if  this  were 
 necessary  for  our  faith.     It  is  probable,  however,  that 
 in  this  instance,  as  in  most  others,  the  Almighty  called 
 in  the  aid  of  second  causes  for  the  accomplishment  of 
 his  purpose.     The  most  reasonable  explanation  of  such 
 causes  is  founded  on  what  is  said  in  Gfn.,14,  10,  of 
 the  soil  of  the  Vale  of  Siddim,  that  it  was  "  full  of  slime 
 pits,"  or,  more  properly,  pits  of  bitumen,  for  thus  the 
 word  is  rendered  in  the  Septuagint.     Now  it  is  prob- 
 able that  in  this  instance,  as  in  that  of  the  flood,  the 
 inhabitants   of  the  offending  cities  were  involved  in 
 destruction,  which  met  them  on  all  sides,  from  above 
 and  below  ;  that  the  earth  opened  its  fountains  of  lava 
 or  pitch  ignited  by  subterraneous  combustion,  while  a 
 fiery  shower  from  above  expedited  and  ensured  their 
 utter   destruction.     Whatever    the    means   employed 
 •might  have  been,  they  were  evidently  confined  in  a  re- 
 markable manner  to  the  devoted  district ;  as  Lot  found 
 safety  in  Zoar,  although  only  a  few  miles  distant,  and 
 794 
 
 within  the  precincts  of  the  plain  itself.  This  circum- 
 stance seems  to  show  sufficiently  that  the  country  was 
 not  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  as  supposed  by  some, 
 which  would  scarcely  have  been  so  partial  in  its  ef- 
 fects. There  is  also  a  passage  (Gen.,  19,  28)  which 
 favours  very  much  the  above  opinion  respecting  the 
 combustion  of  the  soil  ;  where  it  is  said  that  Abraham 
 got  up  early  in  the  morning,  and  "  looked  towards  Sod- 
 om and  Gomorrah,  and  towards  all  the  land  of  the 
 plain,  and  behold,  and  lo,  the  smoke  of  the  country 
 went  up  as  the  smoke  of  a  furnace."  The  character 
 of  this  catastrophe  approaches  nearest  to  that  of  a 
 volcanic  eruption:  an  opinion  which  is  supported  by 
 the  physical  structure  of  the  soil  of  the  neighbour- 
 hood both  before  and  since  ;  the  bituminous  nature  of 
 the  soil  as  described  in  Genesis  (14,  10);  (Jie  occa- 
 sional eruptions  of  flame  and  smoke  so  late  as  the  first 
 century,  as  attested  by  Josephus  ;  and  the  hot  springs 
 and  volcanic  substances,  consisting  of  lava,  sulphur, 
 pumice,  and  basalt,  still  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 lake,  as  described  by  Volney,  Burckhardt,  Bucking- 
 ham, ar.d  other  travellers.  We  know  not  the  charac- 
 ter of  the  soil  beneath  the  surface  ;  the  figure,  material, 
 and  stratification  of  the  mountains:  whether  a  crater 
 or  craters  are  to  be  found  on  them,  and,  if  so,  whether 
 they  have  emitted  any  streams  of  lava,  and  what  was 
 their  direction.  All  this,  and  much  more  in  this  in- 
 teresting neighbourhood,  remains  to  be  explored  by  the 
 experienced  eye  of  a  geologist.  In  the  absence,  how 
 ever,  of  such  information,  it  may  be  surmised  that  the 
 cities  could  not  have  been  buried  beneath  a  shower  of 
 ashes  from  a  mountain-crater,  after  the  manner  of  Her- 
 culaneum  and  Pompeii,  as  this  would  be  incompatible 
 with  the  testimony  of  those  who  have  witnessed  the  ex- 
 posed remains  of  the  cities,  as  well  as  with  the  account 
 which  represents  the  plain  itself  as  burning,  not  the 
 neighbouring  mountains.  Nor  could  they  have  been 
 overwhelmed  by  a  torrent  of  lava  :  for  besides  that  this 
 mode  is  liable  to  the  objection  already  urged  of  totally 
 obliterating  the  cities,  the  ordinary  progress  of  a  lava 
 would  not  have  been  equal  to  the  design,  as  it  is  never 
 so  rapid  as  not  to  give  ample  time  for  escape.  The 
 catastrophe  might  still,  however,  have  been  of  a  vol- 
 canic character,  but  the  vale  itself,  or  some  part  of  it, 
 must  have  been  a  crater ;  which,  vomiting  forth,  not  a  • 
 vitreous  and  sluggish  lava,  but  a  far  more  liquid  and 
 diffusive  stream  from  the  bituminous  stores  beneath, 
 involved  the  miserable  inhabitants  on  all  side,  from  the 
 earth  and  from  the  air,  in  a  deluge  of  fire.  Before  this 
 event,  the  vale  of  Siddim  was  a  rich  and  fertile  valley  ; 
 a  continuation  of  that  of  the  Jordan  ;  through  which 
 the  river  took  its  course  southward.  Here  we  are  as- 
 sisted by  the  investigations  of  Burckhardt,  who,  al- 
 though he  had  not  an  opportunity  of  personally  examin- 
 ing the  spot,  obtained  very  satisfactory  information, 
 that,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake,  there  is  an 
 opening  leading  into  the  Valley  of  El  Ghor;  which, 
 with  its  southern  continuation,  termed  El  Araha,  both 
 inspected  by  Burckhardt  himself,  descends  uninter- 
 ruptedly to  the  ^lanitic  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea ;  which  it 
 joins  at  Akaba,  the  site  of  the  ancient  Eziongeber. 
 This  Burckhardt  supposes  to  be  the  prolongation  of 
 the  ancient  channel  of  the  Jordan,  which  discharged 
 itself  into  the  sea  before  its  absorption  in  the  expanded 
 Lake  of  Sodom.  This  is  extremely  probable :  and 
 there  cannot  be  a  more  interesting  country  in  the  world 
 than  this,  to  be  made  the  subject  of  an  intelligent  and 
 accurate  geological  survey.  We  may,  however,  from 
 what  we  know,  infer  thus  much :  that  before  the  face 
 of  the  country  was  changed  by  the  judgment  which  fell 
 upon  it,  the  ground  now  covered  by  the  waters  of  the 
 Dead  Sea. was  an  extensive  valley,  called  the  Vale  of 
 Siddim,  on  which  stood  the  five  cities,  and  through 
 which  the  Jordan  flowed  in  its  course  to  the  sea.  That 
 it  flowed  through  the  vale  may  be  inferred  from  the 
 great  fertiUty  of  the  latter ;  that  it  passed  beyond  it,  is 
 
MARE  MORTUUM. 
 
 equally  to  be  inferred  from  the  want  of  space  over 
 which  the  water  could  expand  itself  to  be  exhausted  by 
 evaporation.  But  the  discovery  of  the  opening  on  the 
 southern  border  of  the  lake,  and  the  inclined  valley 
 leading  thence  to  the  sea,  have  rendered  these  infer- 
 ences almost  conclusive.  We  may  then,  and  must  in 
 fact,  refer  the  origin  of  the  lake  to  the  epoch  in  ques- 
 tion, when  the  combustion  of  the  soil,  or  of  its  sub- 
 strata, occasioned  a  subsidence  of  the  level  of  the  val- 
 ley, by  which  the  river  was  arrested  in  its  course,  and 
 a  basin  formed  to  receive  its  waters.  These  gradually 
 spread  themselves  over  its  surface,  and  would  no  doubt 
 soon  have  filled  it,  and  resumed  the  ancient  channel  to 
 the  southward,  had  not  their  increase  been  retarded  by 
 the  process  of  evaporation,  which  advanced  in  an  in- 
 creasing ratio  as  the  expanse  of  water  grew  wider  and 
 wider.  The  newly-formed  lake  would  thus  continue 
 to  extend  itself,  until  the  sup[)ly  of  water  from  the 
 streams,  and  the  consumption  by  evaporation,  arrived 
 at  a  balance.  When  this  took  place,  or  whether  it  has 
 even  yet  taken  place,  cannot  be  known  ;  at  least  with- 
 out such  observations  as  have  not  yet  been  made. 
 That  it  has  not  long  been  the  case  may  be  inferred 
 from  the  disappearance  of  the  ruins  which  were  visible 
 two  centuries  ago. — The  water  of  this  sea  is  far  more 
 salt  than  that  of  the  ocean  ;  containing  one  fourth  part 
 of  its  weight  of  saline  contents  in  a  state  of  perfect 
 desiccation,  and  forty-one  parts  in  a  hundred  in  a  state 
 of  simple  crystallization  :  that  is  to  say,  a  hundred 
 pounds  by  weight  of  water  will  yield  forty-one  pounds 
 of  salts  ;  while  the  proportion  of  saline  contents  in  the 
 water  of  the  Atlantic  is  not  more  than  l-27th  part  in 
 a  state  of  dryness,  and  about  six  pounds  of  salts  in  a 
 hundred  of  the  water.  The  specific  gravity  of  the 
 water  is  1.21 1  ;  that  of  common  water  being  1000.  A 
 vial  of  it  having  been  brought  to  England  by  Mr. 
 Gordon  of  Clunie.  at  the  request  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
 was  analyzed  by  Dr.  Marcet,  who  gives  the  following 
 results :  "  This  water  is  perfectly  transparent,  and 
 does  not  deposite  any  crystals  on  standing  in  close 
 vessels.  Its  taste  is  peculiarly  bitter,  saline,  and  pun- 
 gent. Solutions  of  silver  produce  from  it  a  very  copi- 
 ous precipitate,  showing  the  presence  of  marine  acid. 
 Oxalic  acid  instantly  discovers  lime  in  the  water. 
 The  lime  being  separated,  both  caustic  and  carbona- 
 ted alkalies  readily  throw  down  a  magnesian  precipi- 
 tate. Solutions  of  barytes  produce  a  cloud,  showing 
 the  existence  of  sulphuric  acid.  No  alumine  can  be 
 discovered  in  the  water  by  the  delicate  test  of  succin- 
 ic acid  combined  with  ammonia.  A  small  quantity 
 of  pulverized  sea  salt  being  added  to  a  few  drops  of 
 the  water,  cold  and  undiluted,  the  salt  was  readily 
 dissolved  with  the  assistance  of  a  gentle  trituration, 
 showing  that  the  Dead  Sea  is  not  saturated  with  com- 
 mon salt.  None  of  the  coloured  infusions  common- 
 ly used  to  ascertain  the  prevalence  of  an  acid  or  an 
 alkali,  such  as  litmus,  violet,  and  turmeric,  were  in  the 
 least  altered  by  the  water."  The  result  of  Dr.  Mar- 
 cet's  analysis  gives  the  following  contents  in  100  grains 
 of  the  water : 
 
 Muriate  of  Lime 3.920  grains. 
 
 Muriate  of  iWagnesia       ....  10.246      " 
 
 Mnriale  of  Soda 10  360      " 
 
 Sulphate  of  Linie 0  054     " 
 
 24.580 
 
 Dr.  Madden,  a  recent  traveller,  brought  home  with  him 
 a  bottle  of  the  same  water,  which,  on  being  analyzed, 
 was  found  to  contain  the  following  substances  : 
 
 Chloride  of  Sofia,  Willi  a  trace  of  Bromine  .        .        .9.5.") 
 
 Chloride  of  Magnesium 5.28 
 
 Chloride  of  Calcium 3,05 
 
 Sulphate  of  Lime  . 1.34 
 
 19.22 
 The  traveller  last  mentioned  gives  us  the  following 
 account  of  a  visit  which  he  paid  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
 
 MARE  MORTUUM. 
 
 "  About  six  in  the  morning  I  reached  the  shore,  and, 
 much  against  the  advice  of  my  excellent  guides,  I  re- 
 solved on  having  a  bathe.  I  was  desirous  of  ascer- 
 taining the  truth  of  the  assertion,  that  '  nothing  sinks 
 in  the  Dead  Sea.'  I  swam  a  considerable  distance 
 from  the  shore,  and  about  lour  yards  from  the  beach  I 
 was  beyond  my  depth.  The  water  was  the  coldest  I 
 ever  felf,  aiid  the  taste  of  it  the  most  detestable  ;  it 
 was  that  of  a  solution  of  nitre,  mixed  with  an  infusion 
 of  quassia.  Its  buoyancy  I  found  to  be  far  greatei 
 than  that  of  any  sea  I  ever  swam  in,  not  excepting  the 
 Euxine,  which  is  extremely  salt.  I  could  lie  like  a 
 log  of  wood  on  the  surface,  without  stirring  hand  or 
 foot,  as  long  as  I  chose  ;  but,  with  a  good  deal  of  ex- 
 ertion, I  could  just  dive  sufficiently  deep  to  cover  all 
 my  body,  when  I  was  again  thrown  on  the  surface,  in 
 spite  of  my  endeavours  to  descend  lower.  On  com- 
 ing out,  the  wounds  on  my  feet,  which  had  been  pre- 
 viously made,  pained  me  excessively  ;  the  poisonous 
 quality  of  the  waters  irritated  the  abraded  skin,  and  ul- 
 timately made  an  ulcer  of  every  wound,  which  con- 
 fined me  fifteen  days  in  Jerusalem,  and  became  so  trou- 
 blesome in  Alexandrea,  that  my  medical  attendant 
 was  apprehensive  of  gangrene."  Dr.  Madden  is  con- 
 vinced that  no  living  creature  can  be  found  in  the 
 Dead  Sea;  and,  to  try  whether  there  were  any  fish 
 in  it,  he  spent  two  hours  in  fishing.  The  surface 
 of  the  sea,  according  to  him,  is  covered  with  a  thin 
 pellicle  of  asphaltum,  which  issues  from  the  fissure 
 of  the  rock  adjoining  it.  On  coming  out  of  the 
 water  he  found  his  body  covered  with  it,  and  like- 
 wise with  an  incrustation  of  salt,  almost  the  thick- 
 ness of  a  sixpence.  The  rugged  aspect  of  the  mount- 
 ains, the  deep  ravines,  and  the  jagged  rocks,  all 
 prove  that  the  surrounding  country  has  once  been  the 
 scene  of  some  terrible  convulsion  of  nature.  "  I  have 
 no  hesitation,"  says  Dr.  Madden,  "  in  stating  my  be- 
 lief, that  the  sea  which  occupies  the  site  of  Sodom 
 and  Gomorrah,  Adinah,  Zeboim,  and  Segor,  covers 
 the  crater  of  a  volcano."  We  have  said  that  this  trav- 
 eller was  convinced  that  no  living  creature  could  be 
 found  in  the  Dead  Sea :  Chateaubriand,  however, 
 states  that,  hearing  a  noise  on  the  lake  at  midnight, 
 he  was  told  by  the  Bethlemists  that  it  proceeded  from 
 legions  of  small  fish,  which  come  and  leap  about  near 
 the  shore.  Maundrell  also  observed,  among  the  peb- 
 bles on  the  bank,  shells  which  had  once  contained  fish. 
 The  traveller  last  mentioned  also  saw  birds  flying 
 about  and  over  the  sea  with  impunity,  which  contra- 
 dicts the  common  belief  that  birds  fell  dead  in  flying 
 over  it.  The  Dead  Sea  is  situate  between  two  ridges 
 of  mountains ;  of  which  those  on  the  eastern  or  Ara- 
 bian side  are  the  highest  and  most  rocky,  and  have 
 much  the  appearance  of  a  black  perpendicular  wall, 
 throwing  a  dark  and  lengthened  shadow  over  the  water 
 of  the  sea.  {MansfunV s  Scripture  Gazetteer,  p.  123, 
 seqq.)  We  shall  close  the  present  article  with  the 
 following  remarks  of  Dr.  Clarke,  which  have  been  al- 
 ready in  some  degree  anticipated.  "  The  atmosphere 
 was  remarkably  clear  and  serene  ;  but  we  saw  none 
 of  those  clouds  of  smoke  which,  by  some  writers,  are 
 said  to  exhale  from  the  surface  of  the  lake.  Every- 
 thing about  it  was  in  the  highest  degree  grand  and 
 awful.  Its  desolate,  although  majestic  features,  are 
 well  suited  to  the  tales  related  concerning  it  by  the  in- 
 habitants of  the  country,  who  all  speak  of  it  with  ter- 
 ror, seeming  to  shrink  from  the  narrative  of  its  de- 
 ceitful allurements  and  deadly  influence.  'Beautiful 
 fruit,'  say  they,  '  grows  upon  its  shores,  which  is  no 
 sooner  touched  than  it  becomes  dust  and  ashes.'  In 
 addition  to  its  physical  horrors,  the  region  around  is 
 said  to  be  more  perilous,  owing  to  the  ferocious  tribes 
 wandering  upon  the  shores  of  the  lake,  than  any  other 
 part  of  the  Holy  Land.  A  passion  for  the  marvellous 
 has  thus  affixed,  for  ages,  false  characteristics  to  the 
 sublimest  associations  of  natural  scenery  in  tie  whole 
 
 795 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 world ;  for,  although  it  be  now  known  that  the  waters 
 of  this  lake,  instead  of  proving  destructive  of  animal 
 life,  swarm  with  myriads  of  lishes  {Chaleauhriand, 
 vol  1,  p.  411,  Lond.,  1811);  that,  instead  of  falling 
 victims  to  its  exhalations,  certain  birds  make  it  thei° 
 peculiar  resort  {MaundreU,  p.  84,  Ox/.,  1721);  that 
 slieils  abound  upon  its  shores;  that  the  pretended 
 fruit  containing  ashes  is  as  natural  and  admirable  a 
 production  of  nature  as  the  rest  of  the  vegetable  king- 
 dom, being  the  fruit  of  the  Solanum  Mclangena,  the 
 inside  of  which,  when  the  fruit  is  attacked  by  an  in- 
 sect {Tcnikrcdo),  turns  to  dust,  while  the  skin  remains 
 entire  and  of  a  beautiful  colour  ;  notwithstanding  all 
 these  and  other  facts  are  well  established,  yet  even 
 the  latest  authors  by  whom  it  is  mentioned  continue 
 to  fill  their  descriptions  with  imagmary  horrors. — Re- 
 land,  in  his  account  of  the  Lacus  A.sphal/iles  (PalcesL, 
 vol.  1,  p.  238),  after  inserting  copious  extracts  from 
 Galen  concerning  the  properties  and  quality  of  the 
 water,  and  its  natural  history,  proceeds  to  account  for 
 the  strange  fables  that  have  prevailed  with  regard  to 
 its  deadly  influence,  by  showing  that  certain  of  the  an- 
 cients confounded  this  lake  with  another,  bearing  the 
 same  appellation  of  Asphaltites,  near  Babylon  ;  and 
 that  they  attributed  to  it  qualities  which  properly  be- 
 longed to  the  Babylonian  waters.  An  account  of  the 
 properties  of  the  Babylonian  lake  occurs  in  the  wri- 
 tings of  Vilruvius  (9.  3),  of  Pliny  (35,  15),  of  Athe- 
 niEus  (2,  5),  and  of  Xiphilinus  (p.  252).  From  their 
 various  testimony  it  is  evident,  that  all  the  phenomena 
 supposed  to  belong  to  the  Lake  Asphaltites  near  Baby- 
 lon, were,  from  the  similarity  of  their  names,  ulti- 
 mately considered  as  the  natural  characteristics  of  the 
 Judwan  lake,  the  two  Asphaltites  being  confounded." 
 (Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  4,  p.  399,  Lmid.  ed.) 
 
 Mareotis,  a  lake  of  Egypt,  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
 ity of  Ale.xandrea.  Its  earlier  name  was  Marea  (;/ 
 Mapein  linvrj) ;  the  later  Greeks  gave  it  the  appella- 
 tion of  Mareotis  (Mapeurig).  The  first  writer  that 
 makes  mention  of  it  is  Scylax  (p.  44).  "  Pharos," 
 says  he,  "  is  an  uninhabited  island,  with  a  good  har- 
 bour, but  destitute  of  water.  This  last  is  obtained 
 from  the  neighbouring  lake  Maria  (eh  tF/c  Maplag 
 Tilfivrig  vdpevovrai.")  The  same  writer  informs  us, 
 that  in  very  early  lim-es  canals  were  cut  connecting  this 
 lake  with  the  Nile,  and  thus  furnishing  it  with  a  con- 
 stant supply  of  fresh  water.  The  Lake  Mareotis  first 
 rose  into  importance  after  the  founding  of  Alexandrea. 
 From  this  period  it  is  mentioned  by  all  the  geographi- 
 cal writers,  but  the  most  particular  description  is  given 
 by  Sirabo  (799).  "  The  Lake  Marea,"  says  Strabo, 
 "is  more  than  150  stadia  in  breadth,  and  not  quite 
 300  in  length.  It  extends  on  the  west  as  far  as  the 
 fortress  called  Chersonesus,  which  is  70  stadia  from 
 Alexandrea.  It  contains  eight  islands,  and  all  the 
 country  around  is  well  inhabited."  In  another  part 
 (p.  793)  he  informs  us,  that  many  canals  connected 
 this  lake  with  the  Nile,  and  that  thus,  in  the  summer 
 season,  when  the  lake  would  otherwise  have  been  low, 
 the  inundation  of  the  Nile  afforded  it  an  abundant 
 supply  of  water,  and  rendered  the  neighbouring  coun- 
 try, and  Alexandrea  in  particular,  extremely  healthy  ; 
 since,  otherwise,  had  the  waters  of  the  lake  been  di- 
 minished by  the  summer  heats,  the  sun  would  have 
 acted  on  the  mud  left  uncovered  along  the  banks,  and 
 would  have  produced  pestilence.  Of  these  canals 
 he  remarks,  on  another  occasion  (p.  803),  that  many 
 of  them  struck  the  Nile  between  Gynaecopolis  and 
 Momemphis.  Along  the  canals  connecting  the  river 
 with  the  lake  was  the  merchandise  transported  to  Al- 
 exandrea, to  be  conveyed  thence  into  the  Mediterra- 
 nean Sea. — The  country  around  the  lake  was  remark- 
 able for  its  fertility.  The  principal  product  was  wine. 
 It  was  a  light,  sweetish  white  wine,  with  a  delicate  per- 
 fume, of  easy  digestion,  and  not  apt  to  affect  the  head  ; 
 though  the  allusion  in  Horace  (Od.,  1,  37,  14)  to  its 
 796 
 
 influence  on  the  mind  of  Cleopatra,  unless  it  be  mere 
 poetic  exaggeration,  would  seem  to  imply  that  it  had 
 not  always  preserved  its  innocuous  quality.  It  has 
 been  suggested  by  some  critics,  that  the  Mnreotic 
 wine  did  not  come  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Lake  Ma- 
 reotis, but  from  a  canton  of  this  name  in  Epirus.  This 
 opinion  rests  for  support  on  a  passage  in  Herodotus 
 (2,  77),  where  it  is  stated  that  there  were  no  vines  in 
 Egypt,  and  that  the  people  drank  a  kind  of  beer  in  its 
 stead  (oLvcj  (Vf.k  KpiOiiov  ireKoirffcivu  Sia^peuvTar  oi 
 jup  (T<pi  elm  hv  ry  X'^PV  '^jnTE'koi).  Malte-Brun  suc- 
 cessfully combats  this  assertion,  and  shows,  by  very 
 clear  proofs,  that,  under  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
 Egypt  produced  various  kinds  of  wine.  As  regards 
 the  culture  of  the  vine  previous  to  the  dominion  ot 
 these  foreign  powers,  it  appears  very  manifest,  from 
 the  paintings  in  the  tombs  throughout  the  Theba'id, 
 and  other  parts  of  the  country,  that  it  was  far  from  be- 
 ing unknown.  Some  of  these  paintings  represent  the 
 whole  process  of  the  vintage.  In  the  Sacred  writings 
 also  {IKtimh.  20,  5)  there  is  a  very  plain  allusion  to 
 the  vines  of  Egypt.  We  must  either,  therefore,  con- 
 sider the  remark  of  Herodotus  incorrect,  or  refer  it  to 
 a  part  of  the  country  merely.  Perhaps,  as  the  vines 
 were  planted  on  the  edge  of  the  desert,  above  the  level 
 of  the  inundation,  and  not  in  Egypt  properly  so  called, 
 the  veracity  of  the  historian  may  in  this  way  be  saved. 
 Unless  this  latter  mode  of  explaning  the  difficulty  be 
 adopted,  he  will  be  found  to  contradict  himself,  since 
 it  is  stated  in  the  168th  chapter  of  the  same  book,  that 
 the  caste  of  warriors  in  Egypt  received  individually 
 four  measures  of  wine,  oivov  Tsaaapa^  apvaT7}pa<;. 
 (Compare  Bulletin  des  Sciences  Historiqves,  &c.,  vol. 
 4,  p  77,  seqq.) — The  modern  name  of  Lake  Mareotis 
 is  Mairout.  For  many  ages  after  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
 man dominion  in  Egypt,  it  was  dried  up ;  for,  though 
 the  bed  is  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  there 
 is  not  sufficient  rain  to  keep  up  any  lake  in  the  coun- 
 try in  opposition  to  the  force  of  perpetual  evaporation. 
 But  in  1801,  the  English,  in  order  to  circumscribe 
 more  effectually  the  communications  which  the  French 
 army  in  the  city  of  Alexandrea  maintained  with  the 
 surrounding  country,  cut  across  the  walls  of  the  old 
 canal  which  had  formed  a  dike,  separating  this  low 
 ground  from  Lake  Maadie,  or  the  Lake  of  Aboukir,  on 
 the  east.  In  consequence  of  this  easy  operation,  the 
 water  had  a  sudden  fall  of  six  feet,  and  the  Lake  Ma- 
 reotis which  had  so  long  disappeared,  and  the  site  of 
 which  had  been  occupied  partly  by  salt  marshes,  partly 
 by  cultivated  lands,  and  even  villages,  resumed  its  an- 
 cient extent.  The  inhabitants  of  the  villages  were 
 obliged  to  fly,  and  bewail  from  a  distance  the  annihila- 
 tion of  their  gardens  and  dwellings.  This  modern  in- 
 undation of  the  sea  is  indeed  much  more  extensive 
 than  the  ancient  Lake  Mareotis,  occupying  probably 
 four  times  its  extent.  {Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p. 
 32,  Am.  ed.) 
 
 Margi.^na,  a  country  of  Asia,  lying  along  the  river 
 Margus,  from  which  it  derived  its  name.  According 
 to  Ptolemy,  it  was  bo\inded  on  the  west  by  Parthiene, 
 on  the  north  by  the  Oxus,  on  the  east  by  Bactriana, 
 and  on  the  south  by  Asia  and  the  Sariphian  mountains. 
 It  now  answers  to  the  northern  part  of  Chorasan. 
 (Compare  Plm.,  6,  16 — Strabo,  515.)  Strabo  speaks 
 in  strong  terms  of  the  fertility  of  Margiana,  and  states 
 that  it  took  two  men  to  clasp  the  iowcr  part  of  the 
 stem  of  the  vines  with  their  arms.     (Slrah.,  73.) 
 
 MargItes,  the  title  of  one  of  the  minor  poems  as- 
 cribed to  Homer.     (Vid.  Homerus,  p.  642,  col.  1.) 
 
 Margus,  I.  a  river  in  Moesia  Superior,  rising  from 
 Mount  Orbelus,  and  falling  into  the  Danube  to  the 
 west  of  Viminacium.  It  is  now  the  Morawa. — II.  A 
 river  of  Margiana,  falling  into  the  Oxus  northwest  of 
 Nisca.      It  is  now  the  Mariah.     (Plini.,  6,  16.) 
 
 Mariada,  I.  a  city  of  the  Calingii,  in  the  south- 
 i  eastern  part  of  Arabia  Felix,  13  miles  northeast  of 
 
MAR 
 
 MARIUS. 
 
 Muza  ;  now  March. — II.  A  city  of  the  Sabaei,  in  Ara- 
 bia Felix.     {Plin.,  6,  28.) 
 
 Makia  Lex,  I.  by  C.  Marius,  when  tribune,  A.U.C. 
 634.  It  ordained  that  the  passages,  called  •pontes,  by 
 which  the  people  passed  to  give  their  votes  at  the 
 comitia,  should  be  narrower,  in  order  that  there  might 
 be  no  crowding  there,  and  that  no  persons  might  take 
 their  stand  there  to  impede  or  disturb  the  voters. 
 (C'lc,  Leg.,  3,  17.) — II.  Maria  Porcia,  so  called  be- 
 cause proposed  by  two  tribunes,  Marius  and  Porcius. 
 It  was  passed  A.U.C. 69 1,  and  ordained  that  those  com- 
 manders should  be  punished  who,  in  order  to  obtain 
 a  triumph,  wrote  to  the  setiate  a  false  account  of  the 
 number  of  the  enemy  slain  in  battle,  or  of  the  citizens 
 that  were  missing  ;  and  that,  when  commanders  re- 
 turned to  the  city,  they  should  swear  before  the  city 
 quasstors  to  the  truth  of  the  account  which  they  had 
 sent.     {Val.  Max.,  2,  8,  I.) 
 
 Mariana  Fossa,  a  canal  cut  by  Marius  from  the 
 river  Rhone,  through  the  Campus  Lapideus,  into  the 
 Lake  Mastramela.  It  was  probably  near  the  modern 
 Martigut.1.     {Mela,  2,  5. — PLin.,  3,  4.) 
 
 Maria.ndyni,  a  people  of  Bilhynia,  to  the  east  of 
 the  river  Sangarius.  They  were  of  uncertain  origin  ; 
 but,  since  they  differed  neither  in  language  nor  in  cus- 
 toms materially  from  the  Bithynians,  they  might  justly 
 be  considered  as  part  of  the  same  great  Thracian  stock. 
 (Strab.,  .542  )  That  they  were  barbarous  is  allowed 
 by  all;  and  Theopompus,  whose  authority  is  referred  to 
 by  Strabo,  reported,  that  when  the  Megarians  founded 
 Heraclea  in  their  territory,  they  easily  subjected  the 
 Mariandyni,  and  reduced  ihem  to  a  state  of  abject  sla- 
 very, similar  to  that  of  the  Mnotae  in  Crete,  and  the 
 PenestsB  in  Thessaly.  (Strab.,  I.  c. — Position.,  ap. 
 Athcn.,  6,  p.  263.— ^/AcM.,  14,  p.  620.) 
 
 Marica,  I.  a  nymph  of  the  river  Liris,  who  had  a 
 grove  near  MinturncB,  into  which,  if  anything  was 
 brought,  it  was  not  lawful  to  take  it  out  again.  {Pint., 
 Vit.  Marii,  39.)  According  to  some  authorities,  she 
 was  the  same  with  Circe.  {Lactant.,  de  Fals.  RcL, 
 1,  21.)  Virgil,  however,  makes  her  the  wife  of  Fau- 
 nus,  and  mother  of  Latinus.  (yE«.,  7,  47. — Sen.,  ad 
 lac.) 
 
 MarInus,  a  native  of  Tyre,  who  flourished  in  the 
 second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  a  short  time  be- 
 fore Ptolemy.  An  account  of  his  work  on  Mathemati- 
 cal Geography  will  be  given  under  the  article  Ptole- 
 maeus. 
 
 Marisus,  a  river  of  Dacia  which  falls  into  the  Ti- 
 biscus  ;  now  the  Marosch.  {Slraho. — Jornand.,  de 
 Reb.  Get.,  p.  102  ) 
 
 Marius,  Caius,  a  celebrated  Roman,  was  born  of 
 humble  parents,  at  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Arpi- 
 num,  about  B.C.  157.  He  served  at  the  siege  of  Nu- 
 mantia,  B.(3.  134,  under  Scipio  Africanus,  together 
 with  Jugurtha,  where  he  highly  distinguished  himself. 
 He  received  great  marks  of  honour  from  Scipio,  who 
 used  frequently  to  invite  him  to  his  table  ;  .and  when, 
 one  evening  at  sujiper,  Scipio  was  asked  where  they 
 should  find  so  great  a  general  when  he  was  gone,  he 
 is  said  to  have  replied,  placing  his  hand  upon  the 
 shoulder  of  Marius,  "Here,  perhaps."  In  B.C.  119 
 he  was  elected  tribune  of  the  commons,  through  the 
 influence  of  Cajcilius  Metellus,  according  to  Plutarch, 
 but  more  probably  in  consequence  of  the  fame  he  had 
 acquired  in  the  Numantine  war.  In  this  office  he 
 showed  himself,  as  he  did  throughout  the  whole  course 
 of  his  life,  a  most  determined  enemy  of  the  patrician 
 order,  and  one  who  was  not  ea.sily  to  be  put  down  by 
 the  threats  and  opposition  of  his  enemies.  Havinu 
 proposed  a  law  to  prevent  illegal  voting  at  elections, 
 the  senate  passed  a  decree  that  the  law  should  not  be 
 put  to  the  vote  in  the  popular  assembly,  and  summon- 
 ed Marius  before  them  to  answer  for  his  conduct. 
 Marius  not  only  appeared,  but  threatened  to  commit 
 the  consuls  to  prison  if  they  did  not  repeal  the  de- 
 
 cree ;  and  when  Metellus  continued  to  support  it,  ba 
 commanded  hnn  to  be  led  away  to  prison.  Marius 
 obtained  the  prstorship  with  great  difficulty,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  violent  opposition  of  the  patrician  order, 
 who  accused  him  of  having  obtained  the  office  by 
 means  of  bribery.  At  the  expiration  of  his  prsetor- 
 ship  the  province  of  Spain  was  assigned  to  him,  which 
 he  cleared  of  robbers.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he 
 was  anxious  to  obtain  the  consulship  ;  but  he  did  not 
 venture  to  become  a  candidate  for  many  years  after. 
 He  continued,  however,  to  rise  in  public  opinion,  and 
 appears  about  this  time  to  have  married  Julia,  one  of 
 the  Julian  family,  who  was  aunt  to  the  celebrated  Ju- 
 lius Caesar.  In  B.C.  109  he  accompanied  Metellus 
 into  Africa,  in  the  capacity  of  legalus ;  and  by  his 
 prudence  and  courage  in  the  war  with  Jugurtha,  he 
 added  greatly  to  his  military  reputation.  His  friends 
 took  advantage  of  his  increasing  popularity  at  Rome 
 to  persuade  the  people  that  the  war  with  Jugurtha 
 would  never  be  concluded  until  the  command  was 
 given  to  Marius.  This  led  to  an  open  rupture  be- 
 tween him  and  Metellus  ;  and  it  was  with  the  great- 
 est difficulty  that  the  latter  allowed  his  lieutenant 
 Marius  leave  of  absence  to  go  to  Rome  in  order  to 
 stand  for  the  consulship.  Marius  was,  however,  suc- 
 cessful ;  he  obtained  the  consulship  B.C.  107,  and 
 the  command  of  the  Jugurthine  war.  On  his  arrival 
 in  Africa  he  prosecuted  the  war  with  the  greatest 
 vigour;  and  in  the  following  year  (B.C.  106)  ob- 
 tained possession  of  the  person  of  Jugurtha,  who  was 
 treacherously  given  up  by  Bocchus  to  his  quaestor 
 Sylla.  Marius  remained  in  Africa  during  the  next 
 year  (B.C.  lOo),  in  which  the  consul  Manlius  and 
 the  proconsul  Cspio  were  defeated  by  the  Teutones 
 and  Cimbri,  with  the  prodigious  loss,  according  to 
 Livy  {Epit.,  67),  of  80,000  soldiers,  besides  40,000 
 camp  followers.  The  news  of  their  defeat  caused  the 
 greatest  consternation  at  Rome,  especially  as  the  Teu- 
 tones and  Cimbri  threatened  the  immediate  invasion 
 of  Italy  ;  and  Marius  was  accordingly  elected  consul 
 in  his  absence,  without  any  opposition  even  from  the 
 patrician  party,  as  the  only  man  in  the  state  who  was 
 able  to  save  it  from  impending  ruin.  He  entered 
 upon  his  second  consulship  B.C.  104,  and  enjoyed  a 
 triumph  for  his  victories  over  Jugurtha ;  but,  in  con- 
 sequence of  the  threatened  invasion  of  Italy  having 
 been  deferred  by  an  irruption  of  the  Cimbri  into 
 Spain,  he  was  again  chosen  consul  in  the  two  fol- 
 lowing years  (B  C.  103,  102).  In  the  fourth  consul- 
 ship of  Marius  (B.C.  102),  the  Cimbri,  having  been 
 defeated  by  the  Celtiberi  in  Spain,  returned  to  Gaul, 
 and  resolved  to  invade  Italy  in  two  divisions  ;  the 
 one  consisting  of  the  Teutones  and  Ambrones  (a  Gal- 
 lic people),  through  Gallia  Narbonensis  ;  and  the  oth- 
 er, comprising  the  Cimbri,  by  way  of  Noricuin.  Ma- 
 rius defeated  the  Teutones  and  Ambrones  near  Aquas 
 Sextiae  (now  Aix)  in  Gaul  ;  but  Catulus,  who  was 
 stationed  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  to  oppose  the  pas- 
 sage of  the  Cimbri,  retreated  first  to  the  other  side  of 
 the  Athesis  (now  the  Adige),  and  afterward  quitted 
 this  position  also,  without  waiting  for  the  enemy's  at- 
 tack. In  the  following  year  (B.C.  101),  Marius,  who 
 was  again  elected  consul  for  the  fifth  time,  joined  his 
 forces  with  those  of  Catulus,  and  entirely  defeated 
 the  Cimbri  in  the  plain  of  Vercellaj  (now  Vcrcdli), 
 situate  to  the  north  of  the  Po,  near  the  Sessites.  In 
 these  two  battles  the  Teutones  and  Ambrones  are  said 
 to  have  lost  the  incredible  number  of  290,000  men 
 (200,000  slain,  and  90,000  taken  prisoners)  ;  and  the 
 Cimbri  200,000  men  (140,000  slain,  and  60,000  taken 
 prisoners).  (Liv.,  Epit.,  68.)  Marius  again  became 
 candidate  for  the  consulship  for  the  following  year; 
 but.  now  that  the  fear  of  the  Gallic  invasion  was  re- 
 moved, he  was  opposed  by  the  whole  strength  of  the 
 patrician  party.  He  nevertheless  obtained  the  con- 
 sulship, in  great  part  owing  to  the  exert\ons  of  Satur- 
 
MARIUS. 
 
 MARIUS. 
 
 nmus,  the  tribune,  who  is  described  as  a  man  that 
 scrupled  at  the  commission  of  no  crime  to  accom- 
 plish his  object.  The  events  of  the  sixth  consulship 
 of  Marius,  which  are  some  of  the  most  imi)ortant  in 
 this  period  of  Roman  history,  are  imperfectly  narrated 
 by  historians.  It  appears  that  an  agrarian  law,  pro- 
 posed by  Saturninus,  and  supported  by  Marius  and 
 one  of  the  prtetors  named  Glaucia,  was  carried,  not- 
 withstanding the  most  violent  opposition  of  the  patri- 
 cian [)arty ;  and  that  Melellus  Numidicus  was  driven 
 into  exile,  in  consequence  of  refusing  to  take  the  oath 
 of  conforming  to  the  law.  When  the  election  of  con- 
 suls for  the  ensuing  year  came  on,  Memmius,  who 
 opposed  Glaueia  as  a  candidate  for  the  office,  was 
 murdered  by  order  of  Saturninus ;  and  the  senate, 
 perceiving  the  city  to  be  in  a  state  of  anarchy,  passed 
 the  usual  decree,  "  that  the  consuls  should  take  care 
 that  the  republic  received  no  injury,"  by  which  almost 
 absolute  power  was  vested  in  those  magistrates.  Ma- 
 rius, unable  or  unwillmg  to  protect  his  old  friends,  be- 
 sieged Saturninus  and  Glaucia,  who  had  seized  upon 
 the  Capitol.  They  surrendered  to  Marius  on  the  prom- 
 ise that  their  lives  should  be  spared,  but  they  were 
 all  immediately  put  to  death.  It  appears  probable 
 that  Marius,  after  the  blow  which  had  been  given  to 
 the  popular  party  by  the  surrender  of  Saturninus  and 
 Glaucia.  would  not  have  been  able  to  save  their  lives, 
 even  if  he  had  made  the  attempt.  At  the  expiration 
 of  his  consulship,  Marius  left  Rome,  to  avoid  witness- 
 ing the  triumph  of  the  patrician  party  in  the  return 
 of  his  old  enemy  Metellus,  whose  sentence  of  ban- 
 ishment was  repealed  after  the  death  of  Saturninus. 
 According  to  Plutarch,  he  went  to  Cappadocia  and 
 Galatia,  under  the  pretence  of  offering  a  sacrifice 
 which  he  had  vowed  to  Cybele,  but  with  the  real 
 object  of  exciting  Mithradales  to  war,  in  order  that 
 he  might  be  again  employed  in  military  affairs,  since 
 he  did  not  obtain  much  distinction  in  peace.  In  B.C. 
 90  the  Marsian  or  Social  war  broke  out,  in  which 
 both  Marius  and  Sylia  were  employed  as  Icgati  to  the 
 two  consuls.  Marius  gained  several  victories  over 
 the  enemy,  but  he  no  longer  jiossessed  that  activity 
 and  energy  which  had  distinguished  him  in  his  earlier 
 years  ;  and  disgusted,  it  is  said,  with  the  increasing 
 reputation  of  Sylla,  he  resigned  his  command  before 
 the  conclusion  of  the  war.  The  Marsian  war  had 
 scarcely  been  brought  to  an  end,  before  the  civil  war 
 broke  out  between  Marius  and  Sylla.  The  command 
 of  the  Mithradatic  war  had  been  assigned  to  the  latter, 
 who  was  now  consul  (B.C.  88) ;  but  Marius  used  ev- 
 ery effort  to  wrest  it  from  him,  and  is  said  by  Plu- 
 tarch to  have  gone  every  day  to  th«  Campus  Martins, 
 and  to  have  performed  his  exercises  with  the  young 
 men,  although  he  was  now  in  his  70th  year,  and  very 
 corpulent,  in  order  to  show  that  he  was  not  incapaci- 
 tated by  age.  He  was  warmly  supported  by  P.  Sul- 
 picius,  the  tribune,  who  possessed  great  property  and 
 influence  ;  and  a  law  was  eventually  passed,  that  the 
 command  should  be  taken  from  Sylla  and  given  to 
 Marius.  Sylla  was  with  the'army  at  the  time,  besie- 
 ging Nola;  but,  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the  law  which 
 had  been  passed,  he  marched  to  Rome,  and  Marius 
 and  his  adherents  were  obliged  to  flee  from  the  city. 
 After  wandering  through  many  parts  of  Italy,  Marius 
 escaped  with  the  greatest  difficully  to  Africa  ;  but  he 
 had  no  sooner  landed  at  Carthage  than  Sextilius,  the 
 governor  of  the  province,  sent  word  to  him,  that,  unless 
 he  quitted  Africa,  he  should  treat  him  as  a  [)ublic  ene- 
 my. "Go  and  tell  him,"  replied  the  wanderer,  "that 
 you  have  seen  the  exile  Marius  sitting  on  the  ruins  of 
 Carthage."  But,  in  the  following  year  (B.C.  87),  du- 
 ring the  absence  of  Sylla,  who  had  gone  to  Greece 
 to  oppo.^e  Archclaus,  Marius  returned  to  Italy  in  or- 
 der to  join  the  consul  Cinna,  who,  in  his  attempt  to 
 abrogate  the  laws  of  Sylla,  had  been  driven  from 
 Rome  by  his  colleague  Octavius,  supported  by  the 
 7i»8 
 
 patrician  party.  Shortly  afterward,  Marius  and  Cm- 
 na  entered  the  city  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  and 
 a  general  massacre  of  the  opposite  party  ensued. — 
 Marius  always  appears  to  have  been  of  a  fierce  and 
 unrelenting  temper  ;  and  the  sufferings  he  had  lately 
 undergone,  which  at  his  time  of  life  must  have  great- 
 ly impaired  his  health,  tended  to  exasperate  him  more 
 than  ever  against  the  party  which  had  opposed  and 
 thwarted  him  during  the  whole  of  his  life.  All  the 
 leaders  of  the  patrician  party  who  were  unable  to  es- 
 cape from  Rome,  were  put  to  death.  Lutatius  Catu- 
 lus,  who  had  been  the  colleague  of  Marius  in  the  war 
 with  the  Cimbri,  destroyed  himself  to  avoid  assas- 
 sination ;  and  among  the  numerous  illustrious  patri 
 cians  that  fell  were  C.  and  L.  Julius  Caesar,  and  the 
 celebrated  orator  M.  Antonius,  who  is  so  frequently 
 praised  by  Cicero,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  speak- 
 ers in  the  dialogue  "  De  Oratore."  Marius  and  Cinna 
 declared  themselves  consuls  for  the  ensuing  year 
 (B.C.  86),  without  even  holding  the  comitia ;  but 
 Marius  died  of  a  fever  in  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
 on  the  17th  day  of  his  consulship  according  to  Plu- 
 tarch {Vit.  Mar.,  c.  46),  or  the  iSth  according  to 
 Livy  {Epit.  80). — The  character  oi  Marius  is  chiefly 
 known  to  us  from  his  life  by  Plutarch,  who  appears 
 to  have  taken  his  account  from  the  "  Memoirs  of  Syl- 
 la," the  inveterate  enemy  of  Marius.  It  cannot  be 
 denied,  that,  after  his  return  from  exile,  Marius  was 
 guilty  of  the  greatest  cruellies  ;  but  even  these  were 
 surpassed  by  the  atrocities  of  Sylla ;  and  we  should 
 not  be  doing  justice  to  Marius  if  we  ascribed  to  him 
 during  the  whole  of  his  life  the  character  which  he 
 displayed  in  his  seventh  consulship.  "  I  have  seen," 
 says  Plutarch,  "  the  statue  of  Marius  at  Ravenna,  in 
 Gaul,  which  expresses  in  a  remarkable  manner  his 
 sternness  and  severity.  Since  he  was  naturally  ro- 
 bust and  warlike,  and  more  acquainted  with  the  arts 
 of  war  than  those  of  peace,  he  was  fierce  and  haughty 
 when  in  authority.  It  is  said  that  he  never  learned 
 Greek,  and  that  he  would  not  make  use  of  that  lan- 
 guage on  any  serious  occasion  ;  as  if  it  were  ridicu- 
 lous to  learn  the  language  of  a  people  who  were  sub- 
 ject to  others.  If  he  could  have  been  persuaded  to 
 pay  his  court  to  the  Grecian  Muses  and  Graces,  he 
 would  not,  after  bearing  so  many  honourable  offices, 
 and  performing  so  many  glorious  exploits,  have  crown- 
 ed the  whole  by  a  most  savage  and  infamous  old  age, 
 in  consequence  of  his  yielding  to  anger,  ill-timed  am- 
 bition, and  insatiable  avarice."  (Pbu.,  Vit.  Mar. — 
 Sail,  Bell.  Jug.—Encycl.  Us.  Knowl,  vol.  14,  p.  430, 
 scq.) — II.  Son  of  the  preceding,  resembled  his  father 
 in  private  character,  and  was  equally  fierce  and  vin- 
 dictive. He  seized  upon  the  consulship  at  the  age 
 of  27,  and  put  to  death  numbers  of  his  political  oppo- 
 nents. Defeated  subsequently  by  Sylla,  he  lied  to 
 Pra?neste,  where  he  slew  himself  {Pint.,  Vit.  Mar.) 
 — HI.  Mercator,  an  ecclesiastical  writer,  the  antag- 
 onist of  Celestius  and  Nestorius,  who  flourished  be- 
 tween 425  and  4.'50  A.D.  His  country  is  not  exactly 
 known  :  some  believe  him  to  have  been  a  native  of 
 Apulia;  others,  of  some  other  province  of  Lower  Ita- 
 ly ;  and  others,  again,  of  Africa.  It  appears  that  he 
 was  not  a  priest.  He  has  left  behind  him  a  number 
 of  works,  or,  rather,  translations  from  the  Greek,  con- 
 sisting of  pieces  relative  to  the  heresies  of  Pelagius 
 and  Nestorius,  of  extracts  from  the  works  of  the  lat- 
 ter, refutations  of  his  doctrine,  errors  of  Theodorus 
 and  Mopsuestus,  acts  of  synods  held  against  heretics, 
 &c.  Marius  Mercator  was  the  disciple  and  friend  of 
 St.  Augustine.  His  works  were  edited  by  Garner, 
 Paris,  1673,  2  vols,  fol.,  and  by  Baluze,  Paris,  16S4. 
 — IV.  Marcus  Aurclius  Marius  Augustus,  was  ori- 
 ginally an  armourer  or  blacksmith  in  Gaul.  He  af- 
 terward turned  his  attention  to  a  military  life,  and 
 soon  raised  himself,  by  his  merit,  to  the  highest  sta- 
 tions.    After  the  death  of  Victorinus  the  younger,  the 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 army  elected  Marius  emperor.  It  is  generally  sup- 
 posed that  the  Empress  Victorina  contributed  to  his 
 elevation,  with  the  hope  of  preserving  her  own  au- 
 thority ;  but  this  is  denied  by  some  modern  writers, 
 who  maintain  that  she  took  part  in  the  conspiracy 
 which  deprived  Marius  of  his  crown  and  life.  (De 
 Boze,  Dissertation  sur  un  medaillon  de  Telricus. — 
 Mem^  de  V Acad,  des  laser.,  vol.  26.)  He  reigned 
 only  three  days,  and  was  slain  by  a  soldier  to  whom 
 he  had  refused  some  favour,  and  who,  in  stabbing 
 him,  exclaimed,  "  Take  it — it  was  thou  thyself  that 
 forged  it."  Marius  was  remarkable  for  personal 
 strength,  of  which  historians  give  some  accounts  that 
 are  evidently  fabulous.  {Treb.  Poliio,  Trigint.  Tij- 
 rann. —  Vit.  Marii.) 
 
 Marmarica,  a  country  of  Africa,  to  the  east  of  Cy- 
 renaica,  lying  along  the  Mediterranean  shore.  It 
 forms  at  present  a  part  of  the  district  of  Barca.  The 
 inhabitants  were  a  roving  race,  and  remarkable  for 
 their  skill  in  taming  serpents.  {Sit.  lial.^  3,  300.) 
 The  ancient  Marmarica  was  a  region  much  less  high- 
 ly favoured  by  nature  than  Cyrenaica.  According  to 
 Delia  Cella  (p.  182,  scqq),  the  general  features  of  the 
 country,  however,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  region 
 last  mentioned.  "  We  wound  our  way,"  says  this 
 traveller,  "among  wild  and  rugged  mountains,  fre- 
 quently enlivened  by  groups  of  evergreens  ;  among 
 which  the  cypress,  arbutus,  Phosnician  juniper,  gigan- 
 tic myrtle,  carob,  and  laurel,  were  most  abundant ; 
 and  as  they  form  no  long  and  uniform  woods,  but  are 
 scattered  about  in  a  variety  of  forms  and  groups 
 among  the  rocks,  they  are  very  picturesque  ornaments 
 of  the  scenery.  The  ground  is  throughout  broken 
 and  irregular,  and  does  not  slope  down  into  pastures, 
 as  in  Cyrenaica  ;  but  the  privation  of  that  agreeable 
 feature  has  its  compensation,  for  the  want  of  grass- 
 lands secures  this  district  from  the  incursions  of  the 
 vagabond  hordes  in  its  neighbourhood.  The  woody 
 and  elevated  nature  of  this  country  affords  frequent 
 and  copious  springs  of  clear  and  most  delicious  wa- 
 ter.— This  tract  of  border  country  is,  as  in  former 
 times,  the  resort  of  all  the  thieves,  miscreants,  and 
 malcontents  of  the  two  governments  of  Tripoli  and 
 Egypt.  Pitching  their  tents  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
 the  Bay  of  Bomba,  they  make  incursions  into  the  ad- 
 jacent districts,  and  pillage  all  who  have  the  misfor- 
 tune to  fall  in  their  way.  They  are  ever  on  the  watch 
 for  the  caravans  and  pilgrims  who  traverse  this  coun- 
 try on  their  way  to  Mecca  ;  and  this  is  the  only 
 route  used  by  the  people  of  Morocco,  above  all  oth- 
 ers the  most  fervently  devoted  to  their  prophet." — 
 M.  Pacho  speaks  of  the  general  aspect  of  Marmarica 
 in  still  less  favourable  terms.  The  soil,  he  says,  is 
 rocky,  of  a  yellowish-gray  colour,  and  depends  for  its 
 fertility  solely  on  the  copious  rains.  The  country 
 presents  none  of  those  verdant  groves  of  laurel  and 
 myrtle  which  crown  the  mountains  and  overshadow 
 the  valleys  of  the  Pentapolis.  The  singing-birds,  vain- 
 ly seeking  foliage  and  shelter,  flee  from  this  naked  re- 
 gion ;  only  birds  of  prey,  the  eagle,  the  hawk,  and 
 the  vulture,  appear  in  numerous  flights,  their  sinister 
 screams  rendering  the  solitude  more  frightful.  The 
 jackal,  the  hyena,  the  jerboa,  the  hare,  and  the  gazelle, 
 are  the  wild  animals  which  chiefly  abound;  and  the 
 existence  of  man  is  indicated  merely  by  the  bleatino- 
 of  distant  flocks,  and  the  dark  tent  of  the  Arab.  Yet 
 this  country  also  exhibits  traces  of  having  once  been 
 occupied  by  a  civilized  and  even  numerous  popula- 
 tion, and  there  are  marks  of  the  e.xtraordinary  exer- 
 tions which  were  made  to  supply  the  deficiency  of 
 water.  Canals  of  irrigation  cross  the  plain  in  every 
 direction,  and  even  wind  up  the  sides  of  the  hills. 
 The  ancient  cisterns  are  numerous  ;  they  are  fre- 
 quently divided  into  several  chambers,  adorned  with 
 pillars,  and  coated  with  a  cement  harder  than  stone. 
 But  the  monuments  of  Marmarica  possess  none  of 
 
 the  elegant  and  classic  character  of  those  of  Gyrene, 
 being  ruder,  and  more  in  the  Egyptian  style.  (Pa- 
 cho, Voyage  dans  la  Marmarique,  p.  63,  scqq.)  The 
 inhabitants  of  this  region  are  entirely  Bedouins,  chief- 
 ly of  the  great  tribe  of  Welled  Ali,  and  are  supposed 
 by  M.  Pacho  not  to  exceed  38,000.  {Modern  Trav- 
 eller, pt.  50,  p.  182,  scqq.) 
 
 Marmarid.^,  the  inhabitants  of  Marmarica. 
 
 Marmarium,  a  place  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
 Carystus,  in  Euboea,  which  furnished  the  valuable 
 marble  for  which  Carystus  was  famed.  A  temple  was 
 erected  here  to  Apollo  Marmarus.  Marmarium  was 
 exactly  opposite  to  Halae  Araphenides  in  Attica.  {Stra- 
 bo,  446. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  142.) 
 
 Maro.      Vid.  Virgilius. 
 
 Maron,  I.  a  priest  of  Apollo  in  Thrace,  near  Ma- 
 ronea.  {Horn.,  Od.,  9,  197.)— II.  A  follower  of  Osi- 
 ris, well  acquainted  with  the  art  of  rearing  the  vine. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  1,  18.)  Athenaeus  (1,  25)  makes  him  a 
 follower  of  Bacchus.  He  was  fabled  to  have  been 
 the  founder  of  Maronea  in  Thrace.  (Consult  Wes- 
 seling's  note,  ad  Diod.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Maronea,  a  town  of  Thrace,  southeast  of  the  Bis- 
 tonis  Palus,  on  the  coast.  It  was  a  place  of  some 
 note,  and  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (7,  109),  Scylax 
 (p.  27),  Strabo  {Epil.,  7,  p.  331),  and  several  other 
 writers.  Diodorus  Siculus  (1,  18)  reports  that  it  was 
 founded  by  Maron,  a  follower  of  Osiris  {vid.  Maron), 
 but  Scymnus  affirms  (v.  675)  that  it  was  a  colony 
 of  Chios.  Pliny  states  that  the  more  ancient  name 
 was  Ortagurea  (4,  11).  The  same  writer  extols  the 
 excellence  of  its  wine  (14,  4),  whence  a  comic  writer, 
 quoted  by  Athenaeus  (8,  44),  styled  it  a  tavern.  Ma- 
 ronea, taken  in  the  first  Macedonian  war  by  Philip, 
 king  of  Macedon  {Liv.,  31,  16),  and  his  retaining  pos- 
 session of  it,  was  subsequently  made  a  cause  of  com- 
 plaint against  him  at  Rome  (39,  24).  According  to 
 Mela,  it  was  situated  near  a  small  river  named  Schce- 
 nus.  Its  ruins  are  still  called  Marogna.  {Cramer^s 
 Am:.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  313.) 
 
 Marpessa,  daughter  of  Evenus,  was  beloved  by 
 Apollo,  whose  suit  was  favoured  by  her  father.  Idas, 
 another  applicant  for  her  hand,  having  obtained  a  wing- 
 ed chariot  from  Neptune,  carried  oflT  the  apparently  not 
 reluctant  maid.  Her  father  pursued  the  fugitives,  but, 
 coming  to  the  river  Lycormas,  and  finding  his  progress 
 stopped  by  it,  he  slew  his  horses  and  cast  himself  into 
 the  stream,  which  from  him  derived  its  name  Evenus. 
 Meantime  Apollo  met  and  took  the  fair  prize  from 
 Idas.  The  matter  being  referred  to  Jupiter,  he  al- 
 lowed the  maiden  to  choose  for  herself;  whereupon, 
 fearing  that  when  she  grew  old  Apollo  would  desert 
 her,  she  wisely  chose  to  match  with  her  equal,  and 
 gave  her  hand  to  her  mortal  lover.  {Apollod.,  1,  1, 
 7. — Schol.  ad  11.,  9,  557. — Keightlofs  Mythology,  p. 
 119,  seq.) 
 
 Marpesus,  I.  a  town  of  Troas,  to  the  north  of  the 
 Scamander,  and  to  the  west  of  Troja  Vetus.  {Tibull., 
 2,  5,  67  ) — II.  or  Marpessa  (MapTr^/crcra),  a  mountain 
 in  the  island  of  Pares,  containing  the  quarries  whence 
 the  famous  Parian  marble  was  obtained.  Hence  the 
 expresssion  of  Virgil,  Marpesia  cautcs  {JEn.,  6,  471. — 
 Compare  PUn.,  36,  A.-^Jornavd.,  de  Reb.  Get.,  p.  88). 
 This  mountain  was  situate  to  the  west  of  the  harbour 
 of  Marmora.  Dr.  Clarke  gives  Capresso  as  tlie  mod- 
 ern name.     {Travels,  vol.  6,  p.  134,  Land,  cd.) 
 
 M.ARRUciNi,  a  people  of  Italy,  occupying  a  narrow 
 slip  of  territory  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Aternus, 
 between  the  Vestini  to  the  north  and  the  Frentani  to 
 the  south,  and  between  the  Peligni  and  the  sea  towards 
 the  east  and  west.  Cato  derived  their  origin  from  the 
 Marsi  {ap.  Priscian.,  c.  8).  Like  that  people,  they 
 were  accounted  a  hardy  and  warlike  race,  and  with 
 them  they  made  common  cause  against  the  tyranny  of 
 Rome.  'An  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  population  and 
 force  of  the  several  petty  nations  in  this  quarter  of 
 
 799 
 
MAR 
 
 MAR 
 
 Italy,  from  a  statement  of  Polybius  (2,  24),  where 
 that  historian,  in  enumerating  the  ditferent  contingents 
 which  the  allies  of  the  Komans  were  able  to  furnish 
 about  the  time  of  the  second  Pimic  war,  estimates  that 
 of  the  Marsi,  Marrucini,  Vestini,  and  Froniani,  a't 
 20,000  foot  and  4000  horse.  The  only  city  of  note 
 which  we  find  ascribed  to  the  Marrucini,  is  Tcate, 
 now  Chieti,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aternus.  {Cra- 
 mer's Auc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  339.) 
 
 Mariu'vium,  1.  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  answering  to 
 the  modern  Morro  Vccchio. — II.  The  capital  of  the 
 Marsi,  situate  oa  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Lacus  Fuci- 
 nus,  and  corresponding  to  the  modern  San  Bene- 
 detto. (Sl)-abo,  241. — Plin.,  3,  12. — Oamer's  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  328.) 
 
 Mabs  (in  Greek  'kprjc;),  the  god  of  war,  about 
 whose  parentage  different  accounts  are  given.  Homer 
 (//.,  5,  Q'A'2,seqq.)  and  Hesiod  (7Vi«;^.,  922)  make 
 him  to  have  been  the  offspring  of  Jupiter  and  Juno. 
 Others  say  that  he  was  the  son  of  Enyo  or  Bellona. 
 (Schol.  ad  II.,  I.  c.)  Ovid,  however,  gives  a  different 
 version  of  the  fable.  According  to  this  poet,  Juno 
 wished  to  become  a  mother  by  herself,  just  as  Jupiter 
 had  become  a  father  in  the  case  of  Minerva.  On  ap- 
 plying to  Flora  for  aid  in  the  accomplishment  of  her 
 design,  the  latter  directed  her  to  pluck  a  certain  flower 
 which  grew  near  the  city  of  Olenus,  the  touch  of  which 
 would  make  her  instantly  a  mother.  Juno  obeyed, 
 and  straightway  conceived  the  god  Mars.  {Onid, 
 Fast.,  5,  227,  scqq.) — The  delight  of  Mars  was  in  war 
 and  strife  ;  yet  his  wild  fury  was  always  forced  to 
 yield  to  the  skill  and  prudence  of  Minerva,  guided  by 
 whom  Diomede,  in  the  Iliad,  wounds  and  drives  him 
 from  the  battle  (//.,  5,  855);  and  in  the  conflict  of  the 
 gods  (7/.,  21,  391),  this  goddess  strikes  him  to  the 
 earth  with  a  stone.  To  give  an  idea  of  his  huge  size 
 and  strength,  the  poet  says,  in  the  former  case,  that 
 he  roared  as  loud  as  nine  or  ten  thousand  men ;  and 
 in  the  latter,  that  he  covered  seven  plethra  of  ground. 
 Terror  and  Fear  (Ae/.uof  and  <i'66of),  the  sons  of 
 Mars,  and  Strife  (''Ep(f),  his  sister,  accompany  him  to 
 the  field  when  he  seeks  the  battle.  (//.,  4,  440.) 
 Another  of  his  companions  is  Enyo  {'Fivvio),  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Phorcys  and  Ceto,  according  to  Hesiod  {Theog., 
 273),  a  war-goddess  answering  to  the  Bellona  of  the 
 Romans.  The  name  Enyalius,  which  is  frequently 
 given  to  him  in  the  Iliad,  corresponds  with  hers. — 
 The  figurative  language,  which  e.xpresses  origin  and 
 resemblance  by  terms  of  paternity,  gave  a  mortal 
 progeny  to  Mars.  As  a  person  who  came  by  sea  was 
 figuratively  called  a  son  of  Neptune,  so  a  valiant  war- 
 rior was  termed  a  son,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  expressed 
 by  Homer,  a  branch  or  shoot  of  Mars  (ui^oc'ApTjoc). 
 But  the  only  tale  of  his  amours  related  at  any  length 
 by  the  poets,  is  that  in  the  case  of  Venus.  {Horn., 
 Od.,  8,  266,  seqq.—Ovid,  A.  A.,  2,  561.)  This  tale 
 is  an  evident  interpolation  in  the  Odyssey,  where  it  oc- 
 curs. Its  date  is  uncertain  ;  though  the  langJiage,  the 
 ideas,  and  the  state  of  society  which  it  supposes,  might 
 almost  lead  us  to  assign  its  origin  to  a  comparatively 
 late  period.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  be  a  physical 
 myth,  or,  rather,  a  combination  of  two  such  myths  ; 
 for  beauty  might  naturally  have  been  made  the  spouse 
 of  the  god,  from  whose  workshop  proceeded  so  many 
 elegant  productions  of  art ;  and,  as  we  are  about  to 
 show,  another  physical  view  might  have  led  to  the 
 union  of  Mars  and  Venus.  Hesiod,  for  e.xample,  says 
 {Theog.,  937)  that  Harmonia  {Order)  was  the  daughter 
 of  Mars  and  Venus.  This  has  evidently  all  the  ap- 
 pearance of  a  physical  myth,  for  from  Love  and  Strife 
 (i.  e.,  attraction  and  repulsion),  arises  the  order  or 
 harmony  of  the  universe.  {Flut.,  de  /.w  ei  Os.,  48. — 
 Aristot.,  Pol.,  2,  (y.—  Welcker,  Krct.  KoL,  40.)  Ter- 
 ror and  Fear  are  also  said  by  Hesiod  {Theog.,  934)  to 
 have  been  the  ofispring  of  Mars  and  Venus,  of  whose 
 union  with  Vulcan  (to  whom  he  gives  a  different 
 800 
 
 spouse)  he  seems  to  have  known  nothing.  In  the  Iliad 
 we  may  observe  that  Mars  and  Venus  are  spoken  of  as 
 brother  and  sister,  much  m  the  same  manner  as  Ajfollo 
 and  Diana.  {II.,  5,  359,  scq. — lb  ,  21,  416,  scgq.)- 
 The  best  known  of  the  children  of  this  god  bv  niortal 
 women  were  Ascalaphus  atid  lalmenus,  (Enomaus, 
 king  of  Pisa,  Diomedes  of  'llirace,  Cycnus,  Phleiryas, 
 Diyas,  Parthenopaeus,  and  Tereus.  He  was  also  said 
 to  be  the  sire  of  Meleager  and  other  hero-princes  of 
 .i^tolia.  I'he  temples  and  images  of  Mars  were  not 
 numerous.  He  was  represented  as  a  warrior,  of  a  se- 
 vere and  menacing  air,  dressed  in  the  heroic  style, 
 with  a  cuirass  on,  and  a  round  Argive  shield  on  his 
 arm.  His  arms  are  sometimes  borne  by  his  attendants. 
 {Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  104,  seqq.) 
 
 MARS.ici,  a  people  of  Gallia  Belgica,  of  German 
 origin,  and  belonging  to  the  great  tribe  of  the  Istse- 
 vones.  According  to  W'ilhelm  {Germanienund  seine 
 Beuwhner,  Weimar,  1823),  they  occupied  the  islands 
 between  the  mouths  of  the  Mcesc  and  Scheld.  Wer- 
 sebe,  however  {uber  die  Volker  des  Altcn  Teutsch- 
 lands^  Hannover,  1826),  makes  their  territory  corre- 
 spond to  the  modern  province  of  Utrecht.  I'hey  are 
 mentioned  by  Tacitus  {Hist.,  4,  56)  and  Pliny  (4,  29). 
 
 Marst,  I.  a  people  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Ger- 
 many, belonging  to  the  great  tribe  of  the  Istsevones. 
 They  appear  to  have  been  originally  settled  on  both 
 banks  of  the  Lippc,  whence  they  spread  south  to  the 
 Tenchlhcri.  Weakened  by  the  Roman  arms,  they  re- 
 tired into  the  interior  of  Germany,  and  from  this  period 
 disappeared  from  history.  {Maymert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  3, 
 p.  168.) — II.  A  nation  of  Italy,  whose  territory  lay  to 
 the  northeast  of  Latium,  and  southeast  of  the  countu 
 of  the  Sabines.  Though  inconsiderable  as  a  peoplt 
 they  are  yet  entitled  to  honourable  notice  in  the  page 
 of  history,  for  their  hardihood  and  warlike  spirit.  Their 
 origin,  like  that  of  many  other  Italian  tribes,  is  envel- 
 oped in  obscurity  and  fiction.  A  certain  Phrygian, 
 named  Marsyas,  is  said  to  have  been  the  founder  of 
 their  race  {Solin.,  S);  by  others  Marsus,  the  son  of 
 Circe  {Plin.,  1,  2),  and  hence  they  are  represented  as 
 enchanters,  whose  potent  spells  deprived  the  viper  of 
 its  venom,  or  cured  the  iiurt  which  it  might  have 
 caused.  {Virg.,  Mn.,  7,  750.— Sil.  Ital,  8,  497.)— 
 We  do  not  find  the  Marsi  engaged  in  war  with  Home 
 before  A.U.C.  445,  when  they  were  defeated  and 
 forced  to  sue  for  peace.  {Liiiy,  9,  41.)  Six  years 
 after  they  again  assumed  a  hostile  character,  but  with 
 as  little  success ;  they  were  beaten  in  tlie  field,  and 
 lost  several  of  their  fortresses.  {Liv.,  10,  3.)  From 
 that  time  we  find  them  the  firm  and  stanch  allies  of 
 Koine,  and  contributing  by  their  valour  to  her  triu/nphs, 
 till  her  haughty  and  domineering  spirit  compelled  them 
 and  most  of  the  other  neighbouring  people  to  seek,  by 
 force  of  arms,  for  that  redress  of  their  wrongs,  and 
 that  concession  *of  privileges  and  immunities,  to  which 
 they  were  justly  entitled,  but  which  was  not  to  be 
 granted  to  their  entreaties.  In  the  war  which  ensued, 
 and  which,  from  that  circumstance,  is  called  the  Marsic 
 as  well  as  Social  War,  the  Marsi  were  the  first  to  take 
 the  field  under  their  leader  Silus  Poinpaedius,  A.U.C. 
 661.  Though  often  defeated,  the  perseverance  of  the 
 allies  was  at  last  crowned  with  success,  by  the  grant 
 of  those  immunities  which  they  may  be  said  to  have 
 extorted  from  the  Roman  senate,  A.U.C.  665.  {Stra- 
 ho,  241.— Ff//.  Palerc.,  2,  16.—Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  1, 
 39.— -Liv.,  Epil.,  72  )  The  valour  of  the  Marsi  is 
 sufficiently  indicated  by  the  proverbial  saying  which 
 Appian  records  {Bell.  Civ.,  1,  46),  "that  there  was 
 no  triumph  to  be  obtained  either  over  the  Marsi  or 
 without  their  aid  :  ovre  Kara  lAupauv,  ovre  livev  Map- 
 auv,  yevlodai  i&piafiCov."  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol. 
 1,  p.  325,  seqq.) 
 
 Marsyas,  I.  a  satyr  of  Phrygia,  son  of  rjfympus, 
 who,  having  found  the  pipe  which  Minerva,  for  fear  of 
 injuring  her  beauty,  had  thrown  away,  contended  with 
 
MARSYAS. 
 
 MAR 
 
 Apollo  for  the  palm  in  musical  skill.  The  Muses  were 
 tlie  umpires,  and  il  was  agreed  that  the  victor  miglit 
 do  what  he  pleased  with  the  vanquished.  Marsyas 
 lost,  and  Apollo  flayed  him  alive  for  his  temerity.  The 
 tears  of  the  nymphs  ^nd  rural  deities  for  the  fate  of 
 their  companion  gave  origin,  it  was  fabled,  to  the  stream 
 which  bore  his  name  ;  and  his  skin  was  said  to  have 
 been  hung  up  iti  the  cave  whence  the  waters  of  the  riv- 
 er flowed.  (ApoUod.,  I,  4,  2. — Pausan.,  2,  7,  9. — 
 Pint.,  lie  Fiuv.,  10.— Hygm.,  fab.,  165.— Ovid,  Met., 
 6,  382,  seqq. — Xen.,  Anab.,  1,  2,  8.) — It  seems,  ac- 
 cording to  the  ancient  mythological  writers,  that,  in 
 the  contest  above  alluded  to,  Apollo  played  at  first  a 
 simple  air  on  his  instrument ;  but  Marsyas,  taking  up 
 his  pipe,  struck  the  audience  so  much  with  the  novel- 
 ty of  its  tone  and  the  art  of  his  performance,  that  he 
 seemed  to  be  heard  with  more  pleasure  than  his  rival. 
 Having  agreed  upon  a  second  trial  of  skill,  it  is  said 
 that  the  performance  of  Apollo,  by  his  accompanying 
 the  lyre  with  his  voice,  was  allowed  greatly  to  excel 
 that  of  Marsyas  upon  the  pipe  alone.  Marsyas  with  in- 
 dignation protested  against  the  decision  of  his  judges, 
 urging  that  he  had  not  been  fairly  vanquished  accord- 
 ing to  the  rules  stipulated,  because  the  dispute  was 
 concerning  the  e.xcellence  of  their  respective  instru- 
 ments, not  their  voices  ;  and  that  it  was  unjust  to  em- 
 ploy two  arts  against  one.  Apollo  denied  that  he  had 
 taken  any  unfair  advantage,  since  Marsyas  had  used 
 both  his  mouth  and  fingers  m  playing  on  his  instrument, 
 so  that  if  he  was  denied  the  use  of  his  voice,  he  would 
 be  still  more  disqualified  for  the  contention.  On  a 
 third  trial  Marsyas  was  again  vanquished,  and  met 
 with  the  fate  already  mentioned.  (Diud.  Sic. ,3,  58.) 
 — The  whole  fable,  however,  admits  of  a  very  rational 
 explanation.  The  pipe  as  cast  away  by  Minerva,  and 
 Marsyas  as  punished  by  Apollo,  are  intended  merely 
 to  denote  the  preference  given,  at  some  particular  pe- 
 riod, by  some  particular  Grecian  race,  with  whom  the 
 myth  originated,  to  the  music  of  the  lyre  over  that  of 
 the  pipe,  or,  in  other  words,  to  the  C'lfharoedic  over 
 the  Aulctic  art.  The  double  pipe  was  a  Phrygian  or 
 Asiatic  invention,  and  ascribed  to  a  certain  Marsyas. 
 (Diod,  Stc,  3,  58.)  The  music  of  this  instrument 
 was  generally  used  in  celebrating  the  wild  and  enthu- 
 siastic rites  of  Cybele.  Hence  we  may  explain  the  re- 
 mark of  Diodorus,  that  Marsyas  was  a  companion  and 
 follower  of  Cybele  {iKovalug  avry  TrapaKoJ-ovdnv  kol 
 Gv/nrXavuadai,  3,  58).  Subsequently,  the  wildness 
 of  the  Bacchanalian  celebrations  became  intermingled 
 with  the  phrensied  delirium  that  characterized  the  pro- 
 cession and  the  rites  of  Cybele.  The  double  pipe 
 came  now  to  be  employed  in  the  orgies  of  Bacchus. 
 The  worsliip  of  this  god  spread  over  Greece,  and  with 
 it  was  disseminated  the  knowledge  of  this  instrument. 
 To  the  new  species  of  music  thus  introduced  was  op- 
 posed the  old  and  national  melody  of  the  lyre ;  or,  in 
 the  language  of  mythology,  Apollo,  the  inventor  and  im- 
 prover of  the  lyre,  engaged  in  a  stubborn  conflict  with 
 Marsyas,  the  representative  of  the  double  pipe.  Apol- 
 lo conquers ;  that  is,  the  pipe  was  long  regarded  by 
 the  Greeks  as  a  barbarian  instrument,  and  banished 
 from  the  hymns  and  festivals  of  the  gods  :  it  could  only 
 find  admittance  into  the  festivals  of  the  vintage,  in  the 
 Bacchanalian  orgies,  and  in  the  chorus  of  the  drama. 
 {Wieland,  Altischcs  Museum,  vol.  1,  p  '311,  scgq.) — 
 A  statue  of  Marsyas,  representing  him  in  the  act  of 
 being  flayed,  stood  in  the  Roman  forum,  in  front  of  the 
 rostra.  The  story  of  Marsyas,  understood  in  its  liter- 
 al sense,  presents  a  remarkable  instance  of  well-mer- 
 ited punishment  inflicted  on  reckless  presumption ; 
 and  as  this  feeling  is  nearly  allied  to,  if  not  actually 
 identified  with,  that  arrogant  and  ungovernable  spirit 
 which  formed  the  besetting  sin  of  the  ancient  democ- 
 racies, we  need  not  wonder  that,  in  many  of  the  cities 
 of  antiquity,  it  was  customary  to  erect  a  group  of 
 Apollo  and  Marsyas,  in  the  vicinity  of  their  courts  of 
 5  I 
 
 justice,  both  to  indicate  the  punishment  which  such 
 conduct  merited,  and  to  denote  the  omnipotence  of 
 the  law.  Servius  {ad  Virg.,  Mn.,  4,  58)  alludes  to 
 the  custom  of  which  we  have  just  made  mention.  His 
 explanation,  however,  shows  that  he  only  half  under- 
 stood the  nature  of  the  allegory  :  "  Marsyas  per  civi- 
 latcs  in  foro  posilus  hhertatis  i7idicium  est." — H.  A 
 river  of  Phrygia,  rising,  according  to  Xenophon,  in  a 
 cavern  under  the  Acropolis  of  Celsnaj,  and  falling  into 
 the  Majander.  {Aiiab.,  1,  2,  8.)  Here,  as  the  same 
 writer  informs  us,  Apollo  contended  with  Marsyas,  and 
 hung  up  the  skin  of  his  vanquished  antagonist  in  the 
 cavern  whence  the  river  flowed.  The  following  re- 
 marks of  Mr.  Leake  appear  worthy  of  insertion.  "  Ac- 
 cording to  Xenophon,  the  Maeander  rose  in  the  palace 
 of  Cyrus,  flowing  thence  through  his  park  and  the  city 
 of  Celaenae :  and  the  sources  of  the  IVIarsyas  were  at 
 the  palace  of  the  King  of  Persia,  in  a  lofty  situation 
 under  the  Acropolis  of  Celasnss.  From  Arrian  (1,  29) 
 and  Quintius  Curtius  (3,  1)  we  learn,  that  the  citadel 
 was  upon  a  high  and  precipitous  hill,  and  that  the  Mar- 
 syas fell  from  its  fountains  over  the  rocks  with  a  great 
 noise :  from  Herodotus  (7,  26)  it  appears,  that  the  same 
 river  was  from  this  circumstance  called  Catarrhactes ; 
 and  from  Strabo  (578),  that  a  lake  on  the  mountain 
 above  Celsnae  was  the  reputed  source  both  of  the  Mar- 
 syas, which  rose  in  the  ancient  city,  and  of  the  Mjeander. 
 Comparing  these  authorities  with  Livy  (38,  38),  who 
 probably  copied  his  account  from  Polybius  ;  with  Pliny 
 (5.  29) ;  with  Maximus  Tyrius  (8,  8) ;  and  with  the 
 existing  coins  of  Apamea,  it  may  be  inferred,  that  a 
 lake  or  pool  on  the  summit  of  a  mountain  which  rose 
 above  Celsenae,  and  which  was  called  Celaense  or  Sig- 
 nia,  was  the  reputed  source  of  the  Marsyas  and  Msean- 
 der  ;  but  that,  in  fact,  the  two  rivers  issued  from  dif- 
 ferent parts  of  the  mountain  below  the  lake  ;  that  the 
 lake  was  named  Aulocrcne,  as  producing  reeds  well 
 adapted  for  flutes,  and  that  it  gave  the  name  of  Aulo- 
 crenis  to  a  valley  extending  for  ten  miles  from  the  lake 
 to  the  eastward  ;  that  the  source  of  the  Marsyas  was 
 in  a  cavern  on  the  side  of  a  mountain  in  the  ancient 
 agora  of  Celcense,  and  that  the  Marsyas  and  Masander, 
 both  of  which  flowed  through  CelsnaB,  united  a  little 
 below  the  ancient  site."  {Leake'' s  Journal,  p.  158, 
 seqq.) — HI.  h  river  of  Caria,  mentioned  by  Herodo- 
 tus (.5,  118)  as  flowing  from  the  country  of  Idrias  into 
 the  Maeander.  Idrias  was  one  of  the  earlier  names  of 
 the  city  which,  under  the  Macedonians,  assumed  the 
 name  of  Stratonicea.  The  Marsyas  of  Herodotus  is 
 supposed,  therefore,  to  be  the  same  with  the  modern 
 Tshina.  [Barbie  du  Bocage. —  Voyage  de  Chandler, 
 vol.  2.  p.  252. — Ltake's  Journal,  p.  234.) — IV.  A  na- 
 tive of  Pella,  brother  of  Antigonus.  He  wrote,  in 
 ten  books,  a  History  of  the  Kings  of  Macedon,  from 
 the  origin  of  the  monarchy  to  the  founding  of  Alex- 
 andrea  ;  and  also  a  work  on  the  Education  of  Alex- 
 ander, with  which  prince  he  had  been  brought  up. 
 The  loss  of  both  these  works,  but  particularly  the  lat- 
 ter, is  much  to  be  regretted.  Marsyas  is  also  named 
 among  the  grammarians,  and  Suidas  calls  him  jpafJi- 
 fiaTodK^uGKaloc,  "  a  master  of  a  school."  {Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  207.) 
 
 Martia  or  Marcia  Aqua,  a  name  given  to  the  wa- 
 ter conveyed  to  the  city  by  one  of  the  Roman  aque- 
 ducts. This  water  was  considered  the  most  whole- 
 some of  any  brought  to  Rome.  The  history  of  the 
 Marcian  aqueduct  is  as  follows  :  Previous  to  its  erec- 
 tion, the  Romans  obtained  their  supply  of  water  from 
 the  Aqua  Appia  and  Anio  Vetus.  At  the  end,  how 
 ever,  of  127  years  after  the  erection  of  the  two  last- 
 mentioned  aqueducts,  their  channels  had  become  de 
 cayed,  and  much  of  their  water  was  abstracted  by  the 
 fraud  of  private  individuals.  The  prstor  Quintus  Mar 
 cius  Rex  was  thereupon  appointed  by  the  senate  tore- 
 pair  the  injuries  sustained  by  the  old  aqueducts  ;  m 
 addition  to  which,  he  also  constructed  a  new  one, 
 
MAR 
 
 MAS 
 
 which  was  ever  after  called  from  him  the  Aqua  Marcia. 
 Plmy,  however,  states  that  the  Aqua  Marcia  was  first 
 conveyed  to  Rome  by  Ancus  Marcius  ;  and  that  Qiiiii- 
 tus  Marcius  Rex  merely  re-established  the  conduits. 
 The  sair.e  writer  informs  us  tliat  the  earlier  name  of 
 the  water  was  Saufeia.  {Plin.,  31,  24.) — The  Mar- 
 cian  water  was  obtained  from  the  little  river  Pitonius, 
 now  Giovenco.  This  stream  entered  the  I.iacus  Fu- 
 cinus  on  the  northeast  side,  and  was  said  not  to  mix 
 its  waters,  the  coldest  known,  with  those  of  the  lalie. 
 Accordmg  to  the  same  popular  account,  it  afterward 
 emerged  liy  a  subterranean  duct  near  Tibur,  and  be- 
 came the  Aqua  Marcia.  {Cramer's  Anc.  It.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  327. — Burgess,  Aniiq.  of  Rome,  vol.  2,  p.  328.) 
 
 Maktulis,  Marcus  Valekius,  a  Latin  epigram- 
 matic poet,  born  at  Bilbihs  in  Spain,  about  A.D.  40. 
 Rader  fixes  his  birth  at  A.D.  43  ;  while  Masson  (Vit. 
 I'itn.,  p.  112)  makes  him  not  to  have  died  before  A.D. 
 101. — Very  few  particulars  of  his  life  are  ascertained, 
 and  even  these  are  principally  collected  from  his  own 
 writings.  He  was  destined  originally  for  the  bar,  but 
 showed  little  disposition  to  apply  himself  to  such  a 
 career.  In  order  to  complete  his  education.  Martial 
 was  sent  to  Rome.  It  was  at  the  age  of  about  twenty- 
 two  years,  and  in  the  sixth  year  of  Nero's  reign,  that 
 he  established  himself  in  the  capital.  Here  he  gave 
 himself  up  entirely  to  poetry,  which  he  made  a  means 
 of  subsistence,  for  he  was  compelled  to  live  by  his 
 own  exertions.  Titus  and  Domitian  both  favoured 
 him,  and  the  latter  bestowed  on  him  the  rank  of  an 
 eques  and  the  office  of  a  tribune,  granting  to  him  at 
 lire  same  time  all  the  privileges  connected  with  the 
 Jus  triuin  libcrorum.  After  having  passed  thirty-five 
 years  at  Rome,  he  felt  desirous  of  visiting  his  native 
 country.  Pliny  the  younger  supplied  him  with  the  ne- 
 cessary means  for  travelling.  Having  reached  Spain, 
 he  there,  according  to  some  critics,  married  a  rich  fe- 
 male named  Marcella,  who  had  possessions  on  the  Bil- 
 bilis  or  Salon,  and  lived  many  years  in  the  enjoyment 
 of  conjugal  happiness.  The  conclusion,  however,  to 
 be  drawn  from  his  writings  rather  favours  the  supposi- 
 tion that  such  an  union  did  not  take  ])lace.  Martial 
 was  acquainted  with  most  of  his  literary  contempora- 
 ries, Juvenal,  Quintilian,  Pliny  the  younger,  and  others, 
 as  appears  from  his  own  writings.  {Ep.,  2,  90  ;  12, 
 18.  &c.) — We  have  about  1200  epigrams  from  the 
 pen  of  Martial  :  they  form  fourteen  books,  of  which 
 the  last  two  are  entitled  Xenia  and  Apophorcta  re- 
 spectively, from  the  circumstance  of  their  containing 
 mottoes  or  devices  to  be  affixed  to  presents  offered  to 
 his  friends,  or  distributed  at  the  Saturnalia  and  other 
 festivals.  These  fourteen  books  are  preceded  by  one 
 under  the  title  of  Spcctacula,  containing  epigrams  or 
 small  pieces  on  the  spectacles  given  by  Titus  and 
 Domitian.  These  are  not  all  productions  of  Martial  ; 
 but  it  is  very  possible  that  he  may  have  made  and  pub- 
 lished the  collection. — The  greater  part  of  Martial's 
 epigrams  are  of  a  ditferent  kind  from  those  of  Catullus. 
 They  approach  more  nearly  to  the  modern  idea  of 
 epigram,  for  they  terminate  with  a  point  for  which  the 
 author  reserves  all  the  edge  and  bitterness  of  his  sat 
 ire.  Among  the  numerous  epigrams  which  Martial 
 has  left  behind  him,  there  are  some  that  are  excellent ; 
 of  the  collection  as  a  whole,  however,  we  may  say,  in 
 the  words  of  the  poet  himself  (I,  17):  '^  Sunt  bona, 
 sunt  qucEilam  mcdiocria,  sunt  mala  plura.''^  Many 
 of  these  epigrams  have  lost  their  point  for  us,  who  are 
 ignorant  of  the  circumstances  to  which  they  allude. 
 A  large  portion,  moreover,  are  disgustingly  obscene. 
 Besides  the  epigrams  which  form  the  collection  here 
 referred  to,  there  are  others  ascribed  to  Martial,  which 
 Burmann  has  inserted  in  his  Anthology,  vol.  1,  p.  237, 
 340,  470,  471.— The  best  editions  of  Martial  are,  that 
 of  Rader.  Ingolst.,  1602,  1611,  {o\.,et  Mogunt.,  1627; 
 that  of  Scriverius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  12mo,  1619  ;  that  of 
 Smidsius,  Amst.,  8vo,  1701  ;  and  that  of  Lemaire,  2 
 802 
 
 vols.  8vo,  Paris.     {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  V, 
 p.  349.) 
 
 Marullus,  a  tribune  of  whom  Plutarch  makes 
 mention  in  his  life  of  Julius  Caesar.  Marullus  and 
 another  of  his  colleagues,  namc'd  Flavius,  when  the 
 statues  of  Caesar  were  seen  adorned  with  royal  dia- 
 dems, went  and  tore  them  off.  They  also  found  out 
 the  persons  viho  had  saluted  Csesar  king,  and  com- 
 mitted them  to  prison.  The  people  followed  with 
 joyful  acclamations,  calling  the  tribunes  Brutuses  ; 
 but  Caesar,  highly  irritated,  deposed  them  from  office, 
 {Pha.,  Vit.  Cces.) 
 
 Mas^esymi  or  Mass^syi.i,  a  people  in  the  western 
 part  of  Numidia,  on  the  coast,  between  the  river  Mu- 
 lucha  and  the  promontory  Masylibum  or  Musulubium. 
 {Polyb.,  3,  2Z.—Diomjs.  Pcncg.,  \87. —Salltist,  Ju- 
 giirlh.,  c.  92. — Liv.,  28,  17.)  They  were  under  the 
 dominion  of  Syphax.  The  promontory  of  Treliim, 
 now  Sebda-Kuz,  or  the  Seven  Capes,  separated  this 
 nation  from  the  Massyli,  or  subjects  of  Masinissa. 
 
 Masca  or  Mascas,  a  river  of  Mesopotamia,  falling 
 into  the  Euphrates,  and  having  at  its  mouth  the  city 
 Corsote,  which  it  surrounded  in  a  circular  course. 
 Mannert,  after  a  review  of  the  several  authorities 
 which  have  a  bearing  on  the  subject,  charges  D'An- 
 ville  with  an  error  in  placing  the  Masca  too  far  to  the 
 west  of  Anatho,  and  in  fixing  this  latter  place  at  loo 
 great  a  distance  from  the  Chaboras,  since  Isidorus 
 makes  the  intervening  space  only  29  miles,  whereas, 
 on  D'Anville's  chart,  it  is  35  geographical  miles. 
 D'Anville  also  is  alleged  to  err  in  giving  the  Eu- 
 phrates too  large  a  bend  to  the  southwest  of  Anatho. 
 The  river  Masca  is  termed  by  Ptolemy  the  Saocoras. 
 Mannert  thinks  that  the  Masca  was  nothing  more  than 
 a  canal  from  the  Euphrates.  (Mannert,  Anc.  Geogr., 
 vol.  5,  p.  323.) 
 
 Masinissa,  king  of  Numidia,  was  the  son  of  Gula, 
 who  reigned  among  the  Massyli  in  the  eastern  portion 
 of  that  country.  {Liv.,  24,  48,  seq.)  Masinissa  was 
 educated  at  Carthage,  and  became,  though  still  quite 
 young,  enamoured  of  Sophonisba,  daughter  of  Has- 
 drubal,  who  promised  him  her  hand.  Urged  on  by 
 his  passion,  and  wishing,  moreover,  to  signalize  him- 
 self by  some  deed  of  renown,  the  young  prince  pre- 
 vailed upon  his  father  to  declare  against  Rome  and  in 
 favour  of  Carthage.  This  was  at  the  commencemeiii 
 of  the  second  Punic  war,  and  Masinissa  was  only 
 seventeen  years  of  age,  but  even  then  gave  great 
 promise  of  future  eminence.  {Liv.,  24,  49.)  Hav- 
 ing attacked  Syphax,  another  monarch,  reigning  over 
 the  western  part  of  Numidia,  and  then  in  alliance  with 
 the  Romans,  he  gained  over  him  two  great  victories, 
 and  afterward,  passing  the  straits,  united  his  forces  with 
 those  of  the  Carthaginians  in  Spain.  Hannibal  was 
 at  that  time  carrying  all  before  him  in  Italy,  while 
 Hasdrubal  his  brother  was  defending  Spain.  Not 
 long  after  his  arrival,  Masinissa  contributed  essentially 
 to  the  entire  defeat  of  Cncus  and  Publius  Scipio,  by 
 charging  the  Roman  army  with  his  Numidian  horse, 
 B.C.  212  ;  but,  after  some  other  less  successful  cam- 
 paigns, both  he  and  his  allies  were  compelled  to  yield 
 to  the  superior  ability  of  the  young  Scipio,  afterward 
 surnamed  .'Vfricanus,  and  to  abandon  to  him  almost 
 the  whole  of  the  peninsula.  Having  retreated  to- 
 wards the  frontiers  of  Bsetica,  the  Carthaginians  were 
 reduced  to  the  greatest  extremity,  when  Scipio  made 
 prisoner  of  Massiva,  the  nephew  of  Masinissa,  and  sent 
 him  back  to  his  uncle  loaded  with  presents.  The 
 hostility  of  Masinissa  towards  the  Romans  immediate- 
 ly changed  into  ihe  warmest  admiration  :  he  had  a  se- 
 cret conference  with  Scipio  near  Gades,  which  was 
 eventually  followed  by  his  complete  defection  from  the 
 Carthaginian  cause.  It  is  more  than  probable  that 
 the  Numidian  prince  was  long  before  secretly  disposed 
 to  this  stej),  in  consequence  of  the  bad  faith  of  Has- 
 drubal, who  had  offered  his  daughter  Sophonisba  in 
 
MASINISSA. 
 
 MAS 
 
 marriage  to  Syphax.  However  this  might  have  been, 
 Masinissa,  before  declaring  openly  against  Carthage, 
 made  a  secret  treaty  with  the  Romans,  and  advised 
 Scipio,  it  is  said,  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa.  Re- 
 turning to  this  country  himself,  he  found  his  kingdom 
 a  prey  to  usurpers,  Ins  father  and  elder  brother  having 
 both  died  during  his  absence.  With  the  aid,  however, 
 of  Bocchus,  king  of  Mauretania,  he  obtained  posses- 
 sion of  his  hereditary  throne,  and  would  have  enjoyed 
 It  peaceably,  if  the  Carthaginians,  irritated  at  his  now 
 open  avowal  for  the  Romans,  had  not  incited  Syphax 
 to  make  war  upon  him.  Defeated  and  stripped  of  his 
 dominions,  Masinissa  was  compelled  to  take  refuge 
 near  the  Syrtis  Minor,  where  he  defended  himself  until 
 the  arrival  of  Scipio.  The  aspect  of  affairs  immedi- 
 ately changed,  and  Masinissa,  by  his  valour  and  skill, 
 contributed  greatly  to  the  victory  gained  by  Scipio 
 over  Hasdrubai  and  Syphax.  Having  been  sent  with 
 lislius  in  pursuit  of  the  vanquished,  he  penetrated, 
 after  a  march  of  fifteen  days,  to  the  very  heart  of  his 
 rival's  kingdom,  gained  a  battle  against  him,  made 
 himself  master  of  Cirta,  the  capital  of  Syphax,  and 
 found  in  it  Sophonisba,  to  whom,  as  we  have  said, 
 he  had  been  attached  in  early  youth.  The  charms  of 
 the  daughter  of  Hasdrubai  proved  too  powerful  for  the 
 Numidian  king,  and  he  married  her  at  once,  in  the 
 hope  of  rescuing  her  from  slavery,  since  she  belonged 
 to  the  Romans  by  the  right  of  conquest.  This  impru- 
 dent union,  however,  with  a  captive  whose  hatred  to- 
 wards Rome  was  so  deep-rooted,  could  not  but  prove 
 displeasing  to  Scipio,  and  Masinissa  was  severely  re- 
 proved in  private  by  the  Roman  commander.  The 
 Numidian,  in  his  despair,  sent  a  cup  of  ])oison  to  his 
 bride,  who  drank  it  off  with  the  utmost  heroism.  {Liv., 
 30,  15.)  To  console  him  for  his  loss,  Scij)io  bestowed 
 upon  Masinissa  the  title  of  king  and  a  crown  of  gold, 
 and  heaped  upon  him  other  honours  ;  and  these  dis- 
 tinctions, together  with  the  hope  of  soon  seeing  him- 
 self master  of  all  Numidia,  caused  the  ambitious  mon- 
 arch to  forget  the  death  of  Sophonisba.  Constantly 
 attached  to  the  fortunes  of  Scipio,  Masinissa  fought  on 
 his  side  at  the  battle  of  Zama,  defeated  the  left  wing 
 of  the  enemy,  and,  though  severely  wounded,  never- 
 theless went  in  pursuit  of  Hannibal  himself,  in  the 
 tiope  of  crowning  his  exploits  by  the  capture  of  this 
 celebrated  commander.  Scipio,  before  leaving  Africa, 
 established  Masinissa  in  his  hereditary  possessions, 
 and  added  to  these,  with  the  authority  of  the  sen- 
 ate, all  that  had  belonged  to  Syphax  in  Numidia. 
 Master  now  of  the  whole  country  from  Mauretania  to 
 Cyrene,  and  become  the  most  powerful  prince  in  Af- 
 rica, Masinissa  profited  by  the  leisure  which  peace  af- 
 forded him,  and  exerted  himself  in  introducing  among 
 his  semi-barbarous  subjects  the  blessings  of  civiliza- 
 tion. Neither  age,  however,  nor  the  tranquil  posses- 
 sion of  so  extensive  a  territory,  could  damp  his  ardour 
 for  conquest.  Imboldcned  by  his  relations  with 
 Rome,  he  violated  the  treaties  subsisting  between 
 himself  and  the  Carthaginians,  and,  although  in  his 
 ninetieth  year,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  power- 
 fat  army  and  marched  into  the  territories  of  Carthatre. 
 He  was  preparing  for  a  general  action  when  Scipio 
 ^milianus  arrived  at  his  camp,  having  come  from 
 Spain  to  visit  him.  Masinissa  received  the  vouno-  Ro- 
 man with  distinguished  honours,  alluded  with  tears  to 
 his  old  benefactor  Africanus,  and  afterward  caused  the 
 ehte  of  his  troops  to  pass  in  review  before  the  son  of 
 Paulus  yEmilius.  The  young  Scipio  was  most  struck, 
 however,  by  the  activity  and  address  of  the  monarch 
 himself,  whose  physical  powers  seemed  but  little  im- 
 paired by  age,  who  still  performed  ail  the  exercises 
 of  youth,  and  mounted  and  rode  his  steed  with  all  the 
 spirit  of  earlier  years.  On  the  morrow  Scipio  was  the 
 witness  of  one  of  the  greatest  conflicts  that  had  ever 
 taken  place  in  Africa,  which,  after  having  been  main- 
 lained  for  a  long  time  on  both  sides  with  the  utmost 
 
 obstinacy,  was  decided  at  last  in  favour  of  Masinissa. 
 A  second  battle,  equally  disastrous  for  Carthage,  soon 
 followed,  and  peace  was  concluded  on  such  terms  as 
 it  pleased  Masinissa  to  dictate.  Not  long  after  this 
 the  third  Punic  war  broke  out  ;  but  the  Numidian 
 monarch  did  not  live  to  see  the  downfall  of  Carthage, 
 having  expired  a  short  time  before  its  capture,  at  the 
 age  of  ninety- seven,  and  after  a  reign  of  sixty  years. 
 Masinissa  was  remarkable  for  his  abstemious  mode  of 
 life,  which,  joined  to  his  habits  of  constant  exercise, 
 enabled  him  to  enjoy  so  protracted  an  existence.  He 
 left  fifty-four  sons,  only  three  of  whom,  Micijisa,  Gu- 
 lussa,  and  Masianabal,  were  legitimate.  Scijiio,  who 
 had  been  requested  to  do  so  by  Masinissa,  divided  the 
 kingdom  among  these  three,  and  assigned  consider- 
 able revenues  to  the  others.  (Lnv,  lib.  24,  25,  28,  &c. 
 —Polyb.,  lib.  11,  14,  15,  &.c.—  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  27 
 p.  364,  segq.) 
 
 MassagetjE,  a  nation  of  Scythia,  placed  by  the  an- 
 cient writers  to  the  east  of  the  river  laxartes.  The 
 Macedonians  sought  for  the  Massagetse  in  the  northern 
 regions  of  Asia,  judging  from  the  history  of  Cyrus's 
 expedition  against  these  barbarians,  by  which  some 
 definiteness  was  given  to  the  position  which  they  oc- 
 cupied. They  missed,  indeed,  the  true  Massageta;, 
 but  the  term  became  a  general  one  for  the  northern 
 nations  of  Asia,  like  that  of  Scythians.  Larcher  con- 
 siders the  term  Massagetae  equivalent  probably  to 
 "  Eastern  Getae."  (Hist.  (fHerodotc,  vol.  8,  p.  323, 
 Table  Gcographique.)  According  to  Herodotus,  the 
 MassagetoB  occupied  a  level  tract  of  country  to  the 
 east  of  the  Caspian.  (//e?oi.,  1,  201.)  Hailing  takes 
 the  Massagetoe  for  Alans,  and  refers  to  Ammianus 
 Marcellinus  (23,  14  ;  31,  2)  in  support  of  his  opinion. 
 {Wien-Iahrb.,  63,  p.  131.)  Gatterer,  on  the  other 
 hand,  thinks  that  they  occupied  the  present  country 
 of  the  Kirgish  Tatars.  (Comment.  Soc.  Gott.,  14, 
 p.  9. — B'dhr,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c.) 
 Mass^syli.  Vid.  Mas^sylii. 
 Massicos,  Mons,  a  range  of  hills  in  Campania,  fa- 
 mous for  the  wines  produced  there.  Consult  remarks 
 under  the  article  Falernus,  near  the  beginning  (p.  515, 
 col.  2). 
 
 Massii.ia,  by  the  Greeks  called  Massalia  (Ma^cra- 
 "kld),  a  celebrated  colony  of  the  Phocasans,  on  the 
 Mediterranean  coast  of  Gaul,  now  Marseille.  The 
 period  of  its  settlement  appears  to  have  been  very  re- 
 mote. Scymnus  of  Chios  (v.  210),  Livy  (5,  34),  and 
 Eusebius,  agree  in  placing  it  in  the  45th  Olvmpiad, 
 during  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Prisons.  Their  com- 
 mon authority  appears  to  have  been  Timseus  ;  at  least 
 Scymnus  mentions  him. — The  circumstances  con- 
 nected with  the  founding  of  Massilia  will  be  seen  un- 
 der the  article  Phocasa.  The  natives  endeavoured  to 
 prevent  the  establishment  of  this  colony,  but,  accord 
 ing  to  I.ivy  (5,  34),  the  Phocoeans  were  enabled  to 
 make  an  effectual  resistance,  and  to  fortify  their  posi- 
 tion, by  the  aid  of  a  body  of  Gauls.  (Compare  the 
 account  of  Justin,  43,  3,  4.)  Massilia  soon  became 
 a  powerful  and  flourishing  city,  and  famed  for  its  ex- 
 tensive commerce.  It  engaged  in  frequent  contests 
 with  Carthage,  its  maritime  rival,  and  sent  out  many 
 colonies,  from  Emporiae  in  Spain  as  far  as  Monoccus 
 in  Italy.  (Slrabo,  180.)  The  most  prosperous  pe- 
 riod in  the  history  of  Massilia  would  seem  to  have 
 been  the  interval  from  the  fall  of  Carthage  to  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  contest  between  Caesar  and  Pom- 
 pey.  This  city  was  always  the  firm  ally  of  Rome. 
 The  origin  of  its  friendship  with  the  Romans  is  not 
 clearly  ascertained  :  .lustin,  or.  rather,  Trogus  Pompe- 
 ius  (43,  3),  dates  it  from  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Pris- 
 ons, but  this  appears  deserving  of  no  credit.  (Man- 
 nert,  Geoirr.,  vol.  2,  p.  83,  scqq.)  It  is  more  than 
 probable,  that  the  friendship  in  question  began  about 
 the  end  of  the  first  Punic  war.  Before  this  war  we 
 hear  nothing  of  the  Massilians  in  Roman  history,  and 
 ^  803 
 
M  A  U 
 
 M  AU 
 
 previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  second  Punic 
 contest  we  find  them  tlie  allies  of  the  Romans.  (Liv., 
 21,  20.)  The  political  importance  of  this  city  re- 
 ceived a  severe  check  in  the  civil  war  between  Cajsar 
 and  Pompey,  in  consequence  of  its  attachment  to  the 
 party  of  the  latter.  It  had  to  sustain  a  severe  siege, 
 in  which  its  fleet  was  destroyed,  and,  after  surrender- 
 ing, to  pay  a  heavy  exaction.  (Cms.,  Bell.  Civ.,  2, 
 22  )  The  conqueror,  ii  is  true,  left  the  city  the  title 
 of  freedom,  but  its  power  and  former  importance  were 
 gone.  The  downfall  of  its  political  consequence, 
 liowever,  was  succeeded  by  distinguished  eminence 
 in  another  point  of  view,  and  already,  in  the  days  of 
 Augustus,  Massilia  began  to  be  famous  as  a  school  of 
 the  sciences,  and  the  rival  of  Athens.  Even  in  a  much 
 later  age,  though  surrounded  by  barbarous  tribes,  she 
 continued  to  enjoy  her  literary  rank,  and  was  also  re- 
 markable for  the  culture  of  philosophy  and  the  healing 
 art.  Massilia  remained  a  flourishing  city  until  the  in- 
 roads of  the  barbarians  and  the  subjugation  by  them 
 of  nearly  the  whole  of  southern  Gaul.  The  govern- 
 ment of  the  place  was  a  well-regulated  aristocracy. 
 {Manncrt,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  81,  seqq.) 
 
 M.\ssYM,  a  people  of  Numidia,  to  the  cast  of  the 
 MassEBsyli  and  Cape  Tretum.  They  were  the  sub- 
 jects of  Masinissa.  {Lw.,  24,  48. — Polyb.,  3,  33. — 
 SU.  Itai,  16,  170.) 
 
 Matinum,  a  city  of  Messapia  or  lapygia,  southeast 
 of  Callipolis.  Near  it  was  the  Mons  Maiinus.  It 
 was  here,  according  to  Horace,  that  the  celebrated 
 philosopher,  Archytas  of  Tarentum,  was  interred, 
 when  cast  on  shore  after  shipwreck.  (Od.,  1,  28.) 
 This  region  was  famed  for  its  bees  and  honey.  The 
 modern  Malinata  seems  to  mark  the  site  of  the  an- 
 cient city.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Ilahj,  vol.  2,  p.  277.) 
 
 Matrona,  a  river  of  Gaul,  now  the  Marnc,  which 
 formed  part  of  the  ancient  boundary  between  Gallia 
 Belgica  and  Gallia  Celtica.  It  takes  its  rise  at  Lan- 
 grcs,  runs  northwest  to  Chalons,  then  westward,  pass- 
 es by  Mcaux,  becomes  navigable  at  Vitry,  and  at 
 Charenton,  a  little  above  Paris,  falls  into  the  Sequa- 
 na  or  Seine,  after  a  course  of  about  92  leagues. 
 (Ccts.,  B.  C,  1,  1. — Aicson  ,  Moscl,  v.  461. — Am- 
 viian.  MarcelL,  15,  27.  —  Sidon.,  Pancgyr.  Mar  jo- 
 ria7i.,  208.) 
 
 MatronalTa,  a  festival  celebrated  at  Rome  on  the 
 Calends,  or  first  of  March,  and  on  this  same  occasion 
 presents  used  to  be  given  by  husbands  to  their  wives. 
 The  day  is  said  to  have  been  kept  sacred  in  remem- 
 brance chiefly  of  the  reconciliation  between  the  Ro- 
 mans and  the  Sabines.  On  this  same  day,  also,  a 
 temple  had  been  dedicated  by  the  Roman  ladies  to 
 Juno  Lucina,  on  the  Esquiline  Hill,  and  here  they 
 presented  their  annual  offerings.  {Ovid,  Fast,  3,  170, 
 seqq.)  From  this  last-mentioned  circumstance,  and 
 particularly  from  a  part  of  the  passage  last  referred  to 
 (v.  235,  seqq.),  the  true  reason  of  the  celebration 
 may  perhaps  be  inferred.  Ovid  speaks  of  offerings 
 of  flowers  made  on  this  occasion  to  Juno. 
 
 Mattiaci,  a  nation  in  the  western  quarter  of  Ger- 
 many :  according  to  Wilhelm  {Germanic7i  und  seine 
 Bewokner,  Weimar,  1823),  a  branch  of  the  Catti,  be- 
 tween the  Lahn  and  Maine,  in  the  country  between 
 Maycnce  and  Cohlcnz ;  but,  according  to  Kruse,  ly- 
 ing between  the  Maine,  the  Taunus,  and  the  Rhine 
 {Archiv.  fiir  alle  Gengr.).  The  Aquae  Maltiacs  cor- 
 respond to  the  modern  Wiesbaden.  {Ainmian.  Mar- 
 cell.,  29,  20.) 
 
 Matuta,  a  deity  among  the  Romans,  the  same  as 
 Ihe  Leucothoe  of  the  Greeks.  {Vid.  Ino  and  Lcuco- 
 thoe.) 
 
 Mayors,  a  name  of  Mars.     {Vid.  Mars.) 
 
 Mauri,  the  inhabitants  of  Mauritania.      Bochart  de- 
 rives the  name  from  Mahur,  or,  as  an  elision  of  gut- 
 turals is  very  common  in  the  Oriental  languages,  from 
 Maur,  i.  e.,  one  from  the  west,  or  an  occidentalist, 
 804 
 
 Mauritania    being  west  of  Carthage  and  Phoenicia 
 {Geogr.  Sacr.,  I,  25.— Op.,  vol.  2,  c.  496.) 
 
 Mauritania,  a  country  of  Africa,  on  the  Mediter- 
 ranean, now  the  empire  of  Fez  and  Morocco.  It  was 
 bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and 
 the  Mediterranean,  on  the  east  by  Numidia,  on  the 
 south  by  GiEtulia,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic. 
 It  was,  properly  speaking,  in  the  time  of  Bocchus  the 
 betrayer  of  Jugurtha,  bounded  by  the  river  Mulucha 
 or  Molochath,  now  Malva,  and  corresponded  nearly 
 to  the  present  kingdom  of  Fez  ;  but,  in  the  time  of 
 the  Emperor  Claudius,  the  western  part  of  Numidia 
 was  added  to  this  province  under  the  name  of  Mauri- 
 tania CEEsariensis,  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Mauritania 
 being  called  Tiiigitana,  from  its  principal  city  Tiiigis, 
 or  Old  Tangier,  on  the  west  of  the  straits.  {Plin., 
 5,  l.—  Cas.,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  6.— 7(i.,  Bell.  Afric.,22. 
 —Mela,  1,  b.  —  Id.,  3,  10.  — Vid.  Mauri,  and  Mau- 
 rusii.) 
 
 Maurus  Terentianus,  a  Latin  grammarian,  gen 
 erally  supposed  to  have  been  an  African  by  birth. 
 The  time  when  he  flourished  has  been  made  a  matter 
 of  dispute.  Vossius  supposes  him  to  have  been  the 
 same  Terentianus  who  is  addressed  by  Martial  as  the 
 prefect  of  Syene  in  Egypt.  {Ep.,  1,  87.)  Terenti- 
 anus declares  himself  a  contemporary  of  Septiniius 
 Serenus,  which  latter  poet  Wernsdorff  refers  to  the 
 age  of  Vespasian.  {Poet.  Lat.  Min  ,  vol.  2,  p.  249.) 
 He  at  all  events  lived  during  or  before  the  time  of 
 St.  Augustine,  since  he  is  mentioned  by  the  latter  in 
 terms  of  the  highest  respect.  {De  Civ.  Dei,  6,  2. — 
 De  Uiil.  Cred.,  c.  17.)  Terentianus,  when  advanced 
 in  life,  wrote  a  poem  on  letters,  syllables,  feet,  and 
 metres  ("  De  Literis,  Si/llabis,  Pedibus  el  Melris  Car- 
 men'"), in  which  these  dry  topics  are  handled  with  all 
 the  art  of  which  they  are  susceptible  This  poem  is  ex- 
 tremely useful  for  a  knowledge  of  Latin  Prosody  :  the 
 author  unites  in  it  example  and  precept,  by  employing, 
 for  the  explanation  of  the  various  metres,  verses  writ- 
 ten in  the  very  measures  of  which  he  treats. — The 
 most  recent  editions  of  the  poem  in  question  are,  that 
 of  Santen,  completed  by  Van  Lennep,  Traj.  ad  Rhen., 
 1825,  and  that  of  Lachmann,  Lips.,  1836.  It  is  giv- 
 en also  among  the  Latin  grammarians,  ed.  Pulsch-,  p. 
 2383,  seqq.,  and  in  the  Corpus  Poetarum  of  Mait- 
 taire. 
 
 Maurusii,  a  poetical  name  for  the  people  of  Mau- 
 ritania. 
 
 Mausolus,  a  prince  of  Caria,  the  brother  and  hus- 
 band of  Artemisia.  His  death  was  deeply  lamented 
 by  the  latter,  who  caused  a  splendid  monument  to  be 
 erected  to  his  memory.  {Vid.  Artemisia  I.,  Halicar- 
 nassus,  and  Mausoleum.) 
 
 Mausoleum,  I.  (^avau7..dov,  scil.  fivtjjueiov,  "■the 
 tomb  of  Mausolus"),  a  magnificent  monumental  struc- 
 ture, raised  by  Artemisia  in  memory  of  her  husband 
 Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  in  the  city  of  Halicarnassus, 
 B.C.  352.  Of  this  monument,  once  reckoned  among 
 the  wonders  of  the  world,  no  remains  now  exist;  but, 
 from  Pliny's  description  (36,  5),  it  appears  to  have 
 been  nearly  square  in  Us  plan,  measuring  113  feet  on 
 its  sides,  and  93  on  each  of  its  ends  or  fronts,  and  to 
 have  been  decorated  with  a  peristyle  of  36  columns 
 (supposed  by  Hardouin  to  have  been  60  feet  high  or 
 more),  above  which  the  structure  was  carried  up  in 
 a  pyramidal  form,  and  surmounted  at  its  apex  by  a 
 marble  quadriga  executed  by  Pythis,  who,  according 
 to  Vitruvius,  was  joint  architect  with  Satyrus  in  the 
 building.  It  was  farther  decorated  with  sculptures 
 and  reliefs  by  Scopas,  Bryaxis,  Timotheus,  and  Leo- 
 chares.  The  entire  height  was  140  feet. — II.  The 
 Mausoleum  erected  at  Babylon  by  Alexander  the 
 Great,  in  honour  of  Hephsstion,  appears  to  have  been 
 still  more  magnificent,  and  somewhat  extravagant  in 
 its  decorations,  as  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  the  ac- 
 count given  of  it  by  Diodorus  Siculus  (17,  115).     It 
 
MAX 
 
 MAX 
 
 was  adorned  below  by  gilded  rostra  or  beaks  of  240 
 ships,  and  every  successive  tier  or  story  was  enriched 
 with  a  profusion  of  sculpture,  representing  various  an- 
 imals, fijihting  centaurs,  and  other  figures,  all  of  which 
 were  gilded  ;  and  on  the  summit  were  statues  of  si- 
 rens, made  hollow,  in  order  that  ihe  singers  who 
 chanted  the  funeral  dirge  might  be  concealed  within 
 them. — in.  The  Mausoleum  of  Augustus  at  Roine 
 was  a  structure  of  great  magnitude  and  grandeur,  and 
 circular  in  plan.  It  stood  in  the  Campus  Martius, 
 where  remains  of  it  yet  exist  in  the  two  concentric 
 circles  forming  the  first  and  second  stories  of  the 
 building,  and  the  vaulted  chambers  between,  which 
 supported  the  first  or  lowest  terrace.  Of  these  terra- 
 ces there  were  three;  consequently,  four  stages  in  the 
 building,  gradually  decreasing  in  diameter,  the  upper- 
 most of  which  was  crowned  with  a  colossal  statue  of 
 the  emperor.  The  terraces  themselves  were  planted 
 with  trees.  From  traces  of  something  of  the  kind 
 that  yet  remain,  it  is  conjectured  that  there  was  ori- 
 ginally an  advanced  portico  attached  to  the  building, 
 in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  Pantheon,  though 
 considerably  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the 
 plan,  as  it  could  not  have  been  carried  up  higher  than 
 the  first  stage  of  the  building.  According  to  Hirt's 
 representation  of  it,  in  his  "  Baukunst  Lei  dc?i  Allc7iy" 
 it  was  a  Corinthian  hexastyle,  advanced  one  inter- 
 column  before  the  side-walls  connecting  it  with  the 
 circular  edifice  behind  it. — IV.  The  Mausoleum  of 
 Hadrian  was  also  of  great  magnitude  and  grandeur, 
 and,  like  the  preceding,  circular  in  plan.  It  is  now 
 converted  into  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  in  which 
 fehape  it  is  familiar  to  almost  every  one.  This  is  a 
 work  of  most  massy  construction,  and  originally  pre- 
 sented an  unbroken  circular  mass  of  building,  erect- 
 ed upon  a  larger  square  basement,  lofty  in  itself,  yet 
 of  moderate  height  in  proportion  to  the  superstruc- 
 ture, the  latter  being  about  twice  as  high  as  the  for- 
 mer. This  nearly  solid  rotunda,  which  was  originally 
 coated  with  white  marble,  had  on  its  summit  numer- 
 ous fine  statues,  which  were  broken  to  pieces  and  the 
 fragments  hurled  down  by  the  soldiers  of  Belisarius 
 upon  the  Goths,  who  attempted  to  take  the  building 
 by  storm.  Neither  are  any  remains  now  left  of  the 
 uppermost  stage  of  the  edifice,  which  assumed  the 
 form  of  a  circular  peripteral  temple,  whose  diameter 
 was  about  one  third  of  the  larger  circle.  According 
 to  tradition,  its  peristyle  consisted  of  the  twenty-four 
 beautiful  marble  Corinthian  cohmins  which  afterward 
 decorated  the  Basilica  of  San  Paolo  fuori  dcllc  Mura 
 (partially  destroyed  some  few  years  ago  by  fire,  but 
 now  nearly  restored) ;  and  its  tholus  or  dome  was 
 surmounted  by  a  colossal  pine-apple  in  bronze,  now 
 placed  in  the  gardens  of  the  Vatican.  {Encycl.  Us. 
 KnoicL,  vol.  15,  p.  21.) 
 
 Maxentids,  M.vrcos  AurelTus  Valerius,  son  of 
 Masimianus,  the  colleague  of  Dioclesian  in  the  em- 
 pire, was  living  in  obscurity,  when,  after  his  father's 
 abdication,  and  the  elevation  of  Constatitine  to  the 
 rank  of  Cajsar,  he  became  envious  of  the  latter,  and 
 dissatisfied  with  the  neglect  which  he  experienced 
 from  Galerius.  Accordingly,  he  stirred  up  a  revolt 
 among  the  prastorian  soldiers  at  Rome,  and  was  pro- 
 claimed etnijcror  A.D.  306.  Galerius.  who  was  then 
 in  the  East,  sent  orders  to  Severus  Cssar,  who  had 
 the  command  of  Italy,  to  march  from  Mediolanum  to 
 Rome  with  all  his  forces,  and  put  down  the  insurrec- 
 tion. In  the  mean  time,  Maximianus,  who  lived  in  re- 
 tirement in  Campania,  came  to  Rome,  and  was  pro- 
 claimed emperor  and  colleague  with  his  son,  A.D.  307. 
 Severus.  on  arriving  with  his  troops  near  Rome,  was 
 deserted  by  most  of  his  officers  and  soldiers,  who  had 
 formerly  served  under  Maximianus,  and  were  still  at- 
 tached to  their  old  general.  Upon  this  he  retired  to 
 ilavcnna,  which  he  soon  after  surrendered  to  Maxim- 
 ianus, on  being  promised  hi.s  life  and  liberty  ;   but 
 
 Maximianus  put  him  to  death.  The  latter  then  pro- 
 ceeded to  Gaul,  to  form  an  alliance  with  Constantius, 
 leaving  Maxentius  at  Rome.  Galerius  soon  after  ar- 
 rived in  Italy  with  an  army  ;  but,  not  finding  himself 
 strong  enough  to  attack  Maxentius  in  Rome,  and 
 fearing  the  same  fate  as  that  of  Severus,  he  made  a 
 precipitate  retreat.  Maximianus,  returning  to  Rome, 
 reigned  for  some  months  together  with  his  son,  but 
 afterward  quarrelled  with  hiin,  and  took  refuge  with 
 Galerius,  wlio  acknowledged  him  as  emperor.  There 
 were  then  no  less  than  six  emperors  ;  Galeruis,  Max- 
 imianus, Constantino,  Maxentius,  Licinius,  and  Max- 
 iminus  Daza.  In  the  following  year,  A.D.  309,  Max- 
 entius was  proclaimed  consul  at  Rome,  together  with 
 his  son,  M.  Aurelius  Romulus,  who,  in  the  ensuing 
 year,  was  accidentally  drowned  in  the  Tiber.  Max- 
 entius possessed  Italy  and  .\lrica  ;  but  Africa  revolt- 
 ed, ami  the  soldiers  proclaimed  as  emperor  an  ad- 
 venturer of  the  name  of  Alexander,  who  reigned  at. 
 Carthage  for  three  years.  In  the  year  311,  Maxen- 
 tius sent  an  expedition  to  Africa,  defeated  and  killed 
 Alexander,  and  burned  Carthage.  Proud  of  his  suc- 
 cess, for  which  he  enjoyed  a  triumph,  Maxentius  made 
 great  preparations  to  attack  Constantine,  with  whom 
 he  had  till  then  preserved  the  appearance  of  friend- 
 ship. Constantine  moved  from  Gaul  into  Italy,  ad- 
 vanced to  Rome,  and  defeated  Maxentius,  who  was 
 drowned  in  attempting  to  swim  his  hor.se  across  the 
 Tiber,  A.D.  312.  {Encycl.  Us.  Knowledge,  vol.  15, 
 p.  22.) 
 
 Maximianus  I.,  Marcus  Valerius,  a  native  of  Pan- 
 nonia,  born  of  obscure  parents.  He  served  in  the 
 Roman  armies  with  distinction,  and  was  named  by 
 Dioclesian  his  colleague  in  the  empire,  A.D.  286. 
 The  remainder  of  his  life  is  given  under  Diocletianus, 
 Constantinus,  and  Maxentius.  He  was  put  to  death 
 by  Constantine,  at  Massilia,  for  having  conspired 
 against  his  life  (.\.D.  310.) — II.  Galerius  Valerius, 
 was  surnamed  Aimentarius  on  account  of  his  having 
 been  a  herdsman  in  his  youth.  The  events  of  his  life 
 are  narrated  under  Diocletianus,  Constantius,  and  Con- 
 stantinus. According  to  historians,  he  died  A.D.  311, 
 of  a  loathsome  disease,  which  was  considered  by  his 
 contemporaries  and  himself  as  a  punishment  from 
 heaven  for  his  persecution  of  the  Christians.  {En- 
 cycl. Us.  KnowL,  vol.  15,  p.  23.) 
 
 Maximinus,  I.  Caius  Julius  Verus,  was  originally 
 a  Thracian  shepherd.  He  was  of  gigantic  size  and 
 great  bodily  strength,  and,  having  entered  the  Roman 
 army  under  Septiinius  Severus,  was  rapidly  advanced 
 for  his  bravery.  Alexander  Severus  gave  him  the 
 command  of  a  new  legion  raised  in  Pannonia,  at  the 
 head  of  which  he  followed  Alexander  in  his  campaign 
 against  the  Germans,  when,  the  army  being  encamped 
 on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  he  consf)ired  against  his 
 sovereign,  and  induced  some  of  his  companions  to 
 murder  him  in  his  tent,  as  well  as  his  mother  Mam- 
 maea,  A.D.  235.  Maximinus,  being  proclaimed  em- 
 peror, named  his  son,  also  called  Maximinus,  Cssar 
 and  his  colleague  in  the  empire.  He  continued  the 
 war  against  the  Germans,  and  devastated  a  large  tract 
 of  country  beyond  the  Rhine  ;  after  which  he  repaired 
 to  Illyricum  to  fight  the  Dacians  and  Sarmatians.  But 
 his  cruelty  and  rapacity  raised  enemies  against  him  in 
 various  parts  of  the  empire.  The  province  of  Africa 
 revolted,  and  proclaimed  Gordianus,  who  was  soon  after 
 acknowledged  by  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome,  A.D. 
 237.  But  Capellianus,  governor  of  Mauritania  for 
 Maximinus,  defeated  Gordianus  and  his  son,  who  both 
 fell  in  the  struggle,  after  a  nominal  reign  of  little  more 
 than  a  month.  Rome  was  in  consternation  at  the 
 news,  expecting  the  vengeance  of  Maximinus.  Ihe 
 senate  proclaimed  as  emperors  Clodius  Pupienus  Maxi- 
 mus  and  Decimus  Cslins  Albinus  ;  but  the  people  ir 
 sisted  upon  a  nephew  of  the  younger  Gordianus,  a  boy 
 twelve  years    of  age,   being   associated    with   them. 
 
MAX 
 
 MAZ 
 
 Maxirnns  marcVied  out  of  Rome  wilh  troops  to  oppose 
 Maxiininus,  who  haii  laid  siege  to  Aquileia.  The  lat- 
 ter, however,  experienced  a  brave  resistance  from  the 
 garrison  and  people  of  that  city,  which  excited  still  more 
 Ins  natural  cruelty,  and  the  soldiers,  becoininor  weary  of 
 him,  mntinied  and  killed  both  him  and  his  son,  A.D. 
 238.  Maxiininus,  the  father,  then  G5  years  old,  was 
 a  ferocious  soldier  and  nothing  else,  and  wonderful 
 tales  are  related  of  his  voracity,  and  tlie  quantity  of 
 food  and  drink  which  he  swallowed  daily.  Ills  son  is 
 said  to  have  been  a  handsome  but  arrogant  youth.' 
 {Jal.  Capilol.,  Vil.  Maxim.  —  Encijcl.  Us.  Knou)!., 
 vol.  15,  p.  23.) — II.  Dai.^  or  Daz.\,  an  lUyrian  peas- 
 ant, served  in  the  Roman  armies,  and  was  raised  by 
 Galerius,  who  was  his  relative,  to  the  rank  of  military 
 tribune,  and  lastly  to  the  dignity  of  Ccesar,  A.D.  303, 
 at  the  time  of  the  abdication  of  Dioclesian  and  Max- 
 imian,  when  he  had  for  his  share  the  government  of 
 Syria  and  Egypt.  After  the  death  of  Galerius,  A.D. 
 311,  Maximmus  and  Licinius  divided  his  dominions 
 between  them,  and  Maximinus  obtained  the  whole  of 
 the  Asiatic  provinces.  Both  he  and  Licinius  behaved 
 ungratefully  towards  the  family  of  Galerius,  their 
 common  benefactor.  Valeria,  the  daughter  of  Diocle- 
 sian and  widow  of  Galerius,  having  escaped  from  Li- 
 cinius into  the  dominions  of  Maximinus,  the  latter  of- 
 fered to  marry  her,  and,  on  her  refusal,  banished  her, 
 with  her  mother,  to  the  deserts  of  Syria.  He  perse- 
 cuted the  Christians,  and  made  war  against  the  Ar- 
 menians. A  new  war  having  broken  out  between  Li- 
 cinius and  Maximinus,  the  latter  advanced  as  far  as 
 Adrianopolis,  but  was  defeated,  fled  into  Asia,  and 
 died  of  poison  at  Tarsus,  A.D.  313.  [Encycl.  Us. 
 KnowL,  vol.  15,  p.  24.) 
 
 MaxImus,  I.  Magnus,  a  native  of  Spain,  who  pro- 
 claimed himself  emperor  A.D.  383.  The  unpopular- 
 ity of  Gratian  favoured  his  usurpation,  and  he  was  ac- 
 knowledged by  the  troops.  Gratian  marched  against 
 him,  but  he  was  defeated,  and  soon  after  assassinated. 
 Maximus  refused  the  honours  of  burial  to  the  re- 
 mains of  Gratian;  and,  when  he  had  made  himself 
 master  of  Britain,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  he  sent  ambassa- 
 dors into  the  East,  and  demanded  of  the  Emperor  The- 
 odosius  to  acknowledge  him  as  his  associate  on  the 
 throne.  Theodosius  endeavoured  to  amuse  and  de- 
 lay him,  but  Maximus  resolved  to  enforce  his  claim  by 
 arms,  and,  crossing  the  Alps,  made  himself  master  of 
 Italy.  Theodosius,  however,  marched  against  and  be- 
 sieged him  in  Aquileia,  where  he  was  betrayed  by  his 
 own  soldiers,  and  put  to  death,  A.D.  383  — II.  Pe- 
 tronius,  a  Roman  senator,  twice  consul,  and  of  pa- 
 trician origin.  He  caused  the  Emperor  Valentinian 
 III.  to  be  assassinated,  and  ascended  the  throne,  but 
 was  stoned  to  death,  and  his  body  thrown  into  the  Ti- 
 ber by  his  own  soldiers,  A.D.  455,  after  a  reign  of 
 only  77  days.  {Procop.,  Bell.  Vand.—Sidon.,  ApolL, 
 I,  23.) — III.  Tyrius,  a  native  of  Tyre,  distinguished 
 for  his  eloquence,  and  who  obtained  some  degree  of 
 celebrity  also  as  a  philosopher  of  the  New- Platonic 
 school.  According  to  Suidas,  he  lived  under  Uom- 
 modus  ;  but,  according  to  Eusebius  and  Syncellus,  un- 
 der Antoninus  Pius.  The  accounts  of  these  chronol- 
 owers  may  be  reconciled  by  su[)posing  that  Maximus 
 flourished  under  .■\ntoninus,  and  reached  the  time  of 
 Commodus.  Joseph  Scaliger  believed  that  Maximus 
 was  one  of  the  instructors  of  Marcus  .Aurclius;  and 
 that  emperor,  in  fact,  mentions  a  Maximus  among  his 
 preceptors  ;  but  this  individual  was  Claudius  Maximus, 
 as  we  learn  from  a  passage  in  (Japiiolinus.  (Vit.  An- 
 ton., Phil.,  c.  3.)  Although  he  was  frequently  at 
 Rome,  Maximus  Tyrius  probably  spent  the  greater 
 part  of  his  time  in  Greece.  We  have  from  him,  un- 
 der the  title  of  Discourses  (or  Disscrlations),  Aoyni 
 (or  A(a/lt'.fc;f),  forty-ono  treatises  or  essays  on  various 
 subjects  of  a  philosophical,  moral,  and  literarv  nature. 
 That  he  possessed  the  most  captivating  powers  of  elo- 
 806 
 
 quence,  sufTiciently  appears  from  these  elegant  produc- 
 tions ;  but  they  are  of  little  merit  on  the  score  of  ideas. 
 They  are,  for  the  most  part,  vvritten  upon  Platonic  prin- 
 ciples, but  sometimes  lean  towards  scepticism.  The 
 following  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the  topics  dis- 
 cussed by  this  writer.  Of  God,  according  to  Plato's 
 idea. — If  we  must  return  Injury  for  Injury. — Hoicwc 
 may  distinguish  a  Friend  from  a  Flatterer. — Thai  an 
 Active  is  better  than  a  Contemplative  Life.  (The  con- 
 trary position  is  maintnmed  in  another  discourse.) — 
 That  the  Farmer  is  more  useful  to  a  Slate  than  the  Sol- 
 dier.—  Whether  the  Liberal  Arts  contribute  to  Virtue. 
 
 —  Of  the  End  of  Philosophy. — Thai  there  is  no  greater 
 Good  than  a  good  Man. — Of  the  Demon  of  Socrates. 
 
 —  Of  the  beneficial  Effects  of  adverse  Fortune. — 
 Whether  the  Maladies  of  the  Body  or  the  Mind  be 
 more  severe. — The  best  edition  of  Maximus  Tyrius  is 
 that  of  Davis,  Land.,  1740,  4to,  enriched  with  some 
 excellent  observations  by  Markland.  It  had  been  pre- 
 ceded by  a  smaller  edition  in  8vo,  Cantab.,  1703,  also 
 by  Davis.  The  larger  edition  was  reprinted  at  Leip- 
 sic  in  1774,  in  2  vols.  8vo,  under  the  editorial  care  of 
 Reiske.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  286,  se^,^  ) 
 — IV.  A  native  of  Ephesus,  and  philosopher  of  the 
 New- Platonic  school.  According  to  Eunapius  (p  86, 
 seqq.),  he  was,  through  the  recommendation  of  his 
 master  iEdesius,  appointed  by  Constantius  preceptor 
 to  Julian.  According  to  the  Christian  historians,  how- 
 ever, he  introduced  himself  to  Julian,  during  his  Asi- 
 atic expedition,  at  Nicomedia.  By  accommodating  his 
 predictions  to  the  wishes  and  hopes  of  the  emperor, 
 and  by  other  parasitical  arts,  he  gained  entire  posses- 
 sion of  his  confidence.  The  courtiers,  as  usual,  fol- 
 lowed the  example  of  their  master,  and  Maximus  was 
 daily  loaded  with  new  honours.  He  accompanied  Ju- 
 lian in  his  expedition  into  Persia,  and  there,  by  the  as- 
 sistance of  divination  and  flattery,  persuaded  him  that 
 he  would  rival  Alexander  in  the  glory  of  conquest. 
 The  event,  however,  proved  as  unfortunate  to  the  phi- 
 losopher as  to  the  hero  ;  for,  Julian  being  slain  by  a 
 wound  received  in  battle,  after  the  short  reign  of  Jo- 
 vian Maximus  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  the  emper- 
 ors Valentinian  and  Valens,  and,  for  the  imaginary 
 crime  of  magic,  underwent  a  long  course  of  confine- 
 ment and  suffering,  which  was  not  the  less  truly  perse- 
 cution because  they  were  inflicted  upon  a  pagan.  At 
 last  Maximus  was  sent  into  his  native  country,  and  there 
 fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  cruelly  of  the  proconsul  Festus. 
 {Ammian.  Marcell.,  29,  1. — Socr.,  Hist.  Eccles.,  3, 
 1.  —  Enfield's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  2,  p.  70, 
 seqq.) — V.  An  ecclesiastical  writer,  at  first  chief  sec- 
 retary to  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  and  afterward  abl)ol 
 of  a  monastery  at  Chrysopolis,  near  Constantinople. 
 The  Greek  church  has  numbered  him  among  the  coi>- 
 fessors,  from  his  having  resisted  all  the  attempts  that 
 were  made  to  draw  him  over  to  the  Monothf  Jites,  for 
 which  he  was  banished  to  Colchis,  where  he  died  A.D. 
 662.  Among  other  works,  we  have  from  him  a  spe- 
 cies of  .Anthology,  divided  into  71  chapters,  and  enti- 
 tled KSijiuXaia  Qeo/.oyiKci,  tjtoi  CK^oyal  sk  «5/a<i6pur 
 j3t6Xiu>v  rC)v  re  Kaff  i/ftd^  nal  Tcn>  ^vpa(fiy.  Iv  differs 
 froni  the  .'\nthology  of  Stobaeus  in  containing  selec- 
 tions also  from  the  scriptures  and  from  ecclesiastical 
 writers.  The  works  of  Maximus  were  edited  by  Conv- 
 befis,  Paris,  1675,  2  vols.  fol. — VI.  .\r>  ecclesiastical 
 writer,  a  bishop  of  Turin  (Augitsta  Taurinorum),  who 
 died  subsequently  to  465  A.D.  He  was  one  of  the 
 most  eloquent  speakers  of  the  Western  Church.  Many 
 of  his  homilies  remain. 
 
 Maz.\ca.      Vid.  CsBsarca  ad  Arg«om. 
 
 Maz.^ce,  a  people  of  Sarmatia,  in  the  vicinity  of 
 the  Palus  Mseotis.      {Plin.,  6,  7.) 
 
 MazIcks,  a  people  of  Mauritania  Cjesariensis,  also 
 called,  by  some  writers,  Mazyes,  and  Machmes^ 
 (Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  —  Ammian.  Marctll,  29,  25.— 
 Suet.,  Ncr.y  c.  31.) 
 
MED 
 
 MED 
 
 Meat^,  a  people  in  the  north  of  Britain,  near  the 
 Vallum  Severi.     They  are  the  same  with  the  Mseatfe. 
 
 Mkdea,  daughter  of  yEetes,  king  of  Colchis,  and 
 famed  for  her  skill  in  sorcery  and  enchantment. 
 When  Jason  came  to  Colchis  in  quest  of  the  golden 
 fleece,  she  aided  him  in  ohtaining  it,  and  then  fled 
 with  him  in  the  Argo  to  Greece.  {ViJ.  Argonautse.) 
 Here  she  displayed  her  magic  skill  in  the  case  of 
 ./3?son,  whom  she  restored  from  the  decrepitude  of 
 age  to  the  bloom  of  early  youth.  In  order  to  effect 
 this  chancre,  she  is  said  by  the  poets  to  have  drawn  otf 
 all  the  blood  from  his  veins,  and  then  to  have  filled 
 them  with  the  juices  of  certain  herbs.  This  sudden 
 renovation  of  the  parent  of  Jason  so  wrought  upon  the 
 daughters  of  Pelias,  that  they  entreated  Medea  to  per- 
 form the  same  act  for  their  aged  father.  The  Colchian 
 princess  eagerly  availed  herself  of  this  opportunity  to 
 avenge  the  wrongs  which  Pelias  had  done  to  Jason,  and, 
 in  order  to  pique  still  more  the  curiosity  of  his  daugh- 
 ters, she  IS  said  to  have  cut  to  pieces  an  old  ram,  and 
 then,  boiling  the  parts  in  a  caldron,  to  have  caused  a 
 young  lamb  to  come  forth  from  it.  The  daughters  of 
 Pehas  thereupon  slew  their  father,  and  boiled  his  flesh 
 in  a  caldron;  but  Medea  refused  to  perform  the  requi- 
 site ceremonies;  and,  in  order  to  avoid  the  punishment 
 she  had  a  right  to  expect  for  this  cruel  deed,  fled  with 
 Jason  to  Corinth. — According  to  another  account,  how- 
 ever, Medea  did  not  restore  ^•Eson  to  youth,  he  having 
 been  driven  by  Pelias,  before  the  return  of  Jason,  to 
 the  act  of  self-destruction.  (V^id  ^Eson.) — After  re- 
 siding for  some  time  at  Corinth,  Medea  found  herself 
 deserted  by  Jason,  who  espoused  the  daughter  of 
 Creon,  the  Corinthian  king.  Taking,  thereupon,  sum- 
 mary vengeance  on  her  rival,  and  having  destroyed  her 
 two  sons  whom  she  had  by  Jason  (^vid.  Jasonl,  Medea 
 mounted  a  chariot  drawn  by  winged  serpents  and  fled 
 to  Athens,  where  she  had  by  King  ^Egeus  a  son  named 
 Medus.  Being  detected,  however,  in  an  attempt  to 
 destroy  Theseus  (vid.  Theseus),  she  fled  from  Athens 
 with  her  son.  Medus  conquered  several  barbarous 
 tribes,  and  also,  say  the  poets,  the  country  which  he 
 named  Media  after  himself;  and  he  finally  fell  in  bat- 
 tle with  the  Indians.  Medea,  returning  unknown  to 
 Colchis,  found  that  her  father  JE'eles  had  been  robbed  of 
 his  throne  by  her  brother  Perses.  She  restored  him,  and 
 deprived  the  usurper  of  life. — Neither  Jason  nor  Medea 
 can  be  well  regarded  as  a  real  historical  personage. 
 (Compare  remarks  at  the  close  of  the  article  Jason.) 
 Whether  the  former,  whose  name  is  nearly  identical 
 with  lasion,  lasios,  lasos,  is  merely  a  personification 
 of  the  Ionian  race  ('liloveg),  or,  in  reference  to  a  myth 
 to  be  noticed  in  the  sequel,  signifies  the  healing,  ato- 
 ning gad  or  hero,  may  be  doubted.  Medea,  however, 
 seems  to  be  plainly  only  another  form  of  Juno,  and  to 
 have  been  separated  from  her  in  a  way  of  which  many 
 instances  occur  in  ancient  legends.  She  is  the  coun- 
 selling (nfji5oc)  goddess  ;  and  in  the  history  of  Jason 
 we  find  Juno  always  acting  in  this  capacity  towards 
 him,  who,  as  Homer  says,  "«,'«*  very  dear  to  hcr^' 
 (Od  ,  12,  72)  ;  an  obscure  hint,  perhaps,  of  the  love 
 of  Jason  and  Medea.  Medea,  also,  always  acts  a 
 friendly  part;  and  it  Gcetns  highly  [irobable  that  the 
 atrocities  related  of  her  are  pure  fictions  of  the  Attic 
 dramalicts.  {MulLcv,  OirJwm.,  p.  68.)  The  bringing 
 of  Jason  and  Medea  to  Corinth  seems  ahso  to  indicate 
 a  connexion  between  the  latter  and  Juno,  who  was 
 worshipped  there  under  the  title  of  Acraa,  and  the 
 graves  of  the  children  of  Medea  were  in  the  temple  of 
 this  goddess.  It  was  an  annual  custom  at  Corinth,  that 
 seven  youths  and  as  many  maidens,  children  of  the 
 most  disting«i.>:hed  citizens,  clad  in  black,  with  their 
 hair  &horn,  should  go  to  this  temple,  and,  singincr 
 moiirnful  hymns,  offer  sacrifices  to  appease  the  deity. 
 The  cause  acsigned  for  this  rite  was  as  follows.  Me- 
 deA  reigned  at  Corinth;  but  the  people,  disdainintr  to 
 be  governed  by  an  enchantress,  conspired  against  her, 
 
 and  resolved  to  put  her  children  (seven  of  «-ach  sex)  to 
 death.  The  children  fled  to  the  temple  of  Juno,  but 
 were  pursued  and  slain  at  the  altar.  Ths  anger  of 
 heaven  was  manifested  by  a  plague,  and,  by  the  advice 
 of  an  oracle,  the  expiatory  rite  just  mentioned  was  in- 
 stituted. {Parmemscus,  ap.  SchoL  ad  Eurip.,  Med., 
 9,  275.— PaiLsan.,  2,  3,  7.)  It  was  even  said  that 
 the  Corinthians,  by  a  bribe  of  five  talents,  induced 
 Euripides  to  lay  the  guilt  of  the  murder  of  her  children 
 on  Medea  herself  (Schol ,  I.  c)  There  was  also  a 
 tradition  that  Medea  resided  at  Corinth,  and  that  she 
 caused  a  famine  to  cease  by  sacrificing  to  Ceres  and 
 the  Lemnian  nymphs,  and  that  Jupiter  made  love  to 
 her,  but  she  would  not  hearken  to  his  suit,  fearing  the 
 anger  of  Juno,  who  therefore  rewarded  her  by  making 
 her  children  immortal ;  a  thing  she  had  vainly  attempt- 
 ed to  do  herself,  by  hiding  them  in  the  temple  of  the 
 goddess,  whose  priestess  she  probably  was  in  this 
 myth.  {Schol.  ad  Find.,  01.,  13,  74:.— Pausan.,  2,  3, 
 II.)  It  is  al.so  remarkable,  that  the  only  place  besides 
 Corinth  in  which  there  were  legends  of  Medea  was 
 Corcyra,  an  island  which  had  been  colonized  by  the 
 Corinthians,  .^etes  himself  was,  according  to  Eu- 
 melus  (ap.  Sckol.  ad  Pind.,  I  c),  the  son  of  Helius 
 and  Antiope,  and  born  at  Ephyra  or  Corinth,  which 
 his  sire  gave  to  him ;  but  he  committed  it  to  the 
 charge  of  Bonus,  and  went  to  Colchis.  It  would 
 thus  appear,  that  the  whole  myth  of  ^etes  and  Medea 
 is  derived  from  the  worship  of  the  Sun  and  Juno  at 
 Corinth.     {Keighdeys  Mytholooy,  p.  310,  scqq.) 
 
 Media,  a  country  of  Ujiper  Asia,  the  boundaries  of 
 which  are  difficult  to  determine,  as  they  differed  at  va- 
 rious times.  In  the  time  of  Strabo,  it  was  divided 
 into  Great  Media  and  Atropatene.  Great  Media, 
 which  is  a  high  table-land,  is  said  by  all  ancient  writers 
 to  have  had  a  good  climate  and  a  fertile  soil  ;  an  ac- 
 count which  is  fully  confirmed  by  modern  travellers. 
 It  was  separated  on  the  wesi  and  southwest  from  the 
 low  country,  watered  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  by 
 a  range  of  mountains  known  to  the  ancients  under  the 
 name  of  Zagros  and  Parachoatras.  Xenophon,  how- 
 ever, appears  to  include  in  Media  all  the  country  be- 
 tween the  Tigris  and  Mount  Zagrus.  {Anab.,  2,  4, 
 27.)  On  the  east  it  was  bounded  by  a  desert  and  the 
 Caspian  Mountains  (the  modern  Elhurz  range),  and 
 on  the  north  and  northwest  by  the  Cadusii,  Atropatene, 
 and  the  Matieni,  thus  answering,  for  the  most  part,  to 
 the  modern  Irak  Ajemi.  Atropatene,  on  the  other 
 hand,  which  corresponds  to  the  modern  Azerbijan,  ex- 
 tended as  far  north  as  the  Araxes  {\Mvf  Aras).  It  was 
 much  less  fertile  than  Great  Media,  and  does  not  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  included  in  the  Media  of  Herodotus. 
 It  derived  its  name  from  Atropates,  who  successfully 
 opposed  the  Macedonians,  and  established  an  inde- 
 pendent monarchy,  which  continued  till  the  time  of 
 Strabo,  notwithstanding  its  proximity  to  the  Armenian 
 and  Parthian  dominions.  The  principal  town  of  Great 
 Media  was  Agbatana  or  Ecbatana.  the  summer  resi- 
 dence of  the  Persian  kings.  {Vid.  Ecbatana)  In 
 Great  Media  also  was  the  Nissan  plain,  celebrated 
 for  its  breed  of  horses,  which  were  considered  in  an- 
 cient times  the  best  in  Asia.  Arrian  informs  us,  that 
 there  were  50,000  horses  reared  in  this  plain  in  the  time 
 of  Alexander,  and  that  there  were  formerly  as  many  as 
 150,000.  {Herod  ,  3.  106.— /</.,  7,  40.— .4/Tm^,  Exp. 
 Ai,  7,  13. — Strabo,  525. — Ammian.  Marcdl,  23,  6.) 
 The  mountainous  country  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
 Great  Media  was  inhabited  by  several  warlike  tribes, 
 who  maintained  their  independence  against  the  Persian 
 monarchy.  Strabo  mentions  four  tribes  in  particular; 
 the  Mardi,  bordering  on  the  northwest  of  Persis  ;  the 
 Uxii  and  Elyma;i,  east  oi  Susiana  ;  and  the  Cosssei, 
 south  of  Great  Media.  The  King  of  Persia  was 
 obliged  to  pass  through  the  country  of  the  latter  when- 
 ever he  visited  Ecbatana,  and  could  only  obtain  a  free 
 passage  by   the   payment  of  a  considerable   sum  of 
 
MED 
 
 MED 
 
 money.  The  Cossaei  were  defeated  by  Alexander, 
 but  they  never  ajjpear  to  have  been  compleicly  subdued 
 by  the  Macedonians.  —  Accordnig  to  Herodotus  (1, 
 101),  the  Mtdes  were  originally  divided  into  six  tribes, 
 the  Busae,  Paretaceni,  Struchates,  Anzanti,  Budii,  and 
 Magi.  They  were  originally  called  Aril  {Herod.,  7, 
 62);  which  word  appears  to  contain  the  same  root  as 
 Ar-taei,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Persians.  {Herod., 
 7,  61.)  It  is  not  improbable  that  this  name  was  ori- 
 ginally applied  to  most  of  the  Indo-Ciermanic  nations. 
 'I'aciius  speaks  of  the  Arii  as  one  of  the  most  power- 
 ful of  the  German  tribes  {Germ.,  43);  and  India 
 pio])er  is  called  in  the  most  ancient  Sanscrit  works, 
 Arri/a-varia,  ^' ho]y  land."  The  same  name  was  re- 
 tained in  the  province  of  Ariana,  and  is  still  employed 
 in  the  East  as  the  proper  name  of  Persia,  namely,  Iran. 
 {Vid.  Ana.) — Media  originally  formed  part  of  the  As- 
 syrian empire,  but  its  history  as  an  independent  king- 
 dom is  given  so  differentlv  by  Herodotus  and  Ctesias, 
 as  to  render  it  probable  that  the  narrative  of  Ctesias 
 must  refer  to  a  different  dynasty  in  Eastern  Asia. 
 Ctesias  makes  the  Median  monarchy  last  282  years; 
 and,  as  Media  was  conquered  by  Cyrus  about  B.C. 
 660,  it  follows  that  the  Median  monarchy  would  com- 
 mence, according  to  his  account,  about  B.C.  842. 
 Herodotus,  ori  the  contrary,  assigns  to  the  Median 
 monarchy  a  period  of  128  years,  which,  including  the  28 
 years  during  which  the  Scythians  had  possession  of  the 
 country,  would  place  the  commencement  of  the  Medi- 
 an monarchy  B.C.  716.  The  founder  of  this  monar- 
 chy was  Arbaces,  according  to  Ctesias,  who  reckons 
 eight  kings  from  him  to  Astyages.  According  to  the 
 account  of  Herodotus,  however,  there  were  four  kings 
 of  Media:  1.  Dejoces,  who  reigned  B.C.  716-657. 
 — 2.  Phraortes,  B.C.  657-635,  greatly  extended  the 
 Median  empire,  subdued  the  Persians  and  many  other 
 nations,  but  fell  in  an  expedition  against  the  Assyrians 
 of  Nidus  (Nineveh). — 3.  Cyaxares,  B.C.  635-595,  com- 
 pletely organized  the  military  force  of  the  empire,  and 
 extended  its  boundaries  as  far  west  as  the  Halys.  In 
 an  expedition  against  Nineveh,  he  was  defeated  by  the 
 Scythians,  who  had  made  an  irruption  into  Southern 
 Asia,  and  was  deprived  of  his  kingdom  for  28  years. 
 After  the  expulsion  of  the  Scythians,  he  took  Nineveh, 
 and  subdued  the  Assyrian  empire,  with  the  exception 
 of  the  Babylonian  district  {BaCvlui'hjc  fJ-oipt^^). — 4. 
 Astyages,  B.C.  595-560,  who  was  dethroned  by  his 
 grand.son  Cyrus,  and  Media  reduced  to  a  Persian 
 province.  'I'he  history  of  the  rise  of  the  Persian  mon- 
 archy is  related  differently  by  Xenophon,  who  also 
 makes  a  fifth  Median  king.  Cyaxares  II.,  succeed  As- 
 tyages.— The  Medes  revolted  during  the  reign  of  Da- 
 rius If.,  the  father  of  the  younger  Cyrus,  about  B  C. 
 408,  but  were  again  subdued.  {Herod.,  1,  130. — 
 Xcn.,  Hist.  Gr.,  1,2,  19.)  They  do  not  appear,  after 
 this  time,  to  have  made  any  farther  attempt  at  recov- 
 ering their  independence  On  the  downfall  of  the 
 Persian  empire  they  formed  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
 the  Seleucidae,  and  were  subsequently  subject  to  the 
 Parthians.     {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  15,  p.  54.) 
 
 Medio!.. iNUM,  I.  a  city  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  among 
 the  Insuhres,  now  Milan.  According  to  Livy  (5,  34), 
 it  was  founded  by  the  Insuhres,  and  called  by  them 
 Mediolanum,  from  a  i)lace  of  the  same  name  among 
 the  .^dui  in  Gaul  (Compare  Plimj,  3,  17. — Ptol, 
 p.  63.)  This  city  is  named  for  the  first  time  in  his- 
 tory by  Polybius  (2,  31),  in  his  account  of  the  Gallic 
 wars.  The  capture  of  it  by  Cn.  Scijmo  and  Marcellus 
 was  followed  by  the  submission  of  the  Insuhres  them- 
 selves. {Oros.,  4,  \^.—Pha  .  Vit.  Marcell.)  It  wa.s 
 situate  on  a  small  river,  now  the  Olona,  in  a  beautiful 
 plain  between  the  Ticinus  or  Tesino,  and  tlie  Addua 
 or  Adda.  In  the  vicinity  of  this  city,  to  the  west, 
 D'Anville  and  others  locate  the  Kaudii  Campi,  where 
 Marius  defeated  the  Cimbri  ;  but  Mannert  places  them 
 near  Verona.  In  Strabo's  time,  Mediolanum  was  con- 
 808 
 
 ;  sidercd  a  most  flourishing  city.  {Straho,  213. — Com 
 pare  Tacit.,  Hist.,  1,  10.— Suet  ,  Avg.,  c.  20  — P/2n.„ 
 Ep.,  4,  13.)  But  its  splendour  seems  to  have  bee» 
 greatest  in  the  time  of  Ausonuis,  who  flourished  to 
 wards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  and  who  assiiTns 
 it  the  rank  of  the  sixth  city  in  the  Roman  empire. 
 Procopius,  who  wrote  a  century  and  a  half  later,  speaks 
 of  Mediolanum  as  one  of  the  first  cities  of  the  west, 
 and  as  inferior  only  to  Rome  in  population  and  extent. 
 {Rer.  Got.,  2,  8.)  In  it  was  also  established  the  gold 
 and  silver  coinage  of  the  north  of  Italy.  At  a  later 
 period,  the  frequent  inroads  of  the  barbarians  of  the 
 north  compelled  the  emperors  to  select,  as  a  place  of 
 arms,  some  city  nearer  the  scene  of  action  than  Rome 
 was.  The  choice  fell  on  Mediolanum.  Here,  too, 
 Maximian  resigned  the  imperial  diadem  {Euirop  ,  9, 
 27),  and  the  famous  St.  Ambrose  established  the  see 
 of  a  bishopric.  Although  subsequently  plundered  by 
 Attila  {Jornandcs,  c.  42),  it  soon  revived,  and  under 
 Odoacer  became  the  imperial  residence.  In  its  vi- 
 cinity was  fought  the  battle  which  put  Theodoric, 
 king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  in  possession  of  Italy,  and 
 Mediolanum  under  this  prince  became  second  only 
 to  Rome.  iProeop.,  Rer.  Got.,  2,  8.)  It  met  with  its 
 downfall,  however,  when,  having  sided  with  Belisari- 
 us,  and  having  been  besieged  by  the  Goths  and  Bur- 
 gundians,  it  was  taken  by  the  latter,  and  300,000  of 
 the  inhabitants,  according  to  Procopius,  were  put  to 
 the  sword  (2,  21).  It  never,  after  this  severe  blow, 
 regained  its  former  eminence,  although  in  the  middle 
 ages  it  became  a  flourishing  and  opulent  place  of  trade. 
 {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  9,  pt  1,  p.  167,  scqq.  —  Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  51.) — II.  A  town  of  the 
 Gugerni  in  Germania  Inferior,  corresponding,  as  is 
 thought  by  Cluver  and  Cellarius,  to  the  present  village 
 oi  Moyland. — III.  A  city  in  Mcesia  Superior.  {Cod. 
 Thcod.,  1.  8,  de  jur.  Jisc.) — IV.  A  town  of  the  Ordovi- 
 ces  in  Britain,  near  the  jiresent  town  of  Eltcsmecre. 
 
 Mediomatkici,  a  people  of  Gallia  Belgica  on  the 
 Mosella  or  Moselle.  The  Treviri  were  their  neigh- 
 bours on  the  north.  Their  chief  town  was  Divodu- 
 rum, afterward  Mediomatrici,  now  Metz.  Thcv  were  a 
 powerful  nation  previous  to  their  reduction  by  the  Ro- 
 mans, and  their  territory  corresponded  to  what  is  now 
 le  pays  Messin.  {Cits.,  R.  G.,A,  10. — Plm.,i,  17. 
 —  Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  63.— W.,  Hist ,  4,  70.) 
 
 Meditkkraneum  Mare  {ot  Midland  Sea),  the  Med- 
 iterranean, a  sea  between  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  the 
 west  and  the  Dardanelles  and  Syria  to  the  east.  It  was 
 anciently  called  ''  The  Sea,"  or  "  The  Great  Sea,"  by 
 the  Jews.  The  Greeks,  on  the  other  hand,  do  not  seem 
 to  have  had  any  general  name  for  it.  Herodotus  calls 
 it  "this  sea"  (1,  185);  and  Sirabo,  "the  sea  within 
 the  columns,"  that  is,  within  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
 {Sirah.,  491).  Mela  calls  the  whole  sea  "-inarc  nos- 
 trum," "  our  sea,"  and  observes  that  different  parts 
 had  their  several  names.  Pliny  appears  to  have  no 
 general  appellation  for  it.  The  term  Mediterranean  is 
 not  applied  to  this  sea  by  any  classical  Latin  writer, 
 but,  instead  of  McdUerraneitm,  they  use  niicmum,  or 
 else,  with  Mela,  call  it  nostrum.  We  will  return  to 
 this  subject  at  the  close  of  the  article. — The  Mediter- 
 ranean is  comprised  between  the  parallels  of  30°  1.5' 
 and  45°  50',  and  the  meridians  of  5^  30'  W.  and  36^ 
 10'  E.  The  distance  from  Gibraltar  to  the  farthest 
 shore  of  Syria  is  2000  miles,  and  the  narrowest  part 
 from  Sicily  to  Africa  is  79  miles  across.  Including 
 the  islands,  it  occupies  an  area  of  734,000  squiire 
 miles.  On  the  shores  of  this  sea  have  been  transacted 
 the  most  important  events  in  the  history  of  mankind, 
 and  its  character  seems  to  mark  it  as  the  theatre  best 
 adapted  to  the  complete  and  rapid  civilization  of  iha 
 race.  From  the  great  diversity  of  soil  and  produc- 
 tions, under  a  varied  and  favourable  climate,  the  colo- 
 nists, from  whatever  points  they  first  proceeded,  would 
 soon  acquire  those  different  habits  under  which  thfci» 
 
MEDITERRANEUM  MARE. 
 
 MEDITERRANEUM  MARE. 
 
 several  energies  and  capabilities  would  be  developed. 
 The  comparative  shortness  of  the  distances  of  the  sev- 
 eral places,  rendering  navigation  easy  and  pleasant 
 in  snriall  and  imperfect  vessels,  would,  by  facilitating 
 intercourse  from  an  early  period,  tend  to  diffuse  and 
 promote  civilization ;  while  commerce,  by  bringing 
 together  men  of  different  habits,  manners,  and  lan- 
 guages, and  thus  circulating  practical  information, 
 would  supply  the  materials  for  the  perfection  of  the 
 arts  and  sciences. — The  navigation  of  the  Mediterra- 
 nean must  no  doubt  be  of  very  early  date.  The  story 
 of  Minos  destroying  pirates  {T'hucyd.,  1,  4)  takes  for 
 granted  the  fact,  that  there  must  have  been  merchant 
 vessels  carrying  something  worth  plundering  from  the 
 earliest  recorded  period.  If,  with  Strabo,  we  allow 
 the  accuracy  of  Homer's  descriptions,  it  by  no  means 
 follows  that  the  Greeks  knew  everything  that  could 
 have  been  known  to  every  other  nation  at  that  time  ; 
 and  the  stories  told  of  the  jealousy  with  which  the 
 PhcEnicians  and  Carthaginians  guarded  their  discover- 
 ies, prove  at  least  that  geographical  knowledge  was 
 not  common  property  :  and  with  regard  to  these  very 
 nations,  the  knowledge  which  the  Greeks  could  have 
 had  of  them,  among  other  barbarians,  must  have  been 
 inferior  to  that  which  we  possess  in  the  minute  ac- 
 curacy of  the  Scriptures  alone.  The  story  of  Utica 
 having  been  established  130  years  before  Carthage, 
 proves  a  regular  communication  between  this  place 
 and  .Syria,  a  distance  of  upward  of  1200  miles;  and 
 we  may  conclude  that  occasional  voyages  of  that  en- 
 terprising people  had  already  extended  the  bounds  of 
 knowledge  far  beyond  these  limits.  If  the  precise 
 time  of  the  discovery  of  places,  lying,  as  it  were,  in 
 the  thoroughfare  of  this  sea,  is  so  uncertain,  the  his- 
 tory of  the  places  in  the  deep  bays  of  the  northern 
 shores  must  be  still  more  obscure  :  we  shall  therefore 
 give  at  once  a  slight  sketch  of  the  geography  of  this 
 sea  from  .Strabo,  who  wrote  in  the  first  century  of  our 
 era. — The  stadium  adopted  by  Strabo  was  that  of 
 Eratosthenes,  700  stadia  making  1°  of  latitude  or  lon- 
 gitude on  ihe  equator,  or  60  nautical  miles  ;  hence  a 
 stadium  is  0.0857  of  a  nautical  mile,  the  mile  being 
 about  6082  feet.  The  Mediterranean  was  divided  into 
 three  basins  :  the  first  comprised  the  sea  between  the 
 Columns  of  Hercules  and  Sicily  ;  the  second,  between 
 Sicily  and  Rhodes;  the  third,  between  Rhodes  and  the 
 shores  of  Syria.  Strabo  supposed  that  the  parallel  of  lat- 
 itude of  36A°  passed  through  the  Sacred  Promontory 
 ((3ape  St.  Vincent)  between  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  di- 
 viding this  part  of  the  Mediterranean  in  the  middle  of 
 its  breadth,  which  was  believed  by  navigators  to  be  5000 
 stadia,  or  428^  nautical  miles,  from  the  Gulf  of  Lvons 
 to  the  shores  of  Africa,  but  which  measures  only  330. 
 The  sea  here,  however,  lies  altogether  to  the  north  of 
 this  parallel ;  and  hence,  as  the  configuration  of  the 
 European  shores  seems  to  have  been  tolerably  good, 
 the  coast  of  Africa  must  have  been  proportionably  dis- 
 torted. This  parallel  was  carried  through  the  straits 
 of  Sicily,  Rhodes,  and  the  Gulf  of  Issus,  now  the  Gulf 
 of  Scandcroon.  In  consequence  of  the  above  suppo- 
 sition, he  placed  Massilia  (Marseille)  to  the  southward 
 instead  of  the  northward  of  Byzantium.  He  supposed 
 Sardinia  and  Corsica  to  lie  northwest  and  southeast 
 instead  of  north  and  south,  and  made  the  distance  of 
 Sardinia  from  the  coast  of  Africa  2400  stadia,  or  206 
 miles  instead  of  100,  which  is  the  true  distance. 
 From  the  Columns  of  Hercules  to  the  Straits  of  Sicily 
 he  considers  to  be  12,000  stadia,  or  1028  miles  :  it  is 
 only  about  800.  From  Pachynum  (Cape  Passaro)  to 
 the  western  extremity  of  Crete  he  reckoned  4500  sta- 
 dia, or  386  miles  ;  it  measures  400  :  and  he  supposed 
 the  length  of  Crete  2000  stadia,  or  171  miles,  the  true 
 length  being  140.  He  supposed  that  a  line  drawn 
 through  Byzantium,  the  middle  of  the  Propontis.  the 
 Hellespont,  and  along  the  capes  of  the  coast  of  Asia 
 Minor,  would  coincide  with  the  meridian :  this  error 
 5K 
 
 placed  Byzantium  too  fa)  to  the  norfh,  and  not  far 
 enough  to  the  east.  From  Alexandrea  to  the  east 
 end  of  Crete  he  considered  3000  stadia,  or  257 
 miles  ;  it  measures  about  290.  From  Alexandrea  to 
 Rhodes  he  made  3600  stadia,  or  308  miles  :  it  meas- 
 ures 320. — Many  of  the  latitudes  given  by  Strabo  are 
 very  near,  that  is,  within  10' ;  those  of  Massilia  and 
 Byzantium  excepted,  the  former  being  ^°  43'  too  lit- 
 tle, and  the  latter  2°  16'  too  much.  The  longitudes, 
 which  were  all  at  that  lime  referred  to  the  Sacred 
 Promontory  as  the  first  meridian,  and  the  extreme 
 western  point,  as  was  believed,  of  the  known  world, 
 are  without  exception  too  small  ;  that  of  Carthage,  the 
 nearest  to  the  truth,  being  1°  9',  and  Alexandrea,  the 
 most  erroneous,  6°  40'  too  small.  {Encyd.  Useful 
 Knoiol ,  vol.  15,  p.  59,  scqq.)  —  The  Mediterranean 
 .Sea  afforded  a  very  frequent  topic  of  consideration 
 to  the  ancient  writers.  Democritus,  Diogenes,  and 
 others,  maintained  that  its  waters  kepi  constantly  de- 
 creasing, and  would  eventually  all  disappear.  Aris- 
 totle (Meteor.,  2,  3)  held  to  the  opinion,  that  the 
 Mediterranean  had  at  one  time  covered  a  large  part 
 of  Africa  and  Egypt,  and  had  extended  inland  as 
 far  as  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  This  doctrine 
 was  maintained  also  by  Xanihus  the  Lydian,  Strabo, 
 and  Eratosthenes.  The  ancients  appear  to  have  been 
 led  to  this  conclusion  by  observing  in  various  parts 
 of  Ai^ca.  and  Egypt  manifest  traces  and  indications 
 of  the  sea.  They  found  here  shells,  pebbles  evi- 
 dently rounded  or  worn  smooth  by  the  action  of 
 water,  incrustations  of  salt,  and  many  salt  lakes. 
 Some  of  these  appearances  were  particularly  frequent 
 on  the  route  through  the  desert  to  the  temple  of 
 Ammon.  (Herod.,  2,  12. — Plut.,  de  Is.  el  Os. — 
 Strab.,  S09.— Mela,  1,  6.  —  Soli7i.,  26.  —  Seldel.,  ad 
 Eraloslh,  fragm.,  p.  28.)  The  ancient  writers  main- 
 tained, that  the  temple  and  oracle  of  Ammon  never 
 could  have  become  so  famous  if  the  only  approach  to 
 them  had  always  been  over  vast  and  dangerous  des- 
 erts. They  insisted  that  the  Oases  had  all  originally 
 been  islands  in  the  earlier  and  more  widely  extended 
 Mediterranean.  In  this  remote  period,  according  to 
 them,  there  existed  as  yet  no  communication  between 
 the  Pontus  Euxinus  and  Mediterranean  Sea  (vid  Lec- 
 tonia),  nor  between  the  latter  and  the  Atlantic.  The 
 isthmus  connecting  Arabia  with  Egypt  was  under  wa- 
 ter, and  Eratosthenes  believed  that  Menelaus  had  sail- 
 ed over  this  narrow  passage,  which  is  now  the  Isth- 
 mus of  Suez.  When  the  waters  of  the  Euxine  forced 
 a  passage  into  the  Mediterranean  (vid.  Cyanese),  the 
 great  influx  of  water  opened  another  outlet  for  itself 
 through  what  were  called  by  the  ancients  the  Pillars 
 of  Hercules,  Spain  and  Africa  having  been  previously 
 joined.  In  this  tremendous  convulsion  the  ancient 
 land  of  Lectonia  is  thought  to  have  been  inundated, 
 and  to  have  sunk  in  the  sea,  leaving  merely  the  islands 
 of  the  Archipelago,  its  mountain-tops,  to  attesi  its 
 former  existence.  According  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (5, 
 47),  the  inhabitants  of  Samothracc  had  a  tradition  thai 
 a  great  part  of  their  island,  as  well  as  of  Asia,  was 
 ravaged  and  laid  under  water  by  this  inundation,  and 
 that,  in  fishing  near  their  island,  fragments  of  temples 
 and  other  buildings  were  frequently  rescued  from  the 
 waves.  (Compare  Diorf.  .SVc,  5,  82. —  Strab,  8^. — 
 Plat.,  de  Leg.,  3,  p.  677,  0pp.,  cd.  Bip.,  vol.  8.  p. 
 106.— Plin.,  2,  80. — Phlon.,  de  Mnnd.  7im  rornipt., 
 p.  959.  —  LyeWs  Principles  of  Geology,  vol  1,  p. 
 25,  scqq.)  —  Before  bringing  the  present  article  to  a 
 close,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  enter  more  fully  into 
 one  part  of  the  subject,  on  which  we  merely  touched 
 at  the  commencement,  the  different  appellations,  name- 
 ly, which  have  been  given  to  this  sea.  Herodotus,  as 
 we  have  already  remarked,  calls  it  "this  sea,"  T/;v(5e 
 TTjv  -dalacGav  (4,  39.  — Compare  Aristot.,  Meteor.,  2, 
 2.  —  Appian,  Schwcigh.  ad  Praf,  c.  \.—  Wessehr,g, 
 ad  Diod.  Sic,  4,  18).     Polybius,  ^  iau  ■Sulaaca  (3 
 
 809 
 
MED 
 
 MEG 
 
 39. — Compare  Aristot.,  dc  Mundo,  c.  3. — Gellius,  N. 
 A-,  10,  7.)  Diodorus  Siculus,  ?/  KaO'  iifiug  ^d'Aaacra 
 (4,  18.  — Compare  Polijb.,  3,  37.—Sirab.,  S3.  — Ap- 
 pian.  Bell.  Muhradat.,  c.  93.  —  Maximus  Tijnus, 
 14,  2).  Maximus  Tyrius,  r;  devpo  ■&u}.aGaa  (41,  1). 
 Strabo,  i]  ivrn^  ■dd'kaaaa.  (Compare  Marc.  Hcracl , 
 PcnpL,  p.  65.  —  Aguthan.,  2,  4.)  Aristotle,  7/ evrd^ 
 'Hf)aK?.ei<jv  <jTij'kC)v  '^dXaaoa  {Meteor.,  2,  1. — Com- 
 pare Dion.  Hal,  1 ,  3. — Plul.,  Vtt.  Pomp.,  c.  25).  The 
 Laiiri  writers  in  general,  as  we  have  already  said,  give 
 it  the  appellation  of  Nostrum  Marc  (Sallust.,  Jug.,  c. 
 n.—Mela,  1,  1,  5.—Liv.,  26,  4.— Cff,y.,  B.  G.,5,  1. 
 Aden..  Or.  Marit.,  v.  56. — Compare  Dukcr,  ad  Flor., 
 3,  6,  9.  — Core,  ad  Sallust.,  B.  Jug.,  c.  18).  Pliny 
 styles  it  Mare  internum  (3,  proem.,  c.  5).  Florus, 
 Mare  iiitcstinum  (4,  2).  Later  writers,  not  classical, 
 have  Mare  Mediterrancum.  (Solin.,  c.  22.)  Isidorus 
 gives  the  following  explanation  of  this  name  :  "  Quia 
 per  mediam  terrain  usque  ad  Orientem  perjufiditur,  Eu- 
 ropam  el  Afncam  Asiamque  dislerrntnnns.^'  (Ong., 
 13,  13.  —  Compare  Priscian.,  Pencg.,  52.)  Orosiiis 
 says,  "  Mare  nostrum  quod  Magnum  gcncraliter  dici- 
 mus ;"  and  Isidorus  remarks,  ^' quia  eetera  maria  in 
 comparalione  ejus  minora  sunt."  {Oros  ,  1,  2. — Isid., 
 Orig.,  13,  16. — Compare  Hardouin,  ad  Plin  ,  9.  18. 
 —  Burmann,ad  Val.  Place.,  Arg.,  1,  50.)  According 
 to  Polybius  (3,  42),  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
 which  lay  between  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  aOBk  the 
 Rhone  was  called  "Zap^oviov  TreAarof,  while  ArTstolle 
 calls  the  part  between  the  Pillars  and  Sardinia  "Lap- 
 dovLKOQ  {Meteor.,  2,  1. — Id.,  de  Mund.,  3. — Eratosth., 
 ap.  Plin.,  3,  10).  Strabo  gives  the  part  between  the 
 Pillars  and  the  Pyrenees  the  name  oi  \()rjpiKOv  TtiXayo^ 
 (122. — Compare  Agathem..,  1,  3. — Diomjs.  Pcricg., 
 V.  69.  —  Niceph.  Blem.,  cd.  Spolm.,  p.  3).  Pliny  re- 
 marks, "  Hispanum  mare,  quatenus  Hispanias  alluit ; 
 ab  aliis  Iber^cum  aut  Balcaricum''''  (3,  2.  —  Id.  ihul , 
 4,34. — Compare  Solin.,  c.  23. — Ampel.,  c.  7. — Ptol., 
 
 2,  6).  According  to  Zonaras  {Annai,  8,  p.  406),  the 
 sea  to  the  east  of  the  Pyrenees  was  called  the  Sea  of 
 the  Bebryciafis.  (Compare  Markland.,  ad  Max.  Tyr., 
 32,  3. —  Ukert's  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  2'i7,  scqq.,  in  notis.) 
 
 Meditkina,  the  goddess  of  healing,  whose  festival, 
 called  Meditrinalia,  was  celebrated  at  Rome  and 
 throughout  Latium  on  the  5th  day  before  the  Ides  of 
 October.  (Compare  the  Ancient  Calendar  given  by 
 Grater,  p.  133.)  On  this  occasion  new  and  old  wine 
 were  poured  out  in  libation,  and  tasted,  ^^  medicameyiti 
 catisa,."  Compare  the  explanatory  remarks  of  Fes- 
 tus  :  "  Meditrinalia  dicta  hac  de  causa.  Mos  erat 
 LtLtinis  popidis,  quo  die  quis  primum  gustaret  mus- 
 tum,  dicerc  ominls  gratia,  '  vetus  novum  vinum  bibo: 
 veteri  tiovo  morbo  mcdeor.'  A  quibus  verbis  Medi- 
 trin<c  dciz  nomcn  caplum,  ejusque  sacra  Meditrinalia 
 docla  suiit."     (Festus,  s.  v. — Consult  Daeier,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Menoici,  a  people  of  Venetia,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
 noticed  only  by  Strabo  (216).  From  the  affinity  which 
 their  name  bears  to  that  of  the  Meduacus  or  Brenta,  it 
 seetns  reasonable  to  place  them  near  the  source  of  that 
 river,  and  in  the  district  of  Bassano.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p    125.) 
 
 MEOo.Xcosor  Menulcus,  I.  Major,  a  river  of  Vene- 
 tia, now  the  Brenta. — II.  Minor,  a  river  of  Venetia, 
 now  the  Bac/iiglione. — Both  these  rivers  rise  in  the 
 territory  of  the  Euganei,  and  fall  into  the  Adriatic  be- 
 low Venice.  Patavium  was  situate  between  these 
 two  streams,  but  nearer  the  Medoacus  Minor.    {Plin., 
 
 3,  16.— Liv.,  10,  2.) 
 
 MEOonRiGA,  a  city  of  Lusitania,  southwest  of  Norba 
 Caesarea ;  now  Marvao,  on  the  confines  of  Portugal. 
 (Cas.,  Bell.  A/ric.,  c.  48.) 
 
 Medon,  son  of  Codrus,  the  17th  and  last  king  of 
 Athens,  was  the  first  of  the  perpetual  archons.  He 
 held  the  office  for  life,  and  transmitted  it  to  his  pos- 
 terity ;  but  still  It  would  appear  that,  within  the  house 
 of  the  Medontidae,  the  succession  was  determined  by 
 810 
 
 the  choice  of  the  nobles.  It  is  added,  that  the  arclion 
 at  this  period,  though  holding  the  office  for  life,  was 
 nevertheless  deemed  a  responsible  magistrate,  which 
 implies  that  those  who  elected  had  the  power  of  de- 
 posing him  ;  and,  consequentlv,  though  the  range  of 
 his  functions  may  not  have  been  narrower  than  that 
 of  the  king's,  he  was  more  subject  to  control  in  the 
 exercise  ol  them.  This  indirect  kind  of  sway,  how- 
 ever, did  not  satisfy  the  more  ambitious  spirits  ;  and 
 we  find  them  steadily,  though  gradually,  advancing  to- 
 wards the  accomplishment  of  their  final  object — a  com- 
 plete and  equal  participation  of  the  sovereignty.  After 
 twelve  perpetual  archonships,  ending  with  that  of  Alc- 
 mseon,  the  duration  of  the  oifice  was  limited  to  ten 
 years  ;  and  through  the  guilt  or  calamity  of  Hippoma- 
 nes,  the  fourth  decennial  archon,  the  house  of  Medon 
 was  deprived  of  its  privilege,  and  the  supreme  magis- 
 tracy was  thrown  open  to  the  whole  body  of  the  nobles. 
 This  change  was  speedily  followed  by  one  much  more 
 important :  the  archonship  was  reduced  to  a  single 
 vear ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  its  branches  were  sever- 
 ed, and  were  distributed  among  nine  new  magistrates. 
 {Vid.  Archontes. — ThirhvaWs  History  of  Greece,  vol. 
 2,  p.  16.  —  Compare  Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 ix.,  scqq.) 
 
 Medu.Icus.      Vid.  Medoacus. 
 
 Mkduana,  a  river  of  Gallia  Belgica,  flowing  into 
 the  Ligeris  or  Loire.  Now  the  Mayenne.  {Lucan, 
 1,  i2S—Theod.  Aurel.,  4,  carm.  6.) 
 
 Medus,  I.  a  river  of  Persis,  falling  into  the  Rogo- 
 manes  ;  now  the  Abi-Kuren.  {Strabo,  729.) — By  the 
 Mcdum  flumcn  in  Horace  {Od.,  2,  9,  21)  is  meant  the 
 Euphrates.  —  II.  A  son  of  ./Egeus  and  Medea,  who  was 
 fabled  to  have  given  name  to  Media,  in  Upper  Asia. 
 {Vid.  Medea.) 
 
 Medusa,  one  of  the  three  Gorgons,  daughter  of 
 Phorcys  and  Ceto,  and  the  only  one  of  the  number 
 that  was  not  immortal.  {Apollod.,2,  4:.2.)  Accord- 
 ing to  one  legend,  Medusa  was  remarkable  for  per- 
 sonal beauty,  and  captivated  by  her  charms  the  mon- 
 arch of  the  sea.  Minerva,  however,  incensed  at  their 
 having  converted  her  sanctuary  into  a  place  of  meet- 
 ing, changed  the  beautiful  locks  of  Medusa  into  ser- 
 pents, and  made  her  in  other  respects  hideous  to  the 
 view.  Some  accounts  make  this  punishment  to  have 
 befallen  her  because  she  presumed  to  vie  in  personal 
 attractions  with  Minerva,  and  to  consider  her  tresses 
 as  far  superior  to  the  locks  of  the  former.  {Serv.,  ad 
 Virg.,  Jin.,  6,  289.)  Apollodorns,  however,  gives 
 the  Gorgons  snaky  tresses  from  their  birth.  {Vid. 
 Gorgones.) — Medusa  had,  in  common  with  her  sisters, 
 the  power  of  converting  every  object  into  stone  on 
 which  she  fixed  her  eyes.  Perseus  slew  her  {vid. 
 Perseus),  and  cut  off  her  head  ;  and  the  blood  that 
 flowed  from  it  produced,  say  the  poets,  the  scrjients  of 
 Africa,  since  Perseus,  on  his  return,  winged  his  way 
 over  that  country  with  the  Gorgon's  head.  The  con- 
 queror gave  the  head  to  the  goddess  Minerva,  who 
 placed  it  in  the  centre  of  her  agis  or  shield.  (Vid. 
 JEs\s.) 
 
 Mecera,  one  of  the  Furies.     {Vid.  Furiae.) 
 
 Megalesia,  games  in  honour  of  Cybele.  {Vid. 
 Ludi  Megalenscs.) 
 
 Megai.ia  or  Megaris,  a  small  island  in  the  Bay  of 
 Naples,  near  Neapolis,  on  which  the  Castle  del  Oto 
 now  stands.     {Plin.,  3,  6—Colum.,  R.  R,  10  ) 
 
 Megalopolis,  the  most  recent  of  all  the  Arcadian 
 cities,  and  also  the  most  extensive,  situate  in  the 
 southern  part  of  Arcadia,  in  a  wide  and  fertile  plain 
 watered  by  the  Helissus,  which  flowed  from  the  cen- 
 tral parts  of  Arcadia,  and  nearlv  divided  the  town  into 
 two  equal  parts.  Pausanias  informs  us,  that  the  Ar- 
 cadians, having,  by  the  advice  of  Epaminondas,  re- 
 solved on  laying  the  foundations  of  a  city,  which  was 
 to  be  the  capital  of  their  nation,  deputed  ten  commis- 
 sioners, selected  from  the  principal  states,  to  make  the 
 
MEGALOPOLIS. 
 
 MEG 
 
 necessary  arrangements  for  conducting  the  new  col- 
 ony.    {Pausan.,  8,  27.)     This  event  took    place  in 
 the  102(1  OlynifMad,  or  370-1  B.C.     The  territory  as- 
 signed to  Megalopolis  was  e.ftensive,  since  it  reached 
 as  far  as  the  Uule  states  of  Orchomenus  and  Caphyse 
 on  the  northeast,  while  to  the  south  and  southwest  it 
 adjoined  Laconia  and  Messenia.     {Tausan.,  8,  25.) 
 Diodorus  affirms,  that  the  city  contained  about  1.0,000 
 men  capable  of  bearing  arms,  according  to  which  cal- 
 culation we   may  compute    the   whole   population   at 
 65,000.     {DioiL   Sic,  18,  70.)     The  Megalopolitans 
 experienced  no  molestation  from  the  Lacedajmonians 
 as  lonii  as  Thebes  was  able  to  protect  them  ;  but,  on 
 the  decline  of  that  city,  and  when  it  also  became  en- 
 gaged in  the  sacred  war  against  the  Phocians,  they 
 were  assailed  by  the  Sparians,  who  endeavoured  to 
 obtain  possession  of  their  town  ;  these  attacks,  how- 
 ever, were  easily  repelled  by  the  aid  of  the  Argives 
 and  Messenians      {Faiisan.,  8,  37.)     To  the  Athe- 
 nians the  Megalopolitans  were  likewise  indebted  for 
 their  protection  against  the  attempts  of  Sparta,  as  well 
 as  for  their  assistance  in  settling  some  dissensions  in 
 their  republic,  which  had  led  to  the  secession  of  several 
 townships  that  originally  contributed  to  the  foundation 
 of  the  city.     {Dcmoslh.,  Oral,  pro  Mcgalop.,  p.  202.) 
 In  order  to  strengthen  themselves  still  farther  against 
 the    Lacedwmonians,    they    formed    an   alliance   with 
 Philip,  son  of  Amyntas,  who  conciliated  the  favour  of 
 the  Arcadians  not  only  towards  himself,  but  towards 
 all  his  successors.     {Pausan.,  8,  27. — Polijb.,  2,  48.) 
 On  the  death  of  Alexander,  Megalopolis  had  to  defend 
 itself  against  the  army  of  Polysperchon,  who  was  en- 
 gaged in  war  with   Cassander.     This  general  vigor- 
 ously assaulted  the  city,  but,  owing  to  the  bravery  of 
 the  inhabitants,    headed  by  Damis,  who  had  served 
 under  Alexander,  his  attacks  were  constantly  repulsed. 
 {Diod   Sic,  18,  70.)     Subsequently  we  find  Megalop- 
 olis governed  by  tyrants,  the  first  of  whom  was  Aris- 
 todiinus  of  Phigalea,  whose  excellent   character  ob- 
 tained for  him  the  surname  of  XpTjaro^.     Under  his 
 reigti   the   Spartans   again   invaded    Megalopolis,   but 
 were  de-feated  after  an  obstinate  conflict ;   Acrotatus, 
 the  son  of  Cleomenes,  who  commanded  the  army,  be- 
 ing among  the  slain.     {Pausan.,  8,  27.)     Some  time 
 after  the  death  of  Aristodemus,  the  sovereignty  was 
 agam  usurped  by  Lydiades,  a  man  of  ignoble  birth,  but 
 of  worthy  character,  since  he  voluntarily  abdicated  his 
 authority  for  the  benefit  of  his  countrymen,  in  order 
 that  he  might  unite  them  with  the  Achaian  confederacy. 
 {Pausan.,  8,  27  — Polyb.,  2,  44.)     At  this  period  Me- 
 galopolis was  assailed  for  the  third  time  by  the  Spar- 
 tans ;   who,  having  defeated  the  inhabitants,  laid  siege 
 to  the  city,  of  which  they  would  have  made  themselves 
 masters  but  for  a  violent  wind,  which  overthrew  and 
 demolished  their  engines.     {Pausan.,  8,   27.)      Not 
 long,  however,  after  this  failure,  Cleomenes,  the  son 
 of  Leonidas,  in  violation  of  the  existing  treaty,  sur- 
 prised the  Megalopolitans  by  night,  and,  putting  to  the 
 sword  all  who  offered  any  resistance,   destroyed  the 
 city.      Philopoemen,   with   a   considerable  part  of  the 
 population,  escaped  into  Messenia.     {Polyb.,  2,  55. — 
 Pausan.,  8,  27.)     Megalopolis  was  restored   by  the 
 Acha?ans   after   the   battle  of  Sellasia  ;  but   it   never 
 agam  rose  to  its  former  flourishing  condition.     The 
 virtues  and  talents  of  its  great  general  Philopoemen 
 added  materially  to  its  celebrity  and   influence  in  the 
 Achrean  councils,  and   after  his   death    its  fame   was 
 upheld  by  the  abilities  of  Lycorlas  and  Polybius,  who 
 trod  in  the  steps  of  their  gifted  countryman,  and  were 
 worthy  of  sharing  in  the  lustre  which  he  had  reflected 
 on  his  native  city.     {Pausan.,  8,  49. — Polyb.,  2,  40. 
 —  Id.,  10,  U.  —  Id.,  24,  9.  —  Plut.,  Vtt.  Philopxm.) 
 In  the  time  of  Polybius,  Megalopolis  was  fifty  stadia 
 in  circumference,  but  its  population  was  only  equal  to 
 half  that  of  Sparta  ;  and  when  Strabo  wrote,  it  was  so 
 reduced  that  a  comic  poet  was  justified  in  saying. 
 
 'Epvf^^a  iieyak-q  eorlv  t]  Meya/loTroAtf.  {Strabo,  388. 
 — The  village  of  Sinano  has  been  built  on  the  site, 
 and  amid  the  ruins  of  Megalopolis.  {Dodwcll,  Tour, 
 vol.  2,  p.  375. — Pouqueville,  Voyage  de  la  Grice,  vol. 
 5,  p.  494.)  Dodwell  says  that  Stnayw,  which  con- 
 sists of  an  aga's  pyrgo  and  a  few  coti.uges,  is  situated 
 "just  without  the  ancient  walls.''  Pouqueville,  how- 
 ever, makes  the  distance  one  mile  between  Sinano 
 and  the  ruins  of  Megalopolis  The  former  is  undoubt- 
 edly the  more  accurate  statement,  hcondari  has  been 
 erroneously  regarded  by  some  as  occupying  the  site  ol 
 this  ancient  city.  {Cramer''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p. 
 329,  seqq.) 
 
 MeganIka,  the  wife  of  Celeus,  king  of  Eleusis  in 
 Attica.  She  was  mother  of  Triptolcmus,  to  whom 
 Ceres  taught  agriculture.  Meganira  received  divine 
 honours  after  death,  and  had  an  altar  raised  to  her  near 
 the  fountain  where  Ceres  had  first  been  seen  when  she 
 arrived  in  Attica.     {Pausan.,  1,  39.) 
 
 Megara,  a  daughter  of  Creon,  king  of  Thebes,  given 
 in  marriage  to  Hercules,  because  he  had  delivered  the 
 Thebans  from  the  tribute  they  had  bound  themselves 
 to  pay  to  the  Orchomenians.  Subsequently,  having 
 been  rendered  insane  by  Juno,  Hercules  threw  into  the 
 fire  the  children  of  whom  he  had  become  the  father  by 
 Megara.  {Apollod.,  2,  4,  12  )  He  afterward  gave 
 her  in  marriage  to  lolaiis.     {Apollod.,  2,  6,  1.) 
 
 Megara  (gen.  -a  ;  and  also,  as  a  neuter  plural,  -a, 
 -orum:  in  Greek,  tu  Miyapa),  a  city  of  Greece,  the 
 capital  of  a  district  called  Megaris,  about  210  stadia 
 northwest  of  Athens.  It  was  situate  at  the  foot  ol 
 two  hills,  on  each  of  which  stood  a  citadel  :  these  were 
 named  Caria  and  Alcathoiis.  It  was  connected  with 
 the  port  of  Nisaea  by  two  walls,  the  length  of  which 
 was  about  eight  stadia  {Thucyd.,  4,  66),  or  eighteen 
 according  to  Strabo  (391).  They  were  erected  by  the 
 Athenians,  at  the  time  that  the  Megareans  placed  them- 
 selves under  their  protection.  {Tkucyd.,\,Wi.)  The 
 distance  from  Athens,  as  has  been  already  slated,  was 
 210  stadia.  {Procop.,  Bell.  Vand  .  1,  1.)  Dio  Cbry- 
 sostom  calls  it  a  day's  journey.  {Oral.,  6.)  Modern 
 travellers  reckon  eight  hours.  {Dvdwcll,  vol.  2,  p. 
 177.)  The  writer  just  referred  to  states  that  Megara 
 is  now  but  a  miserable  place  ;  the  houses  small,  and 
 flat  roofed.  One  only  of  the  hills  is  occupied  by  the 
 modern  town  ;  but  on  the  other,  which  is  the  more 
 eastern  of  the  two,  arc  some  remains  of  the  ancient 
 walls,  which  appear  to  have  been  massive  and  of  great 
 strength.  Not  any  of  the  numerous  temples  described 
 by  Pausanias  can  now  be  identified  with  certainty. 
 .-Altogether,  there  are  few  places  in  Greece  where  the 
 ancient  monuments  have  so  totally  disappeared.  ( Dod- 
 well, vol.  2,  p.  177. — Compare  GelVs  Jim.,  p.  18.) — 
 Tradition,  as  Pausanias  affirms,  represented  Megara 
 as  already  existing  under  that  name  in  the  time  of  Car, 
 the  son  of  Phoroneus  ;  while  others  have  derived  il 
 from  Megarus,  a  Boeotian  chief,  and  son  of  Apollo  or 
 Neptune.  {Pausan.,  1,  39. — S/eph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Me- 
 yapa.)  Car  was  succeeded  by  Lelex,  who,  as  was  re- 
 ported, came  from  Egypt,  and  transmitted  his  name  to 
 the  ancient  race  of  the  Leleges,  whom  we  thus  trace 
 from  the  Acheloiis  to  the  shores  of  the  Saronic  Gulf. 
 Lelex  was  followed  by  Cleson,  and  Pylas,  who  abdica- 
 ted his  crown  in  favour  of  Pandion,  the  son  of  Ce- 
 crops,  king  of  Athens,  by  which  event  Megaris  became 
 annexed  to  the  latter  state.  {Pausan.,  1,  39.)  Nisus. 
 the  son  of  Pandion,  received  Megaris  as  his  share  ol 
 his  father's  dominions.  {Slrubo,  302.)  The  history 
 of  this  prince  and  his  daughter  Scylla.  as  also  the  cap- 
 ture of  Meaara  by  Minos,  are  found  in  all  the  mytho- 
 loaical  writers  of  Greece  ;  but  Pausanias  observes  (1, 
 39")  that  these  accounts  were  disowned  by  the  Mega- 
 reans. Nisus  is  said  to  have  founded  Nisnpa,  the  port 
 of  Meaara:  whence  the  inhabitants  of  that  city  were 
 surnamed  Nissi,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Mega- 
 reans of  Sicily,  their  colonists.     {Thcocr.,  Idyll.,  12, 
 
 oil 
 
MEGARA 
 
 MEG 
 
 27.)  The  walls  of  Megara,  which  had  been  destroyed 
 by  Mliios,  were  rebuilt  by  Alcathoiis,  the  son  of  Pe- 
 lops,  who  came  from  Elis.  (Pausan.,  1,  41.)  In  this 
 undertaking,  Apollo  was  said  to  have  assisted  him. 
 {Tkeogn.,  771.— Ovid,  Met.,  8,  14.)  Hyperion,  the 
 son  of  Agamemnon,  according  to  Pausariias,  was  the 
 last  sovereign  of  Megara  ;  after  his  death,  the  govern- 
 ment, by  the  advice  of  an  oracle,  became  democruti- 
 cal.  {Pausan.,  1,  43.)  As  a  republic,  however,  it  re- 
 mained still  subject  to  Athens.  Strabo  indeed  af- 
 firms, that,  till  the  reign  of  Codrus,  Megaris  had  al- 
 ways been  included  within  the  hmits  of  Attica  ;  and 
 he  thus  accounts  for  Homer's  making  no  special  men- 
 tion of  its  inhabitauts,  from  his  comprehending  them 
 with  the  Athenians  under  the  general  denomination  of 
 lonians.  {Strab.,  392.)  In  the  reign  of  Codrus,  Me- 
 gara was  wrested  from  the  Athenians  by  a  Pelopon- 
 nesian  force  ;  and  a  colony  having  been  established 
 there  by  the  Corinthians  and  Messenians,  it  ceased  to 
 be  considered  as  of  Ionian  origin,  but  thenceforth  he- 
 came  a  Dorian  city,  both  in  its  language  and  political 
 institutions.  The  pillar,  also,  which  marked  the  bouiid- 
 aries  of  Ionia  and  the  Peloponnesus,  was  on  that  oc- 
 casion destroyed.  (Strah.,  393. — Pausan.,  1,  39. — 
 The  scholiast  on  Pindar  {ISem.  7)  informs  us,  that  the 
 Corinthians,  at  this  early  period,  considering  Megara 
 as  their  colony,  exercised  a  sort  of  jurisdiction  over 
 the  city.  Not  long  after,  however,  Theagenes,  one  of 
 its  citizens,  usurped  the  sovereign  power,  by  the  same 
 method,  apparently,  which  was  afterward  adopted  by 
 Pisistratus  at  Athens.  (Aristof.,  Rhct.,  1,  2. — Id., 
 Poht.,  5,  ^.—  Thucyd.,  1,  126.)  He  was  finally  ex- 
 pelled by  his  counirymen  ;  after  which  event  a  mod- 
 erate republican  form  of  government  was  established, 
 though  afterward  it  degenerated  into  a  violent  democ- 
 racy. {Plut.,  Quitst.  Gr.,  18.)  This  should  probably 
 be  considered  as  the  period  of  Megara's  greatest  pros- 
 perity, since  it  then  founded  the  cities  of  Selymbria, 
 Mesembria,  and  Byzantium,  on  the  shores  of  the  Eux- 
 ine,  and  Megara  Hyblsea  in  Sicily.  (&r«io,  319.)  It 
 was  at  this  time  also  that  its  inhabitants  were  engaged 
 in  war  with  the  Athenians  for  the  possession  of  Sala- 
 mis,  which,  after  an  obstinate  contest,  finally  remained 
 in  the  hands  of  the  latter.  (Paitsan.,  1,  40. — Strabo, 
 394.)  The  Megareans  fought  at  Artemisium  with 
 twenty  ships,  and  at  Salamis  with  the  same  number. 
 (Herod.,  8,  1,  45.)  They  also  gained  some  advantage 
 over  the  Persians  under  Mardonius,  in  an  inroad  which 
 he  made  into  their  territory  {Pavsan.,  1,  40)  ;  and, 
 lastly,  they  sent  3000  soldiers  to  Plataea,  who  deserved 
 well  of  their  country  in  the  memorable  battle  fought 
 in  its  plains.  {Herod.,  9,  21. — Pint  ,  de  defect.  Orac., 
 p.  186.)  After  the  Persian  war,  we  find  Megara  en- 
 gaged in  hostilities  with  Corinth,  and  renouncing  the 
 Peloponnesian  confederacy  to  ally  itself  with  Athens. 
 {Thucyd,  \,  \03.— Died.' Sic  ,  2,  60.)  This  state  of 
 things  was  not,  however,  of  long  duration  ;  for  the  Co- 
 rinthians, after  effecting  a  reconciliation  with  the  oli- 
 garchical party  in  Megara,  persuaded  the  inhabitants 
 to  declare  against  the  Athenians  who  garrisoned  their 
 city.  These  were  presently  attacked  and  put  to  the 
 sword,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  number  who  es- 
 caped to  Nisa?a.  {Tliueyd.,  1,  1 14.)  The  Athenians, 
 justly  incensed  at  this  treacherous  conduct,  renounced 
 all  intercourse  with  the  Megareans,  and  issued  a  decree 
 excluding  them  from  their  ports  and  markets  ;  a  meas- 
 ure which  appears  to  have  been  severely  felt  by  the 
 latter,  and  was  made  a  pretence  for  war  on  the  part  of 
 their  Peloponnesian  allies.  {Thiicyd.,  I,  67,  139.) 
 Megara  was,  during  the  Peloponnesian  war,  exposed, 
 with  the  other  cities  of  Greece,  to  the  tumults  and 
 factions  engendered  by  violent  party  spirit.  The  par- 
 tisans of  the  democracy  favoured,  it  is  true,  the  Pelo- 
 potmesian  cause  ;  but,  dreading  the  eflforts  of  the  ad- 
 verse faction,  which  might  naturally  look  for  support 
 from  the  Lacedaemonians  in  restoring  the  government 
 812 
 
 to  the  form  of  an  oligarchy,  they  formed  a  plan  of  giv- 
 ing up  the  city  to  the  Athenians  in  the  seventh  year 
 of  the  war.  An  Athenian  force  was  accordingly  de- 
 spatched, which  appeared  suddenly  before  Nissea,  the 
 port  of  Megara,  and,  having  cut  off  the  Peloponnesian 
 troops  which  garrisoned  the  place,  compelled  than  to 
 surrender.  Megara  itself  would  also  have  faller  into 
 their  hands,  if  Brasidas  had  not  at  this  juncture  arrived 
 with  a  Spartan  army  before  the  walls  of  that  city, 
 where  he  was  presently  joined  by  the  Boeotians  and 
 other  allies.  On  his  arrival,  the  Athenians,  not  feeling 
 sufficiently  strong  to  hazard  an  action,  withdrew  to 
 Nisaea,  and,  after  leaving  a  garrison  in  that  port,  return- 
 ed to  Athens.  The  leaders  of  the  democratical  party 
 in  Megara,  now  fearing  that  a  reaction  would  ensue,  vol- 
 untarily quitted  the  city,  which  then  returned  to  an  oli- 
 garchical form  of  government.  {Tkvcyd.,  4,  66,  scqq.) 
 From  this  period  we  hear  but  little  of  Megara  in  Gre- 
 cian history  ;  but  we  are  told  that  its  citizens  remain- 
 ed undisturbed  by  the  contest  in  which  their  more  pow- 
 er.fiil  neighbours  were  engaged,  and  in  the  tranquil  en- 
 joyment of  their  independence.  "  The  Megareans," 
 says  Isocrates,  "  from  a  small  and  scanty  commence- 
 ment, having  neither  harbours  nor  mines,  but  cultiva- 
 ting rocks,  nevertheless  possess  the  largest  houses  of 
 any  people  in  Greece  ;  and  though  they  have  but  a 
 small  force,  and  are  placed  between  the  Peloponnesians, 
 the  Thebans,  and  our  own  city,  yet  they  retain  their  in- 
 dependence and  live  in  peace"  {de  Pace,  p.  183). — Phi- 
 losophy also  flourished  in  this  city,  Euclid,  a  disciple 
 of  Socrates,  having  founded  there  a  school  of  some 
 celebrity,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Megaric  sect. 
 {Strab.,  223.— Vic,  Orat.,3,  \7.—Id.,  Acad. ,2,  42.) 
 — Plutarch  reports,  that  the  Megareans  offered  to  make 
 Alexander  the  Great  a  citizen  of  their  town,  an  hon- 
 our which  tliat  prince  was  inclined  to  ridicule,  though 
 they  asserted  it  had  never  been  granted  to  any  foreigner 
 except  Hercules.  {Pint.,  de  Monarch.,  p.  238.)  Af- 
 ter the  death  of  that  monarch,  Megara  fell  successive- 
 ly into  the  hands  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  Ptolemy 
 Soter,  and  Demetrius,  son  of  Aniigonus  Gonatas,  by 
 whom,  according  to  Plutarch,  the  city  was  destroyed 
 {de  Instit.  Puer.,  p.  3) ;  but,  as  Pausanias  mentions  a 
 war  waged  by  the  Megareans  against  Thebes,  in  which 
 they  were  assisted  by  the  Achseans,  we  may  infer  that 
 it  was  subsequently  restored  (8,  50),  and  we  know  that 
 it  was  taken  by  the  Romans  under  Metellus  (Pausan., 
 7,  15)  and  Calenus.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Brut)  Strabo  also 
 affirms  (393),  that  Megara  still  existed  in  his  time, 
 though  much  reduced,  as  we  are  assured  by  Sulpicius, 
 in  the  well-known  passage  of  his  letter  to  Cicero  {ad 
 Fam.,  4.  5).  "  Post  me  crat  iHgina,  ante  Megara, 
 dextra  Pirceus,  sinistra  Connthus  ;  qua;  oypida  qiio- 
 'dani  tempore  florejitissima  fuernnt,  nunc  jnnstrata  et 
 dirnia  ante  occulos  jaccnt.'^  Pausanias  affirms,  that 
 Megara  was  the  only  city  of  Greece  which  was  not 
 restored  by  Hadrian,  in  consequence  of  its  inhabitants 
 having  murdered  Anthemocritus,  the  Athenian  herald 
 (1,  36).  Alaric  completed  the  destruction  of  this 
 once  flourishing  city.  {Procop.,  Bell.  Vand.,  1,  1. — 
 Cramcr^s  Ane.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  424,  seqq.)  —  \\.  A 
 city  of  Sicily,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Meg-ra  in 
 Greece.     (F/Vi  Hybia,  HI.) 
 
 Megaris,  a  small  territory  of  Greece,  lying  to  the 
 west  and  northwest  of  Attica.  Its  capital  was  Me- 
 gara. {Vid  Megara  ;  under  which  head  an  historical 
 sketch  is  given.)  It  was  separated  from  Bffotia,  on 
 the  north,  by  the  range  of  Mount  Cithaeron  ;  and  from 
 Attica  by  the  high  land  which  descends  from  the 
 northwest  boundary  of  the  latter  country,  and  ter- 
 minates, on  the  west  side  of  the  bay  of  Eleusis,  in 
 two  summits,  formerly  called  Kerata,  or  the  Horns, 
 and  now  Kandili.  Megaris  was  divided  from  the 
 Corinthian  territory  on  the  west  by  the  Onean  range 
 of  mountains,  through  which  there  were  only  two 
 roads  from  Corinth  into  Megaris  :  one  of  these,  called 
 
MEL 
 
 MEL 
 
 tne  Scironian  Pass,  which  is  the  steep  escarpment 
 of  the  mountains  that  terminate  on  the  coast  of  the 
 Saronic  Gulf,  passed  by  Crommyon  (Sirabo,  391); 
 and  along  the  side  of  the  escarpment  was  the  direct 
 road  from  Corinth  to  Athens.  This  road  was  made 
 wide  enough,  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  for  two  ve- 
 hicles abreast  {Pausan.,  1.  40,  10),  but  at  present  it 
 only  admits  a  single  vehicle,  except  in  a  few  places 
 ( Thiersch,  De  VElat  Actuel  de  la  Grece,  2,  p.  32) ; 
 yet  the  road,  on  the  whole,  is  in  good  condition.  The 
 other  road,  following  the  coast  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf, 
 crossed  the  Geranean  Mountains,  which  belong  to  the 
 Oneian  range,  and  led  to  PegEe,  on  the  Corinthian 
 Gulf,  and  thence  into  Bceotia. — The  extreme  breadth 
 of  Megaris,  from  PegK  to  Nisasa  on  the  Corinthian 
 Gulf,  is  reckoned  by  Strabo  at  120  stadia;  and  the 
 area  of  the  country  is  calculated  by  Mr.  Clinton,  from 
 Arrowsmith's  map,  at  720  square  miles.  {Fast.  Hell., 
 vol.  2,  p.  385.)  Megaris  is  a  rugged  and  mountain- 
 ous territory,  and  contains  only  one  plain  of  small  e.K- 
 tent,  in  which  the  capital  Megara  was  situated.  The 
 rocks  are  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  calcareous.  The 
 country  is  very  deficient  in  springs.  {E/icycl.  Us. 
 KnowL,  vol.  1.5,  p.  64.) 
 
 Meg.\sthenes,  a  Greek  historian  and  geographical 
 writer  in  the  age  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  king  of  Syria, 
 about  300  years  before  Christ.  He  was  sent  by  Se- 
 !eucu.s  to  Palibothra  in  India,  to  renew  and  confirm  a 
 previous  treaty  with  Sandrocottus,  monarch  of  the 
 Prasii.  He  remained  there  many  years,  and  after  his 
 return  he  wrote,  under  the  title  of  Indica  {'\vSiku), 
 an  account  of  whatever  he  had  seen  or  heard  during 
 his  travels.  His  work  is  lost  ;  but  Strabo,  Arrian, 
 and  .Elian  have  preserved  some  fragments  of  it.  He 
 was  the  first  who  made  the  western  nations  acquaint- 
 ed with  the  countries  beyond  the  Ganges,  and  with 
 the  manners  of  their  inhabitants.  Strabo  has  on  sev- 
 eral occasions  expressed  an  unfavourable  opinion  of 
 the  trustworthiness  of  Megasthenes  ;  but  still  it  is 
 quite  certain,  that  the  work  of  the  latter  contained 
 much  valuable  information,  which  was  then  entirely 
 new  to  the  Greeks.  Megasthenes  gave  the  first  ac- 
 count of  Taprobane  or  Ceylon.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.3,  p.  383.) 
 
 Mela,  Po.mponiqs,  a  geographical  writer,  the  first 
 Latin  author  of  a  general  work  on  this  subject,  and 
 who  flourished  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Clau- 
 dius. He  was  born  in  Spain,  of  an  illustrious  Roman 
 family,  the  Pomponii,  who  pretended  to  trace  up  their 
 lineage  to  Numa.  Some  critics  have  thought  that 
 Mela  only  belonged  to  this  family  by  adoption,  and 
 that  he  was  that  third  son  of  the  rhetorician  Marcus 
 Seneca  to  whom  this  writer  dedicated  his  works  ; 
 while  others  are  inclined  to  regard  him  as  the  grand- 
 son of  Seneca  the  philosopher.  (Consult  Tzschucke, 
 Diss,  dc  Pomp.  Mel.,  c.  I.)  In  either  of  these  cases, 
 however,  the  word  Annaeus  would  most  probably  have 
 been  added  to  his  name. — There  is  reason  to  believe 
 that  his  true  name  was  not  Mela,  but  Mella.  (Com- 
 pare Voss.,  dc  Hist.  Lat.,  1,25.  —  Fahricius,  Bibl. 
 Lat.,2,  8,  p.  75,  seqq. — Saxe,  OnomasL,  1,  p.  243. — 
 Tzschucke,  Diss,  de  Pomp.  Mel.)  Pomponius  Mela 
 names  his  native  city  in  one  passage  of  his  work  (2, 
 6),  but  the  text  unfortunately  is  so  corrupt,  that  it  is 
 uncertain  whether  we  ought  to  read  Tingcntcra,  Mel- 
 laria,  Tarlcssus,  or  Tingishera.  He  lived,  as  has 
 been  already  remarked,  under  the  Emperor  Claudius, 
 for  the  passage  (3,  6)  in  which  he  speaks  of  a  triumph 
 which  the  emperor  was  upon  the  point  of  celebratma 
 over  the  Britons,  can  only  apply  to  that  monarch. 
 Pomponius  Mela  was  the  author  of  a  geographical 
 outline  or  abridgment,  entitled  "  De  Silii  Orbis," 
 or,  as  some  manuscripts  read,  "  Dc  Chorographia." 
 This  work  is  divided  into  three  books.  After  havincr 
 spoken  of  the  world  in  general,  and  given  a  sketch  of 
 the  geography  of  Asia,  Europe,  and  Africa,  the  writer 
 
 commences  his  more  particular  description  with  this 
 latter  country.  Mauritania,  as  being  the  westernmost 
 quarter,  is  treated  of  first  ;  from  this  he  proceeds  in 
 an  eastern  direction,  traverses  Numidia,  Africa  Pro- 
 pria, and  Cyrena'ica,  and  then  describes  Egypt,  which 
 latter  country  he  regards  as  forming  part  of  Asia. 
 From  Egypt  he  passes  into  Arabia,  Syria,  Phcenicia, 
 Cilicia,  and  the  diflerent  provinces  of  Asia  Minor. — • 
 The  second  book  opens  with  European  Scythia.  Me- 
 la then  treats  of  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Gre«ce. 
 He  next  passes  into  Illyria,  and  from  Illyria  into  It- 
 aly. From  Italy  he  proceeds  to  Gaul,  and  from  Gaul 
 to  Spain.  He  finally  describes  the  isles  of  the  ^.cA^ 
 iterranean. — In  the  third  book  he  returns  to  Spain,  of 
 which  he  had  in  the  previous  book  described  merely 
 the  westernmost  part ;  he  then  gives  an  account  of  the 
 Atlantic  coast  of  Gaul,  which  conducts  him  to  Ger- 
 many, and  from  Germany  he  passes  to  Sarmatia  and 
 to  the  extremity  of  Scythia.  Having  thus  gone  round 
 our  hemisphere,  he  next  gives  an  account  of  the  isl- 
 ands in  the  Northern  Ocean,  of  the  Eastern  Ocean, 
 of  India,  and  of  the  Red  Sea,  including  under  the  last- 
 mentioned  appellation  the  Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs. 
 He  next  passes  to  Ethiopia,  and  concludes  his  work 
 by  a  description  of  the  sea  which  washes  the  western 
 shores  of  Africa. — Mela  did  not,  like  Strabo,  actu- 
 ally visit  a  large  portion  of  the  countries  which  he 
 describes  :  he  has  followed,  however,  though  often 
 without  citing  them,  the  best  Greek  and  Roman  au- 
 thorities, and,  above  all,  the  geographical  writings  ol 
 Eratosthenes  :  he  has  consulted  and  followed  these 
 authorities  with  judgment  and  care,  and  has  admitted 
 into  his  work  only  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
 fables,  which  must  be  set  down  to  the  account  of  the 
 age  in  which  he  lived,  when  great  ignorance  still  pre- 
 vailed in  relation  to  some  of  the  simplest  laws  of  na- 
 ture. The  style  of  his  narrative  is  marked  by  con- 
 ciseness and  precision  ;  he  has  been  successful,  at  the 
 same  time,  in  avoiding  the  dryness  of  a  mere  nomen- 
 clature, by  intermingling  agreeable  descriptions,  phys- 
 ical discussions,  and  notices  of  remarkable  events  of 
 which  the  places  that  he  describes  have  been  the  the- 
 atre. His  work,  however,  is  not  exempt  from  errors  : 
 sometimes,  from  not  paying  sufficient  attention  to  the 
 periods  when  the  writers  whom  he  follows  respective- 
 ly flourished,  he  describes  things  as  existing  which 
 had  ceased  to  exist  ;  various  omissions  also  occur  in 
 the  course  of  his  work  ;  no  mention,  for  example,  is 
 made  of  Canna:,  Munda,  Pharsalia,  Leuctra,  and  Man- 
 tinea,  all  famous  in  the  annals  of  warfare  ;  nor  of  Ec 
 batana  and  Persepolis,  the  capitals  of  great  empires 
 nor  of  Jerusalem,  to  which  so  high  a  religious  im 
 portance  is  attached  ;  nor  of  Stagira,  the  native  place 
 of  one  of  the  greatest  philosophers  of  antiquity.  Like 
 Strabo,  he  considers  the  earth  as  penetrated  by  four 
 great  inlets  of  the  ocean,  of  which  the  Mediterranean, 
 the  Red  Sea,  and  the  Persian  Gulf  were  three  ;  the 
 fourth  was  the  Caspian  Sea.  This  singular  error  a» 
 to  the  Caspian  is  the  more  remarkable,  when  contrast- 
 ed with  the  fact  that  Herodotus  knew  the  Caspian  to 
 be  a  lake.  {Herod.,  1,  20^.— Strabo,  121.— Mela,  1. 
 1. — /(/.,  3^  6.)— The  best  editions  of  Mela  are,  that 
 of  Gronovius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1685,  8vo,  frequently  re- 
 printed, and  that  of  Tzschucke,  Lips.,  1807,  7  vols. 
 8vo  (in  3). 
 
 Mel.impus,  I.  a  celebrated  soothsayer  of  -Argos, 
 son  of  Amythaon  and  Idomene,  and  famed  also  for 
 skill  in  the  "healing  art.  His  father  resided  at  Pylos, 
 but  he  himself  lived  in  the  country  near  that  place. 
 Before  his  house  stood  an  oak-tree,  in  a  hole  of  which 
 abode  some  serpents.  His  servants  finding  these  an- 
 imals, killed  the  old  ones,  whose  bodies  Melampus 
 burned,  but  he  saved  and  reared  the  young  ones.  As 
 he  was  sleeping  one  day,  these  serpents,  which  were 
 now  crrown  to  full  size,  came,  and  getting  each  on  one 
 of  his  shoulders,  licked  his  ears  with  their  tongues 
 
 813 
 
MEL 
 
 MEL 
 
 He  awoke  in  some  terror ;  and,  to  his  astonishment, 
 found  that  he  understood  the  voices  of  the  birds  which 
 were  flying  around  him ;  and,  learning  from  their 
 tongues  the  future,  he  was  enabled  to  declare  it  to 
 mankind.  Meeting  Apollo  on  the  banks  of  the  Al- 
 phcus,  he  was  taught  by  him  the  art  of  reading  futu- 
 rity in  the  entrails  of  victims,  and  he  thus  became  an 
 excellent  soothsayer.  {Apollod.,  1,  9,  11. — Schol  ad 
 Apoll.  Rhod,  1,  118)  Meanwhile,  his  brother  Bias 
 fell  in  love  wiih  Pero,  the  daughter  of  Neleus.  As 
 the  hand  of  this  beautiful  maiden  was  sought  by  most 
 of  the  neighbouring  princes,  her  father  declared  that 
 lie  would  give  her  only  to  him.  who  should  bring  him 
 from  Thessaiy  the  cows  of  his  mother  Tyro,  which 
 Iphiclus  of  Phylace  detained,  and  which  he  guarded 
 by  means  of  a  dog  whom  neither  man  nor  beast  could 
 venture  to  approach.  Bias,  relying  on  the  aid  of  his 
 brother,  undertook  the  adventure.  Melampus,  pre- 
 \^iously  declaring  that  he  knew  he  should  be  caught 
 and  confined  for  a  year,  but  then  get  the  cattle,  set 
 O'jt  for  Phylace.  Every  thing  fell  out  as  he  said. — 
 The  herdsman  of  Iphiclus  took  him,  and  he  was 
 thrown  into  prison,  where  he  was  attended  by  a  man 
 and  a  woman.  The  man  served  him  well,  the  woman 
 badly.  Towartls  the  end  of  the  year  he  heard  the 
 worms  in  the  timber  conversing  with  one  another. 
 One  asked  how  much  of  the  beam  was  now  gnawed 
 through  ;  the  others  replied  that  there  was  little  re- 
 maining. Melampus  immediately  desired  to  be  re- 
 moved to  some  other  place  ;  the  man  took  up  the  bed 
 at  the  head,  the  woman  at  the  foot,  Melampus  himself 
 at  the  middle.  They  had  not  got  quite  out  of  the 
 liouse,  when  the  roof  fell  in  and  killed  the  woman. 
 This  coming  to  the  ears  of  Iphiclus,  he  inquired,  and 
 learned  that  Melampus  was  a  soothsayer  or  Mantis. 
 He  therefore,  being  childless,  consulted  him  about 
 having  offspring.  Melampus  agreed  to  tell  him  on 
 condition  of  his  giving  him  the  cows.  The  seer,  on 
 [phiclus  assenting  to  his  terms,  then  sacrificed  an  ox 
 to  Jupiter,  and,  having  divided  it,  called  all  the  birds 
 to  the  feast.  All  came  but  the  vulture  ;  but  no  one 
 of  them  was  able  to  tell  how  Iphiclus  might  have  chil- 
 dren. They  therefore  brought  the  vulture,  who  gave 
 the  requisite  information.  Iphiclus  became  the  father 
 of  a  son  named  Podarces ;  and  Melampus  drove  the 
 kine  to  Pylos,  whereupon  Pero  was  given  to  his 
 brother.  {bd.,\l,287.— Schol,  ad  lor.— Od..  15,22.5. 
 —Apollod.,  1,  9,  l\.— Schol.  ad  Theocr.,  3,  43.)— 
 Melampus  was  also  famous  for  the  cure  of  the  daugh- 
 ters of  Prcetus,  who  were  afflicted  with  insanity.  For 
 an  account  of  this  legend,  consult  the  article  Proeti- 
 des.  {Keighllcifs  Mythology,  p.  436,  scq.) — II.  A 
 writer  on  divination,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  en- 
 tilled  M-avTiKij  nepi  iTa?ifiC)v,  "  Divination  from  vi- 
 brations of  the  muscles,"  and  of  another  styled  Tlepl 
 E?iaiuv  Tov  au/iaTo(,  "  Art  of  divining  from  marhs  on 
 the  body."  We  have  only  fragments  remaining  of 
 these  two  works.  The  library  at  Vienna  contains 
 another  work  of  this  same  writer's,  in  manuscript,  on 
 the  .Art  of  predicting  from  the  phases  of  the  moon. 
 The  fragments  of  Melampus  were  edited  by  Perusius, 
 at  the  end  of  his  J^^lian,  Romce,  154.'},  4to,  and  subse- 
 quently by  Sylburgius,  who,  in  his  edition  of  Aristotle, 
 reunited  them  to  the  physiognomical  works  of  that 
 philosopher.  They  are  to  be  found  also  in  the  Scrip- 
 lores  Physiognomies  Veteres  of  Franz,  Altenb.,  1780, 
 8vo. 
 
 Melampyges,  an  epithet  applied  to  Hercules  in  the 
 Greek  mythology,  and  connecting  him  with  the  legend 
 of  the  Cercopes.  These  last,  according  to  Diodorvis 
 Siculus  (4,  31),  dwelt  in  the  vicinity  of  Ephesus,  and 
 ravaged  the  country  far  and  wide,  while  Hercules  was 
 leading  with  Omphale  a  life  of  voluptuous  repose. 
 Their  mother  had  cautioned  them  against  one  to 
 whom  the  name  Melampyges  should  apply,  but  they 
 814 
 
 disregarded  her  warning,  and  the  hero,  having  at 
 length  been  roused  from  his  inactivity,  j)roceeded 
 against  them  by  order  of  Omphale,  and,  having  over- 
 come them,  brought  them  to  her  in  chains. — A  dif- 
 ferent tradition  placed  the  Cercopes  in  the  islands  fa- 
 cing the  coast  of  Campania.  Jupiter,  according  to 
 this  latter  account,  being  engaged  in  his  war  with  the 
 Titans,  came  to  these  islands  to  demand  succours  of 
 the  Arimi.  The  people  promised  him  their  aid,  but 
 afterward  made  spori  of  hun,  whereupon  the  irri- 
 tated deity  changed  them  into  apes  (TvidrjKoi),  and 
 from  that  period  the  islands  of  Inarime  and  Pro- 
 chyta  were  called  Pithecusae  {UiOrjKovaat,  from  TridTj- 
 Koc. — Vid.,  however,  another  explanation  under  the 
 article  Pithecusae.) — The  legend  of  the  Cercopes  ap- 
 pears to  be  an  astronomical  one.  The  Lydian  Her- 
 cules is  the  sun,  pale  and  enfeebled  at  the  winter  sol- 
 stice, and  which  in  some  sense  may  be  said  to  turu 
 its  obscurer  parts  upon  the  earth;  while  the  Cercopes, 
 as  symbols  of  this  period  of  languor,  crowd  around 
 and  insult  him.  On  the  approach,  however,  of  the 
 vernal  equinox,  the  god  resumes  his  former  energies 
 and  subjugates  his  foes.  In  like  manner  Jupiter,  the 
 sun  of  suns,  overcomes  and  dissipates  all  things  that 
 tend  to  obscure  the  light  and  disturb  the  repose  of 
 the  universe.     {Guigniaut,  vol.  2,  p.  181.) 
 
 MiiLANCHi,.«:Ni,  a  people  near  the  Cimmerian  Bos- 
 porus, so  called  from  their  black  garments.  Man- 
 nert  conjectures  them  to  have  been  the  progenitors 
 of  the  modern  Russians.  By  later  writers  they  are 
 called  Rhoxolani.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p.  134, 
 167.) 
 
 Mei.anippides,  I.  a  lyric  poet,  who  flourished  about 
 .500  B.C.  He  was  either,  as  some  suppose,  a  native 
 of  the  island  of  Melos,  or,  as  others  think,  of  the  city 
 of  Miletus. — II.  A  poet,  who  lived  about  446  B.C., 
 at  the  court  of  Perdiccas  II.,  king  of  Macedonia.  He 
 was  the  grandson  of  the  former.  Various  poems  are 
 ascribed  to  these  two  individuals,  and  it  is  a  difficult 
 matter  to  make  a  division  between  them.  They  com 
 posed  dithyrambics,  epopees,  elegies,  and  songs.  The 
 younger  Melanippides  is  placed  by  Plutarch  in  the 
 number  of  those  who  corrupted  the  ancient  music  by 
 the  novelties  which  they  introduced.  He  also  com- 
 posed some  tragedies.  [Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.  vol. 
 1,  p.  289.) 
 
 Melanippus,  a  son  of  Astacus,  one  of  the  Theban 
 chiefs  who  defended  the  gates  of  Thebes  against  the 
 army  of  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos.  He  was  opposed 
 by  Tydeus,  whom  he  wounded  mortally.  As  Tydeus 
 lay  expiring,  Minerva  hastened  to  him  with  a  remedy 
 which  she  had  obtained  from  Jupiter,  and  which  would 
 make  him  immortal  ;  but  Amphiaraus,  who  hated  Ty- 
 deus as  the  chief  cause  of  the  war,  perceiving  what 
 the  goddess  was  about,  cut  off  the  head  of  Melanip- 
 pus, whom  Tydeus,  though  wounded,  had  slain,  and 
 brought  it  to  him.  The  savage  warrior  opened  it  and 
 devoured  the  brain,  and  Minerva,  in  disgust,  withheld 
 her  aid.  {Bacchyl.,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Aristoph.,  Av.,  1536. 
 — Eurip.,  Frag.  Melcag.,  18. — Keightley's  Mytholo- 
 gy, p.  479.) 
 
 Melanthius,  I.  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  of  inferior 
 reputation,  a  contemporary  of  Aristophanes.  He  was 
 afflicted  with  the  leprosy,  to  which  the  comic  poet  al- 
 ludes in  the  Avcs  {v.  151).  In  the  Pax  (v.  974)  he  is 
 ridiculed  for  his  gluttony. — II.  A  painter,  whose  na- 
 tive country  is  uncertain.  He  was  a  contemporary  of 
 Apelles,  and  received,  in  connexion  with  him,  the  in- 
 structions of  Pamphilus  in  the  art  of  painting.  (Plin., 
 35,  10,  36.)  Quintilian  particularly  mentions  his  skill 
 in  the  designs  of  his  pictures;  and  Pliny  observes,  that 
 he  was  one  of  those  painters  who,  with  only  four  col- 
 ours, produced  pieces  worthy  of  immortality.  Even 
 Apelles  conceded  to  him  the  palm  in  the  arrangemeiit 
 or  grouping  of  his  figures.  (Plin.,  L  c.)  That  his 
 pictures  were  held  in  high  estimation,  is  evident  from 
 
MEL 
 
 ME  LE  ACER. 
 
 t*ie  circumstance  that  Aratus,  no  mean  judge  of  works 
 of  art,  collected  from  every  quarter  the  productions  of 
 Melanthius  along  with  those  of  Pamphilus,  and  made 
 a  present  of  them  to  Ptolemy  III.,  king  of  Egypt. 
 iPlat.,  Vit.  Aral.,  c.  21.)  He  left  a  treatise  on  Paint- 
 ing, a  fragment  of  which  has  been  preserved  by  Dio- 
 genes Laertius  (4,  18),  and  of  which  Pliny  availed 
 himself  in  writing  the  30th  book  of  his  Natural  His- 
 tory.    {SiUig,  Diet   Art.,  s.  v  ) 
 
 Melanthus,  a  son  of  Andropompus,  whose  ances- 
 tors were  kings  of  Pylos,  in  Messenia.  Having  been 
 driven  by  the  Heraclidae  from  his  paternal  kingdom, 
 he  came  to  Athens,  where  Thymoetes,  monarch  of 
 Attica,  gave  him  a  friendly  rece()tion.  Some  time 
 after  this,  the  Bceotians,  under  Xanthus,  having  invaded 
 Attica,  Thymoetes  marched  forth  to  meet  them. 
 Xanthus  thereupon  proposed  to  decide  the  issue  of 
 the  war  by  single  combat,  but  Thymoetes  shrank  from 
 the  risk,  whereupon  Melanthus  came  forward  and  ac- 
 cepted the  challenge.  By  a  stratagem,  famous  in  af- 
 ter ages,  he  diverted  the  attention  of  his  adversary, 
 and  slew  him  as  he  turned  to  look  at  the  ally  whom 
 Melanthus  affected  to  see  behind  him.  The  victor 
 was  rewarded  with  the  kingdom,  which  Thymoetes 
 had  forfeited  by  his  pusillanimity,  and  which  now  pass- 
 ed for  ever  from  the  house  of  Erechtheus.  Melanthus 
 transmitted  the  crown  to  his  son  Codrus.  {Pausan., 
 2,  IS.—  ThidwaWs  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  274.) 
 
 Melas  (gen.  -«),  I.  a  deep  gulf  formed  by  the 
 Thraciaii  coast  on  the  northwest,  and  the  shore  of  the 
 Chersonese  on  the  southeast ;  its  appellation  in  mod- 
 ern geography  is  the  Gulf  of  Saros. — H.  A  river  of 
 Thrace,  now  the  Cavatcha,  emptying  into  the  Sinus 
 Melas  at  its  northeastern  extremity.  {Herod.,  7,  58. — 
 Liv.,  38,  iO.—Plin.,  4,  11.)— HI.  A  river  of  Thes- 
 saly,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Trachis.  {Herod., 
 7,  ]99. —Liv.,  37,'24.)— IV.  A  small  river  of  Boeotia, 
 near  Orchomenus,  emptying  into  the  Lake  Copa'is. 
 {Pausan.,  9,  38.)  Plutarch  says  that  it  rose  close 
 to  the  city,  and  very  soon  became  navigable,  but 
 that  part  of  it  was  lost  in  the  marshes,  while  the  re- 
 mainder joined  the  Cephissas.  {Vit.  Sijll. — Strab., 
 415.)  Pliny  remarks  of  its  waters,  that  they  had 
 the  property  of  dying  the  fleeces  of  sheep  black  (2, 
 103).  In  the  marshes  formed  near  the  junction  of 
 this  river  with  the  Gephissus  grew  the  reeds  so  much 
 esteemed  by  the  ancient  Greeks  for  making  pipes  and 
 other  wind-instruments.  {Pindar,  Pi/ih.,  12,  42. — 
 Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  249.) — V.  A  river 
 of  Cappadocia,  rising  near  Cssarea  ad  Argseum,  and 
 falling  into  the  Euphrates  near  the  city  of  Melilene. 
 Schillinger  {Reise.,  p.  68)  calls  it  the  Gensin;  but  on 
 D'Anville's  map  it  bears  in  the  beginning  of  its  course 
 the  name  of  Koremoz,  and  near  its  mouth  that  of 
 Kirkghcdid.  {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  296.) 
 — V[.  A  river  of  Pamphylia,  rising  in  the  range  of 
 Mount  Taurus,  to  the  west  of  Homonada,  and  running 
 into  the  sea  between  Side  and  Goracesiuin.  {Strabo, 
 667.)  It  formed  originally  the  boundary  between 
 Pamphylia  and  Cilicia.  {Flin.,  ^,  27.)  According  to 
 Leake,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Melas  is  the 
 river  now  called  Menavgdt  su,  for  Zosimus  (5,  16) 
 and  Mela  (1,  14)  agree  in  showing  its  pro.ximity  to 
 Side.  Strabo,  Mela,  and  the  Stadiasmus,  all  place  it 
 to  the  eastward  of  Side,  and  the  distance  of  50  stadia 
 in  the  Stadiasmus  between  the  Melas  and  Side  is  pre- 
 cisely that  which  occurs  between  the  ruins  of  Side 
 and  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  Menavgat.  {Leake's 
 Tour,  p.  196.) 
 
 MELn^E  or  Meldorum  urbs,  a  city  of  Gaul,  now 
 Meaux.     {CcEs.,  B.  G  ,  5,  R.—Plin.,  4,  13.) 
 
 MeleIger,  I.  a  celebrated  hero  of  antiquity,  son  of 
 (Eneus,  king  of  ^Etolia,  by  Althsa,  daughter  of  Thes- 
 tius.  When  he  was  seven  days  old,  the  Moiraj  or 
 Fates  came  to  the  dwelling  of  his  parents,  and  de- 
 clared that  when  the  billet  which  was  burning  on  the 
 
 hearth  should  be  consumed,  the  babe  would  die.  Al- 
 thaja,  on  hearing  this,  snatched  the  billet  from  the  fire, 
 and  laid  it  carefully  away  in  a  coffer.  The  fame  of 
 Meleager  increased  with  his  years  ;  he  signalized  him- 
 self in  the  Argonautic  expedition,  and  subsequently  in 
 the  Calydonian  boar-hunt.  Of  ibis  latter  event  there 
 appear  to  have  been  two  legends,  an  earlier  and  a  later 
 one.  The  former  appears  to  have  been  a  tale  of  great 
 antiquity,  and  is  commemorated  in  the  Iliad  (y,  527). 
 According  to  this  version  of  the  story,  CEneus,  in  the 
 celebration  of  his  harvest-home  feast  {-dalvaia),  had 
 treated  Diana  with  neglect,  and  the  goddess  took  ven- 
 geance upon  him  by  sending  a  wild  boar  of  surpassing 
 size  and  strength  to  ravage  the  territory  of  Calydon. 
 Hunters  and  dogs  were  collected  from  all  sides,  and 
 the  boar  was,  with  the  loss  of  several  lives,  at  length 
 destroyed.  A  quarrel  arose,  however,  between  the 
 Curetes  and  /Etolians  about  the  bead  and  bide,  and  a 
 war  was  the  consequence.  As  long  as  Meleager 
 fought,  the  Curetes  had  the  worst  of  it,  and  could  nol 
 keep  the  field  ;  but  when,  enraged  at  his  mother  Al- 
 thaea, he  remained  with  bis  wife  the  fair  Cleopatra, 
 and  abstained  from  the  war,  noise  and  clamour  rose 
 about  the  gates,  and  the  lowers  of  Calydon  were  sha 
 ken  by  the  victorious  Curetes  :  for  Aitbasa,  grieved  a' 
 the  fate  of  her  brother,  who  had  fallen  in  the  fight,  had 
 with  tears  invoked  Pluto  and  Proserpina  to  send  death 
 to  her  son.  The  elders  of  the  Etolians  supplicated 
 Meleager  :  they  sent  the  priests  of  the  gods  to  entreat 
 him  to  come  forth  and  defend  them  ;  they  offered  him 
 a  piece  of  land  {refievog)  of  his  own  selection.  His 
 aged  father  Qi^neus  ascended  to  his  chamber  and  im- 
 plored him,  his  sisters  and  his  mother  supplicated 
 him,  but  in  vain.  He  remained  inexorable,  till  his 
 very  chamber  was  shaken,  when  the  Curetes  had 
 mounted  the  towers  and  set  fire  to  the  town.  Then 
 his  wife  besought  him  with  tears,  picturing  to  him  the 
 evils  of  a  captured  town,  the  slaughter  of  the  men,  the 
 dragging  away  into  captivity  of  the  women  and  chil- 
 dren. Moved  by  this  last  appeal,  he  arrayed  himself 
 in  arms,  went  forth  and  repelled  the  enemy  ;  but,  not 
 having  done  it  out  of  regard  for  them,  the  ^Etolians 
 did  not  give  him  the  proffered  recompense. — Such 
 is  the  more  ancient  form  of  the  legend,  in  which  it 
 would  appear  that  the  .^Etolians  of  Calydon  and  the 
 Curetes  of  Pleuron  alone  took  part  in  the  hunt.  In 
 after  limes,  when  the  vanity  of  the  different  states  of 
 Greece  made  them  send  their  national  heroes  to  every 
 war  and  expedition  of  the  mythic  ages,  it  underwent 
 various  modifications.  Meleager,  it  is  said  {Nicand., 
 ap.  Anion.  Lib.,  2.—Apollod.,  1,  8,  2. — Ovid,  Met., 
 8,  270,  seqq. — Hi/gin.,  fab.,  181,  5),  invited  all  the 
 heroes  of  Greece  to  the  hunt  of  the  boar,  proposing 
 the  hide  of  the  animal  as  the  prize  of  whoever  should 
 slay  him.  Of  the  yEtolians  there  were  Meleager,  and 
 Dryas  son  of  Mars  ;  of  the  Curetes,  the  sons  of  Thes- 
 tius  ;  Idas  and  Lynceus,  sons  of  Aphareus,  came  from 
 Messene  ;  Castor  and  Pollux,  sons  of  Jupiter  and  Lc- 
 da,  from  Laconia;  Atalanta,  daughter  of  lasus,  and 
 AncsEus  and  Cepheus,  sons  of  Lycurgus,  from  Arca- 
 dia ;  Amphiaraus,  son  of  Oicles,  from  Argos  ;  Tela- 
 mon,  son  of  iEacus,  from  Salarnis  ;  Theseus,  son  of 
 -Egeus,  from  Athens;  Iphicles,  son  of  Amphitryon, 
 from  Thebes  ;  Peleus,  son  of  yEacus,  and  Eurytion, 
 son  of  Actor,  from  Phthia  ;  Jason,  son  of  ^son,  from 
 lolcos  ;  Admetus,  son  of  Pheres,  from  Pherae ;  and 
 Pirithoiis,  son  of  Ixion,  from  Larissa. — These  chiefs 
 were  entertained  during  nine  days  in  the  house  of 
 CEneus.  On  the  tenth,  Cepheus  and  Ancaeus,  and 
 some  others,  refused  to  hunt  in  company  with  a  maid- 
 en ;  but  Meleager,  who  was  in  love  with  Atalanta, 
 obliged  them  to  give  over  their  opposition.  The  hunt 
 began  ;  Ancsus  and  Cepheus  speedily  met  their  fate 
 from  the  tusks  of  the  boar  :  Peleus  accidentally  killed 
 Eurytion:  Atalanta,  with  an  arrow,  gave  the  monsf"; 
 the  first  wound  ;  Amphiaraus  shot  him  in  the  eye  ;  and 
 
 815 
 
MEL 
 
 MEL 
 
 Meleager  ran  him  through  the  flanks  and  killed  him. 
 He  presei'ted  ihe  skin  and  head  to  Atalanta  ;  but  the 
 sons  of  Thestius,  his  two  uncles,  ofleiidcd  at  this 
 preference  of  a  woman,  took  the  skin  from  her,  saying 
 that  it  fell  to  them  of  right,  on  account  of  their  family, 
 if  Meleager  resigned  his  claim  to  it.  Meleager,  in  a 
 rage,  killed  them,  and  restored  the  skiti  to  Atalanta. 
 AUhai-a,  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  her  brothers,  in- 
 fluenced by  resentment  for  their  loss,  took  from  its 
 place  of  concealment  the  billet,  on  which  depended 
 the  existence  of  Meleager,  and  cast  it  into  the  flames. 
 As  it  consumed,  the  vigour  of  Meleager  wasted  away  ; 
 and  when  it  was  reduced  to  ashes,  his  life  terminated. 
 Repenting,  when  too  late,  of-  what  she  had  done,  Al- 
 thea  put  an  end  to  her  own  life.  Cleopatra  died  of 
 grief;  and  the  sisters  of  Meleager,  who  would  not  be 
 comforted  in  their  affliction,  were,  by  the  compassion 
 of  the  gods,  all  but  Gorge  and  Deianira,  changed  into 
 birds  called  Meleagrides. — There  was  another  tradi- 
 tion, according  to  which  Meleager  was  slain  by  Apol- 
 lo, the  protecting  deity  of  the  Curetes.  {Pausan.,  10, 
 31,  '3.—Kc2gktlcy's  Mythology,  p.  321,  seqq.)~U. 
 A  Greek  poet,  a  native  of  Gadara  in  Coslesyria,  and 
 either  contemporary  with  Aniipater,  or  a  very  short 
 time  subsequent  to  him.  He  composed  several  works 
 of  a  satirical  character,  which  we  find  quoted  under 
 the  following  titles  :  I.  ^v/j.n6c!wi>,  "  The  Banquel.^^ — 
 2.  AekWov  Kal  ipoKF/^  avyapiaK;,  "  A  mtxiure  of 
 yolks  of  eggs  and  beans.'" — 3.  Xupire^,  "  The  Gra- 
 ces." Jacobs,  however,  thinks  that  the  whole  collec- 
 tion of  his  satires  may  have  been  rather  entitled  Xap- 
 tref.  {Ammadv.  in  Anthol.,  1,  1. — Prolcgom.,  p. 
 xxxviii  ) — HI.  Another  poet,  who  has  left  about  130 
 epigrams.  They  are  marked  by  purity  of  diction  and 
 by  feeling,  but  they  betray,  at  the  same  time,  some- 
 thing of  that  sophistic  subtlety  which  characterized  his 
 age.  Occasionally  we  meet  with  words  rather  loo 
 boldly  compounded.  Meleager  was  the  first  who  made 
 a  collection  of  epigrams,  or  an  anthology.  He  entitled 
 it  SrMai^of,  "  The  Cioivii.'"  It  contained  a  selection 
 of  the  best  pieces  of  forty-six  poets,  arranged  in  al- 
 phabetical order  according  to  the  names  of  the  authors. 
 This  compilation  is  lost.  {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  4,  p.  45,  .55.) 
 
 Meleagrides,  the  sisters  of  Meleager,  daughters 
 of  ffineus  and  Althasa.  They  were  so  disconsolate 
 at  the  death  of  their  brother  Meleager.  that  they  re- 
 fused all  aliment,  and  were  changed  into  birds  called 
 Meleagrides.  The  youngest  of  these  sisters.  Gorge 
 and  Deianira,  who  had  been  married,  alone  escaped 
 this  metamorphosis.  {Apollod.,  1,  8. — Ovid,  Met.,  8, 
 540.) 
 
 Meles  (elis),  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  near  Smyrna. 
 Some  of  the  ancients  supposed  that  Homer  was  born 
 on  the  banks  of  this  river,  from  which  circumstance 
 they  call  him  Melcsigcnes.  They  also  showed  a  cave, 
 where  ic  was  said  that  Homer  had  composed  his  verses. 
 {Pausan.,  7,  5.)  Chandler  informs  us  that  he  search- 
 ed for  this  cavern,  and  succeeded  in  discovering  it 
 above  the  aqueduct  of  the  Meles.  It  is  about  four 
 feet  wide,  the  roof  of  a  huge  rock,  cracked  and  slant- 
 ing, the  sides  and  bottom  sandy.  Beyond  it  is  a  pas- 
 sage cut,  leading  into  a  kind  of  well.  {Travels  in  Asia 
 Minor,  p.  91.)  According  to  the  same  traveller,  the 
 Meles,  at  the  present  day,  is  shallow  in  summer,  not 
 covering  its  rocky  bed  ;  but,  winding  in  the  deep  val- 
 ley behind  the  castle  of  Smyrna,  it  murmurs  among  the 
 evergreens,  and  receives  many  rills  from  the  slopes ; 
 after  turning  an  overshot  mill  or  two,  it  approaches 
 the  gardens  without  the  town,  where  it  branches  out 
 into  small  canals,  and  is  divided  and  subdivided  into 
 still  smaller  currents,  until  it  is  absorbed,  or  reaches 
 the  sea,  in  ditches,  unlike  a  river.  In  winter,  howev- 
 er, after  heavy  rains,  or  the  melting  of  snow  on  the 
 mountains,  it  swells  into  a  torrent  rapid  and  deep,  of- 
 ten not  fordable  without  danger  ;  and  it  then  finds  its 
 816 
 
 way  into  the  inner  bay,  where  the  ancient  city  stood. 
 (Chandler's  Travels,  p.  76,  seqq.) 
 
 Melesigenes  or  Mei.esigena,  a  name  given  to 
 Homer.     {Vid.  Meles  and  Homerus.) 
 
 Melibcea,  I.  a  town  of  I'hessaly,  in  the  district  of 
 Estiaotis,  near  Ithome.  {Liv.,  36,  13.) — II.  A  city 
 of  Thessaly,  in  the  district  of  Magnesia.  According 
 to  Livy  (44,  13),  it  stood  at  the  base  of  Mount  Ossa, 
 in  that  part  which  stretches  towards  the  plains  of  Thes- 
 saly, above  Demetrias.  Homer  assigns  it  to  the  do- 
 mains of  Philoctetes  (//.,  2,  716),  hence  called  "  Me- 
 lihwiis  dux'"  hy  Vhg\\.  (.<En.,  3,  401.)  Melibnea  was 
 attacked  m  the  Macedonian  war  by  M.  Popilius,  a  Ro- 
 man commander,  at  the  head  of  five  thousand  men  ; 
 but  the  garrison  being  re-enforced  by  a  detachment 
 from  the  army  of  Perseus,  the  enterprise  was  abandon- 
 ed. {Livy,  I.  c  )  We  know  from  Apollonius  {Arg., 
 1,  592)  that  it  was  a  maritime  town.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  423.)  According  to  Pouqueville 
 ( Voyage,  vol.  3,  p.  404),  the  village  of  Daoukli  indi- 
 cates the  site  of  the  ancient  Meliboea.  (Compare  Paul 
 Lucas's  map,  appended  to  his  Travels,  1704.) 
 
 Melicerta  or  Melicertes,  a  son  of  Athamas  and 
 Ino.  He  was  saved  by  his  mother  from  the  fury  of 
 his  father,  who  prepared  to  dash  him  against  a  wall 
 as  he  had  done  his  brother  Learchus.  The  mother 
 was  so  terrified  that  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea, 
 with  Melicerta  in  her  arms.  Neptune  had  compassion 
 on  Ino  and  her  son,  and  changed  them  both  into  sea 
 deities.  Ino  was  called  Leucothoe  or  Matuta,  and  Me- 
 licerta was  known  among  the  Greeks  by  the  name  of 
 Palaemon,  and  among  the  Latins  by  that  of  Portumnus. 
 {V^d.  Leucothoe  and  Ino.  —  Apollod.,  1,  9;  3,  4. — 
 Pausan.,  1,  44. — Ovid,  Met.,  4,  529.) 
 
 Meligijnis,  one  of  the  earlier  names  of  Lipara. 
 {Yid.  Lipara.) 
 
 Melii.      Vid.  Malii. 
 
 Melissa,  I.  a  daughter  of  Melissus,  king  of  Crete, 
 who,  with  her  sister  Amalthsea,  fed  Jupiter  with  the 
 milk  of  goats.  According  to  the  account  quoted  by 
 Lactantius,  she  was  appointed  by  her  father  the  first 
 priestess  of  Cybele.  {Lactant.,  \,22.) — II.  A  nymph, 
 who  first  discovered  the  means  of  obtaining  honey 
 through  the  aid  of  bees.  She  was  fabled  to  have  been 
 herself  changed  into  one  of  these  little  creatures. 
 {ColumclL,  9,  2.)— HI.  One  of  the  Oceanides,  who 
 married  Inachus,  by  whom  she  had  Phoroneus  and 
 ^Egialus. — IV.  A  daughter  of  Procles,  who  married 
 Periander,  the  son  of  Cypsehis.  by  whom,  in  her  preg- 
 nancy, she  was  killed  with  a  blow  of  his  foot,  by  the 
 false  accusation  of  his  concubines.  {Ding.  Lacrt.,  1, 
 \0Q.— Herod.,  3,  bO.—Bdhr,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c.~Pau- 
 san.,  1,  28.) 
 
 Melissus,  a  philosopher  of  Samos,  of  the  Eleatic 
 sect,  who  flourished  about  440  B.C.  He  was  a  disci- 
 ple of  Parmenides,  to  whose  doctrines  he  closely  ad- 
 hered. As  a  public  man,  he  was  conversant  with  af- 
 fairs of  state,  and  acquired  great  influence  among  his 
 countrymen,  who  had  a  high  veneration  for  his  talents 
 and  virtues.  Being  appointed  by  them  to  the  com- 
 mand of  a  fleet,  he  obtained  a  great  naval  victory  over 
 the  Athenians.  As  a  philosopher,  he  maintained  that 
 the  principle  of  all  things  is  one  and  immutable,  or 
 that  whatever  exists  is  one  being  ;  that  this  one  being 
 includes  all  things,  and  is  infinite,  without  beginning 
 or  end  ;  that  there  is  neither  vacuum  nor  motion  in 
 the  universe,  nor  any  such  thing  as  production  or  de- 
 cay ;  that  the  changes  which  it  seems  to  suffer  are 
 only  illusions  of  our  senses,  and  that  we  ought  not 
 to  lay  down  anything  positive  concerning  the  gods, 
 since  our  knowledge  of  them  is  so  uncertain.  The- 
 mistocles  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  his  pupils.  {En- 
 field's History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  418,  seqq.) 
 
 MelTta,  I.  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  sixty 
 miles  southeast  of  Sicily,  now  Malta.  It  is  first  men. 
 tioned  by  Scylax  (p.  50),  but  is  considered  by  him  as 
 
MELITA. 
 
 MELITA. 
 
 belonging  to  Africa,  from  its  having  Punic  inhabitants, 
 and  being  no  farther  from  Africa  than  from  Sicily. 
 The  earher  Greek  historians  do  not  mention  it,  since 
 it  was  regarded  as  a  (Jarthaginian  island,  and  lay  with- 
 out their  historical  limits.  Diodorus  Siculus  is  the 
 first  that  gives  us  any  account  of  it.  "  There  are," 
 he  says,  "  over  against  that  part  of  Sicily  which  lies  to 
 the  south,  three  islands  at  a  distance  in  the  sea,  each 
 of  which  has  a  town  and  safe  ports  for  ships  overtaken 
 by  tempests.  The  first,  culled  iMelite,  is  ahout  800 
 stadia  from  Syracuse,  and  has  several  excellent  har- 
 bours. The  inhabitants  are  very  rich,  inasmuch  as 
 they  exercise  many  trades,  and,  in  particular,  manufac- 
 ture cloths  remarkable  for  their  softness  and  fineness. 
 Their  houses  are  large,  and  splendidly  ornamented 
 with  projections  and  stucco  (yeioaoig  Kal  Koviu/iaai). 
 The  island  is  a  colony  of  the  Phceiiicians,  who,  trading 
 to  the  Western  Ocean,  use  it  as  a  place  of  refuge,  be- 
 cause it  has  excellent  ports,  and  lies  in  the  midst  of 
 the  sea.  Next  to  this  island  is  another  named  Gaulus 
 {Gozo),  with  convenient  harbours,  which  is  also  a 
 colony  of  Phoenicians."  (Dwd.  Sic,  5,  12.)  Malta 
 is  said  to  have  been  subsequently  occupied  by  the 
 Greeks  ;  bet,  however  this  may  be,  the  Carthaginians 
 obtained  [lossession  of  it  B.C.  402.  In  the  first  Pu- 
 nic war  it  was  plundered  by  the  Roman  consul  At- 
 tilius.  {Ornsius,  4,  8.)  In  the  second  Punic  war  it 
 surrendered  to  the  Romans,  and  was  regarded  hence- 
 forth as  an  appendage  to  the  province  of  Sicily.  Its 
 commerce  declined  under  its  new  masters,  and  the  isl- 
 and became  a  not  unfrequen'  haunt  of  pirates.  It 
 appears,  however,  that  its  temjile  of  Juuo  was  rich 
 enough  to  be  an  object  of  plunder  to  the  rapacious 
 Verres  when  he  was  praetor  of  Sicily.  {Ctc.  in  Verr., 
 4,  46  )  The  linen  cloth  of  Malta  was  considered  an 
 article  of  luxury  at  Rome.  After  the  division  of  the 
 Roman  empire  at  the  death  of  Constantine,  this  island 
 was  included  in  the  share  allotted  to  Constantius.  It 
 fell  subsequently  into  the  hands  of  the  Goths,  who 
 were  expelled  by  Belisarius,  A.D.  533.  The  Arabs 
 conquered  it  in  870,  and  though  it  was  recovered,  and 
 held  by  the  Eastern  empire  for  the  space  of  34  years, 
 it  was  retaken  by  the  Arabs,  and  the  Greek  inhabitants 
 were  exterminated.  In  1120,  Count  Roger,  the  Nor- 
 man conqueror  of  Sicily,  took  possession  of  Malta  and 
 expelled  the  .\rdbs.  Malta  was  thus  again  attached  to 
 the  island  of  Sicily,  and  it  became  subject  to  the  differ- 
 ent dynasties  which  successively  governed  that  island. 
 In  1516,  Sicily,  with  the  Maltese  islands,  passed  to 
 the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  as  heir  to  the  crown  of  Arra- 
 gon.  On  the  4th  March,  1530,  Charles  granted  to 
 the  Knights  of  St.  John,  who  had  been  recently  expel- 
 led from  Rhodes  by  the  Turks,  the  ownership  of  all  the 
 castles,  fortresses,  and  i.^les  of  Tripoli,  Malta,  and 
 Gozo.  with  complete  jurisdiction.  The  sovereignty 
 of  Malta  was  by  this  grant,  in  eficct,  surrendered  to  the 
 knights,  tlioiigh  the  form  of  tenure  from  the  crown  of 
 Sicily  was  maintained  by  the  reservation  of  the  annual 
 payment  of  a  falcon  by  the  same  to  the  King  of  Si- 
 cily or  his  viceroy.  It  was  soon  fortified  by  the  knights, 
 and  underwent  several  memorable  sieges.  In  1798.,  Bo- 
 naparte took  possession  of  it  on  his  expedition  to  Egypt; 
 and  in  1800,  the  French  garrison  was  obliged  by  famine 
 to  capitulate  to  a  British  force.  In  1814,  the  possession 
 of  it  was  confirmed  to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of 
 Paris. — The  cotlon  manufactories  of  Malta  have  been 
 celebrated  for  many  ages,  and  would  seem  to  trace 
 their  origin  to  the  times  of  the  Phoenicians.  The  soil 
 consists  of  a  thin  covering  of  earth  on  a  soft,  calcare- 
 ous rock,  and  is  increased  by  breaking  up  the  surface 
 of  the  stone  into  a  sort  of  gravel,  and  mixing  it  through 
 the  earth.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing,  however,  for 
 soil  to  be  transported  from  Sicily,  especially  when  a 
 prO[)rietor  wishes  to  make  a  new  garden  ;  a  fact  that 
 could  hardly  be  inferred  from  the  number  and  excel- 
 lent flavour  of  the  Maltese  oranges,  from  its  beautiful 
 
 roses,  and  A\e  exhalations  of  a  thousand  flowers.^ 
 The  city  of  Melita,  the  ancient  caoital,  lay  some  distance 
 inland,  where  Citla  Pinto  is  at  present  situated. — Two 
 questions  are  connected  with  this  island.  The  first  re- 
 lates to  the  voyage  of  St.  Paul,  which  will  be  consid- 
 ered under  Melita  II. ;  the  other  is  of  a  more  trivial  na- 
 ture, namely,  which  island,  this  or  the  Illynan  Melita 
 (now  Mckda),  furinshed  the  Catuli  Melitm,  so  much 
 esteemed  by  the  Roman  ladies.  Piiny,  on  the  author- 
 ity of  Callimachus  and  Stephanos  of  Byzantium,  pro- 
 nounces III  favour  of  Mcleda,  Strabo  of  Malta  (280). — 
 II.  An  island  in  the  Adriatic,  northwest  of  Epidaurus, 
 and  lying  off  the  coast  of  Dalmatia.  Its  modern  name 
 is  Melcda. — The  question  has  often  been  agitated, 
 whether  it  was  on  this  island,  or  Melita  (now  Mnlta) 
 below  Sicily,  that  St.  Paul  was  shipwrecked.  {Acts,2i 
 and  28.)  Upon  a  fair  review  of  the  whole  subject,  it 
 will  be  found  that  the  Illyrian  island  presents  the  better 
 claim  to  this  distinction  The  following  reasons  may 
 be  alleged  in  favour  of  this  side  of  the  question  ;  1. 
 The  vessel,  when  lost,  was  in  "  Adria,"  the  Adriatic- 
 Gulf,  which  cannot  by  any  geographical  contrivance 
 be  made  to  extend,  as  some  would  wish  to  have  it,  to 
 the  coast  of  Africa.  —  2.  The  island  on  which  the 
 Apostle  was  wrecked  was  an  obscure  one  in  the  Adri- 
 atic sea,  fonnerly  called  Melita,  and  now  known  by 
 the  name  of  Mcleda.  This  island  lies  confessedly  in 
 the  Adriatic,  off  the  coast  of  Illyricum  ;  it  lies,  too, 
 nearer  the  mouth  of  the  Adriatic  than  any  other  island 
 of  that  sea,  and  would,  of  course,  be  more  likely  to 
 receive  the  wreck  of  any  vessel  that  would  be  driven 
 by  tempests  to  that  quarter. — 3.  Melcda  is  situate, 
 moreover,  nearly  N.VV.  by  N.  of  the  southwest  prom- 
 ontory of  Crete,  and  nearly  in  the  direction  of  a  storm 
 from  the  southeast  quarter. — 4.  The  manner  likewise 
 in  which  Melita  is  described  by  St.  Luke  agrees  with 
 the  idea  of  an  obscure  place,  but  not  with  the  celebrity 
 of  Malta  at  that  time.  Cicero  speaks  of  Melita  (Malta) 
 as  abounding  in  curiosities  and  riches,  and  possessing 
 a  remarkable  manufacture  of  the  finest  linen.  (Oral. 
 in  Verr.,  4.  18,  46  )  Malta,  according  to  Diodorus 
 Siculns  (5,  1),  was  furnished  with  many  and  very  good 
 harbours,  and  the  inhabitants  were  very  rich  ;  for  it 
 was  full  of  all  sorts  of  artificers,  among  whom  were  ex- 
 cellent weavers  of  fine  linen.  The  houses  were  state- 
 ly and  beautiful,  and  the  inhabitants,  a  colony  of  Phoe- 
 nicians, famous  for  the  extent  and  lucr.itive  nature  of 
 their  commerce.  It  is  difficult  to  su[)pose  that  a  place  of 
 this  description  could  be  meant  by  such  an  expression 
 as  "  an  island  called  Melita  ;"  nor  could  the  inhabitants, 
 with  any  propriety  of  speech,  be  understood  by  the 
 epithet  •'  barbarous."  But  the  Adriatic  Melita  per- 
 fectly corresponds  with  that  description.  Though  too 
 obscure  and  insignificant  to  be  particularly  noticed  by 
 ancient  geographers,  the  opposite  and  neighbouring 
 coast  of  Illyricum  is  represented  by  Strabo  in  such  a 
 way  as  perfectly  corresponds  with  the  expression  of 
 the  apostle.  —  5.  Father  Giorgi,  an  ecclesiastic  of 
 Melita  Adriatica,  who  has  written  on  this  subject,  sug- 
 gests, very  properly,  that  as  there  are  now  no  serpents 
 in  Malta,  and  as  it  should  seem  there  were  none  in  the 
 time  of  Pliny,  there  never  were  any  there,  the  country 
 being  dry  and  rocky,  and  not  aflfording  shelter  or  proper 
 nourishment  for  animals  of  this  description.  But  Mc- 
 leda abounds  with  these  reptiles,  being  woody  and 
 damp,  and  favourable  to  their  way  of  life  and  propa- 
 gation.— 6.  The  disease  with  which  the  father  of  Pub- 
 lius  was  affected  (dysentery  combined  with  fever, 
 probably  intermittent)'affords  a  presumptive  evidence 
 of  the  nature  of  the  island.  Such  a  place  as  Malta, 
 dry,  and  rockv,  and  remarkably  healthy,  was  not  hkely 
 to' produce  such  a  disease,  which  is  almost  peculiar  to 
 moist  situations  and  stagnant  waters,  but  might  well 
 suit  a  country  woody  and  damp,  and,  probably  for  want 
 of  draining,  exposed  to  the  putrid  effluvia  of  confined 
 moisture.— 7.   It  has  been  alleged,  however,  in  favour 
 
 817 
 
MEL 
 
 MEM 
 
 of  Malta's  having  been  the  island  in  question,  that,  had 
 Meleda  been  tiic  one,  St.  Paul  would  not  have  called 
 at  Syracuse  in  his  way  to  Rhegium,  "  which  is  so  far 
 out  of  the  track,"  says  a  writer  who  advocates  this 
 opinion,  "  that  no  example  can  be  produced  in  the  his- 
 tory of  navigation  of  any  ship  going  so  far  out  of  her 
 •lourse,  except  it  was  driven  by  a  violent  tempest." 
 This  argument  tends  principally  to  show  that  the  vvri- 
 •*r  had  a  very  incorrect  idea  of  the  relative  situations 
 of  the  places  to  which  he  refers.  The  shi[)  which  car- 
 ried St.  Paul  from  the  Adriatic  to  Rhegium  would  not 
 deviate  from  its  course  more  than  half  a  day's  sail  by 
 touching  at  Syracuse  ;  and  the  delay  so  occasioned 
 would  probably  be  but  a  few  hours  more  than  it  would 
 have  been  had  they  proceeded  to  Syracuse  in  their  way 
 to  the  Straits  of  Messina  from  Malta.  Besides,  the 
 master  of  the  ship  might  have,  and  probably  had,  some 
 business  at  Syracuse,  which  had  origmated  at  Alexan- 
 idrea,  from  which  place  it  must  have  been  originally  in- 
 tended that  the  ship  should  commence  her  voyage  to 
 Puteoli ;  and  in  this  course  the  calling  at  Si/racuse 
 would  have  been  the  smallest  deviation  ])0ssible. — 8. 
 Again,  supposing  the  ship  to  have  come  from  Malta, 
 it  must  have  been  on  account  of  some  business,  prob- 
 ably commercial,  that  they  touched  at  Syracuse  in 
 their  way  to  Puteoli,  as  Malta  is  scarcely  more  than 
 one  day  and  night's  sail  from  Syracuse  :  whereas 
 there  might  be  some  reasons  respecting  the  voyage, 
 had  the  ship  come  from  Meleda,  which  is  more  than 
 five  times  that  distance,  and  probably  a  more  uncer- 
 tain navigation. — 9.  As  regards  the  wind  Euroclydon, 
 it  may  be  observed,  that  the  word  evidently  implies  a 
 southeast  wind.  It  is  composed  of  Evpog,  the  south- 
 east wind,  and  k?.v6uv,  a  wave,  an  addition  highly  ex- 
 pressive of  the  character  and  effects  of  this  wind,  but 
 probably  chiefly  applied  to  it  when  it  became  lyphonic 
 or  tempestuous.  Typhon  is  described  by  Pliny  (2, 
 48)  as  picEcipuo  namgantium  jjcstis,  non  antennas 
 modo,  verum  ipsa  navigia  conlorla  frangens.  The 
 course  of  the  wind  from  the  southeast  would  impel  the 
 ship  towards  the  island  of  Crete,  though  not  so  di- 
 rectly but  that  they  might  weather  it,  as  they  in  fact 
 did,  and  got  clear,  though  it  appears  they  encountered 
 some  risk  of  being  wrecked  when  running  under,  or 
 to  the  south  of.  the  island  of  Clauda  or  Gaudos,  which 
 lies  opposite  to  the  port  of  Phoenice,  the  place  where 
 they  proposed  to  winter.  A  circumstance  occurs  in 
 this  part  of  the  narrative  which  creates  some  difficulty. 
 They  who  navigated  the  ship  were  apprehensive  of 
 falling  among  the  Syrtes,  which  lay  on  the  coast  of 
 Africa,  nearly  to  the  southwest  of  the  western  point  of 
 Crete.  But  we  should  consider  that  this  danger  lay 
 only  in  the  fears  of  the  mariners,  who,  knowing  the 
 Syrtes  to  be  the  great  terror  of  those  seas,  and  prob- 
 ably not  being  able  to  ascertain  from  what  quarter  the 
 wind  blew,  neither  sun  nor  stars  having  been  visible 
 for  several  days,  and  as  these  violent  typhonic  Le- 
 vanters are  apt  to  change  their  direction,  might  en- 
 tertain apprehensions  that  they  might  be  cast  on  these 
 dangerous  quicksands.  The  event,  however,  proved 
 that  the  place  of  their  danger  was  mistaken.  {Class- 
 ical Journal,  vol.  19,  p.  212,  scqq. — HaWs  Anal- 
 ysis of  Chronology,  vol.  1,  p.  464,  seqq.,  ed.  2d, 
 1830.) 
 
 Melitene,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  south- 
 eastern part  of  Armenia  Minor,  and  lying  along  the 
 right  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  The  soil  was  fertile, 
 and  yielded  fruits  of  every  kind  ;  in  this  respect  dif- 
 fering from  the  rest  of  Cappadocia,  of  which  Armenia 
 Minor  was  a  part.  The  chief  product  was  oil,  and  a 
 wine  called  Monarites,  which  equalled  the  best  of  Gre- 
 cian growth.  {Strab.,  535.  —  Plin.,  6,  3.)  Its  cap- 
 ital was  Melitene,  now  Malatic,  on  a  branch  of  the 
 river  Melas.  {Plin.,  5,  24. — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v. — Pro- 
 cop.,  de  JEdif.,  3,  5.) 
 
 Melitus,  one  of  the  accusers  of  Socrates.     After 
 818 
 
 he  had  prevailed,  and  Socrates  had  been  ignominious- 
 ly  put  to  death,  the  Athenians  repented  of  their  se- 
 venty to  the  philosopher.  Melitus  was  condemned  to 
 death  ;  and  Anylus,  another  of  the  accusers,  to  escape 
 a  similar  fate,  went  into  voluntary  exile.  {Diog.  La- 
 ert.,  2.) 
 
 Melii-s  or  MiELius,  Spurius,  a  Roman  knight,  sus- 
 pected of  aiming  at  kingly  power,  in  consequence  of 
 his  uncomnion  liberality  in  supplying  the  populace  with 
 corn.  He  was  summoned  by  the  dictator  L.  Q.  Cin- 
 cinnatus  to  appear  before  him  ;  and,  having  refused 
 so  to  do,  was  slain  on  the  spot  by  Ahala,  the  master 
 of  the  horse.     {Liv.,  4,  13,  seqq. —  Vid.  .^quimelium.) 
 
 Mell.4.  or  Mela,  a  small  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
 near  Brixia.  It  retains  its  ancient  name.  {Virg., 
 Gcorg.,  4,  278.— Catullus,  66,  32.) 
 
 Melos,  now  Milo,  an  island  in  the  iEgean  Sea, 
 forming  one  of  the  group  of  the  Cyclades.  It  was  sit- 
 uate, according  to  Strabo  (84),  about  700  stadia  to 
 the  southeast  of  Cape  Scyllteum,  and  nearly  as  many, 
 in  a  northeastern  direction,  from  the  Dictynnaean  prom- 
 ontory in  Crete.  It  was  first  inhabited  by  Phoenicians 
 {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  M^log),  and  afterward  colonized 
 by  Lacedaemon,  nearly  700  years,  as  Thucydides  re- 
 lates, before  the  Peloponnesian  war.  This  island  ad- 
 hered to  the  interest  of  that  state  against  the  Atheni- 
 ans, and  successfully  resisted  at  first  an  attempt  made 
 by  the  latter  to  reduce  it.  {Thucyd.,  3,  91.)  But 
 some  years  after,  the  Athenians  returned  with  a  great- 
 er force  ;  and,  on  the  rejection  of  all  their  overtures,  in 
 a  conference  which  the  historian  has  preserved  to  us, 
 they  proceeded  to  besiege  the  principal  town,  which 
 they  at  length  captured  after  a  brave  and  obstinate  re- 
 sistance. Having  thus  gained  possession  of  the  city, 
 they,  with  a  degree  of  barbarity  peculiar  to  that  age, 
 put  all  the  males  to  death,  enslaved  the  women  and 
 children,  and  sent  500  colonists  into  the  island.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  404.) 
 
 Mei.pes,  a  river  of  Lucania,  flowing  into  the  sea  to 
 the  southeast  of  the  promontory  of  Palinurus.  {Plin., 
 3,  5.)  It  is  now  the  Molpa,  and  is  probably  the  same 
 stream  which  Lyoophron  (v.  1083)  calls  the  Membles. 
 
 Melpomene,  one  of  the  Muses,  daughter  of  Jupiter 
 and  Mnemosyne.  Her  name  is  derived  hom  nD^nofiai, 
 ^'  to  celebrate  in  song."  She  presided  over  tragedy,  of 
 which  the  poets  made  her  the  inventress.  Hence  the 
 language  of  Ausonius,  "  Melpomene  tragico  proclamat 
 moesta  boatu."  {Auson.,  Idyll,  ult.,  v.  2.)  She  was 
 commonly  represented  as  veiled,  and  holding  in  her 
 hand  a  tragic  mask.  Her  instrument  was  the  lyre. 
 Melpomene  became,  by  the  river-god  Acheloiis,  the 
 mother  of  the  Sirens.      {Vid.  Musce.) 
 
 Memmi.a  (more  correctly  Remmia)  Lex,  a  law,  by 
 whom  proposed,  or  in  what  year,  is  uncertain.  It  or- 
 dained, that  an  accusation  should  not  be  admitted 
 against  those  who  were  absent  in  the  service  of  the 
 public.  {Val.  Max.,  3,  7,  9.— Suet.,  Vit.  Jul,  23); 
 and  if  any  one  was  convicted  of  false  accusation,  that 
 he  should  be  branded  on  the  forehead  with  a  letter ; 
 probably  K,  as  anciently  the  name  of  this  crime  was 
 written  KALUMNI.\. — As  regards  the  correct  form 
 of  the  name  of  this  law,  consult  Heineccius,  Atit.  Rom., 
 p.  731,  ed.  Haubold. 
 
 Memmii,  the  name  of  one  of  the  branches  of  an  old 
 ))lebeian  house,  who  were  themselves  subdivided  into 
 the  families  of  the  Galli  and  Gemelli.  The  most  re- 
 markable of  the  Memmii  were  the  following. — I.  C. 
 Memmius  Callus,  was  prsetor  B.C.  176  and  170,  and 
 afterward  ambassador  to  the  ^Etolians. — II.  C.  Mem- 
 mius Gallus,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  tribune  of  the 
 commons,  and  a  bold  and  popular  speaker.  It  was 
 he  who  induced  the  people  to  summon  Jugurtha,  king 
 of  Numidia,  to  Rome,  in  order  to  expose,  if  possible, 
 by  his  means,  the  corruption  of  the  Roman  nobility. 
 {Vid.  Jugurtha.)  He  was  afterward  elected  consul, 
 B.C.   100,  but  was  assassinated  by  Glaucia,  a  dis 
 
MEM 
 
 MEM 
 
 appointed  candidate.  {Vid.  Marius.) — III.  L.  Mem- 
 mius  Gemellus,  was  tribune  of  the  commons  B.C. 
 64,  and  pnntor  B.C.  59,  in  which  latter  capacity  he 
 had  the  government  of  Bithynia.  He  was  distinguish- 
 ed as  an  orator  and  poet,  and  was  the  friend  and  patron 
 of  Catullus  and  Lucretius,  the  latter  of  whom  dedicated 
 his  poern  to  him.  Cicero  describes  him  as  a  man  of 
 great  literary  acquirements,  and  well  acquainted  with 
 the  Grecian  language  and  literature.  (Brut.,  70.) 
 The  same  writer,  however,  represents  him  elsewhere 
 as  a  man  of  licentious  habits.  (Ep.  ad  Alt.,  1,  18.) 
 He  was  an  opponent  of  Cassar's,  and  was  driven  into 
 exile  by  means  of  the  latter,  on  the  charge  of  bribery 
 in  suing  for  the  consulship,  and  also  of  e.xlortion  in  the 
 province  of  Bithynia.  He  died  in  e.xile.  {Ctc  ,  Ep. 
 ad  Fam.,  13,  I. — Mama.,  ad  loc. — Id.,  Ep.  ad  Alt., 
 6,  1. — Ernesli,  hid.  Hist.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Memnon,  I.  a  personage  frequently  mentioned  by 
 the  Greek  writers.  He  is  first  spoken  of  in  the  Odys- 
 sey as  the  son  of  Eos,  or  the  morning,  as  a  hero  re- 
 markable for  his  beauty,  and  as  the  vanquisher  of  An- 
 tilochus  (4,  188;  11,  521)  Hesiod  calls  him  the 
 King  of  the  Ethiopians,  and  represents  him  as  the  son 
 of  Tithonus.  (Theog.,  986  )  He  is  supposed  to  have 
 fought  against  the  Greeks  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  to 
 have  been  slain  by  Achilles.  In  the  "^I'xoaraaia,  a 
 lost  drama  of  ^schylus,  the  dead  body  of  Memnon  is 
 carried  away  by  his  mother  Eos.  (Fragm.  No.  261, 
 ed.  Dindorf.)  He  is  represented  by  most  Greek  wri- 
 ters as  King  of  the  Ethiopians,  but  he  is  also  said  to 
 have  been  connected  with  Persia.  According  to  Dio- 
 dorus  (2,  22),  Tithonus,  the  father  of  Memnon,  govern- 
 ed Persia,  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war,  as  the  \  iceroy 
 of  Teutamus,  the  Assyrian  king  ;  and  Memnon  erected 
 at  Susa  the  palace  which  was  afterward  known  by  the 
 name  of  Metnnonium.  Diodorus  also  adds,  that  the 
 Ethiopians  claimed  Memnon  as  a  native  of  their  coun- 
 try. Pausanias  combines  the  two  accounts  :  he  repre- 
 sents Memnon  as  king  of  the  Ethiopians,  but  also  says 
 that  he  came  to  Troy  from  Susa,  and  not  from  Ethio- 
 pia, subduing  all  the  nations  in  his  way.  {Pausari., 
 10,  31,  6.— Id.,  1,  42,  2  )  ^schylus  also,  according 
 to  Strabo,  spoi<e  of  the  Cissian,  that  is,  Susian,  parent- 
 age of  Memnon  {Strabo,  720) :  and  Herodotus  men- 
 tions the  palace  at  Susa,  called  Memnonia,  and  also 
 says,  that  the  city  itself  was  sometimes  described  by 
 the  same  name.  (Herod.,  5,  53.  seq. — Id.,  7,  151.) 
 The  great  majority  of  Greek  writers  agree  in  tracing 
 the  origin  of  Memnon  to  Egypt  or  Ethiopia  ;  and  it  is 
 not  improbable  that  the  name  of  Memnon  was  not 
 known  in  Susa  till  after  the  Persian  conquest  of  Egypt, 
 and  that  the  buildings  there  called  Memnonian  by  the 
 Greeks  were,  in  name,  at  least,  the  representative  of 
 those  in  Egypt.  The  partial  deciphering  of  the  Egyp- 
 tian proper  names  affords  us  sufficient  reason  for  be- 
 lieving, with  Pausanias  (1,42,  2),  that  the  Memnon  of 
 the  Greeks  may  be  identified  with  the  Egyptian  Pha- 
 menoph,  Phamenoth,  Amenophis,  or  .\inenothph,  of 
 which  name  the  Greek  one  is  probably  only  a  corrup- 
 tion. Phamenoph  is  said  to  mean  "  the  guardian  of 
 the  city  of  Ammon,"  or  "  devoted  to  Ammon,"  "  be- 
 longing to  Ammon." — Memnon,  then,  must  be  regard- 
 ed as  one  of  the  early  heroes  or  kings  of  Egypt,  whose 
 fame  reached  Greece  in  very  early  times.  In  the 
 eighteenth  dynasty  of  Manetho  the  name  of  Amenophis 
 occurs,  with  this  remark  :  "  This  is  he  who  is  supposed 
 to  be  the  Memnon  and  the  vocal  stone."  He  is  Ameno- 
 phis II.,  and  the  son  of  Thutmosis,  who  is  said  to  have 
 driven  the  shepherds  out  of  Egypt. — As  regards  the 
 vocal  statue  of  Memnon,  consult  the  article  Memno- 
 nium  II.  (Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  15,  p.  88,  seq.) 
 — >II.  A  native  of  Rhodes,  the  brother  of  the  wife 
 of  Artabazus  satrap  of  Lower  Phrygia.  He  was  ad- 
 vanced, together  with  his  brother  Mentor,  to  offices  of 
 great  trust  and  power  by  Darius  Ochus,  king  of  Persia. 
 We  are  ignorant  of  the  time  of  Meranon's  birth,  but 
 
 he  is  mentioned  by  Demosthenes  as  a  young  man  m 
 B.C.  352.  (Aristocrat.,  p.  672.)  Memnon  possessed 
 great  military  talents,  and  was  intrusted  by  Darius 
 Codomannus,  the  last  king  of  Persia,  on  the  invasion 
 of  Asia  by  Alexander,  with  an  extensive  command  in 
 Western  Asia  ;  but  his  plans  were  thwarted  and  op- 
 posed by  the  satraps,  and  it  was  contrary  to  his  advice 
 that  the  Persians  offered  battle  to  the  Macedonians  at 
 the  Granicus.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  on  this 
 occasion,  Memnon  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
 in  Western  Asia,  as  the  only  general  who  was  able  to 
 oppose  the  Macedonians.  He  first  retired  to  Miletus, 
 and  afterward  withdrew  to  Halicarnassus  in  Caria, 
 which  he  defended  against  Alexander,  and  only  aban- 
 doned it  at  last  when  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  hold 
 out.  After  the  fall  of  Halicarnassus,  Memnon  entered 
 into  negotiations  with  the  Laceda=inonians,  with  the 
 view  of  attacking  Macedonia.  He  was  now  complete- 
 ly master  of  the  sea,  and  proceeded  to  subdue  the  isl- 
 ands in  the  ./Egean.  He  took  Chios,  and  obtained 
 possession  of  the  whole  of  Lesbos,  with  the  exception 
 of  Mytilene,  before  which  place  he  died,  B.C.  333. 
 The  loss  of  Memnon  was  fatal  to  the  Persian  cause  : 
 if  he  had  lived,  he  would  probably  have  invaded  Mace- 
 donia, and  thus  have  compelled  Alexander  to  give  up 
 his  prospects  of  Asiatic  conquest,  in  order  to  defend 
 his  own  dominions.  (Arnan,  Exp.  AL,  1,  20,  scqq. — 
 Id.  ib.,  2,  1,  scqq.—Dwd.  Sic,  16,  52.— W.,  17,  23, 
 seqq. — Encycl.  Us.  K7wwl.,  vol.  15,  p.  89.) — III.  A 
 native  of  Heraclea  Pontica,  in  Bithynia,  generally  re- 
 garded as  contemporary  with  Augustus,  but  who,  in 
 the  opinion  of  some  critics,  ought  to  be  placed  in  a  la- 
 ter period.  He  wrote  a  history  of  his  native  city,  and 
 of  the  tyrants  who  had  ruled  over  it,  in  twenty- four 
 books.  Photius  has  preserved  for  us  an  abridgment, 
 or,  rather,  an  extract  from  the  9th  to  the  16th  book; 
 for  already,  in  his  time,  the  first  eight,  as  also  the  last 
 eight  books,  were  lost ;  and  it  is  precisely  from  this  cir- 
 cumstance that  we  are  unable  to  fix  the  period  when 
 the  history  terminated,  and  which  would  give  us  some' 
 idea  of  the  time  when  the  author  flourished.  The  ex- 
 tracts preserved  by  Photius  are  more  interesting  frota 
 the  fact  of  Memnon's  speaking,  in  the  course  of  them, 
 by  way  of  digression,  of  other  nations  and  communities 
 with  whom  his  townsmen  had  at  any  time  political  in- 
 tercourse or  relations.  These  extracts  extend  from 
 the  first  year  of  the  104th  Olympiad  (B.C.  364)  to 
 B.C.  46. — The  latest  and  best  edition  of  the  fragments 
 of  Memnon  is  that  of  Orellius,  Lips.,  1816,  8vo,  con- 
 taining fragments  of  the  works  of  other  writers  of  Her- 
 aclea.    (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  105.) 
 
 Memnonium,  I.  the  citadel  of  Susa.  The  city  also 
 bore  the  epithet  of  "Memnonian."  (Herod.,  5,  54; 
 7,  151.  —  Compare  remarks  under  the  article  Mem- 
 non I.) — II.  A  splendid  structure  at  Thebes,  in  Egypt, 
 on  the  western  side  of  the  river.  The  rums  of  the 
 Memnonium  are  regarded  at  the  present  day  as  per- 
 haps the  most  ancient  in  Thebes.  This  beautiful  relic 
 of  antiquity  looks  to  the  east,  and  is  fronted  by  a  vast 
 propylffion,  of  which  234  feet  in  length  are  still  ror 
 maining.  The  main  edifice  has  been  about  200  feet 
 wide  and  600  feet  long,  containing  six  courts  and 
 chambers,  passing  from  side  to  side,  with  about  160 
 columns  thirtv  feet  high.  All  the  sidewalks  have- 
 been  broken  down,  and'  the  materials  of  which  they 
 were  composed  carried  away  ;  nothing  remaining  but 
 a  portion  of  the  colonnade  and  the  inner  chambers,  to' 
 testify  to  the  traveller  what  a  noble  structure  once 
 occupied  this  interesting  sj.ot.  Champollion  con.sid- 
 ers  the  Memnonium  to  be  the  same  with  the  tomb  of 
 Osymandias.  described  by  Diodorus  Siculus  (1,  47).' 
 In  the  Memnonium  is  still  to  be  seen  the  statue  of 
 Osymandias.  It  is  pronounced  to  be  by  far  the  finest 
 relic  of  art  which  the  place  contains,  and  to  have  been, 
 once  its  brightest  ornament,  though  at  present  it  is 
 thrown  down  from  its  pedestal,  laid  prostrate  on  the 
 
MEMNONIUM. 
 
 MEMNONIUM. 
 
 ground,  and  shattered  into  a  thousand  pieces.  It 
 IS  about  26  feet  broad  between  ilie  shoulders,  54  feet 
 round  the  cliest,  and  13  (eet  from  the  shouldi-r  to  the 
 elbow.  There  are  on  the  biick  and  on  both  arms 
 hieroglyphical  tablets,  extremely  well  e.\ecutf'd,  which 
 identify  this  enormous  statue  with  the  hero  whose 
 achievements  are  sculptured  on  the  walls  of  the  tem- 
 ple. This  figure  has  soiuetinies  been  confounded 
 with  that  which  bears  the  name  of  Memnon,  and 
 which  has  so  long  been  celebrated  for  its  vocal  quali- 
 ties. Tiie  latter,  however,  is  one  of  the  two  statues 
 vulgarly  called  Shaina  and  Dama,  which  stand  a  little 
 distance  from  Medinci  Aboii  towards  tlie  Nile.  These, 
 we  are  told,  are  nearly  equal  in  magnitude,  being  about 
 52  feet  in  lieight.  Tlie  thrones  on  which  they  re- 
 spectively rest  are  30  feet  long,  18  broad,  and  be- 
 tween seven  and  eight  feet  high.  They  are  placed 
 about  40  feet  asunder  ;  are  in  a  line  with  each  other, 
 and  look  towards  the  east,  directly  opposite  to  the 
 temple  of  Luxor.  If  there  be  any  difference  of  size, 
 the  southern  one  is  the  smaller.  It  appears  to  be  of 
 one  entire  stone.  The  face,  arms,  and  front  of  the 
 body  have  suffered  so  much  from  studied  violence, 
 that  not  a  feature  of  the  countenance  remains.  'I'he 
 iiead-dress  is  beautifully  wrought,  as  are  also  the  shoul- 
 ders, which,  with  the  back,  contmue  quite  uninjured 
 The  massy  hair  projects  from  behind  the  ears  like  that 
 of  the  sphin.x.  Tne  sides  of  the  throne  are  highly 
 ornamented  wiih  the  elegant  device  of  two  bearded 
 figures  tying  the  stern  of  the  flexible  lotus  round  the 
 liguhi.  The  colossus  is  in  a  silung  posture,  with  the 
 hands  resting  on  the  knees.  The  other  statue,  which 
 stands  on  the  north  side,  appears  to  be  that  of  tlie 
 vocal  Memnon.  It  presents  the  same  attitude  as  its 
 companion.  This  famous  statue  was  said  to  utter, 
 when  it  was  struck  by  the  first  beams  of  the  sun,  a 
 sound  like  the  snapping  asunder  of  a  musical  string. 
 (Pausan  ,  1,  42,  3  )  Cambyses,  who  spared  not  the 
 Egyptian  god  Apis,  suspecting  some  imposture,  broke 
 the  statue  from  the  head  to  the  middle  of  the  body, 
 but  discovered  nothing.  Strabo  (816),  who  visited 
 the  spot  in  a  later  age,  stales  that  he  saw  ivvo  colos- 
 sal figures,  one  of  them  erect,  and  the  other  broken  off 
 from  above,  and  the  fragments  lying  on  the  ground. 
 He  adds,  however,  a  tradition,  that  this  had  been  oc- 
 casioned by  an  earthquake.  'I'he  geographer  says 
 that  he  and  vElius  Gallus,  with  many  other  frier.ds 
 and  a  large  number  of  soldiers,  were  standing  by  these 
 statues  early  in  the  morning,  when  they  heard  a  cer- 
 tain sound,  but  could  not  delerniine  whether  it  came 
 from  the  colossus,  or  the  base,  or  from  the  surrounding 
 multitude.  He  mentions  also  that  it  was  a  current 
 belief  that  the  sound  came  from  that  [>art  of  the  statue 
 which  remained  on  the  base.  Pliny  and  Tacitus 
 mention  the  sound  produced  from  the  statue  without 
 having  themselves  heard  it  (/••/)«.,  36,  11.  —  Tacit., 
 Ann  ,  2,  61. — Compare  Juvenal,  15,  5),  and  Luciaii 
 informs  us  that  Demetrius  went  on  purpose  to  ^Egypt 
 to  see  the  pyramids  and  Memnon's  statue,  from  which 
 a  voice  proceeded  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  {Toxaris, 
 G,  27.)  It  was  a  general  persuasion,  indeed,  among 
 the  Egyptians  as  well  as  others,  that  before  Camiiyses 
 broke  this  colo.ssus,  it  uttered  the  seven  mysterious 
 vowels.  What  characterizes,  however,  in  a  particu- 
 lar degree,  the  statue  of  vocal  celebrity,  is  the  inscrip- 
 tions, both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  in  verse  and  prose,  with 
 which  its  legs  are  covered.  Most  of  these  inscriptions 
 belong  to  the  period  of  the  early  Roman  emperors, 
 and  all  attest  that  the  writers  had  heard  the  heavenly 
 voice  of  Memnon  at  the  first  dawn  of  day.  Transla- 
 tions of  two  of  these  inscriptions  follow  :  "  /,  Fublius 
 Ballnnus,  heard-  the  divine  voice  of  Memnon  or  Fha- 
 mcnoph.  I  came  in  company  with  the  Empress  Suhi- 
 na,  at  the  first  hour  of  the  sun's  course,  the  I5!h  year 
 of  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  the  24//t  day  of  Alhyr,  the 
 'iibth  of  the  month  of  November."  The  other  iiiscrip- 
 820 
 
 tion  is  as  follows  :  "  I  write  after  having  heard  Mem- 
 non.—  Cambyses  hath  wounded  me,  a  stone  cut  into 
 an  image  of  the  Sun- king.  I  had  formerly  the  sweet 
 voice  of  Memnon,  but  Cambyses  has  deprived  me  of 
 the  accents  which  express  joy  and  grief. —  You  relate 
 grievous  things.  Your  voice  is  now  obscure.  Oh 
 wretched  statue  !  I  deplore  your  fate.'''  {American 
 Quarterly  Review,  IS'o.  9,  p.  32. — Compare  Champol- 
 lion.  Precis  du  Systeinc  Hieroglyphique,  vol.  1,  p. 
 236.)  It  will  be  perceived,  from  the  first  of  th'.se 
 inscriptions,  that  Memnon,  as  we  have  already  re- 
 marked in  a  previous  article  (Memnon  I.),  is  made 
 identical  with  the  Egyptian  Phamenoph;  and,  in  (act, 
 the  hieroglyphic  legend  on  the  statue,  as  deciphtrid 
 by  Ctiampollion,  shows  it  to  have  been  the  etHgy  o( 
 Amenophis.  There  is  some  diflSculty,  however,  not- 
 withstanding these  inscriptions,  in  identifying  this 
 statue  with  the  one  described  by  Strabo  and  Pausani- 
 as.  These  writers  say  that  the  upper  part  had  in 
 their  time  fallen  down  or  been  broken  off;  but  at 
 present  the  upper  part  exists  in  its  proper  position, 
 though  not  in  a  single  piece,  being  ada|ited  to  the 
 lower  portion  of  the  body  by  courses  of  the  common 
 sandstone  used  so  generally  in  the  buildings  of  l  hebes. 
 Ileeren  conjectures  that  the  broken  statue  might  have 
 been  repaired  after  the  time  of  Strabo. — 0(  the  fact 
 that  the  statue  of  Memnon  uttered  sounds  when  the 
 sun  shone  upon  it,  there  can  be  no  doubt:  as  to  ilie 
 mode,  however,  in  winch  this  was  effected,  great  di- 
 versity of  opinion  exists.  It  has  been  thought  by 
 some,  that  the  priests  of  Thebes  might  have  fabricated, 
 by  mechanical  art,  a  kind  of  speaking  head,  the  springs 
 of  which  were  so  arranged  that  it  sent  forth  sounds 
 at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  Such  an  explanation,  how- 
 ever, is  altogether  unsatisfactory  ;  the  circumstances 
 of  the  case  are  directly  against  it.  The  more  gener- 
 ally received  opinion  ascribes  the  sound  to  some  pe- 
 culiar (iroperty  in  the  stone  itself,  of  which  the  Egyp- 
 tian priests  artfully  took  advantage,  though  in  what 
 way  is  quite  uncertain.  Alexander  Humboldt  speaks 
 of  certain  sounds  that  are  heard  to  proceed  from  the 
 rocks  on  the  banks  of  the  Oronoko,  in  South  America, 
 at  sunrise  :  these  he  attributed  to  confined  air  making 
 its  escape  from  crevices  or  caverns,  where  the  differ- 
 ence of  the  internal  and  external  temperature  is  con- 
 siderable. The  French  savans  attest  to  their  having 
 heard  such  sounds  at  Carnak,  on  the  east  bank  of  (he 
 Nile ;  and  hence  it  has  been  conjectured  that  the 
 priests,  who  had  observed  this  phenomenon,  took  ad- 
 vantage of  their  knowledge,  and  contrived,  by  what 
 means  we  know  not,  to  make  the  credulous  believe 
 that  a  similar  sound  proceeded  from  the  colossal  stat- 
 ue of  I'hanienoph.  {British  Museum,  E^jypt.  An- 
 tiq.,  vol.  1,  p.  266  )  Mr.  \^'ilkinson,  however,  in 
 his  work  on  the  '•  Topography  of  Thebes"'  {Lond., 
 1835),  gives  a  far  more  satisfactory  solution  of  the  dif- 
 ficulty. "The  sound  which  this  statue  uttered,"  ob- 
 served this  writer,  '•  was  said  to  resemble  the  breakincr 
 of  a  harp-stnng,  or,  according  to  the  preferable  au- 
 thority of  a  witness,  a  metallic  ring  (one  of  the  in- 
 scriptions says,  '  like  brass  when  struck'),  and  the 
 memory  of  its  daily  performance  is  still  retained  in  the 
 traditional  ai)pellation  of  Salamat,  'salutations,'  by 
 the  modern  inhabitants  of  Thebes.  In  the  lap  of 
 the  statue  is  a  stone,  which,  on  being  struck,  emits 
 a  metallic  sound,  that  might  still  be  made  use  of  to 
 deceive  a  visiter  who  was  predisposed  to  believe  in 
 its  powers  ;  and  from  its  position,  and  a  square  space 
 cut  in  the  block  behind,  as  if  to  admit  a  j;erson  who 
 might  thus  lie  concealed  from  the  most  scrutinoiis  ob- 
 server in  the  plain  below,  it  seems  to  have  been  used 
 after  the  restoration  of  the  statue  ;  and  another  simi- 
 lar recess  exists  beneath  the  present  site  of  this  stone, 
 which  might  have  been  intended  for  the  same  purpose 
 when  the  statue  was  in  its  mutilated  state.  Mr.  Bur- 
 ton and  I  first  remarked  the  metallic  sound  of  this 
 
MEM 
 
 stone  in  the  lap  of  the  statue  in  the  year  1824,  and 
 conjectured  that  it  might  have  been  used  to  deceive 
 the  Roman  visiters ;  but  the  nature  of  the  tionud, 
 which  did  not  agree  with  the  accounts  given  by  an- 
 cient authors,  seemed  to  present  an  insuperable  objec- 
 tion. In  a  subsequent  visit  to  Thebes  m  1830,  on 
 again  examining  the  statue  and  its  inscriptions,  I  found 
 that  one  Ballilla  had  compared  it  to  the  striking  of 
 brass  ;  and  fechng  convinced  that  this  authority  was 
 more  decisive  than  tiie  vague  accounts  of  those  wri- 
 ters vvlio  had  never  heard  it,  I  determined  on  posting 
 some  peasants  below  and  ascending  myself  to  the  lap 
 of  the  statue,  with  a  view  of  hearing  from  them  the 
 impression  made  by  the  sound.  Having  struck  the 
 sonorous  block  with  a  small  hammer,  I  mqiiired  what 
 they  heard,  and  their  answer,  Ente  helidrob  e^nahas, 
 'You  are  striking  brass,'  convinced  me  that  the 
 sound  was  the  same  that  deceived  the  Romans,  and 
 led  Sirabo  to  observe  that  it  appeared  to  him  as  the 
 effect  of  a  slight  A/ow."  (  Wilkinson's  Topography 
 of  Thebes,  p.  36,  seq  ) — The  head  of  the  colossal 
 Meinnoii  in  the  British  Museum  has  no  claim  to  be  con- 
 sidered the  vocal  Memnon  described  by  Strabo,  Taci- 
 tus, and  Pausanias.  The  height  of  the  figure  to  which 
 the  head  belongs  was  about  24  feet  when  entire. 
 There  is  also  an  entire  colossal  Memnon  in  the  British 
 Museum  9  feet  6^  inches  high,  which  is  a  copy  of  the 
 great  Memnon  at  Thebes.  (HamiUons  Mgyptiaca. 
 —  Philological  Museum,  No.  4,  art.  Memnon. — En- 
 cycl.  Us   KnowL,  vol.  15,  p.  88,  seqq.) 
 
 Memphis,  a  famous  city  of  Egypt,  on  the  left  side 
 of  the  Nile.  Concerning  the  epocii  of  its  foundation 
 and  its  precise  situation,  writers  are  not  agreed.  With 
 regard  to  its  position,  it  would  seem,  from  a  review 
 of  all  the  authorities  which  bear  upon  the  subject, 
 that  Memphis  stood  about  15  miles  south  of  the  Apex 
 of  the  Delta:  this,  at  least,  is  D'Anville's  opinion. 
 Herodotus  (2,  99)  assigns  the  founding  of  Memphis 
 to  Menes,  and  Diodonis  (1,  50)  to  Uchoreus.  From 
 the  account  given  by  the  former  of  these  writers,  it 
 would  seem  that  the  Nile  originally  ran  nearer  the 
 Libyan  mountains,  and  that  Menes,  having  erected  a 
 large  dam  about  a  hundred  stadia  south  of  the  spot 
 where  Memphis  afterward  stood,  caused  the  river  to 
 pursue  a  more  easterly  course.  After  he  had  thus  di- 
 verted the  current  of  the  stream,  he  built  Memphis 
 within  the  ancient  bed  of  the  Nile.  The  great  em- 
 bankment was  always  an  object  of  attention,  and 
 Herodotus  states  that  under  the  Persian  dominion  it 
 was  annually  repaired  ;  for  if  the  river  had  at  any  time 
 broken  through  the  bank,  the  whole  city  would  have 
 been  inundated.  In  Memphis  the  same  Menes  erected 
 a  magnificent  temfile  to  Vulcan  or  Phtha.  {Herod.,  I. 
 c.)  What  Herodotus  partly  saw  and  partly  learned 
 from  the  lips  of  the  priests  relative  to  this  city,  Dio- 
 dorus  confirms  (I,  50).  He,  too,  speaks  of  the  large 
 embankment,  of  a  vast  and  deep  excavation  which  re- 
 ceived the  water  of  the  river,  and  which,  encircling 
 the  city,  excep  in  the  quarter  where  the  mound  was 
 constructed,  rendered  it  secure  against  any  hostile 
 attack.  He  differs  from  Herodotus,  however,  in  ma- 
 king, as  has  already  been  remarked,  Uchoreus  to  have 
 t(een  its  founder.  On  this  point,  indeed,  there  appears 
 to  have  been  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  among  the 
 2ncient  writers,  for  we  find  the  building  of  Memphis 
 assigned  also  to  Epaphus  (SchoL,  in  Slat.,  Theb.,  4, 
 •J37)  and  to  Apis.  {Hijncelliis,  p.  149.  —  Compare 
 Wesscling,  ad,  Diml.  Sic  ,  I.  c.)  It  is  more  than 
 probable,  that  the  Egyptian  priests  themselves  were 
 possessed  of  no  definite  information  on  this  head,  and 
 that  Memphis  was  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt,  as 
 Thebes  was  of  Upper  Egypt,  at  a  very  early  period, 
 when  the  land  was  under  the  sway  of  many  contempo- 
 taneous  inonarchs.  When,  however,  the  whole  coun- 
 jry  was  united  under  one  king,  the  royal  residence 
 -wouJd  «ecin  to  have  been  transferred  to  Memphis,  in 
 
 MEMPHIS. 
 
 order  to  enjoy,  probably,  the  cool  breezes  from  the 
 sea,  and  Thebes  would  then  appear  to  have  declined 
 in  im])ortance.  The  circuit  of  Memphis  is  given  by 
 Diodonis  at  150  stadia,  from  which  it  would  seem  that 
 it  was  still  larger  in  compass  than  the  city  of  Thebes. 
 Memphis  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  much  in  the  in- 
 vasion of  Cambyses.  It  was  adorned  and  beautified, 
 however,  under  the  Ptolemies  ;  and,  about  the  time  of 
 our  Saviour,  was  the  second  city  of  Egypt,  Ale.'iun- 
 drea  being  ihe  capital  :  but  its  decay  had  already  be- 
 gun. Strabo,  who  visited  it  about  this  time,  describes 
 ihe  temple  of  Vulcan,  another  of  Venus,  and  a  third 
 of  Osiris,  where  the  Apis,  a  sacred  bull,  was  wor- 
 shipped {md.  Apis) ;  and  also  a  Serapeum  and  a  large 
 circus.  But  many  of  its  palaces  were  in  ruins  ;  ^n 
 immense  colossus,  formed  of  a  single  stone,  lay  in 
 front  of  the  circus;  and  among  a  nuinl)er  of  s|)hnixcs 
 near  the  Serapeum,  some  were  covered  with  sand  to 
 the  middle  of  the  body,  and  others  were  so  nearly 
 buried  as  to  leave  only  their  heads  visible — melan- 
 choly and  certain  presages  of  its  future  fate.  In  the 
 seventh  century  the  Saracen  or  Arabian  conquest  of 
 Egvpt  occurred.  Memphis  was  not  indeed  destroyed 
 by  the  victors,  yet  it  had  to  supply  abundant  materials 
 for  the  new  capital  of  Cairo,  as  a  view  of  this  latter 
 place  even  at  the  present  day  conclusively  proves. 
 From  this  period  Memphis  fell  gradually  to  ruin  ;  and 
 though  Benjamin  of  Tndela,  in  the  twelfth  century 
 found  it  still  in  part  standing,  yet  the  process  of  dilapi- 
 dation was  actively  carried  on.  and  most  of  the  for- 
 mer inhabitants  had  taken  up  their  residence  in  the 
 new  capital  of  Cairo.  This  latter  city  he  calls  "  New 
 Misraim,"  and  Memphis  "Old  Misraim"(c  21)  The 
 first  modern  traveller  who  seems  to  have  discovered 
 the  true  site  of  Memphis  is  Fourmont  (Description 
 des  mines  d" Heliopolis  et  dc  Blemphis,  Paris,  1755, 
 8vo).  The  whole  subject  is  now  clearly  elucidated 
 by  the  researches  of  the  French  in  Egypt.  The  ruins 
 of  the  ancient  city  extend,  on  the  western  side  of  the 
 Nile,  for  more  than  one  geographical  mile  in  a  south- 
 ern direction  from  Old  Cairo.  In  the  vicinity  of 
 Saccara  is  to  be  seen  the  spot  where  once  stood  the 
 temple  of  Vulcan.  The  village  which  occupies  a  part 
 of  the  site  of  Memphis  is  called  by  Fourmont  Ma- 
 mif,  while  more  modern  authorities  name  it  Myt-Rah- 
 yneh.  Both  are,  in  fact,  right:  along  the  side  of 
 Memphis  many  villages  rise,  but  the  largest  masses 
 of  ruins  show  themselves  principally  at  Myt-Rahynek, 
 on  the  southern  side  of  the  city. — The  following  de- 
 scription of  Memphis,  as  it  appeared  in  the  twelfth 
 century,  is  from  an  Oriental  writer.  {Abdollatifs 
 Abridgment  nf  Edrisi,  translated  by  De  Sacy.  —  En- 
 cyclopcedia  Metropohlana,  art.  Egypt.)  ".Among  the 
 monuments  of  the  power  and  genius  of  the  ancients 
 are  the  remains  still  extant  in  old  Misr  or  Memphis. 
 That  city,  a  little  above  Fostat,  in  the  province  of 
 Djizeh,  was  inhabited  by  the  Pharaohs,  and  is  the  an- 
 cient capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Egypt.  Such  it  con- 
 tinued to  be  until  ruined  by  Bokhtnasr  (Nebuchad- 
 nezzar) ;  but  many  years  afterward,  when  Alexander 
 had  built  Iskanderiyeh  (Alexandrea),  this  latter  place 
 was  made  the  metropolis  of  Egypt,  and  retained  that 
 pre-eminence  till  the  Moslems  conquered  the  country 
 under  Amru-ebn-el  Aasi,  who  transferred  the  seat  of 
 fiovernment  to  Fostat.  .\t  last  El  Mnezz  came  fr:ni 
 tlie  west  and  built  El  Cahirah  (Cairo),  which  has  ever 
 since  been  the  royal  place  of  residence.— But  let  us 
 return  to  the  description  of  Menuf,  also  called  old 
 Misr.  Notwithstanding  the  vast  extent  of  this  city 
 the  remote  period  at  which  it  was  built  the  change  of 
 dynasties  to  which  it  has  been  subjected,  the  attempts 
 made  by  various  nations  to  destroy  even  the  vestiges, 
 and  to  obliterate  everv  trace  of  it,  bv  reinovmg  the 
 stones  and  materials  of  which  it  was  formed -ruining 
 Its  houses  and  defacing  its  sculptures-notwithstand- 
 ina  all  this,  combined  with  what  more  than  four  thou 
 ^  821 
 
MEN 
 
 MENANDER. 
 
 sand  years  must  have  done  towards  its  destruction, 
 there  are  yet  found  in  it  worits  so  wonderful  that  they 
 confound  even  a  reflecting  mind,  and  are  such  as  the 
 most  eloquent  would  not  be  able  to  describe.  The 
 more  you  consider  them,  the  more  does  your  astonish- 
 ment increase  ;  and  the  more  you  look  at  them,  the 
 more  pleasure  you  experience.  Every  idea  which  they 
 suggest  immediately  gives  birth  to  some  other  still 
 more  novel  and  unexpected  ;  and  as  soon  as  you  ima- 
 gine that  you  have  traced  out  their  full  scope,  you  dis- 
 cover that  there  is  something  still  greater  behind." 
 Among  the  works  here  alluded  to,  he  s|)ecifies  a  mon- 
 olithic temple  similar  to  the  one  mentioned  by  Herod- 
 otus, adorned  with  curious  sculjitures.  He  next  ex- 
 patiates upon  the  idols  found  among  the  ruins,  not  less 
 remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  forms,  the  exactness 
 of  their  proportions,  and  perfect  resemblance  to  na- 
 ture, than  for  their  truly  astonishing  dimensions.  We 
 measured  one  of  them,  he  says,  which,  without  in- 
 cluding the  pedestal,  was  45  feet  in  length,  15  feet 
 from  side  to  side,  and  from  back  to  front  in  the  same 
 proportion.  It  was  of  one  block  of  red  granite,  covered 
 with  a  coating  of  red  varnish,  the  antiquity  of  which 
 seemed  only  to  increase  its  lustre.  The  ruins  of 
 Memphis,  in  his  time,  extended  to  the  distance  of  half 
 a  day's  journey  in  every  direction.  But  so  rapidly  has 
 the  work  of  destruction  proceeded  since  the  twelfth 
 century,  that  few  points  have  been  more  debated  by 
 modern  travellers  than  the  site  of  this  celebrated  me- 
 tropolis. The  investigations  of  the  French,  as  nas  al- 
 ready been  remarked,  appear  to  have  decided  the  ques- 
 tion. "At  Myt-Rahijneh  (Metrahaine),  one  league 
 from  Saccara,  we  found,"  says  General  Dugna,  "so 
 many  blocks  of  granite  covered  with  hieroglyphics  and 
 sculptures  around  and  within  an  esplanade  three  leagues 
 in  circumference,  enclosed  by  heaps  of  rubbish,  that  we 
 were  convinced  these  must  be  the  ruins  of  Memphis. 
 The  sight  of  some  fragments  of  one  of  those  colos- 
 susses,  which  Herodotus  says  were  erected  by  Sesos- 
 tris  at  the  entrance  of  the  temple  of  Vulcan,  would, 
 indeed,  have  been  sufficient  to  dispel  our  doubts  had 
 any  remained.  The  wrist  of  this  colossus  shows  that 
 it  must  have  been  45  feet  high."  {RusseWs  Egypf, 
 p.  216,  se^i/)— Memphis  is  thought  by  many  to  have 
 been  the  Noph  of  Scripture.  {Isaiah,l9,  13.— Jen, 
 2,  16.—Ezek.,30,  13-16.) 
 
 Menander  {Mi:vav6poc),  I.  a  celebrated  comic  poet 
 of  Athens,  born  B.C.  342.  According  to  Suidas,  he 
 was  the  son  of  Diopithes  and  Hegistrate,  was  cross- 
 eyed, and  yet  clear-headed  enough  {arpa6d(  raf  of  etc 
 o^i'g  (Je  top  vovv).  His  father  was  at  this  time  com- 
 mander of  the  forces  stationed  by  the  Athenians  at  the 
 Hellespont,  and  must  therefore  have  been  a  man  of 
 some  consequence.  Alexis,  the  comic  poet,  was  his 
 uncle  and  instructer  in  the  drama.  (Prokg.,  Aris- 
 toph.,  p.  30  )  Theophrastus  was  his  tutor  in  philoso- 
 phy and  literature,  and  he  may  have  derived  from  the 
 latter  the  knowledge  of  character  for  which  he  was  so 
 eminent.  (Dwg.  Laert.,  5,  36.)  The  merit  of  his 
 pieces  obtained  for  him  the  title  of  Chief  of  the  New 
 Comedy.  His  compositions  were  remarkable  for  their 
 elegance,  refined  wit,  and  knowledge  of  human  nature. 
 In  his  21st  year  he  brought  out  the  'Opy/'j,  his  first 
 drama.  {Prolog.,  Aristoph.,  p.  .xxx.)  He  lived  29 
 years  more,  dying  B.C.  292,  after  having  composed 
 105  plays,  according  to  some  auihorities  (Apollod.,  op. 
 Aid.  GclL,  17,  4),  and  according  to  others  108.  (Sui- 
 das.— yiypaihE  KUfiudiac;  p?/.)  He  gained  the  prize, 
 however,  only  eight  times,  notwithstanding  the  num- 
 ber (if  his  productions,  and  although  he  was  the  most 
 admired  writer  of  his  time.  One  hundred  and  fifteen 
 titles  of  comedies  ascribed  to  him  have  come  down  to 
 us  :  but  it  is  clear,  of  course,  that  all  these  are  not 
 correctly  attributed  to  him.  {Fahri.r.,  Bihlwth.  Or., 
 •vol.  2,  p.  4tj0,  468,  cd.  Harlcs.)  Menander  is  said 
 to  have  been  drowned  while  bathing  in  the  harbour  of 
 822 
 
 Piraeus,  and  a  line  in  the  Ibis  of  Ovid  is  supposed  by 
 some  to  allude  to  this  ;  "  Comicus  ut  mediis  pcnil  dum 
 nahal  in  undis.^'  (7,6.,  591.)  According  to  another 
 account,  he  drowned  himself  because  his  rival  Phile- 
 mon obtained  the  prize  in  a  dramatic  contest.  —  All 
 antiquity  agrees  in  praise  of  Menander.  We  learn 
 from  Ovid  that  all  his  plots  turned  on  love,  and  that 
 in  his  time  the  plays  of  Menander  were  common  chil- 
 dren's books.  (Ovid,  Trist.,  2,  370.)  Julius  Casar 
 called  Terence  a  "  dimidialus  Menander,"  or  "  halved 
 Menander,"  having  reference  to  his  professed  imita- 
 tion of  the  Athenian  dramatist.  Terence,  indeed,  was 
 but  a  translator  of  his  dramas.  Plutarch  preferred 
 Menander  to  Aristophanes,  and  Dio  Chrysostom  rank- 
 ed him  above  all  the  writers  of  the  Old  Comedy. 
 Quintilian  (10,  1,  69)  gives  him  unqualified  praise  as 
 a  delineator  of  manners.  From  these  notices,  from 
 the  plays  of  Terence,  and  from  an  awkward  compli- 
 ment passed  upon  him  by  Aristophanes  the  gramma- 
 rian, we  may  infer  that  Menander  was  an  admirable 
 painter  of  real  life.  He  was  a  man,  however,  of  licen- 
 tious principles  ;  and  his  effeminate  and  immoral  hab- 
 its, and  that  carelessness  in  his  verses  which  subjected 
 him  to  the  charge  of  plagiarism,  or,  at  least,  of  copying, 
 all  point  to  the  man  of  fashion  rather  than  the  ima- 
 ginative poet.  It  has  been  observed  that  there  is  very 
 little  of  the  humorous  in  the  fragments  of  Menander 
 which  remain  ;  but  we  cannot  judge  of  a  play  by  frag- 
 ments. Sheridan's  plays,  if  reduced  to  the  same  state, 
 would  be  open  to  a  similar  charge,  although  he  is 
 perhaps  the  most  witty  writer  of  any  age  or  coun- 
 try. The  essential  aim  of  the  comedy  of  manners  is 
 to  excite  interest  and  smiles,  not  laughter.  The  plays 
 of  Menander  were  probably  very  simple  in  dramatic 
 action.  Terence  did  not  keep  to  this  simplicity,  but, 
 as  he  tells  us  himself,  added  to  the  main  plot  some 
 subordinate  one  taken  from  a  different  piece  of  Me- 
 nander; thus  making,  as  he  says,  one  piece  out  of  two. 
 Between  the  time  of  Aristophanes  and  that  of  Menan- 
 der, a  great  change  must  have  taken  place  in  the  Athe- 
 nian character,  which,  in  all  probability,  was  mainly 
 brought  about  by  the  change  in  the  political  condition 
 of  the  Athenian  state.  The  spirit  of  the  people  had 
 declined  from  the  noble  patriotism  which  character- 
 ized the  plays  of  Aristophanes  at  a  time  when  Athens 
 was  struggling  for  supremacy  in  Greece  ;  and,  in  the 
 time  of  Menander,  Macedonian  influence  had  nearly 
 extinguished  the  spirit  that  once  animated  the  con- 
 querors of  Marathon  and  Plataea.  Manners  probably 
 had  not  changed  for  the  better  in  Athens;  though  the 
 obscenity  and  ribaldry  of  Aristophanes  would  no  long- 
 er have  been  tolerated.  The  transition  from  coarse- 
 ness of  expression  to  a  decent  propriety  of  language 
 marks  the  history  of  literature  in  every  country.  Thus 
 the  personal  satire  and  the  coarseness,  which  charac- 
 terized the  old  comedy,  were  no  longer  adapted  to  the 
 age  and  circumstances  in  which  Menander  lived,  and 
 there  remained  nothing  for  him  to  attempt  as  a  dram- 
 atist but  the  new  species  of  comedy,  in  which,  by  th» 
 unanimous  judgment  of  all  antiquity,  be  attained  to 
 the  highest  excellence. — The  fragments  of  Menander 
 are  principally  preserved  in  Athenseus,  Stobaeus,  and 
 the  Greek  lexicographers  and  grammarians.  They 
 were  published  along  with  those  of  Philemon  by  Lf- 
 Clerc  (Clericus),  in  1709,  8vo.  This  edition,  exe- 
 cuted with  very  little  care,  gave  occasion  to  a  very 
 disgraceful  literary  warfare,  in  which  Bentley,  Bur- 
 mann,  Gronovius,  De  Pauw,  and  D'Orvilie  took  an 
 active  part.  (Fabric,  Bill.  Gr..\o\.  2.  p.  457,  ed. 
 Harks.)  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Meineke.  Berol , 
 1823,  8vo. — It  seems  possible  that  some  of  the  plays 
 of  Menander  may  yet  exist ;  at  least  there  is  evidence 
 to  the  fact  of  some  of  the  plays  having  been  in  ex- 
 istence in  the  seventeenth  century.  (Encyclop.  U& 
 Knou-L,  vol.  15,  p.  92.— Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  4»h 
 ed.,  p.  122.) — H.  A  native  of  Laodicea.  who  livwl 
 
MEN 
 
 M  EN 
 
 about  270  B.C.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise 
 Jlepl  'FjTrif^EiKTLKuv,  "  Concerning  discourses  delivered 
 for  mere  display."  —  III.  Surnamed  "Protector,"  a 
 Greek  writer,  who  lived  at  Constantinople  during  the 
 latter  half  of  the  si.xth  century.  He  was  one  of  the 
 emperor's  body-guard,  whence  he  derived  the  name  of 
 "Protector."  {Cod.  Theodos.,  6,  24.)  He  wrote  a 
 history  of  the  Eastern  empire,  from  A.D.  559  to  A.D. 
 582,  in  eight  books,  of  which  considerable  extracts 
 have  been  preserved  in  tiie  "  Ecloga  Legatio7ium" 
 attributed  to  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus.  The  best 
 edition  of  i\f  enander  is  by  Bekker  and  Niebuhr,  Bonn., 
 1830,  together  with  the  fragments  of  Dexippus,  Eu- 
 napius,  Patricius,  &c.  {Encycl.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  15, 
 p.  92.) 
 
 MenapTi,  I.  a  powerful  tribe  of  Belgic  Gaul,  occu- 
 pying originally  all  the  country  between  the  Rhenus 
 and  Mosa  {Rhine  and  Meuse)  as  far  nearly  as  the  ter- 
 ritory of  Julick.  In  Cssar's  time  they  had  even  pos- 
 sessions on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rhine,  until  driven 
 thence  by  the  German  tribes.  {Ccbs.,  B.  G.,  4,  4.) 
 At  a  later  period  they  removed  from  the  banks  of  the 
 Rhine,  when  the  Ubii  and  Sigambri,  from  Germany, 
 established  themselves  on  the  western  bank  of  the  riv- 
 er. From  a  passage  in  Tacitus  (Hist.,  4,  28),  it  ap- 
 pears that  the  territory  of  this  tribe  was  subsequently 
 to  be  found  along  the  lower  Meuse.  They  had  a  for- 
 tress on  this  last-mentioned  stream,  whose  name  of 
 Castellum  still  subsists  in  Kessel.  In  Csesar's  days 
 the  Menapii  had  no  city,  but  lived  after  the  German 
 fashion,  in  the  woods  and  among  the  fens.  (Man- 
 nerl,  Geogr.,\o\.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  201.)— II.  A  Gallic  tribe 
 who  migrated  into  Hibernia  {Ireland),  and  settled  in 
 part  of  the  modern  province  of  Leinster.  {Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  218.) 
 
 Menas,  a  freedman  of  Pompey  the  Great,  noted  for 
 frequently  changing  sides  in  the  war  between  Sextus 
 Pompeius  and  the  triumvirs.  He  first  deserted  the 
 party  of  Sextus,  under  whom  he  held  an  important 
 naval  command,  and  went  over  to  ^Augustus  :  then 
 he  returned  to  his  former  side ;  and  agani  abandoned 
 it  and  joined  the  forces  of  the  enemy.  (Compare  Ap- 
 pian,  B.  C,  5,  78,  scqq.)  The  historian  just  quoted 
 applies  to  him  the  very  appropriate  title  of  naTiifi-n-po- 
 fioTf]^.  Horace  has  been  thought  to  allude  to  him  in 
 his  4th  Epode  ;  but  this  opinion,  though  countenanced 
 by  the  earlier  commentators,  has  been  rejected  by 
 'nore  recent  scholars.  {Doring,  ad  Horat.,  Epod.,  4, 
 ^rg) 
 
 Mendes,  a  city  of  Egypt,  in  the  Delta  Parvum, 
 northeast  of  Sebennytus,  and  near  the  coast.  It  was 
 the  chief  city  of,  and  gave  name  to,  the  Mendesian 
 Dome.  From  it  also  the  Mendesian  mouth  of  the  Nile 
 (Ostium  Mendesium),  now  the  canal  of  Achniun,  de- 
 rived its  appellation.  The  goat  was  here  an  object  of 
 adoration,  and  Herodotus  states  (2,  46)  that  both  this 
 animal  and  the  god  Pan  were  called  in  the  Egyptian 
 language  Mendes.  Pan  was  worshipped  at  this  place 
 with  the  visage  and  feet  of  a  goat ;  though  what  the 
 Greek  writers  here  call  Pan  answers  more  correctly 
 to  the  deity  Priapus,  or  the  generative  attribute  con- 
 sidered abstractedly.  At  Mendes,  female  goats  were 
 also  held  sacred.  The  fable  of  Jupiter  having  been 
 euckled  by  a  goat  probably  arose  from  some  emble- 
 matic composition,  the  true  explanation  of  which  was 
 known  only  to  the  initialed. — The  city  of  Mendes 
 gradually  disappeared  from  history,  and  in  its  imme- 
 diate vicinity  rose  the  city  of  Thmuis,  where  the  goat 
 was  still  worshipped  as  at  Mendes. — Jablonski  (Panlh. 
 JEgyjit.,  1,  2,  7)  makes  Mendes  signify  ''fertile'''  or 
 "  prolijir..'^  and  regards  it  as  expressive  of  the  fertil- 
 izing and  productive  energies  of  nature,  especially  of 
 the  sun.  In  like  manner,  we  find  it  stated  that  Thmu- 
 is in  the  Egyptian  tongue  also  signified  "a  goal." 
 (Hieron..  ad  Jovin.,  2,  6.)  Lacroze,  on  the  contrary, 
 makes  Thmuis  equivalent  to   "  the  city  of  Lions." 
 
 Jablonski  {Voc.,  p.  89,  seqq.)  inclines  to  the  former  bf 
 these  explanations  ;  while  Champollion,  on  his  side, 
 seeks  to  overthrow  both,  by  giving  Thmuis  the  mean- 
 ing of  "  island  "  {UEgypte  sous  Ics  Pharaons,  vol. 
 2,  p.  119.  —  Compare  Creuzer,  Symbvlik,  vol.  1,  p. 
 476. — Knight,  Inquiry  into  the  Symb.  Lang.,  &c.,  ^ 
 191.— Class.  Journ.,  vol.  26,  p.  265.)— The  ruins 
 of  Mendes  are  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  modern 
 town  of  Achmun.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1, 
 p.  .579.) 
 
 Menecles,  a  native  of  Barce  in  Cyrena'ica,  who 
 wrote  an  historical  work  on  the  Athenians.  Harpo 
 cration  and  the  scholiast  on  Aristophanes  are  in  doubt 
 whether  to  assign  this  production  to  Menecles,  or  to  a 
 certain  Callistralus.  The  scholiast  on  Pindar  {Pyth., 
 4,  10)  has  preserved  a  fragment  from  a  work  of  Men- 
 ecles, which  relates  to  Battus,  the  founder  of  Cyrene, 
 It  is  supposed  to  be  taken  from  the  Ai6vku  of  this 
 writer.     {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  225.) 
 
 Menecrates,  I.  a  native  of  Elaea,  in  ^Eolis,  con- 
 temporary with  Hecatsus.  Strabo  cites  his  work  "  On 
 the  origin  of  cities"  {nepl  KTiffeuv),  and  his  "  Descrip- 
 tion of  the  Hellespont"  {''E?L?.Tia7T0VTtaKT/  nepiodo^). 
 — II.  Tiberius  Claudius,  a  physician  in  the  reign  of 
 Tiberius,  and  a  resident  at  Rome.  Galen  makes 
 mention  of  him,  and  speaks  also  of  several  of  his 
 preparations.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  diachylon, 
 a  species  of  plaster  much  used  even  in  modern  times 
 {Galen,  dc  Com-pos.  Medic,  5,  p.  228),  and  also  of  a 
 preparation  called  iKdbpioi;,  composed  of  escharotic 
 substances.  {Id.  ib.)  An  inscription  given  by  Mont- 
 faucon  informs  us  that  he  was  imperial  physician,  and 
 that  he  composed  155  works.  {Montfaucon,  suppl., 
 vol.  3,  pt.  i.—  Sprengel,  Hist.  Med,  vol.  2,  p.  .50, 
 seq.) — III.  A  physician,  a  native  of  Syracuse,  who 
 became  extremely  vain  in  consequence  of  his  success 
 in  curing  epilepsies.  He  assumed,  in  consequence,  the 
 appellation  of  Jupiter,  as  the  dispenser  of  life  unto 
 others,  while  he  gave  the  names  of  other  deities  to  the 
 individuals  whom  he  had  cured,  and  always  had  some 
 of  them  following  him  as  minor  gods  throughout  the 
 cities  of  Greece.  He  is  said  to  have  stipulated  for 
 this  service  on  their  part  before  he  undertook  to  cure 
 them.  In  a  letter  which  he  wrote  to  Philip  of  Mace- 
 don,  he  employed  the  following  language  :  "  Menecra- 
 tes, Jupiter  (6  ZnV)  >o  Philip,  the  king  of  the  Mace- 
 donians, .success"  {ev  Tr-pdrreiv).  The  reply  of  the 
 Macedonian  monarch  was  characteristic  :  "  Philip  to 
 Menecrates,  a  sound  mind  {vyiaiveiv) :  I  advise  thee 
 to  betake  thyself  to  Anticyra." — The  same  king  played 
 off,  on  one  occasion,  a  good  practical  joke  on  this  crazy 
 disciple  of  Ji^sculapius.  Having  invited  him  to  a 
 sjjleiidid  banquet,  he  seated  him  apart  from  the  other 
 guests,  and  placed  before  him  a  censer  containing  frank- 
 incense. The  fumes  of  this  were  his  only  portion  of 
 the  feast,  while  the  rest  of  the  company  banqueted  on 
 more  substantial  food.  Menecrates  at  first  was  de- 
 lighted at  the  compliment,  but  the  cravings  of  hunger 
 soon  convinced  him  that  he  was  siiU  a  mortal,  and  he 
 abruptly  left  the  apartment,  complaining  of  having  been 
 insulted  by  the  king.  {AlhencEus,  7.  p.  ^S9.—JElian, 
 V.  H ,  12,  51.)  Plutarch  makes  Menecrates  to  have 
 written  the  letter  in  question  to  Agesilaus,  king  of 
 Sparta  {Apophlh.  Reg.  et  Due),  but  incorrectly  ac- 
 cording to  Perizonius.     {Perizon  ,  ad  JEL,  l-  c.) 
 
 Mene>-:mus,  I  a  Greek  philosopher,  a  native  of 
 Eretria,  who  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  fourth 
 century  before  Christ.  Though  nobly  descended,  he 
 was  obliged,  through  poverty,  to  submit  to  a  mechan- 
 ical employment,  either  as  a  tent- maker  or  mason. 
 He  formed  an  early  acquaintance  with  Asclcpiades, 
 who  was  a  fellow- labourer  with  him  in  the  same  occu- 
 pation. Havin<^  resolved  to  devote  themselves  to  phi- 
 losophy, they  abandoned  their  mean  employment  and 
 went  to  Athens,  where  Plato  presided  in  the  Academy. 
 It  was  soon  observed  that  these  strangers  had  no  visi- 
 
 823 
 
MEN 
 
 MEN 
 
 ble  means  of  subsistence,  and,  according  to  a  law  of 
 Solon's,  they  were  cited  before  the  court  of  Areopagus, 
 to  give  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  they  were 
 supported.  'I"he  master  of  one  of  the  pubhc  prisons 
 was,  at  their  request,  sent  for,  and  attested,  that  every 
 night  these  two  youths  went  among  tlie  criminals,  and, 
 by  grinding  with  them,  earned  two  drachmas,  which 
 enabled  them  to  spend  the  day  in  the  study  of  philoso- 
 phy. The  magistrates,  struck  with  admiration  at 
 «uch  an  extraordinary  proof  of  an  indefatigable  thirst 
 oftfr  knowledge,  dismissed  them  with  high  ajjplause, 
 and  presented  them  with  two  hundred  drachmas. 
 (Athcnaus,  4,  p.  168.)  They  met  with  several  other 
 friends,  who  liberally  supplied  thein  with  whatever  was 
 necessary  to  enable  them  to  prosecute  their  studies. 
 By  the  advice  of  his  friend,  and  probably  in  his  society, 
 Mencdemus  went  from  Athens  to  Megara,  to  attend 
 upon  the  instructions  of  Stilpo.  He  expressed  his 
 approbation  of  the  manner  in  which  this  philosopher 
 taught,  by  giving  him  the  appellation  of  "the  Liber- 
 al." He  next  visited  Elis,  where  he  became  a  disci- 
 ple of  Phsdo,  and  afterward  his  successor.  Transfer- 
 ring the  Eliac  school  from  Elis  to  his  native  city,  he 
 gave  it  the  name  of  Eretrian.  In  his  school  he  neg- 
 lected those  forms  which  were  commonly  observed  in 
 places  ol  this  kind;  his  hearers  were  not,  as  usual, 
 placed  on  circular  benches  around  him  ;  but  every  one 
 attended  him  in  whatever  posture  he  pleased,  standing, 
 walking,  or  sitting.  At  first  Mcnedemus  was  received 
 by  the  Eretrians  with  contempt,  and,  on  account  of  the 
 vehemence  with  which  he  disputed,  he  was  often 
 branded  with  the  appellation  of  cur  and  madman.  But 
 afterward  he  rose  into  high  esteem,  and  was  intrusted 
 with  a  puhlic  otfice,  to  which  was  affixed  an  annual 
 stipend  of  200  talents.  He  discharged  the  trust  with 
 fidelity  and  reputation,  but  would  only  accept  a  fourth 
 part  of  the  salary.  He  was  afterward  sent  as  ambas- 
 sador to  Ptolemy,  Eysander,  and  Demetrius,  and  did 
 his  countrymen  several  important  services.  Antigonus 
 entertained  a  personal  respect  for  him,  and  professed 
 himself  one  of  his  disciples.  His  intimacy  with  this 
 jirince  made  the  Eretrians  suspect  him  of  a  design  to 
 betray  their  city  to  Antigonus.  To  save  himself,  he 
 fled  to  Antigonus,  and  soon  after  died,  in  the  84ih  year 
 of  his  age.  It  is  thought  he  precifiitated  his  death  by 
 abstaining  from  food,  being  oppressed  with  grief  at  the 
 ingratitude  of  his  countrymen,  and  on  being  unable  to 
 persuade  Antigonus  to  restore  the  lost  liberties  of  his 
 country.  (Diug.  Laert  ,  2,  i)  125,  scqq.  —  EnfieUVs 
 History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  204,  seqq.^-^W.  A 
 native  of  Lampsacus,  in  whom  the  spirit  of  the  Cynic 
 sect  degenerated  into  downright  madness.  Dressed 
 in  a  black  cloak,  with  an  Arcadian  cap  upon  his  head, 
 on  which  were  drawn  the  figures  of  the  twelve  signs 
 of  the  zodiac,  with  tragic  buskins  on  his  legs,  witli  a 
 long  beard,  and  with  an  ashen  staff  in  his  hand,  he 
 went  about  like  a  maniac,  saying  that  he  was  a  spirit, 
 returned  from  the  lower  world  to  admonish  the  living. 
 He  lived  in  the  reign  of  Antigonus,  king  ofMacedon. 
 {Diog.  Laerl,  6,'i)  102. — Suid.,s  v.  ^aof. — Enficld^s 
 History  of  Vhilosuphy,  vol.  I,  p.  314.) 
 
 Menelai  Portus  (Mci'f/ldiof  lLitr)i\  Herod,  4, 
 169),  a  harbour  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  Africa, 
 in  Cyrenaica,  and  between  the  city  of  Cyrcne  and 
 Egypt.  It  was  fabled  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
 Menelaus,  who,  on  fleeing  from  Egypt,  i.."'ded  upon 
 this  coast.  (Sirah.,  1195. — Scylax,  p.  45. —  Corn. 
 Nep.,  Vil.  Ages.,  17. — Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  pi. 
 2,  p.  86.) 
 
 Mknelajum  (or  Menelai  Mons),  a  range  of  hills  on 
 the  left  bank  of  the  Eurotas,  stretching  to  the  south- 
 east of  the  city,  and  rising  abruptly  from  the  river. 
 Polybius  (5,  22)  says  these  hills  were  remarkably  high 
 {(^ia(pep(h>Tu(  vxprjTi.ox'ic).  but  modern  travellers  assure  us 
 that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  that  they  are  mere  hil- 
 locks when  compared  to  Taygeius  {Dodwell,  vol.  3, 
 824 
 
 p.  409.— Ce//,  Itin.  of  the  Morea,  p  222),  so  that 
 perha()s  we  should  read,  in  the  text  of  Polybius,  oi 
 ihacpepovTcjQ  v\pTj?i.vvc.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  \o\.  3, 
 p.  210.) 
 
 Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  and  brother  of  Awa> 
 memnon.  He  was  the  son  of  Plisthenes;  hut  his  fa- 
 ther dying  young,  and  his  mother  Aerojie  having  been 
 taken  in  marriage  by  Atreus,  her  father-in-law,  both 
 Menelaus  and  Agamemnon  received  the  common  name 
 of  Atridae,  as  if  they  had  been  the  sons  of  Alreus. 
 After  the  murder  of  Atreus,  Thyestes  his  brother  as- 
 cended the  throne,  and  compelled  Menelaus  and 
 Agamemnon  to  flee  from  Argolis.  They  found  an 
 asylum,  first  with  Polyphides,  king  of  Sicyon,  and 
 then  with  CEneus,  king  of  Calydon.  From  the  latter 
 court  they  proceeded  to  Sparta,  where  Menelaus  be- 
 came the  successful  candidate  for  the  hand  of  Helen 
 (Vid.  Helena);  and,  at  the  death  of  his  father-in-law, 
 succeeded  to  the  vacant  throne.  His  conjugal  felici- 
 ty, however,  was  not  destined  to  be  of  long  continu- 
 ance. Paris,  the  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  came 
 on  a  visit  to  Sparta,  accompanied  by  Alneas.  Here 
 he  was  hospitably  entertained  by  Menelaus.  The 
 Trojan  prince,  at  the  banquet,  bestowed  gifts  on  his 
 fair  hostess  Helen,  and  shortly  after  Menelaus  sailed 
 to  Crete,  directing  his  queen  to  entertain  the  guests  as 
 long  as  they  stayed.  Venus,  however,  inspired  Paris 
 and  Helen  with  mutual  love,  and,  filling  a  vessel  with 
 the  property  of  Menelaus,  they  fled  from  Sparta  du- 
 ring bis  absence.  A  tempest  sent  by  Juno  drove 
 them  to  Sidon,  which  city  Pans  took  and  plundered, 
 and,  sailing  thence  to  Ilium,  he  there  celebrated  his 
 union  with  Helen.  Menelaus,  being  informed  by  Ins 
 of  what  had  occurred,  returned  home  and  consulted 
 with  his  brother  Agamemnon,  king  of  Myceiuc,  about 
 an  expedition  to  Ilium  ;  he  then  repaired  to  Nestor  at 
 Pylos,  and,  going  through  Greece,  they  assembled  the 
 chieftains  for  the  war,  all  of  them  having  been  bound, 
 as  is  said,  by  an  oath  to  lend  such  aid  whenever  it 
 might  be  demanded  of  them. — After  the  destruction  ol 
 Troy  (vjd.  Troja)  and  the  recovery  of  Helen  (vid. 
 Helena  and  Deiphobus),  Menelaus,  wlio  had  com- 
 manded the  Spartan  forces  in  that  memorable  war, 
 kept  company  with  Nestor,  on  his  return  to  Greece, 
 until  they  reached  the  promontory  of  Suiiium  in  Attica. 
 Apollo  here  slew  Phrontis,  the  pilot  of  Menelaus'  ship, 
 and  the  latter  was  obliged  to  stay  and  bury  him.  Hav- 
 ing performed  the  funeral  rites,  he  again  put  to  sea  ; 
 but,  as  he  approached  Cape  Malea,  Jupiter  sent  forth 
 a  storm,  which  drove  some  of  his  vessels  to  Crete, 
 where  they  went  to  pieces  against  the  rocks.  Five, 
 on  board  of  one  of  which  was  Menelaus  himself,  were 
 carried  by  the  wind  and  waves  to  Egypt.  (Od.,  3, 
 276,  scqq.)  During  the  eight  years  of  his  al)sence, 
 Menelaus  visited  all  the  adjacent  coasts,  Cyprus, 
 Phoenicia,  Egypt,  the  Ethiopians,  Sidonians,  and 
 Erembians,  and  also  Libya  (Od.,  4,  81,  scqq.),  wlieie 
 the  lambs  are  born  horned,  and  the  sheep  yean  three 
 times  a  year,  and  milk,  cheese,  and  flesh  are  in  liie 
 utmost  abundance,  for  king  and  shepherd  alike.  In 
 these  various  countries  he  collected  much  wealth  ;  but, 
 leaving  Egypt  on  his  voyage  homeward,  lie  neglected 
 offering  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  and  was,  in  conse()Hence, 
 detained  by  want  of  wind  at  the  isle  of  Pliaros. 
 They  were  here  twenty  days,  and  thcii  stock  of  pro- 
 visions were  nearly  exhausted,  when  Menelaus  was  in- 
 formed of  what  he  ought  t)i  do  by  Prote-.:s,  whom  he 
 had  causht  for  that  purpose  by  the  advice  of  the  sea- 
 nymph  Idothea.  Having  offered  due  sacrifices  to  the 
 immortal  gods,  a  favourable  wind  was  sent,  which 
 speedily  carried  him  homeward  ;  and  he  arrived  in  hia 
 native  country  on  the  very  day  that  Orestes  was  giv- 
 ing the  funeral-feast  for  his  mother  and  .Egisthus, 
 whom  he  had  slam.  (Od  ,  4,  351,  se^q.)  Sneh  is  the 
 narrative  of  Homor.  Helena,  according  to  this  same 
 poet,  was  the  companion  of  all  the  wanderings  of 
 
MEN 
 
 MEN 
 
 Menalaus  ;  but  the  Egyptian  priests  pretended  that 
 Paris  was  driven  by  adverse  winds  to  Egypt,  where 
 Proieus,  who  was  then  king,  learning  the  truth,  kept 
 Helena  and  dismissed  Pans  ;  that  the  Greeks  would 
 no',  helieve  the  Trojans,  that  she  was  not  in  their  city, 
 till  they  had  taken  it;  and  that  then  Menelaus  sailed 
 to  Egypt,  where  his  wife  was  restored  to  him.  {He- 
 rod ,  2,  113,  seqrj. —  Vid.  Helena — Kcightlei/s  My- 
 Iholngy,  p.  492,  se(jq.) — As  regards  the  reconciliation 
 of  Menelaus  and  Helen,  Virgil  follows  the  account 
 which  makes  the  latter  to  have  ingratiated  herself  into 
 the  favour  of  her  first  hushand  by  betraying  Deipho- 
 bus  into  his  hands  on  the  night  when  Troy  was  taken. 
 (Ain.,  6,  494,  se(j<j. — Compare  Quint.  Col.,  13,  354, 
 seqi/ — Diet.  Crcl.,  5,   116.) 
 
 Mknenios,  I.  Agrippa,  a  celebrated  Roman,  who 
 obtained  the  consulship  B  C.  SOI,  and  who  afterward 
 prevailed  upon  the  people,  when  they  had  seceded  to 
 the  Mons  Sacer,  to  return  to  the  city.  He  related  on 
 this  occasion  the  well-known  fable  of  the  stomach  and 
 the  limbs.  (Liv.,  2,  16.— W.,  2,  32.) — II.  Titus,  son 
 of  the  preceding,  was  chosen  consul  with  C.  Hora- 
 tius,  B.C.  475,  when  he  was  defeated  by  the  Tusci, 
 and  being  called  to  an  account  by  the  tribunes  for  this 
 failure,  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy  fine.  He  died 
 of  grief  soon  after.      {Liv.,  51,  scqq.) 
 
 Menus,  the  first  king  mentioned  as  having  reigned 
 over  Egypt,  and  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  above 
 2000  I3.(/.,  about  the  time  fi.\ed  by  biblical  chronolo- 
 gisls  for  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  Assyria  by 
 Niinrod.  and  corresponding  also  with  the  era  of  the 
 Chinese  emi)eror  Yao,  with  whom  the  historical  pe- 
 riod of  China  begins.  All  inquiries  concerning  the 
 history  of  nations  previous  to  this  epoch  are  mere 
 speculations  unsupported  by  evidence.  The  records 
 of  the  Egyptian  priests,  as  handed  down  to  us  by  He- 
 rodotus, Manetho,  Eratosthenes,  and  others,  place  the 
 era  of  Menes  several  thousand  years  farther  back, 
 reckoning  a  great  number  of  kings  and  dynasties  after 
 him,  with  remarks  on  the  gigantic  stature  of  some  of 
 the  kings,  and  on  their  wonderful  exploits,  and  other 
 characteristics  of  mystical  and  confused  tradition. 
 (Consult  Euschius,  Chron.  Canon.,  ed.  Mail  et  Zoh- 
 rah.,  Medio!..,  1818.)  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
 several  of  Manetho's  dynasties  were  not  successive, 
 but  contemporaneous,  reigning  over  various  parts  of 
 the  counirv.  From  the  time  of  Menes,  however, 
 something  like  a  chronological  series  has  been  made 
 out  by  Champollion,  Wilkinson,  and  other  Egyptian 
 chronologists,  partly  from  the  list  of  Manetho,  and 
 partly  from  the  Phonetic  inscriptions  on  the  monu- 
 ments of  the  country. — Menes,  it  is  said  by  some 
 {Herod.,  2,  99),  built  the  city  of  Memphis,  and,  in  the 
 prosecution  of  his  work,  stopped  the  course  of  the 
 Nile  near  it,  by  constructing  a  causeway  several  miles 
 broad,  and  caused  it  to  run  through  the  mountains. 
 {Vid.  Nilus.)  Diodorus  Siculus,  however  (1,  50),  as- 
 signs the  foundation  of  Memphis  to  Ucboreus.  Bish- 
 op Clayton  contends  that  Menes  was  not  the  first  king 
 of  Egypt,  but  that  he  only  transferred  the  seat  of  em- 
 pire from  Thebes  to  Memphis.  {Vid.  remarks  under 
 the  article  Memphis.)  Zoega  finds  an  analogy  be- 
 tween the  names  Mcncs  and  Mnevis;  to  which  may 
 be  added  those  of  the  Indian  Menu  and  the  Cretan 
 Mino.i,  to  say  nothing  of  the  German  Mannus.  {Zoe- 
 ga, de  Ohcli.sc.,  p.  11.) 
 
 MenesthIsi  Portus,  a  harbour  not  far  from  Gades. 
 on  the  coast  of  Spain,  in  the  territory  of  Baetica.  An 
 oracle  of  Menestheus  was  said  to  have  been  in  or  near 
 the  place.  The  modern  Puerto  dc  Santa  Maria  is 
 thought  to  correspond  to  the  ancient  spot.  {Ukert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  342  ) 
 
 Menestheus  or  Mnestheus.  a  son  of  Petens,  and 
 great-grandson  of  Erochthnus,  who  so  insinuated  him- 
 self into  the  favour  of  the  people  of  Athens,  that,  during 
 jhe  long  absence  of  Theseus,  who  was  engaged  in  per- 
 5  M 
 
 forming  his  various  adventures,  he  was  elected  king. 
 The  lawful  monarch,  at  his  return  home,  was  expelled, 
 and  Menestheus  established  his  usurpation  by  his  pop- 
 ular manners  and  great  moderation.  As  he  had  been 
 one  of  Helen's  suiters,  he  went  to  the  Trojan  war  at 
 the  head  of  the  people  of  Athens,  and  died  on  his  re- 
 turn in  the  island  of  Melos  He  was  succeeded  by 
 Demophoon,  the  son  of 'I'heseus.     {Pint.,   Vit    Thes.) 
 
 Meninx,  or  LoTopHAGiTis  Insula,  an  island  oft 
 the  coast  of  Africa,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Syrtis  Minor, 
 and  forming  part  of  its  southern  side.  Its  name  ol 
 Lotophagitis  {Ao)TO(pajiTi^)  or  Lotopkagorum  rngata 
 {AuTOipuyuv  vf/aog)  was  given  it  by  the  Greeks,  from 
 the  belief  tiiat  in  this  quarter  was  to  be  placed  Homer's 
 land  of  the  Lotophagi  ;  and,  in  fact,  both  the  island  it- 
 self, and  also  the  odjacent  country  along  the  coast  of 
 the  Svrtis,  produced  abundance  of  ihis  sweet  and 
 tempting  fruit.  {Herod.,  2,  92.— 7^.,  4,  177.— Puhjh., 
 12,  i.—Euslath.  ad  Horn.,  Od.,  10,  84,  p.  1616.)  In 
 our  editions  of  Scylax,  the  island  is  called  Brachion 
 {Bpaxeluv),  a  manifest  interpolation,  which  has  found 
 Its  way  into  the  text  from  the  note  or  gloss  of  some  in- 
 dividual, who  wished  to  convey  the  information  that 
 there  were  many  shallows  in  the  neighbourhood.  {Man- 
 nert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  144.) — The  island  fell 
 into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  during  the  first  Punic 
 war,  and  then,  for  the  first  time,  we  learn  that  the  true 
 name,  and  the  one  used  among  the  natives  themselves, 
 was  Meninx  {MifvLy^.  —  Polyb.,  I,  39. — Compare  Di- 
 onys.  Pcrteg.,  v.  480).  From  this  time  forward, 
 Meninx  remained  the  more  usual  appellation  among 
 the  geographical  writers. — Strabo  (834)  informs  us 
 that  the  chief  city  bore  the  same  name  with  the  island. 
 Pliny  (5,  4)  speaks  of  the  city  of  Meninx  towards  Af- 
 rica, and  of  another  named  Thoar.  Ptolemy  likewise 
 mentions  two  cities,  Meninx  and  Gerra,  the  former  of 
 which  he  places  to  the  northeast,  and  the  latter  to  the 
 southwest.  It  is  more  than  probable,  that  the  chief 
 city  of  the  island  was  not  called  Meninx,  but  only  re- 
 ceived this  name  from  those  who  traded  thither,  and 
 that  the  true  appellation  was  Girba,  which  was  given 
 at  a  later  period  to  the  whole  island.  {Aurel.  Vict., 
 Epit.,  c.  31.  "  Creati  in  insula  Meningc.  qua  nvnc 
 Girba  dictlur.'''')  The  Arabs  still  give  it  the  name  of 
 Gerbo  or  Zcrbi. — Meninx  was  famed  for  its  purple 
 dye,  obtained  from  the  shellfish  along  its  shores,  and 
 Pliny  ranks  it  next  in  value  to  the  Tyrian. 
 
 Menippus,  a  cynic  philosopher,  born  at  Sinope  m 
 Asia  Minor,  but  whose  family  were  originally  from 
 Gadara,  in  Palestine.  According  to  an  authority  cited 
 by  Diogenes  Laertius,  he  was  at  first  a  slave,  but  af- 
 terward obtained  his  freedom  by  purchase,  and  event- 
 ually succeeded,  by  dint  of  money,  in  obtaining  citi- 
 zenship at  Thebes.  Here  he  pursued  the  employment 
 of  a  money-lender  or  usurer,  and  obtained  from  this  cir- 
 cumstance the  appellation  of  'Hjitpoi^avtKTryc  {"  c^ne 
 who  lends  money  at  daily  interest'^).  Having  been 
 defrauded,  and  having  lost,  in  consequence,  all  his  prop- 
 erty, he  hung  himself  in  despair.  Menippus  was  the 
 author  of  several  works,  and  his  satiric  style  was  imi- 
 tated by  Varro.  {Vid.  remarks  on  the  Menippean  Sa- 
 tire, under  the  article  Varro.)  .Among  other  produc- 
 tions, he  wrote  a  piece  entitled  Aioyivovg  Trpuaii; 
 "  The  Sale  of  Diogenes,"  and  another  called  Nf/cWa, 
 "  Necromancy."  It  is  thought  by  some,  that  this  lat- 
 ter performance  suggested  to  some  in)itator  of  Liici.m 
 the  idea  of  composing  the  '■'■Menippus.  or  Oracle  of 
 the  Dead,"  which  is  found  among  the  works  of  the 
 native  of  Samosata.     {Scholi,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2, 
 
 Mennis,  a  city  of  Assyria,  in  the  district  of  Adiabene, 
 to  the  south  of  Arbela.  The  adjacent  country  abound- 
 ed  with  bitumen.  Mannert  supposes  it  to  have  been 
 near  the  modern  Dus-Chunnalu.  {Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  5,  p.  453.)     Curtius  calls  it  Memnium  (5,  1). 
 
 Menodotus,  a  physician  of  the  empiric  school,  born 
 
 825 
 
MER 
 
 MERCURIUS. 
 
 at  Nicomedia.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Antiochus  of 
 Laodicea  in  Lycia,  and  lived  during  the  reigns  of  Tra- 
 jan and  Hadrian.  Sextus  Empiricus  ranks  him  among 
 the  Sceptics.  {Pyrrhon.  hypotyp.,  1,  222,  p.  57.) 
 He  banished  analogy  from  the  Empiric  system,  and 
 substituted  what  was  called  epilogism.  The  hatred 
 which  he  bore  towards  the  dogmatists  was  so  great, 
 that  he  never  designated  them  by  any  other  but  the 
 most  derisory  epithets,  such  as  rptSowiKiu,  "  old-roii- 
 tifie-men ;"  dpifivAiovreg,  '' furious  lions;'''  i^pifiVfiu- 
 povc,  '' contemptible  fools,''''  &c.  {Galen,  de  subfig. 
 emptr.,  c.  9,  p.  65. — Sprcngel,  Hist.  Med.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 494) 
 
 Menceceus  (three  syllables),  the  father  of  Jocasta. 
 
 Mencetks,  I.  the  pilot  of  the  ship  Gyas,  at  the  na- 
 val games  exhibited  by  ^neas  at  the  anniversary  of 
 his  father's  death.  He  was  thrown  into  the  sea  by 
 his  commander  for  having  so  unskilfully  steered  his 
 vessel  as  to  prevent  his  obtaining  the  prize  in  the 
 contest.  He  saved  himself  by  swimming  to  a  rock. 
 (Virg.,  2En.,  5,  161.)  —  II.  An  Arcadian,  killed  by 
 Turnus  in  the  war  of  ^'Eneas.     {Id.,  12,  517.) 
 
 Mencetiades.      Vid.  MencEtius. 
 
 Mencetius,  a  son  of  Actor  and  ^gina  after  her 
 amour  with  Jupiter.  He  left  his  mother  and  went  to 
 Opus,  where  he  had,  by  Sthenele,  Patroclus,  often  call- 
 ed from  him  Menwtiadcs.  Mencetius  was  one  of  the 
 Argonauts.  {Apoilod.,  3,  14.  —  Ham.,  II.,  1,  307. — 
 Hygin.,fab.,  97.) 
 
 Menon,  a  Thessalian  commander  in  the  expedition 
 of  Cyrus  the  Younger  against  his  brother  Artaxerxes. 
 He  commanded  the  left  wing  in  the  battle  of  Cunaxa. 
 He  was  entrapped  along  with  the  other  generals  after 
 the  battle  by  Tissaphernes,  but  was  not  put  to  death 
 with  them.  Xenophon  states  that  he  lived  an  entire 
 year  after  having  had  some  personal  punishment  inflict- 
 ed, and  then  met  with  an  end  of  his  existence.     {Anab., 
 
 2,  6,  29.)  Diodorus  states  that  he  was  not  punished 
 with  the  other  generals,  because  it  was  thought  that  he 
 was  inclined  to  betray  the  Greeks,  and  he  was  there- 
 fore allowed  to  escape  unhurt.  {Diod.  Sic.,  14,  27.) 
 Marcellinus,  in  his  life  of  Thucydides,  accuses  Xeno- 
 phon of  calumniating  Menon,  on  account  of  his  enmity 
 towards  Plato,  who  was  a  friend  of  Menon.  {Vit. 
 Thucyd.,  p.  14,  ed.  Bip. — Schneider,  ad  Xen.,  Anab., 
 loc.  cit.) 
 
 Mentor,  I.  one  of  the  most  faithful  friends  of  Ulys- 
 ses, and  the  person  to  whom,  before  his  departure  for 
 Troy,  he  consigned  the  charge  of  his  domestic  affairs. 
 Minerva  assumed  his  form  and  voice  in  her  exhortation 
 to  Telemachus,  not  to  degenerate  from  the  valour  and 
 wisdom  of  his  sire.  {Od.,  2,  268.)  The  goddess, 
 under  the  same  form,  accompanied  him  to  Pylos. 
 {Od.,  3,  21,  scqq.) — II.  A  very  eminent  engraver  on 
 silver,  whose  country  is  uncertain.  He  flourished  be- 
 fore the  burning  of  the  temple  at  Ephesus,  in  B.C. 
 356,  as  several  of  his  productions  were  consumed  in 
 this  conflagration.     {I'lia.,  32,  12,55. — Martial,  Ep., 
 
 3,  4\.—Sdlig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Mer.\  or  M.ERA,  a  dog  of  Icarius,  who  by  his  cries 
 showed  Erigone  where  her  murdered  father  had  been 
 thrown.  Immediately  after  this  discovery  the  daugh- 
 ter hung  herself  in  despair,  and  the  dog  pined  away, 
 and  was  made  a  constellation  in  the  heavens,  known 
 by  the  name  of  Canis.  {Ovid,  Met.,  7,  363. — Hygin., 
 fab.,  UQ.—MUan,  H.  A..  7,  2S.) 
 
 Mercurii  PromontorTum,  the  same  with  the  Iler- 
 maaum  Promontorium.  A  promontory  of  Africa,  on 
 the  coast  of  Zeugitana,  now  Cape  Bnn. 
 
 Mercurius,  I.  a  celebrated  god  of  antiquity,  called 
 Hermes  {'Epfirig)  by  the  Greeks.  Ilomcrand  Hesiod, 
 however,  stvle  him  Hermeias  ('Ef)/iet'af) ;  and  wherever 
 the  form  'Epiifjc  occurs  in  these  poets,  the  passage 
 may  be  regarded  as  an  interpolation.  Mercury  was 
 the  messenger  of  the  gods,  and  of  Jupiter  in  particular  ; 
 be  was  the  god  of  speech,  of  eloquence ;  the  patron  of 
 826 
 
 orators,  of  merchants,  of  all  dishonest  persons,  and 
 particularly  thieves,  of  travellers,  and  of  shepherds. 
 He  also  presided  over  highways  and  crossways,  and 
 conducted  the  souls  of  the  dead  to  the  world  below. 
 The  Greeks  ascribed  to  their  Hermes  the  invention  of 
 the  lyre,  of  letters,  of  commerce,  and  of  gymnastic 
 exercises,  and  they  placed  his  birth  either  on  Mount 
 Cerycius  in  Bceotia,  or  on  Mount  Cyllene  in  Arca- 
 dia. In  the  Iliad  he  is  called  the  son  of  Jupiter 
 (24,  333),  but  his  mother  is  unnoticed.  In  the  later 
 legends,  however,  he  is  styled  the  offspring  of  Jupiter 
 and  Maia.  His  infancy  was  intrusted  to  the  Seasons 
 or  Horaj ;  but  he  had  hardly  been  laid  in  his  cradle, 
 when  he  gave  a  proof  of  his  skill  in  abstracting  the 
 property  of  others,  by  stealing  away  the  oxen  of  Ad- 
 metus,  which  Apollo  was  lending  on  the  banks  of 
 the  Amphrysus.  He  displayed  his  thievish  propen- 
 sities on  other  occasions  also,  by  depriving  Neptune 
 of  his  trident,  Venus  of  her  girdle,  Mars  of  bis  sword, 
 Jupiter  of  his  sceptre,  and  Vulcan  of  many  of  the  im- 
 plements of  his  art.  It  was  his  dexterity  that  recom- 
 mended him  to  the  notice  of  the  gods,  and  that  pro- 
 cured for  him  the  office  of  cup-bearer  to  Jupiter,  in 
 which  station  he  was  succeeded  by  Hebe.  Jupiter 
 presented  him  with  a  winged  cap  {pela-nts),  winged 
 sandals  {talaria),  and  a  short  svi-ord  {harpe)  bent  like 
 a  scythe.  This  last  he  lent  on  one  occasion  to  Per- 
 seus, to  enable  him  to  destroy  the  Gorgon  Medusa. 
 {Vid.  Perseus  and  Gorgones.)  By  means  of  his  cap 
 and  sandals  he  was  enabled  to  go  into  whatever  part 
 of  the  universe  he  pleased  with  the  greatest  celerity, 
 and,  besides,  he  was  permitted  to  make  himself  invisi- 
 ble, and  to  assume  whatever  shape  he  pleased.  He 
 was  the  ambassador  and  plenipotentiary  of  the  gods,  and 
 was  concerned  in  all  alliances  and  treaties.  He  was 
 the  confidant  of  Jupiter  also  in  his  erotic  relations  with 
 the  fair  ones  of  earth,  and  was  often  set  to  watch  and 
 baffle  the  jealous  schemes  of  Juno.  After  inventing 
 the  lyre,  he  gave  it  to  Apollo,  and  received  from  him 
 in  exchange  the  "golden  three-leafed  rod,"  the  giver 
 of  wealth  and  riches.  {Vid.  Caduceus.)  In  the  wars 
 of  the  giants  against  the  gods.  Mercury  showed  himself 
 brave,  spirited,  and  active. — He  delivered  Mars  from 
 the  long  confinement  which  he  had  suffered  from  the 
 Aloidae ;  he  tied  Ixion  to  his  wheel  in  the  infernal  re- 
 gions;  he  destroyed  the  hundred-eyed  Argus;  he  sold 
 Hercules  to  Omphale,  the  queen  of  Lydia  ;  he  con- 
 ducted Priam  to  the  tent  of  Achilles,  to  redeem  the 
 body  of  his  son  Hector  ;  and  he  carried  the  infant 
 Bacchus  to  the  nymphs  of  Nysa.  Mercury  had  many 
 surnames  and  epithets.  He  was  called  Cyllenius,  Ca- 
 duceator,  Argiphontes  (or  the  slayer  of  Argos),  Chtho- 
 nius  (or  the  god  who  guides  the  dead  to  the  world 
 below),  Agoneus  (or  the  god  who  presides  over  gym- 
 nastic exercises),  &c.  He  was  father  of  Antolycus,  by 
 Chione  ;  Myrtilius,  by  Cleobula  ;  Libys,  by  Libya  ; 
 Echion  and  Eurytus,  by  Antianira ;  Cepbalus.  by 
 Oeiisa  ;  Prylis,  by  Issa;  Hermaphroditus,  by  Venus; 
 Eudorus.  by  Polimela,  &c.  The  Roman  merchants 
 yearly  celebrated  a  festival  on  the  the  13th  of  May,  in 
 honour  of  Mercury,  in  a  temple  near  the  Circus  Maxi- 
 nius.  A  pregnant  sow  was  then  sacrificed,  and  some- 
 times a  calf,  and  particularly  the  tongues  of  animals 
 were  offered.  After  the  votaries  had  sprinkled  them- 
 selves with  histral  water,  they  offered  prayers  to  the 
 divinity,  and  entreated  him  to  be  favourable  to  them,  and 
 to  forgive  whatever  dishonest  means  they  had  employed 
 in  the  acquisition  of  gain — Mercury  is  usually  repre- 
 sented with  a  chlamys  or  cloak  neatly  arranged  on  his 
 person,  with  his  pelasus  or  winged  cap,  and  the  talaria 
 or  winged  sandals.  In  his  hand  he  bears  his  caduceus 
 or  staff,  with  two  serpents  twined  about  it,  and  which 
 sometimes  has  wings  at  its  extremity.  The  more  an- 
 cient statues  of  Mercury  were  nothing  more  than 
 wooden  posts,  with  a  rude  head  and  a  pointed  beard 
 carved  on  them.     They  were  set  up  on  the  roads  and 
 
MERCURIUS. 
 
 MER 
 
 footpaths,  and  in  tlie  fields  and  gardens.  The  Hermoe 
 were  pillars  of  stone;  and  the  heads  of  some  other 
 deity  af  times  took  the  place  of  that  of  Hermes ;  such 
 were  the  Hermathens,  Hermeracles,  and  others.  The 
 veneration  in  which  these  Hermae  were  held  by  the 
 Athenians  may  be  inferred  from  the  odium  excited 
 against  Alcibiades  when  suspected  of  having  disfigured 
 these  images. — Hermes  or  Mercury  may  be  regarded 
 as  ill  some  degree  a  personification  of  the  Egyptian 
 priesthood.  It  is  in  this  sense,  therefore,  that  he  was 
 regarded  as  the  confidant  of  the  gods,  their  messenger, 
 the  inter[)reter  of  their  decrees,  the  genius  who  presi- 
 ded over  science,  the  conductor  of  souls  ;  elevated  in- 
 deed above  the  human  race,  but  the  minister  and  the 
 agent  of  celestial  natures.  He  was  designated  by  the 
 name  Thot.  According  to  Jablonski  {Fanlh.  JEgypt., 
 5,  .5,  2),  the  word  Thot,  Theyt,  Thayt,  or  Thoyt,  sig- 
 nified in  the  Egyptian  language  an  assembly,  and  more 
 particularly  one  composed  of  sages  and  educated  per- 
 sons, the  sacerdotal  college  of  a  city  or  temple.  Thus 
 the  collective  priesthood  of  Egypt,  personified  and 
 considered  as  unity,  was  represented  by  an  imaginary 
 being,  to  whom  was  ascribed  the  invention  of  language 
 and  writing,  which  he  had  brought  from  the  skies  and 
 imparted  to  man,  as  well  as  the  origin  of  geometry, 
 arithmetic,  astronomy,  medicine,  music,  rhythm  :  the 
 institution  of  religion,  sacred  processions,  the  intro- 
 duction of  gymnastic  e.xercises,  and,  finally,  the  less 
 indispensable,  though  not  less  valuable,  arts  of  archi- 
 tecture, sculpture,  and  painting.  So  many  volumes 
 were  attributed  to  him,  that  no  human  being  could 
 possibly  have  composed  them.  {Fabric- ,  Bihiioth. 
 Gr<zc.,  1,  12,  8.5-94.)  To  him  was  even  accorded  the 
 honour  of  discoveries  made  long  subsequent  to  his  ap- 
 pearance on  earth.  All  the  successive  improvements 
 in  astronomy,  and,  generally  speaking,  the  labours  of 
 every  age,  became  his  peculiar  property,  and  added  to 
 his  glory.  In  this  way,  the  names  of  individuals  were 
 lost  in  the  numerous  order  of  priests,  and  the  merit 
 which  each  one  had  acquired  by  his  observations  and 
 labours  turned  to  the  advantage  of  the  whole  sacer- 
 dotal association,  in  being  ascribed  to  its  tutelary  ge- 
 nius ;  a  genius  who,  by  his  double  figure,  indicated  the 
 necessity  of  a  double  doctrine,  of  which  the  more  im- 
 portant part  was  to  be  confined  exclusively  to  the 
 priests.  An  individual  of  this  order,  therefore,  found 
 his  only  recompense  in  the  reputation  which  he  ob- 
 tained for  the  entire  caste.  To  these  leading  attributes 
 of  Thoth  was  joined  another,  that  of  protector  of  com- 
 merce ;  and  this,  in  like  manner,  was  intended  to  ex- 
 press the  influence  of  the  priesthood  on  commercial 
 enterprises.  Our  limits  will  not  permit  any  far- 
 ther development  of  the  various  ideas  which,  besides 
 those  already  mentioned,  were  combined  in  the  imagi- 
 nary character  of  Hermes:  his  identity,  namely,  with 
 Sirius,  the  star  which  served  as  the  precursor  of  the 
 inundation  of  the  Nile,  and  the  terrestrial  symbol  of 
 which  was  the  gazelle,  that  flies  to  the  desert  on  the 
 rising  of  the  stream ;  his  rank  in  demonology,  as  the 
 father  of  spirits  and  guide  of  the  dead  ;  his  quality  of 
 incarnate  godhead,  subject  to  death  ;  and  his  cosmo- 
 goiiical  alliance  with  the  generative  fire,  the  light,  the 
 source  of  all  knowledge,  and  with  water,  the  principle 
 of  all  fecundity.  It  is  surprising,  however,  to  observe 
 how  strangely  the  Grecian  spirit  modified  the  Egyptian 
 Hermes,  to  produce  the  Hermes  or  Mercury  of  Hel- 
 lenic mythology.  The  Grecian  Hermes  is  quite  a  dif- 
 ferent being  from  the  Egyptian.  He  neither  presides 
 over  the  sciences,  over  writing,  over  medicine,  nor 
 over  astronomy.  He  has  not  composed  any  divine 
 works  containing  the  germe  and  elements  of  these  sev- 
 eral departments  of  knowledge.  The  interpreter  of 
 the  gods  in  Egypt,  he  is  in  Greece  only  their  messen- 
 ger ;  and  it  is  by  virtue  of  this  latter  title  that  he  pre- 
 serves his  wings,  which  were  among  the  Egyptians 
 merely  an  astronomical  symbol.     For  the  shackles  on 
 
 the  feet  of  Saturn  serve  to  explain  the  wings  of  Mer- 
 cury. Saturn  is  represented  in  this  state,  because  it 
 requires  thirty  years  nearly  to  complete  its  revolution 
 round  the  sun ;  while  Mercury  has  wings,  because  this 
 planet  accomplishes  the  same  revolution  in  little  less 
 than  three  months.  Again,  if,  in  memory  of  the  di- 
 rections given  by  the  priests  of  Ammon  to  the  caravans 
 that  traversed  the  desert,  the  Egyptian  Hermes  be- 
 comes the  protector  of  commerce,  the  Greeks  managed 
 to  deprive  this  peculiar  attribute  of  all  its  gravity.  Witji 
 them  Hermes  or  Mercury,  by  a  ludicrous  analogy,  is 
 made  the  god  of  fraud  and  falsehood.  Is  this  a  reac 
 tion  of  the  Grecian  spirit  against  the  pretensions  of  a 
 sacerdotal  order,  and  one  which  preserves,  at  the  same 
 time,  a  reminiscence  of  what  the  Egyptian  Hermes 
 was  1 — It  is  worthy  of  remark,  moreover,  how,  even 
 when  all  the  sacerdotal  attributes  of  this  deity  have 
 disappeared  from  the  popular  belief,  they  again  appear 
 in  the  mystic  portion  of  the  early  Greek  religion  which 
 the  Orphic  and  Homeric  hymns  have  preserved  to  us. 
 The  Hermes  of  these  hymns  has  nothing  in  common 
 with  the  Hermes  of  the  Iliad,  or  even  of  the  Odys.sey. 
 At  one  time  he  recalls  to  our  minds  all  the  peculiar 
 qualities  of  the  Egyptian  Hermes,  at  another  the 
 strange  legends  of  the  Hindoo  avatars.  The  dif- 
 ference between  the  sacerdotal  and  the  Greek  Her- 
 mes becomes  very  perceptible  among  the  Romans. 
 This  people  first  received  the  sacerdotal  Hermes, 
 whose  worship  had  been  brought  into  Etruria  by  the 
 Pelasgi  previous  to  the  time  of  Homer ;  and  as 
 the  earlier  Hermes  was  represented  by  a  column 
 {Jablonski,  Panth.  JEgypt.,  5,  5,  1.5),  he  became 
 with  them  the  god  Terminus.  When,  however,  the 
 Romans  were  made  acquainted  with  the  twelve  great 
 deities  of  the  Athenians,  they  adopted  the  Grecian 
 Hermes  under  the  name  of  Mercury,  preserving  at  the 
 same  time  the  remembrance  of  their  previous  tradi- 
 tions. (Compare  Constant,  de  la  Religion,  vol.  2,  p. 
 122, 2«  nolis,  ibtd.,  p.  409. —  Crcuzcr's  Symbolik,  par 
 Guigniaut,  vol.  1,  pt.  i,  p.  453,  id.,  pt.  2,  p.  851.) — 
 II.  Trismegistus,  a  celebrated  Egyptian  priest  and 
 philosopher.  Manetho  distinguishes  him  from  the  first 
 Hermes  or  Thot,  and  says  of  him  {ap.  Syncell ,  p. 
 40),  that  from  engraved  tables  of  stone,  which  had  been 
 buried  in  the  earth,  he  translated  the  sacred  characters 
 written  by  the  first  Mercury,  and  wrote  the  explana- 
 tions in  books,  which  were  deposited  in  the  Egyjitian 
 temples.  He  calls  him  the  son  of  Agathodasmon,  and 
 adds,  that  to  him  are  ascribed  the  restoration  of  the 
 wisdom  taught  by  the  first  Mercury,  and  the  revival 
 of  geometry,  arithmetic,  and  the  arts  among  the 
 Egyptians.  The  written  monuments  of  the  first  Her- 
 mes having  been  lost  or  neglected  in  certain  civil 
 revolutions  or  natural  calamities,  the  second  Hermes 
 recovered  them,  and  made  use  of  them  as  means  of  es- 
 tablishing his  authority.  {Herod.,  2,  82. —  Marsham, 
 Chron.,  p.  241.  — C/cm.  Alex.,  Strom.,  5,  p.  242.) 
 By  an  ingenious  interpretation  of  the  symbols  inscribed 
 upon  the  ancient  columns,  he  impressed  the  sacred 
 sanction  of  antiquity  upon  his  own  institutions  ;  and, 
 to  perpetuate  their  influence  upon  the  minds  of  the 
 people,  he  committed  the  columns,  with  his  own  in- 
 terpretations, to  the  care  of  the  priesthood.  Hence 
 he  obtained  a  high  degree  of  respect  among  the  peo- 
 ple, and  was  long  revered  as  the  restorer  of  learning. 
 From  the  tables  of  the  first  Hermes  he  is  said  to  have 
 written,  as  commentaries  and  explanations,  an  incred- 
 ible number  of  books.  It  has  been  asserted  that  he 
 was  the  author  of  more  than  20,000  volumes,  which 
 treated  of  universal  principles,  of  the  nature  and  orders 
 of  celestial  beings,  of  astrology,  medicine,  and  other 
 topics.  For  an  account  of  his  pretended  works,  con- 
 suit  the  article  Trismegistus. 
 
 Meriones,  son  of  Molus,  a  Cretan  prince,  and  of 
 Melphidis.  He  had  been  among  the  suitors  of  Helen, 
 and  was  therefore  bound  to  join  in  the  common  causa 
 
 827 
 
MER 
 
 MERGE. 
 
 against  Troy.  Meriones  assisted  Idomeneus  in  the 
 conduct  of  the  Cretan  troops,  under  tiic  character  of 
 charioteer,  and  not  only  distinguished  himself  by  his 
 valour,  but,  at  the  funeral  games  in  honour  of  Pairo- 
 clus.  he  obtained  the  prize  for  archery.  {11.,  2,  651  ; 
 4,  264;  5.59,&c.) 
 
 Mekmnai)^,  the  name  of  a  dynasty  of  kings  in  Lyd- 
 ia,  of  whom  Gyges  was  the  first.  The  line  ended 
 with  Croesus.  They  claimed  descent  from  Hercules. 
 {Vid.  I,ydia) 
 
 Meroe,  according  to  the  ancient  writers,  an  island 
 and  state  of  Ethiopia  Herodotus  only  mentions  the 
 city  of  Meroe.  All  other  writers,  however,  describe 
 Meroe  as  an  island,  with  a  city  of  the  same  name. 
 It  was  situated  between  the  Astaboras  and  Astapus. 
 "  The  Aslaboras,"  says  Agatharchides,  "  which  flows 
 through  Ethiopia,  unites  its  stream  with  the  greater 
 Nile,  and  thereby  forms  the  island  of  Meroe  by  flow- 
 ing round  it.  (Huds.,  Gcogr.  Mm.,  1,  p.  37.)  Stra- 
 bo  is  still  more  precise.  '•  The  Nile,"  says  this  geog 
 rapher,  "receives  two  great  rivers,  which  run  from 
 the  east  out  of  some  lakes,  and  encompass  the  great 
 island  of  Meroe.  One  is  called  the  Astaboras,  which 
 flows  on  the  eastern  side  ;  the  other  the  Astapus. 
 Seven  hundred  stadia  above  the  junction  of  the  Nile 
 and  the  Astaboras  is  the  city  of  Meroe.  bearing  the 
 same  name  as  the  island."  (Strah.,  786.)  A  glance 
 at  the  map,  remarks  Heeren  (Ideen.  vol.  4.  p.  397; 
 vol.  1,  p.  38.5,  Oxford  trans!.),  will  immediately  show 
 where  the  ancient  Meroe  may  be  found.  The  Asta- 
 boras, which  flows  round  it  on  the  eastern  side,  is  the 
 present  Athar  or  Tacazze;  the  .A.stapiis,  which  bounds 
 it  on  the  left,  and  runs  parallel  with  the  Nile,  is  the 
 Bahr  el  Abmd,  or  White  River.  From  these  and 
 other  statements,  Heeren  comes  to  the  following  con- 
 clusions :  First:  that  the  ancient  island  of  Meroe  is 
 the  present  province  of  Athar,  between  the  river  of 
 the  same  name,  or  the  Tacazze.  on  the  right,  and  the 
 White  stream  and  the  Nile  on  the  left.  The  point 
 where  the  island  begins  is  at  the  junction  of  the  Ta- 
 cazze an-I  the  Nile  ;  in  the  south  it  is  enclosed  bv  a 
 branch  of  the  above-mentioned  river,  the  Waldubba, 
 and  a  branch  of  the  Nile,  the  Bahad,  whose  sources 
 are  nearly  in  the  same  district,  although  they  flow  in 
 different  directions.  It  lies  between  13°  and  18°  N. 
 lat.  In  recent  times  a  great  part  is  included  in  the 
 kingdom  of  Sennaa.r,  while  the  southern  part  belongs 
 to  Abyssinia. —  Secondly:  Meroe  was,  therefore,  an 
 extensive  district,  surrounded  by  rivers;  whose  super- 
 ficial contents  exceeded  those  of  Sicily  rather  more 
 than  one  half.  It  cannot  be  called  an  island  in  the 
 strictest  sense  of  the  word,  because,  although  it  is  very 
 nearly,  it  is  not  completely  enclosed  by  rivers ;  but  it 
 was  taken  for  an  island  of  the  Nile,  because,  as  Pliny 
 (5,  9)  expressly  observes,  the  various  rivers  which 
 flow  round  it  were  all  considered  as  branches  of  that 
 stream.  It  becomes,  moreover,  as  we  are  told  by 
 Bruce,  a  com[)lete  island  in  the  rainy  season,  in  con- 
 sequence of  the  overflowing  of  the  river. — Thirdly : 
 Upon  this  island  stood  the  city  of  the  same  name.  It 
 is  impossible,  from  the  statements  of  Herodotus,  to  de- 
 termine precisely  its  site.  Fortunately,  other  writers 
 give  us  more  assistance.  According  to  Eratosthenes 
 {ap.  Strah.,  I.  c.),  it  lav  700  stadia  (about  80  English 
 miles)  above  the  junction  of  the  Tacazze  ot  Astabo- 
 ras and  the  Nile.  Pliny  (6,  29),  following  the  state- 
 ments of  those  whom  Nero  had  sent  to  explore  it, 
 reckons  70  milliaria  (63  English  miles) ;  and  adds 
 the  important  fact,  that  near  it,  in  the  river  on  the 
 right  side  going  up  stream,  is  the  small  island  Tadu, 
 which  serves  the  city  as  a  port.  From  this  it  may  be 
 concluded  with  certainty,  that  the  city  of  Meroe  was 
 not  on  the  Tacazze,  as  might  otherwise  be  conjec- 
 tured from  the  names  of  those  rivers  being  so  unset- 
 tled, but  on  the  proper  Nile ;  and  its  situation,  not- 
 withstanding the  little  difference  between  Pliny  and 
 828 
 
 Eratosthenes,  may  be  determined  with  the  nicest  ac- 
 curacy by  the  small  island  just  mentioned,  which  Bruce 
 has  not  ornitled  to  note  upon  his  map  The  ancient 
 city  of  Meroe  then  stood  a  little  below  the  present 
 Shcndy,  under  17°  N.  lat.,  5i°  E.  long.  Bruce  saw 
 its  ruins  from  a  distance.  What  Bruce  and  Burck- 
 hardt,  however,  only  saw  at  a  distance  and  hastily, 
 has  now  been  carefully  examined  by  later  travellers, 
 especially  Caillaud,  and  placed  before  our  eyes  by 
 their  drawings.  But,  although  it  is  probable  that  the 
 true  site  of  Meroe  has  here  been  indicated,  yet  it  is 
 proper  to  remark,  that  antiquaries  have  differed  on 
 the  subject :  some  considering  the  ruins  of  Mount 
 Berkel,  considerably  farther  down  the  river,  to  point 
 to  the  spot.  (Ediub.  Review,  vol.  41,  p.  181.)  Mount 
 Berkel  is  situated  in  Dar  Sheyga,  near  a  village  called 
 Meraive,  at  about  18°  31'  N.  lat.,  and  the  ruins  arc 
 nearly  of  equal  extent  with  those  near  Shendy.  The 
 circumstance  of  the  name  Merawe  has  doubtless  led 
 partly  to  this  idea,  but  the  argument  is  rendered  null 
 by  the  fact  mentioned  by  Caillaud,  that  a  place  not 
 far  from  Shendy,  covered  with  remains  of  ancient 
 buildings,  is  called  El  Mcraouy,  and  sitnilar  names 
 are  by  no  means  uncommon  in  many  of  the  provinces 
 of  the  Nile.  The  ruins  at  Mount  Berkel,  according 
 to  Caillaud,  are  probably  those  of  Napata,  originally 
 the  second  city,  and  latterly  the  capital,  of  Ethiopia. 
 {hong^s  Anc.  G'eogr.,p  78.)  The  site  of  the  ancient 
 city  of  Meroe  is  still  indicated  by  the  remains  of  a 
 few  temples,  and  of  many  other  edifices  of  sandstone. 
 The  whole  extent,  according  to  Caillaud,  amounts  to 
 nearly  4000  feet.  The  plain  allowed  sufficient  room 
 for  a  much  larger  city,  and  that  the  city  itself  was 
 larger  than  what  is  here  stated  cannot  for  a  moment 
 be  doubted. 
 
 1.  Religion  of  Meroe. 
 
 From  the  observations  of  travellers  who  have  care- 
 fully examined  the  ruins  of  Meroe,  we  arrive  at  the 
 important  deduction,  that  this  region  was  once  inhab- 
 ited by  a  people  equally  as  far  advanced  in  refinement 
 as  the  Egyjjtians,  and  whose  style  of  architecture  and 
 religious  ceremonies,  as  portrayed  on  the  remains  of 
 that  architecture,  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  those 
 of  Egypt.  All  this  becomes  extremely  interesting 
 when  we  call  to  mind  what  is  stated  by  many  of  the 
 ancient  writers,  that  Meroe  was  the  cradle  of  the  re- 
 ligious and  political  institutions  of  Egypt :  that  here 
 the  arts  and  sciences  arose  ;  that  here  hieroglyphic 
 writing  was  discovered  ;  and  that  temples  and  pyra- 
 mids had  already  sprung  up  in  this  quarter,  while 
 Egypt  still  remained  ignorant  of  their  existence.  It 
 stands  as  an  incontrovertible  fact,  remarks  Heeren 
 (Ideen,  vol.  4,  p.  419  ;  vol.  1,  p.  400,  Oxford  transL), 
 that,  besides  the  pastoral  and  hunting  tribes,  which 
 led  a  nomade  life  to  the  west  of  the  Nile,  and  still 
 more  to  the  east,  as  far  as  the  Arabian  Gulf,  there 
 existed  a  cultivated  people  near  this  stream,  in  the 
 valley  through  which  it  flows,  who  had  fixed  abodes, 
 built  cities,  temples,  and  sepulchres,  and  whose  re- 
 mains even  now,  after  the  lapse  of  so  many  centu- 
 ries, still  excite  our  astonishment.  It  may  farther  bo 
 stated  as  a  certainty,  that  the  civilization  of  this  peo- 
 ple was,  in  an  especial  manner,  connected  with  their  re- 
 ligion; that  is,  with  the  worship  of  certain  deities. 
 The  remains  of  their  foundation  prove  this  too  clearly 
 for  any  doubt  to  be  entertained  on  the  subject.  This 
 religion,  upon  the  whole,  is  not  uncertain.  It  was 
 the  worship  of  Amnion  and  his  kindred  gods.  The 
 circle  of  these  deities  was  very  nearly  of  the  same  ex- 
 tent as  that  of  Olympus  among  the  Greeks  ;  it  might, 
 possibly,  be  somewhat  larger.  It  became  extended 
 by  the  appearance  of  the  same  deity  in  different  rela- 
 tions, and  consequently  with  changed  attributes,  espe- 
 cially with  different  head-ornaments,  and  also  under 
 various  forms.      Without  digressing  into  a  detailed 
 
MERGE. 
 
 MERGE. 
 
 description  of  particular  deities,  we  may  venture  a  step 
 farUicr,  adds  the  same  writer,  without  fear  of  contradic- 
 tion, and  assert  that  this  worship  had  its  origin  in  nat- 
 ural rel)(;toii  connected  with  agriculture.  'I'he  great 
 works  ol  nature  were  revered  accordingly  as  they  pro- 
 moted or  retarded  and  hindered  this.  It  seems  nat- 
 ural that  the  sun  and  moon,  so  far  as  they  determined 
 the  seasons  and  the  year,  the  Nile  and  the  earth  as 
 sources  of  fniiifulness,  the  sandy  deserts  as  the  oppo- 
 sers  of  it,  should  all  be  personified.  (3ne  thing  is  re- 
 markable, namely,  that  of  all  the  rcfiresentations  of 
 Nubia  yet  known,  there  is  not  one  which,  according 
 to  our  notions,  is  otrensive  to  decency.  But  this  wor- 
 ship had.  besides,  as  we  know  with  certainty,  a  sec- 
 ond element,  oracles.  .Ammoii  was  the  original  ora- 
 cle-god of  Africa  :  if  afterward,  as  was  the  case  in 
 Egypt,  other  deities  delivered  oracles,  vet  they  were 
 of  his  race,  of  his  kindred.  Even  beyond  Egypt  we 
 hear  of  the  oracles  of  .Aiiunon.  "The  only  gods  wor- 
 shipped in  iVIeroe,''  says  Herodotus  (2,  29),  "are 
 Zeus  and  Dionysos"  (which  he  himself  explains  to  be 
 Ainmon  and  Osiris).  "  Tliey  also  have  an  oracle  of 
 Ammon,  and  undertake  their  expeditions  when  and 
 how  the  god  commands."  How  these  oracles  were 
 delivered  we  learn  partly  from  history,  partly  from 
 representations  on  monuments.  In  the  sanctuary 
 stands  a  ship  ;  upon  it  many  holy  vessels  ;  but,  above 
 all,  in  the  midst  a  portable  tabernacle,  surrounded  with 
 curtains,  which  may  be  dra»vn  back.  In  this  is  an 
 image  of  the  god,  set.  according  to  Diodonis  (2,  199), 
 in  precious  stones  ;  nevertheless,  according  to  one 
 account,  it  could  have  no  human  shape.  {Curlius, 
 4,  7.  "  Uinbilico  shmiis."')  This  statement  of  Cur- 
 tius,  however,  is  iucorrect,  not  onlv  because  contra- 
 dicted by  the  passage  just  quoted  from  Diodorus,  but 
 also  because  we  see  on  one  of  the  common  monu- 
 ments a  complete  portrait  of  .\mmon. — The  ship  in 
 the  great  temples  seems  to  have  been  very  magnifi- 
 cent. Sesosiris  presented  one  to  the  temple  of  .Am- 
 nion at  i  hebes,  made  of  cedar,  the  inside  of  cedar 
 and  the  outside  of  gold.  {Dtod  ,  1,  57  )  The  same 
 vuas  hung  about  with  silver  goldets.  \^  hen  the  ora- 
 cle was  to  be  consulted,  it  was  carried  around  by  a 
 body  of  priests  in  procession,  and  from  certain  move 
 ments,  either  of  the  god  or  of  the  ship,  both  of  which 
 the  priests  had  well  under  their  command,  the  omens 
 were  gathered,  according  to  which  the  high-priest  then 
 delivered  the  oracle.  This  ship  is  often  represented, 
 both  upon  the  Nubian  and  Egvpiian  monuments,  some- 
 times standing  still,  and  sometimes  carried  in  [iroces- 
 sion  ;  but  never  anywhere  except  in  the  innermost 
 sanctuary,  which  was  its  resting-|)lace.  Upon  the 
 Nubian  monuments  hitherto  made  known  we  discover 
 this  in  two  places;  at  .\sseboa  and  Derar,  and  on  each 
 twice.  Those  of  .\sseboa  are  both  standing.  In  one 
 the  tabernwcle  is  veiled,  but  upon  the  other  it  is  with- 
 out a  curtain.  (G'um,  plate  xiv.,  B  )  Ammon  ap- 
 pears in  the  same  sitting  upon  a  couch  ;  before  him 
 an  altar  with  gifts.  (Gau,  plate  xlv.,  A  )  Upon  one 
 the  king  is  kneeling  before  the  ship  at  his  devotions  ; 
 in  the  other  he  is  coming  towards  it  with  an  offering 
 of  frankincense.  In  the  sanctuary  of  the  rock  monu- 
 ment at  Derar  we  also  discover  it  twice.  Once  in 
 procession,  borne  by  a  number  of  priests  {Gmt,  plate 
 li.,  C.)  ;  the  tabernacle  is  veiled,  the  king  meets  it, 
 bringing  frankincense  :  the  other  time  at  rest.  {Ihid., 
 plate  Hi.)  These  processions  are  not  only  seen  upon 
 the  great  Egyptian  temples  at  PhilaB,  Elephantis,  and 
 Thebes,  but  also  in  the  great  Oasis.  {Description 
 de  rEiryple,  pi.  xiii.,  xxxvii.,  jxix.)  These  oracles 
 were  certainly  the  main  support  of  this  religion  ;  and 
 if  we  connect  with  them  the  local  features  of  the  coun- 
 tries, it  will  at  once  throw  a  strong  light  upon  its  ori- 
 gin. Fertility  is  here,  as  well  as  in  Egvpt,  confined 
 to  the  borders  of  the  Nile.  At  a  very  short  distance 
 from  it   the  desert  begins.     How  could  it,  then,  be 
 
 otherwise  than  that  crowds  of  men  should  congregate 
 on  the  borders  of  the  stream  where  the  dhourra,  al- 
 most the  only  corn  here  cultivated,  would  grow?  And 
 if  they  could  satisfy  their  fir.st  cravings  with  the  pro- 
 duce of  this  scanty  space,  was  not  the  rise  of  a  natural 
 religion,  referring  to  it.  just  what  might  be  expected'' 
 Add  to  all  this,  however,  another  circumstance  highly 
 important.  Meroe  was,  besides,  the  chief  man  for 
 the  trade  of  these  regions.  It  was  the  grand  enipo- 
 rium  of  the  caravan  trade  between  Ethiopia,  the  north 
 of  Africa,  and  Egypt,  as  well  as  of  Arabia  Felix  and 
 even  India.  {Hecren,  Idecn,  vol.  4,  p.  423  ;  vol.  1,  p. 
 41 1,  Oxford  Iransl.) 
 
 2.   Government  and  General  Hislory  of  Meroe. 
 
 Meroe,    according  to  the  accounts  of  the  ancient 
 
 writers,  was  a  city  which  had  its  settled  constitution, 
 and  laws,  its  ruler  and  government.  But  the  form  of 
 this  state  was  one  which  we  too  often  find  among  the 
 kingdoms  of  these  southern  regions  ;  it  was  a  hie- 
 rarchy :  the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  a  race  or 
 caste  of  priests,  who  chose  from  among  themselves  a 
 king.  Diodorus's  account  of  them,  which  is  the  most 
 extensive  and  accurate  that  we  have,  is  here  given. 
 "The  laws  of  the  Ethiopians,"  says  he,  speaking  of 
 Mtroe  (3,  .5),  "  differ  in  many  respects  from  those  of 
 other  nations,  but  in  none  so  much  as  in  the  election 
 of  their  kings,  which  is  thus  managed.  The  priests 
 select  the  most  distinguished  of  their  own  order,  and 
 upon  whichever  of  these  the  god  (Ju|)iter  .Amnion) 
 fixes,  as  he  is  carried  in  procession,  he  is  acknowl- 
 edged king  by  the  peofile  ;  who  then  fall  down  and 
 adore  him  as  a  god,  because  he  is  placed  over  the  gov- 
 enmient  by  the  choice  of  the  gods.  The  person  thus 
 selected  immediately  enjoys  all  the  prerogatives  which 
 are  conceded  to  him  by  the  laws,  in  respect  to  his 
 mode  of  life  ;  but  he  can  neither  reward  nor  punish 
 any  one  beyond  what  the  usages  of  their  forefathers 
 and  the  laws  allow.  It  is  a  custom  among  them  to 
 inflict  upon  no  subject  the  sentence  of  death,  even 
 though  he  should  be  legally  condemned  to  that  pun- 
 ishment ;  but  they  send  to  the  malefactor  one  of  the 
 servants  of  justice,  who  bears  the  symbol  of  death. 
 When  the  criminal  sees  this,  he  goes  immediately  to 
 his  own  house,  and  deprives  himself  of  life.  The 
 Greek  custom  of  escaping  punishment  by  flight  into  a 
 neighbouring  country  is  not  there  permitted.  It  is 
 said  that  the  mother  of  one  who  would  have  attempted 
 this  strangled  him  with  her  own  girdle,  in  order  to  save 
 her  family  from  that  greater  ignominy.  But  the  most 
 remarkable  of  all  their  institutions  is  that  which  re- 
 lates to  the  death  of  the  king.  The  priests  at  Mcioe, 
 for  example,  who  attend  to  the  service  of  the  gods, 
 and  hold  the  highest  rank,  send  a  messenger  to  the 
 king  with  an  order  to  die.  They  make  known  to  htm 
 that  the  gods  command  this,  and  that  mortals  should 
 not  withdraw  from  their  decrees  ;  and  perha[)s  added 
 such  reasons  as  could  not  be  controverted  by  weak  un- 
 derstandings, prejudiced  by  custom,  and  unable  to  op- 
 pose anything  thereto."  Thus  far  Diodorus.  The 
 government  continued  in  this  original  slate  till  the  pe- 
 riod of  the  second  Ptolemy,  and  its  catastrophe  is  not 
 less  remarkable  than  its  foundation.  By  its  increased 
 intercourse  with  Egypt,  the  light  of  Grecian  philoso- 
 phy penetrated  into  the  interior  of  Africa.  Ergame- 
 nes,  at  that  time  king  of  Meroe,  tired  of  being  iirie.'>t- 
 ridden.  fell  upon  the  priests  in  their  sanctuary,  put 
 them  to  death,  and  became  effectually  a  sovereign. 
 (Diodorus,  3,  6  )— Of  the  history  of  this  state  prcvi- 
 ous  to  the  revolution  just  mentioned,  but  very  scanty 
 information  has  been  preserved  ;  but  yet  enough  to 
 show  its  high  antiquity  and  its  early  aggrandizement. 
 Pliny  tells  us  (6,  3.5)  that  "  Ethiopia  was  ruined  by  its 
 wars  with  Egypt,  which  it  sometimes  subdued  and 
 sometimes  served  ;  it  was  powerful  and  illustrious  even 
 as  far  back  as  the  Trojan  war,  when  Memnon  reigned. 
 
 829 
 
MEROE. 
 
 MERGE. 
 
 At  the  time  of  his  sovereignty,"  he  continues,  "  Meroe 
 IS  said  to  have  contained  250,000  soldiers  and  400,000 
 artificers.  They  still  reckon  there  forty-five  kings." 
 Though  these  accounts  lose  themselves  in  the  darkness 
 of  tradition,  yet  we  may,  by  tracing  history  upward,  dis- 
 cover some  certain  chronological  data.  In  the  Persian 
 period  Meroe  was  certainly  free  and  independent,  and 
 an  important  state  ;  otherwise  Cambyses  would  hardly 
 have  made  so  great  preparations  for  his  unfortunate  ex- 
 pedition. {Herod.,  2,  25.)  The  statement  of  Strabo, 
 according  to  which  Cambyses  reached  Meroe,  may  per- 
 haps be  brought  to  accord  with  that  of  Herodotus,  if  we 
 understand  him  to  mean  northern  Meroe,  near  Mount 
 Berkel. — During  the  last  dynasty  of  the  Pharaohs  at 
 Sa'is,  under  Psammciichus  and  his  successors,  the 
 kingdom  of  Meroe  not  only  resisted  his  yoke,  although 
 his  son  Psammis  undertook  an  expedition  against 
 Ethiopia  ;  but  we  have  an  important  fact,  which  gives 
 a  clew  to  the  e.xtent  of  the  empire  at  that  time  towards 
 the  south ;  the  emigration  of  the  Egyptian  warrior- 
 caste.  These  migrated  towards  Meroe,  whose  ruler 
 assigned  them  dwellings  about  the  sources  of  the  Nile, 
 in  the  province  of  Gojam,  whose  restless  inhabitants 
 were  expelled  their  country.  (Herod  ,  2,  30.)  The 
 dominions  of  the  ruler  of  Meroe,  therefore,  certainly 
 reached  so  far  at  that  time,  though  his  authority  on 
 the  borders  fluctuated  in  consequence  of  the  pastoral 
 hordes  roving  thereabout,  and  could  only  be  fixed  by 
 colonies.  Let  us  go  a  century  farther  back,  between 
 800  and  700  B.C.,  and  we  shall  mount  to  the  flourish- 
 ing periods  of  this  empire,  contemporaneous  with  the 
 divided  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  ;  especially  with 
 the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  and  the  time  of  Isaiah,  750- 
 700,  where  we  shall  consequently  have  a  light  from  the 
 Jewish  annals,  and  the  oracles  of  the  prophets,  in  con- 
 nexion with  Herodotus.  This  is  the  period  in  which 
 the  three  mighty  rulers,  Sabaco,  Seuechus,  and  Tar- 
 haco  started  up  as  conquerors,  and  directed  their 
 weapons  against  Egypt,  which,  at  least  Upper  Egypt, 
 became  an  easy  prey,  from  the  unfortunate  troubles 
 preceding  the  dodecarchy  having  just  taken  place.  Ac- 
 cording to  Eusebius  {Chron.,  vol.  2,  p.  181. — Com- 
 pare Marsham,  p.  435),  Sabaco  reigned  twelve,  Seu- 
 echus also  twelve,  and  Tarhaco  twenty  years  :  but  by 
 Herodotus,  who  only  mentions  Sabaco,  to  whom  he 
 gives  a  reign  of  fifty  years,  this  name  seems  to  des- 
 ignate the  whole  dynasty,  which  not  unfrequently  fol- 
 lows that  of  its  founder.  Herodotus  expressly  says 
 that  he  had  quitted  Egypt  at  the  command  of  his  ora- 
 cle in  Ethiopia  (2,  137,  scqq.).  It  may  therefore  be 
 seen,  by  the  example  of  this  conqueror,  how  great  their 
 dependance  must  have  been,  in  their  native  country, 
 upon  the  oracle  of  Ammon,  when  even  the  absent 
 monarch,  as  ruler  of  a  conquered  state,  yielded  obedi- 
 ence to  it.  Sabaco,  however,  is  not  represented  by 
 him  as  a  barbarian  or  tyrant,  but  as  a  benefactor  to  the 
 community  by  the  construction  of  dams.  The  chro- 
 nology of  Seuechus  and  Tarhaco  is  determined  by  the 
 Jewish  history.  Seuechus  was  the  contemporary  of 
 Hosea,  king  of  Israel,  whose  reign  ended  in  722,  and 
 of  Salmanassar  (2  Kings,  17,  4  ;  19,  9).  Tarhaco 
 was  the  contemporary  of  his  successor  Sennacherib, 
 and  deterred  him,  in  the  year  714  B.C.,  from  the  in- 
 vasion of  Egypt  merely  by  the  rumour  of  his  advance 
 against  him.  (2  Kings, \9,  9)  His  name,  however, 
 dees  not  seem  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  Greeks. 
 Eratosthenes  {ap.  Slrabo,  680)  mentions  him  as  a  con- 
 queror who  had  penetrated  into  Europe,  and  as  far  as 
 the  Pillars  of  Hercules  ;  that  is,  as  a  great  conqueror. 
 Certainly,  therefore,  the  kingdom  of  Meroe  must  have 
 ranked  about  this  time  as  an  important  state.  And 
 we  shall  find  this  to  be  the  case  if  we  go  about  200 
 years  farther  back,  to  the  lime  of  Asa,  the  great-grand- 
 son of  Solomon,  but  who  nevertheless  mounted  the 
 throne  of  Judah  within  twenty  years  after  his  grand- 
 sire's  death.  955  B.C.  Against  him,  it  is  said  in  the 
 830 
 
 Jewish  annals,  went  out  Zerah,  the  Ethiopian,  with  t 
 host  of  a  hundred  thousand  men  and  three  hundred 
 chariots.  (2  Chron.,  li,  9.)  Although  this  number 
 signifies  nothing  more  than  a  mighty  army,  it  yet  af- 
 fords a  proof  of  the  mightiness  of  the  empire,  which  at 
 that  time  probably  comprised  Arabia  J'elix  ;  but  the 
 chariots  of  war,  which  were  never  in  use  in  Arabia, 
 prove  that  the  passage  refers  to  Ethiopia.  Zerah's  ex- 
 pedition took  place  in  the  early  part  of  Asa's  reiorn  ; 
 consequently,  about  950  B.C.  ;  and  as  such  an  empire 
 could  not  be  quite  a  new  one,  we  are  led  by  undoubt- 
 ed historical  statements  up  to  the  period  of  Solomon, 
 about  1000  B.C.  ;  and,  as  this  comes  near  to  the  Tro- 
 jan period,  Pliny's  statements,  though  only  resting  on 
 mythi,  obtain  historical  weight.  Farther  back  than 
 this,  the  annals  of  history  are  silent ;  but  the  monu- 
 ments now  begin  to  speak,  and  confirm  that  high  an- 
 tiquity which  general  opinion  and  the  traditions  of 
 Meroe  attribute  to  this  state.  The  name  of  Ramesses 
 or  Sesostris  has  already  been  found  upon  many  of  the 
 Nubian  monuments,  and  that  he  was  the  conqueror  of 
 Ethiopia  is  known  from  history.  {Herod.,  2,  110. — 
 Strabo,  791.)  The  period  in  which  he  flourished  can- 
 not be  placed  later  than  1500  years  before  the  Christian 
 era.  But  the  name  of  Thutinosis,  belonging  to  the 
 preceding  dynasty,  has  also  been  found  in  Nubia,  and 
 that  assuredly  upon  one  of  the  most  ancient  monu- 
 ments of  Armada.  But  in  this  sculpture,  as  well  as 
 in  the  procession,  representing  the  victory  over  Ethio- 
 pia in  the  offering  of  the  booty,  there  appears  a  degree 
 of  civilization  which  shows  an  acquaintance  with  the 
 peaceful  arts  ;  they  must  consequently  be  attributed 
 to  a  nation  that  had  long  been  formed.  We  thus  ap- 
 proach the  Mosaic  period,  in  which  the  Jewish  tradi- 
 tions ascribe  the  conquest  of  Meroe  to  no  less  a  person 
 than  Moses  himself  {Joseph,  Ant.  Jnd., 2, \Q.)  The 
 traditions  of  the  Egyptian  priesthood  also  agree  in  this, 
 that  Meroe,  in  Ethiopia,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  most 
 ancient  states.  In  a  state  whose  government  differed 
 so  widely  from  anything  that  we  have  been  accustom- 
 ed to,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  same  would 
 happen  with  regard  to  the  people  or  subjects.  We 
 cannot  expect  a  picture  here  that  will  bear  any  simili- 
 tude to  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  Meroe  rather 
 resembled  in  appearance  the  larger  states  of  interior 
 Africa  at  the  present  day  ;  a  number  of  small  nations, 
 of  the  most  opposite  habits  and  manners — some  with, 
 and  some  without  settled  abodes — form  there  what  is 
 called  an  empire  ;  although  the  general  political  band 
 which  holds  them  together  appears  loose,  and  is  often 
 scarcely  perceptible.  In  Meroe  this  band  was  of  a 
 twofold  nature  ;  religion,  that  is,  a  certain  worship, 
 ])rincipally  resting  upon  oracles,  and  commerce  ;  un- 
 questionably the  strongest  chains  by  which  barbarians 
 could  be  fettered,  except  forcible  subjugation.  The 
 rites  of  that  religion,  connected  with  oracles,  satisfied 
 the  curious  and  superstitious,  as  did  trade  the  cravings 
 of  their  sensual  appetites.  Eratosthenes  has  handed 
 us  down  an  accurate  picture  of  the  inhabitants  of  Me- 
 roe in  his  time  {ap.  Strab.,  821).  According  to  his 
 account,  the  island  comprised  a  variety  of  people,  of 
 whom  some  followed  agriculture,  some  a  nomade,  pas- 
 toral life,  and  others  hunting  ;  all  of  them  choosing 
 that  which  was  best  adapted  to  the  district  in  which 
 they  lived.  {Heeren,  Ideen,  vol.  4,  p.  433  ;  Oxford 
 transL,  vol.  1,  p.  420.) 
 
 3.    Commerce  of  Meroe. 
 
 The  ruling  priest-caste  in  Meroe  seem  to  have  sent 
 out  colonics,  who  carried  along  with  them  the  service 
 of  their  gods,  and  became  the  founders  of  states.  Gne 
 of  these  colonies,  according  to  the  express  testimony 
 of  Herodotus  (2,  42),  was  Ammonium  in  the  Libyan 
 desert,  which  had  not  merely  a  temple  and  an  oracle, 
 but  probably  formed  a  state  in  which  the  priest-caste, 
 as  in  Meroe,  continued  a  ruling  race,  and  chose  a  king 
 
MERGE. 
 
 MERGE. 
 
 from  their  own  body.  Ammonium  served  as  a  rest- 
 ing-jjlacc  for  the  caravans  passing  from  northern  Afri- 
 ca to  Meroe.  Another  still  earlier  settlement  of  this 
 kind  was  very  probably  Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt.  The 
 circumstance  of  a  town  flourishing  to  such  an  extent 
 in  the  midst  of  a  desert,  of  the  same  worship  of 
 Ammon,  of  the  all-powerful  priest-caste,  and  its  per- 
 manent connexion  with  Meroe  (united  with  which  it 
 founded  Ammonium),  conjoined  with  the  express  as- 
 sertion of  the  Ethiopians  that  they  were  the  founders 
 (Diod.,  3,  3),  gives  to  this  idea  a  degree  of  ])robability 
 bordering  on  certainty.  The  whole  aspect  of  the  cir- 
 cumstances connected  with  this  wide-spread  priest- 
 caste  gains  a  clearer  light,  if  we  consider  Ammonium, 
 Thebes,  and  Meroe  the  chief  places  of  the  African 
 caravan  trade  ;  in  this  view  of  the  subject,  the  dark- 
 ness of  ^Egypto-Ethiopian  antiquity  is  cleared  up,  as 
 in  the  hands  of  this  priest-caste  the  southern  caravan 
 trade  was  placed,  and  they  founded  the  proud  tem- 
 ples and  palaces  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  the 
 great  trading  edifices,  which  served  their  gods  for 
 sanctuaries,  themselves  for  dwellings,  and  their  cara- 
 vans for  places  of  rest.  To  this  caste,  the  states  of 
 Meroe  and  Upper  Egypt  very  probably  owed  their 
 foundation  ;  except,  indeed,  that  Egypt  was  much  more 
 exposed  to  the  crowding  in  of  foreign  relations  from 
 Asia,  than  Meroe,  separated  as  this  last  was  from  oth- 
 er countries  by  deserts,  seas,  and  mountains.  The 
 close  connexion,  in  high  antiquity,  between  Ethiopia 
 and  upper  Egypt,  is  shown  by  the  circumstance  that 
 the  oldest  Egyptian  states  derived  their  origin  partly 
 from  Abyssinia  ;  that  Thebes  and  Meroe  founded,  in 
 common,  a  colony  in  Libya;  that  Ethiopian  conquer- 
 ors several  times  advanced  into  Egypt,  and,  on  the 
 other  hand,  that  Egyptian  kings  undertook  expeditions 
 to  Ethiopia  ;  that  in  both  countries  a  similar  worship, 
 similar  manners  and  customs,  and  similar  symbolical 
 writing  were  found  ;  and  that  the  discontented  soldier- 
 caste,  when  offended  by  Psammetichus,  emigrated  into 
 Ethiopia.  By  the  Ethiopians  Egypt  was  likewise  pro- 
 fusely supplied  with  the  productions  of  the  southern 
 countries.  Where  else,  indeed,  could  it  have  ob- 
 tained those  aromatics  and  spices  with  which  so  many 
 thousands  of  its  dead  were  annually  embalmed! 
 Whence  those  perfumes  which  burned  upon  its  altars'! 
 Whence  that  immense  quantity  of  cotton  in  which 
 the  inhabitants  clothed  themselves,  and  which  Egypt 
 itself  furnished  but  sparingly  1  Whence,  again,  that 
 early  report  in  Egypt  of  the  Ethiopian  gold-countries, 
 which  Gambyses  sought  after,  and  lost  half  his  army 
 in  the  fruitless  speculation  1  Whence  the  quantity  of 
 ivory  and  ebony  which  adorned  the  oldest  works  of  art 
 of  the  Greeks  as  well  as  of  the  Hebrews^  Whence, 
 especially,  that  early  extension  of  the  Ethiopian  name, 
 which  shines  in  the  traditionary  history  of  so  many 
 nations,  and  which  the  Jewish  poets  as  well  as  the 
 oldest  Greek  bards  have  celebrated  1  Whence  all 
 this,  if  the  deserts  which  bordered  on  Ethiopia  had 
 always  kept  the  inhabitants  isolated  from  those  of 
 more  northern  countries  ■! — At  a  later  period,  in  the 
 time  of  Ptolemy  I.,  it  is  astonishing  how  coin[)letely 
 that  able  prince  had  established  the  trade  between  his 
 own  country,  India,  Ethiopia,  and  Arabia.  The  series 
 of  magnificent  and  similar  monuments,  interrupted  on 
 the  frontiers  of  Egypt,  near  Elephantine,  and  recom- 
 mencing on  the  southern  side  of  the  .\frican  desert,  at 
 Mount  Bcrkel,  and  especially  at  Meroe,  to  be  contin- 
 ued to  Axum  and  Azab,  certainly  denote  a  people  of 
 similar  civilization  and  activity.  Meroe  was  the  first 
 fertile  country  after  crossing  the  Libyan  desert,  and 
 formed  a  natural  resting-place  for  the  northern  cara- 
 vans. It  was  likewise  the  natural  mart  for  the  pro- 
 ductions of  inner  Africa,  which  were  brought  for  the 
 use  of  the  northern  portion,  and  was  reckoned  the 
 outermost  of  the  countries  which  produced  gold,  while 
 by  the  navigable  rivers  surrounding  it  on  all  sides,  it 
 
 had  a  ready  communication  with  the  more  southern 
 countries  {Diod.,  1,  33).  As  ready,  owing  to  the 
 moderate  distance,  was  its  connexion  with  Arabia  Fe- 
 lix ;  and  so  long  as  Yemen  remained  in  possession  of 
 the  Arabian  and  Indian  trade,  Meroe  was  the  natural 
 market-place  for  the  Arabian  and  Indian  wares  in  Af- 
 rica. The  route  which  led  in  antiquity  from  Meroe 
 to  the  Arabian  Gulf  and  Yemen,  is  not  designated  by 
 any  historian  :  the  commerce  between  those  nations 
 bemg  indicated  only  by  monumental  traces  which  the 
 hand  of  time  has  not  been  able  to  destroy.  Imme- 
 diately between  Meroe  and  the  gulf  are  situated  the 
 ruins  of  Axum,  and  at  the  lermuiation  of  the  route, 
 on  the  coast  opposite  to  Arabia  Felix,  are  those  of 
 Azab  or  Saba.  Heeren,  from  whom  the  above  )dea3 
 are  principally  borrowed,  deduces  the  following  con- 
 clusions from  a  review  of  the  entire  subject. — 1.  Thai 
 in  the  earlier  ages,  a  commercial  intercourse  existed 
 here  between  the  countries  of  southern  Asia  and  Afri- 
 ca ;  between  India  and  Arabia,  Ethiopia,  Libya,  and 
 Egypt,  which  was  founded  upon  their  mutual  neces- 
 sities, and  became  the  parent  of  the  civilization  of 
 these  nations. — 2.  That  the  principal  seat  of  this  in- 
 ternational commerce  was  Meroe  ;  and  its  chief  route 
 is  distinguished  by  a  chain  of  ruins  reaching  from  the 
 shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Mediterranean  : 
 Axum  and  Azab  being  links  in  this  chain  between 
 Arabia  Felix  and  Meroe  ;  Thebes  and  .Ammonium  be- 
 tween Meroe,  Egypt,  and  Carthage.— 3.  That  chief  pla- 
 ces for  trade  were  at  the  same  time  settlements  of 
 that  priest-caste,  which,  as  the  ruling  tribe,  had  its 
 chief  residence  at  Meroe,  and  sent  out  colonies  thence, 
 who  became  builders  of  towns  and  temples,  and,  at  the 
 same  time,  founders  of  new  states. — The  conductors 
 of  this  caravan  trade  in  Africa,  as  in  Asia,  were  the 
 Nomadic  shepherd-nations.  Men  accustomed  to  fix- 
 ed residences  and  to  dwellings  in  towns  were  not 
 adapted  for  the  restless  caravan-life,  especially  on  ac- 
 count of  the  attention  necessary  for  the  camels,  and 
 for  the  loading  and  unloading  of  wares.  It  was  better 
 suited  to  Nomadic  nations.  In  the  case  of  the  Car- 
 thaginian caravans,  we  know  that  they  were  managed 
 by  the  Nomadic  Lotophagi  and  Nasamones,  as  the  car- 
 avans were  by  the  Midianites  and  Edomites  in  Arabia: 
 this  is  historically  proved,  and  it  is  probable  that  it 
 was  the  case  on  the  great  commercial  road  from  Am- 
 monium to  Azab,  as  similar  Nomadic  tribes  are  still 
 found  on  the  coast  of  the  Arabian  Gulf — Meroe  had 
 mines  not  only  of  silver  and  gold,  but  also  of  copper 
 and  even  of  iron  itself     (Diod.,  1,  33.) 
 
 4.   Influence  of  Meroe  on  Egyptian  civilization. 
 
 Everything  seems  to  favour  the  supposition  that 
 Meroe  gave  religion  and  the  arts  of  civilized  life  to 
 the  valley  of  the  Nile.  The  following  are  some  of 
 the  principal  arguments  in  support  of  this  opinion  :  1. 
 The  concurrent  testimony  of  the  ancient  writers. — 2. 
 The  progress  of  civilization  in  Egypt  from  south  to 
 north  ;  for  the  Delta,  the  part  of  Egypt  contiguous  to 
 Arabia,  appears  to  have  been  originally  uninhabitable, 
 except  a  small  space  about  the  extremities  of  the 
 marsh  ;  and  history  asserts  that  the  inhabitants  of  up- 
 per Egypt  descended  and  drained  the  country. — 3. 
 The  improbability  that  an  Arabian  colony  would  have 
 crossed  Syria  from  Babylon  to  Suez,  and  wandered  so 
 far  south  as  Thebes  to  found  its  first  settlement. — 4. 
 The  radical  difference  between  the  Coptic  and  Arabic 
 languages,  which  existed  even  in  the  days  of  Abra- 
 ham. {Murray,  Appendix  to  Bruce,  book  2,  p.  479.) 
 —5.  The  trade  from  the  straits  of  Babelmandel  by 
 Azab,  Axum,  Meroe,  and  Upper  Egypt.  If  this  trade 
 be  as  old  as  from  the  remarks  previously  made  it 
 would  seem  to  be,  we  may  consider  Ethiopia  as  one 
 of  the  first  seats  of  international  trade,  or,  in  other 
 words,  of  civilization  ;  for  an  exchange  of  wares 
 would  lead  to  an  exchange  of  ideas,  ai.d  this  recipro- 
 
 831 
 
MERGE. 
 
 MES 
 
 cal  communication  would  necessarily  give  rise  to 
 moral  and  intellectual  improvement. — 6.  The  curious 
 fact,  that  the  images  of  some  of  the  Ejryptian  pods 
 were  at  certain  times  conveyed  up  the  Nile,  from  their 
 teni[)les  to  others  in  P^thiopia  ;  and,  after  the  conclu- 
 sion of  a  festival,  were  brought  back  again  into  Egypt. 
 {Eustttlk.,  ad  II.,  1,  424  )— 7.  The  very  remarkaltle 
 character  of  some  of  the  Egyptian  paintings,  in  which, 
 black  (or,  more  correctly,  dark-coloured)  men  are  rep- 
 resented in  the  costume  of  priests,  as  conferring  on 
 certain  red  figures,  similarly  habited,  the  instruments 
 md  symbols  of  the  sacerdotal  olFice.  "  This  singular 
 representation,"  says  Mr.  Hamilton,  "  which  is  often 
 repeated  in  ail  the  Egyptian  temples,  but  only  here  at 
 Phiiae  and  at  Elephantine  with  this  distinction  of  col- 
 or, may  very  naturally  be  supfiosed  to  commemorate 
 ne  transmission  of  religious  fables  and  the  social  in- 
 stitutions from  the  tawny  Ethiopians  to  the  compara- 
 tively fair  Egyptians." — 8.  Other  paintings  of  nearly 
 the  same  purport.  In  the  temple  of  Phila?,  the  sculp- 
 tures frequently  depict  two  persons,  who  equally  repre- 
 sent the  characters  and  symbols  of  Osiris,  and  two  per- 
 sons equally  answering  to  those  of  Isis  ;  but  in  both 
 cases  one  is  invariably  much  older  than  the  other,  and 
 appears  to  be  the  superior  divinity.  Mr.  Hamilton 
 conjectures  that  such  figures  represent  the  communi- 
 cation of  religious  rites  from  Ethiopia  to  Egypt,  and 
 the  inferiority  of  the  Egyptian  Osiris.  In  these  delin- 
 eations there  is  a  very  marked  and  positive  distinction 
 between  the  dark  figures  and  those  of  fairer  complex- 
 ion ;  the  former  are  most  frequently  conferring  the 
 symbols  of  divinity  and  sovereignty  on  the  other.— 9. 
 The  very  interesting  fact  recorded  by  Diodorus,  name 
 ly,  that  the  knowledge  of  picture-writing  in  Ethiopia 
 was  not  a  privilege  confined  solely  to  the  caste  of 
 priests  as  in  Egypt,  but  that  everv  one  might  attain  it 
 as  freely  as  they  might  in  Egvpt  the  writing  in  com- 
 mon use.  A  proof  at  once  of  the  earlier  use  of  pic- 
 lure-writing,  or  hieroglyphics,  in  Meroe  than  in  Egvpt, 
 and  also  of  its  being  applied  to  the  purposes  of  trade, 
 — 10.  The  more  ancient  form  of  the  pvramid,  ap- 
 proaching that  of  the  primeval  mound,  occurs  more  to 
 the  south  than  the  rectilinear  form.  Thus  the  pvra- 
 mids  of  Saccara  are  older  in  form  than  those  of  Djiza, 
 another  proof  of  architecture's  having  come  in  from 
 the  countries  to  the  south  {Clark<-'s  Travels,  vol. 
 5.  p.  220,  Lonil.  ed.) — FVom  this  body  of  evidence, 
 then,  we  come  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  same  race 
 whicli  ruled  in  Ethiopia  and  Meroe  spread  themselves 
 by  colonies,  in  the  first  instance,  to  Upper  Egypt ;  that 
 these  latter  colonies,  in  consequence  of  their  great 
 prosperity,  became  in  their  turn  the  parents  of  others; 
 and  as  in  all  this  they  followed  the  course  of  the  river, 
 there  graduallv  became  founded  a  succession  of  colo- 
 nies m  the  vallcv  of  the  Nile,  which,  according  to  the 
 usual  custom  of  the  ancient  world,  were  probably,  at 
 first,  independent  of  each  other,  and  therefore  formed 
 just  so  many  little  states.  Though,  with  the  promul- 
 gation of  their  religion,  either  that  of  Ammon  himself, 
 or  of  his  kindred  deities  and  temple-companions,  after 
 whom  even  the  settlements  were  named,  the  extension 
 of  trade  was  the  principal  motive  which  tempted  colo- 
 nists from  Meroe  to  the  countries  beyond  the  desert ; 
 yet  there  were  many  other  causes,  such  as  the  fertil- 
 ity of  the  land,  and  the  facility  of  making  the  rude  na- 
 tive tribes  subservient  to  themselves,  which,  in  a  pe- 
 riod of  iranquillity,  must  have  promoted  the  prosperity 
 and  accelerated  the  gradual  progress  of  this  coloniza- 
 tion. The  advantages  which  a  large  stream  offers,  by 
 facilitating  the  means  of  communication,  are  so  great, 
 that  it  is  a  common  occurrence  in  the  history  of  the 
 world  to  see  civilization  spreading  on  their  banks.  T  he 
 shores  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  of  the  Indus  and 
 Ganges,  of  the  Kiangh  and  Hoangho,  afford  us  as  plain 
 proofs  of  this  as  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  ( Kceren,  Hern, 
 vol.  5,  p.  109,  seqq.  ;  Oxford  Irainl.,  vol.  2,  p.  110.) 
 832 
 
 —As  to  the  origin  of  the  civilization  of  Meroe  itself, 
 all  is  complete  uncertainty;  though  it  is  generally  sup- 
 posed to  iiave  been  derived  from  the  plains  of  India. 
 The  reader  may  consult  on  this  subject  the  work  of 
 Von  Bohlcn.  Das  alte  Indicn,  mH  hesondtrer  Rvxk- 
 sichl  aiif  JEgypten,  vol.  1,  p.  119,  seqq. 
 
 Mekope,  1.  one  of  the  Pleiades.  She  married  Sis- 
 yphus, son  of  ^olus,  before  her  transformation  into  a 
 star  ;  and  it  was  fabled  that,  in  the  constellation  of  the 
 Pleiades,  Merope  appears  less  luminous  than  hersbier- 
 stars,  through  shame  at  having  lieen  the  only  one  of 
 the  number  that  had  wedded  a  mortal.  Other  mythol- 
 ogists  relate  the  same  of  Electra.  Schwenck  sees  in 
 the  union  of  Merope  with  Sisyphus  a  symbolical  allu- 
 sion to  Corinthian  navigation.  {Schwenck,  Skizzen, 
 p.  19. — Compare  Welcker,  JEsch  ,  Tril.,  p.  .'J.'JS. — Id. 
 ?/>..  p.  57.3.) — II.  A  daughter  of  Cypselus,  who  mar- 
 ried Cresphontes,  king  of  Messenia,  by  whom  she  had 
 three  children  Her  husband  and  two  of  her  children 
 were  murdered  by  Polyphontes.  The  murderer  wish- 
 ed her  to  marry  him,  and  she  would  ha\e  been  obliged 
 to  comply  had  not  Epytus  or  Telephontes,  her  third 
 son,  avenged  his  father's  death  by  assassinating  Poly- 
 phontes.    {ApoHod.,  2,  6. — Pousan.,  4,  3.) 
 
 Merops,  a  king  of  the  island  of  (.'os,  who  married 
 Clymene,  one  of  the  Oceanides.  He  was  changed  into 
 an  eagle,  and  placed  among  the  constellations.  (Ovid, 
 Mel.,  \,  763.) 
 
 Meros,  a  mountain  of  India  sacred  to  Jupiter.  It 
 is  said  to  have  been  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nvsa,  and 
 to  have  been  named  from  the  circumstance  of  Bacchns's 
 being  enclosed  in  the  thigh  (.fJ^poc)  of  Jupiter.  This 
 attempt  at  etymology,  however,  is  characteristic  of  the 
 Grecian  spirit,  which  found  traces  of  their  nation  and 
 language  in  every  quarter  of  the  world  The  mount- 
 ain in  question  is  the  famous  Mem  of  Indian  mythol- 
 ogv      {Creuzer''s  Symbolik,  vol.  I,  p.  .537.) 
 
 Mesembki.^,  a  maritime  town  of  'Fhrace,  east  of  the 
 month  of  the  Nessiis,  now  M'-scvria  or  Mcsera.  Ac- 
 cording to  Herodotus  (7,  108),  it  was  a  settlement  of 
 the  .Samothracians. —  Von  Humboldt  notices  the  ter- 
 minations of  magus,  briga,  and  bnva.  appended  to  the 
 names  of  towns,  as  undoubtedly  Celtic.  He  refers  to 
 the  same  source  the  termination  bria.  which  is  met 
 with  in  the  geography  of  Thrace,  as,  for  example,  in 
 the  cities  of  Selymbria  and  Mesembria.  He  thinks 
 that  the  Basque  rri  and  nri  are  also  connected  with 
 this  ;  and  that  we  can  go  no  farther  than  to  say  that 
 there  was  an  old  root  bri  or  hro,  expressing  land,  hab- 
 itation, settlement,  with  which  the  Teutonic  burg  and 
 the  Greek  ■KVpyog  may  have  been  originally  connected. 
 In  the  Welsh  and  Breton  lan^uatres,  bra  is  still,  ho 
 says,  not  only  a  cultivated  field,  but  generally  a  coun- 
 try or  district  ;  and  the  scholiast  on  Juvenal  (Sat.,  8, 
 234)  explains  the  name  of  Allohrogcs  as  signil'vinir 
 strangers,  men  from  another  land,  "  quonmin  broga 
 Gain  agrum  dicunt ;  alia  aulem  aliud."  (Vul.,  how- 
 ever, Allobroiies  — ArnoWs  Rome,  p.  xxii.) 
 
 Mesene,  I.  an  island  in  the  Tigris,  where  Apamea 
 was  built.  It  is  now  Digel.  {Slrab.,  in  Huds  ,  G. 
 M.,  2,  p.  146— P/(/r,  6,  31  — S/f;;//.  Bi/:.,  p.  91,  n. 
 8.) — II.  .Another,  enclosed  between  the  canal  of  Bas- 
 ra and  the  Pasicigris,  and  which  is  called  in  :he  Orien- 
 tal writers  PeratMiscan,  or  "the  Mesene  jf  the  Eu- 
 phrates," to  distintjuish  it  from  the  Mesent  of  the  Ti- 
 gris. The  term  Mesene  is  a  Greek  one.  and  refers  to 
 land  enclosed  belween  two  streams.  {Philoslorgius, 
 3,  7.  —  Cellarius,  Gcogr.  Anliq.,  vol.  1,  p.  641,  e.d. 
 Schwartz. ) 
 
 Mesomedes,  a  poet,  a  native  of  Crete.  He  was  a 
 freedinan  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian's,  and  one  of  his  fa- 
 vourites, and  wrote  a  eulogium  on  Antinoiis.  Ha- 
 drian's successor,  the  philosophic  Antoninus,  made  it 
 a  duty  to  restore  order  and  economy  into  the  finances 
 of  the  empire;  and,  among  other  things,  he  stopped 
 the  salaries  which  had  been  allowed   to  the   useless 
 
MES 
 
 MES 
 
 courtiers  with  whom  '.he  palace  of  Hadrian  bad  swarm- 
 ed. It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  stipend  allowed 
 to  Mesoinedes  sutiered  a  reduction.  {Jul.  Cap.,  Vit. 
 Ant.  Pii,  c.  7.) — We  have  two  epigrams  of  this  poet's 
 in  the  Anthology,  and  also  a  piece  of  a  higher  charac- 
 ter, a  Hi/nui  to  Nemesis.  Judging  from  this  last  spe- 
 cimen, Mesoinedes  must  have  possessed  talents  of  no 
 mean  order.  The  Hymn  to  Nemesis  was  published 
 for  the  first  time,  with  ancient  musical  notes,  by  Fell, 
 at  the  end  of  his  edition  of  Aratus,  Oxon.,  1762,  8vo. 
 It  Was  subsequently  given  by  Burette  in  the  5th  vol. 
 of  the  Mem.  de  I' Acad,  des  Inscr.,  &c.,  by  Brunck  in 
 his  Analccta,  and  by  Snedorf  in  his  work,  "  De  Hym- 
 nis  vcterum  Grcccoram,^'  Hafn.,  1786,  8vo.  (^SchoU, 
 Hi.1t.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  61.) 
 
 Mksopota.mIa,  an  extensive  province  of  Asia,  the 
 Greek  name  of  which  denotes  between  the  rivers  (from 
 jiiaoQ  and  Ttorajio^.)  It  was  situate  between  the  Eu- 
 phrates and  the  Tigris.  The  name  itself,  however, 
 does  not  appear  to  have  been  given  to  this  tract  prior 
 to  the  Macedonian  conquest.  The  southern  part  of 
 Mesopotamia  Xeno])hon  calls  Arabia  {Anab.,  1,  5,  1); 
 and  other  writers  included  this  country,  especially  the 
 northern  part,  under  the  general  name  of  Syria.  (Slra- 
 bo,  737.)  The  Romans  always  regarded  Mesopotamia 
 as  a  mere  divisioti  of  Syria.  {Mela,  1,  11. — Plin.,  5, 
 13.)  It  is  called  by  the  Arabs  at  the  present  day 
 Al  Jcsira,  or  "  the  island."  In  scripture  it  is  styled 
 Aram  and  Aramcen;  but  as  Aram  also  signifies  Syria, 
 it  is  denommated,  for  distinction'  sake,  Aram  Naha- 
 rcam,  or  the  "Syria  of  the  rivers."  It  was  first  peo- 
 pled bv  Aram,  the  father  of  the  Syrians,  though  little 
 IS  known  of  its  history  till  it  became  a  province  of  the 
 Persian  empire.  Cushan  rishthathaim,  who  is  men- 
 tioned in  Judges  (3,  8,  10)  as  king  of  Mesopotamia, 
 appears  to  have  been  only  a  petty  prince  of  a  district 
 east  of  the  Euphrates.  In  the  time  of  Hczekiah,  the 
 different  states  of  Mesopotamia  were  subject  to  the 
 Assyrians  (2  Kings,\2,  13),  and  subsequently  belonged 
 in  succession  to  the  Chalda^an,  Persian,  and  Syro-Ma- 
 cedonian  monarchies.  —  Mesopotamia,  which  inclines 
 from  the  southeast  to  the  northwest,  commenced  at 
 lat.  33°  20'  N.,  and  terminated  near  N.  lat.  37°  30'. 
 Towards  the  south  it  extended  as  far  as  the  bend  form- 
 ed by  the  Euphrates  at  Cunaxa,  and  to  the  wall  of 
 Semirarnis,  which  separated  it  from  Mesene.  To- 
 wards the  north  it  was  bounded  by  a  part  of  Mount 
 Taurus.  The  northern  part  of  Mesopotamia,  which 
 extended  as  far  as  the  Chaboras,  a  tributary  of  the  Eu- 
 phrates, is  mountainous,  and  for  the  most  part  fruitful. 
 The  southern  portion  consists  chiefly  of  reddish  hills, 
 and  deserts  without  any  trees,  except  liquorice-wood  ; 
 and,  like  the  desert  of  Arabia,  suflers,  at  a  distance 
 from  the  rivers,  a  dearth  of  food  and  water.  Here,  on 
 the  parched  steppes  or  table-lands,  where  the  simoom 
 often  breathes  destruction,  hordes  of  Arabs  have  from 
 the  earliest  times  wandered.  When  history,  therefore, 
 speaks  of  the  Romans  and  Persians  as  possessing  Mes- 
 opotamia, we  must  understand  the  northern  part,  which 
 abounded  in  all  the  necessaries  of  life.  The  inhabi- 
 tants of  this  portion,  who  still  speak  an  Armeno-Syriac 
 dialect,  were  called  among  themselves  Mygdonians, 
 and  their  district  was  known  by  the  name  of  Mygdo- 
 nia.  {Polyh.,  5,  51.  —  Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.)  Subse- 
 quently, under  the  Syro-Macedonian  monarchy,  it  took 
 the  name  of  Anthemusia.  {^Amm.  MarcclL,  li,  9. — 
 Eutrop.,  8,  2. — Sextus  Pufiis,  c.  20.)  In  the  time 
 of  the  Parthian  sway,  about  120  B.C.,  an  Arab  sheik, 
 Osroes,  took  possession  of  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
 land,  wresting  a  principality  in  this  quarter  from  the 
 Seleucidffi  of  Syria.  This  district  then  assumed  the 
 name  of  Osroene.  {Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v. — Procop.,  Pers., 
 1,  17. —  Amm.  Marcell ,  14,  3.)  Mesopotamia  was  fre- 
 quently the  scene  of  warlike  operations,  especially  be- 
 tween the  Parthians  and  Romans,  who  here  lost  Cras- 
 8US,  and  between  the  latter  nation  and  the  new  Per- 
 5N 
 
 sians.  After  remaining  for  some  time  a  Roman  pror- 
 ince,  it  fell  under  the  power  of  the  new  Persian  king- 
 dom, and  then  successively  under  the  Saracens  and 
 Turks.  The  oppression  of  the  Turkish  government 
 has  so  altered  the  appearance  of  this  large  tract  ol 
 country,  that  these  fruitful  plains,  which  once  were 
 covered  with  cities,  now  scarcely  exhibit  more  than  a 
 few  miserable  villages.  The  lower  part  of  Meso|)Ota- 
 mia  is  now  called  Irak  Arabu  the  u|)per  Diar-Bekr. 
 {Laurent's  Ana.  Geogr.,  p.  268.  —  Rennell,  Geogra- 
 phy of  Western  Asia,  vol.  1,  p.  432.) 
 
 Mfiss.u-A,  I.  Marcus  Valerius  Messala  Corvinus, 
 a  Roman  nobleman  of  ancient  family.  In  the  Euse- 
 bian  Chronicle  he  is  said  to  have  been  born  A.U.C. 
 694  ;  but  if  that  date  be  correct,  he  would  have  been 
 17  when  he  joined  the  republican  standard  at  Philippi. 
 He  acted  a  prominent  part  in  that  battle,  and,  after  it 
 was  lost,  was  offered  the  command  of  the  dispersed 
 forces  of  the  commonwealth.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
 likely  that  he  was  younger  than  21  at  this  period, 
 and  his  birth,  consequently,  ought  not  to  be  fixed  later 
 than  the  year  690.  In  his  youth  he  studied  for  a 
 short  time  at  Athens,  along  with  the  son  of  Cicero. 
 After  his  return  to  Rome,  his  name  having  appeared 
 in  the  roll  of  the  proscribed  by  the  nomination  of  An- 
 tony, he  Hed  from  Italy,  and  sought  refuge  with  the 
 army  of  Brutus  and  Cassius.  Previous,  however,  to 
 the  battle  of  Philippi,  his  name,  along  with  that  of 
 Varro,  was  erased  from  the  fatal  list,  on  the  plea  that 
 he  had  not  been  in  Rome  at  the  time  of  Ccesar's  mur- 
 der. Varro  accepted  the  proffered  pardon,  and  retired 
 to  his  studies  and  his  books,  among  which  he  after- 
 ward died  in  the  ninetieth  year  of  his  age  ;  but  it  was 
 indignantly  rejected  by  Messala,  who  steadily  adhered 
 to  the  cause  of  the  commonwealth.  The  night  before 
 the  battle  of  Philippi  he  supped  in  private  with  Cas- 
 sius in  his  tent.  That  chief  had  wished  to  protract 
 the  war,  and  opposed  himself  to  the  general  desire 
 that  prevailed  in  the  army  to  hazard  the  fortunes  of 
 the  republic  on  one  decisive  battle.  At  parting  for 
 the  night,  he  grasped  Messala  by  the  hand,  and,  ad- 
 dressing him  in  Greek,  called  him  to  bear  witness  that 
 he  was  reduced  to  the  same  painful  necessity  as  the 
 great  Pompey,  who  had  been  reluctaptly  forced  to 
 stake  on  one  threw  the  safety  of  his  country.  On 
 the  following  day,  so  fatal  to  the  liberties  of  Rome. 
 Messala  commanded  one  of  the  best  legions  in  the 
 army  of  Brutus.  After  the  second  defeat  at  Philippi 
 he  escaped  to  Thasus,  an  island  in  the  yEgean  Sea. 
 He  was  there  invited  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of 
 the  remains  of  the  republican  party.  But  he  probably 
 considered  the  cause  of  the  commonwealth  as  now 
 utterly  hopeless,  and  accordingly  listened  to  the  per- 
 suasions of  PoUio,  who  undertook  to  reconcile  him  to 
 the  conquerors,  and  to  preserve  the  lives  of  those  who 
 should  surrender  under  his  command.  Antony  passed 
 over  to  Thasus,  and,  with  great  appearance  of  cordi- 
 ality, received  Messala,  as  well  as  some  of  his  friends, 
 into  favour,  and,  in  return,  was  put  in  possession  of. 
 the  stores  which  had  been  amassed  in  that  island  for 
 the  wreck  of  the  republican  forces.  Having  now  join- 
 ed the  arms  of  Antony,  Messala  accompanied  him  in 
 the  dissolute  progress  which  he  made  through  the 
 Roman  dominions  in  .Asia,  when  he  received  the  hom- 
 age of  the  tributary  kings  and  settled  their  disputes. 
 IWfessala,  from  his  earliest  youth,  had  been  distinguish- 
 ed for  his  powers  in  speaking,  and  he  sometimes  plead 
 before  Antony  in  favour  of  an  accused  tetrarch  or  of 
 an  injured  people.  At  length,  however,  the  scanda- 
 lous and  infatuated  conduct  of  Antony,  and  the  com- 
 parative moderation  of  Augustus,  induced  him  to 
 transfer  his  services  to  the  latter,  whom  he  continued 
 to  support  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  In  the 
 naval  war  with  Sextus  Pompey,  he  was  second  itj 
 command  under  Agrippa,  and,  on  one  occasion  du- 
 rina  his   absence,  had   the   supreme  direction  of  th« 
 
 ■=  833 
 
MESSALA. 
 
 MESSALA. 
 
 fleet.  In  the  course  of  this  contest  he  was  also  for 
 some  time  stationed  with  an  army  on  the  Neapolitan 
 shore  ;  and  Augustus,  having  been  not  only  defeated, 
 hut  shipwrecked  in  one  of  the  many  naval  engage- 
 ments which  he  fought  with  Ponipey,  sought  shelter 
 m  the  most  wretched  condition  in  the  camp  of  Mes- 
 sala,  by  whom  he  was  received  as  a  friend  and  master, 
 and  treated  with  the  tendercst  care.  The  death  of 
 Sextus  Pompey  at  length  opened  lioth  sea  and  land 
 to  his  successful  adversary,  and  it  was  quickly  follow- 
 ed by  the  long-expected  struggle  for  superiority  be- 
 tween Antony  and  Augustus. — Messala  was  consul 
 in  A.U.C.  721,  the  year  of  the  battle  of  Actium,  in 
 which  he  bore  a  distinguished  part.  After  that  deci- 
 sive victory  and  the  firm  establishment  of  the  throne 
 of  Augustus,  he  lived  the  general  favourite  of  all  par- 
 ties, and  the  chief  ornament  of  a  court  where  he  still 
 asserted  his  freedom  and  dignity.  While  at  Rome 
 he  resided  in  a  house  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  which  had 
 formerly  belonged  to  Marc  Antony ;  but  he  was  fre- 
 quently absent  from  the  capital  on  the  service  of  the 
 state.  War  after  war  was  intrusted  to  his  conduct, 
 and  province  after  province  was  committed  to  his  ad- 
 ministration. In  some  of  his  foreign  expeditions  he 
 was  accompanied  by  the  poet  Tibullus,  who  has  cel- 
 ebrated the  military  exploits  of  Messala  in  his  famed 
 panegyric,  and  his  own  friendship  and  attachment  to 
 his  patron  in  his  elegies.  The  triumph  which  Messa- 
 la obtained  in  727,  for  his  victories  in  a  Gallic  cam- 
 paign, completed  the  measure  of  his  military  honours  ; 
 and  he  filled  in  succession  all  the  most  important  civ- 
 il offices  in  the  state.  Besides  holding  the  consulship 
 in  721,  he  was  elected  into  the  college  of  Augurs,  and 
 was  intrusted  with  the  superintendence  of  the  aque- 
 ducts, one  of  those  great  public  works  for  which 
 Rome  has  been  so  justly  celebrated.  In  736,  on  ac- 
 count of  the  absence  of  Augustus  and  Maecenas  from 
 the  capital,  he  was  nominated  prefect  of  the  city  ;  but 
 he  resigned  that  situation  a  few  days  after  his  appoint- 
 ment, regarding  it  as  inconsistent  with  the  ancient 
 constitution  of  his  country.  He  is  also  believed  to 
 have  been  the  person  who,  by  command  of  the  Con- 
 script fathers,  first  saluted  Augustus  in  the  senate- 
 house  as  the  "  Father  of  his  country  ;"  a  distinction 
 which  was  bestowed  in  a  manner  that  drew  tears  from 
 the  master  of  the  Roman  world  (Suet.,  Aug.,  58),  and 
 a  reply,  in  which  he  declared  tliat,  having  attained  the 
 summit  of  his  wishes,  he  had  nothing  more  to  desire 
 from  the  immortal  gods  but  a  continuance  of  tha  same 
 attachment  till  the  last  moments  of  his  lifa. — From 
 this  period  the  name  of  Messala  is  scarcely  once  men- 
 tioned by  any  contemporary  writer.  He  survived, 
 however,  ten  or  twelve  years  longer.  Tiberius  Cae- 
 sar, who  was  then  a  youth,  fond  of  the  liberal  arts, 
 and  by  no  means  ignorant  of  literature,  paid  Messala, 
 when  in  his  old  age,  much  deference  and  attention, 
 and  attempted  to  imitate  his  style  of  oratory.  (Suet., 
 Tib.,  c.  70.)  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  he  was 
 dreadfully  afflicted  with  ulcers  in  the  sacra  spina;  and 
 It  is  said  that,  two  years  before  his  deatl.,  he  was  de- 
 prived of  both  sense  and  memory.  He  at  length  for- 
 got his  own  name  (Plin  ,  7,  24),  and  became  incapa- 
 ble of  putting  two  words  together  with  meaning.  It 
 is  mentioned  in  the  Eusebian  Chronicle  that  he  per- 
 ished by  abstaining  from  food  when  he  had  reached 
 the  age  of  seventy-two  ;  but  if  he  were  born  in  61)0, 
 as  is  supposed,  this  computation  would  extend  his  ex- 
 istence till  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Augustus,  which 
 is  inconsistent  with  a  passage  of  the  dialogue  "  Dc 
 eausis  corruptee.  cloqucntuE,"  where  it  is  said,  "  Cor- 
 vinus  in  medium  usque  Auffusli  principatum,  Asinus 
 f(zne  ad  extrcmum  duravit.'^  Now  the  middle  of  the 
 reign  of  Augustus  cannot  be  fixed  later  than  the  year 
 746,  when  Messala  could  only  have  attained  the  age 
 of  fifty-six. — His  death  was  dee[)ly  lamented,  and  his 
 funeral  elegy  was  written  by  Ovid.  {Ep.,  ex.  Pont., 
 834 
 
 1,  7.)— Though  Messala  had  attained  the  highest  poin» 
 of  exaltation,  in  an  age  of  the  most  violent  political 
 factions  and  the  most  flagrant  moral  corruption,  he 
 left  behind  him  a  spotless  character  ;  being  chiefly 
 known  as  a  disinterested  patron  of  learning,  and  a 
 steady  supporter,  so  far  as  was  then  possible,  of  the 
 principles  of  the  ancient  constitution.  "  Messala," 
 says  Berwick,  "  had  the  singular  merit  of  supporting 
 an  unblemished  character  in  a  most  despotic  court, 
 without  making  a  sacrifice  of  those  principles  for 
 which  he  had  fought  in  the  fields  of  Philippi ;  and  the 
 genuine  integrity  of  his  character  was  so  deeply  im- 
 pressed on  all  parties,  that  it  attracted  a  general  ad- 
 miration in  a  most  corrupt  age.  He  was  brave,  elo- 
 quent, and  virtuous;  he  was  liberal,  attached  to  let- 
 ters, and  his  patronage  was  considered  as  the  surest 
 passport  to  the  gates  of  fame,  and  extended  to  every 
 man  who  was  at  all  conversant  with  letters.  This 
 character  is  supported  by  history,  is  not  contradicted 
 by  contemporary  writers,  and  is  sealed  by  the  impar- 
 tial judgment  of  posterity.  No  writer,  either  ancient 
 or  modern,  has  ever  named  Messala  without  some 
 tribute  of  praise.  Cicero  soon  perceived  that  he  pos- 
 sessed an  assemblage  of  excellent  qualities,  which  he 
 would  have  more  admired  had  he  lived  to  see  them 
 expanded  and  matured  to  perfection.  Messala  was 
 his  disciple,  and  rivalled  his  master  in  eloquence.  In 
 the  opinion  of  the  judicious  Quintilian,  his  style  was 
 neat  and  elegant,  and  in  all  his  speeches  he  dis])layed 
 a  superior  nobility.  In  the  Dialogue  of  Orators,  he  is 
 said  to  have  excelled  Cicero  in  the  sweetness  and 
 correctness  of  his  style.  His  taste  for  poetry  and  po- 
 lite literature  will  admit  of  little  doubt,  when  we  call 
 to  mind  that  he  was  protected  by  Caesar,  favoured  by 
 Maecenas,  esteemed  by  Horace,  and  loved  by  Tibul- 
 lus. Horace,  in  one  of  his  beautiful  odes,  praises 
 Messala  in  the  happiest  strains  of  poetry,  calls  the 
 day  he  intended  to  pass  with  him  propitious,  and 
 promises  to  treat  him  with  some  of  his  most  excellent 
 wine.  '  For,'  says  the  poet,  'though  Messala  is  con- 
 versant with  all  the  philosophy  of  Socrates  and  the 
 Academy,  he  will  not  decline  such  entertainment  as 
 my  humble  board  can  supply.'  {Od.,  3,  21.)  The 
 modest  Tibullus  flattered  himself  with  the  pleasing 
 hope  of  Messala's  paying  him  a  visit  in  the  country, 
 '  where,'  says  he,  '  my  beloved  Delia  shall  assist  in 
 doing  the  honours  for  so  noble  a  guest'  (1,5).  The 
 rising  genius  of  Ovid  was  admired  and  encouraged 
 by  Messala  ;  and  this  condescension  the  exiled  bard 
 has  acknowledged  in  an  epistle  to  his  son  Messalinus, 
 dated  from  the  cold  shores  of  the  Euxine.  In  this 
 letter  Ovid  calls  Messala  his  friend,  the  light  and  di- 
 rector of  all  his  literary  pursuits.  It  is  natural  to  sup- 
 pose that  an  intimacy  subsisted  between  Messala  and 
 Virgil,  and  yet  no  historical  circumstance  has  come 
 to  our  knowledge  sufficient  to  evince  it.  The  poem 
 called  Ciris,  which  is  dedicated  to  Messala,  and  has 
 been  ascribed  to  Virgil  by  some  grave  authorities, 
 grows  more  suspicious  every  day.  Tacitus,  whose 
 judgment  of  mankind  is  indisputable,  and  whose  de- 
 cision is  not  always  in  the  most  favourable  point  of 
 view,  seems  fond  of  praising  Messala  ;  and  in  a  speech 
 given  to  Silius,  the  consul-elect,  he  considers  him 
 among  the  few  great  characters  who  have  risen  to  the 
 highest  honours  by  their  integrity  and  eloquence. 
 (Ann.,  11,6.)  Even  Tiberius  himself,  when  a  youth, 
 took  him  for  his  master  and  pattern  in  speaking ;  and 
 happy  would  it  have  been  for  the  Roman  people  had 
 he  also  taken  him  for  his  guide  and  pattern  in  virtue." 
 (Berwick's  Liiics,  p.  59,  seqq.) — Messala  was  united 
 toTerentia,  who  had  been  first  married  to  Cicero,  and 
 subsequently  to  Sallust,  the  historian.  After  the 
 death  of  Messala,  she  entered,  in  extreme  old  age, 
 into  a  fourth  marriage,  with  a  Roman  senator,  who 
 used  to  say  that  he  possessed  the  two  greatest  curi- 
 osities in  Rome,  the  widow  of  Cicero,  and  the  chair 
 
MES 
 
 M  E  S 
 
 in  which  Julius  Caesar  had  been  assassinated.  Mes- 
 sala  left  by  Terentia  two  sons,  Marcus  and  Lucius. 
 The  elder  of  these,  who  was  consul  in  751,  took  the 
 name  of  Messalinus;  he  greatly  distinguished  himself 
 under  Tiberius,  when  that  prince  commanded,  before 
 his  accession  to  the  empire,  in  the  war  of  Pannonia. 
 [Veil.  Falerc,  2,  112)  Messalinus  inherited  his 
 father's  eloquence,  and  also  followed  the  example  he 
 bad  set  in  devoted  attachment  to  Augustus,  and  the 
 patronage  he  extended  to  literature.  But,  during  the 
 reign  of  Tiberius,  he  was  chiefly  noted  as  one  of  the 
 most  servile  flatterers  of  that  tyrant.  (Tacit.,  Ann., 
 3,  18.)  The  younger  son  of  Messala  assumed  the 
 name  of  Cotta,  from  his  maternal  family,  and  acted  a 
 conspicuous,  though  by  no  means  reputable  part  in 
 the  first  years  of  Tiberius.  Both  brothers  were  friends 
 and  protectors  of  Ovid,  who  addressed  to  Messalinus 
 two  of  his  epistles  from  Pontus,  which  are  full  of  re- 
 spect for  the  memory  of  his  illustrious  father.  {Dun- 
 lop's  Roman  Lit.,  vol.  3,  p.  53,  seqq.,  Lo7id.  ed.) 
 
 Messalina,  I.  Valeria,  the  first  wife  of  the  Emper- 
 or Claudius,  dishonoured  his  throne  by  her  unbridled 
 and  disgusting  incontinence.  Her  cruelty  equalled 
 her  licentiousness.  After  a  long  career  of  guilt,  she 
 openly  married  a  young  patrician  named  Silius,  du- 
 ring the  absence  of  the  emperor,  who  had  gone  on  a 
 visit  to  Ostia.  Narcissus,  the  freedman  of  Claudius, 
 was  the  only  one  who  dared  to  inform  Claudius  of  the 
 fact,  and,  when  he  had  roused  the  sluggish  resentment 
 of  his  imperial  master,  he  brought  him  to  Rome.  The 
 arrival  of  Claudius  dispersed  in  an  instant  all  who  had 
 thronged  around  Messalina ;  but  still,  though  thus  de- 
 serted, she  resolved  to  brave  the  storm,  and  sent  to 
 the  emperor  demanding  to  be  heard.  Narcissus,  how- 
 ever, fearing  the  effect  of  her  presence  on  the  feeble 
 spirit  of  her  husband,  despatched  an  order,  as  if  com- 
 ing from  him,  for  her  immediate  ])unishment.  The 
 order  found  her  in  the  gardens  of  Lucullus.  She  en- 
 deavoured to  destroy  herself,  but  her  courage  failing, 
 she  was  put  to  death  by  a  tribune  who  had  been  sent 
 for  that  purpose,  A.D  48.  (Tacit.,  Arm.,  11  ct  12. 
 — Suetonius,  Vtt.  Claud.) — II.  Called  also  Slatilia, 
 the  grand-daughter  of  Statilius  Taurus,  who  had  been 
 consul,  and  had  enjoyed  a  triumph  during  the  reign 
 of  .\ugustus.  She  was  married  four  times  before  she 
 came  to  the  imperial  throne.  The  last  o.''  her  four 
 husbands  was  Alticus  Vestinus,  a  man  of  consular 
 rank,  who  had  ventured  to  aspire  to  her  hand,  al- 
 though he  was  not  ignorant  that  he  had  Nero  for  a 
 rival.  The  tyrant,  who  had  long  favoured  Vestinrs 
 as  one  of  the  companions  of  his  debaucheries,  now 
 resolved  to  destroy  him,  and  accordingly  compelled 
 him  to  open  his  veins.  Messalina  was  transferred  to 
 the  imperial  bed.  After  the  death  of  Nero  she  en- 
 deavoured to  regain  her  former  rank,  as  empress,  by 
 means  of  Otho,  whom  she  had  captivated  by  her  beau- 
 tv,  and  hoped  to  espouse.  But  Otho's  fall  having  de- 
 stroyed all  these  expectations,  she  turned  her  atten- 
 tion to  literary  subjects,  and  obtained  applause  by 
 some  public  discourses  which  she  delivered.  (Biogr. 
 Univ.,  vol.  28,  p.  431.) 
 
 Messalinus,  M.  Valerius,  son  of  Valerius  Messa- 
 la Corvinus.  (Consult  remarks  at  the  close  of  the  ar- 
 ticle Messala.) 
 
 Messana,  an  ancient  and  celebrated  city  of  Sicily, 
 situate  on  the  straits  which  separate  Italy  from  that 
 island.  The  first  settlers  in  this  quarter  would  seem 
 to  have  been  a  body  of  wandering  Siculi,  who  gave 
 the  place,  from  the  scylheWke  form  of  its  harbour,  the 
 name  of  Zancle  {ZuyK?^7i,  "  a  scythe^').  The  Siculi 
 were  not  a  commercial  race,  and  therefore  could  not 
 avail  themselves  of  the  superior  advantages  for  trade 
 which  the  spot  aflforded  ;  they,  in  conseque.nce,  finally 
 left  it.  To  them  succeeded  a  band  of  pirates  from 
 Cumas  in  Campania.  (Thucyd.,%,A:.)  These  settled 
 in  the  place,  and,  to  give  the  new  colony  more  stability, 
 
 formed  a  union  with  the  parent  city  of  Chalcis  in  Eu- 
 bosa,  in  consequence  of  which  a  considerable  body  of 
 colonists,  coming  from  Chalcis  and  the  rest  of  Euboea, 
 participated  in  the  distribution  of  the  lands.     (Thucyd., 
 I.   c.)     Chalcis   had    previously    founded    the   city   of 
 Naxos  on  the  eastern  coast  below  ;   and  it  is  probable 
 that  a  part  of  the  new  population  came  from  this  latter 
 place.     On  this  supposition,  at  least,  we  can  reconcile 
 with    the    statement  of  Thucydides    the    account   of 
 Strabo,   who   informs   us    that    Zancle   was  a   settle- 
 ment of  the  Naxians  who  dwelt  near  Catana  (Ntt^iuv 
 KTiafia  tCjv   npo^  Karuvr/.  —  Strabo,  268).      Zancio 
 went  on  silently  increasing  in   strength,  and  was  soon 
 powerful  enough  to  found  the  city  of  Himera  (Thu 
 cyd.,  6,  5),  and  to  carry  on  a  successful  warfare  against 
 the  neighbouring  Siculi  in  the  interior.     As  it  was, 
 however,  the   only  Grecian  city  in  this  corner  of  the 
 island,  it  sought  to  strengthen  itself  by  new  accessions 
 from  abroad  ;    and,  accordingly,  the  lonians  of  Asia 
 Minor  were  invited  to  send  a  colony  to  the  "  Beautiful 
 Shore"  (KaTiij  'Aktt/),  which  lay  along  the  coast  of 
 Sicily  on  the  Tyrrhene  Sea.     (Herod.,  6,  22.)     This 
 happened  about  the  period  when  Miletus  was  destroyed 
 by  the  Persians,  and  when  the  other  Greek  cities  of 
 Lower  Asia  had  either  to  submit  to  the  yoke  of  Darius, 
 or  imitate  the  example  which  the  Phoca-ans  had  set  in 
 the  time  of  Cyrus.     The  Samians,  therefore,  and  a  body 
 of  Milesians  who  had  escaped   being  led  into  captivity, 
 embraced  the  offer  of  the  people  of  Zancle.    They  land- 
 ed at  Locri,  on  the  Italian  coast ;  but  Scythes,  the  kin^ 
 or  tyrant  of  Zancle,  would  seem  to  have  made  no  prep- 
 arations whatever  for  receiving  them,  being  engaged  at 
 the  time  in  besieging  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Siculi.    An- 
 axilas,  tyrant  of  Rhegium,  who  was  on  no  friendly  foot- 
 ing with  his  neighbours  in  Zancle,  took  advantage  of  this 
 circumstance.      He  proceeded  to  Locri,  told  the  new- 
 comers to  give  up  all  thought  of  a  settlement  in  that 
 quarter,  that  Zancle  was  undefended  and  might  easily 
 be  taken,  and  that  he  would  aid  them  in  the  attempt. 
 The  enterprise  succeeded,  Zancle  was  taken,  and  the 
 inhabitants  became  united  as  one  common  people  with 
 their  new   invaders.      The   Samians,  however,   were 
 not  long  after  driven  out  by  the  same  .Anaxilas  who 
 had  aided  in  their  attempt  on  Zancle.     He  established 
 here,  according  to  Thucydides  (6,  5),  "a  mixed  race," 
 and  called  the  city  by  a  new  name,  "  Messana"  (Meff- 
 ailva),  as  well  from  the  country  (Messenia)  whence 
 he  was  anciently  descended,  as  from  a  body  of  .Mes- 
 senian  exiles  whom  he  settled   here.     Messana  (or, 
 as  the  Attic  writers  call  it,  Messene,  M.eaa^v7]),  soon 
 necame  a  very  flourishing  city,  both  by  reason  of  its 
 very  fruitful  territory  and  its  advantageous  situation 
 for  commerce.     It  was  also  a  place  of  some  strength, 
 and  the  citadel  of  Messana  is  often  mentioned  in  his- 
 tory.    (D/orf.,  14,  87. — Folyb.,  \,  10.)     Messana  was 
 regarded   also   by   the   Greeks   as   the  key  of  Sicily 
 (Tkucyd.,  4,  1),  as  being  the  place,  namely,  to  which 
 vessels  cruising  from  Greece  to  Sicily  directed  their 
 course  on  leaving  the  lapygian  promontory.     (Bloom- 
 field,  ad  Thucyd.,  I.  c)     And  yet,  notwithstanding  all 
 these  advantages,  it  was  never  other  than  an  unlucky 
 place,  always  undergoing  changes,  and  unable  at  any 
 time  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  affairs  of  Sicily  ; 
 for  its  wealth,  and  its  advantageous  situation  as  regard- 
 ed the  passage  from  Italy  into  the  island,  always  made 
 it  a  tempting  prize  to  the  ambitious  and  powerful  prin- 
 ces around."    No  Greek  city,  therefore,  experience.' 
 more  frequent  changes  of  rulers  than  this,  and  nonb 
 contained  within  its  walls  a  more  mixed  population.— 
 At  a  later  period  (01.  96,  1),  Messana  fell  into  the  hands 
 of  the  Carthaginians,  who  destroyed  it  (Dwd..  14,  56, 
 scqq.),  being  aware  of  their  inability  at  that  time  to  re- 
 tain a  place  so  far  distant  from   their  other  strong- 
 holds, and  not  wishing  it  to  come  again  into  the  pos- 
 session of  their  opponents.     Dionysius  of  Syracuse, 
 however   betran  to  rebuild  it  in  the  same  year,  and, 
 '      •=  835 
 
MES 
 
 MES 
 
 Besides  establishing  in  it  the  remnant  of  the  former  in- 
 habitants, added  a  considerable  number  of  Locrians, 
 Methymna;aiis,  and  Messenian  exiles.  The  latter, 
 however,  through  fear  of  offending  the  Lacedasinoniatis, 
 were  afterward  transferred  to  the  district  of  Abacene, 
 and  there  founded  Tyndaris.  Messana  thus  came  to 
 contain  as  mixed  a  population  as  before.  {Dwd.^  14, 
 78.)  It  remained  under  the  sway  of  Dionysius  and 
 his  son  ;  and  subsequently,  after  enjoying  a  short  pe- 
 riod of  freedom,  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  Agathocles. 
 {Diod.,  19,  102.)  The  following  year  the  inhabitants 
 revoked  from  his  sway,  and  [)ut  themselves  under  the 
 protection  of  the  Carthaginians.  (Diod.,  19,  110.) 
 Soon,  however,  a  new  misfortune  befell  the  unlucky 
 city.  It  was  seized  by  the  Mamertini  {vid.  Marnerti- 
 ni),  its  male  inhabitants  were  either  slaughtered  or 
 driven  out,  and  their  wives  and  children  became  the 
 property  of  the  conquerors.  Messana  now  took  the 
 name  of  Mamertina,  though  in  process  of  time  the  other 
 appellation  once  more  gained  the  ascendancy.  {Fo- 
 lyb.,  1,  7.— DM.,  21,  VS.—Flin.,  3,  7.)  'J'his  act  of 
 perfidy  and  cruelty  passed  unpunished.  Syracuse  was 
 too  much  occupied  with  intestine  commotions  to  attend 
 to  it,  and  the  Carthaginians  gladly  made  a  league  with 
 the  Mamertini,  since  by  them  Pyrrhus  would  be  pre- 
 vented from  crossing  over  into  Sicily  and  seizing  on  a 
 post  so  important  to  his  future  operations.  {Diod.,  22, 
 8.)  The  Mamertini,  however,  could  not  lay  aside  their 
 old  habits  of  robbery.  They  harassed  all  their  neigh- 
 bours, and  even  became  troublesome  to  Syracuse, 
 where  King  Hiero  had  at  last  succeeded  in  establish- 
 ing order  and  tranquillity.  This  monarch  defeated 
 the  lawless  banditti,  and  would  have  taken  their  city, 
 had  not  the  Carthaginians  interposed  to  defend  it.  A 
 body  of  these,  with  the  approbation  of  [lart  of  the  in- 
 habitants, took  possession  of  the  citadel  ;  while  another 
 portion  of  the  inhabitants  called  in  the  assistance  of 
 the  Romans,  and  thus  the  first  of  the  Pu7iic  ivars  had 
 its  origin.  (Vid.  Punicum  Bellum,  and  compare  Po- 
 lyh.,  1,  9,  seqq.  —  Diod.,  22,  15.  — W.,  23,  2,  seqq.) 
 Messana  and  the  Mamertines  remained  from  hence- 
 forth under  the  Roman  power  ;  but  the  city,  as  before, 
 could  never  enjoy  any  long  period  of  repose.  It  suf- 
 fered in  the  early  civil  wars  between  Marius  and  Svlla, 
 in  the  war  of  the  slaves  in  Sicily,  and,  more  particular- 
 'y,  in  the  contest  between  Sextus  Poinpey  and  the  tri- 
 umvir Octavianus.  Messana  formed  during  this  war 
 the  chief  station  of  Pompey's  fleet,  and  his  principal 
 place  of  supply,  and  the  city  was  plundered  at  its  close. 
 {Appian,  B.  Civ-,  5,  122.)  A  Roman  colony  was  af- 
 terward planted  here.  {Mariner/,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt. 
 2,  p.  267,  seqq.) — The  modern  Messina  corresponds 
 to  the  ancient  city.  Even  in  later  times,  the  fates 
 seem  to  have  conspired  against  this  unfortunate  place. 
 A  plague  swept  away  a  great  part  of  the  inhabitants; 
 then  rebellion  spread  its  ravages  ;  and  fir^dy,  the  dread- 
 ful earthquake  in  1783  completed  i'.^  downfall  of  a 
 city  which  rivalled,  if  it  did  no;  lOrpass,  Palermo. 
 (Hoare^s  Classical  Tour,  vol.  2.  .  203.)  Although 
 the  town  has  since  been  rebuilt  .according  to  a  regular 
 plan  and  although  it  has  betn  declared  a  free  port, 
 Messina  is  not  so  important  as  it  once  was.  It  con- 
 tained before  the  last  catastrophe  a  hundred  thousand 
 inhabitants  :  the  preser.i  population  does  not  amount 
 to  seventy  thousand  {Malic  Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p. 
 732,  Am.  cd.) 
 
 Messapia,  a  c.iitry  of  Italy  in  Magna  Grjecia,  com- 
 monly supposed  to  have  been  the  same  with  lapygia, 
 but  forming,  in  strictness,  the  interior  of  that  part  of 
 Italy.  The  town  of  Messapia,  mentioned  by  Pliny 
 (3,  11),  is  thought  to  have  communicated  its  name  to 
 (he  Messapian  nation.  The  generality  of  Italian  to- 
 nographers  identify  the  site  of  this  ancient  town  with 
 that  of  Mcssagna,  between  Oria  and  Brindisi.  (Pra- 
 ili.  Via  Appia,  4,  8. — Romanclli,  vol.  2,  p.  127. — 
 Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  312.) 
 836 
 
 Messene,  a  daughter  of  Triopas,  king  of  Argos, 
 who  married  Polycaon,  son  of  Leiex,  king  of  Laconia. 
 She  encouraged  her  husband  to  levy  troops,  and  to 
 seize  a  part  of  the  Peloponnesus,  which,  after  it  had 
 been  conquered,  received  her  name.     (Pausan  ,4,  1.) 
 
 Messene  (or,  in  the  Doric  dialect  of  the  country, 
 Messana,  Micfauva),  the  chief  city  of  Messenia,  in  the 
 Peloponnesus  :  situate  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ithoine, 
 and  founded  by  Epaminondas.  It  is  said  to  bavo 
 been  completed  and  fortified  in  eighty-five  days,  s.0 
 great  was  the  zeal  and  activity  displayed  by  the  The- 
 bans  and  their  allies  in  this  undertaking.  {Diud. 
 Sic,  15,  66.)  Pausanias  informs  us,  that  the  walls  of 
 this  city  were  the  strongest  he  had  ever  seen,  being 
 entirely  of  stone,  and  well  supplied  with  towers  and 
 buttresses.  The  citadel  was  situated  on  Mount  Iih- 
 ome,  celebrated  in  history  for  the  long  and  obstinate 
 defence  which  the  Messenians  there  made  against  the 
 Spartans  in  their  last  revolt.  The  history  of  this  city 
 is  identified  with  that  of  Messenia,  which  latter  article 
 may  hence  be  consulted. — The  ruins  of  Messene  are 
 visible,  as  we  learn  from  Sir  W.  Gell,  at  Maurammali, 
 a  small  village,  with  a  beautiful  source,  under  Ithome, 
 in  the  centre  of  the  ancient  city.  (Ilrn.,  p.  59  — 
 C'ramer''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  150. — GeWs  Itin.  of 
 the  Morea,  p.  QO.—DudwcIl,  vol.  2,  p.  365.) 
 
 Messenia,  a  country  of  the  Peloponnesus,  between 
 Laconia,  Elis,  Arcadia,  and  the  Ionian  Sea.  The 
 river  Neda  formed  the  boundary  towards  Elis  and  Ar- 
 cadia. From  the  latter  country  it  was  farther  divided 
 by  an  irregular  line  of  mountains,  extending  in  a  south- 
 easterly direction  to  the  chain  of  Tavgelus  on  the  l^a- 
 conian  border.  This  celebrated  range  marked  the 
 limits  of  the  province  to  the  east,  as  far  as  the  source 
 of  the  little  river  Pamisus.  which  completed  the  line 
 of  separation  from  the  Spartan  territory  to  the  south. 
 {Straho.  361. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  130.) 
 Its  area  is  calculated  by  Clinton  at  1162  square  miles. 
 (Fiisl.  Hell,  vol.  2,  p.  385)  Messenia  is  described 
 by  Pausanias  as  the  most  fertile  province  of  Pelopon- 
 nesus (d,  15,  3).  and  Euripides,  in  a  passage  quoted 
 by  Strabo  (366),  speaks  of  it  as  a  land  well  watered, 
 very  fertile,  with  beautiful  pastures  for  cattle,  and  pos- 
 sessing a  climate  neither  too  cold  in  winter  nor  too 
 hot  in  summer.  The  western  part  of  the  country  is 
 drained  by  the  river  Pamisus,  which  rises  in  the 
 mountains  between  Arcadia  and  Messenia,  and  Hows 
 southward  into  the  Messenian  Gulf.  The  basin  of 
 the  Pamisus  is  divided  into  two  distinct  parts,  which 
 are  separated  from  each  other  on  the  east  by  some 
 high  land  that  stretches  from  the  Taygetus  to  the  Pa- 
 misus, and  on  the  western  side  of  the  river  by  Mount 
 Ithome.  The  upper  part,  usually  called  the  jilain  of 
 Stcnyclerus,  is  of  small  extent  and  moderate  fertility; 
 but  the  lower  part,  south  of  Ithome,  is  an  extensive 
 plain,  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  its  great  fertility, 
 whence  it  was  frequently  called  Mar.aria,  or  "  the 
 blessed."  Leake  describes  it  as  covered  at  the  present 
 day  with  plantations  of  the  vine,  the  fig,  and  the  mul- 
 berry, and  "as  rich  in  cultivation  as  can  well  be  ima- 
 gined." {Travels  in  the  Morea,  vol.  l,p  352)  The 
 western  part  of  Messana  is  diversified  by  hills  and  val- 
 leys, but  contains  no  high  mountains.  {Encycl.  Vs. 
 Knowl.,  vol.  15,  p.  126.) — We  learn  from  Pausania» 
 (4,  1,  2),  that  Messenia  derived  its  appellation  froir 
 Messene,  wife  of  Polycaon,  one  of  the  earliest  sover 
 eigns  of  the  country.  He  also  observes,  that  when 
 ever  this  name  occurs  in  Homer,  it  denotes  the  prov 
 ince  rather  than  the  city  of  Messene,  which  he  con. 
 ceives  did  not  exist  till  the  time  of  Epaminondas, 
 (Compare  Slraho,  358.)  At  the  period  of  the  Trojan 
 war.  it  appears  from  the  poet  that  Messenia  was  partly 
 uiidi-r  the  dominion  of  Menelaus,  and  partly  under  thai 
 of  Nestor.  This  is  evident  from  the  towns  which  he 
 has  assigned  to  these  respective  leaders,  and  is  farther 
 confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  Strabo  and  Pausanias 
 
MESSENIA. 
 
 MESSENIA. 
 
 {Slrah.,  350. — Pausan.,  4,  3.)  In  the  division  of  the 
 Peloponnesus,  made  after  the  return  of  the  Heraclidae, 
 Messenia  fell  to  the  share  of  Cresphontes,  son  of  Aris- 
 todeinus,  with  whom  commenced  the  Dorian  line, 
 which  continued  without  inierruption  for  many  gener- 
 ations. In  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  before 
 the  Christian  era,  a  series  of  disputes  and  skirmishes 
 arose  on  the  borders  of  Messenia  and  Laconia,  which 
 gave  rise  to  a  confirmed  hatred  between  the  two  na- 
 tions. Prompted  by  this  feeling,  the  Spartans  are 
 said  to  have  bound  themselves  by  an  oath  never  to 
 return  home  till  Messenia  was  subdued  ;  and  they 
 commenced  the  contest  by  a  midnight  attack  on  Am- 
 pheia,  a  frontier  town,  which  they  took,  and  put 
 the  inhabitants  to  the  sword.  This  was  the  com- 
 mencement of  what  was  called  the  First  Mcsseniati 
 War,  the  dale  of  which  is  usually  given,  though 
 it  cannot  be  believed  with  certainty,  as  B.C.  743. 
 Euphaes,  the  Messenian  king,  had  wisdom,  howev- 
 er, and  courage  sufficient  for  the  crisis.  Aware  of 
 the  Lacedaitnonian  superiority  in  the  field,  he  pro- 
 tracted the  war,  avoiding  battles  and  defending  the 
 towns.  In  the  fourth  year,  however,  a  battle  was 
 fought  with  great  slaughter  and  doubtful  success.  But 
 the  Messenians  were  suffering  from  garrison-confine- 
 ment and  the  constant  plundering  of  their  lands. 
 New  measures  were  taken.  The  people  were  collect- 
 ed from  the  inland  posts  at  Ithome,  a  place  of  great 
 natural  strength,  and  open  to  supplies  by  sea,  the 
 Lacedemonians  having  no  fleet.  Meanwhile  they 
 asked  advice  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  which  bade  them 
 sacrifice  to  the  infernal  deities  a  virgin  of  the  blood 
 of  yEpylus,  son  of  the  Heracleid  Cresphontes.  Im- 
 pelled by  patriotism  or  ambition,  Aristodemus  offered 
 his  own  daughter  ;  and,  when  it  was  intended  to  save 
 her  by  falsely  denying  her  virginity,  in  his  rage  he  slew 
 lier  with  his  own  hand.  The  fame  of  the  obedience 
 paid  10  the  oracle  so  far  disheartened  the  enemy,  that 
 the  war  languished  for  five  years  ;  in  the  sixth  an  in- 
 vasion took  place,  and  a  battle,  bloody  and  indecisive 
 like  the  former.  Euphaes  was  killed,  and  left  no  is- 
 -sue,  and  Aristodemus  was  elected  to  succeed  him. 
 The  new  prince  was  brave  and  able,  and  the  Lacedae- 
 monians, weakened  by  the  battle,  confined  themselves 
 for  four  years  to  predatory  incursions.  At  last  they 
 again  invaded  Messenia,  and  were  defeated  ;  but,  in 
 the  midst  of  his  success,  Aristodemus  was  so  pos- 
 sessed with  remorse  for  his  daughter's  death,  that  he 
 slew  himself  on  her  tomb,  and  deprived  his  country  of 
 the  only  leader  able  to  defend  lier.  Ithome  was  be- 
 sieged. The  famished  inhabitants  found  means  to 
 pass  the  Lacedaemonian  lines,  and  fled  for  shelter  and 
 subsistence,  some  to  neighbouring  states  where  they 
 liad  claims  of  hospitality,  others  to  their  ruined  homes 
 and  about  their  desolated  country.  Ithome  was  dis- 
 mantled ;  and  those  who  remained  of  the  Messenians 
 were  allowed  to  occupy  most  of  the  lands,  paying  half 
 the  produce  to  Sparta. — The  absence  from  home  to 
 which  the  Lacedemonians  had  bound  themselves,  be- 
 came, by  the  protraction  of  the  war,  an  evil  threaten- 
 ing the  existence  of  the  slate,  no  children  being  born 
 to  supply  the  waste  of  war  and  natural  decay.  The 
 remedy  said  to  have  been  adopted  was  a  strange  one, 
 liighiy  characteristic  of  Lacedaemon,  and  such  as  no 
 other  people  would  have  used.  The  young  men  who 
 had  come  to  maturity  since  the  beginning  of  the  war 
 were  free  fron\  the  oath,  and  they  were  sent  home  to 
 cohabit  promiscuously  with  the  marriageable  virgins. 
 But  eve«  at  Sparta  this  expedient,  in  some  degree, 
 ran  counter  to  tlie  popular  feelings.  When  the  war 
 was  ended,  and  the  children  of  this  irregular  inter- 
 course were  grown  to  manhood,  though  bred  in  all  the 
 discipline  of  Lycurgus,  they  found  themselves  gener- 
 ally slighted.  Their  spirit  was  high,  their  discontent 
 dangerous  ;  and  it  was  thought  prudent  to  offer  them 
 rise  means  of  settling  out  of  Peloponnesus.      Thev 
 
 willingly  emigrated,  and,  under  Phalanthus,  one  of  their 
 own  number,  they  founded  the  city  of  Tarentnrn  in 
 Italy.  {Vid  Parthonii.) — Drring  forty  years  Messe- 
 nia bore  the  yoke.  But  the  oppression  of  the  inhabi- 
 tants was  grievous,  and  iinbiltered  with  every  cirrum- 
 slance  of  insult,  and  the  Grecian  spirit  of  "jidepend- 
 ence  was  yet  stiong  '.n  them  ;  they  only  wanted  a 
 leader,  and  a  leader  was  found  in  \rislomenes,  a  youth 
 of  the  royal  line.  Support  being  promised  from  Ar- 
 gos  and  Arcadia,  allies  of  his  country  in  a  former  war, 
 Arislomenes  attacked  a  body  of  Lacedaemonians,  and, 
 though  not  completely  successful,  did  such  feats  of 
 valour  that  the  Messenians  would  have  chosen  him 
 king  ;  but  he  declined  it,  and  was  made  general-in- 
 chief.  His  next  adventure  was  an  attempt  to  practise 
 on  the  superstitious  fears  of  the  enemy.  Sparta  tiav- 
 ing  neither  walls  nor  watch,  he  easily  entered  it  alone 
 by  night,  and  hung  against  the  Brazen  House  (a  sin- 
 gularly venerated  temple  of  Minerva)  a  shield,  with  an 
 inscription  declaring  that  Arislomenes.  from  the  spoils 
 of  the  Spartans,  dedicated  that  shield  to  the  goddess. 
 Alarmed  lest  their  protecting  goddess  should  be  won 
 from  them,  the  Lacedaemonians  sent  to  consult  the 
 Delphian  oracle,  and  were  directed  to  take  an  Athe- 
 nian adviser.  The  Athenians,  though  far  from  wish- 
 ing the  subjugation  of  Messenia,  yet  feared  to  offend 
 the  god  if  they  refused  compliance  ;  but,  in  granting 
 what  was  asked,  they  hoped  to  make  it  useless,  and 
 sent  Tvrtaeus,  a  poet,  and  supposed  to  be  of  no  ability. 
 The  choice  proved  better  than  they  intended,  since 
 the  poetry  of  Tyrtasus  being  very  popular,  kept  up  the 
 spirit  of  the  people  in  all  reverses. — The  Messenian 
 army  had  now  been  re-enforced  from  Argos,  Elis,  Ar- 
 cadia, and  Sicyon,  and  Messenian  refugees  came  in 
 daily  :  the  Lacedaemonians  had  been  joined  by  the 
 Corinthians  alone.  They  met  at  Caprusema,  where, 
 by  the  desperate  courage  of  the  Messenians,  and  the 
 conduct  and  extraordinary  personal  exertions  of  their 
 leader,  the  Lacedaemonians  were  routed  with  such 
 slaughter  that  they  were  on  the  point  of  suing  for 
 peace.  Tyrtaeus  diverted  them  from  this  submission, 
 and  persuaded  them  to  recruit  their  numbers  by  asso- 
 ciating some  Helots,  a  measure  very  galling  to  Spar- 
 tan pride.  Meanwhile  Arislomenes  was  ever  harass- 
 ing them  with  incursions.  In  one  of  these  he  carried 
 off  from  Caryae  a  number  of  Spartan  virgins  assem- 
 bled to  celebrate  the  festival  of  Diana.  He  had  form- 
 ed a  body-guard  of  young  and  noble  Messenians. 
 who  always  fought  by  his  side,  and  to  their  charge 
 he  gave  the  captives.  Heated  with  wine,  the  young 
 men  attempted  to  violate  their  chastity,  and  Aris- 
 lomenes, after  vainly  remonstrating,  killed  the  most 
 refractory  with  his  own  hand,  and,  on  receiving  their 
 ransom,  restored  the  girls  uninjured  to  their  pa- 
 rents. Another  time,  in  an  assault  on  .^gila,  he 
 is  said  to  have  been  made  prisoner  by  some  Spar- 
 tan women  there  assembled,  who  repelled  the  assault 
 with  a  vigour  equal  to  that  of  the  men  ;  but  one  of 
 them  who  had  previously  loved  him  favoured  his  es- 
 cape. —  In  the  third  year  of  the  war,  another  battle 
 look  place  at  Megalelaphrus,  the  Messenians  being 
 joined  by  the  Arcadians  alone.  Through  the  treach- 
 ery of  Aristocrates,  prince  of  Orchomenus,  the  Arcadi- 
 an leader,  the  Messenians  w^ere  surrounded  and  cut  to 
 pieces,  and  Arislomenes,  escaping  with  a  scanty  rem- 
 nant, was  obliged  to  give  up  the  defence  of  his  country, 
 and  collect  his  forces  at  Ira,  a  stronghold  near  the  sea. 
 Here  he  supplied  the  garrison  by  plundering  excur- 
 sions, so  ably  conducted  as  to  foil  every  precaution  of 
 the  besiegers,  insomuch  that  they  forbade  all  culture 
 of  the  conquered  territory,  and  even  of  part  of  Laconia. 
 At  last,  falling  in  with  a'laigc  body  of  Lacedaemonians 
 under  both  their  kings,  afier  an  obstinate  defence  he 
 was  struck  down  and  taken,  with  about  fifty  of  his 
 band.  The  prisoners  were  thrown  as  rebels  into  a 
 deep  cavern,  and   all  were  killed  by  the  fall  excen: 
 
 837 
 
MESSENIA. 
 
 MESSENIA. 
 
 Arislomenes,  who  was  wonderfully  preserved  and  en- 
 abled lo  esca*e,  and,  returning  to  Ira,  soon  gave 
 proof  to  the  enemy  of  his  presence  by  fresh  exploits 
 equally  daring  and  judicious.  The  siege  was  protract- 
 ed till  the  eleventh  year,  when  the  Lacedaemonian 
 commander,  one  stormy  night,  learning  that  a  post  in 
 the  fort  had  been  quitted  by  its  guard,  silently  occu- 
 pied It  with  his  troops.  Aristonienes  flew  lo  the  spot 
 and  commenced  a  vigorous  defence,  the  women  assist- 
 ing by  throwing  tiles  from  the  house-tops,  and  many, 
 when  driven  thence  by  the  storm,  even  taking  arms 
 and  mi.xing  in  the  fight.  But  the  superior  numbers  of 
 the  Laeeda;monians  enabled  them  constantly  to  bring 
 up  fresh  troops,  while  the  Messenians  were  fighting 
 without  rest  or  pause,  with  the  tempest  driving  in 
 their  faces.  Cold,  wet,  sleepless,  jaded,  and  hungry, 
 they  kept  up  the  struggle  for  three  nights  and  two 
 days  ;  at  length,  when  all  was  vain,  they  formed  their 
 column,  placing  in  the  middle  their  women  and  chil- 
 dren and  most  portable  effects,  and  resolved  lo  make 
 their  way  out  of  the  place.  Arislomenes  demanded 
 a  passage,  which  was  granted  by  the  enemy,  unwilling 
 to  risk  the  effects  of  their  despair.  Their  march  was 
 towards  Arcadia,  where  ihey  were  most  kindly  re- 
 ceived, and  allotments  were  offered  them  of  land. 
 Even  yet  Arislomenes  hoped  to  strike  a  blow  for  the 
 deliverance  of  his  country.  He  selected  500  Messe- 
 nians, who  were  joined  by  300  Arcadian  volunteers, 
 and  resolved  to  ailempt  the  surprise  of  Sparta  while 
 the  army  was  in  the  farthest  part  of  Messenia,  where 
 Pylos  and  Melhone  still  held  out.  But  the  enterprise 
 was  frustrated  by  Arislocrates,  who  sent  word  of  it  to 
 Sparta.  The  messenger  was  seized  on  his  return, 
 and  the  letters  found  on  him  discovering  both  the  pres- 
 ent and  former  treachery  of  his  master,  the  indignant 
 people  stoned  the  traitor  lo  death,  and  erected  a  pillar 
 to  commemorate  his  infamy. — The  Messenians,  who 
 fell  under  the  power  of  Lacedaemon,  were  made  He- 
 lots. The  Pylians  and  Methonseans,  and  others  on 
 the  coast,  now  giving  up  all  hope  of  farther  resistance, 
 proposed  to  their  countrymen  in  Arcadia  to  join  them 
 in  seeking  some  fit  place  for  a  colony,  and  requested 
 Arislomenes  to  be  their  leader.  He  sent  his  son. 
 For  himself,  he  said,  he  would  never  cease  lo  war 
 with  LacedaBinon,  and  he  well  knew  that,  while  he 
 lived,  some  ill  would  ever  be  happening  lo  it.  After 
 the  former  war,  the  town  of  Rhegium  in  Italy  had 
 been  partly  peopled  by  expelled  Messenians.  The  ex- 
 iles were  now  invited  by  the  Rhegians  lo  assist  them 
 against  Zancle,  a  hostile  Grecian  town  on  the  oppo- 
 site coast  of  Sicily,  and  in  case  of  victory  the  town 
 was  offered  them  as  a  settlement.  Zancle  was  be- 
 sieged, and  the  Messenians  having  mastered  the  walls, 
 the  inhabitants  were  at  their  mercy.  In  the  common 
 course  of  Grecian  warfare,  they  would  all  have  been 
 either  slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaves,  and  such  was  the 
 wish  of  the  Rhegian  prince.  But  Arislomenes  had 
 taught  his  followers  a  nobler  lesson.  They  refused  to 
 inflict  on  other  Greeks  what  they  had  suffered  from 
 the  Lacedaemonians,  and  made  a  convention  with  the 
 Zanclreans,  by  which  each  nation  was  to  live  on  equal 
 terms  in  the  city.  The  name  of  the  town  was  chan- 
 ged lo  Messana.  (Vid.  Messana.) — Arislomenes  vain- 
 ly sought  the  means  of  farther  hostilities  against  Spar- 
 ta, but  his  remaining  days  were  passed  in  tranquillity 
 with  Damagelus,  prince  of  lalysus  in  Rhodes,  who 
 had  married  his  daughter.  His  actions  dwelt  in  the 
 memories  of  his  countrymen,  and  cheered  them  in 
 their  wanderings  and  sufferings  :  and  from  their  legen- 
 dary songs,  together  with  those  of  the  Lacedsemo- 
 nians,  and  with  the  poems  of  Tyrtseus,  the  story  of 
 the  two  Messenian  wars  has  been  chiefly  gathered  by 
 the  learned  and  careful  antiquary  Pausanias,  from 
 whose  work  it  is  here  taken  The  character  of  Aris- 
 lomenes, as  thus  represented,  combines  all  the  ele- 
 ments of  goodness  and  greatness,  in  a  degree  almost 
 838 
 
 unparalleled  among  Grecian  heroes.  Inexhaustible  in 
 resources,  unconquerable  in  spirit,  and  resolutely  per- 
 severing through  every  extremity  of  hopeless  disaster, 
 an  ardent  patriot  and  a  formidable  warrior,  he  yet  was 
 formed  to  find  his  happiness  in  peace  ;  and  after  pass- 
 ing his  youth  under  oppression,  and  his  manhood  in 
 war  against  a  cruel  enemy,  wherein  he  is  said  to  have 
 slain  more  than  300  men  with  his  own  hand,  he  yet 
 retained  a  singular  gentleness  of  nature,  insomuch 
 that  he  is  related  lo  have  wept  at  the  faie  of  the  traitor 
 Arislocrates.  The  original  injustice  and  subsequent 
 tyranny  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  with  the  crowning  out- 
 rage in  the  condemnation  as  rebels  of  himself  and  his 
 companions,  might  have  driven  a  meaner  spirit  to 
 acts  of  like  barbarity  :  but,  deep  as  was  his  haired 
 lo  Sparta,  he  conducted  the  struggle  with  uniform 
 obedience  lo  the  laws  of  war,  and  sometimes,  as  in 
 the  case  of  the  virgins  taken  at  Caryae,  with  more 
 than  usual  generosity  and  strictness  of  morals. — 
 The  Messenians  who  remained  in  their  country  were 
 treated  with  the  greatest  severity  by  the  Spartans, 
 and  reduced  lo  the  condition  of  Helots  or  slaves. 
 This  cruel  oppression  induced  ihem  once  more  to 
 lake  up  arms,  in  the  79th  Olympiad,  and  to  fortify 
 Mount  Ilhome,  where  they  defended  themselves  for 
 ten  years :  the  Lacedaemonians  being  at  this  time 
 so  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  by  an  earthquake, 
 which  destroyed  several  of  their  towns,  that  they 
 were  compelled  lo  have  recourse  to  their  allies  for  as- 
 sistance. {Thucyd,  1,  101. — Pausan.,  4,  24.)  At 
 length  the  Messenians,  worn  out  by  this  protracted 
 siege,  agreed  to  surrender  the  place  on  condition  that 
 they  should  be  allowed  to  retire  from  the  Peloponne- 
 sus. The  Athenians  were  at  this  time  on  no  friendly 
 terms  with  the  Spartans,  and  gladly  received  the  refu- 
 gees of  Ilhome,  allowing  them  lo  settle  at  Naupactus, 
 wlwch  they  had  taken  from  the  Locri  OzoIk.  (Thu- 
 cyil.,  1,  103. — Pausan.,  I.  c.)  Grateful  for  the  protec- 
 tion thus  afforded  them,  the  Messenians  disj)layed  great 
 zeal  in  the  cause  of  Athens  during  the  Peloponnesian 
 war.  Thucydides  has  recorded  several  instances  in 
 which  they  rendered  important  services  lo  that  power, 
 not  only  at  Naupactus,  but  in  iElolia  and  Amphilochia, 
 at  Pylos,  and  in  the  island  of  Sphacleria,  as  well  as  in 
 the  Sicilian  expedition.  When,  however,  the  disaster 
 of  ^t)gos[)Olamos  placed  .'Athens  at  the  mercy  of  her 
 rival,  the  Spartans  obtained  possession  of  Naupactus, 
 and  compelled  the  Messenians  to  quit  a  town  which 
 had  so  long  afforded  them  refuge.  Many  of  these,  on 
 this  occasion,  crossed  over  into  Sicily,  lo  join  their 
 countrymen  who  were  established  there,  and  others 
 sailed  to  .Africa,  where  they  procured  selllements 
 among  the  Evesperitie,  a  Libyan  people.  {Pausan., 
 4,  26.)  After  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  however,  which 
 humbled  the  pride  of  Sparta,  and  paved  the  way  for 
 the  ascendancy  of  Thebes,  Epaminondas,  who  directed 
 the  counsels  of  the  latter  republic,  with  masterly  pol- 
 icy determined  to  restore  the  Messenian  ration,  by 
 collecting  the  remnants  of  this  brave  and  warlike  peo- 
 ple. He  accordingly  despatched  agents  to  Sicily,  It- 
 aly, and  Africa,  whither  the  Messenians  had  emigra- 
 ted, lo  recall  them  to  their  ancient  homes,  there  to 
 enjoy  ihe  blessings  of  peace  and  liberty,  under  the 
 powerful  protection  of  Thebes,  Argos,  an'}  Arcadia. 
 Gladly  did  they  obey  the  summons  of  the  ThebaK. 
 general,  and  hastened  lo  return  to  that  country,  the 
 recollection  of  which  they  had  ever  fondly  cherished. 
 Epaminondas,  meanwhile,  had  made  every  prejiaration 
 for  the  erection  of  a  city  under  Ilhome,  which  was  to 
 be  the  metropolis  of  Messenia  ;  and  such  was  the  zeal 
 and  activity  displayed  by  the  Thebans  and  their  allies 
 in  this  great  undertaking,  that  the  city,  which  they 
 named  Messene,  was  completed  in  eighty-  five  days. 
 {Diod  Sic  ,  15,  66.)  The  entrance  of  the  MessenLans, 
 which  look  place  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  l()2d  Oiysn- 
 piad,  was  attended  with  great  pomp,  and  the  celehr*" 
 
MET 
 
 MET 
 
 tion  of  solemn  sacrifices,  and  devout  invocations  to 
 their  gods  and  heroes.  The  lapse  of  287  years  from 
 the  capture  of  Ira,  and  the  termination  of  the  second 
 war,  had,  as  Pausanias  affirmed,  made  no  change  in 
 their  rehgion,  their  national  customs,  or  their  language, 
 which,  according  to  that  historian,  they  spoke  even 
 more  correctly  than  the  rest  of  the  Peioponnesians. 
 fausan.,  4,  27.)  Other  towns  being  soon  after  re- 
 Duilt,  the  Messenians  were  presently  in  a  condition  to 
 make  head  against  Sparta,  even  after  the  death  of 
 Epaminondas  and  the  decline  of  Thebes.  That  great 
 general  strenuously  exhorted  them,  as  the  surest  means 
 of  preserving  their  country,  to  enter  into  the  closest 
 ailiance  with  the  Arcadians,  which  salutary  counsel 
 they  carefully  adhered  to.  {Polyb.,  4,  32,  10.)  They 
 likewise  conciliated  the  favour  of  Philip  of  Macedon, 
 whose  power  rendered  him  formidable  to  all  the  states 
 of  Greece,  and  his  influence  now  procured  for  them 
 the  restoration  of  some  towns  which  the  Lacedajmonians 
 still  retained  in  their  possession.  {Polyb.,  9,  28,  7. — 
 Pausan.,  4,  28. — Strabo,  361.)  During  the  wars  and 
 revolutions  which  agitated  Greece  upon  the  death  of 
 Alexander,  they  still  preserved  their  independence,  and 
 having,  not  long  after  that  event,  joined  the  Achaean 
 confederacy,  they  were  present  at  the  battle  of  Sellasia 
 and  the  capture  of  Sparta  by  Antigonus  Uoson.  {Pau- 
 san., 4,  29.)  In  the  reign  of  Philip,  son  of  Demetrius, 
 an  unsuccessful  attack  was  made  on  their  city  by  De- 
 metrius of  Pharos,  then  in  the  Macedonian  service. 
 The  inhabitants,  though  taken  by  surprise,  defended 
 themselves  on  this  occasion  with  such  intrepidity,  that 
 nearly  the  whole  of  the  enemy's  detachment  was  cut 
 to  pieces,  and  their  general,  Demetrius,  slain.  {Stra- 
 bo, 361.— Puhjb.,  3,  19,  2.— Pausan.,  4,  29.)  Nabis, 
 tyrant  of  Laceda?mon,  made  another  attack  on  this  city 
 by  night  some  years  afterward,  and  had  already  pene- 
 trated within  the  walls,  when  succours  arriving  from 
 Megalopolis  under  the  command  of  Philoposmen,  he 
 was  forced  to  evacuate  the  place.  Subsequently  to 
 this  event,  dissensions  appear  to  have  arisen,  which 
 ultimately  led  to  a  rupture  between  the  Achsans  and 
 Messenians.  Pausanias  was  not  able  to  ascertain  the 
 immediate  provocation  which  induced  the  Achsans  to 
 declare  war  against  the  Messenians.  But  Polybius 
 does  not  scruple  to  blame  his  countrymen,  and  more 
 especially  Philopoemen,  for  their  conduct  to  a  people 
 with  whom  they  were  united  by  federal  ties.  {Polyb., 
 33,  10,  5.)  Hostilities  commenced  unfavourably  for 
 the  Achasans,  as  their  advanced  guard  fell  into  an  am- 
 buscade of  the  enemy,  and  was  defeated  with  great 
 loss,  Philoposmen  himself  remaining  in  the  hands  of 
 the  victors.  So  exasperated  were  the  Messenians  at  the 
 conduct  of  this  celebrated  general,  that  he  was  thrown 
 into  a  dungeon,  and  soon  after  put  to  death  by  poison. 
 His  destroyers,  however,  did  not  escape  the  vengeance 
 of  the  Achseans  ;  for  Lycortas,  who  succeeded  to  the 
 command,  having  defeated  the  Messenians,  captured 
 their  city,  and  caused  all  those  who  had  been  con- 
 cerned in  the  death  of  Philoposmen  to  be  immediately 
 executed.  Peace  was  then  restored,  and  Messenia 
 once  more  joined  the  Achsan  confederacy,  and  re- 
 mained attached  to  that  republic  till  the  period  of  its 
 dissolution.  ( Liv.,  39,  id.— Polyb.,  24,  9.  — Pausan., 
 4,  29 — Crtinzer's  Arte.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  122,  scqq.) 
 
 MET.tErs,  a  tyrant  of  Privernum.  He  was  father 
 of  Camilla,  whom  he  consecrated  to  the  service  of 
 Diana,  when  he  had  been  banished  from  his  kingdom 
 by  his  subjects.     {Vir<r.,  JEn.,  il,  540.) 
 
 Metapontum,  a  city  of  Lucania  in  Italy,  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Sinus  Tarentiniis,  and  a  short  distance  to 
 the  south  of  the  river  Bradanus.  It  was  one  of  the 
 most  distinguished  of  the  Greek  colonies.  The  ori- 
 ginal name  of  the  place  appears  to  have  been  Metabum, 
 which  it  is  said  was  derived  from  Metabus,  a  hero  to 
 whom  divi[ie  honours  were  paid.  Some  reports  as- 
 cribed its  foundation  to  a  party  of  Pylians  on  their  re- 
 
 turn from  Troy  ;  and,  as  a  proof  of  this  fact,  it  was  re- 
 marked that  the  Metapontini,  in  more  ancient  times, 
 made  an  annual  sacrifice  to  the  Neleidae.  The  pros- 
 perity of  this  ancient  colony,  the  result  of  its  attention 
 to  agriculture,  was  evinced  by  the  offering  of  a  harvest 
 of  gold  to  the  oracle  of  Delphi.  The  Greek  words 
 are  -depog  xP^'^oiv,  which  commentators  suppose  to 
 mean  some  golden  sheaves.  {Strabo,  264  )  It  may 
 be  remarked,  also,  that  the  scholiasts  on  Homer  ider- 
 tify  Metapontum  with  the  city  which  that  poet  calls 
 Alyba  in  the  Odyssey  (24,  303).  Other  traditions  are 
 recorded,  relative  to  the  foundation  of  Metapontum, 
 by  Strabo,  which  confirm,  at  least,  its  great  antiquity. 
 But  his  account  of  the  destruction  of  the  first  town  b) 
 the  Samnites  is  obscure,  and  not  to  be  clearly  ua- 
 derstood.  It  appears,  however,  that  Metabum,  if  such 
 was  its  name,  was  in  a  deserted  state,  when  a  number 
 of  Achceans,  invited  for  that  purpose  by  the  Sybarites, 
 landed  on  the  coast  and  took  possession  of  the  place, 
 which  thenceforth  was  called  Metapontum.  {Strab., 
 265.  —  Compare  Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  MeraTroj^rtov. — 
 Eustalh.  ad  Dionys.  Perieg.,  v.  368.)  The  Achseans, 
 soon  after  their  arrival,  seemed  to  have  been  engaged 
 in  a  war  with  the  Tarentini,  and  this  led  to  a  treaty,  by 
 which  the  Bradanus  was  recognised  as  forming  the 
 separation  of  the  two  territories. — Pythagoras  was  held 
 in  particular  estimation  by  the  Metapontini,  in  whose 
 city  he  is  reported  to  have  lived  for  many  years.  Af- 
 ter his  death,  the  house  which  he  had  inhabited  was 
 converted  into  a  temple  of  Ceres.  {Iambi.,  Vil. 
 Pythag.,  1,  30.  — Cjc,  de  Fin.,  5,  2.  —  Lrv.,  1,  18.) 
 We  find  this  town  incidentally  mentioned  by  Herodo- 
 tus (4,  15)  with  reference  to  Aristeas  of  Proconnesus, 
 who  was  said  to  have  been  seen  here  340  years  after 
 disappearing  from  Cyzicus.  Its  inhabitants,  after  con- 
 sulting the  oracle  upon  this  supernatural  event,  erect- 
 ed a  statue  to  the  poet  in  the  Forum,  and  surrounded 
 it  with  laurel.  This  city  still  retained  its  independ- 
 ence when  Alexander  of  Epirus  passed  over  into  Italy. 
 Livy,  who  notices  that  fact,  states  that  the  remains  of 
 this  unfortunate  prince  were  conveyed  hither  previous 
 to  their  being  carried  over  into  (ireece  (8,  24).  It 
 fell,  however,  ultimately  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
 together  with  the  other  colonics  of  Magna  Graecia,  on 
 the  retreat  of  Pyrihus,  and  with  them  revolted  in  fa- 
 vour of  Hannibal,  after  his  victory  at  Cannas.  {Liv., 
 22,  15.)  It  docs  not  appear  on  what  occasion  the  Ro- 
 mans recovered  possession  of  Metapontum,  but  it  must 
 have  been  shortly  after,  as  they  sent  a  force  thence 
 to  the  succour  of  the  citadel  of  Tarentum,  which  was 
 the  means  of  preserving  that  fortress.  {Livy,  25,  11 
 — Polybius,  8,  36.)  It  would  seem,  however,  to  have 
 been  again  in  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians.  {Po- 
 lyb., 8,  36)  In  the  time  of  Pausanias,  this  city  was  a 
 heap  of  ruins  (6,  19).  Considerable  vestiges,  situated 
 near  the  station  called  Torre  di  Marc,  on  the  coast, 
 indicate  its  ancient  position.  {Siinnburne's  Travels, 
 p.  273.  —  RomanclU,  vol.  1,  p.  275.  —  Cramer's  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  347,  scqq.) 
 
 Metaurum,  a  town  in  the  territory  of  the  Bruttii,  in 
 Italy,  not  far  from  Medura,  and  below  Vibo  Valentia. 
 Its  site  is  generally  supposed  to  accord  with  that  of 
 the  modern  Gioja.  According  to  Stephainis,  this  an- 
 cient place  was  a  colony  of  the  Locri ;  and  the  same 
 writer  farther  states,  that,  according  to  some  accounts, 
 il  gave  birth  to  the  poet  Stesichorus,  though  that  hon- 
 our was  also  claimed  bv  Himera  in  Sicily.  Solinus, 
 on  the  other  hand  (c.  8),  asserts,  that  Metaurum  was 
 founded  by  the  Zancla-ans.  (Compare  Ulcla,  2,  4.  — 
 Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  433.) 
 
 Me  TAURUS,  I.  a  river  in  the  territory  of  the  Bruttn, 
 running  into  the  Tyrrhene  or  Lower  sea.  The  town 
 of  Metaurum  is  supposed  to  have  stood  at  or  near  its 
 mouth.  It  is  now  called  the  Marrn,  and  sometimes 
 the  Petrace.  {Cluver.,  It.  Ant.,  vol.  2,  p.  1292.)  ft 
 appears  to  have  been  noted  for  the  excellence  of  the 
 
 839 
 
MET 
 
 MET 
 
 ihunny  fish  caught  at  its  mouth.  {Athcn.,7,  G3.)  Stra- 
 bo  speaks  of  a  ()ort  of  the  same  name,  which  may  have 
 been  the  town  of  Metaiirurn.  (S/rab.,256. — Cramer's 
 Anc.  Ilaly,  vol.  2,  p.  423.)— II.  A  river  of  Umbria,  in 
 Italy,  flowing  into  the  Adriatic.  It  was  rendered 
 memorable  by  the  defeat  of  Hasdrubal,  the  brother  of 
 Hannibal.  The  Roman  forces  were  commanded  by 
 the  consuls  Livius  Salinator  and  Claudius  Nero,  A.U.G 
 545.  ft  is  now  the  Metro.  The  battle  must  have  ta- 
 ken place  near  the  modern  Fossomhrone,  and  on  the 
 left  bank  of  the  Melaurus.  Though  Livy  has  given  no 
 precise  description  of  the  spot,  it  may  be  collected  that 
 it  was  in  that  part  of  the  course  of  the  river  where  it 
 begms  to  be  eticlosed  between  high  and  steep  rocks 
 (27,  47).  Tradition  has  preserved  a  record  of  the 
 event  in  the  name  of  a  hill  between  Fussombrone  and 
 the  pass  of  Fvrim,  called  Monte  (V Asdrubalc.  {Cra- 
 .mer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  261.) 
 
 Metei.1,1,  a  distmguished  family  of  the  CsBcilian 
 .gens  in  Rome.  Those  most  worthy  of  notice  are  ; 
 I.  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  Macedonicus,  was  sent,  when 
 pr^tor  (B  C.  148),  into  Macedonia,  against  Andriscus, 
 who  pretended  to  be  a  son  of  Perseus,  the  last  king 
 of  Macedonia,  and  who  had  e.xcited  a  revolt  against 
 ■  the  Romans.  In  this  war  .Andriscus  was  defeated 
 .and  taken  prisoner  bv  .Metellus,  who  obtained,  in  con- 
 seqiience,  a  trmmph,  and  the  surname  of  Macedon- 
 icus. {Ltvy,  Epit.,  50 — Fuusamas.  7,  13,  1. — Eu- 
 trap.,  4,  13.)  In  his  consulship,  B.C.  143,  Metellus 
 was  sent  into  Spain  to  opj)nse  Viriathus,  who  had  ob- 
 tained possession  of  ilie  whole  of  Lusitania,  and  had 
 defeated  successively  the  prnt'tors  Vetilius  and  Plautius. 
 Metellus  remained  in  Spain  two  years,  and  obtained 
 several  victories  ;  but  vvas  superseded  in  the  command, 
 before  the  conclusion  cf  the  war,  bv  Ponipey.  {Liv., 
 Epit.,  52,  53.-- Ka/.  Max  ,  3,  2.  21.— W,  7,  4,  5.— 
 Id,  9.  3,  7  — Ajipian,  Iber.,  76.)  During  the  cen- 
 sorship of  Metellus  and  Pompey,  B.C.  131,  it  was  de- 
 creed that  all  citizens  should  be  obliged  to  marry.  The 
 oration  which  Metellus  delivered  on  this  subject  was 
 .e.xtant  in  the  time  of  Livy,  and  is  referred  to  by  Suetoni- 
 us. (Liv,  Epit.,  59.  —  Suet,  Vit.  Au^:,  89.)  We 
 are  lold  by  Livy  and  Pliny,  that,  when  Metellus  was 
 returmng  one  day  from  the  Campus  Martius,  he  was 
 seized  by  command  of  C.  Altinius  Labeo,  a  tribune  of 
 the  commons,  whom  he  had  in  his  censorship  e.xpelled 
 from  the  senate,  and  was  dragged  to  the  Tarpcian  rock  ; 
 and  that  ii  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  his  friends 
 were  enabled  to  preserve  his  life  by  obtaining  another 
 tribune  to  put  his  veto  upon  the  order  of  Attinius. 
 (Lie.,  Epit.,  59.— Plin.,  7,  45  )  Pliny  refers  to  Me- 
 tellus as  an  extraordinary  exam[)le  of  human  happi- 
 ness :  "  For,  besides  the  possession  of  the  highest  dig- 
 nities," says  the  Roman  writer,  "  and  having  obtained 
 a  surname  from  the  conquest  of  Macedonia,  he  was 
 carried  to  the  funeral  pile  by  four  sons,  of  whom  one 
 had  been  prsetor,  three  had  been  consuls,  two  had  en- 
 joyed a  triumph,  and  one  had  been  censor."  (Plin., 
 7,  45.) — II.  Q.  C.-ecilius  Metellus  Numidicus,  derived 
 his  surname  from  his  victories  in  Numidia,  whither  he 
 was  sent  in  his  consulship,  B.C.  109,  in  order  to  op- 
 pose .Jugurtha.  He  remained  in  Numidia,  B.C.  108, 
 as  proconsul ;  but,  in  the  beginning  of  the  following 
 year,  he  was  superseded  in  the  command  by  Marius, 
 who  had  previously  been  his  leffaliis  or  lieutenant- 
 general.  On  his  return  to  Rome  Metellus  obtained 
 the  honours  of  a  triumph.  (S'lllust,  Bell.  Jug. —  Vel- 
 leius  Faterc.,  2,  11. — EiUropiu.'!,  4,  27. — Liv  ,  Epit., 
 65.)  Metellus  was  censor  B C  102.  He  took  an 
 active  part  in  the  civil  commotions  of  his  time,  and  was 
 one  of  the  most  powerful  supporters  of  the  aristocrati- 
 cal  party.  In  B  C.  100  he  was  obliged  to  go  into  e.xile, 
 in  consequence  of  opposing  the  measures  of  the  tribune 
 .Saturninus  ;  but,  on  tho  execution  of  the  latter,  Me- 
 tellus was  recalled  from  exile  in  the  following  year. 
 (^Vid  Marius.) — III.  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  Pius,  son  of 
 840 
 
 the  preceding,  belonged  to  the  same  political  party  as 
 his  father,  and  supported  Sylla  in  his  contest  with  Ma- 
 rius. Metellus  received  especial  marks  of  favour  from 
 Sylla,  and  was  consul  with  him  B.C.  80.  He  was 
 sent,  in  B.C.  78,  against  Sertorius  in  Spain,  where  he 
 appears  to  have  remained  till  the  conclusion  of  the  war, 
 in  B.C.  72.  From  the  year  76  B.C.,  Pompey  was  his 
 colleague  in  command,  and  they  triumphed  together  at 
 the  end  of  the  war.  (  Veil.  Faterc.,  2,  30 — Eutrt/p., 
 6,  5.  —  Plut.,  Vit.  Pomp.)  Metellus  was  Pontifex 
 Maximus;  and  on  his  death,  B.C.  63,  in  the  consul- 
 ship of  Cicero,  he  was  succeeded  in  that  dignity  by 
 Julius  Ca?sar.  (Encycl.  Us.  K/unvl.,  vol.  15,  p  137.) 
 METHonius,  I.  surnamed  Eubulius,  a  father  of  the 
 church,  and  a  martyr,  flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the 
 fourth  century.  He  was  at  first  bishop  of  Olympus  or 
 Patara  in  Lycia,  but  was  afterward  translated  to  the 
 see  of  Tyre.  This  latter  station,  however,  he  occupied 
 only  a  short  time.  His  zeal  for  the  purity  of  the 
 Christian  faith  exposed  him  to  the  resentment  of  the 
 .Arians;  he  was  exiled  to  Chalcidice  in  Syria,  and 
 there  received  the  crown  of  martyrdom,  A.D.  312.  He 
 was  the  author  of  a  long  poem  against  Porphyry  ;  a 
 treatise  on  the  Resurrection,  against  Origen  ;  another 
 on  the  Pythoness  ;  another  on  Free  Will ;  a  dialogue 
 entitled  "  The  Banquet  of  the  Virgins,"  &c.  Several 
 fragments  of  this  author  have  been  collected.  The 
 "  Banquet  of  the  Virgins"  has  reached  us  entire.  It 
 was  first  published  at  Rome,  1656,  Svo.  with  a  Latin 
 version  and  a  Dissertation  by  Leo  Allatius.  It  is  a 
 dialogue  on  the  excellence  of  chastity,  modelled  after 
 the  Banquet  of  Plato.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Fa- 
 bricius,  appended  to  the  second  volume  of  the  works  of 
 St.  Hyppolitus,  i/amA.,  1718. — II.  A  patriarch  of  Con- 
 stantinople, born  at  Syracuse  about  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  ninth  century.  After  various  difficulties, 
 into  which  he  was  plunged  by  his  attachment  to  the 
 worship  of  images,  and  the  opposition  of  the  Icono- 
 clasts, he  obtained  the  see  of  Constantinople,  A.D. 
 842.  His  first  act  after  his  accession  to  the  episcopal 
 office  was  to  assemble  a  council  and  re-establish  the 
 worship  of  images.  He  died  A.D.  846.  He  was  the 
 author  of  several  works,  which  are  given  by  Combefis 
 in  his  Bibliotheca  Patrum. — III.  A  monk  and  painter, 
 born  at  Thessalonica,  and  who  flourished  about  tho 
 middle  of  the  9th  century.  He  is  celebrated  for  hav- 
 ing converted  to  Christianity  Bogoris,  king  of  the  Bul- 
 garians, by  means  of  a  picture  representing  the  scenes 
 of  the  last  judgment.  (Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  28,  p.  465.) 
 Methonk,  I.  a  city  of  Macedonia,  about  forty  sta- 
 dia north  of  Pydna,  according  to  the  epitomist  of  Stra- 
 bo  (330).  It  was  celebrated  in  history  from  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  Philip's  having  lost  an  eye  in  besieging 
 the  place.  (Sl.rab.,  I.  c.  —  Demosth  ,  Ohjnth.,  1,  9.) 
 That  it  was  a  Greek  colony  we  learn  from  Scylax 
 (Peripl.,  p.  26),  and  also  Plutarch,  who  reports  that  a 
 party  of  Eretrians  settled  there,  naming  the  place  Me- 
 thone,  from  Methon,  an  ancestor  of  Orpheus.  He  adds, 
 that  these  Greek  colonists  were  termed  Aposphendone- 
 ti  by  the  natives.  (QucBst.  Grac.)  It  appears  from 
 .Athensus  that  Aristotle  wrote  an  account  of  the  Me- 
 thona:!an  commonwealth  (6,  27).  This  town  was  oc- 
 cupied by  the  Athenians  towards  tho  close  of  the  Pel- 
 oponnesian  war,  with  a  view  of  annoying  Perdiccas  by 
 ravaging  his  territory  and  affording  a  refuge  to  his  dis- 
 contented subjects.  V\'hei)  Philip,  the  son  of  Amyn- 
 tas,  succeeded  to  the  crown,  the  Athenians,  who  still 
 held  Methone,  landed  three  thousand  men,  in  order  to 
 establish  .Argoeus  on  the  throne  of  Macedon  ;  they 
 were,  however,  defeated  by  the  young  prince,  and 
 driven  back  to  Methone.  Several  vears  after,  Philip 
 laid  siege  to  this  place,  which  at  the  end  of  twelve 
 months  capitulated.  The  inhabitants  having  evacua- 
 ted the  town,  the  walls  were  razed  to  the  ground. 
 (Diod.,  16,  34  )  Dr.  Clarke  and  Dr.  Holland  concur 
 m  supposing  that  the  site  of  Methone  answers  to  tkat 
 
MET 
 
 MET 
 
 of  Leuterochori.     {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p. 
 216.)  —  I'[.    A  city  of  Thessaly,  noticed    by   Homer 
 (TL,  2,  716),  and  situate,  like  the  preceding,  on  the 
 seacoast.      It  must  not,  however,  be  confounded  with 
 the   Macedonian  one,  an  error  into  wliich  Stephanus 
 seems  to  have  fallen  {s.  v.  Meduvr).) — III.  A  city  of 
 Messenia,  on   the  western  coast,  below  Pylos  Messe- 
 niacus.     According  to  Pausanias,  the  name  was  Mo- 
 th<fiie.     Tradition  reported,  that  it  was  so  called  from 
 Mothone,  the  daughter  of  ^neas  ;  but  it  more  probably 
 derived  its  name  from  the  rock  Mothoti,  which  formed 
 the   breakwater  of   its    harbour.      {I'ausan.,   4,   35.) 
 Strabo  informs  us,  that,  in  the  opinion  of  many  wri- 
 ters, Melhone  should  be  identified  with  Pedasus,  rank- 
 ed by  Homer  among  the  seven  towns  which  Agamem- 
 non offered  to  Achilles.     {IL,  9,  1294.— S<ra6  ,  359.) 
 Pausanias  makes  the  same  observation.     In  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesian  war  Methone  was  attacked  by  some  Athe- 
 nian troops,  who  were  conveyed  thither  in  a  fleet  sent 
 to  ravage  the  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus;  but  Brasidas, 
 who  was  quartered  in  the  neighbourhood,  having  forced 
 his  way  through  the  enemy's  line,  threw  himsell  into 
 the  town  with  100  men,  which  timely  succour  obliged 
 the  Athenians  to  re-embark  tlieir  troops.     (Thucyil., 
 2,25.)     Methone   subsequently  received  a  colony  of 
 Wauplians  :  these,  being  expelled  their  native  city  by 
 the  .\rgives,  were  established  here  by  the  Lacedtemo- 
 nians.     (Pausan  ,  4,  35.)     Many  years  after,  it  sus- 
 tained great  loss  from  the  sudden  attack  of  some  II- 
 lyrian  pirates,  who  carried  off  a  number  of  inhabitants, 
 both  men   and  women.      Melhone  was  afterward  be- 
 sieged and  taken  by  Agrippa,  who  had   the  command 
 of  a  Roman  fleet :  that  general  having  found  here  Boc- 
 chus  (Bciyof),  king  of  Mauritania,  caused  him  to  be  put 
 to  death  as  a  partisan  of  Marc  Antony.     {Slrab.,  359  ) 
 We  learn  from  Pausanias  that  I'rajan  especially  fa- 
 voured this  city,  and  bestowed   several  privileges  on 
 its    inhabitants.     Sir  W.  Gell   states,  that   at  about 
 2700   paces   to  the  east  of   Modon  is  a  [)lace  called 
 Palaio  Mothone,  where  are  vestiges  of  a  city.     Mo- 
 don   is   a   Greek  town  of  some  size,  with  a  fortress 
 built  by  the  Venetians.      {Cramcr''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol. 
 3,  p.  137.) — IV.  or  Methana,  a  peninsula  of  Argolis, 
 within  the  district  of  Trcezene,  formed  by  the  harbour 
 or  bay  of  Pogon  on  one  side,  and   the  curvature  of 
 the  Epidaurian  Gulf  on  the  other,  and  connected  with 
 the  mainland  by  a  narrow    isthmus,  which  the  Athe- 
 nians occupied  and  fortified  in  the  seventh  year  of  the 
 Peloponnesian  war.     (T/mcytZ  ,4,45.)     Diodorus  Sic- 
 uliis  says  it  was  taken  by  the  same  people  under  Tol- 
 mides,  in  the  interval  between  the  Persian  and  Peloi 
 ponnesian  wars  :  and  this  is  perhaps  the  meaning  of 
 Thucydides,  when  he  says  that,  on  peace  being  made, 
 or,  rather,  a  truce   for  thirty  years,  Trcezene,  among 
 other    towns,    was    restored   to    the    Peloponnesians. 
 {Tkucyd.,  I,  115.)     Within  the  peninsula  was  a  small 
 town,  also  called  Methone,  which  possessed  a  temple 
 of  Isis.     About  thirty  stadia  from  the  town  were  to 
 be  seen    some  hot  springs,  produced  by  the  eruption 
 of  a   volcano    in   the    reign    of  Aiitigonus   Gonatas. 
 (Pausaii.,  2,  34.)     Dodwell  says,   that  "the    moun- 
 tainous promontory  of  Methana  consists  chieflv  of  a 
 volcanic  rock  of  a  dark  colour.     The  outline  is  grand 
 and  picturesque,  and    the    principal    mountain  which 
 was  thrown  up  by  the  volcano  is  of  a  conical    form. 
 Its  apparent  height  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Vesu- 
 vius."    The  ancient  city   of  Methone,  according  to 
 the  same  intelligent   traveller,  "  was   situated  in  the 
 plain,  at  the  foot  of  its  acropolis,  near  which  are  a  few 
 remains  of  two  edifices."     {Dodwell,  vol.  2,  p.  281. — 
 Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  209,  seqq.) 
 
 Methvmnx,  a  city  of  Lesbos,  lying  opposite  to  As- 
 Bus  in  Troas,  and  situate,  according  to  Ptolemy,  near 
 the  northernmost  point  of  the  island.  It  was,  next  to 
 Mytilene,  the  most  important  city  of  Lesbos.  The 
 territory  of  the  place  was  contiguous  to  that  of  Myti- 
 5  O 
 
 lene,  a  circumstance  which  appears  to  have  created 
 considerable  rivalry  between  them,  and  probably  in- 
 duced the  Meihymneans  to  adhere  to  the  Athenians, 
 while  their  neighbours  were  bent  on  detaching  them- 
 selves from  that  power.  {Thucyd.,  3,  2,  18.)  As  a 
 reward  for  their  fidelity,  the  Methymneans  wore  ex- 
 empted from  contributions  in  money.  {Thniyi.,  6, 
 85.)  Towards  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
 Methymna  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Spartan  com- 
 mander Callicratidas,  who,  though  urged  to  treat  the 
 citizens  with  severity,  and  to  sell  them  as  slaves,  re- 
 fused to  comply  with  the  advice,  declaring  that,  as 
 long  as  he  was  admiral,  no  Greek,  as  far  as  lay  in  his 
 power,  should  be  enslaved.  {Xcn.,  Hisl.  Gr  ,  1,6,8.) 
 The  best  Lesbian  wine  was  obtained  from  an  adja- 
 cent territory  belonging  to  this  city  {Ovid,  A.  A.,  1, 
 57),  and  hence  Bacchus  was  frequently  called  the  god 
 of  Methymna.  {Athcnceus,  8,  p.  363,  h. — Pausan., 
 10,  19.)  According  to  Strabo,  this  city  was  the  na- 
 tive place  of  the  historian  Hellanicus.  {Strah.,  616.) 
 It  was  also  the  birthplace  of  Arion,  whose  adventure 
 with  the  dolphin  is  related  by  Herodotus  (1,  23)  — 
 Tlie  modern  name,  according  to  D'Anville,  is  Porto 
 Petcra ;  but  Olivier  (vol.  2,  p.  87)  makes  Molivo, 
 which  others  write  Molnm,  correspond  to  the  site  of 
 the  ancient  city.  (Compare  De  Sinner,  ad  Bondel- 
 mont.,  Ins.  Arckipel.,  p.  219.—  Cramer's  Asia  Minor, 
 vol.  1,  p.  160.) 
 
 Metis  {Prudence),  daughter  of  Oceanus,  was  the 
 first  wife  of  Jupiter,  and  exceeded  gods  and  men  in 
 knowledge.  Heaven  and  Earth,  however,  having  told 
 Jupiter  that  the  first  child  of  Metis,  a  maid,  would 
 equal  him  in  strength  and  counsel ;  and  that  her  sec- 
 ond, a  son,  would  be  king  of  gods  and  men,  he  deceiv- 
 ed her  when  she  was  pregnant,  and  swallowed  her; 
 and,  after  a  time,  the  goddess  Minerva  sprang  from 
 his  head.  {Apollod.,  1,  3,6.)  Metis  is  said  to  have 
 given  a  potion  to  Saturn,  which  compelled  him  to 
 vomit  up  the  offspring  whom  he  had  swallowed. — 
 {Apollod,  1,  2,  1.) 
 
 Mkttus,  or  Mettius  Foffetius,  I.  dictator  of  Al- 
 ba. He  fought  against  the  Romans  in  the  reign  of 
 Tullus  HostiFius,  and  agreed  at  length  with  the  foe 
 to  leave  the  issue  of  the  war  to  a  combat  between 
 the  three  Horatii  and  three  Curiatii.  Beholding  with 
 pain  his  country  subdued  bv  the  defeat  of  the  latter, 
 he  imagined  that  he  should  be  able  to  recover  her 
 freedom  for  her  by  joining  with  the  Fidenates,  who 
 had  attempted,  during  the  late  war,  to  shake  off  the 
 Roman  yoke.  Secretly  encouraged  by  him,  they  took 
 the  field,  and  advanced  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Rome, 
 in  conjunction  with  the  Veientes,  their  allies.  Fuife- 
 tius  had  promised  to  abandon  the  Romans,  and  go 
 over  to  the  Fidenates  and  Veientes  in  the  middle  of 
 the  engagement.  He  had  not  courage  enough  to  keep 
 his  word,  but  proved  a  traitor  alike  to  the  Romans 
 and  to  his  new  allies,  by  drawing  off  his  troops  from 
 the  line  of  battle,  and  yet  not  marching  over  to  the 
 foe,  but  waiting  to  see  which  side  would  conquer. 
 The  Romans  gained  the  victory,  and  Fuffetius  was 
 torn  asunder  by  being  attached  to  two  four-horse  char- 
 iots, that  were  driven  in  different  directions.  (•^''■• 
 1,  23,  scqq.)— The  common  form  of  the  name  is  Mel- 
 ius Fuffetius,  but  the  more  correct  one  is  Metiius.  as 
 is  shown  by  Niebuhr  {Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  299,  t.ng. 
 <raH.s/.)— II.   Tarpa,  a  critic.     (F«i.  Tarpa.) 
 
 Meton,  a  celebrated  astronomer,  who  lived  at  Ath- 
 ens in  the  fifth  century  B.G.  He  was  according 
 to  some,  a  Lacedemonian  {Aukuv),  but  the  best  au- 
 thorities call  him  a  Leuconian  {XevKOinev^).  Me  « 
 said  to  have  pretended  insanity  m  order  not  to  go 
 with  the  Athenian  expedition  against  Syracuse,  the 
 disastrous  termination  of  which  he  plainly  f^^^saw.-- 
 The  solstices  which  Meton  observed  with  Eucte^mon 
 are  preserved  bv  Ptolemv.  He  is  best  known,  how- 
 ever, as   the   founder  of  the  celebrated   lunar  cyc'.^, 
 
 841 
 
ME  V 
 
 MID 
 
 called  "  the  Metonic"  after  his  name,  and  which  is 
 8t;ll  preserved  by  the  Western  churches  in  their  com- 
 putation of  Easter.  This  cycle  takes  its  rise  as  fol- 
 lows ;  235  revohitions  of  the  moon  are  very  nearly  19 
 revolutions  of  the  sun,  and  one  complete  revolution  of 
 the  moon's  node.  If  these  approximalions  were  exact, 
 all  the  relative  phenomena  of  the  sun  and  moon,  par- 
 ticularly those  of  eclipses,  would  recommence  in  the 
 same  order,  at  the  end  of  every  19  years.  There  is, 
 however,  an  error  of  some  hours  in  every  cycle.  The 
 first  year  of  the  hrst  Metonic  period  commenced  with 
 the  summer  solstice  of  the  year  432  B.C.  ;  and  if  the 
 reckoning  had  been  continuous,  what  is  now  called 
 the  golden  number  of  any  year  would  have  denoted 
 the  year  of  the  Metonic  cycle,  if  the  summer  solsiice 
 had  continued  to  be  the  commencement  of  the  year. 
 On  reckoning,  however,  it  will  be  found  that  A.D.  I, 
 which  is  made  the  first  year  of  a  period  of  19  years, 
 would  have  been  part  of  the  fourteenth  and  part  of  the 
 fifteenth  of  a  Metonic  cycle.  (^Idcler ,  iiber  den  Cyclus 
 dcs  Melon. — Abhand.  Acad.,  Berlin,  IS  14-18 15,  Hist. 
 Philol.  CI.,  p.  2S0.—Encycl.  Us.  Know!.,  vol.  15,  p. 
 144.)  ''It  has  been  suspected,"  observes  Dr.  Hale, 
 "and  not  without  foundation,  that  the  celebrated  lunar 
 cycle  of  19  years,  which  Meton  introduced  into  Greece 
 for  the  adjustment  of  their  lunar  year  with  the  solar, 
 was  borrowed  from  the  ancient  Jewish  tables.  This 
 was  the  opinion  of  the  learned  Anatolius,  bishop  of 
 Laodicea,  about  A.D.  270."  (^Hale's  Chronology, 
 vol.  1,  p.  66.) 
 
 Metr6ci.es,  a  disciple  of  Crates.  He  had  previ- 
 ously been  a  follower  of  Theophrastus  and  Xenocra- 
 tes ;  but  when  he  commenced  cynic,  he  committed 
 their  works  to  the  flames,  as  the  useless  dreams  of  idle 
 speculation.  In  his  old  age  he  became  so  dissatisfied 
 with  the  world  that  he  strangled  himself.  (^Enfield, 
 Hist.  Philos.,  vol.   1,  p.  314.) 
 
 Metbodorus,  I.  an  intimate  friend  of  Epicurus. 
 He  first  attached  himself  to  that  philosopher  at  Lamp- 
 sacus,  and  continued  with  him  till  his  death.  He 
 maintained  the  cause  of  his  friend  and  master  with 
 great  intrepidity,  both  by  his  discourses  and  his  wri- 
 tings, against  the  Sophists  and  Dialectics,  and  con- 
 sequently partook  largely  of  the  obloquy  which  tell 
 upon  his  sect.  {Cic,  Tusc.  Qucest.,  2,  3.  —  Id.,  de 
 Fin.,  2,  3)  Plutarch  charges  him  with  having  rep- 
 robated the  folly  of  his  brother  Timocrates  in  aspi- 
 ring to  the  honours  of  wisdom,  while  nothing  was  of 
 any  value  but  eating  and  drinking,  and  indulging  the 
 animal  appetites.  (Ado.  Colot. — Op.,  ed.  Reiske,  vol. 
 10,  p.  624,  seqq.)  13ut  it  is  probable  that  this  calumny 
 originated  with  Timocrates  himself,  who,  from  a  per- 
 sonal quarrel  with  Metrodorus,  deserted  the  sect,  and 
 therefore  can  deserve  little  credit.  {Enfield,  Hist. 
 Phil.,  vol.  I,  p.  4:hQ.—Jonsius,  Hisl.  PhiL,  I,  2,  6.— 
 Menage  ad  Dtog.  Lacrt.,  10,  22.) — II.  A  painter  and 
 philosopher  of  Stratonicea,  B.C.  171.  He  was  sent 
 to  Pauius  yEimlius,  who,  after  his  victory  over  Perse- 
 us, king  of  Macedonia,  B.C.  168,  requested  of  the 
 Athenians  a  philosopher  and  a  painter,  the  former  to 
 instruct  his  children,  and  the  latter  to  make  a  painting 
 of  his  triumphs.  Metrodorus  was  sent,  as  uniting  in 
 himself  both  characters  :  and  he  gave  satisfaction  in 
 both  to  the  Roman  general.  {Plin  ,  25,  II. — Cic., 
 de  Fin.,  5,  I,  dc  Orat.,  4  ) 
 
 Me  v  A  VIA,  a  city  of  Umbria,  on  the  river  Tinia,  in 
 the  southwestern  angle  of  the  country,  and  to  the 
 northwest  of  Spoletiuin.  It  was  famous  for  its  wide- 
 extended  plains  and  rich  pastures.  {Culum.,  3,  8.) 
 Strabo  mentions  Mevania  as  one  of  the  most  consider- 
 able cities  of  Umbria.  (Strab.,  227.— Compare  Liv., 
 9,  41  )  Here  Vitellius  took  post,  as  if  determined  to 
 make  a  last  stand  for  the  empire  against  Vespasian, 
 but  soon  after  withdrew  his  forces.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  3, 
 55.)  If  its  walls,  as  Pliny  says,  were  of  brick,  it 
 could  not  be  capable  of  much  resistance  (35,  14). 
 842 
 
 This  city  is  farther  memorable  as  the  birthplace  of 
 Propertius,  a  fact  of  which  he  himself  informs  us  (4, 
 1,  21).  It  is  now  an  obscure  village,  which  still, 
 however,  retains  some  traces  of  the  original  name  in 
 that  of  Bevagna.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p. 
 269.) 
 
 Mezentios,  king  of  Caere,  at  the  time  that  ^neas 
 was  fabled  to  have  landed  in  Italy.  He  is  represented 
 by  Virgil  as  a  monster  of  ferocity,  wantonly  murderincr 
 many  of  his  subjects,  and  causing  others,  fastened  face 
 to  fac!  unto  dead  bodies,  to  expire  amid  loathsomeness 
 and  famine.  His  subjects,  exasperated  by  his  tyranuv, 
 expelled  him  from  the  throne.  He  and  his  son  Lausus 
 took  refuge  in  the  court  of  Turnus,  whom  they  assist- 
 ed m  his  war  against  ^neas.  'i'hey  both  fell  by  the 
 hand  of  the  Trojan  prince.  The  narrative  of  the  com- 
 bat 111  which  they  were  slain  is  justly  esteemed  one  of 
 the  most  brilliant  passages  in  the  whole  ..^neid.  Vir- 
 gil has  described  Lausus  as  eminent  for  beauty  of  per- 
 son, bravery,  and  filial  piety;  a  pleasing  contrast  to 
 his  ferocious  parent.  The  epithet  cunlcmplor  divum 
 was  applied  to  Mezentius  by  Virgil,  because  he  de- 
 manded of  his  subjects  the  first  fruits  of  their  lands  and 
 their  flocks,  instead  of  appropriating  them  in  sacrifice 
 to  the  gods.  {Cato,  ap.  Macrob.,  Sat.,  3,  5. —  Virg., 
 Mil.,  8,  478  —Z(/.  lb.,  10,  762,  seqq.^ 
 
 MicipsA,  king  of  Numidia,  eldest  son  of  Masinissa, 
 shared  with  his  brothers  Gulussa  and  Mastanabal  the 
 kingdom  of  their  father,  which  had  been  divided  among 
 them  by  Scipio  ^-fimilianus.  (  Vid.  Masinissa.)  On 
 the  death  of  his  brothers  he  became  monarch  of  the 
 whole  country,  about  146  B.C.  Of  a  pacific  disposi- 
 tion, Micipsa  enjoyed  a  quiet  reign,  and  proved  the 
 mildest  of  all  the  Numidian  kings.  Animated  by  the 
 same  enlightened  policy  as  Ins  father,  he  exerted  him- 
 self strenuously  for  the  civilization  of  his  subjects,  es- 
 tablished a  colony  of  Greeks  in  his  capital,  and  assem- 
 bled there  a  large  number  of  learned  and  enlightened 
 men.  Although  he  had  many  children  by  numerous 
 concubines,  still  Hiempsal  and  Adherbal  were  his  fa- 
 vourite sons.  Unhappily,  however,  he  adopted  his 
 nephew,  the  famous  Jugurtha,  and  declared  hiin,  by  his 
 will,  joint  heir  to  the  kingdom  along  with  his  two  sons 
 just  mentioned.  This  arrangement  brought  with  it 
 the  ruin  of  his  family  and  kingdom.     {VuL  Jugurtha.) 
 
 MicoN,  I.  a  painter  and  statuary,  contemporarv  with 
 Polygnotus,  who  flourished  about  Olyinp.  80.  This 
 artist  has  been  noticed  at  great  length  by  Bottiger 
 {Arehceol.  Pict.,  1,  p.  254,  seqq.).  In  ancient  MSS, 
 his  name  is  sometimes  written  Mvkliv,  sometimes 
 WrjKuv  or  'NIkuv,  but  the  more  correct  form  is  proba- 
 bly MiKuv  (Micon).  Varro  mentions  him  among  the 
 more  ancient  painters,  whose  errors  were  avoided  by 
 Apelles,  Protogenes,  and  others.  (L.  L.,  8,  p.  129, 
 cd.  Bip.)  Pliny  states,  that,  in  connexion  with  Po- 
 lygnotus, he  either  invented  some  new  colours,  or  em- 
 ployed those  in  use  in  his  paintings  on  a  better  plan 
 than  that  previously  adopted.  {Plin.,  33,  13,  56  — 
 Id.,  35,  6,  25.)  A  list  of  some  of  his  productions  ia 
 given  by  Sillig(DiC<.  Art  ,  s.  v.). — II.  Another  painter, 
 distinguished  from  the  former  by  the  epithet  of  "the 
 Younger."  His  age  and  country  are  uncertain.  (Plin., 
 35,  9,  35.)  Bottiger  confounds  him  with  Micon  I. 
 {Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) — III.  A  statuary  of  Syracuse. 
 At  the  request  of  the  children  of  Hiero  II.,  king  of 
 Syracuse,  he  made  two  statues  of  this  monarch,  which 
 were  placed  at  Olympia,  the  one  representing  him  on 
 horseback,  the  other  on  foot.  The  death  of  Hiero 
 took  place  B  C.  215;  and  as  the  statues  in  question 
 were  made  soon  after  this  event,  we  can  decide  with 
 certainty  on  the  age  of  Micon.      {Sillig,  Diet.  Art., 
 
 s.  V.) 
 
 Midas,  an  ancient  king  of  the  Brygians  in  Thrace, 
 son  of  Gordius,  and  whose  name  is  connected  with 
 some  of  the  earliest  mythological  legends  of  the  Greeks. 
 According  to  one  account,  he  possessed,  at  the  foot  of 
 
MIDAS. 
 
 Mount  Berinion,  a  garden,  in  which  grew  spontane- 
 ously roses  with  sixty  petals,  and  of  extraordinary 
 fragrance.  {Herod.,  8,  138.  —  Compare  Wesscling, 
 ad  loc.)  To  this  garden  Silenus  was  in  the  habit  of 
 repairing;  and  Midas  {Pausan.,  1.  4,  5)  or  his  people, 
 by  pouring  wine  into  the  fount  from  which  he  was 
 wont  to  drink,  intoxicated  him,  and  he  was  thus  cap- 
 tured. {Herod.,  l.  c.)  Midas  put  various  questions  to 
 him  respecting  the  origin  of  things  and  the  events  of 
 past  times.  {Serv  ad  Vtrg.,  Eclog.,  6,  13.)  One 
 was,  \^'hat  is  best  for  men  \  Silenus  was  long  silent  ; 
 at  length,  when  he  was  constrained  to  answer,  he 
 said  :  "Life  is  most  free  from  pain  when  one  is  igno- 
 rant of  future  evils.  It  is  best  of  all  for  man  not  to 
 be  born  :  the  second  is,  for  those  who  are  born  to  die 
 as  soon  as  possible."  {Aristot.,  dc  An. — Plut.,  Con- 
 sol,  ad  Apoll.  Op.,  7,  p.  352,  ed.  Hullen.)  He  also, 
 it  is  said,  gave  the  king  a  long  account  of  an  immense 
 country  which  lav  without  the  ocean-stream,  the  peo- 
 ple of  which  once  invaded  the  land  of  the  Hyperbore- 
 ans. {Tkeopomp.,  ap.  .Elian,  V.  H,  3,  18  )— The 
 name  of  Midas  is  also  connected  with  the  migration 
 of  the  Brygians  from  Thrace  into  Asia  Minor,  where 
 they  are  said  to  have  changed  their  name  to  Phrygi- 
 ans {Slrab.,  295.  — Flin.,  5,  32.  —  Sleph.  Bi/z.,  s.  v. 
 Bpiyec),  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  Brygians 
 passed  over  under  the  same  Midas  of  whom  the  above 
 legend  is  related.  {Hock,  Kreta,  vol.  I,  p.  129.)  At 
 all  events,  we  find  the  name  Midas  reappearing  in  the 
 legends  of  Asia  Minor.  Thus,  mention  is  made  of 
 a  King  Midas  who  reigned  at  Pessinus,  where  he  built 
 a  splendid  temple  to  Cybele,  and  established  her  sa- 
 cred rites.  (Diod.  Sic,  3,  5  )  So  also  Xenophon 
 places  near  Thymbrium  the  fountain  where  Midas  was 
 said  to  have  caught  the  satyr.  {Anab  ,  1,  2,  13.) 
 We  have  likewise  another  legend  relative  to  Midas  and 
 Silenus,  the  scene  of  which  is  laid,  not  in  Europe,  but 
 in  Lower  Asia.  According  to  this  account,  as  Bac- 
 chus was  in  Lydia,  on  his  return  from  the  conquest  of 
 the  East,  some  of  the  country  people  met  Silenus  stag- 
 gering about,  and,  binding  him  with  his  own  garlands, 
 led  him  to  their  king.  Midas  entertained  him  for  ten 
 days,  and  then  conducted  him  to  his  foster-son,  who,  in 
 his  gratitude,  desired  the  king  to  ask  whatever  gift  he 
 would.  Midas  craved  that  all  he  touched  might  turn 
 to  gold.  His  wish  was  granted  ;  but  when  he  found 
 his  very  food  converted  to  precious  metal,  and  himself 
 on  the  point  of  starving  in  the  midst  of  wealth,  he 
 prayed  the  god  to  resume  his  fatal  gift.  Bacchus  di- 
 rected him  to  bathe  in  the  Pactolus,  and  hence  that 
 river  obtained  golden  sands.  {Odd,  Met.,  11,  85, 
 seqq.  —  Hygin.,fab.,  191.  —  Serv.,  ad  Mn.,  10,  142. 
 — Max.  Tyr.,  30.)  There  is  a  third  legend  relative 
 to  Midas.  Pan,  the  god  of  shepherds,  venturing  to 
 set  his  reed-music  in  opposition  to  the  lyre  of  Apollo, 
 was  pronounced  overcome  by  Mount  Tmokis;  and  all 
 present  approved  the  decision  except  King  Midas, 
 whose  ears  were,  for  their  obtuseness,  lengthened  by 
 the  victor  to  those  of  an  ass.  The  monarch  endeav- 
 oured to  conceal  this  degradation  from  his  subjects  ; 
 but  it  was  perceived  by  one  of  his  attendants,  who, 
 finding  it  difficult  to  keep  the  secret,  yet  afraid  to  re- 
 veal it,  dug  a  bole  in  the  ground,  and  whispered  there- 
 in what  he  had  perceived.  His  words  were  echoed  by 
 the  reeds  which  afterward  grew  on  the  spot,  and  which 
 are  said  to  have  repeated,  when  agitated  by  the  wind, 
 "  Kivg  Midas  has  asses'  enrs.'"  {Ovid,  Met.,  1 1,  153, 
 seqq) — The  legend  respocling  the  wealth  of  Midas 
 would  seem  to  have  an  historical  basis,  and  to  point 
 to  some  monarch  of  Phrygia  who  had  become  greatly 
 enriched  by  mines  and  commercial  operations.  Hence 
 the  Phrygian  tradition,  that  when  Midas  was  an  in- 
 fant, some  ants  crept  into  his  mouth  as  he  lay  asleep, 
 and  deposited  in  it  grains  of  wheat.  This  was  re- 
 garded as  an  omen  of  future  opulence.  {jEtian,  V. 
 N ,  12,  45.— Cic,  Div.,  1,  36.— Fa/.  Max.,  1,  6.) 
 
 MIL 
 
 The  same  monarch,  in  all  probability,  gave  a  favourable 
 reception  to  the  rites  of  Bacchus,  then  for  the  first  time 
 introduced  into  his  dominions,  and  hence  his  success 
 m  the  accumulation  of  riches  may  have  been  ascribed 
 to  the  favour  of  the  god.  The  later  cycle  of  fable,  how- 
 ever, appears  to  have  changed  the  receiver  and  protec- 
 tor of  the  rites  of  Bacchus  nito  a  companion  or  follower 
 of  Bacchus  himself.  Hence  we  find  Midas  numbered 
 among  the  Sileni  and  Satyrs,  and,  as  such,  having  the 
 usual  accompaniment  of  goat's  ears.  (Compare  the 
 language  of  Philostratus  :  nerdxe  fiev  jup  rov  tCsv 
 liOTVpuv  ytvov^  6  MtJuf,  (if  idiiXov  tu  wto.  —  Vit. 
 Apoll.  Tyan.,  6,  13,  p.  303,  ed.  Morell)  Now  it 
 would  seem  that  the  Attic  poets,  in  their  satyric  dra- 
 mas, made  the  story  of  Midas  a  frequent  theme  of  tra- 
 vesty, and  in  this  way  we  have  the  wealthy  monarch 
 converting  everything  into  gold  by  his  mere  touch,  even 
 his  food  undergoing  this  strange  metamorphosis  ;  and 
 again,  the  pricked-up  ears  of  the  goat-footed  Satyr 
 become  changed  by  Attic  wit  into  the  ears  of  an  ass. 
 It  may  be,  too,  that  the  first  satyric  composer,  who  in- 
 troduced these  appendages  into  his  piece,  discharged, 
 in  this  way,  a  shaft  at  some  theatrical  judges  who  had 
 rejected  one  of  his  own  productions.  (Consult  the 
 remarks  of  Wicla?id,  Attischcs  Museum,  vol.  1,  p. 
 354,  seqq.,  and  compare  Welcker,  Narhlrag,  p.  301.) 
 Schwenck,  however,  takes  a  very  different  view  of 
 the  subject.  He  makes  Midas  to  have  been  an  old 
 Thracian  or  Phrygian  deity,  referring  to  Hesychi- 
 us  (M((5df  iJfOf)  as  an  authority  for  this,  and  identi- 
 fies him  with  the  moon-god,  or  Deus  Lunus.  He 
 compares  the  name  MiJaf  with  fiel^,  /levng,  as  the 
 Cretan  irrov  was  related  to  elg,  evo^.  Now  utic  in- 
 dicates unity,  being  merely  cif  with  a  prefix,  as  in 
 ftia  for  fa  ;  and  evng  {an7ius),  "  the  year,"  has  also  re- 
 lation to  unity.  Thus,  according  to  Schwenck,  Midaa 
 indicated  the  lunar  year  as  a  unit  of  time.  The  long 
 ears  of  Midas  he  also  makes  a  lunar  symbol,  as  in  the 
 case  of  the  Scandinavian  goddess  Mani,  or  the  Moon. 
 {Elymologisch-Mythol.  Andcut.,  p.  66,  seq  )  This 
 explanation  is  very  far-fetched. — It  is  more  than  prob- 
 able that  the  name  Midas  was  common  to  the  Lydians 
 as  well  as  Phrygians,  since  Midas,  according  to  some 
 accounts,  was  the  husband  of  Oniphale.  (Clearch., 
 ap.  Allien.,  12,  p.  516.) — Mr.  Leake  gives  an  account 
 of  a  very  ancient  monument  at  Dooanlir,\n  what  was 
 originally  a  part  of  Phrygia,  which  appeared  to  him  to 
 have  been  erected  in  honour  of  one  of  the  kings  of 
 Phrygia,  of  the  Midaian  family.  {Journul  of  a  Tour 
 w.  Asia  Minor,  p.  31.)  It  is  very  probable,  indeed, 
 that  many  monarchs  of  the  Phrygian  dynasty  bore  the 
 name  of  Midas.     {Leake,  I.  c.) 
 
 MiDEA,  I.  an  ancient  city  of  Boeotia,  near  the  lake 
 Copais,  and,  according  to  tradition,  swallowed  up, 
 along  with  Arne,  by  the  waters  of  that  lake.  {Horn., 
 II.,  2,  507.— Strah.,  413.)— II.  A  town  of  Aigolis,  in 
 the  Tyrinthian  territory,  named,  as  was  said,  after  t-he 
 wife  of  Elcctryon  {Find.,  Olymp.,  7,  49. —  Schol.,  ad 
 loc.);  but  ApoUodorus  affirms  that  it  already  existed  in 
 the  time  of  Perseus  (2,  4)  — It  was  afterward  destroyed 
 by  the  Argives.  {Strah  ,  373.)  The  vestiges  of  this 
 place  are  near  the  monastery  of  Agios  Adrianos,  where 
 there  is  a  Falcco  Castro  in  a  bold  rock  ;  the  walls  are 
 of  ancient  masonry.  (Cell,  llin.  of  the  Morea,  p. 
 185, —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  2-50.) 
 
 Mii.Esii,  the  inhabitants  of  Miletus.     {Vid.  Miletus.) 
 
 MiLKSioRUM  MuRUs  {M.ilr)aiuv  TtJxoc),  a  place  in 
 Lower  Egypt,  to  the  west  of  the  Sebennytic  month  of 
 the  Nile,  and  which  owed  its  foundation  to  the  Mile- 
 sians, or  people  of  Miletus.  {Evstalh.  ad  Dionys.-^ 
 Hiids.,  Gcogr.  Min.,  vol.  4,  p.  146.) 
 
 Mii.etop5i.is,  a  city  of  Mysia,  northeast  of  Adra- 
 myttium,  and  situate  on  a  branch  of  the  river  Rhyn. 
 dacus.  It  coincides,  according  to  D'Anville,  with  iho 
 modern  Beli  Kessk.     {Flin.,  5,  32.—Steph.  Byz.,  p 
 
 467.) 
 
 843 
 
MILETUS. 
 
 MIL 
 
 Miletus,  I.  a  son  of  Apollo,  who  fled  from  Crete 
 Id  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  Minos.  (Apollod.,  3, 
 I,  2.)  He  carne  to  Caria.  and  was  said  to  have  been 
 the  founder  of  the  city  of  Miletus.  {Apollod.,  I.  c.  — 
 Compare  Hcyne,  ad  loc.) — II  The  most  celehrated  of 
 the  cities  of  Ionia,  situate  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
 bay  into  which  the  river  Latmus  emjjtied,  and,  accord- 
 ing to  Sirabo,  eighty  stadia  south  of  the  embouchure 
 of  the  Maunder.  {Strab.,  634.)  The  origin  of  this 
 city  falls  in  the  period  of  the  first  Greek  emigrations 
 from  home ;  but  the  circumstances  connected  with  its 
 founding  are  involved  in  great  uncertainty.  As  far  as 
 any  opinion  can  be  formed  from  various  accounts  that 
 are  given  of  this  event,  it  would  appear  that  the  place 
 was  first  settled  by  natives  of  tlie  country  ;  that  to 
 these  came  Sarpedon  from  Miletus  in  Crete,  and  after 
 him  Neleus  from  Attica,  together  with  other  settlers 
 in  process  of  time.  (Strab.,  I.  c. — Pausan.,  7,  2. — 
 Apollod.,  3,  l.—Enslntk.  ad  Dwnys.,  v.  825.)  Mile- 
 tus was  already  large  and  flourishing  when  the  cities 
 of  the  parent  country  were  but  just  beginning  to  emerge 
 from  obscurity.  The  admirable  situation  of  the  place, 
 and  the  convenience  of  having  four  harbours,  one  of 
 which  was  capable  of  containing  a  large  fleet,  gave  it 
 an  early  and  great  preponderance  in  maritime  affairs. 
 It  carried  on  an  active  and  extensive  commerce  with 
 the  shores  of  the  Euxine  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  dis- 
 tant coast  of  Spain  on  the  other,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
 principal  ports  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  were  like- 
 wise frequented  by  the  Milesian  vessels.  Its  most 
 important  trade,  however,  was  with  the  shores  of  the 
 Eu.xine.  Almost  all  the  Greek  cities  along  the  coast 
 of  this  inland  sea,  which  were  found  there  at  the  pe- 
 riod of  the  Persian  power,  were  of  Milesian  origin. 
 As,  however,  many  of  those  cities  were  themselves 
 conspicuous  for  size  and  population,  one  can  hardly 
 comprehend  how  Miletus,  in  the  midst  of  so  active  a 
 traffic,  which  of  itself  must  have  required  the  attention 
 of  considerable  numbers,  could  command  a  superflu- 
 ous population,  sufficiently  extensive  for  the  establish- 
 ment of  so  many  colonies,  which  Pliny  makes  to  have 
 been  eighty  in  number,  and  Seneca  seventy-five. 
 {PLin  ,  29. — Senec,  Consol.  ml  Helv.,  c.  6. — Consult 
 Tiunibach,  dc  Milcto  ejusquc  Culoniis,  Hal.  Sax.,  1790. 
 — Laichcr,  Hist.  d'Hcrod.,  vol.  8,  p.  344,  3.59.)  It  is 
 more  than  probable,  that,  in  sending  out  these  colonics, 
 the  natives  of  the  country,  the  Lydians,  Carians,  and 
 Leleges,  were  invited  to  join,  and  did  so. — Miletus 
 was  already  a  powerful  city  when  the  Lydian  monarchy 
 rose  into  consequence.  The  kings  of  Lydia,  posses- 
 sors o(  all  the  surrounding  territory,  could  not  brook 
 the  independence  of  the  Ionian  city  ;  they  accordingly 
 carried  on  war  against  it  for  many  years,  and  were  at 
 times  powerful  enough  to  advance  even  to  thecity  walls, 
 and  to  destroy  or  carry  off  the  produce  of  the  neigh- 
 bouringcountry  ;  but  they  were  unable  to  mar  the  pros- 
 perity of  a  city  which  had  the  control  of  the  sea,  and 
 consequently  bade  defiance  to  their  power.  The  Mile- 
 sians appear  subsequently  to  have  made  a  treaty  with 
 Croesus,  in  which  they  probably  acknowledged  that 
 sovereign  as  their  liege  lord,  and  consented  to  pay  him 
 tribute.  The  same  treaty  was  also  agreed  upon  be- 
 tween them  and  Cyrus,  when  the  latter  had  conquered 
 Lydia  ;  and  this  saved  Miletus  from  the  disasters  which 
 befell  at  that  time  the  other  Ionian  states.  (Herod., 
 !,  141,  143.)  But  it  was  not  always  equally  fortunate. 
 In  the  reign  of  Darius,  the  whole  of  Ionia  was  e.xcited 
 10  revolt  by  the  intrigues  and  ambitious  schemes  of 
 Histiaeus,  who  had  been  raised  to  the  sovereignty  of 
 Miletus,  his  native  city,  by  the  Persian  monarch,  in 
 recompense  for  the  services  he  had  rendered  in  the 
 Scythian  expedition.  Aristagoras,  his  deputy  and 
 kinsman,  also  greatly  contributed  to  inflame  the  minds 
 of  his  countrymen.  At  his  instigation,  the  Athenians 
 sent  a  force  to  Asia  Minor,  which  surprised  and  burned 
 Sardis ;  but  this  insult  was  speedily  avenged  by  the 
 844 
 
 Persian  satraps,  and,  after  repeated  defeats,  Miletus 
 was  besieged  by  land  and  sea,  and  finally  taken  by 
 storm.  This  beautiful  and  opulent  city,  the  pride  and 
 ornament  of  Asia,  was  thus  plunged  into  the  greatest 
 calamity  ;  the  surviving  inhabitants  were  earned  to 
 Susa,  and  settled,  by  order  of  Darius,  at  Ampc,  near 
 the  mouth  of  the  Tigris.  The  town  itself  was  given 
 up  by  the  Persian  commanders  to  the  Carians.  The 
 Athenians  are  said  to  have  been  so  much  affected  by 
 this  event,  that  when  Phrynichus,  the  tragic  writer,  in- 
 troduced on  the  stage  his  play  of  "  the  Capture  of  Mi- 
 letus," the  whole  house  burst  into  tears,  and  the  peo- 
 ple fined  the  poet  1000  drachmas,  and  forbade  the  per- 
 formance for  the  future.  (Herod.,  6,  6,  seqij.  —  Cal- 
 listh.,  ap.  Strab.,  035.) — When  Alexander,  after  the 
 battle  of  the  Granicus,  appeared  before  Miletus,  the 
 inhabitants,  encouraged  by  the  presence  of  a  Persian 
 army  and  fleet  stationed  at  Mycale,  refused  to  submit 
 to  that  prince,  and  open  their  gates  to  his  forces  ;  upon 
 which  he  immediately  commenced  a  most  vigorous  at 
 tack  on  their  walls,  and  finally  look  the  city  by  assault. 
 He  however  forgave  the  surviving  inhabitants,  and 
 granted  them  their  liberty.  (Arrian,  Exp.  AL,  1,  18, 
 scqq.)  The  Milesians  sided  with  the  Romans  during 
 the  war  with  Antiochus.  (Liv.,  37,  16. — Id.,  43,  6.) 
 This  city  was  yet  flourishing  when  Strabo  wrote  (S/ra- 
 bo,  I.  c.  —  Compare  Tacit.,  Ann.,  4,  55  ct  63),  and 
 still  later,  in  the  time  of  Pliny  (5,  29)  and  Pausanias 
 (7,  2).  It  appears  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  that 
 St.  Paul  sojourned  here  a  few  days  on  his  return  from 
 Macedonia  and  Troas,  and  summoned  hither  the  el- 
 ders of  the  Ephesian  Church,  to  whom  he  delivered  an 
 afl^ectionate  farewell  address.  (Acts,  20,  17,  scqq.) 
 The  Milesian  Church  was  under  the  direction  of  bish- 
 ops, who  sat  in  several  councils,  and  ranked  as  metro- 
 politans of  Caria.  (Hicrocl.,  Synced,]).  687.)  This 
 continued  as  late  as  the  decline  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
 pire (Mich.  Due,  p.  41);  at  which  time,  however,  the 
 town  itself  was  nearly  in  ruins,  from  the  ravages  of  the 
 Turks  and  other  barbarians,  and  the  alluvial  dcposites 
 caused  by  the  Maeander.  Miletus  deserves  farther 
 mention  as  the  birthplace  of  Thales,  the  celebrated 
 mathematician  and  philosopher;  and  his  successors 
 Anaximander  and  Anaximenes  ;  also  of  Cadmus  and 
 Hecata;us,  two  of  the  earliest  historians  of  Greece. 
 (Strah.,  635.— P/in.,  5,  39.  —  S2iid.,  s.  r  KdSfWc.) 
 The  Milesians  were  in  repute  for  their  manufactures  of 
 couches  and  other  furniture  ;  and  their  woollen  cloths 
 and  carpets  were  especially  esteemed.  (AthcncEus,  1, 
 p.  28.  — W.,  11,  p.  428.— 7^/.,  12,  p.  540,  &c.)  The 
 modern  village  of  Falatscha  occupies  part  of  the  site 
 of  the  ancient  city.  The  coast,  however,  has  under- 
 gone great  changes,  for  some  remarks  on  which  con- 
 sult the  article  Meander.  (Cramer's  Asia  Mtnor, 
 vol.  1,  p.  385,  scqq.) 
 
 Mn.o,  I.  a  celebrated  athlete  of  Crotona  in  Italy. 
 He  accustomed  himself  from  early  life  to  bear  bur- 
 dens, the  weight  of  which  he  successively  augmented, 
 and  at  last  became  so  conspicuous  for  strength  as  to 
 carry  the  most  surprising  loads  with  the  utmost  ease. 
 Many  curious  stories  are  related  by  the  ancients  con- 
 cerning his  wonderful  strength.  He  could  hold  a 
 pomegranate  in  his  hand,  with  his  fingers  closed  over 
 it,  and  yet,  without  either  crushing  or  even  pressing  on 
 the  fruit,  could  keep  his  fingers  so  firmly  bent  as  to 
 render  it  impossible  for  any  one  to  take  the  fruit  from 
 him.  He  could  place  himself  on  a  discus,  some  say 
 a  shield,  covered  over  with  oil  or  other  unctuous  sub- 
 stances, and  rendered,  of  course,  very  slippery,  and  yet 
 he  could  retain  so  firm  a  foothold  that  no  one  was  able  to 
 dislodge  him.  He  could  encircle  his  brow  with  a  cord, 
 and  break  this  asunder  by  holding  his  breath  and  caus- 
 ing the  veins  of  the  head  to  distend.  He  could  hold  hie 
 right  arm  behind  his  back,  with  the  hand  open  and 
 the  thumb  raised,  and  a  man  could  not  then  separate 
 his  little  finger  from  the  rest.     The  account  that  is 
 
MILO. 
 
 MILO. 
 
 given  of  his  voracity  is  almost  incredible.  He  ate,  it 
 is  said,  every  day,  twenty  pounds  of  animal  food, 
 twenty  pounds  of  bread,  and  drank  fifteen  pints  of 
 wine.  Athenajus  relates,  tiiat  on  one  occasion  he 
 carried  a  steer  four  years  old  the  whole  length  of  the 
 stadium  at  Olynipia  (606  feet),  and  then,  having  cut  it 
 up  and  cooked  it,  ate  it  all  up  himself  m  one  day. 
 (Allien.,  10,  p.  412,  e)  Some  authorities  add,  that 
 he  kdled  it  with  a  single  blow  of  his  fist.  He  had  an 
 opportunity,  however,  at  last,  of  exerting  his  prodi- 
 gious strength  in  a  more  useful  manner.  One  day, 
 while  attending  the  lectures  of  Pythagoras,  of  whom 
 he  was  a  disciple  and  constant  hearer,  the  column 
 which  supported  the  ceiling  of  the  hall  where  they 
 were  assembled  was  observed  to  totter,  whereupon 
 Milo,  upholding  the  entire  superstructure  by  his  own 
 strength,  allowed  all  present  an  opportunity  of  esca- 
 |)ing,  and  then  saved  himself.  Milo  was  crowned 
 seven  times  as  victor  at  the  Pythian  games,  and  si.x 
 times  at  the  Olympic,  and  he  only  ceased  to  present 
 himself  at  these  contests  when  he  found  no  one  will- 
 ing to  be  his  opponent.  In  B.C.  509  he  had  the 
 command  of  the  army  sent  by  the  people  of  Crotona 
 against  Svbaris,  and  gained  a  signal  victory. — His 
 death  was  a  melancholy  one.  He  was  already  ad- 
 vanced ill  years,  when,  traversing  a  forest,  he  found  a 
 trunk  of  a  tree  partly  cleft  by  wedges.  Wishing  to 
 sever  it  entirely,  he  introduced  his  hands  into  the  open- 
 ing, and  succeeded  so  far  as  to  cause  the  wedges  to 
 fall  out  ;  but  his  strength  here  failing  him,  the  separa- 
 ted parts  on  a  sudden  reunited,  and  his  hands  remain- 
 ed imprisoned  in  the  cleft.  In  this  situation  he  was 
 devoured  by  vvilil  beasts.  {Aid.  Gdl  ,  15.  16.— Fa/. 
 Max.,  9,  13,  17.) — II.  Titus  Annius.  was  a  native  of 
 Lanuvium  in  Latiuin,  and  was  born  about  95  B.C. 
 His  family  appears  to  have  been  a  distinguished  one, 
 since  we  find  him  espousing  the  daughter  of  Sylla. 
 Having  been  chosen  inbiine  of  the  commons  B.C.  57, 
 he  zealously  e.xerted  himself  for  the  recall  of  Cicero, 
 but  the  violent  proceedings  of  Clodius  paralyzed  all 
 his  efforts.  Determined  to  put  an  end  to  this,  he 
 summoned  Clodius  to  trial  as  a  disturber  of  the  pub- 
 lic peace;  but  the  consul  Metellus  dismissed  the  pros- 
 ecution, and  thus  enabled  Clodius  to  resume  with  im- 
 punity his  unprincipled  and  daring  career.  Milo  there- 
 upon found  himself  compelled,  for  the  sake  of  his 
 own  personal  safety,  to  keep  around  him  a  band  of 
 armed  followers.  His  private  resources  having  suf- 
 fered greatly  by  the  magnificent  games  which  he  had 
 exhibited,  Milo,  in  order  to  repair  his  shattered  for- 
 tunes, married  Fausta,  the  daughter  of  Svlla;  but  the 
 union  was  an  unhappy  one  ;  Fausta  was  discovered  to 
 be  unfaithful  to  his  bed,  and  her  paramour,  the  histo- 
 rian Sallust,  was  only  allowed  to  escape  after  receiving 
 severe  personal  chastisement,  and  paying  a  large  sum 
 of  money  to  the  injured  husband.  Clodius  mean- 
 while, having  obtained  the  office  of  a;dile,  had  the  as 
 surance  to  accuse  Milo  in  his  turn  of  being  a  disturber 
 of  the  public  tranquillity,  and  of  violating  the  laws  bv 
 keeping  a  body  of  armed  men  in  his  service.  Pom- 
 pey  defended  the  latter  ;  Clodius  spoke  in  reply  ;  and 
 the  whole  affair  was  carried  on  amid  the  most  violent 
 clamours  from  their  respective  partisans.  No  decis- 
 ion, however,  was  made  ;  the  matter  was  protracted, 
 and  at  last  allowed  to  drop.  Some  years  after  this 
 (B.C.  51)  Milo  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the 
 consulship  against  two  other  competitors.  Clodius, 
 of  course,  opposed  him  ;  but  the  powerful  exertions  of 
 his  friends  would  have  carried  him  through,  had  not 
 an  unfortunate  occurrence  frustrated  all  his  hopes. 
 Clodius,  it  seems,  had  openly  declared,  that  if  Milo 
 did  not  abandon  all  pretensions  to  the  consulship,  in 
 three  days  he  would  be  no  more.  This  threat  fell  upon 
 the  head  of  its  own  author.  On  the  20th  of  January, 
 Milo  set  out  from  Rome  to  go  to  Lanuvium,  of  which 
 he  was  the  chief  magistrate  or  dictator,  and  where,  by 
 
 virtue  of  his  office,  he  was  on  the  following  day  to  np- 
 point  a  fiiamen  for  the  performance  of  some  of  the  re- 
 ligious ceremonies  of  the  municipality.  He  travelled 
 in  a  carriage,  accompanied  by  his  wife  and  one  of  hia 
 friends,  and  attended  by  a  strong  body  of  slaves,  and 
 also  by  some  of  the  armed  followers,  whose  services 
 he  had  occasionally  employed  in  his  contests  with 
 Clodius.  While  prosecuting  his  route,  he  fell  in  with 
 the  latter,  who  was  returning  to  Rome,  followed  by 
 about  thirty  of  his  slaves.  Clodius  and  Milo  passed 
 one  another  without  disturbance  ;  but  the  armed  men, 
 who  were  among  the  last  of  Milo's  party,  provoked  a 
 quarrel  with  the  slaves  of  Clodius  ;  and  Clodius  turn- 
 ing back,  and  interposing  in  an  authoritative  manner, 
 Birria,  one  of  Milo's  followers,  ran  him  through  the 
 shoulder  with  a  sword.  Upon  this  the  fray  became 
 general.  Milo's  slaves  hastened  back  in  great  num- 
 bers to  take  part  in  it,  while  Clodius  was  carried  into 
 an  inn  at  Bovills.  Meanwhile,  Milo  himself  was  in- 
 formed of  what  had  passed,  and,  resolving  to  avail 
 himself  of  the  opportunity  which  was  offered,  he  or- 
 dered his  slaves  to  attack  the  inn  and  destroy  his  ene- 
 my. Clodius  was  dragged  out  into  the  road  and 
 there  murdered  ;  his  slaves  shared  his  fate,  or  saved 
 their  lives  by  flying  to  places  of  concealment  ;  and  his 
 body,  covered  with  wounds,  was  left  in  the  middle  of 
 the  highway.  {A.scon  ,  Arg.  in  C'lc,  Oral,  pro  Mil.) 
 When  the  corpse  of  Clodius  was  brought  to  Home,  a 
 violent  popular  commotion  ensued.  The  body  wa» 
 carried  into  the  Forum  and  exhibited  on  the  rostra  ; 
 and  at  last  the  mob,  having  conveyed  it  from  the  rostra 
 into  the  senate-house,  set  fire  to  a  funeral  pile  made 
 for  it  al  the  moment  out  of  the  benches,  tables,  and 
 other  furniture  which  they  found  at  hand.  1'he  con- 
 sequence was,  as  might  be  expected,  that  the  senate- 
 house  itself  was  involved  in  the  conflagration  and 
 burned  to  the  ground.  These,  and  several  other  dis- 
 orders committed  by  the  multitude,  somewhat  turned 
 the  tide  of  pul)lic  o[)inion  in  favour  of  Milo.  He  was 
 now  encouraged  to  return  to  Rome  and  renew  his  can- 
 vass for  the  consulship.  He  did  so,  but  the  whole 
 city  became  eventually  a  scene  of  the  greatest  confu- 
 sion ;  and,  in  order  to  restore  public  tranquillity,  Pom- 
 pey  was  declared  sole  consul,  and  armed  with  full  pow- 
 ers to  put  a  stop  to  farther  disturbances.  Milo  was 
 thereupon  brought  to  trial  for  the  murder  of  Clodius, 
 and  was  defended  by  Cicero  ;  but  the  clamours  and 
 outcries  of  the  populace  devoted  to  the  party  of  ('lo- 
 dius,  and  the  array  of  armed  men  that  encompassed 
 the  tribunal,  to  prevent  any  outbreak  of  popular  vio- 
 lence, prevented  the  orator  from  displaying  his  usual 
 force  and  eloquence,  and  Milo  was  condemned.  When 
 the  event  of  the  trial  was  known,  he  went  into  exile, 
 and  fixed  his  abode  at  Massilia  in  Gaul.  Milo  was 
 also  tried  after  his  de[iarturc  for  three  other  distinct 
 offences  ;  for  bribery,  for  illegal  caballing  and  combi- 
 nations, and  for  acts  of  violence,  and  was  successive- 
 ly found  guilty  on  all.  —  It  is  said  that,  soon  after  Mi- 
 lo's condemnation,  and  when  he  was  residing  al  Mas- 
 silia, Cicero  sent  him  a  co[)y  of  his  speech  in  the  form 
 in  which  we  now  have  it,  and  that  Milo,  having  read 
 it  over,  wrote  a  letter  to  the  orator,  in  which  he  stated 
 that  it  was  a  fortunate  thins  for  himself  that  Cicero 
 had  not  pronounced  the  oration  which  he  sent,  since 
 otherwise  he  (Milo)  would  not  then  have  been  eat- 
 ing such  fine  mullets  at  Massilia.  It  has  been  some- 
 times stated,  that  Milo  was  subsequently  restored  to 
 his  country.  This,  however,  is  altogether  erroneous. 
 Velleius  Paterculus  and  Dio  Cassius  both  contradict 
 the  fact  of  his  recall,  by  what  we  find  in  their  respect- 
 ive histories,  .\ccording  to  Dio  Cassius,  Milo  was  the 
 only  one  of  the  exiles  whom  Caesar  refused  to  recall, 
 because,  as  is  supposed,  he  had  been  active  in  exci- 
 ting the  people  of  Massilia  to  resist  Ca?sar.  Vellei- 
 us  Paterculus  states  that  Milo  returned  without  per- 
 mission  to  Italy,  and  there  busily  employed  himself 
 ■'  845 
 
MI  L 
 
 MILTIADES. 
 
 in  raising  opposition  to  Cfcsar  during  that  command- 
 er's absence  m  Thessaly  against  Pompcy.  He  adds 
 thai  Milo  was  killtd  by  the  blow  of  a  stone  while  lay- 
 ing siege  to  Compsa,  a  town  of  the  Hirpini.  {Cic, 
 Or.  pro  Mil—  Veil.  Paterc,  2,  47,  Q9.  —  Encyrhp. 
 MeinpoLy  div.  3,  vol.  2,  p.  218,  scq. — Biogr.  Univ., 
 vol.  29,  p.  57.) 
 
 MiLTiADKs,  r.  an  Athenian,  son  of  Cypselus,  who 
 obtained  a  victory  in  a  chariot-race  at  the  Olympic 
 games,  ajid  led  a  colony  of  his  countrymen  to  the 
 Chersonesns.  The  cause  of  this  step  on  his  part  was 
 a  singular  one.  It  seems  that  the  Thracian  Dolonci, 
 harassed  by  a  long  war  with  the  Absitithians,  were  di- 
 rected by  the  oracle  of  Delfihi  to  take  for  their  king 
 the  first  man  they  met  in  their  return  home,  who  in- 
 vited them  to  come  under  his  roof  and  partake  of  his 
 entertainments.  The  Dolonci,  after  receiving  the  or- 
 acle, returned  by  the  sacred  way,  passed  through  Pho- 
 cis  and  BtEOiia,  and,  not  being  invited  by  either  of 
 these  people,  turned  aside  to  Athens.  Miltiades,  as 
 he  sat  in  this  city  before  the  door  of  his  house,  ob- 
 served the  Dolonci  passing  by,  and  as  by  their  dress 
 and  armour  he  perceived  they  were  strangers,  he  call- 
 ed to  them,  and  offered  them  the  rites  of  hospitality. 
 They  accepted  his  kindness,  and,  being  hospitably 
 treated,  revealed  to  him  all  the  will  of  the  oracle,  with 
 which  they  entreated  his  compliance.  Miltiades,  dis- 
 posed to  listen  to  them  because  weary  of  the  tyranny 
 of  Pisistratus,  first  consulted  the  oracle  of  Delphi,  and 
 the  answer  being  favourable,  he  went  with  the  Dolon- 
 ci. He  was  invested  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Cher- 
 sonese with  sovereign  power.  The  first  measure  he 
 took  was  to  stop  the  farther  incursions  of  the  Absin- 
 thians,  by  build mg  a  wall  across  the  isthmus.  When 
 he  had  established  himself  at  home,  and  fortified  his 
 dominions  against  foreign  invasion,  he  turned  his  arms 
 against  Lampsacus.  His  expedition  was  unsuccess- 
 ful ;  he  was  taken  in  an  ambuscade,  and  made  pris- 
 oner. His  friend  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia.  however, 
 was  informed  of  his  captivity,  and  procured  his  release 
 by  threatening  the  people  of  Lampsacus  with  his  se- 
 verest displeasure.  He  lived  a  few  years  after  he  had 
 recovered  his  liberty.  As  he  had  no  issue,  he  left  his 
 kingdom  and  possessions  to  Stcsagoras,  the  son  of 
 Cimon,  who  was  his  brother  by  the  same  mother.  The 
 memory  of  Miltiades  was  greatly  honoured  by  the 
 Dolonci,  and  they  regularly  celebrated  festivals  and 
 exhibited  shows  in  commemoration  of  a  man  to  whom 
 they  owed  their  preservation  and  greatness.  {Herod., 
 6,  38. — W,  6,  103  ) — II.  A  nephew  of  the  former,  and 
 brother  of  Stesagoras.  His  brother,  who  had  been 
 ado[)led  by  Miltiades  the  elder,  having  died  without 
 issue,  Miltiades  the  younger,  though  he  had  not,  like 
 Stesagoras.  an  interest  established  during  the  life  of 
 his  predecessor,  and  though  the  Chersonese  was  not 
 by  law  an  hereditary  principality,  was  still  sent  by  the 
 PisistratidiB  thither  with  a  galley.  By  a  mixture  of 
 fraud  and  force  he  succeeded  in  securing  the  tyranny. 
 On  his  arrival  at  the  Chersonese,  he  appeared  mourn- 
 ful, as  if  lamenting  the  recent  death  of  his  brother. 
 The  principal  inhabitants  of  the  country  visited  the 
 new  governor  to  condole  with  him,  but  their  confidence 
 in  his  sincerity  proved  fatal  to  them.  Miltiades  seiz- 
 ed their  persons,  and  made  himself  absolute  in  Cher- 
 sonesns ;  and,  to  strengthen  himself,  he  married  He- 
 gesipyla,  the  daughter  of  Olorus,  king  of  the  Thra- 
 cians.  When  Darius  marched  ajainst  the  Scythians, 
 Miltiades  submitted  to  him  and  followed  in  his  train, 
 and  was  left  with  the  other  Grecian  chiefs  of  the  army 
 to  Tuard  the  bridge  of  boats  by  which  the  Persians 
 crossed  the  Danube.  He  then  proposed  to  break  up 
 the  bridge,  and,  suffering  the  king  and  army  to  perish 
 by  the  Scythians,  to  secure  Greece  and  deliver  Ionia 
 from  the  Persian  yoke.  His  suggestion  was  rejected, 
 not  for  its  treachery,  but  because  Persia  was  to  each 
 of  the  tyrants  his  surest  support  against  the  spirit  of 
 846 
 
 freedom  in  the  people.  Miltiades,  soon  after,  wat 
 driven  out  by  the  Scythians,  but  recovered  his  posses- 
 sions on  their  departure.  Knowing  himself,  however, 
 to  be  obnoxious  to  the  Persians,  he  lied  to  Athens, 
 when  their  fleet,  after  the  rc-conquest  of  Ionia,  was 
 approaching  the  coast  of  Thrace.  The  Athenian 
 laws  were  severe  against  tyrants,  and  Miltiades,  on  ar- 
 riving, was  tried  for  his  life.  He  was  acquitted,  how- 
 ever, more  perhaps  owing  to  the  politic  way  in  which 
 he  had  used  his  power  in  the  Chersonesus,  than  to 
 the  real  merit  of  his  conduct.  Nay,  he  even  so  far 
 won  the  favour  of  the  people  as  to  be  appointed,  not 
 long  after,  one  of  the  ten  generals  of  Athens.  It  was 
 at  this  same  period  that  the  Persian  armament,  undei 
 Datis  and  Artaphernes,  bore  down  upon  the  shores  of 
 Attica  ;  and,  guided  by  Hippias.  who  knew  the  capa- 
 bilities of  every  spot  of  ground  in  his  country,  the  in- 
 vading force  landed  at  Marathon.  According  to  cus- 
 tom, the  Athenian  army  was  under  the  command  of 
 its  ten  generals.  The  opinions  of  the  ten  were  equal- 
 ly divided  as  to  the  propriety  of  engaging,  when  Mil- 
 tiades, going  privately  to  the  polemarch  Callimachus, 
 who,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  commanded  the  right  wing, 
 and  had  an  equal  vote  with  the  ten  generals,  prevailed 
 upon  him  to  come  over  to  his  way  of  thinking,  and 
 vote  in  favour  of  a  battle.  The  vote  of  the  polemarch 
 decided  the  question  ;  and  when  the  day  of  command 
 came  round  to  Miltiades,  the  battle  took  place.  The 
 details  of  this  conflict  are  given  elsewhere.  {Vid. 
 Marathon.) — Perhaps  no  battle  ever  reflected  more 
 lustre  on  the  successful  commander  than  that  of  Mar- 
 athon on  Miltiades  ;  though  it  should  be  observed,  that 
 he  whom  all  ages  have  regarded  as  the  defender  of 
 liberty,  began  his  career  as  an  arbitrary  ruler,  and  on 
 only  one  occasion  in  his  whole  life  was  engaged  on 
 the  side  of  freedom  ;  but  for  the  same  man  to  be  the 
 liberator  of  his  own  country  and  a  despot  in  another, 
 is  no  inconsistency,  as  the  course  of  human  events  has 
 often  shown. — The  reward  bestowed  upon  Miltiades 
 after  this  memorable  conflict  was  strikingly  charac- 
 teristic. He  and  the  polemarch  Callimachus  were 
 alone  distinguished  from  the  other  combatants  in  the 
 painted  porch,  and  stood  apart  with  the  tutelary  gods 
 and  heroes. — Miltiades  now  rose  to  the  utmost  height 
 of  popularity  and  influence,  insomuch  that  when  he  re- 
 quested a  fleet  of  seventy  ships,  without  declaring  how 
 he  meant  to  employ  them,  but  merely  promising  that 
 he  would  bring  great  riches  to  Athens,  the  people 
 readily  agreed.  He  led  them  to  the  Isle  of  Paros, 
 under  the  pretence  of  punishing  its  people  for  their 
 compelled  service  in  the  Persian  fleet,  but  really  to 
 avenge  a  personal  injury  of  his  own.  He  demanded 
 one  hundred  talents  as  the  price  of  his  departure;  but 
 the  Parians  refused,  and  resisted  him  bravely  ;  and  in 
 an  attempt  to  enter  the  town,  he  received  a  wound,  and 
 was  obliged  to  withdraw  his  army.  On  his  return  he 
 was  brought  to  trial  for  his  life  by  Xanthippus,  a  man 
 of  high  consideration,  on  account  of  the  failure  of  his 
 promises  made  to  the  people.  His  wound  disabled 
 him  from  defending  himself,  but  he  was  brought  into 
 the  assembly  on  a  couch,  while  his  brother  Tisagoras 
 defended  him,  principally  by  recalling  his  former  ser- 
 vices. The  memory  of  these,  with  pity  for  his  pres- 
 ent condition,  prevailed  on  the  people  to  absolve  him 
 from  the  capital  charge  ;  but  they  fined  him  fifty  tal- 
 ents, nearly  $53,000.  As  he  could  not  immediately 
 raise  this  sum,  he  was  cast  into  prison,  where  he  soon 
 after  died  of  his  wound,  which  had  gangrened. — The 
 character  of  Miltiades  is  one  on  which,  with  the  few 
 materials  that  history  has  left,  we  should  not  judge 
 too  exactly.  The  outline  which  remains  is  one  that, 
 if  filled  up,  would  seem  fittest  to  contain  the  very 
 model  of  a  successful  statesman  in  an  age  when  the 
 prime  minister  of  Athens  was  likewise  the  leader  of 
 her  armies.  Heeren  has  briefly  noticed  the  transitiorj 
 which  took  place  in  the  character  of  Athenian  states- 
 
MIM 
 
 MIN 
 
 men,  from  the  warrior-like  MiUiades  and  Themistocles, 
 to  the  warlike  rhetorician  Pericles,  and  thence  to  the 
 orator,  who  to  his  rhetorical  skill  united  no  military 
 prowess.  MiUiades,  with  great  generalship,  showed 
 great  power  as  a  statesman,  and  some,  but  not  much, 
 as  an  orator.  This  is  agreeable  to  his  age.  Wheth- 
 er he  was  a  true  patriot,  governed  by  high  principle, 
 it  is  now  impossible  to  determme.  He  achieved  one 
 great  action,  which  for  his  country  produced  a  most 
 decisive  result.  The  unfortunate  close  of  his  career 
 may  be  regarded  by  some  as  showing  the  ingratitude 
 of  democracies ;  but  perhaps  a  judicious  historian  will 
 draw  no  conclusion  of  the  kind,  especially  with  so 
 imperfect  materials  before  him  as  we  possess  of  the 
 life  of  this  illustrious  Athenian.  If  the  Athenians 
 conceived  that  nothing  he  had  done  for  them  ought 
 to  raise  him  above  the  laws  ;  if  they  even  thought 
 that  his  services  had  been  sufficiently  rewarded  by  the 
 station  which  enabled  him  to  perform  them,  and  by 
 the  glory  he  reaped  from  them,  they  were  not  un- 
 grateful or  unjust  ;  and  if  MiUiades  thought  other- 
 wise, he  had  not  learned  to  live  in  a  free  stale.  {He- 
 rod., lib.  5  ct  6.— Corn.  Ncp.,  Vit.  Milt. — Encycl. 
 Us.  KnowL,  vol.  15,  p.  227. — ThirlwaWs  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  246.) 
 
 MiLTO.      Vxd,.  Aspasia  II. 
 
 MiLvius  Pons,  a  bridge  about  two  miles  from 
 Rome,  over  the  Tiber,  in  a  northerly  direction.  It 
 was  also  called  Mulvius.  Its  construction  is  ascribed 
 to  M.  yEmilius  Scaurus,  who  was  censor  A.U.C.  644, 
 and  its  ancient  appellation  is  probably  a  corruption  of 
 his  ?wmen.  The  modern  name  is  Ponte  Mollc.  If  it 
 be  true  that  the  bridge  owed  its  erection  to  ^milius, 
 Livy,  when  he  speaks  of  it  (27,  51),  must  be  supposed 
 to  mention  it  by  anticipation.  We  learn  from  Cicero 
 that  the  Pons  Mulvius  existed  at  the  time  of  Catiline's 
 conspiracy,  since  the  deputies  of  the  Allobroges  were 
 here  seized  by  his  orders.  In  later  times,  it  witnessed 
 the  defeat  of  Maxentius  by  Constantine.  {Zosim.,  2, 
 16. — Cramcr^s  A71C.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  239.) 
 
 MiLYAs.      Vid.  Lycia. 
 
 MiMALLONEs,  a  name  given  to  the  priestesses  of 
 Bacchus  among  the  Thracians,  according  to  Hesy- 
 chius  and  Suidas,  or,  more  correctly,  to  the  female  Bac- 
 chantes in  general.  Suidas  deduces  the  term  from 
 the  Greek  fii(ir]aic,  ^'■imitation,"  because  the  Baccha- 
 nals, under  the  influence  of  the  god,  imitated  in  their 
 wild  fury  the  actions  of  men.  Others,  however,  de- 
 rive it  from  Mimas,  a  mountain  of  Thrace.  Nonnus 
 enumerates  the  Mimallones  among  the  companions  of 
 Bacchus  in  his  Indian  expedition.  (Compare  Pcrsius, 
 Sal.,  1,  99.— OmW,  A.  A.,  1,  541.  —  6V(Zon.,  Prcef. 
 Panfg.  Anthem.)  Bochart  gives  as  the  etymology  of 
 the  word  the  Hebrew  Mcmallclan  ('•  garrulse,"  "  lo- 
 quaciila;")  ;  or  else  Maiiial,  "a  wine-press."  {Rollc, 
 Rechcrches  sur  Ic  cuke  de  Bacchus,  vol.  1,  p.  136.) 
 
 Mimas,  I.  one  of  the  giants  that  warred  against  the 
 gods.  (Compare  Enrip.,  Ion,  215.  —  Senec,  Here. 
 Fur. , 981.— Apoll.  Rhoi.,  3,  1227.)— II.  A  mountain 
 range  of  Ionia,  terminating  in  the  promontory  Argen- 
 iium,  opposite  the  lower  extremity  of  Chios.  (Thu- 
 cyd.,  8,  M.—Plin.,  5,  "i^.—Amin.Marc.,  31,  42.) 
 
 MiMNEKMUs,  an  elegiac  poet,  a  native  of  Colophon 
 in  Ionia,  and  contemporary  with  Solon.  Miiller,  quo- 
 ting a  fragment  of  Mimnermus'  elegy  entitled  "  Nan- 
 no,"  says  that  he  was  one  of  the  colonists  of  Smyrna 
 from  Colophon,  and  whose  ancestors,  at  a  still  earlier 
 period,  came  from  Nelean  Pylos.  (Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 p.  115.)  MiiUer  also  ascribe.^  the  melancholy  char- 
 acter of  his  poems  to  the  reduction  of  Smyrna  by 
 Alyattes.  From  Horace  and  Propertius  we  gather, 
 that  his  poems  had  reference,  for  the  most  part,  to 
 those  appetites  which,  in  poetical  language,  aro  ex- 
 pressed by  the  name  of  love.  {Horat.,  Episl.,  I,  6, 
 65. — Propert.,  1,  9,  11.)  His  mind,  however,  was  of 
 a  melancholy  turn,  which  gave  to  his  writings  a  pen- 
 
 sive cast,  not  traceable  in  the  productions  of  other* 
 who  belonged  to  the  same  school.  In  the  few  frag- 
 ments which  we  have  remaining  of  Mimnermus,  he 
 complains  of  the  briefness  of  human  enjoyment,  the 
 shortness  of  the  season  of  youth,  and  of  the  many 
 miseries  to  which  man  is  exposed.  Mimnermus  was 
 the  first  who  adapted  the  elegiac  verse  to  those  sub- 
 jects which,  from  this  adaptation,  are  now  usually  con- 
 sidered as  proper  for  it;  Callinus,  its  inventor,  having 
 used  it  as  a  vehicle  for  warlike  strains.  The  ancient 
 writers  speak  with  great  admiration  of  his  poem  on 
 Nanno,  a  young  female  musician  of  whom  be  was 
 deeply  enamoured,  and  who  preferred  him  to  young- 
 er and  handsomer  rivals.  The  sweetness  of  his  ver- 
 ses obtained  for  him  also  from  the  ancients  the  appel- 
 lation of  Ligystades  (AiyvarddTj^,  from  liyvc,  "  me- 
 lodious.'''')— The  fragments  of  Mimnermus  have  been 
 several  times  edited,  in  the  collections  of  Stephens, 
 Brunck,  Gaisford,  and  Boissonade  ;  to  which  may  be 
 added  Bach's  separate  edition,  published  at  Leipzig 
 in  1836.  {Wieland,  Altisches  Museum,  vol.  1,  p.  338. 
 —Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  \9l.  — Encycl. 
 Us.  KnowL,  vol.  15,  p.  2^0.— Muller,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 p.  115,    seqq.) 
 
 MiNA  (Mi'u),  a  name  given  by  the  Athenians,  not 
 to  a  particular  coin,  as  is  commonly  but  erroneously 
 imagined,  but  merely  to  a  certain  sum,  or,  in  other 
 words,  to  so  much  money  of  account.  The  mina 
 was  equivalent,  as  a  sum,  to  100  drachmas,  which 
 would  make,  in  our  currency,  a  little  more  than  $17 
 59  cts.  The  term  was  also  employed  as  a  weight, 
 and  was  then  equivalent  to  a  little  over  15  oz.  avoir 
 dupois  weight. — This  appears  to  be  the  proper  placo 
 for  a  few  remarks  relative  to  Athenian  coinage.  Na 
 gold  coins  a[)pear  to  have  been  minted  at  Athens,  al- 
 though the  gold  coinage  of  other  places  circulated 
 there  freely.  (Consult  CardwclFs  Lectures  on  tht 
 Coinage  of  the  Greeks  a/id  Romans,  p.  112,  seqq.) 
 But  the  metal  of  the  greatest  importance  to  Athens 
 was  silver.  It  had  been  employed  by  them  for  their 
 coinage  from  the  earliest  periods  of  their  history  ;  it 
 was  obtained  in  considerable  quantity  from  their  own 
 neighbourhood  {vid.  Laurium) ;  and  it  formed  an  im- 
 portant item  in  their  national  revenue.  The  high 
 commendation  given  to  this  coinage  by  Aristophanes, 
 refers,  not  to  any  delicacy  of  workmanship,  but  to  the 
 extreme  purity  of  the  metal ;  and  the  same  cause 
 seems  to  have  deterred  the  Athenians  from  excelling 
 in  the  execution  of  their  coins,  which  induced  ihem 
 to  preserve  the  greatest  purity  in  the  standard.  The 
 specimens,  accordingly,  of  Athenian  silver  are  very 
 numerous,  and,  though  evidently  minted  at  periods 
 verv  different  from  each  other,  retain  so  great  a  de- 
 gree of  correspondence,  as  implies  either  much  polit- 
 ical wisdom  on  the  part  of  Athens,  or,  at  least,  a  will- 
 ing acquiescence  in  the  authority  of  public  opinion. 
 The  most  important  property,  in  fact,  of  the  Athenian 
 coinage  was  its  purity,  carried  to  so  great  an  extent 
 that  no  baser  metal  appears  to  have  been  united  with 
 it  as  an  alloy.  It  may  readily  be  supposed  that  the 
 lead,  which  was  found,  together  with  the  silver,  in  the 
 mines  of  Laurium,  was  not  always  perfectly  separa- 
 ted from  it  by  the  ancient  process  of  refining:  but  the 
 quantity  of  that  metal  which  has  hitherto  been  discov- 
 ered in  the  silver  coins  of  Athens  is  not  likely  to  have 
 been  added  designedly  ;  and  copper,  which  would 
 have  been  more  suitable  for  the  purpose,  does  not 
 appear  to  have  been  used  at  any  period  as  an  alloy, 
 much  less  in  the  way  of  adulteration  Connected 
 with  this  superiority,  and  with  the  rude  method  of 
 minting  which  prevailed  in  former  times,  was  the  far- 
 ther advantage  possessed  by  the  Athenian  coin  of  be- 
 ing less  exposed  to  wear  from  constant  use  than  la 
 thS  case  with  the  thinner  lamina  and  the  larger  sur- 
 face of  a  modern  coin  ;  whether  it  were  owing  to  the 
 smaller  degree  of  hardness  in  the  metal  they  employ- 
 °  847 
 
M  FN 
 
 MINERVA. 
 
 ed,  or  to  tlieir  want  of  mechanical  contrivances,  or  to 
 their  i<nowieiigc  Uiat  a  coinjiacl  and  globular  body  is 
 least  liable  to  loss  from  frieliou,  the  Athenian  coin 
 was  nnnied  in  a  form  more  massive  than  our  own, 
 and  much  less  convenient  for  tale  or  transfer,  but  bet- 
 ter calculated  to  maintain  its  value  unimpaired  by  the 
 wear  of  constant  circulation. — The  only  question  that 
 remains  to  be  considered  here  is  this  :  to  what  cause 
 was  It  owing  that  the  coins  of  Athens  should  have 
 been  executed  throughout  in  a  style  of  inelegance  and 
 coarseness;  at  a  time,  too,  when  the  coins  of  other 
 districts,  far  inferior  in  science  and  reputation  to 
 Athens,  were  finished  in  the  most  perfect  workman- 
 ship! The  fact  is  certainly  remarkable;  and  the 
 only  explanation  that  has  hitherto  been  given  of  it, 
 may  tend  to  illustrate  still  farther  the  beneficial  etTects 
 of  commerce  in  its  inlluence  on  the  Athenian  mint. 
 The  ancient  coinage,  says  Eckhcl,  had  recommended 
 itself  so  strongly  by  its  purity,  and  had  become  so 
 universally  known  among  Greeks  and  barbarians  by 
 its  primitive  emblems,  that  it  would  have  been  im- 
 possible to  have  made  any  considerable  change  in  the 
 form  or  workmanship  of  the  coin,  without  creating  a 
 degree  of  suspicion  against  it,  and  eventually  con- 
 tracting its  circulation.  (  Walpoles  Collection,  vol.  1, 
 p.  4:33. — CardwclVs  Lectures,  p.  9,  scqq.) 
 
 MiNcIos,  now  Miiicio,  a  river  of  Gallia  Gisalpina, 
 flowing  from  the  Lake  Bcnacus,  and  falling  into  the 
 Po.  (  Vir^.,  Eclog.,  7,  13.  —Id.,  Georg.,  3,  15.~-Id., 
 jEri,  10,  206.) 
 
 MiNKiDEs  or  MiNYEiDEs,  the  daughters  of  Minyas, 
 king  of  Orchomenus,  in  Bccotia.  Tliey  were  three  in 
 number,  Leucippe,  Aristippe,  and  Alcathoe.  These 
 females  derided  the  rites  of  Bacchus,  and  continued 
 plying  their  looms,  while  the  other  women  ran  through 
 the  mountains.  Bacchus  came  as  a  maiden  and  re- 
 monstraicd,  but  in  vain;  he  then  assumed  the  form 
 of  various  wild  beasts;  serpents  filled  their  baskets; 
 vines  and  ivy  twined  round  their  looms,  while  wine 
 and  milk  distilled  from  the  roof;  but  their  obstinacy 
 was  unsubdued.  He  finally  drove  them  mad  ;  they 
 tore  to  pieces  the  son  of  Leucippe,  and  then  went  roam- 
 ing through  the  mountains,  till  Mercury  touched  them 
 with  his  wand,  and  turned  them  into  a  bat,  an  owl, 
 and  a  crow.  {^Corinna  ct  Nicand.,  ap.  Anton.  Lib.,  10. 
 —  Milan,  V.  H.,  3,  M.  —  Ovid,  Mel.,  4,  1,  seqq.— 
 Keighilei/s  Mytholngy,  p.  213.) 
 
 MiNEKVA,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  the  same  in 
 general  with  the  Palla.s-Athene  (IlaA/iuf  'KOijvi])  of 
 the  Greeks,  and  to  be  considered,  therefore,  in  com- 
 mon with  her,  in  one  and  the  same  article. — Minerva 
 or  .\thene  was  regarded  in  the  ()opular  mythology  as 
 the  goddess  of  wisdom  and  skill,  and.  in  a  word,  of 
 all  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences.  In  both  the  Homeric 
 poems  she  is  spoken  of  as  the  daughter  of  Jupiter,  and 
 in  one  place  it  seems  to  be  intimated  that  she  had  no 
 other  parent  (//.,  5,  875,  seqq  )  In  later  writers, 
 however,  the  legend  assumes  a  more  extended  form. 
 It  is  said  that  Ju[)iter,  after  his  union  with  Metis,  was 
 informed  by  Heaven  and  Earth  that  the  first  child  born 
 from  this  marriage,  a  maiden,  would  equal  him  in 
 strength  and  counsel ;  and  that  the  second,  a  son, 
 would  be  king  of  gods  and  men.  Alarmed  at  this 
 prediction,  the  monarch  of  Olympus  swallowed  his 
 spouse,  who  was  then  pregnant;  but  being  seized, 
 after  a  time,  with  racking  pains  in  the  head,  the  god 
 summoned  Vulcan  to  his  aid,  who,  in  obedience  to  the 
 commands  of  Jupiter,  cleft  the  head  of  the  latter  with 
 a  blow  5f  his  brazen  hatchet,  and  Minerva  immediate- 
 ly leape  i  forth,  in  panoply,  from  the  brain  of  her  sire. 
 {Tlicog.,  886,  seqq.  — lb.,  92^.  —  Scliol.  ad  Theog., 
 890  —  Find.,  01.,  7,  63— SrW.,  ad  loc.—  Schol.  ad 
 Apoll  Rhod.,  4,  1310.)  Still  later  authorities  assign 
 the  task  of  opening  the  head  of  Jove  to  Prometheus 
 (Euripides,  Ion,  462. — Apollod.,  I,  3),  or  to  Hermes 
 {Schol.  ad  Pind.,  01.,  7,  66). — Minerva  is  in  Homer, 
 848 
 
 as  in  the  general  popular  system,  the  goddess  of  wis 
 doin  and  skill.  She  is  in  war  opposed  to  Mars,  the 
 wild  war-god,  as  the  patroness  and  teacher  of  just  and 
 scientific  warfare.  She  is  therefore  on  the  side  of  iho 
 Greeks,  as  he  on  that  of  the  Trojans.  But  on  the 
 shield  of  Achilles,  where  the  people  of  the  besieged 
 town  are  represented  as  going  forth  to  lie  in  ambush, 
 they  arc  led  by  Mars  and  Minerva  together  {It,  18, 
 516),  possibly  to  denote  the  union  of  skill  and  courage 
 required  for  that  service.  (//.,  13,  277.)  Every  pru- 
 dent (thief  was  esteemed  to  be  under  the  patronage  of 
 Minerva,  and  Ulysses  was  therefore  her  especial  fa- 
 vourite, whom  she  relieved  from  all  his  perils,  and 
 whose  son  Telemachus  she  also  took  under  her  protec- 
 tion, assuming  a  human  form  to  be  his  guide  and  di- 
 rector. In  like  manner,  Cadmus,  Hercules,  Perseus, 
 and  other  heroes  were  favoured  and  aided  by  this  god- 
 dess. As  the  patroness  of  arts  and  industry  in  gen- 
 eral, Minerva  was  regarded  as  the  inspirer  and  teacher 
 of  able  artists.  Thus  she  taught  Epeus  to  frame  the 
 wooden  horse,  by  means  of  which  Troy  was  taken  ; 
 and  she  also  superintended  the  building  of  the  Argo. 
 She  was  likewise  expert  in  female  accomplishments; 
 she  wove  her  own  robe  and  that  of  Juno,  which  last 
 she  is  said  to  have  embroidered  very  richly.  {II. ,b, 
 735. — lb.,  14,  178  )  When  the  hero  Jason  was  set- 
 ting out  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece,  Minerva  gave 
 him  a  cloak  wrought  by  herself  {Apoll.  Rhod.,  1, 
 721.)  She  taught  this  art  also  to  mortal  females  who 
 had  won  her  affection.  {Od.,  20,  72.)  When  Pando- 
 ra was  formed  by  Vulcan  for  the  ruin  of  man,  she  was 
 attired  by  Minerva.  {Theog  ,  573.)  In  the  Homer- 
 ic hymn  to  Vulcan  {H  20),  this  deity  and  .Minerva 
 are  mentioned  as  the  joint  benefactors  and  civiliznrs 
 of  mankind  by  means  of  the  arts  which  they  taught 
 them,  and  we  shall  find  them  in  intimate  union  also 
 in  the  mythic  system  of  .Attica. — The  invention  of  the 
 pipe  {avXoc)  is  also  ascribed  to  this  goddess.  When 
 Perseus,  says  Pindar  {Pyth.,  12,  15,  seqq  — Schol  ,  ad 
 loc),  had  slain  Medusa,  her  two  remaining  sisters  bit- 
 terly lamented  her  death.  The  snakes  which  formed 
 their  ringlets  mourned  in  concert  with  them,  and  Mi- 
 nerva, hearing  the  sound,  was  pleased  with  it,  and  re- 
 solved to  imitate  it:  she  in  consequence  invented  the 
 pipe,  whose  music  was  named  many-headed  {rroAvKr- 
 (pnloc),  on  account  of  the  number  of  serpents  whose 
 mournful  hissings  had  given  origin  to  the  instrument. 
 Others  {Hygin  ,fnb.,  165)  say  that  the  goddess  formed 
 the  pipe  from  the  bone  of  a  stag,  and,  bringing  it  with 
 her  to  the  banquet  of  the  gods,  began  to  [ilay  upon  it. 
 Being  laughed  at  bv  Juno  and  Venus,  on  account  of 
 her  green  eyes  and  swollen  checks,  she  went  to  a  fount- 
 ain on  Mount  Ida.  and  played  before  the  liquid  mirror. 
 Satisfied  that  the  goddesses  had  had  reason  for  their 
 mirth,  she  threw  the  pipe  away.  Marsyas  unfortunate- 
 ly found  it,  and,  learning  to  play  on  it,  ventured  to  be- 
 come the  rival  of  Apollo.  His  fate  is  related  else- 
 where {vid.  Marsyas)  — The  favourite  plant  of  Mi- 
 nerva was  the  olive,  to  which  she  had  given  origin  in 
 her  well-known  contest  with  Neptune  {md.  Cecro[)s), 
 and  the  animals  consecrated  to  her  were  the  owl  and 
 the  serpent.  Minerva  was  most  honoured  at  Athens, 
 the  city  to  which  she  gave  name  {'kOfji>ai,  horn' AtiijVTj), 
 where  the  .splendid  festival  of  the  Panathenasa  was  cel- 
 ebrated in  her  honour.  This  goddess  is  represented 
 with  a  serious  and  thoughtful  countenance,  her  cyfis 
 are  large  and  steady,  her  hair  hangs  in  ringlets  over  her 
 shoulders,  a  helmet  covers  her  head  ;  she  wears  a  long 
 tunic  and  mantle,  she  bears  the  asgis  on  her  breast  or 
 on  her  arm,  and  the  head  of  the  Gorgon  is  in  its  cen- 
 tre.—  According  to  the  explanation  of  Miiller,  the 
 name  I'uUas- Athene  ap[)ears  to  mean  "the  Athenian 
 maid"  {Wa'X'kdq  being  the  same  as  TrdA/laf,  which  ori- 
 ginally meant  "maid");  and  she  thus  forms  a  parallel 
 to  "the  Eleusinian  maid"  (Kopalor  Proserpina.  As 
 this  is  her  constant  title  in  Homer,  it  is  manifest  thai 
 
MINERVA. 
 
 MIN 
 
 she  had  lOng  been  regarded  as  the  tutelary  deity  of 
 Athens.  We  may  therefore  safely  reject  the  legends 
 of  her  being  the  same  with  the  Neith  {Hesych.,  ISrjW'^) 
 of  Sa'is  in  Egypt,  or  a  war-goddess  imported  from  the 
 banks  of  the  Lake  Tritonis  in  Libya,  and  view  in  her 
 one  of  the  deities  worshipped  by  the  agricultural  Pe- 
 lasgians,  and  therefore  probably  one  of  the  powers 
 engaged  in  causing  the  productiveness  of  the  earth. 
 Her  being  represented,  in  the  poetic  creed,  as  the 
 goddess  of  arts  and  war  alone,  is  merely  a  transition 
 from  physical  to  moral  agents,  that  will  presently  be 
 explained.  {Muller,  Proleg.,  p.  244. — Schwenck,  An- 
 deut.,  p.  230.— Welcker,  fni,  p.  283.)— The  etymol- 
 ogy of  the  Latin  name  Minerva  is  doubtful.  The  first 
 part  probably  contains  the  same  root  (min,  men,  or 
 man)  that  we  have  in  the  Latin  me-min-i,men-s,  &.C., 
 and  also  in  the  Greek  /j.iv-oc,  fiL-fivrj-CKi^,  &c.,  and 
 the  Sanscrit  inan-as.  Cicero  (A'".  D.,  3,  24)  gives  a 
 very  curious  etymology,  "  Minerva,  quia  minuit,  aut 
 quia  minatur ;''  but  some  of  the  ancient  grammarians 
 appear  to  have  been  more  rational  in  considering  it  a 
 shortened  form  of  Meminerva,  since  she  was  also  the 
 goddess  of  memory.  Festus  connects  it  with  the  verb 
 monere.  Muller  supposes  that  the  word,  like  the  wor- 
 ship of  the  goddess  herself,  came  to  the  Romans  from 
 Etruria,  and  he  makes  the  Etrurian  original  to  have 
 been  Menerfa  or  Menrfa.  {Etrusk.,\o\.  2,  p.  48.) — 
 There  were  some  peculiarities  in  the  worship  of  Mi- 
 nerva by  the  Romans  that  deserve  to  be  mentioned. 
 Her  statue  was  usually  placed  in  schools  ;  and  the 
 pupils  were  accustomed  every  year  to  present  their 
 masters  with  a  gift  called  Mine.rval.  {Varro,  R.  R., 
 3,  2. — Compare  TerlulL,  de  Idol,  c.  10.)  Minerva 
 also  presided  over  olive-grounds  (Varro,  R.  R.,  1,  1) ; 
 and  goats  were  not  sacrificed  to  her,  according  to 
 Varro,  because  that  animal  was  thought  to  do  peculiar 
 injury  to  the  olive.  (R.  R.,  1,  2.)  There  was  an 
 annual  festival  of  Minerva,  celebrated  at  Rome  in  the 
 month  of  March,  which  was  called  Quinquatrus,  be- 
 cause it  lasted  five  days.  {Varro,  L.  L.,  5,  3. — Ovid, 
 Fast.,  3,  809.— Aul.  GelL,  2,  21.)  On  the  first  day 
 sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  goddess,  and  on  the  other 
 four  there  were  gladiatorial  combats,  &c.  There  was 
 also  another  festival  of  Minerva,  celebrated  in  June, 
 which  was  called  Quinquatrus  Minores.  (Ovid,  Fast., 
 6,651.) — There  were  several  temples  in  Rome  sacred 
 to  Minerva.  Ovid  mentions  one  on  the  Caelian  Hill, 
 in  which  she  was  worshipped  under  the  name  of  Mi- 
 nerca  Capta,  but  the  origin  of  the  appellation  is  un- 
 known. (Fast.,  3,  835,  seqq.)  It  also  appears  from 
 several  inscriptions,  in  which  she  is  called  Minerva 
 Medica,  that  this  goddess  was  thought  to  preside  over 
 the  healing  art.  (Enc.ycl.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  15,  p. 
 232.) — The  most  probable  theory  relative  to  Pallas- 
 Athene,  or  Minerva,  is  that  of  Miiller,  which  sees  in 
 her  the  temperate  celestial  heat,  and  its  principal 
 agent  on  vegetation,  the  moon.  (Miiller,  Minerva  Po- 
 lias,  p.  5.)  This  idea  was  not  unknown  to  the  ancients 
 themselves.  Athene  is  by  Aristotle  expressly  called 
 "  the  moon"  (ap.  Arnoh.,  adv  Gent.,  3,  p.  69. — Compare 
 Istr.,  ap.  Harpocr.,  TpiTOfiTjvic. — Creuzer,  SymboUk, 
 vol.  4,  p.  237.)  On  the  coins  of  Attica,  anterior  to 
 the  time  of  Pericles,  there  was  a  moon  along  with  the 
 owl  and  olive-branch.  (Eckhcl,  D.  N.,  vol.  2,  p.  163, 
 209.)  There  was  a  torch-race  (?L.ainza6o(j)Of)!a)  at  the 
 Paaathenaea,  a  contest  with  which  none  but  light-bear- 
 ing deities  were  honoured,  such  as  Vulcan,  Prome- 
 theus, Pan  (whom  the  ancients  thence  denominated 
 Phanetes),  &c.  At  the  festival  of  the  Skirophoria, 
 the  priest  of  the  sun  and  the  priestess  of  Athene  went 
 together  in  procession.  (Aristoph.,  Eccles.,  18.)  A 
 title  of  Athene  was  "  All-Dew^^  (Pandrosos).  In  the 
 ancient  legends  of  Athens,  mention  was  made  of  a 
 sacred  marriage  (lepoc  yufiog)  between  Athene  and 
 Vulcan  ("  cui  postca  Altici,  ne  virfri7iitas  dem  interi- 
 vx-ctur,  commentorum spurciticm  obduxcruni.'' — Miil- 
 5P 
 
 ler).  This  goddess  is  also  said  to  have  given  fire  to 
 the  Athenians  (Plat.,  Vit.  Cim.,  10),  and  perpetual 
 flame  was  maintained  in  her  temples  at  Athens  and 
 Alalcomen*.  (Pausan.,  1,  26,  7.  —  Id.,  9,  34,  1.) 
 It  could  hardly  have  been  from  any  other  cause  than 
 that  of  her  being  regarded  as  the  moon,  that  the  noc- 
 turnal owl,  whose  broad,  full  eyes  shine  so  brightly  in 
 the  dark,  was  consecrated  to  her  ;  although  some  in- 
 deed maintain  that  this  bird  was  sacred  to  her  as  the 
 goddess  of  wisdom,  since  the  peculiar  formation  of  its 
 head  gives  it  a  particular  air  of  intelligence.  (Law- 
 rence's Lectures,  p.  147,  Am.  ed.)  The  shield  or 
 corslet,  moreover,  with  the  Gorgon's  head  on  it,  seems 
 to  represent  the  full-orbed  moon ;  and  finally,  the  epi- 
 thet Glaucopis,  which  is,  as  it  were,  appropriated  to 
 Athene,  is  also  given  to  Selene,  or  the  Moon.  (Em- 
 pcdocles,  ap.  Plut.,  de  Fac,  in  Orb.  Lun.,  16,  21. — 
 Eurip.,  Ft.  incert.,  209.)  In  accordance  with  this 
 theory,  the  epithet  Tritogeneia  (TpiToyi;veia),  so  often 
 applied  to  Minerva,  has  been  ingeniously  explained  by 
 considering  it  indicative  of  the  three  phases  of  the 
 moon,  just  as  the  term  TpLy\a6i)vTi  is  applied  to  Hec- 
 ate. (Welcker,  Trilogte,  p.  283.)  There  are  two 
 other  interpretations  of  this  epithet,  which  have  had 
 general  currency,  both  of  which,  however,  are  inferior 
 to  the  one  just  mentioned.  The  first  of  these  supposes 
 it  to  signify  Head-sprung,  as  the  word  rpjro  is  said 
 to  have  signified  head  in  some  of  the  obscurer  dialects 
 of  Greece  (that  of  the  Athamanes,  according  to  Ni- 
 cander  of  Colophon,  Hesych.,  s.  v. :  Etym.  Mag.,  and 
 Photius,  s.  v.:  that  of  the  Cretans,  Eustath.,  ad  II., 
 4,  p.  524  ;  8,  p.  696  :  Od..  3,  p.  1473  :  that  of  the 
 Boeotians,  Tzetz.  ad  Lye.,  519).  But  accounts  like 
 this  are  very  suspicious,  and  the  later  Greeks  would 
 have  made  little  scruple  about  coining  a  term,  if  they 
 wanted  it  to  suit  any  purpose.  The  other  interpreta- 
 tion, which  makes  the  banks  of  the  river  or  lake  Triton 
 the  birthplace  of  Minerva,  has  found  a  great  number 
 of  supporters  ;  but,  as  so  many  countries  sought  to  ap- 
 propriate this  Triton  to  themselves,  the  choice  among 
 them  might  seem  difficult.  The  contest,  however, 
 has  lain  between  the  river  or  lake  Triton  in  Libya, 
 and  a  small  stream  of  the  same  name  in  Boeotia.  The 
 ancients  in  general  were  in  favour  of  the  former ;  but, 
 as  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  Greeks  knew 
 anything  of  the  Libyan  Triton  in  the  days  of  Homer, 
 or  probably  till  after  the  colony  had  been  settled  at 
 Cyrene,  this  theory  seems  to  have  little  in  its  favour. 
 Miiller,  therefore,  at  once  rejects  it,  and  fixes  on  the 
 bardvs  of  the  Boeotian  brook  as  the  natal  spot  of  the 
 goddess.  (Orchom.,  p.  355.)  Here,  however,  Homei 
 again  presents  a  difficulty,  for  the  practice  of  assigning 
 birthplaces  on  earth  to  the  gods  does  not  seem  to  have 
 prevailed  in  his  age. — The  moon-goddess  of  the  Athe- 
 nians probably  came  by  her  moral  and  political  charac- 
 ter in  the  following  manner.  It  was  the  practice  of 
 the  different  classes  and  orders  in  a  state  to  appropriate 
 the  general  tutelary  deity  to  themselves  by  some  suit- 
 able appellation.  The  Attic  peasantry,  therefore, 
 named  Athene  the  Oxyoker  (BovSeia),  the  citizens 
 called  her  the  Worker  ('Epyavri),  while  the  military 
 men  styled  her  Front-fighter  (Upojuaxo^).  As  these 
 last  were  the  ruling  order,  their  view  of  the  character 
 of  the  goddess  became  the  prevalent  one;  yet  even  in 
 the  epic  poetry  we  find  the  idea  of  the  goddess'  presi- 
 dina  over  the  arts  still  retained.  (Miiller,  Miner- 
 va ^Polias,   p.    l.  —  Keightley's  Mythology,  p.    153, 
 
 Minerva  Promontorium,  a  promontory  ol  Oampa- 
 nia,  closing  the  Bay  of  Naples  to  the  southwest.  It 
 was  sometimes  called  Surrentinum  Promontorium. 
 from  the  town  of  Surrentum  in  its  vicinity ;  and  also 
 not  unfrequently  the  Sirens'  Cape.  (Strab.,  247.)  11 
 is  now  Punto  delta  Campanclla.  The  name  o  Mi- 
 nervae  Promontorium  was  given  it  from  a  temple  of 
 that  goddess  which  stood  here,  and  which  was  said  to 
 
MIN 
 
 MIN 
 
 have  been  raised  by  Ulysses.     {Slrab  ,  I.  c. — Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,' p.  185.) 
 
 MiNERVALiA,  festivals  al  Rome  in  honour  of  Miner- 
 va.    {Vid.  Minerva,  page  849,  col.  1,  line  37,  scqq.) 
 
 MiNio,  a  small  river  of  Eiruria,  falling  into  the  Mare 
 Tyrrhenum  or  Lower  sea,  a  short  distance  above  Cen- 
 tum Cells.  It  IS  now  the  Mignone.  (Virg.,  JEn  , 
 10,  \H'S.—Kiail.,  Ilm.,  1,  277.) 
 
 Ml N ("El  or  MiNCEi,  a  people  in  the  southern  ex- 
 treinit)  of  Arabia  Felix.  Their  country  was  called 
 Minnaea,  and  their  capital  Carana.  The  name  of  the 
 latter  is  preserved  in  Almakarajia,  which  is  a  strong 
 fortress.  (Diod.,  3,  42. — Agalharch.,  in  Hudson's 
 Geogr.  Mm.,  vol.  1,  p.  bl.—Flin.,  6,  28.) 
 
 MiNois,  a  patronymic  of  Ariadne,  as  daughter  of 
 Minos.     {Ovid,  Met.,  8,  157.) 
 
 MiNos,  an  ancient  king,  who  in  history  appears  as 
 the  lawgiver  of  Crete.  Those  critics  who  consider  all 
 the  personages  of  mythological  history  as  little  more 
 than  names  to  which  is  attached  the  history  of  social 
 development,  would  view  Minos  simply  as  the  concen- 
 tration of  that  spirit  of  order,  which  about  his  time  be- 
 gan to  exhibit  in  the  island  of  Crete  forms  of  a  regular 
 polity.  But  we  are  not  to  consider,  because  there  is 
 much  undoubtedly  mythological  about  the  history  of 
 Minos,  that  therefore  he  never  existed.  The  concur- 
 rent testimon^y  of  Thucydides  and  Aristotle  shows  it  to 
 have  been  the  general  belief  in  their  times,  that  Minos 
 was  the  first  among  the  Greeks  who  possessed  any 
 amount  of  naval  power.  According  to  the  latter  au- 
 thor, he  conquered  and  colonized  several  islands,  and  at 
 last  perished  in  an  expedition  against  Sicily,  to  which 
 island  he  was  fabled  to  have  pursued  Daedalus  after  the 
 afifair  of  Pasiphae,  and  where  the  daughters  of  Cocalus 
 suffocated  him  in  a  warm  bath.  {Vid.  Cocalus.)  In 
 the  second  book  of  the  "  Politics,"  Aristotle  draws  a 
 parallel  between  the  Cretan  and  Spartiin  institutions, 
 and  he  there  ascribes  the  establishment  of  the  Cretan 
 laws  to  Minos.  This  comparison,  aided  probably  by 
 the  connexion  which  existed  between  Crete  and  Sparta, 
 owing  to  colonies,  as  early  as  the  time  of  Homer,  has 
 no  doubt  suggested  the  theory  invented  and  supported 
 by  Miiller,  that  Minos  was  a  Doric  prince ;  a  theory,  as 
 Mr.  Thirlwall  asserts,  utterly  unknown  to  the  ancients. 
 The  subject  is  ably  discussed  by  him  in  his  "  History 
 of  Greece"  (vol.  1,  p.  135).  Some  post-Homeric  au- 
 thorities make  Minos  a  judge  in  Hades  in  company 
 with  .iEacus,  Rhadamanthus  being  chief  judge.  In 
 this  character  he  appears  in  a  short  Platonic  dialogue 
 called  "Minos,"  or  "  On  law,"  which,  however,  some 
 critics  consider  spurious.  Minos,  according  to  the  le- 
 gend, was  a  son  of  Jupiter  ;  this  being  the  usual  meth- 
 od taken  by  mythographers  to  express  a  person  so 
 ancient  that  they  could  put  him  on  a  level  with  no 
 mere  mortal ;  and  from  Jupiter  as  his  father  he  is  said 
 to  have  learned  those  laws  which  he  afterward  delivered 
 unto  men.  For  this  purpose,  he  is  related  to  have  re- 
 tired to  a  cave  in  Crete,  where  he  feigned  that  Jupi- 
 ter his  father  dictated  them  unto  him,  and  every  time 
 he  returned  from  the  cave  he  announced  some  new  law. 
 — Minos  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  belonging  to  a  period 
 when  history  and  mythology  interlace,  and  as  uniting 
 in  his  own  person  the  chief  characteristics  of  both. 
 He  is  the  son  of  Jupiter,  and  yet  the  first  possessor  of 
 a  navy  ;  a  judge  in  Hades,  but  not  the  less  for  that  a 
 king  of  Crete.  It  is  very  curious  that  Crete,  so  fa- 
 mous at  this  age  both  for  its  naval  power  and  for  be- 
 ing the  birthplace  of  the  Olympian  gods,  should  never 
 afterward  have  attained  anything  like  that  celebrity 
 which  its  position  seemed  to  promise.  Its  office  seems 
 to  have  been  that  of  leading  the  way  in  naval  suprema- 
 cy. Too  insulated  for  power  of  a  durable  nature,  it 
 was  lost  in  the  confederate  or  opposing  glories  of  Ath- 
 ens and  Sparta ;  but  while  they  were  yet  in  their  infan- 
 cy, its  insular  form  (together,  perhaps,  with  some  Asiatic 
 refinemont)  gave  it  that  concentrated  energy  which  in 
 850 
 
 an  early  age  is  irresistible.  {Horn.,  II.,  2,  65. — Id.  ib., 
 13,  450.— /(/.  ih.,  14,  331.— 7rf.,  Od.,  19,  \lb.—Thu- 
 cyd.,  1,  3. — Plat.,  Leg.,  lib.  1  et  2. — Id.,  Min.—AriS' 
 lot.,  FoHt.,  lib.  2  et  7. — Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  15, 
 p.  248.) 
 
 MiNOT.tURUs,  a  celebrated  monster,  half  man  and 
 half  bull,  the  offspring  of  Pasiphae,  wife  of  Minos,  by 
 a  bull.  According  to  the  legend,  the  Cretans  had  hes- 
 itated to  give  Minos  the  royal  dignity  after  the  death 
 of  Asterion,  whereupon,  to  prove  his  claim  to  it,  he  as- 
 serted that  he  could  obtain  whatever  he  prayed  for. 
 Then,  sacrificing  to  Neptune,  he  besought  him  to  send 
 him  a  bull  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  promising  to 
 offer  up  whatever  should  appear.  Neptune  sent  the 
 bull,  and  Minos  received  the  kingdom.  The  bull,  how- 
 ever, being  of  a  large  size  and  of  a  brilliant  white  hue, 
 appeared  to  Minos  too  beautiful  an  animal  to  be  slain, 
 and  he  put  him  in  his  herd,  and  substituted  an  ordinary 
 bull  Neptune,  offended  at  this  act,  made  the  bull  run 
 wild,  and  inspired  Pasiphae  with  a  strange  passion  for 
 him,  which  she  was  enabled  to  gratify  by  the  contri- 
 vance of  Daedalus.  Her  offspring  was  the  Minotaur. 
 Minos,  in  compliance  with  an  oracle,  made  Daedalus 
 build  for  him  the  labyrinth.  In  this  he  placed  the  Mino- 
 taur, where  he  fed  him  on  human  flesh,  and  afterward 
 on  the  youths  and  maidens  sent  from  Athens.  {Vid. 
 Androgeus.)  Theseus,  by  the  aid  of  Ariadne,  killed  the 
 monster  {vid.  Theseus  and  Labyrinthus),  thereby  deliv- 
 ering the  Athenians  from  the  cruel  obligation  of  sending 
 their  children  to  be  devoured. — Such  is  the  mythologi- 
 cal story.  Its  meaning  is  uncertain.  It  very  likely  be- 
 longs to  thai  class  of  mythological  tales  which  express 
 a  political  fact,  and  the  connexion  in  which  Theseus 
 stands  with  the  Minotaur  adds  probability  to  this  theory  ; 
 for  the  exploits  of  Theseus  are  generally  such  effects  as 
 would  be  produced  in  historical  times  by  the  course  of 
 events  in  the  formation  of  a  polity.  Such,  at  least, 
 are  his  exploits  in  and  about  Attica,  and  there  appears 
 no  sound  reason  to  exclude  this  from  the  number.  It 
 may  then,  perhaps,  be  assumed,  that,  under  the  slaying 
 of  the  Minotaur,  is  shadowed  forth  the  abolition  of  cer- 
 tain obstacles  existing  in  the  way  of  free  intercourse 
 between  Athens  and  Crete.  But  the  descent  of  the 
 Minotaur  from  Pasiphae  {UaaKpuTj),  probably  a  name 
 of  the  moon,  and  from  the  Bull,  one  of  the  zodiacal 
 signs,  may  perhaps  imply  some  astronomical  fact  con- 
 nected with  the  recurrence  of  the  tribute  paid  to  Crete. 
 The  affection  of  Ariadne  for  Theseus,  in  mythological 
 language,  may  be  taken  to  mean  a  union  of  Cretan  and 
 Attic  tribes.  It  should  be  observed  that  Schwenck, 
 in  his  very  fanciful  but  ingenious  treatise  on  mytholo- 
 gy, considers  the  first  two  syllables  of  the  word  Mino- 
 taur to  be  identical  with  fiei^  or  /lit)v,  jirji'd^  {the  mooti), 
 as  also  with  the  root  of  the  German  mond  and  the  Eng- 
 lish moon,  so  that  we  get  the  two  parents  of  the  Mino- 
 taur in  the  two  parts  of  its  name.  This  might  lead 
 us  to  believe  that  the  name  suggested  the  genealogy, 
 and  that  the  latter  part  referred,  not  to  a  bull's  being 
 the  father  of  the  Minotaur,  but  to  the  fact  that  horns 
 were  a  symbol  of  the  moon-goddess.  In  this  case,  the 
 slaying  of  the  Minotaur  by  Theseus  might  mean  the 
 introduction  of  the  Attic  worship  in  place  of  the  pre- 
 viously prevalent  Doric  form.  {Hock,  Krela,  vol.  2, 
 p.  63.  —  Schwenck,  Andeut.,  p.  65.  —  Encycl.  Use/in 
 KnowL,  vol.  15,  p.  248.) 
 
 Mi.\THE,  a  daughter  of  Cocytus,  loved  by  Pluto. 
 Proserpina  discovered  her  husband's  amour,  and 
 changed  his  mistress  into  an  herb,  called  by  the  same 
 name,  and  still,  at  the  present  day,  denom.\nated  mint. 
 {Ovnl,  Met.,  10,  729.) 
 
 MiNTURN^,  a  town  of  Latium,  on  the  river  Liris, 
 and  only  three  or  four  miles  from  its  mouth  :  its  ex- 
 tensive ruins  sufficiently  mark  the  place  which  it  oc- 
 cupied ;  out  of  these  the  neighbouring  town  of  Tra- 
 jctta  was  built.  {Sfrabo,  ^33.—Ptol.,  p.  66.— Plin, 
 3,  5  )     We  are  informed  by  Livy  (8,  25)  that  this  town 
 
M  IN 
 
 MIN 
 
 belonged  to  the  Ausones  ;  but  when  that  nation  ceas- 
 ed to  exist,  Minturnse  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, by  whom  it  was  colonized,  A.U.C.  456.  (Liv., 
 10,21.  — Veil.  Paterc,  1,  U.  —  Dion.  Hal.,  1,  9.)— 
 It  was  one  of  those  maritime  towns  which  were  re- 
 quired to  furnish  sailors  and  naval  stores  for  the  Ro- 
 man fleets.  {Liv.,  27,  38.— Id  ,  26,  3.)  According 
 to  Frontinus,  another  colony  was  afterward  sent  thith- 
 er under  the  direction  of  Julius  C»sar.  Minturnae, 
 however,  is  chiefly  known  in  history  from  the  events 
 by  which  it  was  connected  with  the  fallen  fortunes  of 
 Marius.  This  general,  in  endeavouring  to  effect  his 
 escape  into  Africa  from  the  pursuit  of  the  victorious 
 Sylla,  was  forced  to  put  in  at  the  mouth  of  the  Liris  ; 
 when,  after  being  put  on  shore  and  abandoned  by  the 
 crew  of  the  vessel,  he  sought  shelter  in  the  cottage  of 
 an  old  peasant.  But  this  retreat  not  affording  the 
 concealment  requisite  to  screen  him  from  the  pursuit 
 which  was  now  set  on  foot,  Marius  had  no  other  re- 
 source left  but  to  plunge  into  the  marshes,  with 
 which  the  neighbourhood  of  Minturns  abounds.  Here, 
 though  almost  buried  in  the  mud,  he  could  not  escape 
 from  his  vigilant  pursuers,  but  was  dragged  out  and 
 thrown  into  a  dungeon  at  Minturnae.  A  public  slave 
 was  shortly  after  sent  to  despatch  him;  but  this  man, 
 a  Cimbrian  by  birth,  could  not,  as  the  historians  re- 
 late, face  the  destroyer  of  his  nation,  though  unarmed, 
 in  chains,  and  in  his  seventieth  year;  such  was  still 
 the  glare  of  his  eye  and  terror  of  his  voice.  Struck 
 with  this  circumstance,  the  magistrates  of  Minturnae 
 determined  to  set  Marius  at  liberty,  since  such  seem- 
 ed to  be  the  will  of  heaven.  They  farther  equipped 
 a  vessel  which  was  destined  to  convey  him  to  Africa. 
 (Plut.,  Vit.  Mar.  —  Juv.,  Sat.,  10,  276.  — Compare 
 Liv.,  Epit.,  77.  —  Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  61.  — Veil. 
 Paterc,  2,  19.— FaZ.  Max.,  1,  5.)  The  grove  and 
 temple  of  the  nymph  Marcia,  supposed  by  some  to 
 have  been  the  mother  of  Latinus,  and  by  others 
 thought  to  be  Circe  ( Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  47. — Lactant.,  <^c. 
 fals.  Rel,  1,  21),  were  close  to  Minturnae,  and  held 
 in  the  highest  veneration.     {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol. 
 
 2,  p   131.) 
 
 MiNUTiA  Via,  a  Roman  road,  leading  from  the  Por- 
 ta Minulia  or  Trigemina,  through  the  country  of  the 
 Sabines,  as  far  as  Brundisium.  {Sckol.  ad  Hot  at., 
 Epmt.,  1,  18,  20.) 
 
 MiNUTius,  I.  Augurinus,  a  Roman  consul  B.C. 
 458.  He  was  defeated  by  the  ^qui,  and  would  have 
 ost  his  whole  army  had  not  the  dictator  Cincinnatus 
 come  to  his  aid.  He  was  degraded  by  the  latter  to 
 the  rank  of  lieutenant  or  legatus,  and  at  the  same 
 time  deprived  by  him  of  his  consular  authority.    {Liv., 
 
 3,  29.) — II.   Rufus,  a  master  of  horse  to  the  dictator 
 Fabius  Maximus.     His  disobedience  to  the  commands 
 of  the  dictator,  who  was  unwilling  to  hazard  an  action, 
 was  productive  of  an  extension  of  his  prerogative,  and 
 the  master  of  the  horse  was  declared  equal  in  power 
 to  the  dictator.     Minutius,  soon  after  this,  fought  with 
 ill  success  against  Hannibal,  and  was  only  saved  by 
 the  interference  of  Fabius  ;   which  circumstance  had 
 such  an  effect  upon  him,  that  he  laid  down  his  power 
 at  the  feet  of  his  deliverer,  and  swore  that  he  would 
 never  act  but  by  his  directions.     He  was  killed  at  the 
 battle  of  Cannae.     {Lie,  23,  21. — Nep.,  Vit.  Hannib., 
 5  ) — III.   Felix,  a  native  of  Africa,  who  is  generally 
 supposed  to  have  flourished  a  short  time  after  Tertul- 
 lian,  though  some  have  undertaken  to  prove  that  he 
 was  contemporary  with  Marcus  Aurelius.    {Van  Ha- 
 ven, Epist.  Crit.  de  vera  cetate,  <Src.     M.  Minutii  Fe- 
 licis,  Campis,  1762,  4to.)     Lactantius  {In.st.  Div.,  5, 
 1)  and  St.  Jerome  {CataL.,  S.  S.  Eccles.,  c.  58)  state 
 that  he   followed  with  rcpjtatios  th3  employment  of 
 an  advocate  at  Rome.     We  have  only  one  work  of 
 his  remaining,  a  dialogue  entitled  Octavius,  and  con- 
 taining a  demonstration  of  the  truth  of  Christianity. 
 It  is  an  interesting  production  for  those  who  wish  to 
 
 become  acquainted  with  the  charges  the  pagans  were 
 accustomed  to  make  against  the  new  religion,  and 
 which  Minutius  Felix  gives  in  a  fairer  manner  than 
 any  other.  It  is  apparent  that  he  has  availed  himself 
 of  the  apology  of  TertuUian;  but  he  has  a  mode  of 
 viewing  his  subject  which  is  peculiarly  his  own,  and 
 his  style  is  much  purer  and  more  elegant  than  that  of 
 his  model.  He  may  be  regarded,  in  general,  as  one 
 of  the  most  elegant  of  the  Latin  ecclesiastical  writers. 
 The  dialogue  is  between  a  heathen  and  a  Christian, 
 in  which  Minutius  himself  sits  as  a  judge  and  modera- 
 tor. By  this  contrivance  he  replies  to  the  objections 
 and  arguments  brought  forward  by  the  adversary,  and 
 refutes  the  calumny  cast  upon  Christianity  by  the 
 heathen  philosophers,  and  at  the  same  time,  exposes 
 the  absurdities  of  their  creed  and  worship,  powerfully 
 demonstrating  the  reasonableness  and  excellence  of 
 the  Christian  religion.  Minutius  Felix  is  said  to  have 
 been  originally  a  pagan. — Erasmus  thought  his  work 
 was  lost.  This  mistake  arose  from  the  copyists  of 
 the  middle  ages  having  joined  the  production  of  Fehx 
 to  the  treatise  of  Arnobius  against  the  Gentiles,  of 
 which  it  was  regarded  as  the  eighth  book.  Adrian 
 Junius  (de  Jonghe),  a  celebrated  critic  of  Holland, 
 was  the  first  to  detect  this  false  arrangement.  Bal- 
 duinus  then  printed  the  work  of  Felix  separately. 
 The  honour  of  this  discovery,  however,  on  the  part  of 
 Junius,  has  been  contested  by  some.  The  best  edi- 
 tions of  his  work  are,  that  of  Gronovius,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1709,  8vo,  and  that  of  Davis,  Cant.,  1712,  8vo.) 
 
 MiNY^,  a  race  of  great  celebrity  in  the  most  an- 
 cient epic  poetry  of  Greece,  but  whose  name  seems 
 to  have  been  almost  forgotten  before  the  beginning  of 
 the  period  when  fable  gives  place  to  history.  The 
 adventurers  who  embarked  in  the  Argonautic  expedi- 
 tion were  all  called  Minyans,  though  they  were  mostly 
 Ji^olian  chieftains,  and  the  same  name  recurs  in  the 
 principal  settlements  which  referred  their  origin  to  the 
 line  of  .^olus.  lolcos  itself,  though  founded  by  Cre- 
 theus,  is  said  to  have  been  inhabited  by  Minyans  ;  and 
 a  still  closer  affinity  is  indicated  by  a  legend,  which 
 describes  Minyas,  the  fabulous  progenitor  of  the  race, 
 as  a  descendant  of  ^olus.  {Apoll.  Rhod.,  3,  1094. 
 — Sckol.,  ad  loc.)  There  are  two  ways  in  which  this 
 connexion  may  be  explained,  between  which  it  is  not 
 easy  to  decide.  The  Minyans  may  have  been  a  Pe- 
 lasgic  tribe,  originally  distinct  from  the  Hellenes  :  and 
 this  may  seem  to  be  confirmed  by  the  tradition,  that 
 Cretheus,  when  he  founded  lolcos,  drove  out  the  Pe- 
 lasgians  who  were  previously  in  possession  of  the 
 land.  {Pausan.,4,26,l.—Schol.,adIl.,2.)  But 
 in  this  case  we  are  led  to  conclude,  from  the  celebrity 
 to  which  the  Minyans  attained  in  the  Greek  legends, 
 that  they  were  not  a  rude  and  feeble  horde,  which  the 
 vEolians  reduced  to  subjection,  but  were  already  so 
 far  advanced  in  civilization  and  power,  that  the  inva- 
 ders were  not  ashamed  of  adopting  their  name  and 
 traditions,  and  of  treating  them  as  a  kindred  people. 
 It  may,  however,  also  be  conceived,  and  perhaps  ac- 
 cords better  with  all  that  we  hear  of  them,  that  the 
 appellation  of  Minyans  was  not  originally  a  national 
 name,  peculiar  to  a  single  tribe,  but  a  title  of  honour, 
 equivalent  to  that  of  "  heroes"  or  "  warriors,"  which 
 was  finally  appropriated  to  the  adventurous  .-Eolians, 
 who  established  themselves  at  lolcos  and  on  the  ad- 
 jacent coast.  If  we  take  this  view  of  it,  all  the  indi- 
 cations we  find  of  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the 
 Minyans  will  serve  to  mark  the  progress  of  the  JEoli- 
 an  states  in  which  the  name  occurs  ;  and  it  will  only 
 remain  doubtful,  whether  the  Cohans  or  Hellenes 
 were  not  more  closely  connected  with  other  tribes  in 
 the  north  of  Thessaly,  among  which  the  name  of  the 
 Minyans  likewise  appears,  than  the  common  tradition 
 would  lead  us  to  suppose.  We  hear  of  a  town  carie.J 
 Minya  on  the  borders  of  Thessaly  and  Macedonia 
 (compare  Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Uivva,  and  'A/^junia' 
 
 851 
 
MIS 
 
 MIT 
 
 and  of  a  Thessalian  Orchomenus  Minyeus.  {Pliny, 
 4,  8.)  In  considering  the  elements  of  which  the  Hel- 
 lenic race  was  composed,  it  must  not  be  overlooked 
 that  the  Dolopes,  who  were  seated  on  the  western  con- 
 fines of  Phthia,  and  are  described  in  the  Iliad  (9,  484) 
 as  originally  subject  to  its  king,  retained  their  name 
 and  an  independent  existence,  as  members  of  the 
 great  Hellenic  confederacy,  to  a  very  late  period. 
 {Pausan.,  10,  8,  2,  seq.)  If,  according  to  cither  of  the 
 views  just  suggested,  we  consider  Minyans  and  ^o- 
 lians  as  the  same  people,  we  find  the  most  flourishing 
 of  the  iEolian  settlements  in  the  north  of  Bosotia. 
 Here  the  city  of  Orchomenus  rose  to  great  power  and 
 opulence  in  the  earliest  period  of  which  any  recollec- 
 tion was  preserved.  Homer  compares  the  treasures 
 which  flowed  into  it  to  those  of  the  Egyptian  Thebes. 
 The  traveller  Pausanias,  who  was  familiar  with  all  the 
 wonders  of  art  in  Greece  and  Asia,  speaks  with  ad- 
 miration of  its  most  ancient  monument,  as  not  inferior 
 to  any  which  he  had  seen  elsewhere.  This  was  the 
 treasury  of  Minyas,  from  whom  the  ancient  Orcho- 
 menians  were  fabled  to  have  been  called  Minyans; 
 and  the  city  continued  always  to  be  distinguished  from 
 others  of  the  same  name,  as  the  Minyean  Orchome- 
 nus. Minyas,  according  to  the  legend,  was  the  first 
 of  men  who  raised  a  building  for  such  a  purpose. 
 His  genealogy  glitters  with  names  which  express  the 
 traditional  opinion  of  his  unbounded  wealth.  Thus 
 he  is  the  son  of  Chryses,  whose  mother  is  Chrysoge- 
 nea,  &c.  (Pausan.,  9,  36,  4. — ThirlwalVs  Hist.  Gr., 
 vol.  1,  p.  91. — Compare  MUllcr,  Orchomenus  und  die 
 Minyer,  p.  139,  seqq.) 
 
 Minyas,  a  king  of  Orchomenus  in  Boeotia,  son  of 
 Chryses,  and  grandson  of  Neptune.  He  was  famed 
 for  his  opulence,  and  for  the  treasury  or  structure 
 which  he  built  to  contain  his  riches.  (Consult  re- 
 marks towards  the  end  of  the  article  Minyse.) 
 
 MisENUM,  I.  Promontorium,  a  promontory  of  Cam- 
 pania, forming  the  upper  extremity  of  the  Bay  of  Na- 
 ples, now  Cape  Miseno.  It  was  so  named,  according 
 to  Virgil  {JEn.,  6,  234),  from  Misenus,  the  trumpeted- 
 of  iEneas,  who  was  drowned  and  interred  here.  (Com- 
 pare Propert.,  3,  18. — Stai.  Silv.,  3,  1.)  Other  ac- 
 counts speak  of  Misenus  as  a  companion  of  Ulysses. 
 (Slrabo,  245.) — II.  A  town  and  harbour  on  the  prom- 
 ontory of  the  same  name.  Misenum  was  probably  first 
 used  by  the  Cumaeans  as  a  harbour  ( Dion.  Hal.,  7,  5). 
 In  the  reign  of  Augustus  it  became  one  of  the  first 
 naval  stations  of  the  Roman  empire,  being  destined  to 
 guard  the  coast  of  the  Tuscan  Sea.  {Suet.,  Aug.,  48. 
 — Florus,  1,  10.)  In  process  of  time,  a  town  grew  up 
 around  the  harbour,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were 
 called  Misenenses.  {Vcget.,  5,  1.)  The  neighbour- 
 hood of  this  place  abounded  with  marine  villas,  among 
 which  may  be  mentioned  that  of  C.  Marius,  too  luxu- 
 rious, as  Plutarch  observes,  for  such  a  soldier.  (Com- 
 pare Plin.,  18,  6.)  It  was  purchased  afterward  by  Lu- 
 cuUus  for  500,200  denarii.  According  to  Seneca 
 {Ep.,  51),  it  stood  on  the  brow  of  the  hill  overlooking 
 the  sea.  Some  years  after  it  came  into  the  possession 
 of  Tiberius,  as  we  learn  from  Phasdrus  (2,  36),  who 
 has  made  it  the  scene  of  one  of  his  fables.  It  was 
 here  that  emperor  ended  his  days.  {Suet.,  Tib.,  74.) 
 — Pliny  the  elder  was  stationed  at  Misenum,  as  com- 
 mander of  the  fleet,  at  the  time  of  the  great  eruption 
 of  Vesuvius,  in  which  he  perished.  {Cramer's  Arte. 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  154,  scqij.) 
 
 Misenus,  a  Trojan,  conspicuous  for  both  his  prowess 
 m  arms  and  his  skill  on  the  clarion  or  htuus.  He  of- 
 ten signalized  himself  by  the  side  of  Hector  in  the 
 fight  ;  and,  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  accompanied  ^Eneas 
 to  Italy,  on  the  shores  of  which  country,  near  the  city 
 of  Cumae,  he  lost  his  life,  having  been  drowned  amid 
 the  breakers  by  a  Triton  who  was  envious  of  his  mu- 
 sical skill.  {Virg;  Mn.,  6,  164.)  Virgil  calls  him 
 Eolides,  not  as  indicating  any  divine  descent  from 
 852 
 
 ^^olus,  the  god  of  the  winds,  but  merely  as  a  pacra- 
 nymic  dcnotmg  his  origin  from  a  mortal  father  named 
 .4lo1us.  The  same  poet  is  guilty  of  an  anachronism 
 in  making  Misenus  acquainted  with  the  Htuus,  since 
 both  the  Htuus  and  tuba  were  unknown  in  Homeric 
 times.  He  has  merely,  however,  followed  in  this  the 
 custom  of  the  tragic  writers.  (Consult  Hcyne,  Ex 
 curs,  vii.,  ad.  jEn.,  fl. ) — The  ashes  of  Misenus  were 
 interred  on  the  promontory,  fabled  to  have  been  called 
 Misenum  after  his  name,  and  which  is  now  still  de- 
 nominated Miseno.     {Virg.,  JEn.,  6,  232,  seqq.) 
 
 MisiTHEUs,  father-in-law  of  Gordian  III.  {Vid. 
 Gordianus  III.) 
 
 MiTHRA  or  MiTRA,  a  deity  of  Persia,  generally  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  the  Sun.  His  worship  was,  in 
 process  of  time,  introduced  at  Rome,  and  altars  were 
 there  erected  to  him,  with  the  inscription,  "  Deo  Salt 
 MithrcE,"  or  "  Deo  Invicto  Mithra."  He  is  generally 
 represented  in  sculpture  as  a  young  man,  bis  head  sur- 
 mounted with  a  Phrygian  bonnet,  and  in  the  attitude 
 of  supporting  his  knee  upon  a  bull  that  lies  on  the 
 ground.  He  holds  with  one  hand  a  horn  of  the  ani- 
 mal, while  with  the  other  he  plunges  a  dagger  into  ita 
 neck.  Mithras  here  represents  the  generative  Sun,  in 
 the  full  bloom  of  youth  and  power,  while  the  bull  in- 
 dicates the  earth,  containing  in  its  bosom  the  seeds  or 
 germes  of  things,  which  the  sun-god  causes  to  come 
 forth  in  an  abundant  flood  from  the  wound  inflicted  by 
 his  dagger  of  gold.  {Creuzer,  Symbolik,  par  Guig- 
 niaut,  vol.  1,  p.  356.) — The  mysteries  of  Mithras  were 
 celebrated  with  much  pomp  and  splendour  on  the  re- 
 vival of  the  Persian  religion  under  the  Sassanids,  but 
 we  do  not  read  of  the  worship  of  the  sun  under  this 
 name  in  the  earlier  Greek  writers.  {Hyde,  Hist.  Ret., 
 Vet.  Pers.,  c.  4,  p.  109.)  The  word  is  evidently  the 
 same  as  mitra,  one  of  the  names  of  the  sun  in  San- 
 scrit. It  also  appears  in  many  ancient  Persian  names, 
 as  Mt6pa(5dr;?f  or  M.iTpa6uTr]g  {Herod.,  1,  110); 
 MtTpo6drri(  {Herod.,  3,  120)  ;  'IdaniTpTjc  {Herod.,  9, 
 102)  ;  "EipofiiTpTjc  {Herod.,  7,  68) ;  and  in  MtTpaTog, 
 MidpivT}^,  or  Midpr/vric  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  2,  6 — Ar- 
 rian,  Exp.  AL,  1,  17. — Id.  ib.,  3,  16),  which  appear 
 to  be  derivatives.  {Pott,  Etymol.  Forsch  ,  vol.  1,  p. 
 xlvii.,  seqq. — Rosen,  in  Jouriial  of  Education,  No.  9, 
 p.  334,  seq.—Encycl.  Us.  Knowl,  vol.  15,  p.  289.) 
 
 MiTHRADATEs  or  MiTHRiDATEs,  a  common  name 
 among  the  Medes  and  Persians,  which  appears  to 
 have  been  formed  from  Muhra  or  Milra,  the  Persian 
 name  for  the  sun,  and  the  root  da,  signifying  "  to 
 give,"  which  occurs  in  most  of  the  Indo-Gennanic 
 languages.  The  name,  however,  was  written  in  sev- 
 eral ways.  In  Herodotus  (1,  110)  we  find  MtrpaJd- 
 7??f ;  in  Xenophon  {Anah.,  7,  8,  25),  MidpLdaTijc, 
 in  the  Septuagint  {Ezra,  1,8. — Id.,  4,  7),  ^liOpadaTijQ ; 
 and  in  Tacitus  {Ann  ,  13,  10),  Mchirdalcs.  On  the 
 Greek  coins  it  is  written  Milhradates.  A  large  class 
 of  names  in  different  dialects  of  the  Iiiclo- German- 
 ic languages  have  the  same  termination  as  Milhra- 
 dates. Thus,  in  Sanscrit,  we  find  the  names  Dcva- 
 datta,  Haradatta,  Indradatta,  Somadatla,  that  is, 
 "given  by  the  gods,"  "given  by  Hara  or  Siva,"  "by 
 Indra,"  "  by  Soma,  or  the  moon  ;"  and  in  Greek,  such 
 names  as  Theodotus,  Diodotus,  Zenodotus,  and  He- 
 rodotus. In  Persian  names  the  same  termination  oc- 
 curs, as  in  the  Hormisdates  of  Agathias  ;  the  Pharan- 
 dates  and  Phcrendates  of  Herodotus  (7,  67 ;  9,  76) ; 
 and  the  Madates  of  Ciirtius  (5,  3). — The  most  cele- 
 brated race  of  princes  of  the  name  of  Mithradates  were 
 the  kings  of  Pontus,  v^ho  were  descended  from  Arta- 
 bazes,  one  of  the  seven  Persian  nobles  who  overthrew 
 the  magi,  B.C.  521.  {Florus,  3,  5.—Diod.  Sic.,  19, 
 40. — Poiyb.,  5,  43.)  The  following  is  a  list  of  these 
 kings. — I.  Mithradates  I  ,  of  whom  little  is  known. 
 I  {Aristot.,  de  Rep.,  5,  10.)  —  II.  Mithradates  II., 
 succeeded  Ariobarzanes  II.,  B.C.  363.  He  took  an 
 I  active  part  in  the  various  wars  which  were  carried  on 
 
MITHRADATES. 
 
 MITHRADATES. 
 
 by  the  successors  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  and,  being 
 an  active  and  enterprising  prince,  he  greatly  extended 
 his  paternal  dominions,  whence  he  is  frequently  sur- 
 named  the  founder  {nTLGTrji;)  of  the  kingdo:n  of  Pontus. 
 He  also  ruled  over  (3appadocia  and  Phrygia.  He  was 
 put  to  death  by  Antigonus,  B.C.  302,  at  Cius  in 
 Mysia,  at  the  age  of  84,  according  to  Lucian  {Macroh., 
 c.  13),  because  he  was  suspected  of  favouring  the  in- 
 terests of  Cassander. — HI.  Mithradates  HI.,  son  of 
 the  preceding,  ruled  from  B.C.  302  to  266.— IV. 
 Mithradates  IV.,  the  son  of  Ariobarzanes  III.,  was 
 left  a  minor  by  his  father.  He  attacked  Sinope, 
 which  was  taken  by  his  successor  Pharnaces,  and  car- 
 ried on  war  against  Eutnenes  II.  He  was  in  close 
 alliance  with  the  Rhodians  ;  and  joined  with  some 
 princes  of  Asia  Minor  in  making  valuable  presents  to 
 that  people,  to  repair  their  losses  after  an  earthquake. 
 (Polyb.,  5,  89,  scq.)  He  married  the  sister  of  Seleu- 
 cus  Callinicus,  by  which  alliance  he  obtained  Phrygia. 
 His  own  daughter  was  married  to  Antiochus  the  Great. 
 — V.  Mithradates  V.,  surnamed  Euergetcs,  reigned 
 from  about  156  to  120  B.C.  He  was  an  ally  of  the 
 Romans,  and  assisted  them  in  the  third  Punic  war  with 
 a  considerable  fleet.  He  was  assassinated  at  Sinope, 
 and  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  famous  Mithradates. — 
 VI.  Mithradates  VI.,  surnamed  Eupator,  and  called 
 the  Great,  was  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies 
 that  the  Romans  ever  encountered.  He  was  only 
 eleven  years  old  at  the  death  of  his  father,  and,  during 
 his  minority,  his  life  vjas  frequently  in  danger  from  the 
 numerous  conspiracies  formed  against  him.  He  is 
 said  to  have  been  in  the  habit  of  taking  an  antidote 
 discovered  by  himself,  which  was  sufficient  to  coun- 
 teract the  effect  of  the  most  violent  poisons.  {Plin., 
 23,  77.  — Id.,  25,  2.  — Id.,  29,  8  )  Mithradates  pos- 
 sessed a  strong  mind  and  vigorous  body  ;  he  excelled 
 in  all  athletic  sports,  and  was  distinguished  in  his  early 
 years  by  his  bodily  strength  and  his  daring  spirit.  He 
 had  also  paid  great  attention  to  the  study  of  philosophy 
 and  polite  literature;  and,  according  to  Pliny,  was 
 able  to  converse  in  twenty-two  different  languages 
 20,  3).  As  soon  as  Mithradates  was  old  enough  to 
 take  the  government  into  his  own  hands,  he  attacked 
 the  Colchians  and  the  barbarous  nations  who  dwelt  on 
 the  eastern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  whom  he  reduced 
 to  subjection.  The  next  acquisition  which  he  made 
 was  Paphlagonia,  which  was  said  to  have  been  left  to 
 the  kings  of  Pontus  by  Pyla^menes  II.,  king  of  Paph- 
 lagonia, who  died  about  B.C.  121.  Part  of  Paphla- 
 gonia he  gave  to  Nicomedes  II.,  king  of  Bithynia, 
 who  was,  next  to  Mithradates,  the  most  powerful  mon- 
 arch in  Asia  Minor.  Nicomedes,  however,  was  jealous 
 of  the  increasing  power  of  Mithradates  ;  and  on  the 
 death  of  Ariarathes  VII.,  king  of  Paphlagonia,  who  had 
 married  a  sister  of  Mithradates,  Nicomedes  married  his 
 widow,  and  seized  the  kingdom  of  Cappadocia,  to  the 
 exclusion  of  the  son  of  Ariarathes.  Mithradates  imme- 
 diately took  up  arms  in  favour  of  his  nephew,  defeat- 
 ed Nicomedes,  and  placed  his  nephew  on  the  throne, 
 under  the  title  of  Ariarathes  VIII.  In  a  few  months 
 afterward  this  prince  was  murdered  by  his  uncle  at  a 
 private  conference,  who  placed  a  son  of  his  own  on 
 the  vacant  throne,  and  defeated  successively  the  broth- 
 er of  the  late  king,  and  a  pretender  to  the  throne, 
 whom  Nicomedes  represented  as  a  son  of  Ariarathes. 
 Unable  to  cope  with  his  formidable  enemy,  Nicomedes 
 applied  to  Rome ;  and  the  Romans,  who  had  lonij 
 be«n  anxious  to  weaken  the  power  of  Mithradates.  de- 
 clared both  Cappadocia  and  Paphlagonia  to  be  free 
 states,  but  allowed  the  Cappadocians,  at  their  own  re- 
 quest, to  elect  Ariobarzanes  as  their  king.  Mithrada- 
 tes. however,  did  not  tamely  submit  to  the  loss  of  his 
 dominions.  He  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Tigra- 
 nes.  king  of  Armenia,  to  whom  he  gave  his  daughter 
 in  marriage  :  and  with  his  assistance  he  expelled  Ari- 
 obarzanss  from  his  kingdom,  and  also  deprived  Ni- 
 
 comedes III.,  who  had  lately  succeeded  his  father, 
 of  Bithynia.  The  two  expelled  kings  applied  to  the 
 Romans  for  assistance,  and  the  latter  sent  an  army 
 under  Aquilius  to  reinstate  them  in  their  kingdoms. 
 A  war  with  the  Romans  was  now  inevitable,  and 
 Mithradates  conducted  it  with  the  utmost  vigour. 
 The  Roman  armies  were  defeated  one  after  another ; 
 Aquilius  was  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death  by  hav- 
 ing melted  gold  poured  down  his  throat ;  and  in  B.C. 
 88  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  was  in  the  hands  of  Mith- 
 radates. In  the  same  year  he  commanded  all  Romans 
 to  leave  the  country  ;  but,  before  they  could  do  so, 
 they  were  massacred  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  different 
 provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  to  the  number,  it  is  said,  of 
 80,000.  Whether  this  massacre  took  place  by  the 
 command  of  Mithradates,  or  was  occasioned  by  the 
 hatred  which  the  Asiatics  bore  to  the  Romans,  is 
 doubtful.  The  islands  in  the  ^Egean  followed  the  ex- 
 ample of  the  countries  of  the  mainland.  Athens  also 
 submitted  to  the  power  of  Mithradates,  together  with 
 several  other  places  in  Greece.  The  Rhodians,  the 
 only  people  who  offered  him  any  vigorous  resistance, 
 were  attacked,  but  without  any  success.  In  B.C.  87, 
 Sylla  arrived  in  Greece,  and  immediately  commenced 
 the  siege  of  Athens,  which  was  taken  on  the  1st  of 
 March  in  the  following  year.  Sylla  followed  up  his 
 success  by  the  defeat  of  Archelaus,  the  general  of 
 Mithradates,  near  Chaeronea,  and  shortly  afterward  by 
 another  victory  at  Orchomenus.  During  the  successes 
 of  Sylla  in  Greece,  the  parly  of  Marius  had  obtained 
 the  ascendancy  at  Rome;  and  Flaccus,  who  had  been 
 consul  with  Cinna,  was  sent  to  succeed  Sylla  in  the 
 command.  Flaccus,  however,  was  put  to  death  by 
 Fimbria,  an  unprincipled  man,  but  who  possessed  con- 
 siderable military  talents  and  prosecuted  the  war  against 
 Mithradates  in  .\sia  with  great  success.  The  victories 
 of  Fimbria  and  the  state  of  parties  at  Rome  made  Syl- 
 la anxious  for  peace,  which  was  at  length  agreed  upon 
 (B.C.  84),  on  condition  that  Mithradates  should  aban- 
 don all  his  conquests  in  Asia,  and  restore  Bithyn- 
 ia to  Nicomedes,  and  Cappadocia  to  Ariobarzanes. 
 But  this  war  was  scarcely  ended  before  Mithradates 
 was  again  involved  in  hostilities  with  the  Romans.  He 
 had  collected  a  large  army  to  carry  on  war  against  the 
 Colchians.  Muraena,  who  commanded  in  Asia,  per- 
 ceiving or  pretending  to  perceive  a  disposition  in  Mith- 
 radates to  renew  the  war,  seized  the  opportunity  of  en- 
 riching himself,  and,  without  any  authority  from  the 
 senate  or  Sylla,  invaded  the  dominions  of  Mithradates, 
 and  collected  much  plunder.  Mithradates,  having  in 
 vain  complained  to  the  senate,  collected  an  army  to 
 defend  his  dominions,  and  completely  defeated  Murae- 
 na  on  the  banks  of  the  Halys.  But,  as  Sylla  was  dis- 
 pleased with  Muraena  for  having  attacked  Mithradates, 
 the  peace  was  renewed,  and  thus  an  open  rupture  was 
 avoided  for  the  present.  During  the  next  eight  years 
 Mithradates  employed  himself  in  making  preparations 
 for  a  renewal  of  the  war;  and  in  B.C.  75  he  broke 
 the  treaty  which  existed  between  him  and  the  Romans 
 by  the  invasion  of  Bithynia.  Lucullus  was  appointed 
 to  the  command  B.C.  74,  and  commenced  the  cam- 
 paign by  besieging  Cyzicus,  a  city  on  the  Propontis, 
 which  had  been  supplied  by  Mithradates  with  every  de- 
 scription of  military  stores.  In  the  following  year 
 Mithradates  made  an  effort  to  relieve  the  place,  but 
 was  defeated  by  Lucullus  and  obliged  to  retire  to  Pon- 
 tus. He  was  soon  after  followed  by  the  Roman  gen- 
 eral, and,  having  lost  another  battle  at  Cabiri,  on  the 
 borders  of  Pontus  and  Bithynia,  he  fled  into  Armenia, 
 to  his  son-in-law  Tigranes.  His  own  son  Machares, 
 who  had  been  appointed  king  of  the  wild-tribes  on  the 
 eastern  shores  of  the  Euxine,  refused  to  assist  his  fa- 
 ther, and  provided  for  his  own  safety  by  making  peace 
 with  Lucullus.  In  B.C.  69  Tigranes  was  completely 
 defeated  by  Lucullus,  during  the  absence  of  Mithradates, 
 near  his  capital  Tigranocerta,  which  was  soon  after  ta 
 
MIT 
 
 MNE 
 
 ken  by  the  conqueror.  In  the  following  year  Tigranes 
 was  again  defeated,  together  with  Miihradates,  near 
 Artaxata  ;  but  Lucullus  was  not  able  to  derive  all  the 
 advantages  he  might  have  done  from  his  victories  in 
 consequence  of  the  n)utinous  disposition  of  his  troops. 
 {Vtd.  Lucullus.)  Miihradates  was  thus  enabled  to  col- 
 lect another  army  without  opposition  ;  and,  having  re- 
 turned to  Pontus,  he  defeated  the  Roman  general  Tri- 
 arius,  with  the  loss  of  7000  men,  before  Lucullus  could 
 march  to  his  assistance.  This  victory  was  followed 
 by  others ;  various  parts  of  Asia  Minor  agam  submit- 
 ted to  his  authority  ;  and  the  Romans  appeared  to  be 
 on  the  point  of  losing  all  the  acquisitions  they  had 
 made  during  the  war.  But  the  power  of  Mithradates 
 had  been  shaken  to  its  foundation;  and,  on  the  appoint- 
 ment of  Pompey  to  the  command,  B.C.  66,  the  war 
 was  soon  brought  to  an  end.  Mithradates  was  defeat- 
 ed on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  ;  and,  in  consequence 
 of  Tigranes  having  subnntied  to  Pompey,  fled  to  the 
 barbarous  tribes  dwelling  to  the  north  of  Caucasus, 
 who  received  him  with  hospitality  and  promised  him 
 -stipport.  The  spirit  of  Mithradates  had  not  yet  been 
 broken  by  adversity  ;  and  he  purposed,  with  the  assist- 
 ance of  the  Colchians  and  Scythians,  to  carry  into  ex- 
 ecution a  plan  which  he  is  said  to  have  formed  in  his  ear- 
 lier years,  namely,  of  marching  through  Thrace  and 
 Macedonia,  and  invading  Italy  from  the  north.  But 
 these  plans  were  frustrated  by  the  plots  of  his  eldest 
 son  Pharnaces,  who  gained  over  the  army  to  his  side, 
 and  deprived  his  father  of  the  throne.  Unwilling  to 
 fail  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  Mithradates  put  an 
 end  to  his  own  life,  B.C.  63,  at  the  age  of  68  or  69, 
 after  a  reign  of  57  years.  (Appian,  Bell.  Mithrad. — 
 Plut.,  Vu.  Lticull.  —  Id.,  VH.  Syll.  — Clinton,  Fast. 
 Hell.,  vol.  3,  Appendix,  8. — Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol. 
 15,  p.  289,  seq.) 
 
 MiTYLENE,  or,  more  correctly  (if  we  follow  the  lan- 
 guage of  coins),  Mytilene,  the  capital  of  Lesbos,  in 
 the  southeastern  quarter  of  the  island,  facing  the  coast 
 of  Mysia.  It  was  first  built  on  a  small  island,  con- 
 nected by  means  of  some  low  rocks  with  Lesbos  it- 
 self In  process  of  time,  the  population  increased  so 
 much  as  to  require  an  enlargement  of  the  ancient  lim- 
 its. The  space  between  Leshos  and  the  small  island 
 was  filled  up,  and  the  city  was  extended  to  the  main 
 island  of  Leshos.  In  this  way  the  place  became  pos- 
 sessed of  two  harbours,  which  the  small  island  and  the 
 causeway  connecting  it  with  Lesbos  separated  from 
 each  other.  The  larger  harbour  was  the  northern  one, 
 and  was  also  protected  by  works  from  the  violence  of 
 the  wind.  (Straho,  &{7.—Diod.  Sic,  13,  79.)  The 
 city  is  said  to  have  been  named  from  the  elder  daugh- 
 ter of  Macareus.  (_Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Mvu^vr/'— 
 Diod.  Sic.,  5,  80.)  The  fortunes  of  this  place  were 
 always  intimately  connected  with  those  of  Lesbos  it- 
 self In  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the 
 people  of  Mytilene  being  accused  of  a  secret  negotia- 
 tion with  the  I-aceda;monians,  Athens  sent  a  fleet 
 against  them.  The  other  cities  in  the  island,  except 
 Methymna,  made  common  cause  with  Mytilene.  Af- 
 ter some  resistance,  however,  the  Athenians  gained  a 
 complete  victory,  when  the  walls  of  Mytilene  were 
 razed,  and  many  of  its  wealthier  inhabitants  put  to 
 death.  The  Athenians  even  sent  an  order  to  their 
 commander  to  put  to  death  all  the  males  who  had  at- 
 tained the  age  of  puberty,  but  they  became  ashamed 
 of  their  own  barbarity,  and  despatched  messengers  to 
 revoke  the  order.  The  countermand  arrived  just  one 
 dav  previous  to  that  appointed  for  the  slaughter. 
 (Thucyd.,  3,  36-49.)  The  whole  island,  except  the 
 territory  of  Methymna,  which  was  spared,  being  divi- 
 ded into  3000  parts,  300  of  these  parts  were  devoted 
 to  sacred  piir[)oses,  and  the  rest  distributed  among  the 
 Athenians,  by  whom  they  were  rented  to  the  former 
 proprietors.  Mytilene,  however,  soon  recovered  from 
 the  effects  of  this  blow,  but  always  after  this  adhered 
 854 
 
 to  the  side  of  the  Athenians.  It  became  a  large  and 
 strong  city,  and  the  strength  of  its  fortifications  was 
 tested  by  the  siege  it  underwent  from  Memnon,  the 
 general  of  Darius,  during  Alexander's  expedition  into 
 Asia.  {Arrian,  2,  1.)  It  suffered  at  a  subsequent 
 period  from  the  Romans  on  account  of  its  adherence 
 to  the  side  of  Mithradates.  (Epit.,  Liv.,  89. — Com- 
 pare Veil.  Paterc.,  2,  18.)  It  again,  however,  re- 
 covered from  this  misfortune,  and  was  restored  by 
 Pompey  to  its  former  privileges,  through  favour  to 
 Theophanes.  These  privileges  were  confirmed  by  the 
 Roman  emperors,  so  that  Mytilene  now  held  a  distin- 
 guished rank  among  the  first  cities  of  the  empire. 
 Pliny  styles  it  "libera  Mytilene,  annis  MD.  potens" 
 (5,  39.— Compare  Strab.,  617 —Veil.  Paterc  ,  2,  18). 
 Athenapus  praises  its  shellfish  and  wine  (3,  p.  86,  e.  ; 
 ib.,  p.  92,  d.  ;  1,  p.  30,  b.).  Mytilene  could  boast  of 
 having  given  birth  to  Sappho  and  Alcaeus,  and  to  the 
 historians  Myrsilus  and  Hellanicus.  Pittacus,  too,  one 
 of  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  long  presided  over 
 her  councils.  The  modern  Mitylen  occupies  the  site 
 of  the  ancient  city.  The  following  description  of  it  is 
 given  by  a  recent  traveller.  "The  town  oi  Mitylen  is 
 built  on  a  small  peninsula,  and  has  two  ports,  one  on  the 
 north,  and  one  on  the  south  of  it,  both  too  shallow  for 
 anything  but  boats  :  the  port  on  the  north  is  protected 
 by  a  Genoese  mole,  now  in  ruins  ;  the  extremity  of 
 the  peninsula  is  covered  by  a  very  large  Genoese  cas- 
 tle, and  the  remainder  of  it,  and  some  of  the  conti- 
 nent, by  the  town.  The  town  contains  about  700 
 Greek  houses,  and  400  Turkish ;  its  streets  are  nar- 
 row and  filthy."  {Turner,  Tour  in  the  Levant,  vol. 
 3,  p.  299.) 
 
 Mnemon  (Mi'7//icjv),  a  surname  given  to  Artaxerxea 
 on  account  of  his  retentive  memory.  {Vid.  Arta- 
 xerxes  II.) 
 
 Mnemosyne,  a  daughter  of  Ccelus  and  Terra, 
 mother  of  the  nine  Muses  by  Jupiter,  and  goddess  of 
 Memory.  The  meaning  of  the  myth  becomes  very 
 apparent  when  we  regard  the  Muses  as  symbolical  of 
 the  inventive  powers  of  the  mind  as  displayed  in  the 
 various  arts.  The  power  of  remembering,  gained  by 
 practice,  at  a  time  when  books  were  rare,  may  well  be 
 assigned  to  the  Muses  as  a  parent.  (yEscA.,  P.  V., 
 461.) 
 
 Mnesarchus,  I.  an  engraver  on  precious  stones, 
 born  in  Etruria,  and  father  of  Pythagoras  the  philoso- 
 pher. Hence  he  probably  flourished  about  Olymp.  88. 
 [Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) — II.  A  son  of  Pythagoras, 
 who  succeeded  Aristssus  of  Crotona.  the  immediate 
 successor  of  Pythagoras  himself.  {Tenncmann,  Hist. 
 Phil,  t)  95.) 
 
 Mnesicles,  a  celebrated  architect,  born  a  slave  in 
 the  house  of  Pericles.  By  the  command  of  this  dis- 
 tinguished statesman,  he  built  the  magnificent  vesti- 
 bule of  the  Athenian  citadel,  the  erection  of  which 
 occupied  five  successive  years  (B.C.  437-433. — Plut., 
 Vit.  PericL,  13).  While  engaged  in  this  undertaking 
 he  fell  from  an  eminence,  but  was  healed  by  Peri- 
 cles by  the  application  of  the  herb  pellitory,  which  it 
 was  fabled  Minerva  had  pointed  out  to  the  latter  in  a 
 dream.  (Plut.,  I.  c.—Plrn.,  22,  17,  20.)  A  brazen 
 statue  of  him  was  cast  by  Stipax,  and  this  statue  was 
 designated  "  Splanchnoptes."  (Plin.,  I.  c. — Id.,  34, 
 8,  \9.— Sillig,  Diet.  Art ,  s.  v.) 
 Mnestheus.      Vid.  Menestheus. 
 
 Mnevis,  the  name  of  a  sacred  bull,  consecrated  to 
 the  sun,  and  worshipped  by  the  Egyptians  at  Heliop- 
 olis.  According  to  Jablonski  ( Foe.  ^gi/pt.,  p.  146, 
 184),  his  name  signified  "the  bull  of  light"  or  "of 
 the  sun."  (Compare  Strabo,  803. — Diod.  Sic,  1,  21. 
 —Plut.,  dc  Is.  ct  Os.,  p.  492,  ed.  Wytt.)  The  col- 
 our of  Mnevis  had  to  be  black,  and  his  skin  must  be 
 rough  and  bristly.  His  worship,  however,  gradually 
 disappeared  when  Apis  became  the  general  deity  of 
 the  <'ountrv,  and  we  may  date  its  downfall  from  the 
 
MCER 
 
 MOL 
 
 time  when  Cambyses  overthrew  the  magnificent  tem- 
 ple of  Heliopolis.  Mnevis  was  worshipped  with  the 
 same  superstitious  ceremonies  as  Apis,  and  at  his 
 death  he  received  the  same  magnificent  funeral.  (Con- 
 sult Creuzer,  Symbohk,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  1,  p.  498.) 
 MoDEsTUs,  a  Latm  military  writer,  whose  history 
 is  unknown.  He  wrote  a  work  "  De  vocabulis  rei 
 rn.irv.aris"  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Tacitus,  A.D. 
 275  or  276.  The  first  edition  was  published  in  1474, 
 4to,  Ve7iet.,  edited  by  J.  Aloysius  ;  and  is  a  book  of 
 extreme  rarity.  There  is  also  another  edition,  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  printed  at  Rome  by  Laver,  about 
 1475,  4to.  An  edition  was  also  published  in  1679, 
 2  vols.  4to,  VesahcB. 
 
 McENUs,  a  river  of  Germany.  (Vid.  Maenus  ) 
 MasRis,  I.  a  king  of  Egypt,  who  occupied  the  throne, 
 according  to  chronologists,  for  the  space  of  68  years, 
 and  was  succeeded  by  Sesostris.  (Larcher,  Tabl. 
 Chronol.,  p.  572. — Id.,  Chronol.  iV Herod.,  p.  86,  seq. 
 —Bdhr,  ad  Herod.,  2,  100.)— II.  A  lake  of  Egypt, 
 supposed  to  have  been  the  work  of  a  king  of  the  same 
 name,  concerning  the  situation  and  extent,  and  even 
 the  existence  of  which,  authors  have  differed.  It  has 
 been  represented  as  the  boldest  and  most  wonderful 
 of  all  the  works  of  the  kings  of  Egypt,  and,  according- 
 ly, Herodotus  considers  it  superior  even  to  the  pyra- 
 mids and  labyrinth.  (Herod.,  2,  149.)  As  to  its  sit- 
 uation, Herodotus  and  Strabo  (810)  mark  it  out  by 
 placing  the  labyrinth  on  its  borders,  and  by  fixing  the 
 towns  which  were  around  it,  such  as  Acanthus  to  the 
 south,  Aphroditopolis  towards  the  east,  and  Arsinoe 
 to  the  north.  Diodorus  (1,  52)  and  Pliny  (5,  9)  con- 
 firm this  statement,  by  placing  it  at  24  leagues  from 
 Memphis,  between  the  province  of  that  name  and  Ar- 
 sinoe. The  position  thus  indicated  is  supposed  to 
 answer  to  the  modern  Birket-Carov.n,  a  lake  near- 
 by 50  leagues  in  circumference.  Herodotus  makes 
 the  Lake  Moeris  3600  stadia  in  circumference,  and  its 
 greatest  depth  200  cubits.  Bossuet  has  vindicated 
 the  statement  of  its  large  extent  against  the  raillery 
 of  Voltaire.  RoUin,  however,  deeming  it  to  be  in- 
 credible, adopts  the  opinion  of  Pomponius  Mela  (1,9), 
 and  makes  it  20,000  paces.  D'Anville,  with  a  view 
 of  reconciling  the  contending  parties,  has  marked  on 
 his  map  of  Egypt  two  lakes  of  this  name,  one  of  which 
 is  in  fact  a  canal  running  parallel  with  the  Nile  ;  this 
 he  makes  the  Moeris  of  Herodotus  and  Diodorus, 
 while  the  other  is  situate  to  the  northwest,  and  cor- 
 responds, according  to  him,  with  the  Mosris  of  Strabo 
 and  Ptolemy.  This  last  is  the  Birkel- Caroun  men- 
 tioned above ;  the  former,  which  still  subsists,  is 
 known  by  the  name  of  Bahr  Jouseph,  or  Joseph's  riv- 
 er. It  opens  near  Tarout  Ecchenff,  and  ends  near 
 Birkct- Caroun.  The  explanation  given  by  Malte- 
 Brun  is,  however,  the  simplest.  He  supposes  that 
 the  canal  dignified  with  the  name  of  Joseph,  like  many 
 other  remarkable  works,  was  executed  by  order  of 
 King  Moeris.  The  waters  then  filled  the  basin  of  the 
 lake  Birket- Caroun,  which  received  the  name  of  the 
 prince  who  effected  this  great  change.  Thus  a  rea- 
 son is  given  why  the  ancients  say  that  the  lake  was 
 of  artificial  formation,  while  the  Birkel-Caroun  gives 
 no  evidence  of  any  such  operation.  (Malte-Brun, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  447,  Brussels  cd.)  If  we  listen, 
 however,  merely  to  the  relation  of  Herodotus,  the  Lake 
 Moeris  was  entirely  the  work  of  human  art ;  and,  to 
 show  this,  two  pyramids  were  to  be  seen  in  its  centre, 
 each  of  which  was  200  cubits  above,  and  as  many  be- 
 low the  water,  while  on  the  summit  of  each  was  a 
 colossus  in  a  sitting  posture.  The  object  of  the  ex- 
 cavation was  to  regulate  the  inundations  of  the  Nile. 
 When  the  waters  of  the  river  were  high,  a  large  por- 
 tion was  carried  off  by  the  canal  to  the  lake,  in  order 
 that  it  might  not  remain  too  long  on  the  soil  of  Egypt 
 (lower  at  that  time  than  in  our  days),  and  occasion 
 sterility  ;  when  tlie  inundation  had  declined,  a  second 
 
 one  was  produced  by  the  waters  in  Lake  Moeris.  The 
 lapse  of  nearly  1200  years  has  made  a  great  change 
 in  this  as  in  the  other  Egyptian  works  of  art.  Moeris 
 is  now  nearly  50  leagues  in  circumference.  It  might 
 still,  however,  be  made  to  answer  its  ancient  purposes, 
 if  the  canal  of  Joseph  were  cleared  of  the  immense 
 quantity  of  mud  collected  in  it.  and  the  dikes  restored. 
 The  pyramids  in  this  lake  were  no  longer  visible  in 
 the  time  of  Strabo.  The  lake  itself  is  said  to  have 
 afforded  a  most  abundant  supply  of  fish.  The  profits 
 of  this  fishery  were  appropriated  to  find  the  queen 
 with  clothes  and  perfumes.  (Compare  Martin,  De- 
 script.  Hydrogr. — Descript.  de  VEgypte,  Etat.  Mod., 
 hvraison  3,  p.  195,  seqq. — Ibid.,  Antiq.  Mem.  sur  le 
 Lac  de  Mans,  par  Jornand.,  vol.  1,  p.  79,  seqq. — 
 Letronne  sur  Rollin,  vol.  1,  p.  22,  seqq.) 
 
 McEsiA,  the  name  of  a  province  of  the  Roman  em- 
 pire, extending  north  of  the  range  of  Mount  Haemus, 
 the  modern  Balkan,  as  far  as  the  Danube,  and  east- 
 ward to  the  Euxine,  and  corresponding  to  the  present 
 provinces  of  Servia  and  Bulgaria.  Its  boundaries  to 
 the  west  were  the  rivers  Drinus  and  Savus,  which  di- 
 vided It  from  Pannonia  and  lUyricum.  Strabo  (295) 
 says,  that  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  call- 
 ed Mysi  (MuCTOt),  and  were  a  tribe  of  Thracians,  like 
 their  eastern  neighbours  the  Getae,  and  that  they  were 
 the  ancestors  of  the  Mysians  in  Asia  Minor.  The 
 Romans  first  invaded  their  country  under  the  reign 
 of  Augustus,  and  it  was  afterward  made  into  a  Roman 
 province,  and  divided  into  Moesia  Superior,  to  the 
 west,  between  the  Drinus  and  the  CEscus  (or  modern 
 Isker),  and  Moesia  Inferior,  extending  from  the  QEs- 
 cus  to  the  Euxine.  Being  a  frontier  province  of  the 
 empire,  it  was  strengthened  by  a  line  of  stations  and 
 fortresses  along  the  southern  bank  of  the  Danube,  of 
 which  the  most  important  were  Axiopolis,  Durosteron, 
 Nicopolis  ad  Istrum,  Viminiacum,  and  Singidunum. 
 A  Roman  wall  was  built  from  the  Danube  to  the  Eux- 
 ine, from  Axiopolis  to  Tomi,  as  a  security  against  the 
 incursions  of  the  Scythians  and  Sarmatians,  who  in- 
 habited the  delta  of  the  Danube.  The  conquest  of 
 Dacia  by  Trajan  removed  the  frontiers  of  the  empire 
 farther  north,  beyond  Moesia  ;  but  after  the  loss  of  the 
 province  of  Dacia,  about  A.D.  250,  Moesia  became 
 again  a  border  country,  and,  as  such,  exposed  to  the 
 irruption  of  the  Goths,  who,  after  several  attempts, 
 crossed  the  Danube,  and  occupied  Moesia  in  the  reign 
 of  the  Emperor  Valens.  The  Moeso-Goths,  for  whom 
 Ulphilas  translated  the  Scriptures,  were  a  branch  of 
 Goths  settled  in  Moesia.  Some  centuries  later,  the 
 Bulgarians  and  Sclavonians  occupied  the  country  of 
 Moesia,  and  formed  the  kingdoms  of  Bulgaria  and  Ser- 
 via. — The  Greek  writers  called  this  country  Mvffj'a. 
 {Dio  Cass.,  38,  10. — Amm.  Marcell,  27,  9.—Pim., 
 3,  2G.—Id.,  4,  1.— Tac,  Ann.,  15,  6.—  Herodian,  2, 
 10.— Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  15,  p.  297.) 
 
 MoGUNTiACUM  or  MagontiacUiM,  afterward  Mogun- 
 tia  or  Magontia,  a  city  of  the  Vangiones,  lying  oppo- 
 site to  the  mouth  of  the  Moenus  or  Mayn.  It  was 
 founded,  or,  at  least,  considerably  embellished  by  Dru- 
 sus,  brother  of  Tiberius,  B.C.  10,  and  became  subse 
 quently  the  metropolis  of  Germania  Prima,  and  the 
 residence  of  the  governor  or  prefect  of  Gaul.  It  often 
 suffered  from  the  Batavi  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the 
 empire,  and  at  a  later  day  from  the  barbarians.  The 
 modern  name  is  Mainz,  or,  as  we  commonly  write  it, 
 Maycnce.  {Tacit.,  Hist,  4,  15,  37,  61,  70,  et  71.— 
 PtoL,  3,  9.) 
 
 MoLioNE,  the  wife  of  Actor,  son  of  Phorbas.  She 
 became  mother  of  Cleatus  and  Eurytus,  who  from 
 her  are  called  Moliomdes.  {Pausan.,  8,  \\.—Apol- 
 lod.,  2,  7.) 
 
 MoLioNiDEs,  the  two  sons  of  Actor  and  Molione, 
 called  Actorides  from  their  father,  and  Moliomdes 
 from  their  mother.  {Hcync,  ad  II.,  2,  708.)  Their 
 names  were  Eurvtus  and  Ctealus.     Homer  describes 
 
 855 
 
MOL 
 
 MON 
 
 them,  according  to  the  common  interpretation,  as 
 twins  {6i.6vfioi),  and  one  as  managing  the  chariot, 
 while  the  other  held  the  lash.  Aristarchus,  however, 
 explained  6i6v/ioi  by  dt^vEi^,  on  the  authority  of  He- 
 siod  {Kara  tov  'Hmodov  fivdov),  and  saw  in  the  Mo- 
 iionides  a  double  body  with  two  heads  and  four  arms, 
 like  the  double  men  of  whom  Hesiod  speaks.  This 
 explanation  has  been  rejected  by  many  as  too  artificial 
 for  the  age  of  Homer  ;  and  in  the  same  way  has  the 
 tradition  mentioned  by  the  poet  Ibycus  been  treated, 
 which  makes  the  Molionides  both  to  have  come  from 
 a  silver  egg  {ap  Athen.,  2,  p.  57,/.).  If  we  examine 
 attentively  the  genealogy  assigned  to  these  heroes, 
 new  light  will  be  found  to  break  in  upon  this  singular 
 fable.  Actor,  the  father,  is  "  the  man  of  the  shore," 
 against  which  the  waves  of  the  sea  break ;  he  is  also 
 "  the  man  of  grinding,"  of  the  grain  crushed  and  bro- 
 ken  by  the  mill.  (JA-KTup,  from  ukt^. — Arjfi^TEpoc 
 uKTi'i. — Hcs.,  Op.  et  D.,  32.)  On  the  other  hand,  Mo- 
 lione  is  ''  the  female  of  combat."  MoAof  is  the  name 
 of  her  father  (compare  ^(j/lof),  according  to  Pherecy- 
 des,  and  Apollodorus  (I,  7)  mentions  two  individuals 
 of  this  name,  one  the  son  of  Mars,  the  other  of  Deu- 
 calion. Without  war  we  can  neither  conquer  nor  de- 
 fend the  soil  destined  for  culture.  Hence  one  of 
 these  warriors  is  named  Eurytus,  or  "  the  good  de- 
 fender," the  guardian,  like  the  two  Anaces  or  Dios- 
 curi, whom  the  Spartan  tradition  made  to  have  issued 
 from  the  same  egg.  Thus  Eurytus  is  from  ev  and 
 (ivojxat.,  with  an  active  signification.  (Compare  Butt- 
 man,  Lcxilogus,  vol.  1,  p.  146.)  The  other,  Cteatus 
 (Krearof. — Kriap,  res  mancipii),  is  "  the  possessor" 
 or  "  proprietor."  When  the  sea  has  entered  within 
 its  proper  limits,  and  the  shore  now  contains  it,  then 
 appear  the  cultivators  of  the  soil.  The  man  who 
 would  remain  master  of  his  paternal  soil  must  in 
 some  sort  be  double.  He  must  have  two  arms  for 
 the  sword  and  buckler,  two  for  the  lash  and  the  reins 
 with  which  he  guides  his  coursers.  A  single  body 
 ought  to  carry  a  double  array  of  members,  a  single 
 will  to  actuate  two  souls.  These  are  the  double  men 
 of  Hesiod  (6L(t>velc). — Such  is  the  explanation  of  Creu- 
 zer  as  regards  the  fable  of  the  Molionides.  {Si/mbo- 
 lik,  vol.  2,  p.  387. — Symbolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  2, 
 pt.  1,  p.  334,  seqq.)  In  place  of  this  very  poetical  ver- 
 sion of  the  legend,  Hermann  gives  one  altogether  dif- 
 ferent, and  singularly  prosaic.  He  sees  in  the  whole 
 story  a  general  reference  to  traders  coming  by  sea, 
 disposing  of  their  merchandise  to  advantage,  and  be- 
 coming possessed  of  riches.  (Ucher  das  Wesen  und 
 die  Bchandlunor  der  Mythologie,  p.  55.) — The  Moli- 
 onides are  also  mentioned  as  having  come  to  the  aid 
 of  Augeas  against  Hercules.  {Hnjne,  ad  II. ,  11, 
 708.)  The  Cyclic  poets,  from  whom  Pherecydes  and 
 Pindar  {01.,  10,  32)  drew,  in  this  instance,  their  ma- 
 terials, make  them  to  have  been  slain  by  Hercules, 
 whereas  Homer  speaks  of  them  as  surviving  Hercu- 
 les, as  being  still  young  {Tral6'  et'  si'ivrt),  and  contem- 
 porary with  Nestor. 
 
 Moi,o,  a  philosopher  of  Rhodes,  called  al.so  .\pollo- 
 nius.     (Vid   ApoUonius  V.) 
 
 MoLORCHUS,  an  old  labouring-man  near  Cleon^, 
 who  hospitably  entertained  Hercules  when  the  latter 
 was  on  his  way  against  the  Nemean  lion.  Molorrhus 
 wishing  to  offer  a  sacrifice,  in  order  to  propitiate  the 
 gods  and  obtain  for  Hercules  a  successful  accomplish- 
 ment of  his  enterprise,  the  hero  begged  him  to  reserve 
 it  till  the  thirtieth  day,  saying  that  if  he  should  then 
 return  victorious,  he  might  oflfer  it  to  .Jupiter  the  pre- 
 server ;  but  if  he  fell  in  the  conflict,  to  make  it  a  fu- 
 neral offering  unto  him  as  a  hero.  After  having  de- 
 stroyed the  lion,  Hercules  came  to  the  abode  of  Mo- 
 lorchus  on  the  last  day  of  the  appointed  period,  and 
 found  him  just  on  the  point  of  offering  the  victim  for 
 him  as  being  dead.  Hence  we  have  in  Tibnllus  the 
 expression  "  Molurcheis  tcctis"  (4,  1,  13),  and  in  Vir- 
 856 
 
 !  gil,   "  lucos  Mohrchi"  {Georg.,  3,  19.  —  Apollod.,  9, 
 5,  1. — Hcyne,  adloc), 
 
 MoLossi,  a  people  of  Epirus,  occupying  the  north- 
 eastern portion  of  the  country  ;  that  is,  from  the  head 
 of  the  Aoiis,  and  the  mountainous  district  which  con- 
 nects Macedonia,  Thessaly,  and  E])irus  to  the  Ambra- 
 cian  Gulf,  a  small  portion  of  the  shores  of  which  was 
 considered  to  belong  to  them.  {Scylaz,  p.  12  )  Mo- 
 lossis  must  therefore  have  comprehended  the  territory 
 of  Janinna,  the  present  capital  of  Albania,  together 
 with  its  lakes  and  mountains,  including  the  country  of 
 the  Tymphaei,  which  bordered  on  that  part  of  Thessaly 
 near  the  source  of  the  Peneus.  Its  limits  to  the  west 
 cannot  precisely  be  determined,  as  we  are  equally  ig- 
 norant of  those  of  Tbesprotia.  The  principal  town  of 
 the  Molossi  was  Ambracia.  Under  their  king  Alex- 
 ander, about  320  B.C.,  they  gained  the  preponderance 
 over  the  rest  of  Epirus,  which  they  maintained  under 
 his  successors,  of  whom  Pyrrhus  was  the  most  celebra- 
 ted. After  the  defeat  of  Perseus,  Paulus  ^-Emilius, 
 the  Roman  general,  ravaged  the  country  of  the  Molossi, 
 as  well  as  the  rest  of  Epirus,  and  destroyed  their 
 towns.  The  effects  of  the  devastation  which  he 
 caused  were  still  visible  in  the  time  of  Strabo.  This 
 country  was  famed  for  its  dogs  ;  they  were  of  a  robust 
 make,  and  very  useful  in  defending  the  flocks.  {Arts- 
 tot.,  Hist.  An.,  9,  1. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1, 
 p.  131.) 
 
 MoLossiA  or  Mol6ssis,  the  country  of  the  Molossi 
 in  Epirus.     {Vid.  Molossi.) 
 
 Molossus,  a  son  of  Pyrrhus  and  Andromache.  He 
 reigned  in  Epirus  after  the  death  of  Helenus.  {Pau- 
 san.,  1,  11.) 
 
 MoLYCRioN  or  Moi.YCREiA,  a  town  of  ^Elolia,  on 
 the  borders  of  the  Locri,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
 of  Antirrhium.  According  to  Thucydides,  it  was  sit- 
 uate close  to  the  sea.  This  place  had  been  colonized 
 by  the  Corinthians,  who  were  expelled  by  the  Atheni- 
 ans, and  it  was  afterward  taken  by  the  yEtolians  and 
 Peloponnesians  under  Eurylochns.  (Thucyd  ,  2,8. — 
 Id.,  3,  102.)  It  is  also  alluded  to  by  Pausanias  (5,  34), 
 who  elsewhere  writes  it  Molycria  (9,  31),  while  other 
 Greek  writers  give  Molycreia,  as  for  example  Strabo 
 (451).  The  spot  on  which  it  stood  is  now  called 
 Cavrolhnne,  where  its  remains  are  yet  perceptible. 
 {Cramer's  Aw..  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  81.) 
 
 MoMus,  the  god  of  raillery  and  ridicule,  was  the 
 son  of  Night,  without  a  sire.  (Hesiod,  Theog.,  211.) 
 He  does  not  appear  to  have  been  known  to  Homer, 
 but  is  alluded  to  by  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and,  as  might 
 well  be  expected,  by  Liician.  {Hcrmol.,  20.  —  Ver. 
 Hist.,  2,  3.  —  Nigr.,  32.)  Nothing  was  perfect  or 
 found  favour  in  his  sight  ;  and  the  gods  themselves 
 were  the  objects  of  his  perpetual  and  unlimited  satire. 
 He  blamed  Vulcan,  because  in  the  human  form  which 
 he  had  made  of  clay,  he  had  not  placed  a  window  in 
 the  breast,  by  which  whatever  was  done  or  thought 
 there  might  easily  be  brought  to  light.  He  censured 
 the  house  which  Minerva  had  constructed,  because  the 
 goddess  had  not  made  it  moveable,  by  which  means  a 
 bad  neighbourhood  might  be  avoided  In  the  case  of 
 the  bill!  which  Neptune  had  produced,  he  observed  that 
 his  blows  might  have  been  surer  if  his  eyes  were  placed 
 nearer  the  horns.  Venus  herself  was  exposed  to  his 
 satire  ;  and  when  he  could  find  no  fault  with  her  per- 
 son, he  censured  the  noise  made  by  her  golden  sandals. 
 He  was  eventually  driven  from  Olympus. — Momus  re- 
 minds us  of  the  Gigon  {Tiytjv)  in  the  Cabiric  mysle 
 ries,      (Creuzcr,  Symbolik,  vol.  2,  p.  423.) 
 
 MoN.t,  I  an  island  between  Britain  and  Hibernia,now 
 the  Isle  of  Man.  Cmsar  gives  it  the  name  of  Muna 
 (B.  G.,5,  13).  Ptolemy  calls  \tM.ovuou'>a{cd.  Erasm., 
 where  some  MSS.  give  Movaplva).  He  removes  it, 
 however,  too  far  to  the  north.  Orosius  (1,  11)  styles 
 it  Mcnavin,  which  closely  resembles  the  Monapia  of 
 Pliny  (4,  10),  especially  if,  with  Cambden,  we  read  Mo- 
 
MON 
 
 MOP 
 
 nahia  for  the  latter.  {Cellarius,  Geogr.  Ant.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 355  ) — II.  An  island  off  the  coast  of  Britoin,  and  fa- 
 cing the  territory  of  the  Ordovices,  of  which,  in  strict- 
 ness, it  formed  part.  It  was  situate  to  the  southeast 
 of  the  former,  and  is  now  the  Isle  of  Angksty.  Ta- 
 citus gives  it  the  name  of  Mona  {Ann.,  14,  29. — Vit. 
 Agric,  14),  and  Ptolemy  styles  it  Mova,  while  Dio 
 Cassms  (62,  7)  names  it  MOvva.  It  was  remarkable 
 as  having  been  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  Druids. 
 Suetonius  Paullinus  had  conquered  Anglesey  ;  but  the 
 insurrection  of  the  Britons  under  Boadicea  did  not 
 leave  him  time  to  secure  its  possession.  Agricola,  at 
 a  subsequent  period,  having  subdued  the  Ordovices, 
 undertook  the  reduction  of  the  island  and  succeeded. 
 The  invasion  by  Paullinus  was  seventeen  years  previous 
 to  the  conquest  of  Agricola.  {Tacit.,  Vit.  Agric,  18.) 
 Pennant  mentions  a  pass  in  Wales,  into  the  valley  of 
 Clwyd,  in  the  parish  of  Llanarmon,  which,  he  says,  is 
 still  called  Bwlch  Agrikle,  probably  from  having  been 
 occupied  by  Agricola  on  his  way  to  the  isle  of  Mona. 
 Tacitus  {Ann.,  14,  29,  seqq.)  gives  an  interesting 
 account  of  the  first  con(juest  by  Paullinus.  The  sa- 
 cred groves,  stained  with  the  blood  of  human  sacrifices, 
 were  destroyed  by  the  Roman  general.  (Consult,  in 
 relation  to  the  Druidical  sacrifices,  Higgins'  Celtic 
 Druids,  p.  291,  seqq.) 
 
 MoN.«:sEs,  I.  a  Parthian  commander,  the  same  with 
 the  Surena  that  defeated  Crassus.  The  appellation 
 Surena,  by  which  he  is  more  commonly  known,  was 
 merely  a  Parthian  term  denoting  his  high  rank. — II.  A 
 Parthian  officer  in  the  time  of  Corbulo.  {Dio  Cass., 
 62,  19.— Tacit.,  Ann.,  15,  2.) 
 
 MoNDA,  a  river  on  the  western  coast  of  Lusitania, 
 between  the  Durius  and  Tagus.  Conimbriga  (the 
 modern  Coimbra)  was  situate  on  its  banks.  It  is  now 
 the  Motidego.  {Mela,  3,  1. — Marcian.,  PeripL,  in 
 Huds.  Gr^  M.,  vol.  1,  p.  43.)  Pliny  calls  it  the 
 Munda  (4,  22). 
 
 MoNETA,  a  surname  of  Juno  among  the  Romans. 
 She  received  it,  according  to  one  account,  because 
 she  advised  them  {monuit)  to  sacrifice  a  pregnant  sow 
 to  Cybele,  to  avert  an  earthquake.  {Cic.,  de  Div.,  1, 
 15.)  Livy  says,  that  a  temple  was  vowed  to  Juno 
 under  this  name  by  the  dictator  L.  Furius  Camillus, 
 when  the  Romans  waged  war  against  the  Aurunci, 
 and  that  the  temple  was  raised  to  the  goddess  by  the 
 senate  on  the  spot  where  the  house  of  Manlius  Ca- 
 pitolinus  had  formerly  stood.  {Livy,  7,  28. — Com- 
 pare Ovid,  Fast.,  6,  183  )  Suidas,  however,  states 
 that  Juno  was  surnamed  Moncta  from  her  assuring  the 
 Romans,  when,  in  the  war  against  Pyrrhus,  their  pecu- 
 niary resources  had  failed  them,  and  they  had  address- 
 ed her  in  prayer,  that,  as  long  as  they  prosecuted  the 
 war  with  justice,  the  means  for  carrying  it  on  would  be 
 supplied  to  them.  After  their  arms  were  crowned  with 
 success,  they  rendered  divine  honours  to  Juno,  styling 
 her  "  ;l/oMe/a,"  or  the  "adviser,"  and  resolved,  for  the 
 time  to  come,  to  coin  money  in  her  temple  {Suid., 
 s.  V.  Movi'/Ta  ) — Many  etymologists  derive  the  English 
 word  "  money"  from  the  Latin  mnnela  ;  and  this  last, 
 according  to  Vossius,  comes  from  nioneo;  '■'■quod  jdeo 
 moneia  vacatur  ;  quia  nota  inscripta  monet  nos  autoris 
 et  valoris.^'  The  true  root,  however,  is  most  probably 
 contained  in  the  .Anglo-Saxon  myneg-ian,  "  to  mark," 
 or  mynetk-ian,  "  to  stamp,"  {Richardson,  Eng.  Diet., 
 s.  V  "  mint,"  "money." — Compare  Tooke,  Diversions 
 of  Parley,  vol.  2,  p.  210,  ed.  1829.) 
 
 MoNODUs,  a  son  of  Prusias.  He  had  one  continued 
 bone  instead  of  a  row  of  teeth,  wlience  his  tiame  {fj.6- 
 voc  cK^ov^. — Plin  .  7,  16. — Consult  G.  Cuvier,  ad  loc). 
 
 MoNCECus.  Vid.  Herculis  II. — (Herculis  Monaeci 
 Portiis  ) 
 
 MoNs  Sacer,  a  low  range  of  sandstone  hills,  ex- 
 tending along  the  right  bank  of  the  Anio,  and  about 
 three  miles  from  Rome.     It  is  celebrated  in  history  by 
 the  secession  of  the  Roman  people.     {Idv.,  2,  32  — 
 5Q 
 
 Ovid,  Fast.,  3,  663.)— It  was  called  Mens  Sacer,  be- 
 cause, says  Festus,  the  people,  after  their  secession, 
 consecrated  it  to  Jupiter.  {Gell,  Topography  of 
 Rome,  vol.  2,  p.  107.) 
 
 MoNYCHUs,  a  powerful  giant,  who  could  root  up 
 trees  and  hurl  them  like  a  javelin.  {Juv.,  I,  11. — 
 Ovid,  Met.,  12,  499,  seqq.  —  Lucan,  6,  388.  —  Fa/. 
 Flacc,  1,  146,  et.  Burm.,  ad  loc.) 
 
 MopsiuM,  an  eminence  between  Larissa  andTempe, 
 on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Peneus.  A  severe  skir- 
 mish took  place  in  its  vicinity  between  the  troops  of 
 Perseus  and  the  Romans.  {Livy,  42,  61,  et  67.) 
 There  appears  to  have  been  a  fortress  on  it;  and  Sir 
 W.  Gell  observed  some  vestiges  on  a  hill  near  the  vil- 
 lage of  Eremo,  which  were  probably  the  remains  of 
 this  ancient  post.  {Itin.,  p.  282.  —  Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  384.) 
 
 MopsopiA,  an  ancient  appellation  for  Attica,  sup- 
 posed to  be  derived  from  the  hero  Mopsopus  or  Mop- 
 sops.     (Sirab.,  397. — Compare  Lycuphr.,  v.  1339  ) 
 
 MopsuHESTiA,  a  town  of  Cilicia,  near  the  sea,  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Pyramus.  Strabo  (675)  informs  us,  that 
 Mopsus  and  Amphilochus  settled  in  this  neighbourhood 
 after  the  Trojan  war,  and  founded  the  city  of  Mallus, 
 and  that  subsequently  they  quarrelled  about  the  place. 
 This  legend,  no  doubt,  induced  the  Greeks  of  a  later 
 age  to  search  in  this  quarter  for  a  city  of  Mopsus,  and 
 hence  arose  the  name  MopsuhesUa  {Motpovearla,  '■'■the 
 retreat  of  Mopsus"),  given  to  the  place  in  question  ; 
 whether  correctly  or  otherwise,  it  is  difficult  to  say, 
 most  probably,  however,  the  latter.  This  appellation 
 continued  for  a  long*period.  Cicero  {Ep.  ad  Fam., 
 3,  8)  speaks  of  Mopsuhestia.  Pliny,  however  (5,  27), 
 calls  it  merely  Mopsus.  Under  the  Byzantine  empire 
 its  name  was  corrupted  to  Mampsysta,  or  Mamista,  or 
 Mansista.  {Cod.  Theodos.,  de  conlat.  donator.,\.  1. — 
 Glycas,  Ami.,  pt.  4,  p.  306. — Itin.,  Hierosol.,  p.  580.) 
 Ttie  modern  Mensis  appears  to  be  a  farther  corruption 
 of  these  names.  {Leake,  Journal,  p.  217.)  It  would 
 seem  that  the  early  origin  of  Mopsuhestia  is  contradict- 
 ed by  the  silence  of  Xenophon,  and  also  of  the  histo- 
 rians of  Alexander.  Strabo  is  the  first  who  makes 
 mention  of  the  place.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2, 
 p.  101,  seqq.) 
 
 Mopsus,  I.  a  celebrated  prophet,  son  of  Manto  and 
 Apollo.  He  officiated  at  the  altars  of  Apollo  at 
 Glares  ;  and  from  his  unerring  wisdom  and  discern- 
 ment gave  rise  to  the  proverb,  "  more  certain  than 
 Mopsus."  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of 
 Thebes ;  but  he  was  held  in  particular  veneration  at 
 the  court  of  Amphilochus,  at  Colophon  in  Ionia.  Hav- 
 ing been  consulted,  on  one  occasion,  by  Amphilochus, 
 who  wished  to  know  what  success  would  attend  his 
 arms  in  a  war  which  he  was  going  to  undertake,  he  pre- 
 dicted the  greatest  calamities  :  but  Calchas,  who  had 
 been  the  soothsayer  of  the  Greeks  during  the  Trojan 
 war,  promised  the  greatest  successes.  Amphilochus 
 followed  the  opinion  of  Calchas,  but  the  prediction  of 
 Mopsus  was  fully  verified.  This  had  such  an  effect 
 upon  Calchas  that  he  died  soon  after.  His  death  is 
 attributed  by  some  to  another  mortification  of  the  same 
 nature.  The  two  soothsayers,  jealous  of  each  other's 
 fame,  came  to  a  trial  of  their  skill  in  divination.  Cal- 
 chas first  asked  his  antagonist  how  many  figs  a  neigh- 
 bouring tree  bore  ;  ten  thousand  and  one,  replied  Mop- 
 sus. The  figs  were  gathered,  and  his  answer  was 
 found  to  be  true.  Mopsus  now,  to  try  his  adversary, 
 asked  him  how  many  young  ones  a  certain  pregnant  sow 
 would  bring  forth.'and  at  what  time.  Calchas  con- 
 fessed his  mability  to  answer,  whereupon  Mopsus  de- 
 clared that  she  would  be  delivered  on  the  morrow,  and 
 would  brina  forth  ten  young  ones,  of  which  only  one 
 would  be  -a  male.  The  morrow  proved  the  veracity 
 of  his  prediction,  and  Calchas  died  through  the  grief 
 which  his  defeat  produced.  {Tzetzcs,  ad  Lycophr  , 
 427.)     Amphilochus  subsequently,  having  occasion  to 
 
MOR 
 
 MOS 
 
 visit  Argos,  intrusted  the  sovereign  power  to  Mopsus, 
 to  keep  11  for  him  during  the  space  of  a  year.  On  his 
 return,  however,  Mopsus  refused  to  restore  to  him 
 the  kingdom,  whereupon,  having  quarrelled,  they  en- 
 gaged and  slew  each  other.  {Tzetz  ad  Lycophr., 
 440.)  According  to  another  legend,  he  was  slam  by 
 Hercules.  {Tzct.z.  ad  Lycophr.,  980.) — II.  A  son  of 
 Air.pyx  and  Chlons,  born  at  Titaressa  in  Thessaly. 
 He  was  the  prophet  and  soothsayer  of  the  Argonauts, 
 and  died  at  his  return  from  Colchis  by  the  bite  of  a  ser- 
 pent in  Liiiya.  {Hy gin.,  fab.,  14,  128,  172. — Tzetz. 
 ad  Lycophr.,  980.) 
 
 MoRGANTiUM  (or  ia),  a  town  of  Sicily,  southeast  of 
 Agynum,  and  nearly  due  west  from  Catana.  It  lay  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  the  river  Symapthus.  The  vil- 
 lage of  Mandri  Bianchi  at  present  occupies  a  part  of 
 its  site.     {Mannert,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  430.) 
 
 MoRiMARusA,  a  name  applied  by  the  Cimbri  to  the 
 Northern  Ocean  {Flin.,  4,  27),  and  which  means  "  the 
 Dead  Sea."  In  the  Welsh  tongue,  Mar  is  the  "  sea," 
 and  Marr  "  dead."  In  the  Irish,  muir-croinn  denotes 
 a  thick,  coagulated,  frozen  sea.  {Class.  Journ.,  vol. 
 6,  p.  296,  seqq.) 
 
 MoRiNi,  a  people  of  Belgic  Gaul,  on  the  shores 
 of  the  British  Ocean,  and  occupying  what  would  cor- 
 respond to  Ic  Boidonnais,  part  of  the  Department  du 
 Nord,  and  of  Flanders  along  the  sea.  Their  name 
 is  derived  from  the  Celtic  Mor,  which  signifies  "  the 
 sea,"  and  denoted  a  people  dwelling  along  the  sea- 
 coast.  (Compare  Thierry,  Hist,  des  Gaulois,  vol.  2, 
 p.  40.)  The  Portus  Itius  or  Iccius  lay  within  their 
 territories,  and  the  passage  hence  to  Britain  was  con- 
 sidered as  the  shortest.  Virgil  {JEn.,  8,  727)  calls 
 them  "■  extremi  hominum,"  with  reference  to  their  re- 
 mote situation  on  the  coast  of  Belgic  Gaul.  (Heyne, 
 ad  loc. — Compare  Plm.,  19,  1.)  Their  cities  were, 
 Civitas  Morinorum,  now  Terouenne ;  and  Castellum 
 Morinorum,  now  Monlcassel.     (Ccbs.,  B.  G  ,  4,  21.) 
 
 Morpheus  (two  syllables),  the  God  of  Sleep,  and 
 also  of  dreams,  and  hence  his  name  from  the  various 
 forms  {fiofx^Tj,  '^form,"  '■'figure''^)  to  which  he  gives  be- 
 ing in  the  imagination  of  the  dreamer.  Thus  Ovid 
 {Met.,  11,  634)  styles  him  ^-  artifice m,  simulatoremque 
 figura.''''  (Compare  Gierig,  ad  loc.)  Morpheus  is 
 sometimes  represented  as  a  man  advanced  in  years, 
 with  two  large  wings  on  his  shoulders,  and  two  small- 
 er ones  attached  to  his  head.  This  is  the  more  com- 
 mon way  of  representing  him.  ( Winckelmann,  Werke, 
 vol.  2,  p.  55.5.)  In  the  .Museum  Pio-Clementinum,  he 
 is  sculptured  in  relief  on  a  cippus,  as  a  boy,  treading 
 lightly  on  tiptoe  :  on  his  head  he  has  two  wings  ;  in 
 his  right  hand  a  horn,  from  which  he  appears  to  be 
 pouring  something;  in  his  left  a  poppy-stalk  with 
 three  poppy-heads.  On  a  relief  in  the  Villa  Borghese, 
 the  god  of  dreams  is  again  represented  as  a  boy  with 
 wings,  and  holding  the  poppy-stalk,  but  without  any 
 horn.     {Winckelmann,  vol.  2,  p.  713.) 
 
 Mors,  one  of  the  deities  of  the  lower  world,  born 
 of  Nicht  without  a  sire.  Nothing  is  particularly  known 
 relative  to  the  manner  in  which  she  was  worshipped. 
 "  The  figures  of  Mors  or  Death,"  says  Spence,  "  are 
 very  uncommon,  as  indeed  those  of  the  evil  and  hurt- 
 ful beings  generally  are.  They  were  banished  from  all 
 medals ;  on  seals  and  rings  they  were  probably  con- 
 sidered as  bad  omens,  and  were,  perhaps,  never  iissd. 
 — Among  the  very  few  figures  of  Mors  I  have  ever 
 met  with,  that  in  the  Florentine  gallery  is,  I  think,  the 
 most  remarkable  :  it  is  a  little  figure  in  brass,  of  a 
 skeleton,  sitting  on  the  ground,  and  resting  one  of  its 
 hands  on  a  long  urn.  I  fancy  Mors  was  common 
 enough  in  the  paintings  of  old,  because  she  is  so  fre- 
 quently mentioned  in  a  descriptive  manner  by  the  Ro- 
 man poets.  The  face  of  Mors,  when  they  gave  her 
 any  face,  seems  to  have  been  of  a  pale,  wan,  dead 
 colour.  The  poets  describe  her  as  ravenous,  treacher- 
 ous, and  furious.  They  speak  of  her  roving  about 
 858 
 
 open-mouthed,  and  seem  to  give  her  black  robes  and 
 dark  wings.  As  the  ancients  had  more  horrid  and 
 gloomy  notions  of  death  than  we  have  at  present,  so  the 
 greater  part  of  their  descriptions  are  of  a  most  frightful 
 and  dismal  turn." — Compare  with  this  the  language 
 of  Niebuhr  {Roman  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  110,  Cambridge 
 transL),  who  speaks  of  the  genius  of  death,  represented 
 on  Etrurian  bas-reliefs,  as  a  perfect  cherub.  {Micali, 
 pi.  44.) 
 
 MoKTUUM  Mare.     Vid.  Mare  Mortuum. 
 
 MosA,  a  river  of  Gallia  Belgica,  on  the  confines  of 
 Germania  Cisrhenana.  It  rose  in  Mount  Vogesus, 
 among  the  Lingones,  and  emptied  into  the  Vahalis. 
 It   is  now  the  Maas  or  Meuse.     {Cms.,  B.  G.,  4,  10. 
 
 —  Tacitus,  Ann.,  2,  6.  —  Pltn  ,  4,  14,  seqq.  —  Amm. 
 MarcelL,  17,  2,  9.)  In  the  Peutingcr  Table  it  is  call- 
 ed the  Mosaha. — Mosae  Pons,  otherwise  called  Tra- 
 jectus  Mosae  {Itin.  Ant.,  461),  is  the  modern  Maes- 
 tricht. 
 
 MoscHA,  a  harbour  of  Arabia  Felix,  at  the  mouth 
 of  the  Sinus  Persicus.    {PtoL,  in  Huds.  G.  M.,  3,  13. 
 
 —  Arrian,  PeripL,  in  Huds.  G.  M.,  1,  18.)  It  was 
 much  frequented,  according  to  Arrian,  on  account  of 
 the  Sachalitic  incense  obtained  there.  Much  doubt 
 has  arisen  relative  to  the  precise  situation  of  this  port. 
 The  opinion  which  makes  it  correspond  to  the  mod- 
 ern Mascate,  though  plausible  on  account  of  the  sim- 
 ilarity of  names,  cannot  be  supported.  Moscha  more 
 probably  answers  to  the  modern  Sadschar,  which  D'An- 
 ville  calls  Seger,  and  Vincent  Schoehr  {Mannert 
 Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  102,  ed.  1831. — Vincent's  Per- 
 iplus,  p   344,  seqq.) 
 
 MoscHi.  a  people  of  Asia,  dwelling,  according  to 
 Mela  (1,  2;  3,  5),  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Hyrcanian 
 Sea  ;  but  according  to  Pliny  (6,  4),  around  the  sour- 
 ces of  the  Phasis,  between  the  Euxine  and  Caspian 
 Seas.  Stephanns  of  Byzantium  calls  them  M6c!p(oi, 
 and  Procopius  Miaxoi.     {Rer.  Got.,  4,  2  ) 
 
 MoscHioN,  I.  a  physician,  whose  era  is  not  ascer- 
 tained. A  treatise  on  "  Female  Complaints"  (Wepl 
 Tcjv  yvvaiKFMV  iraduiv)  is  commonly  ascribed  to  him. 
 The  best  edition  is  that  of  Dewez,  Vindob.,  1793,  8vo. 
 The  text  is  here  given  after  a  very  good  MS.  in  the 
 Imperial  Library  at  Vienna. — "  It  is  to  be  regretted," 
 says  Mr.  Adams,  "  that  this  author's  work  on  '  Female 
 Complaints'  has  descended  to  us  in  so  imperfect  a  state  ; 
 for  it  appears  to  have  contained  very  original  and  in- 
 genious views  of  practice.  His  directions  relative  to 
 the  umbilical  cord  after  delivery  are  more  judicious 
 than  those  laid  down  by  any  other  ancient  author.  He 
 disapproves  of  all  the  superstitious  and  ignorant  modes 
 of  procedure  formerly  resorted  to  in  such  cases,  and 
 recommends  to  tie  the  cord  in  two  places,  and  to  di- 
 vide it  in  the  middle  with  a  scalpel  or  sharp  knife. 
 He  reprobates  the  ancient  practice  of  using  instruments 
 of  wood,  glass,  reed,  or  hard  crusts  of  bread.  In  cases 
 of  retention  of  the  placenta,  he  disapproves  of  sternu- 
 tatories, fumigations,  suspending  weights  from  the  cord, 
 and  the  like,  because  such  means  are  apt  to  occasion 
 hemorrhage  ;  and  he  directs  the  midwife  in  other  par- 
 ticulars with  great  judgment." 
 
 MoscHus,  I.  or  MocHus,  a  philosopher  of  Sidon,  and 
 the  most  ancient  name  remaining  on  the  list  of  Phoeni- 
 cian philosophers.  If  we  are  to  credit  lamblichus  (  V'lt. 
 Pythag.,  3,  14),  he  lived  before  the  lime  of  Pythagoras. 
 After  Posidoiiius,  many  writers  ascribe  to  him  a  system 
 of  philosophy,  which  subsequently  rose  into  great  ce- 
 lebrity under  the  Grecian  philosophers  Leucippus  and 
 Epicurus,  called  the  Atomic.  It  is  urged,  in  defence 
 of  this  opinion,  that  the  Monads  of  Pythagoras  were  the 
 same  with  the  Atoms  of  Moschus,  with  which  Pythag- 
 oras became  acquainted  during  his  residence  in  Phoe- 
 nicia ;  and  that  from  Pythagoras  this  doctrine  passed 
 to  Empedocles  and  Anaxagoras,  and  afterward  to  Leu- 
 cippus and  Epicurus,  {Stoh.,  Eel.  Phys.,  1,  13  — 
 Anst.,  Metaph.,  13,  6.)     To  this  may  be  replied,  that 
 
MOSCHUS. 
 
 MOS 
 
 the  single  evidence  of  Posidonius  the  Stoic,  who  lived 
 so  many  ages  after  the  time  of  Moschus,  to  whom  also 
 Cicero  allows  little  credit,  and  of  whose  authority  even 
 Strabo  and  Sextus  Empiricus,  who  refer  to  him,  inti- 
 mate some  suspicion,  is  too  feeble  to  support  the  whole 
 weight  of  this  opinion.  But  the  circumstance  which 
 most  of  all  invalidates  it  is,  that  the  method  of  philos- 
 ophizing by  hypothesis  or  system,  which  was  followed 
 by  the  Greek  philosophers,  was  inconsistent  with  the 
 genius  and  character  of  the  Barbaric  philosophy,  which 
 consisted  in  simple  assertion,  and  relied  entirely  upon 
 traditional  authority.  The  argument  drawn  from  the 
 history  and  doctrines  of  Pythagoras  is  fully  refuted, 
 by  showing  that  this  part  of  the  history  of  Pythagoras 
 shas  been  involved  in  obscurity  by  the  later  Platonists, 
 and  that  neither  the  doctrine  of  Monads,  nor  any  of 
 those  systems  which  are  said  to  have  been  derived  from 
 Moschus,  are  the  same  with  the  Atomic  doctrine  of 
 Epicurus.  We  may  therefore  safely  conclude,  that, 
 whatever  credit  the  corpuscular  system  may  derive 
 from  other  sources,  it  has  no  claims  to  be  considered 
 as  the  ancient  doctrine  of  the  Phoenicians.  {Enfield's 
 History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  75.) — II.  A  Greek 
 pastoral  poet,  whose  era  is  noi  clearly  ascertained. 
 Suidas  (s.  v.  Moaxog)  states  positively  that  Moschus 
 was  the  friend  or  disciple  of  Aristarchus  (for  the  word 
 ■yvupifio^,  which  he  employs,  may  have  either  significa- 
 tion). If  this  be  correct,  the  poet  ought  to  have  flour- 
 ished about  the  156th  Olympiad  (B.C.  156).  This 
 position,  however,  is  very  probably  erroneous,  since 
 Suidas  is  here  in  contradiction  with  a  passage  of  Mos- 
 chus himself  {Epitaph.  Bion.,  v.  102),  in  which  the 
 poet  speaks  of  Theocritus  as  a  contemporary.  Now 
 Theocritus  flourished  B.C.  270. — Moschus  is  said  to 
 have  been  a  native  of  Syracuse,  though  he  spent  the 
 greater  part  of  his  days  at  Ale.xandrea.  He  was  the 
 friend,  and,  according  to  some,  the  disciple  of  Bion. 
 We  have  four  idyls  from  him,  and  some  other  smaller 
 pjeces.  1.  'Epuf  SpaTrerTjc  ("  Cupid,  a  run-away"),  a 
 poem  of  twenty-nine  verses.  Venus  offers  a  reward 
 to  any  one  who  will  bring  him  back  to  her  ;  and  draws 
 a  picture  of  the  young  deity,  so  that  no  one  may  mis- 
 take him. — 2.  'EvpuiTTTj  {''  Europa'''').  The  subject  of 
 this  poem,  which  consists  of  161  verses,  is  the  carry- 
 ing off  of  Europa  from  Phoenicia  to  Crete.  It  is  a  very 
 graceful  and  charming  piece,  and  would  be  worthy  of  the 
 best  age  of  Grecian  literature,  were  not  the  introduc- 
 tion rather  too  long. — 'E/rirtl^iOf  'Biuvoq  {'■'■Elegy  on 
 Bion'''),  a  piece  of  133  verses.  The  poet  represents 
 all  nature  as  mourning  the  death  of  Bion.  It  is  a  very 
 elegant  production  ;  but  overloaded  with  imagery,  and 
 open  to  the  charge  of  what  Valckenaer  calls  "  elegan- 
 tissimam  luxuriem.''^ — 4.  Meyilpa,  yvvrj  'Upan'^EOvg 
 ("  Megara,  spouse  of  Hercules"'),  a  fragment,  contain- 
 ing 125  verses.  It  is  this  fragment  which  some  crit- 
 ics have  sought  to  assign  to  Pisander,  and  others  to 
 Panyasis.  We  have  in  it  a  dialogue  between  the 
 mother  and  the  wife  of  Hercules.  The  scene  is  laid 
 at  Tiryns,  and  the  hero  is  supposed  to  be  absent  at 
 the  time,  accomplishing  one  of  the  labours  imposed  upon 
 him  by  Eurysthcus.  The  two  females  deplore  their 
 own  hard  lot  and  that  of  Hercules.  This  piece  con- 
 tains less  imagery  and  ornament  than  the  other  re- 
 mains which  we  possess  of  Moschus.  It  is  marked 
 by  a  simplicity  of  manner  which  recalls  to  mind  the 
 ancient  epopee,  and  is  distinguished  by  traits  of  gen- 
 uine feeling. — "Moschus,"  observes  Elton,  "seems 
 to  have  taken  Bion  for  his  model,  and  resembles  him 
 in  his  turn  for  apologues,  his  delicate  amenity  of  style, 
 his  lu.xuriance  of  poetic  imagery,  and  his  graceful  and, 
 as  it  were,  feminine  softness.  The  '  Elegy  on  Bion' 
 may  at  first  view  appear  forced  and  affected,  from 
 its  exuberance  of  conceit ;  and  Dr.  Johnson,  in  his 
 critique  on  '  Lycidas,'  has  given  a  currency  to  the 
 opinion  that,  where  there  is  real  sorrow,  there  can 
 be  nothing  of  mere  poetry.     I  am  satisfied  that  the 
 
 inference  is  unphilosophical.  What  is  the  reason 
 that  '  Lycidas,'  and  that  the  '  Monody  on  Lucy,'  by 
 Lord  Lyttleton,  continue  to  be  popular  in  defiance 
 of  criticism  !  It  is  that  the  criticism  is  hypercriti- 
 cal, and  that  the  popular  feeling  is  right.  Shaks- 
 peare,  who  had  from  nature  the  deepest  intuition 
 into  the  complicated  science  of  mental  philosophy, 
 saw  that  the  human  mind  perpetually  foils  the  cal- 
 culations of  previous  reasoning.  We  are  often 
 struck  with  the  language  and  deportment  of  his  char- 
 acters, as  contrary  to  what  might  have  been  expected 
 under  such  circumstances  ;  and  yet  we  shall,  I  be- 
 lieve, invariably  find  that  Shakspeare,  in  disappoint- 
 ing the  vulgar  notions  of  probability  or  consistency, 
 has  taken  his  instructions  from  practical  human  life 
 Among  various  instances,  that  of  a  seemingly  affected 
 and  overstrained  mode  of  diction,  and  far-fetched  train 
 of  sentiment,  may  be  adduced  as  one  of  the  most 
 prominent,  and  as  that  which  is  most  frequently  con- 
 demned, with  a  positive  confidence,  as  a  glaring  vio- 
 lation of  a  universally  acknowledged  rule.  But  it  will 
 be  found  that  the  human  mind,  when  acted  upon  by 
 any  extraordinary  excitement,  does  in  fact  fly  to  re- 
 mote associations,  and  vent  its  superfluous  energy  in 
 violent  combinations,  and  in  a  wild  sportiveness  of 
 imagery.  The  '  Elegy'  of  Moschus,  like  the  '  Ly- 
 cidas' of  Milton,  is  no  impeachment  of  the  poet's  ac- 
 curate taste  or  genuine  simplicity  of  feeling  :  it  is,  in 
 either  instance,  the  luxury  of  sorrow  which  pieases 
 itself  with  grotesque  and  romantic  creations  of  an  ex- 
 cited fancy  :  it  is  the  revery  of  a  poet ;  accompanied 
 with  that  natural  irregularity  of  mind,  that  unsealing 
 of  the  judgment  by  an  overbalance  of  the  imagination, 
 which  marks  the  delirious  excess  of  melancholy  in  the 
 man."  {Specimens  of  the  Classic  Poets,  vol.  1,  p. 
 369,  seqq.) — The  remains  of  Moschus  are  given  in 
 the  collections  of  Brunck,  Gaisford,  and  Boissonade. 
 One  of  the  best  separate  editions  is  that  of  Manso, 
 Gotha,  1784  and  1807,  8vo.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  3,  p.  165.) 
 
 MoscHYLUs.      Vid.  Mosychlus. 
 
 MosELLA,  a  river  of  Belgic  Gaul,  rising  in  the 
 range  of  Mount  Vogesus,  and  flowing  through  the  ter- 
 ritories of  the  Leuci,  Mediomatrici,  and  Treveri,  into 
 the  Rhine  at  Confluentes  {Coblenlz).  It  is  now  the 
 Moselle.  {Tac,  Ann.,  13,  53.— ^mm.  MarcelL,  16, 
 3.— F/or,,  3,  10.) 
 
 MosvcHHis  or  Moschylus,  a  mountain  in  Lem- 
 nos,  and  the  earliest  volcano  known  to  the  Greeks. 
 ( Ukcrt,  iiber  Lcmnos  und  den  Mosychlos. — Allg.  Ge- 
 ogr.  Ephem  ,  1802,  p.  12.)  Hence  Lemnos  is  men- 
 tioned by  Homer  {Od  ,  8,  283)  as  the  favourite  abode 
 of  Vulcan  ;  and  this  island  received  him  when  hurled 
 from  the  skies.  {11.,  1,592.)  Mosychlus  is  mention- 
 ed as  a  volcanic  mountain  by  many  of  the  later  wri- 
 ters, and  was  situate  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  isl- 
 and. {Anlim.,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Nicand.,  Theriac,  474.-' 
 Schol.  ad  Lycophr.,  227.— Nicand.,  Theriac,  458- 
 Hesych.,  s.  v.  Mdcr^-vAof. — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  AWu?.7j. 
 —  Varro,  L  L.,  7,  19,  &c  )  It  is  thought  to  have 
 sunk  in  the  sea  a  short  time  after  the  age  of  Alexander, 
 together  with  the  island  Chrysa. — When  the  western 
 parts  of  Europe  became  better  known  to  the  Greeks, 
 and  ^tna,  with  the  .'Eolian  isles,  attracted  their  atten- 
 tion, they  seem  to  have  transferred  the  forges  of  Vul- 
 can to  this  latter  quarter.  (Compare  the  authorities 
 cited  by  Cluver,  Sic.  Ant,  1.  2.  p.  407  )  According 
 to  other  mytholoaical  fables,  Typhon  or  Typhoeus  lay 
 buried  beneath  J2tna  {.^schyl.  Prom.  Vi7ict.,  372, 
 seqq.  —  Pind  ,  Pyth.,  1,  29,  scqq.  —  Cluv.,  Sic^  Ant., 
 1.  1,  p.  108),  or,  as  others  relate,  Enceladus  {Oppian, 
 Cyneg.,  1,  273,  seqq.—  Creuzer,  ad  Xanth.,  fragm., 
 p.  163,  sc??.);  and  the  battle-ground  between  the 
 gods  and  giants  was  placed  by  some  in  Sicily,  by  oth- 
 ers near  Cumaj  in  Italy.  {Apollod.,  1.  6,  3.—Strab., 
 243.— W.,  281.— Plm.,  3,  9.— Id.,  18,  29.— Polyb., 
 
 859 
 
MUM 
 
 MUN 
 
 3,  9].—Diud.  Sic,  4,  21.— Id.,  5,  71.)  Almost  ev- 
 ery volcanic  situation,  however,  in  the  ancient  world, 
 seems  to  have  had  tliis  honour  in  succession  conferred 
 upon    it.      (Compare   Bcrkel,  ad    Steph.  Bijz.,  s.  v. 
 
 'n.a?i^T/V7].) 
 
 MosYN^ci,  a  people  of  Pontus  in  Asia  Minor,  on 
 the  coast  near  Cerasus.  (Xen.,  Anab.,  5,  i,2)  The 
 10,000  Greeks  passed  through  their  country  in  their 
 retreat.  The  name  is  one  given  them  by  the  Greeks, 
 from  the  circumstance  of  their  dwelling  in  wooden 
 owers  or  forts  {/xoaavv,  a  wooden  tower,  and  oUiu,  "lo 
 Swell." — Stiirz,  Lex.  Xen.,  vol.  3,  p.  175. — Compare 
 Apoll.  Rhod.,  2,  \0\Q.— Schneider,  ad  Xen.,  I.  c). 
 
 MuLciBER,  a  surname  of  Vulcan,  from  the  verb 
 mulcco,  "  to  soften,"  and  alluding  to  the  softening  in- 
 fluence of  fire  upon  metals.  {Aul.  GelL,  13,  22. — 
 Macrob.,  Sat.,  1,  VZ.  —  Ovtd,  Met.,  2,  5.) 
 
 MuLucHA,  a  river  of  Africa,  the  same,  according  to 
 the  common  account,  with  the  Molochath  and  Malva, 
 and  which  separated  Mauritania  from  Numidia  in  the 
 time  of  Boechus,  king  of  the  former  country.  Hama- 
 ker,  however  {Miscellanea  Phoenicia,  p.  240,  seqq.), 
 disputes  the  correctness  of  this,  and  makes  distinct 
 rivers  of  the  Molochath,  Malva,  and  Mulucha.  Ac- 
 cording to  this  writer,  the  Molochath  was  the  bounda- 
 ry between  the  two  countries  above  mentioned  in  the 
 time  of  Bocchar  {Liv.,  29,  30)  ;  at  a  subsequent  pe- 
 riod, Mauritania  was  extended  to  the  river  Mulucha, 
 in  the  days  of  Boechus  :  under  Bogud,  the  sou  of 
 Boechus,  it  was  farther  extended  to  the  Ampsagas  ; 
 but  afterward,  under  Juba,  was  circumscribed  by  the 
 Nasava:  and  finally,  under  the  Emperor  Claudius,  the 
 Ampsagas  was  again  made  the  eastern  limit,  and 
 Mauritania,  thus  enlarged,  was  divided  by  that  em- 
 pecor  into  two  provinces,  which  the  third  river,  the 
 Malva,  separated.  {Hamaker,  I.  c.)  According  to 
 the  same  Oriental  scholar,  the  names  Mulucha  and 
 Molochath  both  signify  "salt;''''  while  Malva  has  the 
 meaning  of  ''full,"  and  indicates  a  large  and  copious 
 stream.  {Hamaker,  p.  245. — Compare  Gesenius, 
 Phan.  Monument.,  p.  425.) 
 
 MuLvius  Pons.      Vid.  Milvius  Pons. 
 
 MuMMius,  I.  Lucius,  a  Roman  of  plebeian  origin. 
 Having  been  sent  (B.C.  153)  into  Farther  Spain  as 
 praetor,  he  experienced  at  first  a  considerable  check  ; 
 but  not  long  after  retrieved  his  credit,  and  gained  sev- 
 eral advantages,  which,  though  not  very  decisive,  yet 
 obtained  for  him  the  honours  of  a  triumph.  {Apjnan, 
 Bell.  Hisp.,  56. — Schweigh.,  ad  loc.)  Having  been 
 elected  consul  B.C.  146,  and  charged  with  the  con- 
 tinuance of  the  war  against  the  Achsean  league,  he 
 received  the  command  of  the  forces  from  .Metellus, 
 encamped  under  the  walls  of  Corinth,  and  defeated 
 the  enemy  in  a  pitched  battle.  This  victory  put  him 
 in  possession  of  the  city,  which  was  plundered  and 
 burned  by  his  troops.  The  finest  works  of  art  be- 
 came the  prey  of  the  conquerors,  and  were  either  de- 
 stroyed in  the  conflagration  or  sent  oflf  to  Rome.  It 
 is  said  that  Mummius,  m  the  true  spirit  of  a  rude  and 
 unlettered  soldier,  made  it  an  express  condition  with 
 those  who  had  contracted  to  convey,  on  this  occasion, 
 some  of  the  choicest  works  of  art  to  Rome,  that  if 
 they  lost  any  they  must  replace  them  by  neio  ones  ! 
 {''si  cas  perdidissenl,  7iovas  esse  reddituros.''' — Veil. 
 Patera.,  1,  13).  On  his  return,  Mummius  was  hon- 
 oured with  another  triumfih,  and  obtained  the  surname 
 of  Acha'icus.  He  was  elected  consul  a  second  time, 
 B.C.  141,  during  which  year  the  Capitol  was  gilded. 
 (Plin.,  33,  3  )  Mummius  died  so  poor  as  not  to  leave 
 sufficient  for  a  dowry  for  his  daughter,  who  accord- 
 mgly  received  a  portion  from  the  senate.  He  left 
 some  orations  behind  him,  which  Cicero  characterizes 
 as  plain  and  oldfashioned  in  their  style  {"simplex 
 quidem  L.  Mummius  e.t  aniiquus.'''' — Brut.,  25).  But 
 the  same  writer  does  justice  elsewhere  to  his  great 
 probity  and  disinterestedness,  in  bringing  back  from 
 860 
 
 Corinth  nothing  wherewith  to  make  himself  a  rich- 
 er man.  {De  Officiis,  2,  22.)  Appian  states  that 
 Mummius  was  condemned  under  the  Varian  law,  and 
 punished  with  exile,  and  that  he  ended  his  days  at 
 Delos.  {Bell.  Civ.,  1,  37.)  This,  however,  is  very 
 probably  an  error  on  the  part  of  the  historian,  who 
 seems  to  have  confounded  him  with  L.  Memmius, 
 mentioned  by  Cicero  in  his  Brutus  (c.  89.  —  Consult 
 Schweigh.,  Ind.  ad  App.,  s.  v.  Mummius. — Frein- 
 shem.,  71,  41). — H.  Spurius,  brother  of  the  prece- 
 ding. He  is  mentioned  by  Cicero,  with  more  praise 
 as  a  public  speaker  than  his  brother ;  and  is  also  said 
 to  have  been  attached  to  the  Stoic  philosophy.  {Cic, 
 Brut.,  25.) 
 
 MuNATius,  Plancus,  a  Roman  whose  name  frequent- 
 ly occurs  in  the  history  of  the  civil  wars.  He  was 
 one  of  Caesar's  warmest  partisans,  and  was  sent  by 
 him  into  Gaul  to  found  colonics  there.  He  was  also 
 intended  by  him  for  the  consulship.  After  the  battle 
 of  Mutina,  he  joined  his  forces  to  those  of  Antony  and 
 Lcpidus,  and  became  consul  with  the  former,  A.TJ.C. 
 712.  He  afterward  accompanied  Antony  into  Egypt, 
 where  he  performed  the  part  of  a  vile  courtier,  and 
 even  of  a  buffoon,  around  the  person  of  Cleopatra. 
 When  fortune  deserted  his  protector,  he  turned  his 
 back  upon  him  and  embraced  the  party  of  Octavianus. 
 In  732  he  was  chosen  censor.  We  have  several  let- 
 ters of  his  among  the  correspondence  of  Cicero. 
 They  betray  the  equivocal  character  of  the  man. 
 {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  149.) 
 
 MuNDA.  a  strongly  fortified  and  large  city  of  His- 
 pania  Baetica,  on  the  coast,  southwest  of  Malaca. 
 {S/rabo,  141,  160.)  In  its  vicinity  was  fought  the 
 famous  battle  between  Coesar  and  the  sons  of  Pompey, 
 which  put  an  end  to  the  war.  {Hirt.,  Bell.  Hisp.,  c. 
 31.)  It  was  a  most  desperate  action,  and  even  the 
 veterans  of  Cagsar,  who  for  upward  of  fourteen  years 
 had  signalized  their  valour,  were  compelled  to  give 
 way.  It  was  only  by  the  most  vigorous  exertions 
 that  the  sons  of  Pompey  were  at  last  defeated.  Cs- 
 sar  is  said  to  have  given  up  all  for  lost  at  one  period 
 of  the  fight,  and  to  have  been  on  the  point  of  destroy- 
 ing himself.  As  he  retired  after  the  battle,  he  told 
 his  friends  that  he  had  often  fought  for  victory,  but 
 that  this  was  the  first  time  he  had  fought  for  his  life. 
 Cffisar  is  said  to  have  lost  1000  of  his  best  soldiers: 
 the  enemy  had  30,000  slain.  The  battle  was  fought 
 the  17fh  March,  B.C.  45.  After  the  battle,  the  siege 
 of  Munda  ensued,  and  the  assailants  are  said  actually 
 to  have  made  use  of  the  dead  bodies  of  the  enemy  in 
 elevating  their  mound  to  a  sufficient  height.  The  lit- 
 tle village  of  Monda  in  Grenada  is  supposed  to  lie 
 near  the  ancient  city  {Plin..  3,  3. — Liv.,  24,  42. — 
 Sil.  Ital.  3,  \OQ.—Florus,  4,  2.—Dio  Cass.,  43,  39. 
 —  Val.  Max.,  7,  6.) 
 
 MunvchTa  (and  je),  one  of  the  ports  of  Athens,  so 
 called,  it  is  said,  from  Munychus,  an  Orchomenian, 
 who.  having  been  e.ipelled  from  Boeotia  by  the  Thra- 
 cians,  settled  at  Athens.  {Diod.  Sic,  fragm  ,  7  ) 
 Sirabo  describes  it  as  a  peninsular  hill,  connected  with 
 the  continent  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land,  and  abound- 
 ing with  hollows,  partly  natural  and  partly  the  work 
 of  art.  When  it  had  been  enclosed  by  fortified  lines, 
 connecting  it  with  the  other  ports,  Munychia  became 
 a  most  important  position,  from  the  security  it  afford- 
 ed to  these  maritime  dependencies  of  Athens,  and, 
 accordingly,  we  find  it  always  mentioned  as  the  point 
 which  was  most  particularly  guarded  when  anv  attack 
 was  apprehended  on  the  side  of  the  sea.  {Thuryd., 
 8,  92.  — Xen  ,  Hi.'it  Gr  ,  2.  i.—  Plut..  Vit.  Phoc— 
 Cramcr\<i  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  3.51.)  Hobhouse, 
 in  speaking  of  the  Munychian  harbour,  observes,  *'  the 
 old  harbour  of  Munychia  is  of  a  circular  form  :  t-here 
 are  several  remains  of  wall  running  into  the  water, 
 and  a  piece  of  pier  is  to  be  seen  at  each  side  of  the 
 mouth  of  it ;  so  that  the  entrance,  as  well  as  the 
 
MUS 
 
 MUS 
 
 whole  port,  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  Piraeus.  The 
 direction  of  the  port  is  from  south  to  north.  If  the 
 harbour  once  contained  four  hundred  ships,  each  ves- 
 sel must  have  been  a  wherry."  (Vol.  1,  p.  301,  Am. 
 cd.)  See  more  on  this  subject  in  the  remarks  on  the 
 articles  Phalerus  and  Piraeus. 
 
 MuRiENA,  I.  L.  Licinius,  a  Roman  commander. 
 He  had  charge  of  Sylla's  left  wing  in  the  battle  with 
 Archelaus,  near  Chaeronea,  and  contributed  powerfully 
 to  the  victory  which  Sylla  gained  on  that  occasion. 
 After  the  latter  had  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
 Mithradates,  he  left  Mursena  in  command  of  the  Ro- 
 man forces  in  Asia,  who,  not  long  after,  broke  the 
 treatv  and  invaded  Cappadocia,  plundering  the  treas- 
 ures of  the  temple  at  Comana.  Mithradates,  how- 
 ever, met  and  defeated  him  on  the  banks  of  the  Ilalys. 
 {Vid.  Mithradates  VI.)  —  II.  The  son  of  the  prece- 
 ding, a  consul,  and  colleague  of  D.  Silanus,  was  ac- 
 cused by  Servius  Sulpicius  and  Cato  of  having  been 
 guilty  of  bribery  in  suing  for  the  consulship,  and  was 
 ably  defended  by  Cicero.  The  oration  delivered  on 
 this  occasion  is  still  extant.     Mursna  was  acquitted. 
 
 MuRSA,  a  city  of  Pannonia  Inferior,  on  the  Dravus, 
 a  short  distance  to  the  west  of  its  junction  with  the 
 Danube.  It  was  founded  by  Hadrian,  and  in  its  vi- 
 cinity Magnentius  was  defeated  by  Constantius.  It 
 corresponds  to  the  modem  Essek,  the  capital  of  Scla- 
 Tonia.     {Stcph  Byz.,  p.  472. — Ptol) 
 
 MuRTiA  or  MuRciA,  a  surname  given  to  Venus  by 
 the  Romans.  The  more  popular  orthography  with 
 the  ancient  writers  was  Myrtia,  from  myrtus,  "  the 
 myrtle,"  and  various  reasons  are  assigned  for  this 
 etymology.  (Scrv.  ad  Eclog.,  7,  62. —  Ovid,  Fast., 
 4,  141. —  Scrv.  ad  Gcorg.,  2,  64.)  The  other  form 
 of  the  name,  Murcia,  is  explained  as  follows  by  St. 
 Augustine  (dc  Civ.  Dei,  4,  16)  :  "  Dca  Murcia,  qua. 
 pra:ter  modum  non  moverctur,  ac  facerct  homincm,  ut 
 ait  Pomponius,  murcidum,  id  est,  nimis  desidtosum 
 ct  inactuosu7n."  (Compare  Arnobius,  1.  4,  p.  132.) 
 She  had  a  temple  at  the  foot  of  the  Aventine  Hill, 
 and  hence  this  hill  was  anciently  called  Murcius. 
 {Festus. — Liv.,  1,  33.) 
 
 MusA,  Antonius,  a  celebrated  physician  at  Rome,  in 
 the  age  of  Augustus  He  is  commonly  supposed  to 
 have  been  a  freedman  of  that  emperor's.  Some,  how- 
 ever, make  him  to  have  been  of  Greek  origin,  and  the 
 son  of  a  parent  named  lasus.  Pliny  speaks  of  a  broth- 
 er of  Musa's,  named  Euphorbus,  who  was  physician  to 
 Juba  II.,  king  of  Mauritania ;  and  he  adds,  that  a  cer- 
 tain plant,  the  virtues  of  which  were  discovered  by  him, 
 received  from  this  prince  the  complimentary  name  of 
 Euphorbia.  {Plin  ,25,7  )  Musa  had  received  an  ex- 
 cellent education.  It  appears  that  he  took  up  the  study 
 of  medicine  merely  with  the  view  of  relieving  his  own 
 father,  who  was  weighed  down  with  infirmities,  and 
 his  filial  piety  was  richly  rewarded  by  the  distinguished 
 proficiency  to  which  he  attained  in  the  healing  art. 
 His  reputation  became  established  by  a  successful  cure 
 which  he  performed  in  the  case  of  the  emperor.  Au- 
 gustus had  been  suflTering  for  a  long  time  under  a  com- 
 plaint about  which  the  ancient  writers  give  us  no  exact 
 information,  but  which  the  imperial  physicians  appear 
 only  to  have  aggravated  by  the  use  of  warm  remedies. 
 Musa  was  at  length  called  in,  and  the  emperor  placed 
 himself  in  his  hands.  Discarding  all  fomentations  and 
 heating  remedies,  Musa  prescribed  the  cold  bath  and 
 refreshing  drinks,  and  Augustus  soon  recovered  the 
 health  to  which  he  had  long  been  a  stranger.  {Sue- 
 ton  ,  Vit.  Aug.,  8\.—Dio  Cass.,  53,  20.— Plin  ,  29, 
 1.)  Augustus  and  the  senate  not  only  presented  Musa 
 with  a  considerable  sum  of  money,  but  also  bestowed 
 upon  him  the  rank  of  an  equcs  or  knight,  and  caused  a 
 brazen  statue  to  be  erected  to  him  in  the  temple  of  .^s- 
 culapius.  (Ackermavn,  Prolus.  dc  Avt.  Mus.,  i)  6,  p. 
 15.)  It  is  also  said,  that,  out  of  consideration  for  Mu- 
 sa, the  whole  medical  profession  were  to  be  exempted 
 
 from  taxes  for  the  time  to  come.  Indeed,  from  this  pe- 
 riod, instruction  in  the  healing  art  became  more  highly 
 esteemed  at  Rome,  and  was  placed  on  a  level  with 
 the  teaching  of  Philology,  Rhetoric,  and  Philosophy, 
 (Consult  Gaupp,  de  prof',  el  med.  eorumque  privilcg., 
 p.  29,  Vratislav.,  1827.)  Musa  was  not  always,  how- 
 ever, so  successful  in  his  practice  ;  and  the  use  of  the 
 cold  bath,  which  had  saved  Augustus,  hastened,  or,  at 
 least,  could  not  prevent,  the  death  of  the  young  Mai- 
 cellus.  This,  at  least,  is  the  account  given  by  Dio 
 Cassius  (53,  30),  It.  must  be  observed,  however,  in 
 justice  to  Musa,  that  Suetonius,  Velleius  Paterculus, 
 Pliny,  and  Tacitus,  are  silent  on  this  head.  Dio  Cas- 
 sius, in  another  passage  (53,  33),  stales,  that  Livia  was 
 suspected  by  some  of  having  caused  poison  to  be  ad- 
 ministered to  young  Marcellus,  which  baffled  all  the 
 skill  of  his  physicians;  but  he  adds,  that  the  preva- 
 lence of  a  severe  epidemic  during  that  and  the  follow- 
 ing year,  by  which  great  numbers  perished,  rendered 
 this  suspicion  somewhat  improbable.  Velleius  Pater- 
 culus, Pliny,  and  Tacitus  make  no  such  reproach  to 
 the  memory  of  Musa;  and  Servius,  in  a  note  to  Virgil 
 (Ji're.,  6,  862),  attributes  the  death  of  Marcellus  to 
 a  different  cause.  (Compare  Bianconi,  Letires  sur 
 Cclsc,  p.  59. — Rose,  Diss,  dc  Aug.  conlr.  med.  cura- 
 lo,  Hal,  1741.)  The  cold  bath,  after  this,  was  for 
 a  long  time  discontinued,  until  Charmis  of  Massilia 
 brought  it  again  into  use  at  Rome,  with  great  emolu- 
 ment to  himself  and  advantage  to  invalids.  (Plin.,  I. 
 c. — Essai  Hist,  sur  le  Med.  en  France,  p.  20,  Paris, 
 1762.) — The  talents  of  Musa  do  not  appear  to  have 
 been  confined  to  the  medical  art.  Virgil  praises  his 
 spirit  and  taste  in  an  epigram  contained  in  the  Catalec- 
 ta  (13),  in  which  he  says  that  Phoebus  and  the  Muses 
 had  bestowed  upon  him  their  choicest  gifts.  He  ap- 
 pears, in  fact,  to  have  been  on  intimate  terms  with  both 
 V^irgil  and  Horace,  the  latter  of  whom  he  advised  to 
 leave  off  bathing  at  Baiae.  (Episl.,  1,  15.)  Musa  is 
 said  to  have  been  the  first  that  made  use  of  the  flesh  of 
 vipers  in  curing  ulcers,  and  employed,  as  simples,  let- 
 tuce, succory,  and  endives.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
 many  remedies,  which  all  bore  his  name.  {Galen,  de 
 Comp.  Med.,  sec.  loc  ,  lib.  8,  p.  287,  &c.—Plni.,  29,  6.) 
 — Two  works  are  erroneously  ascribed  to  Musa,  one  a 
 treatise  "  Dc  Hcrlu  Bclomca."  published  by  Humel- 
 berg  with  notes,  Tigur.,  1537,  4to  ;  and  the  other  a 
 poetical  fragment,  "  De  tucvda  valcludine,"  addressed 
 to  Maecenas,  which  appeared  at  Nuremberg,  1538,  8vo, 
 under  the  editorial  care  of  Troppau.  The  genuine  frag- 
 ments of  Musa  vi'ere  collected  by  Caldani :  "  Antanii 
 Musa  fragmcnta  qua  exstant,''^  Bassano,  1800,  8vo. — 
 There  is  a  curious  dissertation  of  Bishop  Atterbury's 
 {Land.,  1740,  8vo),  in  which  he  undertakes  to  prove 
 that  Virgil  has  commemorated  Musa  in  the  twelfth  book 
 of  the  ^neid,  under  the  character  of  laspis.  {Biogr. 
 Univ  ,  vol.  30,  p.  465,  seq. — Sprcngcl,  Ht.st.  Med  ,  vol. 
 2,  p.  23,seq.—Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  ^Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  091.) 
 Mds^,  certain  goddesses  who  presided  over  poetry, 
 music,  and  all  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences,  and  who 
 were  the  daughters  of  Jupiter  by  the  nymph  Mnemos- 
 yne. No  definite  number  of  ihe  Muses  is  given  by 
 Homer  ;  for  the  verse  in  which  they  are  said  to  be  nme 
 is  now  regarded  as  spurious.  (Od  ,  24,  60.)  Perhaps 
 originally,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Erinnyes  and  so  many 
 other  deities,  there  was  no  precise  number.  Pausan- 
 ias  (9,  29,  1)  gives  an  old  tradition,  according  to  which 
 there  were  only  three  Muses  :  Meleic  {Practice), 
 Mneme  {Memorij),  and  Acede  {Song).  Aratus  said 
 there  were  four,  the  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  the  nymph 
 Plusia  {Wealthy),  and  that  their  names  were  Thelxi- 
 noe  {Mind-soother),  Aoede,  Mcletc,  and  Arche  {Begin- 
 ning.—Cic,  N.  D.,  3,  21.  — Eicdocia.  294).  Ale- 
 man  and  some  other  poets  made  the  Muses  the  daugh- 
 ters of  Heaven  and  Earth.  {Diod.  Sic.,  i7.  —  Pau- 
 san.  9,  29  4.)  The  more  received  opinion  makes 
 them  nine  in  number,  and,  as  we  have  already  remark 
 
 861 
 
MUS 
 
 MUS^US. 
 
 6(],  the  (laughters  of  Jupiter  and  of  Mnemosyne,  the 
 goddess  of  Memory.  {Hcs.y  Thcog.,  53,  seqq. — Id.  ib., 
 76.) — The  names  of  the  Muses  were  Calliope,  Clio, 
 Melpomene,  Euterpe,  Erato,  Terpsichore,  Urania,  Tha- 
 lia, and  Polymnia,  an  account  of  each  of  whom  will  be 
 found  under  their  respective  names,  as  well  as  of  the  par- 
 ticular departments  which  later  ages  assigned  to  each. 
 — Pieria  m  Macedonia  is  said  by  Hesiod  {Thcog-.,  63) 
 to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  the  Muses  ;  and  every- 
 thing relating  to  them  proves  the  antiquity  of  the  tra- 
 dition, that  the  knowledge  and  worship  of  these  god- 
 desses came  from  the  North  into  Hellas.  (Butimann, 
 Mythol.,  vol.  1,  p.  293. — Vox,^,  Mythot.  Briefe,  vol. 
 4,  p.  3. — Muller,  Orchom.,  p  381.— /d.,  Prolcgom., 
 p.  219.)  Almost  all  the  mountains,  grottoes,  and 
 springs  from  which  they  have  derived  their  appella- 
 tions, or  which  were  sacred  to  them,  were  in  Mace- 
 donia, Thessaly,  Phocis,  or  Boeotia.  Such  are  the 
 mountains  Pimpla,  Pindus,  Parnassus,  Helicon  ;  the 
 fountains  Hippocrene,  Aganippe,  Castalia ;  and  also 
 the  Corycian  Cave. — The  Muses,  as  Homer  informs  us 
 (//.,  2,  594),  met  the  Thracian  Thamyris  in  Dorion  (in 
 the  Peloponnesus)  as  he  was  returning  from  CEchalia. 
 He  had  boasted  that  he  could  excel  them  in  singing  ; 
 and,  enraged  at  his  presumption,  they  struck  him  blind 
 and  deprived  him  of  his  knowledge  of  music.  Shortly 
 after  the  birth  of  these  goddesses,  the  nine  daughters 
 of  Pierus,  king  of  .^mathia,  are  said  to  have  challenged 
 them  to  a  contest  of  singing.  The  place  of  trial  was 
 Mount  Helicon.  At  the  song  of  the  daughters  of  Pi- 
 erus, the  sky  became  dark,  and  all  nature  was  put  out 
 of  harmony  ;  but  at  that  of  the  Muses,  the  heavens 
 themselves,  the  stars,  the  sea,  and  the  rivers,  stood  mo- 
 tionless, and  Helicon  swelled  up  with  delight,  so  that 
 nis  summit  would  have  reached  the  sky  had  not  Nep- 
 tune directed  Pegasus  to  strike  it  with  his  hoof.  The 
 Muses  then  turned  the  presumptuous  maidens  into 
 nine  different  kinds  of  birds.  (Nicandcr,  ap.  Anton. 
 Lib.,  9.)  Ovid,  who  relates  the  same  legend  {Met.,  5, 
 300,  seqq.),  says  they  were  turned  into  magpies,  and 
 he  is  followed  by  Statius.  {Silv.,  2,  4,  19  )  — The 
 most  probable  derivation  of  the  name  Muse  {Movaa) 
 seems  to  be  that  which  deduces  it  from  the  obsolete 
 verb  /J.UO),  "  to  inquire'"  or  "  invc7it ;"  so  that  the  Mu- 
 ses are  nothing  more  than  personifications  of  the  in- 
 ventive powers  of  the  mind  as  displayed  in  the  several 
 arts.     {Kcightley^s  Mythology,  p.  185,  seqq.) 
 
 Mus.a;cjs,  I.  an  early  Greek  bard,  of  whom  little 
 more  is  known  than  of  Orpheus,  the  history  of  his  life 
 being  enveloped  in  mystery  and  encumbered  with  fa- 
 bles. Plato  calls  him  the  son  of  Selene,  and,  as  if  to 
 leave  no  doubt  about  the  meaning  of  this  latter  name, 
 Hermesianax,  in  a  passage  of  his  Leontion,  preserved 
 by  Athenaeus,  says  that  Mene,  that  is,  the  Moon,  was 
 the  mother  of  this  poet,  whom  he  styles  the  favourite 
 of  the  Graces.  {Alhen.,  13,  p.  597,  c.  —  Compare 
 Schol.  ad  Aristoph.,  Ran.,  1065.)  Others  merely 
 make  a  nymph  to  have  been  his  parent.  Musaeus  was 
 born  either  at  Athens  or  at  Eleusis,  for  the  ancient 
 writers  are  not  agreed  upon  this  point :  he  was  origi- 
 nally, however,  from  Thrace,  and  descended  from  the 
 illustrious  family  of  the  Eumolpidse,  which  owed  its 
 origin  to  the  Thracian  Eumolpus.  This  family  was 
 in  possession  of  certain  mysteries  and  peculiar  rites  of 
 initiation,  and  claimed  from  father  to  son  the  gift  of 
 prophecy.  Musjeus  was  the  fourth  or  fifth  in  descent 
 from  Eumolpus  :  tradition  named  Antiphenes  for  his 
 father.  He  is  placed  in  the  Arundelian  marbles  at 
 1426  B.C.,  when  his  hymns  are  said  to  have  been  re- 
 ceived into  the  celebration  of  the  Elcusinian  mysteries. 
 He  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  Athens,  and 
 in  the  time  of  Pausanias,  the  quarter  of  the  city  where 
 he  had  resided,  and  where  he  was  also  interred,  still 
 bore  the  name  of  Museum  (MonffCiov. — Pausan.,  1, 
 25).  He  was  married  to  De'iope,  by  whom  he  had  Eu- 
 molpus the  younger,  who  presided  at  the  expiation  of 
 862 
 
 Hercules.  Some  traditions  made  Muss'us  the  discipie 
 of  Orpheus ;  others,  on  the  contrary,  call  him  the  pre- 
 ceptor of  the  latter  ;  and  Suidas  states  expressly,  that, 
 although  a  disciple  of  Orpheus,  he  was  more  advanced 
 in  years  than  the  latter,  who  bequeathed  to  him  his 
 lyre.  According  to  another  tradition,  this  irstrument 
 was  intrusted  to  Musaeus  by  the  Muses,  who  had  found 
 it  on  the  seashore  after  the  death  of  Orpheus. — The 
 poems  of  Musajus,  neglected  very  probably  at  a  later 
 period,  when  the  poetry  of  Ionia,  more  consonant  witli 
 the  genius  of  the  Greek  nation,  became  widely  diffused, 
 were  interpolated  to  such  a  degree,  that,  when  in  a 
 subsequent  age  they  became  the  subject  of  critical  in- 
 vestigation, it  was  no  longer  possible  to  distinguish  be- 
 tween what  was  original  and  what  had  been  added. 
 Pausanias  (1,  22)  regarded  the  hymn  in  honour  of  Ceres 
 as  the  only  genuine  one ;  all  the  rest  appeared  to  him 
 the  work  of  Onomacritus,  who  was  contemporary  with 
 the  Pisistratidae  ;  for  the  poem  of  Hero  and  Leander, 
 which  we  have  remaining,  is  by  another  Musaeus,  sur- 
 named  the  grammarian. — We  will  now  proceed  to  enu- 
 merate the  titles  of  the  works  ascribed  to  the  ancient 
 bard. — Xpriafioi  ("  Oracles^').  Musgbus,  according  to 
 Herodotus  (8,  96),  had  predicted  the  happy  issue  of 
 the  battle  of  Salamis;  that  is,  some  one  had  applied  to 
 this  event,  so  glorious  for  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  old 
 prophecies  preserved  among  the  people  ;  just  as  was 
 afterward  done  with  regard  to  the  three  verses  preserv- 
 ed for  us  by  Pausanias  (10,  9),  and  in  which  the  Athe- 
 nians saw,  with  the  more  willingness,  a  prediction  rel- 
 ative to  the  battle  of  yEgos  Potamos,  because  it  con- 
 firmed the  suspicions  they  had  before  entertained  of 
 the  treachery  of  Adimantus.  This  last-mentioned  ora- 
 cle of  Musaeus,  and  also  another,  likewise  in  three 
 verses,  preserved  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  {Stro- 
 mata,  8,  p.  738),  are  the  two  chief  fragments  that  re- 
 main to  us  of  the  poetry  of  Musneus.  His  oracles 
 were  collected  by  Onomacritus,  in  obedience  to  the 
 orders  of  Hipparchus ;  but  the  poet  Lasus,  of  Her- 
 mione,  having  delected  the  fraud  practised  by  Ono- 
 macritus, who  had  intermingled  his  own  productions 
 with  these  ancient  prophecies,  Hipparchus  drove  the 
 impostor  into  exile.  {Herodotus,  7,  6.)  It  appears, 
 that  after  this  it  was  impossible  to  distinguish  what 
 belonged  to  Mussus  from  what  had  been  interpola- 
 ted by  Onomacritus. — 2.  TeTiExai  {^^Initiations''').  A 
 passage  in  the  Republic  of  Plato  (vol.  6,  p.  221,  ed. 
 Biponl.)  explains  the  object  of  this  species  of  poe- 
 try :  by  these  initiatory  forms  the  acts  of  sacrilege 
 committed  ei'her  by  individuals  or  entire  communities 
 were  e.xpiated.  They  were  also  cited  under  the  title 
 of  Kadapfioi  {'^Purifications"),  or  JlapaXiiaei^  {"Ab- 
 solutions'').—  3.  'Akeoeic  voauv  {"Charms  against 
 maladies''').  Cited  by  Aristophanes  {Ran.,  1033) 
 and  Eustathius  {ad.  11.,  inirod.). — 4.  1,<paLpa  {"  The 
 Sphere'''').  An  astrological  poem.  Diogenes  Laertius, 
 in  speaking  of  Musaeus,  says,  noirjaaL  6e  QeoyovLav 
 Ktti  'L(palpav  -rrpuTov  :  the  meaning  of  this  is,  that  he 
 was  the  first  who  versified  such  subjects  as  a  Theogo- 
 ny  and  the  Sphere.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  incorrectly 
 gives  this  a  literal  translation,  that  Musaeus  was  the 
 first  who  constructed  a  sphere,  and  on  this  error  is 
 founded  the  calculation  of  that  celebrated  mathemati- 
 cian, according  to  which  the  Argonautic  expedition 
 took  place  936  B.C.  (Consult  Clavier,  Hist,  des 
 premiers  temps  dc  la  Grece,  2d  cd.,  vol.  3,  p.  24.) — 5. 
 &Eoyovia  ("  A  Thcogony"). — 6.  TiTavoypn<t)ia.  a  de- 
 scription of  the  war  of  the  Titans. — 7.  'T-KoOfjuai 
 {"Precepts").  Addressed  to  his  son  Eumolpus.  Also 
 cited  under  the  title  of  'EvfioXma  ■Koirjaig.  It  is  sup- 
 posed by  some  to  have  been  a  code  of^  instructions  for 
 the  celebration  of  the  mysteries.  According  to  Sui- 
 das, it  contained  4000  verses. — 8.  Kpanjp.  Servius 
 {ad  JEn.,  6,  667)  is  the  only  one  that  cites  this  poem. 
 He  says  it  was  the  first  production  of  Musaeus,  and 
 was  dedicated  to  Orpheus.    The  title  would  seem  to  in- 
 
MUSiKUS. 
 
 MUT 
 
 dicate  a  work  of  a  mixed  character,  as  the  term  Kpan'ip 
 denotes  a  vessel  in  which  wine  and  water  were  mixed. 
 —  9.  A  Hymn  to  Ceres.  Cited  by  Pausanias  as  the 
 only  authentic  production  of  Musagus.  It  was  com- 
 posed for  the  family  of  the  Lycomedae,  who  appear  to 
 have  cherished  a  particular  veneration  for  Ceres  ;  for 
 they  possessed  a  temple  of  this  goddess,  which  was 
 destroyed  by  the  Persians,  and  which  Themistocles, 
 who  belonged  to  this  same  family,  rebuilt.  {Plut., 
 Vit.  Them.) — 10.  A  Hymn  in  honour  of  Bacchus. 
 Cited  by  iElius  Aristides  in  his  Eulogium  on  this  di- 
 vinity.— 11.  Yiepl  QeairpuTuv  {'■'Of  the  Thesproli- 
 ans").  Clemens  Alexandrinus  states,  that  Eugam- 
 mon  of  Cyrene,  a  poet  who  flourished  about  the  53d 
 Olympiad,  claimed  this  as  his  own  production,  and 
 published  it  under  his  own  name.  To  render  such 
 an  act  of  plagiarism  at  all  possible,  the  poem  of 
 Musseus  must  have  previously  fallen  into  complete 
 oblivion.  It  contained  a  description  of  the  remark- 
 able things  in  Thesprotia.  — 12.  Isthmian  Songs. 
 Cited  by  the  scholiasts  on  Euripides  and  on  Apol- 
 lonius  Rhodius.  These  cannot,  however,  have  been 
 productions  of  Musaeus,  as  he  lived  before  the  es- 
 tablishment of  the  Isthmian  games.  —  The  few  scat- 
 tered remains  that  we  possess  of  Musaeus  have  been 
 reunited  by  H.  Stephens,  in  his  collection  of  the 
 philosophic  poets,  and,  among  others,  by  Passow, 
 in  his  "  MuscEus,  Urschrift,  Uebersetzung,  Einlci- 
 tung,  und  Kritische  Anmerkungen,''^  Leipzig,  1810, 
 8vo.  —  II.  A  native  of  Ephesus,  who  resided  at  Per- 
 gamus.  He  was  the  author  of  an  epic  poem  in  ten 
 books,  entitled  Perscis,  and  also  of  other  efTusions 
 in  honour  of  Eumenes  and  Attalus.  Moreri  thinks 
 that  he  wrote  the  Isthmian  Songs,  which  the  scho- 
 liasts on  Euripides  and  on  ApoUonius  Rhodius  cite 
 under  the  name  of  Musaeus.  He  does  not  appear  to 
 have  been  the  writer  of  whom  Martial  speaks  (12, 
 97). — III.  A  grammarian,  the  author  of  a  poem  found- 
 ed on  the  storv  of  Hero  and  Leander.  Opinions  have 
 greatly  varied  relative  to  the  age  of  this  production. 
 Julius  Cassar  Scaliger  believed  that  it  was  the  compo- 
 sition of  the  elder  Mussbus,  the  Athenian,  and  anterior, 
 consequently,  to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  {Ars  Poet., 
 5,  2,  214.)  The  poem  in  question  is  undoubtedly, 
 as  far  as  regards  the  story  itself  and  the  diction  in 
 which  it  is  arrayed,  worthy  of  a  place  among  the  ear- 
 lier poems  of  the  Greeks  ;  and  yet,  at  the  same  time, 
 it  bears  evident  marks  of  a  much  more  recent  origin, 
 as  well  in  the  colouring  of  sentiment  with  which  the 
 author  has  softened  down  the  plainer  and  less  deli- 
 cate handling  of  such  subjects  as^this,  which  mark- 
 ed the  earlier  writers,  as  in  some  of  the  images  which 
 are  occasionally  introduced.  For  example,  no  poet  of 
 the  Homeric  age  would  have  indulged  in  such  a  senti- 
 ment as  the  following  :  "The  ancients  falsely  asserted 
 that  there  were  only  three  Graces  :  every  laughing 
 glance  of  Hero's  blooms  with  a  hundred."  The  opin- 
 ion, therefore,  of  the  elder  Scaliger  has  been  rejected 
 by  Joseph  his  son,  and  by  all  subsequent  critics. 
 Some  have  placed  this  poem  in  the  12th  or  13th  cen- 
 tury, because  the  first  and  only  mention  of  it  is  made 
 by  Tzetzes,  who  speaks  of  it  in  his  Chiliads  (2,  435 ; 
 10,  520  ;  13,  943).  The  purity  of  language,  however, 
 and  the  taste  which  distinguish  this  production  of  Mu- 
 sseus, do  not  warrant  the  opinion  of  its  having  been  so 
 modern  a  work.  Hence  some  critics  have  endeav- 
 oured to  show  that  Achilles  Tatius  and  Aristaenetus 
 had  it  under  their  eyes  when  they  wrote.  Now  Achil- 
 les Tatius  is  supposed  by  the  best  philologists  to  have 
 written  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  and  Aris- 
 tainetus  about  the  close  of  the  same  century.  Again, 
 Hermann,  in  his  remarks  on  the  changes  experienced 
 by  the  Greek  hexameter,  has  shown  that  the  poem  of 
 Hero  and  Leander  is  later  than  the  Dionysiacs  of  Non- 
 nus.  From  all  these  approximations,  therefore,  we 
 may  fix  the  era  of  the  poem  in  question  between  430 
 
 and  480  A.D.  A  circumstance,  moreover,  unimpor- 
 tant in  itself,  comes  in  support  of  this  calculation.  All 
 the  manuscripts  give  to  the  author  of  the  poem  the 
 title  of  grammarian  :  now,  among  the  letters  of  Pro- 
 copius  of  Gaza,  there  is  one  addressed  to  a  certain 
 Musaeus  :  and  though  he  is  not  styled,  in  the  address, 
 a  grammarian,  yet  the  letter  evidently  is  intended  for 
 a  person  of  this  description.  The  period  when  Proco- 
 pius  flourished  is  fixed  at  about  520  A.D.  If  we  sup- 
 pose, then,  that  the  poem  of  Hero  and  Leander  was  a 
 production  of  Musaeus's  youth,  and  that  he  had  attained 
 an  advanced  age  when  Procopius  addressed  to  him  the 
 letter  in  question,  perhaps  between  480  and  500  A.D., 
 nothing  will  prevent  our  regarding  the  correspondent 
 of  Procopius  as  the  author  of  this  poem,  which  thus 
 might  have  been  composed  before  450  A.D.  —  The 
 poem  in  question  bears  the  following  title,  Td  Koff 
 'Hpw  Kai  Aeavdpov.  It  consists  of  340  hexameters. 
 The  story  on  which  it  is  founded  is  an  old  one  ;  Vir- 
 gil and  Ovid  were  both  acquainted  with  it,  and  it  bears 
 on  its  very  front  the  stamp  of  antiquity  :  the  merit  of 
 the  composition,  however,  does  not  the  less  belong  to 
 the  j)oet.  "  The  Hero  and  Leander,"  observes  Elton, 
 "exhibits  that  refinement  of  sentiment,  and  that  spark- 
 ling antithetical  ornament  which  are  the  indications 
 of  modern  composition.  It  is  a  beautiful  and  impas- 
 sioned production  ;  combining  in  its  love-details  the 
 warmth  and  luxuriance  of  Ovid,  with  the  delicate  and 
 graceful  nature  of  ApoUonius  Rhodius  ;  and,  in  the 
 peril  and  tumult  of  the  catastrophe,  rising  to  the  gloomy 
 grandeur  of  Homeric  description."  {Specimens  of  the 
 Classic  Poets,  vol.  3,  p.  330. — Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  1,  p.  46,  seqq.  —  Id.,  vol.  3,  p.  123,  seqq.  —  Id., 
 vol.  6,  p.  85,  seqq.)  The  best  editions  of  Musaeus  are, 
 that  of  Schrader,  Leovard  ,  1742,  8vo,  and  Magd., 
 1775,  8vo,  improved  by  Schaffer,  Lips.,  1825,  8vo  ; 
 that  of  Passow,  Lips.,  1810,  8vo;  and  that  of  Moebius, 
 Hal  ,  1814,  8vo. 
 
 MuTiA  or  MaciA,  a  daughter  of  Q.  Mutius  Scaevola, 
 and  sister  of  Metellus  Celer.  She  was  Pompey's 
 third  wife.  Her  infidelity  induced  her  husband  to  di- 
 vorce her,  on  his  return  from  the  Mithradatic  war,  al- 
 though she  had  borne  him  three  children.  Caesar  was 
 the  seducer;  and  hence,  when  Pompey  married  Caesar's 
 daughter,  all  blamed  him  for  turning  off  a  wife  who  had 
 been  the  mother  of  three  children,  to  espouse  the 
 daughter  of  a  man  whom  he  had  often,  with  a  sigh, 
 called  "his  .^gisthus."  Mucia's  disloyalty  must  have 
 been  very  public,  since  Cicero,  in  one  of  his  letters 
 to  Atticus,  says,  "  Divortium  MucicB  vehemcnter  pro- 
 batur."     (Ep.  ad  Att.,  1,  12.) 
 
 MoTiNA,  a  city  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  now  Modcna,  sit- 
 uate on  the  .^milian  Way,  in  a  southeast  direction 
 from  Placentia  and  Parma.  It  is  often  mentioned  in 
 history,  and  more  particularly  during  the  stormy  pe- 
 riod which  intervened  between  the  death  of  Caesar  and 
 the  reign  of  Augustus  Livy  asserts  (39,  55)  that 
 Mutina  was  colonized  the  same  year  with  Parma,  that 
 is,  569  U.C.  ;  but  Polybius  speaks  of  it  as  a  Roman 
 colony  thirty-four  years  prior  to  that  dale  (3,  40).  Ci- 
 cero styles  it  {Phil.,  5,  9)  "■  firmissimam  et  splcndidis- 
 simam  Populi  Romani  Coloriiam.^^  It  sustained  a  se- 
 vere siege  against  the  troops  of  Antony,  A. U.C.  709. 
 D.  Brutus,  who  defended  the  place,  being  apprized  of 
 ihe  approach  of  the  consuls  Hirtius  and  Pansa  by 
 means  of  carrier-pigeons,  made  an  obstinate  defence. 
 Antony,  being  finally  defeated  by  those  generals  and 
 Octavius,  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege.  {Liv.,  Epit.. 
 118  et  119.— Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  10,  U.—  Vell.  Pa 
 tcrc,  2,  Q\.—Florns,  4,  Ji:.—SiLct.,  Axig.,  10.)  Muti 
 na  was  also  famous  for  its  wool.  From  Tacitus  {Hist. 
 2,  52)  we  learn  that  it  was  a  municipium.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  56.) 
 
 MuTiNus.      Vid.  Mutunus. 
 
 Mutius  or  Mucius.      Vid.  Scaevola. 
 
 Mutunus  or  Mutinus,  a  deity  among  the  Romans, 
 
 863 
 
M  YC 
 
 M  YC 
 
 it;iit:ii  llie  same  as  the  Priapus  of  the  Greeks.  His 
 If  in[)le  was  at  first  in  the  city,  but  was  afterward,  in 
 the  time  of  Augustus,  removed  to  the  twenty-sixth 
 rniiestorie.  Festus  calls  him  Mulinus  Titinus.  (Con- 
 sult Laclant.,  1,  20. — Arnob.,  1.  4,  p.  131. — August., 
 tie  Civ.  Dei,  4,  l\.—Id.  ib.,  6,  9.~Tertull.,  ApoL,  c. 
 25. — Dulaure,  Hist,  ties  Guiles,  vo\.  2,  p.  \&Q,seqq.) 
 
 MozERis,  a  harbour  of  India  intra  Gaiigem,  on  the 
 western  coast,  below  the  Sinus  Barygazenus.  It  was 
 much  frequented  in  the  first  century  of  our  era,  though 
 somewhat  dangerous  to  visit  on  account  of  the  pirates 
 ill  its  vicinity.  {Plin.,  6,  23.)  It  appears  to  corre- 
 spond to  the  modern  Mirzno  or  Mirdschno.  {Man- 
 nert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  5,  pt.  1,  p.  199,  seqq.) 
 
 MvcALE,  I.  a  promontory  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
 opposite  the  island  of  Samos.  It  is  a  continuation  of 
 Mount  Messogis,  which  chain  ran  along  the  upper 
 side  of  the  Mseander  for  the  greater  part  of  its  course. 
 Mycaie  was  known  to  Homer  (//.,  2,  869),  and,  at  a 
 later  day,  the  Panionium,  or  solemn  assembly  of  the 
 Ionian  states,  was  held  in  a  temple  situate  at  its  foot. 
 {Herod.,  1,  148).  Its  principal  celebrity,  however, 
 arose  from  the  battle  that  was  fought  here  between  the 
 Greeks  and  Persians  on  the  22d  of  September,  479 
 B.C.,  the  same  day  that  Mardonius  was  defeated  at 
 Plataea.  The  battle  of  Mycaie  look  place  in  the  morn- 
 ing, that  of  Platffia  in  the  evening.  The  Samians, 
 without  the  knowledge  of  their  tyrant  or  the  Persians, 
 had  sent  messengers  to  invite  the  Grecian  fleet  at 
 Delos  to  pass  over  to  Ionia,  assuring  the  commanders 
 of  their  superiority  to  the  Persian  force  in  those  seas, 
 aikl  of  the  disposition  of  the  lonians  to  revolt.  The 
 Greeks  complied  ;  and  on  their  approach,  the  Persian 
 leaders,  feeling  themselves  too  weak  for  a  sea-fight, 
 sent  away  the  Phoenician  ships,  and,  bringing  the  others 
 u)  the  promontory  of  Mycaie,  near  Miletus,  where  the 
 land-army  was  encamped,  drew  them  upon  the  beach, 
 an  easy  thing  with  the  light  vessels  used  in  ancient 
 war,  and  surrounded  them  with  a  rampart.  The  Per- 
 sian land-army  was  under  the  command  of  Tigranes, 
 and  amounted  to  60,000  men.  It  had  been  left  by 
 Xerxes,  when  he  began  his  expedition,  for  the  security 
 of  Ionia  :  he  himself  was  still  at  Sardis.  The  army 
 was  posted  in  front  of  the  ships.  The  chief  com- 
 mander of  the  Greeks  was  Leotychides,  a  Spartan  of 
 one  of  the  royal  houses.  On  arriving,  he  repeated, 
 with  the  same  double  purpose,  the  stratagem  of  The- 
 mistocles  at  Artemisium.  Sailing  along  the  shore,  he 
 made  proclamation  by  a  herald  to  the  lonians,  bidding 
 them  remember  that  the  Greeks  were  fighting  for  their 
 liberty.  The  Persians  were  already  jealous  of  the 
 Samians,  because  they  had  ransomed  and  sent  home 
 some  Athenian  prisoners  ;  and  their  suspicions  being 
 strengthened  and  made  more  general  by  the  proclama- 
 tion, they  disarmed  the  Samians,  and  sent  the  Mile- 
 sians to  guard  the  passes,  under  pretence  of  profiting 
 by  their  knowledge  of  the  country,  but  really  to  re- 
 move them  from  the  camp.  The  Athenians,  advan- 
 cing along  the  beach,  commenced  the  action,  followed 
 by  the  Corinthians,  Trcezenians,  and  Sicyonians.  After 
 some  hard  fighting  they  drove  the  enemy  to  his  intrench- 
 ments,  and  then  forced  the  enclosure,  on  which  the 
 mass  of  the  army  fled,  the  Persians  only  still  resisting. 
 It  was  not  till  now  that  the  Lacedaemonians  came  up, 
 having  been  impeded  by  steep  and  broken  ground. 
 On  seeing  the  Greeks  prevailing,  the  Samians,  though 
 unarmed,  did  what  they  could  in  their  favour,  and  the 
 other  lonians  followed  their  example,  and  sided  with 
 the  Greeks.  The  Milesians,  who  had  been  sent  to 
 guard  the  passes  by  the  Persians,  turned  against  them, 
 and  slaughtered  the  fugitives.  A.\\  Ionia  now  revolted. 
 The  fleet  proceeded  to  Samos,  where  a  consultation 
 was  held  on  the  fate  of  that  country.  It  could  not 
 protect  itself  unassisted,  and  its  defence  was  a  burden 
 the  Greeks  were  loath  to  support.  The  Peloponne- 
 ssans  proposed  to  remove  the  inhabitants,  and  settle 
 864 
 
 tlirm  on  the  lands  of  those  states  that  had  joined  tlie 
 common  enemy  :  but  the  Athenians  were  averse  to 
 the  desolation  of  Ionia,  and  jealous  of  the  interference 
 of  others  with  their  colonies  ;  and  when  they  urged 
 the  reception  of  the  lonians  into  the  confederacy,  the 
 Peloponnesians  gave  way,  and  the  Samians,  Chians, 
 and  other  islanders  who  had  joined  the  fleet  were  ad- 
 mitted.—  Heredotus  states,  that,  after  the  disembarca- 
 tion  of  the  Greeks,  and  previous  to  the  battle,  a  her- 
 ald's wand  was  discovered  by  them  on  the  beach  as 
 they  were  advancing  towards  the  enemy,  and  that  a 
 rumour,  in  consequence,  circulated  among  the  Greeks 
 that  a  victory  had  been  obtained  by  their  countrymen 
 over  the  forces  of  Mardonius.  Nothing,  indeed,  could 
 be  more  natural  than  such  a  rumour,  whether  it  be 
 considered  as  the  effect  of  accident  or  design  :  that  it 
 should  afterward  have  been  found  to  coincide  with  the 
 truth,  is  one  of  those  marvels  which  would  be  intol- 
 erable in  a  fictitious  narrative,  and  yet  now  and  then 
 occur  in  the  real  course  of  events.  Being  believed, 
 however,  without  any  reason,  it  was  much  more  effica- 
 cious in  raising  the  confidence  and  courage  of  the 
 Greeks  than  if  it  had  been  transmitted  through  any  or- 
 dinary channel  on  the  strongest  evidence.  For  now 
 the  favour  of  the  gods  seemed  visible,  not  only  in  the 
 substance,  but  in  the  manner  of  the  tidings.  {Thirl- 
 waWs  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  358.  —  Herod.,  9,  98,  seqq.) 
 — Mount  Mycaie,  according  to  Strabo,  was  well  wood- 
 ed, and  abounded  with  game  ;  a  character  which,  as 
 Chandler  reports,  it  still  retains.  This  traveller  de- 
 scribes it  as  a  high  ridge,  with  a  beautifully-cultivated 
 plain  at  its  foot,  and  several  villages  on  its  side. 
 {Travels,  p.  179,  seq.) — II.  It  has  been  a  subject  of 
 considerable  discussion  among  commentators,  to  as- 
 certain the  meaning  of  Cornelius  Nepos,  in  his  Life  of 
 Cimon  (2,  2),  where  he  makes  this  commander  to  have 
 gained  a  victory  at  Mycaie  over  the  combined  fleets 
 of  the  Cyprians  and  Phoenicians.  The  battle  is  de- 
 scribed by  Diodorus  Siculus  (2,  01),  and  by  Plutarch 
 in  his  Life  of  Cimon.  It  is  mentioned  also  by  Thu- 
 cydides  (1,  100),  by  Plato  {Menex. — Op.,  ed.  Bek.,  pt. 
 2,  vol.  3,  p.  391),  by  Polyaenus  (1,  34),  by  Frontinus 
 (4,  7,  45),  and  by  Mela  (l',  14).  But  all  these  author- 
 ities uniformly  make  the  battle  to  have  been  fought  at 
 the  river  Eurymedon,  not  far  from  Cyprus.  In  order 
 to  free  Cornelius  Nepos  from  the  charge  of  a  gross 
 error,  it  is  best  to  adopt  the  opinion  of  Tzschucke,  who 
 thinks  that  there  must  have  been  a  second  and  ob- 
 scurer Mycaie,  near  the  Eurymedon  in  Pamphylia, 
 where  the  battle  above  referred  to  was  fought.  (Com- 
 pare Fischer,  ad  Corn.  Nep.,  I.  c.) 
 
 MvcALEssus,  a  city  of  Boeoiia,  northeast  of  Thebes, 
 and  a  short  distance  to  the  west  of  Aulis.  It  was  an 
 ancient  place,  and  known  to  Homer.  {II.,  2,  498. — 
 Hymn,  in  ApolL,  224.)  We  learn  from  Thucydides, 
 that,  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  Mycalessus  sustained 
 a  most  afflicting  disaster,  owing  to  an  attack  made 
 upon  it  by  some  Thracian  troops  in  the  pay  of  Athens. 
 These  barbarians,  having  surprised  the  town,  put  all 
 the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  sparing  neither  women 
 nor  children,  since  they  savagely  butchered  a  number 
 of  boys  who  were  assembled  in  the  public  school  be- 
 longing to  the  place.  The  historian  affirms,  that  this 
 was  one  of  the  greatest  calamities  which  ever  befell  a 
 city.  {Thucyd.,  7,  "Hi.  —  Pausan,  1,  2^.  —  Strabci. 
 404.)  The  only  remarkable  building  which  it  possess- 
 ed was  a  temple  of  Ceres.  Sir  W.  Gell  has  the  fol- 
 lowing note  on  the  ruins  of  this  ancient  town.  "  Blocks 
 and  foundations  of  a  temple,  and  tombs  ;  possibly  the 
 temple  of  Ceres  Mycalessia.  The  wall  of  a  city  on 
 the  left,  about  three  hundred  yards.  Many  traces, 
 probably,  of  Mycalessus."  {Itin.,^.  130. — Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  161,  seqq.) 
 
 MvcENyE,  I.  an  ancient  city  of  Argolis,  in  a  north 
 eastern  direction  from  Argos.  It  was  said  to  have 
 been  founded  by  Perseus,  after  the  death  of  his  grand 
 
MYC 
 
 MY  G 
 
 father  Acrisius.     {Pausanias,  2,  18. — Slrabo,  377.) 
 The  name  was  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived  from 
 Mycene,  daughter  of  Inachus;  but  others  assigned  a 
 different  origin  to  the  word,  as  may  be  seen  from  Pau- 
 sanias  (2,  16).      Perseus  was  succeeded  by  Sthenelus, 
 married   to  a  daughter  of  Pelops  named  Astydamia  ; 
 after   whom    followed    Eurystheus,  Atreus,  and    Aga- 
 memnon.    Under  the  last  named  monarch,  the  empire 
 of  Mycenaj  reached  its  highest  degree  of  opulence  and 
 power,  since  his  authority  was  acknowledged  by  the 
 whole    of  Greece.     {Thucyd.,  1,  9. — Diod.  Sic,  11, 
 65.) — MycentB,  which  had  been  superior  even  to  Argos 
 in  the  I'rojan  war,  declined  after  the  return  of  the  Her- 
 aclida;  ;   and  in  the  78th  Olyinpiad,  or  468  B.C.,  the 
 Arg:ves,  having  attacked  and  captured  the  city,  lev- 
 elled  it  to   the  ground  and    enslaved   its  inhabitants. 
 (Diod.    Sic,   11,   65. — Slrabo,  372.)      Pausanias  at- 
 tributes the  destruction  of  Mycens  to  the  envy  which 
 the  glory  acquired  by  the  troops  of  that  city  at  Ther- 
 mopyla;  and  Plataea  had   excited  in  the  minds  of  the 
 Argives  (2,  16.— Compare  Herod.,  7,  203).     But  Di- 
 odorus  affirms,  that  the  war  arose  from  a  dispute  rela- 
 tive to  the  temple  of  Juno,  which  was  common  to  the 
 two  republics.     Strabo  states,  that  so  complete  was 
 the  destruction  of  this  celebrated  capital,  that  not  a 
 vestige   remained    of  its   existence.      This   assertion, 
 however,  is  not  correct,  since  Pausanias  informs  us 
 that  several  parts  of  the  wails  were  yet  standing,  as 
 also  one  of  the  gates,  surmounted  by  lions,  when  he 
 visited  the  ruins.     Modern  travellers  have  given  us  a 
 full  and  interesting  account  of  these  vestiges.     The 
 most  remarkable  among  the  remains   of  antiquity  is 
 what  is  termed  the  Treasury  of  Atreus.     It  is  a  hollow 
 cone  of  50  feet  in  diameter,  and  as  many  in  height.     It 
 is  composed  of  enormous  masses  of  a  very  hard  breccia, 
 or  sort   of  pudding-stone.     This  extraordinary  edifice 
 has  obviously  been  raised  by  the  projection  of  one  stone 
 above  another,  and  they  nearly  meet  at  the  top.     The 
 central  stone  at  the  top  has  been  removed,  along  with 
 two  or  three  others,  and  yet  the  building  remains  as 
 durable  as  ever,  and  will  probably  last  to  the  end  of 
 lime.     Sir  W.  Gell  discovered  brass  nails  placed  at 
 regular  distances   throughout   the   interior,    which   he 
 thinks  nijst  have  served   to  fasten  plates  of  brass  to 
 the  wall.     {GeWs  Argolis,  p.  29,  scqq.)     These  nails 
 consist  of  88   parts   of  copper   and    12  of  tin.     Dr. 
 Clarke  opposes  the  opinion  of  this  being  the  Treasury 
 of  Atreus,  principally  on  the  ground  that  it  was  without 
 the  walls  of  the  city,  deeming  it  far  more  probable, 
 and  more  in  conformity  with  what  we  find  in  ancient 
 writers,  that  the  Treasury  was  within  the  walls,  in  the 
 very  citadel.     He  considers  it  to  be  the  Heroiim  of 
 Perseus.     (TrrtueZs,  vol.  6,  p.  493,  Lowrf.  cd.)     What- 
 ever may  have  been  its   use,  it  is  worthy  of  notice, 
 that  cells  of  bronze  or  brass,  i.  e.,  covered  within  with 
 plates  of  brass,  were  very  common  in  ancient  Argolis. 
 Such,  no  doubt,  were  the  brazen  place  of  confinement 
 of  Danae,  and  the  lurking-place  of  Eurystheus  when  in 
 fear  of  Hercules.     The  remains  of  the  ancient  walls 
 are  also  very  curious,  being  evidently  of  that  style  of 
 building  called  Cyclopean.     Among  other  things,  the 
 Gate  of  the  Lions,  mentioned  by  Pausanias,  still  re- 
 mains.    The  modern  village  of  Krabata  stands  near 
 the   ruins   of  Mycenas. — The  name  of  Mvcense  was 
 probably  derived  from  its  situation  in  a  recess  (/if;Y9) 
 formed  by  two  mountains,  and  not,  as  Pausanias  im- 
 agines, from  a  mushroom,  or  the  pommel  of  a  sword. 
 Mycerinus,  a  king  of  Egypt,  son   of  Cheo])s    ac- 
 cording to  Herodotus  (2,  129),  but  of  Chemmis  ac- 
 cording to  Diodorus  (1,  64).     The  last-mentioned  wri- 
 ter calls  him  Mecherinus  (Mejeptvof),  a  name  which 
 Zoega,  by  the  aid  of  the  Coptic,  makes  equivalent  to 
 "  peaceful,''''   and   which   agrees,  therefore,   very   well 
 with  the  epithet  ?;7rtof  ("  mild''''  or  '^gentle'''),  applied  to 
 him  by  Herodotus  (/.  c. — Zocga,  dc  Obelise,  p.  415.) 
 Mycerinus  was  remarkable  for  the  justice  and  raodera- 
 5R 
 
 tion  of  his  reign.  Larcher  makes  him  to  have  ruled 
 over  Egypt  for  the  space  of  20  years,  he  having  as- 
 cended  the  throne,  according  to  this  critic,  in  B.C. 
 1072,  and  having  been  succeeded  by  Asychis  B.C. 
 1052.— Mycerinus  built  one  of  the  pyramids,  which 
 travellers  usually  call  the  third  one.  It  is  smaller  in 
 size  than  the  others,  but,  was  e<iually  as  expensive  as 
 the  rest,  being  cased,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus, 
 half  way  up  with  Ethiopian  marble.  Herodotus  in- 
 forms us  (2,  133)  that  this  monarch,  after  having  reign- 
 ed for  no  great  length  of  time,  was  informed"  by  the 
 oracle  of  Latona,  at  Butos,  that  he  was  destined  to 
 live  only  six  years  longer;  and  that,  on  complaining 
 that  he,  a  pious  prince,  was  not  allowed  a  long  reigii^ 
 while  his  father  and  grandfather,  who  had  been  inju- 
 rious to  mankind  and  impious  to  the  crods,  had  en- 
 joyed each  a  long  life,  he  was  told  thar  his'short  lifo 
 was  the  direct  consequence  of  his  piety,  for  the  fatea 
 had  decreed  that  for  the  space  of  150  years  Ecrypt 
 should  be  oppressed,  of  which  determination  the  "two 
 preceding  monarchs  had  been  aware.  (Herod.,  I.  c. 
 — Bdhr,  ad  lac.) 
 
 Myconos,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  lying  a  little  to  the 
 east  of  Delos.  It  is  described  by  Athensus  (1,  14)  as 
 a  poor  and  barren  island,  the  inhabitants  of  which  werp 
 consequently  rapacious  and  fond  of  money.  Strabc 
 reports  that  they  lost  their  hair  at  an  early  age,  whenct 
 the  name  of  Myconian  was  proverbially  used  to  desig 
 nate  a  bald  person.  (Strabo,  487.  —  Compare  the 
 words  of  Donalus,  ad  Ter.,  Hec.,  3,  4:  '' Mycon. 
 calva  omnis  jiiventus.")  It  was  also  said,  that  the 
 giants  whom  Hercules  had  conquered  lay  in  a  heai^ 
 under  the  island  ;  a  fable  which  gave  rise  to  anothe. 
 saying  (fxia  Mimovoc),  applied  to  those  authors  wht 
 confusedly  mixed  together  things  which  ought  lo  have 
 been  treated  of  separately.  (I'lut.,  Symp.,  1,  2. — 
 Zejiob.,  Cent.,  5,  \7.~Apollod.,  1,  6,  2.)  This  island 
 is  mentioned  by  Thucydides  (3,  20)  and  Herodotus 
 (6,  118).  Pliny  assigns  to  it  a  mountain  named  Di- 
 mastus  (4,  12).  Scylax  states  that  it  had  two  towns 
 (p.  22).  The  modern  name  of  the  island  is  Myconi. 
 (Cramei-'s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  409,  seqq.) 
 
 Mygdonia,  I.  a  province  of  Alacedonia,  which  ap-. 
 pears  to  have  extended  from  the  river  Axius  to  the 
 lake  Bolbe,  and  at  one  period  even  to  the  Stryinon. 
 (Herod.,  7,  12^.— Tkucyd.,  1,  58.)  It  originally  be- 
 longed to  the  Edones,  a  people  of  Thrace  :  but  these 
 were  expelled  by  the  Temenidaj.  (Thucyd.,  2,  99.) 
 Under  the  division  of  Mygdonia  we  must  include  sev- 
 eral minor  districts,  enumerated  by  diflerent  historians 
 and  geographers.  These  are,  Amphaxitis  and  Paraxia, 
 Anthemus  and  Grestonia  or  Crestonia.  (Cramer^s 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  233.) — II.  A  district  of  Meso- 
 potamia. The  later  geographical  writers  affix  this 
 name  merely  to  the  northeastern  section  of  the  land, 
 especially  to  the  country  around  Nisibis  ;  Strabo,  how- 
 ever, expressly  includes  the  western  part  also.  He  far- 
 ther mentions,  that  the  name  of  the  region,  as  well  as  that 
 of  the  inhabitants  (Mygdones),  were  first  given  by  the 
 Macedonians.  (Strab.,  7i7.)  In  this  latter  particular 
 he  is  wrong  ;  for  we  find  that  the  ten  thousand,  in  their 
 retreat,  met  with  Mygdonians  (Xc7i.,  Aiiab.,  3,  3), 
 united  with  the  Armenians,  who  disputed  with  them 
 the  passage  of  the  river  Centrices.  Under  the  Mace- 
 donian sway,  the  name  of  Mygdonia  began  to  be  dis- 
 used, and  that  of  Anthemusia  ('Avdefiovaia,  "  the 
 blooming." — Procop.,  Pers.,  1,  17)  was  employed  in 
 its  stead,  more  especially  with  reference  to  the  tract 
 of  country  enclosed  between  Mons  Masius,  the  Eu- 
 phrates, anu  the  Chaboras.  (Manneri,  Gcogr.,  vol.  5, 
 pt.  2,  p.  260,  seqq.) 
 
 Mygdonius,  I.  a  river  of  Mesopotamia,  called  also 
 the  Saocoras,  rising  in  the  district  of  Mygdonia,  and 
 falling  into  the  Chaboras.  It  is  now  the  Hernias,  or, 
 according  to  others,  the  Sindsrhar. — II.  The  epithet 
 "Mygdonian"  is  applied  by  Horace  (Od.,  2,  12,  22)  to 
 
 866 
 
M  YN  . 
 
 M  Y  R 
 
 Phr^gia,  either  from  a  branch  of  the  Mygdones  havingr 
 settled  there  at  a  very  early  period,  while  they  were  still 
 regarded  as  a  Thracian  tribe,  or  else  from  one  of  the 
 ancient  monarchs  of  the  land.  In  favour  of  the  first 
 of  these  opinions  we  have  the  authority  of  Strabo  (575), 
 who  sjieaks  of  the  Mygdones  as  occupying  the  northern 
 parts  of  Phrygia.  On  the  other  hand,  Pausanias  makes 
 the  Phrygians  to  have  received  the  appellation  of  Myg- 
 donians  from  Mygdon,  one  of  their  early  kings  (10, 
 27).  With  Pausanias  coincide  Stephanus  of  Byzanti- 
 um, and  the  scholiast  on  Apollonius  Rhodius  (2,  787). 
 In  Homer,  moreover,  the  Phrygians  are  styled  laol 
 'OrpFjog  Kal  M.vy6ovog  uvTidiotn.  The  first  of  these 
 two  opinions,  however,  is  evidently  the  more  correct 
 one.  It  is  more  consistent  with  reason  that  a  country 
 should  give  an  appellation  to  its  ruler  than  receive 
 one  from  him. 
 
 Mygdonus  or  Mygdon,  I.  an  ancient  monarch  of 
 the  Mygdones.  {Pausan.,  10,  27.— Fid.  Mygdonus 
 n.) — II.  A  brother  of  Hecuba,  Priam's  wife,  who 
 reigned  in  part  of  Thrace.  His  son  Corcebus  was 
 calted  Mijgdonidcs  from  him.  {Virg.,  JEneid,  2, 
 341.) 
 
 MYL.is.^  (ontm),  a  city  of  Caria,  situate  to  the  south- 
 west of  Straionicea,  and  a  short  distance  to  the  north 
 of  the  harbour  Physcus.  It  was  of  Grecian  origin, 
 and  was  founded  at  a  very  early  period,  but  by  whom 
 is  uncertain.  Here,  at  one  time,  resided  Hecatomnus, 
 the  progenitor  of  Mausolus.  (-SVraio,  659  )  Mylasa, 
 as  Strabo  reports,  was  situate  in  a  fertile  plain,  and  at 
 the  foot  of  a  mountain  containing  veins  of  a  beautiful 
 white  marble.  This  was  of  great  advantage  to  the 
 city  for  the  construction  of  public  and  other  buildings; 
 and  the  inhabitants  were  not  slow  in  availing  them- 
 selves of  it ;  few  cities,  as  Strabo  remarks,  being  so 
 sumptuously  embellished  with  handsome  porticoes  and 
 stately  temples.  (Strabo,  659.)  It  was  particularly 
 famous,  however,  for  a  very  ancient  temple  of  the  Ca- 
 rian  Jove,  and  for  another,  of  nearly  equal  antiquity, 
 sacred  to  Jupiter  Osogus.  In  after  times  a  very  beau- 
 tiful temple  was  erected  here,  dedicated  to  Augustus 
 and  to  Rome.  Mylasa  suffered  severely  in  the  inroad 
 of  Labienus,  during  the  contest  between  Antony  and 
 Augustus,  but  was  subsequently  restored.  [Dio  Cass., 
 48,  26.)  Pococke  saw  the  temple  to  Augustus  nearly 
 entire,  but  it  has  since  been  destroyed,  and  the  mate- 
 rials have  been  used  for  building  a  mosque.  (Pococke, 
 vol.  2,  pt.  2,  c.  6. ^Compare  Chandler,  Asia  Minor, 
 c.  56.)  Mylasa  is  now  Mclasso,  and  is  at  the  pres- 
 ent day  remarkable  for  producing  the  best  tobacco  in 
 Turkey.  Mannert,  however,  thinks  that  Mylasa  must 
 be  sought  for  in  the  vicinity  of  the  modern  MuUa, 
 while  Reichard  (Thes.  Top.  Noremb.,  1824)  is  in  fa- 
 vour of  Myllesch. — As  regards  the  ancient  name  of 
 this  city,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  older  Greek  wri- 
 ters, with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  Poly  bins  (de  Virt., 
 &c.,  1.  16,  ad  fin.),  give  lAvlaryaa  (Mylassa);  while 
 Pliny,  Pausanias,  Stephanus  of  Byzantium,  Hierocles, 
 and  others,  have  Mylasa  (MtJAaca),  and  with  this  lat- 
 ter form  the  coins  that  have  been  discovered  appear  to 
 agree.     (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  281.) 
 
 Myle  or  Mylte,  now  Milazzo,  was  situate  on  a 
 tongue  of  land  southwest  of  Pelorum,  on  the  northern 
 coast  of  Sicily.  Between  this  place  and  a  station 
 called  Naulochus,  the  fleet  of  Se.xtus  Pompeius  was 
 defeated  by  that  of  the  triumvir  Octavius,  under  the 
 command  of  Agrippa.  (Thucyd.,  3,  90. — Plin.,  3,  8. 
 —  Veil.  Palcrc,  2,  79.)  Reichard  makes  Myls  an- 
 swer to  the  modern  MclilLi.     (Thcs.  ;  tab.  Sic.) 
 
 Mylitta,  a  surname  of  Venus  among  the  Assyri- 
 an's. (Herod.,  1,  131,  199. — Consult  the  remarks  of 
 Rhode,  Heilige  Sage  der  alien  Baktrer,  Mcder,  vnd 
 Perscr,  p.  279,  scqq.  —  Dulaurc,  Hist,  dcs  CuUcs, 
 vol.  2,  p.  190,  seqg.) 
 
 Myndus,  a  maritime  town  of  Caria,  northwest  of 
 Halicarnassus,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  peninsula 
 86G 
 
 below  the  Sinus  lassius.  It  was  fcunded  by  a  colo» 
 ny  from  Troezene  (Pausan.,  2,  30),  and  appears  to 
 have  been  at  no  great  distance  from  Halicarjjaasiis, 
 since  Alexander  marched  over  the  intervening  space 
 in  one  night  with  a  part  of  his  troops.  (Arnan,  1, 
 24.)  The  city  was  a  strong  one,  and  Alexander 
 would  not  sto[)  to  besiege  it,  though  he  attempted, 
 but  without  success,  to  take  it  by  surprise.  Hiero- 
 cles gives  it,  probably  by  corruption,  the  name  of 
 Amyndus.  Pliny,  besides  Myndus,  speaks  of  Palse- 
 myndus  (5,  29) ;  and  perhaps  bis  Neapolis  is  no  other 
 than  the  new  town.  (Compare  Mela,  1,  16.) — "  We 
 can  hardly  doubt,"  remarks  Leake,  "  that  Myndus 
 stood  in  the  small  sheltered  port  of  Gm7iis hlu,  nhere 
 Captain  Beaufort  saw  the  remains  of  an  ancient  pier 
 at  the  entrance  of  the  port,  and  some  ruins  at  the 
 head  of  the  bay."  (Journal,  p.  228.)  Palsemyndus 
 may  have  been  situate,  as  Mannert  supposes,  near  the 
 Cape  Astypalaea  of  Strabo,  which  derived  its  name 
 probably  from  that  circumstance,  and  which  Cramer 
 takes  to  be  the  peninsula  of  Pasha  Linum ;  but  Myn- 
 dus itself  must  be  Mcnlesha.  (Cramer's  Asia  Minor, 
 vol.  2,  p.  176.) 
 
 Myonnesus,  I.  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  between 
 Teos  and  Lebetlus,  and  situated  on  a  high  peninsula. 
 [Strab.,  Gi3.—Liv.,  37,  27.)  The  hill  of  Myonne- 
 sus is  now  called  Hypsili-bounus,  and  is  described  by 
 modern  travellers  as  commanding  a  most  extensive 
 view  of  a  picturesque  country,  of  the  seacoast  and 
 island.  (Chandlei-'s  Travels,  p.  124.) — II.  A  small 
 island  off  the  coast  of  Phthiotis,  in  Thessaly,  and  be- 
 tween the  Artemisian  shore  of  Eubaea  and  the  main 
 land.  It  was  near  Aphetse.- — III.  One  of  the  small 
 islands  near  Ephesus,  which  Plmy  calls  the  Pisistrati 
 (5,31). 
 
 Myos  Hoemos  or  "  Mouse^s  Harbour,^'  a  seaport 
 of  Egypt,  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  Arrian  says 
 that  it  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  ports  on  this 
 sea.  It  was  chosen  by  Ptolemy  Philadeiphus  for  the 
 convenience  of  commerce,  in  preference  to  Arsinoe 
 (or  Suez),  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  navigating 
 the  western  extremity  of  the  gulf  It  was  called  also 
 Aphrodites  partus,  or  the  port  of  Venus.  It  is  full  of 
 little  isles,  and  its  modern  name  of  Suffangc-el-Bahri, 
 or  "  the  sponge  of  the  sea,"  has  an  evident  analogy  to 
 the  etymology  of  the  second  of  the  Greek  names  giv- 
 en above,  from  the  vulgar  error  of  sponge  being  the 
 foam  of  the  sea,  and  Venus  (.\phrodite)  having  been 
 fabled  to  have  sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  ocean. 
 (From  suffangc  our  English  term  is  s'funge,  s'pliungc, 
 spunge.)  The  situation  of  Myos  Horinos  is  deter- 
 mined by  three  islands,  which  Agatharchides  men- 
 tions, known  to  modern  navigators  by  the  name  of 
 the  Jaffctcens,  and  its  latitude  is  fixed,  with  little  fluc- 
 tuation, in  27°  0'  0",  by  D'Anville,  Bruce,  and  De  la 
 Rochette.  (Vincent,  Pcriplus,  p.  78.)  The  entrance 
 is  said  to  be  very  crooked  and  winding,  on  account  of 
 the  islands  lying  in  front  ;■  and  hence,  perhaps,  may 
 have  arisen  the  ancient  appellation,  the  harbour  being 
 compared  to  a  mouse's  hole.  (Bruce,  vol.  7,  p.  314, 
 8vo  cd.) 
 
 Myra  (orum  or  ce),  a  town  of  Lycia,  near  the 
 southern  coast,  southwest  of  Limyra  and  west  of  the 
 Sacrum  Promontorium.  It  was  situate  on  the  brow 
 of  a  lofty  hill,  at  the  distance  of  twenty  stadia  from  the 
 shore.  (Strabo,  664.)  According  to  Artemidorus 
 (ap.  Strab.,  I.  c),  it  was  one  of  the  six  most  impor- 
 tant cities  of  the  country.  The  Emperor  Theodosius 
 II.  made  it  finally  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Lycia 
 (Malala,  14. — Hierocles,  p.  684),  as  it  was  about  this 
 period  the  most  distinguished  city  in  the  land.  (Ba- 
 sil, Seleuc,  Vit.  S.  ThcclcB,  1.  1,  p.  272.)  Myra,  ac- 
 cording to  Leake,  still  preserves  its  ancient  name. 
 The  distance  of  the  ruins  from  the  sea  is  said  to  cor- 
 respond very  accurately  with  the  measurement  of 
 Strabo.     (Journal,  p.  183,  321.) 
 
MYR 
 
 M  YS 
 
 Myriandros,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  Bay  of 
 Issus,  below  Aiexandrea  (Kara  'laaov),  which  Xeno- 
 phon  {Anab.,  1,  4)  places  in  Syria  beyond  the  Pylse 
 Cilicice  ;"  but  Scylax  includes  it  within  the  limits  of 
 Cilicia  (p.  40),  as  well  as  Sirabo,  who  says  that  Se- 
 Jcucia  of  Pieria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes,  was 
 the  first  Syrian  town  beyond  the  Gulf  of  Issus.  lb 
 was  a  place  of  considerable  trade  in  the  time  of  the 
 Persian  dominion.  Xenophon  speaks  of  the  number 
 of  merchant  vessels  here.  It  declined  at  a  later  pe- 
 riod, in  consequence  of  its  vicinity  to  the  more  flour- 
 ishing city  of  Aiexandrea.  It  appears  to  have  been 
 originally  a  Phoenician  settlement.  (Xoi.,  I.  c. — Scy- 
 lax, I.  c.)  The  modern  name  is  not  given  by  any  trav- 
 eller. 
 
 Myrina,  I.  a  city  and  harbour  of  ^olis,  in  Asia 
 Minor,  forty  stadia  to  the  north  of  Cyma.  (Sirabo, 
 621.)  According  to  Mela  (1,  18),  it  was  the  oldest 
 of  the  ^Eohan  cities,  and  received  its  name  from  My- 
 rinus  its  founder.  Pliny  (5,  30)  states  that  it  after- 
 ward assumed  the  name  of  Sebastopolis,  of  which, 
 however,  no  trace  appears  on  its  coins.  Philip,  kmg 
 of  Macedonia  (son  of  Demetrius),  held  possession  of 
 it  for  some  time,  with  a  view  to  future  operations  in 
 Asia  Minor  ;  but,  being  vanquished  by  the  Romans, 
 he  was  compelled  by  that  people  to  evacuate  the 
 place.  {Polijb.,  18,  27.  — Liv., -33,  30.)  Hierocles 
 makes  mention  of  this  city  at  a  later  period  (p.  661), 
 after  which  we  lose  sight  of  it.  It  was  the  native 
 place  of  Agathias.  Choiseul  Gouffier  gives  the  mod- 
 ern name  as  Sandarlik. — II.  A  city  on  the  north- 
 western coast  of  Lemnos,  and  one  of  the  principal 
 places  in  the  island.  It  was  situate  on  the  side  look- 
 ing towards  Mount  Athos,  since  Pliny  reports  (4,  12) 
 that  the  shadow  of  the  mountains  was  visible  in  the 
 forum  of  this  city  at  the  time  of  the  summer  solstice. 
 — Myrina  alone  offered  resistance  to  Miliiades  when 
 that  general  went  against  Lemnos.  It  was  taken, 
 however,  by  his  forces.  (Herod.,  6,  140.  —  Steph. 
 Bijz.,  s.  V.  l^ivpLva.)  The  ruins  of  this  town  are  still 
 to  be  seen.  On  its  site  stands  the  modern  Castro. 
 (Walpoles  Collection,  vol.  1,  p.  54.) — III.  A  town  of 
 Crete,  north  of  Lyctus.  (Pliny,  4,  12.)  It  still  re- 
 tains its  ancient  name.  (Cramer^s  Anc.  Greece,  vol. 
 3,  p.  393.) 
 
 MyrInus,  a  surname  of  Apollo,  from  Myrina  in 
 .iEolia,  where  he  was  worshipped. 
 
 Myrmecides,  an  artist  of  Miletus,  mentioned  as 
 making  chariots  so  small  that  they  were  covered  by 
 the  wing  of  a  fly.  He  also  inscribed  an  elegiac  distich 
 on  a  grain  of  sesamum.  (Cic,  Acad.,  4.  —  JElian, 
 V.  H.,  1,  n.  —  Pcrizon,  ad  loc.  —  Sillig,  Diet.  Art., 
 s.  V.) 
 
 Myrmidones,  a  people  on  the  southern  borders  of 
 Thessaly,  who  accompanied  Achilles  to  the  Trojan 
 war.  They  received  their  name,  according  to  one 
 account,  from  Myrmidon,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Eury- 
 medusa,  who  married  one  of  the  daughters  of  .^olus, 
 and  whose  son  Actor  married  .-Egina,  the  daughter 
 of  the  Asopus.  According  to  some,  the  Myrmidons 
 were  so  called  from  their  having  been  originally  ants, 
 uvpai]KEr.  (Vid.  .•Eacus.)  This  change  froin  aiits 
 to  men  is  founded  merely  upon  the  equivocation  of 
 their  name,  which  resembles  that  of  the  ant  (/ivp/ir]^). 
 (Ovid,  Met.,  7,  Qo'i.  —  Slrah.—Hygin.,fab.,  .53.) 
 
 Myron,  a  celebrated  statuary  and  engraver  on  sil- 
 ver, who  lived  in  Olymp.  87.  Pausanias  styles  him 
 an  .-\tlienian  (6,  2,  1).  The  reason  of  this  is  satis- 
 factorily explained  by  Thiersch.  (Epoch.  Art.  Gr.,  2, 
 Adnot.,  64  )  Myron  rendered  himself  particularly  fa- 
 mous by  his  statue  of  a  cow,  so  true  to  nature  that 
 bulls  approached  her  as  if  she  were  alive.  This  is 
 frequently  alluded  to  among  the  cpigrains  in  the  An- 
 thology. (Sonnlag,  Un/.erhalt.,  vol.  1,  p.  100. — Bdt- 
 tiger,  Andeutung.,  p.  144. —  Goethe,  ucber  Kunst  und 
 Alterlhum.,  2,  p.  1. — Vid.  Lemnos  and  Athos.)— A 
 
 list  of  Myron's   productions    may  be  seen  iu   Silhg 
 (Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.). 
 
 Myrrha,  a  daughter  of  Cinyras,  king  of  Cyprus. 
 She  had  a  son  by  her  own  father,  called  Adonis. 
 When  Cinyras  was  apprized  of  the  crime  he  had  un- 
 knowingly committed,  he  attempted  to  stab  his  daugh- 
 ter, but  Myrrha  fled  into  Arabia,  where  she  was  chan- 
 ged into  a  tree  called  myrrh.  (Hygin.,  fab.,  58,  275. 
 —Ovid,  Met.,  10,  298.) 
 
 MvRTiLUs,  a  son  of  Mercury  and  Phaelliusa,  chari- 
 oteer to  GEnomaus.  (Vid.  Hippodamia,  CEnomaus, 
 and  Pelops.) 
 
 MvRTis,  a  Grecian  female  of  distinguished  poetical 
 abilities,  who  flourished  about  500  B.C.  She  was 
 born  at  Anthedon,  in  Boeotia.  Pindar  is  said  to  have 
 received  his  first  instructions  in  the  poetic  art  from 
 her,  and  it  was  during  the  period  of  his  attendance 
 upon  her  that  he  became  acquainted  with  Corinna, 
 who  was  also  a  pupil  of  Myrtis.  Several  of  her  pro- 
 ductions were  still  remaining  in  the  age  of  Plutarch, 
 though  none  exist  now.  The  story  of  her  having  giv- 
 en instruction  in  the  poetic  art  to  Corinna  and  Pindar 
 does  not  seem  consistent  with  the  reproach  which  the 
 former  addresses  to  her  for  having  ventured  to  con- 
 tend with  the  latter.  (  Voss,  Excerpt,  ex  Apoll.  Dys- 
 col. — Maittaire,  Dial,  cd.  Sturz.,  p.  546.)  A  statue 
 of  bronze  was  raised  in  honour  of  her. 
 
 Myrtoum  Mare,  that  part  of  the^Egean  which  lay 
 between  the  coast  of  Argolis  and  Attica.  (Strabo, 
 233. — Id.,  375.)  Pausanias  states  that  it  was  so 
 called  from  a  woman  named  Myrto  (8,  14. —  Cra- 
 mer^s  Anc.  Greece,  \o\.  1,  p.  7). 
 
 MvRTUNTiUM,  I.  an  inland  lake  of  Acarnania,  below 
 Anaclorium  ;  the  water  of  which,  however,  is  salt,  as 
 it  communicates  with  the  sea.  It  is  now  called  Mur- 
 tari.  (Sirabo,  459.) — II.  A  town  of  Elis,  originally 
 named  Myrsinus,  and  classed  by  Homer,  under  this 
 latter  appellation,  among  the  Epean  towns.  It  was 
 about  seventy  stadia  from  the  city  of  Elis,  on  the 
 road  from  thence  to  Dyme,  and  near  the  sea.  (Strabo, 
 341.)  The  ruins  of  this,  ancient  place  probably  cor- 
 respond with  the  vestiges  of  high  antiquity  observed 
 by  Sir  W.  Gell  near  the  village  of  Kaloteic.hos,  on  the 
 road  from  Kapeletti  to  Palaiopoli.?.  (Itin.  of  the  Mo- 
 rca,  p.  31. —  Cramers  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  82, 
 scqq.) 
 
 Mvs,  I.  a  celebrated  engraver  on  silver,  whose  coun- 
 try is  uncertain.  According  to  the  statement  of  Pau- 
 sanias (1,  28,  2),  he  must  have  ibeen  contemporary 
 with  Phidias.  Mys  carved  the  battle  between  the 
 Centaurs  and  Lapithae  on  the  shield  held  by  the  Mi- 
 nerva of  Phidias.  (Pausan.,  I.  c.)  As  regards  the 
 anachronism  committed  by  Pausanias  in  the  passage 
 just  referred  to,  and  which  makes  Parrhasius  to  have 
 assisted  Phidias  about  Olymp.  84,  consult  the  remark.s 
 of  Sillig  (Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.)— II.  A  slave  and  follower  of 
 Epicurus.  The  philosopher  manumitted  him  by  his 
 will.     (Diog.  Laert.,  10,  3. — Menag.,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Mysia,  a  country  of  .\sia  Minor,  lying  to  the  north 
 of  Lydia  and  west  of  Bithynia.  It  is  extremely  diffi- 
 cult,'as  Strabo  had  already  observed,  to  assign  to  the 
 Mysians  their  precise  limits,  since  these  appear  to  have 
 varied  continually  from  the  lime  of  Homer,  and  are 
 very  loosely  marked  by  all  the  ancient  geographers 
 from  Scylax  to  Ptolemv.  Strabo  conceives,  that  the 
 Homeric  boundaries  of  the  lesser  Mysia  were  the  /Ese- 
 pus  to  the  west  and  Bithynia  to  the  ea.'^t  (Slrab.,  564); 
 but  Scylax  removes  them  considerably  to  the  east  of 
 this  position  by  placing  the  Mysians  on  the  Gull  of 
 Cius.  (PeripL,  p.  35.)  Ptolemy,  on  the  other  hand, 
 has  extended  the  Mvsian  territory  to  the  west  as  far 
 as  Lamosacus,  while  to  the  east  he  separates  it  from 
 Bithynia  by  the  river  Rhyndacus.  It  was  the  preva.I- 
 incr  opinion,  of  antiquity,  that  the  Mysians  were  not  an 
 indi<Tenous  people  of  Asia,  but  that  they  had  been 
 transplanted  to  its  shores  from  the  banks  of  the  Dau- 
 
MYSIA. 
 
 NAB 
 
 ube,  where  the  original  race  maintained  itself  under 
 the  name  of  Moesi,  by  which  they  were  known  to  the 
 Romans  for  several  centuries  after  the  Christian  era. 
 (Strab.,  303. — Artem.,  ap.  cund.,  571.)     Nor  is  that 
 opinion  at  variance  with   the  tradition  which   looked 
 upon  this  people  as  of  a  kindred  race  with  the  Carians 
 and  Lydians,  since  these  two  nations  were  likewise 
 supposed  to  have  come  from  Thrace  {Herod  .,  1,  172. — 
 Strut.,  CS9) ;   nor  with  another,  which  regarded  them 
 in  particular  as  descended  from  the  Lydiaiis,  in  whose 
 language  the  word  mijsos  signified  "  a  beech,"  which 
 tree,  it  was  farther  observed,  abounded  in  the  woods 
 of   the  Mysian   Olympus.     Strabo,  who    has  copied 
 these  particulars  from  Xanthus  the  Lydian,  and  Me- 
 necrales  of  Elaja,  states  also,  on  their  authority,  that 
 the  Mysian  dialect  was  a  mixture  of  those  of  Phrygia 
 and    Lydia.     {Strab.,    572.) — We   may  collect    from 
 Herodotus  that  the  Mysians  were  already  a  numerous 
 and  powerful  peo()le  before  the  Trojan  war,  since  he 
 speaks  of  a  vast  expedition  having  been  undertaken  by 
 them,  in  conjuncuon  with  the  Teucri,  into  Europe,  in 
 the  course  of  vvhich  they  subjugated  the  whole  of  Thrace 
 and  Macedonia,  as  far  as  the  Peneus  and  the  Ionian 
 Sea.     {Herod.,  7,  20,  75.)     Subsequently,  however, 
 to  this  period,  the  date  of  which  is  very  remote  and 
 uncertain,  it  appears  that  the  Mysi  were  confined  in 
 Asia   Minor  within   limits  which  correspond  but  lit- 
 tle with  such  extensive  conquests.     Strabo  is  inclined 
 to  suppose  that  their  primary  seat  in  that  country  was 
 the  district  which  surrounds  Mount  Olympus,  whence 
 he  thinks  they  were  afterward  driven  by  the  Phrygians, 
 and  forced  to  retire  to  the  banks  of  the  Caicus,  where 
 the  Arcadian  Telephus  became  their  king.     {Eurip., 
 ap.  ArisLot.,  Rhct.,  3,  2. — Sirah.,  572. — Hijgin.,  fab., 
 101  )     But  it  appears  from  Herodotus  that  they  still 
 occupied  the  Olympian  district  in  the  time  of  Croesus, 
 whose  subjects  they  had  become,  and  whose  aid  they 
 retjuested  to  destroy  the  wild  boar  which  ravaged  their 
 country  (I,  36).     Strabo  himself  also  recognises  the 
 division  of  this  people  into  the  Mysians  of  Mount  Olym- 
 pus and   those  of  the  Caicus  (571).     These  two  dis- 
 tricts answer  respectively  to  the  Mysia  Minor  and  Ma- 
 jor of  Ptolemy.     Homer  enumerates  the  Mysi  among 
 the  allies  of  Priam  in  several  passages,  but  he  nowhere 
 defines  their  territory,  or  even  names  their  towns ;  in 
 one  place,  indeed,  he  evidently  assigns  to  them  a  sit- 
 uation among  the  Thracians  of  Europe.     (//.,  13,  5.) 
 ■ — The  Mysians  of  Asia  had   become   subject  to  the 
 Lydian  monarchs  in  the  reign  of  Alyattes,  father  to 
 Crcesus,  and  perhaps  earlier,  as  appears  from  a  pas- 
 sage of  Nicolaus  Damasoenus,  who  reports  that  Croe- 
 sus had  been  appointed  to  the  government  of  the  ter- 
 ritory of  Adramyitium  and  the  Theban   plain  during 
 the  reign  of  his   father.     {Creuzcr,  Hi.'sl.  Frag.,  p. 
 203.)     Sirabo    even  affirms    that  Troas  was  already 
 subjected  in  the  reign  of  Gyges.     {Slrab.,  590.)     On 
 the  dissolution  of  the  Lydian  empire,  they  passed,  to- 
 gether with  the  other  nations  of  Asia,  under  the  Per- 
 sian dominion,  and  formed  part  of  the  third  satrapy  in 
 the  division  made  by  Darius.     {Herod.,  3,  90. — Id., 
 7,  74.)     After  the  death  of  Alexander  they  were  an- 
 nexed to  the  Syrian  empire  ;  but,  on  the  defeat  of  An- 
 tiochus,  the  Romans  rewarded  the  services  of  Eume- 
 nes,  king  of  Pergamus,  with  the  grant  of  a  district  so 
 conveniently  situated  with  regard  to  his  own  dominions, 
 and  which   he  had   already  occupied  with   his  forces. 
 {Polyb.,  22,  27.— Lio.,  38,  39.)     At  a  later  period, 
 Mvsia  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  ])roconsular  prov- 
 ince {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Quint.  Fr.,  1,  8);  but  under  the 
 emperors  it  formed  a  separate  district,  and  was  govern- 
 ed by  a  procurator.     {Alhcnceus,  9,  p.  398,  e.)     It  is 
 to  be  observed,  also,  that  St.  Luke,  in  the  Acts,  dis- 
 tinguishes Mysia  from  the  neighbouring  provinces  of 
 Bithynii  and  Troas  (16,  7,  seq.}. — The  Greeks  have 
 BtigmatizfHl   the  Mysians  as  a  cowardly  and  imbecile 
 race,  who  would  suffer  themselves  to  be  injured  and 
 S68 
 
 plundered  by  their  neighbours  in  the  most  passive  man- 
 ner. Hence  the  proverbial  expression  Mvauv  2.eia, 
 uted  by  Demosthenes  {De  Cor.,  p.  248,  23)  and  Ari»- 
 toile  {Rhet.,  1,  12,  20),  to  which  Cicero  also 'alludes 
 when  he  says,  "  Quid  porro  in  Grace  sermmic  lam  tri- 
 tum  atque  celcbralum  est,  quam,  si  yuis  despuatui 
 ducilur,  ut  Mysorum  ullimus  esse  dicalur  V  {Pro 
 Flacc,  c.  27.)  Elsewhere  the  same  writer  describes 
 them  as  a  tribe  of  barbarians,  without  taste  for  litera- 
 ture and  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  (Oral.,  c.  8. — Cra- 
 ?HtT's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  30,  seqq.) 
 
 Mysius,  a  river  of  Mysia,  which  lalls  into  the  Cai 
 cus  near  the  source  of  the  latter  river.  Manncrt  takes 
 it  for  the  true  Caicus  in  the  early  part  of  its  course. 
 {Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  397.) 
 
 MvsTEs,  a  son  of  the  poet  Valgius,  whose  early 
 death  was  so  deeply  lamented  by  the  father  that  Hor- 
 ace wrote  an  ode  to  allay  the  grief  of  his  friend.  {Ho- 
 rat.,  Od,  2,  9.) 
 
 Mytilene.      Vid.  Mitylene. 
 
 Myus  (gen.  Myunlis),  the  smallest  of  all  the  Ionian 
 cities,  as  appears  from  its  only  contributing  three  ves- 
 sels to  the  united  fleet  of  350  sail.  (Herod  ,6,8.)  It 
 was  situate,  according  to  Strabo,  on  the  southern  bank 
 of  the  Maeander,  thirty  stadia  from  its  mouth.  (Slrab., 
 636.)  The  Mceander  was  not  navigable  for  large  ves- 
 sels, and  to  this  circumstance  may  principally  be  as- 
 cribed the  inferior  rank  of  Myus  among  her  Ionian  sis- 
 ters in  point  of  opulence  and  power.  The  inundations 
 of  the  river,  too,  must  have  been  very  injurious.  Myus 
 was  founded  by  the  lonians  about  the  same  time  with 
 Priene  (Fausan.,  7,  2),  and  was  subsequently  under 
 the  immediate  sway  of  the  Persians,  since  it  was  one 
 of  the  cities  given  by  Artaxerxes  to  Themistocles. 
 (Died.  Sic,  11,  57.)  The  city  afterward  sank  great- 
 ly in  importance.  It  became  subjected  also  to  a  very 
 annoying  kind  of  visitation.  The  sea  would  seem  to 
 have  formed  originally  a  small  bay  as  far  as  Myus. 
 This  bay,  in  process  of  time,  became  converted  by  tho 
 depositions  of  the  Maeander  into  a  fresh-water  lake, 
 and  so  great  a  number  of  gnats  was  in  consequence 
 produced,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  determined 
 to  migrate.  The  Ionian  confederacy,  upon  this,  trans- 
 ferred the  vote  and  the  population  of  Myus  to  the  city 
 of  Miletus.  (Fausan.,  7,  2.) — The  ruins  of  Myus  are 
 called  at  the  present  day  Falatsha  (the  Palace),  from 
 the  remains  of  an  ancient  theatre,  mistaken  by  the  pres- 
 ent inhabitants  around  for  the  ruins  of  a  palace.  (Man  • 
 nert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  262,  seqq.) 
 
 N. 
 
 Nabath.«a,  a  country  of  Arabia  Petraea.  It  ex- 
 tended from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Sinus  Arabicus. 
 The  Nabathsans  are  scarcely  known  in  Scripture  un- 
 til the  time  of  the  Maccabees.  Their  name  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  derived  from  that  of  Nebaioth,  son  of  Ish- 
 mael.  {Genesis,2h,  l3.—Ibid.,2S,9.—Isaiah,70,7.) 
 — In  the  time  of  Augustus  they  were  a  powerful  peo- 
 ple; but  their  kingdom,  of  which  Petra  was  the  cap- 
 ital, ended  about  the  reign  of  Trajan.  At  a  still  later 
 period  their  territory  belonged  to  Palaestina  Terlia. 
 Nabathsea  appears  to  correspond  to  the  modern  Hed- 
 schas.     (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  165,  ,^£^17.) 
 
 Nabis,  a  tyrant  of  Lacedtemon,  who  usurped  the  su- 
 preme power  after  the  death  of  Machanidas,  B.C.  205. 
 He  appears  to  have  been  a  man  surpassing  all  former 
 tyrants  in  the  monstrous  and  unheard-of  wickedness 
 that  characterized  his  rule.  From  the  very  first  he 
 deliberately  grounded  his  power  on  a  regular  system  of 
 rapine  and  bloodshed;  he  slew  or  banished  all  in  Spar- 
 ta who  were  distinguished  either  for  birth  or  fortune,  and 
 distributed  their  wives  and  their  estates  among  his  own 
 mercenaries,  to  whom  he  entirely  trusted  for  support. 
 His  extortions  were  boundless,  and  death  with  torture 
 was  the  penalty  of  refusal.     No  source  of  gain  was 
 
NAB 
 
 N^  V 
 
 loo  mean  for  him  or  too  iniquitous.  He  partook  in 
 the  piracies  of  the  Cretans,  who  were  infamous  for 
 that  practice  ;  and  he  maintained  a  sort  of  alliance 
 with  the  most  noted  thieves  and  assassins  in  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus, on  the  condition  that  they  should  admit  him 
 to  a  share  in  their  gains,  while  he  should  give  them 
 refuge  and  protection  in  Sparta  whenever  they  needed 
 it.  It  is  said  that  he  invented  a  species  of  automaton, 
 made  to  resemble  his  wife,  and  that  he  availed  himself 
 of  this  as  an  instrument  of  torture  to  wrest  their  wealth 
 from  his  victims.  Whenever  he  had  summoned  any 
 opulent  citizen  to  his  palace,  in  order  to  procure  from 
 him  a  sum  of  money  for  the  pretended  exigences  of  the 
 state,  if  the  latter  was  unwdling  to  loan,  "Perhaps," 
 Nabis  would  say,  "  I  do  not  myself  possess  the  talent 
 requisite  for  persuading  you,  but  I  hope  that  Apega 
 (this  was  the  name  of  his  wife)  will  prove  more  suc- 
 cessful." He  then  caused  the  horrid  machine  to  be 
 brought  in,  which,  catching  the  unfortunate  victim  in 
 its  embrace,  pierced  him  with  sharp  iron  points  con- 
 cealed beneath  its  splendid  vestments,  and  tortured 
 him  into  compliance  by  the  most  excruciating  sufl'er- 
 ings. — Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  being  at  war  with  the 
 Romans,  made  an  alliance  with  Nabis,  and  resigned 
 into  his  hands  the  city  of  Argos  as  a  species  of  de- 
 posite.  Introduced  into  this  place  during  the  night, 
 the  tyrant  plundered  the  wealthy  citizens,  and  sought 
 to  seduce  the  lower  orders  by  proposing  a  general  abo- 
 lition of  debts  and  a  distribution  of  lands.  Foresee- 
 ing, however,  not  long  after  this,  that  the  issue  of  the 
 war  would  prove  unfavourable  for  Philip,  he  entered 
 into  secret  negotiations  with  the  Romans  in  order  to 
 assure  himself  of  the  possession  of  Argos.  This  per- 
 fidy, however,  was  unsuccessful  ;  and  Flamininus  the 
 Roman  commander,  after  having  concluded  a  peace 
 with  the  Kitig  of  Macedon,  advanced  to  lay  siege  to 
 Sparta.  The  army  which  Nabis  sent  against  him  hav- 
 ing been  defeated,  and  the  Romans  and  their  allies 
 having  entered  Laconia  and  made  themselves  masters 
 of  Gythium,  Nabis  was  forced  to  submit,  and,  besides 
 surrendering  Argos,  had  to  accept  such  terms  as  the  Ro- 
 man commander  was  pleased  to  impose.  Humiliated 
 by  these  reverses,  he  thought  of  nothing  but  regaining 
 his  former  power,  and  the  Roman  army  had  hardly  re- 
 tired from  Laconia  before  his  emissaries  were  actively 
 employed  in  inducing  the  maritime  cities  to  revolt.  At 
 last  he  took  up  arms  and  laid  siege  to  Gythium.  The 
 Achffians  sent  a  fleet  to  the  succour  of  the  place,  under 
 the  command  of  Philopcemen  ;  but  the  latter  was  de- 
 feated by  Nabis  in  a  naval  engagement,  who  thereupon 
 pressed  the  siege  of  Gythium  with  redoubled  vigour, 
 and  finally  made  himself  master  of  the  place.  The 
 tyrant,  however,  not  long  after  this,  experienced  a  to- 
 tal defeat  near  Sparta  from  the  land  forces  of  Philopoe- 
 men,  and  was  compelled  to  shut  himself  up  in  his  cap- 
 ital, while  the  Achsan  commander  ravaged  Laconia 
 for  thirty  days,  and  then  led  home  his  army.  Mean- 
 while Nabis  was  continually  urging  the  ^tolians, 
 whom  he  regarded  as  his  allies,  to  come  to  his  aid,  and 
 this  latter  people  finally  sent  a  body  of  troops,  under 
 the  command  of  Alctamenus  ;  but  they  sent  also  se- 
 cret orders  along  with  this  leader  to  despatch  Nabis 
 himself  on  the  first  opportunity.  Takino- advantaore  of 
 a  review-day,  on  which  occasions  Nabis  was  wont  to 
 ride  about  the  field  attended  by  only  a  few  followers, 
 Alexamenus  executed  his  instructions,  and  slew  Na- 
 bis, with  the  aid  of  some  chosen  ^Elolian  horsemen, 
 who  had  been  directed  by  the  council  at  home  to  obey 
 any  orders  which  Alexamcnus  might  give  them.  The 
 ^toliaii  commander,  however,  did  not  reap  the  advan- 
 tage which  he  expected  from  this  treachery  ;  for,  while 
 he  himself  was  searching  the  treasury  of  the  tyrant, 
 and  his  followers  were  pillaging  the  city,  the  inhabi- 
 tants fell  upon  them  and  cut  them  to  pieces.  Sparta 
 thereupon  joined  the  Achsan  league.  {Phu.,  Vit. 
 Philop. — Pausan.,  7,  8. — Biogr.  Univ.,\.  30,  p.  517.) 
 
 Nabon.4ssar,  a  king  of  Babylon,  who  lived  ahout 
 the  middle  of  the  8th  century  before  the  Christian  era, 
 and  who  gave  name  to  what  is  called  the  Nabonassa- 
 nan  era.  The  origin  of  this  era  is  thus  represented 
 by  Syncellus  from  the  accounts  of  Polyhistor  and  Bc- 
 rosus,  the  earliest  writers  extant  in  Chalda;an  history 
 and  antiquities.  "  Nabonassar,  having  collected  the 
 acts  of  his  predecessors,  destroyed  them,  in  order  that 
 the  computation  of  the  reigns  of  the  Chaldwan  kings 
 might  be  made  from  himself."  {SyncclL,  Chrono- 
 graph., p.  207.)  It  began,  therefore,  with  the  reign 
 of  Nabonassar  (Febr.  26,  B.C.  747).  The  form  of 
 year  employed  in  it  is  the  moveable  year  of  365  days, 
 consisting  of  12  equal  months  of  30  days,  and  five 
 supernumerary  days  ;  which  was  the  year  in  common 
 use  among  the  Chaldsans,  Egyptians,  Armenians, 
 Persians,  and  the  principal  Oriental  nations  from  the 
 earliest  times.  This  year  ran  through  all  the  seasons 
 in  the  course  of  1461  years.  The  freedom  of  the  Na- 
 bonassarean  year  from  intercalation  rendered  it  pecu- 
 liarly convenient  for  astronomical  calculation.  Hence 
 it  was  adopted  by  the  early  Greek  astronomers  Timo- 
 chares  and  Hipparchus  ;  and  by  those  of  the  Alexan- 
 drean  school,  Ptolemy,  &c.  In  consequence  of  this, 
 the  whole  historical  catalogue  of  reigns  has  been  com- 
 monly, though  improperly,  called  Ptolemy's  canon  ; 
 because  he  probably  continued  the  original  table  of 
 Chaldean  and  Persian  kings,  and  added  thereto  the 
 Egyptian  and  Roman  down  to  his  own  time.  {Hale's 
 A^ialysis  of  Chroiwlogy,  vol.  1,  p.  155,  scqq.,  8vo  cd.) 
 — Foster,  in  his  epistle  concerning  the  Chaldseans,  as 
 given  by  Michaelis  (Spicilcgmm  Geographic  Hcbra~ 
 orutn,  vol.  2,  p.  102),  seeks  to  explain  the  name  Nabo- 
 nassar on  the  supposition  of  an  affinity  between  the 
 ancient  Chaldee  language  and  the  Sclavonic  tongue. 
 According  to  him,  it  is  equivalent  to  Nchu-7iash-tzar, 
 which  means.  Our  Lord  in  Heaven.  This  etymology 
 has  been  impugned  by  some,  on  the  ground  that  the 
 Russian  term  for  emperor  or  king  is  written  Czar, 
 and  is  nothing  more  than  a  corruption  for  Cccsar. 
 Unfortunately,  however  for  this  very  plausible  objec- 
 tion, the  Russian  term  in  question  is  written  with  an 
 initial  Tsui  or  Ts  (Tsar),  and  cannot,  therefore,  by  any 
 possibility,  come  from  Casar.  (Consult  Schmidl''s 
 Russian  and  German  Diet.,  s.  v) 
 
 Nabopolassar,  a  king  of  Babylon,  who  united  with 
 Astyages  against  Assyria,  which  country  they  con- 
 quered, and,  having  divided  it  between  them,  founded 
 two  kingdoms,  that  of  the  Medes  under  Astyages, 
 and  that  of  the  Chalda:ans  under  Nabopolassar,  B.C. 
 626.  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  jealous  of  the  power  of 
 the  latter,  declared  war  against  and  defeated  him.  Na- 
 bopolassar died  after  a  reign  of  21  years.  The  name, 
 according  to  Foster,  is  equivalent  to  Nebu-polezi-tzar, 
 which  means,  Our  Lord  divclls  in  Heaven.  (Consult 
 remarks  near  the  close  of  the  article  Nabonassar) 
 
 N.<BNiA  or  Nenia,  a  goddess  among  the  Romans 
 who  presided  over  funerals.  She  had  a  chapel  with- 
 out the  Porta  Viminalis.  {Fcstus,  s.  v.  —  Compare 
 Arnob.,  4,  p.  131. — Augustin.,  de  Civ.  Dei,  6,  9.)  — 
 The  term  is  more  commonly  employed  to  denote  a 
 funeral-dirge.      {Fcslns,  s.  v) 
 
 N.T.vius,  I.  Cnanis,  a  native  of  Campania,  was  the 
 first  imitator  of  the  regular  dramatic  works  which  had 
 been  produced  by  Livius  Andronicus.  He  served  in 
 the  first  Punic  war,  and  his  earliest  plays  were  repre- 
 sented at  Rome  in  A.U.C.  519,  B.C.  235.  (Aid.  GelL, 
 17,  21.)  The  names  of  his  tragedies  (of  which  as  few 
 fragments  remain  as  of  those  of  Livius)  are  siill  pre- 
 served :  Alcestis,  from  which  there  is  yet  extant  a  de- 
 scription of  old  age  in  rugged  and  barbarous  verse, 
 Da.nde,  Dulorestcs,  Hesiona,  Heclnr,  Iphigenia,  Ly- 
 curgus,  Phairasscc,  Protcsilaus,  and  Telephus.  All 
 these  were  translated  or  close'y  imitated  from  the 
 works  of  Euripides,  Anaxandndes,  and  other  Greek 
 dramatists.     Nsvius,  however,  was  accounted  a  bet- 
 
 869 
 
N  AH 
 
 NAR 
 
 icT  comic  than  tragic  poet.     Cicero  has  given  us  some 
 epecimciis  of  his  jests,  with  which  he  appears  to  have 
 been  greatly  amused  ;   but  they  consist  rather  in  un- 
 expected turns  of  expression,  or  a  play  of  words,  tiian 
 in  genuine  humour.     Najvius,  in  some  of  his  comedies, 
 indulged  too  much  in  personal   invective  and  satire, 
 especially  against,  the  elder  Seipio.     Eticouraged  by 
 the  silence  of  this  illustrious  individual,  he  nc.\t  at- 
 tacked the  patrician  family  of  the  Metelli.     The  poet 
 Vk'as  thrown  into  prison  for  this  last  offence,  where  he 
 v\rote  his  comedies,  the  Hariolus  -dnii  Lc<mtcs.     These 
 l;eing  in  some  measure  intended   as  a  recantation  of 
 h;s  former  nivectives,  he  was  liberated  by  the  tribunes 
 of  the  commons.      Relapsing  soon  after,  however,  into 
 his  former  courses,  and  continuing  to  satirize  the  no- 
 bility, he  was  driven  from  Rome   by  their  influence, 
 and  retired  to  Carthage,  where  he  died,  according  to 
 Cicero,  A.U.C.  550,  B  C.  204;  but  Varro  li.\es  his 
 death  somewhat  later. — Besides  his  comedies,  Naevius 
 was  also  author  of  the  Cyprian  Iliad,  a  translation  from 
 a  Greek  poem  called  the   Cyprian  Epic.     Whoever 
 may  have  written  this  Cyprian  Epic,  it  contained  12 
 books,  and  was  probably  a  work  of  amorous  and  ro- 
 mantic fiction.      It  commenced  with  the  nuptials  of 
 Thetis,  and  Peleus  ;    it  related  the  contention  of  the 
 three  goddesses  on  Mount  Ida  ;    the  fables  concern- 
 ing Palamedes  ;   the  story  of  the  daughters  of  Anius; 
 and  the  love  adventures  of  the   Phrygian  fair  during 
 the  early  period  of  the  siege  of  Troy  ;   and  it  termina- 
 ted with  the  council  of  the  gods,  at  which  it  was  re- 
 solved  that  Achilles  should    be  withdrawn  from  the 
 war,  by  sowing  dissensions  between  him  and  Atrides. 
 — Some  modern  critics  think  that  the  Cyprian  Iliad 
 was  rather  the  work  of  Lrevius,  a  poet  who  lived  some 
 timo  after  Najvius,  since  the  lines  preserved  from  the 
 Cyprian  Iliad   are  hexameters  ;    a  measure   not  else- 
 where used  by  Najvius,  nor  introduced  into  Italy,  ac- 
 cording to  their  supposition,  before  the  time  of  Ennius. 
 (Osaiin,   AnalccL.    Cril.,    p.    36.  —  Hermann,  Elcm. 
 IJoctr.  Metr.,  p.  210,  ed,.  Glasg.)  —  A  metrical  chron- 
 icle, which  chiefly  related  the  events  of  the  first.  Punic 
 war,  was  another,  and  probably  the  last  work  of  Naevi- 
 iis,  since  Cicero  says  {Dc  Sencct.,  c.  14)  that  in  wri- 
 ting it  he  filled  up  the  leisure  of  his  latter  days  with 
 wonderful  complacency  and  satisfaction.      It  was  ori- 
 ginally undivided;   but,  after  his  death,  was  separated 
 into  seven  books.     {Suet.,  de  Illustr.  Gramm.) — Al- 
 though the  first  Punic  war  was  the  principal  subject, 
 as  appears  from  its  announcement, 
 
 "  Qui  terra'i  Latia'i  hcmones  tuserunt 
 Vires  fraudesque  Poinicas  fahor,'" 
 
 yet  it  also  afforded  a  rapid  sketch  of  the  preceding  inci- 
 dents of  Roman  history. — Cicero  mentions  {Brutus,  c. 
 19)  that  Eimius,  though  he  classes  Naevius  among  the 
 fauns  and  rustic  bards,  had  borrowed,  or.  if  he  refused 
 to  acknowledge  his  obligations,  had  pilfered  many  or- 
 naments from  his  predecessor.  In  the  same  passage, 
 Cicero,  while  he  admits  that  Ennius  was  the  more  fin- 
 ished and  elegant  writer,  bears  testimony  to  the  merit 
 of  the  older  bard,  and  declares  that  the  Punic  warof 
 this  antiquated  poet  afforded  him  a  pleasure  as  exqui- 
 site as  the  finest  statue  that  was  ever  formed  by  Myron. 
 To  judge,  however,  from  the  lines  that  remain,  though 
 in  general  too  much  broken  to  enable  us  e\en  to  divine 
 their  meaning,  the  style  and  language  of  Nasvius  in 
 this  work  were  more  rugged  and  remote  from  modern 
 Latin  than  his  plays  or  satires,  and  infinitely  more  so 
 than  the  dramas  of  Livius  Andronicus.  The  whole, 
 too,  is  written  in  the  rough  Saturnian  verse.  {Diailop, 
 Roman  Litcralvrc,  vol.  1,  p.  74,  scqq.) — II.  An  augur 
 in  the  reign  of  Tarquin,  more  correctly  Navius.  (  Vid. 
 Attus  Navius.) 
 
 Naharvali,  a  people  of  Germany,  ranked  by  Tacitus 
 under   the  Lygii  {Germ.,  43).     According  to  Kruse 
 {Archiv  fur  aUc  Geo^ravhie)  and  Wersebe  {itber  die 
 874 
 
 Vblker  des  Allen  Teul.schlands),  they  dwelt  in  what 
 is  now  Upper  Lusalia  and  Silesia.  Wilhelm,  how- 
 ever (G£r;na«ie?i  und  Seine  Beicohner),  phces  them  in 
 Poland  on  the  Vistula,  and  Reichard  between  the 
 Wurtha  and   Vistula. 
 
 Naiades,  certain  inferior  deities  who  presided  over 
 rivers,  brooks,  springs,  and  fountains.  Their  name  is 
 derived  from  vaiw,  *•  to  flow,"  as  indicative  of  the  gen- 
 tle motion  of  water.  The  Naiades  are  generally  repre- 
 sented as  young  and  beautiful  virgins,  leaning  upon  an 
 urn,  from  which  flows  a  stream  of  water.  They  were 
 held  in  great  veneration  among  the  ancients,  and  sac- 
 rifices of  goats  and  lambs  were  offered  them,  with  liba- 
 tions of  wine,  honey,  and  oil.  Sometimes  they  re- 
 ceived only  offerings  of  milk,  fruit,  and  flowers.  {Vzd. 
 Nymphse.) 
 
 Naissus,  a  city  of  Dacia  Mediterranea,  southwest  of 
 Ratiaria.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Constantine  the 
 Great.  Reichard  identifies  it  with  the  modern  Nczza 
 or  Nissa,  in  the  southern  part  of  Servia.  The  name 
 is  sometimes  written  Naisus  and  Naesus.  {Const. 
 Porphjr.,  de  Them.,  2,  9.  —Zosim.,  3,  11. — Anion., 
 Inn.,  p.  \Z^.—Amm.  MarcelL,  21,  10.) 
 
 Namnetes  or  Nannetes  {Stral.  Nafj-viraL — Ptol. 
 ^ujivjjTal),  a  people  of  Gallia  Celtica,  on  the  north 
 bank  of  the  Ligor  oi  Loire,  near  its  mouth.  Their 
 capital  was  Condivicnum,  afterward  Namnetes,  now 
 Nanics  {Nantz).  Their  city  is  sometimes  (as  in 
 Greg.  Tur.,  6,  15)  called  Civitas  Namnetica. 
 
 Nantuates,  a  people  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the 
 south  of  the  Lacus  Lemanus  or  Lake  of  Gejicva. 
 {CcEs.,  B.  G.,  4,  10.) 
 
 NAPi^^,  certain  divinities  among  the  ancients  who 
 presided  over  the  forests  and  groves.  Their  name  is 
 derived  from  vuirri,  "a  grove.'"  {Virgil,  Georg.,  4, 
 535.) 
 
 Nar,  a  river  of  Italy,  rising  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Fiscellus,  in  that  part  of  the  chain  of  the  Apennines 
 which  separates  the  Sabines  from  Picenum  {Plin.,  3, 
 12),  and,  after  receiving  the  Velinus  and  several  other 
 smaller  rivers,  falling  into  the  Tiber  near  Ocriculum. 
 {Virg.,  Mn.,  7,  51&.—SU.  Hal,  8,  453.)  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  the  Ncra.  It  was  noted  for  its  sulphurous 
 stream  and  the  whitish  colour  of  its  waters.  ( Vtrg.,  I. 
 c.—Sil.  Ital.,  I.  c.—Plin.,  3,  5,  12.)  "The  Nera," 
 says  Eustace,  "  forms  ihe  southern  boundary  of  Um- 
 bria,  and  traverses,  in  its  way  to  Narni,  about  nine 
 miles  distant,  a  vale  of  most  delightful  appearance. 
 The  Apennine,  in  its  mildest  I'orm,  "  coruscis  ilicibus 
 frernens,"  bounds  this  plain  ;  the  milky  Nar  intersects 
 it  ;  and  fertility,  equal  to  that  of  the  neighbouring  vale 
 of  Clitumnus,  adorns  it  on  all  sides  with  vegetation  and 
 beauty."     {Classical  Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  334.) 
 
 Narbo  Martius,  a  city  of  Gaul,  in  the  southern 
 section  of  the  country,  and  southwest  of  the  mouths  of 
 the  Rhone.  It  was  situate  on  the  river  Atax  (or  Aude), 
 and  became,  by  means  of  this  stream,  a  seaport  and 
 a  place  of  great  trade.  Narbo  was  one  of  the  oldest 
 cities  of  the  land,  and  had  a  very  extensive  commerce 
 long  before  the  Romans  established  themselves  in  this 
 quarter.  Avienus  {Or.  Maril.,  v.  585)  makes  it  the 
 capital  of  the  unknown  tribe  of  the  Elesyces.  The  sit- 
 uation of  this  place  appeared  so  favourable  to  the  Ro- 
 mans, that  they  sent  a  colony  to  it  before  they  had 
 even  firmly  established  themselves  in  the  surroundinw 
 country,  A.U.C.  636.  {Veil.  Paterc.,  1,  \5.—Ea- 
 trop.,  4,  3,)  The  immediate  cause  of  this  settlement 
 was  the  want  of  a  good  harbour  on  this  coast,  and  of  a 
 place  also  that  might  allord  the  necessary  su|)plies  to 
 their  armies  when  marching  along  the  Gallic  shore 
 into  Spain,  {Polyb.,  3,  39,)  At  a  later  period,  after 
 the  time  of  Caesar,  Narbo  became  the  capital  of  the 
 entire  province,  which  took  from  it  the  appellation  of 
 Narbonensis.  This  distinction  probably  would  not 
 have  been  obtained  by  it  had  not  Massilia  {Marseille) 
 been  declared  a  free  and  independent  community  by 
 
N  AR 
 
 NAR 
 
 the  Romans. — As  a  Roman  colony,  this  place  took 
 the  name  of  Narho  Marlins.  In  the  time  of  CsEsar 
 it  was  called  also  Dccumanoruin  Colonia,  from  that 
 coramander's  having  sent  thither  as  colonists,  at  the 
 close  oi  the  civil  contest,  the  remnant  of  his  favour- 
 ite tenth  legion.  {Suelon.,  Tib.,  4.)  It  coniinued  a 
 flourishing  commercial  city  until  a  late  period,  as  it 
 is  praised  by  writers  who  lived  when  the  power  of  the 
 Roman  capital  itself  had  become  greatly  diminished. 
 [Awsonius^  dc  Clar.  Urb.,  13. — Sidonius,  cam.,  23.) 
 The  remams  of  the  canal  constructed  by  the  Romans 
 for  connecting  the  waters  of  the  Ata.x  with  the  sea  by 
 means  of  the  lake  Rubresus,  clearly  prove  the  ancient 
 power  and  opulence  of  Narbo.  This  city  owed  its 
 downfall,  along  with  .so  many  others,  to  the  inroads  of 
 the  barbarous  nations.  It  is  now  Narbonne.  {Man- 
 ncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  63,  seqq.) 
 
 Nakbonensis  Galua,  one  of  the  great  divisions 
 of  Gaul  under  the  Romans,  deriving  its  name  from  the 
 city  of  Narbo,  its  capital.  It  was  situate  in  the  south- 
 ern and  southeastern  quarter  of  the  country,  and  was 
 bounded  on  the  east  by  Gallia  Cisalpina,  being  sep- 
 arated from  it  by  the  Varus  or  Var  {Plvn.,  3,  4)  ;  on 
 the  north  by  the  Lacus  Lemanus  or  hake  of  Geneva, 
 the  Rhone,'  and  Gallia  Lugdunensis ;  on  the  west  by 
 Aquitania ;  and  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean 
 and  Pyrenees.  It  embraced  what  was  afterward  the 
 northwestern  part  of  Savoy,  Dauphine,  Provence;  the 
 western  part  of  Langucdoc,  together  with  the  country 
 along  the  Rhone,  and  the  eastern  part  of  Gascony. 
 {Vid.  Gallia.) 
 
 Narcissus,  I.  a  beautiful  youth,  son  of  the  river-god 
 Cephisus  and  the  nymph  Liriope,  was  born  at  Thespis 
 in  Bneotia.  He  saw  his  image  reflected  in  a  fountain, 
 and,  becoming  enamoured  of  it,  pined  away  till  he  was 
 changed  into  the  flower  that  bears  his  name.  This 
 was  regarded  in  poetic  legends  as  a  just  punishment 
 upon  him  for  his  hard-heartedness  towards  Echo  and 
 other  nyin[)hs  and  maidens.  {Ovid,  Met.,  3,  341,  scqq. 
 — Hygiii ,  fab.,  271.)  According  to  the  version  of 
 this  fable  given  by  Eudocia  (p.  304),  Narcissus  threw 
 himself  into  the  fountain  and  was  drowned  {i^pfiiijrsv 
 iavTOV  Eicei,  koI  tTtenviyr]  T(J  ivoTrrpu  vSutl).  Pau- 
 sanias,  after  ridiculing  the  common  legend,  mentions 
 another,  which,  according  to  him,  was  less  known  than 
 the  one  we  have  just  given.  This  latter  version  of 
 the  story  made  Narcissus  to  have  had  a  twin-sister  of 
 remarkable  beauty,  to  whom  he  was  tenderly  attached. 
 She  resembled  him  very  closely  in  features,  wore  sim- 
 ilar attire,  and  used  to  accompany  him  on  the  hunt. 
 This  sister  died  young  ;  and  Narcissus,  deeply  lament- 
 ing her  death,  used  to  go  to  a  neighbouring  fount- 
 ain and  gaze  upon  his  own  image  in  its  waters,  the 
 strong  resemblance  he  bore  to  his  deceased  sister 
 making  this  image  appear  to  him,  as  it  were,  the  form 
 of  her  whom  he  had  lost.  {Paasan.,  9,  31,  6.) — The 
 flower  alluded  to  in  the  story  of  Narcissus  is  what  bot- 
 anists term  the  "  Narcixsus  poclicus''^  {Linn.,  gen., 
 5.50).  It  loves  the  borders  of  streams,  and  is  admira- 
 bly personified  in  the  touching  legends  of  poetry  ; 
 since,  bending  on  its  fragile  stem,  it  seems  to  seek  its 
 own  image  in  the  waters  that  run  murmuring  by,  and 
 soon  fades  away  and  dies.  (Fee,  Flore  de  VirgiLc, 
 p.  c.xviii.) — II.  A  freedman  of  the  Emperor  Claudius. 
 He  afterward  became  his  private  secretary,  and  in  the 
 e.vercise  of  this  office  acquired  immense  riches  by  the 
 most  odious  means.  Messalina,  jealous  of  his  power, 
 endeavoured  to  remove  him,  but  her  own  vices  made 
 her  fall  an  easy  victim  to  this  unprincipled  man.  ( Vid. 
 Messalina.)  Agrippina,  however,  was  more  success- 
 ful. She  was  irritated  at  his  having  endeavoured 
 to  prevent  her  ascending  the  imperial  throne  ;  while 
 Narcissus,  on  his  side,  espoused  the  interests  of  the 
 young  Britannicus,  and  urged  Glaudius  to  name  him 
 as  his  successor.  Apprized  of  these  plans,  Agrippina 
 drove   Narcissus   into  a  kind  of  temporary  exile,  by 
 
 compelling  him  to  go  to  the  baths  of  Campania  for  his 
 health  ;  and,  having  taken  advantage  of  his  absence 
 from  Rome  to  poison  the  emperor,  she  next  compelled 
 Narcissus  to  put  himself  to  death.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  11, 
 29.~M  lb.,  11,  -ST. —Id.  lb.,  12,  57.— M  lb.,  13,  1. 
 — Sucton.,    Vit.  Claud.) 
 
 Narisci,  a  nation  of  Germany,  occupying  what  now 
 corresponds  to  the  northern  part  of  Upper  Pfalz  in 
 ihe  Palatinate.     {Tacit.,  Germ.,  42.) 
 
 Narnia,  a  town  of  Umbria,  on  the  river  Nar,  a  short 
 distance  above  its  junction  with  the  Tiber.  Tlie  more 
 ancient  name  was  Nequinum,  which  it  exchanged  for 
 Narnia  when  a  Roman  colony  was  sent  hither,  A.U.C. 
 453.  {Liv.,  10,  9,  seqq.)  The  story  of  the  name 
 Nequinum  having  been  given  to  it  in  sport  by  the  Ro- 
 mans, on  account  of  the  roguery  of  its  inhabitants  {ne- 
 quam,  -'a  rogue"),  is  a  mere  fiction. — Narnia  was  col- 
 onized with  the  view  of  serving  as  a  point  of  defence 
 against  the  Umbri.  Many  years  after,  we  find  it  in- 
 curring the  censure  of  the  senate  for  its  want  of  zeal 
 during  the  emergencies  of  the  second  Punic  war. 
 {Livy,  29,  15.)  The  situation  of  the  phice  on  a  lofty 
 hill,  at  the  foot  of  which  flows  the  Nar,  has  been  de- 
 scribed by  several  poets.  {Claud.,  6. — Cons.,  Hon., 
 51!!).— SU.  Ital.,  8,  458.— .Wartm/,  7,  92.)  In  the 
 passage  of  Martial  just  referred  to,  the  poet  alludes  to 
 the  noble  bridge  raised  over  the  Nar  by  Augustus,  the 
 arch  of  which  was  said  to  be  the  highest  known. 
 {Procnp.,  Rcr.  Got.,  1.)  The  modern  Narni  occupies 
 the  site  of  the  ancient  town.'  Travellers  speak  in  high 
 terms  of  the  beautiful  situation  of  the  place.  {Cra- 
 mer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  277,  seqq.) 
 
 Naro,  now  Narcnta,  a  river  of  Dalmatia,  rising  in 
 the  mountains  of  Bosnia,  and  falling  into  the  Adriatic 
 opposite  the  island  of  Lesina.  {Plin.,  3,  22.)  On  its 
 banks  lay  the  city  of  Narona,  a  Roman  colony  of  some 
 note.  {Scylax,  p.  9. — Mela,  3,  3.)  Its  ruins  should 
 be  sought  for  in  the  vicinity  of  Castcl  Norin.  {Man- 
 nert,  Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  347.) 
 
 Narses,  a  eunuch  of  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Jus- 
 tinian I.  at  Constantinople.  The  place  of  his  birth  is 
 unknown.  He  so  ingratiated  himself  with  the  emper- 
 or, that  he  appointed  him  his  chamberlain  and  private 
 treasurer.  In  A.D.  538  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
 an  army  destined  to  support  Belisarius  in  the  expul- 
 sion of  the  Ostrogoths  from  Italy  ;  but  the  dissensions 
 which  soon  arose  between  him  and  Belisarius  occasion- 
 ed his  recall.  Nevertheless,  in  552  he  was  again  sent 
 to  Italy,  to  check  the  progress  of  Totila  the  Goth,  and. 
 after  vanquishing  Totila,  he  captured  Rome.  He  also 
 conquered  Tejas,  whom  the  Goths  had  chosen  king  in 
 the  place  of  Totila,  and,  in  the  sjiring  of  554,  Bucellinus, 
 the  leader  of  the  Alemanni.  After  Narses  had  cleared 
 nearly  all  Italy  of  the  Ostrogoths  and  other  barbarians, 
 he  was  appointed  governor  of  the  country,  and  ruled  it 
 fifteen  years.  During  this  time  he  endeavoured  to  en- 
 rich the  treasury  by  all  the  means  in  his  power,  and 
 excited  the  discontent  of  the  provinces  subject  to  him, 
 who  laid  their  complaints  before  the  Emperor  Justinian 
 II.  Narses  was  deposed  in  disgrace,  and  sought  re- 
 venge by  invitmg  the  Lombards  to  invade  Italy,  which 
 they  did  in  588^  under  Alboin  their  king.  Muratori 
 and  others  have  doubted  whether  Narses  was  concern- 
 ed in  the  invasion  of  the  Lombards.  After  his  depo- 
 sition he  lived  at  Naples,  and  died  at  an  advanced  age, 
 at  Rome,  in  567.     {Encyclop.  Am.,  vol.  9,  p.  136.) 
 
 Narvciu.\i  or  Naryx,  a  city  of  the  Locri  Opnntii, 
 rendered  celebrated  by  the  birth  of  Ajax,  son  of  O'ileua. 
 {Slrabo,  425.)  From  Diodorus  we  learn  that  Ismc- 
 nias,  a  Bceotian  commander,  having  collected  a  force 
 of  .IHnianes  and  Athamanes,  whom  he  had  seduced 
 from  the  Lacedajmonian  service,  invaded  Phocis,  and 
 defeated  its  inhabitants  near  Naryx  (14,  82).  The 
 same  historian  afterward  relates,  that  Phayllus,  the  Pho- 
 cian,  having  entered  the  Locrian  territory,  surprised  the 
 town  of  Naryx,  which  he  razed  to  the  ground.— VirgU 
 •^  871 
 
N  AS 
 
 NAU 
 
 app  les  the  epithet  "  Narycian"  to  the  Locri  who  set- 
 tled in  Italy,  as  having  been  of  the  Opuntian  stock. 
 (^n.,3,  396.) 
 
 Nasamones,  a  people  of  Africa,  to  the  southeast  of 
 Cyrenaica,  and  extending  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the 
 midd'e  of  the  Syrlis  Major.  (Compare  Herod.,  4, 
 172.)  They  were  a  roving  race,  uncivilized  in  their 
 habits,  and  noted  for  their  robberies  in  the  case  of  all 
 vessels  thrown  on  the  quicksands.  They  plundered 
 the  cargoes  and  sold  the  crews  as  slaves,  and  hence 
 ].iucan  (9,  444)  remarks  of  them,  that,  without  a  sin- 
 gle vessel  ever  seeking  their  shores,  they  yet  carried 
 on  a  traffic  with  all  the  world.  Augustus  ordered  an 
 expedition  to  be  sent  against  them,  boih  in  consequence 
 of  their  numerous  robberies,  and  because  they  had  put 
 to  death  a  Roman  prelect.  They  were  soon  conquered ; 
 and  Dionysius  Periegetes  (v.  208)  speaks  of  the  "de- 
 serted dwellings  of  the  destroyed  Nasamones"  {kp-q- 
 (ioidivra  fiD^-aOpa  uKO(bdi//.£va)v  Naaafiuvuv).  They 
 were  not,  however,  completely  destroyed,  for  we  find 
 the  race  again  appearing  in  their  former  places  of  abode, 
 and  resuming  their  former  habits  of  plunder,  until  in  the 
 reign  of  Domitian  they  were  completely  chased  away 
 from  the  coast  into  the  desert.  {Euseb.,  Chron.,01., 
 216,  2. — Joscphus,  Bell.,  2,  16.) — Some  mention  has 
 been  made,  in  another  part  of  this  work  {vid.  Africa, 
 page  SI,  col.  1),  of  a  journey  performed  through  part  of 
 the  interior  of  Africa  by  certain  young  men  of  the  Na- 
 samones ;  and  the  opinions  of  some  able  writers  have 
 been  given  on  this  subject.  The  following  remarks, 
 however,  of  a  late  critic  may  be  compared  with  what 
 is  stated  under  the  article  Niger.  "Herodotus  says 
 that  the  Nasamones  went  through  the  deserts  of  Libya  ; 
 and  that  he  may  not  be  misunderstood  as  to  what  he 
 means  by  Libya,  which  is  sometimes  put  for  Africa, 
 he  states  distinctly  that  it  extends  from  Egypt  to  the 
 promontory  of  Soloes,  where  it  terminates;  that  it  is 
 inhabited  by  various  nations  besides  the  Grecians  and 
 Phoenicians  ;  that,  next  to  this,  the  country  is  abandon- 
 ed to  beasts  of  prey,  and  that  all  beyond  is  desert ;  that 
 the  young  Nasamones,  having  passed  the  desert  of 
 Libya  (not  Sahara),  came  to  a  region  with  trees,  on 
 which  were  perched  men  of  little  stature;  that  they 
 were  conducted  by  them  over  morasses  to  a  city  on  a 
 great  river,  running  from  the  west  towards  the  rising 
 sun ;  that  the  people  were  black,  and  enchanters,  &c. 
 Now  it  is  perfectly  clear  to  us  that  the  country  alluded 
 to  by  Herodotus  was  no  other  than  Mauritania,  and 
 that  the  notion  of  their  having  crossed  the  great  des- 
 ert, and  reached  the  Niger  about  Timbiictoo,  is  found- 
 ed entirely  on  a  misrepresentation  of  his  quoiers  and 
 editors,  some  of  whom  make  the  course  of  the  young 
 men  to  have  been  southwest,  contrary  to  what  Herodo- 
 tus says,  and  for  no  other  reason  that  we  can  devise  but 
 that  such  a  course  was  required  to  bring  them  to  a  pre- 
 determined city  and  river,  known  to  the  moderns,  but 
 not  to  Herodotus.  Herodotus,  however,  sanctions  no 
 such  notion  ;  he  distinctly  states,  on  the  contrary,  that 
 they  proceeded  to  the  west,  Trpof  Zi(j)vpov  uvejiov, 
 words  that  are  never  applied  to  any  portion  of  the  com- 
 pass lying  between  west  and  south,  the  word  Zephij- 
 rus,  in  Latin  as  well  as  in  Greek,  being  used  exclu- 
 sively for  west,  and  A«i/^  generally  for  southwest.  If 
 we  will  only  let  Herodotus  tell  his  own  story,  we  shall 
 find  in  those  parts  of  the  Emperor  of  Morocco's  do- 
 minions, situated  between  the  Great  Atlas  and  the  Sa- 
 hara, plenty  of  rivers,  two  of  them,  the  Tnfilet  and  the 
 Ad-judi,  both  running  to  the  east,  and  both  great  riv- 
 ers in  the  eyes  of  men  who  had  never  witnessed  a  run- 
 ning stream  ;  we  shall  also  find  cities  and  towns,  in- 
 tervening deserts,  morasses,  sands,  and  black  men  of 
 small  stature,  the  modern  Berbers,  the  ancient  Mela- 
 T)oga!tuii,  omncs  colore  nigri,  to  answer  the  description 
 of  Herodotus ;  who  says,  moreover,  that  hs  river, 
 which  he  calls  the  Nile,  not  only  descends  from  Lib- 
 ya, but  traverses  all  Libya,  dividing  that  country  in 
 872 
 
 the  midst.  Pliny's  information  is  still  more  e.^ipiicit, 
 and  tends  to  corroborate  our  suggestion.  He  tells  ua 
 that  Suetonius  Paulinos,  the  lloman  general,  after 
 crossing  the  western  Atlas,  and  a  black,  dirty  plain 
 beyond  it  (dry  morass  or  peat-moss,  of  which  we  un- 
 derstand there  is  plenty),  fell  in  with  a  river  running 
 to  the  eastward,  which  he  (Pliny)  calls  the  Niger, 
 probably  from  the  black  people  or  the  black  soil,  and 
 which  is  stated  to  lose  itself  in  the  sands  ;  and  which, 
 according  to  Pliny,  emerging  again,  flows  on  to  the 
 eastward,  divides  the  Libyans  from  the  Ethio()ians, 
 and  finally  falls  into  the  Nile.  Now  the  Tajilet, 
 which  flows  from  the  southern  side  of  the  snowy  At- 
 las, crossed  by  the  Roman  general,  runs  in  an  eastern 
 course,  and  loses  itself  in  the  sands  ;  and  the  Ad-judi, 
 which  rises  from  the  same  side,  or  the  Central  Atlas 
 (in  Mauritania  Caesariensis),  and  runs  easterly  into  the 
 lake  Melgig,  might  very  well  be  considered  by  Pliny 
 as  the  continuation  of  the  Tajilet  or  his  Niger;  and  it 
 is  sufficiently  remarkable  that  this  river,  or  some  other 
 of  the  numerous  streams  in  the  neighbourhood,  should, 
 according  to  Leo  Africanus,  be  called  the  Ghir,  which, 
 it  seems,  is  a  native  name.  Here,  then,  we  have  at 
 once  the  foundation  for  the  Geir  and  Nigeir  of  Ptol- 
 emy, supplied  to  him  by  Pliny."  {Quarterly  Review, 
 No.  82,  p.  233,  seqq.) 
 
 Nasica,  I.  a  surname  of  one  of  the  Scipios.  {Vid. 
 Scipio  V.) — II.  A  character  delineated  by  Horace  in 
 one  of  his  satires.  Nasica,  a  mean  and  avaricious 
 man,  marries  his  daughter  to  Coranus,  who  was  a 
 creditor  of  his,  in  the  hope  that  his  new  son-in-law 
 will  either  forgive  him  the  debt  at  once,  or  else  will 
 leave  him  a  legacy  to  that  amount  in  his  will,  which 
 would,  of  course,  be  a  virtual  release.  He  is  disap- 
 pointed in  both  these  expectations.  Coranus  makes 
 his  will  and  hands  it  to  his  father-in-law,  with  a  re- 
 quest that  he  will  read  it  :  the  latter,  after  repeatedly 
 declining  so  to  do,  at  last  consents,  and  finds,  to  his 
 surprise  and  mortification,  no  mention  made  in  the  in- 
 strument of  any  bequest  to  him  or  his.  {Horat.,  Sat., 
 2,  .5,  65.) 
 
 Nasidienus  (by  synsBresis  Nasid-yenus,  a  quadri- 
 syllable), a  character  satirized  by  Horace.  Under  this 
 feigned  name  the  poet  describes  an  entertainer  of  bad 
 taste  and  mean  habits  affecting  the  manners  of  the 
 higher  classes.     {Sat.,  2,  8.) 
 
 Naso.      Vid.  Ovidius. 
 
 Nasus  or  Nesus,  a  town  or  fortress  near  CEniadae 
 in  Acarnania.  The  name  evidently  implies  an  insular 
 situation.  Livy  (26,  24;  38,  11)  writes  it  Naxos  ; 
 but  that  is  probably  a  false  reading.  From  the  ac- 
 counts of  ancient  writers,  Nasos  seems  always  to 
 have  been  included  with  QEniad»  in  the  cessions  of 
 the  latter  place,  made  by  the  Romans  first  to  the  yElo- 
 lians,  and  afterward  to  the  Acarnanians.  {Polyh  ,  9, 
 2.)  If  Trigardon  be  not  CEniadse,  it  may  represent 
 Nasos,  which  was  probably  the  port  and  arsenal  of 
 CEniadas  ;  and,  though  now  joined  to  the  continent, 
 might  very  well  have  been  an  island  in  ancient  times. 
 {Cramer's  Ana.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  26  ) 
 
 Natiso,  a  river  of  Venetia,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  rising 
 in  the  Alps,  and  falling  into  the  Adriatic  near  Aqulleia. 
 It  is  now  the  Nalisone.  Modern  critics,  however,  are 
 divided  in  opinion  as  to  the  identity  of  the  Nal.isone 
 with  the  Natiso,  which  Strabo  and  other  ancient  wri- 
 ters place  close  to  Aquileia  ;  as  the  Niitisoiie  is  now 
 some  miles  distant  from  the  ruins  of  that  city.  The 
 most  probable  supposition  is,  that  some  change  has 
 taken  place  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  {Cramer'' s  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  129.) 
 
 Naucratis,  a  city  of  Egypt,  in  the  Delta,  and  be- 
 longing to  the  Sa'itic  noine.  It  was  situate  on  the 
 Canopic  arm  of  the  Nile,  to  the  south  of  Metelis  and 
 northwest  of  Sais.  Strabo  informs  us  (802)  that,  in 
 the  time  of  Psammitichus,  a  body  of  Milesians  landed 
 at  the  Bolbitiiie  mouth  of  the  river,  and  budt  there  a 
 
N  AU 
 
 NAU 
 
 stronghold,  which  he  calls  "  the  fortress  of  the  Mile- 
 sians" (to  Milrftyluv  Telxoq).  The  geographer  evi- 
 dently refers  here  to  the  arrival  on  the  coast  of  Egypt 
 of  some  Carians  and  loiiians,  by  whose  aid,  accord- 
 ing to  Herodotus  (2,  152),  Psammitichus  was  enabled 
 to  subdue  his  colleagues  in  the  kingdom.  When,  how- 
 ever, Scrabo  adds,  that  these  Milesians,  in  process  of 
 time,  sailed  into  the  Sa'ilic  nonie,  and,  after  having 
 conquered  Inarus  in  a  naval  conflict,  founded  the  city 
 of  Naucratis,  it  would  seem  that  he  mixes  up  with  his 
 account  of  this  place  the  circumstance  of  the  succours 
 that  were  given  by  the  Athenians  to  Inarus,  king  of 
 Egypt,  and  by  means  of  which  he  gained  a  victory 
 over  the  Persians.  Inarus,  it  is  true,  was  afterward 
 defeated,  but  no  author  mentions  that  the  Milesians 
 had  any  share  in  his  overthrow.  Naucratis  appears, 
 in  fact,  to  have  been  founded  long  before  any  Greek 
 set  foot  in  Egypt.  It  was  given  by  Amasis  to  the 
 lonians  as  an  entrepot  for  their  commerce,  and' was  not 
 founded  by  them.  This  favour,  however,  on  the  part 
 of  the  Egyptian  monarch,  was  granted  under  such  re- 
 strictions as  prudence  seemed  to  require.  The  Greek 
 vessels  were  only  allowed  to  enter  the  Canopic  arm, 
 and  were  obliged  to  stop  at  Naucratis.  If  a  ship  hap- 
 pened to  enter  another  mouth  of  the  river,  it  was 
 detained  ;  and  the  captain  was  not  set  at  liberty  un- 
 less he  could  swear  that  he  was  compelled  to  do  so 
 by  necessity.  He  was  then  obliged  to  sail  to  Nau- 
 cratis ;  or,  if  continual  north  winds  made  this  impos- 
 sible, he  had  to  send  his  freight  in  small  Egyptian 
 vessels  round  the  Delta  to  Naucratis.  {Herod.,  2, 
 179.)  But,  how  rigidly  soever  these  restrictions  were 
 originally  enforced,  they  must  soon  have  fallen  into 
 disuse,  as  the  mouths  of  the  Nile  were  open  to  any 
 one  after  the  conquest  by  the  Persians.  —  Naucratis, 
 from  its  situation,  became  the  connecting  link  in  the 
 chain  of  communication  between  the  coast  and  the  in- 
 terior of  the  country,  and  continued  for  a  long  period 
 an  important  city.  It  is  mentioned  by  numerous  wri- 
 ters as  low  down  as  the  si.\th  century.  —  The  ruins 
 which  Niebuhr  found  near  a  place  called  Salhadsjar 
 seem  to  indicate  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  —  Nau- 
 cratis was  the  native  place  of  Athenseus.  Like  every 
 commercial  city,  it  contained  among  its  population  a 
 large  number  of  dissolute  persons  of  both  se.xes. 
 (Larcher,  Gcogr.  d'Herodote,  p.  359,  seqq. — Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  563,  seqq.) 
 
 N.^L'LocHus,  I.  a  naval  station  on  the  northeastern 
 coast  of  Sicily.  Between  this  place  and  Mylaj,  which 
 lay  to  the  west  of  it,  the  fleet  of  Sextus  Pompeius 
 was  defeated  by  that  of  Octavius  (A.U.C.  718,  B.C. 
 36.) — II.  An  island  off  the  coast  of  Crete,  near  the 
 promontory  of  Sammonium.  (Plin.,  4.  12.)  —  III. 
 The  port  of  the  town  of  Bulis  in  Phocis,  near  the  con- 
 fines of  BcEOtia.  {Piin.,  4,  3.)  It  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  the  same  with  the  Mychos  of  Strabo. 
 
 Naupactus,  a  city  of  Locris,  at  the  western  ex- 
 tremity of  the  territory  of  the  Ozolas,  and  close  to 
 Rhium  of  ^lolia.  It  was  said  to  have  derived  its 
 name  from  the  circumstance  of  the  Heraclidaj  having 
 there  constructed  the  fleet  in  which  they  crossed  over 
 into  the  Peloponnesus  (vavg,  a  ship,  and  Tv-fiyvvfit,  to 
 constriict. — Strabo,  426. — Apollod.,  2,  7,  2). — After 
 the  Persian  war,  this  city  was  occupied  by  the  Atheni- 
 ans, who  there  established  the  Messenian  Helots  after 
 they  had  evacuated  Ithome.  {Thucyd.,  1,  103. — /(/., 
 2,  90. — Pausan.,  4,  24,  seqq.)  The  acquisition  of 
 Naupactus  was  of  great  importance  to  the  Athenians 
 during  the  Peloponnesian  war,  as  it  was  an  excellent 
 station  for  their  fleet  in  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  and  not 
 only  afforded  them  the  means  of  keeping  up  a  com- 
 munication with  Corcyra  and  Acarnania,  but  enabled 
 them  also  to  watch  the  motions  of  the  enemy  on  the 
 opposite  coast,  and  to  guard  against  any  designs  they 
 might  form  against  their  allies.  Some  important  na- 
 val operations  which  took  place  off  this  city  in  the 
 6S 
 
 third  year  of  the  war,  will  be  fonnd  detailed  in  Thn- 
 cydides  (2,  83,  segq). — After  the  failure  of  the  ezpe- 
 dition  undertaken  by  Demosthenes,  the  Athenian  gen- 
 eral, against  the  .(Etolians,  the  latter,  supported  by  a 
 Peloponnesian  force,  endeavoured  to  seize  Naupactus 
 by  a  coup  de  main;  but  such  were  the  able  arrange- 
 ments made  by  Demosthenes,  who  threw  himself  into 
 the  place  with  a  re- enforcement  of  Acarnanian  aux- 
 iliaries, that  the  enemy  did  not  think  proper  to  pros- 
 ecute the  attempt.  (Tliucyd.,  3,  102.)  On  the  ter- 
 mination of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  however,  Naupac- 
 tus surrendered  to  the  Spartans,  who  expelled  the 
 Messenians  from  the  place.  {Pavsa7i.,  4,  26.)  De- 
 mosthenes informs  us,  that  it  had  afterward  been 
 occupied  by  the  Achaeans,  but  was  ceded  by  Philip  of 
 Macedon  to  the  Jitolians  {Phil.,  3,  p.  120. — Strabo, 
 426),  in  whose  possession  it  remained  till  they  were 
 engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Romans.  The  latter,  af- 
 ter having  defeated  Antiochus  at  ThermopylEe,  sud- 
 denly crossed  over  from  the  Maliac  Gulf  to  that  of 
 Corinth,  and  invested  Naupactus,  which  would  prob- 
 ably have  been  taken,  notwithstanding  the  obstinate 
 defence  made  by  the  .-Etolians,  had  they  not  obtained 
 a  truce  by  the  intervention  of  T.  Flamininus.  {Liv., 
 36,  30,  seqq. — Polyh.,  5,  102.)  Naupactus  was  still 
 a  city  of  some  importance  in  the  time  of  Hierocles 
 (p.  643),  but  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
 in  the  reign  of  Justinian.  {Procop.,  Bell.  Got.,  3.) — 
 The  modern  town  is  called  Encbachti  by  the  Turks, 
 Nepacto  by  the  Greeks,  and  Lcpanlo  by  the  Franks, 
 with  a  strong  accent  on  the  last  syllable.  {Keppell's 
 Jouriiey,  vol.  1,  p.  8.)  "  Nepacto,"  says  Sir  W.  Gell, 
 "  is  a  miserable  pashalia,  and  a  ruinous  town  ;  but  it 
 is  worth  visiting,  because  it  gives  a  very  exact  idea 
 of  the  ancient  Greek  city,  with  its  citadel  on  Mount 
 Rhegani,  whence  two  walls,  coining  down  to  the 
 coast  and  the  plain,  form  a  triangle.  The  port  abso- 
 lutely runs  into  the  city,  and  is  shut  within  the  walls, 
 which  are  erected  on  the  ancient  foundations."  {Itin., 
 p.  293. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  105,  seqq.) 
 
 Nauplia,  a  maritime  town  of  Argolis,  the  port  of 
 Argos,  situate  on  a  point  of  land  at  the  head  of  the 
 Sinus  Argolicus.  It  was  said  to  have  derived  its 
 name  from  Nauplius,  the  son  of  Neptune  and  Amy- 
 mone.  {Strabo,  368.  —  Herod.,  6,  76.—Xcn.,  Hist. 
 Gr.,  4,  7,  6.)  Nauplia  was  deserted  and  in  ruins 
 when  visited  by  Pausanias.  The  itihabitants  had  been 
 expelled  several  centuries  before  by  the  Argives,  upon 
 suspicion  of  their  favouring  the  Spartans.  The  latter 
 people,  in  consequence,  received  them  into  their  ter- 
 ritory, and  established  them  at  Methone  of  Mcssenia. 
 {Pausa7i.,  4,  35.)  Nauplia  has  been  succeeded  by 
 the  modern  town  of  Napoli  di  Romania,  as  it  is  called 
 by  the  Greeks,  which  possesses  a  fortress  of  some 
 strength.  Sir  W.  GcU  remarks,  that  "  Nauplia  is  the 
 best  built  city  of  the  Morea.  It  is  situated  on  a  rocky 
 point,  on  which  are  many  remains  of  the  ancient  wall. 
 The  port  is  excellent  and  very  defensible."  {Itin.,  p. 
 181. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  \o\.  3,  p.  239,  seqq.) 
 
 NAUPLi.iDEs,  a  patronymic  of  Palamedes,  son  of 
 Nauplius.     {Omd,  Met.,  13,  39.) 
 
 Nauplius,  I.  a  son  of  Neptune  and  Amymone,  and 
 the  founder  of  Nauplia.  {Pausanias,  2,  38. —  7(f.,  4, 
 35.)  He  was  the  one  that  sold  Auge,  daughter  of 
 Aleus,  to  King  Teuthras.  {Vid.  Auge)  This  Nau- 
 plius  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  second  of  the 
 name,  who  was,  in  fact,  one  of  his  descendants. 
 {Heyne,  ad  Apollod.,  2,  1,  5.— Compare  Burmann, 
 Catal.  Argonaut.,  ad  Val.  Place,  s  •».)— II.  A  de- 
 scendant of  the  preceding,  and  one  of  the  Argonauts. 
 {Heyne,  ad  Apollod.,  2,  1,  5.— Burmann,  Catal.  Ar- 
 sonaut.,  s.  1!.)— HI.  A  son  of  Neptune,  the  father  of 
 Palamedes  by  Clymene,  and  king  of  Eubcea.  He  was 
 so  indignant  at  the  treatment  which  his  son  had  ex- 
 perienced from  the  Greeks,  that,  to  avenge  his  death, 
 he  set  up  a  burning  torch  on  the  promontory  of  Ca- 
 ^  873 
 
N  AX 
 
 NE  A 
 
 {ihareus,  in  order  to  deceive  the  Grecian  vessels  that 
 were  sailing  by  in  the  night  on  their  return  from  Troy  ; 
 and  he  thus  caused  their  shipwreck  on  the  coast. 
 Tke  torch,  it  seems,  had  been  placed  on  the  most  dan- 
 gerous part  of  the  shore  ;  but  the  Greeks  mistook  it 
 for  a  friendly  signal,  inviting  them  to  land  hero  as  the 
 safest  part  of  the  island.  Those  of  the  shipwrecked 
 crews  that  came  safe  to  the  land  were  slain  by  Nau- 
 plius,  who  is  said,  however,  to  have  thrown  himself 
 into  the  sea  when  he  saw  his  plan  of  vengeance  in  a 
 great  measure  frustrated  by  the  escape  of  Ulysses, 
 whom  the  winds  bore  away  m  safety  from  the  danger- 
 ous coast.  {Hyghi;  fab.,  116.) — The  obscure  and 
 curious  legend  related  by  Apollodorus  (2,  I,  5)  is 
 thought  by  many  to  have  reference  to  this  Nauplius. 
 It  assigns  him  a  different  end.  According  to  this 
 version  of  the  story,  Nauplius  attained  a  great  age, 
 and  passed  his  time  on  the  sea,  lamenting  the  fate  of 
 those  who  were  lost  on  it.  At  length,  through  the 
 anger  of  the  gods,  he  himself  met  with  the  same  fate 
 which  he  deplored  in  others.    {Hcync,  ad  Apollod.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Nauportus,  a  town  of  Pannonia,  on  a  river  of  the 
 same  name,  now  Obcr  {Upper)  Laybach,  {Veil.  Fat., 
 2,  110.— Plm.,  3,  18.— Tacit.,  Ami.,  1,  20.) 
 
 Nausicaa.,  daughter  of  Alcinoiis,  king  of  the  Phae- 
 acians.  She  met  Ulysses  shipwrecked  on  her  father's 
 coast,  and  gave  him  a  kind  reception.  {Od.,  6,  17, 
 segq.) 
 
 Naustathjius,  I.  a  port  and  harbour  in  Sicily,  at 
 the  mouth  of  the  river  Cacyparis,  below  Syracuse  ; 
 now  Asparanctto.  {Cluv.,  Hie.  Ant.,  p.  97.  —  Rei- 
 chard,  Tkes.  Topogr.) — II.  A  village  and  anchoring - 
 place  of  Cyrenaica,  between  Erythron  and  Apollonia. 
 {Mela,  I,  8.) — III.  An  anchoring-place  on  the  coast 
 of  the  Euxine,  in  Asia  Minor,  about  90  stadia  from 
 the  mouth  of  the  Halys  :  it  is  supposed  by  some  to 
 have  been  identical  with  the  Ibyra  or  Ibora  of  Hiero- 
 cles  (p.  701).  D'Anville  gives  Balireh  as  the  mod- 
 ern name ;  but  Reichard,  Kupri  Aghzi.  {Arrian, 
 PeripL,  Huds.,  G.  M.,  1,  p.  16.) 
 
 Naxos,  I.  a  town  of  Crete,  celebrated  for  produ- 
 cing excellent  whetstones.  {Find.,  Isthm.,  6,  107. 
 — ScJiol.  ad  Piiul.,  I.  c.) — II.  The  largest  of  the  Gyc- 
 lades,  lying  to  the  east  of  Paros,  in  the  /Egean  Sea. 
 It  is  said  by  Pliny  (4,  12)  to  have  borne  the  several 
 names  of  Strongyle,  Dia,  Dionysias,  Sicilia  Minor, 
 and  Callipolis.  The  same  writer  states  that  it  was 
 75  miles  in  circuit,  and  twice  the  size  of  Paros.  It 
 was  first  peopled  by  the  Garians  {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 'Nu^oc;),  but  afterward  received  a  colony  of  lonians 
 from  Athens.  (Herod.,  8,  46.)  The  failure  of  the 
 expedition  undertaken  by  the  Persians  against  this 
 island,  at  the  suggestion  of  Aristagoras,  led  to  the 
 revolt  of  the  Ionian  states.  {Herod.,  5,  28.)  At  this 
 period  Naxos  was  the  most  flourishing  of  the  Gycla- 
 des  ;  but,  not  long  after,  it  was  conquered  by  the  Per- 
 sian armament  under  Datis  and  Artaphernes,  who  de- 
 stroyed the  city  and  temples,  and  enslaved  the  inhab- 
 itants. (/fc/-o(Z.,  6,  96.)  Notwithstanding  this  calam- 
 ity, the  Naxians,  with  four  ships,  joined  the  Greek  fleet 
 assembled  at  Salamis  {Herod.,  8,  46),  and  yet  they 
 were  the  first  of  the  confederates  whom  the  Athenians 
 deprived  of  their  independence.  {Thucyd.,  1,  98,  137.) 
 It  appears  from  Herodotus  (1,  64)  that  they  had  al- 
 ready been  subject  to  that  people  in  the  time  of  Pi- 
 sistratus.  Naxos  was  farther  celebrated  for  the  wor- 
 ship of  Bacchus,  who  is  said  to  have  been  born  there. 
 {Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  125. —  Horn.,  Hymn  in  Apoll,  44. — 
 Find.,  Pyth.,  4,  im.— Apollod.,  1,  7,  4.)  The  prin- 
 cipal town  was  also  called  Naxos. — The  modern 
 name  of  the  island  is  Naxia.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p,  408.)  Mr.  Hawkins  gives  the  longest  di- 
 ameter of  the  island,  according  to  the  Russian  chart, 
 as  about  eighteen  miles,  and  its  breadth  about  twelve. 
 [Clarkt's  Travels,  vol.  6,  p.  112,  London  ed.)  Dr. 
 Olarke  observes  of  Naxos,  that  its  inhabitants  arc 
 874 
 
 still  great  votaries  of  Bacchus.  Olivier  speaks  in  in- 
 ferior terms  of  the  present  Naxian  wine,  adding  that 
 the  inhabitants  know  neither  how  to  make  nor  pre^erve 
 it.  Dr.  (;;iarke,  on  the  contrary,  observes  that  the 
 wine  of  Naxos  maintains  its  pristine  celebruy,  and 
 that  he  thought  it  excellent.  Naxos  is  said  to  have 
 no  ports  for  the  reception  of  large-sized  vessels,  and 
 has  therefore  been  less  subject  to  the  visits  of  the 
 Turks.  Dr.  Clarke  states  that,  when  he  visited  the 
 island,  he  was  told  that  there  was  not  a  single  Moham- 
 medan in  it,  and  that  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 interior  had  never  seen  a  Turk.  The  produce  of  the 
 island  consists  at  present  of  wines,  wheat,  barley,  oil, 
 oranges,  lemons,  peaches,  figs,  cheese,  which  is  ex- 
 ported to  Constantinople,  cotton,  honey,  and  wax. 
 The  vintage  was  one  year  so  abundant,  that  the  peo- 
 ple were  obliged  to  pour  their  wines  into  the  cisterns 
 of  the  Capuchins.  {Maltc-Brun,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  p. 
 168,  Am.  ed.) — III.  A  city  on  the  eastern  side  of 
 Sicily,  situate  on  the  southern  side  of  Mount  I'aurus,  ■ 
 and  looking  towards  Catena  and  Syracuse.  It  was 
 founded  by  a  colony  from  the  island  of  Naxos,  one 
 year  before  the  settlement  of  Syracuse  {01.  17,  3), 
 and  at  the  same  time,  consequently,  with  Crotona  in 
 Italy.  {Thucyd.,  6,  3 — Scymniis,  v.  276.)  The 
 colony  was  a  powerful  one,  and  the  rapid  growth  of 
 the  new  state  is  clearly  shown  by  the  early  founding 
 of  Zancle  or  Messana.  Naxos,  however,  not  long  al- 
 ter tliis,  fell  under  the  sway  of  Hippocrates,  tyrant  of 
 Gela.  {Herod.,  7,  154.)  But  it  soon  reco\ered  its 
 freedom,  waged  a  successful  contest  with  Messana, 
 and  appeared  subsequently  as  the  ally  of  the  Athe- 
 nians against  Syracuse,  the  rapid  increase  of  this  city 
 having  filled  it  with  apprehensions  for  its  own  safety. 
 At  a  still  later  period,  Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
 destroyed  the  city  {Diod.,  14,  l.'i.  —  01.  94,  2),  but 
 the  old  inhabitants,  together  with  some  new-comers, 
 afterward  settled  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  and  found- 
 ed Tauromenium.     {Vid.  Tauromenium.) 
 
 Nazianzus,  a  city  of  Cappadocia,  in  the  southwest- 
 ern angle  of  the  country,  and  to  the  southeast  of  Ar- 
 chelais.  I'his  place  derives  all  its  celebrity  from 
 Gregory,  the  distinguished  theologian,  who  was  born 
 at  Arianzus,  a  small  village  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
 bourhood, but  who  was  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of 
 Nazianzus.  {Niccph.,  Ctill.,  14,  39.  —  Philoslorg., 
 ap.  Said.,  s.  v.  VpriyopLOQ.)  Nazianzus  is  assigned 
 by  Hierocles  to  Cappadocia  Secunda.  The  Itinera- 
 ries remove  it  24  miles  from  Archelais.  {Cramer  s 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  114.) 
 
 Ne.btiius,  a  river  of  Bruttium,  rising  to  the  north- 
 east of  Consentia,  and  falling  into  the  Sinus  Taren- 
 tinus  above  Crotona.  It  is  now  the  Nicto.  This 
 stream  was  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the 
 circumstance  of  the  captive  Trojan  women  having 
 there  set  fire  to  the  Grecian  fleet  {vavq,  aldu) ;  a  cir- 
 cumstance alluded  to  by  many  of  the  ancients,  but 
 with  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  regards  the  scene  of 
 the  event.  The  use  which  Virgil  has  made  of  this 
 tradition  is  well  known.  {>Strabo,  262.  —  Cramer^s 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  391.) 
 
 Neapolis,  a  celebrated  city  of  Campania,  on  the 
 Sinus  Crater,  now  Naples,  or,  in  Italian,  Napoli.  In- 
 numerable accounts  exist  relative  to  the  foundation 
 of  this  celebrated  place  ;  but  the  fiction  most  pre\a- 
 lent  seems  to  be  that  which  attributed  it  to  the  Siieu 
 Parthenope,  who  was  cast  upon  its  shores,  and  from 
 whom  it  derived  the  name  (Parthenope)  by  which 
 it  is  usually  designated  in  the  poets  of  antiquity. 
 {Lyrophr  ,  717.  —  Dionysius  Periegetcs,  357.  —  Sil. 
 Ital.,  12,  33.)  According  to  Strabo,  the  tomb  of  this 
 pretended  foundress  was  shown  there  in  his  time. 
 {Strab.,  246.) — Hercules  is  also  mentioned  as  founder 
 of  Neapolis  by  Oppian  and  Diodorus  Siculus  {ap. 
 Tzetz.  ad  Lycophr.,  I.  c.) — We  find  also  considerable 
 variations  in  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  historical 
 
NEAPOLIS. 
 
 NEB 
 
 account  of  the  origin  of  Neapolis.  Scymnus  of  Chios 
 mentions  both  the  Phocaeans  and  Cumasans  as  its 
 founders,  while  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  names  the 
 Rhodians.  But  by  far  the  most  numerous  and  respect- 
 able authorities  attribute  its  foundation  to  the  Cumas- 
 ans,  a  circumstance  which  their  proxmiiiy  renders  high- 
 ly probable.  (S/rabo,  246. — Livy,  8,  22. —  Veil.  Pa- 
 ierc,  1,  4.)  Hence  the  conne.xion  of  this  city  with 
 Eabcea,  so  frequently  alluded  to  by  the  poets,  and  es- 
 pecially by  Statius,  who  was  born  here.  {Silv.,  1,  2; 
 3,  5;  2,  2,  &c.)  A  Greek  inscription  mentions  a  hero 
 of  the  name  of  Euinelus  as  having  had  divine  honours 
 paid  to  him,  probably  as  founder  of  the  city.  {Capa- 
 cio.  Hist.  Nap.,  j).  105.)  This  fact  serves  to  illustrate 
 another  passage  of  Statius.  {Silp.,  4,  8,  45.)  —  The 
 date  of  the  foundation  of  this  colony  is  not  recorded. 
 Velleius  Patcrculus  observes  only  that  it  was  much 
 posterior  to  that  of  the  parent  city.  Strabo  seems  to 
 recognise  another  colony  subsequent  to  that  of  the 
 Cumffians,  composed  of  Chalcidians,  Pithecusans,  and 
 Athenians.  {Slrab.,  246.)  The  latter  were  probably 
 the  same  who  are  mentioned  in  a  fragment  of  Timasus, 
 quoted  by  Tzctzes  {ad  Lycophr.,  v.  732-37),  as  hav- 
 ing migrated  to  Italy  under  the  command  of  Diotimus, 
 who  also  instituted  a  /la/zxradoi^opja,  still  observed  at 
 Neapolis  in  the  time  of  Statius  {Sylv.,  4,  8,  50). 
 The  passage  of  Strabo  above  cited  will  account  also 
 for  the  important  change  in  the  condition  of  the  city 
 novv  under  consideration,  which  is  marked  by  the 
 terms  Palsr'polis  and  Neapolis,  both  of  which  are  ap- 
 plied to  it  by  the  ancient  writers.  It  is  to  be  noticed, 
 that  Palsepolis  is  the  name  under  which  Livy  men- 
 tions it  when  describing  the  first  transactions  which 
 connect  its  history  with  that  of  Rome,  A.U.C.  429 
 {Livy,  8,  23);  while  Polybius,  speaking  of  events 
 which  occurred  in  the  beginning  of  the  first  Punic 
 war,  that  is,  about  sixty  years  afterward,  employs  only 
 that  of  Neapolis  (1,  51). — Livy,  however,  clearly  al- 
 ludes to  the  two  cities  as  existing  at  the  same  time  ; 
 but  we  hear  no  more  of  Palsepolis  after  it  had  under- 
 gone a  siege  and  surrendered  to  the  Roman  arms. 
 According  to  the  same  historian,  this  town  stood  at 
 no  great  distance  from  the  site  of  Neapolis,  certainly 
 nearer  to  Vesuvius,  and  in  the  plain.  {Romanclli, 
 vol.  3,  p.  530.)  It  was  betrayed  by  two  of  its  chief 
 citizens  to  the  Roman  consul,  A.U.C.  429.  {Liv.,  8, 
 25  )  Respecting  the  position  of  Neapolis,  it  may  be 
 seen  from  Pliny,  that  it  was  placed  between  the  river 
 Sebethus,  now  il  Fiume  Madalona,  and  the  small  isl- 
 and Megaris,  or  Megalia,  as  Statius  calls  it  {Syh.,  2, 
 2,  80),  on  which  the  Castel  del  Ovo  now  stands. 
 {Plin.,  3,  G.— Columella,  R.  R.,  10.)— It  is  probable 
 that  Neapolis  sought  the  alliance  of  the  Romans  not 
 long  after  the  fall  of  the  neighbouring  city  ;  for  we 
 find  thai  they  were  supplied  with  ships  by  that  town 
 in  the  first  Punic  war,  for  the  purpose  of  crossing  over 
 into  Sicily.  {Polyb.,  1,  51.)  At  that  time  we  may 
 suppose  the  inhabitants  of  Neapolis,  like  those  of 
 Cuma^.,  to  have  lost  much  of  their  Greek  character, 
 from  being  compelled  to  admit  the  Campanians  into 
 their  commonwealth;  a  circumstance  that  has  been 
 noticed  by  Strabo  (246).  In  that  geographer's  time, 
 however,  there  still  remained  abundant  traces  of  their 
 first  origin.  Their  gymnasia,  clubs,  and  societies 
 were  formed  after  the  Greek  manner.  Public  games 
 were  celebrated  every  five  years,  which  might  rival  in 
 celel)rity  the  most  famous  institutions  of  that  nature 
 in  Greece  ;  while  the  indolence  and  luxury  of  Grecian 
 manners  were  also  very  prevalent,  and  allured  to  Ne- 
 apolis many  a  Roman,  whose  age  and  temperament 
 inclined  him  to  a  life  of  ease.  {Ovid,  Met.,  15,711. 
 —Hor.,  Epod.,  5,  24,  3.  —  Sil.  llal,  12,  ^\.~Stat., 
 Silv.,  3,  5,  85.)  Claudius  and  Nero  seem  to  have 
 shown  a  like  predilection  for  Neapolis  as  a  residence. 
 (Tacit.,  Ann.,  15.  53.— Zi.,  16,  10.)  The  epithet  of 
 iocta,  applied  to  this  city  by  Martial  (5,  79),  proves 
 
 that  literature  continued  to  flourish  here  in  his  time. 
 — Among  other  superstitions,  we  learn  from  Macro- 
 bius  {Sat.  1,  18),  that  the  people  of  Neapolis  wor- 
 shipped the  sun,  under  the  image  of  a  bull  with  a  hu- 
 man face,  which  they  called  Hebon.  This  fact  is 
 confirmed  by  numerous  coins,  and  also  by  an  inscrip 
 tion  which  has  come  down  to  us.  {Crujner's  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol   2,  p.  168,  seqq.) 
 
 Nearchus,  a  celebrated  naval  commander  in  the 
 time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  was  a  native  of 
 Crete,  and  one  of  the  friends  of  Alexander  in  early 
 life,  sharing  with  the  young  prince  the  disgraces  in- 
 curred during  the  reign  of  Philip.  When  Alc-iander 
 had  subdued  the  empire  of  Darius,  he  sent  Nearchus 
 on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Hy- 
 daspes  down  the  Indus,  and  from  the  embouchure  of 
 the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates,  along  the  coast  of  Gedro- 
 sia,  Carmania,  and  Persia.  The  narrative  of  this 
 voyage  has  been  preserved  to  us  by  Arrian,  who  pro- 
 fesses to  give  an  extract  from  the  journal  of  Nearchus. 
 It  is  contained  in  his  Indica.  The  authenticity  of  the 
 account  has  been  questioned  by  Hardouin  and  Dod- 
 well,  but  is  fully  established  by  Sainte- Croix  {Examen 
 Critique  des  Historicns  d' Alexandre),  Gossellin  {Re- 
 cJterchcs  sur  la  Geographie  Ancicnnc),  and  Vincent 
 (  Voyage  of  Nearchus,  Lond.,  1807. —  Commerce  and 
 Navigation  of  the  Ancients  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  vol. 
 1).  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  the  three 
 writers  just  mentioned  differ  in  other  respects  as  re- 
 gards this  celebrated  voyage.  Gossellin  thinks,  for 
 example,  that  all  the  statements  made  by  Nearchus 
 can  be  rigorously  confirmed  by  modern  geography. 
 Vincent,  on  the  other  hand,  supposes  that  the  defect- 
 ive system  of  the  ancients  must  necessarily  have  in- 
 troduced into  the  narrative  of  the  Greek  commander 
 many  errors  and  contradictions.  Sainte- Croix,  again, 
 is  deserted  by  his  usual  good  sense  and  judgment 
 when  he  assigns  to  the  expedition  of  Nearchus  no 
 other  motive  but  the  foolish  ambition  of  Alexander. 
 If  this  had  been  the  case,  why  would  Nearchus  have 
 kept  a  journal  so  full  of  nautical  and  geographical  ob- 
 servations! — Nearchus  was  recompensed  by  Alexan- 
 der with  a  golden  crown,  which  the  monarch  placed 
 upon  his  head.  A  new  route  was  marked  out.  Al- 
 exander was  to  undertake  an  expedition  against  Ara- 
 bia, and  Nearchus  and  his  fleet  were  to  accompany 
 him,  and  to  coast  the  Arabian  shore;  but  the  death  of 
 the  monarch  put  an  end  to  the  design.  After  the  de- 
 cease of  Alexander,  Nearchus,  who  had  obtained  the 
 prefecture  or  satrapy  of  Pamphylia  and  Lycia,  exerted 
 himself,  but  to  no  purpose,  to  secure  the  throne  of  Al- 
 exander to  Hercules,  son  of  Barsine. — He  also  wrote  a 
 history,  or  historical  memoirs  of  the  reign  of  Alexan- 
 der ;  but  of  this  work  the  title  alone  remains.  The 
 voyage  of  Nearchus,  besides  being  contained  in  the 
 common  text  of  Arrian,  may  be  found  in  Hudson's 
 Geographi  Miriores  GrcEci,  vol.  1.  It  appeared  also 
 in  1806,  from  the  Vienna  press,  under  the  title  of  Ne- 
 (Ipxov  TrepiTrTiOvc  eh  tov  'Appiavov.  {Hoffmann,  Lex. 
 Biblwgr.,  vol.  3,  p.  114.) 
 
 Nebo,  a  mountain  situate  east  of  the  river  Jordan, 
 and  forming  part  of  the  chain  of  Abarini,  north  of  the 
 Dead  Sea.  The  Israelites  encamped  at  the  foot  of 
 this  mountain  in  the  46th  year  of  their  Exodus,  and 
 Moses,  having  executed  the  commission  with  which 
 he  was  intrusted,  and  having  pronounced  his  blessing 
 on  the  twelve  tribes  assembled  to  receive  his  last 
 charge,  ascended  this  mountain,  from  the  summit  of 
 which,  called  Pisgah,  he  had  a  view  of  the  Promised 
 Land,  into  which^he  was  not  permitted  to  enter:  on 
 this  mountain  he  soon  afterward  died.  Biirckhardl 
 supposes  the  Djdu.l  Al/arovs,  about  15  miles  north 
 of  the  Arnon,  and  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  route 
 from  Madeba  to  Araayr  or  Aroer,  and  which  is  the 
 highest  point  in  the  neighbourhood,  to  be  Nebo. 
 {Mansford's  Scripture  Gazetteer,  p.  335.) 
 
NEC 
 
 NEM 
 
 Nebrissa,  or  Colonia  Venerea  Nebrissa,  a  towYi 
 of  the  Turdetani,  in  Hispania  Bajtica,  northeast  of  Ga- 
 des,  and  southwest  of  Hispalis.  It  is  now  Lebnja  or 
 Labrixa.     (S/rabo,  143. — Plin.,  3,  3.) 
 
 Nebrodks,  a  general  name  for  the  chain  of  mount- 
 ains running  through  the  northern  part  of  Sicily.  The 
 Greek  name  is  NevpwJ^  opij.  {Sirabo,  274.  —  Sil. 
 Ilal.,  14,  234  ) 
 
 Necho,  a  king  of  Egypt  who  endeavoured  to  open 
 a  communication,  by  means  of  a  canal,  between  the 
 Red  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean.     The  attempt  was 
 abandoned,  after  the  loss  of  120,000  men,  by  order  of 
 an  oracle,  which  warned  the  monarch  "that  he  was 
 working  for  the  barbarian"  (tu)  (3npljup(^  avrbv  irpo- 
 epyu^eadai. — Herod.,  2,  158).      The  true  cause,  how- 
 ever, of  the  enterprise  having  been  abandoned  would 
 seem  to  have  been  the  discovery,  that  the  water  of  the 
 Arabian  Sea  stood  higher  than  the  sandy  plains  through 
 which  the  canal  would  have  to  run.     (Compare  Aris- 
 tot.,  McteoroL,  1 , 1 4. — Sirabo,  804. ) — A  simi lar  attempt 
 was  made,  but  with  no  better  success,  by  Darius  Hys- 
 taspis.      (Herod.,  I.  c.)     Ptolemy  Philadelphus  at  last 
 accomplished  this  important  work.     An  account  of  it 
 is  given  by  Strabo  (804)  from  Artemidorus.     (Com- 
 pare Mannert's  remarks  on  Slrabo's  statement,  Geog?-., 
 vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  507,  seqq.)  —  This   same    Necho    is 
 also  famous  in  the   annals  of  geographical  discovery 
 for  a  voyage  which,  according  to  Herodotus  (4,  42), 
 he  caused  to  he  performed  around  Africa,  for  the  so- 
 lution of  the  grand   mystery  which  involved   the  form 
 and  termination  of  that  continent.     He  was  obliged 
 to  employ,  not  native,  but  Phosnician  navigators,  of 
 whose   proceedings   Herodotus    received    an   account 
 from  the  Egyptian  priests.     They  were  ordered  to  sail 
 down  the  Red  Sea,  pass  through  the  Columns  of  Her- 
 cules (Straits  of  Gibraltar),  and  so  up  the  Mediterra- 
 nean   to  Egypt ;    in  other  words,   to  circumnavigate 
 Africa.      The  Phoenicians  related,  that,  passing  down 
 the  Red   Sea,  they  entered  the  Southern  Ocean  ;  on 
 the  approach  of  autumn,  thev  landed  on  the  coast  and 
 planted  corn ;  when  this  was  ripe,  they  cut  it  down  and 
 again  departed.      Having   thus  consumed   two  years, 
 they,  in  the  third,  doubled  the  Columns  of  Hercules 
 and  returned  to  Egypt.      They  added,  that,  in  passing 
 the  most  southern  coast  of  Africa,  they  were  surprised 
 to  observe  the  sun  on  their  right  hand  ;   a  statement 
 which  Herodotus  himself  rejects  as  impossible.     Such 
 is  all  the  account  transmitted  to  us  of  this  extraordi- 
 nary voyage,  which  has  given  rise  to  a  learned  and 
 voluminous  controversy.      Rennell,  in  his  Geography 
 of  Herodotus;   Vincent,  in  his  Periplus  of  the  Eryth- 
 rajan  Sea;  and  Gossellin,  in  his  Geography  of  the  An- 
 cients, have   exhausted   almost   every   possible   argu- 
 ment ;   the  first  in  its  favour,  the  two  latter  to  prove 
 that  it  never  did  or  could  take  place.     To  these  last 
 it  appears  impossible  that  ancient  mariners,  with  their 
 slender  resources,  creeping  in  little  row-gallevs  along 
 the  coast,  steering  without  the  aid  of  a  compass,  and 
 unable  to  venture  to   any  distance   from   land,  could 
 have  performed  so  immense  a  circuit.     All  antiquity, 
 they  observe,  continued  to  grope  in  doubt  and  dark- 
 ness respecting  the  form  of  Africa,  which  was  only 
 fully  established  several  thousand  years  afterward  by 
 the  expedition  of  Gama.     On  the  other  side,  Rennell 
 urges  that,  immense  as  this  voyage  was,  it  was  en- 
 tirely along  a  coast  of  which  the  navigators  never  re- 
 quired to  lose  sight  even  for  a  day  ;   that  their  small 
 barks  were  well  equipped,  and  better  fitted  than  ours 
 for  coasting  navigation  ;   and  that  these,  drawing  very 
 little  water,  could   be  kept  quite  close  to  the  shore, 
 and  even  be  drawn  on  land  whenever  an  emergency 
 made  this   step  indispensable.      The  statement  that, 
 at  the  extremity  of  Africa,  they  saw  the  sun  on  the 
 right,  that  is,  to  the  north  of  them  (a  fact  which  causes 
 Herodotus  peremptorily  to  reject  their  report),  affords 
 Ihe  strongest  confirmation  of  it  to  us,  who  know  that 
 876 
 
 to  the  south  of  the  equator  this  must  have  really  taKen 
 place,  and  that  the  historian's  unbelief  arose  entirely 
 from  his  ignorance  of  the  real  figure  of  the  earth. 
 {Vnl.  Africa,  p.  79,  col.  1.) 
 
 Necropolis  (from  vmpog,  "dead,"  and  noAic, 
 ^'citi/'"),  the  city  of  the  dead  ;  a  name  beautifully  ap- 
 plied to  the  cemeteries  in  the  neighbourhood  of  many 
 of  the  ancient  cities,  such  as  Thebes  in  Egypt,  Gyrene, 
 Alexandrea,  &.c. 
 
 Nectanebis,  a  king  of  Egypt,  cousin  to  Tachos, 
 and  proclaimed  king  during  the  absence  of  the  latter, 
 with  the  Egyptian  forces,  in  Phoenicia.  He  was  sup- 
 ported by  Agesilaus,  whom  Tachos  had  offended  by 
 rejecting  his  advice.  Aided  by  the  Spartan  king, 
 Nectanebis  defeated  a  competitor  for  the  crown  from 
 Mendes,  and  was  at  last  firmly  established  in  his  king- 
 dom. Being  subsequently  attacked  by  Artaxerxes 
 Ochus,  who  wished  to  reduce  Egypt  once  more  under 
 the  Persian  sway,  he  met  with  adverse  fortune,  and 
 fled  into  .Ethiopia,  whence  he  never  returned.  Nec- 
 tanebis was  the  last  king  of  Egypt  of  the  Egyptian 
 race.  (PluL,  Vit.  Ages. — Diod.  Sic,  15,  92.— /</., 
 16,  48,  seqq.)  —  As  regards  the  variations  in  the  or- 
 thograjihy  of  the  name,  consult  Wesseling,  ad  Diod. 
 &c,.  15,"92. 
 
 Neleus  (two  syllables),  I.  a  son  of  Neptune  and 
 Tyro.  He  was  brother  to  Pelias,  with  whom  he  was 
 exposed  by  his  mother,  who  wished  to  conceal  her  frail- 
 ty from  her  father.  They  were  preserved  and  brought 
 to  Tyro,  who  had  then  married  Cretheus,  king  of  lol- 
 chos.  After  the  death  of  Cretheus,  Pelias  and  Neleus 
 contended  for  the  kingdom,  which  belonged  of  right 
 to  ^son,  the  son  of  the  deceased  monarch  and  Tyro. 
 Pelias  proved  successful,  and  Neleus  departed  with  a 
 body  of  followers  into  the  Peloponnesus.  (Died.  Sic, 
 4,  68  )  Here  he  founded  Pylos  in  Messenia,  and, 
 marrying  Chlons,  daughter  of  Amphion,  became  the 
 father  of  twelve  sons,  the  oldest  of  whom  was  Peri- 
 clyrnenus,  the  youngest  Nestor,  and  of  one  daughter, 
 named  Pero.  {Diod  ,  I.  c.)  When  Hercules  attacked 
 Pylos,  he  killed  Neleus  and  all  his  sons  but  Nestor, 
 who  was  then  a  child,  and  reared  among  the  Gereni- 
 ans.  {Horn.,  II.,  11,  690. — His.,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Apoll. 
 Rhod.,  1,  Xb'a.—Apollod.,  1,  9,  8,  seqq.)  Neleus  had 
 promised  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  him  who  should 
 bring  to  Pylos  the  cows  of  Tyro,  detained  by  Iphiclus. 
 Bias  was  the  successful  suitor ;  for  an  account  of 
 which  legend,  consult  the  article  Melampus. — H.  A 
 disciple  of  Theophrastus,  to  whom  that  philosopher 
 bequeathed  the  writings  of  Aristotle.  ( Vid.  Apel- 
 licon.) 
 
 Nemausus,  an  important  city  of  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
 next  in  rank  to  Narbo.  It  was  situate  on  the  main 
 route  from  Spain  to  Italy,  and  was  the  capital  of  the 
 Arecomici.  It  is  now  Nismcs,  and  is  famed  for  its 
 remains  of  antiquity.      {Mela,  2,  5. — Plin.,  3,  4.) 
 
 Nemea  (Ne/iEa),  a  city  of  Argolis,  to  the  northwest 
 of  Mycenae,  celebrated  as  the  haunt  of  the  lion  slain  by 
 Hercules,  and  the  spot  where  triennial  games  were 
 held  in  honour  of  Archemorus,  or  Ophcltes,  son  of  Ly- 
 curgus,  king  of  Nemea.  {Apollod.,  3,  6,  3. — Hygin., 
 fab.,  74. — Id,  fab.,  273)  The  games  were  solem- 
 nized in  the  grove  of  Molorchus,  who  was  said  to  have 
 entertained  Hercules  when  he  came  to  Nemea  in  pur- 
 suit of  the  lion.  {Apollod.,  2,  7.) — We  know  from 
 Polybius  and  Livy,  that  the  Nemcan  games  continued 
 to  flourish  in  the  reign  of  Philip,  son  of  Demetrius 
 {Polyb.,  2,  7,  4,  — 7(Z.,  5,  101,  d.—Livy,  27,  30.— 
 Strabo,  377);  but  we  may  infer,  that  in  the  time  of 
 Pausanias  they  had  fallen  into  great  neglect,  from  the 
 slight  mention  he  has  made  of  their  solemnization  (2, 
 15).  The  ruins  of  Nemea  are  to  be  seen  near  the 
 modern  village  of  Kutchumadi.  {Cramer'' s  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p  284,  seqq.) — The  Nemean  games, 
 though,  like  the  Olympic  and  Isthmian,  originally  an- 
 te-Doric, became  subsequently  Doric  in  their  charac- 
 
NEM 
 
 NEM 
 
 ter.  They  were  celebrated  under  the  presidency  of 
 the  Corinthians,  Argives,  and  inhabitants  of  Cleonae 
 (Arg.  ad  Find.,  Ncm.,  3. — Compare  Pausan.,  2,  14, 
 2) ;  but  in  later  times  they  appear  to  have  been  entirely 
 under  the  management  of  the  Argives.  {Livy,  34, 
 41.)-  They  are  said  to  have  been  celebrated  every 
 third  year  ;  and  sometimes,  as  we  learn  from  Pau- 
 sanias,  in  the  winter.  {Pausan.,  2,  15,  2. — Id.,  6, 
 16.  4.)  The  crowns  bestowed  on  the  victors  were  of 
 parsley,  since  these  games  were  originally  funeral  ones, 
 and  since  it  was  customary  to  lay  chaplets  of  parsley 
 on  the  tombs  of  the  dead.  {Wachsmidh,  Gr.  Anliq., 
 vol.  1,  p.  163,  Eng'.  Iransl  ) 
 
 Nemesianus  (Marcus  Aurelius  Olympius),  a  Latin 
 poet,  a  native  of  Carthage,  who  flourished  about  280 
 A.D.  Few  particulars  of  his  life  are  known.  His 
 true  family  name  was  Olympius  ;  that  of  Nemesianus, 
 by  which  he  is  commonly  cited,  indicates  probably  that 
 his  ancestors  were  residents  of  Nemesium,  a  city  of 
 Marmarica.  Vopiscus,  in  his  life  of  Numerian  (who 
 was  clothed  with  the  imperial  purple  A.D.  282),  in- 
 forms us  that  Nemesianus  had  a  poetical  contest  with 
 this  prince,  but  was  defeated.  It  is  possible  that  Ne- 
 mesianus may  have  been  a  kinsman  of  his  ;  at  least, 
 the  Emperor  Carus,  and  his  two  sons,  Carinus  and  Nu- 
 merianus,  bear,  like  our  poet,  the  prsenomen  of  Marcus 
 Aurelius.  Vopiscus  also  states  that  Nemesianus  com- 
 posed Halieunca,  Cynegetica,  and  Nautica,  and  gained 
 all  sorts  of  crowns  {'■^  ommbus  coronis  illustralus  emicu- 
 It,"  according  to  the  felicitous  emendation  of  Casau- 
 bon).  So  that,  whatever  opinion  may  be  formed  of  his 
 merits  by  modern  critics,  it  is  certain  that  the  emperor's 
 triumph  over  him  was  bv  no  means  lightly  esteemed  by 
 his  contemporaries.  We  have  only  one  of  the  three 
 poems,  of  which  the  historian  speaks,  remaining,  name- 
 ly, that  entitled  Cynegetica,  the  subject  of  which  is  the 
 chase,  together  with  some  fragments  of  the  two  others. 
 The  Cynegetica,  or  poem  on  hunting,  consists  of  325 
 verses ;  but  the  work  is  incomplete,  either  from  hav- 
 ing been  left  in  that  stale  by  the  poet  himself,  or  from 
 a  portion  of  it  having  been  lost.  The  plan  of  the 
 piece  is  entirely  difi'erent  from  that  of  Gratius  Faliscus. 
 This  latter  treats  in  a  single  strain  of  all  the  species  of 
 hunting,  and  in  a  very  succinct  way  ;  Nemesianus,  on 
 the  contrary,  appears  to  have  treated  of  each  kind  of 
 hunting  separately,  and  in  a  detailed  manner.  In  the 
 first  book,  which  is  all  that  we  possess,  the  poet  speaks 
 of  the  preparations  for  the  hunt,  of  the  rearing  of  dogs 
 and  horses,  and  of  the  various  implements  and  aids 
 which  must  be  provided  by  the  hunter.  In  this  portion 
 of  his  work,  Nemesianus  often  gives  spirited  imitations 
 of  Virgil  and  Oppian.  Though  ihe  poem  is  not  free 
 from  the  faults  of  the  age  in  which  it  was  written,  yet 
 in  point  of  correctness  and  elegance  it  is  far  before 
 most  contemporaneous  productions. — Besides  the  Cyn- 
 egetica, and  the  fragments  of  the  other  two  poems  that 
 have  been  mentioned  (which  some,  however,  assign  to 
 a  different  source),  we  have  a  small  poem  in  honour  of 
 Hercules,  and  two  fragments  of  another  poem  on  fowl- 
 ing, "  De  Aiicupio."  The  best  edition  of  the  remains 
 of  Nemesianus  is  that  given  by  Wernsdorff  in  the  first 
 volume  of  his  Poe/«  Lalini  Minorcs.  {Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  33,  segq. — B'dhr,  Gcsch.  Horn. 
 Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  211.) 
 
 Nemesis,  a  female  Greek  divinity,  who  appears  to 
 have  been  regarded  as  the  personification  of  tlie  right- 
 eons  anger  of  the  gods.  She  is  represented  as  infle.x- 
 ibly  severe  to  the  proud  and  insolent.  {Pausan.,  1, 
 33,  2.)  According  to  Hesiod,  she  was  the  daughter 
 of  Night.  {Theog.,  223. — Compare  Pausanias,  7,  5, 
 1.)  There  was  a  celebrated  temple  sacred  to  her  at 
 Rhamnus,  one  of  the  boroughs  of  Attica,  about  sixty 
 stadia  distant  from  Marathon.  In  this  temple  there 
 was  a  statue  of  the  goddess,  made  from  a  block  of  Pa- 
 rian marble,  which  the  Persians  had  brought  thither  to 
 erect  as  a  trophy  of  their  expected  victory  at  Marathon. 
 
 Pausanias  says,  that  this  statue  was  the  work  of  Phid- 
 ias (1,  33,  2,  seij.);  but  Pliny  ascribes  it  to  Agorac- 
 ritus:  and  adds,  that  it  was  preferred  by  M.  Varro  to 
 all  other  statues  which  existed.  {Piin.,  36,  4,  3  )  A 
 fragment,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  head  of  this  statue, 
 was  found  in  the  temple  of  Rhamnus,  and  was  pre- 
 sented to  the  British  .Museum  in  1820.  {Elgin  and 
 Phigahian  Marbles,  vol.  1,  p.  120  ;  vol.  2,  p.  123.) 
 The  inhabitants  of  Rhamnus  considered  Nemesis  to 
 be  the  daughter  of  Oceanus.  {Pausan.,  7,  5,  1.)  The 
 practice  of  representing  the  statues  of  Nemesis  with 
 wings  was  first  introduced  after  the  time  of  Alexander 
 the  Great  by  the  inhabitants  of  Smyrna,  who  worshipped 
 several  goddesses  under  this  name.  {Pausan  ,  7,  5, 
 1. — Id.,  9,  35,  2.)  According  to  a  myth  preserved 
 by  Pausanias,  Nemesis  was  the  mother  of  Helen  by 
 Jupiter  ;  and  Leda,  the  reputed  mother  of  Helen,  was 
 only,  in  fact,  her  nurse  (1,  33,  7) ;  but  this  myth  seems 
 to  have  been  invented  in  later  times,  to  represent  the 
 divine  vengeance  which  was  inflicted  on  the  Greeks 
 and  Trojans  through  the  instrumentality  of  Helen. 
 There  was  a  statue  of  Nemesis  in  the  Capitol  at  Rome  ; 
 though  we  learn  from  Pliny  that  this  goddess  had  no 
 name  in  Latin.  {Pliyiy,  28,  5.  — Id.,  'll,  103.  — En- 
 cycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  16,  p.  141.) 
 
 Nemesius,  a  native  of  Emesa  in  Syria,  and  one  of 
 the  ablest  of  the  ancient  Christian  philosophers.  Of 
 his  life  very  few  particulars  are  known  ;  and  even  the 
 time  when  he  lived  is  uncertain,  though  this  is  gener- 
 ally supposed  to  have  been  during  the  reign  of  Theodo- 
 sius  the  Great,  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 
 He  became,  in  time,  bishop  of  his  native  city.  Neme- 
 sius has  been  accused  of  holding  some  of  Origen's  er- 
 roneous opinions,  but  has  been  defended  by  Bishop 
 Fell  {Annot.,  p.  20,  ed.  Oxon.,  1671),  who  however 
 confesses,  with  regard  to  the  pre  existence  of  souls, 
 that  "he  differed  from  the  commooly-received  opinion 
 of  the  church."  But  it  is  as  a  philosopher  and  physi- 
 ologist that  Nemesius  is  best  known,  and  his  work 
 Uepl  (bvasuc  avOpuKov,  "  On  the  Nature  of  Man,"  is 
 one  of  the  most  accurate  treatises  of  antiquity.  Some 
 writers  (among  whom  we  may  mention  Bishop  Fell, 
 Fabricins,  and  Brucker)  have  even  supposed  that  he 
 was  acquainted  with  the  circulation  of  the  blood  ;  but 
 in  tlie  opinion  of  Freind  {Hist,  of  Physic),  Haller 
 {Biblioth.  Anat.),  and  Sprengel  {Hist,  de  la  Med.),  he 
 has  no  right  whatever  to  be  .considered  as  the  au- 
 thor of  this  discovery.  The  passage  which  has  now 
 criven  rise  to  the  discussion  is  certainly  remarkable  : 
 "  The  motion  of  the  pulse,"  says  he,  "  takes  its  rise 
 from  the  heart,  and  chiefly  from  the  left  ventricle  of  it : 
 the  artery  is  with  great  vehemence  dilated  and  con- 
 tracted, by  a  sort  of  constant  harmony  and  order. 
 While  it  is  dilated,  it  draws  with  force  the  thinner  part 
 of  the  blood  from  the  next  veins,  the  exhalation  or  va- 
 pour of  which  blood  is  made  the  aliment  for  the  vital 
 spirit;  but  while  it  is  contracted,  it  exhales  whatever 
 fumes  it  has  through  the  whole  body  and  by  secret 
 passages,  as  the  heart  throws  out  whatever  is  fuliginous 
 through  the  mouth  and  nose  by  expiration"  (cap.  24, 
 p.  242,  ed.  Matth.).  There  is  another  passage  equally 
 curious  respecting  the  bile  (cap.  28.  p.  260,  ed.  Matth.), 
 from  which  Nemesius  is  supposed  to  have  known  all 
 that  Sylvius  afterward  discovered  with  respect  to  the 
 functions  of  the  bile  ;  but  his  claim  in  this  case  is  no 
 better  than  the  former,  and,  indeed,  Haller  and  Sprengel 
 both  say  that  his  physiology  is  not  at  all  more  perfect 
 than  that  of  Galen.  But  even  if  we  cannot  allow  Ne- 
 mesius all  the  credit  that  has  been  claimed  for  him, 
 still,  from  his  general  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  phys- 
 iology (which  is  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  professional 
 men"  of  his  time),  his  acuteness  in  exposing  the  errors 
 of  the  Stoics  and  the  Manichees,  the  puritv  and  ele- 
 gance of  his  style  compared  with  that  of  his  contem- 
 poraries, and  the  genuine  piety  which  shows  itself 
 throughout  his  work,  he  has  always  ranked  very  high 
 ^  877 
 
NEO 
 
 NEP 
 
 in  the  list  of  ancient  Christian  philosophers.  The  best 
 and  most  compieie  edition  of  Neinesius  is  that  of  Mat- 
 ihaji,  Hal.  Alui^d.,  1802,  8vo.  Before  the  appearance 
 of  tliis,  the  edition  of  Fell,  Oxon.,  1671,  8vo,  was 
 nnost  esteemed.  {Encyd.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  16,  p.  141, 
 seqq.) 
 
 jMemetacum,  a  town  of  the  Atrebates  in  Gaul,  now 
 Arras.     (  r<(/.  Atrebates.) 
 
 Nemetes,  a  nation  of  northern  Gaul,  in  the  division 
 called  Germania  Prima,  lying  along  the  banks  of  the 
 Rhine,  and  between  the  Vangiones  and  Tribocci. 
 Their  chief  city  was  Noviomagus,  now  Spire.  Ac- 
 cording to  some,  they  occupied  both  banks  of  the 
 Rhine,  and  their  transrhenane  territory  corresponded 
 in  part  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden.  ( Tacit.,  Germ., 
 28. — C(Es.,  B.  G.,  1,  31. — Lcmaire,  Ind.  Geogr.  ad 
 
 CcES.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Nemossus,  the  same  with  Augustonemetum  and 
 Claromontium,  the  capital  of  the  Ayerni  in  Gaul,  now 
 Clermont.  Strabo,  from  whom  we  obtain  the  name 
 Nemossus,  is  thought  by  some  to  mean  a  different 
 place  from  Augustonemetum.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 2,  pt.  1,  p.  117.) 
 
 Neobule,  I.  a  daughter  of  Lycambes,  satirized  by 
 Archilochus,  to  whom  she  had  been  betrothed.  {Vid. 
 Lycambes.) — II.  A  young  female  to  whom  Horace 
 addressed  one  of  his  odes.  The  bard  laments  the  un- 
 happy lot  of  the  girl,  whose  afiection  for  the  youthful 
 Hebrus  had  e.xposed  her  to  the  angry  chidings  of  an 
 offended  relative.     {Moral.,  Od.,  3,  12.) 
 
 Neoc^sare.4,  a  city  of  Pontus,  on  the  river  Lycus, 
 northwest  of  Comana.  Its  previous  name  appears  to 
 have  been  Ameria,  and  it  would  seem  to  have  received 
 the  appellation  of  Neocasarea  in  the  reign  of  Tibe- 
 rius. In  the  time  of  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  who 
 was  a  native  of  this  place,  it  is  staled  to  have  been  the 
 most  considerable  town  of  Pontus.  (Greg.  Ncoc, 
 Vit.,  p.  bll.)  It  appears  also,  from  the  life  of  the 
 same  saint,  to  have  been  the  principal  seat  of  pagan 
 idolatry  and  superstitions,  which  affords  another  pre- 
 sumption for  the  opinion  that  it  had  risen  on  the  found- 
 ation of  Ameria  and  the  worship  of  Men-Pharnaces. 
 Niksar,  the  modern  representative  of  Neocaesarea,  is 
 a  town  of  some  size,  and  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
 same  name,  in  the  pachalic  of  Sirvas  or  Roum.  {Cra- 
 mcr's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  315,  seq.) — II.  A  city  on 
 the  Euphrates,  in  the  Syrian  district  of  Chalybonitis ; 
 now,  according  to  Reichard,  Kalat  el  Nedsjur. 
 
 Neon,  the  same  with  Tithorea  in  Phocis.  {Vid. 
 Tithorea.) 
 
 Neontichos,  a  town  of  i^olis,  in  Asia  Minor, 
 founded  by  the  yEolians,  as  a  temporary  fortress,  on 
 their  flr.st  arrival  in  the  country,  and  thirty  stadia  dis- 
 tant from  Larissa.  Pliny  leads  us  to  suppose  that  it 
 was  not  on  the  coast,  but  somewhat  removed  from  it ; 
 and  we  collect  from  a  passage  in  the  Life  of  Homer 
 (i^  11,  seq.),  that  it  was  situate  between  Larissa  and 
 the  Hermus.  The  ruins  of  this  place  should  be  sought 
 for  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hermus,  and  above  Giuzel- 
 hissar,  on  the  road  from  Sinyriia  to  Bergamah.  ( Cra- 
 mer's Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  151.) 
 
 Neohtole.mus,  I.  son  of  Achilles  and  De'idamia. 
 {Vnl.  Pyrrhus  I.)  —  II.  A  king  of  the  Molossi,  father 
 of  Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander.  {Justin,  17, 
 3.)— III.  An  uncle  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  raised 
 to  the  throne  during  the  absence  of  the  latter  in  Italy. 
 Pyrrhus,  on  his  return  home,  associated  Neoptolemus 
 with  him  in  the  government  ;  but  afterward  put  him 
 to  death  on  a  charge  of  attein[)ting  to  poison.  {Pint., 
 Vit.  Pyrrh.) — IV.  A  captain  of  Alexander's  life-guards. 
 After  the  death  of  that  monarch  he  took  part  in  the 
 collisions  of  the  generals,  and  was  defeated,  along  with 
 Craterus,  and  slain  by  Eumenes.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Earn.) 
 — V.  A  poet,  a  native  of  Naupactus,  who  wrote  a 
 poem  on  the  heroines  and  other  females  celebrated  ia 
 mythology,  which  he  entitled  'HaunannKd,  in  honour 
 878 
 
 of  his  native  city.  {Schol.  ad  Apoll.  Rhod.,  2,  299, 
 &c.)  Others,  however,  make  Carcinus  to  have  been 
 the  author  of  this  poem. — VI.  A  native  of  Pares,  who 
 composed  a  work  on  Inscriptions  {Yiepl  'ETVLypafi/m- 
 Tuv),  of  which  Athenasus  makes  mention  (10,  p.  451). 
 Nepa,  according  to  Festus,  an  African  word,  and 
 equivalent  to  the  Latin  ''sidus."  Cicero  often  em- 
 ploys it  in  his  translation  of  Aratus,  and  it  occurs  m 
 Manilius  (2,  33)  and  elsewhere.  Plautus  uses  it  {Ca- 
 sin.,  2,  8,  7)  for  Cancer,  and  Cicero  {de  Fin.,  5,  15) 
 for  Scorpio.  This  latter  writer,  moreover,  who,  in  his 
 translation  of  Aratus,  commonly  employs  Nepa  in  the 
 sense  of  Scorpio,  in  one  passage  (v.  460)  uses  it  m 
 the  sense  of  Cancer.  In  Columella,  also  (11,  2,  30), 
 Nepa  occurs  for  Cancer,  according  to  some,  but  per- 
 haps with  more  correctness  for  Scorpio.  (Compare 
 Ideler,  Sternnamen,  p.  169.) 
 
 Nepe  or  Nepete,  a  town  of  Etruria,  southwest  of 
 Falerii.  Pliny  (3,  5)  calls  it  Nepet,  and  Sigonius  con- 
 tends for  this  being  the  true  reading :  but  in  all  the 
 ancient  inscriptions  which  have  been  found  here,  it 
 is  written  Nepete.  In  Strabo  it  is  named  Nepita. 
 {Strab.,  226.)  The  modern  name  is  Nepi.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  233.) 
 
 NEPHiiLE,  the  first  wife  of  Athamas  king  of  Thebes, 
 and  mother  of  Phryxus  and  Helle.     {Vid.  Athamas.) 
 
 Nepos,  Cornelius,  a  biographical  writer,  who  lived 
 towards  the  end  of  the  republic,  and  during  the  earlier 
 part  of  the  reign  of  Augustus.     He  is  generally  be- 
 lieved to  have  been  born  at  Hostilia  (now  Ostigtia), 
 a  small  town  situate  on  the  banks  of  the  Po,  near  the 
 confines  of  the  Veronese  and  Mantuan  territories.    The 
 year  of  his  birth  is  uncertain,  but  he  first  came  to  Rome 
 during  the  dictatorship  of  Julius  Caesar.     He  does  not 
 appear  to  have  filled  any  public  office  in  the  state;  but 
 his  merit  soon  procured  him  the  friendship  of  the  most 
 eminent  men  who  at  that  time  adorned  the  capital  of 
 the  world.     Catullus  dedicated  to  him  the  volume  of 
 poems  which  he  had  privately  read  and  approved  of 
 before  their  publication.     Nepos  addressed  one  of  his 
 own  works  to  Pomponius  Atticus,  with  whom  also  he 
 was  on  terms  of  intimacy.      {Vit.  Attici,   13.)     He 
 likewise  obtained  the  esteem  and  affection  of  Cicero 
 {Aid.  GclL,  15,  28),  who  speaks  of  his  writings  with 
 high  approbation  in  one  of  his  letters,  and  in  another 
 alludes  with  much  sympathy  to  the  loss  which  Nepos 
 had  sustained  by  the  death  of  a  favourite  son.     {Ep. 
 ad  Att.,  16,  5  el  14.)     It  farther  appears  that  Cicero 
 had  frequently  corresponded  with  him,  for  Macrobius 
 quotes  the  second  book  of  that  orator's  epistles  to  Cor- 
 nelius Nepos.     {Sat.,  3,  1.) — It  is  thus  probable  that 
 some  of  our  author's  works  had  been  prepared,  or  were 
 in  the  course  of  composition,  previous  to  the  death  of 
 Cicero ;   but  they  were  not  given  to  the  public  till  early 
 in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  since  Eusebius  considers  him 
 as  flourishing  in  the  fourth  year  of  that  emperor  {ap. 
 Vvss,  de  Hist.  LaL,  1,  14).     The  precise  period  of 
 his  death  is  unknown,  and  it  can  only  be  ascertained 
 that  he  survived  Atticus,  whose  biography  he  writes, 
 and  who  died  in  the  722d  year  of  the  city.     Some 
 chronoloo-ical  accounts  extend    his  life  till    the  com- 
 mencement of  the  Christian  era,  but  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
 sible that  one  who  was  a  distinguished  literary  char- 
 acter in  the  time  of  Catullus  could  have  existed  till 
 that  epoch.     Fabricius  makes  a  curious  mistake  con- 
 cerning the  death  of  Cornelius  Nepos,  in  saying  thai; 
 he  was  poisoned  in  724  by  his  freedmanCallisthenes, 
 and  in  citing  Plutarch's  Life  of  LucuUus  as  his  author- 
 ity for  the  fact.     {Bibl.  Lat.,  1,  6.)     The  passage  in 
 Plutarch  only  bears,  that  C.  Nepos  had  somewhere 
 said  that  the  mind  of  Lucretius  had  become  impaired 
 in  his  old  age,  in  consequence  of  a  potion  administered 
 to  him  by  his  freedmanCallisthenes. — Whether  the 
 Cornelius  Nepos  concerning  whose  life  these  circum- 
 stances have  been  gleaned  was  the  author  of  the  well- 
 known  book  entitled  Vita  Excelleniium  Imperalorum, 
 
NEPOS. 
 
 JVEPOS. 
 
 hss  been  a  subject,  ever  since  tbe  work  was  first  print- 
 ed, of  much  debate  and  controversy  among  critics  and 
 commentators.  Tiie  dissension  originated  in  the  fol- 
 lowing circumstances ;  A  person  of  the  name  of  ^'Emil- 
 ius  Probus,  who  lived  in  the  fourth  century,  during  the 
 reign  of"  Thcodosius  the  Great,  presented  to  his  sover- 
 eign a  copy  of  the  Vita:  Imperatoram,  and  ])refixed  to 
 it  some  barbarous  verses,  which  left  it  doubtful  whether 
 he  meant  to  announce  himself  as  the  author,  or  merely 
 as  the  transcriber,  of  the  work.  These  lines,  being 
 prefixed  to  the  most  ancient  MSS.  of  the  ViicB  Excel- 
 Icntium  Impcratoriim,  induced  a  general  belief  during 
 the  middle  ages  that  ^milius  Probus  was  himself  the 
 author  of  the  biographies.  The  Editio  Princeps,  which 
 was  printed  by  Janson  in  1471,  was  entitled  "  Probi 
 jEmilii  Liber  dc  Virorum  Exccllentium  Vita.''''  All 
 subsequent  editions  were  inscribed  with  the  name  of 
 jEmilius  Probus,  till  the  appearance  of  that  of  Lambi- 
 nus  in  1568,  in  which  the  opinion  that  Probus  was  the 
 author  was  first  called  in  question,  and  the  honour  of 
 the  work  restored  to  Cornelius  Nepos.  Since  that 
 time  the  VitcB  Exccllentium  Impcratorum  have  been 
 usually  published  with  bis  name  ;  but  various  supposi- 
 tions and  conjectures  still  continued  to  be  formed  with 
 regard  to  the  share  that  ^milius  Probus  might  have 
 had  in  the  MS.  which  he  presented  to  Theodosius. 
 Barthius  was  of  opinion,  that  in  this  MS.  Probus  had 
 abridged  the  original  work  of  Nepos  in  the  same  man- 
 ner as  Justin  had  epitomized  the  history  of  Trogus 
 Pompeius  ;  and  in  this  way  he  accounts  for  some  sole- 
 cisms and  barbarous  forms  of  expression,  which  would 
 not  have  occurred  in  the  genuine  and  uncorrupted 
 work  of  an  Augustan  writer.  {Adversaria,  24,  18  ; 
 25,  15.)  Since  the  time  of  Barthius,  however,  this 
 hypothesis,  which  divides  the  credit  of  the  work  be- 
 tween Cornelius  Nepos  and  Probus,  has  been  generally 
 rejected,  and  most  commentators  have  adopted  the 
 opinion  that  Probus  was  merely  the  transcriber  of  the 
 work  of  Nepos,  and  that  he  did  not  mean  to  signify 
 more  in  the  lines  which  he  p,refixed  to  his  MS.  Tliey 
 argue  that  it  is  clear,  from  a  passage  in  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  Life  of  Pelopidas,  that  the  work  had  not 
 been  reduced,  as  Barthius  supposes,  to  a  compendium, 
 but  had  originally  been  written  in  a  brief  style  and 
 abridged  form  :  "  Vercor,  si  res  explicarc  incipiam, 
 non  vitam  ejus  enarrarc,  sed  historiam  videar  scrihere : 
 si  tantum  modo  summas  attigcro,  ne  rudibus  litcrarum 
 Grcecarum  minus  lucide  appareat,  quanlus  fucrit  ille 
 vir.  Itaque  utrique  rci  occnrram,  quantum  poicro  ;  el 
 mcdcbor  cum  satictati,  ium  ignorantioe  Icctor^im.'"  It 
 is  worthy  of  remark,  that  in  some  of  the  old  MSS.  of 
 the  "  Vita;  Impcratorum,'"  which  furnished  the  text  of 
 the  earlier  editions,  there  is  written  at  the  end,  "  Com- 
 pletum  est  opus  ^milii  Probi,  Cornelii  Ncpotis,'"  as 
 if  the  copyist  had  been  in  doubt  as  to  the  real  author. 
 — So  far  from  admitting  those  solecisms  of  expres- 
 sion for  which  Barthius  thinks  it  necessary  to  account, 
 Vossius  chiefly  founds  his  argument  in  favour  of  the 
 classical  authenticity  of  the  work  on  that  Augustan 
 style,  which  neither  -■Emilius  Probus  nor  any  other 
 writer  of  the  time  of  Theodosius  could  have  attain- 
 ed. A  very  recent  attempt,  however,  has  been  made 
 again  to  vindicate  for  /Emilius  Probus  the  honour  of 
 the  composition,  in  Rinck's  "  Saggio  per  restituirc 
 a  JEmilio  Probo  il  libra  di  Cornclio  Nepotc." — After 
 allowing  for  the  superior  dignity  of  the  office  of  tran- 
 scriber in  the  age  of  Theodosius,  compared  with  its 
 diminished  importance  at  the  present  day,  it  would 
 seem  that  there  is  something  more  implied  in  the  ver- 
 ses of  Probus  than  that  he  was  merely  a  copyist  ;  and 
 he  must  either  have  had  a  part  in  the  composition,  or, 
 having  discovered  the  MS,,  was  not  unwilling  that  he 
 should  have  some  share  of  the  credit  due  to  the  au- 
 thor.— The  Vita:  Impcratorum.,  properly  so  called,  con- 
 tain the  lives  of  nineteen  Greek,  one  Persian,  and  two 
 Carthaginian  generals.     It  has  been  conjectured  that 
 
 there  was  also  a  scries  of  lives  of  Roman  command- 
 ers, but  that  these  had  perished  before  ^milius  Pro- 
 bus  commenced  his  transcription.  That  Nepos  at 
 least  intended  to  write  these  biographies,  appears  from 
 a  passage  at  the  end  of  the  life  of  Hannibal,  in  which 
 he  says,  "  It  is  now  time  to  conclude  this  book,  and 
 proceed  to  the  lives  of  the  Roman  generals,  that,  their 
 exploits  bemg  compared  with  those  of  the  Greeks,  it 
 may  be  determined  which  are  to  be  preferred"  (c.  13). 
 That  he  actually  accomplished  this  task  is  rendered 
 at  least  probable  from  the  circumstance  of  Plutarch's 
 quoting  the  authority  of  Nepos  for  facts  concerning 
 the  lives  of  Marcellus  and  Luculhis  ;  and  it  seems  not 
 unlikely  that  the  sentence  at  the  close  of  Hannibal 
 may  have  suggested  to  that  biographer  the  idea  of  his 
 parallel  lives. — The  principles  which  Nepos  displays 
 in  that  part  of  the  work  which  still  remains  are  those 
 of  an  admirer  of  virtue,  a  foe  to  vice,  and  a  supporter 
 of  the  cause  of  freedom.  He  wrote  in  the  crisis  of 
 his  country's  fate,  and  during  her  last  struggle  for 
 freedom,  when  despotism  was  impending,  but  when 
 the  hope  of  freedom  was  not  yet  extinguished  in  the 
 breasts  of  the  last  of  the  Romans.  The  work,  it  has 
 been  conjectured  {Harles,  Introduct.  in  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.  1,  p.  367),  was  undertaken  to  fan  the  expiring 
 flame,  by  exhibiting  the  example  of  such  men  as  Dion 
 and  Timoleon,  and  by  inserting  sentiments  which  were 
 appropriate  to  the  times.  In  choosing  the  subjects  of 
 his  biographies,  the  author  chiefly  selects  those  heroes 
 who  had  maintained  or  recovered  the  liberties  of  their 
 country,  and  he  passes  over  all  that  bears  no  reference 
 to  this  favourite  theme.  It  must  be  confessed,  how- 
 ever, that  he  does  not  display  in  a  very  enviable  view 
 the  fate  of  those  popular  chiefs  who  defended  or  liber- 
 ated their  native  land.  The  ^^  Invidia,  glorice  comes,'''' 
 licrhted  on  almost  every  Grecian  hero  ;  and  Miltiades 
 and  Themistocles  ultimately  received  no  better  reward 
 from  the  free  Athenian  citizens  than  Datames  obtain- 
 ed from  the  Persian  despot. — With  regard  to  the  au- 
 thenticity of  his  facts,  Nepos  has  given  us  no  informa- 
 tion in  his  preface  concerning  the  sources  to  which  he 
 resorted  ;  but  in  the  course  of  his  biographies  he  cites 
 Thucydides,  Xenophon,  Theopompus,  and  Philistus, 
 and  also  Dinon,  to  whose  authority  he  chiefly  trusted 
 with  regard  to  Persian  affairs.  {Vit.  Conon,  c.  5.) 
 That  he  compared  the  different  opinions  of  these  his- 
 torians o:i  the  same  subject  is  evinced  by  a  passage  in 
 his  Alr.ibiades  (c.  11);  and  it  appears  from  another  pas- 
 sage, in  his  life  of  Themistocles,  that  when  they  dif- 
 fered in  their  statement  of  facts,  he  had  the  good  sense 
 and  judgment  to  prefer  the  authority  of  Thucydides 
 (c.  9).  Aulus  Gellius  rather  commends  his  diligence- 
 in  the  investigation  of  facts  (15,  28).  But  Pliny  (5, 
 1),  on  the  other  hand,  censures  both  his  credulity  and 
 haste.  The  investigations,  moreover,  of  modern  com- 
 mentators have  discovered  many  mistakes  and  incon- 
 sistencies in  almost  every  one  of  his  biographies.  For 
 example:  1.  It  was  not  the  great  Miltiades,  son  of 
 Cimon,  as  Nepos  erroneously  relates,  who  founded  a 
 petty  sovereignty  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  but  Mil- 
 tiades the  son  of  Cypselus,  as  the  Latin  biographer 
 might  have  learned  from  Herodotus  (6,  34),  an  author 
 whom  he  never  quotes,  and  scarcely  appears  to  have 
 consulted. — 2.  In  the  life  of  Phocion  he  has  mistaken 
 the  Greek  words  f^^i'Adf  ti^  ("  a  certain  person  of  the 
 same  tribe'''')  for  a  proper  name,  Emphylelus.  It  is  be- 
 lieved, however,  by  Tzschucke,  that  Phocion  may  have 
 had  a  friend  of  this  name,  since  the  same  appellation 
 occurs  in  Andocides.  Without  some  excuse  of  this 
 kind,  Nepos's  knowledge  of  Greek  becomes  very  sus- 
 picious.—3.  In  the  life  of  Pausanias  (c.  I)  he  con- 
 founds together  Darius  and  Xerxes  ;  Mardonms  was 
 the  son-in-law  of  the  former,  and  the  brother-in-law  of 
 the  latter.— 4.  He  confounds  the  victory  of  Mycale, 
 gained  bv  Xantippus  and  Leotychides,  with  the  naval 
 bat'le  framed  bv  Cimon,  nine  years  after,  near  the  river 
 
 879 
 
NEPOS. 
 
 NEP 
 
 Eurymedon.  (Vid.  Mycale.) — 5.  In  comparing  the 
 end  of  the  second  chapter  and  the  cotnnieticcment  of 
 the  third  of  the  life  of  Puusanias,  with  the  clear  and 
 circumstantial  nairative  of  Thucydides  (I,  130-134), 
 we  shall  perceive  that  Nepos  has  violated  the  order  of 
 time,  and  confounded  the  events. — 6.  There  is  no  less 
 disorder  in  the  third  chapter  of  the  life  of  Lysander. 
 Nepos  confounds  two  expeditions  of  this  general  into 
 Asia,  between  which  there  elapsed  an  interval  of  sev- 
 en years.  (Compare  Xcn.,  Hist.  Gr  ,  3,  4,  10. — Diod. 
 Sic,  14,  13.) — 7.  In  the  second  chajiler  of  the  life  of 
 Dion,  Nepos  confounds  the  order  of  events.  Plato 
 made  three  voyages  to  Sicily  ;  the  first  in  the  time  of 
 Dionysius  the  Elder,  who  had  him  sold  as  a  slave; 
 Dion  w;is  then  only  fourteen  years  old.  At  the  time 
 of  his  second  voyage,  Dionysius  the  Elder  was  no  lon- 
 ger alive.  It  was  during  his  third  visit  to  the  island 
 that  the  philo-sopher  reconciled  Dion  and  Dionysius  the 
 Younger.  Finally,  it  was  not  Dionysius  tlie  Elder, 
 but  the  son,  who  invited  Plato  ^^  magna  amhitiorie." 
 —  8.  In  the  second  chapter  of  the  life  of  Chabrias, 
 utter  confusion  prevails.  At  the  period  when  Nepos 
 makes  Agesilaus  to  have  gone  on  his  expedition  into 
 Egypt,  this  monarch  was  busily  occupied  in  Boeotia  ; 
 and  Ne])Os  himself,  in  his  life  of  Agesilaus,  makes 
 no  mention  of  this  expedition.  The  king  of  Egypt 
 who  was  assisted  by  Chabrias  was  Tachiis,  and  not 
 Nectanebis. — 9.  Hannibal  did  not  immediately  march 
 to  Rome  after  the  victory  at  Cannas,  as  Nepos  in  his 
 life  of  Hannibal  (c.  5)  states,  but  after  having  permi*- 
 ted  the  spirit  of  his  army  to  become  corrupted  in  Cam- 
 pania.— 10.  In  the  life  of  Conon  (c.  1),  he  says  that 
 this  general  had  no  share  in  the  battle  of  .lEgospota- 
 mos  ;  the  contrary  is  proved  by  Xenophon.  {Hist. 
 Gr.,  2,  1,  28.)— 11.  In  the  life  of  Agesilaus  (c.  5)  he 
 attributes  to  this  king  the  victory  at  Corinth,  which 
 was  due  to  Aristodemus,  as  Xenophon  informs  us 
 {Hist.  Gr.,  4,  2,  9). — Nepos  is  also  charged  with 
 being  too  much  of  a  panegyrist,  and  with  having  giv- 
 en to  his  Lives  the  air  rather  of  a  series  of  professed 
 eulogies  than  of  discriminating  and  impartial  biogra- 
 phies. In  fact,  however,  he  selected  the  lives  of  those 
 whom  he  considered  as  most  worthy  of  admiration  ; 
 and  he  has  not  failed  to  bestow  due  reprobation  on 
 the  few  who,  like  Pausanias  and  Lysaiider,  degen- 
 erated from  the  virtues  of  their  countrymen.  Nepos 
 appears  to  have  been  fully  aware  of  the  difference  be- 
 tween history  and  biography  ;  remembering  that  the 
 latter  was  more  siinple  than  the  former,  that  it  did  not 
 require  to  be  so  full  with  regard  to  public  events,  and 
 admitted  more  details  of  private  life  and  manners.  To 
 this  distinction  he  alludes  in  his  preface  ;  and  we  ac- 
 cordingly find  that  the  life  of  Epaminondas,  for  e.xam- 
 ple,  is  occupied  with  the  private  character  and  mem- 
 orable sayings,  more  than  with  the  patriotic  exploits, 
 of  that  renowned  hero.  He  has  thus  recorded  a  great 
 many  curious  particulars  which  are  not  elsewhere  to 
 be  found  ;  and  he  excels  in  that  art  (the  difficulty  of 
 which  renders  good  abridgments  so  rare)  of  perceiving 
 the  features  which  are  most  characterstic,  and  [)ainting 
 vividly  with  a  few  touches.  "The  character  of  Alcib- 
 iades,"  says  Gibbon,  "  is  such  that  Livy  need  not 
 have  been  ashamed  of  it."  {Misc.  Works,  vol.  4,  p. 
 417.) — The  MS.  of  /Emilins  Probus,  the  copies  taken 
 from  it,  and  the  Editiu  I^rinccjis  published  by  Janson 
 in  1471,  all  terminated  with  the  life  of  Hannibal.  The 
 fragment  of  the  life  of  Cato  the  Censor,  and  the  life 
 of  Pomponius  Atticus,  now  generally  appended  to 
 the  VitiB  Excellentium  Iinperalurum,  were  discover- 
 ed by  Cornerus  in  an  old  MS.  containing  the  letters  of 
 Cicero  to  Atticus,  and  were  published  by  him  along 
 with  the  VilcB  Imperatorum,  in  an  edition  which  is 
 without  date,  but  is  generally  accounted  the  second 
 of  that  production  of  Nepos.  It  is  evident  that  the 
 life  of  Atticus  was  a  separate  work,  or  an  extract  of 
 a  work,  which  was  altogether  different  from  the  Vitcc 
 880 
 
 Impcratoruni ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  Atticus  was  not 
 a  military  commander;  and,  secondly,  Nepos  dedi- 
 cates the  VilcK  Impcralorvm  to  Atticus,  while,  in  th« 
 last  cha])ters  of  the  life  of  Atiicus,  he  minutely  re- 
 lates the  circumstances  of  his  death.  The  old  scholi- 
 asts are  of  opinion,  that,  along  with  the  fraomeni  on 
 the  life  of  Cato  the  Censor,  it  had  originally  formed 
 part  of  a  treatise  by  Cornelius  Nepos  which  is  now 
 lost,  and  which  was  erititled  "  JDc  Hisloricis  Latinis.'" 
 — The  life  of  Atticus  is  much  more  curious  and  valu- 
 able than  the  biographies  of  the  Greek  generals.  It  is 
 fuller,  and  it  is  not  drawn,  as  they  are,  from  secondary 
 sources.  Nepos  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Atticus, 
 and  was  himself  an  eye-witness  of  all  that  he  relates 
 concerning  the  daily  occurrences  of  his  life,  and  with 
 regard  to  the  most  minute  particulars  of  his  domestic 
 arrangements,  even  down  to  his  household  expenses. 
 As  exhibiting  the  fullest  details  of  the  private  life  of  a 
 Roman  (though  a  specimen,  no  doubt,  highly  favoura- 
 ble and  ornamental),  it  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting 
 piece  of  biography  which  has  descended  to  us  from  an- 
 tiquity.— Nepos  appears  to  have  been  a  very  fertile 
 writer.  Besides  the  lives  of  commanders  and  that  of 
 Pomponius  Atticus,  he  was  the  author  of  several 
 works,  chiefly  of  an  historical  description,  which  are 
 now  almost  entirely  lost.  He  wrote,  in  three  books,  an 
 abridgment  of  the  history  of  the  world  ;  and  he  had  the 
 merit  of  being  the  first  author  among  the  Romans  who 
 completed  a  task  of  this  laborious  and  useful  descrip- 
 tion. Aulus  Gellius  mentions  his  life  of  Cicero  (15, 
 28),  and  quotes  the  fifth  book  of  his  work  entitled  Ex- 
 cmplnrum  libri  (7,  18).  He  also  composed  a  treatise 
 on  the  difference  of  the  terms  It/eratus  and  eritditus  ; 
 and,  finally,  a  passage  in  the  life  of  Dion  informs  us  of 
 a  work  which  Nepos  wrote,  De  Historicis  Gracu. — 
 While  so  many  of  his  productions  have  been  lost,  and 
 while  it  has  been  denied  that  he  was  the  author  of 
 some  which  he  actually  composed,  others,  by  a  strange 
 caprice,  have  been  attributed  to  him  which  he  certain- 
 ly (lid  not  write.  One  of  these  is  the  work  De  Viris 
 lilustribus,  now  generally  assigned  to  Aurelius  Victor. 
 Another  is  the  book  De  Excidio  Troja,  which  pro- 
 fesses to  be  a  Latin  translation,  by  Cornelius  Nepos, 
 from  a  Greek  work  by  Dares  Phrygius,  though,  in  fact, 
 it  was  written  by  an  obscure  author,  after  the  age  of 
 Constantino.  Along  with  the  book  which  passed  un- 
 der the  name  of  Diclys  Cretensis,  it  became  the  origin 
 of  those  folios  of  romance  and  chivalry,  in  which  the 
 heroes  of  Greece  were  marshalled  with  Arthur's 
 Round-Table  Knights,  and  with  the  Paladins  of  Char- 
 lemagne.—  The  best  editions  of  Nepos  are,  that  of 
 Longolius,  Colon.,  1543;  Lambinus,  Lutct.,  1569, 
 4to  ;  et  Franco/.,  1608,  fob;  Bosius,  Lips.,  1657, 
 1675,  8vo;  Van  Staveren,  Lngd.  Bat.,  1773,  8vo  ; 
 Tzschucke,  GMing.,  1804,  Svo-  Harles,  Lips.,  1806, 
 8vo  ;  Fischer,  Lips.,  1806,  8vo  ;  Dahnc,  Lips.,  1827, 
 8vo  ;  and  Bremi,  Lips.,  1827,  8vo.  {Dunlop's  Ro- 
 man Literature,  vol.  3,  p.  512.  scqq.) 
 
 Nepoti.^nus,  Fj..\vIus  Popilius,  a  son  of  Eutropia, 
 the  sister  of  the  Emperor  Constantine.  He  proclaim- 
 ed himself  em[icror  after  the  death  of  his  cousin  Con- 
 statis,  marched  to  Rome  with  a  body  of  gladiators  and 
 other  worthless  followers,  defeated  Anicetus  the  pras- 
 torian  prefect,  and  pillaged  the  city.  He  enjoyed  his 
 usurped  power  only  twenty-eight  days,  at  the  end  of 
 which  period  he  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Marcelli- 
 nus,  one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Magnentius.  (Le  Beau, 
 Hist,  du  Ba.9-Empire,  vol.  1,  p.  358.) 
 
 Neptu.nium,  a  promontory  of  Bilhynia,  on  the  Pr» 
 pontis,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cianus  Sinus.  It  is  more 
 usually  known  by  its  Greek  name  Posidium.  Man- 
 ner! gives  the  modern  appellation  as  Bos  Buran. 
 {Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  578.) 
 
 Neptunius  Dux,  an  expression  applied  by  Horace 
 {Epod.,  9,  7)  to  Sestus  Pompeius,  who  boastingly 
 styled  himself  the  son  of  Neptune,  because  his  fathel 
 
NEP 
 
 NER 
 
 had  once  held  the  command  of  the  sea.  {Dio  Cass., 
 48,  19  )  Coins  still  exist  of  ihis  Roman  leader,  bearing 
 the  effigy  of  Neptune,  with  the  inscription  Magyms 
 Puis  Iinpcrator  iterum ;  or  this,  Prafcctus  classis  el 
 orcB  maritimcB  ex  s.  c.  (Consult  Rasche,  Lex  Rei 
 Num  ,  vol.  6,  col.  1676,  seqq.) 
 
 Neptunus  or  Neptumnus,  the  god  of  the  sea,  a 
 Roman  divinity,  whose  attributes  are  nearly  the  same 
 as  those  of  the  Greek  Poseidon  {Yloatiduv).  They 
 will  both,  therefore,  be  considered  in  one  and  the  same 
 article.  Neptune  or  Poseidon,  the  son  of  Saturn  and 
 Khea,  and  the  brother  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  appears 
 to  have  been  one  of  the  most  ancient  divinities  of 
 Greece;  although,  according  to  Herodotus  (2,  50),  he 
 was  not  originally  a  Greek  deity,  but  his  worship 
 was  imported  from  Libya.  This  statement,  however, 
 on  the  part  of  the  historian,  cannot  be  correct.  Nep- 
 tune was  the  god  of  water  in  general,  of  the  sea,  the 
 rivers,  and  the  fountains,  but  he  was  more  particular- 
 ly regarded  as  the  god  of  the  sea,  which  he  acquired  in 
 hi.s  share  of  ihe  dominions  of  his  father  Saturn.  His 
 wife  was  Amphitnte,  and  their  children  were  Triton 
 and  Rliode,  or  Rhodes,  which  last  became  the  bride  of 
 Helius,  or  the  Sun-god.  A  late  legend  said  that  Am- 
 phitnte tied  the  love  of  the  god,  but  that  he  came  riding 
 on  a  dolphin,  and  thus  won  her  affection  ;  and  for  this 
 service  he  placed  the  dolphin  among  the  stars.  {Era- 
 tosth.,  Calast.,  31. — Hygin.,  Poet.  Aslron.,  1,  17  ) 
 Neptune,  like  his  brother  Jupiter,  had  a  numerous 
 progeny  by  both  goddesses  and  mortals.  The  fleet 
 steed  Arion  was  the  offspring  of  the  sea-god  and  Ce- 
 res, both  having  assumed  the  equine  form.  Accord- 
 ng  to  one  account,  the  nymph  Rhodos  was  his  daugh- 
 ter by  Venus.  {Heroph.,  ap.  Schol.  aii  Find.,  01 ,  7, 
 24.) — Neptune  is  said  to  have  produced  the  horse  in 
 his  well-known  contest  with  Minerva  for  the  right  of 
 naming  the  city  of  Athens.  {Vid.  Cccmps.)  Accord- 
 ing to  some,  we  are  to  understand  by  this  myth  that 
 the  horse  was  imported  into  Greece  by  sea.  But  this 
 explanation  is  far  from  satisfactory.  It  is  difficult  to 
 give  a  reason  for  the  connexion  of  Neptune  with  the 
 horse  ;  but  it  is  evident,  from  several  passages  in  the 
 Greets  writers,  that  he  was  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
 equestrian  deity  as  well  as  the  god  of  the  sea.  In  the 
 absence  of  a  better  explanation,  we  will  give  the  one 
 suggested  by  Knight.  "The  horse,"  says  this  writer, 
 '•  was  sacred  to  Neptune  and  the  rivers,  and  was  em- 
 ployed as  a  general  symbol  of  the  waters.  Hence 
 also  it  may  have  been  assumed  as  one  of  the  types  of 
 fertility,  and  may  furnish  a  clew  to  the  fable  of  Nep- 
 tune and  Ceres.  It  may  also  throw  some  light  on  the 
 narrative  of  Pausanias,  where  he  states  (8,  24)  that 
 the  Phigalenses  dedicated  a  statue  to  Ceres,  having 
 the  figure  of  a  woman  in  every  other  part  except  the 
 head,  which  was  that  of  a  horse  ;  and  that  she  held  in 
 one  hand  a  dolphin,  and  in  the  otlier  a  dove."  (Knight, 
 Enquiry,  &c.,  i^  111,  seqq.  —  Class.  Jiitirn.,  vol.  2o, 
 p.  34,  seqq.) — Besides  his  residence  on  Olympus,  Nep- 
 tune had  a  splendid  palace  beneath  the  sea  at  -Egas. 
 (//.,  13,  21.— O^Z.,5,  381.)  Homer  gives  a  noble  de- 
 scription of  his  passage  from  it  on  his  way  to  Troy, 
 his  chariot-wheels  but  touching  the  watery  plain,  and 
 the  monsters  of  the  deep  gambolling  around  their  king. 
 His  most  celebrated  temples  were  at  the  Corinthian 
 Isthmus,  at  Onchestus,  Helice,  Trcezene,  and  the 
 promontories  of  Taenarum  and  Geraestus. — Neptune 
 is  represented,  like  Jupiter,  of  a  serene  and  majestic 
 aspect  ;  his  form  is  exceedingly  strong  and  muscular  ; 
 and  hence  "  the  chest  of  Neptune"  {arepvov  YloceLid- 
 (jyof,  //.,  5.479)  is  the  poetic  expression  for  this  char- 
 acteristic of  the  deity,  which  is  illustrated  by  the  noble 
 fragment  from  the  pediment  of  the  Parthenon  in  the 
 British  Museum.  He  usually  bears  in  his  hand  the 
 trident,  the  three-pronged  symbol  of  his  power  ;  the 
 dolphin  and  other  marine  objects  accompany  his  im- 
 »ees.  The  animals  offered  to  him  in  sacrifice  were 
 ^  5T 
 
 usually  black  bulls,  rams,  and  boar-pigs. --Neptune 
 was  not  originally  a  god  of  the  Doric  race.  He  was 
 principally  worshipped  by  the  lonians,  who  were  in 
 most  places  a  maritime  people.  In  those  Dorian  cities, 
 however,  which  acquired  a  love  for  foreign  commerce, 
 we  find  that  the  worship  of  Neptune  extensively  pre- 
 vailed. {Mullers  Dorians,  vol.  1,  p.  417,  seq.,  Eng. 
 transl.) — The  etymology  of  the  names  Poseidon  and 
 Neptunus  is  doubtful.  Poseidon  is  written  in  Doric 
 Greek  Poteidan  {lioTeiduv),  of  which  wc  have  another 
 example  in  the  name  of  Potidica,  written  Poteidaia 
 {WoTEL^ala)  in  the  inscription,  now  in  the  British 
 Museum,  on  those  Athenians  who  fell  before  this  city. 
 The  name,  according  to  some  writers,  contains  the 
 same  root  in  the  first  syllable  as  we  find  in  Trorof  and 
 TTora/iog;  and  has  the  same  reference,  in  all  likelihood, 
 to  water  and  fluidity.  {Midler,  Proleg.,  p.  289.) — 
 Neptunus,  on  the  other  hand,  is  derived  by  the  Stoic 
 Balbus,  in  Cicero,  from  nando  {N.  D  ,  2,  26),  an  ety- 
 mology which  Cotta  subsequently  ridicules.  {N.  D., 
 3,  24.)  Varro  deduces  it  from  nuptu,  because  this 
 god  "covers"  (obnubit)  the  earth  with  the  sea.  (L. 
 L.,  4,  10.)  This  latter  derivation,  though  approved 
 of  by  Vossius  {Etymol,  s.  v.  nuptae),  is  no  better  than 
 the  former.  We  may  compare  the  form  of  the  word 
 Nept-unus  or  Nept-umnus  with  Port-umjius,  Vert- 
 umnus,  and  the  word  al-umnus ;  but  the  meaning  or 
 origin  of  the  root  Nept  or  Nep  seems  uncertain.  It 
 niay,  perhaps,  be  connected  with  the  same  root  that  is 
 contained  in  the  Greek  vIkt-o,  ''to  wet."  (KciglU- 
 ley's  Mythology,  p.  85,  seqq.  —  Encycl.  Us.  KnowL, 
 vol.  16,  p.  146.) 
 
 Nereides  (N;?p??it(5ef),  nymphs  of  the  sea,  daughters 
 of  Nereus  and  Doris.  They  are  said  by  most  ancient 
 writers  to  have  been  fifty  in  number,  but  Properlius 
 makes  them  a  hundred  (3,  5,  33).  The  most  celebra- 
 ted of  them  were  Amphitrite,  the  wife  of  Neptune ; 
 Thetis,  the  mother  of  Achilles  ;  Galatsa,  Doto,  &c. 
 The  worship  of  the  Nereids  was  generally  connected, 
 as  might  be  supposed,  with  that  of  Neptune.  Thus, 
 they  were  worshipped  in  Corinth,  where  Neptune  was 
 held  in  especial  honour,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of 
 Greece.  {Pausan.,  2,  1,  7,  seq.— Id.,  3,  26,  5.— Id., 
 5,  19,  2.)  The  Nereids  were  originally  represented 
 as  beautiful  nymphs ;  but  they  were  afterward  de- 
 scribed as  beings  with  green  hair,  and  with  the  lower 
 part  of  their  body  like  that  of  a  fish.     (Plin.,  9,  4.) 
 
 Nereus  (two  syllables),  a  sea-deity,  the  eldest  son  of 
 Pontus  and  Earth.  (Heswd,  Theog.,  233.)  Though 
 not  mentioned  by  name  in  Homer,  he  is  frequently 
 alluded  to  under  the  title  of  the  Sea-elder  (uAioq  yi- 
 puv),  and  his  daughters  are  called  Nereids.  Accord- 
 ing to  Hesiod,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  knowl- 
 edge and  his  love  of  truth  and  justice,  whence  he  was 
 termed  an  elder :  the  gift  of  prophecy  was  also  assign- 
 ed to  him.  When  Hercules  was  in  quest  of  the  ap- 
 ples of  the  Hesperides,  he  was  directed  by  the  nymphs 
 to  Nereus.  He  found  the  god  asleep  and  seized  him. 
 Nereus,  on  awaking,  changed  himself  into  a  variety 
 of  forms,  but  in  vain  ;  he  was  obliged  to  instruct 
 him  how  to  proceed  before  the  hero  would  release 
 him.  (Apollodorus,  2,  5.)  He  also  foretold  to  Par- 
 is, when  carrying  away  Helen,  the  evils  he  would 
 bring  on  his  country  and  family.  (Herat.,  Od.,  \, 
 15.)  Nereus  was  married  to  Doris,  one  of  the  ocean- 
 nymphs,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  of  the  Ne- 
 reids, already  mentioned.  (Keighlley's  Mythology, 
 p.  244.)— Hermann  makes  NripEvg  equivalent  to  Ne- 
 Jluus  (vrj  f)€lv),  and  understands  by  the  term  the  bot- 
 tom of  the  sea.  Hence,  according  to  the  same  au- 
 thority, Nereus  is  called  "the  aged  one,"  because  he 
 is  ever  unchangeable  ;  he  is  called  true,  because  the 
 bottom  of  the  ocean  never  gapes  in  fissures,  so  as  lo 
 allow  the  waters  to  escape  :  and  he  is  termed  mild 
 and  peaceful,  because  the  depths  of  ocean  are  eve» 
 tranquil  and  at  rest.     (Hcrmanni  Opuscida,  vol.  2, p. 
 
 ool 
 
NER 
 
 NERO. 
 
 178.)  Schwetick,  on  the  other  hand,  derives  the  name 
 Nereus  from  vuu,  "  to  Jiuw."  {Andeut.,  p.  180.) 
 'J'he  best  etymology,  however,  is  undouiitedly  that 
 which  traces  the  form  Nrypevf  to  the  old  Greek  term 
 V9ip6i\  "  water,'"  which  last  may  itself  be  comj)arcd 
 with  the  Hebrew  nahar.  The  modern  Greek  vepuv. 
 '' vsatcr,''''  is  therelore  a  word  of  great  antiquity. 
 (Compare  Lobcck,  ad  Phryn.,  p.  42  ) 
 
 JNekitos,  the  highest  and  most  remarkable  mountain 
 in  the  island  of  Ithaca.  {Horn.,  Od.,  1,  21.  — 11. ,  2, 
 632.—  Fi/o-.,  yEn.,  3,  270.)  According  to  Dodwell, 
 the  modern  name  is  Anoi,  which  means  '•  lofty  :"  he 
 observes,  also,  that  the  forests  spoken  of  by  Homer 
 have  disappeared  :  it  is  at  present  bare  and  barren, 
 producing  nothing  but  stunted  evergreens  and  aro- 
 matic plants.     {Cramcr.'i  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  45.) 
 
 NiiRiTUM,  a  town  of  Calabria,  about  five  miles  to 
 the  north  of  Callipolis.  {Plin.,  3,  W.—Piol,  p.  62.) 
 It  is  now  Nardo.  From  an  ancient  inscription,  cited 
 by  Muratori,  it  a[)pears  to  have  been  a  municipium. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  317.) 
 
 Nekium,  a  promontory  of  Spain,  the  same  with  Ar- 
 tabrum  ;  now  Cape  Finistcrre. 
 
 Nero,  Ci,.\unius  C^sar,  the  si.xth  of  the  Roman 
 emperors,  was  born  at  Antium,  in  Latium,  A.D.  37, 
 nine  months  after  the  death  of  Tiberius.  {Sueton., 
 Vit.  Ncr.,  c.  6.)  He  was  the  son  of  Domitius  Ahe- 
 nobarbus  and  Agrippina  the  daughter  of  Germanicus, 
 and  was  originally  named  Lucius  Domitius.  After 
 the  death  of  Ahenobarbus,  and  a  second  husband, 
 Criiipus  Passienus,  Agrippina  married  her  uncle,  the 
 Emperor  Claudius,  who  gave  his  daughter  Octavia  in 
 marriage  to  her  son  Lucius,  and  subsequently  adopted 
 him  with  the  formal  sanction  of  a  Lex  Curiata.  {Tacit., 
 Ann.,  12,  26.)  The  education  of  Nero  was  carefully 
 attended  to  in  his  youth.  He  was  placed  under  the 
 care  of  the  philosofjhcr  Seneca,  and  he  appears  to 
 have  applied  himself  with  considerable  perseverance 
 to  study.  He  is  said  to  have  made  great  progress 
 in  the  Greek  language,  of  which  he  exhibited  a 
 specimen  in  his  sixteeenth  year,  by  pleading  in  that 
 tongue  the  rights  or  privileges  of  the  Rhodians,  and 
 of  the  inhabitants  of  Ilium.  {Sucton.,  Vit.  Ner.,  c. 
 7.  —  Tacit.,  Ann.,  12,  58.)  At  the  death  of  Clau- 
 dius (.\.D.  54),  while  Agrippina,  by  soothings,  flat- 
 teries, and  affected  lamentations,  detained  Briitanicus, 
 the  son  of  Claudius  and  Messalina,  within  the  cham- 
 bers of  the  palace,  Nero,  presenting  himself  before 
 the  gates,  was  lifted  by  the  guard  in  waiting  into  the 
 covered  coach  used  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  in 
 procession  an  elected  emperor,  and  was  followed  by  a 
 multitude  of  the  people,  under  the  illusion  that  it  was 
 Britantiicus.  He  entered  the  camp,  promised  a  dona- 
 tive to  the  cohorts,  was  saluted  emperor,  and  pro- 
 nounced before  the  senate,  in  honour  of  Claudius,  an 
 oration  of  fulsome  panegyric  composed  by  his  precep- 
 tor Seneca.  Agrippina  soon  endeavoured  to  obtain 
 the  chief  management  of  public  affairs  ;  and  her  vin- 
 dictive and  cruel  temper  would  have  hurried  Nero,  at 
 the  commencement  of  his  reign,  into  acts  of  violence 
 and  bloodshed,  if  her  influence  had  not  been  counter- 
 acted by  Seneca  and  Burrus,  to  whom  Nero  had  in- 
 trusted the  government  of  the  state.  Through  their 
 counsels  the  first  five  years  of  Nero's  reign  w'ere  dis- 
 tinguished by  justice  and  clemency  ;  and'^an  anecdote 
 is  related  of  him,  that,  having  on  one  occasion  to  sian 
 an  order  for  the  execution  of  a  malefactor,  he  ex- 
 claimed, "  Would  that  I  could  not  write  .'''  {Sueton. 
 Vit.  Ner.,  10.)  He  discouraged  public  informers, 
 refused  the  statues  of  gold  and  silver  which  were 
 offered  him  by  the  senate  and  people,  and  used  every 
 art  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  latter.  But  his  moth- 
 er was  enraged  to  find  that  her  power  over  him  be- 
 came weaker  every  day,  and  that  he  constantly  disre 
 garded  her  advice  and  refused  her  requests.  His  neg- 
 lect of  his  wife  Octavia,  and  his  critninal  love  of  Acte, 
 882 
 
 a  woman  of  low  birth,  still  farther  widened  the  breach 
 between  him  and  his  parent.  She  frequently  address- 
 ed him  in  the  most  contemptuous  language  ;  remind- 
 ed him  that  he  owed  his  elevation  solely  to  her,  and 
 threatened  that  she  would  uiforin  the  soldiers  of  the 
 manner  in  which  Claudius  had  met  his  end,  and 
 would  call  upon  tliem  to  suj)port  the  claims  of  Bri- 
 tannicus,  the  son  of  the  late  emperor.  The  threats  of 
 his  mother  only  served  to  hasten  the  death  of  Britan- 
 nicus,  whose  murder  forms  the  commencement  of 
 that  long  catalogue  of  cnmes  which  afterward  dis- 
 graced the  reign  of  Nero.  But  while  the  manage- 
 ment of  public  affairs  appears,  from  the  testimony  of 
 most  historians,  to  have  been  wisely  conducted  by 
 Burrus  and  Seneca,  Nero  indulged  in  private  in  the 
 most  shameless  dissipation  and  profligacy.  He  was 
 accustomi.-d,  in  company  with  other  young  men  of  his 
 own  age,  to  sally  into  the  streets  of  Rome  at  night, 
 in  order  to  rob  and  maltreat  passengers,  and  even  to 
 break  into  private  houses  and  take  away  the  property 
 of  their  owners.  But  these  extravagances  were  com- 
 paratively harmless;  his  love  for  Poppsea,  whom  ho 
 had  seduced  from  Otho,  led  him  mto  more  serious 
 crimes.  Poppsea,  who  was  ambitious  of  sharing  the 
 imperial  throne,  perceived  that  she  could  not  hope  to 
 attain  her  object  while  Agrippina  was  alive,  and,  ac- 
 cordingly, induced  Nero  to  consent  to  the  murder  of 
 his  mother.  The  entreaties  of  Poppaea  appear  to 
 have  been  supported  by  the  advice  of  Burrus  and  Sen- 
 eca;  and  the  philosopher  did  not  hesitate  to  palliate 
 or  justify  the  murder  of  a  mother  by  her  son.  {Tacit., 
 Ann.,  14,  11.  —  QuintiL,  8,  5.)  —  In  the  eighth  year 
 of  his  reign,  Nero  lost  his  best  counsellor,  Burrus ; 
 ar;-!  Seneca  liad  the  wisdom  to  withdraw  from  the 
 court,  where  his  presence  had  become  disliked,  and 
 where  his  enormous  wealth  was  calculated  to  excite 
 the  envy  even  of  the  emperor.  About  the  same  time 
 Nero  divorced  Octavia  and  married  Poppaea,  and  soon 
 attor  put  to  death  the  former  on  a  false  accusation  of 
 adultery  and  treason.  In  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign, 
 A.D.  64,  Rome  was  almost  destroyed  by  fire.  Of 
 the  fourteen  districts  into  which  the  city  was  divided, 
 four  only  remained  entire.  The  fire  originated  at  that 
 part  of  the  Circus  which  was  contiguous  to  the  Pala- 
 tine and  Coelian  Hills,  and  raged  with  the  greatest  fu- 
 ry for  six  days  and  seven  nights  ;  and,  after  it  was 
 thought  to  have  been  extinguished,  it  burst  forth  again, 
 and  continued  for  two  days  longer.  Nero  appears  to 
 have  acted  on  this  occasion  vviih  the  greatest  liberal- 
 ity and  kindness  ;  the  city  was  supplied  with  provis- 
 ions at  a  very  moderate  price  ;  and  the  imperial  gar- 
 dens were  thrown  open  to  the  sufferers,  and  buildings 
 erected  for  their  accommodation.  But  these  acts  of 
 humanity  and  benevolence  were  insufficient  to  screen 
 him  from  the  popular  suspicion.  It  was  generally  be- 
 lieved that  he  had  set  fire  to  the  city  himself,  and 
 some  even  reported  that  he  had  ascended  the  top  of 
 a  high  tower  in  order  to  witness  the  conflagration, 
 where  he  amused  himself  with  singing  the  Destruction 
 of  Troy.  From  many  circumstances,  however,  it  ap- 
 pears improbable  that  Nero  was  guilty  of  this  crime. 
 His  guilt,  indeed,  is  expressly  asserted  by  Suetonius 
 and  Dio  Cassius,  but  Tacitus  admits  that  he  was  not 
 able  to  determine  the  truth  of  the  accusation.  In  or- 
 der, however,  to  remove  the  suspicions  of  the  people, 
 Nero  spread  a  report  that  the  Christians  were  the  au- 
 thors of  the  fire,  and  numbers  of  them,  accordingly, 
 were  seized  and  put  to  death.  Their  execution  serv- 
 ed as  an  amusement  to  the  people.  Some  were  cov- 
 ered with  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  were  torn  to  pie- 
 ces by  dogs ;  others  were  crucified ;  and  several 
 were  smeared  with  pitch  and  other  combustible  ma- 
 terials, and  burned  in  the  imperial  gardens  in  the 
 night :  "  Whence,"  says  the  historian,  "  pity  arose  for 
 the  guilty  (though  they  deserved  the  severest  punish- 
 ments), since  they  were  put  to  death,  not  for  the  pub- 
 
NERO. 
 
 NER 
 
 he  good,  but  to  gratify  the  cruelty  of  a  single  man." 
 {Titcil.,  Ann  ,  15,  44.) — In  the  following  year,  A.D. 
 65,  a  powerful  conspiracy  was  formed  for  the  purpose 
 of  placing  Piso  upon  the  throne,  but  it  was  discovered 
 by  Nero,  and  the  principal  conspirators  were  put  to 
 death.  Among  others  who  suffered  on  this  occasion 
 were  Lucan  and  Seneca  ;  but  the  guilt  of  the  latter 
 is  doubtful.  In  the  same  year  Poppa^a  died,  in  con- 
 sequence of  a  kick  which  she  received  from  her  hus- 
 band while  she  was  in  an  advanced  state  of  pregnan- 
 cy.— During  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  Nero  was 
 principally  engaged  in  theatrical  performances,  and  in 
 contending  for  the  prizes  at  the  public  games.  He 
 had  previously  appeared  as  an  actor  on  the  Roman 
 stage  ;  and  he  now  visited  in  succession  the  chief  cit- 
 ies of  Greece,  and  received  no  less  than  1800  crowns 
 for  his  victories  in  the  public  Grecian  games.  On 
 his  return  to  Italy  he  entered  Naples  and  Rome  as 
 a  conqueror,  and  was  received  with  triumphal  hon- 
 ours. But  while  he  was  engaged  in  these  extrava- 
 gances, Vinde.K,  who  commanded  the  legions  in  Gaul, 
 declared  against  his  authority ;  and  his  exam[)le  was 
 speedily  followed  by  Galba,  who  commanded  in  Spain. 
 The  praetorian  cohorts  espoused  the  cause  of  Galba, 
 and  the  senate  pronounced  sentence  of  death  against 
 Nero,  who  had  fled  from  Rome  as  soon  as  he  heard 
 of  the  revolt  of  the  praetorian  guards.  Nero,  how- 
 ever, anticipated  the  e.xecution  of  the  sentence  which 
 had  been  passed  against  him,  by  requesting  one  of 
 his  attendants  to  put  him  to  death,  after  making  an 
 ineffectual  attempt  to  do  so  with  his  own  hands.  He 
 died  A.D.  68,  in  the  32d  year  of  his  age,  and  the  14th 
 of  his  reign. — It  is  ditlicult  to  form  a  correct  estimate 
 of  the  character  of  this  emperor.  That  he  was  a  li- 
 centious voluptuary,  and  that  he  scrupled  at  commit- 
 ting no  crimes  in  order  to  gratify  his  lust  or  strength- 
 en his  power,  is  sufficiently  proved  ;  >ut  that  he  was 
 such  a  monster  as  Suetonius  and  Dio  have  described 
 him,  may  reasonebly  admit  of  a  doubt.  The  posses- 
 sion of  absolute  power  at  so  early  an  age  tended  to 
 call  forth  all  the  worst  passions  of  human  nature, 
 while  the  example  and  counsels  of  his  mother  .Agrip- 
 pina  must  have  still  farther  tended  to  deprave  his 
 mind.  Though  he  put  to  death  his  adoptive  brother, 
 his  wife,  and  his  mother,  his  character  appears  to  have 
 been  far  from  sanguinary  ;  his  general  administration 
 was  wise  and  equitable,  and  he  never  equalled,  in  his 
 worst  actions,  either  the  cajiricious  crueltv  of  Caligula, 
 or  the  sullen  ferocity  of  Domitian.  Nero  was  a  lover 
 of  the  arts,  and  appears  to  have  possessed  more  taste 
 than  many  of  the  emperors,  who  only  resembled  him 
 in  their  profuse  e.xpenditure.  The  Apollo  Belviderc 
 is  supposed  by  Thiersch  (Epochcn,  &c.,  p.  312)  and 
 some  other  writers  to  have  been  made  for  this  em- 
 peror. His  government  seems  to  have  been  far  from 
 unpopular.  He  was  anxious  to  relieve  the  people 
 from  oppressive  taxes,  and  to  protect  the  provinces 
 from  the  rapacity  of  the  governors  ;  and  it  may  be 
 mentioned  as  an  instance  of  his  popularity,  that  there 
 were  persons  who  for  many  years  decked  his  tomb 
 with  spring  and  summer  flowers,  and  that,  in  conse- 
 quence of  a  prevalent  rumour  that  he  had  escaped 
 from  death,  several  iiripostors  at  various  times  as- 
 sumed the  name  of  Nero,  and  gave  no  small  trouble 
 to  the  reigning  emperors.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  1,  2. — /(/., 
 tJ.,  2,  8.—Siict.on.,  Vit.  Ncr.,  hl.—Casaxihnn,  ad  Sue- 
 ton.,  I.  c.)  During  the  reign  of  Nero  the  Roman  em- 
 pire enjoyed,  in  general,  a  profound  state  of  peace. 
 In  the  East  the  Parthians  were  defeated  by  Corbulo  ; 
 and  in  the  West,  the  Britons,  who  had  risen  in  arms 
 under  Boadicea,  were  again  reduced  to  subjection  un- 
 der Suetonius  Paulinus.  {Encycl.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol. 
 16.  p.  147,  seq.)  —  It  may  not  be  amiss,  before  con- 
 cluding this  article,  to  make  some  mention  of  Ne- 
 ro's celebrated  "Golden  House"  {Aurea  Domns). 
 The  only  description  on  record  of  this  costly  struc- 
 
 ture is  that  of  Suetonius :  "  In  nothing,"  says  thi» 
 writer,  "  was  Nero  so  ruinous  as  in  building.  He 
 erected  a  mansion  extending  from  the  Palatine  as  far 
 as  the  Esquiliffi.  At  first  he  called  it  his  'House  of 
 Passage,'  but  afterward,  when  it  had  been  destroyed 
 by  fire  and  restored  again,  he  gave  it  the  name  of  his 
 '  Golden  House.'  To  form  an  idea  of  its  extent  and 
 magnificence,  it  may  suffice  to  state  the  following  par- 
 ticulars. The  vestibule  admitted  his  colossal  statue, 
 which  was  120  feet  high  :  the  building  was  on  :so 
 large  a  scale,  that  it  had  a  triple  portico  a  mile  long; 
 also,  an  immense  pool  like  a  sea,  enclosed  by  build- 
 ings presenting  the  appearance  of  towns.  There  were, 
 moreover,  grounds  laid  out  for  tillage  and  for  vine- 
 yards, and  for  pasturage  and  woods,  stocked  witl^  a 
 vast  number  of  every  description  of  cattle  and  wild 
 animals.  In  other  respects,  everything  was  overlaid 
 with  gold,  embellished  with  gems  and  with  mother-of- 
 pearl.  The  ceilings  of  the  banqueting-rooms  were 
 fretted  into  ivory  coffers  made  to  turn,  that  flowers 
 might  be  showered  down  upon  the  guests,  and  also 
 furnished  with  pipes  for  discharging  perfumes.  The 
 principal  banqueting-room  was  round,  and  by  a  per- 
 petual motion,  day  and  night,  was  made  to  revolve 
 after  the  manner  of  the  universe."  {Sueton.,  Vit. 
 Ncr.,  c.  31.)  When  the  structure  was  completed, 
 Nero  is  said  to  have  declared  "  that  he  at  length  had 
 a  house  fit  for  a  human  being  to  live  in"  {se  quasi 
 hominem  tandem  hahilarc  cccpisse.  —  Siietoji.,  I.  c.X 
 Various  explanations  have  been  given  of  the  way  in 
 which  the  contrivance  was  effected  in  the  case  of  tho 
 principal  banqueiing-rooin.  Donatus  makes  it  a  hoi- 
 low  globe,  fixed  inside  a  square  room,  and  turning  on 
 its  own  axis  ;  and  he  introduces  the  guests  by  a  door 
 near  the  axis,  "  where  there  is  the  least  motion  !" 
 {Donat.,  de  Urb.  Vet.,  lib.  3. — ap.  Gnev  Thes.,  vol. 
 3,  p.  680.)  Dr.  Adam  {Rom.  Ant.,  p  491)  thinks 
 that  the  ceiling  was  made  "  to  shift  and  exhibit  new 
 appearances  as  the  different  courses  or  dishes  were 
 removed  ;"  but  this  does  not  explain  "  the  perpetual 
 motion,  day  and  night,  after  the  manner  of  the  uni- 
 verse." Nero's  architects,  Severus  and  Celer.  cer- 
 tainly deserve  the  mention  of  their  names.  {Tacit., 
 Ann.,  15,  42.)  Tacitus  remarks,  that  "  the  gems  and 
 the  gold  which  this  house  contained  were  not  so 
 much  a  matter  of  wonder  (being  quite  common  at  that 
 period)  as  the  fields  and  pools  ;  the  woods,  too,  in  one 
 direction,  forming  a  kind  of  solitude;  while  here, 
 again,  were  open  spaces  with  commanding  views." 
 {Tacit.,  I.  c.) — The  house  of  Nero  and  the  palace  of 
 the  Ca?sars  must  not,  however,  be  confoutided.  They 
 were  evidently  two  distinct  things.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  15, 
 39. — Burgess,  Antiquities  of  Rome,  vol.  2.  p.  172, 
 seq.) — II.  "a  Roman  consul.  {Vid.  Claudius  III.) — 
 III.  Ca?sar.  son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina.  He 
 married  Julia,  daughter  of  Drnsus,  the  son  of  Tibe- 
 rius. By  the  wicked  arts  of  Sejanus  he  was  banished 
 to  the  isle  of  Pontia,  and  there  put  to  death.  {Tacit., 
 Ann.,  4,  59,  seq.— Sueton  ,  Vit.  Tib.,  54  ) 
 
 Neronia,  a  name  given  to  Artaxata  by  Tiridates, 
 who  had  been  restored  to  his  kingdom  by  Nero.  ( Vtd. 
 Artaxata.) 
 
 Ni.:rtobrTg.\.  I.  a  city  of  Hispania  BaE-tica,  some 
 distance  to  the  west  of  Corduba.  It  was  also  called 
 Concordia  Julia,  and  is  now  Valera  la  Vieja.  {Pohjh., 
 35,  2.—Ukert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  381.)  In  Polybius 
 it  is  written  'EpK66piica  by  a  mistake  of  the  copyistji, 
 the  N  being  omitted  probably  on  account  of  the  prece- 
 ding T}jv.  (Compare  Schwcrgh.  ad  Appum.,  6  ^8. 
 p.  260.)  On  D'Anville's  map  this  place  is  set  down 
 within  the  limits  of  Lusitania  — II.  A  city  of  HispanM 
 Tarraconensis.  in  the  territory  of  the  Celtibcn,  be- 
 tween Bilbilis  and  Csesaraugnsta.  It  is  now  Almuma. 
 (Florez,  2,  \7.—Appian,  6,  50.— //m.  -^n/.,  P- 437, 
 439.— t/Ar,/,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  400.)  Casaubon  {ai 
 I  Polyb.,  fragm.,  35,  2)  alters  'Oprofiptya  into  Nf/jro- 
 
NES 
 
 NES 
 
 (piya,  but  incorrectly,  since  the  place  meant  is  probably 
 the  Areohriga  of  the  Itinerary.  As  regards  the  termi- 
 nation of  the  name  Nertobriga,  consult  remarks  under 
 the  article  Mesembria.     (Ukert,  I.  c.) 
 
 Nerva,  Marcus  Cocceius,  the  thirteenth  Roman 
 emperor,  was  born  at  Narnia,  in  Umbria,  A.D.  27  ac- 
 cording to  Evitiopius  (8,  1),  or  A.D.  32  according  to 
 Dio  Cassius  (G8,  4).  His  family  originally  came  from 
 Crete  ;  but  several  of  his  ancestors  rose  to  the  highest 
 honours  in  the  Roman  state.  His  grandfather  Coc- 
 ceius Nerva,  who  was  consul  A.D.  22,  and  was  a 
 great  favourite  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  was  one  of 
 the  most  celebrated  jurists  of  his  age.  We  learn  from 
 Tacitus  that  this  individual  put  an  end  to  his  own 
 life.  (Ann.,  6,  28  ) — Nerva,  the  subject  of  the  pres- 
 ent sketch,  is  first  mentioned  in  history  as  a  favourite 
 of  Nero,  who  bestowed  upon  him  triumphal  honours, 
 A.D.  66,  when  he  was  prajtor  elect.  The  poetry  of 
 Nerva,  which  is  mentioned  with  praise  by  Pliny  and 
 Martial,  appears  to  have  recommended  him  to  the  fa- 
 vour of  Nero.  Nerva  was  employed  in  offices  of  trust 
 and  honour  during  the  reigns  of  Vespasian  and  Titus, 
 but  he  incurred  the  suspicion  of  Domitian,  and  was 
 banished  by  him  to  Tarentum.  On  the  assassination 
 of  Domitian,  A.D.  9G,  Nerva  succeeded  to  the  sover- 
 eign power,  through  the  influence  of  Petronius  Secun- 
 dus,  commander  of  the  Pra;torian  cohorts,  and  of  Par- 
 thenius,  the  chamberlain  of  the  palace.  The  mild  and 
 equitable  administration  of  Nerva  is  acknowledged  and 
 praised  by  all  ancient  writers,  and  forms  a  striking 
 contrast  to  the  sanguinary  rule  of  his  predecessor. 
 He  discouraged  all  informers,  recalled  the  exiles  from 
 banishment,  relieved  the  people  from  some  oppressive 
 taxes,  and  granted  toleration  to  the  Christians.  Many 
 instances  of  his  liberality  and  clemency  are  recorded 
 by  his  contemporary,  the  younger  Pliny  ;  he  allowed 
 no  senator  to  be  put  to  death  during  his  reign  ;  and  he 
 practised  the  greatest  economy,  in  order  to  relieve  the 
 wants  of  the  poorer  citizens.  But  his  impartial  ad- 
 ministration of  justice  met  with  little  favour  from  the 
 Pra;torian  cohorts,  who  had  been  allowed  by  Domitian 
 to  indulge  in  excesses  of  every  kind.  Enraged  at  the 
 loss  of  their  benefactor  and  favourite,  they  compelled 
 Nerva  to  deliver  into  their  hands  Parthenius  and  their 
 own  commander  Petronius,  both  of  whom  they  put  to 
 death,  "^i'he  excesses  of  his  own  guards  convinced 
 Nerva  that  the  government  of  the  Roman  empire  re- 
 quired greater  energy  both  of  body  and  mind  than  he 
 possessed,  and  he  accordingly  adopted  Trajan  as  his 
 successor,  and  associated  him  with  himself  in  the  sov- 
 ereignty. Nerva  died  A.D.  98,  after  a  reign  of  sixteen 
 months  and  nine  days.  {Dw  Cass.,  68,  1,  scqtj. — 
 Pliny,  Paneg.,  c.  ll.~Id.  ib.,  c.  89.~Awrel.  Vict., 
 c.  12. — Encijcl.  Us.  Knowl,  vol.  16,  p.  149.) 
 
 Nervii,  a  warlike  people  of  Belgic  Gaul,  whose 
 country  lay  on  both  sides  of  the  Scaldis  or  Scheldt, 
 near  the  sourcesof  that  river;  afterward  Hainau-lt  and 
 Nord.  Their  original  capital  was  Bagacum,  now  Ba- 
 via;  but  afterward  Camaracum  {Camhraij)  and  Tur- 
 nacum  {Tournay)  became  their  chief  cities  towards 
 the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  {Cas.,  B.  G.,  5,  39. — 
 Pliv.,  4,  17.) 
 
 Nksis  (is  or  idis),  now   Nisida,  an  island  on  the 
 
 coast  of  Campania,  between  Puteoli  and  Neapolis,  and 
 
 within  a  short  distance  of  the  shore.     Cicero  mentions 
 
 .  it  as  a  favourite  residence  of  his  friend  Brutus.     (Ep. 
 
 ad  Alt.,  16,  1.) 
 
 Nessus,  I.  a  centaur,  who  attempted  the  honour  of 
 Deianira.  {Vid.  Deianira.) — If.  A  river  of  Thrace, 
 more  correctly  the  Nestus.     (Vid.  Nestus.) 
 
 Nestor,  son  of  Neleus  and  Chloris,  nephew  of  Pe- 
 ,  iias  and  grandson  of  Neptune.  He  was  the  youngest 
 jof  twelve  brothers,  all  of  whom,  with  the  single  excep- 
 .tion  of  himself,  were  slain  by  Hercules,  for  having 
 taken  part  against  him  with  Augeas,  king  of  Elis. 
 The  tender  years  of  Nestor  saved  him  from  sharing 
 884 
 
 their  fate.  (Vid.  Neleus.)  Nestor  succeeded  his  fa- 
 ther  on  the  throne  of  Pylos,  and  subsequently,  though 
 at  a  very  advanced  age,  led  his  forces  to  the  Trojan 
 war,  in  which  he  particularly  distinguished  himself 
 among  the  Grecian  chiefs  by  his  eloquence  and  wis- 
 dom. Indeed,  by  the  picture  drawn  of  him  in  the 
 Iliad,  as  well  as  by  the  description  contained  in  the 
 Odyssey,  of  his  tranquil,  virtuous,  and  useful  life,  it 
 would  appear  that  Homer  meant  to  display  in  his  char- 
 acter the  greatest  perfection  of  which  human  nature  is 
 susceptible.  The  most  conspicuous  enterprises  in 
 which  Nestor  bore  a  pan  prior  to  the  Trojan  war, 
 were,  the  war  of  the  Pylians  against  the  Elians,  and 
 the  affair  of  the  Lapithae  and  Centaurs.  Some  have 
 also  placed  him  among  the  Argonauts.  Nestor  mar- 
 ried Eurydice,  the  daughter  of  Clymenus  (according  to 
 others,  Anaxibia,  the  sister  of  Agamemnon),  and  had 
 seven  sons  and  two  daughters.  He  returned  in  safely 
 from  the  Trojan  war,  and  ended  his  days  in  his  native 
 land. — Nestor  is  sometimes  called  the  •'  Pylian  sage,'' 
 from  his  native  city  Pylos.  He  is  also  styled  hy  Homer 
 "  the  Gerenian,"  an  epithet  commonly  supposed  to 
 have  been  derived  from  the  Messeiiian  town  of  Gere- 
 nia,  in  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  educated  (Hcync, 
 ad  It.,  2,  336),  although  others  refer  it  to  his  advanced 
 age  (yfjpa^. — Compare  Schwenck,  Andeut.,  p.  181). 
 Homer  makes  Nestor,  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war,  to 
 have  survived  two  generations  of  men,  and  to  be  then 
 living  among  a  third.  This  would  give  his  age  at  about 
 seventy  years  and  upward.     (Heync,  ad  II. ,  1,  250  ) 
 
 Nestorius,  a  Syrian  by  birth,  who  became  patriarch 
 of  Constantinople  A.D.  428,  under  the  reign  of  The- 
 odosius  II.  He  showed  himself  very  zealous  against 
 the  Arians  and  other  sects  ;  but,  after  some  time,  a 
 priest  of  Antioch  named  Anastasius,  who  had  followed 
 Nestorius  to  Constantinople,  began  to  preach  that 
 there  were  two  persons  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  that  the 
 Word  or  divinity  had  not  become  man,  but  had  de- 
 scended on  the  man  Jesus,  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary  ; 
 and  that  the  two  natures  became  morally  united,  as  it 
 were,  but  not  hypostatically  joined  in  one  person;  and 
 that,  when  Jesus  died,  it  was  the  human  person,  and 
 not  the  divinity,  that  suffered.  This  doctrine  being 
 not  only  not  discountenanced,  but  actually  supported 
 by  Nestorius,  was  the  origm  of  what  is  termed  the 
 Nestorian  schism.  Nestorius  refused  to  allow  to  the 
 Virgin  Mary  the  title  of  Thcotokos  (QeoroKog),  or 
 Mother  of  God,  but  allowed  her  that  of  Christotokos 
 (XpiaroToiioc),  or  Mother  of  Christ.  He  met,  of 
 course,  with  numerous  opponents,  and  the  controversy 
 occasioned  great  disturbances  in  Constantinople.  Cyr- 
 ill,  bishop  of  Alexandrea  in  Egypt,  with  his  character- 
 istic violence,  anathematized  Nestorius,  who,  in  his 
 turn,  anathematized  Cyrill,  whom  he  accused  of  degra- 
 ding the  divine  nature,  and  making  it  subject  to  the 
 infirmities  of  the  human  nature.  The  Emperor  Theo- 
 dosius  convoked  a  general  council  at  Ephesus  to  de- 
 cide upon  the  question,  A.D.  431.  This  council, 
 which  was  attended  by  210  bishops,  condemned  the 
 doctrine  of  Nestorius,  who  refused  to  appear  before  it, 
 as  many  Eastern  bishops,  and  John  of  Antioch  amono- 
 tho  rest,  had  not  yet  arrived.  Upon  this  the  council 
 deposed  Nestorius.  Soon  after,  John  of  Antioch  and 
 his  friends  came,  and  condemned  Cyrill  as  being  guilty 
 of  the  .^pollinarian  heresy.  The  emperor,  being  ap- 
 pealed to  by  both  parties,  after  some  hesitation  sent  for 
 Nestorius  and  Cyrill;  but  it  appears  that  he  was  dis- 
 pleased with  what  he  considered  pride  and  obstinacy 
 in  Nestorius,  and  he  confined  hirn  in  a  monastery. 
 But,  as  his  name  was  still  a  rallying  word  for  faction. 
 Theodosius  banished  him  to  the  deserts  of  Thebais  it 
 Egypt,  where  he  died.  His  partisans,  however,  spread 
 over  the  East,  and  have  continued  to  this  day  to  form 
 a  separate  church,  which  is  rather  numerous,  especially 
 in  Mesopotamia,  where  their  patriarch  resides  at  Diar^ 
 bekr.     The  Nestorians,  at  one  time,  spread  into  Per 
 
NIC 
 
 N  IC 
 
 sia,  and  ihence  to  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  where  the 
 Portuguese  found  a  comm\inity  of  tliem  at  Si.  Thome, 
 whom  they  persecuted  and  compelled  to  turn  Roman 
 Catholics.  {Doucin,  His/oiredu  Ncstorianisinc,  1698. 
 — Asxcmimi,  Biblioth.  Orient.,  vol.  4. — Encycl.  Us. 
 Knowl ,  vol.  16,  p.  l^S.) 
 
 Nkstus  (less  correctly  Nossiis),  a  river  of  Thrace, 
 forming  the  boundary  lietweeii  that  country  and  Mace- 
 donia in  the  time  of  Philip  and  Alexander.  This  ar- 
 rangement subsequently  remained  unchanged  by  the 
 Romans  on  their  conquest  of  the  latter  empire.  {Slra- 
 bv,  331.— Lnj ,  45,  29.)  Thucydiiles  stales  that  the 
 river  descended  from  Mount  Icorjius,  whence  the  He- 
 brus  also  derived  its  source  (2,  90),  and  Herodotus 
 informs  us  that  it  fell  into  the  yEgean  Sea  near  Ab- 
 dera  (7,  109.— Compare  Thcophrast.,  Hist.  PL,  ^,  2). 
 The  same  writer  elsewhere  remarks,  that  lions  were 
 to  be  found  in  Europe  only  between  the  Nestus  and 
 the  Acheloiis  of  Acarnania  (7,  126. — Pliny,  4,  II  — 
 Mela,  2,  3).  In  the  middle  ages,  the  nanie  of  this 
 river  was  corrupted  into  Mestus;  and  it  is  still  called 
 Mcslo,  or  Cara-sou  (Black  River),  by  the  Turks. 
 {Cramcr^s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  I,  p.  308.) 
 
 NsuKi,  a  Scythian  race,  who  appear  to  have  been 
 originallv  established  towards  the  head  waters  of 
 the  rivers  Tyras  and  Hy()anis  (Dneisler  and  Bog). 
 They  api)car  also  to  have  touched  on  the  Bastarnian 
 Alps,  which  would  separate  them  from  the  Agathyrsi. 
 (Herod.,  4,  105.— Mc/fl,  2,  1.— 7'/7n.,4,  n.—Rennell, 
 Geogr.  of  Herodotus,  vol.  1,  p.  112) 
 
 Nic^E.\,  I.  a  city  of  India,  founded  by  Alexander  in 
 commemoration  of  his  victory  over  Porus.  It  was 
 situate  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hydaspes,  on  the  road 
 fn)m  the  modern  Attack  to  Lahore,  and  just  below  the 
 southern  point  of  the  island  of  Jam/id.  (Arrian,  5, 
 9,  6. — Justin,  12,  8. — Curtius,  9,  4. — VincenCs  Pcri- 
 plus,  p.  110.) — II.  The  capital  of  Bithynia,  situate  at 
 the  extremity  of  the  lake  Ascanius.  Stephanus  of 
 Byzantium  informs  us,  that  it  was  first  colonized  by 
 the  Bottiaei,  and  was  called  Anchore  {'Ayx'^PV)- 
 Strabo,  however,  mentions  neither  of  these  circum- 
 stances, but  states  that  it  was  founded  by  Antigonus, 
 son  of  Philip,  who  called  it  Antigonea.  It  subse- 
 quently received  the  name  of  Nirasa  from  Lysimachus, 
 in  honour  of  his  wife,  the  daughter  of  Antipater. 
 (Strab.,  565.)  Nicasa  was  built  in  the  form  of  a 
 square,  and  the  streets  were  diawn  at  right  angles  to 
 each  other,  so  that  from  a  monument  which  stood  near 
 the  gytnnasium,  it  was  possible  to  see  the  four  gates 
 of  the  city.  (Strab  ,  I.  c)  At  a  subsequent  period, 
 it  became  the  royal  residence  of  the  kings  of  Bithytiia, 
 having  superseded  Nicomedea  as  the  capital  of  the 
 country.  Pliny  the  younger  makes  frequent  mention, 
 in  his  Letters,  of  the  city  of  Nica?a  and  its  public 
 buildings,  which  he  had  undertaken  to  restore,  being 
 at  that  time  governor  of  Bithynia.  (Ep.,  10,  40. — 
 Ih.,  10,  48,  seqq  )  In  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Va- 
 Icns,  however,  the  latter  city  was  declared  the  metrop- 
 olis. {Dio  Chrysost.,  Oral.,  38.)  Still  Nic;pa  re- 
 mained, as  a  place  of  trade,  of  the  greatest  impor- 
 tance ;  and  from  this  city,  too,  all  the  great  roads  di- 
 verged into  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor. (Manricrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  0,  pt.  3,  p.  569,  seqq.) 
 Nicsa  was  the  birthplace  of  Hipparchus  the  astrono- 
 mer (^Siiidas,  s.  V.  "IrrKapxnc).  and  also  of  Dio  Cas- 
 sius  — 'i'he  present  town  of  Isnik,  as  it  is  called  by 
 the  Turks,  has  taken  the  place  of  the  Bithynian  city  ; 
 but,  according  to  Leake,  the  ancient  walls,  towers, 
 and  gates  are  in  tolerably  good  preservation.  In  most 
 places  they  are  formed  of  alternate  courses  of  Roman 
 tiles  and  large  square  stones,  joined  by  a  cement  of 
 great  thickness.  The  Turkish  town,  however,  was 
 never  so  large  as  the  Grecian  Niciea,  and  it  seems  to 
 have  been  almost  entirely  constructed  of  the  remains 
 of  that  city.  (Leake's  Journal,  p.  10,  scq. — Cra- 
 mer's Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  181.) — Nicasa  is  famous 
 
 in  ecclesiastical  history  as  the  seat  of  the  first  and 
 most  important  cecumenical  council  held  in  the  Chris- 
 tian church.  It  was  convened  by  the  Emperor  Con- 
 stantino for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  Arian  contro- 
 versy, after  he  had  in  vain  attempted  to  reconcile 
 Arius  and  ."Vlexander,  the  leaders  of  the  two  opposing 
 parties  in  that  dispute.  The  council  met  in  the  year 
 325  A.D.,  and  sat  probably  about  two  months  It 
 was  attended  by  bishops  from  nearly  every  part  of  tho 
 East;  few,  however,  came  from  Europe,  and  scarcely 
 any  I'rom  Africa,  exclusive  of  Egvpt.  According  to 
 Eusebius,  there  were  more  than  250  bishops  present, 
 besides  presbyters,  deacons,  and  others.  Some  writers 
 give  a  larger  number.  The  account  generally  follow- 
 ed is  that  of  Socrates,  Thcodoret,  and  Epiphanius, 
 who  stale  that  318  bishops  attended  the  council.  It 
 is  uncertain  who  presided,  but  it  is  generally  supposed 
 that  the  president  was  Hosius,  bishop  of  Corduba 
 (Cordova)  in  Spain.  Constanline  himself  was  present 
 at  its  meetings.  The  chief  question  debated  in  the 
 council  of  Nice  was  the  Arian  heresy.  Eusebius  of 
 Coesarea  proposed  a  creed  which  the  Arian  party 
 would  have  been  willing  to  sign,  but  it  was  rejected 
 by  the  council,  and  another  creed  was  adopted  as  im- 
 bodyinf  the  orthodox  faith.  The  most  important  fea- 
 ture in  this  creed  is  the  application  of  the  word  con- 
 sitbstanlial  (opoovaioq)  to  the  Son,  to  indicate  the  na- 
 ture of  his  union  with  the  Father;  this  word  had  been 
 purposely  omitted  in  the  creed  proposed  by  Eusebius 
 The  creed  agreed  upon  by  the  council  was  signed  by 
 all  the  bishops  present  e.xcept  two,  Secundus,  bishop 
 of  Ptolemais,  and  Theonas,  bishop  of  Marmarica. 
 Three  others  hesitated  for  some  time,  but  signed  at 
 last,  namely,  Eusebius  of  Nicomedea,  Theognis  of  Ni- 
 c»a,  and  Maris  of  Chalcedon.  The  council  excom- 
 municated Arius,  who  was  immediately  afterward  ban- 
 ished by  the  emperor.  The  decision  of  this  council 
 had  not  the  eflfect  of  restoring  tranquillity  to  the  East- 
 ern church,  for  the  Arian  controversy  was  sxill  warmly 
 carried  on  ;  but  it  has  supplied  that  mode  of  stating 
 the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  (as  far  as  relates  to  the 
 Father  and  the  Son)  in  which  it  has  ever  since  been 
 received  by  the  orthodox.  The  time  for  the  celebra- 
 tion of  Easter  was  also  fixed  by  this  council  in  fa- 
 vour of  the  practice  of  the  Western  church.  It  also 
 decided  against  the  schism  of  Meletius.  The  only 
 documents  which  have  been  handed  down  to  us  from 
 this  council  are,  its  creed,  its  synodical  epistle,  and  its 
 twenty  canons. — The  second,  couvcil  of  Nice,  held  in 
 the  year  786,  declared  the  worship  of  images  to  be 
 lawful.  (Lardner's  Credtbilily,  pt.  2,  c.  71.  —  En- 
 cycl. Us.  Knoicl,  vol.  16,  p.  207.)  — III.  A  city  of 
 Liguria,  on  the  coast,  one  geographical  mile  to  the  east 
 of  the  mouth  of  the  Varus.  It  was  situate  on  the 
 river  Paulon,  now  Paglione.  Nicaea  was  of  Milesian 
 origin,  and  was  established  in  this  quarter  as  a  trading- 
 place  with  the  Ligurians.  The  Romans  had  no  such 
 inducement  to  establish  themselves  in  these  parts,  and 
 therefore,  under  the  Roman  sway,  the  city  of  Nicaea  is 
 seldom  spoken  of.  The  modern  name  is  Nizza,  or, 
 as  we  term  it,  Nice.     (Plin.,  3,  5.— Mela,  2,  5.) 
 
 NiCANnER,  a  physician,  poet,  and  grammarian,  of 
 whose  life  very  few  particulars  are  found  in  ancient 
 authors,  and  even  those  few  are  doubtful  and  contra- 
 dictory. Upon  the  whole,  it  seems  most  probable  that 
 he  lived  about  135  B.C.  in  the  reign  of  Attains  III., 
 the  last  king  of  Pergamus,  to  whom  he  dedicated  one 
 of  his  poems  which  is  no  longer  extant.  (Snidas. 
 Eudoc,  ap.  Villois.,\o\.  1,  p.  SOS.  — Anon  Srrrpt., 
 Vet.  Nicand)  His  native  place,  as  he  himself  informs 
 us,  was  Claros,  a  town  of  Ionia,  near  Colophon, 
 whence  he  is  commonly  called  Colophonius  (C^c.,  de 
 Oral  ,  1.  16),  and  he  succeeded  his  father  as  heredi- 
 tary priest  of  Apollo  Clarius.  (Eudoc.,  I.  c—Anon. 
 Vit.)—Ue  appears  to  have  been  rather  a  voluminous 
 writer,  as  the  titles  of  more  than  twenty  of  his  works 
 
 883 
 
NICANDER. 
 
 NICANDER. 
 
 have  been  preserved;  but  of  all  these  we  possess  at 
 presenl  only  two  in  a  |)erfect  slate,  with  a  few  frag- 
 inenls  of  some  of  the  others.  Both  are  poems.  One 
 is  entitled  Qi/piaKu  {Theriaca),  the  other  'AXe^Kpupfxa- 
 Ka  {Alexipharinaca). — The  Theriaca  consists  of  near- 
 ly 1000  lines  in  hexameter  verse,  and  treats  of  the 
 wounds  caused  by  different  venomous  animals,  and  ] 
 the  proper  treatment  of  each.  It  is  characterized  by 
 Haller  t^Bibliolh.  Bolan.)  as  "  longa,  tncondua,  et 
 nuUtus  Jiiiei  farrago,"  but  still  we  occasionally  find 
 some  curious  passages  relating  to  natural  history. 
 We  have  in  it,  for  example,  an  exact,  but  rather  long 
 description  of  the  combat  between  the  ichneumon  and 
 serpents,  whose  flesh  this  quadruped  eats  with  impu- 
 nity. He  speaks  of  scorpions,  which  he  divides  into 
 nine  species,  an  arrangement  adopted  by  some  modern 
 naturalists.  Then  come  some  curious  observations  on 
 the  effect  of  the  venom  of  various  kinds  of  serpents, 
 each  differing  in  the  appearances  and  symptoms  to 
 which  It  gives  rise.  Nicander  thought  he  had  discov- 
 ered that  the  poison  of  serpents  is  concealed  in  a 
 membrane  surrounding  the  teeth  ;  which  is,  alter  all, 
 not  very  far  removed  from  the  true  state  of  the  case. 
 He  describes  a  species  of  serpents,  named  ariTp,  which 
 always  assumes  the  colour  of  the  ground  over  which 
 it  moves.  (Compare  Plaiy,  8,  35  ;  Aristotle,  Mirah. 
 AusruU.,  c.  178  ;  and  AiHiaji,  N.  A  ,  16,  40.)  Ni- 
 cander is  the  first  who  distinguishes  between  the  moth 
 or  night-butterfly,  and  that  which  flies  by  day,  and  he 
 gives  to  the  former  the  name  of  ipu'Aaiva.  He  is  one 
 of  the  earliest  writers  also  who  mentions  the  sala- 
 mander. This  poem  contains,  too,  a  great  number  of 
 popular  fables,  which  were  credited,  however,  at  the 
 lime  that  Nicander  wrote  ;  as,  for  example,  that  wasps 
 are  produced  from  horse-fle?h  in  a  putrid  state,  and 
 bees  from  that  of  an  os..  He  likewise  slates  that  the 
 bite  of  the  field-mouse  is  poisonous,  and  also  that  the 
 animal  dies  if  it  should  fall  into  a  wheel  rut,  both 
 which  circumstances  are  repeated  by  Pliny  (8,  83) 
 and  --Elian  (H.  A  ,  2,  37). — The  Alexlpkarmaca  is 
 rather  a  shorter  poem,  written  in  the  same  metre,  and 
 may  be  considered  as  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the 
 Theriaca.  Haller's  judgment  on  this  work  is  as  se- 
 vere as  that  on  the  preceding.  He  says  of  it,  "  De- 
 scriplio  vix  ulla,  symptomala  fuse  reccnse.ntur,  et 
 magna  farrago  el  incondita  ■planlarum  jiolisswuim 
 alexipharmacarum  suhjicitury  Among  the  poisons 
 of  the  animal  kingdom  he  mentions  the  cantharis  of 
 the  Greeks,  which  is  not  the  Lytta  Vcsicaloria,  but 
 Melo'e  Chichorii.  He  speaks  also  of  the  buprestis 
 {Carahus  Bacidon)  ;  of  the  blood  of  a  bull  ;  of  coag- 
 ulated milk  in  the  stomach  of  mammiferous  animals  ; 
 of  the  leech  (hirudo  venenata) ;  and  of  a  species  of 
 gecko  {aa7.aiiu.v6pa).  Among  the  vegetable  poisons 
 we  find  the  aconite,  coriander  (which  has  sometimes 
 been  fatal  in  Eaypl),  the  hemlock,  colchicum,  henbane, 
 and  the  different  species  of  fungi,  the  growth  of  which 
 Nicander  attributes  to  fermcntaiion.  Of  mineral  poi- 
 sons he  mentions  only  white  lead,  a  carbonate  of  lead 
 and  litharge,  or  protoxide  of  lead. — To  counterbal- 
 ance, in  some  degree,  Haller's  unfavourable  opinion  of 
 Nicander's  extant  works,  it  ought  in  justice  to  be  sta- 
 ted, that  his  knowledge  of  natural  history  appears  to 
 be  at  least  equal  to  that  of  other  writers  of  his  own  or 
 even  a  later  age,  while  on  the  subject  of  poisons  he 
 was  long  considered  a  great  authority.  Galen  several 
 times  quotes  him  ;  and  Dioscorides,  Aeiius,  and  Jo- 
 hannes Actuarius  have  borrowed  from  him  largely. — 
 "  Nicander's  general  treatment  of  cases,"  observes 
 Dr.  Adams,  "  in  as  far  as  my  knowledge  and  experi- 
 ence enable  me  to  form  a  judgment,  is  founded  ujion 
 very  rational  principles  ;  and,  in  some  instances,  the 
 correctness  of  his  physiological  views  is  such  as  can- 
 not but  command  our  admiration,  considering  tiie  age 
 in  which  he  lived.  Thus,  he  states  that  poison  is  most 
 fatal  to  a  person  when  fasting,  which  clearly  implies 
 886 
 
 his  acquaintance  with  the  fact  that  the  vessels  abaorb 
 most  readily  when  in  an  empty  state.  This  doctrine, 
 which  has  been  revived  of  late  years  by  a  celebrated 
 French  experimentalist  as  a  new  discovery,  is  alluded 
 to  not  only  by  our  author,  but  more  fully  by  Ctlsus, 
 Dioscorides,  Paulus  .lEgineta,  Avicenna,  A\ensoar, 
 and  Averrhoes.  It  was.  no  doubt,  from  his  knowledge 
 of  this  principle,  that  Nicander  has  nowhere  recom- 
 mended general  bleeding,  lest,  by  emptying  the  ves- 
 sels, the  absorption  and  its  distribution  over  the  sys- 
 tem should  be  promoted.  Hence  subsequent  writers 
 on  Toxicology,  such,  for  example,  as  Paulus  .^Egmeta 
 and  Avicenna,  only  approve  of  bleeding  wiieii  tiie  poi- 
 son is  diffused  over  the  body  ;  and  a  very  late  author- 
 ity, Dr.  Paris,  is  at  great  pains  to  enforce  the  impro- 
 priety of  venesection  in  the  early  stages  before  absorp- 
 tion has  taken  j)lace. — Nicander  recommends  cupping 
 and  the  actual  cautery  as  preservatives  from  absorption 
 in  cases  of  poisoned  wounds,  and  both  these  modes  of 
 practice  have  been  revived  of  late  years  with  great  en- 
 comiums. The  application  of  leeches  to  the  vicinity 
 of  the  wound,  though  not  generally  had  recourse  to 
 now,  seems  a  remedial  measure  deserving  of  trial. — In 
 a  word,  the  great  merit  of  his  practice  is,  that  his  rem- 
 edies appear  to  have  been  administered  upon  gener- 
 al principles,  and  that  he  did  not  put  much  trust  in 
 specifics.  Of  many  of  his  medicines,  indeed,  no  one 
 nowadays  can  speak  from  personal  experience,  and  it 
 seems  but  reasonable  to  judge  of  them  in  the  indulgent 
 manner  that  Socrates  did  res|jecling  the  obscurer  part 
 of  the  philosophical  system  of  Heraclitus  :  '  What  I 
 do  understand  of  it,'  said  he,  with  becoming  modesty, 
 '  I  find  to  be  admirable,  and  therefore  I  take  it  for 
 granted  that  what  I  do  not  understand  is  equally  so.'  " 
 • — With  respect  to  Nicander's  merits  as  a  poet,  the 
 most  opposite  opinions  are  to  be  found  m  botii  ancient 
 and  modern  writers.  In  the  Greek  Anthology,  Colophon 
 is  congratulated  for  being  the  birthplace  ol  Homer  and 
 Nicander  (vol.  3,  p.  270,  ep.  567,  ed.  Brunck).  Cice- 
 ro, in  alluding  to  his  "  Georgics,"  a  poem  not  now  ex- 
 tant, praises  the  poetical  manner  in  which  he  treats  a 
 subject  of  which  he  was  entirely  ignorant  [de  Oral., 
 1,  16)  ;  while  Plutarch,  on  the  other  hand,  says  that 
 the  Theriaca  only  escapes  being  prose  because  it  is 
 put  into  metre,  and  will  not  allow  it  to  be  called  a 
 poem  because  there  is  nothing  in  it  "  of  fable  or  false- 
 hood." {De  And.  Puet.,  c.  2.)  This  very  point, 
 however,  Julius  Ca;sar  Scaliger  thinks  worthy  of  es- 
 pecial commendation,  and  says,  '■  Magna  ei  lavs  quod 
 ne  quid  incptum  aut  inepte  dicat.'"  {Puet.,  hi).  5,  c. 
 15.)  He  goes  on  to  praise  the  accuracy  of  liis  ex- 
 pressions and  versification,  and  declares  that  among  all 
 the  Greek  authors  a  more  polished  poet  is  hardly  to  be 
 found.  M.  Mcrian,  on  the  other  hand,  in  an  essay 
 "  Comment  Ics  Sciences  influent  dans  la  Poisie" 
 {Mem.  de  I' Acad.  Royal  de  Berlin,  1776,  p.  423), 
 mentions  Nicander,  to  show  the  antipathy  that  exists 
 between  the  language  of  poetry  and  the  subjects  of 
 which  he  treated.  He  calls  him  "  a  grinder  of  anti- 
 dotes, who  sang  of  scorpions,  toads,  and  spiders,"  and 
 considers  his  poem  as  fit  only  for  the  apothecaries. — 
 Nicander's  poetical  genius,  in  all  probability,  was  a 
 good  deal  cramped  by  the  prosaic  nature  of  the  sub- 
 jects which  he  chose  for  bis  theme  ;  and  we  may  fair- 
 ly say,  that  his  writings  contain  quite  as  much  poetry 
 as  could  be  expected  from  such  unpromising  materials. 
 As  for  his  style  and  language,  probably  every  one  who 
 has  ever  read  half  a  dozen  lines  of  either  of  his  poems 
 will  agree  with  Bentley,  who  says  that  he  studiously 
 affected  obsolete  and  antiquated  words,  and  must  have 
 been  an  obscure  writer  even  to  his  conlem[)oraries. 
 {.Museum  Criticum,  vol.  1,  p.  371.) — The  best  editicMi 
 of  the  Alexipharmaca  is  that  of  Schneider,  Haktt 
 1792,  8vo.  The  Theriaca,  hy  the  same  editor,  aad 
 equally  valuable,  appeared  in  1816,  Lips.,  8va  Tba 
 Theriaca  was  also  published   the  same  year  in   lh» 
 
NIC 
 
 NICEPHORUS. 
 
 Museum  Crilicvm,  with  Bentley's  emendations  (vol. 
 1,  p.  370,  seqq.).  Tliere  is  extant  a  Greek  paraphrase, 
 in  prose,  of  both  poems  (printed  in  Schneider's  edi- 
 tions), hy  Eutecnius  the  sophist,  of  whom  nothing  is 
 known  except  that  he  has  done  the  same  to  Oppian's 
 Cyncgetica  and  Halieutica.  {Encydop.  Us.  Knowl., 
 vol.  16,  p.  203,  scq.) 
 
 NiuATOR  (NiKuTup,  i.  6,  "  F/c/or")  a  surname  as- 
 sumed by  Seleucus  I.     {Vid.  Seleucus.) 
 
 NicKPHOKitJM  {NiKjj(p6piov).  3  strongly-fortified  city 
 of  Mesopotamia,  south  of  Charraj,  and  at  the  confluence 
 of  the  Billichia  and  Euphrates.  Alexander  is  said  to 
 have  selected  the  site,  which  was  an  extremely  advan- 
 tageous one.  {Piin.,  6,  26. — Isidor.,  Chaiac,  p.  3.) 
 The  name  remained  until  the  fourth  century,  when 
 it  disappeared  from  history,  and,  in  the  account  of  Ju- 
 lian's expedition,  a  city  named  Callinicum  {KaHivi- 
 Kov)  is  mentioned,  which  occupies  the  same  place 
 where  Nicephorium  had  previously  stood.  This  con- 
 formity of  position,  and  sudden  change  of  name,  lead 
 directly  to  the  supposition  that  Nicephorium  and  Cal- 
 linicum were  one  and  the  same  place,  and  that  the 
 earlier  a[)pellation  ("  Victory- bringing,"  vlkj]  and  (pipoj) 
 had  merely  been  exchanged  for  one  of  the  same  gen- 
 eral import  ("  Fair-conqueririg"  Kokbg  and  vIktj). 
 Hence  we  may  reject  the  statement  sometimes  made, 
 that  the  city  received  its  later  name  from  Seleucus 
 Callinicus  as  its  founder  {Chron  Alexandr.,  Olymp. 
 134,  1),  as  well  as  what  Valesius  (ad  Amm.  MarcelL, 
 23,  6)  cites  from  Libanius  {Ep.  ad  Aris'.cenet.),  that 
 Nicephorium  changed  its  name  in  honour  of  the  soph- 
 ist Cailmicus,  who  died  there. — Marcellinus  describes 
 Callinicum  as  a  strong  place,  and  carrying  on  a  great 
 trade  ("'  munimtntum  rohusfum,  el  comrnercandi  opmii- 
 tate  gralissimum").  Justinian  repaired  and  strength- 
 ened the  fortitications.  (Compare  Throdnrct,  Hist. 
 Relig.,  c.  26.)  At  a  subsequent  period,  the  name  of 
 the  city  again  underwent  a  change.  The  Emperor 
 Leo,  who  about  466  A.D.  had  contributed  to  adorn 
 the  place,  ordered  it  to  be  called  Lcontopolis,  and 
 under  this  title  Hierocles  enumerates  it  among  the 
 cities  of  Osroeiie.  (Synccdctn.,  ed.  Wesseling,  p. 
 715.)  Stcphanus  of  Byzantium  asserts  that  Nicepho- 
 rium, at  a  later  period,  changed  its  name  to  Constan- 
 lina  ;  but  this  is  impossible,  as  the  city  of  Constantina 
 belongs  to  quite  a  different  [lart  of  the  country.  D'An- 
 viUe  fixes  the  site  of  Nicephorium  near  the  modern 
 Raced,  in  which  he  is  followed  by  subsequent  writers. 
 {Mannert,  vol.  5,  pt.  2,  p.  286,  seqq.) 
 
 NicEPHORios,  a  river  of  Armenia  Major,  the  same 
 with  the  Centritis.     (Vid.  Centritis) 
 
 NickphSrus,  I.  an  emperor  of  the  East,  was  origi- 
 nally Logotheta,  or  intendanl  of  the  finances,  during 
 the  reign  ai  the  Empress  Irene  and  her  son  Constan- 
 tiue  VI.,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century.  Irene, 
 having  deprived  her  son  of  sight,  usurped  the  throne, 
 and  reigned  alone  for  six  years,  when  a  conspiracy  broke 
 out  agamst  her,  headed  by  Nicephorus,  who  was  pro- 
 claimed emperor,  and  crowned  in  the  church  of  St. 
 Sophia,  A.D.  802.  He  banished  Irene  to  the  island 
 of  Lesbins,  where  she  lived  and  died  in  a  state  of  great 
 desutution.  The  troops  in  Asia  revolted  against  Ni- 
 cephorus, who  showed  himself  avaricious  and  cruel, 
 and  they  proclaimed  the  patrician  Bardanes  emperor; 
 but  Nice{jhorus  defeated  and  seized  Bardanes,  confined 
 him  in  a  monastery,  and  deprived  him  of  siaht.  The 
 Empress  Irene  had  consented  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
 to  the  Saracens,  in  order  to  stop  their  incursions  into 
 the  territories  of  the  empire.  Nicephorus  refused  to 
 continue  this  payment,  and  wrote  a  message  of  defiance 
 to  \kc  Caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid.  The  caliph  collect- 
 ed a  vast  army,  which  devastated  .^sia  Minor,  and  de- 
 stroyed the  city  of  Heraclea  on  the  coast  of  the  Eux- 
 ine,  and  Nicephorus  was  obliged  to  sue  for  peace,  and 
 pay  tribute  as  Irene  had  done.  In  an  attack  which  he 
 fufasequently  made  on  the  Bulgarians,  he  was  utterly 
 
 defeated  by  them,  and  lost  his  life  A.D.  811.  His 
 son  Stauracius  succeeded  him,  but  reigned  only  sii 
 months,  and  was  succeeded  by  Michael  Rhangabe, 
 master  of  the  palace. — II.  The  second  emperor  of  the 
 name,  surnamed  Phocas  (but  who  must  not  be  con- 
 founded with  the  usurj)er  Phocas,  who  reigned  in  the 
 beginning  of  the  seventh  century),  was  descended  of 
 a  noble  Byzantine  family,  and  distinguished  himself 
 as  a  commander  in  the  field.  After  the  death  of  Ro- 
 manus  II.,  A.D.  950,  his  widow  Theophano,  who  was 
 accused  of  havmg  poisoned  him,  reigned  as  guardian 
 to  her  infant  son  ;  but,  finding  herself  insecure  on  the 
 throne,  she  invited  Nicephorus  to  come  to  Constan- 
 tinople, and  promised  him  her  hand.  Nicephoru.s 
 came,  married  Theophano,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
 Augustus,  A.D.  963.  He  repeatedly  attacked  the 
 Saracens,  and  drove  them  out  of  Cilicia  and  part  of 
 Syria.  In  968,  Otho  I.,  emperor  of  Germany,  sent  an 
 embassy  to  Nicephorus,  who  received  it  in  an  uncivil 
 manner.  His  avarice  made  him  unpopular,  and  his 
 wife,  the  unprincipled  Theophano,  having  formed  an 
 intrigue  with  John  Zimisces,  an  Armenian  officer, 
 conspired  with  him  against  her  husband.  Zimisces, 
 with  his  confederates,  was  introduced  at  night  into  the 
 bedchamber  of  the  emperor,  and  murdered  him,  A.D. 
 969  — We  have  remaining,  at  the  present  day,  a  por- 
 tion of  a  military  work  under  the  name  of  this  em- 
 peror. It  is  entitled  Ylepl  uapadpOjiiiq  ■rro?J/iov,  "  Of 
 war  with  light  troops,"  making  known  the  mode  of  car- 
 rying on  war  in  mountainous  countries,  as  practised  in 
 the  tenth  century.  Hase  has  given  the  first  2.5  chap- 
 ters of  this  work,  at  the  end  of  his  edition  of  Leo  Dia- 
 conus,  these  being  the  only  ones  contained  in  three 
 MSS.  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris.  A  MS.  at  Hei- 
 delberg has  30  chapters  more  ;  but  Hase  believes  that 
 they  do  not  belong  to  this  work,  or,  rather,  that  they 
 form  part  of  a  second  work  on  the  same  subject.  It 
 is  thought,  however,  that  the  production  first  mention- 
 ed appeared  after  the  death  of  Phocas,  and  that  the 
 compiler,  or  perhaps  author  of  it,  lived  in  the  time  of 
 Basilius  II.  and  Consiantine  VIII.  {Scholl,  Gcsch. 
 Gr.  Lit.,  vol.  3,  p.  3.50.)— HI.  The  third  emperor  of 
 the  name,  surnamed  Botoniates,  was  an  old  officer  of 
 some  military  reputation  in  the  Byzantine  army  in 
 .4sia,  and  revolted  against  the  Emperor  Michael  Ducas, 
 .\.D.  1078.  With  a  body  of  troops,  chiefly  composed 
 of  Turkish  mercenaries,  he  marched  to  (^halcedon; 
 upon  which  Michael  resigned  the  purple,  and  Nicephorus 
 was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Constantinople.  Michael 
 was  sent  to  a  monastery  with  the  title  of  Archbishop  of 
 Ephesus.  Another  aspirant  to  the  throne,  Nicephorus 
 Bryennius,  was  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  deprived 
 of  sitrht.  .\  fresh  insurrection,  led  by  Basilacius,  was 
 likewise  put  down  hy  the  troops  of  Nicephorus,  un- 
 der the  command  of  Alexius  Comnenus.  Alexius  him- 
 self, who  had  an  hereditary  claim  to  the  throne,  was 
 soon  after  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  soldiers.  Hav- 
 ing  entered  Constantinople  by  surprise,  he  seized  Ni- 
 cephorus, and  banished  him  to  a  monastery,  where  he 
 died  a  short  time  after,  A.D.  1081.  {Encyclop.  Us. 
 Knowl.,  vol.  16,  p  207.)— IV.  Basilaces,  a  teacher  of 
 rhetoric  at  Constantinople  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
 eleventh  cenlury.  He  has  left  some  fables,  tales,  and 
 epopees  ;  for  example,  Joseph  accused  by  Potiphar's 
 wife  ;  David  in  the  cave  with  Saul ;  David  pursued  by 
 Absalom,  &c.  These  productions  are  contained  in 
 the  collection  of  Leo  Allalius.— V.  Bryennius,  a  na- 
 tive of  Orestias,  in  Macedonia,  and  son-in-law  lo  the 
 Emperor  Alexius  I.  (Comnenus),  who  conferred  upon 
 him  the  title  of  nawrrepcrtfiacrrof,  equivalent  to  that 
 of  CcEsar.  In  1096  A.D.,  his  father-in-law  intrusted 
 to  him  the  defence  of  Constantinople  against  Oodlrey 
 of  Bouillon.  In  1108  he  negotiated  the  peace  with 
 Boemond,  prince  of  Anlioch.  At  the  death  of  Alexius 
 in  HIS,  Irene,  widow  of  the  deceased,  and  Anna 
 Comnena,  wife  of  Bryennius,  wished  him  to  ascend 
 
 887 
 
NICEPHORUS. 
 
 NIC 
 
 tlie  throne;  but  his  own  indifference  on  this  point,  and 
 the  measures  taken  by  John,  the  son  of  Alexius,  de- 
 feated their  ()lans.  It  was  on  tliis  occasion  that  Anna 
 Cornnena  passionately  exclaimed,  (hat  nature  had  mis- 
 taken the  two  sexes,  and  had  endowed  Brvennius  with 
 the  soul  of  a  woman.  He  died  in  11:57.  At  the 
 order  of  the  Empress  Irene,  Bryennius  undertook,  du- 
 ring the  life  of  Alexius,  a  history  of  the  house  of  Com- 
 renus,  which  he  entitled  'T/.?/  'laropiar,  '' Materials 
 for  Hislorij,'"  and  which  he  distributed  into  four  books. 
 He  commenced  with  Isaac  Comnenus,  the  first  prince 
 of  this  line,  who  reigned  from  1057  to  1059  A.D  , 
 without  being  able  to  transmit  the  scejitre  to  his  fam- 
 ily, into  whose  hands  it  did  not  pass  until  1081,  when 
 Alexius  I.  ascended  the  throne.  Nice[)horus  stops  at 
 the  period  of  his  father-in-law's  accession  to  the  throne, 
 after  having  given  his  history  while  a  private  individ- 
 ual. He  had  at  his  dis[)Osal  excellent  materials;  but 
 his  impartiality  as  an  historian  is  not  very  highly  es- 
 teemed. In  point  of  diction,  his  work  holds  a  very 
 favourable  rank  among  the  productions  of  the  Lower 
 Empire.  It  was  continued  by  Anna  Cornnena.  (Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p.  388.)— VI.  Blemmida,  a 
 monk  of  the  13th  century.  He  has  left  three  works: 
 "a  Geogra])hical  Abridgment"  {Ti(jrpa(i>ia  avvoTtTiKT/), 
 which  is  nothing  hut  a  prose  metaphrase  of  the  Periege- 
 sis  of  Dionysius  the  Geographer:  a  work  entitled  "^ 
 Second  History  (or  Description)  o/z^c  Earth"  ('Erepa 
 la-opia  iTF.pl  TTj^  >'/c).  in  vvhich  he  gives  an  account 
 of  the  form  and  size  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  different 
 lengths  of  the  day  :  and  a  third,  "  On  the  Heavens  and 
 Earth,  the  Sun,  Moon,  Stars,  Time,  and  Days"  {Ilepl 
 Ovpnvov  Koi  yfji;,  'llTiiov,  '^tVJjvr}^,  'Aarepuv,  Xpdvov, 
 Koi  'Hfiepuv).  In  this  last  the  author  develop.s  a  sys- 
 tem, according  to  which  the  earth  is  a  plane.  The 
 first  two  were  published  by  Spohti,  at  Leipzig,  1818,  in 
 4to,  and  by  Manzi,  from  a  MS.  in  the  Barberini  Library, 
 Rom  ,  1819,  4to.  Bernhardy  has  given  the  Metaphrase 
 in  his  edition  of  Dionysius,  Lips.,  1828;  the  third  is 
 unedited.  It  is  mentioned  by  Bredow  in  his  Epistolcr 
 Pansienses.  —  VII.  Surnamed  Xanthopulus,  lived 
 jbout  the  middle  of  the  14th  century.  He  wrote  an 
 Ecclesiastical  History  in  18  books,  which,  alono-  with 
 many  useful  extracts  from  writers  whose  productions 
 are  now  lost,  contains  a  great  number  of  fables.  This 
 history  extends  from  the  birlh  of  our  Saviour  to  A.D. 
 SlO.  The  arguments  of  five  other  books,  which  would 
 carry  it  down  to  AD.  911,  are  by  a  different  writer. 
 In  preparing  his  work,  Nicejihorus  availed  himself  of 
 the  library  attached  to  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  and 
 here  he  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  He  has 
 left  also  Catalogues,  in  Iambic  verse,  of  the  Greek 
 emperors,  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  and  the 
 fathers  of  the  church,  besides  other  minor  works.  To 
 this  same  writer  is  likewise  ascribed  a  work  contain- 
 ing an  account  of  the  church  of  the  Virgin,  situate  at 
 certain  mineral  waters  in  Constantinople,  and  of  the 
 miraculous  cures  wrought  by  these. — The  Ecclesias- 
 tical History  was  edited  by  Ductus  (Fronton  dii  Due), 
 Paris,  1630,  2  vols.  fol.  The  metrical  Catalogues 
 are  to  be  found  in  the  edition  of  the  Epigrams  of  The- 
 odorus  Prodromus,  published  at  Bale,  1536,  8vo.  The 
 account  of  the  mineral  waiers,  &c  ,  ajjpeared  for  the 
 first  lime  at  Vienna  in  1802,  8vo,  edited  by  Pampe- 
 reus. — VIII.  Surnamed  Chumnus,  was  Prtrfectus  Can- 
 tclei  ('0  inl  rov  KaviKleiov)  under  .Andronicus  II., 
 surnamed  Palfeologus.  The  canicleus  (kotik?  eio^) 
 was  a  small  vessel  filled  with  the  red  liquid  with  which 
 the  emperors  used  to  sign  their  names  to  documents. 
 Plis  daughter  Irene  was  married  in  1304  to  .lolin  Pa- 
 Icsologus,  the  eldest  son  of  Andronicus,  who,  together 
 with  his  younger  brother  Michael,  had  been  associated 
 with  him  in  the  empire  by  their  father,  A  D.  129.5, 
 and  who  died  A.D.  1308,  without  issue  Nicephorus 
 composed  a  number  of  works,  which  still  remain  un- 
 edited. They  treat  of  rhetorical,  philosophical,  and 
 838 
 
 physical  subjects.  He  wrote  also  two  discourses,  one 
 addressed  to  Andronicus  II.,  the  other  to  Irene,  to 
 console  them  for  the  loss  of  a  son  and  husband.  His 
 letters  are  also  preserved.  DisgiiNled  with  active  life, 
 Nicejihorus  became  a  monk,  and  took  the  name  of 
 Nathaniel.  Creuzer  (ad  Plvtni.  de  Pulcr  ,  p.  400) 
 makes  him  a  native  of  Phili])popolis  ;  but  in  this  there 
 is  a  double  error :  first,  in  ascribing  to  the  father  a  let- 
 ter written  by  his  son  Johannes  ;  and,  secoiidlv,  in 
 reading  tov  ^ LJuTTTiOvno'X.Eur  instead  of  tC)  ^I'kn^'itov- 
 TTfiZfuf.  "  to  the  Bishop  of  PhiUppopolis."  (Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  147.) — IX.  Gregoras,  a  native 
 of  Heraclea,  who  wrote  on  grammatical,  historical, 
 and  astronomical  subjects.  Andronicus  11.  appointed 
 him  chartophylax  of  the  church,  and  in  1325  sent  him 
 on  an  embassy  to  the  King  of  Servia.  Gregoras  did 
 not  abandon  his  royal  patron  when  dethroned  by  An- 
 dronicus III.,  and  it  was  he  who,  four  years  after  this 
 event,  assisted  at  the  deathbed  of  the  fallen  monarch. 
 He  showed  himself  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Palam- 
 ites,  a  sect  of  fanatics  who  were  throwing  the  church 
 into  confusion,  but  was  condemned  for  this  by  the 
 synod  of  Constantinople,  A.D.  1351,  at  the  instance  of 
 the  patriarch  Callistus,  and  confined  in  a  convent, 
 where  he  ended  his  days. — His  grammatical  works 
 are  in  part  unedited.  He  wrote  also  a  Byzantine,  or, 
 as  he  calls  it,  Roman  {'Vu/.iniK?;)  History,  in  thirty- 
 eight  books,  of  which  the  first  twenty-four  alone,  ex- 
 tending from  1204  to  1331  A.D,  have  been  published: 
 the  other  books,  which  terminate  at  A.D.  1359.  remain 
 still  unedited.  Gregoras  is  vain,  passionate,  and  par- 
 tial :  his  style  is  affected,  and  overloaded  with  figures, 
 especially  hyperboles,  and  full  of  repetitions.  The  la- 
 test edition  of  the  history  which  had  been  published, 
 was,  until  very  recently,  that  of  Boivin,  Paris,  1702, 
 2  vols.  fol.  It  contained  the  first  eleven  books,  with 
 the  Latin  version  of  Woltf,  and  the  succeeding  thirteen, 
 with  a  translation  by  the  editor  himself.  It  was  to  have 
 been  completed  in  two  additional  volumes,  containing 
 the  last  fourteen  books,  but  these  have  never  appeared. 
 A  new  edition,  however,  of  Gregoras,  forms  part  of 
 the  Byzantine  Historians  at  present  in  a  course  of  pub- 
 lication at  Bonn.  {Schiill,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6.  p, 
 362,  seqq.)  There  are  also  several  works  of  Gregoras 
 treating  of  Astronomy,  but  they  are  all  unedited,  except 
 a  treatise  on  the  astrolabe,  which  appeared  in  a  Latin 
 translation  at  Paris  in  1557,  l2ino,  edited  by  Valla. 
 {Scholl,  vol.  7,  p.  65.) — X.  A  native  of  Constanti- 
 nople, commonly  surnamed  the  Patriarch,  for  distinc- 
 tion' sake.  He  was  at  first  a  notary,  and  afterward 
 imperial  secretary,  which  latter  station  he  quitted  for 
 a  convent,  but  was  subsequently  elevated  lo  the  see 
 of  Byzantium,  A.D.  806.  As  one  of  the  defenders  of 
 the  worship  of  images,  he  was,  in  815,  coinpelkd  to 
 take  refuge  in  a  monastery,  where  he  ended  bis  days, 
 A.D.  828.  He  has  left  behind  him  two  works:  1.  A 
 Chronicle  or  Chronographical  Abridgment  (Xpovo- 
 ypo0/a),  commencing  with  Adam  and  carried  down  to 
 the  period  of  the  author's  own  death,  or,  rather,  some- 
 what farther,  since  it  was  continued  bv  an  anonymous 
 writer  :  2.  An  Historical  Compeiid,  'laropia  ovvrn^o(, 
 embracing  the  events  that  occurred  from  A.D.  602  to 
 770.  The  latest  edition  of  the  Greek  text  of  the 
 Chronicle  is  that  of  Credner,  Giessa.  1832,  4io.  It 
 was  also  given  m  Dindorf's  edition  oi  Syncelliis,  Bonn., 
 1829.  The  latest  edition  of  the  Compend  is  that  of 
 Petavius  (Petan),  Paris,  1648.  (Scholl,  Hisl.  Lit 
 Gr.,  vol.  6,  p   370,  seqq  ) 
 
 NicKK  or  NiCAR,  now  the  Necler,  a  river  of  Ger- 
 many, falling  into  the  Rhine  at  the  modern  town  of 
 Manheim.  (Amm.  Mnrccll,  28,  ^. —  Clvv.,  Germ., 
 3,  225.  — Pcrt=,  Mon.  Germ  Hist..  1,  361  ) 
 
 NicERATUs,  a  phvsician  mentioned  by  Dioscorides 
 (Praf.,  lib.  1,  p.  2,  ed.  Spreng.)  as  one  of  the  followers 
 of  Asclepiades,  and  who  attended  particularly  to  mate- 
 ria medica.     None  of  his  writings  remain,  but  his  pre- 
 
NIC 
 
 scnptions  are  several  times  mentioned  by  Galen  (Op., 
 ed.  Kukn,  vol.  12,  p.  634;  vol.  13,  p.  96,  98,  110, 
 18(1,  &c.  ;  vol.  14,  p.  197),  and  once  by  Pliny  (32, 
 31).  We  learn  from  C*lius  Auielianus  {Morb.  Vhron., 
 1.  2,  c.  5)  that  he  wrote  also  on  catalepsy.  He  flour- 
 ished about  40  B.C.  {Encycl.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  16, 
 p.  207.) 
 
 NiuETAS,  I.  Eugenianus,  author  of  one  of  the  poor- 
 est of  the  Greek  romances  that  have  comedown  to  us. 
 He  appears  to  have  lived  not  long  after  Theodore  Pro- 
 dromus,  whom,  according  to  the  title  of  his  work  as 
 given  in  a  Paris  manuscript,  he  selected  for  his  model. 
 He  wrote  of  the  Loves  of  Drosilla  and  Chariclea. 
 Boissonade  gave  to  the  world  an  edition  of  this  ro- 
 mance in  1819,  Paris,  2  vols.  ]2mo,  respecting  the 
 merits  of  which,  consult  Hoflinann,  Lex.  DMiogr.,  vol. 
 3,  p.  137. — II.  Acominatus,  surnained  Choniates,  from 
 his  having  been  born  at  Chona;,  or  Colossse,  in  Phry- 
 gia.  He  lilled  many  posts  of  distinction  at  Constanti- 
 nople, under  the  Emperor  Isaac  II.  (.\ngelus).  About 
 A.D.  1189,  he  was  appointed  bv  the  same  monarch 
 governor  of  Philippopolis,  an  otfice  of  which  Ale.xius  V. 
 deprived  him.  He  died  A.D.  1216,  at  Nicsa,  in  Bi- 
 thynia,  to  which  city  he  had  fled  after  the  taking  of 
 Constantinople  by  the  Latins.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
 the  Byzantine  Emperors,  in  twenty-one  books,  com- 
 mencing A.D.  1 1 18  and  ending  x\.D.  1206.  It  forms, 
 in  fact,  ten  different  works  of  various  sizes,  all  imbodied 
 under  one  general  head. — Nicetas  possessed  talent, 
 judgment,  and  an  enlightened  taste  for  the  arts,  and 
 would  be  read  with  pleasure  if  he  did  not  occasionally 
 indulge  too  much  in  a  satirical  vein,  and  if  his  style  were 
 not  so  declamatory  and  poetical.  The  sufferings  of 
 Constantinople,  which  passed  under  his  own  eyes,  appear 
 to  have  imbittered  his  sjiirit,  and  he  is  accused  of  be- 
 ing one  of  the  writers  who  contributed  most  to  kindle 
 a  (eelitig  of  hatred  between  the  Greeks  and  the  nations 
 of  the  West. — We  have  a  life  of  Nicetas  by  his  broth- 
 er Michael  Acominatus,  metropolitan  of  Athens.  It 
 is  entitled  Monodia,  and  has  never  yet  been  published 
 in  the  original  Greek  ;  a  Latin  translation  of  it  is  given 
 in  the  Biblioth.  Patrum  Maxim  Lugd.,  vol.  22. — The 
 latest  edition  of  Nicetas  was  thatof  Paris,  1647,  fol. 
 A  new  edition,  however,  has  lately  appeared  from 
 the  scholars  of  Germany,  as  forming  part  of  the  Byzan- 
 tine collection,  now  in  a  course  of  publication  at  Bonn. 
 — III.  An  ecclesiastical  writer,  who  flourished  during 
 the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century.  He  was  at  first 
 bishop  of  Sense  in  Macedonia  (whence  he  is  sometimes 
 siirnamed  Scnariensis),  and  afterward  metropolitan  of 
 Heraclea  in  Thrace.  He  is  known  by  his  commentary 
 on  sixteen  discourses  of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  by 
 other  works  connected  with  theology  and  sacred  criti- 
 cism. He  was  the  author,  likewise,  of  some  gram- 
 matical productions,  of  which,  however,  only  a  small 
 remnant  has  come  down  to  us,  in  the  shape  of  a  trea- 
 tise "  on  the  Names  of  the  Gods"  (Etf  tu  bvofiara  tCiv 
 ■dcuv),  an  edition  of  which  was  given  by  Creuzer,  in 
 1187,  from  the  Leipzig  press. — IV.  David,  a  philoso- 
 pher, historian,  and  rhetorician,  sometimes  confound- 
 ed with  the  preceding,  but  who  flourished  two  centu- 
 ries earlier.  He  was  bishop  of  Dadybra  in  Paphlago- 
 nia,  and  wrote,  among  other  things,  an  explanatory 
 work  on  the  poems  of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  a 
 paraphrase  of  the  epigrams  of  St.  Basil.  An  edition 
 of  these  works  appeared  at  Venice  in  1.563,  4to. 
 
 NiciA,  a  small  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  risino-  in  the 
 territory  of  the  Ligures  Apuani,  and  falling  into  the  Po 
 at  Bri.-telhiin.  The  ^Emilian  Way  crossed  it  a  little  be- 
 fore Tanetum.  It  is  now  the  Leusa.  Mannert,  how- 
 ever, gives  the  modern  name  as  Crostolo ;  and  Rei- 
 chard,  Ongino. 
 
 NiciAS,  I.  son  of  Niceratus.     He  was  a  man  of  birth 
 
 and  fortune ;  but  in  whom  a  generous  temper,  popular 
 
 manners,  and  considerable  political  and  military  talent, 
 
 were  marred  by  unreasonable  diffidence  and  excessive 
 
 5U 
 
 N  I  C 
 
 dread  of  responsibility.  Nicias,  however,  signalized 
 himself  on  several  occasions.  He  took  the  island  of 
 Cylhera  from  the  Lacedsemonians,  subjugated  many 
 cities  of  Thrace  which  had  revolted  from  the  Atheni- 
 an sway,  shut  up  the  Megarians  within  t.  eir  citv-vvalls, 
 cutting  off  all  communication  from  without,  and  taking 
 their  harbour  Nisaea.  V/hen  the  unfortunate  expedition 
 against  Syracuse  was  undertaken  l)y  Athens,  Nicias 
 was  one  ol  the  three  commanders  who  were  sent  at  its 
 head,  the  other  two  being  Alcibiades  and  Laiiiachus. 
 He  had  previously,  however,  used  every  crTort  to  i)re- 
 vent  his  countrymen  from  engaging  in  this  affair,  on  the 
 ground  that  they  were  only  wasting  their  resources  in 
 distant  warfare,  and  multiplying  their  enemies.  After 
 the  recall  of  Alcibiades,  the  natural  indecision  of  Ni- 
 cias, increased  by  ill-health  and  dislike  of  his  command, 
 proved  a  principal  cause  of  the  failure  of  the  enterprise. 
 In  endeavouring  to  retreat  by  land  from  before  Syra- 
 cuse, the  Athenian  commanders,  Nicias  and  Demos- 
 thenes (the  latter  had  come  with  re-enforcements),  were 
 pursued,  defeated,  and  compelled  to  surrender.  The 
 generals  were  put  to  death  ;  their  soldiers  were  ton- 
 fined  at  first  in  the  quarry  of  Epipola;,  and  afterward 
 sold  as  slaves.  We  have  a  life  of  Nicias  by  Plutarch, 
 {Thuajd.,  lib  3,  4,  5.  seqq.—Plul  ,  Vit.  'Nic.)  —  \l. 
 An  Athenian  artist,  who  flourished  with  Pra.xiteles.  01. 
 104,  and  assisted  him  in  the  decoration  of  some  of  hia 
 productions.  {Plin.,  3.5,  11.  —  Consuh  Stllig,  Diet. 
 Art.,  s.  V.) — III.  The  younger,  an  Athenian  painter, 
 son  of  Nicomedes,  and  pupil  of  Eiiphranor.  He  be- 
 gan to  practice  his  art  01.  112.  {Sillig,  Did.  Art., 
 s.  V.)  Nicias  is  said  to  have  been  the  iiist  artist  who 
 used  burned  ochre  in  his  paintings.     {Plin.,  3.5,  6,  20.) 
 
 Nico,  an  architect  and  geometrician,  father  of  Ga- 
 len, who  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  century 
 of  our  era.     (Suid.,  s.  v.  VakTjvbi.) 
 
 NicocLES,  I.  king  of  Paphos,  in  the  island  of  Cy- 
 prus. He  owed  his  throne  to  the  kindness  of  Ptole- 
 my I.,  king  of  Egypt,  who  continued  thereafter  to  be- 
 stow upon  him  many  marks  of  favour.  Having  learn- 
 ed, however,  at  last,  that  Nicocles,  forgetful  of  past. 
 benefits,  had  formed  an  alliance  with  Aniigonus,  Ptol- 
 emy sent  two  of  his  confidential  emissaries  to  Cy- 
 prus, with  orders  to  despatch  Nicocles  in  case  his. 
 traitorous  conduct  should  be  clearly  ascertained  b.y 
 them.  These  two  individuals,  having  taken  with 
 them  a  party  of  soldiers,  surrounded  the  palace  of  the 
 King  of  Paphos,  and  making  known  to  him  the  orders 
 of  Ptolemy,  compelled  him  to  destroy  himself,  although 
 he  protested  his  innocence.  His  wife  Axiothea,  when 
 she  heard  of  her  husband's  death,  killed  her  maiden 
 daughters  with  her  own  hand,  and  then  slew  herself. 
 The  other  female  relatives  followed  her  example.  The 
 brothers  of  Nicocles,  also,  having  shut  themselves  up 
 in  the  palace,  set  fire  to  it,  and  then  fell  by  then  own 
 hands.  {Diod.  Sic,  20,  21.  —  Wcsscling,  ad  loc. — 
 Pohjan.,  8,  48.) — II.  King  of  Cyprus,  succeeded  his 
 father  Evagoras  B.C.  374.  He  celebrated  the  funer- 
 al obsequies  of  his  parent  with  great  splendour,  and  en- 
 gaged Isocrates  to  write  his  eulogium.  Nicocles  had 
 been  a  pupil  of  the  Athenian  rhetorician,  and  recom- 
 pensed his  services  with  the  greatest  liberality.  {V^d. 
 Isocrates  ) 
 
 NicocKEON,  a  tyrant  of  Cyprus  in  the  age  of  .-Mex 
 ander  the  Great.  A  fabulous  story  is  related  of  his 
 having  caused  the  philosopher  A  naxarchus  to  be  pound- 
 ed alive  in  a  mortar.     ( Vid.  Anaxarchus.) 
 
 Nicoi.AL's,  I.  a  comic  poet  whose  era  is  unknown. 
 He  belonged  to  the  New  Comedy  according  to  some. 
 Stobasus  has  a  fragment  of  his  in  44  verses,  which  he 
 ascribes,  however,  to  Nicolaus  Damascenus.--II.  Sur- 
 nained Damascenus  (Nf«oA«of  6  Aa/iaaKj]i'6i),  a  na- 
 tive of  Damascus  of  good  family.  He  was  the  friend 
 of  Herod  the  Great,  king  of  the  Jews,  and  in  the  year 
 0  B.C.  was  sent  by  that  monarch  on  an  embassy  to 
 Augustus,  who  had  taken  offence  at  Herod  because 
 
 ^  '  889 
 
NICOLAUS. 
 
 N  I  C 
 
 he  had  Ind  an  army  into  Arabia  to  enforce  certain 
 claims  which  lie  had  upon  Syila!iis,  the  piimeministcr 
 of  the  Knig  of  Arabia,  and  the  real  governor  of  the 
 country.  (Joseph. ,  Ant.  Jiid.,  \G,  9.)  Nicolaus,  hav- 
 ing obtained  an  audience  of  the  emperor,  accused  Syl- 
 laeus,  and  defended  Herod  in  a  siiilful  speech,  which  is 
 given  by  Joscphus  (Ant.  Jud.,  16,  10).  Syllaeus  was 
 sentenced  to  be  put  to  death  as  soon  as  he  should 
 have  given  satisfaction  to  Herod  for  the  claims  which 
 the  lalier  had  upon  him.  This  is  the  account  of  Jose- 
 phus,  taken  probably  from  the  history  of  Nicolaus  him- 
 self, who  appears  to  have  exaggernted  the  success  of 
 his  embassy  ;  for  Syllajiis  neither  gave  any  satisfac- 
 tion to  Herod,  nor  was  the  sentence  of  death  executed 
 upon  him.  (Joseph.,  Atit.  Jud.,  17,  3,  2.)  We  find 
 Nicolaus  afterward  acting  as  the  accuser  of  Herod's 
 son  Antipater,  when  he  was  tried  before  Varus  for 
 plotting  against  his  father's  life,  B.C.  4  (Joseph,  Ant. 
 Jud.,  Ifi,  5,  4,  .teqq.—  Id.,  Bell.  Jud.,  1,  32,  4);  and 
 again  as  the  advocate  of  Archelaus  before  Augustus, 
 in  the  dispute  for  the  succession  to  Herod's  kingdom. 
 (Joseph,  Ant.  Jud.,  17,  9,  Q.  —  ld.  ih.,  11,  3.  — /(/., 
 Bell.  Jud  ,  2,  2,  6.) — As  a  writer,  Nicolaus  is  known 
 in  several  departments  of  literature.  He  composed 
 tragedies,  and,  among  others,  one  entitled  "Luaavvl^ 
 ("  Susanna").  Of  these  nothing  remains.  He  also 
 wrote  comedies,  and  Stobaeus  has  preserved  for  us 
 what  he  considers  to  be  a  fragment  of  one  of  these,  but 
 what  belongs,  in  fact,  to  a  different  writer.  (Vid.  Ni- 
 colaus I  )  He  was  the  author,  also,  of  a  work  on  the 
 Remarktililc  Customs  of  various  nations  (^vvayuyij 
 TrapaiVi^uv  t/Ouv)  ;  of  another  on  Distinguished  Ac- 
 tions (Wepl  Tuv  iv  Tolg  TvpaKTiKoIg  KaAC>v) ;  and  also 
 of  several  historical  works.  Among  the  last-mention- 
 ed class  of  productions  was  a  Universal  History  ('1(7- 
 Topia  icaOo?i(Kj/),  in  144  hooks  (hence  called  by  Athe- 
 naeus  TroXvCi.fj?^oc,  6,  p.  249,  a.),  a  compilation  for 
 which  he  borrowed  passages  from  various  historians, 
 which  he  united  together  by  oratorical  flourishes.  As 
 he  has  drawn  his  materials  in  part  from  sources  which 
 no  longer  e.xist  for  us,  the  fragments  of  his  history 
 which  remain  make  us  acquainted  with  several  facts 
 of  which  we  should  otherwise  have  had  no  knowledge. 
 Tliis  history  included  the  reign  of  Herod  ;  and  Jose- 
 phus  gives  the  following  character  of  the  123d  and 
 124th  books  :  "  For,  living  in  his  kingdom  and  with 
 him  (Herod),  he  comfiosed  his  history  in  such  a  way 
 as  to  gratify  and  serve  him,  touching  upon  those  things 
 only  which  made  for  his  glory,  and  glossing  over  many 
 of  his  actions  which  were  plainly  unjust,  and  conceal- 
 ing them  with  all  zeal.  And  wishing  to  make  a  spe- 
 cious e.Kcuse  for  the  murder  of  Mariamne  and  her  chil- 
 dren, so  cruelly  perpetrated  by  the  king,  he  tells  false- 
 hoods respecting  her  incontinence,  and  the  plots  of 
 the  young  men.  And  throughout  his  whole  histo- 
 ry he  eulogizes  extravagantly  all  the  king's  just  ac- 
 tions, while  he  zealously  apologizes  for  his  crimes." 
 (Anf.  Juri ,  IG,  7,  1.)  Nicolaus  wrote  also  a  life  of 
 Augustus,  of  which  a  fragment,  marked  ton  strongly 
 with  iiatterv,  still  remains.  He  was  the  author,  too,  of 
 some  metaphysical  productions  on  the  writings  of  Aris- 
 totle. As  regards  his  own  Biogra|)hy,  which  has  like- 
 wise come  down  to  us,  we  may  be  allowed  to  doubt 
 whether  he  ever  wrote  it. — The  latest  and  most  com- 
 plete edition  of  the  remains  of  Nicolaus  Damascenus 
 is  that  of  Orellius,  Lips  ,  1804,  with  a  supplement  pub- 
 lished in  1811,  and  containing  the  result  of  the  labours 
 of  Bremi,  Ochsner,  and  others,  in  collecting  the  scat- 
 tered fragments  of  this  writer.  (SchiiU.  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  4,  p.  101.) — HI.  siirnamed  the  Sophist,  a  disci[)le 
 of  Proclus  and  a  New-Platonist,  lived  during  the  latter 
 half  of  the  fifth  century.  Suidas  makes  him  to  have 
 been  the  author  of  Profrymnasmata  and  Declamations. 
 One  MS.  assigns  to  Nicolaus  the  Sophist  a  portion  of 
 the  Progymnasmata,  which  have  been  published  under 
 die  name  of  Libanius.  (SchoU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6, 
 890 
 
 p.  210.)— IV.  (or  Laonicus)  Chalcondylas,  a  native 
 of  Athens,  and  one  of  the  Byzantine  histarians.  He 
 wrote  a  history  of  the  Turks,  and  of  the  fall  of  the 
 Eastern  empire,  from  A.D.  1297  down  to  1462,  in  ten 
 books.  It  was  continued  by  an  anonymous  writer  to 
 A.D.  1565.  The  narrative  of  Chalcondylas  is  rich  in 
 facts,  but  the  author  sometimes  displays  great  credu- 
 lity. The  first  edition  of  the  text  is  that  of  Fabrot, 
 Paris,  1650,  fol.,  which  was  reprinted  in  1750  al 
 Venice,  fol. — V.  Bishop  of  Methone,  about  A.D.  1190, 
 author  of  a  commentary  on  the  I,Toixeiiocic  deoTioyiK^ 
 of  Proclus.  It  remains  unedited. — VI.  Cabasila,  was 
 bishop  of  Thessalonica  about  1350  A.D.  He  was  a 
 learned  man,  and  famed  for  his  eloquence.  We  have 
 a  commentary  by  him  on  the  third  book  of  the  Alma- 
 gest, printed  at  the  end  of  the  Basle  edition  of  Ptole- 
 mcEi  Sijntaxis,  1538,  fol. 
 
 NicoMACHUs,  the  father  of  the  philosopher  Aristotle. 
 (Vid.  Aristoteles.) 
 
 NicoMiJDES,  I.  king  of  Bilhynia,  succeeded  his  fa- 
 ther Ziphoetes,  B.C.  278.  His  succession  was  dis- 
 puted by  his  brother,  and  he  called  in  the  Gauls  to 
 support  his  claims,  B  C.  277.  With  their  assistance 
 he  was  successful  :  but  his  allies  became  his  masters, 
 and  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  was  for  a  long  time  over- 
 run by  these  barbarians.  He  probably  died  about  B  C. 
 250,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Zielas. — II. 
 The  second  of  the  name,  surnamed  Epiphanes,  suc- 
 ceeded his  father  Prusias  II.,  B.C.  149.  He  accom- 
 panied his  parent  to  Rome,  B.C.  167,  where  he  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  brought  up  under  the  care  of  the 
 senate.  (Lni.,  45,  44.)  Prusias,  becoming  jealous  of 
 the  popularity  of  his  son,  and  anxious  to  secure  the 
 succession  of  his  younger  children,  formed  a  plan  for 
 his  assassination  ;  but  Nicomedes,  having  gained  in- 
 telligence of  his  purpose,  deprived  his  father  of  the 
 throne,  and  subsequently  put  him  to  death.  Nicome- 
 des remained  during  the  whole  of  his  long  reign  a  faith- 
 ful ally,  or,  rather,  obedient  subject,  of  the  Romans. 
 He  assisted  them  in  their  war  with  Aristonicus,  broth- 
 er of  Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  B.C.  131  ;  and  he 
 was  applied  to  by  Marius  for  assistance  during  the 
 Cimbrian  war,  about  B.C.  103.  During  the  latter  part 
 of  his  reign  he  was  involved  in  a  war  with  Mithrada- 
 tes,  of  which  an  account  is  given  in  the  life  of  that 
 monarch.  ( FzVZ.  Mithradates  VI.) — III  The  third  of 
 the  name,  surnamed  Philopator,  succeeded  his  father 
 Nicomedes  II.,  B.C.  91.  During  the  first  year  of  his 
 reign,  he  was  expelled  from  his  kingdom  by  Mithrada- 
 tes,  who  placed  upon  the  throne  Socrates,  the  younger 
 brother  of  Nicomedes.  He  was  restored,  however,  to 
 his  kingdom  in  the  I'ollowing  year  by  the  Romans,  who 
 sent  an  army  under  Aquilius  to  support  him.  At  the 
 breaking  out  of  the  Mithradatic  war,  B.C.  88,  Nicom- 
 edes took  part  with  the  Romans;  but  his  army  was 
 completely  defeated  by  the  generals  of  Mithradates, 
 near  the  river  Amnias,  in  Paphlagonia  (Straho,  562), 
 and  he  himself  was  again  expelled  from  his  kingdom, 
 and  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Italv.  At  the  conclusion 
 of  the  Mithradatic  war,  B  C.  84,  Bithynia  was  restored 
 to  Nicomedes.  He  died  B.C.  74,  without  children, 
 and  left  his  kingdom  to  the  Romans.  (Memnon.,  ap. 
 Phot. — Appian~Bell.  Mithrad. — Clinton,  Fast.  Hell, 
 vol  3,  Append.,  7.  —  Enr.ycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  16,  p. 
 213.) — IV.  .\  celebrated  geometrician.  He  is  famous 
 for  being  the  inventor  of  the  curve  called  the  conchoid, 
 which  has  been  made  to  serve  equally  for  the  solution 
 of  the  two  problems  relating  to  the  duplication  of  the 
 cube,  and  the  trisection  of  an  angle.  It  was  much 
 used  by  the  ancients  in  the  construction  of  solid  prob- 
 lems. It  is  not  certain  at  what  period  Nicomedes 
 flourished,  but  it  was  probably  at  no  great  distance 
 from  the  time  of  Eratosthenes. 
 
 NicoMEDE.\  (NiKOfiT/Seia),  a  city  of  Bilhynia,  situate 
 at  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the  Sinus  Astaccnus. 
 It  was  founded  by   Nicomedes  I.   (B.C.  264),  who 
 
N  I  C 
 
 NIG 
 
 transferred  to  it  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring 
 city  of  Astacus.  {Mtmnmi,  ap.  I'liot.,  c.  21,  p.  722.) 
 This  city  was  much  frequented  by  the  Kornatis,  and 
 by  Europeans  generally,  as  it  lay  directly  on  the  route 
 from  Constantinople  to  the  more  eastern  provinces, 
 and  contained,  in  its  fine  position,  its  handsome  build- 
 ings, and  Its  numerous  warm  baths  and  mineral  waters, 
 very  strong  attractions  for  travellers.  Under  the  Ro- 
 mans, Nicoinedea  became  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the 
 empire.  Pausanias  speaks  of  it  as  the  principal  city 
 in  Bithynia  (G,  12,  6);  but  under  Dioclesian,  who 
 chiefiy  resided  hero,  it  increased  greatly  in  e.xtent  and 
 populousness,  and  became  inferior  only  to  Home,  Al- 
 exandrea,  and  Antioch.  {Liban.,  Orat.,  S,  p.  203. — 
 Laclant.,  de  morle  perscc,  c.  17.)  Nicomedea,  how- 
 ever, suffered  severely  from  earthquakes.  Five  of 
 these  dreadful  visitations  fell  to  its  lot,  and  it  was  al- 
 most destroyed  by  one  in  particular  in  the  reign  of 
 Julian  ;  but  it  was  again  rebuilt  with  great  splendour 
 and  magnificence,  and  recovered  nearly  its  former 
 greatness.  (Jmrn.  Marcell,  17,  6. — /(/.,  22,  13. — 
 Malala,  1.  13.)  —  The  modern  Is-Mid  occupies  the 
 site  of  the  ancient  city,  and  is  still  a  place  of  consid- 
 erable importance  and  much  trade.  The  modern  name 
 is  given  by  D'Anville  and  others  as  Is-Nikmid.  {Man- 
 tiert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt   3,  p.  582  ) 
 
 Nicop6i-is  ("City  of  Victory,"  vlkti  and  7ro/ljf),  1. 
 a  city  of  Palestine,  to  the  northwest  of  Jerusalem,  the 
 same  with  Einmaus.  It  received  the  name  of  Nicop- 
 olis  m  the  third  century  from  tiie  Emperor  Heliogaba- 
 lus,  who  restored  and  beautified  the  place.  {Chron. 
 Pasch.  Ann.,  223.)  Josephus  often  calls  the  city 
 Ammaus.  {Bell.  Jud.,  1,  9.  —  Ibid.,  2,  3  )  It  must 
 not  be  confounded  with  the  Emmaus  of  the  New 
 Testament  (Luc,  24,  13),  which  was  only  eight  miles 
 from  Jerusalem.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p. 
 283.) — II.  A  city  of  Cilicia,  placed  by  Ptolemy  in  tl>e 
 northeastern  corner  of  CUicia,  where  the  range  of 
 Taurus  joins  that  of  Amanus.  D'Anville  puts  it  too 
 low  down  oh  his  map. — III.  A  city  of  Armenia  Minor, 
 on  the  river  Lycus,  near  the  borders  of  Pontus.  It 
 was  built  by  Pompey  in  commemoration  of  a  victory 
 gained  here  over  Mithradates.  {Appian,  Bell.  Mith- 
 rad,  101,  105.  — Strabo,  5b5.— Pliny,  6,  9.)  The 
 modern  Dcvrigni  is  supposed  to  occupy  its  site,  the 
 Tephrice  of  the  Byzantine  historians  probably.  {Man- 
 nert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  318.)  —  IV.  A  city  in 
 Mtesia  Inferior,  on  the  river  latrus,  one  of  the  tribu- 
 taries of  the  Danube.  It  was  founded  by  Trajan  in 
 commemoration  of  a  victory  over  the  Dacians,  and  was 
 generally  called,  for  distinction'  sake,  Nicopnlis  ad 
 Islrum  or  ad  Danubium.  The  modern  name  is  given 
 as  Nicopoti.  {Amm.  Marcell.,  24,  i.—Id.,  31,  5.)— 
 V.  A  city  of  Moesia  Inferior,  southeast  of  the  prece- 
 ding, at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hsmus,  and  near  the 
 sources  of  the  Istrus.  It  was  called,  for  distinction' 
 sake,  Nicopohs  ad  Hccmum,  and  is  now  Nikub. — VI. 
 A  city  of  Egypt,  to  the  northeast,  and  in  the  immedi- 
 ate vicinity,  of  Alexandrca.  Strabo  gives  the  inter- 
 vening space  as  30  stadia.  {Strab.,  794.)  It  was 
 founded  by  Augustus  in  commemoration  of  a  victory 
 gained  here  over  Antony,  and  is  now  Kars  or  Kiasse- 
 ra.  {Dio  C'lss.,  51,  18. — foscph..  Bell.  Jud.,  4,  14.) 
 —  VII.  A  city  of  Thrace,  on  the  river  Nessus,  not  far 
 from  it*  mouth,  founded  by  Trajan.  It  is  now  Ntcop- 
 oli.  The  later  name  was  Christopolis.  {Plot. — 
 HierocL,  p.  635. —  Wesscling,  ad  HicrocL,  I.  c.)  — 
 VIII.  A  city  of  Epirus,  on  the  upper  coast  of  the  Am- 
 bracian  Gulf,  and  near  its  mouth.  It  was  founded  by 
 Augustus,  in  honour  of  the  victory  at  Actium,  which 
 place  lay  on  the  opposite  or  lower  shore.  Nicopolis 
 may  be  said  to  have  risen  out  of  all  the  surrounding 
 cities  of  Epirus  and  Acarnania,  and  even  as  far  as 
 .^tolia,  which  were  coinjielled  to  contribute  to  its 
 prosperity.  {Strab.,  225.  — Pausan.,  5,  23.  — M.  7, 
 18.)     So  an.xious  was  Augustus  to  raise  his  new  col- 
 
 ony to  the  highest  rank  among  the  cities  of  Greccft 
 that  he  caused  it  to  be  admitted  among  those  slates 
 which  sent  deputies  to  the  Amphictyonic  assembly. 
 {Pausan.,  10,8.)  He  also  ordered  games  lobe  celebra- 
 ted with  great  pomp  every  five  years,  which  had  been 
 previously  triennial.  Suetonius  states  that  he  enlarged 
 a  temple  of  ."Apollo,  and  consecrated  to  Mars  and  Nep- 
 tune the  site  on  which  his  army  had  encamped  before 
 the  battle  of  Actium,  adorning  it  with  naval  trophies. 
 {Aug.,  18, — Strab  ,  I.  c.)  Having  afterward  fallen  to 
 decay,  it  was  restored  by  the  Emperor  Julian.  {Mam- 
 crt.,  Paacg. — Niccph.,  14,  39.)  Hierocles  terms  it 
 the  metropolis  of  Old  Epirus  (p.  651).  St.  Paul,  in 
 his  Epistle  to  Titus  (3,  12),  speaks  of  his  intention 
 of  wintering  at  Nicopolis :  it  is  probable  he  there  al- 
 ludes to  this  city,  though  that  is  not  quite  certain. — 
 Modern  travellers  describe  the  remains  of  Nicopolis 
 as  very  extensive:  the  site  which  they  occupy  is  now 
 known  by  the  name  of  Prevesa  Vecchia.  {Hughes'' s 
 Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  412. — Holland's  Travels,  vol  1,  p. 
 103. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  135,  seqq.) 
 
 NicosTRATUs,  ene  of  the  sons  of  Aristophanes,  and 
 ranked  among  the  poets  of  the  Middle  (^'oinedy.  The 
 titles  of  some  of  his  own  and  his  brothers'  comedies 
 are  preserved  in  Atheiifeus.  The  names  of  his  broth- 
 ers were  Araros  and  Philippus.  None  of  the  three 
 appear  to  have  inherited  any  considerable  portion  of 
 their  father's  abilities.  {Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p. 
 115,  4th  ed.) 
 
 Niger,  CaI'Js  Pescennius,  appears  to  have  been  of 
 humble  origin,  but  his  great  military  talents  recom- 
 mended him  successively  to  the  notice  of  Marcus  Au- 
 relius,  Commodus,  and  Pertinax,  by  whom  he  wa» 
 employed  in  offices  of  trust  and  honour.  He  was  con- 
 sul together  with  Septimius  Severus,  and  obtained  the 
 government  of  Syria.  On  the  murder  of  Pertinax, 
 A.D.  193,  the  empire  was  exposed  for  sale  by  the 
 praetorian  guards,  and  was  purchased  by  Didius  Julia- 
 nus,  whom  the  senate  was  compelled  to  acknowledge 
 as  emperor.  The  people,  however,  did  not  tamely 
 submit  to  this  indignity,  and  three  generals,  at  the 
 head  of  their  respective  legions,  .Septimius  Severus, 
 who  commanded  in  Pannonia,  Clodius  Albinus  in  Brit- 
 ain, and  Pescennius  Niger  in  Syria,  refused  to  ac- 
 knowledge the  nomination  of  the  prEetorians,  and 
 claimed  each  the  empire.  Of  these  Niger  was  the 
 most  popular,  and  his  cause  was  warmly  espoused  by 
 all  the  provinces  of  the  East.  But  he  did  not  possess 
 the  energy  and  activity  of  his  rival  Severus.  Instead 
 of  hastening  to  Italy,  where  his  presence  was  indis- 
 pensable, he  quietly  remained  at  Antioch,  while  Sev 
 erus  marched  to  Rome,  dethroned  Didius,  and  made 
 active  preparations  for  prosecuting  the  war  against 
 Niwer  in  Asia.  Roused  at  lerjgth  from  his  inactivity, 
 Niger  crossed  over  to  Europe,  and  established  liis 
 headquarters  at  Byzantium  ;  but  he  had  scarcely  ar- 
 rived at  this  place,  before  his  troops  in  Asia  were  de- 
 feated near  Cyzicus  by  the  generals  of  Severus.  He 
 was  soon,  however,  able  to  collect  another  army, 
 which  he  commanded  in  person  ;  but,  being  defeated 
 successively  near  Nicsea  and  at  Issus,  he  abandoned 
 his  troops,  and  fled  towards  the  Euphrates,  with  the 
 intention  of  seeking  refuge  among  the  Parthians.  But 
 before  he  could  reach  the  Euphrates,  he  was  overti/ken 
 by  a  detachment  of  the  enemy,  and  put  to  death  on 
 the  spot.  {Sparlian.,  Vit.  Nig.—Aurel.  Vict.,  c.  20. 
 —  Entrap.,  8,  10.— Encycl.  Us.  Knowl,  vol.  16,  p. 
 223.) 
 
 Niger,  or  rather  Nigir,  a  name  which  has  been 
 given  till  lately  to  a  large  river,  mentioned  by  ancient 
 as  well  as  modern  geographers  as  flowing  through  the 
 interior  of  Libya  or  i;entral  Africa.  Herodotus  (2, 
 32)  gives  an  interesting  account  of  five  young  mee 
 of  the  Libyan  nation  of  the  Nasamones,  which  dwelt 
 on  the  coast  of  the  greater  Syrtis,  who  proceeded  on 
 a  journey  of  discovery  into  the  interior.     After  Iraver- 
 
 8«7l 
 
NIGER. 
 
 NIGER. 
 
 sing  in  a  southern  direction  the  inhabited  region,  and 
 nest  to  it  the  country  of  the  wild  beasts,  they  crossed 
 the  great  sandy  desert  in  a  western  direction  for  many 
 days,  until  they  arrived  at  a  country  inhabited  by  men 
 of  low  stature,  who  conducted  them  through  extensive 
 marshes  to  a  city  built  on  a  great  river,  which  con- 
 tained crocodiles,  and  flowed  towards  the  rising  sun. 
 This  information  Herodotus  derived  from  the  Greeks 
 of  Gyrene,  who  had  it  from  Etearchus,  king  of  the 
 Ammonii,  who  said  that  the  river  in  question  was  a 
 branch  of  the  Egyptian  Nile,  an  opinion  in  which  the 
 historian  acquiesced.  {Vid.  Nasamoncs,  and  Africa.) 
 — Slrabo  seems  to  have  known  little  of  the  interior  of 
 Africa  and  its  rivers  :  he  cites  the  opposite  testimo- 
 nies of  Posidonius  and  Artemidorus,  the  former  of 
 whom  said  that  the  rivers  of  Libya  were  few  and 
 small,  while  the  latter  stated  that  they  were  large  and 
 numerous. — Pliny  (5,  1)  gives  an  account  of  the  ex- 
 pedition  into  Mauritania  of  the  Roman  commander 
 Suetonius  Paulinas,  who  (A.D.  41)  led  a  Roman  army 
 across  the  x\llas,  and,  after  passing  a  desert  of  black 
 sand  and  burned  rocks,  arrived  at  a  river  called  Ger,  in 
 some  MSS.  Niger,  near  which  lived  the  Canarii,  next 
 to  whom  were  the  Perorsi,  an  Ethiopian  tribe  ;  and 
 farther  inland  were  the  Pharusii,  as  Plmy  states  above 
 in  the  same  chapter.  The  Canarii  inhabited  the  country 
 now  called  Sus,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  empire  of 
 Marocco,  near  Cape  Nun,  and  opposite  to  the  Fortu- 
 nate or  Canary  Islands  ;  and  the  Perorsi  dwelt  to  the 
 south  of  them  along  the  seacoast.  The  Ger  or  Niger 
 of  Suetonius  Paulinus,  which  he  met  after  crossing  the 
 Atlas,  must  have  heen  one  of  the  streams  which  flow 
 from  the  southern  side  of  the  great  Atlas,  through  the 
 country  of  Tafdclt,  and  which  lose  themselves  in  the 
 southern  desert.  One  of  these  streams  is  still  called 
 Ghir,  and  runs  through  Scgelinessa ;  and  this,  in  all 
 probability,  is  the  Ger  or  Niger  of  the  Roman  com- 
 mander. Ger  or  Gir  seems,  in  fact,  to  be  an  old  gen- 
 eric .\frinan  appellation  for  "river."  As  for  the  des- 
 ert which  Suetonius  crossed  before  he  arrived  at  the 
 Ger,  it  could  evidently  not  be  the  great  desert,  which 
 spread  far  to  the  south  of  the  Canarii,  but  one  of  the 
 desert  tracts  which  lay  immediately  south  of  the  Atlas. 
 Caillie  describes  the  inhabited  parts  of  Draha,  Tafiletf, 
 and  Segehncssa  as  consisting  of  valleys  and  small 
 plains,  enclosed  by  steril  and  rocky  tracts  of  desert 
 country. — But,  besides  the  Ger  or  Niger  of  Suetonius, 
 Pliny  in  several  places  (5,  8,  seq.  ;  8,  21)  speaks  of 
 another  apparently  distinct  river,  the  Nigris  of  ^Ethi- 
 opia,  which  he  compares  with  the  Nile,  "  swelling  at 
 the  same  seasons,  having  similar  animals  living  in  its 
 waters,  and,  like  the  Nile,  producing  the  calamus  and 
 papyrus."  In  his  extremely  confused  account,  which 
 he  derived  from  the  authority  of  Juba  II.,  king  of  Mau- 
 ritania, he  mixes  up  the* Nigris  and  the  Nile  together 
 with  other  rivers,  as  if  all  the  waters  of  Central  .Africa 
 formed  but  one  water-course,  which  seems  to  have  been 
 a  very  prevalent  notion  of  old.  He  says  (.5,  9)  that  the 
 Nile  had  its  origin  in  a  mountain  of  Lower  Mauritania, 
 not  far  from  the  ocean  ;  that  it  flowed  through  sandy 
 deserts,  in  which  it  was  concealed  for  several  days  ; 
 that  it  reappeared  in  a  great  lake  in  Mauritania  Cassa- 
 riensis,  was  again  hidden  for  twenty  days  in  deserts, 
 and  then  rose  again  in  the  sources  of  the  Nigris,  which 
 river,  separating  Africa  (meaning  Northern  Africa)  from 
 Ethiopia,  flowed  through  the  middle  of  .Ethiopia,  and 
 btcame  the  branch  of  the  Nile  called  .\stapus.  The 
 same  story,  though  without  any  mention  of  the  Nigris, 
 is  alluded  to  by  Vilruvius,  Strabo,  and  others  ;  and 
 Mela  (3,  9)  adds,  that  the  river  at  its  source  was  called 
 Daras,  which  is  still  the  name  of  a  river  that  flows 
 along  the  eastern  side  of  the  southern  chain  of  the 
 Atlas  of  Marocco,  and  through  the  province  of  the 
 same  name  which  lies  west  of  Tafilctl,  and  is  nomin- 
 ally subject  to  Marocco.  The  Dara  or  Draha  has  a 
 eouthern  course  towards  the  desert,  but  its  termination 
 892 
 
 is  unknown.  There  is  another  river,  the  Akassa,  call- 
 ed also  Wadi  Nun,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Adrar 
 ridge,  or  Southern  Atlas,  which  flows  through  the 
 country  of  Su.s  in  a  western  direction,  enters  the  sea 
 to  the  south  of  Ca|)e  Nun,  and  seems  to  correspond  to 
 the  Daras  or  Daratus  of  Ptolemy. — Throughout  all 
 these  confused  notions  of  the  hydrography  of  interior 
 Africa  entertained  by  the  ancients,  one  constant  re- 
 port or  tradition  is  apparent,  namely,  that  of  the  exist- 
 ence of  a  large  river  south  of  the  great  desert,  and 
 flowing  towards  the  east.  It  is  true  that  Herodotus, 
 Strabo,  Pliny,  and  their  respective  authorities,  thought 
 that  this  river  flowed  into  the  Nile,  but  Mela  seems  to 
 have  doubted  this,  for  he  says  that  when  the  river 
 reached  the  middle  of  the  continent,  it  was  not  known 
 what  became  of  it.  —  Ptolemy,  who  wrote  later  than 
 the  preceding  geographers,  and  seems  to  have  had 
 be<ter  information  concerning  the  interior  of  Africa, 
 after  stating  that  "  Libya  Interior  is  bounded  on  the 
 north  by  the  two  Mauritaniae,  and  by  Africa  and  Cy- 
 renaica  ;  on  the  east  by  Marmarica,  and  by  the  .(Ethi- 
 opia which  lies  south  of  Egypt ;  on  the  south  by  In- 
 terior .^Ethiopia,  in  which  is  the  country  of  Agisymba ; 
 and  on  the  west  by  the  Western  Ocean,  from  the  Hes- 
 perian Gulf  to  the  frontier  of  Mauritania  Tingitana," 
 proceeds  to  enumerate  various  positions  on  the  coast 
 of  the  ocean ;  after  which  he  mentions  the  chief  mount- 
 ains of  Libya,  and  the  streams  that  flow  from  them  to 
 the  sea.  He  then  adds,  "In  the  interior,  the  two 
 greatest  rivers  are  the  Geir  and  the  Nigeir  :  the  Geir 
 unites  Mount  Usargula  (which  he  places  in  20°  20'  N. 
 lat.  and  50'^  E.  long.)  with  the  Garamantic  pharanx 
 (the  name  of  a  mountain  which  he  had  previously 
 stated  to  be  in  10°  N.  lat.  and  33°  E.  long  ).  A 
 river  diverges  from  it  at  42°  E.  long,  and  16°  N.  lat., 
 and  makes  the  lake  Chelonides,  of  which  the  middle 
 is  in  49°  E.  long,  and  20°  N.  lat.  This  river  is  said 
 to  be  lost  under  ground,  and  to  reappear,  forming  an- 
 other river,  of  which  the  western  end  is  at  46°  E. 
 long,  and  16°  N.  lat.  The  eastern  part  of  the  river 
 forms  the  Lake  Nuba,  the  site  of  which  is  50°  E.  long, 
 and  l.'i°  N.  lat."  The  positions  here  assigned  to  the 
 Geir,  and  the  direction  of  its  main  stream,  from  the 
 Garamantic  mountain  to  Mount  Usargula,  being  south- 
 east and  northwest,  seem  to  point  out  for  its  represent- 
 ative either  the  Slurry  of  Bornou,  and  its  supposed 
 aflluent,  the  Bahr  Kidla  of  Browne,  or  perhaps  the 
 Bahr  Misselad  of  the  same  traveller,  called  Om  Tcy- 
 mam  by  Burckhardt,  who  says  that  its  indigenous  ap- 
 pellation is  Gir,  a  large  stream  coming  from  about  10° 
 N.  lat.,  and  flowing  northwest  through  Wadai,  west 
 of  the  borders  of  Dar-fur.  The  Misselad  is  sup- 
 posed to  flow  into  Lake  Fitlrc  :  we  do  not  know 
 whether  any  communication  exists  between  Lake  Fit- 
 Ire  and  the  Tschadd.  In  fact,  it  appears  that  several 
 streams,  besides  the  Bahr  KuUa  and  the  Bahr  Mis- 
 selad, all  coming  from  the  great  southern  range,  or 
 .Mountains  of  the  Moon,  flow  in  a  northwest  direction 
 through  the  countries  lying  between  Bornou  and  Dar- 
 fur,  and  the  Geir  of  Ptolemy  may  have  been  the  rep- 
 resentative of  any  or  all  of  them.  —  We  now  come  to 
 Ptolemy's  Nigeir,  a  name  which,  having  been  mistaken 
 for  the  Latin  word  Niger,  has  added  to  the  confusion 
 on  the  subject.  Nigeir  is  a  compound  of  the  general 
 appellative  Geir  or  Gir,  which  is  found  applied  to  va- 
 rious rivers  in  different  parts  of  Africa,  and  the  prefix 
 Ni  or  N\  which  is  foimd  in  several  names  of  the  same 
 region  reported  by  Denham  and  Caillie.  Ptolemy 
 makes  the  Nigeir  quite  a  distinct  river  from  the  Geir, 
 and  places  it  to  the  westward.  He  says  that  it  joins 
 the  mountain  Mandrus,  19°  N.  lat.  and  14°  E.  long., 
 with  the  mountain  Thala,  10°  N.  lat.  and  38°  E.  long. 
 Its  course  is  thereby  defined  as  much  longer  and  in  a 
 less  oblique  line  to  the  equator  than  that  of  the  Geir. 
 In  fact,  it  would  correspond  tolerably  well  (allowing 
 for  the  imperfection  of  the  means  of  observation  in  an- 
 
NIGER. 
 
 NIG 
 
 cient  times)  with  the  actual  direction  of  the  course  of 
 the  Jniiba  and  that  of  the  river  of  Sakkatoo,  supposing 
 that  nver  to  form  a  communication  with  Lake  Tschadd, 
 as  Ptolemy  says  that  the  Nigeir  has  a  divergent  to  the 
 lake  Libye,  which  he  places  in  16°  30'  N.  lat.  and 
 35°  E.  long  ,  and  the  words  of  the  text  seem  to  ex- 
 press that  the  vvaier  ran  into  the  lake  ;  so  that  the 
 course  of  the  Nigeir,  according  to  Ptolemy,  as  well  as 
 his  predecessors,  was  easterly,  as  the  Joiiha  or  Quorra 
 actually  runs  for  a  great  part  of  its  course.  "  The 
 lake  Libye,"  observes  a  distinguished  geographer,  "to 
 which  there  was  an  easterly  divergent,  I  strongly  sus- 
 pect to  have  been  the  lake  Tschadd,  notwithstanding 
 that  the  position  of  Libye  falls  300  geographical  miles 
 northwestward  of  this  lake  ;  for  the  name  of  Libye 
 favours  the  presumption  that  it  was  the  principal  lake 
 in  the  interior  of  IJbya  ;  it  was  very  natural  that  Ptol- 
 emy, like  many  of  the  moderns,  should  have  been 
 misinformed  as  to  the  communication  of  the  river  with 
 that  lake,  and  that  he  should  have  mistaken  two  riv- 
 ers flowing  from  the  same  ridge  in  opposite  directions, 
 one  to  the  Quorra  and  the  other  to  the  Tschadd  (I 
 allude  to  the  Sakkatoo  and  the  Yeu  rivers),  for  a 
 single  communication  from  the  Quorra  to  the  lake." 
 (Leake's  paper  "  On  the  Quorra  and  Niger,'"  in  the 
 second  volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geograph- 
 ical Society  of  London,  1832.) — But  Ptolemy,  after 
 all.  may  not  have  been  so  much  misinformed  with  re- 
 spect to  a  communication  existing  between  the  lake 
 and  his  Nigeir,  if,  as  is  now  strongly  suspected,  the 
 communication  really  exists,  though  in  an  inverse  di- 
 rection from  that  which  Ptolemy  appears  to  have  un- 
 derstood. It  is  surmised  that  the  river  Tschadda, 
 which,  at  its  junction  with  the  Quorra,  just  above  the 
 beginning  of  the  delta,  is  larger  than  the  Quorra  itself, 
 receives  an  outlet  from  the  lake  somewhere  about  the 
 town  of  Jacobah.  (Captain  W.  Allen,  R.  N.,  0«  a 
 new  construction  of  a  Map  of  a  Portion  of  Western 
 Africa,  &c. — Journal  of  the  Royal  Gcogr.  Soc.  of 
 London,  vol.  8,  1838.)  If  this  surmise  prove  true, 
 it  would  explain  ihe  statem.ent  of  the  Arabian  geogra- 
 phers of  the  middle  ages,  Edrisi.  Abulfeda,  and  Leo 
 Africanos,  who  state  that  the  Nil-el-Ahid,  or  river  of 
 the  negroes,  flowed  from  east  to  west.  The  Tschad- 
 da then  would  be  the  river  of  the  Arabian,  and  the 
 Joliba  or  Upper  Quorra  that  of  the  Greek  and  Roman, 
 geographers.  Both  were  ignorant  of  the  real  termi- 
 nation of  their  resi)ective  streams.  "  It  is  neverthe- 
 less remarkable,  that  the  distance  laid  by  Ptolemy 
 between  his  source  of  the  river  and  the  western  coast 
 is  the  same  as  that  given  by  modern  observations  ; 
 that  Thamondocana,  one  of  the  towns  on  the  Nigeir, 
 is  exactly  coincident  with  Tombuctoo,  as  recently  laid 
 down  by  M.  Jomard  from  the  itinerary  of  M.  Cail- 
 lie  ;  that  the  length  of  the  course  resulting  from  Ptole- 
 my's positions  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  Quorra, 
 as  far  as  the  mountains  of  Kong,  with  the  addition  of 
 the  Tschadda  or  Shary  of  Funda  ;  and  that  his  po- 
 sition of  Mount  Thala,  at  the  southeastern  extremity 
 of  the  Nigeir,  is  very  near  that  in  which  we  may  sup- 
 pose the  Txchadda  to  have  its  origin  ;  so  that  it  would 
 seem  as  if  Ptolemy,  like  Sultan  Bello  and  other  mod- 
 ern Africans,  had  considered  the  Tschadda  as  a  con- 
 tinuation of  the  main  river,  though  he  knew  the  Egyp- 
 tian Nile  too  well  to  fall  into  the  modern  error  of  sup- 
 posing the  Nigeir  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Nile.  The 
 mountains  of  Kong,  and  the  passage  of  the  river 
 through  them  at  right  angles  to  their  direction,  form- 
 ed a  natural  termination  to  the  extent  of  the  geogra- 
 pher's knowledge;  in  like  manner,  as  among  ourselves, 
 the  presumed,  and  at  length  the  ascertained,  existence 
 of  those  mountains,  has  been  the  chief  obstacle  to 
 a  belief  that  the  river  terminated  in  the  Atlantic." 
 {Leake's  Paper  "  On  the  Quorra  and  Niger,'''  already 
 quoted.) — The  opinions  established  by  the  Arabian 
 geographers  of  the  middle  ages,  that  the  Niger  flow- 
 
 ed westward,  led  Europeans  to  look  for  its  estuary 
 in  the  Senegal,  Gambia,  and  Rio  Grande ;  but,  upon 
 examination  of  those  rivers,  the  mistake  was  ascer- 
 tained ;  and  D'Anville  and  other  geographers  separa- 
 ted the  course  of  the  Senegal  from  that  of  the  Niger, 
 and  of  the  latter  from  that  of  the  Nile.  Mungo  Park 
 was  the  first  European  who  saw  the  great  internal 
 river  of  Soudan  flowing  towards  the  ea.si,  and  called 
 Joliba.  He  traced  it  in  two  different  journeys  from 
 Bammakfw,  about  ten  days  from  its  source,  to  Bous- 
 sa,  where  he  was  unfortunately  killed  in  1806.  Clap- 
 perton  crossed  the  river  at  Bojissa  on  his  second 
 journey  to  Sakkatoo,  in  1826  ;  and,  after  his  death, 
 his  faithful  servant,  Richard  Lander,  undertook  to  nav- 
 igate the  river  from  Roussa  to  its  mouth.  In  1827 
 he  proceeded  from  Badagry,  on  the  coast,  to  Boussa, 
 and  there  embarked  on  the  river.  He  found  that  it 
 flowed  in  a  southern  direction,  receiving  several  large 
 rivers  from  the  east  ;  among  others,  the  noble  Tschad- 
 da, after  which  the  united  stream  passed  through  an 
 opening  in  the  Kong  chain,  and  that,  after  issuing 
 from  the  mountains,  it  sent  off  several  branches  both 
 east  and  west  towards  the  coast,  while  he  himself 
 reached  the  sea  by  the  branch  known  till  then  by  the 
 name  of  Rio  Nun.  —  From  all,  then,  that  has  been 
 stated,  it  will  satisfactorily  appear,  that  the  great  river 
 of  the  Libya  of  Herodotus,  the  Nigris  of  Pliny,  the 
 Nigeir  of  Ptolemy,  and  the  Niger  of  modern  geogra- 
 phy, are  one  and  the  same  river  with  the  Quorra.  M. 
 VValckenaer  '^Recherchcs  Geographiques  sur  VInteri- 
 eur  de  VAfriquc  Scptentrionale)  has  maintained  the 
 negative  side  of  the  question,  asserting  that  the  an- 
 cients had  no  knowledge  of  Soxida.n,  and  that  the  Ni- 
 geir of  Ptolemy  was  one  of  the  rivers  flowing  from 
 the  Atlas  ;  but  Col.  Leake  has  ably  answered  him, 
 and  supported  the  affirmative  in  the  paper  already 
 quoted.  {Encycl.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  16,  p.  221,sc9y.) 
 — The  singular  theory  of  Sir  Ilufane  Donkin,  that  the 
 Niger  once  flowed  into  the  Mediterranean  where  the 
 Syrtes  now  are,  but  that  it  has  been  choked  up  and 
 obliterated,  in  this  part  of  its  course,  by  the  sands  of 
 the  desert,  is  very  ably  refuted  in  the  Quarterly  Re- 
 view (vol.  41,  p.  226,  seqq.). 
 
 NiGinius  FiGui.us,  P.,  a  celebrated  astrologer,  and 
 yet  a  man  of  excellent  judgment.     He  was  the  friend 
 of  Cicero,  and  consulted  by  him  on  all  important  oc- 
 casions.    Nigidius  was  a  senator  at  the  time  of  Cat- 
 iline's conspiracy,  and  lent  his  best  endeavours  in  aid 
 of  Cicero      Five  years  after  this  he  attained  to  the 
 prffitorship,  and  disjjlayed  great  firmness   in    dischar- 
 ging the  duties  of  that  office.     He  was,  at  a  subsequent 
 period,  allowed  a  free  legation  for  visiting  Asia  ;  and, 
 returning  from  this  country,  met  Cicero  at  Mytilene, 
 when  the  latter  was  going  to  take  charge  of  his  gov- 
 ernment of  Cilicia.     The  peripatetic  Cratippus  assist- 
 ed at  the  conference  which  the  two  friends  held  here, 
 and  in  which  Nigidius,  without  doubt,  maintained  the 
 tenets  of  Pythagoras,  to  whose  school   he  belonged. 
 In  the  civil  wars  Nigidius  followed  the  parly  of  Pom- 
 pey.      Cisar,  who  pardoned  so  easily,  would  not,  how- 
 ever, become  reconciled  to  him  :  he  drove  him  into 
 exile,  notwithstanding  all  the  efforts  of  Cicero  in  his 
 behalf      Nigidius  died   in  exile  a  year  before  the  as- 
 sassination of  the  dictator. — We  have  said  that  he  was 
 a  celebrated    astrologer.      He  was  strongly  attached, 
 indeed,  to  this  pretended  science,  and  devoted  muri- 
 of  his  time  to  it.     The  ancient  writers  have  recnrdec 
 several  of  his  predictions,  and,  in  particular,  a  vcrj 
 remarkable  one  relative  to  Ociavius  (Augustus),  an<i 
 his    becoming    the   master  of  the  world.     {Sueton., 
 Aug.,  c.  94.— P/o  Ca.ss.,  45,  1.)     Cicero  speaks  or 
 many  occasions  of  his  great  erudition,  and  he  was  re- 
 garded as  the  most  learned  of  the  Romans  after  Var- 
 ro.      He  wrote  a  great  number  of  works  :    one  or 
 grammar,  tinder  the  title  of  Commcntarii  Grammati 
 ci,  in  thirty  books  ;  a  Treatise  on  Animals,  in  fou» 
 ^  893 
 
NIL 
 
 NILUS. 
 
 books ;  another  On  Wind ;  a  very  large  work  On  the 
 Goils ;  but,  above  all,  a  Si/.stcm  of  Astrology,  or  a 
 theory  of  the  art  of  divination.  Macrobius  and  Au- 
 lus  Gellius,  in  citing  these  works,  have  preserved  for 
 us  some  few  fragments  of  them.  An  extract  On 
 Thunder,  from  one  of  his  productions,  exists  in  Greek, 
 having  been  translated  nito  that  tongue  by  Lydus, 
 and  niserted  in  his  treatise  on  Prodigies.  {SchoU, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  187.) 
 
 NiLus,  the  name  of  the  great  river  of  Eastern  Afri- 
 ca, the  various  branches  of  which  have  their  rise  in  the 
 high  lands  north  of  the  equator,  and,  flowing  through 
 Abyssinia  and  other  regions  to  the  westward  of  it, 
 meet  in  the  country  of  Sennaar.  The  united  stream 
 fl«ws  northward  through  Nubia  and  Egypt,  and,  after 
 a  course  of  more  than  1800  miles  from  the  farthest 
 explored  point  of  its  principal  branch,  enters  the  Med- 
 iterranean by  several  mouths,  which  form  ihe  delta  of 
 Egypt.  The  word  Nil  seems  to  be  an  old  indigenous 
 appellation,  meaning  "river,"  like  that  of  Gir  in  Sou- 
 dan and  other  countries  south  of  the  Atlas.  (Vid  Ni- 
 ger.) The  modern  Egyptians  call  the  river  Bahr-Nil, 
 or  simply  Bahr  ;  in  Nubia  it  is  known  by  various 
 nannes  ;  in  Sennaar  the  central  branch,  or  Blue  Riv- 
 er, is  called  Adit;  and  in  Abyssinia,  ^6ai<)j.  The 
 three  principal  branches  of  the  Nile  are:  1.  The 
 Bahr  el  Abiad.  or  While  River,  to  the  west,  which  is 
 now  ascertained  to  be  the  largest  and  longest.  2, 
 The  Bahr  el  Asrck,  or  Blue  River,  in  the  centre.  3. 
 The  Tacazze,  or  Atbara,  which  is  the  eastern  branch. 
 These  three  branches  were  known  to  Ptolemy,  who 
 seems  to  have  considered  the  western  as  the  true 
 Nile,  and  to  have  called  the  Bahr  el  Azrek  by  the 
 name  of  Astapus,  and  the  Tacazze  by  the  ajjpellation 
 of  Astaboras.  He  fixed  the  sources  of  the  western 
 river  in  numerous  lakes  at  the  foot  of  the  Mountains 
 of  the  Moon,  which  he  filaced  in  10°  S.  lat.  Strabo 
 (821)  speaks  of  the  island  of  Meroe  as  bounded  on 
 tiie  south  by  the  confluence  of  the  Astaboras,  Astapus, 
 and  Astasobas.  In  another  place  (786)  he  says,  that 
 the  Nile  receives  the  Astaboras  and  Astapus  ;  which 
 latter  "some  call  the  Astasobas,  and  say  that  the  As- 
 tapus is  another  river,  which  flows  from  some  lakes  in 
 the  south,  and  makes  pretty  nearly  the  direct  course 
 of  the  Nile,  and  is  swollen  by  summer-rains."  While 
 these  passages  certainly  prove  that  the  ancient  geog- 
 raphers knew  there  were  three  main  streams,  they 
 also  prove  that  their  notions  about  them  were  extreme- 
 ly confused. — The  Nile,  as  if  it  were  doomed  for  ever 
 to  share  the  obscurity  which  covers  the  ancient  history 
 of  the  land  to  which  it  ministers,  still  conceals  its  true 
 sources  from  the  eager  curiosity  of  modern  science. 
 The  question  which  was  agitated  in  the  age  of  the 
 Ptolemies  has  not  yet  been  solved  ;  and,  although 
 2000  years  have  elapsed  since  Eratosthenes  published 
 his  conjectures  as  to  the  origin  of  the  principal  branch, 
 we  possess  not  more  satisfactory  knowledge  on  that 
 particular  point  than  was  enjoyed  in  his  days  by  the 
 philosophers  of  Alexandrea.  The  repeated  failures 
 which  had  already  attended  the  various  attempts  to 
 discover  its  fountains,  convinced  the  geographers  of 
 Greece  and  Rome  that  success  was  impossible,  and 
 that  it  was  the  will  of  the  gods  to  conceal  from  all 
 
 f Fenerations  this  great  secret  of  nature.  Homer,  in 
 aiiguage  sufliicieritly  ambiguous,  describes  it  as  a 
 stream  descending  from  heaven.  Herodotus  made  in- 
 quiry in  regard  to  its  commencement,  but  soon  saw 
 reason  to  relinquish  the  attempt  as  altOL'cthcr  fruitless. 
 Alexander  the  Great,  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  en- 
 gaged in  the  same  undertaking,  and  despatched  per- 
 sons well  qualified  by  their  knowledge  for  the  arduous 
 task  ;  but  who,  nevertheless,  like  the  great  father  of 
 history  himself,  travelled  and  inquired  in  vain.  Pom- 
 ponius  Mela  was  doubiful  whether  it  did  not  rise  in 
 the  country  of  the  Antipodes.  Pliny  traced  it  in  im- 
 agination to  a  mountain  in  the  Lower  Mauritania, 
 894 
 
 while  Euthemenes  was  of  opinion  that  it  proceeded 
 from  the  borders  of  the  Atlantic,  and  j)enetrated 
 through  the  heart  of  Africa,  dividing  it  into  two  con- 
 tinents. Virgil  {Georg.,  4,  290)  appears  to  have  fa- 
 voured a  conjecture,  which  also  found  supporters  at  a 
 later  period,  that  the  Nile  proceeded  from  the  east, 
 and  might  be  identified  with  one  of  the  great  rivers 
 of  Asia.  {RusscH's  Egypt,  p.  32,  scqq.) — The  nu- 
 merous reports  of  the  natives,  who  call  the  Mountains 
 of  the  Moon  by  the  Arabic  version  of  the  same  name 
 Ibalu  7  Kamari,  though  generally  pronounced  ILali 
 'I  Kumri,  which  would  mean  "  blue  mountainsi,"  seem 
 to  agree  in  placing  the  sources  of  the  Abiad  several 
 degrees  north  of  the  equator,  at  nearly  an  equal  dis- 
 tance between  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  Af- 
 rica. But  we  have  no  positive  information  either  as 
 to  the  true  position  of  the  sources  or  of  the  mountains 
 themselves.  The  Bahr  el  Azrek,  or  Blue  River, 
 which  was  long  supposed  to  he  the  main  branch  of 
 the  Nile,  and  which  Bruce  also  took  for  such,  has 
 three  sources  in  the  high  land  of  Gojam,  near  the  vil- 
 lage of  Geesh,  southwest  of  Lake  Dcmbca,  in  10°  59' 
 25"  N.  lat.,  and  36^  55'  30"  E.  long.,  according  to 
 Bruce's  observations.  The  sources  of  the  Azrek  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  visited  by  Father  Paez,  and  per- 
 haps by  other  missionaries,  long  before  Bruce.  The 
 vast  importance  attached  to  that  discovery  has  become 
 much  diminished  since  the  information  which  we  have 
 acquired  of  the  Abiad,  whose  sources  are  still  unex 
 plored,  and  still  involved  in  that  mystery  which  the 
 ancients  represent  as  hovering  about  the  fountains  of 
 the  Nile.  The  Tacazze  rises  in  the  high  mountains 
 of  Lasta,  in  about  11°  40'  N.  lat.,  and  39°  40' E. 
 long.  Its  sources  were  known  to  the  Jesuit  mission- 
 aries in  Abyssinia,  and  have  been  visited  of  late  years 
 by  Pearce. — The  Nile,  from  the  confluence  of  the 
 Tacazze  down  to  its  entrance  into  the  Mediterranean, 
 a  distance  of  1200  geographical  miles  measured  along 
 the  course  of  the  river,  receives  no  permanent  streams; 
 but  in  the  season  of  rains  it  has  wadys  or  torrents 
 flowing  into  it  from  the  mountains  that  lie  between 
 it  and  the  Red  Sea.  North  of  .4r>,'0,  in  19°  40'  N. 
 lat.,  the  Nile  enters  the  province  o(  Dar  Mahass,  in 
 Lower  Nubia,  where  it  forms  a  cataract  or  rapid,  com- 
 monly called  the  third  cataract  by  those  who  ascend 
 the  river.  After  several  windiricrs.  the  river  inclines 
 to  the  northeast ;  and  near  22°  N.  lat.  forms  the  sec- 
 ond cataract,  called  Wady  Haifa,  after  which  it  pass- 
 es the  splendid  temple  of  Ipsambul.  Continuing  its 
 northeast  course,  the  Nile,  at  about  24°  N.  lat.,  forms 
 the  last  cataract,  between  granite  rocks  which  cross 
 the  river  near  Assouan,  the  ancient  Syene  After  en- 
 tering the  boundaries  of  Egypt,  the  Nile  flows  throurrh 
 the  whole  length  of  that  country,  which  it  waters  and 
 fertilizes,  especially  the  Delta.  Egypt,  in  fact,  owes  to 
 the  Nile  its  very  existence  as  a  productive  and  habita- 
 ble region,  and  accordingly,  in  olden  times,  the  people 
 worshipped  the  beneficent  river  as  their  tutelary  god. 
 
 1.    The  Delta. 
 
 The  Nile,  issuing  from  the  valley  a  few  miles  north 
 of  Cairo,  enters  the  wide  low  plain  which,  from  its  tri- 
 angular form  and  its  resemblance  to  the  letter  A,  re- 
 ceived from  the  Greeks  the  name  of  the  Delta.  The 
 river,  at  a  place  called  Batu  el  Bahara,  near  the  an- 
 cient Cercasorus,  divides  into  two  branches,  the  ono 
 of  which,  flowing  to  Rosetta,  and  the  other  to  Dami- 
 £/<a,  enclose  between  them  the  present  Delta.  These 
 two  arms  or  branches  were  anciently  called  the  Ca- 
 nopic  and  Phatnitic.  The  figure  of  the  Delta  is  now 
 determined  by  these  two  branches,  although  the  culti- 
 vated plain  known  by  that  name  extends  considerably 
 beyond  to  the  east  and  west,  as  far  as  the  sandy  des- 
 ert on  either  side.  In  ancient  times,  however,  the 
 triangle  of  the  Delta  was  much  more  obtuse  at  its 
 apex,  as  its  right  side  was  formed  by  the  Pelusiao 
 
NILUS. 
 
 NILUS. 
 
 branch,  which,  detaching  itself  from  the  Nile  higher 
 up  than  the  Damielta  branch,  flowed  to  Pelusium,  at 
 the  eastern  extremity  of  Lake  Menzuleh.  This  branch 
 is  now  in  a  great  measure  choked  up,  though  it  still 
 serves  partly  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation.  During 
 our  winter  months,  which  are  the  spring  of  Egypt,  the 
 Delta,  as  well  as  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  looks  like  a 
 delightful  garden,  smiling  with  verdure,  and  enamel- 
 led with  the  blossoms  of  trees  and  plants.  Later  in 
 the  year  the  soil  becomes  parched  and  dusty;  and 
 in  May  the  suffocating  khamseen  begins  to  blow  fre- 
 quently from  the  south,  sweeping  along  the  fine  sand, 
 and  causing  various  diseases,  until  tlie  rising  of  the 
 beneficent  river  comes  again  to  refresh  the  land. — For 
 some  remarks  on  the  fertility  of  Egypt,  and  of  the 
 Delta  in  particular,  consult  the  article  Egypt,  ^  1,  page 
 35,  col.  1. 
 
 2.  Mouths  of  the  Nile,  and  Inundation  of  the  River. 
 
 The  ancients  were  acquainted  with,  and  mention, 
 seven  mouths  of  the  Nile,  with  respect  to  the  changes 
 in  which,  the  following  are  the   most  established  re- 
 sults.     1.  The  Canopic  mouth,  now  partly  confound- 
 ed with   the  canal  of  Ale.xandrea,  and   partly   lost  in 
 Lake  Elko.     2.   The  Bolbitine  mouth  at  Rosetta.     3. 
 The  Sebennytic  mouth,  probably  the  opening  into  the 
 present  Lake  Burlos.     4.  The  Phatnitic  or   Bucolic 
 at  Damietla.     5.  The  Mendesian,  which  is  lost  in  the 
 Lake  Menzalch,  the  mouth  of  which  is  represented  by 
 that  of  Dibch.     6.  The  Tanitic  or  Saitic.  which  cor- 
 responds to  the  Macs  canal.     7.  The  Pelusiac  mouth 
 seems   to   be  represented   by  what  is  now  the  most 
 easterly  mouth  of  Lake  Mcnzaleh,  where  the  ruins  of 
 Pelusium  are  still  visible. — The  rise  of  the  Nile,  in 
 common  with  that  of  all  the  rivers  of  the  torrid  zone, 
 is  caused  by  the  iieavy  periodical  rains  which  drench 
 the  table-land  of  Abyssinia  and  the  mountainous  coun- 
 try that  stretches  from  it  towards  the  south  and  west. 
 This  phenomenon  is  well  explained  by  Bruce.     "  The 
 air,"  he  observes,  "is  so  much  rarefied  by  the  sun  du- 
 ring the  time  he  remains  almost  stationary  over  the 
 tropic  of  Capricorn,  that  the  winds,  loaded  with  va- 
 pours, rush  in  upon  the  land  from  the  Atlantic  on  the 
 west,   the    Indian   Ocean  on   the   cast,   and   the  cold 
 Southern  Ocean  beyond  the  Cape.     Tiius  a  great  quan- 
 tity of  vapour  is  gathered,  as  it  were,  into  a  focus  ; 
 and,  as  the  same  causes  continue  to  operate. during 
 the  progress  of   the  sun  northward,  a  vast  train  of 
 clouds  proceed  from  south  to  north,  which  are  some- 
 times extended  much   farther  than  at  other  periods. 
 In  April  all  the  rivers  in  the  south  of  Abyssinia  begin 
 to  swell  ;   in  the  beginning  of  June  they  are  all  full, 
 and  continue  so  while   the  sun  remains  stationary  in 
 the  tropic  of  Cancer." — The  rise  of  the  Nile  begins 
 in  June,  about  the  summer  solstice,  and  it  continues 
 to  increase   till  September,  overflowing  the  lowlands 
 along  its  course.     The  Delta  then  looks  like  an  im- 
 mense  marsh,   interspersed    with    numerous    islands, 
 with   villages,   towns,   and    plantations  of  trees,  just 
 above  the  water.     Should  the    Nile  rise  a   few  feet 
 above  its   ordinary  elevation,  the  inundation  sweeps 
 away  the   mud-built  cottages  of  the  Arabs,   drowns 
 their  cattle,  and  involves  the  whole  population  in  ruin. 
 Again,  should    it  fall  short  of  the  customary  height, 
 bad  crops  and  dearth  arc  the  consequences.   '  The  in- 
 undation, after  having  remained  stationary  for  a  few 
 days,  begins  to  subside,  and  about  the  end  of  Novem- 
 ber most  of  the  fields  are  left  dry,  and  covered  with 
 a  fresh  layer  of  rich  brown  slime  :  this  is  the  time 
 when  the  lands  are  put  under  culture.     It  would  seem 
 that  the  river  cuts  a  passage  through  a  considerable 
 extent  of  rich  soil  before  it  approaches  the  granite 
 range  which  bounds  the  western  extremity  of  Nubia. 
 The  troj)ical  rains  collect  on  the  table-lands  of  the 
 interior,  where  they  form  immense  sheets  of  water,  or 
 temporary  lakes.     Wlieii  these  have  reached  a  level 
 
 high  enough  to  overflow  the  boundaries  of  their  ba- 
 sins, they  suddenly  send  down  into  the  rivers  an  enor- 
 mous volume  of  fluid  impregnated  with  the  soft  earth 
 over  which  it  has  lor  some  tune  stagnated.  Hence 
 the  momentary  pauses  and  sudden  renewals  in  the 
 rise  of  the  Nile  ;  hence,  too,  the  abundance  of  fer- 
 tilizing slime,  which  is  never  found  so  copious  in 
 the  waters  of  rivers  that  owe  their  increase  solel-  Xo 
 the  direct  influence  of  the  rains.  The  mud  of  !he 
 Nile,  upon  analysis,  gives  nearly  one  half  of  argilla- 
 ceous earth,  with  about  one  fourth  of  carbonate  of 
 lime  ;  the  remainder  consisting  of  water,  oxyde  of 
 iron,  and  carbonate  of  magnesia.  On  the  very  banks 
 the  slime  is  mixed  with  much  sand,  which  it  loses  in 
 proportion  as  it  is  carried  farther  from  the  river,  so 
 that,  at  a  certain  distance,  it  consists  almost  entirely 
 of  pure  aigil.  This  mud  is  employed  in  several  arts 
 among  the  Egyptians.  It  is  formed  into  excellent 
 bricks,  as  well  as  into  a  variety  of  vessels  for  domes- 
 tic uses.  It  enters,  also,  into  the  manufacture  of  to- 
 bacco-pipes. Glass-makers  employ  it  in  the  construc- 
 tion of  their  furnaces,  and  the  country  people  cover 
 their  houses  with  it. — We  have  already  remarked, 
 that  Egypt  is  indebted  for  her  rich  harvests  to  tho 
 mould  or  soil  which  is  deposited  by  the  river  during 
 the  annual  flood.  As  soon  as  the  waters  retire,  the 
 cultivation  of  the  ground  commences.  If  it  has  im- 
 bibed the  requisite  degree  of  moisture,  the  process  of 
 agriculture  is  neither  difficult  nor  tedious.  The  seed 
 is  scattered  over  the  soft  surface,  and  vegetation, 
 which  almost  immediately  succeeds,  goes  on  wilfe 
 great  rapidity.  Where  the  land  has  been  only  par 
 tially  inundated,  recourse  is  had  to  irrigation,  by 
 means  of  which  many  species  of  vegetables  are  rais- 
 ed, even  during  the  dry  season.  Harvest  follows  at 
 the  distance  of  about  six  or  eight  weeks,  according  to 
 the  difi'erent  kinds  of  grain,  leaving  time,  in  most  ca- 
 ses, for  a  succession  of  crops  wherever  there  is  a  full 
 command  of  water. — The  swellings  of  the  Nile,  in 
 Upper  Egypt,  are  from  30  to  35  feet  ;  at  Cairo  they 
 are  2:5  feet,  according  to  Humboldt,  but,  according  to 
 Girard,  7.419  metres,  nearly  24^  feet  ;  in  the  north- 
 ern part  of  tho  Delta,  owing  to  tlie  breadth  of  the  in- 
 undation and  the  artificial  channels,  only  4  leet. — 
 The  common  Egyptian  mode  of  clarifying  the  water 
 of  the  Nile  is  by  means  of  pounded  almonds.  It 
 holds  a  number  of  substances  in  a  slate  of  imperfect 
 solution,  which  are  in  this  way  precipitated.  Its  wa- 
 ter is  then  one  of  the  purest  known,  remarkable  for 
 its  being  easily  digested  by  tiie  stomach,  for  its  salu- 
 tary qualities,  and  for  all  the  purfioses  to  which  it  is 
 applied.  Europeans,  as  well  as  natives,  are  loud  in 
 their  eulogies  on  the  agreeable  and  salubrious  quali- 
 ties of  the  water  of  the  Nile.  Giovanni  Fmali.  for 
 example,  who  was  no  stranger  to  the  limpid  streams 
 of  other  lands,  sighed  for  the  opportunity  of  returning 
 to  Cairo,  that  he  might  once  more  drink  its  delicious 
 water,  and  breathe  its  mild  atmosphere.  Maillet,  too, 
 a  writer  of  good  credit,  remarks,  that  it  is  among 
 waters  what  Champagne  is  among  wines.  The  Mus- 
 sulmans themselves  acknowledge,  that  if  their  prophet 
 Mohammed  had  tasted  it,  he  would  have  supplicated 
 heaven  for  a  terrestrial  immortality,  that  he  might  en- 
 joy it  for  ever.     {RusselVs  Egypt,  p.  48,  52,  seqq.) 
 
 3.   Deposites  of  the  Nile,  and  increase  of  the  Delta. 
 
 We  have  here  a  very  interesting  topic  of  inquiry.  It 
 is  an  observation  as  old  as  the  days  of  Herodotus,  that 
 Eo-ypt  is  the  gift  of  the  Nile.  This  historian  imagined 
 that  all  the  lower  division  of  the  country  was  formerly 
 a  deep  bay  or  arm  of  the  sea,  and  that  it  had  been 
 gradually  filled  up  by  depositions  from  the  river.  He 
 illustrates  his  reasoning  on  this  subject  by  supposing, 
 that  the  present  appearance  of  the  Red  Sea  resembles 
 exactly  the  aspect  which  Egypt  must  have  exhibited 
 in   its   original   state;   and   that  if    the   Nile  by   any 
 
 895 
 
NILUS 
 
 NILUS. 
 
 means  were  admitted  to  flow  into  the  Arabian  Gulf, 
 it  would,  in  the  course  of  20,000  years,  convey  into  it 
 such  a  quantity  of  earth  as  would  raise  Us  bed  to  the 
 level  of  the  surrounding  coast.  I  am  of  opinion,  he 
 subjoins,  that  this  might  take  place  even  within  10,000 
 years  ;  why  then  might  not  a  bay  still  inore  spacious 
 than  this  be  choked  up  with  mud,  in  the  tune  which 
 passed  before  our  age,  by  a  stream  so  great  and  pow- 
 erful as  the  Nile?  (2,  ll.)_'l'|ie  men  of  science  who 
 accompanied  the  French  expedition  into  Egypt  under- 
 took to  measure  the  depth  of  alluvial  matter  which  has 
 been  actually  deposited  by  the  river.  By  sinking  pits 
 at  different  intervals,  both  on  the  banks  of  the  current 
 and  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  stratum,  they  ascertained 
 satisfactorily,  first,  that  the  surface  of  the  soil  de- 
 clines from  the  margin  of  the  stream  towards  the  foot 
 of  the  hills;  seconuly,  that  the  thickness  of  the  de- 
 posite  is  generally  about  ten  feet  near  the  river,  and 
 decreases  gradually  as  it  recedes  from  it ;  and,  thirdly, 
 that  beneath  the  mud  there  is  a  bed  of  sand  analogous 
 to  the  substance  which  has  at  all  times  been  brought 
 down  by  the  Hood  of  tlie  Nile.  This  convex  form  as- 
 sumed by  the  surface  of  the  valley  is  not  peculiar  to 
 Egypt,  being  common  to  the  banks  of  all  great  rivers, 
 where  the  qiiaiitily  of  soil  transported  by  the  current 
 is  greater  than  that  which  is  washed  down  by  ram 
 Irom  the  neighbouring  mountains.  The  plains  which 
 skirt  the  Mississippi  and  the  Ganges  present  in  many 
 parts  an  example  of  the  same  phenomenon. — An  at- 
 tempt has  likewise  been  made  to  ascertain  the  rale  of 
 the  annual  deposition  of  alluvial  substance,  and  there- 
 by to  measure  the  elevation  which  has  been  conferred 
 upon  the  valley  of  Egypt  by  the  action  of  its  river. 
 But  on  no  point  are  travellers  less  agreed  than  in  re- 
 gard to  the  change  of  level  and  the  increase  of  land 
 on  the  seacoast.  Dr.  Shaw  and  M.  Savary  take  their 
 stand  on  the  one  side,  and  are  resolutely  opposed  by 
 Bruce  and  Volney  on  the  other.  Herodotus  informs 
 09,  that  in  the  reign  of  Moeris,  if  the  Nile  rose  to  the 
 height  of  eight  cubits,  all  the  lands  of  Egypt  were  suf- 
 ficiently watered  ;  but  that  in  his  own  lime — not  quite 
 900  years  afterward — Ihe  country  was  not  covered 
 with  less  than  fifteen  or  sixteen  cubits  of  water.  The 
 addition  of  soil,  therefore,  was  equal  to  seven  cubits 
 at  the  least,  or  laS  inches  in  the  course  of  900  years. 
 "But  at  present,"  says  Dr.  Shaw,  "the  river  must 
 rise  to  the  height  of  twenty  cubits — and  it  usually 
 rises  to  24  cubits — before  the  whole  country  is  over- 
 flowed. Since  the  lime,  therefore,  of  Herodotus, 
 Egypt  has  gained  new  soil  to  the  depth  of  230  inches. 
 And  if  we  look  back  from  the  reign  of  Moeris  to  the 
 time  of  the  Deluge,  and  reckon  that  interval  by  the 
 same  proportion,  we  shall  find  that  the  whole  perpen- 
 dicular accession  of  the  soil,  from  Uie  Deluge  to  A.D. 
 1721,  must  be  500  inches;  that  is,  the  land  of  Egypt  has 
 gained  41  feet  8  inches  of  soil  in  4072  years.  Thus, 
 in  process  of  time,  the  country  may  be  raised  to  such 
 a  height  that  the  river  will  not  be  alile  to  overflow  its 
 banks  ;  and  Egypt,  conseijueiitly,  from  being  the  most 
 fertile,  will,  for  want  of  the  annual  inundation,  become 
 one  of  the  most  barren  parts  of  the  universe."  {Sharv's 
 Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  235.)  —  We  shall  see  presently  that 
 this  fear  on  the  part  of  the  learned  traveller  is  entirely 
 without  foundation.  Were  it  possible  to  determine 
 the  mean  rate  of  accumulation,  a  species  of  chronome- 
 ter would  be  lliereby  obtained  for  measuring  the  lapse 
 of  time  which  has  passed  since  any  monument,  or  oth- 
 er work  of  art  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  river,  was 
 originally  founded.  In  applying  the  principle  now  sta- 
 ted, it  is  not  necessary  to  assume  anything  more  than 
 that  the  building  in  question  was  not  placed  by  its 
 architect  under  the  level  of  the  river  at  its  ordinary  in- 
 undations, a  postulatum  which,  in  regard  to  palaces, 
 te.mples,  and  statues,  will  be  most  readily  granted. 
 Proceeding  on  this  ground,  the  French  philosophers 
 hazarded  a  conjecture  respecting  a  number  of  dates, 
 896 
 
 of  which  the  following  are  some  of  the  most  remark- 
 able :  1.  The  depth  of  the  soil  round  the  colossal 
 statue  of  Memnon,  at  Thebes,  gives  only  0.106  of  a 
 mtitre  (less  than  four  inches)  as  the  rate  of  accumula- 
 tion in  a  century,  while  the  mean  of  several  observa- 
 tions made  in  the  valley  of  Lower  Egypt  gives  0.1 20 
 of  a  metre,  or  rather  more  than  four  inches.  But  the 
 basis  of  ihe  statue  of  Memnon  was  certainly  raised 
 above  the  level  of  the  inundation  by  being  placed  on 
 an  artificial  mound  ;  and  excavations  made  near  it 
 show  that  the  original  height  of  that  was  six  metres 
 (19.686  feet)  above  the  level  of  the  soil.  A  similar 
 result  is  obtained  from  examining  the  foundations  of 
 the  palace  at  Luxor.  Taking,  therefore,  0.126  of  a 
 metre,  the  mean  secular  augmentation  of  the  soil,  as  a 
 divisor,  the  quotient,  4760,  gives  the  number  of  years 
 which  have  elapsed  since  the  foundation  of  Thebes 
 was  laid.  This  date,  which,  of  course,  can  only  be 
 considered  as  a  very  imperfect  approximation  to  the 
 truth,  carries  the  origin  of  that  celebrated  metropolis 
 as  far  back  as  2960  years  before  Christ,  and,  conse- 
 quently, 612  years  before  the  Deluge,  according  to  the 
 reckoning  of  the  modern  Jews.  But  the  numbers 
 given  there  differ  materially  from  those  of  the  Samarian 
 text  and  the  Septuagint  version  ;  which,  carrying  tho 
 Deluge  back  to  the  year  3716  before  Christ,  make  an 
 interval  of  seven  centuries  and  a  half  between  the 
 flood  and  the  building  of  Thebes.  Though  no  dis- 
 tinct account  of  the  age  of  that  city  is  to  be  found 
 in  the  Greek  historians,  it  is  clear  from  Diodorus  that 
 ihey  believed  it  to  have  been  begun  in  a  very  remote 
 period  of  antiquity.  {Diod.  Sic,  1,  15.) — 2.  The  rub- 
 bish collected  at  the  foot  of  ihe  obelisk  of  lAixor  ii«]i- 
 cates  that  it  was  erected  fourteen  hundred  years  before 
 the  Christian  era. — 3.  The  causeway  which  crosses 
 the  plain  of  Siout  furnishes  a  similar  ground  for  sup- 
 posing that  it  must  have  been  founded  twelve  hundred 
 years  anterior  to  the  same  epoch. — 4.  The  pillar  at 
 Heliopolis,  six  miles  from  Cairo,  appears,  from  e>i- 
 dence  strictly  analogous,  to  have  been  raised  about 
 the  period  just  specified  ;  but,  as  the  waters  drain  off 
 more  slowly  in  the  Delta  than  in  Upper  Egyjit,  the 
 accumulation  of  alluvial  soil  is  more  rapid  there  than 
 higher  up  the  stream ;  the  foundations,  therefore,  of 
 ancient  buildings  in  the  former  district  will  be  at  as 
 great  a  depth  below  the  surface  as  those  of  much  great- 
 er antiquity  are  in  the  middle  and  upper  province?. 
 But  it  is  obvious  that  to  form  these  calculations  with 
 such  accuracy  as  would  render  them  less  liable  to  dis- 
 pute, more  time  and  observation  would  be  requisite 
 than  could  be  given  by  the  French  in  the  short  period 
 during  which  they  continued  in  undisturbed  possession 
 of  Egypt.  One  general  and  important  consequence, 
 however,  arising  from  their  inquiries,  can  hardly  be 
 overlooked  or  denied  ;  namely,  that  the  dates  thus  ob- 
 tained are  as  remote  from  the  extravagant  chronology 
 of  tho  ancient  Egvptians,  as  they  are  consistent  with 
 the  testimony  of  both  sacred  and  profane  history,  with 
 regard  to  the  early  civilization  of  that  interesting 
 country.  —  But,  little  or  no  reliance  can  be  filaced  on 
 such  conclusions,  because  it  is  now  manifestly  impos- 
 sible to  ascertain,  in  the  first  instance,  whether  the 
 measures  referred  to  by  the  ancient  historians  were  in 
 all  cases  of  the  same  standard  ;  and,  secondly,  whether 
 the  deposition  of  soil  in  the  Egyptian  valley  did  not 
 proceed  more  rapidly  in  early  times  than  it  does  in  our 
 days,  or  even  than  it  has  done  ever  since  its  cfl'ccls 
 first  became  an  object  of  philosophical  curiosity.  'I'hat 
 the  level  of  the  land  has  been  raised,  and  its  e.vtent 
 towards  the  sea  greatly  increased  since  the  age  of  He- 
 rodotus, we  might  safely  infer,  as  well  from  the  great 
 infusion  of  earthy  matter  which  is  held  in  suspension 
 by  the  Nile  when  in  a  state  of  flood,  as  from  the  anal- 
 ogous operation  of  all  large  rivers,  both  in  the  old  con 
 tinents  and  in  the  new.  There  is,  in  truth,  no  good 
 reason  for  questioning  the  fact  mentioned  by  Dr.  Shaw, 
 
NILUS. 
 
 NIN 
 
 that  the  mud  of  Ethiopia  has  been  detected  by  sound- 
 ings at  the  disiBMce  of  not  Ifss  than  twenty  leagues 
 from  the  coast  of  tlie  Delta.  Nor  yet  is  there  any  sub- 
 stant!;il  ground  for  apprehending,  with  the  author  just 
 named,  that,  in  [jrocess  of  time,  the  whole  country 
 may  be  raised  to  such  a  height  that  the  river  will  not 
 be  alile  to  overflow  its  banks  ;  and,  consequently,  that 
 Egypt,  from  being  the  most  fertile,  will,  for  want  of 
 the  annual  inundation,  become  one  of  the  most  barren 
 parts  of  the  universe.  "According  to  an  appro.xiinate 
 calculation,"  observes  Wilkinson,  "  the  land  about  the 
 (irst  or  lowest  cataract  has  been  raised  nine  feet  in 
 1700  years,  at  Thebes  about  seven  feet,  and  at  Cairo 
 about  five  feet  ten  inches  ;  while  at  Rosetta  and  the 
 mouths  of  the  Nile,  where  the  perpendicular  thickness 
 of  the  deposile  is  much  less  than  in  the  valley  of  Cen- 
 tral and  Upper  Egypt,  owing  to  the  great  extent,  east 
 and  west,  over  which  the  inundation  spreads,  the  rise 
 of  the  soil  has  been  comparatively  imperceptible.''  As 
 the  bed  of  the  Nile  always  keeps  pace  with  the  eleva- 
 tion of  the  soil,  and  the  proportion  of  water  brought 
 down  by  the  river  continues  to  be  the  same,  it  follows 
 that  the  Nile  now  overflows  a  greater  extent  of  land, 
 both  east  and  west,  than  in  former  times  ;  and  that  the 
 superficies  of  cultivable  land  in  the  plains  of  "^I'hebes 
 and  of  Central  Egypt  continues  to  increase.  All  fears, 
 therefore,  about  the  stoppage  of  the  overflowing  of  the 
 Nile  are  unfounded.  {Russell's  Epypt,  p.  37,  scqq. — 
 Encijcl.   Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  16,  p.  234.) 
 
 4.    Change  in  the  course  of  the  Nile. 
 
 The  Nile  is  said  by  Herodotus  (2,  99)  to  have  flow- 
 ed, previoMslv  to  the  time  of  Menes,  on  the  side  of 
 Libya.  This  prince,  by  constructing  a  mound  at  the 
 distance  of  100  stadia  from  Memphis,  towards  the 
 south,  diverted  its  course.  The  ancient  course  is  not 
 unknown  at  present,  and  may  be  traced  across  the 
 desert,  passing  west  of  the  Natron  Lakes.  It  is  call- 
 ed by  the  Arabs  Bahr-helu-Maich,  "The  river  with- 
 out water,"  and  presents  itself  to  the  view  in  a  valley 
 which  runs  parallel  to  that  containing  the  lakes  just 
 mentioned.  In  the  sand  with  which  its  channel  is  ev- 
 erywhere covered,  trunk.s  of  trees  have  been  found  in 
 a  state  of  complete  petrifaction,  and  also  the  vertebral 
 bone  of  a  large  fish.  Jasper,  quartz,  and  petrosilex 
 have  likewise  been  observed  scattered  over  the  sur- 
 face. "  That  the  Nile  originally  flowed  through  the 
 Valley  of  the  Dry  River,"  observes  Russell  {Egypt,  p. 
 102,  scqq  ),  "  is  admitted  by  the  most  intelligent  among 
 modern  travellers.  M.  Denon,  for  example,  regards 
 as  proofs  of  this  fact  the  physical  conformation  of  the 
 adjoining  country  ;  the  existence  of  the  bed  of  a  river 
 extending  to  the  sea,  but  now  dry  ;  its  depositions  and 
 incrustations;  its  extent;  its  bearing  towards  the  north 
 on  a  chain  of  hills  which  run  east  and  west,  and  turn 
 off  towards  the  northwest,  sloping  down  to  follow  the 
 course  of  the  valley  of  the  dry  channel,  and  likewise 
 the  Natron  Lakes.  And,  more  than  all  the  other  proofs, 
 the  form  of  the  chain  of  mountains  at  the  north  of  the 
 Pyramid,  which  shuts  the  entrance  of  the  valley,  atid 
 appears  to  be  cut  perpendicularly,  like  almost  all  the 
 mountains  at  the  foot  of  which  the  Nile  flows  at  the 
 present  day  ;  all  these  offer  to  the  view  a  channel  left 
 dry,  and  its  several  remains.  {Denon,  vol  1,  p.  163.) 
 The  opinion  that  the  river  of  Egypt  penetrated  into 
 the  Liiiyan  desert,  even  to  the  westward  of  Fayoum, 
 is  rendered  jirobable  by  some  observations  recorded  in 
 the  second  volume  of  Bclzoni's  Researches.  In  his 
 journov  to  the  Oasis  of  Arninon.  he  reached,  one  even- 
 ing, the  Bnhr-hila-Maieh.  'This  place,'  he  remarks, 
 '  is  singular,  and  deserves  the  attention  of  the  geocrra- 
 pher,  as  it  is  a  dry  river,  and  has  all  the  a[ipearance 
 of  water  having  been  in  it,  the  bank  and  bottom  beincr 
 quite  full  of  stones  and  sand.  There  are  several  isl- 
 «nds  in  the  centre  ;  but  the  most  remarkable  circum- 
 stance is,  that  at  a  certain  height  upon  the  bank  there 
 5  X 
 
 is  a  mark  evidently  as  if  the  water  had  reached  so  high; 
 the  colour  of  the  materials,  also,  above  that  mark,  is 
 much  lighter  than  that  of  tliose  below.  And  what 
 would  almost  determine  that  there  has  been  water  here 
 is,  that  the  island  has  the  same  mark,  and  on  the  same 
 level  with  that  on  the  banks  of  the  supposed  river.  I 
 am  at  a  loss  to  conjecture  how  the  course  of  this  river 
 is  so  little  known,  as  I  only  found  it  marked  near  the 
 Natron  Lakes,  taking  a  direction  of  northwest  and 
 southeast,  which  does  not  agree  with  its  course  here, 
 which  is  from  north  to  south,  as  far  as  I  could  see  from 
 the  summit  of  a  high  rock  on  the  west  side  of  it  Tho 
 Arabs  assured  me  that  it  ran  a  great  ways  in  both  di- 
 rections, and  that  it  is  the  same  which  passes  near  the 
 Natron  Lakes.  If  this  be  the  case,  it  must  pass  right 
 before  the  extremity  of  the  lake  Moeris,  at  the  distance 
 of  two  or  three  days'  journey  in  a  western  direction. 
 This  is  the  place  where  several  petrified  stumps  of 
 trees  are  found,  and  many  pebbles,  with  moving  or 
 quick  water  inside.'"     {Bclzoni,  vol.  2,  p.  183.) 
 
 NiNUs,  I.  son  of  Belus,  and  king  of  Assyria.     His 
 history  is  known  to  us  merely  through  Ctesias,  from 
 whom    Diodorus    Siculus    and    Justin    have    copied. 
 {Hcyiie,  dc  Fontibvs,  Dwd.  Sic,  p.  Iiii.,  scqq.,  vol.  1, 
 cd.  Bip.)     Ctesias  and  Julius  Africanus  make  him  to 
 have  ascended  the  throne  2048  B.C.,  and  from  the 
 narrative  of  Diodorus  he  would  appear  to  have  been  a 
 warlike  prince,   who  signalized  himself   by  extensive 
 conquests,  reducing  under  his  sway  the  Babylonians, 
 Armenians,  Medes,  Bactrians,  Indi,  and,  in  a  word, 
 the  whole  of  Upper  and  Lower  Asia.     Even  Egypt 
 felt  his  sway.      In  his  expedition  against  the  Bactrians 
 he  met  with  the  famous    Scmiramis,  with  whom  he 
 united  himself  in  marriage.     After  completing  his  con- 
 quests, Ninus,  according  to  the  Greek  writers,  erected 
 for  his  capital  the  celebrated  city  of  Nineveh  {vid.  Ni- 
 nus H. — Compare,  however,  remarks  under  the  article 
 Assyria),  and  on  his  death  was  succeeded  by  Semira- 
 mis,  who  reared  a  tomb  of  vast  dimensions  over  his 
 grave. — Much  of  what  is  stated  respecting  this  mon- 
 arch is  either  purely  fabulous,  or  else  various  legends 
 respecting  different  conquerors  are  made  to  unite  in 
 one.     He  occupies  the  boundary  between  fable  and 
 history.     {Ctes.,  up.  Died    Sic,  2,  1,  scqq. —  Ctes., 
 Fragm.,  ed.  B'dhr,  p.  389,  scqq.) — II.  The  capital  of 
 the  Assyrian  Empire,  called  by  the  Greeks  and   Ro- 
 mans Ninus  (Na'Of),  but  in  Scripture  Nineveh,  and  in 
 the  Septuagint  version,  Nivevt  or  'Nivevr/.     It  was  sit- 
 uate in  the  plain  of  Aturia,  on  the  Tigris  {Slrahn,  737. 
 —Herod.,  1.  193.— M,  2,  150.— PtoL,  6,  1),  and  not 
 on  the  Euphrates,  as  Diodorus  states  on  the  authority 
 of  Ctesias.      {Diod.   Sic,  2,  3.)      The  Hebrew  and 
 Greek  writers  concur  in  describing  Nineveh  as  a  very 
 large  and  populous  city.     Jonah  speaks  of  it  as  "  an 
 exceeding  great  city,  of  three  days'  journey"  {Jon. .3, 
 3),  and  st;ates  that  there  were  more  than  120,000  per- 
 sons in  it  that  knew  not  their  right  hand  from  their  left 
 (4,  1 1).    Rosenmiiller  and  other  commentators  suppose 
 this  to  be  a  proverbial  expression  to  denote  children 
 under  the  age  of  three  or  five  years,  and  accordingly 
 estimate  the  entire  population  at  two  millions  ;    but 
 the  expression  in  Jonah  is  too  vague  to  warrant  us 
 in  making  any  such  conclusion.     Strabo  says  that  it 
 was  larger  than  Babylon  {Strab.,  737);    but  if  any 
 dependance  is  to  be  placed  on  the  account  C  f  Dio- 
 dorus (2,  3),  who  states  that  it  was  480  stadia  in  cir- 
 cumference, it  must  have  been  about  the  same  size  as 
 Babylon.      {Herod.,  1,  178.)     The  walls   of  Nineveh 
 are  described  by  Diodorus  as   100  feet  high,  and  so 
 broad   that  three  chariots   might  be  driven   on  them 
 abreast.     Upon  the  walls  stood  1500  towers,  each  200 
 feet  in  height,  and  the  whole  was  so  strong  as  to  be 
 deemed  impregnable.     {Diod.  Sic,  2,  S.—Nahum,  c. 
 2.)     According  to  the  Greek  writers,  Ninus  was  found- 
 ed by  a  king  of  the  same  name  {vid.  Ninus  1.);  but 
 in  the  book  "of  Genesis  it  is  staled  to  have  been  huiU 
 
 897 
 
NJNUS. 
 
 NI  O 
 
 jy  Assur,  or,  if  we  adopt  the  marginal  translation,  hy 
 fJiinrod.  (Vid.  Assyria.)  }'ossibly  Ninirod  aiid  INi- 
 nus  were  tiie  same. — Nineveh  was  the  residence  of 
 the  Assyrian  nioiiarchs  (2  Kings,  19,  36. — Isaiah, 
 37,  :57. — Compare  Stiabo,  84,  737),  and  it  is  incu- 
 lioned  as  a  place  of  great  cointncrciai  importance  ; 
 whence  Nahiun  speaiis  of  its  merchants  as  more  lliaii 
 the  stars  of  heaven  (3,  16).  But,  as  in  the  case  of 
 most  large  and  wealthy  cities,  the  greatest  corruption 
 and  licentiousness  prevailed,  on  account  of  which  Na- 
 hum  and  Zephaniali  foretold  its  destruction. — Nineveh, 
 which  for  1450  years  had  i)een  mistress  of  the  East, 
 to  whom  even  Bahylon  itself  was  subject,  was  first 
 taken  in  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus,  B.C.  747,  by  the 
 Modes  and  Baliyionians,  who  had  revolted  under  their 
 governors  Arbaces  and  Belesis.  This  event  put  an 
 end  to  the  first  Assyrian  empire,  and  divided  us  im- 
 mense territory  into  two  lesser  kingdoms,  those  of 
 Assyria  and  Babylon.  But  Nineveh  itself  suffered 
 little  change  from  this  event ;  it  was  still  a  great  cily  ; 
 and,  soon  after,  in  the  reign  of  Esarhaddon,  who  took 
 Babylon,  it  hecame  again  ihe  capital  of  both  empires, 
 which  continued  54  years;  when  Nabopolassar,  a  gen- 
 eral m  the  Assyrian  army,  and  father  of  the  famous 
 Nebuchadnezzar,  seized  on  Babylon  and  proclaimed 
 himself  king :  after  which  Nineveh  was  no  more  the 
 seat  of  government  of  both  kingdoms.  It  was,  in  fact, 
 now  on  the  decline,  and  was  soon  to  yield  to  the  rising 
 power  of  its  great  rival.  The  Medes  had  again  revolt- 
 ed, and  in  the  year  633  B.C.,  their  king  Cyaxares, 
 having  defeated  the  Assyrians  in  a  great  battle,  laid 
 siege  to  Nineveh  ;  but  its  time  was  not  yet  come,  and 
 it  was  delivered  on  this  occasion  by  an  invasion  of 
 Media  by  the  Scythians,  which  obliged  Cyaxares  to 
 withdraw  his  army  to  repel  them.  But  m  the  year 
 612,  having  formed  an  alliance  with  Nabopolassar,  king 
 of  Babylon,  he  returned,  accompanied  by  that  monarch, 
 to  the  siege  of  Nineveh,  and  finally  took  the  city. 
 The  prophecy  made  by  Zephaiiiah,  of  its  utter  destruc- 
 tion, must  refer  to  this  latter  event.  Strabo  says  that 
 it  fell  into  decay  immediately  after  the  dissolution  of 
 the  Assyrian  monarchy  ;  and  this  account  is  confirmed 
 by  the  fact,  that,  in  the  history  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
 the  place  is  not  mentioned,  although  in  his  march 
 along  the  Tigris,  previous  to  the  battle  of  Arbela,  he 
 must  have  been  very  near  the  spot  where  it  is  supposed 
 to  have  stood.  Under  the  Roman  emperors,  however, 
 we  read  of  a  city  named  Ninus  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  12,  13) 
 or  Nniive  {Amin.  MarcclL,  18,  7);  and  Abulpharagi, 
 in  the  r3th  century,  mentions  a  casile  called  Ninivi. 
 — Little  doubt  can  arise  that  Nineveh  was  situate 
 near  the  Tigris,  and  yet  the  exact  site  of  that  once 
 mighty  cily  has  never  been  clearly  ascertained.  On 
 the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  the  town  of 
 Mosul,  and  partly  on  the  site  of  tiie  modern  village  of 
 Nunia  or  Nehbi  Yunus,  are  some  considerable  ruins, 
 which  have  been  described  at  different  periods  by 
 Benjamin  of  Tudela,  Tlievcnot,  Tavernier,  &c.,  as 
 those  of  ancient  Nineveh.  But  it  is  thought  by  others, 
 from  the  dimensions  of  the  ruins,  that  these  travellers 
 must  have  been  mistaken  ;  and  that  the  remains  de- 
 scribed by  them  were  those  of  some  city  of  much 
 wnaller  extent  and  more  recent  date  than  the  Scripture 
 Nineveh.  Mr.  Kinneir,  who  visited  this  spot  in  the 
 year  1808,  says,  that  "  On  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
 Tigris  (that  is,  over  against  Mosul),  and  aliout  three 
 quarters  of  a  mile  from  that  stream,  the  village  of  Nu- 
 nia  and  sepulchre  of  the  prophet  Jonas  seem  to  point 
 out  the  position  of  Nineveh."—"  A  city  being  after- 
 ward elected  near  this  spot,  bore  the  name  of  Ninus; 
 and,  in  my  opinion,  it  is  the  ruins  of  the  latter,  and 
 not  of  the  old  Nineveh,  that  are  now  visible.  I  exam- 
 ined these  ruins  in  November,  1810,  and  found  them  to 
 consist  of  a  rampart  and  a  fosse,  forming  an  oblong 
 square  not  exceeding  four  miles  in  compass,  if  so  much. 
 I  saw  neither  stones  nor  rubbish  of  any  kind.  The  wall 
 8^8 
 
 is,  on  an  average,  20  feet  in  height ;  and,  as  it  is  cov- 
 ered with  grass,  the  whole  has  a  striking  resemblanco 
 to  some  of  the  Roman  inlrenchments  which  are  extant 
 in  England."  Mr.  Kinneir's  opinions  are  in  every- 
 thing worthy  of  respect,  and  with  regard  to  these  rums, 
 the  traces  of  the  wall  point  them  out  very  evidently 
 as  belonging  to  some  city  or  liuildmg  of  much  less 
 dimensions  than  ancient  Nineveh;  while  these  traces 
 being  visible  at  all  would  seem  to  place  their  date  lone 
 subsequent  to  that  of  the  structure  of  the  Scripture 
 Nineveh.  It  cannot  be  supposed,  that  while  the  walls 
 of  Babylon,  which  were  at  least  as  high  and  as  thick, 
 according  to  the  concurrent  testimony  of  historians,  as 
 those  of  Nineveh,  and  were  entire  long  after  the  de- 
 struction of  that  city,  are  utterly  effaced,  those  of 
 Nineveh  should  still  be  visible.  Mr.  Rich,  indeed, 
 supposes  that  he  has  discovered  in  these  inlrenchments 
 the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  Nineveh  ;  which  he  describes 
 as  an  enclosure  of  a  rectangular  form,  corresponding 
 with  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass  ;  the  area  of 
 which  is  not  larger  than  that  of  the  town  of  Mosul. 
 The  boundary  of  this  enclosure  may,  he  says,  be  per- 
 fectly traced  all  around  ;  and  looks  like  an  embank- 
 ment of  earth  or  rubbish  of  small  elevation,  and  has 
 attached  to  it,  and  in  its  line  at  several  places,  mounds 
 of  greater  size  and  solidity.  The  first  of  these  forms 
 the  southwest  angle  ;  and  on  it  is  built  the  village  of 
 Ncbbi  Yunus,  where  they  show  the  tomb  of  the 
 prophet  Jonas.  The  next,  and  largest  of  all,  which 
 Mr.  Rich  supposes  to  be  the  monument  of  Ninus,  is 
 situate  near  the  centre  of  the  western  face  of  the  en- 
 closure, and  is  joined,  like  the  others,  by  the  boundary 
 wall  ;  the  natives  call  it  Koyunjuk  Tepe.  Its  form  is 
 that  of  a  truncated  pyramid,  with  regular  steep  sides 
 and  a  flat  top,  and  composed  of  stones  and  earth ; 
 there  being  sufficient  of  the  latter  to  admit  of  cultiva- 
 tion by  the  inhabitants  oi  Koyunjuk,  which  is  built  at 
 the  northeast  extremity.  This  mound,  according  to 
 measurements  taken  by  Mr.  Rich,  is  178  feet  high, 
 1850  long  from  east  to  west,  and  1147  broad  from 
 north  to  south.  The  other  mounds  on  the  boundary 
 wall  offer  nothing  worthy  of  remark  ;  but  out  of  one 
 of  these,  a  short  lime  since,  an  immense  block  of 
 stone  was  dug,  on  which  were  sculptured  the  figures 
 of  men  and  animals;  cylinders,  like  those  of  Babylon, 
 with  some  other  antiques,  and  stones  of  very  large  di- 
 mensions, are  also  occasionally  dug  up.  Whether 
 these  ruins  be  really  what  Mr.  Rich  supposes  ihein  to 
 be,  or  a  pari  only  of  the  more  recent  cily  referred  to 
 by  Mr.  Kinneir,  cannot  be  decided.  It  is  quite  clear, 
 however,  that  of  whatever  structure  these  mounds  may 
 be  the  remains,  their  dimensions  will  not  allow  us  to 
 consider  them  as  those  of  the  walls  of  Nineveh  ;  they 
 must  either  be  those  of  a  palace,  as  supposed  by  Mr. 
 Rich,  or  of  some  other  stupendous  building  of  that 
 city,  or  of  a  more  modern  one  erected  on  this  spot ; 
 and  the  uncertainty  which  exists  on  this  [)oint  is  alone 
 sufficient  to  testify  the  fullilmenl  of  the  prophecies. 
 In  fact,  these  prophecies  respecting  Nineveh  have 
 long  since  received  their  entire  completion;  "an  utter 
 end  is  made  of  the  place,"  and  the  true  site  may  for 
 ever  be  sought  in  vain.  {Mansford's  Scripture  Gaz- 
 etteer, p.  339,  scqq. — Druminond's  Origines,  p.  172. 
 scgq.) 
 
 NiNYAs,  a  son  of  Ninus  and  Semiramis,  king  of 
 Assyria,  who  succeeded  his  mother  on  her  voluntarily 
 abdicating  the  crown.  (  Fj(i.  Semiramis.)  Altogether 
 unlike  his  parents,  he  gave  himself  up  to  a  life  of  se- 
 clusion and  pleasure,  in  which  he  was  imitated  by  his 
 successors.     {Diod.  Stc,  2,  21  ) 
 
 NioBti,  daugliter  of  Tantalus,  king  of  Lydia,  was 
 married  to  Amphion,  hy  whom  she  had,  according  to 
 Ovid  and  other  ancient  writers,  seven  sons  and  seven 
 daughters.  This  is  the  most  commonly  received  opin- 
 ion, though  Homer  (//.,  24,  602)  and  others  g;ive  the 
 number  variously.     The  pride  of  Niobe  at  having  this 
 
NIOBE. 
 
 NIS 
 
 numerous  offspring  was  so  great,  that  she  is  said  to 
 have  insulted  Laiona,  the  iiioilier  of  Apollo  and  Diana, 
 by  refusing  to  ofter  at  the  aliars  raised  in  her  honour, 
 declaring  that  she  herself  had  a  hetter  claim  to  worship 
 and  sacririces  than  one  who  was  the  mother  of  only 
 two  children,  l^alona,  indignant  at  this  insolence  and 
 presumption,  called  upon  her  children  for  revenge. 
 Apcdlo  and  Diana  heard  her  prayer,  and  obeyed  the 
 entreaty  of  their  outraged  parent.  All  the  sons  of 
 NioLie  (ell  by  ihe  arrows  of  Apollo,  while  the  daugh- 
 ters, in  like  manner,  met  their  death  from  the  hands 
 of  Diana.  Chloris  alone  escaped  the  common  fale. 
 She  was  ihe  wile  of  iS'eleus,  king  of  Pylos.  'I'his  ter- 
 rible judgment  of  the  god.s  so  atiected  the  now  heart- 
 stricken  and  humiliated  Niobe,  that  she  was  changed 
 by  her  excessive  grief  into  a  stone  on  Mount  Sipylus. 
 in  Lydia.  Ani))ljion  also,  in  attempting,  in  retalia- 
 tion, to  destroy  the  temple  ot  Apollo,  perished  by  the 
 shafts  of  that  deity.  {Ovid,  Met..  6,  146,  scqq. —  Hy- 
 giii.,  fall.,  9. — Apol/od.,  -i,  5,  6. — Soph.,  Aniig  ,  823, 
 scqq)  Paiisanias  says,  that  the  rock  on  Sipylus, 
 which  went  by  the  name  of  Niobe,  and  which  he  had 
 visited,  "was  merely  a  rock  and  precipice  when  one 
 came  close  up  to  it,  and  bore  no  resemblance  at  all  to 
 a  woman  ;  but  at  a  distance  you  might  imagine  it  to 
 be  a  woman  wec|iing  with  downcast  countenance." 
 {Pausan.,  1,  21,  3.)— The  myth  of  Niobe  has  been 
 explained  by  Volcker  and  others  in  a  physical  sense. 
 According  to  these  writers,  the  name  Nwbc  (Nc66ri,  i. 
 e.,  Neofn/)  denotes  Youth  or  Newness.  She  is  the 
 daughter  of  the  Flourishing -one  (Tantalus),  and  the 
 mother  of  the  Green-one  (Chloris).  In  her,  then,  we 
 may  view  the  young,  verdant,  fruitful  earth,  the  bride 
 of  the  sun  (Aiiiphion),  beneath  the  influence  of  whose 
 fecundating  beams  she  pours  forth  vegetation  with 
 lavish  prolusion.  The  revolution  of  the  year,  howev- 
 er, denoted  by  Ajiollo  and  Diana  (other  forms  of  the 
 sun  and  moon),  withers  up  and  destroys  her  progeny  ; 
 she  weeps  and  stiffens  to  stone  (the  torrents  and  frosts 
 of  winter;  ;  but  Chloris,  the  Green-one,  remains,  and 
 spring  clothes  the  earth  anew  with  its  smiling  verdcre. 
 {Volcker,  Mijth-  der  Jap.,  p  359. — Keighllcj/s  My- 
 tholi'isy,  p.  338.) — The  legend  of  Niobe  and  her  chil- 
 dren has  afforded  a  subject  for  art,  which  has  been  fine- 
 ly treatei."  by  one  of  the  greatest  ancient  masters  of 
 sculpture  It  consists  of  a  series,  rather  than  a  group, 
 of  figures  ot  both  sexes,  in  all  the  disorder  and  agony 
 of  e.xpected  or  present  suffering;  while  one,  the  moth- 
 er, the  hapless  Niobe.  in  the  most  affecting  attitude  of 
 supplication,  and  with  an  expression  of  deep  grief,  iier 
 eyes  turned  upward,  implores  the  justly-offended  gods 
 to  moderate  their  auger  and  spare  her  offspring,  one 
 of  whom,  the  youngest  girl,  she  strains  fondly  to  her 
 bosom.  It  is  dirticult,  however,  by  description,  to  do 
 justice  to  the  various  excellence  exhibited  in  this  ad- 
 mirable work.  The  arrangement  of  the  composition 
 is  sup|»oscd  to  have  been  adapted  to  a  tympanum  or 
 pediment.  'I'he  figure  of  Niobe,  of  colossal  dimen- 
 sions compared  with  the  other  figures,  forms,  with  her 
 youngest  daughter  pressed  to  her,  the  centre.  The 
 execution  of  this  interesting  monutnent  of  Greek  art 
 is  attributed  by  some  to  Scopas,  while  others  think  it 
 the  production  of  F'raxileles.  Pliny  says  it  was  a 
 question  which  of  the  two  was  the  author  of  it.  The 
 group  was  in  the  tem[i!e  of  Apollo  Sosianus  at  Rome. 
 {Phn.,  36,  lO.—SilNir,  Diet  Art.,  s.  v.)  This  beau- 
 tiful piece  of  sculpture  is  now  in  the  gallery  of  the 
 Grand  duke  of  Tuscany  at  Florence,  though  some  re- 
 gard it  merely  as  a  copy, — The  subject  of  Niobe  and 
 her  cliildreu  was  a  favourite  one  also  with  the  poets  of 
 antiquity.  Besides  the  beautiful  allusion  to  it  in  the 
 Antigone  of  Sophocles  (v.  S22,seqq.).  and  the  equally 
 beautiful  story  in  Ovid  {Met.,  6,  146,  seqq.),  there  are 
 numerous  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  several 
 of  which  have  great  merit,  and  appear  to  be  descriptive 
 either  of  the  group  of  figures  which  still  exists,  or  of 
 
 some  similar  group.     {Encycl.   Us.  KnowL,  vol.  16 
 p.  238.) 
 
 NiPHATEs,  a  range  of  mountains  in  Armenia,  form 
 ing  part  of  the  great  chain  of  Taurus,  and  lying  to  iht 
 southeast  of  the  Arsissa  Pakis,  or  Lake  Van.  Then 
 summits  were  covered  with  snow  during  the  whole 
 year,  and  to  this  circumstance  the  name  Niphatei. 
 IS  supjiosed  to  allude  (Ni<puTTj(,  quasi  vicpeTudiig, 
 "  snowy").  There  was  also  a  river  of  the  same  name 
 rising  in  this  mountain  chain.  {Virg.,  Georg.,  3,  30 
 —Horut.,  Od.,  2,  Q.—Mcla,  I,  15.— iV;«y,  5,  27.— 
 Amm.  MarcelL,  23,  6.  —  Ccllanus,  Geogr.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  321.) 
 
 NiKKUs,  a  king  of  Naxos,  son  of  Charops  and, 
 Aglaia.  He  was  one  of  the  Grecian  chiefs  during  the 
 Trojan  war,  and  was  celebrated  for  his  beauty.  {Horn., 
 11. ,  2,  671.— HoraL,  Od.,  3,  20,  15.) 
 
 Nis.«A,  I.  a  city  and  district  of  Upper  Asia,  near 
 the  sources  of  the  river  Ochus,  now  the  Margub. 
 Accorduig  to  Strabo,  it  would  appear  to  have  been  sit- 
 uate between  Parthiene  and  Hyrcania.  {Slrab.,  511. 
 — Compare  Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  5,  pt.  1,  p.  100.) 
 The  same  writer  slates  elsewhere  (p,  508)  that  it  be- 
 longed in  part  to  Hyrcania,  and  was  in  part  an  inde- 
 pendent district.  'Ihe  city  of  Nistea,  however,  is 
 generally  considered  to  have  been  the  chief  city  of 
 Parthiene,  becoming  such,  no  doubt,  on  the  first  spread 
 of  the  Parthian  power.  Mannert,  in  consequence, 
 seeks  to  identify  it  with  the  Asaak  (probably  Arsak) 
 of  Isidorus  of  Charax  (p.  7). — The  famous  Nissan 
 horses  are  thought  to  have  come  from  this  quarter. 
 D'Anville  gives  Ne;a  as  the  modern  name  of  the  city 
 of  Nistea,  and  remarks  that  it  "  has  before  it  vasl 
 plains,  proper  for  the  Parthian  Nomades,  or  shepherds 
 as  they  were  characterized.  And  it  was  thence  thai 
 the  Turkish  sultan,  ancestor  of  the  Ottoman  family, 
 departed  for  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates"  (vol.  2,  p 
 69,  Am.  ed.).  Mannert  merely  places  Niscea  near  th« 
 modern  Herat. — II.  The  harbour  of  Megaia,  situate 
 on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  and  connected  with  the  main  city 
 by  long  walls.  The  citadel  was  also  called  by  the 
 same  name,  and  stood  on  the  road  between  Megara 
 and  the  port.  It  was  a  [ilacc  of  considerable  strength. 
 Thucydides  states  (4,  66)  that  the  citadel  might  be  cut 
 off  from  the  city  by  effecting  a  breacli  in  the  long  wall. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol,  2,  p.  433  ) 
 
 NisiBis,  a  large  and  populous  city  of  Mesopotamia, 
 about  two  days  journey  from  the  Tigris,  in  the  midst 
 of  a  pleasant  and  fertile  plain  at  the  foot  of  Moris  Ma- 
 sius,  and  on  the  river  Mygdonius,  The  name  was 
 changed  by  the  Macedonians  into  .Antiochia  Mvgdoni- 
 ca  {' AvTLoxeia  MvyduviKy),  but  this  new  appellation 
 only  lasted  as  long  as  their  power.  When  the  Mace- 
 donian sway  ceased,  Ihe  old  name  of  Nisibis  was  re- 
 sumed. The  Romans  became  acquainted  with  it  for 
 the  first  time  during  the  war  carried  on  by  Lncullus 
 •against  the  King  of  Armenia  {Flut.,  Vit.  LuculL),  and 
 It  was  then  represented  as  a  large  and  populous  city, 
 situate  in  the  midst  of  a  fruitful  territory.  It  was  ta- 
 ken and  plundered  by  Lucullus.  {Dio  Cass.,  35,  7.) 
 The  Parlhians  subsequently  became  masters  of  the 
 place,  and  held  it  until  the  lime  of  1'rajan,  who  took  it 
 from  them.  {Dio  Cass.,  68,  23)  Hadrian  gave  back 
 to  the  Parthians  the  provinces  conquered  from  them, 
 and  yet  Nisibis  appears  as  a  Roman  city  in  the  expe- 
 dition of  Severus.  It  had  very  probably,  therefore, 
 been  taken  bv  the  generals  of  Lucius  Vcrus.  Seve- 
 rus declared  'it  a  Roman  colony,  and  the  capital  of  the 
 province  :  he  also  adorned  and  strengthened  it.  {Dio 
 Cass.,  75,  :i.—  Id.,  30,  6  —Spanhnm,  de  usu.  N.,  p 
 606  )  From  this  period  it  remained,  for  the  space  of 
 two  centuries,  a  strong  bulwark  of  the  Roman  empire 
 in  this  quarter,  against  which  all  the  attacks  of  the 
 Persian  power  were  directed  in  vain,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  two  instances,  when  it  was  taken  and  held  by 
 this  nation,  though  only  for  a  short  time.  {CaptoL. 
 *  899 
 
N  IT 
 
 NIT 
 
 Vit.  Gordian.  terl.,  c.  26. — Trebellii,  Vit.  Odcnat.,  c. 
 16.)  After  the  death  of  Julian,  Nisibis  was  ceded  to 
 8apor,  king  of  Persia,  by  Jovian,  and  remained  hence- 
 forth for  the  Persians,  what  it  had  thus  far  been  to  the 
 Romans,  a  strong  frontier  town.  'J"he  latter  could 
 never  regain  possession  of  it.  —  The  modern  Nisibin 
 or  Nissahin,  winch  occupies  the  site  of  ihe  ancient 
 city,  is  represented  as  being  little  better  than  a  mere 
 village.     {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  5,  pt.  2,  p.  297,  seqq.) 
 
 Nisus,  I.  a  son  of  Hyrtacus,  born  on  Mount  Ida, 
 near  Troy.  He  came  to  Italy  with  •■tineas,  and  was 
 united  by  ties  of  the  closest  attachment  to  Euryaius, 
 son  of  Opheltes.  During  the  prosecution  of  the  war 
 with  Turnus,  Nisus,  to  whom  the  defence  of  one  of 
 the  entrances  of  the  camp  was  intrusted,  determined 
 to  sally  forth  in  search  of  tidings  of  jllneas.  Eury- 
 aius accompanied  him  in  this  perilous  undertaking. 
 Fortune  at  first  seconded  their  efforts,  but  they  were 
 at  length  surprised  liy  a  Latin  detachment.  Euryaius 
 was  cut  down  by  Volscens  ;  the  latter  was  as  imme- 
 diately despatched  by  the  avenging  hand  of  Nisus  ; 
 who,  however,  overpowered  by  numbers,  soon  shared 
 the  faie  of  his  friend.  {Virg.,  ^En.,  9,  176,  seqq. — 
 Compare  ^E?/,.,  5,  334,  seqq.) — II.  A  king  of  Megara. 
 In  the  war  waged  by  Minos,  king  of  Crete,  against 
 the  Athenians,  on  account  of  the  death  of  Androgens 
 {vid.  Androgens),  Megara  was  besieged,  and  it  was 
 taken  through  the  treachery  of  Scylla,  the  daughter  of 
 Nisus.  This  prince  had  a  golden  or  purple  lock  of 
 hair  growing  on  his  head  ;  and  as  long  as  it  remained 
 uncut,  so  long  was  his  life  to  last.  Scylla,  having 
 seen  Minos,  fell  in  love  with  him,  and  resolved  to  give 
 him  the  victory.  She  cut  off  her  father's  precious 
 lock  as  he  slept,  and  he  immediately  died  :  the  town 
 was  then  taken  by  the  Cretans.  But  Minos,  instead 
 of  rewarding  the  maiden,  disgusted  with  her  unnatural 
 treachery,  tied  her  by  the  feet  to  the  stern  of  his  ves- 
 sel, and  thus  dragged  her  along  until  she  was  drowned. 
 (Apollod.,  3,  l5,Y.—Schol.  ad  Eurip.,  HippoL,  1 19.5.) 
 Another  legend  adds,  that  Nisus  was  changed  into  the 
 bird  called  the  Sea-eagle  {dXiusTog),  and  Scylla  into 
 that  named  Ciris  (aeipi^),  and  that  the  father  continu- 
 ally pursues  the  daughter  to  punish  her  for  her  crime. 
 (Ovid,  Met.,  8,  145.  —  Vtrg.,  Cir.—Id,  Georg.,  1, 
 403.)  According  to  ^Eschylus  {Cho'eph.,  609,  seqq), 
 Minos  bribed  Scylla  with  a  golden  collar.  {Keight- 
 ley's  Mythology,  p.  385.) 
 
 NisYROs,  i.  an  island  in  the  ^gean,  one  of  the 
 Sporades,  about  si.Kty  stadia  north  of  Telos.  Strabo 
 describes  it  as  a  lofty  and  rocky  isle,  with  a  town  of 
 the  same  name.  Mythologists  pretended,  that  this  isl- 
 and had  been  separated  from  Cos  by  Neptune,  in  or- 
 der that  he  might  hurl  it  against  the  giant  Polybn?tes. 
 (.S;^raK448.  — /l/)o/W.,  /.,  6,  2.—Pausan.,  1,  2.— 
 Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.)  Herodotus  informs  us  that  the  Ni- 
 8yrians  were  subject  at  one  time  to  .\rtcmisia,  cpieen  of 
 Caria  (7,  99).  The  modern  name  is  Nisari.  Prom 
 this  island  is  procured  a  large  number  of  good  mill- 
 stones. {Cramer's  Ann.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  418.) — II. 
 The  chief  town  in  the  island  of  Carpatluis.  {Slraho, 
 489.) 
 
 NiTETis,  a  daughter  of  Apries,  king  of  Egypt,  mar- 
 ried by  his  successor  Amasis  to  Cambyses.  Herodo- 
 tus states  (3,  1),  that  Cambyses  was  instigated  to  ask 
 in  marriage  the  daughter  of  Amasis,  by  a  certain  phy- 
 sician, whom  Amasis  had  compelled  to  go  to  Persia 
 when  Cyrus,  the  father  of  Cambyses,  was  suffering 
 from  weak  eyes,  and  requested  the  Egyptian  king  to 
 send  hhn  a  man  skilled  in  medicine.  The  physician 
 did  this,  either  that  Amasis  might  experience  affliction 
 at  the  loss  of  his  daughter,  or  provoke  Cambyses  by  a 
 refusal.  Amasis,  however,  did  not  send  his  own 
 daughter,  but  Nitetis,  who  discovered  the  deception  to 
 Cambyses,  which  so  exasperated  that  monarch  that 
 he  determined  to  make  war  on  Amasis.  Prideaux  de- 
 aies  tho  truth  of  this  account,  on  the  ground  that 
 900 
 
 Apries  having  been  dead  above  40  years,  no  daughter 
 of  his  could  have  been  young  enDUgh  to  be  acceptable 
 to  Cambyses.  Larcher,  however,  endeavours  to  rec- 
 oncile the  apparent  improbability,  by  saying,  that  there 
 is  great  reason  to  suppose  that  Apries  lived  a  prisoner 
 many  years  after  Amasis  had  dethroned  him,  and  that, 
 therefore,  Nitetis  might  have  been  no  more  than  20  or 
 22  years  of  age  when  she  was  sent  to  (Cambyses. 
 {Larcher,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c.) 
 
 NiTioBRiGEs,  a  people  of  Gaul,  of  Celtic  origin, 
 but  who  settled  among  the  Aquitani.  Their  chief 
 city  was  Nitiobrigum  or  Agennum,  on  the  Garumna, 
 now  Agen,  and  their  territory  answers  to  V Agcnnois, 
 in  the  Department  de  Lot  et  Garonne.  {Cas.,  D.  G., 
 7,  7. — Lemaire,  Ind.  Gcogr.,  ad  Cms.,  s.  v.) 
 
 NiToCRis,  I.  a  queen  of  Babylon,  generally  supposed 
 to  have  been  the  wife  of  Nebuchodonosor  or  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, and  grandmother,  consequently,  to  Laby ne- 
 tus  or  Naboncdus,  who  is  called  in  Daniel  Belshatzai 
 or  Beltzasar.  {Hecren,  Ideen,  vol.  1,  [)t.  2.  p.  1S4 
 — Lurcher,  ad  Herod.,  I,  184.)  Wesseling,  however, 
 and  others,  make  her  the  queen  of  Evilmcrodach,  son 
 of  Nebuchadnezzar.  (  Wesseling,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c.) — 
 Herodotus  informs  us,  that  Nitocris,  in  order  to  render 
 her  territories  more  secure  from  the  Medes,  altered 
 the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  and  made  it  so  very 
 winding  that  it  came  in  its  course  three  times  to  Ar- 
 dericca.  {Vnl.  Ardericca.)  She  also  faced  the  banks 
 of  the  Euphrates,  where  it  passed  through  Babylon, 
 with  burned  bricks,  and  connected  the  two  divisions  of 
 the  city  by  a  bridge  of  stone.  (Herod.,  1,  186.)  The 
 historian  likewise  informs  us,  that  she  prepared  a  sep- 
 ulchre for  herself  over  the  most  frequented  gate  of  the 
 city,  with  an  inscription  to  this  effect,  that  if  any  of 
 her  successors  should  find  himself  in  want  of  money, 
 he  should  open  this  sepulchre  and  take  as  much  as  he 
 might  think  fit  ;  but  that,  if  he  were  not  reduced  to 
 real  want,  he  ought  to  forbear:  otherwise  he  would 
 have  cause  to  repent.  This  monument  remained  un- 
 touched till  the  reign  of  Darius  ;  who,  judging  it  un- 
 reasonable that  the  gate  should  remain  useless  to  the  in- 
 habitants (for  no  man  would  pass  under  a  dead  body), 
 and  that  an  inviting  treasure,  moreover,  should  be  ren- 
 dered unserviceable,  broke  open  the  sejiulchre  :  but, 
 instead  of  monev,  he  found  only  the  remains  of  Nito- 
 cris, and  the  following  inscription  :  "  Hadst  thou  not 
 been  insatiably  covetous,  and  greedy  after  the  most 
 sordid  gain,  Ihou  wouldst  not  have  violated  the  sepul- 
 chres of  the  dead.'''  {Herod.,  1,  187  )  Plutarch  tells 
 the  same  story  of  Semiramis.  {Ajwphth.,  Reg.  et 
 Due. — vol.  6,  p.  661,  ed.  Rciske.)  The  custom,  how- 
 ever, of  depositing  treasures  in  the  tombs  of  deceased 
 inonarchs  was  very  common  with  the  ancients.  Solo- 
 mon did  this  in  the  case  of  David's  sepulchre  ;  and 
 Hyrcanus,  and  after  him  Herod,  both  opened  the  tomb 
 and  obtained  large  amounts  of  treasure  from  it.  {Jo- 
 seph., Ant.  Jud.,  7,  \b.—Id.  ib.,  13,  8.)— H.  A  queen 
 of  Egypt,  who  succeeded  her  brother.  The  Egyp- 
 tians, having  dethroned  and  put  to  death  the  latter,  set 
 her  over  them.  She  took  a  singular  revenge,  howev- 
 er, for  the  death  of  her  brother ;  for,  having  construct- 
 ed a  large  subterranean  apartment,  and  having  invited 
 to  an  entertainment  in  it  those  individuals  who  had 
 been  most  concerned  in  her  brother's  murder,  she  let 
 in  the  river  by  a  secret  passage,  and  drowned  them  all. 
 She  then  destroyed  herself.  {Herod.,  2,  100.)  Hee- 
 ren  takes  this  Nitocris  for  a  queen  of  Ethiopian  ori- 
 gin ;  no  instance  of  a  reigning  queen  being  found 
 among  the  pure  Egyptian  dynasties.  {Ideen,  vol.  2, 
 pt.  1,  p.  412.)  Jablonski  approves  of  the  interpreta- 
 tion which  Eratosthenes  gives  to  the  name  Nitocris, 
 according  to  whom  it  is  equivalent  to  'AOrjvd  vlkt]()>6- 
 por.     {Jahhmsk.,  Voc.  Aigi/pt ,  p.  162.) 
 
 NiTRiA,  a  city  of  Egypt,  to  the  west  of  the  Canopic 
 branch  of  the  Nile,  in  the  desert  near  the  lakes  which 
 afforded  nitre.     It  gave  name  to  the  Nitriotic  nome. 
 
NOM 
 
 N  ON 
 
 receiving  its  own  from  the  adjacent  Natron  lakes. 
 Many  Chrisiians  were  accuslomed  to  flee  liilhcr  for 
 refuge  during  the  early  persecutions  of  the  church. 
 {Sazom.,  6,  '3l.—rSocrat,  Ecclcs.,  4,  23.— Plin.,  5,  9. 
 —Id.,  :M,  10.) 
 
 Nhakia,  I.  one  of  the  FortunatsB  Insulae,  off  the 
 western  coast  of  Mauritania  Tingitana.  It  is  now  the 
 island  of  Tmr.riffe.  The  name  Nivaria  has  reference 
 to  the  snows  which  cover  the  summits  of  the  island 
 for  a  great  [lart  of  the  year.  It  was  also  called  Con- 
 vallis.  {FUn.,  4,  32.) — II.  A  city  of  Hispania  Tar- 
 raconensis,  in  the  territory  of  the  V'accKi,  and  to  the 
 north  of  Cauca.     {Itin.  Ant.,  435  ) 
 
 NocTii.fic.v,  a  surname  of  Diana,  as  indicating  the 
 goddess  that  shines  during  the  night  season.  The  ep- 
 ithet would  also  appear  to  have  reference  to  her  tem- 
 ple's being  adorned  with  lights  durintj  the  same  period. 
 This  temple  was  on  the  Palatine  Hill.  Compare  the 
 remark  of  Varro  :  "  Luna,  quod  .sola  luccL  noclu  : 
 Uaque  ca  dicta  NoclUuca  in  Palatio,  nam  ibi  noctu 
 lucct  templiim''  (L.  L.,  4,  10). 
 
 Noi-.\,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  important  cities 
 of  Campania,  situate  to  the  northeast  of  Neapolis.  The 
 earliest  record  we  have  of  it  is  from  Hecatajus,  who  is 
 cited  by  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  {s.  v.  NuAa).  That 
 ancient  historian,  in  one  of  his  works,  described  it  as 
 a  city  of  the  Ansones.  According  to  some  accounts, 
 Nola  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Etrurians. 
 {Veil.  Patr.rc,  1,  6.  —  Polyb.,  2,  17.)  Others,  again, 
 represented  it  as  a  colony  of  the  Chalcidians.  (Jus- 
 tin,  20,  1,  13  )  If  this  latter  account  be  correct,  the 
 Chalcidians  of  Cumae  and  Neapolis  are  doubtless 
 meant.  All  these  conflicting  statements,  however, 
 may  be  reconciled  by  admitting  that  it  successively 
 fell  into  the  hands  of  these  different  people.  Nola  af- 
 terward appears  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  Satn- 
 iiites,  together  with  other  Cainpanian  towns,  until  they 
 were  expelled  by  the  Romans.  {Liv  ,  9,  28. — Strab., 
 249.)  Though  situated  in  an  open  plain,  it  was  capa- 
 ble of  being  easily  defended,  from  the  strength  of  its 
 walls  and  towers  ;  and  we  know  it  resisted  all  the  ef- 
 forts of  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of  Cannae,  under  the 
 able  direction  of  Marcellus.  {Liv.,  23,  14,  scqcj. — 
 Cic,  Brut.,  3.)  In  the  Social  war  this  city  fell  into 
 the  hands  of  the  confederates,  and  remained  in  their 
 possession  nearly  to  the  conclusion  of  the  war.  It 
 was  then  retaken  by  Sylla,  and,  having  been  set  on  fire 
 by  the  Samnite  garrison,  was  burned  to  the  ground. 
 (Liv.,  Eptl.,  89.— Appiayi,  Bell,  do.,  1,  42.— Veil. 
 Palerc.,  2,  18.)  It  must  have  risen,  however,  from 
 its  ruins,  since  subsequent  writers  reckon  it  among  the 
 the  cities  of  Campania,  and  Frontinus  reports  that  it 
 was  colonized  by  V^espasian.  {Plin.,  3,  5, — Front., 
 ie  Col.)  Here  .\ugustus  breathed  his  last,  as  Taci- 
 tus and  Suetonius  remark,  in  the  same  house  and 
 chamber  in  which  his  father  Octavins  had  ended  his 
 days.  {Tacit.,  Ann,  I,  5,  et  9.  —  Suet.,  Aii^^.,  99  ) 
 The  modern  name  of  the  place  is  the  same  as  the  an- 
 cient, Nifla.  {Cramer's  Anc.  liaUj,  vol.  2,  p.  210.) 
 Auius  Gellius  relates  a  foolish  story,  that  Virgil  had 
 ititrodi!ce<l  the  name  of  Nola  into  his  Georo-ics  (2, 
 22.'i),  hist  that,  when  he  was  refused  permission  by  the 
 inhabitants  to  lead  off  a  stream  of  water  into  his 
 grounds  adjacent  to  the  [dace  (aquam  uli  duccret  in 
 jtrapmqu.am  rus),  he  obliterated  the  name  of  the  city 
 from  his  poem,  and  substituted  the  word  ora.  {Aid. 
 Gelt.,  7,  20  —Compare  Scrv.,ad  Mn.,  7,  7iO.—Pki- 
 l/ira.,  (id  Gcorg.,  I.  c)  Ambrose  Leo,  a  native  of 
 Nola.iias  taken  the  trouble  of  refuting  the  idle  charge 
 {de  Nola.  \,  2 — Scliott.,  Script.  Hist.  Ttal. — Consult 
 Hey nc, lid  Geo'<r.,l.c. —  Var..  Ler.t — Voss.ad  Geortr., 
 I.  c).  The  only  particular  of  any  value  to  be  obtain- 
 ed from  the  story  would  seem  to  be  the  locality  of 
 Virgil's  farm  in  the  neighl»ourhood  of  Nola,  in  what 
 were  called  the  Campi  fhlegmi.     {Voss,  I.  c.) 
 
 KoJtADEs  (NouMfJcf),  a  general  name  amoncr  the 
 
 Greeks  for  the  pastoral  nations  of  antiquity,  whicli 
 lived  in  wandering  tribes,  as  the  Scythians,  Arabs,  &cc. 
 Sallust  makes  the  Numidiaiis  lo  have  obtained  their 
 name  in  this  way  {Bell.  Jug.,  IS),  but  without  the 
 least  propriety.  The  term  Numidcc  is  evidently  of 
 Phoenician  origin.  Le  Clerc  explains  Nuinida^by  Ne- 
 moudim,  "wanderers"  {Cleric,  ad  Gen.,  10,  6). 
 
 No.viENTU.vi,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Sabines,  and  to  the  northeast  of  Rome.  It  was  a  col- 
 ony of  Allia  {Dion.  Hal  ,  2,  53),  and  therefore  origi- 
 nally, perhaps,  a  Latin  city  {Liv  ,  1,  38),  but  from  its 
 position  It  is  generally  attributed  to  the  Sabines.  No- 
 meritum  was  finally  con(]uered,  with  several  other 
 towns,  A.U.C.  417,  and  admitted  to  the  participation 
 of  the  privileges  granted  to  Latin  municipal  cities. 
 {Liv.,  8,  14.)  It  was,  however,  but  an  insignificant 
 place  in  the  time  of  Profiertius  (4,  10).  Its  territory 
 was  nevertheless  long  celebrated  for  the  produce  of 
 its  vineyards  ;  and  hence,  in  the  time  of  Seneca  and 
 Pliny,  vvj  lind  that  land  in  this  district  was  sold  for 
 enormous  sums.  The  former  had  an  estate  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  this  town,  which  was  his  favourite  retreat. 
 {Epist.,  IQi.—Pim.,  14,  4.- Columella,  R.  R.,  3, 
 3.)  The  wine  of  Nomentum  is  commended  by  Athe- 
 najus  (I,  48)  and  Martial  (1,  85).  The  poet  had  a 
 farm  near  this  spot,  to  which  he  makes  frequent  allu- 
 sions.    {Cramer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  305.) 
 
 No.NACRis,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  to  the  northwest  of 
 Pheneus,  and  on  the  confines  of  Achaia.  It  was  sur- 
 rounded by  lofty  mountains  and  per[)endicular  rocks, 
 over  which  the  celebrated  torrent  Styx  precipitated  it- 
 self to  join  the  river  Crathis  ;  the  waters  were  said  to 
 be  poisonous,  and  to  possess  the  property  of  dissolving 
 metals  and  other  hard  substances  exposed  to  their  ac- 
 tion. {Paiisan.,  8,  [8.  — Plin.,  2,  \0i. —Vitruv.,  8, 
 3.)  Herodotus  describes  the  Nonacrian  .Styx  as  a  scan- 
 ty rill,  distilling  from  the  rock,  and  falling  into  a  hol- 
 low basin  surrounded  by  a  wall  (6,  75). —  Pausanias 
 only  saw  the  ruins  of  Nonacris.  (Compare  Stephan. 
 Bi/z.,  s.  V.  NtjI'a^■p£C■)  Pouqueville  informs  us,  that 
 the  fall  of  the  Stvx,  which  is  now  called  Mnuroncro, 
 or  the  "  Black  Water,"  is  to  be  seen  near  the  village 
 of  Vounari,  and  somewhat  to  the  south  of  Calavrita. 
 Ho  describes  it  as  streaming  in  a  sheet  of  foam  from 
 one  of  the  loftiest  [)recipices  of  Mount  Chclnios,  and 
 afterward  uniting  with  the  Cralhis  in  the  Valley  of 
 Kloukinais.  {Voyage,  vol.  5,  p.  459.)  The  rocks 
 above  Nonacris  are  called  Aroanii  Montes  by  Pau- 
 sanias. {Cramers  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  314.) 
 The  epithet  Nonacrius  is  sometimes  used  by  the  po- 
 ets in  the  sense  of  "Arcadian."  Thus,  Ovid  em-ploys 
 it  in  speaking  of  Evander,  as  being  an  Arcadian  by 
 birth  (Fas/,  5,  97),  and  also  of  Aialanta.  {Met.,  8, 
 426.) 
 
 Nonius  Marcellus,  a  Latin  grammarian.  The 
 period  when  he  flourished  is  not  exactly  known.  It 
 has  been  supposed,  however,  from  his  citing  no  writer 
 later  than  Apuleius,  that  he  lived  towards  the  end  of 
 the  second  century.  Ilamberger  believes  him  to  have 
 been  contemporary  with  Constantine  {Zuverl.  Nachr. 
 von  den  vorn.  Schriftst.,  vol.  5,  p.  783),  while  Funccius, 
 relying  on  a  passage  of  Ausonius  {Profess.  Biirdeg., 
 c.  18),  where  mention  is  made  of  a  Marcellus,  a  gram- 
 marian of  Narbo,  thinks  that  our  author  could  not  have 
 lived  earlier  than  the  beginning  of  the  5lh  century. 
 {Funcc,  de  inerli  ac  dcerep.  ling.  Lat.  senccl..  p.  302.) 
 Nonius  Marcellus  is  surnamed.' in  some  manuscripts, 
 Pcripatcticus  Tiburiensis.  because  perhaps  he  had 
 studied  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  in  the  library  ap- 
 pended to  Hadrian's  Tiburtine  villa.  He  has  left  be- 
 hind him  a  work  entitled  '' Dc  proprictale  sermonimr 
 divided  into  nineteen  chapters.  It  is  occupied  with 
 grammatical  topics,  except  the  last  six  chapters,  which 
 treat  of  matters  connected  i)rincipally  with  the  sub- 
 ject of  archeology.  (Gothofred.,  Auct.  Lat.  ling.,  p. 
 482.)  In  the  extracts  from  the  ancient  grainmari- 
 '  901 
 
NON 
 
 NONNUS. 
 
 .aiis,  who  had  written  on  the  difference  between  words, 
 extracts  published  by  Goihofrtdus  (Godefroi),  among 
 others,  we  find  iragnients  of  the  writings  of  Marceilus 
 (\).  1335).  Some  modern  criiics  have  formed  rather 
 an  nnlavourable  opinion  of  Is'onius  Marceilus.  G.  J. 
 Vossius  says  thai  lie  is  deficient  in  learning  and  judg- 
 ment ;  and  Justus  Lipsius  treats  hiin  as  a  man  of  very 
 weak  mind.  {Voss,  de  Philolol.,  5,  13. — Lips.,  An- 
 tiq.  Led.,  2,  4  )  On  the  other  hand,  Isaac  V^ossius 
 laments  the  hard  fate  of  this  grammarian,  whom,  ac- 
 cording to  linn,  modern  scholars  have  been  accustomed 
 to  insult  because  unable  to  understand  his  writings 
 {ad  CatulL,  p.  212).  It  is  certain,  that  no  ancient 
 grannnarian  is  so  rich  in  his  citations  from  previous 
 writers,  which  he  oflen  gives  without  passing  any 
 opinion  upon  them.  It  is  sufficient,  however,  for 
 modern  scholars  to  obtain  these  citations  ;  nor  need 
 they,  in  fact,  regret  that  the  compiler  has  not  apfietid- 
 ed  to  them  his  individual  sentiments.  {Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Rum.,  vol.  3,  p.  310,  scqq.) 
 
 NoNNUs,  I.  a  native  of  Panopolis  in  Egypt,  and 
 distinguished  for  his  poetical  abilities.  The  precise 
 period  when  he  flourished  is  involved  in  great  un- 
 certainty, nor  is  anything  known  with  accuracy  re- 
 specting the  circumstances  of  his  life.  L'onieclure 
 has  been  called  in  to  supply  the  place  of  positive  infor- 
 mation. Nonnus  was,  as  appears  from  his  produc- 
 tions, a  man  of  great  erudition,  and  we  cannot  doubt 
 that  he  was  either  educated  at  Ale.xandrea,  or  had 
 lived  in  that  city,  where  all  the  Greek  erudition  cen- 
 tred during  the  fir.st  ages  of  the  Christian  era. — Was 
 he  horn  a  Christian,  or  did  he  embrace  Christianity 
 after  he  had  reached  a  certain  age  \  We  have  here  a 
 question  about  which  the  ancients  have  left  us  in  com- 
 plete uncertainty.  The  author  of  the  Dtonysinca  must 
 have  been  a  pagan  ;  for  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
 any  Christian,  even  supposing  that  he  had  made  the 
 Greek  mythology  a  subject  of  deep  study,  would  have 
 felt  inclined  to  turn  his  attention  to  a  theme,  in  treat- 
 ing of  which  he  must  inevitably  shock  the  feelings  and 
 incur  the  censure  of  his  fellow-Christians.  And  yet 
 Nonnus  composed  also  a  Christian  poem. — It  is  prob- 
 able, then,  that  he  was  at  first  a  pagan,  and  embraced 
 the  new  religion  at  a  subsequent  period  of  his  life. 
 But  here  a  new  difficulty  presents  itself.  How  comes 
 it  that  no  Christian  writer  of  the  time  makes  mention 
 of  the  conversion  of  a  man  who  must  have  acquired  a 
 high  reputation  for  learning^  To  explain  this  silence, 
 it  has  been  supjiosed  that  Nonnus  was  one  of  those 
 pagan  philosophers  and  sophists,  who  were  a  party  in 
 the  tumult  at  Alexandrea,  which  had  been  excited  by 
 the  intolerance  of  the  bishop  Theophilus.  To  escape 
 the  vengeance  of  their  opponents,  some  of  these  phi- 
 losophers expatriated  themselves,  others  submitted  to 
 baptism.  If  Nonnus  was  in  the  number  of  the  latter, 
 it  may  easily  be  conceived  that  the  ecclesiastical  wri- 
 ters of  the  day  could  derive  no  advantage  to  their 
 cause  from  his  conversion.  {Wcichert,  dc  NunnoPa- 
 nopolitanu,  Vilcb.,  1810  )  This  hypothesis  fi.\es  the 
 period  when  Nonnus  flourished  at  the  end  of  the  fourth, 
 and  the  commencement  of  the  lifih  century.  He  was 
 then  contetnporary  with  Synesius.  Now,  among  the 
 letters  of  this  |)hilosopher,  there  is  one  (Ep.  43,  ad 
 Anastas.)  in  which  he  recommends  a  certain  Sosena, 
 son  of  Nonnus,  a  young  man  who,  he  says,  has  re- 
 ceived a  very  careful  education.  He  speaks,  on  this 
 same  occasion,  of  the  mi^iortune  into  which  Sosena's 
 father  had  fallen,  of  losing  all  his  property,  and  this 
 very  circumstance  suits  perfectly  well  tlie  case  of  one 
 who  had  been  involved  in  the  troubles  at  Alexandrea, 
 which  had  for  their  result  the  pillaging  of  the  dwell- 
 ings of  the  pagans. — Wc  have  already  remarked  that 
 there  exist  two  poems  composed  by  Nonnus;  one  of 
 these,  the  fruit,  probably,  of  his  old  age,  is  a  stranger 
 to  profane  literature  ;  it  is  a  paraphrase  on  the  gospel 
 of  St.  John.  The  other  is  entitled  AiovvaiUKu,  or 
 902 
 
 BaffaapiKo..  It  is  in  48  books  or  cantos,  and  gives  an 
 account  of  the  adventures  of  Dionysus  or  B^icchns, 
 from  the  time  of  his  l)irih  to  his  return  from  his  expe- 
 dition into  India  ;  and  the  early  books  also  contain, 
 by  way  of  introduction,  the  history  of  Europa  and 
 Cadmus,  the  battle  of  the  giants,  and  numeroi.'s  other 
 mythological  stories.  There  are  few  works  about  the 
 merits  of  which  the  opinions  of  the  learned  have  been 
 more  divided  than  this  last-mentioned  production  of 
 Nonnus.  He  who  would  be  a  competent  judge  in 
 this  matter,  must  possess  as  much  laste  as  erudition, 
 and,  unfortunately,  these  two  qualities  are  not  often 
 found  united  in  the  same  individual.  The  first  editoi 
 of  Nonnus,  Falckenberg,  a  philologist  of  the  16th  cen- 
 tury, carried  his  admiration  so  far  as  to  place  the  poet 
 on  a  level  with  Homer.  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger  even 
 preferred  him  to  Homer;  while  Polilian  and  iMurelus, 
 without  carrying  their  enthusiasm  to  such  an  extreme, 
 held  him,  however,  in  the  highest  estimation.  On  the 
 oilier  hand,  Nicholas  Heinsius,  Peter  Cunaeus,  Joseph 
 Scaliger,  and  Rapin,  allowed  Nonnus  no  merit  what- 
 ever. The  truth  probably  lies  between  these  two  ex- 
 tremes.— In  order  to  judge  fairly  ol  Nonnus,  we  must 
 be  careful  to  put  away  from  our  minds  every  idea  of 
 a  regular  epic  poem,  and  must  consider  the  Aiovvai- 
 OKU  merely  as  a  species  of  exercise  or  declamation 
 {jiEAerii)  in  verse,  which  has  served  the  author  for  a 
 groundwork  on  which  to  display  the  fruits  of  vast  read- 
 ing and  research.  If  we  view  the  poem  in  this  light, 
 we  shall  find  that  it  is  not  even  waiiiiiig  in  a  regular 
 plan,  and  that  there  reigns  throughout  it  all  that  order 
 and  method  which  suffice  for  such  a  production.  A 
 man  of  taste  very  probably  would  never  have  selected 
 such  a  theme,  yet  Nonnus  has  displayed  great  spirit 
 in  the  management  of  its  details.  His  work  is  dis- 
 tinguished by  a  great  variety  of  fables,  by  the  beauty 
 of  the  images  employed,  and  by  the  correctness  of  the 
 sentiments  which  it  contaips  ;  yet  his  style  is  unequal, 
 sometimes  bordering  on  simplicity,  often  emphatic; 
 sometimes  easy  and  graceful,  but  much  more  frequently 
 languid,  prolix,  and  trivial.  (Consult  Ouwarojff,  Nun- 
 71US  von  Panopolis,  dcr  Dichler,  &c  ,  Pcicisb.,  1817, 
 4to  ) — But,  whatever  may  be  the  rank  which  is  to  be 
 assigned  to  Nonnus  in  the  list  of  poets,  his  i^iovva iana 
 certainly  possess  a  strong  interest  for  ns  as  a  rich 
 storehouse  of  mythological  traditions  It  is  sufficient, 
 in  order  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  work, 
 when  considered  in  this  light,  to  recollect  the  great 
 number  of  poems  of  every  kind  of  which  Bacchus  and 
 his  mysterious  rites  were  the  subject,  and  of  which 
 nothing  now  remains  to  us  but  the  mere  titles  and  a 
 few  fragments  preserved  by  the  erudition  of  Non- 
 nus. Among  these  works  that  have  thus  perished 
 may  be  enumerated  five  tragedies,  bearing  each  the 
 title  of  "  The  Bacchmites,^'  and  having  for  their  au- 
 thors .^schylus,  Cleophon,  lophon,  Xenocles,  and 
 Epigenes  ;  two  other  tragedies  of  jEscbylus,  namely, 
 ''■The  Bassarides'''  and  '^Scmele;"  a  piece  by  Carci- 
 nus  ;  three  pieces  of  .I'Eschylus,  Euripides,  and  lophon^ 
 each  entitled  "  Penlhens ;''  two  of  Sophocles,  each  en 
 titled  '■' A/hamijs ;"  a  satyric  drama  under  the  same 
 name  by  Xenocles  ;  various  comedies  entitled  the 
 "  Bacrkanles,^''  by  Epicharmns,  Ajiliphanes,  Diocies, 
 and  Lysippus ;  together  with  a  host  of  dithyrambies, 
 and  other  works  both  in  prose  and  verse. — Heimann 
 remarks,  that  Nonnus  ought  to  be  regaides)  as  the  re- 
 storer of  the  hexameter.  After  the  example  of  Ho- 
 iner,  the  poets  anterior  to  Nonnus  placed  the  cscsural 
 pause  on  the  first  syllable  of  the  third  foot  (called  th« 
 penlhemimernl  pause  in  the  language  of  the  gramma- 
 rians); they  did  not,  however,  at  the  same  time,  con- 
 sider that  the  verses  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  are 
 rich  in  dactyls,  and  that  their  own  hexameters  were 
 rendered  harsh  by  reason  of  the  many  spondees  they 
 contained.  What  also  interfered  with  the  harmony 
 of  their  tines  was  the  practice  of  regarding  as  shuit 
 
NONNUS. 
 
 NOR 
 
 a  vowel  placed  before  a  mute  followed  by  a  liqviid, 
 in  which  ihey  direclly  departed  from  Homeric  usage. 
 Nonnus,  on  his  part,  replaced  a  portion  of  the  spoiidtes 
 by  dactyls,  introduced  the  trochaic  caesura  in  the  third 
 foot,  banished  the  trochees  from  the  fourth,  made  long 
 the  vowels  lollowed  by  a  mute  vviih  a  liquid,  excluded 
 the  hiatus  excepting  ni  phrases  borrowed  from  Homer, 
 and  which  had  received  the  sanction  of  ages,  and  in- 
 terdicted himself  the  license  of  making  the  cassura 
 fall  upon  a  short  syllable.  If  by  these  changes  the 
 hexameter  lost  somewhat  of  its  stateluiess  and  grav- 
 ity, it  gained,  at  the  same  time,  in  point  of  fulness 
 and  elegance.  In  fine,  versilication,  which  had  be- 
 come too  easy,  novv  resumed  the  rank  of  an  art. 
 {Hermann,  Orphica,  p.  60. — Id.,  Elcm.  Doctr.  Metr., 
 p.  333,  ed.  Lips.,  1816.)  A  good  edition  of  Nonnus 
 is  still  a  desideratum.  The  first  edition  of  the  Aiovv- 
 aianu.  was  given  by  Falckenberg,  from  a  manuscript 
 which  is  now  at  Vienna,  from  the  Plantin  press,  Ant- 
 werp, 1569,  in  4to.  It  contained  merely  the  Greek 
 text.  I'his  edition  was  reprinted  by  Wechel,  with  a 
 poor  translation  by  Lubm,  at  Hanover,  in  1605,  in  Svo. 
 Cuiiseus  (lublished  in  1610,  at  Leyden,  Ammadversio- 
 nes  in.  Nonnum,  with  a  dissertation  on  the  poet  by 
 Daniel  Hemsius,  and  conjectures  by  Scaliger,  which 
 Wechel  afterward  joined  to  his  edition  of  1605,  pre- 
 fixing, at  the  same  time,  a  new  title-page.  Few  of  the 
 learned,  after  this,  occuj)ied  themselves  with  Nonnus. 
 In  1783,  Villoison  published  in  his  Epislol<z  Vinari- 
 enses  (Turin.  4to),  some  good  corrections  made  by  an 
 anonymous  scholar  on  the  margin  of  a  copv  of  the  edi- 
 tion of  1605.  In  1809,  Moser  gave  an  edition  of  six 
 books  of  the  Aiovvoiaiid  (namely,  from  the  8th  to  the 
 13th  inclusive)  at  Heidelberg.  The  part  here  edited 
 contains  the  exploits  of  Bacchus  previously  to  his  In- 
 dian expedition.  It  is  accompanied  with  notes,  and 
 with  arguments  for  the  entire  poem.  The  latest  and 
 best  edition,  however,  of  the  AtovvaiaKu  is  that  of 
 Graefe,  Lrps.,  1819-1826,  2  vols.  Svo.  The  notes  to 
 this  are  merely  critical.  The  editor  has  promised  an 
 explanatory  and  copious  commentary ;  but  this  has  not 
 yet  appeared.  {SchiiU,  Hist  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p.  79, 
 seqq.) — The  other  work  of  Nonnus,  the  paraphrase  of 
 St.  John's  Gospel,  was  published  for  the  first  time  by 
 Alflus  Manutius  at  Venice,  about  1501.  (Compare,  in 
 relation  to  this  rare  edition,  Annal.  des  Aides,  vol.  1, 
 p.  438.)  The  best  edition,  however,  is  that  of  Passow, 
 Lips.,  1834.  The  Paraphrase  was  translated  into  Lat- 
 in by  several  scholars,  and  has  been  very  frequently  re- 
 printed. (Consult  Fabrictus,  Bibl.  Gr  ,  vol.  7,  p.  687, 
 seqq.)  Daniel  Heinsius  has  criticized  this  production 
 too  severely  in  his  Arislarchus  Saccr  {Lvgd.  Bat-, 
 1627,  Svo).  The  style  is  clear  and  easy,  though  not 
 very  remarkable  for  poetry  :  the  reproach,  however, 
 which  some  make  against  it,  that  the  work  contains 
 expressions  which  cause  his  orthodoxy  to  be  suspect- 
 ed, is  not  well  grounded.  The  work  is,  in  fact,  of 
 some  value,  as  it  contains  a  few  imjiortant  readings, 
 which  have  been  of  considerable  use  to  the  editors  of 
 the  Greek  Testament.  It  omits  the  woman  taken  in 
 adultery  which  we  have  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
 chapter  of  St.  John's  Gospel,  and  which  is  considered 
 by  Griesbach  and  many  other  critics  to  he  an  interpola- 
 tion. In  chapter  19,  verse  14,  Nonnus  appears  to  have 
 read  "about  the  tkird  hour"  instead  of  "the  sixth."' 
 (Consult  Griesliach,  ad  loc.)  —  There  is  also  extant 
 "  A  Collection  of  Histories  or  Fables,"  which  is  ci- 
 ted by  Gregory  Nazianzen  in  his  work  against  Julian, 
 and  which  is  ascribed  by  some  critics  to  the  author 
 of  the  "Dionysiaca."  But  Bentley  has  given  wood 
 reasons  for  believing  that  the  collection  was  composed 
 by  another  individual  of  the  same  name.  {Rcntley, 
 JJigs.  on  Phalanx.  ^1.  80,  ed.  1816.)— II.  An  ecclesi- 
 astical writer,  whose  era  is  not  ascertained.  He  is 
 supposed,  however,  to  have  flourished  siibseqiienlly  to 
 the  fourth  or  fifth  century,  and   before  the   eleventh. 
 
 This  Nonnus  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  pre- 
 ceding. {Bcntlcy  on  I'halaris,^.  8{i,  e&.  \iii&)  He 
 was  the  author  of  a  commentary  on  Gregory  Nazian- 
 zen's  invectives  against  Julian,  and  of  another  on  the 
 luneral  discourse  pronounced  by  the  same  father  in 
 memory  of  St.  Basil.  'J'he  first  of  these  commenta- 
 ries, if  they  strictly  deserve  this  name,  contains  a  col- 
 lection of  all  the  mythological  notices  and  legends  to 
 which  Gregory  makes  allusion  in  the  course  of  his  two 
 works  against  Julian:  tlie  second  contains  all  the  no- 
 tices of  Greek  history  introduced  into  the  funeral  dis- 
 course oil  St.  Basil.  An  edition  of  the  former  was 
 given  by  Montague,  Eton,  1610,  4to,  and  of  the  latter 
 in  Creuzer's  Opuscula  Mijtholngica,  etc..  Lips.,  1817. 
 Svo.  Bentley  gives  some  amusing  examples  of  the 
 mistakes  commited  by  this  Nonnus.  {Diss,  on  PhaL, 
 I.  c.) — HI.  (sometimes  called  Nonus)  A  Greek  phy- 
 sician, and  author  of  a  medical  work  still  extant,  en- 
 tiled 'FiTVLTofirj  T/jg  iarpiKTJ^  dnuar/g  TtxvTj^,  "-An  epit- 
 ome of  the  whole  Medical  Art."  Nothing  is  known 
 of  his  life,  except  that  he  composed  his  work  at  the 
 command  of  the  Emperor  Constanline  Porphyrogeni- 
 tus  (to  whom  also  it  is  dedicated),  who  was  most  prob- 
 ably the  seventh  of  that  name,  and  who  died  A.U.  959. 
 The  real  name  of  Nonnus  is  supposed  by  Freind, 
 Sprengel,  and  Bernard  to  have  been  Theo|ihanes,  as 
 he  IS  called  so  in  one  M.S.,  and  as  a  physician  of  that 
 name  is  found  to  have  lived  in  the  10th  century.  In 
 three  MSS.  the  work  is  anonymous,  and  there  is  only 
 one  which  mentions  the  name  of  Nonnus.  This  epit- 
 ome is  divided  into  297  chapters,  and  contains  a  short 
 account  of  most  diseases  and  their  treatment.  It  con- 
 tains very  little  that  is  original,  and  is  almost  entirely 
 complied  from  Aetius,  Alexander  Trallianus,  and  Pau- 
 lus  ^■l]gineta,  from  whom  whole  sentences  are  tran- 
 scribed with  hardly  any  variation.  —  There  are  only 
 two  editions  of  this  work.  The  first  is  by  Martius 
 (who  writes  the  author's  name  Nonus),  Argent.,  1568, 
 8vo.  The  last  and  best  is  by  Bernard,  and  was  pub- 
 lished after  his  death  in  two  vols.  8vo,  Golhce  el 
 Avist.,  1794,  1795,  with  copious  and  learned  notes 
 by  the  editor. 
 
 NoKBA,  I.  a  town  of  Latium,  northeast  of  Antium, 
 the  position  of  which  will  nearly  agree  with  the  little 
 place  now  called  Norma.  It  is  mentioned  among  the 
 early  Latin  cities  by  Pliny  (3,  5);  and  Dionysius  of 
 Halicarnassus  speaks  of  it  as  no  obscure  city  of  that 
 nation  (7,  13).  It  was  eaily  colonized  by  the  Romans 
 as  an  advantageous  station  to  check  the  inroads  of  the 
 Volsci.  (L;j'.,  2,  34.)  The  zeal  which  it  displayed, 
 at  a  later  day,  in  the  cause  of  Marius,  drew  upon  it 
 the  vengeance  of  the  adverse  faction.  Besieged  by 
 Lepidus,  one  of  Sylla's  generals,  it  was  opened  to 
 him  by  treachery  ;  but  the  undaunted  inhabitants  chose 
 rather  to  perish  by  their  own  hands  than  become  the 
 victims  of  a  bloody  conqueror.  (Appian,  Bdl.  Civ., 
 1,  94  )  The  name  of  C.  Norbanus,  who  was  descend- 
 ed from  a  distinguished  fainilv  of  this  city,  occurs  fre- 
 quently in  the  history  of  those  disastrous  times  as  a 
 conspicuous  leader  on  the  side  of  Marius.  (Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  106.)— II.  A  town  of  Apulia, 
 northwest  of  Egnatia.  The  intervening  distance  is 
 given  on  the  Tabula  Theodosiana  at  16  miles.  1  his 
 ancient  site  is  sufiposed  to  answer  nearly  to  that  of 
 Corivcrsano.  [Romanetlr,  vol.  2,  p.  179.— Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  300.)— HI.  Cssarea,  a  city  m 
 the  northwestern  part  of  Lusitania.  It  was  also  call- 
 ed Colonia  Norhcnsis  or  Casariana.  {Plin.,  4,  22.- 
 /(/.,  4,  35.)  The  ruins  of  this  place  are  in  the  vu-inity 
 of  the  modern  Alcantara.     (  Uhrrt.  Gcofrr.,  v.  2,  p  396^) 
 
 NoRBiNus,  C,  a  native  of  Norba.  of  a  distinguish- 
 ed family,  and  a  conspicuous  leader  on  the  side  of  Ma- 
 rius.    {Vid.  Norba  I  ) 
 
 NoRicoM,  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire,  was 
 bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danube,  on  the  west  by 
 Vindelicia  and   Rha;iia,  on  the  east  by  Pannonia,  and 
 
 903 
 
NOT 
 
 NUC 
 
 on  the  south  by  Illyric\im  and  Gallia  Cisalpina.  It 
 was  separated  Iroiii  Vindciicia  by  the  QEims  or  Inn, 
 and  from  Gallia  Cisalpina  l)y  the  Al})t's  Carnicc  or 
 Juliae;  luil  il  is  difiiculi  to  determine  the  liiniis  be- 
 tween Noricum  and  Pannonia,  as  they  diU'ertd  at  va- 
 rious limes.  During  the  later  periods  of  the  Ivoman 
 empire,  Mount  Cetius  and  part  of  the  river  Murius 
 (Mm)  ap[)ear  to  have  formed  the  boundaries,  and 
 Noricnm  would  thus  correspond  to  the  modern  Slyria, 
 Carinlhia.  and  Salzburg,  and  to  part  oi  Austria  and 
 Bavaria.  A  geographer  vvho  wrote  in  the  reign  of 
 Conslantius,  the  son  of  Consinntmc  the  Great,  in- 
 cludes Germania,  Khaitia,  and  the  Ager  Noricus  in 
 one  province.  {Bvdc,  Mijthonraphi  Valicani,  vol.  2.) 
 Noricuin  is  not  mentioned  by  name  in  the  division  of 
 the  Roman  empire  made  by  Augustus,  but  it  may  be 
 included  among  the  Eparchies  of  the  Cccsar.  (S/ra- 
 bo,  840.) — Noricuin  was  divided  into  two  nearly  equal 
 parts  by  a  branch  of  the  Alps,  called  the  Alpes  Nori- 
 csE.  These  mountains  ajipear  to  have  l)eeii  inhabited 
 from  the  earliest  times  by  various  tribes  of  Celtic  ori- 
 gin, of  whom  the  most  celebrated  were  the  Norici 
 (whence  the  country  obtained  its  name),  a  remnant  of 
 the  'J'aurisci.  JN'oricum  was  conquered  by  Augustus  ; 
 but  it  is  uncertain  whether  he  reduced  it  into  the  form 
 of  a  province.  It  appears,  however,  to  have  been  a 
 province  in  the  time  of  Claudius,  who  founded  the 
 colony  Sabaria,  which  was  afterward  included  in  Pan- 
 nonia. {Plin.,  3,  27.)  It  was  under  the  government 
 of  a  procurator.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  \,  11.)  From  the 
 ''■  Notilia  Imperil''  we  learn,  that  Noricuin  was  sub- 
 sequently divided  into  two  provinces,  Noricvm  Ri- 
 pc7ise  and  Noncum  Mediterraneum,  which  were  sep- 
 arated from  each  other  by  the  Alf)es  Norics.  In  the 
 former  of  these,  which  lay  along  the  Danube,  a  strong 
 military  force  was  alwavs  stationed,  under  the  com- 
 mand of  a  Dux. — In  addition  to  the  Norici,  Noricum 
 was  inhabited  in  the  west  by  the  Sevaces,  Alanni,  and 
 Ambisontii,  and  the  east  by  the  Ambidravi  or  Amlii- 
 drani  :  but  of  these  tribes  we  know  scar(-ely  anything 
 e.xcept  the  names.  Of  the  towns  of  Noricum  the  best 
 known  was  Noreia,  the  capital  of  the  Taurisci  or  No- 
 rici, which  was  besieged  in  the  time  of  (^aesar  iiy  the 
 powerful  nation  of  the  Boii.  (Cces.,  B.  G.,  1,  5.)  It 
 was  subsequently  destroyed  by  the  Romans.  (Plin., 
 S,  23.)  The  only  other  towns  worthy  of  mention 
 were,  Juvanum  {•Salzburg'),  in  the  western  part  of  the 
 province  ;  Boiodurum  (Innxtadi),  at  the  junction  of 
 the  Inn  and  Danube  ;  and  Ovilia,  or  Ovilaba,  or  Ovila- 
 va  (  Wels),  southeast  of  Boiodurum,  a  Roman  colo- 
 ny founded  by  Marcus  Aurelius. — The  iron  of  Nor- 
 icum was  in  much  request  among  the  Romans  {Plin., 
 24,  41),  and,  according  to  Polvbius,  gold  was  once 
 found  ill  this  province  in  great  abundance.  {Polijh.,  ap. 
 Strah.,  2{)S.—Ennj,:l.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  16,  p.  274.) 
 
 NoKTiA,  a  name  given  to  the  goddess  of  Fortune 
 among  the  Vulsinii.  {Livy,  7,  3  )  Tertullian  calls 
 her  Nersia.     {Apolog.,  e.  24  ) 
 
 NoTHUS,  the  surname  of  Darius  Ochus  among  the 
 Greeks.     ( F?(/.  Ochus.) 
 
 NoTiuM,  the  harbour  of  Colophon,  in  .Asia  Minor. 
 After  the  destruction  of  ("Colophon  by  Lvsimachus,  and 
 the  death  of  that  prince,  Notiiim  became  a  flourishing 
 city,  and  would  seem  from  some  authorities  to  have 
 assumed  the  name  of  Colojjhon  instead  of  its  own. 
 New  Colophon  certainly  occupied  a  diH'ereiit  site  from 
 the  ancient  city.      {Plin.,  5,  29  —Lm.,  37,  36.) 
 
 NoTUs,  the  south  wind  (from  the  Greek  Noror),  and 
 corresponding  to  the  Latin  Auster.  The  term  vijri>( 
 itself  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  same  root 
 with  voTL^,  '■' dani/iyies.^"  or  '■'  humidily,'"  with  reference 
 to  the  damp  and  humid  character  of  the  south  wind  in 
 both  Greece  and  Italy.  {Aul  Gell ,  2,  22  )  It  is 
 also  spoken  of  by  the  ancients  as  a  stormy  wind. 
 {Horat.,  Epod.,  10,  19.  — Fir^.,  jEn.,  6,  3b^.—0vid, 
 Her.,  2,  12.) 
 904 
 
 NovarTa,  a  town  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  about  ten  miles 
 northeast  of  Verccllai.',  and  to  the  west  of  Mcdiolanum. 
 The  modern  name  is  Novara.  It  was  situate  on  a 
 river  of  the  same  name,  now  la  Gognii.  {Tacit.,  Hist., 
 1,  TO.  — Plin.,  17,  22.) 
 
 NovEsiuM,  a  town  of  the  Ubii,  on  the  west  of  the 
 Rhine,  now  called  Neuss,  and  situate  near  Cologne. 
 {Taat.,  Hist.,  4,  26.)  Ptolemy  calls  it  Novaion/v, 
 and  Gregory  of  Tours  Nivisium.  The  name  Nove- 
 sium  occurs  among  the  writers  of  the  middle  ages. 
 {Pf-rlz.,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  218,  459.) 
 
 NovioDUNUM,  I.  a  city  o(  the  Bitnnges  Ciibi,  in  Gal- 
 lia Aquitanica.  {Ciis  ,  B  G.,  7,  12.)  D'Anville  and 
 Mannert  agree  in  placing  its  site  near  the  modern 
 Nouan.  The  more  correct  location,  however,  would 
 be  Nouan- le- Fuzelier.  {Lemairc,  Ind.  Gcngr.,  ad 
 Cces..  s.  v.) — II.  A  city  of  Gallia  I.ugdunensis.  on  the 
 river  Liger  or  Loire.  It  corresponds  to  the  modern 
 Ncvcrs.  {Cces.,  B.  G.,  7,  55  )  In  ihe  Itin.  A>it.,]>. 
 367,  il  is  called  Nivirnuin. — III.  A  city  of  the  Sues- 
 sones,  in  Gallia  Belgica,  now  Smssons.  It  was  more 
 commonly  called  Augusta  Sues sonuni  or  Sues.fionum. 
 {C(Es.,  B.  G.,  2,  12^— Bisi-hiiff  und  Moller,  W&rterh. 
 dcr  Gcogr.,  p.  133.) 
 
 NovioM.\Gus,  or  Neom.Igus,  I.  or  Noviomagum,  a 
 city  of  the  Batavi,  now  Nimucgen.  In  the  Peiitinger 
 Table  it  is  called  Niumaga. — II.  The  capital  of  the 
 Lexubii  or  Lixovii,  in  Gallia  Lugdunensis.  Accord- 
 ing to  Mannert,  it  corresponds  to  the  modern  Caen  ; 
 others,  however,  are  in  favour  of  ihe  modern  Li.iieux. 
 —III.  or  Augusta  Nemetum,  the  capital  of  the  Neme- 
 tes,  now  Spires. — IV.  A  city  of  the  Bituriges  Vivis- 
 ci,  in  Gallia  Aquitanica.  According  to  Mannert,  it  is 
 now  Caslillon,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde. 
 Reichard,  however,  decides  in  favour  of  Custtlnau  dc 
 Medoc. — V.  A  city  of  Britain,  the  capital  of  Regni, 
 the  remains  of  which  may  be  traced  at  Woodcole, 
 near  Croydon.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  pt  2,  p. 
 159.) — VI.  A  city  of  the  Treveri,  on  the  Mosella,  ftow 
 Numagcn  or  Ncumagcn. — VII.  A  city  of  the  Vero- 
 maiidui,  in  Belgica  Secuiida,  now  Nryon.  It  is  also 
 called  Novionuin  or  Noviomiim.  {Pcrlz.,  Mon.  Germ 
 Hist.,  vol    1,  p.  30,  63,  146,  &c.) 
 
 Nox,  one  of  the  most  ancient  deities,  daughter  of 
 Chaos.  From  her  union  with  her  brother  Erebus,  she 
 gave  birih  to  the  Day  and  the  Light.  She  was  also 
 the  mother  of  the  Parcap,  Hesperides,  Dreams,  of  Dis- 
 cord. Death,  Momus,  Fraud,  &c.  She  is  called  by 
 some  of  the  poets  the  mother  of  all  things,  of  gods  as 
 well  as  of  men.  and  was  worshifiped  with  great  solem- 
 nity. A  black  sheep  and  a  cock,  the  latter  as  announ- 
 cing the  approach  of  day,  were  sacrificed  to  her. — 
 Night  was  represented  under  various  forms  :  as  riding 
 in  a  chariot  preceded  by  the  constellations,  with  wings, 
 to  denote  the  rapidity  of  her  course  ;  as  traversing  the 
 firmament  seated  in  her  car.  and  covered  with  a  l>lack 
 veil  studded  with  stars.  Sometimes.her  veil  seems  to 
 be  floating  on  the  wind,  while  she  aj^'jroaches  the  earth 
 to  extinguish  a  flaming  torch  which  she  carries  in  her 
 hand.  She  has  often  been  confounded  with  Diana,  or 
 the  moon  :  and  her  statue  was  placed  in  the  temple  of 
 that  goddess  at  P>phesus.  {Hi/gin.,  Prcpf. — Serv.ad 
 Virg'.,  .£«  ,  6,  250— T/Aw//,'3,  4,  17.--Vtrg.,  .En., 
 5,  721,  &c.) 
 
 NucerTa,  I.  a  town  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  north  of  Brix- 
 ellum,  now  Luzzara.  {Plol  ,  p.  64  )  —  II.  A  city  of 
 Unibria,  some  distance  to  the  north  of  S[)oletiiini,  and 
 situate  on  the  Flannnian  N\'ay.  It  is  now  Nocrra. 
 It  is  noticed  by  Sirabo  for  its  n>anufactnre  of  wooden 
 vessels.  {Strah,  227.)  —  HI.  .\  town  of  Campania, 
 about  twelve  miles  south  of  Nola,  row  JSncera  de  Pa- 
 gani.  The  appellation  of  .Alfaterna  was  commonly  at- 
 tached to  it,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  places  of 
 the  same  name.  {Liv.,  \(),A\.—Plin  ,  3.  5.)  It  was 
 said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Pelasgi  Sariastes. 
 {Conon.,  uv.  Serv.  ad  Mn.,7,  738.)     Nuceria  was 
 
NU  M 
 
 NUM 
 
 Oesieged  by  Hannibal  after  his  unsuccessful  attack  on 
 Nola,  and,  on  its  being  deserted  by  the  inhabitants,  he 
 caused  it  to  be  sacked  and  burned.  (Liv.,  23,  15.)  We 
 learn  from  Tac-itus  (ylwn.,  13,  31),  that,  under  the  reign 
 of  Nero,  Nuceria  was  restored  and  colonized.  {^Cra- 
 mer's Aiic.  Italy y  vol.  2,  p.  212.) 
 
 NiuTHONEs,  a  people  of  Germany,  whose  territory 
 appears  to  have  corresponded  to  the  southeastern  part 
 oi  Mecklenburg.     {TarAt.,  Germ,  40.) 
 
 NuMA  PoMPii.ids,  the  second  king  of  Rome,  vias, 
 according  to  tradition,  a  native  of  the  Sabine  town  of 
 Cures.  On  the  death  of  Romulus,  the  senate  at  first 
 chose  no  king,  and  took  upon  itself  the  government 
 of  the  slate  ;  but,  as  the  people  were  more  oppress- 
 ively treated  than  before,  they  insisted  that  a  king 
 should  be  appointed.  A  contest,  however,  arose,  re- 
 specting the  choice  of  a  monarch,  between  the  Ro- 
 mans and  Sabines,  and  it  was  at  lenglh  agreed  that 
 the  former  should  select  a  king  out  of  the  latter. 
 Their  choice  fell  upon  Numa  Pompilius,  who  was  re- 
 vered by  ail  for  his  wisdom,  which,  according  to  a 
 popular  tradition,  he  had  derived  from  Pythagoras. 
 Numa  would  not,  however,  accept  the  sovereignty  till 
 he  was  assured  by  the  auspices  that  the  gods  a[)proved 
 of  his  election.  Instructed  by  the  Caniena  or  Nymph 
 Egeria,  he  founded  the  whole  system  of  the  Roman 
 religion  ;  he  increased  the  number  of  .Augurs,  regula- 
 ted the  duties  of  the  Pontifices,  and  a|)pointed  the 
 Flamines,  the  Vestal  Virgins,  and  the  Salii.  He  for- 
 bade all  costly  sacrifices,  and  allowed  no  blood  to  be 
 shed  upon  the  altars,  nor  any  images  of  the  gods  to 
 De  made.  In  order  to  afford  a  proof  that  all  his  insti- 
 tutions were  sanctioned  by  divine  authority,  he  is  said 
 to  have  given  a  [)lain  entertainment,  in  earthenware 
 dishes,  to  the  noblest  aniong  his  subjects,  during 
 which,  upon  the  appearance  of  Egeria,  all  the  dishes 
 were  changed  into  golden  vessels,  and  the  food  into 
 viands  fit  for  the  gods.  Numa  also  divided  among 
 his  subjects  the  lands  which  Romulus  had  conquered 
 in  war;  and  he  secured  their  inviolability  by  ordering 
 landmarks  to  be  set  on  every  portion,  which  were  con- 
 secrated to  Terminus,  the  god  of  boundaries.  He  di- 
 vided the  artisans,  according  to  their  trades,  into  nine 
 companies  or  corporations.  During  his  reign,  which 
 is  said  to  have  lasted  thirty-nine  years,  no  war  was 
 carried  on  ;  the  gates  of  Janus  were  shut,  and  a  tem- 
 ple was  built  to  Faith.  He  died  of  gradual  decay,  in 
 a  good  old  age,  and  was  buried  \jnder  the  hill  Janicu- 
 lum  ;  and  near  him,  in  a  separate  tomb,  were  buried 
 the  i)Ooks  of  his  laws  and  ordinances. — Such  was  the 
 traditional  account  of  the  reign  of  Numa  Pompilius, 
 who  belongs  to  a  period  in  which  it  is  impossible  to 
 separate  truth  from  fiction.  According  to  Nieb\jhr, 
 and  the  writers  who  adopt  his  views  of  Roman  his- 
 tory, the  reign  of  Numa  is  considered,  in  its  political 
 aspect,  only  as  a  representation  of  the  union  between 
 the  Sabines  and  the  original  inhabitants  of  Rome,  or, 
 in  other  words,  between  the  tribes  of  the  Tilienses 
 and  the  Ramnes.  {Liv.,  1,  18,  seqq. — Dion.  Hal.,  2, 
 ""58,  .vc'/-/.  —  Cir.  ,  de  Rcpub.,  2,  12,  seqq  — PiiU.,  Vit. 
 Num. — Hi.'i/ories  of  Rome,  btj  Niebuhr,  Arnold,  and 
 Mnlilcn. — Encyd.  Us.  K'io7d.,\o\.  16,  p  3fi3.) 
 
 NuM.^NTiA,  a  celebrated  town  of  the  Celtiberi  in 
 Spain,  on  the  river  Durius  (now  the  Douro),  at  no 
 preat  distance  from  its  source.  {Strabo,  162. — Ap- 
 pla/i.  Bom.  Hist.,  6,  91.)  It  appears  to  have  been 
 the  capital  of  the  Arevaci  {Appian,  6,  c.  46,  66,  76. — 
 PtoL,  2,  6),  but  Pliny  states  that  it  was  a  town  of  the 
 Pelcndoncs,  a  people  who  lived  a  little  to  the  north  of 
 the  .\revaci.  Numantia  was  situate  on  a  steep  hill  of 
 moderate  size.  According  to  Florus  (2,  18),  it  pos- 
 sessed no  walls,  but  was  surrounded  on  three  sides 
 by  verv  thick  woods,  and  could  only  be  approached  on 
 one  side,  which  was  defended  by  ditches  and  palisades. 
 (Appian,  6.  c.  76,  91  )  It  was  twenty-four  stadia  in 
 circumference.     The  site  of  this  place  has  been  a  sub- 
 
 5  y 
 
 ject  of  considerable  dispute  ;  but  it  appears  most  proh- 
 able  thai  its  ruins  are  those  near  the  modern  Puente 
 de  Don  Garray.  {Vkcrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  455  ) — 
 Numantia  is  memorable  in  history  for  the  war  which  it 
 carried  on  against  the  Romans  lor  the  space  of  four- 
 teen years.  {Flor.,2,  \S.)  Strabo  states  that  the  war 
 lasted  twenty  years  ;  but  he  appears,  as  Casaulion  has 
 remarked,  to  include  in  this  period  the  contest  which 
 was  carried  on  by  Viriathus.  {Siriib.,  162. — Casaub., 
 ad  loc.)  The  Numanlines  were  originally  induced  to 
 engage  in  this  war  through  the  influence  of  Viriathus. 
 They  were  first  o])posed  by  Quintus  Ponipeius,  the 
 consul,  B.C.  141,  who  was  defeated  with  great  slaugh- 
 ter {Oros.,  5,  4),  and  who  afterward  offered  to  make 
 peace  with  them,  on  condition  of  their  paying  thirty 
 talents  of  silver.  This  negotiation  was  broken  off  by 
 .\I.  Popillius,  who  succeeded  Poinpeius,  B.C.  139. 
 Popillius,  however,  did  not  meet  with  any  better  suc- 
 cess than  his  predecessor;  he  was  ignominiously  de- 
 feated, and  obliged  to  retire  from  the  country.  His 
 successors,  Mancinus,  .(Emilius,  Lepidus,  and  Piso, 
 met  with  similar  disasters  ;  till  at  length  the  Roman 
 people,  alarmed  at  the  long  continuance  of  the  war,  ap- 
 pointed the  younger  Scipio  Africanus  consul,  B.C^.  134 
 (twelve  years  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage),  for  the 
 express  purpose  of  conquering  the  Nuinantines.  After 
 levving  a  large  army,  he  invested  the  place  ;  and  having 
 in  vain  endeavoured  to  take  it  by  storm,  he  turned  the 
 siege  into  a  blockade,  and  obtained  possession  of  the 
 place,  B  C.  133,  at  the  end  of  a  year  and  three  months 
 from  the  time  of  his  first  attack.  The  Numantines 
 displayed  the  greatest  courage  and  heroism  during  the 
 whole  of  the  siege  ;  and,  when  their  provisions  had 
 entirely  failed,  they  set  fire  to  the  city,  and  perished 
 amid  the  flames.  {Appian,  lib.  6. — Flor.,  2,  17,  scq. 
 —  Liv.,  Epit.,  57.— Veil.  Patcrc,  2,4.—Encycl.  Vs. 
 K71010I.,  vol.  16,  p.  363.) 
 
 NuMENius,  I.  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Platonic 
 school,  who  is  supposed  lo  have  flourished  aliout  the 
 beginning  of  the  third  century  of  our  era  He  wai 
 born  at  Aparnea  in  Syria,  and  was  regarded  as  an  or- 
 acle of  wisdom.  B(Jth  Origen  and  Plotinus  mention 
 him  with  respect.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  en- 
 titled llepl  T)'/c  Tuv  'AKa6>]iLiaiKCjv  t^epl  lilaTuva  6ia- 
 (T-(iff£(jf,  "  Of  the  disagreement  among  the  Academic 
 philosophers  respecting  Plato.''''  Eusebius  has  pre- 
 served a  few  fragments  of  this  work.  {Sch'oll,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  107.) — II.  A  Greek  rhetorician, 
 who  flourished  in  the  tune  of  the  Anionines.  He 
 wrote  two  works,  which  have  been  printed  in  the  Al- 
 dine  Rhetorical  Collection.  {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.., 
 vol.  4,  p.  328.) — HI.  An  epigrammatic  poet,  a  native 
 of  Tarsus.     {Jacobs,  Catal.  Poet.   Epigr.,  p   926.) 
 
 NuMERiANus,  Marcus  AuRti.ius,  succeeded  lo  the 
 throne  conjointly  with  his  elder  brother  Carinus,  after 
 the  death  of  their  father  Caius,  at  the  beginning  ol 
 .\.D.  284.  Numerianus  was  with  the  army  in  Meso- 
 potamia at  the  death  of  Probus  ;  but,  instead  of  follow- 
 ing up  the  advantage  which  bis  father  had  gained  ovei 
 the  Persians,  he  was  compelled  by  the  army  to  aban- 
 don the  conquests  which  had  been  already  made,  and 
 to  retreat  to  Svria.  During  the  retreat,  a  weakness  of 
 the  eyes  obliged  him  to  confine  himself  to  the  dark- 
 ness of  a  litter,  which  was  strictly  guarded  by  the 
 prsetorians.  The  administration  of  all  affairs,  civil  as 
 well  as  military,  devolved  on  Arrius  Apcr,  the  prseta- 
 rian  prefect,  his  father-in-law.  The  army  vvas  eight 
 months  on  its  march  from  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  to 
 the  Thracian  Bosporus,  and  during  all  that  time  the 
 imperial  authority  was  exercised  m  the  name  of  the 
 emperor,  who  never  appeared  to  his  soldiers.  Re- 
 ports at  lenglh  spread  among  them  that  tlieir  emperor 
 was  no  lon<rer  living;  and  when  they  had  reached  the 
 city  of  Chalcedon,  they  could  not  be  prevented  from 
 breakincT  into  the  imperial  tent,  where  they  found  only 
 his  corpse.  Suspicion  naturally  fell  upon  Arrius  ;  and 
 ^  '  905 
 
NUM 
 
 NYC 
 
 an  assembly  of  the  army  was  accordingly  held,  for  the 
 purpose  of  avenging  the  deatii  of  Niiineriaiuis,  and 
 electing  a  new  emperor.  'J'heir  choice  fell  iijion  Dio- 
 clesiHti,  who,  immediately  after  his  election,  put  Arriiis 
 to  death  with  his  own  hands,  without  giving  him  an  op- 
 portunity of  ni>tifying  himself,  which  might,  perhaps, 
 have  proved  dangerous  lo  the  new  emperor.  The  vir- 
 tues of  Numcnanus  are  mentioned  by  most  of  his  biog- 
 raphers. His  maimers  were  mild  and  alllihle;  and  he 
 was  celebrated  among  his  contemporaries  for  eloquence 
 and  poetic  talent.  He  successfully  contended  with 
 Nemesianus  for  the  prize  of  poetry  ;  and  the  senate 
 voted  to  him  a  statue,  with  the  inscription,  "  To  Nu- 
 menanus  Caesar,  the  most  powerful  orator  of  his  times." 
 {Vojfisc,  Vit.  Numcrian. — Aurel.  Victor,  dc  Cccs.,  c. 
 '68.—Eiitrop,  9,  12.— Zo)uiras,  lib.  12.) 
 
 NuMui.t  Via,  a  Roman  road,  traversing  the  north- 
 ern part  of  Samnium.  It  communicated  with  the  Va- 
 lerian, Latin,  and  Appian  Ways,  and,  after  crossing 
 through  part  of  Apulia,  fell  into  the  Via  Aquilia  in 
 Lucania.     {Cramer's  Aiic.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  260.) 
 
 NuMicius,  a  small  river  of  Latium  near  liavininm, 
 in  which,  accord insr  to  some  aulhontips,  .-Eneas  was 
 drowned.  {Ovnl,  Fast.,  3,  647.—  Vtrg.,  JEn.,1,  150, 
 aeqq. — Ovid,  Met ,  14,  ;i58,  seqq.)  It  is  now  the  Rio 
 Torto.  (Nihhy,  Viaffi'io  Ariliquario,  vol.  2,  p  266.) 
 NuMiDA,  Plotius,  a  friend  of  Horace,  who  had  re- 
 turned, after  a  long  absence,  from  Spain,  where  he 
 had  been  serving  under  Augustus  in  the  Cantabrian 
 war.  "^['he  [loet  addresses  one  of  his  odes  to  him,  and 
 bids  his  friends  celebrate  in  due  form  so  joyous  an 
 event.     {Horat.,  Od,  1,  36.) 
 
 NuMiDiA.  a  country  of  .\frica,  bounded  on  the  east 
 by  Africa  Propria,  on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean, 
 on  the  south  l>y  Ga^tulia,  and  on  the  west  by  Maurita- 
 nia. The  Roman  province  of  Numidia  was,  however, 
 of  much  smaller  e.\ient,  being  bounded  on  the  west  by 
 the  Ampsagas,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Tusca  (or  Zain), 
 and  thus  corresponded  to  the  eastern  part  of  Algiers. 
 The  Numidians  were  originally  a  nomadic  people  ; 
 and  hence  some  think  they  were  called  by  the  Greeks 
 Nornades  (NofiuSeg),  and  their  country  Nomadia.  (No- 
 ^a(Ua),  whence  came  by  corruption  NumidcE  and  Nu- 
 midiii.  ((Jompare  Polyb.,  37,  3. — Sa.ll.,  Bell.  Jug., 
 18 — PUn  ,  5,  2.)  Others,  however,  are  in  favour  of 
 a  PhfEiiician  etymology.  {Vid.  Nomades  )  —  When 
 the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  sfieak  of  the  Numidians, 
 the  term  is  usually  limited  to  the  two  great  tribes  of 
 the  Massaesyli  and  Massyli,  the  former  of  which  ex- 
 tended along  the  northern  part  of  Africa,  from  the  Mu- 
 lucha  on  the  west  to  the  Ampsagas  on  the  east  ;  and 
 the  latter  from  the  Ampsagas  to  the  territories  of  Car- 
 thage. When  the  Romans  first  became  acquainted 
 with  the  Numidians,  which  was  during  the  second 
 Punic  war,  Sypha-t  was  king  of  the  Masssesyli,  and 
 Gala  of  the  Massyli.  Masinissa,  son  of  Gala,  suc- 
 ceeded to  the  throne  after  various  turns  of  fortune, 
 and,  siding  with  the  Romans  during  the  latter  part  of 
 the  second  Punic  war,  yielded  them  very  important 
 assistance,  which  they  requited  by  bestowing  iqion  him 
 all  the  dominions  of  bis  rival  Sy|iliax,  and  a  considera- 
 ble part  of  the  (Carthaginian  territory,  so  that  his  king- 
 dom extended  from  the  Muliicha  on  the  west  to  Cy- 
 renaica  on  the  east,  arid  com[)letely  surrounded  the 
 email  district  which  was  left  to  the  Carthaginians  on 
 the  coast.  (Appian,  8.  106.)  Masinissa  liiid  the 
 foundation  of  a  great  and  [lowerful  state  in  Numidia. 
 He  introduced  the  arts  of  agriculture  and  civilized  life, 
 amassed  considerable  wealth,  and  supported  a  well- 
 appointed  army.  (Vid.  Masinissa)  —  Masinissa  left 
 three  sous,  Micipsa,  Mastanabal.  and  Gulussa.  The 
 two  latter  died  soon  after  their  father,  but  Micipsa  lived 
 to  B.C.  118,  and  bequeathed  the  kingdom  to  his  two 
 sons  .^dherbal  and  Hiempsal,  and  to  his  nephew  ,Iu- 
 gurtha.  Tlie  two  former  soon  fell  victims  to  the  am- 
 bitious schemes  of  the  last-mentioned  individual ;  but 
 906 
 
 he  himself,  no  long  time  thereafter,  paid  the  penalty  of 
 his  crimes  with  his  own  life.  (V^d.  Jugurtlin.) — After 
 the  capture  and  death  of  Jugurtha  (B.C.  106),  the  king- 
 dom of  Nurnidia  appears  to  have  been  given  by  the 
 liomans  to  Hiempsal  H.  {Hj^iius,  Bell.  Afr.,  56), 
 who  was  probalily  the  nephew  of  Hiempsal  the  son  of 
 Micipsa.  Hiempsal  was  succeeded,  about  B.C.  50, 
 by  his  son  Juba  I.,  who  took  an  active  part  in  the  civil 
 contest  between  Pompey  and  Cassar,  and  had  the  mis- 
 fortune to  espouse  the  party  of  the  former.  After  the 
 victory  of  Thapsus,  therefore,  Cffsar  declared  the  whole 
 kingdom  of  Numidia  to  be  Roman  territory,  and  Sal- 
 lust  the  historian  was  sent  thither  as  its  governor. 
 {Appian,  Bell.  Civ  ,  2,  100.)  The  western  district, 
 around  the  city  of  Cirta,  was  bestowed  on  Sittius,  in 
 recompense  for  his  services  to  Cssar.  (Vid.  Cirta.) 
 'i'he  country,  however,  still  remained  in  an  unsettled 
 state,  a  prey  to  intestine  commotions,  until  it  fell  into 
 the  hands  of  the  triumvir  Lepidus,  and  after  him  into 
 those  of  Augustus,  under  the  latter  of  whom  the  aspect 
 of  affairs  was  completely  changed,  and  a  more  regular 
 administration  introduced  into  Numidia.  Juba,  son  of 
 the  first  Juba,  an  intelligent  prince,  who  had  been  ed- 
 ucated at  Rome,  and  had  gained  the  friendship  of  Au- 
 gustus, received  back  from  that  em])eror  his  father's 
 former  kingdom,  but  with  very  important  alterations. 
 The  western  part  of  Numidia,  included  between  the 
 rivers  Mulucha  and  .Ampsagas,  which  had  formed  the 
 old  territory  of  the  Massatsyli  and  Syphax,  together 
 with  all  Mauritania,  were  assigned  hiin  for  his  king- 
 dom, which  now  assumed  the  general  name  of  Mauri- 
 tania. At  a  later  period,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  the 
 western  portion  of  Numidia,  from  the  river  Ampsagas, 
 together  with  the  eastern  part  of  Mauritania  as  far  as 
 the  Malva,  were  formed  into  a  Roman  province  under 
 the  name  of  Mauritania  Casarie7isis,  from  Cajsarea, 
 its  capital  ;  the  remainder  of  Mauritania  received  the 
 epithet  of  Tingitaim.  In  the  eighth  century  Numidia 
 fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  and  is  now  nomin- 
 ally under  the  Ottoman  porle. — The  Numidians  were 
 a  brave  and  hardy  race,  and  remarkable  for  their  skill 
 in  horsemanship.  Hence  the  epithet  of  infreni  applied 
 to  them  by  Virgil,  and  poetically  denoting  a  nation 
 who  could  dispense  with  the  use  of  bridles.  (Mela, 
 1,  6  —Flin.,  5,  3  —Vng.,  JEn.,  4,  41. — Enrycl.  Us. 
 KnowL,  vol  16,  p.  369.  —  Manner t,  Geogr.,  vol.  10, 
 pt.  2,  p.  192,  seqg.) 
 
 NuMiToR,  I.  a  son  of  Procas,  king  of  Alba,  and 
 brother  of  Amulius.  (Vid.  Amulius.) — II.  A  son  of 
 Phorcus,  who  fought  with  Turnus  against  ..^neas. 
 (Virg.,  Mn.,  10,  342  ) 
 
 NiiNniNA,a  goddess  whom  the  Romans  invoked  wheii 
 they  named  and  purified  their  children.  This  happen- 
 ed the  ninth  dav  after  their  birth,  whence  the  name  of 
 the  goddess,  Nona  dies.     (Macrob.,  Sat.,  1,  16.) 
 
 NuRs^,  a  town  of  the  Sabincs,  or  more  correctly, 
 perhaps,  in  the  territory  of  the  ^-Equi,  and  near  the 
 banks  of  the  .Anio.  Its  particular  site  is  unknown. 
 (Vng.,  JEn.,  7,  744.) 
 
 NuRsiA.  a  city  of  the  Sabines,  at  the  foot  of  the" 
 central  chain  of  the  Apennines,  and  near  the  sources 
 of  the  river  Var.  It  was  noted  for  the  coldness  of  its 
 atmosphere.  (Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  llh.—Sil.  llal ,  8,  418.) 
 The  modern  Norna  corresponds  to  the  ancient  site. 
 Polla  Ves[)asia.  the  mother  of  Vespasian,  was  borr. 
 here.      {Crawer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  320.) 
 
 Nvcxisis,  I.  a  daughter  of  Nycteus,  who  was  mother 
 of  Labdacus. — H.  A  patronymic  of  Antiope,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Nvcteus.  mother  of  Amphion  and  Zethus  by  Ju- 
 piter.    (Ovid.  Met.,  6,  110.) 
 
 NvcTEi.ius,  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  because  his  or- 
 gies were  celebrated  in  the  night  {vvS,  night,  and  re- 
 'M(-),  to  perform).  The  words  latex  Nyctelivs  thence 
 signify  wine.  (Scncc.,  CEd.,  v.  492. — Pavsan..  1,  40. 
 —  Oind,  Met.,  4,  15.— Compare  Serv.  ad.  Virg.,  JEn.^ 
 4,  303— Lie. ,  39,  8.) 
 
]N  Y  M 
 
 OAS 
 
 N\CTKus,  father  of  Antiope.  {Vid.  Antiope  I.) 
 NvMPH^,  certain  female  deities  among  the  ancients. 
 The  imagination  of  the  Greei<s  proplcii  all  the  regions 
 of  earth  and  water  with  beautiful  female  forms  called 
 Nytnphs,  divided  into  various  orders,  according  to  the 
 place  of  their  abode.  Thus,  1.  the  Mountain-Nymphs, 
 or  Orcndcs  {'Op€cu6eg),  haunted  the  mountams  ;  2. 
 the  Dale-Nymplis,  or  Napatt  CNan-alai),  the  valleys  ; 
 3.  the  Mead-Nymphs,  or  Ldmojiiadcs  {Aeiftoifiuder), 
 the  meadows  ;  4.  the  Waier-Nyinphs,  or  Naiades 
 (NatufJff),  the  rivers,  brooks,  and  springs;  5.  the 
 Lake-Nymphs,  or  Limnhides  {AiuviuSec),  the  lakes 
 and  pools.  There  were  also,  6.  the  Tree-Nymphs,  or 
 Hamadryades  (^'Kfj,a()pvu6eQ),  who  were  born  and  died 
 with  the  trees  ;  7.  the  Wood-Nymphs,  or  Dryades 
 (A/iiiaJff),  who  presided  over  the  forests  generally  ; 
 and,  8.  the  Fruit-tree- Nymphs, or  Flock-Nymphs  {Mc- 
 Uadcx,  M)?Xm(5fr),  who  watched  over  gardens  or  flocks 
 of  shee[). — The  Nymphs  occur  in  various  relations  to 
 gods  and  men.  The  charge  of  rearing  various  deities 
 and  heroes  was  committed  to  them  ;  they  were,  for 
 instance,  the  nurses  of  Bacchus,  Pan,  and  even  Jupi- 
 ter himself,  and  they  also  brought  up  AristKus  and 
 .^neas.  They  were,  moreover,  the  attendants  of  the 
 goddesses  ;  they  waited  on  Juno  and  Venus,  and  in 
 huntress  attire  they  pursued  the  deer  over  the  mount- 
 ains in  com[)any  with  Diana.  I'he  Sea-Nymphs  also 
 formed  a  numerous  class,  under  the  a[)pellaiion  of 
 Oceanides  and  Nereides. — The  word  Nymph  {vvjx^rj) 
 seems  to  have  originally  signified  '^  hrid.e,^'  and  was 
 probably  derived  from  a  verb  vvGu,  '^  to  cover'''  or 
 "  veil.,''  and  which  was  akin  to  the  Latin  iiubo  and 
 nuhcx.  It  was  gradually  applied  to  married  or  mar- 
 riageable young  women,  for  the  idea  of  youth  was  al- 
 ways included.  It  is  in  this  last  sense  that  the  god- 
 desses of  whom  we  have  been  treating  were  called 
 Nymphs.     {Kcin'hlley's  Mythology,  p.  237,  scqq.) 
 
 Nymph^um,  I.  a  place  in  the  territory  of  ApoUo- 
 nia,  in  Illyricum,  remarkable  for  a  mine  of  asphaltus, 
 of  which  several  ancient  writers  have  given  a  descrij)- 
 tion.  Near  this  spot  was  some  rising  ground,  whence 
 fire  was  constantly  seen  to  issue,  without,  however, 
 injuring  either  the  grass  or  trees  that  grew  there. 
 {Arislot.,  Mirand.  Auscult.  —  Ailian,  Var.  Hist.,  13, 
 16. — I'lin.,  24,  7.)  Strabo  supposes  it  to  have  arisen 
 from  a  mine  of  bitumen  liquefied,  there  being  a  hill 
 in  the  vicinity  whence  this  substance  was  dug  out,  the 
 earth  which  was  removed  being  in  process  of  time 
 converted  into  pitch,  as  it  had  been  stated  by  Posido- 
 nius.  {Strabo,  316.)  Pliny  says  this  spot  was  con- 
 sidered as  oracular,  which  is  confirmed  by  Dio  Cas- 
 sius,  who  describes  at  length  the  mode  of  consulting 
 the  oracle  (41,  45).  The  phenomenon  noticed  by  the 
 writers  here  mentioned  has  been  verified  by  modern 
 travellers  as  existing  near  the  village  of  Selcnitza,  on 
 the  left  bank  of  the  Aoiis,  and  near  the  junction  of 
 that,  river  with  the  Sutchitza.  {Jones's  Journal,  cited 
 by  Hughes,  vol.  2,  p  262  )  From  Livy  (42,  36  ct 
 49)  it  appears  that  there  was  a  Roman  encainpment 
 here  for  some  time  during  the  Macedonian  war. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  61.)  Plutarch  {Vit. 
 Syll.)  tells  an  amusing  story  of  a  satyr  having  been 
 caught  asleep  in  this  vicinity  and  brouoht  to  Sylla,  the 
 Roman  commander,  who  was  then  on  the  spot! — II.  A 
 promontorv  of  .\thos,  on  the  Singitic  Gulf,  now  (Jape 
 ,S.  Gcorgio.  {PloL,  p.  82  )— III.  A  city  in  the  Tau- 
 ric  Chersonese,  on  the  route  from  Theodosia  to  Pan- 
 ticapmim,  and  having  a  good  port  on  the  Euxine.  In 
 Pliiiv's  time  it  no  longer  existed  (4.  12).  The  ru- 
 ins, however,  may  still  he  traced  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 modern  Vo.ifor.  {Mela,  2,  I'.iO. —  Slcph.  Byz.,  p. 
 500.) 
 
 NvMPH^us,  a  river  of  Armenia  Major,  which,  ac- 
 cording to  Procopius,  formed  a  separation  between 
 the  Roman  and  Persian  empires.  It  ran  from  north 
 to  south,  entered  the  town  of  Martyropolis,  and  dis- 
 
 charged itself  into  the  Tigris  southeast  of  Amida. 
 {Amm.  MarcelL,  18,  9.) 
 
 Nymphodorus,  a  native  of  Syracuse,  whose  era  is 
 uncertain.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the  "Navigation 
 along  the  coasts  of  Asia,"  and  another  on  the  "  Won- 
 ders in  Sicily  and  Sardinia."  {Schdtl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  2,  p.   184  ) 
 
 Nysa,  I.  according  to  the  Greek  writers,  a  city  of 
 India,  on  a  mountain  named  Merts,  whose  inhabi- 
 tants were  said  to  be  descended  from  a  colony  planted 
 there  by  Bacchus  in  his  Indian  expedition.  Arrian 
 (5,  1)  places  it  between  the  Cophenes  and  Indus. 
 (Compare  Plin.,  6,  21. — Diod.  Sic.,  2,  38.  —  The<h 
 phrast.,  Hist.  PL,  4,  A.  —  Polycen.,  1,  1,  2.)  D'An- 
 ville  is  inclined  to  give  a  real  existence  to  Nysa,  apart, 
 however,  from  the  story  of  its  origin,  and  seeks  to 
 identify  its  site  with  that  of  the  ancient  Naeger. 
 {Gcogr.  Anciennc,  vol.  2,  p.  339. — Eclairc.  sur  la 
 Carte  de  I'Inde,  p.  21.)  Rennell  also,  and  Barbier 
 du  Bocage,  are  in  favour  of  the  existence  of  such  a 
 place  as  Nysa,  and  strive  to  identify  it  with  the  mod- 
 ern Nughz,  making  the  river  Cophenes  the  same  with 
 the  Cow.  {Rennell,  Descripti(m  of  India,  vol.  2,  p. 
 219. — Barbier  du  Bocage,  p.  831.)  Sainte-Croix,  on 
 the  other  hand,  denies  that  there  ever  was  such  a 
 place  as  Nysa,  or  such  a  mountain  as  Meros.  {Ex- 
 aincn  des  Hist.  d''Alex.,  p.  241.)  It  is  pretty  evident 
 that  this  last  is  the  most  correct  opinion,  and  that  the 
 story  was  invented  by  the  Greeks  to  flatter  the  vanity 
 of  Alexander,  who  was  thus  treading  the  same  ground 
 that  Bacchus  had.  Hence  the  etymology  given  by 
 them  to  the  name  ^idwaoq  (the  Greek  apfiellation  of 
 Bacchus),  namely,  the  god  (A/f),  from  Nysa  {Ast, 
 Grundriss  der  Philologic,  p.  44) ;  and  hence,  too,  the 
 analogy  that  was  found  between  the  name  of  the 
 mountain  {Mr/poc)  and  the  Greek  term  for  a  thigh 
 {fiTjpu(:),  which  was  supposed  to  be  connected  wiih  the 
 legend  of  Bacchus's  concealment  in  the  thigh  of  Jove, 
 and  his  double  birth. — II.  According  to  Diodonis  Sic- 
 ulus  (1,  15),  a  city  of  Arabia  Felix,  where  Osiris  was 
 nurtured.  The  same  writer  elsewhere  states  (4.  2) 
 that  it  was  situate  between  Phoenicia  and  the  Nile 
 {ftera^v  (^olvUtjc  km  NeHov),  leaving  its  precise  sit- 
 uation altogether  unknown. — III.  A  city  of  Cappado- 
 cia,  on  the  Halys,  between  Parnassus  and  Osianas, 
 now  Nous  Shehr.  {Lin.  Anton.,  p.  200. — Hierodcs, 
 Synccdcm.,  p.  699.) — 1\^.  A  city  of  Caria,  called  also 
 Pythopolis  {Steph.  Byz.,  p.  567),  on  the  slope  of 
 Mount  Mcssogis,  in  the  valley  of  the  Maeander.  Stra- 
 bo studied  here  nnder  Aristodemus.  It  is  now  Nasli 
 or  NosU.  {Strabo,  6^0. —  Plin,  .5,  29.—Pococke, 
 vol.  3,  b.  2,  c.  10.— Charidlcr,  c.  63.)— V.  A  place  in 
 Eubcea,  where  the  vine  was  said  to  put  forth  leaves 
 and  bear  fruit  the  same  day.  {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Nv- 
 (jai. — VI.  A  small  town  on  Mount  Helicon,  in  Bceo 
 tia.  {Strabo,  403— Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Ni}(rat.)—\ll. 
 A  town  in  the  island  of  Naxos.     {Steph.  Byz.) 
 
 Nys^eus,  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  as  the  god  of  Nysa. 
 {Vid   Nysa.) 
 
 Nysi.XnEs,  a  name  given  to  the  nymphs  of  Nysa,  to 
 whose  care  Jupiter  intrusted  the  education  of  his  son 
 Bacchus.     {Ovid,  Met.,  3,  314,  &c.) 
 
 0. 
 
 Oarus,  a  river  of  Sarmaiia,  falling  into  the  Pafns 
 M*otis.  De  Guignes  conjectures  it  to  be  the  modern 
 Wardan.  {Mem  de  I'Arad.  des  Inscr.,  &c..  vol  35, 
 n  .546  )  Mannert,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  favour  of 
 the  Uzcn.  {Geosr.,  vol.  4,  p.  79.)  The  river  in 
 question  is  mentioned  bv  Herodotus,  who  gives  how- 
 ever, no  particular  information  respecting  it.  {Hcroii., 
 i,  ]23.—Bdhr,  ad  loc.)  .  ... 
 
 Oasis  (in  Greek  'Oaaic  and  sometimes  Avamc), 
 the  appellation  given  to  those  fertile  spots,  watered 
 bv  springs  and  covered  with  verdure,  which  are  scat- 
 
OASIS. 
 
 OASIS. 
 
 tcred  about  the  great  sandy  deserls  of  Africa.  In 
 Aral)ic  tliey  arc  called  Wuhi/s.  The  Arabic  and  the 
 Greek  names  seem  to  contain  the  same  root  with  the 
 Cofilic  Ovahc,  and  possil>ly  the  word  may  be  originally 
 a  naiivc  African  term. — The  Oases  appear  to  be  de- 
 pressions ill  the  tableland  of  Libya.  On  going  from 
 the  Nile  westward,  the  traveller  gradually  ascends  till 
 he  arrives  at  the  summit  of  an  elevated  plain,  which 
 continues  nearly  level,  or  with  slight  undulations,  for 
 a  considerable  distance,  and  rises  higher  on  advancing 
 towards  the  south.  The  Oases  are  valleys  sunk  in  this 
 plain  ;  and,  when  you  descend  to  one  of  them,  you 
 find  the  level  space  or  plain  of  the  Oasis  similar  to  a 
 portion  of  the  valley  of  Egypt,  surrounded  by  steep 
 hille  of  limestone  at  some  distance  from  the  cultivated 
 land  The  low  plain  of  the  Oasis  is  sandstone  or  clay, 
 and  from  tins  last  the  water  rises  to  the  surface  and  fer- 
 tilizes the  country;  and,  as  the  table-land  is  higher  in 
 the  latitude  of  Thebes  than  in  that  of  Lower  Egypt, 
 we  may  readily  imagine  that  the  water  of  the  Oases  is 
 conveyed  from  some  elevated  point  to  the  south,  and, 
 being  retained  by  the  bed  of  clay,  rises  to  the  surface 
 wherever  the  limestone  superstratum  is  removed. 
 (  Wilki?ison,  "  On  the  Nile,  and  the  present  and  for- 
 mer levels  of  Egypt.'''' — Journal  of  the  London  Geo- 
 graphical Society,  1839.)  The  principal  Oases  are 
 four  in  number:  1.  The  Great  Oasis  {'Oaai^  Meya'A-^, 
 Ptol.),  which  Strabo  calls  "  the  First  Oasis"  {r/ 
 npu-T]  "OttGig,  791).  2.  The  Little  Oasis  ('Oam(  Ui- 
 Kpd,  Ptolemy),  called  by  Strabo  the  Second  Oasis 
 {'Oaaic  (kvTepa).  3.  The  Oasis  of  Amnum.  4. 
 The  Western  Oasis,  which  does  not  appear  to  have 
 been  mentioned  by  any  ancient  geographer  except 
 Olympiodorus,  and  was  never  seen  by  any  Euro- 
 peans until  Sir  Archibald  Edinonstone  visited  it  about 
 20  years  ago. — These  four  constitute,  as  has  been 
 said,  the  principal  Oases.  The  writers  of  the  mid- 
 dle ages  enlarge  the  number  materially,  from  Arabic 
 sources,  and  modern  writers  increase  it  still  more, 
 making  upward  of  thirty  Oases.  (Bisckoff  jmd  Mai- 
 ler, Worterb.  der  Geogr.,  p.  795.) — The  Great  Oasis 
 is  the  most  southern  of  the  whole,  and  is  placed  by 
 Strabo  and  Ptolemy  to  the  west  of  Abydos.  It  is  the 
 only  one,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  Aintnon,  with 
 which  Herodotus  seems  to  have  been  acquainted  (3, 
 26).  He  translates  the  term  Oasis  into  Greek  by 
 MaKi'ipuv  vTjdo^,  "  Island  of  the  blessed,'^  and  without 
 doubt  this,  or  any  other  of  these  fertile  spots,  must 
 have  appeared  to  the  traveller  of  former  davs  well 
 worthy  of  such  an  appellation,  after  he  had  suffered, 
 during  many  painful  weeks,  the  privations  and  fatitrue 
 of  the  desert.  To  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  however, 
 of  a  later  age,  they  generally  presented  themselves  in 
 a  less  favourable  aspect,  and  were  not  unfrequently 
 assigned  as  places  of  banishment,  where  the  state- 
 malefactor  and  the  ministers  of  the  Christian  church, 
 who  were  sometimes  comprehended  in  the  same  class, 
 were,  in  the  .second  and  third  centuries,  condemned  to 
 waste  their  days  iti  the  remote  solitude  of  the  desert. 
 — The  Great  Oasis  consists  of  a  number  of  insulated 
 gpots.  which  extend  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  course  of 
 the  Nile,  separated  from  one  another  by  considerable 
 intervals  of  sandy  waste,  and  stretching  not  less  than 
 a  hundred  miles  in  latitude.  Its  .Arabic  name  is  El- 
 Wah.  a  general  term  in  that  language  for  Oasis.  M 
 Poncet,  who  examined  it  in  1698,  says  that  it  contains 
 many  gardens  vv'atered  with  rivulets,  and  that  its  palm- 
 groves  exhibit  a  perpetual  verdure.  It  is  the  first  stage 
 of  the  Darfur  caravan,  which  assembles  at  Siout,  be- 
 ing about  four  days'  journey  from  that  town,  and 
 nearly  the  same  distance  from  Farshout.  The  e.xer- 
 lions  of  Browne,  Caillaud.  Edinonstone,  and  Henniker 
 have  supplied  us  with  ample  details  relative  to  this  in- 
 teresting locality. — The  Little  Oasis,  now  El-Kas- 
 sar,  has  r.ot  '>een  much  visited  by  travellers.  We 
 owe  the  latest  and  most  distinct  account  to  Belzoni, 
 903 
 
 who,  proceeding  in  search  of  it  westvpard  from  the 
 valley  of  Fayourn,  arrived  at  the  close  of  the  fourth 
 day  on  the  brink  of  what  he  calls  the  Elloah,  that  is, 
 the  Elwah  or  Oasis.  lie  describes  it  as  a  valley  sur- 
 rounded with  high  rocks,  forming  a  spacious  plain  of 
 twelve  or  fourteen  miles  in  length,  and  about  six  miles 
 in  breadth.  There  is  only  a  small  portion  cultivated 
 at  present,  but  there  are  many  prooi's  remaining  that 
 it  must  at  one  time  have  been  all  under  crop,  and  that, 
 with  proper  management,  it  might  again  be  easily  ren- 
 dered fertile.  Here  also  the  traveller  found  a  fount- 
 ain, the  waters  of  which  resembled,  in  their  chan- 
 ges of  temperature  at  different  times  of  the  day,  the 
 famous  Fans  Sulis  in  the  Oasis  of  Ammon.  It  is  now 
 ascertained  that  such  fountains  are  not  peculiar  to  any 
 one  of  the  Oases,  having  been  discovered  in  various 
 parts  of  the  Libvan  desert.  The  change,  in  fact,  takes 
 place  in  the  surrounding  atmosphere — The  Oasis  of 
 .Ainmon,  called  by  the  Arabs  Siwah,  has  already  been 
 partially  alluded  to  under  the  article  Amnion.  It  is 
 situated  in  lat.  29°  12'  N.,  and  in  longitude  26^  6' 
 E.,  being  about  si.x  miles  long,  and  between  four  and 
 five  in  width,  the  nearest  distance  from  the  river  of 
 Egypt  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles. 
 A  large  proportion  of  the  land  is  occupied  by  date- 
 trees  ;  but  the  palrn,  the  pomegranate,  the  fig,  the 
 olive,  the  vine,  the  apricot,  the  plum,  and  even  the 
 apple,  are  said  to  flourish  in  the  gardens.  No  soil 
 can  be  more  fertile.  Tepid  springs,  too,  holding  salts 
 in  solution,  are  numerous  throughout  the  district ;  and 
 It  is  imagined  that  the  frequency  of  earthquakes  is  con- 
 nected with  the  geological  structure  of  the  surrounding 
 country.  The  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Amnion  are  de- 
 scribed as  still  very  imposing;  and  nearly  a  mile  from 
 these  ruins,  in  a  pleasant  grove  of  date-palms,  is  still 
 discovered  the  celebrated  Fountain  of  the  Sun,  dedi- 
 cated of  old  to  the  Ammonian  deity.  (  Vid.  Ammon.) 
 The  interest  of  the  traveller  is  still  farther  e.xcited  by 
 a  succession  of  lakes  and  remains  of  temples,  which 
 stretch  into  the  desert  far  towards  the  west  ;  all  ren- 
 dered sacred  by  religious  associations,  and  by  the  tra- 
 ditionary legends  of  the  native  tribes.  Tombs,  cata- 
 combs, churches,  and  convents  arc  scattered  over  the 
 waste,  which  awaken  the  recollections  of  the  (,^hrisiian 
 to  the  early  history  of  his  belief,  and  which,  at  the 
 same  time,  recall  to  the  pagan  and  Mohammedan 
 events  more  interesting  than  are  to  be  fouiul  in  the 
 vulgar  annals  of  the  human  race,  or  can  touch  the 
 heart  of  any  one  but  those  who  are  connected  with  a 
 remote  lineage  by  means  of  a  family  history.  At  a 
 short  distance  from  the  sacred  lake  there  is  a  templv 
 of  Roman  or  Greek  construction,  the  architecture  of 
 which  is  executed  with  much  care  and  precision,  a  cir- 
 cumstance which  cannot  fail  to  excite  surprise  in  a 
 country  surrounded  by  the  immense  deserts  of  Libya, 
 and  at  the  distance  of  not  less  than  400  miles  from  the 
 ancient  limits  of  civilization.  In  the  consecrated  ter- 
 ritory of  that  mysterious  land  is  the  salt  lake  of  Arw- 
 shieh,  distant  two  days  and  a  half  from  Siwah,  in  a 
 valley  enclosed  by  two  mountains,  and  extending  from 
 six  to  seven  leagues  in  circumference.  So  holy  is  it 
 esteemed,  that  M.  Caillaud  could  not  obtain  permis- 
 sion to  visit  its  banks.  Even  the  pacha's  firman  failed 
 to  alter  the  determination  of  the  sheiks  on  this  essential 
 point.  They  declared  that  they  would  sooner  perish 
 than  suffer  a  stranger  to  approach  that  sacred  islaid, 
 which,  according  to  their  belief,  contained  treasures 
 and  talismans  of  mysterious  power.  It  is  said  to  possess 
 a  temple,  in  which  are  the  seal  and  sword  of  the  proph- 
 et, the  palladium  of  their  inde[)endence.  and  not  to  be 
 seen  by  any  profane  eye.  A  reasonable  doubt  may 
 however  be  entertained  as  to  these  assertions  ;  for 
 M.  Drovetti,  who  accompanied  a  detachment  of  troops 
 under  Hassan  Bey,  walked  round  the  borders  of  the 
 lake,  and  observed  nothing  in  its  bosom  but  naked 
 rocks.     Mr.  Browne,  too,  remarks  that  he  found  mis- 
 
O  AX 
 
 OC  E 
 
 Bhnpen  rocks  in  abundance,  but  nothing  that  he  could 
 nosiuvcly  di-cide  to  be  ruins;  it  being  very  unlikely, 
 he  adds,  that  any  should  be  there,  the  spot  being  en- 
 tirely destitute  o(  trees  and  fresh  water.  Major  Uen- 
 nell  has  employed  much  learning  to  prove  that  the 
 Oasis  of  Siwali  is  the  site  of  the  famous  temple  of  Ju- 
 piter Ainmon.  He  remarks  that  the  variations  between 
 all  the  authorities,  ancient  and  modern,  amount  to 
 little  more  than  a  s[)ace  equal  to  twice  the  length  of 
 the  Oasis  in  question,  which  is,  at  the  utmost,  only  six 
 miles  long.  "  And  it  is  pretty  clearly  proved,"  he  re- 
 marks, "  that  no  other  Oasis  exists  in  that  quarter, 
 within  two  or  more  days'  journey  ;  but,  on  the  con- 
 trary, that  Siwah  is  surrounded  by  a  wide  desert:  so 
 that  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  Oasis  is  the  same 
 with  that  of  Ammon,  and  the  edifice  found  there  the 
 reii'.ains  of  the  celebrated  temple  whence  the  oracles 
 of  Jupiter  Ainmoii  were  delivered."  {Gcogr.  of  He- 
 Todutus,  vol.  2,  p.  230,  ed.  1830.)  — The  Western 
 Oasis,  as  it  is  termed,  was  visited  in  the  year  1819  by 
 Sir  A.  Edmonstone,  in  company  with  two  friends. 
 Having  joined  a  caravan  of  Bedouins  at  Beni  Ali,  and 
 entered  the  Libyan  desert,  they  proceeded  towards  the 
 southwest.  At  the  end  of  six  days,  having  travelled 
 about  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles,  they  reached  the 
 first  village  of  the  Western  Oasis,  which  is  called  Bel- 
 lata.  The  principal  town  of  the  Oasis,  however,  is 
 El  Cazar.  The  situation  of  this  last-mentioned  place 
 is  said  to  be  perfectly  lovely,  being  on  an  eminence  at 
 the  foot  of  a  line  of  rock  which  rises  abruptly  behind 
 it,  and  encircled  by  extensive  gardens  filled  with  palm, 
 acacia,  citron,  and  various  other  kinds  of  trees,  some 
 of  which  are  rarely  seen  even  in  those  regions.  The 
 princi[)al  edifice  is  an  old  temple  or  convent  called 
 Dacr  rl  Hadjin,  about  fifty  feet  long  by  twenty- 
 five  wide,  but  presenting  nothing  either  very  magnifi- 
 cent or  curious.  The  Oasis  is  coni[)Osed  of  twelve 
 Tillages,  of  which  ten  are  within  five  or  six  miles  of 
 each  other.  The  prevailing  soil  is  a  very  light  red 
 earth,  fertilized  entirely  by  irrigation.  The  latitude 
 of  this  Oasis  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Great 
 Oasis,  or  about  26°  north.  The  longitude  eastward 
 froin  Greenwich  may  be  a  little  more  or  less  than  28°. 
 — At  different  distances  in  the  desert,  towards  the 
 west,  are  other  Oases,  the  exact  position  and  extent 
 of  which  are  almost  entirely  unknown  to  the  Enrope.3n 
 geographer.  The  ancients,  who  would  appear  to  have 
 had  more  certain  intelligence  in  regard  to  this  quarter 
 of  the  globe  than  is  yet  possessed  by  the  moderns, 
 were  wont  to  compare  the  surface  of  Africa  to  a  leop- 
 ard's skin  ;  the  little  islands  of  fertile  soil  being  as  nu- 
 merous as  the  spots  on  that  animal. — The  fertility  of 
 the  Oases  has  always  been  deservedly  celebrated. 
 Slrabo  mentions  the  superiority  of  their  wine  ;  Abul- 
 feda  and  Edrisi  the  luxuriance  of  their  palm-trees. 
 The  climate,  however,  is  extremely  variable,  especially 
 in  winter.  Sometimes  the  rains  in  the  Western  Oasis 
 are  very  abundant,  and  fall  in  torrents,  as  a[)pears  from 
 the  furrows  in  the  rocks;  but  the  season  Sir  A.  Ed- 
 monstone made  his  visit  there  was  none  at  all,  and  the 
 total  want  of  dew  in  the  hot  months  sufficiently  proves 
 the  general  dryness  of  the  atmosphere.  The  springs 
 are  all  strotigly  impregnated  with  iron  and  sulphur,  and 
 hot  at  their  sources  ;  but,  as  they  continue  the  same 
 throughout  the  whole  year,  they  supply  to  the  inhabi- 
 tants one  of  the  principal  means  of  life.  The  water, 
 notwithstanding,  cannot  be  used  until  it  has  been  cool- 
 ed in  an  earthen  jar.     {Russcirs  Egypt,  p.  393,  seqr/.) 
 
 Oaxes,  a  river  of  Crete,  said  to  have  derived  its 
 name  from  Oaxes,  a  son  of  Apollo.  (Virg.,  Eclog., 
 1,  66. — Scrv.,  ad  loc.)  It  is  now  the  Mylopotovin, 
 and  is  apjiarently  one  of  the  most  considerable  streams 
 in  the  island.  Some,  however,  identify  it  with  the 
 Petrea.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  381. — 
 Bischoff  vnd  Mollcr,  Worterb.  dcr  Gcogr.,  p.  795.) 
 
 Oaxus,  a  town  of  Crete,  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
 
 island,  at  the  mouth,  probably,  of  the  Oaxes.  It  was 
 the  capital  of  a  kingdom  which  had  its  appropriate 
 sovereign,  and  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the 
 Oaxes  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article.  (Heiod., 
 5,  153.— Sen',  ad  Virg.,  Eclog.,  1,  &%.—Stej)k.  Byz.y 
 s.  V. — Hierorlcs,  p.  650.) 
 
 Obringa,  a  river  of  Germany,  forming  the  line  of 
 separation  between  Germania  Superior  and  Inferior. 
 According  to  Spener,  C'luverius,  Cellarius,  and  other? 
 it  corresponds  to  the  modern  Aar  or  Ahr.  Mannert, 
 however,  and  V^'ilhelm,  make  it  the  same  with  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  Upper  Rhine  ("den  Anfang  des  Obey 
 Iihei72s." — Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  432). 
 
 Obsequens,  Julius,  a  Latin  writer,  whose  era  is 
 uncertain.  Vossius  places  him  a  short  period  prior  to 
 Honorius  ;  but  his  style  indicates  an  earlier  era. 
 Scaliger  makes  him  to  have  been  before  the  time  of  St. 
 Jerome;  while  Saxe  assigns  him  to  about  107  A.D. 
 {G.  I.  Voss,  de  Hist.  Lat.,  3,  p.  710.  —  Saxe,  Ono- 
 mast.,  vol.  1,  p.  289.  —  Funcc,  dc  veget.  L.  L.  sc- 
 nect.,  8,  11,  scq).  He  was  probably  either  a  Roman 
 or  an  Italian,  and  some  are  inclined  to  identify  him 
 with  the  M.  Livius  Obsequens  whose  name  occurs  in 
 one  of  Gruter's  inscriptions  (hiscript.,  241),  on  the 
 supposition  that  Livius  may  have  been  altered  to  Ju- 
 lius in  the  only  MS  that  has  come  down  to  us  of  this 
 work.  {FuhriHann,Handhir,h.,\o\.2,p.A90.)  Obse- 
 quens has  left  us  a  work  "  On  Prodigies''  {de  Prodi- 
 giis),  containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  presages  re- 
 marked at  Rome  from  the  consulship  of  Scipio  and 
 Loelius,  A.U.C.  453,  down  to  that  of  Pauliis  Fabius 
 and  Quintus/Elius,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  or  A.U.C. 
 742.  The  portion  of  the  work  which  comprehended 
 the  history  of  the  first  five  or  six  centuries  is  lost. 
 This  production  is  taken  in  part  from  Livy  ;  but  it 
 contains,  at  the  same  time,  some  historical  details  which 
 are  nowhere  else  to  be  found.  It  is  written  in  a  pure 
 style,  and  is  not  unworthy  of  the  Augustan  age.  The 
 contents,  however,  are  full  of  absurdity.  The  best 
 edition  is  that  of  Kapp,  Cvrid,  1772,  8vo.  {Fuhrmaiin, 
 Handbuch,  vol.  2,  p.  490.— .SVAo//,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.  2,  p.  465  — Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  p.  658,  seq.) 
 
 OcE.tNiDES  {'Q.KEavi6ec),  the  Ocean-Nymphs,  daugh- 
 ters of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  and  sisters  of  the  rivers. 
 Mythologists  make  them  three  thousand  in  number. 
 {Hcs.,  Theog.,  364. — Apollod.,  1,  2. — Hcyne,  7iot. 
 crit.,  ad  loc.)  From  their  pretended  names,  as  given 
 by  some  of  the  ancient  writers,  they  appear  to  be  only 
 personifications  of  the  various  qualities  and  appearan- 
 ces of  water.  {Theog.,  346.  —  Gottling,  ad  loc. — 
 Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  244.) 
 
 Oce.Xnus,  I.  the  god  of  the  stream  Oceanus  {vid. 
 Oceanus  II.),  earlier  than  Neptune.  He  was  the  first- 
 born of  the  Titans,  the  offspring  of  Ctelus  and  Terra, 
 or  Heaven  and  Earth.  Oceanus  espoused  his  sister  Te- 
 thys, and  their  children  were  the  rivers  of  the  earth,  and 
 the  three  thousand  Occanides  or  Nymphs  of  Ocean. 
 {Hcsiod,  Theog.,  337,  seq.)  This  is  all  the  account 
 of  Oceanus  that  is  given  in  the  Theogony.  Homer 
 speaks  of  him  and  Tethys  as  the  origin  of  the  gods. 
 (//.,  14,  201,  302.)  When  Jupiter,  he  also  says,  placed 
 his  sire  in  Tartarus.  Rhea  committed  her  daughter  Ju- 
 no to  the  charge  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  by  whom  she 
 was  carefully  nurtured.  (//.,  14,202,303.)  The  abode 
 of  Oceanus  was  in  the  West.  {II,  14,  200,  301.) 
 He  dwelt,  according  to  ^Eschylus,  in  a  grotto-palace, 
 beneath  his  stream,  as  it  would  appear.  {Prom.  Vim:- 
 tus,  300.)  In  the  "  Prometheus  Bound"  of  this  poet. 
 Oceanus  comes  borne  through  the  air  on  a  hippo-grifT, 
 to  console  and  advise  the  lofty-minded  sufferer;  and 
 from  the  account  he  gives  of  his  journey,  it  is  mani- 
 fest that  he  came  from  the  West.— When  Hercules 
 was  crossing  his  stream  in  the  cup  of  the  Sun-god  to 
 procure  the  oxen  of  Gcryon,  Oceanus  rose,  and,  by 
 agitating  his  waters,  tried  to  terrify  him ;  but,  on  the 
 I  hero's  b'endins  his  bow  at  him,  he  retired.  {Phcrcc, 
 '  ^  903 
 
OC  E 
 
 OCH 
 
 «p.  Al/icn  ,  11,  p.  470. — Keightlcy^s  Mythology,  p.  51, 
 seq  ) — H.  Besides  being  the  iiatiie  of  a  deity,  the  tcnri 
 Oceanus  ('ii/ceav/yf)  occurs  in  Homer  in  another  sense 
 also.  It  IS  made  to  siginfy  an  itniiieiise  stream,  which, 
 according  to  the  rude  ideas  of  that  early  age,  circula- 
 ted around  the  terraqueous  plain,  and  from  which  the 
 diderciit  seas  ran  out  in  the  manner  of  bays.  This 
 Ofiinioii,  which  is  also  that  of  Eratosthenes,  was  prev- 
 alent even  iu  the  time  of  Herodotus  (4,  3()).  Homer 
 terms  the  ocean  aip6()()oog,  because  it  thus  flowed  back 
 into  itsdf.  {Mus.  Crit.,  vol.  1,  p.  254  )  This  same 
 river  Oceanus  was  supposed  to  ebb  and  flow  thrice  in 
 the  course  of  a  single  day,  and  the  heavenly  bodies 
 were  l)e!ieved  to  descend  into  it  at  their  setting,  and 
 emerge  from  it  at  their  rising.  Hence  the  term  uks- 
 ovoif  is  sometimes  put  for  the  horizon  (Damm  Lex., 
 s.  V.  6  dpli^ijv  Kai  UTTDTefjtvuv  to  VTrkp  yfj^  Kai  vko  yrjv 
 {lfii(T(j>aipiov.)  In  Horner,  therefore,  uKsavog  and  d-d- 
 ?ia(T(Ta  always  meati  different  tilings,  the  latter  merely 
 denoting  the  sea  in  the  more  modern  acceptation  of 
 the  term.  On  the  shield  of  Achilles  the  poet  repre- 
 sents the  Oceanus  as  encircling  the  rim  or  extreme 
 border  of  the  shield,  in  full  accordance  with  the  popu- 
 lar belief  of  the  day  ;  whereas  in  Virgil's  time,  when 
 this  primitive  meaning  of  the  term  was  obsolete,  and 
 more  correct  geographical  views  had  come  in,  we  find 
 the  sea  (the  idea  being  borrowed,  probably,  from  the 
 position  of  the  Mediterranean)  occupying  in  the  poet's 
 description  the  centre  of  the  shield  of  .^ilneas.  If  it 
 be  asked  whether  any  traces  of  this  peculiar  meaning 
 of  the  term  uaeavoc  occurs  in  other  writers  besides 
 Homer,  the  following  authorities,  in  favour  of  the  af- 
 firmative, may  be  cited  in  re[)ly.  Hesiod,  Theog^., 
 242— /(/.,  Here.  Clyp..  ^14:.— Eunp.,  Orcst.,  1369. 
 —  Orpk,  Hymn,  10,  14— /a!,,//.,  Si.—Id.,fragm., 
 44. — (Malifiy.  ad  More!!.,  Tkes.,  s.  v.  '^Ksavdc  — 
 Compare  Vblc/ccr,  Hnmerische  Gcographie,  p.  86,  seq.) 
 As  regards  the  etymology  of  the  term  uKeavSg.  we  are 
 left  in  coin|)lftte  uncertainty,  'i'he  form  uyfivoc  oc- 
 curs in  Pherecydes  (Clem.  Alex.,  Slrom.,  6,  p.  621. 
 --Sturz,  ad  Phcrccyd.),  from  which  it  ajipears  to  some 
 that  the  root  was  connected  with  the  Greek  yea,  yr; 
 (u-yt'u-vof,  u-ytj-vog).  On  the  other  hand,  Munter 
 {Kel  der  Karfhagcr,  p.  63)  finds  the  root  of  uyrjvoc 
 in  the  Hebrew  hug,  "in  orhcm  ire,"  as  referring  to  the 
 circular  course  of  the  faiiled  Oceanus.  Creuzer  is  in- 
 clined to  consider  cjytving  as  equivalent  to  wa2.ni6Q, 
 "■  antifiaiis.'"  ( Creuzer  und  Hermann,  Briefe,  p.  160.) 
 It  is  remarkable  that  one  of  the  oldest  names  of  the 
 Nile  ainonif  the  Greeks  was  uKeavog  (Tzetz.  ad  Ly- 
 eophron.,  ll'J),  or,  more  correctly,  perhaps,  UKeajir). 
 {Diod  .^ic.,  1,  19. — (Compare  Ritter^s  Erdkunde,  vol. 
 1,  p.  570,  2d  ed.)  Now  in  the  Coptic,  according  to 
 Ciiampollion,  on.ka.me.  means  "black,"  "dark;"  and 
 according  to  Marcel,  oehemau.  in  the  same  language, 
 denotes  "a  great  collection  of  v^'ater."  Will  either 
 of  these  give  (JKeavog  as  a  derivative'!  The  one  or 
 the  other  of  ihem  seems  connected  in  some  way  with 
 the  .\rabic  K'«mi/.?,  "ocean."  (Rilter,  loc.  cit.)  Per- 
 haps, however,  the  most  satisfactory  derivation  for 
 the  term  Oceanus  is  that  alluded  to  in  the  article  Ogy- 
 ges. 
 
 OcKt.t.ns,  surnamed  Tjucatins,  from  his  having  been 
 a  native  of  Lucania,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher,  who 
 flourished  about  480  B.C.  He  wrote  many  works 
 on  philosophical  sulijects,  the  titles  of  which  are  giv- 
 en in  a  letter  written  by  Archytas  to  Plato,  which  has 
 been  preserved  by  Diogenes  Laertius  (8,  80).  But 
 the  only  production  of  his  which  has  come  down  to 
 us,  is  "  On  the  Nature  of  the  Universe"  {Tlepl  rr/g 
 Tov  TravTf)^  (pvaeug).  Its  chief  philosophical  topic  is 
 to  maintain  the  eternity  of  the  universe.  Ocellus 
 also  attempts  to  prove  the  eternity  of  the  human  race 
 (c.  3,  s.  3).  These  works  were,  without  doubt,  writ- 
 ten in  the  Doric  dialect,  which  [)revailed  in  the  na- 
 tive comitrv  of  Ocellus  ;  and  hence  much  surprise 
 910 
 
 has  been  occasioned  by  the  circumstance  of  the  last 
 of  these  productions,  which  we  still  possess,  being 
 in  Ionic  Greek.  In  consequence  of  this  discrepance, 
 Barth  (Advers.,  1.  42,  c.  1,  p.  18G7),  Parker  {Pmp. 
 de  Deo  ct  Pnmd  ,  \678.—Disp.,  4,  p.  355,)  Thom- 
 as Burnet  {Arcliaol.  Philos  ,  p.  152),  and  Mciner* 
 (Philolng.  Bibhoth.,  vol.  1,  pt.  3,  p.  100  el  204.— 
 Hist.  Doctr.  de  vcro  Deo,  p.  312 — Gesch  dcr  Wis- 
 scnsch.,  p.  584),  have  attacked  the  authenticity  of  the 
 work  in  question  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Benlley 
 (Phalaris,  p.  307,  cd.  1816),  Lipsius  (Manud.  ad 
 Stoic.  Phil.,  1.  1,  diss.  6),  Adelung  (Gcsch.  der  Phi- 
 losophic fiir  Licbhabcr),  Tiedcmann  [Grtcchcnl.  erste 
 Philosophcn,  p.  198  et  209),  and  Bardili  (Epoehen 
 dcr  vorzogl.  philos.  Regnffe,  vol  1,  p.  165),  declare 
 in  favour  of  the  work.  These  conflicting  opinions 
 have  been  carefully  examined  and  weighed  by  Rudol- 
 ph!, in  a  Dissertation  appended  to  his  edition  of  the 
 work,  and  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  treatise 
 in  question  was  written  by  Ocellus.  It  would  appear 
 that  some  grammarians  of  subsequent  ages,  in  copy- 
 ing the  text  of  Ocellus,  caused  the  Doric  forms  to  dis- 
 appear, and  translated  the  work,  so  to  speak,  into  the 
 more  common  dialect.  This  idea  was  first  started  by 
 Bardili,  and  what  tends  to  clothe  it  with  almost  abso- 
 lute certainty  is,  that  the  fragments  of  the  same  work 
 which  we  meet  with  in  the  selections  of  SioIieeus 
 have  preserved  their  original  Doric  form.  And  yet 
 it  must  at  the  same  time  be  acknowledged,  that  this 
 production  of  Ocellus  is  only  cited  for  the  first  time 
 by  the  writers  of  the  second  century  of  our  era,  and 
 at  a  period  when  the  New- Pythagoreans  began  to 
 forge  works  under  the  guise  of  celebrated  names  — 
 The  best  edition  is  that  of  Rudolphi,  Lips.,  1801, 
 8vo.  The  edition  of  Batteux,  Parts,  1768,  3  vols. 
 12mo,  is  also  a  very  good  one.  Batteux  corrected 
 the  text  after  two  Paris  MSS.,  and  Rudol()hi  availed 
 himself  of  Siebenkee's  collation  of  a  Vatican  MS. 
 Gale  has  placed  the  work  of  Ocellus  in  his  Opuscula 
 Mythologica,  &lc.,  Cantabr.,  1671.  {Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  311,  scf/q.) 
 
 OcELUM.  I.  a  city  in  Hispania  Tariaconensis,  in  the 
 territory  of  ihe  Vellones,  now  FurmnscUc. — H.  A  city 
 in  His[)ania  Tarraconensis,  in  the  territory  of  the  Gal- 
 laici. — HI.  A  city  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  among  the  Cot- 
 tian  .Alps,  on  the  eastern  borders  of  the  kingdom  of 
 (/Ottius.  According  to  Mannert,  it  is  now  Amgliana, 
 a  small  town  with  a  castle,  in  Piedmont,  not  far  from 
 Turin.     (Cas.,  B.  G.,  1,  10.) 
 
 OcHus,  a  surname  or  epithet  applied  to  Artaxerxes 
 III  ,  and  also  to  Darius  II.,  kings  of  Persia.  It  is  gen- 
 erally thought  to  indicate  illegitimate  birth,  and  to  be 
 equivalent  to  the  Greek  Ni'iOag  {Nulhns).  This  ex- 
 planation is  opposed,  however,  by  some  Oriental  schol- 
 ars, who  deduce  the  term  Ochus  from  the  Persian  Ochi 
 or  Achi,  which  they  make  equivalent  to  the  Latin  dig- 
 mis  or  majcstaie  dignus.  (Consult  Gesevius,  Lex. 
 Hebr.,  s.  V.  Achas. —  B'dhr,  ad  Ctes  ,  p.  186.)  The 
 reign  of  Arta.Kerxes  Ochus  has  been  noticed  else- 
 where (Did.  .Artaxerxes  111.),  that  of  Darius  Ochus, 
 or  Darius  II.,  will  now  be  given  'I'his  prince  was 
 the  illegitimate  son  of  .Artaxerxes  Longiinanns.  Soon 
 after  the  murder  of  Xerxes  II  ,  Darius  succeeded  in 
 deposing  Sogdianus,  and  ascended  the  throne  himself, 
 B.C.  423.  By  his  wife  Parysatis  he  had  .Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon  and  Cvrus  the  Younsrer.  Nothing  very  re- 
 markable occurred  during  his  reign,  but  some  success- 
 ful wars  were  carried  on  under  C'yrus  and  other  gen- 
 erals. He  died  B.C.  404,  after  a  reign  of  nineteen 
 years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  .Artaxer.xes,  who 
 is  said  to  have  asked  him,  on  his  death- bed,  by  what 
 rule  he  had  acted  in  his  adminislration,  that  he  might 
 adopt  the  same,  and  find  the  same  success.  The 
 king's  answer  is  said  to  have  been,  that  he  had  always 
 kept,  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge,  the  strict  path  of 
 justice  and  religion.     (Xen.,  Anab.,  1, 1. — Diod.  Sic  , 
 
OCT 
 
 OCT 
 
 12,  71. — Justiti,  5,  11.) — II.  A  river  of  Bactriana, 
 rising  in  the  moiiniuins  that  lie  northward  of  the 
 source  of  the  Arms,  and  falling  into  the  Oxus.  {Plhi., 
 6,  17.)  Mannert  makes  it  the  modern  Dchasch. — 
 ((/0[  suit  Wahl.  Miltd  und  Vorder  Asien,  vol.  1,  p. 
 753  —Rilier,  Erdkunde,  vol.  2,  p.  22  ) 
 
 OcNos,  son  of  Mrtiilo,  and  said  by  some  to  have 
 founded  Mantua.      (But  vid.  Manlu;i.) 
 
 OcKicui.uM,  a  town  of  Unibria,  below  the  junction 
 of  the  Nar  and  Tiber,  and  a  few  miles  from  the  bank 
 of  the  latter  river,  now  Otncoli.  According  to  Livy 
 (9,41),  it  was  the  first  city  of  Umbria  which  volun- 
 tarily submitted  to  Rome.  Here  Fabius  Ma.ximus 
 took  the  command  of  the  army  under  Servilius,  and 
 bade  that  consul  approach  his  presence  without  lie- 
 tors,  in  order  to  imjiress  his  troops  with  a  due  sense 
 of  the  dictatorial  dignity.  (Lfy,22,  11.)  Ocriculum 
 suffered  severely  during  the  social  war.  {Flor.,  3, 
 18.)  In  Strabo's  time  it  appears,  however,  to  have 
 been  still  a  city  of  note  (Slrab  ,  227),  a  fact  which  is 
 confirmed  by  the  numerous  remains  of  antiquity  which 
 have  been  extracted  from  its  ruins.  From  (Cicero  we 
 collect  that  Milo  had  a  villa  in  its  vicinity.  (Oral, 
 pro  Mil.  —  Cramcr^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  278.) 
 
 OcTAViA,  I.  daughter  of  Cams  Octavius  and  .\ccia, 
 and  sister  to  the  Emperor  Augustus.  All  the  histori- 
 ans praise  the  beauty  and  virtues  of  this  celebrated  fe- 
 male. She  was  first  married  to  Marcus  Marcellus,  a 
 man  of  consular  rank,  and  every  way  worthy  of  her  ; 
 and  after  his  death  she  became  the  wife  of  Marc  An- 
 tony, this  latter  union  being  deemed  essential  to  the 
 public  welfare,  as  a  means  of  healing  existing  difTer- 
 ences  between  Antony  and  Octavius.  It  was  with 
 this  view  that  the  senate  abridged  the  period  of  her 
 widowhood  and  of  her  mourning  for  her  first  husband, 
 who  had  been  dead  little  more  than  five  months.  An- 
 tonv,  however,  was  incapable  of  afiprecialing  the  ex- 
 cellence of  her  character.  After  her  marriage  she  fol- 
 lowed him  to  Athens,  where  she  passed  the  winter  with 
 him  (B.C.  39),  though  keeping  far  aloof  from  the  dis- 
 solute pleasures  to  which  he  abandoned  himself  With- 
 out her  interposition,  civil  war  would  even  then  have 
 broken  out  between  Octavius  and  .•\titony.  By  urgent 
 prayers  she  appeased  her  husband,  who  was  incensed 
 against  her  brother  for  his  suspicions,  and  then,  disre- 
 garding the  difficulties  of  the  journey  and  her  own 
 pregnancy,  she  went  with  his  consent  from  Greece  to 
 Rome,  and  induced  her  brother  to  consent  to  an  inter- 
 view with  .\ntony,  and  to  come  to  a  reconciliation  with 
 him.  When  Antony  went  to  make  war  against  the 
 Parihians,  she  accompanied  him  to  Corcyra,  and  at 
 his  order  returned  thence  to  remain  with  her  brother. 
 New  quarrels  arose  between  Octavius  and  Antony. 
 To  have  a  pretext  for  a  rupture,  the  former  ordered 
 his  sister  to  go  to  her  husband,  in  the  expectation  that 
 he  would  send  her  back.  This  actually  happened. 
 Antony  was  leading  a  life  of  plcas'ire  with  Cleopatra 
 at  Leuco[iolis,  when  letters  from  Octavia  at  Athens 
 informed  him  that  she  would  soon  join  him  with  mon- 
 ey and  troops.  The  prospect  of  this  visit  was  so  un- 
 welcome to  Cleopatra,  that  she  persisted  in  her  en- 
 treaties until  Antony  sent  his  wife  an  order  to  return. 
 Even  now,  however,  she  endeavoured  to  pacify  the 
 rivals.  Octavius  commanded  her  to  leave  the  house 
 .of  a  husband  who  had  treated  her  so  insultingly  ;  but, 
 feeling  her  duties  as  a  wife  and  a  Roman,  she  begged 
 him  not.  for  the  sake  of  a  single  woman,  to  destroy  the 
 peace  of  the  world,  and  of  two  persons  so  dear  to  her, 
 by  the  horrors  of  war.  Octavius  granted  her  wish : 
 she  remained  in  the  house  of  Antony,  and  occupied 
 herself  with  educating,  with  equal  care  and  tenderness, 
 the  children  she  had  borne  him,  and  those  of  his  first 
 wife  Fulvia.  This  noble  behaviour  of  hers  increased 
 the  indignation  of  the  Romans  against  .Antony.  At 
 last  he  divorced  her,  and  ordered  her  to  leave  his  man- 
 sion at  Rome.     She  obeyed  without  complaint,  and 
 
 took  with  her  all  her  children  except  Antillus,  her  el- 
 dest son,  who  was  then  with  his  father.  The  civil  war 
 soon  after  broke  out. — On  the  overthrow  and  death  of 
 Antony,  Octavia  gave  herself  up  to  complete  retire- 
 ment. Her  son  Marcellus,  the  issue  of  her  first  mar- 
 riage, was  united  to  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus, 
 and  intended  by  the  einjjeror  as  his  successor  ;  but  his 
 early  death  frustrated  this  design,  and  plunged  his 
 mother  and  friends  in  the  deepest  affliction.  It  was 
 on  Virgil's  reading  to  Octavia  and  .Augustus  the  beau- 
 tiful passage  towards  the  close  of  the  si.\th  book  oj 
 the  JEneid,  where  the  premature  death  of  Marcellus  is 
 deplored,  that  the  poet  received  Irom  the  sorrowing 
 parent  so  splendid  a  recompense.  {Vid.  Virgilius.) 
 Octavia,  in  fact,  never  recovered  from  the  loss  of  her 
 son.  His  death  continually  preyed  upon  her  mind, 
 and  she  at  last  ended  her  days  in  deep  melancholy, 
 about  12  B.C.  Augustus  pronounced  her  funeral  ora- 
 tion, but  declined  the  marks  of  honour  which  the  sen- 
 ate were  desirous  of  bestowing  upon  her.  { Sue  ton  , 
 ViL  Jul...  27.  — Id,  Vit.  Aug.,  17.  — W.  7h.,  61.— 
 Plut.,  Vit.  Ant ,  88.— Encycl.  Am.,  vol.  9,  p.  367.) 
 — II.  A  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  by  Messa- 
 lina,  and  sister  to  Bntannicus.  Her  lile,  though  short, 
 otiers  only  one  series  of  misfortunes.  While  still  quite 
 young,  she  was  affianced  to  Eucius  Silanus,  the  grand- 
 son of  Augustus  ;  but  Agripfiina,  availing  herself  of 
 her  influence  over  the  imbecile  Claudius,  broke  off  the 
 match,  and  gave  Octavia  to  her  own  son  Nero,  when 
 the  latter  had  attained  his  sixteenth  ysar.  Nero,  on 
 ascending  the  throne,  repudiated  Octavia  on  the  ground 
 of  sterility,  but,  in  reality,  that  he  might  unite  himself 
 to  Poppaja  ;  and  this  latter  female,  dreadinu  the  pres- 
 ence of  one  who  was  still  young  and  beautiful,  and  her 
 possible  influence  at  some  future  day  over  the  capri- 
 cious feelings  of  the  emperor,  accused  Octavia  of  crim- 
 inal intercourse  with  a  slave.  Some  pretended  testi- 
 mony having  been  obtained  by  means  of  the  torture, 
 Octavia  was  banished  to  Campania.  The  murmurs 
 of  the  people,  however,  compelled  Nero  to  recall  her 
 from  exile,  and  her  return  was  hailed  by  the  populace 
 with  every  demonstration  of  joy.  Alarmed  at  this, 
 and  fearing  lest  the  recall  of  Octavia  might  prove  the 
 sianal  of  her  own  disgrace,  Poppa;a  threw  herself  at 
 the  feet  of  Nero,  and  beggid  him  to  revoke  the  order 
 for  Octavia's  return.  The  emperor  granted  more  than 
 she  asked  ;  for  he  caused  the  infamous  Aniceius,  the 
 author  of  his  mother's  tnurder,  to  come  forward  and 
 testify  falsely  to  his  criminality  with  Octavia.  The 
 unhappy  princess,  upon  this,  was  banished  to  the  island 
 of  Pandataria,  and  soon  after  put  to  death  there.  Her 
 head  was  brought  to  Poppa^a.  Octavia  was  only  twenty 
 years  of  aoe  at  the  time  of  her  death.  {Tacit  ,  Ann., 
 24,  m.—Siiclnn.,  Vil.  Ncr.,  3.0.) 
 
 OcTAViANUs,  the  name  of  Octavius  (afterward  Au- 
 gustus), which  he  assumed  on  his  adoption  into  the 
 Julian  family,  in  accordance  with  the  Roman  custom 
 in  such  cases.  Usage,  however,  though  erroneous, 
 has  given  the  preference  to  the  name  Oitavtus  over 
 that  of  Octamanus.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  12,  25. — 
 Tacit.,  Ann.,  13.  ^.—Aurcl.  Vict,  de  Ctes  ,  c.  1.) 
 
 OoTAVius,  I  Nepos,  Cn.,  was  praator  B.C  168.  and 
 appointed  to  the  command  of  the  fleet  ai.'ainsl  Perseus. 
 He  followed  this  monarch,  after  his  defeat  by  Paulns 
 .■Emilius,  to  the  island  of  Samothrace,  and  there  ob- 
 tained his  surrender.  For  this  he  was  rewarded  with 
 a  naval  triumph.  {Liv.,  44,  \7  —Id.,  44.  45  —Id., 
 4.5,  6. _/,;.,  45,  42.)  In  B.C  165  he  was  consul  with 
 M.  Torqualus.  Having  been  sent,  three  years  after 
 this,  into  Syria,  at  the  head  of  a  deputation  to  act  as 
 guardians  to  the  young  king,  .Aniiocbus  Eupator,  he 
 was  assassinated  by  order,  as  was  supjiosed,  of  Lvsias 
 a  relation  of  the  previous  monarch,  and  who  claimed 
 the  retrency  durin<T  the  minority  of  Aniiochus.  The 
 arrocrant  and  hauahty  conduct  of  Octavius  appears  to 
 have  hastened  his  fale.     The  senate,  however,  erected 
 
 911 
 
ODE 
 
 ODI 
 
 t  statue  to  his  memory. — II.  M.,  a  tribune  of  the  com- 
 mons, deprived  ot  his  office  by  means  of  Tiberius  Grac- 
 chus. {Vid.  Gracchus  II.) — III.  Cn.,  was  consul 
 B  (j.  87,  along  with  Giinia.  Being  himself  attached 
 to  the  party  ol  Sylla,  and  having  the  .^^upport  of  the 
 setiate,  he  drove  his  colleague  out  of  the  city.  Marius, 
 however,  having  returned  this  same  year  and  re- enter- 
 ed Kome  wiihCmiia,  Octavius  was  put  to  death. — IV. 
 (y.,  the  father  of  Augustus,  was  pra;tor  B.C.  61,  and 
 distinguished  himself  by  the  correctness  and  justice  of 
 his  decisions.  After  his  praetorship  he  was  appointed 
 governor  of  Macedonia,  and  defeated  the  Bessi  and 
 other  Thracian  tribes,  for  which  he  received  from  his 
 soldiers  the  title  of  Imperator.  He  died  at  Nola,  on 
 his  return  from  his  province,  Octavius  married  Atia, 
 the  sister  of  Julius  Cccsar,  and  had  by  this  union  Oc- 
 tavius (afterward  Augustus)  and  Octavia,  the  wife  of 
 Aniony. — V.  The  earlier  name  of  the  Emperor  Au- 
 gustus.    {Vid.  Augustus  and  Octavianus.) 
 
 OcTODUKUs,  a  town  of  the  Veragri,  in  Gallia  Nar- 
 bonensis.  It  was  situate  in  the  Vallis  Pennina,  on 
 the  river  Dransa  or  Drance,  near  its  junction  with  the 
 Rhone,  at  a  considerable  distance  above  the  influx  of 
 the  latter  into  the  Lacus  Lemanus  or  Lake  of  Geneva. 
 It  is  now  Martisni,  or,  as  the  Germans  call  it,  Mar- 
 tenach.     (Cccs  ,  B   G.,  3,  1.) 
 
 OcTOGESA,  a  town  of  Spain,  a  little  above  the  mouth 
 of  the  Iberus,  on  the  north  bank  of  that  river,  where  it 
 is  joined  by  the  Sicoris.  It  is  commonly  supposed  to 
 answer  to  the  modern  Mcquiyienza.  Ukert,  however, 
 places  it  in  the  territory  of  la  Granja.  {Cces.,  Bell. 
 Civ.,  I,  61  ) 
 
 OcYi'ETE,  one  of  the  Harpies.  The  name  signifies 
 ,mi'ift- flying,  from  ukvq,  "swift,"  and  nsTOfiai,  "to 
 /(/."     (  Vid.  Harpyis.) 
 
 Odenatus,  a  celebrated  prince  of  Palmyra,  in  the 
 third  century  of  the  Christian  era,  who  distinguished 
 himself  by  his  military  talents  and  his  attachment  to 
 the  Romans.  The  accounts  of  his  origin  ditfer. 
 Agaihias  makes  him  of  mean  descent  ;  but  the  state- 
 ments of  others  are  entitled  to  more  credit,  according 
 to  whom  he  exercised  hereditary  sway  over  the  Arab 
 tribes  in  the  vicinity  of  Palmyra.  These  same  writers 
 inform  us,  that  his  family  had  for  a  long  time  back 
 been  connected  by  treaties  with  the  Romans,  and  had 
 received  from  the  latter  not  only  honorary  titles,  but 
 also  subsidies  for  protecting  the  frontiers  of  Syria. 
 That  there  e.xisted,  indeed,  some  sort  of  alliance  be- 
 tween this  family  and  the  Roman  power,  is  evident 
 from  the  name  Seplimiu.';,  which  was  borne  by  some  of 
 his  predecessors  as  well  as  by  Odenatus  himself,  and 
 which  vvonki  carry  us  back  probably  to  the  time  of 
 Septimius  Severus,  who  resided  a  long  time  in  Syria, 
 and  from  whom  the  honorary  ajjpellation  may  have 
 been  obtained.  {Siiint-Martin,  in  Bias;.  Univ.,  vol. 
 31,  p.  494,  stqq.) — The  manner  in  which  Odenatus  at- 
 tained to  the  supremacy  in  Palmyra  is  not  very  clear- 
 ly stated.  He  appears,  independently  of  his  sway  over 
 the  adjacent  tribes,  to  have  held  at  first  the  office  of 
 dccurio  or  senator  in  the  city  itself  When  Philip  the 
 Arabian  proclaimed  himself  emperor,  after  the  murder 
 of  the  younger  Gordian,  A.D.  244,  and  had  set  out 
 for  Rome,  he  left  the  government  of  Syria  in  llie  hands 
 of  his  brother  Priscus.  The  tyranny  and  oppression 
 of  the  latter  soon  caused  a  general  revolt.  Palmyra 
 from  this  time  assumed  the  rank  of  an  independent 
 city  ;  and  we  find  Septimius  .\iranes,  father  of  Ode- 
 natus, ruling  over  it  as  sovereign  prince,  A.D.  2.51. 
 He  was  succeeded  by  his  .-■on,  the  subject  of  this  arti- 
 cle. {Saint- Martin,  I.  r.)  Odenatus  was  twice  mar- 
 ried. The  name  and  family  of  his  first  wife  are  not 
 known.  He  had  by  her  a  son  called  Septimius  Oro- 
 des.  His  second  wife  was  the  celebrated  Zenobia, 
 daughter  of  an  Arabian  prince,  or  sheik,  who  held  un- 
 der his  sway  all  the  southern  part  of  Mesopotamia.  By 
 Zenobia  he  became  the  father  of  two  sons,  Herennius 
 913 
 
 and  Timolaus.  Zenobia  herself  had  also  a  son  by  a 
 previous  husband. — x\fter  the  defeat  and  capture  of  Va- 
 lerian by  the  King  of  Persia,  Odenatus,  desirous  at 
 least  to  secure  the  forbearance  of  the  conqueror,  sent 
 Sapor  a  magnificent  present,  accompanied  by  a  letter 
 full  of  respect  and  submission  ;  but  the  haughty  mon- 
 arch, instead  of  being  softened  by  this  expression  of 
 good- will,  ordered  the  gift  to  be  thrown  into  the  Eu- 
 phrates, and  returned  an  answer  breathing  the  utmost 
 contempt  and  indignation.  The  Palmyrian  prince, 
 who  read  his  fate  in  the  angry  message  of  Sapor,  im- 
 mediately took  the  field,  and  falling  upon  the  enemy, 
 who  had  already  been  driven  across  the  Euphrates  by 
 the  Roman  general  Balista,  gained  a  decisive  advan- 
 tage over  their  main  body.  He  then  burst  into  their 
 camp,  seized  the  treasures  and  the  concubines  of  Sa- 
 por, dispersed  the  intimidated  soldiers,  and  in  a  short 
 time  restored  Carrhae,  Nisibis,  and  all  ^Tesopotatnia  to 
 the  possession  of  the  Romans.  Trebelliiis  Pollio  in- 
 forms us,  that  he  even  proceeded  so  far  as  to  lay  siege 
 to  Ctesiphon,  with  the  view  of  liberating  Valerian, 
 who  was  still  alive,  but  that  neither  his  arms  nor  his 
 entreaties  could  effect  this  benevolent  object.  (Treb. 
 Poll.,  Trigint.  Tyrann.,  13. — Zonar.,  12,  23. — Zos- 
 im.,  lib.  1,  p.  661.)  The  Palmyrian  prince  then  turned 
 his  arms  against  Quietus,  son  of  Macrmus,  and  a  can- 
 didate for  the  empire,  and  overthrew  his  party  in  the 
 East.  As  a  recompense  for  these  important  services, 
 and  his  constant  attachment  to  Gallienus,  the  son 
 of  Valerian,  the  senate,  with  the  consent  of  the  empe- 
 ror, conferred  on  Odenatus  the  title  of  Augustus,  and 
 intrusted  him  with  the  general  command  of  the  East. 
 Zenobia  also  received  the  title  of  Augusta,  and  Oro- 
 des,  Herennius,  and  Timolaus  that  of  Cassars.  Odena- 
 tus signalized  his  attainment  to  these  honours  by  new 
 successes;  and  by  one  of  the  writers  of  the  Augustan 
 history,  his  name  is  connected  wiih  the  rejjulsc  of  the 
 Goths,  who  had  landed  on  the  shores  of  the  Euxine, 
 near  Heraclea^  'Trcb.  Poll.,  Gallieni  Duo,  c.  12.) 
 Of  this  fact,  however,  there  remains  no  satisfactory  evi- 
 dence ;  but  it  admits  not  of  any  doubt  that  the  sov- 
 ereign of  Palmyra  fell  soon  afterward  by  the  hand  of 
 domestic  treason,  in  which  his  queen  Zenobia  was 
 suspected  to  have  had  a  share.  The  murderer  was 
 his  own  nephew.  His  son  Orodes  was  slain  along 
 with  him.     (Trebell.  Poll.,  I  c.) 
 
 Odessus,  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Mossia  Inferior,  to 
 the  east  of  Marcianopolis.  It  was  founded  by  a  colo- 
 ny of  Milesians,  and  is  now  Varna  in  Bulgaria.  It 
 was  also  called  Odesopolis.  Some  editions  of  Ptole- 
 my give  the  form  'OSurrao^  (Odi/ssus),  and  in  the  Jtin. 
 Ant.  (p.  218)  Odissus  occurs.  {Mela,  2,  'Z.  — Pliny, 
 11.— Ou.,  Prist.,  1.  9.  37.) 
 
 OnEUM,  a  musical  theatre  at  .Athens.  {Suidas.  s.  v. 
 udelov.  —  Arisloph.,  Vcsp  ,  1104.)  It  was  built  by 
 Pericles  {Ptut.,  Vit.  Pcricl.  —  Vilruv.,  5,  9),  and  was 
 so  constructed  as  to  imitate  the  form  of  Xcr.xes'  tent. 
 {Pint.,  Vit.  Per.)  This  shape  gave  rise  to  some  plea.«- 
 antries  on  the  part  of  the  .Xthenians.  Thus,  for  exam- 
 ple, Cratinus,  in  one  of  his  comedies,  wishing  to  e.x- 
 press  that  the  head  of  Pericles  terminated  as  it  were  in 
 a  point,  said  that  he  carried  the  Odeum  on  his  head. 
 (Compare  Pint.,  I.  c.)  This  building  was  dcstroved 
 by  fire  at  the  siege  of  Athens  by  Sylla.  It  was  re- 
 erected  soon  after  by  Ariobarzanes,  king  of  Cappado- 
 cia.     {Pavsan.,  1,  20.) 
 
 OniNus  or  Odin,  the  principal  deity  of  the  ancient 
 Scandinavians  and  Northern  Germans.  Other  forms 
 for  the  name  were  Wodan,  Gnndan,  Godan,  Vothin, 
 Othin,  &c.  Among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  Wodan  was 
 the  god  of  merchants,  corresponding  to  the  Hermes  of 
 the  Greeks  or  the  Mercurius  of  the  Latins.  The  fourth 
 day  of  the  week  derived  its  name  from  him  ( Wodans- 
 tag).  In  the  account  of  the  origin  of  the  world,  as 
 given  in  the  older  Edda,  Odin,  the  eldest  son  of  Bor, 
 the  second  man,  is  represented  as  having,  with  his  two 
 
ODINUS. 
 
 ODO 
 
 brothers,  Vile  and  Ve,  defeated  and  slain  the  frost- 
 giant  Yiner,  out  of  vviiose  body  they  formed  the  liabi- 
 table  world.  .Some  expounders  of  mythology  make 
 Odin  and  his  brethren,  together  with  their  antagonist, 
 as  set  forth  in  this  fable,  to  be  mere  personifications 
 of  the  elements  of  the  world  — But  there  is  another 
 and  a  younger  Odin,  who,  arcordmg  to  some  writers, 
 is  partly  a  mythological  and  [lartly  an  historical  person- 
 age. In  nil  the  Scandinavian  traditions  preserved  by 
 the  chroniclers,  mention  is  made  of  a  chief  called  Odin, 
 who  came  from  .Asia  with  a  large  host  of  followers  call- 
 ed Axcr  (vtd  .Asi),  and  conquered  Scandinavia,  where 
 they  built  a  city  by  the  name  of  Sigtuna,  with  temples, 
 and  established  a  worship  and  a  hierarchy;  he  also  in- 
 vented or  brought  with  him  the  characters  of  the  Runic 
 alphabet ;  he  was,  in  short,  the  legislator  and  civilizer  of 
 the  North  He  is  represented  also  as  a  great  magician, 
 and  was  worshijiped  as  a  god  after  death,  when  some 
 of  the  attributes  of  the  elder  Odin  are  supposed  to  have 
 been  ascribed  to  him.  The  epoch  of  this  emigration 
 of  Odin  and  his  host  is  a  subject  of  great  uncertainty. 
 Some  place  it  in  the  time  of  the  Scythian  expedition 
 of  Darius  Hyslaspis  :  others  (and  tiiis  has  been  the 
 most  common  opinion  among  Scandinavian  arcliKolo- 
 gists)  da  It  about  the  time  of  the  Roman  conquests  in 
 Ponius,  50  or  60  B.C.  Siihm,  in  his  "  Gcschichte  der 
 Nordischen  Fabelzcit,"  enumerates  four  Odins.  One 
 was  Bor's  son  ;  he  came  from  the  mouths  of  the  Ta- 
 nais,  and  introduced  into  the  North  the  worship  of  the 
 Sun.  A  second  came  with  the  Aser,  from  the  borders 
 of  Europe  and  Asia,  at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Da- 
 rius. He  brought  with  him  the  Runic  alphabet,  built 
 temples,  and  established  the  mythology  of  the  Edda  : 
 he  IS  called  Mid  Othin,  or  Mittel  Othin.  A  third  Odin, 
 according  to  Siihm,  fled  from  the  borders  of  the  Cau- 
 casus at  the  time  of  Pompey's  conquests,  50  or  60 
 years  B.C.  The  fourth  Odin  he  makes  to  have  lived 
 in  the  third  or  fourth  century  of  our  era.  All  this,  how- 
 ever, is  far  from  being  authenticated  ;  though  the  north- 
 western emigration  of  Odin  from  the  borders  of  the 
 Caucasus  to  Scandinavia  has  the  support  of  a  uniform 
 tradition  in  its  favour.  Odin  was  worshipped  by  the 
 German  nations  until  their  conversion  to  Christianity. 
 {Enrycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  16,  p.  400.)  —  The  legend 
 of  Odin  evidently  points  to  the  introduction  of  religious 
 rites  and  ceremonies  among  the  northern  nations  by 
 some  powerful  lender  from  the  East,  who  was  himself, 
 in  some  deg«ie,  identified  after  death  with  the  deity 
 whose  worship  \w  h.id  brought  in  with  him.  This  de- 
 ity appears  to  havo  been  none  other  than  the  Budda 
 of  the  East,  just  iv  the  traditions  of  the  North  respect- 
 ing the  Aser  coii'itct  the  mythology  of  Scandinavia 
 in  a  very  remajkabto  manner  with  that  of  Upper  Asia. 
 (Vid.  Asi.)  The  sinking  resemblance  that  exists  be- 
 tween Budda  and  OiVin,  not  only  in  many  of  their  a[)- 
 pellations,  but  also  in  numerous  parts  of  their  worship, 
 has  been  fully  established  by  several  Northern  wri- 
 ters. (Consult  Magiviisen,  Eddalcercn  og  dens  Oprin- 
 delsc,  vol.  4,  prccf.  v.,  i-eqq. — Id  ih.,  vol.  4,  p.  474,  478, 
 scqq.;  !i\2,seqq.;  5'M,seqq.;  bM,seqq — Palmblad, 
 dc  Budda  el  Wodan,  Upsal,  1822,  4to. —  Wallman,  om 
 Odin  och  Budda,  Holm.,  1824,  8vo. — Compare  Rittcr, 
 Vorkalle,  \\.  472 — Sir  W.  Jones,  Asiatic  Researches, 
 vol.  1,  p.  511.— /rf.  tb.,  vol.  2.  p.  343.)  One  feature, 
 however,  in  which  these  two  deities  approximate  very 
 closely,  is  too  remarkable  to  be  here  omitted.  The 
 same  planet,  namely.  Mercury,  is  sacred  to  both  ;  and 
 the  same  day  of  the  week  (Wednesday)  is  called  after 
 each  of  them  respectively.  Thus  we  have  the  follow- 
 ing appellations  for  this  day  among  the  natives  of  In- 
 dia :  in  the  Birman,  Buddahu  :  in  the  Malabaric,  Bu- 
 den- kirumei,  &c.  So  again,  some  of  the  names  given 
 to  Budda  coincide  very  closely  with  those  of  Odin. 
 Thus  we  may  compare  the  Godama,  Gotama,  and 
 Samana-Codam  of  the  former,  with  the  Godan,  Gu- 
 tan,  Guodan,  &c.,  of  the  latter.  (The  Westphalians 
 6Z 
 
 still  call  Wednesday  Godenstag.)  We  may  even  ad- 
 vance a  step  farther,  and  compare  the  names  of  both 
 Odin  and  Budda  with  one  of  the  earliest  appellations 
 of  Deity  among  many  nations  of  Asia  and  Europe. 
 Thus  we  have  in  Sanscrit,  Coda  ;  in  Persian,  Ckoda, 
 Chada,  and  Gliuda ;  in  the  language  of  the  Kurds. 
 Chudi;  in  that  of  the  Afghans,  Chu.dai;  in  the  Goth- 
 ic and  German,  God  and  Got( ;  in  the  Icelandic  and 
 Danish,  Gud,  &c.  It  is  curious  to  observe,  moreover, 
 that  traces  of  the  worship  of  Odin  or  Budda  appear 
 even  in  America.  Among  the  ancient  traditions  col- 
 lected by  the  Spanish  bishop  Nunez  de  la  Vega,  there 
 is  one  which  was  current  among  the  Indians  of  Chiapa 
 respecting  a  certain  Wodan  or  Votari.  This  individ- 
 ual is  said  to  have  been  the  grandson  of  one  who,  to- 
 gether with  his  family,  was  alone  saved  from  a  univer- 
 sal deluge.  He  aided  in  the  erection  of  a  great  edi- 
 fice, by  which  men  attempted  to  reach  the  skies  ;  but. 
 the  execution  of  this  daring  project  was  frustrated  ; 
 each  family  of  men  received  a  different  language  ;  and 
 the  Great  Spirit  {Teoll)  ordered  Wodan  to  go  and  peo- 
 ple the  country  of  Anahuac,  or  Mexico.  This  same 
 Wodan,  moreover,  like  Odin  and  Budda,  gave  name  to 
 a  particular  day.  So  strong,  indeed,  does  the  resem- 
 blance between  Odin  and  the  Mexican  Wodan  appear, 
 that  even  Humboldt  himself  hesitates  not  to  use  the 
 following  language  in  relation  to  it :  "  Ce  Votan,  ou 
 Woda.n,  Amcricain  paroit  de  la  meme  famille  avec  les 
 Wods  ou  Odms  des  Goths  et  des  peuplcs  d'originr- 
 Celtique."  {Monumens  de  VAmerique,  vol.  1,  p.  382.) 
 It  would  appear,  then,  from  all  that  has  been  said,  that 
 the  worship  of  Odin  or  Budda  is  to  be  referred  in  its 
 origin  to  the  earliest  periods  of  the  history  of  our  race, 
 these  names  being  nothing  more  than  early  appella- 
 tions for  Deity,  and  being  afterward  shared  also  by 
 those  individuals  who  had  spread  this  particular  wor- 
 ship over  different  parts  of  the  earth.  (Consult  Mag' 
 nusen,  Mythol.  Boreal.  Lex.,  p.  261,  scqq. — Niemcy- 
 er,  Sagen,  beireffend  Othin,  &.C.,  Erf.,  1821,  8vo. — 
 Leo,  liber  Otkui's  Verehncng  in  Deulschland,  Erl., 
 1822,  8vo. — Klemm,  Germ.  Alterthumsk.,  p.  280, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Odoacer,  a  Gothic  chief,  who,  according  to  som6 
 authorities,  was  of  the  tribe  of  the  Heruli.  He  origi- 
 nally served  as  a  mercenary  in  the  barbarian  auxiliary 
 force  which  the  later  emperors  of  the  West  had  taken 
 into  their  pay  for  the  defence  of  Italy.  After  the  two 
 rival  emperors,  Glycerius  and  Julius  Ncpos,  were  both 
 driven  from  the  throne,  Orestes,  a  soldier  from  Pan- 
 nonia,  clothed  his  own  son  Romulus,  yet  a  minor,  with 
 the  imperial  purple,  but  retained  all  the  substantial  au- 
 thority in  his  own  hands.  The  barbarian  troop.s  now 
 asked  for  one  third  of  the  lands  of  Italv,  to  be  distrib- 
 uted among  them  as  a  reward  for  their  services.  Ores- 
 tes having  rejected  their  demand,  they  chose  Odoacer 
 for  their  leader,  who  immediately  marched  against 
 Orestes,  who  had  shut  himself  up  in  Ticinum  or  Pa- 
 via.  Odoacer  took  the  city  by  storm,  and  gave  it  up 
 to  be  plundered  by  his  soldiers.  Orestes  himself  was 
 taken  prisoner,  and  led  to  Placentia,  where  he  was  pub- 
 licly executed,  A.D.  47.'),  exactly  a  twelvemonth  after 
 he  had  driven  Nepos  out  of  Italy.  Romulus,  who  waa 
 called  Augustulus  by  way  of  derision,  was  in  Raven- 
 na, where  he  was  seized  by  Odoacer,  who  stripped  him- 
 of  his  imperial  ornaments,  and  banished  him  to  a  cas- 
 tle in  Campania,  but  allowed  him  an  honourable  main- 
 tenance. Odoacer  now  proclaimed  himself  King  of 
 Italy,  rejecting  the  imperial  titles  of  Ca;sar  and  Augus- 
 tus. For  this  reason  the  Western  empire  is  consid- 
 ered as  having  ended  with  the  deposition  of  Romulus 
 Augustulus,  the  son  of  Orestes.  Odoacer's  authority 
 did  not  extend  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Italy.  Little 
 is  known  of  the  events  of  his  reign  until  the  invasion 
 of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  who,  at  the  in- 
 stigation, as  some  historians  assert,  of  Zeno,  emperor 
 of  the  East,  marched  from  the  banks  of  the  Danube  t» 
 
 913 
 
ODR 
 
 ODYSSEA. 
 
 dispossess  Odoacer  of  his  kingdom.  Theodoric,  at 
 the  head  of  a  large  army,  defeaied  Odoacer  near  Aqui- 
 Icia,  and  entered  Verona  without  opposition.  Odoa- 
 cer shut  himself  up  in  Ravenna,  A.D.  489.  The  w:ir, 
 however,  lasted  for  several  years;  Odoacer  made  a 
 brave  resistance,  but  was  compelled  by  famme  to  sur- 
 rendjr  Ravenna,  A.D.  493.  'i'heodoric  at  first  spared 
 his  life,  but  in  a  short  time  caused  him  to  be  put  to 
 iJ*iath,  and  [iroclaimed  himself  King  of  Italy.  {Encycl. 
 Us   KnoicL,  vol.  16,  p.  400.) 
 
 OnKYs^,  one  of  the  most  numerous  and  warlike  of 
 the  Thracian  tribes.  Under  the  dominion  of  Sitalces, 
 a  king  of  theirs,  was  established  what  is  called  in  his- 
 tory the  etnpire  of  the  Odrysoe.  Tliucydides.  who  has 
 entered  into  considerable  detail  on  this  subject,  ob- 
 serves, that  of  all  the  empires  situated  between  the 
 Ionian  Gulf  and  the  Euxine,  this  was  the  most  con- 
 siderable, both  in  revenue  and  opulence.  Its  mili- 
 tary force  was,  however,  very  inferior  to  that  of  Scy- 
 thia  both  in  strength  and  numbers.  The  empire  of  Si- 
 talces extended  along  the  coast  from  Abdera  to  the 
 mouths  of  the  Danube,  a  distance  of  four  days'  and 
 nights'  sail ;  and  in  the  interior,  from  the  sources  of 
 the  Strymon  to  Byzantium,  a  journey  of  thirteen  days. 
 The  first  founder  of  this  empire  appears  to  have  been 
 Teres.  {Herod.,  7,  127.— Thucyd,  2.  29.)  For  far- 
 ther remarks  on  the  Odrysae,  see  the  article  Thracia. 
 
 Odvssea,  I.  a  city  of  Hispania  Ba?tica,  north  of  Ab- 
 dera, among  the  mountains.  It  was  founded,  accord- 
 ing to  a  fabulous  tradition,  by  Ulysses.  {Postdon., 
 ArUmidor.,  AscUp.,  Myrl.,  ap.  Slrab.,  149.  —  Evs- 
 tath.  ad  Od  ,  p.  1379.  —  Id.  ad  Dwnys.  Pcrir.g.,  281. 
 —  Slcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.—  Tzsrhucke  ad  Mel.,  3,  1,  6.) 
 Some  have  supposed  it  to  be  the  same  with  Olisippo 
 or  Ulysippo  (now  Lishon),  and  very  probably  we  owe 
 Odyssea  to  the  same  fabulous  legend  which  assigns 
 Ulysses  as  the  founder  of  Ulysippo.  There  must  have 
 been  a  town  in  Baetica,  the  name  of  which,  resembling 
 in  some  degree  the  form  Odyssea  ('Odvaaeia),  the 
 firceks,  in  their  usual  way,  converted  into  the  latter, 
 and  then  appended  to  it  the  fable  respecting  a  founding 
 by  Ulysses.  (Consult  Ukerl,  Gcogr.,  vol  2,  p  351. — 
 Merula,  Cosmogr.,  pt.  2,  I.  2,  e.  26.)  —  II.  A  prom- 
 ontory of  Sicily,  near  Pachynum,  supposed  by  Fazel- 
 lus  to  be  the  same  with  the  present  Cabo  Murzo. 
 (Bischoff  und  Moller,  Worterb.  dcr  Geogr.,  p.  798.) 
 — III.  The  second  of  the  two  great  poems  ascribed 
 to  Homer.  It  consists,  like  the  Iliad,  of  twenty-four 
 books ;  and  the  subject  is  the  return  of  Ulysses  ('06va- 
 (Tftif ),  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  from  a  land  lying  beyond 
 the  range  of  human  intercourse  or  knowledge,  to  a  home 
 invaded  by  a  hand  of  insolent  intruders,  who  seek  to  rob 
 him  of  his  wife  and  kill  his  son.  Hence,  the  Odyssey 
 begins  exactly  at  that  {)oint  where  the  hero  is  considered 
 to  be  farthest  from  his  home,  in  the  island  of  Ogygia,  at 
 the  navel,  that  is,  the  central  part,  of  the  sea;  where 
 the  nymph  Calypso  (Ka/lni/^cj,  "  Tlie  Concealer''')  has 
 kept  him  hidden  from  all  mankind  for  seven  years  ; 
 thence,  having,  by  the  help  of  the  gods,  who  pity  his 
 misfortunes,  passed  through  the  dangers  prepared  for 
 him  by  his  implacable  enemy,  Poseidon  or  Neptune,  he 
 •Tains  the  land  of  the  Pha^acians,  a  careless,  peaceable, 
 and  effeminate  nation,  to  whom  war  is  only  known  by 
 means  of  poetry.  Borne  along  by  a  marvellous  Phsa- 
 cian  vessel,  he  reaches  Ithaca  sleeping  ;  here  he  is 
 entertained  by  the  honest  swineherd  lOurnneus,  and, 
 having  been  introduced  into  his  own  house  as  a  beg- 
 "M,  he  is  there  made  to  suffer  the  harshest  treatment 
 from  the  suiters,  in  order  that  he  may  afterward  appear 
 with  the  stronger  right  as  a  terrible  avenger.  With  this 
 simple  story  a  poet  might  have  been  satisfied  ;  and 
 we  should,  even  in  this  form,  notwithstanding  its  small- 
 er extent,  have  placed  the  poem  almost  on  an  equality 
 with  the  Iliad.  But  the  poet  to  whom  we  are  indebt- 
 ed for  the  Odyssey  in  a  complete  form,  has  interwoven 
 a  second  story,  by  which  the  poem  is  rendered  much 
 914 
 
 richer  and  more  complete  ;  although,  indeed,  from  the 
 union  of  two  actions,  some  roughnesses  have  been 
 j)rodu:;ed,  which,  perhaps,  with  a  plan  of  this  kind, 
 could  scarcely  be  avoided.  W  hile  the  poet  represents 
 the  son  of  Ulysses,  stimulated  by  Minerva,  coining 
 forward  in  Ithaca  with  newly-exciled  courage,  and 
 calling  the  suiters  to  account  before  the  people,  and 
 then  afterward  describes  him  as  travelling  to  Pylos 
 and  Sparta  in  order  to  oinain  intelligence  of  his  lost 
 father,  he  gives  us  a  picture  of  Ithaca  and  its  anar- 
 chical condition,  and  of  the  rest  of  Greece  m  its  stale 
 of  peace  after  the  return  of  the  princes,  which  produces 
 the  finest  contrast;  and,  at  the  same  time,  he  prepares 
 Telemachus  for  playing  an  energetic  part  in  the  work 
 of  vengeance,  which  by  this  means  becomes  more  prob- 
 able.— The  Odyssey  is  indisputably,  as  well  as  the  Il- 
 iad, a  poein  possessing  a  unity  of  subject ;  nor  can  any 
 one  of  its  chief  parts  be  removed  without  leaving  a 
 chasm  in  the  development  of  the  leading  idea  ;  but  it 
 differs  from  the  Iliad  in  being  composed  on  a  more 
 artificial  and  more  complicated  plan.  This  is  the 
 case  partly,  because,  in  the  first  and  greater  division  of 
 the  poem,  up  to  the  sixteenth  book,  two  main  actions 
 are  carried  on  side  by  side  ;  and  partly,  because  the 
 action,  which  passes  within  the  compass  of  the  poem, 
 and,  as  it  were,  beneath  our  eyes,  is  greatly  extended 
 by  means  of  an  episodical  narration,  by  which  the 
 chief  action  itself  is  made  distinct  and  complete,  and 
 the  most  marvellous  part  of  the  story  is  transferred 
 from  the  mouth  of  the  poet  to  that  of  the  hero  hinv 
 self. —  It  is  plain  that  the  plan  of  the  Odyssey,  as  well 
 as  that  of  the  Iliad,  offered  many  opportunities  for 
 enlargement  by  the  insertion  of  new  passages  ;  and 
 many  irregularities  in  the  course  of  the  narration,  and 
 its  occasional  diffuseness,  may  be  explained  in  this 
 manner.  The  latter,  for  example,  is  observable  in  the 
 amusements  offered  to  Ulysses  when  entertained  by 
 the  Phsacians  ;  and  some  of  the  ancients  even  ques- 
 tioned the  genuineness  of  the  passage  about  the  dance 
 of  the  Phasacians,  and  the  song  of  Demodocus  respect- 
 ing the  loves  of  Mars  and  Venus,  although  this  part  of 
 the  Odyssey  appears  to  have  been  at  least  extant  in  the 
 50th  Olympiad  (B.C.  580-577),  when  the  chorus  of  the 
 Phaeacians  was  represented  on  the  throne  of  the  Amy- 
 claean  Apollo.  {I'ausan.,  3,  18,  7.)  So  likewise 
 Ulysses'  account  of  his  adventures  contains  many  in- 
 terpolations, particularly  in  the  ttckym,  or  invocation 
 of  the  dead,  where  the  ancients  had  already  attributed 
 an  important  passage  (which,  in  fact,  destroys  the 
 unity  and  connexion  of  the  narrative)  to  the  diaskeu- 
 aslcB,  or  interpolators  ;  among  others,  to  the  Orphic 
 Onomacritiis,  who,  in  the  time  of  the  Pisistratidse,  was 
 employed  in  collecting  the  poems  of  Homer.  (Schol. 
 ad  Od  ,  11,  104.)  Moreover,  the  Alexandrine  critics, 
 Aristophanes  and  Aristarchus,  considered  the  whole 
 of  the  last  part  (from  Od.  23,  296,  to  the  end),  from  the 
 recognition  of  Penelope,  as  added  at  a  later  period. 
 Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  it  has  great  defects  ;  in  par- 
 ticular, the  description  of  the  arrival  of  the  suiters  in  the 
 infernal  regions  is  only  a  second  and  feebler  vekyia, 
 which  does  not  precisely  accord  with  the  first,  and  is 
 introduced  in  this  place  without  sufficient  reason.  At 
 the  same  lime,  the  Odvssey  could  never  have  been 
 considered  as  concluded  until  Ulysses  had  embraced 
 his  father  Laertes,  who  is  often  mentioned  in  the 
 course  of  the  [locin,  and  until  a  peaceful  state  of  things 
 had  been  restored,  or  begun  to  be  restored,  in  Ithaca. 
 It  is  not,  therefore,  likely  that  the  original  Odyssey  al- 
 totrether  wanted  some  passage  of  this  kind  ;  but  it 
 was  probably  much  altered  by  the  HomeridaR,  until  it 
 assumed  the  form  in  which  we  now  possess  it — That 
 the  Odyssey  was  written  after  the  Iliad,  and  that 
 many  differences  are  apparent  in  the  character  and 
 manners  both  of  men  and  gods,  as  well  as  in  the  man- 
 agement of  the  language,  is  quite  clear  ;  but  it  is  diffi- 
 cult and  hazardous  to  raise  upon  this  foundation  any 
 
CE  A 
 
 a:  c  H 
 
 definite  conclusions  as  to  the  person  and  age  of  the 
 poet.     With  the  exception  of  the  anger  of  Neptune, 
 who  always  works  unseen  in  the  ohscure  distance,  the 
 gods  appear   in  a  milder  form ;    they  act   in   unison, 
 without  dissension  or  contest,  for  the  relief  of  man- 
 kind, not,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  the  Iliad,  for  their 
 destruction.     It  is,  however,  true,  that  the  subject  af- 
 forded far  less  occasion  for  describing  the  violent  and 
 anijry   passions  and  vehement  combats  of  the  gods. 
 At  the  same  lime,  the  gods  all  appear  a  step  higher 
 above  the  human  race  ;   they  are  not  represented  as 
 descending  in  a  bodily  form  from  their  dwelhngs  on 
 Mount  Olympus,  and   mi.Kiiig  in  the  tumult  of  the  bat- 
 tie,  but  they  go  about  in  human  forms,  only  discerni- 
 ble by  their  superior  wisdom  and  prudence,  in  the  com- 
 pany of  the  adventurous   Ulysses  and  the  intelligent 
 Tcie.machus.     But  the  chief  cause  of  this  difference 
 is  t3  he  sought  in  the  nature  of  the  story,  and,  we  may 
 add,  in    the  fine   tact  of  the  poet,  who   knew  how  to 
 preserve  unity  of  subject  and  harmony  of  tone  in  his 
 picture,  and    to  e.^cclude  everything   irrelevant.     The 
 attempt  of  many  learned  writers  to  discover  a  different 
 religion  and  mythology  for  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey, 
 leads  to  the  most  arbitrary  dissection  of  the  two  poems. 
 M.   (Constant,    in    particular,    in    his   celebrated    work 
 "De  la  Rcliiiio/C  (vol.  3),  has  been  forced  to  go  to 
 this  length,  as  he  distinguishes  ^' trois  cspeces  de  mtj- 
 thologic'''  in  the  Homeric  poems,  and  determines  from 
 them  the  age  of  the  different  parts.     It  ought,  how- 
 ever, above  all  things,  to  have  been   made  clear  how 
 the  fable  of  the  Iliad  could  have  been  treated  by  a 
 professor  of  this    supposed  religion  of  the  Odyssey, 
 without    introducing   quarrels,  battles,   and   vehement 
 excitement  among   the  gods  ;   in    which   there    would 
 have  been  no  difficulty,  if  the  difference  of  character  in 
 the  gods  of  the  two  poems  were  introduced   by  the 
 poet,  and  did  not  grow  out  of  the  subject.     On  the 
 other  hand,  the  human  race  appears,  in  the  houses  of 
 Nestor,  Menelaiis,  and  especially  of  Alcinoiis,  in  a  far 
 more  agreeable  stale,  and  one  of  far  greater  comfort 
 and  luxury,  than  in   the  Iliad.     But  where  could  tiie 
 enjoyments,  to  which  the  Atridae,  in  their  native  palace, 
 and   the  peaceable  Ph*acians  could  securely  abandon 
 themselves,  find  a  place  in  a  rough  camp  '      Granting, 
 however,  that  a  different  taste  and  feeling  is  shown  in 
 the  choice  of  the  subject  and  in  the  whole  arrange- 
 ment of  the  poem,  yet  there  is  not  a  greater  difference 
 than  is  found   in  the  inclinations  of  the  same   man  in 
 the  prime  of  life  and  in  old  age  ;    and,  to  speak  can- 
 didly, we   know  no  other  argument,  adduced    by  the 
 Ckonzonte.s  both  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  for  at- 
 tributing the  wonderful  genius  of  Homer  to  two  differ- 
 ent individuals.     It  is  certain  that  the  Odyssey,  in  re- 
 spect of  its  plan  and   the  conception  of  its  chief  char- 
 acters,  of  Ulysses  himself,  of  Nestor  and   Menelaiis. 
 stands  in  the  closest  alfinily  with  the  Iliad  ;   that  it  al- 
 ways prcsujiposes  the  existence  of  the  earlier  poem, 
 and  silently  refers  to  it ;   which  also  serves  to  explain 
 the  remarkable  fact,  that  the  Odyssey  mentions  many 
 occurrences  in  the  life  of  Ulysses  which  lie  out  of  the 
 compass  of  the  action,  but  not  one  which  is  celebrated 
 in  the  Iliad.     If  the  completion  of  the  Iliad  and   the 
 Odyssey  seems  too  vast  a  work  for  the  lifetime  of  one 
 man,  we  may,  perhaps,  have  recourse  to  the  supposition, 
 that  Homer,  after  having  sung  the  Iliad  in  the  vigour  of 
 his  youthful  years,  communicated  in  his  old  age  to  some 
 devoted  disciple  the  plan  of  the  Odyssey,  which  had 
 long  been  working  in  his  mind,  and  left  it  to  him  for 
 completion.     {Mailer,  Hint.  (rr.  Lit.,  p.  .57,  saiq.) 
 
 CEk,  I.  a  town  in  the  island  of  .Egina,  above  20 
 stadia  from  the  capital.  {Hcro(l.,5,S:i  ) — II.  A  town 
 in  the  island  of  Thera,  called  also  Calliste.  —  III.  A 
 city  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  between  the  two  Syrtes, 
 and  forming,  together  with  Sahrata  and  Leptis  Magna, 
 the  district  called  Tripolis.  This  city  first  grew  up 
 under  the  Roman  sway,  and  was  founded  by  a  colo- 
 
 ny consisting  of  the  natives  and  certain  Sicilians  in- 
 tenninaled.  (Compare  iS'/7(ms //a/.,  3,  257.)  It  was  a 
 small  place  in  comparison  with  tlie  neighbouring  Lep- 
 tis, and  yet  was  able  to  sustain  a  contest  with  this  city 
 about  their  respective  boundaries,  by  the  aid  of  the 
 Garamantes  in  its  vicinity.  {Tacit.,  Hisl.,  4,  50.) 
 In  the  reign  ol  Valentinian,  the  Tripolitan  cities  were 
 for  the  first  time  obliged  to  shut  their  gates  against  a 
 hostile  invasion  of  the  savages  of  Gffitulia  ;  and,  find 
 ing  themselves  unprotected  by  the  venal  command- 
 er to  whom  the  defence  of  Africa  was  intrusted, 
 they  joined  the  rebellious  standard  of  a  Moor.  The 
 insurrection  was  suppressed  by  the  ability  of  The- 
 odosius,  the  Roman  general.  Seventy  years  after, 
 the  whole  country  was  ravaged  by  the  Vandals.  In 
 the  sixth  century,  Q2a  no  longer  existed,  since  Pro- 
 copius,  who  speaks  of  the  walls  of  the  other  cities 
 in  Tripoli  being  rebuilt,  passes  over  QCa  in  silence. 
 The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  are  said  to  lie  four  geo- 
 graphical miles  to  the  east  of  the  modern  Tripoli  (or, 
 as  the  natives  call  it,  Tarahlcs).  Ptolemy  writes  the 
 name  of  the  city  'Eua  {Eoa);  the  Peutinger  Table 
 gives  Osa,  and  the  Antonine  Itinerary  CEea.  {Marf 
 nert.  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  135.) 
 
 ffiAGRUs,  the  father  of  Orpheus  by  fJalliope.  He 
 was  king  of  Thrace,  and  from  him  Mount  HaJinus, 
 and  also  Hebrus,  one  of  the  rivers  of  the  country,  have 
 received  the  appellation  of  (Eagrius,  which  thus  be- 
 comes equivalent  to  "  Tkracius''^  or  "  Thracicus." 
 {Ovi(L  lb  ,  481.— Fn-^.,  G.,  4,  b2\.—Aj)ollod.,  1,  3.) 
 CEhai.Ia,  I.  the  ancient  name  of  Laconia,  which  it 
 received  from  ffibalus,  one  of  its  ancient  kings.  {Serv. 
 ad  Virg.,  Georg.,  4,  125.)  Hence  (Ebalms  is  used 
 by  the  poets  as  equivalent  to  Laconicus  or  Sportanus, 
 and  is  applied  to  Castor  and  Pollux  ("  (Elialii  fralres,'' 
 Slatius,  Sijlv.,  3,  2,  10),  to  Helen  {'^  (Ebalia  pcllex," 
 Onid,  Rem.  Am  ,  458),  to  Hyacinthus  ("  (Ebalius 
 piier,'''  Martial,  14,  173),  &c.  —  II.  A  name  applied 
 to  Tarentum,  because  founded  by  a  Spartan  colony. 
 {Plin.,  3,  11  —F/or.,  1,  18.) 
 
 CEbai.us.  I.  a  son  of  .'Vrgulius,  king  of  Laconia, 
 which  counirv  received  from  him,  among  the  poets, 
 the  name  of  ffibalia.  He  was  the  father  of  Tyndarus, 
 and  grandfather  of  Helen.  {Hijgin.,  fab.,  78  ) — II. 
 \  son  of  Telon,  king  of  Caprea;,  and  of  the  nymph 
 Sebethis.     {Virg.,  Mn.,  7,  734 — Scrv.,  ad  loc) 
 
 CEcHAi.iA,  I.  a  city  of  Thessaly.  in  the  district  of 
 Estiajotis.  (Horn., //.,  2,  729.)  Homer  here  couples 
 it  with  Tricca  and  Ithome,  and  of  course  means  by  it 
 a  Thessalian  city.  Many  poets,  however,  as  Strabo 
 observes,  not  adhering  to  the  Homeric  geography, 
 were  of  opinion  that  QKchalia  was  in  Euboea,  as  Soph- 
 ocles, for  instance,  in  his  Trachiniai ;  while  others 
 consigned  it  to  .\rcadia  or  Messenia.  {Strabo,  438. — 
 Cramer's  A?ic.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  362.) — II.  A  city  of 
 .Etolia,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Eurytanes.  {Sirabo, 
 448.) — III.  .'Ccitv  of  EuboBa,  where  Eurytus  reigned, 
 and  which  was  destroyed  by  Hercules.  But  this  opin- 
 ion, which  is  maintained  by  many  writers,  would  seem 
 not  to  have  been  a  well-grounded  one,  and  we  ought 
 to  look,  in  all  probabilitv.  for  the  CEchalia  of  Euryiua 
 in  Thessaly.  {Vid.  CEchalia  ].  — Cramer's  Aiic. 
 Greece,  vol  2,  p.  139.)— IV.  A  city  of  Mes.-enia,  ac- 
 cording to  some  the  residence  of  Eurytus.  {Pausan., 
 4,  33  )  This  is,  however,  a  question  which  has  been 
 much  agitated  by  the  commentators  on  Homer;  for, 
 as  Strabo  remarks,  the  poet  seems  to  s[)cak  of  two 
 places  of  that  name,  both  belonging  to  Eurytus,  one 
 in  Thessalv,  the  other  in  Messenia;  it  was  from  tlie 
 latter  that  Thamyris,  the  Tnracian  bard,  was  proceed- 
 \na  on  his  way'to  Dorium.  another  Me.sscnian  city, 
 when  he  encountered  the  Muses,  who  deprived  him 
 of  his  art.  {II.,  2,  594  )  Apollodorus  acknowledged 
 only  one  CEchalia  of  Eurytus,  which  he  placed  m 
 Thessaly  ;  but  Demetrius  of  Scepsis  admitted  also  the 
 Messenian  city,  which  he  identified  with  Andania,  a 
 
 915 
 
(E  DI 
 
 (EDIPUS. 
 
 well-known  town  of  that  province  on  the  Arcadian 
 frotititr.  {Strabo,  339. —  C'ramer's  /inc.  Greece,  vol. 
 3,  p.  146,  scgq.) 
 
 CEiUMENU's,  an  ancient  Greek  Commentator  on  the 
 Scrij)tiires.  The  time  at  which  he  lived  is  uncertain ; 
 but  it  was  after  the  eighth  century  and  liefore  the 
 tenth.  He  is  generally  placed  in  the  ninth  century  ; 
 Oave  assigns  to  him  the  date  A.D.  990  ;  Lardner, 
 A.D.  950.  QCcumenius  was  bishop  of  'I'ricca,  and 
 the  author  of  commentaries  on  the  Acts  of  the  .Apos- 
 tles, the  fourteen  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  and  the  seven 
 Catholic  e[)islles,  wliich  contain  a  concise  and  per- 
 spicuous illustration  of  these  parts  of  the  New  Tes- 
 tament. Besides  his  own  remarks  and  notes,  they 
 consist  of  a  compilation  of  the  notes  and  observations 
 of  Chrysoslom,  Cynll  of  .Alexandrea,  (Jregory  Nazian- 
 zen,  and  others.  He  is  thought  to  have  written  also 
 a  commentary  on  the  four  gospels,  compiled  from  the 
 writings  of  the  ancient  fathers,  which  is  not  now  ex- 
 tant. The  works  of  CEcuinenius  were  tirst  published 
 in  Greek  at  Verona  in  1.t32,  and  in  Greek  and  Lai  in 
 at  Paris  in  1631,  in  2  vols.  fol.  To  the  second  vol- 
 ume of  the  Paris  edition  is  added  the  commentary  of 
 Arethas  on  the  book  of  Revelations.  (Consult  Hoff- 
 mann.  Lex.  Binlwgr.,  vol.  3,  p.  156  ) 
 
 CEdifus  (0('(5/7roDf).  was  the  son  of  La'i'us,  king 
 of  Thebes,  and  of  Jocasta,  the  daughter  of  Menceceus. 
 Homer  calls  his  mother  Epicasta.  An  oracle  had 
 warned  Laius  against  having  children,  declaring  that 
 he  would  meet  his  death  by  means  of  his  offspring  ; 
 and  the  monarch  accordingly  refrained,  until,  after 
 some  lapse  of  time,  having  indulged  in  festivity,  he 
 forgot  the  injunction  of  the  god,  and  Jocasta  gave 
 birth  to  a  son.  The  father  immediately  delivered  the 
 child  to  his  herdsman  to  expose  on  Mount  Citha;ron. 
 The  herdsman,  moved  to  compassion,  according  to 
 one  account  {Soph  ,  CEd.  Tyr.,  1038),  gave  the  babe 
 to  a  neatherd  belonging  to  Polybus,  king  of  Corinth, 
 or,  as  others  say  {Eurip.,  Phaeniss  ,  28),  the  neatherds 
 of  Polybus  found  the  infant  after  it  had  been  exposed, 
 and  brought  it  to  Periboea,  the  wife  of  Polybus,  who, 
 being  childless,  reared  it  as  her  own,  and  named  it 
 ffidipus,  on  account  of  its  swollen  fett  (from  oh'iioj,  to 
 swell,  and  TroiJf,  afoot);  for  Laius,  previous  to  its  ex- 
 posure, had  pierced  its  ankles,  and  had  inserted  through 
 the  wound  a  leathern  thong.  The  foundling  CEdipus 
 was  brought  up  by  Polybus  as  his  heir.  Happening 
 to  be  reproached  by  some  one  at  a  banquet  with  being 
 a  supposititious  child,  he  besought  Periboea  to  inform 
 him  of  the  truth;  but,  unable  to  get  any  satisfaction 
 from  her,  he  went  to  Delphi  and  consulted  the  oracle. 
 The  god  directed  him  to  shun  his  native  country,  or 
 else  he  would  be  the  slayer  of  his  father  and  the  sharer 
 of  his  mother's  bed.  He  therefore  resolved  never  to 
 return  to  Corinth,  where  so  much  crime,  as  he  thought, 
 awaited  him,  and  he  took  his  road  through  Phocis. 
 Now  it  happened  that  Laius,  at  this  same  time,  was 
 on  his  way  to  Delphi,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
 whether  the  child  which  had  been  ex|)osed  had  perish 
 ed  or  not.  He  was  in  a  chariot,  accompanied  by  his 
 herald  Polyphontes  ;  a  few  attendants  came  after. 
 The  father  and  son,  total  strantjers  to  each  other,  met 
 in  a  narrow  road  in  Phocis.  (Edipus  was  ordered  to 
 riiake  way,  and,  on  his  disregarding  the  command,  the 
 charioteer  endeavoured  to  crowd  him  out  of  the  path. 
 A  contest  thereupon  ensued,  and  both  [^aius  and  the 
 charioteer,  together  with  all  the  attendants  except  one, 
 who  fled,  were  slain  by  the  hand  of  Q^dipus.  Imme- 
 diately after  the  death  of  Laius,  Juno,  always  hostile 
 to  the  city  of  Bacchus,  sent  a  monster  named  the 
 Sphinx  to  ravage  the  territory  of  Thebes.  It  had  the 
 face  of  a  woman,  the  breast,  feet,  and  tail  of  a  lion, 
 and  the  wings  of  a  bird.  This  monster  had  been 
 taught  riddles  by  the  Muses,  and  she  sat  on  the  Phi- 
 cean  Hill,  and  propounded  one  to  the  Thebans.  It  was 
 this:  "What  is  that  which  has  one  voice,  is  four-foot- 
 916 
 
 ed,  two-footed,  and  at  last  three- footed  ?''  or,  as  ofh. 
 ers  give  it,  "  What  animal  is  that  which  goes  on  foui 
 feet  111  I  he  morning,  on  two  at  noon,  and  jn  three  a* 
 evening  1"  'I'he  oracle  told  tie  The'.jap.>  that  they 
 would  not  he  delivered  from  her  'jntil  they  had  solved 
 her  riddle.  They  often  met  to  .ry  their  skill ;  and 
 when  they  had  failed,  the  Sphinx  always  Cjiried  off 
 and  devoured  one  of  their  nuni'jer.  At  length  Ha-rnon, 
 son  of  Creoii,  having  becoir.d  her  victim,  the  father  of- 
 fered by  public  proclamal.on  the  throne,  to  which  he 
 had  succeeded  on  ibe  d*  ath  of  Laius,  and  the  hand  of 
 his  sister  Jocasta,  to  vi 'iKiever  should  solve  the  riddle  of 
 the  Sphinx.  ffidipi.-iS,  who  was  then  at  Thebes,  hear- 
 ing this,  came  forw:,rd  and  answered  the  Sjihinx  that  it 
 was  Man  ;  who,  v/hen  an  infant,  creeps  on  all  lours  ; 
 when  he  has  attained  to  manhood,  goes  on  two  feel; 
 and  when  old,  i/ses  a  staff,  a  third  foot.  The  Sphinr 
 thereupon  flung  herself  down  to  the  earth  and  peris-h- 
 ed  ;  and  CEd. pus  now  unknowingly  accoinpli,><hed  the 
 remainder  ol  the  oracle.  He  had  by  his  mother  two 
 sons,  Eteories  and  Polynices,  and  two  daughters,  .An- 
 tigone and  Ismene. — .\fter  some  years  I'hebes  was 
 afHi>  ted  with  famine  and  pestilence  ;  and  the  oracle 
 being  consulted,  ordered  the  land  to  be  purified  of  the 
 blood  which  defiled  it.  Inquiry  was  set  on  foot  afier 
 the  murder  of  Laius,  and  a  variety  of  concurring  cir- 
 cumstances brought  the  guilt  home  to  Qiidipus.  Jo- 
 casta, on  the  discovery  being  made,  hung  herself,  and 
 her  unhappy  son  and  husband,  in  his  grief  and  despair, 
 put  out  his  eyes.  He  was  banished  from  'I'hebes  ; 
 and,  accompanied  by  his  daughters,  who  failhfully  ad- 
 hered to  him,  he  came,  after  a  tedious  period  of  miser- 
 able wandering,  to  the  grove  of  the  Furies  at  Colonus, 
 a  village  not  far  from  Athens,  and  there  found  the  ter- 
 mination of  his  wretched  life,  having  mysteriously  dl^s- 
 appeared  from  mortal  view,  and  been  received  into  the 
 bosom  of  the  earth.  {Apollud.,  3,  5,  8,  seq. — Soph  , 
 CEd.  Col.)  The  history  of  his  sons  will  be  found 
 under  the  articles  Eteocles  and  Polynices. — Such  is 
 the  form  in  which  the  history  of  CEdipus  has  been 
 transmitted  to  us  by  the  Atiic  dramatists.  We  will 
 now  consider  its  more  ancient  shape.  The  hero  of 
 the  Odyssey  says,  "I  saw  (in  Erebus)  the  mother  of 
 (Edipodes  (such  being  his  Homeric  name),  the  fair 
 Epicasta,  who.  in  her  igr.orance,  did  an  awful  deed, 
 marrying  her  own  son,  and  he  married,  having  slain 
 his  own  father,  and  immediately  the  gods  made  this 
 known  unto  men.  Now  he  ruled  over  the  CadtnsBans 
 in  desirable  Thebes,  suffering  woes  through  the  perni- 
 cious counsels  of  the  gods  ;  but  she,  oppressed  with 
 grief,  went  to  the  abode  of  Aides,  the  strong  gate- 
 keeper, having  fastened  a  long  halter  to  the  lofty  roof, 
 and  left  to  htm  many  woes,  such  as  the  Furies  of  a 
 mother  produce."  (Od.,  11,  271,  scqq .)  In  the 
 Iliad  (23,  679)  the  funeral  games  are  mentioned  which 
 were  celebrated  at  Thebes  in  honour  of  the  "  fallen 
 Oldipodes."  Hesiod  {Op.  et  D.,  162)  speaks  of  the 
 heroes  who  fell  fighting  at  the  seven-gated  Thebes,  on 
 account  of  the  sheep  of  (Edipodes.  It  would  also 
 seem  that,  according  to  the  above  passage  of  the  Odys- 
 sey, and  to  the  epic  fioem  the  "  OEdipodea"  (PttM*«w., 
 9,  5,  11),  l]picasla  had  not  any  children  by  her  son; 
 Eurvgeneia,  the  daughter  of  Hyperphas,  being  the 
 mother  of  his  well-known  offspring.  According  to  the 
 cyclic  Theba'is,  the  fatal  curse  of  QEdipus  on  his  sons 
 had  the  following  origin  :  Polynices  placed  before  his 
 father  a  silver  table  which  had  belonged  to  Cadmus, 
 and  filled  a  golden  cup  with  wine  for  him  ;  but  when 
 QEdipus  perceived  the  heir-looms  of  his  family  thus  set 
 before  him,  he  raised  his  hands  and  prayed  that  his 
 sons  might  never  divide  their  inheritance  peaceably, 
 but  ever  be  at  strife.  Elsewhere  {ap  Schol.  ad  Soph., 
 Qid.  Col,  1440)  the  Thebais  said,  that  his  sons  hav- 
 ing sent  him  the  loin,  instead  of  the  shoulder  of  the 
 victim,  he  flung  it  to  the  ground,  and  prayetl  that  they 
 might  fall  by  each  other's  hands.     The  motives  aa- 
 
CE  NI 
 
 o:no 
 
 •igned  by  the  tragedians  are  certainly  of  a  more  digni- 
 fied nature  than  these,  which  seem  trifling  and  insig- 
 nificant—  I'his  siory  affords  convincing  (iroof  of  the 
 great  liberties  which  the  Attic  tragedians  iillowed  them- 
 selves to  take  with  the  ancient  uiyths.  It  was  purely 
 to  gratify  Athenian  vanity  that  Sophocles,  contrary  to 
 the  current  tradition,  made  Qldipus  die  at  Coloiius. 
 liis  Ivlindness  also  seems  a  tragic  fiction.  Euripides 
 males  Jocasta  survive  her  sons,  and  terminate  her  life 
 by  the  sword.     {Keighlln/s  Myl/wlngi/,  p  340,  sei/q.) 
 
 Q^NKUs,  a  king  o(  Calydon  in  xEtoiia,  son  of  Par- 
 thaon.  He  married  Allhoea.  the  daughter  of  Thestius, 
 by  whom  he  had,  among  other  children,  Meleager  and 
 De'iinira.  After  Altha;a"s  death,  he  married  Periboea, 
 the  daughter  of  Hipponoiis,  by  whom  he  became  the  fa- 
 ther of  'Tvdeus.  In  a  sacrifice  which  Qilneus  made 
 to  all  the  gods,  upon  reajiing  the  rich  produce  of  his 
 fields,  he  forgot  Diana,  and  the  goddess,  to  revenge 
 this  neglect,  sent  a  wild  boar  to  lay  waste  the  terri- 
 tory of  U.ilvdon.  The  animal  was  at  last  killed  by  Me- 
 leager and  the  neighbouring  princes  of  Greece,  in  a 
 celebrated  chase  known  by  the  name  of  the  chase  of 
 the  Calydonian  boar.  (Vid.  Meleager)  After  the 
 death  of  Meleager,  ffineus  was  dethroned  and  impris- 
 oned bv  the  sons  of  his  brother  Agriiis.  Diomede, 
 having  come  secretly  from  the  city  of  Argos,  slew  all 
 the  sons  of  Agnus  but  two,  who  escaped  to  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus, and  then,  giving  the  throne  of  Calydon  to  An- 
 draemon,  son-in-law  of  CEneus,  who  was  himself  now 
 too  old  to  reign,  led  the  latter  with  him  to  Argolis 
 Qi]neus  was  afterward  slain  by  the  two  sons  of  Agriiis, 
 who  had  fled  into  the  Peloponnesus.  Diomede  buried 
 him  in  Argolis,  on  the  spot  where  the  city  of  QEnoe, 
 called  after  CEneus,  was  subsequently  erected.  CEn- 
 eus is  said  to  have  been  the  first  that  received  the  vine 
 from  Bacchus.  The  god  taught  him  how  to  cultivate 
 it,  and  the  juice  of  the  grape  was  called  after  his  name 
 (oivo^,  '■'wine.'" — Apollod  ,  1,  8. — Hygin.,fah.,  129). 
 
 CENi.iD/E,  a  city  of  Acarnania,  near  the  mouth  of 
 the  Acheloiis.  Thucydides  represents  it  as  situated 
 on  the  Acheloiis,  a  little  above  the  sea,  and  surround- 
 ed by  marshes  caused  by  the  overflowing  of  the  river, 
 which  rendered  it  a  [)lace  of  great  strength,  and  de- 
 terred the  Athenians  from  undertaking  its  siege  ;  when, 
 unlike  the  other  cities  of  Acarnania,  it  embraced  the 
 cause  of  the  Peloponnesians,  and  became  hostile  to 
 Athens.  {Thucyd.,  1,  111  ;  2,  102.)  At  a  later  pe- 
 riod of  the  war,  it  was,  however,  compelled  by  the 
 Acarnanian  confederacy  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with 
 that  [lower.  (Thucyd.,  3,  77.)  The  same  writer 
 gives  us  to  understand,  that  CEniadoe  was  first  founded 
 bv  Alcinaeon,  according  to  an  oracle  which  he  consult- 
 ed after  the  murder  of  his  mother,  and  that  the  prov- 
 ince was  named  after  his  son  Acarnan  (2,  102).  Ste- 
 phanus  asserts  that  this  city  was  first  called  Erysiche, 
 a  fact  of  which  the  poet  Alcman  had  made  mention  in 
 a  passage  cited  by  more  than  one  writer  ;  but  Strabo, 
 on  the  authority  of  .\pollodorus,  places  the  Erysicha;i 
 in  the  interior  of  Acarnania,  and  consequentlv  appears 
 to  distinguish  them  from  the  CEniadre.  From  Pausan- 
 ias  we  learn  (4,  25),  that  the  Messenians,  who  had 
 been  settled  at  Naupactus  by  the  Athenians  not  long 
 after  the  Persian  invasion^  made  an  expedition  frorn 
 that  city  to  CEniadae,  which,  after  some  resistance, 
 they  ca[itiired  and  held  for  one  year,  when  they  were 
 in  their  turn  besieged  by  the  united  forces  of  the 
 Acariianians.  The  Messenians,  despairing  of  being 
 able  to  defend  the  town  against  so  great  a  number  of 
 troops,  cut  their  way  through  the  enemy,  and  reached 
 Naupactus  without  experiencing  any  considerable  loss. 
 The  yEtolians  having,  in  process  of  time,  conquered 
 that  part  of  Acarnania  which  lay  on  the  left  bank  of 
 the  Acheloiis,  became  also  possessed  of  CEniadae, 
 when  they  expelled  the  inhabitants  under  circumstan- 
 ces apparently  of  great  hardship  and  cruelty,  for  which, 
 it  was  said,  they  were  threatened  with  the  vengeance 
 
 of  Alexander  the  Great.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Alex.)  By  the 
 advice  of  Cassander,  the  CEniada?  settled  at  Sauria 
 (probably  Thyria),  another  Acarnanian  town.  Many 
 years  afterward,  the  .i'^iolians  were  compelled  to  evac- 
 uate CEniadae  by  Philip  the  son  of  Demetrius,  king  of 
 Macedon,  in  an  expedition  related  by  Polybius  'Ihis 
 monarch,  aware  of  the  advantage  to  be  derived  from 
 the  occupation  of  a  place  so  favourably  situated  with 
 regard  to  the  Pelojiotinesus,  fortified  the  citadel,  and 
 enclosed  within  a  wall  both  the  fort  and  arsenal.  {I'o- 
 lyb  ,  4,  65.)  In  the  second  Punic  war  this  town  was 
 taken  by  the  Romans,  under  Valerius  Laivinus,  and 
 given  up  to  the  j-Etolians  their  allies  (Liv.,  20,  24, — 
 Polyb  ,  9,  39);  but,  on  a  rupture  taking  place  with 
 that  peo])le,  it  was  finally  restored  to  the  Acarnanians. 
 {L}V.  38,  II.— Folyb.J'ragm.,  22,  15  )  The  precise 
 site  of  this  ancient  city  remains  yet  unascertained  ; 
 for,  though  many  antiquaries  have  suppdsed  that  it  is 
 represented  by  a  place  called  Trigardon,  close  to  the 
 mouth  of  the  Acheloiis,  and  on  its  right  bank,  there 
 are  several  strong  objections  against  the  correctness 
 of  this.  A  principal  obstacle  to  the  reception  of  such 
 an  opinion  is  found  in  the  fact,  that  Trigardnn  is  sit- 
 uated on  the  right  bank  of  the  Acheloiis,  whereas  the 
 ancient  town  was  evidently  on  the  left.  'I'he  ruins 
 which  Sir  W  Gell  describes  as  situated  above  Misso- 
 langh.i  and  the  lake  of  Analolico,  on  the  spot  named 
 Kuria  Irene,  seem  to  possess  many  of  the  characteris- 
 tic features  appertaining  to  CEniadae.  {Itin.  of  Greece, 
 p.  297.)  Dodwell,  however,  decides  against  Kuria 
 Irene,  and  in  favour  of  Trigardon.  {Cramer  s  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  21,  seqq  ) 
 
 CFJnidks  {0LVEi6r](;),  a  patronymic  of  Meleager,  son 
 of  CEneus.     {Ornd,  Met  ,  8,  414  ) 
 
 CEnoe,  I.  a  town,  and  demus  or  borough,  of  At 
 tica,  classed  by  Harpocration  and  the  other  lexicogra 
 phers  under  the  tribe  /Eantis.  We  are  informed  by  the 
 same  writers  that  it  was  part  of  the  Teirapolis.  {Har- 
 pocr.,  s.  V.  OlvQTj. — S/cph.  Byz..  s.  v. — Strabo,  383.) 
 From  Dodwell  we  learn  (vol.  2,  p.  163)  that  the  site 
 of  this  town  still  retains  its  name  and  some  vestiges 
 near  the  cave  of  Pan. — 11.  Another  borough  of  Atti- 
 ca, on  the  confines  of  Bceotia,  near  Eleutherae. — III. 
 A  small  Corinthian  fortress,  near  the  promontory  of 
 OlmiBB.  {Strabo,  ^SO.)  Xenophon  states  (W/i^.  Gr., 
 4,  5,  5)  that  it  was  taken  on  one  occasion  by  Agesi- 
 laus. — IV.  A  city  of  Elis,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
 same  with  Ephyre.  situated  near  the  sea  on  the  road 
 leading  from  Elis  to  the  coast,  and  120  stadia  from 
 that  city.  {Strabo.  338  ) — V.  A  town  of  Argolis,  be- 
 tween Argos  and  Mantinea,  and  on  the  Arcadian  fron- 
 tier. It  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Diomede, 
 and  named  after  his  grandfather  CEneus.  {Pausan., 
 2,  25.  — Apollod.,  1,  8,  6  )  The  site  of  this  place, 
 according  to  modern  maps,  is  still  called  Enoa.  {Cra- 
 mcr''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol   3,  p.  292.) 
 
 CEnomaus,  a  son  of  Mars  by  Sterope,  the  daughter 
 of  Atlas.  The  legend  connected  with  his  name  will 
 be  found  under  the  article  Pelops. 
 
 CEnone,  a  nymph  of  Mount  Ida,  daughter  of  the 
 river  Cebrenus  in  Phrygia.  Paris,  when  a  shepherd 
 on  Mount  Ida,  and  before  he  was  discovered  to  be  a 
 son  of  Priam,  had  united  himself  in  marriiige  to 
 CEnone;  and  as  she  had  received  from  .Apollo  the 
 gift  of  prophecy,  she  warned  her  husband  against  the 
 consequences  of  his  voyage  to  Greece.  She  at  the 
 same  time  told  him  to  come  to  her  if  ever  he  was 
 wounded,  as  she  alone  could  cure  him.  Paris  came 
 to  her,  accordingly,  when  he  had  been  wounded  by 
 one  of  the  arrow's  of  Philoctetes,  but  CEnone,  ofl'ended 
 at  his  desertion  of  her,  refused  to  aid  him,  and  he 
 died  on  his  return  to  Ilium.  Repenting  of  her  cruel- 
 ty, CEnone  hastened  to  his  relief:  but,  coming  too 
 late,  she  threw  herself  on  his  funeral  pile  and  perished. 
 {Apollod.,  3,  12,  6.—  Qumt.,  Sinyr.,  10,  259,  scj,^.— 
 
 I  Conon.,  22.) 
 
 917 
 
(ETA 
 
 O  G  Y 
 
 Q'JnopIa,  one  of  the  ancient  names  of  the  island 
 
 JEg\u^.     {Ovid,  Met.,  7,  473.) 
 
 CEnohion,  a  son  of  Bacchus  and  Ariadne,  and  king 
 of  Chios  His  name  is  connected  with  the  legend  ol 
 Orion.     (Vid.  Orion.) 
 
 Q^NOTKi,  the  inhabitants  of  CEnotria. 
 
 O^NoTUiA,  a  name  derived  from  the  ancient  race  of 
 the  CEnolri,  and  in  early  use  among  the  Greeks  to 
 designate  a  portion  of  the  southea.stern  coast  of  Italy 
 'Ihc  name  is  derived  by  some  from  olvor,  '■jpine," 
 and  ihey  maintain  that  the  early  Greeks  called  the 
 country  CEnotria,  or  the  uinic-land,  from  the  number 
 of  vines  they  found  growing  there  when  they  first  be- 
 came acquainted  with  the  region.  (Manncrt,  Gcogr., 
 vol.  9,  pt.  1,  p.  542.)  With  the  poets  of  a  later  age 
 it  is  a  general  appellation  for  all  Italy.  The  CEnotri, 
 as  they  were  called,  a|>pear  to  have  been  spread  over 
 a  large  portion  of  Southern  Italy,  and  may  be  regard- 
 ed, not  as  a  very  early  branch  of  the  primitive  Italian 
 stock,  but  rather  as  the  last  scion  propagated  in  a 
 southerly  direction.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 336.) 
 
 CEnotridibs,  small  islands,  two  in  number,  off  the 
 coast  of  Lucania,  and  a  little  above  the  promontory 
 of  Palinurus.  They  lay  in  Iront  of  the  city  of  Velia, 
 where  the  river  Heles  empties  into  the  sea.     {Plin., 
 
 7,  7.) 
 
 GE.N'OTRUs,  a  son  of  Lycaon.  He  was  fabled  to 
 have  passed  with  a  body  of  followers  from  Arcadia 
 into  Southern  Italy,  and  to  have  given  the  name  of 
 CEnotria  to  that  part  of  the  country  where  he  settled. 
 (Bjt  consult  remarks  under  the  article  CEnotria, 
 where  a  more  probable  etymology  is  given  for  the 
 name  of  the  country.) 
 
 CENiJs.«  or  QEnuss^,  I.  small  islands  in  the  JEge- 
 en  Sea,  between  Chios  and  the  mainland,  now  Sper- 
 rnadori,  or  (as  the  modern  Greeks  more  commonly 
 term  them)   Egonuses.     {Herod.,  1,  165. —  Thiicyd., 
 
 8,  M.—PHh.,  5,  3\.—Bischoffrmd  Mailer,  Wbrlerb. 
 der  Gcogr.,  p.  800.) — II.  Small  islands  off  the  coast 
 of  Messenia,  and  nearly  facing  the  city  of  Methone. 
 They  are  two  in  number,  and  are  now  called  Sapien- 
 ta  and  Cabrera.     (Pausan.,  4,  34. — Plin.,  4,  11  ) 
 
 CEnus,  I.  a  town  of  Laconia,  supposed  to  have  been 
 eituated  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  flowing  near 
 Sellasia.  {Polyh.,  2,  65.—Ltv.,  34,  28.)  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  Tchelcsina.  Sir  W.  Gell  describes  the 
 river  as  a  large  stream,  which  falls  into  the  Eurotas  a 
 little  north  of  Sparta.  {Ilin.  of  the  Morea,  p.  223  ) 
 — II.  or  -finijs,  a  river  of  Germany,  separating  Nori- 
 cum  from  Viiidelicia,  and  falling  into  the  Danube  at 
 Boiodurum  or  Passau.  It  is  now  the  Inn.  {Tacit., 
 Hist ,  3,  a—Id,  Germ.,  '28.—Ptol,  2,  14.) 
 
 CEt.4,  a  celebrated  chain  of  niountains  in  Thessaly, 
 whose  eastern  e.xtremity,  in  conjunction  with  the  sea, 
 forms  the  famous  pass  of  Thermopylce.  It  e.xtended 
 its  ramifications  westward  into  the  country  of  the  Do- 
 rians, and  still  farther  intcEtolia,  while  to  the  south 
 it  was  connected  wilh  the  mountains  of  Locris,  and 
 those  of  BoBotia.  {Lw.,36,  \h.  —  Strab<>,  428 — //c- 
 ro(/,7.  217.)  Its  modern  name  is /ir«<apo//i/a.  Soph- 
 ocles represents  Jove  as  thundering  on  the  lofty  crags 
 of  CEta.  {Track.,  436  )  As  regards  the  expression 
 of  Virgil,  " /z//i  descrit  He.sperus  (Elam,'^  the  meaning 
 of  wbich  many  have  misconceived,  consult  the  re- 
 marks of  Hevne  {ad  Edog.,  8,  30).  The  highest 
 summit  of  CEta,  according  to  Livy,  was  named  Calli- 
 droinus  :  it  was  occupied  by  (Jato  with  a  body  of 
 troops  m  the  battle  fought  at  the  pass  of  Thermopvls 
 between  the  Romans  under  Acilms  Cilabrio  and  the 
 army  of  Antiochus.  and,  owing  to  this  manoeuvre,  the 
 latter  was  entirely  routed  {Liv  ,  36,  15. — Plin  ,  4, 
 7.)  Herodotus  describes  the  path  by  which  the  Per- 
 sian arinv  turned  the  j)Osition  of  the  Greeks  as  beijin- 
 ning  at  the  \sopiis.  Its  name,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
 mountain,  is  Anopoea.  It  leads  along  this  ridge  as  far 
 918 
 
 as  Alponus,  the  first  I-ocrian  town  (7,  216).  On 
 the  summit  of  Mount  CEta  were  two  castles,  named 
 Tichius  and  Khudunlia,  which  were  successfully  de- 
 fended by  the  yEtolians  against  the  K,)maii3.  {Liv., 
 36,  19. — Strabo,  428. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1, 
 p.  445.) 
 
 CEtyi-us,  a  town  of  Laconia,  so  called  from  an  Ar- 
 give  hero  of  that  name,  was  situate  eighty  stadia  from 
 Thalamse.  {Puiisan.,  3,  26.)  Homer  has  noticed  it 
 among  the  towns  subject  toMenelaus.  (//.,  2,  fi85.) 
 Strabo  observes  that  it  was  usually  called  'i'ylus. 
 {S/rab.,  360.)  Ptolemy  writes  the  name  Bityla  (p. 
 90),  and  it  is  still  known  by  that  of  Vittilo.  {Getl^s 
 Itin.,  p.  237.)  Pausanias  noticed  here  a  temple  of 
 Serapis,  and  a  statue  of  Apollo  Carnems  in  the  forum. 
 {Cramer  s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3.  p.  187.) 
 
 Ofei.lus,  a  character  drawn  in  one  of  the  satires  of 
 Horace.  Ofellus  represents  a  Sabine  peasant,  whose 
 plain  good  sense  is  agreeably  contrasted  with  the  ex- 
 travagance and  folly  of  the  great.     {Hffrat,  Sat.,2,'2.) 
 
 Oglasa,  a  small  island  off  the  coast  of  Etruria, 
 some  distance  below  Planasia,  famed  for  its  wine,  now 
 Monte  Crista.     {Plin.,  3,  7.) 
 
 Ogyges  or  Ogygus  {'^yvjTii  or  'Q.yvyog)  is  said 
 to  have  been  the  first  king  of  Athens  and  of  Thebes. 
 {Tzctz.  ad  Lycophr.,  1206.)  Thus,  Pausanias  tells 
 us  that  the  Ectenes,  who  were  the  most  ancient  in- 
 habitants of  Bneotia,  were  the  subjects  of  Ogyges.  and 
 that  Thebes  itself  was  called  Ogygian,  an  epithet  which 
 is  also  applied  to  it  by  ^-Eschylus.  {Pavsun  ,  9,  5,  1. 
 — JEsch.,  Pers  ,  37.)  That  Ogyges  was  closely  con- 
 nected with  Thebes  as  well  as  Attica,  appears  from 
 the  tradition,  according  to  which  he  was  said  to  be  the 
 son  of  Boeotus.  {Schol.  ad  Apollon.  Kh.  ,  3,  1178.) 
 It  may  also  be  mentioned,  that  the  oldest  gate  in 
 Thebes  was  called  Ogygian.  (Pausan.,  9,  8,  3.) 
 The  name  of  Ogyges  is  connected  with  the  ancient 
 deluge  which  preceded  that  of  Deucalion,  and  he  is 
 said  to  have  been  the  only  person  saved  when  the 
 whole  of  Greece  was  covered  with  water.  We  pos- 
 sess scarcely  any  particulars  respecting  him  ;  and  the 
 accounts  which  have  come  down  to  us  are  too  vague 
 and  unsatisfactory  to  form  any  definite  opinion  on  the 
 subject.  He  clearly  belongs  to  mythology  rather  than 
 to  history.  The  earlier  Greek  writers,  Herodotus, 
 Thueydides,  Xenophon,  &c.,  make  no  mention  of  his 
 name  ;  but  the  accounts  preserved  by  Pausanias  and 
 other  authors  appear  to  indicate  the  great  antiquity  of 
 the  traditions  respecting  him.  Varro  places  the  del- 
 uge of  Ogyges,  which  he  calls  the^'.s/  deluge,  400 
 years  before  Inachus,  and,  consequently,  1600  years 
 before  the  first  Olympiad  This  would  refer  it  to  a 
 period  of  2376  years  before  Christ ;  and  the  deluge 
 of  Noah,  according  to  the  Hebrew  text,  is  2349,  there 
 being  only  27  years  difference.  Varro's  opinion  is 
 mentioned  by  Censorinus  (de  Die  Nat.,  c.  21).  It 
 appears  from  Julius  A  fricanus  (ap.  Euscb..  Prop.  Ev.) 
 that  Acusilaus,  the  first  author  who  placed  a  deluge  in 
 the  reign  of  Ogyges,  made  this  prince  cojvtemporarjr 
 with  Phoroneus,  which  would  have  brought  him  very 
 near  the  first  Olympiad.  Julius  Africanus  makes  only 
 an  interval  of  1020  years  between  the  two  epochs; 
 and  there  is  even  a  passage  in  Censorinns  conforma- 
 ble to  this  opinion.  Some  also  read  Erogititim  ill 
 place  of  Ogygium.  in  the  passage  of  V'arrD  whieh  ws 
 have  quoted.  But  what  would  this  he  but  an  Erogi- 
 tian  cataclysm,  of  which  nobody  has  ever  heanl  ? 
 {Ciivier,  Theory  of  the  Earth,  p.  144,  Jameson's 
 transl.) — In  a  note  appended  to  Lemaire's  edition  of 
 Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  Cuvier  enumerates  the  Mosa- 
 ic, Grecian,  Assyrian,  Persian,  Indian,  and  Chines* 
 traditions  concerning  a  nniversal  deluge,  and  con- 
 cludes from  them  tliat  the  surface  of  the  globe,  fire 
 or  sis  thousand  years  ago,  underwent  a  general  anil 
 sudden  revolution,  by  which  the  lands  inhabited  by 
 the  human  beings  who  lived  at  that  time,  and  by  tbA 
 
O  LB 
 
 OLI 
 
 various  species  of  unimals  known  at  the  present  day, 
 were  overflowed  by  the  ocean  ;  out  of  which  emerged 
 the  present  habitable  portions  o(  the  globe.  This  cel- 
 ebrated naturalist  manitains,  that  these  regions  of  the 
 earth  were  peopled  by  the  few  individuals  who  were 
 saved,  and  that  the  tradition  of  the  catastrophe  has 
 been  (ireserved  among  these  new  races  of  people,  va- 
 riously modified  by  the  difference  of  their  situation 
 and  their  social  condition.  According  to  (Juvier,  sim- 
 ilar revolutions  of  nature  had  taken  place  at  periods 
 long  antecedent  to  that  of  the  Mosaic  deluge.  The 
 dry  land  was  inhabited,  if  not  by  human  beings,  at 
 least  by  land  animals  at  an  earlier  period  ;  and  must 
 have  been  changed  from  the  dry  land  to  the  bed  of 
 the  ocean  ;  and  it  might  even  be  concluded,  from  the 
 various  species  of  atiimals  contained  in  it,  that  this 
 change,  as  well  as  its  opposite,  had  occurred  more 
 than  once.  (Theory  of  the  Earth,  Jameson's  transl., 
 p.  418.)  This  theory,  however,  has  been  ably  attack- 
 ed by  Jameson. — Various.etytnologies  have  been  pro- 
 posed for  the  name  Ogyges.  Kenrick  supposes  that 
 the  word  was  derived  from  the  root  yvyrj,  signifying 
 darkness  or  night.,  and  quotes  a  passage  of  Hesychi- 
 us  ill  support  of  his  view,  which  appears,  however, 
 to  be  corrupt.  The  more  favourite  theory  of  mod- 
 ern scholars  connects  the  name  with  Occanus:  which 
 etymology  is  supported,  as  is  thought,  by  the  tradi- 
 tion that  ])laces  Ogyges  in  the  time  of  the  deluge. 
 In  support  of  this  view,  it  is  remarked  that  Ogyges 
 is  only  a  reduplication  of  the  radical  syllable  Og  or 
 Oc,  which  we  find  in  Oceanus  (vid.  Oceanus  II  ),  and 
 also  in  Ogcn  (which  is  explained  by  Hesychius  as 
 equivalent  to  Oceanus  :  'Q,yr/v,  'S2/c£avof).  A  similar 
 reduplication  appears  to  lake  place  in  Itv/xo^,  irr'/Tv- 
 fiog-  diTTOfiai,  OTiiTTTei'U'  uTa?ioc,  aTiToKku.  {Ken- 
 rick, Philiil.  Museum,  No.  5,  '•  On  the  early  Kings 
 of  Attica." — Thtrlwall,  Philol.  Mus.,  No.  6,  "  0« 
 Ogyges.^' — Creuzcr  und  Hermann,  Briefe  ilher  Ho- 
 mer und  Hesiodus,  p  105,  m  7wfis. —  Volckcr,  My- 
 thol.  des  lap.  Gcschl.,  p.  67. — Schwenck,  Aiideut.,  p. 
 179.)  Regarding,  therefore,  the  name  Ogyges  as  a 
 general  type  of  the  waters,  we  may  trace  a  resem- 
 blance between  its  radical  syllable  and  the  forms  a;f-a, 
 '^  water'"  (compare  the  Latin  aq-ua) ;  aly-e^,  '■'■the 
 waves ;^  'A^-i/lWi  "the  water-god;"  A.iaK-6^,  anoth- 
 er marine  deity,  and  the  ruler  over  the  island  AVy-iva. 
 {Schwenck,  I.  c.)  But,  whatever  may  be  the  etymol- 
 ogy of  the  name,  the  adjective  derived  from  it  is  fre- 
 quently employed  by  the  Greek  writers  to  indicate  any 
 thing  ancient  or  unknown.  We  learn  from  the  scho- 
 liast on  Hesiod,  that,  according  to  one  tradition,  Ogy- 
 ges was  the  king  of  the  gods,  and  some  think  that  the 
 name  originally  indicated  nothing  more  than  the  high 
 antiquity  of  the  times  to  which  it  referred.  {Encycl. 
 Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  Ifi,  p.  412.) 
 
 Ogvgia,  I.  an  ancient  name  of  Boeotia,  from  Ogy- 
 ges, who  reigned  there.  {Vid.  Ogyges.) — 11.  The 
 island  of  Calypso.  {Vvl.  Calypso  )  The  name  Ogy- 
 gia  is  supposed  to  refer  to  its  being  in  the  middle  of 
 the  ocetu.     {Vid.  Ogvges.) 
 
 Oil. BUS,  kiiig  of  the  Ixjcrians,  was  son  of  Odoedo- 
 cus,  and  father  of  Ajax  the  Less,  who  is  called,  from 
 his  parent,  the  O'ilean  Ajax.  Oileus  was  one  of  the 
 Argonauts.     (ApoUod,  3,  10,  7. — Hygin.,fab.,  14, 
 
 IS) 
 
 Ow<iA,  I.  a  city  of  Bitiiynia,  in  the  eastern  angle  of 
 
 the  Sinus  Olbianus,  and  probablv  the  same  with  Asta- 
 cus.  (P/t«.,  5,  27  — Step/i  Byz.,  p.  512.)  — II  A 
 city  on  the  coast  of  Pamphylia,  west  of  Attalea. 
 (Plol.  —  Sl£ph.  Byz.,  p.  512  )— III.  A  town  on  the 
 coast  of  Gaul,  founded  by  Massilia.  It  was  also  call- 
 ed Athenopolis,  and  is  supposed  by  Mannert  to  have 
 been  the  same  with  Telo  Martiu.s,  or  Toulon,  these 
 three  ancient  names  indicating,  as  he  thinks,  one  and 
 the  game  city.  {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  81.) — 
 IV.  A  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sardinia,  in  the 
 
 northern  part  of  the  island.  According  to  Reichard, 
 some  traces  of  it  still  remain  on  the  shores  of  the  bay 
 of  Volpe  {Ilin.  Ant.,  p.  79  ) — V.  Or  Borysthenis, 
 called  also  Oibiopolis  and  Miletopolis,  a  city  of  Euro- 
 pean Sarmatia,  according  to  Stcphaiius  of  JByzantium 
 and  Mela,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes,  but,  ac- 
 cording to  other  writers,  at  some  distance  from  the 
 sea.  It  was  colonized  by  the  Milesians,  and  is  at  the 
 present  day,  not  Otchakow,  as  some  have  thought,  but 
 Kudak,  a  small  place  in  the  vicinity.  {Bischoff  und 
 Moller,  Worterb.  der  Geogr.,  p.  195.)  The  latest  o( 
 the  ancient  names  of  this  place  was  Borysthenis,  ani' 
 the  one  preceding  it  Olbia. 
 
 Olchinium  or  Olcinium,  now  Dulcigno,  a  town  A 
 Dalmatia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic.  {Lw.,  45,  2f» 
 —Plin.,  3,  22.) 
 
 Oleakos.      Vid.  Antiparos. 
 
 Olen  {'Q,h'/v),  the  name  of  one  of  the  earliest  bards 
 mentioned  in  the  history  of  Greek  Poetry.  Accord- 
 ing to  a  tradition  preserved  by  Pausanias  (10,  5,  4), 
 he  came  originally  from  the  country  of  the  Hyperbo- 
 reans, and  the  Delphian  priestess  Boso  called  him  the 
 first  prophet  of  Phosbus,  and  the  first  who,  in  early 
 times,  founded  the  style  of  singing  in  epic  metre  (fir- 
 £uv  uoidu).  He  appears  to  have  settled  in  Lycia, 
 and  afterward  to  have  proceeded  to  Delos,  whither  he 
 transplanted  the  worship  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  the 
 birth  of  which  deities,  in  the  country  of  the  Hyperbo- 
 reans, he  celebrated  in  his  hymns.  Many  ancient 
 hymns,  indeed,  attributed  to  Olen,  were  preserved  at 
 Delos,  which  are  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (4,  35), 
 and  which  contained  remarkable  mythological  tradi- 
 tions and  significant  appellatives  of  the  gods.  Men- 
 tion is  also  made  of  his  7iomes,  that  is,  simple  and  an- 
 tique songs,  combined  with  certain  fixed  tunes,  and 
 fitted  to  be  sung  for  the  circular  dance  of  a  chorus. 
 The  time  when  Olen  flourished  is  uncertain.  It  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  before  Orpheus.  {Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  33.— A/wZ/cr,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  p,  24.) 
 
 Olenus,  I.  an  ancient  city  of  ^tolia,  in  the  vicin- 
 ity of  Pleuron,  and  known  to  Homer,  who  enumerates 
 it  in  his  catalogue.  {II.,  2,  638.)  It  was  destroyed 
 by  the  ^tolians,  and  preserved  but  few  vestiges  in 
 Strabo's  time.  {Slrah.,  460.)  The  goat  Amalthwa 
 is  called  Olcnia  by  the  poets  {Ovid,  Mel.,  2,  594),  be- 
 cause nurtured  in  the  vicinity  of  this  place. — II.  One 
 of  the  most  ancient  of  the  cities  of  Achaia,  situate  on 
 the  western  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Peyrus. 
 According  to  Polybius  (2,  41,  7),  it  was  the  only  one 
 of  the  twelve  cities  which  refused  to  accede  to  the  con- 
 federation, upon  its  renewal  after  an  interruption  of 
 some  years.  In  Strabo's  lime  it  was  deserted,  the  in- 
 habitants, as  Pausanias  affirms,  having  retired  to  ihe  ad- 
 jacent villages.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol  3,  p.  70.) 
 
 Olisippo,  a  city  of  Lusitania,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
 Tagus,  near  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  {Plin.,  4,  35 — Id., 
 S,  67 — Varro,  R.  K  ,  2,  1.)  It  was  the  only  muni- 
 cipium  in  this  section  of  the  country,  and,  as  such,  had 
 the  appellation  of  Felicilas  Juha.  It  was  very  prob- 
 ably of  Roman  origin,  and  the  story  of  its  having 
 been  founded  by  Ulysses  is  a  mere  fable,  arising  out  of 
 an  accidental  coincidence  of  name.  The  horses  bred 
 in  the  territory  adjacent  to  this  [ilace  were  remarkable 
 for  their  speed.  {Phn.,  8,  42.)  Mannert  and  many 
 other  geographical  writers  make  Olisippo  coincide 
 with  the  modern  Lisbon  (Lissabon),  but  others^  op- 
 j)0se  this.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  342. — Com- 
 pare Ukert,  vol.  2,  p.  391.)  The  name  of  this  city  is 
 variously  written.  Thus  we  have  Olisipo  in  some  au- 
 thors, and  m  others,  who  favour  the  account  of  its 
 foundation  by  Ulysses,  we  find  Ulysippo.  (Consult 
 Wcsscling,  ad  Ilin.,  p  Ai&.—  Tzschucke,  ad  McL,  3, 
 1,  vol.  2,  pt.  3,  p.  25.)  . 
 
 Oi.i.ius,  a  river  rising  in  the  Alps,  and  falling  into 
 the  Po.  It  is  now  the  Oglio,  and  forms  in  its  course 
 the  Lake  Sebinus,  now  Lago  d'Iseo.     {Plin.,  3,  19.) 
 
oLympia. 
 
 OLYMPIA. 
 
 Olympia  (o?um),  I.  the  chief  of  the  four  great  na- 
 tional games  or  festivals  of  the  Greeks.  They  were 
 celebrated  at  Olympia,  a  sacrttl  spot  on  the  banks  of 
 the  Alpheus,  near  Elis,  every  fifth  year.  The  e.xact 
 interval  at  which  they  recurred  was  one  of  forty-nine 
 and  fifty  lunar  months  alternately  ;  so  that  the  cele- 
 bration sometimes  fell  in  the  month  Apollomus  (July), 
 sonetimes  m  the  month  Parthenius  (August).  {Bockh, 
 ail  I'lnd  ,  Oiyrnp  ,  d,  18 — MulUr's  Dorians,  vol.  1, 
 p.  281,  Eng.  traiisL)  The  period  between  two  cele- 
 brations was  called  an  Olymi)iad. — 'I'he  Olympic  fes- 
 tival lasted  h\e  days.  Its  origin  is  concealed  amid 
 the  obscurity  of  the  mythic  jjeriod  of  Grecian  history. 
 Olympia  was  a  sacred  spot,  and  had  an  oracle  of  Ju- 
 piter long  before  the  institution  of  the  games.  The 
 Eleans  had  various  traditions,  which  attributed  the 
 original  foundation  of  the  festival  to  gods  and  heroes 
 at  a  long  period  prior  to  the  'I'rojan  war,  and  among 
 these  to  the  Idasan  Hercules,  to  Pelops,  and  to  Her- 
 cules the  son  of  Alcmena.  The  Eleans  farther  stated, 
 that,  after  the  yEtolians  had  possessed  themselves  of 
 Elis,  their  whole  temtorv  was  consecrated  to  Jupiter  ; 
 that  the  games  were  revived  by  their  king  Iphitus,  in 
 conjunction  with  Lycurgus,  as  a  remedy  lor  the  disor- 
 ders of  Greece  ;  and  that  Iphitus  obtained  the  sanc- 
 tion of  the  Delphic  oracle  to  the  institution,  and  ap- 
 pointed a  periodical  sacred  truce,  to  enable  persons  to 
 attend  the  games  from  every  part  of  Greece,  and  to 
 return  to  their  homes  in  safety.  This  event  was  re- 
 corded on  a  disc,  which  was  preserved  by  the  Eleans, 
 and  on  which  the  names  Iphitus  and  Lycurgus  were 
 inscribed.  {Plul.,  Vtt.  Lycurg.,  1. — Pausim.,  5,  20, 
 21  )  Other  accounts  mention  Cleosthenes  of  Pisa  as 
 an  associate  of  Iphitus  and  Lycurgus  m  the  revival  of 
 the  festival.  All  that  can  safely  be  inferred  from  this 
 tradition,  which  has  been  embellished  with  a  variety  ol 
 legends,  seems  to  be,  that  Sparta  concurred  with  the 
 two  slates  most  interested  in  the  plan,  and  mainly  con- 
 tributed to  procure  the  consent  of  the  other  Pelopon- 
 nesians.  (ThirlioiilPs  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  386)  The 
 date  of  the  revival  by  Iphitus  is,  according  to  Eratos- 
 thenes, 884  B.C. ;  according  to  Callimachus,  828  B.C 
 Mr.  Clinton  prefers  the  latter  date.  (Fast.  Hell, 
 vol  2,  p.  408,  note  li.)  The  Olympiads  began  to  be 
 reckoned  from  the  year  776  B C,  in  which  year  Co- 
 roebus  was  victor  in  the  foot-race.  We  have  lists  of 
 the  victors  from  that  year,  which  always  include  the 
 victors  in  the  foot-race,  and  in  later  times  those  in  the 
 other  games.  (Pausan.,  5,  8,  3.) — The  Olympic,  like 
 all  the  other  public  festivals,  might  be  attended  by  all 
 who  were  of  the  Hellenic  race  ;  though  at  first  prob- 
 ably the  northern  Greeks,  and  perhaps  the  Achseans  of 
 Peloponnesus,  were  not  admitted.  Spectators  came 
 to  Olympia,  not  only  from  Greece  itself,  but  also  from 
 the  Grecian  colonies  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
 Among  them  were  solemn  deputations  sent  to  repre- 
 sent their  respective  states.  Women,  however,  were 
 forbidden  to  appear  at  Olympia,  or  even  to  cross  the 
 Alpheus,  during  the  festival,  under  pain  of  death.  But 
 at  a  later  period  we  find  women  taking  part  in  the 
 chariot-race,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  ever 
 drove  their  own  chariots.  An  exception  was  made  to 
 this  law  of  exclusion  in  favour  of  the  priestess  of  Ceres 
 and  certain  virgins,  who  were  permitted  to  be  pres- 
 ent at  the  games,  and  had  a  place  assigned  to  them  op- 
 posite the  judges.  The  management  of  the  festival 
 was  in  the  hands  of  the  Eleans.  Originally,  indeed, 
 Pisa,  in  whose  territory  Olympia  lay,  seems  to  have 
 had  an  equal  share  in  the  administration  ;  but  in  the 
 fiftieth  Olympiad  the  Eleans  destroyed  Pisa,  and  from 
 that  time  they  had  the  entire  management  of  the 
 games.  They  proclaimed  the  sacred  truce,  first  in 
 their  own  territories,  and  then  throughout  the  whole  of 
 Greece  This  truce  took  effect  from  the  time  of  its 
 proclamation  in  Elis,  and  while  it  lasted  the  Elean  ter- 
 ritory was  inviolable,  any  armed  invasion  of  it  being 
 920 
 
 esteemed  an  act  of  sacrilege.  On  this  privilege  the 
 Eleans  founded  a  claim  to  have  their  territory  always 
 considered  sacred,  though  in  fact  they  themselves  did 
 not  abstain  from  war.  As  the  presiding  nation,  they 
 gave  laws  for  the  regulation  of  the  festival,  imposed 
 |)enalties  on  individuals  and  states,  and  had  the  power 
 of  excluding  from  the  games  those  who  resisted  their 
 decrees.  They  actually  thus  excluded  the  Lacedae- 
 monians on  one  occasion,  and  the  Athenians  on  an- 
 other. The  Eleans  appointed  the  judges  of  the  con- 
 test, who  were  called  Hellanodiccp  \'V.AlavoiVLKai) 
 These  were  instructed  in  the  duties  of  their  office,  for 
 a  period  of  ten  monihs  before  the  festival,  by  Elean 
 officers  called  ]\omophylaccs  {Hojio<I)v}mkc(,)  :  they 
 were  sworn  to  act  im|iartially,  and  an  a[)peal  might  be 
 made  from  their  decision  to  the  Elean  senate.  Their 
 number  varied  at  different  periods  ;  in  the  106th 
 Olympiad  it  was  fixed  at  ten,  which  was  the  number 
 ever  afterward.  The  judges  had  under  them  diH'erent 
 officers,  called  c'Mrai,  whose  business  it  was  to  keep 
 order.  These  officers  were  called  fiaa-tyofofioi  m 
 the  other  Grecian  games.  (fJonsult,  in  relation  to 
 these  details,  Pausanuis,  5,  9,  4,  scq. — 6,  24,  3  ) — ■ 
 The  Olympic  festival  consisted  of  religious  ceremo- 
 nies, athletic  contests,  and  races.  The  chief  deity 
 who  presided  over  it  was  Jupiter  Olympius,  whose 
 temple  at  Olympia,  containing  the  ivory  and  gold 
 statue  of  the  god,  was  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
 works  of  art  in  Greece.  The  worship  of  Apollo  was 
 associated  with  that  of  Jupiter  (Miiller's  Dorians,  vol. 
 1,  p.  279,  seqq.,  Eng.  transL);  and  the  early  tradi- 
 tions connect  Hercules  with  the  festival.  {_ld.  ih.,  p. 
 453.)  This  is  another  proof  of  the  Dorian  origin  of 
 the  games,  for  Apollo  and  Hercules  were  two  of  the 
 principal  deities  of  the  Doric  race.  There  were  al- 
 tars at  Olympia  to  other  gods,  which  were  said  to 
 have  been  erected  by  Hercules,  and  at  which  the  vic- 
 tors sacrificed.  The  most  magnificent  sacrifices  and 
 presents  were  also  offered  to  Jupiter  Olympius  by  the 
 competitors,  and  by  the  different  states  of  Greece. — • 
 The  games  consisted  of  horse  and  foot  races,  leaping, 
 throwing,  wrestling  and  boxing,  and  combinations  of 
 these  exercises.  1.  The  earliest  of  these  games  was 
 the  foot-race  {SpSfiog),  which  was  the  only  one  revived 
 by  Iphitus.  The  space  run  was  the  length  of  the  sta- 
 dium, in  which  the  games  were  held,  namely,  about 
 600  English  feet.  In  the  14th  Olympiad  (724  B C), 
 the  diiivXoc  was  added,  in  which  the  stadium  was  trav- 
 ersed twice.  The  dolixoc,  which  consisted  of  several 
 lengths  of  the  stadium  (seven,  twelve,  or  twenty-four, 
 according  to  different  authorities),  was  added  in  the 
 !5th  Olympiad  (B.C.  720).  A  race  in  which  the  run- 
 ners wore  armour  {(m?UTC)v  Spojiog)  was  established  in 
 the  65th  Olympiad,  but  soon  after  abolished.  2. 
 Wrestling  {nuTii^)  was  introduced  in  the  18lh  Olym- 
 piad (B.C.  708).  The  wrestlers  were  matched  in 
 pairs  by  lot.  When  there  was  an  odd  number,  the 
 person  who  was  left  by  the  lot  without  an  antagonist 
 wrestled  last  of  all  with  him  who  had  conquered  the 
 others.  He  was  called  t'^f(5pof.  The  athlete  who 
 gave  his  antagonist  three  throws  gained  the  victory. 
 There  was  another  kind  of  wrestling  (uvaK7-ivo~aAi]), 
 in  which,  if  the  combatant  who  fell  could  drag  down 
 his  antagonist  with  him,  the  struggle  was  contimied 
 on  the  ground,  and  the  one  who  succeeded  in  lU'tting 
 uppermost  and  holding  the  other  down  gaiiie  J  the  vic- 
 tory— 3.  In  the  same  year  was  introduced  the  frjitalh- 
 lon  (-rrh'TaBlov),  or,  as  the  Romans  called  it,  quin- 
 querfhim,  which  consisted  of  the  five  exercises  enumer- 
 ated in  the  following  verse,  ascribed  to  Simonides  • 
 
 'A'kfia,  TToduKeiT/v,  6iaiiov,  uKOvra,  Trulyv, 
 
 that  is,  "  leaping,  Tunning,  throwing  the  qvoii,  ihrmt" 
 ing  the  javelin,  ■un'estling."  Others,  however,  give  a 
 different  enumeration  of  the  exercises  of  the  pentathlon. 
 In  leaping,  they  carry  weights  in  their  hands   or  on 
 
OLYMPIA. 
 
 OLYMPIA. 
 
 then  shoulders  :  the  object  was  to  l^ap  the  greatest 
 distance,  wittiout  regard  to  height.  The  discus,  or 
 quoit,  was  a  heavy  weight  of  a  circular  or  oval  shape  ; 
 neither  this  tior  the  javeihi  was  aimed  at  a  mark,  but 
 he  who  ttirew  farthest  was  the  victor.  In  order  to 
 gain  a  victory  in  the  pentathlon,  it  was  necessary  to 
 conquer  in  each  of  its  five  parts. — 4.  Boxing  (^Tvvy/j.f/) 
 was  introduced  in  the  23d  (Jlympiad  (B  C.  688).  The 
 boxers  had  their  hands  and  arms  covered  wilh  thongs 
 »if  leather,  called  ccslus,  which  served  both  to  defend 
 t'.iem  and  to  annoy  their  antagonists.  Virgil  {jEn.,  5, 
 405)  describes  the  cestus  as  armed  wilh  lead  and  iron  ; 
 but  this  is  not  known  to  have  lieen  the  case  among 
 the  Greeks. — 5.  TUe  Fancratium  [TrayKpuTiov)  con- 
 sisted of  boxing  and  wrestling  combined.  In  this  ex- 
 ercise, and  in  the  cesius,  the  vanquished  combatant 
 ackiiovviedged  his  defeat  by  some  sign  ;  and  this  is 
 sup()Osed  to  be  the  reason  why  Spartans  were  forbid- 
 den by  the  laws  of  Lycurgus  to  practise  them,  as  it 
 would  have  been  esteemed  a  disgrace  to  his  country 
 that  a  Spartan  should  confess  himself  defeated.  In 
 these  games  the  combatants  fought  naked. — The 
 horse-races  were  of  two  kinds.  1.  The  chariol-racc, 
 generally  with  four-horse  chariots  (imrcjv  reXeiuv  Spd- 
 fio^],  was  introduced  in  the  25th  Olympiad  (B.(J. 
 680).  The  course  {'nriruSpoiing)  had  two  goals  in  the 
 middle,  at  the  distance  probably  of  two  stadia  from 
 each  other.  The  chariots  started  from  one  of  these 
 goals,  passed  round  the  other,  and  returned  along  the 
 other  side  of  the  hippodrome.  This  circuit  was  made 
 twelve  times.  The  great  art  of  the  charioteer  con- 
 sisted in  turning  as  close  as  possible  to  the  goals,  but 
 without  running  against  them  or  against  the  other 
 chariots.  7'he  places  at  the  starting-post  were  as- 
 signed to  the  chariots  by  lot.  Tliere  was  another  sort 
 of  race  between  chariots  with  two  horses  {dvupi^  or 
 avvcjptc).  A  race  between  chariots  drawn  by  mules 
 (u7r7/i7/)  was  introduced  in  the  70th  Olympiad,  and 
 abolished  in  the  84th — 2.  There  were  two  sorts  of 
 races  on  horseback,  namely,  the  K£/ir]r.  in  which  each 
 competitor  rode  one  horse  throughout  the  course,  and 
 the  KaATii'/,  in  which,  as  the  horse  approached  the 
 goal,  the  rider  leaped  from  his  back,  and,  keeping  hold 
 of  the  bridle,  finished  the  course  on  foot. — In  the  37lh 
 Olympiad  (B.C.  632),  racing  on  foot  and  wrestling  be- 
 tween boys  was  introduced. — There  were  also  con- 
 tests in  poetry  and  music  at  the  Olympian  festival. — 
 All  persons  were  admitted  to  contend  in  the  Olympic 
 games  who  could  prove  that  they  were  freemen,  that 
 they  were  of  genuine  Hellenic  blood,  and  that  their 
 characters  were  free  from  infamy  and  immorality.  So 
 great  was  the  importance  attached  to  the  second  of 
 these  particulars,  that  the  kings  of  Macedon  were 
 obliged  to  make  out  their  Hellenic  descent  before  they 
 were  allowed  to  contend.  The  equestrian  contests 
 were  necessarily  confined  to  the  wealthy,  who  display- 
 ed in  them  great  magnificence  ;  but  the  athletic  exer- 
 cises were  open  to  the  poorest  citizens.  An  example 
 of  this  is  mentioned  by  Pausanias  (6,  10,  1).  In  the 
 equestrian  games,  moreover,  there  was  no  occasion 
 for  the  owner  of  the  chariot  or  horse  to  appear  in  per- 
 son. Thus  .-Mcibiades,  on  one  occasion,  sent  seven 
 chariots  to  the  Olympic  games,  three  of  which  ob- 
 tained prizes.  The  combatants  underwent  a  long  and 
 rigorous  training,  the  nature  of  which  varied  with  the 
 game  in  which  they  intended  to  engage.  Ten  months 
 before  the  festival  they  were  obliged  to  appear  at  Elis, 
 to  enter  their  names  as  competitors,  staling  at  the 
 same  time  the  prize  for  which  they  meant  to  contend. 
 This  interval  of  ten  months  was  spent  in  preparatory 
 exercises  ;  and  for  a  part  of  it,  the  last  thirty  days  at 
 least,  they  were  thus  engaged  in  the  gymnasium  at 
 Elis.  \Vhen  the  festival  arrived,  their  names  were 
 proclaimed  in  the  stadium,  and  after  proving  that  they 
 were  not  disqualified  from  taking  part  in  the  games, 
 tiiev  were  led  to  the  altar  of  Jupiter  the  guardian  of 
 6A 
 
 oaths  (Zfic  opKLoif),  where  they  swore  that  they  had 
 gone  through  all  the  preparatory  exercises  required  by 
 the  laws,  and  that  they  would  not  be  guilty  of  any 
 fraud,  nor  of  any  allempt  to  interfere  with  the  fair 
 course  of  the  games.  .\ny  one  delected  in  bribing 
 his  adversary  to  yield  him  the  victory  was  heavily  fined. 
 After  they  had  taken  the  oath,  their  relations  and  coun- 
 trymen accompanied  th^m  into  the  stadium,  exhorting 
 them  to  acquit  themselves  nobly. — The  prizes  in  the 
 Olympic  games  were  at  first  of  some  intrinsic  value, 
 like  those  given  in  the  games  described  by  Homer. 
 But,  after  the  7lli  Olympiad,  the  only  pnze  given 
 was  a  garland  of  wild  olive,  cut  from  a  tree  in  the 
 sacred  grove  at  Olympia,  v\hich  was  said  to  have 
 been  brought  by  Hercules  from  the  land  of  the  Hyper- 
 boreans. Palm-leaves  were  at  the  same  time  placed 
 in  the  hands  of  the  victors,  and  their  names,  together 
 wilh  the  games  in  which  they  had  conquered,  were 
 proclaimed  by  a  herald.  A  victory  at  Olympia,  be- 
 sides being  the  highest  honour  which  a  Greek  could 
 obtain,  conferred  so  much  glory  on  the  stale  to  which 
 he  belonged,  that  successful  candidates  were  frequent- 
 ly solicited  to  allow  themselves  to  be  proclaimed  citi- 
 zens of  stales  to  which  they  did  not  belong.  Fresh 
 iionoiirs  awaited  the  victor  on  his  return  home.  He 
 entered  his  native  city  in  triumph,  through  a  breach 
 made  in  the  walls  for  his  reception  ;  banquets  were 
 given  to  him  by  his  friends,  at  which  odes  were  sung 
 in  honour  of  his  victory  ;  and  his  statue  was  often 
 erected,  at  his  own  exjiense  or  that  of  his  fellow-citi- 
 zens, in  the  .Altis,  as  the  sacred  grove  at  Olympia  was 
 called.  At  Athens,  according  to  a  law  of  Solon,  the 
 Olympic  victor  was  rewarded  with  a  prize  of  500 
 drachma;  ;  at  Sparta  the  foremost  place  in  battle  was 
 assianed  him.  Three  instances  are  on  record  in  which 
 altars  were  built  and  sacrifices  offered  to  conquerors 
 at  the  Olympic  games. —  It  seems  to  be  generally  ad- 
 mitted that  the  chief  object  of  this  festival  was  to  form 
 a  bond  of  union  for  Itie  Grecian  slates.  Besides  this, 
 the  great  importance  which  such  an  institution  gave 
 to  the  e.xercises  of  the  body  must  have  had  an  im- 
 mense influence  in  forming  the  national  character. 
 Regarded  as  a  bond  of  union,  the  Olympic  festiv&l 
 seems  to  have  had  but  little  success  in  promoting 
 kindly  feelings  between  the  Grecian  stales,  and  per- 
 haps the  rivalry  of  the  contest  may  have  tended  to  e.\- 
 asperale  existing  quarrels  ;  but  it  undoubtedly  furnish- 
 ed a  striking  exhibition  of  ihe  nationality  of  the  Greeks, 
 of  the  distinction  i)elween  them  and  other  races.  Per- 
 haps the  contingent  effects  of  the  ceremony  were  after 
 all  the  most  important.  During  its  celebration,  Olym- 
 pia was  a  centre  for  the  commerce  of  all  Greece,  for 
 the  free  interchange  of  opinions,  and  for  the  publica- 
 tion of  knowledge.  The  concourse  of  people  from  all 
 Greece  afforded  a  fit  audience  for  literary  productions, 
 and  gave  a  motive  for  the  composition  of  works  wor- 
 thy to  he  laid  before  them.  Poetry  and  statuary  re- 
 ceived an  impulse  from  the  demand  made  upon  them 
 to  aid  in  perpetuating  the  victor's  fame.  But  the 
 most  important  and  most  difficult  question  connected 
 with  the  subject  is,  whether  their  influence  on  the  na- 
 tional character  was  for  good  or  evil.  The  exercises 
 of  the  body,  on  which  these  games  conferred  the  great- 
 est honour,  have  been  condemned  by  some  philoso- 
 phers, as  tendino-  to  unfit  men  for  the  active  duties  of 
 a  citizen  {Anslot.,  FoliL,  7,  14,  \S—Athcn(Zus,  10, 
 p.  413)  ;  while  they  are  regarded  by  others  as  a  rnost 
 necessary  pari  of  a  manly  education,  and  as  the  chief 
 cause  of  the  bodily  vigour  and  mental  energy  which 
 marked  the  character  of  the  Hellenic  race.— Ihe  de- 
 scription which  we  have  given  of  the  Olympic  games 
 will,  for  the  most  part,  serve  also  for  the  other  three 
 areat  festivals  of  Greece,  namely,  the  Isthmian,  de- 
 mean, and  Pythian  games.  (Pausan  lib,  .5,  6,  seqq 
 —  West's  Pindar,  Prelim.  Diss.—  Wachsmuth,  HeU 
 len.  AlUrthumsL,vo\.  1,  P-  108.- Potters    Grecian 
 
 0«i 
 
OLYMPIA. 
 
 OLY 
 
 Antiquities,  vol.  1,  p.  495. — ThirlwalVs  Greece,  xo]. 
 1,  p.  384,  scqr/. — Enajdop.  Us.  KiwwL,  vol.  16,  p. 
 430,  sdiq.) — 11.  A  name  given  to  the  aggregate  of 
 temples,  altar.s,  and  other  structures  on  the  banks  of 
 the  Alpheus  in  Elis,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
 spot  where  the  Olympic  games  were  celebrated.  It 
 was  not,  as  many  have  incorrectly  sii[)posed,  a  city, 
 nor  did  it  at  all  resemble  one.  l"he  main  leaturo  in 
 the  picture  was  the  sacred  grove  Altis,  planted,  as  le- 
 gends told,  by  Hercules,  and  which  he  dedicated  to 
 Jupiter.  (I'lnd.,  Oltjmp.,  10,  51.)  Thronghoul  this 
 grove  were  scattered  in  rich  profusion  the  Tnost  splen- 
 did monuments  of  architectural,  scnli)tural,  and  picto- 
 rial skill.  The  site  was  already  celebrated  as  the  seat 
 of  an  oracle  ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  Elcans  had  con- 
 quered the  Pisala?,  and  destroyed  their  city,  that  a  tem- 
 ple was  erected  to  the  god  with  the  spoils  of  the  van- 
 quished. This  temple  of  the  Olympian  Jove  was  of 
 Doric  architecture,  with  a  peristyle.  It  was  sixty- 
 eight  feet  in  height  from  the  ground  to  the  pediment, 
 ninety-five  in  width,  and  two  hundred  and  thirty  in 
 length.  Its  roof,  at  each  extremity  of  which  was 
 placed  a  gilt  urn,  was  covered  with  slabs  of  Pentelic 
 marble.  The  architect  was  a  native  of  the  country, 
 named  IJbo.  In  the  centre  of  one  of  the  jiediments 
 stood  a  figure  of  victory,  with  a  golden  shield,  on 
 which  was  sculptured  a  Medusa's  head.  Twenty-one 
 gilt  bucklers,  the  ofl'ering  of  the  Roman  general  Mum- 
 mius  on  the  termination  of  the  Achaean  war,  were  also 
 affi.xed  to  the  outside  frieze.  The  sculptures  of  the 
 front  pediment  represented  the  race  of  Pelops  and 
 CEnoniaus,  with  Myrlilus  and  Hippodamia;  also  Jupi- 
 ter, and  the  rivers  Alpheus  and  Cladeus  ;  these  were 
 all  bv  Paeonius,  an  artist  of  Mende  in  Chalcidic  Thrace. 
 In  the  rear  pediment,  Alcmenes  had  sculptured  the 
 battle  |0f  the  Centaurs  and  Lapiihae.  The  other  parts 
 of  the  building  were  enriched  with  subjects  taken  from 
 the  labours  of  Hercules.  On  entering  the  gates, 
 which  were  of  brass,  the  spectator  passed  the  statue 
 of  Iphitus  crowned  by  Ecechiria,  on  his  right ;  and, 
 advancing  through  a  double  row  of  columns  supporting 
 porticoes,  reached  the  statue  of  Jupiter,  the  chef-d'ccuvre 
 of  Phidias.  The  god  was  represented  as  seated  on 
 his  throne,  composed  of  gold,  ebony,  and  ivory,  stud- 
 ded with  precious  stones,  and  farther  embellished  with 
 paintings  and  the  finest  carved  work.  (Pausan.,  5, 
 11.)  The  Olympian  deity  was  portrayed  by  the  great 
 Athenian  artist  in  the  sublime  attitude  and  action  con- 
 ceived by  Homer.  (7/.,  1,  528,  seqq.)  The  figure  was 
 of  ivory  and  gold,  and  of  such  vast  proportions  that, 
 though  seated,  it  almost  reached  the  ceiling,  which  sug- 
 gested the  idea  that  in  rising  it  would  bear  away  the  roof. 
 (  Slraba,  354. )  The  head  was  crowned  with  olive.  In 
 the  right  hand  it  grasped  an  image  of  victory,  and  in  the 
 left  a  sceptre,  curiously  wrought  of  different  metals, 
 on  whi<-h  was  perched  an  eagle.  Both  the  sandals 
 and  vesture  were  of  gold  ;  the  latter  was  also  enrich- 
 ed with  paintings  of  beasts  and  flowers  by  Panspuus. 
 the  brother,  or,  as  some  say,  the  nephew,  of  Phid- 
 ias. {Pausan.,  I.  c. — Straho,  I.  c)  An  enclosure 
 surrounded  the  whole,  by  which  spectators  were  pre- 
 vented from  approaching  too  near  ;  this  was  also  dec- 
 orated with  paintings  by  the  same  artist,  which  are 
 minutely  described,  together  with  the  other  ornamental 
 appendages  to  the  throne  and  its  suiiporters,  by  Pau- 
 saiiias.  The  ivory  parts  of  the  statue  were  constantly 
 rubbed  with  oil  as  a  defence  against  the  damp  {Pau- 
 san ,  5,  12).  and  officers,  named  (pau^pwrai.,  or  clean- 
 sers, were  appointed  to  keep  it  well  polished.  The 
 veil  of  the  temple  was  of  wool  dyed  with  Phoenician 
 purple,  and  adorned  with  Assyrian  embroidery,  pre- 
 sented by  King  Antiochus.  Various  other  offerings 
 ore  mentioned  by  Pausanias,  to  whom  the  student 
 is  referred  for  an  account  of  these,  as  well  as  a  de- 
 scription, &.C.,  of  the  other  buildings  at  Olympia. 
 Among  the  altars,  the  most  remarkable  was  that  in  the 
 922 
 
 temple  of  Pelops.  It  was  entirely  composed  of  ashes 
 collected  from  the  thighs  of  victims,  which,  beim'  di- 
 luted with  water  from  the  Alpheus,  formed  a  kind  of 
 cement — A  cons|)iciious  feature  at  Olvmpia  was  the 
 Cronius,  or  Hill  of  Saturn,  often  alluded  to  by  Pin- 
 dar, and  on  the  summits  of  which  priests  named  Basilse 
 ofl'ercd  sacrifices  to  the  god  every  year  at  the  vernal 
 equinox.  {Pind.,  Olijmp.,  10.  56.)  Xenophon  men- 
 tions {Hist.  Gr.,  7,  4,  14)  that,  in  a  war  waged  by 
 the  Eleans  with  the  Arcadians,  Mount  (Cronius  was 
 occupied  and  fortified  by  the  latter.  Below  that  hill 
 stood  the  temple  of  Lncina  Olympia,  where  .Sosipolis, 
 the  protecting  genius  of  IClis,  was  worshipped.  The 
 stadium  was  a  mound  of  earth,  with  seals  lor  the  Hel- 
 lanodicae,  who  entered,  as  well  as  the  runners,  by  a 
 secret  portico.  The  hippodrome,  which  was  contig- 
 uous to  the  stadium,  was  likewise  surrounded  by  a 
 mound  of  earth,  except  in  one  [lart,  where,  on  an  em- 
 inence, was  placed  the  temple  of  Ceres  Chamyne. 
 Not  far  from  this  were  the  Olympic  gymnasia,  for 
 all  sorts  of  exercises  connected  with  the  games. — 
 Olympia  now  presents  scarcely  any  vestiges  of  the 
 numerous  buildings,  statues,  and  monuments  so  elab- 
 orately detailed  by  Pausanias.  Chandler  could  only 
 trace  "the  walls  of  the  cell  of  a  very  large  temple, 
 standing  many  feel  high  and  well  built,  the  stones  all 
 injured,  and  manifesting  the  labour  of  persons  who 
 have  endeavoured  by  boring  to  get  at  the  metal  wiih 
 which  they  were  cemented.  From  a  massive  capital 
 remaining,  it  was  collected  that  the  edifice  had  been 
 of  the  Doric  order."  {Travels,  vol.  2,  ch.  76.)  Mr. 
 Revett  adds,  that  "this  temple  appears  to  be  rather 
 smaller  than  that  of  Theseus  at  Athens,  and  in  no 
 manner  agrees  with  the  temple  of  the  Olympian  Jove." 
 The  ruins  of  this  latter  edifice,  as  Sir  W.  Cell  re- 
 ports, are  to  be  seen  towards  the  Alpheus,  and  fifty- 
 five  geographic  paces  distant  from  the  Hill  of  Saturn. 
 There  are  several  bushes  that  mark  the  s[)ot,  and  the 
 Turks  of  L'tlla  are  often  employed  in  excavating  the 
 stones.  Between  the  temple  and  the  river,  in  the  de- 
 scent of  the  bank,  are  vestiges  of  the  hippodrome,  or 
 buildings  serving  for  the  celebration  of  the  Olympic 
 games.  These  accompany  the  road  to  Miracca  on 
 the  right  for  some  distance.  The  whole  valley  is 
 very  beautiful.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p. 
 95,  scqq.) 
 
 OlvmpI.^s,  I.  an  Olympiad,  or  the  space  of  time  in- 
 tervening between  any  two  celebrations  of  the  Olym- 
 pic games.  {Vtd.  Olympia  I.)  The  Greeks  compu- 
 ted time  by  means  of  them,  beginning  with  B  C.  776, 
 each  Olympiad  being  regarded  as  equal  to  four  years. 
 The  last  one  (the  '?04th)  fell  on  the  440th  year  of  the 
 Christian  era.  (Consult  remarks  at  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  article  01ym[)ia  I.) — II.  daughter  of  Ne- 
 optolemus,  king  of  Epirus,  and  wife  of  Philip,  king  of 
 Macedon,  by  whom  she  had  Alexander  the  Great. 
 The  conduct  of  Olympias  had  given  rise  to  the  suspi- 
 cion that  Alexander  was  not  the  son  of  Philip;  and 
 the  brilliant  career  of  the  Macedonian  conqueror  made 
 his  flatterers  assign  to  him  for  a  parent  the  Father  of 
 the  Gods.  Olympias  herself,  in  the  intoxication  of 
 female  vanity,  hesitated  not,  at  a  later  day,  to  sanction 
 the  story,  and  Jupitei  was  said  to  have  approached 
 her  under  the  form  of  a  serpent.  (Consult  Wielarid, 
 (id  Lurian.  Pscudomanl.,  <^  13. — Siieton.,  Vit.  Aup  , 
 92  —Bottigcr.  Sahiiia,  p.  212  )  The  haughtiness  of 
 Olympias,  or,  more  probably,  her  infidelity,  led  Philip 
 to  repudiate  her,  and  contract  a  second  inairiage 
 with  Cleopatra,  the  niece  of  King  Attains.  The  mur- 
 der of  Phili[),  which  happened  not  long  after,  has  been 
 attributed  by  some  to  her  intrigues,  though  wiih  no 
 great  degree  of  probaliility.  Alexander,  after  his  ac- 
 cession to  the  throne,  treated  her  with  great  respect, 
 but  did  not  allow  her  to  take  part  in  the  government. 
 At  a  subsequent  period,  after  the  death  of  Antipater, 
 Polysperchon,  in  order  to  confirm  his  power,  recaUe4 
 
OLY 
 
 0  L  Y 
 
 Olympias  from  Epirus,  whither  she  had  fled,  and  con- 
 fided to  her  the  guardianship  of  the  young  son  of 
 Alexander.  She  now  cruelly  put  to  death  AridiEus,  son 
 of  Philip,  with  his  wife  Eurydice,  a«  also  Nicanor,  the 
 brother  of  Cassander,  together  with  many  leading  men 
 of  Macedonia  who  were  iiiiinical  to  her  interests.  Her 
 cruelties,  however,  did  not  remain  long  unpunished. 
 Cassander  besieged  her  in  Pydna,  and  she  was  obliged 
 to  surrender  after  an  obstinate  siege,  and  was  put 
 to  death.  {Vid.  Cassander. — Justin,  lib.  7,  9,  11, 
 14,  &c  ) 
 
 (jLVMHionoRus,  a  name  common  to  many  individu- 
 als. The  most  deserving  of  our  notice  are  the  fol- 
 lowing :  I.  A  native  of  Thebes  in  Egypt,  flourislied 
 in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  He 
 coiitirmed  the  history  of  Eunapius  from  407  to  425 
 A.D.  His  work,  entitled  "TXtj  'laropiag  ("  Materials 
 for  History"),  or  'laroptKol  /loyoi  ('•  Historical  Narra- 
 tives"), consisted  of  twenty- two  books.  Only  a  frag- 
 ment of  If.  has  been  preserved  by  Photius.  The 
 work  began  with  the  seventh  consulship  of  the  Em- 
 peror Honorius,  and  was  brought  down  to  the  acces- 
 sion of  Valentinian.  It  was  dedicated  to  the  younger 
 Theodosius.  The  historian  appears  to  have  been  em- 
 ployed also  on  public  business,  for  he  mentions  his 
 having  been  sent  on  a  mission  to  Donatus,  king  of 
 the  Huns.  In  his  descriptiori  of  the  African  Oases, 
 he  speaks  of  wells  being  made  to  the  depth  of  200, 
 300,  and  even  500  cubits,  and  of  the  water  rising  up 
 and  (lowing  from  the  aperture.  Some  have  supposed 
 that  these  must  have  been  Artesian  wells.  Olympio- 
 dorus  was  a  heathen. — II.  An  Alc.xandrcan  philoso- 
 pher, who  flourished  about  the  year  430  B.C.  He  is 
 celebrated  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Aristotelian  doc- 
 trines, and  was  the  master  of  Proclus,  who  attended 
 upon  his  school  before  he  was  20  years  of  age.  This 
 philosopher  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  a  Platonist 
 of  the  same  name  who  wrote  a  commentary  upon  Plato. 
 He  is  also  to  be  distinguished  from  a  peripatetic  of  a 
 still  later  age,  who  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Mete- 
 orology of  Aristotle. — III.  A  Platonic  piiilosopher,  who 
 flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  sixth  century.  He 
 was  the  author  of  ("ommentaries  on  four  of  Plato's  di- 
 alogues, the  first  Alcibiades,  the  Phoedon,  Gorgias,  and 
 Philebus.  The  first  of  these  contains  a  life  of  Plato, 
 in  which  wc  meet  with  certain  particulars  relative  to 
 the  philosopher  not  to  be  found  elsewhere.  This 
 Olympiodorus  was  a  native  of  Alexandrea,  and  enjoy- 
 ed great  reputation  in  that  capital,  as  will  appear  from 
 a  distich  appended  to  his  commentary  on  the  Gorgias. 
 The  title  which  his  commentaries  bear  appears  to  in- 
 dicate by  the  words  utto  (pui>/jg  {'■'■from  the  ■mouth''''  of 
 Olympiodorus)  that  they  were  copied  down  by  the 
 hearers  of  the  philosopher.  Sainte-Croix,  however, 
 thinks  that  this  phrase  is  merely  employed  to  indicate 
 that  the  doctrine  contained  in  the  commentaries  was 
 traditional  in  its  nature.  {Magastn.  Encycl.,  3  ann  , 
 vol.  1,  p.  195.)  Fragments  of  the  commentary  on  the 
 Phaedon  are  given  in  Fischer's  edition  of  four  Platonic 
 dialogues  {Lips.,  I78'.l,  8vo),  and  in  Foster's  edition 
 of  five  of  Plato's  dialogues  {Oxon.,  1752,  8vo).  Frag- 
 ments of  the  commentary  on  the  Gorgias  were  pub- 
 lished by  l{outh,  in  his  edition  of  the  Gorgias  and  Eii- 
 thvdemus  {Ozon.,  1784.  8vo).  The  commentary  or 
 scholia  on  the  Philebus  will  be  found  in  Stallbaum's 
 edition  of  that  dialogue  (Lips.,  1820,  8vo).  The 
 commentary  on  the  first  Alcibiades  forms  the  second 
 partof  Creuzer's  hiitia  PhilosophicB  ac  Theologies,  &.c. 
 (Franrf,  1820,  Svo)  — IV.  A  native  of  .\iexandrea,  a 
 peripatetic,  who  flourished  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
 sixth  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a  commentary 
 on  the  Meteorology  of  .\ristolle,  which  was  edited  bv 
 Aldus.  Venet.,  1551,  fol.  {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 7,  p.  132,  (tc.) 
 
 Or.vMPlus,  I.  a  surname  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia,  where 
 tlie  god  had  a  celebrated   temple  and    statue,  which 
 
 passed   for  one   of  the  seven  wonders   of  the  world 
 iVid.  Olympia  II  ) — II.  A  poet.     (Vid.  Nemesianus. 
 
 Olympus,  I.  a  celebrated  mountain  on  the  coast  of 
 Thessaly,  forming  the  hmit,  when  regarded  as  an  en- 
 tire range,  between  the  latter  country  and  .Macedonia. 
 The  highest  summit  in  the  chain,  to  which  the  name 
 of  Olympus  was  specially  confine<i  by  the  poets,  was 
 fabled  to  be  the  residence  of  the  gods,  and  well  de- 
 served the  honour.  Travellers  who  have  visited  these 
 shores  dwell  with  admiration  on  the  colossal  magnifi- 
 cence of  Olympus,  which  seems  to  rise  at  once  from 
 the  sea  to  hide  its  snowy  head  amid  the  clouds.  Dr. 
 Holland,  who  beheld  it  from  Litochon  at  its  foot,  ob- 
 serves, "We  had  not  before  been  aware  of  the  extreme 
 vicinity  of  the  town  to  the  base  of  Olympus,  from  the 
 thick  fogs  which  hung  over  us  for  three  successive 
 days  while  traversing  the  country  ;  but  on  leaving  it, 
 and  accidentally  looking  back,  we  saw  through  an 
 opening  in  the  fog  a  faint  outline  of  vast  precipices, 
 seeming  almost  to  overhang  the  place,  and  so  aerial  in 
 their  aspect,  that  for  a  few  minutes  we  doubted  wheth- 
 er it  might  not  be  a  delusion  to  the  eye.  The  fog, 
 however,  dispersed  yet  more  on  this  side,  and  partial 
 openings  were  made,  through  which,  as  through  arches, 
 we  saw  the  sunbeams  restmg  on  the  snowy  summits 
 of  Olvmpus,  which  rose  into  a  dark  blue  sky  far  above 
 the  belt  of  clouds  and  mist  that  hung  upon  the  sides 
 of  the  mountain.  The  transient  view  we  had  of  the 
 mountain  from  this  point  showed  us  a  line  of  preci- 
 pices of  vast  height,  forming  its  eastern  front  towards 
 the  sea,  and  broken  at  intervals  by  deep  hollows  or 
 ravines,  which  were  richly  clothed  with  forest-trees. 
 The  oak,  chestnut,  beech,  plane-tree,  &c.,  are  seen  in 
 great  abundance  along  the  base  and  skirts  of  the  mount- 
 ain ;  and,  towards  the  summit  of  the  first  ridge,  large 
 forests  of  pine  spread  themselves  along  the  acclivities, 
 giving  that  character  to  the  face  of  the  mountain  which 
 :s  so  often  alluded  to  by  the  ancient  poets."  (Trav- 
 els, vol.  2,  p.  27.)  The  modern  name  of  the  mountain 
 with  the  Greeks  is  Elimbo,  and  with  the  Turks  Senior 
 vat  Evi.  {Kruse,  Hellas,  vol.  1,  p.  282.  —  Cramer^s 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  211.  scqq.)  "  Few  of  the  Gre- 
 cian mountains,"  remarks  Dodwell,  '-soar  to  the  height 
 of  Olympus."  Plutarch  ( V^^  JEmil.  Paul),  citing  the 
 philosopher  Xenagoras,  says  that  it  is  more  than  ten 
 stadia  in  height,  and  M.  Bernouille  makes  it  1017  toises 
 (6501  English  feet).  It  forms  a  gigantic  mass,  and 
 occupies  a  very  extensive  space.  Its  southern  side 
 constitutes  the  boundary  of  Thessaly,  and  its  northern 
 base  encloses  the  plains  of  Macedon.  To  the  west  it 
 branches  out  towards  Othrys,  where  its  remote  swells 
 are  blended  with  those  of  Pindus,  which  terminates  in 
 the  Adriatic  with  the  abrupt  and  stormy  promontory  of 
 Acroceraunia.  Its  rugged  outline  is  broken  into  many 
 summits,  from  which  circumstance  Homer  gives  it  the 
 epithet  of  TTolivt^eipilg.  It  is  never  completely  free 
 from  snow,  and  Hesiod  {Theog.,  118)  characterizes  it 
 with  the  epithet  of  i^/^of/f.  Homer,  in  his  Iliad,  calls 
 It  ayavvL^oi;,  whereas  in  his  Odyssey  he  says  that  it  is 
 never  agitated  by  the  wind,  rain,  or  snow,  but  enjoys 
 a  clear  and  luminous  air.  (//.,  1,  420. -—0(i.,  6,  45  ) 
 Nothing  is  easier,  says  an  ingenious  author,  than  to 
 reconcile  these  apparent  contradictions.  M.  Boivin, 
 indeed,  ernplovs  for  this  purpose  a  climax  of  .'ingiilar 
 conjecture.  He  supposes  a  heavenly  Olympus,  which 
 he  turns  upside  down,  with  its  foot  in  the  heavens, 
 where  it  never  snows,  and  its  summit  towards  the 
 earth  ;  to  which  part  he  conceives  Homer  gave  the 
 epithet  of  snowy.  As  the  gods  and  mortals  were  An- 
 licephali,  he  maintains  that  Homer  imagined  mouiitams 
 to  be  in  similar  situations!  (Mem.  de  Lift,  dans 
 I'Hisi.  de  VAcad.  dcs  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  7.)  But  the 
 poet  represents  the  seat  of  the  gods  as  on  the  summit 
 of  Olympus,  under  the  clouds,  and  of  course  he  does 
 not  imaaine  it  turned  upside  down  —Olympus  is  full  of 
 breaks,  alons,  and  forests,  whence  it  had  the  epitheti 
 
OLYMPUS. 
 
 OLY 
 
 of  no'?iVTTTVxog  and  no^vdivSpeo^.  {DodwcWs  Tour, 
 vol.  2,  p.  105,  scqq  ) — Near  tlie  top  Dodwell  encoun- 
 tered large  qiiaiiiitics  of  snow,  and  at  last  reached  a 
 part  where  the  mountain  becatne  bare  of  all  vegetation, 
 and  presented  only  a  cap  of  snow  and  ice,  on  which  it 
 was  iinpossil)le  to  be  sustained  or  to  walk.  At  this 
 time  it  was  the  middle  of  July;  the  heat  was  extreme 
 towards  the  base  of  the  mountain,  as  well  as  m  the 
 plain,  while  the  masses  of  snow  near  its  summit  gave 
 no  signs  of  melting.  The  view  from  the  highest  ac- 
 cessible part  of  Olympus  is  described  as  being  very 
 extensive  and  grand.  The  mountain  seemed  to  touch 
 Pelion  and  Ossa,  and  the  vale  of  Tompe  appeared  only 
 a  narrow  gorge,  while  the  Peneus  was  scarcely  percep- 
 tible. There  are  hardly  any  quadrupeds  to  be  seen 
 beyond  the  half  height  of  Olympus,  and  scarcely  do 
 even  birds  pass  this  limit. — The  idea  has  been  started, 
 on  mere  conjecture,  however,  that  the  name  Olympus 
 may  have  some  reference  to  the  idea  of  a  "  limit"  or 
 "boundary,"  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  positions 
 of  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  mountains  that  bear  this 
 name  would  seem  to  countenance  the  assertion.  The 
 most  remarkable  instances,  after  the  one  we  have  just 
 been  considering,  are  the  following.  — 11.  A  range  of 
 mountains  in  the  southwestern  angle  of  Bithynia. 
 Mount  Olympus,  the  loftiest  of  the  range,  rose  above 
 Prusa,  and  was  one  of  the  highest  summits  in  Asia 
 Minor,  being  covered  with  snow  during  great  part  of 
 the  year.  {Brnwnc's  Travels,  in  Walpole's  Collec- 
 tion, vol.  2,  p.  112.)  The  lower  parts,  and  the  plains 
 at  the  foot,  especially  on  the  western  side,  had  from 
 the  earliest  period  been  occupied  by  the  Mysians, 
 whence  it  was  generally  denominated  the  Mysian 
 Olympus.  {PUn.,  5,  32.)  Its  sides  were  covered 
 with  vast  forests,  which  aft'orded  shelter  to  wild  beasts, 
 and  not  unfrequently  to  robbers,  who  erected  strong- 
 holds there.  {Strab.,  574.)  We  read  in  Herodotus, 
 that,  in  the  time  of  Croesus,  an  immense  wild  boar, 
 issuing  from  the  woods  of  Olympus,  laid  waste  the 
 fields  of  the  Mysians,  and  became  so  formidable  that 
 the  inhabitants  were  obliged  to  send  a  deputation  to 
 the  Lvdian  monarch  to  request  his  aid  for  deliverance 
 from  the  monster.  (Herod.,  1,  36.)  The  lower  re- 
 gions of  this  great  mountain  are  still  covered  with  ex- 
 tensive forests,  but  the  summit  is  rocky,  and  destitute 
 of  vegetation.  The  Turks  call  it  Anadoli  Dagh. 
 (Cramer^s  Asia  Minor,  \o\.  1,  p.  178.) — III.  A  mount- 
 ain range  of  Lycia,  on  the  eastern  coast,  above  the 
 Sacrum  Promontorium.  A  city  of  the  same  name  was 
 situate  in  a  part  of  the  range.  Mount  Olympus  would 
 appear  to  be  the  chain  to  which  Homer  alludes  in  the 
 Odyssey  (5,  282,  scqq  ),  under  the  name  of  the  Soly- 
 Riaean  mountains,  whence  he  supposes  Neptune  to 
 have  beheld  in  his  wrath  Ulysses  sailing  towards  Phoe- 
 nicia. The  mountains  rising  at  the  back  of  the  per- 
 pendicular cliffs  which  line  the  shore  in  this  quarter, 
 attain  to  the  height  of  si.\;  and  seven  thousand  feet. 
 The  highest,  as  we  learn  from  (^aptain  Beaufort,  bears 
 the  name  of  Adratchan.  and  a[)pcars  to  answer  to  the 
 Olympus  of  Strabo.  (Caramania,  p.  43. — Cramcr''s 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  257.) — IV.  A  city  of  Lycia, 
 alluded  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  It  ranked 
 among  the  si.ic  communities  of  liycia.  [Sirab.,  666.) 
 Cicero  also  bears  testimony  to  its  importance  and  op- 
 ulence. Having  become  the  residence  and  haunt  of 
 pirates,  it  was  captured  by  Scrvilius  Isauricus,  and 
 became  afterward  a  mere  fortress.  {Cic.  in  Vcrr.,  1, 
 21.  —  Eutrop.,  6,  3.  — PUn.,  5,  27.)  Strabo  states, 
 that  it  was  the  stronghold  of  the  pirate  Zenicetus  ; 
 and  the  situation  was  so  elevated  that  it  commanded 
 a  view  of  Lycia,  Pamphylia,  and  Pisidia.  [Slrah., 
 671.)  We  are  indebted  to  Captain  Beaufort  for  the 
 discovery  of  the  ruins  of  this  place,  which  exist  in 
 a  small  circular  plain,  surrounded  by  the  chain  of 
 Adratchan  (vid.  Olympus  III.),  and  at  a  little  distance 
 from  the  sea.  The  only  way  leading  to  the  site  is  by 
 924 
 
 a  natural  aperture  in  the  cliff;  it  is  now  called  Detik- 
 task,  or  "the  perforated  rock."  (Cramer's  Asm  Mi- 
 nor, vol.  2,  p.  2^7,  seq.) — V.  A  mountain  on  the  east- 
 ern coast  of  Cyprus,  just  below  the  promontory  Dina- 
 retum.  It  is  now  Monte  !Santa-Croce.  This  mount- 
 ain had  on  it  a  tem[)le  sacred  to  Venus  Acrsea,  from 
 which  women  were  excluded  ;  the  mountain  itself 
 was  shaped  like  a  breast.  {Sliab.,  683. — CrameT'* 
 Asm  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  379,  385.) 
 
 Oi.YNTHUs,  a  powerful  city  of  Macedonia,  in  the 
 district  of  Chalcidice,  at  the  head  of  the  Sinus  Toro- 
 naicus.  It  was  founded  probably  by  the  Chalcid- 
 lans  and  Eretrians  of  Eubcea.  {Strabo,  447.)  He 
 rodotus  relates,  that  it  was  afterward  held  by  the  Bot- 
 tisei,  who  had  been  expelled  from  the  Thermaic  Gulf 
 by  the  Macedonians  ;  but  on  the  revolt  of  Potidsa, 
 and  other  towns  on  this  coast,  from  the  Persians,  it 
 was  bcseiged  and  taken  by  Artabazus,  a  commander 
 of  Xerxes,  who  put  all  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword, 
 and  delivered  the  town  to  Critobulus  of  Torone  and 
 the  Chalcidians.  (Herod. ,  8,  \27.)  Perdiccas,  some 
 years  after,  persuaded  the  Bottisei  and  Chalcidians  to 
 abandon  their  other  towns  and  make  Olynthus  their 
 principal  city,  previous  to  their  engaging  m  hostility 
 with  the  Athenians.  (Thucyd.,  1,  58.)  In  this  war, 
 the  Olynthians  obtained  some  decisive  advantages 
 over  that  republic;  and  the  expedition  of  Brasidas  en- 
 abled them  effectually  to  preserve  their  freedom  and 
 independence,  which  was  distinctly  recognised  by 
 treaty.  From  this  time,  the  republic  of  Olynthus 
 gradually  acquired  so  much  power  and  importance 
 among  the  northern  states  of  Greece,  that  it  roused 
 the  jealou.sy  and  excited  the  alarm  of  the  more  power- 
 ful of  the  southern  republics,  Athens  and  Lacedsmon. 
 The  Olynthians,  apparently  proceeding  on  the  feder- 
 al system,  afterward  so  successfully  adopted  by  the 
 Achwans,  incorporated  into  their  alliance  all  the  small- 
 er towns  in  their  immediate  vicinity  ;  and,  by  de- 
 grees, succeeded  in  detaching  several  important  places 
 from  the  dominions  of  Amyntas,  king  of  Macedonia, 
 who  had  not  the  power  of  protecting  himself  from 
 these  encroachments.  At  length,  however,  a  deputa 
 tion  from  the  Chalcidic  cities  of  .\polionia  and  Acan- 
 thus, whose  independence  was  at  that  time  immedi- 
 ately threatened  by  Olynthus,  having  directed  the  at- 
 tention of  Sparta,  then  at  the  height  of  its  political 
 importance,  to  this  rising  power,  it  was  determined, 
 in  a  general  assembly  of  the  Peloponnesian  slates,  to 
 despatch  an  army  of  ten  thousand  men  into  Thrace. 
 (Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  5,  2,  14.)  Teleutias,  brother  of 
 Agesilaus,  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  com- 
 manders of  Sparta,  was  appointed  to  conduct  the 
 war.  Having  collected  his  forces,  and  those  of 
 Amyntas  and  his  allies,  he  marched  against  the 
 Olynthians,  who  ventured  to  give  him  battle  before 
 their  walls  ;  but,  after  a  well-fought  action,  they 
 were  compelled  to  take  refuge  within  their  city.  Ir 
 a  skirmish,  however,  which  happened  not  long  after, 
 the  Peloponnesian  forces,  in  their  disorderly  pursuit 
 of  a  body  of  Olynthian  cavalry  close  to  the  town, 
 were  thrown  into  confusion  by  a  sortie  of  the  enemy, 
 which  communicated  such  a  panic  to  the  whole  army, 
 that,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  Teleutias  to  stop 
 the  flight  of  his  lroo|»s,  a  total  rout  ensued,  and  hf 
 himself  was  slain.  (Hist.  Gr.,  5,  3.)  This  disaster, 
 instead  of  dishearloning,  called  forth  fresh  e.\crtion/ 
 on  the  part  of  the  Spartan  government.  Agesipolis 
 one  of  the  kings,  was  ordered  to  take  the  coinmand, 
 and  prosecute  the  war  with  vigour.  This  young  mon 
 arch  had  already  obtained  some  advantages  over  the 
 enemy,  when  he  was  seized  with  a  disorder,  which, 
 baffling  all  remedies,  soon  proved  fatal  :  he  died  a' 
 Aphyte,  near  the  temple  of  Bacchus.  Polybiades,  his 
 successor,  had  thus  the  credit  of  putting  an  end  to  the 
 war  ;  for  the  Olynthians,  left  to  their  own  resources, 
 found  themselves  unable  to  cope  with  their  powerful 
 
OMP 
 
 ONC 
 
 and  persevering  antagonists,  and  were  at  lengtli  forced 
 to  sut!  lor  [jface,  which  was  granted  on  condition  that 
 they  should  acknowledge  their  dependance  on  Sparta, 
 and  take  part  in  all  its  wars.  {Xen.,  Hist  (Jr.,  5,  4, 
 27.)  Ulytithiis,  llioiji;h  awed  and  huinliled,  was  far 
 from  henig  efleclually  subdued;  and  not  many  years 
 eiajised  before  it  renewed  Us  attempts  to  lorin  a  con- 
 federacy, and  again  dismember  the  Macedonian  slates. 
 In  consequence  of  the  alliance  which  it  entered  into 
 witti  Aiiiphipolis,  once  the  colony  of  Athens,  it  be- 
 came involved  in  hostilities  with  the  Athenians,  sup- 
 ported by  I'nilij),  son  of  Ainyntas.  who  had  just  as- 
 cended the  throne  of  Maccdon  ;  and  Polida'a  and  Me- 
 thone  were  successively  wrested  from  its  dominion. 
 Indeed,  Olynthus  itself  could  not  long  have  resisted 
 such  powerful  enemies,  had  not  jealousy,  or  some  se- 
 cret cause,  spread  disunion  among  the  allies  and  in- 
 duced them  to  form  other  designs.  Shortly  after,  we 
 find  Phdip  and  the  Olynihians  in  league  against  Ath- 
 ens, with  the  view  of  expelling  that  power  from 
 Thrace.  {Demostk.,  Olyntk  ,  2,  p.  19  )  Amphipolis 
 was  besieged  and  taken  tiy  assault ;  Potidx'a  surren- 
 dered, and  was  restored  to  Olynthus,  which  for  a  time 
 became  as  flourishing  and  powerful  iS  at  any  former 
 period  of  its  history.  Of  the  circumstances  which 
 induced  this  republic  to  abandon  the  interests  of  Ma- 
 ccdon in  favour  of  Athens,  we  are  not  well  informed  ; 
 but  the  machinations  of  tlie  party  hostile  to  Philip  led 
 to  a  declaration  of  war  against  that  monarch  ;  and  the 
 Athenians  were  easily  prevailed  upon  hy  the  eloquence 
 of  Demosthenes  to  send  forces  to  the  supjiort  of  Olyn- 
 thus under  the  command  of  Chares.  Although  these 
 troops  were  at  hrsl  successiul,  it  was  evident  that  they 
 were  unable  effectually  to  protect  the  city  against  the 
 formidalile  army  of  Philip.  The  (31yiuhians,  beaten 
 in  two  successive  actions,  were  soon  confined  within 
 their  walls;  and,  after  a  siege  of  some  duration,  were 
 compelled  to  surrender,  not  without  suspicion  of  treach- 
 ery on  the  part  of  Eurysthenes  and  l,asihenes,  who 
 were  then  at  the  head  of  affairs.  On  obtaining  pos- 
 session of  this  important  city,  Philip  gave  it  up  to 
 plunder,  reduced  the  inhabitants  to  slaverv,  and  razed 
 the  walls  to  the  ground.  {Diod.  Sic,  16,  53. — De- 
 moslh.,  Phil.,  3.  p.  113. — Jiixtin,  8,  4. —  Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  249,  seqq.) 
 
 Ombos,  a  city  of  Hgvpt,  a  little  north  of  Syene,  on 
 the  eastern  side  of  tiie  Nile.  The  Antopine  Itinerary 
 calls  it  Ambos  (p  165),  and  Ptolemy,  Oinbi  {'0/i6ui. 
 The  edition  of  Erasmus  has  ''Ofifjpot  by  a  mistake  of 
 the  press.)  Pliny  speaks  of  the  Ombilis  Prccfcclura, 
 whence  we  may  conclude  that  Ombos  was  at  one  pe- 
 riod the  capital  of  a  Nome.  {Plin  ,  5,  9.)  Its  posi- 
 tion is  now  found,  in  the  name  of  Konni-Ombo,  or  the 
 Hill  of  Ombo.  Between  the  inhabitants  of  this  place 
 and  Teiityra  constant  hostilities  prevailed,  the  former 
 adoring,  ttie  latter  killing,  the  crocodile.  A  horrible 
 instance  of  religious  fury,  vvhicli  took  place  in  conse- 
 quence of  their  mutual  discord,  is  the  subject  of  the 
 15th  satire  of  Juvenal.  (Consult  Ruperii  ad  Sat.  cil.) 
 In  relation  to  the  Oinbites  worshipping  the  crocodile, 
 while  the  inhabitants  of  Tentyra  and  other  places  de- 
 stroyed it,  we  may  cite  the  explanation  of  two  of  the 
 French  savans  {Chabrol  and  Jomtird,  Deseript.  de 
 fEgyple,  vol.  1.  —  Antiq.,  c.  4,  p.  8,  seqn.).  They 
 suppose,  that  the  crocodile  was  revered  by  those  cities 
 which  were  more  or  less  removed  from  the  immediate 
 vicinity  of  the  Nile,  hy  reason  of  its  swimming  towards 
 them  when  the  river  began  to  overflow  its  banks,  and 
 thus  bringing  the  first  intelligence  of  the  approach  of 
 the  inundation.  (Compare  Creuzcr,  Comment.  Herod., 
 p   84  ) 
 
 Omphai.e,  a  queen  of  Lydia,  daughter  of  lardanus. 
 She  married  Tmolus,  who,  at  his  death,  left  her  mis- 
 tress of  his  kingdom.  Omphale  had  been  informed  of 
 the  great  exploits  of  Hercules,  and  wished  to  see  so 
 illustrious  a  hero.     Her  wish  was  soon  gratified.     Af- 
 
 ter the  murder  of  Iphitus,  Hercules  fell  into  a  malady, 
 and  was  told  by  the  oracle  at  Delphi  that  he  would 
 not  be  restored  to  health,  unless  he  allowed  himself  to 
 be  sold  as  a  slave  for  the  space  of  three  years,  and 
 gave  the  purchase- money  to  Eurytus  as  a  compensa- 
 tion for  the  loss  of  his  son.  Accordingly,  in  obedi- 
 ence to  the  oracle,  he  was  conducted  by  Mercury  to 
 Lydia,  and  there  sold  to  Omphale.  During  the  period 
 of  his  slavery  with  this  queen,  he  assumed  female  at- 
 tire, sat  by  her  side  spinning  with  her  women,  and 
 from  time  to  time  received  chastisement  at  the  hand 
 of  Omphale,  who,  arrayed  in  his  lionskin,  and  armed 
 with  his  club,  playfully  struck  him  with  her  sandal  for 
 his  awkward  way  of  holding  the  distaff.  He  became 
 by  this  queen  the  father  of  Agelaus,  from  whom,  ac- 
 cording to  Apollodorus,  came  the  rare  of  Croesus 
 {bdev  Koi  TO  Kpoiaov  yivo^. — Apollod.,  2,  7,  7).  Some 
 writers  make  the  Lydian  Heraclidse  to  have  sprung 
 from  this  union,  and  not  the  line  of  Crcesus  ;  but  the 
 weight  of  authority  is  in  favour  of  the  opinion  that  the 
 Heraclidae  of  l>ydia  claimed  descent  from  Hercules 
 and  a  female  slave  of  lardanus.  (Crevzer,  Frugm. 
 Hist.,  p.  186,  seqq. — Hellamc.,  ap  Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 'AKe?.7j. — Diod.  Sic.,  4,  31  — Dio  Chrysost  ,  Oral.,  4, 
 p.  236,  b  ) — The  myth  of  Hercules  and  Omphale  is 
 an  astronomical  one.  The  hero  in  this  legend  repre- 
 sents the  Sun-god,  who  has  descended  to  the  ou^a^of 
 [omphalos),  or  "navel"  of  the  world,  amid  the  signs 
 of  the  southern  hemisphere,  where  he  remains  for 
 a  season  shorn  of  his  strength.  Hence  the  Lydian 
 custom  of  solemnizing  the  festival  of  the  star  of  day 
 by  an  exchange  of  attire  on  the  part  of  the  two 
 sexes  ;  and  hence  the  fable  of  the  Grecian  writers, 
 that  Hercules  had  assumed,  during  his  servitude  with 
 Omphale,  the  garb  of  a  female  (Creuzer,  Symbolik, 
 par  Guigmaut,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  179.)  Walker,  how- 
 ever, takes  a  moral  view  of  the  legend  which  we  have 
 just  been  considering,  and  regards  it  as  expressing  the 
 abasement  of  power  amid  sensual  indulgence.  {Anal- 
 ysis of  Beauty,  p.  32.) 
 
 O.NC^uM,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  near  Thelpusa,  on  the 
 banks  of  the  river  Ladon.  The  place  was  famed  for  a 
 temple  of  (."eres,  and  the  legend  connected  with  it 
 was  as  follows  :  When  Ceres  was  in  search  of  her 
 daughter  Proserpina,  Neptune  continually  followed  her. 
 To  elude  him,  she  changed  herself  into  a  mare,  and 
 mingled  with  the  mires  of  Oiicns  ;  but  the  sea  god 
 assumed  the  form  of  a  horse,  and  thus  became  the  fa- 
 ther of  the  celebrated  steed  Anon.  {Pausa^iias,  8, 
 25,  4.) 
 
 Onchesmus,  3  town  of  Epiriis,  on  the  coast,  situate, 
 according  to  Strabo  (324),  o[)posite  the  western  ex- 
 tremity of  Corcyra.  Dionysms  of  Halicarnassus  pre- 
 tended that  the  real  name  of  this  place  was  Anchis* 
 Portus,  derived  from  Anchises  the  father  of  ./Eneas. 
 (Ant.  Rom.,  1,  32.)  Cicero  seems  to  refer  to  the 
 port  of  Onchesmus,  when  he  speaks  of  the  wind  On- 
 chesmitcs  as  having  favoured  his  navigation  from  Epi- 
 rus  to  Brundisium.  (I^p-  ad  Alt.,  7,  2.  —  Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  96.)  Pouqueville  gives  Santi 
 Quarania  as  the  modern  name  of  Onchesmus  (vol.  2, 
 p  133),  or,  more  correctly,  of  a  small  place  near  it 
 (vol   2,  p.  104). 
 
 Onchestus,  I.  a  river  of  Thessaly,  rising  near  Cy- 
 noscephalffi,  and  falling  into  the  Sinus  Felasgicus.  It 
 is  supposed  to  correspond  to  the  modern  Putrassi. 
 (Liv.,i3,6.—Polyh.,\8,-^.— Sleph  Byz.,sv)  Somo 
 have  thought  it  to  be  the  same  with  the  river  which 
 Herodotus  calls  Onochonus  (7.  196),  but  without  any 
 good  reason.  The  Onochonus,  whose  waters  were 
 drained  by  the  army  of  Xerxes,  falls  into  the  Pcneus, 
 and  is  piobably  the' river  Rejani.  {Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  390.)— II.  A  city  of  Bceolia,  north- 
 west of  Thebes,  and  south  of  the  lake  Copa  is.  It  re- 
 ceived its  name  from  Onchestus,  a  son  of  Neptune, 
 whose  temple  and  grove  are  often  celebrated  by  the 
 ^  925 
 
OPH 
 
 OPH 
 
 poets  of  antiquity,  from  Homer  to  Lycophron.  Sir 
 W.  Gell  nolict'd,  on  llie  ascent  uniting  Mount  I'haga 
 or  Sphnix  on  the  left,  with  the  projecting  hills  from 
 Helicon  on  the  right,  an  immense  tumulus  of  earth 
 and  stones,  and  many  other  vestiges,  probably  of  On- 
 chestus.  {ItiH.,  p.  125. — Cramer^- Anc.  Greece,  \o\. 
 2,  p.  231,  seqq.) 
 
 OnksicrItus,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  a  native  of 
 vEgina,  and.  according  to  Diogenes  I.aertius,  a  disci- 
 ple of  Diogenes  of  Sinope.  He  accompanied  Alexan- 
 der into  Asia,  and  officiated  as  pilot  to  the  principal 
 vessel  in  the  fleet  of  Nearchus.  He  wrote  a  history 
 of  Alexander's  expedition,  a  work  swarming  with  false- 
 hoods and  absurdities.  {JElian,  H.  A.,  16,  39. — Diog. 
 Laert ,  d,  4. — Sainte-  Croix,  Examen  dcs  Hist.  d'AUx., 
 p.  38.) 
 
 Onion,  a  city  of  Egypt,  southwest  of  Heroopolis. 
 It  was  inhabited  by  Jews,  who  had  a  temple  here, 
 which  continued  from  the  time  of  Onias,  who  built  it, 
 to  that  of  Vespasian.  Onias  was  nephew  to  Menelaus, 
 and  the  rightful  successor  to  the  priesthood  at  Jerusa- 
 lem ;  but,  being  rejected  by  Antiochus  Eupator,  who 
 made  Alcimus  high-pricst,  he  fled  to  Egypt,  and  per- 
 suaded Ptolemy  Philometor  to  let  him  build  this  tem- 
 ple there,  about  173  B.C.  This  structure  remained 
 for  the  space  of  248  years,  when  it  was  destroyed  by 
 order  of  Vespasian,  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  {Jo- 
 sephus,  Ant.  Jud.,  14,  U.—Id.,  Beit.  Jud.,  1,  7.) 
 
 Onomackitus,  a  Greek  poet  in  the  time  of  the  Pis- 
 istiatida;,  who  is  said  to  have  written  the  "hymns  of 
 initiation"  (TEleTai)  ascribed  to  Orpheus.  {Vid.  Or- 
 phica.)  He  was  accused  also  of  interpolating  the  po- 
 ems of  Miisteus,  mention  of  which  has  already  been 
 made  in  another  article.  {Vid.  Musaeus.)  The  ora- 
 cles of  this  latter  poet  were  collected  by  Onomacri- 
 tus,  in  compliance  with  the  orders  of  Hipparchus;  but 
 the  poet  Lasus  of  Hermione  having  discovered  the 
 fraud  committed  by  hiin  in  intermingling  his  own  ver- 
 ses among  the  ancient  predictions,  Onomacritus  was 
 thereupon  driven  into  exile  as  an  impostor  by  Hippar- 
 chus. It  appears  that  from  this  time  it  was  no  longer 
 possible  to  distinguish  what  was  genuine  in  the  poetry 
 of  Musajus  from  what  was  mere  interpolation.  {He- 
 rod., 7,  6. — Pausan.,  1,  22.) 
 
 Onosandek,  or,  as  Coray  writes  the  name,  Onesan- 
 DKR,  a  Greek  author  and  Platonic  philosopher.  Con- 
 cerning the  period  in  which  he  flourished,  nothing 
 more  can  be  ascertained  than  that  he  lived  about  the 
 middle  of  the  (irst  century.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
 work  of  much  celebrity,  entitled,  I,TpaTTjyiKdg  ?i.6yog, 
 being  a  treatise  on  the  duties  of  a  general.  This  pro- 
 duction is  the  source  whence  all  the  works  on  this 
 subject,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  that  were  subsequently 
 published,  derived  their  origin.  It  is  still  held  in  es- 
 timation by  military  men.  The  best  editions  are,  that 
 of  Schwebcl,  Norimb.,  1762,  fol.,  and  that  of  Coray, 
 Pans,  1822,  8vo.  Appended  to  the  latter  are  the  first 
 elegy  of  Tyrta>us  and  a  translation  of  Onosander,  both 
 in  French.  The  profits  of  his  edition  were  given  to 
 the  unfortunate  sufferers  of  Chios.  {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  261,  scqq.) 
 
 Ophei,tes,  son  of  Lycurgus,  kingof  Nemea.  Hyp- 
 sipile,  the  Lemnian  princess,  whom  her  countrywomen 
 had  sold  into  slavery  when  they  found  that  she  had 
 saved  her  father,  was  nurse  to  the  infant  Opheltes, 
 when  the  army  of  Adrastus  marched  to  Nemea,  on 
 its  way  to  Thebes.  She  undertook  to  guide  the  new- 
 comers to  a  spring  ;  and,  for  that  purpose,  left  the 
 child  lying  on  the  grass,  where  a  serpent  found  and 
 killed  it.  The  Argive  leaders  slew  the  serpent  and 
 buried  the  child.  Ainphiaraus,  the  famous  soothsayer 
 and  warrior,  augured  ill-luck  from  this  event,  and  call- 
 ed the  child  Archeinorus  {Fate-beginner),  as  indicative 
 of  the  evils  that  were  to  befall  the  chieftains.  His 
 other  name,  Opheltes,  is  derived,  according  to  the 
 mythologists,  from  oytf,  as  he  died  by  the  bite  of  a 
 92t> 
 
 serpent.  Adrastns  and  the  other  chiefs  then  celrbra 
 ted  funeral  games  in  his  honour,  which  were  the  com- 
 mencement of  what  were  afterward  called  the  IS'eme- 
 an  games.     {ApolLud  ,  3.  6,  4. — Heync,  ad  toe.) 
 
 Oi'HiK,  a  land  which  was  known  to  the  Hebrews 
 and  to  the  neighbouring  nations  as  early  as  the  time 
 of  Job,  and  was  famed  for  producing  such  an  abundance 
 of  excellent  gold,  that  "  the  gold  of  Ophir"  became  a 
 proverbial  expression  for  fine  gold.  (1  C7i/on..29,  4.- ■ 
 Jo//, 22,  24.— i(/.,  28,  \Ci.—Fsalms,\f),  9.— i.vfljaA,13, 
 12  )  The  Se])tuagint  version  gives  Sophira  {"^uqiipu) 
 as  the  name  of  the  region  ;  but  various  forms  occur  in 
 the  MSS.,  such  as  ^otprip,  ^ovfeip,  ^uv(pip,  llutpeip, 
 HuXjUpu,  and  l,u<f>apd.  We  meet  with  this  last  also  in 
 Joscphus  {Ant.  Jud.,  8,  6,  4. — Consult  Havercatnp, 
 ad  luc).  The  position  of  Ophir  is  very  difficult  to  de- 
 termine, and  much  diversity  of  opinion  exists  among 
 biblical  critics  on  the  subject.  We  are  informed  in 
 Scripture,  that  Solomon,  in  conjunction  with  Hiram, 
 king  of  Tyre,  sent  a  navy  from  Ezion-geher,  at  the 
 head  of  the  Red  Sea,  to  Ophir,  and  that  this  navy  re- 
 turned, bringing  four  hundred  and  twenty  (in  Chroni- 
 cles 450)  talents  of  gold,  sandal-wood  (called,  in  our 
 translation,  alinug  or  algum  trees),  and  precious  stones. 
 (1  Kings,'i,  26-28.-/6.,  10,  11.— Compare  2  Chron. 
 8,  17,  18  ;  lb.,  9,  10) ;  and  also  that  Jehoshaphat  built 
 ships  of  Tarshish  to  go  to  Ophir  for  gold  (in  Chront- 
 eles  it  is  said  that  he  built  ships  to  go  to  Tarshish), 
 which  were  wrecked  at  Ezion-geber.  (1  Kings, 22, 
 48,  49.— Compare  2  Chro7i.,20,  36,  37.)  We  are 
 also  told,  in  1  Kings,  10,  22,  that  Solomon  had  at 
 sea  a  navy  of  Tarshish  with  the  navy  of  Hiram.  Once 
 in  three  years  (or  every  third  year)  came  the  navy  of 
 Tarshish,  bringing  gold  and  silver,  ivory,  and  apes,  and 
 peacocks. — Now,  since  both  Solomon  and  Jehoshaphat 
 built  the  navies  bound  for  Ophir  at  Ezion-geber,  at 
 the  head  of  the  Red  Sea,  it  is  clear  that  we  must  seek 
 for  Ophir  somewhere  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian 
 Ocean  ;  for  it  is  highly  improbable  that  Solomon's 
 ships  went  farther  than  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  one 
 direction,  or  than  the  Indian  Archipelago  in  the  other: 
 it  is  not  likely,  indeed,  that  they  went  so  far  either 
 way.  Nearly  all  the  inquiries  into  the  position  of 
 Ophir  have  proceeded  on  the  assumption,  that  the  pas- 
 sage in  1  Kings,  \0,  22,  refers  to  the  same  navy  which 
 is  spoken  of  in  1  Kings, 9,  27,  scqq.,  and,  consequent- 
 ly, that  Tarshish  and  Ophir  were  visited  in  the  same 
 voyage.  It  has  therefore  been  necessary  for  those 
 who  make  this  assumption,  not  only  to  fir.d  a  place 
 which  suits  the  description  of  Ophir,  and  which  produ- 
 ces "gold,  sandal-wood,  and  precious  stones,"  but 
 also  to  account  for  the  "silver,  ivory,  apes,  and  pea- 
 cocks" which  were  brought  by  the  navy  of  '^I'arshish, 
 and  for  the  three  years  consumed  in  the  voyage.  But 
 Tarshish  was  probably  the  same  place  as  Tartessus  in 
 Spain;  and  therefore,  if  Tarshish  and  Ophir  are  to  be 
 connected,  we  must  make  the  gratuitous  supposition 
 that  there  was  another  Tarshish  in  the  East.  Besides, 
 Tarshish  and  Ophir  are  not  mentioned  together  in  the 
 account  of  Solomon's  voyages:  the  ships  that  went  to 
 Ophir  (1  Kings, Q,  28)  seem  to  have  made  only  a  single 
 voyage,  for  the  purpose  of  fetching  only  a  specified 
 quantity  of  gold,  while  the  "navy  of  Tarshish,"  which 
 "the  king  had"  (not  going  to  Ophir,  but)  "at  sea,'' 
 made  its  voyage  every  three  years;  and,  moreover,  the 
 products  of  the  two  voyages  were  different,  gold  being 
 the  only  article  common  to  the  two.  For  these  rea- 
 sons, Rennell  appears  to  be  correct  in  saying  "  that 
 two  distinct  kinds  of  voyages  were  performed  by  these 
 fleets  :  that  to  Ophir  from  the  Red  Sea,  and  that  to 
 the  coast  of  Guinea  (or  to  Tarshish,  wherever  it  was) 
 from  the  Mediterranean."  {ReJinell,  Gcogr.  of  Herod- 
 otus, vol.  2,  p.  353.)  The  conjoint  mention  of  Ophir 
 and  Tarshish,  in  the  account  of  Jehoshaphat's  navy, 
 admits  of  easy  explanation.  Either  there  may  be 
 some  mistake  in  the  account  in  2  Chron,,  20,  36,  seq.. 
 
OPH 
 
 OPI 
 
 which  differs  materially  from  that  in  1  Kings,  22,  48, 
 teq.,  or  "  Tarshish"  in  tiie  former  passage  may  mean 
 only  "a  diatant  voyage  ;"  and  we  know  that  the  phrase 
 in  the  latter  passage,  "  ships  of  Tarshish,"  is  frequent- 
 ly used  in  tlie  (Jid  Testanient  for  large,  strong  ships. 
 The  question,  therefore,  as  to  the  position  of  Ophir 
 must  not  ho  encumbered  with  any  considerations  that 
 refer  to  Tarshish.  {Enajcl.  Us.  KnoirL,  vol.  16,  p. 
 447.)— The  early  Portuguese  navigators  believed  that 
 they  had  found  Ophir  in  the  modern  Sofalu,  on  tl»e 
 eastern  coast  of  Africa,  opposite  the  island  of  Mada- 
 gascar, and  this  same  opinion  was  subsequently  main- 
 tained by  Dapper  (Africa,  p.  395),  Montesquieu,  and 
 Bruce  {Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  352).  The  improbability, 
 however,  of  this  position  being  the  true  one,  has  been 
 fully  shown  by  Vincent  {Pcriplus,  p.  266)  and  Salt 
 (Voyage  to  Abyssima,  p.  102).  The  chief  ground, 
 indeed,  for  so  erroneous  an  opinion,  seems  to  have 
 been  a  supposed  resemblance  in  name  between  Sofala 
 and  Ophir,  or  Snphara.  Calmei  places  Ophir  at  the 
 head  waters  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  among  the 
 Taperes  or  Saspires  ;  the  gold  being  conveyed  from 
 this  quarter,  he  supposes,  to  some  harbour  on  the  Per- 
 sian Gulf  (Diet.  Bihl.,  s.  V.)  Bochart  makes  two 
 Ophirs,  one  in  Arabia,  near  the  Sabaei  {Gcogr.  Sacr., 
 2,  27.—Op,  vol.  2,  col.  138),  and  the  other  in  India. 
 The  former  only  of  these,  he  thinks,  was  known  to 
 the  Jews  down  to  the  time  of  Solomon,  who,  in  con- 
 junction with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  first  sent  an  expedi- 
 tion to  the  latter.  This  latter  Ophir  he  considers  to  be 
 identical  with  Ceylon.  {Gcogr.  Sacr.,  I.  c.  —  Op., 
 vol.  2,  ed.  141.)  Wells  places  Ophir  in  India,  in  the 
 vicinity  of  Calnd.  {Sacr.  Geogr.,  s.  v.)  Schleusner 
 is  in  favour  of  Spain.  {Lex.  Vet.  Test.,  vol.  3,  p.  75.) 
 Tych.'ien  also  decides  in  favour  of  India,  and  sujiposes 
 Ophir  to  have  been  one  of  the  hies  of  Sunda,  an  isl- 
 and called  Ophir  lying  near  Sumatra  at  the  present 
 day.  {De  Commcrc.  ct  Nuvigat.  Hchrawrum,  &lc. — 
 Comment.  Gbtl.,  vol.  16,  p.  164,  seq(/.)  Michaelis 
 supposes  0|)hir  to  have  been  in  Arabia,  and  condemns 
 the  opinion  of  Bochart,  who  finds  another  in  India,  as 
 already  stated.  {Spicilcgium,  Gcogr.  Hcbr.  exl.,pars. 
 11,  p.  184,  seqq.)  Prideaux,  Gosscllin  {Reck.,  vol.  2, 
 ]).  1  18),  Vincent  {Periplns,  p.  265,  seqq.),  Niebuhr, 
 and  others,  likewise  declare  for  Arabia  Felix,  or  the 
 country  of  the  Saba;i.  where  Aphar  {Sapkar)  and  the 
 ruins  of  the  ancient  Ilimiarite  dwellings  make  it  prob- 
 able to  them  that  we  must  here  look  lor  the  Ophir  of 
 Solomon.  Mannert  comes  to  the  same  conclusion. 
 {Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  123  )  It  is  most  probable, 
 therefore,  that  Ophir  was  in  the  southern  part  of  Arabia. 
 It  is  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  names  of  Ara- 
 bian tribes,  in  Genesis.  10,  29.  The  "gold  of  Ophir" 
 is  spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Job,  a  work  most  probably 
 of  Arabian  origin.  The  products  of  the  voyage,  too, 
 might  easily  have  been  obtained  from  Arabia;  for, 
 though  gold  is  not  found  there  now,  we  have  the  tes- 
 timony of  many  ancient  writers  that  it  was  in  ancient 
 times.  It  is,  however,  very  probable  that  Ophir  was 
 an  emporium  of  the  Phnenicians  for  their  eastern  trade  ; 
 and,  if  so,  the  ditficuUy  as  to  the  productions  is  at 
 once  removed. — Before  bringing  this  article  to  a  close, 
 it  may  not  be  amiss  to  notice  the  verv  singular  opinion 
 of  Arius  Montamis,  who  finds  Ophir  in  Peru,  the  gold 
 of  Parvaim  (2  Chron.,  3.  6)  being,  according  to  him, 
 the  gold  of  that  country  {Perti-aiin).  It  is  of  this  that 
 Scaliger  remarks,  "  Puio  Arium  Montanum  illiiis  joc- 
 ulaiorijG  inlcrprcialionis  auclorem  esse.'''  {Scali'rcr, 
 Epist,%il.) 
 
 Opiiis,  I.  a  small  river  of  Asia  Minor,  forming  part 
 of  the  eastern  boundary  of  Pontus.  It  rises  in  the 
 mountains  of  the  Tzani,  and  falls  into  the  Euxine  to 
 the  southwest  of  Ilhizzojum.  Reichard  gives  Of  as 
 the  modern  name.  {Arrian,  Pcripl.  Eiix. — Hudson. 
 Geogr.  Min.,  1,  6  ) — II.  A  river  in  Arcadia,  running  by 
 Mantinea,  and  falling  into  the  Alpheus.     (Paus.,  8,  8.) 
 
 Ophiusa  {'Oipiovaa)  or  Ophiussa  {'0<j)ioiJc^aa'),  a 
 name  given  to  many  places  in  ancient  geography,  and 
 referring  to  their  having  been,  at  one  time  or  other, 
 more  or  less  infested  by  serpents  (o^/f,  a  serpent). 
 The  most  worthy  of  notice  are  the  following  :  I.  An 
 island  in  the  Mediterranean,  off  the  coast  of  Spain,  and 
 forming  one  of  the  Piiyuss,  or  Pine  islands.  By  the 
 Romans  it  was  generally  called  Colubrana,  a  transla- 
 tion of  the  Greek  name,  and  is  now  styled  las  Colum- 
 bretes,  or  Mont  Colibre.  Strabo  and  Ptolemy  con- 
 found it  with  Formontera.  {Uktrt,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 471.)— II.  A  city  of  European  Scylhia,  on  the  left 
 bank  of  the  river  Tyras,  which  in  Pliny's  time  was 
 also  called  Tyra.  The  modern  Palanca,  not  far  from 
 the  mouth  of  the  Dneister,  is  supposed  to  correspond 
 to  the  ancient  city.  {Pliny.  4,  12. — Bischoff  nnd 
 Moller,  Worterh.  der  Geogr.,  p.  806.) — HI.  The  ear- 
 lier name  of  the  island  of  Tcnos.  {Plmy,  4,  12.) — . 
 IV.  One  of  the  earlier  names  of  the  island  of  Rhodes. 
 (/•'/z«.,5,  31.) 
 
 Opici,  the  same  with  the  Osci.  {Vid.  Osci.) 
 "That  Opicvs,  Opscits,  and  Oscus  are  the  same  name, 
 is  expressly  remarked,"  observes  Niebuhr,  "  by  Roman 
 grammarians.  {Feslus,  .i.  v.  Oscum.)  The  Greek 
 language  adopted  only  the  first  form,  and  the  last  pre- 
 vailed in  the  Latin  "  {Ror)i  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  54,  Cam- 
 bridge Iransl.) — Buttmann  indulges  in  some  curious 
 speculations  respecting  this  and  other  ancient  names 
 of  cognate  form.  "  There  is  a  multiplicity  of  traces," 
 he  observes,  "  which  concur  in  proving  that  in  the 
 word  Apis,  Apia,  lies  the  original  name  of  a  most  an- 
 cient people  who  inhabited  tlie  European  coasts  of  the 
 Mediterranean.  The  fabulous  personages  Pelops,  Ce- 
 crops,  Merops,  compared  with  the  names  of  countries 
 and  people,  as  the  Peloponnesus  and  the  Meropes  ^in 
 Cos)  ;  and,  in  the  same  way,  the  names  Dryopts,  Dry- 
 ops  ;  Dolopes,  Dolops,  show  that  Ops,  Opes,  corre- 
 sponding with  the  Opici,  Opsci,  in  Italy,  and  meaning 
 the  same  as  Apis,  were  ancient  names  of  people  ;  and 
 that  the  first  syllable  in  those  names  served  to  distin- 
 guish the  dillerent  families  or  tribes,  as  the  Pclcpes, 
 Cercopes,  Meropes,  &c.  The  Ahantes  in  Enbrea,  the 
 Aones  in  Boeotia,  the  Ausones  and  Osci  in  Italy,  are 
 but  varieties  of  the  same  name."  {Lcxilogus,p.  154, 
 7iot.,  Fishlakc's  iransl.) 
 
 Opima  Spoi,i.\,  spoils  taken  by  a  Roman  general 
 from  a  general  of  the  enemy  whom  he  had  slain.  They 
 were  dedicated  to,  and  suspended  in  the  temple  of,  Ju- 
 piter Feretrins.  These  spoils  were  obtained  only  thrice 
 before  the  fall  of  the  republic.  The  first  by  Romulus, 
 who  slew  Acron,  king  of  the  Ca^ninenses  ;  the  next 
 by  A.  Cornelius  Cossus,  who  slew  Lars  Tolumnius, 
 king  of  the  Veientes,  AUG.  318;  and  the  third  by 
 M.  Claudius  Marcellus,  who  slew  Viridomarus,  a  king 
 of  the  Gauls,  A.II.t^  530. 
 
 OpiMius,  L.  Nepos,  was  consul  121  B.C.  He 
 made  himself  conspicuous  by  his  inveterate  hostility  to 
 Caius  Gracchus,  and  was  the  leader  in  the  affray  which 
 terminated  with  the  death  of  the  latter.  He  was  after- 
 ward convicted  of  having  received  a  bribe  from  Jugur- 
 tha,  and  was  banished.  He  ended  his  days  in  great 
 poverty  and  wretchedness  at  Uyrrhachium.  {Cic, 
 Orat.,'^,  132.— /(Z.,  pro  Plane,  69.— Sail.,  Bell.  Jug., 
 \2.—  Vcll.  Puterc,  2,  6.)  From  all  that  we  can  gath- 
 er relative  to  this  individual,  it  would  appear  that  he 
 was  a  victim  to  the  spirit  of  party.  His  conduct  to- 
 wards Caius  Gracchus  and  his  followers  is  represented 
 as  cruel  in  the  extreme  ;  aiid  yet.  when  brought  to 
 trial  by  the  tribune  Duilius  for  having  put  to  death  a 
 great  number  of  citizens  during  his  consulship  without 
 observing  the  forms  of  justice,  he  was  acquitted 
 through  the  powerful  eloquence  of  the  consul  Pafjirms 
 Carbo.  So,  again,  his  trial  and  condemnation  for  bri- 
 bery are  pronounced  by  Cicero  {pro  Scx/io)  decidedly 
 unjust.  (Compare  Schcg/:.  ad  Veil.  Puterc. ,  2,  7.)— 
 During  the  consulship  of  Opimius,  the  heat  of  the 
 "  927 
 
0  PP 
 
 OPPIANUS. 
 
 summrr  v.'as  so  great  as  to  produce  an  extraordinary 
 feriility  and  excelltnee  in  all  the  fruits  of  the  carlh 
 throuy;hout  Italy.  Hetice  the  Opiiiiiaii  wine  became 
 famous  10  a  late  period.      (  Vid.  Falernus.) 
 
 Opis,  a  city  on  the  river  Tigris,  in  Assyria,  west  of 
 Artemita.  It  is  probably  the  same  with  that  which 
 Pliny  calls  Antiochia.  (^Herodotus,  1,  189. — Xcn., 
 Anab  ,  2,  i.—Pliiry,  6,  27.) 
 
 UpiTKKGiuM,  a  city  of  Venetia  in  Northern  Italy, 
 on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Plavi.s.  It  is  now  Odez- 
 to,  a  town  of  some  consequence.  {Stiabu,  214. — 
 I'liiiy,  3,  19.)  The  (Jpilergmi  Monies  are  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  this  place,  and  among  them  rises  the 
 Liquentia  or  Ltvenza. 
 
 UppIa  Lex,  by  C.  Oppius,  a  tribune  of  the  com- 
 mons, A.U.C  540.  It  required  that  no  woman  should 
 have  in  her  dress  above  half  an  ounce  of  gold,  nor 
 wear  a  garment  of  different  colours,  nor  ride  in  a  car- 
 riage in  the  city  or  in  any  town,  or  within  a  mile  of  it, 
 unless  upon  occasion  of  a  [lublic  sacrifice.  This 
 suinptuarv  law  was  made  during  the  public  distresses 
 consequent  on  HannibaTs  being  in  Italy.  It  was  re- 
 pealed eighteen  years  afterward,  on  the  petition  of  the 
 Roman  ladies,  though  strenuously  opposed  by  Cato. 
 (Uvy,  34,  I.— Tacit.,  Am,.,  3,  33  ) 
 
 Oppianus,  an  eminent  Greek  grammarian  and  poet 
 of  Oilicia,  two  of  whose  works  are  still  extant  un- 
 Jer  the  titles  '^  Cynegctica"  {KvvijyETi.Kd),  ot  "On 
 Hunting  ;"  and  "  Halicutica"  ('A/utvriKu.),  or  "  (3n 
 Fishing."  'I'he  lime  and  place  of  his  birth  are  not 
 fully  agreed  U|)on.  Syncellus  {Chrunosr.,  p.  3.'i2,  scq.) 
 and  Jerome  {Chronic.)  place  him  in  the  reign  of  Mar- 
 cus Anrelius  Antoninus  ;  but  Sozomen  {Prcef.  ad 
 Hist.  Eccles.),  Suidas  (s.  v.  'OvrKiavo^),  and  others, 
 make  him  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Severus  ;  and 
 though  Oppian,  in  both  his  poems,  addresses  the  em- 
 peror by  the  name  '^Antoninus,"  it  is  more  than  proba- 
 ble that  (Jaracalla  is  meant,  as  this  appellation  was  con- 
 ferred upon  him  when  he  was  associated  with  his  father 
 in  the  empire  (A.D.  198  ■ — Hr.rodian,  2,  10),  and  as 
 this  is  the  name  by  which  he  is  commonly  designated 
 by  the  ancient  historians,  Herodian,  Dio  Cassius,  &c. 
 As  to  his  birthplace,  Suidas  supfioses  it  to  have  been 
 Corycus,  but  the  anonymous  author  of  the  Greek  life 
 of  ()p[)ian,  and  most  other  authorities,  say  that  he  was 
 born  at  Aiiazarba,  a  city  which  also  gave  birth  to  Dios- 
 corides.  His  father  appears  to  have  been  a  person  of 
 some  consideration  in  his  native  city,  for  he  was  ban- 
 ished to  the  island  of  .Meliia,  in  the  Hadriatic,  by  Sev- 
 erus, for  suffering  himself  to  be  so  entirely  engrossed 
 by  his  philoso[)hical  studies  as  to  neglect  coming  in  per- 
 son, along  with  his  fellow-ciiizens,  to  pay  his  respects 
 to  the  emperor,  when,  in  taking  a  progress  through 
 Cilicia,  the  latter  made  his  entrance  into  Anazarba. 
 He  was  accompanied  in  his  exile  by  his  son  Oppian, 
 who  had  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  an  excellent  educa- 
 tion under  the  superintendence  of  his  father,  and  who 
 now  began  to  devote  himself  to  poetry.  Accordingly, 
 he  now  composed  his  poem  on  fishing,  and  presented  it 
 to  the  Emperor  Severus  {Sazowcn,  I'lwef.  ad  Hist.  Ec- 
 clc.1.),  or,  more  probably  (Siiiila.s,  s  v.  'Omrinvuc. — 
 Oppian,  Hahcut.,  1,  3. — Id.  ih.,4,  ^),  to  his  son  Car- 
 acalla,  who  was  so  much  pleased  with  it  that  he  not 
 only  repealed  the  sentence  of  his  father's  banishment, 
 but  also  presented  Oppian  with  a  piece  of  gold  for 
 each  verse  that  it  contained.  Suidas  says  that  he  re- 
 ceived on  this  occasion  20,000  gold  pieces  ;  but  he 
 must  have  counted  the  verses  contained  in  all  Oppian's 
 poems,  since  the  Halieutica  consisted  of  only  about 
 3500.  Reckoning  the  aiLrcns  at  about  $3  40  cts.  of 
 our  currency,  the  sum  received  by  the  poet  will  be 
 nearly  $12,000.  The  verses  of  Oppian  might  there- 
 fore well  be  called  ;t;pt)0-d  Ittti,  '' golden  verses.''' 
 (Sozomen,  I.  c  ) — Oppian  died  of  the  plague  shortly 
 after  his  return  to  his  native  country,  at  the  early  age 
 of  thirty,  leaving  behind  him  three  poems,  on  "Hawk- 
 928 
 
 ing"  {'l^evTiKu),  "  Hunting''^  {Kvv7]-yertKu).  and  "  P'ts/u 
 rng"  ('A?utvTiK(i.). —  Tlie  'IStvriKa  consisted  ol  two 
 books  according  to  Suidas,  or  rather  of  five  accord 
 ing  to  the  anonymous  Greek  author  of  Oppiau's  hie, 
 and  are  no  longer  extant ;  but  a  Greek  paraphrase  m 
 prose,  by  Eutecnius,  of  three  books,  was  published  lu 
 1792  (HavTiKC,  8vo,  ed.  E.  Windingius),  which  is  also 
 inserted  in  Schneider's  edition  of  Oppian.  Anient., 
 Svo,  1776. — The  "  Ci/negctica"  are  written  in  hexam- 
 eter verse,  consist  of  about  2100  lines,  and  aie  dividi  d 
 into  four  books.  They  display  a  very  .''air  knowledge 
 of  natural  history,  with  which,  however,  a  goo.l  many 
 absurd  fables  are  mixed  up  — The  "  Hidiciilica'''  are 
 also  written  in  hexameter  verse,  and  consist  of  hve 
 books,  of  which  the  first  two  contain  the  natural  histo- 
 ry of  fishes,  and  the  last  three  the  art  of  fishing.  In 
 this  poem,  as  in  the  "  Cyjiegetica,"  the  author  displays 
 considerable  zoological  knowledge,  though  it  contains 
 several  fables  and  absurdities.  'I'he  ■'  Halieutica.'"  are 
 much  superior  to  the  "  Cynegeltca''^  in  point  of  style 
 and  poetical  embellishment,  and  it  is  partly  on  account 
 of  this  great  disparity  that  it  has  been  suff/osed  that 
 the  two  poems  were  not  composed  by  the  same  [ler- 
 son.  But  there  are  other  and  stronger  reasons  m  sup- 
 port of  this  opinion  (which  was  hrsi  put  forth  by 
 Schneider,  in  the  preface  to  his  first  edition  of  Oppian's 
 works),  rendering  it  almost  certain  that,  though  by 
 the  universal  consent  of  antiquity  Oppian  wrote  a 
 poem  on  hunting,  yet  it  cannot  be  that  which  now  goes 
 under  his  name.  Oppian  was,  as  we  have  seen,  a  Ci- 
 lician,  hut  the  author  of  the  "  Cynegelica"  tells  us 
 distinctly,  in  two  different  passages,  that  his  native 
 place  was  a  city  on  the  Orontes  in  Syria  ([)robably 
 Apamea,  lib.  2,  v.  125,  seqq.  —  lb,  v.  156,  seq  ). 
 Schneider  supposes  that  the  two  Oppians  were  eitlier 
 father  and  son,  or  uncle  and  nephew.  This  opinion 
 respecting  two  Opnians  has  been  denied  by  Belin  de 
 Ballu,  who  publish"''  an  edition  of  the  "  Cyncgetica' 
 in  1786,  Arge7it.,  4riv>  and  Svo,  and  wlio,  as  Dilidin 
 says,  "seems  to  have  entered  upon  the  task  almost  ex- 
 pressly with  a  determination  to  oppose  the  authority 
 and  controvert  the  positions  of  Schneider ;"  but  it  is 
 only  by  altering  the  text  in  both  passages  (and  that, 
 too,  not  very  skilfully)  that  he  has  been  able  to  recon- 
 cile them  with  the  commonly-received  opinion  that  the 
 poem  is  the  work  of  Ofipian.  In  Schneider's  second 
 edition  he  continues  to  hold  his  former  opinion,  and  re- 
 plies to  the  objections  of  Belin  de  Ballu.  It  appears, 
 from  an  allusion  to  fishing  and  the  sea  deities,  in  tlie 
 first  book  of  the  "  Cynegetica''''  (v.  77,  scijq),  that  this 
 poem  was  composed  after  the  ''  Hulieuhca,'''  and  as  a 
 sort  of  supplement  or  companion  to  it ;  and  this  has 
 tended  to  confirm  ihe  common  opinion  that  both  poems 
 were  written  by  the  same  author — With  regard  to  the 
 poetical  merits  of  Oppian,  he  seems  to  be  one  of  those 
 poets  whose  works  have  been  mo.^e  praised  than  read. 
 Julius  Caviar  Scaliger  pronounces  him  to  be  "  a  sub- 
 lime and  incomparable  poet,  the  most  perfect  writer 
 among  the  Greeks,  and  the  only  one  of  tliem  that  ever 
 came  np  to  Virgil."  {I'(i'el.,5,9.)  Sir  Thomas  Browne 
 calls  him  "one  of  the  best  epic  poets,"  and  "  wonders 
 that  his  elegant  lines  should  be  so  much  neglected  (  Vul- 
 gar Errors,  1,  8);  and  if,  as  Kapin  says,  he  is  some- 
 times dry  {Reflex,  stir  la  Poelique,  p.  176),  it  may  fairly 
 be  accounted  for  and  excused  when  we  consider  the 
 unjiropitious  nature  of  his  subject."  His  style  is  florid 
 and  copious,  the  language  u])0ii  the  whole  very  good, 
 though  (as  is  noticed  by  Heinsius,  ad  Ncmni  Dicmys., 
 p.  197)  it  is  now  and  then  deformed  by  Latinisms. — 
 The  last  and  (as  far  as  it  goes)  the  best  edition  of  Op- 
 pian's two  poems  is  Schneider's  second  one,  which 
 unhappily  is  unfinished.  Lips  ,  Svo,  1813.  The  most 
 complete  edition  is  that  published  by  Schneider  in  1776, 
 Argent.,  Svo,  containing  also  the  paraphrase  of  the 
 "  Ixcntica,''^  by  Eutecnius,  to  which  we  have  already 
 referred.     Schneider  published  some  addenda  to  this 
 
ORA 
 
 ORACULUM. 
 
 edition  in  his  Analccla  Crilica,  Franco/.,  1777,  8vo, 
 Fascic,  1,  p.  31,  seqq. — {Encyd.  Us.  KnowL,  vol. 
 16,  p.  459,  seqq.—SclibU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol  4,  p.  67.) 
 Ops,  called  also  Tellns,  the  goddess  of  the  Earth,  and 
 the  same  with  the  Rhea  of  the  Greeks.  ( Vid.  Rhea.) 
 Another  form  of  her  name  was  Opis.  The  appella- 
 tion Ops  or  Opis  is  plainly  connected  with  opes, 
 "  wealth,"  of  which  the  earth  is  the  bestower ;  and 
 her  festival,  the  Opalia,  was  on  the  same  day  with  the 
 original  Saturnalia.  (Macrob.,  Sal.,  1,  10.  —  Vurro, 
 L.  L  ,  5,  p.  bl.—Keighlley's  Mythology,  p.  525.) 
 
 Opiis  (gen.  Opunlis),  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities 
 of  Greece,  the  capital  of  the  Locri  Opuntii,  whose  ter- 
 ritory lay  to  the  north  of  Boeotia.  According  to  Stra- 
 bo,  it  was  fifteen  stadia  from  the  sea,  and  the  distance 
 between  it  and  Cynus,  its  emporium,  was  sixty  stadia. 
 (Strain,  425.)  Livy  places  Opus,  however,  only  one 
 mile  from  the  sea  (28,  6). — This  place  is  celebrated 
 by  Pindar  as  the  domain  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  (01., 
 9,  62),  and  by  Homer  as  the  birthplace  of  Patroclus. 
 (Iliad,  18,  325.)  The  form  of  government  adopted 
 by  the  Opuntians  was  peculiar,  since,  as  we  learn 
 from  Aristotle,  they  intrusted  the  sole  administration 
 to  one  magistrate.  (Polil..,  3,  16.)  Plutarch  com- 
 mends their  piety  and  observance  of  religious  rites. 
 Herodotus  inforins  us  that  they  furnished  seven  ships 
 to  the  Greek  fleet  at  Artemisiutn  (8,  1).  They  were 
 subsequently  conquered  by  Myronides,  the  Athenian 
 general.  In  the  war  between  Antigonus  and  Gassan- 
 der.  Opus,  having  favoured  the  latter,  was  besieged  by 
 Ptolemy,  a  general  in  the  service  of  Antigonus.  It 
 was  occupied  several  years  after  by  Attains,  king  of 
 Percfamus,  in  the  Macedonian  war ;  but,  on  the  advance 
 of  Philip,  son  of  Demetrius,  he  was  forced  to  make  a 
 precipitate  retreat  to  his  ships,  and  narrowly  escaped 
 being  taken.  (Livy.  23,  6  )  —  The  position  of  this 
 town  has  not  been  precisely  determined  by  the  re- 
 searches of  modern  travellers.  (Whcler''s  Travels,  p. 
 blb.—Mclet.,  Geogr.,  2,  p.  323.  — DotZwcW,  vol.  2,  p. 
 68. — GelVs  Itinerary,  p.  229.)  Its  ruins  are  laid  down, 
 in  Lapie's  map,  a  little  to  the  southwest  of  Alachi,  and 
 east  of  Talanta.  (Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p. 
 117,  seqq.) 
 
 Oraculum,  an  oracle.  The  primary  and  proper  sig- 
 nification of  the  term  is  that  of  a  response  from  an  ora- 
 cle, and  Cicero  says  that  "  oracula'''  were  so  called 
 *' quod  inest  in  his  iJcorwwi  ora/j'o."  (Tup. ,20.)  The 
 word,  however,  is  frequently  employed  to  denote  the 
 place  whence  the  answers  of  divinities,  as  regarded  the 
 events  of  the  future,  were  supposed  to  be  obtained. 
 Oracular  responses  were  called  by  the  Greeks  xPV^fJ-oi 
 or  jiavTEia  ;  the  name  fiavreiov  was  also  often  given 
 to  the  oracular  place,  or  seat  of  the  oracle. — Curiosity 
 regarding  the  future,  and  the  desire  to  penetrate  its 
 liiysteries,  are  dispositions  which  excite  a  powerful 
 control  over  the  minds  of  men  in  every  stage  of  soci- 
 ety. Among  nations  that  have  made  little  advance- 
 ment in  civilization  and  intelligence,  they  operate  with 
 peculiar  force  ;  and  in  these  dispositions,  combined 
 with  the  belief  that  the  gods  had  both  the  ability  and  the 
 inclination  to  afTord  the  knowledge  so  eagerly  sought 
 after,  the  oracles  of  the  pagan  world  had  their  origin. 
 Of  these  oracles  the  most  famous  were  those  of  Greece, 
 and  among  them  the  three  most  noted  were  those  of 
 Dodona,  Delphi,  and  Trophonius.  In  the  number  of 
 other  noted  oracles  of  antiquity  may  be  mentioned  that 
 of  Jupiter  Ammon  in  the  deserts  of  Libya,  of  the 
 Branchidaj  in  Ionia,  of  Pella  in  Macedonia,  of  the  head 
 of  Orjiheus  at  Lesbos,  &c.  There  were  also  current 
 in  Greece  numerous  so-called  prophecies,  the  produc- 
 tion of  individuals  who  were  probably  supposed  to 
 speak  under  a  divine  influence.  Such  were  those  of 
 Bacis  and  Musajus,  in  which  the  battle  of  Salamis  was 
 predicted  ;  and  that  of  Lysistratus,  an  Athenian.  (He- 
 rod., 8,  96.) — Though  the  Romans  had  various  modes 
 of  ascertaining  the  will  of  the  deities,  it  does  not  ap- 
 6B 
 
 pear  that  oracles,  like  those  of  Dodona  or  Delphi,  were 
 ever  established  among  them  ;  and  we  find  th;it  the 
 oracles  of  Greece,  and  particularly  the  far-fanad  one 
 of  Delphi,  were  consulted  by  them  on  many  important 
 occasions.  (Livy,  5,  15.— -i^i.,  22,  57,  &c.)  — The 
 importance  attached  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to 
 oracular  responses  is  a  striking  feature  in  the  history  of 
 that  people.  Hardly  any  enterprise,  whether  public  or 
 private,  of  any  moment,  was  undertaken  without  re- 
 course being  had  to  them,  and  their  sanction  being  ob- 
 tained. In  later  times,  indeed,  their  influence  was 
 greatly  diminished,  and  thus  gradually  fell  into  disre- 
 pute. Cicero  affirms,  that,  long  before  his  age,  even 
 the  Delphic  oracle  was  regarded  by  many  with  con- 
 tempt ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  oracles  were  con- 
 sidered by  philosophers  as  nothing  different  from  what 
 they  really  were,  and  by  politicians  as  instruments  which 
 could  be  used  for  their  purposes.  —  The  modes  in 
 which  oracular  responses  were  delivered  were  various. 
 At  Dodona  they  issued  from  the  sacred  oaks,  or  were 
 obtained  from  the  sounds  produced  by  the  lashing  of  a 
 brazen  caldron.  At  Delphi  they  were  delivered  by 
 the  Pythia  after  she  had  inhaled  the  vapour  that  pro- 
 ceeded from  the  sacred  fissure.  At  Memphis,  a  fa- 
 vourable or  unfavourable  answer  was  supposed  to  be 
 returned,  according  as  Apis  received  or  rejected  what 
 was  offered  him.  (Vid.  Apis.)  Sometimes  the  reply 
 was  given  by  letter  :  and  sometimes  the  required  in- 
 formation could  be  obtained  only  by  casting  lots,  the 
 lots  being  dice  with  certain  characters  engraven  on 
 them,  the  meaning  of  which  was  ascertained  by  refer- 
 ring to  an  explanatory  table.  Dreams,  visions,  and 
 preternatural  voices  also  announced  the  will  of  the  di- 
 vinities.— Bishop  Sherlock,  in  his  discourses  concern- 
 ing the  use  and  intent  of  prophecy,  expresses  his  opin- 
 ion that  it  is  impious  to  disbelieve  the  heathen  oracles, 
 and  to  deny  them  to  have  been  given  out  by  the  Evil 
 Spirit.  Dr.  Middleton,  however,  in  his  Examination, 
 &c  ,  confesses  that  he,  for  his  own  part,  is  guilty  of 
 this  very  impiety,  and  that  he  thinks  himself  warrant- 
 ed to  pronounce,  from  the  authority  of  the  best  and 
 wisest  heathens,  and  the  evidence  of  these  oracles,  as 
 well  as  from  the  nature  of  the  thing  itself,  that  they 
 were  all  a  mere  imposture,  wholly  invented  and  sup- 
 ported by  human  craft,  without  any  supernatural  aid  or 
 interposition  whatever.  He  adds  that  Eusebius  de- 
 clares that  there  were  600  authors  among  the  heathens 
 themselves  who  had  publicly  written  against  the  reality 
 of  them.  Although  the  primitive  fathers  constantly 
 affirmed  them  to  be  the  real  effects  of  a  supernatural 
 power,  and  given  out  by  the  devil,  yet  M.  de  Fonte- 
 nelle  maintains,  that  while  they  preferred  this  way  ol 
 combating  the  authority  of  the  oracles,  as  most  com- 
 modious to  themselves  and  the  state  of  the  controversy 
 between  them  and  the  heathens,  yet  they  believed  them 
 at  the  same  time  to  be  nothing  else  but  the  effects  of 
 human  fraud  and  contrivance,  which  he  has  illustrated 
 by  the  examples  of  Clemens  of  Alexandres,  Origen, 
 and  Eusebius. — Another  circumstance  respecting  the 
 ancient  oracles,  which  has  given  birth  to  inuch  contro- 
 versy, is  the  time  when  they  ceased  altogether  to  give 
 responses.  Eusebius  was  the  first  who  propounded 
 the  opinion  that  they  became  silent  ever  after  the  birth 
 of  Christ ;  and  many  writers,  willing  thus  to  do  hon- 
 our to  the  author  of  Christianity,  have  given  it  their 
 support.  Milton  makes  allusion  to  this  theory  also  in 
 the  most  magniiicent  of  all  his  minor  poems,  "  The 
 Hymn  of  the  Nativity."  But  the  circumstance  that 
 may  be  made  available  for  the  purpose  of  poetical  or- 
 nament happens  unfortunately  to  be  contrary  to  the 
 fact.  It  ap])ears  from  the  edicts  of  the  emperors 
 Theodosius,  Gratian,.and  Valcntinian,  that  oracles  ex- 
 isted, and  were  occasionally,  at  least,  consulted  as  late 
 as  A.D.  358.  About  that  period  they  entirely  ceased, 
 though  for  several  centuries  previous  they  had  sunk 
 very  low  in  public  esteem.  So  few  resorted  to  them, 
 ^  ^  929 
 
ORACULUM, 
 
 ORC 
 
 that  it  was  no  longer  a  matter  of  interest  to  maintain 
 them.     Towards  this  consummation  Christianity  pow- 
 erfully   contributed,    by    the    superior    enlightenment 
 which  it  carried  along  with  it  wherever  it  was  intro- 
 duced, and  by  the  display  which  it  made  of  the  false- 
 hood and  folly  of  the  superstitions  which  it  was  des- 
 tined to  overthrow.     {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  16,  p. 
 464,  seg  ) — The  Grecian  oracles,  or,  at  least,  the  most 
 celebrated  of  them,  were  of  foreign  origin,  and  were 
 established  either  by  Egyptian  or  Phoenician  strangers. 
 (Heeren,  Ideen,  vol  6,  p.  94. — Compare  Knight''s  In- 
 quiry, ()  43,  71,  223.)     But  it  was  impossible  for  these 
 eacerdotal  settlements  to  assume  in  Greece  the  aspect 
 which  they  took  in  Africa.     The  character  of  the  coun- 
 try and  the  spirit  of  the  people  were  alike  opposed  to 
 it.     For   though  the  popular  religion  in  Greece  was 
 not  wholly  unconnected  with  politics,  the  state,  having 
 never,  as  in  Egypt,  been  founded  entirely  upon  religion, 
 never  made  a  temple  its  central  point,  these  settle- 
 ments, however,  continued  as  oracles,  of  which    the 
 Greek  stood   in  need  both  in  public  and  private  life. 
 {Heeren,  Ideen,  I.  c.  —  Politics  of  Ancient  Greece,  p. 
 p.  78.)     Somewhat  analogous  to  this  view  of  the  sub- 
 ject is  the  position  assumed  by  the  advocates  for  the 
 existence  of  early  sacerdotal    castes  or  colleges    in 
 Greece ;  and  they  consider  the  oracles  as  a  remnant 
 surviving  the  overthrow  of  sacerdotal  power.     Hence 
 they  undertake  to  explain  why  the  oracles  play  so  sub- 
 ordinate a  part,  and  exercise  so  little  influence  in  the 
 earlier  periods  of  Grecian  history  ;  for  the  struggle  be- 
 tween the  sacerdotal  caste  and  the  warlike  portion  of 
 the  population  had  been  loo  recent  for  this,  and  the  ha- 
 tred of  the  latter  was  still  ardent  against  those  who  had 
 endeavoured  to  reduce  them  under  their  sway.     {Con- 
 stant, de  la  Religion,  vol.  3,  p.  369.)     Homer  speaks 
 of  no  oracle  except  Dodona,  and  of  that  indirectly  ; 
 no  mention  is  made  of  Delphi  in  cither  of  his  poems. 
 What  had,  however,  been  wrested  by  force  from  the 
 .sacerdotal  caste,  was  in  a  great  measure  regained  by 
 •  the  influence  of  these  very  oracles  on  the  weak  and  su- 
 perstitious.    Everything  that  could  tend  to  keep  up  a 
 feeling  of  awe  in  the  visiter  was  carefully  exhibited. 
 The  seats  of  the  oracles  were  established  in  the  bosoms 
 of  forests,  by  the  lonely  sources  of  rivers,  on  wild  and 
 craggy  mountains,  in  gloomy  caves,  but,  above  all,  near 
 the  mansions  of  the  dead ;  and,  notwithstanding  the 
 efTorts  of  philosophy,  and  the  raillery  and  sarcasm  of 
 the  comic  muse,  they  succeeded  in  acquiring  a  power 
 which  often  placed   in  the  hands   of  their  expound- 
 ers the  common  fortunes  of  Greece. — The  ami)iguity 
 of  the  oracular  responses  has  always  been  a  subject  of 
 remark  :   in  this,  indeed,  all  the  artifice  and  adroitness 
 of  the  priests  directly  centred.     Every  prediction  was 
 susceptible  of  a  double  meaning,  and  the  veracity  of 
 the  gods  in  this  way  remained  safe  from  impeachment. 
 It  must  be  remarked,  however,  that  this  fatal  ambigu- 
 ity on  the  part  of  the  oracles  does  not  confine  itself 
 merely  to  the  ages  of  tradition  and  fable.     On  the  con- 
 trary, it  becomes  more  frequent  the  more  men  part 
 ■with  the  improper  and  degrading  notions  of  the  deity 
 which   they  had   originally  entertained.     As   long  as 
 men  are  still  sufficiently  rude  and  ignorant  to  believe 
 the   gods  capable  of  voluntary  falsehood,  the  predic- 
 tions of  oracles  need  be  marked  by  no  ambiguity  ;  a 
 deviation  from  truth  on  the  part  of  the  deity  is  in  such 
 a   condition   of   society  regarded    merely  as    a  mark 
 of  divine  anger.     But  when  the  character  of  the  gods 
 is   better  understood,  and  when  their   attributes   are 
 made  to  assume  a  more  perfect  and  becoming  form, 
 their  honour  is  consulted,  and  the  hypothesis   of  in- 
 tentional falsehood  on  their  part  is  no  longer  admit- 
 ted.    The  predictions  of  Jupiter  in  the  Iliad  are  false, 
 but  not  obscure,  whereas  the  oracles  mentioned  in  He- 
 rodotus are  obscure  in  order  not  to  be  false.     Thus 
 it  is  not  merely  Laius  who,  by  exposing  his  newly- 
 born  child,  prepares  the  accomplishment  of  the  very 
 930 
 
 '  prediction  which  he  believed  he  was  eluding  :  it  is  nol 
 Croesus  alone  who  rushes  to  his  own  destruction  by 
 marching  against  the  King  of  Persia,  because  the  gods 
 had  announced  to  him  that,  by  crossing  a  certain  river, 
 he  would  overthrow  a  great  empire ;  at  a  much  later 
 period  than  all  this  we  find  the  Pythoness  inducing  the 
 Lacedaemonians  by  a  response  of  similar  ambiguity  to 
 engage  in  a  war  with  the  I'egasans,  who  put  them  to 
 the  rout  (Herod.,  1,'66);  and  again  we  see  the  ora- 
 cle of  Dodona,  in  counselling  the  Athenians  to  estab- 
 lish themselves  in  Sicily,  excite  them  to  engage  in  a 
 war  with  Syracuse,  which  proved  the  primary  cause  of 
 their  downfall  and  ruin,  while  all  the  time  the  Sicily 
 indicated  by  the  oracle  was  merely  a  small  hill  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Athens.  {Pausan.,  8,  2.)  In  fine, 
 it  was  at  a  period  characterized  by  the  general  diffu- 
 sion of  mental  culture  that  Epaniinondas,  who  had 
 always  avoided  maritime  expeditions,  because  the  gods 
 had  warned  him  to  beware  of  ■pelages,  that  is,  as  he 
 thought,  the  sea,  died  in  a  wood  which  bore  this  name 
 in  the  vicinity  of  Mantinea.  These  anecdotes,  wheth- 
 er we  regard  the  occurrences  connected  with  them  as 
 authentic  facts  or  otherwise,  serve  nevertheless  to 
 show  the  prolongation  of  popular  belief  on  this  all-en- 
 grossing topic. — When  a  religion  has  fallen  and  been 
 succeeded  by  another,  the  more  zealous  advocates  of 
 the  new  belief  sometimes  find  themselves  in  a  curious 
 state  of  embarrassment.  So  it  is  with  regard  to  the 
 heathen  system  and  the  Christian  code.  Among  the 
 numerous  oracles  given  to  the  world  in  former  days, 
 some  have  chanced  to  find  a  remarkable  accomplish- 
 ment ;  and  the  pious  but  ill-judging  Christian,  unable 
 to  ascribe  them  to  deities  in  whom  man  no  longer  be- 
 lieves, is  driven  to  create  for  them  a  different  origin. 
 "God."  says  Ilollin,  "in  order  to  punish  the  blindness 
 of  the  heathen,  sometimes  permits  evil  spirits  to  give 
 responses  conformable  to  the  truth."  {Hist.  Anc, 
 1,  387.)  The  only  evil  spirit  which  had  an  agency  in 
 the  oracular  responses  of  antiquity  was  that  spirit  of 
 crafty  imposture  which  finds  so  congenial  a  home 
 among  an  artful  and  cunning  priesthood.  {Constant, 
 de  la  Religion,  vol.  3,  p.  369,  seqq.) 
 
 Orbii.Iijs  PupiLLUs,  a  grammarian  of  Beneventum, 
 who  was  the  first  instructor  of  the  poet  Horace.  He 
 came  to  Rome  in  his  50th  year,  in  the  consulship  of 
 Cicero.  From  the  account  which  Suetonius  gives  of 
 him,  as  well  as  from  the  epithet  '^  plagosus'"  applied 
 to  him  by  Horace,  he  appears  to  have  been  what  we 
 would  call  at  the  present  day  a  rigid  disciplinarian. 
 Orbilius,  in  early  life,  had  served  as  a  soldier.  On 
 settling  at  Home  he  acquired  more  fame  than  profit, 
 and  is  said  to  have  alluded  to  his  poverty  in  one  of  his 
 writings.  He  published  also  a  work  entitled  "  Peria- 
 logos,"  containing  complaints  against  parents  on  ac- 
 count of  the  treatment  which  instructors  of  youth 
 were  accustomed  to  receive  at  their  hands.  Orbilius 
 reached  nearly  his  100th  year,  and  for  a  long  time  be- 
 fore his  death  had  completely  lost  his  memory.  A 
 statue  was  erected  to  him  at  Beneventum.  He  left  a 
 son,  named  also  Orbilius,  who,  like  himself,  was  an  in- 
 structor. {Sucton.,  de  Illustr.  Gramm.,  9. — Horat., 
 Epist.,  2,  1,71.) 
 
 Orc.Xdes,  islands  to  the  north  of  Britain,  answering 
 to  the  modern  Orkney  and  Shetland  isles.  They  are 
 supposed  to  have  been  first  discovered  by  the  fleet  of 
 Germanicus  when  driven  in  this  direction  by  a  storm. 
 .■\gricola  afterward  made  the  Romans  better  acquaint- 
 ed with  their  existence  as  islands,  separate  from  the 
 mainland  of  Britain,  when  he  circumnavigated  the 
 northern  coast  of  that  country.  Mela  (3,  6),  following 
 the  oldest  accounts,  makes  the  number  of  these  islands 
 to  be  thirty,  and  this  statement  i.s  received  by  subse- 
 quent writers,  with  the  exception  '^f  Pliny  (4,  16), 
 who  gives  forty  as  the  amount,  provided  the  reading 
 be  correct.  Orosius,  in  a  later  age,  Mrould  seem  to 
 have  had  more  recent  information  on  this  point,  since 
 
ORG 
 
 ORCHOMENUS. 
 
 he  stales  ihe  number  at  thirty-three,  of  which  twenty, 
 according  to  him,  were  inhabited,  and  the  remaining 
 thirteen  dt  verted — The  Orkneys  at  the  present  day  are 
 still  called  Orcades  by  the  French.  They  are  separa- 
 ted from  "he  northern  extremity  of  Scotland  by  the 
 Pentland  .Straits  or  Frith,  in  which  the  sea  is  so  bois- 
 terous thai  the  serf  upon  the  rocks  spreads  a  fine  rain 
 to  a  league's  distance  within  the  land  :  no  wind,  how- 
 ever strong,  will  enable  the  mariner  to  stem  the  cur- 
 rent in  this  place.  The  group  consists  of  67  islands 
 End  islets,  27  ef  which  are  inhabited.  Red  sand- 
 stone is  the  prevailing  rock.  The  soil  of  some  of  the 
 islands  is  of  inferior  quality,  but  that  of  others  is  ex- 
 cellent. The  Shetland,  or  Zetland  islands  are  eighty- 
 six  in  number,  of  which  forty  are  inhabited.  'Fhey 
 contain  granite  and  rock«  of  igneous  origin,  with  red 
 sandstone  ;  their  vegetation  is  poorer  than  that  of  the 
 Orkneys,  and  their  soil  for  the  most  part  is  marshy. 
 (Malte-Brun,  vol.  8,  p.  684.) 
 
 Orchomenus,  I.  a  celebrated  city  of  Boeotia,  near 
 the  Cephissus,  and  to  the  northwest  of  the  Lake  Co- 
 pa'is.  it  was  the  secor»d  city  of  the  land,  and  at  one 
 time  even  rivalled  Thebes  itself  in  wealth,  power,  and 
 importance.  Its  first  inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been 
 the  Phlegyae,  a  lawless  race,  who  regarded  neither 
 gods  nor  men,  but  laid  the  whole  country  under  con- 
 tffibution  by  their  frequent  and  daring  robberies. 
 (Horn.,  Hymn.  ApoU.,  278.  —  Schol.  m  ApoUon. 
 Rhod.,  1,  735.— //oflt.,  //.,  13,  302.— Pausan.,  9,  36.) 
 Pausanias,  however,  reports  that  a  city  named  An- 
 drei's existed  before  the  time  of  Phlegyas,  who  is  said 
 to  have  been  a  son  of  Mars.  The  Phlegyae  having 
 been  destroyed  by  the  gods  for  their  impiety,  with  the 
 exception  of  a  small  remnant  w^ho  fled  into  Phocis, 
 were  succeeded  by  the  Minye  {vid.  Minyas),  who  are 
 commonly  looked  u))on  as  the  real  founders  of  Orchom- 
 enus,  which  thence  obtained  the  surname  of  *'  the 
 Minyean."  {Od.,  11,  283,— Ptnii  ,  01.,  14,  I.— ApoU. 
 Rhod.,  3,  1094.  — TAttct/i.,  4,  36.)  At  this  period 
 Orchomenus  became  so  renowned  for  its  wealth  and 
 power  that  Homer  represents  it  as  vying  with  the  most 
 opulent  cities  in  the  world.  (//.,  9,  381.)  These 
 riches  aie  said  to  have  been  deposited  in  a  building 
 erected  for  that  purpose  by  Minyas,  and  which  Pau- 
 sanias describes  as  an  as'tonishing  work,  and  equally 
 worthy  of  admiration  with  the  walls  of  Tiryns  or  the 
 pyramids  of  Egypt  (9,  36).  Thebes  was  at  that  time 
 inferior  in  power  to  the  Minyean  city,  and  in  a  war 
 with  Erginus,  king  of  the  latter,  was  compelled  to  be- 
 come its  tributary.  (Strabo,  414. — Pausan.,  I.  c.) 
 As  another  proof  of  the  wealth  and  civilitalion  to 
 which  Orchomenus  had  attained,  it  is  mentioned  that 
 Eleocles,  one  of  its  early  kings,  was  the  first  to  erect 
 and  consecrate  a  temple  to  the  Graces  {Sirab.,  I.  c. — 
 Pausan.,  9,  36),  whence  Orchomenus  is  designated 
 by  Pindar  {Pyih.,  12,  45)  as  the  city  of  the  Graces. 
 In  a  war  waged  against  Hercules,  its  power,  however, 
 was  greatly  impaired,  though  at  the  period  of  the 
 Trojan  war  it  still  retained  its  independence,  since  we 
 find  it  mentioned  by  Homer  as  a  separate  principality, 
 distinct  from  Bosotia.  (//.,  2,  511.)  It  appears  to 
 have  joined  the  Boeotian  confederacy  about  sixty  years 
 after  the  siege  of  Troy  {Strabo,  410),  and  Thucydides 
 informs  us  in  his  time  it  was  no  longer  termed  the 
 Minyean,  but  the  Boeotian  Orchomenus  (4,  76. — 
 Compare  Herod.,  8,  34).  It  was  occupied  by  the 
 Lacedaemonians  at  the  time  they  held  the  Cadmean 
 litadei,  but  joined  the  Thebans  after  the  battle  of 
 Leuctra.  {Diod.  Sic,  15,  57.)  The  latter,  however, 
 being  now  in  the  height  of  their  ascendancy,  not  long 
 after  made  an  expedition  against  Orchomenus,  and, 
 having  seized  upon  the  town,  put  to  death  the  male 
 inhabitants,  and  enslaved  the  women  and  children. 
 (Diod.  Sic,  15,  7^.— Pausan.,  9,  15.)  The  pretext 
 for  this  was  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  some  Orchomc- 
 niao   horsemen,  300  in  number,  to  get  possession  of 
 
 Thebes,  in  conjunction  with  certain  exiles  from  the 
 latter  city.  During  the  sacred  war  Orchomenus  was 
 twice  in  the  possession  of  Onomarchus  and  the  Pho- 
 cians  {Dtod.  Sic,  16,  33),  but  on  peace  being  con- 
 cluded it  was  given  up  by  Philip  to  the  Thebans. 
 (Demosth.,  de  Pac  ,  p.  d^—PhiL,  2,  p.  69.)  Orchom- 
 enus was  not  restored  to  liberty  and  independence 
 till  the  time  of  Cassander,  when  that  prince  rebuilt 
 Thebes.  {Pausan.,  9,  3.)  It  is  mentioned  by  Di- 
 caarchus  as  existing  at  this  period.  {Slat.,  Gra:c.,  96. 
 — Compare  Plut.,  Vil.  SylL  —  Arrian,  Exp.  A  I.,  1, 
 9.) — According  to  the  accounts  of  modern  travellers, 
 the  ruins  of  Orchomenus  are  to  be  seen  near  the  vil- 
 lage of  Scripou.  Dodwell  says,  "  This  celebrated 
 city  still  exhibits  traces  of  its  former  strength,  and 
 some  remains  of  its  early  magnificence.  The  Acropo- 
 hs  stands  on  a  steep  rock,  rising  close  to  the  west  of 
 the  lower  town  ;  the  Cephissus  winds  at  its  southern 
 base.  The  walls,  which  extend  from  the  plain  to  the 
 summit  of  the  hill,  enclose  an  irregular  triangle,  the 
 acuter  angle  of  which  terminates  at  the  summit  of  the 
 rock,  which  is  crowned  with  a  strong  tower,  the  walls 
 of  which  are  regularly  constructed.  In  the  interior  a 
 large  cistern  is  formed  in  the  solid  rock ;  ninety-one 
 steps  are  cut  in  the  rock,  and  lead  up  to  the  tower, 
 the  position  of  which  is  remarkably  strong.  It  com- 
 mands an  extensive  view  over  Phocis  and  Bceotia, 
 while  the  distant  horizon  is  terminated  by  the  mount- 
 ains of  Euboea"  (vol.  1,  p.  229).  At  the  eastern  foot 
 of  the  Acropolis  the  same  antiquary  observed  some 
 remains  of  the  treasury  of  Minyas.  "  The  entrance 
 is  entire,  though  the  earth,  being  raised  above  its  an- 
 cient level,  conceals  a  considerable  part  of  it,  as  only 
 six  large  blocks,  which  are  of  regular  masonry,  re- 
 main above  ground.  The  whole  building  is  of  white 
 marble,  which  must  have  been  brought  from  a  great 
 distance,  as  the  nearest  quarries  are  those  of  Penteli- 
 cus."  Mr.  Dodwell  found  by  approximation  the  di- 
 ameter of  the  building  to  have  been  upward  of  sixty- 
 five  feet,  which  shows  it  to  have  been  far  superior  to 
 the  treasury  at  Mycenae.  "  The  architecture  of  that 
 portion  which  remains  is  composed  of  a  single  block, 
 fifteen  feet  four  inches  in  length,  the  breadth  six  feet 
 three  inches,  the  thickness  three  feet  three  inches,  and 
 it  weighs  at  least  twenty-four  tons"  (vol.  1,  p.  227). 
 Sir  W.  Gell  says,  "  It  has  been  a  dome,  formed  by 
 approaching  blocks,  laid  in  horizontal  courses,  which 
 do  not  diverge  from  a  centre  like  the  principle  of  an 
 arch.  The  interior  of  the  building  was  in  the  form  of 
 a  cone,  or,  rather,  beehive.  There  seem  to  be  two 
 other  treasuries  very  near,  but  buried.  Hence  there  is 
 a  steep  ascent  to  the  citadel,  passing  some  huge  blocks 
 in  the  way."  In  the  monastery  of  Scrtpou  are  sev- 
 eral inscriptions,  with  the  name  of  the  city  written  Er- 
 chomenos.  This  appears  also  in  the  coins  of  the  city, 
 where  the  epigraph  is  EPX.  instead  of  OPX.  In 
 others  of  more  recent  date  it  is  OPXOMENIflN. 
 {Cramer  s  Anc  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  244,  seqq.)  With 
 regard  to  the  form  Erchomenos,  the  remarks  of  Bast 
 may  be  consulted.  {Letlre  Critique  a  Boissonade  sur 
 Anton.  Lib.,  p.  123. — Compare  Miiller,  Orchomenos 
 and  die  Minycr,  p.  129)  —  II.  A  city  of  Arcadia, 
 some  distance  to  the  northwest  of  Mantinea.  It  was 
 first  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  but  was  after- 
 ward, as  we  learn  from  Pausanias,  removed  to  the 
 plain  below.  Tradition  assigned  its  foundation  to  (Or- 
 chomenus, the  son  of  Lycaon  {PaiLsan.,  8,  3),  and  its 
 antiquity  is  farther  evinced  by  Homer's  mention  of  it 
 in  the  catalogue  of  ships.  {11,  2,  605.)  Orchome- 
 nus sent  120  soldiers  to  Thermopylae  {Herod.,  7,  102) 
 and  600  to  Plataea  (9,  28).  In  the  Peloponncsian 
 war,  this  town,  being  in  alliance  with  Sparta,  was  be- 
 sieged and  taken  by  the  Argives  and  Athenians. 
 {Thucyd.,  5,  61.)  Several  years  after  that  event  it 
 fell  into  the  power  of  Cassander  {Died.  Sic,  19,  63), 
 but,  having  at  length  regained  its  independence,  joined 
 
ORE 
 
 ORE 
 
 the  Achsan  league.  Surprised  again  by  Cleomenes, 
 it  was  retaken  by  Antigonus  Doson,  who  placed  there 
 a  Macedonian  garrison.  After  his  death,  however,  it 
 appears  to  have  reverted  to  the  Acha?ans.  {Pnlyb.,  2, 
 46  —7(/.,  2,  54.— W.,  4,  ^.—Straho,  338.)  The  plain 
 of  Orchomenus  was  in  a  great  measure  occupied  by  a 
 small  lake,  formed  by  the  rain-water  which  descended 
 from  the  surrounding  hills :  one  of  these,  situated 
 over  against  the  town,  was  named  Trachys.  The 
 modern  village  of  Kalpaki  is  built  on  the  ruins  of  Or- 
 chomenus. {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  306, 
 scqq.) — III.  A  city  of  Thessaly,  on  the  confines  of 
 Macedonia.  (Schol.  in  Apoll.  Mod.,  2,  1186. — Van 
 Slaveren,  ad  Hygin.,  fab.,  1.  —  Miiller,  Orchomenos 
 und  die  Miriyer,  p.  249.) — IV.  A  city  of  Pontus,  ac- 
 cording to  the  scholiast  on  Apollonius  Rhodius  (2, 
 1186).  Consult  the  remarks  of  Muller  {Orchomenos, 
 &c.,  p.  288). 
 
 Orcus,  the  god  of  the  lower  world,  in  the  old  Latin 
 religion,  corresponding  to  the  Hades  or  Pluto  of  the 
 Greeks.  Verrius  says  that  the  ancients  prononnced 
 Orcus  as  if  written  Uragus,  or,  rather,  Urgus,  whence 
 it  would  signify  the  Driver  (from  urgen),  answering  to 
 the  Hades-Agesilaus  of  the  Greeks.  This  etymology, 
 however,  is  very  doubtful.  {Festus,  s.  v. — Keightley^s 
 Mythology,  p.  527.) 
 
 Ordovices,  a  people  of  Britain,  occupying  what 
 would  correspond  at  the  present  day  to  the  northern 
 portion  of  Wales,  together  with  the  isle  of  Anglesey. 
 {Tacit.,  Hist.,  12,  33. — Mannert,  Gcogr  ,  vol.  2,  pt. 
 2,  p.  187.)  It  was  probably  owing  to  the  nature  of 
 their  country,  and  to  the  vicinity  of  Deva,  now  Ches- 
 ter, where  a  whole  Roman  legion  was  quartered,  that 
 the  Romans  had  so  few  towns  and  stations  among  the 
 Ordovices.  Mediomanium  was  their  capital,  and  was 
 probably  situated  at  Maywood  or  Mcifad,  in  Mont- 
 gomeryshire. {Mela,  3,  6. — Plin.,  4,  16. — Mannert, 
 I.  c.) 
 
 Oreades,  nymphs  of  the  mountains,  so  called  from 
 the  Greek  opo^,  "  a  mountairi."  Another  form  of  the 
 name  is  Orestiades  {'OpEaTuidec:).  They  generally  at- 
 tended upon  Diana,  and  accompanied  her  in  hunting. 
 {Virg.,  Mn.,  1,  504.— Oujrf,  Met.,  8,  787.— Horn.,  H., 
 6,  420.) 
 
 Or  EST /E,  a  people  of  Epirus,  situate  apparently  to 
 the  southeast  of  the  Lyncestse,  and,  like  them,  origi- 
 nally independent  of  the  Macedonian  kings,  though  af- 
 terward armexed  to  their  dominions.  At  a  later  peri- 
 od, having  revolted  under  the  protection  of  a  Roman 
 force,  they  were  declared  free  on  the  conclusion  of 
 peace  between  Philip  and  the  Romans.  {Liv.,  33,  34. 
 — Id.,  42,  38.)  Their  country  was  apparently  of  small 
 extent,  and  contained  but  few  towns.  Among  these 
 Orestia  is  named  by  Stephanus  Byzanlinus,  who  slates 
 it  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  Ptolemy,  the  son  of 
 Jjagus.  Its  foundation  was  ascribed  by  tradition  to 
 Orestes.  This  is  probably  the  same  city  called  by 
 Strabo  (326)  Argos  Oresticum,  built,  as  he  affirms,  by 
 Orestes.  Hierocles  also  (p.  641)  recognises  an  Ar- 
 gos in  Macedonia.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1, 
 p.  197.) 
 
 Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra. 
 On  tlie  assassination  of  Agamemnon,  Orestes,  then 
 quite  young,  was  saved  from  his  father's  fate  by  his 
 sister  Elcctra,  who  had  him  removed  to  the  court  of 
 their  uncle  Strophius,  king  of  Phocis.  There  he  form- 
 ed an  intimate  friendship  with  Pylades,  the  son  of 
 Strophius,  and  with  him  concerted  the  means,  which 
 he  successfully  adopted,  of  avenging  his  father's  death, 
 by  slaying  his  mother  and  .•Egisthus.  ( Fjrf.  Clytaem- 
 nestra,  and  .^gisthus.)  After  the  murder  of  Clytem- 
 nestra, the  Furies  drove  Orestes  into  insanity  ;  and 
 when  the  oracle  at  Delphi  was  consulted  respecting 
 the  duration  of  his  malady,  an  answer  was  given  that 
 Orestes  would  not  be  restored  to  a  sane  mind  until 
 Le  went  to  the  Tauric  Chersonese,  and  brought  away 
 932 
 
 from  that  quarter  the  statue  of  Diana  to  Argos.  It 
 was  the  custom  in  Taurica  to  sacrifice  all  strangers  to 
 this  goddess,  and  Orestes  and  Pylades,  havmg  made 
 the  journey  together,  and  having  both  been  taken  cap- 
 tive, were  brought  as  victims  to  the  altar  of  Diana. 
 Iphigenia,  the  sister  of  Orestes,  who  had  been  carried 
 off  by  Diana  from  Aulis  when  on  the  point  of  being  im- 
 molated {Vid.  Aulis,  and  Iphigenia),  was  the  priestess 
 of  the  goddess  among  the  Tauri.  Perceiving  the  stran- 
 gers to  be  Greeks,  she  offered  to  spare  the  life  of  one 
 of  them,  provided  he  would  carry  a  letter  from  her  tp 
 Greece.  This  occasioned  a  memorable  contest  of 
 friendship  between  them,  which  should  sacrifice  him- 
 self for  the  other,  and  it  ended  in  Pylades'  yielding  to 
 Orestes,  and  agreeing  to  be  the  bearer  of  the  letter. 
 The  letter  was  for  Orestes,  and  a  discovery  was  the 
 consequence.  Iphigenia,  thereupon,  on  learning  the 
 object  of  their  visit,  contrived  to  aid  them  in  tarrying 
 off  the  statue  of  Diana,  and  all  three  arrived  safe  in 
 Greece.  Orestes  reigned  many  years  in  Mycenae,  and 
 became  the  husband  of  Hcrmione,  after  having  slain 
 Neoptolemus.  {Vid.  Hermione,  and  Pyrrhus  I.)  — 
 Such  is  the  ordinary  form  of  the  legend  of  Orestes. 
 The  tragic  writers,  of  course,  introduced  many  varia- 
 tions. Thus,  it  is  said,  that  when  the  Furies  of  his 
 mother  persecuted  him,  he  fled  to  Delphi,  whose  god 
 had  urged  him  to  commit  the  deed,  and  thence  went  to 
 Athens,  where  he  was  acquitted  by  the  court  of  Are- 
 opagus. {Mschyl.,  Eumen  — Compare  Muller,  Eu- 
 men.) — Orestes  had  by  Hermione  two  sons,  Tis- 
 amenus  and  Penthilus,  who  were  driven  from  their 
 country  by  the  Heraclidae.  {Apollod.,  2,  8,  5.  —  Eu- 
 rip.,  Orest. — Soph.,  Elecir. — AischyL,  Agam.,  &c.) 
 
 Oresteum  or  Orestheum,  called  by  Pausanias  {8, 
 3)  Oresthasium,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  southeast  of  Me- 
 galopolis, in  the  district  of  Oresihis.  Its  rains,  ac- 
 cording to  Pausanias,  were  to  be  seen  to  the  right  of 
 the  road  leading  from  Megalopolis  to  Tegsa  (8,  44). 
 Allusion  is  made  to  it  by  Euripides.  (Orest.,  1643. 
 — Electr.,  1273.)  It  would  seem  from  Thucydides 
 and  Herodotus  to  have  been  on  the  road  from  Sparta 
 to  Tegsea.  {Thucyd.,  5,  Q'^.— Herod  ,9,  11.)  Ores- 
 tes died  here.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  347.) 
 
 Orestia.      Vid.  Orestae. 
 
 Orestias,  the  primitive  name  of  Adrianopolis,  in 
 Thrace,  and  which  the  Byzantine  authors  frequently 
 employ  in  speaking  of  that  city.  The  name  is  de- 
 rived from  the  circumstance  of  Orestes  having  purified 
 himself  on  this  spot  after  the  murder  of  his  mother. 
 Three  rivers  had  here  their  confluence,  the  Hebrus,  re- 
 ceiving the  Ardiscus  or  Arda  on  one  side,  and  the 
 Tonsus  or  Tonza  on  the  other.     {Vid.  Adrianojiolis.) 
 
 Oretani,  a  people  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  whose 
 territory  is  supposed  to  have  corresponded  to  the  east- 
 ern part  of  EslTcmadura,  the  middle  section  of  La 
 Mancha,  the  eastern  extremity  of  Jacn,  and  the  north- 
 ern extremity  of  Grenada.  {Liv.,  21,  11.  —  Id.,  35, 
 7.— Plin  ,  3,  3—Polyb.,  10.  38.— Id.,  11,  20.) 
 
 Oreus  ('Q/jEOf),  an  ancient  city  of  Euboja.  in  the 
 northeastern  part  of  the  island,  founded,  as  was  said,  by 
 an  Athenian  colony.  It  was  situate  in  the  district  of 
 Ellopia.  {Strabo,  445.)  Scymnus  of  Chios,  however, 
 ascribes  a  Thessalian  origin  to  the  place.  Its  primi- 
 tive name  was  Histisa,  and  it  retained  this  appella 
 tion  until,  having  endeavoured  to  shake  off  the  galling 
 yoke  of  Athens,  after  the  close  of  the  Persian  war,  it 
 met  with  a  cruel  punishment  at  the  hands  of  that  pow- 
 er. The  inhabitants  were  expelled,  and  Athenian  col- 
 onists were  sent  to  occupy  the  lands  which  they  had 
 evacuated,  {Thucyd.,  1,  115.)  Strabo,  on  the  au- 
 thority of  Theopompus,  informs  us,  that  the  Histianans 
 withdrew  on  this  occasion  to  Macedonia  (/.  c).  From 
 henceforth  we  find  the  name  of  the  place  changed  to 
 Oreus,  which  at  first  was  that  of  a  small  place  depend- 
 ant on  HistiEca,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Telethrius,  and 
 near  the  spot  called  Drymos,  on  the  banks  of  the  riv- 
 
ORI 
 
 ORIBASIUS. 
 
 er  Callas.  Thucydides  first  notices  Oreus  at  the  close 
 of  his  history,  as  the  last  place  retained  by  the  Athe- 
 nians in  Euboja  (8,  95).  From  Xenophon  we  learn, 
 that,  haring  been  subsequently  occupied  by  the  Lace- 
 daemonians, who  had  expelled  Neogenes  the  tyrant,  it 
 revolted  from  them  previous  to  the  battle  of  Leuctra. 
 (Hist.  Gr.,  5,  4,  57.)  After  that  period  we  find  His- 
 tisea,  or  Oreus,  governed  by  another  tyrant  named  Phil- 
 islides,  who,  as  Demosthenes  asserts,  was  secretly  sup- 
 porte<l  and  befriended  by  Philip  of  Macedon  {Phil.,  3, 
 p.  125):  he  was  afterward  defeated  and  slain  by  the 
 Athenians  and  Chaieidians.  (Slcph.  Byz.,s.v.)  JEs- 
 chines,  on  the  other  hand,  cites  a  decree  of  Oreus,  to 
 prove  that  Demosthenes  had  been  bribed  by  the  citi- 
 zens of  that  town.  {Msch.  in  Cles  ,  p.  68.) — In  the 
 second  Punic  war,  Oreus,  when  besieged  by  Attalus 
 and  Sulpicius,  a  Roman  general,  was  betrayed  into 
 their  hands  by  Plalor,  who  had  been  intrusted  by  Phil- 
 ip with  the  command  of  the  place.  {Liv.,  28,  6.)  It 
 must  have  been  restored,  however,  to  that  monarch  on 
 peace  being  concluded ;  for,  in  the  Macedonian  war, 
 we  find  it  sustaining  another  obstinate  siege  against 
 the  same  enemies,  when  it  was  taken  by  assault.  (Liv., 
 31,  4Q.—Pulyb.,  11,  6  —Id.,  18,  28.)  This  city  no 
 longer  existed  in  Pliny's  time  (4,  12).  Its  ruins  are 
 still  to  be  seen  near  the  coast,  opposite  to  Cape  Volo 
 of  Thessaly.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  120.) 
 
 Okgetorix,  a  nobleman  of  the  Helvetii,  the  most 
 conspicuous  for  rank  and  riches  of  any  of  his  country- 
 men. He  attempted  to  possess  himself  of  the  chief 
 power  ill  his  native  state,  and  was,  in  consequence, 
 summoned  to  trial.  His  retainers,  however,  assembled 
 in  great  numbers,  and  prevented  the  case  from  being 
 heard.  He  died  not  long  after,  having  fallen,  as  was 
 supposed,  by  his  own  hands.  {Gas.,  B.  G.,  1,  2, 
 seqq.) 
 
 ORtB.tsius,  an  eminent  physician,  and  the  intimate 
 friend  of  the  Emperor  Julian,  was  born  at  Sardis,  in 
 Lydia,  according  to  Suidas  and  Philostorgius  {Hist. 
 Eccles.,  7,  15),  or,  rather,  according  to  Eunapius  {De 
 Vitis  Plulosoph.  el  Sophist),  who  was  his  contempo- 
 rary, at  Pergamus,  a  celebrated  city  of  Mysia,  and  the 
 birthplace  ol  Galen.  After  enjoying  the  advantages  of 
 a  good  education,  he  became  a  pupil  of  Zeno,  an  able 
 physician  of  Cy|)rus,  to  whom  the  Emperor  Julian  ad- 
 dressed a  letter,  still  extant.  (Epist.,  47.)  Oribasius 
 soon  became  so  famous  in  the  practice  of  his  profession, 
 as  to  induce  Julian,  upon  being  raised  to  the  rank  of 
 Caesar,  to  take  him  with  him  into  Gaul  as  his  physician, 
 A.D.  355.  Julian  always  held  him  in  high  esteem  ; 
 and.  indeed,  he  owed  him  a  debt  of  gratitude,  if,  as 
 Eunapius  asserts,  Oribasius  aided  in  procuring  for  him 
 the  empire.  How  this  was  effected  by  Oribasius,  the 
 writer  just  mentioned  does  not  state,  and  history  is  si- 
 lent on  the  subject.  It  is  this  circumstance  which  has 
 led  Boissonade,  the  last  editor  of  Eunapius,  to  doubt 
 the  accuracy  of  the  meaning  commonly  attached  to 
 the  words  of  this  writer.  He  asks  whether  the  pas- 
 sage in  question,  'O  de  roaovToi'  kizTieoveKTec  raig  ak- 
 T-aii;  aptralq,  iJaTE  Kal  (iaaMa  t6v  'lovAtavov  uni- 
 6eii£,  may  not  in  fact  mean  that  Oribasius  had  in- 
 stilled into  the  bosom  of  Julian,  both  by  precept  and  ex- 
 ample, such  virtues  as  made  him  trtily  a  king?  But, 
 however  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  thev  were  upon 
 the  most  intimate  terms,  as  is  proved  by  one  of  Ju- 
 lian's letters,  addressed  to  Oribasius,  which  still  re- 
 mains {E/nsl.,  17),  and  is,  at  the  same  time,  a  monu- 
 ment of  their  superstition  and  pagan  idolatry.  When 
 Julian  succeeded  to  the  empire,  A.D.  361,  he  raised 
 Oribasius  to  the  rank  of  quaestor  of  Constantinople, 
 and  afterward  sent  him  to  consult  the  oracle  at  Delphi' 
 whence  he  brought  back  the  celebrated  answer,  that 
 the  oracles  had  ceased  to  utter  predictions.  {Cedre- 
 nus,  Chronic,  p.  304.  ei  Paris,  1647.)  Oribasius  ac- 
 companied the  emperor  in  his  expedition  against  Per- 
 fiia,  and  was  present  at  bis  death.     He  afterward  fell 
 
 into  disgrace  through  the  envy  of  his  enemies,  had  all 
 his  estate  confiscated,  and  was  banished  by  Valentinian 
 and  Valens.  He  supported  his  misfortunes  with  for- 
 titude, and  by  his  medical  talents  gained  so  much  love 
 and  reverence,  that  the  barbarians  (as  they  were  called) 
 to  whom  he  had  come  began  almost  to  adore  him  as  a 
 god.  At  last  the  emperors,  feeling  the  loss  of  his  pro- 
 fessional skill,  recalled  him  from  banishment,  restored 
 his  confiscated  fortune,  and  loaded  him  with  honours. 
 He  was  still  alive  when  Eunapius,  who  was  his  inti- 
 mate friend,  wrote  his  account  of  his  life,  which  is 
 placed  by  Lardner  about  the  year  400  ;  and  as  this 
 was  more  than  50  years  after  his  attending  Julian  in 
 Gaul,  he  must  have  lived  to  a  good  old  age.  There 
 are  in  the  Greek  Anthology  two  epigrams  written  in 
 honour  of  hiin. — Oribasius  composed,  by  order  of  the 
 Emperor  Julian,  an  abridgment  of  the  works  of  Galen, 
 under  the  title  of  Upajfiareia  laTpLKTj  ("  Treatise  on 
 Medicine'''),  in  four  books,  a  compilation  entirely  lost. 
 He  afterward,  at  the  instance  of  the  same  monarch, 
 made  a  collection  of  extracts  from  the  writings  of  pre- 
 vious physicians  ;  these  he  arranged  in  methodical  or- 
 der, and  distributed  into  seventy  books,  as  the  title  of 
 the  compilation  indicates,  'E66ofj.tiKovTd6i6?.o(.  {Pho- 
 tius,  cod.,  217.)  Suidas,  however,  says  that  it  con- 
 sisted of  seventy-two.  Of  this  large  work  we  possess 
 rather  more  than  one  third  part,  namely,  books,  1-15, 
 24,  25,  43,  44,  45,  46,  47,  48,  49,  50.  Dietz  states, 
 in  the  preface  to  his  unedited  "  Scholia  in  Hippocra- 
 tem  et  Galenum"  {Kcgim.  Pruss.,  1834,  2  vols.  8vo), 
 that  he  discovered  two  more  books  that  had  been  over- 
 looked by  Mai,  but  does  not  specify  which  they  are. 
 These  he  intended  to  insert  in  their  proper  places  in 
 the  new  edition  of  Oribasius  which  he  was  preparing 
 for  the  press  at  the  time  of  his  death.  Among  these 
 are  books  43d  to  47th  inclusive,  which  treat  of  various 
 matters  connected  with  surgery,  and  are  taken  from 
 the  works  of  Galen,  Heliodorus,  Archigenes,  Asclepi- 
 ades,  and  other  ancient  writers  on  medicine.  Oriba- 
 sius subsequently  made  an  abridgment  of  this  great 
 work,  which  he  entitled  livvorpig,  in  nine  books.  Al- 
 though these  two  works  are  merely  compilations,  they 
 are,  notwithstanding,  important  for  the  history  of  the 
 healing  art;  besides,  the  paraphrases  of  Oribasius 
 serve  frequently  to  explain  passages  in  the  originals 
 which  would  be  otherwise  difficult  to  understand. 
 Oribasius  finally  composed  a  treatise  on  Simples  {Ev- 
 liOpiaTca),  in  four  books.  A  commentary  on  the  Aph- 
 orisms of  Hippocrates,  which  exists  merely  in  a  Latin 
 translation,  has  been  erroneously  ascribf  d  to  him  ;  it 
 is  the  work  of  a  Christian  writer,  who,  in  order  to 
 make  the  production  pass  for  an  ancient  one,  feigned 
 that  it  had  been  composed  by  order  of  Ptolemy  Ener- 
 getes.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  10. — Schbll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  248,  seqq  )  —  "Oribasius," 
 observes  Mr.  Adams,  "  is  the  first  medical  writer  of 
 celebrity  after  Galen,  from  whom  he  borrows  so  freely 
 that  he  has  been  called  the  Ape  of  Galen.  But, 
 although  this  ajipellation  might  indicate  that  he  is  a 
 servile  copyist  from  his  [prototype,  his  work  contains 
 many  curious  things,  which  are  either  original  or  de- 
 rived from  some  other  source  of  information,  which  is 
 now  lost.  He  describes  minutely  the  mode  of  letting 
 blood  by  scarification,  which,  as  described  by  him,  is 
 an  operation  that  does  not  appear  to  have  been  prac- 
 tised by  his  predecessors.  He  is  also  particularly  full 
 upon  the  use  of  baths,  and  gives  from  Herodotus  an 
 account  of  the  manner  of  practising  with  most  advan- 
 tage the  bath  of  oil.  This  appears  to  have  been  a 
 ve"ry  powerful  remedy,  which  has  now  been  laid  aside 
 for  no  other  reason  than  the  expense  attending  it.  No 
 ancient  writer  on  the  Materia  Medica  has  given  so 
 circumstantial  an  account  of  the  mode  of  administer- 
 ing hellebore  as  he  has  done  in  the  8th  book.  In  the 
 24th  and  25th  books  of  the  Collectanea,  he  gives  a 
 complete  treatise  on  anatomy,  which,  although  mostly 
 
 90S 
 
ORI 
 
 ORI 
 
 copied  from  Galen,  is  highly  valuable  from  its  accu- 
 racy and  precision.  As  Dr.  Freind  remarks,  he  has 
 given  a  correct  account  of  the  salivary  glands,  which 
 appear  to  have  been  overlooked  by  Galen  ;  at  least  no 
 description  of  them  is  to  be  found  in  such  anaiomical 
 works  of  his  as  have  come  down  to  us.  His  method 
 of  treating  epilepsy  is  also  deserving  of  attention,  as 
 it  appears  to  be  a  rational  one,  and  yet  is  not  clearly 
 recommended  by  any  other  ancient  authority.  It  con- 
 sists ill  first  abstracting  blood  several  times,  then  ad- 
 minislermg  drastic  purgatives,  such  as  colocynth,  scam- 
 mony,  and  black  or  white  hellebore,  applying  cupping 
 instruments  to  the  occiput,  and  afterward  sinapisms 
 and  other  stimulants.  In  confirmation  of  the  benefi- 
 cial effects  of  hellebore  in  epilepsy,  I  would  refer  the 
 reader  to  a  case  related  by  Aulus  Gellius  (57,  15). 
 As  a  professed  copyist  from  Galen,  Oribasius  may  be 
 safely  consulted  for  a  correct  exposition  of  his  doc- 
 trines."— We  have  no  complete  edition  of  Oribasius. 
 The  40th  cha|)ter  of  the  first  book  of  the  Heldomekon- 
 tabiblos,  treating  of  waters,  and  the  first  six  chapters 
 of  the  fifth  book,  were  edited  by  Riccius,  Roma:,  1548, 
 4to.  The  first  two  books  were  edited  by  Gruner, 
 Jcrm,  1 784,  4to.  The  24th  and  25th  books,  treating 
 of  anatomy,  &.C.,  were  edited  by  Dundas,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1735,  4to.  The  46ih  and  47th  books,  treating  of  frac- 
 tures, dec,  as  well  as  the  fragments  of  the  books  re- 
 specting bandages  and  dressings,  are  contained  in  the 
 collection  of  Cocchi.  There  remain  unedited  from 
 the  3d  to  the  15th  books,  and  from  the  43d  to  the45ih 
 inclusive ;  and  there  remain  to  be  discovered  from  the 
 1 6th  to  the  23 J,  and  from  the  26lh  to  the  42d,  inclu- 
 sive. Latin  translations,  however,  have  been  printed 
 of  some  of  the  books  that  are  yet  unpublished  in  the 
 Greek  text. — The  text  of  the  Abridgment  has  never 
 been  printed.  A  Latin  translation  by  Rasarius  ap- 
 peared at  Venice,  1553.  8vo,  and  at  Pans,  1554, 
 12:no. — The  treatise  on  Simples,  translated  into  Latin, 
 appeared  at  the  end  of  Sichard's  edition  of  Ccelius  Au- 
 relianus,  Basle,  1559,  fol.  Another  tratvslation  by 
 Rasarius  is  contained  in  the  Basle  edition  of  the  works 
 of  Oribasius. — The  Commentary  on  the  Aphorisms  of 
 Hippocrates  was  published  at  Paris  by  Winter  (Qum- 
 terius),  1533,  Svo,  and  reprinted  at  Basle  in  1535,  at 
 Rome  in  1553,  and  at  Padua  in  1558,  in  Svo.  (Sckoll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  250,  seqq.) 
 
 Oriuum  or  Oricus,  a  port  of  Illyricum.  at  the  head 
 of  a  bay,  the  outer  side  of  which  is  formed  by  the 
 Acroceraunian  promontory.  Scylax  (p.  10)  and  other 
 early  writers  place  it  in  Illyria,  while  Ptolemy  enu- 
 merates it  among  the  cities  of  Epirus.  Herodotus  {9, 
 94)  speaks  of  it  as  a  port  not  far  from  .^pollonia  and  the 
 mouth  of  the  .\ous.  It  was  known  also  to  Hecatsi^ 
 us  and  Apollodorus  {ap.  Stcph.  Byz  ,  s.  v.  '^ptKo^). 
 Scymnus  of  Chios  appears  to  be  the  only  writer  who 
 gives  any  account  of  its  foundation  ;  he  ascribes  it  to 
 the  Euboeans  after  their  return  from  Troy.  These  are 
 the  same  people  with  the  Abantes  (v.  440).  Apollo- 
 nius  speaks  of  the  arrival  of  a  party  of  Colchians  in 
 this  port  (4,  1216),  whence  Pliny  calls  it  a  colony  of 
 that  people  (3,  23)  Oricum,  however,  is  much  more 
 known  in  history  as  a  haven  frequented  by  the  Ro- 
 mans in  their  communication  with  Greece,  being  very 
 conveniently  situated  for  that  purpose  from  its  proxim- 
 ity to  Hydruntum  and  Brundisium.  During  the  sec- 
 ond Punic  war,  this  town  was  taken  by  Pliilip,  king 
 of  Macedonia,  but  was  afterward  recovered  by  the 
 praetor  Valerius  Lavinus,  who  surprised  the  enemy  in 
 his  camp  before  ApoUonia  during  the  night,  and  put 
 him  to  the  rout.  Philip  having  retired  into  Macedon, 
 the  Roman  general  established  winter-qiarters  at  Ori- 
 cum. (L/uy.  24,  40)  It  was  from  this  place  that 
 Paulus  .Ernilius  sailed  back  to  Italy,  after  having  so 
 happily  terminated  the  Macedonian  war  We  find  it 
 subsequently  occu()ied  by  Caesar,  soon  after  his  landing 
 on  this  coast.  {^Bell.  Civ.,  3,  11.)  Horace,  Proper- 
 931 
 
 tins,  and  Lucan  also  speak  of  Oricum  as  a  wpll-knavm 
 port  in  iheir  time.  {Horat.,  Od.,  3)  7. — Propert.,  1, 
 8. — Lvcan  ,  3,  187.)  Philostratus  says  the  town  of 
 Oricus  was  restored  by  Herodes  Atticus,  together  with 
 many  other  Greek  cities.  It  would  seem  from  Virgil 
 that  it  was  famous  for  its  turpentine.  {Mn.,  10,  136.) 
 Nicander  alludes  to  its  boxwood.  {Ther.,  v.  516.) 
 No  traveller  appears  to  have  investigated  the  remains 
 of  Oricum;  but  it  would  seem,  from  modern  maps,  that 
 the  name  of  Ericko  is  still  attached  to  the  spot  on 
 which  the  town  must  have  stood.  (Mannerl,  Gcogr., 
 vol.  7,  p.  407. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  62, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Ortge.mes  ('ilptyivTjc),  commonly  called,  by  Eng- 
 lish writers,  Origen,  a  celebrated  father  of  the  church, 
 who  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second,  and 
 during  the  first  half  of  the  third,  century.  He  was  a 
 native  of  .\lexandrea,  where  he  chiefly  resided.  Ori- 
 gen was  distinguished  not  more  for  his  learning  thaa 
 for  bis  piety  and  eloquence ;  and  his  indefatigable  ap- 
 jilication  to  study  procured  far  him  the  surname  oS 
 Adamantius  (JAdapdvrio^),  i.  e.,  "Man  of  adamant." 
 Porphyry  supposes  him  to  be  of  heathen  parentage, 
 and  educated  in  the  heathen  faith  ;.  but  Eusebius,  who 
 wrote  his  life-,  has  shown  conclusively  that  his  parents 
 were  Christians,  and  took  the  greatest  possible  care  of 
 his  early  religious  instructiorr.  His  father  Leonidas 
 having  been  put  to  death  during  the  persecution  in  the 
 reign  of  Severus,  Origen,  who  was  then  not  quite 
 seventeen  years  of  age,  was  with  difficulty  restrained 
 by  the  care  of  his  mother  from  offering  himself  also 
 for  martyrdom.  He  sent  a  letter  to  his  father  in  pris- 
 on, containing  this  sentence :  "  Take  becd,  father, 
 that  you  do  not  change  your  mind  for  our  sake."  After 
 his  father's  death,  Origen  was  supported  for  a  short 
 time  by  a  rich  lady  of  Alexandrea,  but  he  soon  became 
 able  to  support  hinvself  and  the  rest  of  the  family  (he 
 was  the  eldest  of  seven  children),  by  teaching  gram- 
 mar. At  the  age  of  eighteen,  Demetrius,  bishop  of  .Al- 
 exandrea, put  him  at  the  head  of  the  catechetical  school 
 in  that  city,  to  the  duties  of  which  he  devoted  himself  en- 
 tirely and  with  great  success.  Renourvcin-g  his  gram- 
 matical pursuits,  he  sold  all  his  books  connected  witb 
 profane  learning  to  an  individual,  who  agreed,  in  return, 
 to  supply  him  witb  four  oboli  a  day,  and  he  made  this 
 scanty  pittance  suffice  for  all  his  wants.  We  are  not 
 told  how  long  this  payment  was  corvtinued.  His  man- 
 ner of  life  was  now  marked  by  the  very  extremity  of 
 self-denial ;  he  drank  no  wine,  ate  little  food,  went  bare- 
 foot even  in  winter,  contented  himself  with  a  single 
 garment,  and  took  on  the  ground  the  little  repose 
 which  he  could  not  refuse  to  nature.  So  great  was 
 the  interest  excited  by  his  discourses,  that  the  phi- 
 losophers, the  learned,  the  very  pagans  themselves,, 
 flocked  to  hear  him.  During  all  this  time  Origen 
 signalized  his  zeal  for  the  true  faith  by  visiting  the 
 confessors  in  prison,  accompanying  them  into  the- 
 judgn>ent-hall,  going  with  them  to  the  place  of  execu- 
 tion, and  giving  them,  when  about  to  die,  the  kiss  of 
 peace.  Conduct  such  as  this,  together  with-  the  fact 
 of  his  having  made  many  conversions,  naturally  ex- 
 posed him  to  danger,  and  he  was  at  last  compelled 
 constantly  to  change  his  place  of  abode  in  order  to  es- 
 cape the  persecution  of  the  pagans.  His  retreats 
 were  frequently  discovered,  and  he  was  more  thar» 
 once  dragged  through  the  streets  of  the  capital,  and 
 put  to  the  torture.  His  firmness,  however,  never  for- 
 sook him. — Being  a  young  man,  and  obliged,  in  the 
 exercise  of  his  office  as  catechist,  to  be  frequently  in 
 the  company  of  those  whose  presence  might  excite 
 other  thoughts  than  such  as  ought  ever  to  be  connect- 
 ed with  his  sacred  functions,  Origen,  in  order  to  avoid 
 all  temptation,  took  the  words  of  Holy  Writ  {Matt., 
 19,  12)  in  their  most  literal  acceptation,  and  resorted 
 to  physical  means  as  a  preventive.  Though  he  strove 
 to  keep  this  rash  act  a  profound  secret,  yet  Deraetriua 
 
ORIGENES. 
 
 ORIGENES. 
 
 eventually  became  acquainted  with  it.  Surprised  at 
 the  hardihood  of  the  deed,  and  yet  forced  to  respect 
 such  ardent  and  devoted  piety  in  so  young  a  man,  he 
 encouraged  him  to  persevere.  Origen  himself  was 
 subsequently  convinced  of  his  error,  and  confuted  in 
 his  writings  the  literal  interpretation  of  a  text  which 
 had  led  him  to  this  extreme. — After  a  visit  to  Home, 
 where  Zephirinus  was  then  bishop,  Origen  turned  his 
 attention  to  the  acquiring  of  the  Hebrew  tongue,  a 
 thing  very  unusual  at  that  time  {Hieron.,  de  Vir.  II- 
 luslr.,  c.  56)  ;  but  his  knowledge  of  the  language  was 
 never  very  great.  About  the  year  212,  his  preaching 
 reclaimed  from  the  Valentiniau  heresy  a  wealthy  per- 
 son of  the  name  of  Ambrose,  who  afterward  assisted 
 him  materially  in  the  publication  of  his  Commentaries 
 on  the  Scriptures.  His  reputation  kept  continually  in- 
 creasing, and  he  became  eminent  not  merely  as  an  in- 
 structer  in  religion,  but  also  in  philosophy  and  human 
 sciences.  The  governor  of  Arabia,  having  heard  won- 
 derful accounts  of  his  abilities,  requested  Demetrius 
 and  the  patriarch  of  Egypt  to  send  Origen  to  him, 
 that  they  might  converse  together  on  literature  and 
 the  sciences,  The  voyage  was  made,  and,  when  the 
 curiosity  of  the  ruler  was  gratified,  Origen  returned  to 
 his  native  capital.  This  city,  however,  he  soon  after 
 quitted,  and  fled  to  Caesarea  to  avoid  the  cruelties  ex- 
 ercised upon  the  Alexandreans  by  the  odious  Caracal- 
 !a.  At  Caesarea  he  gave  public  lectures,  and,  though 
 not  y€t  a  priest,  was  invited  by  the  bishops  in  this 
 quarter  to  expound  the  scriptures  in  the  assemblies  of 
 the  faithful.  Demetrius  took  offence  at  this,  and  Ori- 
 gen, at  his  (tamest  request,  returned  to  the  capital  of 
 Egypt  and  resumed  his  former  functions.  About  this 
 time  the  Emperor  Alexander  Severus  had  stopped  for 
 a  while  at  Autioch,  to  expedite  the  preparations  for 
 ■war  against  the  Persians  ;  and  the  Empress  Mammea, 
 who  accompanied  her  son,  sent  letters  and  an  escort 
 to  Origen,  mviting  him  to  Antioch.  The  opportunity 
 was  eagerly  embraced,  and  Origen  unfolded  to  his  il- 
 lustrious hearer  the  hopes  and  the  promises  of  the  gos- 
 pel. At  a  later  period  also  he  had  a  correspondence 
 with  the  Emperor  Philip  and  his  wife  Severa.  On  his 
 return  once  more  to  Alexandrea,  he  directed  his  atten- 
 tion to  the  writing  of  commentaries  on  the  Old  and 
 New  Testaments,  at  the  instance  principally  of  Am- 
 brose, whom  he  had  both  instructed  in  the  sciences, 
 and,  as  we  have  already  observed,  reclaimed  from  his 
 heretical  opinions.  This  disciple,  well  known  in  Alex- 
 andrea by  the  fame  of  his  riches,  liberally  supplied  his 
 former  master  with  all  the  means  requisite  for  pursuing 
 his  studies.  Origen  had  around  him  several  secreta- 
 ries, to  whom  he  dictated  notes,  and  seven  others  to 
 arrange  these  notes  in  order :  the  former  were  called 
 notarii,  the  latter  iibrarii.  Other  copyists  were  em- 
 ployed in  transcribing  works.  Origen  commented  first 
 on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  then  on  Genesis,  the  first 
 twenty-five  Psalms,  and  (he  Lamentations  of  Jere- 
 miah. Obliged  at  this  period  to  undertake  a  journey 
 to  Athens,  for  the  purpose  of  succouring  the  churches 
 of  Achaia,  he  again  visited  Cssarea  on  his  way,  where 
 the  bishop  of  this  church  and  the  bishop  of  Jerusa- 
 lem ordained  him  priest.  He  was  at  this  time  forty- 
 five  years  of  age.  Demetrius  vehemently  disapproved 
 of  this  ordination,  and  made  known  the  act  committed 
 by  Origen  on  his  own  person,  and  which  he  had  thus 
 far  kept  secret.  According  to  him,  Origen  could  not 
 be  admitted  to  sacred  orders,  and  he  insisted  that  this 
 point  of  ancient  discipline  could  not  be  abandoned  by 
 the  church.  An  assembly  was  convened,  and  Origen 
 received  orders  to  leave  Alexandrea,  whither  he  had  re- 
 turned. In  a  second  assembly  or  council,  Demetrius 
 pronounced  sentence  of  deposition  against  him,  and 
 excommunicated  him  for  the  errors  which  he  had  prop- 
 agated in  his  writings.  These  errors  were  principally 
 contained  in  his  Treatise  on  First  Principles,  and  one 
 «f  the  most  prominent  is  said  to  have  been  the  opin- 
 
 ion maintained  by  him  in  favour  of  the  finite  punish- 
 ment of  the  wicked,  the  doctrine  of  the  modern  Uni- 
 versalists.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  in  behalf 
 of  Origen,  that  we  are  not  fully  competent,  at  the 
 present  day,  to  pronounce  an  opinion  on  this  subject, 
 or  to  determine  whether  he  actually  inclined  towards 
 this  particular  heresy.  We  no  longer  possess  the 
 Greek  text  of  this  work  of  his,  and  only  know  it 
 through  the  medium  of  a  very  free,  and,  to  all  appear- 
 ances, very  unfaithful  translation,  executed  by  llufi- 
 nus.  For  some  curious  remarks  on  this  head,  the 
 reader  is  referred  to  Bayle  {Did.,  vol.  8,  p.  44,  seqq., 
 ed  Land.,  1739).  Origen  retired,  after  this  ecclesi- 
 astical sentence,  to  the  city  of  Caesarea,  where,  at  the 
 instance  of  the  bishops  in  this  quarter,  he  once  more 
 undertook  to  expound  in  public  the  Sacred  Writings. 
 Hearers  came  from  far  and  near,  and  among  them  Fir- 
 milianus,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  bishops  of  Cappa- 
 docia.  The  most  eminent  of  the  disciples  of  Origen 
 was  undoubtedly  St.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  and  in 
 the  discourse  pronounced  by  this  grateful  follower  in 
 honour  of  his  master,  we  see  what  was  the  method 
 pursued  by  Origen,  and  by  what  degrees  he  conducted 
 his  pupils  to  the  science  of  sciences.  The  persecu- 
 tion under  Maximin  compelled  Origen  to  flee  from 
 Palestine,  and  he  took  refuge  with  Firmilianos,  who 
 concealed  him  for  the  space  of  two  years  in  the  house 
 of  a  pious  widow.  In  this  abode  he  discovered  a 
 large  number  of  volumes,  which  Symmachus,  the 
 translator  of  Scripture,  had  left  as  an  heritage  to  the  fe- 
 male with  whom  Origen  was  residing,  and  he  was  thus 
 enabled  to  devote  himself  to  profitable  study,  and  com- 
 pare together  the  different  versions  of  the  sacred  vol- 
 ume. Ambrose,  the  disciple  and  generous  friend  of 
 Origen,  having  been  arrested,  the  latter  addressed  to 
 him,  from  his  place  of  retreat,  an  Exhortation  to  mar- 
 tyrdom. This  production  not  only  urges  the  motives 
 which  ought  to  animate  to  unshaken  constancy  the 
 confessors  of  the  faith,  but  also  unfolds  the  rules  of 
 conduct  and  the  principles  of  Christian  philosophy  to 
 which  they  ought  to  adhere.  The  persecution  having 
 ceased  on  the  death  of  Maximin,  Origen  returned  to 
 Alexandrea,  and  ceased  not  to  occupy  himself  with 
 what  had  so  long  been  the  subject  of  his  labours,  the 
 famous  Hcxapla.  This  great  work  was  completed  at 
 Tyre,  but  in  what  year  is  not  precisely  known.  At 
 the  age  of  sixty  Origen  consented  that  his  Homilies 
 or  familiar  sermons  should  be  published  :  these  had 
 been  taken  down  during  delivery  by  notarii,  and, 
 though  many  had  been  lost,  it  is  said  that  by  this 
 means  more  than  a  thousand  of  his  discourses  were 
 preserved.  As  he  was  consulted  from  all  quarters,  his 
 correspondence  became  very  voluminous :  more  than 
 a  hundred  of  these  letters  were  preserved  by  Euse- 
 bius,  and,  among  the  number,  two  in  particular,  one 
 addressed  to  the  Emperor  Philip,  and  the  other  to  his 
 consort  Severa.  Origen  wrote  also  to  Fabian  and  oth- 
 er bishops,  to  repel  imputations  that  had  been  cast 
 upon  his  faith.  After  a  long  and  honourable  life,  to- 
 wards the  close  of  which  he  wrote  his  famous  work 
 against  Celsus,  he  suflTered  martyrdom,  according  to 
 some  accounts,  in  the  Decian  persecution  ;  but,  ac- 
 cording to  the  more  correct  and  general  opinion,  he 
 died  a  natural  death  at  Tyre,  A.D.  254.  His  suflTer- 
 ings,  however,  during  the  last-rnentioned  persecution 
 were  dreadfully  severe  {Euscb.,  Hist.  Ecclcs.,  6,  39. 
 —  Nicepk.,  5,  32),  and  this,  perhaps,  has  led  to  (he  er- 
 ror of  supposing  that  they  terminated  his  existence. 
 Origen,  says  Epiphanius  (De  Pond,  ct  Mens.),  "suf- 
 fered very  much,  yet  he  did  not  arrive  at  the  end  to 
 which  a  martyrdom  leads."—  Orfgen  is  undoubtedly  one 
 of  the  most  remarkable  men  among  the  Christian  wri- 
 ters. His  talents,  eloquence,  and  learning  have  been 
 celebrated,  not  only  by  Christian  writers,  but  by  hea- 
 then philosophers,  including  Porphyry  himself  Jerome 
 calls  him  "  a  man  of  immortal  genius,  who  understood 
 
 935 
 
ORIGENES. 
 
 ORIGENES. 
 
 logic,  geometry,  arithmetic,  music,  grammar,  rhetoric, 
 and  all  the  sects  of  the  philosophers  ;  so  that  he  was 
 resorted  lo  by  many  students  of  secular  literature, 
 whom  he  received  chiefly  that  he  might  embrace  the 
 opportunity  of  instructing  them  in  the  faith  of  Christ" 
 {de  ViT.  Ltustr.,  c.  54).  Elsewhere  he  calls  him  the 
 greatest  teacher  since  the  Aposiles.  We  find  this 
 same  Jerotne,  however,  at  a  later  period  of  his  life,  vi- 
 olently attacking  Origen,  and  approving  of  the  perse- 
 cution of  his  followers.  Sulpicius  Severus  says,  that 
 in  reading  Origen's  works  he  saw  many  things  that 
 pleased  him,  but  many  also  in  which  he  (Origen)  was 
 undoubtedly  mistaken.  He  wonders  how  one  and  the 
 same  man  could  be  so  different  from  himself ;  and 
 adds,  ''  where  he  is  right,  he  has  not  an  equal  since 
 the  Apostles  ;  where  he  is  in  the  wrotig,  no  man  has 
 erred  more  shamefully."  (Dialog-.,  1,  3.)  All  agree 
 that  he  was  a  man  of  an  active  and  powerful  mind, 
 and  of  fervent  piety  ;  fond  of  investigating  truth,  and 
 free  from  all  mean  prejudices,  of  the  most  profound 
 learning,  and  the  most  untiring  industry.  His  whole 
 life  was  occupied  in  writing,  teaching,  and  especially 
 in  explaining  the  Scriptures.  No  man,  certainly  none 
 in  ancient  times,  did  more  to  settle  the  true  te.xt  of 
 the  sacred  writings,  and  to  spread  them  among  the 
 people  ;  and  yet  few,  perhaps,  have  introduced  more 
 dangerous  principles  into  their  interpretation.  For, 
 whether  from  a  defect  in  judgment  or  from  a  fault  in 
 his  education,  he  ap[)lied  to  the  Scriptures  the  allegorical 
 method  which  the  Plalonists  used  in  interpreting  the 
 heathen  mythology.  He  says  himself,  "that  the  source 
 of  many  evils  lies  in  adhering  to  the  carnal  or  exter- 
 nal part  of  Scripture.  Those  who  do  so  shall  not  at- 
 tain the  kingdom  of  God.  Let  us  therefore  seek  af- 
 ter the  s])irit  and  the  substantial  fruit  of  the  word, 
 which  are  hidden  and  mysterious."  And,  again,  ''the 
 Scriptures  are  of  little  use  to  those  who  understand 
 them  as  they  are  written." — In  the  fourth  century,  the 
 writings  of  Origen  led  to  violent  controversies  in  the 
 Church.  Epiphanius,  in  a  letter  preserved  by  Jerome, 
 enumerates  eight  erroneous  opinions  as  contained  in 
 his  works.  He  is  charged  with  holding  heretical  no- 
 tions concerning  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit;  with 
 maintaining  that  the  human  soul  is  not  created  with 
 the  bodv,  but  has  a  previous  existence  ;  that  in  the 
 resurrection  the  body  will  not  have  the  same  members 
 as  before  ;  and  that  future  punishments  will  not  be 
 eternal,  but  that  both  fallen  angels  and  wicked  men 
 will  be  restored,  at  some  distant  period,  to  the  favour 
 of  God.  {Hieron.  ado.  Ruf.,  lib.  2,  vol.  4,  p.  403.) 
 These  opinions  were  not  generally  held  by  his  follow- 
 ers, who  maintained  that  the  passages  from  which  they 
 had  lieen  drawn  had  been  interpolated  in  his  writings 
 by  heretics.  In  401,  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Alexan- 
 drea,  held  a  svnod,  in  which  Origen  and  his  followers 
 were  condemned,  and  the  reading  of  his  works  was 
 prohibited  ;  and  the  monks,  most  of  whom  were  Ori- 
 genists.  were  driven  out  of  Ale.xandrea.  His  opin- 
 ions were  again  condenmed  by  the  second  general 
 council  of  Constantinople,  in  A.D.  553. — We  will 
 now  proceed  to  give  a  more  particular  account  of  the 
 several  works  of  this  father,  as  far  as  they  have  come 
 down  to  us,  or  are  known  from  the  statements  of  other 
 writers.  1.  Tlepl  'Apx^'"  (''  On  First  Pnncijdes'''). 
 This  work  was  divided  into  four  books;  but  we  pos- 
 sess only  a  short  notice  of  it  in  the  Myriobiblon  of 
 Photons  (cod.,  8),  an  extract  in  Eusebius  (contra  Mar- 
 cell.  Ancyran.,  lib.  1),  and  some  frngments  in  the  I'hi- 
 localia.  Rufinus  made  a  Lalin  translation  of  the  work 
 in  the  fourth  century,  which  has  reached  us  ;  but  he 
 has.  by  his  own  confession,  added  so  much  to  Origen's 
 work,  that  it  cannot  be  taken  as  a  fair  exhibition  of  his 
 opinions.  In  the  first  book,  Origen  treats  of  God  : 
 he  ex|)lains  in  it  also  his  views  with  regard  to  the 
 Trinity,  which  are  in  accordance  with  the  principles 
 of  the  Platonic  school ;  and  it  is  m  this  particularly  that 
 936 
 
 he  deviates  from  the  path  pointed  out  by  the  church 
 though  it  must  be  confessed  that  she  had  not  yet  ex- 
 pressed herself  as  clearly  in  relation  to  this  fundamen- 
 tal doctrine,  as  she  subsequently  did  at  the  Council  of 
 Nice.  In  this  same  book  Origen  starts  the  strange 
 idea,  that  the  stars  are  aniniated  bodies  In  the  sec- 
 ond book  he  discusses  the  origin  of  the  world,  which, 
 like  the  Platonists,  he  regards  as  having  been  created 
 from  all  eternity  ;  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God  ; 
 the  nature  of  the  soul,  which  he  assigns  also  to  the 
 brute  creation  ;  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  eter- 
 nal life.  The  third  book  treats  of  Free  Agency  ; 
 Demons  or  Evil  Spirits,  and  the  various  ways  in  which 
 men  are  templed  by  them.  The  fourth  book  is  devo- 
 ted to  the  Interpretation  of  the  Bible. — 2.  ^Lkoan^v- 
 jiEva  ("  Doctrines  of  the  Philosophers").  This  is 
 properly  the  first  book  of  a  work  entitled  Kara  naauv 
 aipiaeuv  eAeyxog  ("  Refutation  of  all  sects"),  and 
 consisting  of  two  books.  In  it  Origen  briefly  explains 
 the  doctrines  of  the  different  Greek  schools  of  philos- 
 ophy, and  the  second  book  was  devoted  to  their  refu- 
 tation. There  is  some  doubt,  however,  whether  Ori- 
 gen was  actually  the  author  of  it  — 3.  Commentaries 
 on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the  greater  part  of 
 which,  however,  is  now  lost.  In  these  Commentaries 
 Origen  gave  full  scope  to  his  learning  and  imagination, 
 in  what  appeared  to  him  to  be  the  historical,  literal, 
 mystical,  and  moral  sense  of  the  Bible.  His  grand 
 fault,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  is  that  of  allego- 
 rizing the  Scriptures  too  much  ;  and  this  method  of 
 interpretation  he  adopted  from  the  Ale.'jandrine  philos- 
 ophers, in  the  hope  of  establishing  a  union  between 
 heathen  philosophy  and  Christian  doctrine.  His  fun- 
 damental canon  of  criticism  was,  that,  wherever  the 
 literal  sense  of  Scripture  was  not  obvious  or  not 
 clearly  consistent  with  his  peculiar  tenets,  the  words 
 were  to  be  understood  in  a  spiritual  and  mystical 
 sense ;  a  rule  by  which  he  could  easily  incorporate 
 any  fancies,  whether  original  or  borrowed,  with  the 
 Christian  creed. — 4.  Scholia,  or  short  notes  explana- 
 tory of  ditficult  passages  of  Scripture.  Of  these  some 
 extracts  only  are  preserved  in  the  collection  made  by 
 Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Basil  the  Great,  entitled  Phi- 
 localia. — 5.  Homilies,  or  familiar  sermons,  in  which  he 
 addressed  himself  to  the  capacities  of  the  people. — 6. 
 Hexapla  ('E^airXd).  The  great  use  which  bad  been 
 made  by  the  Jews  of  the  Septuagint,  previously  to 
 their  rejection  of  it,  and  the  constant  use  of  it  by  the 
 Christians,  naturally  caused  a  multiplication  of  cop- 
 ies ;  in  which,  besides  the  alterations  designedly 
 made  by  the  Jews,  numerous  errors  became  intro- 
 duced, in  the  course  of  time,  from  the  negligence  or 
 inaccuracy  of  transcribers,  and  from  glosses  or  mar- 
 ginal notes,  which  had  been  added  for  the  explana- 
 tion of  diflScult  words,  being  suffered  to  creep  into 
 the  text.  In  order  to  remedy  this  growing  evil,  Ori- 
 gen, in  the  early  part  of  the  third  century,  undertook 
 the  laborious  task  of  collating  the  Greek  text  then  in 
 use  with  the  original  Hebrew,  and  with  the  other  trans- 
 lations then  in  existence,  and  from  the  whole  to  pro- 
 duce a  new  recension  or  revisal.  Twenty-eight  years 
 were  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  this  arduous  task, 
 in  the  course  of  which  he  collected  manuscripts  from 
 every  possible  quarter,  aided  by  the  pecuniary  liberality 
 of  .Ambrose.  Origen  commenced,  as  has  already  been 
 stated,  his  labour  at  Ca?sarea,  and,  it  appears,  finished 
 his  Polyglott  at  Tyre,  but  in  what  year  is  not  precise- 
 ly known.  This  noble  critical  work  is  designated  by 
 various  names  among  ancient  writers  ;  as  Tetrapla, 
 Hexapla,  Octapla,  and  Enneapla.  The  Tetrapla  con- 
 tained the/ojir  Greek  versions  of  Aquila,  Symmachus, 
 the  Septuagint,  and  Theodotion,  disposed  in  four  col- 
 umns ;  to  these  Origen  added  two  columns  more,  con- 
 taining the  Hebrew  text  in  its  original  characters,  and 
 also  in  Greek  letters  ;  these  six  columns,  according 
 to  Epiphanius,  formed  the  Hexapla.     Having  subse- 
 
ORIGENES. 
 
 ORI 
 
 quently  discovered  two  other  Greek  versions  of  some 
 parts  of  the  Scriptures,  usually  called  the  fifth  and 
 sixth,  he  added  them  to  the  preceding,  inserting  them 
 in  their  respective  places,  and  thus  composed  the  Oc- 
 tapla,  containing  eight  columns.  A  separate  transla- 
 tion of  the  Psalms,  usually  called  the  seventh  version, 
 being  afterward  added,  the  entire  work  has  by  some 
 been  termed  the  Enneapla.  This  last  appellation, 
 however,  was  never  generally  adopted.  But,  as  the 
 two  editions  made  by  Origeti  generally  bore  the  name 
 of  the  'I'etrapla  and  Hexapla,  Grabe  thinks  that  they 
 were  thus  called,  not  from  the  number  of  the  columns, 
 but  of  the  versions,  which  were  si.K,  the  seventh  con- 
 taining the  Psalms  only.  Bauer,  after  Montfaucon,  is 
 of  opinion  that  Origen  edited  only  the  Tetrapla  and 
 He.xapla  ;  and  this  appears  to  be  the  real  fact. — The 
 original  Hebrew  being  regarded  as  the  basis  of  the 
 whole  work,  the  proximity  of  each  translation  to  the 
 text,  in  point  of  closeness  and  fidelity,  determined  its 
 rank  in  the  order  of  the  columns  ;  thus,  Aquila's  ver- 
 sion, being  the  most  faithful,  is  placed  next  to  the  sa- 
 cred text ;  that  of  Syminachiis  occupies  the  fourth 
 column  ;  the  Septuagint  the  fifth  ;  and  Theodotion's 
 the  sixth.  The  other  three  anonymous  translations, 
 not  containing  the  entire  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 were  placed  in  the  last  three  columns  of  the  Enneapla, 
 accordmg  to  the  order  of  time  in  which  they  were  dis- 
 covered by  Origen.  In  the  Pentateuch,  Origen  com- 
 pared the  Samaritan  text  with  the  Hebrew  as  received 
 by  the  Jews,  and  noted  the'r  differences.  To  each  of 
 the  translations  inserted  in  his  Hexapla  was  prefixed 
 an  account  of  the  author  ;  each  had  its  separate  pro- 
 legomena ;  and  the  ample  margins  were  filled  with 
 notes.  A  few  fragments  of  these  prolegomena  and 
 marginal  annotations  have  been  preserved,  but  nothing 
 remains  of  his  history  of  the  Greek  versions.  Mont- 
 faucon supposes  that  the  Hexapla  must  have  made 
 fifty  large  folio  volumes.  During  nearly  half  a  cen- 
 tury this  great  work  remained  buried,  as  it  were,  in 
 a  corner  of  the  city  of  Tyre,  probably  because  the 
 expense  of  procuring  a  copy  exceeded  the  means  of 
 any  single  individual.  It  would,  no  doubt,  have  per- 
 ished there,  had  not  Eiiscbius  and  Pamphilus  restored 
 it  to  the  light,  and  placed  it  in  the  library  of  the  lat- 
 ter at  Caesarea.  It  may  he  doubled  whether  a  copy 
 of  the  original  work  was  ever  made.  St.  Jerome  saw 
 it  still  at  Cajsarca,  but  as  no  writer  makes  mention 
 of  it  after  his  time,  it  is  probable  that  it  perished  in 
 653  A.D.,  when  Cassarca  was  taken  by  the  Arabi- 
 ans.— To  repair  as  much  as  possible  the  loss  of  the 
 He.Kapla  of  Origen,  various  scholars  have  occupied 
 themselves,  in  modern  times,  with  the  care  of  restoring 
 it.  The  first  that  undertook  this  task  was  Flaniinio 
 Nobili,  in  the  notes  to  his  edition  of  the  Septuagint 
 {Rom.(E,  1.587)  ;  and  after  him  Drusius,  in  his  Frag- 
 mcnta  vcterum  inlcrpretum  {Arnh.,  1622).  With 
 these  materials,  and  with  the  aid  of  manuscripts, 
 Montfaucon  arranged  his  Hexapla  Origenis,  which 
 were  printed  in  2  vols,  folio,  at  Paris,  in  1713,  and 
 were  reprinted  by  Balirdt  {Lips.,  2  vols  8vo,  1769). 
 It  is  thought,  however,  that  the  learned  Benedictine 
 was  not  sufficiently  well  acquainted  with  Hebrew,  and 
 that  he  was  deficient  in  critical  acumen. — 7.  'l"he  last 
 work  of  Origen's  deserving  of  mention  is  his  Reply  to 
 Celsus.  'I'his  philoso()her,  a  member  of  the  E[)icu- 
 rean  sect,  had  composed,  under  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
 a  work  against  Christianity,  replete  with  calumny  and 
 falsehood.  ( Tid.  Celsus  II.)  At  the  instance  of  his 
 friend  Ambrose,  Origen  undertook  to  reply  to  it,  and 
 triumphantly  succeeded. — The  best  edition  of  Origen's 
 works  is  that  of  De  la  Rue,  Paris,  1733-.'i9,  4  vols, 
 foi  ,  reftrinted  by  Oberthur,  at  Wurceburg,  in  I.t  vols. 
 8vo,  1780  and  following  years.  The  best  edition  of 
 the  commentaries  separately  is  that  of  Hiiet,  Ko/om 
 1668,  2  vols.  fol.  The  Scholia  were  published  by 
 themselves  in  1618,  Paris,  4to.  {Hume's  IiUroduc- 
 6C 
 
 tion,  vol.  2,  p,  172,  seqq.—Id.  Hid.,  vol.  2,  p.  742 
 —Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol  3,  p.  451,  seqq.—Id. 
 ibid  ,  vol.  5,  p.  223,  scqq.  —  Biugr.  Univ.,  vol.  32,  p. 
 71,  seqq. — Monlcfalc,  PretHm.  m  Hex.  Orig.) 
 
 Okion  {'ilpiov),  a  celebrated  giant,  was  said  b5 
 one  legend  to  have  been  the  son  ol  Neptune  and  Eu- 
 ryale.  His  father,  according  to  this  same  account, 
 gave  him  the  power  of  wading  through  the  depths  of 
 the  sea,  or,  as  others  say,  of  walking  on  its  surface. 
 {Hesiod,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Nicandr.,  Ther.,  15.)  He 
 married  Side,  whom  Juno  cast  into  Erebus  for  con- 
 tending with  her  in  beauty.  (Apnilud.,  1,  4,  3  )  An- 
 other and  more  common  account  makes  Hyria,  a  town 
 of  Boeolia,  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  Orion,  and  the 
 story  of  his  origin  is  told  as  follows  :  As  Jupiter,  Nep- 
 tune, and  Mercury  were  one  time  taking  a  ramble  upon 
 earth,  they  came,  late  in  the  evening,  to  the  house  of  a 
 farmer  named  Hyrieus.  Seeing  the  wayfarers,  Hy- 
 rieus,  who  was  standing  at  his  door,  invited  them  to 
 enter,  and  pass  the  night  in  his  humble  abode.  The 
 gods  accepted  the  kind  invitation,  and  were  hospitably 
 entertained.  Pleased  with  their  host,  they  inquired  if 
 he  had  any  wish  which  he  desired  to  have  gratified. 
 Hyrieus  replied,  that  he  once  had  a  wife  whom  he 
 tenderly  loved,  and  that  he  had  sworn  never  to  marry 
 another.  She  was  dead  :  he  was  childless :  his  vow 
 was  binding :  and  yet  he  was  desirous  of  being  a  father. 
 The  gods  took  the  hide  of  his  only  ox,  which  he,  on 
 discovering  their  true  nature,  had  sacrificed  in  their 
 honour;  they  buried  it  in  the  earth;  and  ten  months 
 afterward  a  boy  came  to  light,  whom  Hyrieus  named 
 Urion  or  Orion  {uno  Toij  ovpeiv. — Euvhorion,  ap. 
 Schol.  ad  II.,  18,  1,  86.—Ov}d,  Fast.,  5,  495,  seqq.— 
 Hygin.,fab.,  195— Id.,  Poet.  Astrori.,  2,  34.)  This 
 unseemly  legend  owes  its  origin  to  the  name  Orion,  and 
 was  the  invention  of  the  Athenians.  (Miiller,  Or- 
 cliom.,  p.  99  )  In  Hyginus,  Hyrieus  isByrsuus  (from 
 the  hide,  (ivpca)  — When  Orion  grew  up,  he  went, 
 according  to  this  same  account,  to  the  island  of  Chios, 
 where  he  became  enamoured  of  Merope,  the  daughter 
 of  CEnopion,  son  of  Bacchus  and  Ariadne.  He  sought 
 her  in  marriage  ;  but,  while  wooing,  seized  a  favour- 
 able opportunity,  and  offered  her  violence.  Her  fa- 
 ther, incensed  at  this  conduct,  and  having  made  Orion 
 drunk,  blinded  him,  and  cast  him  on  the  seashore. 
 The  blinded  hero  contrived  to  reach  Lemnos,  and 
 came  to  the  forge  of  Vulcan,  who,  taking  pity  on  him, 
 gave  him  Kcdalion  (Guardian),  one  of  his  men,  to  be 
 his  guide  to  the  abode  of  the  Sun.  Placing  Kedalion 
 on  his  shoulder.  Orion  proceeded  to  the  East ;  and 
 there  meeting  the  Sun-god,  was  restored  to  vision  by 
 his  beams.  Anxious  for  revenge  on  CEnopion,  he  re- 
 turned to  Chios  :  but  the  Chians,  aware  of  his  in- 
 tention, concealed  the  object  of  his  search  under  the 
 ground, and  Orion,  unable  to  find  him,  returned  to  Crete. 
 (Hc.siod,  I.  c.  —  Apollud.,  I.  c.  —  Hygin.,  I.  c.)  —  The 
 death  of  Orion  is  variously  related.  As  all  the  legends 
 relating  to  him  are  evidently  later  than  the  time  of 
 Horner,  none  ventures  to  assign  any  other  cause  to  it 
 than  the  goddess  Diana,  whose  wrath  (though  Homer 
 rather  says  the  contrary)  he  drew  on  himself  Some 
 said  that  he  attempted  to  offer  violence  to  the  goddess 
 herself;  others  to  0|)is,  one  of  her  Hyperborean  maid- 
 ens, and  that  Diana  slew  him  with  her  arrows  ;  others, 
 again,  that  it  was  for  presuming  to  challenge  the  god- 
 dess at  the  discus.  It  was  also  said  that,  when  he 
 came  to  Crete,  he  boasted  to  Latona  and  Diana  that 
 he  was  able  to  kill  anything  that  would  come  from  the 
 earth.  Indignant  at  his  boast,  they  sent  a  scorpion, 
 which  slung  him.  and  he  died.  It  was  said  finally 
 that  Diana  loved  Orion,  and  was  even  about  to  marry 
 him.  Her  brother  was  highly  displeased,  and  often 
 chid  her,  but  to  no  purpose.  At  length,  observing  one 
 day  Orion  wading  through  the  sea  with  his  head  just 
 above  the  waters,  he  pointed  it  out  to  his  sister,  and 
 maintained  that  she  could  not  hit  that  black  thing  on 
 
 937 
 
ORM 
 
 ORO 
 
 Ihe  sea.  The  archer-goddess  discharged  a  shaft:  the 
 waves  rolled  the  dead  body  of  Orion  to  the  lai)d  ;  and, 
 bewailing  her  fatal  error  with  many  tears,  Diana  placed 
 him  among  the  stars. — The  hero  Orion  is  not  mention- 
 ed in  the  Iliad  ;  but  in  the  Odyssey  (5,  121)  we  are 
 told  by  Calypso,  that  rosy-tingered  Aurora  took  him, 
 and  that  Diana  slew  him  with  her  gentle  darts  in  Or- 
 tygia.  In  another  place  his  size  and  beanty  arc  praised. 
 (Od.,  l\,WJ.—Kaghtley's  Mythology,  p.  461,  scqq.) 
 — The  constellation  of  Orion,  which  represents  a  man 
 of  gigantic  stature  wielding  a  sword,  is  mentioned  as 
 early  as  the  time  of  Homer  and  Hesiod  (7/.,  17,  486. 
 ~0p.  ct  D.,  589,  615,  619.)  Both  poets,  in  alludmg 
 to  it,  use  the  expression  adivoc  '^piowo^,  ''the  strength 
 of  Orion'''  (i.  e.,  the  strong  or  powerful  Orion),  analo- 
 gous to  the  [ih]  'HpaKXeiT].  We  must  connect,  there- 
 fore, with  the  idea  of  Orion,  as  represented  on  the  ce- 
 lestial planisphere,  that  of  a  powerful  warrior,  armed 
 with  his  "golden  sword,"  or,  as  Aral  us  expresses  it, 
 ^l^coi  .  .  .  l<j>i  ncTvoiduc  (v.  688).  So,  too,  the  Ara- 
 bic name  for  this  constellation,  namely,  El-dschebbdr, 
 means  the  "Giant,''''  the  "  HcroV  According  to  Butt- 
 mann,  the  form  Oarion  {'ilapiuv.  Find.,  Isth.,  3,  67) 
 is  earlier  than  Orion,  and  the  letter  o  itself  has  arisen 
 from  a  peculiar  mode  of  pronouncing  the  digamma, 
 which  is  known  to  have  had  a  sound  resembling  our 
 U)h  or  w.  The  name  Yapiuv,  therefore,  will  be  de- 
 rived from  Fd/};/^- or 'Ap7/f,  and  signify  "a  warrior." 
 Indeed,  the  English  term  Warrior  is  almost  identical 
 in  form  with  the  Greek  'Oapiuv,  and  the  word  War 
 connects  itself  as  plainly  with  the  root  of  Fap-rjg  or 
 Mars.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  too,  that  the  constella- 
 tion Orion  was  called  by  the  Bceotians  Kavdacjv,  a  de- 
 rivative in  all  likelihood  of  Kavddo^,  a  name  given  to 
 the  god  Mars.  (Lycophr.,  328. — Tzetz.,  ad  loc. — Ly- 
 cophr.,  938.) — That  part  of  the  legend,  also,  which  re- 
 lates to  the  ox's  hide,  is  explained  by  the  same  eminent 
 scholar,  on  the  supposition  of  some  resemblance  hav- 
 ing been  discovered,  between  the  position  of  the  stars 
 in  this  constellation  and  the  hide  of  an  ox.  Thus  the 
 four  stars,  a,  (i,  y,  k,  will  indicate  the  four  extremities 
 or  corners,  and  the  feebler  stars,  which  now  form  the 
 head,  will  represent  the  neck.  In  the  same  way,  the 
 three  brilliant  stars  in  the  middle  may  have  suggested 
 the  idea  of  the  three  deities,  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and 
 Mercury.  ( Uuttmann,  Anmerk. — Ideler,  Stcrnnamcn, 
 p.  331.) — The  cosmical  setting  of  Orion,  which  took 
 place  towards  the  end  of  autumn,  was  always  ac- 
 companied with  rain  and  wind.  Hence  the  south 
 wind  is  called  by  Horace  "the  rapid  companion  of  the 
 setting  Orion"  {Od.,  1,  28,  21),  and  Orion  himself  as 
 "fraught  with  harm  to  mariners."  {Epod.,  15,  7. — 
 Compare  Od  ,  3,  27,  18.—  Virg.,  jEn.,  1,  535.  — /(Z. 
 ib.,  4,  52.) — From  the  view  which  has  here  been  taken 
 of  the  origin  of  the  name  Orion,  it  will  be  seen  at 
 once  how  erroneous  is  the  etymology  assigned  by  Isi- 
 dorus,  when  he  says,  "  Orion  dictus  ab  urina,  id  est 
 ab  inu7idationc  aqnaritm.  Tempore  eniin  hicmis  abor- 
 tus, marc  et  terras  aquis  el  lempcstatibns  turbat" 
 [Orig.,  3,  70.)  There  is  also  another  error  here.  It 
 was  not  the  rising,  but  the  cosmical  setting,  of  the 
 constellation  which  brought  stormy  weather.  (Ideler, 
 Sternnamcn,  p.  219.) 
 
 Okith  VIA  (four  syllables),  a  daughter  of  Erechtheus, 
 king  of  Athens,  by  Praxithea.  She  was  carried  off  by 
 Boreas,  the  god  of  the  northern  wind.  (  Vid.  Boreas.) 
 OrmenIum,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  in  the  district  of 
 Magnesia,  near  the  shores  of  the  Sinus  Pelasgicus,  and 
 southeast  of  Demetrias.  It  is  noticed  by  Homer,  in 
 the  catalogue  of  the  ships,  as  belonging  to  Eurypy- 
 lus.  (7/.,  2,  734.)  According  to  Demetrius  of  Scep- 
 sis, it  was  the  birthplace  of  Phoenix,  the  preceptor  of 
 Achilles.  {Straho,  438.— Eustath.,  ad  II.,  p.  762  ) 
 Strabo  affirms,  that  in  his  time  it  was  called  Ormini- 
 uin ;  and  that  it  contributed,  with  many  of  the  neigh- 
 bouring towns,  to  the  rise  and  prosperity  of  the  city  of 
 638 
 
 Demetrias,  from  which  it  was  distant  omy  v\\cnty- 
 seven  stadia.  In  Diodorus  Siculus  it  is  said  that  Cas- 
 sandra had  wished  to  remove  the  inhabitants  of  Or- 
 choinenus  and  Dium  to  Thebes  of  Phthia,  but  was 
 prevented  by  the  arrival  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 
 As  there  was  no  Thessalian  city  named  Orchomenus, 
 it  is  very  likely  that  we  ought  to  read  Ormenium  in 
 the  passage  here  referred  to  {Died.  Sic,  4,  37. — Con- 
 sult Wesseling,  ad  loc.).  The  modern  Goritza  ap- 
 pears to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  {CrOr 
 rner's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  427.) 
 
 Orne.«,  a  city  of  .\rgolis,  northwest  of  Nemea, 
 and  near  the  confines  of  the  country.  It  was  situate  on 
 or  near  a  river  of  the  same  name.  Pausanias  reports, 
 that  this  place  was  founded  by  Orneus,  son  of  Erech- 
 theus (2,  25).  The  Orneatte  were  originally  inde- 
 pendent of  Argos ;  but,  in  process  of  tune,  having 
 been  conquered  by  their  more  powerful  neighbours, 
 from  lonians  they  became  Dorians,  as  Herodotus  in- 
 forms us  (8,  73).  But  we  may  observe  that,  accord- 
 ing to  Homer  (Iliad,  2,  569,  seqq.),  this  place  was 
 held  in  subjection  by  the  sovereigns  of  My<:en»  as 
 early  as  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  Thucydides 
 writes,  that  Orneae  was  destroyed  by  the  Argives  in 
 the  sixteenth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  after  it 
 had  been  abandoned  by  its  inhabitants  (6,  7).  Strabo 
 seems  to  acknowledge  two  towns  of  this  name,  as- 
 signing one  to  Argolis,  and  the  other  to  Corinthia  or 
 Sicyonia ;  but  in  regard  to  this  fact  he  was  probably 
 mistaken.  In  his  time  Orneae  was  deserted.  No 
 modern  traveller  appears  to  have  discovered  the  ruins 
 of  this  ancient  city  ;  Fourmont,  however,  whose  au- 
 thority is  very  dubious,  affirmed  that  the  site  was  in 
 his  time  still  known  by  the  name  of  Ornica.  (Voy- 
 age manuscript,  cited  by  Pouqiieoille,  vol.  5,  p.  297. 
 —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  283,  seqq.) 
 
 Okodes,  king  of  Parthia.  He  was  on  the  throne 
 when  Crassus  undertook  his  ill-starred  expedition 
 against  that  country.     (Vid.  Parthia.) 
 
 Orcetes,  a  Persian  governor  of  Sardis,  notorious 
 for  his  cruel  murder  of  Polycrates.  He  was  (lut  to 
 death,  B.C.  521,  by  order  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  on 
 account  of  various  ofTences  committed  by  him,  more 
 particularly  for  having  destroyed  Mitrohates,  governor 
 of  Daschylium,  and  his  son  Cranapes,  and  for  having 
 put  to  death  a  royal  messenger.  Historians  are  not 
 quite  agreed  about  the  name  of  this  man.  He  is  call- 
 ed by  some  Orontes.     (Herod  ,  3,  120,  seqq.) 
 
 Okontes,  a  river  of  Syria,  rising  on  the  eastern  side 
 of  the  range  of  I.ibanus,  and,  after  pursuing  a  norther- 
 ly course,  falling  into  the  Mediterranean  about  six 
 leagues  below  Antiochia.  It  was  called  Orontes,  ac- 
 cording to  Strabo,  from  the  person  who  first  built  a 
 bridge  over  it,  its  previous  name  having  been  Typhon. 
 (Strab.,  758,  seqq.)  This  name  it  received  from  a 
 dragon,  which,  having  been  struck  with  a  ihunderbolt, 
 sought  in  its  flight  a  place  of  concealment  by  breaking 
 through  the  surface  of  the  earth,  from  which  aperture 
 the  river  broke  forth,  so  that,  according  to  this  state- 
 ment, it  pursued  a  part  of  its  course  at  first  \inder 
 ground.  This,  however,  is  a  mere  fable.  Typhon 
 was  probably  a  fanciful  appellation  given  to  it  by  the 
 Greeks,  since  it  is  altogether  different  from  the  Syriac 
 term  which  the  natives  now  apply  to  it,  namely,  El 
 Aasi,  or,  "the  Obstinate,"  in  reference  to  its  only  irri- 
 gating the  neighbouring  fields  through  compulsion,  as  it 
 were,  and  by  the  agency  of  machines  (Abulfedu,  Tab. 
 Syr.,  ed.  Kohlcr,  p.  150).  This  name,  no  doubt,  was 
 also  given  to  it  by  the  Syrians  of  former  days,  since 
 from  it  the  Greeks  appeared  to  have  formed  their  c:'.",er 
 name  for  this  river,  viz  ,  the  Axius.  Scylax  calls  the 
 stream  Thapsacus.  The  Orontes  is  a  large  river  in 
 winter,  on  account  of  the  accession  to  its  waters  from 
 the  rain  and  melted  snows,  but  it  is  a  very  small  stream 
 in  summer.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  446, 
 sc^q.) 
 
ORO 
 
 ORP 
 
 Oropus,  I.  a  city  on  the  confines  of  Bceotia  and  At- 
 tica, on  the  lower  bank  of  the  Asopus,  and  not  far 
 from  its  mouth.  The  possession  of  this  place  was 
 long  the  object  of  eager  contest  between  the  Boeotians 
 and  the  Athenians.  There  is  iitile  doubt  but  that  the 
 former  could  ])ruve  priority  of  possession  ;  but,  as  the 
 Athenians  were  anxious  to  enlarge  their  territory  at 
 the  expen.-e  of  their  Bceolian  neighbours,  and  to  make 
 (as  all  nations  have  been  anxious  to  do)  a  rioer  (the 
 Asopus)  their  boundary,  and  also  to  secure  their  com- 
 munication with  EuboF.a,  they  used  their  rising  pow- 
 er to  appropriate  this  place  to  themselves.  (Bloom/. 
 ad  Thacyd.,  2,  23.)  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  we 
 find  it  occupied  by  the  Athenians;  but,  towards  the 
 close  of  that  contest,  we  hear  of  the  city  being  sur- 
 prised by  the  Boeotians,  who  retained  possession  of  it 
 for  many  years.  (Thucyd.,  8,  60.)  In  consequence 
 of  a  sedition  which  occurred  there,  the  Thebans  chan- 
 ged the  site  of  the  place,  and  removed  it  about  seven 
 stadia  from  the  sea.  (Died.  Sic,,  14,  17.)  After  the 
 overthrow  of  Thebes,  Oropvis  was  ceded  to  the  Athe- 
 aians  by  Alexander.  Hence  Livy,  Pausanias,  and 
 Pliny  place  the  town  in  Attica.  DicEearchus  and 
 Stephanus,  on  the  other  hand,  ascribe  it  to  Bceotia. 
 Dicaearchus  (Slat.  Gr.,  p.  11)  styles  Oropus  "the 
 dwelling-house,  of  Thebes,  the  traffic  of  retail  venders, 
 the  unsurpassable  avarice  of  excisemen  versed  in  ex- 
 cess of  wickedness  for  ages,  ever  imposing  duties  on 
 imported  goods.  The  generality  are  rough  in  their 
 manners,  but  courteous  to  those  who  are  shrewd  ;  they 
 are  repulsive  to  the  Boeotians,  but  the  Athenians  are 
 Boeotians."'  The  meaning  of  the  last  passage  is  per- 
 haps this,  that  the  Athenians  on  this  border  were  so 
 much  mixed  with  the  Boeotians  as  to  have  lost  their 
 usual  characteristics  of  aculeness  and  intelligence 
 "Oropus,"  says  Dodwell,  "is  now  called  Eopo,  and 
 contains  only  few  and  imperfect  ruins"  (vol.  2,  p.  1.56. 
 —  Cramcr''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  272). — H.  A  city 
 of  Macedonia,  mentioned  by  Stephanus  (p.  770).  but 
 C'therwise  unknown. — III.  A  city  in  the  island  of  Eu- 
 boea.     (Amm.  Marcell  ,  30,  4. — Stcph.  %:.,  p.  770.) 
 
 OrosIus,  Pauhis,  a  presbyter  of  the  Spanish  Church, 
 and  a  native  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  who  flourished 
 about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  under  Arca- 
 dius  and  Hoiiorius.  The  invasion  of  his  country  by 
 the  barbarians,  and  the  troubles  excited  by  the  Priscilli- 
 anistE,  a  sect  of  the  Gnostics  or  Manichaeans,  caused 
 him,  about  .\.D.  414,  to  betake  himself  to  St.  Angus- 
 tin  in  .Africa,  who  afterward  sent  him  to  St.  Jerome. 
 The  latter  prelate  was  then  in  Palestine.  Orosius  act- 
 ed in  this  country  the  part  of  a  turbulent  man,  and  em- 
 broiled St.  Jerome  with  Pelagius  and  John  of  Jerusa- 
 lem. He  wrote  also  a  treatise  against  Pelagius,  who 
 was  at  that  time  spreading  his  opinions  concerning  ori- 
 ginal sin  and  grace.  The  title  of  this  production  is 
 "  Liber  Apologeticus  contra  Pelagium,  de  Arhitrii  li- 
 bcrlaleV  The  treatise  is  annexed  to  the  "  History" 
 of  Orosius.  From  Palestine  he  returned  to  Hippo 
 Regius  in  Africa,  to  his  friend  St.  Augustin,  and  thence 
 to  Spain.  The  calamities  which  had  befallen  the  Ro- 
 man empire,  and,  above  all,  the  capture  and  pillage  of 
 Rome  by  Alaric  (.\.D.  41(1),  afforded  to  the  heathens, 
 and  to  Symmachus  among  the  rest,  a  pretence  for  ac- 
 cusing the  Christian  religion  of  being  the  cause  of  all 
 these  disasters,  and  of  saying  that,  since  the  abandon- 
 ment of  the  old  religion  of  the  stale,  victory  had  utter- 
 ly forsaken  the  Roman  arms.  To  refute  ihis  charge, 
 Orosius,  at  the  advice  of  St.  Augustin,  composed  a 
 history,  in  which  he  undertook  to  show  that  ever  since 
 the  creation,  which  he  dated  back  5618  years,  the  hab- 
 itable world  had  been  the  theatre  of  the  greatest  ca- 
 lamities. The  work  consists  of  seven  books,  divided 
 into  chapters.  It  begins  with  a  geographical  descrip- 
 tion of  tlie  world,  then  treats  of  the  origin  of  the  hu- 
 man race  according  to  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  after- 
 ward relates  the  various  accounts  of  the  mythologists 
 
 and  poets  concerning  the  heroic  ages.  Then  M\ovr» 
 the  history  of  the  early  monarchies,  the  Assyrian,  Bab- 
 ylonian, and  Persian,  the  conquests  of/.\lexandcr,  and 
 the  wars  of  his  successors,  as  well  as  the  early  his- 
 tory of  Rome,  the  contents  being  chiefly  taken  from 
 Trogiis  Pompeius,  and  his  abridger  Justin.  The  fourth 
 book  contains  the  history  of  Home,  from  the  wars  o 
 Pyrrhus  to  the  fall  of  Cartilage.  The  fifih  book  com 
 prises  the  period  from  the  taking  of  Corinth  to  the  war 
 of  Spartacus.  Orosius  quotes  among  his  authorities 
 several  works  which  are  now  lost.  The  )iarrative  in 
 the  sixth  book  begins  with  the  war  of  Sylla  against 
 Mithradates,  and  ends  with  the  birth  of  our  Saviour. 
 ^I'he  seventh  book  contains  the  historv  of  the  empire 
 till  A.D.  416,  including  a  narrative  of  the  capture  and 
 sack  of  Rome  by  Alaric,  which  was  the  great  event  of 
 the  age.  Orosius  intermingles  with  his  narrative  mor- 
 al reflections,  and  sometimes  whole  chapters  of  advice 
 and  consolation,  addressed  to  his  Christian  brethren, 
 and  intended  to  confirm  their  faith  amid  the  calamities 
 of  the  times,  which,  however  heavy,  were  not,  as  he 
 asserts,  unprecedented.  The  Romans,  he  says,  in 
 their  conquests,  had  inflicted  equal,  if  not  greater, 
 wrongs  on  other  countries.  His  tone  is  that  of  a 
 Christian  moralist,  impressed  with  the  notions  of  jus- 
 tice, retribution,  and  humanity,  in  which  the  heathen 
 historians  show  themselves  so  deficient.  As  an  his- 
 torical writer,  Orosius  shows  considerable  critical  judg- 
 ment in  general,  though  in  particular  passages  he  ap- 
 pears quite  credulous,  as  in  chapter  lOih  of  the  first 
 book,  where  he  relates  from  report,  that  the  marks  of 
 the  chariot-wheels  of  Pharaoh's  host  are  still  visible  at 
 the  bottom  of  the  Red  Sea  — As  an  instance  qf  the  in- 
 cidental value  of  the  passages  taken  by  Orosius  from 
 older  writers,  consult  Savigny  (Das  Rccht  des  Besitzes, 
 p.  176).  King  Alfred  made  a  free  translation  of  the 
 History  of  Orosius  into  the  Anglo-Saxon  language, 
 which  was  published  by  Dailies  Barrington,  with  an 
 English  version,  London,  1773,  Svo. — The  work  of 
 Orosius,  in  some  MSS  ,  is  entitled  '■\Adversiis  Pa- 
 ganos  Historiarum  libri  vii."  In  others  it  is  called 
 "  Z>e  totius  Mundt  Calamitatibus ;''  in  others,  again, 
 "  De  Cladibus  et  Miscriis  Antiquorum  "  The  most 
 singular  title,  however,  given  by  some  MSS.,  is  "  Hor- 
 mesla''  or  "  Ormesta."  The  general  opinion  is,  that 
 this  has  arisen  from  a  mistake  made  by  some  old  copy- 
 ist The  true  title,  in  all  probability,  was  Pauli  Oro- 
 sii  mocsta  mundi,  from  which,  by  abbreviation,  was 
 first  made  Pauli  Or  mocs;a  mundi,  and  finally  Pauli 
 Ormcs/a,  or  simply  Ormesta.  (Withof.,  Relai,Duis- 
 burg,  1762,  N.  47,  52.)  —  One  of  the  best  editions  of 
 Orosius  is  that  of  Havercamp,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1738,  4to. 
 (Encycl.  Us.  Knowl,  vol.  17,  p.  36.  — •  5c/io7Z,  Hist. 
 Lh.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  nO.—Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.. 
 vol    1,  p.  477.) 
 
 0KospKn.\.      Vid.  Ortospeda. 
 
 Orpheus  (two  syllables),  a  poet,  musician,  and  phi- 
 losopher, whose  name  is  very  prominent  in  the  early 
 legends  of  Greece.  The  traditions  respecting  him  are 
 remarkably  obscure.  According  to  Cicero  (N.  D.,  1, 
 38),  Aristotle  believed  that  no  such  person  as  Orpheus 
 the  [)oet  had  ever  existed  ;  but  perhaps  he  only  means 
 that  the  poems  ascribed  to  him  were  spurious.  Or- 
 pheus is  mentioned  as  a  real  person  by  several  of  the 
 ancient  Greek  writers,  namely,  by  the  lyric  poets  Iby- 
 cus  and  Pindar,  the  historians  Hellanicus  and  Phere- 
 cydes,  and  the  Athenian  tragedians:  he  is  not  men- 
 tioned by  Homer  or  Hesiod.  Some  ancient  writers 
 reckon  several  persons  of  this  name,  and  Herodotus 
 speaks  of  two.  In  later  times  a  number  of  marvellous 
 stories  were  connected  with  his  name. — The  following 
 is  the  legendary  history  of  Orpheus.  His  native  coun- 
 try was  Thrace.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  most  of 
 the  traditions  respecting  Greek  civilization  are  con- 
 nected with  the  Thracians,  who  in  later  times  spoke  a 
 lanouaee  unintellii^ible  to  the  Greeks,  and  were  looked 
 
 ^    ^  °  939 
 
ORPHEUS. 
 
 ORPHELS. 
 
 upon  by  them  as  barbarians.  Miiller  explains  this  by 
 pionting  out  that  the  Thracians  of  these  legends  were 
 not  the  same  people  as  those  of  the  historical  period, 
 but  a  Greek  race  who  lived  in  the  district  called  Pie- 
 ria,  to  the  east  of  the  Olympus-range,  to  the  north  of 
 Thessaly,  and  to  the  south  of  Emathia  or  Macedonia. 
 (Miiller,  Hist.  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  26.)  The  lime  at  which 
 Orpheus  lived  is  placed  by  all  writers  not  long  before 
 the  Trojan  war,  and  by  most  at  the  period  of  the  Argo- 
 nautic  expedition,  about  twelve  or  thirteen  centuries 
 before  our  era.  He  was  said  to  have  been  the  son  of 
 Apollo  and  the  muse  Calliope,  or,  according  to  an- 
 other account,  of  Oeagrus  and  a  muse  The  poets 
 represent  him  as  a  King  of  Thrace,  but  the  historians 
 are  generally  silent  about  his  station.  According  to 
 Clemens  of  Alexandrea  he  was  the  disciple  of  Musasus, 
 but  the  more  common  accounts  make  him  his  teacher. 
 He  was  one  of  the  Argonauts,  to  whom  he  rendered 
 the  greatest  services  by  his  skill  in  music  ;  the  en- 
 chanting tones  of  his  lyre  made  the  Argo  move  into 
 the  water,  delivered  the  heroes  from  many  difficulties 
 and  dangers  while  on  the  voyage,  and  mainly  contrib- 
 uted to  their  success  in  obtaining  the  golden  fleece. 
 After  the  voyage,  Orpheus  returned  to  the  cavern  in 
 Thrace  in  which  he  commonly  dwelt.  He  is  said  by 
 some  authors  to  have  made  a  voyage  to  Egypt  before 
 the  Argonautic  expedition. — The  skill  with  which  Or- 
 pheus struck  the  lyre  was  fabled  to  have  been  such  as 
 to  move  the  very  trees  and  rocks,  and  the  beasts  of  the 
 forest  assembled  round  him  as  he  touched  its  chords. 
 He  had  for  his  wife  a  nymph  named  Eurydice,  who 
 died  from  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  as  she  was  flying  from 
 Aristaeus.  Orpheus,  disconsolate  at  her  loss,  deter- 
 mined to  descend  to  the  lower  world,  to  endeavour  to 
 mollify  its  rulers,  and  obtain  permission  for  his  beloved 
 Eurydice  to  return  to  the  regions  of  light.  Armed 
 only  with  his  lyre,  he  entered  the  realms  of  Hades,  and 
 gained  an  easy  admittance  to  the  palace  of  Pluto.  At 
 the  music  of  his  "golden  shell,"  to  borrow  the  beauti- 
 ful language  of  ancient  poetry,  the  wheel  of  Ixion  stop- 
 ped, Tantalus  forgot  the  thirst  that  tormented  him,  the 
 vulture  ceased  to  prey  on  the  vitals  of  Tityos,  and  Plu- 
 to and  Proserpina  lent  a  favouring  ear  to  his  prayer. 
 Eurydice  was  allowed  to  return  with  him  to  the  upper 
 world,  but  only  on  condition  that  Orpheus  did  not  look 
 back  upon  her  before  they  had  reached  the  confines  of 
 the  kingdom  of  darkness.  He  broke  the  condition,  and 
 she  vanished  from  his  sight.  His  death  is  differently 
 related.  The  most  common  account  is,  that  he  was 
 torn  in  pieces  by  the  Thracian  women,  at  a  Bacchic 
 festival,  in  revenge  for  the  contempt  which  he  had 
 shown  towards  them  through  his  sorrow  for  the  loss  of 
 Eurydice.  (ApoUod.,  1,  3.  —  Virg.,  Georg.,  4,  454.) 
 His  limbs  were  scattered  over  the  plain,  but  his  head 
 was  thrown  upon  the  river  Hebrus,  which  bore  it  down 
 to  the  sea,  and  the  waves  then  carried  it  to  Lesbos, 
 where  it  was  buried.  (Vid.  Lesbos.)  The  Muses  col- 
 lected the  fragments  of  his  body  and  interred  them  at 
 Libeihra,  and  Jupiter,  at  their  prayer,  placed  his  lyre  in 
 the  skies.  (Apollod.,  I.  c. — Apoll.  Rhod.,  1,  23. — 
 Hermes,  ap.  Athen.,  13,  p.  597.) — The  poets  and  fab- 
 ulists have  attributed  to  Orpheus  many  great  improve- 
 ments in  the  condition  of  the  human  race.  Indeed,  his 
 having  moved  even  animals,  and  trees,  and  the  flinty 
 rocks  by  the  sweetness  of  his  strains,  would  seem  to 
 indicate  nothing  more  than  his  successful  exertions  in 
 civilizing  the  early  race  of  men.  {Horal.,  Ep.  ad 
 Pis  ,  391.)  Nearly  all  the  ancient  writers  state,  that 
 Orpheus  introduced  into  Greece  the  doctrines  of  reli- 
 gion and  the  worship  of  the  gods.  The  foundation  of 
 mysteries  is  also  ascribed  to  him.  {Arislnph.,  Ran., 
 1030  —Enrip  ,  Rhcs.,  9i5.— Plato,  Protag.,  p.  216  ) 
 Herodotus  (2,  91)  speaks  of  Orphic  and  Bacchic  mys- 
 teries. These  mvsteries  seem  to  have  been  diffierent 
 from  those  of  Eleusis.  The  establishment  of  social  in- 
 Btitutions,  and  the  commencement  of  civilization,  are, 
 940 
 
 as  we  have  just  remarked,  attributed  to  Orpheus.  Aris- 
 tophanes says,  that  he  taught  men  to  abstain  from  mur« 
 der.  (Ran.,  1030.)  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  au- 
 thor of  many  fables.  A  passage  in  an  epigram,  to 
 which,  however,  no  authority  can  be  attached,  ascribes 
 to  him  the  invention  of  letters.  (Faliric,  Bib.  Grac, 
 vol.  I,  p.  173.)  The  discovery  of  many  things  in  med- 
 icine is  also  assigned  to  him  (Plin.,  25,  2),  and  the  re 
 call  of  Eurydice  from  the  lower  world  is  sometimes  ex 
 plained  as  referring  to  his  skill  in  the  healing  art.  He 
 was  said  to  have  been  a  soothsayer  and  an  et, chanter, 
 and  he  had  a  famous  oracle  in  Lesbos.  A  share  in  the 
 invention  of  the  lyre  is  also  ascribed  to  him  :  he  receiv- 
 ed it  from  Apollo  with  seven  strings,  and  added  to  it  two 
 more.  According  to  Plutarch,  he  was  the  first  that  ac- 
 companied the  lyre  with  singing.  The  fable  that,  after 
 his  death,  his  head  floated  to  l^esbos,  is  a  poetical  mode 
 of  representing  the  skill  of  the  natives  of  that  island  in 
 lyric  poetry.  Orpheus  is  said  to  have  imbodied  his  re- 
 ligious and  philosophical  opinions  in  poems,  but  the 
 works  ascribed  to  him  are  evidently  spurious.  An  ac- 
 count of  these  will  be  found  under  the  article  Orphica. 
 {Encyl.  Us  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  37.) — It  is  stated  of  Or- 
 pheus by  some  ancient  authorities,  that  he  abstained 
 from  the  eating  of  flesh,  and  had  an  abhorrence  of  eggs, 
 considered  as  food,  from  a  persuasion  that  the  egg  was 
 the  principle  of  all  beings.  Many  other  accounts  are 
 given  of  him,  which  would  seem  to  assimilate  his  char- 
 acter to  that  of  the  earlier  priests  of  India.  The  an- 
 cients, however,  unable  to  discover  any  mode  by  which 
 he  could  have  obtained  his  knowledge  from  any  other 
 source,  pretended  that  he  had  visited  Egypt,  and  had 
 there  been  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  Isis  and 
 Osiris.  This,  however,  appears  to  be  a  supposition 
 purely  gratuitous,  since  a  careful  examination  of  the 
 subject  leads  directly  to  the  belief  that  Orpheus  was 
 of  Hindu  origin,  and  that  he  was  a  member  of  one  of 
 those  sacerdotal  colonies  which  professed  the  religion 
 of  Budda,  and  who,  being  driven  from  their  homes 
 in  the  northern  parts  of  India  and  in  the  plains  of  Tar- 
 tary  by  the  superior  power  of  the  rival  sect  of  Brah- 
 ma, moved  gradually  onward  to  the  west,  dispensing  in 
 their  progress  the  benefits  of  civilization,  and  the  mys- 
 teries and  tenets  of  their  peculiar  faith.  There  seems 
 to  be  a  curious  analogy  between  the  name  of  the  poet 
 and  the  old  Greek  term  ofxpoc,  dark  or  tawny-coloured 
 (compare  6p<pavoc,  fpffiof,  orbus,  furvus),  so  that  the 
 appellation  Orpheus  may  have  been  derived  by  the 
 early  Greeks  from  his  dusky  Hindu  complexion.  The 
 death  of  Eurydice,  and  the  descent  of  Orpheus  to  the 
 shades  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  her  restoration,  ap- 
 pear to  be  nothing  more  than  an  allegorical  allusion  to 
 certain  events  connected  with  the  religious  and  moral 
 instructions  of  the  bard.  It  will  not,  we  hope,  be 
 viewed  as  too  bold  an  assertion,  that  such  a  female  as 
 Eurydice  never  existed.  The  name  Eurydice  {Evpv- 
 6iKTj)  appears  to  be  compounded  of  the  adverbial  form 
 eiipv,  or  perhaps  the  adjective  evpvc,  considered  as  be- 
 isg  of  two  terminations  (MatlMcB,  Gr.  Gr.,  vol.  1, 
 ()  \1Q.—Kuhncr,  Gr.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  353,  ()  309),  and 
 the  noun  dtKri,  and  it  would  seem  to  be  nothing  more 
 than  an  apjiellation  for  that  system  of  just  dealing  and 
 moral  rectitude  which  Orpheus  had  introduced  among 
 the  earlier  progenitors  of  the  Grecian  race,  and  the 
 foundations  of  which  had  been  laid  broadly  and  deeply 
 by  him  in  the  minds  of  his  hearers.  According  to  the 
 statements  of  the  ancient  mythologists,  Arisiajus,  the 
 son  of  Apollo  and  the  nymph  Gyrene,  became  enam- 
 oured of  Eurydice,  the  wife  of  Orpheus,  and  pursued 
 her  into  a  wood,  where  she  ended  her  days  from  the 
 sting  of  a  serpent.  —  It  has  already  been  staled,  in 
 another  part  of  this  volume  (,vid  Aristsus),  that  Aris- 
 tneus  would  seem  to  be  in  reality  an  early  deity  of  the 
 Greeks,  presiding  over  flocks  and  herds,  over  the 
 propagation  of  bees  and  the  rearing  of  the  olive.  At 
 the  same  time,  we  find  among  the  ancient  writers  the 
 
ORP 
 
 ORPHICA. 
 
 name  of  Aristaeus  connected,  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
 gree, with  the  rites  and  mysteries  of  Bacchus.  Thus, 
 Diodorus  Siculus  (3,  39)  cites  a  legend,  in  which 
 Arislsus  is  mentioned  as  the  instructor  or  governor 
 of  the  young  Bacchus.  From  the  same  source  (3,  71) 
 we  are  informed,  that  Aristosus  was  the  first  who  sac- 
 rificed to  Bacchus  as  to  a  god.  Nonnus  represents 
 him  as  one  of  the  principal  leaders  in  the  expedition  of 
 Bacchus  against  India  ;  and  in  Greece  his  history  is 
 connected  wiih  that  of  the  time  of  Cadmus,  the  found- 
 er of  Thebes,  the  birthplace  of  Bacchus  in  Grecian 
 mythology.  {No7ini  Dionys.,  5,  p.  153,  ed.  1605,  8vo.) 
 From  a  view  of  these  and  other  authorities,  it  would 
 Beem  that  there  had  been  some  union  effected  be- 
 tween the  religious  worship  of  Aristaeus  and  Bac- 
 chus. Regardmg  this  latter  deity  as  emblematic  of 
 the  great  productive  principle,  which  imparts  its  ani- 
 mating and  fertilizing  influence  to  everything  around, 
 it  is  not  diflScult  to  conceive  how  a  union  should 
 have  taken  place  between  this  system  and  that  of 
 Aristaeus,  the  god  of  agriculture  and  of  the  flocks. 
 Now  the  religious  system  introduced  by  Orpheus, 
 though  itself  connected  with  the  worship  of  Bacchus, 
 was  very  different  from  the  popular  rites  of  this  same 
 deity.  The  Orphic  worshippers  of  Bacchus  did  not 
 indulge  in  unrestrained  pleasure  and  frantic  enthusi- 
 asm, but  rather  aimed  at  an  ascetic  purity  of  life  and 
 manners.  The  consequence,  therefore,  would  seem  to 
 have  been,  that  these  two  systems,  the  Orphic  and  the 
 popular  one,  came  at  last  into  direct  collision,  and  the 
 former  was  made  to  succumb.  In  the  figurative  lan- 
 guage of  poetry,  Aristaeus  (the  type  of  the  popular  sys- 
 tem) pursues  Eurydice  {Y.vpv-6iKr],  the  darling  insti- 
 tutions of  Orpheus),  and  the  venom  of  the  serpent  (the 
 ^ross  license  connected  with  the  popular  orgies)  occa- 
 sions her  death.  Orpheus,  say  the  poets,  lamenting 
 the  loss  of  his  beloved  Eurydice,  descended  in  quest 
 of  her  to  the  shades.  The  meaning  of  the  legend 
 evidently  is,  that,  afflicted  at  the  overthrow  of  the  fa- 
 vourite system  which  he  had  so  ardently  promulgated, 
 and  the  corruption  which  had  succeeded  to  his  purer 
 precepts  of  moral  duty,  he  endeavoured  to  reclaim  men 
 from  the  sensual  indulgences  to  which  they  had  be- 
 come attached,  by  holding  up  to  their  view  the  terrors 
 of  future  punishment  in  another  world.  Indeed,  that 
 he  was  the  first  who  introduced  among  the  Greeks  the 
 idea  of  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments,  is 
 expressly  asserted  by  ancient  authorities.  {Divcl  Sic, 
 1,  96. —  Wesseling,  ad  Diod.,  I.  c. — Banter's  Mythol- 
 ogy, vol.  4,  p.  159.)  The  awful  threatenings  that 
 were  thus  unfolded  to  their  view,  and  the  blissful  en- 
 joyments of  an  Elysium  which  were  at  the  same  time 
 promised  to  the  faithful,  succeeded  for  a  time  in  bring- 
 ing back  men  to  the  purer  path  of  moral  rectitude,  and 
 to  a  fairer  and  brighter  state  of  things  ;  but  either  the 
 impatience  of  their  instructer  to  see  his  efforts  realized, 
 or  some  act  of  heedlessness  and  inattention  on  his 
 part,  frustrated  all  his  hopes,  and  mankind  relapsed 
 once  more  into  moral  darkness.  In  the  fanciful  phra- 
 seology of  the  poet,  the  doctrine  of  a  future  state  of 
 punishment,  as  taught  by  Orpheus,  was  converted  into 
 his  descent  to  the  shades.  His  endeavour  to  re-es- 
 tablish by  these  means  the  moral  system  which  he  had 
 originally  promulgated,  became,  to  the  eye  of  the  ear- 
 lier bard,  an  impassioned  search,  even  amid  the  dark- 
 ness of  the  lower  world,  for  the  lost  object  of  conjugal 
 affection  ;  and  by  the  tones  of  the  lyre,  which  bent  even 
 Pluto  and  Proserpina  to  his  will,  appear  to  be  indicated 
 those  sweet  and  moving  accents  of  moral  harmony, 
 in  which  were  described  the  joys  of  Elysium,  and 
 whose  power  would  be  acknowledged  even  by  those 
 whom  the  terrors  of  punishment  could  not  intimidate. 
 Orphica,  certain  works  falsely  ascribed  to  Orpheus, 
 which  imbodicd  the  opinions  of  a  class  of  persons 
 termed  'OptpLKoL  These  were  the  followers  of  Or- 
 pheus, thai  is  to  say,  associations  of  persons  who,  under 
 
 the  guidance  of  the  ancient  mystical  poet  Orpheus, 
 dedicated  themselves  to  the  worship  of  Bacchus,  in 
 which  they  hoped  to  find  the  gratification  of  an  ardent 
 longing  after  the  soothing  and  elevating  influences  of  re- 
 ligion. The  Bacchus,  to  whose  worship  these  Orphic 
 rites  {tu  'Op(pi.KU  KokEoneva  Kal  BaKX'nu,  Herod.,  2, 
 81)  were  annexed,  was  the  Chthonian  deity,  Bacchus 
 or  Dionysus  Zagreus,  closely  connected  with  Ceres 
 and  Proserpina,  and  who  was  the  personified  expres- 
 sion, not  only  of  the  most  rapturous  pleasure,  but  also 
 of  a  deep  sorrow  for  the  miseries  of  human  life.  The 
 Orphic  legends  and  poems  related  in  great  part  to  this 
 same  Bacchus,  who  was  combined,  as  an  infernal  deity, 
 with  Pluto  or  Hades  (a  doctrine  given  by  the  philoso- 
 pher Heraclitus  as  the  opinion  of  a  particular  seel), 
 and  upon  whom  the  Orphic  theologers  founded  their 
 hopes  of  the  purification  and  ultimate  immortality  of 
 the  soul.  But  their  mode  of  celebrating  this  worship 
 was  very  different  from  the  popular  rites  of  Bacchus. 
 The  Orphic  worshippers  of  Bacchus  did  not  indulge 
 in  unrestrained  pleasure  and  frantic  enthusiasm,  but 
 rather  aimed  at  an  ascetic  purity  of  life  and  manners. 
 The  followers  of  Orpheus,  when  they  had  tasted  the 
 mystic  sacrificial  feast  of  raw  flesh  torn  from  the  ox 
 of  Bacchus  (tofioifiayia),  partook  of  no  other  animal 
 food.  They  wore  also  white  linen  garments,  like 
 Oriental  and  Egyptian  priests.  {Midler,  Htst.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  p.  231,  seqq.) — Of  the  Orphic  writers,  the  most 
 celebrated  are,  Onomacritus,  who  lived  under  Pisis- 
 tratus  and  his  sons,  and  Cercops,  a  Pythagorean,  who 
 lived  about  B  C.  504.  Works  ascribed  to  Orpheus 
 were  extant  at  a  very  early  period.  Plato  mentions 
 several  kinds  of  Orphic  poems  ;  but  he  intimates  that 
 they  are  not  genuine.  Aristotle  speaks  of  them  as 
 the  so-called  (tu  Kalovfieva)  Orphic  poems.  In  later 
 times,  all  manner  of  works  on  mysteries  and  religion 
 were  ascribed  to  him.  There  are  also  Orphic  poems 
 later  than  the  Christian  era,  which  are  difficult  to  be 
 distinguished  from  those  of  earlier  times. — The  wri- 
 tings ascribed  to  Orpheus,  and  which  have  reached  our 
 times,  are  as  follows  :  1.  Hymns  (^T/j,voi),  eighty- eight 
 in  number.  They  are  in  hexameter  verse,  and  were 
 most  of  them,  as  is  thought,  composed  by  Onomacri- 
 tus.— 2.  An  historical  or  epic  poem  on  the  Expedition 
 of  the  Argonauts  (JApyovavTLKu),  in  1384  verses,  prob- 
 ably by  Onomacritus  ;  at  least,  by  some  one  not  earlier 
 than  Homer. — 3.  A  work  on  the  Magical  Virlvcs  of 
 Stones  (TTEpl  AWuv,  or  AidiKu),  in  768  hexameters, 
 showing  how  they  may  be  used  as  preservatives  against 
 poisons,  and  as  a  means  of  conciliating  the  favour  of 
 the  gods. — 4.  Fragments  of  various  other  works; 
 among  which  is  placed  a  poem  of  66  verses,  entitled 
 nepl  "Leiafiuv,  concerning  Earthquakes,  that  is,  of  the 
 prognostics  to  be  derived  from  this  species  of  phenom- 
 ena ;  a  production  sometimes  ascribed  to  the  fabulous 
 Hermes  Trismcgistus.  Many  other  fragments  of  the 
 Orphic  poems,  some  in  a  metrical  form,  others  con- 
 verted into  prose,  and  scattered  throughout  the  com- 
 mentary of  Proclus  on  the  Cratylus  of  Plato,  were  col- 
 lected from  the  Munich  MSS.  by  Werfer,  and  inserted 
 in  the  Philological  Transactions  of  Munich.  (Acta 
 Philologorum  Monacensium,  vol.  2,  p.  113,  seqq.)  — 
 Other  writings,  also  ascribed  to  Orpheus,  but  which 
 have  not  comn  down  to  us,  except  it  be  a  few  scat- 
 tered fragments  of  some  of  them,  are  the  following: 
 1.  Sacred  Legends  {'lepol  Ibyoi),  a  complete  system 
 of  Orphic  theology,  in  twenty-four  books.  It  was  as- 
 cribed by  some  to  Cercops  and  Diognetus,  but  was 
 probably  the  production  of  several  authors.— 2.  Proph- 
 ecies {Xpnanoi).—^.  BaKXiKd,  probably  stories  relative 
 to  Bacchus  and  his  mysteries.  They  were  attributed 
 by  some  to  Arignotes,  a  pupil  or  daughter  of  Pythag- 
 oras.—4.  The  descent  to  Hades  ('H  ^f  Al6ov  KaTu6a- 
 cig),  a  poem  of  great  antiquity,  ascribed,  among  oth- 
 ers, to  Cercops.  — 5.  Religious  Rites  or  Mysteries 
 (T€?.ETai),  directions  for  worshipping  and  appeasing 
 ^  '  941 
 
ORPHICA. 
 
 ORT 
 
 ihe  gods;  probably  by  Onomacritus. — As  late  as  the 
 17ih  century,  no  one  do\ibted  but  that  the  different 
 works  whjch  bear  the  name  of  Orpheus,  or,  at  least,  the 
 greater  part  of  them,  were  either  the  productions  of 
 Orpheus  himself,  or  of  Onomacritus,  who  was  regard- 
 ed as  the  restorer  of  these  ancient  poems.  The  learn- 
 ed Huet  was  the  first  who,  believing  that  he  had  dis- 
 covered in  them  traces  of  Christiainty,  expressed  the 
 suspicion  that  they  might  be  the  work  of  some  pious 
 impostor.  In  1751,  when  Ruhnken  published  his  sec- 
 ond critical  letter,  be  attacked  the  opinion  of  Huet, 
 and  placed  the  composition  of  the  works  iii  question 
 in  the  tenth  century  before  the  Christian  era.  Gesiier 
 went  still  farther,  and  in  his  Prolegomena  Orphica, 
 which  were  read  in  1759  at  the  University  of  Gbitin- 
 gen,  and  subsequently  placed  in  Hamberger's  edition 
 of  Orpheus,  published  after  Gesner's  death,  he  declared 
 that  he  had  found  nothing  in  these  poems  which  pre- 
 vented the  belief  that  they  were  composed  before  the 
 period  of  the  Trojan  war.  He  allowed,  however,  at 
 the  same  time,  that  they  might  have  been  retouched 
 by  Onomacritus.  Gesner  found  an  opponent  in  the 
 celebrated  Valckenaer,  who  believed  the  author  of  the 
 poems  in  question  to  have  belonged  to  the  Alexandre- 
 an  school.  (Valck.,  ad  Herod.,  ed  Wcsscling.)  In 
 1777,  Schneider  revived  and  developed  the  theory  of 
 Huet.  (Schneider,  de  dubia  Carm.  Orphic,  auctoritate 
 et  vetustale. — Analect.  Crit.,  fasc.  1.)  The  same 
 poems,  in  which  Ruhnken  had  found  a  diction  almost 
 Homeric,  and  Gesner  the  simple  style  of  remote  an- 
 tiquity, appeared,  to  the  German  professor,  the  work 
 of  a  later  Platonist,  initiated  into  the  tenets  of  Judaism 
 and  the  mysteries  of  Christianity.  His  arguments, 
 deduced  entirely  from  the  style  of  these  productions, 
 were  strengthened  by  Thunmann  {Ncue  phitolog.  Bib- 
 liothek,  vol.  4,  p.  298),  who  discovered  in  these  poems 
 historical  and  geographical  errors  such  as  could  only 
 have  been  committed  by  a  writer  subsequent  to  the 
 age  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes.  And  yet  it  is  singular 
 enough,  that  Mannert,  arguing  from  the  acquaintance 
 with  geographical  terms  displayed  by  the  author  of 
 these  poems,  places  him  between  Herodotus  and  Pyth- 
 ias. {Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p.  67.)  In  1782  Ruhnken  pub- 
 lished a  new  edition  of  his  critical  letter,  in  which  he 
 endeavoured  to  refute  the  opinion  of  Schneider,  al- 
 lowing, at  the  same  time,  that  the  position  assumed  by 
 Valckenaer  was  not  an  improbable  one.  The  discus- 
 sion rested  here  for  twenty  years,  when  Schneider,  in 
 his  edition  of  the  Argonautics  published  in  1803,  de- 
 fended the  theory  which  he  had  supported  in  his 
 younger  days,  adding,  at  the  same  time,  however, 
 some  modifications  ;  for  he  allowed  that  the  author  of 
 the  Argonautics,  although  comparatively  modern,  had 
 appropriated  to  himself  the  style  and  manner  of  the 
 Alexandrcan  school.  Two  years  after,  Hermann,  in 
 a  memoir  annexed  to  his  edition  of  the  Orphica,  and 
 subsequently  in  a  separate  dissertation,  supported 
 with  rare  erudition  the  opinion  of  Huet,  and  that  which 
 Schneider  had  advanced  in  1777.  After  giving  a  brief 
 account  of  the  state  of  the  controversy,  Hermann  pro- 
 ceeds to  examine  the  structure  of  the  Orphic  verse. 
 He  first  indicates  the  progressive  modification  of  the 
 hexameter  verse,  through  the  series  of  the  epic  and 
 didactic  hexameter  writers,  pointing  out  the  gradual 
 changes  which  it  underwent  from  the  time  of  Homer 
 till  it  was  wholly  remodelled  by  Nonnus.  He  detects, 
 in  the  hexameters  of  the  Orphic  poems,  those  peculiar- 
 ities which  show,  as  he  thinks,  that  their  author  must 
 have  lived  in  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
 just  before  the  hexameter  verse  received  its  last  con- 
 siderable modification  under  the  hands  of  Nonnus. 
 (Vid.  Nonnus.)  Five  German  critics,  Heyne,  Voss, 
 Wolf,  Huschke,  and  Konigsmann,  opposed  the  hypoth- 
 esis of  Schneider  and  Hermann,  and  declared  in  favour 
 of  Valckenaer's  theory.  ( Voss,  Dedic.  der  ubersetz. 
 ies  Hesiodus. — Id.,  Recevs.  Jen.  L.  Z.,  1805,  n.  138. 
 942 
 
 —  Huschke,  de  Orphei  Argonaut.,  Rost.,  1806,  4to.— 
 Konigsmann,  Prulus.  Crit.,  1810,  4io.) — The  author- 
 ity ot  the  grammarian  Draco,  who  cites  the  Argonaut- 
 ics of  Orpheus,  having  been  strongly  urged  by  Ko- 
 nigsmann against  Hermann,  the  latter  obtained  the 
 work  of  Draco,  which  until  then  had  remained  uned- 
 ited, from  the  celebrated  Bast,  and  published  it  at 
 Leipsic  in  1812.  Draco  does,  in  fact,  cite  the  Argo- 
 nautics, and  his  authority  is  the  more  entitled  to  atten- 
 tion, since  Hermann  himself  has  shown  that  he  lived 
 before  the  time  of  ApoUonius  Dyscolus,  and,  conse- 
 quently, at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  ; 
 whereas,  before  this,  he  had  been  generally  assigned 
 to  the  sixth  century.  (Compare  Tiedcmann,  Grie- 
 chenl.ands  erste  Philosophcn,  Leipz.,  1780,  8vo. — 
 Gerlach,  dc  Hymriis  Orphicis  Commcntatio,  Gbtt., 
 1797,  8vo.)  Hermann,  however,  has  greatly  shaken 
 the  authority  of  Draco,  and  leads  us  to  entertain  the 
 opinion  that  we  possess  only  an  extract  of  the  work, 
 augmented  by  interpolations  and  marginal  glosses  that 
 have  crept  into  the  text.  (Scholl,  Hist.  Ltl.  Gr.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  38,  seqq.)  It  is  even  probable  that  the  very  part 
 relating  to  Orpheus  was  added  by  Constantine  Lasca- 
 ris. — In  1824,  a  prize  dissertation  appeared  by  another 
 German  scholar.  Bode.  {Orpheus  Poetarum  GrcECO- 
 rum  Anliquissimus,  Golt.,  4to  )  Assuming  the  spu- 
 riousness  of  the  Orphic  poems,  the  author  aims  only 
 to  establish  the  country,  age,  and  character  of  the 
 poet ;  and  of  him,  not  as  one  historical  personage,  but 
 only  as  the  representative  of  a  primeval  school  of 
 bards.  By  a  learned  and  ingenious  train  of  argument, 
 he  fixes  the  period  of  the  commencement  of  the  Orphic 
 school  about  the  13th  century  before  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  Christian  era,  making  it  earlier  than  the 
 time  of  the  Homeric  poems,  which  he  assigns  to  the 
 10th  century. — The  best  edition  of  the  Orphica  is  that 
 of  Hermann,  Lips.,  1805,  8vo.  The  edition  of  Ges- 
 ner is  also  a  valuable  one,  Lips.,  1764,  8vo.  SchJif- 
 fer  published  likewise  a  new  edition  of  the  Greek  text 
 in  1818,  12maj.,  for  the  use  of  prselections  and  schools 
 (Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bihlwg.,  vol.  3,  p.  186.)  The  Or- 
 phic fragments  are  given  by  Lobeck  in  his  Aglaopha- 
 mus,  Regiom.,  1829,  8vo.) 
 
 OrthTa,  a  surname  of  Diana  at  Sparta.  At  her  al- 
 tar boys  were  scourged  during  the  festival  called  Di- 
 amasligosis  (Ata/iaaTiyuai^).  The  young  sufferers 
 were  called  Bornonicae.    (Vtd.  Bomonicas,  and  Diana.) 
 
 Orthos,  the  dog  that  guarded  the  oxen  of  Geryon. 
 He  had  two  heads,  and  was  sprung  from  the  union  of 
 Echidna  and  Typhon.     {Apvllod.,  2,  5.) 
 
 Ortosped.v  or  Orospeda  Mons  (Ptolemy  giving  it 
 the  former  name,  and  Strabo  the  latter),  a  chain  of 
 mountains  in  Spain  ;  properly  speaking,  a  continuation 
 of  the  range  of  Idubeda.  One  part  terminates,  in  the 
 form  of  a  segment  of  a  circle,  on  the  coast  of  Murcia 
 and  Grenada,  while  two  arms  are  sent  off  in  the  di- 
 rection of  Baetica,  one  of  which  pursues  nearly  a 
 western  direction,  and  is  called  Mons  Marianus,  now 
 Sierra  Morena ;  the  other  runs  more  to  the  south- 
 west, nearer  the  coast,  and  is  called  Mons  Ilipula,  now 
 Sierra  Nevada,  ending  on  the  coast  at  Calpe  or  Gib- 
 raltar.    (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  406.) 
 
 Ortygia,  I.  a  spot  near  the  port  of  Ephesus,  thickly 
 planted  with  cypresses  and  other  trees,  and  watered 
 by  the  little  river  Cenchrius.  Latona  was  said  by 
 some  to  have  been  delivered  here  of  her  twins.  The 
 grove  was  filled  with  shrines,  and  adorned  with  statues 
 by  the  hand  of  Scopas  and  other  eminent  sculptors. 
 (Strab.,  639.)  According  to  Chandler  (Travels  in 
 Asia  Minor,  p.  176),  this  part  of  the  coast  has  under- 
 gone considerable  alterations.  Ortygia  has  disappear- 
 ed, the  land  having  encroached  on  the  sea.  (Cra- 
 mer^s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  376.) — II.  An  island  in 
 the  bay  of  Syracuse,  forming  one  of  the  five  quarters 
 of  that  city.  The  colonists  under  Archias  first  set- 
 tled here,  and  afterward  extended  to  Acradina  on  the 
 
osc 
 
 OSI 
 
 mainland  of  Sicily.  Ortygia  was  famed  for  containing 
 the  celebrated  fount  of  Arethusa.  'J'lie  earliest  men- 
 tion of  ihis  island  is  found  in  Hesiod  {Theog.,  1013). 
 On  it  is  now  situate  the  greater  part  of  motJern  Syra- 
 cuse. {Goller,  de  Situ,  cl  Ong.  Syracus.,  p.  39,  seq  ) 
 — III.  One  of  the  early  names  of  the  island  of  Delos. 
 (Vtd.  Delos.) 
 
 Orl's,  an  Egyptian  deity,  son  of  Osiris  and  Isis. 
 (Vid.  Horus.) 
 
 OscA,  a  town  of  Hispania  Baeiica,  in  the  territory 
 of  the  Turdetani.  According  to  Mannert,  it  corre- 
 sponds to  the  modern  Huesca,  in  Aragon.  {Geogr., 
 vol.  1,  p.  410.)  Ukert,  however,  places  its  site  to  the 
 west  of  the  city.  It  was  in  Osca  that  Sertorius  col- 
 lected together,  from  the  various  nations  of  Spain,  the 
 children  of  the  nobility,  and  placed  masters  over  them 
 to  instruct  them  in  Greek  and  Roman  literature.  Plu- 
 tarch states,  that  this  had  the  appearance  only  of  an 
 education,  to  prepare  them  for  being  admitted  citizens 
 of  Rome  ;  but  that  the  children  were,  in  fact,  so  many 
 hostages.     {Vit.  Scrlor.) 
 
 Osci  or  Opici,  a  people  of  ancient  Italy,  who  seem 
 to  have  been  identical  with  the  Ausones  or  Aurunci, 
 and  who  inhabited  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula. 
 Some  ancient  writers  consider  the  Ausones  to  be  a 
 branch  of  the  Osci  ;  others,  as  Polybius,  have  spoken 
 of  them  as  distinct  tribes,  but  this  appears  to  be  an 
 error.  The  names  Opicus  and  Oscus  are  undoubtedly 
 the  same.  Aristotle  {Polit.,  7,  10)  calls  the  country 
 from  the  Tiber  to  the  Silarus,  Ausonia  and  Opicia  ; 
 and  other  ancient  writers  e.xtended  the  name  much 
 farther,  to  the  Straits  of  Sicily  ;  but  the  southern  ex- 
 tremity of  the  peninsula  appears  to  have  been  occu- 
 pied previously  by  the  CEnotrians,  a  Pelasgic  race, 
 who  were  conquered  by  the  Lucanians  and  Bruitii. 
 Cumae,  one  of  the  earliest  Greek  colonies  on  the  coast 
 of  Italy,  was  in  the  country  of  the  Opici.  The  early 
 immigrations  of  the  Illyrians  or  Liburnians  along  the 
 eastern  coast  of  Italy,  drove  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
 from  the  lowlands  into  the  fastnesses  of  the  central 
 Apennines,  whence  they  issued  under  the  various 
 names  of  Sabini,  Casci,  or  Latini  veteres.  There 
 was  an  ancient  tradition  in  Italy,  in  the  time  of  the 
 historian  Dionysius,  of  a  sudden  irruption  of  strangers 
 from  the  opposite  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  which  caused 
 a  general  commotion  and  dispersion  among  the  abo- 
 riginal tribes.  Afterward  came  the  Hellenic  colonies, 
 which  occupied  the  whole  seacoast  from  Mount  Gar- 
 ganus  to  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  in  the  first 
 and  second  centuries  of  Rome  ;  in  consequence  of 
 which,  the  population  of  the  southern  part  of  the  Ital- 
 ian peninsula  became  divided  into  two  races,  the  tribes 
 of  Aboriginal  or  Oscan  descent,  such  as  the  Sabini, 
 Samnites,  Lucani,  and  Bruttii,  who  remained  in  pos- 
 session of  the  highlands,  and  the  Greek  colonists  and 
 their  descendants,  who  occupied  the  maritime  districts, 
 but  never  gained  possession  of  the  upper  or  Apennine 
 regions.  Such  is  the  view  taken  by  Micali  and  other 
 Italian  writers.  But  Niebuhr  describes  the  Sabini, 
 and  their  colonies  the  Samnites,  Lucani,  and  other 
 tribes,  which  the  Roman  writers  called  by  the  general 
 name  of  Sabellians,  as  a  people  distinct  from  the  Osci 
 or  Opici.  He  says,  after  Calo  and  other  ancient  his- 
 torians, that  the  Sabini  issued  out  of  the  highlands  of 
 the  central  Apennines,  near  Amiternum,  long  before 
 the  epoch  of  the  Trojan  war,  and,  driving  before  them 
 the  Cascans  or  Prisci  Latini,  who  were  an  Oscan 
 tribe,  settled  themselves  in  the  country  which  has  to 
 this  day  retained  the  name  of  Sabina.  Thence  they 
 sent  out  numerous  colonies,  one  of  which  penetrated 
 into  the  land  of  the  Opicans,  and  became  the  Samnite 
 people  ;  and  afterward  the  Samnites  occupied  Cam- 
 pania, and,  mixing  themselves  with  the  earlier  Oscan 
 population,  settled  there  and  adopted  their  language. 
 But,  farther  on,  in  speaking  of  the  Sabini  and  Sabel- 
 lians, Niebuhr  admits  the  probability  of  their  being 
 
 originally  a  branch  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Opici  at 
 Osci.  Micali  considers  the  Sabini,  Apuli,  Messapii, 
 Campani,  Aurunci,  and  Volsci,  as  all  branches  of  the 
 great  Oscan  family. — The  Greeks,  being  superior  to 
 the  native  tribes  in  refinement  and  mental  cultivation, 
 affected  to  despise  them,  and  they  applied  to  the  na- 
 tive Italian  tribes,  including  the  Romans,  the  epithet 
 "  Opican,"  as  a  word  of  contempt,  to  denote  barba- 
 rism both  in  language  and  manners  {Calo,  ap.  Plin., 
 29,  1) ;  and  the  later  Roman  writers  themselves 
 adopted  the  expression  in  the  same  sense :  "  Osci  lO' 
 qui"  was  tantamount  to  a  barbarous  way  of  speaking. 
 Juvenal  says  (3,  207),  "  El  dtvina  Opici  rodcbanl  car- 
 mina  mures,"  where  Opici  is  equivalent  to  "  barba- 
 ri ;"  and  Ausonius  {Prof.,  22,  3)  uses  "  Opicas  char- 
 las"  in  the  sense  of  rude,  unpolished  compositions. 
 The  Oscan  language  was  the  parent  of  the  dialects  of 
 the  native  tribes  from  the  Tiber  to  the  extremity  of 
 the  peninsula,  Sabini,  Hernici,  Marsi,  Samnites,  Sidi- 
 cini,  Lucani,  and  Bruitii,  while  in  the  regions  north  of 
 the  Tiber  the  Etrurian  predominated.  Livy  (10,  20) 
 mentions  the  Oscan  as  being  the  language  of  the  Sam- 
 nites. The  older  Latin  writers,  and  especially  En- 
 nius,  have  many  Oscan  words  and  Oscan  terminations. 
 The  Oscan  language  continued  to  be  understood  at 
 Rome  down  to  a  later  period  of  the  empire,  and  the 
 Fabulce  Atellancz,  which  were  in  the  Oscan  tongue, 
 were  highly  relished  by  the  great  body  of  the  people. 
 In  the  Social  war,  the  Confederates,  who  were  chiefly 
 communities  of  Oscan  descent,  stamped  Oscan  legends 
 on  their  coins.  In  Campania  and  Samnium,  the  Os- 
 can continued  to  be  the  vulgar  tongue  long  after  the 
 Roman  conquest,  as  appears  from  several  monuments, 
 and  especially  from  the  Oscan  inscriptions  found  at 
 Pompeii.  {Micali,  Storia  degli  Antichi  Popoli  Itali- 
 am,  ch.  29.— Id.,  Atlas,  pi.  120.  — De  lorio,  Plan  of 
 Pompeii,  pi.  4.) — The  Oscan  race,  like  the  Etruscan, 
 appears  to  have  been,  from  the  remotest  times,  strong- 
 ly under  the  influence  of  religious  rites  and  laws  {Fes- 
 tus,  s.  V.  Oscum);  and  the  primitive  manners  and  sim- 
 ple morals  of  the  Oscan  and  Sabine  tribes,  as  well  as 
 their  bravery  in  arms,  have  been  extolled  by  the  Ro- 
 man writers,  among  others  by  Virgil  {^n.,  7,  728, 
 seqq.)  and  Silius  Italicus  (8.  526,  seqq.). — Concern- 
 ing the  scanty  remains  of  the  Oscan  language  which 
 have  come  down  to  us,  the  following  may  be  consult- 
 ed :  "  Lingua  Osca  Specimen  Singulare,  quod  su- 
 perest  Nola,  m  marmorc  Musai  Scminarii,"  which  is 
 given  by  Passeri  in  his  "  Pictura  Etruscorum  m  Vas- 
 culis,"  &c.,  Rome,  3  vols,  fol.,  17G7-75  ;  and  also 
 Guarini,  in  his  "  In  Osca  Epigrammata  nonnulla 
 Cnmmentarius,"  Naples,  1830,  8vo,  where  several 
 Oscan  inscriptions  are  found  collected  ;  but  particu- 
 larly the  learned  work  of  Grotefend,  "  Rudimenla 
 Lingua  Osca,"  Hannov.,  1840.  Another  work  of 
 the  last-mentioned  writer,  entitled  "  Rudimenla  Lin- 
 gua Umbrica,"  Hannov.,  1835,  &c.,  is  also  worthy 
 of  being  consulted.  Grotefend  makes  both  the  Oscan 
 and  the  Latin  come  from  the  Umbrian  language. 
 {Encycl.  Us.  Knowl ,  vol.  17.  p.  47. — Niebuhr,  Rom. 
 Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  55,  Cambr.  transl.) 
 
 Osiris,  one  of  the  principal  Egyptian  deities,  was 
 brother  of  Isis,  and  the  father  of  Horus.  His  history 
 is  given  in  the  first  book  of  Diodorus,  and  in  Plutarch's 
 treatise  "  On  Isis  and  Osiris ;"  but  it  is  not  improb- 
 able that  the  genuine  Egyptian  traditions  respecting 
 the  deity  had  been  considerably  corrupted  at  the  time 
 of  these  writers.  According  to  their  accounts,  how- 
 ever, Osiris  was  the  first  who  reclaimed  the  Egyptians 
 from  a  state  of  barbarism,  and  taught  them  agriculture 
 and  the  various  arts  and  sciences.  After  he  had  in- 
 troduced civilization  among  his  own  subjects,  he  re- 
 solved to  visit  the  other  nations  of  the  wor  d  and  con- 
 fer on  them  the  same  blessing.  He  accordingly  com- 
 mitted the  administration  of  his  kingdom  to  Isis,  his 
 sister  and  queen,  and  gave  her  Hermes  to  assist  hei 
 
OST 
 
 OSTIA. 
 
 in  council,  and  Hercules  to  coinmand  her  troops. 
 Having  collected  a  large  army  himself,  he  visited  in 
 succession  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  and  India,  and  thence 
 marched  through  Central  Asia  into  Europe,  instruct- 
 ing the  nations  m  agriculture,  and  in  the  arts  and  sci- 
 ences. He  left  his  son  Macedon  in  Thrace  and  Ma- 
 cedonia, and  coininitted  the  cultivation  of  the  land  of 
 Attica  to  Triptolemus.  After  visiting  all  parts  of  the 
 inhabited  world,  he  returned  to  Egypt,  where  he  was 
 murdered  soon  after  his  arrival  by  his  brother  Typhon, 
 who  cut  up  his  body  into  ivventy-si.\  parts,  and  divided 
 it  among  the  conspirators  who  had  aided  him  in  the 
 murder  of  his  brother.  These  parts  were  afterward, 
 with  one  e.vception,  discovered  by  Isis,  who  enclosed 
 each  of  them  in  a  statue  of  wa.x,  made  to  resemble 
 Osiris,  and  distributed  them  through  different  parts  of 
 Egypt. — Other  forms  of  the  legend  may  be  foutid  in 
 Creuzer's  elaborate  work  {Symbuhk,  vol.  1,  p.  259, 
 seqq. — Syiubohk,  par  Guiguiaut,  vol.  1,  pt.  1,  p.  389, 
 segq.)  For  some  remarks  explanatory  of  it,  consult 
 the  article  Isis. — Herodotus  informs  us  (2,  48),  that 
 the  festival  of  Osiris  was  celebrated  in  almost  the 
 same  manner  as  that  of  Bacchus.  It  appears,  howev- 
 er, not  improbable,  that  the  worship  of  Osiris  was  in- 
 troduced into  Egypt,  in  common  with  the  arts  and  sci- 
 ences, from  the  Ethiopian  Meroe.  We  learn  from 
 Herodotus  (2,  29),  that  Ammon  and  Osiris  were  the 
 national  deities  of  Meroe,  and  we  are  told  by  Diodorus 
 (3,  3)  that  Osiris  led  a  colony  from  Ethiopia  into 
 Egypt. — Osiris  was  venerated  under  the  form  of  the 
 sacred  bulls  .Apis  and  Mnevis  {Diod.  Sic,  1,21);  and 
 as  it  is  usual  in  the  Egyptian  symbolical  language  to 
 represent  their  deities  with  human  forms,  and  with 
 the  heads  of  the  animals  which  were  their  representa- 
 tives, we  find  statues  of  Osiris  with  the  horns  of  a 
 bull.  (Egyptian  Antiquities,  vol.  2,  p.  295.)  Osiris, 
 in  common  with  Isis,  presided  over  the  world  below  ; 
 and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  him  represented  on 
 rolls  of  papyrus,  as  sitting  in  judgment  on  departed 
 spirits.  His  usual  attributes  are  the  high  cap,  the 
 flail  or  whip,  and  the  crosier.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL, 
 vol.  17,  p.  i9.—Cury.  Horapollo  Nilotis,  p.  164,  pi.  2.) 
 
 OsisMii.  a  people  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis  Tertia,  on 
 the  coast  of  the  Mure  Britannicum,  and  at  the  south- 
 western extremity  of  the  Tractus  Armoricus.  Their 
 country,  according  to  some,  answers  to  the  modern 
 Leon  and  Treguier ;  but,  according  to  D'Anville, 
 their  chief  city  was  Vorgannuin,  now  Karhez,  in  Basse 
 Bretagne.  (Cces.,  B.  G.,  2,  34.— /(/.  ib.,  3,  9,  &c.— 
 Lemaire,  Ind.  Gcogr  ,  ad.  Cms  ,  s.  v.) 
 
 OsRHOENE,  a  district  of  Mesopotamia,  in  the  north- 
 western section  of  the  country.     {Vid.  Mesopotamia.) 
 
 OssA,  I.  a  celebrated  mountain,  or,  more  correctly, 
 mountain-range  of  Thcssaly,  extending  from  the  right 
 bank  of  the  Peneus  along  the  Magnesian  coast  to  the 
 chain  of  Pelion.  It  was  supposed  that  Ossa  and 
 Olympus  were  once  united,  but  that  an  earthquake 
 had  rent  them  asunder  {Herod.,  7,  132. — JElian,  V. 
 H  ,  3,  I),  forming  the  vale  of  Tempo.  {Vid.  Tempo.) 
 Ossa  was  one  of  the  mountains  which  the  giants,  in 
 their  war  with  the  gods,  piled  upon  Olympus  in  order 
 to  ascend  to  the  heavens.  (Horn  ,  Od  ,  11,  312,  seqq. 
 — Virg.,  Genrg.,  1,  282.)  The  modern  name  is  Kis- 
 sovo,  or,  according  to  Dodwell,  Kissabos  (Kissavos). 
 "  Mount  Ossa,"  oliserves  Dodwell,  "  which  does  not 
 appear  so  high  as  Pelion,  is  much  lower  than  Olympus. 
 It  rises  gradually  to  a  point,  which  appears  about  5000 
 feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain  ;  but  I  speak  only 
 from  conjecture."  {Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  lOfi. — Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  422.) — II.  A  small  town  of 
 Macedonia,  in  the  territory  of  Bisaltia,  and  situate  on 
 a  river  (probably  the  Basaltes)  falling  into  the  Stry- 
 mon. 
 
 OstTa,  a  celebrated  town  and  harbour,  at  the  mouth 
 of  the  river  Tiber,  in  Italy.  It  was  the  port  of  Rome, 
 and  its  name  even  now  continues  unchanged,  though 
 944 
 
 few  vestiges  remain  of  its  ancient  greatnes.«.  All  his- 
 torians agree  in  ascribing  the  foundation  of  Ostia  to  An- 
 cus  Marcius.  {Liv.,  1,  33. — Dion.  Hal.,  3,  44  — Flor., 
 1,4.)  That  it  was  a  Roman  colony  we  learn  from 
 Florus  (/.  c. — Compare  Senec.,  1,  15, — Tacit.,  Hist., 
 1,  80).  When  the  Romans  began  to  have  ships  of 
 war,  Ostia  became  a  place  of  greater  importance,  and  a 
 fleet  was  constantly  stationed  there  to  guard  the  mouth 
 of  the  Tiber.  (Liv.,  22,  11  et  27.— Id.,  23,  38  —Id., 
 27,  22.)  It  was  here  that  the  statue  of  Cybtle  was 
 received  with  due  solemnity  by  Scipio  Nasica,  when 
 the  public  voice  had  selected  him  for  that  duty,  as  the 
 best  citizen  of  Rome.  {Livy,  29,  14.  —  Hervdian, 
 1,  11,10.)  In  the  civil  wars,  Ostia  fell  into  the  hands 
 of  Marius,  and  was  treated  with  savage  cruelly.  {Liv., 
 Epit.,  79  )  Cicero,  in  one  of  his  orations,  alludes 
 with  indignation  to  the  capture  of  the  fleet  stationed 
 at  Ostia  by  some  pirates.  {Pro.  L.  Manil.)  The 
 town  and  colony  of  Ostia  were  distant  only  thirteen 
 miles  from  Rome,  but  the  port  itself,  according  to  the 
 Itineraries,  was  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber;  unless  it 
 be  thought  with  Vulpius,  that  the  town  and  harbour, 
 with  all  their  dependencies,  might  occupy  an  extent 
 of  three  miles  along  the  river.  {Vet.  Lut.,  2,  1,  p. 
 136  )  There  is  some  difficulty,  however,  in  ascer- 
 taining the  exact  situation  of  the  harbour,  from  the 
 change  which  appears  to  have  taken  place  in  the 
 mouth  of  the  river  during  the  lapse  of  so  many  ages. 
 Even  the  number  of  its  channels  is  a  disputed  point. 
 Ovid  seems  to  point  out  two  {Fast.,  4,  291. — Ibid., 
 4,  329),  but  Dionysius  Periegetes  positively  slates 
 that  there  was  but  one.  The  difference,  however, 
 may  be  reconciled  by  supposing  that,  in  the  geog- 
 rapher's time,  the  right  branch  of  the  river  might 
 alone  be  used  for  the  purposes  of  navigation,  and  that 
 the  other  stream  was  too  insignificant  and  shallow  for 
 the  reception  of  ships  of  any  size.  The  two  streams 
 still  exist ;  the  left  is  called  Fiumaro,  the  right,  on 
 which  the  Portus  Augusti  was  situate,  is  known  by 
 the  name  of  Fiumecino. — According  to  Plutarch,  Ju- 
 lius Ccesar  was  the  first  who  turned  his  attention  to 
 the  construction  of  a  port  at  Ostia,  by  raising  there  a 
 mole  and  other  works;  but  it  was  to  the  Emperor 
 Claudius  that  this  harbour  seems  indebted  for  all  the 
 magnificence  ascribed  to  it  by  antiquity.  Suetonius, 
 in  his  life  of  that  prince,  has  given  us  a  detailed  ac- 
 count of  the  formation  of  this  harbour  with  its  pharos 
 (c.  20.— Compare  Dio  Cass.,  60,  U.—Flin.,  36.  9. 
 — Id.,  36,  15  et  40).  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
 Trajan  subsequently  improved  and  beautified  the  port 
 of  Ostia  ;  but  the  only  authority  for  such  a  supposition 
 is  derived  from  the  scholiast  on  Juvenal,  in  his  com- 
 mentary on  the  passage  where  that  poet  describes  the 
 entrance  of  Catullus  into  this  haven  (12,  75).  It  is 
 not  improbable,  however,  that  the  scholiast  might  con- 
 found the  harbour  of  Ostia  with  that  of  Centum  Cellae. 
 — In  process  of  time,  a  considerable  town  was  formed 
 around  the  harbour  of  Ostia,  which  was  itself  called 
 Portus  Augusti,  or  simply  Portus  ;  and  a  road  was 
 constructed  thence  to  the  capital,  which  took  the  name 
 of  Via  Portuensis.  Ostia,  as  has  been  remarked,  at- 
 tained the  summit  of  its  prosperity  and  importance 
 under  Claudius,  who  always  testified  a  peculiar  regard 
 for  this  colony.  It  seems  to  have  flourished  likewise 
 under  Vespasian,  and  even  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Tra- 
 jan ;  for  Pliny  the  younger  informs  us,  when  descri- 
 bing his  Laurentine  villa,  that  he  derived  most  of  his 
 household  supplies  from  Ostia.  In  the  time  of  Pro- 
 copius,  however,  this  city  was  nearly  deserted,  all  its 
 commerce  and  population  having  been  transported  to 
 the  neighbouring  Portus  Augusti.  The  same  writer 
 gives  a  full  account  of  the  trade  and  navigation  of  the 
 Tiber  at  this  period  ;  from  him  we  learn,  that  the  island 
 which  was  formed  by  the  separation  of  the  two  branch- 
 es of  that  river  was  called  Sacra.  {Rer.  Got.,  1. — 
 Compare  Rutil,  Itin.,  1,  169.)    The  salt  marshes  form- 
 
0  ST 
 
 OTH 
 
 ed  by  Ancus  Marcius,  at  the  first  foundation  of  Ostia 
 (Ltc,  1,  33),  suU  subsist  near  tiie  site  now  called 
 Casoae  del  Sale.  {Cramer's  Am.  Iiahj,  vol.  2,  p. 
 \\y  seqq.) — "Nothing,"  observes  a  modern  traveller, 
 "can  be  more  dreary  than  the  ride  from  Rome  to 
 this  once  magnificent  seaport.  You  issue  out  of  the 
 Porta  San  Paola,  and  proceed  through  a  continued 
 scene  of  dismal  and  heart-sinking  desolation  ;  no 
 fields,  no  dwellings,  no  trees,  no  landmarks,  no  marks 
 of  cultivation,  except  a  few  scanty  patches  of  corn, 
 thinly  scattered  over  the  waste  ;  and  huts,  like  wig- 
 wams, to  shelter  the  wretched  and  half-starved  people 
 that  are  doomed  to  live  on  this  field  of  death.  The 
 Tiber,  rolling  turbidly  along  in  its  solitary  course, 
 seems  sullenly  to  behold  the  altered  scenes  that  have 
 withered  around  him.  A  few  miles  from  Ostia  we 
 entered  upon  a  wilderness  indeed.  A  dreary  swamp 
 extended  all  around,  intermingled  with  thickets,  through 
 which  roamed  wild  buffaloes,  the  only  inhabitants  of 
 the  waste.  A  considerable  part  of  the  way  was  upon 
 the  ancient  pavement  of  the  Via  Ostiensis,  in  some 
 places  in  good  preservation,  in  others  broken  up  and 
 destroyed.  When  this  failed  us,  the  road  was  exe- 
 crable. The  modern  fortifications  of  Ostia  appeared 
 before  us  long  before  we  reached  them.  At  length 
 we  entered  its  gate,  guarded  by  no  sentinel ;  on  its 
 bastions  appeared  no  soldier ;  no  children  ran  from 
 its  houses  to  gaze  at  the  rare  splendour  of  a  carriage  ; 
 no  passenger  was  seen  in  the  grass-grown  street.  It 
 presented  the  strange  spectacle  of  a  town  without  in- 
 habitants. After  some  beating  and  hallooing,  on  the 
 part  of  the  coachman  and  lackey,  at  the  shut-up  door 
 of  one  of  the  houses,  a  woman,  unclosing  the  shutter 
 of  an  upper  window,  presented  her  ghastly  face  ;  and, 
 having  first  carefully  reconnoitred  us,  slowly  and  reluc- 
 tantly admitted  us  into  her  wretched  hovel.  'Where 
 are  all  the  people  of  the  townl'  we  inquired.  'Dead,' 
 was  the  brief  reply.  The  fever  of  the  malaria  annually 
 carries  off  almost  all  whom  necessity  confines  to  this 
 pestilential  region.  But  this  was  the  month  of  April, 
 the  season  of  comparative  health,  and  we  learned,  on 
 more  strict  inquiry,  that  the  population  of  Ostia,  at 
 present,  nominally  consisted  of  twelve  men,  four  wom- 
 en, 110  children,  and  two  priests. — The  ruins  of  old 
 Ostia  are  farther  in  the  wilderness.  The  sea  is  now 
 two  miles,  or  nearly,  from  the  ancient  port.  The 
 cause  of  this,  in  a  great  measure,  seems  to  be,  that 
 the  e.xtreine  flatness  of  the  land  does  not  allow  the 
 Tiber  to  carry  off  the  immense  quantity  of  earth  and 
 mud  its  turbid  waters  bring  down  ;  and  the  more  that 
 is  deposited,  the  more  sluggishly  it  flows,  and  thus  the 
 shore  rises,  the  sea  recedes,  and  the  marshes  extend. 
 The  marshy  insula  sacra,  in  the  middle  of  the  river, 
 is  now  inhabited  by  wild  buffaloes.  We  had  intended 
 to  cross  to  the  sacred  island,  and  from  thence  to  the 
 village  of  Fiumecino,  on  the  other  side,  where  there 
 are  said  to  be  still  some  noble  remains  of  ancient 
 Porto,  particularly  of  the  mole,  but  a  sudden  storm 
 prevented  us."  (Rome  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
 vol.  2,  p.  449.) 
 
 OsTORius  ScAPi;i,A,  a  governor  of  Britain  in  the 
 reign  of  Claudius,  who  defeated  and  took  prisoner  the 
 famous  Caractacus.  He  died  A. D.  55.  {Tacit.,  Ann., 
 12,  36.) 
 
 Ostrogoths,  or  Eastern  Goths,  a  division  of  the 
 great  Gothic  nation,  who  settled  in  Pannonia  in  the 
 fifth  century  of  our  era,  whence  they  extended  their 
 dominion  over  Noricum,  Rhaetia,  and  lllyricum.  About 
 482  or  483  A.D.,  their  king  Theodoric  was  serving 
 as  an  auxiliary  under  the  Emperor  Zeno,  and  distin- 
 guished himself  in  Syria.  On  his  return  to  Constanti- 
 nople, Theodoric,  according  to  the  statement  of  the 
 historian  Evagrius,  fearing  Zeiio's  jealousy  of  his  suc- 
 cess, retired  into  Pannonia  in  487,  where  he  collected 
 an  army,  and  in  the  following  year  marched  into  Italy, 
 with  all  bis  tribe,  men,  women,  and  children,  and,  as 
 6D 
 
 appears,  wi(h  the  consent  of  Zeno  himself,  who  wish- 
 ed to  remove  the  Ostrogoths  from  his  territories. 
 Theodoric  defeated  Odoacer  in  various  battles,  took 
 him  prisoner,  and  some  time  after  put  him  to  death. 
 Upon  this  event,  Theodoric  sent  an  ambassador  to 
 Anastasius,  the  emperor  of  Constantinople,  who  trans- 
 mitted to  him,  in  return,  the  purple  vest,  and  acknowl- 
 edged him  as  King  of  Italy.  It  appears  that  both 
 Theodoric  and  his  predecessor  Odoacer  acknowledged, 
 nominally  at  least,  the  supremacy  of  the  Eastern  em- 
 peror. The  rest  of  the  history  of  the  Ostrogoths  is 
 connected  with  that  of  Theodoric,  who  established  his 
 dynasty  over  Italy,  which  is  generally  styled  the  reign 
 of  the  Goths  in  that  country.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL, 
 vol.  17,  p.  55.) 
 
 OsYMANDYAS,  a  king  of  Egypt,  the  same  with  Ame- 
 proph  or  Phamenoph.  (Vid.  JVIemnon,  and  Memno- 
 nium.)  Jablonski  makes  Osymanydas  equivalent  in 
 meaning  to  "dans  vocem,"  voice-emitting.  {Voc. 
 JEgypt.,  p.  29,  p.  97. — Compare  Creuzcr,  Symbolik, 
 par  Guigniaut,  vol.  1,  p.  482.) 
 
 Otho,  I.  Marcus  Salvius,  was  born  A.D.  31  or  32. 
 He  was  descended  of  an  honourable  family,  which 
 originally  came  .from  Ferentinum,  and  which  traced  its 
 origin  to  the  Lucumones  of  Etruria.  His  grandfather, 
 who  belonged  to  the  equestrian  order,  was  made  a  sen- 
 ator through  the  influence  of  Livia  Augusta,  but  did 
 not  rise  higher  in  office  than  the  proetorship.  His  fa- 
 ther, Lucius  Otho,  was  advanced  to  offices  of  great 
 honour  and  trust  by  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  whom  he 
 is  said  to  have  resembled  so  closely  in  person  as  to 
 have  been  frequently  taken  for  a  near  relation.  Mar- 
 cus Otho  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Nero  during  the 
 early  years  of  his  reign,  and  his  associate  in  his  ex- 
 cesses and  debaucheries  ;  but  Nero's  love  for  Poppaea, 
 whom  Otho  had  seduced  from  her  husband,  and  to 
 whom  he  was  greatly  attached,  produced  a  coolness 
 between  them,  and  this  rivalry  for  the  affections  of  an 
 unprincipled  woman  would  soon  have  terminated  in 
 the  ruin  of  Otho,  had  not  Seneca  procured  for  the  lat- 
 ter the  government  of  Lusitania,  to  which  he  was  sent 
 as  into  a  kind  of  honourable  exile.  In  this  province, 
 which  he  governed,  according  to  Suetonius  {Vit.  Otho- 
 nis,  3),  with  great  justice,  he  remained  for  ten  years  ; 
 and  afterward  took  an  active  part  in  opposition  to 
 Nero,  and  in  placing  Galba  on  the  throne,  A.D.  68. 
 Otho  appears  to  have  expected,  as  the  reward  of  his 
 services,  that  he  would  be  declared  his  successor; 
 but  when  Galba  proceeded  to  adopt  Piso  Licinianus, 
 Otho  formed  a  conspiracy  among  the  guards,  who  pro- 
 claimed him  emperor,  and  put  Galba  to  death  after  a 
 reign  of  only  seven  months.  Otho  commenced  his 
 reign  by  ingratiating  himself  with  the  soldiery,  whom 
 Galba  had  unwisely  neglected  to  conciliate.  He 
 yielded  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  in  putting  to  death 
 Tigellius,  who  had  been  the  chief  minister  of  Nero's 
 pleasures,  and  he  acquired  considerable  popularity  by 
 his  wise  and  judicious  administration.  He  was,  how- 
 ever, scarcely  seated  upon  the  throne,  before  he  was 
 called  upon  to  oppose  Vitellius,  who  had  been  pro- 
 claimed emperor  by  the  legions  in  Germany  a  few 
 days  before  the  death  of  "Galba.  Vitellius,  who  was 
 of  an  indolent  disposition,  sent  forward  Caecina,  one  of 
 his  generals,  to  secure  the  passes  of  the  Alps,  while 
 he  himself  remained  in  his  camp  upon  the  Rhine.  Oiho 
 quickly  collected  a  large  army  and  inarched  against 
 Carcina,  while  he  sent  his  fleet  to  reduce  to  obedience 
 Liguria  and  Gallia  Narbonensis.  (Compare  Tacitus, 
 Agric,  c.  7.)  At  first  Otho  was  completely  success- 
 ful. Liguria  and  Gallia  Narbonensis  submitted  to  his 
 authority,  while  Ccecina  was  repulsed  with  considera- 
 ble loss  in  an  attack  upon  Placentia.  Cascina  encoun- 
 tered subsequently  a  s-^^cond  check.  But,  shortly  after, 
 Otho's  army  was  completely  defeated  by  the  troops  of 
 Vitellius,  in  a  hard-fought  battle  near  Bebriacum,  a  vil- 
 lage on  the  Po,  southwest  of  Mantua.  Otho,  who 
 ^  945 
 
0  VI 
 
 OVIDIUS. 
 
 does  not  appear,  however,  to  have  been  deficient  in 
 bravery,  had  been  persuaded,  for  the  security  of  his 
 person,  to  retire  before  the  battle  to  Bri.xellum  ;  a 
 step  which  tended,  as  Tacitus  has  observed,  to  occa- 
 sion his  defeat.  When  he  was  informed  of  the  result 
 of  the  conflict,  he  refused  to  make  any  farther  elfort 
 for  the  empire,  but  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  by  fall- 
 ing upon  his  sword,  at  the  age  of  37  according  to 
 Tacitus  (Hist.,  2,  50),  or  of  38  according  to  Sueto- 
 nius {Vit.  0th.,  c.  11),  after  reigning  95  days.  Plu- 
 tarch, in  his  life  of  Olho,  relates  that  the  soldiers  im- 
 mediately buried  his  body,  that  it  might  not  be  exposed 
 to  indignity  by  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies, 
 and  erected  a  plain  monument  over  his  grave,  with  the 
 simple  inscription,  "To  the  memory  of  Marcus  Otho." 
 The  early  debaucheries  of  Otho  threw  a  stain  upon  his 
 reputation,  which  his  good  conduct  in  Lusitaniaand  his 
 mildness  as  emperor  did  not  altogether  remove.  The 
 treatment  which  he  received  from  Nero  might  in  some 
 degree  justify  his  rebellion  against  that  prince  ;  but  no 
 palliation  can  be  found  for  the  treason  and  cruelty  with 
 which  he  was  chargeable  towards  Galba.  In  all  things 
 his  actions  were  marked  by  a  culpable  extreme  ;  and 
 perhaps  both  the  good  and  the  evil  which  appeared  in 
 his  life  were  the  result  of  circumstances  rather  than  of 
 virtuous  principles  or  of  fi.xed  and  incurable  depravity. 
 {Tacit.,  Hist.,  lib.  1  ct  2.  —  Sueton.,  Vit.  Otlion. — 
 Plut.,  Vit.  Olhon. — Bio  Cass.,  lib.  Gi.—Enci/d.  Us. 
 Knowl.,  vol.  17,  p.  59.  —  Encycl.  Mctropol.,  div.  3, 
 vol.  2,  p.  497,  seqq.) — II.  L.  Roscius,  a  tribune  of  the 
 commons,  who,  in  the  year  that  Cicero  was  consul, 
 proposed  and  caused  to  be  passed  the  well-known  law 
 which  allowed  the  equestrian  order  particular  seats  in 
 the  theatre.  The  equites,  previous  to  this,  sat  promis- 
 cuously with  the  commons.  By  this  new  regulation 
 of  Otho's,  the  commons  considered  themselves  dishon- 
 oured, and  hissed  and  insulted  Otho  when  he  appeared 
 in  the  theatre:  the  equites,  on  the  other  hand,  receiv- 
 ed >him  with  loud  plaudits.  The  commons  repeated 
 their  hissings  and  the  knights  their  applause,  until  at 
 last  they  came  to  mutual  reproaches,  and  the  whole 
 theatre  presented  a  scene  of  the  greatest  disorder. 
 Cicero,  being  informed  of  the  disturbance,  came  and 
 summoned  the  people  to  the  temple  of  Bellona,  where, 
 partly  by  his  reproofs  and  partly  by  his  persuasive  elo- 
 quence, he  so  wrought  upon  them  that  they  return- 
 ed to  the  theatre,  loudly  testified  their  approbation  of 
 Otho,  and  strove  with  the  equites  which  should  show 
 him  the  most  honour.  The  speech  delivered  on  this 
 occasion  was  afterward  reduced  to  writing.  It  is  now 
 lost,  but,  having  been  delivered  extempore,  it  affords 
 a  strong  example  of  the  persuasive  nature  of  his  elo- 
 quence. One  topic  which  he  touched  on  in  this  ora- 
 tion, and  the  only  one  of  which  we  have  any  hint  from 
 antiquity,  was  his  reproaching  the  rioters  for  their  want 
 of  taste,  in  creating  a  tumult  while  Roscius  was  per- 
 forming on  the  stage.  (Livy,  Epit.,  99.  —  Horat., 
 Episl.,  1,  1,  62. ~Juv.,  Sat.,  3,  159.— Veil.  Paterc, 
 2,32.— Fuss, Rom.  Antiq.,  p.  147.) 
 
 Othrys,  a  mountain-range  of  Thessaly,  which, 
 branching  out  of  Tymphrestus,  one  of  the  highest 
 points  in  the  chain  of  Pindus,  closed  the  great  basin 
 of  Thessaly  to  the  south,  and  served  at  the  same  time 
 to  divide  the  waters  which  flowed  northward  into  the 
 Peneus  from  those  received  by  the  Sperchius.  This 
 mountain  is  often  celebrated  by  the  poets  of  antiquity. 
 {Eurip.,  Alccst.,  583.—Theocr.,  Idyll.,  3,  43.— FiVg-., 
 Jin. ,7, 674. — Lucan,  6,  337.)  At  present  it  is  known 
 by  the  different  names  of  Hcllovo,  Varibavo,  and  Gou- 
 ra.  {Pouquevillc,  vol.  3,  p.  394.  —  Cramer^s  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  412.) 
 
 Otus  and  Ephialtes,  sons  of  Neptune.  {Vid. 
 Alo'idae.) 
 
 OviDius  Naso,  p.,  a  celebrated  poet,  born  at  Sul- 
 
 mo  (now  Sulmona),  a  town  lying  on  the  river  Pes- 
 
 cara,  in  the  territory  of  the  Peiigni,  at  the  distance  of 
 
 946 
 
 ninety  miles  from  Rome.  Ovid  came  into  the  world 
 A.U.C.  711,  the  memorable  year  in  which  Cicero  was 
 murdered,  and  on  the  very  day  when  the  two  consuls, 
 Hirtius  and  Paiisa,  fell  at  the  battle  of  Mutina.  The 
 events  of  his  life  are  chiefly  known  from  his  own  wri- 
 tings, and  more  particularly  from  the  tenth  degy  of 
 the  fourth  book  of  the  Tristia.  Ovid  was  of  an  eques- 
 trian family,  and  was  brought  to  Rome  at  an  early 
 period  of  life,  along  with  an  elder  brother,  to  be  fully 
 instructed  in  the  arts  and  learning  of  the  capital. 
 (Trist.,  4,  10.)  He  soon  disclosed  an  inclination  to- 
 wards poetry  ;  but  he  was  for  some  time  dissuaded 
 from  a  prosecution  of  the  art  by  his  father,  whose 
 chief  object  was  to  make  him  an  accomplished  orator 
 and  patron,  and  thereby^  open  up  to  him  the  path  to 
 civic  honours.  The  time  was  indeed  past  when  polit- 
 ical harangues  from  the  rostra  paved  the  way  to  the 
 consulship  or  to  the  government  of  wealthy  provinces; 
 but  distinction  and  emolument  might  yet  be  attained 
 by  eminence  in  judicial  proceedings,  and  by  such  elo- 
 quence as  the  servile  deliberations  of  the  senate  still 
 permitted.  Ovid,  accordingly,  seems  to  have  j)aid  con- 
 siderable attention  to  those  studies  which  might  qual- 
 ify him  to  shine  as  a  patron  in  the  Forum,  or  procure 
 for  him  a  voice  in  a  submissive  senate.  He  practised 
 the  art  of  oratory,  and  not  without  success,  in  the 
 schools  of  the  rhetoricians  Arellius  Fuscus  and  Por- 
 cius  Latro,  the  two  most  eminent  teachers  of  their 
 time.  Seneca,  the  rhetorician,  who  himself  had  heard 
 him  practising  declamation  before  Fuscus,  informs  us, 
 that  he  surpassed  all  his  fellow-students  in  ingenuity  : 
 but  he  harangued  in  a  sort  of  poetical  prose ;  he  was 
 deficient  in  methodical  arrangement,  and  he  indulged 
 too  freely  in  digressions,  as  also  in  the  introduction  of 
 the  commonplaces  of  disputation.  He  rarely  declaim- 
 ed, moreover,  except  on  ethical  subjects  ;  and  pre- 
 ferred delivering  those  sort  of  persuasive  harangues 
 which  have  been  termed  SuasoricB.  (Senec,  Controv., 
 2,  10  )  After  having  assumed  the  Toga  Virilis,  and 
 completed  the  usual  course  of  rhetorical  tuition  at 
 Rome,  he  proceeded  to  finish  his  education  at  Athens. 
 It  is  not  known  whether  he  made  much  progress  in 
 philosophy  during  his  stay  in  that  city  ;  but,  from  the 
 tenour  of  many  of  his  works,  it  appears  probable  that 
 he  had  at  least  studied  physics,  and  that  in  morals  he 
 had  embraced  the  tenets  of  the  Epicurean  school.  In 
 company  with  ^Emilius  Macer,  he  visited  the  most 
 illustrious  cities  of  Asia  {Ep.  e  Ponlo,  2,  10) ;  and 
 on  his  wav  back  to  Rome  he  passed  with  him  into 
 Sicily.  He  remained  nearly  a  year  at  Syracuse,  and 
 thence  made  several  agreeable  excursions  through  dif- 
 ferent parts  of  the  island.  After  his  return  to  Rome, 
 and  on  attaining  the  suitable  age,  Ovid  held  success- 
 ively several  of  the  lower  judicial  offices  of  the  state, 
 and  also  frequently  acted  as  arbiter,  highly  to  the  satis- 
 faction of  litigants  whose  causes  he  decided.  {Trist., 
 2,  93.)  These  avocations,  however,  were  speedily  re- 
 linquished. The  father  of  Ovid  had  for  some  time 
 restrained  his  son's  inclination  towards  poetry  ;  but 
 the  arguments  he  deduced  against  its  cultivation,  from 
 the  stale  example  of  the  poverty  of  Homer  {Trist.,  4, 
 10),  were  now  receiving  an  almost  practical  refuta- 
 tion in  the  court  favour  and  affluence  of  Virgil  and 
 Horace.  The  death,  too,  of  his  elder  brother,  by  leav- 
 ing Ovid  sole  heir  to  a  fortune  ample  enough  to  sat- 
 isfy his  wants,  finally  induced  him  to  abandon  the  pro- 
 fession to  which  he  had  been  destined,  and  bid  adieu  at 
 once  to  public  affairs  and  the  clamours  of  the  Forum. 
 Henceforth,  accordingly,  Ovid  devoted  himself  to  the 
 service  of  the  Muses  ;  though  he  joined  with  their 
 purer  worship  the  enjoyment  of  all  those  pleasures  o 
 life  which  a  capital,  the  centre  of  every  folly  ana 
 amusement,  could  afford.  He  possessed  an  agreeable 
 villa  and  extensive  farm  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sul- 
 mo,  the  place  of  his  birth ;  but  he  resided  chiefly  at 
 his  house  on  the  Capitoline  Hill  {Trist.,  1,  3),  oi  his 
 
OVIDIUS. 
 
 OVIDIUS. 
 
 gardens,  which  lay  a  little  beyond  the  city,  at  the  junc- 
 tion of  the  Clodian'  and   Flaminian   Ways,   near  the 
 Pons  Milvius,  where  he  composed  many  of  his  verses. 
 He  was  fond,  indeed,  of  the  rural  pleasures  of  flowers 
 and  trees,  but  he  chiefly  delighted  to  sow  and  plant 
 them  in  these  suburban  gardens.     (Ep.  e  Ponto,  1,8.) 
 P'ar  from  hiding  himself  amid  his  groves,  like  the  mel- 
 ancholy Tibullus,  he  courted  society,  and  never  was 
 happier  than  amid  the  bustle  of  the  capital.     One  day, 
 when  Augustus,  in  his  capacity  of  censor,  according 
 to  ancient  custom,  made  the  whole  body  of  Roman 
 knights  pass  before  him  in  review,  he  presented  our 
 poet  with  a  beautiful  steed.     {Tristia,  2,  89.)     The 
 gift  was  accounted  a  peculiar  mark  of  favour,  and 
 shows  that,  at  the  time  when*it  was  bestowed,  he  had 
 incurred  no  moral  stain  which  merited  the  disapproba- 
 tion of  his  prince.     While  frequenting  the  court  of 
 Augustus,  Ovid  was  well  received  by  the  politest  of 
 the  courtiers.     The  titles  of  many  of  the  epistles  writ- 
 ten during  his  banishment,  show  that  they  were  ad- 
 dressed to  persons  well  known  to  us,  even  at  this  dis- 
 tance of  time,  as  distinguished  statesmen  and  imperial 
 favourites.     Messala,  to  whose  house  he  much  resort- 
 ed, had  early  encouraged  the  rising  genius,  and  direct- 
 ed the  studies  of  Ovid  ;  and  the  friendship  which  the 
 father  had  extended  to  our  poet  was  continued  to  him 
 by  the  sons.    But  his  chief  patron  was  Q.  Fabius  Max- 
 imus,  long  the  friend  of  Augustus,  and,  in  the  closing 
 scenes  of  that  prince's  life,  the  chief  confidant  of  his 
 weaknesses  and  domestic  sorrows.     {Tacit.,  Ann.,  1, 
 5.)     Nor  was  Ovid's  acquaintance  less  with  the  cele- 
 brated poets  of  his  age  than  with  its  courtiers  and  sen- 
 ators.    Virgil,  indeed,  he  had  merely  seen,  and  pre- 
 mature death  cut  off  the  society  of  Tibullus  ;  but  Hor- 
 ace, Macer,   and   Propertius  were   long   his   familiar 
 friends,  and  often  communicated  to  him  their  writings 
 previous  to  publication.     While  blessed  with  so  many 
 friends,  he  seems  to  have  been  undisturbed,  at  least 
 during  this  period  of  his  life,  by  the  malice  of  a  sin- 
 gle foe  :  neither  the  court  favour  he  enjoyed  nor  his 
 poetical  renown  procured  him  enemies;   and  he  was 
 never  assailed  by  that  spirit  of  envy  and  detraction  by 
 which  Horace  had  been  persecuted.     His  poetry  was 
 universally  popular  {Trislia,  1,  1,  64):  like  the  stanzas 
 of  Tasso,  it  was  often  sung  in  the  streets  or  at  enter- 
 tainments ;  and  his  verses  were  frequently  recited  in  the 
 theatre  amid  the  applause  of  the  multitude.     Among 
 his   other  distinctions,  Ovid  was  a   favourite  of  the 
 fair,  with  whom  his  engagements  were  numerous  and 
 his  intercourse  unrestrained.     (Am.,  3,  4.  —  Tristia, 
 4,  10,  65.)     He  was  extremely  susceptible  of  love, 
 and  his  love  was  ever  changing.     His  first  wife,  whom 
 he  married  when  almost  a  boy,  was  unworthy  of  his 
 affections,    and   possessed    them    but   a    short   while. 
 The  second,  who  came  from  the  country  of  the  an-- 
 cient  Falisci,  led  a  blameless  life,  but  was  soon  repu- 
 diated.    After  parting  with  her,  Ovid  was  united  to  a 
 third,  who  was  of  the  Fabian  family.     In  her  youth 
 she  had  been  the  companion  of  Marcia,  the  wife  of 
 Fabius  Maximus,  and  a  favourite  of  Marcia's  mother, 
 who  was  the  maternal  aunt  of  Augustus.      She  was  a 
 widow  at  the  time  of  her  marriage  with  Ovid,  and  had 
 a  daughter  by  her  former  husband,  who  was  married  to 
 Suillius,  the  friend  of  Germanicus.     (Ep.  e  Ponto,  4, 
 8.)     But  these  successive  legitimate  connexions  did 
 not  prevent  him  from  forming  others  of  a  different  de- 
 scription.    Corinna,  a  wanton,  enticing  beauty,  whose 
 real  .name  and  family  the  commentators  and  biogra- 
 phers of  our  poet  have  ineffectually  laboured  to  dis- 
 cover, allured  him  in  his  early  youth  from  the  paths  of 
 rectitude.    It  is  quite  improbable  that  Corinna  denoted 
 Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus,  and  impossible  that 
 she  represented    Julia,  his    granddaughter,  who   was 
 but  an  infant  when  Ovid  recorded  his  amours  with  Co- 
 rinna.    Ovid  passed  nearly  thirty  years  in  the  volup- 
 tuous enjoyment  of  the  pleasures  of  the  capital,  blessed 
 
 with  the  smiles  of  fortune,  honoured  with  the  favour 
 of  his   prince,  and   fondly  anticipating  a   tranquil   old 
 age.     (Tristia,  4,  8,20.)    He  now  remained  at  Rome 
 the    last    of   the    constellation    of  poets    which    had 
 brightened  the  earlier  age  of  Augustus.     That  prince 
 had  by  this  time  lost  his  favourite  ministers,  Maecenas 
 and  Agrippa  :  he  was  less  prosperous  than  during  for- 
 mer years  in  the  external  affairs  of  the  empire,  and 
 less  prudently  advised  in  his  domestic  concerns  :   he 
 was   insidiously  alienated  from  his   own  family,  and 
 was  sinking  in  his  old  age  under  the  sway  of  the  im- 
 perious Livia  and  the  dark-souled  Tiberius.     Ovid's 
 friendships  lay  chiefly  among  those  who  supported  the 
 lineal  descendants  of  Augustus,  the  unfortunate  off- 
 spring of  Julia  and  Agrippa.     He  thus  became  an  ob- 
 ject of  suspicion  to  the  party  in  power,  and  had  lost 
 many  of  those  benefactors  who  might  have   shielded 
 him  from  the  storm  which  now  unexpectedly  burst  on 
 his  head,  and  swept  from  him  every  hope  and  comfort 
 for   the  remainder  of  his   existence.     It  was  in   the 
 year  762,  and  when  Ovid  had  reached  the  age  of  51, 
 that  Augustus  suddenly  banished  him  from  Rome  to  a 
 wild  and  distant  corner  of  the  empire.     Ovid  has  de- 
 rived nearly  as  much  celebrity  from  his  misfortunes 
 as  his  writintTs  ;  and,  having  been  solely  occasioned 
 by  the  vengeance    of  Augustus,  they  have    reflected 
 some   dishonour  on   a  name   which  would  otherwise 
 have  descended  to  posterity  as  that  of  a  generous  and 
 almost    universal   protector    of  learning    and    poetry. 
 The  real  cause  of  his  exile  is  the  great  problem  in  the 
 literary  history  of  Rome,  and  has  occasioned  as  much 
 doubt  and  controversy  as  the  imprisonment  of  Tasso 
 by  Alphonso  has  created   in   modern  Italy.     The  se- 
 cret 'unquestionably  was  known  to  many  persons  in 
 Rome  at   the  time  (Tristia,  4,  10.  —  Compare  Ep.  e 
 Ponto,  2,  6) ;  but,  as  its  discovery  had  deeply  wounded 
 the  feelings  of  Augustus  (Tristia,  2,  209),  no  con- 
 temporary author  ventured  to  disclose  it.      Ovid  him- 
 self has  only  dared  remotely  to  allude  to  it,  and  when 
 he  docs  mention   it,   his   hints    and    suggestions   are 
 scarcely    reconcilable    with    each    other,    sometimes 
 speaking  of  his  offence  as   a  mistake    or  chance,  in 
 which  he  was  more  unfortunate  than  blameable,  and  at 
 other  times   as   if  his  life  might  have  been  forfeited 
 without  injustice.     (Tristia,  5,  \\.)     No   subsequent 
 writer  thought  of  revealing  or  investigating  the  mys- 
 tery till  it  was  too  late,  and  it  seems  to  be  now  closed 
 for  ever  within  the  tomb  of  the  Caesars.      The  most 
 ancient  opinion  (to  which  Sidonius  Apollinaris  refers) 
 is,  that  Ovid  was  banished   for  having  presumed  to 
 love  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus,  and  for  having 
 celebrated   her  under   the   name   of  Corinna  (Sidon. 
 Apoli,  Carm.,  23,  v.  158);  and  it  was  considered  as 
 a  confirmation  of  this  opinion,  that  exile  was  the  pun- 
 ishment inflicted  on  Scmpronius,  the  most  known  and 
 best  beloved  of  all  her  paramours.      This  notion  was 
 adopted  by  Crinitus  and  Lylius  Gyraldus  ;  but  it  was 
 refuted  as  early  as  the  time  of  Aldus  Manutius,  who 
 has  shown  from  the  writings  of  Ovid  that  he  was  en- 
 ciaged  in  the  amour  with  his  pretended  Corinna  in  his 
 earliest  youth  ;   and  it  certainly  is  not  probable  that 
 such  an  intrigue  should  have  continued  for  about  thirty 
 years,  and  till  Ovid  had  reached  the  age  of  fifty-one, 
 or  that  Augustus  should  have  been  so  slow  in  discov- 
 ering the  intercourse  which  subsisted.     Julia,  too,  was 
 banished   to   Pandataria  in  the  year  752,  which  was 
 nine  years  before  the  exile  of  Ovid  ;  and  why  should 
 his  punishment  have  been  delayed  so  long  after  the 
 discovery  of  his  transgression  1     Besides,  had  he  been 
 guilty  of  such  an  offence,  would  he  have  dared  in  his 
 Tristia,  when  soliciting  his  recall  from  banishment,  to 
 justify  his  morals  to  the  emperor,  and  to  declare  that 
 he  had  committed  an  involuntary  error  !    Or  would  he 
 have  been  befriended  and   supported  m  exile  by  the 
 crreatest  men  of  Rome,  some  of  whom  were  the  fa- 
 vourites and  courfsellors  of  Augustus  1— Subsequently 
 
 947 
 
OV'IDIUS. 
 
 OVIDIUS. 
 
 o  the  time  of  Manutius,  various  other  theories  have 
 :>een  devised  to  account  for  the  exile  of  Ovid.  Dry- 
 den,  in  the  Preface  to  his  translation  of  Ovid's  PJpis- 
 tles,  thinks  it  probable  that  "  he  had  stumbled  by  some 
 inadvertency  on  the  privacies  of  Livia,  and  had  seen 
 jer  in  a  bath  ;  for  the  words  '  sine  veste  Uianam,^  he 
 remarks,  agree  better  with  Livia,  who  had  the  fame 
 of  chastity,  than  with  either  of  the  Julias."  It  would 
 no  doubt  appear  that  our  poet  had  a  practice  of  break- 
 ing in  unseasonably  on  such  occasions  {A.  A.,  3,  245). 
 But  it  is  not  probable  that  Augustus  would  have  pun- 
 ished such  an  offence  so  severely,  or  that  it  would 
 have  affected  him  so  deeply.  Livia,  at  the  time  of 
 Ovid's  banishment,  had  reached  the  acre  of  si.\ty-four, 
 and  was  doubtle.ss  the  only  person  in  the  empire  who 
 would  consider  such  an  iiitrusion  as  intentional. — Ti- 
 raboschi  has  maintained,  at  great  length,  that  he  h'ad 
 been  the  involuntary  and  accidental  witness  of  some 
 j'loral  turpitude  committed  by  one  of  the  imperial 
 ftimily,  most  probably  Julia,  the  granddaughter  of  Au- 
 gustus, who  had  inherited  the  licentious  disposition  of 
 her  mother,  and  was  banished  from  Rome  on  account 
 of  her  misconduct,  nearly  at  the  same  time  that  the 
 sentence  of  exile  was  pronounced  on  Ovid.  This 
 theory,  on  the  whole,  seems  the  most  plausible,  and 
 most  -consistent  with  the  hints  dropped  by  the  poet 
 himself  He  repeatedly  says,  that  the  ofTence  for 
 which  he  had  been  banished  was  a  folly,  an  error,  an 
 imprudence  rather  than  a  crime :  using  the  words 
 stidtilia  and  erroi-  in  opposition  to  crimen  and  /aci- 
 nus. (Tiistia,  1,  2,  100,  ct  passim.)  He  invariably 
 talko  of  what  he  had  seen  as  the  cause  of  his  misfor- 
 tunes (Trislia,  2,  103,  segqj,  and  he  admits  that  what 
 he  had  seen  was  a  fault.  But  he  farther  signifies,  that 
 the  fault  he  had  witnessed  was  of  a  description  which 
 offended  modesty,  and  which,  therefore,  ought  to  be 
 covered  with  the  veil  of  night.  {Tris/ia,  3,  6.)  It  is 
 by  no  means  improbable  that  he  should  have  detected 
 the  granddaughter  of  the  emperor  in  some  disgraceful 
 intrigue.  Neither  of  the  Julias  confined  their  amours 
 to  the  recesses  of  their  palaces,  so  that  the  most  dis- 
 solute frequenter  of  the  lowest  scenes  of  debauchery 
 may  have  became  the  witness  of  her  turpitude.  Far- 
 ther, it  is  evident  that  it  was  something  of  a  private 
 nature,  and  which  wounded  the  most  tender  feelings 
 of  Augustus,  who,  we  know  from  history,  was  pecu- 
 liarly sensitive  with  regard  to  the  honour  of  his  family. 
 Lastly,  it  appears,  that,  after  being  a  witness  of  the 
 shameful  transgression  of  Julia,  Ovid  had  fallen  into 
 some  indiscretion  through  timidity  (Ep.  e  Ponto,  2,  2), 
 vhich  might  have  been  avoided,  had  he  enjoyed  the 
 benefit  of  good  advice  {Tris/ia,  3,  6,  13);  and  it 
 seems  extremely  probable,  that  the  imprudence  he 
 committed  was  in  revealing  to  others  the  discovery  he 
 had  made,  and  concealing  it  from  Augustus. — It  is 
 not  likely  that  any  better  guess  wjll  now  be  formed  on 
 the  subject.  Another,  however,  has  been  recently  at- 
 tempted by  M.  Villenave,  in  a  life  of  Ovid  prefixed 
 to  a  French  translation  of  the  Metamorphoses.  His 
 opinion,  which  has  also  been  adopted  by  Scholl  (Hist. 
 Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  1,  p.  210),  is,  that  Ovid,  from  accident 
 or  indiscretion,  had  become  possessed  of  some  state 
 secret  concerning  Agrippa  Posthumus,  the  son  of 
 Agrippa  and  Julia,  and  grandson  of  Augustus.  The 
 existence  of  the  family  of  Julia  long  formed  the  great 
 obstacle  to  the  ambition  of  Livia  and  her  son  Tiberius. 
 Agrippa  Posthumus,  the  last  surviver  of  the  race,  was 
 banished  from  Rome  to  the  island  of  Planasia,  near 
 Corsica,  in  758;  but  considerable  apprehensions  seem 
 to  have  been  entertained  by  Livia  that  he  might  one 
 day  be  recalled.  Ovid,  in  a  poetical  epistle  from  Pon- 
 tus,  written  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  exile,  accuses  him- 
 self as  the  cause  of  the  death  of  his  friend  Fabius 
 Maximus  ;  and  this  Fabius  Maximus,  it  appears,  was 
 the  chief  confidant  of  the  emperor  in  all  that  related 
 to  the  affairs  of  Agrippa,  which  he  wished  concealed 
 948 
 
 from  Livia.  A  few  months  before  his  own  death,  Au- 
 gustus, attended  by  Fabius  Maximus  alone,  privately 
 visited  Agrippa  in  his  retirement  of  Planasia  ;  and 
 the  object  of  his  journey  from  Rome  havincr  been  dis- 
 covered by  Livia,  the  death  of  this  counsellor  followed 
 shortly  after.  It  will  be  remarked,  however,  that  this 
 voyage  was  undertaken  in  666,  four  years  subsequent- 
 ly to  the  exile  of  Ovid,  and  was  disclosed  through  the 
 indiscretion  of  the  wife  of  Fabius.  (Tacit.,  Ann.,  1, 
 5.)  But  the  French  author  conjectures,  that  the 
 scene  to  which  Ovid  alludes  in  his  writings  as  having 
 witnessed,  had  some  close  connexion  with  the  ensuing 
 visit  to  Planasia,  and  gave  a  commencement  to  those 
 suspicions  which  terminated  in  the  death  of  his  friend. 
 His  chief  objection  to  th«  theory  of  Tiraboschi  is,  that 
 Augustus  would  not  have  banished  Ovid  for  discover- 
 ing or  revealing  the  disgrace  of  Julia,  when,  by  her 
 exile,  he  had  already  proclaimed  her  licentiousness  to 
 the  whole  Roman  people.  But,  in  fact,  Ovid  was  not 
 banished  for  the  sake  of  concealment.  The  discovery 
 which  proved  so  fatal  to  himself  was  no  secret  at  Rome ; 
 and,  had  secrecy  been  the  emperor's  object,  banish- 
 ment was  the  very  worst  expedient  to  which  he  could 
 have  resorted.  Ovid  might  better  have  been  bribed  to 
 silence  ;  or,  if  sentence  of  death  could  have  served  the 
 purpose  more  effectually,  the  old  triumvir  would  not 
 have  scrupled  to  pronounce  it.  The  secret,  however, 
 was  already  divulged,  and  was  in  the  mouths  of  the 
 citizens.  Ovid  was  therefore  exiled  as  a  punishment 
 for  his  temerity,  as  a  precaution  against  farther  dis- 
 coveries, and  to  remove  from  the  imperial  eye  the 
 sight  of  one  whose  presence  must  have  reminded  Au- 
 gustus of  his  disgrace  both  as  a  sovereign  and  pa- 
 rent.— Whatever  may  have  been  the  real  cause  of  the 
 exile  of  Ovid,  the  pretext  for  it  was  the  licentious 
 verses  he  had  written.  (Ep.  e  Ponto,  2,  9.)  Augus- 
 tus afiected  a  regard  for  public  morals  ;  and  conceal- 
 ing, on  this  occasion,  the  true  motive  by  which  he  was 
 actuated,  he  claimed  a  ijierit  with  the  senate,  and  all 
 who  were  zealous  for  a  reformation  of  manners,  in 
 thus  driving  from  the  capital  a  poet  who  had  reduced 
 licentiousness  to  a  system,  by  furnishing  precepts,  de- 
 duced from  his  ovim  practice,  which  might  aid  the  in- 
 experienced in  the  successful  prosecution  of  lawless 
 love.  He  carefully  excluded  from  the  public  libraries 
 not  merely  the  "  Art  of  Love,''^  but  all  the  other  wri- 
 tings of  Ovid.  (Tristia,  3,  1,  65.)  It  is  evident, 
 however,  that  this  was  all  colour  and  pretext.  Ovid 
 himself  ventures  gently  to  hint,  that  Augustus  was 
 not  so  strict  a  moralist  that  he  would  seriously  have 
 thought  of  punishing  the  composition  of  a  few  licen- 
 tious verses  with  interminable  exile.  (Tristia,  2, 
 524.)  In  point  of  expression,  too,  the  lines  of  Ovid 
 are  delicate  compared  with  those  of  Horace,  whom 
 the  emperor  had  always  publicly  favoured  and  support- 
 ed. Nor  was  his  sentence  of  banishment  passed  until 
 many  years  after  their  composition  ;  yet,  though  so 
 long  an  interval  had  elapsed,  it  was  suddenly  pro- 
 nounced, as  on  the  discoveiy  of  some  recent  crime, 
 and  was  most  rapidly  carried  into  execution.  The 
 mandate  for  his  exile  arrived  unexpectedly  in  the 
 evening.  The  night  preceding  his  denariure  from 
 Rome  was  one  of  the  utmost  grief  to  fiis  family,  and 
 of  consternation  and  dismay  to  himself  In  a  fit 
 of  despair,  he  burned  the  copy  of  the  Metamorphoses 
 which  he  was  then  employed  in  correcting,  and  some 
 others  of  his  poems.  He  made  no  farther  preparations 
 for  his  journcv,  but  passed  the  time  in  loud  complaints, 
 and  in  adjuration  to  the  gods  of  the  Capitol.  His 
 chief  patron,  Fabius  Maximus,  was  absent  at  the 
 time,  and  his  only  daughter  was  with  her  husband  in 
 Africa  ;  but  several  of  his  friends  came  to  his  house, 
 where  they  remained  part  of  the  night,  and  endeav- 
 oured, though  in  vain,  to  console  him.  After  much 
 irresolution,  he  at  length  departed  on  the  approach 
 of  dawn,  his  dress  neglected  and  his  hair  dishevelled. 
 
OVIDIUS. 
 
 OVIDIUS. 
 
 His  wife,  who  had  wished  to  accompany  him,  but  was 
 not  permitted,  fainted  the  moment  he  left  the  house. 
 — After  his  departure  from  Rome,  Ovid  proceeded  to 
 Brundisium,  where  he  \Ad  an  interview  with  Fabius 
 Maximus.  He  recommended  his  wife  to  the  care  of 
 his  friend,  and  received  repeated  assurances  of  his 
 support. — The  destined  spot  of  his  perpetual  exile  was 
 Tomi,  the  modern  Tcmisicar,  on  the  shore  of  the  Eiix- 
 ine,  a  few  miles  to  the  south  of  the  spot  where  the 
 most  southern  branch  of  the  Danube  unites  with  that 
 sea.  {Vid.  Tomi.)  The  place  had  been  originally  an 
 Athenian  colony,  and  was  still  inhabited  by  a  few 
 remains  of  the  Greeks,  but  it  was  chiefly  filled  with 
 rude  and  savage  barbarians,  of  whose  manners  and 
 habits  the  poet  draws  a  most  vivid  description.  The 
 town  was  defended  by  but  feeble  ramparts  from  the 
 incursions  of  the  •  neighbouring  Getse,  or  still  more 
 formidable  tribes  to  the  north  of  the  Danube.  Alarms 
 from  the  foe  were  constant,  and  the  poet  himself  had 
 sometimes  to  grasp  a  sword  and  buckler,  and  place  a 
 helmet  on  his  gray  head,  on  a  signal  given  by  the  sen- 
 tinel (Trislia,  4,  1,  73),  when  squadrons  of  barbarians 
 covered  the  desert  which  Tomi  overlooked,  or  sur- 
 rounded the  town  in  order  to  surprise  and  pillage  it. — 
 Without  books  or  society,  Ovid  often  wished  for  a 
 field  {Ep.  e  Ponto,  1,  8)  to  remind  him  of  the  garden 
 near  the  Flaminian  Way,  in  which,  in  his  hajjpier 
 days,  he  had  breathed  his  love-sighs  and  composed  his 
 amorous  verses.  Some  of  the  barbarian  inhabitants 
 were  along  with  our  poet  in  the  small  and  inconvenient 
 house  which  he  inhabited  (Tris/la,  2,  200).  and  kept 
 him  in  a  state  of  constant  alarm  by  their  ferocious  ap- 
 pearance. They  neither  cut  their  beards  nor  hair, 
 which,  hanging  dishevelled  over  the  face,  gave  a  pecu- 
 liar horror  to  their  aspect.  The  whole  race  were 
 clothed  in  the  shaggy  skins  of  various  animals  {Trislia, 
 
 3,  10),  and  each  barbarian  carried  with  him  constantly 
 1  bow,  and  a  quiver  containing  poisoned  arrows. 
 [Trislia,  5,  7.)  They  daily  filled  the  streets  with  tu- 
 mult and  uproar,  and  even  the  litigants  sometimes  de- 
 cided their  cause  before  the  tribunals  by  the  sword. 
 {Trislia,  5,  10.)  But  if  there  was  danger  within  the 
 walls  of  Tomi,  destruction  lay  beyond  tliem.  Tribes, 
 who  foraged  from  a  distance,  carried  oti"  the  flocks  and 
 burned  the  cottages.  From  the  insecurity  of  property 
 and  severity  of  climate,  the  fields  were  without  grain, 
 the  hills  without  vines,  the  mountains  without  oaks, 
 and  the  banks  without  willows.  {Trislia,  3,  10,  71.) 
 Absinthium,  or  wormwood,  alone  grew  up  and  covered 
 the  plains.  {Ep.  e  Ponto,  4,  8.)  Spring  brought 
 with  it  neither  birds  nor  flowers.  In  summer  the  sun 
 rarely  broke  through  the  cloudy  and  foggy  atmosphere. 
 The  autumn  shed  no  fruits  ;  but,  through  every  season 
 of  the  year,  wintry  winds  blew  with  prodigious  vio- 
 lence {Trislia,  3,  10,  17),  and  lashed  the  waves  of  the 
 boisterous  Euxine  on  its  desert  shore.     {Trislia,  4, 
 
 4,  57.)  The  only  animated  object  was  the  wild  Sar- 
 matian  driving  his  car,  yoked  with  oxen,  across  the 
 snows,  or  the  frozen  depths  of  the  Euxine  {Trislia,  3, 
 10,  32),  clad  in  his  fur  cloak,  his  countenance  alone 
 uncovered,  his  board  glistening  and  sparkling  with  the 
 hoar-frost  and  flakes  of  snow.  {Trislia,  3,  10,  21.) 
 — Such  was  the  spot  for  which  Ovid  was  compelled 
 to  exchange  the  theatres,  the  baths,  the  porticoes,  and 
 gardens  of  Rome,  the  court  of  Augustus,  the  banks  of 
 ihe  Tiber,  and  the  sun  and  soil  of  Italy. — While  thus 
 driving  him  to  the  most  remote  and  savage  extremity 
 >f  his  emjjire,  Augustus  softened  the  sentence  he  had 
 'pronounced  on  Ovid  with  some  alleviating  qualifica- 
 tions. He  did  not  procure  his  condemnation  by  a  de- 
 4ree  of  the  senate,  but  issued  his  own  mandate,  in 
 which  he  employed  the  word  "  relegation"  {relegalio), 
 and  not  "  banishment"  {exsilium),  leaving  him,  by  this 
 ehoice  of  terms,  the  enjoyment  of  his  paternal  fortune 
 and  some  other  privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen.  ( Tris- 
 tia,  5,  11,  21. — Ibid.,  4,  9.)     Nor  were  other  circum- 
 
 stances  wanting   in  his  fate  which  might  have  con- 
 tributed   to   impart   consolation.      His   third    wife,   to 
 wliom  he  was  tenderly  attached,  though  not  permitted 
 to  accompany  him  on  the  voyage  to  Scythia,  continued 
 faithful  to  her  husband  during  his  long  exile,  and  pro- 
 tected his  property  from  the  rapacity  of  his  enemies. 
 {Trislia.,  1,  5.)     jMany  of  his  friends  remained  unsha- 
 ken by  his  misfortunes,  and  from  time  to  time  he  re- 
 ceived letters   from  them,  giving  him  hopes  of  recall. 
 The   Getffi,  though  they  at  length  became  displeased 
 with  his  incessant  complaints  of  their  country  {Ep.  e 
 Ponlu,  4,  14),  received  him  at  first  with  kindness  and 
 sympathy,  and  long  paid  him  such  distinguished  hon- 
 ours, that  he  almost  appears  to  have  realized   the   fa- 
 bles of  Orpheus  and  Amphion,  in  softening  their  native 
 ferocity  by  the  magic  of  the  Roman  lyre.      {Ep.  c  Pan- 
 to,  4,    9.  — Ibid.,   4,    14.) — Nothing,   however,  could 
 compensate  for  the  deprivations  he  suffered ;   nor  was 
 anything  omitted   on   Ovid's   part   which  he   thought 
 might  prevail  on  the  emperor  to  recall  him  to  Rome, 
 or  assign  him,  at  least,  a  place  of  milder  exile ;  and 
 Sicily  was  particularly  pointed  at   as  a  suitable  spot 
 for  such  a  mitigation  of  punishment.     {Trislia,  5,  2.) 
 This  is  the  object  of  all  his  epistles  from  Pontus,  the 
 name  of  the  district  of  Moesia  in  which  Tomi  was  sit- 
 uate, and  not   to   be  confounded  with   the  Pontus  of 
 Asia  Minor.     He  flattered   Augustus  during  his  life 
 with  an  extravagance  which  bordered  on  idolatry  {Ep, 
 e  Po)ilo,  4,  6. — Trislia,  2) ;   and   the  letters  address- 
 ed to  his  friends  inculcate  skilful  lessons  of  choosing 
 the  most  favourable  opportunities  for  propitiating  the 
 despot.      It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  any  one  ol 
 his  numerous  and  powerful  acquaintances  ventured  ta 
 solicit  his  recall,  or  to  entreat  Augustus  in  his  behalf. 
 Yet  the  poet  seems  to  suppose  that  Augustus,  pre- 
 vious   to   his    decease,    was    beginning   to  feel   mora 
 favourably  towards  him.     {Ep.  e  Ponlo,  4,  6.)     Aftei 
 the  death  of  the  emperor,  with  a  view,  doubiless,  of 
 propitiating  his  successor,  Ovid  wrote  a  poem  on  his 
 Apotheosis,  and  consecrated  to  hiin,  as  a  new  deity, 
 a  temple,  where  he  daily  repaired  to  offer  incense  and 
 worship.     {Ep.  e  Ponlo,  4,  9.)     Nor  was  he  sparing 
 in  his  panegyrics  on  the  new  emperor  {Ep.  e  Ponlo, 
 4,  13)  ;   but  he  found  Tiberius  equally  inexorable  with 
 Augustus  — The  health  of  Ovid   had  been  early  and 
 severely  aflected  by  his  exile  and  confinement  at  Tomi. 
 He  was  naturally  of  a  feeble  constitution,  and,  in  the 
 place  of  his  banishment,  every  circumstance  was  com- 
 bined which  could  wear  out  the  mind  and  the  body. 
 The  rigour  of  the  climate  bore  hard  on  one  who  had 
 passed  a  delicate  youth  of  pleasure  and  repose  under 
 an  Italian  sky.      In  consequence,  soon  after  his  arrival 
 at  Tomi,  he  totally  lost  his  strength  and  appetite  {Ep. 
 e   Ponlo,  1,  10),  and  became  thin,  pale,  and  exhaust- 
 ed.    From  time  to  time  he  recovered  and  relapsed, 
 till  at    length,  at  the   age  of  60,  he  sunk  under  the 
 hardships   to  which   he  had  been    so  long  subjected. 
 His  death  happened  in  the  year  771,  in  the  ninth  year 
 of  his  exile,  and  the  fourth  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius. 
 Before  his  decease,  he  expressed  a  wish  that  his  ashes 
 might  be  carried  to  Rome ;  even  this  desire,  however, 
 was  not   complied  with.     Hi.s  bones  were  buried  in 
 the  Scythian  soil,  and  the  Getae  erected  to  him  a  mon- 
 ument near  the  spot  of  his  earthly  sojourn. — It  would 
 seem   that  Ovid   had  commenced  his  poetical  career 
 with  some  attempt  at  heroic  subjects,  particularly  the 
 Giganlomachia.     But  he  soon  directed  his  attention 
 from  such  topics  to  others  which  were  more  consonant 
 to  his  disposition.     Accordingly,  the  earliest  writings 
 of  Ovid  now  extant  are  amatory  elegies  in  the  style 
 of  Tibullus  and  Properlius.     These  elegies  are  styled 
 Amoves,  amounting  in  all  to  forty-nine,  and  were  ori- 
 ginally divided   by   the  poet  into  five  books.     There 
 are  now  only  three  books  in  the  printed   editions  of 
 Ovid  ;   but  it  lias  been  doubted  whether  all  tlie  elegies 
 he  wrote  be  still  included  in  this  division,  or  if  two 
 
 949 
 
OVIDIU&. 
 
 OVIDIUS. 
 
 books  have  been  suppressed.  These  elegies,  with  a 
 very  lew  exceptions,  are  of  an  amatory  description. — 
 As  an  elegiac  writer,  Ovid  has  more  resemblance  to 
 Propertius  than  to  Tibulliis.  His  images  and  ideas 
 are  for  the  most  part  drawn  from  the  real  world.  He 
 dwells  not  amid  the  visionary  scenes  of  I'lbulkis,  he 
 indulges  not  in  his  melancholy  dreams,  nor  pours  forth 
 such  tenderness  of  feelmg  as  the  lover  of  Deba.  The 
 Ainorcs  of  Ovid  have  all  the  brilliancy  and  fre^hIless 
 ol  the  period  of  life  in  which  they  were  written.  They 
 are  full  of  ingenious  conceptions,  graceful  images,  and 
 agreeable  details.  These  are  the  chief  excellences  of 
 the  elegies  of  Ovid.  Their  faults  consist  in  an  abuse 
 of  the  lacility  of  invention,  a  repetition  of  the  same 
 ideas,  an  occasional  afTectation  and  antithesis  in  the 
 language  of  love,  and  (as  in  the  elegies  of  Propertius) 
 the  too  frequent,  and  sometimes  not  very  hafipy  or  ap- 
 propriate, allusion  to  mythological  fables. — Before  fin- 
 ishing the  elegies  styled  Amurcs,  Ovid  had  already 
 commenced  the  composition  of  the  Hero'ides  {Am..,  2, 
 18),  which  are  likewise  written  in  the  elegiac  measure. 
 They  are  epistles  supposed  to  be  addressed  chiefly 
 from  queens  and  princesses  who  figured  in  the  heroic 
 ages,  to  the  objects  of  their  vehement  affections,  and 
 are  in  number  not  fewer  than  twenty-one;  but  there 
 is  some  doubt  with  regard  to  the  authenticity  of  six  of 
 them,  namely,  Paris  to  Helen,  Helen  to  Paris  ;  Lean- 
 der  to  Hero,  Hero  to  Leander;  Acontius  to  Gydippe, 
 Cydippe  to  Acontius.  These  six,  though  they  ap[)ear 
 in  the  most  ancient  MSS.  under  the  name  of  Ovid, 
 along  with  the  others,  are  of  doubtful  authenticity, 
 and  have  been  generally  ascribed  by  commentators  to 
 Aulus  Sabinus,  a  friend  of  Ovid's,  who  was  also  the 
 author  of  several  answers  to  the  epistles  of  our  poet, 
 as  Ulysses  to  Penelope,  and  ^neas  to  Dido. — The 
 Hero'ides  present  us  with  some  of  the  finest  and  most 
 popular  fictions  of  an  amorous  antiquity,  resounding 
 with  the  names  of  Helen,  Ariadne,  and  Pha'dra.  .Ju- 
 lius Scaliger  pronounces  them  to  be  the  most  polish- 
 ed of  all  the  productions  of  Ovid.  (Poet.,  6,  7.)  But 
 there  is  a  tiresome  uniformity  in  the  situations  and 
 characters  of  the  heroines.  The  injudicious  length  to 
 which  each  epistle  is  extended  has  occasioned  a  repe- 
 tition in  it  of  the  same  ideas  ;  while  the  ceaseless  tone 
 of  comj)laints  uttered  by  these  forsaken  damsels  has 
 produced  a  monotony,  which  renders  a  perusal,  at 
 least  of  the  whole  series  of  epistles,  insupportably  fa- 
 tiguing. There  is  also  a  neglect  of  a  due  observ- 
 ance of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  heroic  ages  : 
 and  in  none  of  the  works  of  Ovid  is  his  indulgence  in 
 exuberance  of  fancy  so  remarkable  to  the  reader,  be- 
 cause many  of  the  epistles,  as  those  of  Penelope,  Bri- 
 se'is,  Medea,  Ariadne,  and  Dido,  lead  us  to  a  compar- 
 ison of  the  Latin  author  with  Homer,  the  Greek  tra- 
 gedians, Catullus,  and  Virgil,  those  poets  of  true  sim- 
 plicity and  unaffected  tenderness.  The  work  of  Ovid 
 entitled  De  Arte  Amandi,  or,  more  propcrlv,  Artis 
 Amalona  Liber,  is  written,  like  the  Amores  and 
 Heroides,  in  the  elegiac  measure.  I'here  is  no- 
 thing, however,  elegiac  in  its  subject,  as  it  merely 
 communicates,  in  a  light  and  often  sportive  manner, 
 those  lessons  in  the  Art  of  Love  which  were  the  fruits 
 of  the  author's  experience,  and  had  been  acquired  in 
 the  course  of  the  multil'arious  intrigues  recorded  in 
 the  Amores.  This  poem  was  not  written  earlier  than 
 the  year  752;  for  the  author  mentions  in  the  first 
 book  the  representation  of  a  sea-fight  between  the 
 Greek  and  Persian  fleets,  which  was  exhibited  at  that 
 period  in  the  Naumachia,  under  the  direction  of  Au- 
 gustus. The  whole  work  is  divided  into  three  books. 
 — This  work  is  curious  and  useful,  from  the  informa- 
 tion it  aflbrds  concerning  Roman  manners  and  an- 
 tiquities in  their  lighter  departments;  and,  though  not 
 written  in  the  tone  or  form  of  satire,  it  gives  us  nearly 
 the  same  insight  as  professed  satirical  productions 
 into  the  minor  follies  of  the  A  igustan  age.  Whatever 
 ^950 
 
 object  the  poet  may  have  had  in  view  when  composing 
 this  work,  it  may  be  safely  concluded  that  the  poem 
 itself  did  not  in  any  degree  tend  to  the  corruption  of 
 the  morals  of  his  fellow-citizens,  since  the  indulgence 
 of  every  vice  was  then  so  licensed  at  Rome  that  they 
 could  hardly  receive  any  additional  stain  ;  on  the  con- 
 trary, this  very  depravation  of  manners  gave  birth  to 
 the  work  of  Ovid,  suggested  its  pernicious  counsels, 
 and  obtained  for  it  the  popularity  with  which  it  was 
 crowned. — The  book  Dc  Remcdiu  Amoris  is  connect- 
 ed with  that  Dc  Arte  Amandi,  and  was  written  a  short 
 while  after  it.  This  poem  discloses  the  means  by 
 which  those  who  have  been  unsuccessful  in  love,  or 
 are  enslaved  by  it  to  the  prejudice  of  their  health  and 
 fortune,  may  be  cured  of  their  passion.  Occupation, 
 travelling,  society,  and  a  change  of  the  aflfeciions,  if 
 possible,  to  some  other  object,  are  the  remedies  on 
 which  the  author  chiefly  relies.  This  work,  on  the 
 whole,  is  not  so  pleasant  and  entertaining  as  the  De 
 Arte  Amandi.  It  is  almost  entirely  destitute  of  those 
 agreeable  episodes  by  which  the  latter  poem  is  so 
 much  beautified  and  enlivened.  It  has  fewer  sport- 
 ive touches  and  fewer  fascinating  descriptions. — The 
 Metamorphoses  of  Ovid  had  been  composed  by  him 
 previous  to  his  exile.  But  he  received  the  mandate 
 for  his  relegation  while  yet  employed  in  the  task  of 
 correction,  and  when  he  had  completed  this  labour 
 only  on  the  first  three  books.  Finding  himself  thus 
 condemned  to  banishment  from  Rome,  he  threw  the 
 work  into  the  flames,  partly  from  vexation  and  disgust 
 at  his  verses  in  general,  which  had  been  made  the  pre- 
 text for  his  punishment,  and  partly  because  he  consid- 
 ered It  an  unfinished  poem,  which  he  could  no  longer 
 have  any  opportunity  or  motive  for  perfecting.  (Tris- 
 Lia,  1,  6.)  Fortunately,  however,  some  transcripts  had 
 been  previously  made  by  his  friends  of  this  beautiful 
 production,  which  was  thus  preserved  to  the  world. 
 After  Ovid's  departure  from  Rome,  these  quickly 
 passed  into  extensive  circulation  ;  they  were  gener- 
 ally read  and  admired,  and  a  copy  was  placed  in  his 
 library,  which  was  still  preserved  and  kept  up  by  his 
 family.  {Trislia,  1,  1,  118.)  In  the  depths  of  his 
 dreary  exile,  Ovid  learned,  perhaps  not  without  satis- 
 faction, that  his  work  had  been  saved  ;  and  he  even 
 expressed  a  wish  that  some  of  his  favourite  passages 
 might  meet  the  eye  of  Augustus.  {Tristia,  2,  557.) 
 But  he  was  annoyed  by  the  recollection  that  the  poem 
 would  be  read  in  the  defective  state  in  which  he  had 
 left  it.  (T;7s<?a,  3,  14,  23.)  He  had  no  copy  with  him 
 at  Tomi,  on  which  he  could  complete  the  corrections 
 which  he  had  commenced  at  Rome.  He  therefore 
 thought  it  necessary  to  apprize  his  friends  in  Italy, 
 that  the  work  had  not  received  his  last  emendations  ; 
 and,  as  an  apology  for  its  imperfections,  he  proposes 
 that  the  six  following  lines  should  be  prefixed  as  a 
 motto  to  the  copies  of  his  Melanwrfhoses  which  were 
 then  circulating  in  the  capital.     {Tristia,  1,  6.) 
 
 "  Orha  parcnte  siio  quicumquc  toluviina  tangis ; 
 
 His  saltern  vcstra  dclur  in  urbe  locus. 
 Quoque  magis  f uveas,  non  hcsc  sunt  edita  ab  ipso, 
 
 Scd  quasi  de  domini  funcre  rapta  svi. 
 ^mcquid  in  his  igilur  vitii  rude  carmen  habebil, 
 
 Emeiidaturus,  si  licuissct,  erat." 
 
 The  Metamorphoses,  therefore  —  at  least  the  twel\6 
 concluding  books — should  be  read  with  some  degree  of 
 that  indulgence  which  is  given  to  the  last  six  books  ol 
 the  /fJneid  ;  though,  from  what  we  see  in  the  perfect- 
 ed works  of  Ovid,  it  can  hardly  be  supposed  that,  even 
 if  he  had  been  permitted,  he  would  have  expunged 
 conceits  and  retrenched  redundancies  with  the  pure 
 taste  and  scrupulous  judgment  of  the  Mantuan  bard. 
 — In  the  composition  of  his  Metamorphoses,  Ovid  can 
 lay  no  claim  to  originality  of  invention.  Not  one  of 
 the  immense  number  of  transmutations  which  he  has 
 recorded,  from  the  first  separation  of  Chaos  till  lh« 
 
OVIDIUS. 
 
 OVIDIUS. 
 
 apotheosis  of  Julius  Caesar,  is  of  his  own  contrivance. 
 They  are  all  fictions  of  the  Greeks  and  Oriental  na- 
 tions, interspersed,  perhaps,  with  a  few  Latin  or  Etrus- 
 can fables.  In  fact,  a  book  of  Metamorphoses  which 
 were  feigned  by  the  poet  hinnself,  would  have  pos- 
 sessed no  charm,  being  unauthorized  by  public  belief, 
 or  even  that  species  of  popular  credulity  which  be- 
 stows interest  and  probability  on  the  most  e.\travagaiit 
 fictions.  And,  indeed,  Ovid  had  little  motive  for  in- 
 vention, since,  in  the  relations  of  those  who  had  gone 
 before  hitn  in  this  subject,  he  could  enter  the  most  ex- 
 tensive field  ever  opened  to  the  career  of  a  poet. — 
 The  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid  are  introduced  by  a  de- 
 scription of  the  primeval  world,  and  the  early  changes 
 it  underwent.  All  that  he  writes  of  Chaos  is  merely 
 a  paraphrase  of  vi'hat  he  had  found  in  the  works  of  the 
 ancient  Greeks,  and  is  more  remarkable  for  poetic 
 beauty  than  philosophic  truth  and  consistency.  The 
 account  of  the  creation,  which  is  described  with  im- 
 pressive brevity,  is  followed  by  a  history  of  the  four 
 ages  of  the  world,  the  war  with  the  giants,  Deucalion's 
 deluge,  and  the  self-production  of  various  monsters  in 
 those  early  periods  by  the  teeming  and  yet  unexhaust- 
 ed earth.  This  last  subject  leads  to  the  destruction 
 of  the  serpent  Python  by  Apollo,  and  the  institution  of 
 the  Pythian  games  in  honour  of  his  victory  :  at  their 
 first  celebration,  the  conquerors  were  crowned  with 
 oak,  the  laurel  being  unknown  till  the  transformation 
 of  Daphne,  when  it  became  the  prize  of  honour  and 
 renown.  Our  poet  thus  glides  into  the  series  of  his 
 metamorphoses,  which  are  extended  to  fifteen  books, 
 and  amount  in  all  to  not  less  than  two  hundred  and 
 fifty.  The  stories  of  this  description  related  by  Ovid's 
 predecessors  were  generally  insulated,  and  did  not 
 hang  together  by  any  association  or  thread  of  dis- 
 course. But  the  Roman  poet  continues  as  he  had 
 commenced,  and,  like  the  Cyclic  writers  of  Greece, 
 who  comprehended,  in  one  book,  a  whole  circle  of  fa- 
 bles, he  proceeds  from  link  to  link  in  the  golden  chain 
 o^  fiction,  leading  us,  as  it  were,  through  a  labyrinth 
 of  adventures,  and  passing  imperceptibly  from  one  tale 
 to  another,  so  that  the  whole  poem  forms  an  uninter- 
 rupted recital.  In  themselves,  however,  the  events 
 have  frequently  no  relation  to  each  other,  and  the  con- 
 nexion between  the  preceding  and  succeeding  fable 
 often  consists  in  nothing  more  than  that  the  transfor- 
 mation occurred  at  the  same  place  or  at  the  same 
 time,  or  had  reference,  perhaps,  to  the  same  amorous 
 deity. — In  such  an  infinite  number,  the  merit  of  the 
 stories  must  be  widely  different ;  the  following,  how- 
 ever, may  be  mentioned  as  among  the  best :  the  fables 
 of  Cephalus  and  Procris,  of  Philemon  and  Baucis,  of 
 Hippomanes  and  Atalanta,  the  flight  of  Dajdalus  and 
 Icarus,  the  loves  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe.  But  of  the 
 whole,  the  story  of  Phaethon  is.  perhaps,  the  most  splen- 
 did and  highly  poetical. — It  has  been  objected,  how- 
 ever, to  the  Metamorphoses,  that,  however  great  may 
 be  the  merit  of  each  individual  tale,  there  is  too  much 
 uniformity  in  the  work  as  a  whole,  since  all  the  stories 
 are  of  one  sort,  and  end  in  some  metamorphosis  or 
 other.  {Kaimes^s  Elements  of  Criticism,  vol.  1,  c.  9  ) 
 But  this  objection,  if  it  be  one,  can  lie  only  against 
 the  choice  of  the  subject  ;  for  if  a  poet  announces  that 
 he  is  to  sing  of  bodies  changed  and  converted  into 
 new  forms,  what  else  than  metamorphoses  can  be  ex- 
 pected 1  Besides,  in  the  incidents  that  lead  to  these 
 transformations,  there  is  infinite  variety  of  feeling  ex- 
 cited, and  the  poet  intermingles  the  noble  with  the  fa- 
 miliar, and  the  gay  with  the  horrible  or  tender.  Some- 
 times, too,  the  metamorphosis  seems  a  mere  pretext 
 for  the  introduction  of  the  story,  and  occupies  a  very 
 inconsiderable  portion  of  it.  The  blood  which  flowed 
 from  Ajax,  when  he  slew  himself  in  a  transport  of  in- 
 dignation, because  the  arms  of  Achilles  were  adjudged 
 to  Ulysses,  produced  a  hyacinth,  and  on  this  feeble 
 stem  the  poet  has  ingrafted  the  animated  and  eloquent 
 
 speeches  of  the  contending  Grecian  chiefs.  In  the 
 tragic  history  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe,  the  lovers  them- 
 selves are  not  metamorphosed,  but  the  fruit  of  the  mul- 
 berry-tree under  which  their  blood  was  shed  assumes 
 a  crimson  dye.  It  would  be  endless  to  point  out  in 
 detail  the  blemishes  and  beauties  of  such  an  extensive 
 work  as  iha  Metamorphoses.  The  luxuriance  of  thought 
 and  expression  which  pervade  all  the  compositions  of 
 Ovid,  prevails  likewise  here  ;  but  his  comparisons  are 
 pleasing  and  appropriate,  and  his  descriptions  are  rich 
 and  elegant,  whether  he  exhibits  the  palace  of  the  Sun 
 or  the  cottage  of  Philemon.  The  many  interesting  sit- 
 uations displayed  in  the  Metamorphoses  have  formed 
 a  mine  for  the  exertion  of  human  genius  in  all  suc- 
 ceeding periods,  not  merely  in  the  province  of  narra- 
 tive fable,  but  in  the  department  of  the  drama  and  fine 
 arts ;  and  no  work,  with  the  exception  of  the  Sacred 
 Scriptures,  has  supplied  so  many  and  such  happy  sub- 
 jects for  the  pencil.  The  Greek  books  from  which 
 the  Metamorphoses  were  chiefly  taken  having  been 
 lost,  the  work  of  Ovid  is  now  the  most  curious  and 
 valuable  record  extant  of  ancient  mythology.  It 
 would  be  difficult  to  reduce  every  story,  as  some 
 writers  have  attempted,  into  a  moral  allegory  (.Garth, 
 Pre/,  to  Translatiov) ;  it  would  be  impossible  to  find 
 in  them,  with  others,  the  whole  history  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  and  types  of  the  miracles  and  sufferings 
 of  our  Saviour,  or  even  the  complete  ancient  history 
 of  Greece,  systematically  arranged  (compare  Miiller, 
 Einleitung,vo\.i.  p.  163, &c. — Fabric., Bihl.  Lai.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  U7.—Goiijet,  Bib.  Franc,  vol.  6,  p.  16,  52.)  It 
 cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  the  Metamorphoses 
 are  immense  archives  of  Grecian  fable,  and  that,  be- 
 neath the  mask  of  fiction,  some  traits  of  true  history, 
 some  features  of  manners  and  the  primeval  world, 
 may  yet  be  discovered.  In  this  point  of  view,  the 
 Fasti  of  Ovid,  though  written  in  elegiac  and  not  in 
 heroic  measure,  may  be  considered  as  a  supplement  or 
 continuation  of  the  Metamorphoses.  Its  composition 
 was  commenced  at  Rome  by  the  author  previous  to 
 his  exile.  The  work  was  corrected  and  finished  by 
 him  at  Tomi  (Fasti,  4,  SI),  and  was  thence  sent  to 
 Rome,  with  a  prefatory  dedication  to  the  great  Ger- 
 manicus.  The  plan  of  this  production  was  probably 
 suggested  by  the  didactic  poem  which  Callimachus 
 had  published  under  the  title  of  Alrca,  in  which  he 
 feigns  that,  being  transported  to  Helicon,  he  was  there 
 instructed  by  the  Muses  in  the  nature  and  origin  of 
 various  religious  usages  and  ancient  ceremonies.  It 
 would  appear  that,  before  the  time  of  Ovid,  some 
 vague  design  of  writing  a  poem  of  this  description  had 
 been  entertained  by  Propertius  (Elcff.,  4,  1).  But 
 Ovid,  in  his  Fasti,  executed  the  work  which  Propertius 
 did  not  live,  or,  perhaps,  found  himself  unable,  to  ac- 
 complish. In  the  Latin  language,  the  word  Fasti  ori- 
 ginally signified,  in  opposition  to  Nefasti,  the  days  on 
 which  law  proceedings  could  be  legally  held,  or  other 
 ordmary  business  transacted  ;  and  thence  it  came,  in 
 course  of  time,  to  denote  the  books  or  tables  on  which 
 the  days  in  each  month  accounted  as  Fasti  or  Nefasti 
 were  exhibited.  The  term  at  length  was  applied  to  any 
 record  digested  in  regular  chronological  order,  as  the 
 Fasti  Consularcs;  and  with  Ovid  it  signifies  the  anni- 
 versariesof  religious  festivals,  of  dedicationsof  temples, 
 or  of  other  memorable  events,  indicated  in  the  calen- 
 dar under  the  name  oi  Dies  Fasti,  and  which  in  general 
 belonged,  in  the  ancient  meaning,  to  the  class  of  Dies 
 Nefasti  rather  than  Fasti.  C.  Hemina  and  Claudius 
 Quadrigarius  had  given  histories  of  these  festivals  in 
 prose:  but  their  works  were  dry  and  uninteresting; 
 and  Ovid  first  bestowed  on  the  subject  the  embellish- 
 ments of  poetry  and  imagination.  The  object  of  the 
 Fasti  of  Ovid  is  to  exhibit  in  regular  order  a  history  of 
 the  origin  and  observance  of  the  different  Roman -fes- 
 tivals, as  they  occurred  in  the  course  of  the  year  ;  and 
 to  associate  the  celebration  of  these  holvdavs  with  the 
 
 ■  951 
 
^OVIDIUS. 
 
 OVIDIUS. 
 
 Bun's  course  in  the  zodiac,  and  with  the  rising  or  set- 
 ting of  the  stars.     A  book  is  assigned  to  each  month, 
 but   the  work  concludes  with   June.     The  six  other 
 books,  which  would  have  completed  the  Roman  calen- 
 dar, may  have  perished  during  the  middle  ages  ;  but 
 it  seems  more  probable  that  they  never  were  written. 
 No  ancient  author  or  grammarian  quotes  a  single  phrase 
 or  word  from  any  of  the  last  six  books  of  the  Fasti; 
 and,  in  some  lines  of  the  Tristia  (3,  549,  scqq.),  the 
 author  himself  informs  us  that  the  composition  had 
 been  interrupted.     This  subject  itself  does  not  afford 
 much  scope  for  the  display  of  poetic  genius.     Its  ar- 
 rangement was  prescribed  by  the  series  of  the  festi- 
 vals, while  the  proper  names,  which  required  to  be  so 
 often    introduced,  and    the  chronological   researches, 
 were  alike  unfavourable  to  the  harmony  of  versifica- 
 tion.    The  Fasti,  however,  is  a  work  highly  esteem- 
 ed by  the  learned  on  account  of  the  antiquarian  knowl- 
 edge which  may  be  derived  from  it.     The  author  has 
 poured  a  rich  and  copious  erudition  over  the  steril  in- 
 dications of  the  calendar,  he  has  traced  mythological 
 worship  to  its  source,  and  explained  many  of  the  mys- 
 teries of  that  theology  which  peopled  all  nature  with 
 divinities.     Even  Scaligcr,  whose  opinions  are  gen- 
 erally so  unfavourable  to  Ovid,  admits  the  ancient  and 
 extensive  erudition  displayed  in  the  Fasti.    {Poet.,  6, 
 7.)    In  particular,  much  mythological  information  may 
 be  obtained  from  it  as  to  the  points  in  which  the  su- 
 perstitions and  rites  of  the  Romans  differed  from  those 
 of  the  Greeks,  and  also  the  manner  in  which  they  were 
 blended.     "The  account,"  says  Gibbon,  "of  the  dif- 
 ferent etymologies  of  the  month  of  May,  is  curious  and 
 well  expressed.    We  may  distinguish  in  it  an  Oriental 
 allegory,  a  Greek  fable,  and  a  Roman  tradition."    Some 
 truths  concerning  the  ancient  history  of  Rome  may  be 
 also  elicited  from  the  Fasti.     It  may  appear  absurd  to 
 appeal  to  a  poet  in  preference  or  contradiction  to  an- 
 nalists and  chroniclers;  but  it  must  be  recollected,  that 
 these  annalists  themselves  originally  obtained  many  of 
 their  facts  from  poetical  tradition.     Ovid,  besides,  had 
 studied  the  Registers  of  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  which 
 are  now  lost,  and  which  recorded,  along  with  religious 
 observances,  many  historical  events.     Occasional  light 
 may  therefore    be  thrown   by  the  Fasti  of  Ovid  on 
 some  of  the  most  ancient  and  dubious  points  of  Ro- 
 man story.     For  example,  our  poet  completely  vindi- 
 cates Romulus  from  the  charge  of  having  slain   his 
 brother  in  a  momentary  transport  of  passion.      Remus 
 was  legally  sentenced  to  death,  in  consequence  of  hav- 
 ing violated  a  salutary  law  enacted  by  the  founder  of 
 Rome,  and  which,  in  an  infant  state,  it  was  requisite 
 to  maintain  inviolably. — The  circumstance  of  the  mel- 
 ancholy exile  of  Ovid  gave  occasion  to  the  last  of  his 
 works,  the  Tristia,  and  the  Epistolcz  c  Ponto.     The 
 first  book  of  the  Tristia,  containing  ten  elegies,  was 
 written  by  Ovid  at  sea,  during  his  perilous  voyage  from 
 Rome  to  Pontus.     {Tristia,  1,  1,  4:2.— Ibid.,  1,  10  ) 
 It  may  be  doubted,  however,  whether  this,  which  is 
 the  generally  received  opinion,   will   hold  good  with 
 respect  to  all  the  elegies  of  the  first  book.     He  speaks 
 in  the  sixth  of  copies  of  his  Metamorphoses  being  cir- 
 culated at  Rome,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  he  could  re- 
 ceive this  intelligence  while  on  his  way  to  Pontus. 
 The  first  book  is  chiefly  occupieil  with  detailing  the 
 occurrences   at   his   departure   from   the   capital,    the 
 storms  he  encountered,  and  the  places  he  saw  in  the 
 course  of  his  navigation.     The  remaining  four  books 
 were   composed   during  the   first   three   years  of  his 
 gloomy  residence  at  Tomi.     In  the  second  hook,  ad- 
 dressed to  Augustus,  he  apologizes  for  his  former  life 
 and  writings.     In  some  of  the  elegies  of  the  third, 
 fourth,  and  fifth  books,  he  complains  to  himself  of  the 
 hard  fate  he  had  suffered  in  being  exiled  from  Italy  to 
 the  inhospitable  shores  of  the  Euxine  :   in  others  he 
 exhorts  his  correspondents  at  Rome  to  endeavour  to 
 mitigate  the  anger  of  Augustus  and  obtain  his  recall. 
 952 
 
 The  names,  however,  of  the  friends  and  patron.'?  whom 
 he  addressed  are  not  mentioned  {Tristia,  1,  4,  7),  since, 
 during  this  time,  his  relatives  and  acquaintances  were 
 afraid  lest  they  should  incur  the  displeasure  of  Augus- 
 tus by  holding  any  communication  with  the  unhappy 
 exile.     At  the  end  of  three  years,  this  apprehension, 
 which,  perhaps,  had  been  all  along  imaginary,  was  no 
 longer  entertained  ;  and,  accordingly,  the  epistles  which 
 he  wrote  from  Pontus  during  the  remainder  of  his  se- 
 vere sojourn  are  inscribed  with  the  names  of  his  friends, 
 among  whom  we  find  the  most  distinguished  charac- 
 ters of  the  day.     These  elegiac  epistles  differ  from  the 
 Tristia  merely  in  the  poet's  correspondents  being  ad- 
 dressed by  name,  instead  of  receiving  no  appellation 
 whatever,  or  being  only  mentioned  under  some  private 
 and  conventional  title.    The  subjects  of  the  four  books 
 of  epistles  from  Pontus  are  precisely  the  same  with 
 those  in  the  Tr/sr/fl,  complaints  of  the  region  to  which 
 the  poet  had  been  banished,  and  exhortations  to  his 
 friends  to  obtain  his  recall.     From  the  first  line  of  the 
 Tristia  to  the  last  of  the  epistles  from  Pontus,  the  lyre 
 of  the  exiled  bard  sounds  but  one  continued  strain  of 
 wailing  and  complaint.     All  the  melancholy  events  of 
 his  former  life  are  recalled  to  his  recollection,  and  each 
 dismal  circumstance  in  his  present  condition  is  im- 
 measurably deplored.     But  he  speaks  of  his  old  age, 
 mortifications,  and  sorrows  with  such    touching   and 
 natural  eloquence,  and  in  a  tone  so  truly  mournful,  that 
 no  one  can  read  his  plaintive  lines  without  being  deeply 
 affected.     The  only  elegies  in  which  Ovid  quits  even 
 for  a  moment  this  tone  of  complaint,  are  those  where 
 he  celebrates  the  victories  of  Tiberius  in  Germany  ; 
 and  the  commencement  of  a  poem  on  the  return  of 
 spring,  which  contains  the  sole  lines   in  the  Tristia 
 that  give  any  indication  of  a  mind  soothed  by  the  im- 
 proving season  or  the  reviving  charms  of  nature. — 
 During  his  exile,  Ovid  appears  to  have  been  much  in- 
 debted to  the  kindness  and  commiseration  of  the  friends 
 wTiom  he  had  left  behind  him  at  Rome.     A  few,  how- 
 ever, with  whom  he  had  been  bound  in  ties  of  the  clo- 
 sest intimacy,  not  only  neglected  him  during  his  ban- 
 ishment, but  attempted  to  despoil  him  of  the  patrimony 
 which  he  still  retained  by  the  indulgence  of  the  em- 
 peror.    The  conduct  of  one  who  had  been  his  warm- 
 est friend  in  prosperity,  and  became  his  bitterest  foe  in 
 adversity,  prompted  him,  while  at  Tomi,  to  dip  his  pen 
 in  the  gall  of  satire,  froi«  which,  during  a  long  life,  he 
 had  meritoriously  abstained.     The  friend,  now  changed 
 to  foe,  whose  altered  conduct  drove  our  poet  to  pen  a 
 vehement  satire,  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
 Hyginus,  the  celebrated  mythograph,  and  at  this  time 
 the  keeper  of  the  imperial   library.     Ovid,  however, 
 does  not  name  his  enemy,  but  execrates  him   in  his 
 Ibis.      Callimachus,  having  had  a  quarrel  with  Apol- 
 lonius  Rhodius,  satirized   him  under  the  appellation 
 of  Ibis,  an  unclean  Egyptian  bird,  and  hence  Ovid  be- 
 stowed it  on  Hysinus,  who,  though  a  native  of  Spain, 
 had  gone  in  early  youth  to  Egypt,  and  was  brought  from 
 Alexandrea  to  Rome.     He  had  offended  our  poet  by 
 attempting  to  persuade  his  wife  to  accept  another  hus- 
 band, and  by  soliciting  the  emperor  to  confiscate  his 
 property,  with  a  view  of  having  it  bestowed  on  him- 
 self.   The  poem  which  Ovid  directed  against  this  self- 
 ish and  ungrateful  friend  cannot,  perhaps,  be  properly 
 termed  a  satire,  being  a  series  of  curses  in  the  style 
 of  the  Dirtp.  of  A'alerius  Cato.     They  are  of  such  a 
 description  that,  compared  with  them,  the  Anathemas 
 of  Ernulphus  and  the  Curse  of  Kehama  may  be  consid- 
 ered  as   benedictions. — Besides   the  works  of  Ovid 
 which  yet  remain  entire,  and  which  have  now  been 
 fully  enumerated,  there  are  fragments  still  extant  from 
 some  poems  of  which  he  is  reputed   to  have  been  th© 
 author.      The   Halieuticon,  which  is  much  mutilated, 
 is  attributed   to  Ovid  on  the  authority  of  the  elder 
 Pliny  (32,  2),  who  says  that  he  has  told  many  wonder- 
 ful things  concerning  the  nature  of  fishes  i<i  his  Halt 
 
oxu 
 
 ozo 
 
 mtkon:  and  we  find  in  Pliny  the  names  of  several 
 fishes  which  are  not  mentioned  by  any  other  author, 
 but  perhaps  were  natives  of  the  sea  on  the  shore  of 
 which  Ovid  commenced  this  poem  towards  the  close 
 of  his  life.  Notwithstanding  this  authority,  Werns- 
 dorfl'is  of  opinion  that  it  was  not  written  by  Ovid,  as 
 it  is  not  found  in  any  MS.  of  his  works;  and  he  as- 
 signs it  to  Gratius  Faliscus.  Ovid  also  wrote  a  poem 
 De  Mcdicaminc  faciei,  as  we  learn  from  two  lines  in 
 his  Art  of  Love  (3,  205).  It  is  doubled,  however, 
 if  the  fragment  remaining  under  this  title  be  the  gen- 
 uine work  of  our  poet. — During  his  residence  at  Tomi, 
 Ovid  acquired  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  language 
 which  was  there  spoken.  The  town  had  been  origi- 
 nally founded  by  a  Greek  colony,  but  the  Greek  lan- 
 guage had  been  gradually  corrupted,  from  the  influx  of 
 the  Getag,  and  its  elements  could  hardly  be  discovered 
 in  the  jargon  now  employed.  Ovid,  however,  com- 
 posed a  poem  in  this  barbarous  dialect,  which,  if  ex- 
 tant, would  be  a  great  philological  curiosity.  The  sub- 
 ject he  chose  was  the  praises  of  the  imperial  family  at 
 Rome.  When  completed,  he  read  it  aloud  in  an  as- 
 sembly of  the  Getse  ;  and  he  paints  with  much  spirit 
 and  animation  the  effect  it  produced  on  his  audience. 
 — After  what  has  been  already  said  of  the  different 
 works  of  Ovid  in  succession,  it  is  unnecessary  to  in- 
 dulge in  many  general  remarks  on  his  defects  or  merits. 
 Suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  brilliancy  of  his  imagination, 
 the  liveliness  of  his  wit,  his  wonderful  art  in  bringing 
 every  scene  or  image  distinctly,  as  it  were,  before  the 
 view,  and  the  fluent,  unlaboured  ease  of  his  versifica- 
 tion, have  been  universally  admired.  But  his  wit  was 
 too  profuse  and  his  fancy  too  exuberant.  The  natural 
 indolence  of  his  temper,  and  his  high  self-esteem,  did 
 not  permit  him  to  become,  like  Virgil  or  Horace,  a 
 finished  model  of  harmony  and  proportion.  (Dunlop's 
 Roman  Literaf.ure,  vol.  3,  p.  349,  neqq.)  —  The  best 
 editions  of  Ovid  aie,  that  of  Burmann,  Amst.,  1727, 
 4  vols,  dto,  and  that  of  Lemaire,  Paris,  1820-24,  10 
 vols.  8vo.  The  edition  of  N.  Heinsius,  ^msi.,  1661, 
 3  vols.  12!no,  is  also  a  valuable  one. 
 
 OxE^,  small  pointed  islands,  near  the  Echinades, 
 off  the  coast  of  Acarnania.  Their  ancient  name  has 
 reference  to  their  form  {'O^elai).  Strabo  reports, 
 that  these  are  the  same  which  Homer  calls  Thoje. 
 {Od.,  15,  298.  —  Strabo,  458.)  Stephanus  supposes 
 the  Oxeffi  to  be  Dulichium  (s.  v.  AovXixiov).  This 
 group  is  now  commonly  known  iiy  the  name  of  Cur- 
 zolari,  but  the  most  considerable  among  them  retains 
 the  appellation  of  Oxia.     {GelVs  Itin.,  p.  298.) 
 
 Oxus,  a  large  river  of  Bactriana,  rising  in  the  north- 
 eastern extremity  of  that  country,  or,  rather,  in  the 
 southeastern  part  of  Great  Buhharia,  and  flowing  for 
 the  greater  part  of  its  course  in  a  northwest  direction. 
 It  receives  numerous  tributaries,  and  falls,  after  a  course 
 of  1200  miles,  into  the  Sea  of  Aral.  The  Oxus  is  now 
 the  Ainoo  or  Jihon  (the  latter  being  the  name  given 
 to  it  by  the  Arabian  geographers).  According  to  most 
 of  the  ancient  writers,  it  flowed  direct  into  the  Caspi- 
 an, and  this  statement  is  said  to  be  confirmed  by  the 
 existence  of  its  former  channel ;  but,  in  all  probability, 
 they  were  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  the  Sea  of  Aral. 
 Some  writers  think  that  Herodotus  speaks  of  the  Oxus 
 under  the  name  of  Araxes  (1,  201,  sc(/^. ;  4,  11);  but 
 it  is  more  likely  that  he  there  refers  to  the  Volga.  The 
 historian,  however,  certainly  confounds  it  "with  the 
 Araxcs  of  Armenia,  since  he  says  it  rises  in  the  coun- 
 try of  the  Matieni  (I,  202),  and  flows  towards  the  east 
 (4,  40).  According  to  his  account,  there  were  many 
 islands  in  it,  some  as  large  as  Lesbos,  and  it  emptied 
 itself  by  forty  mouths,  which  were  all  lost  in  marshes, 
 with  the  exception  of  one,  that  flowed  into  the  Caspi- 
 an (1,  202).  Strabo  says,  that  the  Oxus  rose  in  the 
 Indian  Mountains,  and  flowed  into  the  Caspian  {Slrab., 
 509,  519),  which  is  also  the  opinion  of  Mela  (3,  5) 
 and  Ptolemv.  Pliny  (6,  18)  makes  it  rise  in  a  lake 
 6E 
 
 called  Oxus ;  but  it  is  not  improbable  that,  with  his 
 usual  carelessness  in  matters  relating  to  geography, 
 he  confounds  its  source  with  its  termination.  The 
 Oxus  is  a  broad  and  rapid  river,  and  receives  many  af- 
 fluents, of  which  the  most  important  mentioned  by  the 
 ancients  was  the  Ochus,  which,  according  to  most  ac- 
 counts, flowed  into  the  Oxus  near  its  mouth,  though 
 some  make  it  to  have  entered  the  Caspian  by  a  separ- 
 ate channel.  {Strah.,  509,  518.)  —  I'he  Oxus  has  ex- 
 ercised an  important  influence  upon  the  history  and 
 civilization  of  Asia.  It  has  in  almost  all  acres  formed 
 the  boundary  between  the  great  monarchies  of  South- 
 western Asia  and  the  wandering  hordes  of  Scythiaand 
 Tartary.  The  conquests  of  Cyrus  were  terminated 
 by  its  banks,  and  those  of  the  Macedonians  were  few 
 and  unimportant  beyond  it.  '  The  Oxus  appears  also  to 
 have  formed  one  of  the  earliest  channels  for  the  con- 
 veyance of  the  produce  of  India  to  the  western  coun- 
 tries of  Asia.  Strabo  informs  us,  on  the  authority  of 
 Aristobulus,  that  goods  were  conveyed  from  India 
 down  the  Oxus  to  the  Caspian,  and  were  thence  carried 
 by  the  river  Cyrus  into  Albania  and  the  countries  bor- 
 dering on  the  Euxine.  {Strab.,  509.)  This  account  is 
 also  confirmed  by  the  statement  of  Varro  {ap.  Flin.,  6, 
 19),  who  informs  us,  that  Pompey  learned,  in  the  war 
 with  Mithradates,  that  Indian  goods  were  carried  by 
 the  Oxus  into  the  Caspian,  and  thence  through  the 
 Caspian  to  the  river  Cyrus,  from  which  river  they  were 
 conveyed,  by  a  journey  of  five  days,  to  the  river  Phasis 
 in  Pontus.  The  breadth  of  the  Oxus,  immediately  to 
 the  north  of  Balkli,  is  800  yards,  and  its  depth  20 
 feet  {Bume's  Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  249) ;  but  south  of 
 Bokhara  the  river  is  only  650  yards  wide,  but  from  25 
 to  29  feet  deep.  {Burners  Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  5. — En- 
 cycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  108.)  —  According  to 
 Wahl,  the  term  Oschan  in  Pehlvi  meant  "  river,"  and 
 he  thinks  that  this  name  was  softened  down  by  the 
 Greeks  into  O.tus,  the  intermediate  form  having  been 
 probably  Osclms  or  Ochus.  A  Hindoo  name  for  the 
 same  river  is  said  to  be  Kassch,  which  means  "  water," 
 and  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  German  Wasser. 
 The  Oxus,  therefore,  may  have  been  so  called  /car' 
 e^oxrjv,  as  being  in  an  emphatic  sense  the  great  river 
 of  Upper  Asia.  The  root  in  Osehan  (or  Och-i)  bears 
 some  analogy  to  that  in  the  old  names  Ogyges  and 
 Oceanus.  {Vid.  Ogyges. —  Wahl,  Mittcl-und  Vor- 
 der-Asicn,  vol.  1,  p.  753. — Ritlcr,  Erdkunde,  vol.  2, 
 p.  2'Z.—Bahr,  ad  Ctes.,  p.  186.) 
 
 OxvDR.Ic^,  a  nation  of  India  who  are  supposed  to 
 have  inhabited  the  district  now  called  Oulsch,  near  the 
 confluence  of  the  Acesines  and  Indus.  {Strabo,  701. 
 — Stcph.  Byz.,  p.  615. — Arrian,  6,  13. — VincenVs 
 Ncarchus,  p.  133.) 
 
 OxvRVNCHUs,  a  city  of  Egypt,  in  the  district  of 
 Fleptanomis,  and  capital  of  the  Oxyrynchite  Nome. 
 It  was  situate  on  the  canal  of  Moeris,  south  of  Herac- 
 leopolis  Magna,  and  received  its  name  (a  translation 
 very  probably  from  the  Egyptian)  on  account  of  a  fish 
 called  6^i>pvyxog  in  Greek,  a  species  of  pike,  being 
 worshipped  and  having  a  temple  hero.  This  place  be- 
 came a  great  resort  of  monks  and  hermits  when  Chris- 
 tianity was  spread  over  Egypt.  Nothing  remains  of 
 this  city,  in  the  village  called  Behncsc,  built  on  its  ru- 
 ins, but  some  fragments  of  stone  pillars,  and  a  single 
 column  left  standing,  and  which  appears  to  have  form- 
 ed part  of  a  portico  of  the  composite  order.  {JSban, 
 Hisl.  An.,  10,  iG.—RufJiims,  de  vita  Fatrum,  c.  5.— 
 Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  412.) 
 
 ■  Oz5l^,  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  Locri  in  Greece. 
 Besides  the  explanation  of  their  name  as  given  in  a 
 previous  article  {vid.  Locri  I.),  the  following  etymol- 
 ogies are  mentioned  by  Pausanias.  1.  During  the 
 reign  of  Orestheus,  son  of  Deucalion,  a  bitch  brought 
 forth  a  stick  {^vlov)  instead  of  a  whelp.  Orestheus 
 planted  this,  and  a  vine  shot  up,  from  the  branches 
 (uCuv)  of  which  the  race  derived  their  name.  2.  An- 
 ^  953 
 
PAG 
 
 PAG 
 
 other  explanation  made  the  term  come  from  the  stench 
 {o^7j)  of  the  stagnant  water  in  the  neighbouring  parts. 
 3.  A  third  class  of  etymologists  derived  tlie  appella- 
 tion from  the  stench  that  proceeded  from  the  persons 
 of  the  early  Ozolas,  they  having  been  accustomed  to 
 wear  undressed  skins  of  vvild  beasts.  {Vausan.,  10, 
 38. — Consult  also  Sicbclis,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Pacatunus,  Titus  Julius,  a  general  of  the  Roman 
 armies,  who  proclaimed  himself  emperor  m  Gaul  about 
 the  latter  part  of  Philip's  reign.  He  was  soon  after 
 defeated,  A.D.  249,  and  put  to  death. 
 
 Pachynus  {Jidxvvo^  uKpa),  a  promontory  of  Sicily, 
 forming  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  island,  and 
 called  also,  by  some  of  the  Latin  writers,  Pachynum. 
 {Mela,  2,  7. — Plin.,  3,  8.)  It  is  one  of  the  three  prom- 
 ontories that  give  to  Sicily  its  triangular  figure,  the 
 other  two  being  Pelorus  and  Lilybseum.  The  modern 
 name  is  Capo  Passaro.  Its  southernmost  point  is 
 called  by  Ptolemy  Odys.sea  Acra  {'Odvaaeia  dicpa),  and 
 coincides  with  the  projection  of  the  coast  before  which 
 the  islands  delle  Correnti  lie.  Between  Pachynus  and 
 this  latter  cape  lies  a  small  harbour,  called  at  the  pres- 
 ent day  Porlo  di  Palo,  and  the  same  with  what  Cice- 
 ro terms  Partus  Pachjni.  {In  Verr.,  5,  34.)  It 
 served  merely  as  a  temporary  refuge  for  mariners  in 
 stress  of  weather.  This  harbour  is  very  probably  meant 
 by  the  Itin.  Marit.  when  it  gives  the  distance  "a  Syra- 
 cusis  Pachyno"  at  400  stadia  or  45  geographical  miles 
 along  the  coast,  since  the  direct  line  from  Syracuse  to 
 the  promontory  of  Pachynus  is  less  than  this.  {Itin. 
 Mant.,  p.  492,  ed.  Wesseling. — Majuiert,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 9,  pt.  2,  p.  341.) 
 
 Pacorus,  I.  the  eldest  of  the  sons  of  Orodes,  king 
 of  Parlhia,  and  a  prince  of  great  merit.  After  the  de- 
 feat of  Crassus,  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  invade 
 Syria,  having  Osaces,  a  veteran  commander,  associa- 
 ted with  him.  The  Parthians  were  driven  back,  how- 
 ever, by  Caius  Cassius,  and  Osaces  was  slain.  After 
 the  battle  of  Philippi,  Pacorus  invaded  Syria  in  con- 
 junction with  Labienus,  and,  having  many  exiled 
 Romans  with  him,  met  with  complete  success,  the 
 whole  of  the  country  being  now  reduced  under  the  Par- 
 thian sway.  From  Syria  he  passed  into  Judaea,  and 
 placed  on  the  throne  Antigonus,  son  of  Hyrcanus. 
 The  Roman  power  having  been  re-established  in  Syria 
 by  the  efforts  of  Ventidius,  Pacorus  again  crossed  the 
 Euphrates,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Roman 
 commander.  His  death  was  deeply  lamented  by  Oro- 
 des, who  for  several  days  refused  all  nourishment. 
 {Justin,  42,  4. — Veil.  Patera.,  12,  78.— Tacit.,  Hist., 
 5,  9.) — II.  Son  of  Vonones  II.,  king  of  Parthia.  He 
 received  from  his  brother  Vologeses,  who  succeeded 
 Vonones,  the  country  of  Media  as  an  independent 
 kingdom.  His  dominions  were  ravaged  by  the  Alani, 
 who  compelled  him  to  take  shelter  for  some  time  in 
 the  mountains:     {Tacit.,  Arm.,  15,  2  et  14.) 
 
 Pactolus,  a  river  of  Lydia,  rising  in  the  southeast- 
 ern part  of  Mount  Tmolus,  and  falling  into  the  Her- 
 mus,  after  having  passed  by  Sardes,  the  ancient  cap- 
 ital of  CrcBsus.  Its  sands  were  auriferous,  the  parti- 
 cles of  gold  being  washed  down  by  the  mountain  tor- 
 rents {Piin.,  5,  29),  and  hence  it  was  sometimes  called 
 Cknjsorrkoas.  The  poets  accounted  for  the  golden 
 sands  of  the  river  by  the  fable  of  Midas  having  bathed 
 in  its  waters  when  he  wished  to  rid  himself  of  the 
 transmuting  powers  of  his  touch.  {Vid.  Midas.)  It 
 was  from  the  gold  found  amid  the  sands  of  the  Pacto- 
 lus that  Croesus  is  said  to  have  acquired  his  great  rich- 
 es. At  a  time  when  this  precious  metal  was  scarce, 
 the  labour  of  procuring  it  in  this  way  was  no  doubt 
 well  bestowed.  At  a  later  period,  however,  the  stream 
 Tvas  neglected  ;  and  Strabo,  passing  over  the  true  rea- 
 son, informs  us  that  the  river  yielded  no  more  {vvv  6' 
 95i 
 
 lK2.i2.onTe  to  ipijjfia. — Stral.,  627) .  Callimachus  and 
 Dionysius  Periegetes  speak  of  the  swans  of  the  Pacto- 
 lus. {Callim.,  H.  in  Dei,  249. — Dionys.  Pcrieg., 
 830.)  The  Turkish  name  of  this  stream  is  the  Bagou- 
 ly.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  442. — Mamiert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  361.) 
 
 Pacuvius,  M.  an  early  Roman  dramatic  poet,  the 
 nephew  of  Ennius  by  a  sister  of  his  {Plin.,  35,  4),  was 
 born  at  Brundisium,  A.U.C.  534.  At  Rome  he  be- 
 came intimately  acquainted  with  Laslius,  who,  in  Ci- 
 cero's treatise  De  Amicitia,  calls  him  his  host  and 
 friend.  There  is  an  idle  story,  that  Pacuvius  had  three 
 wives,  all  of  whom  successively  hanged  themselves  on 
 the  same  tree  ;  and  that,  lamenting  this  to  Attius,  who 
 was  married,  he  begged  for  a  slip  of  it  to  plant  in  his 
 own  garden  ;  an  anecdote  which  has  been  very  seri- 
 ously confuted  by  Annibal  di  Leo,  in  his  learned  me- 
 moir on  Pacuvius.  A  story  somewhat  similar  to  this 
 is  told  of  a  Sicilian  by  Cicero  {de  Oral.,  2,  69).  Pa- 
 cuvius, besides  attending  to  poetry,  employed  himself 
 also  in  painting.  He  was  one  of  the  first  Romans  who 
 attained  any  degree  of  eminence  in  that  elegant  art, 
 and  he  particularly  distinguished  himself  by  the  pic- 
 ture which  he  executed  for  the  temple  of  Hercules  in 
 the  Forum  Boiarium.  {Plin.,  35,  4.)  He  published 
 his  last  piece  at  the  age  of  eighty  {Cic,  Brut.,  c.  63); 
 after  which,  being  oppressed  with  old  age,  and  afflict- 
 ed with  perpetual  bodily  illness,  he  retired  to  Tarentum, 
 where  he  died,  after  having  nearly  completed  his  nine- 
 tieth year.  {Aul.  Gell.,  13,  2.  —  Huron.,  Chron.,  p. 
 39.)  An  elegant  epitaph,  supposed  to  have  been  writ- 
 ten by  himself,  is  quoted  with  much  commendation  by 
 Aulus  Gellius,  who  calls  it  verecundissimum  et  puris- 
 siinum  (1,  24).  It  appears  to  have  been  inscribed  on 
 a  tombstone,  which  stood  by  the  side  of  a  public  road, 
 according  to  the  usual  custom  of  the  Romans. — 
 Though  a  few  fragments  of  the  tragedies  of  Pacuvius 
 remain,  our  opinion  of  his  dramatic  merits  can  only  be 
 formed  at  second  hand,  from  the  observations  of  those 
 critics  who  wrote  while  his  works  were  yet  extant.  Ci- 
 cero, though  he  blames  his  style,  and  characterises  him 
 as  a  poet  male  locutus  {Brut.,  c.  74),  places  him  on 
 the  same  level  for  tragedy  as  Ennius  for  epic  poetry,  or 
 Caecilius  for  comedy  ;  and  he  mentions,  in  his  treatise 
 De  Oratore,  that  his  verses  were  by  many  considered 
 as  highly  laboured  and  adorned  :  "  Omnes  apud  hunc 
 ornati  elaboratique  sunt  versus."  It  was  in  this  la- 
 boured polish  of  versification,  and  skill  in  the  drama- 
 tic conduct  of  the  scene,  that  the  excellence  of  Pacu- 
 vius chiefly  consisted  ;  for  so  the  lines  of  Horace  have 
 been  usually  interpreted,  where,  speaking  of  the  pub- 
 lic opinion  entertained  concerning  the  dramatic  writers 
 of  Rome,  he  says  {Ep.,  2,  1,  56), 
 
 " Ambigitur  quolies  uler  utro  sit  prior,  aufcrt 
 Pacuvius  docti  famam  senis,  Attius  alti  ;" 
 
 and  the  same  meaning  must  be  affixed  to  the  passage 
 in  Quintilian  :  "  Virium  tumen  Attio  plus  tribnitur ; 
 Pacuvium  videri  docliorcm,  qui  esse  docti  adfectant, 
 vohmt."  {Inst.,  Orat.,  10,  1.)  Most  other  Latin 
 critics,  though,  on  the  whole,  they  seem  to  prefer  Atti- 
 us, allow  Pacuvius  to  be  the  more  correct  writer.  The 
 names  are  still  preserved  of  about  20  tragedies  of  Pacu- 
 vius. Of  these  the  Antiopa  was  one  of  the  most  distin- 
 guished. It  was  regarded  by  Cicero  as  a  great  national 
 tragedy,  and  an  honour  to  the  Roman'name.  {De  Fin., 
 1,2.)  Persius,  however,  ridicules  a  passage  in  this  tra- 
 gedy, where  Antiopa  talks  of  propping  her  melancholy 
 heart  with  misfortunes  (1,  78) — With  regard  to  the 
 Dulorestes  (Orestes  Servus),  another  of  these  tragedies, 
 there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  discussion  and  difficulty. 
 Nsevius,  Ennius,  and  Attius  are  all  said  to  have  writ- 
 ten tragedies  which  bore  the  title  o{  Dulorestes ;  but 
 a  late  German  writer  has  attempted,  at  great  length,  to 
 show  that  this  is  a  misconception  ;  and  that  all  the 
 fragments  which  have  been  classed  with  the  remains 
 
PAD 
 
 PAD 
 
 of  these  ihiee  dramatic  poets,  belong  to  the  Dulorestcs 
 of  Pacuvius,  who  was,  in  truth,  the  only  I,atin  poet  that 
 wrote  a  tragedy  with  this  appellation.  What  the  ten- 
 our  or  subject  of  the  play,  however,  may  have  been,  he 
 admits,  is  difficult  to  determine,  as  the  different  pas- 
 sages still  extant  refer  to  different  periods  of  the  life 
 of  Orestes ;  which  is  rather  adverse,  it  must  be  ob- 
 served, to  his  idea,  that  all  these  fragments  were  writ- 
 ten by  the  same  person,  unless,  indeed,  Pacuvius  had 
 utterly  set  at  defiance  the  observance  of  the  celebrated 
 unities  of  the  ancient  drama.  On  the  whole,  however, 
 he  agrees  with  Stanley  in  his  remarks  on  the  Choe- 
 phori^  of  yEschylus,  that  the  subject  of  the  Ohoephori, 
 which  is  the  vengeance  taken  by  Orestes  on  the  mur- 
 derers of  his  father,  is  also  that  of  the  Dulorestcs  of 
 Pacuvius.  {Eberhardt,  Zustanddcr  schonen  Wissen- 
 chaften  bet  den  Romern,  p.  35,  sc']q.) — In  the  Iliona, 
 the  scene  where  the  shade  of  Polydorus,  who  had  been 
 assassinated  by  the  King  of  Thrace,  appears  to  his 
 mother,  was  long  the  favourite  of  a  Roman  audience, 
 who  seemed  to  have  indulged  in  the  same  partiality  for 
 such  spectacles  that  we  still  entertain  for  the  goblins  in 
 Hamlet  and  Macbeth. — All  the  plays  of  Pacuvius  were 
 either  imitated  or  translated  from  the  Greek,  except 
 Paulas.  This  was  of  his  own  invention,  and  was  the 
 first  Latin  tragedy  formed  on  a  Roman  subject.  Un- 
 fortunately, there  are  only  five  lines  of  it  extant,  and 
 these  do  not  enable  us  to  ascertain  which  Roman  of 
 the  name  of  Paulus  gave  his  appellation  to  the  trage- 
 dy. It  was  probably  either  Paulus  /Emilius,  who  fell 
 at  CannK,  or  his  son,  whose  story  was  a  memorable 
 instance  of  the  instability  of  human  happiness,  as  he 
 lost  both  his  children  by  his  second  marriage,  one  five 
 days  before  and  the  other  five  days  after,  his  Macedo- 
 nian triumph. — From  no  one  play  of  Pacuvius  are  there 
 more  than  fifty  lines  preserved,  and  these  generally 
 very  much  detached.  It  does  not  appear  that  his 
 tragedies  had  much  success  or  popularity  in  his  own 
 age.  He  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  for  his  sub- 
 jects to  foreign  mythology  and  unknown  history.  Iph- 
 igenia  and  Orestes  were  always  more  or  less  strangers 
 to  a  Roman  audience,  and  the  whole  drama  in  which 
 these  and  similar  personages  flourished,  never  attained 
 in  Rome  to  a  healthy  and  perfect  existence.  {Diinlap's 
 Roman  Literature,  vol.  1,  p.  343,  seqq.)  —  The  frag- 
 ments of  Pacuvius  are  given  in  the  collections  of  Ste- 
 phens, Maittaire,  &c. 
 
 Pados,  now  the  Po,  the  largest  river  of  Italy,  an- 
 ciently called  also  Eridanus,  an  appellation  which  is 
 frequently  used  by  the  Roman  poets,  and  almost  al- 
 ways by  Greek  authors.  {Vid.  Eridanus  )  This  lat- 
 ter name,  however,  belongs  properly  to  the  Ostium 
 Spineticum  of  the  Padus.  (/Ym.,  3,  20. — Mulkr, 
 Elrusker,  vol.  1,  p.  22.'>.)  The  name  Padus  is  said 
 to  have  been  derived  from  a  word  in  the  language  of 
 the  Gauls,  which  denoted  a  pine-tree,  in  consequence 
 of  the  great  number  of  those  trees  growing  near  its 
 source.  {Pliti ,  3,  16  )  Whatever  be  the  derivation 
 of  the  term  Padus,  the  more  ancient  name  of  the  river, 
 which  was  Bodincus,  is  certainly  of  Celtic  origin,  and 
 is  said  to  signify  "  hotlomlessV  (Compare  the  Ger 
 man  bodeyilos. — Dalecamp,  ad  Plin.,  3,  16.)  The  Po 
 rises  in  Mons  Vesulus,  now  Monte  Visa,  near  the 
 sources  of  the  Druentia  or  Durance,  runs  in  an  east- 
 erly direction  for  more  than  500  miles,  and  discharges 
 its  waters  into  the  Adriatic,  about  30  miles  south  of 
 Portus  Venetus  or  Venice.  It  is  sufficiently  deep  to 
 bear  boats  and  barges  at  30  miles  from  its  source,  but 
 the  navigation  is  at  all  times  difficult,  and  not  unfre- 
 quenlly  hazardous,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  of  the 
 current.  Its  waters  are  liable  to  sudden  increase  from 
 the  melting  of  the  snows  and  from  heavy  falls  of  rain, 
 the  rivers  that  flow  into  it  being  almost  all  mountain- 
 streams  ;  and  in  the  flat  country,  in  the  lower  part  of 
 its  course,  great  dikes  are  erected  on  both  sides  of  the 
 river  to  nrotect  the  lands  from  inundation.    Durini^  its 
 
 long  course  it  receives  a  great  number  of  tributaries, 
 its  channel  being  the  final  receptacle  of  almost  every 
 stream  which  rises  on  the  eastern  and  southern  decliv- 
 ities of  the  Alps,  and  the  northern  declivity  of  the 
 Apennines.  The  mouths  of  the  Po  were  anciently 
 reckoned  seven  in  number,  the  principal  one,  which 
 was  the  southernmost,  being  called  Padusa,  and  now 
 Po  di  Primaro.  It  was  this  mouth  also  to  which  the 
 appellations  Eridanus  and  Spineticum  Ostium  wereap- 
 plied.  It  sends  off  a  branch  from  itself  near  TrigaboU, 
 the  modern  Ferrara,  which  was  anciently  styled  Vola- 
 na  Ostium,  but  is  now  denominated  Po  di  Ferrara. 
 {Polyb.,  2,  16.)  Pliny  mentions  the  following  other 
 branches  or  mouths  of  the  Po  :  the  Caprasiae  Ostium, 
 now  Bocca  di  bel  Occhio ;  Sagis,  now  Passage ;  and 
 Carbonaria,  now  Po  d'  Ariano  (3,  16).  The  Fossa 
 Philistina  is  the  Po  grande.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  115.) — The  Padus  is  rendered  famous  in  the 
 legends  of  mythology  by  the  fate  of  Phaethon,  who  fell 
 into  it  when  struck  down  from  heaven  by  the  thunder- 
 bolt of  Jove.     (Firf.  Phaethon.) 
 
 Padusa,  the  same  with  the  Ostium  Spineticum,  or 
 southernmost  branch  of  the  river  Padus.  (Vid.  Pa- 
 dus.) A  canal  was  cut  by  Augustus  from  the  Padusa 
 to  Ravenna.  (Valg.,  el.  up.  Scrv.  ad  Virg.,  JEn., 
 11,  456.)  Virgil  speaks  of  the  swans  along  its  banks 
 {I.  c.  —  Cramer^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  114). 
 
 PjI;an,  an  appellation  given  to  Apollo,  who  under 
 this  name  was  either  considered  as  a  destroying  (Tra/w, 
 "  to  smite"),  or  as  a  protecting  and  healing  deity,  who 
 frees  the  mind  from  care  and  sorrow  (navu.  "  to  cause 
 to  cease").  The  tragedians,  accordingly,  by  an  ana- 
 logical appellation  of  the  word,  also  called  Death,  to 
 whom  both  these  attributes  belonged,  by  the  title  of 
 Paean.  {Eurip.,  HippoL,  1373.  —  jEsch.,  ap.  Stob., 
 Serm.,  p.  121.)  And  thus  this  double  character  of 
 Apollo,  by  virtue  of  which  he  was  equally  formidable 
 as  a  foe  and  welcome  as  an  ally  {JEsch.,  Agani.,  518), 
 was  authorized  by  the  ambiguity  of  the  name.  Homer 
 speaks  of  Paeon  (Uan'/uv)  as  a  separate  individual, 
 and  the  physician  of  Olympus  ;  but  this  division  ap- 
 pears to  be  merely  poetical,  without  any  reference  to 
 actual  worship.  Hesiod  also  made  the  same  distinc- 
 tion. {Schol.  ad  Ham.,  Od.,  4,  231.)  Still,  however, 
 .\pollo  must  be  regarded  as  the  original  deity  of  the 
 healing  art.  From  very  early  times,  the  pajan  had,  in 
 the  Pythian  temple,  been  appointed  to  be  sung  in  hon- 
 our of  Apollo.  {Horn.,  Hymn,  ad  Apoll.  —  Eurip., 
 Ion,  128,  140. — Pind.,  Paan,  ap.  Fragm.)  The 
 song,  like  other  hymns,  derived  its  name  from  that  of 
 the  god  to  whom  it  was  sung.  The  god  was  first 
 called  Paean,  then  the  hymn,  and  lastly  the  singers 
 themselves.  (Horn.,  Hymn,  ad  Apoll.,  272,  320.) 
 Now  we  know  that  the  paean  was  originally  sung  at 
 the  cessation  of  a  plague  and  after  a  victory  ;  and  gen- 
 erally, when  any  evil  was  averted,  it  was  performed  as 
 a  purification  from  the  pollution.  (Procliis,  ap.  Phot. 
 —  Soph.,  CEd.  T.,  152.  — Schol.  ad  Soph.,  (Ed.  T., 
 174. — Suid.,  s.  V.  Irjiuv.)  The  chant  was  loud  and 
 joyous,  as  celebrating  the  victory  of  the  preserving  and 
 healing  deity.  (Callim.,  Hymn,  ad  Apoll.,  21.)  Be- 
 sides the  paeans  of  victory,  however,  there  were  others 
 that  were  sung  at  the  beginning  of  a  battle  (JEsch  , 
 Sept.  c.  Thcb  ,  250) ;  and  there  was  a  tradition,  that 
 the  chorus  of  Delphian  virgins  had  chanted  "  lo  Pcr.an'" 
 at  the  contest  of  Apollo  with  the  Python.  (Callim. 
 ad  Apoll.,  1 13— Apoll.  Rh.,  2,  71P.— Compare  Athe- 
 naus,  p.  15,  701,  c)  The  pa-an  of  victory  varied  ac- 
 according  to  the  difl'erent  tribes;  all  Dorians,  namely, 
 Spartans,  Argives,  Corinthians,  and  Syracusaijp,  had 
 the  same  one.  (Thucyd.,  7,  44.— Compare  4,  43.) 
 This  use  of  the  paean  as  a  song  of  rejoicing  for  vic- 
 tory, sufficiently  explains  its  double  meaning;  it  bore 
 a  mournful  sense  in  reference  to  the  battle,  and  a  joy- 
 ous one  in  reference  to  the  victory.  (Miiller^s  Dori- 
 ans, vol.  1,  p.  319,  segq.,  Eng.  transl.) 
 
 955 
 
P^  0 
 
 T  JES 
 
 P^MANi,  a  people  of  Belgic  Gaul,  supposed  by 
 D'Anville  and  Wersebe  to  have  occupied  the  present 
 district  oi  Famcve,  in  Luxemburg.  (Cces.,  B.  G.,  2, 
 4. — D'Anville,  Notice  dc  la  Gaulc,  p.  188.  —  Wersehc. 
 iiherdte  Volker,  des  alien  Teutschlands,  Hanno.,  1826.) 
 liCmaire,  however,  thinks  the  analogy  between  the  an- 
 cient and  modern  names,  on  which  this  opinion  is  found- 
 ed, too  far-fetched.     {Ltd.  Geogr.  ad  Cczs.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Pjbon  (Jlaiuv),  or,  according  to  the  earlier  and  Ho- 
 meric form  of  the  name,  P-Eeon  (TlaL7/cn'),  the  phy- 
 sician of  the  gods.  Nothing  is  said  in  Homer  about 
 his  origin.  All  we  are  told  is,  that  he  cured  Mars 
 when  wounded  by  Diomede  (//.,  5,  899),  and  Pluto 
 of  the  wound  in  his  shoulder  given  him  by  Hercules 
 (II. ,  5,  401),  and  also  that  the  Egyptian  physicians 
 were  of  his  race.  (Od  ,  4,  232.)  He  would  seem  to 
 have  been,  in  the  Homeric  conception  of  the  legend, 
 distinct  from  Apollo,  though  perhaps  originally  iden- 
 tical with  him.  {Kcightlcy's  Mytkologij,  p.  200. — 
 Consult  remarks  under  the  article  Paean  ) 
 
 PyEO.VEs  {Ylaiovec),  a  numerous  and  ancient  nation, 
 that  once  occupied  the  greatest  part  of  Macedonia,  and 
 even  a  considerable  portion  of  what  is  more  properly 
 called  Thrace,  extenduig  along  the  coast  of  the  ^-Egean 
 as  far  as  the  Eu.tine.  This  we  collect  from  Herodo- 
 tus's  account  of  the  wars  of  the  Pajones  with  the  Pe- 
 'inthians,  a  Greek  colony  settled  on  the  shores  of  the 
 Propontis,  at  no  great  distance  from  Byzantium.  Ho- 
 mer, who  was  apparently  well  acquainted  with  the 
 Pseones,  represents  them  as  fallowing  their  leader  As- 
 teropaeus  to  the  siege  of  Troy  in  behalf  of  Priam,  and 
 places  them  in  Macedonia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Axius. 
 {II.,  11,  849.)  We  know  also  from  Livy  (40,  3)  that 
 Emathia  once  bore  the  name  of  Pasonia,  though  at 
 what  period  we  cannot  well  ascertain.     From  another 
 
 Eassage  in  the  same  historian,  it  would  seem  that  the 
 )ardani  of  Illyria  had  once  exercised  dominion  over 
 the  whole  of  Macedonian  Psonia  (45,  29).  This  pas- 
 sage seems  to  agree  with  vvhat  Herodotus  states,  that 
 the  Paeones  were  a  colony  of  the  Teucri,  who  came 
 from  Troy  (5,  13. — Compare  7,  20),  that  is,  if  we  sup- 
 pose the  Dardani  to  be  the  same  as  the  Teucri,  or  at 
 least  a  branch  of  them.  But  these  transactions  are 
 too  remote  and  obscure  for  examination.  Herodotus, 
 who  dwells  principally  on  the  history  of  the  PKonians 
 around  the  Strymon,  informs  us,  that  they  were  early 
 divided  into  numerous  small  tribes,  most  of  which  were 
 transplanted  into  Asia  by  Mcgabyzus,  a  Persian  gen- 
 eral, who  had  made  the  conquest  of  their  country,  by 
 order  of  Darius.  The  circumstances  of  this  event, 
 which  are  given  in  detail  by  Herodotus,  will  be  found 
 in  the  fourth  book,  c.  12.  It  appears,  however,  from 
 Herodotus,  that  these  Psonians  afterward  efl'ected 
 their  escape  from  the  Persian  dominions,  and  returned 
 to  their  own  country  (5,  98).  Those  who  were  found 
 on  the  line  of  march  pursued  by  Xerxes  were  com- 
 pelled to  follow  that  monarch  in  his  expedition.  He- 
 rodotus seems  to  place  the  main  body  of  the  Paeonian 
 nation  near  the  Strymon ;  but  Thucydides  (2,  99),  with 
 Homer,  extends  their  territory  to  the  river  Axius.  But 
 if  we  follow  Strabo  and  Livy,  we  shall  be  disposed  to 
 remove  the  western  limits  of  the  nation  as  far  as  the 
 great  chain  of  Mount  Scardus  and  the  borders  of  Illy- 
 ria. In  general  terms,  then,  we  may  affirm,  that  the 
 whole  of  northern  Macedonia,  from  the  source  of  the 
 river  Erigonus  to  the  Strymon,  was  once  named  Pas- 
 onia. This  large  tract  of  country  was  divided  into 
 two  parts  by  the  Romans,  and  formed  the  second  and 
 third  regions  of  Macedonia.  {Liv.,  44,  29.)  The 
 Paeonians,  though  constituting  but  one  nation,  were  di- 
 vided into  several  tribes,  each  probably  governed  by  a 
 separate  chief.  We  hear,  however,  of  a  king  of  Ps- 
 onia,  named  Autoleon,  who  is  said  to  have  received  as- 
 sistance from  Cassander  against  the  Antariats,  an  Illy- 
 rian  horde,  who  had  invaded  his  country.  {Diod.  Sic, 
 20,  19. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  266,  seqq.) 
 956 
 
 P^ONiA,  the  country  of  the  Paeones.    {Vid.  Paeones.; 
 
 P^STANUs  Sinus,  a  gulf  on  the  lower  coast  of  Italy, 
 its  upper  shore  belonging  to  Campania,  and  its  lower 
 to  Lucania.  According  to  Strabo  (251),  it  extended 
 from  the  Siren's  Cape  to  the  Promontory  of  Posidium. 
 The  modern  name  is  the  Gulf  of  Salerno.  Its  ancient 
 appellation  was  derived  from  the  city  of  Paestum. 
 
 P^STUM,  a  celebrated  city  of  Lucania,  in  Lower 
 Italy,  below  the  river  Silarus,  and  not  far  from  the 
 western  coast.  Its  Greek  appellation  was  Posidonia, 
 the  place  being  so  called  in  honour  of  Neptune  (Ilocyft- 
 duv).  The  name  Paestum  is  used  by  the  Latin  wri- 
 ters more  commonly.  This  latter  Mazocchi,  on  no 
 very  good  grounds,  derives  from  the  Phoenician  Fose- 
 tan  or  Foslan,  the  alleged  root,  with  some  Oriental 
 scholars,  for  the  Greek  HoffeiJwv.  {Vid.,  however, 
 remarks  under  the  article  Neptunus.)  Nothing,  how- 
 ever, can  be  more  fallacious  than  Phosnician  etymolo- 
 gies.— The  origin  of  this  once  flourishing  city  has  af- 
 forded matter  of  much  conjecture  and  discussion  to 
 antiquaries.  Mazocchi,  who  has  just  been  referred  to, 
 makes  Paestum  to  have  been  founded  by  a  colony  from 
 Dora,  a  city  of  Phcenicia,  to  which  place  he  also  as- 
 signs the  origin  of  the  Dorian  race  !  This  same  wri- 
 ter distinguishes  between  Psstum  and  Posidonia,  the 
 latter  place  having  been  founded,  according  to  him,  in 
 the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  former,  by  a  Sybarite 
 colony,  who  expelled  at  the  same  time  the  primitive 
 inhabitants  of  Paestum.  Eustace  {Class.  Tour,  vol. 
 3,  p.  92),  following  this  authority,  has  fallen  into  the 
 same  error  of  makmg  Passtum  and  Posidonia  distinct 
 places. — Those  who  contend  for  an  earlier  origin  than 
 that  which  history  assigns  to  Psstum,  adduce  in  sup- 
 port of  their  opinion  the  Oscan  or  Etruscan  coins  of 
 this  city,  with  such  barbarous  legends  as  PHISTV, 
 PHISfVL,PHISTELIA,PHISTVLIS,andPHIIS. 
 A  very  eminent  numismatic  writer,  however,  attributes 
 them  to  a  different  town.  But,  even  supposing  tjiat 
 they  ought  to  be  referred  to  Pffistum,  it  must  be 
 proved  that  they  are  of  an  earlier  date  than  those  with 
 the  retrograde  Greek  inscriptions  HOM,  IIOSEI,  IIO- 
 SEIAAN,  nOSEIAi2NEA.  Others  inscribed  nAE2, 
 IIAIS,  IIAISTANG,  are  more  recent,  and  belong  to 
 Psstum  in  its  character  of  a  Roman  colony.  (Sestini, 
 Monet.  Vet.,  p.  16  and  14. — Paoli,  Rovine  della  citta 
 di  Peslo  Tav.,  49. — Micali,  Italia  avanti  il  donnnio 
 dei  Romayii,  vol.  1,  p.  233. — Romanelli,  vol.  1,  p.  332. 
 —  Cramer\'i  Arte.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  362.) — It  seems  now 
 generally  determined,  that  whether  the  CEnotri  or 
 Tyrrheni  were  the  original  possessors  of  this  coast, 
 they  can  lay  no  claim  to  those  majestic  piles  which, 
 under  the  name  of  the  ruins  of  Paestum,  form  at  the 
 present  day  the  admiration  and  wonder  of  ail  who 
 have  visited  them.  The  temples  of  Paestum  too 
 closely  resemble  in  their  plan  and  mode  of  structure 
 the  early  edifices  of  Greece  and  Sicily,  to  be  the  work 
 of  any  of  the  native  tribes  of  Italy.  The  Tuscans, 
 to  whom  alone  they  could  be  referred,  have  left  us  no 
 example  of  a  similar  style  in  any  of  their  architectural 
 monuments. — Strabo  is  the  only  ancient  writer  who 
 has  transmitted  to  us  any  positive  account  of  the 
 foundation  of  Posidonia.  He  states,  that  it  was  buiit 
 by  a  colony  of  Sybarites,  close  to  the  shore  in  the  first 
 instance,  but  that  it  was  afterward  removed  more  into 
 the  interior.  {Strah.,  251.)  This  account  is  farther 
 confirmed  by  Scymnus  of  Chios,  and  agrees  with  what 
 we  know  of  the  extent  of  dominion  possessed  by  Sy- 
 baris  at  an  early  jieriod  on  this  sea,  where  she  founded 
 also  the  towns  of  Laiis  and  Scidrus.  {Herod.,  6,  21.) 
 We  are  left  in  uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  date  of  this 
 establishment  of  the  Sybarites ;  but  we  have  two 
 fixed  points  which  may  assist  us  in  forming  a  right 
 conclusion  on  the  subject.  The  first  is  the  foundaiior. 
 of  Sybaris  itself,  which  took  place  about  720  B.C.  • 
 the  other  is  that  of  Velia,  a  Phocsean  colony,  built,  a» 
 we  learn  from  Herodotus,  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  or 
 
P^STUM. 
 
 PAL 
 
 nearly  540  B.C.  It  will  be  seen  by  that  historian's 
 account  of  the  events  which  induced  the  Phocaeans  to 
 settle  on  the  shores  of  Lucania,  that  they  were  chiefly 
 led  to  form  this  resolution  by  the  advice  of  a  citizen 
 of  Posidonia  (1,  167).  It  may  thence  reasonably  be 
 supposed,  that  the  latter  city  had  already  existed  for 
 twenty  or  thirty  years. — There  are  but  few  other  par- 
 licuiurs  on  record  relative  to  its  history.  That  it  must 
 have  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  prosperity,  is 
 evident  from  the  circumstance  of  Us  name  having  been 
 attached  to  the  present  Gulf  of  Salerno  {vid.  Psesta- 
 nus  Sinus)  ;  and  we  possess  yet  farther  confirmation 
 of  the  fact  in  the  splendid  monuments  which  age  has 
 not  yet  been  able  to  deface  or  destroy.  It  appears 
 from  Strabo  that  the  Posidoniatoe,  jealous  of  the  ag- 
 grandizement of  Velia,  endeavoured  more  than  once  to 
 reduce  that  town  to  subjection  :  these  attempts,  how- 
 ever, proved  fruitless  ;  and,  not  long  after,  they  were 
 called  upon  to  defend  themselves  against  the  aggres- 
 sions of  the  Lucani,  the  most  determined  and  danger- 
 ous of  all  the  enemies  with  whom  the  Greeks  had  to 
 contend.  After  an  unsuccessful  resistance,  they  were 
 at  length  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  superiority  of 
 these  barbarians,  and  to  submit  to  their  authority.  It 
 was  probably  to  rescue  Posidonia  from  their  yoke  that 
 Alexander  of  Epirus  landed  here  with  a  considerable 
 army,  and  defeated  the  united  forces  of  the  Lucanians 
 and  Samnites  in  the  vicinity  of  that  place.  {Liv.,  8, 
 17.)  The  Romans,  having  subsequently  conquered 
 the  Lucani,  became  possessed  of  Posidonia,  whither 
 they  sent  a  colony  A.U.C.  480.  {Liv.,  Epit.,  14,  et 
 27,  10. — Strab,  251.)  I'he  loss  of  their  liberty,  even 
 under  these  more  distinguished  conquerors,  and  still 
 more  the  abolition  of  their  usages  and  habits  as  Greeks, 
 seem  to  have  been  particularly  afflicting  to  the  Posi- 
 doniata3.  Aristoxenus,  a  celebrated  musician  and  phi- 
 losoj)her  at  ^Parentum,  who  is  quoted  by  Athenasus(10, 
 11),  feelingly  depicts  the  distress  of  this  hapless  peo- 
 ple. "  We  follow  the  example,"  says  this  writer,  "of 
 the  Posidoniatae,  who,  having  been  compelled  to  be- 
 come Tuscans,  or,  rather,  Romans  instead  of  Greeks, 
 and  to  adopt  the  language  and  institutions  of  barba- 
 rians, still,  however,  annually  commemorate  one  of  the 
 solemn  festivals  of  Greece.  On  that  day  it  is  their 
 custom  to  assemble  together  in  order  to  revive  the 
 recollection  of  their  ancient  rites  and  language,  and  to 
 lament  and  shed  tears  in  common  over  their  sad  desti- 
 ny :  after  which  they  retire  in  silence  to  their  homes." 
 — The  unhealthy  situation  of  Paestum,  which  has  been 
 remarked  by  Strabo,  may  probably  have  prevented  that 
 colony  from  attaining  to  any  degree  of  importance  ; 
 and  as  it  was  placed  on  an  unfrequented  coast  {Cic. 
 ad  Alt.,  11,  17),  and  had  no  trade  of  its  own,  it  soon 
 decayed,  and  we  find  it  only  noticed  by  subsequent 
 writers  for  the  celebrity  of  its  roses,  which  were  said 
 to  bloom  twice  in  the  year.  {Virg.,  Georg.,  4,  118. — 
 Propert.,  4,  5.— Ovid,  Met.,  [b,  7Q8.— Id  ,  cp.  c  Pan- 
 to, 2,  4. — Alison.,  Idyll.,  14.) — The  ruins  of  Paestum, 
 as  has  already  been  remarked,  form  a  great  object  of 
 attraction  to  the  modern  tourist.  Eustace  has  given  a 
 "very  spirited  description  of  the  beautiful  temples  of 
 this  ancient  city,  the  most  striking  edifices,  unques- 
 tionably, which  have  survived  the  dilapidations  of  time 
 and  the  barbarians  in  Italy.  {Class.  Tour,  vol.  3,  p. 
 94,  seqq.)  "  Within  these  walls,"  he  remarks  in  con- 
 clusion, "  that  once  encircled  a  populous  and  splendid 
 city,  now  rise  one  cottage,  two  farmhouses,  a  villa, 
 and  a  church.  The  remaining  space  is  covered  with 
 thick  matted  grass,  overgrown  with  brambles  spread- 
 ing over  the  ruins,  or  buried  under  yellow  undulating 
 corn.  A  few  rosebushes,  the  remnants  of  biferi  ro- 
 saria  Pcrsli,  tlourish  neglected  here  and  there,  and 
 still  blossom  twice  a  year,  in  May  and  in  December, 
 as  if  to  support  their  ancient  fame,  and  justify  the  de- 
 scriptions of  the  poets.  The  roses  are  remarkable  for 
 their  fragrance.    Amid  these  objects,  and  scenes  rural 
 
 and  ordinary,  rise  the  three  temples,  like  the  mausole- 
 ums of  the  ruined  city,  dark,  silent,  and  majestic. — 
 Paestum  stands  in  a  fertile  plain,  bounded  on  the  west 
 by  the  Tyrrhene  Sea,  and  about  a  mile  distant  on  the 
 south  by  line  hills  :  on  the  north  by  the  Bay  of  Sakr- 
 no  and  its  rugged  border  ;  while  to  the  east  the  coun- 
 try swells  into  two  mountains,  which  still  retain  theif 
 ancient  names  Callimara  and  Cantena,and  behind  them 
 towers  iMount  Alburnus  itself  with  its  pointed  sum- 
 mits." {Class.  Tour,  vol.  3,  p.  99,  sc(jq. —  Cramer^s 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  362,  seq(i.) 
 
 P^TUs,  CiEuiNA,  the  husband  of  Ania.  {Vid. 
 Arria.) 
 
 Pagas^,  a  maritime  town  of  Thessaly,  on  the  Sinus 
 Pagasasus,  and  just  below  the  mouth  of  the  river  On- 
 chestus.  It  was  the  port  of  lolcos,  and  afterward  of 
 Pheraj,  and  was  remarkable  in  Grecian  story  as  the 
 harbour  whence  the  ship  Argo  set  sail  on  her  distant 
 voyage.  It  was,  indeed,  asserted  by  some,  that  it  de- 
 rived its  name  from  the  construction  of  that  famous 
 vessel  {ixfiyvvfu,  "  to  coyistrucC).  But  Strabo  is  of 
 opinion  that  it  rather  owed  its  appellation  to  the  nu- 
 merous springs  which  were  found  in  its  vicinity  {nTj-y^, 
 a  spring),  and  this,  indeed,  seems  the  preferable  ety- 
 mology. {Strabo,  436.  —  Compare  Schol.  ad  Apoll. 
 Rhod.,  1,  237.)  Apollo  was  the  tutelary  deity  of  the 
 place.  {Apoll.  Rhod.,  1,  411.)  Hermippus,  a  comic 
 poet,  cited  by  Athenaeus  (1,  49),  says  of  this  town, 
 
 a'l  Hayaaal  dovTiov^  kol  CTtyfiaTia^  7rap£;^otJff£. 
 Its  site  is  nearly  occupied  by  the  present  castle  of 
 Volo.  {Gell's  Itinerary  of  Greece,  p.  260. —  Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  431.)  Pagasae  gave  its 
 name  to  the  extensive  gulf,  on  the  shores  of  which  it 
 was  situated  ;  and  which  we  find  variously  designated, 
 as  Pagaseticus  Sinus  {Scyl,  p.  2.5.  —  Sirab.,  438),  or 
 Pagasites  {Demosth.,  Phil,  Epist.,  159),  Pagasseus 
 {Mela,  2,  3),  and  Pagasicus  {Plin.,  4,  9).  In  modern 
 geography  it  is  called  the  Gulf  of  Volo.  ,  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  432.) 
 
 PagasjEus  Sinus,  a  gulf  of  Thessaly,  on  the  coast 
 of  Magnesia  ;  now  the  Gulf  of  Volo.     {Vid.  Pagasae.) 
 
 PAL.ffiMON,  I.  a  sea-deity,  son  of  Athamas  and  Ino. 
 His  original  name  was  Mclicerta,  and  he  assumed  that 
 of  Palffimon  after  he  had  been  changed  into  a  sea-de- 
 ity by  Neptune.  {Vid.  Athamas,  and  Leucothea.) 
 Both  Palaemon  and  his  mother  were  held  powerful  to 
 save  from  shipwreck,  and  were  invoked  by  mariners. 
 Palaemon  was  usually  represented  riding  on  a  dolphin. 
 The  Isthmian  games  were  celebrated  in  his  honour, 
 and  indeed  his  name  {TLaT^alficji',  •'  Champion'")  ap- 
 pears to  refer  to  them.  {Kcightley's  Mythology,  p. 
 249.)— II.  A  Roman  grammarian  (M.  or  Q.  Remmius), 
 the  preceptor  of  Quintilian,  and  who  flourished  under 
 Tiberius  and  Claudius.  From  the  account  of  Sueto- 
 nius, he  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  very  corrupt 
 morals.  He  was  also  excessively  arrogant,  and  boast- 
 ed that  true  literature  was  born  and  would  die  with 
 him.  {Jiiv.,  6,  452.— /(/.,  7,  21^.— Suet ,  de  Illustr. 
 gramm.,  23. — Dodwell,  Ajin.  Quint.,  p.  183.  seqq.) — 
 III.  or  Palaemonius,  a  son  of  Vulcan,  one  of  the  Argo- 
 nauts.    {Apoll.  Rhod.,  1,  202,  seqq. — Krausc,  ad  loc.) 
 
 PaLjEpaphos.      Vid.  Paphos. 
 
 Pal^phatus,  I.  a  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  north- 
 western section  of  the  country,  plundered  by  Philip, 
 in  his  retreat  through  Thessaly,  after  his  defeat  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Aous.  {Livy,  32,  13.)  — II.  An  early 
 Athenian  epic  poet,  mentioned  by  Suidas.  The  lexi- 
 cographer states,  that,  according  to  some,  he  lived  be- 
 fore the  time  of  Phemonoe,  the  first  priestess  of  Del- 
 phi, while  others  placed  him  after  her.  Suidas  cites 
 the  following  productions  of  his.  1.  A  Cosmnpaia, 
 in  five  books.— 2.  The  Nulimli/  of  Apollo  and  Diana, 
 in  four  books.— 3.  Dt.' ;ourses  of  Veims  and  Love 
 {'A(l>po6iTTic  Kal  "Epu'Jf  ^wva(  Kal  ?i6yoi),  in  five 
 books. — 4.   The  dispute  between  Minerva  and  Nep 
 
 957 
 
PAL 
 
 PAL 
 
 iunc. — a.  La/ova's  tress  (Ay/ToixTrXoKafioc).     (.S'cAoZ/,  I  herd  race,  from  India  towards  the  West.     It  is  very 
 
 Hist  Lit.  Gr.,\o\.  1,  p.  36.) — III.  A  native  either  of 
 Paros  or  Priene,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Arta.xerxes 
 Mnemoti,  and  wroie,  according  to  Siiidas,  a  work  in 
 tive  hooks,  entitled  'ATViara,  '■'Incredible  Things." 
 'Suid.,  s.  V.) — IV.  A  native  of  Abydos,  and  a  great 
 friend  of  Aristotle's.  He  wrote  several  historical 
 works.  {Suid.,  .9.  v.) — V.  A  grammarian  of  Alcxan- 
 drea,  according  to  Siiidas,  but  called  by  Tzetzes  and 
 others  a  Peripatetic  philosopher.  The  period  in  which 
 he  lived  is  not  stated.  {Fabric  ,  BM.  Gr.,  lib.  1,  c. 
 21.)  Suidas  mentions  a  work  by  him,  entitled  ''Ex- 
 planations of  things  related  in  Mythology."  This 
 seems  to  be  the  production  which  has  come  down  to 
 us,  in  one  book,  divided  into  50  short  chapters,  under 
 the  name  of  Pala}phatus,  and  which  is  commonly  en- 
 titled "  On  Incredible  things"  {llepl  'kniaTuv).  The 
 author  explains,  according  to  his  fashion,  the  origin  of 
 tiiany  of  the  Greek  fables,  such  as  those  of  the  Cen- 
 taurs and  Lapithse,  Pasiphae,  Actason,  &.c.  All  these 
 legends  have,  according  to  him,  an  historical  basis, 
 and  more  or  less  truth  connected  with  them,  but  which 
 has  been  strangely  distorted  by  the  ignorance  and  cre- 
 dulity of  men.  Pala^phatus,  therefore,  may  be  as- 
 signed, as  a  mythologist,  to  what  is  termed  the  class  of 
 pragmatisers.  The  work  is  written  in  a  very  good 
 style,  and,  notwithstanding  the  forced  nature  of  many 
 of  the  explanations,  may  be  regarded  as,  in  some  re- 
 .spects,  an  instructive  book.  Virgil  alludes  to  Palas- 
 phatus  in  his  Cirts, 
 
 "  Docta  PalcEphatia  tcstatur  voce  papyrus.'''' 
 
 The  term  docta  would  seem  to  refer  to  the  productions 
 of  some  Alexandrean  writer,  and  the  word  papyrus  to 
 imply  that  his  work  consisted  merely  of  a  single  book. 
 Simson  places  Palsephatus  in  409  B.C.  {Chron.  Ca- 
 thoL,  col.  779),  while  Saxius  assigns  him  to  323  B.C. 
 (Onomast.,  vol.  1,  p.  88) — The  best  edition  of  the 
 treatise  TTspl  'Aniaruv  is  that  of  Fischer,  Lips.,  1789, 
 8vo,  in  the  prolegomena  to  which  is  contained  much 
 information  from  Fabricius,  relative  to  the  various  in- 
 dividuals who  have  borne  the  name  of  Palaephatus. 
 There  are  also  two  other  pieces  published  with  this 
 work  under  the  name  of  Palaephatus,  one  on  the  in- 
 vention of  the  purple  colour,  and  the  other  on  the  first 
 discovery  of  iron.  {ScMll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 194.) 
 
 Pal^epolis.      Vid.  Neapolis. 
 
 Pal^ste,  a  little  harbour  of  Epirus,  on  the  Chao- 
 nian  coast,  and  south  of  the  Cerauiiian  promontory. 
 Here  Ca;sar  landed  his  forces  from  Brundisium,  in  or- 
 der to  carry  on  the  war  against  Pompey  in  lUyria. 
 {Bell.  Civ.,  3,  6.)  It  must  be  observed,  however, 
 that  in  nearly  all  the  MSS.  of  Caesar,  this  name  is 
 written  Pharsalia  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Lucan  cer- 
 tainly seems  to  have  read  Palaesta  (5,  4.58,  s(i]q.). 
 Some  trace  of  the  ancient  name  is  perceptible  in  that 
 of  Falcassa,  marked  in  modern  maps  as  being  about 
 twenty-five  miles  southeast  of  the  Acroceraunian  cape. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  95,  seqq.) 
 
 Faljestin.k,  a  country  of  Asia  below  Syria,  though, 
 properly  speaking,  forming  part  of  that  land.  In  its 
 earliest  acceptations,  the  name  was  applied  to  the 
 tract  of  coast  between  Egypt  and  Phoenicia,  havino- 
 Ascalon  for  its  chief  city.  {Josephus,  Bell.  Jud.,  3. 
 — Id.,  Ant.  Jud.,  1,  19.)  It  was  extended  at  a  later 
 period  to  the  territory  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  the 
 terms  Palestine  and  Holy  Land  arc  now  reirarded  as 
 synonymous.  The  Jews  were  not  acquainted  with 
 the  name  Pala3stina ;  it  is  thought  to  be  derived  from 
 that  of  the  Philistaei  or  Philistines.  A  full  description 
 of  Palestine  will  be  found  under  the  article  Jtakca. — 
 A  late  writer  {Russell,  Egypt,  p.  71)  has  revived 
 Wilford's  etymology  for  the  name  Palaestina,  name- 
 ly, Pali-Stan,  "  Shepherd-land,"  and  has  adopted  the 
 theory  relative  to  the  migration  of  the  Pali,  or  Shep- 
 958 
 
 surprising  that  such  a  derivation  as  this  should  be 
 gravely  advanced  at  the  present  day,  when  there  are 
 few  who  do  not  know  how  little  faith  is  to  be  reposed 
 in  the  researches  of  Captain  Wilford,  and  how  grossly 
 he  was  imposed  upon  by  the  pundits  of  India. 
 
 Pal^tyrus,  the  ancient  town  of  Tyre  on  the  Con- 
 tinent.    {Vid.  Tyrus.) 
 
 Palamedes,  son  of  Nauplius,  king  of  Eubnea,  and 
 a  pupil  of  the  famous  Chiron.     He  is  celebrated  in 
 fable  as  the  inventor  of  weights  and  measures  ;  of  the 
 games  of  chess  and  backgammon  ;  as  having  regulated 
 the  year  by  the  sun,  and  the  twelve  months  by  the  moon  ; 
 and  as  having  introduced  the  mode  of  forming  troops 
 into  battalions.     He  was  said  to  have  been  the  first 
 also  who  placed  sentinels  round  a  camp,  and  excited 
 their  vigilance  and  attention  by  giving  them  a  watch- 
 word.    {Philostr.,  Heroic,  p.  683,  ed.  Morell. — Pau- 
 san.,  10,  31.  —  Eudocia,  p.  331.  —  Sclwl.  ad  Eurip., 
 Orest.,  426.)     Pliny  ascribes  to  him  the  addition  of 
 the   four  letters  G,  S,  4>,  X,  to   the   Greek   alphabet 
 {Pliny,  7,  57)  ;   for  which  Suidas  gives  Z,  11,  <t,  X 
 {Suid.,  s.  V.  TlaTt.ajj.ijdrig.  —  Consult  Salmas.,  ad  In- 
 script.  Herod  ,  p.  29,  seqq.,  22i.,  segq. — Fischer,  Ani- 
 madv.  ad  Well.,  Gr.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  5.)     A  fragment  of 
 Euripides,  preserved  by  Stobaus,  assigns  to  Palamedes 
 the  honour  of  having  invented  the  Greek  vowel-signs. 
 The  meaning  of  this  evidently  is,  that  he  was  the  first 
 who  conceived  the  idea  of  employing  the  four  aspi- 
 rates of  the  Phoenician  alphabet  to  express  the  vowel 
 sounds  in  Greek.    {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  87. 
 — Compare  Hug,  Erfindung  der  Buchstahenschnft,  p. 
 123,  seqq.) — Palamedes   was   the  prince  deputed  by 
 the   Greeks   to   induce    Ulysses    to  join    in    the   war 
 against  Troy ;  but  the  stratagem  by  which  he  effected 
 the  desired  object,  and  exposed  the  pretended  insanity 
 of  the  chieftain  of  Ithaca  {vid.  Ulysses),  produced  an 
 irreconcilable  enmity  between  these  two  heroes.     His 
 death  is  attributed  to  the  revenge  of  Ulysses,  for  hav- 
 ing, by  his  intervention,  been  separated  from  his  wife 
 Penelope,  or  to  his  jealousy  at  having  been  superseded 
 by  Palamedes  in  an  expedition  in  which  he  had  failed. 
 Ulysses  had  been  despatched  to  Thrace  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  obtaining  provisions  for   the  army ;  but,  not 
 having  succeeded  in  his  mission,  Palamedes  instituted 
 an  accusation  against  him,  and,  to  justify  his  charge, 
 undertook   to   supply    what  was   required.      He   was 
 more  successful  than  Ulysses,  who,  to  be  revenged  on 
 his  rival,  hid  a  sum  of  money  in  his  tent;  and,  to  make 
 it  appear  that  the  supplies  had  been  furnished  by  Pal- 
 amedes for  the  enemy,  counterfeited  a  letter  to  him 
 from  Priam,  expressive  of  his  thanks  for  the  strata- 
 gem of  Palamedes  in  favour  of  the  Trojans,  and  in- 
 forming him  that  he  had  caused  the  reward  to  be  de- 
 posited in  his  tent.     The  tent  being  searched,  the  mon- 
 ey was  discovered,  and  Palamedes  was  stoned  to  death 
 by  the  Greeks  for  his  supposed  treachery.     {Eudocia, 
 I.  c.  —  Philostr.,  I.  c.)     Another  account  stales,  that, 
 while  fishing  on  the  seashore,  Ulysses  and  Diomede 
 drowned  him.     {Pnusanias,   10,  31.)     According  to 
 Dictys  of  Crete,  the  two  chieftains  just  mentioned  in- 
 duced Palamedes  to  descend  into  a  well  in  search  ol 
 a  treasure   which  they   pretended  was  hidden  there, 
 and  of  which  they  promised  him  a  share.     After  he 
 had  been  let  down  by  means  of  a  rope,  they  hurled 
 stones  upon  and  destroyed  him.     {Diet.  Crct.,  2,  15.) 
 The  death  of  Palamedes  appears  to  have  been  related 
 in  the  Cypria.     {SidicUs,  ad  Pausmi.,  I.  c. — Consult 
 Hopfncr,  ad  Eurip.,  Iph.  in  AuL,  198.)     Virgil  makes 
 Sinon   impute  the  tragical  end   of  Palamedes  to  his 
 disapproval  of  the  war.     He  was  called  Belides.  from 
 Bel  us  his  progenitor,  if  the  reading  in  Virgil  be  cor- 
 rect, on  which  point  consult  the  learned  critical  note 
 of  Heyne  {ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  2,  82). 
 
 Palantia,  a  city  of  the  Vaccasi,  in  Hispania  Tana- 
 conensis,  now  Palencia.     {Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 
PAL 
 
 PAL 
 
 132.)  Strabo  (162)  assigns  it  to  the  Averaci,  but  oth- 
 er authorities  to  the  Vaccasi.  {Plin.,  3,  4. — Appian, 
 Bell.  Hisp.,  c.  55,  c.  m.—Liv.,  48,  25.— Id.,  56,  8.) 
 
 PalatInus  Mons,  one  of  the  seven  hills  on  which 
 Rome  was  built,  and  the  first  of  the  number  that  was 
 inhabited.  It  formed,  consequently,  the  most  ancient 
 part  of  the  city.  Although  of  comparatively  little  ex- 
 tent, it  was  remarkable  as  the  favourite  residence  of 
 the  Cassars,  from  the  time  of  Augustus  to  the  decline 
 of  the  empire.  It  contained  also  several  spots,  vener- 
 able from  their  antiquity,  and  to  which  the  Romans  at- 
 tached a  feeling  of  superstition,  from  their  being  con- 
 nected with  the  earliest  traditions  of  the  infant  city. 
 Amor.g  these  were  the  Lupercal,  a  cave  supposed  to 
 have  been  consecrated  to  Pan  by  Evander (Dio/t.  Hal., 
 1,  33. — jEn.,  8,  342) ;  the  Germalus,  deriving  its  name 
 from  the  Latin  word  Gennani,  because  the  twin-hroth- 
 ers  Romulus  and  Remus  were  said  to  have  been  found 
 under  the  "  ficus  Ruminalis,"  which  grew  in  its  vicinity 
 {Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  18),  while  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  was 
 the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  said  to  have  been  found- 
 ed by  Romulus.  {Liv.,  1,  12.— Dion.  Hal,  2,  50.) 
 Here  also  were  the  cottage  of  Romulus,  near  the  steps 
 called  '■^Gradus  jmlchri  li/loris"  {Plut.,  Vit.  Rom.), 
 and  the  sacristy  of  the  Salii,  in  which  were  kept  the 
 ancilia,  and  other  sacred  relics.  {Dion.  Hal.,  2,  70. 
 — Val.  Max.,  1,  8,  11.)  —  Sixty  years  before  the  de- 
 struction of  Troy  (B.C.  1244),  Evander,  at  the  head  of 
 a  colony  of  Arcadians,  is  said  to  have  left  the  city  of 
 Pallantium,  and  to  have  fi-ied  his  settlement  on  this 
 hill,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Pallatium,  from  his 
 native  citv  in  Arcadia.  Dionysius  (2,  2),  Livy  (1,  5), 
 Solinus  (dc  cons.  Urb.,  lib.  2),  Virgil  (.IJw.,  8,  51), 
 and  other  ancient  writers,  agree  in  giving  this  as  a  re- 
 ceived tradition,  of  the  value  of  which,  however,  the 
 investigations  of  modern  philologists  have  taught  us 
 to  entertain  no  very  e.xalted  opinion.  In  one  thing, 
 however,  all  writers,  both  ancient  and  modern,  agree, 
 namely,  that  the  original  site  of  Rome  was  on  the 
 Palatine,  whether  we  ascribe  its  foundation  to  Evander 
 or  to  Romulus.  The  steepness  of  the  sides  of  the  hill 
 would  be  its  natural  defence,  and  on  one  quarter  it  was 
 still  farther  strengthened  by  a  swamp,  which  lay  between 
 the  hill  and  the  I'iber,  and  which  was  afterward  drained 
 and  called  the  Vclabrum.  In  the  course  of  time,  dwell- 
 ings sprung  up  around  the  foot  of  the  hill,  but  the  Pala- 
 tine must  still  have  remained  the  citadel  of  the  growing 
 town,  just  as  at  Athens,  that  which  was  the  noXig  be- 
 came eventually  the  uKpoTroTi-ig.  These  suburbs  were 
 enclosed  by  a  line,  probably  a  rude  fortification,  which 
 the  learning  of  Tacitus  enabled  him  to  trace,  and  which 
 he  calls  the  pomcErium  of  Romulus.  {Ann.,  12,  24.) 
 It  ran  under  three  sides  of  the  hill ;  the  fourth  was 
 occupied  by  the  awamp  before  mentioned,  where  it 
 was  neither  needful  nor  possible  to  carry  a  wall.  The 
 ancient  city  was  comprised  within  this  outline,  or  pos- 
 sibly only  the  citadel  on  the  summit  of  the  hill  was 
 called  by  Roman  antiquaries  the  "  Square  Rome" 
 {Roma  Quadrala).  {Ennius,ap.  Fcst.,s.  v.  Quadrata 
 Roma. — Plat.,  Vit.  Rom,.)  —  Varro,  in  the  true  spirit 
 of  an  etymologist,  gives  us  our  choice  of  several  deri- 
 vations for  thenameofPalatium:  "It  might  be  called," 
 he  says,  "  Palalmm,  because  the  companions  of  Evan- 
 der were  palanles"  or  "  wanderers;"  or  "because  the 
 inhabitants  of  Palantcurn,  which  is  the  Reatine  terri- 
 tory, who  were  also  the  aborigines,  settled  there  ;  or 
 because  Palatia  was  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Latinus' 
 or,  finally,  because  the  bleating  sheep  {balantes)  were 
 accustomed  to  stray  upon  it."  {Varro,  L.  L,.  4,  p. 
 161.)  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state,  that  no  one  of 
 these  etymologies  is  of  the  least  value.  The  name  in 
 q^iestion  is  most  probably  connected  with  that  of  the 
 goddess   Pales,  whose  festival,   termed   Palilia,   was 
 
 regarded  as  the  natal  day  of  Rome.     {Vid.  Pales.) 
 
 The  Palatine  Mount  at  the  present  day  is  about  a  mile 
 aud  a  half  in  circuit,  and  is  nearly  square.     The  ruins 
 
 of  the  successive  edifices  which  have  stood  upon  jt 
 have  raised  the  soil  -around  its  base  considerably  above 
 the  ancient  level.  About  one  half  of  the  surface  of  it 
 is  called  the  Villa  Farnese,  which  is  let  and  cultivated 
 as  a  kitchen-garden.  Adjoining  on  the  south  is  the 
 Villa  Spada. — "  With  all  my  respect  for  this  venera- 
 ble mount,"  observes  a  modern  tourist,  "I  must  say, 
 that  it  is  very  little  of  its  size.  I  had  previously  been 
 disappointed  in  the  lowly  height  of  the  Capitol ;  but  I 
 stood  yet  more  amazed  at  the  square,  flat-topped,  and 
 dwarfish  elevation  of  the  Palatine.  It  must  certainly 
 have  been  materially  degraded  by  the  fall  of  the  suc- 
 cessive generations  of  buildings  which  have  stood  on 
 it,  from  the  straw-roofed  cottages  of  Romulus  and  his 
 Roma  quadrata  to  the  crumbling  erections  of  popes 
 and  cardinals.  The  ruins  of  these  multifarious  edi- 
 fices, heaped  up  round  its  base,  have  raised  the  surface 
 at  least  twenty  feet  above  the  ancient  level :  still,  with 
 all  the  allowances  one  can  make,  it  must  originally 
 have  been  very  little  of  a  hill  indeed."  {Rome  in  the 
 Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  1,  p.  152,  Am.  ed.  —  Com- 
 pare Burgess,  Antiqtiities  of  Rome,  vol.  2,  p.  159. — 
 Malden^s  History  of  Rome,  p.  123.)  —  On  this  same 
 hill  stood  the  famous  Palatine  Library,  an  account  of 
 which  will  be  given  under  the  article  Palatium. 
 
 Palatium,  I.  an  appellation  sometimes  given  to  the 
 Palatine  Hill.  The  plural  form  {Palatia)  is  more  fre 
 quently  used,  and  contains  a  particular  reference  to 
 the  Caesars. — II.  The  residence  of  Augustus,  on  the 
 Palatine  Hill,  afterward,  when  enlarged  and  beautified, 
 the  palace  of  the  Caesars.  Augustus  appears  to  have 
 had  two  houses  on  the  Palatine;  the  one  in  which  he 
 was  born,  and  which  after  his  decease  was  held  sacred, 
 was  situated  in  the  street  called  Capita  Bubula  {Suet., 
 Vit.  Auff.,  5);  the  other,  where  he  is  said  to  have  re- 
 sided for  forty  years,  formerly  belonged  to  Hortensius. 
 After  the  battle  of  Actium,  he  decreed  that  this  last 
 should  be  considered  as  public  property.  {Suet.,  Vit. 
 Aug.,  72.  —  Serv.  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  4,  410.)  Tiberius 
 made  considerable  additions  to  the  house  of  Augustus, 
 which  neither  in  size  nor  appearance  was  worthy  of 
 an  emperor  of  Rome,  and  from  that  time  it  exchanged 
 the  name  of  Domus  Augusti  for  Domus  Tiheriana. 
 {Tacit.,  Hist.,  1,  77.— Suet.,  Vit.Vitell.,  15.)  Calig- 
 ula augmented  still  farther  the  imperial  abode,  and 
 brought  it  down  to  the  verge  of  the  Forum,  connect- 
 ing it  with  the  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  which  he 
 converted  into  a  vestibule  for  this  now  overgrown  pile. 
 He  also  formed  and  executed  the  gigantic  project  of 
 uniting  the  Palatine  and  Capitol  by  a  bridge  ;  and 
 concluded  by  erecting  a  temple  to  himself.  (Suet., 
 Vit.  Calig.,  22.)  But  even  his  folly  was  far  surpassed 
 by  the  extravagance  of  Nero,  whose  golden  house  ex- 
 tended from  the  Palatine  to  the  Coelian  Hill,  and  even 
 reached  as  far  as  the  Esquilino.  {Suet.,  Vit.  JVer., 
 31.  —  Tacit.,  Ann.,  15,  42.)  It  was  not,  however, 
 destined  to  be  of  long  duration  ;  that  portion  of  the 
 building  which  interfered  with  the  projects  of  Vespa- 
 sian and  Titus,  on  the  Coelian,  was  soon  destroyed, 
 and  little  remained  of  this  huge  and  glittering  palace, 
 except  the  part  which  stood  on  the  Palatine  Hill. 
 {Vtd.  Nero,  where  an  account  of  the  "Golden  House" 
 is  given.)  Domitian  again,  however,  renewed  and 
 even  enlarged  the  favourite  abode  of  the  Caesars;  and 
 such  appears  to  have  been  the  lavish  magnificence 
 which  he  displayed  in  these  works,  that  Plutarch,  quo 
 ting  a  sentence  of  Epicharmus,  compares  him  toM'- 
 das,  who  converted  everything  into  gold.  ( Vtt.  Puhl.) 
 Stripped  by  Trajan  of  its  gaudy  decorations,  which 
 were  destined  to  adorn  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capito- 
 linu.s  {Mart.,  12,  75),  it  was  al'lerward  destroyed  or 
 much  injured  by  fire  under  Commoduii,  but  was  once 
 more  restored  by  that  emperor,  and  further  enrich- 
 ed by  Heliogabalus,  Alexander  Severus  {Lampridius, 
 Heliogab.,  8.— Id.,  Alex.  Sev.,  24),  and  almost  every 
 succeeding  emperor  until  the  reign  of  Tlieodoric. 
 ^  959 
 
PAL 
 
 PAL 
 
 {Ca^siod.,  7,  5.) — Contiguous  to  the  house  of  Augus- 
 tus was  the  famous  temple  of  the  Palatine  Apollo, 
 erected  by  the  emperor  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  made  to 
 that  deity  on  the  morning  of  the  battle  of  Actium. 
 Ovid  and  Propertius  describe  it  as  a  s])leiidid  structure 
 o[  white  marble.  (Or.,  Trisl.,  3,  1. — Proper/.,  2,  31.) 
 The  portico  more  especially  was  an  object  of  admira- 
 tioii ;  it  was  adorned  with  columns  of  African  marble, 
 and  statues  of  the  Danaidcs.  Connected  with  the 
 temple  was  a  magnificent  library,  filled  with  the  works 
 of  the  best  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  {Suet.,  Vil. 
 Aug.,  29  )  It  contained,  according  to  Pliny  (34,  7), 
 a  colossal  statue  of  Apollo,  in  bronze,  of  Tuscan  work- 
 mauship,  which  was  much  esteemed.  {Cramer'' s  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  448,  scqq.)  —  "The  fall  of  the  palace 
 of  the  Cffisars,"  observes  a  late  writer,  "like  that  of 
 almost  every  other  monument  of  antiquity,  was  less 
 the  work  of  foreign  barbarians  than  of  the  Romans 
 themselves.  The  Goths,  in  the  fifth  century,  pillaged 
 it  of  its  gold,  its  silver,  its  ivory,  and  most  of  its  port- 
 able treasures.  Genseric  seized  its  bronze,  and  all 
 its  remaining  precious  metals;  and  the  shipload  of 
 statues  which  the  capricious  Vandal  sent  to  Africa, 
 was  supposed  to  consist  chiefly  of  the  plunder  of  the 
 imperial  palace.  The  troops  of  Belisarius  lodged  in 
 it ;  so  also  did  the  soldiers  of  Totila,  during  his  second 
 occupation  of  Rome  ;  but  that  is  no  proof  of  its  de- 
 struction; on  the  contrary,  the  spoils  of  modern  exca- 
 vations have  proved  how  vast  were  the  treasures  of  art 
 and  magnificence,  which  had  been  spared  or  despised 
 by  their  forbearance  or  ignorance  ;  and,  however  the 
 interior  splendour  of  the  palace  of  the  Csesars  might 
 suffer  by  these  barbarian  inmates,  we  know,  at  least, 
 that  its  immense  exterior,  its  courts  and  corridors,  and 
 walls,  and  roofs,  and  pavements,  were  in  perfect  pres- 
 ervation at  a  much  later  period;  for  in  the  days  of 
 Heraclius,  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  it 
 was  still  fit  to  receive  a  royal  guest,  and  it  appears  to 
 have  been  entire  in  the  eighth  century,  from  the  men- 
 tion made  of  it  by  Anastasius.  In  the  long  feudal 
 wars  of  the  Roman  nobles,  during  the  barbarous  ages, 
 its  ruin  began.  It  was  attacked  and  fortified,  taken 
 and  retaken,  and  for  a  length  of  time  was  the  central 
 fortress  of  the  FraTigipani  family,  who  possessed  a 
 chain  of  redoubts  around  it,  erected  on  the  ruins  of 
 Rome.  But  its  final  destruction  was  consummated 
 by  the  Farnese  popes  and  princes,  who  laboriously  de- 
 stroyed its  ruins  to  build  up  their  palaces  and  villas 
 with  the  materials  ;  buried  these  magnificent  halls  be- 
 neath their  wretched  gardens,  and  erected  upon  them 
 the  hideous  summer-houses  and  grottoes,  the  deformity 
 of  which  still  impeaches  the  taste  of  their  architect, 
 Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti. — In  the  southern  part  of 
 the  palace,  about  150  years  ago,  a  room  full  of  Roman 
 coins  was  discovered,  and  a  magnificent  hall  hung 
 with  cloth  of  gold,  which  fell  into  dust  as  soon  as  the 
 air  was  admitted.  About  one  hundred  years  ago,  a 
 hall  forty  feet  in  length  was  discovered  on  the  Palatine, 
 the  walls  of  which  were  entirely  covered  with  paint- 
 ings. They  were  taken  oflf  and  sent  to  Naples,  and 
 there  were  permitted  to  lie  mouldering  in  damp  cellars 
 until  every  vestige  of  the  paintings  had  disappeared." 
 {Rome  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  1,  p.  164,  seqq.. 
 Am.  cd.) 
 
 Pales,  the  goddess  who  presided  over  cattle  and 
 pastures  among  the  ancient  Romans.  Her  festival, 
 called  the  Palilia,  was  celebrated  on  the  21st  of  April, 
 and  was  regarded  as  the  day  on  which  Rome  had  been 
 founded.  The  shepherds,  on  the  Palilia,  lustrated  their 
 flocks  by  burning  sulphur,  and  making  fires  of  olive, 
 pine,  and  other  substances.  Millet,  and  cakes  of  it 
 and  milk,  were  offered  to  the  goddess,  and  prayers 
 were  made  to  her  to  avert  disease  from  the  cattle,  and 
 to  bless  them  with  fecundity  and  abundance  of  food. 
 Fires  of  straw  were  kindled  in  a  row,  and  the  rustics 
 leaped  Ihrice  through  them ;  the  blood  of  a  horse,  the 
 960 
 
 ashes  of  a  calf,  and  bean-stalks,  were  used  for  purifica- 
 tion. (Ovid,  Fast.,  4,  721,  scqq. — Keightky,  ad  loc. 
 —  TibulL,  1,  1,  36.— /rf.,  2,  5,  87,  seqq.  —  Fropert., 
 4,  1,  19.)  The  statue  of  Pales  was  represented  bear- 
 ing a  sickle.  {TibulL,  2,  5,  28.  —  Keiphllcy's  My- 
 thulngy,  p.  538,  scq.)  The  worship  of  Pales  was  often 
 blended  with  that  of  Vesta  {Scrv.  ad  Virg.,  JEn., 
 Georg.,  3,  1),  and  sometimes,  again,  she  was  repre- 
 sented as  an  androgynous  divinity.  {Spangenl/erg, 
 De  Vet.  Lat.  Rel.  Dom.,  p.  60.)  Among  the  Etruri- 
 ans we  meet  with  a  male  deity  of  this  name.  (Midler, 
 Etruskcr,  vol.  2,  p.  130.) — For  the  etymology  of  the 
 term  Pales,  consult  Zoega  {de  Obelise.,  p.  213,  scqq  ). 
 
 Palibothra  {TlaliMpa,  Strab. — Plin.)  or  Palim- 
 BOTHRA  {UaMfiOoOpa,  Arrian. — Ptol. — Stcph.  Byz.), 
 a  large  city  of  ancient  India,  at  the  junction  of  the  Eran- 
 noboas  with  the  Ganges.  {Arrian,  Ltd.,  c.  10.)  It 
 appears,  from  the  accounts  of  the  ancient  writers,  to 
 have  been  defended  by  wooden  ramparts,  having  570 
 towers  and  64  gates,  to  which  Diodorus  Siculus  (2,  39) 
 adds  the  equally  incredible  statement  that  the  place 
 was  founded  by  Hercules.  Making  all  due  allowance 
 for  Oriental  exaggeration,  the  city  of  Palibothra  would 
 seem  to  have  been  one  of  considerable  size.  The 
 position  of  Palibothra  has  been  flnuch  disputed.  Rob- 
 ertson places  it  at  Allahabad ;  but  the  opinion  of  Major 
 Rennell,  who  assigns  it  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Pat- 
 na  near  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Soyie, 
 appears  more  correct.  Strabo  says  it  was  at  the 
 confluence  of  the  Ganges  with  another  river  {Strab., 
 702),  but  he  does  not  mention  the  name.  Arrian,  as 
 above  quoted,  makes  it  to  have  been  situate  at  the 
 junction  of  the  Ganges  with  the  Erannoboas.  This 
 latter  river.  Sir  W.  Jones  remarks,  is  evidently  the 
 Sanscrit  Hiranyavdha.  The  "  Amara  Kosha,"  an  an- 
 cient Sanscrit  dictionary,  gives  this  river  as  synony- 
 mous with  Sone.  {Schlegel,  Reflexions  sur  VEtude 
 des  Langues  Asiatiques,  p.  100. — Id.,  Indische  Bibli- 
 othek.,  vol.  2,  p.  394. —  Wilso7i's  Theatre  of  the  Hin- 
 dus, vol.  2,  p.  135,  2d  ed.) 
 
 Palici  or  Palisci,  two  deities,  sons  of  Jupiter  by 
 the  Sicilian  nymph  Thalia,  or,  as  others  give  the  name, 
 .-Etna.  Thalia  having  been  united  to  Jupiter  near  the 
 river  Symajthus,  and  not  far  from  the  city  of  Catana. 
 and  fearing  the  wrath  of  Juno,  entreated  the  god  to 
 conceal  her  from  that  deity.  Jupiter  complied,  and 
 hid  her  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth ;  and,  when  the 
 time  of  her  delivery  had  arrived,  the  earth  opened 
 again,  and  two  children  came  forth.  These  were 
 called  Palici,  either  from  nd/iiv,  "  again,'"  because 
 they  came  forth  into  the  light  on  the  earth's  having 
 again  gaped;  or  from  ttu'Xiv,  "agai7i,^'  and  ijkelv, 
 ^^  to  come,''''  because,  after  having  been  consigned  to  the 
 bowels  of  the  earth,  they  had  again  come  forlh  there- 
 from. The  Palici  were  worshipped  with  great  solem 
 nity  by  the  Sicilians,  and  near  their  temple  were  two 
 small  lakes  of  sulphureous  water,  which  were  supposed 
 to  have  sprung  out  of  the  earth  at  the  same  time  that 
 they  were  born.  These  pools  were  properly  craters 
 of  volcanoes,  and  their  depths  were  unknown.  {Diod. 
 Sic,  11,89.)  The  water  kept  continually  bubbling 
 up  from  them,  emitting  at  the  same  time  a  sulphureous 
 stench.  The  neighbouring  inhabitants  called  them 
 Dclli,  and  supposed  them  to  be  the  brothers  of  the 
 Palici.  {Macrob.,  Sal.,  5,  19.)  A  curious  custom, 
 tending  to  show  the  power  of  the  priesthood,  was  con- 
 nected with  these  lakes.  All  controversies,  of  what- 
 soever kind,  were  here  decided  ;  and  it  was  sufTicient, 
 in  order  to  substantiate  a  charge  or  clear  one's  self  from 
 an  accusation,  to  swear  by  these  waters  and  depart 
 unhurt ;  for,  if  the  oath  were  a  false  one,  the  party 
 who  made  it  was  either  struck  dead,  or  deprived  ot 
 sight,  or  punished  in  some  other  preternatural  manner. 
 (Diod.  Sic.,  I.  c.)  The  temple  also  was  an  inviolable 
 asylum  for  slaves,  especially  those  who  had  cruel  mas- 
 ters ;  and  the  latter  were  compelled  to  promise  a  more 
 
PAL 
 
 PALLADIUM. 
 
 gentle  mode  of  treatment,  and  to  ratify  their  promise 
 witn  an  oath,  liofore  the  fugitives  returned. — The  Si- 
 ciliim  leader  Dncetius  founded  a  city  named  Palice  in 
 the  vicinity  of  the  temple  and  Idkes.  It  did  not,  how- 
 ever, flourish  for  any  length  of  time,  but  was  already  in 
 ruins  in  the  time  of  Diodorus.  We  are  not  acquaint- 
 ed with  the  causes  of  its  overthrow.  —  The  Sicilian 
 Palici,  according  to  Creuzer,  are  mythic  creations  typ- 
 ifying some  of  the  movements  of  the  elements.  Some 
 authorities  make  Jupiter,  changed  into  a  vulture,  to 
 have  been  their  father  ;  while  others  mention  Menanus 
 or  Ainenanus,  a  deified  stream  (perhaps  the  stream  of 
 the  year),  as  their  parent.  (Clem.,  Hmnil.,  6,  13. — 
 Creuzer,  ad  Crc.  de  N.  D.,  3,  22.)  Vulcan,  the  god 
 of  tire,  was  one  of  these  subterranean  genii.  The 
 story  of  their  birth  and  subsequent  movements,  when 
 stripped  of  its  mythic  character,  is  simply  this :  the 
 Palici  denote  the  elements  of  tire  and  water  in  a  state 
 of  activity  ;  engendered  by  the  eternal  power  of  na- 
 ture, hut  subiected,  like  it,  to  eternal  vicissitudes, 
 they  alternately  escape  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth  in 
 torrents  of  flame  or  water,  and  again,  when  their  fury 
 is  spent,  phinge  into  its  bosom.  (Creuzer,  Symbolik, 
 vol.  2,  p.  229. — Guigniaut,  vol.  3,  p.  186.) 
 
 Pamlia,  a  festival  celebrated  by  the  Romans,  in 
 honour  of  the  goddess  Pales.     (Vid.  Pales.) 
 
 Palinurus,  I.  the  son  of  lasius,  a  Trojan,  and  the 
 pilot  of  the  vessel  of  ^f^neas.  While  the  fleet  was 
 sailing  near  Caprese,  lie  yielded  to  sleep  and  fell  into 
 the  sea  ;  a  circumstance  which  Virgil  has  dignified, 
 by  representing  Morpheus  as  overpowering  Palinurus, 
 who  had  been  already  e.xhansted  by  the  fatigue  of 
 watching.  He  floated  in  safety  for  three  days,  but,  on 
 landing  near  Velia,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  ferocity  of 
 the  inhabitants,  who  (it  seems)  were  wont  to  assail 
 and  plunder  the  shipwrecked  mariner.  When  ^Eneas 
 visited  the  lower  world,  he  assured  Palinurus  that, 
 though  his  bones  had  been  deprived  of  sepulture,  and 
 (hough  he  was  thereby  prevented  from  crossing  the 
 iStygian  Lake,  there  should  yet  be  a  monument  dedica- 
 ted 10  his  memory  on  the  spot  where  he  had  been  in- 
 humanly murdered.  This  eventually  took  place. 
 The  Lucani,  being  afflicted  by  a  pestilence,  were  told 
 by  the  oracle  that,  in  order  to  be  relieved  from  it,  they 
 must  appease  the  manes  of  Palinurus.  A  tomb  was 
 accordingly  erected  to  his  memory,  and  a  neighbouring 
 promoniory  called  after  his  name.  {Vtrg.,  J^n.,  .5, 
 840,  scqq. — Id.  ih.,  6,  337,  scqq. — Serv.,  ad  loc.) — II. 
 A  promontory  of  Italy,  on  the  western  coast  of  Luca- 
 nia,  just  above  the  Laiis  Sinus.  It  was  also  called 
 Palinuruin,  and  Palinuri  Promontorium.  Tradition 
 ascribed  its  name  to  Palinurus,  the  pilot  of  .^neas. 
 {Virg.,  Mn.,  6,  380.)  The  modern  appellation  is 
 Capo  di  Palinuro.  Orosius  (4,  9)  records  a  disastrous 
 shipwreck  on  the  rocks  of  Palinurus,  sustained  by  a 
 Roman  fleet  on  its  return  from  Attica,  when  150  ves- 
 sels were  lost.  Augustus  also  encountered  great  peril 
 on  this  part  of  the  coast,  when,  according  to  Appian, 
 many  of  his  ships  were  dashed  against  this  headland. 
 {Bell.  Civ.,  5,  98.  — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 373.) 
 
 Palicorum  Stagna,  sulphureous  pools  in  Sicily. 
 {Vid.  Palici.) 
 
 Palladium,  a  celebrated  statue  of  Minerva,  said  to 
 have  fallen  from  the  skies,  and  on  the  preservation  of 
 which  depended  the  safety  of  the  city  of  Troy.  The 
 traditions  respecting  it  were  innumerable.  According 
 to  Apollodorus,  it  was  made  by  Minerva  herself,  and 
 was  not  an  image  of  that  goddess,  but  of  Pallas, 
 daughter  of  Triton,  whom  Minerva  had  slain,  and 
 whose  loss  she  afterward  deplored.  It  was  first  placed 
 in  the  skies  with  Jupiter  ;  but  when  Electra  had  been 
 corrupted  by  the  latter,  and  had  polluted  the  statue  by 
 her  touch,  it  was  thrown  by  Minerva  upon  earth,  and 
 fell  in  the  Trojan  territory,  where  Ilus  placed  it  in  a 
 temple  which  he  had  founded.  {Apollod.,  3,  12,  3. — 
 6F 
 
 Heync,  ad  loc.)  One  of  the  scholiasts  to  the  Iliad  (6, 
 311)  describes  it  as  i^udiov  fiLKpov  ^v/uvov,  "a  small 
 wooden  figure  of  an  animal,"  made  by  a  sage  named 
 Asius,  and  given  to  Tros,  when  he  was  building  the 
 city  of  Troy,  as  a  talisman  on  the  preservation  of 
 which  the  safety  of  his  capital  depended.  (Compare 
 Tzelz.  ad  Lycophr.,  363.)  Another  legend,  alluded 
 to  by  Clement  of  Alexandrea,  made  the  Palladium  to 
 have  been  formed  of  the  bones  of  Pelops.  [Clem. 
 Alex.,  Admon.  ad  Gent.,  p.  30,  D,  ed.  Pans,  1629  ) — 
 But,  whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  this  famous 
 statue,  the  Greeks,  while  before  Troy,  had  discovered, 
 it  seems,  from  Helenus,  whom  they  had  made  captive, 
 that  the  Palladium  was  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  fall 
 of  the  city.  He  informed  them  also  that,  in  order  to 
 ensure  the  safety  of  this  revered  image,  and  to  dimin- 
 ish the  risk  of  its  being  stolen,  there  were  many  others 
 made  like  it,  but  that  the  true  statue  was  the  smallest 
 one  of  the  whole  number.  Helenus,  it  seems,  was  in- 
 duced to  make  these  disclosures  partly  by  threats  and 
 partly  by  presents,  but  most  of  all  by  resentment  to- 
 wards the  Trojans,  in  consequence  of  Helen's  having 
 been  given  to  Dei'phobus.  The  Greeks  now  resolved 
 to  carry  off  this  fated  image,  and  the  enterprise  was 
 intrusted  to  Ulysses  and  Diomede.  When  these  two 
 heroes  had  reached  the  wall  of  the  citadel,  Diomede 
 raised  himself  on  the  shoulders  of  Ulysses,  and  thus 
 ascended  the  rampart ;  but  he  would  not  draw  up 
 Ulysses,  although  the  latter  stretched  out  to  him  his 
 arms  for  that  purpose.  Diomede  then  went  and  took 
 the  Palladium,  and  returned  with  it  to  Ulysses.  The 
 latter  beginning  to  inquire  into  all  the  particulars,  Di- 
 omede, knowing  the  art  of  the  man,  determined  on 
 overreaching  him,  and  told  him  that  he  had  not  taken 
 the  Palladium  which  Helenus  had  mentioned,  but 
 another  image.  The  statue,  however,  having  moved 
 in  a  preternatural  manner,  Ulysses  immediately  knew 
 that  it  was  the  true  one  ;  and,  having  come  behind 
 Diomede  as  he  was  returning  through  the  plain,  ws,s 
 going  to  despatch  him,  when  Diomede,  attracted  by 
 the  brightness  of  the  weapon  (as  it  was  moonlight), 
 drew  his  own  sword  in  turn,  and  frustrated  the  pur- 
 pose of  the  other.  He  then  compelled  Ulysses  to  go 
 in  front,  and  kept  urging  him  on  by  rejjeatedly  stri- 
 king him  on  the  back  with  the  flat  part  of  his  sword. 
 Hence  arose,  say  the  mythographers,  the  proverb,  "Z)i- 
 omedean  tiecessity'^  {ri  AtofiTjdeuc  uvuyKri),  applicable 
 to  one  who  is  compelled  to  act  directly  contrary  to 
 his  inclination.  (Consult  Erasmus,  Adag.  Chit.,  1, 
 cent.  9,  col.  290,  where  other  explanations  are  giv 
 en  )  The  narrative  which  we  have  just  been  detail 
 ing  is  taken  from  Conon  (ap.  Phot.,  cod,  186 — vol 
 1,  p.  137,  ed.  Bekker.)  The  scholiast  to  Homer  {II., 
 6,  311)  states,  that  after  the  Greeks  had  become  pos 
 sessed  of  the  Palladium,  and  Trov  had  fallen,  a  quar- 
 rel arose  between  Ajax  and  Ulysses  as  to  which  o( 
 the  two  should  carry  the  image  home.  Evening  hav- 
 ing come  on,  and  the  dispute  being  still  undecided, 
 the  statue  was  intrusted  to  Diomede  for  safe-keeping 
 until  the  next  morning  ;  but  during  the  night  Ajax 
 was  secretly  murdered.  Other  accounts  make  the 
 Palladium  to  have  willingly  accompanied  Ulysses  and 
 Diomede  {Ovid,  Fast.,  6,' 431. — Tryphiod.,  54),  and 
 both  heroes  to  have  been  equally  concerned  in  the  en- 
 terprise. {Prod.,  Arg.  II.  Parv. — Heyne,  Excurs.,  9, 
 ad  jEn.,  2,  p.  308.)  Pausanias  relates,  that  Diomede. 
 on  his  return  from  Troy,  brought  away  the  Palladium 
 along  with  him  ;  and  that,  having  reached  the  coast  of 
 Attica,  near  the  promontory  of  Phalerum,  his  followers, 
 mistaking  it  for  an  enemy's  country,  landed  by  night 
 and  ravaged  the  adjacent  parts.  Demophoon,  howev- 
 er, came  out  against  them,  and  being  equally  ignorant, 
 on  his  part,  of  the  real  character  of  his  opponents,  at- 
 tacked them,  and  took  from  them  the  Palladium, 
 which  was  preserved  thereafter  in  the  Athenian  Acrop- 
 olis.    {Pausanias,  1,  28.)     Harpocration,  who  is  fol- 
 
 961 
 
PAL 
 
 PALLADIUS. 
 
 lowed  by  Suidas,  says  it  was  not  Diomede,  but  Aga- 
 meiniioii.  l"he  Argives,  on  the  other  hand,  niain- 
 *aineil  that  they  had  the  true  Palladium  in  their  coun- 
 vfy  {I'auxan.,  2,  2:5) ;  while  Pausanias  himself  insists 
 that  yEfieas  carried  oft  with  iiini  the  true  statue  to 
 Italy  (^  c).  It  was  an  estalilishcd  belief  among  the 
 Romans  that  their  city  contained  the  real  Palladium, 
 and  that  it  was  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Vesta.  It 
 was  regarded  as  the  fated  pledge  of  the  continuance 
 of  their  empire,  and  not  even  the  Pontifex  Maximus 
 was  allowed  to  behold  it.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  6,  424,  xcqq.) 
 Hence  on  ancient  gems  we  sometimes  see  Vesta  rep- 
 resented with  the  Palladium.  {Mtiffii,  Gcntvi.  Ant., 
 »).  2,  n.  76.)  Herodian  relates  (1,  1 14),  that  when,  in 
 the  reign  of  Commodus,  the  temple  of  Vesta  was 
 consumed,  the  Palladium  was  for  the  first  time  ex- 
 posed to  public  view,  the  Vestal  Virgins  having  con- 
 veyed it  through  the  Via  Sacra  to  the  palace  of  the 
 emperor.  I'his  was  the  only  instance  of  its  having 
 been  disturbed  since  the  time  when  Metellus  the  Pon- 
 tife.x  rescued  it  from  the  flames  on  a  similar  occasion. 
 {Ovid,  Fast.,  I.  c.)  In  the  reign  of  Elagabaius,  how- 
 ever, that  emperor,  with  daring  impiety,  caused  the 
 sacred  statue  to  be  brought  into  his  bedchamber,  Trpof 
 yujiov  tC)  ■&eij.  {Herodian,  6,  6,  8.) — In  order  to  ac- 
 count for  the  Romans  having  the  Palladium  among 
 ihem,  it  was  pretended  that  Diomede  had,  in  obedience 
 to  the  will  of  heaven,  restored  it  to  Ji^neas  when  the 
 latter  had  reached  Italy  ;  and  that  iEneas  being  enga- 
 ged at  the  time  in  a  sacrifice,  an  individual  named  Nau- 
 tes  had  received  the  image,  and  hence  the  Nautian,  not 
 the  Julian,  family  had  the  performance  of  the  rites  of 
 Minerva.  {Varro,  ap.  Serv.  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  2,  166.) 
 This  story  deserves  to  be  classed  with  another,  which 
 states,  that  the  Ilienses  were  never  deprived  by  the 
 Greeks  of  the  statue  of  Minerva,  but  concealed  it  in  a 
 cavern  until  the  period  of  the  Mithradatic  war,  when 
 it  was  discovered  and  sent  to  Rome  by  Fimbria. 
 {Serv.,  I  c.) — From  all  that  has  been  said,  it  would  ap- 
 pear, that  the  ancient  cities  in  general  were  accustom- 
 ed to  have  tutelary  images,  which  they  held  peculiarly 
 sacred,  and  with  which  their  safety  was  thought  to  be 
 intimately  connected  ;  and  as  Pallas  or  Minerva  was 
 in  an  especial  sense  the  "protectress  of  cities"  {tzuTlLov- 
 Xog),  it  was  but  natural  that  many  places  should  con- 
 lend  for  the  honour  of  having  the  true  image  of  that 
 goddess  contained  within  its  walls.  {Du  Theil,  Mem. 
 de  I'Acad.  des  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  39,  p.  238 — Heyiic, 
 Excurs.,  9,  ad  JEn.,  2. — Spanhcim,  ad  Callwi.,  H.  in 
 Lav.  Pali,  39.) 
 
 Palladius,  I.  a  sophist,  a  native  of  Methone,  who 
 liv«d  in  the  time  of  Constanline  the  Great.  He  wrote 
 Dissertations  or  Declamatory  Essays,  and  also  a  work 
 on  the  Roman  festivals.  {Pholius,  cod.,  132,  vol.  1, 
 p.  97,  cd.  Bckker.  —  ScKoU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p. 
 312.) — II.  An  eastern  prelate  and  ecclesiastical  writer, 
 a  native  of  Galatia,  born  about  A.D.  368,  and  made 
 bishop  of  Hellenopolis  in  Bithynia.  He  was  ordain- 
 ed by  Chrysoslom,  to  whose  parly  he  attached  him- 
 self, and,  on  the  banishment  of  Chrysoslom,  fell  un- 
 der persecution,  and.  being  obliged  to  withdraw  from 
 his  see,  retired  to  Italy,  and  took  refuge  at  Rome. 
 Some  time  after,  venturing  to  return  to  the  East,  he 
 was  banished  to  Syene.  Having  regained  his  liberty, 
 he  resigned  the  see  of  Helleno[)olis,  and  was  appoint- 
 ed to  the  bishopric  of  Alexandrea.  He  is  thought  to 
 have  died  A.D.  431.  He  wrote  the  "Lausiac  .History" 
 about  the  year  421,  which  contains  the  lives  of  per- 
 sons who  were  at  that  time  eminent  for  their  extraor- 
 dinary austerities  in  Egypt  and  Palestine.  It  was 
 called  the  "  Lausiac  History,"  from  Lausus,  an  officer 
 in  the  imperial  court  at  Constantinople,  to  whom  it 
 was  dedicated.  It  is  by  no  means  certain  whether 
 palladius,  author  of  the  '•  Lausiac  History,"  and  Pal 
 ladius,  author  of  the  "  Life  of  Chrysoslom,"  were  dif- 
 ferent persons,  or  one  and  the  same.  Dupin  thinks 
 962 
 
 that  these  were  the  productions  of  the  same  individu- 
 al; but  Tillemont  and  Fabricius  adopt  the  ojiposite 
 opinion.  The  best  edition  of  the  history  is  that  of 
 Mcursius,  L.  Bat.,  1616.  A  work  on  ihe  naiions 
 and  Brahmins  of  India  (Ilf/u  tuv  tt/^  'Ivihrif  ilhiJv 
 Kal  Tuv  Bpaxunvuv)  is  also  ascribed  lo  him  by  the 
 MSS.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  the  author  of 
 this  book  had  been  actually  in  India,  w  ,ich  cannot  be 
 affirmed  with  any  certainly  of  ihe  anchoret  Palladius. 
 This  latter  work  is  given  in  the  gnoinologic  Collection 
 of  ('amcrarius.  An  edition  also  apjicared  from  the 
 London  press  in  1665,  4to,  and,  wiih  a  new  title-page 
 merely,  in  1668.  The  editor  (Bissajus)  speaks  of  the 
 work  as  previously  unedited,  not  knowing  that  it  had 
 already  appeared  in  the  Collection  of  Canieranus. 
 {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  34.)— HI.  A  physi 
 cian  of  Alexandrea,  distinguished  from  other  individ- 
 uals of  the  same  name  by  the  appellation  of  'laTpoao- 
 (piaT?/(.  This  title  he  is  supposed  lo  have  gained  by 
 having  been  a  professor  of  medicine  at  Alexandrea. 
 His  age  is  very  uncertain  ;  but  as  he  quotes  Gulen, 
 and  as  he  is  several  limes  mentioned  by  Rases,  we 
 may  safely  place  him  somewhere  between  the  begin- 
 ning of  ihe  third  and  the  end  of  the  ninth  century 
 A.D.  Palladius  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  work  of 
 Hippocrates  respecting  Fractures,  which  has  reached 
 us  in  an  imperfect  stale  ;  but,  in  Freind's  opinion, 
 what  remains  is  enough  lo  let  us  see  that  we  have  not 
 lost  much,  the  text  being  as  full  and  as  instructive  as 
 the  annotations.  He  has  left  also  Scholia  on  the  sixth 
 book  of  Epidemics;  others,  still  unpublished,  on  the 
 regimen  to  be  observed  in  acuie  maladies,  and  a  trea- 
 tise on  Fevers.  The  scholia  on  the  Epidemics  of 
 Hippocrates  has,  like  the  work  on  Fractures,  reached 
 us  only  in  pari,  but  is  more  valuable.  In  it,  accord- 
 ing to  Freind,  he  with  great  perspicuity  and  exactnesa 
 illustrates  not  only  Hippocrates,  but  also  several  pas- 
 sages of  Galen.  The  treatise  on  Fevers  is  too  short 
 to  be  of  much  value,  and  almost  the  whole  of  it  is  to 
 be  found  in  Galen,  Aelius,  and  Alexander  Trallia- 
 nus.  A  work  on  alchymy  is  also  ascribed  lo  him,  but 
 very  probably  ihe  author  of  this  last  production  has 
 merely  borrowed  his  name.  I'he  commentary  is  pub- 
 lished with  the  works  of  Hippocrates.  The  scholia 
 on  the  Epidemics  have  appeared  in  a  Latin  translation 
 by  Crassus,  Basil,  1581,  4lo.  The  Greek  text  has 
 lately  been  published,  for  the  first  time,  by  Dielz,  in 
 his  "Scholia  in  Hippocratcm  et  Galcnum,^''  &c.,  Re- 
 giomont.  JVma-*.,  1834,  2  vols.  8vo.  The  treatise  on 
 Fevers  was  edited,  with  a  Latin  version,  by  Charlier, 
 Paris,  1646,  4lo;  the  last  and  best  edition  is  bv  St. 
 Bernard,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1745,  8vo.  The  commentary 
 on  Fractures  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Sanlalbi- 
 nus,  and  is  inserted  in  the  edition  of  Hippocrates  by 
 FcEsius,  and  in  ihal  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen  by 
 Charlier.  Dietz,  in  his  preface,  mentions  another  work 
 by  Palladius,  which  he  found  in  MS.  in  the  library  at 
 Florence,  consisting  of  Scholia  on  Galen's  work  "  De 
 Secta,"  which  he  intended  to  publish,  but  he  found 
 the  MS.  so  corrupt  that  he  was  obliged  to  give  it  up. 
 Palladius  appears  to  have  been  well  known  to  the 
 Arabians,  since,  besides  being  quoted  by  Rases,  he 
 is  mentioned,  among  other  commentators  ?^  Hippocra- 
 tes, by  the  unknown  author  of  ''  Philosop  \  Bibliolh.," 
 quoted  in  Casiri,  "  Biblioth.  Arabico-Hisp.  Escii- 
 rial,"  vol.  1,  p.  237.  {Encijclop.  Use.  KnowL,  vol. 
 17,  p.  171.— Sc/(o//,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  259.) 
 —  IV.  Rutilius  Taurus  uEmilianus,  the  last  of  the 
 Latin  writers  on  agriculture.  His  work  is  entitled 
 "  De  Re  Rustic  a,"  and  is  divided  into  fourteen  books. 
 It  contains  materials  selected  from  earlier  authors  on 
 this  subject,  and  especially  from  Columella,  who  is  of- 
 ten literally  copied.  Nevertheless,  Palladius  treats, 
 in  a  much  more  exact  manner  than  Columella,  the  re- 
 spective heads  of  fruit-trees  and  kitchen-gardens,  hav- 
 ing followed  in  these  the  work  of  Gargilius  Martialig. 
 
PAL 
 
 PAL 
 
 What  he  states  respecting  the  mode  of  preserving 
 fruits,  &c.,  is  taken  from  the  Greek  Geoponica,  of 
 which  he  appears  to  have  possessed  a  much  more  com- 
 plete copy  than  tlie  ahridgment  which  has  come  down 
 to  us. — Of  the  fourteen  hooks  of  his  work,  the  first 
 contams  a  general  introduction  ;  each  of  the  twelve 
 following  bears  the  name  of  one  of  the  months  of  the 
 year,  and  treats  of  the  labours  proper  to  each  season  ; 
 the  fourteenth  book  is  a  poem,  in  elegiac  measure,  on 
 the  grafting  of  trees.  The  style  of  Palladius  is  in- 
 correct and  full  of  neologisms.  In  his  poems  he  dis- 
 plays some  talent  by  the  variety  which  he  introduces 
 in  describing  the  operation  of  grafting  as  suitable  to 
 different  kitids  of  trees.  He  is  often,  however,  ob- 
 scure, and  too  figurative. — Critics  have  not  been  able 
 to  agree  as  to  the  period  when  this  writer  lived ;  .«ome 
 flacutg  him  at  the  beginnmg  of  the  second  century, 
 others  at  the  end  of  the  fourth.  Some  sii|)pose  him  to 
 be  the  same  with  the  relative  of  whom  the  poet  Rutil- 
 jus  speaks  in  his  Itinerary  (I,  208),  while  others  very 
 justly  remark,  in  opposition  to  this,  that  the  lasi-men- 
 lioned  writer  was  a  young  Gaul,  sent  by  his  father  to 
 the  capital  of  the  empire,  to  study  law  there,  whereas 
 Palladius  had  possessions  in  Italy  and  Sardinia  :  they 
 add,  that  the  name  of  Palladius  does  not  occur  among 
 those  of  the  prefects  and  other  high  magistrates  du- 
 ring the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century,  while  the  title 
 of  Vir  ilhcslris,  which  the  manuscripts  give  to  our  au- 
 thor, indicate  that  he  was  invested  with  some  high 
 official  dignity.  Wernsdorff  has  attempted  another 
 mode  of  ascertaining  the  age  of  Palladius.  The  four- 
 teenth book  of  his  work  being  dedicated  to  a  certain 
 Pasiphilus,  he  has  endeavoured  to  discover  the  period 
 when  this  latter  individual  lived,  whom  Palladius  styles 
 a  wise  man,  and  whose  fidelity  he  praises  {orriatus 
 fidi.i).  Ammianus  Marcellinus  (29,  1),  in  speaking  of 
 the  cons|)iracy  against  Valens,  which  was  discovered 
 in  371,  relates,  that  the  jjroconsul  Eutropius,  who  was 
 among  the  accused,  was  saved  by  the  courage  of  the 
 philosopher  Pasiphilus,  from  whom  the  torture  could 
 wring  no  confession.  These  circumstances  harmonize 
 in  some  degree,  according  to  Wernsdorff,  with  the  ep- 
 ithets bestowed  by  Palladius  on  his  friend  ;  and  if  this 
 is  the  same  Pasiphilus  who,  in  395,  was  rcclor  of  a 
 province,  as  a[ipears  from  a  law  of  the  Theodosian 
 code  (L.  8.  —  Cod.  Thcod.,  1.  2,  tit  1),  we  may  sup- 
 pose that  the  fourteen'h  book  of  Palladius,  where  no 
 allusion  is  made  to  this  official  rank,  was  written  be- 
 tween 371  and  395.  (Sckoll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom,  vol.  3. 
 p.  243,  scqq.) 
 
 Pai.lanteum,  an  ancient  town  of  Italy,  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  Rcate,  in  the  territory  of  the  Sabines.  It 
 was  said,  in  tradition,  to  have  been  founded  by  the 
 Arcadian  Pelasgi  united  with  the  Aborigines.  (Dion. 
 Hal.,  I,  14.)  From  it,  according  to  some,  the  Pala- 
 tine Mount  at  Rome  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name. 
 (Varro.  L  L  ,  4.)  Holstenius  {ad  Sleph.  Bi/z.,  s.  v.) 
 thinks  it  must  have  occupied  the  site  of  Palazzo,  on 
 the  hill  called  Fonte  di  Ricti.  The  real  name  of  this 
 place  was  Palacium,  as  appears  from  a  rare  coin  pub- 
 lished by  Seslini  from  the  Museo  Fonlana.  {Classe.f 
 Gen.  seu  Mon.  Vet.,  p.  12. — Cramer's  Ancient  Itali/, 
 vol.  1,  p.  317.) 
 
 Pai.lantTas,  I.  a  name  of  Aurora,  as  being  related 
 to  the  giant  Pallas,  whose  cousin  she  was.  Pallas  was 
 son  of  Creiis  {tov  Kptiov),  .Aurora  was  daughter  of 
 Hyperion,  and  Hyperion  and  Creiis  were  brothers,  off- 
 spring of  Cnelus  and  Terra.  {Hcsiod,  Thcosf.,  134, 
 371,  srqq  —Omd,  Fast.,  4,  373.— W  ,  Met.,  9,420,— 
 Td  ih.,  li  191.)  —  II.  An  appellation  given  to  the 
 Tritonis  I'dius  in  Libya,  because  Minerva  (Pallas)  was 
 fatiled  by  some  to  have  been  first  seen  on  its  banks. 
 {Pliny,  5,  4=.— Mela,  1,  7.  —  Scrv.  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  2, 
 171.) 
 
 Pali-antTd^,  the  fifty  sons  of  Pallas  the  brother 
 of  ^Egeus.  and  next  heirs  to  the  latter  if  Theseus  had 
 
 not  been  acknowledged  as  his  son.  They  had  re- 
 course to  arms  in  order  to  enforce  xheir  claim  to  the 
 sovereignty,  but  were  defeated  by  Theseus.  {Plut., 
 Vit.  Thcs.) 
 
 Pallantium  (UaTJiuvTiov),  a  town  of  Arcadia,  north- 
 west of  Tegea.  The  Romans  affirmed,  that  from  this 
 place  Evander  led  into  Italy  the  colony  which  settled 
 on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber.  {Pausan.,  8,  43.  —  Jyn., 
 8,  54.  —  Plm.,  4,  6  )  Pallantium  was  subsequently 
 united  to  Megalopolis,  and  became  nearly  deserted'; 
 but  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  it  was  again  restored  to 
 independence,  and  received  other  privileges  from  that 
 emperor,  in  consideration  of  the  ancient  conne.xion 
 which  was  supposed  to  exist  between  its  inhabitants 
 and  the  Romans.  The  vestiges  of  this  town  are  dis- 
 cernible near  the  village  of  Thana,  on  the  right  of  the 
 road  leading  from  Tripoliiza  to  Leondari.  {GelPs 
 liiii ,  p.  136. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p   349.) 
 
 Pai>i.as  (gen.  -adis),  an  appellation  given  to  the  god- 
 dess Minerva  (Ua?,Xuc  'A07]vu — Pallas  Alhena).  For 
 a  probable  etymology  of  the  term,  consult  remarks  at 
 the  close  of  the  article  Minerva.  The  ordinary  deri- 
 vation makes  the  goddess  to  have  obtained  this  name 
 from  having  slain  the  Titan,  or  Giant,  Pallas.  {Vid. 
 Pallas,  -antis,  I.) 
 
 Pai.i.as  (gen.  -antis),  I.  a  son  of  Pandion,  who  be- 
 came the  father  of  Clytus,  Butcs,  and  llie  "  fifth  Mi- 
 nerva," according  to  Cicero's  enumeration.  (A'^.  1)  , 
 3,  23.)  He  was  destroyed  by  his  daughter  for  attempt- 
 ed violence  to  her  fierson.  {Cic.,  I.  c. —  Ovtd,  Met.,  7, 
 500  ) — II.  One  of  the  Titans,  but  enumerated  by  Clau- 
 dian  (Gigantom.,  94),  and  others,  among  the  (Jiants. 
 He  was  the  son  of  Creiis,  and  grandson  of  Coslus  and 
 Terra,  and  was  also  cousin  to  Aurora.  {Vid.  Pallan- 
 tias  I  )  —  Iir.  King  of  Arcadia,  the  grandfather  or 
 great-grandfather  of  King  Evander.  {Serv.  ad  Virg., 
 ASn.,  8,  54.) — IV.  The  son  of  Evander,  according  to 
 Virgil.  {jEn.,  8,  104.)  Other  poetic  legends,  how- 
 ever, made  him  the  offspring  of  Hercules  and  Dymae 
 the  daughter  of  Evander.  Pallas  followed  vEneas  to 
 the  war  against  Turnus,  by  whose  hand  he  fell,  after 
 having  distinguished  himself  by  his  valour.  The  belt 
 which  Turnus  tore  from  the  body  of  the  young  prince, 
 and  wore  as  a  trophy  of  his  victory,  was  the  immedi- 
 ate cause  of  his  own  death  ;  for,  being  vanquished  by 
 ^Eneas  in  single  combat,  he  had  almost  persuaded  the 
 victor  to  spare  his  life,  when  the  sight  of  Pallas'  belt 
 rekindled  the  wrath  of  ^neas,  and  he  indignantly  slew 
 the  destroyer  of  his  youthful  friend.  (  Virg.,  JEn.,  10, 
 439.  — W. '?/;.,  12,  941  ) 
 
 Pai,i,e\e,  a  peninsula  of  Macedonia,  one  of  the  three 
 belonging  to  the  district  of  Chalcidice.  It  was  situate 
 between  the  Sinus  Therinaicus  or  Gulf  of  Sal.oniki, 
 and  the  Sinus  Toronaicus  or  Gnlf  of  Cassandria. 
 This  peninsula  was  said  to  have  borne  the  name  of 
 Phlegra,  and  to  have  witnessed  the  conflict  between 
 the  gods  and  the  earth-born  Titans.  {PiiuL.  Nem.,  1, 
 100.— /</.,  Isth.,  6,  M.  —  Lycuphron,  1408.)  It"  is 
 connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  isthmus  of 
 little  more  than  two  miles  in  breadth,  on  which  once 
 stood  the  rich  and  flourishing  city  of  Potidaea.  {ScyL, 
 PeripL,  p.  26.)  .\mong  other  towns  on  this  penin- 
 sula was  one  of  the  same  name  with  it,  according  to 
 .Stephanus  of  Byzantium.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol,  1,  p.  214.)' 
 
 Palmaria,  a  small  island  in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  off 
 the  coasts  of  Latium  and  Campania,  and  south  of  the 
 promontory  of  Circeii.  \\.  \s  novf  Palmaruola.  (Plin., 
 3,5.)  .       . 
 
 Palmyra,  a  celebrated  city  of  Asia,  situate  in  an 
 oasis  of  the  Syrian  desert,  nearly  half  way  between  the 
 Orontes  and  Eu[)hrates,  and  about  140  miles  east- 
 northeast  of  Damascus.  Its  Oriental  name  was  Tad- 
 mor.  which,  according  to  Josephus,  signifies  the  same 
 as  Palmyra,  "  the  place  of  palm-trees."  There  seems 
 to  be  sufficient   evidence    that  the  Palmyra  of  the 
 
 963 
 
PALMYRA. 
 
 PALMYRA 
 
 Greeks  was  the  "  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness"  built 
 by  Solomon  :  from  which  two  things  may  be  inferred  ; 
 first,  that  this  monarch  extended  his  arms  and  his  ter- 
 ritory (hiis  far;  and,  secondly,  that  he  must  have  had 
 some  adequate  object  for  so  doing,  and  for  maintam- 
 in<r  an  establishment  and  erecting  a  city,  at  incredible 
 pains  and  expense,  on  a  spot  so  remote  from  the  habita- 
 ble parts  of  his  kingdom.  The  circumstance  of  Palmy- 
 ra's being  situated  in  an  oasis,  sheltered  by  hills  to  the 
 west  and  northwest,  and  supplied  with  wholesome  wa- 
 ter, and  also  on  a  line  leading  from  the  coast  of  Syria 
 to  the  regions  of  Mesopotauna,  Persia,  and  India, 
 must  have  pointed  it  out,  in  very  early  times,  to  the 
 caravans,  as  a  convenient  halling-place  in  the  midst  of 
 the  desert.  The  Phoenicians,  in  all  probability,  were 
 acquainted  with  it  at  an  early  period,  and  may  have 
 succrested  to  Solomon,  with  whom  the  King  of  Tyre 
 was  in  alliance,  the  idea  of  establishing  an  emporium 
 here.  We  read  in  the  second  book  of  Chronicles  (8, 
 4),  that  Solomon  "  built  Tadmor  in  the  wilderness, 
 and  all  the  slore-cities  which  he  built  in  Hamath.'" 
 Hamath  was  a  town  and  territory  extending  along  the 
 banks  of  the  Orontes,  and  bordering  on  the  Syrian 
 desert.  After  this,  we  read  no  more  of  Tadmor  in 
 the  Scriptures;  but  John  of  Antioch,  probably  from 
 some  tradition,  says  that  it  was  destroyed  by  Nebu- 
 chadnezsar.  The  first  notice  which  we  have  of  it  in 
 Roman  history  is  at  the  commencement  of  the  wars 
 with  the  Parthians,  when  we  find  it  mentioned  as  a 
 rich  and  powerful  city,  and  permitted  to  maintain  a 
 state  of  independence  and  neutrality  between  the  con- 
 tendincr  parties  in  this  struggle.  Marc  Antony,  indeed, 
 attempted  to  plunder  it,  but  the  inhabitants  removed 
 their  most  valuable  effects  over  the  Euphrates,  and  de- 
 fended the  passage  of  the  river  by  their  archers.  The 
 pretence  he  made  use  of,  to  give  such  conduct  a  colour 
 of  justice,  was,  that  they  did  not  preserve  a  strict  neu- 
 trality ;  but  Appian  says  his  real  motive  was  to  en- 
 rich his  troops  with  the  plunder  of  the  Palmyrenes. 
 in  the  time  of  Pliny  it  was  the  intermediate  emporium 
 of  the  trade  with  the  East,  a  city  of  merchants  and 
 factors,  who  carried  on  traffic  with  the  Parthians  on 
 the  one  hand,  and  the  Romans  on  the  other.  The 
 produce  of  India  found  its  way  to  the  Roman  world 
 through  Palmyra.  Plmy  has  very  hap[)ily  collected  in 
 a  few  lines  the  most  striking  circumstances  with  re- 
 gard to  this  place,  except  that  he  takes  no  notice  of 
 the  buildings.  '•  Palmyra  is  remarkable  for  situation, 
 a  rich  soil  and  pleasant  streams  ;  it  is  surrounded  on 
 all  sides  by  a  vast  sandy  desert,  which  totally  separates 
 it  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  has  preserved  its  in- 
 dependence between  the  two  great  empires  of  Rome 
 and  Parthia,  whose  first  care  when  at  war  is  to  engage 
 it  in  their  interest."  Palmyra  afterward  became  alli- 
 ed to  the  empire  as  a  free  state,  and  was  greatly  fa- 
 voured by  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines,  under  whom  it 
 attained  its  greatest  splendour.  We  find,  from  the  in- 
 scriptions, that  the  Palmyrenes  joined  .Alexander  Sev- 
 erus  in  his  expedition  against  the  Persians.  We  do 
 not  meet  with  the  mention  of  the  city  again  until 
 the  reign  of  Gallienus,  when  it  makes  a  principal  fig- 
 ure in  the  history  of  those  times,  and  in  a  few  years 
 experienced  the  greatest  vicissitudes  of  good  and  bad 
 fortune.  After  attaining  to  a  widely-extended  sway 
 under  Odenatus  and  his  queen  Zenobia,  who  survived 
 him,  it  fell  at  length,  together  with  the  latter,  under 
 the  power  of  Aurelian.  {Vid.  Odenatus,  and  Zeno- 
 bia.) A  revolt,  on  his  departure,  compelled  him  to 
 return,  and,  having  retaken  the  city,  he  delivered  it 
 without  rnercy  to  the  pillage  and  havoc  of  his  soldiery. 
 This  event  happened  in  the  year  272,  after  which  Pal- 
 myra never  recovered  her  former  importance,  although 
 it  is  certain  that  none  of  the  public  edifices  were  de- 
 stroyed, though  some  were  damaged,  by  the  soldiers 
 af  Aurelian.  From  this  time  Palmyra  had  a  Roman 
 governor.  The  first  Illyrian  legion  was  stationed  here 
 964 
 
 about  A.D.  400.  But  Procopius  states  that  the  place 
 had  been  for  some  time  almost  deserted,  when  Justinian 
 re[)aired  the  town,  and  supplied  it  with  water  for  the  use 
 of  a  garrison  which  he  left  there.  We  hear  no  nure 
 of  Palmyra  in  the  Roman  history,  and  the  ecclesiastical 
 historians  supply  us  with  no  information  repecting  its 
 subsequent  fortunes.  The  Moslems  are  said  to  have 
 taken  it  under  the  caliphate  of  Abu  Bekr,  Mohammed's 
 successor.  That  it  has  been  made  use  of  as  a  place 
 of  strength  by  the  Saracens  and  Turks  appears  from 
 the  alterations  made  in  the  temple,  as  well  as  from  the 
 modern  temple  on  the  hill.  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  who 
 visited  it  about  A.D.  1172,  states  that  it  then  contain- 
 ed about  2000  Jews.  Abulfeda,  who  wrote  about 
 1321  A.D.,  mentions  very  briefly  its  situation,  refer- 
 ring to  its  many  ancient  columns,  its  palm  and  fig  trees, 
 its  walls  and  castle;  he  only  calls  it  Tedmor.  —  The 
 ruins  of  Palmyra  are  said  to  present  a  fine  view  at  a 
 distance,  but  disappointment  succeeds  when  they  are 
 examined  in  detail.  "  On  opening  upon  the  ruins  of 
 Palmyra,"  says  Captain  Mangles,  "  as  seen  from  the 
 valley  of  the  tombs,  we  were  much  struck  with  the 
 picturesque  effect  of  the  whole,  presenting  altogether 
 the  most  imposing  sight  of  the  kind  we  had  ever  seen. 
 It  v^'as  rendered  doubly  interesting  by  our  having  trav- 
 elled through  a  wilderness  destitute  of  a  single  building, 
 from  v^hich  we  suddenly  opened  upon  these  innumeia- 
 ble  columns  and  other  ruins,  on  a  sandy  plain  on  the 
 skirts  of  the  desert.  So  great  a  number  of  (Corinthian 
 columns,  mixed  with  so  little  wall  or  solid  building,  and 
 the  snow-white  appearance  of  the  ruins  contrasted 
 with  the  yellow  sand,  produced  a  very  striking  im- 
 pression." Great,  however,  he  proceeds  to  say,  was 
 the  disappointment  of  himself  and  his  fellow-travel- 
 ler (Mr.  Irby),  when,  on  a  minute  examination,  they 
 found  that  there  was  not  a  single  column,  pediment, 
 architrave,  portal,  frieze,  or  other  architectural  rem- 
 nant worthy  of  admiration.  None  of  the  columns  ex- 
 ceed forty  feet  in  height  or  four  feet  in  diameter ; 
 those  of  the  boasted  avenue  have  little  more  than 
 thirty  feet  of  altitude  :  whereas  the  columns  of  Bal- 
 bec  are  nearly  sixty  feet  in  height  and  seven  in  di- 
 ameter, supporting  a  most  rich  and  beautifully-wrought 
 epistylium  of  twenty  feet  more  ;  and  the  pillars  are 
 constructed  of  only  three  pieces  of  stone,  while  the 
 smallest  columns  at  Palmyra  are  formed  of  six,  sev- 
 en, and  eight  parts.  In  the  centre  of  the  avenue, 
 however,  arc  four  granite  columns,  each  of  one  sin- 
 gle stone,  about  thirty  feet  high  :  one  only  is  still 
 standing.  "Take  any  part  of  the  ruins  separately," 
 says  this  traveller,  "and  they  excite  but  little  inter- 
 est ;  and,  altogether,  we  judged  the  visit  to  Palmy- 
 ra hardly  worthy  of  the  time,  expense,  anxiety,  and 
 fatiguing  journey  through  the  wilderness  which  we 
 had  undergone  to  visit  it.  The  projecting  pedestals 
 in  the  centre  of  the  columns  of  the  great  avenue  have 
 a  very  unsightly  appearance.  There  is  also  a  great 
 sameness  in  the  architecture,  all  the  capitals  being 
 Corinthian,  excepting  those  which  surround  the  Tem- 
 ple of  the  Sun.  These  last  were  fluted,  and,  when 
 decorated  with  their  brazen  Ionic  capitals,  were  doubt- 
 less very  handsome  ;  but  the  latter  being  now  defi- 
 cient, the  beauty  of  the  edifice  is  entirely  destroyed. 
 The  sculpture,  as  well  of  the  capitals  of  the  columns 
 as  of  the  other  ornamental  parts  of  the  doorways  and 
 bui-ldings,  is  very  coarse  and  bad.  The  three  arches 
 at  the  end  of  the  avenue,  so  beautiful  in  the  designs  of 
 Wood  and  Dawkins,  are  excessively  insignificant,  the 
 decorated  frieze  is  badly  wrought,  and  even  the  de- 
 vices are  not  striking.  They  are  not  to  be  compared 
 to  the  common  portals  of  Thebes,  if  indeed  the  Egyp- 
 tians were  unacquainted  with  the  arch." — If  inferior, 
 however,  to  Balbec,  and  not  to  be  compared  to 
 Thebes,  it  is  only  by  comparison  that  these  remains  of 
 ancient  magr  ricence  can  be  with  any  propriety  thus 
 slightly  estin.ated  ;  and  when  this  traveller  speaks  of 
 
r  A  M 
 
 P  AM 
 
 them  as  hardly  repaying  the  toils  and  expense  of  the 
 journey,  it  must  be  recollected  that  he  was  already 
 satiated  with  the  wonders  of  Egypt.  Yet,  taken  as  a 
 lout  ensemble,  he  admits  that  they  are  more  remarka- 
 ble by  reason  of  their  extent  (being  nearly  a  mile  and 
 a  lialf  m  length),  than  any  which  he  had  met  with  ; 
 tliev  have  the  advantage,  too,  of  being  less  encumber- 
 ed witli  modern  fabrics  than  almost  any  ancient  rums. 
 Exclusive  oi  the  Arab  village  of  Tadnior,  which  oc- 
 cupies the  peristyle  court  of  the  Temijle  of  the  Sun, 
 and  the  Turkish  burying-place,  there  are  no  obstruc- 
 tions whatever  to  the  antiquities.  The  temple  itself 
 is  disfigured,  indeed,  by  modern  works,  but  it  is  still 
 a  most  majestic  object.  Tbe  natives  tirmly  believe,  j 
 Mr.  VV\)od  informs  us,  that  the  existing  ruins  were  the  ' 
 works  of  King  Solomon.  "  All  these  mighty  things," 
 say  they,  "  Solyman  Ebn  Daoud  (Solomon  the  son  of 
 David)  did  hy  the  assistance  of  spirits."  King  Solo- 
 mon is  the  Merlin  of  the  East,  and  to  the  genii  in  his 
 service  the  Persians  as  well  as  the  Arabs  ascribe  all 
 the  magnificent  remains  of  ancient  art.  From  the 
 dates  in  the  inscriptions,  in  which  the  era  of  Seleucus 
 is  observed,  with  the  Macedonian  names  of  the  months, 
 it  appears  tiiat  none  of  the  existing  monuments  are 
 earlier  than  the  birth  of  Christ  ;  nor  is  there  any  in- 
 scription so  late  as  the  destruction  of  the  city  by 
 Aurelian,  except  one  in  Latin,  which  mentions  Dio- 
 clesian.  "  As  to  the  age  of  those  ruinous  heaps," 
 says  Mr.  Wood,  "  which  belonged  evidently  to  build- 
 ings of  greater  antiquitv  than  those  which  are  yet 
 partly  standing,  it  is  difficult  even  to  guess  ;  but  if 
 we  are  allowed  to  form  a  judgment  by  comparing  their 
 state  with  that  of  the  monument  of  lamblichus  at  Pal- 
 myra, we  must  conclude  them  extremely  old  ;  for 
 that  building,  erected  1750  years  ago"  (Mr.  Wood 
 published  in  1753),  "  is  the  most  perfect  piece  of  an- 
 tiquity I  ever  saw."  (MansforcVs  Scripture  Gazet- 
 teer, p.  451,  seqq.  —  Modern  Traveller,  part  5,  p.  10, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Pamisos,  I.  a  river  of  Thessaly,  now  the  Fanari, 
 falling  into  the  Peneus  to  the  east  of  Tricca.  {He- 
 rod ,  7,  132  ) — II.  Major,  a  river  of  Messenia,  falling 
 into  the  Sinus  Messeniacus  at  its  head.  It  is  now 
 the  Pimalza.  {Walpole,  vol.  2,  p.  35)  Pausanias 
 affirms,  that  the  waters  of  this  river  were  remarkably 
 pure,  and  abounded  with  various  kinds  of  fish.  He 
 adds,  tliat  it  was  navigable  for  ten  stadia  from  the  sea 
 (4,  34. — Compare  Polyh.,  16,  16). — III.  A  torrent  of 
 Messenia,  falling  into  the  Sinus  Messeniacus  near 
 Leuctrum,  and  forming  part  of  the  ancient  boundary 
 between  Laconia  and  Messenia.     {Strab.,  361.) 
 
 Pamphii-a,  a  Grecian  female,  whom  Photius  makes 
 a  native  of  Egypt,  but  who,  according  to  Suidas.  Dio- 
 genes Laertius  (I,  24),  and  others,  was  born  at  Epi- 
 daurus  in  Argolis.  She  wrote  several  works,  the  con- 
 tents of  which  were  chiefly  historical.  One  of  these 
 was  entitled  'E7r(ro//at  inTopiCjv  {Historical  Abridg- 
 mcnlii).  Another,  which  Photius  has  made  known  to 
 us,  bore  the  name  of  'E,v[j.jiiKTa  laToptKu,  VTVofivj/fiara 
 {Hintorirnl  Miscellany).  It  was  a  species  of  note  or 
 nieinoranduin  book,  in  which  this  female  regularly  in- 
 serted, every  day,  wliatever  she  heard  most  deservinor 
 of  being  rfmeinhered.  in  the  conversations  between  her 
 husband  Socratidas  and  the  literary  friends  who  visited 
 his  house,  and  also  whatever  she  had  met  with  wor- 
 thy of  being  recorded,  in  the  course  of  her  historical 
 reading.  She  was  united  to  Socratidas  for  thirteen 
 years,  during  all  which  time  the  compilation  was  beino- 
 formed.  Tlie  work,  however,  was  without  any  syste- 
 matic arrangement,  though  it  would  appear  to  have  con- 
 tained a  vast  variety  of  literary  anecdote,  some  few 
 portions  of  which  have  reached  us  in  the  quotations  of 
 others.  Photius  only  knew  of  eight  books  of  this  col- 
 lection, but  Suidas  says  it  contained  thirty-three  ;  and, 
 in  fact,  Auhis  Gellius  (15.  17)  quotes  ihs  29lh,  and 
 Diogenes  Laertius  (1,  24)  the  30th.     The  work  is  un- 
 
 fortunately lost.  There  were  some  vho  ascribed  it  to 
 Sotendes,  the  father  of  Pamphiia.  {Suidas,  s.  v.,  cor- 
 rected by  Vossius,  de  Hist.  Grac.,  p.  237,  ed.  West- 
 ermann.)  According  to  Photius,  Pamphiia  lived  in 
 the  reign  of  Nero.  {Phot.,  cod.,  175— vol.  1,  p.  119, 
 ed.  Bckker — Vossius,  de  Hist.  Grczc,  I.  c. — Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  106.)  Kriiger,  in  his  Life 
 of  Thucydides  (p.  7),  calls  in  question  the  credit  of 
 this  female  author.     {Westerviann,  ad  Voss.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Pa.mhhii.us,  I.  an  Alexandrine  grammarian,  and  a 
 pupil  of  Aristarchus.  He  was  the  author  of  a  largo 
 lexicon,  in  91  or  95  books,  often  quoted  by  Athena;us, 
 in  whicl)  he  had  incorporated  the  lexicon  of  the  Cro- 
 tonian  dialect  by  Hermonax,  and  an  Italian  (i.  e.,  Do- 
 ric) lexicon  by  Diodorus  and  Heracleon.  Other  works 
 of  his  are  enumerated  by  Athenajus.  {Ncedham,  Pro- 
 leg,  ad  Geopon.,  p.  63,  seqq.  —  SchweJghaeuser.  Ind. 
 Auct.  ad  Athcn  ,  vol.  9,  p.  159.)  —  H.  A  celebrated 
 painter,  a  native  of  A!n[)hipolis,  but  who  studied  his 
 art  under  Enpompus  of  Sicyon,  and  succeeded  in  es- 
 tablishing the  school  which  his  master  had  founded. 
 The  characteristics  of  the  Sicyonian  school  of  paint- 
 ing were,  a  stricter  attention  to  dramatic  truth  of  corn- 
 position,  and  a  finer  and  more  systematic  style  of  de- 
 sign. Pamphilus  taught  the  principles  of  this  school 
 to  Apelles.  Such  was  his  authority,  says  Pliny  (35, 
 10,  36),  that,  chiefly  through  his  influence,  first  in  Si- 
 cyon and  then  throughout  all  Greece,  noble  youth  were 
 taught  the  art  of  drawing  before  all  others  ;  it  was 
 considered  among  the  first  of  liberal  arts,  and  was 
 practised  exclusively  among  the  freeborn,  for  there  was 
 a  law  prohibiting  all  slaves  the  use  of  the  ccslrum  or 
 ypn<pig.  In  this  school  of  Pamphilus,  the  most  fa- 
 mous of  all  the  ancient  schools  of  painting,  the  pro- 
 gressive courses  of  study  occupied  the  long  period  of 
 ten  years,  and  the  fee  of  admission  was  not  less  than 
 a  talent.  Pamphilus,  like  his  master  Enpompus, 
 seems  to  have  been  occupied  principally  with  the  the- 
 ory of  his  art  and  with  teaching,  since  we  have  very 
 scanty  notices  of  his  works.  Yet  he,  and  his  pupil 
 Melanthius,  according  to  Quintilian  (12,  10),  were  the 
 most  renowned  among  the  Greeks  for  com|)0sition. 
 We  have  accounts  of  only  four  of  his  paintings,  the 
 "  Heraclidae,"  mentioned  by  Aristophanes  {Plutus, 
 385),  and  three  others  named  by  Pliny,  the  "  Bat- 
 tle of  Phlius  and  victory  of  the  Athenians,"  "  Ulysses 
 on  the  raft,"  and  a  "  Relationship"  or  Cognatio, 
 probably  a  family  portrait.  These  pictures  were  all 
 conspicuous  for  the  scientific  arrangement  of  their 
 parts,  and  their  subjects  certainly  afford  good  materials 
 for  fine  composition.  The  period  of  Pamphilus  is 
 sufficiently  fixed  by  the  circumstance  of  his  having 
 taught  A[)elles,  and  he  consequently  flourished  some- 
 what before,  and  about  the  time  of  Philip  II.  of  Ma- 
 cedon,  from  B.C.  388  to  about  B.C.  348.  He  left 
 writings  upon  the  arts,  but  they  have  unfortunately 
 suffered  the  common  fate  of  the  writings  of  every  oth- 
 er ancient  artist.  He  wrote  on  painting  and  famous 
 painters.  {Encyclop.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  17,  p.  177. — 
 Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) — HI.  A  bishop  of  Ca;sarea  in 
 Palestine,  and  the  intimate  friend  of  Eusebius,  who, 
 in  memory  of  him,  appended  "  Pamphili"  (i.  e.,  the 
 friend  of  Pamphilus)  to  his  own  name  {vid.  Eusebius). 
 He  is  said  to  have  been  born  at  Jierytus,  and  educated 
 by  Pierius.  He  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in 
 Ca?sarea,  where  he  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  year 
 309.  Pamphilus  was  a  man  of  profound  learning,  and 
 devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures 
 and  the  works  of  the  Christian  writers.  Jerome 
 states,  that  he  wrote  out  with  his  own  hand  the  great- 
 er part  of  Origen's  works.  He  founded  a  library  at 
 Cffisarca,  chiefly  consisting  of  ecclesiastical  works, 
 which  became  celebrated  tboughout  the  ancient  world. 
 It  was  destroyed,  however,  before  the  middle  of  the 
 seventh  century.  He  constantly  lent  and  gave  away 
 copies  of  the  Scriptures.     Both  Eusebius  and  .Jerome 
 
 ^  965 
 
PAM 
 
 PAN 
 
 •peak  in  me  highest  terms  of  his  piety  and  benevo- 
 lence. Jerome  slates,  that  Painphiius  composed  an 
 npology  for  Origcn  before  Eusebius  ;  but,  at  a  later 
 [teriOu,  having  discovered  that  the  worii  which  he  bad 
 taken  for  Pampbiius's  was  only  the  first  book  of  Eu- 
 tcbius's  apology  for  Origen,  he  denied  that  Pamphilus 
 V  rote  anything  except  short  letters  to  his  friends. 
 'J  he  truth  seems  to  be,  that  the  first  five  books  of  the 
 "  Apology  for  Origen"  were  composed  by  Eusebius 
 and  Pamphilus  jointly,  and  the  si.xth  book  by  Euse- 
 bius alone,  after  the  death  of  Pamphilus.  Another 
 work,  which  Pamphilus  efiected  in  conjunction  with 
 Eusebius,  was  an  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  from  the 
 text  ni  Origen's  Hexapla.  This  edition  was  gen- 
 erally used  in  the  Eastern  church.  Moiitfaucon  and 
 Fat)riciu8  have  published  "  Contents  of  the  Acts  of 
 the  Apostles"  as  a  work  of  Pam])hilus  ;  but  this  is  in 
 all  probability  the  work  of  a  later  writer.  Eusebius 
 wrote  a  "  Life  of  Pamphilus,"  in  three  books,  which 
 is  now  entirely  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  frag- 
 ments, and  even  of  these  the  genuineness  is  extremely 
 doubtful.  We  have,  however,  notices  of  him  in  the 
 "  Ecclesiastical  History"  of  Eusebius  (7,  32),  and  in 
 the  "  De  V^iris  Illuslribiis,''''  and  other  works  of  Je- 
 rome.    (Lardner's  Credibility,  pt.  2,  c.  59.) 
 
 Pamphiis,  an  early  Athenian  bard,  and  a  disciple,  as 
 was  said,  of  Linus.  Phiiostratus  has  preserved  two 
 remarkable  verses  of  his,  which  recall  to  mind  the 
 symbol  under  which  the  Egyptians  typified  the  Crea- 
 tor of  the  universe,  or  the  author  of  animal  life.  The 
 lines  are  as  follows  : 
 
 7,ev,  KVikare.  jxiyiaTe  ^euv,  ei7.v[iivE  KOTvpci 
 Mt/zIejj/  re  hal  'nvTveiy  /cat  rjfiioveirj. 
 
 "■  Oh,  Jove,  most  glorious,  most  mighty  of  the  gods, 
 thou  that  art  enveloped  in  the  dung  of  sheep,  and 
 horses,  arid  mules.^'  (Fhiloslr.,  Heroic.,  c.  2,  p.  98, 
 ed.  Boissonade  )  —  According  to  Pausanias  (9,  27), 
 Painphus  composed  hymns  for  the  LycomediB,  a  fam- 
 ily which  held  by  hereditary  right  a  share  in  the  Eleu- 
 sinian  worship  of  Ceres.  Pamphus  is  also  said  to  have 
 first  sung  the  strain  of  lamentation  at  the  tomb  of  Li- 
 nus. (Sclioll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  33. — Miiller, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  p.  25  ) 
 
 Pamphvi.i.^  (Tla/KpvAia),  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
 extending  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  from 
 Olbia  to  Ptolemais,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  Pi- 
 sidia,  on  the  west  by  Lycia  and  the  southwestern  part 
 of  Phrygia,  and  on  the  east  by  Cilicia.  Pliny  (5, 
 26)  and  Mela  (1,  14)  make  Pamphylia  begin  on  the 
 coast  at  Phaselis,  which  they  reckon  a  city  of  Pamphyl- 
 ia, but  the  majority  of  writers  speak  of  it  as  a  Lycian 
 city.  Pamphylia  was  separated  from  Pisidia  by  Mount 
 Taurus,  and  was  drained  by  numerous  streams  which 
 flowed  from  the  high  land  of  the  latter  country.  The 
 eastern  part  of  the  coast  is  described  by  Captain  Beau- 
 fort as  flat,  sandy,  and  dreary  ;  but  this  remark  does 
 not  apply  to  the  interior  of  the  country,  which,  accord- 
 to  Mr.  Fellows'  account  {Excursion  in  Asia  Minor, 
 p.  204),  is  very  beautiful  and  picturesque.  The  west- 
 ern part  of  the  coast  is  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains 
 which  rise  from  the  sea.  and  attain  the  greatest  height 
 jn  Moutit  !Solyma,on  the  eastern  borders  of  Lycia.  The 
 western  part  of  the  country  is  coin|josed,  according  to 
 Mr.  Fellows  (p.  184),  "  for  thirty  or  forty  miles,  of  a 
 mass  of  incrusted  or  petrified  vegetable  matter,  lying 
 imbosomed,  as  it  were,  in  the  side  of  the  high  range  of 
 marble  mountains  which  must  originally  have  formed 
 the  coast  of  this  country.  As  the  streams,  and,  in- 
 deed, large  rivers  which  flow  from  the  mountains,  enter 
 the  country  formed  of  this  porous  mass,  they  almost 
 totally  disappear  beneath  it  ;  a  few  little  streams  only 
 are  kept  on  the  surface  by  artificial  means,  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  supplying  ai^ueducls  and  mills,  and,  being  car- 
 ried along  the  plain,  fall  over  the  cliffs  into  the  sea. 
 The  course  of  the  rivers  beneath  these  deposited  plains 
 966 
 
 is  continued  to  their  termination  at  a  short  distance 
 out  at  sea,  where  the  waters  of  the  rivers  rise  abun- 
 dantly all  along  the  coast,  sometimes  at  the  distance 
 of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  shore."  (Encycl.  Us. 
 KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  177.) — The  Greeks,  ever  prone  to 
 those  derivations  which  flattered  their  national  vanity, 
 attached  to  the  word  "Pamphyli"  (Ila/x^vAoi)  thai 
 meaning  which  the  component  words  nuv  and  ^vAov 
 would  in  their  language  naturally  convey,  namely,  "an 
 assemblage  of  different  nations."  (Strab.,  668  )  It 
 was,  however,  farther  necessary  to  account  for  the  im- 
 portation of  Grecian  terms  among  a  people  as  bart)a- 
 rous  as  the  Carians,  Lycians,  and  other  tribes  on  the 
 same  line  of  coast ;  and  the  siege  of  I'roy,  so  fertile  a 
 source  of  fiction,  gave  rise  to  the  tale  which  su))posed 
 Calchas  and  Amphilochus  to  have  settled  on  the  Pam- 
 phylian  shores  with  portions  of  various  tribes  of  the 
 Greeks.  This  story,  which  seems  to  have  obtained 
 general  credit,  is  to  be  traced,  in  the  first  instance,  to 
 the  father  of  history  (Herod.,  7,  91),  and  after  him  it 
 has  been  repeated  by  Strabo  (I.  c),  Pausanias  (7,  3), 
 and  others.  Of  the  Grecian  origin  of  several  towns 
 on  the  Pamphylian  coast  we  can  indeed  have  no  doubt; 
 but  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that  the  main  pop- 
 ulation of  the  country  was  of  the  Hellenic  race,  it  is 
 more  probable  that  they  derived  their  origin  from  the 
 Cilicians  or  the  ancient  Solymi.  Other  etymologies 
 may  be  found  in  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  {s.  v.  Ylafi- 
 (jivAia).  Pliny  reports,  that  this  country  was  once  call- 
 ed Mopsopia,  probal)ly  from  the  celebrated  .Grecian 
 soothsayer  Mopsus  (5,  26.) — Pamphylia  possesses  but 
 little  interest  in  an  historical  point  of  view.  It  became 
 subject  in  turn  to  Croesus,  the  Persian  monarths,  Al- 
 exander, the  Ptolemies,  Antiochus.  and  the  itoinans. 
 The  latter,  however,  had  considerable  difTiculty  in  ex- 
 tirpating the  pirates,  who  swarmed  along  the  whole  of 
 the  southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  even  dared  to 
 insult  the  galleys  of  those  proud  republicans  off  the 
 shores  of  Italy,  and  in  sight  of  Ostia.  Pamjihyba  was 
 entirely  a  maritime  country  :  its  coast  is  indented  by 
 a  deep  gulf,  known  to  the  ancients  by  the  name  of  Mare 
 Pamphylium,  and  in  modern  ge()gra()hy  it  bears  that  of 
 "  Gulf  of  Altalia."  The  Turks  call  this  part  of  Cara- 
 mania  by  the  appellation  of  Teke-Ili.  {Cramer's  Asia 
 Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  273,  scqq.)  Mr.  Leake  gives  the 
 following  account  of  the  natural  features  of  part  of  this 
 country,  which  may  be  compared  with  that  of  Mr.  Fel- 
 lows. "  From  Alaya  (the  ancient  Coracesium)  to 
 Alara  (the  ancient  Ptolemais)  are  eight  reputed  or 
 caravan  hours.  The  road  leads  along  the  seashore, 
 sometimes  just  above  the  seabeach,  upon  high  woody 
 banks,  connected  on  the  right  with  the  great  range  of 
 mountains  which  lies  parallel  to  the  coast ;  at  others, 
 across  narrow  fertile  valleys,  included  helwcen  branch- 
 es of  the  same  mountains.  There  arc  one  or  two  fine 
 harbours,  formed  by  islands  and  projecting  capes;  bul 
 the  coast  for  the  most  part  is  rocky  and  without  shel- 
 ter.—From  Alara  to  Menavgal  (situate  near  the  mouib 
 of  the  ancient  Melas)  the  road  proceeded  at  a  distance 
 of  three  or  four  miles  from  the  sea,  crossing  ssveral 
 fertile  and  well-cultivated  valleys,  and  passing  some 
 neat  villages  pleasantly  situated.  The  valleys  are  wa- 
 tered by  streams  coming  from  a  range  of  lofty  mount- 
 ains, appearing  at  a  great  distance  on  the  rigbJ." 
 {Leakeys  Journal,  p.  130.)  —  The  Melas  is  described 
 as  a  large  river,  and  the  adjacent  valleys  as  well-cui- 
 tivated  and  inhabited.  From  Menavgat  to  Das  hasher 
 (the  ancient  Syllium)  the  country  is  represented  as  be- 
 ing a  succession  of  fine  valleys,  separated  by  ridges 
 branching  from  the  mountains,  and  each  watered  by  a 
 stream  of  greater  or  less  magnitude.  {Leake's  Jottr- 
 nol,  I.  c) 
 
 Pan  (Tlfiv),  the  god  of  shepherds,  and  in  a  later  age 
 the  guardian  of  bees,  and  the  giver  of  success  in  fisb- 
 ing  and  fowling.  He  haunted  mountains  and  pastures, 
 wfas  fond  of  the  pastoral  reed  and  of  entrapping  nympi». 
 
PAN. 
 
 PAN 
 
 in  form  he  combined  that  of  man  and  beast,  having  a 
 red  face,  horned  head,  his  nose  flat,  and  his  legs,  thighs, 
 tail,  and  feet  those  of  a  goat.  Honey  and  milk  were 
 offered  to  him. — 'I'his  god  is  unnoticed  by  Homer  and 
 Hesiod  ;  but,  according  to  one  of  the  Homeridae,  he 
 was  the  son  of  Mercury  by  an  Arcadian  nympli.  (Horn., 
 Hymn.,  19.)  So  monstrous  was  his  appearance,  that 
 the  nurse,  on  beholding  him,  fled  away  in  affright. 
 Mercury,  however,  immediately  caught  him  up,  wrap- 
 ped him  carefuUy^iii  a  hareskin,  and  carried  him  away 
 to  Olympus:  then  taking  his  seat  with  Jupiter  and  the 
 other  gods,  he  produced  his  babe.  All  the  gods,  es- 
 pecially Bacchus,  were  delighted  with  the  little  stran- 
 ger ;  and  they  named  him  I'ari  (i.  e.,  "  <4//"),  because 
 he  had  charmed  them  all!  —  Others  fabled  that  Pan 
 was  the  son  of  Mercury  by  Penelope,  whose  love  he 
 gamed  under  the  form  of  a  goat,  as  she  was  tending 
 in  her  vouth  the  flocks  of  her  father  on  Mount  Tayge- 
 tus.  (Herod.,  2,  145  — .St/(o/.  ad  Tlieocr.,  7,  109.— 
 Eudocia,  323. — Tzelzex,  ad  Lycophr.,  772.)  Some 
 even  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  he  was  the  offspring 
 of  the  amours  of  Penelope  with  all  her  suitors.  {Schol. 
 ad  Theocr  ,  1,  3. — Eudocia,  I.  c.  —  Serv.  ud  AZn.,  2, 
 44.)  According  to  Epimenides  {Schol.  ad  Theocr., 
 I.  c).  Pan  and  Areas  were  the  children  of  Jupiter  and 
 Callisto.  Aristippus  made  Pan  the  otlspnng  of  Jupi- 
 ter and  the  nymph  ffineis  ;  others,  again,  said  that  he 
 was  a  child  of  Heaven  and  Earth.  {Schol.  ad  Theocr., 
 7,  123.)  There  was  also  a  Pan  said  to  be  the  son  of 
 Jupiter  and  the  nymph  Thymbris  or  Hybris,  the  in- 
 structer  of  Apollo  in  divination.  {Apollod.,  1,  4,  1.) 
 — The  worship  of  Pan  seems  to  have  been  confined  to 
 Arcadia  till  tiie  time  of  the  battle  of  Marathon,  when 
 Phidippides.  the  courier  who  was  sent  from  Athens  to 
 Sparta  to  call  on  the  Spartans  for  aid  again.«t  the  Per- 
 sians, declared  that,  as  he  was  passing  by  Mount  Par- 
 thenius.  near  Tegea  in  Arcadia,  he  heard  the  voice  of 
 Pan  calling  to  him,  and  desiring  him  to  ask  the  Athe- 
 nians why  they  paid  no  regard  to  him,  who  was  al- 
 ways, and  still  would  be,  friendly  and  willing  to  aid. 
 After  the  battle,  the  Athenians  consecrated  a  cave  to 
 Pan  under  the  Acro[)olis,  and  offered  him  annual  sac- 
 rifices. {Herod.,  6,  105.  —  P/uf.,  Vil.  Anst.,  11.) 
 Long  before  this  time,  the  Grecian  and  Egyptian  sys- 
 tems of  religion  had  begun  to  mingle  and  combine. 
 The  goat-formed  Mendes  of  Egypt  was  now  regarded 
 as  identical  with  the  horned  and  goat-footed  god  of  the 
 Arcadian  herdsmen  {Herod.,  2,  46) ;  and  Pan  was  el- 
 evated to  great  dignity  by  priests  and  philosophers,  be- 
 coming a  symbol  of  the  universe,  for  his  name  signi- 
 fied all.  Moreover,  as  he  dwelt  in  the  woods,  he  was 
 called  "  Lord  of  the  Hyle"  {'O  T?}g  vXr]^  Kvpio^)  ;  and 
 as  the  word  hyle  {v'At/),  by  a  lucky  ambiguity,  signi- 
 tied  either  wood  or  prinilive  matter,  this  was  another 
 ground  for  exalting  him.  It  is  amusing  to  read  how 
 all  the  attributes  of  the  Arcadian  god  were  made  to 
 accord  with  this  notion.  "  Pan,"  says  Servius,  "  is  a 
 rustic  god,  formed  in  similitude  of  nature,  whence  he 
 is  called  Pan,  i.  e.,  All:  for  he  has  horns,  in  simili- 
 tude of  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  horns  of  the  moon  ; 
 his  face  is  ruddy,  in  imitation  of  the  ether  ;  he  has  a 
 spotted  favvnskin  upon  his  breast,  in  likeness  of  the 
 stars:  his  lower  parts  are  shaggy,  on  account  of  the 
 trees,  shrubs,  and  wild  beasts  ;  he  has  goat's  feet,  to 
 denote  the  stability  of  the  earth  ;  he  has  a  pipe  of 
 seven  reeds,  on  account  of  the  harmony  of  the  heav- 
 ens, in  which  there  are  seven  sounds;  he  has  a  crook, 
 tlict  is,  a  curved  staff,  on  account  of  the  year,  which 
 runs  back  on  itself,  because  he  is  the  god  of  all  nature. 
 It  is  feigned  liy  the  poets  that  he  struggled  with  Love, 
 and  was  conquered  by  him,  because,  as  we  read.  Love 
 contjners  all.  "  Om?iitt  I7(n«<  amor."  {Serv.  ad  Virg-., 
 Ecla^.,  2,  31.  —  Compare  Schol.  ad  Theocr.,  1,  3. — 
 Eudocia,  323.) — In  Arcadia,  his  native  country.  Pan 
 appears  never  to  have  attiiined  to  such  distinction;  on 
 the  contrary,  we  find  in  Theocritus  (7,  106)  a  ludicrous 
 
 account  of  the  treatment  which  this  deity  received  from 
 the  Arcadians  when  they  were  unsuccessful  in  hunting. 
 {Schol.  ad  Theocr.,  I.  c.) — The  Homerid  already  quo- 
 ted, who  is  older  than  Pindar,  describes  in  a  very 
 pleasing  manner  the  occupations  of  Pan.  He  is  lord 
 of  all  the  hills  and  dales  :  sometimes  he  ranges  along 
 the  tops  of  the  mountains,  sometimes  pursues  the 
 game  in  the  valleys,  roams  through  the  woods,  floats 
 along  the  streams,  or  drives  his  sheep  into  a  cave,  and 
 there  plays  on  his  reeds,  producing  music  not  to  be 
 excelled  by  that  of  the  bird  "which,  among  the  leaves 
 of  the  flowery  spring,  laments,  pouring  forth  her  moan, 
 a  sweet-sounding  lay."  In  after  times,  as  we  have 
 already  remarked,  the  care  of  Pan  was  held  to  extend 
 beyond  the  herds.  We  find  him  regarded  as  the 
 guardian  of  the  bees  (AnlhoL,  9,  226),  and  as  the 
 giver  of  success  in  fishing  and  fowling.  {AnthoL,  7, 
 I  I,  seqq.  ;  179,  seqq.)  —  The  origin  of  the  syrivx  or 
 pipe  of  Pan  is  given  as  follows:  Syrinx  was  a  Naiad, 
 of  Nonacris  in  Arcadia,  and  devoted  to  the  service  of 
 Diana.  As  she  was  returning  one  day  from  the  chase, 
 and  was  passing  by  Mount  Lycaaus,  Pan  beheld  her : 
 but  when  he  would  address  her,  she  fled.  The  god 
 pursued  :  she  reached  the  river  Ladon,  and,  unable  to 
 cross  it,  implored  the  aid  of  her  sister-nymphs  ;  and 
 when  Pan  thought  to  grasp  the  object  of  his  pursuit, 
 he  found  his  arms  filled  with  reeds.  While  he  stood 
 sighing  at  his  disappointment,  the  wind  began  to  agi- 
 tate the  reeds,  and  produced  a  low  musical  sound. 
 The  god  took  the  hint,  cut  seven  of  the  reeds,  and 
 formed  from  thein  his  syrinx  {avpiy^)  or  pastoral  pipe. 
 {Ovid,  Met.,  I,  690,  seqq.)  Another  of  his  loves  was 
 the  nymph  Pitys,  who  was  also  beloved  by  Boreas. 
 The  nymph  favoured  more  the  god  of  Arcadia,  and 
 the  wind  god,  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  blew  her  down  from 
 the  summit  of  a  lofty  rock.  A  tree  of  her  own  name 
 (TriTvg.  pi7ic)  sprang  up  where  she  died,  and  it  became 
 the  favourite  plant  of  Pan.  {Nonnus,  43,  259,  seqq. 
 —  Gcopon.,  11,4.)  —  What  are  called  Panic  terrors 
 were  ascribed  to  Pan ;  for  loud  noises,  whose  cause 
 could  not  easily  be  traced,  were  not  unfrequently  heard 
 in  mountainous  regions  ;  and  the  gloom  and  loneliness 
 of  forests  and  mountains  fill  the  mind  with  a  secret 
 horror,  and  dispose  it  to  superstitious  apprehensions  — 
 The  ancients  had  two  modes  of  representing  Pan:  the 
 first,  according  to  the  description  already  given,  as 
 horned  and  goat-footed,  with  a  wrinkled  face  and  a 
 flat  nose.  The  artists,  however,  sought  to  soften  the 
 idea  of  the  god  of  shepherds,  and  they  portrayed  him 
 as  a  young  man  hardened  by  the  toils  of  a  country  life. 
 Short  horns  s|)rout  on  his  forehead  to  characterize  him  , 
 he  bears  his  crook  and  his  syrinx,  and  he  is  either  na- 
 ked, or  clad  in  the  light  cloak  denominated  chlamys. 
 {Sil.  Ital.,  13,  326,  seqq.)  Like  many  other  gods  who 
 were  originally  single.  Pan  was  multiplied  in  cour.^e  of 
 time,  and  wc  meet  with  Pans  in  the  plural.  {Plat., 
 Lcfr.,7,  Hl5.—Arisloph.,  Ecclcs.,  \(\m.  — Moschus, 
 3,  22.)  —  The  name  Paji  {Udv)  is  probably  nothing 
 more  than  nduv,  "■feeder''  or  "  opener  "  Buttmann 
 connects  Pan  with  .Apollo  Nomius,  regarding  his  name 
 as  the  contraction  of  PcEan  {Uaiuv),  and  he  refers,  in 
 support  of  his  opinion,  to  the  forms  Alcman  from  Alc- 
 maon,  Amythan  from  Amylhaon,  &c.  {Mythologus, 
 vol.  1,  p.  169.)  This,  however,  would  rather  favour 
 the  derivation  of  Pan  from  Paon,  as  first  given. 
 Welcker  savs  that  Pan  was  the  Arcadian  form  of 
 ^d(jv,  ^ilv  'Phaon,  Phan),  apparently  regarding  hira 
 as  the  sun.  {Welcker,  Kret.  KoL,  p.  i5.—Schtcenclc, 
 A7ideiU.,p.  ll-i.—Keishtley's Mythology,  p  229.  seqq.) 
 
 Panace.v  {^ill-Heal),  a  daughter  of  .^sculapius. 
 (F(rf.  iEscula[»iiis.)  r  Di    J 
 
 Pan^tius,  a  Greek  philosopher,  a  native  of  Rhodes. 
 He  studied  at  Athens  under  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  and 
 afterward  came  to  Home,  about  140  B.C.,  where  he 
 gave  lessons  in  philosophy,  and  was  intimate  with 
 Scipio  yEmilianus,  the  younger  Laelius,  and  Polybius. 
 ^  967 
 
PAlSi 
 
 PANATHEN^A. 
 
 After  a  time  Panslins  relumed  to  Athens,  where  he 
 became  the  leader  of  the  Sloic  school,  and  where  he 
 died  at  a  very  advanced  age  Posidoiiius,  Scylax  of 
 Halicarnassus,  Hccaton,  and  Mnesarchus  are  metitioii- 
 ed  among  his  disciples.  Panalius  was  not  apparently 
 a  strict  Stoic,  but  rather  an  Eclectic  philosopher,  vvho 
 tempered  the  austerity  of  his  sect  by  adopting  some- 
 thing of  the  more  rehned  st}le  and  milder  principles 
 of  Plato  and  the  other  earlier  Academicians.  {Cic, 
 de  Fin  ,4,  28.)  Cicero,  vvho  speaks  repeatedly  of  the 
 works  of  Pana?lius  in  terms  of  the  highest  veneration, 
 and  acknowledges  that  he  borrowed  much  from  them, 
 says  that  Panaeiius  styled  Plato  "the  divine,"  and 
 "the  Homer  of  Philosophy,"  and  only  dissented  from 
 him  on  the  subject  of  the  iininorialily  of  the  soul, 
 which  he  seems  not  to  have  ad.'niited.  (Tnsc. 
 Quasi.,  1,  32.)  Aldus  Gellius  says  (12,  5)  that  Pa- 
 nsetius  rejected  the  principle  of  apathy  adopted  by  the 
 later  Stoics,  and  returned  to  Zeno's  original  meaning, 
 namely,  that  the  wise  man  ought  to  know  how  to  mas- 
 ter the  impressions  which  he  receives  through  the 
 senses.  In  a  letter  of  consolation  which  Panaelius 
 wrote  to  Q.  'I'ubero,  mentioned  by  Cicero  {De  Fm., 
 4,  9),  he  instructed  him  how  to  endure  pain,  hut  he 
 never  laid  it  down  as  a  principle  that  pain  was  not  an 
 evil.  He  was  very  temperate  in  his  opinions,  and  he 
 often  replied  to  difficult  questions  with  modest  hesita- 
 tion, saying,  inix(^<  "  I  ^^'"  consider." — None  of  the 
 works  of  Panwtius  have  come  down  to  us  ;  but  their 
 titles,  and  a  few  sentences  from  them,  are  quoted  by 
 Cicero,  Diogenes  Laertius,  and  others.  He  wrote  a 
 treatise  "  On  Duties,'^  the  substance  of  which  Ci(-ero 
 merged  in  his  own  work  "  De  Offi-cijs.'"  Panaetius 
 wrote  also  a  treatise  "  On  Divination,"  of  which  Cicero 
 probably  made  use  in  his  own  work  on  the  same  sub- 
 ject. He  wrote  likewise  a  work  "  On  Tranquillity  of 
 Mind,"  which  some  suppose  may  have  been  made  use 
 of  by  Plutarch  in  his  work  bearing  the  same  title. 
 Cicero  mentions  also  a  treatise  "  On  Providence," 
 another  "  On  Magistrates,"  and  one  "  On  Heresies," 
 or  sects  of  philosophers.  His  book  "  On  Socrates," 
 quoted  by  Diogenes  Laertius,  and  by  Plutarch  in  his 
 "Life  of  Aristides."  made  probably  a  part  of  the  last- 
 mentioned  work.  Laertius  and  Seneca  quote  several 
 opinions  of  Panajtius  concerning  ethics  and  metaphys- 
 ics, and  also  physics.  (Encycl.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  17, 
 p.  178. — Van  Lynden,  Disp.  Hislorico-Crit.  de  Pa- 
 natio  Rhcidio,  Lngd.  But.,  1802  — Chardon  de  la 
 Rorhcttc,  Melanges.  &c.,  vol.  1,  Paris,  1812.) 
 
 P.ANATHEN^.\  (Uavadr/vaio),  the  greatest  of  the 
 Athenian  festivals,  was  celebrated  in  honour  of  Miner- 
 va (.Athena)  as  the  guardian  deity  of  the  city.  It  is 
 said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Erichlhoniiis,  and  to 
 have  been  called  originally  Athenaa  ('Afii/vaia),  but  it 
 obtained  the  name  of  Pnnatheruca  in  the  lime  of  The- 
 seus, in  consequence  of  his  uniting  into  one  state  the 
 different  independent  communities  into  which  Attica 
 had  been  previously  divided.  {Pausan.,  8,  2,  1. — 
 Plut  ,  Vit.  Thcs.,  c.  20.  —  Thucyd,  2.  15.)  There 
 were  two  Athenian  festivals  which  had  the  name  of 
 Panathenspa  ;  one  of  which  was  called  the  Great  Pan- 
 athentfa  (MeytiAa  Tlavnfiiivata),  and  the  other  the 
 Less  (M^/cpu).  The  Great  Panatbenaea  was  celebra- 
 ted once  every  five  years,  with  very  great  magnificence, 
 and  attracted  spectators  from  all  parts  of  Greece.  The 
 Less  Panathena-a  was  celebrated  every  year  in  the 
 Piraeus.  {Hnrpncrat  ,  s.  v.  Uavad.  —  P/al.,  Rep.,  1, 
 ).)  When  the  Greek  writers  speak  simply  of  the  fes- 
 tival of  the  PanathensRa,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to 
 deierm-ns  which  of  the  two  is  alluded  to  ;  but  when 
 the  Panathenaea  is  mentioned  by  itself,  and  there  is  no- 
 thing in  the  context  to  mark  the  contrary,  the  presump- 
 tion is  that  the  Great  Panathcn»a  is  meant;  and  it 
 is  thus  spoken  of  by  Herodotus  (5,  56)  and  Demos- 
 thenes (De  Fals.  Leg.,  p.  394). — The  Great  Panathe- 
 naea was  celebrated  on  the  28th  day  of  Hecatombason 
 968 
 
 {Clinron,  Fast.  Hell,  vol.  1,  p.  325),  the  first  of  the 
 Athenian  months  ;  which  agrees  with  the  account  of 
 Demosthenes  (c(ir/<Va  Timocr.,\i.  708,  «ej.),  who  places 
 it  after  the  twelfth  day  of  the  month.  There  is  con- 
 siderable dispute  as  to  the  time  when  the  Less  Pan 
 athena>a  was  celebrated.  Meursius  places  the  celebra- 
 tion in  Tbargelion,  the  eleventh  of  the  Athenian 
 months ;  but  Petilus  and  Corsini  in  Hecalomba?on. 
 Mr.  Clinton,  who  has  examined  the  subject  at  consid- 
 erable length  {Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  1,  p.  332,  scqq.),  sup- 
 ports the  opinion  of  Meursius  ;  and  it  does  not  a)>pear 
 improbable  that  the  Less  Panathenaea  was  celebrated 
 in  the  same  month  as  the  Great,  and  was  perhaps 
 omitted  in  the  year  in  which  the  great  festival  occurred. 
 The  celebration  of  the  Great  Panalhensea  only  lasted 
 one  day  in  the  time  of  Hipparchus  (Thvryd  ,  6,  56), 
 but  it  was  continued  in  later  times  for  several  days. — 
 At  both  of  the  Panathenaea  there  were  gymnastic  con- 
 tests {Pind.,  Isthm.,  4,  42 — Pollux,  8,  93),  among 
 which  the  torch-race  seems  to  have  been  very  popular. 
 In  the  time  of  Socrates  there  was  introduced  at  the 
 Less  Panathenaea  a  torch-race  on  horseback.  {Plat., 
 Rep.,  1,  1.)  At  the  Great  Panathenaea  there  was  also 
 a  musical  contest,  and  a  recitation  of  the  Homeric 
 poems  by  rhapsodists.  {Lycurg.,  contra  Lencr.,  p. 
 209  )  The  victors  in  these  contests  were  rewarded 
 with  vessels  of  sacred  oil.  (Pind.,  Nem.,  10,  64. — - 
 SchoL,  ad  loc.—Schol.  ad  Soph.,  (Ed.  Col,  698.)— 
 The  most  celebrated  part,  however,  of  the  grand  Pan- 
 athenaic  festival  was  the  solemn  procession  {TTOfnrr'/), 
 in  which  the  Peplus  (ntTT/lof),  or  sacred  robe  of 
 Athena,  was  carried  through  the  Ceramicus,  and  the 
 other  principal  parts  of  the  city,  to  the  Parthenon,  ami 
 suspended  before  the  statue  of  the  goddess  within 
 This  Peplus  was  covered  with  embroidery  {noiKil/ia- 
 ra. — Plat.,  Euthyph.,c.  6),  on  which  was  representee* 
 the  battle  of  the  Gods  and  the  Giants,  especially  th< 
 exploits  of  Jupiter  and  Minerva  {Plat.,  I.  c.  —  £«• 
 rip.,  Hec,  468),  and  also  the  achievements  of  the  he- 
 roes in  the  Attic  mythology,  whence  Aristophanes 
 speaks  of  "  men  worthy  of  this  land  and  of  the  Peplus." 
 {Equit ,  564.)  The  embroidery  was  worked  by  young 
 maidens  of  the  noblest  families  in  Athens  (called  fp- 
 yaarlvai),  of  whom  two  were  superintendents,  with 
 the  name  of  Arrephora;.  When  the  festival  was  cele- 
 brated, the  Peplus  was  brought  down  from  the  Acrop- 
 olis, where  it  had  been  worked,  and  was  suspended 
 like  a  sail  upon  a  ship  {Pausan  ,  29,  1),  which  was 
 then  drawn  through  the  principal  parts  of  the  city. 
 The  old  men  carried  olive-branches  in  their  hands, 
 whence  they  were  called  Thallophori  {Qal'ko(j>i'>poL) ; 
 and  the  young  men  ap))eared  with  arms  in  their  hands, 
 at  least  in  the  time  of  Hipparchus  {Thucyd.,  6,  65). 
 The  young  women  carried  baskets  on  their  heads, 
 whence  they  were  called  Canephori  (Koiy/^<')/>oj). 
 The  sacrifices  were  very  numerous  on  this  occasion. 
 During  the  supremacy  of  Athens,  every  subject  state 
 had  to  furnish  an  ox  for  the  festival.  {Schol.  oA 
 Aristopk.,  Nub.,  385.)  It  was  a  season  of  general 
 joy  ;  even  prisoners  were  accustomed  to  be  liberated, 
 that  they  might  take  part  in  the  general  rejoicing. 
 {Schol.  ad  Demosth.,  Tiinocr.,  p.  184.)  After  the 
 battle  of  Marathon,  it  was  usual  for  the  herald  at  the 
 Great  Panalheiia-a  to  (>ray  for  the  good  of  the  Platfeaiis 
 as  well  as  the  Athenians,  in  consequence  of  the  aid 
 which  the  former  had  afforded  to  the  latter  in  that 
 memoraiile  fight.  The  procession  which  has  jtist  been 
 described  formed  the  subject  of  the  bas-relicfs  which 
 embellished  the  exterior  of  the  Parthenon,  and  which  are 
 generally  known  by  the  name  of  the  Panatheiiaic  frieze. 
 A  considerable  portion  of  this  frieze,  which  is  one  of  the 
 most  splendid  of  the  ancient  works  of  art,  is  now  in 
 the  British  Museum,  and  belongs  to  the  collection 
 called  the  "  Elgin  Marbles." — A  full  and  detailed  ac 
 count  of  the  Panathenaic  festivals  is  given  by  Meur- 
 sius in  a  treatise  on  the  subject,  which  is  printed  in 
 
PAN 
 
 PANDORA. 
 
 ,ne  seventh  volume  of  the  "Thesaurus"  of  Gronovius. 
 Enc.ycl.  Us.  KnoxcL,  vol.  17,  p.  182.) 
 
 Panchaia,  a  fabled  island  in  the  Eastern  or  In- 
 dian Ocean,  which  Euhetnerus  pretended  to  have  dis- 
 covered, and  to  have  found  in  its  capital,  Panara,  a 
 tein()le  of  the  Tnphylian  Jupiter,  containing  a  column 
 inscribed  with  the  date  of  the  births  and  deaths  of 
 many  of  the  gods.  {Vid.  Euhemerus.) — Virgil  makes 
 mention  of  Panchaia  and  its  "  turifcra  aren(E." 
 {Ccorg.,  2,  139.)  The  poet  borrows  the  name  from 
 Euhemerus.  but  evidently  refers  to  Arabia  Fehx. 
 (Compare  Hcyne  And   Voss,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Pandakus,  son  of  Lvcaon,  and  one  of  the  chieftains 
 ^Vat  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Trojans  in  the  war 
 with  the  Greeks.  He  led  the  allies  of  Zelea  from  the 
 banks  of  the  .^Jsepus  in  Mysia,  and  was  famed  for  his 
 skill  with  the  bow.  {II ,  2,  824,  seqq.)  It  was  Pan- 
 darus  that  broke  the  truce  between  the  Greeks  and 
 Trojans  by  wounding  Menelans.  (//.,  4.  93,  seqq.) 
 He  was  afterward  slain  by  Diomede.  (//.,  5,  290.)  In 
 one  part  of  the  Iliad  {f>,  105)  he  is  spoken  of  as  com- 
 ing from  Lycia,  but  the  Lycia  there  meant  is  only  a 
 part  of  Troas,  forming  the  territory  around  Zelea,  and 
 inhabited  by  Lycian  colonists.  (Consult  Eustath.  ad 
 11.  2,  S1\.—Hryne,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Pandataria,  an  island  in  the  Mare  Tyrrhenum,  in 
 the  Sinus  Puteolanus,  on  the  coast  of  Italy.  It  was 
 the  place  of  banishment  for  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Au- 
 gustus, and  many  others.  It  is  now  Isola  Vandotina. 
 (Lwy,  53,  li.—Mela,  2,  7.— Pliny,  3,  6 —Ilin. 
 Mant.,  515.) 
 
 Pandion,  I.  an  early  king  of  Athens,  belonging  to 
 mythology  rather  than  to  history.  He  was  the  son  of 
 Erichthonius,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  the  kingdom. 
 In  his  reign  Ceres  and  Bacchus  are  said  to  have  come 
 to  Attica.  The  former  was  entertained  by  Celeus, 
 the  latter  by  Icarius.  Pandion  married  Xeuxippe,  the 
 sister  of  his  mother,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Erech- 
 theus  and  Botes,  and  two  daughters,  Procne  and  Phi- 
 lomela. Being  at  war  with  Labdacus,  king  of  Thebes, 
 about  boundaries,  he  called  to  his  aid  Tereus,  the  son 
 of  Mars,  out  of  Thrace  ;  and  having,  with  his  assist- 
 ance, come  oft'  victorious  in  the  contest,  he  gave  him 
 his  daughter  Procne  in  marriage,  by  whom  Tereus 
 had  a  son  named  Itys.  The  tragic  tale  of  Procne  and 
 Philomela  is  related  elsewhere.  {Vid.  Philomela.) 
 Pandion  is  said  to  have  died  of  grief  at  the  misfortunes 
 of  his  family,  after  a  reign  of  40  years.  He  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  Erechtheus.  (Apollod.,  3,  14,  5,  seqq) 
 The  visit  paid  by  Ceres  and  ISacchus  to  Attica,  during 
 the  reign  of  Pandion,  refers  merely  to  improvements 
 in  agriculture  which  were  then  introduced.  {Words- 
 wortk's  Greece,  p.  96  ) — II.  The  second  of  the  name, 
 was  also  king  of  Attica,  and  succeeded  Cecrops  II., 
 the  son  of  Erechtheus.  He  was  expelled  by  the  Me- 
 tionidne,  and  retired  to  Megara,  where  he  married  Pylia, 
 the  daughter  of  King  Pylos.  This  last-mentioned 
 monarch  being  obliged  to  fly  for  the  murder  of  his 
 brother  Bias,  resigned  Megara  to  his  son-in-law,  and, 
 retiring  to  the  Peloponnesus,  built  Pylos.  Pandion 
 had  four  sons,  ^geus,  Pallas,  Nisus,  and  Lycus,  who 
 conquered  and  divided  among  them  the  .\ttic  territory, 
 .-Egeus,  as  the  eldest,  having  the  supremacy.  {Apol- 
 lod ,3,  15,  4.— ^Consult  Heyne,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Pandora,  the  first  created  female,  and  celebrated 
 in  one  of  the  early  legends  of  the  Greeks  as  havin<T 
 been  the  cause  of  the  introduction  of  evil  into  the 
 world.  Jupiter,  it  seems,  incensed  at  Prometheus  for 
 having  stolen  the  fire  from  the  skies,  resolved  to  pun- 
 ish men  for  this  daring  deed.  He  therefore  directed 
 V^iilcan  to  knead  earth  and  water,  to  give  it  human 
 voice  and  strength,  and  to  make  it  assume  the  fair 
 form  of  a  virgin  like  the  immortal  goddesses.  He  de- 
 sired Minerva  to  endow  her  with  artist-knowledae, 
 Venus  to  give  her  beauty,  and  Mercury  to  inspire  her 
 with  an  impudent  and  artful  dispositiou.  When  form- 
 6G 
 
 ed,  she  was  attired  by  the  Seasons  and  Graces ,  an  I 
 each  of  the  deities  having  bestowed  upon  her  the  com- 
 manded gifts,  she  was  named  Pandora  {All-gifted — 
 Trdi',  all,  and  6u)pov,  a  gift)  Thus  furnished,  she  was 
 brought  by  Mercury  to  the  dwelling  of  Epimetheus  ; 
 who,  though  his  brother  Prometheus  had  warned  hiru 
 to  be  on  his  guard,  and  to  receive  no  gifts  from  Jupi- 
 ter, dazzled  with  her  charms,  took  her  into  his  house 
 and  made  her  his  wife.  The  evil  effects  of  this  im- 
 prudent step  were  speedily  felt.  In  the  dwelling  of 
 Epimetheus  stood  a  closed  jar,  which  he  had  been  for- 
 bidden to  open.  Pandora,  under  the  influence  of  fe- 
 male curiosity,  disregarding  the  injunction,  raised  the 
 lid,  and  all  the  evils  hitherto  unknown  to  man  poured 
 out,  and  spread  themselves  over  the  earth.  In  terror 
 at  the  sight  of  these  monsters,  she  shut  down  the  lid 
 just  in  time  to  prevent  the  escape  of  Hope,  which  thus 
 remained  to  man,  his  chief  support  and  comfort.  {He- 
 stod,  Op.  et  D.,  47,  seqq.— Id.,  Thcog.,  570,  seqq) — 
 An  attempt  has  frequently  been  made  to  trace  an 
 analogy  between  this  more  ancient  tradition  and  the 
 account  of  the  fall  of  our  first  parents,  as  detailed  by 
 the  inspired  penman.  Prometheus,  or  forethought,  is 
 supposed  to  denote  the  purity  and  wisdom  of  our  early 
 progenitor  before  he  yielded  to  temptation  ;  Epime- 
 theus, or  after- thought,  to  be  indicative  of  his  change 
 of  resolution,  and  his  yielding  to  the  arguments  of 
 Eve  ;  which  the  poet  expresses  by  saying  that  Epi- 
 metheus received  Pandora  after  he  had  been  cautioned 
 by  Promethus  not  to  do  so.  The  curiosity  of  Pandora 
 violated,  it  is  said,  the  positive  injunction  about  not 
 opening  llie  jar,  just  as  our  first  parent  Eve  disregard- 
 ed the  commands  of  her  Maker  respecting  the  tree  of 
 knowledge.  Pandora,  moreover,  the  author  of  all  hu- 
 man woes,  is.  as  the  advocates  for  this  analogy  assert, 
 the  author  likewise  of  their  chief,  and,  in  fact,  only  sol- 
 ace ;  for  she  closed  the  lid  of  the  fatal  jar  before 
 Hope  could  escape  ;  and  this  she  did,  according  to 
 Hesiod,  in  compliance  unth  the  ivill  of  Jove.  May 
 not  Hope,  they  ask,  thus  secured,  be  that  hope  and 
 expectation  of  a  Redeemer  winch  has  been  traditional 
 from  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world  ]  Even  so  out 
 first  parents  commit  the  fatal  sin  of  disobedience,  but 
 from  the  seed  of  the  woman,  who  was  the  first  to  of- 
 fend, was  to  spring  one  who  should  be  the  hope  and 
 the  only  solace  of  our  race. — .\11  this  is  extremely  in- 
 genious, but,  unfortunately,  not  at  all  borne  out  by  the 
 words  of  the  poet  from  whom  the  legend  is  obtained. 
 The  jar  contains  various  evils,  and,  as  long  as  it  re- 
 mains closed,  man  is  free  from  their  influence,  for  they 
 are  confined  closely  within  their  prison-bouse.  "When 
 the  lid  or  top  is  raised,  these  evils  fly  forth  among  men, 
 and  Hope  alone  remains  behind,  the  lid  being  shut 
 down  before  she  could  escape  Here,  then,  we  have 
 man  exposed  to  suffering  and  calamity,  and  no  hope 
 afforded  him  of  a  better  lot,  for  Hope  is  imprisoned  in 
 
 the  jar  {hv  uppyKToiai  66/toicn niOav  vwo  ;^«- 
 
 leffiv),  and  has  not  been  allowed  to  come  forth  and 
 exercise  her  influence  through  the  world.  Again,  hov» 
 did  Hope  ever  find  admission  into  the  jar?  Was  it 
 placed  there  as  a  kindred  eviH  It  surely,  then,  could 
 have  nothing  to  do  with  the  promise  of  a  Redeemer. 
 Or,  was  it  placed  in  the  jar  to  lure  man  to  the  com- 
 mission of  evil,  by  constantly  exciting  dissatisfactiop 
 at  the  present,  and  a  hope  of  something  better  in  the 
 future  !  This,  however,  is  not  hope,  but  discontent. 
 Yet  the  poet  would  actually  seem  to  have  regarded 
 hope  as  no  better  than  an  evil,  since,  after  stating 
 that  the  exit  of  Hope  from  the  jar  was  arrested  by  the 
 closing  of  the  lid,  he  adds,  "but  countjess  ether  woes 
 wander  among  men"  ((UAa  Se  jivpla  /.vrpa  kot'  uv- 
 epdiTTovg  aldln-ai,  v.  100).  It  is  much  more  ration- 
 al, then,  to  regard  the  whole  legend  as  an  ebullition  of 
 that  spleen  against  the  female  sex  occasionally  exhib- 
 ited by  the  old  Grecian  bards.  The  resemblance  it 
 bears  to  the  Scripture  account  is  very  unsatisfactory : 
 ^  969 
 
P  AN 
 
 PAN 
 
 Eva  was  tempted,  Pandora  was  not  ;  the  former  was 
 actuated  by  a  noblo  instinct,  the  love  of  knowledge, 
 the  latter  by  mere  female  curiosity. — It  seems  very 
 strange  that  the  ancients  should  iiave  taken  so  little 
 notice  of  this  myth.  There  is  no  allusion  to  it  in  Pin- 
 dar or  ihe  tragedians,  e.xcepting  Sophocles,  one  of 
 whose  lost  satyric  dramas  was  named  "  Pandora,  or 
 the  Ham(nerers."  Ii  was  equally  neglected  liy  the 
 Alexandreans.  Apollodorns  merely  calls  Pandora  the 
 first  woman.  In  fact,  with  the  exce[)tion  of  a  dubious 
 passage  in  Theognis  {Par<E7i.,  1135,  scq),  where 
 Hope  IS  said  to  have  been  the  only  good  deny  that  re- 
 mained among  men,  we  find  no  allusion  to  it  in  Gre- 
 cian literature  except  in  the  fables  of  Babrius,  in  Non- 
 nus  (Di.onys.,  7,  56).  and  in  the  epigrammatic  Mace- 
 donius.  {Anthul.  Palat  ,  10,  71  )  It  seems  to  have 
 had  as  little  charms  for  the  Latin  poets,  even  Ovid 
 passing  over  it  in  silence. — It  is  aUo  deserving  of  no- 
 tice, that  Hesiod  and  all  the  others  agree  in  naming 
 the  vessel  which  Pandora  opened  a  jar  (TziOog),  and 
 never  hint  at  her  having  brought  it  with  her  to  the 
 house  of  Epimetheus.  Yet  the  idea  has  been  univer- 
 sal among  the  moderns,  that  she  brought  all  the  evils 
 with  her  from  heaven,  shut  up  in  a  box  {ttv^k;).  The 
 only  way  of  accounting  for  this  is,  that,  at  the  resto- 
 ration of  learning,  the  narrative  in  Hesiod  was  misun- 
 derstood. (Kci^litley's  Mythology,  p.  292,  seqq. — 
 Bultmann,  Mythologus,  vol.  1,  p.  48,  se(jq  ) 
 
 Panoosia,  I.  a  city  of  Lucania,  in  Lower  Italy,  on 
 the  banks  of  the  Aciris,  and  not  far  from  Heradea. 
 The  modern  Antrlona  is  thought  to  represent  the  an- 
 cient place.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  351.) 
 — II.  A  city  in  the  territory  of  the  Bruttii,  near  the 
 western  coast,  and  often  confounded  with  the  prece- 
 ding. It  was  anciently  possessed  by  the  CEnotri,  as 
 Strabo  reports,  but  is  belter  known  in  history  as  hav- 
 ing witnessed  the  defeat  and  death  of  Alexander,  king 
 of  Epirus.  {Straho,  255— /.?y,  39,  38.)— The  pre- 
 cise position  which  ought  to  be  assigned  to  the  Brut- 
 tian  Pandosia  remains  yet  uncertain.  'J'he  early  Cala- 
 brian  antiquaries  placed  it  at  CasUl  Franco,  about 
 five  miles  from  Conscnza.  D'Anville  lays  it  down,  in 
 his  map  of  ancient  Italy,  near  Luo  and  Cirella,  on  the 
 cotifines  of  Lucania.  Cluverius  supfioses  that  it  mav 
 have  stood  between  Consentia  and  Thurii  ;  but  more 
 modern  critics  have,  with  greater  probability,  sought 
 its  ruins  tn  a  more  westerly  direction,  near  the  villacre 
 of  Mendocino,  between  Consentia  and  the  sea,  a  hill 
 with  three  summits  having  been  remarked  there,  which 
 answers  to  the  fatal  height  pointed  out  by  the  oracle, 
 
 Tlavdoaia  TpmoTiuve,  ttoIvv  ttote  ?iadv  oMaaei^, 
 
 together  with  tlie  rivulet  Maresanto  or  Arconli,  which 
 iast  name  recalls  the  .Acheron,  denounced  by  another 
 prediction  as  so  inauspicious  to  the  Molossian  king. 
 {Cranur's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  436.)  — III.  A  city  of 
 Epirus,  not  far  removed  from  the  Acheron  and  the 
 Acherusian  Lake,  as  we  may  infer  from  the  passage 
 in  which  Livy  speaks  of  this  city  with  reference  to  the 
 oracle  delivered  to  Alexatider,  king  of  Epirus  (8,  24). 
 It  is  not  improliable  that  the  anli(iuities  which  have 
 lK;en  discovered  at  I'aramytkia,  on  the  borders  of  the 
 Souliot  territorv,  may  belong  to  this  ancient  place. 
 (Hughes's  Trarcls,  vol.  2,  p  md .  ~  Holland- s  Trav- 
 els, vol.  2,  p.  2^1.— Strabo,  324  —iYtH.,  4,  l.—Cra- 
 mer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1.  p.  132.) 
 
 Panokosos,  a  daughter  of  (^ecrops,  king  of  Athens, 
 sister  to  Aglauros  and  Herse.  For  an  explanation  of 
 the  name,  consult  remarks  under  the  article  Cecrops. 
 
 Pang^us,  a  celebrated  ridge  of  inountains  in 
 Thrace,  apparently  connected  with  the  central  chain  of 
 Ilhodope  and  Hasmus,  and  which,  branching  off  in  a 
 southeasterly  direction,  closed  upon  the  coast  at  the 
 defile  of  Acontisma.  The  name  of  this  range  often 
 appears  in  the  poets.  {Pind.,  Pylh  ,  4,  319. — JEsch., 
 Pers.,  500.— Eurtp.,  Rhes.,  972.— Vtrg.,  Geor^.,  4, 
 970 
 
 462.)  It  is  now  called  Pundhar  Dagh,  or  CcLstag- 
 iiats,  according  to  the  editor  of  the  French  Strabo. 
 Herodotus  informs  us  (7,  112),  that  Mount  PaiigaDUs 
 contained  gold  and  silver  tnines,  which  were  worked 
 by  the  Pieres,  Odotnanti,  and  Satr*,  clans  of  Thrace, 
 but  es[)ecially  the  latter.  Euripides  confirms  this  ac- 
 count (Rhes.,  919.  seqq  ).  1'hesc  valuable  mines  nat- 
 urally attracted  tiie  attention  of  the  Thasians,  who 
 were  the  first  settlers  on  this  coast ;  and  they  accord- 
 ingly formed  an  establishment  in  this  vicinity  at  a  place 
 named  ('renidcs.  (Vid.  Philippi.) — Thcophrastus 
 speaks  of  the  rosa  certtifolia,  which  grew  in  great 
 beauty  and  was  indigenous  on  Mount  Panga?us  (up. 
 Alhen  ,  15,  29).  JNicander  mentions  another  sort, 
 which  grew  in  the  gardens  of  Midas  (ap.  Athcn.,  16, 
 31. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  31)2). 
 
 Panionii!m,  a  sacred  spot,  with  a  temple  and  grove, 
 at  the  foot  of  Mount  Mycale  in  Ionia.  It  derived  its 
 name  from  having  been  the  place  where  delegates  from 
 the  Ionian  slates  were  accustomed  to  meet  at  stated 
 periods.  Not  only  tlie  place,  but  also  the  temple  and 
 the  assembly  itself  were  called  Panionmm.  The  tem- 
 ple was  dedicated  to  the  Hdn  onian  Neptune,  whose 
 worship  had  been  imported  by  ihe  lonians  from  Achaia 
 in  Peloponnesus  ;  and  the  surname  of  Heliconian  wa« 
 derived  from  Ilelice,  one  of  their  cities  in  that  coun- 
 try. (Slrab.,  639.  —  Pausan.,  7,  24.)  But  the  as- 
 sembly was  not  merely  convened  for  religious  purpo- 
 ses :  It  was  also  a  [lolitical  bodv,  and  met  for  deliber- 
 ative and  legislative  ends  ;  and  it  appears  that  some 
 remnants  of  this  ancient  institution  were  preserved  till 
 very  laie  in  the  Roman  empire,  if  it  be  true,  as  (han- 
 dler imagines,  that  there  is  a  medal  of  the  Emperor 
 Gallus  which  gives  a  representation  of  a  Panionian 
 assembly  and  sacrifice.  (Travels,  p.  192.)  The  site 
 of  this  celebrated  convention  is  supposed,  with  great 
 [)robability,  to  answer  to  thai  of  Tchangcli,  a  Turkish 
 village  close  to  the  sea,  and  on  the  northern  slope  of 
 Mycale.     (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  379.) 
 
 Panium  (Hdviov  opoc),  a  mountain  of  Syria,  form- 
 ing part  of  the  chain  of  Mount  Libanus.  It  makes 
 part  of  the  northern  boundary  of  Palestitie,  and  at  the 
 foot  of  it  was  situate  the  town  of  Paneas,  afterward 
 called  (^a?sarea  Philippi.  Herod,  out  of  gratitude  foi 
 having  been  put  in  possession  cf  Trachonitis  by  Au- 
 gustus, erected  a  tem|)le  to  that  prince  on  the  mount- 
 ain. On  the  partition  of  the  states  of  Herod  among 
 his  children,  Philip,  who  had  the  district  I'rachonitis, 
 gave  to  the  city  Paneas  the  name  of  Cffisarea,  to  which 
 was  annexed,  for  distinction'  sake,  the  surname  of  Pliil- 
 ippi.  This  did  not,  however,  prevent  the  resumption 
 of  its  primitive  denomination,  pronounced  Banius, 
 more  purely  than  Belines,  as  it  is  written  by  the  his- 
 torians of  the  crusades.  (Josephus,  Bell.  Jvd.,  1.  21. 
 — Euseh.,  Hist.  Eccle.s.,7,  17) — II.  Panium  (Uavel- 
 ov),  a  cavern  at  the  sources  of  the  Jordan.  ( Vtd.  Jor 
 danes.) 
 
 Pannonia,  an  extensive  province  of  the  Roman  em- 
 pire, bounded  on  the  west  by  the  range  of  Mount  Ce- 
 tius,  separating  it  from  Noricum  ;  on  the  south  by  11- 
 lyria,  including  in  this  direction  the  country  lying  along 
 the  lower  bank  of  the  Savus;  and  on  the  north  and 
 east  by  ihc  D.inube.  It  answered,  therefore,  to  what 
 is  now  the  eastern  part  of  Austria,  Styria,  a  pari  ol 
 Carinlhia.,  that  portion  of  Hungary  which  lies  on  I  tie 
 southern  side  of  the  Danube,  the  greater  part  of  Srla- 
 voma,  and  the  portion  of  Bosnia  which  lies  along  the 
 Saave.  Ptolemy  distinguishes  between  Upper  and 
 Lower  Paniionia,  Pannonia  Supci-imanti  Inferior,  and 
 separates  the  two  divisions  by  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
 from  Bregactiurn  to  the  Savus.  In  the  fourth  century, 
 the  Emperor  Galerius  formed  out  of  a  part  of  Lower 
 Pannonia  the  province  of  Valeria,  and  then  Pannonia 
 Superior  changed  its  name  to  that  of  Pa?tnonia  Prima, 
 while  the  part  of  Pannonia  Inferior  that  remained  af- 
 ter Valeria  was  taken  from  it,  received  the  appellation 
 
p  A  rv 
 
 PAN 
 
 of  Pannonia  Sccunda. — The  Pannonii  were  of  Illyrian 
 origin,  and  their  earlier  seats  extended  from  the  river 
 Colapis,  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Savus,  in  a  south- 
 easterly direction,  as  far  as  the  Dardanii  and  the  con- 
 fines of  Macedonia.  With  one  branch  of  their  race, 
 under  the  name  of  Paeones,  the  Greeks  were  acquaint- 
 ed from  an  early  period,  along  the  southern  coast  of 
 Thrace.  That  the  Paeones,  however,  were  one  and 
 the  same  race  with  the  distant  Pannonii  to  the  north- 
 west, they  tirst  discovered  at  a  later  period,  and  from 
 this  time  the  appellation  of  Phones  was  applied  by 
 the  Grucian  historical  writers  to  l)oth  divisions.  {Man- 
 nert,  Gcagr.,  vol.  3,  p.  502. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 Vol.  1,  p.  46.)  The  Ivoinans,  on  the  other  hand,  be- 
 coming acquainted  witli  the  race  from  the  west,  learned 
 the  name  Pannonii  as  the  national  appellation,  and  re- 
 tained it  as  such.  The  etymology  assigned  to  this 
 name  by  some,  from  the  patches  {paimi)  ol  which  their 
 long  sleeved  tunics  were  formed,  is  too  ridiculous  to 
 require  refutation.  {Dio  Cass.,  49,  36.)  They  were 
 reduced  under  the  Roman  sway  m  the  reign  of  Augus- 
 tus, especially  during  the  campaigns  of  Tiberius  and 
 Drusus  ;  and,  after  their  subjection,  were  transplant- 
 ed to  the  country  beyond  the  Savus,  which  had  been 
 occupied  by  the  Scordisci,  and  which  now  received 
 from  them  the  name  of  Pannonia.  The  Pannonians 
 becoming,  in  process  of  time,  completely  Romanized  in 
 laws,  customs,  and  language,  served  as  a  rampart  that 
 might  be  conlided  in  against  the  Sclavoiiian  lazyges 
 and  the  Marcomanni,  beyond  the  Danube — .After  ihe 
 fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  Pannonia  passed  under  the 
 power  of  the  barbarians,  especially  the  Huns,  Avares, 
 and  Bulgarians.  {Mannerl,  Gcvgr.,  vol.  3,  p.  304.) 
 The  chief  city  in  Pannonia  Superior  was  Carnuntuin, 
 now  AlUnbourg,  a  little  to  the  east  of  Vindobona  or 
 Vienna.  The  chief  city  in  Pannonia  Inferior  was  Sir- 
 inium. 
 
 Panomph^us,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  from  his  being 
 the  parent  source  of  omen  and  augury,  •'  oninium  omi- 
 niim  omnisque  valicinn  auctor.'"  {Hcyne  ad  II.,  8, 
 250.) 
 
 Panope  or  Panopea,  one  of  the  Nereids,  named 
 by  Virgil  as  a  representative  of  the  whole  number,  and 
 often  invoked  by  manners.  (Heswd,  Theog.,  250. — 
 Vug.,  Georg.,  1,  437.~/(/.,  jEn.,  5,  240,  ^c.) 
 
 Panopolis,  a  city  of  Egypt  m  the  Thebaid,  on  the 
 eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  south  of  Antajopolis.  It 
 was  the  capital  of  the  Panopolitic  Nome,  and,  as  its 
 name  implies,  sacred  to  the  god  Pan  ("City  of  Pan"'). 
 According  to  the  later  traditions,  however,  it  would 
 seem  to  have  been  sacred  to  the  Pans  or  wood-deities 
 collectively,  and  hence  we  find  it  in  Strabo  (812)  des- 
 ignated by  the  appellation  of  Havcjv  Tiu'Ai^.  (Com- 
 pare Diod.  Sic,  1,  18. — Plat.,  de  Is.  ct  Os.)  In  some 
 of  the  subsequent  writers  we  tind  the  place  called  Pa- 
 lms, tke  term  yolis  being  omitted.  {^Itin.  Anl.,  p. 
 166.)  The  name  Panopolis  (Wavb^  ko'ah)  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  merely  a  translation  of  the  Egyptian  term 
 Ckciiunis,  by  which  this  city  was  known  to  the  natives 
 of  the  land.  This  Chemmis,  however,  must  not  be 
 confounded  with  the  place  of  that  name  mentioned  by 
 Herodotus  (2,  91),  and  by  which  that  historian  intends 
 evidently  to  designate  CojUos.  {Manncrt,  Gcogr., 
 vol.  10,  pt.  I,  p.  374.)  The  modern  Akkcnyn  is  sup- 
 posed to  occupy  part  of  the  sue  of  the  ancient  Pano- 
 polis.    (IJcscnpliun  de  VEgyptc,  vol.  4,  p.  43,  scqq.) 
 
 Pa.n'okmus,  I.  now  called  Palermo,  a  town  of  Sici- 
 ly, tiuilt  by  the  Phcenicians,  on  the  northwest  part 
 of  the  island,  with  a  good  and  capacious  harbour. 
 'I"he  ancient  name  is  derived  from  the  excellence  and 
 capaciousness  of  its  harbour  (jruf  cip/iOf),  and  is  eouiv- 
 alent  to  yl//-/'or^  {Uiud  i>ic.,2i,  14)  It  is  uncer- 
 tain, however,  whether  this  name  originated  with  the 
 Greeks,  or  was  merely  a  translation  of  the  Phoenician 
 one.  From  the  Phwiiicians  Panormus  passed  into  the 
 hands  oi  the  Carthaginians,  and  was  for  a  long  jieriod 
 
 an  important  stronghold  of  the  latter  people,  thougn 
 little  noticed  by  the  Grecian  writers.  Here  was  the 
 chief  station  of  their  fleet,  and  here  also  were  the  win- 
 ter quarters  of  their  army.  {Pitlyb.,  1,  21,  24.)  It 
 was  taken  by  the  Romans,  with  their  fleet  of  300  sail 
 (A.U.C.  500),  and  carefully  guarded  by  them  to  pre- 
 vent its  again  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  foe.  (Po- 
 lyb.,  1,  38.)  It  was  subsequently  ranked  among  the 
 free  cities  of  Sicily.  {Ck.  in  Vcrr.,  3,  6. — Mamicrt., 
 Geugr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  400.)— II.  A  harbour  on  the 
 eastern  coast  of  Attica,  south  of  the  proinontory  of 
 Cynoscma,  and  opposite  to  the  souihcin  extremity  of 
 EuboBa.  It  is  now  Porlo  Raphti.—  Ul.  A  harbour  on 
 the  coast  of  Achaia,  east  of  Rhium  and  opposite  Nau- 
 pactus.  It  is  now  Teket.  {Thucyd.,  2,  86.— P/in., 
 4,  5  ) — IV.  A  name  given  to  the  harbour  of  Ephesus. 
 (Mela,  2,  7.) — V.  A  harbour  in  Crete,  between  Ri- 
 thymna  and  Cytasum.  {Plin.,4,  12.) — VI.  A  town  in 
 the  Thracian  Chersonese,  between  Cardia  and  Ccelos. 
 {Plin.,  4,  11.) 
 
 Pansa,  C.  Vibius,  consul  with  Hirtius  the  year  af- 
 ter  Caesar's  assassination,  B.C.  43.  He  had  previous- 
 ly served  under  Cajsar  in  Gaul,  and  had  aided  him  as 
 tribune  of  the  commons  m  attaining  lo  sovereign  pow- 
 er. Though  Pansa  and  Hirtius  had  obtained  the  con- 
 sulship through  CjBsar's  nomination,  they  nevertheless 
 joined  the  party  of  the  senate  after  the  death  of  the 
 dictator,  and  marched  against  Antony,  who  was  be- 
 sieging Brutus  in  Mutina.  In  the  hrst  engagement 
 Antony  had  the  advantage,  and  Pansa  received  two 
 mortal  wounds  ;  but  Antony  himself  was  defeated  ihc 
 same  day  by  Hirtius  as  he  was  returning  to  his  camp. 
 In  a  second  engagement  Hirtius  also  fell.  —  It  was  a 
 current  report  at  the  time,  that  Glycon.  the  physician 
 in  attendance  on  Pansa,  having  been  gained  over  by 
 Octavius,  had  taken  off  ihe  Roman  consul  by  poison- 
 ing his  wounds.  {Sueton.,  Vit.  Aug.,  11.)  Anotheif 
 account  stated  that  Pansa,  finding  his  wounds  mortal, 
 sent  for  Octavius,  and  engaged  him  lo  become  recon- 
 ciled to  Antony,  unfolding  to  him,  at  the  same  time, 
 the  project  of  the  senate,  which  was  to  destroy  the 
 partisans  of  Caesar  by  means  of  one  another.  Pansa 
 appears  lo  have  been  a  worthy  man,  and  esteemed  by 
 Cicero,  who,  without  sharing  his  political  sentiments, 
 lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  him.  (Biogr.  Univ., 
 vol.  32,  p.  496.) 
 
 Pantagyas,  a  small  river  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
 Sicily,  which  falls  into  the  sea  between  Megara  and 
 Syracuse,  according  to  Pliny  (3,  8),  after  running  a 
 short  space  in  rough  cascades  over  a  rugged  bed. 
 [Virg.  JEn.,  3,  689.)  Ptolemy  writes  the  name  Iluv- 
 ro,YOf,  and  Thucydides  IlavraKiof  (0,  4). 
 
 Panthea,  the  wife  of  Abradates,  celebrated  fox  her 
 beauty  and  conjugal  affection.  She  slew  herself  on 
 the  corpse  of  her  husband,  who  had  fallen  in  battle  on 
 the  side  of  the  elder  Cyrus.  {Xcn.,  Cyrop.,  4,  6,  1!. 
 —  Id.  lb,  7,  3,  14.) 
 
 Pantheo.n  (or  Pantheon),  a  famous  temple  of  a  cir 
 cular  form,  built  by  M.  Agrippa,  son-in-law  of  .'^ugnslus, 
 in  his  third  consulship,  about  27  A.C.,and  repaired  by 
 Septimius  Severus,  and  Caracalla.  The  archilecJ  was 
 Valerius  of  Osiia.  The  structure  consists  of  a  ro- 
 tunda, with  a  noble  Corinthian  octaslyle  portico  at- 
 tached to  it.  That  the  portico  of  the  Pantheon  in- 
 deed was  erected  by  Agrippa,  is  testified  by  the  ir>- 
 scription  still  remaining  on  the  frieze  let  some 
 have  supposed  that  he  merely  made  that  addition  lo 
 the  previously  erected  rotunda.  Hirt,  in  his  work  on 
 the  Pantheon,  very  reasonably  argues,  that,  there  be- 
 ing no  direct  proof  to  the  contrary,  the  whole  structure 
 may  safely  be  assumed  to  have  been  erected  according 
 to  one  original  plan,  because  without  the  porlico  it 
 would  have  been  a  lumpish  and  heavy  mass.  Hirt 
 farther  rejects  the  idea  of  the  rotunda's  having  been 
 originally  not  a  temple,  but  an  entrance  to  public 
 batlis.     It  IS  certain   that  circular  plans  were  greatly 
 
 971 
 
PANTHEOIN. 
 
 PAN 
 
 affected  by  the  Romans  both  in  their  temples  and  oth- 
 er buildings,  on  which  account  their  architecture  pre- 
 sents a  variety  that  does  not  occur  in  tliat  of  Greece. 
 • — The  structure  was  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Ultor.  Be- 
 sides the  statue  of  this  god,  however,  there  were  in 
 six  other  niches  as  many  colossal  statues  of  other  dei- 
 ties, among  which  were  those  of  Mars  and  Venus,  the 
 founders  o{  the  Julian  Une,  and  that  of  Julius  Caesar. 
 About  the  other  three  we  know  nothing  ;  but  in  all 
 probability  they  were  the  images  of  ^iCneas,  lulus, 
 and  Romulus.  The  edifice  was  called  the  FaiUhcon 
 (YluvOeiov  or  TldvOeov),  not,  as  is  commonly  supposed, 
 from  its  having  been  sacred  to  alt  the  ^ods  (Trdf,  "all," 
 and  i^fof,  "  a  god"),  but  from  its  majestic  dome,  which 
 represented,  as  it  were,  the  "  all  divine'"  tirmament 
 {ttuv,  ''all,"  and  T^elov,  "divine"). — The  Pantheon  is 
 by  far  the  largest  structure  of  ancient  times,  the  ex- 
 ternal diameter  being  188  feet,  and  the  height  to  the 
 summit  of  the  upper  cornice  102,  exclusive  of  the  flat 
 dome  or  calotte,  which  makes  the  entire  height  about 
 148  feet.  The  portico  (103  feet  wide)  is,  as  has  been 
 said,  octastyle,  yet  there  are  in  all  si.xteen  columns, 
 namely,  two  at  the  returns,  exclusive  of  those  at  the 
 angles,  and  two  others  behind  the  third  column  from 
 each  end,  dividing  the  portico,  internally,  into  three 
 aisles  or  avenues,  the  centre  one  of  which  is  consider- 
 ably the  widest,  and  contains  the  great  doorway  within 
 a  very  deep  recess,  while  each  of  the  others  has  a 
 large  semicircular  tribune  or  recess.  But,  although, 
 independently  of  its  recessed  parts,  the  portico  is  only 
 three  intercolumiis  in  depth,  its  flanks  present  the 
 order  continued  in  pilasters,  making  two  additional 
 closed  intercolumns,  and  the  projection  there  from  the 
 main  structure  about  70  feet ;  which  circumstance 
 produces  an  extraordinary  air  of  majesty.  The  col- 
 umns are  47  English  feet  high,  with  bases  and  capitals 
 of  white  marble,  and  granite  shafts,  each  formed  out  of 
 a  single  piece.  The  interior  diameter  of  the  rotunda 
 is  142  feet,  the  thickness  of  the  wall  being  23  feet 
 through  the  piers,  between  the  exhedrae  or  recesses, 
 which,  including  that  containing  the  entrance,  are 
 eight  in  number,  and  each,  except  that  facing  the  en- 
 trance, is  divided  into  three  intercolumns  by  two  col- 
 umns (34.7  feet  high),  between  antae  or  angular  pilas- 
 ters. But  as,  besides  being  repaired  and  altered  by 
 Septirnius  Severus,  the  interior  has  undergone  many 
 changes,  or,  rather,  corruptions,  it  is  hardly  possible 
 now  to  determine  what  it  originally  was. — The  dome 
 has  five  rows  of  coffers  (now  stripped  of  their  deco- 
 rations), and  a  circular  opening  in  the  centre,  26  feel 
 in  diameter,  which  not  only  lights  the  interior  perfect- 
 ly, but  in  the  most  charming  and  almost  magical  man- 
 ner. Indeed,  there  has  scarcely  ever  been  but  one 
 opinion  as  to  the  captivating  eflfect  thus  produced,  and 
 the  exquisite  beauty  of  the  whole  as  regards  plan  and 
 general  proportions.  {Encyclop.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  17, 
 p.  192. — Hirt,  Gcschichlc  dcr  Baukunxt,  vol.  2,  p. 
 283,  scyy. )  The  Pantheon  is  now  commonly  called 
 the  Rotunda,  from  its  circular  form.  It  was  given  to 
 Boniface  IV.  by  the  Emperor  Phocas  in  609,  and  was 
 dedicated  as  a  Christian  church  to  the  Virgin  and  the 
 Holy  Martyrs,  a  quantity  of  whose  relics  were  placed 
 under  the  great  altar.  In  830  Gregory  IV.  dedicated 
 it  to  all  the  saints.  This  consecration  of  the  edifice, 
 however,  seems  to  have  afforded  it  no  defence  against 
 the  subsequent  spoliations,  both  of  emiicrors  and  popes. 
 The  plates  of  gilded  bronze  that  covered  the  roof,  the 
 bronze  bassi  relievi  of  the  pediment,  and  the  silver  that 
 adorned  the  interior  of  the  dome,  were  carried  off  by 
 Constans  II.  (A.D.  655),  who  destined  them  for  his 
 imperial  palace  at  Constantinople  ;  but,  being  murder- 
 ed at  Syracuse  when  on  his  return  with  them,  they 
 were  conveyed  by  their  next  proprietors  to  Alexan- 
 drea  ;  and  thus  the  spoils  of  the  Pantheon,  won  from 
 the  plunder  of  Egypt  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  by  a 
 kind  of  poetical  justice,  reverted  to  their  original 
 972 
 
 source.  Urban  the  Eighth  carried  off  all  that  was  left 
 to  purloin,  the  bronze  beams  of  the  portico,  which 
 amounted  in  weight  to  more  than  fortv-five  millions  of 
 pounds.  He  records  his  plunder  with  great  compla- 
 cency in  an  inscription  on  the  walls  of  the  portico,  as 
 if  it  were  a  meritorious  deed  ;  seeming  to  [iride  him- 
 self on  having  melted  it  down  into  the  frightful  taber- 
 nacle of  St.  Peter's,  and  the  useless  cannon  of  the 
 castle  of  St.  Angelo.  Urban,  who  was  one  of  the 
 Barberini  family,  also  gave  a  share  of  it  to  his  ni  ph- 
 ew, for  the  embellishment  of  the  Barberini  palace  ; 
 and  this  gave  rise  to  the  pasquinade, 
 
 "  Quod  non  fecerunl  Barlari  fcccre  Barberini." 
 
 But  he  did  more  mischief  by  adding  than  by  taking 
 away,  for  he  bestowed  upon  it  two  hideous  belfries,  as 
 a  perpetual  monument  of  his  bad  taste. — Beautiful  as 
 the  Pantheon  is,  it  is  not  what  it  was.  During  eigh- 
 teen centuries  it  has  suffered  from  the  dilapidations  of 
 time  and  the  cupidity  of  barbarians.  The  seven  steps 
 which  elevated  it  above  the  level  of  ancient  Rome  are 
 buried  beneath  the  modern  pavement.  Its  rotunda  of 
 brick  is  blackened  and  decayed  ;  its  leaden  dome,  over- 
 looked by  the  modern  cupolas  of  every  neighbouring 
 church,  boasts  no  imposing  loftiness  of  elevation;  the 
 marble  statues,  the  bassi  relievi,  the  brazen  columns, 
 have  disappeared  ;  its  ornaments  have  vanished  ;  its 
 granite  columns  have  lost  their  lustre,  and  its  marble 
 capitals  their  purity  ;  all  looks  dark  and  neglected,  and 
 its  splendour  is  gone  for  ever.  Yet,  under  every  dis- 
 advantage, it  is  still  beautiful,  pre-eminently  beautiful. 
 No  eye  can  rest  on  the  noble  simplicity  of  the  match- 
 less portico  without  admiration,  and  without  feeling, 
 what  is  so  rarely  felt,  that  there  is  nothing  wanted  to 
 desire,  nothing  committed  to  rectify.  Its  beauty  is  of 
 that  sort  which,  while  the  fabric  stands,  time  has  no 
 power  to  destroy.  {Rome  in  the  NincfcoUh  Century, 
 vol.  1,  p.  254.) 
 
 Pantheos,  or  Panthus,  a  Trojan,  son  of  Othryas, 
 and  priest  of  Apollo.  He  fell  in  the  nocturnal  combat 
 described  by  Virgil  as  attendant  on  the  taking  of  Troy 
 {jEh.,  2,  429)  He  was  father  of  Polydamas,  Eu- 
 phorbus,  and  Hypcrenor.  (Horn.,  II.,  3,  146  ;  15, 
 522  )  The  story  which  Servius.  and  also  Eustathius 
 relate,  of  Panlhus's  having  been  by  birth  a  Delphian, 
 and  of  his  having  been  brought  away  from  Delphi  to 
 Troy  to  explain  an  oracle  for  King  Priam,  is  a  fiction 
 of  the  posthomeric  bards.  (Eustath.  ad  II.,  12,  225. 
 —Heync  ad  Virg.,  jEn.,  2,  318.) 
 
 PanthoIdes,  a  patronymic  of  Euphorbus,  the  son 
 of  Pantheus.  {Vid.  Euphorbus. — Horat.,  Od.,  1,  28, 
 10.) 
 
 Panticap^um,  a  city  in  the  Tauric  Chersonese,  on 
 the  shore  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus,  and  opposite  to 
 Phanagoria  on  the  Asiatic  shore.  Ptolemy  gives  the 
 name  as  Panlicapda  (Hai'TtKUTraia).  It  was  founded 
 by  a  Milesian  colony,  and  lay  on  a  hill,  and  was  in 
 circumference  20  stadia.  On  the  east  side  was  a 
 good  harbour,  and  also  an  inner  and  stronger  one 
 (veupiov).  This  place  was  the  capital  of  the  kings  of 
 Bosporus,  and  was  also  known  by  the  name  of  Bos- 
 porus as  early  as  the  time  of  Demostheues.  Some 
 writers  erroneously  distinguish  between  the  two  ap- 
 pellations, as  if  they  belonged  to  different  cities. 
 {Eiitrop.,  7,  9.)  The  modern  Kertsch  lies  near  the 
 site  of  the  ancient  PanticapsBum.  {Munnert,  Gcngr., 
 vol.  4,  p.  307,  seqq.)  Here  Mithradates  the  Great 
 ended  his  days. 
 
 Panv.vsis,  a  native  of  Samos,  or,  according  to  oth- 
 ers, of  Halicarnassus  (for  his  country  is  uncertain  ;  we 
 only  know  that  he  was  an  uncle  of  Herodotus).  He 
 flourished  about  490  B.C.,  and  was  regarded  as  an  ex- 
 cellent epic  poet,  the  Alexandrean  critics  having  subse- 
 quently assigned  him  the  fourth  place  in  the  Epic  canon. 
 He  was  the  author  of  an  Heracleid,  in  fourteen  books,  to 
 which,  according  to  Valckenaer's  conjecture,  belong  two 
 
PAP 
 
 PAP 
 
 fragments  found  in  the  collection  cf  the  works  of  The- 
 ocritus, bill  which  others  attribute  to  Pisaiider.  Both 
 parties,  however,  agree  in  regarding  them  as  worthy 
 of  a  writer  of  the  first  merit,  and  above  the  strength  of 
 Theocritus.  Hermann,  however,  does  not  adopt  this 
 opinion.  He  recognises,  it  is  true,  in  these  pieces  an 
 imitaiKin  of  Homer  ;  but  he  discovers  in  the  prosody 
 certain  licenses  which  were  unknown  to  the  epic  poets, 
 and  only  introduced  by  the  bucolic  ones.  (Orphtca, 
 ed.  Hermann,  p.  691.)  Besides,  these  pieces  are  writ- 
 ten in  Doric,  whereas  Panyasis  made  use  of  the  Ionic 
 dialect.  According  to  Suidas,  he  also  composed  Ele- 
 gies enailed  'Icjviku.  There  exist,  likewise,  some  oth- 
 er frairinents  of  Panyasis.  They  are  all  found  in  the 
 collections  of  Winterton,  Gaisford,  and  Boissonade. 
 (Scfioll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  121.  — MuUcr,  Die 
 Boner,  vol.  3,  p.  471,  German  work.) 
 
 P.KPHIA,  I.  a  surname  of  Venus,  because  worship- 
 ped at  Paphos. — H.  An  ancient  name  of  the  island  of 
 Cyprus. 
 
 PxPHt.AGONi.^  {Tia<j>'Xayovia),  a  province  of  Asia 
 Minor,  also  called  PyliEinenia,  according  to  Pliny  (6, 
 2).  It  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Euxine,  on 
 the  south  by  the  part  of  Phrygia  afterward  called  Ga- 
 latia,  on  the  east  by  Ponius,  and  on  the  west  by  Bi- 
 thynia.  It  was  separated  from  Bithvnia  by  the  river 
 Parthenius,  and  from  Pontus  by  the  Halys,  which  was 
 also  Its  eastern  boundary  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  (1, 
 6).  Paphlagonia  is  described  by  Xenophon  {Aiiab.,^, 
 6,  6)  as  a  country  having  very  beautiful  plains  and  very 
 high  mountains.  It  is  traversed  by  two  chains  of 
 mountains  running  parallel  to  one  another  from  west 
 to  east.  The  higher  and  more  southerly  of  these 
 chains,  called  Olgassys  by  Ptolemy,  is  a  continuation  of 
 the  great  mountain  chain  which  extends  from  the  Hel- 
 lespont to  Armenia,  and  was  known  to  the  ancients 
 under  the  names  of  Ida  and  Temnon  in  Mysia,  and 
 Oiym|)us  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Prusias.  Strabo, 
 however,  appears  to  give  the  name  of  Olgassys  to  the 
 chain  of  mountains  in  the  nortiiern  part  of  Paphlago- 
 nia, on  which  the  Paphlagonians  had  built  many  tem- 
 ples. The  country  between  these  two  chains  is  drain- 
 ed by  the  Amnias,  which  flows  into  the  Halys.  The 
 only  river  of  importance,  besides  the  Amnias  and  the 
 Halys,  was  the  Parthenius,  which  is  said  by  Xenophon 
 to  be  impassable  {Anab..  5,  6,  9)  In  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  Pompeiopolis,  m  the  central  part  of  the  prov- 
 ince, was  a  mountain  called  Sandaracurgium,  where, 
 according  to  Strabo  (562),  sandaraca  was  obtained  in 
 mines,  which  were  worked  by  criminals,  who  died  in 
 great  numbers  on  account  of  the  unhealthiness  of  the 
 labour.  The  sandaraca  spoken  of  by  Strabo  was 
 probably  the  same  as  sinopis,  which  was  a  kind  of  red 
 ochre,  obtained  by  the  Greeks  from  Sinope,  from 
 which  place  it  derived  its  name. — The  Paphlagonians 
 are  said  by  Homer  (//..  2,  851,  scq.)  to  have  come  to 
 the  assistance  of  the  Trojans  under  the  command  of 
 Pylsmenes,  from  the  country  of  the  Heneti.  This 
 mention  of  the  Heneti  in  connexion  with  the  Paphla- 
 gonians seems  to  have  puzzled  some  of  the  ancient 
 writers.  Several  explanations  of  the  passage  were 
 given  ;  but  the  one  which  appeared  most  probable  to 
 Strabo  (544)  was,  that  the  Heneti  were  a  Paphlago- 
 nian  people,  who  followed  Pylaemenes  to  Troy,  and 
 after  the  death  of  their  leader  emigrated  to  Thrace, 
 and  at  length  wandered  to  Italy,  where  thev  settled 
 under  the  name  of  Veneti.  Pliny  (6,  2)  also  connects 
 the  Heneti  of  Homer  with  the  Veneti  of  Italy,  upon 
 the  authority  of  Cornelius  Nepos.  Few  modern  crit- 
 ics, however,  will  be  disposed  to  attach  much  credit 
 to  a  rambling  story  of  this  kind,  which  seems  to  have 
 arisen  merely  from  the  similarity  of  the  two  names. 
 {Vid.  Veneti.) — The  Paphlagonians  were  subdued  by 
 Croesus.  {Herod.,  1,  28.)  They  afterward  formed  a 
 part  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  were  governed  by  a  sa- 
 trap in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis  (Herod.,  7,  72) ; 
 
 but  they  appear  in  later  times,  like  several  other  na- 
 tions in  the  remote  parts  of  the  Persian  empire,  to 
 have  been  only  nominally  subjects.  On  the  return  of 
 the  Ten  Thousand  we  find  that  they  were  governed  by 
 Corylas,  who  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  satrap 
 (Xenophon  calls  him  dpxuv,  Anub.,  6,  1,  2),  and  who 
 did  not  hesitate  to  afford  assistance  to  the  Greeks. 
 After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Paphlagonia,  together 
 with  Cappadocia,  fell  to  the  share  of  Euinenes.  {Di- 
 od.  Sic,  18,  3.)  It  subsequently  formed  part  of  the 
 kingdom  of  Pontus  ;  but,  after  the  conquest  of  Ponius 
 by  the  Romans,  it  appears  to  have  been  allowed  to 
 have  kings  of  its  own,  the  last  of  whom  was  Deiola- 
 rus,  the  son  of  Castor.  {Strabo,  564.)  Under  the 
 early  Roman  emperors  it  did  not  form  a  separate  prov- 
 ince, but  was  united  to  Galatia  till'  the  time  of  Con- 
 stanline,  who  first  erected  it  into  a  separate  province. 
 {EncycL  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  216.) — The  chain  of 
 mountains  in  the  southern  part  of  Paphlagonia  was 
 covered  with  forests,  which  yielded  abundance  of  ex- 
 cellent timber  for  ship-building,  and  rarious  kinds  of 
 wood  for  tables  and  other  ornamental  works.  They 
 contained  also  salt-mines.  Eudoxus  reports  that  fos- 
 sil fish  were  likewise  to  be  found  in  some  parts  of  ihe 
 country.  {Strabo,  561,  563.)  The  plains  afforded 
 rich  pastures  for  horses  and  cattle,  and  the  mules  of 
 the  Paphlagonian  Heneti  were  celebrated  as  early  as 
 the  days  of  Homer  {11,  2,  852).  The  sheep  of  the 
 country  adjoining  the  Halys  furnished  wool  much  es- 
 teemed for  the  fineness  of  its  quality  {Strabo,  546) ; 
 and  the  Euxine,  along  the  whole  extent  of  coast,  sup- 
 plied great  quantities  of  excellent  fish  ;  especially  the 
 kind  of  tunny  called  pelamys.  {Stiabo,  545. — Athe- 
 n(Bus,  7,  p.  307.) — Cramer  thinks  that  the  Paphlago- 
 nians were  of  the  same  race  with  the  Bithyni,  Mysi, 
 and  Phryges  ;  that  is,  that  they  were  a  Thracian  peo- 
 ple, and  that  they  came  in  from  the  West,  driving  ike 
 Leuco-Syn  from  the  country,  and  finally  compelling 
 them  to  retire  beyond  the  Halys.  (Cramer's  Asia 
 Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  217,  scqq.) 
 
 Paphos,  I.  Palsepaphos  (Old  Paphos),  a  very  an- 
 cient city  of  Cyprus,  on  the  southwestern  side  of  the 
 island,  situate  on  a  rising  ground  near  the  little  river 
 Bocarus.  {Hesych.,  s.  v.  BuKapoc.)  Strabo  places 
 it  ten  stadia  from  the  coast.  It  was  peculiarly 
 famed  lor  the  worship  of  Venus,  who  was  fabled  to 
 have  been  wafted  hither  after  her  birth  amid  the 
 waves.  {Mela,  2,  7.  —  Tacitus,  Hist.,  2,  3.)  The 
 Grecian  writers  give,  as  the  founder  of  the  place, 
 Cinyras  the  son  of  Apollo,  or  Paphos  the  son  of  Ciny- 
 ras,  about  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  Apollodorua 
 also  makes  Cinyras  to  have  been  a  Syrian  monarch  (3, 
 14  — (Jompare  Hcyne,  ad  Joe.  Obs  ,  p.  325).  Tacitus 
 makes  it  to  have  t)een  founded  by  Aerias;  at  least  he 
 names  him  as  the  founder  of  the  temple  ;  he  adds, 
 however,  that  a  later  tradition  assigns  the  origin  of  the 
 temple  to  Cinyras.  {Hist.,  2,  3. — Aa7i.,  3,  62.)  Eu- 
 sebius  carries  back  the  founding  of  the  city  to  the 
 time  of  the  Hebrew  Gideon.  {Chron.,  n.  590.) — Tfie 
 Phoenician  or  Syrian  origin  of  the  place  was  clearly 
 shown  by  the  worship  established  here  ;  for  Vcnua 
 Urania  was  here  adored  under  the  same  attributes  and 
 with  the  same  licentiousness  as  the  Syrian  goddess  at 
 .Ascalon,  Einesa,  and  elsewhere  in  that  country  The 
 effigy  of  the  goddess  was  not  of  human  shape.  .Stie 
 was  re|)resented  under  the  form  of  a  white,  round,  co- 
 nical stone.  {Tyrius  Max.  Diss.,'S8. — Tacit.,  Hist., 
 2,  3.  —  Clem.  Alex.,  protrepl,  29,  seqq.)  The  office 
 of  high-priest  was  next  in  rank  to  the  regal  dignity. 
 The  worship  of  the  goddess  continued  long  after  the 
 ancient  city  was  completely  sunk  in  importance,  and 
 had  been  supplanted  by  the  Paphos  of  later  origin. 
 Annual  processions  were  still  made  to  the  earlier  tem- 
 ple, which  was  regarded  as  the  most  sacred  of  any,  and 
 acquired  great  fame  by  an  oracle  connected  with  it. — 
 — Pococke    found   many    rums   on   this  ancient   site. 
 
 973 
 
PAP 
 
 PAP 
 
 (Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  584,  seqq.)  —  II. 
 Nt'iipiiphos  (New  Paphos).  a  city  of  Cyprus,  on  the 
 Western  coast  of  tlic  island,  and  north  of  Pal»pa[)hos. 
 According  to  Strabo  (683),  the  distance  between  the 
 two  places  was  si.\ty  stadia,  while  the  Pent ingrer  Ta- 
 bles give  eleven  miles.  The  place  had  a  good  har- 
 bour, was  adorned  with  handsome  temples,  and  was 
 the  capital  of  a  separate  [irincipality.  (Diod.  Sir.., 
 2((,  21.)  Under  the  llonian  sway,  it  was  the  chief 
 city  of  the  whole  western  coast.  Strabo  and  Pau- 
 sanias  (8,  5)  make  the  Arcadian  Agapcnor  to  have 
 been  the  founder  of  the  place,  having  been  driven 
 hither  bv  a  storm  on  his  return  from  Troy.  Stepha- 
 nos of  Byzantium  asserts,  that  the  previous  name  of 
 this  city  was  Erythra  ;  and,  if  he  be  correct,  Agape- 
 nor  could  only  have  enlarged  and  strengthened  it. 
 Paphos  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes,  and  partic- 
 ularly from  one  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  That  em- 
 peror not  only  aided  the  sutfering  inhabitants,  but  also 
 directed  the  city,  when  rebuilt,  to  be  called  by  his  name. 
 The  earlier  appellation,  however,  eventually  prevailed. 
 Strabo  and  Ptolemy  make  no  mention  of  anv  Augus- 
 ta, but  merely  of  a  city  called  Paphos.  It  appears 
 from  Tacitus,  that  the  worship  of  Venus  was  vet  re- 
 maining in  the  reign  of  Titus,  who  visited  Paphos, 
 and  made  many  inquiries  about  the  rites  and  cusioms 
 of  the  place.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  2,  2.— Id.,  Ann.,  3,  62. 
 — Sucton.,  Vit.  Tit .  5.)  Paphos  appears  in  later  wri- 
 tings, both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  as  an  episcopal 
 town,  and  one  of  the  most  noted  in  the  island.  The 
 site  is  yet  marked  by  some  ruins,  and  the  name  of 
 Baffo  serves  sufficiently  to  attest  their  identity.  {Cra- 
 mer''s  Asia.  Miwir,  vol.  2.  p  376  — Manner/,  Geogr.. 
 vol.  6,  [)l  1,  p.  585.)  For  an  account  of  the  remains 
 of  antiquity  in  this  quarter,  consult  Turner's  Tour  in 
 the  Levant,  vol.  2,  p.  557. 
 
 Paph  Lex,  I.  de  peregrinis,  by  C.  Papius  Celsus, 
 tribune  of  the  commons,  A.U.C.  638,  which  required 
 that  all  foreigners  should  depart  from  Rome,  excepting 
 those  \Nho  were  inhabitants  of  Italia  Propria.  {Dio 
 Cass.,  37,  9.— Ctc,  de  Off.,  3.  M.—Heniecc,  Antiq. 
 Rum.,  p.  345,  ed.  Haul/old) — II.  Another,  called  Pa- 
 pia  l'oppa:a,  because  it  was  proposed  by  the  consuls 
 Papius  and  Poppaeus,  A.U.C.  762.  It  was  passed  at 
 the  desire  of  Augustus,  and  enforced  and  enlarged  ihe 
 Julian  law  for  promoting  [lopulation,  and  repairing  the 
 desolation  occasioned  by  the  civil  wars.  {Vtd.  Julia 
 lex  de  marilandis  ordmihus.) 
 
 P.M'iAS.  one  of  the  early  Christian  writers  in  the 
 Greek  language,  was  bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Asia  at 
 the  beginning  of  the  second  century.  Accordino-  to 
 Cave,  he  flourished  in  the  year  110;  according  to 
 others,  in  1 15  or  116.  He  wrote  a  work  in  five  books, 
 entitled  "  An  Explanation  of  the  Words  (or  Oracles) 
 of  the  Lord,'''  which  is  now  lost.  In  a  passage  of  this 
 *vork,  quoted  by  Eusebius,  Papias  professes  to  have 
 lakcii  great  pains  to  gain  information  respecting  Chris- 
 Uaiiity  from  those  who  had  known  the  Apostles,  and 
 doiiie  remarkable  statements  of  his  respectincr  the 
 Apostles  and  Evangelists  arc  still  preserved.  Ac- 
 cording to  Irensus,  he  was  himself  a  hearer  of  John 
 »nd  a  companion  of  Polycarp.  He  is  said  by  Euse- 
 bius to  have  been  a  Millcnarian.  and  a  man  of  little 
 mind,  "  as  appears,"  says  Eusebius,  "  from  his  own 
 (vriliiigs."  {Eusch.,  Hist.  Ec.clcs.,  3,  39.  —  Cave, 
 Hist.  Lit.,  s.  V — Lardner's  Credibility,  pt.  2,  c.  9  ) 
 
 Papinianus,  .^Cmilius,  a  celebrated  Roman  lawyer. 
 He  was  born  A.D.  175,  and  was  a  pupil  of  the  jurist 
 Q.  Cervidius  Scievola  at  the  same  time  with  Septim- 
 ais  Severus,  afterward  emperor.  Under  Marcus  Au- 
 relius  he  held  the  office  oi  advocat us  fisci.  in  which  he 
 succeeded  S.  Severus.  After  Severus  became  em- 
 peror, Papinian  was  his  lihcllorvm  mngistcr  and  prcz- 
 fectus  prcelorio  ;  and  the  monarch  had  so  high  an 
 opinion  of  him,  that  at  his  death  he  recommended  his 
 Bons  Caracalla  and  Geta  to  his  care.  The  former, 
 974 
 
 having  brutally  murdered  his  brother  Geta,  enjoined 
 on  Papinian  to  compose  a  discourse  in  accusation  of 
 the  deceased,  in  order  to  excuse  his  barbarity  in  the 
 eyes  of  the  senate  and  people.  With  this  mandate 
 the  prefect  not  only  refused  to  comply,  but  he  nobly 
 observed  that  it  was  easier  to  commit  a  parricide  than 
 to  excuse  it,  and  that  slander  of  innocence  was  a 
 second  parricide.  Caracalla,  enraged  hy  this  refu- 
 sal, secretly  induced  the  prx-forian  guards  to  muti- 
 ny, and  demand  their  leader's  head  ;  and,  apparently 
 to  satisfy  them,  Papinian  was  executed  in  212,  and 
 his  body  dragged  througii  the  streets  of  Rome.  The 
 reputation  of  Papinian  as  a  lawyer  was  so  high,  that 
 V^alentinian  III.  ordered  that,  whenever  the  opinions 
 of  the  judges  were  divided,  Papinian's  should  be  fol- 
 lowed. The  Roman  law-students,  too,  when  they 
 had  reached  the  third  year  of  their  studies  (the  whole 
 number  of  years  being  five),  were  called  Papinian- 
 ists  {Papinianistae),  and  a  festival  was  celebrated  on 
 the  occasion  of  commencing  his  work.  Papinian 
 composed  several  works,  among  which  were  twenty- 
 seven  books  of  "Questions  on  the  Law;"  nineteen  of 
 "Responses"  or  "Opinions;"  two  of  "Definitions;" 
 two  upon  "  Adultery  ;"  and  one  upon  the  "  Laws  of 
 ^Ediles."  Extracts  from  all  his  works  are  found  in 
 the  "Digest."  {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 285.) 
 
 Papirii,  the  name  of  a  patrician  and  plebeian  gens 
 in  Rome,  who  were  at  first  called  Papisii.  {Cic.,  Ep. 
 ad  Fam.,  9,  21.)  This  gens  was  divided  into  several 
 families,  such  as  the  Mugillani,  Crassi,  Cursores,  and 
 Massones,  and  the  most  celebrated  of  the  different  in- 
 dividuals of  these  families  was  L.  Papiruis  Cursor. 
 He  was  the  grandson  of  the  L.  Papirius  Cursor  who 
 was  censor  in  the  year  in  which  Rome  was  taken  by 
 the  Gauls,  and  son  of  Spurius  Papirius  Cursor,  who 
 was  military  tribune  B.C.  379.  {Liv.,  6,  27  )  —  We 
 first  read  of  L.  Papirius  Cursor  as  master  of  the  horse 
 to  L.  Papirius  Crassus,  who  was  created  dictator  B.C. 
 339,  by  the  consul  Matilius,  in  order  to  carry  on  the 
 war  against  the  Antiates.  {Liv.,  8,  12. — Cic.,  Ep.  ad 
 Fam.,  9,  2L)  The  time  of  his  first  consulship  is 
 doubtful.  Livy  mentions  C.  Poetilius  and  L.  Papirius 
 Mugillanus  as  consuls  B.C.  325;  but  he  adds,  that, 
 instead  of  Papirius  Mugillanus,  the  name  of  Papirius 
 Cursor  was  found  in  some  annals.  {Livy,  8,  28.) 
 During  the  year  of  their  consulship  the  Lex  Patilia- 
 Papma  was  passed,  which  enacted  that  no  one  should 
 be  kept  in  fetters  or  bonds  except  for  a  crime  which 
 deserved  them,  and  only  until  he  had  suffered  the  pun- 
 ishment which  the  law  provided  :  it  also  enacted  that 
 creditors  should  have  a  right  to  attach  the  goods,  but 
 not  the  persons,  of  their  debtors.  (Liv.,  I.  c)  In  the 
 following  year,  Pa[)irius  Cursor,  who  is  said  by  Livy 
 (8,  29)  to  have  been  considered  at  that  time  the  most 
 illustrious  general  cf  his  age,  was  appointed  dictator 
 to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  Samnites.  He  ap- 
 pointed Q.  Fabius  Maximus  his  master  of  the  horse  : 
 and  during  his  absence  at  Rome  to  renew  the  au- 
 spices, Fabius  attacked  the  enemy  contrary  to  his  com- 
 mands, and  gained  a  signal  victory.  On  his  return  to 
 the  camp  he  commanded  Fabius  to  be  put  to  death  ; 
 but  the  soldiers  es[)ousing  the  cause  of  the  latter,  tho 
 execution  was  delayed  till  the  following  day,  before 
 which  time  Fabius  had  an  opportunity  of  escaping  to 
 Rome,  where  he  placed  himself  under  the  protection 
 of  the  senate.  The  proceedings  which  followed  are 
 interesting  to  the  student  of  the  constitutional  history 
 of  Rome,  as  they  show  that  an  appeal  could  be  made 
 to  the  people  from  the  decision  of  a  dictator,  which  is 
 in  accordance  with  a  remark  of  Livy  in  another  part 
 of  his  history  (3,  55),  that,  after  the  decemvirs  were 
 expelled  from  Rome,  a  law  was  passed,  enacting  that, 
 in  future,  no  magistrate  should  be  made  from  whom 
 there  should  be  no  appeal.  Papirius  demanded  Fa- 
 bius of  the  senate ;  and  as  neither  the  entreaties  of 
 
PAP 
 
 PAR 
 
 the  senators  nor  those  of  the  father  of  Fabius,  who 
 had  been  dictator  and  three  limes  consul,  could  induce 
 Papirius  to  pardon  hitn,  the  father  of  Fabius  appealed 
 to  the  peo[)le,  and  at  length,  at  the  earnest  entreaties 
 of  the  people  and  the  tribunes  of  the  commons,  the 
 life  of  Fabius  was  spared.  Papirius  named  a  new 
 master  of  the  horse,  and,  on  his  return  to  the  army, 
 defeated  the  Samnites,  and  put  an  end  to  the  war  at 
 the  tune.  (Liv.,  8,  29,  seyq  )  Papirius  was  elected 
 consul  a  second  time,  with  Q.  Publius  Philo,  in  B.C. 
 3'2().  and  again  defeated  the  Samnites;  and  apparently 
 
 0  third  lime  in  the  following  year,  though  there  appears 
 to  be  some  doubt  upon  the  latter  fioint.  (Liv.,  9,  7, 
 scqij.)  He  was  consul  for  the  fourth  time  in  B  C. 
 315  {Lw.,  9,  22),  and  for  the  fifth  lime  in  B.C.  313. 
 (Liv  ,  9.  38.)  He  was  again  named  dictator  in  B.C. 
 309,  to  carry  on  the  war  against  his  old  enemies  the 
 Samnites,  whom  he  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  and 
 obtained,  on  account  of  his  victory,  the  honours  of  a 
 triumph  {Ltv  ,  9,  38,  seqq.) ;  after  which  time  we  find 
 no  more  mention  of  him.  Papirius  Cursor,  says  Livy 
 (9,  16),  was  considered  the  most  illustrious  man  of  his 
 age,  and  it  was  thought  he  would  have  been  equal  to 
 contend  with  Alexander  the  Great,  if  the  latter,  after 
 the  conquest  of  Asia,  had  turned  his  arms  against  Eu- 
 rope. (Encycl.  Use.  Knowl.,  vol.  17,  p.  218.)  —  II. 
 One  of  this  family  received  the  surname  of  Prcelexta- 
 tus,  from  an  action  of  his  while  still  wearing  the  prcB- 
 tcxla,  or  youthful  gown,  and  before  he  had  assumed  the 
 toi;a  tirtlis,  or  gown  of  manhood.  It  was  customary 
 in  tho^e  days  for  fathers  to  take  their  young  sons  to 
 the  senate-house  when  anything  important  was  under 
 discussion,  in  order  that  they  might  sooner  become 
 familiarized  with  public  affairs.  The  father  of  young 
 Papirius  look  him  on  one  of  these  occasions,  while  a 
 matter  of  considerable  moment  was  pending  ;  and  it 
 having  been  deemed  advisable  to  adjourn  the  debate 
 unto  the  morrow,  an  injunction  of  secrecy  was  laid 
 upon  all  who  were  present.  The  mother  of  young  Pa- 
 pirius wished  to  know  what  had  passed  in  the  senate  ; 
 but  the  son,  unwilling  to  betray  the  secrets  of  that  as- 
 sembly, amused  his  jiarenl  by  telling  her  that  it  had 
 been  debated  whether  it  would  be  more  advantageous 
 to  the  republic  to  give  two  wives  to  one  husband,  or 
 two  husbands  to  one  wife.  The  mother  of  Papirius 
 was  alarmed,  and  she  communicated  the  secret  to  the 
 
 01  her  Roman  matrons,  and  on  the  morrow  they  assem- 
 bled in  large  numbers  before  the  senate-house,  bathed 
 in  tears,  and  earnestly  entreating  that  one  woman  might 
 have  two  husbands  rather  than  one  husband  two  wives. 
 The  senators  were  astonished  at  so  singular  an  ap])li- 
 cation  ;  but  young  Papirius  modestly  explained  the 
 cause,  and  the  fathers,  in  admiration  of  his  ready  tact, 
 passed  a  decree,  that  for  the  future  boys  should  not  be 
 allowed  to  come  to  the  senate  with  their  fathers,  ex- 
 cept Papirius  alone.  This  regulation  continued  until 
 the  time  of  Augustus,  who  rescinded  it.  {Macrub., 
 1,6) 
 
 Pai'pcs,  a  celebrated  mathematician  of  Alexandrea, 
 who  lived  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  He 
 is  known  by  his  Mathematical  Collections  {Madr/fiari- 
 Kal  CTwavwyai),  in  eight  books,  and  by  other  works, 
 among  which  were  a  Comtnentary  on  Ptolemy's  Al- 
 magest, a  work  on  Geography,  a  Treatise  on  Military 
 Engines,  a  Commentary  on  Aristarchus  of  Samos,  &c. 
 His  Collections  have  chiefly  come  down  to  us;  of 
 his  other  productions  we  have  merely  some  fragments. 
 The  last  five  books  of  the  Collections  remain  entire  ; 
 the  third  is  acephalous,  wanting  the  commencement. 
 VVallis  published  a  fragment  of  the  second.  The  first 
 two  books  contained  the  Greek  Arithmetic.  What 
 we  have  of  the  work  is  interesting,  on  account  of  the 
 extracts  it  contains  from  works  that  are  now  lost,  and 
 it  merits  the  careful  perusal  of  those  who  make  re- 
 searches into  the  history  of  the  exact  sciences.  Mon- 
 tucla  ascribes  to  Pappus  the  first  idea  of  the  principle 
 
 often  referred  to  by  mathematicians,  the  use,  namely, 
 of  the  centre  of  gravity  for  the  dimension  of  figures. 
 We  ow^e  to  Pappus  also  an  elegant  though  indirect  so- 
 lution of  the  famous  problem  of  the  trisection  of  an 
 angle.  "  Pajipus,"  observes  a  writer  in  the  American 
 Quarterly  Review  (No.  21,  p.  124),  "is  the  only  name 
 worthy  of  note  that  occurs  to  fill  up  the  great  blank 
 between  Archimedes  and  the  Italian  mechanici.ins  of 
 the  sixteenth  century.  He  attempted  to  ascertain  the 
 principle  of  all  the  simple  machines,  in  the  same  man- 
 ner that  his  illustrious  predecessor  had  that  of  the  le- 
 ver ;  his  attention,  however,  was  principally  directed 
 to  the  inclined  plane.  In  this  he  failed,  owing  to  the 
 fundamental  error  upon  which  all  his  investigations 
 proceeded,  that  some  force  was  necessary  to  keep  a 
 body  even  on  a  plane  of  no  inclination." — Only  parts 
 of  the  Greek  text  of  the  Collections  have  been  pub- 
 lished. We  have  a  Latin  version  of  six  books,  from 
 the  thiid  to  the  end  of  the  work,  made  by  Cominandi- 
 no,  an  Italian  mathematician  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
 It  was  printed  at  Pesaro  in  1.588,  fol.,  with  a  com- 
 mentary by  Ubaldi,  and  afterward  revised  by  Mano- 
 lessius,  and  reprinted  at  Bologna,  1660,  fol.  A  frag- 
 ment of  the  Greek  text  of  the  second  book  was  given 
 by  Wallis  at  the  end  of  his  Aristarchus,  Oxon.,  1688, 
 8vo,  and  in  the  third  volume  of  his  Opera  Matliemati- 
 ca.  The  second  part  of  the  fifth  book  was  published 
 by  Eisenmann,  professor  in  "L'Ecole  royale  des  ponts 
 et  chaussees,"  Paris,  1824,  fol.  A  part  of  the  preface 
 of  the  seventh  book  is  given  in  the  Prolegomena  of 
 Gregory's  Euclid,  Oxon.,  1703,  fol.,  and  the  entire 
 preface  in  the  edition  of  ApoUonius  of  Perga,  Oxon., 
 1706,  8vo.  Mcibomius  has  inserted  some  lemmas 
 from  the  seventh  book  in  his  Dialogi  de  Proporlioni- 
 bus,  Hafnicr,  1655,  fol.  (Sclioll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 7,  p.  i^'.—Biogr.  Umv.,  vol.  32,  p.  538.) 
 
 Partet-Xc^e  or  -tacijni,  a  people  of  Persia,  occu- 
 pying the  mountain  range  between  that  country  and 
 Media.  Their  territory  was  called  by  the  Greeks  Pa- 
 rsetacene,  and  Stephanus  Byzantinus  makes  mention  of 
 a  city  in  it  by  the  name  of  Para^taca  (p.  626.  —  Diod. 
 Sic,  19,  M.—Anmn,  3,  19.— P/m.,  6,  26). 
 
 PARyETONiUM,  a  strongly-fortified  place,  the  frontier- 
 city  of  Egypt  on  the  side  of  Libya,  and  situate  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  had,  including  its  har- 
 bour, a  circuit  of  about  40  stadia.  {Sirab., 798)  Jus- 
 tinian repaired  and  strengthened  it.  {Procop.,de  A'jdif., 
 6,  2.)  Strabo  gives  the  distance  from  Alexandrea  at 
 about  1300  stadia:  Scylax  makes  it  1700,  and  Pliny 
 1600.  Ptolemy  removes  Paraetonium  from  Alexan- 
 drea 3^  30',  or  35  geographical  miles. — 'i'he  modern 
 name  is  Al  Barcton.  {Mayinerl,  Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  pt. 
 2,  p.  29,  seqq.) 
 
 Parasanoks  {Tlapaadyjijc),  in  Latin  Parasanga, 
 a  parasang,  or  Persian  measure  of  length,  which,  ac- 
 cording to  Herodotus  (2,  6  ;  5.  53;  6,  42),  was  equal 
 to  30  stadia  ;  and  if  we  reckon  eight  stadia  as  equal 
 to  one  English  mile,  the  parasang  was  consequently 
 equal  to  nearly  four  English  miles.  Hesychius  and 
 Suidas  also  give  the  length  of  the  parasang  at  30  sta- 
 dia ;  and  Xenophon  must  have  calculated  it  at  the 
 same  length,  since  he  says  {Anab.,  2.  2,  6)  that  lO.O.Stf 
 stadia  are  equal  to  535  parasangs  (16,050  ^535=30). 
 Pliny  (6,  30),  however,  informs  us,  that  the  length  o' 
 the  parasang  was  reckoned  differently  by  different  au- 
 thors ;  and  Strabo  (518)  states,  thai  some  reckoned  il 
 at  60,  others  at  40,  and  others  at  30  stadia.  The  Aih- 
 bian  geographers  (Frcytag,  Lex.  Arab.  s.  v.  Farsakh) 
 reckon  it  equal  to  three  "miles,  which  agrees  with  the 
 statements  of  English  travellers  (quoted  by  Rodiger, 
 in  Ersch  and  Grubcr's  Encyclopadic),  who  esiiinaie  it 
 variously  at  from  'i\  to  4  English  miles.  Franklin 
 {Tour  to  Persia,  p.  17)  reckons  il  at  four  miles;  Ous- 
 \ey  (Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  23)  al  between  3i  and  3^  miles; 
 and  Kinneir  {Geogr.  of  Persia,  p.  57)  at  3J  miles.-. 
 Parasanff  is  a  Persian  word,  and  is  derived  from  the 
 ^  975 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 ancient  Farsang,  which  is  ])rononnced  in  modern  Per- 
 sian Fersoiff.  It  has  been  changed  in  Arabic  into 
 Farsakh.  Various  etymologies  have  been  pro|)osed 
 for  the  term.  Ttie  latter  part  of  the  word  is  thought 
 to  be  the  Persian  scng,  "  a  stone,"  and  the  term  nnght 
 thus  be  derived  from  the  stones  which  were  placed  to 
 mark  the  distances  in  the  road.  Bohlen  (quoted  by 
 Kodis^cr)  supposes  the  first  part  of  the  word  to  be 
 the  pre[)osition  feia,  and  compares  the  word  with  the 
 i.atin  ad  lapidem.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p. 
 211.) 
 
 P.\RCiK.  the  Fates,  called  also  Fata,  and  in  Greek 
 Moipnt  {MotrcE).  In  the  Iliad,  with  the  exception  of 
 one  passage  (20,  49),  the  Moira  is  spoken  of  in  the 
 singular  number,  and  as  a  person,  almost  exactly  as  we 
 use  the  word  Fale.  But  in  the  Odyssey  tiiis  word  is 
 etnploved  as  a  common  substantive,  followed  by  a  gen- 
 itive of  the  person,  and  signifying  decree.  The  'I'he- 
 ogony  of  Hesiod  limits  the  Fates,  like  so  many  other 
 goddesses,  to  three,  and  gives  them  Jupiter  and  The- 
 mis for  their  parents.  (T/t£Oo-.,  904.)  In  an  interpo- 
 lated passage  of  the  same  poem  (v.  217)  they  are  class- 
 ed among  the  children  of  Night  ;  and  Plato,  on  his 
 part,  makes  I  hem  the  daughters  of  Necessity.  {Rep., 
 10,  617.)  Their  names  in  Hesiod  are  Clolho  (5'7«k- 
 stcr),  Lachesis  (AlloUer),  and  Atropos  {Unchange- 
 able) ;  but  he  does  not  speak  of  their  spinning  the 
 destinies  of  men.  This  office  of  theirs  is,  however, 
 noticed  in  both  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  It  is  probable 
 that  Homer,  in  accordance  with  the  sublime  fiction  in 
 the  Theogony,  regarded  the  Fates  as  the  offspring  of 
 Jupiter  and  Order,  for  in  him  they  are  but  the  minis- 
 ters of  Jupiter,  in  whose  hands  are  the  issues  of  all 
 things.  {Nilzch,  ad  Od.,  'A,  236.)  yEschylus  makes 
 even  Jupiter  himself  subject  to  the  Fates.  {Prom. 
 Vinct..,  515. — Keighllcy's  Mylhologij,  p.  195.)  —  Ac- 
 cording to  the  popular  mythology,  Clotho  held  the  dis- 
 taff, Lachesis  span  each  one's  portion  of  the  thread  of 
 existence,  and  Atropos  cut  it  off:  hence  the  well- 
 known  line  expressing  their  respective  functions  : 
 
 '^Clotho  colum  retinet,  Lachesis  net,  et  Atropos  occal.'''' 
 
 The  more  correct  explanation,  however,  is  to  make 
 Clotho  spin,  Lachesis  mark  out  each  one's  portion, 
 and  Atrofios  sever  it. —  The  Latin  writers  indulge  in 
 various  views  of  the  functions  of  the  Parcae,  as  sug- 
 gested by  tlieir  own  ingenuity  of  elucidation.  Thus 
 Apuleius  {Dc  Mundo,  sub  fin.)  makes  Clotho  preside 
 over  the  present,  Atro[)Os  the  past,  and  Lachesis  the 
 future  ;  an  idea  probably  borrowed  from  Plato,  who 
 introduces  the  Moirae  singing  rd  ysyovoTa,  ru  ovra, 
 r« /<f/iAot'ra  {Rep.,  10,  617.)  So  in  the  Scandina- 
 vian mythology,  the  Norns  or  Destinies,  who  are  also 
 three  in  number,  are  called  Urdur,  Verdandi,  and 
 Skald,  or  "  Past,"  "  Present,"  and  "  Future." — Ac- 
 cording to  Fulgcntius  {MythoL,  I,  7),  Clotho  presides 
 over  nativity,  Atropos  over  death,  and  Lachesis  over 
 each  one's  lot  in  life. — The  term  Moira  {M.olpa)  comes 
 from  /leipo),  "to  divide'"  or  "  port  ion  out.'"  The  or- 
 dinary etymology  for  the  word  ParciF.  deduces  it  by 
 antiphrasis  from  parro,  "to  spare,"  because  they  never 
 spared.  {Scrv.  ad /En.,  1,  26. — Martian.  Capell. — 
 Donat. — Diomed,  ap.  Voss,  Etymol.)  Varro  derives 
 it  "  a  paric7ido,"  because  they  presided  over  the  birth 
 of  men  (/In/.  Gc//.,  3,  16);  or,  to  quote  his  own  words, 
 ^^Parca,  immnfata  litera  una,  a  partu  noniinafa. "  Scal- 
 iger  makes  it  come  from  parco,  "  to  spare,"  in  a  dif- 
 ferent sense  from  Servius  and  the  other  grammarians 
 quoted  above  ;  because,  according  to  him,  only  one  of 
 the  Fates  cuts  the  thread  of  existence,  whereas  of  the 
 other  two,  one  gives  life  and  the  other  proloi.^-s  it. 
 Perhaps,  after  all,  the  best  explanation  (supposing  the 
 word  Parca  to  be  of  Latin  origin)  is  that  which  makes 
 it  come  from  parco,  "  to  spare,"  not  by  antiphr.isis, 
 nor  in  accordance  with  Scaliger's  notion,  but  because 
 these  deities  were  invoked  in  prayer  to  spare  the  lives 
 976 
 
 of  mortals.     (Consult  Scheller,  Lat.  Deutsch.   Wor 
 terb.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Paris,  the  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  by  Hecuba, 
 and  also  called  Alexander.  He  was  destined,  even  be- 
 fore his  birth,  to  become  the  ruin  of  his  country  ;  and 
 when  his  mother,  being  about  to  lie-in  of  him,  had 
 dreamed  that  she  brought  forth  a  torch  which  set  all  Il- 
 ium in  flames,  the  soothsayer  yEsacus  declared  thai  the 
 child  would  prove  the  ruin  of  his  country,  and  recom- 
 mended to  expose  it.  As  soon  as  born,  the  babe  was 
 given  to  a  servant  to  be  left  on  Ida  to  perish.  The 
 domestic  otieyed,  but,  on  returning  at  the  end  of  five 
 days,  he  found  that  a  bear  had  been  nursing  the  infant. 
 Struck  with  this  strange  event,  he  took  home  the  in- 
 fant, reared  him  as  his  own  son,  and  named  him  Paris. 
 When  Paris  grew  up  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
 strength  and  courage  in  repelling  robbers  from  the 
 flocks,  and  the  shepherds,  in  consequence,  named  hiin 
 Alexander  {Man-protector),  or,  according  to  the  Gree'ii 
 form,  'XM^avdfjog  {uTrii  tov  aXt^eiv  rovg  uvdpa^). 
 In  this  state  of  seclusion,  too,  he  united  himself  to  the 
 nymph  Q^none,  whose  tragical  fate  is  elsewhere  related. 
 (  Vtd.QUnone.)  Their  conjugal  happiness  was  soon  dis- 
 turbed. At  the  marriage  of  Pcleus  and  Thetis,  the  god- 
 dess of  Discord,  who  had  not  been  invited  to  partake 
 of  the  entertainment,  showed  her  displeasure  by  throw- 
 ing into  the  assembly  of  the  gods  who  were  at  the  cele- 
 bration of  the  nuptials  a  golden  apple,  on  which  were 
 written  the  words  'H  Ka2,rj  'KadtTu,  "  Lei  the  beauty 
 (among  you)  lake  m«."  Juno,  Minerva,  and  Venus 
 laying  claim  to  it,  and  Jove  being  unwilling  to  decide, 
 the  god  commanded  Mercury  to  lead  the  three  deities 
 to  Mount  Ida,  and  to  intrust  the  decision  of  the  aflair 
 to  the  shepherd  Alexander,  whose  judgment  was  to  be 
 definitive.  The  goddesses  appeared  before  him,  and 
 urged  their  respective  claims,  and  each,  to  influence 
 his  decision,  made  him  an  alluring  ofl'er  of  future  ad- 
 vantage. Juno  endeavoured  to  secure  his  [)reference 
 by  the  promise  of  a  kingdom,  Mnierva  by  the  gift  of 
 intellectual  superiority  and  martial  renown,  and  Venus 
 by  offering  him  the  fairest  woman  in  the  world  for  his 
 wife.  To  Venus  he  assigned  the  [irize,  and  brought 
 upon  himself,  in  consequence,  the  unrelenting  eninitv 
 of  her  two  disappointed  rivals,  which  was  extended 
 also  to  his  whole  family  and  the  entire  Trojan  race. 
 Soon  after  this  event,  Priam  proposed  a  contest  among 
 his  sons  and  other  princes,  and  promised  to  reward 
 the  conqueror  with  one  of  the  finest  bulls  of  Mount 
 Ida.  Persons  were  sent  to  procure  the  animal,  and  it 
 was  found  in  the  possession  of  Paris,  who  reluctantly 
 yielded  it  up.  The  shepherd,  desirous  of  obtaining 
 again  this  favourite  animal,  went  to  Troy,  and  entered 
 the  lists  of  the  combatants.  Having  proved  success- 
 ful against  every  competitor,  and  having  gained  an 
 advantage  over  Hector  himself,  that  prince,  irritated 
 at  seeing  himself  conquered  by  an  unknown  stranger, 
 pursued  him  closely,  and  Paris  must  have  fallen  a 
 victim  to  his  brother's  resentment  had  he  not  fled  to 
 the  altar  of  Jupiter.  This  sacred  place  of  refuge  pre- 
 served his  life;  and  Cassandra,  the  daiigliter  of  Priam, 
 struck  with  the  similarity  of  the  features  of  Paris  to 
 those  of  her  brothers,  inquired  his  birth  and  his  age. 
 From  these  circumstances  she  soon  discovered  that  he 
 was  her  brother,  and  as  such  she  introduced  him  to 
 her  father  and  to  his  children.  Priam,  thereupon,  for- 
 getful of  the  alarming  predictions  of  .^li^sacus,  acknowl- 
 edged Paris  as  his  son,  and  all  enmity  instantly  ceased 
 between  the  new-comer  and  Hector.  Not  long  after 
 this,  at  the  instigation  of  Venus,  who  had  not  forgotten 
 her  promise  to  him,  Paris  proceeded  on  his  memorable 
 voyage  to  Greece,  from  which  the  soothsaying  Helenus 
 and  Cassandra  had  in  vain  endeavoured  to  deter  him. 
 The  ostensible  object  of  the  voyage  was  to  procure  in- 
 formation respecting  his  father's  sister  Hesione,  who 
 had  been  given  in  marriage  by  Hercules  to  his  follower 
 Telamon,  the  monarch  of  Salamis.     The  real  motive. 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 however,  which  prompted  the  enterprise,  was  a  wish 
 10  obtain,  in  the  person  of  Helen,  then  the  fairest 
 woman  of  her  time,  a  fulfilment  of  what  Venus  had 
 offered  him  when  he  was  decidmg  the  contest  of 
 beauty.  Arriving  at  Sparta,  where  Menelaiis.  the  hus- 
 of  Helen,  was  reigning,  he  met  with  an  hospitable  re- 
 ception ;  but,  Menelaus  soon  after  having  sailed  away 
 to  Crete,  ihe  Trojan  prince  availed  himself  of  his  ab- 
 sence, seduced  the  atfections  of  Helen,  and  bore  her 
 away  to  his  native  city,  together  with  a  large  portion 
 of  the  wealth  of  her  husband.  (Consult  remarks  under 
 the  article  Helena.)  Hence  ensued  the  war  of  Troy, 
 which  ended  in  the  total  destruction  of  that  ill-fated 
 city.  {Vid.  Troja.)  Paris,  though  represented  in 
 general  as  efTeminate  and  vain  of  his  personal  appear- 
 ance, yet  distinguished  himself  during  the  siege  of 
 Troy  by  wounding  Diomede,  Machaon,  Aiitilochus, 
 and  Palamedes,  and  subsequently  by  discharging  the 
 dart  which  proved  fatal  to  Achilles.  Venus  took  him 
 under  her  special  protection,  and,  in  the  single  com- 
 bat with  Menelaus,  rescued  him  from  the  vengeance 
 of  the  latter.  The  circumstances  of  his  death  are 
 mentioned  under  the  article  Qi^none.  {Diet.  Cret.,  1, 
 3.  i.  —  Apollod.,  3,  12— Hygin.,  fab.,  92,  273.— 
 Tzetz.  ad  Lycophr.,  57,  61,  63,  86,  &c.) 
 
 Parisi,  a  British  nation  lying  to  the  north  of  the 
 Coritani,  and  occupying  the  district  which  is  called 
 Holdcrness,  or,  according  to  Camden,  the  whole  East- 
 Ridinir  of  Yorkshire.  They  are  supposed  to  have  de- 
 rived their  name  from  the  two  British  words  paur  isa, 
 which  signify  low  pasture,  and  which  are  descriptive 
 of  the  situation  and  uses  of  their  country.  Their  cap- 
 ital was  Petuaria.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  pt.  2, 
 p.  187.) 
 
 P.^Risii.  a  people  and  city  of  Gaul,  now  Hans,  the 
 capital  of  the  kingdom  of  France.  {Vtd.  Lutetia. — 
 Ctf.v.,  B.  G  ,  6,  3.) 
 
 Parisus,  a  river  of  Pannonia,  falling  into  the  Dan- 
 ube ;  according  to  Mannert,  the  Mur.  in  the  Hungarian 
 part  of  its  course.     (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  489.) 
 
 Parium,  now  Camanar,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  in 
 Mysia  Minor,  on  the  Propontis,  southwest  of  Linus, 
 and  northeast  from  Paesus.  It  was  founded  by  the 
 Milesians  and  Parians.  {Plin.,  5,  32. — Paul.  Lex., 
 viii.,  de  Ccnsih.) 
 
 Parma,  a  city  of  Italy,  south  of  the  Po,  on  the  small 
 river  Panna.  It  was  founded  by  the  Etrurians,  taken 
 by  a  tribe  of  Gauls  called  the  Boii,  and  at  last  colon- 
 ized by  the  Romans,  A.U.G.  569.  (Liv  ,  39,  55.) 
 From  Cicero  it  may  be  inferred  that  Parma  suffered 
 from  the  adverse  factions  in  the  civil  wars.  (Ep.  ad. 
 Fam.,  10,  .33.— /rf.  ibid.,  12,  5.  — Id,  Philipp.,  14, 
 3.)  It  was  probably  recolonized  under  Augustus,  as 
 some  inscriptions  give  it  the  title  of  Colonia  Julia  Au- 
 gusta Parma.  Strabo  (216)  speaks  of  it  as  a  city  of 
 note.  From  Martial  we  learn  that  its  wool  was  highly 
 prized  (14,  53;  5,  13).  In  the  ages  that  immedi- 
 ately succeeded  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  we  find 
 this  city  distinguished  also  by  the  appellation  of  Chry- 
 sopolis  {Gold-city),  but  are  unacquainted  with  the 
 causes  that  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  name.  {Geogr. 
 Rnvcnnas,  4,  33. — Donizo,  Vil.  Machlildis,  1,  10.) 
 The  modern  name  is  Parma.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 9,  pt.  1,  p.  218.) 
 
 ParmenIdes  {nap/ieviSric),  the  second  in  the  series 
 of  the  Eleatic  philosophers,  was  a  native  of  Elea.  He 
 was  descended  from  a  noble  family,  and  is  said  to  have 
 been  induced  to  study  [ihilosophy  by  Aminias.  {Diog. 
 Laert.,9,  21.)  He  is  also  stated  to  have  received 
 instruction  from  Diocha;tes,  the  Pythagorean,  to  whom 
 he  erected  an  bcroitm.  Later  writers  inform  us  that 
 he  heard  Xenophanes,  the  founder  of  the  Eleatic  school, 
 but  Aristotle  {Met.,  1,  5)  speaks  of  it  with  some  doubt. 
 We  read  that  Parmenidcs  gave  a  code  of  laws  to  his 
 native  city,  which  was  so  highly  esteemed  that  at  first 
 the  citizens  took  an  oath  every  vear  to  observe  it. 
 6H 
 
 {Diog.  Laert.,  9,  23.~^Plut.,  Adv.  Colot.,  32.— Stra- 
 bo, 252.)  The  time  when  he  lived  has  been  much  dis- 
 puted. According  to  Plato  (Parmen.,  127),  Parme- 
 nides,  at  the  age  of  sixty-five,  accompanieil  by  Zeno, 
 at  the  age  of  forty,  visited  Athens  during  the  great 
 Panalhenaea,  and  stopped  at  the  house  of  Pythodorus. 
 As  this  visit  to  Athens  probably  occurred  about  B.C 
 454  {Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  p.  364),  Parmenides  would 
 have  been  born  about  B.(.\  519.  But  to  this  dale  two 
 objections  are  urged  ;  first,  that  Diogenes  Laertius(9, 
 23)  says  that  Parmenides  flourished  {y'/Kfjai^e)  in  the 
 69th  Olympiad  ;  and,  secondly,  that  Socrates  is  stated 
 by  Plato,  in  his  dialogue  entitled  Parmenides,  to  have 
 conversed  with  Parmenides  and  Zeno  on  the  doctrine 
 of  ideas,  which  we  can  hardly  suppose  to  have  been 
 the  case,  as  Socrates  at  that  lime  was  onlv  thirteen  or 
 fourteen.  Athenaeus,  accordingly  (11,  p.  505),  has  cen- 
 sured Plato  for  saying  that  such  a  dialogue  ever  look 
 place.  But  in  reply  to  these  objections  it  may  be  re- 
 marked, first,  that  little  reliance  can  be  placed  upon 
 the  vague  statement  of  such  a  careless  writer  as  Dio- 
 genes ;  and,  secondly,  that  the  dialogue  which  Plato 
 represents  Socrates  to  have  had  with  Parmenides  and 
 Zeno  is  doubtless  fictitious  ;  yet  it  was  founded  on  a 
 fact,  that  Socrates,  when  a  boy,  had  heard  Parmenides 
 at  Athens.  Plato  mentions,  both  in  the  "  TheMclus'' 
 (p.  183)  and  the  ''Sophtstes^'  (p.  127),  that  Socrates 
 was  very  young  {nuvv  veo^)  when  he  heard  Parmeni- 
 des. We  have  no  other  particulars  of  the  life  of  Par- 
 menides. He  taught  Empedocles  and  Zeno,  and  with 
 the  latter  lived  on  the  most  intimate  terms.  {Plato, 
 Parmen.,  127.)  He  is  always  spoken  of  by  the  ancient 
 writers  with  the  greatest  respect.  In  the  "  Thcccte- 
 ttis'''  (p.  183)  Plato  compares  him  with  Homer;  and 
 in  the  '^Sophistes''^  (p.  237)  he  calls  him  "  the  Great." 
 (Compare  Aristot.,  Met.,  1,  5.)  Parmenides  wrote  a 
 poem,  which  is  usually  cited  by  the  title  "  Of  Nature'' 
 {TTEfil  (j>(jccL.>^.  —  Sext.  Empir.,  adv.  Malhem,  7,  111. 
 —  Thcophr.,  ap.  Diog.  Laert.,  8,  55),  but  which  also 
 bore  other  titles.  Suidas  calls  it  (pvaioTioyia  {s.  v.  Ilap- 
 jieviS.),  and  adds,  on  the  authority  of  Plato,  that  he  also 
 wrote  works  in  prose.  The  passage  in  Plato  {Soph., 
 p.  237),  however,  to  which  .Suidas  refers,  perhaps  only 
 means  an  oral  exposition  of  his  system,  which  inter- 
 pretation is  rendered  more  probable  by  the  fact  that 
 Sextus  Empiricus  {adv.  Mathem.,  7,  111)  and  Dio- 
 genes Laertius  (1,  16)  expressly  state,  that  Parmeni- 
 des only  wrote  one  work.  Several  fragments  of  this 
 work  "  On  Nature'"  have  come  down  to  us,  principal- 
 ly in  the  writings  of  Sextus  Empiricus  and  Simplicius. 
 They  were  first  published  by  Stephanus  in  his  "Poc- 
 sis  Philosophical  {I^aris,  1573),  and  next  by  Fiille- 
 born,  with  a  translation  in  verse,  Ziillichau,  1795. 
 Brandis,  in  his  "  Commentationes  Elea/iccB,"  Hafyme, 
 1813,  also  published  the  fragments  of  Parmenides,  to- 
 gether with  those  of  Xenophanes  and  Melissus ;  but 
 the  most  recent  and  complete  edition  is  bv  Karsten,  in 
 the  second  volume  of  his  "  Philosophorum  Grcecorum 
 veteriim,prcEsertim  qui  ante  Plalonem,Jloruernnt,  Ope- 
 rum  ReltquicB,''  Brux  ,  1835.  The  fragments  of  hi» 
 work  which  have  come  down  to  us  are  sufficient  to  en- 
 able us  to  judge  of  its  general  method  and  subject.  It 
 opened  with  an  allegory,  which  was  intended  to  exhib- 
 it the  soul's  longing  after  truth.  The  soul  is  repn;- 
 sented  as  drawn  by  steeds  along  an  untrodden  road  to 
 the  residence  of  Justice  (Aj/ct?),  who  promises  to  reveal 
 everything  to  it.  After  this  introduction  the  work  is 
 divided  into  parts  ;  the  first  part  treats  of  the  knowl- 
 edge of  truth,  and  the  second  explains  the  physiologi- 
 cal' system  of  the  Eleatic  school.  {Encyclop.  Useful 
 KnowL,  vol.  17.  p.  283.) 
 
 Parmenio,  a  Macedonian  general,  who  distinguished 
 himself  in  the  service  of  Philip,  father  of  Alexander  the 
 Great.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  lllyri- 
 ans  about  the  time  of  Alexander's  birth,  and  the  news 
 of  both  events  reached  Philip,  who  was  then  absent 
 
 977 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 from  his  capital  on  some  expedition,  together  with  that 
 of  his  having  won  the  prize  at  the  Olympic  games. 
 Philip,  while  preparing  to  invade  tiie  Persian  empire, 
 sent  a  consideratile  force  inlo  Asia  as  an  advanced 
 guard,  and  he  chose  Parmcnio  and  Attalus  as  the  lead- 
 ers of  the  expedition.  These  commanders  began  by 
 expelling  the  Persian  garrisons  from  several  Greek 
 towns  of  Asia  Minor.  Parmenio  look  Grynreum  in 
 iEolis,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  having  sided  with  the 
 Persians,  and  fought  against  the  Macedonians,  were 
 sold  as  slaves.  When  Alexander  set  out  on  his  Asi- 
 atic expedition,  Parmenio  had  one  of  the  chief  com- 
 mands in  the  army.  At  the  head  of  the  Thessalian  cav- 
 alry he  contributed  much  to  the  victory  of  the  Grani- 
 cus  ;  and  at  Issus  he  had  the  command  of  the  cavalry 
 on  the  left  wing,  which  was  placed  near  the  seacoast, 
 and  had  to  sustain  for  a  time  the  principal  attack  of 
 the  Persians.  At  Arbela  he  advised  Alexander  not  to 
 give  battle  until  he  had  well  reconnoitred  the  ground. 
 Being  in  command  of  the  left  wmg,  he  was  attacked 
 in  flank  by  the  Persians,  and  was  lor  a  time  in  some 
 danger,  until  Alexander,  who  had  been  successful  in 
 another  part  of  the  tield,  came  to  his  assistance.  Par- 
 menio afterward  pursued  the  fugitives,  and  took  pos- 
 session of  the  Persian  camp,  with  the  elephants,  cam- 
 els, and  all  the  baggage.  When  Alexander  marched 
 beyond  the  Caspian  gates  in  pursuit  of  Danus  and 
 Bessus,  he  left  Parmenio,  who  was  now  advanced  in 
 years,  in  Media,  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force, 
 bome  time  after,  while  Alexander  was  encamped  at 
 Artacoana,  a  conspiracy  is  said  to  have  been  discovered 
 against  his  life,  in  which  Philotas,  the  son  of  Parme- 
 nio, was  accused  of  being  implicated.  He  was,  in  con- 
 sequence, put  to  the  torture,  and,  after  enduring  dread- 
 ful agonies,  confessed,  though  in  vague  terms,  that  he 
 had  conspired  against  the  life  of  Alexander,  and  that 
 his  father  Parmenio  was  cognizant  of  it.  This  being 
 considered  sufficient  evidence,  Philotas  was  stoned  to 
 death,  and  Alexander  despatched  a  messenger  to  Me- 
 dia, with  secret  orders  to  Oleander  and  other  officers 
 who  were  serving  under  Parmenio,  to  put  their  com- 
 mander to  death.  Tlie  unsuspecting  veteran,  while 
 conversing  with  his  officers,  was  run  through  the  body 
 by  Oleander.  This  is  the  substance  of  the  account  of 
 Curtius  (lib.  6  et  7).  Arrian's  account  is  somewhat 
 dirterent  (lib.  3).  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the 
 trial  and  execution  of  Philotas,  and  it  appears  to  have 
 been  at  least  a  summary  and  unsatisfactory  proceed- 
 ing, the  murder  of  Parmenio,  and  the  manner  of  it,  form 
 one  of  the  darkest  blots  in  Alexander's  character. 
 Parmenio  was  evidently  sacrificed  in  cold  blood  to 
 what  have  been  styled,  in  after  ages,  "reasons  of 
 state."  He  was  seventy  years  of  age  ;  he  had  lost 
 two  sons  in  tiie  campaigns  of  Alexander,  and  Philotas 
 was  the  last  one  remaining  to  him.  Parmenio  appears 
 to  have  been  a  steady,  brave,  and  prudent  command- 
 er.    {Ijincycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  283,  stq.) 
 
 Parnassus  (Hapvaaao^),  I.  the  name  of  a  mount- 
 ain-chain in  Phocis,  which  extends  in  a  northeasterly 
 direction  from  the  country  of  the  Locri  Ozolae  to 
 Mount  Qilta,  and  in  a  southwesterly  direction  through 
 the  middle  of  Phocis,  till  it  joins  Mount  Helicon  on 
 the  borders  of  Boeotia.  Strabo  (31H)  says  that  Par- 
 nassus divided  Phocis  into  two  [)arts  ;  but  the  name 
 was  more  usually  restricted  to  the  lofty  mountain  upon 
 which  Delphi  was  situated.  According  to  Stephanus 
 of  Byzantium,  it  was  anciently  called  Larnassus,  be- 
 cause the  ark  or  larnax  of  Deucalion  landed  here  af- 
 ter the  flood.  (Oompare  Omil,  Met.,  1,  318.)  Pau- 
 Eanias  (10,  6,  1)  derives  the  name  from  Parnassus,  the 
 son  of  Neptune  and  Cleodora.  It  is  called  at  the  pres- 
 ent day  Liakura.  Parnassus  is  the  highest  mountain 
 in  Central  Greece.  Strabo  (379)  says  that  it  could 
 be  seen  from  the  Acrocorinthus  in  Corinth,  and  also 
 states  (409)  that  it  was  of  the  same  height  as  Mount 
 Helicon  ;  but  in  the  latter  point  he  was  mit'aken,  ac- 
 978 
 
 cording  to  Colonel  Leake,  who  informs  us  (Travels  m 
 Northern  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  527)  that  Liakura  is  some 
 hundreds  of  feet  higher  than  Faleovuna,  which  is  the 
 highest  point  of  Helicon.  Parnassus  was  covered  the 
 greater  part  of  the  year  with  snow,  whence  the  epithet 
 of  "  6-woiti?/"  so  generally  applied  to  it  by  the  poets. 
 {Soyh.,  (Ed.  Tyr,  473.—Eurip.,  Phccn.,  314.)  When 
 Brennus  invaded  Greece,  we  learn  from  Pausanias  (10, 
 23,  3  et  4)  that  it  was  covered  with  snow.  Above 
 Delphi  there  were  two  lofty  rocks,  from  which  the 
 mountain  is  frequently  called  by  the  poets  the  two- 
 headed  (6ik6[)v(!>oc),  one  of  which  Herodotus  (8,  39) 
 nanies  Hyampea,  but  which  were  usually  called  Phae- 
 driades.  Between  these  two  rocks  the  celebrated  Cas- 
 talian  fount  flows  from  the  upper  part  of  the  mountain. 
 The  water  which  oozes  from  the  rock  was  in  ancient 
 times  introduced  into  a  hollow  square,  where  it  was 
 retained  for  the  use  of  the  Pythia  and  the  oracular 
 priests.  The  fountain  is  ornamented  with  pendant  ivy, 
 and  overshadowed  by  a  large  fig-tree.  {DodweWs 
 Travels,  \f\.  1,  p.  172.)  Above  the  spring,  at  the  dis- 
 tance of  60  stadia  from  Delphi,  was  the  Corycian  cave, 
 sacred  to  Pan  and  the  Corycian  nymphs,  which  Pau- 
 sanias (10,  32,  2,  5)  speaks  of  as  superior  to  every 
 other  known  cavern.  (Compare  S/ra Jo,  417.)  When 
 the  Persians  were  marching  against  Delphi,  a  part  of 
 the  inhabitants  took  refuge  in  this  cavern.  (Herod., 
 8,  37.)  It  is  described  by  a  modern  traveller  (Raikes, 
 in  WalpoWs  Collection,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p.  312)  as  330 
 feet  long  and  nearly  200  wide.  As  far  as  this  cave 
 the  road  to  Delphi  was  accessible  by  horses  and  mules, 
 but  beyond  it  the  ascent  was  difficult  even  for  an  ac- 
 tive man  (uvdpl  ni^uvu.  —  Pausan.,  10,  32,  2,  5). 
 Above  this  cave,  and  near  the  summit  of  Parnassus, 
 at  the  distance  of  80  stadia  from  Delphi  (Pausan.,  10, 
 32,  G)  was  the  town  of  Tithorea  or  Neon,  the  ruins  of 
 which  are  near  the  modern  village  of  Velitza.  (En- 
 cycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  284,  scq.) — II.  A  son  o| 
 Neptune,  who  gave  his  name  to  a  mountain  of  Phocis. 
 
 Paknes  (gen.  -clis),  a  mountain  of  Attica,  north  ol 
 Athens,  famous  for  its  wines.  It  was  the  highest 
 mountain  in  the  whole  country,  rising  on  the  norlhern 
 frontier,  and  being  connected  with  Pentelicus  to  the 
 south,  and  towards  Boeotia  with  Cilhseron.  Pausan- 
 ias says  (I,  32)  that  on  Mount  Parnes  were  a  statue 
 of  Jupiter  Parnethius,  and  an  altar  of  Jupiter  Semaleus. 
 It  abounded  with  wild  boars  and  bears.  (Pau.san.,  I. 
 c.  —  Pliny,  11,  37.)  The  modern  name  is  Nozca. 
 "  Mount  Parnes  is  intermingled,"  says  Dodwell,  "  with 
 a  multiplicity  of  glens,  crags,  and  well-wooded  rocks 
 and  precipices,  and  richly  diversified  with  scenery 
 which  IS  at  once  grand  and  picturesque  :  its  summit 
 commands  a  view  over  a  vast  extent  of  country." 
 (Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  504  ) 
 
 Paropamisi's,  a  province  of  India,  the  eastern  limit 
 of  which,  in  Alexander's  time,  was  the  river  Cophenes. 
 According  to  the  ideas  of  Ptolemy,  it  lay  between  the 
 countries  which  the  moderns  name  Khorasan  and  Ca- 
 bal, and  it  answers  to  the  tract  between  Herat  and  C'«- 
 bul.  This  province  was  separated  from  Bactria  by  a 
 range  of  mountains  also  called  Paro|)amisus,  now  Hc7i- 
 du  Khos,  and  which  formed  part  of  the  great  chain  of 
 Iinaus.     (Vul.  Imaus.—Mela,  1,  15. — Plin.,  6,  17.) 
 
 Paros,  now  Paro,  one  of  the  Oyclades,  to  the  south 
 of  Delos,  at  the  distance  of  about  seven  and  a  half 
 miles.  It  was  said  to  have  been  first  peopled  by  the 
 Cretans  and  Arcadians.  (Ste2ih.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Ilupor.) 
 lis  early  prosperity  is  evinced  by  the  colonies  it  es- 
 tablished at  Thasus  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Helles- 
 pont. (Thucydnles,  4,  104. — Strabo,  487.)  During 
 the  time  of  the  Persian  war,  we  are  told  that  it  was 
 the  most  flourishing  and  important  of  the  Oyclades. 
 (Ephor.,  ap.  Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Tlupog.  —  Herod.,  5, 
 28,  seqq.)  After  the  battle  of  Marathon  it  was  be- 
 sieged in  vain  by  Miltiades  for  twenty-six  days,  and 
 thus  proved  the  cause  of  his  disgrace.     (Herod ,  6, 
 
PAROS. 
 
 PAROS. 
 
 134.)  The  Parians,  according  to  the  historian  just 
 cited,  did  not  take  part  with  the  Persians  in  the  battle 
 of  Salamis,  but  kept  aloof  near  Cythiius,  awaiting  the 
 issue  of  the  action.  {Herod.,  8,  67.)  Themistocles, 
 however,  subsequently  imposed  upon  them  a  heavy 
 fine.  {Herod.,  8,  112.)  Paros  was  famed  for  its  mar- 
 ble. The  quarries  were  on  Mount  Marpessa.  (  Virg., 
 JEn.,  6,  470.— Ptnd.,  Nem.,  4,  131.— Virg.,  Georg., 
 3,  <ti.—Hor.,  Od,  I,  19,  b.—Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Mdp- 
 nrjaaa.)  Some  remarks  on  the  Parian  marble  will 
 be  offered  below.  —  Paros  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
 poet  Archilochus.  {Slro.bo,  I.  c.  —  Fabr.,  Bibl.  Gr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  107)  —  It  was  in  Paros  that  the  famous 
 marble  was  disinterred,  known  by  ihe  name  of  the  Fa- 
 nan  Chronicle,  from  its  having  been  kept  in  this  isl- 
 and. It  is  a  chronological  account  of  the  principal 
 events  in  Greciati,  and  particularly  in  Athenian,  his- 
 tory, during  a  period  of  1318  years,  from  the  reign  of 
 Cecrops,  B.C.  1450,  to  the  archonship  of  Diognetus, 
 B.C.  2fi4.  But  the  chronicle  of  the  last  90  years  was 
 lost,  so  that  the  part  now  remaining  ends  at  the  ar- 
 chonship of  Diotimus,  B.C.  354.  The  authenticity 
 of  this  chronicle  has  been  called  in  question  by  Mr 
 Robertson,  who,  in  1788,  published  Su  "  Dissertation 
 on  the  Farian  ChronicU."  His  objections,  however, 
 have  been  ably  and  fully  discussed,  and  the  authen- 
 ticity of  this  ancient  document  has  been  fully  vindi- 
 cated by  Porson,  in  his  review  of  Robertson's  essay. 
 {Monthly  Review,  January,  1789,  p.  690. — Parson's 
 Tracts,  ed.  KM,  p.  57,  seqq. — Consult  also  the  En- 
 cyclopcedia  Metropolitana,  Art.  "  Arundelian  Mar- 
 bles.'''') The  chronicle  is  given,  with  an  English  ver- 
 sion, in  Hale's  Analysis  of  Chronology  (vol.  1,  p.  107, 
 seqq.) — The  following  very  interesting  account  of  the 
 quarries  and  marbles  of  Paros  is  given  l)y  Dr.  Clarke. 
 "This  day  we  set  out  upon  mules  for  the  ancient 
 quarries  of  the  famous  Parian  marble,  which  are  sit- 
 uate about  a  league  to  the  east  of  the  town,  upon  the 
 summit  of  a  mountain,  nearly  corresponding  in  altitude 
 with  the  situation  of  the  Grotto  of  Antiparos.  The 
 mountain  in  which  the  quarries  are  situate  is  now 
 called  Capresso :  there  are  two  of  these  quarries. 
 When  we  arrived  at  the  first,  we  found  in  the  mouth 
 of  the  quarry  heaps  of  fragments  detached  from  the 
 interior  :  they  were  tinged,  by  long  exposure  to  the 
 air,  with  a  reddish,  ochreous  hue  ;  but,  upon  being 
 broken,  exhibited  the  glittering  sparry  fracture  which 
 often  characterizes  the  remains  of  Grecian  sculpture: 
 and  in  this  we  instantly  recognised  the  beautiful  mar- 
 ble, which  is  generally  named,  by  way  of  distinction, 
 the  Parian,  although  the  same  kind  of  marble  is  also 
 found  in  Thasos.  The  marble  of  Naxos  only  differs 
 from  the  Thasian  and  Parian  in  exhibiting  a  more  ad- 
 vanced state  of  crystallization.  The  peculiar  excel- 
 lence of  the  Parian  is  extolled  by  Strabo  ;  and  it  pos- 
 sesses some  valuable  qualities  unknown  even  to  the 
 ancients,  who  spoke  so  highly  in  its  praise.  These 
 qualities  are,  that  of  hardening  by  exposure  to  atmo- 
 spheric air  (which,  however,  is  common  to  all  homo- 
 geneous limestone),  and  the  consequent  projjerty  of 
 resisting  decomposition  through  a  series  of  ages  ;  and 
 this,  rather  than  the  supposed  preference  given  to  the 
 Parian  marble  by  the  ancients,  may  be  considered  as 
 the  cause  of  its  prevalence  among  the  remains  of  Gre- 
 cian sculpture  That  the  Parian  marble  was  highly 
 and  deservedly  extolled  by  the  Romans,  is  well 
 kndwn  :  but  in  a  very  early  period,  when  the  arts  had 
 attained  their  full  splendour  in  the  acre  of  Pericles  the 
 preference  was  given  by  the  Greeks,  not  to  the  mar- 
 ble of  Paros,  but  to  that  of  Mount  Pentelicus,  because 
 it  was  whiter  ;  and  also,  perhaps,  because  it  was  found 
 in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Athens.  The  Parthenon 
 was  bjilt  entirely  of  Pentelican  marble.  Many  of  the 
 \thcnian  statues,  and  of  the  works  carried  on  near 
 \thens  during  the  administration  of  Pericles  (as,  for 
 example,  the  temple  of  Ceres  at  Elcusis),  were  exe- 
 
 cuted in  the  marble  of  Pentelicus.     But  the  finest 
 Grecian  sculpture  which  has  been  preserved  to  the 
 present  time,   is   generally  of   Parian    marble.     The 
 Medicean   Venus,    the    Belvidere   Apollo,    the  Anti- 
 noiis,  and  many  other  celebrated  works,  are  made  o\ 
 it ;   notwithstanding  the  preference  which  was  so  ear- 
 ly bestowed   upon  the  Pentelican  ;  and  this  is  easi- 
 ly explained.     While  the  works  executed  in  Parian 
 marble  retain,  with  all  the  delicate  softness  of  wax, 
 the  mild  lustre   even  of  their  original   polish,  thosa 
 which  were  finished  in  Pentelican  marble  have  been 
 decomposed,    and    sometimes   exhibit    a   surface    as 
 earthy  and   as  rude  as  common  limestone.     This  is 
 principally  owing  to  veins  of  extraneous  substances 
 which    intersect  the  Pentelican   quarries,  and  which 
 appear  more  or  less  in  all  the  works  executed  in  this 
 kind  of  marble.     The  fracture  of  Pentelican  marble 
 is  sometimes  splintery,  and  partakes   of  the   foliated 
 texture  of   the  schistus,  which  traverses  it  ;    conse- 
 quently, it  has  a  tendency  to  exfoliate,  like  cipolino, 
 by  spontaneous  decomposition. — We  descended  into 
 the  quarry,  whence  not  a  single  block  of  marble  has 
 been  removed  since  the  island  fell  into  the  hands  of 
 the  Turks;  and  perhaps  it  was  abandoned  long  before, 
 as  might  be  conjecrured  from  the  ochreous  colour  by 
 which  all  the  exterior  surface   of  the  marble  is  now 
 invested.     We  seemed,  therefore,  to  view  the  grotto 
 exactly  in  the  state  in  which  it  had  been  left  by  the 
 ancients  :  all  the  cavities,  cut  with  the  greatest  nicety, 
 showed    to   us,  by  the  sharpness  of  their  edges,  the 
 number  and  the  size  of  all  the  masses  of  Parian  mar- 
 ble which  had  been  removed  for  the  sculptors  of  an- 
 cient Greece.     If  the  stone  had  possessed  th-e  soft- 
 ness of  potter's  clay,  and   had   been  cut  by  wires,  it 
 could  not   have  been  separated  with  greater  nicety, 
 evenness,  and  economy.     The  most  evident  care  was 
 everywhere  displayed,  that  there  should  be  no  waste 
 of  this  precious  marble  :  the  larger  squares  and  par- 
 allelograms corresponded,  as  a  mathematician  would 
 express  it,  by  a  series  of  equimultiples,  with  the  small- 
 er, in  such  a  manner  that  the  remams  of  the  entire 
 vein  of  marble,  by  its  dipping  inclination,  resembled 
 the  degrees  or   seats  of  a  theatre. — We  quitted  the 
 larger  quarry,  and  visited  another  somewhat  less  ele- 
 vated.    Here,  as  if  the  ancients  had  resolved  to  mark 
 for  posterity  the  scene  of  their  labours,  we  observed 
 an  ancient  bas-relief  on  the   rock.     It  is   the  same 
 which  Tournefort  describes  {Vciy.  du  Lev.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 239),  although  he  erred  in  describing  the  subject  of 
 it.      It  is  a  more  curious  relic  than  is  commonly  sup- 
 posed.     It  represents,  in  three  departments,  a  festi- 
 val of  Silenus,  mistaken  by  Tournefort  for  Bacchus. 
 It  has  never  been  observed   that  Pliny  mentions  the 
 image  of  Silenus  in  this  bas-relief  as  a  natural  curios- 
 ity, and  one  of  the  marvels  of  ancient  Greece.     The 
 figure  of   Silenus  was  accidentally  discovered,  as  a 
 lusus  naturct,  in  splitting  the  rock,  and  the  other  parts 
 of  the  bas-relief  were  adjusted  by  the  hand  of  art. 
 Such   a   method   of  heightening  and   improving   any 
 casual  effect  of  this  kind  has  been  very  common  in  all 
 countries,  es[)ecially  where  the  populace  are  to  be  de- 
 luded by  some  supposed  prodigy  ;  and  thus  the  cause 
 is  explained  why  this  singular  piece  of  sculpture,  so 
 rudely  executed,  yet  remains  as  a  part  of  the  natural 
 rock.      '  .\  wonderful  circumstance,'  says   Pliny,   'is 
 related  of  the   Parian  quarries.     The  mass  of  entire 
 stone  being  separated  by  the  wedges  of  the  workmen, 
 there  appeared  within  it  an  effigy  of  Silenus'  (36,  5). 
 In  the  existence  of  this  bas-relief  as  an  integral  [.art 
 of  the  natural  rock,  and  in  the  allusion  made  to  it  by 
 Pliny,  we  have  sufficient  proof  that  these  were  ancient 
 quarries  ;   consequently,  they  are  the  properest  places 
 to  resort  to  for  the  identical  stone  whose  colour  was 
 considered  as  pleasing  to  the  gods  {Plato,  de  Leg., 
 12,  p    296),  which  was  used  by  Praxiteles  (Pro;)cr^, 
 3,  7,  ].&.—Qu'intil.,  2,  19)    and  by  other  lUustnom 
 
 979 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 Grecian  sculptors,  and  celebrated  for  its  whiteness 
 by  Pindar  {Ncm  ,  4,  262)  and  by  Theocritus  (6,  38). 
 We  collected  several  specimens  :  in  breaking  them 
 we  observed  the  same  whiteness  and  brilliant  fracture 
 which  characterizes  the  marble  of  Naxos,  but  with  a 
 particular  distinction  before  mentioned,  the  Parian 
 marble  being  harder,  having  a  closer  grain,  and  a  less 
 foliated  lexture.  Three  different  stages  of  crystal- 
 lization may  be  observed,  by  comparing  the  three  dif- 
 ferent kinds  of  marble  dug  at  Carrara  in  Italy,  in  Pa- 
 res, and  in  Naxos  :  the  Carrara  marble  being  milk- 
 white,  and  less  crystalline  than  the  Parian  ;  and  the 
 Parian  whiter,  and  less  crystallized  than  the  Naxian." 
 (Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  6,  p.  133,  scqq  ,  Lund,  ed.) — 
 Parian  marble  has  been  frequently  confounded  not 
 only  with  Carrara  marble,  but  also  with  alabaster, 
 though  differing  altogether  in  nature  from  the  latter 
 substance,  and  in  character  from  the  former.  The 
 true  Parian  marble  has  generally  somewhat  of  a  faint 
 bluish  tinge  among  the  white,  and  often  has  blue 
 veins  in  different  parts  of  it.  {Elmes  Diet,  of  the 
 Fine  Arts,  s.  v.) 
 
 Parrhasii,  a  people  of  Arcadia,  apparently  on  the 
 I>aconian  frontier  ;  but  the  extent  and  position  of  their 
 territory  is  not  precisely  determined.  Thucydides 
 says  their  district  was  under  the  subjection  of  Manti- 
 nea,  and  near  Sciritis  of  Laconia  (5,  33).  But  Pau- 
 sanias  seems  rather  to  assign  the  Parrhasii  a  more 
 western  situation  ;  for  he  names  as  their  towns  Lyco- 
 sura,  Thocnias,  Trapeziis,  Acacesium,  Macarea,  and 
 Dasca,  all  of  which  were  to  the  west  and  northwest  of 
 Megalopolis.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3.  p.  350.) 
 P.iRRHASius,  a  celebrated  painter,  son  and  pupil  of 
 Evetior,  and  a  native  of  Ephesus,  but  who  became 
 eventually  a  citizen  of  Athens,  having  been  presented 
 with  the  freedom  of  that  place.  {Phit  ,  Vit.  Thes  , 
 4 — Junius,  Catal,  p.  142.)  The  period  when  he 
 flourished  admits  of  some  discussion.  From  a  passage 
 in  Pliny  (3-5,  9,  36)  it  woitld  appear  to  have  been 
 about  the  96th  Olympiad;  and  Quintilian  (12,  10) 
 places  Parrhasius  and  Zeuxis  about  the  lime  of  the 
 Peloponnesian  war,  producing,  in  support  of  this  opin- 
 ion, the  weil-known  conversation  of  the  former  artist 
 with  Socrates.  {Xen,  Mem. ,2,  10.)  Now  Socrates 
 died  in  the  first  year  of  the  95th  Olympiad,  and  this 
 date  fully  accords  with  the  year  to  which  Parrhasius 
 is  assigned  by  Pliny.  (Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s  v.)~ 
 Parrhasius  raised  the  art  of  painting  to  perfection  in 
 all  that  is  exalted  and  essential.  He  compared  his  three 
 great  predecessors  with  one  another,  rejected  what 
 was  exceptionable,  and  adopted  what  was  admirable 
 in  each.  The  classic  invention  of  Polygnolus,  the 
 magic  tone  of  Apollodorus,  and  the  ex(|uisite  design 
 of  Zeuxis,  were  all  united  in  the  works  of  Parrhasius  ; 
 what  they  had  produced  in  practice,  he  reduced  to 
 theory  He  so  circumscribed  and  defined,  says  Quin- 
 tilian (12,  10),  all  the  powers  and  objects  of  art,  that 
 he  was  termed  the  legislator  :  and  all  contemporary 
 and  subsequent  artists  adopted  his  standard  of  divine 
 and  heroic  proportions.  Parrhasius  gave,  in  fact,  to 
 the  divine  and  heroic  character  in  painting  what  Poly- 
 cletus  had  given  to  the  human  in  scul])ture,  by  his  Do- 
 rvphorus,  namely,  a  canon  of  proportion.  Phidias  had 
 discovered  in  the  nod  of  the  Homeric  .lupiter  the  char- 
 acteristic of  majesty,  inclination  of  the  head:  this  hint- 
 ed to  him  a  higher  elevation  of  the  neck  behind,  a  bolder 
 protrusion  of  the  front,  and  the  increased  perpctidicu- 
 lar  of  the  profile.  To  this  conception  Parrhasius  fixed 
 a  maximum  ;  that  point  from  which  descends  the  ul- 
 timate line  of  celestial  beauty,  the  angle  within  which 
 moves  whatever  is  inferior,  beyond  which  what  is  por- 
 tentous.— Parrhasius  himself  was  aware  of  his  own 
 ability  :  he  assumed  the  appellation  of  the  "Elegant" 
 ('A(5po(5('atrof),  and  styled  himself  the  "  Prince  of 
 Painters."  He  also  wrote  an  epigram  upon  himself 
 {Athen.,  12,  p.  643),  in  which  he  proclaimed  his  birth- 
 9«0 
 
 place,  celebrated  his  father,  and  pretended  that  in  him- 
 self the  art  of  painting  had  attained  to  perfection.     He 
 likewise  declared  himself  to  be  descended  from  .Apollo, 
 and  carried  his  arrogance  so  far  as  to  dedicate  his  own 
 portrait  in  a  temple  as  Mercury,  and  thus  receive  the 
 adoration  of  the  muliilude.     (Themist.,  \i.)     He  wore 
 a  purple  robe  and  a  golden  garland ;  he  carried  a  staff 
 wound  round   with  tendrils  of  gold,  and   his   sandals 
 were   bound   with  golden  straps.     {Jilian,  V.  H.,  9, 
 II.)     It   appears,  therefore,  that   Pliny    was   right   in 
 styling  him   the  most  insolent  and   most  arrogant  of 
 artists.     {Plimj,  35,  10,  36.)     The  branch  of  art  in 
 which  Parrhasius  eminently  excelled  was  a  beautiful 
 outline,  as  well  in  form  as  execution,  particularly   in 
 the  extremities,  for,  says  Pliny,  when  compared  with 
 himself,  the   intermediate    parts    were   inferior.     The 
 fault  here  censured  consisted,  according  to  Fuse4i,  in 
 an  affectation  of  smoothness  bordering  on  insipidity, 
 in  something  effeminately  voluptuous,  which  absorbed 
 the  character  of  his  bodies  and  the  idea  of  elastic  vig- 
 our ;    and  this  Euj)hranor  seems   to    have   hinted   at, 
 when,  on  comparing  his  own  Theseus  with  that  of  Par- 
 rhasius, he  pronounced    the    Ionian's   to  have   fed   on 
 roses,  his  own  on  beef:  emasculate  softness  was  not, 
 in  his  opinion,  the  proper  companion  of  the  contour, 
 nor  flowery  freshness  of  colour  an  adequate  substitute 
 for  the  sterner  tints  of  heroic  form.     One  of  the  most 
 celebrated  works  of  Parrhasius  was  his  allegorical  fig- 
 ure of  the   Athenian   people  or  Demos.     Pliny  says 
 that  it  represented  and  expressed,  in  an  equal  degree, 
 all  the  good  and  bad  qualities  of  the  Athenians  at  the 
 same  time  ;  one  might  trace  the  changeable,  the  irrita- 
 ble, the  kind,  the  unjust,  the  forgiving,  the  vainglori- 
 ous,  the  proud,  the  humble,  the  fierce,  and  the  timid. 
 How  all  these  contrasting  and  counteracting  qualities 
 could  have  been  represented  at  the  same  time,  it  is 
 difficult  to  conceive.     If  we  are  to  suppose  it  to  have 
 been  a  single  figure,  it  is  very  certain  that  it  could  not 
 have  been  such  as  Pliny  has  described   it ;   for,  except 
 by  symbols,  it  is  totally  incompatible  with  the  means 
 of  art.     "  We  know,"  observes  Fuseli,  "  that  the  per- 
 sonification of  the  Athenian  Demos  was  an  object  of 
 sculpture,  and  that  its  images  by  Lyson  and  Leochares 
 were  publicly  set  up  ;   but  there  is  no  clew  to  decide 
 wiiether  they  preceded  or  followed  the  conceit  of  Par- 
 rhasius."     Pliny   enumerates  many   other   works   of 
 this  eminent  painter ;  and  he  mentions  a  contest  be- 
 tween him  and  Timanthes  of  Cythnus,  in  which  the 
 former  was  beaten.     The  subject  of  the  picture  was 
 the  contest  between  Ulysses  and  .Ajax:   and  the  proud 
 painter,  indignant  at  the  decision  of  the  judges,  is  said 
 to  have  remarked,  that  the  unfortunate  son  of  'I'elamon 
 was  for   a  second  time,  in   the  same  cause,  defeated 
 by  an  unworthy  rival.     {Athcnceus,  12,  p.  543.)     Pliny 
 rccoi<ls  also  a  trial  of  skill  between  Parrhasius  and 
 Zeuxis  (ivW.  Zeuxis),  in  which  the  latter  allowed  his 
 grapes  to  have  been  surpassed  by  the  curtain  of  the 
 former  :  "  this   contest,"  remarks   Fuseli,    "  if  not  a 
 frolic,  was  an  effort  of  puerile  dexterity." — The  story 
 told  by  Seneca  of  Parrhasius  having  crucified  an  old 
 Olynthian  captive   when    about  to  paint  a    "  Prome- 
 theus chained,"  that  he  might  seize  from  nature  the 
 true  expression  of  bodily  agony,  cannot  relate  to  this 
 Parrhasius.  and  is  probably  a  fiction  :   it  is  nowhere 
 to  be  found  but  in  the  "(Controversies"  (5,  10)  of  thn 
 preceptor  of  Nero.     Olynthns  was  taken  bv  Philiji  in 
 the  second  year  of  the  108th  Olympiad,  or  B.C.  347, 
 which  is  nearly  half  a  century  later  than  the  latest  ac- 
 counts we  have  of  Parrhasius.     {Encycl.  Us.  KnoioL, 
 vol.   17,  p.  287.  —  Sjllig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v. — Fuseli, 
 Lecture  em  Ancient  Art,  p.  40,  seqq.) 
 
 PARTHENiiE,  a  name  given  at  one  period  to  a  cer- 
 tain class  of  persons  at  Sparta,  whose  history  is  a* 
 follows  :  The  absence  from  home  to  which  the  Lsce- 
 d*monians  had  bound  themselves,  during  the  first 
 Messenian  war  {vid.  Messenia),  became,  by  the  pro- 
 
PAR 
 
 PAR 
 
 traction  of  the  contest,  an  evil  threatening  the  exist- 
 ence of  the  slate,  no  children  being  born  to  supply  the 
 waste  of  war  and  natural  decay.  The  remedy  said  to 
 have  been  adopted  was  a  strange  one,  highly  charac- 
 teristic of  Lacedaipaoii,  and  such  as  no  other  people 
 would  have  used.  The  young  men  who  had  come  to 
 maturity  since  the  beginning  of  the  war  were  free 
 from  tlie  oath  which  had  been  taken,  and  they  were 
 sent  home  to  cohabit  promiscuously  with  the  marriage- 
 able virgins.  But  even  at  Sparta  this  expedient  in 
 some  degree  ran  counter  to  the  popular  feelings 
 When  the  war  was  ended,  and  the  children  of  this  ir- 
 regular intercourse,  called  Parthenia;  (Jilii  inrginum). 
 had  attained  to  manhood,  they  found  themselves, 
 though  bred  in  all  the  discipline  of  Lycurgus,  becom- 
 ing every  day  more  and  more  slighted.  Their  spirit 
 was  higli,  and  a  conspiracy  was  accordingly  formed  by 
 them  against  the  state,  in  conpinction  with  the  Helots; 
 but  the  public  authorities,  aware  of  the  existence  of 
 disaffection  among  them,  obtained  information  of  all 
 their  plans,  by  means  of  certain  individuals  whom  they 
 had  caused  to  join  the  Parthenia?,  and  to  pretend  to 
 be  friendly  to  their  views.  The  festival  of  the  Hya- 
 cinthia  was  selected  by  the  conspirators  as  the  day  for 
 action;  and  it  was  arranged,  that  when  Phalanthus,  their 
 leader,  should  [tlace  his  felt-cap  upon  his  head,  this 
 was  to  be  the  signal  for  commencing.  The  appointed 
 time  arrived,  and  the  festival  had  begun,  when  a  pub- 
 lic crier  coming  forth,  made  proclamation,  in  the  name 
 of  the  magistrates,  that  "Phalanthus  should  not  [)ut 
 his  felt-cap  on  his  head"  {firj  uv  TrepiBeivat  Kvvfjv  <i>a- 
 2,avd(iv).  The  Partlieniaj  immediately  perceived  that 
 their  plot  was  discovered,  and  were  soon  after  sent  ofi" 
 in  a  colony,  under  the  guidance  of  Phalanthus,  and 
 founded  the  city  of  Tarentum  in  Italy.  (Strab.,  279.) 
 It  is  more  than  probable  that  so  much  of  this  story  as 
 relates  to  the  oath  taken  by  the  Spartans,  and  the 
 sending  home  of  their  young  men,  is  a  mere  fiction. 
 On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  would  seem  that  the 
 emergencies  of  the  state  had  actually  induced  the 
 Spartans  to  relax  the  rigour  of  their  principles,  by 
 permitting  marriages  between  Spartan  women  and 
 Laconians  of  inferior  condition.  Theopompus  (ap. 
 Atkcn.,  6,  p.  271)  says,  that  certain  of  the  Helots 
 were  selected  for  this  purpose,  who  were  afterward 
 adrnilted  to  the  franchise  under  a  peculiar  name  {eTrev- 
 vaKToi).  Still,  however,  even  supposing  that  the 
 number  of  the  Spartans  was  thus  increased  by  a  con- 
 siderable body  of  new  citizens,  drawn  from  the  servile 
 or  the  subject  class  of  Laconians,  or  from  the  issue  of 
 marriages  formed  between  such  persons  and  Spartan 
 women,  it  would  nevertheless  remain  to  be  explain- 
 ed, how  this  act  of  wise  liberality  could  be  connected 
 with  that  discontent,  which  is  uniformly  mentioned, 
 certainly  not  without  some  historical  ground,  as  the 
 occa-iou  of  the  migration  to  Tarentum.  And  this 
 seems  inexplicable,  unless  we  suppose  that  a  distinc- 
 tion was  made  between  the  new  and  the  old  citizens, 
 which  provoked  a  part  of  the  former  to  attempt  a  rev- 
 olution, and  compelled  the  government  to  adopt  one  of 
 the  usuai  means  of  getting  rid  of  disaflected  and  tur- 
 bulent subjects.     (ThirlwaWs  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  353.) 
 
 Pakthknium  Make,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
 that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  which  lies  on  the  riwht 
 of  Egypt-  It  was  also  called  /i-WCT^w  J/are.  (Amm. 
 MarccU.,  14,  8.  —  M.,  22,  15.)  Gregory  Nazianzen 
 styles  the  sea  around  Cyprus  liajyOeviabv  niXayoc. 
 (dr.,  19  ) 
 
 Pakthkviok,  r.  the  eouthwestern  extremity  of  the 
 TauricChersone.se.  It  received  its  name  {Uapftiviov 
 UKfluTtJiicov,  "  Vngiri'g  I'romonlory")  from  Iphigenia's 
 having  been  fabled  to  have  offered  up  here  her  human 
 gacritices  to  the  Tauric  Diana.  It  is  now  called  Fe- 
 lenk  Bonrrwn,  and  on  it  stands  the  monastery  of  St. 
 George.  {Flin,'l,  12. — Bi.ichoff  und  M'dller,  W'or- 
 terb.  der  Geogr.,  p,  828.)  —  II.  A  city  of  Mysia,  in 
 
 the  territory  of  Troas.  {Xen.,  Anah.,  7,  8.  —  Plin., 
 5,  30.) 
 
 Parthenius,  I.  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  forming  the 
 boundary  between  Paphlagonia  and  Bithynia,  and  fall- 
 ing into  the  Euxine  to  the  southwest  of  Amaslris. 
 Strictly  speaking,  it  separates  Bithynia  from  Paphla- 
 gonia only  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  being  else- 
 where considerably  within  the  limits  of  the  latter 
 country.  The  modern  Greek  inhabuants  in  this  quar- 
 ter call  it  the  Bur/ni;  the  Turkish  name  is  the  Do- 
 lap.  {Apoll.  RhmL,  2,  938.— A'ew.,  Anah.,  6,  2.) 
 The  Greek  name  of  this  river  was  very  probably  a 
 corruption  of  the  original  a[)pellation,  or,  rather,  an 
 adaptation  of  it  to  a  Grecian  ear  ;  and  the  name  Pur- 
 ihencs  (Uapdivrjc,  Anon.  FeripL,  p.  8)  would  seem 
 to  be  an  intermediate  form.  The  Greeks,  who  were 
 never  at  a  loss  for  explanations  derived  from  their 
 national  mythology,  made  the  stream  obtain  its  title 
 of  Paribenius  (Virgin's  liner)  from  the  circumstance 
 of  Diana's  having  delighted  to  bathe  in  its  pure  waters 
 and  bunt  along  its  banks.  {Apoll.  Rhud.,  I.  c. — Schol. 
 ad  Apoll.  Rhod.,  I.  c.  —  Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  —  Anon. 
 PenpL,  p.  70  ) — II.  A  mountain  in  Arcadia,  forming 
 the  limit  between  that  country  and  Argolis,  and  lying 
 to  the  east  of  Tegea.  {Strabo,  376. — Pausan.,  8,  6. 
 —  Lio.,  34,  26.)  It  was  on  this  mountain  that  Pan 
 was  said  to  have  appeared  to  Phidippides,  the  Athe- 
 nian courier,  who  was  sent  to  Sparta  to  solicit  succour 
 against  the  Persians.  {Herod.,  6,  107. — Apollod.,  2, 
 7,  4  )  It  still  retains  the  name  of  Parthem.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  294.) — III.  A  river  of 
 Elis,  to  the  east  of  the  Harpinates,  and,  like  it,  a  trib- 
 utary of  the  Alpheus.  On  its  banks  lay  the  town  of 
 Epina.  {PaiLsan  ,  6,  21. — Strah.,  356.)— IV.  A  na- 
 tive of  Nicsea,  in  Asia  Minor,  taken  prisoner  by  Cinna 
 in  the  war  with  Mithradates  (B.C.  81),  and  brought  to 
 Rome,  where  he  instructed  Virgil  in  Greek.  Suidas 
 states  that  he  lived  till  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Tibe- 
 rius. The  same  lexicographer  informs  us  that  he 
 gained  his  freedom  on  account  of  his  learning.  Of 
 the  numerous  works  written  by  Parthenius,  only  one 
 now  remains.  Its  title  is  Ylepl  eporiKiJv  Trath/puruv 
 ("  Of  Amatory  Affecliotis"),  and  it  is  addressed  to  Cor- 
 nelius Gallus,  the  elegiac  poet.  It  is  a  collection  of 
 thirty-six  erotic  tales,  all  of  a  melancholy  cast.  At 
 the  period  when  he  wrote,  the  corruption  of  taste  l\ad 
 not,  as  yet,  become  strongly  marked,  and  hence  he  may 
 almost  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  classic  Greek  writers. 
 Virgil  and  Ovid  have  imitated  him.  He  has  preserv- 
 ed for  us  some  interesting  extracts  from  various  an- 
 cient poets,  especially  those  of  the  elegiac  class  ;  as, 
 for  example,  Alexander  the  ^■Etolian,  and  Euphorion 
 of  Chalcis.  {Le  Beau,  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Inxcr., 
 &c.,  vol.  34,  p.  63,  seqq.)  The  ancients  cite  other 
 works  of  Parthenius,  such  as  his  Metamorphoses, 
 which,  perhaps,  first  suggested  to  Ovid  the  idea  of 
 his  mythological  poem.  If  any  reliance  is  to  be  placed 
 on  a  marginal  note  in  a  Milan  manuscript,  the  More- 
 mm  of  Virgil  is  a  mere  imitation  of  one  of  the  poems 
 of  Parthenius.  {'Voss,  de  Poet.  Gr.,  p.  70.)  The 
 best  edition  of  this  writer  is  that  of  Passow,  Lips., 
 1830,  12mo.  There  is  only  one  MS.  of  Parthenius 
 (Bast,  Epist.  Crif,.,  p.  168,  208),  from  which  the 
 early  editions  often  depart  without  any  necessity. 
 Passow  has  made  this  MS.  the  basis  of  his  edition. 
 {Schiill.  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  42,  seqq.) 
 
 Partiieinon,  a  celebrated  temple  at  Athens,  on  the 
 summit  of  the  .\cropolis,  and  sacred  to  Minerva,  the 
 virgin-goddess  {Traptth'o^,  "  Virgin").  It  occupied  the 
 site  of  an  older  temple,  also  dedicated  to  Minerva,  and 
 which  was  denominated  Hecatompedon  {'EKaro/iKe- 
 Sov),  from  its  having  been  one  hundred  feet  square. 
 This  earlier  temple  was  destroyed  in  the  Persian  in- 
 vasion, and  the  splendid  structure  of  the  Parthenon, 
 enlarged  and  modelled  after  a  more  perfect  plan,  arose 
 in  its  place.     In  beauty  and  grandeur  it  surpassed  all 
 
 981 
 
PARTHENON. 
 
 PARTHENON. 
 
 other  buildings  of  the  kind,  and  was  constructed  en- 
 tirely of  Peiitelic  marble.  It  was  built  during  the 
 splendid  era  of  Pericles,  and  the  expense  of  its  erec- 
 tion was  estimated  at  six  thousand  talents.  The  ar- 
 chitects were  Ictinus  and  Callit-tratus,  and  the  work 
 was  adorned  with  sculptures  from  the  hand  of  Phidias 
 and  his  scholars.  The  following  animated  descrip- 
 ,ion,  by  a  modern  scholar,  may  afford  some  idea  of 
 the  appearance  presented  by  this  splendid  edifice  in 
 *.he  days  of  its  glory. — "Let  us  here  suppose  our- 
 selves as  joining  that  splendid  procession  of  minstrels, 
 priests,  and  victims,  of  horsemen  and  of  chariots, 
 wh.ch  ascended  the  Acropolis  at  the  quinquennial  so- 
 lemnity of  the  great  Panathenoea.  Aloft,  above  the 
 heads  of  the  train,  the  sacred  Peplus,  raised  and 
 stretched  like  a  sail  upon  a  mast,  waves  in  the  air :  it 
 is  variegated  with  an  embroidered  tissue  of  battles,  of 
 giants,  and  of  gods  :  it  will  be  carried  to  the  temple 
 of  the  Minerva  Polias  in  the  citadel,  whose  statue  it 
 is  intended  to  adorn.  In  the  bright  season  of  sum- 
 mer, on  the  twenty-eighth  day  of  the  Athenian  month 
 Hecatombion,  let  us  mount  with  this  procession  to 
 the  western  slope  of  the  Acropolis.  Towards  the  ter- 
 mination of  its  course  we  are  brought  in  face  of  a 
 colossal  fabric  of  white  marble,  which  crowns  the 
 brow  of  the  steep,  and  stretches  itself  from  north  to 
 south  across  the  whole  western  part  of  the  citadel, 
 which  is  about  170  feet  in  breadth.  The  centre  of 
 this  fabric  consists  of  a  portico  60  feel  broad,  and 
 formed  of  six  fluted  columns  of  the  Doric  order,  raised 
 upon  four  steps,  and  intersected  by  a  road  ])as¥ing 
 through  the  midst  of  the  columns,  which  are  30  feet  in 
 height,  and  support  a  noble  pediment.  From  this  por- 
 tico two  wings  project  about  30  feet  to  the  west,  each 
 having  three  columns  on  the  side  nearest  the  portico 
 in  the  centre.  The  architectural  mouldings  of  the 
 fabric  glitter  in  the  sun  with  brilliant  tints  of  red  and 
 blue  :  in  the  centre  the  coffers  of  its  soffits  are  span- 
 gled with  stars,  and  the  antse  of  the  wings  are  fringed 
 with  an  azure  embroidery  of  ivy-leaf.  We  pass  along 
 the  avenue  lying  between  the  two  central  columns  of 
 the  portico,  and  through  a  corridor  leading  from  it,  and 
 formed  by  three  Ionic  columns  on  each  hand,  and  are 
 brought  in  front  of  five  doors  of  bronze  ;  the  central 
 one,  which  is  the  loftiest  and  broadest,  being  imme- 
 diately before  us.  This  structure  which  we  are  de- 
 scribing is  the  PropylcPM,  or  vestibule  of  the  Athenian 
 citadel.  It  is  built  of  Pentelic  marble.  In  the  year 
 B.C.  4:?7  it  was  commenced,  and  was  completed  by 
 the  architect  Mnesicles  in  five  years  from  that  time. 
 Its  termination,  therefore,  coincides  very  nearly  with 
 the  commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  We 
 will  now  imagine  that  the  great  bronze  doors  of 
 which  we  have  spoken  are  thrown  back  upon  their 
 hinges,  to  admit  the  riders  and  charioteers,  and  all 
 that  long  and  magnificent  array  of  the  Panathenaic 
 proces.-iion,  which  stretches  back  from  this  spot  to  the 
 area  of  ihe  .Agora,  at  the  western  foot  of  the  citadel. 
 We  behold  through  this  vista  the  Inlcrior  of  the  Athe- 
 nian Arropoli.t.  We  pass  under  the  gateway  before 
 us,  and  enter  its  precincts,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
 massive  walls  :  we  tread  the  soil  on  which  the  great- 
 est men  of  the  ancient  world  have  walked,  and  liehold 
 buildings  ever  admired  and  imitated,  but  never  equal- 
 leu  in  beauty.  We  behold  before  and  around  us  al- 
 most a  city  of  statues,  raised  upon  marble  pedestals, 
 the  works  of  noble  sculptors,  of  Phidias  and  Polycle- 
 tiis,  of  Alcamenes,  and  Praxiteles,  and  Myron  ;  and 
 commemorating  the  virtues  of  benefactors  of  Athens, 
 or  representing  the  objects  of  her  worship  :  we  see 
 innumerable  altars  dedicated  to  heroes  and  gods  ;  we 
 perceive  large  slabs  of  white  marble  inscribed  with 
 the  records  of  Athenian  history,  with  civil  contracts 
 and  articles  of  peace,  with  memorials  of  honours 
 awarded  to  patriotic  citizens  or  munificent  stran- 
 gers. Proceeding  a  little  farther,  we  have,  on  our 
 983 
 
 left,  raised  on  a  high  base,  a  huge  statue  of  bronze, 
 the  labour  of  Phidias.  It  is  seventy  feet  in  height, 
 and  looks  towards  the  west,  upon  the  Areopagus, 
 the  Agora,  and  the  Pnyx,  and  far  away  over  ibe  ^ge- 
 an  Sea.  It  is  armed  with  a  long  spear  and  oval 
 shield,  and  bears  a  helmet  on  its  head  ;  the  point  of 
 the  lance  and  the  crest  of  the  casque,  appearing  above 
 the  loftiest  building  of  the  Acropolis,  are  visiiile  to 
 the  sailor  who  approaches  Athens  from  Sunium.  This 
 is  Minerva  Proinachis,  the  champion  of  Athens,  who, 
 looking  down  from  her  lofty  eminence  in  the  cita- 
 del, seems,  by  her  attitude  and  her  accoutrements,  to 
 promise  pro'ection  to  the  city  beneath  her,  and  to 
 bid  defiance  to  its  enemies.  Passing  onward  to  the 
 right,  we  arrive  in  front  of  the  great  marble  temple, 
 which  stands  on  the  most  elevated  ground  of  the 
 Acropolis.  We  see  eight  Doric  columns  of  huge  di- 
 mensions elevated  on  a  platform,  ascended  by  three 
 steps  at  its  western  front.  It  has  the  same  number  of 
 columns  on  the  east,  and  seventeen  on  each  side.  At 
 either  end,  above  the  eight  columns,  is  a  lofty  pedi- 
 ment, extending  to  a  length  of  eighty  feet,  and  fur- 
 nished with  nearly  twenty  figures  of  superhuman  size. 
 The  group  which  we  see  before  us,  at  the  western 
 end,  represents  the  contest  of  Minerva  with  Neptune 
 for  the  soil  of  Athens  ;  the  other,  above  the  eastern 
 front,  exhibits  the  birth  of  the  .Athenian  goddess.  Be- 
 neath the  cornice,  which  ranges  on  all  sides  of  the 
 temple,  is  the  frieze,  divided  into  compartments  by  an 
 alternating  series  of  triglyphs  and  metopes,  the  latter 
 of  which  are  ninety-two  in  number,  namely,  fourteen 
 on  either  front,  and  thirty-two  on  each  flank  ;  they  are 
 a  little  more  than  four  feet  square,  and  are  occupied 
 by  one  or  more  figures  in  high  relief;  they  represent 
 the  actions  of  the  goddess,  to  whom  the  temple  is 
 dedicated,  and  of  the  heroes,  especially  those  that 
 were  natives  of  Athens,  who  fought  under  her  protec- 
 tion and  conquered  by  her  assistance.  They  are  the 
 works  of  Phidias  and  his  scholars  ;  and,  together  with 
 the  pediments  at  the  two  fronts,  may  be  regarded  as 
 offering  a  history  in  sculpture  of  the  most  remarkable 
 subjects  contained  in  the  mythology  of  Athens  .At- 
 tached to  the  temple,  beneath  each  of  the  metopes  on 
 the  eastern  front,  hang  round  shields  covered  with 
 gold  ;  below  them  are  inscribed  the  names  of  those 
 who  dedicated  them  as  offerings  to  Minerva,  in  testi- 
 mony of  their  gratitude  for  the  victories  they  had  won; 
 the  spoils  of  which  they  shared  with  her,  as  she  par- 
 took in  the  labours  which  achieved  them.  The  mem- 
 bers of  the  building  above  specified  are  enriched  with 
 a  profusion  of  vivid  colours,  which  throw  around  the 
 fabric  a  joyful  and  festive  beauty,  admirably  harmoni- 
 zing with  the  brightness  and  transparency  of  the  at- 
 mosphere that  encircles  it.  The  cornice  of  the  pedi- 
 ments is  decorated  with  painted  ovoli  and  arrows; 
 coloured  mseanders  twine  along  its  annulets  and  beads; 
 and  honeysuckle  ornaments  wind  beneath  them  ;  the 
 pediments  themselves  are  studded  with  disks  of  various 
 hues  ;  the  triglyphs  of  the  frieze  are  streaked  with  lints 
 which  terminate  in  plate- bands  and  giittse  of  azure  dye ; 
 gilded  festoons  hang  on  the  architrave  below  them.  It 
 would,  therefore,  be  a  very  erroneous  idea  to  regard 
 this  temple  which  we  are  describing  merely  as  the 
 best  school  of  architecture  in  the  world.  It  vvas  also 
 the  noblest  museum  of  sculpture,  and  the  richest  ga!, 
 lery  of  painting.  We  ascend  by  three  steps,  whic^ 
 lead  to  the  door  of  the  temple  at  the  poslicum  or  wes» 
 end,  and  stand  beneath  the  roof  of  the  peristyle 
 Here,  before  the  end  of  the  cella,  and  also  at  the  pro 
 naos  or  eastern  front,  is  a  range  of  six  columns,  stand 
 iiig  upon  a  level  raised  above  that  of  the  peristyle  by 
 two  steps.  The  cella  itself  is  entered  by  one  door  a» 
 the  west  and  another  at  the  east :  it  is  divided  into 
 two  compartments  of  unequal  size,  by  a  wall  runnint; 
 from  north  to  south  ;  of  which,  the  western  or  smaller 
 chamber  is  called  the  Opisthodomus,  and  serves  a« 
 
PAR 
 
 PARTHIA. 
 
 the  treasury  of  Athens ;  the  eastern  is  the  temple 
 properly  so  called  :  it  contains  the  colossal  statue  of 
 Minerva,  the  work  of  Phidias,  composed  of  ivory  and 
 gold,  and  is  peculiarly  ternjed,  from  that  circumslance, 
 ihe  Parthenon,  or  Residence  of  the  Virgin- Goddess, 
 a  name  by  which,  however,  the  whole  building  is  more 
 frequently  described."  (^Woidswo)ih's  Greece,  p.  135, 
 seqq.) — The  statue  of  Minerva,  to  which  allusion  has 
 just  been  made,  was  39  feet  high.  It  was  ornamented 
 with  gold  to  the  amount  of  40  talents  according  to 
 Thucydides,  but  according  to  Philochorus  44  talents, 
 or  about  $465,()0().  Of  this,  however,  it  was  stripped 
 by  Lachares,  somewhat  more  than  a  century  and  a 
 quarter  after  the  death  of  Pericles. — This  magnificent 
 temple  had  resisted  all  the  outrages  of  time,  had  been 
 in  turn  converted  into  a  Christian  church  and  a  Turk- 
 ish mosque ;  but  still  subsisted  entire  when  Spon 
 and  Wheeler  visited  Attica  in  1676.  It  was  in  the 
 year  1687  that  the  Venetians  besieged  the  citadel  of 
 Athens,  under  the  command  of  General  Konigsberg. 
 A  bomb  fell  most  unluckilv  on  the  devoted  Parthenon, 
 eet  fire  to  the  powder  which  the  Turks  had  made  there- 
 in, and  thus  the  roof  was  entirely  destroyed,  and  the 
 whole  building  almost  reduced  to  ruins.  The  Vene- 
 tian general,  being  afterward  desirous  of  carrying  off 
 the  statue  oi  Minerva,  which  had  adorned  the  pedi- 
 ment, had  it  removed  ;  thereby  assisting  in  the  deface- 
 ment of  the  place,  without  any  good  result  to  himself, 
 for  the  group  fell  to  the  ground  and  was  shattered  to 
 pieces.  Since  this  period,  every  man  of  taste  must 
 have  deplored  the  demolition  of  this  noble  structure, 
 and  the  enlightened  travellers  who  have  visited  the 
 spot  have  successively  published  engravings  of  its  re- 
 mains. One  of  the  first  of  these  was  Le  Roy,  in  his 
 Ruins  of  Greece;  after  him  came  Stuart,  who,  pos- 
 sessing great  pecuniary  means,  surpassed  his  prede- 
 cessor in  producing  a  beautiful  and  interesting  work  on 
 the  Athenian  antiquities.  Chandler,  and  other  travel- 
 lers in  Greece,  have  also  described  what  came  under 
 their  eye  of  the  remains  of  the  Parthenon,  of  which 
 many  models  have  likewise  been  executed.  But,  not 
 content  with  these  arlistical  labours  and  publications, 
 more  recent  travellers  have  borne  away  with  them  the 
 actual  spoils  of  the  Parthenon.  The  foremost  of  these 
 was  Lord  Elgin,  who,  about  the  year  1800,  removed  a 
 variety  of  the  matchless  friezes,  statues,  &,c.,  which 
 were  purchased  of  him  by  parliament  on  the  part  of 
 the  nation,  and  now  form  the  most  valuable  and  inter- 
 esting portion  of  the  British  Museum.  This  act  of 
 Lord  Elgin's  called  forth  at  the  time  severe  animad- 
 version, though  it  is  now  well  known  that  there  was 
 imminent  danger  of  those  relics  of  art  being  totally 
 destroyed  by  the  wanton  barbarism  of  the  Turks  and 
 others.  (Elme's  Dictionary  of  the  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 
 Parthenon.) 
 
 P.iRTHKNOP.€:us,  son  of  Milanion  (according  to 
 some,  of  Mars)  and  Atalanta.  He  was  one  of  the 
 eeven  chieftains  who  engaged  in  the  Theban  war. 
 (  Vid.  Eicocles  and  Polynices.)  He  was  slain  by  Ain- 
 phidicus.or.  as  others  stale,  by  Periclymenus.  (Apol- 
 loil.,  3,  6,  8. — Consult  Hcyne,  ad  loc  ) 
 
 PARTUENofK,  one  of  the  Sirens.  (  V^id.  Nt-apolis.) 
 Pakthu,  called  by  Strabo  and  Arrian  Parthya;a 
 (Hai^vnca),  was  originally  a  small  e.ttent  of  country  to 
 the  southeast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  of  a  mountainous  and 
 eaiidy  characte:,  with  here  and  there,  however,  a  fruit- 
 ful plauL,  and  regarded  as  forming,  under  the  Persian 
 sway,  one  satrapy  with  the  province  of  Hyrcania,  which 
 lay  to  the  west  of  it.  The  inhat)itants,  a  nomadic 
 race,  were  of  Scythian  descent.  Under  the  succes- 
 sors of  Alexander,  the  Parthian  Arsaces,  a  man  of  ob- 
 scure origin  but  great  military  talents,  succeeded  in 
 founding  a  sejiarate  kingdom,  which  gradually  extend- 
 ed itself,  under  those  who  came  after  him,  until  it 
 reached  the  Euphrates,  comprehending  the  fairest  prov- 
 iocen  of  the  old  Persian  monarchy.     This  new  empire 
 
 took  the  name  of  Parthian  from  the  country  where  it 
 first  arose,  and,  in   its   fullest  e.xtent,  reached   to  the 
 Indus  on  the  east,  the  Tigris  on   the  west,  the  Mare 
 Erythrseum  on  the  south,  and  the  range  of  Caucasus, 
 together  with  a  portion  of  Scythia,  on  the  north.     The 
 primitive  Parthia  was  now  regarded,  under  the  name 
 of  Parthyene,  as   the  royal  province,  and   contained 
 Hecatompylos,  the  capital,  until   succeeded  by  Ctesi- 
 phon,   of  the   whole  empire.      The  Parthian   empire 
 lasted   from  B.C.  256  to  A.D.  226.     Its  history  may 
 be  divided  into  three  periods.  —  First  Period,  from 
 B.C.  256  to  B.C.  130.     During  this  period  the  Par- 
 thians   were   engaged    in   almost   continual   struggles 
 with   the   Syrian   kings.      Under  Mithradates   I.,   the 
 fifth  or  si.xth  in  succession  from  Arsaces  I.,  the  do- 
 minions of  the  Parthian  kings  were  extended  as  far  as 
 the   Euphrates   and    the   Indus  ;    and   Demetrius    II., 
 king  of  Syria,  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  about 
 B.C.    140.     Mithradates  was  succeeded  by  Phraatea 
 II..  whose  dominions  were  invaded  by  Antiochus  Si- 
 detes,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Demetrius.     Anti- 
 ochus met  with  considerable  success  at  first,  but  he 
 was  afterward  cut  off  with  all  his  army,  about  B.C. 
 130,  and  Parthia  was  from  this  time  entirely  delivered 
 from  the  attacks  of  the  Syrian  kings.     (Joseph.,  Ant. 
 Jud  ,  13,  8. — Appian,  Bell.  Syr.,  68.) — Second  Period, 
 from  B.C.  130  to  B.C.  53.      During  the  early  part  of 
 this  period,  the  Parthians  were  constantly  engaged  in 
 war  with  the  nomadic  tribes  of  Central  Asia,  who,  af- 
 ter the  destruction  of  the  Greek  kingdom  of  Bactria, 
 attempted  to  obtain  possession  of  the  western  parts  of 
 Asia.     Phraates  II.  and  his  successor  Artabanus  fell 
 in   battle   against   these   invaders  ;    but    their  farther 
 progress  was  effectually  stopped  by  Mithradates  II., 
 who  met,  however,  with  a  powerful  rival  in  Tigranes, 
 king  of  Armenia.     Tigranes   obtained    possession  of 
 some  of  the  western  provinces  of  the  Parthian  em- 
 pire ;   but,  after  his  overthrow  by  the  Romans,  the  Par- 
 thians acquired  their  former  power,  and  were  brought 
 into  immediate  contact  with  Rome.  —  Third  Period, 
 from  B.C.  53  to  A.D.  226.     This  period  comprises 
 the  wars  with  the  Romans.      The  invasion  of  Crassus, 
 during  the  reign  of  Orodes,  terminated  in  the  death  of 
 the  Roman  general  and   the  destruction  of  his  army, 
 B.C.  53.     In  consequence  of  this  victory,  the  Parthi- 
 ans obtained  a  great  increase  of  power.     They  invaded 
 Syria  in  the  following  year,  but  were  driven  back  by 
 Cassius.     In   the   war  between  CsRsar   and    Pompey 
 they  took  the  side  of  the  latter,  and  after  the  death  of 
 C«sar  they  sided  with  Brutus  and  Cassius.     Orodes, 
 at  the  instigation  of  Labienus,  sent  an  army  into  Syria 
 commanded  by  Pacorus  and   Labienus,  but  they  were 
 defeated    the  following  year   by  Ventidiiis,   B.C.  48, 
 and  again  in  B  C.  38.      In  B  C.  37,  Orodes  was  mur- 
 dered by  his  son  Phraates  IV.,  an  ambitious  and  ener- 
 getic prince,  who,  as  soon  as  he  obtained  the  throne, 
 made  great  preparations  for  renewing  the  war  with  the 
 Romans.      Antony  marched  into  Media  against  him, 
 but  was  obliged  to  retire  with  great  loss.      Phraates, 
 however,  was  unable  to  follow  up  his  victory,  in  con- 
 sequence of  having  to  contend  with  Tiridates,  a  formi- 
 dable competitor   for  the  Parthian  throne.      After  an 
 obstinate  struggle,  Tiridates  was  defeated  (B.C    25), 
 but  he  contrived  to  get  into  his  power  the  youngest 
 son  of  Phraates,  with  whom  he  fled  to  Rome,  and  be- 
 sought the  aid  of  Augustus.      Menaced  by  a  Roman 
 invasion,  and  in  danger  from  a  large  part  of  his  own 
 subjects,  Phraates  willingly  made  great  concessions  to 
 Augustus.      He  sent  four  oi  his  sons  to  Rome  as  hos- 
 tages, and  restored  to  Augustus  the  Roman  standards 
 which  had   been  taken  on  the   defeat  of  Crassus,  an 
 event  which  is  frequently  alluded  to  by  the  poets  of 
 the  Auaustan   age.      The  history  of  Parthia  after  this 
 becomes  of  less  importance,  and  is  little  more  than  a 
 record  of  civil  wars  and  revolts,  which  tended  greatly 
 to  diminish  the  power  of  this  once  formidable  empire ; 
 
 983 
 
PAR 
 
 PAS 
 
 and  it  was  the  great  object  of  Roman  policy  to  support, 
 as  much  as  possible,  pretenders  to  the  liirone,  and  there- 
 by prevent  all  offensive  operations  on  the  part  of  the  Par- 
 thians.  The  great  subject  of  coineniioii  between  the 
 Romans  and  Parthians  was  the  kingdom  of  Armenia, 
 which  had  monarchs  of  its  own,  and  was  nominally  in- 
 dependent; but  its  rulers  were  always  appointed  either 
 by  the  Parthians  or  the  Romans,  and  the  attempts  of 
 each  nation  to  place  its  own  dependants  on  the  throne, 
 led  to  incessant  wars  between  them.  In  the  reign  of 
 Trajan,  Armenia  and  Mesopotamia  were  converted 
 into  Roman  provinces,  and  a  new  king  of  the  Parthi- 
 ans was  appointed  by  the  emperor.  Under  Hadrian, 
 however,  the  conquered  territory  was  given  up,  and  the 
 Euphrates  again  became  the  boundary  of  Parthia. 
 The  two  nations  now  remained  at  peace  with  each 
 other  until  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius 
 Verus.  Cassius,  the  general  of  Venis,  met  with  great 
 success  in  the  war,  and  at  length  took  and  almost  de- 
 stroyed the  powerful  city  of  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris, 
 A.D.  165.  Under  the  reign  of  Vologeses  IV.,  the 
 Parthian  dominions  were  invaded  by  Septimius  Sever- 
 us,  who  took  Ctesiphon  and  several  other  important 
 places,  AD.  198,  and  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire 
 the  important  province  of  Osrhoene.  Caracalla  fol- 
 lowed up  the  successes  of  his  father  ;  and  though  Ma- 
 crinus,  who  came  after  him,  made  a  disgraceful  peace 
 with  the  Parthians,  their  power  had  become  greatly 
 Weakened  by  the  conquests  of  Verus,  Severus,  and 
 Caracalla. — Arlaxerxes,  who  had  served  with  great 
 reputation  in  the  army  of  Artabanus,  the  last  kincr  of 
 Parthia,  took  advantage  of  the  weakened  state  of  the 
 monarchy  to  found  a  new  dynasty.  He  represented 
 himself  as  a  descendant  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Persia, 
 and  called  upon  the  Persians  to  recover  their  independ- 
 ence. The  call  was  readily  responded  to:  a  large 
 Persian  army  was  collected  ;  the  Parthians  were  de- 
 feated in  three  great  battles,  and  .\rtaxerxes  succeed- 
 ed to  all  the  dominions  of  the  Parthian  kings,  and  be- 
 came the  founder  of  the  new  Persian  empire,  which  is 
 usually  known  as  that  of  the  Sassanid^.  (  Vid.  Arta.\- 
 er.tes  IV. — Enr.yd.  Us.  Knowl,  vol.  17,  p.  293.)— 
 The  Parthians,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  were  of 
 Scythian  origin;  and,  according  to  Justin  (41,  1), 
 their  name  signilied,  in  the  Scythian  language,  "ban- 
 ished" or ''exiles"  Isidorus  makes  the  same  state- 
 ment, and  adds,  that  they  were  driven  out  of  Scythia 
 by  domestic  strife.  {Oiig.,  10,  2,  44.  —  Compare 
 WaliL  Vorder-  und  Mittcl-Asien,  p.  545,  in  notis.) 
 The  mode  of  fighting  adopted  by  their  cavalry  was  pe- 
 culiar, and  well  calculated  to  annoy.  When  apparent- 
 ly in  full  retreat,  they  would  turn  round  on  their  steeds 
 and  discharge  their  arrows  with  the  most  unerring  ac- 
 curacy ;  and  hence,  to  borrow  the  language  of  an  an- 
 cient writer,  it  was  victory  to  them  if  a  counterfeited 
 flight  threw  their  i)ursuprs  into  disorder.  {Plut.,  Vit. 
 Crass.,  ^i.—Honit,  Od.,  1,  19,  II. —Id  ib.,  2,  13, 
 il.—Lucan,  1,  230. —Hcwdian.,  3,  4,  20.) 
 
 Parthve.nu,  the  original,  and  subsequently  the  roy- 
 al, province  of  Parthia.  {Vid  remarks  near  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  preceding  article.) 
 
 Parvades  or  Parvardks  {P/oL),  a  branch  of  Cau- 
 casus, running  off  to  the  southwest,  and  separatinw 
 Cappadocia  from  .\rinenia.  On  the  confines  of  Cap- 
 padocia  the  name  was  changed  to  Scordiscus  :  it  here 
 united  with  the  chain  of  Aiititaurus,  and  both  stretched 
 onward  to  the  west  and  southwest  through  Cappado- 
 cia. The  highest  elevation  in  this  range  was  Mons  .\r- 
 gseus.  Ptolemy  gives  the  name  of  Paryardes,  in  par- 
 ticular, to  that  part  of  the  chain  in  which  the  Euphra- 
 tes and  Ara.tcs  took  their  rise;  but  Pliny  calls  this 
 Capotes.     {Plin.,  5,  27. —Strabo,  528.) 
 
 Parvsatis,  a    Persian   princess,  queen  of  Darius 
 Ochus,  by  whom    she   had   Artaxerxes  Mnemon   and 
 Cyrus  the  younger,  the  latter  of  whom  was  her  fa- 
 vourite.    (Xcn.,  Anab.,  1,  1.)     She  is  represented  as 
 084 
 
 a  very  cruel  woman,  and  wreaked  her  vengeance,  as  fax 
 as  she  was  able,  on  all  who  had  been  instrumental  in 
 the  fall  and  death  of  her  son.  One  of  the  principal 
 sufferers  was  the  eunuch  Mesabates,  who  had  cut  oif 
 the  head  and  right  hand  of  Cyrus  by  order  of  Arta.x- 
 erxes.  She  also  poisoned  Statira,  the  wife  of  the 
 king.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Arlax.,\7.)  Von  Hammer  makes 
 the  Persian  name  to  have  been  Pcrisade,  i.  e.,  "  Peri- 
 born."  (Wicn.  Jahrb.,  vol.  8,  p.  394.)  Strabo,  ou 
 the  other  hand  (a  very  poor  authority  in  such  a  matter). 
 says  that  the  original  Persian  name  was  Pharziris. 
 (Strah.,  785. — B'dhr,  ad  Cles.,  p.  186  ) 
 
 Pasargad.iE,  sometimes  written  Passargnda,  and 
 also,  but  only*  by   Plolemy  and  Solinus,  Pasargada,  a 
 very  ancient  city  of  Persia,  and  the  royal  residence 
 previous   to   the   founding  of  Persepolis.      Some  dif- 
 ference of  opinion   has   existed  relative  to  its   site, 
 but,  from  the  accounts  of  Ptolemy  and  other  writers, 
 it  would  appear   to   have   stood    to  the  southeast   of 
 Persepolis,  and  near  the  confines  of  Carmania.     (Man- 
 ncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  5,  pt.  2,  p.  529.  —  B'dhr,  ad  Ctes., 
 p.  1 18.)     Hence  Morier  is  wrong  in  fixing  the  position 
 of  this  place  at  the  modern  Mourgaub  (vol.  1,  p.  206), 
 which  lies  to  the  north  of  Persepolis,  an  error  in  which 
 he  is  followed  by  Malte-Brun.     Pasargadae  was  situate 
 in  Coele-Persis,  on  tiie  banks  of  the  Cyrus  or  Kores 
 (Strabo,  729),  a  circumstance  which  would  seem  to 
 point  to  the  modern  Pasa  or  Fasa  as  occcupying  its 
 site.     (Compare  the  remarks  of  Lassen,  in  Ersch  und 
 Grubers  Encyclopddic,  s.  v.  Pasargada.)     It  was  said 
 to  have  owed  its  origin  to  a  camp  which  remained  on 
 the  spot  where  Cyrus  defeated  Aslyages,  and  the  name 
 of  the  city  has  been  explained  as  signifying  "  the  camp 
 of  the  Persians."     (Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v. — Curt.,  5,  6. — ■ 
 Strabo,  730.)     Lassen,  however,  says  that  it  means 
 "the  treasury  of  the  Persians,"     Here  Cyrus,  in  fact, 
 built  a  treasury,  and  erected  his  own  tomb  in  an  adja- 
 cent park.     Strabo  (730)  and  Arrian  (6,  30)  have  given 
 a  description  of  this  sepulchre,  taken  from  the  work  of 
 Aristobulus,  who  had  visited  the  spot.     According  to 
 their  accounts,  the  tomb  was  situated  in  a  well- watered 
 park,  and  surrounded  by  numerous  trees.     The  lower 
 part  of  it,  which  was   solid,  was  of  a  quadrangular 
 shape,  and  above  it  was  a  chamber  built  of  stone,  with 
 an  entrance  so  very  narrow  that  a  person  of  thin  and 
 pliant  make   could  alone  pass  through.     Aristobulus 
 entered  this  chamber  by  the  command  of  Alexander, 
 and    found   in   it  a  golden  couch,  a  table  with   cups 
 upon  it,  a  golden  coffin,  and  many  beautiful  garments, 
 swords,  and  chains.     Aristobulus  says,  that  the  inscrip- 
 tion on  the  tomb  was,  "Oh  man,  I  am  Cyrus,  who  ac- 
 quired sovereignly  for  the  Persians,  and  was  King  of 
 Asia.    Do  not  then  grudge  me  this  monument."    There 
 were  certain  Magi  appointed  to  guard  this  tomb,  who 
 received  every  day  a  sheep,  and  a  certain  quantity  of 
 wine  and  wheat,  and  also  a  horse  every  month  as  an 
 offering  to  Cyrus.     This  tomb  was  plundered  during 
 the  lifetime  of  Alexander  by  some  robbers,  who  carried 
 off  everything  except  the  couch  and  the  coffin. — Ac- 
 cording to  Plutarch,  the  kings  of  Persia  were  conse- 
 crated at  Pasargadae  by  the  Magi.      (  Vit.  Artaj  ,  3  ) — 
 Those  modern  travellers  who  make  Mourganh  corre- 
 spond to  the  site  of  the  ancient  Pasargadas,  have  dis- 
 covered  a  building  in  the  plain  which  they  have  im- 
 agined to  bo  the  tomb  of  Cyrus.     This  building   is 
 called   by  the  people  of  the  country  "  A'wAr  Ma/leri 
 Suleiman,^'  i.  e.,  the  tomb  of  the  mother  of  Solomon; 
 and   the  description   given    by   Sir  Robert  K.    Porter 
 (Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  498)  corresponds  in  many  particu- 
 lars to  that  of  Arrian  and  Strabo.      The  tomb  contains 
 no  inscription,  but  on  a  pillar  in  the  neighbourhood 
 there  is  a  cuneiform  inscription,  which  Grotefend,  in 
 an  essay  on  the  subject,  appended  to  Heeren's  work 
 on  Asia  (vol.  2,  p.  360,  seqq.,  Eng.  trans.),  interprets 
 to   mean  "Cyrus  the    King,  ruler   of  the  universe." 
 Saint-Martin,  however  (Journal  Asiatique  fox  Febru- 
 
PAS 
 
 PAT 
 
 ary,  1828),  supposes  that  it  rather  refers  to  Artaxerxes 
 Ochus ;  and  Lassen,  a  most  competent  authority  on 
 the  subject,  thinks  it  impossible  to  make  out  the  name 
 of  Cyrus  in  this  inscription.  Hock  is  of  opinion,  that 
 the  building  described  by  Porter,  and  before  him  by 
 Morier,  is  the  tomb  of  one  of  the  Sassanian  kings,  the 
 dynasty  that  ruled  in  Persia  from  the  third  to  the  mid- 
 dle of  the  seveoth  century  of  our  era.  (  Vcleris  Medice 
 et  Persia:  Mumimejita,  GbtL,  1818.)  Herodotus  does 
 not  s[)eak  of  Pasargadas  as  a  place,  but  as  the  noblest 
 of  the  Persian  tribes,  so  that  Cyrus  must  have  founded 
 the  city  of  the  same  name  in  their  territory.  (Herod., 
 1,  125  — Creuzer,  ad  Inc.) 
 
 Pasiphab,  a  daughter  of  the  Sun  and  of  Perseis, 
 and  wife  of  Minos,  king  of  Crete.  The  ordinary  le- 
 gend connected  with  her  name  has  been  given  in  a 
 different  article  (?jmZ.  Miiiotaurus),  and  the  opinion  has 
 there  been  advanced,  that  the  whole  story  rests  on 
 some  astronomical  basis,  and  that  Pasiphae  is  identi- 
 cal with  the  moon.  Thus  we  find  the  epithet  Ilafft- 
 ^ar/f  ("  all-iUumirung"  or  "  all-bris;ht'")  applied  to  Di- 
 ana in  the  Orphic  hymns  (35,  3),  after  having  been  giv- 
 en to  the  Sun  in  a  previous  effusion  (7,  14).  The  same 
 term,  together  with  Ilaai(j>nv^g,  is  applied  to  Selene, 
 or  the  full  moon,  by  a  later  bard.  {Maximus,  Plnlos., 
 ■Kspl  KaTapx<^v,  ap.  Fabric,  Bibl.  Gr.,  vol.  8,  p.  415. 
 —  Creuzer,  Symbolik,  vol.  4,  p.  88.)  The  "all-illu- 
 ming" Pasiphae,  then,  is,  with  every  appearance  of 
 probability,  a  goddess  in  the  sphere  of  the  Cretan  lunar 
 worship.  With  regard  to  Pasiphae,  considered  as  a 
 divinity,  we  have  no  direct  proof  from  the  island  of 
 Crete  itself:  in  Laconia,  however,  which  derived  so 
 many  of  its  institutions  from  Crete,  several  confirma- 
 tory circumstances  do  not  fail  to  present  themselves. 
 Tertullian  mentions  the  ora  le  of  Pasiphae  in  Laconia 
 as  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  that  country  {de  Ani- 
 ma,  c.  46  — Op.,  vol.  4,  p.  311,  cd.  Send.).  Plutarch 
 also  speaks  of  a  temple  and  oracle  of  Pasiphae  at 
 Thalama;,  though  he  leaves  it  undecided  what  partic- 
 ular deity  is  meant  by  the  name.  {Vit.  Aaid.,  c.  9.) 
 It  would  seem,  however,  to  have  been  an  oracle  of  one 
 of  their  most  ancient  and  revered  deities,  and  there- 
 fore, in  all  likelihood,  a  Cretan  one,  since  it  was  con- 
 sulted on  all  great  political  occasions  by  the  Spartan 
 Ephori.  (Compare  Cic.,  dc  Divin.,  1,  43. — Plut., 
 Vtt.  Cleom.,  c.  7.)  —  Pausanias  mentions  this  same 
 sanctuary  (3,  26).  He  calls  it,  indeed,  the  temple  and 
 oracle  of  Ino  :  and  yet  he  informs  us  that  without  was 
 a  statue  of  Pasiphae,  and  another  of  the  sun.  We 
 must  here  read  llaai(j>ar/g  with  Sylburgius  and  Meur- 
 sius.  in  place  of  the  common  lection  Hatpirjc.  (Con- 
 sult, in  relation  to  the  Laconian  Pasiphae,  Meursius, 
 Misc.  Laro7i.,  1,  4  ;  and,  on  the  subject  of  Pasiphae 
 generally.  Hock,  Kreta,  vol.  2,  Vorrede,  p.  xxix. — Id. 
 lb.,  vol.  2,  p.  49,  seqq.) 
 
 Pasitigris.      Vid.  Tigris. 
 
 Passaron,  a  town  of  Epirus,  the  capital  of  the  Mo- 
 lossi.  Here,  according  to  Plutarch  {Vit.  Pyrrh.),  the 
 kings  of  Epirus  convened  the  solemn  assembly  of  the 
 whole  nation,  when,  after  having  performed  the  cus- 
 tomary sacrifices,  they  took  an  oath  that  they  would 
 govern  according  to  the  established  laws,  and  the  peo- 
 pFe,  in  return,  swore  to  maintain  the  constitution  and 
 defend  the  kingdom.  After  the  termination  of  the  war 
 between  the  Romans  and  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon, 
 Passaron  did  not  escape  the  sentence  which  doomed 
 to  destruction  so  many  of  the  unfortunate  cities  of 
 Epirus  that  had  shown  an  inclination  to  favour  the 
 cause  of  the  enemy.  It  was  given  up  to  plunder,  and 
 its  walls  were  levelled  to  the  ground.  (Liv.,  45,  34.) 
 With  regard  to  the  site  of  this  ancient  place,  it  seems 
 highly  probable  that  it  is  to  be  identified  with  some  re- 
 markable ruins,  described  by  more  than  one  traveller, 
 near  Joannma,  in  a  S.S.W.  direction,  and  about  four 
 hours  from  that  city.  {Hughes''s  Travels,  vol.  2,  p. 
 486. — Cramer^s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  138,  seag  ) 
 61  ^^ 
 
 Passienus,  Paulus,  a  Roman  knight,  nephewr  lo  the 
 poet  Propertius,  whose  elegiac  compositions  he  suc- 
 cessfully imitated.  He  likewise  attempted  lyric  poe- 
 try with  equal  success,  and  chose  for  bis  model  the 
 writing.s  of  Horace.  {Pltny,  Ej>.,  6,  9. —  Cnmt.,  de 
 Poet.  Lat.,  c.  75.) 
 
 Patala.      Vid.  Pattala. 
 
 PAT.iRA  {orvm),  a  city  of  Lycia,  on  the  left  bank  and 
 at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Xanthus.  {Arrian,  1,  24. 
 — Leake's  Tour,  p.  183  )  According  to  Strabo(665), 
 it  was  built  by  Patarus,  whom  mythology  made  a  son 
 of  Apollo.  {Eustath.  ad  Dionys.  Pcneg.,  v.  129.) 
 Hence  the  high  estimation  in  which  the  god  was  here 
 held,  and  the  famous  oracle  which  he  had  in  this  place. 
 Hence  also  his  surname  of  Patareus  (Hor.,  Od.,  3,4, 
 64),  and  the  legend  that  he  spent  the  six  winter-months 
 at  Patara,  and  the  summer  at  Delos.  (Servius  ad 
 Virg.,  jEn.,  4,  143.)  Strabo  speaks  of  the  numerous 
 temples  in  this  city,  without  particularizing  the  temple 
 and  oracle  of  Apollo.  The  oracle,  probably,  had  by  this 
 time  declined  in  reputation,  and  Mela,  the  geographer, 
 speaks  of  its  former  fame  (1,  \^).  We  learn  from 
 Strabo,  that  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  restored  Patara,  and 
 attempted  to  change  its  name  to  "  Arsiiioe  in  Lycia  ;" 
 but  this  alteration  does  not  appear  to  have  succeeded. 
 Livy  and  other  writers  always  use  the  other  appella- 
 tion. {Uv  ,  37,  15.— /(/.,  38,  39.  —  Polyb.,  22,  26  ) 
 Patara  was  a  cily  of  considerable  size,  and  had  a  good 
 harbour,  though  too  small  to  contain  the  allied  fleet 
 of  the  Romans,  Rhodians,  and  other  Greek  states  in 
 the  war  with  Antiochus.  {Liv.,  37,  17.)  It  is  now 
 entirely  choked  up  by  encroaching  sands.  Appian 
 remarks,  that  Patara  was  like  a  port  to  Xanthus ; 
 which  city  appears  from  Strabo  and  the  Sladiasmus 
 to  have  been  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Xanthus,  eight 
 or  nine  miles  above  Patara — The  modern  Patera  oc- 
 cupies the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  but  is  nothing  more 
 than  a  collection  of  ruins,  being  entirely  uninhabited. 
 Captain  Beaufort  describes  the  harbour  of  Patara  as  a 
 swamp  filled  with  sand  and  bushes,  and  all  communi- 
 cation with  the  sea  as  being  cut  otf  by  a  straight  beach, 
 through  which  there  is  no  opening.  The  sand  has  not 
 only  filled  up  the  harbour,  but  has  accumulated  to  a 
 considerable  height  between  the  ruins  and  the  river 
 Xanthus.  The  ruins  are  represented  as  extensive. 
 {Cramer'' s  Asia  il/inor,  vol.  2,  p.  250. — Leake's  Tour, 
 p.  182.) 
 
 Patavium,  a  city  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  in  the  district 
 of  Venetia,  and  situate  between  the  Meduacus  Major 
 and  Minor,  in  the  lower  part  of  their  course.  From 
 its  celebrity  and  importance  it  may  ju.stly  be  consid- 
 ered as  the  capital  of  ancient  Venetia.  The  story  of 
 its  foundation  by  Antenor  is  one  which  will  scarcely 
 be  believed  in  the  present  day,  though  so  universally 
 accredited  by  the  poets  of  antiquity,  {^n  ,  1,  242. 
 —  Compare  Mela,  2,  4. — Solin.,  8 — Senec,  Consol. 
 ad  Hclv.,  7.)  It  seems  as  difficult  to  refute  as  to 
 prove  a  fact  of  so  remote  an  era  ;  but,  granting  the 
 origin  of  Patavium,  as  far  as  regards  the  Trojan 
 prince,  to  be  an  invention  of  a  later  period,  it  does 
 not  follow  that  the  tradition  should  be  wholly  desti- 
 tute of  foundation  :  perhaps  a  similarity  of  name  be- 
 tween the  Antenor  of  Homer  and  the  chief  of  the 
 Heneli  might  not  unreasonably  be  fixed  upon  as  ac- 
 counting for  this  otherwise  improbable  story  ;  most 
 improbable,  indeed,  when  we  consider  that,  in  the  Iliad, 
 Antenor  is  represented  as  of  the  same  age  with  Priam 
 (3,  148).  —  An  interesting  event  in  the  subsequent 
 history  of  Patavium  is  recorded  at  some  length  hj 
 Livy,  who  naturally  dwells  on  it  as  honourable  to  his 
 native  city  (10,  2).  A  Spartan  fleet,  under  the  com- 
 mand of  Cleomencs,  king  of  Lacedspmon,  being  driven 
 by  contrary  winds  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Taren- 
 tum,  to  the  aid  of  which  city  he  had  been  summoned 
 against  a  threatened  attack  on  the  part  of  the  Romans 
 {Strabo,  208),  arrived  unexpectedly  in  the  Adriatic, 
 
 98w 
 
PAT 
 
 P  AU 
 
 and  anchored  at  the  mouth  of  the  Meduacus  Major,  ' 
 and  near  the  present  villages  of  Chiozza  and  Fusina. 
 A  party  of  these  adventurers,  having  advanced  up  the  j 
 river  in  some  light  vessels,  effected  a  landing,  and  j 
 proceeded  to  burn  and  [jlunder  the  defenceless  villa- 
 ges on  its  banks.  The  alarm  of  this  unexpected  at-  [ 
 tack  soon  reached  Pataviurn,  whose  inhabitants  were  ! 
 kept  continually  on  the  alert  and  in  arms,  from  fear  j 
 of  the  neighbouring  Gauls.  A  force  was  instantly 
 despatched  to  repel  the  invaders  ;  and  such  was  the  | 
 skill  and  promptitude  with  which  the  service  was  per- 
 formed, that  the  marauders  were  surprised  and  their 
 vessels  taken  before  the  news  of  this  reverse  could 
 reach  the  fleet  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Attacked 
 at  his  moorings,  it  was  not  without  great  loss,  both  in 
 ships  and  men,  that  the  Spartan  commander  effected 
 his  escape.  The  shields  of  the  Greeks  and  the  beaks 
 of  their  galleys  were  suspended  in  the  temple  of  Juno, 
 and  an  antiual  mock-fight  on  the  Meduacus  served  to 
 perpetuate  the  memory  of  so  proud  a  day  in  the  an- 
 nals of  Patavium.  This  event  is  placed  by  the  Ro- 
 man historian  in  the  450th  year  of  Rome.  Strabo 
 speaks  of  Patavium  as  the  greatest  and  most  flourish- 
 ing city  in  the  north  of  Italy  ;  and  states  that  it  count- 
 ed in  his  time  500  Roman  knights  among  its  citizens, 
 and  could  at  one  period  send  20,000  men  into  the 
 field.  Its  manufactures  of  cloth  and  woollen  stuffs 
 were  renowned  throughout  Italy,  and,  together  with 
 its  traffic  in  various  commodities,  sufficiently  attested 
 the  great  wealth  and  prosperity  of  its  inhabitants. 
 {Strab.,  213. —  Compare  Martial,  14,  141.)  Vessels 
 could  come  up  to  Patavium  from  the  sea,  a  distance 
 of  250  stadia,  by  the  Meduacus.  About  six  miles  to 
 the  south  of  the  city  were  the  celebrated  Patavinas 
 Aquas.  {Plin.,  2,  103.— /i.,  31,  6.)  The  principal 
 source  was  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Aponus 
 Pons,  from  whence  that  of  Bagni  (V Ahano,  by  which 
 these  waters  are  at  present  known,  has  evidently  been 
 formed. — The  modern  Padua  (in  Italian  Padova)  oc- 
 cupies the  site  of  the  ancient  Patavium.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  120,  seqq.) 
 
 Patekculus,  an  historian.  (FwZ.  Velleius  Pater- 
 culus.) 
 
 Patmos,  a  small  rocky  island  in  the  iEgean,  south 
 of  Icaria,  and  southwest  of  Samos.  It  belonged  to 
 the  group  of  the  Sporades.  This  island  appears  to 
 have  had  no  place  which  deserved  the  name  of  a  city. 
 It  became  a  spot  of  some  consequence,  however,  in 
 the  early  history  of  the  church,  from  St.  John's  having 
 been  banished  to  it,  and  having  here  written  his  A[)Oc- 
 alypse.  It  is  the  general  opinion  of  commentators  on 
 Scripture,  that  St.  John  was  banished  to  Patmos  to- 
 wards the  close  of  the  reign  of  Domitian.  It  is  not 
 known  how  long  his  captivity  lasted,  but  it  is  thought 
 that  he  was  released  on  the  death  of  Domitian,  which 
 happened  A.D.  96,  when  he  retired  to  Ephesus. 
 {hen.,  2,  22,  b.—  Eusch.,  Hist.  Eccles.,  3,  \8.  —  Dw 
 Cass.,  as,  1.)  A  small  bay  on  the  east  side,  and  two 
 others  ou  the  western  shore,  divide  Patmos  into  two 
 portions,  of  which  the  southern  is  the  more  considera- 
 ble. The  modern  name  of  the  i^^land  is  Patmo  or 
 Pabnosa.  It  contains  several  churches  and  convents  ; 
 the  principal  one  is  dedicated  to  the  apostle.  There 
 are  also  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  fortress,  and  some 
 other  remains.  {Whhtington,  in  WalpoWs  Memoirs 
 of  Turkey,  vol.  2,  p.  43.)  Dr.  Clarke,  in  speaking  of 
 Patmos,  declares  that  there  is  not  a  s[)ot  in  the  Archi- 
 pelago with  more  of  the  semblance  of  a  volcanic  origin 
 than  this  island.     {Travels,  vol.  6,  p  73.  Lond.  ed.) 
 
 PatR/«,  a  city  of  Achaia,  west  of  Rhium,  and  at 
 the  opening  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  It  is  said  to  have 
 been  built  on  the  site  of  three  towns,  called  Aroe, 
 Anthea,  and  Messatis,  which  had  been  founded  by  the 
 lonians  when  they  were  in  possession  of  the  country. 
 On  their  e.'cpulsion  by  the  Achaans,  the  small  towns 
 tbove  mentioned  fell  into  the  hands  of  Patreus,  an  il- 
 9SPi 
 
 lustrious  chief  of  that  people  ;  who,  uniting  them  into 
 one  city,  called  it  by  his  name.  Patra;  is  enumer- 
 ated by  Herodotus  among  the  12  cities  of  Achaia  (1, 
 46).  We  are  informed  by  Thucydides,  that,  during 
 the  interval  of  peace  which  occurred  in  the  Pelopon- 
 nesian  war,  Alcibiades  persuaded  its  inhabitants  to 
 build  long  walls  down  to  the  sea  (5,  53).  I'his  was 
 one  of  the  tirst  towns  which  renewed  the  federal  sys- 
 tem after  the  interval  occasioned  by  the  Macedonian 
 dominion  throughout  Greece.  {Polyb  ,  2,  41  )  lis 
 maritime  situation,  opposite  to  the  coast  of  iEtolia  and 
 Acarnariia,  rendered  it  a  very  advantageous  port  for 
 communicating  with  these  countries  ;  and  in  the  So- 
 cial war,  Philip  of  Macedon  frequently  landed  his  troops 
 there  in  his  expeditions  into  Peloponnesus.  The  Pa- 
 traeans  sustaitied  such  severe  losses  in  the  different 
 engagements  fought  against  the  Romans  duTing  the 
 Achaean  war,  that  the  few  men  who  remained  in  the 
 city  determined  to  abandon  it,  and  to  reside  in  the  sur- 
 rounding villages  and  boroughs.  {Pausanias,  7,  18. 
 — Polybius,  40,  3,  seqq.)  Palras  was,  however,  raised 
 to  its  former  flourishing  condition  after  the  battle  of 
 Actium  by  Augustus,  who,  in  addition  to  its  dispersed 
 inhabitants,  sent  thither  a  large  body  of  colonists,  cho- 
 sen from  his  veteran  soldiers,  and  granted  to  the  city, 
 thus  restored  under  his  auspices,  all  the  privileges 
 usually  conceded  by  the  Romans  to  their  colonies. 
 Strabo  (387)  affirms,  that  in  his  day  it  was  a  large  and 
 populous  town,  with  a  good  harbour.  The  modern 
 Patras  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  {Cra- 
 mcr''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  67.) 
 
 Patroclus,  one  of  the  Grecian  chieftains  during 
 the  Trojan  war,  son  of  Menoetius,  and  of  Sthenele  the 
 daughter  of  Acastus,  ar.d  the  beloved  friend  of  Achil- 
 les. Having  in  his  youth  accidentally  killed  Clyson- 
 ymus,  the  son  of  Amphidamas,  in  a  moment  of  ungov- 
 ernable fury,  he  was  compelled  to  fly  from  Opus, 
 where  his  father  reigned,  and  found  an  asylum  with 
 Peleus,  king  of  Phthia,  who  educated  him  with  his 
 son  Achilles  under  the  centaur  Chiron;  and  thus  was 
 contracted  between  the  two  youthful  heroes  a  friend- 
 ship that  never  suff'ered  the  slightest  diminution.  Up- 
 on the  determination  of  Achilles  to  retire  from  the 
 war  after  his  quarrel  with  Agamemnon,  Patroclus, 
 impatient  at  the  successes  of  the  Trojans,  obtained 
 permission  from  his  friend  to  lead  the  Thessalians  to 
 the  conflict.  Achilles  equipped  him  in  his  own  ar- 
 .mour,  except  giving  him  the  spear  called  Pelias,  which 
 no  one  but  the  hero  himself  could  wield,  and  which 
 he  had  received  from  his  father  Peleus,  on  whom  Chi- 
 ron had  bestowed  it.  (//  ,  16, 140,  seqq.)  The  strat- 
 agem proved  completely  successful ;  and  from  the 
 consternation  into  which  the  Trojans  were  thrown  at 
 the  presence  of  the  supposed  Achilles,  Patroclus  was 
 enabled  to  pursue  them  to  the  very  walls  of  the  city. 
 The  protecting  hand,  however,  of  their  tutelary  god, 
 .A.pollo,  at  last  prevailed,  and  the  brave  Greek  fell  be- 
 neath the  arm  of  Hector,  who  was  powerfully  aided 
 by  the  son  of  Latona.  A  fierce  contest  ensued  for 
 the  dead  body  of  Patroclus,  of  which  Ajax  and  Men- 
 elaus  ultimately  obtained  possession.  The  grief  of 
 .\chilles,  and  the  funeral  rites  performed  in  honour  of 
 his  friend,  are  detailed  in  the  ISth^and  23d  books  of 
 the  Iliad.  Patroclus  was  surnamed  Menatiades  from 
 his  father,  and  Actorides  from  his  grandfather  {Horn  , 
 JL,  I.  c.  —  Avollod.,  3,  \^.—  Hygin.,  Jab.,  97,  275.— 
 Ovid,  Met.,  13,  273.) 
 
 Patui.cTus,  a  surname  of  Janus.     {Vnl.  Janus.) 
 
 Paulinus,  a  Roman  commander.  {Vid.  Suetonius 
 Paulinos  ) 
 
 Paulus,  I.  .^MiLius,  son  of  the  consul  of  the  same 
 name,  who  fell  in  the  battle  near  Cannse  (B.C.  216), 
 after  using  his  utmost  efforts  to  check  the  rashness  of 
 his  colleague.  Young  .(Emilius  was  a  mere  boy  at 
 the  death  of  his  father,  yet  by  his  personal  merits,  and 
 the  powerful  influence  of  his  friends,  he  eventually  ai- 
 
PAULUS. 
 
 PAULUS. 
 
 tamed  to  the  highest  honours  of  his  country.  His  sis- 
 ter .Emiha  was  married  to  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  the 
 conqueror  of  Hannibal,  who  was  consul  for  the  second 
 time  B.C.  194;  and  this  very  year  iEmilius,  though  he 
 had  held  no  public  otfire,  was  appointed  one  of  three 
 commissioners  to  conduct  a  colony  to  Crotona,  in  the 
 south  of  Italy,  a  city  with  which  he  might  claim  some 
 connexion  on  the  ground  of  his  descent  from  Mamer- 
 cus,  the  son  of  Pythagoras.  Two  years  after,  at  the 
 age  of  about  .36,  he  was  elected  a  curule  sedile  in  pref- 
 erence, if  we  may  believe  Plutarch,  to  twelve  candi- 
 dates of  such  merit  that  every  one  of  them  became 
 afterward  consuls.  His  redileship  was  distinguished 
 by  many  improvements  in  the  city  and  neighbourhood 
 of  Rome.  The  following  year  (191  B  C.)'he  held  the 
 office  of  prstor,  and  in  that  capacity  was  governor  of 
 the  southwestern  part  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  with  a 
 considerable  force  under  his  command.  The  appoint- 
 ment was  renewed  the  following  year,  but  with  en- 
 larged powers,  for  he  now  bore  the  title  of  proconsul, 
 and  was  accompanied  by  double  the  usual  number  of 
 lictors.  In  an  engagement,  however,  with  the  I.usi- 
 tani,  6000  of  his  men  were  cut  to  pieces,  and  the  rest 
 only  saved  behind  the  works  of  the  camp.  But  this 
 disgrace  was  retrieved  in  the  third  year  of  his  govern- 
 ment, by  a  signal  defeat  of  the  enemy,  in  which  18,000 
 of  their  men  were  left  upon  the  field.  For  this  success 
 a  public  thanksgiving  was  voted  by  the  senate  in  hon- 
 our of  yEmilius.  Soon  a.*"ter  he  returned  to  Rome, 
 and  found  that  he  had  been  appointed,  in  his  absence, 
 one  of  the  ten  commissioners  for  regulating  affairs  in 
 that  part  of  Western  Asia  which  had  lately  been  wrest- 
 ed by  the  two  Scipios  from  Antiochus  the  Great. 
 ./Emilius  was  a  member  also  of  the  college  of  augurs 
 from  an  early  age,  but  we  do  not  find  any  means  of 
 fixing  the  period  of  his  election.  As  a  candidate  for 
 the  consulship  he  met  with  re|)eated  repulses,  and  only 
 attained  that  honour  in  182  B.C.,  nine  years  after  hold- 
 ing the  office  of  praetor.  During  this  and  the  following 
 year  he  commanded  an  army  in  Liguria,  and  succeeded 
 in  the  complete  reduction  of  a  powerful  people  called 
 the  Ingauni  (who  have  left  their  name  in  the  maritime 
 town  of  Albenffa,  formerly  Albium  Ingaunum).  A 
 public  thatiksgiving  of  three  days  was  immediately 
 voted,  and,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  he  had  the  honour 
 of  a  triumph.  For  the  next  ten  years  we  lose  sight  of 
 ..Emilius,  and  at  the  end  of  this  period  he  is  only  men- 
 tioned as  being  selected  by  the  inhabitants  of  farther 
 Spaiji  to  protect  their  interests  at  Rome,  an  honour 
 which  at  once  proved  and  added  to  his  influence.  It 
 was  at  this  period  (B.C.  171)  that  the  last  Macedo- 
 nian war  commenced  ;  and  though  the  Romans  could 
 scarcely  have  anticipated  a  struggle  from  Perseus,  who 
 inherited  from  his  father  only  the  shattered  remains  of 
 the  great  Macedonian  monarchy,  yet  three  consuls,  in 
 three  successive  years,  were  more  than  baffled  by  his 
 arms.  In  B  C  168  a  second  consulship,  and  with  it 
 the  command  against  Perseus,  was  intrusted  to  .^mil- 
 ius.  He  was  now  at  least  60  years  of  age,  but  he  was 
 sujyported  by  two  sons  and  two  sons-in-law,  who  pos- 
 sessed both  vigour  and  ability.  By  Papiria,  a  lady  be- 
 longing to  one  of  the  first  families  in  Rome,  he  had  two 
 sons  and  three  daughters.  Of  the  sons,  the  elder  had 
 been  adopted  into  the  house  of  the  Fabii  by  the  cele- 
 brated opponent  of  Hannibal,  and  consequently  bore  the 
 name  of  Quiiitus  Fabius  Maximus,  with  the  addition  of 
 yEmilianus,  to  mark  his  original  connexion  with  the 
 bouse  of  the  .Emilii  The  younger,  only  seventeen 
 years  of  age  at  this  period,  had  been  adopted  by  his 
 own  cousin,  the  son  of  Scijjio  Africanus,  and  was  now 
 called  by  the  same  name  as  his  grandfather  by  adoption, 
 viz.,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  with  the  addition  of  ^Emil- 
 ianus,  as  in  his  brother's  case.  The  careless  reader 
 of  Roman  history  often  confounds  these  two  persons, 
 and  the  more  so  as  the  younger  eventually  acquired 
 the  same  title  of  Africanus.     By  the  marriage  of  his 
 
 daughters,  again,  .^milius  was  father-in-law  to  Marcos 
 Porcius  Cato,  son  of  the  censor,  and  to  jElius  Tubero. 
 These  four  young  men  accompanied  yEmilius  to  th« 
 war  in  Macedonia,  and  all  contributed  in  a  marked 
 manner  to  his  success.  Perseus  was  strongly  posted 
 in  the  range  of  Olympus  to  defend  the  passes  from 
 Perrhsbia  into  Macedonia,  but  he  allowed  himself  to 
 be  out-manoeuvred,  .^milius  made  good  his  passage 
 through  the  mountains,  and  the  two  armies  were  soon 
 in  view  of  each  other  near  Pydna.  On  the  evening  be- 
 fore the  battle,  an  officer  in  the  Roman  army,  named 
 Sulpicius,  obtained  the  consul's  permission  to  address 
 the  troops  upon  a  point  which  was  of  no  little  impor- 
 tance in  those  ages.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon,  it  was 
 known  to  Sulpicius,  would  occur  that  night,  and  he 
 thought  It  prudent  to  prepare  the  soldiers  for  it.  When 
 the  eventful  moment  arrived,  the  soldiers  went  out,  in- 
 deed, to  assist  the  moon  in  her  labours  with  the  usuaf 
 clamour  of  their  kettles  and  pans,  nor  omitted  to  offei 
 her  the  light  of  their  torches  ;  but  the  scene  was  one  ol 
 amusement  rather  than  fear.  In  the  Macedonian  camp, 
 on  the  other  hand,  superstition  produced  the  usual  ef- 
 fect of  horror  and  alarm  ;  and  on  the  following  day  the 
 result  of  the  battle  corresponded  to  the  feelings  of  the 
 night.  In  a  single  hour  the  hopes  of  Perseus  were 
 destroyed  for  ever.  The  monarch  fled  with  scarcely  a 
 companion,  and  on  the  third  day  reached  Amphipolis. 
 Thence  he  proceeded  to  Samothrace,  where  he  soon 
 after  (ell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  The  date 
 of  the  battle  of  Pydna  has  been  fi.ved  by  the  eclipse  to 
 the  22d  of  June.  Livy,  indeed,  assigns  it  to  a  day  in 
 the  early  part  of  September ;  but  it  is  not  impossible 
 that  the  ditfercnce  may  be  owing  to  some  irregularity 
 in  the  Roman  calendar,  which,  prior  to  the  Julian  coi 
 rection,  must  often  have  differed  widely  from  the  pies 
 ent  distribution  of  the  year.  The  Romans  were  care 
 ful  in  recording  the  day  of  every  important  battle. 
 After  reducing  Macedonia  to  the  form  of  a  Roman 
 province,  .lEmilius  proceeded  on  his  return  to  Epirus. 
 Here,  under  the  order  of  the  senate,  he  treacherously 
 surprised  seventy  towns,  and  delivered  up  to  his  army 
 15(),000  of  the  inhabitants  as  slaves,  and  all  their  prop- 
 erty as  plunder.  On  his  arrival  in  Rome,  however, 
 he  found  in  this  army,  with  whom  he  was  far  from  pop- 
 ular, the  chief  opponents  to  his  claim  to  a  triumph. 
 This  honour  he  at  last  obtained,  and  Perseus,  with 
 his  young  children,  some  of  them  too  young  to  be  sen- 
 sible of  their  situation,  were  paraded  for  three  success- 
 ive days  through  the  streets  of  Rome.  But  the  tri- 
 umphant general  had  a  severe  lesson  from  afifliction  in 
 the  midst  of  his  honour.  Of  two  sons  by  a  second 
 wife  (he  had  long  divorced  Papiria),  one,  aged  twelve, 
 died  five  days  before  the  triumph,  the  other,  aged  four- 
 teen, a  few  days  after ;  so  that  he  had  now  no  son  to 
 hand  down  his  name  to  posterity.  .'Emilius  lived  eii'ht 
 years  after  his  victory  over  Perseus,  in  winch  period 
 we  need  only  mention  his  censorshi)>,  B.C.  164.  Al 
 his  death,  160  B.C.,  his  two  sons,  who  had  been  adopt- 
 ed into  other  families,  Fabius  and  Scipio,  honoured  his 
 memory  in  the  Roman  fashion  by  the  exhibition  of 
 funeral  ga/nes;  and  the  Adelphi  of  Terence,  the  last 
 comedy  the  poet  wrote,  was  first  presented  to  the  Ro- 
 man public  on  this  occasion.  The  fact  is  attested  by 
 the  inscription  still  prefixed  to  the  play.  ..Emilius 
 found  in  his  grateful  friend  Polybius  one  willing  and 
 able  to  commemorate,  perhaps  to  exaggerate,  his  vir- 
 tues. Fev/  Romans  have  received  so  favourable  ft 
 character  from  history.  (Encyd  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  1, 
 p.  14.3.) — II.  ^gineta,  a  medical  writer.  {Vid.  JEa\. 
 ncta.) — HI.  A  native  of  Alexandrca,  who  wrote,  A.D. 
 378,  an  Introduction  to  Astrology  {Ehayioy^  e'i(  r^v 
 'ATrnTel£(T/.iaTiKTjv),  dedicated  to  his  son  Cronammon, 
 which  has  come  down  to  us.  We  have  also  a  body 
 of  scholia  on  this  work,  composed  AD.  1151.  The 
 author  of  these  is  called,  in  one  of  the  MSS.,  by  the 
 apparently  Arabian  name  of  Apomasar.    Another  wri- 
 
 987 
 
PAU 
 
 PAUSANIAS. 
 
 tcr,  equally  unknown,  by  the  name  of  Heiiodorus,  is 
 the  author  of  a  Coinineniary  on  this  same  work,  in  53 
 chapters,  which  si  ill  remams  in  MS.  There  are  two 
 editions  of  the  work  of  Paulus  :  one  by  Schalon, 
 Wileb.,  1586,  8vo,  and  the  other  in  1588,  WiUb., 
 4to.  (SchHll,  Hint.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  47.)— IV.  Si- 
 lentiaruis,  a  poet  in  the  tmie  of  Justinian.  ( Vid.  Si- 
 lentiarius.) 
 
 Pausanias,  I.  son  of  Cleombrotus,  was  of  that  royal 
 house  in  Sparta  which  traced  its  descent  from  Eurys- 
 thenes.  Aristotle  calls  him  "  king,"  but  he  only  gov- 
 erned as  the  cousin-german  and  guardian  of  Pleistar- 
 chus,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
 Leonidas.  Pausanias  comes  principally  into  notice 
 as  commander  of  the  Grecian  army  at  the  battle  of 
 Piataea.  The  Spartan  contingent  had  been  delayed 
 as  long  as  was  possible  ;  but,  owing  to  the  represen- 
 tations made  by  the  Athenian  ministers  at  LacedaB- 
 mon,  it  was  at  last  despatched,  though  not  until  the 
 Persians  had  advanced  into  Bceolia.  This  delay,  how- 
 ever, had  one  good  effect,  that  of  taking  the  Argives 
 by  surprise,  and  defeating  their  design  of  intercepting 
 any  troops  hostile  to  Persia  which  might  march  through 
 their  territory.  The  Spartans,  under  the  command  of 
 Pausanias,  got  safe  to  the  Isthmus,  met  the  Athenians 
 at  Eleusis,  and  ultimately  took  up  that  position  which 
 led  to  the  battle  of  Piataea.  The  result  is  well  known. 
 Pausanias,  elated  by  his  success,  took  all  methods  of 
 showing  his  own  unfitness  to  enjoy  good  fortune.  Be- 
 ing sent  with  20  ships,  and  in  the  capacity  of  com- 
 mander-in-chief of  the  confederates,  to  the  coast  of 
 Asia  Minor,  he,  by  his  overbearing  conduct,  disgusted 
 the  Greeks  under  his  command,  and  particularly  those 
 Asiatic  Greeks  who  had  lately  revolted  from  the  Per- 
 sian rule.  To  his  oppression  he  added  an  affectation 
 of  Eastern  luxury  ;  and  what  we  know  of  Spartan 
 manners  seems  to  lead  to  the  conclusion,  that  no  mix- 
 ture could  possibly  be  more  repugnant  to  persons  ac- 
 customed at  once  to  Persian  elegance  and  Ionic  re- 
 finement, than  a  clumsy  imitation  of  both,  such  as  the 
 conduct  of  Pausanias  in  all  probability  presented.  Prej- 
 udice in  favour  of  the  Athenians,  who  were  of  the 
 Ionic  race,  was  also  active;  intrigues  commenced,  the 
 Athenians  encouraged  them,  and  Pausanias  was  re- 
 called. Much  criminality  was  imputed  to  him  by  those 
 Greeks  who  came  to  Sparta  from  the  seat  of  war,  and 
 his  conduct  was  clearly  more  like  the  exercise  of  ar- 
 bitrary power  than  of  regular  military  command.  He 
 was  accordingly  put  on  his  trial.  Private  and  public 
 charges  were  brought  against  him  ;  from  the  former 
 he  was  acquitted,  but  his  Medism  (or  leaning  to  Per- 
 sia) seemed  to  be  clearly  proved.  Dorcis  was  sent  in 
 his  place;  but  the  Spartan  supremacy  had  received  its 
 death-blow,  and  thenceforward  Lacedsmon  interfered 
 only  sparingly  in  the  prosecution  of  the  contest  with 
 Persia.  Pausanias,  however,  with  the  feelings  of  a 
 disappointed  man,  went  in  a  private  capacity  to  the 
 Hellespont,  on  pretence  of  joining  the  army.  After 
 the  taking  of  Byzantium,  which  happened  during  his 
 command,  he  had  winked  at  the  escape  of  certain  Per- 
 sian fugitives  of  rank,  and,  by  means  of  an  accomplice, 
 had  conveyed  a  letter  to  the  Persian  monarch,  contain- 
 ing an  offer  to  subjugate  Greece  to  his  dominion,  and 
 subjoining  the  modest  request  of  having  his  daughter 
 to  wife.  A  favourable  answer  had  elated  him  to  such 
 a  degree  as  to  disgust  the  allies  in  the  manner  already 
 stated  On  his  second  journey  he  was  forcibly  pre- 
 vented from  entering  Byzantium,  upon  which  he  re- 
 tired to  a  city  in  Troas.  There,  too,  his  conduct  was 
 unfavourably  reported  at  home,  and  a  messenger  was 
 despatched  with  orders  for  his  immediate  return,  under 
 threats  of  declaring  him  a  public  enemy-  Pausanias 
 returned,  but  it  was  still  hard  to  bring  home  any  defi- 
 nite charge  against  him,  and  the  Spartans  were  shy  of 
 adducing  any  but  the  strongest  evidence.  At  last, 
 however,  one  of  his  emissaries,  having  discovered  that 
 988 
 
 he  was,  like  all  his  predecessors,  the  bearer  of  orders 
 for  his  own  death,  as  well  as  of  his  master's  treason,  de- 
 nounced him  lo  the  ephori.  By  their  instructions,  this 
 person  took  sanctuary,  and,  through  a  partition  made 
 by  a  preconcerted  plan  in  a  hut  where  he  had  found 
 refuge,  they  had  the  opportunity  of  hearina  Pausanias 
 acknowledge  his  own  treason,  during  a  visit  which  he 
 paid  to  his  refractory  messenger.  The  ephori  proceed- 
 ed to  arrest  Pausanias;  but  a  hint  from  one  of  their 
 number  enabled  him  to  make  his  escape  to  the  temple 
 of  Minerva  of  the  "  Brazen  House,"  only,  however, 
 to  sufl'er  a  more  lingering  death.  He  was  shut  up  in 
 the  temple,  and,  when  on  the  brink  of  starvation,  was 
 brought  out  to  die  (B.C.  467).  His  mother  is  said  to 
 have  carried  the  first  stone  to  the  temple  door  for  the 
 purpose  of  immuring  him  within.  {Thucyd.,  1,  132, 
 scqq. — Encyd.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  330.) — II.  A 
 youth  of  noble  family,  at  the  court  of  Philip,  and  who 
 filled,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus,  a  post  in  the  royal 
 guards.  He  is  rendered  memorable  in  history  for  ihe 
 murder  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  father  of  Alexander  the 
 Great.  The  motive  that  impelled  him  to  the  deed 
 was,  that  he  had  suffered  an  outrage  from  Altalus,  one 
 of  the  courtiers,  for  which  Philip  had  refused  to  give 
 him  satisfaction.  [Vid.  Philippus  )  After  commit- 
 ting the  deed,  the  murderer  rushed  towards  the  gates 
 of  the  city,  where  horses  were  waiting  for  him.  He 
 was  closely  pursued  by  some  of  the  great  officers  of 
 the  royal  body-guard,  but  he  would  have  mounted  be- 
 fore they  had  overtaken  him  if  his  sandal  had  not  been 
 caught  by  the  slump  of  a  vine,  which  brought  him  to 
 the  ground.  In  the  first  heal  of  their  passion  his  pur- 
 suers despatched  him.  (Justin,  9,  6. — Diod.  Sic,  16, 
 93.) — III.  A  traveller  and  geogra[)hical  writer,  wiiose 
 native  country  has  not  been  clearly  ascertained.  He 
 is  supposed  by  some  lo  have  been  born  in  Lydia,  from 
 a  passage  in  his  own  work  (5,  13,  4.  —  Compare  the 
 remarks  of  Sieheiis,  Praf.  ad  Pausan  ,  p.  v.,  seqq), 
 and  to  have  flourished  during  the  reigns  of  Hadrian 
 and  the  Antonines  (Siebclis,  Prcef.  ad  Pausan.,  p. 
 viii.)  He  travelled  in  Greece,  Macedonia,  Asia,  Egypt, 
 and  even  in  Africa  as  far  as  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Am- 
 mon.  After  this  he  appears  to  have  taken  up  his  res- 
 idence at  Rome,  and  to  have  there  published  his  Trav- 
 efs  through  Greece  ('EAAac^of  Trepir/yriaic),  in  ten  books. 
 It  is  an  important  work  for  antiquities  and  archaeology, 
 combining  with  a  description  of  public  edifices  and 
 works  of  art,  the  historical  records  and  the  legends 
 connected  with  them.  Hence  the  researches  into 
 which  this  mode  of  handling  the  subject  has  led  him, 
 and  the  discussions  on  which  he  enters,  serve  not  only 
 to  throw  light  upon  the  Grecian  mythology,  but  also 
 to  clear  up  many  obscure  points  of  ancient  history. 
 Pausanias  displays  judgment  and  erudition  :  occasion- 
 ally, however,  he  falls  into  errors.  He  describes, 
 moreover,  many  things  too  much  in  the  style  of  a  trav- 
 eller who  has  not  had  sufficient  leisure  to  e'xamine  ev- 
 ery object  with  attention  ;  and  he  describes  things,  too, 
 on  the  supposition  that  Greece  would  always  remain 
 nearly  in  the  same  state  in  which  he  himself  saw  it. 
 In  consequence  of  this,  he  is  satisfied  oftentimes  with 
 merely  indicating  objects  ;  and,  even  when  he  gives 
 an  account  of  them,  he  does  it  in  a  manner  that  is 
 very  concise,  and  sometimes  actually  obscure.  (Com- 
 pare Heyne,  Antiq.  Aufs.,\o\.  1,  p.  11. — Manso,  Vcr- 
 sur.hcn,  6lc.,  p.  377. — Hcinst.  ad  Lucian,  vol  1,  p.  4, 
 ed.  Amst. —  Valck.  ad  Herodot.,  7,  50. — Siebc/is,  Pnvf. 
 ad  Pausan,  p.  xix.) — In  respect  of  style,  Pausanias 
 cannot  be  cited  as  a  model.  His  own,  which  is  a  bad 
 imitation  of  that  of  Herodotus,  offends  frequently  by 
 an  affectation  of  conciseness. — In  ihe  first  book  ot  his 
 work  Pausanias  describes  Attica  and  Megaris  ;  in  the 
 second,  Corinth,  Sicyonia,  the  territory  of  Phlius.  and 
 Argolis ;  in  the  third,  Laconia  ;  in  the  fourth,  Mes- 
 senia  ;  in  the  fifth  and  sixth,  Elis  ;  in  the  seventh, 
 Achaia ;  in  the  eighth,  Arcadia  ;  in  the  ninth,  Boeolia ; 
 
PAU 
 
 PEG 
 
 and  in  the  tenth,  Phocis. — The  best  edition  of  Pausan- 
 ias  is  that  of  Siebehs,  Lips.,  1822-28,  5  vols.  8vo. 
 A  new  edition  has  recently  appeared,  by  Schubart  and 
 Waiz,  Lip.i.,  1838-40,  3  vols.  Svo.  {SchuU,  Hist. 
 Lit.  (Jr.,  vol.  5,  p.  307.)  —  IV.  A  grammarian,  a  na- 
 tive of  (Jaesarea  ad  Argasum,  in  Cappadocia.  He  is 
 often  confounded  with  the  precedmg.  {Fhilostr.,  Vit. 
 Hufthixt.,  2,  13.  —  Siebelis,  Free/,  ad  Pausdn.,  p.  iv., 
 
 SCtj'l  ) 
 
 1'ausi*s,  a  painter  of  Siryon,  contemporary  with 
 Apelies.  After  he  had  learned  the  rudiments  of  his 
 an  Irom  his  father  Brietes,  he  studied  encaustic  in  the 
 school  of  Pamphilus,  where  he  was  the  fellow-pupil  of 
 Apelies  and  Melanthius.  Pausias  was  the  first  painter 
 who  acquired  a  great  name  for  encaustic  with  the  ces- 
 tiutn.  He  excelled  particularly  in  tlie  management  of 
 the  shadows  ;  his  favourite  subjects  were  small  pic- 
 tures, generally  of  boys,  but  he  also  painted  large  com- 
 positions. He  was  the  first  who  introduced  the  cus- 
 tom of  painting  the  ceilings  and  walls  of  private  apart- 
 ments with  historical  and  dramatic  subjects.  'I'he 
 practice,  however,  of  decorating  ceilings  simply  with 
 stars  or  arabesque  figures  (particularly  those  of  tem- 
 ples) was  of  very  old  dale.  Pausias  undertook  the 
 restoration  of  the  paintings  of  Polygnotus  ai  Thespiee, 
 which  had  been  greatly  injured  by  the  hand  of  time  ; 
 but  he  was  judged  inferior  to  his  ancient  predecessor, 
 for  he  contended  with  weapons  not  his  own  ;  he  gen- 
 erally worked  with  the  cestrum,  whereas  the  paintings 
 of  Polygnotus  were  with  the  pencil,  which  Pausias, 
 consequently,  also  used  in  this  instance.  The  most 
 famous  work  of  his  was  the  sacrifice  of  an  ox,  which 
 in  the  time  of  Pliny  was  in  the  hall  of  Pompey.  In 
 this  picture  the  ox  was  foreshortened  ;  but,  to  show 
 the  animal  to  full  advantage,  the  painter  judiciously 
 threw  his  shadow  upon  a  part  of  the  surrounding  crowd, 
 and  he  added  to  the  effect  by  painting  a  dark  ox  upon 
 a  light  ground.  Pausias,  in  his  youth,  loved  a  native  of 
 his  own  city  named  Glycera,  who  earned  her  living  by 
 making  garlands  of  flowers  and  wreaths  of  roses,  which 
 led  him  into  competition  with  her,  and  he  eventually 
 acquired  great  skill  in  flower-painting.  A  portrait  of 
 Glycera,  with  a  garland  of  flowers,  was  reckoned  among 
 his  master-pieces;  a  copy  of  it  was  purchased  by  Lu- 
 cullus  at  Athens  at  the  great  price  of  two  talents  (near- 
 ly f220(l).  Pausias  was  reproached  by  his  rivals  for 
 being  a  slow  painter  ;  but  he  silenced  the  censure  by 
 completing  a  picture  of  a  boy,  in  his  own  style,  in  a 
 single  (lay,  which  on  that  account  was  called  the 
 " //fwtrtszws"  {'Hfiepr/aioc),  or  the  work  "  of  a  single 
 day."  {Plt?i.,  35,  1 1,  40  —StUig,  Did.  Art.,  s.  v.— 
 Junius,  Catal.,  s.  v. — Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p. 
 331  )  At  a  later  period,  the  Sicyonians  were  obliged 
 to  part  with  the  pictures  which  they  possessed  of  this 
 distinguished  artist,  to  deliver  themselves  from  a 
 heavy  debt.  Tiiey  were  purchased  by  M.  Scaurus 
 when  Kdile,  and  were  brought  to  Rome  to  adorn  the 
 new  theatre  which  he  had  erected.     {Piin.,  21,  2.) 
 
 Paiisiuyi'us.  a  celebrated  mountain  and  grotto  near 
 the  chy  of  Naples.  Ii  took  its  name  from  a  villa  of 
 Vcdius  Pollio,  erected  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and 
 called  Pausilypum,  frotn  the  etiect  which  its  beauty 
 was  siippot^ed  to  produce  in  suspending  sorrow  and  anx- 
 iety {TTavai-jv  Xvnrjv,  "  about  to  make  care  cease"). 
 This  mountain  is  said  to  be  beautiful  in  the  extreme, 
 and  justly  to  merit  the  name  bestowed  upon  it.  The 
 grotto  IS  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  and  is  made  through 
 the  mountain  20  feet  in  breadth,  and  30  in  height.  On 
 the  mountain,  Vedius  Pollio  had  not  only  a  villa,  but 
 also  a  reservoir  or  pond,  in  which  he  kept  a  number  of 
 lampreys,  to  which  he  used  to  throw  such  slaves  as  had 
 committed  a  fault.  When  he  died,  he  bequeathed, 
 among  other  parts  of  his  possessions,  his  villa  to  Au- 
 gustus :  but  this  monarch,  abhorring  a  house  where  so 
 many  ill-fated  creatures  had  lost  their  lives  for  very 
 Blight  faults,  caused  it  to  be  demolished,  and  the  finest 
 
 materials  in  it  to  be  brought  to  Rome,  and  with  them 
 raised  Julia's  portico.  Virgil's  tomb  is  said  to  be 
 above  the  entrance  of  the  grotto  of  Pausilypus.  Clu- 
 verius  and  Addi.son,  however,  deny  this  to  be  the  tomb 
 of  the  poet.  ( Vid.  Virgilius,  where  an  account  of  this 
 sepulchre  is  given.) 
 
 Paxos,  a  small  island  southeast  of  Corcyra,  now 
 Paxo.  It  is  one  of  the  seven  Ionian  islands.  {PHn., 
 4,  12.)  The  distance  from  Corcyra  is  about  six  miles. 
 No  fresh  spring-water  has  been  discovered  on  it ;  the 
 land  does  not  yield  much  corn  or  pasture,  but  is  fruit- 
 ful in  oil  and  wine.  It  is  peopled  by  six  or  seven  thou 
 sand  inhabitants.  {Malte-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  p.  173 
 — PouQucville,  Voyage  de  la  Grice,  vol.  2,  p.  14.5.) 
 
 Pedasus,  I.  the  mortal  one  of  the  three  steeds  ol 
 Achilles,  and  which  that  hero  obtained  when  he  sacked 
 the  city  of  Eetion.  (//.,  16,  153.)  He  died  of  a 
 wound  received  from  Sarpedon,  in  the  contest  between 
 the  latter  and  Patroclus.  {11.,  16,  467,  scqq.) — II.  A 
 town  of  the  Leleges  in  Troas,  on  the  river  Satnioeis. 
 (//.,  21,  86.)  Tlie  situation  of  this  Homeric  town  re- 
 mains undefined.  It  appears  from  Pliny,  that  some 
 authors  identified  it  with  Adramyttium.  {PHn.,  5,  32.) 
 —  Ill  More  commonly  Pcdasum  or  Pedasa,  a  city  of 
 the  Leleges  in  Carta,  and  the  capital  of  a  district  winch 
 included  no  less  than  eight  cities  within  its  limits.  It 
 was  situated  above  Halicarnassus,  towards  the  east, 
 and  not  far  from  Stratonicea,  and  the  site  corresponds 
 probably  to  the  modern  Pcitchm.  {Slrab.,  611.)  He- 
 rodotus also  notices  Pedasa,  on  account  of  a  strange 
 phenomenon  which  was  stated  to  occur  there.  When- 
 ever the  inhabitants  were  threatened  with  any  calamity, 
 the  chin  of  the  priestess  of  Minerva  became  furnished 
 with  a  beard  :  this  prodigy  was  reported  to  have  happen- 
 ed three  times.  {Herod.,  1,  175. — Com\mTe  Artstot., 
 Hist.  An.,  3,  11.)  —  IV.  The  Homeric  name,  accord- 
 ing to  some,  for  Methone,  in  Messenia.     (//.,  9,  294.) 
 
 Pedo  Albinovanus.      Vid.  Albinovanus  II. 
 
 Pkdum,  an  ancient  town  of  Latium,  often  named  in 
 the  early  wars  of  Rome,  and  which  must  be  placed  in 
 the  vicinity  of  Prxneste.  The  modern  site  of  Zagarolo 
 seems  best  to  answer  to  the  data  which  are  supplied 
 by  Livy  resjiecting  its  position.  For,  according  to 
 tliis  historian  (8,  11),  Pedum  was  situate  between  Ti- 
 bur,  Proeneste,  Bola,  and  Labicum.  {Nibby,  Viag. 
 Antiq  ,  vol.  1,  p.  261  )  It  was  taken  by  storm,  and 
 destroyed  by  Camillus.  {Liv  ,  8,  13.)  Horace  men- 
 tions the  Regio  Pedana  in  one  of  Ins  epistles  (1,  4. — 
 Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  74.) 
 
 Pegasides,  a  name  given  to  the  Muses  from  the 
 fountain  Hi[>pocrene,  which  the  winged  steed  Pegasus 
 is  said  to  have  produced  with  a  blow  of  his  hoof. 
 {Propert.,  3,  1,  \9.  —  0vid,  Heroid.,  15,  27. —  Colu- 
 mella, 10,  273.) 
 
 Pegasus,  a  winged  steed,  the  offspring  of  Neptune 
 and  Medusa,  and  which  sprang  forth  from  the  neck  of 
 the  latter  after  her  head  had  been  severed  by  Pers- 
 eus. {Apollod..  2,  4.  2 — Tzetz.  ad  Lycophr.,  17.) 
 Hesiod  says  he  was  called  Pegasus  {Ilrjyaaog)  because 
 born  near  the  sources  {rrrj-yai)  of  Ocean.  {T/uog., 
 282.)  As  soon  as  he  was  born  he  flew  upward,  and 
 fixed  his  abode  on  Mount  Helicon,  where  with  a  blow 
 of  his  hoof  he  produced  the  fountain  Hippiocrene. 
 (Ovid,  Mel.,  5,  2.56,  sei/q.)  He  used,  however,  to 
 come  and  drink  occasionally  at  the  fountain  of  Pirene, 
 on  the  Acrocorinthus,  and  it  was  here  that  Bellerophon 
 caught  him  preparatory  to  his  enterprise  against  the 
 Chimera.  After  throwing  oflT  Bellerophon  when  the 
 latter  wished  to  fly  to  the  heavens,  Pegasus  directeii 
 his  course  to  the  skies,  and  was  made  a  constellation 
 by  Jupiter.  (Consult  remarks  under  the  article  Beller- 
 ophon.) Pegasus  was  the  favourite  of  the  Muses, 
 who  derived  from  him,  among  the  poets,  the  apjjella- 
 tion  of  "  Parasules.''  The  fountain  of  Hippocrene  i8 
 likewise  called  from  him  "  Pegasidcs  vndtr."  or  "  Pe- 
 easts  unda."     iTtelz.  ad  Lycophr.,  I.  c. — Apollod., 
 
 98y 
 
PEL 
 
 PEL 
 
 I  c.  —  Ovid,  Met.,  4,  785.  — Hygin.,  fah.,  57.— Van 
 Slaveren,  ad  Hygin.,  I.  c.) — "The  horse,"'  observes 
 Knight,  "  was  sacred  to  Neptune  and  the  rivers ;  and 
 employed  as  a  general  symbol  of  the  waters,  on  account 
 of  a  supposed  affinity,  which  we  do  not  find  that  mod- 
 ern naturalists  have  observed.  Hence  came  the  com- 
 position, so  frequent  on  the  Carthaginian  coins,  of  the 
 iiorse  with  tiic  asterisk  of  the  sun,  or  the  winged  disk 
 and  hooded  snakes,  over  his  back  ;  and  also  the  use 
 made  of  hun  as  an  emblematical  device  on  the  medals 
 of  many  Greek  cities.  In  some  instances  the  body  of 
 the  animal  terminates  in  plumes  ;  and  in  others  has 
 »nly  wings,  so  as  to  form  the  Pegasus,  fabled  by  the 
 later  Greek  poets  to  have  been  ridden  by  Bellerophon, 
 but  only  known  to  the  ancient  theogonists  as  the  bear- 
 er of  Aurora,  and  of  the  thunder  and  lightning  to  Jupi- 
 ter, an  allegory  of  which  the  meaning  is  obvious." 
 {Inquiry  into  the  Symb.  Laiig  ,  &c  ,  <)  111.  —  Class. 
 Journ.,  vol.  25,  p.  3t,) — As  regards  the  constellation 
 Pegasus,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  Greek  astrono- 
 mers always  give  it  the  simple  apjicllation  of  "  the 
 Horse'^  {'Itzttoc).  The  name  ni/jaaog  first  comes  in 
 among  the  later  mythological  poets.  It  does  not  even 
 occur  m  Aratus  ;  the  poet  merely  remarking  that  this 
 is  supposed  to  be  the  same  horse  whose  hoof  produced 
 the  fountain  Hippocrene.  (Aral.,  Fhxn.,  219.)  Era- 
 tosthenes, however,  says  (c.  18)  that  this  is  the  steed, 
 as  some  think,  which,  after  Uellero[)hon  had  been 
 thrown  from  it,  flew  upward  to  Uie  stars.  The  opin- 
 ion, however,  is,  according  to  him,  an  erroneous  one, 
 since  the  steed  in  the  heavens  has  no  wings.  It  would 
 appear,  therefore,  from  this  remark  of  Eratosthenes, 
 that  the  custom  of  representing  Pegasus  with  wings 
 came  in  at  a  later  period.  They  are  added  in  Ptolemy. 
 The  Romans,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  call  the  con- 
 stellation simply  Equus.  for  which  the  poets  substi- 
 tute Sonipes,  Sonvpcs  ales,  Cornipes,  and  other  simi- 
 lar expressions.  The  name  Pegasus  appears  to  occur 
 only  in  Germanicus  (v.  221,  282).  Ovid  has  Equus 
 Gorgoneus,  in  allusion  to  the  fabled  birth  of  the  steed. 
 [Fast.,  3,  450. — Idcler,  Slernnamen,  p.  115.) 
 
 Pklagoni.4,  I.  a  district  of  Macedonia  bordering  on 
 Ulyria.  The  Pelagones,  though  not  mentioned  by  Ho- 
 mer as  a  distinct  people,  were  probably  known  to  him, 
 from  his  naming  Pelagon,  the  father  of  Asteropseus, 
 a.  Pseonian  warrior.  (Compare  Strabo,  331.)  They 
 must  at  one  time  have  been  widely  spread  over  the 
 north  of  Greece,  since  a  district  of  Upper  Thessaly 
 bore  the  name  of  Pelagonia  Tripolitis,  and  it  is  inge- 
 niously conjectured  by  Gatterer,  in  his  learned  com- 
 mentary on  ancient  Thrace  {Com.  Soc.  Gott.,  vol.  6, 
 p.  67),  that  these  were  a  remnant  of  the  remote  expe- 
 dition of  the  Teucri  and  Mysi,  the  progenitors  of  the 
 Pceonians,  who  came  from  Asia  Minor,  and  conquered 
 the  whole  of  the  country  between  the  Strymon  and 
 Peneus.  {Herod.,  7,  20.  — S^raA.,  327.)  Frequent 
 allusion  is  made  to  Pelagonia  by  Livy,  in  his  account 
 of  the  wars  between  the  llomans  and  the  kings  of  Mace- 
 don.  It  was  exposed  to  invasion  from  the  Uardani, 
 who  bordered  on  its  northern  frontiers  ;  for  which  rea- 
 son, the  communication  between  the  two  countries  was 
 carefully  guwded  by  the  Macedonian  monarchs.  ( Liv., 
 31,  28.)  This  pass  led  over  the  chain  of  Mount  Scar- 
 dus.  An  account  of  it  is  given  in  Brown's  Travels, 
 p.  45.  {Cramer\i  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  269.)  —  II. 
 Civitas,  a  city  of  Pelagonia,  the  capital  of  the  fourth 
 division  of  Roman  Macedonia.  {Liv.,  45,  29.)  Little 
 is  known  of  it.  Its  existence  at  a  late  period  appears 
 from  the  Synecdemusof  Hieroclcs,  and  the  Byzantine 
 historian  Malchus,  who  speaks  of  the  strength  of  its 
 citadel.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  270.) — III. 
 Tripolitis  or  Tripolis,  a  district  of  Thessaly,  around 
 the  upper  part  of  the  course  of  the  river  Titaresius.  It 
 was  called  Tripolitis  from  the  circumstance  of  its  con- 
 taining three  principal  towns  ;  which,  as  Livy  informs 
 ns  (42, 53),  were  Azorus,  Doliche,  and  Pythium.  This 
 990 
 
 district  was  connected  with  Macedonia  by  a  narrow 
 defile  over  the  Cambunian  inouiitaiiis.  Livy  describes 
 this  same  canton  in  one  part  of  his  history  under  the 
 name  of  Ager  Tripoliianus  (36,  10. —  Crainer^i:  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p   365). 
 
 Pelasgi  (fIf/laCTyoi),  were  the  most  ancient  inhabi- 
 tants of  Greece,  as  far  as  the  knowledge  of  the  Greeks 
 themselves  extended.  A  dynasty  of  Pelasgic  chiefs 
 existed  in  Greece  before  any  other  dynasty  is  mention- 
 ed in  Greek  traditions.  Danaus  is  in  the  ninth,  Deu- 
 calion in  the  eighth,  and  Cadmus  in  the  seventh  gener- 
 ation before  the  Trojan  war ;  but  Phoroneus,  the  Pe- 
 lasgian,  is  in  the  eighteenth  generation  before  that 
 epoch.  The  Greek  traditions  represent  the  Pelasgic 
 race  as  spread  most  widely  over  almost  all  pans  of 
 Greece  and  the  islands  of  the  ^^gean.  The  whole 
 of  Hellas,  according  to  Herodotus  (2,  56),  was  origi- 
 nally called  Pelasgia  ;  and  .iEschylus  {Suppl.,  250) 
 introduces  Pclasgus,  king  of  Argos,  as  claiming  for 
 the  people  named  after  him  all  the  country  through 
 which  the  Algus  flows,  and  to  the  west  of  the  Strymon. 
 We  find  mention  of  the  Pelasgi  in  the  Peloponne- 
 sus, Thrace,  Thesprotia,  Attica,  Bceotia,  and  Phocis. 
 {Strab.,  32\.— Herod.,  8,  44.)  The  oracles  of  Dodo- 
 na  and  Delphi  were  originally  Pelasgic  {Slrab.,  402. — 
 Herod.,  2,  52),  and  Clinton  (i^a«/.  Hell.,  vol.  1,  p.  22) 
 and  Niebuhr  {Knm.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  27)  have  adduced 
 reasons  for  believing  that  the  Macedonians  were  also  a 
 Pelasgic  race.  We  likewise  find  traces  of  the  Pelas- 
 gi in  many  of  the  islands  of  the  .^Egean  Sea,  as  Lein- 
 iios,  Imbros,  Lesbos,  Chios,  &c.  {Strab.,  621),  and 
 Herodotus  informs  us  (7,  95),  that  the  islands  were 
 inhabited  by  the  Pelasgic  race  till  they  were  subdued 
 by  the  lonians.  The  neighbouring  coast  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor was  also  inhabited  in  many  parts  by  the  Pelasgi. 
 {Strab.,  621.)  The  country  afterward  called  ^Eolis 
 was  occupied  by  Pelasgians  {Herod  ,  7,  95),  and  hence 
 Antandros  was  called  Pelasgic  in  the  time  of  Herodo- 
 tus (7,  42).  Tralles  in  Caria  was  a  Pelasgic  town 
 {Niebuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  33),  and  two  of  their 
 towns  on  the  Hellespont  were  still  extant  in  the  time 
 of  Herodotus  (1,  57).  The  preceding  authorities  are 
 sufficient  to  show  the  wide  diffusion  of  the  Pelasgic 
 race  ;  but  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  determine  from 
 what  quarter  they  originally  came.  Many  modern 
 writers  conclude,  from  our  knowledge  of  the  origi- 
 nal seats  of  the  human  race,  that  the  Pelasgians  spread 
 themselves  from  Asia  into  Europe,  across  the  Helles- 
 pont, and  around  the  northern  shores  of  the  JEgcan 
 Sea.  {Maiden,  Hist,  of  Rome,  p.  69. — Marsh,  Horee 
 Pelasgica,  c  1.)  This,  no  doubt,  is  the  true  opinion, 
 though  it  is  opposed  to  many  Greek  traditions,  which 
 represent  the  Peloponnesus  as  the  original  seat  of  the 
 Pelasgians,  whence  they  spread  to  Thessaly,  and  thence 
 to  the  islands  of  the  .^gean  and  the  Asiatic  coast. — 
 The  Pelasgi  were  also  widely  spread  over  the  south  of 
 Italy  ;  and  the  places  in  which  they  appear  to  have 
 been  settled  are  indicated  by  Maiden  {Rom.  Hist.,  p. 
 72,  seqq.)  and  Niebuhr  {Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  25, 
 seqq.).  There  seems  no  reason  for  rejecting,  as  some 
 modern  writers  have  done,  the  account  of  Dionysius, 
 that  the  Pelasgi  emigrated  from  Greece  to  Italy.  —  In 
 some  parts  of  Greece,  the  Pelasgians  remained  in  pos- 
 session of  the  country  to  the  latest  times.  The  .Arca- 
 dians were  always  considered  by  the  Greeks  themselves 
 as  pure  Pelasgians,  and  a  Pelasgian  dynasty  reigned 
 in  Arcadia  until  the  second  Messenian  war.  {Herud., 
 1,  146.— 7rf.,  2,  171.— /(/.,  8,  73.)  According  to  He- 
 rodotus (8,  44  ;  1,  57),  the  Athenians  were  a  Pelas- 
 gic race,  which  had  settled  in  Attica  from  the  earliest 
 times,  and  had  undergone  no  change  except  by  receiv- 
 ing a  new  name  and  adopting  a  new  language.  In 
 most  parts  of  Greece,  however,  the  Pelasgic  race  be- 
 came intermingled  with  the  Hellenic  ;  but  the  Pelasgi 
 probably  at  all  times  formed  the  principal  part  of  the 
 population  of  Greece.     The  Hellenes  excelled  the  Pe- 
 
PELASGI. 
 
 PELASGI. 
 
 !asgi  in  military  prowess  and  a  spirit  of  enterprise,  and 
 were  thus  enabled,  in  some  cases,  to  expel  the  Peias- 
 gi  from  the   country,    though    the  Hellenes  generally 
 settled  among  the  Pelasgi  as  a  conquermg  people. — 
 The  connexion  between  the  Pelasgic  and  Hellenic  races 
 has  been  a  subject  of  much  controversy  among  modern 
 writers.     Many  critics  have  maintained  that  they  be- 
 longed to  entirely  ditl'erent  races,  and  some  have  been 
 disposed  to  attribute  to  the  Pelasgians  an  Etrurian  or 
 Phoenician  origin.     It  is  true  that  many  of  the  Greek 
 writers  speak  of  the  Pelasgians  and  their  language  as 
 barbarous,  that  is,  not  Hellenic;   and  Herodotus  (1, 
 57)  infoims  us,  that  the  Pelasgian  language  was  spo- 
 ken in  his  time  at  Placia  and  Scylace  on  the  Helles- 
 pont.    This  language  he  describes  as  barbarous  ;   and 
 on  this  fact  he  mainly  grounds  his  general  argument  as 
 to  the  ancient  Pelasgian  tongue.     It  may,  however,  be 
 remarked,  that  it  appears  exceedingly  improbable,  if 
 the  Pelasgic  and  Hellenic  languages  had  none  or  a 
 very  slight  relation  to  each  other,  that  the  two  tongues 
 should   have   so  readily  amalgamated   in  all  parts   of 
 Greece,  and  still  more  strange  that  the  Athenians  and 
 Arcadians,  who  are  admitted  to  have  been  of  pure  Pe- 
 lasgic origin,  should  have  lost  their  original  language 
 and  learned  the  pure  Hellenic  tongue.     In  addition  to 
 which,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  we  scarcely  ever  read 
 of  any  nation  entirely  losing  its   own   language  and 
 adopting  that  of  its  conquerors.     Though  the  Persians 
 have  received  many  new  words  into  their  language  from 
 their  Arab  masters,  yet  twelve  centuries  of  Arsib  dom- 
 ination have  not  been  sufficient  to  change,  in  any  es- 
 sential particular,  the  grammatical  forms  and  general 
 structure  of  the  ancient  Persian;   and,  notwithstanding 
 all  the  efforts  that  were  used  by  the  Norman  conquer- 
 ors to  bring  the  French  language  into  general  use  in 
 England,  the  Saxon  remains  to  the  present  day  the 
 mam  element  of  the  English  language.     It  is  there- 
 fore reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Pelasgic  and  Hel- 
 lenic tongues  were  different  dialects  of  a  common  lan- 
 guage, which  formed  by  their  union  the  Greek  language 
 of  later  times. — The  ancient  writers  differ  as  much  re- 
 specting the  degree  of  civilization  to  which  the  Pelas- 
 gi attained  before  they  became  an  Hellenic  people,  as 
 they  do  respecting  their  original  language.      Accord- 
 mg  to  some  ancient  writers,  they  were  little  better  than 
 a  race  of  savages  till  conquered  and  civilized  by  the 
 Hellenes  ;  but  others  represent  them,  and  perhaps  more 
 correctly,  as  having  attained  to  a  considerable  degree 
 of   civilization   previous    to    the    Hellenic    conquest. 
 Many  traditions  represent  the  Pelasgians  as  cultivating 
 agriculture  and  the  useful  arts.     Pelasgus  in  Arcadia, 
 said  the  tradition,  taught  men  to  bake  bread.    {Pausan., 
 I,  14,  1.)     The  ancient  Pelasgic  Buzyges  yoked  bulls 
 to  the  plough  {Ehjm.  Mag.,  s.  v.  Boi\vyi^r);  Pelas- 
 gians invented  the  goad  for  the  purpose  of  driving  an- 
 imals (E/ym.  Mag.,  s.  v.  uKaiva.  —  Bekker,  Anccd. 
 Gr.,  8.57) ;    and   a    (Pelasgic)  Thessalian    in    Egypt 
 taught  the  art  of  measuring  land  (Ettjin.  Mag.,  ubi 
 sup.). — It  is  a  curious  fact,  which  has  been  noticed  by 
 Mr.  Maiden  {Hist,  of  Rome,  p.  70),  that  the  Grecian 
 race  which   made  the  most  early  and    the  most  rapid 
 progress   in  civilization  and   intellectual  attainments, 
 was  one  in  which  the  Pelasgian  blood  was  least  adul- 
 terated by  foreign  mixture,  namely,  the  lonians  of  At- 
 tica and  of  the  settlements  in  Asia  ;  and  that  we  prob- 
 ai)ly  owe  to  the  Pelasgic  element  in  the  population  of 
 Greece  all  that  distinguishes  the  Greeks  in  the  history 
 of  the  human  mind.     Tlie  Dorians,  who  were  the  most 
 strictly  Hellenic,  long  disdained  to  apply  themselves  to 
 literature  or  the  fine  arts.  — Some  writers  have  main- 
 tained, that  the  Greeks  derived  the  art  of  writing  and 
 most  of  their  religious  rites  from  the  Pelasgians  ;   but, 
 without  entering  into  these  questions,  it  may  be  as- 
 serted, with  some  degree  of  certainty,  that  the  most 
 ancient  architectural  monuments  in  Europe  clearly  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  the  work  of  their  hands.    The  struc- 
 
 tures in  Greece,  Italy,  and  along  the  western  coast  of 
 Asia  Minor,  usually  called  Cyclopean,  because,  accord- 
 ing to  the  Greek  legends,  the  Cyclopes  built  the  walls 
 of  Tiryns  and  Mycenaj,  may  properly  be  assigned  to  a 
 Pelasgic  origin.     All  these  structures  are  character- 
 ized by  the  immense  size  of  the  stones  with  which  they 
 are  built.     The  most  extraordinary  of  them  all  is  the 
 treasury,  or,  as  others  call  it,  the  tomb  of  Alreus  at 
 Mycenae.  —  It  remains  but  to  add  a  few  remarks  re- 
 specting the  name  of  this  race.     The  most  ancient 
 form  of  the  name  was  UeTiapyoi,  and  Mr.  Thirlwall 
 rather  fancifully  supposes  that  the  appellation  was  de- 
 rived from  (ip)  Of  and  tteAw,  and  thai  it  signified  "  in- 
 habitants" or  "  cultivators  of  the  plain."    I'he  analogy, 
 however,  of  aiiroTiog,  ruvjWKo'kog,  &c.,  seems,  as  Mr. 
 Thirlwall  himself  confesses,  unfavourable  to  this  ety- 
 mology.    {Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  59.)     There  is 
 also  another  objection.     Such  a  derivation  of  the  name 
 makes  the  Pelasgians  to  have  been  solely  addicted  to 
 ao-ricultural  pursuits,  a  statement  which  is  not  borne 
 out  by  facts.     We  are  told,  it  is  true,  thai  they  loved 
 to  settle  on  the  rich  soil  of  alluvial  plains.     The  pow- 
 ers, too,  that  preside  over  husbandry,  and  protect  the 
 fruits  of  the  earth  and  the  growth  of  the  flocks,  appear 
 to  have  been  the  eldest  Pelasgian  divinities  ;  but  this 
 is  taking  too  narrow  a  view  of  the  subject.     Even  if  it 
 were  not  highly  probable   that  a  part  of  the  nation 
 crossed  the  sea  to  reach  the  shores  of  Greece,  and 
 thus  brought  with  them  the  rudiments  of  the  arts  con- 
 nected with  navigation,  it  would  be  incredible  that  the 
 tribes  settled  on  the  coast  should  not  soon  have  ac- 
 quired them.     Accordingly,  the  islands  of  the  iEgean 
 are  peopled  by  Pelasgians,  the  piracies  of  the  Leleges 
 precede  the  rise  of  the  first  maritime  power  among  tho 
 Greeks,  and  the  Tyrseman  Pelasgians  are  found  infest- 
 ing the  seas  after  the  fall  of  Troy.    {ThirlwaWs  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  60.)— Mr.  Kenrick,  in  a  very  ingenious  paper 
 "  On   the  names  of  the   Antehellenic   inhabitants  of 
 Greece"  {Philol.  Museum,  vol.  1,  p.  609,  seqq.),  main- 
 tains, that  the  name  Pelargi  {Tle'kapyoi)  was  given  to 
 the  race  on  account  of  their  rudeness  of  speech,  which 
 sounded  "  to  the  exquisite  fineness  of  the  Hellenic  ear" 
 like  the  cry  of  the  stork  (TreXapyof).     Hence  the  peo 
 pie  who  spoke  thus  were  called  U.e7Mpyo'i  or  storks. 
 And  he  seeks  to  confirm  this  etymology  by  endeav- 
 ouring to  show  that,  "among  birds,  the  stork  laboured 
 under  the   heaviest   charge  of  defective   elocution  ;" 
 that  he  was  held  to  have  no  tongue  at  all;  that,  as 
 being  uy'Xuaaoq,  he  was  especially  adapted  to  repre- 
 sent a  people  of  barbarous  speech  ;   and  that  we  find, 
 in  the  lime  of  Homer,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Thracian 
 side  of  the  Hellespont  called   Ki/covef,  a  name  which 
 appears  to  be  closely  analogous  lo  the  Latin  Ciconia. 
 This   etymology,  however,  proves    too  much.     It   is 
 based  on  the  supposition  that  there  was  a  radical  dif- 
 ference between  the  Pelasgic  and  Hellenic  forms  of 
 speech,  which,  from  what  has  already  been  premised, 
 could  not  possibly  have  been  the  case.     This  same 
 derivation  of  the   name  from   that  of  ireTiapydr,   "  a 
 stork,"  appears  also  among  the  Greek  writers,  but  there 
 the  explanation  is  founded  on  the  erroneous  idea  that 
 the  Pelasgi  were  a  roaming  race.     Myrsihis  of  Lesbos 
 related,  according  to  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  that 
 the  Tyrrhenians,  flying   from  public  calamities  with 
 which  they  were  chastised  by  heaven,  because  among 
 other  tithes  they  had  not  offered  that  of  their  children, 
 had  quilted  their  home,  and  had  long  roamed  about  be- 
 fore they  again  acquired  a  fixed  abode  ;  and  that,  as 
 they  were  seen  thus   going  forth  and    returning,   ihe 
 name  of  Pelargi,  or  storks,  was  given  to  them  !     {Dioi. 
 Hal.,  1,  23.)     This  etymology  is  about  as  valuable  as 
 the  one  which  deduces  Pelasgus  from  Pelcg,  or  Graiua 
 from  Reu.    Nor  is  that  derivation  much  superior  which 
 traces  Pelasgus  to  naayoc,  "the  sea,"  and  makes  the 
 name  refer  to  the  maritime  habits  of  the  race.     It  is 
 sanctioned,   indeed,    by    the   authority    of   Hermann 
 
 991 
 
PEL 
 
 PEL 
 
 (Optisc,  vol.  2,  p.  174),  but  it  offends  grievously 
 against  analogy  {Lobcck,  ad  Phryn.,  p.  109)  ;  and  if 
 it  be  applicable  to  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgians  of  later 
 times.  It  certainly  is  not  so  to  the  original  Pelasgians 
 of  Dodona  or  'I'hessaly.  Perhaps  the  peculiar  style  of 
 building  ascribed  to  the  Pelasgic  race  may  furnish  lis 
 vviih  an  etymology  for  their  name,  equal,  at  least  in 
 point  of  plausibility,  to  any  of  those  which  have  thus 
 far  been  enumerated.  The  term  Pclargi  may  mean 
 ^'  slone-bidldcrs''''  or  "stone-workers"  as  indicating  a 
 race  whose  massive  style  of  architecture  may  have  ex- 
 cited the  wonder  of  the  early  Greeks,  and  have  given 
 rise  to  a  species  of  national  appellation.  Thus,  in  the 
 Macedonian  dialect,  T^eXa  signified  "  a  stone'''  (rug 
 nika^,  Tov<:  ?Adovc,  Kara  ttjv  'iAaKtdovuv  (puv^v. — 
 U/pian,  ad  Dcmosth.,  dc  fals.  leg.,  p.  376,  B.,  cd. 
 Franco/.,  1604.  —  Compare  Ruhnken,  ad  Tim.  Lex, 
 p,  270),  and  apyov  (or  Fupyov)  is  an  earlier  form  for 
 epyov.  {Bockh,  Corp.  Inscript,  fasc  ,  1,  p.  29,  83.) 
 The  two  old  forms,  then,  rr^Aa  ("a  stone''')  and  upyov 
 {"work''),  may  perhaps  have  produced,  by  their  com- 
 bination, the  name  of  IleXapyoL  {E7icycl.  Us.  KnowL, 
 vol.  17,  p  377,  seqq. — Clinion,  Fast.  Hell,  vol.  1,  p. 
 1,  seqq. — Curltus,  de  Aniiquis  Italia  incolis,  t)  6,  seqq. 
 
 —  Kruse,  Hellas,  vol.  1,  p.  404,  seqq.  —  ThirlwaWs 
 Greece,,  vol.  1,  p.  33,  seqq. — Philological  Museum,  vol. 
 1,  p.  613  ) 
 
 Pei.asgicum  {TieXaayLKov),  a  name  given  to  the 
 most  ancient  part  of  the  fortifications  of  the  Acropolis 
 at  Athens,  from  its  having  been  constructed  by  the 
 Pelasgi,  who,  in  the  course  of  their  migrations,  settled 
 in  Attica,  and  were  einployed  by  the  Athenians  in  the 
 erection  of  these  walls.  The  rampart  raised  by  this 
 people  is  often  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Athens, 
 and  included  also  a  portion  of  ground  below  the  wall 
 at  the  foot  of  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis.  This  had 
 been  allotted  to  the  Pelasgi  while  they  resided  at 
 Athens,  and  on  their  departure  it  was  forbidden  to  be 
 inhabited  or  cultivated.  {Thucyd.,  2,  7. — Pollux,  8, 
 102.— Myrsil.,  ap.  Dion.  Hal ,  1,  \%.— Herod.,  2,  51. 
 
 —  Id.,  6,  137.)  It  was  apparently  on  the  northern 
 side  of  the  citadel,  as  we  are  inlbrrned  by  Plutarch, 
 that  the  southern  wall  was  built  by  Cimon,  from  whom 
 it  received  the  name  of  Cimonium.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  382  ) 
 
 Pei.asgiotis,  a  district  of  Thessaly,  occupying  the 
 lower  valley  of  the  Peneus  as  far  as  the  sea.  It  was 
 originally  inhabited  by  the  Perrhaebi,  a  tribe  of  Pelas- 
 gic  origin.  {Simon.,  ap.  Strah.,  441. —  Cramer''s  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  363.) 
 
 PEL.tsGus,  an  ancient  monarch  of  the  Pelasgi.  {Vid. 
 Pelasgi  ) 
 
 Pelethronii,  an  epithet  given  to  the  Lapithfe,  be- 
 cause they  dwelt  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Pelethro- 
 nium,  in  Thessaly.  {Virg.,  Georg.,  3,  115.)  Pele- 
 thronium  appears  to  have  been  a  branch  of  Pelion. 
 
 Peleus,  a  king  of  Thessaly,  son  of  ^Eacus  mon- 
 arch of  -Egina,  and  the  nymph  Endeis  the  daughter 
 of  Chiron.  Having  been  accessory,  along  with  Tela- 
 mon,  to  the  death  of  their  brother  Phocus,  he  was  ban- 
 ished from  his  native  island,  but  found  an  asylum  at 
 the  court  of  Eurytus,  son  of  Actor,  king  of  Phihia  in 
 Thessaly.  He  married  Antigone,  the  daughter  of  Eu- 
 rytus, and  received  with  her,  as  a  marriage  portion, 
 the  third  part  of  the  kingdom.  Peleus  was  present 
 with  Eurytus  at  the  chase  of  the  Calydonian  boar ; 
 but,  having  unfortunately  killed  his  father-in-iaw  with 
 the  javelin  which  he  had  hurled  against  the  animal, 
 he  was  again  doomed  to  be  a  wanderer.  His  second 
 benefactor  was  Acastus,  king  of  lolcos ;  but  here 
 again  he  was  involved  in  trouble,  through  a  false 
 charge  brought  against  him  by  Astydamia,  or,  as  Hor- 
 ace calls  her,  Hippolyte,  the  queen  of  Acastus.  {Vid. 
 Acastus.)  To  reward  the  virtue  of  Peleus,  as  fully 
 shown  by  his  resisting  the  blandishments  of  Astyda- 
 mia, the  gods  resolved  to  give  him  a  goddess  in  mar- 
 992 
 
 riagc.  The  spouse  selected  for  him  was  ttie  sea- 
 nymph  Thetis,  who  had  been  wooed  by  Jupiter  him- 
 self and  his  brother  Neptune;  but  Themis  having  de- 
 clared that  her  child  would  be  greater  than  his  sire, 
 the  gods  withdrew.  {Pind.,  Isth.,S,  58,  seqq.)  Oth- 
 ers say  that  she  was  courted  by  Jupiter  alone,  till  he 
 was  informed  by  Prometheus  that,  if  he  had  a  son  by 
 her,  that  son  would  dethrone  him.  {Apollud  ,  3,  13, 
 1. — Schol.  ad  II.,  1,  519.)  Others,  again,  maintain 
 that  Thetis,  who  was  reared  by  Juno,  would  not  as- 
 sent to  the  wishes  of  Jupiter,  and  that  the  god,  in  his 
 anger,  condemned  her  to  espouse  a  mortal ;  or  that  Ju- 
 no herself  selected  Peleus  for  her  spouse.  (//.,  24, 
 59. — ApolL  Rkod.,  4,  793,  seqq.)  Chiron,  being 
 made  aware  of  the  will  of  the  gods,  advised  Peleus  to 
 aspire  to  the  bed  of  the  nymph  of  the  sea,  and  instruct- 
 ed him  how  to  win  her.  He  therefore  lay  in  wait,  and 
 seized  and  held  her  fast,  though  she  changed  herself 
 into  every  variety  of  form,  becoming  fire,  water,  a 
 serpent,  and  a  lioness.  {Find.,  New..,  4,  101 — Soph., 
 frag.  ap.  Schol.  ad  Ncm.,  3,  60.)  The  wedding  was 
 solemnized  on  Mount  Pelion  :  the  gods  all  honoured 
 it  with  their  presence,  and  bestowed  armour  on  the 
 bridegroom.  {II.,  17,  19.5. --/i.,  18,  84.)  Chiron 
 gave  him  the  famous  ashen  spear  afterward  wielded 
 by  his  son  ;  and  Neptune  bestowed  on  him  the  im- 
 mortal Harpy-born  steeds  Balius  and  Xanthus.  The 
 offspring  of  this  union  was  the  celebrated  Achilles. 
 According  to  one  account,  Peleus  was  deserted  by  his 
 goddess-wife  for  not  allowing  her  to  cast  the  infant 
 Achilles  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  water,  to  try  if  he 
 were  mortal.  {Vid.  Achilles)  This,  however,  is  a 
 posthomeric  fiction,  since  Homer  represents  Peleus 
 and  Thetis  as  dwelling  together  all  the  lifetime  of 
 their  son.  Of  Peleus  it  is  farther  related,  that  he  sur- 
 vived his  son,  and  even  grandson  {Od,  11,  493. — 
 Eurip  ,  Androm.),  and  died  in  misery  in  the  island  of 
 Cos.  {Callim.,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Find,  Pyth.,  3,  167. 
 — Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  313,  seqq.)  It  was  at 
 the  nuptials  of  Peleus  and  Thetis  that  the  goddess  of 
 Discord  threw  the  apple  of  gold  into  the  middle  of  the 
 assembled  deities,  with  which  was  connected  so  much 
 misfortune  for  both  the  Trojans  and  the  Greeks. 
 {Vid.  Helena,  and  Paris  ) 
 
 Peliades,  daughters  of  Pelias.  {Vid.  Jason,  and 
 also  Pelias,  towards  the  end  of  the  latter  article  ) 
 
 Pei-i.^s,  the  twin  brother  of  Neleus,  was  son  of 
 Neptune  by  Tyro,  the  daughter  of  Salmoneus  The 
 mother,  to  conceal  her  disgrace,  exposed  her  twin- 
 sons  as  soon  as  thev  were  born.  A  troop  of  mares, 
 followed  by  their  keeper,  passing  by  where  they  lay, 
 one  of  the  mares  touched  the  face  of  one  of  the  in- 
 fants with  her  hoof,  and  made  it  livid  {irD.tov).  The 
 keeper  took  and  reared  the  babes,  naming  the  one 
 with  the  mark  Pelias,  the  other  Neleus.  When  they 
 grew  up  they  discovered  their  mother,  and  resolved  to 
 kill  her  stepmother  Sidero,  by  whom  she  was  cruelly 
 treated.  They  pursued  her,  accordingly,  to  the  altar 
 of  Juno;  and  Pelias,  who  never  showed  any  regard 
 for  that  goddess,  slew  her  before  it.  The  brothers 
 afterward  fell  into  discord,  and  Pelias  abode  at  lolcos, 
 but  Neleus  settled  in  Elis,  where  he  built  a  town 
 named  Pylos.  Tyro  afterward  married  her  uncle 
 Cretheus,  to  whom  she  bore  three  sons,  .lEson,  Phe- 
 res,  and  Amythaon.  Cretheus  was  succeeded  in  the 
 kingdom  of  lolcos  by  yEson,  who  became  by  Alci- 
 mede  the  father  of  Jason.  Pelias,  by  force  or  fraud, 
 deprived  ^son  of  his  kingdom,  and  then  sought  the 
 life  of  the  infant  Jason  ;  but  the  parents  of  the  latter 
 gave  out  that  he  was  dead,  and  meantime  conveyed 
 him  by  night  to  the  cave  of  the  centaur  Chiron,  to 
 whose  care  they  committed  him. — The  rest  of  the  le- 
 gend of  Pelias  will  be  found  under  the  article  Jason. 
 {Apollod.,  1,  9,  7,  seqq.—Od.,  11,  235,  seqq.)  Pelias 
 married  Anaxibia  the  daughter  of  Bias,  or,  as  others 
 say,  Philomache  the  daughter  of  Amphion,  and  became 
 
PEL 
 
 PEL 
 
 by  her  the  father  of  one  son,  Acastus,  and  of  four 
 daughters,  Pisidice,  Pclopea,  Hippolhoe,  and  Alces- 
 tis.  (Apoltoil,  1,  9,  10.)  These  daughters  were 
 called  Peliades,  and  became,  unwittingly,  through 
 the  arts  of  Medea,  the  slayers  of  their  sire.  {Vid. 
 Jason.) 
 
 Pelides,  a  patronymic  of  Achilles,  as  the  son  of 
 Pelcus.     (Fi'fLPeleus) 
 
 Peligni,  an  Italian  Mihe,  belonging  to  the  Sabine 
 race,  according  to  Ovid  {Fast.,  3,  95),  but,  according 
 to  Festus,  deriving  their  origin  from  Illyria.  The 
 statement  of  Ovid  appears  the  more  probable  one,  if 
 we  consider  the  uniformity  of  language,  customs,  and 
 character  apparent  in  all  the  minor  tribes  of  central 
 Italy,  as  well  as  in  the  Samnites,  between  whom  and 
 the  Sabines  these  tribes  may  be  said  to  form  an  inter- 
 mediate link  in  the  Oscan  chain. — The  Peligni  were 
 situate  to  the  east  and  northeast  of  the  Marsi,  and 
 had  Corfiniurn  for  their  chief  town.  They  derive  some 
 consideration  in  history  from  the  circumstance  of  their 
 chief  city  having  been  selected  by  the  allies  in  the 
 Social  war  as  the  seat  of  the  new  empire.  Had  their 
 plans  succeeded,  and  had  Rome  fallen  beneath  the 
 eflbrts  of  the  coalition,  Corfinium  would  have  become 
 the  capital  of  Italy,  and  perhaps  of  the  world.  {Strab., 
 241  ) — The  country  of  the  Peligni  was  small  in  e.x- 
 tent,  and  mountainous,  and  noted  for  the  coldness  of 
 Its  climate,  as  well  as  for  the  abundance  of  its  springs 
 and  streams.  (Horace,  Od.,  3,  19.  —  Ovid,  Fast.,  4, 
 685.)  That  some  portion  of  it,  however,  was  fertile, 
 we  learn  also  from  the  latter  poet,  {xim.,  2,  16. — 
 Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  332.) 
 
 Pelion,  I.  a  range  of  mountains  in  Thessaly,  along 
 a  portion  of  the  eastern  coast.     Its  principal  summit 
 rises  behind  lolcos  and  Ormenium.     The  chain  ex- 
 tends from  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  Lake 
 Boebe'is,  where  it  unites  with  one  of  the  ramifications 
 of  Ossa,   to   the    extreme  promontory   of  Magnesia. 
 {Strabo,  443. — Herod.,  7,  129. —  Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  429.)     In  a   fragment   of  Dicaear- 
 chus  which  has  been  preserved  to  us,  we  have  a  detail- 
 ed description  of  Pc'.ion  and  its  botanical  productions, 
 which  appear  to  have  been  very  numerous,  both  as  to 
 forest-trees  and   plants  of  various  kinds.     {Cramer, 
 I.  c.)     On  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  mountain  was 
 a   temple   dedicated   to  Jupiter   Actsus,  to   which  a 
 troop  of  the  noblest  youths  of  the  city  of  Demetrias 
 ascended  every  year   by  appointment  of  the  priest  ; 
 and   such  was  the  cold  experienced   on  the  summit, 
 that  they  wore  the  thickest  woollen  fleeces  to  protect 
 themselves  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather.     {Di- 
 ccBarch.,  p.  29.)     It  is  with  propriety,  therefore,  that 
 Pindar  applies  to  Pelion  the  epithet  of  stormy.     {Pylh., 
 9,  6.) — Homer  alludes  to  this  mountain  as  the  ancient 
 abode  of  the  Centaurs,  who  were  ejected  by  the  Lap- 
 ithaj.     {II.,  2,  743.  — Compare  Pjnd.,  Pyih.,  2,  83.) 
 It  was,  however,  more  especially  the  haunt  of  Chiron, 
 whose  cave,  as  Dicsearchus  relates,  occupied  the  high- 
 est point  of  the  mountain.     {Cramer,  I.  c.)     In  their 
 wars  against  the  gods,  the  giants,  as  the  poets  fable, 
 placed  Ossa  upon  PeHon,  and  "rolled  upon  Ossa  the 
 leafy  Olympus,"  in  their  daring  attempt  to  scale  the 
 heavens.     {Viro^.,  Gcors:,,  1,  281,  scq.)     The  famous 
 spear  of  Peleus,  which  descended  to  his  son  Achilles, 
 and  which   none  but  the  latter  and  his  parent  could 
 wield,  was  cut  from  an  ashtree  on  this  mountain,  and 
 thence  received  its  name  of  Pelias.     {Horn.,  II.,  16, 
 144.) — II.   A  city  of  Illyria,  on  the  Macedonian  bor- 
 der, and  commanding  a  pass  leading  into  that  country. 
 It  was  a  place  of  considerable    importance   from   its 
 situation  ;  and  Arrian  speaks  of  it  at  some  length   in 
 his  relation  of  an  attack  made  upon  it  by  Alexander. 
 {Exp.   Al.,  1,  5,  seqq.)     We  must  look  for  it,  most 
 probably,  in  the  mountains  which  separate  the  district 
 of  Cafiloria  (the  ancient  Orestis)  from  that  of  Okrida. 
 It  cannot  have  been  far  from  the  modern  town  of 
 6  K 
 
 Bichlisias,  situated  on  a  river  of  the  same  name  • — 
 {Cramer^s  A?ic.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  76.) 
 
 Pella,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  near  the  top  of  the 
 Sinus  Therma'icus,  on  the  confines  of  Emathia.  It 
 became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  when  Edessa  wa.s 
 annihilated,  according  to  Ptolemy,  and  owed  its  gran- 
 deur to  Philip  and  to  his  son  Alexander,  who  was  born 
 there,  and  who  was  hence  styled  Pcllaus  Jitve'iisby  the 
 Roman  poets.  According  to  Stcphanus  Byzantinus,  its 
 more  ancient  appellation  was  Bunomus  and  Bunomeia, 
 vrtiich  it  exchanged  for  the  name  of  its  founder  Pelias. 
 Livy  describes  it  as  situate  on  a  hill  which  faced  the 
 southwest,  and  surrounded  with  morasses  formed  by 
 stagnant  waters  from  the  adjacent  lakes,  so  deep  as  to 
 be  impassable  either  in  winter  or  in  summer.  In  the 
 morass  nearest  the  city,  the  citadel  rose  up  like  an 
 island,  being  built  on  a  mound  of  earth  formed  with 
 immense  labour,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  supporting  the 
 wall,  and  secure  against  any  injury  from  the  surround- 
 ing moisture.  At  a  distance  it  seemed  to  join  the 
 city  rampart,  but  it  was  divided  from  it  by  a  river 
 which  ran  between,  and  over  which  was  a  bridge  of 
 communication.  This  river  was  called  Ludias,  Lw- 
 dias,  and  Lydius.  (Li«.,  44,  46.)  The  baths  of  Pel- 
 la  were  said  to  be  injurious  to  health,  producing  bil 
 iary  complaints,  as  we  are  informed  by  the  comic  poet 
 Macho.  {Aihen.,  8,41.)  Pella,  under  the  Romans, 
 was  made  the  chief  town  of  the  third  region  of  Mace- 
 don.  {Liv., 45, 29.)  It  was  situated  on  the  Via  Eg- 
 natia,  according  to  Strabo  (323)  and  the  Itineraries. 
 From  the  coins  of  this  city  we  may  infer  that  it  was 
 colonized  by  Julius  Caesar.  Under  the  late  emperors  it 
 assumed  the  title  of  Col.  Jul.  Pclla ;  and  it  is  prob- 
 able, as  Manncrt  has  observed,  that  in  the  reign  of 
 Dioclesian  this  name  was  exchanged  for  Dioclesianop- 
 olis,  which  we  find  in  the  Antonine  Itinerary  (p.  330. 
 — Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  479).  Its  ancient  ap- 
 pellation, however,  still  remained  in  use,  as  may  be 
 seen  from  Jornandes  {R.  G.,56)  and  Hierocles  {Sy- 
 7iecdem.,Tp.  638).  The  ruins  of  Pella  are  yet  visible  on 
 the  spot  called  Palatisa  or  Alaklisi  by  the  Turks. 
 "II  ne  reste  plus  de  Pella."  says  Beaujour,  "que 
 quelques  ruines  insignificantes  ;  mais  on  voit  encore 
 le  pourtour  de  son  magnifique  port,  et  les  vestiges  du 
 canal  qui  joignoit  ce  port  a  la  rner  par  le  niveau  le 
 mieux  entendu.  Les  mosquees  de  Jcnidje  ont  et^ 
 baties  avcc  les  debris  des  palais  des  rois  Mac6doni- 
 cns."  {Tableau  du  Commerce  de  la  Grice,  vol.  1,  p. 
 87. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  225.) 
 
 Pellene,  a  city  of  Achaia,  southwest  of  Sicyon, 
 situate  on  a  lofty  and  precipitous  hill  about  sixty  stadia 
 from  the  sea.  From  the  nature  of  its  position,  the  town 
 was  divided  into  two  distinct  parts.  {Paiisan.,  7,  26. 
 —  Strabo,  386.)  Its  name  was  derived  either  from  the 
 Titan  Pallas,  or  Pollen,  an  Argive,  who  was  son  of 
 Phorbas.  {Apollon.,  Arg.,  1, 176. — Ham.,  II.,  2,  574.) 
 The  Pellenians  alone  among  the  Achasans  first  aided 
 the  Lacedffitnonians  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  though 
 afterward  all  the  other  states  followed  their  example. 
 {Tkucyd.,  2,  9  )  They  were  often  engaged  in  hostil- 
 ities with  their  neighbours  the  Phliasians  and  Sicyo- 
 nians.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  7,  2.)  Pellene  was  cele- 
 brated for  its  manufacture  of  woollen  cloaks,  which 
 were  given  as  prizes  to  the  riders  at  the  gymnastic 
 games  held  there  in  honour  of  Mercury.  {Pindar, 
 Olymp.,  9,  146.)  The  ruins  of  Pellene  are  to  be  seen 
 not  far  from  Tricala,  as  we  are  assured  by  Sir.  W. 
 Gell,  who  obtained  his  information  from  Col.  Leake. 
 {Itin.  of  the  Morca,  p.  20.  — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p.  55.) 
 
 Pelopea  or  Pelopia,  a  daughter  of  Thyestes,  the 
 brother  of  Atreus.  She  became,  by  her  own  parent, 
 the  mother  of  ^Egisthus.     {Vid.  Atreus.) 
 
 Pelopidas,  son  of  Hippoclus,  belonged  to  one  of  the 
 principal  families  of  Thebes.  He  distinguished  him- 
 self at  the  battle  of  Mautinea  (B.C.  385),  in  which  the 
 
 993 
 
PELOPIDAS. 
 
 PEL 
 
 Thebans  took  part  as  allies  of  the  Lacedapinonians, 
 under  the  Spartan  king  Agesipolis.  In  this  battle, 
 Pelopidas  being  wounded  and  thrown  down,  was  saved 
 from  death  by  Epaminondas,  who  protected  him  with 
 his  shield,  maintaining  his  ground  against  the  Arcadi- 
 ans until  the  Lacedasmonians  came  to  their  relief,  and 
 saved  both  their  lives.  From  that  time  a  close  friend- 
 ship was  formed  between  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas, 
 which  lasted  till  the  death  of  the  latter.  When  the 
 Lacedaemonians  surprised  the  citadel  of  Thebes,  and 
 established  the  power  of  the  aristocracy  in  that  city, 
 Pelopidas,  who  belonged  to  the  popular  party,  retired 
 to  Athens,  together  with  a  number  of  other  citizens. 
 After  a  time,  he  and  his  brother  exiles  formed  a  plan, 
 with  their  friends  in  Thebes,  for  surprising  and  over- 
 throwing the  oligarchy,  and  restoring  the  popular  gov- 
 ernment. Pelopidas  and  some  of  his  friends  set  off 
 from  Athens  disguised  as  hunters,  found  means  to  en- 
 ter Thebes  unobserved,  and  concealed  themselves  in 
 the  house  of  a  friend,  whence  they  issued  in  the  night, 
 and,  having  surprised  the  leaders  of  the  aristocratic 
 party,  put  ihem  to  death.  The  people  then  rose  in 
 arms,  and,  having  proclaimed  Pelopidas  their  com- 
 mander, they  obliged  the  Spartan  garrison  to  surrender 
 the  citadel  by  capitulation  (B.C.  379).  Pelopidas 
 soon  after  contrived  to  excite  a  war  between  Sparta 
 and  Athens,  and  thus  divide  the  attention  of  the  for- 
 mer power.  The  war  between  the  Thebans  and  the 
 Lacedaemonians  was  carried  on  for  some  years  in  Boe- 
 otia  by  straggling  parlies,  and  Pelopidas,  having  ob- 
 tained the  advantage  in  several  skirmishes,  ventured 
 to  encounter  the  enemy  in  the  open  field  at  Tegyroe, 
 near  Orchomenus.  The  Lacedasmonians  were  defeat- 
 ed, and  thus  Pelopidas  demonstrated,  for  (he  first  time, 
 that  the  armies  of  Sparta  were  not  invincible ;  a  fact 
 which  was  afterward  confirmed  by  the  battle  of  Leuc- 
 tra  (B.C.  371),  in  which  Pelopidas  fought  under  the 
 command  of  his  friend  Epaminondas.  In  the  year 
 369  B C,  the  two  friends,  being  appointed  two  of  the 
 Bosotarchs  {Pint.,  Vit^  Pelop.,  c.  24),  marched  into 
 the  Peloponnesus,  obliged  Argos,  and  Arcadia,  and 
 other  states  to  renounce  the  alliance  of  Sparta,  and 
 carried  'their  incursions  into  Laconia  in  the  depth  of 
 winter.  Having  conquered  Messenia,  they  invited  the 
 descendants  of  its  former  inhabitants,  who  had  gone 
 into  exile  about  two  centuries  before,  to  come  and  re- 
 people  their  country.  They  thus  confined  the  power 
 of  Sparta  to  the  limits  of  Laconia.  Pelopidas  and 
 Epaminondas,  on  their  return  to  Thebes,  were  tried 
 for  having  retained  the  command  after  the  expiration 
 of  the  year  of  their  office,  but  were  acquitted  ;  and 
 Pelopidas  was  afterward  employed  against  Alexander, 
 tyrant  of  Phcra?,  who  was  endeavouring  to  make  him- 
 self master  of  all  Thessaly.  He  defeated  him.  From 
 Thessaly  he  was  called  into  Macedonia,  to  settle  a 
 quarrel  between  Alexander,  king  of  that  country,  and 
 son  of  Amyntas  II.,  and  his  natural  brother  Ptolemy. 
 Having  succeeded  in  this,  he  returned  to  Thebes,  bring- 
 ing with  him  Philip,  brother  of  Alexander,  and  thirty 
 youths  of  the  chief  families  of  Macedonia  as  hostages. 
 A  year  after,  however,  Ptolemy  murdered  his  brother 
 Alexander,  and  took  possession  of  the  throne.  Pelop- 
 idas, being  applied  to  by  the  friends  of  the  late  king, 
 enlisted  a  band  of  mercenaries,  with  which  he  marched 
 against  Ptolemy,  who  entered  into  an  agreement  to 
 liold  the  government  only  in  trust  for  Perdiccas,  a 
 younger  brother  of  Alexander,  till  he  was  of  age,  and 
 to  keep  the  alliance  of  Thebes;  and  he  gave  to  Pelop- 
 idas his  own  son  Philoxcnus  and  fifty  of  his  compan- 
 ions as  hostages.  Some  time  aftei,  Pelopidas,  being 
 in  Thessaly,  vk'as  treacherously  surprised  and  made 
 prisonei-  ^v  Alexander  of  Phers,  but  the  Thebans  sent 
 Epaminonoas  with  an  army,  who  obliged  the  tyrant  to 
 release  him.  The  Thebans,  soon  after,  having  discov- 
 ered that  the  Spartans  and  Athenians  had  sent  ambas- 
 sadors to  conclude  an  alliance  with  Artaxerxes,  king 
 
 4q4 
 
 of  Persia,  sent  on  their  part  Pelopidas  to  support  their 
 own  interest  at  the  same  court.  His  fame  had  pre- 
 ceded him,  and  he  was  received  by  the  Persians  with 
 great  honour,  and  Artaxerxes  showed  him  peculiar  fa- 
 vour. Pelopidas  obtained  a  treaty,  in  which  the  The- 
 bans were  styled  the  king's  hereditary  friends,  and  in 
 which  the  independence  of  each  of  the  Greek  states, 
 including  Messenia,  was  fully  recognised.  He  thus 
 disappointed  the  ambition  of  ^parta  and  of  Athens, 
 which  aimed  at  the  supremacy  over  the  rest.  The 
 Athenians  were  so  enraged  at  this,  that  they  put  their 
 ambassador  Timagoras  to  death  on  his  return  to  Athens. 
 Pelopidas,  after  his  return,  was  ajjpointed  to  march 
 against  Alexander  of  Phers,  who  had  committed  fresh 
 encroachments  in  Thessaly.  But,  when  the  army  was 
 on  the  point  of  marching,  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  took 
 place,  which  so  dismayed  the  Thebans  that  Pelopidas 
 was  obliged  to  set  off  with  only  300  volunteers,  trust- 
 ing to  the  Thessalians,  who  joined  him  on  the  route. 
 Alexander  met  him  with  a  large  army  at  a  place  called 
 Cynoscephala;.  Pelopidas,  by  great  exertions,  although 
 his  army  was  much  inferior  in  numbers,  obtained  an  ad- 
 vantage, and  the  troops  of  Alexander  were  retreating, 
 when  Pelopidas,  venturing  too  far  amid  the  enemv, 
 was  slain.  The  grief  of  both  Thebans  and  Thessalians 
 at  his  loss  was  unbounded :  they  paid  splendid  funeral 
 honours  to  his  remains.  The  'I'hebans  avenged  his 
 death  by  sending  a  fresh  army  against  Alexander,  who 
 was  defeated,  and  was  soon  after  murdered  by  his  own 
 wife. — Pelopidas  was  not  only  one  of  the  most  dis- 
 tinguished and  successful  commanders  of  his  age,  but 
 he  and  his  friend  Epaminondas  rank  among  the  most 
 estimable  public  men  of  ancient  Greece.  (Plut.,  Vit. 
 Pelop. — Xen.,  Hist.  Gr — Pausan.,  9,  13,  &c. — En- 
 ci/cl.  Us.  KnoioL,  vol.  17,  p.  388,  seq.) 
 
 Peloponnesiacum  Bellum  is  tiie  name  given  to 
 the  great  contest  between  Athens  and  her  allies  on  the 
 one  side,  and  the  Peloponnesian  confederacy,  headed 
 by  Sparta,  on  the  other,  which  lasted  from  431  to  404 
 B.C.  The  war  was  a  consequence  of  the  jealousy  with 
 which  Sparta  and  Athens  regarded  each  other,  as  states 
 each  of  which  was  aiming  at  supremacy  in  Greece,  as 
 the  heads  respectively  of  the  Dorian  and  Ionian  races, 
 and  as  patrons  of  the  two  opposite  forms  of  civil  gov- 
 ernment, oligarchy  and  democracy.  ^I'he  war  was  ea- 
 gerly desired  by  a  strong  party  in  each  of  those  states  ; 
 but  it  was  necessary  to  find  an  occasion  for  commen- 
 cing hostilities,  especially  as  a  truce  for  tliirty  years  had 
 been  concluded  between  Athens  and  Sparta  in  the 
 year  B.C.  445.  Such  an  occasion  was  presented  by 
 the  affairs  of  Corcyra  and  Potidasa.  In  a  quarrel,  which 
 soon  became  a  war,  between  Corinth  and  Corcyra,  re- 
 specting Epidamnus,  a  colony  of  the  latter  state  (B.C. 
 436),  the  Corcyreaiis  applied  to  Athens  for  assistance. 
 Their  request  was  granted,  as  far  as  the  conclusion  of 
 a  defensive  alliance  between  Athens  and  Corcyra,  and 
 an  Athenian  fleet  was  sent  to  their  aid,  which,  how- 
 ever, soon  engaged  in  active  hostilities  against  the  Co- 
 rinthians. Potidaea,  on  the  isthmus  of  Pallene,  was  a 
 Corinthian  colony,  and,  even  after  its  subjection  to 
 Athens,  continued  to  receive  every  year  from  Corinth 
 certain  functionaries  or  officers  (eKidrj/iiLovpyoi).  The 
 Athenians,  suspecting  that  the  Potidasans  were  inclined 
 to  join  in  a  revolt,  to  which  Perdiccas,  king  of  Macedon, 
 was  instigating  the  towns  of  Chalcidice,  required  theni 
 to  dismiss  the  Corinthian  functionaries,  and  to  give 
 other  pledges  of  their  fidelity.  The  Potidaeans  re- 
 fused ;  and,  with  most  of  the  other  Chalcidian  towns, 
 revolted  from  Athens,  and  received  aid  from  Corinth. 
 The  Athenians  sent  an  expedition  against  them,  and, 
 after  defeating  them  in  battle,  laid  siege  to  Potidaea 
 (B.C.  432).  The  Corinthians  now  obtained  a  meet- 
 ing of  the  Peloponnesian  confederacy  at  Sparta,  in 
 which  they  complained  of  the  conduct  of  Athens  with 
 regard  to  Corcyra  and  Potidsa.  After. others  of  the 
 allies  had  brought  their  charges  against  Athens,  and 
 
PELOPONNESIACUM  BELLUM. 
 
 PELOPONNESIACUM  BELLUM. 
 
 after  some  of  the  Athenian  envoys,  who  happened  to 
 be  in  the  city,  had  defended  the  conduct  of  their  slate, 
 the  Spartans  first,  and  afterward  all  tlie  allies,  decided 
 that  Athens  had  broken  the  truce,  and  they  resolved 
 upon  inimcdiaie  war;  King  Archidanius  alone  recom- 
 mended some  delay.     In  the   interval   necessary   for 
 preparation,  an  attempt  was  made  to  throw  the  blame 
 of  commencing  hostilities  u])0ii  the  Athenians,  by  send- 
 ing three  several  embassies  to  Athens  with  demands  of 
 sucli  a  nature  as  could  not  be  accepted.      In  the  as- 
 sembly which  was  held  at  Athens  to  give  a  final  an- 
 swer to  these  demands,  Pericles,  who  was  now  at  the 
 height  of  his  power,  urged  the  people  to  engage  in  the 
 war,  and  laid  down  a  plan  for  the  conduct  of  it.     He  ad- 
 vised the  people  to  l)ring  all  their  moveable  property 
 from  tiie  country  into  the  city,  to  abandon  Attica  to  the 
 ravages  of  the  enemy,  and  not  to  suffer  themselves  to  be 
 provoked  to  give  them  battle  with  inferior  numbers,  but 
 to  expend  all  their  strength  upon  their  navy,  which  might 
 be  employed  in  carrying  the  war  into  the  enemy's  ter- 
 ritory, and   in  collecting  supplies  from  subject  states  ; 
 and  farllier,  not  to  attempt  any  new  conquest  while  the 
 war  lasted.     His  advice  was  adopted,  and  the  Spartan 
 envoys  were  sent  home  with  a  refusal   of  their   de- 
 mands, but  with  an  offer  to  refer  the  matters  in  differ- 
 ence to  an  impartial  tribunal,  an  offer  which  the  Lace- 
 da;!nonians  had  no  intention  of  accepting.     After  this, 
 the  usual  peaceful  intercourse  between  the  rival  states 
 was  discontinued.     Thucydides  (2,  1)  dates  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  war  from  the  early  spring  of  the  year  431 
 B.C  ,  the  fifteenth  of  the  thirty  years'  truce,  when  a 
 party  of  Thebans  made  an  attempt,  which  at  first  suc- 
 ceeded, but  was  ultimately   defeated,  to  surprise  Pla- 
 ta;a.     The  truce  being  thus  openly  broken,  both  par- 
 ties addressed  themselves  to  tlie  war.     The  Pelopon- 
 nesian  confederacy  included  all  the  states  of  Pelopon- 
 nesus except  Achaia  (which  joined  them  afterward) 
 and  Argos,  and  without  the  Peloponnesus,  Megaris, 
 Phocis,  Locris,  Boeolia,  the  island  of  Leucas,  and  the 
 cities  of  Ambracia  and  Anactorium.     The  allies  of  the 
 Atlienians  were  Chios  and  Lesbos,  besides  Samos  and 
 the  other  islands  of  the  iEgean  which  had  been  re- 
 duced to  subjection  (Thera  and  Melos,  which  were 
 still  independent,  remained  neutral),  Plataea,  the  Mes- 
 senian  colony  in  Naupactus,  the  majority  of  the  Acar- 
 nanians,  Corcyra,  Zacynthus,  and  the  Greek  colonies 
 in  Asia  Minor,  in  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  and  on  the 
 Hellespont.     The  resources  of  Sparta  lay  chiefly  in 
 iier  land  forces,  which,  however,  consisted  of  contin- 
 g<;nts  from  the  allies,  whose  period  of  service  was  lim- 
 ited; the  Spartans  were  also  deficient  in  money.     The 
 Athenian  strength  lay  in  their  fleet,  which  was  manned 
 chiefly  by   foreign  sailors,  whom   the  wealth  they  col- 
 lected from  their  allies  enabled   them  to  pay.     Thu- 
 cydides informs  us,  that  the  cause  of  the  Laceda;rnoni- 
 ans  was  the  more  popular,  as  they  professed  to  be  de- 
 hverers  of  Greece,  while  the  Athenians  were  fighting 
 in  defence  of  an   empire  which  had   become  odious 
 through  their  tyranny,  and  to  which  the  states  which 
 yet  retained  their  independence  feared  to  be  brought 
 into  subjection.     In  the  summer  of  the  year  431  B.C., 
 tlie  Peloponncsians  invaded  Attica  under  the  command 
 of  Archidanius,  king  of  Sparta.     Their  progress  was 
 slow,  as  Archidanius  appears  to  have  been  still  an.x- 
 lous   to  try  what  could   be  done   by  intimidating  the 
 Athenians  before  proceeding  to  extremities.     Yet  their 
 prc.'-ence  was  found  to  be  a  greater  calamity  than  the 
 people  had  anticipated  ;  and,  when  Archidanius  made 
 his  appearance  at  Acharna:,  they  began  loudly  to  de- 
 mand to  be  led  out  to  battle.     Pericles  firmly  adhered 
 to  his  plan  of  defence,  and  the  Peloponnesians  returned 
 home.     Before  their  departure  the  Athenians  had  sent 
 out  a  fleet  of  100  sail,  which  was  joined  by  fifty  Cor- 
 cyrean   ships,  to  waste  the  coasts  of  Peloponnesus  ; 
 and  towards  the  autumn  Pericles  led  the  whole  dispo- 
 Bable  force  of  the  city  into  Megaris,  which  he  laid 
 
 waste.     In  the  same  summer  the  Athenians  expelled 
 the  inhabitants  of  Jilgina  from  their  island,  which  they 
 colonized  with  Athenian  settlers.     In  the  winter  there 
 was  a  public  funeral  at  Athens  for  those  who  had  fallen 
 in  the  war,  and  Pericles  pronounced  over  thcin  an  ora- 
 tion, the  substance  of  which  is  preserved  by  Thucydi- 
 des (2,  3.5-4G).     In  the  following  summer  (B.C.  430) 
 ihe  Peloponnesians  again  invaded  Attica  under  Archi- 
 damns,  who    now  entirely  laid  aside  the  forbcaranc^o 
 which  he  had  shown  the  year  before,  and  left  scarcely 
 a  corner  of  the  land  unravaged.     This  invasion  lasted 
 forty  days.     In  the  mean  time,  a  grievous  pestilence 
 broke  out  in  Athens,  and  raged  with  the  more  viru- 
 lence on  account  of  the  crowded  state  of  the  city.     Of 
 this  terrible  visitation  Thucydides,  who  was  hiiiiself  a 
 suflercr,  has  left  a  minute  and  apparently  faithful  de- 
 scription (2,  46,  scq.).     The  murmurs  of  the  people 
 against  Pericles  were  renewed,  and'  he  was  compelled 
 to  call  an  assembly  to  defend   his  policy.     He  suc- 
 ceeded  so  far  as  to  prevent  any  overtures  for  peace 
 being   made    to  the   Lacedemonians,  but  he   himself 
 was  fined,  though  immediately   afterward  he  was  re- 
 elected general.     While  the  Peloponnesians  were  in 
 Attica,   Pericles  led  a  fleet  to   ravage   the   coasts  of 
 Peloponnesus.      In  the  winter  of  this  year  Potidaa 
 surrendered    to   the   Athenians  on   favourable   terms. 
 {Thucyd.,  2,  70  )     The  next  year  (B.C.  4'2{)),  instead 
 of  invading  Attica,  the  Peloponnesians  laid  siege  tu 
 Plataja.     The  brave  resistance  of  the  inhabitants  forced 
 their  enemies  to  convert  the  siege  into  a  blockade.     In 
 the  same  summer,  an  invasion  of  Acarnania    by   the 
 Ambracians  and  a  body  of  Peloponnesian  troops  was 
 repulsed  ;   and  a  large  Pelopotmesian  fleet,  which  was 
 to  have  joined  in  the  attack  on  Acarnania,  was  twice 
 defeated  by  Phormion  in  the  mouth  of  the  Corinthian 
 gulf.     An  expedition   sent  by  the  Athenians  against 
 the  revolted  Chalcidian  towns  was  defeated  with  great 
 loss.     In  the  preceding  year  (B.C.  430)  the.x\thenians 
 had  concluded  an  alliance  with  Sitalces,  king  of  the 
 Odrysas  in  Thrace,  and  Perdiccas,  king  of  Macedon,  on 
 which  occasion  Sitalces  had  promised  to  aid  the  Athe- 
 nians to  subdue  their  revolted  subjects  in  Chalcidice. 
 He  now  collected  an  army  of  150,000  men,  with  which 
 he  first  invaded  Macedonia,  to  revenge  the  breach  of 
 certain  promises  which  Perdiccas  had   made  to  him 
 the  year  before,  and  afterward  laid  waste  the 'territory 
 of  the  Chalcidians  and   Bottia;ans,  but  he  did  not  at- 
 tempt to  reduce  any  of  the  Greek  cities.      About  the 
 middle  of  this  year  Pericles  died.     The  invasion  of 
 Attica  was  repeated  in  the  next  summer  (428  B.C.)  ; 
 and,   immediately  afterward,  all    Lesbos    exce])t  Me- 
 thynine  revolted  from  the  Athenians,  who  laid  siege  to 
 Mytilene.      The  Mytilena;ans  begged  aid  from  Sparta, 
 which  was  promised,  and  they  were  admitted  into  the 
 Spartan  alliance.      In  the  same  winter  a  body  of  Pla- 
 tK'ans,  amounting  to  220,  made  their  escape  from  the 
 besieged  city  in  the  night,  and  took  refuge  in  Athens. 
 In  the  summer  of  427  the  Peloponnesians  again  in- 
 vaded Attica,  while  they  sent  a  fleet  of  42  galleys,  un- 
 der Alcidas,  to   the   relief  of  Mytilene.     Before   the 
 fleet  arrived  Mytilene  had  surrendered,  and  Alcidas, 
 after   a   little  delay,    sailed   home.       In    an   assembly 
 which  was  held  at  Athens  to  decide  on  the  fate  of  the 
 Mytilenseans,   it  was  resolved,    at  the   instigation   of 
 Cleon,  that  all  the  adult  citizens  should  be  put  to  death, 
 and  the  women  and  children  made  slaves;   but  this 
 barbarous  decree  was  repealed   the  next  day.      The 
 land  of  the  Lesbians  (except  Methymne)  was  seized 
 and  divided   among  Athenian  citizens,  to  whom  the 
 inhabitants  paid  a  rent  for  the  occupation  of  their  for- 
 mer property.     In  the  same  summer  the  Platajans  sur- 
 rendered ;    they  were  massacred,  and   their  city  was 
 given  up  to  the  Thebans,  who  razed  it  to  the  ground. 
 In  the  year  426   the  Laceda:monians  were   deterred 
 from  invading  Attica  by  earthquakes.     An  expedition 
 against  ^-Etolia,  under  the  Athenian  general  Demo». 
 
 995 
 
PELOPONNESIACUM  BELLU.... 
 
 PEL 
 
 ihenes,  completely  failed  ;  but  afterward  Demosthe- 
 nes and  the  Acariianiaiis  routed  the  Ambracians,  who 
 nearly  all  perished.  In  the  winter  (120-5)  the  Athe- 
 nians purilicd  the  island  of  Delos,  as  an  acknowledg- 
 ment to  Apollo  for  the  cessation  of  the  plague.  At 
 the  beginning  of  the  summer  of  425,  the  Pcloponne- 
 sians  invaded  .-^tlica  for  the  fifth  time.  At  the  same 
 time,  the  Athenians,  who  had  long  directed  their 
 thoughts  towards  Sicily,  sent  a  fleet  to  aid  the  Leon- 
 tini  in  a  war  with  Syracuse.  Demosthenes  accom- 
 panied this  fleet,  in  order  to  act,  as  occasion  might 
 offer,  on  the  coast  of  Peloponnesus.  He  fortified  Py- 
 lus  on  the  coast  of  Messenia,  the  northern  headland 
 of  the  modern  Bay  of  Navarino.  In  the  course  of  the 
 operations  which  were  undertaken  to  dislodge  him,  a 
 body  of  Lacedemonians,  including  several  noble  Spar- 
 tans, got  blockaded  in  the  island  of  Sphacteria,  at  the 
 mouth  of  the  bay,  and  were  ultimately  taken  prisoners 
 by  Cleon  and  Demosthenes.  Pylus  was  garrisoned 
 by  a  colony  of  Messenians,  in  order  to  annoy  the  Spar- 
 tans. After  this  event  the  Aihcnians  engaged  in  vig- 
 orous otfensive  operations,  of  which  the  most  impor- 
 tant was  the  capture  of  the  island  of  Cythera  by  Nici- 
 es early  in  B.C.  424.  This  summer,  however,  the 
 Athenians  suffered  some  reverses  in  Bceotia,  where 
 tliey  lost  the  battle  of  Dclium,  and  on  the  coasts  of 
 Macedonia  and  Thrace,  where  Brasidas,  among  other 
 exploits,  took  Amphipolis.  The  Athenian  expedition 
 to  Sicily  was  abandoned,  after  some  operations  of  no 
 great  importance,  in  consequence  of  a  general  pacifica- 
 tion of  the  island,  which  was  eflfected  through  the  in- 
 fluence of  Hermocrates,  a  citizen  of  Syracuse.  In  the 
 year  423,  a  year's  truce  was  concluded  between  Spar- 
 ta and  Athens,  with  a  view  to  a  lasting  peace.  Hos- 
 tilities were  renevfed  in  422,  and  Cleon  was  sent  to 
 cope  with  Brasidas,  who  had  continued  his  opera- 
 tions even  during  the  truce.  A  battle  was  fought  be- 
 tween these  generals  at  Amphipolis,  in  which  the  de- 
 feat of  the  Athenians  was  amply  compensated  by  the 
 double  deliverance  which  they  experienced  in  the  deaths 
 both  of  Cleon  and  Brasidas.  In  the  following  year 
 (421)  Nicias  succeeded  in  negotiating  a  peace  with 
 Sparta  for  fifty  years,  the  terms  of  which  were,  a  mu- 
 tual restitution  of  conquests  made  during  the  war,  and 
 the  release  of  the  prisoners  taken  at  Sphacteria.  This 
 treaty  was  ratified  by  all  the  allies  of  Sparta  except 
 the  Boeotians,  Corinthians,  Eleans,  and  Megarians. 
 This  peace  never  rested  on  any  firm  basis.  It  was  no 
 sooner  concluded  than  it  was  discovered  that  Sparta 
 had  not  the  power  to  fulfil  her  promises,  and  Athens 
 insisted  on  their  performance.  The  jealousy  of  the 
 other  states  was  excited  by  a  treaty  of  alliance  which 
 v\as  concluded  between  Sparta  and  Athens  immediate- 
 ly after  the  peace  ;  and  intrigues  were  commenced  for 
 the  formation  of  a  new  confederacy,  with  Argos  at  the 
 head.  An  attempt  was  made  to  draw  Sparta  into  al- 
 liance with  Argos,  but  it  failed.  A  similar  overture, 
 subsequently  made  to  Athens,  met  with  better  suc- 
 cess, chiefly  through  an  artifice  of  Alcibiades,  who 
 was  at  the  head  of  a  large  party  hostile  to  the  peace, 
 and  the  Athenians  concluded  a  treaty  offensive  and 
 defensive  with  Argos,  Elis,  and  Mantinea  for  100 
 years  (B.C.  420).  In  the  year  413,  the  Argive  con- 
 federacy was  broken  up  by  their  defeat  at  the  battle  of 
 Mantinea.  and  a  peace,  and  soon  after  an  alliance,  was 
 made  between  Sparta  and  Argos.  In  the  year  41fi  an 
 expedition  was  undertaken  by  the  Athenians  against 
 Melos,  which  had  hitherto  remained  neutral.  The 
 Meliaiis  surrendered  at  discretion  ;  all  the  males  who 
 had  attained  manhood  were  put  to  death ;  the  women 
 and  children  were  made  slaves  ;  and  subsequently  500 
 Athenian  colonists  were  sent  to  occupy  the  island. 
 {Thucyd.,  5,  116.)  The  fifty  years'  peace  was  not 
 considered  at  an  end,  though  its  terms  had  been  bro- 
 ken on  both  sides,  till  the  year  415,  when  the  Atheni- 
 ans undertook  their  disastrous  expedition  to  Sicily. 
 996 
 
 {Vid.  Syracnsac.)  Sicily  proved  a  rock  against  which 
 their  resources  and  eflforts  were  fruitlessly  expended. 
 And  Sparta,  which  furnished  but  a  commander  and  a 
 handful  of  men  for  the  defence  of  Syracuse,  soon  be- 
 held her  antagonist  reduced,  by  a  series  of  unparalleled 
 misfortunes,  to  a  state  of  the  utmost  distress  and  weak- 
 ness. The  accustomed  [irocrastination  of  the  Spar- 
 tans, and  the  timid  policy  to  which  they  ever  adhered, 
 alone  preserved  Athens  in  this  critical  moment,  or  at 
 least  retarded  her  downfall.  Time  was  allowed  for 
 her  citizens  to  recover  from  the  panic  and  consterna- 
 tion occasioned  by  the  news  of  the  Sicilian  disaster; 
 and,  instead  of  viewing  the  hostile  fleets,  as  they  had 
 anticipated,  ravaging  their  coasts  and  blockading  the 
 Pirffius,  they  were  enabled  still  to  dispute  the  empire 
 of  the  sea,  and  to  preserve  the  most  valuable  of  their 
 dependancies.  Alcibiades,  whose  exile  had  proved  so 
 injurious  to  his  country,  since  it  was  to  his  counsels 
 alone  that  the  successes  of  her  enemies  are  to  be  at- 
 tributed, now  interposed  in  her  behalf,  and  by  his  in- 
 trigues prevented  the  Persian  satrap,  Tissaphernes, 
 from  placing  at  the  disposal  of  the  Spartan  admiral 
 that  superiority  of  force  which  must  at  once  have  termi- 
 r.ated  the  war  by  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Athe- 
 nian republic.  (Thucyd.,  lib.,  8.)  The  temporary  rev- 
 olution which  was  effected  at  Athens  by  his  contri-' 
 vance  also,  and  which  placed  the  state  at  variance 
 with  the  fleet  and  army  stationed  at  Samos,  afforded 
 him  another  opportunity  of  rendering  a  real  service  to 
 his  country  by  moderating  the  violence  and  animosity^ 
 of  the  latter.  The  victory  of  Cynossema  and  the  sub- 
 sequent successes  of  Alcibiades,  now  elected  to  the 
 chief  command  of  the  forces  of  his  country,  once  more 
 restored  Athens  to  the  command  of  the  sea,  and,  had 
 she  reposed  that  confidence  in  the  talents  of  her  gen- 
 eral which  they  deserved  and  her  necessities  requiredv 
 the  efforts  of  Sparta  and  the  gold  of  Persia  might  have 
 proved  unavailing.  But  the  second  exile  of  Alcibia- 
 des, and,  still  more,  the  iniquitous  sentence  which  con- 
 demned to  death  the  generals  who  fought  and  con- 
 quered at  Arginusffi,  sealed  the  ruin  of  Athens;  and 
 the  battle  of  Argos  Potamos  at  length  terminated  a 
 contest  which  had  been  carried  on,  with  scarcely  any 
 intermission,  during  a  period  of  twenty-seven  years, 
 with  a  spirit  and  animosity  unparalleled  in  the  annals 
 of  warfare.  Lysander  now  sailed  to  Athens,  receiving 
 as  he  went  the  submission  of  the  allies,  and  blockaded 
 the  city,  which  surrendered  after  a  few  months  (B.C. 
 404)  on  terms  dictated  by  Sparta,  with  a  view  of  ma- 
 king Athens  a  useful  ally  by  giving  the  ascendancy  in 
 the  state  to  the  oligarchical  [)arly.  The  history  of  the 
 Peloponnesian  war  was  written  by  Thucydidcs,  upon 
 whose  accuracy  and  impartiality,  as  far  as  his  narrative 
 goes,  we  may  place  the  fullest  dependance.  His  his- 
 tory ends  abruptly  in  the  year  41 1  B.C.  For  the  rest 
 of  the  war  we  have  to  follow  Xcnophon  and  Dio- 
 dorus.  The  value  of  Xenophon's  history  is  impaired 
 by  his  prejudices,  and  that  of  Diodorus  by  his  careless- 
 ness. {Encyd.  Us.  Knowl.,  vol.  17,  p.  389,  scqq. — 
 Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  299,  seq.) 
 
 Peloponnesus  {TLc?.o7r6i>vt]aog),  that  is,  according 
 to  the  commonly-received  explanation,  "  the  island  of 
 Pelops"'  (IleAoTrof  vt'/ao^),  a  celebrated  peninsula,  com- 
 prehending the  most  southern  part  of  Greece,  and 
 which  would  be  an  island  were  it  not  for  the  Isthmus* 
 of  Corinth.  Its  name  is  said  to  have  been  derived 
 from  Pelops,  who  is  reported  by  the  later  Greek  my- 
 tliologists  to  have  been  of  Phrygian  origin.  Thucyd- 
 ides,  however  (1,  9),  simply  observes  that  he  came 
 from  Asia,  and  brought  great  wealth  with  him.  He 
 married  Hippodamia^  the  daughter  of  CEnomaus,  king 
 of  Pisa  in  Elis,  and  succeeded  to  his  kingdom.  Pe- 
 lops is  said  also  to  have  subseijuently  extended  his  do- 
 minions over  many  of  the  districts  bordering  upon  Elis, 
 whence  the  whole  country,  according  to  the  common 
 account,  obtained  the  name  of  Peloponnesus.     Aga- 
 
PELOPONNESUS. 
 
 PEL 
 
 memnon  and  Menclaijs  were  descended  from  him. — 
 Such  is  the  mythic  legend  relative  to  the  origin  of  the 
 name  Pclo])onnesus.  The  word,  however,  does  not 
 occur  in  Homer.  The  original  name  of  the  peninsula 
 appears  to  have  been  Apia  {Horn.,  II.,  1,  270 — /(/.  ib., 
 3,  49),  and  it  was  so  called,  according  to  iEschylus 
 (SuppL,  255),  from  Apis,  a  son  of  Apollo,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  Pausanias  (2,  5,  5),  from  Apis,  a  son  of  Telchin, 
 and  descendant  of  /Egialcus.  When  Argos  had  the 
 supremacy,  the  peninsula,  according  to  Strabo  (371), 
 was  sometimes  called  Argos ;  and,  indeed,  Homer 
 seerfis  to  use  the  term  Argos,  in  some  case*,  as  inclu- 
 ding the  whole  peninsula.  {Tliucijd.,  1,  9.)  The  ori- 
 gin, therefore,  of  the  name  Peloponnesus  still  remains 
 open  to  investigation.  It  is  possible  that  Pelops,  in- 
 stead of  having  actually  existed,  may  be  merely  a  sym- 
 bol re])rcsenting  an  old  race  by  the  name  of  Pelopes, 
 according  to  the  analogy  which  we  find  in  the  national 
 appellations  of  the  Dryopes,  Meropes,  Dolopes,  and 
 others.  The  Peloponnesus,  then,  will  have  derived 
 its  name  from  this  old  race,  and  the  very  term  Pclopcs 
 (Pel-opes)  itself  will  receive  something  like  confirma- 
 tion from  the  ingenious  remarks  of  Buttmann  relative 
 to  the  early  population  along  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
 terranean. {Vid.  Apia,  and  Opici.)  After  the  line  of 
 tlie  mythic  Pelops  had  become  celebrated  in  epic  poe- 
 try as  the  lords  of  all  Argos  and  of  many  islands,  the 
 name  of  Peloponnesus  would  appear  to  have  come  ir.to 
 general  use,  and,  by  a  common  error,  to  have  been 
 transferred  from  the  race  or  nation  of  the  Pelopes  to 
 their  fabulous  leader.  {Vid.  Pelops.) — Peloponnesus, 
 -hough  inferior  in  extent  to  the  northern  portion  of 
 Greece,  may  be  looked  upon,  says  Strabo,  as  the  acrop- 
 olis of  Hellas,  both  from  its  position,  and  the  power 
 and  celebrity  of  the  different  people  by  which  it  was 
 inhabited.  In  shape  it  resembled  the  leaf  of  a  plane- 
 kree,  being  indented  by  numerous  bays  on  all  sides. 
 \Strab.,  335.— P/m.,  4,  b.—Dionys.' Per.,  403.)  It 
 is  from  this  circumstance  that  the  modern  name  oi  Mo- 
 rca  is  doubtlessly  derived,  that  word  signifying  a  mul- 
 berry leaf. — Strabo  estimates  the  breadth  of  the  penin- 
 sula at  1400  stadia  from  Cape  Chelonatas,  now  Cape 
 Torncsc,  its  westernmost  point,  to  the  isthmus,  being 
 nearly  equal  to  its  length  from  Cape  Malea,  now  Cape 
 St.  Angela,  to  jEgium,  now  Voxlizza,  in  i\chaia.  Po- 
 lybius  reckons  its  periphery,  setting  aside  the  sinuosities 
 of  the  coast,  at  4000  stadia,  and  Artemidorus  at  4400  ; 
 but,  if  these  are  included,  the  number  of  stadia  must 
 be  increased  to  5600.  Pliny  says  that  "  Isidorus  com- 
 puted its  circumference  at  563  miles,  and  as  much 
 again  if  all  the  gulfs  were  taken  into  the  account.  The 
 narrow  stem  from  which  it  expands  is  called  the  isth- 
 mus. At  this  point  the  ^gean  and  Ionian  seas,  break- 
 ing in  from  opposite  quarters  north  and  east,  eat  away 
 all  its  width,  till  a  narrow  neck  of  five  miles  in  breadth 
 is  all  that  connects  Peloponnesus  with  Greece.  On 
 one  side  is  the  Corinthian,  on  the  other  the  Saronic 
 Gulf.  Lechajum  and  Cenchrene  are  situated  on  oppo- 
 site extremities  of  the  isthmus,  a  long  and  hazardous 
 circumnavigation  for  ships,  the  size  of  which  prevents 
 their  being  carried  over  land  in  wagons.  For  this  rea- 
 son various  attempts  have  been  made  to  cut  a  naviga- 
 ble canal  across  the  isthmus  by  King  Demetrius,  Ju- 
 lius Ca?sar,  Caligula,  and  Nero,  but  in  every  instance 
 without  success."  {I'iin.,  4,  5.)  —  On  the  north  the 
 Peloponnesus  is  bounded  by  the  Ionian  Sea,  on  the 
 west  by  that  of  Sicily,  to  the  south  and  southeast  by 
 that  of  Libya  and  Crete,  and  to  the  northeast  by  the 
 Myrtoan  and  JSgean.  These  several  seas  form  in 
 succession  five  extensive  gulfs  along  its  shores  :  the 
 (^orinthiacus  Sinus,  now  Gulf  of  Corinth  or  Lcpanto, 
 which  separated  the  northern  coast  from  JEloUa,  Lo- 
 cris,  and  Phocis  ;  the  Sinus  Messcniacus,  now  Gulf 
 of  Coron,  on  the  coast  of  Messenia  ;  the  Sinus  Lacon- 
 icus,  now  Gulf  of  Colohjthia,  on  that  of  Laconia ; 
 the  Sinus  Argolicus,  now  Gulf  of  Napoli ;  and,  lastly. 
 
 the  Sinus  Saronicus^aname  derived  from  Saron,  which 
 in  ancient  Greek  sigrnficd  an  oak  leaf  (Flin.,  4,  6), 
 now  called  Gulf  of  Engia.  {Strab.,  I.  c.) — The  prin- 
 cipal mountains  of  Peloponnesus  are,  those  of  Cyllene 
 {Zijria)  and  Erymanthus  (Olonos)  in  Arcadia,  and 
 Taygetus  {St.  Elias)  in  Laconia.  Its  rivers  are,  the 
 Alpheus,  now  Rouphm,  passing  through  Arcadia  and 
 Elis,  and  discharging  itself  into  the  Sicilian  Sea  ;  the 
 Eurotas,  or  Basilipotamo,  watering  Laconia,  and  fall- 
 ing into  the  Sinus  Laconicus  ;  the  Pamisus,  or  Pir- 
 natza,  a  river  of  Messenia,  falling  into  the  Smus  Mes- 
 seniacus.  The  Peloponnesus  contains  but  one  small 
 lake,  which  is  that  of  Stymphaius,  or  Zaracca,  in  Ar- 
 cadia.— According  to  the  best  modern  maps,  the  area 
 of  the  whole  peninsula  may  be  estimated  at  7800  square 
 miles  ;  and  in  the  more  flourishing  period  of  Grecian 
 history,  an  approximate  computation  of  the  population 
 of  its  different  states  furnishes  upward  of  a  million  as 
 'he  aggregate  number  of  its  inhabitants. — The  divisions 
 of  the  Peloponnesus  were  Achaia,  Elis,  Messenia,  La- 
 conia, Argolis.  and  x\rcadia.  [Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p.  1,  seqq.) 
 
 Peloi's,  son  of  Tantalus  king  of  Phrygia,  and  cel- 
 ebrated in  both  the  mythic  and  historical  legends  of 
 Greece.  At  an  entertainment  given  to  the  gods  by 
 Tantalus,  the  latter,  in  order  to  try  their  divinity,  is 
 said  to  have  killed  and  dressed  his  son  Pelops,  and  to 
 have  set  him  for  food  before  them.  The  assembled 
 deities,  however,  immediately  perceived  the  horrid  na- 
 ture of  the  banquet,  and  all  abstained  from  it  with  the 
 exception  of  Ceres,  who,  engrossed  with  the  loss  of 
 her  daughter  Proserpina,  in  a  moment  of  abstractioi 
 ate  one  of  the  shoulders  of  the  boy.  At  the  desire  ot 
 Jupiter,  Mercury  put  all  the  parts  back  into  tlie  cal- 
 dron, and  then  drew  forth  the  young  Pelops  alive  again, 
 and  perfect  in  all  his  parts  except  the  shoulder,  which 
 was  replaced  by  an  ivory  one,  that  was  said  to  possess 
 the  power  of  removing  every  disorder  and  healing  ev- 
 ery complaint  by  its  touch.  Hence,  says  the  scholiast 
 to  Pindar,  the  descendants  of  Pelops  had  all  such  a 
 shoulder  as  this  {tolovtov  dxov  rov  Cipov. —  Schol. 
 ad  Pi?id.,  01.,  1,  38).  The  ivory  shoulder  of  Pelops 
 became  also  a  subject  for  the  painter,  as  appears  from 
 Philostratus  {Imag.,  1,  30,  p.  807),  where  Pelops  i.s 
 said  aaTpuiliai  tu  u/ig),  "  to  flash  forth  rays  of  light 
 from  his  shoulder."  The  shoulder  of  the  son  of  Tan- 
 talus also  plays  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  legend  of 
 Troy.  The  soothsayers,  it  seems,  had  declared  that 
 the  city  of  Priam  would  never  be  taken  until  the 
 Greeks  should  have  brought  to  their  camp  the  arrows 
 of  Hercules  and  one  of  the  bones  of  Pelops.  Ac- 
 cordingly, the  shoulder-blade  {upoTcXaTTj)  of  the  son  of 
 Tantalus  was  brought  from  Pisa  to  Troy.  {Pausan., 
 5,  13,  3 — B'uchh,  ad  Pind.,  I.  c.)  Another  legend 
 states,  that  the  Palladium  in  Troy  was  made  of  the 
 bones  of  Pelops.  {Vnl.  Palladium.) — But  to  return 
 to  the  regular  narrative  :  Neptune,  attracted  by  the 
 beauty  of  Pelops,  carried  him  off  in  his  golden  car  to 
 Olvmpus,  where  he  remained  until  his  father  Tantalus 
 had  drawn  on  himself  the  indignation  of  the  gods, 
 when  they  sent  Pelops  once  more  down  to  the  "  swift- 
 fated  race  of  men."  {Pind.,  01,  1,  60,  s«yy.)— When 
 Pelops  had  attained  to  manhood,  he  resolved  to  seek 
 in  marriage  Hippodamia,  the  daughter  of  Cthiomaus, 
 king  of  Pisa.  An  oracle  having  told  this  prince  that 
 he  would  lose  his  life  through  his  son-in-law,  or,  as 
 others  say,  being  unwilling,  on  account  of  her  surpass- 
 ing beauty,  to  part  with  her,  he  proclaimed  that  he 
 would  give  his  daughter  only  to  the  one  who  should 
 conquer  him  in  the  chariot-race.  The  race  was  from 
 the  banks  of  the  Cladius  in  Elis  to  the  altar  of  Nep- 
 tune at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  it  was  run  in  the 
 following  manner  .  CEnomaiis,  placing  his  daughter 
 in  the  chariot  with  the  suiter,  gave  him  the  start ;  he 
 himself  followed  with  a  spear  in  his  hand,  and,  if  he 
 overtook   the   unhappy  lover,  he  ran  him   through.— 
 
 997 
 
PELOPS. 
 
 PEL 
 
 Tliiiteen  had  already  lost  their  lives  when  Pelops 
 came.  In  the  dead  of  the  night,  says  Pindar,  Ptlops 
 went  down  to  the  margin  of  the  sea,  and  invoked  the 
 god  who  rules  it.  On  a  sudden  Neptime  stood  at  his 
 feet,  and  Pelops  conjured  him,  hy  the  memory  of  his 
 former  affection,  to  grant  him  the  means  of  obtaining 
 the  lovely  daughter  of  Qilnomaiis.  Neptune  heard  his 
 prayer,  and  hostowcd  u[)on  him  a  golden  chariot,  and 
 horses  of  winged  speed.  relo])s  then  went  to  Pisa 
 to  contend  for  the  prize.  He  bribed  Myrlilus,  son  of 
 Mercury,  the  charioteer  of  CEnoinaiis,  to  leave  out  the 
 hnchpins  of  the  wheels  of  his  chariot,  or,  as  others 
 say,  10  put  in  waxen  ones  instead  of  iron.  In  the 
 race,  therefore,  the  chariot  of  CEnomaiis  broke  down, 
 and  he  fell  out  and  was  killed,  and  thus  Ilippodamia 
 became  the  bride  of  Pelops.  {Sclwl.  ad  Find.,  01., 
 1,  Ui.—Hi/gin.,  fab.,  Si.—Pmd.,  01.,  1,  114,  scqcj. 
 —Apoll.  Rhod.,  1,  752.  —  SchoL,  ad  loc.—Tzelz.  ad 
 Lycophr.,  156.)  Pelops  is  said  to  have  promised 
 Myrtdus,  for  his  aid,  one  half  of  his  kingdom,  or,  as 
 other  accounts  have  it,  to  have  made  a  most  dishon- 
 ourable agreement  of  another  nature  with  him.  Un- 
 willing, however,  to  keep  his  promise,  he  took  an  op- 
 portunity, as  they  were  driving  along  a  cliff,  to  throw 
 Myrtilus  into  the  sea,  where  he  was  drowned.  To 
 the  vengeance  of  Mercury  for  the  death  of  his  son 
 were  ascribed  all  the  future  woes  of  the  line  of  Pelops. 
 (Soph.,  Eleclr.,  50t,  seijq.)  Hippodamia  bore  to  Pe- 
 lops five  sons,  Atreus,  Thyestes,  Copreus,  Alcathoiis, 
 and  Pittheus,  and  two  daughters,  Nicippe  and  Lysid- 
 ice,  who  married  Sthenclus  and  Mestor,  sons  of  Per- 
 seus.— The  question  as  to  the  personality  of  Pelops 
 has  been  considered  in  a  previous  article  {tjid.  Pelo- 
 ponnesus), and  the  opinion  has  there  been  advanced 
 which  makes  him  to  have  been  merely  the  symbol  of 
 an  ancient  race  called  Pelopes.  To  those,  however, 
 who  arc  inclined  to  regard  Pelops  as  an  actual  per- 
 sonage, the  following  remarks  of  Mr.  Thirlwall  may 
 not  prove  uninteresting:  "According  to  a  tradition, 
 which  appears  to  be  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of 
 Thucydides,  Pelops  passed  over  from  Asia  to  Greece 
 with  treasures,  which,  in  a  poor  co\intry,  afforded  him 
 the  means  of  founding  a  new  dynasty.  His  descend- 
 ants sat  for  three  generations  on  the  throne  of  Argos  : 
 their  power  was  generally  acknowledged  throughout 
 Greece  ;  and,  in  the  historian's  opinion,  united  the 
 Grecian  states  in  the  expedition  against  Troy.  The 
 renown  of  their  ancestor  was  transmitted  to  posterity 
 fiy  the  name  of  the  southern  peninsula,  called  after 
 him  Peloponnesus,  or  the  isle  of  Pelops.  Most  au- 
 thors, however,  fix  his  native  seat  in  the  Lydian  town 
 of  Sipylus,  where  his  father  Tantalus  was  fabled  to 
 have  reigned  in  more  than  mortal  prosperity,  till  he 
 abused  the  favour  of  the  gods,  and  provoked  them  to 
 destroy  him.  The  poetical  legends  varied  as  to  the 
 marvellous  causes  through  which  the  abode  of  Pelops 
 was  transferred  from  Sipylus  to  Pisa,  where  he  won 
 the  daughter  and  the  crown  of  the  bloodthirsty  tyrant. 
 CEnomaiis  as  the  prize  of  his  victory  in  the  chariot- 
 race.  The  authors  who,  like  Thucydides,  saw  no- 
 thing in  the  story  but  a  political  transaction,  related  that 
 Pelops  had  been  driven  from  his  native  land  by  an  in- 
 vasion of  Ilus,  king  of  Troy  [Pausan.,  2,  22,  3)  ;  and 
 lience  it  has  very  naturally  been  inferred,  that,  in 
 leading  the  Greeks  against  Troy,  .Agamemnon  was 
 merely  avenging  the  wrongs  of  his  ancestor.  {Kmse, 
 Hellas,  vol.  1,  p.  48.5.)  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
 been  observed  that,  far  from  giving  any  countenance 
 to  this  hypothesis,  Homer,  though  he  records  the  gen- 
 ealogy by  which  the  sceptre  of  Pelops  was  transmitted 
 to  Agamemnon,  nowhere  alludes  to  the  Asiatic  ori- 
 gin of  the  house.  As  little  does  he  seem  to  have 
 heard  of  the  adventures  of  the  Lydian  stranger  at  Pi- 
 sa. The  zeal  with  which  the  Eleans  maintained  this 
 part  of  the  storv,  manifestly  with  a  view  to  exalt  the 
 antiquity  and  tlie  lustre  of  the  Olympic  games,  over 
 998 
 
 which  they  presided,  raises  a  natural  suspicion  that 
 the  hero's  connexion  with  the  East  may  have  been  a 
 mere  fiction,  occasioned  by  a  like  interest,  and  prop- 
 agated by  like  arts.  This  distrust  is  confirmed  by  the 
 religious  form  which  the  legend  was  finally  made  to 
 assume  when  it  was  combined  with  an  Asiatic  super- 
 stition, which  found  its  way  into  Greece  after  the 
 lime  of  Homer.  The  seeming  sanction  of  Thucydi- 
 des loses  almost  all  its  weight,  when  we  observe  that 
 he  does  not  deliver  his  own  judgment  on  the  question, 
 but  merely  adopts  the  opinion  of  the  Peloponnesian 
 antiquaries,  which  he  found  best  adapted  to  his  pur- 
 pose of  illultrating  the  progress  of  society  in  Greece." 
 {ThiiiwaU's  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  70.)  Mr.  Kenrick  sees 
 in  Pelops  the  dark-fo.ced  one  {ireTiog  and  tjtp),  and 
 thinks  that  the  reference  is  to  a  system  of  religion, 
 characterized  by  dark  and  mysterious  rites,  which 
 spread  from  Phrygia  into  Greece.  {Plalol.  Museum, 
 No.  5,  p.  353.)  For  another  explanation  of  the  le- 
 gend of  Pelops,  consult  remarks  under  the  article 
 Tantalus. 
 
 Pelorus  (v.  is-idis,  v.  ias-iados),  now  Cape  Faro, 
 one  of  the  three  great  promontories  of  Sicily.  It  lies 
 near  the  coast  of  Italy,  and  is  said  to  have  received 
 its  name  from  Pelorus,  the  pilot  of  the  ship  which  car- 
 ried Hannibal  away  from  Italy.  This  celebrated  gen- 
 eral, as  it  is  reported,  was  carried  by  the  tide  into  the 
 straits  between  Italy  and  Sicily  ;  and,  as  he  was  igno- 
 rant of  the  coast,  and  perceived  no  passage  through 
 (for,  in  consequence  of  the  route  vvhich  the  vessel  was 
 pursuing,  the  promontories  on  either  side  seemed  to 
 join),  he  suspected  the  pilot  of  an  intention  to  deliver 
 him  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  and  killed  him  on 
 the  spot.  He  was  soon,  however,  convinced  of  his 
 error,  and,  to  atone  for  his  rashness  and  pay  honour  to 
 his  pilot's  memory,  he  gave  him  a  magnificent  funeral, 
 and  called  the  promontory  on  the  Sicilian  shore  after 
 his  name,  having  erected  on  it  a  tomb  with  a  statue 
 of  Pelorus.  (  Val.  Max.,  9,  8.— Mela,  2,  7.—Strab., 
 5.  —  Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  411,  687.  — Ovid,  Met.,  5,  350  ; 
 13,  727  ;  15,  706.)— This  whole  story  is  fabulous  ; 
 nor  is  that  other  one  in  any  respect  more  worthy  of 
 belief,  which  makes  the  promontory  in  question  to 
 have  derived  its  name  from  a  colossal  (TreXupiog)  stat- 
 ue of  Orion  placed  upon  it,  and  who  was  fabled  to 
 have  broken  through  and  formed  the  straits  and  prom- 
 ontory. (Diod.  Sic,  4,  85. — Mannerl,  Geogr.,  \o\. 
 9,  pt.  2,  p.  264.)  The  name  is,  in  fact,  much  older 
 than  the  days  of  Hannibal.  Polybius,  a  contemporary 
 of  the  Carthaginian  commander,  gives  the  appellation 
 of  Pelorius  to  this  cape  without  the  least  allusion  to 
 the  story  of  the  pilot :  Thucydides,  long  before  the 
 time  of  Hannibal,  speaks  of  Peloris  as  being  included 
 in  the  territory  of  Messana  (4,  25)  :  and,  indeed,  it 
 may  be  safely  asserted  that  Hannibal  never  was  in 
 these  straits. — The  promontory  of  Pelorus  is  sandy,' 
 but  Silius  Italicus  errs  when  he  speaks  of  its  being  a 
 lofty  one  (14,  79).  It  is  a  low  point  of  land,  and  the 
 sand-flats  around  contain  some  salt-meadows.  Soli- 
 nus  describes  them  with  an  intermixture  of  fable  (c. 
 l\).  The  passage  directly  across  to  Italy  is  the  short- 
 est ;  but  as  there  is  no  harbour  here,  and  the  current 
 runs  to  the  south,  the  route  from  the  Italian  shore  is 
 a  southwestern  one  to  Messana.  The  Italian  prom- 
 ontory facing  Pelorus  is  that  of  Casnys.  (Mavinerl, 
 Gcogr,  vol  9,  pt.  2,  p.  205.) 
 
 Peltje,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  southeast  of  Cotyaeuin, 
 mentioned  by  Xenophon  in  his  narrative  of  the  retreat 
 of  the  Ten  Thousand  (1,  2).  He  describes  it  as  well 
 inhabited.  Pliny  (5,  27)  speaks  of  Pelts  as  belong- 
 ing to  the  Conventus  Juridicus  of  Apamea.  In  the  no- 
 tices of  the  ecclesiastical  writers  it  appears  as  the  seat 
 of  a  bishopric.  Xenophon  makes  the  distance  be- 
 tween it  and  Cela)nas  ten  parasangs.  We  must  look 
 for  the  site  of  this  place  to  the  north  of  the  Maeander, 
 i.:d  wobably  in  the  valley  and  plaic  'orwed  by  the 
 
PEN 
 
 PEN 
 
 western  branch  of  that  river,  now  called  Askli-tchai, 
 out  formerly  Glaucus.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2, 
 p.  24. — Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  104. — Com- 
 pare RennelVs  Geography  of  Western  Asia,  vol.  2,  p. 
 141,  seqq.,  in  notis.) 
 
 Pelusium,  an  important  city  of  Egypt,  at  the  en- 
 trance of  the  Pelusiac  mouth  of  the  Nile,  and  about 
 20  stadia  from  the  sea.  It  was  surrounded  by  marsh- 
 es, and  was  with  truth  regarded  as  '.he  key  of  Egypt 
 in  this  quarter.  An  Arabian  horde  might  indeed  trav- 
 erse the  desert  on  this  side  without  approaching  Pe- 
 lusium;  but  an  invading  army  would  be  utterly  una- 
 ble to  pass  through  this  sandy  waste,  where  water 
 completely  failed.  The  route  of  the  laiter  would  have 
 to  be  more  to  the  north,  and  here  they  would  encoun- 
 ter Pelusiuin,  surrounded  with  lakes  and  marshes,  and 
 which  extended  from  the  walls  of  the  city  down  to 
 the  very  coast.  Hence  it  was  that  the  Persian  force 
 sent  against  King  Nectanebis  did  not  venture  to  at- 
 tack the  city,  but  sailed  into  the  Mendesian  mouth 
 with  their  vessels.  (Diod.  Sic,  15,  42.)  Subse- 
 quently, however,  the  Persians  diverted  the  course  of 
 that  arm  of  the  Nile  on  which  the  city  stood,  and  suc- 
 ceeded in  throwing  down  the  walls  and  taking  the 
 place.  Pelusium,  after  this,  was  again  more  than 
 once  taken,  and  gradually  sank  in  importance.  Ptol- 
 emy does  not  even  name  it  as  the  capital  of  a  Nome. 
 In  the  reign  of  Augustus,  however,  it  became  the 
 chief  city  of  the  newly-erected  province  of  Augustam- 
 nica.  The  name  of  this  city  is  evidently  of  Grecian 
 origin,  and  is  derived  from  the  term  nr]?i6r,  mud,  in 
 allusion  to  its  peculiar  situation.  It  would  seem  to 
 have  received  this  name  at  a  very  early  period,  since 
 Herodotus  gives  it  as  the  usual  one,  without  alluding 
 to  any  older  term.  Most  probably  the  appellation  was 
 first  given  under  the  latter  Pharaohs,  and  a  short  time 
 previous  to  the  Persian  sway,  since  about  this  time 
 the  Greeks  were  first  allowed  to  have  any  regular 
 commercial  intercourse  with  the  ports  of  Egypt.  To 
 give  a  more  reputable  explanation  of  the  Grecian 
 name  than  that  immediately  suggested  by  its  root,  the 
 mythologists  fabled  that  Peleus,  the  father  of  Achilles, 
 came  to  this  quarter,  for  the  purpose  of  purifying  him- 
 self, from  the  murder  of  his  brother  Phocus,  in  the  lake 
 that  afterward  washed  the  walls  of  Pelusium,  being 
 ordered  so  to  do  by  the  gods ;  and  that  he  became 
 the  founder  of  the  city.  {Anim.  MarcelL,  S2,  16.) — 
 As  soon  as  the  easternmost  or  Pelusiac  mouth  of  the 
 Nile  was  diverted  from  its  usual  course,  Pelusium,  as 
 has  already  been  remarked,  began  to  sink  in  impor- 
 tance, and  soon  lost  all  its  consequence  as  a  frontier 
 town,  and  even  as  a  place  of  trade.  It  fell  back 
 eventually  to  its  primitive  mire  and  earth,  the  mate- 
 rials of  which  it  was  built  having  been  merely  burned 
 bricks;  and  hence,  among  the  ruins  of  Pelusium  at 
 the  present  day,  there  are  no  remains  of  stone  edifices, 
 no  large  temples  ;  the  ground  is  merely  covered  with 
 heaps  of  earth  and  rubbish.  Near  the  ruins  stands  a 
 dilapidated  castle  or  fortress  named  Tinch,  the  Arabic 
 term  for  "  mire." 
 
 Penates,  a  name  given  to  a  certain  class  of  house- 
 hold deities  among  the  Romans,  who  were  worshipped 
 in  the  innermost  part  of  their  dwellings.  For  the 
 points  of  distinction  between  them  and  the  Lares,  con- 
 sult the  laiter  article. 
 
 Pknei.oi'p:,  a  princess  of  Greece,  daughter  of  Ica- 
 rius,  brother  of  Tyndarus  king  of  Sparta,  and  of  Po- 
 lycastc  or  Periboea.  She  became  the  wife  of  Ulysses, 
 monarch  of  Ithaca,  and  her  marriage  was  celebrated 
 about  the  same  time  with  that  of  Menelaus  and  Helen. 
 Penelope  became  by  Ulysses  the  mother  of  Telema- 
 chus,  and  was  obliged  soon  after  to  part  with  her  hus- 
 band, whom  the  Greeks  compelled  to  go  to  the  Tro- 
 jan war.  (Fi'i.  Ulysses.)  Twenty  years  passed  awav, 
 and  Ulysses  returned  not  to  his  home.  Meanwhile, 
 his  palace  at  Ithaca  was  crowded  with  numerous  and 
 
 importunate  suiters,  aspiring  to  the  hand  of  the  ouepti. 
 Her  relations  also  urged  her  to  abandon  all  thoughts 
 of  the  probability  of  her  husband's  return,  and  not  to 
 disregard,  as  she  had,  the  solicitations  of  the  rival  as- 
 pirants to  her  favour.  Penelope,  however,  exerted 
 every  resource  which  her  ingenuity  could  suggest  to 
 protract  the  period  of  her  decision  :  among  others, 
 she  declared  that  she  would  make  choice  of  one  of 
 them  as  soon  as  she  should  have  completed  a  web 
 that  she  was  weaving  (intended  as  a  funeral  ornament 
 for  the  aged  Laertes) ;  but  she  baffled  their  expecta- 
 tions by  undoing  at  night  what  she  had  accomplished 
 during  the  day.  This  artifice  has  given  rise  to  the 
 proverb  of  "  Penelope's  web,"  or  "  to  unweave  the 
 web  of  Penelope"  {Penelopes  telam  retcxerc),  applied 
 to  whatever  labour  appears  to  be  endless.  {Erasm., 
 Adag.  ChiL,  1,  cent.  4,  col.  145.)  For  three  years 
 this  artifice  succeeded  ;  but,  on  the  beginning  of  a 
 fourth,  a  disclosure  was  made  by  one  of  her  female 
 attendants  ;  and  the  faithful  and  unhappy  Penelope, 
 constrained  at  length  by  the  renewed  importunities  of 
 her  persecutors,  agreed,  at  their  instigation,  to  bestow 
 her  hand  on  him  who  should  shoot  an  arrow  from  the 
 bow  of  Ulysses  through  a  given  number  of  axe-eyes 
 placed  in  succession.  An  individual  disguised  as  a 
 beggar  was  the  successful  archer.  This  was  no  other 
 than  Ulysses,  who  had  just  returned  to  Ithaca.  The 
 hero  then  directed  his  shafts  at  the  suiters,  and  slew 
 them  all.  {V^d.  Ulysses.) — The  character  of  Penel- 
 ope has  been  variously  represented  ;  but  it  is  the 
 more  popular  opinion  that  she  is  to  be  considered  as 
 a  model  of  conjugal  and  domestic  virtue.  {ApoUod., 
 3,  10,  11.  —  Hcyne,  ad  lac.  —  Horn.,  Od.  —  Hygin., 
 fah.,\27.—Ovid,Her.Ep.,l.) 
 
 Peneus,  I.  a  river  of  Thessaly,  rising  in  the  chain 
 of  Pindus,  and  falling  into  the  Smus  Thermaicus  after 
 traversing  the  whole  breadth  of  the  country.  Towards 
 its  mouth  it  flows  through  the  celebrated  Vale  of  Tempe. 
 {Vid.  Tempe.)  It  seems  to  have  been  the  general 
 opinion  of  antiquity,  founded  on  very  early  traditions, 
 that  the  great  basin  of  Thessaly  was  at  some  remote 
 period  covered  by  the  waters  of  the  Peneus  and  its 
 tributary  rivers,  until  some  convulsion  of  nature  had 
 rent  asunder  the  gorge  of  Tempe,  and  thus  afforded  a 
 passage  to  the  pent-up  streams.  This  opinion,  which 
 was  first  reported  by  Herodotus  in  his  account  of  the 
 march  of  Xerxes  (7,  129),  is  repeated  by  Strabo,  who 
 observes  in  confirmation  of  it,  that  the  Peneus  in  his 
 day  was  still  liable  to  frequent  inundations,  and  alsc 
 that  the  land  in  Thessaly  is  higher  towards  the  sea 
 than  towards  the  more  central  parts.  (StraL,  430.) 
 The  Peneus  is  called  Salambria  by  Tzelzes  {ChiL,  9, 
 707),  and  Salabria  and  Salampria  by  some  of  the  By- 
 zantine historians,  which  name  appears  to  be  derived 
 from  aaluiiSri,  "  an  outlet,"  and  was  applicable  to  it 
 more  particularly  at  the  Vale  of  Tempe,  where  it  has 
 forced  a  passage  through  the  rocks  of  Ossa  and  Olym- 
 pus. {Dodwell,  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  102.)  The  Peneus 
 is  said  to  l)e  never  dry,  though  in  summer  it  is  shal- 
 low :  after  heavy  rains,  and  the  sudden  melting  of  the 
 snow  on  Pindus,  it  sometimes  overflows  its  banks, 
 when  the  impetuous  torrent  of  its  waters  sweeps  avyay 
 houses  and  inundates  the  neighbouring  plain,  ^iian, 
 in  his  description  of  Tempe  {V.  H.,  3,  1),  makes  the 
 Peneus  flow  through  the  vale  as  smoothly  as  oil :  and 
 Dodwell  remarks,  that,  in  its  course  through  the  town 
 of  Larissa,  it  has  at  the  presest  day  a  surface  as  smooth 
 as  oil.  The  intelligent  traveller  just  mentioned  ob- 
 serves in  relation  to  this  river,  "  Many  authors  have 
 extolled  the  diaphanous  purity  of  the  Peneus,  although 
 it  must  in  all  periods  have  exhibited  a  muddy  appear- 
 ance, at  least  during  its  progress  through  the  Thes- 
 salian  plain  ;  for  who  can  e.xpect  a  current  of  lucij 
 crystal  in  an  argillaceous  soill  Strabo,  Plmy,  and 
 others  have  misunderstood  the  meaning  of  Homer  (J7., 
 2.  756)  when  he  speaks  of  the  confluence  of  the  silvery 
 '        '  999 
 
PEN 
 
 PER 
 
 Pencus  and  the  beautiful  Titaresius,  which  he  says  do 
 not  mix  their  streams,  the  latter  flowing  like  oil  on  the 
 silver  waters  of  the  former.  Strabo,  in  complete  con- 
 tradiction to  the  meaning  of  Homer,  asserts  that  the 
 Peneus  is  clear,  and  the  Titaresius  nmddy.  Plmy  has 
 committed  tiie  same  error.  The  mud  of  the  Peneus  is 
 of  a  light  colour,  for  which  reason  Homer  gives  it  the 
 epithet  of  silvery.  The  Titaresius,  and  other  smaller 
 streams,  which  are  rolled  from  Olympus  and  Ossa,  are 
 so  extremely  clear,  that  their  waters  are  distinguished 
 from  those  of  the  Pencus  to  a  considerable  distance 
 from  the  pomt  of  their  confluence.  Barthclemy  has 
 followed  Strabo  and  Pliny,  and  has  given  an  interpre- 
 tation to  the  descriptive  lines  of  Homer  which  the  ori- 
 ginal was  never  intended  to  convey.  The  same  effect 
 is  seen  when  muddy  rivers  of  considerable  volume 
 mingle  with  the  sea  or  any  other  clear  water."  (Tour, 
 vol.  2,  p.  110.) — H.  A  river  of  Elis,  now  the  Igliaco, 
 falling  into  the  sea  a  short  distance  below  the  promon- 
 tory of  Chelonatas.  Modern  travellers  describe  it  as 
 a  broad  and  rapid  stream.  {Ilm.  of  the  Morea,  p.  32.) 
 I'he  city  of  Elis  was  situate  in  the  upper  part  of  its 
 course.  {Sirab.,  337.  —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol. 
 3,  p.  86.) 
 
 PennLv.e  Ali'es,  a  part  of  the  chain  of  the  Alps, 
 extending  from  the  Great  St.  Bernard  to  the  source 
 of  the  Rhone  and  Rhine.  The  name  is  derived  from 
 the  Celtic  Pom,  a  summit.     {Vid.  Alpes.) 
 
 Pbntapolis,  I.  a  town  of  India,  placed  by  Mannert 
 in  the  northeastern  angle  of  the  Sinus  Gangelicus,  or 
 liay  of  Bengal. — H.  A  name  given  to  Cyrena'ica  in 
 Africa,  from  its  five  cities.  (Vid.  Cyrena'ica.)  —  HI. 
 A  [)art  of  Palestine,  containing  the  five  cities  of  Ga- 
 za, Oath,  Ascalon,  Azotus,  and  Ekron. — IV.  A  name 
 applied  to  Dons  in  Asia  Minor,  after  Halicarnassus 
 had  been  excluded  from  the  Doric  confederacy.  {Vid. 
 Doris.) 
 
 Pentelicus,  a  mountain  of  Attica,  containing  quar- 
 ries of  beautiful  marble.  According  to  Dodwell  ( Tour, 
 vol.  1,  p.  493),  it  is  separated  from  the  northern  foot 
 of  Hymettus,  which  in  the  narrowest  part  is  about 
 three  miles  broad.  It  shoots  up  into  a  pointed  sum- 
 mit; but  the  outline  is  beautifully  varied,  and  the  great- 
 er part  is  either  mantled  with  woods  or  variegated  with 
 shrubs.  Several  villages  and  some  monasteries  and 
 churches  are  seen  near  its  base. — According  to  Sir 
 W.  Cell,  the  great  quarry  is  forty-one  minutes  dis- 
 tant from  the  monastery  of  Penteli.  and  affords  a  most 
 extensive  prospect  from  Cithosron  to  Sunium.  {Itin., 
 p.  64.)  "Mount  Pentelicus,"  observes  Hobhouse,  "at 
 this  day  called  Pendcle,  and  sometimes  Mendele,  must 
 be,  I  should  think,  one  third  higher  than  Hymettus, 
 and  its  height  is  the  more  apparent,  as  it  rises  with 
 a  peaked  summit  into  the  clouds.  The  range  of  Pen- 
 tehcus  runs  from  about  northwest  to  southeast,  at  no 
 great  distance  from  the  eastern  shore  of  Attica  over- 
 hanging the  plain  of  Marathon,  and  mixing  impercept- 
 ibly, at  its  northern  extremity,  with  the  hills  of  Bri- 
 lessus,  now  called,  as  well  as  part  of  Mount  Parnes, 
 Ozca.''  (Hobhouse,  Journey,  vol.  1,  p.  235,  scqq.) — 
 Interesting  accounts  of  visits  to  the  quarries  are  given 
 by  Dodwell  and  Hobhouse. 
 
 Penthesilea,  a  celebrated  queen  of  the  Amazons, 
 daughter  of  Mars,  who  came  to  the  aid  of  Priam  in  the 
 last  year  of  the  Trojan  war,  and  was  slain  by  Achilles 
 after  having  displayed  great  acts  of  valour.  Accord- 
 ma  to  Tzetzes,  Achilles,  after  he  had  slain  Penthesilea, 
 admiring  the  prowess  which  she  had  exhibited,  and 
 struck  by  the  beauty  of  the  corpse,  wished  the  Greeks 
 to  erect  g  tomb  to  her.  Thersites,  thereupon,  both 
 ridiculea  the  grief  which  the  hero  testilied  at  her  fall, 
 and  indulged  in  other  remarks  so  grossly  offensive  that 
 Achilles  slew  him  on  the  spot.  Diomede,  the  relative 
 of  Thersites,  in  revenge  for  his  loss,  dragged  the  dead 
 body  of  the  Amazon  out  of  the  camp,  and  threw  it  into 
 the  Scamander.  {Tzetz.  ad  Lvcophr.,  991}  —Did. 
 1000 
 
 Cret.,  4,  3. — Heyne  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  1,  490.)  Dares 
 Phrygius,  however,  makes  Penthesilea  to  have  been 
 slain  by  Neoptolemus.     (Dar.  Phryg.,  36.) 
 
 Pe.ntheus,  son  of  Echion  and  Agave,  and  king  of 
 Thebes  m  Boeotia.  During  his  reign,  Bacchus  came 
 from  the  East,  and  sought  to  introduce  his  orgies  into 
 his  native  city.  The  women  all  gave  enthusiastically 
 in  to  the  new  religion,  and  Mount  Citha^ron  resounded 
 with  the  frantic  yells  of  the  Bacchantes.  Pentheus 
 sought  to  check  their  fury  ;  but,  deceived  by  the  god, 
 he  went  secretly  and  ascended  a  tree  on  Cithsron,  to 
 be  an  ocular  witness  of  their  revels.  While  there  he 
 was  descried  by  his  mother  and  aunts,  to  whoiii  Bac- 
 chus made  him  appear  to  be  a  wild  beast,  and  he  was 
 torn  to  pieces  by  them.  (Eurip.,  Baccha. — Ajjollod., 
 3,  .5,  2.— Ovid,  Met.,  3,  511,  scqq.) 
 
 Peparethos,  a  small  island  in  the  -.■Egean  Sea,  off 
 the  coast  of  Thessaly,  and  in  a  northeastern  direction 
 from  Eubffia.  Pliny  (4,  12)  observes  that  it  was  for- 
 merly called  Evjenus,  and  assigns  to  it  a  circuit  of  nine 
 miles.  It  was  colonized  by  some  Cretans,  under  the 
 command  of  Staphylus.  (Scyrmi.,  Ch.,  579.)  The 
 island  produced  gorfd  wine  (Aihcn.,  1,  51)  and  oil. 
 (Ovid,  Met.,  7,  470.)  The  town  of  Peparethos  suffer- 
 ed damage  from  an  earthquake  during  the  Peloponne- 
 sian  war.  (Thuqyd.,  3,  89.)  It  was  defended  by  Phil- 
 ip against  the  Romans  (Liv.,  28,  5),  but  was  after- 
 ward destroyed.  (Strab.,  9,  p  436.)  —  Diodes,  who 
 wrote  an  early  history  of  the  origin  of  Rome,  was  a  na- 
 tive of  this  island.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Rom. — j4<Ac?i.,  2,  44.) 
 The  modern  name  is  Pijieri.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  453.) 
 
 PERiEA,  I.  a  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  that  part 
 of  Judffia  which  lay  east  of  Jordan,  from  its  egress  out 
 of  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth  to  its  entrance  into  the 
 Dead  Sea,  and  still  lower  down  as  far  as  the  river  Ar 
 noil.  The  term  is  derived  from  Tvepav,  beyond.  (Plin., 
 5,  14.)  —  II.  A  part  of  Caria,  deriving  its  name  from 
 its  lying  over  against  Rhodes  (Tvepav,  beyond,  over 
 against).  It  began  at  the  promontory  Cynossema, 
 and  is  mentioned  by  Scylax  (p.  38)  under  the  name  of 
 ?/  'Fo6i(jv  ;\,'wpa.  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  having  seiz- 
 ed upon  it,  was  called  upon  by  the  Romans  to  restore 
 it  to  Rhodes.  (Polyb.,  17,  2,  scq.  —  Liv,  32,  33.) 
 The  Rhodians,  however,  were  obliged  to  recover  this 
 territory  by  force  of  arms.     (Liv.,  33,  18  ) 
 
 Pbrcote,  an  ancient  town  of  Mysia,  south  of  Lamp- 
 sacus,  and  not  far  from  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont 
 It  appears  to  have  been  situate  on  the  banks  of  the 
 small  river  Practius.  (//.,  2,  835.)  Charon  of  Lamp- 
 sacus,  cited  by  Strabo  (583),  reckoned  300  stadia  from 
 Parium  to  the  Practius,  which  he  looked  upon  as  the 
 northern  boundary  of  the  Troad.  This  distance  serves 
 to  identify  the  stream  with  the  river  of  Bcrgaz  or  Ber- 
 gan,  a  small  Turkish  town  situated  on  its  left  bank, 
 and  which  probably  represents  Percote.  This  place 
 continued  to  exist  long  after  the  Trojan  war,  since  it 
 is  spoken  of  by  Herodotus  (5,  117),  Scylax  (PeripL,  p. 
 35),  Arrian  (Exp.  Al.,  I,  13),  Pliny  (5,  32),  and  others. 
 It  is  named  by  some  writers  among  the  towns  given 
 to  Themistocles  by  the  King  of  Persia.  (Athenceus, 
 1,  p.  29. — Phit.,  Vit.  Thcmist.,  c.  30.  —  Cramer' t 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  69,  scq.) 
 
 Perdiccas,  I.  the  youngest  of  the  three  brothers  who 
 came  from  Argos  and  settled  in  Upper  Macedonia,  and 
 who  are  said  to  have  been  descended  from  Temenus. 
 (  Vid.  Macedonia.)  The  principality  of  which  they  be- 
 came possessed  devolved  on  Perdicca.s,  who  is  there- 
 fore considered  by  both  Herodotus  (8,  137)  and  Thu- 
 cydides  (2,  99)  as  the  founder  of  the  Macedonian  dy- 
 nasty. Eusebius,  however,  names  three  kings  before 
 Perdiccas  I.,  thus  making  him  the  fourth  Macedonian 
 monarch.  These  are,  Caranus,  who  reigned  28  years  ; 
 Coenus,  who  reigned  12  years  ;  and  Thurimas,  who 
 continued  on  the  throne  for  38.  Herodotus  and  Thu- 
 cydides,  however,  omit  all  notice  of  these  three  mon- 
 
PERDICCAS. 
 
 PER 
 
 ttrchs,  and  begin  with  the  dynasty  of  the  Temenidae. 
 (Compare  Clinton,  Fast.  HclL,  vol.  1,  p.  221.)  Little 
 is  known  of  the  reign  of  Perdiccas.  On  his  deathbed 
 he  is  said  to  have  given  directions  to  his  son  and  suc- 
 cessor Argaeus,  where  he  wished  his  remains  to  be  in- 
 terred ;  and  to  have  told  him  also,  that,  as  long  as  the 
 remains  of  the  Macedonian  kings  should  be  deposited 
 in  the  same  place,  so  long  the  crown  would  remain  in 
 his  family.  (Justin,  7,  2.—  Vtd.  Edessa  II.)— II.  The 
 second  of  the  name,  was  son  of  Alexander  I.  of  Ma- 
 cedon,  and  succeeded  his  father  about  463  B.C.  He 
 was  a  fickle  and  dishonourable  prince,  who  took  an  ac- 
 tive part  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  alternately  as- 
 sisted Athens  and  Sparta,  as  his  interests  or  policy 
 dictated.  {Thiuyd.,  1,  57,  seqq.  —  U.,  4,  79.  — /(/., 
 2,  99,  &c.)  There  is  great  uncertainty  about  the  be- 
 ginning and  the  length  of  this  monarch's  reign.  Dod- 
 well  makes  it  commence  within  B.C.  454;  but  Alex- 
 ander I.  lived  at  least  to  B.C.  403,  when  Cimon  re- 
 covered Thasos.  {Pha.,  Vit.  Cim.,  14.)  Mr.  Clin- 
 ton makes  the  last  year  of  Perdiccas  to  have  been  the 
 third  of  the  91st  Olympiad,  or  B.C.  414.  (Fast.  Hell., 
 vol.  I,  p.  223.) — III.  The  third  of  the  name,  who  suc- 
 ceeded Alexander  II.,  after  having  cut  off  Ptolemy 
 Alorites,  who  was  acting  as  regent,  but  who  had 
 abused  his  trust.  Perdiccas,  after  a  reign  of  five 
 years,  fell  in  battle  against  the  Illyrians,  B.C.  359. 
 (Diod.  Sic,  16,  2.— Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 227.) — IV.  Son  of  Orontes,  was  one  of  the  generals  of 
 Alexander  the  Great,  to  whom  that  conqueror,  on  his 
 dcathhed,  delivered  his  royal  signet,  thus  apparently 
 intending  to  designate  him  as  protector  or  regent  of  his 
 vast  empire.  Alexander's  wife  Roxana  was  then  far 
 advanced  in  pregnancy,  and  his  other  wife,  Statira,  the 
 daughter  of  Darius,  was  supposed  to  be  in  the  same 
 situation.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Macedonian  generals 
 agreed  to  recognise  as  king,  Aridaeus,  a  natural  son  of 
 Philip,  a  youth  of  weak  intellects,  with  the  understand- 
 ing that,  if  the  child  of  Roxana  should  prove  a  son,  he 
 should  be  associated  in  the  throne  with  Aridaeus.  Per- 
 diccas contented  himself  with  the  command  of  the 
 household  troops  which  guarded  the  person  of  King 
 Aridasus  ;  but  in  that  capacity  he  was  in  reality  the 
 guardian  of  the  weak  king  and  the  minister  of  the  whole 
 empire.  He  distributed  among  the  chief  generals  the 
 government  of  the  various  provinces,  or,  rather,  king- 
 doms, subject  to  Alexander's  sway.  Roxana  being 
 soon  after  delivered  of  a  son,  who  was  called  Alexan- 
 der, became  jealous  of  Statira,  from  fear  that  the  child 
 she  was  pregnant  with  might  prove  a  rival  to  her  own 
 son  ;  and,  in  order  to  remove  her  apprehensions,  Per- 
 diccas did  not  scruple  to  put  Statira  to  death.  He  en- 
 deavoured to  strengthen  himself  by  an  alliance  with 
 Aniipatcr,  whose  daughter  he  asked  in  marriage,  while, 
 at  the  same  time,  he  was  aspiring  to  the  hand  of  Cle- 
 opatra, Alexander's  sister.  Olympias,  Alexander's 
 mother,  who  hated  Antipater,  favoured  this  last  alli- 
 ance. Antipatcr,  having  discovered  this  intrigue,  re- 
 fused to  give  his  daughter  to  Perdiccas,  who,  in  the 
 end,  obtained  neither.  The  other  generals,  who  had 
 become  satraps  of  e.xtensive  countries,  considered 
 themselves  independent,  and  refused  to  submit  to  Per- 
 diccas and  his  puppet-king.  Perdiccas,  above  all,  fear- 
 ing Anligonus  as  the  one  most  likely  to  thwart  his 
 views,  sought  to  destroy  him  ;  but  .\ntigonus  escaped 
 to  Antipater  in  Macedonia,  and  represented  to  him  the 
 necessity  of  uniting  against  the  ambitious  views  of  Per- 
 diccas. Antipater,  having  just  brought  to  a  success- 
 ful termination  a  war  against  the  Athenians,  prepared 
 to  march  into  Asia,  and  Ptolemy  joined  the  confeder- 
 acy against  Perdiccas.  The  latter,  who  was  then  in 
 Cappadocia,  with  Aridajus  and  Alexander  the  infant 
 son  of  Roxana,  held  a  council,  in  which  Antipater,  An- 
 tigonus,  and  Ptolemy  being  declared  rebels  against  the 
 royal  authority,  the  plan  of  the  campaign  against  them 
 was  arranged.  Eumenes,  who  rernained  faithful  to 
 6L 
 
 Perdiccas,  was  appointed  to  make  head  against  An- 
 tipater and  Antigonus,  while  Perdiccas,  iiaving  with 
 him  the  two  kings,  marched  to  attack  Ptolemy  in 
 Egypt.  He  was,  however,  unsuccessful,  owing  to  his 
 ill-concerted  measures  ;  he  lost  a  number  of  men  in 
 crossing  a  branch  of  the  Nile,  and  the  rest  became  dis- 
 contented, and,  in  the  end,  Perdiccas  was  murdered  in 
 his  tent,  B.C.  321,  afier  holding  his  power  for  two 
 years  from  the  death  of  Alexander.  {Encycl.  Useful 
 KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  435.) 
 
 Perdix,  nephew  of  D»dalus.  He  is  said  to  have 
 shown  a  great  genius  for  mechanics  ;  having,  from  the 
 contemplation  of  a  serpent's  teeth,  or,  according  to 
 some,  of  the  back  bone  of  a  fish,  invented  the  saw. 
 He  also  discovered  the  compasses.  Daedalus,  jealous 
 of  his  skill,  and  apprehensive  of  the  rivalry  of  the  young 
 man,  cast  him  down  from  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  and 
 killed  him.  The  poets  fabled  that  he  was  changed 
 after  death  into  the  bird  called  Perdix  or  "  partridge." 
 {Hijgin.,fah.,  27i.— Ovid,  Met.,  8,  241,  scgq.)  The 
 cry  of  the  partridge  resembles  very  much  the  noise 
 made  by  a  saw  in  cutting  wood,  and  this  circumstance, 
 in  all  likelihood,  gave  rise  to  the  fable.  {Buffon,  Hisi. 
 Nat.,  vol.  6,  n.  25. — Gierig,  ad  Ovid,  I.  c.) 
 
 Pkrenna.     Vid.  Anna  Perenna. 
 
 Pebg.'V  or  Perge  {Ilipya  or  Xlfpy^),  a  city  of  Pam- 
 phylia,  at  the  distance  of  sixty  stadia  inland  from  the 
 mouth  of  the  river  Cestrus.  It  was  renowned  for  the 
 worship  of  Diana  Pergaea.  The  temple  of  the  goddess 
 stood  on  a  hill  near  the  city,  and  a  festival  was  annu- 
 ally celebrated  in  her  honour.  {Callim.,  H.  in  Dian., 
 187. — Strab  ,  667  )  Alexander  occupied  Perga  with 
 part  of  his  army  after  quitting  Phaselis  ;  and  we  are 
 informed  by  Arrian  that  the  road  between  these  two 
 places  was  long  and  difficult.  {Exp.  AL,  1,  26.)  Po- 
 lybius  leads  us  to  suppose  that  Perga  belonged  rather 
 to  Pisidia  than  Pamphylia  (5,  72,  9. — Compare  22,  25. 
 — Liv.,  38,  37).  We  learn  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
 tles (14,  24,  seq.),  that  Paul  and  Barnabas,  having 
 "passed  throughout  Pisidia,  came  to  Pamphylia.  And 
 when  they  had  preached  the  word  in  Perga,  they  went 
 down  into  Attalia."  This  was  their  second  visit  to 
 the  place,  since  they  had  come  thither  from  Cyprus. 
 It  was  here  that  John,  surnamed  Mark,  departed  from 
 them ;  for  which  he  incurred  the  censure  of  St.  Paul. 
 (Acts  13,  13.)  Perga,  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Notices, 
 and  in  Hierocles  (p.  679),  stands  as  the  metropolis  of 
 Pamphylia.  (Compare  Plin.,  5,  28. — Sleph.  Byz.,s. 
 V.  IlepyT].)  The  ruins  of  this  city  are  probably  those 
 noticed  by  General  Kohler,  under  the  name  of  Eski 
 Kclcsi,  between  Stattros  and  Adalm.  {Leakeys  Asia 
 Minor,  p.  132.)  Mr.  Fellows  says,  "The  first  object 
 that  strikes  the  traveller  on  arriving  here  (at  Perga)  is 
 the  extreme  beauty  of  the  situation  of  the  ancient  town, 
 lying  between  and  upon  the  sides  of  two  hills,  with  an 
 extensive  valley  in  front,  watered  by  the  river  Cestrus, 
 and  backed  by  the  mountains  of  Taurus."  He  s])eaks 
 also  of  the  ruins  here  of  an  immense  and  beautiful  the- 
 atre ;  and  likewise  of  the  remains  of  an-  enormous 
 building,  which  he  thinks  can  have  been  nothing  but  a 
 palace  of  great  extent.  {Fellous'  Asia  Minor,  p.  191. 
 —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  279  ) 
 
 Peugamhs  (gen.  -i,  in  the  plural  Pergama,  gen. 
 -orum),  the  citadel  or  acropolis  of  Ilium  {Horn.,  II. ,  4, 
 508),  and  sometimes  used  by  the  poets  as  a  term  for 
 the  city  itself.  {Sencc.,  Troad.,  14.  —  Id.,  Ago.m., 
 \-2\.—  Virg.,  JEn.,  1,  466,  &c.)  The  relationship  of 
 the  word  Pergamus  to  the  Greek  -nvpyog  and  the  Teu- 
 tonic berg,  is  obvious.  The  names  of  the  towns  Berge 
 in  Thrace  and  Perge  in  Pamphylia,  contain  the  same 
 element  hcrg.  (Compare  the  Gothic  banrgs;  the  Ger- 
 man burg,  "  a  castle,  fort,  citadel ;"  the  Irish  brog  and 
 brus,  "a  errand  house  or  building;  a  fortified  place;  a 
 palace  or  royal  residence,"  &c.)  The  writers  on  Lin- 
 guistic seek  to  trace  these  and  other  cognate  expres- 
 sions to  the  Sanscrit  root  fdr  or  fur,  "to  fill,"  "  to 
 
 1001 
 
PERGAMUS. 
 
 PER 
 
 furnish,"  but  with  no  very  great  success.  (Consult  re- 
 marks under  the  article  Mesembria. — Eichhoff,  Paral- 
 lele  des  Langucs,  p.  348. — Kaltschmidt,  Vcrglcichung 
 der  Sprachen,  p.  238.) — II.  or  Pekcamum  (Ilt'pya/iOf 
 or  JJip-yafiov),  the  most  important  city  in  Mysia,  situate 
 in  the  southern  part  of  that  country,  in  a  plain  watered 
 by  two  small  rivers,  the  Selinus  and  Cetius,  which  af- 
 terward joined  the  Caicus.  This  celebrated  city  is 
 mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  Xenophon's  Anabasis 
 (7,  84).  Xcnophon  remained  here  for  some  time  as 
 the  guest  of  Gorgion  and  Gongylus,  who  appear  to  have 
 been  the  possessors  of  the  place.  (Compare  Hist.  Gr  , 
 3,  1,  4.)  It  would  seem  to  have  been  at  first  a  for- 
 tress of  considerable  natural  strength,  situate  on  the 
 top  of  a  conical  hill,  and,  when  the  city  began  to  be 
 formed  around  the  base  of  this  hill,  the  fortress  served 
 as  a  citadel.  ,In  consequence  of  the  strength  of  the 
 place,  it  was  selected  by  Lysimachus,  Alexander's 
 general,  as  a  place  of  security  for  the  reception  and 
 preservation  of  his  great  wealth,  said  to  amount  to  the 
 enormous  sum  of  9000  talents.  The  care  of  this  treas- 
 ure was  confided  to  Philetsrus  of  Tium  in  Bithynia, 
 in  whom  he  placed  the  greatest  confidence.  Philetce- 
 rus  remained  for  a  long  time  faithful  to  his  charge  ;  but, 
 having  been  injuriously  treated  by  Arsinoe,  the  wife  of 
 Lysimachus,  who  sought  to  prejudice  the  mind  of  her 
 husband  against  him,  he  was  induced  to  withdraw  his 
 allegiance  from  that  prince,  and  declare  himself  inde- 
 pendent. The  misfortunes  of  Lysimachus  prevented 
 him  from  taking  vengeance  on  the  offender,  and  thus 
 Philetaerus  remained  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the 
 town  and  treasure  for  twenty  years,  having  contrived, 
 by  dexterous  management  and  wise  measures,  to  re- 
 main at  peace  with  all  the  neighbouring  powers.  He 
 transmitted  the  possession  of  his  principality  to  Eu- 
 menes,  his  nephew.  An  account  of  the  reign  of  this 
 monarch,  and  of  the  other  kings  of  Pergamus,  has  been 
 already  given.  {Vid.  Eumenes  II.,  III.  ;  Attains  I., 
 II.,  III.)— After  the  death  of  Attalus  III.,  who  left  his 
 dominions  by  will  to  the  Romans,  Aristonicus,  a  nat- 
 ural son  of  Eumenes,  the  father  of  Attalus,  opposed 
 this  arrajigement,  and  endeavoured  to  establish  him- 
 self on  the  throne  ;  but  he  was  vanquished  and  made 
 Prisoner,  and  the  Romans  finally  took  possession  of  the 
 ingdom,  which  henceforth  became  a  province  of  the 
 empire  under  the  name  of  Asia.  {Strab.,  624,  646  ) 
 Pergamus  continued  to  flourish  and  prosper  as  a  Ro- 
 man city,  so  that  Pliny  (5,  32)  does  not  scruple  to 
 style  it  '■^  longe  clarissimum  AsicB  Pergamum.^'  To 
 the  Christian  the  history  of  Pergamus  affords  an  ad- 
 ditional interest,  since  it  is  one  of  the  seven  churches 
 of  Asia  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Revelations.  Though 
 condemnation  is  passed  upon  it  as  one  of  the  churches 
 infected  by  the  Nicolaitan  heresy,  its  faithful  servants, 
 more  especially  the  martyr  Antipas,  are  noticed  as 
 holding  fast  the  name  of  Christ.  {Rev.  2,  12,  seqq.) 
 — Pergamus  was  famed  for  its  library,  which  yielded 
 only  to  that  of  Alexandrea  in  extent  and  value.  {Sirab., 
 624. — Alhenrtus,  1,  3.)  It  was  founded  by  Eumenes 
 II.,  and  consisted  of  no  less  than  200,000  volumes. 
 This  noble  collection  was  afterward  given  by  Antony 
 to  Cleopatra,  who  transported  it  to  Alexandrea,  where 
 it  formed  part  of  the  splendid  library  in  the  latter  city. 
 {Plul..,  Vit.  Ant.,  58)  It  was  from  their  being  first 
 used  for  writing  in  this  library  that  parchment  skins 
 were  called  '■^ PergamencB  chartcE"  {Varro,  ap.  Plin., 
 13,  II),  but  it  is  erroneous  to  say  that  parchment  was 
 invented  at  Pergamus.  What  drove  Eumenes  to  cm- 
 ploying  it  for  books,  was  the  circumstance  of  Ptole- 
 my's having  forbidden  the  exportation  of  papyrus  from 
 his  kingdom,  in  order  to  check,  if  possible,  the  growth 
 of  the  Pergamenian  library,  and  prevent  it  from  rival- 
 ling his  ''wn. — Pergamus  was  the  native  place  of  the 
 celebrated  Galen.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city  was  a 
 famous  temple  of  ^sculapius,  which,  among  other 
 privileges,  hud  that  of  an  asylum.  The  concourse  of 
 1002 
 
 individuals  to  this  temple  was  almost  without  number 
 or  cessation.  They  passed  the  night  there  to  invoke 
 the  deity,  who  communicated  remedies,  either  in 
 dreams  or  by  the  mouths  of  his  priests,  who  distribu- 
 ted drugs  and  performed  chirurgical  operations.  The 
 Emperor  Caracalla,  A.D.  215,  repaired  to  Pergamus 
 for  the  recovery  of  his  health,  but  ^sculapius  was  un- 
 moved by  his  prayers.  When  Prusias,  second  king 
 of  Bithynia,  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Pergamus, 
 he  nearly  destroyed  this  temple,  which  stood  contigu- 
 ous to  the  theatre,  without  the  city  walls. — The  mod- 
 ern town  retains  the  name  of  Bergamah  or  Bcrgma, 
 and  is  still  a  place  of  considerable  importance.  Mr. 
 Fellows,  who  visited  it  in  1838,  says  that  it  is  as  busy 
 and  thriving  as  heavy  taxation  will  allow,  and  has  seven 
 or  eight  khans.  {Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  p.  34.)  It 
 contains  many  extensive  ruins.  Col.  Leake  informs 
 us,  that  remains  of  the  temple  of  yEsculapius,  of  the 
 theatre,  stadium,  amphitheatre,  and  several  other  build- 
 ings, are  still  to  be  seen.  {Journal,  p.  266.)  Mr.  Fel- 
 lows remarks,  that  the  walls  of  the  Turkish  houses  are 
 full  of  the  relics  of  marbles,  with  ornaments  of  the 
 richest  Grecian  art  (p.  34.  —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor, 
 vol.  1,  p.  136,  seqq.). 
 
 Perge.      Vid.  Perga. 
 
 Periander,  son  of  Cypselus,  tyrant  of  Corinth.  He 
 succeeded  his  father  in  the  sovereign  power,  and  in 
 the  commencement  of  his  reign  displayed  a  decree  of 
 moderation  unknown  to  his  parent.  Having  subse- 
 quently, however,  contracted  an  intimacy  with  Thra- 
 sybulus,  tyrant  of  Miletus,  he  is  said  by  Herodotus  to 
 have  surpassed,  from  that  time,  his  father  Cypselus  in 
 cruelty  and  crime.  It  is  certain  that,  if  the  particulars 
 which  the  historian  has  related  of  his  conduct  towards 
 his  own  family  be  authentic,  they  would  fully  justify 
 the  execration  he  has  expressed  for  the  character  of 
 this  disgusting  tyrant  (5,  92  ;  3,  50,  &c.).  Notwith- 
 standing these  enormities,  Periander  was  distinguished 
 for  his  love  of  science  and  literature,  which  entitled 
 him  to  be  ranked  among  the  seven  sages  of  Greece. 
 {Diog.  Laert.,  Vit.  Periand.)  According  to  Aristotle, 
 he  reigned  44  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew 
 Psammetichus,  who  lived  three  years  only.  {Cramer''s 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  13.) — Herodotus  relates,  that 
 Periander,  having  sent  a  messenger  to  Thrasybulus  of 
 Miletus,  to  ascertain  from  him  in  what  way  he  might 
 reign  most  securely,  Thrasybulus  led  the  messenger 
 out  of  the  city,  and,  taking  him  through  a  field  of  stand- 
 ing corn,  kept  interrogating  him  about  the  object  of  his 
 mission,  and  every  now  and  then  striking  down  an  ear 
 of  grain  that  was  taller  than  the  rest.  After  having 
 passed  through  the  field,  he  dismissed  the  man  without 
 any  answer  to  his  message.  On  his  return  to  Corinth, 
 the  messenger  reported  to  Periander  all  that  had  oc- 
 curred, and  the  latter,  quickly  perceiving  what  Thra- 
 sybulus meant  by  iiis  apparently  strange  conduct,  put 
 to  death  the  most  prominent  and  powerful  of  the  citi- 
 zens of  Corinth.  {Herod.,  5,  92.)  Niebuhr  thinks 
 that  this  story  furnished  the  materials  for  the  some- 
 what similar  one  related  of  Sextus  Tarquinius  and  the 
 people  of  Gabii.  {Rom.  Hist.,  vol  1,  p.  450,  Eng. 
 transl.)  Plutarch,  however,  makes  Periander  to  have 
 disapproved  of  the  advice  which  Thrasybulus  silently 
 gave  him,  and  not  to  have  folloA^ed  it.  [Sept.  Sap. 
 Conviv. — Op.,  ed.  Rciskc,  vol.  6,  p.  558.)  Aristotle, 
 on  the  other  hand,  reverses  the  story,  and  says  that  Pe- 
 riander was  applied  to  by  Thrasybulus,  and  did  what 
 Herodotus  makes  the  latter  to  have  done.  {Polit.,  3, 
 \\.—Id.,  5,  10.— Consult  Creuzcr,  ad  Herod.,  5,  92.) 
 
 Pericles  (ITfpt/cA^f)  was  son  of  Xanthippus,  who 
 defeated  the  Persians  at  Mycale,  and  of  Agariste,  niece 
 of  the  famous  Clisthenes.  {Herod.,  G,  l^l.)  He  was 
 thus  the  representative  of  a  noble  family,  and  he  im- 
 proved the  advantages  of  birth  by  those  of  education. 
 He  attended  the  teaching  of  Damon,  who  communica- 
 ted political  instruction  in  the  form  of  music  lessons;  of 
 
PERICLES. 
 
 PERICLES. 
 
 Zeno  the  Elealic ;  and,  most  especially,  of  the  subtle 
 and  profound  Aiiaxagoras.  Plutarch's  account  shows 
 that  he  acquired  from  Anaxagoras  moral  as  well  as 
 physical  truths  ;  and  that,  while  he  learned  enough  of 
 astronomy  to  raise  him  above  vulgar  errors,  the  same 
 teachers  supplied  him  with  those  notions  of  the  order- 
 ly arrangement  of  society  which  were  afterward  so 
 much  the  object  of  his  public  life.  But  all  these  stud- 
 ies had  a  political  end  ;  and  the  same  activity  and 
 acutcness  which  led  him  into  physical  inquiries,  gave 
 him  the  will  and  the  power  to  become  ruler  of  Athens. 
 In  his  youth,  old  men  traced  a  likeness  to  Pisis- 
 tratus,  which,  joined  to  the  obvious  advantages  with 
 which  he  would  have  entered  public  life,  excited  dis- 
 trust, and  actually  seems  to  have  retarded  his  appear- 
 ance on  the  stage  of  politics.  However,  about  the 
 year  469,  two  years  after  the  ostracism  of  Themis- 
 tocles,  and  about  the  time  when  Aristides  died,  Per- 
 icles came  forward  in  a  public  capacity,  and  before 
 long  became  head  of  a  party  opposed  to  that  of  Cimon 
 the  son  of  Milliades.  Plutarch  accuses  Pericles  of 
 taking  the  democratic  side  because  Cimon  headed  that 
 of  the  nobles.  A  popular  era  usually  strengthens  the 
 hands  of  the  executive,  and  is  therefore  unfavourable 
 to  public  liberty  ;  and  the  Persian  war  seems  to  have 
 been  emphatically  so  to  Athens,  as  at  its  termination 
 she  found  herself  under  the  guidance  of  a  statesman 
 who  partook  more  of  the  character  of  a  general  than 
 of  the  prime  minister.  {Hccrcti's  Polit.  Antiq.  of 
 Greece.)  Cimon's  character  was  in  itself  a  guarantee 
 against  aggrandizement,  either  on  his  own  part  or  oth- 
 ers ;  but  we  may  perhaps  give  Pericles  credit  for  see- 
 ing the  danger  of  so  much  power  in  less  scrupulous 
 hands  than  (Simon's.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Pericles  took 
 the  popular  side,  and,  as  such,  became  the  opponent 
 of  Cimon.  About  the  time  when  Cimon  was  prose- 
 cuted and  fined  (B.C.  461),  Pericles  began  his  first 
 attack  on  the  aristocracy  through  the  side  of  the  Are- 
 opagus ;  and  in  spite  of  Cimon,  and  of  an  advocate 
 yet  more  powerful  (the  poet  ^schylus),  succeeded  in 
 de])riving  the  Areopagus  of  its  judicial  powers,  except 
 in  certain  inconsiderable  cases.  This  triumph  pre- 
 ceded, if  it  did  not  produce,  the  ostracism  of  Cimon 
 (B.C.  461).  From  this  time  until  Cimon's  recall, 
 which  Mr.  Thirlwall  places,  though  doubtfully,  in  the 
 year  453,  we  find  Pericles  acting  as  a  military  com- 
 mander, and  by  his  valour  at  Tanagra  preventing  the 
 regret  which  Cimon's  absence  would  otherwise  un- 
 doubtedly have  created.  What  caused  him  to  bring 
 about  the  recall  of  Cimon  is  doubtful ;  perhaps,  as 
 Mr.  Thirlwall  suggests,  to  strengthen  himself  against 
 his  most  virulent  opponents  by  conciliating  the  more 
 moderate  of  them,  such  as  their  great  leader  him- 
 self. After  the  death  of  Cimon,  Thucydides  took  his 
 place,  and  for  some  time  stood  at  the  head  of  the 
 stationary  party.  He  was  a  belter  rhetorician  than 
 Cimon  ;  in  fact,  more  statesman  than  warrior ;  but 
 the  influence  of  Pericles  was  irresistible  ;  and  in  444 
 Thucydides  was  ostracized,  which  period  v^e  may  con- 
 sider as  the  turning  point  of  Pericles'  power,  and  after 
 which  it  was  wellnigh  absolute.  "We  are  unable  to 
 trace  the  exact  steps  by  which  Athens  rose  from  the 
 situation  of  chief  among  allies  to  that  of  mistress 
 over  tributaries  ;  but  it  seems  pretty  clear  that  Per- 
 icles aided  in  the  change,  and  increased  their  contri- 
 butions nearly  one  third.  His  finishing  blow  to  the 
 independence  of  the  allies  was  the  conquest  of  Samos 
 and  Byzantium,  a  transaction  belonging  rather  to  his- 
 tory than  biography  ;  he  secured  his  success  by  plant- 
 ing colonies  in  various  places,  so  as  to  accustom  the 
 allies  to  look  on  Athens  as  the  capital  of  a  great  em- 
 pire, of  which  they  themselves  were  component  parts, 
 but  still  possessed  no  independent  existence.  From 
 this  time  till  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
 Pericles  appears  engaged  in  peaceful  pursuits.  He 
 constructed  a  third  wall  from  .\thens  to  the  harbour  of 
 
 the  Piraeus.  He  covered  the  Acropolis  with  magnifi- 
 cent buildings,  and  encouraged  public  taste  by  the  su- 
 rest of  all  methods,  the  accustoming  the  eye  to  statu- 
 esque and  architectural  beauty.  At  Athens,  as  i.s 
 usually  the  case,  poetry  had  the  start  of  the  kindred 
 arts ;  but,  during  the  age  of  Pericles,  it  attained  to  a 
 greater  height  than  had  ever  before  been  reached. 
 The  drama  was  then  at  perfection  in  the  hands  of 
 Sophocles  ;  and,  by  enabling  the  poor  to  attend  theat- 
 rical representations,  Pericles  nurtured  their  taste,  and 
 increased  his  own  popularity  by  thus  throwing  open  the 
 theatre  to  all.  This  precedent,  whether  made  by  Per- 
 icles or  not,  ultimately  proved  more  ruinous  to  the 
 state  than  any  defeat.  It  made  the  people  a  set  of 
 pleasure-takers,  with  all  that  restlessness  in  the  pur- 
 suit of  pleasure  which  usually  belongs  to  the  privileged 
 few.  Another  innovation,  of  which  Pericles  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  the  author,  was  equally  injurious 
 in  its  consequences,  that,  namely,  of  paying  the  dicasts 
 in  the  courts.  At  first  the  pay  was  only  moderate; 
 but  it  operated  as  a  premium  on  the  attendance  at 
 lawsuits,  the  causes  became  a  mode  of  excitement  for 
 a  people  whose  intellectual  activity  made  them  partic- 
 ularly eager  for  anything  of  the  kind,  and  thence  re- 
 sulted that  litigious  spirit  which  is  so  admirably  ridi- 
 culed in  the  "  Wasps"  of  Aristophanes,  But  we  may 
 well  excuse  mistakes  of  this  kind,  grounded  probably 
 on  a  false  view  of  civil  rights  and  duties,  such  as  an 
 Athenian,  with  the  highest  possible  sense  of  the  dig- 
 nity of  Athens,  would  be  the  most  likely  to  fall  into. 
 Pericles,  no  doubt,  had  an  honest  and  serious  wish  to 
 establish  such  an  empire  for  Athens  as  should  enable 
 her  citizens  to  subsist  entirely  on  the  contributions  of 
 their  dependant  allies,  and,  like  a  class  of  rulers,  to  di- 
 rect and  govern  the  whole  of  that  empire,  of  which  the 
 mere  brute  force  and  physical  labour  were  to  be  sup- 
 plied by  a  less  noble  race.  Pericles  was  descended,  as 
 we  have  seen,  bv  the  mother's  side  from  the  family  of 
 Clisthenes,  and  he  was  thus  implicated,  according  to 
 the  religious  notions  of  those  times,  in  the  guilt  of  the 
 murder  of  Cylon's  partisans,  which  was  committed  at 
 the  very  altars  of  the  Acropolis.  (Thucyd.,  1,  126. — • 
 Herod.,  5,  70,  &c.)  The  Lacedaemonians,  before  the 
 actual  commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  urged 
 on  the  Athenians  the  necessity  of  banishing  the  mem- 
 bers of  the  family  who  had  committed  this  offence 
 against  religion,  which  was  only  an  indirect  way  of 
 attacking  Pericles  and  driving  him  into  exile.  The 
 Athenians  retorted  by  urging  the  Lacedcemonians  to 
 cleanse  themselves  from  the  guilt  incurred  by  the  death 
 of  Pausanias.  {Vid.  Pausanias.)  Pericles  lived  to 
 direct  the  Peloponnesian  war  for  two  years.  His  pol- 
 icy was  that  of  uncompromising  though  cautious  re- 
 sistance, and  his  great  effort  was  to  induce  the  Athe- 
 nians to  consider  Attica  in  the  light  merely  of  a  post, 
 to  be  held  or  resigned  as  occasion  required,  not  of  hal- 
 lowed ground,  to  lose  which  was  to  be  equivalent  to 
 the  loss  of  all.  In  the  speech  which  he  made  before 
 war  was  declared,  as  it  is  recorded  by  Thucydides,  he 
 impressed  the  .\lhenians  with  these  opinions,  represent- 
 ing the  superiority  of  their  navy  and  the  importance  of 
 avoiding  conflicts  in  the  field,  which,  if  successful, 
 could  only  bring  temporary  advantage  ;  if  the  contrary, 
 would  be  irretrievable.  At  the  end  of  the  first  cam- 
 paign, Pericles  delivered  an  oration  upon  those  who 
 had  fallen  in  the  war,  as  he  had  done  before  at  the 
 close  of  the  Samian  war.  From  that  speech  (at  least 
 if  Thucydides  reported  well)  wc  learn  what  Pericles 
 considered  to  be  the  character  of  a  good  citizen,  and 
 we  see  in  what  strong  contrast  he  placed  the  Spar- 
 tan to  the  Athenian  method  of  bringing  up  members 
 of  the  state.  This  speech,  the  most  remarkable  of  all 
 the  compositions  of  antiquity — the  full  transfusion  of 
 which  into  a  modern  language  is  an  impossibility — ex- 
 hibits a  more  complete  view  of  the  intellectual  power 
 and  moral  character  of  Pericles  than  all  that  the  hislo 
 
 1003 
 
PERICLES. 
 
 PER 
 
 nar  and  oiographers  have  said  of  him.  The  form  in 
 which  the  great  orator  and  statesman  has  imbudied 
 his  lofty  concrptions,  is  beauty  chastened  and  eleva- 
 ted by  a  noble  severity.  Athens  and  Athenians  are 
 the  objects  which  his  ambition  seeks  to  immortalize, 
 and  the  whole  world  is  the  theatre  and  the  witness  of 
 her  glorious  e.^cploits.  Mis  philosophy  teaches  that  life 
 is  a  thing,  to  be  enjoyed  ;  death  a  thing  not  to  be  fear- 
 ed. The  plague  at  Athens  soon  followed,  and  its  de- 
 bilitating efTects  made  restraint  less  irksome  to  the 
 people ;  but,  while  it  damped  their  activity,  it  increased 
 their  impatience  of  war.  In  spite  of  another  harangue, 
 in  which  he  represented  most  forcibly  how  absurd  it 
 would  be  to  allow  circumstances  like  a  plague  to  in- 
 terfere with  his  well-laid  plans,  he  was  brought  to  trial 
 and  lined,  but  his  influence  returned  when  the  fit  was 
 over.  In  the  third  year  of  the  war,  having  lost  his 
 two  legitimate  sons,  his  sister,  and  many  of  his  best 
 friends,  he  fell  ill,  and,  after  a  lingering  sickness,  died. 
 Some  beautiful  tales  are  told  of  his  deathbed,  all  tend- 
 ing to  show  that  the  calm  foresight  and  humanity  for 
 which  he  was  so  remarkable  in  life  did  not  desert  him 
 in  death.  It  is  an  interesting  question,  and  one  which 
 continually  presents  itself  to  the  student  of  history, 
 how  far  those  great  men,  who  always  appear  at  impor- 
 tant junctures  for  the  assertion  of  some  principle  or  the 
 carrying  out  of  some  great  national  object,  are  con- 
 scious of  the  work  which  is  appointed  for  them  to  do. 
 It  would,  for  instance,  be  most  instructive,  could  we 
 now  ascertain  to  what  extent  Pericles  foresaw  that 
 approaching  contest  of  principles,  a  small  part  only  of 
 which  he  lived  to  direct.  Looking  from  a  distance, 
 we  can  see  a  kind  of  necessity  imprinted  on  his  actions, 
 end  think  we  trace  their  dependance  on  each  other  and 
 the  manner  in  which  they  harmonize.  Athens  was  to 
 be  preserved  by  accessions  of  power,  wealth,  and  civ- 
 ilization, to  maintain  a  conflict  in  which,  had  she  been 
 vanquished,  the  peculiar  character  of  Spartan  institu- 
 tions might  have  irreparably  blighted  those  germes  of 
 civilization,  the  fruit  of  which  all  succeeding  genera- 
 tions have  enjoyed.  But  how  should  this  be!  Her 
 leader  must  have  been  a  single  person,  for  energetic 
 unity  of  purpose  was  needed,  such  as  no  cluster 
 of  contemporary  or  string  of  successive  rulers  could 
 have  been  expected  to  show.  That  ruler  must  have 
 governed  according  to  the  laws,  for  a  tyrant  would 
 have  been  expelled  by  the  sword  of  the  Spartans,  as 
 so  many  other  tyrants  were,  or  by  the  voice  of  the 
 commonalty,  every  day  growing  into  greater  power. 
 Moreover,  without  being  given  to  change,  he  must 
 have  been  prepared  to  modify  existing  institutions  so 
 as  to  suit  the  altered  character  of  the  times.  He  must 
 have  been  above  his  age  in  matters  of  religious  belief, 
 and  yet  of  so  catholic  a  temper  as  to  respect  prejudi- 
 ces in  which  he  had  no  share  ;  for  otherwise,  in  so  tol- 
 erant an  age,  he  would  probably  have  incurred  the  fate 
 cf  Anaxagoras,  and  destroyed  his  own  political  influ- 
 ence without  making  his  countrymen  one  whit  the 
 wiser.  He  must  have  been  a  man  of  taste,  or  he 
 would  not  have  been  able  to  go  along  with  and  direct 
 that  artistic  skill,  which  arose  instantly  on  the  abolition 
 of  those  old  religious  notions  forbidding  any  departure 
 from  traditional  resemblances  in  the  delineation  of  the 
 features  of  gods  and  heroes,  otherwise  he  would  have 
 lost  one  grand  hold  upon  the  people  of  Athens.  If 
 Pericles  had  not  possessed  oratorical  skill,  he  would 
 never  have  won  his  way  to  popularity  ;  and  later  in  life 
 he  must  have  been  able  to  direct  an  army,  or  the  ex- 
 pedition to  Samos  might  have  been  fatal  to  that  edifice 
 of  power  which  he  had  been  so  long  in  buildino-. 
 Lastly,  had  he  not  lived  to  strengthen  the  resolve  of 
 the  wavering  people  while  the  troops  of  Sparta  were 
 yearly  ravaging  the  Thriasian  plain,  the  Peloponnesian 
 war  would  have  been  prematurely  ended,  and  that  les- 
 son, so  strikingly  illustrative  of  the  powers  which  a  free 
 people  can  exercise  under  every  kind  of  misfortune, 
 1004 
 
 would  have  been  lost  to  posterity.  {Encyd.  Useful 
 KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  445,  scqq.) — As  regards  the  con- 
 nexion that  existed  between  Pericles  and  the  celebra- 
 ted Aspasia,  consult  remarks  under  the  latter  article. 
 
 Pekillus,  an  ingenious  artist,  who  made  a  brazen 
 bull  as  an  instrument  of  torture,  and  presented  it  to 
 Phalaris,  tyrant  of  Agrigentum.  His  native  city  has 
 not  been  ascertained.  In  the  pseudo-epistles  of  Pha- 
 laris he  is  called  an  Athenian  ;  but  it  is  more  probable 
 that  he  was  a  Sicilian,  perhaps  an  .'^grigentme.  {Bent- 
 Icy  on  Phalaris,  p.  382,  cd.  1816.)  The  brazen  im- 
 age which  he  fabricated  was  hollow,  and  had  an  open- 
 ing or  door  {-Qvpl^)  on  the  upper  part  of  the  back, 
 where  the  shoulder-blades  apjjroach  each  other  (rrept 
 7(lf  cvvoifiiag. — Pohjb.,  12,  25).  Through  this  open- 
 ing the  victim  of  the  tyrant's  cruelty  was  introduced 
 info  the  body  of  the  bull,  and,  a  fire  being  kindled  be- 
 neath the  belly  of  the  image,  was  slowly  roasted  alive; 
 while  the  cry  of  the  sufFerer,  as  it  came  forth  from  the 
 mouth  of  the  bull,  resembled  the  roaring  of  a  living 
 animal.  Phalaris  is  said  to  have  tried  the  experiment 
 first  upon  the  artist  himself  He  lost  his  own  life, 
 too,  according  to  Ovid,  in  this  same  manner,  having 
 himself  been  burned  in  the  bull  when  stripped  of  his 
 tyranny,  and  having  had  his  tongue  previously  cut  out. 
 {Val.  Max.,  3,  3.—Phal.,  Epist.,  Wd.—Plm.,  34,8. 
 — Lucian,  Phalaris  prior,  11. — Omd,  Ibis,  441.)  Ac- 
 cording to  Lucian's  account,  pipes  were  to  be  inserted 
 into  the  nostrils  of  the  bull  when  a  person  was  about 
 to  suffer,  and  the  cry  of  the  victim  would  come  forth 
 with  a  kind  of  low,  moaning  music  {tj  (ioij  61  6ia  tg)V 
 aiiAuv  fiDiT}  urroT£?iia€i,  ota  XiyvpcjraTa,  Kal  enavTirj- 
 asi  dpi]vuideg,  Kal  fiVKi'iaeTai  rospuraTov. — Lucian,  I. 
 c  ).  This,  however,  is  all  embellishment  ;  and  in  the 
 same  light,  no  doubt,  are  we  to  regard  what  this  wri- 
 ter also  tells  us,  that  Phalaris,  after  having  punished 
 the  artist  by  means  of  his  own  work,  sent  the  bull  as 
 an  offering  to  Apollo  at  Delphi ;  unless,  as  Bentley 
 inclines  to  believe,  there  was  some  tradition  that  the 
 bull  had  been  so  sent,  and  that,  having  been  rejected 
 by  the  priests,  it  was  carried  back  to  Agrigentum. 
 {Bentley  on  Phalaris,  p.  383.) — Timsus,  the  Sicilian 
 historian,  who  wrote  about  the  128lh  Olympiad  (B.C. 
 268-264),  maintained,  as  we  are  informed  by  Polybius 
 (12,25)  and  Diodorus  Siculus  (13,90),  that  the  whole 
 story  of  the  bull  of  Phalaris  was  a  mere  fiction,  though 
 it  had  been  so  much  talked  of  by  historians  as  well  as 
 poets.  The  two  writers  just  mentioned,  however,  un- 
 dertake to  refute  this  assertion  of  Timaeus,  and  inform 
 us  that  the  brazen  bull  of  Phalaris  was  carried  off'  from 
 Agrigentum  by  the  Carthaginians ;  and  that,  when 
 Carthage  was  taken  by  the  younger  Scipio,  the  image 
 was  restored  to  .'\grigentum  by  the  Roman  command- 
 er, its  identity  having  been  fully  proved  by  the  open- 
 ing on  the  back  alluded  to  above.  {Polybius,  I.  c. 
 — Diod.  Sic,  L  c.)  l"he  scholiast  on  Pindar  {Pyth., 
 1,  185)  gives  the  narration  of  TimcBUS  in  a  different 
 way ;  for  he  tells  us,  from  this  historian,  that  the 
 Agrigentines  cast  the  bull  of  Phalaris  into  the  sea  ; 
 and  that  the  bull  in  Agrigentum,  which  in  his  (Timae- 
 us') time  was  shown  for  that  of  Phalaris,  was  only 
 an  effigy  of  the  river  Gela.  From  this  it  would  ap- 
 pear, that  Timaeus  did  not  deny  that  the  tyrant  had  a 
 brazen  Lull,  but  only  censured  the  mistake  of  those 
 who  took  a  tauriform  image  of  a  river  for  it.  Bent- 
 ley thinks,  however,  that  few  will  prefer  the  account 
 of  the  scholiast  to  that  of  Polybius"  and  Diodorus 
 {Phal.,  p.  380),  but  perhaps  the  solution  which  Goller 
 proposes  is  the  best,  namely,  that  the  bull  ot  Phalaris 
 had  been  carried  away  to  Carthage,  and  that  the  one 
 which  Timffius  saw  at  Agrieentum  was  actually  a  tau- 
 riform effigy  of  the  river  Gela.  The  only  difficulty 
 that  remains  is  the  statement  respecting  the  bull  of 
 Phalaris  having  been  cast  into  the  sea,  which  may 
 possibly  be  an  error  on  the  part  of  the  scholiast. 
 (Goller,  de  Situ  et  orig.  Sijracus.,  p.  274.— Compare 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 the  remarks  of  Bockk,  ad  SchoL,  I.  c.,in  not. — Find., 
 Op.,  vol.  2,  p.  310.) — As  regards  the  name  of  the  ar- 
 tist himself,  mo.sl  authors  adopt  the  form  PerilliDi,  as 
 we  have  given  it;  Lucian,  liowever,  and  the  scholiast 
 on  Pindar  have  Ferilaus,  and  Benlley  also  prefers  this. 
 The  change,  indeed,  from  IIEPiAAOS;  to  HEPIAA- 
 02  is  so  e.xtremely  easy,  that  one  or  the  other  must 
 be  a  mere  error  of  transcription.  A  similar  name  has 
 been  critically  discussed  by  Hermann  in  his  work  en- 
 titled, "  Ucbcr  Bijck/is  Bcliaiullung  dcr  Gricch.  In- 
 schriftcn  (p.  106. — Sillig,  Diet.  Ai't.,  s.  v.). 
 
 PiiRiNTHUs.  a  city  of  Thrace,  on  the  coast  of  the 
 Propontis,  west  of  Byzantium.  It  was  originally  col- 
 onized by  the  Samians  {Sci/mn.,  Ch.,\.  713. — Scylax, 
 p.  28),  and  was  said  to  have  received  its  name  from 
 the  Epidaurian  Perinlhus,  one  of  the  followers  of  Ores- 
 tes. Another  account,  however,  assigned  its  founda- 
 tion to  Hercules,  and  the  inhabitants  themselves  would 
 seem  to  have  believed  this,  from  their  having  a  figure 
 of  Hercules  on  the  reverse  of  their  coins.  Perinthus 
 soon  became  a  place  of  great  trade,  and,  surpassing  in 
 this  the  neighbouring  Selymbria,  eventually  rivalled 
 Byzantium.  When  this  last-mentioned  city,  howev- 
 er, fell  under  the  Spartan  power,  Perinthus  was  com- 
 pelled to  follow  its  example.  It  subsequently  suffered 
 from  the  attacks  of  the  Thracians,  but  principally  from 
 those  of  Phdip  of  Macedon,  who  besieged  and  vig- 
 orously pressed  the  city,  but  was  unable  to  take  it. 
 The  city  was  situate  on  a  small  peninsula,  and  the 
 isthmus  connecting  it  with  the  mainland  was  only  a 
 stadium  broad,  according  to  Ephorus,  but  Pliny  (4, 
 11)  makes  it  somewhat  more.  The  place  was  built 
 along  the  slope  of  a  hill,  and  afforded  to  one  approach- 
 ing it  the  appearance  of  a  theatre,  the  inner  rows  of 
 dwellings  being  overtopped  by  those  behind.  {Diod., 
 16,  76.)  Perinthus  continued  to  be  a  flourishing  city 
 even  under  the  Roman  power,  and  received  a  great 
 accession  of  power  when  its  rival  Byzantium  fell  un- 
 der the  displeasure  of  the  Emperor  Severus.  The 
 case  was  altered,  however,  when  Constantine  trans- 
 ferred the  seat  of  empire  to  Byzantium  ;  and  about 
 this  period  we  find  Perinthus  appearing  with  the  addi- 
 tional name  of  Heraclea,  without  our  being  able  to  as- 
 certain either  the  exact  cause  or  period  of  the  change. 
 Ptolemy,  it  is  true,  says  "Perinthus  or  Heraclea,"  but 
 this  is  evidently  the  interpolation  of  some  later  scholi- 
 ast. The  coins  of  this  place  reach  upward  to  the  time 
 of  Aurelian  :  they  bear  no  other  name  but  that  of  Pe- 
 rinthus. With  the  writers  of  the  fourth  century,  on 
 the  other  hand,  the  more  usual  name  is  Heraclea ; 
 though  they  almost  ail  add  that  the  city  was  once 
 called  Perinthus,  or  else,  like  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
 join  both  names  together.  Hence  it  would  appear 
 that  the  change  of  appellation  was  a  gradual  one,  and 
 not  suddenly  made,  in  accordance  with  the  command 
 of  any  emperor,  as  in  the  case  of  Constantinople.  Af- 
 ter this  last-mentioned  place  Perinlhus  was  the  most 
 important  city  in  this  quarter  of  Thrace.  Justinian  re- 
 built the  ancient  palace  in  it,  and.  repaired  the  aque- 
 ducts. {Procop  ,  jEdif.,  4,  9.)  It  could  not,  indeed, 
 be  an  unimportant  city,  as  all  the  main  roads  to  By- 
 zantium from  Italy  and  Greece  met  here.  The  mod- 
 ern Ereldi  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  {Ma7i- 
 nerl,  Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  174,  seqq.) 
 
 Peripatktici  {HepnTaT7]TiKol),  a  name  given  to  the 
 followers  of  Aristotle.  According  to  the  common  ac- 
 count, the  sect  were  called  by  this  appellation  from 
 the  circumstance  of  their  master's  walking  about  as 
 he  discoursed  with  his  pupils  {YlepnrarijTCKoi,  aivd  rov 
 nepnrare.li').  Others,^  however,  more  correctly,  de- 
 rive the  name  from  the  public  walk  {TrepiTraTo^)  in  the 
 Lycaeurn,  which  Aristotle  and  his  disciples  were  ac- 
 customed to  frequent.  {Bruckcr,  Hist.  Cnt.' Phil. 
 vol.  1,  p.  788.)     A  summary  of  the  doctrine  of  this 
 
 Echool  will  be  found  under  the  article  Aristoteles. 
 
 Before  withdrawing  from  his  public  labours,  Aristotle 
 
 appointed  Theopbrastus  his  successor  in  thfi  chair 
 {vid.  Theopbrastus),  and  the  latter  was  followed  con- 
 secutively by  Strato  of  Lampsacus,  Lycon  or  Glycon 
 of  Troas,  Ariston  of  Ceos,  and  Critolaus  the  Lycian. 
 With  Diodorus  of  Tyre,  who  came  immediately  after 
 Critolaus,  the  uninterrupted  succession  of  the  Peripa- 
 tetic school  terminated,  about  the  140th  Olympiad. 
 The  Peripatetic  doctrines  were  introduced  into  Rome, 
 in  common  with  the  other  branches  of  the  Greek  phi- 
 losophy, by  the  embassy  of  Critolaus,  Carneades,  and 
 Diogenes,  but  were  little  known  until  the  time  of  Syl- 
 la.  Tyrannion  the  grammarian  and  Andronicus  'of 
 Rhodes  were  the  first  who  brought  the  writings  of 
 Aristotle  and  Theopbrastus  into  notice.  The  obscu- 
 rity of  Aristotle's  works  tended  much  to  hinder  the 
 success  of  his  philosophy  among  the  Romans.  Julius 
 Caesar  and  Augustus  patronised  the  Peripatetic  doc- 
 trines. Under  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and  Claudius,  how- 
 ever, the  adherents  of  this  school,  in  common  with 
 those  of  other  sects,  were  either  banished  or  obliged 
 to  remain  silent  on  the  subject  of  their  peculiar  tenets. 
 This  wafe  the  case,  also,  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
 reign  of  Nero,  although,  in  the  early  part  of  it,  philos- 
 ophy was  favoured.  Ammonius  the  Peripatetic  made 
 great  exertions  to  extend  the  authority  of  Aristotle  ; 
 but  about  this  time  the  Platonists  began  to  study  his 
 writings,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  establishment 
 of  the  Eclectic  Peripatetics  under  Ammonius  Sacas, 
 who  flourished  about  a  century  after  Ammonius  the 
 Peripatetic.  After  the  time  of  Justinian,  philosophy 
 in  general  languished.  But  in  that  mixture  of  ancient 
 opinions  and  theological  dogmas  which  constituted 
 the  philosophy  of  the  middle  ages,  the  system  of  Aris- 
 totle predominated.  About  the  12th  century  it  had 
 many  adherents  among  the  Saracens  and  Jews,  particu- 
 larly in  Spain  ;  and  at  the  same  period,  also,  it  began  to 
 be  diligently  studied,  though  not  without  much  opposi- 
 tion, among  the  ecclesiastics  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 Out  of  this  latter  circumstance  gradually  arose  the 
 Scholastic  philosophy,  which  took  its  tone  and  com- 
 plexion from  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  and  which  con- 
 tinued long  to  perplex  the  minds  of  men  with  its  friv- 
 olous though  subtile  speculations.  The  authority  of 
 Aristotle  received  a  severe  shock  at  the  Reformation, 
 but  it  survived  the  fall  of  the  scholastic  system.  His 
 opinions  were  patronised  by  the  Catholic  Church  on 
 account  of  their  supposed  favourable  bearing  upon  cer- 
 tain doctrines  of  faith  ;  and,  although  Luther  and  oth- 
 ers of  the  Reformers  determinedly  opposed  them,  they 
 were  maintained  by  such  men  as  Melanchthon,  who 
 himself  commented  on  several  portions  of  the  works 
 of  the  Stagirite.  Many  individuals,  distinguished  for 
 their  genius  and  learning,  exerted  themselves  to  revive 
 the  Peripatetic  philosophy  in  its  primitive  purity;  nor 
 did  it  cease  to  have  numerous  illustrious  supporters 
 until  the  time  of  Bacon,  Grotius,  and  Des  Cartes. 
 {Brucker,  Hist.  Cnt.  Phil.—Enfichl  Hist.  Phil.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  95,  seqq. — Tenncmann,  Hist.  Phil.,  p.  121,  168, 
 275.) 
 
 Peismessus,  a  river  of  Boeotia,  rising  in  Mount  Hel- 
 icon, and  vvhich,  after  uniting  its  waters  with  those  of 
 the  Olmius,  flowed  along  with  that  stream  into  the 
 Copaic  Lake  near  Haliartus.  Both  tho  Olmius  and 
 Permessus  received  their  supplies  from  the  fountains 
 of  Aganippe  and  Hippocrcne.  The  river  Permessus, 
 as  well  as  the  fountain  Aganippe,  were  sacred  to  the 
 Muses.     {Strab.,  H)7.—Propcrt..  2,  lO;  26.) 
 
 Pero,  a  daughter  of  Neleus,  king  of  Pylos,  by 
 Chloris.  She  married  Bias,  son  of  Amythaon.  (  Vid. 
 Melampus.) 
 
 Peri'enna,  I.  M.,  was  consul  B.C.  130,  and  de» 
 feated  and  took  prisoner  Aristonicus  in  Asia.  (Liv., 
 44,  27.— Id.,  44,  32.— Fe//.  Pat.,  2,  4.)— II.  M.  Ven- 
 to,  was  proscribed  by  Sylla,  whereupon  he  passed  into 
 Spain,  and  became  one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Sertorius. 
 Dissatisfied  eventually  with  playing  only  a  secondary 
 
 1005 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 part,  and  envious  of  the  fame  and  successes  of  his 
 aeader.  he  conspired  against  him,  along  with  others  of 
 his  officers.  Sertorius  was  assassinated  Ijy  the  con- 
 spirators at  a  banquet,  and  Perpcnna  took  the  com- 
 mand of  the  forces;  but  lie  soon  showed  his  utter  inca- 
 pacity, and  was  defeated  by  Pompey  and  put  to  death. 
 \riul.,   Vit.  Scrlor  ) 
 
 PEiiKH-Ei$i.\,  a  district  of  Thessaly.  Strabo,  in  his 
 critical  examination  of  the  Homeric  geography  of 
 Thessaly,  affirms,  that  the  lower  valley  ol  the  Peneus, 
 as  far  as  the  sea,  had  been  first  occupied  by  the  Per- 
 rhoebi.  an  ancient  tribe,  apparently  of  Pelasgic  origin. 
 (Simonid.  up.  Sirah.,  441.)  On  the  northern  bank  of 
 ihe  great  Thessalian  river,  they  had  peopled  also  the 
 raouniainous  tract  bordering  on  the  Macedonian  dis- 
 tricts of  Elimiolis  and  Pieria,  while  to  the  south  they 
 stretched  along  the  base  of  Mount  Ossa,  as  far  as  the 
 shores  of  Lake  Bosbcis.  These  possessions  were, 
 however,  in  course  of  time,  wrested  from  them  by  the 
 Lapithoe,  another  Pelasgic  nation,  whose  original  abode 
 seems  to  have  been  in  the  vales  of  Ossa  and  the  Mag- 
 nesian  district.  Yielding  to  these  more  powerful  in- 
 vaders, the  greater  pan  of  the  Perrhabi  retired,  as 
 Strabo  informs  us,  towards  Dolopia  and  the  ridge  of 
 Pindus;  but  some  still  occupied  the  valleys  of  Olym- 
 pus, while  those  who  remained  in  the  piams  became 
 incorporated  with  the  Lapiihs,  under  the  common 
 name  of  Pelasgiotae.  (Strah.,  439.)  The  Perrhajbi 
 are  noticed  in  the  catalogue  of  Homer  among  the 
 Thessalian  clans  who  fought  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  (//., 
 2,  794.)  Their  antiquity  is  also  attested  by  the  fact 
 of  their  being  enrolled  among  the  Amphictyonic  states. 
 As  their  territory  lay  on  the  borders  of  Macedonia,  and 
 comprised  all  the  defiles  by  which  it  was  possible  for 
 an  army  to  enter  Thessaly  from  that  province,  or  re- 
 turn from  thence  into  Macedonia,  it  became  a  frequent 
 thoroughfare  for  the  troops  of  different  nations.  The 
 country  occupied  by  them  seems  to  have  been  situa- 
 ted chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Titaresius,  now 
 Saranla  Poros.  (  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1 ,  p.  363, 
 scqq.) 
 
 Pers^,  the  inhabitants  of  Persia.     {Vid.  Persia.) 
 Persephone,  the  Greek  name  of  Proserpina.     {Vid. 
 Proserpina.) 
 
 Persepoi.is,  a  celebrated  city,  situate  in  the  royal 
 province  of  Persis,  about  twenty  stadia  from  the  river 
 Araxes.  It  is  mentioned  by  Greek  writers  after  the 
 time  of  .\lexander  as  the  capital  of  Persia.  The  name, 
 however,  does  not;  occur  in  Herodotus,  Ctesias,  Xeno- 
 phon,  or  Nehemiah,  who  were  well  acquainted  with  the 
 other  principal  cities  of  the  Persian  em])ire,  and  make 
 frequent  mention  of  Susa,  Babylon,  and  Ecbatana. 
 Their  silence  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Per- 
 eepolis  never  appears  to  have  been  a  place  of  residence 
 for  the  Persian  kings,  though'  we  must  conclude,  from 
 ihe  account  of  Arrian  and  other  writers,  that  it  was 
 from  the  most  ancient  times  regarded  as  the  capital  of 
 the  empire.  The  kings  of  Persia  appear  to  have  been 
 buried  here  or  at  Pasargadae.  There  was  at  Persepo- 
 lis  a  m.acrnificent  palace,  which,  at  the  time  of  Alexan- 
 der's conquest,  was  full  of  immense  treasures,  that  had 
 accumulated  there  since  the  time  of  Cyrus.  {Diod. 
 Sic,  17,  71. — Sirab.,  729.)  We  know  scarcely  any- 
 thing of  the  history  of  Persepolis.  The  palace  of  the 
 Persian  kino-s  was  burned  by  Alexander  (Arnau,  3,  18. 
 —  Curl.,  b,"^!.— Strah.,  12'3.—Diod.  Sic,  17,  70),  and 
 Persepolis  was  plundered  by  the  Macedonian  soldiers 
 in  retaliation,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (17,  69), 
 for  the  cruellies  inflicted  by  the  Persians  upon  the 
 Greek  prisoners  that  had  fallen  into  their  hands;  for 
 Alexander  had  met,  in  his  approach  to  the  city,  with  a 
 body  of  about  800  Greek  captives  shamefully  mutilated. 
 Curtius,  after  speaking  of  the  plundering  of  Persepolis, 
 slates  that  Alexander,  while  under  the  influence  of 
 wine,  was  instigated  by  Thais,  the  courtesan,  to  set 
 fire  to  the  royal  palace,  an  account  in  which  Diodorus 
 1006 
 
 also  concurs.  The  city  was  not  destroyed  by  fire  or 
 this  occasion,  as  some  suppose.  The  palace  was  the 
 only  building  that  suffered,  Alexander  haviniT  repent- 
 ed of  the  rash  act  almost  the  very  instant  after  the 
 work  of  destruction  had  commenced.  That  the  city 
 was  not  laid  in  ruins  on  this  occasion  is  proved  by  the 
 circumstance  of  Peucestes,  the  satrap  of  Persis,  hav- 
 ing given  in  Persepolis.  only  a  few  years  afler,  a  splen- 
 did entertainment  to  the  whole  army.  (Dwd.,  19,  22.) 
 Alexander,  moreover,  foujid  the  city  still  standing  on 
 his  return  from  India.  {Arrian,  7,  1.)  Per!?epolis 
 is  mentioned  also  by  subsequent  writers,  and  even 
 under  the  sway  of  Mohammedan  princes,  this  city. 
 with  its  name  changed  to  Islakhar,  was  their  usual 
 place  of  residence.  Its  destruction  was  owing  to  the 
 fanatic  Arabs.  {LavgU.,  Voyages,  &c.,  vol.  3,  p.  199.) 
 Oriental  historians  say  that  the  Persian  name  for  Per- 
 sepolis was  likewise  Islakhar  or  Eslckhar.  (D''Her- 
 heiot,  Btbiioth.  Oriental.)  The  fullest  account  of  the 
 ruins  of  Persepolis  is  to  be  found  in  the  Travels  of  Sir 
 Ronerl  Ker  Porter.  The  most  remarkable  part  of 
 these  rums  is  the  Shehcl-Minar,  or  Forty  Colu,mns. 
 The  geiioral  imjiression  produced  by  this  part  of  the 
 rums  IS  said  to  be  the  strong  resemblance  which  they 
 bear  to  the  architectural  taste  of  Egypt.  It  is  some- 
 what doubtful,  however,  whether  the  ruins  called  She- 
 hcl-Minar  are  in  reality  those  of  Persepolis,  and  wheth- 
 er we  are  not  to  look  for  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
 city  more  to  the  north.  The  sculptures  of  Persepolis, 
 though  of  no  value  as  works  of  art,  serve  to  elucidate 
 some  passages  in  Greek  and  Roman  writers  which  re- 
 late to  Persian  affairs.  (Compare  the  remarks  of  Hirt, 
 Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  vol.  1,  p.  !68  ) 
 
 Persrs,  a  son  of  Perseus  and  .'\ndromeda.  From 
 him  the  Persians,  who  were  originally  called  Ccjihcnes, 
 are  fabled  to  have  received  their  name.    (Herod  ,  7,  61.) 
 
 Perseus,  I.  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae  the  daughter 
 of  Acrisius.  A  sketch  of  his  fabulous  history  has  al- 
 ready been  given  under  a  previous  article  (vid.  Danae); 
 and  it  remains  here  but  to  relate  tbc  particulars  of  his 
 enterprise  against  the  Gorgons. — When  Perseus  had 
 made  his  rash  promise  to  Polydectes,  by  which  he 
 bound  himself  to  bring  the  latter  the  Gorgon's  head, 
 full  of  grief,  he  retired  to  the  extremity  of  the  island 
 of  Scyros,  where  Mercury  came  to  him,  promising 
 that  he  and  Minerva  would  be  his  guides.  Mercury 
 brought  him  first  to  the  Graiae  {vid.  Phorcydes),  whose 
 eye  and  tooth  he  stole,  and  would  not  restore  these 
 until  they  had  furnished  him  with  directions  to  the 
 abode  of  the  Nymphs,  who  were  possessed  of  the 
 winged  shoes,  the  magic  wallet,  and  the  helmet  of 
 Pluto  which  made  the  wearer  invisible.  Having  ob- 
 tained from  the  Graiaj  the  requisite  information,  he 
 came  unto  the  Nymphs,  who  gave  him  their  precious 
 possessions  :  he  then  flung  the  wallet  over  his  shoul- 
 der, placed  the  helmet  on  his  head,  and  fitted  the 
 shoes  to  his  feet.  Thus  equipped,  and  grasping  the 
 short  curved  sword  {harpe)  which  Mercury  gave  him, 
 he  mounted  into  the  air,  accompanied  by  the  gods, 
 and  flew  to  the  ocean,  where  he  found  the  three  Gor- 
 gons asleep.  (  FiW.  Gorgoncs.)  Fearing  to  gaze  on  their 
 faces,  which  changed  the  beholder  to  stone,  he  looked 
 on  the  head  of  Medusa  as  it  was  reflected  on  his 
 shield,  and  Minerva  guiding  his  hand,  he  severed  it 
 from  her  body.  Tbe  blood  gushed  forth,  and  with  it 
 the  winged  steed  Pegasus,  and  Chrysaor  the  father  of 
 Geryon,  for  Medusa  was  at  that  time  pregnant  by  Nep- 
 tune. Perseus  took  up  the  head,  put  it  into  his  wal- 
 let, and  set  out  on  his  return.  The  two  sisters  awoke, 
 and  pursued  the  fugitive  ;  but,  protected  by  the  hel- 
 met of  Pluto,  he  eluded  their  vision,  and  they  were 
 obliged  to  give  over  the  bootless  chase.  Perseus  pur- 
 sued his  aerial  route,  and  after  having,  in  the  course  of 
 his  journey,  punished  the  inhospitality  of  Atlas  by 
 changing  him  into  a  rocky  mountain  {vid.  Atlas),  he 
 came  to  tbe  country  of  the  .(Ethiopians.     Here  he  lib- 
 
PERSEUS. 
 
 PERSEUS, 
 
 erated  Andromeda  from  the  sea-monster,  and  then 
 returned  with  the  Gorgon's  head  to  the  island  of  Ser- 
 iphus.  This  head  he  gave  to  Minerva,  who  set  it  in 
 the  middle  of  her  shield.  The  remainder  of  his  his- 
 tory, up  to  the  death  of  Acnsius,  is  given  dsewhere. 
 (Vid.  Danae,  and  Acnsius.)  Afier  the  unlooked-for 
 fulfilment  of  the  oracle,  in  the  accidental  homicide  of 
 his  grandfather,  Perseus,  feehng  ashamed  to  take  the 
 inheritance  ol  one  who  had  died  by  his  means,  pro- 
 posed an  exchange  of  dominions  with  Megapenthcs, 
 the  son  of  Proetus,  and  thenceforward  reigned  at  Ti- 
 ryns.  He  afterward  built  and  fortified  Mycena;  and 
 Midea.  (Apollod.,  2,  4,  2,  scqq.  —  Schol.  ad  Apoll. 
 Rhod.,  4,  1091,  Ibir^.  —  Kcightlcy's  Mythology,  p. 
 415,  scqq  ) — We  now  come  to  the  explanation  of  the 
 whole  legend.  The  Perseus  of  the  Greeks  is  nothing 
 more  than  a  modification  of  the  Persian  Mithras  {Creu- 
 zer,  Symbolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  1,  p.  368,  in  no- 
 tis),  and  a  piece  of  ancient  sculpture  on  one  of  the 
 gates  of  the  citadel  of  Mycense  fully  confirms  the  an- 
 alogy. (^Guigniaut,  I.  c. — Gell,  Specimens  of  Ancient 
 Sculpture,  Load,  1810.  —  Id.,  Itinerary  of  Greece, 
 p.  35,  scqq. — Knight,  Carin.  Homeric.  Prolegom  ,  58, 
 p.  31.) — Perseus,  however,  if  we  consult  his  geneal- 
 ogy as  transmitted  to  us  by  the  mythographers,  will 
 appear  to  have  still  more  relation  to  Egypt  than  to 
 Asia.  Descended  from  the  ancient  Inachus,  the  fath- 
 er of  Phoroneus  and  lo,  we  see  his  family  divide  itself 
 at  first  into  two  branches.  From  Phoroneus  sprang 
 Sparton,  Apis-Serapis,  and  the  Argive  Niobe.  The 
 union  of  lo  and  Jupiter  produced  Epaphus,  Belus,  Da- 
 naiis,  and,  omitting  some  intermediate  names,  Acri- 
 sius,  Danae,  and  the  heroic  Perseus.  If  we  examine 
 closely  the  import  of  the  names  that  form  both  branch- 
 es of  this  completely  mythic  genealogy,  we  shall  dis- 
 cover an  evident  allusion  to  Mithriac  ideas  and  sym- 
 bols. For  example,  Sparton  has  reference  to  the  sow- 
 ing of  seed  ;  Apis,  become  Scrapis,  is  the  god-bull 
 upon  or  under  the  earth  ;  lo  is  the  lowing  heifer,  wan- 
 dering over  the  whole  earth,  and  at  last  held  captive  ; 
 Epaphus,  another  and  Graecised  name  of  Apis,  is  the 
 sacred  bull,  the  representative  of  all  the  bulls  in 
 Egypt  ;  Bclus  is  the  Sun  king  both  in  Asia  and  Egypt, 
 &c.  It  is  in  the  person,  however,  of  Perseus  that  all 
 these  scattered  rays  are  in  some  degree  concentrated. 
 The  name  of  his  mother  Danae  would  seem  to  have 
 reference  to  the  earth  in  a  dry  and  arid  state  Ju- 
 piter, descending  in  a  shower  of  gold,  impregnating 
 and  rendering  her  the  mother  of  Perseus,  is  Mithras, 
 or  the  golden  Sun,  fertilizing  (he  earth.  Perseus, 
 coming  forth  from  the  court  of  the  king  of  the  shades 
 {Polydcctes,  the  "all-recipient;"  ttoMc  and  Ssxofiai), 
 proceeds  under  the  protection  of  the  goddess  Minerva, 
 holding  in  his  hand  the  harpe  {upm]),  symbol  of  fertil- 
 ity, to  combat  in  the  West  the  impure  and  sleril  Gor- 
 gons  :  after  this,  returning  to  the  East,  he  delivers  An- 
 dromeda from  the  sea-monster,  and  becomes  the  pa- 
 rent of  a  hero  of  light,  another  Perses,  a  son  resem- 
 bling his  sire.  Having  returned  victorious  to  Argolis, 
 he  builds,  by  the  aid  of  the  Cyclopes  subterranean 
 workmen  whom  he  leads  in  his  train,  a  new  city,  My- 
 cenae, the  name  of  which,  according  to  different  tra- 
 ditions, had  reference  cither  to  the  lowings  of  lo,  or  to 
 the  Gorgons  mourning  for  the  fate  of  their  sister  ([ivkt], 
 "lowing:"  jiVKaojiai,  -Cipai,  "to  low."  —  MvKf]i>at). 
 Others,  again,  derive  the  appellation  from  the  scab- 
 bard (jj.vKT](;)  of  the  hero's  sword,  which  fell  upon  the 
 spot  ;  and  others,  again,  from  a  mushroom  (hvktjc)  torn 
 up  by  Perseus  when  suffering  from  thirst,  and  which 
 yielded  a  refreshing  supply  of  water  in  the  place  it  had 
 occupied.  (Pausan.,  2,  10. — Pint.,  de  fltim.,  18,  p. 
 1034,  ed.  Wytt.)  In  all  these  there  is  more  or  less 
 of  mystic  meaning,  the  leading  idea  being  still  that  of 
 the  earth  ;  just  as  in  the  legend  which  makes  Perseus 
 to  have  killed  Acrisius  (the  "  confused,"  "dark,"  or 
 •'  gloomy  one,"  d  and  Kpivo),  there  is  an  evident  allu- 
 
 sion in  the  discus,  by  which  the  blow  was  given,  to 
 the  orb  of  the  sun. — If  now  we  closely  compare  the 
 principal  features  of  these  legends  with  the  essential 
 symbols  presented  by  the  Mithriac  bas-reliefs,  we  can- 
 not but  discover,  as  well  in  the  myths  as  in  the  sculp- 
 tures of  Mycenffi,  a  wonderful  accordance  with  these 
 symbols.  The  Argive  fables  tell  of  a  heifer,  a  heifer 
 lowing  and  distracted  by  pain.  An  allusion  to  the 
 sword  plunged  into  the  bosom  of  the  earth  (represent- 
 ed by  the  heifer  and  by  the  Mithriac  bull)  is  preserved 
 in  the  legend  of  the  scabbard  that  fell  to  the  earth,  and 
 gave  name  to  the  city  of  which  it  presaged  the  found- 
 ing. The  shower  of  gold,  the  mushroom,  and  the 
 never-ending  stream  of  water,  of  which  this  last  is  the 
 pledge,  are  emblems  of  the  solar  emanations,  the  signs 
 of  terrestrial  fertility,  and  all  Mithriac  ideas.  The 
 Gorgons  have  reference  to  the  moon,  regarded  as  a 
 dark  body  ;  and  in  the  early  language  of  Greece  the 
 moon  was  called  yopyoviov,  in  allusion  to  the  dark 
 face  believed  to  be  seen  in  it.  [Clem.  Alex.,  Strum., 
 5,  p.  667.)  They  typify  the  natural  impurity  of  this 
 planet,  and  which  the  energies  of  the  sun  (Mithras- 
 Pcrseus,  armed  with  his  golden  sword)  are  to  re- 
 move, and  to  give  purity  in  its  stead.  Here,  then, 
 at  the  very  foundation  of  the  mythus,  we  find  ideas  of 
 purification.  Perseus,  and  Hercules  who  descends 
 from  him,  are  purifiers  in  heaven  and  on  earth.  They 
 purify  the  stains  of  evil  by  force  and  by  the  shed- 
 ding of  blood.  They  are  just  murderers;  and  the 
 wings  given  in  preference  to  Perseus  enter  into  this 
 general  conception.  {Olympiodor.,  Comment^  in  Al- 
 cib.,  1,  p.  156,  seqq.,  cd.  Crcuzcr.)  Both,  assuming 
 an  aspect  more  and  more  moral,  end  vi'ith  intermin- 
 gling themselves  in  human  history  ;  and  thus  Perseus, 
 according  to  one  tradition,  put  to  death  the  sensual  and 
 voluptuous  Sardanapalus.  {Malal.,  Chron.,  21,  Oxon. 
 — Su.id.,  s.  V.  I,ap6av. — Rcincs.,  Obs.  in  Said.,  p.  222, 
 ed.  M'ullcr.)  This  brings  us  to  consider  the  numerous 
 points  of  approximation,  acknowledged  to  exist  even 
 by  the  ancient  writers  themselves,  between  the  (jreek 
 hero  Perseus  and  various  countries  of  antiquity,  such 
 as  Asia  Minor,  Colchis,  Assyria,  and  Persia.  At  Tar- 
 sus in  Cilicia,  of  which  city  both  Perseus  and  Sarda- 
 napalus passed  as  the  founders,  the  first  was  worshipped 
 as  a  god,  and  very  [)robably  the  second  also.  {Hel- 
 lanic,  frag.,  p.  92,  ed.  Sturz,  ad  loc. — Dio  Chrysost., 
 Orat.,  32,  p.  24,  scqq.,  ed.  Reiske. — Amm.  MarcelL, 
 14,  8.)  The  name  of  Perseus  (or  Perses)  is  found  in 
 the  solar  genealogies  of  Colchis.  (Hesiod,  Thcog., 
 tab.  5,  p.  164,  cd.  Wolf —  Apollod.,  1,  9,  l.  —  Diod. 
 Sic,  4,  45.)  Perses,  the  son  of  Perseus  and  Androm- 
 eda, was,  according  to  Hellanicus,  the  author  of  civil- 
 izatipn  in  the  district  of  Persia  called  Artasa..  {Fragm., 
 p.  94.)  Herodotus  also  was  acquainted  with  the  tra- 
 ditions which,  emanating  originally  from  Persia  itself, 
 claimed  Perseus  for  Assyria  (6,  54).  Finally,  in  the 
 place  of  Perses,  it  is  Acha^menes  (Djemschid)  whom 
 the  ancient  expounders  of  Plato  make  to  have  sprung 
 from  Perseus  and  Andromeda.  (Olynipiodor.,  I.  c  ,  p. 
 151,  Coll.,  157.  — Schol.  Plat.,  Alcib.,  1,  p.  75,  ed. 
 Ruhnken.)  We  have  here,  under  the  form  of  a  Greek 
 genealogy,  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  worship  of 
 Mithras  ;  the  beam  of  fire  which  the  sun  plunges  into 
 the  bosom  of  the  earth,  produces  a  solar  hero,  who  in 
 his  turn  becomes  the  parent  of  one  connected  with  ag- 
 riculture. Djemschid-Perses,  the  chief  and  model  of 
 the  dynasty  of  the  Achoemenides,  was  the  first  to  open 
 the  soil  of  Persia  with  the  same  golden  sword  wielded 
 by  Perseus  and  Mithras,  and  which  is  nothing  else  but 
 an  emblem  of  the  penetrating  and  fertilizing  rays  of  tho 
 luminary  of  day.  If  Perseus,  however,  seems,  by  his 
 father  or  his  primitive  type,  to  have  reference  to  Asia, 
 on  the  mother's  side  he  is  connected  with  Egypt,  the 
 native  country  of  Danaiis  and  the  Danaides.  {Herod., 
 2,  91,  171. — Apollod.,  2,  1,  4.)  At  Chemmis  he  had 
 a  temple  and  statue  ;   and  as  Tarsus,  vvlicre  he  was 
 
 1007 
 
PERSEUS. 
 
 PER 
 
 also  worshipped,  received  its  name  from  the  impress 
 made  by  the  fertilizing  foot  of  Pegasus  or  Bcllerophoii, 
 who  followed  in  the  track  of  the  high  deeds  achieved 
 by  Perseus  in  Lower  Asia,  so  the  Cheminites  pretend- 
 ed that  Egypt  was  indebted  for  its  fertility  to  the  gi- 
 gantic sandal  left  by  the  dcmi-god  upon  earth  at  the 
 periods  of  his  frequent  visitations.  {Herod.,  2,  91.) 
 They  alono  of  the  Egyptians  celebrated  games  in  hon- 
 our of  this  warlike  hero  of  the  Sun,  this  conqueror  in 
 his  celestial  career,  this  worthy  precursor  of  Hercules, 
 his  grandson. — If  we  connect  what  has  been  here  said 
 with  the  traces  of  Milhriac  worship  in  Ethiopia  and 
 Egypt,  as  well  as  in  Persia  and  Greece,  we  will  be 
 tempted  to  conjecture,  that  these  two  branches  of  a 
 very  early  religion,  the  fundamental  idea  in  which  was 
 the  contest  incessantly  carried  on  by  the  pure  and  fer- 
 tilizing principle  of  light  against  darkness  and  sterility, 
 unite  in  one  parent  trunk  at  the  very  centre  of  the 
 East.  {Crcuzer,  SymboUk,  far  Guigniaul,  \ol.  3,  p. 
 156,  scqq.) — II.  Son  of  Philip  V.,  king  of  Macedonia, 
 began  at  an  early  age  to  serve  in  his  father's  army, 
 and  distinguished  himself  by  some  successes  against 
 the  barbarous  nations  which  bordered  on  Macedonia. 
 His  younger  brother  Demetrius  was  carried  away  as 
 hostage  by  the  consul  Flamininus,  at  the  time  of  the 
 peace  between  Rome  and  Philip,  and,  after  remaining 
 several  years  at  Rome,  where  he  won  the  favour  of  the 
 senate,  was  sent  back  to  Macedonia.  After  a  time,  he 
 was  again  sent  by  his  father  to  Rome,  on  a  mission,  in 
 consequence  of  fresh  disagreements  which  had  sprung 
 up  between  the  two  states.  Demetrius  succeeded  in 
 maintaining  peace,  but,  after  his  return  to  Macedonia, 
 he  was  accused  of  ambitious  designs,  of  aspiring  to  the 
 crown,  and  of  being  in  secret  correspondence  with 
 Rome.  Perseus,  who  was  jealous  of  him,  supported 
 the  charges,  and  Philip  doomed  his  younger  son  to 
 death;  but,  not  daring  to  have  him  openly  executed, 
 through  fear  of  the  Romans,  he  caused  him  to  be  poi- 
 soned. It  is  said  that,  having  discovered  his  inno- 
 cenccf  his  remorse  and  his  indignation  against  Perseus 
 hastened  his  death.  Perseus  ascended  the  throne  B.C. 
 179.  This  monarch  had  been  brought  up  by  his  father 
 with  sentiinents  of  hatred  against  the  Romans,  for  the 
 humiliation  which  they  had  inflicted  on  Macedonia. 
 He  dissembled  his  feelings,  however,  at  the  beginning 
 of  his  reign,  and  confirmed  the  treaty  existing  between 
 his  father  and  the  senate.  Meanwhile  he  endeavoured, 
 by  a  prudent  and  diligent  administration,  to  strengthen 
 hi"s  power,  and  retrieve  the  losses  which  his  kingdom 
 had  sustained  during  the  previous  reign.  But  the  Ro- 
 mans, who  viewed  with  suspicion  these  indications  of  ri- 
 sing opposition,  sought  an  early  opportunity  of  crushing 
 their  foe,  before  his  plans  could  be  brought  to  maturity. 
 Prete.Kts  were  not  long  wanting  for  such  a  purpose, 
 and  war  was  declared,  notwithstanding  every  offer  of 
 concession  on  the  part  of  Perseus.  After  a  campaign 
 of  no  decisive  result  in  Thessaly,  the  war  was  trans- 
 ferred to  the  plains  of  Picria  in  Macedonia,  where  Per- 
 seus encamped  in  a  strong  position  on  the  banks  of  the 
 river  Enipeus.  But  the  consul  Paulus  ^milius  hav- 
 inor  despatched  a  chosen  body  of  troops  across  the 
 mountains  to  attack  him  in  the  rear,  he  was  compell- 
 ed to  retire  to  Pydna,  where  a  battle  took  place,  which 
 terminated  in  his  entire  defeat,  20,000  Macedonians 
 havincT  fallen  on  the  field.  Tiiis  single  battle  decided 
 the  fate  of  the  ancient  and  powerful  kingdom  of  Mace- 
 donia, after  a  duration  of  .WO  years.  Perseus  fled  al- 
 most alone,  without  waiting  for  the  end  of  the  conflict. 
 He  went  first  to  Pella,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Mace- 
 donian kings,  then  to  Amphipolis,  and  thence  to  the 
 island  of  Samothrace,  whose  asylum  was  considered 
 inviolable.  From  this  quarter  he  attempted  to  escape 
 by  sea  to  Thrace  ;  but  a  Cretan  master  of  a  vessel, 
 after  having  shipped  part  of  his  treasure,  sailed  away, 
 and  left  the  king  on  the  shore.  The  attendants  hav- 
 ing also  forsakeij  him  except  one,  Perseus,  with  his 
 1008 
 
 eldest  son  Philip,  came  out  of  the  temple  where  he  had 
 taken  refuge  and  surrendered  to  the  Romans.  He 
 was  treated  at  first  by  .'Emilius  with  considerable  in- 
 dulgence, but  was  obliged  to  parade  the  streets  of 
 Rome  with  his  children,  to  grace  the  trium[)h  of  his 
 conqueror.  He  was  afterward  confined,  by  order  of 
 the  senate,  at  Alba  Fucentia,  near  the  lake  Fucinu.s, 
 where  he  died  in  a  few  years.  His  son  Philip  also 
 died  at  Alba.  Another  and  younger  son  is  said  to 
 have  become  a  scribe  or  writer  to  the  municipality  of 
 the  same  place.  (Liv.,  44,  42. — Plut.,  Vit.  ]'.  JEmil. 
 —  Encycl.  Us.  KnowL,  vol.  17,  p.  466.  —  Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  191.) 
 
 Persia,  a  celebrated  kingdom  of  Asia,  comprehend- 
 ing, in  its  utmost  extent,  all  the  countries  between  the 
 Indus  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  the  Euxine  and 
 Cas[)ian  to  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Indian  Ocean.  In  its 
 more  limited  acceptation,  however,  the  name  Persri 
 (or  rather  Persis)  denoted  a  particular  province,  the 
 original  seat  of  the  conquerors  of  Asia,  where  they 
 were  inured  to  hardship  and  privation.  This  region 
 was  bounded  on  the  north  and  northwest  by  Media, 
 from  which  it  was  separated  by  the  mountain-range 
 known  to  the  ancients  under  the  name  of  Paracho- 
 athras  {PtoL,  6,  4.  —  Strab.,  522);  on  the  south  by 
 the  Persian  Gulf ;  on  the  east  by  Carmania ;  and  on 
 the  west  by  Susiana,  from  which  it  was  separated  by 
 rugged  and  inaccessible  mountains.  {Strab.,  728.) 
 The  country  included  within  these  limits  is,  according 
 to  Chardin's  estimate,  as  large  as  France.  The  south- 
 ern part  of  it,  near  the  coast,  is  a  sandy  plain,  almost 
 uninhabitable,  on  account  of  the  heat  and  the  pestilen- 
 tial winds  that  blow  from  the  desert  of  Carmania. 
 {Plin.,  12,  W.—Slrab.,  727.)  But,  at  some  distance 
 from  the  coast,  the  ground  rises,  and  the  interior  of  the 
 country,  towards  the  north,  is  intersected  by  numerous 
 mountain-ranges.  The  soil  upon  these  mountains  is 
 very  dry  and  barren,  and,  though  there  arc  some  fertile 
 valleys  among  them,  they  are  in  general  fit  only  for  the 
 residence  of  nomadic  shepherds.  In  the  inner  part  of 
 the  country,  however,  there  are  many  well  watered  and 
 fertile  plains,  in  the  largest  of  which  Persepolis  is  sit 
 uated.     {Strab.,  127.— PtoL,  6,  4.) 
 
 1.  Names  of  Persia. 
 
 Persia  is  called,  in  the  Old  Testament,  Paras.  An- 
 other name  employed  by  the  sacred  writers  is  Elam. 
 Moses  first  uses  this  appellation  in  Genests  (10,  22), 
 but  a  great  error  is  committed  by  many  who  regard 
 the  ancient  Elamites  as  the  forefathers  and  progenitors 
 of  the  whole  nation  of  the  Persians.  The  term  Elam, 
 strictly  speaking,  belongs  only  to  one  particular  prov- 
 ince of  the  Persian  empire,  called  by  the  Grecian  wri- 
 ters Elymais,  and  forming  part  of  the  modern  Chou- 
 sista7i.  The  geoorraphical  notions  of  the  ancient  He- 
 brews were  extremely  limited  :  and  as  they  first  be- 
 came acquainted  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  province 
 of  Elymais,  before  they  knew  anything  respecting  the 
 rest  of  the  Persians,  tl'ey  applied  the  term  Elam  to 
 the  whole  of  Persia. — Some  modern  writers  have  also 
 regarded  the  name  Chnula  (Cutha?a),  in  the  Scriptures, 
 as  designating  Persia  ;  and,  in  forming  this  opinion, 
 they  have  been  guided  by  the  passage  hi  the  2d  book 
 of  Khms,  17,  24,  where  a  Chouta  is  mentioned,  which 
 .loscphus  {Ant.  Jud.,  9,  14,  3)  places  in  Persia.  Mi- 
 chaelis,  however  {SpiaUg.,  Geogr.  Hcbr.  Ext.,  pt.  1, 
 p.  104,  seqq.),  seeks  to  prove  that  Chouta  was  in 
 Phoenicia,  not  in  Persia ;  while  Hyde  and  Reland 
 place  it  in  Babylonia.  If  we  adopt,  in  preference  to 
 the  two  last-mentioned  writers,  the  testimony  of  Jo- 
 spphus,  we  may,  with  great  probability,  conclude  that 
 Chouta,  like  Elam,  only  denoted  in  fact  a  part,  but, 
 like  it,  was  used  to  designate  a  whole.—  Among  the 
 Greek  and  Roman  writers  Persia  occasionally  bears 
 the  name  of  Achamenia,  and  the  Persians  themselves 
 that  of  Achamemi  {'hx^ifievcoi)      Hence  Hesychius 
 
PERSIA. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 remarks,  'Axat/iivTic,  Tlspatjc.  Amtnianus  Marcelli- 
 nus  (19,  2),  in  the  common  text  of  his  history,  gives 
 Achamenium  as  equivalent,  in  the  Persian  tongue,  to 
 "Rex  regibus  imperans ;'''  but  Valois  (Vaiesius)  cor- 
 rects the  common  reading  by  the  substitution  of  Saan- 
 svum,  which  closely  resembles  the  modern  title  of  roy- 
 alty in  Persia,  Sckaakinschaah. — The  name  AchcBmema 
 comes  in  reality  from  that  of  Achccmcncs,  the  founder 
 of  the  royal  line  of  Persia.  In  the  word  AchcEmencs, 
 the  last  two  syllables  {-enes)  are  a  mere  Greek  append- 
 age, owing  their  existence  to  the  well-known  custom, 
 on  the  pari  of  the  Greeks,  of  altering  foreign,  and  par- 
 ticularly Oriental  names,  in  such  a  way  as  to  adapt 
 them  to  their  own  finer  organs  of  hearing.  (Compare 
 Josepkus,A7it.Jud.,  1,6. — Plin.,Ep.,8,i  )  We  have, 
 then,  Achaem  {'Axai./i)  remaining.  The  initial  letter 
 is  merely  the  Oriental  alif  pronounced  as  a  soft  breath- 
 ing, and  the  root  of  the  word  is  Chacm  {Xaifx).  On 
 comparing  this  with  the  Oriental  name  Djemschid  (in 
 which  the  final  syllable,  schid,  is  a  mere  addition  of  a 
 later  age),  we  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  resem- 
 blance. And  this  resemblance  will  become  still  more 
 marked  if  we  consider  that  Djem  {Djocmo  in  the  Zend- 
 Avesta)  begins  properly  with  a  species  of  sibilant  G, 
 which,  bemg  pronounced  more  roughly  in  some  dia- 
 lects than  in  others,  approxnnates  very  closely  to  the 
 eound  of  Ch.  Besides,  all  that  the  Greeks  tell  us  of 
 Achjemenes  corresponds  very  exactly  with  what  the 
 East  relates  of  its  Djemschid.  Achaemenes  was  the 
 founder  of  the  royal  line  of  Persia,  and  to  him  Cyrus, 
 Darius,  and  Xerxes  were  proud  of  tracing  their  origin. 
 With  the  Persians  of  the  present  day,  the  name  of 
 Djemschid  is  held  in  the  highest  veneration  as  that  of 
 the  founder  of  Persepolis,  and  a  great  and  glorious 
 monarch. — Herodotus  (7,  61)  states  that  the  Persians 
 were  anciently  {na7\.aL)  called  by  the  Greeks  Cephcnes 
 {KTjp'/veg),  but  by  themselves  and  their  neighbours  Ar- 
 tai  ('ApraioL).  As  regards  the  name  Cephenes,  there 
 is  an  evident  mistake  on  the  part  of  the  historian,  and 
 the  appellation  beyond  a  doubt  belongs  only  to  certain 
 tribes  of  the  ancient  Northern  Chaldjea,  who  actually 
 bore  this  name.  With  respect  to  the  term  Artmi  it 
 may  be  remarked,  that  it  merely  designates  a  brave 
 and  warripr-people,  being  derived  from  the  Persian  art 
 or  ard,  "  strong,"  "  brave."  (Consult  remarks  at  the 
 end  of  the  article  Arlaxerxes.)  —  One  of  the  earliest 
 nam..;s  of  Persia  and  the  Persian  empire,  and  the  one 
 most,  usual  with  the  Persians  themselves  up  to  the 
 present  day,  is  Iran,  while  all  the  country  beyond  the 
 Oxus  was  denominated  Turan.  The  former  of  these 
 appellations  is  identical  with  the  Eericnc  of  the  Zend- 
 Avesta,  and  will  be  alluded  to  again  in  the  course  of 
 (he  present  article. — The  name  Persia  would  seem  to 
 have  come  from  that  of  the  province  of  Faarsi-slan  or 
 Paarsi-stan,  called  also  Faars  or  Paars,  and  the  same 
 with  the  Persis  (IHpaig)  of  the  Greeks.  (Compare 
 the  Scripture  I'aras  already  mentioned.)  In  this  prov- 
 ince we  find  the  genuine  race  of  Iranians  ;  and  it  was 
 here  that  the  magnificent  city  of  Istakhar,  which  the 
 Greeks  have  made  known  to  Europe  by  the  name  of 
 Persepolis,  was  built  by  the  monarchs  of  Iran.  The 
 origin  of  the  term  Faars  or  Paars  has  been  much  dis- 
 puted by  philologists  (  Wahl,  Vorder  und  Mittel-Asien, 
 p.  225,  scqq);  the  root  is  evidently  to  be  sought  for 
 in  the  term  Aria  or  Eeriene,  and  this  would  bring  Iran 
 and  Persia,  as  names  of  the  same  country,  in  close 
 approximation.  (F?V/.  Aria.)  One  explanation  of  the 
 name  "Persian"  will  be  given  farther  on. 
 
 2.   Origin  and  Early  History  of  the  Persians. 
 
 Thf.  first  historical  and  religious  epochs  of  Persia 
 arc  enveloped  in  such  obscurity,  and  so  many  have 
 erred  in  relation  to  the  character,  far  more  mythic  than 
 historical,  of  the  early  Oriental  traditions,  that  we  need 
 not  wonder  at  the  earnest  enthusiasm  with  which  such 
 men  as  Sir  W.  Jones  and  J.  von  Miiller  have  adopted 
 6  M 
 
 the  fictions  of  Dabistan.  These  fictions  have  far  more 
 connexion  with  the  Brahminical  traditions  than  with 
 those  of  the  Zend-Avesta,  though  they  are  found,  in 
 fact,  ingrafted  on  the  latter.  The  fourteen  Abads  ; 
 the  institution  of  the  four  castes  by  the  great  Abad  ; 
 in  a  word,  that  ideal  empire,  as  unlimited  in  geograph- 
 ical extent  as  in  the  immensity  of  the  periods  (sidereal 
 in  appearance,  but  at  bottom  purely  artificial  and  ar- 
 bitrary), that  are  connected  with  it ;  all  this  is  evidently 
 borrowed  from  India :  and  yet  all  this,  when  joined  to 
 the  name  of  Mahabaii,  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
 Baal  or  Belus,  was  thought  to  furnish  a  wonderful  con- 
 firmation of  the  favourite  hypothesis  of  a  great  ante- 
 diluvian monarchy,  which  had  embraced  India,  Persia, 
 and  Assyria  in  a  common  bond  of  language,  religion, 
 and  national  institutions.  In  this  way  it  was  believed 
 that  a  solution  could  be  given  of  all  the  difficult  prob- 
 lems presented  by  the  earliest  portion  of  the  history 
 of  the  world.  These  traditions,  however,  have  an  air 
 of  philosophic  abstraction,  or,  to  speak  more  candidly, 
 of  premeditated  invention,  which  ill  agrees  with  the 
 native  simplicity  that  marks  the  legends  of  the  Zend- 
 Avesta.  It  is  from  the  Zend-Avesta,  carefully  com- 
 pared with  the  more  genuine  portion  of  the  Schah-Na- 
 meh,  and  with  the  scanty  information  which  the  He- 
 brews and  Greeks  have  transmitted  to  us  on  this  sub- 
 ject, that  we  must  seek  for  some  true  information  rel- 
 ative to  the  first  periods  of  Persian  history.  At  first 
 view,  indeed,  there  seems  to  be  the  widest  possible 
 difference  between  the  narratives  of  the  Jews  and 
 Greeks,  and  the  national  recollections  of  the  people 
 of  Iran  ;  and  critics  have  heaped  hypothesis  upon  hy- 
 pothesis, in  order  to  reconcile  this  discrepance:  some 
 have  even  regarded  the  thing  as  altogether  impossible. 
 Before  the  discovery  of  the  Zend  books,  it  was  easy 
 to  suppose  that  the  Oriental  writers,  coming  as  they 
 did  at  so  late  a  period  upon  the  stage,  had  confounded 
 together  the  Assyrians,  Medes,  and  Persians  as  one 
 and  the  same  people,  or  else  that  they  had  designedly, 
 and  from  feelings  of  national  vanity,  connected  their 
 own  history  with  that  of  the  powerful  communities 
 which  had  preceded  them  in  the  sovereignty  of  West- 
 ern Asia.  (Consult  Anquetil  du  Perron,  Mem.  de 
 VAcad.  des  Inscript.,  vols.  40  and  42. —  Gorres,  My- 
 thcngesch.,  vol.  1,  p.  213,  seqq.,  &cc.)  At  the  present 
 dav,  however,  this  opinion  is  accompanied  with  great 
 difficulties  ;  for  the  same  names,  and,  in  general,  the 
 same  ancient  facts,  are  found,  with  some  slight  shades 
 of  difference,  in  the  Zend-Avesta  and  in  Ferdousi  or 
 his  copyists.  Everything,  therefore,  depends  upon 
 the  period  to  be  assigned  for  the  composition  of  the 
 Zend  books. — Most  writers  distinguish  between  the 
 Medes  and  Persians  from  their  very  origin  ;  and  to  the 
 former  of  these  two  nations  they  refer  Zoroaster,  his 
 laws,  the  books  that  bear  his  name — m  a  word,  the 
 whole  system  of  the  Magian  worship,  and  the  civiliza- 
 tion of  the  Persians  themselves.  This  theory  makes 
 the  Medes  to  have  formed  originally  a  part  of  a  great 
 Bactrian  nation,  a  Bactro-Median  empire,  and  to  have 
 received  from  the  Bactrians  the  elements  of  their  own 
 civilization.  (Compare  Hccren,  Ideen,  vol  1,  p.  427, 
 seqq.)  The  writer  just  mentioned  even  inclines  to 
 the  opinion  that  the  Medes  and  Bactrians  formed, 
 for  a  long  time,  two  distinct  states,  of  which  the  lat- 
 ter was  much  earlier  in  its  origin  than  the  former 
 {Handbuch  der  Gesch.,  p.  29)  ;  and  this  will  serve  to 
 explain  the  two  dynasties,  so  different  from  each  other 
 and  so  very  unequal  in  number,  that  are  given  by  He- 
 rodotus and  Ctesias,  while  it  at  the  same  time  re-estab- 
 lishes in  their  rights  the  communities  on  the  banks  of 
 the  Oxus,  whom  Aristotle  and  Clearchus  regarded  as 
 having  enjoyed,  at  so  remote  a  period,  the  blessings 
 of  civilization.  (Dwg.  Laert.,  proam.  vi.)— As  re- 
 gards the  origin  of  the  Medes,  Persians,  and  other 
 ancient  nations  of  the  remote  East,  as  well  as  their 
 early- historv,  all  remains  uncertain  and  obscure.  It 
 ^  1009 
 
PERSIA. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 is  generally  conceded,  however,  that  the  Bactrians, 
 Medes,  and  Persians  bore  at  first  the  coininon  name 
 of  Arii,  which  recalls  to  mind  that  of  Iran;  but  wilii 
 respect  10  the  primitive  country  of  these  Arii  there  is 
 little  unanimity  of  opinion.  Some  make  them  to  have 
 come  from  Caucasus  ;  others  seek  for  their  earliest 
 settlement  among  the  mountains  to  the  northeast  of 
 India,  and,  it  must  be  confessed,  with  great  proba- 
 bility. Gorres  persists  iti  his  hypothesis  of  making 
 the  Assyrians,  Medes,  and  Persians  to  have  descend- 
 ed from  the  chain  of  Caucasus,  speaking  the  same  lan- 
 guage, and  forming  one  and  the  same  race  ;  and  to 
 this  race,  thus  combined,  he  assigns  a  great  monarchy 
 of  Iran,  extending  from  Caucasus  to  the  Himmalayan 
 Mountains.  He  brings  together  and  compares  with 
 each  other  the  names  Iran,  Aria,  Aturia,  Assyria, 
 Assur,  &c.,  and  appears  to  identify  Slum  with  Djcm 
 or  Djcmschid,  the  first  mythic  chief  of  this  early  em- 
 pire. {Mythaigesch.,  vol.  1,  p.  213,  scqq. — Compare 
 Schah.  Na.mch,  Einleit.,  p.  vi.,  scqq.)  Another  sys- 
 tem has  been  more  recently  started  by  Rhode,  and  has 
 been  developed  with  great  ability.  According  to  this 
 writer,  the  Bactrians,  Medes,  and  Persians  composed 
 the  common  and  primitive  Iran,  speaking  the  Zend 
 language  or  its  different  dialects,  and  coming  origin- 
 ally from  Eeritne  Vecdjo,  and  from  Mount  Albordj, 
 which  he  finds  near  the  sources  of  the  O.xus  and  the 
 mountains  to  the  north  of  India,  the  names  of  which 
 were  transferred  in  a  later  age  to  Caucasus  and  Ar- 
 menia. The  arguments  adduced  by  this  writer  in 
 support  of  his  hypothesis  are  drawn  from  the  Zend 
 books,  and  in  particular  from  the  Vendidad,  at  the 
 commencement  of  which  latter  work  an  account  is 
 given  of  the  creation,  or,  as  Rhode  expresses  it,  of 
 the  successive  inhabitings  of  various  countries,  and  in 
 the  number  of  which  we  find,  after  Eeriene  Vecdjo, 
 Soshdo  {SogA\d.na.),  Afoorc  (Merou),  5aA7idi  (probably 
 Balk),  Ncvcz  (Nysa),  Haroiou  (Herat-),  &.c.  Rhode 
 sees  in  this  enumeration  an  ancient  tradition  respect- 
 ing the  migrations  of  a  race,  for  a  long  period  of  no- 
 madic habits,  who  kept  moving  on  gradually  towards 
 the  south,  under  the  conduct  of  Djemschid,  as  far  as 
 Ver  or  Var,  a  delightful  country,  where  they  finally 
 established  themselves,  and  where  Djemschid  built  a 
 city  and  palace,  Var- Djcmsghcrd,  which  Rhode,  after 
 Herder,  takes  for  Persia  proper  (Pcrsis)  or  Pars, 
 Afith  its  capital  Persepolis,  identifying  at  the  same 
 ^ime  Achsemenes  with  Djemschid.  M.  Von  Hammer 
 adopts,  in  general,  this  opinion  of  Rhode  in  regard  to 
 the  geography  of  the  Vendidad,  with  the  exception  of 
 the  last  point.  He  thinks  that  Ver  and  Var-Djems- 
 chid  cannot  be  Pars  or  Pars  and  Persepolis,  but  the 
 country  more  to  the  north,  where  are  at  the  present 
 day  Damaghan  and  Kaswin,  and  where  stood  in  for- 
 mer days  Hecatompylos,  the  true  city  of  Djemschid. 
 The  celebrated  traveller  and  Orientalist,  Sir  W.  Ouse- 
 ly,  without  identifying  Var  and  Pars  as  Rhode  does, 
 inclines,  nevertheless,  to  the  belief  that  it  is  to  Persep- 
 olis, its  edifices,  and  the  plain  in  which  it  is  situated, 
 that  the  Zend-Avesta  refers  under  the  names  already 
 mentioned,  as  well  as  under  that  o(  Djcmkand.  With- 
 out presuming  to  offer  any  opinion  on  this  disputed 
 point,  we  may  take  the  liberty  of  remarking,  that  the 
 Greeks  themselves  speak  of  the  Arii  as  a  large  family 
 of  nations,  to  which  the  Magi,  and,  in  general,  all  the 
 Median  tribes  or  castes  were  considered  as  belonging. 
 (Mayot  (5e  Kal  nuv  to  'Apeiov  yivo^.  —  Damasc.,a.p. 
 Wolf,  Anecd.  Grac,  3,  p.  259. — Compare  Herod.,  7, 
 62,  and  1,  101.)  The  Persians  called  their  ancient 
 heroes  'kpraloi  {Herod.,  7,  61. — Id.,  6.  98. — Hcllan- 
 ic.,ap.  Steph.  Byz.,s.v. ' kpTaia),s.v\A.  Arlaxcrxes  is  said 
 to  signify,  as  an  appellation,  "  a  great  warrior,"  and  to 
 be  compounded  of  Art  or  Ard,  "  strong,"  and  the 
 Zendic  Khshelra,  "  a  warrior,"  which  is  almost  iden- 
 tical in  form  with  the  Sanscrit  Arta-Kchatryia.  More- 
 over, the  terms  Arii  and  Aria  or  Ariana,  together 
 1010 
 
 with  Arlaa  and  Ari  or  Eeri  (a  root  found  in  vanou* 
 Zendic  terms,  such  as  Aricma,  Eeriene,  Ecriemeno, 
 Eeriene-  Vecdjo,  &c.),  re-appear  in  the  Aryas  and  Aria- 
 Verla  of  the  Sanscrit  books,  "  tlie  illustrious,"  and 
 "  the  land  of  the  illustrious,"  or  "  of  heroes."  (Com- 
 pare the  Greek  "H/juff,  a  word  of  the  same  origin.) 
 All  these  analogies,  joined  to  the  striking  resemblance 
 between  the  Zend,  the  Parsi,  and  the  Sanscrit,  point  to 
 a  primitive  race  of  one  and  the  same  origin,  speaking 
 at  first  one  and  the  same  language,  hut  subsequently 
 divided  into  various  nations  and  dialects.  The  tribes 
 in  Bactriana  and  the  neighbouring  country,  continuing 
 to  dwell  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  parent  source,  re- 
 mained more  faithful  than  others  to  the  ancient  name 
 and  language.  Other  tribes  moved  off  in  a  southeast 
 direction,  and  towards  the  region  of  Caucasus,  whither 
 they  transported  with  them  the  names  of  both  Alhordj 
 and  Aricma  {Armenia).  Hence  we  have  both  East- 
 ern and  Western  Arii,  and  these  last  became  in  time 
 a  separate  nation,  the  Medes,  known  to  the  Hindus 
 under  the  name  of  Pahlavas  {Pehlavan  is  "  a  hero" 
 in  Firdousi),  which  recalls  to  mind  the  Pehlvi,  their 
 language,  the  fruit  of  their  intermixture  with  people 
 of  another  race.  Finally,  the  Persians,  the  antiquity 
 of  whose  name  {Parsi,  "  the  clear,"  "  the  pure,"  "  the 
 brilliant,"  "  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  of  light"), 
 as  well  as  their  idiom,  worship,  and  traditions,  would 
 seem  to  indicate  a  close  and  long-continued  connexion 
 with  the  first  branch,  established  themselves,  we  know 
 not  at  what  epoch,  in  the  country  of  Pares  or  Pars, 
 which  became,  in  the  time  of  Cyrus,  the  centre  of  an 
 empire,  that  recalled  to  mind  in  some  degree  the  fab- 
 ulous .sway  of  his  great  progenitor  Djemschid.  {Rhode, 
 Hciligc  Sage,  p.  60,  seqq.  —  Id.,  itber  Alter.,  &c.,  p. 
 18,  seqq.  —  Vo7i  Hammci,  Hcidclh.  Jahrh.,  1823,  p. 
 84,  scqq. — Ousebfs  Travels,  vol.  2,  p.  305,  scqq. — 
 F.  Von  Schlegcl,  Wjcn..  Jahrb.,  vol.  8,  p.  458,  seqq. 
 — D'Anquetil,  Zend-Avesta,  vol.  1,  p.  2,  263,  scqq.  ; 
 vol.  2,  p.  408.  —  Creuzcr,  Symboli.k,  par  Gmgniaut, 
 vol.  2,  p.  677,  scqq.) — According  to  the  Pehlvi  tradi- 
 tions, the  first  dynasty  in  Iran  was  that  of  the  Pisch- 
 dadians.  Keioumaratz,  say  the  same  legends,  was 
 the  first  who  governed  in  the  world.  He  lived  a  thou- 
 sand years,  and  reigned  thirty.  Covered  with  the  skin 
 of  a  tiger,  he  descended  from  the  mountains  and  taught 
 men  the  use  of  vestments  and  more  nutritive  food. 
 Ahriman,  the  genius  of  evil,  sent  a  demon  to  attack 
 him.  Siamck,  the  son  of  Keioumaratz,  was  slain  in 
 the  conflict.  Houcheng  avenged  the  death  of  his  fa- 
 ther. He  came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  forty  years. 
 He  reigned  with  justice,  taught  men  the  art  of  culti- 
 vating and  sowing  the  fields,  and  made  them  acquaint- 
 ed with  the  use  of  grain.  Meeting,  on  one  occasion, 
 a  monster  in  a  forest,  he  seized  an  enormous  stone  to 
 attack  him  ;  the  stone,  striking  against  a  rock,  flew 
 into  a  thousand  pieces,  and  fire  was  discovered.  With 
 the  aid  of  this  element  he  invented  -the  art  of  working 
 metals :  he  thus  formed  the  pincers,  the  saw,  and  the 
 hammer.  He  directed  also  the  courses  of  rivers,  and 
 constructed  canals.  He  taught  his  subjects,  more- 
 over, the  art  of  raising  cattle  and  of  substituting  wool- 
 len stuffs  for  the  skins  of  animals.  Thcioumouratz,  son 
 of  Houcheng,  succeeded.  He  was  the  first  that  pur- 
 sued the  chase  with  the  onca  and  the  falcon,  and 
 taught  music  to  men.  An  angel,  sent  from  heaven, 
 presented  him  with  a  lance  and  horse,  to  combat  and 
 subdue  the  evil  spirits.  He  gave  them  battle  at  the 
 head  of  the  Iranians,  completely  defeated  them,  and 
 took  a  great  number  prisoners.  These  begged  for  life, 
 and,  in  return  for  the  boon,  taught  him  writing  and 
 the  elements  of  knowledge.  Thcioumouratz,  the  con- 
 queror of  these  demons,  reigned  thirty  years.  He  was 
 succeeded  by  his  son  Djemschid.  The  birds,  and  the 
 peris  or  good  spirits,  obeyed  him.  He  invented  the 
 cuirass,  precious  stuffs,  and  the  art  of  embroidery. 
 He  built  the  city  of  Var  Djemschid,  divided  his  sub- 
 
PERSIA- 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 jects  into  four  castes,  and  during  three  hundred  years 
 reigned  in  the  utmost  prosperity  and  power,  until  his 
 pride  impelled  him  to  revolt  against  the  deity.  Dzo- 
 hdk'  was  at  this  time  prince  of  the  Tasi,  and  held 
 communication  with  the  evil  genii.  He  collected  to- 
 gether the  subjects  of  Djemschid,  who  had  abandoned 
 their  sovereign  since  his  altered  course  of  conduct, 
 put  himself  at  their  head,  dethroned  Djemschid,  and 
 deprived'  him  of  existence  after  a  reign  of  seven  hun- 
 dred years.  Dzohalt'  reigned  a  thousand  years.  His 
 tyranny  reduced  Persia  to  the  utmost  wretchedness. 
 By  the  malice  of  the  evil  spirits,  two  serpents  sprang 
 from  his  shoulders  and  remained  attached  to  them. 
 To  appease  their  craving  appetites,  they  had  to  be  fed 
 every  day  with  the  brains  of  men.  By  an  adroit  strat- 
 agem, the  cooks  of  the  palace  saved  each  day  one  of  the 
 two  persons  destined  thus  to  afford  nourishment  to  the 
 serpents,  and  sent  him  to  the  mountains :  it  is  from  these 
 fugitives,  say  the  traditions  of  Persia,  that  the  Kurds 
 of  the  present  day  derived  their  origin.  A  dream  fore- 
 warned the  sanguinary  Dzohak'  of  the  lot  that  awaited 
 him,  and  of  the  vengeance  that  would  be  inflicted  on  him 
 by  Feridoun.  the  son  of  one  of  his  victims.  He  caused 
 diligent  search  to  be  made  for  the  formidable  infant, 
 but  the  mother  of  Feridoun,  who  had  given  him  to  the 
 divine  cow  Four-mayeh  to  be  nursed,  saved  herself 
 and  her  child  by  fleeing  to  Mount  Albrouz,  in  the  north 
 of  India.  There  Feridoun  was  brought  up  by  a  Parsi. 
 Having  attained  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  he  descend- 
 ed from  the  mountain  and  rejoined  his  mother,  who 
 made  him  acquainted  with  the  story  of  his  birth  and 
 misfortunes  :  for  he  was  a  member  of  the  royal  line, 
 which  had  been  driven  from  the  throne  of  Persia  by 
 the  sanguinary  Dzohak'.  Burning  with  the  desire  of 
 avenging  his  wrongs,  he  seized  the  first  opportunity 
 that  presented  itself.  A  sedition  broke  out  in  Persia, 
 headed  by  a  smith,  who  affixed  his  apron  to  the  point 
 of  a  spear,  and  made  it  the  standard  cf  revolt.  The 
 continued  searches  ordered  by  DzohSk'  had  apprized 
 the  people  both  of  the  dream  of  the  tyrar.t  and  the  ex- 
 istence of  the  young  prince  whom  he  persecuted.  The 
 Persians  ran  in  crowds  to  their  deli^^erer,  who  caused 
 the  apron  of  the  smith  to  be  profusely  adorned  with 
 gold  and  precious  stones,  adopted  it  as  the  royal  stand- 
 ard, and  named  it  Direfch-gawdny  ;  and  this  standard 
 continued  to  be  in  after  ages  an  object  of  the  greatest 
 veneration  throughout  all  the  em.pire  of  Persia.  Feri- 
 doun immediately  marched  against  the  tyrant,  crossed 
 the  Tigris  where  Bagdad  now  stands,  proceeded  to 
 Bcit-ul-mahaddc!!,  the  residence  of  Dzohak',  conquered 
 his  antagonist,  and  confined  him  with  massive  fetters 
 in  a  cavern  of  Mount  Damawcnd.  The  two  sisters  of 
 Djemschid,  Chehrnius  and  Amcwas,  had  been  the  fav- 
 ourite wives  of  Dzohak'.  Feridoun  found  them,  though 
 after  the  lapse  of  a  thousand  years,  still  young  enough 
 to  espouse.  He  had  by  them  three  sons,  whom  he 
 married  to  three  princesses  of  Yemen.  The  eldest 
 was  Sclm,  the  second  Totir,  and  the  youngest  Tredj. 
 He  divided  the  earth  among  them.  Selm  received 
 Roum  and  Khdwer,  that  is  to  say,  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
 and  Egypt.  Tour  obtained  Tourdn  and  Djhi,  that  is, 
 the  country  beyond  the  Oxus  and  China.  Ircdj  be- 
 came master  of  Persia  (Iran)  and  Arftbi^,  Dissatis- 
 fied with  this  division,  the  first  two  made  an  inroad,  at 
 the  head  of  an  army,  into  Persip. ;  -.lew  Ircdj,  who 
 had  come  to  their  camp  for  the  purpose  of  appeasing 
 them,  and  sent  his  head  to  Ferdoun.  The  aflhcted 
 father  prayed  the  gods  to  p''.)long  his  life  until  he 
 could  avenge  the  death  of  *  is  son.  Only  one  of  the 
 wives  of  Ircdj  proved  wil^.  child  ;  she  gave  birth  to  a 
 daughter,  whom  Feridoi-ti  'inited  to  Menoutchchr,  his 
 brother's  son.  He  bi-iugnl  him  up  in  wisdom,  and, 
 wher  he  had  reacb'xl  the  age  of  manhood,  gave  this 
 Mew'utch'hr  tbe  'hrone.  Sclm  and  Tour,  luivinn-  en- 
 deavoured bu\  -n  vaiB,  to  appease  their  irritated  father, 
 dettrrn'ricd  'o  have  recourse  to  arms.     Their  forces, 
 
 composed  of  the  people  of.Djin  and  Kkdtcer,  entered 
 Persia,  but  were  defeated  in  succession,  and  their  lead- 
 ers slain.  Feridoun  died  beloved  by  his  subjects, 
 whom  he  had  rendered  happy  during  a  period  of  five 
 hundred  years.  During  this  time  lived  the  valiant 
 Sam,  son  of  Nerimdn,  prince  of  Se.djestan,  and  of  Za- 
 boulistdn  or  Ghiznth.  His  son  Zal  received  from 
 Menoutchehr  the  sovereignty  of  all  the  countries  from 
 K'aboul  to  the  river  Sind,  and  from  his  father  the  coun- 
 try of  Zaboulistdn.  Mihrdb  reigned  at  this  period  in 
 K'aboiil.  He  was  of  Tasi  origin,  and  of  the  race  of 
 Dzohdk\  Zal  married  his  daughter  Rovdabch,  and 
 became  the  father  of  Roustem,  the  hero  of  Persia,  and 
 whose  exf)loits  form  the  principal  subject  of  the  poem 
 of  Firdousi.  Menoutchehr  transmitted  the  crown  to 
 his  son  Nawder.  This  latter  followed  not  the  precepts 
 of  his  father  :  his  subjects  revolted,  and  his  kino-dom 
 being  invaded  by  Afrasiab,  the  son  of  Pecheng,  king 
 of  Touran,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  opponent  and 
 was  put  to  death,  after  a  reign  of  only  seven  years. 
 Afrasiab  then  quitted  the  province  of  Duhesldn,  which 
 had  been  the  theatre  of  the  war,  and  entered  by  Rei 
 into  Iran,  where  he  placed  the  crown  of  the  schahs 
 upon  his  own  head.  During  this  invasion  of  Afrasiilb, 
 Zal,  the  son  and  successor  of  Sam,  had  taken  upon 
 him,  in  his  turn,  the  defence  of  the  dynasty  of  Feri- 
 doun, and  had  caused  a  member  of  the  race  to  be  pro- 
 claimed schah  :  this  was  Zou,  son  of  Thamasp.  Du- 
 ring five  years  the  country  was  exposed  to  the  ravages 
 of  war,  and  afterward  a  general  scarcity  prevailed. 
 Peace  was  concluded  ;  according  to  the  terms  of  which 
 the  river  Gihon(i);'zAo!(w  or  Oxus)  was  declared  the  com- 
 mon limit  of  the  two  empires.  Zou  died  soon  after,  leav- 
 ing as  his  successor  his  son  Gcrchdsjp,  who  only  reigned 
 nine  years,  and  left  Persia,  at  his  death,  without  a  mas- 
 ter. With  him  ended  the  dynasty  of  the  Pischdadi- 
 ans. — Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  the 
 second  or  Kaianian  dynasty,  we  shall  offer  a  few  re- 
 marks on  the  one  of  which  we  have  just  been  treating. 
 The  lives  and  reigns  of  700  and  1000  years  will  obtain, 
 of  course,  no  credit  now.  Djemschid  and  Dzohdk^ 
 represent,  in  all  probability,  entire  families. — It  would 
 be  useless  to  compare  the  Greek  traditions  with  the 
 monstrous  recital  of  the  Schah  namch,  through  which 
 we  have  just  passed.  These  recitals,  having  only  been 
 collected  under  the  Sassanides,  have  reached  us  full 
 of  fable  and  improbability.  It  will  be  safer  and  more 
 reasonable  to  limit  ourselves  to  some  general  approxi- 
 mations. The  Greek  historians  mention  three  princi- 
 pal facts  :  1.  The  existence  of  a  vast  empire,  known 
 among  them  by  the  name  of  the  Assyrian  empire  ;  2. 
 The  overthrow  of  this  empire  by  the  Medes ;  3.  The 
 frequent  incursions  of  the  Scythian  tribes  from  the  re- 
 gion of  Caucasus,  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Caspian,  and 
 from  the  Oxus.  These  three  grand  movements  may 
 be  traced  without  difficulty  in  the  Persian  traditions. 
 In  fact,  the  theatre  of  the  first  four  reigns  of  the  Schnh- 
 nameh  is,  beyond  a  doubt,  Media,  where  was  established 
 the  worship  of  fire  by  Houcheng.  Ka'ioumaratz  and 
 his  successors  were  then  a  Median  dynasty  dethroned 
 by  Dzohak,  a  Tasi  or  Arab  prince,  and  who  began  what 
 is  called  by  the  Greeks  the  Assyrian  empire.  The 
 word  Tasi  designates,  at  the  present  day,  the  inhabi- 
 tants of  Arabia  ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the 
 belief  that  anciently  il  was  applied  to  all  the  people  of 
 the  Semitic  race,  and  consequently  to  the  Assyrian.s. 
 The  new  dynasty  of  Dzohak',  so  detested  by  the  Ira- 
 nians, because  it  was  composed  of  strangers,  and 
 brought  in  with  it  an  impure  and  devilish  worship, 
 was  "probably  none  othar  than  that  of  the  Assyrian 
 princes,  who.  according  to  the  Greek  writers,  were 
 masters  of  all  Persia  as  far  as  tlie  Indus  and  Oxus 
 (Djilwun  or  Gihon).  Feridoun  himself,  who,  accord- 
 ing to  the  Schah-namch,  dethroned  and  imprisoned 
 Dzohak',  will  be  the  representative  of  the  new  dynas- 
 ty of  the  Mede^   which  commenced  with  Dejoces  and 
 
 1011 
 
PERSIA. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 overthrew  the  Assyrian  empire.  The  Assyrian  princes, 
 or  Tasi,  did  not  inhabit  Jerusalem,  as  one  might  be 
 inclined  to  suppose  from  the  name  Bcit-ul-makaddes, 
 "  the  holy  dwelling,"  given  by  Firdousi  to  their  resi- 
 dence, and  which  is  thai  by  which  the  Arabs  designate 
 the  capital  of  the  Jews.  The  Persian  poet  himself 
 gives  us  the  requisite  information  on  this  point,  by 
 adduig  that  BeU-ul-irududdcs  aho  bore  the  Tast  name 
 of  Hamchel-Harran.  It  was  probably,  therefore, 
 Harran,  in  Mesopotamia,  in  the  region  called  Diar 
 Modzdr.  According  to  traditions  still  existing,  this 
 city  was  built  a  short  time  after  the  deluge  ;  and  it  is 
 regarded  by  the  people  of  the  East  as  one  of  the  most 
 ancient  in  the  world.  Alhrouz  is  the  ancient  name  of 
 the  great  chain  of  mountains  which  commences  on  the 
 west  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus,  borders  the  Cas- 
 pian Sea  to  the  southeast  and  south,  and,  proceeding 
 eastward,  joins  the  Himalayan  chain  which  separates 
 Hiiidoostan  from  Thibet.  It  comprehends,  there- 
 fore, the  Caucasus  of  our  days,  the  mountains  of  Ghi- 
 lan,  Mount  Damawciid,  the  chain  of  Chorasan,  and 
 the  Paropamisus  or  Hendu-Khos.  Feridoun,  coming 
 from  Media  to  found  the  new  Median  empire  on  the 
 ruins  of  the  Assyrian,  descended  Mount  Albrouz. 
 Eastern  Persia,  comprising  Sedjestdn  and  Zaloulis- 
 tdn,  which  is  the  country  of  Ghizneh,  was  subject  to 
 the  schah,  but  governed  under  him  by  the  princes  of 
 the  race  of  Sam.  As  to  Kaboul,  it  was  only  tributary, 
 and  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  family  of  Dzohdl:\ 
 that  is,  to  princes  of  Assyrian  origin  who  had  treated 
 with  the  Medes.  The  third  analogy  between  the 
 Greek  and  I'ersian  traditions  is  found  in  the  inroads 
 of  barbarous  tribes  from  Eastern  Persia.  The  incur- 
 sions of  the  Scythian  Nomades,  mentioned  by  the 
 Greek  writers,  will  agree  very  well  with  those  of  the 
 princes  of  Touran,  coming  from  beyond  the  Djihouii 
 or  Oxus.  From  the  earliest  periods,  Persia  has  been 
 exposed  to  invasion  from  the  tribes  in  the  direction  of 
 Caucasus,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Oxus.  The  Greeks 
 called  all  these  tribes  Scythians,  because  they  had  no 
 other  name  by  which  to  designate  these  barbarous 
 communities.  The  Persians  call  them  Turan  and 
 Djin  (Turks  and  Chinese),  although  at  this  time  (700 
 B.C.)  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  of  the  two  last- 
 mentioned  people  were  to  be  found  on  the  eastern 
 borders  of  Persia.  When,  however,  the  Schah-namch 
 was  composed,  the  Persians  knew  only  the  Turks  and 
 Chinese,  and  ihey  gave  their  names  to  all  those  who 
 had  at  any  time  preceded  them.  The  ancient  enemies 
 of  Persia,  in  this  quarter,  were  probably  Hunnic  and 
 Tudesc  tribes,  to  whom,  about  the  era  of  the  Sassan- 
 ides,  succeeded  the  Turks  and  Chinese. — The  main 
 fact  that  results  from  a  comparison  of  these  traditions 
 is,  that  two  empires  followed  in  succession  :  one,  com- 
 ing from  Assyria,  ruled  over  Media  and  all  Eastern 
 Asia ;  the  other,  corning  from  Media,  reacted  on  the 
 first,  and  drove  the  Semitic  communities  across  the 
 Tigris  and  Euphrates;  and,  finally,  to  these  two  great 
 revolutions  were  joined  frequent  inroads  on  the  part  of 
 the  barbarous  tribes  coming  from  Caucasus,  Scythia, 
 and  the  banks  of  the  Oxus.— To  the  Pischdadian  suc- 
 ceeded the  Kaianian  dynasty.  The  recital  of  the 
 Sc.hah-namr.h  respecting  this  second  dynasty  is  as  dis- 
 figured by  fable  as  that  which  treats  of  the  first  ;  and 
 it  would  be  of  no  use  to  seek  in  it  any  exact  coinci- 
 dences with  the  narratives  of  Xenophon  and  Herodo- 
 tus. The  Dejoces  of  the  latter  historian  was,  like  Kai 
 K'obad,  chosen  king  on  account  of  his  justice  and 
 wisdom,  at  a  time  when  Persia  was  involved  in  mis- 
 ery and  anarchy.  We  find  also  another  resemblance 
 between  Dejoces  and  Kai  K'ol/ad.  Kai  K^ohad  is 
 called  Arch  by  some  Mohammedan  authors,  and  De- 
 joces is  called  Arcaces  by  Ctesias.  Herodotus  in- 
 forms us  that  Dejoces  had  for  his  successor  a  son 
 named  Phraortes,  and  it  is  to  this  Median  prince  that 
 he  ascribes  the  conquest  of  Persia.  Firdousi  makes 
 1012 
 
 no  mention  of  this  monarch  ;  he  probably  confounds 
 his  reign  with  that  of  his  father.  Nevertheless,  a  Mo- 
 hammedan author  mentions  this  second  Phraortes,  and 
 he  states  that  Kai  K^aous  was  the  son  of  Aphra  and 
 grandson  of  Kai  Kobad.  It  would  appear,  moreover, 
 that  the  history  of  Kai  K'aous,  as  given  by  Fir- 
 dousi, is  at  one  and  the  same  time  that  of  Cyaxares 
 and  Astyages.  The  blindness  of  Kai  K'aous  and  his 
 army  is  probably  nothing  else  but  the  total  eclipse  of 
 the  sun,  which  took  place  between  Cyaxares  and  the 
 Lydians,  and  which  had  been  predicted  to  the  lonians 
 by  Thales.  The  expedition  against  Hamawer  appears 
 to  coincide  with  the  siege  of  Nineveh  mentioned  by 
 the  Greek  writers  ;  and  these  same  writer.s  also  agree 
 with  Firdousi,  when  they  make  the  operations  of  the 
 siege  to  have  been  broken  off  by  an  invasion  of  the 
 Scythians.  The  statement  also,  made  by  Herodotus, 
 respecting  the  marriage  of  Astyages  with  the  daughter 
 of  the  Lydian  monarch,  agrees  with  that  of  the  Persian 
 author,  who  informs  us  of  the  marriage  of  Kai  Khos- 
 rou  with  Sendabch.  With  regard  to  Kai  Khosrou, 
 or  simply  Khosrou,  it  appears  evident  that  he  was  the 
 same  with  the  Cyrus  of  the  Greek  writers.  Khosrou, 
 however,  according  to  Firdousi,  was  not  the  grandson 
 of  the  schah  of  Persia,  but  of  Afrasiab,  king  of  Ton- 
 ran,  and  the  scene  of  the  history  of  his  youth  is  laid 
 entirely  in  this  latter  country.  After  Kai  Khosrou, 
 the  narrative  of  the  Mohammedan  writers  begins  to 
 difTer  totally  from  that  of  the  Greeks.  Down  to  the 
 time  of  Alexander,  there  are  only  two  points  of  resem- 
 blance between  the  two  statements  :  the  first  is  the 
 name  of  Gouchtasp,  who  is  the  Darius  Hystaspis  of 
 the  Greeks ;  and  the  other,  that  of  Ardechcer  Diraz- 
 dcst  (Artaxerxes  Longimanus),  given  to  Bahmen  of 
 the  Schah-nameh  by  Mirkhond.  (Klaproth,  Tableaux 
 Hisloriques  de  VAsie,  &c.,  p.  5,  seqq.) 
 
 3.  Later  history  of  Persia. 
 The  accession  of  Darius  Hystaspis  is  fixed  by  chro- 
 nologists  in  the  year  521  B.C.  ;  and  in  his  reign,  sup- 
 posing him  to  be  the  same  with  Gouchtasp,  all  author- 
 ities seem  to  agree  that  the  famous  Zerdusht,  the  Zo- 
 roaster of  the  western  writers,  succeeded  in  establish- 
 ing his  new  religion.  The  reign  of  Gouchtasp  is  ex- 
 tended by  the  Persian  historians  over  sixty  years,  that 
 of  Xerxes,  his  son  and  successor,  being  wholly  passed 
 over ;  but  Isfundccr,  who  is  supposed  by  Sir  John 
 Malcolm  to  be  the  same  as  Xerxes,  is  made  the 
 hero  of  his  reign.  His  chivalrous  achievements  are 
 rivalled  only  by  those  of  the  illustrious  Roustem,  who 
 is  again  brought  on  the  scene,  and  Isfundeer  is  slain 
 by  him  in  an  unjust  war,  in  which  he  had  reluctantly 
 engaged,  at  the  command  of  his  wicked  father,  with 
 the  king  of  Segistan.  It  is  from  the  Western  histo- 
 rians only  that  we  learn  anything  of  the  leading  events 
 of  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis.  In  like  manner,  all 
 the  great  events  of  the  history  of  Xerxes,  which  form 
 the  most  brilliant  page  in  the  history  of  Greece,  are 
 passed  over  in  silence  in  the  Persian  annals.  The 
 assassination  of  Xerxes,  by  his  relative  Artabanus, 
 took  place  B.C.  461,  in  the  twenty-first  year  of  his 
 reign.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  third  son,  Arta- 
 xerxes Longimanus,  the  Bahmen  or  Ardecheer  Di- 
 razdest  of  the  Persian  annals,  and  the  Ahasuerus  ot 
 the  book  of  Esther.  Something  like  a  disguised  or 
 confused  account  of  these  transactions  is  found  in 
 the  pages  of  Firdousi.  After  Isfundeer  had  subdued 
 all  the  foreign  enemies  of  his  father  Gouchtasp,  he  is 
 sent  to  reduce  to  obedience  the  King  of  Segistan,  who 
 had  thrown  off  his  allegiance.  In  this  expedition  he 
 is  represented  as  engaging  with  the  greatest  reluc- 
 tance, and  he  meets  his  death  from  the  hand  of  Rous- 
 tem, to  whom,  nevertheless,  the  dying  hero  commits 
 his  son,  Bahmen,  entreating  him  to  educate  him  as  a 
 warrior.  That  son,  however,  oiv  ascending  the  throne 
 soon  became  jealous  of  Roustem,  and,  having  invadeci 
 
PERSIA. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 «nd  subdued  his  hereditary  province,  put  him  to  death 
 with  his  family,  on  the  pretext  of  avenging  the  blood 
 of  his  father.  The  general  facts,  that  Koustem,  a 
 powerful  chief,  slew  Isfundeer,  yet  protected  his  son  ; 
 that  a  civil  contest  attended  the  accession  of  Arde- 
 cheer  ;  and  that  it  terminated  in  the  massacre  of  Kous- 
 tem and  his  family,  so  far  accord  with  what  the  Greek 
 historians  state  respecting  the  character  and  fate  of 
 Artabanus,  as  to  leave  little  doubt  that  both  stories  re- 
 late to  the  same  personages.  Of  the  identity  of  Ar- 
 decheer  with  Artaxerxes  MaKpox^ip  or  Longimanus, 
 there  can  be  no  doubt.  His  surname,  Drrazdest 
 ("  Lontr  arms")  is  a  full  proof  of  this.  The  author  of 
 the  TariJih  Tabrce  states,  that  under  this  monarch,  to 
 whom  he  erroneously  ascribes  the  overthrow  of  Bel- 
 shazzar,  the  Jews  had  the  privilege  granted  them  of 
 being  governed  by  a  ruler  of  their  own  nation  ;  and  the 
 favours  they  experienced,  it  is  added,  were  owing  to 
 the  express  orders  of  Bahmen,  whose  favourite  lady 
 was  of  t.he  Jewish  nation.  Josephus  expressly  affirms, 
 that  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  was  the  husband  of  Es- 
 ther ;  and  the  extraordinary  favour  which  he  showed 
 to  the  Jews  strengthens  this  testimony.  He  would 
 seem,  indeed,  to  have  been  the  first  monarch  of  Persia 
 who,  strictly  speaking,  by  the  subjugation  of  Segistan, 
 "  reigned  from  India  even  to  Ethiopia,  over  a  hundred 
 »nd  twenty  seven  provinces."  Persian  historians  as- 
 sign to  this  great  monarch  a  reign  of  a  hundred  and 
 tvrelve  years,  but  the  Greek  writers  limit  it  to  forty, 
 and  his  death  is  fixed  in  the  year  B.C.  424.  He  was 
 succeeded,  according  to  the  Persian  annals,  by  his 
 daughter  Homai,  who,  after  a  reign  of  thirty-two  years, 
 resigned  the  crown  to  her  son,  Darab  I.,  the  Darius 
 Nothus  of  the  Greeks.  It  is  natural  that  no  notice 
 should  be  taken  of  the  ephemeral  reigns  of  Xerxes  II. 
 and  Sogdianus,  which  together  occupied  only  eight 
 months ;  and  in  Ptolemy's  canon,  Darius  Nothus  is 
 made  the  immediate  successor  of  Artaxerxes  Longi- 
 manus, his  reign  extending  from  424  B.C.  to  405. 
 Homai  appears  to  be  the  Parysatis  whom  the  Greek 
 writers  make  to  be  the  queen  of  her  half-brother  Da- 
 rius, and  to  whom  they  attribute  a  very  prominent  part 
 in  the  transactions  of  his  reign.  Her  son  Arsaces  is 
 stated  to  have  succeeded  to  the  throne  under  the  title 
 of  Artaxerxes,  to  which  the  Greeks  added  the  surname 
 of  Mneninn,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary  memory. 
 No  sovereign,  however,  besides  Longimanus  or  Di- 
 razdest,  is  ever  noticed  by  Oriental  writers  under  the 
 name  of  Ardecheer ;  it  is  therefore  highly  probable, 
 that  Mnemon  is  the  Darab  I.  of  the  Persian  annals, 
 and  that  he  succeeded  his  mother  Homai  or  Parysa- 
 tis, who  might  reign  conjointly  with  Darius  Nothus, 
 whether  as  her  husband  or  her  son.  The  banishment 
 of  Queen  Parysatis  to  Babylon,  in  the  reign  of  her  son 
 Artaxerxesi  may  answer  to  the  abdication  of  Queen 
 Homai.  This  is  a  most  obscure  epoch  in  the  native 
 annals.  The  Egyptian  war  which  broke  out  in  the 
 reign  of  Darius  JNolhus,  the  revolt  of  the  Medes,  and 
 the  part  taken  by  Persia  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  are 
 not  referred  to.  Even  the  name  of  the  younger  Cvrus 
 is  not  noticed  by  any  of  the  Oriental  writers,  nor  is 
 the  slightest  allusion  made  to  the  celebrated  expedi- 
 tion which  has  given  immortality  to  its  commander. 
 The  pages  of  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and  Xenophon 
 leave  little  room,  however,  for  regret  that  these  events 
 have  not  found  an  Oriental  historian.  With  respect 
 to  the  second  Darab  of  the  Persians,  who  is  made  the 
 immediate  successor  of  the  first,  his  identity  with  the 
 Darius  Codomanus  of  the  Greeks  is  completely  estab- 
 lished by  the  conquest  of  Persia  during  his  reign  by 
 Alexander  of  Macedon.  The  intermediate  reigns  of 
 Artaxerxes  Ochus,  the  most  barbarous  and  abandoned 
 monarch  of  his  race,  and  of  his  son  Arses,  both  of 
 whom  were  assassinated,  appear  to  be  passed  over,  or 
 to  be  included  in  that  of  Darab  I.  The  reign  of  this 
 Darab  is  distinguished  in  the  native  annals  by  the 
 
 breaking  out  of  a  war  with  Philippous  of  Roum  (Ma- 
 cedon), which,  though  at  first  unsuccessful,  is  stated 
 to  have  terminated  gloriously  for  the  Persians  ;  and 
 Philip  was  glad  to  make  peace,  on  the  terms  of  giving 
 his  daughter  to  Darab,  and  becoming  his  tributary. 
 This  daughter  is  fabled  to  have  been  the  mother  of  the 
 Macedonian  conqueror.  Darab  I.  built  Darabjird,  a 
 city  about  150  miles  east  of  Shiraz.  {Malcolm,  vol. 
 1,  p.  69.) — The  character  of  Ochus  seems,  howev- 
 er, to  have  been  transferred  by  the  Persians  to  the 
 unfortunate  and  noble-minded  Darius,  who  is  alleged 
 to  have  been  deformed  in  body  and  depraved  in  mind; 
 as  if.  Sir  John  Malcolm  remarks,  "  to  reconcile  the 
 vanity  of  the  nation  to  the  tale  of  its  subjugation."  It 
 is  nevertheless  true,  that  the  crimes  of  their  monarchs, 
 the  mal-administration  into  which  the  affairs  of  the 
 government  had  fallen,  the  assassinations  and  massa- 
 cres occasioned  by  the  repeated  disputes  for  the  suc- 
 cession, and  the  slender  bond  which  held  together  the 
 various  provinces  of  so  gigantic  an  empire,  had  pre- 
 pared the  way  for  its  easy  dissolution.  The  traditions 
 which  the  Eastern  writers  have  preserved  of  the  Mace- 
 donian hero  (whom  they  call  Secunder  and  Iskandeer) 
 are  very  imperfect ;  and  upon  a  few  historical  facts, 
 they  have  reared  a  superstructure  of  the  most  extrav- 
 agant fable.  They  agree,  however,  with  the  Greek 
 writers  in  most  of  the  leading  facts;  such  as  the  inva- 
 sion of  Persia,  the  defeat  and  subsequent  death  of  Da- 
 rius, the  generosity  of  the  conqueror,  and  the  strong 
 impression  which  his  noble  and  humane  conduct  made 
 upon  his  dying  enemy.  They  allude,  too,  to  the  alli- 
 ance which  Alexander  established  with  Taxilis  or 
 Omphis,  to  his  battle  with  Porus,  and  his  expedition 
 against  the  Scythians  ;  but  the  circumstances  in  which 
 these  events  are  disguised  are  for  the  most  part  fab- 
 ulous. "  His  great  name,"  says  Sir  John  Malcolm, 
 "has  been  considered  sufficient  to  obtain  credit  for 
 every  story  that  imagination  could  invent  ;  but  this 
 exaggeration  is  almost  all  praise.  The  Secunder  of 
 the  Persian  page  is  a  model  of  every  virtue  and  of  ev- 
 ery great  quality  that  can  elevate  a  human  being  above 
 his  species  ;  while  his  power  and  magnificence  are  al- 
 ways represented  as  far  beyond  what  has  ever  been 
 attained  by  any  other  monarch  in  the  world."  The 
 quarrel  between  the  two  monarchs  originated,  accord 
 ing  to  the  author  of  the  Zeenut-ul-Tuarikh,  in  Ale-x- 
 ander's  refusing  to  pay  the  tribute  of  golden  eggs  to 
 which  his  father  had  agreed,  returning  the  laconic  an- 
 swer by  the  Persian  envoy,  that  "  the  bird  that  laid  the 
 eggs  had  flown  to  the  other  world."  Upon  this,  an- 
 other ambassador  was  despatched  to  the  court  of  the 
 Macedonian,  bearing  the  present  of  a  bat  and  a  ball,  in 
 ridicule  of  Alexander's  youth,  and  a  bag  of  very  small 
 seed,  called  gimjud,  as  an  emblem  of  the  innumerable 
 army  with  which  he  was  threatened.  Alexander,  ta- 
 king the  bat  and  ball  in  his  hand,  compared  the  one  to 
 his  own  power,  and  the  other  to  the  Persian's  domin- 
 ions ;  and  the  fate  which  would  await  the  invaders 
 was  intimated  by  giving  the  grain  to  a  fowl.  In  re- 
 turn, he  sent  the  Persian  monarch  the  significant  pres- 
 ent of  a  bitter  melon.  (Modern  Traveller,  pt.  37,  p. 
 64,  seqg.) — The  native  writers,  as  has  been  said,  make 
 Alexander  to  have  been  the  son  of  Darius  and  a  daugh- 
 ter of  Philip  of  Macedon  !  and  they  add  that  Darius 
 sent  his  wife  home  to  her  father,  on  account  of  her 
 offensive  breath  ;  from  which  circumstance  the  war 
 between  the  two  monarchs  arose  !  (Kluprolh,  Asia 
 Polyglot  til,  p.  3.)  The  Persian  writers  give  no  detail- 
 ed  "account  of  the  operations  of  Alexander  in  Persia, 
 erroneously  stating  that  Darius  was  killed  in  the  first 
 action. 
 
 4.  Fartkian  Dynasty. 
 
 Passing  over  the  period  of  the  Macedonian  power  in 
 Asia,  which  is  detailed  in  other  parts  of  this  volume, 
 we  come  to  the  establishment  of  the  Parthian  kingdom, 
 
 1013 
 
PERSIA. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 the  mention  of  which  falls  naturally  under  the  present 
 article,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  Parthians  being 
 designated  as  Persians  by  many  of  the  Roman  writers, 
 particularly  the  poets,  although  they  were,  in  fact,  of 
 Scythian  rather  than  Persian  origin. — Scleucus  was 
 succeeded  in  his  Asiatic  empire  by  his  son  Antiochus 
 Spter,  who  reigned  nineteen  years,  and  left  his  throne 
 to  his  son  Antiochus  'I'heos.     In  his  reign  (B.C.  250) 
 a  man  of  obscure  origin,  whom  some,  however,  make 
 to  have  been  a  tributary  prince  or  chief,  and  the  native 
 writers  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  former  kings  of  Per- 
 sia, slew  the  viceroy  of  Parlhia,  and  raised  the  standard 
 of  revolt.      His  name  was  Ash/:,  or  Arsaces,  as  the 
 Western  historians  write  it.     After  having  slain  the 
 viceroy,  he  fixed  his  residence  at  Rlie,  where  he  in- 
 vited all  the  chiefs  of  provinces  to  join  him  in  a  war 
 against  the  Seleucidae  ;  promising  at  the  same  time  to 
 exact  from  them  no  tribute,  and  to  deem  himself  only 
 the  head  of  a  confederacy  of  princes,  having  for  their 
 common  object  to  maintain  their  separate  independ- 
 ence, and  to  free  Persia  from  a  foreign  yoke.      Such 
 was  the  commencement  of  that  era  of  Persian  history 
 which  is  termed  by  the  Oriental  writers  the  Moulouk 
 ul  Towdeif,  or  commonwealth  of  tribes,  and  which  ex- 
 tends over  nearly  five  centuries.     Pliny  states  that  the 
 Parthian  (meaning  the  Persian)  empire  was  divided 
 into  eighteen  kingdoms.     The  accounts  of  this  period 
 given  by  Persian  writers  are  vague  and  contradictory. 
 "  They  have  evidently,"  Sir  John  Malcolm  remarks, 
 "  no  materials  to  form  an  authentic  narrative  ;  and  it 
 is  too  near  the  date  at  which  their  real  history  com- 
 mences to  admit  of  their  indulging  in  fable.     Their 
 pretended  history  of  the  Ashkanians  and  Ashganians 
 is,  consequently,  little  more  than  a  mere  catalogue  of 
 names  ;   and  even  respecting  these,  and  the  dates  they 
 assign  to  the  different  princes,  hardly  two  authors  are 
 agreed,     ."^shk  the  First  is  said  to  have  reigned  fifteen 
 years :  Khondemir  allows  him  only  ten.     Some  au- 
 thors ascribe  the  defeat  and  capture  of  Seleucus  Cal- 
 linicus,  king  of  Syria,  to  this  monarch  ;   and  others  to 
 his  son,  Ashk  IP.     The  latter  prince  was  succeeded 
 by  his  brother  Shahpoor  (or  Sapor),  who,  after  a  long 
 contest  with  Antiochus  the  Great,  in  which  he  e.xpe- 
 rienced  several  reverses,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace 
 with  that  monarch,  by  which  his  right  to  Parthia  and 
 Hyrcania  was  recognised.      From  the  death   of  this 
 prince  there  appears  to  be  a  lapse  of  two  centuries  in 
 the  Persian  annals  ;   for  they  inform  us  that  his  suc- 
 cessor was  Baharam  Gudurz  ;  and  if  this  is  the  prince 
 whom  the  Western  writers  term  Gutarzes,  as  there  is 
 every  reason  to  conclude  it  is,  we  know  from  authen- 
 tic history  that  he  was  the  third  prince  of  the  second 
 dynasty  of  the  Arsacidse. — From  the  death  of  Alexan- 
 der till  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  (Ardecheer  Babigan) 
 is  nearly  five  centuries  ;   and- the  vvhole  of  that  remark- 
 able era   may  be  tenned  a  blank   in  Eastern  history. 
 .\nd  yet,  when  we  refer  to  the  pages  of  Roman  writers, 
 we  find  this  period  abounds  with  events  of  which  the 
 vainest  nation  might  be  proud,  and  that  Parthian  mon- 
 archs,  whose  names  cannot  now  be  discovered  in  the 
 history  of  their  own  country,  were  the  only  sovereigns 
 upon  whom  the  Roman  army,  when  that  nation  was  in 
 the  very  zenith  of  its  j)Owcr,  could  make  no  impression. 
 But  this,  no  doubt,  may  be  attributed  to  other  causes 
 than  the  skill  and  valour  of  the  Persians.     It  was  to 
 the  nature  of  their  country,  and  their  singular  mode  of 
 warfare,  that   they  owed    those   frequent    advantages 
 which    thcv   gained   over   the    di^cijilined    ItHTJons   of 
 Rome.     The  frontier  which  the  kingdom  of  Parlhia 
 presented   to  the  Roman  empire  extended   from    the 
 Caspian  Sea  to  the  Persian  Gulf     It  consists  of  lofty 
 and  barren  mountains,  of  rapid  and  broad  streams,  and 
 of  wide-spreading  deserts.     In  whatever  direction  the 
 legions  of  Rome  advanced,  the  country  was  laid  waste. 
 The  war  was  made,  not  against  the  army,  but  the  sup- 
 plies by  which  it  was  supported ;  and  the  mode  in 
 1014 
 
 which  the  Parthian  warrior  took  his  unerring  aim, 
 while  his  horse  was  carrying  him  from  his  enemy,  may 
 be  viewed  as  a  personification  of  the  system  of  warfare 
 by  which  his  nation,  during  this  era  of  its  history,  main- 
 tained its  independence.  The  system  was  suited  to 
 the  soil,  to  the  man,  and  to  the  fleet  and  robust  animal 
 on  which  he  was  mounted ;  and  its  success  was  so 
 certain,  that  the  bravest  veterans  of  Rome  murmured 
 when  their  leaders  talked  of  a  Parthian  war."  {Mal- 
 colm, vol.  1,  p.  84,  scqq.) — The  blank  which  occurs  in 
 the  native  annals  may  be  accounted  for.  Sir  John  Mal- 
 colm thinks,  by  the  neglect  into  which  the  rites  of  Zo- 
 roaster fell  during  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidaj,  and 
 the  decay  of  letters-consequent  upon  the  depression  of 
 the  priesthood.  In  that  nation,  as  in  others  similarly 
 circumstanced,  the  literati  and  the  priesthood  were  sy- 
 nonymous terms;  and  as  the  priests  alone  cultivated 
 letters,  so  they  would  be  prompted  to  avenge  them- 
 selves on  the  enemies  of  their  faith  and  order  by  con- 
 signing their  race,  so  far  as  they  had  the  power,  to  ob- 
 livion. The  Arsacidee,  Gibbon  affirms  (but  without 
 citing  his  authority),  "practised,  indeed,  the  worship 
 of  the  magi,  but  they  disgraced  and  polluted  it  with  a 
 various  mixture  of  foreign  idolatry." — According  to 
 the  Western  historians,  it  was  under  Mithradates  I., 
 the  fourth  in  descent  and  the  fifth  in  succession  of  the 
 Arsacidas,  that  the  Parthian  power  was  raised  to  its 
 highest  pilch  of  greatness.  That  monarch,  having 
 subdued  the  Medes,  the  Elymeans,  the  Persians,  and 
 the  Bactrians,  extended  his  dominions  to  the  Indus, 
 and,  having  vanquished  Demetrius,  king  of  Syria,  final- 
 ly secured  Babylonia  and  Mesopotamia  also  to  his 
 empire.  {PrUlcaux,  vol.  2,  p.  404.) — Justin  states 
 that  this  monarch,  having  conquered  several  nations, 
 gathered  from  every  one  of  thein  whatsoever  he  found 
 best  in  its  constitution,  and  from  the  whole  collection 
 framed  a  body  of  most  wholesome  laws  for  the  gov- 
 ernment of  his  empire.  If  one  half  of  this  be  true, 
 what  is  history,  that  it  should  have  preserved  no  more 
 minute  record  of  such  a  sovereign? — The  remainder 
 of  the  history  of  Parthia  will  be  found  under  that 
 arlicle. 
 
 5.  Dynasty  of  the  Sassanidce. 
 
 Artaxerxes  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  illegiti- 
 mate commerce  of  a  tanner's  wffe  with  a  common 
 soldier.  The  tanner's  name  was  Babec,  the  soldier's 
 Sassan  ;  from  the  former  Artaxerxes  obtained  the  sur- 
 name of  Bahigan  (son  of  Babec),  from  the  latter  all 
 his  descendants  have  been  styled  Sassanida.  {Gib- 
 bov,  Decline  and  Fall,  c.  8.) — The  flattery  of  his  ad- 
 herents, however,  represents  him  as  descended  from 
 a  branch  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Persia,  though  time 
 and  misfortune  had  gradually  reduced  his  ancestors  to 
 the  humble  station  of  private  citizens.  {D'Hcrbclot, 
 Bibl.  Orient.,  Ardecheer.) — The  establishment  of  th« 
 dynasty  of  the  Sassanidae  took  place  in  the  fourth  year 
 of  the  Emperor  Severiis,  226  years  after  the  Christian 
 era.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  monarch  was 
 the  re-establishment  of  the  magi  and  of  the  creed  of 
 Zoroaster.  A  reign  of  fourteen  years  ensued,  which 
 formed  a  memorable  era  in  the  history  of  the  East,  and 
 even  in  that  of  Rome.  Having,  after  various  alterna- 
 tions of  victory  and  defeat,  established  his  authority 
 on  a  basis  which  even  the  Roman  power  could  not 
 shake,  he  left  behind  him  a  character  marked  by  those 
 bold  and  commanding  features  that  generally  distin- 
 guish ihe  princes  who  conquer  from  those  v^'ho  inherit 
 an  empire.  Till  the  last  period  of  the  Persian  mon- 
 archy, his  code  of  laws  was  respected  as  the  ground- 
 work of  their  civil  and  religious  policy.  Artaxerxes 
 bequeathed  his  new  empire,  and  his  ambitious  designs 
 against  the  Romans,  to  Sapor,  a  son  not  unvorthy  of 
 his  great  father  ;  but  those  designs  were  too  extensive 
 for  the  power  of  Persia,  and  served  only  to  involve 
 both  nations  in  a  long  series  of  destructive  wars  and 
 
PERSIA. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 reciprocal  calamities.  {Gibbon,  c.  8.) — The  subse- 
 quent Ijistory  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanidas  will  be 
 found  detailed  in  part  under  the  articles  Sapor,  Chos- 
 roes,  &c. 
 
 6.  Remarks  on  the  Constitution  of  the  Persian  Em- 
 pire in  the  time  oj  Darius. 
 
 Cyrus  and  Cambyses  had  conquered  nations  :  Da- 
 rius was  the  true  founder  of  the  Persian  state.  The 
 dominions  of  his  predecessors  were  a  mass  of  coun- 
 tries only  united  by  their  subjection  to  the  will  of  a 
 common  ruler,  which  e.x-pressed  itself  by  arbitrary  and 
 irregular  exactions.  Darius  first  organized  them  into 
 an  empire,  vvhere  every  member  felt  its  place  and  knew 
 its  functions.  His  realm  stretched  from  the  ^gean 
 to  the  Indus,  from  the  steppes  of  Scylhia  to  the  cata- 
 racts of  the  Nile.  He  divided  this  vast  tract  into  20 
 satrapies  or  provinces,  and  appointed  tlie  tribute  which 
 each  was  to  pay  to  the  royal  treasury,  and  the  propor- 
 tion in  which  they  were  to  sup{)ly  provisions  for  the 
 army  and  for  the  king's  household.  A  high  road,  on 
 which  distances  were  regularly  marked,  and  spacious 
 buildings  were  placed  at  convenient  intervals  to  re- 
 ceive all  who  travelled  in  the  king's  name,  connected 
 the  western  coast  with  the  seat  of  government :  along 
 this  road,  couriers  trained  to  extraordinary  speed  suc- 
 cessively transmitted  the  king's  messages.  The  sa- 
 traps were  accountable  for  the  imposts  of  their  several 
 provinces,  and  were  furnished  with  forces  sufficient  to 
 carry  the  king's  pleasure  into  effect. — Compared  with 
 the  rude  government  of  his  predecessors,  the  institu- 
 tions of  Darius  were  wise  and  vigorous ;  in  them- 
 selves, however,  unless  they  are  considered  as  founda- 
 tions laid  for  a  structure  that  was  never  raised,  as  out- 
 lines that  were  never  filled  up,  they  were  weak  and 
 barbarous.  He  had  done  little  more  than  cast  a  bridge 
 across  the  chaos  over  which  he  ruled:  he  had  intro- 
 duced no  real  uniformity  or  subordination  among  its 
 elements.  The  distribution  of  the  provinces,  indeed, 
 may  have  been  grounded  on  relations  which  we  do  not 
 perceive,  and  may,  therefore,  have  been  less  capricious 
 than  it  seems.  But  it  answered  scarcely  any  higher 
 end  than  that  of  conveying  the  wealth  of  Asia  into  the 
 royal  treasury,  and  the  satraps,  when  they  were  most 
 faithful  and  assiduous  in  their  office,  were  really  no- 
 thmg  more  than  farmers  of  the  revenue.  Their  ad- 
 ministration was  only  felt  in  the  burdens  they  imposed  : 
 in  every  other  respect  the  nations  they  governed  re- 
 tained their  peculiar  laws  and  constitution.  The  Per- 
 sian empire  included  in  it  the  dominions  of  several 
 vassal  kings,  and  the  seats  of  fierce,  independent 
 hordes,  who  preyed  on  its  more  peaceful  sutijects  with 
 impunity.  In  this,however,  there  was  much  good  and 
 comparatively  little  mischief.  The  variety  of  institu- 
 tions comprehended  within  the  frame  of  the  monarchy, 
 though  they  were  suti'ered  to  stand,  not  from  any  en- 
 larged policy,  but  because  it  would  have  been  difficult 
 or  dangerous  to  remove  them,  and  there  was  nothing 
 better  to  substitute  for  them,  did  not  impair,  but  rather 
 increased  its  strength  ;  and  the  independence  of  a  few 
 wild  tribes  was  more  a  symptom  than  a  cause  of  weak- 
 ness. The  worst  evil  arose  from  the  constitution  of 
 the  satrapies  themselves.  The  provinces  were  taxed 
 not  only  for  the  supply'of  the  royal  army  and  house- 
 hold, but  also  for  the  support  of  their  governors,  each 
 of  whom  had  a  standing  force  in  his  pay,  and  of  whom 
 some  kept  up  a  court  rivalling  in  magnificence  that  of 
 the  king  himself.  The  province  of  Babylon,  besides 
 its  regular  tribute  and  the  fixed  revenue  of  its  satrap, 
 which  was  equal  to  that  of  a  modern  European  prince 
 of  the  fiirst  rank,  defrayed  the  cost  of  a  stud  and  a 
 hunting  equipage  for  his  private  use,  such  as  no  Eu- 
 ropean prince  was  ever  able  to  maintain.  Four  larcre 
 villages  were  charged  with  the  nourishment  of  his  In- 
 dian dogs,  and  exempted  from  all  other  taxes.  It  must, 
 however,  be  observed,  that  when  an  extraordinary  bur- 
 
 den was  thus  laid  on  a  particular  district,  the  rest  of 
 the  province  was  not  relieved,  but  the  more  heavily 
 loaded.  When  the  king  granted  the  revenues  of  whole 
 cities  to  a  wife  or  a  favourite,  he  did  not  give  up  any 
 portion  of  his  own  dues;  and  the  discharge  of  all 
 these  slated  exactions  did  not  secure  his  subjects  from 
 the  arbitrary  demands  of  the  satraps  and  their  officers. 
 If  the  people  suftered  from  the  establishment  of  these 
 mighty  viceroys,  their  greatness  was  not  less  injurious 
 to  the  strength  of  the  state  and  the  power  of  the  sov- 
 ereign. As  the  whole  authority,  civil  and  military,  in 
 each  province  was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the  satrap, 
 he  could  wield  it  at  his  pleasure  without  any  check 
 from  within  ;  and  if  he  were  unwilling  to  resign  it,  it 
 was  not  always  easy  to  wrest  it  from  him.  The  great- 
 er his  distance  from  the  court,  the  nearer  he  approach- 
 ed to  the  condition  of  an  independent  and  absolute 
 prince.  He  was  seldom,  indeed,  tempted  to  throw  off 
 his  nominal  allegiance,  which  he  found  more  useful 
 than  burdensome,  or  to  withhold  the  tribute  which  he 
 had  only  the  task  of  collecting  ;  but  he  might  often 
 safely  refuse  any  other  services,  and  defy  or  elude  the 
 king's  commands  with  impunity  :  and  least  of  all  was 
 he  subject  to  control  in  any  acts  of  rapacity  or  oppres- 
 sion committed  in  his  legitimate  government.  Xeno- 
 phon,  indeed,  in  his  romance,  represents  the  founder 
 of  the  monarchy  as  having  provided  against  this  evil 
 by  a  wise  division  of  power.  {Cyrop.,  8,  6.) — Cyrus 
 is  there  said  to  have  appointed  that  the  commanders 
 of  the  fortresses  and  of  the  regular  troops  in  each  prov- 
 ince should  be  independent  of  the  satrap,  and  should 
 receive  their  orders  immediately  from  court;  and  a 
 modern  author  finds  traces  of  this  system  in  the  nar- 
 rative of  Herodotus  himself.  (Hceren,  Idecn,  vol.  1, 
 pt.  1,  p.  403.) — But  it  seems  clear,  that  if  the  conquer- 
 or designed  to  establish  such  a  balance  of  power,  it 
 was  neglected  by  his  successors,  and  that  the  satraps 
 engrossed  every  branch  of  authority  within  their  re- 
 spective governments.  Thus  the  huge  frame  of  the 
 Persian'  empire  was  disjointed  and  unwieldy  ;  and  the 
 spirit  that  pervaded  it  was  as  feeble  as  its  organization 
 was  imperfect.  The  Persians,  when  they  overthrew 
 the  Modes,  adopted  their  laws,  religion,  and  manners  ; 
 their  own,  though  they  may  have  resembled  them  in 
 their  principal  features,  were  certainly  more  simple, 
 and  better  fitted  to  a  conquering  people.  1'he  religion 
 of  the  two  nations  was  probably  derived  from  a  com- 
 mon source  ;  but  before  the  Persian  conquest  it  ap- 
 pears to  have  undergone  an  important  change  in  the 
 reformation  ascribed  to  Zoroaster.  In  what  points  his 
 doctrine  may  have  differed  from  those  of  the  preceding 
 period  is  an  obscure  question  ;  but  it  seems  certain 
 •that  the  code  of  sacred  laws  which  he  introduced, 
 founded,  or  at  least  enlarged,  the  authoritv  and  influ- 
 ence of  the  Magian  caste.  Its  members  became  the 
 keepers  and  expounders  of  the  holy  books,  the  teach- 
 ers and  counsellors  of  the  king,  the  oracles  from  whom 
 he.  learned  the  divine  will  and  the  secrets  of  futurity, 
 the  mediators  who  obtained  for  him  the  favour  of  heav- 
 en, or  propitiated  its  anger.  How  soon  the  tenets  of 
 their  theology  may  have  been  introduced  into  Persia, 
 is  not  clear  :  but,  as  they  were  a  Median  tribe,  it  is 
 only  with  the  union  of  the  two  nations  under  Cyrus 
 that  they  can  have  begun  to  occupy  the  station  which 
 we  find  them  filling  at  the  Persian  court.  If  the  re- 
 ligion of  Zoroaster  was  originally  pure  and  sublime, 
 it  speedily  degenerated,  and  allied  itself  to  many  very 
 gross  and  hideous  forms  of  superstition:  and  if  we 
 were  to  judge  of  its  tendency  by  the  practice  of  its 
 votaries,  we  should  be  led  to  think  of  it  more  harshly 
 or  more  lightly  than  it  may  probalily  have  deserved. 
 The  court  manners  were  equally  marked  by  luxury  and 
 cruelty:  by  luxury  refined  till  it  had  killed  all  natural 
 enjoyment,  and  by  cruelty  carried  to  the  most  loath- 
 some excesses  tha't  perverted  ingenuity  could  suggest. 
 It  is  above  all  the  atrocious  barbarity  of  the  women 
 
 1015 
 
PER 
 
 PER 
 
 that  fills  the  Persian  chronicles  with  their  most  horrid 
 stories :  and  we  learn  from  the  same  sources  the  dread- 
 ful depravity  of  their  character,  and  the  vast  extent  of 
 their  influence.  Cramped  by  the  rigid  forms  of  a 
 pompous  and  wearisome  ceremonial,  surrounded  by 
 the  ministers  of  their  artificial  wants,  and  guarded  from 
 every  breath  of  truth  and  freedom,  the  successors  of 
 Cyrus  must  have  been  more  than  men  if  they  had  not 
 become  the  slaves  of  their  priests,  their  eunuchs,  and 
 their  wives.  The  contagion  of  these  vices  undoubt- 
 edly spread  through  the  nation :  the  Persians  were 
 most  exposed  to  it,  as  they  were  in  the  immediate 
 neighbourhood  of  the  court.  Yet  there  is  no  difficul- 
 ty in  conceiving  that,  long  after  the  people  had  lost 
 the  original  purity  and  simplicity  of  their  manners,  the 
 noble  youth  of  Persia  may  have  been  still  educated  in 
 the  severe  discipline  of  their  ancestors,  which  is  rep- 
 resented as  nearly  resembling  the  Spartan.  They  may 
 have  been  accustomed  to  spare  diet  and  hard  toil,  and 
 trained  to  the  use  of  horses  and  arms.  These  exer- 
 cises do  not  create  and  are  not  sufficient  to  keep  alive 
 the  warlike  spirit  of  a  nation,  any  more  than  rulers  and 
 precepts  to  form  its  moral  character.  The  Persian 
 youth  may  still  have  been  used  to  repeat  the  praises 
 of  truth  and  justice  from  their  childhood,  in  the  later 
 period  of  their  history,  as  they  had  when  Cyrus  up- 
 braided the  Greeks  with  their  artifices  and  lies:  and 
 vet  in  their  riper  years  they  might  surpass  them,  as  at 
 Cunaxa,  in  falsehood  and  cunning,  as  much  as  they 
 were  below  them  in  skill  and  courage.  Gradually, 
 however,  the  ancient  discipline  either  became  wholly 
 obsolete  or  degenerated  into  empty  forms  ;  and  the 
 nation  sank  into  that  state  of  utter  corruption  and  im- 
 becility which  Xenophon,  or,  rather,  the  author  of  the 
 chapter  that  concludes  his  historical  romance,  has 
 painted,  not  from  imagination,  but  from  the  very  life. 
 — (Thirlwall's  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  185,  scqq.) 
 
 Persicus  Sinus,  a  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  on  the 
 coast  of  Persia  and  Arabia,  now  called  the  Persian 
 Gulf. 
 
 Persis,  or  Persia  Proper,  the  original  province  of 
 the  Persians.     {Vid.  Persia.) 
 
 Persius,  or  Aulos  Persius  Flaccus,  a  Roman  sat- 
 irist, was  born  at  Volaterrae,  a  town  of  Etruria,  about 
 the  20th  year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  A.D.  34.  He 
 was  of  equestrian  rank.  He  lost  his  father  at  the  age 
 of  six  years,  and  his  mother,  Fulvia  Sisenna,  married 
 a  second  time,  but  the  stepfather  whom  she  gave  her 
 son  lived  only  a  short  period.  Persius  appears  to  have 
 shown  towards  his  mother  the  strongest  filial  affection. 
 He  was  trained  at  Volaterraa  till  his  twelfth  year,  and 
 he  then  proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  gram- 
 mar under  Rhemnius  Palaemon,  and  rhetoric  under  Vir- 
 ginius  Flaccus.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  became  a 
 pupil  of  Annaeus  Cornutus,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  who 
 had  come  from  Leptis  in  Africa  to  settle  at  Rome. 
 Lucan,  the  poet,  was  his  fellow-disciple  in  the  school 
 of  Cornutus.  Persius  and  Cornutus  were  bound  to 
 each  other  by  feelings  more  like  those  of  father  and 
 son,  than  such  as  usually  subsist  between  preceptor 
 and  scholar.  This  friendship  continued  without  inter- 
 ruption till  the  death  of  Persius,  which  took  place  in 
 his  28th  or  30th  year.  The  poet  bequeathed  his  books 
 and  a  large  sum  of  money  to  Cornutus,  who,  however, 
 declined  to  receive  the  latter,  and  gave  it  up  to  the 
 sisters  of  Persius.  The  materials  l^or  a  life  of  Per- 
 sius are  scanty,  but  they  are  sufficient  to  show  him 
 in  a  very  favourable  light.  Amid  prevailing  corrup- 
 tion, he  maintained  a  high  moral  character.  He  con- 
 sistently applied  his  principles  as  a  Stoic  to  the  pur- 
 poses of  self-discipline.  His  acquaintance  with  men 
 and  things  was  the  result  of  private  study  more  than 
 of  actual  converse  with  the  world,  so  that,  as  his  wri- 
 tings testify,  he  viewed  human  life  as  he  thought  it 
 should  be,  rather  than  as  it  really  was.  Different  opin- 
 ions are  formed  of  Persius  as  a  satirical  poet.  Quin- 
 1016 
 
 tilian  and  Martial,  with  some  of  the  early  Christian 
 writers,  bear  a  high  testimony  to  his  merits,  as  do  like- 
 wise several  modern  critics.  Others  consider  him  not 
 worth  reading.  Gilford,  who  studied  him  thoroughly, 
 says,  among  many  eulogies  of  him,  "  His  life  may  be 
 contemplated  with  unabated  pleasure  ;  the  virtue  he 
 recommends  he  practised  in  the  fullest  extent ;  and,  at 
 an  age  when  few  have  acquired  a  determinate  charac- 
 ter, he  left  behind  him  an  established  reputation  for 
 genius,  learning,  and  worth." — The  works  of  Persius 
 consist  of  six  satires,  with  a  prologue.  The  metre  of 
 the  latter  is  of  the  kind  called  Choliambic  (lame  Iam- 
 bic), being  an  Iambic  trimeter,  with  a  spondee  in  the 
 sixth  place  instead  of  an  iambus.  The  Satires  contain 
 altogether  only  650  hexameters  ;  and  in  some  manu- 
 scripts they  are  given  as  one  continuous  work.  Wheth- 
 er Persius  wrote  more  than  we  now  possess,  as  the 
 author  of  his  life  attributed  to  Suetonius  affirms,  we 
 know  not  ;  but  since  Quintilian  and  Martial  speak  of 
 his  claims  to  distinction,  though  he  left  "  only  one 
 book,"  we  should  conclude  that  no  other  production 
 of  his  was  known  in  their  time.  The  chief  defect  of 
 Persius  is  an  affected  obscurity  of  style,  which  is  so 
 great  and  so  general  that  there  are  few  scholars  who 
 read  these  performances  for  the  first  time,  whose  prog- 
 ress is  not  arrested  at  almost  every  line  by  some  diffi- 
 culty that  presents  itself.  It  has  been  conjectured, 
 and  not  without  some  show  of  reason,  that  one  of  the 
 causes  of  the  great  obscurity  of  Persius  is  the  caution 
 with  which  he  constantly  conceals  his  attacks  upon 
 Nero.  The  scholiast,  moreover,  expressly  states,  with 
 regard  to  several  verses  of  the  poet,  that  they  were 
 intended  for  the  emperor.  This  may  be  a  sufficient 
 apology  for  Persius  as  far  as  Nero  is  concerned  ;  but 
 why  allow  the  same  obscurity  to  pervade  the  rest  of 
 his  poem  1  The  Satires  of  Persius  would,  in  fact,  be 
 absolutely  unintelligible  for  us,  if  we  had  not  the  la- 
 bours of  an  ancient  scholiast,  or,  rather,  a  collection 
 of  extracts  from  several  scholiasts,  to  guide  us  ;  and 
 even  with  this  aid  we  are  frequently  unable  to  com- 
 prehend the  meaning  of  the  satirist.  The  conclusion 
 seems  irresistible,  that  much  of  this  obscurity  is  owing 
 to  the  peculiar  character  of  the  poet's  mind,  to  his  af- 
 fected conciseness,  and  to  the  show  of  erudition  which 
 he  is  so  fond  of  exhibiting.  Some  critics,  who  con- 
 demn the  negligent  style  of  Horace,  give  the  prefer- 
 ence to  Persius  as  a  satirist  on  account  of  the  greater 
 harmony  of  his  hexameters.  Melody  of  diction,  how- 
 ever, cannot  compensate  for  the  want  of  perspicuity  ; 
 besides,  the  style  of  Horace,  in  his  satires,  is  purpose- 
 ly made  to  approximate  to  that  of  familiar  life.  It 
 must  appear  surprising  that  Persius  is  so  reserved  re 
 'specting  the  gross  vices  and  immorality  of  the  age  in 
 which  he  lived.  The  best  way  of  accounting  for  this 
 is  to  ascribe  it  to  the  retired  life  led  by  the  youthful 
 poet  in  the  bosom  of  a  virtuous  family,  and  his  conse- 
 quent want  of  experience  in  the  excesses  of  the  day. 
 The  best  editions  of  Persius  are,  that  of  Isaac  (Jasau- 
 bon,  revised  by  his  son  }Aer\c,  Lond .,  1G47,  4to  ;  Bond, 
 Norib.,  1631,  8vo  ;  Koenig,  G6tt.,  1803,  8vo,  and 
 also  with  Rupert's  edition  of  Juvenal,  Glasg.,  1825. 
 Pektinax,  Publius  Helvius,  a  Roman  emperor  af- 
 ter the  death  of  Commodus,  was  born  about  A.D.  126, 
 at  Villa  Martis,  near  Alba  Pompeia,  on  the  banks  of 
 the  Tanarus,  in  the  modern  Piedmont.  His  father 
 was  a  freedman,  who  dealt  in  charcoal,  an  important 
 article  of  fuel  in  Italy  even  at  the  present  day.  He 
 received  from  his  parent  a  good  education,  and  was 
 placed  by  him  under  the  tuition  of  Sulpicius  Apolli- 
 naris,  a  celebrated  grammarian,  who  is  repeatedly  men- 
 tioned by  Aulus  Geliius.  Pertinax  became  a  proficient 
 in  the  Greek  and  Roman  languages  ;  and,  after  the 
 death  of  his  master,  he  taught  grammar  himself.  But, 
 being  dissatisfied  with  the  small  profits  of  his  profes- 
 sion, he  entered  the  army  ;  and,  being  assisted  by  the 
 interest  of  LoUianus  Avitus,  a  man  of  consular  fami- 
 
PER 
 
 PES 
 
 ly,  and  his  father's  ■patronus,  he  was  promoted  to  a 
 command.  He  was  sent  lo  Syria  at  the  head  of  a  co- 
 hort, and  served  with  distinction  against  the  Parthians, 
 under  L.  Verus,  the  colleague  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 
 He  was  afterward  sent  to  Britain,  where  he  remained 
 for  some  time.  He  sui)sequenlly  served  in  Moesia, 
 Germany,  and  Dacia,  but,  upon  some  suspicion  of  his 
 fidelity,  lie  was  recalled  by  Marcus  Aurelius.  Having 
 cleared  himself,  he  was  made  prajtor,  and  commander 
 of  the  first  legion,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  senator. 
 Being  sent  to  Rhsetia  and  Noricum,  he  drove  away  the 
 hostile  German  tribes.  His  next  promotion  was  to  the 
 consulate,  and  he  publicly  received  the  praise  of  Mar- 
 cus Aurelius,  in  the  senate  and  in  the  camp,  for  his 
 distinguished  services.  In  Syria  he  assisted  in  re- 
 pressing the  revolt  of  Avitus  Cassius.  He  was  next 
 removed  to  the  command  of  the  legions  on  the  Dan- 
 ube, and  was  made  governor  of  Moesia  and  Dacia,  and 
 afterward  returned  to  Syria  as  governor,  where  he  re- 
 mained until  the  death  of  Marcus.  Capitolinus  says, 
 that  his  conduct  was  irreprehensible  till  the  time  of  his 
 Syrian  government,  when  he  enriched  himself,  and  his 
 conduct  became  the  subject  of  popular  censure.  On 
 his  return  to  Rome,  he  was  banished  by  Perennis,  the 
 favourite  of  Commodus,  to  his  native  country,  Ligu- 
 ria.  Here  he  adorned  Villa  Martis  with  sumptuous 
 buildings,  in  the  midst  of  which,  however,  he  left  his 
 humble,  paternal  cottage  untouched.  He  remained 
 three  years  in  Liguria.  After  the  death  of  Perennis, 
 Commodus  commissioned  him  to  proceed  to  Britain, 
 where  the  licentiousness  of  the  troops  had  degenerated 
 into  mutiny.  On  his  arrival,  the  soldiers  wished  to  sa- 
 hite  him  as  emperor,  and  were  with  difficulty  prevent- 
 ed by  Pertinax,  who  seems  to  have  found  the  disci- 
 pline of  the  legions  in  a  most  deplorable  state.  One  of 
 the  legions  revolted  against  him  ;  and,  in  trying  to  re- 
 press the  revolt,  he  was  wounded  and  left  among  the 
 dead.  On  his  recovery  he  punished  the  mutineers, 
 and  solicited  the  emperor  for  his  recall,  as  his  attempts 
 at  restoring  discipline  had  rendered  him  obnoxious  to 
 the  army.  He  was  then  sent  as  proconsul  to  Africa, 
 and  was  afterward  made  prefect  of  Rome,  in  which  of- 
 fice he  showed  much  moderation  and  humanity.  Af- 
 ter the  murder  of  Commodus,  two  of  the  conspirators, 
 Lstus  and  Electus,  went  to  Pertinax  and  offered  him 
 the  empire,  which  the  latter  at  first  refused,  but  after- 
 ward accepted,  and  was  jiroclaimed  emperor  by  the 
 senate  on  the  night  previous  to  the  first  of  January, 
 A.D.  193.  In  the  speech  which  Pertinax  delivered 
 on  the  occasion,  he  said  something  complimentary  to 
 Laetus,  to  whom  he  owed  the  empire,  on  which  Q. 
 Sosius  Falco,  one  of  the  consuls,  observed,  that  it  was 
 easy  to  foresee  what  kind  of  an  emperor  he  would 
 make,  if  he  allowed  the  ministers  of  the  atrocities  of 
 Commodus  to  retain  their  places.  Pertinax  mildly  re- 
 plied, "  You  are  but  a  young  consul,  and  do  not  yet 
 know  the  necessity  of  forgiving.  These  men  have 
 obeyed  the  orders  of  their  master  Commodus,  but  they 
 did  it  reluctantly,  as  they  have  shown  whenever  they 
 had  an  opportunity."  He  then  repaired  to  the  impe- 
 rial palace,  where  he  gave  a  banquet  to  the  magistrates 
 and  principal  senators,  according  to  ancient  custom. 
 The  historian  Dio  Cassius  was  one  of  the  guests. 
 Pertinax  recalled  those  who  had  been  exiled  for  trea- 
 son under  Commodus,  and  cleared  from  obloquy  the 
 memory  of  those  who  had  been  unjustly  put  to  death. 
 But  his  attempts  to  restore  discipline  in  the  army  alien- 
 ated the  affections  of  the  soldiers,  who  had  been  ac- 
 customed to  license  during  the  reign  of  Commodus. 
 As  he  found  the  treasury  empty,  he  sold  the  statues, 
 the  plate,  and  all  the  valuable  objects  amassed  by  his 
 predecessor.  By  this  means  he  collected  money  to 
 pay  the  praetorians,  and  to  make  the  usual  gifts  to  the 
 people  of  Rome.  He  publicly  declared  that  he  would 
 receive  no  legacies  or  inheritance  from  any  one,  and 
 he  abolished  several  taxes  and  tolls  which  had  been 
 6N 
 
 imposed  by  Commodus.  Pertinax  was  cherished  hj 
 the  senate  and  people  ;  but  the  turbulent  prseiorians, 
 secretly  encouraged  by  the  traitor  Lcetus,  conspired 
 against  the  new  emperor.  After  offering  the  empire 
 to  several  persons,  they  went  to  the  palace  three  hun* 
 dred  in  number.  The  friends  of  Pertinax  urged  him 
 to  conceal  himself  until  the  storm  had  passed  ;  but  the 
 emperor  said  that  such  conduct  would  be  unworthy  of 
 his  rank  ;  and  he  appeared  before  the  mutineers,  and 
 calmly  remonstrated  with  them  upon  the  guilt  of  their 
 attempt.  His  words  were  making  an  impression  upon 
 them,  when  one  of  the  soldiers,  a  German  by  birth, 
 threw  his  spear  at  him,  and  wounded  him  in  the  breast. 
 Pertinax  then  covered  his  face,  and,  praying  the  gods 
 to  avenge  his  murder,  was  slain  by  the  other  soldiers. 
 Electus  alone  defended  him  as  long  as  he  could,  and 
 was  killed  with  him.  The  soldiers  cut  off  the  head  of 
 Pertinax  and  carried  it  into  their  camp,  and  then  put 
 up  the  empire  at  auction,  offering  it  to  the  highest  bid- 
 der. It  was  purchased  by  Didius  Julianus.  Pertinax 
 was  67  years  of  age,  and  had  reigned  87  days.  {Cap- 
 itol, Vit.  Pert—Dio  Cass.,  73,  l.—Encycl.  Useful 
 Knoiol,  vol.  17,  p.  509.)      ^ 
 
 Perusia,  now  Perugia,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
 distinguished  cities  of  Etruria,  situate  at  the  south- 
 eastern extremity  of  Lacus  Trasymenus,  or  Lago  di 
 Perugia.  The  era  of  its  foundation  long  preceded 
 that  of  Rome,  though  the  precise  period  cannot  be  as- 
 certained with  certainty.  In  conjunction  with  the 
 other  Etrurian  states,  it  long  resisted  the  Roman  arms, 
 but,  when  reduced,  it  became  a  powerful  and  wealthy 
 ally.  It  was  a  Roman  colony  about  709  A.U.C.. 
 under  the  consulship  of  C-  Vibius  Pansa  ;  and,  some 
 years  after,  sustained  a  memorable  siege,  in  which  An- 
 tony held  out  against  Octavius  Csesar,  but  was  at  last 
 forced  by  famine  to  surrender.  On  this  occasion, 
 many  of  the  Perusians  were  put  to  death,  and  the 
 city  was  accidentally  burned  ;  a  madman  having  set 
 fire  to  his  own  house,  a  general  conflagration  ensued. 
 (Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  5,  49. — Compare  Veil.  Paterc, 
 2,  74:.— Florus,  4,  5.— Suet.,  Vit.  Aug.,  96.)  Pe- 
 rusia appears,  however,  to  have  risen  again  from  its 
 ruins,  according  to  Appian  and  Dio  Cassius  (48,  15); 
 and  under  the  Emperor  Justinian  we  find  it  main- 
 taining a  successful  siege  against  the  Goths.  {Cra- 
 mer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  219.) 
 
 Pescennius.'     Vid.  Niger. 
 
 Pessinus  {gen. -untis ;  in  Greek  Hegolvov^,  gen. 
 -ovvToq),  a  city  of  Ga-Iatia,  on  the  river  Sangarius,  and 
 near  the  western  confines,  according  to  D'Anville's 
 map.  It  was  of  very  early  origin,  but  chiefly  famous 
 on  account  of  the  worship  of  Cybele.  Strabo  says, 
 that  Mount  Dindymus  (whence  she  was  named  Din- 
 dymene)  rose  above  the  town.  So  great  was  the 
 fame  of  the  shrine  and  statue  of  the  goddess,  that  the 
 Romans,  enjoined,  as  it  is  said,  by  the  Sibylline  books, 
 caused  the  latter  to  be  conveyed  to  Rome,  since. the 
 safety  of  the  state  was  declared  to  depend  on  its  re- 
 moval to  Italy.  A  special  embassy  was  sent  to  King 
 Attains,  to  request  his  assistance  on  this  occasion  : 
 this  sovereign  received  the  Roman  deputies  with  great 
 kindness  and  hospitality,  and,  having  conveyed  them 
 to  Pessinus,  obtained  for  them  permission  to  remove 
 the  statue  of  the  mother  of  the  gods,  which  was  no 
 thing  else  but  a  great  stone.  On  its  arrival  at  Rome, 
 it  was  received  with  great  pomp  and  ceremony  by  the 
 Roman  senate  and  people,  headed  by  Scipio  Nasica, 
 who  had  been  selected  for  this  office  by  the  national 
 voice  as  the  best  citizen,  according  to  the  injunction 
 of  the  Pythian  orac/e.  This  took  place  in  the  year 
 547  U.C",  near  the  close  of  the  second  Punic  war. 
 {Liv.,  29,  10,  seijq. — Strah.,  567.)  Stcphanus  of  By- 
 zantium affirms,  that  Pessinus  originally  bore  the  name 
 of  Arabyza,  when  the  district  in  which  it  stood  be- 
 longed to  the  Caucones ;  but  he  does  not  mention 
 from  what  author  he  derives  this  information.     {Steph. 
 
 1017 
 
PET 
 
 PET 
 
 Bijz.,  s.  V.  'ApuCv^a.)     Herodian  and  Ammianus  give 
 various  derivations  of  tlie  name  of  Pessinus,  which  are 
 not  worth  rejiealing.     {Herod.,  1,  H. — Ammian.  Mar- 
 cclL,  22,  22. — Compare  Sieph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Jleann'ovg.) 
 It  would  seem  that  the  inhabitants  of  Pessinus,  after 
 parting  with  the  image  of  their  goddess  to  the  Ro- 
 mans, had  still  another  one  in  store,  for  we  learn  from 
 Livy,  that  the  worship  of  Cybele  was  still  observed  in 
 this  city  after  its  occupation  by  the  Gauls,  since  the 
 priests  o{  the  goddess  are  said  to  have  sent  a  deputa- 
 tion to  the  army  of  Manlius,  when  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Sarigarius.     {Livy,  38,   18.)     Polybius  mentions  the 
 names  of  the  individuals  who  then  presided  over  the 
 worship  and  temple  of  Cybele.     {Polyb.,  fragm.,  20, 
 4.)     In  the  fourth  century,  also,  the  Emperor  Julian 
 turned  away  from  his  line  of  march  against  the  Per- 
 sians, for  the  purpose  of  visiting  the  shrine.     {Amm. 
 MarcelL,  22,  9.)— Pessinus  was  the  chief  city  of  the 
 Tolistoboii,  who  settled  in  this  part  of  the  country, 
 and,  according  to  Strabo's  account,   was  a  place  of 
 considerable  trade.     It  sank  in  importance  under  the 
 Romans  ;  and  although  Constantine  the  Great,  in  his 
 new  arrangement  of  the  provinces,  made  Pessinus  the 
 capital  of  Western  Galatia  {Galatia  Salutaris.—Hier- 
 ocles,  p.  697),  yet  the  city  gradually  disappeared  from 
 notice  after  the  commencement  of  the  sixtli  century. — 
 Great  uncertainty  exists  with  regard  to  the  site  of  this 
 place,  since  its  ruins  have  not  been  explored  by  any 
 modern  traveller.     From  the  Antonine  Itinerary  we 
 know  that  it  was  ninety-three  miles  from  Ancyra,  with 
 which  it  communicated  through  Germa,  Vindia,  and 
 Papiria.     Germa,  the  first  of  these  stations,  is  known 
 to  answer  to  Yenna,  on  the  modern  road  leading  from 
 Eski-cher  to  Ancyra:   the  Itinerary  would  lead  us  to 
 place  it  sixteen  miles  from  that  site,  towards  the  San- 
 garius.     The  Table  Itinerary,  on  the  other  hand,  gives 
 a  route  from  Dorylajum  to  Pessinus,  by  Midagum  and 
 Tricomia,  and  allows  seventy-seven  miles  for  the  whole 
 distance.     But  the   road  from  Doryteum   to  Ancyra 
 did  not  pass  by  Pessinus,  but  by  Archelaiuin  and  Ger- 
 ma, as  appears  from  another  route  in  the  Antonine 
 Itinerary  (p.  202),  so  that  it  is  evident  that  Pessinus 
 could  not  have   been  situated  where  Colonel  Leake 
 would  place  it,  beyond  Juliopolis,  or  Gordium,  on  the 
 right  bank  of  the  Sangarius,  and  near  its  junction  with 
 the  Hierus,  as  it  would  then  have  been  exactly  on  the 
 road  to  Ancyra,  and  such  a  route  as  that  by  Germa 
 would  never  have  been  given  in  the  Antonine  Itine- 
 rary.    We  ought  therefore,  perhaps,  to  look  for  the 
 ruins   of  Pessinus  not  far  from  the  left  bank  of  the 
 Sangarius,  somewhere  in  the  great  angle  it  makes  be- 
 tween its  junction  with  the  Yerma  and  the  Pursek. 
 In  Lapie's  map.  the  ruins  of  Pessinus  are  laid  down  in 
 the  direction  which  we  have  just  mentioned,  on  a  site 
 called  Kahe,  but  the  authority  for  this  is  not  given. 
 {Cramer'' s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  86,  seqq. — Leake's 
 Tour,  p.  88,  scqq.)~Thfi  temple  of  Cybele  at  Pessi- 
 nus, as  also  its  porticoes,  were  of  white  marble,  and 
 surrounded  by  a  beautiful  grove.     The  city  was  in- 
 debted for  these  decorations  to  the  kings  of  Perga- 
 mus.     The  priests  of  the  goddess  were  at  one  time 
 high  in  rank  and  dignity,  and  possessed  of  great  privi- 
 leges and  emoluments.     {Strab.,  567.) 
 
 Peti  1,1.1,  I.  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Brutlii,  on  the  coast  of  the  Tarentine  Gulf,  and  to  the 
 north  of  Crotona.  It  was  fabled  to  have  been  settjsd 
 by  Philoctetes  after  the  Trojan  war.  {Virff.,  JEn. 
 3,  401.)  In  the  opinion  of  the  most  judicious  and 
 best  informed  topographers,  it  occupied  the  situation 
 of  the  modern  Strongoli.  {Holslen.,  ad  Steph.  Byz., 
 p.  307. — Romanclli,  vol.  1,  p.  206.)  This  small  town, 
 of  whose  earlier  history  we  have  no  particulars,  gave 
 a  striking  proof  of  its  fidelity  to  the  Romans  in  the 
 second  Punic  war,  when  it  refused  to  follow  the  ex- 
 ample of  the  other  Bruttian  cities  in  joining  the  Car- 
 thaginians. In  consequence  of  this  resolution,  it  was, 
 1018 
 
 besieged  by  Hafinibal,  and,  though  unassisted  bv  the 
 Romans,  it  held  out  until  reduced  to  the  last  extrem- 
 ity of  famine;  nor  was  it  till  all  the  leather  in  the 
 town,  as  well  as  the  bark  and  young  shoots  of  trees, 
 and  the  grass  in  the  streets,  had  been  consumed  for 
 subsistence,  that  they  at  length  surrendered.  {Vcl. 
 Paterc.,  6,  %.—Liv.,  23,  30.)  Ptolemy  incorrectly 
 classes  Petilia  with  the  inland  towns  of  Magna  Gracia 
 (p.  67),  and  Strabo  confounds  it  with  the  Lucanian 
 Petilia.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  389.)— II. 
 A  town  of  Lucania,  confounded  by  Strabo  with  the 
 Bruttian  Petilia.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated 
 on  what  is  now  the  3Io7ite  della  Stella,  not  far  from 
 Paestum.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  368.) 
 
 Petilius,  an  individual  at  Rome,  surnamed  Capi- 
 tolinus.  According  to  the  scholiasts  on  Horace  {Sat., 
 1,  4,  94),  he  had  been  governor  of  the  Capitol.  They 
 add,  that  he  was  accused  of  having  stolen,  during  his 
 office,  a  gold  crowji  consecrated  to  Jupiter,  and  that, 
 having  plead  his  cause  in  person,  he  was  acquitted  by 
 the  judges  in  order  to  gratify  Augustus,  with  whom 
 he  was  on  friendly  terms.  Hence,  they  say,  arose  his 
 surname  of  CapiLolinus.  One  part,  at  least,  of  the 
 story  is  incorrect,  since  the  Capitolini  were  a  branch 
 of  the  Petilian  family  long  before  this.  (Compare 
 Vaillant,  Num.  Fam.  Rom  ,  vol.  2,  p.  222.)  What 
 degree  of  credit  is  due  to  the  rest  of  the  narrative  it 
 is  hard  to  say.  A  full  examination  of  the  whole  point 
 is  made  by  Wieland  {ad  Horat.,  I.  c.). 
 
 PetosIris,  a  celebrated  astrologer  and  philosopher 
 of  Egypt.  He  wrote,  according  to  Suidas,  an  astro- 
 logical work,  compiled  from  the  sacred  books  ;  a  trea- 
 tise concerning  the  mysteries  of  the  Egyptians,  dec. 
 {Suidas,  s.  V. — Pliny,  2,  23. — Juv.,  6,  581. — Athe- 
 ncBus,  3,  p.  114. — Jacobs,  ad  Anthol.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  pt. 
 2,  p.  470.  —  Salmas.,  de  Ann.  Clim.,  p.  66,  353.) 
 Ptolemy  everywhere  calls  him  'Apxaloc;,  and  says  that 
 he  and  Necepsus  were  the  authors  Tr/g  K?u/j.aKT7ipiKy^ 
 uyuyfjg,  that  is,  of  the  art  of  computing  a  person's 
 nativity  from  an  enumeration  of  "  climacteric  years," 
 reference  being  also  had  at  the  same  time  to  the  posi- 
 tion of  the  stars.     {Salvias.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Petra,  I.  a  city  of  Arabia,  the  capital  of  the  Na- 
 bathffii,  and  giving  name  to  the  division  of  the  country 
 called  Arabia  Petraea.  It  was  situate  a  short  distance 
 below  the  southern  boundary  of  Palestine.  I'he  ordi- 
 nary form  of  the  name  is  Petra  (?/  UiTpa) ;  Josephus, 
 however,  in  some  places  gives  the  neuter  plural  {to. 
 UsTpu),  and  many  of  the  Church-fathers  the  feminine 
 plural  Petrel  {al  Ilt'rpai).  The  appellation  given  to 
 the  city  originated  in  the  peculiar  nature  of  its  situa- 
 tion. It  stood  on  an  elevated  plain,  and  was  well  sup- 
 plied with  fountains  and  trees;  but  all  around  were 
 rocks,  which  only  allowed  an  access  to  the  place  on 
 one  side,  and  that  a  difficult  one.  Hence  the  name  of 
 the  place,  from  nirpa,  "a  rock."  The  country  be- 
 yond this,  especially  towards  the  borders  of  Palestine, 
 was  a  continued  sandy  waste.  According  to  Diodo- 
 rus  Siculus  (19,  55).  there  was  no  city  in  this  quar- 
 ter in  the  time  of  Antigonus,  but  only  a  place  strongly 
 fortified  by  nature,  and  supplied  with  numerous  caves 
 that  were  used  as  dwellings.  Here,  upon  a  rock  {eirl 
 TLvog  nsTpag),  the  Nabathaei  were  accustomed  to  leave 
 their  families  and  plunder  whenever  they  went  on  dis- 
 tant expeditions,  and  this  served  them  as  a  stronghold. 
 The  troops  of  Antigonus,  on  their  sudden  inroad  into 
 the  country,  found  in  this  spot  a  large  quantity  of 
 frankincense  and  myrrh,  and  also  five  hundred  talents 
 in  silver.  {Diod.,l.c.)  The  incense  and  myrrh  show 
 that  they  carried  on  an  overland  traffic  with  the  neigh- 
 bouring communities,  and  it  is  to  this  same  traffic  that 
 the  city  of  Petra  owed  its  origin.  All  subsequent  wri- 
 ters speak  of  Petra  as  a  city,  and  an  important  place 
 of  trade.  Eckhel  gives  a  coin,  on  which  we  find  the 
 inscription  'Adpiavr]  liirpa  M-TfTpoTtoXig.  If  the  coin 
 be  genuine,  it  shows  that  in  the  time  of  the  Emoeror 
 
PET 
 
 PET 
 
 Hadrian,  Petra  not  only  belonged  to  the  Roman  sway, 
 but  had  also  adopted  the  name  of  its  conqueror.  {Dio 
 Cass.,  68,  14.)  The  Syrians  (and  the  Church  fathers) 
 call  this  place  Rhekem  (Te/cf/i)  which  also  denotes 
 "  a  rock  ;"  and  Arhekeme  ('KpeKe/irj. — Josephus,  Ant. 
 Jiid.,  4,  7).  Josephus  states  that  Aaron  died  in  its 
 neighbourhood  ;  he  calls  it  in  this  passage  Arke  {'kpKrj) 
 by  contraction,  (/l?;;.  JmcZ.,  4,  4.)  St.  Jerome  makes 
 it  the  same  with  the  Sela  of  Scripture  (2  Kings,  14, 
 7).  Traces  of  the  Syrian  name  remained  at  a  late 
 period,  and  we  find  the  place  mentioned  by  Abulfeda 
 under  the  appellation  of  Ar  Rakim,  with  the  remark 
 that  there  were  dwellings  here  cut  out  of  the  rock. 
 D'AnviUe  names  it  incorrectly  Karak.  Petra  seems 
 not  to  have  continued  a  place  of  trade  for  any  very  long 
 time;  at  least  Ammianus  Marcellinus  is  silent  re- 
 specting it,  though  he  enumerates  very  carefully  the 
 important  places  in  this  region.  Petra  lay,  according 
 .  to  Diodorus  (19,  108),  at  the  distance  of  300  stadia 
 from  the  Dead  Sea;  and,  according  to  Strabo  (779), 
 three  or  four  days'  journey,  or  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
 geographical  miles  in  a  southern  direction  from  Jeri- 
 cho.— The  remains  of  the  ancient  city  were  for  a  long 
 time  undiscovered  by  modern  travellers.  Burckhardt 
 and  Bane,  at  last,  discovered  them  at  Wady  Moussa, 
 in  1812,  but  could  not  give  them  a  close  examination 
 through  fear  of  the  Arabs.  In  1828,  two  French 
 travellers,  De  la  Borde  and  Linant,  visited  the  spot, 
 and  gave  a  description  of  the  ruins  ;  but  the  best  and 
 fullest  account  is  that  afforded  by  the  pages  of  Mr. 
 Stephens,  who  was  at  Petra  in  1836.  {Incidents  of 
 Travel,  vol.  2,  p.  50,  scqq. — Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol. 
 6,  pt.  1,  p.  137,  2d  ed.) — II.  A  fortress  of  Macedo- 
 nia, among  the  mountains  beyond  Libethra,  the  pos- 
 session of  which  was  disputed  by  the  Perrhasbi  of 
 Thessaly  and  the  kings  of  Macedonia.  (Lni.,  39,  26. 
 — Id.,  44,  32.)  It  commanded  a  pass  which  led  to 
 Pythium  in  Thessaly  by  the  back  of  Olyrnpus. — III. 
 A  fortress  on  Mount  Haemus.  {Liv.,  40,  22.) — IV. 
 A  Corinthian  borough  or  village,  of  which  Eetion,  the 
 father  of  Cypselus,  was  a  native.  {Herod.,  5,  91.) — 
 V.  A  rock- fortress  in  Sogdiana,  taken  by  Alexander. 
 {Quint.  Curt.,  7,  11.)  It  was  also  called  Oxi  Petra, 
 probably  from  its  being  near  the  river  Oxus. 
 
 Petk^a,  one  of  the  divisions  of  Arabia,  so  called, 
 not,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  from  its  stony  or  rocky 
 character  {irerpa,  •'  a  rock,'''  "  a  stone'"),  but  from  its 
 celebrated  emporium  Petra.  {Vid.  Petra,  I.)  It  was 
 bounded  on  the  east  by  Arabia  Deserta,  on  the  west 
 by  Egypt  and  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  south  by  the 
 Ked  Sea,  which  here  divides  and  runs  north  in  two 
 branches,  and  on  the  north  by  Palestine.  This  coun- 
 try contained  the  southern  Edomites,  the  Amalckites, 
 the  Cushites,  who  are  improperly  called  the  Ethiopi- 
 ans, the  Hivites,  &,c.  Their  descendants  are  at  pres- 
 ent known  by  the  general  name  of  Arabians  ;  but  it  is 
 of  consequence  to  notice  the  ancient  inhabitants  as  they 
 are  mentioned  in  the  text  of  Scripture.  {Vid.  Arabia.) 
 PETRfc;ius,  Marcus,  a  Roman  commander.  He  was 
 lieutenant  to  the  consul  C.  Antonius,  and  was  intrust- 
 ed by  the  latter,  who  feigned  indisposition,  with  the 
 command  of  the  Roman  forces  against  the  army  of 
 Catiline,  whom  he  totally  defeated.  {Sail.,  Bell.  Cat., 
 c.  59,  scij  )  Faithful  to  the  cause  of  the  republic,  he 
 became  one  of  Pompey's  lieutenants  in  Spain  during 
 the  civil  contest,  and  endeavoured,  in  conjunction  with 
 Afranius,  to  oppose  the  progress  of  Caesar  in  that  coun- 
 try. They  were  both,  however,  compelled  to  surren- 
 der {Ccex.,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  38,  scqq.),  and  retired  after 
 this  to  Greece,  where  they  joined  the  army  of  Pom- 
 ppy.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  Petreius  fled  to 
 Patr*,  where  Cato  afforded  him  an  asylum  ;  and  he 
 subsequently  accompanied  Scipio  into  Africa.  Here 
 again,  however,  the  defeat  at  Thapsus  disappointed  his 
 hopes,  and  he  fell,  according  to  Livy,  by  his  own  hand, 
 after  having  performed  the  same  sad  office  for  Juba 
 
 the  partner  of  his  flight.  {Liv.,  Epit.,  114.)  Ac- 
 cording to  Hirtius,  however,  Juba  and  Petreius  hav- 
 ing agreed  to  die  by  each  others'  hands,  the  African 
 prince  easily  killed  his  Roman  friend,  who  was  already 
 advanced  in  years  ;  but  having  attempted,  without  ef- 
 fect, to  slay  himself,  persuaded  one  of  his  own  slaves  to 
 become  his  executioner.  {Hirtius,  Bell.  Afric.,  c.  94. 
 — Compare  Florus,  4,  2,  69. — Ajipian,  Bell.  Civ.,  2, 
 100. — Senec.,  Suas.,  7.— Id.,  de  I'rovid.,  2.) 
 
 Petrinum,  a  village  in  the  district  of  Sinuessa,  in 
 Italy.     {Hor.,Epist.,  ],5,  5.) 
 
 PetrocokIi,  a  Gallic  tribe,  belonging  originally  to 
 Celtic  Gaul,  but  subsequently  forming  part  of"  Gallia 
 Aquitanica,  when  this  last  vv'as  detached  i'rom  Celtica. 
 Their  territory  corresponded  to  the  modern  Ferigord, 
 and  their  capital  Petrocorii  answers  to  the  present 
 Perigneux.  Both  these  modern  names  retain  mani- 
 fest traces  of  the  ancient  appellation.  (Cffis.,  B.  G., 
 7,  75. — Lemaire,  Lid.  Geogr.  ad  Cas.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Pbtronius,  Titus,  surnamed  Arbiter,  because  Nero 
 had  named  him  Arbiter  clcgantice.  He  was  born,  ac- 
 cording to  some  modern  scholars,  at  Massilia  {Mar- 
 seille) or  somewhere  in  its  vicinity,  of  a  good  family, 
 but  received  his  education  at  Rome.  ]No  one  knew 
 better  how  to  unite  the  love  of  letters  with  the  most 
 unrestrained  desire  for  jjleasure.  His  portrait  has  been 
 drawn  by  Tacitus  with  the  hand  of  a  master.  It  must 
 be  confessed,  however,  that  the  Petronius  of  Tacitus 
 has  the  prsnomen  of  Caius,  and  the  Petronius  of  whom 
 we  are  now  treating  that  of  Thus.  There  prevails, 
 indeed,  much  uncertainty  respecting  the  prsenomen  of 
 Petronius  ;  Pliny  (37,  7)  calls  the  Petronius  of  Taci- 
 tus, Titus  ;  while  the  scholiast  on  Juvenal  gives  him 
 the  name  of  Publius. — We  will  here  insert  the  pas- 
 sage of  the  historian  above  mentioned,  which  gives  so 
 graphic  a  description  of  the  character  of  the  man : 
 "  He  passed  his  days  in  sleep,  and  his  nights  in  busi- 
 ness or  pleasure.  Indolence  was  at  once  his  passion 
 and  his  road  to  fame.  What  others  did  by  vigour  and 
 industry,  he  accomplished  by  his  love  of  pleasure  and 
 luxurious  ease.  Unlike  the  men  who  profess  to  un- 
 derstand social  enjoyment,  and  ruin  their  fortunes,  he 
 led  a  life  of  expense  without  profusion  ;  an  epicure, 
 yet  not  a  prodigal ;  addicted  to  his  appetites,  but  with 
 taste  and  judgment ;  a  refined  and  elegant  voluptuary. 
 Gay  and  airy  in  his  conversation,  he  charmed  by  a  cer- 
 tain graceful  negligence,  the  more  engaging  as  it  flow- 
 ed from  the  natural  frankness  of  his  disposition.  With 
 all  his  delicacy  and  careless  ease,  he  showed  when  he 
 was  governor  of  Bithynia,  and  afterward  in  the  year 
 of  his  consulship,  that  vigour  of  mind  and  softness  of 
 manners  may  well  unite  in  the  same  person.  From 
 his  public  station  he  returned  to  his  usual  gratifica- 
 tions, fond  of  vice,  or  of  pleasures  that  bordered  upon 
 it.  His  gayety  recommended  him  to  the  notice  of  the 
 prince.  Being  in  favour  at  court,  and  cherished  as  the 
 companion  of  JN'cro  in  all  his  select  parlies,  he  was  al- 
 lowed to  be  the  arbiter  of  taste  and  elegance.  With- 
 out the  sanction  of  Petronius  nothing  was  exquisite, 
 nothing  rare  or  delicious.  Hence  the  jealousy  of  Ti- 
 gellinus,  who  dreaded  a  rival,  in  the  good  graces  of  the 
 emperor  almost  his  equal,  in  the  science  of  luxury 
 his  superior.  Tigellinus  determined  to  work  his  down- 
 fall, and  accordingly  addressed  himself  to  the  cruelty 
 of  the  prince  ;  that  master  passion  to  which  all  other 
 affections  and  every  motive  were  sure  to  give  way. 
 He  charged  Petronius  with  having  lived  in  close  inti- 
 macy wii^h  Ssivinus  the  conspirator :  and,  to  give  col- 
 our to  that  assertion,  he  bribed  a  slave  to  turn  inform- 
 er against  his  master.  The  rest  of  the  domestics  were 
 loaded  with  irons.  Nor  was  Petronius  suffered  to 
 make  his  defence.  Nero  at  that  time  happened  to  be 
 on  one  of  his  excursions  into  Campania.  Petronius 
 had  followed  him  as  far  as  Cuma-,  but  was  not  allow- 
 ed to  proceed  farther  than  that  place.  He  seemed  to 
 lincer  in  doubt  and  fear,  and  yet  he  was  not  in  a  hur- 
 
 1019 
 
PETRONIUS. 
 
 PETRONIUS. 
 
 ry  to  leave  a  world  which  he  loved.  He  opened  his 
 veins  and  closed  them  again,  at  intervals  losing  a  small 
 quantity  of  blood,  then  binding  up  the  orifice,  as  his 
 own  inclinations  prompted.  He  conversed  during  the 
 whole  time  with  his  usual  gayety,  never  changing  his 
 habitual  manner,  nor  talking  sentences  to  show  his 
 contempt  of  death.  He  listened  to  his  friends,  who 
 endeavoured  to  entertain  him,  not  with  grave  discour- 
 ses on  the  immortality  of  the  soul  or  the  moral  wisdom 
 of  philosophers,  but  with  strains  of  jioetry,  and  verses 
 of  a  gay  and  natural  turn.  He  di.stributed  presents  to 
 some  of  his  servants,  and  ordered  others  to  be  chastised. 
 He  walked  out  for  his  amusement,  and  even  lay  down 
 to  sleep.  In  his  last  scene  of  life  he  acted  with  such 
 calm  tranquillity,  that  his  death,  though  an  act  of  ne- 
 cessity, seemed  no  more  than  the  decline  of  nature. 
 In  his  will,  he  scorned  to  follow  the  example  of  others, 
 who,  like  himself,  died  under  the  tyrant's  stroke  :  he 
 neither  flattered  the  emperor,  nor  Tigellinus,  nor  any 
 of  the  creatures  of  the  court ;  but  having  written,  under 
 the  fictitious  names  of  profligate  men  and  women,  a  nar- 
 rative of  Nero's  debauchery,  and  his  new  modes  of  vice, 
 he  had  the  spirit  to  send  to  the  emperor  the  tablets, 
 sealed  with  his  own  seal,  which  he  took  care  to  break, 
 that,  after  his  death,  it  might  not  be  used  for  the  destruc- 
 tion of  any  person  whatever."  {Tacitus,  Ann.,  16,  18, 
 seqq.) — Some  critics  have  thought  that  the  Petronius 
 to  whom  this  passage  refers  is  not  the  same  with  the 
 author  of  the  work  that  has  come  down  to  us,  entitled 
 Satyricon.  Their  chief  argument  is,  that  the  work 
 which,  according  to  Tacitus,  Petronius,  when  dying, 
 caused  to  be  sent  to  Nero,  was  written  on  portable 
 tablets  (codiciUi),  a  circumstance  that  militates  against 
 the  idea  of  its  being  a  production  of  any  length.  It  is 
 urged,  moreover,  that  the  accomplices  in  the  tyrant's 
 debaucheries  and  crimes  were  named  in  the  work, 
 whereas  the  actors  in  the  Satyricon  bear  fictitious 
 names.  It  is  evident,  indeed,  that  the  Satyricon  is 
 not  the  piece  of  which  Tacitus  makes  mention,  and 
 that  Nero  caused  the  latter  to  be  destroyed  ;  but  it 
 would  seem  that  the  critics  who  advocate  this  opinion 
 go  too  far  when  they  deny  also  the  identity  of  the  wri- 
 ters. What  is  there  to  prevent  our  supposing  that 
 Petronius,  having  now  no  measure  to  keep  with  the 
 world,  amused  himself  with  tracing  on  his  testament- 
 ary tablets  the  scandalous  lives  of  the  individuals, 
 whose  general  manners  he  was  content  with  depict- 
 ing in  his  larger  work  ]  Those  critics,  on  the  other 
 hand,  who  do  not  see  in  the  author  of  the  Satyricon 
 the  friend  and  intimate  companion  of  Nero,  are  divided 
 in  opinion  as  to  the  period  when  he  lived.  Some  car- 
 ry him  up  as  high  as  the  era  of  Augustus,  while  others 
 place  him  under  the  Antonines,  or  even  in  the  fourth 
 century.  Both  parties  ground  their  respective  artru- 
 ments  on  his  style.  The  former  discover  in  it  the 
 purity  of  the  golden  age,  while  the  latter  find  it  mark- 
 ed with  many  low  and  trivial  expressions,  and  with 
 many  solecisms  that  indicate  the  decline  of  the  language. 
 Without  wishing  to  throw  the  blame  of  some  of  these 
 faults  on  the  manuscript  itself,  which  is  in  so  deplora- 
 ble a  state  that  many  passages  remain  incapable  of  be- 
 ing deciphered,  notwithstanding  all  the  efforts  of  the 
 commentators,  may  we  not  suppose  that  these  pretend- 
 ed solecisms  have  been  purposely  put  by  the  author  in 
 the  mouths  of  individuals  of  the  lovver  class,  and  that 
 the  unusual  words  employed  by  him  only  appear  such 
 to  us,  because  we  arc  unacquainted  with  the  language  of 
 
 debauchery  and  intoxication  among  the  Romans'! 
 
 Some  critics,  surprised  that  Seneca  makes  no  mention 
 of  Petronius,  think  that  this  silence  is  owing  to  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  that  philosopher's  believing  himself  to  be 
 alluded  to  in  the  following  lines  aimed  by  Petronius 
 against  the  Stoics  : 
 
 "Ipsi  qui  cynica  iraducunt  tenvpora  scena, 
 Nonnunquarn  nummis  vender e  verba  solent." 
 1020 
 
 If  it  were  certain,  as  some  suppose,  that  Terentianus 
 Maurus  was  the  contemporary  of  Martial,  there  would 
 remain  but  little  doubt  respecting  the  epoch  when  Pe- 
 tronius lived,  since  Terentianus  cites  him  once  under 
 the  name  of  Arbiter,  and  another  time  under  that  of 
 Petronius.     In   1770,  a  learned  Neapolitan,  Ignarra, 
 supported,  with  some  new  reasons,  the  opinion  that  Pe- 
 tronius lived  towards  the  end  of  the  era  of  the  Anto- 
 nines.    It  appears  more  than  probable,  he  maintains, 
 that  the  Satyricon  was  written  in  the  same  city  in  which 
 the  scene  of  the  banquet  of  Trimalcion  is  laid,  and 
 that  its  object  is  to  depict  the  manners  of  the  Nea- 
 politans.    Many  hellenisms  and   solecisms,  some   of 
 which  still  remain  among  the  lower  orders  at  Naples, 
 prove,  he  thinks,  that  Petronius  was  either  born  in  that 
 city,  or  received  his  education  there.     As  to  the  peri- 
 od in  which  he  lived,  he  indicates  it  himself,  according 
 to  Ignarra,  in  the  44th,  57ih,  and  76th  chapters,  and 
 elsewhere,  by  giving  to  the  city  of  Naples  the  title  of 
 colony,  or  in  speaking  of  the  colonial  magistrates.     Ig- 
 narra then  proceeds  to  show  that  Naples  only  became 
 a  Roman  colony  towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Corn- 
 modus.     Finally,  he   remarks  that  Petronius,  in   the 
 76th  chapter,  makes   mention   of  the  mathematician 
 Serapion,  who  lived  under  Caracalla,  as  appears  from 
 a  passage  in  Dio  Cassius  (78,  4).     Ignarra  thinks  that 
 Petronius,  born  under  the  Antonines,  had,  by  a  careful 
 study  of  good  models,  appropriated  to  himself  much  of 
 the  elegance  of  the  golden  age,  without  getting  entire- 
 ly rid   of  the  corruption  of  that  in  which  he  happen- 
 ed to  live.     (De  Falaslra  Neapolilana,  dec,  p.  182, 
 seqq.)     Wyttenbach  appears  to  favour  the  opinion  of 
 Ignarra,  in  some  of  its  features  {BiM.  Cnt.,  pt.  5,  p. 
 84,  seqq.) ;  but  many  arguments  might  be  cited  against 
 it. — Some  critics,  again,  have  thought  that  the  author 
 of  the  Satyricon  was  not  called  Petronius,  hut  that,  as 
 the  treatise  on  the  art  of  cookery  was  entitled  Apicius, 
 and   the  Distichs  Calo,  so   this  Menippean  Satire  has 
 been  styled  Petronius  by  the  author  :    this  opinion, 
 however,  is  altogether  untenable. — The  Satyricon  of 
 Petronius  is  written   in  the  Varronian  or  Menippean 
 style  of  satire.     We  have  merely  a  fragment  of  it,  or, 
 to  speak  more  correctly,  a  succession  of  fragments, 
 which  some  lover  of  loose  and  indecent  reading  would 
 seem  to  have  selected  from  the  work  in  the  middle 
 ages,  for  it  is  said  that  the  Satyricon  existed  entire  in 
 the  twelfth  century.     The  fragments  that  remain  form 
 so  many  episodes  ;  the  most  witty  of  these  is  the  well 
 known  history  of  the  Ephesian  Matron  ;  but  the  long 
 est,  and  the  one  most  descriptive  of  the  manners  of 
 the  day,  is  the  Banquet  of  Trimalcion,  a  ridiculous  per 
 sonage,  intended,  as  some  think,  to  represent  the  Em 
 peror  Claudius.     This  fragment  was  found  in  the  17th 
 century  at  Trau  in  Dalmatia,  in  the  library  of  a  certain 
 Nicolaus  Cippius,  and  was  published  for  the  first  time 
 at  Padua,  in  1662.     It  gave  rise  to  a  very  warm  con- 
 test among  the  scholars  of  the  day.     Adrien  de  Valois 
 and  Wagenseil  attacked  its  authenticity,  which  was 
 defended  in  its  turn  by  Petit,  the  celebrated  physician, 
 in  a  treatise  in  which  he  assumed  the  name  of  Mari- 
 nus  Statileius.     The  manuscript  was   sent   to  Rome 
 and  examined  by  some  of  the  first  critics  of  the  day. 
 It  passed  after   this  into  the  library  of  the  King  of 
 France.     At  present  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  its  au- 
 thenticity.—  The  noise  which  this  discovery  made  in 
 the  literary  world  induced  a  French  officer  named  No- 
 doi  to  attempt  an  imposture,  which  did  not,  however, 
 answer  his  hopes.      He  published,  in  1693,  at  Rotter- 
 dam, a  pretended  Petronius,  complete  in  all  its  parts, 
 which  he  said  had  been  found  at  Belgrade,  in  1688,  by 
 a  certain  Dupin.     At  first,  some  members  of  the  acad- 
 emies of  Nimes  and  Aries  suffered  themselves  lo  be 
 imposed  upon  ;   the  fraud,  however,  was  soon  discov- 
 ered.    We  must  not  confound  with  this  last-mention- 
 ed individual  a  Spaniard   named   Marchena,  who,  in 
 1800,  amused  himself  with  publishing  a  new  fragment 
 
P  H.E 
 
 PH^ 
 
 of  Petronius,  found,  according  to  him,  in  the  library 
 8,t  St.  Gall.  {Repertoire  de  Litter.  Anc,  vol.  1,  p. 
 239.) — A  poem  in  295  verses,  on  the  fall  of  the  Ro- 
 man republic,  forms  a  fine  episode  to  the  Satyricon  of 
 Petronius.  The  Satyricon  itself,  it  may  be  remarked, 
 in  concluding,  is  admirable  for  the  truth  with  which 
 the  author  delineates  the  characters  of  his  personages. 
 It  contains  many  pleasing  pictures,  full  of  irony  ;  and 
 it  is  characterized  by  great  spirit  and  gayety  of  man- 
 ner ;  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  author  has  em- 
 ployed his  abilities  on  a  subject  so  truly  immoral  and 
 disgusting.  The  style  is  rich,  picturesque,  and  ener- 
 getic ;  but  often  obscure  and  difficult,  eithel:  from  the 
 unusual  words  which  we  me^it  with  in  it,  or  by  reason 
 of  the  corrupt  state  of  the  text.  The  best  edition  is 
 that  of  Burman,  4to,  Ultra).,  1709  ;  to  which  may  be 
 added  that  of  Reinesius,  1731,  8vo,  and  that  of  C.  G. 
 Anton,  Lips.,  1781,  8vo.  (Sckoll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.  2,  p.  416,  segq. — B'dhr,  Gesch.  Ram.  Lit.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  577,  scqq.) 
 
 Peuce,  a  name  applied  to  the  land  insulated  by  the 
 two  principal  arms  of  the  Danube  at  its  mouth.  The 
 ancient  appellation  still  partly  remains  in  that  of  Pic- 
 zina.  It  was  called  Peuce  from  ttevkij,  a  pine-tree, 
 with  which  species  of  tree  it  abounded.  From  this 
 island  the  Peucini,  who  dwelt  in  and  adjacent  to  it,  de- 
 rived their  name.  We  find  them  reappearing  in  the 
 Lower  Empire,  under  the  names  of  Pieziniges  and 
 Patzinacites.     {Lucan,  3,  202. — Plin.,  4,  12.) 
 
 Peucetia,  a  region  of  Apulia,  on  the  coast,  below 
 Daunia.  The  Peucetii,  according  to  Dionysius  of 
 Halicarnassus,  derived  their  name  from  Peucetius,  son 
 of  Lycaon,  king  of  Arcadia,  who,  with  his  brother  CEno- 
 trus,  migrated  to  Italy  seventeen  generations  before 
 the  siege  of  Troy.  But  modern  critics  have  felt  little 
 disposed  to  give  credit  to  a  story,  the  improbability  of 
 which  is  so  very  apparent,  whether  we  look  to  the 
 country  whence  these  pretended  settlers  are  said  to 
 have  come,  or  the  state  of  navigation  at  so  remote  a 
 period.  {Freret,  Mem.  de  VAcad.,  &c.,  vol.  18,  p. 
 87.)  Had  the  Peucetii  and  the  QEnotri  really  been  of 
 Grecian  origin,  Dionysius  might  have  adduced  better 
 evidence  of  the  fact  than  the  genealogies  of  the  Arca- 
 dian chiefs,  cited  from  Pherecydes.  The  most  re- 
 spectable authority  he  could  have  brought  forward  on 
 this  point  would  unquestionably  have  been  that  of  An- 
 tiochus  the  Syracusan  ;  but  this  historian  is  only  quo- 
 ted by  him  in  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  the  QEnotri,  not 
 of  their  Grecian  descent.  {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  2. — Strabo, 
 283. — Plin.,  3,  11.)  The  Peucetii  are  always  spoken 
 of  in  history,  even  by  the  Greek*  themselves,  as  bar- 
 barians, who  differed  in  no  essential  respect  from 
 the  Daunii,  lapyges,  and  other  neighbouring  nations. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  296.) 
 
 Peucini.      Vid.  Peuce. 
 
 Phacusa,  a  town  of  Egypt,  on  the  Pelusiac  arm  of 
 the  Nile.  The  ruins  are  found  near  the  modern  Tell 
 Pkakus  (hill  of  Phacusa).     {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Phacussa,  one  of  the  Sporades,  now  Gaiphonisi. 
 (Plin.,  4,  12. — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  <^dKovc!aa.) 
 
 Ph^acia,  the  Homeric  name  for  the  island  of  Cor- 
 cyra.  (Fjrf.  Corcyra.)  When  visited  by  Ulysses,  Al- 
 cinoiis  was  its  king,  and  his  gardens  are  beautifully 
 described  by  the  poet.  The  Phseacians  are  represent- 
 ed as  an  easy-tempered  and  luxurious  race,  but  remark- 
 able for  their  skill  in  navigation.  They  were  fabled 
 to  have  derived  their  name  from  Phsax,  a  son  of  Nep- 
 tune. {Horn,  Od.,  6,  1,  seqq. — Id.  ih.,  7,  1,  scqq. — 
 Volcker,  Homerische  Geographic,  p.  66.) 
 
 Ph.'edon,  a  native  of  Elis,  and  the  founder  of  the 
 Eliac  school.  He  was  descended  from  an  illustrious 
 family  ;  but  had  the  misfortune  early  in  life  to  be  de- 
 prived of  his  patrimony,  and  sold  as  a  slave  at  Athens. 
 It  happened  that  Socrates,  as  he  passed  by  the  house 
 where  Phajdon  lived,  remarked  in  his  countenance  tra- 
 
 es  of  an  ingenuous  mind,  which  induced  him  to  per- 
 
 suade one  of  his  friends,  Alcibiades  or  Crito,  to  re- 
 deem him.  From  that  time  Ph*don  applied  himself 
 diligently  to  the  study  of  moral  philosophy  under  Soc- 
 rates ;  and  to  the  last  adhered  to  his  master  with  the 
 most  affectionate  attachment.  He  instituted  a  school 
 at  Elis  after  the  Socratic  model,  which  was  continued 
 by  Plistanus,  an  Elian,  and  afterward  by  Menedemus 
 of  Eretria.  One  of  the  dialogues  of  Plato  is  named 
 after  Phsedon,  namely,  the  celebrated  one  respecting 
 the  immortality  of  the  soul.  {Dwg.  Laert.,  2,  106. — 
 Aul.  Gell,  2,  18.) 
 
 Ph^dra,  a  daughter  of  Minos  and  Pasiphae,  who 
 married  Theseus,  by  whom  she  became  mother  of 
 Acamas  and  Demophoon.     {Vid.  Hippolytus  I.) 
 
 PHiEDRUs  (or  PhvEder,  for  the  genitive  Fhadri  ad- 
 mits of  cither  of  these  forms  being  the  nominative),  a 
 Latin  fabulist.  All  that  we  know  respecting  him  is 
 obtained  from  his  own  productions,  for  no  ancient  wri- 
 ter down  to  the  time  of  Avienus  has  made  mention  of 
 him,  except,  perhaps,  on  one  occasion.  Martial.  Avi- 
 enus speaks  of  him  in  the  preface  to  his  own  Fables, 
 and  his  authority  can  only  be  combated  by  the  erro- 
 neous assertion,  that  the  Fables  of  this  latter  writer 
 himself  are  the  productions  of  more  modern  times. 
 {Christ.  Prolus.,  de  Phcedro,  p.  8. — Compare,  on  the 
 opposite  side  of  the  question,  the  Nachtrdge  zu  Sul- 
 zer,  p.  36,  seqq.)  Martial  also  alludes  to  a  Phaedrus 
 in  one  of  his  epigrams  (3,  10),  where  some  very  erro- 
 neously refer  the  name  to  an  Epicurean  philosopher, 
 one  of  Cicero's  early  instructers  {Christ.  Prolus.,  p. 
 6),  and  others  to  a  certain  writer  of  mimes.  {Farnab. 
 ad  Martial.,  I.  c. — Hulsemann,  de  Cod.  Fab.  .Aman., 
 Gbtt.,  1807.)  The  whole  question  turns  on  the  true 
 force  of  the  epithet  "  improbus,"  as  applied  by  Martial 
 to  Phaedrus,  and  this  has  been  well  discussed  by  Adry, 
 who  decides  in  favour  of  the  Fabulist.  {Dissertation 
 snr  les  qnatre  MSS.  de  Phcdre,  p.  195. — Phadrus, 
 ed.  Lemaire,  vol.  1.)  Phaedrus  is  generally  supposed 
 to  have  been  a  Thracian  by  birth  ;  and  two  passages 
 in  his  writings  {Prol.,  lib.  3,  17,  and  54)  would  seem 
 to  indicate  this.  Some  of  the  later  editors  make  him 
 a  Macedonian,  but  he  can  only  be  called  so  as  far  as 
 the  term  Macedonian  comprises  that  of  Thracian  also. 
 {Schvabe,  Vit.  Phandr.)  The  year  of  his  birth  is  un- 
 known :  it  is  not  ascertained  either  whether  he  was 
 born  in  slavery,  or  whether  some  event  de])rived  him 
 of  his  freedom.  The  year  that  Cicero  was  proconsul 
 in  Asia,  C.  Octavius,  the  father  of  Augustus,  and  pro- 
 praetor in  Macedonia,  gained  a  victory  over  some  Thra- 
 cian clans.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  Phaedrus, 
 still  an  infant,  was  among  the  captives  taken  on  this 
 occasion  ;  but,  if  this  be  true,  then  Phsdrus  will  have 
 written  a  portion  of  his  fables  at  the  age  of  more  than 
 seventy  years  ;  which  appears  contrary  to  a  passage  in 
 his  work  (lib.  4,  epil.  8),  in  which  he  prays  one  of  his 
 patrons  not  to  put  off  his  favours  to  a  period  when, 
 having  reached  an  advanced  age,  he  would  be  no  long- 
 er able  to  enjoy  them.  However  this  may  be,  Phae- 
 drus was  brought  to  Rome  at  a  very  early  age,  where 
 he  learned  the  Latin  tongue,  which  became  as  famil- 
 iar to  him  as  his  native  language.  Augustus  gave 
 him  his  freedom,  and  the  means  of  living  comfortably 
 without  the  necessity  of  exertion.  Under  the  reign  of 
 Tiberius  he  was  persecuted  by  Sejanus,  who  became 
 his  accuser  and  effected  his  condemnation.  The  cause 
 of  Sejanus's  hatred,  and  the  pretext  for  the  accusation, 
 are  equally  unknown.  Some  commentators,  and,  in 
 particular,  Brotier,  think  they  have  discovered  the  mo- 
 tive for  this  persecution  in  the  sixth  fable  of  the  first 
 book,  on  the  marriage  of  the  sun.  They  have  sup- 
 posed that  by  the  sun  Phredrus  meant  to  designate  Se- 
 janus, who  aspired  to  the  hand  of  Livilla,  widow  of  the 
 son  of  Tiberius  ;  but  in  this  fable  the  allusion  is  to  a 
 marriage,  not  to  a  project  of  marriage.  It  is  more 
 probable  that,  in  order  to  render  the  poet  suspected  by 
 Tiberius,  some  one  had  persuaded  the  tyrant,  who, 
 
 1021 
 
PHiEDRUS. 
 
 PH^EDRUS. 
 
 since  his  retirement  to  the  island  of  Caprcfe,  was  be- 
 come an  object  of  general  contempt,  that  Piiaedrus 
 meant  him,  in  the  second  fable  of  the  first  boolt,  by 
 the  loor  given  to  the  frogs  as  their  king.  But,  if  Piiae- 
 drus has  indeed  represented  Tiberius  under  the  alle- 
 gory of  a  log,  the  hydra,  which  takes  its  place,  will  in- 
 dicate the  successor  of  the  monarch,  unless  we  sup- 
 pose Sejanus  to  be  intended  by  the  reptile  :  this  inter- 
 pretation, however,  appears  extremely  forced.  Titze 
 thinks  that  Ph^drus  may  have  been  at  first  a  favourite 
 of  Sejanus,  and  afterward  involved  in  his  disgrace  ; 
 and  that  Eutychus,  in  the  reign  of  Caligula,  had  given 
 him  hopes  of  a  restoration  to  imperial  patronage.  This 
 theory,  however,  is  contradicted  by  the  prologue  to  the 
 third  book  of  the  fables  (v.  41. — Titze,  Introduct.  in 
 Pkmdr. — Id.,  de  Phadri  vita,  serif tis,  et  usu). — 
 Phasdrus  composed  five  books  of  fables,  containing,  in 
 all,  ninety  fables,  written  in  Iambic  verse.  He  has  the 
 merit  of  having  first  made  the  Romans  acquainted  with 
 the  fables  of  ^sop ;  not  that  all  his  own  fables  are 
 merely  translations  of  those  of  the  latter,  but  because 
 the  two  thirds  of  them  that  appear  original,  or,  at  least, 
 with  the  originals  of  which  we  are  unacquainted,  are 
 written  in  the  manner  of  Ji^sop.  Phasdrus  deserves 
 the  praise  of  invention  for  the  way  in  which  he  has  ar- 
 ranged them  ;  and  he  is  quite  as  original  a  poet  as 
 Fontaine,  who,  like  him,  has  taken  from  other  sources 
 besides  the  fables  of  JF.sop  the  materials  for  a  large 
 portion  of  his  own.  He  is  distinguished  for  a  precis- 
 ion, a  gracefulness,  and  a  naivete  of  style  and  manner 
 that  have  never  been  surpassed.  The  air  of  simplicity 
 which  characterizes  his  pieces  is  the  surest  guarantee 
 of  their  authenticity,  which  some  critics  have  contest- 
 ed. His  diction  is  at  the  same  time  remarkable  for 
 its  elegance,  though  this  occasionally  is  pushed  rather 
 too  far  into  the  regions  of  refinement.  The  manu- 
 scripts of  Phaadrus  are  extremely  rare.  The  one  from 
 which  Pithou  (Pithceus)  published,  in  1596,  the  edilio 
 princeps  of  the  fables,  passed  eventually,  by  marriage, 
 into  the  hands  of  the  Lepelletier  family  ;  and  is  now 
 in  the  library  of  M.  Lepelletier  de  Rosanbo  {De  Xi- 
 vrey,  ad.  Phcedr.,  p.  23,  scqq.—Id.  if>.,  p.  40,  seqq.). 
 A  second  manuscript,  which  Rigalt  used  in  his  edition 
 of  1617,  was  destroyed  by  fire  at  Rheims  in  1774  ; 
 but  we  have  remaining  of  this  a  very  accurate  colla- 
 tion. A  third  one,  or,  rather,  the  remains  of  one,  is 
 now  in  the  Vatican  library,  and  is  said  to  contain  from 
 the  first  to  the  twenty-first  fable  of  the  first  book. 
 {Notit.  Literar.  de  Codd.  MSS.,  Pha:dn,  No.  3,  de 
 Cod.  BanicUs.)  This  rarity  of  manuscripts  is  one 
 cause  of  the  doubts  that  have  been  entertained  by  some 
 respecting  the  authenticity  of  the  fables  ascribed  to 
 him,  and  even  the  very  existence  of  the  poet.  Some 
 other  circumstances  lend  weight  to  these  doubts  :  the 
 silence,  namely,  of  the  ancient  writers  concerning  Phse- 
 drus,  and  the  positive  declaration  of  Seneca,  who  re- 
 marks {Consol.  ad  Polyb.,  c.  27)  that  the  Romans  had 
 never  attempted  to  compose  after  the  manner  of  the 
 .^sopic  fables.  ("  Non  audco  te  usque  eo  producere,  ut 
 fahellas  quoque  el  JEsopcos  logos,  intentalum  Romanis 
 ingeniis  opus,  solita  tihi  venuslale  conneclas .''')  An- 
 other argument  on  this  same  side  of  the  question  is  as 
 follows  :  Nicolas  Perolti,  who,  about  the  middle  of 
 the  15th  century,  was  archbishop  of  Manfredonia,  and 
 one  of  the  patrons  of  Greek  literature  in  Italy,  cites 
 in  his  Corrm  Copice.  a  fable  which  he  says  he  took  in 
 his  early  days  from  the  fables  of  Avienus.  ("  Allusit 
 ad  fahulam,  quam  nos  e.t  Avieno  in  fahellas  nostras 
 adolescentes  lamhieo  carmine  transtulimus."  Cornu 
 Cop.,  p.  963,  34,  seqq.,  ed.  Basil,  1532,  fol.)  The 
 fable,  however,  is  not  in  the  collection  of  Avienus,  but 
 forms  the  17th  of  the  3d  book  of  Phajdrus  ;  and  from 
 this  inaccuracy  of  citation,  which  was  regarded  as  a 
 falsehood,  some  concluded  that  Pcrotti  was  a  plagia 
 rist,  while  others  regarded  Phaedrus  as  a  supposititious 
 author.  Both  these  opinions  were  a  little  loo  precip- 
 1023 
 
 itate  ;  and  the  discovery  that  was  made,  at  the  bogiiv 
 ning  of  the  18th  century,  of  the  manuscripts  of  the 
 fables  of  Perotti,  cleared  up  at  once  the  whole  mys- 
 tery.    One  of  the  titles  of  this  MS.  is  as  follows : 
 Nicolai  Perolti  Epitome  Fabularum  JEsopi,  Avieni, 
 et  Phcedri,"   &c.  ;    and  to  this   are  subjoined    some 
 verses,  in  which  Perotti  openly  declares  that  the  fables 
 are  not  his,  but  taken  from  .^Esop,  Avienus,  and  Piiae- 
 drus.    The  fables  taken  from  Phaedrus  in  this  collec- 
 tion are  the  6ih,  7th,  and  8th  of  the  first  book,  to- 
 gether with  the  epilogue  ;  a  large  number  of  the  sec- 
 ond book;   from  the  19th  to  the  24th  of  the  fourth 
 book,  and  the  first  five  of  the  5lh  book.     Perotti,  there- 
 fore, is  by  no  means  the  plagiarist  some  suppose  him 
 to  be,  since  he  names  the  authors  from  whom  he  bor- 
 rows.    Two  other  arguments  may  also  be  adduced  in 
 favour  of  the  opinion  which  makes  the  fables  of  Phae- 
 drus much  earlier  than  Perolti's  time  :  one  is  afforded 
 by  a  monumental  inscription,  found  at  Apulum,  in  Da- 
 cia,  and  consisting  of  a  verse  of  one  of  the  fables  of 
 Phasdrus  (3,  17. — Mannert,  Res  Trajani  ad  Danub., 
 etc.,  p.  78)  ;  the  other  argument  is  deduced  from  the 
 age  of  the  MSS.,  which  is  much  earlier  than  the  era 
 of  the  Bishop  of  Manfredonia,  and  falls  in  the  ninth 
 or  tenth  century.     It  has  been  conjectured,  and  with 
 great  appearance    of   probability,   that   the   fables   of 
 Phaedrus  were  frequently  taken  by  the  writers  of  the 
 twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries,  and  con- 
 verted into  prose,  and  in  this  way  we  are  to  account 
 for  the  great  destruction  of  MSS. — There  is,  however, 
 another  question  connected  with  this  subject.     The 
 manuscript  of  Perotti,  to  which  we  have  just  alluded  as 
 havincr  been  discovered  near  the  beginning  of  the  eight- 
 eenth century,  had,  by  some  fatality  or  other,  been 
 again  lost,  and  remained  so  until  1808,  when  it  was 
 rediscovered  at  Naples,  and  in  1809  a  supplement  of 
 33   new  fables  of  Phaedrus  (as  they  were  styled)  was 
 published  by  Casitto  and  Jannelli.     A  literary  warfare 
 immediately  arose  respecting  the  authenticity  of  these 
 productions,  in  which  several  eminent  scholars  took 
 part  ;  and  the   opinion  is  now  very  generally  enter- 
 tained, that  they  are  not,  as  was  at  first  supposed,  the 
 composition  of  Perotti,  but  of  some  writer  antecedent 
 to  his  time,  though  by  no  means  from  the  pen  of  Phs- 
 drus  himself     (Consult  Adry,  Examen  des  nouvellcs 
 fables  de  Phedre,  Paris,   1812.  —  Phmdrus,  ed.  Le- 
 maire,  vol.  1,  p.  197,  seqq.)  —  It  remains  but  to  add 
 a  lew  words  in   relation  to  the  time   when   Phaedrus 
 published  his  fables.     The  main  ditliculty  here  arises 
 from  the  words  of  Seneca,  already  quoted,  and  which 
 expressly  state  that  the  Romans  had  never  attempted 
 to  compose  after  the   manner  of  the  ^sopic   fables. 
 Brotier  thinks  that  Seneca  makes  no  mention  of  Piiae- 
 drus, because  the  latter  was  a  barbarian,  not  Roman- 
 born.     This  reason,  although  given  also  by  Fabricius 
 and  Vossius,  is  very  unsatisfactory.     What  would  we 
 say  of  a  writer  who,  having  to   speak   of  the    Latin 
 comic  poets,  should  omit  all  mention  of  Terence  be- 
 cause he  was  a  native  of  Africa!     Vavasseur  thinks, 
 that,  as  Phaedrus  expresses  himself  with  great  free- 
 dom, his  fables  were  suppressed  under  Tiberius,  Ca- 
 ligula, Claudius,  and  Nero,  so  that  Seneca  had  never 
 heard  of  them.     "  Perhaps,"  he  adds,  "  it  was  an  act 
 of  [)ure  forgetfulness  on  his  part ;"  and  he  seems  al- 
 most induced  to  believe,  that  Seneca,  through  jealousy 
 towards  an  author  who  had  written  with  so  much  simpli- 
 city, and  so  unlike  his  own  affected  manner,  has  jiurpose- 
 iy  passed  him  over  in  silence.      Desbillons,  dissatisfied 
 with  both  these  reasons,  believes  that  Phsdrus,  who 
 survived  Sejanus,  lived  to  the  third  year  of  the  reign 
 of  Claudius,  a  period  when  Seneca,  writing  his  work  on 
 "  Consolation,"  might  easily   say,  that   the   Romans 
 had  not  as  yet  any  fabulist,  since  the  productions  of 
 Phffidrus  might  not  yet  have  been  published.     This 
 explanation  is   not   devoid  of  probability. — The  best 
 editions  of  Phaedrus  are,  that  of  Burmann,  Amsl.,  1698 
 
PH  A 
 
 PHALARIS. 
 
 Lvgd.  Bad.,  1727,  4to,  and  1745,  8vo  ;  that  of  Bent- 
 ley,  at  the  end  of  his  Terence,  Cantab.,  1726,  4to, 
 and  Amst.,  1727,  4to  ;  that  of  Brotier,  Paris,  1783, 
 12mo;  that  of  Schwabc,  Brunsv.,  1806,  2  vols.  8vo; 
 that  of  Gail,  in  Lemaire's  collection,  Paris,  1826,  2 
 vols.  8vo;  and  that  of  Orelli,  Turici,  1831,  8vo. 
 (Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  343,  seqq.—Bdhr, 
 Gesch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  308,  scqq.) 
 
 PiniiTHON  i^aidcjv),  son  of  Helios  and  the  Ocean- 
 nyniph  Clymcne.  His  claims  to  a  celestial  origin 
 beinir  disputed  by  Epaphns,  son  of  Jupiter,  Phaethon 
 journeyed  to  the  palace  of  his  sire,  the  sun-god,  from 
 whom  he  extracted  an  unwary  oath  that  he  would 
 grant  him  whatever  he  asked.  The  ambitious  youth 
 instantly  demanded  permission  to  guide  the  solar  char- 
 iot for  one  day,  to  prove  himself  thereby  the  undoubted 
 progeny  of  the  sun.  Helios,  aware  of  the  conse- 
 quences, remonstrated,  but  to  no  purpose.  The  youth 
 persisted,  and  the  god,  bound  by  his  oath,  reluctantly 
 committed  the  reins  to  his  hands,  warning  him  of  the 
 dangers  of  the  road,  and  instructing  him  how  to  avoid 
 them.  Phaethon  grasped  the  reins,  the  flame-breath- 
 ing steeds  sprang  forward,  but,  soon  aware  that  they 
 were  not  directed  by  the  well-known  hand,  they  ran 
 out  of  the  course  ;  the  world  was  set  on  fire,  and  a 
 total  conflagration  would  have  ensued,  had  not  Jupiter, 
 at  the  prayer  of  Earth,  launched  his  thunder,  and  hurled 
 the  terrified  driver  from  his  seat.  He  fell  into  the  river 
 Eridanus.  His  sisters,  the  Heliades,  as  they  lament- 
 ed his  fate,  were  turned  into  poplar-trees  on  its  banks, 
 and  their  tears,  which  still  continued  to  flow,  became 
 amber  as  they  dropped  into  the  stream.  Cycnus,  the 
 friend  of  the  ill-fated  Phaelhon,  also  abandoned  him- 
 self to  mourning,  and  at  length  was  changed  into  a 
 swan  (kvkvoc;).  (Ovid,  Met.,  1,  750,  seqq. — Hygin., 
 fah.,  152,  Ibi.—Nonnus,  Diony.i.,  38,  105,  439.— 
 Apoll.  Rhod.,  4,  597,  scqq.—Virg.,  JEn.,  10,  IDO.— 
 Id.,  Eclog.,  6,  02. J  This  story  was  dramatized  by 
 ^schylus,  in  the  Heliades,  and  by  Euripides  in  his 
 Phaelhon.  Some  fragments  of  both  plays  have  been 
 preserved.  Ovid  appears  to  have  followed  closely  the 
 former  drama. — The  legend  of  Phaethon  is  regarded 
 by  ihe  expounders  of  mythology  at  the  present  day 
 as  a  physical  myth,  devised  to  account  for  the  origin 
 of  the  electron,  or  amber,  which  seems  to  have  been 
 brought  from  the  Baltic  to  Greece  in  the  very  earliest 
 times.  The  term  fj7\,EKTpov,  as  Welcker  observes, 
 resembles  r/?i,EKTup,  an  epithet  of  the  sun.  In  the 
 opinion  of  this  last-mentioned  writer,  the  story  of 
 Phaethon  is  only  the  Greek  versibn  of  a  German  le- 
 gend on  the  subject.  The  tradition  of  the  people  of 
 the  country  was  said  to  be  (Apoll.  Rhod.,  4,  611), 
 that  the  amber  was  produced  from  the  tears  of  the  sun- 
 god.  The  Greeks  made  this  sun-god  the  same  with 
 their  Apollo,  and  added  that  he  shed  these  tears  when 
 he  came  to  the  land  of  the  Hyperboreans,  an  exile  from 
 heaven  on  account  of  his  avenging  upon  the  Cyclops 
 the  fate  of  his  son  iEsculapius.  But,  as  this  did  not 
 accord  with  the  Hellenic  conception  of  either  Helios 
 or  Apollo,  the  Heliades  were  devised  to  remove  the 
 incousi.stency.  The  foundation  of  the  fable  lay  in  the 
 circumstance  of  amber  being  regarded  as  a  species  of 
 resin,  which  drops  from  the  trees  that  yield  it.  That 
 part  of  the  legend  which  relates  to  the  Eridanus,  con- 
 founds the  Po  with  the  true  Eridanus  in  the  north  of 
 Eurofie.  (  Welcker,  JEsch.  Tritogie,  p.  566,  seq. — 
 Kciahlln/s  Mythology,  p.  57,  seq.) 
 
 PHAirrnoNTi.vDEs  or  Phaijthontides,  the  sisters  of 
 PhHcthon,  changed  into  poplars.  (Vtd.  Heliades,  and 
 Phaethon.) 
 
 Phai.anthus,  a  Lacedaemonian,  one  of  the  Par- 
 theni*.  and  the  leader  of  the  colony  to  Tarentum. 
 (Vid.  Parthenias.) 
 
 Phai.akis,  a  tyrant  of  Agrigentum  in  Sicily,  whose 
 Bgc  is  placed  by  Bcntley  in  the  57th  Olympiad,  or 
 about  550  B.C.     This,  however,  is  done  by  that  emi- 
 
 nent scholar,  in  the  course  of  his  well-known  contro- 
 versy with  Boyle  and  others,  merely  to  give  more 
 force  to  his  own  refutation,  since  it  is  the  latest  period 
 that  history  will  allow,  and,  therefore,  the  most  favour- 
 able to  the  pretended  letters  of  Phalaj-is,  which  pro- 
 voked the  discussion.  (Monk's  Life  of  Benlley,  p. 
 62.)  It  is  from  these  same  letters  that  Boyle  com- 
 posed a  life  of  Phalaris ;  but  the  spurious  nature  of  the 
 productions  from  which  he  drew  his  information,  and 
 the  absence  of  more  authentic  documents,  cast  an  air 
 of  suspicion  on  the  whole  biography.  According  to 
 this  life  of  him,  he  was  born  in  Astypalea,  one  of  the 
 Sporades,  and  was  banished  from  his  native  island  for 
 allowing  his  ambitious  views  to  become  too  apparent. 
 Proceeding  thereupon  to  Sicily,  he  settled  at  Agrigen- 
 tum, where  he  eventually  made  himself  master  of  the 
 place  and  established  a  tyranny.  (Compare  Polyanus, 
 5,  1.)  He  at  first  exercised  his  power  with  modera- 
 tion, and  drew  to  his  court  not  only  poets  and  artists, 
 but  many  wise  and  learned  men,  whose  counsels  he 
 promised  to  follow.  Deceived  by  this  state  of  things, 
 the  people  of  Himera  were  about  to  request  his  aid  in 
 terminating  a  war  which  they  were  carrying  on  with 
 their  neighbours,  when  Stesichorus  dissuaded  them 
 from  this  dangerous  scheme  by  the  well-known  fable 
 of  the  horse  and  the  stag.  {Vid.  Stesichorus.)  The 
 seditions  which  afterward  took  place  in  Agrigentum 
 compelled  Phalaris  to  adopt  a  severer  exercise  of  his 
 authority,  and  hence  his  name  has  come  to  us  as  that 
 of  a  cruel  tyrant.  The  instrument  of  his  cruelty,  also, 
 namely  the  brazen  bull  made  by  the  artist  Perillus,  is 
 often  alluded  to  by  the  ancient  writers.  (Vid.  Peril- 
 lus.) The  manner  of  his  death  is  variously  given. 
 Some  make  him  to  have  been  stoned  to  death  for  his 
 cruelty  by  the  people  of  Agrigentum  ;  others  relate 
 that  his  irritated  subjects  put  him  into  his  own  bull  and 
 burned  him  to  death.  (Vid.  Perillus.) — M'e  have  re- 
 maining, under  the  name  of  Phalaris,  a  collection  o) 
 letters,  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  him,  but 
 which  Bentley  has  shown  to  be  the  mere  forgeries  of 
 some  sophist,  who  lived  at  a  later  period.  The  letters 
 of  Phalaris  were  first  published  by  Bartholomseus  Jus- 
 tinopolitanus  in  1498,  Venet.,  4to.  This  edition, 
 which  is  very  rare,  ought  to  be  accompanied  by  a 
 Latin  version  ;  since  Bartholomaeus  promises  one  in 
 his  prsefatory  epistle  to  Peter  Contarenus ;  but  no 
 copy  occurs  with  one.  (Laire,  Index  Lihr. — Hoff- 
 mann, Lex.  Bibliogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  210.)  The  most  es 
 teemed  among  subsequent  editions  is  that  of  Van 
 Lenncp,  completed  by  Valckenaer,  Groning.,  1777, 
 4to,  republished  under  the  editorial  supervision  of 
 Schaefer,  Lips.,  1823,  8vo,  maj.  The  edition  of 
 Boyle,  which  gave  rise  to  the  controversy  between 
 the  Christ-Church  wits  and  the  celebrated  Bentley, 
 was  issued  from  the  Oxford  press  in  1695,  8vo,  and 
 reprinted  in  1718.  It  owes  its  only  notoriety  to  the 
 lashing  which  Bentley  inflicted  upon  the  editor,  the 
 Hon.  Charles  Boyle,  brother  to  the  Earl  of  Orrery, 
 and,  at  the  time  of  the  first  publication,  a  member 
 of  Christ-Church.  In  preparing  this  edition,  Boyle 
 was  assisted  by  Mr.  John  Freind,  one  of  the  junior 
 students  of  the  college,  afterward  the  celebrated  phy- 
 sician, who  officiated  as  his  private  tutor.  The  preface 
 contained  a  remark,  reflecting,  though  without  any 
 just  grounds  whatever,  on  Bentley's  want  of  courtesy 
 in  not  allowing  a  manuscript  in  the  King's  Library, 
 of  which  he  was  keeper,  to  be  collated  for  Boyle's 
 edition.  This  drew  from  Bentley  his  first  Disserta- 
 tion on  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris,  in  the  form  of  Letters 
 to  Mr.  Wotton,  a  work  which,  though  afterward  eclipsed 
 by  the  enlarged  dissertation,  is  no  less  amusing  than 
 learned.  The  author  is  completely  successful  in 
 proving  the  epistles  spurious.  His  arguments  are 
 drawn  from  chronology,  from  the  language  of  the  let- 
 ters, from  their  matter,'  and,  finally,  from  their  late  dis- 
 covery Having  overthrown  the  claim  of  Phalaris  to 
 ^'  1023 
 
PH  A 
 
 PH  A 
 
 a  place  among  royal  or  noble  authors,  Bentley  exam- 
 ines certain  other  reputed  pieces  of  antiquity,  such  as 
 the  Letters  of  Themistocles,  of  Socrates,  and  of  Eu- 
 ripides ;  all  which  he  shows  not  to  be  the  productions 
 of  the  individuals  whose  names  they  bear,  but  forgeries 
 of  some  sophists  many  centuries  later.  The  publica- 
 tion of  this  work  excited  a  sensation  in  the  literary 
 and  academical  circles  that  was  without  example. 
 The  society  of  Christ-Church  was  thrown  into  a  per- 
 fect ferment,  and  the  task  of  inflicting  a  full  measure 
 of  literary  chastisement  upon  the  audacious  offender 
 was  assigned  to  the  ablest  scholars  and  wits  of  the 
 college.  The  leaders  of  the  confederacy  were  Atter- 
 bury  and  Smalridge,  but  the  principal  share  in  the  at- 
 tack fell  to  the  lot  of  the  former.  In  point  of  classi- 
 cal learning,  however,  the  joint  stock  of  the  coaliton 
 bore  no  proportion  to  that  of  Bentley  :  their  acquaint- 
 ance with  several  of  the  books  on  which  they  comment 
 appears  only  to  have  been  begun  upon  this  occasion  ; 
 and  sometimes  they  are  indebted  for  their  knowledge 
 of  them  to  the  very  individual  whom  they  attack,  and 
 compared  with  whose  boundless  erudition  their  learn- 
 ing was  that  of  schoolboys,  and  not  always  sufficient 
 to  preserve  them  from  distressing  mistakes.  But 
 profound  literature  was  at  that  period  confined  to 
 few ;  while  wit  and  raillery  found  numerous  and 
 eager  readers.  The  consequence  was,  that  when 
 the  reply  of  the  Christ-Church  men  appeared,  this 
 motley  production  of  theirs,  which  is  generally  known 
 by  the  name  of  "  Boyle  against  Bentley,"  it  met  with 
 a  reception  so  uncommonly  favourable  as  to  form  a 
 kind  of  paradox  in  literary  history.  But  the  triumph 
 of  his  opponents  was  short-lived.  Bentley  replied  in 
 his  enlarged  Dissertation,  a  work  which,  while  it  ef- 
 fectually silenced  his  antagonists,  and  held  them  up  to 
 ridicule  as  mere  sciolists  and  .blunderers,  established 
 ■on  the  firmest  basis  his  own  claims  to  the  character  of 
 a  consummate  philologist.  {Mo7ik^s  Life  of  Bentley ^ 
 p.  49,  scqq.) 
 
 Phaleron,  the  most  ancient  of  the  Athenian  ports  ; 
 but  which,  after  the  erection  of  the  docks  in  the  Pirae- 
 us, ceased  to  be  of  any  importance  in  a  maritime  point 
 of  view.  It  was,  however,  enclosed  within  the  forti- 
 fications of  Themistocles,  and  gave  its  name  to  the 
 southernmost  of  the  long  walls,  by  means  of  which  it 
 was  connected  with  Athens.  Phaleron  supplied  the 
 Athenian  market  with  abundance  of  the  little  fish 
 named  Aphya3,  so  often  mentioned  by  the  comic 
 writers.  (Arisioph.,  Acharn.,  901. — Id.,  Av.,  96. — 
 Athen.,  7,  8. — Arisiot.,  Hist.  A?i.,  6,  15.)  The  lands 
 around  it  were  marshy,  and  produced  very  fine  cab- 
 bages. (Hcsych.,  s.  V.  ^a2.?ipLKal. — Xen.,  CEcon.,  c. 
 19.)  The  modern  name  of  Phaleron  is  Porto  Fanari. 
 "  Phalerum,"  says  Hobhouse  (vol.  1,  p.  301,  ^m.  ed.), 
 "  is  of  an  elliptical  form,  smaller  than  Munychia  ;  and 
 the  remains  of  the  piers  on  each  side  of  the  narrow 
 mouth  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  line  of  its  length  is 
 from  east  to  west,  that  of  its  breadth  from  north  to 
 south.  On  the  northeast  side  of  the  port,  the  land  is 
 high  and  rocky  until  you  come  to  the  fine  sweep  of  the 
 bay  of  Phalerum,  perhaps  two  miles  in  length,  and  ter- 
 minated on  the  northeast  by  a  low  promontory,  once 
 that  of  Colias.  The  clay  from  this  neighbourhood  was 
 preferred  to  any  other  for  the  use  of  the  potteries." 
 
 Phan.^,  a  harbour  of  the  island  of  Chios,  with  a 
 temple  of  Apollo  and  a  palm-grove  in  its  vicinity. 
 Near  it  also  was  a  promontory  of  the  same  name. 
 {Strabo,  645.— Lm).,  36,  A3.— Id.,  44,  28.)  Phana; 
 was  in  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  and  the  neigh- 
 bourhood was  remarkable  for  its  excellent  wine. 
 (Vtrg.,  Georg.,  3,  98.)  The  promontory  is  called  at 
 the  present  day  Cape  Mastico.  {Manncrt.,  Geogr., 
 vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p."^326  ) 
 
 Phanote,  a  town  of  Chaonia  in  Epirus,  correspond- 
 ing to  the  modern  Gardiki,  a  fortress  ence  belonging 
 to  the  Suliots.     (Cramer's  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  99.) 
 1024 
 
 Piiaon,  a  mariner  of  Lesbos,  accustomed  to  ferry 
 passengers  across  from  the  island  to  the  main  land 
 (nopO/io^  T/v  ■&uXaaaa. — PuUeph.,de  Incred.,  49).  Lo- 
 cian  calls  him  a  native  of  Chios.  {Dial.  Mart.,  9,  2.) 
 According  to  one  legend,  he  was  beloved  by  Vejius, 
 who  concealed  him  amid  lettuce.  {Milan,  V.  H.,  12, 
 18.)  Another  version  of  the  fable  stated,  that  Venus 
 came  to  him  on  one  occasion  under  the  form  of  an 
 aged  female,  and,  having  requested  a  passage,  was  fer- 
 ried across  to  the  main  land  by  him,  free  from  charge, 
 such  being  his  wont  towards  those  who  were  in  indi- 
 gent circumstances.  The  goddess,  out  of  gratitude, 
 presented  him  with  an  alabaster  box,  containing  a  pe- 
 culiar kind  of  ointment,  and,  when  he  had  rubbed  him- 
 self with  this,  he  became  the  most  beautiful  of  men. 
 Among  others,  Sappho  became  enamoured  of  him,  but, 
 finding  her  passion  unrequited,  threw  herself  into  the 
 sea  from  the  promontory  of  Leucate.  ( Vid.  Sappho, 
 and  Leucate. — Palccph.,  I.  c. — JElian,  I.  c. — Arsen. 
 Violar.,  p.  461,  ed.  Walz. — Eudocia,  p.  413. — SuM., 
 
 S.  V.    ^ClUV.) 
 
 Phar^,  I.  a  borough  of  Tanagra  in  Bceotia.  {Stra- 
 bo, 405.) — II.  One  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Achaia,  sit- 
 uate on  the  river  Pirus,  about  70  stadia  from  the  sea, 
 and  120  from  Patrae.  {Pansan.,  7,  22.)  It  was  an- 
 nexed by  Augustus  to  the  colony  of  Patrae.  The  ruins 
 were  observed  by  Dodwell  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
 Camenilza  (vol.  2,  p.  310). — III.  A  town  of  Crete. 
 {Steph.  By~.,  s.  v.  ^apal.) — IV.  A  town  of  Messenia, 
 on  the  Sinus  Messeniacus,  northwest  of  Cardamyla. 
 Among  other  divinities  worshipped  here  were  Nicora- 
 achus  and  Gorgazus,  sons  of  Machaon.  They  had 
 both  governed  this  city  after  the  death  of  their  father, 
 to  whom,  as  well  as  themselves,  was  attributed  the  art 
 of  healing  maladies.     {Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Pharmacus^,  I.  two  islets  a  short  distance  from  the 
 Attic  shore,  in  the  Sinus  Saronicus,  east  of  Salamis. 
 In  the  larger  of  these  Circe  was  said  to  have  been  in- 
 terred. {Strabo,  395. — Sleph.  By-.,  s.  v.  ^ap/na- 
 Kovaaa.)  They  are  now  called  Kyra.  {Chandler's 
 Travels,  vol.  3,  p.  220.) — II.  An  island  of  the  ^gean 
 Sea,  southwest  from  Miletus,  and  about  120  stadia 
 distant  from  that  place.  It  is  known  as  the  place 
 where  Julius  Caesar  was  taken  by  the  pirates.     {Plut., 
 
 Vtt.  CcES.) 
 
 Pharnaces,  I.  grandfather  of  Mithradatesthe  Great, 
 and  son  and  successor  of  Mithradates  IV.  of  Pontus. 
 He  conquered  Sinope  and  Tium  {Strab.,  545. — Diod. 
 Sic,  Frag.),  and  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Eume- 
 nes,  king  of  Pergamus,  which  lasted  for  some  years, 
 and  was  put  an  end  to  chiefly  through  the  interference 
 of  Rome.  {Polyb.,  Exc.,  24,  4,  scqq.)  Polybius  re- 
 cords of  Pharnaces  that  he  was  more  wicked  than  all 
 the  kings  who  had  preceded  him.  {Polyb.,  27,  15.) — 
 II.  Son  of  Mithradates  the  Great,  proved  treacherous 
 to  his  father  when  the  latter  was  forming  his  bold  de- 
 sign of  advancing  towards  Italy  from  Asia,  and  cross- 
 ing the  Alps  as  Hannibal  had  done  before  him.  Al- 
 though the  favourite  son  of  that  celebrated  inonarch, 
 he  incited  the  army  to  open  rebellion,  disconcerted  all 
 his  father's  plans,  and  brought  him  to  the  grave.  ,  As 
 a  reward  of  his  perfidy,  Pharnaces  was  proclaimed 
 King  of  Bosporus,  and  styled  the  ally  and  friend  of 
 the  Roman  nation.  {Appian,  Bell.  Mithrad.,  c.  103, 
 seqq.)  During  the  civil  war  waged  by  Cajsar  and 
 Pompey,  Pharnaces  made  an  attempt  to  recover  his 
 hereditary  dominions,  and  succeeded  in  taking  Sinope, 
 Amisus,  and  some  other  towns  of  Pontus.  But  Juhus 
 Csesar,  after  the  defeat  and  death  of  Pompey,  marched 
 into  Pontus,  and,  encountering  the  army  of  Pharnaces 
 near  the  city  of  Zela,  gained  a  complete  victory  ;  the 
 facility  with  which  it  was  gained  being  expressed  by 
 the  victor  in  those  celebrated  words,  "  Veni,  Vidi, 
 Fid."  {Hirt.,  Bell.  Alex.,  c.  12.— Plut.,  Vit.  Cas. 
 —Sueton,  Vit.  Cas.,  37.— Dio  Cass.,  42,  47.)  Af- 
 ter his   defeat,  Pharnaces   retired    to   the  Bosporus, 
 
PHA 
 
 PH  A 
 
 where  he  was  slain  by  some  of  his  own  followers. 
 {Appia7i,  Bell.  Mitkrad.,  c.  120. — Dio  Cass.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Pharnacia,  a  city  of  Pontus,  on  the  seacoast,  and 
 in  the  territory  of  the  Mosynoeci.  It  is  erroneously 
 confounded  with  Cerasus  by  Arnan  {Peripl.,  p.  17), 
 while  the  anonymous  geographer,  though  in  this  in- 
 stance he  copies  that  writer,  yet  afterward  places  Cera- 
 sus 530  stadia  farther  to  the  east  (p.  13).  It  should 
 be  observed,  also,  that  Strabo  says  that  Cotyorum,  and 
 not  Cerasus,  had  contributed  to  the  foundation  of 
 Pharnacia  {Sirabo,  548) ;  and  he  afterward  names 
 Cerasus  as  a  small  place  distinct  from  that  town  and 
 nearer  Trapezus.  Pliny,  moreover,  distinguishes  Phar- 
 nacia and  Cerasus,  and  he  besides  informs  us  that  the 
 former  was  100  miles  from  Trapezus  (6,  4).  Xcno- 
 phon  and  the  Greeks  were  three  days  on  their  march 
 from  Trapezus  to  Cerasus,  a  space  of  time  too  short 
 to  accomplish  a  route  of  100  miles  over  a  difficult 
 country.  {A7iab.,  5,  3,  5.)  It  is  apparent,  therefore, 
 that  the  Cerasus  of  Xcnophon  is  not  to  be  identified 
 with  Pharnacia,  though  it  might  be  thought  so  in  Arri- 
 an's  time ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  this  erroneous 
 opinion  should  have  prevailed  so  strongly  as  to  leave 
 the  name  of  Keresorm  to  the  site  occupied  by  the  an- 
 cient Pharnacia.  With  respect  to  this  latter  place,  it 
 appears  to  have  been  founded  by  Pharnaces,  grandfa- 
 ther of  Mithiadates  the  Great,  though  we  have  no  pos- 
 itive authority  for  the  fact.  We  know  only  that  it  ex- 
 isted in  the  time  of  the  last-mentioned  monarch,  since 
 it  is  spoken  of  in  Plutarch's  Life  of  Lucullus.  Man- 
 nert  is  inclined  to  think,  that  Pharnacia  was  founded  on 
 the  site  of  a  Greek  settlement  named  Chosrades,  which 
 Scylax  places  in  this  vicinity  (p.  33).  It  is  also  no- 
 ticed by  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  as  a  town  of  the 
 Mosynceci,  on  the  authority  of  Hecata?us  (.s.  v.  Xotpd- 
 6ec. — Manncrt,  Geogr,,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  386. — Cra- 
 mer^ s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  I,  p.  281). 
 
 Pharos,  I.  a  small  island  in  the  bay  of  Alexandrea, 
 et  the  entrance  of  the  greater  harbour,  upon  which  was 
 built,  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  a  cele- 
 brated tower,  to  serve  as  a  lighthouse.  The  architect 
 was  Sostratus,  son  of  Dexiphanes.  This  tower,  which 
 was  also  called  Pharos,  and  which  passed  for  one  of 
 the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  was  built  with  white 
 marble,  and  could  be  seen  at  a  very  great  distance. 
 It  had  several  stories  raised  one  above  another,  adorn- 
 ed with  columns,  balustrades,  and  galleries,  of  the 
 finest  marble  and  workmanship.  On  the  top,  fires  were 
 kept  lighted  in  the  night  season,  to  direct  sailors  in  the 
 bay,  which  was  dangerous  and  difficult  of  access. 
 The  building  of  this  tower  cost  the  Egyptian  monarch 
 800  talents,  about  850,000  dollars.  According  to 
 Strabo,  there  was  on  the  toweP  the  following  inscrip- 
 tion, cut  into  the  marble,  S12STPAT0S  KNIAIOE 
 AESWANOTS  GEOIS  2i2THPSIN  THEP  Ti2N 
 llAfllZOMENSiN  C  Sostratus  the  Cnidian,  son  of 
 Dexiphanes,  to  the  gods  the  preservers,  for  the  benefit 
 of  mariners''^).  Pliny  also  speaks  of  the  magnanimity 
 of  Ptolemy,  in  allowing  the  name  of  Soslratus,  and  not 
 his  own,  to  be  inscribed  upon  the  tower.  {Strab.,  791. 
 — Plin.,  36,  12.)  Lucian,  however,  tells  a  different 
 story.  According  to  that  writer,  Sostratus,  wishing  to 
 enjoy  in  after  ages  all  the  glory  of  the  work,  cutlhe 
 above  inscription  on  the  stones,  and  then,  coverino 
 them  over  with  cement,  wrote  upon  the  latter  anothe'r 
 inscription,  which  assigned  the  honour  of  having  erect- 
 ed this  structure  to  the  author  of  the  work.  King  Ptol- 
 emy. The  cement,  however,  having  decayed  throucrh 
 time,  Ptolemy's  inscription  disappeared,  and  the  otlier 
 became  visible.  (Lucian,  Quotnodo  hist,  conscrib. 
 sit,  62.)  Where  Lucian  obtained  this  story  is  not 
 known  ;  it  is  certainly  a  most  incredible  narrative,  and 
 very  probably  an  invention  of  his  own.  {Dit  Soul,  ad 
 Lucian,  I.  c.) — The  island  of  Pharos  was  eight  stadia 
 from  the  main  land,  and  connected  with  it  by  a  cause- 
 way, which  had  two  bridges,  one  at  cither  end.  (Vos- 
 60 
 
 sius,  ad  Mel.,  2,  7,  p.  76 L)  Strabo,  however,  and 
 Josephus  call  the  mound  or  causeway  iTrraarndiov 
 X^f^a,  or  one  of  seven  stadia,  referring  probably  to  the 
 work  itself,  e.xclusive  of  the  bridges.  (Strabo,  I.  e. — 
 Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud  ,  12,  2,  12.)  Ammianus  Marcelli- 
 nus,  and  some  other  writers  after  him,  make  Cleopatra 
 to  have  erected  the  tower  and  built  the  causeway 
 (Anan.  MUrcelL,  22,  \Q.—  Tselz.—  Cedren.),  and 
 some  critics  suppose  that  the  tower  must  have  been 
 destroyed  by  Cccsar  in  the  Alexandrine  war,  and  re- 
 built by  the  Egyptian  queen.  This,  however,  can 
 hardly  have  been  the  case,  since  Csesar  merely  speaks 
 of  his  -having  ordered  the  private  dwellings  to  be  pulled 
 down,  but  refers  to  the  Pharos  apparently  as  still 
 standing.  (Bell.  Alex.,  19.)  As  to  the  causeway  it- 
 self, it  is  possible  that  Cleopatra  may  have  continued  it 
 to  the  main  land,  after  the  bridge  at  that  end  had  been 
 destroyed.  (Voss.,  ad  McL,  I.  c.)  The  Nubian  ge- 
 ographer, in  a  later  age,  gives  the  elevation  of  the  Pha- 
 ros as  300  cubits,  from  which  it  would  appear  that  the 
 tower  must  have  lost  a  portion  of  its  original  height. 
 (Falcojicr,  ad  Strab.,  I.  c.)  The  name  Pharos  itself 
 would  seem  to  have  been  given  to  the  tower  first,  and 
 after  that  to  the  island,  if  the  Greek  etymology  be  the 
 true  one,  according  to  which  the  term  comes  from  the 
 Greek  (puu,  "  lo  shine"  or  "  be  bright"  (<puu,  (puoQ, 
 (paepog,  (pupo().  Jablonski,  however,  makes  the  word 
 of  Egyptian  origin,  and  deduces  it  from  pharez,  "a 
 watch-tower"  or  "look-out  place."  (Voc.  jEgypt.,  s. 
 v.—Opusc.,  vol.  1,  p.  378,  ed.  Te  Water.)  The  ce- 
 lebrity of  the  Egyptian  Pharos  made  this  a  common 
 appellation  among  the  ancients  for  any  edifice  that 
 was  raised  to  direct  the  course  of  mariners  either  by 
 means  of,  lights  or  signals.  The  Emperor  Claudius 
 ordered  one  to  be  erected  at  Ostia,  and  there  was  an- 
 other at  Ravenna.  (Voss.,  ad  Plin.,  36,  12.) — In- 
 stead of  the  ancient  Pharos  at  Ale.xandrea,  there  is  now 
 only  a  kind  of  irregular  castle,  without  ditches  or  out- 
 works of  any  strength,  the  whole  being  accommodated 
 to  the  inequality  of  the  ground  on  which  it  stands. 
 Out  of  the  midst  of  this  clumsy  building  rises  a  tower, 
 which  serves  for  a  lighthouse,  but  which  has  nothing 
 of  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  the  old  one. —  II.  An 
 island  off  the  coast  of  Illyricum,  to  the  east  of  Issa, 
 and  answering  to  the  modern  Lcssina.  It  was  settled 
 by  a  colony  from  Pares  (Scylax,  p.  8. — Scymn.,  Ch., 
 V.  425),  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Demetrius  the  Pha- 
 rian,  whose  name  often  occurs  in  the  writings  of  Po- 
 lybius.     (Pohjb.,  2,  10,  S.—Id.,  2,  65,  4,  &c.) 
 
 Pharsai.ia,  I.  the  region  around  the  city  of  Phar- 
 salus  in  Thessaly,  celebrated  for  the  battle  fought  in 
 its  plains  between  the  armies  of  Caesar  and  Pompey. 
 (Vid.  Pharsalus.) — II.  The  title  ofLucan's  epic  poem. 
 ( Vid.  Lucanus.) 
 
 PnARs.iLus,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  situate  in  that  part 
 of  the  province  which  Strabo  designates  by  the  name 
 of  Thessaliotis.  It  lay  southwest  of  Larissa,  on  the 
 river  Enipeus,  which  falls  into  the  Apidanus,  one  of 
 the  tributaries  of  the  Peneus.  Although  a  city  of 
 considerable  size  and  importance,  we  find  no  mention 
 of  it  prior  to  the  Persian  invasion.  Thucydidcs  re- 
 ports that  it  was  besieged  by  the  Athenian  general 
 Myronidcs  after  his  success  in  Boeotia,  but  without 
 avail  (1,  111).  The  same  historian  speaks  of  the  ser- 
 vices rendered  to  the  Athenian  people  by  Thucydides 
 the  Pharsalian,  who  performed  the  duties  of  proxenoa 
 to  his  countrymen  at  Athens  (8,  92) ;  and  he  also 
 states  that  the  Pharsalians  generally  favoured  that 
 republic  during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  At  a  later 
 period,  the  plains  in  the  vicinity  of  this  city  became 
 celebrated  for  the  battle  fought  in  them  between  the 
 armies  of  Ca3sar  and  Pompey.  (Vid.  Pharsalia  I.)— 
 Livy  seems  to  make  a  distinction  between  the  old  and 
 new  town,  as  he  speaks  of  Palrro-Phai^ialus  (441.— 
 Compare  Sirabo,  431).  Dr.  Clarke  (Travels,  vol.  7^ 
 p.  328,  Lond.  ed.)  observes,  that  there  arc  few  anti  . 
 '  1026 
 
PH  A 
 
 PHE 
 
 qsities  at  Pharsalus.  The  name  of  Pharsa  alone  re- 
 mains to  show  what  it  once  was.  Southwest  of  the 
 town  there  is  a  hill  surrounded  with  ancient  walls, 
 formed  of  large  masses  of  a  coarse  kind  of  marble. 
 Upon  a  lofty  rock  above  the  town  to  the  south  are 
 other  ruins  of  greater  magnitude,  showing  a  consider- 
 able portion  of  the  walls  of  the  Acropolis  jnd  remains 
 of  the  Propyloea.     (Cramer's  Anc.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  398.) 
 
 Pharusu,  a  people  of  Africa,  beyond  Mauritania, 
 situate  perhaps  to  the  east  of  the  Autololes,  which  lat- 
 ter people  occupied  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Africa,  op- 
 posite to  the  Insula;  Fortunatae.  {Mela,  1,  4,  23. — 
 Vossius,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Phaselis,  a  town  of  Lycia,  on  the  eastern  coast, 
 near  the  confines  of  Pamphylia.  Livy  remarks,  that 
 it  was  a  conspicuous  point  for  those  sailing  from  Cili- 
 cia  to  Rhodes,  since  it  advanced  out  towards  the  sea; 
 and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  fleet  could  easily  be  de- 
 scried from  it  (37,  23).  Hence  the  epithet  of  ?)v(/xd- 
 eaaa  applied  to  it  by  Dionysius  Periegetes  (v.  854). 
 We  are  informed  by  Herodotus  (2,  178),  that  this 
 town  was  colonized  by  some  Dorians.  Though  united 
 to  Lycia,  it  did  not  form  part  of  the  Lycian  confed- 
 eracy, but  was  governed  by  its  own  laws.  (Strabo, 
 667  )  Phaselis,  at  a  later  period,  having  become  the 
 haunt  of  pirates,  was  attacked  and  taken  by  Servilius 
 Isauricus.  {Flor.,  3,  6.  —  Eiitrop.,  6,  3.)  Lucan 
 speaks  of  it  as  nearly  deserted  when  visited  by  Pom- 
 pey  in  his  flight  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  (8,  251). 
 Nevertheless,  Strabo  asserts  that  it  was  a  considera- 
 ble town,  and  had  three  ports.  He  observes,  also, 
 that  it  was  taken  by  Ale.xander,  as  an  advantageous 
 post  for  the  prosecution  of  his  conquests  into  the  inle- 
 ricr.  (S/rab.,  G66.  — Compare  Arrian,  Exp.  AL,  1,  24. 
 — Plul.,  Vit.  Alex.)  Phaselis,  according  to  Athenae- 
 us,  was  celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  rose  perfume 
 (14,  p.  688).  Nicander  certainly  commends  its  roses 
 (ap.  Allien.,  p.  683.) — "On  a  small  peninsula,  at  the 
 foot  of  Mount  Taklitalu  (the  highest  point  of  the  Soly- 
 mean  mountains),"  says  Caf)tain  Beaufort,  "are  the 
 remains  of  the  city  of  Phaselis,  with  its  three  ports 
 and  lake  as  described  by  Strabo.  The  lake  is  now  a 
 mere  swamp,  occupying  the  middle  of  the  isthmus, 
 and  was  probably  the  source  of  those  baneful  e.xhala- 
 tions  which,  according  to  Livy  and  Cicero,  rendered 
 Phaselis  so  unhealthy.  The  modern  name  of  Phase- 
 lis is  Tchrova."  {Karama^iia,  p.  56.)  "  The  harbour 
 and  town  of  Phaschs,"  observes  Mr.  Fellows,  "are 
 both  extremely  well  built  and  interesting,  but  very 
 small.  Its  theatre,  stadium,  and  temples  may  all  be 
 traced,  and  its  numerous  tombs  on  the  hills  show  how 
 long  it  must  have  existed."  {Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  p. 
 211.) — Beyond  Phaselis  the  mountains  press  in  upon 
 the  shore,  and  leave  a  very  narrow  passage  along  the 
 fctrand,  which  at  low  water  is  practicable,  but,  when 
 storms  prevail  and  the  sea  is  high,  it  is  extremely 
 dangerous :  in  this  case,  travellers  must  pass  the  mount- 
 ains, and  proceed  into  the  interior  by  a  loner  circuit. 
 The  defile  in  question,  as  well  as  the  mountains  over- 
 hanging it,  was  called  Climax,  and  it  obtained  celeb- 
 rity from  the  fact  that  Alexander  led  his  army  alonrr  it, 
 after  the  conquest  of  Caria,  under  circumstances  of 
 great  difllculty  and  danger ;  for,  though  the  wind 
 blew  violently,  Alexander,  impatient  of  delay,  hur- 
 ried his  troops  forward,  along  the  shore,  where  they 
 had  the  water  up  to  their  middle,  and  had  great  diffi- 
 culty in  making  their  way.  {Slrab.,  666,  seq. — Ar- 
 rian,  Exp.  Al.,  1,  26.  —  Phit.,  Vit.  Alex)  Captain 
 Beaufort  remarks,  that  "  the  shore  at  present  exhibits 
 a  remarkable  coincidence  with  the  account  of  Alexan- 
 der's march  from  Phaselis.  The  road  along  the  beach 
 is,  however,  interrupted  in  some  places  by  projectincr 
 cliffs,  which  .would  have  been  difficult  to  surmount, 
 but  round  which  the  men  could  readily  pass  by  wading 
 through  the  water."  {Karamania,  p.  115,  seq. — Com- 
 pare Leake's  Tour,  p.  190.) 
 1026 
 
 PirAsiANA,  a  district  of  Armenia  Major,  through 
 which  the  river  Phasis  or  Araxes  flows  ;  whence  the 
 name  of  the  region.  The  beautiful  birds,  which  we 
 call  pheasants,  still  preserve  in  their  name  the  traces 
 of  this  their  native  country.     {Vid.  Araxes  I.) 
 
 Phasias,  a  patronymic  given  to  Medea,  as  beino- 
 born  in  Colchis,  on  the  banks  of  the  Phasis.  {Ovid, 
 A.  A.,  2,  381.) 
 
 Phasis,  I.  a  river  of  Asia,  falling  into  the  Euxine 
 after  passing  through  parts  of  Armenia,  Iberia,  and 
 Colchis.  According  to  Strabo  and  Pliny,  it  rose  in 
 the  southern  portion  of  the  Moschian  mountains,  which 
 were  regarded  as  belonging  to  Armenia.  {Strabo, 
 498. — Piin.,  6,  4.)  Procopius  states  that  in  the  early 
 part  of  its  course  it  was  called  Boas,  but  that,  after 
 reaching  the  confines  of  Iberia,  and  becoming  increased 
 in  size  by  several  tributaries,  it  took  the  name  of  Pha- 
 sis. {Procop.,  Pers.,  2,  29.)  Its  modern  name  is 
 Rion  or  Rioni,  which  would  seem  more  properly  to 
 belong  to  the  Rheon,  one  of  its  tributaries.  The  Turks 
 call  it  the  Fasch.  The  Phasis  is  famous  in  mytholoiry 
 from  Jason's  having  obtained  in  its  vicinity  the  golden 
 fleece  of  Grecian  fable.  Arrian  {PeripL,  Mar.  Eux.) 
 says,  that  the  colour  of  the  water  of  the  Phasis  resem- 
 bled that  of  water  impregnated  with  lead  or  tin  ;  that 
 is,  it  was  of  a  bluish  cast.  It  was  said,  also,  not  to  in- 
 termingle with  the  sea  for  some  distance  from  land. 
 — For  some  general  remarks  on  the  name  Phasis,  con- 
 sult remarks  at  the  end  of  this  article.  {Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p  394,  seqq.) — 11.  A  city  at  the  mouth 
 of  the  Colchian  Phasis,  founded  by  a  Milesian  colony. 
 {Mela,  1,  85.)  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a 
 place  of  any  great  trade.  In  Hadrian's  time  it  was  a 
 mere  fortress,  wnh  a  garrison  of  400  men.  {Arrian, 
 Peripl. — Ammian.  Marccll.,  22,  8.)  The  place  is  not 
 mentioned  by  Procopius.  In  the  vicinity  of  this  spot, 
 the  Turks,  in  former  days,  had  the  small  fortress  of 
 Potti.  {Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  4,  p.  396.)  — HI.  A 
 river  of  Armenia  Major,  the  same  with  the  Araxes. 
 {Vid.  Araxes,  I.) — -The  name  Phasis  would  seem  to 
 have  been  a  general  appellation  for  rivers  in  early  Ori- 
 ental geography,  and  the  root  of  it  may  be  very  fairly 
 traced  in  the  Indo-Germanic  dialects.  {Phas — Was 
 — German  Wasser,  "Water." — Consuh  Ritter,Vor 
 halle,  p.  466.) 
 
 Phavorinds  (in  Greek  ^a6upTvoc),  a  native  of  Ar- 
 elate  in  Gaul,  who  lived  at  Rome  during  the  reigns  of 
 Trajan  and  Hadrian,  and  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  con- 
 sideration. He  wrote  numerous  works,  but  no  part  of 
 them  has  reached  us  except  a  few  fragments  in  Sto- 
 bseus.  Aulus  Gellius,  however,  has  preserved  for  us 
 some  of  his  dissertations  in  a  Latin  dress.  {Noct.  Alt., 
 12,  1  ;  14,  1,  2  ;  17,  10.)  Phavorinus  loved  to  write 
 on  topics  out  of  the  common  path,  and  more  or  less 
 whimsical ;  he  composed,  for  example,  a  eulogium  on 
 Thcrsites,  another  on  Quartan  Fever,  &c.  Having  had 
 the  misfortune  to  offend  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  his 
 statues,  which  the  Athenians  had  raised  to  him,  were 
 thrown  down  by  that  same  people.  He  bequeathed 
 his  library  and  mansion  at  Rome  to  Herodes  Atiicus. 
 Phavorinus  was  a  friend  of  Plutarch's,  who  dedicated 
 a  work  to  him.  For  farther  particulars  relating  to  this 
 individual,  consult  Philostratus  (  Kj'Z.  Sophist.,  1,  8,  1), 
 and  Lucian  {Eunuch.,  c.  7. — Demon.,  c.  12,  seq. — 
 Schbll,  Gesch.  Gr.  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  607.) 
 
 Phazania,  a  region  of  Africa,  lying  to  the  south  of 
 Tripolis.     It  is  now  Fezzan.     {Plin,  5,  3.) 
 
 Pheneus  (4'(-i'eof),  a  city  in  the  northern  part  of 
 Arcadia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cyllene.  It  was  a  town 
 of  great  antiquity,  since  Hercules  is  said  to  have  re- 
 sided there  after  his  departure  from  Tiryns,  and  Ho- 
 mer has  mentioned  it  among  the  principal  Arcadian 
 cities.  (7Z.,  2,  605.)  The  place  was  surrounded  by 
 some  extensive  marshes,  which  are  said  to  have  once 
 inundated  the  whole  country,  awd  to  have  destroyed 
 the  ancient  town.     They  are  more  commonly  called 
 
PHE 
 
 PHE 
 
 the  Lake  of  Pheneus,  and  were  principally  formed  by 
 the  river  Aroaniiis  or  Olbius,  which  descends  from 
 the  mountams  to  the  north  of  Pheneus,  and  usually 
 finds  a  vent  in  some  natural  caverns  or  katabalhra  at 
 the  extremity  of  the  plain  ;  but  when,  by  accident, 
 these  happened  to  be  blocked  up,  the  waters  filled  the 
 whole  valley,  and,  communicating  with  the  Ladon  and 
 Alpheus,  overflowed  the  beds  of  those  rivers  as  far  as 
 Olympia.  {Eralos/h.,  ap.  Slrah.,  389.)  Pausanias 
 reports,  that  vestiges  of  some  great  works  undertaken 
 to  drain  the  Phenean  marshes,  and  ascribed  by  the  na- 
 tives to  Hercules,  were  to  be  seen  near  the  city 
 "p,  14).  The  vestiges  of  the  town  itself  are  visible, 
 according  to  Dodwell,  near  the  village  of  Phonia,  upon 
 an  insulated  rock.  The  lake  is  said  to  be  very  small, 
 and  to  vary  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  {Dod- 
 well, vol.  2,  p.  436. — Cramer's  Anc.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 321.) 
 
 Pher^,  I.  a  city  of  Pelasgiotis,  in  Thessaly,  one  of 
 ■  the  most  ancient  and  important  places  in  the  country. 
 It  was  the  capital  of  Admetus  and  Eumelus,  as  we 
 learn  from  Homer  {II.,  2,  711,  seq.)  and  Apollonius. 
 {Arg.,  1,  49— Compare  Horn.,  Od.,  4:,  798.)     Pheraj 
 was  famed  at  a  later  period  as  the  native  place  of  Ja- 
 son, who,  having  raised  himself  to  the  head  of  affairs 
 by  his  talents  and  ability,  became  master  not  only  of 
 his  own  city,  but  of  nearly  the  whole  of  Thessaly. 
 {Vid.  .Jason,  H.)     After  the  death  of  Jason,  Pherae 
 was  ruled  over  by  Polydorus  and  Polyrophon,  his  two 
 brothers.     The  latter  of  these  was  succeeded  by  Al- 
 exander, who  continued  for  eleven  years  the  scourge 
 of  his   native   city  and   of  the   whole   of   Thessaly. 
 {Xcn.,  Hist.  Gr.,  6,  5.)     His  evil  designs  were  for  a 
 time   checked   by  the   brave  Pdlbpidas,  who  entered 
 that  province  at  the  head  of  a  Boeotian  force,  and  oc- 
 cupied the  citadel  of  Larissa  ;  but,  on  his  falling  into 
 the  hands  of  the  tyrant,  the  Boeotian  army  was  placed 
 in  a  most  perilous  situation,  and  was  only  saved  by  the 
 presence  of   mind  and  ability  of  Epaminondas,  then 
 serving  as  a  volunteer.     The  Thebans  subsequently 
 rescued  Pelopidas,  and,  under  his  command,  made  war 
 upon  Alexander  of  Phers,  whom  they  defeated,  but  at 
 the  expense  of  the  life  of  their  gallant  leader,  who  fell 
 m  the   action.     (Plut.,  Vit.  Pelop. — Polyb.,  8,  1,6, 
 scqq.)     Alexander  was  not  long  after  assassinated   by 
 his  wife  and  her  brothers,  who  continued  to  tyrannize 
 over  this  country  until  it  was  liberated  by  Philip  of 
 Macedon.     {Xcn.,  Hist.  Gr.,  6,  i.  —  Diod.  Sic,  16, 
 38.)     Many  years  after,  Cassander,  as  we  are  informed 
 by  Diodorus,  fortified  Pherse,  but  Demetrius  Polior- 
 eetes  contrived,  by  secret  negotiations,  to  obtain  pos- 
 session of  both  the  town  and  citadel.     {Diod.  Sic. ,20, 
 1 10.)     In  the  invasion  of  Thessaly  by  Antiochus,  Phc- 
 xce  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the  troops  of  that  mon- 
 arch after  some  resistance.     {Liv.,  36,  9.)     It  after- 
 ward fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Roman  consul  Acilius. 
 {Id.,  36,  14.)     Strabo  observes,  that  the  constant  ty- 
 ranny under  v^'hich  this  city  laboured  had  hastened  its 
 decay.     {Strah.,  436.)     Its  territory  was  most  fertile, 
 jnd  the   suburbs,  as  we  collect  from  Polybius,  were 
 surrounded  by  gardens  and  walled  enclosures  (18,  2). 
 Stcphanus  Byzantinus  speaks  of  an  old  and  new  town 
 of  Phcraj,  distant  about  eight  stadia  from  each  other. 
 Phcras,  according  to  Strabo,  was  ninety  stadia   from 
 Pagasw,  its    emporium.     {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  I,  p.  393  )— II.  A  town  of  JBtolia.     {Stcph.  Byz., 
 s.  V.  <{>£-p«(.) — III.  A  town  of  Messenia,  to  the  east  of 
 the  river  Pamisus.     At  this  place  Homer  makes  Tele- 
 machus  and  the  son  of  Nestor  to  have  been  entertain- 
 ed   by  Diodes,  on  their  way  from   Pylos  to  Sparta. 
 {Od.,   15,   186.)     It  is  also  alluded  to  in    the    Iliad 
 (5,  543).     Pherse  was  one  of  the  seven  towns  offered 
 by  Agamemnon  to  Achilles.     (11. ,  9,   151.)     It  was 
 annexed  by  Augustus  to  Laconia,  after  the  battle  of 
 Actium.     {Pausan.,4, 30. — Cramer' s  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p.  141.) 
 
 I      PHER.«iTs,  a  surname  of  Jason,  as  bemg  a  native 
 of  Phera3.     ( Vid.  Jason,  II.) 
 
 Pherecrates,  a  comic  poet  of  Athens,  contempo- 
 rary with  Plato,  Phrynichus,  Aristophanes,  and  Eu- 
 tpolis.  {Suid.,  s.  V.  BTidruv.— Clinton,  Fast.  Hell., 
 vol.  1,  p  xl.)  Little  is  known  of  him.  He  is  said  to 
 have  written  21  comedies,  of  which  a  few  fragments 
 remain.  The  foUowmg  are  the  titles  of  some  of  his 
 pieces ;  "  The  Deserters,"  "  Chiron,"  "  The  Old  Wom- 
 en," "The  Painters,"  "The  False  Hercules,"  &c. 
 Such  was  the  license  which  prevailed  at  this  period  on 
 the  Greek  stage,  that  Pherecrates  was  particularly 
 commended  for  having  abstained  entirely  in  his  pieces 
 from  any  personal  attacks.  He  was  also  the  inventor 
 of  a  species  of  verse,  which  was  called  from  him  the 
 Pherecratean  or  Phcrecratic.  The  Pherecratic  verse 
 is  the  Glyconic  deprived  of  the  final  syllable,  and  con- 
 sists of  a  spondee,  a  choriambus,  and  a  catalectic  syl- 
 lable. The  first  foot  was  sometimes  a  trochee  or  an 
 anapsest,  rarely  an  iamlfus.  When  this  species  of  verse 
 has  a  spondee  in  the  first  station,  it  may  then  be  scan- 
 ned as  a  dactylic  trimeter.  It  has  been  conjectured 
 that  the  trochee  was  originally  the  only  foot  admissi- 
 ble in  the  first  place  of  the  Pherecratic.  {Ra}nsay, 
 Lat.  Pros.,  p.  192.— Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p. 
 90.)  The  fragments  of  Pherecrates  were  given  with 
 those  of  Eupolis,  by  Runkel,  Lips.,  1829,  8vo. 
 
 Pherecydes,  I.  a  Grecian  philosopher,  contemporary 
 with  Terpander  and  Thales,  who  flourished  about  600 
 B.C.,  and  was  a  native  of  the  island  of  Scyros.     The 
 particulars  which  remain  of  the  life  of  Pherecydes  are 
 few  and  imperfect.     Marvellous  circumstances  have 
 been  related  of  him,  which  only  deserve  to  be  men- 
 tioned in  order  to  show,  that  what  has  been  deemed 
 supernatural  by  ignorant  spectators  may  be  easily  con- 
 ceived to  have  happened  from  natural  causes.      A  shij) 
 in  full  sail  was,  at  a  distance,  approaching  its  harbour; 
 Pherecydes  predicted  that  it  would  never  come  into 
 the  haven,  and  it  happened  accordingly,  for  a  storm 
 arose  which  sunk  the  vessel.     After  drinking  water 
 from  a  well,  he  predicted  an  earthquake,  which  hap- 
 pened  three  days  afterward.     It  is  easy  to  suppose 
 that  these  predictions  might  have  been  the  result  of  a 
 careful  observation  of  those  phenomena  which  com- 
 monly precede  storms   or  earthquakes,  in   a  climate 
 where  they  frequently  happen.     Pherecydes  is  said  to 
 have  been  the  first  among  the  Greeks  who  wrote  con- 
 cerning the  nature  of  the  gods  ;  but  this  can  only  mean 
 that  he  was  the  first  who  ventured  to  write  upon  these 
 subjects  in  prose.     For,  before  his  time,  Orpheus,  Mu- 
 sa>us,   and   others,  had  written   theogonies   in   verse. 
 Some  have  ascribed  to  him  the  invention  of  the  sun- 
 dial ;   but  the  instrument  was  of  a  more  ancient  date, 
 being  mentioned   in  the  Jewish  history  of  Hezckiah, 
 king  of  Judea      {2  Kings,  20.,  \l.)     Concerning  the 
 manner  in  which  he  died,  nothing  certain  is  knovin  ; 
 for,  as  to  the  story  of  his  having  been  gradually  con- 
 sumed for  his  impiety  by  the  loathsome  disease  called 
 morhus  pedicular  is,  this  must  doubtless  bo  set  down  in 
 the  long  list  of  idle  tales  by  which  the  ignorant  and 
 superstitious  have  always  endeavoured  to  bring  philos- 
 ophy into  contempt.     He  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty- 
 five  years. — It  is  difficult  to  give,  in  any  degree,  an 
 accurate  account  of  the  doctrines  of  Pherecydes  ;  both 
 because  he  delivered  them,  after  the  mamicr  of  the 
 times,  under   the  concealment  of  symbols,    and    be- 
 cause a  very  few  memoirs  of  this  philosopher  remain. 
 It  is  most  probable,  that  he  taught  those  opinions  con- 
 cerning the  gods  and  the  origin  of  the  world   which 
 the  ancient  theogonists  borrowed  from  Egypt.     An- 
 other tenet,  which  is,  by  the  universal  consent  of  the 
 ancients,  ascribed  to  Pherecydes,  is  that  of  the  immor- 
 tality of  the  soul,  for  which  he  was,  perhaps,  indebted 
 to  the  Egyptians.     Cicero  says  {Tusc.  Outrst.,  1,15) 
 that   he  was  the  first  philosopher  in  whose  writings 
 this  doctrine  appeared.     He  is  eIso  said,  and  v.ot  im- 
 
 1027 
 
PHI 
 
 PHIDIAS. 
 
 f  robably,  to  have  tauglit  the  doctrine  of  the  transmi- 
 gration of  the  soul  ;  for  this  was  a  tenet  commonly  re- 
 ceived among  the  Egyptians,  and  afterward  taught  by 
 Pythagoras.  Whether  it  was  that  Pherecydes  insti- 
 tuted no  sect ;  or  that  his  writings  fell  into  disuse 
 through  their  obscurity  ;  or  that  Pythagoras  designed- 
 ly suppressed  them,  that  he  might  appear  the  original 
 author  of  the  doctrines  which  he  had  learned  from  his 
 master  ;  or  whatever  else  might  be  the  cause,  we  are 
 left  without  farther  information  concerning  his  philos- 
 ophy. (EnJirhVs-  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p. 
 "62,  scqq.)  There  are  extant  some  fragments  of  a 
 Theogony  composed  by  him,  which  bear  a  strange 
 character,  and  have  a  much  closer  resemblance  to  the 
 Orphic  poems  than  to  those  of  Hesiod.  They  show 
 that,  by  this  time,  the  characteristic  of  the  theogonic 
 poetry  had  been  changed,  and  that  Orphic  ideas  were 
 in  vogue.  {^Midler,  Hist.  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  234.)  The 
 fragments  of  Pherecydes,  together  with  those  of  his 
 namesake  of  Leros,  were  edited  by  Sturz,  Gera,  1789, 
 8vo,  and  a  new  edition  appeared  in  1824,  Lips.,  8vo, 
 with  additional  fragments,  and  more  enlarged  ex])lana- 
 tions.  The  preface  to  this  latter  edition  contains  the 
 greater  part  of  Matthias's  dissertation,  which  Sturz  un- 
 dertakes to  refute.  The  dissertation  just  mentioned 
 was  published  by  Matthias,  in  1814,  Allenb.,  8vo,  and 
 was  reprinted  in  Wolf's  Analcktcn,  vol.  1,  p.  321, 
 scqq.  —  Pherecydes,  and  Cadmus  of  Miletus,  are  said 
 to  have  been  the  first  of  the  Greeks  that  wrote  in  prose. 
 {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  212.  — Hoffmann, 
 Lex.  Bihlwgr.,  vol.  3,  p.  219.)— II.  A  native  of  Leros, 
 one  of  the  Sporades,  and  a  contemporary  with  Herod- 
 otus. He  was  the  last  of  the  Logographcrs,  or  com- 
 pilers in  prose  of  historical  traditions  {?Myoi,  and  ypu- 
 (p(j).  After  him  the  rt>gular  historians  begin.  Phere- 
 cydes, among  other  works,  made  a  collection  of  tradi- 
 tions relative  to  the  early  history  of  Athens.  The 
 fragments  of  this  writer  have  been  edited,  along  with 
 those  of  Pherecydes  of  Scyros,  by  Sturz,  GcrcR,  1789, 
 8vo,  republished  at  Leipsic  in  1824.  {Sch'ull,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  140.) 
 
 PuERES,  son  of  Cretheus,  and  of  Tyro  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Salmoneus.  He  founded  PheraJ  in  Thessaly, 
 where  he  reigned,  and  became  the  father  of  Admetus, 
 and  of  Lycurgus,  king  of  Nemca.  {Apullod.,  1,9,  11. 
 —Id.,  1,  9,  13.) 
 
 Phidias,  a  celebrated  statuary,  son  of  Charmidas, 
 «nd  a  native  of  Athens.  Nothing  authentic  is  related 
 concerning  his  earlier  years,  except  that  he  was  in- 
 structed in  statuary  by  Hippias  and  Ageladas,  and  that, 
 when  quite  a  youth,  he  practised  painting,  and  made  a 
 picture  of  Jupiter  01ymj)ius.  {Piin.,  35,  8,  34. — Sic- 
 hel.,  Indic.  Winhclm.,  p.  324. — Jacobs,  Amalth.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  247.)  Ilespecting  Hippias  we  have  little  inform- 
 ation. In  what  period  Phidias  was  a  pupil  of  Agela- 
 das is  likewise  uncertain  ;  but  as  Pausanias  makes 
 Ageladas  a  contemporary  of  Onatas,  who  flourished 
 about  the  78th  Olympiad  {Pausan.,  8,  42,  4),  and  as 
 in  this  period  Ageladas  was  both  distinguished  by  his 
 own  productions  as  an  artist,  and  was  at  the  head  of  a 
 very  celebrated  school  of  statuary,  we  may  properly 
 assume  this  as  the  time  in  which  Phidias  was  under 
 his  tuition.  Between  the  date  just  mentioned  and  the 
 third  year  of  the  8.'Jth  Olympiad,  there  is  an  interval  of 
 30  years.  If  with  these  conclusions  we  attempt  to 
 ascertain  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Phidias,  it  is  by  no 
 means  an  improbable  conjecture  that  he  was  about 
 20  years  of  age  when  he  received  the  itistructions  of 
 Ageladas,  and,  therefore,  was  born  in  the  first  year  of 
 the  73d  Olympiad,  or  B.C.  488,  a  date  very  nearly  ac- 
 cording with  that  given  by  Miiller.  This  computation 
 will  explain  the  fact,  that  in  B.C.  438,  Phidias,  then 
 50  years  of  age,  represented  himself  as  bald  on  the 
 shield  of  the  Athenian  Minerva.  He  must  also  have 
 been  about  56  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
 'Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) — Phidias  brought  to  hispro- 
 10S8 
 
 fession  a  knowledge  of  all  the  finer  parts  of  science 
 which  could  tend  to  dignify  and  enhance  it.  With 
 the  most  exquisite  harmonies  of  poetry,  and  the  most 
 gorgeous  fictions  of  mythology,  he  was  no  less  familiar 
 than  with  geometry,  optics,  and  history.  From  Homer, 
 whose  works  he  must  have  deeply  studied,  he  drew 
 those  images  of  greatness,  which  he  afterward  mould- 
 ed in  earthly  materials  with  a  kindred  spirit.  The  cir- 
 cumstance which,  by  a  singular  felicity,  not  often  ac- 
 corded to  genius,  elicited  the  powers  of  Phidias,  was 
 the  coincidence,  in  point  of  time,  of  the  full  maturity 
 of  his  talents  with  the  munificent  administration  of 
 Pericles.  Intent  on  his  great  national  design  of  adorn- 
 ing Athens  with  the  choicest  specimens  of  art,  this 
 statesman  saw  with  eagerness,  in  the  genius  of  Phidi- 
 as, the  means  of  giving  form,  shape,  and  completeness 
 to  the  most  glorious  of  his  conceptions.  He  accord- 
 ingly appointed  this  great  sculptor  the  general  super- 
 intendent of  all  the  public  works  then  in  progress,  both 
 of  architecture  and  statuary  {Plut.,  Vit.  PcricL,  13), 
 and  well  did  the  event  sanction  the  choice  which  was 
 thus  made  by  him.  The  buildings  reared  under  the 
 direction  of  Phidias,  though  finished  within  a  compara- 
 tively short  period,  seemed  built  for  ages,  and,  as  ob 
 served  by  Plutarch,  had  the  venerable  air  of  antiquity 
 when  newly  completed,  and  retained  all  the  freshness 
 of  youth  after  they  had  stood  for  ages.  The  beauti 
 ful  sculptures  on  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  were  the 
 work  of  Phidias  and  his  scholars,  while  the  statue  of 
 the  goddess  within  the  temple  was  his  entire  produc- 
 tion. This  was,  nideed,  the  most  celebrated  of  all  his 
 works,  if  we  except  the  Olympian  Jupiter  at  Elis.  In- 
 dependently of  the  workmanship,  the  statue  was  of  no- 
 ble dimensmns  and  of^he  most  costly  materials.  It  was 
 twenty-six  cubits,  or  thirty-nine  feet  in  height,  and 
 formed  of  ivory  and  gold  ;  being  most  probably  com- 
 posed originally  of  the  former,  and  overlaid,  in  part, 
 by  the  latter.  The  goddess  was  represented  in  a  no- 
 ble attitude,  erect,  clothed  in  a  tunic  reaching  to  hei 
 feet.  On  her  head  was  a  casque  :  in  one  hand  she 
 held  a  spear ;  in  the  other,  which  was  stretched  out, 
 an  ivory  figure  of  Victory,  four  cubits  high  ;  while  ai 
 her  feet  was  a  buckler,  exquisitely  carved,  the  concave 
 representing  the  war  of  the  giants,  the  convex  the  bat- 
 tle between  the  Athenians  and  Amazons,  and  portraits 
 of  the  artist  and  his  patron  were  introduced  among  the 
 Athenian  combatants,  one  cause  of  the  future  misfor- 
 tunes which  envy  brought  upon  the  author.  On  the 
 middle  of  her  helmet  a  sphinx  was  carved,  and  on  each 
 of  its  sides  a  griffon.  On  the  a?gis  or  breastplate  was 
 displayed  a  head  of  Medusa,  The  golden  sandals 
 were  sculptured  with  the  conflict  between  the  Cen- 
 taurs and  Lapitlia;,  and  are  described  as  a  perfect  gem 
 of  minute  art.  On  the  base  of  the  statue  was  repre- 
 sented the  legend  of  Pandora's  creation,  together  with 
 the  images  of  twenty  deities.  {Pausan.,  1,  24,  5. — 
 Sicbciis,  ad  loc.  —  Max.  Tyr.,  Diss.  14. — Plin.,  36, 
 5,  4.)  It  was  from  this  statue  that  Philorgus  look 
 away  the  golden  head  of  Medusa  {Isocral.  ad  Callim., 
 57,  cd.  Bckk),  in  the  place  of  which  an  ivory  figure  of 
 this  head  was  afterward  introduced,  which  was  seen 
 by  Pausanias.  {Eockh,  Corp.  Inscript.,  1,  242.) 
 This  magnificent  statue  was  repaired  by  Aristocles,  in 
 Olymp.  95.3  {Bockh,  Corp.  Inscript.,  237)  ;  and  that 
 it  might  not  be  without  the  necessary  moisture,  as  it 
 was  placed  on  the  dry  ground,  they  were  accustomed 
 to  sprinkle  water  on  the  ivory.  {Pausan.,  5,  11,  5.) 
 According  to  the  account  of  an  ancient  writer  named 
 Philochorus  {ap.  Schol.  ad  Aristoph.  Pac,  004).  Phid- 
 ias, soon  after  completing  this  statue,  was  charged  with 
 having  embezzled  a  portion  of  the  materials  intended 
 for  the  work,  and,  in  consequence,  fled  to  Elis,  where 
 he  was  employed  in  making  the  famous  statue  of  Ju- 
 piter ;  but  here  again  he  was  accused  of  similar  em- 
 bezzlement, and  was  put  to  death  by  the  Elians 
 The  best  critics,  however,  consider  this  whole  story 
 
PHIDIAS. 
 
 PHIDIAS. 
 
 to  be  false.     Heyne,  though  he  errs  in  maintaining  that 
 this  statue  was  dedicated  before  that  of  Minerva,  yet 
 has  very   properly   observed   that,  had  Phidias    been 
 guilty  of  embezzlement  in  relation  to  it,  the  Elians 
 would  never  have  allowed  him  to  inscribe  his  name 
 on  it,  nor  would  they  have  intrusted  its  preservation 
 to  his  descendants.     (Antiq.  Aufs.,  vol.  1,   p.  201.) 
 Miiller,  too,  e.xamines  the  whole  subject  with  great 
 impartiality,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  fame 
 which  Phidias  had  acquired   by  his  Minerva  induced 
 the  Elians  to  invite  him  to  their  country,  in  connexion 
 with  his  relations  and  pupils ;  and  that  this  journey  was 
 undertaken  by  him  in   the  most  honourable  circum- 
 stances.    {Muller,  de  PhidicB  Vita,  p.  2.5,  seqq.) — The 
 statue  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  graced  the  temple  of  that 
 <Tod   at  Olympia   in    Elis,  and    was   chryselephantine 
 (made  of  gold  and  ivory),  like  that  of  Minerva.     Like 
 it,  too,  the  size  was  colossal,  being  sixty  feet  high. 
 The  god  was  represented  as  sitting  on  his  throne  :  in 
 his  right  hand  he  held  a  figure  of  Victory,  also  made 
 of  gold   and   ivory,  in  his   left   a   sceptre   beautifully 
 adorned  with  all  kinds  of  metals,  and  having  on  the 
 top  of  it  a  golden  eagle.     His  brows  were  encircled 
 with  a  crown,  made  to  imitate  leaves  of  olive  ;  his 
 robe  was  of  massive  gold,  curiously  adorned,  by  a  kind 
 of  encaustic  work  probably,  with  various  figures  of  an- 
 imals, and  also  with  lilies.     The  sandals,  too,  were  of 
 gold.     The  throne  was  inlaid  with  all  kinds  of  precious 
 materials,  ebony,  ivory,  and  gems,  and  was  adorned 
 with  sculptures  oi  exquisite  beauty.     On  the  base  was 
 an  inscription  recording  the  name  of  the  artist.     (Pau- 
 san.,  5,  11.  —  Compare  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  Jup. 
 Olymp.,  p.  310.  —  Siebdis  ad  Pausan.,  I.  c.)     Lucian 
 informs  us,  that,  in  order  to  render  this  celebrated  work 
 as  perfect  in  detail  as  it  was  noble  in  conception  and 
 outline,  Phidias,  when  he  exposed  it  for  the  first  time 
 after  its  completion  to  public  view,  placed  himself  be- 
 hind the  door  of  the  temple,  and  listened  attentively 
 to  every  criticism  made  by  the  spectators  :  when  the 
 crowd  had  withdrawn  and  the  temple  gates  were  closed, 
 he  revised  and  corrected  his  work,  wherever  the  ob- 
 jections he  had  just  heard  appeared  to  him  to  be  well- 
 grounded  ones.     {Lucian,  pro  Imag.,  14.)     It  is  also 
 said,  that  when  the  artist  himself  was  asked,  by  his  rela- 
 tion Panaenus,  the  Athenian  painter,  who,  it  seems,  aid- 
 ed him  in  the  work,  whence  he  had  derived  the  idea  of 
 this  his  grandest  effort,  he  replied,  from  the  well-known 
 passage  in  Homer,  where  Jove  is  represented  as  causing 
 Olympus  to  tremble  on  its  base  by  the  mere  move- 
 ment of  his  sable  brow.     {II.,  1,  528.)     The  lines  in 
 question,  with  the  exception  of  their  reference  to  the 
 "ambrosial  curls,"  and  the  brow  of  the  god,  contain  no 
 allusion  whatever  to  external  form,  and  yet  they  carry 
 with  them  the  noble  idea  of  the  Supreme  Being  nod- 
 ding benignant  assent  with  so  much  true  majesty  as  to 
 cause  even  Olympus  to  tremble.     {Strab.,  354. — Po- 
 lyb.,  Exc.  L.,  XXX.,  15,  4,  Z.—Mulhr,  de  Phid.  Vii., 
 p.  62.) — Of  the  whole  work  Quintilian  remarks,  that  it 
 even  added  new  feelings   to   the  religion  of  Greece 
 (Inst.  Or.,  12,  10,  9),  and  yet,  when  judged  according 
 to  the  principles  of   genuine  art,  neither  this  nor  the 
 Minerva  in  the  Parthenon  possessed  any  strong  claims 
 to   legitimate   beauty.     It   does  not   excite   surprise, 
 therefore,  to  learn  that  Phidias  himself  disapproved  of 
 the  mixed  effect  produced  by  such  a  combination  of 
 different  circumstances,  nor  will  it  appear  presumptu- 
 ou3  in  us  to  condemn  these  splendid  representations. 
 In  these  compositions,  exposed,  as  they  were,  to  the 
 dim  light  of  the  ancient  temple,  and  from  their  very 
 magnitude   imperfectly  comprehended,  the  effects  of 
 variously  reflecting  substances,  now  gloom,  n.ovv  glow- 
 ing with  unearthly  lustre,  must  have  been  rendered 
 doubly   imposing.     But   this    influence,   though   well 
 calculated  to  increase  superstitious  devotion,  or  to  im- 
 press mysterious  terror  on  the  bewildered  sense,  was 
 meretricious,  and  altogelhes  diverse  from  the  solemn 
 
 repose,  the   simple   majesty  of  form  and  expression, 
 which  constitute  the  true  sublimity  of  sculptural  repre- 
 sentation.    (Memes,  History  of  the  Fine  Arts,  p.  52.) 
 — In  the  time  of  Pausanias,  there  was  still  shown,  at 
 Olympia,  the  building  in  which  this  statue  of  Jupiter 
 was  made,  and  the  posterity  of  Phidias  had  the  charge 
 of  keeping  the  image  free  from  whatever  might  sully 
 its  beauty,  and  were,  on  this  account,  styled  ^aiSpvv- 
 rai.     {Pausan.,  5,  14,  5.) — We  have  already  remark- 
 ed that,  according  to  the  best  critics,  this  statue  was 
 executed  subsequently  to  that  in  the  Parthenon,  and 
 not,  as  the  common  accounts  have  it,  before  this.     It 
 was  on  his  return   to  Athens,  after    completing  the 
 Olympian  Jove,  that  Phidias  became  involved  in  the 
 difficulty,   which  many  erroneously  suppose    to  have 
 preceded  his  visit  to  Elis.     According  to  Plutarch,  his 
 friendship  and  influence  with  Pericles  exposed  the  ar- 
 tist to  envy,  and  procured  him  many  enemies,  who, 
 wishing,  through  him,  to  try  what  judgment  the  people 
 might  pass  upon  Pericles  himself,  persuaded  Menon, 
 oneof  his  workmen,  to  place  himself  as  a  suppliant  in  the 
 forum,  and  to  entreat  the  protection  of  the  state  while 
 he  lodged  an  information  against  Phidias.     The  peo- 
 ple granting  his  request,  Menon  charged  the  artist  with 
 having  embezzled  a  portion  of  the  forty  talents  of  gold 
 with  which  he  had  been  furnished  for  the  decoration  of 
 the  statue  in  the  Parthenon.     The  allegation,  however, 
 was  disproved  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner ;   for 
 Phidias,  by  the  advice  of  Pericles,  had  put  on  the  gold- 
 en decorations  in  such  a  way  that   they  could  be  easi- 
 ly removed  without  injury  to  the  statue.     They  were 
 accordingly  taken  off,  and,  at  the  order  of  Pericles, 
 weighed  by  the  accusers  ;  and  the  result  established 
 the  perfect  innocence  of  the  artist.     His  enemies,  how- 
 ever, were  not  to  be  daunted  by  this  defeat,  and  a  new 
 charge  was,  in    consequence,  soon  prepared  against 
 him.     It  was  alleged  that,  in  his  representation  of  the 
 battle  of  the  Amazons  upon  the  shield  of  Minerva,  he 
 had  introduced  his  own  efligy,  as  a  bald  old  man  ta- 
 king up  a  large  stone  with  both  hands,  and  a  highly- 
 finished  picture  of  Pericles  contending  with  an  Ama- 
 zon.    This  was  regarded  as  an  act  of  impiety,  and 
 Phidias  was  cast  into  prison,  to  await  his  trial  for  the 
 offence  ;  but  he  died  in  confinement  before  his  cause 
 could  be  heard.     (Plut.,  Vit.  PericL—MMcr,  de  Vtf. 
 Phid.,  p.  33,  seqq. — Schbmann,  de  Comit.,  p.  219. — 
 Platner,  der  Process,  und  die  Klagen,  vol.  1,  p.  353.) 
 — The  numerous  works  of  Phidias  belong  to  three  dis- 
 tinct classes  :   Toreutic,  or  statues  of  mixed  materials, 
 ivory  being  the  chief;  statues  of  bronze;  and  sculp- 
 tures in   marble.     In   this  enumeration  are  included 
 only  capital  performances  ;  for  exercises  in  wood,  plas- 
 ter, clay,  and  minute  labours  in  carving,  are  recorded 
 to  have  occasionally  occupied  his  attention. — Of  the 
 first  class  of  works  we  have  already  mentioned  the 
 two  most  remarkable  ones,  the  statues  of  Minerva  and 
 Jupiter.     Among  his  works  in  bronze  may  be  enumer- 
 ated the  following:   1.  The  celebrated  statue  of  Mi- 
 nerva Promachus,  to  which  we  have  alluded  in  a  previ- 
 ous article.     {Vid.  Parthenon.) — 2.  A  statue  of  Mi- 
 nerva, placed,  like  the  previous  one,  in  the  Athenian 
 Acropolis,  and   highly  praised    by  Pliny  (34,   8,  19). 
 Lucian  prefers  it  to  every  other  work  of  the  artist's. 
 {Imag.,  4.) — 3.  Another  statue  of  Minerva,  removed 
 to  Rome  in  B.C.  168,  and  placed  by  Paulus  .Emilius 
 in  the  temple  of  Fortune.     {Plin.,  I.  c  )— 4.  Thirteen 
 brazen  statues,  dedicated  at  Delphi,  by  the  Athenians, 
 out  of  the  spoils  taken  at  Marathon.     {Pausan.,  10, 
 30,  1.)  — The  following  were  among  the  produccion-5 
 of  Phidias  in  marble.     1.  A  statue  of  Venus  Urania, 
 placed   in  a  temple  dedicated  to  this  goddess,  not  far 
 from  the  Ceramicus  at  Athens.     It  was  of  Farian  mar- 
 ble.    {Pausan.,  1,  24,  8  )— 2.  Another  statue  of  Ve- 
 nus  of  e.xquisite  beautv^  which  was  in  the  collection 
 of  Octavia  at  Rome.     {Plin.,  36,  5,  4.)— 3.  A  statue 
 of  Mercury,  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  Thebes.     {Pau 
 ^   ^  1029 
 
PHI 
 
 PHIDON. 
 
 san.,  9,  10,  2.)  —  Phidias  not  only  practised  statuary, 
 the  art  in  which  he  was  pre-eminent,  but  also  engra- 
 ving, as  we  learn  from  Martial  (Epigr.,  3,  35),  and 
 from  Julian  {Epist  ,  8,  p.  377,  ed.  Spanh.).  The  pu- 
 pils of  this  most  distinguished  artist  were,  Agoracritus, 
 Alcamcnes,  and  Colotes.  {SitUg,  Vict.  Art.,  s.  v. — 
 Junius,  Catal.  Arlijic.,  p.  151,  segq.  —  Milllcr,  de 
 Phid.  Vit.,  p.  37,  scqq.) — The  sublime  style  perfected 
 by  Phidias  seems  almost  to  have  expired  with  himself; 
 not  that  the  art  declined,  but  a  predilection  for  sub- 
 jects of  beauty  and  the  softer  graces,  in  preference  to 
 more  heroic  and  masculine  character,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  the  grand  relievos  on  the  temple  at  Olympia, 
 may  be  traced  even  among  his  immediate  disciples. 
 In  the  era  and  labours  of  Phidias,  we  discover  the  ut- 
 most excellence  to  which  Grecian  genius  attained  in 
 the  arts  ;  and  in  the  marbles  of  the  British  Museum, 
 the  former  ornaments  of  the  Parthenon,  we  certainly 
 behold  the  conceptions,  and,  in  some  measure,  the  very 
 practice  of  the  great  Athenian  sculptor.  Of  the  intel- 
 lectual character  of  these  admirable  performances, 
 grandeur  is  the  prevailing  principle  ;  the  grandeur  of 
 simplicity  and  nature,  devoid  of  all  parade  or  ostenta- 
 tion of  ai-t  ;  and  their  author,  to  use  the  language  of 
 antiquity,  united  tlie  three  characteristics,  of  truth, 
 grandeur,  and  minute  refinement ;  exhibiting  majesty, 
 gravity,  breadth,  and  magnificence  of  composition,  with 
 a  practice  scrupulous  in  detail,  and  with  truth  of  indi- 
 vidual representation,  yet  in  the  handling  rapid,  broad, 
 and  firm.  This  harmonious  assemblage  of  qualities,  in 
 themselves  dissimilar,  in  their  result  the  same,  gives 
 to  the  productions  of  this  master  an  ease,  a  grace,  a 
 vitality,  resembling  more  the  spontaneous  overflow- 
 ings of  inspiration  than  the  laborious  offspring  of 
 thought  and  science.  {Mcmcs,  History  of  the  Fine 
 Arts,  p.  52,  seqq.)  —  In  the  course  of  this  article,  we 
 have  frequently  referred  to  the  Life  of  Phidias  by  Mid- 
 ler. We  will  end  with  a  brief  account  of  it,  which 
 may  also  serve,  in  some  degree,  as  a  recapitulation  of 
 what  has  here  been  advanced.  Miillcr  published,  in 
 1827,  three  dissertations  relative  to  Phidias,  read  be- 
 fore the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences  at  Gbttingen.  The 
 first  is  a  biographical  sketch  of  Pliidias,  and  establishes 
 beyond  doubt  that  Phidias  began  to  embellish  Athens 
 with  his  works  of  sculpture  in  Olympiad  82  or  83, 
 when  Pericles  was  ETnaTuTi]g ;  that  he  finished,  in  the 
 third  year  of  Olympiad  85,  the  statue  of  Minerva  for  the 
 Parthenon  ;  that  the  Elians,  when  the  name  of  Phid- 
 ias had  become  known  over  all  Greece  for  the  splen- 
 did works  he  had  executed  at  Athens,  induced  him  to 
 come  to  Elis,  and  that  he  made  there  the  statue  of  the 
 Olympian  Jove  between  Olympiads  85.3,  and  86.3  ; 
 and,  finally,  that  after  his  return  to  Athens,  he  was 
 thrown  into  prison  by  the  enemies  of  Pericles,  on  a  charge 
 of  impiety,  and  that  he  died  in  prison,  in  the  first  year 
 of  Olympiad  87,  in  which  year  the  last  work  of  Peri- 
 cles, the  Propylaea,  had  been  finished. — The  seeond 
 shows  the  state  of  the  fine  arts  before  Phidias,  and  to 
 what  height  they  were  carried  by  his  genius.  —  The 
 third  gives  a  new  explanation  of  the  statues  on  the 
 western  front  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens.  The  work 
 is  in  Latin,  and  has  the  following  title :  "  C.  Odofr. 
 Muelleri  de  I'hidia  Vila  et  Operibus  Commcnlationes 
 Ires,  &c."     {Gdliiiig.,  1827,  4to.) 
 
 Phidon,  I.  a  king  of  Argos,  of  the  race  of  the  Herac- 
 lidae,  who,  breaking  througii  the  constitutional  checks 
 OV  which  his  power  was  restrained,  made  himself  ab- 
 solute in  his  native  city.  He  soon  became  possessed 
 of  extensive  rale  by  various  conquests,  reducing,  about 
 the  3d  Olympiad,  the  city  of  Corinth  under  his  sway, 
 and  subsequently,  about  the  8th  Olympiad,  the  greater 
 part  of  the  Peloponnesus.  {Mailer,  jEginet.,  p.  51, 
 seqq.)  The  Lacedasmonians  were  at  this  time  too  much 
 occupied  with  the  first  Messenian  war  to  be  able  to 
 check  his  progress,  while  he  himselt',  as  the  descend- 
 ant of  Temi  luis,  one  of  the  Heraclidae,  founded  his 
 1030 
 
 conquests  upon  his  claim  to  the  possessions  of  his 
 progenitor.  (Miillei ,  p.  52.)  Phidon  is  described  by 
 Herodotus  (6,  127)  and  Pausanias  (6,  22)  as  having 
 exercised  his  authority  in  the  most  arbitrary  manner 
 of  any  of  the  Greeks.  Among  other  acts  of  high- 
 handed power  was  his  driving  out  the  Elian  agono- 
 theta;,  or  presidents  of  the  games,  and  presiding  him- 
 self in  their  stead.  {Herod.,  I.  c. — Pausan.,  I.  c.) 
 Phidon  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  established 
 a  common  standard  of  weights  and  measures  for  the 
 Peloponnesians.  Not  that,  as  some  maintain,  he  was 
 the  inventor  of  weights  and  measures,  for  these  were 
 in  existence  long  before  {Sabnas  ,  de  Usur.,  p.  429. — 
 Hcyne,  ad.  Horn.,  vol.  5,  p.  389),  but  he  caused  one 
 uniform  kind  of  weights  and  measures  to  be  used  by 
 those  of  the  Peloponnesians  whom  he  had  reduced  be- 
 neath his  sway.  {Herod.,  I.  c. — Midler,  p.  56.)  He 
 is  reported  also  to  have  been  the  first  that  stamped 
 money,  or,  in  other  words,  introduced  among  the 
 Greeks  a  regular  coinage.  This  can  only  mean,  not, 
 as  Salmasius  thinks,  that  he  merely  stamped  a  certain 
 mark  on  silver  and  brass  laminae,  which  had  before 
 been  estimated  by  weight,  but  that  he  abolished  the 
 use  of  metallic  bars  or  spits,  and  brought  in  stamped 
 lamina  for  the  first  time.  {Muller,  JEginet.,  p.  57. — 
 Id.,  Dorians,  vol.  2,  p.  386,  Eng.  transl. — Etymol. 
 Mag.,  s.  V.  'OSsXiaKOC  )  This  early  mint  was  estab- 
 lished in  the  island  of  .(Egina,  at  that  time  subject  to 
 his  sway,  and  the  very  place  for  one,  since  its  inhabi- 
 tants were  famed  for  their  industrious  and  commercial 
 habits.  {Slrah.,  376.— Eustath.  ad  I!  ,  2.  p.  604.— 
 Marmor.  Par.,  p.  25,  cp.  31.)  The  scholiast  on  Pin- 
 dar (0/.,  13,  27)  makes  Phidon  to  have  been  a  Corin- 
 thian ;  eTzeiSTf  ^ei6cju  rif,  KiipivOioc  uvTjp,  evpe  fiirpa 
 aal  aradfiia.  This,  however,  can  only  mean,  that 
 Phidon,  on  the  conquest  of  Corinth,  introduced  there 
 the  same  weights  and  measures,  and  the  same  stamped 
 money  as  at  ^glna.  Hence  the  more  correct  remark 
 of  Didymus  {ad  v.  36),  on  4>ti(i6jv,  6  wpurog  Koipaq 
 KopivOioii;  TO  ij.sTpov,  'Apynoc  rjv.  {Miillcr,  JEginet., 
 p.  55.)  But  what  arc  we  to  do  with  the  authority  of 
 Aristotle,  who  speaks  of  Phidon  as  a  Corinthian,  and 
 very  early  legislator  {Polil.,  2,  3,  7,  cd.  Schn.),  while 
 elsewhere  he  makes  mention  of  Phidon,  the  tyrant 
 TTfpt 'Apyof  {Poht.,  5.  8,  4,  p.  218,  Schn.)1  The 
 best  answer  is  that  contained  in  the  words  of  Muller; 
 "Potest  Aristotelcs,  de  institulo  vetere  Corinthiorvm, 
 quod  ad  Phidonem  legislatorem  rr.ferebant,  certior /ac- 
 tus, quis  ille  Phido  faerit  ipse  dabitasse.'"  {JEginet., 
 p.  56.)  The  question,  however,  still  remains  open  to 
 discussion,  and  Ileyne,  among  others,  expressly  dis- 
 tinguishes the  Corinthian  from  the  Argive  Phidon. 
 {Opusc.  Acad.,  vol.  2,  p.  255,  in  notis.)  In  a  frag- 
 ment also  of  Heraclides  Ponticus  (p.  22),  mention  is 
 made  of  a  Cumaean  Phidon,  who  txImooi  ftETsduKe 
 rijc  nolcTeiac.  So  that  the  name  appears  to  have  be- 
 longed to  more  than  one  legislator.— The  power  of 
 the  Argive  Phidon  is  said  to  have  been  overthrown 
 by  the  Lacedaemonians  about  the  1 1th  Olympiad,  when 
 leisure  was  allowed  them  to  attend  to  the  affairs  of  the 
 Peloponnesus,  the  first  Messenian  war  having  been 
 brought  to  a  close.  The  chronology  of  Phidon's  reign 
 has  been  satisfactorily  settled  by  MiJller,  in  his  "^o-/. 
 nctica,^'  a  work  to  which  we  have  already  mere  than 
 once  referred,  and  in  the  course  of  the  discussion  he 
 examines  critically  the  computation  of  the  Parian  Mar- 
 ble, and  also  that  of  Eusebius.  The  same  scholar  has 
 likewise  explained  away  the  difficulty  in  the  text  of 
 Herodotus  (6,  127),  by  supposing  that  the  historian 
 confounded  a  later  Phidon  with  the  ruler  of  Argos. 
 There  is  no  need,  therefore,  of  any  of  the  emendations 
 proposed  by  Gronovius,  Reitz,  and  others,  although 
 the  correction  suggested  by  Gronovius  meets  with  the 
 approbation  of  Larcher,  Porson,  and  Gaisford.  {Lar- 
 cher,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c. — Porson,  Tracts,  p.  325. — Gais- 
 ford ad  Herod.,  I.  c. — Compare  Musgrave,  Disserta- 
 
PHI 
 
 PHI 
 
 tions,  p.  178,  seqq.)  In  the  Brandenburg  collection, 
 there  is  a  coin,  described  by  Beger,  which  bears  on 
 one  side  a  dicta,  with  the  inscription  •I'lAO,  and  on 
 the  other  a  Boeotian  shield.  This  has  been  often 
 taken  for  a  coin  of  Phidon  the  Argive,  but  on  no  good 
 grounds  whatever.  The  known  device  of  ^gina  is, 
 almost  without  an  exception,  a  tortoise,  while  the 
 shield  portrayed  upon  this  coin  is  as  exclusively  a  badge 
 of  Boeotia,  and  is  too  highly  executed  for  so  remote  a 
 period.  It  appears,  also,  that  it  was  a  common  prac- 
 tice in  Boeotia  to  inscribe  the  name  of  some  magistrate 
 upon  their  coins.  {Beger,  Thesaurus  Brandenb.,  p. 
 279.  —  Cardwell,  Lectures  on  Ancient  Coinage,  p. 
 111.)— II.  A  native  of  Cuma.     {Vid.  Phidon  I.) 
 
 PuiLADELPHi.\  (4>t/la(5£A^£irt),  I.  a  city  of  Lydia, 
 southeast  of  Sardis.  It  stood  on  a  root  of  Mount 
 Tmolus,  by  the  river  Cogamus,  and  derived  its  name 
 from  its  founder,  Attains  Philadelphus,  brother  of  Eu- 
 menes.  The  frequent  earthquakes  which  it  experi- 
 enced were  owing  to  its  vicinity  to  the  region  called 
 Catacecaumene.  Even  the  city  walls  were  not  se- 
 cure, but  were  shaken  almost  daily,  and  disparted. 
 The  inhabitants  lived  in  perpetual  apprehension,  and 
 were  almost  constantly  employed  in  repairs.  They 
 were  few  in  number,  the  people  chiefly  residing  in  the 
 country,  and  cultivating  the  soil,  which  was  very  fer- 
 tile. {Strabo,  628.)  Tacitus  mentions  it  among  the 
 cities  restored  by  Tiberius,  after  a  more  than  ordinary 
 calamity  of  the  kind  to  which  we  have  just  alluded. 
 {Ann.,  2,  47.)  In  the  midst  of  these  alarms,  however, 
 Christianity  flourished  in  Philadelphia,  and  the  place 
 is  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Revelations  as  one  of  the 
 seven  churches  of  Asia  (3,  7).  At  a  later  day,  the 
 zeal  of  the  Philadelphians  showed  forth  conspicuously 
 in  the  gallant  defence  they  made  against  the  Turks 
 on  more  than  one  occasion.  (G.  Pachym.,  p.  290.) 
 At  length  they  were  conquered  by  Bajazet  in  1390 
 M.  Due.,  p.  lO.—Chalcond.,  p.  3'3.)  The  place  is 
 now  called  Allah-sehr,  and  preserves  some  remains  of 
 Christianity,  and  also  a  few  monuments  of  heathen  an- 
 tiquity. Chandler  states,  "  that  it  is  now  a  mean  but 
 considerable  town,  of  large  extent,  spreading  up  the 
 slopes  of  three  or  four  hills.  Of  the  walls  which  en- 
 compassed it,  many  remnants  are  standing,  but  with 
 large  gaps."  {Travels,  p.  310,  seq.)  Mr.  Arundell, 
 who  visited  this  place  in  1826,  was  informed  by  the 
 Greek  bishop  that  there  were  "  twenty-five  churches 
 in  it,  but  that  divine  service  was  chiefly  confined  to 
 five  only,  in  which  it  was  regularly  performed  every 
 week,  but  in  the  larger  number  only  once  a  year." 
 {Visit  to  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  p.  170.)  Mr. 
 Fellows,  who  visited  the  spot  in  1838,  remarks,  "  Of 
 the  ancient  city  of  Philadelphia  but  little  remains ; 
 its  walls  are  still  standing,  enclosing  several  hills, 
 •.ipon  the  sides  of  which  stood  the  town,  but  they 
 arc  fallen  into  ruins.  They  are  built  of  unhewn  stone, 
 massed  and  cemented  together  with  fragments  of  old 
 edifices  :  some  immense  remains  of  buildings,  huge 
 square  stone  pillars,  supporting  brick  arches,  are  also 
 standing,  and  are  called  the  ruins  of  the  Christian 
 Church.  All  the  remains  which  have  been  pointed 
 out  to  me  as  ruins  of  Christian  churches  appear  to 
 have  been  vast  temples,  perhaps  erected  by  imperial 
 command,  and  dedicated  to  nominal  Christianity,  but 
 showing,  in  the  niches  and  brackets  for  statues  and 
 architectural  ornaments,  traces  of  heathen  supersti- 
 tion." {Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  p.  288.)  The  meaning 
 of  the  modern  name,  Allah-sehr,  is  "the  city  of  God," 
 an  appellation  which  forms  a  strange  kind  of  coinci- 
 dence with  the  departed  glories  of  the  place.  {Arun- 
 dell, p.  169.— Compare  'Milner'*s  History  of  the  Seven 
 Churches,  p.  317.)  — II.  A  city  of  Ciiicia  Trachea, 
 on  the  river  Calycadnus,  to  the  north  of  Seleucia 
 Trachea.  The  site  is  thought  by  Leake  to  correspond 
 to  the  modern  Ermen'ek.  {Journal,  p.  117.)  Cap- 
 tain Beaufort,  on  the  other  hand,  supposes  that  Phila- 
 
 delphia may  be  represented  by  Mout  or  Mood,  a  town 
 of  some  size,  near  the  junction  of  the  two  principal 
 branches  of  the  Calycadnus.  {Karamania,  p.  2TS.) 
 Leake,  however,  makes  Mout  to  be  Claudiopolis. 
 {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  332.) — III.  The  cap- 
 ital city  of  the  Ammonites,  situate  among  the  mount- 
 ains of  Gilead,  near  the  sources  of  the  Jabok  or  Jo- 
 baccus.  It  received  its  name  from  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
 phus. {Sleph.  Byz.)  Its  Oriental  appellation  was 
 Rabbath  Ammon.  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  informa 
 us,  that  it  was  first  called  Ammana  (Ammon),  after- 
 ward Astarte,  and  at  last  Philadelphia.  It  was  one  of 
 the  cities  of  Decapolis.  Pliny,  in  enumerating  these 
 ten  cities,  names  Raphana  alter  Philadelphia,  which 
 Mannert  thinks  may  be  a  corruption  from  Rabatham- 
 mona.  Abulfeda  speaks  of  ruins  at  a  place  called 
 Amman,  which  would  seem  to  correspond  with  the  site 
 of  this  city.     {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  320.) 
 
 Philadelphus,  the  surname  of  the  second  Ptolemy 
 of  Egypt.     (F^i<i.  Ptolemffius  II.) 
 
 PhiLjE,  an  island  and  city  of  Egypt,  south  of  Syene. 
 The  city  appears  to  have  owed  its  existence  to  the 
 Ptolemies,  who  intended  it  as  a  friendly  meeting- 
 place  and  a  common  emporium  for  the  Egyptians  and 
 the  Ethiopians  from  Meroe.  Hence,  according  to 
 some,  the  name  of  the  place,  {^ilai,  from  0t7.of. — 
 Compare  Servius,  ad  JSn.,  6,  323,  "  locum  quern  Phi- 
 las,  hoc  est  arnicas,  vacant.''')  Others,  however,  derive 
 it  from  the  Egyptian  Phi  lakh,  "  the  end"  or  "  ex- 
 tremity" (i.  e.,  of  Egypt),  and  others,  again,  from  the 
 Arabic  Phil,  "  an  elephant,"  making  Philae  and  Ele- 
 phantina  identical.  {ConaxAl  J aUonski,  Voc.  JEgypt., 
 s.  V.  —  Opusc,  vol.  1,  p.  45.5,  seq.,  ed.  Te  Water.) 
 The  island,  contains  at  present  many  splendid  remains 
 of  antiquity.  In  its  immediate  vicinity  was  a  small 
 rocky  island  called  'Afiarof  (Abatos)  by  the  Greeks, 
 from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  permitted  the  priests 
 alone  to  set  foot  on  it,  and  its  being  hence  inaccessible 
 to  others.  In  this  place  was  the  tomb  of  Osiris,  Isis 
 having  here  deposited  his  remains.  {Tzetz.  ad  Ly- 
 cophr.,  v.  212. — Zoega,  de  Obelise  ,^.  286. — Descrip- 
 tion de  PEgypte,  A-ntiq.,\o].  1,  p.  44. —  Creuzer,  Com- 
 ment. Herod.,  p.  182,  seqq.)  The  modern  name  is 
 Gezirat-el-Birbe  ("Temple-island"),  in  allusion  to  the 
 remains  of  antiquity  upon  it.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol. 
 10,  pt.  1,  p.  235,  seqq.) 
 
 Phil^ni,  two  Carthaginian  brothers,  whose  names 
 have  been  handed  down  to  modern  times  for  a  signal 
 act  of  devotion  to  their  country.  A  contest,  it  seems, 
 had  arisen  between  the  Carthaginians  and  Cyreneans, 
 respecting  the  point  where  their  respective  territories 
 met,  and  this  was  the  more  difficult  to  be  determined, 
 since  the  country  on  the  borders  of  the  two  states  was 
 a  sandy  desert,  and  without  anything  that  might  servfe 
 as  a  common  landmark.  It  was  agreed  at  last,  that 
 two  individuals  should  set  out  at  the  same  time  from 
 Carthage  and  Cyrene  respectively,  and  that  the  spot 
 where  they  might  meet  should  be  regarded  as  the 
 common  boundary  of  the  two  communities.  The  par- 
 ties accordingly  set  out,  the  two  Philasni  having  been 
 selected  by  the  Carthaginians  for  this  purpose;  but  the 
 two  Cyreneans  travelled  more  slowly  than  their  Car- 
 thaginian antagonists,  and  only  met  the  Philaeni  after 
 the  latter  had  advanced  a  considerable  distance  into 
 the  disputed  territory.  The  Cyreneans  thereupon  ac- 
 cused the  Philasni  of  unfairness,  and  of  having  started 
 before  the  appointed  time.  The  Phiisni,  on  their 
 part,  ofTered  to  do  anything  to  show  that  they  had  act- 
 ed fairly,  and  the  two  Cyreneans  then  gave  them  their 
 choice,  either  to  be  buried  alive  on  the  spot  where 
 they  were  standing,  or  else  to  allow  them,  the  Cyre- 
 neans, to  advance  as  far  as  they  pleased  into  the  dispu- 
 ted  territory,  and  there  be  buried  alive  on  their  part. 
 The  Philserii  accepted  the  former  part  of  the  offer,  and 
 were  accordingly  entombed.  The  Carthagmians  erett- 
 ed  two  altars  "on  the  spot,  which  were  thenceforth  ■». 
 
 J  031 
 
PHI 
 
 PHI 
 
 garded  as  the  limits  of  their  territory  in  this  direction. 
 (Sail.,  Bell.  Jug.,  19.— /rf.  ib.,  79.)  These  altars 
 stood  in  the  innemiost  bend  of  the  Syrtis  Major,  and 
 not,  as  Sallust  erroneously  states,  to  the  west  of  both 
 the  Syrtes.  The  story  of  the  Philajni,  moreover,  as 
 given  by  the  Roman  historian,  seems  to  wear  a  doubt- 
 ful appearance,  from  the  circumstance  of  Gyrene's 
 being  so  much  nearer  the  point  in  question  than  Car- 
 ihage.  If  the  distance  between  these  two  cities  be 
 divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  the  Phila;ni  will  be  found 
 to  have  travelled  six,  and  the  deputies  from  Cyrcne 
 only  two,  of  these  parts.  The  truth,  therefore,  was 
 probably  this  :  the  territory  in  dispute  lay  between 
 Hesperis  on  the  Cyrenean  side,  and  Leptis  Magna  on 
 the  Carthaginian  ;  and  the  deputies  started  from  these 
 two  places,  not  from  Carthage  and  Cyrene.  {Man- 
 nert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  116.) 
 
 Philammon,  an  ancient  bard,  belonging  to  the  wor- 
 ship of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  whose  name  was  cele- 
 brated at  that  place.  To  him  was  attributed  the  for- 
 mation of  Delphian  choruses  of  virgins,  which  sang 
 the  birth  of  Latona  and  of  her  children.  (Muller, 
 Hist.  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  24.)  He  is  said  to  have  taken 
 part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition,  and  passed  for  a 
 son  of  Apollo.     {Plut.,  dc  Miis.,  p.  629,  ed  Wyltcnb.) 
 
 Philemon,  I.  a  comic  poet,  the  rival  of  Menander. 
 According  to  some  authorities,  he  was  a  native  of 
 Syracuse  (Suidas,  s.  v.),  while  others  make  him  to 
 have  been  born  at  Soli,  in  Cilicia.  {Slrabo,  671.)  He 
 seems  to  have  been  a  writer  of  considerable  powers. 
 His  wit,  ingenuity,  skill  in  depicting  character,  and 
 expression  of  sentiment,  are  praised  by  Apuleius 
 {Florid.,  3,  n.  16),  while  he  pronounces  him  inferior, 
 however,  to  his  more  celebrated  antagonist.  The 
 popular  voice,  on  the  other  hand,  often  gave  Philemon 
 the  prize  over  Menander  {Aid.  GelL,  17,  4),  perhaps  be- 
 cause he  studied  more  the  tastes  of  the  vulgar,  or  used 
 other  adscititious  means  of  popularity.  This,  at  least, 
 Menander  gave  him  to  understand,  when  on  one  occa- 
 sion he  met  his  rival  and  asked  him  :  '•  Pr'ythee,  Phi- 
 lemon, dost  thou  not  blush  when  thou  gainest  the  prize 
 over  my  headl"  {Aid.  Gcli,  I.  c.)  We  may  see  a 
 favourable  specimen  of  his  construction  of  plots  in  the 
 Trinummus  of  Plautus,  which  is  a  translation  from 
 his  Q/jaavpSg.  {Prol.  Triniimm.,  18,  seqq.)  Tem- 
 perance of  body,  with  cheerfulness  of  mind,  prolonged 
 his  life  to  the  great  age  of  ninety-seven  years  {Luciaii, 
 Macrob.,  25),  during  which  period  he  composed  ninety- 
 seven  comedies.  The  manner  of  his  death  is  vari- 
 ously related.  The  common  account  makes  him  to 
 have  died  of  laughter  on  seeing  an  ass  eat  ligs.  The 
 statement  of  Apuleius,  however,  is  the  most  proba- 
 ble, according  to  which  he  expired  without  pain  or  dis- 
 ease, from  the  pure  exhaustion  of  nature  (/.  c.—  Val. 
 Max.,  12,  6).  —  Philemon  began  to  exhibit  comedy 
 during  the  reign  of  Alexander,  a  little  earlier  than 
 Menander,  and  before  the  113th  Olympiad.  He  died 
 in  the  reign  of  the  second  Antigonus,  son  of  Deme- 
 trius. It  has  been  said  above  that  he  lived  to  the  age 
 of  ninety-seven  years  ;  Suidas,  however,  makes  it  nine- 
 ty-six, and  other  authorities  ninety-nine.  {Diod., 
 Eclog.,  lib.  23,  cd.  Bip.,  vol.  9,  p.  318.  — Clinloji's 
 Fasti  Hellcnici,  2d  cd.,  p.  157.)  The  fragments  of 
 Philemon  are  usually  printed  along  with  those  of  Me- 
 nander. The  best  edition  of  these  conjointly  is  that 
 of  Meineke,  BeroL,  1823,  8vo.  {Theatre  of  the  Greeks, 
 p.  121,  ed.  4.)  —  II.  A  son  of  the  preceding,  also  a 
 comic  poet,  and  called,  for  distinction'  sake,  Philemon 
 the  younger  {6  vEUTepoq. — Alhcn.,  7,  p.  291,  d.). 
 
 Philet^rus,  a  eunuch  made  governor  of  Perwa- 
 inus  by  Lysimachus.     {Vid.  Pergamus  II.) 
 
 Philetas,  a  native  of  Cos,  and  the  only  poet  that 
 we  know  of  at  the  court  of  Ptolemy  I.,  who  made  him 
 preceptor  to  his  son  and  successor  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
 phus.  Philetas  was  both  a  grammarian  and  poet.  He 
 composed  elegies,  which  were  the  model  of  those  of 
 1032 
 
 Propertius,  and  he  is  said  to  have  given  quite  a  new 
 character  to  this  species  of  poetry,  in  his  description 
 of  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  love.  He  wrote  also  lyric 
 and  lighter  poems.  The  ancients  prized  him  very 
 highly,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Cos  erected  a  brazen 
 statue  to  him.  Quintilian  ranks  him  next  to  Calli- 
 machus  (10,  1,  58).  We  have  only  a  few  fragments 
 remaining  of  his  elegies,  and  some  verses  also  in  the 
 anthology.  Philetas  was  remarkable  for  his  devotion 
 to  study,  and  reduced  himself  by  his  great  application 
 to  so"  emaciated  a  habit  of  body,  that,  accordmg  to  the 
 story  told  in  yElian,  he  used  to  wear  leaden  soles  to 
 his  shoes  or  sandals  {/xoTiiddov  neTroi/jiiEva  iv  roig 
 VTCodf^jiaai  TriX/xara)  to  prevent  his  being  blown  over 
 by  the  wind !  {JElian,  V.  H.,  9,  14.)  Aihenajus 
 says,  that  he  wore  balls  of  lead  around  his  feet  {acpai- 
 pac  EK  [loTivCiov  "KEnoiijjiivag  exelv  ivEpl  rtj  Trorfe,  12, 
 p.  552,  b.).  The  wonder  is  how  he  could  have  walked. 
 Athenasus  also  states  that  he  fairly  wore  himself  aw^ay 
 in  fruitless  endeavours  to  solve  the  sophism  called  by 
 the  ancients  ipEvdo/xEvov  (or  ■>pEvdo2.6yog),  and  the  epi- 
 thet on  his  tomb,  which  this  writer  cites,  corroborates 
 the  statement.  {Athen.,  9,  p.  401,  e.  —  Casaub.,  ad 
 loc.) 
 
 Philippi,  a  city  of  Thrace,  to  the  northeast  of  Am- 
 phipolis,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Mount  Pan- 
 gajus.  Ii  was  founded  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  on  the 
 site  of  an  old  Thasian  settlement.  The  Thasians  had 
 been  attracted  by  the  valuable  gold  and  silver  mines 
 in  this  quarter,  and  the  settlement  formed  by  them  was 
 called  Crenides,  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  sur- 
 rounded by  numerous  sources  which  descended  from 
 the  neighbouring  mountain  {Kprjvi],  a  spring).  Philip 
 of  Macedon  having  turned  his  attention  to  the  affairs 
 of  Thrace,  the  possession  of  Crenides  and  Mount  Pan- 
 ga3us  naturally  entered  his  views.  Accordingly,  he  in- 
 vaded this  country,  expelled  the  feeble  Cotys  from  his 
 throne,  and  then  proceeded  to  found  a  new  city  on  the 
 site  of  the  old  Thasian  colony,  as  above  mentioned, 
 which  he  named  after  himself,  Philippi.  {Dwd.  Sic, 
 16,  8.)  When  Macedonia  became  subject  to  the  Ro- 
 mans, the  advantages  attending  the  peculiar  situation 
 of  Philippi  induced  that  people  to  settle  a  colony  there  ; 
 and  we  know  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  that  it  was 
 already  at  that  period  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities 
 in  this  part  of  their  empire  (10,  12. — Compare  Plin., 
 4,  10).  It  is,  moreover,  celebrated  in  history  from  the 
 great  victory  gained  here  by  Antony  and  Octavianus 
 over  the  forces  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  by  which  the 
 republican  party  was  completely  subdued.  {Appian., 
 Bell.  Civ.,  4,  107,  scqq.—Dio  Cass.,  47,  41.)  Phil- 
 ippi, however,  is  rendered  more  interesting  from  the 
 circumstance  of  its  being  the  first  place  in  Europe 
 where  the  Gospel  was  preached  by  St.  Paul  (A.D. 
 51),  as  we  know  from  the  16th  of  the  Acts  of  the 
 Apostles,  and  also  from  the  Epistle  he  has  addressed 
 to  his  Philippian  converts  (4,  15),  where  the  zeal  and 
 charity  of  the  Philippians  towards  their  apostle  re- 
 ceived a  just  commendation.  We  hear  frequently  of 
 bishops  of  Philippi,  and  the  town  is  also  often  men- 
 tioned by  the  Byzantine  writers.  Its  ruins  still  retain 
 the  name  of  Filibah.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  sol.  1, 
 p.  301,  seqq. — Ma7iiiert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  232.) 
 
 Philippopolis,  a  city  in  the  interior  of  Thrace,  on 
 the  southeast  side  of  the  Hebrus,  and  some  distance 
 to  the  northwest  of  Hadrianopolis.  It  was  situate  in 
 a  large  plain,  on  a  mountain  with  three  summits,  and 
 hence  received  also  the  appellation  of  Trimontium. 
 It  was  founded  by  Philip  of  Macedon.  In  the  Roman 
 times  it  became  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Thracia. 
 The  modern  name  is  Filihe  or  Pkilivopoli.  {Stcph. 
 Byz.,  s.  v.—Itin.  Ant.,  l36.—Hicrocl,  p.  685.  — Ta- 
 cit.,  Ann.,  3,  38.—Polyb.,  5,  lOO.—Amm.  Marc,  26, 
 10.; 
 
 Philippus,  I.  one  of  the  earlier  kings  of  Macedo 
 nia,  and  the  first  of  the  name.     He  succeeded  his 
 
PHILIPPUS. 
 
 PHILIPPUS. 
 
 father  Argseus,  about  649  B.C.  according  to  some 
 chroiiologers,  and  reigned,  as  Eusebius  states,  thirty- 
 eight  years,  but,  according  to  Dexippus,  thirty-five. 
 {Euseb.,  p.  57. — Dcxipp.,  ap.  SyncdL,  p.  262,  seq.) 
 These  numbers,  however,  are  obviously  manufactured 
 ,  by  chronologers,  upon  no  certain  or  positive  testimony, 
 since  none  existed.  {^Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 221.) — II.  The  second  of  the  name  was  the  son  of 
 Amyntas  II.  of  Macedonia.  This  latter  monarch  left 
 three  sons  at  the  time  of  his  death,  under  the  care  of 
 their  mother  Eurydice.  Of  these,  Alexander,  the  el- 
 dest, had  just  attained  to  man's  estate  ;  but  Perdiccas, 
 and  Philip  the  youngest  of  the  three,  were  still  under 
 age.  Alexander,  who  appears  to  have  been  a  prince 
 of  great  promise,  had  scarcely  ascended  the  throne, 
 when  he  lost  his  life  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  15,  71.)  During  his  reign,  however, 
 short  as  it  was,  he  was  engaged  in  a  contest  with 
 Ptolemy  of  Alorus.  We  do  not  know  whether  Ptole- 
 my was  in  any  way  related  to  the  royal  family,  nor 
 whether  he  laid  claim  to  the  crown.  But  it  seems 
 clear  that  he  was  favoured  by  the  queen  Eurydice, 
 the  widowed  mother,  and  was  probably  her  paramour. 
 According  to  Diodorus  and  Plutarch,  Pelopidas,  the 
 Theban  commander,  came  into  Macedonia  to  arbitrate 
 between  Alexander  and  Ptolemy,  and  Philip  was  one 
 of  the  hostages  delivered  on  this  occasion  to  tlie  um- 
 pire. As  this,  however,  is  expressly  contradicted  by 
 the  testimony  of  the  contemporary  orator  ^schines, 
 who  relates  that  Philip  was  still  in  Macedonia  at  the 
 time  of  his  elder  brother's  death,  Mr.  Thirlwall  in- 
 clines to  the  following  opinion  :  According  to  Plu- 
 tarch, after  the  murder  of  Alexander,  which  must  have 
 happened  a  very  short  time  after  the  compromise,  Pe- 
 lopidas, who  was  in  Thessaly,  on  his  second  expedi- 
 tion against  the  tyrant  of  Pherae,  was  invited  into 
 Macedonia  by  the  friends  of  the  deceased  king,  and 
 obliged  Ptolemy  to  enter  into  an  engagement  to  pre- 
 serve the  crown  for  the  younger  brothers.  Ptolemy, 
 it  is  said,  gave  fifty  hostages  as  a  security  for  the  per- 
 formance of  his  promises,  among  whom  was  his  own 
 son  Philoxenus.  It  seems  more  natural,  according  to 
 Mr.  Thirlwall,  that  Philip  should  have  been  committed 
 to  the  custody  of  the  Thebans  under  these  circum- 
 stances, than  on  the  occasion  of  the  contest  between 
 Ptolemy  and  Alexander.  {History  of  Greece,  vol.  5, 
 p.  163.)  Ptolemy  kept  possession  of  the  government 
 three  years  :  Diodorus  simply  says  that  he  reigned  so 
 long :  probably,  however,  he  never  assumed  any  other 
 title  than  that  of  regent,  though  he  may  have  had  no 
 intention  of  ever  resigning  his  power  to  the  rightful 
 heir.  And  it  was,  perhaps,  as  much  in  self-defence,  as 
 to  avenge  his  brother's  murder  or  his  mother's  shame, 
 that  Perdiccas  killed  him.  Concerning  the  reign  of 
 Perdiccas  III.  we  have  but  very  scanty  information. 
 He  was  slain  in  battle  by  the  Illyrians,  in  the  fifth 
 year  of  his  rule,  leaving  behind  him  an  infant  son  by 
 the  name  of  Amyntas.  At  the  time  of  this  event 
 Philip  was  twcnty-ihree  years  of  age.  Diodorus  sup- 
 poses that  he  was  still  at  Thebes,  but  that,  on  receiv- 
 ing intelligence  of  his  brother's  death,  he  made  his  es- 
 cape and  suddenly  appeared  in  Macedonia  (16,  2).  It 
 is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  the  story  may  have 
 taken  this  form  :  a  hostage  so  important,  it  might  ea- 
 sily be  supposed  by  writers  acquainted  with  his  subse- 
 quent history,  would  not  have  been  willingly  surren- 
 dered by  the  Thebans  ;  it  is  certain,  however,  from 
 better  authority,  that  he  had  been  already  restored 
 to  his  country,  and,  it  is  probable,  early  in  the  reign 
 of  Perdiccas,  when  the  Thebans  could  have  no  mo- 
 tive for  detaining  him.  Extravagantly  as  some  mod- 
 ern writers  have  indulged  their  imagination  with  re- 
 gard to  the  manner  in  which  his  lime  was  employed 
 during  his  sojourn  at  Thebes,  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
 overrate  the  importance  of  the  opportunities  it  aflbrded 
 him  for  the  acquisition  of  various  kinds  of  knowledi^e, 
 6P 
 
 or  to  doubt  that  he  availed  himself  of  them  with  all  the 
 energy  and  perseverance  which  belonged  to  his  char- 
 acter. It  is,  perhaps,  less  probable  that  the  house  of 
 Polymnis,  the  father  of  Epaminondas,  should  have 
 been  chosen  for  his  residence,  as  Diodorus  relates, 
 than  that  of  Pammenes,  according  to  Plutarch's  state- 
 ment :  and  the  fable  of  his  Pythagorean  studies,  wor- 
 thy of  Diodorus,  is  below  criticism.  But  a  certain 
 tincture  of  philosophy  was  at  this  time  deemed  almost 
 an  indispensable  requisite  in  a  liberal  education.  It 
 was  undoubtedly,  however,  not  the  study  of  philoso- 
 phy, either  speculative  or  practical,  that  chi«fly  occu- 
 pied Philip's  attention  during  the  period  of  his  resi- 
 dence at  Thebes.  To  the  society  in  which  it  was 
 passed,  he  may  have  been  mainly  indebted  for  that 
 command  of  the  Greek  language,  which  enabled  him 
 both  to  write  and  speak  it  with  a  degree  of  ease  and 
 eloquence  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  most  practised 
 orators  of  the  day.  But  the  most  important  advan- 
 tages which  he  gained  from  his  stay  at  Thebes  were 
 probably  derived  from  the  military  and  political  les- 
 sons, with  which  the  conversation  of  generals  and 
 statesmen  like  Epaminondas,  Pelopidas,  and  their 
 friends,  could  not  fail  to  abound.  It  was  by  them 
 that  the  art  of  war  had  been  carried  to  the  highest 
 point  it  had  yet  reached  in  Greece  ;  or  rather  they, 
 more  particularly  Epaminondas,  had  given  it  a  new 
 form  ;  and  the  details  of  their  battles  and  campaigns 
 would  be  eagerly  collected  by  an  intelligent  and  ambi- 
 tious youth.  Thebes  was  at  this  time  the  great  centre 
 of  political  movements  :  the  point  from  which  the  con- 
 dition, interests,  and  mutual  relations  of  the  Grecian 
 states  might  be  most  distinctly  surveyed.  Here,  too, 
 were  gained  the  clearest  ideas  of  the  state  of  parties. 
 of  the  nature  and  working  of  republican,  especially  of 
 democratical,  institutions  :  here  probably  Philip  learned 
 many  of  those  secrets  which  often  enabled  him  to  con- 
 quer without  drawing  the  sword.  And  as  he  was 
 placed  in  one  of  the  most  favourable  positions  for 
 studying  the  Greek  character,  so  the  need  which  his 
 situation  imposed  on  him,  of  continual  caution  and  self- 
 control  must  have  served  very  greatly  to  sharpen  his 
 natural  sagacity,  and  to  form  the  address  which  he  af- 
 terward displayed  in  dealing  with  men,  ar^  winning 
 them  for  his  ends.  Nature  had  gifted  him  with  almost 
 every  quality  that  could  fit  him  for  the  station  which  he 
 was  destined  to  fill :  a  frame  of  extraordinary  robust- 
 ness, which  was,  no  doubt,  well  trained  in  the  exercises 
 of  the  Theban  palsestras  :  a  noble  person,  a  command- 
 ing and  prepossessing  mien,  which  won  respect  and 
 insjjired  confidence  in  all  who  approached  him  :  ready 
 eloquence,  to  which  art  only  applied  the  cultivation  re- 
 quisite to  satisfy  the  fastidious  de.mands  of  a  rhetorical 
 age  :  quickness  of  observation,  acuteness  of  discern- 
 ment, presence  of  mind,  fertility  of  invention,  and  dex- 
 terity in  the  management  of  men  and  things.  There 
 seem  to  have  been  two  features  in  his  character,  which, 
 in  another  station  or  under  different  circumstances, 
 might  have  gone  near  to  lower  him  into  an  ordinary  per- 
 son, but  which  were  so  controlled  by  his  fortune  as  to 
 contribute  not  a  little  to  his  success.  He  appears  to 
 have  been  by  his  temperament  prone  to  almost  every 
 kind  of  sensual  pleasure.  But  as  his  life  was  too  busy 
 to  allow  him  often  to  indulge  his  bias,  his  occasional  ex- 
 cesses wore  the  air  of  an  amiable  condescension.  So 
 his  natural  humour  would  perhaps  have  led  him  too 
 often  to  forget  his  dignity  in  his  intercourse  with  his  in- 
 feriors. But  to  Philip,  the  great  king,  the  conqueror, 
 the  restless  politician,  these  intervals  of  relaxation  oc- 
 curred so  rarely,  that  they  might  strengthen  his  influ- 
 ence with  the  vulgar,  and  could  never  expose  him  to 
 contempt.  From  that  ho  was  secured  by  the  energy  of 
 his  will,  which  made  all  his  faculties  and  accomplish-  * 
 ments  of  mind  and  body,  and  even  his  failings,  as  well 
 as  what  may  be  called,  in  a  lower  sense,  his  virtues,  his 
 affability,  clemency,  and  generosity,  always  subservient 
 '  1033 
 
PHILIPPUS. 
 
 PHILIPPCJS. 
 
 to  the  purposes  of  his  lofty  ambition.  A  moral  esti- 
 mate of  such  a  man's  character  is  comprised  in  the  bare 
 mention  of  his  ruimg  passion,  and  cannot  be  enlarged 
 by  any  investigation  into  the  motives  of  particular  ac- 
 tions ;  and  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  consider  him 
 in  any  other  light  than  as  an  instrument  of  Providence 
 for  fixing  the  destiny  of  nations. — It  was  in  the  105lh 
 Olympiad,  and  about  360  B.C.,  that  Philip  took  charge 
 of  the  government  of  Macedonia,  not  as  monarch,  but 
 as  the  nearest  kinsman,  and  as  guardian  of  the  royal 
 infant,  the  son  of  his  brother  Perdiccas.  The  situa- 
 tion in  which  he  was  now  placed  was  one  of  great 
 apparent  difficulty  and  danger,  and  the  throne  which 
 he  had  to  defend  was  threatened  by  enemies  in  many 
 quarters,  by  the  victorious  Illyrians  as  well  as  by  the 
 PjEonians,  and  lastly  by  an  Athenian  force,  which  was 
 destined  to  place  Argeeus,  a  pretender  to  the  crown, 
 on  the  throne  of  Macedon.  The  Illyrians,  happily, 
 did  not  press  their  advantage  ;  and  the  Pseonians  were 
 induced  to  desist  from  hostilities  by  skilful  negotia- 
 tions, and  secret  presents  made  to  their  leaders.  The 
 Athenians  were  encountered  in  the  field,  and,  after  sus- 
 taining a  defeat,  were  forced  to  surrender.  (Diod. 
 Sic,  16,  3.)  Philip,  however,  generously  granted 
 them  their  liberty,  and  immediately  sent  a  deputation 
 to  Athens  with  proposals  of  peace,  which  were  gladly 
 accepted.  {Demosth.  in  Arislocr.,  ^  144.)  By  the 
 death  of  the  reigning  prince  of  Pceonia  that  country 
 was  soon  after  annexed  to  the  dominion  of  Philip,  but 
 whether  by  right  of  succession  or  by  conquest  we  are 
 not  informed.  He  next  directed  his  arms  against  the 
 Illyrians,  who  were  totally  routed  after  a  severe  con- 
 flict. The  loss  of  the  enemy  is  said  to  have  amounted 
 to  7000  men  ;  and  they  were  compelled  to  accept  the 
 terms  of  peace  imposed  by  the  conqueror.  They  ceded 
 to  him  all  that  they  possessed  east  of  the  Lake  of  Lych- 
 nitis,  and  thus  not  only  gave  him  the  command  of  the 
 principal  pass  by  which  they  had  been  used  to  penetrate 
 into  Macedonia,  b\it  opened  a  way  by  which  he  might 
 at  any  time  descend  through  their  own  territory  to  the 
 shores  of  the  Adriatic.  (Consult  Leake's  Northern 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  321.)  It  may  safely  be  presumed 
 that,  after  this  brilliant  success,  Philip  no  longer  hesi- 
 tated to  assume  the  kingly  title.  His  usurpation,  for 
 such  it  appears  to  have  been  according  to  the  laws  of 
 Macedon,  was,  however,  most  probably  sanctioned  by 
 the  unanimous  consent  of  both  the  army  and  nation. 
 How  secure  he  felt  himself  in  their  affections  is  mani- 
 fest from  his  treatment  of  his  deposed  nephew.  He 
 was  so  little  jealous  of  him,  that  he  brought  him  to  his 
 court,  and,  in  time,  bestowed  the  hand  of  one  of  his 
 daughters  upon  him.  (Polyan.,  8,  60. — Arrian, 
 Exp.  Al.,  1,  5. — AthencRus,  13,  p.  557.)  The  trans- 
 fer of  the  crown  was  so  quiet  and  noiseless  that  it 
 seems  not  to  have  reached  the  ears  of  the  Athenian 
 orators,  whose  silence  may,  at  all  events,  be  admitted 
 as  a  proof  that  there  was  nothing  in  the  transaction  on 
 which  they  could  ground  a  charge  against  Philip. — His 
 victory  over  the  Illyrians  is  connected  by  Diodorus 
 with  the  institution  of  the  Macedonian  phalanx,  which 
 he  is  said  to  have  invented.  The  testimony  of  the 
 ancients  on  this  point  has  been  very  confidently  reject- 
 ed in  modern  times,  without  any  just  reason.  We 
 may  indeed  doubt  whether  this  body,  as  it  existed  in 
 the  beginning  of  Philip's  reign,  differed  in  any  impor- 
 tant feature  from  that  which  was  already  familiar  to 
 the  Greeks,  or,  at  least,  from  the  Theban  phalanx.  But 
 it  is  another  question  whether  the  Macedonian  armies 
 had  ever  been  organized  on  this  plan  ;  and  there  is 
 nothing  to  prevent  us  from  admitting  the  statement  of 
 authors,  certainly  better  informed  than  ourselves,  that 
 it  was  first  introduced  by  Philip.  Nor  is  there  any 
 »  difficulty  in  believing,  that  he  at  the  same  time  made 
 some  improvements  m  the  arms  or  the  structure  of  the 
 phalanx,  which  entitled  it  to  its  peculiar  epithet,  and 
 him  to  the  honour  of  an  inventor.  Both  the  tactics 
 1034 
 
 and  the  discipline  of  the  army  seem  to  have  been  in 
 a  very  low  state  under  his  predecessors;  and  this  was, 
 perhaps,  the  main  cause  of  the  defeats  which  they  so 
 often  experienced  from  the  neighbouring  barbarians. 
 Philij)  paid  no  less  attention  to  the  discipline  than  to 
 the  organization  of  his  forces  ;  and  his  regulations 
 were  enforced  with  inflexible  severity. — In  the  course 
 of  about  a  year  from  his  brother's  death,  Philip  had 
 freed  himself  from  all  his  domestic  embarrassments, 
 and  had  seated  himself  firmly  on  the  throne.  In  a 
 summary  account  like  the  present,  we  must  necessari- 
 ly confine  ourselves  to  a  rapid  sketch  of  the  principal 
 events  of  his  reign.  Allied  with  Athens,  we  find  him, 
 in  conjunction  with  that  power,  carrying  on  operations 
 against  the  republic  of  Olynthus,  and  seizing  upon  the 
 city  of  Potidaea  ;  but,  soon  after,  from  some  cause 
 which  is  not  apparent,  he  made  peace  with  the  Olyn- 
 thians,  and  turned  his  arms  against  Amphipolis,  which 
 had  preserved  its  independence  ever  since  the  days  of 
 Brasidas.  After  a  siege  of  some  duration,  the  place 
 was  taken  and  added  to  his  dominions,  and  Philip 
 next  turned  his  attention  to  the  acquisition  of  some 
 valuable  gold-mines  on  the  Thracian  coast,  which  be- 
 longed to  the  people  of  Thasos.  For  this  purpose  he 
 crossed  the  Strymon,  and,  having  easily  overcome  the 
 resistance  that  was  offered  on  the  part  of  Cotys,  king 
 of  Thrace,  he  took  possession  of  Crenides,  the  Tha- 
 sian  mining  establishment,  where  he  founded  a  con- 
 siderable town,  and  named  it  Philippi.  The  Athe- 
 nians, meanwhile,  incited  the  Thracians  and  Illyrians 
 to  take  up  arms  against  the  King  of  Macedon,  whose 
 rising  power  inspired  them  with  well-founded  grounds 
 for  jealousy  and  alarm  ;  but  the  latter  were  again  de- 
 feated by  Parmenio,  and  Philip  easily  repelled  the 
 former  in  person.  The  small  republic  of  Methone, 
 which  had  also  shown  a  spirit  of  hostility  at  the  insti- 
 gation of  Athens,  was  surrounded  by  a  Macedonian 
 army,  and,  though  the  town  held  out  for  more  than  a 
 year,  and  Philip  received  during  the  siege  a  wound  by 
 which  he  lost  an  eye,  it  was  at  length  compelled  to 
 surrender.  At  this  period,  the  Thessalian  towns,  being 
 threatened  by  the  forces  of  Lycophron,  tyrant  of  Phe- 
 rte,  supported  by  the  Phocians,  urgently  sought  the  aid 
 of  the  King  of  Macedon.  He  accordingly  entered 
 Thessaly  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  and  in  its 
 plains  encountered  the  enemy,  commanded  by  Ono- 
 marchus,  the  Phocian  leader.  Here,  however,  the 
 usual  good  fortune  of  Philip  forsook  him  ;  and,  being 
 twice  vanquished  with  great  loss,  he  effected  his  re- 
 treat into  Macedonia  with  considerable  difficulty.  Un- 
 dismayed, however,  by  these  reverses,  and  having 
 quickly  recruited  his  army,  he  once  more  entered  Thes- 
 saly, whither  also  Onomarchus  directed  his  march  from 
 Phocis.  The  two  armies  were  again  engaged  at  no 
 great  distance  from  Pherae,  when  Philip  gained  a  com- 
 plete victory  ;  six  thousand  of  the  enemy  having  per- 
 ished on  the  field,  among  whom  was  Onomarchus,  their 
 general.  This  success  was  followed  up  by  the  cap- 
 ture of  Pherae,  Pagass,  and  the  whole  of  Thessaly, 
 which  henceforth  warmly  espoused  the  interests  of 
 Philip  on  every  occasion.  (Justin,  8,  2. — Polyh.,  9, 
 33.)  Meanwhile,  the  republic  of  Olynthus,  which  had 
 recovered  its  strength  under  the  protection  of  Mace- 
 donia, came  to  a  rupture  with  that  power,  probably  at 
 the  instigation  of  a  party  in  Athens.  War  was,  in  con- 
 sequence, determined  upon,  and  the  Olynthians,  sup- 
 ported by  a  considerable  Athenian  force  under  Chares, 
 twice  ventured  to  attack  the  army  of  Philip,  but,  being 
 unsuccessful  on  both  occasions,  were  at  length  com- 
 pelled to  retire  within  the  walls  of  their  city,  to  which 
 the  enemy  immediately  laid  siege.  At  variance  among 
 themselves,  and  open  to  treachery  and  defection,  from 
 the  bribery  employed,  as  it  is  said,  on  more  than  one 
 occasion  by  Philip,  the  Olynthians  were  ultimately 
 forced  to  surrender  ;  when  the  King  of  Macedon,  bent 
 on  the  destruction  of  a  state  which  had  so  often  men- 
 
PHILIPPUS. 
 
 PHILIPPUS. 
 
 aced  the  security  of  his  dominions,  gave  up  the  town 
 to  plunder,  and  reduced   the   inhabitants   to  slavery. 
 Intimidated  by  these  reverses,  tiie  Athenians,  not  long 
 after,  sought  a  reconciliation  with  Philip,  and  sent  a 
 deputation,  consisting  of  eleven  of  their  most  distin- 
 guished  orators   and   statesmen,   among  whom  were 
 .(Eschines,  Demosthenes,  and  Ctesiphon,  to  negotiate 
 a  treaty.     {jEschin.,  de  Fals.  Leg.,  p.  30.)     These 
 ambassadors  were  most  graciously  received  by  Philip, 
 and  on  his  sending  envoys  to  Athens,  with  full  power 
 to  settle  the  preliminaries,  peace  was  concluded.    {Dc- 
 mostk.,  ie  Leg.,  p.  414.)     Philip  was  now  enabled  to 
 terminate  the  Sacred  War,  of  which  he  had  been  in- 
 vited to  take  the  command,  by  the  general  voice  of 
 the   Amphictyonic   assembly.      {Vid.  Phocis.)     Hav- 
 ing passed  Thertnopyla3  without  opposition,  he  entered 
 Phocis  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army,  and  was 
 enabled  to  put  an  end  at  once  to  this  obstinate  strug- 
 gle without  farther  bloodshed.     He  was   now  unan- 
 imously elected  a  member  of  the  Amphictyonic  coun- 
 cil, after  which  he  returned  to  Macedon,  having  reaped 
 in  this  e.xpedition  a  vast  accession  of  fame  and  popu- 
 larity, as  the  defender  and  supporter  of  religion.     The 
 success  of  Philip  in  this  quarter  vvas  calculated,  how- 
 ever, to  awaken  the  jealousy  and  fears  of  Athens,  and 
 the  party  which  was  adverse  to  his  interests  in  that 
 city  took  advantage  of  this  circumstance  to  urge  the 
 people  to  measures  that  could  end  only  in  a  renew- 
 al of  hostilities  with  Macedon.     The  Athenian  com- 
 manders  in  Thrace  were  encouraged  to  thwart  and 
 oppose  Philip  in  all  his  undertakings,  and  secretly  to 
 favour  those  towns  which  might  revolt  from  him.    Ac- 
 cordingly, when  that  monarch  was  engaged  in  besie- 
 ging the  cities  of  Perinthus  and  Selymbria,  near  the 
 Hellespont,  the  Athenians  on  several  occasions  assist- 
 ed them  with  supplies,  and  did  not  scruple  even  to 
 make  incursions  into  the  Macedonian  territory  from 
 the  Chersonese.     These  measures  could   not   fail  to 
 rouse  the  indignation  of  Philip,  who,  finally  abandon- 
 ing his  projects  on  the  Hellespont,  turned  his  thoughts 
 entirely   to    the   overthrow   of    the   Athenian    power. 
 Meanwhile  another  Sacred  War  had    arisen,  which, 
 though  of  trifling  magnitude  in  itself,  produced  very 
 important  results  to  two  of  the  leading  states  of  Greece. 
 The  Amphissians,  who  belonged  to  the  Locri  Ozolae, 
 had  occupied  by  force,  and  cultivated  a  portion  of  the 
 territory  of  Cirrha,  which  had  been  declared  accursed 
 by  the  Amphictyones,  and  unfit  for  culture.  This  act  of 
 defiance  necessarily  called  for  the  interference  of  that 
 assembly  ;  and  as  it  was  to  be  feared  that  the  people 
 of  Amphissa  would  be  sujiported  by  Athens  and  other 
 states,  it  was  determined  to  elect  Philip  general  of  the 
 Amphictyonic  council,  and  to  commit  to  him  the  sole 
 Jirection  of  the  measures  to  be  pursued.     (AUschin. 
 in  Cles.,  p.  71. — Dem.,  de  Cor.)     The  Amphissians 
 were,  of  course,  easily  reduced  and  punished  ;  but  the 
 Athenians,  who  had  avowedly  favoured  their  cause, 
 found  themselves  too  far  implicated  to  recede  with 
 honour  upon  the  near  approach  of  Philip.     Finding, 
 therefore,  that  he  had  already  occupied  Elatea,  which 
 commanded  the  principal  pass  into  Phocis,  the  coun- 
 cil was  summoned,  and  it  was   determined  to  mus- 
 ter all  the  forces  of  the  republic,  and,  if  possible,  to  in- 
 duce the  Thebans  to  espouse  their  interests.     An  em- 
 bassy was  accojdingly  despatched  to  Thebes,  at  the 
 head  of  which  was  Demosthenes  ;  and  such  was  the 
 effect  of  their  great  orator's  eloquence,  that  he  suc- 
 ceeded in  persuading  the  Boeotians  to  join  the  Athe- 
 nians, notwithstanding  all  the  arguments  urged  against 
 this  step  by  flie  deputy  of  Philip,  who  was  present  at 
 the  debate.     The  combined  forces  of  the  two  repub- 
 lics took  the  field,  and,  marching  towards  the  Phocian 
 frontier,  encamped  at  Cha^ronea,  in  Boeotia.     Here, 
 after  some  partial  and  indecisive  actions,  a  general  en- 
 gagement at  length  took  place,  which  was  obstinately 
 contested  on  both  sides,  but  finally  terminated  in  the 
 
 total  discomfiture  of  the  Athenians  and  their  allies. 
 This  result  might  easily  have  been  foreseen.     Thebci 
 possessed  at  the  time  no  genera!  of  sufficient  note  to 
 be  even  mentioned,  except  Theagenes,  who  is  named 
 only  to  be  branded  as  a  traitor  {Dinarchus  in  Dem., 
 (J  75),  and  the  names  of  Chares,  Lysicles,  and  Strato- 
 cles,    who   commanded  the  Athenians,  could  inspire 
 little  confidence.     In  numbers,  the  confederates  ap- 
 pear to  have  at  least  equalled  the  enemy  ;  but  though 
 the  Sacred  Band  still  preserved  its  excellent  discipline 
 and  spirit,  the  Athenians,  who  had  now  for  many  years 
 been  little  used  to  military  service,  were  ill-matched 
 with  the  Macedonian  veterans  led  by  their  king,  and 
 by  the  able  officers  formed  in  his  school,  and  animated 
 by  the  presence  of  the  young  prince  Alexander,  whom 
 his  father  intrusted  with  the  command  of  one  wing, 
 where,  however,  some  of  his  best  generals  were  sta- 
 tioned at  his  side.     We  know  very  little  more  of  the 
 causes  which  determined  the  event  of  the  battle,  and 
 these  are  amply  sufficient  to  account  for  it.     If  we 
 may  believe  Polyoenus,  Philip  at  first  restrained  the 
 ardour  of  his  troops,  until  the  Athenians  had  spent 
 much  of  the  vigour  and  fury  with  which  they  made 
 their    onset   (4,    2,   7).     Then  it  appears  Alexander 
 made  a  charge,  which  broke  the  enemy's  ranks,  and 
 decided   the   fortune   of   the   day.      {Diod.,    16,  86.) 
 Alexander  was  in  the  wing  opposed  to  the  Thebans, 
 and  first  charged  the   Sacred   Band.     The  Thebans 
 seem  to  have  kept  their  ground  longest,  and  probably 
 suflfered   most.     The  Sacred  Band  was  cut  off  to  a 
 man,  but  fighting  where  it  stood.     Demosthenes  was 
 not  a  hero  of  this  kind  :  but  he  was  certainly  reproach- 
 ed with  cowardice,  because  he  escaped  in  the  general 
 flight,  only  by  those  who  wished  that  he  had  been  left 
 on  the  field.     Of  the  Athenians  not  more  than  1000 
 were  slain,  but  2000  were  taken  prisoners  :    among 
 these,  Demades  fell  into  the  enemy's  hands.    The  loss 
 of  the  Thebans  is  not  reported  in  numbers,  but  the 
 prisoners  were  probably  fewer  than  the  slain.     It  was 
 not  the  amount  of  these  losses,  however,  that  gave 
 such  importance  to  the  battle  of  Chsronea,  that  it  has 
 been  generally  considered  as  the  blow  which  put  an 
 end  to  the  independence  of  Greece,  any  more  than  it 
 was  the  loss  sustained  by  Sparta  at  Leuctra  that  de- 
 prived her  of  her  supremacy.     But  the  event  of  this 
 day  broke  up  the  confederacy  which  had  been  formed 
 against  Philip,  as  it  proved  that  its  utmost  efforts  could 
 not  raise  a  force  sufficient  to  meet  him,  with  any  chance 
 of  success,  in  the  field.     Each  of  the  allied  states  was 
 therefore  left  at  his  mercy.     The  consternation  which 
 the  tidings  of  this  disaster  caused  at  Athens  was  prob- 
 ably greater  than  had  ever  been  known  there,  except 
 after  the  loss  at  /Egos  Potamos.     As  long  as  it  re- 
 mained uncertain  what  use  Philip  would  make  of  his 
 victory,  there  was  certainly  reason  to  fear  the  worst : 
 and  if  it  be  true  that  at  first  he  rejected  the  application 
 of  the  heralds,  who  came  from  Lebadea  to  ask  leave  to 
 bury  the  slain  (Plut.,  Vit.  X.,  Oral.  Hyperid,  p.  849,  a.), 
 we  might  suppose  that  he  wished  to  keep  the  vanquish- 
 ed a  while  in  suspense  as  to  their  fate.    That  he  should 
 even  have  forgotten  himself  for  a  time  on  the  scene 
 of  his  triumph,  intoxicated  by  the  complete  success 
 which  had  suddenly  crowned  the  plans  and  labours  of 
 so  many  years,  would  not  be  at  all  inconsistent  with  his 
 character.     He  is  said  to  have  risen  from  the  banquet 
 to  visit  the  field  of  battle,  and,  as  he  moved  in  dance 
 among  the  bodies  of  the  slain,  though  the  sight  of  the 
 Sacred  Band  drew  from  him  an  exclamation  of  sym- 
 pathy, to  have  parodied  and  sung  the  commencement 
 of  one  of  the  decrees  of  Demosthenes.     {Plut.,  Vit. 
 Demoslh.,  20.)     This  anecdote  is  more  credible   than 
 that  he  exposed  himself  to  the  rebuke  of  Demades  by 
 his  behaviour  to  his  prisoners.     (Diod.  Sic.,  16,  87.) 
 It  would  be  absurd  to  suppose,  with  Diodorus,  that 
 such  a  man  as  Demades,  however  the  king  might  be 
 pleased  at  such  a  moment  with  his  freedom  and  wit, 
 '^  1035 
 
PHILIPPUS. 
 
 PHILIPPUS. 
 
 could  have  had  any  influence  over  him  ;  but  it  seems 
 that  Philip  did  not  disdain  to  gain  him  for  his  own  ends, 
 and  to  communicate  his  designs  to  him,  and  employ 
 him  as  his  agent.  The  manner  in  which  Philip  finally 
 treated  his  conquered  enemies  excited  general  sur- 
 prise, and  has  earned,  perhaps,  more  praise  than  it  de- 
 serves. He  dismissed  the  Athenian  prisoners  without 
 ransom,  several  of  them  even  newly  clothed,  and  all 
 with  their  baggage  ;  and  rent  Antipater,  accompanied, 
 Justin  says,  by  Alexander,  to  bear  the  bones  of  their 
 dead,  whom  he  had  himself  honoured  with  funeral  rites 
 (Polyb.,  5,  10),  to  Athens,  with  offers  of  peace,  on 
 terms  such  as  an  Athenian  would  scarcely  have  ven- 
 tured to  propose  to  him.  The  commonwealth  was  re- 
 quired, indeed,  to  resign  a  part  of  its  foreign  posses- 
 sions, perhaps  all  but  the  Ghersonesus,  Leinnos,  Im- 
 bros,  and  Samos  {Plut.,  Vit.  Alex.,  28);  but  it  was 
 left  iii  undisturbed  possession  of  all  its  domestic  re- 
 sources, and  its  territory  was  even  enlarged  by  the  ad- 
 dition of  Oropus,  which  Thebes  was  forced  to  resign. 
 {Pausan.,  1,  34.)  The  value  of  these  concessions 
 was  greatly  enhanced  by  comparison  with  the  condi- 
 tions on  which  peace  was  granted  to  the  Thebans. 
 They  were  obliged  to  ransom  not  only  their  prisoners, 
 but  their  dead.  Not  only  Oropus,  but  the  sovereignty 
 of  the  BcBOtian  towns  was  taken  from  them.  Platsea 
 and  Orchomenus  were  restored  to  as  many  as  could 
 be  found  of  their  old  inhabitants  :  at  least  they  were 
 filled  with  an  independent  population  implacably  hos- 
 tile to  Thebes.  But  this  was  the  lightest  part  of  her 
 punishment.  She  lost  not  only  power,  but  freedom. 
 She  was  compelled  to  admit  a  Macedonian  garrison 
 into  the  citadel,  and  to  recall  her  exiles.  The  gov- 
 ernment was  lodged  in  their  hands  :  a  council  of  three 
 hundred,  selected  from  them,  was  invested  with  su- 
 preme authority,  both  legislative  and  judicial.  {Jus- 
 tin, 9,  4.)  Philip's  treatment  of  the  Athenians  has 
 been  commonly  accounted  magnanimous.  It  may  in- 
 deed be  said,  that  in  them  he  did  honour  to  the  manly 
 resistance  of  open  enemies,  while  in  the  case  of  the 
 Thebans  he  punished  treachery  and  ingratitude,  and, 
 knowing  the  people  to  be  generally  hostile  to  him,  he 
 crushed  the  power  of  the  state,  and  used  the  faction 
 which  depended  on  him  as  the  instrument  of  his  ven- 
 geance. On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  remembered 
 that,  when  this  was  done,  he  had  the  less  reason  to 
 dread  the  hostility  of  Athens  :  he  might  safely  concil- 
 iate the  favour  of  the  Greeks  by  a  splendid  example 
 of  lenity  and  moderation.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
 this  was  the  course  to  which  he  was  inclined  by  his 
 own  prepossessions.  But,  had  it  been  otherwise,  there 
 were  reasons  enough  to  deter  so  wary  a  prince  from 
 violent  measures,  which  would  have  driven  the  Athe- 
 nians to  despair.  He  had  probably  very  early  intelli- 
 gence of  the  preparations  for  defence  which  they  had 
 begun  while  they  expected  an  invasion.  He  might, 
 indeed,  have  ravaged  Attica,  and  have  carried  on  a 
 Decelean  war  :  but  it  was  by  no  means  certain  that 
 he  could  make  himself  master  of  the  city  and  Pirsus  : 
 and  nothing  but  a  very  clear  prospect  of  immediate 
 success  could  have  rendered  the  attempt  advisable. 
 The  danger  of  a  failure,  and  even  the  inconvenience 
 of  delay,  was  far  greater  than  the  advantage  to  be 
 reaped  from  it.  Philip's  offers  were  gladly,  if  not 
 thankfully  received  at  Athens  ;  and  he  now  saw  his 
 road  open  to  the  Peloponnesus.  Proceeding  to  Cor- 
 inth, whither  he  had  invited  all  the  states  of  Greece 
 to  send  their  deputies,  he  held  a  congress,  as  in  the 
 time  of  the  ancient  league  against  Persia.  The  avow- 
 ed object  of  this  assemblage  was  indeed  to  settle  the 
 affairs  of  Greece,  and  to  put  an  end  to  intestine  feuds 
 by  the  authority  of  a  supreme  council.  But  it  was 
 well  known,  that  Philip  meant  to  use  it  for  the  pur- 
 poses of  an  enterprise,  which  he  had  long  cherished, 
 the  invasion,  namely,  of  the  Persian  empire.  All  his 
 proposals  were  adopted.  War  was  declared  against 
 1036 
 
 Persia,  and  he  was  appointed  to  command  the  national 
 forces  with  which  it  was  to  be  waged.  One  object 
 only  now  remained  to  detain  Philip  in  the  south  of 
 Greece  :  to  fulfil  the  promises  which  he  had  made 
 some  years  before  to  his  Peloponnesian  allies,  to  ani- 
 mate them  by  his  presence,  and  to  make  Sparta  feel 
 the  effects  of  his  displeasure,  for  having  been  the  only 
 Grecian  state  which  did  not  send  ministers  to  the  con- 
 gress at  Corinth.  His  march  through  the  Peloponne- 
 sus was  for  the  most  part  a  peaceful,  triumphant  prog- 
 ress, and  hence  it  may  be  that  so  few  traces  of  it  are 
 left  in  our  historical  fragments.  It  is  chiefly  by  some 
 casual  allusions  to  it  in  Polybius  and  Pausanias  that 
 the  fact  itself  is  ascertained.  In  Laconia  Philip  made 
 a  longer  stay,  and  encountered  some  resistance.  It 
 appears,  however,  that  in  the  end  Sparta  was  com- 
 pelled to  submit  to  the  terms  which  he  prescribed. 
 The  western  states  beyond  the  isthmus  likewise  ac- 
 knowledged his  authority  :  the  leaders  of  the  anti- 
 Macedonian  party  in  Acarnania  were  driven  into  exile, 
 and  Ambracia  consented  to  receive  a  Macedonian  gar- 
 rison. (DiocZ.  &c.,  17,  3.)  Byzantium  also,  it  seems, 
 entered  into  an  alliance  with  him,  which  was  little  more 
 than  a  decent  name  for  subjection.  Thus  crowned 
 with  new  honours,  having  overcome  every  obstacle, 
 and  having  established  his  power  on  the  firmest  founda- 
 tion in  every  part  of  Greece,  he  returned  in  the  autumn 
 of  333  B.C.  to  Macedonia,  to  prepare  for  the  great  en- 
 terprise on  which  his  thoughts  were  now  wholly  bent. 
 This  brilliant  fortune,  however,  was  before  long  over- 
 cast by  a  cloud  of  domestic  troubles.  Philip,  not  less 
 from  temperament  than  policy,  had  adopted  the  Oriental 
 usage  of  polygamy,  which,  though  repugnant  to  the  an- 
 cient Greek  manners,  did  not  in  this  age,  as  we  find 
 from  other  examples,  shock  public  opinion  in  Greece. 
 Thus,  it  seems,  before  his  marriage  with  Olympias,  he 
 had  formed  several  matrimonial  alliances,  which  might 
 all  contribute  to  strengthen  his  political  interests.  An 
 lUyrian  princess,  a  Macedonian  lady,  apparently  of  the 
 Lyncestian  family,  which  had  some  remote  claims  to 
 the  throne,  and  two  from  Thessaly,  one  a  native  of 
 Pherje,  the  other  from  Larissa,  are  mentioned  before 
 Olympias  in  the  list  of  his  wives.  After  his  marriage 
 with  Olympias,  he  did  not  reject  the  hand  of  a  Thra- 
 cian  princess,  which  was  offered  to  him  by  her  father. 
 In  each  of  these  cases,  however,  there  was  an  appa- 
 rent motive  of  policy,  which  may  have  rendered  the 
 presence  of  so  many  rivals  more  tolerable  than  it  would 
 otherwise  have  been  to  Olympias,  a  woman  of  inascn- 
 line  spirit  and  violent  passions,  and  who,  as  a  daugh- 
 ter of  the  house  of  Epirus,  which  traced  its  pedigree 
 to  Achilles,  no  doubt  regarded  herself  as  far  superior 
 to  them  all  in  rank,  and  as  Philip's  sole  legitimate 
 consort.  But  after  his  return  to  Macedonia  from  his 
 victorious  campaign  in  Greece,  perhaps  early  in  the 
 following  spring,  he  contracted  another  union,  for 
 which  it  does  not  appear  that  he  had  the  same  ex- 
 cuse to  plead.  Cleopatra,  the  niece  of  Attains  one 
 of  his  generals,  had,  it  seems,  attracted  him  by  her 
 beauty.  He  sought  her  hand,  and  their  nuptials 
 were  celebrated,  with  the  usual  festivities,  in  the  pal- 
 ace at  Pella,  where  Olympias  was  residing.  This 
 would  not  be  stranger  than  it  is  that  Alexander  was 
 present  at  the  banquet,  which,  according  to  the  custom 
 of  the  court,  was  prolonged  until  both  Philip  and  his 
 guests  were  much  heated  with  wine.  Attains  had 
 secretly  cherished  the  presumptuous  hope,  that  his 
 niece's  influence  over  the  king  might  induce  him  to 
 alter  the  succession,  and  to  appoint  a  child  of  hers  heir 
 to  the  throne.  When  the  wine  had  thrown  him  off  his 
 guard,  he  could  not  refrain  from  disclosing  his  wishes, 
 and  called  on  the  company  to  pray  that  the  gods  would 
 crown  the  marriage  of  Philip  and  Cleopatra  by  the 
 birth  of  a  legitimate  successor  to  the  kingdom.  Alex- 
 ander took  fire  at  this  expression  ;  and  exclaiming, 
 "  Do  you,  then,  count  me  a  bastard  1"  hurled  the  gob- 
 
PHILIPPUS. 
 
 PHILIPPUS. 
 
 let  out  of  which  he  was  drinking  at  his  head.  The 
 hall  became  a  scene  of  tumult.  Philip  started  from 
 his  couch,  and,  instead  of  rebuking  Attalus,  drew  his 
 sword  and  rushed  at  his  son  ;  but,  before  he  reached 
 him,  stumbled  and  fell.  Alexander,  before  he  with- 
 drew, is  said  to  have  pointed  to  his  father  as  he  lay 
 on  the  floor,  with  the  taunt :  "  See  the  man  who  would 
 pass  over  from  Europe  to  Asia,  upset  in  crossing  from 
 one  couch  to  another."  (Plut.,  Vti.  Alex.,  9. — Atltc- 
 ntEus,  13,  p.  557.)     The  quarrel  did  not  end  with  the 
 
 ntoxication  of  the  evening,  as  the  offence  which  had 
 been  given  to  the  prince  was  much  deeper  than  the 
 mo.mentary  provocation.  He  and  his  mother  quitted 
 the  kingdom  ;  she  found  shelter  at  the  court  of  her 
 brother  Alexander,  who,  after  the  death  of  Arybas,  had 
 succeeded,  through  Philip's  intervention,  to  the  throne 
 of  Epirus,  having  supplanted  ^Eacides,  the  lawful  heir. 
 Alexander  took  up  his  abode  in  Illyria,and  Philip  was 
 obliged  at  last  to  employ  the  good  offices  of  a  Corin- 
 thian, named  Demaratus,  to  induce  his  son  to  return 
 to  Macedonia.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Alex.,  9.)  It  was  not  so 
 easy  to  appease  Olympias  :  and  it  was  most  likely  with 
 a  view  to  baffle  her  intrigues  that  Philip  negotiated  a 
 match  between  his  brother-in-law  and  their  daughter 
 Cleopatra.  When  the  brother-in-law  had  been  gained 
 by  this  offer,  his  sister  saw  that  she  must  defer  her  re- 
 venge, and  relumed,  apparently  reconciled,  to  her  hus- 
 band's court.  These  unhappy  differences,  and  perhaps 
 the  continued  apprehension  of  hostile  movements  on 
 the  side  of  Illyria  and  Epirus,  may  have  been  the  causes 
 which  prevented  Philip  from  crossing  over  to  Asia  in 
 person  in  337  B.C.  In  the  course  of  this  year,  how- 
 ever, he  sent  over  a  body  of  troops,  under  the  command 
 of  Parmenio,  Amyntas,  and  Attalus  (whom,  perhaps, 
 he  was  glad  to  remove  in  this  honourable  manner  from 
 his  court),  to  the  western  coast  of  Asia,  to  engage  the 
 Greek  cities  on  his  side,  and  to  serve  as  a  rallying 
 point  for  all  who  were  disaffected  to  the  Persian  gov- 
 ernment. It  was  in  this  same  year  that  Pixodarus, 
 the  usurper  of  the  Carian  throne,  sought  the  alliance 
 of  Philip,  and  proposed  to  give  his  eldest  daughter  to 
 Arids3us,  Philip's  son  by  his  Larissaean  wife,  Philinna, 
 a  youth  of  imbecile  intellect.  Olympias  was,  or  af- 
 fected to  be,  alarmed  by  this  negotiation  ;  several  of 
 Alexander's  young  companions  shared  her  suspicions, 
 and  their  insmuations  persuaded  him  that  the  intended 
 marriage  was  a  step  by  which  Philip  designed  to  raise 
 Aridajus  to  the  throne.  Under  this  impression  ho 
 despatched  Thessalus,  a  Greek  player,  who  was  ex- 
 ercising his  profession  at  the  Macedonian  court,  on  a 
 secret  mission  to  Caria,  to  induce  Pixodarus  to  break 
 off  the  match  with  Aridajus  and  to  transfer  his  daugh- 
 ter's hand  to  Alexander  himself  Pixodarus  joyfully 
 accepted  the  prince's  offer.  But  Philip,  having  dis- 
 covered the  correspondence,  shamed  his  son  out  of  his 
 suspicions  by  an  indignant  expostulation,  which  he  ad- 
 dressed to  him  in  the  presence  of  his  young  friend, 
 Parmenio's  son,  Philotas,  on  the  unworthiness  of  the 
 connexion  which  he  was  about  to  form  with  a  barbarian, 
 who  was  not  even  an  independent  prince,  but  a  Persian 
 vassal.  Alexander  dropped  the  project,  which  had  so 
 strongly  excited  his  father's  resentment,  that  the  latter 
 wrote  to  Corinth  to  demand  that  Thessalus  should  be 
 sent  to  him  in  chains,  and  banished  four  of  Alexander's 
 companions,  Ilarpalus,  Nearchus,  Phrygius,  and  Ptol- 
 emaeus,  from  Macedonia  :  to  one  of  them  the  beginning 
 of  a  wonderful  elevation.  So  passed  the  year  337. 
 Towards  the  end  of  the  next  spring,  Philip's  prepara- 
 tions for  his  Asiatic  expedition  were  far  advanced. 
 He  had  summoned  the  Greek  states  to  furnish  their 
 contingents,  anci,  as  became  the  general  of  the  Am- 
 phictyonic  council,  had  consulted  the  Delphic  oracle 
 on  the  event  of  his  etiterprise  ;  and,  it  is  said,  had  re- 
 ceived an  answer  worthy  of  its  ancient  reputation  for 
 its  politic  ambiguity  :  "  Crowned  is  the  victim,  the  al- 
 tar is  ready,  the  stroke  is  impending"  {Diod.  Sic,  ]G 
 
 91),  though  the  event  renders  this  anecdote  somewhat 
 suspicious.  It  only  remained,  to  take  the  precaution 
 which  he  had  meditated,  for  securing  the  peace  of  his 
 dominions  during  his  absence,  by  a  closer  alliance  with 
 the  King  of  Epirus,  which  might  also  sooth  Olympias. 
 The  day  of  the  marriage  was  fixed,  and  Philip  deter- 
 mined to  celebrate  the  event  with  the  utmost  splen- 
 dour. It  afforded  an  opportunity  which  he  never  let 
 slip,  of  attracting  Greeks  from  all  parts  to  his  court, 
 of  dazzling  them  by  his  magnificence,  and  winning 
 them  by  his  hospitality.  A  solemn  festival,  either  the 
 national  one  of  the  Muses,  or  the  Olympic  games  in- 
 stituted by  Archelaus,  was  proclaimed  to  be  held  in 
 the  ancient  capital  of  JDgae.  Musical  and  dramatic 
 contests  were  announced,  for  v\'hich  artists  of  the  great- 
 est celebrity  were  engaged.  When  the  time  arrived, 
 the  city  was  crowded  with  strangers  ;  not  only  guests 
 invited  by  the  king  and  his  courtiers,  but  envoys  de- 
 puted by  most  of  the  leading  cities  of  Greece  to  hon- 
 our the  solemnity,  and  to  offer  presents,  chiefly  crowns 
 of  gold,  to  the  king.  A  splendid  banquet  followed  the 
 nuptials.  On  the  morrow  an  exhibition  was  to  take 
 place  in  the  theatre  :  it  was  filled  at  an  early  hour  with 
 spectators.  The  entertainments  began  with  a  solemn 
 procession,  in  which,  among  other  treasures,  were  car- 
 ried images  of  exquisite  workmanship,  and  gorgeously 
 adorned,  of  the  twelve  Olympian  gods  :  a  thirteenth, 
 which  seemed  to  be  somewhat  profanely  associated 
 with  them,  represented  Philip  himself.  The  shouts 
 of  an  admiring,  applauding  multitude  then  announced 
 the  king's  approach.  He  advanced  in  white  robes  and 
 festal  chaplet,  with  his  son  and  the  bridegroom  on  ei- 
 ther side,  a  few  paces  behind  him.  His  guards  he  had 
 ordered  to  keep  at  a  distance,  that  all  might  have  a 
 view  of  his  person,  and  that  it  might  not  be  supposed 
 he  doubted  the  universal  good-will  of  the  Greeks. 
 This  was  the  moment  when  a  young  man  stepped  forth 
 from  the  crowd,  ran  up  to  the  king,  and,  drawing  a 
 Celtic  sword  from  beneath  his  garments,  plunged  it 
 into  his  side.  Philip  fell  dead.  The  murderer  rushed 
 towards  the  gates  of  the  town,  where  horses  were  wait- 
 ing for  him.  He  was  closely  pursued  by  some  of  the 
 great  officers  of  the  royal  body-guard,  but  would  have 
 mounted  before  they  had  overtaken  him  if  his  sandal 
 had  not  been  caught  by  the  stump  of  a  vine,  which 
 brought  him  to  the  ground.  In  the  first  heat  of  their 
 passion  his  pursuers  despatched  him.  His  name  was 
 Pausanias  ;  and  the  motive  that  impelled  him  to  the 
 deed  was,  that  he  had  suffered  an  outrage  from  Attalus 
 for  which  Philip  had  refused  to  give  him  satisfaction. 
 (Aristot.,  Polit.,  5,  8,  1,0.)  Both  Olympias  and  Alex- 
 ander were  suspected  of  having  been  privy  to  the  deed, 
 but,  as  would  seem,  without  any  very  strong  grounds. 
 Indeed,  the  character  of  Alexander  instinctively  re- 
 coiled from  every  species  of  baseness,  and  yet  Niebuhr, 
 in  his  lectures,  expresses  a  suspicion,  almost  amount- 
 ing to  a  full  conviction,  of  Alexander's  guilt ! — Thus, 
 in  the  47th  year  of  his  age  and  the  24th  of  his  reign, 
 perished  Philip  of  Macedon,  at  the  end  of  one  great 
 stage  of  a  prosperous  career,  near  the  outset  of  anoth- 
 er which  opened  immeasurable  ground  for  hope.  A 
 great  man  certainly,  according  to  the  common  scale  of 
 princes,  though  not  a  hero  like  his  son,  nor  to  be  tried 
 by  a  philosophical  model.  But  it  was  something  great, 
 that  one  who  enjoyed  the  pleasures  of  animal  existence 
 so  keenly,  should  have  encountered  so  much  toil  and 
 danger  for  glory  and  empire.  It  was  something  still 
 greater,  that  one  who  was  so  well  acquainted  with  the 
 worst  sides  of  human  nature,  and  who  so  often  profited 
 by  them,  should  yet  have  been  so  capable  of  sympa- 
 thy and  esteem.  If  we  charge  him  with  duplicity  in 
 his  political  transactions,  we  must  remember  that  he 
 preferred  the  milder  ways  of  gratifying  his  ambition  to 
 those  of  violence  and  bloodshed  :  that  he  at  least  de- 
 sired the  reputation  of  mercy  and  humanity.  If  he 
 once  asked  whether  a  fortress  was  so  inaccessible  that 
 
 1037 
 
PHILIPPUS. 
 
 PHILIPPUS. 
 
 not  even  an  nss  laden  with  gold  could  mount  to  it,  we 
 jriav  as  well  heliuve  the  anecdote  which  relates  of  him, 
 that  he  ro|ili('d  to  his  counsellors  who  urged  him  to 
 treat  Athens  with  rij^our,  that  they  were  advising  him 
 to  destroy  the  theatre  of  his  glory.     {Pint.,  Reg.  et 
 Imp.  Apophlh.,  11.)     The  many  examples  of  gener- 
 ous forbearance  reported  in  Plutarch's  collection  of  his 
 apophthegms    cannot  he  all  groundless  fictions;  and 
 the  less  restraint  he  set  on  many  of  his  passions,  the 
 more   amiable   appears,    by  contrast,    the   self-control 
 which  he  exercised,  when  he  was  tempted  to  an  un- 
 just or  harsh  use  of  his  power.     He  is  one  of  the  men 
 of  whom  we  wish  to  know  more,  whose  familiar  let- 
 ters and  conversation  must  have  been  worth  preserv- 
 ing.    But  even  the  history  of  his  outward  life  is  like 
 an  ancient   statue,  made    up  of  imperfect  and  ill-ad- 
 justed  fragments.      He  left   the  task  of  his  life  un- 
 finished, and   his  death   must   have   appeared  to   his 
 contemporaries  premature.     We  must  rather  admire 
 the  peculiar  felicity  of  the  juncture  at  which  he  was 
 removed  to  make  room  for  one  better  fitted  for  the 
 work.     What  he  had  done,  his  successor  would  per- 
 haps not  have  accomplished  so  well.     What  he  med- 
 itated   was  probably   much  less    than  his  son   effect- 
 ed, and  yet  more  than  he  himself  would  have  brought 
 lo  pass.     If  he  had  begun  his  enterprise,  he   would 
 most   likely   have  done    little   more    than   mar  some 
 splendid  piiges  in  the  history  of  the  world.     {Thirl- 
 waWs  History  of  Greece,  vol.  6,  p.  69  —  Cramcr^s 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  174.)  — HI.  The  third  of  the 
 name,  was  more   commonly  known  by  the   name  of 
 Aridaeus.     {Vid.  Arida;us.) — IV.   One  of  the  sons  of 
 Alexander,   slain   by    order   of   Olympias. — V.    The 
 fifth  of  the  name,  was  the  eldest   .son  of  Cassander, 
 and  succeeded  his   father  on   the  throne  of  Macedon 
 about  298  B.C.     He  was  carried  off  by  sickness  after 
 a  reign  of  one  year.      {Justin,  15,  4. — Id.,  16,  1.) — 
 VI.  The  sixth  of  the  name,  was  still  an  infant  at  the 
 death  of  his  father,  Demetrius  III.  of  Macedon.      He 
 was  left  under  the  care  of  his  uncle  Antigonus  Doson, 
 who,  being  guardian  of  his  nephew,  became,  in  fact, 
 the  reigning  sovereign.     {Polyb.,  2,  45. — Pint ,  Vit. 
 Arat.  —  Justin,  28,  3.)     Antigonus  ruled  over  Mace- 
 don for  the  space  of  twelve  years,  when  his  exertions 
 in  defeating   the  lUyrians,  who  had  made  an  inroad 
 into  his  territories,   caused   the  hursting  of  a  blood- 
 vessel, which  terminated   his  existence.     {Polyb  ,  2, 
 70.)     His  nephcv/  Philip,  though  only  fifteen  years  of 
 age,  now  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  and  showed 
 himself  deficient  neither  in  energy  nor  talents.     Adopt- 
 ing the  policy  of  his  wise  and  able  predecessor  in  pro- 
 tecting the  Achceans  against  the  ambitious  designs  of 
 the  /Etolians,  who  were  now  become  one  of  the  most 
 powerful  stales  of  Greece,  he  engaged  in  what  Polyb- 
 ius  has  termed  the  Social  War,  during  which  he  ob- 
 tained several  important  successes,  and  effectually  re- 
 pressed the  daring  spirit  of  that  people.     {Polyb.,  lib. 
 4  et  5.)     The  great  contest  which  was  now  waging 
 in  Italy,  between  Hannibal  and  the  Romans,  naturally 
 attracted  the  attention  of  the  King  of  Macedon  ;  and 
 it  appears   from   Polybius  and  Livy   that  he  actually 
 entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Carthaginian  gen- 
 eral.     By  securing,  however,  the  co-operation  of  the 
 iEtolians,  the  Romans  were  enabled  to  keep  in  check 
 the  forces  of  Philip  ;  and,  on  the  termination  of  the 
 struggle  with  Carthage,  sought  to  avenge  the  injury 
 the  prince  had  meditated  by  invading  his  hereditary 
 dominions.     Philip,  for  two  campaigns,  resisted  the 
 attacks  of  the  Romans  and  their  allies,  the  J3tolians, 
 Eumenes,    king    of    Pergamus,    and    the    Rhodians  ; 
 finally,  however,  he  sustained  a  signal   defeat  at  Cy- 
 noscephalae,  in  the  plains  of  Thcssaly,  and  was  com- 
 pelled to  sue  for  peace  on  such  conditions  as  the  vic- 
 tors chose  to  impose.     These  were,  that  Demetrius, 
 bis  younger  son,  should  be  sent  as  a  hostage  to  Rome, 
 and  that  he  should  not  engage  in  any  war  without  their 
 103S 
 
 consent.  They  farther  imposed  a  fine  of  one  thou- 
 sand talents,  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  all  his 
 galleys.  {Lw.,  33,  30  )  In  the  war  which  the  Ro- 
 mans afterward  carried  on  with  Antiochus,  king  of 
 Syria,  Philip  actively  co-operated  with  the  former  ; 
 but,  jealous  of  his  talents,  and  aware  also  of  his  ambi- 
 tious spirit,  the  Romans  seized  every  opportunity  of 
 counteracting  his  elTorts  to  restore  the  empire  of  Ma- 
 cedon to  its  former  power  and  importance.  Philip 
 beheld  this  course  of  conduct  with  ill-disguised  vexa- 
 tion and  disgust ;  and  it  is  probable  that  this  mutual 
 ill-will  would  have  led  to  an  open  rupture  if  the  death 
 of  Philip  had  not  intervened.  This  event  is  said  to 
 have  been  hastened  by  the  domestic  troubles  wliich 
 concurred  to  imbitter  the  latter  years  of  his  life.  Dis- 
 sensions had  long  subsisted  between  his  two  sons  Per- 
 seus and  Demetrius ;  and,  by  the  arts  of  the  former, 
 who  was  the  elder,  but  illegitimate,  a  violent  preju- 
 dice had  been  raised  in  the  mind  of  Philip  against  the 
 latter,  who  had  resided  at  Rome  for  some  years  as  a 
 hostage,  even  after  peace  was  concluded  with  that 
 power.  The  unfortunate  Demetrius  fell  a  victim  to 
 his  brother's  treachery,  and  his  father's  credulity  and 
 injustice.  {Liv  ,  40,  24.)  But  Philip  having  discov- 
 ered, not  long  after,  the  fatal  error  into  which  he  had 
 been  betrayed,  was  so  stung  with  remorse,  that  an- 
 guish of  mind  soon  brought  him  to  the  grave.  {Vid. 
 Perseus.)  He  died  B.C.  179,  after  a  reign  of  forty- 
 two  years.  {Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  1,  p.  243.)  — 
 VII.  M.  Julius,  a  Roman  emperor,  of  an  obscure 
 family  in  Trachonitis,  a  province  of  Arabia,  to  the 
 south  of  Damascus,  and  hence  called  the  Arabian. 
 Zonaras  (12,  19)  and  Cedrenus  (vol.  1,  p.  257)  make 
 Bostra,  the  capital  of  the  country,  to  have  been  his 
 native  city  ;  but  the  language  of  Aurelius  Victor  would 
 rather  incline  us  to  believe  that  he  was  born  in  the  en- 
 virons of  that  city,  since  he  calls  him  in  one  part 
 '^Arabs  Trachonitis"  {de  Cas.,  28),  and  in  another 
 speaks  of  his  father  as  having  been  "  nohilissimus  la- 
 tronum  ductor."  {Epit.,  28.)  His  first  act,  also,  on 
 attaining  to  the  empire,  was  to  found  a  city  not  far 
 from  Bostra,  which  he  dignified  with  the  name  of  Phil- 
 ippopoiis.  St.  Jerome,  who  speaks  of  this  foundation, 
 confounds  with  the  Arabian  city  another  of  the  same 
 name  in  Thrace.  Jornandes  falls  into  the  same  error 
 (p.  108).  Burckhardt  found  in  the  environs  ofBostra 
 a  Greek  inscription  bearing  the  name  Philippopolis, 
 which  sets  the  matter  at  rest.  {Travels,  p.  98.) — 
 Philip  entered  the  Roman  armies,  and  soon  distin- 
 guished himself  by  his  services,  until  he  was  at  length 
 appointed  commander  of  the  body-guard,  in  the  reign 
 of  Gordian  III.,  having  succeeded  Misitheus,  whom 
 he  was  suspected  of  having  cut  off.  In  taking  the 
 place  of  Misitheus,  Philip  became,  in  fact,  as  his  pre- 
 decessor had  been,  the  guardian  of  the  young  prince, 
 and  the  master  of  the  empire.  Gordian  had,  under 
 the  auspices  of  Misitheus,  undertaken,  the  year  previ- 
 ous, an  expedition  against  the  Persians,  which  ended 
 gloriously  for  the  Roman  arms ;  and  he  now  prepared 
 for  a  second  campaign  against  the  same  foe,  when 
 Philip  produced  an  artificial  scarcity  by  intercepting 
 the  supplies  of  corn,  and  thus  raised  a  spirit  of  dis- 
 affection against  the  young  emperor.  These  intrigues, 
 however,  did  not  delay  the  march  of  the  army,  which 
 advanced  into  Mesopotamia,  defeated  the  Persians, 
 and  compelled  their  king  lo  take  shelter  in  the  very 
 heart  of  his  dominions.  Gordian  returned  triumphant, 
 when  the  partisans  of  Philip  excited  a  commotion  in 
 the  camp,  and  finally  compelled  the  emperor  to  re- 
 ceive Philip  as  an  associate  in  the  empire.  This  di- 
 vision of  power,  consummated  by  forcible  means,  could 
 not  prove  of  very  long  duration,  and  the  young  monarch 
 was  soon  after  deposed  and  put  to  death.  His  ashes 
 were  conveyed  to  Rome,  and  a  splendid  monument  was 
 erected  to  his  memory,  near  Circesium.  on  the  Euphra- 
 tes.    Meanwhile  the  letters  of  Philip  to  the  senate  pui- 
 
PHILIPPUS. 
 
 PHI 
 
 ported  that  Gordian  had  died  of  illness,  and  that  the 
 choice  of  the  army  had  fallen  upon  him.  Arganthis, 
 king  of  Scythia,  was  encouraged  to  advance  by  the 
 ^  tidings  of  the  death  of  Misitheus  ;  but  Philip,  sacri- 
 ficing the  interests  of  the  state  to  his  own,  and  paying 
 no  regard  to  this  new  invasion,  hastened  to  secure  his 
 election  at  Rome,  where  he  professed  to  venerate  the 
 statues  of  Gordian,  who  had  been  deified  by  the  sen- 
 ate. The  fickle  multitude  were  amused  and  concili- 
 ated by  one  of  those  juggles  of  public  pageantry  which 
 are  found  to  be  so  useful  in  turning  the  attention  of 
 the  people  from  the  flagitiousness  of  their  rulers.  The 
 thousandth  anniversary  of  the  building  of  Rome  was 
 celebrated  by  splendid  games,  and  by  combats  in  the 
 amphitheatre.  But  the  claim  of  the  "  Arabian"  to  the 
 empire  of  Rome  was  disputed  by  Decius,  who  had 
 been  sent  to  quell  a  sedition  in  Pannonia,  and  who 
 joined  the  revolters.  Philip  lost  a  battle  near  Verona, 
 and  this  event  was  to  his  soldiers  the  signal  for  his 
 assassination  (A.D.  249).  His  son  was  slain  in  the 
 Praetorian  camp.  {Capitol.,  Vtt.  Gord.  Tert.,  29, 
 *eqq.  —  Aurcl.  Vict.,  I.e. —  Casauh.,  dc  iis  qui  post 
 Gord.  Tert.,  principcs  fuere,  ()  iv.) — VIH.  An  Acar- 
 nanian,  and  physician  to  Alexander  the  Great.  When 
 that  monarch  had  been  seized  with  a  fever,  after  ba- 
 thing, while  overheated,  in  the  cold  stream  of  the 
 Gydiius,  and  most  of  his  medical  attendants  despaired 
 of  his  life,  Philip,  who  stood  high  in  his  confidence, 
 undertook  to  prepare  a  medicine  which  would  relieve 
 him.  In  the  mean  while,  a  letter  was  brought  to  the 
 king  from  Parmcnio,  informing  him  of  a  report,  that 
 Philip  had  been  bribed  by  Darius  to  poison  him.  Al- 
 e.xander,  it  is  said,  had  the  letter  in  his  hand  when  the 
 physician  came  in  with  the  draught,  and,  giving  it  to 
 him,  drank  the  potio;i  while  the  other  read  ;  a  theatri- 
 cal scene,  as  Plutarch  unsuspectingly  observes,  but 
 one  which  would  not  have  been  invented  except  for 
 such  a  character,  and  which  Arrian  was  therefore  in- 
 duced, though  doubtingly,  to  record.  The  reinedy, 
 or  Alexander's  excellent  constitution,  prevailed  over 
 the  disease;  but  it  was  long  before  he  had  regained 
 sufficient  strength  to  resume  his  march.  (Pint.,  Vit. 
 Alex. — Arrian,  Exp  Ai,  2,  4,  12,  scqq.)  The  whole 
 story  is  now  regarded  as  a  very  apocryphal  one.  We 
 cannot  very  well  understand  what  Parmenio  was  doing, 
 that  he  did  not  come  himself  instead  of  writing.  One 
 sees  from  Curlius  (3,  6)  how  the  narrative  was  em- 
 bellished. In  Arrian,  Parmenio's  letter  only  mentions 
 a  report  which  he  had  heard,  that  Philip  had  been 
 bribed.  In  Curtius,  it  is  asserted  that  he  had  been 
 promised  one  thousand  talents,  and  the  hand  of  the 
 sister  of  Darius.  There  was  certainly  some  confu- 
 sion between  this  story  and  that  of  Alexander  the 
 Lyncestian.  Seneca  {de  Ira,  2,  23)  says,  that  it  was 
 Oiympias  who  sent  the  warning  letter  about  Philip. 
 {ThirlwaWs  History  of  Greece,  vol.  6,  p.  173.) — IX. 
 A  pretender  to  the  crown  of  Macedonia,  after  the 
 overthrow  of  Perseus.  He  is  commonly  known  by 
 the  a[)pellation  of  "  Pseudophilippus."  His  true 
 name  was  Andriscus.  {Vid.  Andriscus.)  —  X.  The 
 Greek  translator  of  the  work  of  Horapollo,  From  the 
 internal  evidence  afforded  by  the  translation  itself,  he 
 is  supposed  to  have  lived  a  century  or  two  later  than 
 Horapollo  ;  and  at  a  time  when  every  remnant  of  ac- 
 tual knowledge  of  the  subject,  on  which  Horapollo 
 treats,  must  have  vanished.  {Cory,  Hieroglyphics  of 
 Horapollo,  prcf,  p.  ix.)— XI.  A  comic  poet  of  Athens, 
 son  of  Aristophanes.  He  docs  not  appear  to  have  in- 
 herited any  considerable  portion  of  his  father's  won- 
 derful abilities.  {Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p.  115,  4th 
 ed.) — XH.  A  native  of  Opus,  and  a  disciple  of  Plato. 
 Diogenes  I.aertms  informs  us  (3,  37),  that  Plato  died 
 before  publishing  his  "  Laws,"  and  that  Philip  of  Opus 
 gave  to  the  world  the  manuscript  of  the  work,  which 
 he  found  among  his  master's  tablets.  {Vid.  Plato.) 
 Philip  wrote  "  on  Eclipses,  and  on  the  size  of  the  Sun, 
 
 Moon,  and  Earth"  (irept  kiddTpeuv,  nal  jieyidovQ  TiXiov 
 KOL  atliivrti;  koX  yTig).  The  work  is  cited  by  Stobsus. 
 {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  8.)— XIII.  An  epi- 
 gramnwiic  poet,  a  native  of  Thessalonica,  who  flour- 
 ished during  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  He  is  sometimes 
 called  "  the  Macedonian,"  but  more  frequently  "  Phil- 
 ip of  Thessalonica."  We  have  eighty-five  epigrams  of 
 his  remaining.  They  display  little  originality,  being 
 for  the  most  part  imitations  of  preceding  poets.  {Ja- 
 cobs, Culal.  Poet.  Epigr.,  p.  935.)  Philip  of  Thes- 
 salonica is  the  compiler  of  what  is  termed  the  "  Sec- 
 ond Anthology,"  thus  continuing  the  work  commenced 
 by  Meleager.  The  interval  between  the  two  compila- 
 tions was  about  150  years.  {Jacobs,  I.  c.  —  Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  49,  55.) 
 
 Philiscus,  I.  an  orator,  and  also  an  epigrammatic 
 poet,  one  of  whose  effusions  has  been  preserved  by 
 Plutarch,  who  speaks  of  him  as  a  contemporary  of 
 Lysias,  and  a  pupil  of  Isocrates.  He  was  a  native  of 
 Miletus  in  Ionia  ;  and,  besides  his  poetical  pieces,  left 
 several  harangues  and  a  life  of  Lycurgus.  {Ruhnken, 
 'Hist.  Crit.  Orat.  Gr.,  p.  Ixxxiii.  — P/m/:.,  X.  Orat. 
 Vit.,  p.  836.  —  Suidas,  s.  v. — Jacobs,  Calal.  Poet. 
 Epigr.,  p.  936.)  —  II.  or  perhaps  Philicus,  a  tragic 
 poet,  a  native  of  Corcyra,  and  contemporary  with 
 Theocritus  (270  B.C.).  He  gave  his  name,  as  inven- 
 tor, to  a  particular  species  of  Iambic  verse  {Metrum 
 Philisceum  or  Philiceum).  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  3,  p.  86.) — III.  A  tragic  poet,  a  native  of  -Egi- 
 na,  and  contemporary  with  Philiscus  of  Corcyra. 
 {Scholl,  I.  c.) — IV.  A  sculptor  of  Rhodes,  whose  era 
 is  uncertain.  He  made,  among  others,  two  statues, 
 one  of  Apollo,  the  other  of  Venus,  which  were  placed 
 in  the  collection  of  Octavia.     {Plin,  36,  5,  4.) 
 
 Philistus,  a  wealthy  native  of  Syracuse,  who  em- 
 ployed his  riches  in  procuring  the  sovereign  power  for 
 Dionysius  the  Elder.  He  became,  subsequently,  the 
 confidant,  minister,  and  general  of  the  tyrant ;  but  he 
 lost  his  favour  by  having  secretly  married  one  of  his 
 nieces,  and  was  driven  into  exile.  He  retired  to 
 Adria,  where  he  wrote  on  the  "  Antiquities  of  Sicily," 
 in  seven  books,  which  was  carried  down  to  the  third 
 year  of  the  83d  Olympiad,  and  embraced  a  period  of 
 eight  centuries.  H-e  composed  also  a  "  Life  of  Dio- 
 nysius," in  four  books.  Having  been  recalled  from 
 banishment  by  Dionysius  the  younger,  he  became  the 
 antagonist  of  Dion  and  Plato,  who  had  gained  an  as- 
 cendancy over  the  mind  of  that  prince.  Philistus 
 commanded  the  fleet  of  Dionysius  in  the  naval  battle 
 with  Dion  and  the  Syracusans,  which  cost  the  tyrant 
 his  throne,  and  his  vessel  having  run  aground,  he  was 
 taken  prisoner  and  put  to  an  ignominious  death.  Be- 
 sides the  two  works  already  mentioned,  Philistus 
 wrote  the  life  of  Dionysius  the  younger,  in  two  books. 
 These  three  productions  being  united,  bore  the  com- 
 mon name  of  Si«£/l(/ca.  Cicero  praises  this  historian, 
 and  calls  him  "  almost  a  little  Thucydidcs"  /^pcenc  pu' 
 sillus  Thucydidcs. — Ep.,  ad  Q.  Fratr.,  2,  13  —Com- 
 pare de  Divin.,  1,  20).  But  Plutarch  and  Pausanias 
 reproach  him  with  having  sacrificed  truth  to  the  de- 
 sire of  recovering  the  good  graces  of  his  master. 
 Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  also  observes,  that  if  he 
 has  managed  to  resemble  his  model,  Thucydidcs,  it  is 
 only  in  two  respects,  in  having  left  behind  him  un- 
 finished writings,  and  in  the  disorder  which  prevails 
 throughout  his  works.  In  point  of  sentiment  and  feel- 
 ing, there  is,  according  to  Dionysius,  no  resemblance 
 whatever  between  the  two:  Thucydidcs  had  a  lofty 
 and  noble  spirit ;  Philistus,  on  the  other  hand,  yielded 
 slavish  obedience  to  tyrants,  and  sacrificed  truth  to 
 them.  Dionysius  confesses,  however,  that  the  style 
 of  Philistus  was  clear,  and  marked  by  "  roundness" 
 and  energy,  though  without  figures  and  ornament.-- 
 Alexander  the  Great  is  said  to  have  greatly  admired 
 the  works  of  Philistus,  and  they  formed  part  of  hjs 
 portative  library.  The  fragments  of  this  writer  hare 
 '■■  '  1039 
 
PHI 
 
 PH  I 
 
 been  collected  by  Goller,  in  his  work  "  De  silu  et  Ori- 
 }:ine  Syracusaruin,''  p.  177.  —  M.  Sevin,  in  his  "  Re- 
 cherchcs  sur  la  vie  el  les  ecrils  dc  Philislus"  {Mem. 
 de  VAtad.  dis  Inscr.,  vol.  13,  p.  1,  scqq),  maintains 
 that  Philistus  was  a  pupil  of  Isocrates ;  Goller,  how- 
 ever, shows  very  conclusively,  that  Sevin  was  misled 
 by  a  corrupt  passage  in  Cicero  {dc  Orat.,  2,  23),  where, 
 instead  of  ^^  Philisti,^'  we  ought  to  read  "  Philisci,^^ 
 and  where  the  reference  can  only  be  to  Philiscus  the 
 Milesian.  {Goller,  Op.  cit.,  p.  112,  segq. — Dmi. 
 Hal.,  De  Vet.  Script,  ccns.  {Op.,  ed  Reiske,  vol.  5, 
 p.  427). — Id.,  Epist.  ad  Cn.  Pomp.  {Op.,  vol,  6,  p. 
 780).— Schmi,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  177,  seqq.— 
 Sainte-Croix,  Examen  des  Hist.  d'Alcx.,  p.  12.) 
 
 Phu.o,  I.  a  statuary,  in  the  age  of  Ale.xander  the 
 Great.  This  is  evident  from  the  circumstance  of  his 
 having  made  a  statue  of  Hephaestion.  {Talian,  Oral, 
 adv.  Gr.,  55.)  This  artist  is  undoubtedly  referred  to 
 in  a  well-known  inscription  given  by  Wheler  {Itin., 
 209. — Compare  Spohn,  Misc.  Enid.  Anliq.,  332. — 
 Chishdl,  Aidiq.  Asiat.,  p.  59,  seqq. — Jacobs,  Anthol. 
 Gr.,  3,  1,  p.  \92.—Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.)—U.  A 
 native  of  Byzantium,  who  flourished  about  150  B.C. 
 He  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  architect  Philo, 
 who,  in  the  time  of  the  orator  Lycurgus,  built  the  ar- 
 senal in  the  Pirasus. — Philo  of  Byzantium  was  the  au- 
 thor of  a  treatise  having  relation  to  mechanics,  in  five 
 books,  of  which  only  the  last  two  remain  to  us.  These 
 treat  of  the  making  of  missile  weapons  {BeT^onouKa, 
 or  'OpyavoTrouKu),  of  the  construction  of  towers,  walls, 
 ditches,  as  well  as  other  works  required  for  the  siege 
 of  cities.  There  is  ascribed  to  him  also  a  work  on 
 the  "  Seven  Wonders  of  the  IForW  {Tlepl  ruv  'Ewru 
 Bea/iuTuv).  These  wonders  are,  the  gardens  of  Se- 
 miramis,  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  the  statue  of  Jupiter 
 at  Olympia,  the  colossus  of  Rhodes,  the  walls  of  Bab- 
 ylon, the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  and  the  Mauso- 
 leum. The  last  chapter  of  the  work,  however,  is  want- 
 ing, and  the  last  but  one  is  in  a  very  mutilated  state. 
 It  is  a  production  of  very  little  value,  excepting  the 
 chapter  which  treats  of  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  and 
 the  fragment  that  remains  of  the  description  of  the 
 Ephesian  temple,  two  monuments  which  Philo  himself 
 saw.  As  he  no  doubt  had  also  beheld  the  tomb  of 
 Mausolus,  we  have  to  regret  the  loss  of  the  last  chap- 
 ter, in  which  this  was  described.  The  style,  however, 
 of  this  work  indicates  a  more  recent  writer  than  the 
 author  of  the  BeTioTCOUKd.  The  two  books  of  the  trea- 
 tise relating  to  Missiles,  &c.,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
 collection  of  the  "Ancient  Mathematicians"  {Mathe- 
 matici  Vetercs,  Paris,  1693,  p.  49-104).  The  first 
 five  chapters  of  the  "  Seven  Wonders"  were  published, 
 for  the  first  time,  by  Leo  Allatius,  Rom.,  1640,  8vo, 
 with  a  very  careless  Latin  version.  A  corrected  edi- 
 tion was  given  by  De  Boissieu,  who  accompanied  M. 
 de  Crequi  in  his  embassy  to  Rome,  and  delivered  a 
 harangue  before  Urban  VIII.  This  edition  was  cor- 
 rected by  the  Vatican  MS.,  and  appeared  at  the  end 
 of  the  Ibis  of  Ovid  published  in  1661,  at  the  Lyons 
 press,  8vo.  It  is  rarely  met  w'th,  and  was  unknown 
 to  Bast,  who,  when  the  Vatican  MS.  was  brought  to 
 Paris,  published  the  variations  contained  in  it,  though 
 they  were  already  given  in  the  edition  of  Boissieu. 
 This  edition  of  Boissieu  swarms  with  typographical 
 errors  ;  but  it  is  accompanied  by  a  good  Latin  ver- 
 sion. The  edition  of  Allatius,  corrected  by  Gronovi- 
 us,  was  reprinted  in  the  Thesaurus  Anliq.  Orit.,  vol. 
 7,  with  the  fragment  of  the  sixth  chapter,  which  Hol- 
 stenius  had  found.  Teucher  promised  a  new  edition 
 in  ISll,  but  it  never  saw  the  light,  the  editor  having 
 died  before  he  could  complete  it.  In  1816,  Orelli 
 published  a  new  edition,  with  the  text  corrected  after 
 Boissieu  and  Bast,  and  with  "  Testimonia  Veterum," 
 &.C.  This  is  the  best  edition :  it  contains  also  the 
 fragments  of  the  Sophist  Caliinicus,  and  of  Adrian  of 
 Tyre.  {Schbll,  Hist.  Lu.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  367,— //o/- 
 1040 
 
 mann,  Lex.  Bibliogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  224)  —  III.  Called, 
 for  distinction'  sake,  Judaus  {'lovSalo^)  or  "  the  Jew," 
 was  a  native  of  Alexandrea,  a  mcniber  of  a  sacer- 
 dotal family,  and  flourisiied  about  40  A.D.  He  be- 
 longed to  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  and  was  a  great 
 zealot  for  the  religion  of  his  fathers.  On  occasion  of 
 a  tumult  which  had  taken  place  at  Alexandrea,  the 
 Hellenistic  Jews  of  this  city  sent  him  to  Rome  to  car- 
 ry their  justification  before  the  Emperor  Caligula  ;  but 
 the  latter  refused  to  receive  him  into  his  presence. 
 Philo  was  a  man  of  great  learning.  He  had  carefully 
 studied  all  the  Grecian  systems  of  philosophy,  and  he 
 made  an  admirable  use  of  this  knowledge  in  accom- 
 plishing the  object  which  he  had  in  view,  of  presenting 
 the  pagans,  namely,  with  the  sacred  Scriptures  of  his 
 nation  as  the  perfection  of  all  human  wisdom.  Of  all 
 the  systems  of  profane  philosophy,  no  one  suited  his 
 views  so  well  as  the  Platonic.  His  inclination  to- 
 wards a  contemplative  life  was  nurtured  by  the  peru- 
 sal of  Plato's  writings,  while  their  mysterious  teiiden- 
 cy  served  to  inflame  his  imagination.  The  ideas  of 
 Plato  were  amalgamated  vvith  Philo's  doctrine  respect- 
 ing the  Scriptures,  and  he  may  thus  be  regarded  as 
 the  precursor  of  that  strange  philosophy  which,  one 
 hundred  and  fifty  years  after  his  time,  developed  itself 
 in  Egypt.  Tha  style  of  Philo  is  expressly  modelled 
 after  that  of  Plato.  A  perusal  of  his  works,  which  are 
 quite  numerous,  is  not  only  interesting  for  the  study 
 of  the  New- Platonic  philosophy,  but  extremely  ijnpor- 
 tant  for  understanding  the  Septuagint  and  the  books  of 
 the  New  Testament.  Mai  discovered,  in  1816,  some 
 unedited  fragments  of  this  writer.  An  .Armenian  trans- 
 lation was  also  found  at  Lemberg,  in  Galicia,  by  Zoh- 
 rab,  an  Armenian,  in  1791,  which  contained  thirteen 
 productions  of  Philo,  of  which  eight  no  longer  exist  in 
 Greek.  {Mali  de  Philonis  Jadcci  et  Euscbii  Pamphili 
 scriptis  ijieditis  Dissertatio,  Mediolani,  1816,  8vo,) 
 The  best  edition  of  Philo- is  that  of  Mangey,  Land., 
 1742,  2  vols.  fol.  :  the  latest  is  that  of  Richter,  form- 
 ing the  second  part  of  the  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  Lips., 
 1828-1830,  8  vols.  12mo.  It  contains  merely  the  text. 
 The  two  works  found  by  Mai  were  published  at  Milan 
 in  1818,  8vo,  and  Aucher  published  at  Venice,  in  1822, 
 a  Latin  translation  of  the  three  works  of  Philo,  of 
 which  Zohrab  had  found  the  Armenian  text.  The 
 Hebrew  Lexicon  of  Philo,  which  exists  only  in  a  Latin 
 version,  and  which  is  found  in  no  edition  of  his  works, 
 is  contained  in  the  second  volume  of  the  works  of  St. 
 Jerome,  published  in  Paris,  1633.  {ScMll,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  65,  scqq. —  Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bibliogr., 
 vol.  3,  p.  225,  seq.) — IV.  An  epigrammatic  poet,  who 
 flourished  from  the  reign  of  Nero  to  that  of  Hadrian. 
 He  celebrated,  in  a  separate  production,  the  reign  of 
 the  latter.  Eudocia  states  (p.  424),  that  he  composed 
 four  books  of  epigrams.  Only  one  small  distich  re- 
 mains. {Jacobs,  Catal.  Poet.  Epigr.,  p.  936.)  —  V. 
 A  native  of  Larissa,  the  pupil  and  successor  of  Cli- 
 tomachus  in  the  chair  of  the  New  Academy.  He 
 also  taught  at  Rome,  having  retired  to  that  city  from 
 Athens  during  the  Mithradatic  war,  B.C.  100.  By 
 some  he  has  been  considered  the  founder  of  a  Fourth 
 Academy.  Philo  confined  s  epticism  to  a  contradic- 
 tion of  the  metaphysics  of  the  Stoics  and  their  pretend- 
 ed criteria  of  knowledge  :  he  contradicted  the  sphere 
 of  logic  ;  made  moral  philosophy  merely  a  matter  of 
 public  instruction  :  and  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the 
 Old  and  New  Academies  equally  doubted  the  certain- 
 ty of  speculative  knowledge.  Cicero  was  one  of  his 
 auditors,  and  often  makes  mention  of  him  in  his  wri- 
 tings. {Tcnnemann,  Manual  Hist.  Philos.,  p.  154. — 
 Compare  Sclwll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  198.) 
 
 Philoctetes,  a  Thessalian  prince,  son  of  Poeas  or 
 Poean,  king  of  Meliboea.  According  to  the  account  of 
 Apollodorus  and  others,  which  we  have  followed  in 
 the  narrative  of  the  death  of  Hercules,  that  hero  gave 
 his  bow  and  arrows  to  Poras,  father  of  Philoctetes,  as 
 
PHILOCTETES. 
 
 PHI 
 
 K  reward  for  having  kindled  his  funeral  pile  on  Mount 
 Q2ta,  when  ail  his  immediate  followers  declined  so  to 
 do.  A  different  form,  however,  is  given  to  the  story 
 by  Hygiiius  and  other  authorities,  who  make  Hercules 
 to  have  bestowed  the  gift  on  Philoctetes,  ihe  son,  for 
 having  performed  the  same  service  which  other  mythol- 
 ogists  assign  to  the  father.  {Hi/gin.,  fab.,  36. — Schol. 
 ad  Horn.,  //.,  6.— Ovid,  Met.,  9,'  234.' — Sen.  ad  JEn., 
 3,  402. — Miincker,  ad  Hygin.,  I.  c.)  Sophocles,  again, 
 differs  from  both  accounts,  in  assigning  the  task  of 
 kindlincr  the  pile  to  Hyllns,  the  son  of  the  hero  him- 
 self. ISofh,  Track.,  1211,  1270.  1273.)  — Philocte- 
 tes, as  one  of  the  suiters  of  Helen,  was  compelled  to 
 take  part  in  the  war  against  Priam.  He  led  the  forces 
 of  Methone,  Thaumacia,  Melihnea,  and  Olizon,  and 
 sailed  from  Aulis,  along  with  the  rest  of  the  fleet,  to 
 the  land  of  Troy.  He  was  not,  however,  suffered  to 
 remain  for  any  long  time  an  inmate  of  the  Grecian 
 camp.  A  very  offensive  wound  in  his  foot,  and  the 
 loud  and  ill-omened  cries  of  suffering  which  he  was 
 constantly  uttering,  induced  the  Greeks  to  move  him 
 from  their  vicinity,  and,  having  transported  him  to  the 
 island  of  Lemnos,  they  treacherously  left  him  there. 
 Ulysses  is  said  to  have  planned  and  executed  the  deed. 
 {Soph.,  Fhiloct.,  5.)  The  causes  of  the  wound  of 
 Philoctetes  are  differently  stated  by  mythologists. 
 Some  ascribe  it  to  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  which  Juno 
 sent  to  attack  him,  because  he  had  kindled  the  funeral 
 pile  for  Hercules,  and  had  collected  his  ashes  ;  and 
 they  make  him  to  have  received  the  wound  in  the  isl- 
 and of  Lemnos,  and  to  have  been  there  abandoned  by 
 the  Greeks.  {Hygin.,  fab.,  102.)  The  scholiast  on 
 Homer  (//.,  2,  722)  says  that  he  was  bitten  in  Lem- 
 nos, at  the  altar  of  Minerva  surnamed  Chrysa  (com- 
 pare Philostraius,  Icon.,  p.  863,  ed.  Morell),  while 
 Dictys  of  Crete  (2,  14)  and  Tzetzes  {ad  Lycophr., 
 911)  make  him  to  have  received  his  wound  in  ihecity 
 of  Chrysa,  near  Troy.  Others,  again,  laid  the  scene 
 of  the  fable  in  the  small  island  of  Nea3,  near  Lemnos. 
 {Ste.ph.  Bi/z.,s.  v.Nsai.)  Theocritus  says  that  he  was 
 wounded  by  the  serpent  while  contemplating  the  tomb 
 of  Troilus,  in  the  tomple  of  the  ThymbriEan  Apollo. 
 {Meiirs  ad  Lycophr.,  912.)  Finally,  the  scholiast  on 
 Sophocles  tells  us  that  Philoctetes  was  bitten  on  the 
 shore  of  Lemnos,  while  in  the  act  of  raising  an  altar  to 
 Hercules.  {Schol.  ad  Soph.,  Philoct.,  269.)  —  The 
 Greeks,  having  been  informed  by  an  oracle  that  Troy 
 could  not  be  taken  without  the  arrows  of  Hercules, 
 despatched  Ulysses  and  Pyrrhus  to  Lemnos,  to  urge 
 Philoctetes  to  put  an  end,  by  his  presence,  to  the 
 tedious  siege.  The  chief,  whose  resentment  towards 
 the  Greeks,  and  especially  towards  Ulysses,  the  imme- 
 diate promoter  of  his  removal  from  the  camp,  was  still 
 unabated,  refused  to  comply  with  their  summons,  and 
 would  have  persisted  in  his  refusal  had  not  Hercules 
 appeared,  and  enjoined  upon  him,  on  a  promise  that  his 
 wounds  should  be  cured,  to  accede  to  the  request  that 
 was  made  of  him.  Philoctetes  accordingly  returned  to 
 the  camp  before  Troy,  where  he  was  cured  by  Macha- 
 on,  and  where  he  particularly  distinguished  himself  by 
 his  valour,  and  by  his  dexterity  in  the  use  of  the  bow. 
 Paris,  among  others,  fell  by  his  hand.  ( Tzctz.  ad  Ly- 
 cophr., ^W.—Hygm,  fab.,  \\2,  114.)  Philoctetes 
 survived  the  siege  ;  but,  instead  of  returning  to  Greece, 
 settled  with  his  followers  in  Italy,  where  he  founded 
 the  city  of  Petilia  in  the  territory  of  the  Bruttii.  ( Vir- 
 gil, lEn.,  3,  401.)  —  Servius,  in  his  commentary  on 
 Virgil,  gives  another  and  very  different  legend  con- 
 cerning the  Thessalian  hero.  According  to  this  ver- 
 sion of  the  fable,  Philoctetes  was  the  companion  and 
 friend  of  Hercules,  and  the  latter,  just  before  his  death 
 enjoined  upon  him,  with  an  oath,  not  to  disclose  where 
 his  ashes  were  interred,  and  he  gave  him,  on  condi- 
 tion of  his  preserving  the  secret,  his  bow  and  arrows. 
 When  the  Greeks  were  informed  by  the  oracle  that 
 Troy  could  not  be  taken  without  the  arrows  of  Hercu- 
 6Q 
 
 les,  they  went  in  quest  of  Philoctetes  (who,  according 
 to  this  account,  had  not  gone  to  the  Trojan  war),  and 
 made  inquiries  of  him  respecting  the  son  of  Alcmena. 
 At  first,  Philoctetes  pretended  not  to  know  where  he 
 was  ;  at  length,  however,  he  informed  them  that  he  was 
 dead.  The  Greeks  then  urging  him  to  declare  where 
 the  hero  was  buried,  Philoctetes,  in  order  to  evade  his 
 oath,  struck  the  ground  with  his  foot,  without  uttering 
 a  word,  and  the  spot  was  discovered.  He  himself  was 
 then  led  away  to  the  war  ;  but,  not  long  after,  one  of 
 the  arrows  fell  on  the  foot  with  which  he  had  betrayed 
 the  burial-place^  of  Hercules,  and  inflicted  a  painful 
 and  most  noisome  wound.  The  Greeks  for  a  long 
 time  bore  with  him  on  account  of  the  oracle.  At 
 last,  their  patience  being  exhausted,  and  the  stench  of 
 the  wound,  together  with  the  cries  of  the  sufferer,  be- 
 ing quite  insupportable,  Philoctetes  was  conveyed  to 
 the  island  of  Lemnos,  his  arrows  being  first  taken  from 
 him.  His  wound  preventing  a  return  to  his  native 
 country,  he  sailed  from  Lemnos  to  Italy,  and  founded 
 Petilia  ;  and  here  he  was  finally  cured.  {Serv.  ad 
 Virg.,  JEn  ,  3,  401.)  Sophocles  has  made  the  suffer- 
 ings of  Philoctetes  the  subject  of  one  of  his  tragedies. 
 {Vid.  Sophocles  ) 
 
 Philolaus,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher,  born  at  Cro- 
 lona,  but  who  afterward  lived  at  Thebes,  and  also  at 
 Heraclea.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Archytas,  and  flour- 
 ished in  the  time  of  Plato.  It  was  from  him  that  Pla- 
 to purchased  the  written  records  of  the  Pythagorean 
 system,  contrary  to  an  express  oath  taken  by  the  soci- 
 ety of  Pythagoreans,  pledging  themselves  to  keep  se- 
 cret the  mysteries  of  their  sect.  Plutarch  relates,  that 
 Philolaus  was  one  of  the  persons  who  escaped  from 
 the  house  which  was  burned  by  Cylon  during  the  life 
 of  Pythagoras ;  but  this  account  cannot  be  correct. 
 Philolaus  was  contenifiorary  with  Plato  ;  and,  there- 
 fore, certainly  not  with  Pythagoras.  Interfering  in  af- 
 fairs of  state,  he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  political  jealousy. 
 Philolaus  treated  the  doctrines  of  nature  with  great 
 subtlety,  but,  at  the  same  time,  with  great  obscurity  ; 
 referring  everything  that  exists  to  mathematical  prin- 
 ciples. He  taught  that  the  world  is  one  whole,  which 
 has  a  fiery  centre,  about  which  the  ten  celestial  spheres 
 revolve,  heaven,  the  sun.  the  planets,  the  earth,  and 
 the  moon. — At  Thebes,  Philolaus  was  the  teacher  of 
 Simmias  and  Cebes,  before  they  came  to  Socrates  at 
 Athens.  {Plat.,  Phtrd.,  p.  61.)  Fragments  of  the 
 writings  of  this  philosopher  have  come  down  to  us,  the 
 genuineness  of  which  has  been  satisfactorily  establish- 
 ed by  Bockh  in  his  two  treatises.  {Bockh,  de  Pla- 
 tonico  Systcmale,  &.c.,  Heidelb.,  1810,  4to. —  Id.,  Phil- 
 olaos  des  Pythagorecrs  Lchren,  &c.,  Berlin,  1819, 
 S\o.— Enfield,  Hist.  Phil.,  vol.  1,  p.  411,  seq.—Rit- 
 ler.  Hist.  Philos.,  vol.  1,  p.  348.  seq.) 
 
 Philo.mela,  daughter  of  Pandion,  king  of  Athens, 
 and  sister  to  Procne,  who  had  married  Tereus,  king  of 
 Thrace.  {Vid.  Pandion.)  Procne  became  by  Tereus 
 the  mother  of  a  son  named  Itys  ;  but,  after  living  some 
 time  in  Thrace,  she  became  desirous  of  seeing  her  sis- 
 ter, and,  at  her  request,  Tereus  went  to  Athens,  and 
 prevailed  on  Pandion  to  let  Philomela  accompany  him 
 back  to  Thrace.  On  the  way  thither  he  violated  her; 
 and,  fearing  the  truth  might  be  discovered,  he  cut  out 
 her  tongue  and  confined  her.  She  contrived,  however, 
 to  communicate  her  story  to  her  sister  by  means  of 
 characters  woven  into  a  pephis  or  robe.  Procne, 
 who  had  been  informed  by  Tereus  that  she  had  died 
 by  the  way,  and  who  had  for  some  time  been  plunged 
 in  the  greatest  affliction  for  her  loss,  now  sought  her 
 out  and  released  her  ;  and,  killing  hei  own  son  Itys, 
 served  up  his  flesh  to  his  father.  The  two  sisters  fled 
 away;  and  Tereus,  discovering  the  truth,  pursued 
 them  with  an  axe.  Finding  themselves  nearly  over- 
 taken, they  prayed  to  the  gods  to  change  them  into 
 birds  :  Procne  immediately  became  a  nightingale  {aij- 
 6uv),  and   Philomela  a  swallow  {xe?^i6<l)v).     Tereus 
 
 1041 
 
PHI 
 
 PHI 
 
 was  also  changed,  and  became  a  hoopoo  (eTro\j)). 
 (ApoUoiL,  3,  VA.—Ovid,  Met.,  6,  424,  seq.  —  Hi/mn., 
 fab.,  4.5. — Schol.  ad  Arisioph.,  Av.,  212. — Eudocia, 
 327.) — Like  so  many  others,  this  story  is  told  with  con- 
 siderable variations.  According  to  some,  Tcreus  had 
 early  conceived  a  passion  for  Philomela,  and  he  ob- 
 tained her  in  marriage  by  pretending  that  Procne  was 
 dead.  {Apollod.,  I.  c.  —  Hygin.,  I.  c.)  Again,  there 
 is  great  discrepance  respecting  the  transformation, 
 some  saying  that  Procne,  others  that  Philomela,  was 
 the  nightingale.  This  last,  which  has  the  sicnification 
 of  the  name  in  its  favour  (Philomela  being  song-lav- 
 ing), was  not,  however,  the  prevalent  opinion.  It  was 
 also  said  that  Terens  was  changed  into  a  hawk,  and 
 that  Itys  became  a  wood-pigeon. — The  legend  we  have 
 here  been  giving  is  one  of  those  invented  to  account 
 mythically  for  the  habits  and  properties  of  animals. 
 The  twitter  of  the  swallow  sounds  like  I/ys,  Itys  ;  the 
 note  of  the  nightingale  was  regarded  as  lugubrious,  and 
 the  hoopoo  chases  these  birds.  (Keightley^s  Mythol- 
 ogy, p.  379,  seq.) 
 
 Philopator,  the  surname  of  the  fourth  Ptolemy  of 
 Egypt.     {Vid.  PtolemaBus.) 
 
 Philopcemen,  a  distinguished  general  of  the  Achae- 
 an league,  born  at  Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia,  and  edu- 
 cated under  the  best  masters.  He  was  no  sooner  able 
 to  bear  arms,  than  he  entered  among  the  troops  which 
 the  city  of  Megalopolis  sent  to  make  incursions  into 
 Laconia,  and  in  these  inroads  never  failed  to  give  some 
 remarkable  proof  of  his  prudence  and  valour.  When 
 Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta,  attacked  Megalopolis, 
 Philopcemen  greatly  signalized  himself  among  the  de- 
 fenders of  the  place.  He  distinguished  himself  no 
 less,  some  time  after  this,  in  the  battle  of  Sellasia, 
 where  Antigonus  Doson  gained  a  complete  victory  over 
 Cleomenes,  B.C.  222.  Antigonus,  who  had  been  an 
 eyewitness  of  his  gallant  behaviour,  and  who  admired 
 his  talents  and  virtues,  offered  him  a  considerable 
 command  in  his  army,  but  Philopcemen  declined  it, 
 because  he  knew,  as  Plutarch  observes,  that  he  could 
 not  bear  to  be  under  the  direction  of  another.  Not 
 choosing,  however,  to  remain  idle,  and  hearing  that 
 there  was  war  in  Crete,  he  sailed  to  that  island  to  ex- 
 ercise and  improve  his  military  talents.  When  he 
 had  served  there  for  some  time,  he  returned  home  vi'ith 
 high  reputation,  and  was  immediately  appointed  by  the 
 Achasans  general  of  the  horse.  In  the  exercise  of  this 
 command,  he  acquitted  himself  with  signal  ability  ;  so 
 much  so,  in  fact,  that  the  Achsan  horse,  heretofore  of 
 no  reputation,  soon  became  famous  over  all  Greece. 
 He  was  not  long  after  appointed  to  the  command  of 
 all  the  Achasan  forces,  and  zealously  employed  himself 
 in  reforming  the  discipline  of  the  army,  and  infusing 
 a  proper  spirit  into  the  soldiers  of  the  republic.  An 
 opportunity  occurred  soon  after  this,  of  ascertaining 
 how  the  troops  had  profited  by  his  instruction.*  Ma- 
 chanidas,  tyrant  of  Lacedsemon,  with  a  numerous  and 
 powerful  army,  was  watching  a  favourable  moment  to 
 subdue  the  whole  of  the  Peloponnesus.  As  soon,  then, 
 as  intelligence  was  brought  that  he  had  attacked  the 
 Mantineans,  PhilopcEinen  took  the  field  against  him, 
 and  defeated  and  slew  him.  The  Lacedaemoniatis  lost 
 on  this  occasion  above  8000  men,  of  whom  4000  were 
 left  dead  upon  the  field.  The  Achseans,  in  commem- 
 oration of  the  valour  of  Philoposmen,  set  up  at  Delphi 
 a  brazen  statue,  representing  him  in  the  very  act  of 
 slaying  the  tyrant.  At  a  subsequent  period,  however, 
 he  experienced  a  reverse  of  fortune  ;  for,  having  ven- 
 tured to  engage  in  a  naval  battle  with  Nabis,  the  suc- 
 cessor of  Machanidas,  fie  was  not  only  defeated,  but 
 in  danger  of  being  lost  through  the  leaky  condition  of 
 his  own  vessel,  which  was  an  old  one  fitted  up  for  the 
 occasion.  His  want  of  skill,  however,  on  this  element 
 was  amply  compensated  not  long  after  by  a  victory 
 over  the  land  forces  of  the  enemy,  commanded  by  Na- 
 bis in  person,  the  greater  part  of  whom  were  cut  off. 
 1042 
 
 When  Nabis  liad  been  assassinated  by  the  jEto\iznii 
 {vid.  Nabis),  Philopa?men  performed  another  distin- 
 guished service  for  hi.s  countrymen,  by  inducingr  the 
 ypartans  to  join  ihe  Achsean  league.  Sparta,  indeed, 
 was  an  acquisition  of  no  small  importance  to  the  con- 
 federacy, of  which  she  was  now  become  a  member. 
 It  was  also  a  most  acceptable  service  to  the  priiicijial 
 Lacedaimonians,  who  hoped  henceforth  to  have  him  for 
 the  guardian  of  their  newly-recovered  freedom.  Hav- 
 ing sold,  therefore,  the  house  and  property  of  Nabis 
 by  a  public  decree,  they  voted  the  money,  which 
 amounted  to  120  talents,  to  Philopa;men,  and  deter- 
 mined to  send  it  by  persons  deputed  from  their  own 
 number.  But  so  high  was  the  private  character  of  the 
 illustrious  Megalopolitan,  that  it  was  a  difficult  matter 
 to  find  any  individual  who  would  venture  to  speak  to 
 him  on  the  subject.  At  last,  one  Timolaus,  who  was 
 connected  with  Philoposmen  by  the  ties  of  hospitality, 
 undertook  the  task;  but  when  he  went  to  Megalopolis, 
 and  observed  the  purity  and  simplicity  of"  his  private 
 life,  he  uttered  not  a  word  respecting  the  present,  but, 
 having  assigned  another  cause  for  his  visit,  returned  to 
 Lacedoemon.  He  was  sent  a  second  time,  but  still 
 could  not  mention  the  money.  In  a  third  visit,  he  in- 
 troduced the  subject  with  much  hesitation,  and  stated 
 to  him  the  kind  intentions  of  Sparta.  But  Philopce- 
 men immediately  declined  the  offer,  and,  going  himself 
 to  Lacedsemon,  advised  the  people  not  to  tempt  the 
 good  with  the  money,  but  to  employ  it  rather  in  silen- 
 ing  the  opposition  of  the  bad.  And  yet  it  was  in  this 
 same  city  that  he  afterward  inflicted,  as  the  general  of 
 the  Acheean  league,  an  act  of  severe  intimidation  ;  for 
 Lacedffimon  having  violated  the  terms  of  the  compact, 
 her  walls  were  demolished  by  Philopcemen,  the  insti- 
 tutions of  Lycurgus  were  abolished,  and  the  laws  of 
 the  Achceans  were  established  in  their  room.  Not 
 long  after  this  the  city  of  Messene  withdrew  from  the 
 Achaean  league,  and  a  war  was  the  consequence,  in 
 which  the  forces  of  the  confederacy  proved  altogether 
 superior,  until  their  success  was  turned  into  mourning 
 by  a  great  and  most  unexpected  disaster.  Philopos- 
 men was  surprised  by  the  enemy  when  passing  with  a 
 small  party  of  cavalry  through  a  difficult  defile.  It 
 was  thought  that  he  might  have  escaped  by  the  aid  of 
 some  light-armed  Thracians  and  Cretans  in  his  band  : 
 but  he  would  not  quit  the  horsemen,  whom  he  had 
 recently  selected  from  the  noblest  of  the  Achsans  ; 
 and,  while  he  was  bringing  up  the  rear,  and  bravely 
 covering  the  retreat,  his  horse  fell  under  him.  He 
 was  seventy  years  old,  and  weakened  by  recent  sick- 
 ness ;  and  he  lay  stunned  and  motionless  under  his 
 horse  till  he  was  found  by  the  Messenians.  The  pop- 
 ular feeling  was  in  his  favour,  since  it  was  remembered 
 that  the  Messenian  slate  had  formerly  received  im- 
 portant benefits  at  his  hands  ;  but  the  magistrates  were 
 hostile,  most  of  them  having  been  the  authors  of  the 
 revolt,  and  it  was  resolved  by  them  that  Philopcemen 
 should  die.  He  was  accordingly  compelled  to  drink 
 a  cup  of  poison.  His  eulogy  is  summed  up  by  Polyb. 
 ius  with  the  words,  that  in  forty  years,  during  which 
 he  played  a  distinguished  part  in  a  democratica!  com- 
 munity, he  never  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  people, 
 though  he  spoke  and  acted  freely  and  boldly,  nor  evei 
 courted  popular  favour  by  unworthy  compliance. — We 
 have  a  biography  of  him  by  Plutarch.  {Polyb.,  2,  40. 
 —Id.,  2,  67,  scqq.—Id.,  11,  10,  &c.—Flut.  171  Vil.) 
 
 Philostr.\tus,  I.  Flavins,  surnamed,  for  distinction' 
 sake,  the  elder,  was  the  son  of  Philostratus  of  Lemnos, 
 who  is  represented  to  us  as  one  of  the  greatest  orators 
 of  his  time.  He  lived  towards  the  end  of  the  second 
 century  of  our  era,  at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Sep- 
 tiinius  Severus,  and  at  the  commencement  of  the 
 third,  under  Alexander.  It  was  to  please  the  Empress 
 Julia,  the  wife  of  Severus,  who  had  a  strong  predilec- 
 tion for  literary  pursuits,  that  Philostratus  composed 
 the  most  famous  of  his  works,  the  Life  of  Apolloniua 
 
PHILOSTRATUS. 
 
 PHI 
 
 of  Tyana  {' KnoTJiuviov  tov  Tvaveug  ji'ioq),  a  well- 
 known  charlatan  and  wonder-worker,  whom  his  biog- 
 rapher wishes  lo  represent  as  a  supernatural  being. 
 Hence  Eunapius  of  Sardis,  in  speaking  of  this  book, 
 remarks,  that,  nistead  of  being  called  the  Life  of  Apol- 
 lonius,  it  ought  to  he  entitled,  a  History  of  the  visit  of 
 God  unto  men  {6iov  eniSTj/xiav  e^  uv6puTrov(  ■&eov 
 Ka?i.€iv).  Three  writers  before  the  time  of  Philostra- 
 tus  had  given  Lives  of  Apollonius,  namely,  Damis  of 
 Ninus,  his  friend,  and  two  unknown  writers,  Maximus 
 and  Maragenes.  Their  works  were  of  service  to 
 Philostratus  in  framing  his  compilation  ;  a  compilation 
 entirely  destitute  of  critical  arrangement,  filled  with 
 the  most  absurd  fables,  and  swarming  with  geograph- 
 ical errors  and  with  anachronisms.  And  yet,  notwith- 
 standing these  so  serious  defects,  the  work  is  useful 
 for  an  acquaintance  with  the  Pythagorean  philosophy, 
 and  the  history  of  the  emperors  who  reigned  after 
 Nero. — A  question  naturally  presents  itself  m  relation 
 to  this  singular  piece  of  biography.  Did  Philostratus, 
 in  writing  it,  wish  to  parody  the  life  and  miracles  of 
 the  divine  founder  of  our  religion  1  It  is  difficult  to 
 exculpate  him  from  such  an  intention.  Various  par- 
 ticulars in  the  biography  of  Apollonius,  such  as  the 
 annunciation  of  his  nativity,  made  to  his  mother  by  Pro- 
 teus ;  the  incarnation  of  this  Egyptian  divinity  in  the 
 person  of  Apollonius  ;  the  miracles  by  which  his  birth 
 was  accompanied ;  those  that  are  attributed  to  the  in- 
 dividual himself;  and  his  ascension  into  heaven,  ap- 
 pear borrowed  from  the  life  of  our  Saviour  ;  and  within 
 less  than  a  century  after  Philostratus  wrote,  in  the 
 time  of  Dioclesian,  Hierocles  of  Nicomedia  opposed 
 this  work  to  the  gospels.  Huel  was  the  first  that  as- 
 cribed an  evil  intention  to  Philostratus  (Demonstr. 
 Evang.  Propos.,  9,  c.  147) ;  while  the  opposite  side 
 is  maintained  by  Meiners  {Gesch.  der  Wissensch., 
 &.C.,  vol.  1,  p.  258)  and  by  Tiedemann  {Geist.  der 
 Speculat.  Philos.,  vol.  3,  p.  116). — Philostratus  has 
 also  left  us,  under  the  title  of  'HpuiKu  (Hero'ica),  the 
 fabulous  history  of  twenty-one  heroes  of  the  Trojan 
 war.  This  work  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between 
 a  Phoenician  mariner  and  a  vinedresser  of  Thrace,  who 
 had  heard  all  these  particulars  from  the  lips  of  Protes- 
 ilaus.  Another  work  is  the  Ei/fdvef,  in  two  hooks.  It 
 is  a  discourse  on  a  gallery  of  paintings  which  was  at 
 Naples,  and  contains  some  valuable  remarks  on  the 
 state  of  the  arts  at  this  period.  We  have  also  the 
 Lives  of  the  Sophists  {Bioi  'Zofiaruv),  in  two  books, 
 the  first  containing  the  lives  of  the  philosophical  soph- 
 ists, the  second  those  of  the  rhetorical.  The  former 
 are  twenty-six  in  number  ;  the  latter  thirty-three.  It 
 is  an  interesting  work,  and  gives  an  amusing  account 
 of  the  sophists  of  the  day,  their  vanity  and  impudence, 
 their  jealousies  and  quarrels,  their  corrupt  morals  ;  a 
 living  picture,  in  fine,  of  the  fall  of  the  art  and  the  cor- 
 ruption of  literary  men.  There  exist  also  from  the 
 pen  of  Philostratus  sixty-three  letters,  and  an  epigram 
 in  the  Anthology.  There  are  only  two  editions  of  the 
 entire  works  of  Philostratus  ;  that  of  Morell,  Pans, 
 1608,  fol.,  and  that  of  Olearius,  Lips..  1709,  fol. 
 The  latter  is  the  better  one  of  the  two,  although  in 
 numerous  instances  it  only  copies  the  errors  of  the 
 former.  Olearius  is  said  to  have  appropriated  to  his 
 own  use  the  notes  of  Reinesius,  written  on  the  mar- 
 gin of  a  copy  of  Morell's  edition,  which  he  obtained 
 from  the  library  of  Zeilz  ;  and  then  to  have  destroyed 
 this  copy.  (Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bililiogr.,vo\.  3,  p.  23.5.) 
 In  1806,  Boissonade  published  a  good  edition  of  the 
 Heroica,  from  the  Paris  press,  in  8vo,  and  Wclcker 
 an  edition  of  the  K'lKove^  of  both  the  elder  and  younger 
 Philostratus,  with  archieological  illustrations  by  him- 
 self, and  a  commentary  by  F.  Jacobs,  Lips.,  1825, 
 8vo.  Among  the  works  itiat  may  be  consulted  in  re- 
 lation to  Philostratus  are  the  following  :  Bcuhn,  de 
 arte  ct  ju.dicio  Philostrati  in  descnbcndis  imaginibus, 
 Hafn.,  1792,  4to. — BekkeH  Specimen  var.  Icct.  et  ob- 
 
 servat.  in  Philostratvm,  Ace.  F-  Crcnzeri  Annol., 
 Heidelb.,  1818,  8vo. — Eamaker,  Lcctiones  Pkilostra- 
 tea,  Lvgd.  Bat.,  pars  I,  1816,  Svo.-  -Heyne,  Philos- 
 trati imagines,  &c.,  Golting.,  1796,  1801  (Progr.), 
 fol. — Jacobs,  Exerritationes  Critica  in  script,  vet., 
 vol.  2,  Lips.,  1797,  8vo — II.  A  nephew  of  the  former, 
 called,  for  distinction'  sake,  Philostratus  the  young- 
 er He  was  the  author  of  a  work  which  has  come 
 down  to  us  under  the  title  of  E'tKovec  (like  that  of  the 
 elder  Philostratus).  It  is  contained  in  a  single  book, 
 ap''  is  less  a  description  of  paintings  that  have  actually 
 ex.sted,  than  a  collection  of  subjects  for  artists.  This 
 work  is  commonly  printed  along  with  the  FAkovec  of 
 the  elder  Philostratus.  The  latest  and  best  edition  is 
 that  of  Welcker,  Lips.,  182.5,  8vo.  (Schbll,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  2S8,  scqq.) 
 
 Philotas,  son  of  Pannenio.  He  distinguished  him- 
 self on  many  occasions,  but  was  at  last  accused  of 
 conspiring  against  the  life  of  Alexander.  The  mon- 
 arch was  encamped  at  Artacoana  when  information  of 
 this  design  was  brought  to  him.  The  informer  was 
 a  boy  of  infamous  character,  and  the  persons  accused 
 were  oflicers,  though  not  of  exalted  rank.  The  in- 
 former said,  that  he  had  at  first  told  his  secret  to  Phi- 
 lotas, who  had  daily  access  to  Alexander,  but  who  had 
 taken  no  notice  of  it  for  two  days,  at  the  end  of  which 
 time,  through  the  means  of  another  officer  near  Alex- 
 ander's person,  the  information  was  conveyed  to  the 
 king.  This  threw  strong  suspicion  on  Philotas,  who, 
 however,  was  not  implicated  by  either  the  informer  or 
 any  of  the  accused  in  their  confessions.  But  Craterus, 
 who  had  an  old  jealousy  against  Philotas,  on  account 
 of  the  favour  which  the  latter  enjoyed  with  the  king, 
 encouraged  the  suspicions  of  ."Alexander,  who  recol- 
 lected what  Philotas  had  said  at  the  time  when  the 
 former  claimed  Jupiter  Ammon  for  his  father,  that  he 
 pitied  those  who  were  doomed  to  serve  a  man  that  fan- 
 cied himself  to  be  a  god.  Craterus  had  also,  for  some 
 time  previous,  bribed  a  courtesan  intimate  with  Philo- 
 tas, who  reported  to  him.  and,  through  him,  to  the  king, 
 all  the  boastful  vapourings  and  expressions  of  discon- 
 tent uttered  by  Philotas  in  his  unguarded  moments. 
 In  short,  Alexander,  according  to  Quintus  (.^urtius,  was 
 induced  to  order  Philotas  to  be  tortured  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  suggestions  of  Craterus,  Hephasstion. 
 and  others  of  the  king's  companions.  Coenus,  who  had 
 married  the  sister  of  Philotas,  was  one  of  tlie  most 
 violent  against  the  accused,  for  fear,  it  was  supposed, 
 of  being  thought  an  abettor  of  his  brother-in-law.  The 
 torture  was  administered  by  Craterus  himself,  and 
 Philotas,  after  enduring  dreadful  agonies,  confessed, 
 though  in  vague  terms,  that  he  had  conspired  against 
 the  life  of  Alexander,  and  that  his  father  Pannenio 
 was  cognizant  of  it  This  being  considered  sufficient 
 evidence,  Philotas  was  stoned  to  death ;  and  Parme- 
 nio  suffered  not  long  after  him.  (Vid.  Parmenio. — 
 Quint.  Curt.,  6,  7,  18.— Arrian,  Exp.  Al.,  3,  26, 
 scqq.) 
 
 f'niLoxENUs,  I.  a  native  of  the  island  of  Cythera, 
 born  439  B.C.  He  is  highly  praised  as  a  dithyrambic 
 poet  by  the  ancient  writers.  The  inhabitants  of  Cy- 
 thera having  been  subjected  by  the  Lacedaemonians, 
 Philoxenus,  while  still  a  boy,  came  as  a  slave  into  the 
 hands  of  a  Spartan,  and  afterward  into  those  of  the 
 younger  Melanippides,  who  instructed  him  in  the  po- 
 etic art,  and  gave  him  his  freedom.  Philoxenus  lived 
 subsequently  at  the  court  of  Dionysius  the  elder,  ty- 
 rant  of  Syracuse,  where  he  acquired  the  character  of 
 a  ban  vwant  and  a  wit.  Dionysius,  on  one  occasion, 
 gave  him  one  of  his  dramas  to  correct,  and  the^  poet  is 
 said  to  have  run  his  pen  through  the  whole.  The  of- 
 fended tyrant  sent  hiin  to  the  quarries,  and  the  poet  is 
 said  to  have  there  composed  the  best  of  his  dramas, 
 entitled  Cyclops^  yElian  says,  that  the  hole  or  cham- 
 ber in  which  he  wrote  his  play  was  shown  a  long  time 
 after  to  strangers,  and  went  by  the  poet's  name.    {  Var. 
 
 1043 
 
P  H  I 
 
 PHI 
 
 Hist.,  12,  44.)  Philoxenus  was  afterward  restored  to 
 favour,  and  the  tyrant,  imagining  that  he  would  now 
 find  in  him  a  more  complimentary  critic,  invited  him 
 to  attend  the  reading  of  one  of  his  poems.  Philoxe- 
 nus, after  enduring  the  infliction  for  a  while,  rose  from 
 nis  seat,  and,  on  being  asked  by  Dionysius  whither  he 
 was  going,  coolly  replied,  "  To  the  quarries  /"  {Ntcol. 
 Damasc,  ap.  Stab.,  13,  16,  p.  145.  —  Suid.,  s.  v. 
 u-rraye  fie  eic  '''"f  ?MTo/ii.ag. — Id.,  s.  v.  Aarofiia^. — 
 HcUad.,  ap.  Phot.,  Cod.,  279.)  Eustathius  gives  a 
 curious  account  of  his  having  escaped  on  this  occasion, 
 by  dexterously  using  a  word  susceptible  of  a  double 
 meaning.  Dionysius,  according  to  this  version  of  the 
 story,  read  one  of  his  tragedies  to  Philoxenus,  and  then 
 asked  him  what  kind  of  a  play  it  appeared  to  him  to 
 be.  The  poet  answered,  "  ^4  sad  one'''  (olKvpu), 
 meaning  sad  stuff;  but  Dionysius  thought  he  meant  a 
 drama  lull  of  pathos,  and  took  his  remark  as  a  com- 
 pliment. {Eustath.  ad.  Od.,  p.  1691.)  According  to 
 the  scholiast  on  Aristophanes  [Plut.,  290),  Philoxenus 
 was  sent  to  the  quarries  for  having  rivalled  the  tyrant 
 in  the  affections  of  a  concubine  named  Galataa. 
 Having  escaped,  however,  from  this  confinement,  he 
 fled  to  his  native  island,  and  there  avenged  himself  by 
 writing  a  drama,  in  which  Dionysius  was  represented 
 under  the  character  of  the  Cyclops  Polyphemus,  enam- 
 oured of  the  nymph  Galatsea.  The  allusion  was  the 
 more  galling,  as  Dionysius  laboured  under  a  weakness 
 of  sight,  or,  more  probably,  saw  well  with  only  one  of 
 his  eyes.  {Schol.  ad.  Aristoph.,  I.  c. — Compare  Alhe- 
 nczus,  1,  p.  7.) — The  reputation  of  Philoxenus  rested 
 more,  however,  upon  his  lyric  than  upon  his  dramatic 
 productions.  Alhenfeus  has  preserved  some  extracts 
 from  his  works,  particularly  one  from  his  comic,  or, 
 rather,  l)urlesque  poem,  entitled  Ad-Kvov,  or  "  The  En- 
 tertainment." Philoxenus  was  noted  for  his  gluttony, 
 and  Athenaeus  records  a  wish  of  his  (8,  p.  341,  d.),  that 
 he  might  have  a  throat  three  cubits  long,  in  order  that 
 the  pleasure  arising  from  the  tasting  of  his  food  might 
 be  the  more  prolonged.  (Compare  JElian,  10,  9.) 
 He  is  said  to  have  died  of  a  surfeit,  in  eating  a  poly- 
 pus two  cubits  in  size.  {AJheiiczus,  8,  p.  341. — 
 Scholl,  Gesch.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  206.)— H.  A  native 
 of  Leucadia.  Bockh  considers  this  one  to  have  been 
 the  glutton,  and  the  Cytherean  the  poet.  {Scholl, 
 Gesch.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  207,  Anm.  1.)  —  HI.  or 
 Flavins  Philoxenus,  was  consul  A.D.  525,  and  is  com- 
 monly known  as  the  author  of  a  Latin-Greek  Lexicon, 
 in  which  the  Latin  words  were  explained  in  Greek. 
 H.  Stephens  gave  this  Lexicon,  without  knowing  the 
 name  of  the  compiler,  in  his  "  Glossaria  duo  c  situ 
 vetustatis  eruta"  Pans,  1573,  fol.  It  appears  under 
 the  name  of  Philoxenus  in  tiie  collection  of  Bonav. 
 Vulcanius.  It  forms  part  also  of  the  London  edition 
 of  Stephens's  Thesaurus,  1826.  {Scholl,  Gesch.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  193.) 
 
 Philyra,  one  of  the  Oceanides,  and  the  mother  of 
 Chiron  by  Saturn.  The  god,  dreading  the  jealousy  of 
 his  wife  Rhea,  changed  Philyra  into  a  mare,  and  him- 
 self into  a  horse.  The  offspring  of  their  love  was  the 
 Centaur  Chiron,  half  man,  half  horse.  Philyra  was  so 
 ashamed  of  the  monstrous  shape  of  the  child,  that  she 
 prayed  the  gods  to  change  her  form  and  nature.  She 
 was  accordingly  metamorphosed  into  the  linden-tree, 
 called  by  her  name  among  the  Greeks  (<J>iAiipa,  Phi- 
 It/ra).  {Hygin,  fah.,  138.)  Modern  expounders  of 
 mythology,  however,  make  '^tTivpa  equivalent  to  •ii'ki- 
 Tivpa,'^  lyre-loving,'"  and  consider  it  a  very  fit  designa- 
 tion for  the  mother  of  one  who  was  so  skilled  in  music 
 as  Chiron.     (  Wclclier,  Nachtrag  zur  Tnl.,  j).  .'i3,  not.) 
 
 Philykides,  a  patronymic  of  Chiron,  the  son  of 
 Philyra.     {Vng.,  G.,  3,  550.) 
 
 Phineus,  I.  a  son  of  Agenor  (or,  according  to  some, 
 
 of  Neptune),  who  was  gifted  with  prophetic  powers, 
 
 and  reigned  at  Salmydessus,  on  the  coast  of  Thrace. 
 
 He  married  Cleopatra,   the  daughter  of  Boreas  and 
 
 1044 
 
 Orithyia,  and  became  by  her  the  father  of  tv,  o  sons, 
 Plexippes  and  Pandion.  Cleopatra  having  died,  be 
 married  Idcea,  the  daughter  of  Dardanus,  who,  becom- 
 ing jealous  of  her  step-children,  maligned  them  to  their 
 father,  and  the  latter,  believing  the  slander,  deprived 
 them  of  sight  and  imprisoned  them.  According  to 
 the  commonly-received  account,  the  gods,  to  punish 
 him,  struck  him  with  blindness,  and  sent  ihe  Harpie» 
 to  torment  him.  These  fell  monsters  came  flying  the 
 instant  food  was  set  before  him,  carried  off  the  great- 
 er portion  of  it,  and  so  defiled  what  they  lell  that  no 
 mortal  could  endure  to  eat  it.  The  Argonauts  com- 
 ing to  consult  Phineus  about  their  future  course,  he 
 promised  to  direct  them,  on  condition  of  their  deliver- 
 ing him  from  the  Harpies.  This  they  undertook  to  do. 
 The  table  was  spread  ;  the  Harpies  instantly  descend- 
 ed, screaming,  and  seized  the  viands.  Zetes  and  Ca- 
 lais, the  winged  sons  of  Boreas,  then  drew  their  swords 
 and  pursued  them  through  the  air.  The  Harpies  flew 
 along  the  Propontis,  over  the  /^i^gean  Sea  and  Greece, 
 to  some  islets  beyond  the  Peloponnesus,  where  their 
 pursuers  came  up  with  them,  and  were  about  to  slay 
 them,  when  Iris,  appearing,  forbade  the  deed,  and  the 
 Harpies  were  dismissed,  on  their  taking  a  solemn  oath 
 never  more  to  molest  Phineus.  The  isles  were  thence- 
 forth named  the  Strophades  {'Lrpo^ade^,  from  cTpe^u, 
 "  to  turn''),  because  the  sons  of  Boreas  there  turned 
 back  from  the  pursuit.  (Apollon.  Kh.,  2,  284.) — The 
 legend  of  Phineus  appears  to  have  assumed  a  variety 
 of  shapes  among  the  ancient  writers,  and  this  would 
 seem  to  have  been  owing  to  its  being  frequently  made 
 the  subject  of  dramatic  composition.  Thus,  there  was  a 
 "  Phineus"  composed  by  -lEschylus  ;  another  by  Soph- 
 ocles ;  not  to  speak  of  inferior  dramatists.  {Heyne, 
 ad,  Apollod.,  1,  9,  21.)  One  version  of  the  story  made 
 Phineus  to  have  been  blinded  by  Neptune,  because  he 
 pointed  out  to  Phryxus  the  route  to  Scythia.  This 
 was  given  in  particular  by  Hesiod  in  his  Eoa.  {Schol. 
 ad  Apollod.  Rhod.,2,  181.)  The  same  poet,  accord- 
 ing to  Strabo  (463),  gave  another  legend  elsewhere, 
 which  related  that  Phineus  had  been  carried  off  by  the 
 Harpies  to  the  northern  regions  of  the  earth,  the  land 
 of  the  Galactophagi.  (Compare  Orphica,\.  675,  seqq.) 
 Another  account,  mentioned  by  Apollodorus,  made 
 Phineus  to  have  been  blinded  by  Boreas  and  the  Ar- 
 gonauts {Apollod.,  1,  9,  21.-/(1,  3,  15,  4);  while 
 Diodorus  Siculus  states,  that  Zetes  and  Calais,  in  con- 
 junction with  Hercules,  made  war  upon  the  Thracians, 
 liberated  the  two  sons  of  Phineus  from  confinement, 
 and  that  Hercules  slew  the  king  himself  in  battle. 
 {Dtod.  Sic,  4,  44.)  Finally,  some  innovator,  guided 
 probably  by  this  passage  of  Diodorus,  would  seem  to 
 have  changed  avv  Bopea  in  the  text  of  Apollodorus 
 (3,  15,  4),  into  oiiv  Bopeudaff,  and  hence  arose  an- 
 other version  of  the  fable,  that  Phineus  had  been  blind- 
 ed by  the  sons  of  Boreas,  for  his  cruel  treatment  of 
 their  relatives.  (Heyne,  ad  Apollod.,  I.  c.) — II.  The 
 brother  of  Cepheus,  king  of  .iLlthiojiia.  Andromeda, 
 daughter  of  the  latter,  had  been  promised  him  in  mar- 
 riage ;  and  when  she  was  given  to  Perseus,  a  contest 
 arose,  in  which  Phineus  was  changed  to  stone  by  the 
 Gorgon's  head  which  Perseus  had  brought  with  him. 
 {Vid.  Andromeda  and  Danae.) 
 
 PhintTas,  I.  a  city  of  Sicily,  to  the  east  of  Gela, 
 on  the  southern  coast.  It  was  founded  by  Phintias,  a 
 tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  who  began  to  reign  the  nest 
 year  after  the  death  of  Agathocles.  Phintias  trans- 
 ferred to  his  new  city  the  inhabitants  of  Gela  (Diod. 
 Sic.,  22,  2),  which  latter  place  from  this  time  became 
 deserted  and  ceased  to  exist.  {Strabo,  272.)  Cluver 
 makes  Phintias  correspond  to  the  modern  AUcata  ; 
 but  Mannert  proves  very  conclusively  from  Diodorus 
 and  Polybius,  that  it  lay  to  the  east  of  Gela,  not  to  the 
 west,  as  it  appears  on  D'Anville's  map,  near  the  mouth 
 of  the  river  Dnllo.  {Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  349, 
 seqq.) — II.  A  tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  the  year  after  the 
 
PHL 
 
 PHS 
 
 death  of  Agathocles.  He  was  the  founder  of  Phintias, 
 a  cily  of  Sicily  to  the  east  of  Gela.     (  Vid.  Phinlias  1.) 
 
 Phlegethon,  a  river  of  the  lower  world,  which 
 rolled  in  waves  of  fire.  Hence  its  name  <^'Aeyttiuv, 
 from  (^'kiyu,  '^  to  burn."  The  god  of  the  stream  was 
 fabled  by  the  poets  to  be  the  son  of  Cocytus.  {Stat., 
 T/ic/j.,  4,  522.— Haiec,  Thijcst.,  IQIS.—  Virg.,  ^n., 
 6,  264.) 
 
 PhlegoiN,  I.  a  native  of  Tralles,  in  Lydia,  one  of  the 
 Emperor  Hadrian's  freedmen.  He  wrote  a  species  of 
 universal  chronicle,  commencing  with  the  first  Olym- 
 piad, since  he  regarded  all  that  preceded  this  period 
 as  fabulous.  In  this  work  he  recounted  all  the  events 
 that  had  taken  place  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
 during  the  four  years  of  each  Ulympiad.  Hence  it 
 bore  the  title  of  'O'Xvj.lklovikCjv  kol  Xpoviiccw  avra- 
 jujT/  {''A  Collection  of  Ulynipic  Conquerors,  and  of 
 Events'^).  Independently  ol  a  Iragnient,  which  appears 
 to  have  formed  the  introduction  to  the  work,  we  have 
 only  remaining  of  it  what  relates  to  the  176th  Olym- 
 piad. Photius  has  preserved  this  ibr  us ;  and  from  this 
 it  would  appear  that  Phlegon  confined  himself  to  a 
 simple  enumeration  of  facts,  without  taking  any  trou- 
 ble aboulj  ornament  of  style,  or  without  accompanying 
 his  work  with  any  reflections.  Photius,  therefore,  had 
 good  reason,  no  doubt,  to  consider  its  perusal  as  some- 
 what fatiguing.  The  loss  of  the  work,  however,  is  the 
 more  to  be  lamented,  since  ancient  historians  in  gen- 
 eral neglect  chronology  too  much.  It  was  in  this 
 work  that  Phlegon  made  mention  of  the  famous  eclipse 
 of  the  sun  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Tibe- 
 rius, which,  according  to  hiin,  produced  so  great  an 
 obscurity  that  the  stars  were  seen  at  the  sixth  hour  of 
 the  day  (12  o'clock  at  noon),  and  which  was  accom- 
 panied with  an  earthquake.  It  was  the  eclipse  that  oc- 
 curred at  our  Saviour's  crucifi.xion.  {Euseb.,  ap.  Syn- 
 cell.,  p.  325.)  Numerous  works  have  appeared  in 
 England  on  this  passage  of  Plilegon,  where  the  eclipse 
 is  mentioned.  Among  these,  the  following  may  be 
 enumerated  :  "  Sykes,  Dissertation  ujwii  Ike  Eclipse 
 mentioned  by  Phlegon,''^  London,  1732,  8vo. — "  The 
 Testimony  of  Phlegon  vindicated,  &c.,  by  W.  Whis- 
 lon,"  London,  1732,  8vo.  To  this  work  there  was  a 
 reply  by  Sykes,  to  whom  Whiston  rejoined. — "■Phle- 
 gon examined  critically  and  impartially,  by  John 
 Chapman,'''  London,  1743,  8vo,  &c  — We  have  re- 
 maining two  small  works  of  Phlegon  :  one,  entitled 
 Jlepl  ^ariiaaiuv,  '■'  Of  wonderful  Things,''  containing 
 a  collection  of  most  absurd  stories,  which  could  only 
 have  been  made  by  a  man  equally  destitute  of  critical 
 acumen  and  sound  judgment;  the  other  treats  ^' of  Per- 
 sons who  have  attained  to  a  very  advanced  old  age 
 {Ilepl  MaKpoSiuv),  and  is  a  dry  catalogue  of  individu- 
 als who  had  reached  the  age  of  100  to  140  years. 
 Phlegon  was  the  author  of  several  other  works,  which 
 are  now  lost,  such  as,  'Mw  Abridgmcyit  of  the  Work 
 on  the  Olympiads,"  a  "  Description  of  Sicily,'''  a  trea- 
 tise "  on  Roman  Festivals,''^  another  "  07i  the  most  Re- 
 markable Points  of  the  City  of  Rome,"  and  "a  Life 
 of  Hadrian."  Spartianus  informs  us,  that  this  biog- 
 raphy was  believed  to  have  been  written  by  the  em- 
 peror himself,  who  borrowed  for  the  purpose  the  name 
 of  his  freedman.  {Spart.,  Vit.  Dadr.,  15.)  Phlegon 
 is  thought  to  have  been  the  author  also  of  a  small 
 ,vork,  on  "  Females  distinguished  for  Skill  and  Cour- 
 age in  War"  {VvvaiKec  e.v  nolepiKoIc  avvcTal  kuI 
 aviSpeiai),  containing  short  notices  of  Scmirainis,  Ni- 
 locris,  &c-  The  best  editions  of  Phlegon  are.  that  of 
 Meursius,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1620,  4to,  and  that  of  Franz, 
 Hal.,  1S22,  8vo,  containing  the  critical  observations 
 of  Bast.  The  latter,  however,  which  is  very  negli- 
 gently printed,  does  not  comprehend  the  work  on  re- 
 markable women.  This  last- mentioned  production 
 was  published  by  Heeren,  in  the  Bibliothek  fiir  altc 
 Lit.  und  Kunst,  Nos.  VI.  and  VII  ,  after  a  MS.  be- 
 longing to  the  Escurial,  which  was  copied  by  Tychsen, 
 
 and  after  another  copy  which  was  in  the  Barberini 
 library  at  Rome,  and  which  Holstenius  had  made 
 from  a  Florence  MS.  (Schbll,  Hisl.  Lit.,  vol.  4,  p. 
 201,  scqq.) — II.  One  of  the  lour  horses  of  the  sun. 
 The  name  means  "  the  Burning  one"  (<I>;tcj  wv,  from 
 0Ae;/(j,  ''to  burn").  {Ovid,  Mel.,  2,  154.)  The 
 names  of  the  Sun-god's  steeds  are  differently  given  by 
 dilierent  poets.  (Consult  Munker,  ad  Hygin.,fah., 
 183. — Spanheun,  ad  Callini.,  H.  in  Del.,  lt)9.) 
 
 Phlegka,  I.  the  earlier  name  of  the  peninsula  of  Pal- 
 lene  in  Thrace  (afterward  Macedonia).  The  appella- 
 tion is  derived  Irom  (p'Aeyo),  "  to  burn,"  and  the  place 
 was  fabled  to  iiave  witnessed  the  conflict  between  the 
 gods  and  the  earth-born  Titans.  The  spot  most  prob- 
 ably had  been  volcanic  at  an  early  jieriod.  {Find., 
 Nem.,  1,  lOU. — Schol.  et  Bbckh,  ad  loc.)—U.  More 
 commonly  Phlegrsi  (Jampi,  a  region  of  Italy,  respect- 
 ing which  a  tradition  was  related  similar  to  that  in  the 
 case  of  the  peninsula  of  Pallenc.  {Vid.  Phleora  I.) 
 The  territory  of  Italy  thus  denominated  formed  part 
 of  ancient  Campania,  and  appears  to  have  e.xperienced 
 in  a  very  great  degree  the  destructive  efl'ects  of  sub- 
 terraneous fires.  Here  we  find  Mount  Vesuvius;  the 
 Solfaterra,  still  smoking,  as  the  poets  have  pretended, 
 from  Jupiter's  thunder  ;  the  Monte  Nuovo,  which  was 
 suddenly  thrown  up  from  the  bowels  ol  the  earth  on 
 the  day  of  St.  Michael's  feast,  in  the  year  1538  ;  the 
 Monte  Barbara,  formerly  Mons  Gaurus  ;  the  grotto  of 
 the  Sybil ;  the  noxious  and  gloomy  lakes  of  Avernus 
 and  Acheron,  &c.  It  is  not  improbable  that  these 
 objects  terrified  the  Greeks  in  their  first  voyages  to 
 the  coast,  and  that  they  were  afterward  c.iibellished 
 and  exaggerated  by  the  lancy  and  fiction  ol  the  poets. 
 {Plin  ,  3,  b.—Sil.  Ital.,  8,  biO.—Propcrt.,  1,  20,  8.) 
 
 Phlegv'^  {^Aeyvai),  the  followers  of  Phlegyas,  in 
 Boeotia.     ( FzcZ.  Phlegyas.) 
 
 Phlegyas,  son  of  Mars  and  Chrysogenea,  the 
 daughter  of  Halmus.  Pausanias  relates  (9,  34),  that 
 the  country  about  Orchomenus  in  Bopotia  was  first 
 possessed  by  Andreus,  the  son  of  the  river  Peneus, 
 who  named  it  from  himself  Andrei's.  He  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  his  son  Eteocles,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
 the  first  that  sacrificed  to  the  Graces.  Eteocles  gave 
 a  portion  of  his  territory  to  Halmus,  the  son  of  Sisy- 
 phus of  Corinth,  to  whose  posterity,  on  Eteocles  dy- 
 ing childless,  the  kingdom  came  :  (or  Halmus  had 
 two  daughters,  Chrysogenea  and  Chryse,  the  former 
 of  whom,  as  we  have  already  said,  became  by  Mars 
 the  mother  of  Phlegyas  ;  the  latter  bore  to  Neptune  a 
 son  named  Minyas.  Phlegyas  obtained  the  dominion 
 after  Eteocles,  and  named  the  country  Phlegyonitis. 
 He  also  built  a  city  called  Phlegya,  into  which  he 
 collected  the  bravest  warriors  of  Greece.  These  sep- 
 arated themselves  from  the  other  people  of  the  coun- 
 try, and  took  to  robbing  and  plundering.  They  even 
 ventured  to  assail  and  burn  the  temple  of  Delphi ;  and 
 Jupiter,  on  account  of  their  impiety,  finally  destroyed 
 them  with  lightning  and  [lestilence.  A  lew  only  es- 
 caped to  Phocis.  {Kcightleifs  Mythology,  p.  346.) — 
 The  Phlegyans  are  regarded  by  Buttmaiin  as  belong- 
 ing to  the  universal  tradition  of  an  impious  people  be- 
 ing destroyed  by  fire  from  heaven.  Muller  regards 
 the  Phlegyans  as  being  the  same  with  the  Lapithae 
 and  the  military  class  of  the  Minyans.  Their  name 
 probably  {-i-leyvai,  from  fAeyu,  ''to  burn")  gave  oc- 
 casion to  the  legend  of  their  destruction.  {Keighlley, 
 I.  c.) 
 
 Phi-ios,  a  small  independent  republic  of  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus, adjoining  Corinth  and  Sicyon  on  the  north, 
 Arcadia  on  the  west,  and  the  Neinean  and  Cleonsan  dis- 
 tricts of  Argohs  on  the  south  and  southeast  {Strabo, 
 382.)  It  is^  sometimes,  however,  referred  to  Argohs, 
 since  Homer  represents  it.  under  the  early  name  of 
 Ara;thyrea,  as  dependant  on  the  kingdom  of  Mycena-. 
 (//.,  2,  569.)  The  remains  of  the  city  of  Phlius  are 
 to  be  seen  not  far  from  Agios  Giorgws,  on  the  road 
 
 1045 
 
PHO 
 
 PHO 
 
 to  the  Lake  of  Stjmphalus  in  Arcadia.     (Gell,  Ilin.  of 
 the  Morca,  p.  169.) 
 
 Phocea,  a  maritime  town  of  Ionia,  in  .'\sia  Minor, 
 southwest  of  Cyma,  and  the  most  northern  of  the 
 Ionian  cities.  It  was  founded,  as  Pausanias  reports, 
 by  some  emigrants  of  Phocis,  under  the  guidance  of 
 two  Athenian  chiefs,  named  Philogenes  and  Damon. 
 The  city  was  built,  with  the  consent  of  the  Cymaeans, 
 on  part  of  their  territory  ;  nor  was  it  inchided  in  the 
 Ionian  confederacy  till  its  citizens  had  consented  to 
 place  at  the  head  of  the  government  princes  of  the  line 
 of  Codrus.  Its  favourable  situation  for  commerce 
 made  it  known  from  a  very  early  period  ;  and,  as  Mile- 
 tus enjoved  almost  e.xclusively  the  trade  of  the  Eux- 
 ine,  so  Phocaja  had  become  possessed  of  great  mari- 
 time ascendancy  in  the  western  part  of  the  Mediterra- 
 nean. The  colony  of  Alalia  in  Corsica  was  of  Pho- 
 ccean  origin,  and  Phocaean  vessels  traded  to  Tartessus 
 and  the  southwestern  coast  of  Spain.  It  was  in  these 
 distant  voyages,  no  doubt,  that  their  long  vessels  of 
 fifty  oars,  which  they  had  adopted  from  the  Cartha- 
 ginians, were  commonly  employed  ;  and  they  would 
 seem  to  have  been  the  first  of  the  Greeks  that  em- 
 ployed ships  of  this  construction.  {Herod.,  1,  163.) 
 Herodotus  informs  us,  that  the  Phocaeans  were  the 
 first  Greeks  that  made  their  countrymen  acquainted 
 with  the  Adriatic,  and  the  coasts  of  Tyrrheiiia  and 
 Spain.  Tartessus  was  the  spot  which  they  niost  fre- 
 quented;  and  they  so  conciliated  the  favour  of  Argan- 
 thonius,  sovereign  of  the  country,  that  he  sought  to 
 induce  them  to  leave  Ionia  and  settle  in  his  dominions. 
 On  their  declining  this  offer,  he  munificently  presented 
 them  with  a  large  sum  of  money,  for  the  purpose  of 
 raising  a  strong  line  of  fortifications  around  their  city, 
 a  precaution  which  the  growing  power  of  the  Median 
 empire  seemed  to  render  necessary.  The  historian 
 observes,  that  the  liberality  of  the  Iberian  sovereign 
 was  attested  by  the  circuit  of  its  walls,  which  were 
 several  stadia  in  length,  and  by  the  size  and  solid  con- 
 struction of  the  stones  employed.  Phocsea  was  one 
 of  the  first  Ionian  cities  besieged  by  the  army  of 
 Cyrus  under  the  command  of  Harpagus.  Having  in- 
 vested the  place,  he  summoned  the  inhabitants  to  sur- 
 render, declaring  that  it  would  be  a  sufficient  token 
 of  submission  if  they  would  pull  down  one  battle- 
 ment of  their  wall,  and  consecrate  one  dwelling  in 
 their  city.  The  Phocajans,  aware  that  to  comply  with 
 this  demand  was  to  forfeit  their  independence,  but 
 conscious  also  of  their  inability  to  resist  the  over- 
 whelming power  of  Cvrus,  determined  to  abandon 
 their  native  soil,  and  seek  their  fortune  in  another 
 clime.  Having  formed  this  resolution,  and  obtained 
 from  the  Persian  general  a  truce  of  one  day,  under  the 
 pretence  of  a  wish  to  deliberate  on  his  proposal,  they 
 launched  their  shijjs,  and,  embarking  with  their  wives 
 and  children,  and  their  most  valuable  effects,  sailed  to 
 Chios.  On  their  arrival  in  that  island,  they  sought  to 
 purchase  the  CEnussce,  a  neighbouring  group  of  isl- 
 ands, belonging  to  the  Chians;  but  the  people  of  Chi- 
 os, fearing  a  diminution  of  their  own  commerce  from 
 such  active  neighliours,  refused  to  comply  with  their 
 wishes,  and  the  Phocajans  resolved  to  sail  to  (Corsica, 
 where,  twenty  years  prior  to  these  events,  they  had 
 founded  a  town  named  Alalia.  Before  sailing  thither. 
 however,  they  touched  at  Phoctea,  and,  having  sur- 
 prised the  Persian  garrison  left  there  by  Harpagus, 
 put  it  to  the  sword.  They  then  bound  themselves  by 
 a  solemn  oath  to  abandon  their  native  land,  and  not  to 
 return  to  it  until  a  mass  of  iron  which  they  cast  into  the 
 sea  should  rise  to  the  surface.  Nevertheless,  one  half 
 of  their  number,  overcome  by  the  feelings  which  the 
 sight  of  their  city  recalled  to  their  minds,  could  not  be 
 prevailed  upon  to  forsake  it  a  second  time.  The  rest 
 continued  their  voyage  to  Corsica,  and  were  well  re- 
 ceived by  their  countrymen  already  settled  in  the  isl- 
 and During  the  five  years  hi  which  they  remained 
 1046 
 
 there,  they  rendered  themselves  formidable  to  the  sur- 
 rounding nations  by  their  piracies  and  deprcdatio.^s,  so 
 that  at  length  the  Tuscans  and  Carthaginians  united 
 their  forces  to  check  these  aggressors  and  desirov  their 
 power.  The  hostile  fleets  met  in  the  Sardinian  sea, 
 and,  after  a  most  obstinate  engagenieiu,  the  Piiocae- 
 ans  succeeded  in  beating  off  the  enemy.  They  sus- 
 tained, however,  so  great  a  loss  in  the  conflict,  and 
 their  ships  were  so  crippled,  that,  despairing  of  being 
 able  to  continue  the  contest  against  their  powerful 
 foes,  they  resolved  to  abandon  Corsica,  and  proceed 
 to  Rhegium  in  Italy.  Soon  alter  their  arrival  in  that 
 port,  they  were  persuaded  to  settle  at  Velia  or  Elsa, 
 in  Lucania,  by  a  citizen  of  Posidonia.  This  new  col- 
 ony became,  in  process  of  time,  a  considerable  and 
 flourishing  town.  {Herod.,  1,  163,  seqq.) — It  is  re- 
 markable that  Herodotus,  in  this  detailed  account  of 
 the  settlements  made  at  difi'erenl  tim.es  by  the  Phocae- 
 ans,  should  have  made  no  mention  of  the  most  impor- 
 tant and  celebrated  of  their  foundations,  namely  Mas- 
 silia,  or  the  modern  Marseille,  which  he  notices  only 
 once,  and  that  incidentally,  and  not  as  a  Phoc»an  col- 
 ony (5,  9).  Thucydides,  however,  distinctly  ascribes 
 the  origin  of  that  city  to  the  Phocaeans  (1,  13^  as  also 
 Strabo,  who  enters  very  fully  into  the  history  of  that 
 event.  {S/rab.,  179,  scqq. — Id.,  647. — Compare  Liv., 
 5,  34. — Athentcus,  13,  p  576.  —  Sleph.  Bi/z.,  s.  v. 
 Maaaa7ua.)  It  is  probable  that  Massilia  had  been  al- 
 ready founded  by  the  Phocseans,  before  they  were 
 forced  by  the  Persians  to  abandon  Ionia  ;  and  that  the 
 Corsican  settlement  was  but  an  offset  of  the  principal 
 colony. — Phocaea  still  continued  to  exist  under  the 
 Persian  dominion,  but  greatly  reduced  in  population 
 and  commerce.  This  is  apparent  from  the  fact  of  its 
 having  been  able  to  contribute  only  three  ships  to  the 
 combined  fleet  of  the  revolted  lonians  assemliled  at 
 Lade.  Little  mention  is  made  of  Phocaea  subsequent 
 to  the  events  of  this  insurrection.  {Thucyd.,  8,  31.) 
 Some  centuries  later,  however,  it  is  described  by  Livy 
 as  a  town  of  some  size  and  consequence,  on  occasion 
 of  its  being  besieged  by  a  Roman  naval  force,  in  the 
 war  against  Antiochus.  (Z/Z».,  37,  31.)  "  The  town," 
 says  the  historian,  "  stands  at  the  bottom  of  a  bay,  and 
 is  of  an  oblong  shape.  The  wall  encompasses  a  space 
 of  two  miles  and  a  half  in  length,  and  then  contracts 
 into  a  narrow,  wedge-like  form,  which  place  they 
 call  Aa/iTTTT/p  I'Lainpter,  or  '  ihe  lighthouse'').  The 
 breadth  here  is  one  thousand  two  hundred  paces;  and 
 a  tongue  of  land,  stretching  out  about  a  mile  towards 
 the  sea,  divides  the  bav  nearly  in  the  middle,  as  if 
 with  a  line,  and  where  it  is  connected  with  the  main 
 land  by  a  narrow  isthmus,  so  as  to  form  two  very 
 safe  harbours,  one  on  each  side.  The  one  that  fronts 
 the  south  is  called  Naustathmos,  the  station  for  ships, 
 from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  capable  of  contain- 
 ing a  vast  number;  the  other  is  close  to  Lampter." 
 We  can  trace  the  existence  of  Phoca^a  through  the 
 Caesars  by  means  of  its  coins,  and  Pliny  (5,  31),  and 
 even  down  to  the  latest  period  of  the  Byzantine  empire, 
 with  the  help  of  the  annalists  and  ecclesiastical  wri- 
 ters. {HicrocL.  Synced.,  p.  166. — Act.  Concil.  Eph.  et 
 Coned.  Chalecd.)  We  learn  from  Michael  Ducas(.,'lMM., 
 p.  89),  that  a  new  town  was  built  not  far  from  the  an- 
 cient site,  which  still  retains  the  name  of  Palao-I'hog- 
 gia,  by  some  Genoese,  in  the  reign  of  Amurath.  'I'his, 
 as  Chandler  informs  us  {Travel.i  in  Asia  Minor,  p. 
 96),  is  situated  on  the  isthmus  mentioned  above  in 
 Livy's  description.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p. 
 330,  scqq.  —  Rcnnell,  Geography  of  Western  Asia, 
 vol.  2,  p.  5  ) 
 
 PhocIon,  a  celebrated  Athenian,  born  about  400 
 B.C.  A  common,  but,  perhaps,  too  easily-received 
 tradition,  made  him  of  obscure  origin,  and  the  son  of 
 a  turner.  Be  this  as  it  may,  he  certainly  received  a 
 careful  education,  and  attended  the  lectures  of  Plato, 
 and  afterward  of  Xenocrates.     Phocion  was  remark 
 
PHOCION. 
 
 P  H  0 
 
 ab!e,  in  a  corrupt  age,  for  purity  and  simplicity  of  char- 
 acter, and,  thougii  lie  erred  in  ills  political  views,  ytt 
 m  his  private  relations  he  certaniiy  deserved  the  praise 
 of  a  virtuous  and  excellent  man.  His  first  service  in 
 warfare  was  under  Chabrias,  to  whom  he  proved  him- 
 self, on  many  occasions,  of  signal  utility,  urging  him  on 
 when  too  slow  in  his  operations,  and  endeavouring  to 
 bring  him  to  act  coolly  v.hen  unreasonably  violent. 
 In  this  way  he  eventually  gained  a  remarkable  ascend- 
 ancy over  that  commander,  so  that  Chabrias  intrusted 
 hitn  with  the  most  important  commissions,  and  assign- 
 ed to  him  the  most  prominent  commands.  In  the 
 naval  battle  fought  off  Naxos,  Phocion  had  charge  of 
 the  left  wing  of  the  fleet,  and  contributed  essentially, 
 by  his  gallant  bearing,  to  the  success  of  the  day.  The 
 Athenians  began  now  to  regard  him  as  one  who  gave 
 promise  of  distinguished  usefulness  to  the  stale.  In 
 entering  on  public  affairs,  Phocion  appears  to  have  ta- 
 ken Anstides  and  Pericles  for  his  models,  and  to  have 
 endeavoured  to  attain  to  eminence  in  both  civil  and 
 military  affairs,  a  union  of  characters  by  no  means 
 common  in  his  time.  He  was  elected  general  iive- 
 and-forty  limes,  without  having  once  attended  at  the 
 election  ;  .having  been  always  appointed  in  his  absence, 
 at  the  free  motion  of  his  countrymen.  This  was  the 
 more  honourable  to  hitn,  as  Phocion  was  one  who  gen- 
 erally opposed  their  inclinations,  and  never  said  or  did 
 anything  with  a  view  to  recommend  himself  In  his 
 military  capacity,  Phocion  signalized  himself  on  sev- 
 eral occasions.  He  defeated  the  forces  of  Philip  of 
 Macedon,  which  that  monarch  had  sent  into  Euhosa, 
 with  the  view  of  getting  a  footing  in  that  island  :  he 
 saved  Byzantium  from  Philip ;  took  several  of  his 
 ships,  and  recovered  many  cities  which  had  been  gar- 
 risoned by  his  troops.  As  a  statesman,  however,  Pho- 
 cion seems  less  deserving  of  praise.  His  great  error 
 was  too  strong  an  attachment  to  pacific  relations  with 
 Macedon,  a  line  of  policy  which  brought  him  into  di- 
 rect collision  with  Demosthenes,  though  it  subsequent- 
 ly secured  for  him  the  favour  of  Alexander.  In  this, 
 however,  there  was  nothing  corrupt :  the  principles  of 
 Phocion  were  pure,  and  his  desire  for  peace  was  a 
 sincere  one  ;  but  his  great  fault  was  in  despairing  too 
 readily  of  his  country.  Alexander,  to  testify  his  re- 
 gard for  Phocion,  sent  him  a  present  of  100  talents, 
 which  the  latter,  however,  unhesitatingly  refused. 
 The  same  monarch  offered  him  his  choice  of  one  of 
 four  Asiatic  cities  ;  but  Phocion  again  declined  the 
 gift,  and  Alexander  died  soon  afterward.  We  find 
 Phocion,  at  a  later  period,  in  pursuance  of  his  usual 
 line  of  policy,  opposing  the  Lamian  war;  and,  in  con- 
 sequence, sent  to  Antipater  to  treat  of  peace,  when 
 that  war  had  eventuated  unsuccessfully  for  Athens. 
 When  the  city  had  submitted,  and  a  Macedonian  gar- 
 rison was  placed  in  Munychia,  the  chief  authority  at 
 Athens  was  vested  in  Phocion,  who  was  recommended 
 by  his  superior  character  and  talents,  and  by  the  high 
 esteem  in  which  he  was  known  to  be  held  by  .\ntipatcr. 
 On  the  death  of  the  latter,  however,  new  troubles  com- 
 menced. {Vid.  Polysperchon  )  The  Athenian  peo- 
 ple held  an  assembly,  with  every  circumstance  of  tu- 
 mult and  confusion,  in  which  they  voted  the  complete 
 re-establishment  of  democracy,  and  the  death  or  ban- 
 ishment of  all  who  had  borne  office  in  the  oligarchy,  of 
 whom  the  most  conspicuous  was  Phocion.  The  exiles 
 fled  to  the  camp  of  Alexander,  son  of  Polysperchon,  and 
 were  sent  by  him  to  his  father,  and  recommended  to  his 
 favour.  They  were  followed  thither  by  an  Athenian 
 embassy,  sent  to  accuse  them  and  to  demand  their  sur- 
 render. Polysperchon  basely  gave  up  the  fugitives, 
 in  word,  to  stand  their  trial,  but,  in  truth,  to  perish  by 
 the  party-fury  of  their  bitterest  enemies.  When  the 
 victims  were  brought  before  the  assembly,  their  voices 
 were  drowned  by  the  clamour  of  their  judcres,  who 
 were  mostly  of  the  persons  newly  restored  to  a  share 
 in  the  government,  from  which  they  had  been  excluded 
 
 after  the  victory  of  Antipater.  Every  one  was  hooted 
 down  who  attempted  to  speak  in  favour  of  ;he  accused, 
 and  a  tumultuous  vote  was  passed  condeirming  all  the 
 prisoners  to  death.  They  were  for  the  most  part  men 
 of  distinguished  rank  and  respectable  character,  and, 
 while  their  hard  fate  affected  many  with  pity  and  corj- 
 sternation,  there  were  others  who  vented  in  insults 
 that  envious  malice  which,  while  its  objects  were  in 
 prosperity,  had  been  prudently  sup[)ressed.  One  of 
 these  wretches  is  said  to  have  spit  on  Phocion  as  he 
 was  led  to  prison  ;  but  the  outrage  failed  to  rutBe  the 
 composure  of  the  captive,  who  only  looked  towards 
 the  magistrates  and  asked,  "  Will  no  one  stop  this 
 man's  indecency  1"  Before  he  drank  the  hemlock  he 
 was  asked  if  he  had  any  message  for  his  son  Phocus  : 
 "  Only,"  he  said,  '•  not  to  bear  a  grudge  against  the 
 Athenians."  As  the  draught  prepared  proved  not  suf- 
 ficient for  all,  and  the  jailer  demanded  to  be  ]iaid  for 
 a  fresh  supply,  he  desired  one  of  his  friends  to  satisfy 
 the  man,  observing  that  Athens  was  a  place  where 
 one  could  not  even  die  for  nothing.  His  body,  ac- 
 cording to  law  in  cases  of  treason,  was  carried  to  the 
 waste  ground  between  Megaris  and  Attica,  where,  as 
 his  friends  did  not  venture  to  take  part  in  the  funeral 
 obsequies,  it  received  the  last  offices  from  the  hands 
 of  hirelings  and  strangers.  His  boues  were  collected 
 by  a  Mewarian  woman,  who  interred  them  by  the  hearth 
 of  her  dwelling,  as  a  sacred  deposite  for  better  times. 
 When  the  angry  passions  of  the  people  had  subsided, 
 the  remembrance  of  his  virtues  revived.  His  bones 
 were  brought  back  to  Athens  and  publicly  interred,  , 
 and  a  bronze  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory.  Ag- 
 nbnides,  one  of  those  most  instrumental  in  effecting 
 his  condemnation,  had  sentence  of  death  passed  against 
 him  by  the  popular  assembly,  and  two  of  his  other  ac- 
 cusers having  fled  from  the  city,  were  overtaken  by 
 the  vengeance  of  Phocus.  These  were  effects  of  a 
 change  rather  in  the  times  than  in  the  opinions  of 
 men.  But  the  more  the  Athenians  resigned  them- 
 selves to  the  prospect  of  permanent  subjection  to  for- 
 eign rule,  the  better  they  were  disposed  to  revere  the 
 character  of  Phocion.  Had  he  lived  in  an  earlier  pe- 
 riod, he  might  have  served  his  country,  like  Nicias, 
 with  unsuUied  honour.  In  a  later  age  he  might  have 
 passed  his  life  in  peaceful  obscurity.  His  lot  fell  on 
 dark  and  troubled  times,  when  it  was  difficult  to  act 
 with  dignity,  and  when  the  best  patriot  might  be  in- 
 clined to  despair.  But  he  despaired  and  yet  acted. 
 He  despaired  not  merely  of  his  country,  which  any 
 one  may  innocently  do ;  but  also  for  her,  which  no 
 man  has  aright  to  do.  He  would  have  forced  her  to 
 despair  of  herself.  He  resisted  every  attempt  that 
 was  made  by  bolder  and  more  sanguine  patriots  to  re- 
 store her  independence.  He  did  not  withdraw  from 
 public  life  :  he  acted  as  the  tool  of  his  country's  ene- 
 mies, as  the  servant  of  a  foreign  master  :  content  to 
 mitigate  the  pressure  of  the  degrading  yoke  which  he 
 had  helped  to  impose.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life 
 he  descended  lower  and  lower,  constant  only  in  his 
 opposition  to  whatever  bore  the  aspect  of  freedom. 
 The  fellow  who  spat  on  him.  in  his  way  to  execution, 
 was  perhaps  a  more  estimable  person  than  the  man 
 to  whom  he  would  have  surrendered  Athens  as  well 
 as  himself  He  left  a  character  politically  worse  than 
 doubtful  :  one  which  his  private  worth  alone  redeeine 
 from  the  infamy  that  clings  to  the  names  of  a  Callnne- 
 don  and  a  Demades  :  a  warning  to  all  who  may  be 
 placed  in  like  circumstances,  to  shun  his  example, 
 whether  thev  value  their  own  peace  or  the  esteem  of 
 posterity.  (PbU.,  Vit.  Phoc.  —  ThuiwalVs  Greece, 
 vol.  7,  p.  256,  seq.)  .     ^  _, 
 
 Phocis,  a  small  tract  of  country  in  Greece  Proper. 
 bordering  on  the  Locri  Ozols  and  Dons  to  the  west 
 and  northwest,  and  the  Opuntian  Locn  to  the  north; 
 while  to  the  east  it  was  bounded  by  the  Boeotian  ter- 
 ritory, and  to  the  south  by  the  Corinthian  Gulf  {Slra- 
 •"  1047 
 
PHOCIS. 
 
 PHO 
 
 bo,  416.)  Its  appellation  was  said  to  be  derived  from 
 Phocusthe  son  of  /Eacus.  {Pausa7i.,2,i. — Euslath. 
 ad  IL,  2,  519.)  Tiie  more  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
 country  were  probably  of  the  race  of  the  Lelcges  ;  but 
 the  name  of  Phocians  already  prevailed  at  the  time  of 
 the  siege  of  Troy,  since  we  find  them  enumerated  in 
 Homer's  catalogue  of  Grecian  warriors.  (//,,  2,  517.) 
 From  Herodotus  we  learn  that,  prior  to  the  Persian 
 invasion,  the  Phocians  had  been  much  engaged  in  war 
 with  the  Thessalians,  and  had  often  successfully  re- 
 sisted the  invasions  of  that  people  (8,  27,  scqq. — I'au- 
 san.,  10,  1),  But  when  the  defile  of  Thennopyla)  was 
 forced  by  the  army  of  Xer.xes,  the  Thessalians,  who 
 had  espoused  the  cause  of  that  monarch,  are  said  to 
 have  urged  him,  out  of  enmity  to  the  Phocians,  to  rav- 
 age and  lay  waste  with  fire  and  sword  the  territory  of 
 this  people.  {Herod.,  8,  32.)  Delphi  and  Parnassus 
 on  this  occasion  served  as  places  of  refuge  for  many 
 of  the  unfortunale  inhabitants  ;  but  numbers  fell  into 
 the  hands  of  the  victorious  Persians,  and  were  com- 
 pelled to  serve  in  their  ranks  under  the  command  of 
 Mardonius.  {Herod.,  9,  17.)  They  seized,  however, 
 the  earliest  opportunity  of  joining  their  fellow-country- 
 men in  arms  ;  and  many  of  the  Persians,  who  were 
 dispersed  after  the  rout  of  Platsa,  are  said  to  have 
 fallen  victims  to  their  revengeful  fury.  {Herod.,  9,  31. 
 — Pausaii.,  10,  2.) — A  little  jirior  to  the  Peloponne- 
 sian  war,  a  dispute  arose  respecting  the  temple  at  Del- 
 phi, which  threatened  to  involve  in  hostilities  the  prin- 
 cipal states  of  Greece.  This  edifice  was  claimed  ap- 
 parently by  the  Phocians  as  the  common  property  of 
 the  whole  nation,  whereas  the  Delphians  asserted  it 
 to  be  their  own  exclusive  possession.  The  Laceda;- 
 monians  are  said  by  Thucydides  to  have  declared  in 
 favour  of  the  latter,  whose  cause  they  maintained  by 
 force  of  arms.  The  Athenians,  on  the  other  hand, 
 were  no  less  favourable  to  the  Phocians,  and,  on  the 
 retreat  of  the  Spartan  forces,  sent  a  body  of  troops  to 
 occupy  the  temple,  and  deliver  it  into  their  hands. 
 The  service  thus  rendered  by  the  Athenians  seems 
 greatly  to  have  cemented  the  ties  of  friendly  union 
 which  already  subsisted  between  the  two  republics. 
 (Tliitcyd.,  3,  95.) — After  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  Pho- 
 cis,  as  we  learn  from  Xenophon,  became  subject  for  a 
 time  to  Boeotia  {Hist.  Gr.,  6,  5,  23),  until  a  change  of 
 circumstances  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  character  of 
 this  small  republic,  and  called  forth  all  the  energies  of 
 the  people  in  defence  of  their  country.  A  fine  had 
 been  imposed  on  them  by  an  edict  of  the  Am])hictyons 
 for  some  reason,  which  Pausanias  professes  not  to  have 
 been  able  to  ascertain,  and  which  they  themselves  con- 
 ceived to  be  wholly  unmerited.  Diodorus  asserts  that 
 it  was  in  consequence  of  their  havii.g  cultivated  a 
 part  of  the  Cirrhean  territory  which  had  been  declared 
 sacred  (lfi,23).  By  the  advice  of  Philomelus,  a  Pho- 
 cian  high  in  rank  and  estimation,  it  was  determined 
 to  oppose  the  execution  of  the  hostile  decree,  and,  in 
 order  more  effectually  to  secure  the  means  of  resist- 
 ance, to  seize  upon  the  temple  of  Delphi  and  its  treas- 
 ures. This  measure  having  been  carried  into  imme- 
 diate execution,  they  were  thus  furnished  with  abun- 
 dant supplies  for  raising  troops  to  defend  their  country. 
 (Pau.'ian.,  10,  2. — Diod.  Sic,  I.  c.)  These  events  led 
 to  what  the  Greek  historians  have  termed  the  Sacred 
 War,  which  broke  out  in  the  second  year  of  the  106th 
 Olympiad,  B.C.  355.  The  Thebans  were  the  first  to 
 take  up  arms  in,  the  cause  of  religion,  which  had  been 
 thus  openly  violated  by  the  Phocians  ;  and,  in  a  battle 
 that  took  place  soon  after  the  commencement  of  hos- 
 tilities, the  latter  were  defeated  with  considerable  loss, 
 and  their  leader  Philomelus  perished  in  the  rout  which 
 ensued.  {Diod.  Sic,  16,  Sl.—Pausan.,  10,  2.)  The 
 Phocians,  however,  were  not  intimidated  by  ihis  ill 
 success,  and,  having  raised  a  fresh  army,  headed  by 
 Onomarchus,  they  obtained  several  important  advan- 
 tacres  against  the  Amphictyonic  army,  notwithstanding 
 .048 
 
 the  accession  of  Philip  of  Macedon  to  the  confederacy. 
 Onomarchus,  having  united  his  forces  with  those  of 
 Lycophron,  tyrant  of  Pherae,  then  at  war  with  Philip, 
 was  enabled  to  vanquish  the  latter  in  two  successive 
 engagements,  and  compel  him  to  evacuate  Thessaly. 
 Philip,  however,  was  soon  in  a  state  to  resume  hostil- 
 ities and  re-enter  Thessaly,  when  a  third  battle  was 
 fought,  which  terminated  in  the  discomfiture  and  death 
 of  Onomarchus.  Diodorus  asserts  that  he  was  taken 
 prisoner,  and  put  to  death  by  order  of  Philip  ;  Pausa- 
 nias, that  he  perished  by  the  hands  of  his  own  soldiers. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  16,  35. — Pausaji.,  10,  2.)  He  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  his  brother  Phayllus,  who  at  first  appears 
 to  have  been  successful,  but  was  at  length  overthrown 
 in  several  engagements  with  the  Bceotian  troops  ;  and 
 was  soon  after  seized  with  a  disorder  vvhich  terminated 
 fatally.  On  his  death  the  command  devolved  upon 
 Phalaecus,  who,  according  to  Pausanias  (10,  2),  was 
 his  son,  but  Diodorus  affirms  that  he  was  the  son  of 
 Onomarchus,  This  leader  being  not  long  after  de- 
 posed, the  army  was  intrusted  to  a  commission,  at  the 
 head  of  which  was  Philo,  whose  lota!  want  of  probity 
 soon  became  evident,  by  the  disappearance  of  large 
 sums  from  the  sacred  treasury.  He  was,  in  conse- 
 quence, brought  to  trial,  condemned,  and  put  to  death. 
 Diodorus  estimates  the  whole  amount  of  what  was  ta- 
 ken from  Delphi  during  the  war  at  10,000  talents  (16, 
 56).  Phalfficus  was  now  restored  to  the  command  ; 
 but,  finding  the  resources  of  the  state  nearly  exhaust- 
 ed, and  Philip  being  placed  by  the  Amphictyonic  coun- 
 cil at  the  head  of  their  forces,  he  deemed  all  farther 
 resistance  useless,  and  submitted  to  the  King  of  Mace- 
 don on  condition  of  being  allowed  to  retire  with  his 
 troops  to  the  Peloponnesus.  This  convention  put  an 
 end  at  once  to  the  Sacred  War,  after  a  duration  of 
 ten  years,  when  a  decree  was  passed  in  the  Amphic- 
 tyonic council,  by  which  it  was  adjudged  that  the 
 walls  of  all  the  Phocian  towns  should  be  razed  to  the 
 ground,  and  their  right  of  voting  in  the  council  trans- 
 ferred to  those  of  Macedonia.  {Diod.  Sic,  16,  60.) 
 Phocis,  however,  soon  after  recovered  from  this  state 
 of  degradation  and  subjection,  by  the  assistance  of 
 Athens  and  Thebes,  who  united  in  restoring  its  cities 
 in  a  great  measure  to  their  former  condition.  In  re- 
 turn for  these  benefits,  the  Phocians  joined  the  con- 
 federacy that  had  been  formed  by  the  two  republics 
 against  Philip  ;  they  also  took  part  in  the  Lamiac  war 
 after  the  death  of  Alexander  ;  and  when  the  Gauls 
 made  their  unsuccessful  attempt  on  the  temple  of  Del- 
 phi, they  are  said  by  Pausanias  to  have  displayed  the 
 greatest  zeal  and  alacrity  in  the  pursuit  of  the  com- 
 mon enemy,  as  if  anxious  to  efface  the  recollection 
 of  the  disgrace  they  had  formerly  incurred.  {Pausan., 
 10,  3.)  Other  passages,  which  serve  to  illustrate  the 
 history  of  Phocis,  will  be  found  in  Demosthenes  {de 
 Fa.ls.  Lccrat),  Isocrates  {ad  Phil.),  Aristotle  {Anal. 
 Pr.,  2,  24) — The  maritime  part  of  this  province  oc- 
 cupied an  extent  of  roast  of  nearly  one  day's  sail,  as 
 Dicsearchus  reports  (v.  79),  from  the  border  of  the 
 Locri  Ozolas  to  the  confines  of  Bceotia.  {Cramer^s 
 A?ic  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  147,  scqq.) 
 
 Pholhis,  the  son  of  Phocion.  He  was  remarkable 
 only  for  a  dissolute  mode  of  life,  and  was  in  no  respect 
 worthy  of  his  parent,  although  Phocion  had  sent  him 
 to  Sparta  to  be  trained  after  the  strict  discipline  of 
 Lycurgus.     {Plut.,  Vit.  Pkoc.) 
 
 Phocvlides,  a  gnomic  poet  contemporarv  with  The- 
 ognis,  and  a  native  of  Miletus,  whom  Suidas  calls  a 
 philosfphcr,  and  wliose  birth-year  he  makes  to  have 
 been  647  after  the  fall  of  I'roy,  or  Olympiad  59.  The 
 ancient  writers  are  silent  resfiecting  his  life,  and  the 
 few  genuine  fragments  which  we  possess  of  his  poems 
 contain  no  allusion  to  his  personal  circumstances.  He 
 composed  epic  and  elegiac  poems,  which  the  ancients 
 ranked,  like  the  productions  of  Theognis,  in  the  gno- 
 mic class.     (Isocr.  ad  Nieal .  \ii  — Id.  ib.   c.  12. — 
 
PHCE 
 
 PHOENICIA. 
 
 Dto  Chrysost.,  Or.,  2,  i7iU.)  Suidas  says,  his  verses 
 were  pilfered  from  ti>e  Sibylline  books,  a  remark  de- 
 rived, m  all  probabilitv,  from  some  father  of  the  church, 
 and  to  be  understood  m  just  the  opposite  sense.  In 
 order  to  stamp  his  productions  with  the  impress  of 
 genumeness,  Phocyiides  found  it  necessary  to  accom- 
 pany them  with  the  perpetually-recurring  nitroduction, 
 "  This,  too,  is  a  saying  of  Phocyiides  ;"  just  as  I'he- 
 ognis,  at  the  end  of  his  poem  on  Gyrnos,  appended  his 
 name  as  a  mark  of  literary  property.  What  we  have 
 at  present  remaining  of  Phocyiides  consists,  for  the 
 most  part,  of  hexameters,  and  breathes  a  quite  differ- 
 ent spirit  from  the  Dorian  gnomes  of  Theognis,  with 
 which  the  Ionic  precepts  of  the  Milesian  poet  are  often 
 directly  at  variance.  For  example,  in  place  of  com- 
 ing forward  as  an  ardent  defender  of  aristocratical  prin- 
 ciples, and  as  a  martyr  to  his  political  creed,  the  ad- 
 vantages of  birth  are  to  hnn  altogether  indifferent. 
 The  contest,  in  fact,  between  aristocracy  and  demo- 
 cratical  princijiles  was  by  no  meatis  so  obstinate  and 
 violent  in  the  Ionian  cities  as  in  those  of  Dorian  ex- 
 traction. There  is  more  of  a  philosophical  character 
 in  the  poetry  of  Phocyiides,  more  reference  to  the  com- 
 mon weal,  and  a  greater  wish  to  promote  its  true  in- 
 terests, than  in  the  aristocratic  gnomes  of  Theognis. 
 He  composed  his  gnomic  precepts  in  two  or  three  ver- 
 ses each,  and  was  considered  as  not  belonging  to  those 
 who  produced  long  continuous  poems,  but  rather  as 
 loving  the  philosophical  conciseness  of  separate  and 
 individual  propositions.  The  longest  fragment  we  have 
 of  Phocyiides  consists  of  eight  hexameters,  in  which 
 he  draws  a  picture  of  the  diH'erent  classes  of  females, 
 and  compares  them  with  as  many  classes  of  animals. 
 In  treating  of  individual  or  personal  subjects,  however, 
 he  appears  to  have  employed  the  elegiac  measure,  as 
 in  the  case  of  the  satirical  effusion  against  the  island- 
 ers of  Leros.  The  verses  of  Phocyiides  were  so  high- 
 ly esteemed,  that  they  were  recited  by  the  rhapsodists 
 along  with  those  of  Homer,  Hesiod,  Archilochus,  and 
 Mimnennus.  A  poem  that  still  exists,  under  the  title 
 of  l\otrj/xa  vovderiKov  (Exhortation),  in  217  hexame- 
 ters, is  sometimes,  though  incorrectly,  ascribed  to  him. 
 It  is  probably  the  production  of  some  Christian  writer 
 of  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century.  The  fragments 
 of  Phocyiides  are  found  in  the  collections  of  Stephens, 
 Brunck,  Gaisford,  Boisstinnade,  and  others.  Schier 
 gave  a  separate  edition  of  them  in  1751,  Lips.,  8vo. 
 {Bode,  Geschich/e  der  Lyrischtn  Dichlk.  der  Hell.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  243,  seqq.—Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gi.,  vol.  1,  p.  240, 
 seqq  ) 
 
 Phcebe,  I.  one  of  the  female  Titans,  the  offspring 
 of  Heaven  and  Earth  (Goelus  and  Terra).  From  her 
 union  with  Coeus,  another  of  the  Titans,  sprang  Lato- 
 na  and  Asteria.  The  name  Phcebe  {^oi(tr})  signifies 
 the  bright  one  (from  <pdu,  "to  shine");  and  Coeus  (Kol- 
 oc),  the  burning  (from  nalu,  '■'■to  burn'''').  {Keight- 
 leifs  Mylhologij,  p.  64.) — II.  One  of  the  names  of  Di- 
 ana, or  the  Moon.     (Firf.  Diana.) 
 
 Phcebus,  one  of  the  names  of  Apollo,  derived  from 
 (j)uu  ''to  shine.'"     {Vid.  Apollo.) 
 
 Phceniue  or  Phcenicia  (*oiPi«:?;),  a  country  of 
 Asia,  extending  along  the  coast  of  Syria,  from  the 
 river  Eleutherus  and  the  city  and  island  of  Aradus,  on 
 the  north,  to  Mount  Carmel  on  the  south.  In  all  prob- 
 ability, however,  some  of  the  cities  on  the  coast  below 
 Carmel  may  likewise  have  belonged  to  Phoenicia,  and 
 hence  Ptolemy  carries  the  southern  limit  of  the  country 
 as  far  down  as  the  river  Chorseus,  on  which  Co^sarea 
 lay.  In  general  parlance,  indeed,  the  whole  line  of 
 coast  was  termed  Phoenicia,  from  Aradus  to  the  con- 
 fines of  Egypt,  though  the  stricter  limits  are  those  first 
 given.  The  tract  of  country  thus  denominated  was 
 only  35  geographical  miles  from  Aradus  to  Carmel,  or 
 100  in  its  greatest  extent.  The  breadth  was  very 
 limited,  the  ranges  of  Libanus  and  Antilibanus  form- 
 itiij  its  utmost  barrier  to  the  east.  The  surface  of  the 
 6  1i 
 
 country  was  in  general  sandy  and  hilly,  and  not  well 
 adapted  lor  agriculture  ;  but,  to  counterbalance  this, 
 the  coast  abounded  in  good  harbours,  the  fisheries  were 
 excellent,  while  the  mountam-ranges  in  the  mlcrior 
 afforded,  in  their  cedar  forests,  a  rich  supply  of  timber 
 for  naval  and  other  purposes.  Hence  'he  early  pro- 
 ficiency which  the  Phoenicians  made  in  navigation,  and 
 hence  the  flourishing  commercial  cities  which  covered 
 the  whole  line  of  coast. 
 
 1.   Origin  of  the  name  Phoenicia. 
 
 Respecting  the  etymology  of  the  name  Phoenice  or 
 Phosiiicia,  various  conjectures  have  been  offered-  Bo- 
 chart  maintains,  that  the  appellation  comes  from  Beni- 
 Anak  (or  Ben-Anak,  contracted  Bcanak),  "  the  sons 
 of  Anak,"  a  name  by  which,  according  to  him,  tho 
 people  of  Phcenicia  designated  themselves  in  their  own 
 language.  From  this  he  says  the  Greeks  first  made 
 Phcanac,  and  afterward  Phoenice  and  Phcenix,  soften- 
 ing down  the  Oriental  appellation  in  their  usual  way. 
 {Bochart,  Canaan,  1,  1,  col.  347.)  To  this  etymol- 
 ogy it  is  well  objected  by  Gesenius,  that  the  domestic 
 appellation  of  the  Phoenician  race  was  not  Bcni-Anak 
 or  Ben-Anak,  but  Kenaamm,  and  their  country  Ke- 
 naan.  That  this  was  the  native  name  of  the  nation  is 
 also  clear  from  the  Phoenician  coinage,  on  which  we 
 read  Kenaan.  {Gesen.,  Phoin.  Monument.,  p.  338, 
 not. — Id.  ib.,  p.  271.)  The  Punic  settlers  in  Africa, 
 moreover,  gave  themselves  the  same  appellation. 
 Thus,  St.  Augustine  informs  us,  that  the  country-peo- 
 ple near  Hippo,  on  being  asked  whence  they  derived 
 their  origin,  answered  that  they  were  Kenani,  i.  e., 
 Kenaanites,  or  from  Kenaan.  (Augustin.,  Expos,  ad 
 Rom.—Eckhel,  Doctr.  Num.,  vol.  4,  p.  409. — Ge- 
 senius, Gesch.  der  h'ebr.  Sprache,  &c.,  p.  16.) — Equally 
 unfortunate  with  Bochart's  is  the  etymology  pro|)OS(!d 
 by  Arius  Montanus  and  others,  who  deduce  Phcenice 
 and  Phwiricia  from  Phenakim,  contracted  from  Phe- 
 AnakitiL  i^"  the  Anakim"),  the  prefix  Phe  being  anal- 
 ogous, in  their  opinion,  to  the  Egyptian  article  I'i,  as  it 
 appears  in  the  term  Pharaoh  {Pi-Ro,  i.  e.,  "the  king"). 
 The  same  argument  may  be  urged  against  this  &s 
 against  Bochart's  derivation. — There  are  other  Orien- 
 tal etymologies;  such  as  Scaliger's,  from  the  Hebrew- 
 Phoenician  Pinchas  (the  same  with  the  proper  name 
 Phineas) ;  and  Fuller's,  from  the  Syriac  panak,  "to 
 briijg  up  delicately.^'  These  scarcely  deserve  men- 
 tion, and  certainly  do  not  need  refutation. — The  most 
 common  opinion,  at  the  present  day,  is  that  which 
 makes  the  terms  P/uenice  and  Phosmcia  of  Grecian 
 and  not  of  Oriental  origin,  and  which  deduces  them 
 from  the  Greek  term  (poivi^,  in  its  signification  of  "  a 
 palm-tree  •'''  so  that  Phoenice  or  Phoenicia  will  signify 
 "  the  land  of  palm- trees''''  or  "  Palm-land.'"  Gesenius, 
 however,  doubts  the  accuracy  of  this  explanation,  and 
 is  inclined  to  trace  the  names  in  question  to  <poivi§,  in 
 its  sense  of  "purple,'"  making  Phcenicia,  therefore,  to 
 mean  "the  land  of  the  purple-dye,"  in  allusion  to  the 
 famous  purple  or  crimson  of  Tyre  :  "  Videant  autcm 
 eruditi,  silne  ^olvikuv  appellatio  ducta  a  ^oivi^,  pur- 
 pura, cui  affines  sunt  (puivoc,  ^oivijeig  {II.,  12, -202), 
 purpureus,  sanguineus  {conj.  (puvog),  4>oivia(jcj  rube- 
 i'acio  ;  ita  ut  ^olvl^ appellative  purpurarium  designet." 
 {Phcen.  Monument.,  p.  338,  not.)  This  suggestion  of 
 Gesenius's  is  must  probably  the  true  one,  since  it  is 
 more  natural  to  suppose,  that  the  purple  cloths  of 
 Phoenicia  were  made  known  to  the  Greeks  by  the 
 Phcenician  traders,  for  a  long  period  before  the  Greeks 
 themselves  were  allowed  to  visit  in  their  own  vessels 
 the  Syrian  coast,  and  become  acquainted  with  the 
 physical  features  of  the  country.— Before  quitting  this 
 subject,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  remark,  that  among 
 many  of  the  Roman  writers,  the  terms  Phccmces  {Phce- 
 nicius)  and  Pxni  {Pumcus)  are  made  so  far  to  differ 
 in  meaning,  as  that  the  first  indicates  the  Phoenicians, 
 nrooerlv  so  called,  and  the  latter  their  descendants  oi 
 ^    ^     ■  1049 
 
PHCENICIA. 
 
 PHOENICIA. 
 
 colonists  in  Africa,  such  as  the  Carthaginians,  &c. 
 This  distinction,  however,  has  no  good  ground  on 
 which  to  rest.  The  term  'ioiviKeg,  in  Greek,  com- 
 prises not  only  the  Plioenicians,  but  also  the  Cartha- 
 ginians as  well  as  the  other  Pceiii  {Herod.,  5,  46. — 
 Etinp.,  Troad.,  222.— Bockh,  ad  P-md.,  Pylh.,  1,  72), 
 a  usage  which  is  imitated  by  the  Latin  poets  :  thus  we 
 have  in  Silius  Italicus  (13,  730)  the  form  Fhamcium 
 for  Pccnorum,  and  (16,  25)  Phccnix  for  Pocmis.  In- 
 deed, the  term  Pceniis  is  nothing  more  than  <bolvi^ 
 itself,  adapted  to  the  analogy  of  the  Latin  tongue  ;  just 
 as  from  the  Greek  '^oivlkio<;  comes  the  old  Latin  form 
 Pccnicus,  found  in  Cato  and  Varro,  and  from  this  the 
 more  usual  Punicus.  (Compare  cacrare  and  curare  ; 
 mcenia,  fnu7iia,  and  munire ;  pana  and  punio. — Ge- 
 senilis^  I.  c. — Festus,  ed.  Muiler,  p.  241,  Fragm.  e 
 Cod.  Farn.,  L.  16.) 
 
 2.  History,  Commerce,  Arts,  &c.,  of  the  Phoenicians. 
 
 The  Phoenicians  were  a  branch  of  that  widely  ex- 
 tended race  known  by  the  common  appellation  of  Ara- 
 msean  or  Semitic.  To  this  great  family  the  Hebrews 
 and  the  Arabians  belonged,  as  well  as  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  wide  plain  between  the  northern  waters  of  the 
 Euphrates  and  Tigris.  I'he  Phoenicians  themselves, 
 according  to  their  own  account,  came  originally  from 
 the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  {Herod.,  7,  89),  and 
 Strabo  informs  us,  that  in  the  isles  of  Tyrus  and  Ara- 
 dus,  in  the  gulf  just  named,  were  found  temples  simi- 
 lar to  those  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  that  the  inhabitants 
 of  these  isles  claimed  the  cities  of  Tyre  and  Aradus, 
 on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  as  colonies  of  theirs.  {Slra- 
 bo,  766.)  The  establishment,  indeed,  of  the  earlier 
 Phosnician  race  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  enterpri- 
 sing habits  which  always  characterized  this  remarkable 
 people,  would  seem  to  point  to  a  very  active  commerce 
 carried  on  in  the  Indian  seas,  at  a  period  long  antecedent 
 to  positive  history,  and  may  perha])s  furnish  some  clew 
 to  the  marks  of  early  civilization  that  are  discovered 
 along  the  western  shores  of  the  American  contment. 
 (Compare  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  vol.  2,  p.  163.) — The  loss 
 of  the  Phoenician  annals  renders  it  difficult  to  investi- 
 gate the'history  of  this  people.  Our  principal  author- 
 ities are  the  Hebrew  writers  of  the  secot.d  book  of 
 Kings,  and  Ezekiel  and  Isaiah.  Herodotus,  Jose- 
 phus,  and  Strabo  help  to  supply  the  deficiency.  In- 
 cidental notices  are  found  in  other  writers  also.  The 
 Phoenician  towns  were  probably  independent  states, 
 with  a  small  territory  around  them  :  the  political  union 
 that  existed  among  them  till  the  era  of  the  Persians, 
 was  preserved  by  a  common  religious  worship.  The 
 town  of  Tyre  seems  to  have  had  a  kind  of  supremacy 
 over  the  rest,  being  the  richest  city,  and  containing  the 
 temple  of  the  national  god,  whom  the  Greeks  call 
 the  Tyrian  Hercules.  The  several  cities  were  gov- 
 erned by  supreme  hereditaf)'  magistrates  named  kings. 
 Hiram  was  king  of  Tyre,  and  a  friend  of  Solomon,  the 
 kinor  of  Israel.  When  Xerxes  invaded  Greece,  there 
 was  a  King  of  Tyre,  and  also  a  King  of  Sidon  in  his 
 army.  {Herod.,  8,  67.)  We  infer  from  a  few  pas- 
 sages of  the  ancient  writers,  and  from  the  enterprising 
 spirit  of  the  Phoenicians,  that  the  despotism  of  Asia  did 
 not  exist  among  them.  The  Sidonians  are  the  first 
 people  recorded  in  history  who  formed  a  commercial 
 connexion  between  Asia  and  Europe;  the  articles 
 which  they  manufactured,  or  procured  from  other  parts 
 of  Asia,  were  distributed  by  them  over  the  coasts  of 
 the  Mediterranean.  These  long  voyages  led  to  colo- 
 nial establishments,  and  to  the  diffusion  of  the  useful 
 arts.  The  island  of  Cyprus  contained  Phosnician  col- 
 onics: they  established  themselves  in  many  of  the 
 sm^tt-i^lands  of  the  Archipelago,  particularly  in  those 
 where  the  precious  metals  were  found.  The  island 
 of  Thasus  exhibited,  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  mani- 
 fest traces  of  their  excavations.  {Herod.,  6,  47.) 
 With  the  early  Greeks  of  the  main  land  the  Phoeni- 
 1050 
 
 cians  had  occasional  commercial  connexions :  thej 
 furnished  the  natives  with  trinkets  and  female  orna- 
 ments, and  sometimes  carried  off  the  people.  {Herod., 
 1,  1.)  Slave-dealing  was  one  source  of  wealth  to  the 
 Tyrians  {Ezekiel  xxvii.,  12)  ;  the  simple  narrative  of 
 Eumffius,  in  the  15th  book  of  the  Odyssey,  presents  a 
 natural  picture  of  this  practice.  "V^'e  know  nothing 
 of  Phoenician  settlements  in  Italy  ;  but  they  occupied 
 Sicily  before  the  Greeks,  and  retired  towards  the 
 western  parts,  as  the  nation  became  more  numerous 
 and  powerful  in  the  island.  {Thucyd.,  6,  2.)  I'he 
 great  object  of  the  enterprise  of  the  Phoenicians,  and 
 the  seat  of  their  chief  colonial  establishments,  was  the 
 southern  part  of  Spain,  or  the  modern  province  of  An- 
 dalusia. The  silver-mines  and  the  gold-dust  of  the 
 peninsula  made  Spain  to  the  Tyrians  what  Peru  once 
 was  to  the  Spaniards.  JXot  far  from  the  mouths  of 
 the  BjEtis  are  two  small  islands  :  on  one  of  these  the 
 Tyrians  founded  the  city  of  Gadeira  or  Gades,  Cadiz, 
 and  built  a  temple  to  their  national  god,  which  existed 
 even  in  the  age  of  Strabo,  and  was  justly  considered  a 
 curious  monument  of  antiquity.  The  advantageous 
 situation  of  Gades,  west  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and 
 on  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  would  naturally 
 lead  to  voyages  of  discovery  ;  but  these  were  always 
 confined  to  coasting.  Of  these  voyages  no  records 
 are  preserved.  The  Phoenicians  are  said  to  have  sup- 
 plied the  Greeks  and  the  Asiatics  with  two  articles, 
 which  are  supposed  to  indicate  an  acquaintance  with 
 the  southwestern  angle  of  Britain  and  the  coast  of 
 Prussia,  on  the  Baltic  Sea.  These  were  tin  and  am- 
 ber. With  regard  to  the  first,  however,  though  there 
 can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Ro- 
 mans long  after  them,  traded  for  it  to  the  Cassiterides, 
 or  Scilly  Isles,  yet  the  Greeks,  in  all  probability,  ob- 
 tained their  supply  of  it  by  an  overland  trade  from 
 India.  {Vid.  India.)  The  amber  certainly  came  from 
 the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  but  whether  it  was  obtained 
 by  actual  sailing  thither,  or  procured  by  an  overland 
 trade  at  the  head-waters  of  the  Adriatic,  remains, 
 among  modern  scholars,  a  disputed  point.  An  argu- 
 ment in  favour  of  the  former  of  these  opinions  may  be 
 drawn  from  the  fact  of  the  Phoenicians'  having  been 
 acquainted  with  the  existence  of  the  Rodaun,  a  smaU 
 river  near  Dantzic,  on  the  Prussian  coast.  {Vid. 
 Eridanus.) — The  connexion  between  the  parent  city 
 of  Tyre  and  her  distant  possessions  in  Europe  and  Af- 
 rica was  probably  only  a  commercial  one.  Whatever 
 might  have  been  their  original  condition,  they  were 
 independent  places  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  (1,  163). 
 The  Phoenician  colonies  on  the  northern  coast  of  Af- 
 rica were  at  least  as  old  as  the  settlements  in  the 
 south  of  Spain.  They  were  situated  in  a  fertile  re- 
 gion, which,  by  its  position,  formed,  between  Central 
 Africa  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  a  point  of 
 union  similar  to  that  which  Tyre  furnished  between 
 Asia  and  Europe.  Utica  was  the  first  establishment 
 on  the  African  coast:  Carthage,  called  by  the  Greeks 
 Carchedon,  was  the  next :  other  towns  afterward 
 sprung  up.  For  the  history  of  Phoenician  commerce, 
 particularly  the  commerce  with  Asia,  we  possess  a 
 most  valuable  document  in  the  27th  chapter  of  Eze- 
 kiel. The  Hebrew  prophet  lived  at  the  time  of  the 
 greatest  splendour  of  Tyre,  before  her  Eastern  con- 
 querors diminished  her  traffic  and  deprived  her  of  na- 
 tional independence.  At  an  earlier  period,  the  Phoe- 
 nicians had  friendly  connexions  with  the  Hebrews. 
 Solomon,  the  most  powerful  of  their  kings,  made  Je- 
 rusalem, during  his  life,  the  centre  of  Eastern  mag- 
 nificence and  wealth.  The  Tyrians  gladly  formed  an 
 alliance  with  this  potentate,  and  by  his  permission  ob- 
 tained the  navigation  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  town  of 
 Eziongeber,  which  Solomon  had  taken  from  the  people 
 of  Edom,  was  the  point  to  which  the  Tyrian  and  He- 
 brew navies  brought  the  gold  and  precious  stones  of 
 Ophir.     The  Phoenicians  also  established  trading-posts 
 
PHCENICIA. 
 
 PHCENIUIA. 
 
 on  the  west  side  (f  the  Persian  Gulf.  Here  the  an- 
 cient geographers  placed  the  isles  of  Aradus  and  Ty- 
 rus,  to  which  the  Tyrians  brought  the  products  of  In- 
 dia. They  were  taken  by  the  caravans  across  the 
 Arabian  desert  to  Tyre  on  the  Mediterranean,  at  that 
 time  the  great  mart  of  the  world. — A  commercial  road 
 between  Tyre  and  the  Euphrates  would  be  necessary 
 to  diffuse  the  products  of  Tynan  industry  and  com- 
 merce, and  also  to  procure  the  valuable  wool  furnished 
 by  the  nomadic  tribes.  In  the  Syrian  desert,  about 
 three  days'  journey  from  the  old  ford  of  the  Euphra- 
 tes, modern  travellers  behold  with  astonishment  the 
 magnificent  and  extensive  ruins  of  Palmyra.  The 
 Arabs  of  the  desert  still  call  it  Tadmor,  and  attribute 
 these  buildings  to  the  magic  power  of  Solomon.  We 
 are  told  that  Solomon  built  Baleth  and  Tadmor  in  the 
 wilderness.  The  latter  was  no  doubt  intended  as  a 
 great  entrepot  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  sea. 
 Its  situation,  and  the  possession  of  springs  of  water  in 
 an  arid  desert,  would  not  fail  to  attract  a  prince  so  wise 
 as  Solomon,  and  a  merchant  with  such  e.xtensive  deal- 
 ings as  Hiram. — From  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  the 
 Tyrians  procured  copper  and  slaves  :  the  regions  of 
 the  Caucasus,  at  the  present  day,  supply  the  harems 
 of  the  Turks  and  Persians  with  the  females  of  Georgia 
 and  Gircassia. — The  Phoenicians  seem,  in  the  earlier 
 ages,  not  to  have  had  very  extensive  dealings  with  the 
 Egyptians  :  but  cotton  and  cotton  cloths  are  enumer- 
 ated among  the  articles  which  they  received  from 
 Egypt.  When  Thebes,  in  Upper  Egypt,  ceased  to  be 
 the  place  of  resort  for  the  caravans  of  Africa  and  Asia, 
 the  favourable  situation  of  Memphis,  at  the  apex  of  the 
 Delta,  made  it  the  chief  mart  of  Egypt ;  and  the  Tyr- 
 ians who  traded  there  were  so  numerous,  that  a  part 
 of  the  city  was  inhabited  by  them. — Grain  of  various 
 kinds  was  carried  to  Tyre  from  the  country  of  the 
 Hebrews  and  other  parts  of  Syria.  Solomon  gave  Hi- 
 ram wheat  and  oil ;  and  the  Tyrian,  in  exchange,  fur- 
 nished him  with  the  pines  and  cedars  of  Libanus. — 
 The  commercial  intercourse  between  the  Greeks  and 
 Tyrians  appears  never  to  have  been  great  :  the  two 
 trading  nations  of  the  Mediterranean  were  probably 
 jealous  of  one  another ;  and,  besides  this,  their  colo- 
 nies led  them  in  different  directions.  Sicily  was  the 
 point  where  the  Greek  and  Tyrian  merchant  met  in 
 competition.  When  the  Phoenicians  were  obliged  to 
 submit  to  the  Persians,  we  find  their  navy  willingly 
 and  actively  employed  against  their  commercial  rivals. 
 — Tyre  was,  before  the  era  of  the  Persians,  the  centre 
 of  the  traffic  of  the  ancient  world  :  in  her  markets 
 were  found  the  products  of  all  the  countries  between 
 India  and  Spain,  between  the  extremity  of  the  great 
 peninsula  of  sandy  Arabia,  and  the  snowy  summits  of 
 Caucasus.  Her  vessels  were  found  in  the  Mediter- 
 ranean, on  the  Atlantic,  and  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
 There  was  even  a  tradition,  that  in  the  time  of  Necho, 
 king  of  Egypt,  some  Tyrian  ships,  at  the  desire  of  that 
 king,  sailed  down  the  Red  Sea  ;  and,  after  circumnav- 
 igating the  continent  of  Africa,  entered  the  Mediter- 
 ranean at  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  (  Vid.  Africa.) — The 
 Phoenicians  furnished  the  world  with  several  articles 
 produced  bv  their  own  industry  and  skill.  The  dyed 
 cloths  of  Sidon,  and  the  woven  vests  and  needlework 
 of  Phffinician  women,  were  in  high  repute  among  the 
 ancient  Greeks.  The  name  of  Tyrian  purple  is  famil- 
 iar, even  in  modern  times  ;  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  sup- 
 pose that  a  single  colour  is  to  be  understood  :  deep  red 
 and  violet  colours  were  those  which  were  most  highly 
 prized.  The  liquor  of  a  shellfish,  that  was  found  in 
 abundance  on  their  coast,  supplied  them  with  the  vari- 
 ous colours  denominated  purple.  {Plin.,  9,  36.)  It 
 was  principally  woollen  cloths  the  Tyrians  used  to  dye, 
 though  cotton  and  linen  dyed  garments  are  mention- 
 ed also. — The  Phoenicians  are  said  to  have  possessed 
 the  art  of  making  glass  :  it  is  probable  they  had  man- 
 ufactured this  article  for  many  centuries  at  Sidon  and 
 
 Sarephta.  Little  trinkets  and  ornaments  were  also 
 made  by  this  people.  The  Pheenician  merchant  offers 
 for  sale  to  the  females  of  Syria  a  string  oi  amber  beads 
 with  gold  oniatneuts.  {Horn.,  Od.,  14,  459.)  1'he 
 ivory,  which  they  procured  from  yEthiopia  and  India, 
 received  new  i'orins  under  the  skilful  hands  of  the  Tyr- 
 ians ;  and  all  the  costly  decorations  of  Solomon's  tem- 
 ple were  made  under  the  direction  of  an  artist  of  Tyre, 
 whose  mother  was  "  a  woman  of  the  daughters  of  Dan, 
 and  his  father  a  man  of  Tyre."  {Chronicles,  2, 1,  14  ; 
 2,  4,  17. — Long's  Anacnt  Geography,  p.  3,  scqq. — 
 Hccrcn,  Idcen,  vol.  2,  p.  1,  seqq.) 
 
 3.  Decline  of  I'hwnician  Commerce. 
 
 The  Phoenicians,  from  what  has  jus*  been  remarked, 
 were  then  a  manufacturing  and  a  irac'ng  people,  de- 
 pending on  others  for  their  subsistence,  n  some  points 
 resembling  the  English,  in  others  more  li,:e  the  Dutch. 
 The  prosperity  of  such  a  people  could  not  be  everlast- 
 ing, and  it  is  interesting  to  examine  into  the  causes  of 
 their  decline.  It  is  probable  that  the  increase  of  the 
 wealth  and  power  of  Carthage  was  in  some  degree  pre- 
 judicial to  the  parent  state,  as  the  trade  of  Spain  must 
 have  fallen,  in  a  great  measure,  into  the  hands  of  the 
 former.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  likely  that  the  Phoenicians 
 must  have  had  to  pay  dearer  for  its  productions  than 
 heretofore,  and  perhaps,  as  Carthage  and  the  other  col- 
 onies were  manufacturers  also,  the  demand  for  Phoe- 
 nician goods  decreased.  It  is  also  supposed,  that  the 
 Phoenicians  must  have  suffered  by  the  planting  of  the 
 Grecian  colonies  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  as  these 
 likewise  manufactured  to  a  great  extent,  and,  it  is  al- 
 most certain,  traded  directly,  by  means  of  caravans, 
 with  Thapsacus  on  the  Euphrates,  to  which  place  the 
 goods  of  Babylon  and  India  were  brought  up  the  river. 
 We  doubt,  however,  if  they  interfered  much  with  the 
 Phoenicians,  as  their  trade  took  chiefly  a  northern  di- 
 rection, extending  into  Tartary,  and  perhaps  to  China. 
 The  settlement  of  the  Greeks  in  Egypt,  however,  must 
 have  been  positively  injurious  to  them,  as  the  wine- 
 trade  of  that  country,  of  which  they  appear  before  this 
 to  have  had  the  monopoly,  must  have  been  now,  in 
 great  measure,  carried  on  by  the  Greeks  in  their  own 
 bottoms  ;  and  perhaps  this  is  the  true  reason  of  the 
 hostility  which  the  Phcenicians  are  said  to  have  evinced 
 to  the  Greeks  in  the  time  of  the  Persian  war.  It  is 
 remarkal)le  enough,  that  in  the  accounts  which  we  have 
 of  the  trade  of  Athens  and  Corinth,  no  mention  is 
 made  of  any  with  the  Phcenicians.  Perhaps  their 
 chief  commerce  was  with  the  colonies  in  Asia.  From 
 the  Hebrew  prophet  it  appears  that  they  traded  with 
 the  lonians  (of  Asia)  and  with  the  people  of  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus. The  rivalry  just  noted,  however,  could 
 have  but  little  affected  the  prosperity  of  the  Phoeni- 
 cians. The  real  cause  of  their  decline  was  the  com- 
 motions that  took  place  in  Western  Asia,  which  caused 
 the  downfall  of  so  many  states  ;  for  independent  states 
 are  always  better  customers  to  a  manufacturing  people 
 than  those  which  are  under  the  yoke  of  foreigners. 
 While  the  kingdoms  of  Israel,  Judah,  Damascus,  and 
 others  flourished,  the  demand  for  Phoenician  manufac- 
 tures must  have  been  far  gi cater  than  after  they  be- 
 came subject  to  the  monarchs  of  Babylon  and  Persia. 
 Let  any  one,  for  example,  compare  Judah  under  her 
 kings  with  Judah  after  the  return  from  captivity.  The 
 very  circumstance  of  there  being  no  court  must  have 
 made  a  great  diflference  to  those  who  supplied  them 
 with  luxuries.  The  conquest  and  reduction  to  prov- 
 inces of  Babylonia  and  Egypt  by  the  Persian  monarch 
 must  have  greatly  affected  the  Phoenician  commerce  ; 
 but  it  was  the  foundation  of  Alexandrea  by  the  Mace- 
 donian conqueror  which  proved  the  ruin  of  the  trade  of 
 both  Phoenicia  and  Babylon,  just  as  the  discovery  of 
 the  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ru- 
 ined, in  a  great  measure,  Bagdad,  Alexandrea,  and 
 Venice — the  Tyre  of  the  middle  ages.    From  that  time 
 
 1051 
 
PHCENICIA. 
 
 PHCENICIA. 
 
 the  decline  of  the  prosperity  of  the  towns  Jn  the  coast 
 of  PhcEiiicia  was  rapid  and  irremediable.  {Foreign 
 Quarterly  Review,  No.  27,  p.  211,  seq.) 
 
 4.  Did  Phxnicia  give  an  alphahel  Co  Greece  1 
 
 On  this  point,  though  for  a  long  time  made  the  sub- 
 ject of  learned  discussion,  there  is  now  no  room  for 
 dispute.  The  names  of  most  of  the  letters,  their  or- 
 der, and  the  forms  which  they  e.xhibit  in  the  most  an- 
 cient monuments,  ail  contirm  the  truth  of  the  tradition, 
 that  the  Greek  alphabet  was  derived  from  the  Phoeni- 
 cian ;  and  every  doubt  on  this  head,  which  a  hasty 
 view  of  it,  in  its  later  state,  might  suggest,  has  long 
 since  received  the  most  satisfactory  solution.  Several 
 changes  were  neressary  to  adapt  the  Eastern  charac- 
 ters to  a  foreign  and  totally  diilerent  language.  The 
 powers  of  those  vvhich  were  unsuited  to  the  Greei<  or- 
 gans were  e.'crnaiiged  for  others  which  were  Wanting 
 in  the  Phoenician  alphabet ;  some  elements  were  final- 
 ly rejected  as  superfluous  from  the  written  language, 
 though  they  were  retained  for  the  purpose  of  numera- 
 tion ;  and,  in  process  of  time,  the  peculiar  demands  of 
 the  Greek  language  were  satisfied  by  the  invention  of 
 some  new  signs.  The  alterations  which  the  figures 
 of  the  Greek  characters  underwent  may  be  partly 
 traced  to  the  inversion  of  their  position,  which  took 
 place  when  the  Greeks  instinctively  dropped  the  East- 
 ern practice  of  writing  from  right  to  left ;  a  change 
 the  gradual  progress  of  which  is  visible  in  several  ex- 
 tant inscriptions.  This  fact,  therefore,  is  established 
 by  evidence,  which  could  scarcely  borrow  any  addi- 
 tional weiglit  from  the  highest  classical  authority.  But 
 the  epoch  at  which  the  Greeks  received  their  alphabet 
 from  the  Phcenicians  is  a  point  as  to  which  we  cannot 
 expect  to  find  similar  proof;  and  the  event  is  so  re- 
 mote, that  the  testimony  even  of  the  best  historians 
 cannot  be  deemed  sufficient  immediately  to  remove 
 all  doubt  upon  the  question.  A  statement,  however, 
 deserving  of  attention,  both  on  account  of  its  author, 
 and  of  its  internal  marks  of  diligent  and  thoughtful  in- 
 quiry, is  given  by  Herodotus.  The  Phcenicians,  ho 
 relates,  who  came  with  Cadmus  to  Thebes,  introduced 
 letters,  along  with  other  branches  of  knowledge,  among 
 the  Greeks  :  the  characters  were  at  first  precisely  the 
 same  as  those  which  the  Phoenicians  continued  to  use 
 in  his  own  day  ;  but  their  powers  and  form  were  grad- 
 ually changed,  first  by  the  Phoenician  colonists  them- 
 selves, and  afterward  by  the  Greeks  of  the  adjacent  re- 
 gion, who  were  lonians.  These,  as  they  received  their 
 letters  from  Phoenician  teachers,  named  them  Phce- 
 nician  letters  ;  and  the  historian  adds,  that,  in  his  own 
 time,  the  lonians  called  their  books  or  rolls,  though 
 made  from  the  Egyptian  papyrus,  skins,  because  this 
 was  the  material  which  they  had  used  at  an  earlier  pe- 
 riod, as  many  barbaroiis  nations  even  then  continued  to 
 do.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  this  account  appears,  at 
 first  sight,  perfectly  clear  and  probable  ;  and  yet  there 
 are  some  points  in  it  which,  on  closer  inspection, 
 raise  a  suspicion  of  its  accuracy.  The  vague  manner 
 in  which  Herodotus  describes  the  lonians,  who  were 
 neighbours  of  the  Phoenician  colony,  seems  to  imj)ly 
 that  what  he  says  of  them  is  not  grounded  on  any  di- 
 rect tradition,  but  is  a  mere  hypothesis  or  inference. 
 The  fact  which  he  appears  to  have  ascertained  is,  that 
 the  Asiatic  lonians,  who  were,  according  to  his  own 
 view,  a  very  mixed  race,  were  beforehand  with  the 
 other  Greeks  in  the  art  of  writing :  they  called  their 
 books  or  rolls  by  a  name  which  probably  exjjressed  the 
 Phoenician  word  for  the  same  thing,  and  they  descri- 
 bed their  alphabet  by  the  epithet  which  marked  its  Ori- 
 ental origin.  But,  as  the  historian  thought  he  had  suf- 
 cient  grounds  for  believing  that  it  had  been  first  com- 
 municated to  the  Greeks  by  the  Phoenician  colony  at 
 Thebes,  he  concludes  that  the  Asiatic  lonians  must 
 have  received  it,  not  directly  from  the  Phosnicians,  but 
 through  their  European  forefathers.  Still,  if  this  was 
 1052 
 
 the  process  by  which  he  arrived  at  his  conclusion,  it 
 would  not  follow  that  he  was  in  error.  But  if  we  ex- 
 amine the  only  reasons  which  he  assigns  for  his  belief 
 that  the  most  ancient  Greek  alphabet  was  found  at 
 Thebes,  we  find  that  they  are  such  as  we  cannot  rely 
 on,  though  to  him  they  would  seem  perfectly  demon- 
 strative. He  produces  three  inscriptions  in  verse, 
 which  he  had  seen  himself,  engraved  on  some  vessels  in 
 a  temple  at  Thebes,  and  in  characters  which  he  calls 
 Cadma'an,  and  which  he  says  nearly  resembled  the  Io- 
 nian. These  inscriptions  purported  to  record  dona- 
 tions made  to  the  temple  before  the  Trojan  war,  and 
 to  be  contemporaneous  with  the  acts  which  they  re- 
 corded. And  that  they  were  really  ancient  need  not 
 be  questioned,  though  imitations  of  an  obsolete  mode 
 of  writing  were  not  uncommon  in  Greece  ;  but  their 
 genuineness  cannot  be  safely  assumed  as  the  ground 
 of  an  argument.  Other  grounds  he  may  indeed  have 
 had  ;  but,  since  he  does  not  mention  them,  they  are  to 
 us  none,  and  we  are  left  to  form  our  own  judgment  on 
 the  disputed  question  of  the  Cadmaean  colony  at 
 Thebes.  {ThirlwaU's  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  238,  seq.) 
 We  have  already,  in  a  previous  article  {vid.  Cadmus), 
 shown  the  utter  improbability  of  any  Phoenician  colony 
 under  Cadmus,  and  have  traced  this  latter  name  to  a 
 Pelasgic  origin.  In  this  way,  perhaps,  the  two  tradi- 
 tions may  be  reconciled  ;  one  of  which  makes  the  Phoe- 
 nicians to  have  introduced  letters  into  Greece,  while 
 the  other  states  that  they  were  previously  known  to, 
 and  invented  by  the  Pelasgi.  It  is  probable  that  two 
 distinct  periods  of  time  are  here  alluded  to,  an  earlier 
 and  a  later  introduction  of  them  ;  in  both  instances, 
 however,  from  Phoenicia.  When  the  alphabet  of  this 
 country  was  first  brought  in,  its  use  may  have  been 
 extremely  limited  ;  it  may  have  come  in,  as  Knight 
 supposes,  with  the  first  Pelasgic  settlers,  who  may  have 
 brought  an  alphabet  much  less  perfect,  and,  therefore, 
 probably  more  ancient  than  the  so-called  Cadmsean. 
 The  second  introduction  of  letters  found  the  Greeks, 
 in  all  likelihood,  much  more  advanced  in  civilization, 
 and  it  therefore  took  a  firmer  hold,  and  became  the  sub- 
 ject of  more  established  and  general  tradition.  (Con- 
 sult Knighl,  Analytical  Essay  on  the  Greek  Alphabet, 
 p.  120. — Sandford,  Remarks  on  Thiersch's  Gr.  Gr., 
 p.  6.  —  Hug,  die  Erjindung  der  Buchstabenschrift, 
 p.  7.) 
 
 5.  Remains  of  the  Phcenician  Language. 
 
 The  remains  of  the  Phoenician  language  at  the  pres- 
 ent day  consist  of.  1.  Coins  and  inscriptions.  2.  Gloss- 
 es and  Phanician  proper  names,  occurring  in  the 
 Greek  and  Latin  writers.  3.  A  Phcenician  passage 
 of  considerable  length  (together  with  some  shorter  spe- 
 cimens) in  the  Poenulus  of  Plautus.  —  The  coins  and 
 inscriptions  give  us  the  written  forms  of  the  language 
 with  great  accuracy,  but  throw  no  light  on  the  sounds 
 of  the  Phoenician  tongue  or  its  system  of  pronuncia- 
 tion, since  in  almost  every  instance  the  vowels  are 
 omitted.  The  ablest  work  on  these  is  that  of  Gese- 
 nius,  entitled  '' Scripturce  Linguceque  Phccnietce  Monu- 
 nienta  quotquot  supersiint,"  &c..  Lips.,  1837,  4to. — ■ 
 On  the  other  hand,  the  Punic  words  that  occur  in  the 
 Greek  and  Roman  writers,  give,  it  is  true,  a  sound  ex- 
 pressed in  the  characters  of  those  languages,  and  show 
 us  with  what  vowels  they  were  enunciated  by  the  Phoe- 
 nicians :  still,  however,  there  is  often  very  great  dif- 
 ficulty in  tracing  back  these  same  words  to  a  Phoeni- 
 cian orthography,  since  the  common  or  vulgar  mode 
 of  pronouncing  was  accustomed  to  contract  certain 
 forms,  and  to  negle:;t  in  others  the  letters  that  were 
 necessary  to  indicate  the  etymology  of  the  term. — The 
 most  curious  remnant,  however,  of  the  Phoenician 
 tongue  is  the  passage,  already  referred  to,  in  Plautus, 
 It  occurs  in  the  first  scene  of  the  fifth  act  of  the  Pcsnu- 
 lus,  and  consists  of  ten  entire  Punic  verses,  expressed 
 in  Latin  characters  (for  the  remaining  six  are  Liby- 
 
PHCENICIA. 
 
 PIlCENIClA. 
 
 ■Phnenician,  or,  as  some  think,  vulgar  Punic),  to  which 
 are  to  be  added  fourteen  short  sentences,  intermingled 
 with  a  Latin  dialogue,  in  the  second  and  third  scenes.- 
 Modern  scholars  have,  at  various  times,  exercised  their 
 skill  in  remodelling  and  explaining  these  specimens  of 
 the  Phoenician,  and  in  attempting  to  recall  them  to  the 
 analogy  of  the  Hebrew  tongue.  Some  have  confined 
 their  attention  to  particular  words  or  individual  sen- 
 tences, such  as  Joseph  ScaUger  {ad  frag m.  Grcecorum, 
 p.  32),  Aldrete  {Antiguedadcs,  p.  207),  Selden(rfe  Dis 
 Syris,  proleg.,  c.  2),  Le  Moyne  (Varia  Sacra,  p.  100, 
 113),  Hyde  (ad  Pentsol.,  p.  45),  Rcinesius  {'laTopov- 
 fiEva  lingua  PiinictB,  c.  12),  Tychsen  {Nov.  Act.  Up- 
 sal.,  vol.  7,  p.  100,  seq.),  and  many  others,  enumera- 
 ted by  Fabricius  {Bibl.  Lat.,  vol.  1,  p.  5),  and  by  the 
 Bipoiit  editor  of  Plautus  (vol.  1,  p.  xix).  A  smaller 
 number  have  undertaken  to  interpret  all  the  Punic  spe- 
 cimens contained  in  the  three  scenes  alluded  to.  The 
 first  of  these  was  Petitus  (Petit),  who,  in  his  work  en- 
 titled '■^  Miscellaneorum  Lihri  novem"  {p.  58,  scqq,  Par- 
 is, 1640,  4to),  endeavoured  to  mould  the  Punic  of  the 
 three  scenes  into  Hebrew,  and  gave  a  translation  of 
 them  in  liatin.  Pareus,  who  came  after,  also  exhibit- 
 ed the  Punic  of  Plautus  in  a  Hebrew  dress,  and  even 
 added  vowel  points  ;  but  the  whole  is  done  so  care- 
 lessly and  strangely,  that  the  words  resemble  Chinese 
 and  Mongul  as  much  as  they  do  Hebrew.  This  was 
 in  the  first  and  second  editions  of  his  Plautus.  In  the 
 third,  however,  he  adopted  the  interpretation  of  Peti- 
 tus, and  even  enlarged  upon  it  in  a  poetical  paraphrase. 
 Many  subsequent  editors  of  Plautus  have  followed  in 
 the  same  path,  such  as  Boxhorn,  Operarius,  Gronovi- 
 us,  and  Ernesti.  Sixteen  years  after  Petitus,  the  learn- 
 ed Bochart  published  the  result  of  his  labours  on  the 
 Punic  of  the  first  scene,  in  his  Sacred  Geography  {Ca- 
 naan, 2,  6),  and  executed  the  task  with  so  much  learn- 
 ing and  ability,  that,  during  nearly  two  centuries,  un- 
 til the  explanation  given  by  Gesenius  in  1837,  though 
 there  may  have  been  some  who  have  given  more  prob- 
 able interpretations  of  particular  phrases  and  words, 
 no  one  was  found  more  successful  in  explaining  the 
 passage  as  a  whole.  {Gcscn.,  Phan.  Mon.,  p.  359.) 
 Clericus  (Le  Clerc)  closely  follows  the  interpretation 
 of  Bochart  {Biblioth.  Univ.  ct  Hist.,  vol.  9,  p.  256), 
 though  he  errs  in  thinking  that  each  verse  consists  of 
 two  hemistichs,  which  have  a  similarity  of  ending. 
 Passing  over  some  others  who  have  written  on  this 
 same  subject,  we  come  to  the  three  most  recent  ex- 
 pounders of  this  much-contested  passage ;  namely, 
 Bellermann  {Vcrsuch  einer  Erklarung  dcr  Punischcn 
 Sicllen  im  Panulus  des  Plautus.  Slicck,  1-3,  Berlin, 
 1806-1808,  ed.  2,  1812),  Count  de  Robiano  {Etudes 
 sur  Vecriture,  &c.,  suivies  d'uji  essai  sur  la  langue 
 Punique,  Paris,  1834,  4to),  and  Gesenius  (Phosn. 
 Mon.,  p.  366,  scqq.).  The  first  two,  abandoning  the 
 true  view  of  the  subject,  as  taken  by  Bochart,  regard 
 the  whole  sixteen  verses  as  Punic,  and  endeavour,  after 
 the  example  of  Petitus,  to  adapt  them,  by  every  possi- 
 ble expedient,  to  the  analogy  of  the  Hebrew  tongue. 
 Bellermann,  however,  in  doing  this,  confines  himself 
 within  the  regular  limits  of  Hebraism,  whereas  Robi- 
 ano calls  in  to  his  aid,  at  one  time  the  Syriac,  at  anoth- 
 er the  Arabic,  and  discovers  also  many  peculiarities  in 
 the  structure  of  the  Punic  language,  of  which  no  one 
 dreamed  before,  and  the  sole  authority  for  which  is 
 found  in  his  own  imagination.  The  explanation  of 
 Gesenius,  as  may  readily  he  inferred  from  his  known 
 proficiency  in  Oriental  scholarship,  is  now  regarded  as 
 having  borne  away  the  palm,  though  some  parts  have 
 been  made  the  subject  of  criticism  by  the  learned  of 
 his  own  country.  {Gcsen.,  Phccn.  Man.,  p.  366. — 
 Jahrbiicher  fiir  wissenschaftlic.he  Kritik,  1839,  p.  .539, 
 seqq.) — The  writers  thus  far  mentioned  have,  with  the 
 exception,  perhaps,  of  Robiano,  attempted  to  illustrate 
 the  Punic  of  Plautus  by  a  reference  to  the  Hebrew, 
 occasionally  calling  in  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac.     This 
 
 undoubtedly  is  the  more  correct  course,  and  far  sups 
 rior  to  the  plan  pursued  by  those  who  have  had  re- 
 course to  the  Arabic,  as,  for  example,  Casiri  {Btbl 
 Escurial.,  vol.  2,  p.  27),  or  to  the  Maltese  idiom,  as 
 Agius  de  Soldanis  {Disscr/azione  cioe  vira  spiega- 
 zione  dclla  sccna  delta  comedm  di  Plauto  in  Poinulo, 
 Rom.,  1751,  4lo  )  Another  class  of  writers  hardly  de- 
 serve mention.  They  are  those  dreaming  visionaries, 
 who  call  in  to  their  aid  the  Irish  language !  such  as  Val- 
 lancey  {Essay  on  the  Aniiq.  of  the  Irish  Lang.,  Dtih- 
 hn,  1722,  8vo  ;  Lond  ,  1808,  8vo),  O'Connor ^(CAroTi- 
 iclcs  of  Eri,  &c.,  from  the  original  MSS.  in  the  Phm- 
 nician  dialect  (1)  of  the  Scythran  language,  London, 
 1822,  2  vols.  8vo),  Vilianeuva,  {PliKiuaan  Ireland, 
 translated  by  H.  O'Brien,  Lond  ,  1833,  8vo),  or  who 
 have  resource  to  the  Basque,  as  De  I'Echise  {Gram- 
 mane  Basque,  Toulouse,  1826,  8vo),  and  Santa  Te- 
 resa {Robiano,  Etudes,  &,c.,  p.  78. — Gesenius,  Phm- 
 nic.  Mon.,  p.  357,  scqq). 
 
 6.    General  character  of  the  Phoenician  tongue. 
 
 That  the  Phoenician  or  Punic  laiiguage  was  closely 
 allied  to  the  Hebrew,  we  learn  from  the  express  testi- 
 mony of  St.  Jerome  and  St.  Augustine.  The  latter,  in 
 particular,  is  a  very  high  authority  on  this  subject,  since 
 he  lived  in  Africa  at  a  period  when  the  Punic  tongue 
 was  still  spoken  in  that  country,  and  since,  in  one  part 
 of  his  writings,  he  even  acknowledges  himself  to  be  of 
 Punic  origin.  {Contra  Julian.,  lib.  3,  c.  17.)  On 
 another  occasion,  referring  to  the  Hebrew  and  Punic,  he 
 remarks,  "  Istce  lingua  non  multum  inter  se  difjcrunt." 
 {Qucest.  in  Jud.,  lib.  7,  qu.  16.  —  Op.,  ed.  Benedict., 
 vol.  3,  p.  477.)  So  again,  speaking  of  our  Saviour, 
 he  says,  "  Htmc  Hebrcei  dicunt  Messiam,  quod  ver- 
 bum  lingua  Punica  consonum  est,  sicitt  alia  permulta 
 et  pane  omnia.'"  {Contra  lit.  Petil.,  2,  104 — Op., 
 vol.  9,  col.  198.)  Again,  in  another  part  of  his  wri- 
 tings, he  observes,  "  Cognata  qurppe  sunt  lingua  ista 
 et  vicina,  Hebraa,  Punica  et  Syra."  {In  Joann., 
 tract.  15. —  Op.,  vol.  3,  col.  302)  In  commenting 
 on  the  words  of  our  Saviour  {Serm.,  35),  where  he 
 explains  what  is  meant  by  the  term  "  Manimmi,"  he 
 says,  "  Hebraum-verbum  est,  cognatum  lingua  Pu- 
 mca :  ista  enim  lingua  significationis  quadam  vicin- 
 itale  socianlur."  To  the  same  effect  St.  Jerome  : 
 "  Tyrus  et  Sidon  in  Phcenices  litore  principes  civitates, 
 &c.  Quarum  Carthago  colonia.  Unde  et  Pceni  ser- 
 mone  corrupto  quasi  Phceni  appellantur.  Quarum 
 lingua  lingua  Hebraa  magna  ex  parte  confinis  est." 
 {In  Jerem.,  5,  25.)  So  again,  ^'Lingua  quoque  Pu- 
 nica, qua  de  Hcbraoriim  fontibus  manare  dicitur,  pro- 
 prie  virgo  alma  appellatur ."  {InJes.,  3,  7.) — Modern 
 scholars,  as  many  as  have  turned  their  attention  to 
 the  subject,  have  come  to  the  same  conclusion,  al- 
 though on  one  point  there  exists  among  them  a  great 
 difl^erence  of  opinion.  Some  of  them  maintain,  for 
 instance,  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight  differ- 
 ence in  the  mode  of  writing  and  pronouncing,  the 
 Phoenician  was  identical  with  the  Hebrew,  and  free 
 from  any  forms  derived  from  the  cognate  dialects. 
 {Tychsen,  Comment,  de  ling.  Phan.  et  Hebr.  mutua 
 aqualitale,  p.  89. — Akerblad,  de  Inscr.  Ozon.,  p.  26. 
 —  Fabricy,  de  Phcen.  lit.  fontibus,  p.  29.  221. — Gese- 
 nius,  Gesch.  dcr  Hebr.  Sprache,  &c.,  p.  229.)  Others 
 affirm,  that  the  Phoenician  is  like  the  Hebrew,  it  ia 
 true  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  intermingled  with  Arabic, 
 Syriac,  Chaldee,  and  Samaritan  forms.  Among  these 
 latter  may  be  mentioned  Bochart,  Mazocchi,  Clericus, 
 Sappuhn,  Pevron,  and  Hamaker.  The  last-mentioned 
 writer,  indeed,  exceeds  all  bounds,  and  blends,  in  his 
 explanations,  all  the  Semitic  tongues,  so  that  he  forms 
 for  himself  a  Phcenician  language  very  far  removed 
 from  the  true  one.  {Hamaker,  Diatnb.,  p.  65.— W., 
 Miscell.  Phcen.,  praf.,  p.  viii.,  &c.)— Il  we  follow 
 the  authority  of  Gesenius,  and  we  do  not  know  a  safer 
 one  to  take  for  our  guide,  the  chief  features  in  the 
 
 1053 
 
P  HCE 
 
 PHCENIX. 
 
 Phceniciati  language  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : 
 I.  The  Fhcenician  agrees  in  most,  if  not  ail,  respects 
 with  the  Hebrew,  whether  we  regard  roots,  or  the 
 mode  of  forming  and  inflecting  words. — 3.  Wherever 
 the  usage  of  the  earlier  writers  of  the  Old  Testament 
 ditfeis  from  that  of  the  later  ones,  the  Phcenician 
 agrees  with  the  latter  rather  than  with  the  former. — 3. 
 Only  a  few  words  are  found  that  savour  of  Aramwism, 
 nor  will  more  AramEeisms  be  found  in  the  remains  of 
 the  Phoenician  language  than  in  the  books  of  the  Old 
 Testament. — 4.  There  are  still  fewer  resemblances  to 
 Arabism.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  in  the 
 case  ol  the  article,  which  on  one  occasion  occurs  under 
 the  full  form  al,  and  often  under  that  of  a,  though  most 
 frequently  it  coincides  with  the  Hebrew  form, — Other 
 words,  which  now  can  only  be  explained  through  the 
 medium  of  the  Arabic,  were  undoubtedly,  at  an  earlier 
 period,  equally  with  many  uTrnf  Aeyufuva  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  not  less  Hebrew  than  Arabic. — 5.  Among 
 the  peculiarities  of  the  Phcenician  and  Punic  tongues, 
 the  following  may  be  noted  :  (a)  A  defective  mode  of 
 orthography,  in  which  the  malres  leclionis  are  em- 
 ployed as  sparingly  as  possible,  (b)  In  pronouncing, 
 the  Phoenicians  (the  Carthaginians  certainly)  expressed 
 the  long  0  by  u;  as,  svfes.  In,  alomtth,  &c.  (c)  In- 
 stead ot  Segol  and  Schwa  mobile,  they  appear  to  have 
 employed  an  obtuse  kind  of  sound,  which  the  Roman 
 writers  expressed  by  the  vowel  7/ ;  as,  yth  (Hebrew  eth, 
 the  mark  of  the  accusative),  ynnyjiu  {ecce  eum),  &c. 
 (d)  The  syllable  al  they  contracted  into  0,  analogous 
 somewhat  to  the  French  ckeval  (chevau),  chcvaux. 
 For  other  peculiarities  consult  Gesenius  (P/jcek.  Mon., 
 p.  33G). 
 
 Phcenici.\.  Vid.  Phoenice. 
 ^  Phcenix,  I.  a  fabulous  bird,  of  which  Herodotus 
 gives  the  following  account  in  that  part  of  his  work 
 which  treats  of  Egypt.  "  The  phcenix  is  another  sa- 
 cred bird,  which  I  have  never  seen  except  in  effigy. 
 He  rarely  appears  in  Egypt ;  once  only  in  five  hun- 
 dred years,  immediately  after  the  death  of  his  father, 
 as  the  Heliopolitans  affirm.  If  the  painters  describe 
 him  truly,  his  feathers  represent  a  mixture  of  crimson 
 and  gold  ;  and  he  resembles  the  eagle  in  outline  and 
 size.  They  affirm  that  he  contrives  the  following 
 thing,  which  to  me  is  not  credible.  They  say  that  he 
 comes  from  Arabia,  and,  bringing  the  body  of  his  fa- 
 ther enclosed  in  myrrh,  buries  him  in  the  temple  of 
 the  sun  ;  and  that  he  brings  him  in  the  following  man- 
 ner. First  he  moulds  as  great  a  quantity  of  myrrh 
 into  the  shape  of  an  egg  as  he  is  well  able  to  carry  ; 
 and,  after  having  tried  the  weight,  he  hollows  out  the 
 egg,  and  puts  his  parent  into  it,  and  stops  up  with 
 some  more  myrrh  the  hole  through  which  he  had  in- 
 troduced the  body,  so  that  the  weight  is  the  same  as 
 before:  he  then  carries  the  whole  mass  to  the  temple 
 of  the  sun  in  Egypt.  Such  is  the  account  they  give 
 of  the  phoenix."  {Herod.,  2,  73.)— The  whole  oflhis 
 fable  is  evidently  astronomical,  and  the  followincr  very 
 ingenious  explanation  has  been  given  by  Marcoz.  He 
 assumes  as  the  basis  of  his  remarks  the  fraorment  of 
 Hesiod  preserved  by  Plutarch  in  his  treatise  Dc  Orac- 
 ulorum  Defcctu.  {TLepl  tuv  eK'ke'konr.  ;\;p^0T. — Op., 
 ed.  Reis/ce^  vol  7,  p.  635.) 
 
 Pr/et.  Min.  GrcEC,  vol.  1,  p.  189.)— The  whole  com- 
 putation here  turns  upon  the  meaning  of  the  term 
 generuiion  (yeved).  Marcoz  takes  the  moon  for  his 
 guide  ;  and  as  this  luminary  ceases,  like  man,  to  exist, 
 only,  like  him,  again  to  arise,  the  period  of  its  revolu- 
 tion becomes  the  standard  required.  Twenty-seven 
 days  and  a  third,  then,  converted  into  twenty-seven 
 years  and  a  third,  give  the  measure  of  a  generation 
 among  men.  Reducing  this,  in  order  to  make  the 
 analogy  with-  the  moon  as  complete  as  possible,  he 
 gives  twenty-six  years  and  two  thirds  as  the  result 
 The  com[)utation  is  then  as  follows  : 
 
 IVine  generations  of  men,  or  the  ) 
 
 life  of  one  crow,  make  234-f  6  j 
 Four  lives  of  the  crow,  or  that  ) 
 
 ol  a  stag,  make  \ 
 
 Three  lives  of  a  stag,  or  that  of ) 
 
 a  raven,  make  ) 
 
 Nine  lives  of  the  raven,  or  that  ( 
 
 of  the  phcenix,  make  i 
 
 240  years. 
 
 960  years. 
 
 2880  years. 
 
 25920  years. 
 
 ivvm  Toi  (uec  yEveac  laKepv^a  Kopuvrj 
 uv6piJv  TjliuvTuv  •  eXa<pog  6i  re  TETpanopuvo^  • 
 rptlq  6'  k?M(j>ov^  6  KOpai;  yrjpuaKerai  •  avrup  6  (f>olvi^ 
 ivvia  Tovg  Kopaicac  6tKa  6'  iifieic  roiif  (poiviKUQ 
 vvficpai.  kvn7Mtiaiioi,  Kovpui  Ai.bg  alyLoxoio. 
 
 "The  noisy  crow  lives  nine  generations  of  men  who 
 are  in  the  bloom  of  years;  the  stag  attains  the  age  of 
 four  crows ;  the  raven,  in  its  turn,  equals  three  stao-s 
 in  length  of  days  ;  while  the  phcenix  lives  nine  ravens. 
 We  nymphs,  fair-of-tresses,  daughters  of  Jove  the  sgis- 
 bearer,  attain  to  the  age  of  ten  phoenixes."  (Com- 
 pare Auson.,  Idyll.,  18.  —  Plin.,  7,  48.  —  Gaisford, 
 1054 
 
 This  period  of  25920  years  is  precisely  the  duration 
 of  the  Great  Year  {Magnus  Annus)  of  the  fixed  stars, 
 having  for  its  element  exactly  50",  the  annual  preces- 
 sion of  the   equinoxes.     From  this  computation  also 
 we  will  be  enabled  to  perceive  how  50",  converted 
 into  years,  and  multiplied  by  l-|-2-|-3-|-4,  that  is,  by 
 10,  gave  the  Egyptians  500  years  as  the  duration  of 
 the  phoenix.     These  numbers,  l-j-2-|-3-j-4,  indicate 
 that   the    50   seconds,  converted  into  years,  traverse 
 successively  the  four  quarters  of  the  ecliptic,  in  order 
 to  form  the  Great  Year,  the  astronomical  duration  of 
 the  life  of  the  phoenix.     {Marcoz,  Astrononue  Solaire 
 d'Hipparque,  p.  xvi.,  scq.) — II.   Son  of  Amyntor,  king 
 of  Argos,    and  the  preceptor   of  Achilles,  to  whom 
 he  was  so  attached  that  he  accompanied   him  to  the 
 Trojan  war.     According  to  the  Homeric  account  (//., 
 9,  447,  seqq.),  Amyntor  having  transferred  his  affec- 
 tions from  his  lawful  wife,  Hippodamia,  to  a  concu- 
 bine, the  former  besought  her  son  Phoenix  to  gain  the 
 affections   of  his  father's  mistress,   and   alienate    her 
 from  Amyntor.      Phoenix  succeeded  in  his  suit,  and 
 his  enraged  father  imprecated  upon  him  the  bitterest 
 curses.     l"he  son,  therefore,  notwithstanding  the  en- 
 treaties and  efforts  of  his  relations  to  detain  him  at  his 
 parent's  court,  fled   to  Phthia,  in  Thessaly,  where  he 
 was  kindly  received  by  Peleus,  monarch  of  the  coun- 
 try, who  assigned   him  a  territory  on  the  confines  of 
 Phthia,  and    the  sway  over  the  Dolopians.      He  in- 
 trusted him  also  with  the  education  of  his  son  Achilles. 
 — Such  is  the  Homeric  account.     Later  writers,  how- 
 ever, make  Amyntor  to  have  put  out  his  son's  eyes, 
 and  the  latter  to  have  fled  in  this  condition  to  Peleus, 
 who  led  him  to  Chiron,  and  persuaded  the  centaur  to 
 restore   him  to  sight.     {Lycophron,  4:22.  —  Tzclz.  ad 
 Lycophr.,  I.  c.)    U'he  curse  uttered  against  Phoenix  was, 
 that  he  might  remain  ever  childless,  and  hence  Tzet- 
 zes   seeks  to  explain  the   story  of  his  blindness,  by 
 making  it  a  figurative  allusion  to  his  childless  condi- 
 tion, a  father's  offspring  being  as  it  were  his  eyes  in 
 the  language  of  antiquity.     {Tzcls.,  I.  c. — Mul/er,  ad 
 schol.  Tzelz.,  I.  c.)  —  Apollodorus  says  that  Phoenix 
 was  blinded  by  his  father,  on  a  false  charge  preferred 
 against  him  by  the  concubine  {KaraijirvaafiEVTig  (pOopuv 
 '^tiiag  Tjjc  Tov  Tcarpbg  iza'X, Aaiddog. — Apollod.,  3,  13, 
 8).     The  variations  in  the  legend  arose  probably  from 
 the  circumstance,  of  the  tragic  poets  having  frequently 
 made  the  story  of  Phoenix  the  subject  of  their  compo- 
 sitions, and  having,  of  course,  introduced  more  or  less 
 variations  from  the  original  tale.    {Hcyne,  ad  Apollod., 
 I.  c.)     'i'here  was  a  Phosnix  of  Sophocles,  another  of 
 Euripides,  and  a  third  of  Ion.     {Valck.,  Dintrib.,  c. 
 24  ) — -I'o  return  to  the  story  of  the  son  of  Amyntor  : 
 after  the  death  of  Achilles,  Phcenix  was  one  of  those 
 commissioned  to  return  to  Greece  and   bring  young 
 Pyrrhus  to  the  war.     On  the  fall  of  Troy,  he  returnee 
 with  that  prince  to  Thessaly,  in  which  country  he  con- 
 
PHO 
 
 PHOTIUS 
 
 itnued  until  his  death.  He  was  buried,  according  to 
 Strabo,  near  the  junction  of  the  small  river  Phoenix 
 with  the  Asopus,  the  former  of  these  streams  having  re- 
 ceived its  name  from  him.  {Slrah.,  428  ) — III.  A 
 son  of  Agcnor,  sent,  as  well  as  his  brothers  Cadmus 
 and  Cilix,  in  quest  of  their  sister  Europa.  Not  hav- 
 ing succeeded  in  finding  her,  he  was  fabled  to  have 
 settled  in  and  given  name  to  Phoenicia.  {ApoUod.,  3, 
 \,  1. — Consult  Heyne,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Pholob,  a  mountain  of  Elis,  at  the  base  of  which 
 stood  the  town  of  Pylos,  between  the  heads  of  the 
 rivers  Peneus  and  Selle'is.     {Strabo,  339.) 
 
 Pholus,  a  centaur,  son  of  Silenus  and  the  nymph 
 Melia,  and  residing  at  Pholoe  in  Elis.  In  the  perform- 
 ance of  his  fourth  task,  which  was  to  bring  the  Ery- 
 manthian  boar  alive  to  Eurystheus,  Hercules  took  his 
 road  through  Pholoe,  where  he  was  hospitably  enter- 
 tained by  Pholus.  The  centaur  set  before  his  guest 
 roast  meat,  though  he  himself  fared  on  raw.  Her- 
 cules asking  for  wine,  his  host  said  he  feared  to  open 
 the  jar,  which  was  the  common  property  of  the  cen- 
 taurs ;  but,  when  pressed  by  the  hero,  he  consented  to 
 unclose  it  for  him.  The  fragrance  of  the  wine  spread 
 over  the  mountain,  and  soon  brought  all  the  centaurs, 
 armed  with  stones  and  pine  sticks,  to  the  cave  of 
 Pholus.  The  first  who  ventured  to  enter  were  driven 
 back  by  Hercules  with  burning  brands  :  he  hunted  the 
 remainder  with  his  arrows  to  Malea.  When  Hercules 
 returned  to  Pholoe  from  this  pursuit,  he  found  Pholus 
 lying  dead  along  with  several  others ;  for,  having  drawn 
 the  arrow  out  of  the  body  of  one  of  them,  while  he 
 was  wondering  how  so  small  a  thing  could  destroy 
 such  large  beings,  it  dropped  out  of  his  hand  and 
 stuck  in  his  foot,  and  he  died  immediately.  (ApoUod., 
 2,  5,  4,  seqq. — Keightlcif  s  Mythology,  p.  355,  seq.) 
 
 Phorbas,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Epithesia,  killed  du- 
 ring the  Trojan  war  by  Menelaus.  The  god  Somnus 
 borrowed  his  features  when  he  deceived  Palinurus, 
 and  hurled  him  into  the  sea  from  the  vessel  of  ^neas. 
 {Vid.  Palinurus.) 
 
 Phorcydes  or  Gr^^,  the  daughters  of  Phorcys 
 and  Ceto.  They  were  hoary-haired  from  their  birth, 
 whence  their  other  name  of  Grjeae  ("  the  Gray  Maids'''). 
 They  were  two  in  number,  "  well-robed"  Pephredo 
 (Horrijicr),  and  "  yelloA^-robed"  Enyo  (Shaker).  (Hc- 
 siod,  Thcog.,  270,  seq.)  We  find  them  always  united 
 with  the  Gorgons,  whose  guards  they  were,  according 
 to  ^schylus.  {Eratosth.,  Cat.,  22.— Hyghi.,  P.  A., 
 2,  12.— Volcker,  Myth.  Geog.,  41.)  This  poet  de- 
 scribed them  as  three  long-lived  maids,  swan-formed, 
 having  one  eye  and  one  tooth  in  common,  on  whom 
 neither  the  sun  with  his  beams,  nor  the  nightly  moon 
 ever  looks.  (Prom.  Vinct.,  800,  seqq.)  Perseus,  it 
 is  said,  intercepted  the  eye  as  they  were  handing  it 
 from  the  one  to  the  other,  and,  having  thus  blinded  the 
 guards,  was  enabled  to  come  on  the  Gorgons  unper- 
 ceiVed.  The  name  of  the  third  sister  given  by  the 
 later  writers  is  Deino  (Temficr).  (ApoUod.,  2,  4,  2. 
 — Kcighllcy's  Mythology,  p."  252.) 
 
 PnoRONKus,  son  of  Inachus  and  the  ocean-nymph 
 Melia,  and  second  king  of  Argolis.  He  was  the  first 
 man,  according  to  one  tradition,  while  another  makes 
 him  to  have  collected  the  rude  inhabitants  into  one 
 society,  and  to  have  given  them  fire  and  social  institu- 
 tions. (ApoUod.,  2,  1.  —  Pausa7iias,  2,  15,  5.)  He 
 also  decided  a  dispute  for  the  land,  between  Juno  and 
 Neptuiif,  in  favour  of  the  former,  who  thence  became 
 he  tutelar  deity  of  Argus.  By  the  nymph  Laodice 
 Phoroneus  had  a  son  named  Apis,  from  whom  the 
 peninsula,  according  to  one  account,  was  called  Apia  ; 
 and  a  daughter  Niobe,  the  first  mortal  woman  who 
 enjoyed  the  love  of  Jupiter.  Iler  ofifsjiring  by  the  god 
 were  Argus  and  Pelasgus,  and  the  country  was  fabled 
 to  have  been  named  from  the  former,  the  people  from 
 the  latter.     (Kcightley's  Mythology,  p.  405.) 
 
 Photius,  a  patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  the  ninth 
 
 century,  of  a  noble  family,  and  who  enjoyed  the  repu- 
 tation of  being  the  most  learned  and  accomplished  man 
 of  his  age.  He  was  a  native  of  the  capita!,  and  for 
 some  time  a  layman,  having  been  sent  as  an  ambassa- 
 dor to  Assyria  by  the  Emperor  Michael.  In  this  ca- 
 pacity Photius  acquitted  himself  so  well  as  to  gain 
 the  favour  of  his  miperial  master,  who  appointed  him, 
 on  his  return,  commander  of  the  imperial  guard  (Hpu- 
 Toanadupiog).  and  subsequently  chief  secretary  (Upu- 
 ToayKpijTrjc,  Prolosecretarius).  These  dignities  gave 
 him  access  to  the  privy  council,  and  the  privilege  of 
 taking  part  in  their  deliberations  ;  and  his  ambition  be- 
 ing now  awakened,  he  strove  to  ingratiate  himself 
 with  Bardas,  the  uncle  of  the  emperor,  whom  the  lat- 
 ter had  associated  with  himself  on  the  throne,  and 
 upon  whom  he  had  thrown  all  the  cares  of  govern- 
 ment. Bardas,  having  become  displeased  with  the 
 patriarch  Ignatius,  sent  him  into  banishment,  and  ap- 
 pointed Photius  to  the  vacant  see  (December  25,  A.D. 
 857),  who  went  through  all  the  ecclesiastical  orders  in 
 six  successive  days,  having  been  consecrated  monk, 
 anagnostes,  subdeacon,  deacon,  priest,  and  patriarch. 
 During  the  succeeding  ten  years,  a  controversy  was 
 carried  on  with  much  acrimony  between  him  and  Pope 
 Nicholas  the  First,  in  the  course  of  which  each  party 
 excommunicated  the  other,  and  the  consequence  was  a 
 complete  separation  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  church- 
 es. Bardas,  his  patron,  being  at  length  taken  ofFby  his 
 nephew  and  associate  in  the  empire,  Michael  the  Third, 
 that  prince  was  in  his  turn  assassinated  by  Basilius,  the 
 Macedonian,  who  then  ascended  the  throne  in  866.  But 
 Photius,  denouncing  him  for  the  murder,  was  in  the 
 following  year  removed,  to  make  way  for  his  old  enemy 
 Ignatius,  and  was  forced  to  retire  into  banishment. 
 He  was  recalled  in  878.  An  anecdote,  related  by 
 Simon  Logothetes  (Annal.  in  Basil.,  n.  6,  p.  341,  ed. 
 Ven.),  explains  the  cause  of  his  recall.  Photius  forged 
 a  document  which  traced  the  genealogy  of  Basilius  to 
 Tiridales,  king  of  Armenia.  He  imitated  so  skilfully 
 the  ancient  characters,  that,  when  the  work  in  question, 
 placed  by  his  means  in  the  imperial  library,  and  found, 
 as  if  by  chance,  by  one  of  his  confidential  friends,  was 
 placed  before  the  emperor,  there  was  no  one  able  to 
 decipher  it  but  Photius.  He  maintained  himself  in 
 the  patriarchal  chair  during  the  rest  of  that  reign  ; 
 but  was  at  length  accused,  on  insufficient  grounds,  of 
 conspiring  against  the  new  sovereign,  Leo  the  Philos- 
 opher, when  that  prince  once  more  removed  him,  and 
 sent  him,  in  886,  into  confinement  in  an  Armenian 
 monastery,  where  he  died  in  891.  Photius  appears  to 
 have  been  very  learned  and  very  wicked — a  great 
 scholar  and  a  consummate  hypocrite — not  only  neg- 
 lecting the  occasions  of  doing  good  which  presented 
 themselves,  but  perverting  the  finest  talents  to  the 
 worst  purposes.  This  learned  though  corrupt  prelate 
 was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  'M  vplo6i6?iOv  (Myrio- 
 biblon),  or  Bibliothcca,  containing  extracts  from,  and 
 a  critical  judgment  upon,  two  hunc  red  ''^d  eighty  (the 
 title  says  279)  works,  which  were  read  by  him  during 
 his  embassy  to  Assyria,  and  a  summary  of  Phe  con- 
 tents of  which  had  been  requested  by  his  brother  Ta- 
 rasius.  If  this  statement  be  correct,  the  ambassador 
 must  have  had  but  little  to  do  in  his  diplomatic  capa- 
 city. There  is  a  story,  that,  as  often  as  he  had  read 
 an  author,  and  made  his  extracts  from  him,  he  threw 
 the  manuscript  into  the  fire,  in  order  to  enhance  the 
 value  of  his  own  abridgment.  This  statement,  in- 
 deed, is  sufficiently  improbable  ;  but  it  may  possibly 
 have  originated  from  some  known  propensity  of  the 
 patriarch  to  literary  dishonesty.  It  is  highly  probable 
 that  some  grammarian  pursued  this  same  method  with 
 regard  to  liesychius,  whose  original  lexicon  he  first 
 epitomised,  and  then  destroyed.  The  Myriobiblon  of 
 Photius  was  the  precursor,  and  has  served  as  the  model, 
 of  works  of  a  critical  and  bibliographical  nature.  It 
 is  characterized  by  neither  order  nor  method.     Pagan 
 
 1055 
 
PHOTIUS, 
 
 PHR 
 
 und  Christian  writers,  ancient  and  modern,  follow  one 
 ariotliet  as  chance  caused  liieir  woriis  to  tall  into  llie 
 hands  ol  the  author  ;  tnus  we  pass  from  a  work  of  an 
 erotic  nature  to  one  that  treats  ot  jihdosophy  or  theology, 
 from  ail  hisiorian  to  an  orator  ;  the  productions  of  the 
 same  writer  are  not  even  considered  together.  Gen- 
 erally speaking,  the  greater  number  of  the  productions 
 of  which  I'hoiius  gives  us  critical  notices  and  extracts, 
 have  reference  lo  theology,  to  the  decrees  of  councils, 
 and  to  religious  disputes  ;  profane  literature  with  hiin 
 occupies  only  a  secondary  rank.  Nevertheless,  among 
 the  works  oi  historians,  philosophers,  orators,  gram- 
 marians, romancers,  geographers,  mathematicians,  and 
 physicians,  that  Phoiius  has  read,  and  on  which  he 
 gives  his  opinion,  or  from  which  he  favours  us  with 
 extracts,  there  are  between  seventy  and  eighty  that 
 are  lost,  and  of  which  we  would  know  nothing  or  next 
 to  nothing  without  the  aid  of  the  Myriobiblon.  In  the 
 case  of  some  works,  Photius  contents  himself  with 
 giving  merely  a  short  literary  notice,  while  from  oth- 
 ers he  makes  extracts  of  greater  op  less  size.  He  was 
 the  author,  likewise,  of  a  work  called  INomocanon,  or 
 a  collection  of  the  canons  of  the  church.  He  com- 
 piled also  a  glossary  or  Lexicon  (Atfecjv  avvayuyrj), 
 which  has  only  reached  us  in  an  imperfect  and  muti- 
 lated state.  The  various  MSS.  of  this  work  in  differ- 
 ent libraries  on  the  Continent  are  mere  transcripts  from 
 each  other,  and  originally  from  one,  venerable  for  its 
 antiquity,  which  was  formerly  in  the  possession  of  the 
 •  celebrated  I'hoinas  Gale,  and  which  is  now  deposited 
 in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  This 
 manuscript,  which  is  on  parchment,  bears  such  evident 
 marks  of  great  antiquity,  that  it  may  not  unreasonably 
 be  supposed  to  have  been  a  transcript  from  the  author's 
 copy.  The  various  transcripts  from  this  ancient  MS. 
 were  miserably  faulty  and  corrupt,  and  it  was  natural 
 that  scholars,  who  wished  for  the  publication  of  this 
 lexicon,  should  be  desirous  of  seeing  it  printed  from 
 the  Galean  MS.  in  preference  to  any  other.  Her- 
 mann, indeed,  published  an  edition  in  1818,  from  two 
 transcripts,  but  he  gives  merely  the  naked  test,  with 
 scarcely  a  single  correction,  or  any  attempt  whatso- 
 ever towards  the  restitution  of  the  text.  At  the  end 
 of  the  volume,  however,  are  some  ingenious  and  valu- 
 able observations  of  Schneider.  Porson,  meanwhile, 
 had  transcribed  and  corrected  this  lexicon  for  the 
 press,  from  the  Galean  MS.  ;  and  when  unfortunately 
 his  copy  had  been  destroyed  by  fire,  had,  with  incred- 
 ible industry  and  patience,  begun  the  task  afresh,  and 
 completed  another  transcript  in  his  own  excellent 
 handwriting.  His  death,  however,  for  a  time  pre- 
 vented the  appearance  of  the  work,  until  at  length  his 
 labours  were  given  to  the  world  by  Dobree,  in  1822, 
 Land  ,  8vo.  This  edition,  however,  notwithstanding 
 all  the  praise  so  justly  bestowed  upon  it,  is  greatly  in- 
 jured by  want  of  more  editorial  skill  and  labour,  the 
 Addenda  and  Corrigenda  occupying  44  pages.  Pho- 
 tius, who  threw  together  his  lexicon  upon  a  much  more 
 confined  plan  than  Hesychius,  probably  brought  to  his 
 undertaking  greater  learning  and  judgment  than  the 
 latter,  and  seems  to  have  given  most  of  his  authorities 
 from  his  own  knowledge  of  the  authors  whom  he  cites. 
 Yet  even  his  work  is  little  more  than  a  compilation,  of 
 which  many  parts  are  copied  verbatim  from  the  scholia 
 on  Plato,  the  Lexicon  of  Harpocration,  that  of  Pausa- 
 nias,  and,  in  all  probability,  from  the  At^iKa  Ku/ulku 
 KoX  TpayiKU  of  Theo  or  Didymus,  from  which  latter  the 
 trrammarians  derived  most  of  their  explanations  of  the 
 scenic  phrases  of  the  Greeks.  These  Dramatic  Lexi- 
 cons are  unfortunately  lost ;  but  there  is  in  the  royal 
 library  of  Paris  a  MS.,  which  seems  to  be  an  epitome 
 of  one  of  them,  under  the  title  of 'A/l/lof  'Al<pd6rirog. 
 And,  with  a  little  care  and  discrimination,  a  very  con- 
 siderable part  of  them  might  be  recovered  from  the 
 pages  of  existing  grammarians.  Photius  also  enriched 
 his  work  from  the  Lexica  Rhetorica,  and  the  Platonic 
 1056 
 
 Lexicon  of  Timaeus  ;  nor  has  he  forgotten  the  Lexicon 
 Techiiologicum  of  Philemon.  The  patriarch  informs 
 us,  in  his  preface,  that  his  dictionary  is  destined  prin- 
 cipally for  the  exi>lanation  of  the  remarkable  words 
 which  occur  in  the  Greek  orators  and  historians,  but 
 occasionally  to  illustrate  the  phraseology  of  the  poets. 
 Several  lacunas  occur  in  the  MSS.,  the  leaves  beinf 
 torn  out  from  the  Galean  copy,  from  udtaKpirug  to 
 ETTuvvfioi.  and  from  tjJopriTug  to  fUo6uni6ag — Pliotius 
 has  left  also  a  collection  of  letters,  in  one  of  which, 
 addressed  to  the  Bulgarian  prince  Michael,  there  is- a 
 brief  history  of  Seven  Ecumenical  Councils. — The 
 best  edition  of  the  Myriobiblon  or  Bibliotheca  is  that 
 of  Bekker,  BeroL,  1824,  2  vols.  4to.  'I'he  text  is  cor- 
 rected from  a  Venice  manuscript,  and  also  three  Paris 
 ones.  The  previous  editions  are  accompanied  by  a 
 Latin  version  of  Schott's,  which  is  far  from  accurate. 
 Bekker's  edition  gives  the  Greek  text  without  a  ver- 
 sion.— The  Nomocanoii  was  first  printed  in  1615, 
 Paris,  4to,  with  the  commentaries  of  Balsamon,  pa- 
 triarch of  Antioch.  A  second  edition  appeared  in 
 1661,  with  a  Latin  version,  and  with  additions  and 
 corrections.  It  is  much  superior  to  the  previous  one. 
 — The  Epistles  were  edited  by  Montague,  bishop  of 
 Norwich,  Land.,  1651,  fol.  ;  but  he  has  given  only 
 248  letters,  whereas  a  much  greater  number  exists. 
 A  curious  and  rare  edition  was  also  published  in  1705, 
 fol.,  under  the  care  of  Dositheus,  patriarch  of  Jerusa- 
 lem, and  Anthimus,  a  Greek  bishop.  {Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  fi,  p.  285.— 7d.  ih.,  p.  301.— 7(Z.  ji.,  vol. 
 7,  p.  31. — Id.  lb.,  p.  233. — Edinburgh  Review,  No. 
 42,  p.  329,  seqq. —  Weiss,  inBiogr.  Univ.,  vol.  34,  p 
 218,  seqq. — Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bibtiogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  246, 
 seqq.) 
 
 pHRAATEs,  a  name  common  to  several  Parthian 
 kings.     {Vid.  Parthia.) 
 
 Phr ABATES,  the  same  as  Phraates.    {Vid.  Phraates.) 
 
 Phraortes,  son  and  successor  of  Dejoces,  on  the 
 throne  of  Media.  He  reigned  from  B.C.  657  to  635, 
 greatly  extended  the  Median  empire,  subdued  the  Per- 
 sians, and  many  other  nations,  but  fell  in  an  expedi- 
 tion against  the  Assyrians  of  Ninus  or  Nineveh. 
 {Herod.,  1,  102.— Vid.  Media.) 
 
 Phriconis,  a  surname  given  to  Cyma  in  -.-Eolis. 
 {Vid.  Cyma.) 
 
 Phrixus,  son  of  Athamas,  king  of  Orchomenus  in 
 Boeotia,  and  Nephele.  (Consult  the  commencement 
 of  the  article  Argonautse.) 
 
 PhrvgIa,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the 
 north  by  Paphlagonia  and  Bithynia,  on  the  south  by 
 the  range  of  Taurus  and  Pisidia,  on  the  west  by  Caria 
 and  Lydia,  and  on  the  east  by  Cappadocia  and  Pon- 
 tus. — Herodotus  relates  (2,  2),  that  Psammilichus, 
 king  of  Egypt,  having  made  an  experiment  to  discov- 
 er which  was  the  most  ancient  nation  in  the  world, 
 ascertained  that  the  Phrygians  surpassed  all  other 
 people  in  priority  of  existence.  {Vid.  Psammitichus.) 
 The  story  itself  is  childishly  absurd  ;  but  the  fact  that 
 the  Egyptians  allowed  the  highest  degree  of  antiquity 
 to  this  nation  is  important,  and  deserves  attention. 
 What  the  Greeks  knew  of  the  origin  of  the  Phrygians 
 does  not  accord,  however,  with  the  Egyptian  hypothe- 
 sis. Herodotus  has  elsewhere  reported  that  they  came 
 originally  from  Macedonia,  where  they  lived  under  the 
 name  of  Briges(or  Bryges),  and  that,  when  they  cross- 
 ed over  into  Asia,  this  was  changed  to  Phryges  (7,  73). 
 This  account  has  been  generally  followed  by  subse- 
 quent writers,  especially  Strabo  (295),  who  appears  to 
 quote  Xanthus,  and  Menecrates  of  Elaea,  Artemido- 
 rus,  and  others,  who  made  the  origin  of  nations  and 
 cities  the  object  of  their  inquiries.  {Strab.,  572. — 
 Id.,  680.  — Compare  Plin.,  5,  32.  —  Steph.  Byz.,  s. 
 V.  Bpljec;.)  It  is  certain,  indeed,  that  there  was  a 
 people  named  Briges  or  Bryges,  of  Thracian  origin, 
 living  in  Macedonia  at  the  time  that  Herodotus  was 
 writing  (6,  45  ;  7,  185) ;  and  tradition  had  long  fixed 
 
PHRYGIA. 
 
 PHRYGIA. 
 
 tne  abode  of  the  Phrygian  Midas,  who  was  a  chief  or 
 monarch  of  this  people,  near  Mount  Bermius,  in  Ma- 
 cedonia.    {Herod.,    8,    138. —  Compare  Nicand.,  ap 
 Athcn.,  15,  p.  683. — Bion,  ap.  eu7id.,2,  p.  45.)     Again, 
 the  strong  affinity  which  was  allowed  to  exist  between 
 the  Phrygians,   Lydians,  Carians,  and  Mysians,  who 
 were  all  supposed  to  have  crossed  from  Thrace  into 
 Asia   Minor,    serves    to    corroborate    the    hypothesis 
 which  regards  the  Phrygian  migration  in  particular ; 
 hut,  while    there  seems  no   reasonable   doubt  of  the 
 Thracian  origin  of  this  people,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  es- 
 tablish the  period  of  their  settling  in  Asia.     Xanthus 
 is  represented  by  Strabo  (680)  as  fi.xing  their  arrival 
 in  that  country  somewhat  after  the  Trojan  war  ;  but 
 the   geographer   justly    observes,    that,   according   to 
 Homer,  the   Phrygians  were   already   settled   on   the 
 banks  of  the  Sangarius  before  that  era,  and  were  en- 
 gaged in  a  war  with  the  Amazons  (7^,  3,  187) ;  and,  if 
 mythological  accounts  are  to  have  any  weight,  the  ex- 
 istence of  a  Midas  in  Asia  Minor,  long  before  the  pe- 
 riod  alluded  to,  would  prove  that  there  had  been  a 
 Phrygian  migration  in   times  to  which  authentic  his- 
 tory  does    not    extend.     (Compare    Conoii,   Narrat., 
 ap.  Phot.,  cod.  186.)     Great  as  was  the  ascendancy, 
 however,  of  the  Thracian  stock,  produced  by  so  many 
 tribes  of  that  vast  family  pouring  in  at  various  times, 
 there  must  have  entered  into  the  composition  of  the 
 Phrygian  nation  some  other  element  besides  the  one 
 which  formed  its  leading  feature.     It  has  been  conjec- 
 tured,  and  with  great  show  of  probability,  that  the 
 Thracian  Bryges  found  the  country,  which  from  them 
 took  the  name  of  Phrygia,  occupied  by  some  earlier 
 possessors,  but  who  were  too  weak  to  resist  the  inva- 
 ders.    What  name   this  people  bore  cannot  now  be 
 ascertained ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they 
 were  of  Asiatic  origin  ;    probably   Leuco-Syrians   or 
 Cappadocians.     Herodotus,  indeed,  has  stated  a  cir- 
 cumstance, which,  if  true,  would  go  far  to  overthrow 
 the  theory  of  a  Thracian  origin  for  the  Phrygian  people. 
 In  the  muster  which  he  makes  of  Xerxes'  myriads,  he 
 informs  us   that  the   Phrygians  and  Armenians   were 
 armed  alike  ;  the  latter  being,  as  he  observes,  colonists 
 of  the   former.     {Herod.,  7,  73.)     Herodotus,   how- 
 ever, is  quite   singular   in   this    statement,  which  is, 
 moreover,  at  variance  with  all  received  notions  on  the 
 subject.     The  Armenians  are  a  people  of  the  highest 
 antiquity,  and  we  must  not  seek  for  their   primitive 
 stock  beyond  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
 phrates ;   in   other   words,   they   are  a   purely   Asiatic 
 people  ;  and  if  there  existed  any  resemblance  between 
 them  and  the  Phrygians,  we  ought  rather  to  account 
 for  it  by  supposing  that  the  latter  were  not  altogether 
 Europeans,  but  mingled   with  an  indigenous  race  of 
 Asia,  whose  stock  was   also  common   to  the  Arme- 
 nians.—  The    political    history   of   the   Phrygians    is 
 neither  so  brilliant  nor  so  interesting  as  that  of  their 
 neighbours  the  Lydians.     What  we  gather  respecting 
 them  from  ancient  writers  is,  generally,  that  they  cross- 
 ed over  from  Europe  into  Asia,  under  the  conduct  of 
 their  leader  Midas,  nearly  a  hundred  years  before  the 
 Trojan  war.     {Canon,  ap.  Phot.,  cod.,   186.)     That 
 they  settled  first  on  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont   and 
 around  Mount  Ida,  whence  they  gradually  extended 
 themselves  to  the  shores  of  the  Ascanian  lake  and  the 
 valley  of  the  Sangarius.     It  is  probable  that  the  Doli- 
 ones,  Mygdoncs,  and  Bebryces,  who  held  originally  the 
 coasts  of  Mysia  and  Bithynia,  were  Phrygians.     The 
 Mygdones  were  contiguous  to  the  Bryges  in  Macedo- 
 nian Thrace,  and  they  are  often  classed  with  the  Phry- 
 gians by  the  poets.     Driven  afterward  from  the  Hel- 
 lespont and  the  coast  of  the  Proponlis  by  the  Teucri, 
 Mysi,  and  Bithyni,  the  Phrygians  took  up  a  more  cen- 
 tral position  in  what  may  be  called  the  great  basin  of 
 Asia  Minor.     Still  preserving  the  line  of  the  Sanga- 
 rius, they  occupied,  to  the  southwest  of  that  great  river, 
 the  upper  vallevs  of  the  Macestus  and  Rhyndacus,  to- 
 6S  ' 
 
 wards  the  Mysian  Olympus,  a«d  those  of  the  Hermus 
 and  Hyllus  on  the  side  of  Lydia.  On  the  west  they 
 ranged  along  Catacecaumene  and  ancient  Mseonia,  till 
 they  reached  the  Ma;ander.  The  head  of  that  river, 
 with  its  tributary  streams,  was  included  within  their 
 territory.  To  the  south  they  held  the  northern  slope 
 of  Mount  Cadmus,  which,  with  its  continuation,  a 
 branch  of  Taurus,  formed  their  frontier  on  the  side  of 
 Caria,  Milyas,  and  Pisidia,  as  far  as  the  borders  of 
 Cilicia.  To  the  east  of  the  Sangarius  the  ancient 
 Phrygians  spread  along  the  borders  of  Paphlagonia  till 
 they  met  the  great  river  Halys,  which  divided  them 
 from  Pontus,  and,  farther  south,  from  Cappadocia  and 
 Isauria.  This  extensive  country  vvas  very  unequal  in 
 its  climate  and  fertility.  That  which  lay  in  the  plains 
 and  valleys,  watered  by  rivers,  exceeded  in  richness 
 and  beauty  almost  every  other  part  of  the  peninsula 
 {Herod.,  5,  49) ;  but  many  a  tract  was  rendered  bleak 
 and  desolate  by  vast  ranges  of  mountains,  or  uninhab- 
 itable from  extensive  lakes  and  fens  impregnated  with 
 salt,  or  scorching  deserts  destitute  of  trees  and  vege- 
 tation. (Compare  Fellows'  Asia  Minor,  p.  127.) — 
 The  Phrygians  appear  at  first  to  have  been  under  the 
 dominion  of  kings  ;  but  whether  these  were  absolute 
 over  the  whole  country,  or  each  was  the  chief  of  a 
 petty  canton,  is  not  certain.  I'he  latter,  more  proba- 
 bly, was  the  case,  since  we  hear  of  Midseum  and  Gor- 
 dium,  near  the  Sangarius,  as  royal  towns,  correspond- 
 ing with  the  well-known  names  of  Midas  and  Gordius 
 {Strab.,  568)  ;  and  again,  Celaenae,  seated  in  a  very 
 opposite  direction,  near  the  source  of  the  Maeander, 
 appears  to  have  been  the  chief  city  of  a  Phrygian  prin- 
 cipality. {Athcnaus,  10,  p.  Alb.)  The  first  Phrygian 
 prince,  whose  actions  come  within  the  sphere  of  an 
 authenticated  history,  is  Midas,  the  son  of  Gordius, 
 who,  as  Herodotus  relates,  was  the  first  barbarian  that 
 made  offerings  to  the  god  at  Delphi.  He  dedicated 
 his  throne  of  justice,  the  workmanship  of  which,  as  the 
 historian  affirms,  was  worthy  of  admiration  (1,  14). 
 At  this  period  the  Phrygians  were  independent,  but 
 under  the  reign  of  Crossus  the  Lydian  we  hear  of  their 
 being  subject  to  that  sovereign  (1,  28).  The  con- 
 quoror  was  probably  content  with  exacting  from  the 
 Phrygian  ruler  an  avowal  of  his  inferiority,  in  the  shape 
 of  a  tribute  or  tax  ;  for  the  tragic  tale  of  the  Phrygian 
 Adrastus  affords  evidence  that  the  ancient  dynasty  of 
 that  country  still  held  dominion,  as  the  vassals  of  Croe- 
 sus. {Herod,  1,  35.)  Adrastus  is  said  to  have  been 
 the  son  of  Gordius,  who  was  himself  the  son  of  Midas. 
 The  latter  was  probably  the  grandson  of  the  Midas 
 who  dedicated  his  throne  to  the  shrine  at  Delphi,  and 
 is  called  son  of  Gordius  ;  so  that  we  have  a  regular 
 alternation  of  monarchs,  bearing  those  two  names  from 
 father  to  son,  for  seven  generations.  Indeed,  these 
 two  names  are  so  common,  that  they  would  seem  to 
 have  been  appellatives  rather  than  proper  names.  The 
 first  Gordius  is  probably  the  one  who  is  indebted  for  a 
 place  in  history  to  the  puzzle  which  he  invented  ;  but 
 which,  if  it  had  not  fallen  into  the  way  of  Alexander, 
 would  probably  never  have  given  rise  to  the  proverbial 
 expression  of  "  the  Gordian  knot."  {Arrtan,  Exp. 
 Ai,  2,  3.)  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Lydian  monar- 
 chy by  Cyrus,  Phrygia  was  annexed  to  the  Persian 
 empire,  and,  under  the  division  made  by  Darius,  form- 
 ed part  of  the  Hellespontine  or  Bithynian  satrapy. 
 {Herod.,  3,  91.)  In  the  partition  of  Alexander's  do- 
 minions, it  fell  at  first  into  the  hands  of  Antigonus, 
 then  of  the  Seleucidaj,  and,  after  the  defeat  of  Antio- 
 chus,  was  ceded  to  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  but 
 finally  reverted  to  the  Romans.  {Polijb., '22,  27. — 
 Liv.,  37,  56.)  At  that  tune  Phrygia  had  sustained  a 
 considerable  diminution  of  territorial  extent,  owing  to 
 the  migration  of  a  large  body  of  Gauls  into  Asia,  where 
 they  settled  in  the  very  centre  of  the  province  ;  and, 
 having  succeeded  in  appropriating  to  themselves  a  con- 
 siderable tract  of  country,  formed  a  new  province  and 
 
 1057 
 
PHR 
 
 PHY 
 
 people,  named  Galatia  and  Galatse,  or  Gallo-Grnsci. — 
 The  Phrygians  are  generally  stigmatized  by  the  an- 
 cients as  a  slavish  nation,  destitute  of  courage  or  en- 
 ergy, and  possessing  but  little  skill  in  anything  save 
 music  and  dancing.  (Alhetuzus,  1,  p.  27. —  Virff., 
 Mi.,]2,9\).—Eunp.,  Alcest, 678.— Id.,  Orcst.,  1447. 
 — AihencEus,  14,  p.  624,  seqq.) — Phrygia,  considered 
 with  respect  to  the  territory  once  occupied  by  the  peo- 
 ple from  whence  it  obtained  its  appellation,  was  di- 
 vided into  the  Great  and  Less.  The  latter,  which  was 
 also  called  the  Hellespontine  Phrygia,  still  retained 
 that  name,  even  when  the  Phrygians  had  long  retired 
 from  that  part  of  Asia  Minor,  to  make  way  for  the 
 Mysians,  Teucrians,  and  Dardanians  ;  and  it  would  be 
 hazardous  to  pronounce  how  much  of  what  is  included 
 under  Mysia  and  Troas  belonged  to  what  was  evi- 
 dently only  a  political  division.  Besides  this  ancient 
 classification,  we  find  in  the  Lower  Empire  the  prov- 
 ince divided  into  Phrygia  Pacatiana  and  Phrygia 
 Salutaris.  The  name  Epicietus,  or  "  the  Acquired," 
 was  given  to  that  portion  of  the  province  which  was 
 annexed  by  the  Romans  to  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus. 
 {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  1,  seqq.) 
 
 PhrynIchus,  L  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  a  scholar 
 of  Thespis.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  alike 
 unknown  :  it  seems  probable  that  he  died  in  Sicily. 
 (Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  \o\.  2,  p.  xxxi.,  7iolc  (t).)  He 
 gained  a  tragic  victory  in  511  B.C.,  and  another  in  476, 
 when  Themistocles  was  his  choragus.  {Pint.,  Vit. 
 Themist.)  The  play  which  he  produced  on  this  occasion 
 was  probably  the  PhoenisssB,  and  ^Eschylus  is  charged 
 with  having  made  use  of  this  tragedy  in  the  composition 
 of  his  Persse,  which  appeared  four  years  after  {Arg.  ad 
 Pers.),  a  charge  which  ^schylus  seems  to  rebut  in 
 "the  Frogs"  of  Aristophanes  (v.  1294,  seqq.).  Li 
 494  B.C.,  Miletus  was  taken  by  the  Persians,  and 
 Phrynichus,  unfortunately  for  himself,  selected  the  cap- 
 ture of  that  city  as  the  subject  of  an  historical  tragedy. 
 The  skill  of  the  dramatist,  and  the  recent  occurrence 
 oi  the  event,  affected  the  audience  even  to  tears,  and 
 Phrynichus  was  fined  1000  drachmje  for  having  recall- 
 ed so  forcibly  a  painful  regollection  of  the  misfortunes 
 of  an  ally.  (Herod.,  6,  21.)  According  to  Suidas, 
 Phrynichus  was  the  first  who  introduced  a  female 
 mask  on  the  stage,  that  is,  who  brought  in  female 
 characters;  for,  on  the  ancient  stage,  the  characters  of 
 females  were  always  sustained  by  males  in  appropriate 
 dress.  Bentley  is  thought  to  have  purposely  mistrans- 
 lated this  passage  of  Suidas,  in  his  Dissertation  on 
 Phalaris  (vol.  1,  p.  291,  ed.  Dyce. — Donaldson,  The- 
 atre of  the  Greeks,  p.  47).  Phrynichus  seems  to  have 
 been  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  sweetness  of  his  melo- 
 dies, and  the  great  variety  and  cleverness  of  his  figure- 
 dances.  (Arisloph.,  Av.,l\S. — Id.,  Vesp.,  269. — Id. 
 ib.,  219. — Plutarch,  Si/mp.,  3,  9.)  The  Aristophanic 
 Agathon  speaks  generally  of  the  beauty  of  his  dramas 
 (Thesmoph.,  164,  seqq.),  though,  of  course,  they  fell  far 
 short  of  the  grandeur  of  ^Eschylus,  and  the  perfect  art 
 of  Sophocles.  The  names  of  seventeen  tragedies  at- 
 tributed to  him  have  come  down  to  us,  but  it  is  prob- 
 able that  some  of  these  belonged  to  two  other  writers, 
 who  bore  the  same  name.  (Theatre  of  the  Greeks, 
 ed.  4,  p.  59,  seq.) — IL  A  comic  poet,  who  must  be 
 carefully  distinguished  from  the  tragedian  of  the  same 
 name.  He  exhibited  his  first  piece  in  the  year  435 
 B.C.,  and  was  attacked  as  a  plagiarist  in  the  4'op/zo- 
 (!>6poi  of  Hermippus,  which  was  written  before  the 
 death  of  Sitalces,  or,  in  other  words,  before  424  B.C. 
 (Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  2,  p.  67.)  In  414  B.C., 
 when  Ameipsias  was  first  with  the  Ku/iaarai,  and  Ar- 
 istophanes second  with  the  'OpviOe^,  Phrynichus  was 
 third  with  the  Movorponoc.  (Arg.,  Av.)  In  405 
 B.C.,  Philonides  was  first  with  the  Bdrpaxoi  of  Aris- 
 tophanes, Phrynichus  second  with  the  Movrrai,  and 
 Plato  third  with  the  KAeo^uv.  (Arg.,  Kan.)  He  is 
 ridiculed  by  Aristophanes  in  the  Burpaxoi  for  his  cus- 
 1058 
 
 torn  of  introducing  grumbling  slaves  on  the  stage. 
 The  names  of  ten  of  his  pieces  are  known  to  us, 
 (Fabric.,  Bibl.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  483,  ed.  Harks.— The- 
 atre of  the  Greeks,  ed.  4,  p.  101.) — III.  A  native  of 
 Arabia,  as  is  supposed,  but  who  established  himself  in 
 Bithynia  in  the  latter  half  of  the  second  century  of  onr 
 era.  He  compiled  a  Lexicon  of  Attic  forms  of  Ex- 
 pression ('YiKTiOyrj  'Attikuv  ^rjfiuTuv  Kfii  bvo^uTuv). 
 We  have  also  from  the  same  writer  another  work,  en- 
 titled YlpoftapaaKevT]  goiPlctikt]  (Sophistic  Apparalug), 
 in  thirty-seven  books,  a  production  of  considerable 
 importance  on  account  of  the  numerous  quotations 
 which  it  contains  from  ancient  writers.  Phrynichus 
 distinguishes  between  words,  according  to  the  style  to 
 which  they  are  adapted,  which  is  either  the  oratorical, 
 the  historical,  or  the  familiar  kind.  As  models  of  gen- 
 uine Atticism,  he  recommends  Plato,  Demosthenes, 
 and  the  other  Attic  orators,  Thucydides,  Xenophon, 
 .(Eschines  the  Socratic,  Critias,  and  the  two  authentic 
 discourses  of  Antisthenes ;  and  among  the  poets, 
 Aristophanes  and  the  three  great  tragic  writers.  He 
 then  makes  a  new  arrangement  of  these  authors,  and 
 places  Plato,  Demosthenes,  and  .iEschines  in  the  first 
 rank.  As  regards  his  own  style,  Phrynichus  is  justly 
 chargeable  with  great  prolixity. — The  best  edition  of 
 the  Lexicon  is  that  of  Lobeck,  Lips.,  1820,  8vo.  Of 
 the  "  Sophistic  Apparatus"  Monlfaucon  published  a 
 portion  in  his  "  Calalogiis  Bibliotheca:  Coisliniana,'" 
 p.  465,  seqq.  Bast  made  another  extract  from  the 
 MS.  (No.  345,  Riblioth.  Coislin.,  at  present  in  the 
 Royal  library  at  Paris),  accompanied  with  critical  re- 
 marks, which  has  passed  from  the  Continent  to  Eng- 
 land. In  1814,  Bekker  published  a  part  in  the  first 
 volume  of  his  "  Anecdota  Grteca,"  under  the  title,  'Ek 
 rC>v  ^pvvixov  Tov  'ApaCiov  r^f  ao(piaTiKf](^  nporrapa- 
 oKeviJc.     (Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  12  ) 
 
 Phthia,  a  district  of  Thessaly,  formmg  part  of  th<i 
 larger  district  of  Phthiotis.     (Vid.  Phthioiis.) 
 
 Phthiotis,  a  district  of  Thessaly,  including,  ac- 
 cording to  Strabo,  all  the  southern  portion  of  that  coun- 
 try, as  far  as  Mount  ffita  and  the  Maliac  Gulf  To 
 the  west  it  bordered  on  Dolopia,  and  on  the  east  reach- 
 ed the  confines  of  Magnesia.  Referring  to  the  geo- 
 graphical arrangement  adopted  by  Homer,  we  shall 
 find,  that  he  comprised  within  this  extent  of  territory 
 the  districts  of  Phthia  and  Hellas  properly  so  called, 
 and,  generally  speaking,  the  dominions  of  Achilles, 
 together  with  those  of  Protesilaus  and  Eurypylus. 
 (Strab.,  432,  seqq.)  Many  of  his  commentators  have 
 imagined  that  Phthia  was  not  to  be  distinguished  from 
 the  divisions  of  Hellas  and  Achaia,  also  mentioned  by 
 him.  But  other  critics,  as  Strabo  observes,  were  of  a 
 different  opinion,  and  the  expressions  of  the  poet  cer- 
 tainly lead  us  to  adopt  that  notion  in  preference  to  the 
 other.  (II. ,  2,  683.—//.,  1,  478.— Cramer'*  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  397.) 
 
 Phurnutus.      Vid.  Cornutus. 
 
 Phya,  a  tall  and  beautiful  woman  of  Attica,  whom 
 Pisistratus,  when  he  wished  to  re-establish  himself  in 
 his  usurped  power,  arrayed  like  the  goddess  Minerva, 
 and  led  to  the  city  in  a  chariot,  making  the  populace 
 believe  that  the  goddess  herself  came  to  restore  him 
 to  power.  Such  is  the  account  of  Herodotus  (1,  59). 
 Consult,  however,  remarks  under  the  article  Pisistra- 
 tus. 
 
 PnYcus  (gen.  -untis :  in  Greek,  ^vkov^,  gen.  -oi'v- 
 Toc),  a  promontory  of  Cyrenaica,  northwest  of  Apollo- 
 nia,  and  now  Ras  Sem. 
 
 PHYL.tcE,  I.  a  town  of  Macedonia,  in  the  interior  of 
 Pieria,  according  to  Ptolemy  (p.  84),  and  of  which 
 Pliny  (4,  10)  makes  mention.  Some  similarity  to  the 
 ancient  name  is  discoverable  in  that  of  Phili,  situate 
 on  the  Haliacmon,  somewhat  to  the  west  of  Servitza. 
 — II.  A  town  of  Epirus,  supposed  to  correspond  with 
 the  vestiges  observed  by  Hughes  (vol.  2,  p.  483)  near 
 the  village  of  Velchista,  on  the  western  side  of  the  lake 
 
F  H  Y 
 
 PIC 
 
 01  ioanina. — III.  A  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the  Mag- 
 nesian  district,  near  Phtiiiotic  Thebes,  and  on  the  river 
 Sperchius.  It  was  the  native  place  of  Protesiiaus, 
 who  is  hence  sometimes  called  Phylacides.  There  was 
 a  temple  here  consecrated  to  hitn.  (Find.,  Isth.,  1, 
 83.— Compare  Horn.,  II. ,  2,  698.)  Sir  W.  Gell  is  in- 
 clined to  place  the  ruins  of  this  town  near  the  village 
 of  Agios  Theodoras,  "  on  a  high  situation,  which,  with 
 its  position,  as  a  sort  of  guard  ((pvAoKT/)  to  the  en- 
 trance of  the  gulf,  suggests  the  probability  of  its  being 
 Phylace."  {litn.,  p.  255.)  But  Strabo  asserts  that 
 Phylace  was  near  Thebes,  consequently  it  could  not 
 have  been  so  much  to  the  south  as  Agios  Theodoras. 
 ICramer's  Arte.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  407.) 
 
 Phvle,  a  place  celebrated  in  the  history  of  Athens 
 as  the  scene  of  Thrasybulus's  first  exploit  in  behalf  of 
 his  oppressed  country.  It  was  situate  about  100  sta- 
 dia from  Athens,  to  the  northwest,  according  to  Dio- 
 dorus  (41,  p.  415);  but  Demosthenes  estimates  the 
 distance  at  more  than  120  stadia.  (Pseph.,  in  Or.  de 
 Cor.,  p.  238.— Compare  Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  2,  4,  2,— 
 Strabo,  ;i96.)  The  fortress  of  Phyle,  according  to  Sir 
 W.  Gell  (iHn.,  p.  52),  is  now  Bigla  Castro.  "It  is 
 situated  on  a  lofty  precipice,  and,  though  small,  must 
 have  been  almost  impregnable,  as  it  can  only  be  ap- 
 proached by  an  isthmus  on  the  east.  Hence  is  a 
 most  magnificent  view  of  the  plain  of  Athens,  with 
 the  Acropolis  and  Hymettus,  and  the  sea  in  the  dis- 
 tance." Dodwell,  however,  maintains,  that  its  modern 
 name  is  Argiro  Castro.  The  town  of  Phyle  was 
 placed  at  the  foot  of  the  castle  or  acropolis  ;  some 
 traces  of  it  still  remain.  (Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  502. — Cra- 
 mer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  405.) 
 
 Phyllis,  I.  daughter  of  Sithon,  king  of  Thrace,  and 
 betrothed  to  Demopboon,  son  of  Theseus,  who,  on  his 
 return  from  Troy,  had  stopped  on  the  Thracian  coast, 
 «nd  there  became  acquainted  with  and  enamoured  of 
 the  princess.  A  day  having  been  fixed  for  their  union, 
 Demophoon  set  sail  for  Athens,  in  order  to  arrange 
 Affairs  at  home,  promising  to  return  at  an  appointed 
 time.  He  did  not  come,  however,  at  the  expiration 
 of  the  period  which  he  had  fixed,  and  Phyllis,  fancying 
 herself  deserted,  put  an  end  to  her  existence.  The 
 trees  that  sprang  up  around  her  totnb  were  said  at  a 
 certain  season  to  mourn  her  untimely  fate,  by  their 
 leaves  withering  and  falling  to  the  ground.  {Hygin., 
 fab.,  59.)  According  to  another  account,  Phyllis  was 
 "changed  after  death  into  an  almond-tree,  destitute  of 
 (eaves  ;  and  Demophoon  having  returned  a  few  days 
 subsequently,  and  having  clasped  the  tree  in  his  em- 
 brace, it  put  forth  leaves,  as  if  conscious  of  the  pres- 
 ince  of  a  once-beloved  object.  Hence,  says  the  fable, 
 ''eaves  were  called  (^vTCka  in  Greek,  from  the  name  of 
 Phyllis  (^vAAtf).  (.Sere,  ad  Virg.,  Eel.,  5,  10.) 
 »Jvid  has  made  the  absence  of  Demophoon  from  Thrace 
 •he  subject  of  one  of  his  heroic  epistles. — It  is  said 
 ihat  Phyllis,  when  watching  for  the  return  of  Demo- 
 phoon, made  nine  journeys  to  the  Thracian  coast, 
 /vhence  the  spot  was  called  Ennea-Hodoi  ('E7'i'fa 
 '0(5ot)  or  "the  Nine  Ways."  (Hygin.,  I.  c.)  The 
 true  reason  of  the  name,  however,  was  the  meeting 
 here  of  as  many  roads  from  different  parts  of  Thrace 
 and  Macedon.  (  WalpoWs  Collect,  vol.  2,  p.  5 1 0. )-Tzet- 
 «es  gives  a  somewhat  different  account  of  the  affair, 
 especially  as  regards  Demophoon,  whom  he  calls  Aca- 
 mas,  and  whom  he  makes  to  have  been  thrown  from 
 his  horse  when  hurrying  back  to  Phyllis,  and  to  have 
 been  transfixed  by  his  own  sword.  {Tzctz.  ad  Ly- 
 cophr.,  496.) — II.  A  region  of  Thrace,  forming  part 
 of  Edonis,  and  situate  to  the  north  of  Mount  Pangajus 
 {Herod.,  7,  114.) 
 
 Physccn,  a  surname  of  one  of  the  Ptolemies,  king 
 of  Egypt,  from  his  great  abdominal  rotundity  {(pvuKuv, 
 "  the  paunch  ;"  from  (pvaKT),  "  the  lower  belly"). 
 
 Physcos,  a  town  of  Caria,  opposite  Rhodes,  and 
 subject  to  that  island.     {Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.) 
 
 PicENTEs,  a  people  of  Italy,  occupying  what  was 
 called  Picenum.     (Fid.  Picenum.) 
 
 PicENTiA,  a  city  of  Campania,  about  seven  miles 
 beyond  Salernum,  and  once  the  capital  of  the  Picen- 
 tini.  {Strabo,  251.— Mc/a,  2,  i.—Fliny,  3,  5.)  It 
 is  now  Vicensa  or  Bicenza. 
 
 PicENTiNi,  a  people  of  Italy,  south  of  Campania, 
 occupying  an  inconsiderable  extent  of  territory,  from 
 the  promontory  of  Minerva  to  the  mouth  of  the  river 
 Silarus.  We  are  informed  by  Strabo,  that  these  were 
 a  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Picenum  whom  the 
 Romans  transplanted  thither  to  people  the  shores  of 
 the  Gulf  of  Posidonia  or  Paestuin.  It  is  probable  that 
 their  removal  look  place  after  the  conquest  of  Pice- 
 num, and  the  complete  subjugation  of  this  portion  of 
 ancient  Campania,  then  occupied  by  the  Samnites. 
 Cluver  fixes  the  date  at  A.U.C.  463.  {Iial.  Ant., 
 vol.  2,  p.  1188.)  According  to  the  same  writer,  the 
 Picentini  were  at  a  subsequent  period  compelled  by  the 
 Romans  to  abandon  the  few  towns  which  they  pos- 
 sessed, and  to  reside  in  villages  and  hamlets,  in  con- 
 sequence of  having  sided  with  Hannibal  in  the  second 
 Punic  war.  As  a  farther  punishment,  they  were  exclu- 
 ded from  military  service,  and  allowed  only  to  perform 
 the  duties  of  couriers  and  messengers.  {Strabo,  251. 
 — Plin.,  3,  5. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  214.) 
 Picenum,  a  district  of  Italy,  along  the  Adriatic, 
 south  and  east  of  Umbria.  Little  has  been  ascertain- 
 ed respecting  the  Picentes,  its  inhabitants,  except  the 
 fact  that  they  were  a  colony  of  the  Sabines,  sent  out 
 in  consequence  of  a  vow  of  a  sacred  spring,  and  said 
 to  have  been  guided  to  this  land  by  a  woodpecker 
 (picus),  a  bird  sacred  to  Mars.  {Strabo,  240. — Plin., 
 3,  13.)  In  this  region  they  had  to  contend  with  the 
 Umbrians,  who  had  wrested  it  from  the  Liburni  and 
 Siculi.  {Plin.,  I.  c.)  But  the  Sabines  were  not  ap- 
 parently the  first  or  sole  possessors  of  the  country. 
 The  Siculi,  Liburni,  and  Umbri,  according  to  Pliny 
 (3,  13),  the  Pelasgi,  as  Silius  Jtalicus  reports  (8,  445), 
 and  the  Tyrrheni,  according  to  Strabo  (241),  all  at 
 different  periods  formed  settlements  in  that  part  of 
 Italy.  The  conquest  of  Picenum  cost  the  Romans 
 but  little  trouble.  It  was  effected  about  484  A  U.C., 
 not  long  after  the  expedition  of  Pyrrhus  into  Italy 
 {Liv.,  Epit.,  15.— Floras,  1,  19),  when  360,000  men, 
 as  Pliny  assures  us,  submitted  to  the  Roman  author- 
 ities. From  the  same  writer  we  learn,  that  Picenum 
 constituted  the  fifth  region  in  the  division  of  Augus- 
 tus. This  province  was  considered  one  of  the  most 
 fertile  parts  of  Italy.  {Liv.,  22,  9 — Strabo,  240.) 
 The  produce  of  its  fruit-trees  was  particularly  esteem- 
 ed. {Hor.,  Sat.,  2,  4,  70.— W.,  Sat.,  2,  3,  272.— 
 Juv.,  Sat.,  11,  72.)  It  may  be  regarded  as  limited 
 to  the  north  by  the  river  ^sis.  To  the  west  it  was 
 separated  from  Umbria  and  the  Sabine  country  by  the 
 central  chain  of  the  Apennines.  Its  boundary  to  the 
 south  was  the  river  Matrinus,  if  we  include  in  this  di- 
 vision the  Pra>tutii,  a  small  tribe  confined  between  the 
 Matrinus  and  Helvinus.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  I, 
 p.  279,  scqfj.) 
 
 PicTi,  a  Caledonian  race,  first  mentioned  under  this 
 denomination  in  a  panegyric  of  Euinenius.  A.D.  297. 
 Various  derivations  have  been  assigned  for  their  name, 
 among  which  the  most  common  is  that  which  deduces 
 it  from  the  Latin  picti  ("  painted"),  in  reference  to  the 
 custom  which  the  ancient  Britons  had  of  painting  their 
 bodies  of  a  blue  colour.  This  etymology,  however, 
 can  hardly  be  correct,  since  the  custom  to  which  we 
 have  just  referred  was  common  to  all  the  Britons,  not 
 confined  to  one  particular  tribe.  The  sim[)lest  deri- 
 vation, therefore,  appears  to  be  that  which  makes  tha 
 name  in  question  come  from  the  Gaelic  piclith,  "  rob- 
 bers" or  "  plunderers,"  the  Picts  being  famed  for  theii 
 marauding  expeditions  into  the  country  to  the  soutt. 
 of  them.  According  to  Adelung,  their  true  national 
 name  was  Cnatnich,  "  corn-eaters,"  from  their  hav 
 
 1059 
 
PIE 
 
 PIN 
 
 ing  devoted  a  part  of  their  territory  to  the  raising  of 
 grain.     (Adelung,  Milhradates,  vol.  2,  p.  96.) 
 
 PicTONEs,  a  people  of  Aquitanic  Gaul,  a  short  dis- 
 tance below  the  Ligeris  or  Loire.  Their  tcrritor)' 
 corresponds  to  the  modern  Poitou.  Ptolemy  assigns 
 them  two  capitals,  Augustoritum  and  Limonum,  but 
 the  former  in  strictness  belonged  to  the  Lemovices. 
 The  city  of  Limonum,  the  true  capital,  answers  to  the 
 modern  Poitiers.  8trabo  gives  the  name  of  this  peo- 
 ple with  the  short  penult,  Ptolemy  with  the  long  otie. 
 The  short  quantity  is  followed  by  Lucan  (1,  436). 
 Ammianus  Marcellinus  uses  the  form  Pictavi.  {Amm. 
 MarcclL,  15,  11.) 
 
 PictiMNUs  and  Pilumnus,  two  deities  of  the  Latins, 
 presiding  over  nuptial  auspices.  (Non.,  c.  12,  n.  36. 
 —  Varro,  ap.  No}i.,  I.  c  )  The  new-born  child,  too, 
 was  placed  by  the  midwife  on  the  ground,  and  the  fa- 
 vour of  these  deities  was  propitiated  for  it.  Pilum- 
 Dus  was  also  one  of  the  three  deities  who  kept  otf  Sil- 
 vanus  from  lying-in  women  at  night.  {Varro.  J  rag., 
 p.  231.)  The  other  two  were  Intercido  and  Deverra. 
 Three  men  went  bv  night  round  the  house,  to  signify 
 that  these  deities  were  watchful :  they  first  struck  the 
 threshold  with  an  axe,  then  with  a  pestle  {pilum),  and 
 finally  swept  {dcverrcre)  with  brooms  ;  because  trees 
 are  not  cut  {cccduntur)  and  pruned  without  an  a.te, 
 corn  bruised  without  a  pestle,  or  heaped  up  without 
 brooms.  Hence  the  names  of  the  deities,  who  pre- 
 vented the  wood-god  Silvanus  from  molesting  partu- 
 rient females.  {Keightley''s  Mythology,  p.  537.)  Ser- 
 vius,  in  place  of  Picumnus,  uses  the  name  Pithumnus, 
 and  makes  this  deity  to  have  been  the  brother  of  Pi- 
 lumnus,  and  to  have  discovered  the  art  of  manuring 
 land  ;  hence  he  was  also  called  Stercnlius  and  Ster- 
 quilinus,  from  stercus,  "  manure."  The  same  au- 
 thority makes  Pilumnus  to  have  invented  the  art  of 
 pounding  corn  in  a  mortar  {pilum),  whence  his  name. 
 {Serv.  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  9,  4.— Compare  Plin.,  3,  18.) 
 Some  of  the  ancient  grammarians  regarded  these  two 
 deities  as  identical  with  Castor  and  Pollux,  than  which 
 nothing  can  be  more  erroneous.  Piso,  one  of  this 
 class  of  writers,  deduced  the  name  Pilumnus  from 
 pello,  "  to  drive  away"  or  "avert,"  because  he  avert- 
 ed the  evils  that  are  incident  to  infancy,  "  quia  pellit 
 mala  infantia."  {Spangenberg,  Vet.  Lat.  Relig.  Do- 
 mcst.,  p.  65.) 
 
 Picus,  a  fabulous  king  of  Lalium,  son  of  Saturn, 
 and  celebrated  for  his  beauty  and  his  love  of  steeds. 
 He  married  Canens,  the  daughter  of  Janus  and  Venil- 
 ia,  renowned  for  the  sweetness  and  power  of  her 
 voice.  One  day  Picus  went  forth  to  the  chase  clad 
 in  a  purple  cloak,  bound  round  his  neck  with  gold. 
 He  entered  the  wood  where  Circe  hapj>ened  to  be  at 
 that  time  gathering  magic  herbs.  She  was  instantly 
 struck  with  love,  and  implored  the  prince  to  respond 
 to  her  passion.  Picus,  faithful  to  his  beloved  Canens, 
 indignantly  spurned  her  advances,  and  Circe,  in  re- 
 venge, struck  him  with  her  wand,  and  instantly  he 
 was  changed  into  a  bird  with  purple  plumage  and  a 
 yellow  ring  around  its  neck.  This  bird  was  called  by 
 his  name  Picus,  "  the  woodpecker."  {Ovid,  Met.,  14, 
 320,  seqq. — Pint.,  QuiEst.  Rom.,  21.)  Servius  says 
 that  Picus  was  married  to  Pomona  {ad  JEn.,  7,  190). 
 — This  legend  seems  to  have  been  devised  to  give  an 
 origin  for  the  woodpecker  after  the  manner  of  the 
 Greeks.  {Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  538. — Compare 
 Spangenberg,  Vei    Lat.  Rel.  Dom  ,  p.  62.) 
 
 PierTa,  L  a  region  of  Macedonia,  directly  north  of 
 Thessaly,  and  extending  along  the  Thermaic  Gulf. 
 it  formed  one  of  the  most  interesting  parts  of  Mace- 
 donia, both  in  consideration  of  the  traditions  to  which 
 it  has  given  birth,  as  being  the  first  seat  of  the  Muses, 
 and  the  birthplace  of  Orpheus  ;  and  also  of  the  im- 
 portant events  which  occurred  there  at  a  later  period, 
 involving  the  destiny  of  the  Macedonian  empire,  and 
 many  other  parts  of  Greece.  The  name  of  Pieria, 
 1060 
 
 which  was  known  to  Homer  {II ,  14,  226),  was  de- 
 rived apparently  from  the  Pieres,  a  Thracian  people, 
 who  were  subsequently  expelled  by  the  Tcmenidae, 
 the  conquerors  of  Macedonia,  and  driven  north  beyond 
 the  Strymon  and  Mount  Pangaeus,  where  they  formed 
 a  new  settlement.  {Thucyd.,  2,  99. — Herod.,  7,  1 12.) 
 The  boundaries  which  historians  and  geographers  have 
 assigned  to  this  province  vary  ;  for  Strabo,  or,  rather, 
 his  epiiomiser,  includes  it  between  theHaliacmon  and 
 .Axius.  {Slrab.,  330.)  I.,ivy  also  seems  to  place  it 
 north  of  Dium  (44,  9),  while  most  authors  ascribe  that 
 town  to  Pieria.  Ptolemy  gives  the  name  of  Pieria  to 
 all  the  country  between  the  mouth  of  the  Peneus  and 
 that  of  the  Ludias.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1, 
 p.  204.) — n.  A  district  of  Syria,  bounded  on  the  west 
 by  the  Sinus  Issicus,  on  the  north  by  Mount  Pirrius 
 (the  southern  continuation  of  Amanus),  from  which 
 the  region  received  its  name.  (Ptol. — Bischoff  und 
 Moller,  Worterb.  der  Geogr.,  p.  851.) 
 
 PiEKiDEs,  L  a  name  given  to  the  Muses,  from  the 
 district  of  Pieria,  their  natal  region.  {Vid  Musae.) — 
 n.  The  nine  daughters  of  Pierus,  who  challenged  the 
 .Muses  to  a  contest  of  skill,  and  were  overcome  and 
 changed  into  magpies.  Some  suppose  that  the  victo- 
 rious Muses  took  their  name,  just  as  Minerva,  accord- 
 ing to  some  authorities,  assumed  that  of  the  giant 
 Pallas  after  she  had  conquered  him.  {Ovid,  Met, 5, 
 300.) 
 
 Pierus,  a  native  of  Thessaly,  father  of  the  Pierides 
 who  challenged  the  Muses.     {Vid.  Pierides,  IL) 
 
 PiGRUM  Mare,  an  appellation  given  to  the  extreme 
 Northern  Ocean,  from  its  being  supposed  to  be  in  a 
 semi-congealed  or  sluggish  state.  {Plin.,  4,  13. — 
 Tacit ,  Germ.,  45  ) 
 
 Pii.u.MNUs.      Vid.  Picumnus. 
 
 PiMiM.EA,  a  small  town  of  Macedonia,  not  far  from 
 Dium  and  Libeihra,  where  Orpheus  was  said  by  some 
 to  have  been  born.  (Strab.,  Epit  ,  330. — Apollon. 
 Rhod.,  1,  23,  et  Schol.  ad  loc.—Lycophr.,  v.  273.) 
 
 PinarTi  and  Potitii,  two  distinguished  families 
 among  the  subjects  of  Evander,  at  the  time  when  Her- 
 cules visited  Italy  on  his  return  from  Spain.  A  sac- 
 rifice having  been  offered  to  the  hero  by  Evander,  the 
 Potitii  and  Pinarii  were  invited  to  assi.st  in  the  cere- 
 monies and  share  the  entertainment.  It  happened 
 that  the  Potitii  attended  in  time,  and  the  entrails  were 
 served  up  to  them  ;  the  Pinarii,  arriving  after  the  en- 
 trails were  eaten,  came  in  for  the  rest  of  the  feast ; 
 hence  it  continued  a  rule,  as  long  as  the  Pinarian  fam- 
 ily existed,  that  they  should  not  eat  of  the  entrails. 
 The  Potitii,  instructed  by  Evander,  were  directors  of 
 that  solemnity  for  many  ages,  until  the  solemn  office 
 of  the  family  was  delegated  to  public  servants,  on 
 which  the  whole  race  of  the  Potitii  became  extinct. 
 This  desecration  of  the  rites  of  Hercules  was  broufht 
 about,  it  is  said,  by  the  censor  Appius  Claudius,  who 
 induced  the  Potitii  by  means  of  a  large  sum  of  moviev 
 to  teach  the  manner  of  performing  these  rites  to  the 
 public  slaves  mentioned  above.  {Liv.,  1,  7. — Id.,  9, 
 29.—Festus,  s  v.  Potitium.—Serv.  ad  ^n.,8,  269.) 
 
 PiNARUs,  a  river  of  Cilicia  Campestris,  rising  in 
 Mount  Amanus,  and  falling  into  the  Sinus  Issicus 
 near  Issus.  The  Greek  and  Persian  armies  were  at 
 first  drawn  up  on  opposite  banks  of  this  stream  :  Dari- 
 us on  the  side  of  Issus,  Alexander  towards  Syria. 
 The  modern  name  of  the  Pinarus  is  the  Deh-sou, 
 {French  Strabo,  vol.  4,  pt.  2,  p.  384.) 
 
 PiNDARus,  a  celebrated  lyric  poet  of  Thebes,  in 
 BoEotia,  born,  according  to  Bockh,  in  the  spring  of 
 522  B.C.  (Olympiad  64.3),  and  who  died,  according 
 to  a  probable  statement,  at  the  age  of  eighty.  {Pin- 
 dar,  ed.  Bockh,  vol.  3,  p.  12. — Compare  Clinton,  Fast. 
 Hell.,  vol.  1,  p.  17,  who  makes  his  birth-year  518 
 B.C.)  He  was,  therefore,  nearly  in  the  prime  of  life 
 at  the  time  when  Xerxes  invaded  Greece,  and  when 
 the  battles  of  Thermopylae  and  Salamis  were  fought  , 
 
PINUARUS. 
 
 PINDARUS. 
 
 and  he  thus  belongs  to  that  period  of  the  Greek  nation 
 when  its  great  qualities  were  first  distinctly  unfolded, 
 and  when  it  exhibited  an  energy  of  action  and  a  spirit 
 of  enterprise  never  afterward  surpassed,  together  with 
 a  love  of  poetry,  art,  and  philosophy,  which  produced 
 much,  and  promised  to  produce  more.  His  native 
 place  was  Cynocephalse,  a  village  in  the  territory  of 
 T hehes,  and  the  family  of  the  poet  seems  to  have  been 
 skilled  in  music  :  smce  we  learn  from  the  ancient  bi- 
 ographies of  him,  that  his  father  or  his  uncle  was  a 
 flute-player.  But  Pindar,  very  early  in  life,  soared  far 
 beyoiid  the  sphere  of  a  tiute-player  at  festivals,  or  even 
 a  lyric  poet  of  merely  local  celebrity.  Although,  in  his 
 time,  the  voices  of  Pierian  bards,  and  of  epic  poets  of 
 the  Hesiodean  school,  had  long  been  mute  in  Bcsotia, 
 yet  there  was  still  much  love  for  music  and  poetry, 
 which  had  taken  the  prevailing  form  of  lyric  and  cho- 
 ral compositions.  That  these  arts  were  widely  culti- 
 vated in  Boeolia  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  two  females, 
 Myrtis  and  Corinna,  had  attained  celebrity  in  them 
 during  the  youth  of  Pindar.  Both  were  competitors 
 with  him  in  poetry.  .Myrtis  strove  with  the  bard  for  a 
 prize  at  public  games  ;  and  although  Corinna  said, 
 "  It  IS  not  meet  that  the  clear-toned  Myrtis,  a  woman 
 born,  should  enter  the  lists  with  Pindar,"  yet  she  is 
 said  (perhaps  from  jealousy  of  his  rising  fame)  to  have 
 often  contended  against  him  in  the  agones,  and  five 
 times  to  have  gained  the  victory.  {JELian,  V.  H.,  13, 
 24.)  Corinna  also  assisted  the  young  poet  with  her 
 advice;  and  it  is  related  of  her,  that  she  recommend- 
 ed him  to  ornament  his  productions  with  mythical  nar- 
 rations ;  but  that,  when  he  had  composed  a  hymn,  in 
 the  first  six  verses  of  which  (still  extant)  almost  the 
 whole  of  the  Theban  mythology  was  introduced,  she 
 smiled  and  said,  "  We  should  sow  with  the  hand,  not 
 with  the  whole  sack."  —  Pindar  placed  himself  under 
 ihe  tuition  of  Lasus  of  Hermione,  a  distinguished  poet, 
 i»ut  probably  better  versed  in  the  theory  than  the  prac- 
 lice  of  poetry  and  music.  Since  Pindar  made  these 
 irts  the  whole  business  of  his  life,  and  was  nothing  but 
 a  poet  and  musician,  he  soon  extended  the  boundaries 
 of  his  art  to  the  whole  Greek  nation,  and  composed 
 poems  of  the  choral  lyric  kind  for  persons  in  all  parts  of 
 Greece.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  composed  a  song  of 
 victory  in  honour  of  a  Thessalian  youth  belonging  to  the 
 fatnily  of  the  .\leuada;  t^Pyth.  10,  composed  in  Olym- 
 piad fi9.3,  B.C.  502).  We  find  him  employed  soon  af- 
 terward for  the  Sicilian  rulers,  Hiero  of  Syracuse  and 
 Theron  of  Agrigentum  ;  for  Arcesilaus,  king  of  Cyrene, 
 and  Amyntas,  king  of  Macedonia,  as  well  as  for  the 
 free  cities  of  Greece.  He  made  no  distinction  ac- 
 cording to  the  race  of  the  persons  whom  he  celebra- 
 ted :  he  was  honoured  and  loved  by  the  Ionian  states 
 for  himself  as  well  as  for  his  art :  the  Athenians  made 
 him  their  public  guest  {npo^evo^) ;  and  the  inhabitants 
 of  Ceos  employed  him  to  compose  a  processional  song 
 {npoaaSLov),  although  they  had  their  own  poets,  Si- 
 monides  and  Bacchylides.  Pindar,  however,  was  not 
 a  common  mercenary  poet,  always  ready  to  sing  the 
 praises  of  him  whose  bread  he  ate.  He  received,  in- 
 deed, money  and  [tresents  for  his  poems,  according  to 
 the  general  usage  previously  introduced  by  Simoni- 
 des;  yet  his  poems  are  the  genuine  expression  of  his 
 thou»hts  and  feelings.  Iti  his  praises  of  virtue  and 
 jjoiid  fortune,  the  colours  which  he  employs  are  not 
 too  vivid  :  nor  does  he  avoid  the  darker  shades  of  his 
 subject  ;  he  often  suggests  topics  of  consolation  for 
 past  and  present  evil,  and  sometimes  warns  and  ex- 
 horts to  avoid  future  calamity.  Thus  he  ventures  to 
 speak  freely  to  the  powerful  Hiero,  whose  many  great 
 and  tvoble  qualities  were  alloyed  by  insatiable  cupid- 
 ity and  ambition,  which  his  courtiers  well  knew  how 
 to  turn  to  a  bad  account ;  and  he  addresses  himself  in 
 the  eatne  manly  tone  to  Arcesilaus  IV.,  king  of  Cy- 
 rene, •who  afterward  brought  on  the  ruin  of  his  dynas- 
 ty by  liis  tyrannical  severity.     Thus  lofty  and  dignified 
 
 was  the  position  which  Pindar  assumed  with  regard  to 
 these  princes  ;  and,   m  accordance  with  this,  he  fre- 
 quently proclaims,  that  frankness  and  sincerity  are  al- 
 ways laudable.      But  his  intercourse  with  the  princes  of 
 his  time  appears  to  have  been  limited  to  poetry.    We  do 
 not  find  him,  like  Simonides,  the  daily  associate,  coun- 
 sellor, and  friend  of  kings  and  statesmen  ;   he  plays  no 
 part  in  the  public  events  of  the  time,  either  as  a' poli- 
 tician or  a  courtier.      Neither  was  his  name,  like  that  of 
 Simonides,  distinguished  in  the  Persian  war:  partly  be- 
 cause his  lellow-citizens,  the  Thebans,  were,  together 
 with  half  of  the  Grecian  nation,  on  the  Persian  side, 
 while  the  spirit  of  independence  and  victory  was  with 
 the  other  half.      Nevertheless,   the  lofty  character  of 
 Pindar's  muse    ris.es  superior    to  these    unfavourable 
 circumstances.      He   did  not,  indeed,  make  the  vain 
 attempt  of  gaining  over  the  Thebans  to  the  cause  of 
 Greece  ;   but  he  sought  to  appease  the  internal  dissen- 
 sions which  threatened   to  destroy  Thebes  during  the 
 war,  by  admonishing  his  fellow-citizens  to  union  and 
 concord  {Folyb  ,  4,  31,  5.  —  Frag,  meat.,  125,  ed. 
 Bockh)  ;  and,  after  the  war  was  ended,  he  oijenly  pro- 
 claims, in  odes  intended  for  the  ^Eginetans  and  Athe- 
 nians, his  admiration  of  the  heroism  of  the  victors. — 
 Having  mentioned   nearly  all   that   is   known  of    the 
 events  of  Pindar's  life,  and   his  relations  to  his  con- 
 temporaries, we  proceed  to  consider  him  more  closely 
 as  a  poet,  and  to  examine  the  character  and   form  of 
 his  poetical   productions.     The   only  class  of  poems 
 which  enable  us  to  judge  of  Pindar's  general  style  are 
 the  ETTivlKia,  or  triumphal  odes.     Pindar,  indeed,  ex- 
 celled in  all  the  known  varieties  of  choral  poetry  ;  name- 
 ly, hymns  to  the  gods,  paans,  and  dithyrambs  appro- 
 priate to  the  worship  of  particular  divinities,  odes  for 
 processions  (irpoaodia),  songs  of  maidens  (TTapOeveia), 
 mimic    dancing   songs  (vnopx^/f^aTa),  drinking  songs 
 (oKoTiid),    dirges   (^Bpyvot),  and   encomiastic   odes    to 
 princes  (kyKUfxiu),  which  last  approached  most  nearly 
 to  the  ETTtVLKia.     The  poems  of  Pindar  in  these  vari- 
 ous styles  were  nearly  as  renowned  among  the  ancients 
 as  the  triumphal  odes,  which  is  proved   by  the  numer- 
 ous quotations  of  them.      Horace,  too,  in  enumerating 
 the  different  styles  of  Pindar's  poetry,  puts  the  dithy- 
 ramb first,  then  the  hymns,  and  afterward  the  epinikia 
 and  the  dirges.      Nevertheless,  there  must  have  been 
 some  decided  superiority  in  the  epinikia,  which  caused 
 them  to  be  more  frequently  transcribed  in    the  later 
 period  of  antiquity,  and  thus  rescued  them  from  per- 
 ishing with  the  rest  of   the  Greek   lyric  poetry.     At 
 any  rate,  these  odes,  from  the  vast  variety  of  their  sub- 
 jects and  style,  and  their  refined  and  elaborate  struc- 
 ture, some  approaching  to  hymns  and   pseans,  others 
 to  scolia  and  hyporchemes,  serve  to  indemnify  us  for 
 the  loss  of  the  other  sorts  of  lyric  poetry.     We  will 
 now  explain,  as  briefly  as  possible,  the  occasion  of  an 
 epinikian  ode,  and  the  mode  of  its  execution.     A  vic- 
 tory has  been  gained  in  a  contest  at  a  festival,  partic- 
 ularly at  one  of  the  four  great  games  most  prized   by 
 the  Greeks.     Such  a  victory  as  this,  which  shed   a 
 lustre  not  only  on  the  victor  himself,  but  on  his  fami- 
 ly, and  even  on  his  native  city,  demanded  a  solemn 
 celebration.     This  celebration  might  be  performed  by 
 the  victor's  friends  on  the  spot  where  the  prize  was 
 obtained  ;  as,  for  example,  at  Olympia,  when,  in   the- 
 evening,  after  the  termination  of  the  contests,  by  the 
 light   of   the   moon,   the   whole   sanctuary   resounded 
 with  joyful  songs  after  the  manner  of  encomia  ;    or  it 
 might  be  deferred  till  after  the  victor's  solemn  return 
 to  his  native  city,  where  it  was  sometimes  repeated  in 
 following  years,  in  commemoration  of  his  success.     A 
 celebrationof  this  kind  always  had  a  religious  character; 
 it  often  began  with  a  procession  to  an  altar  or  tem- 
 ple, in  the  place  where  the  games  had  been  held,  or  in 
 the  native  city  of  the  conqueror ;  a  sacrifice,  followed 
 by  a  banquet,  was  then  offered  at  the  temple,  or  in  the 
 house  of  the  victor;  and  the  whole  solemnity  conclu. 
 
 lOGl 
 
PINDARUS. 
 
 PINDARUS. 
 
 Jed  with  the  merry  and  boisterous  revel  called  by  the 
 Greeks  Kuuog.  At  this  sacred  and,  at  the  same  time, 
 joyous  solemnity  (a  mingled  cliaracter  frequent  among 
 the  Greeks),  apjieared  the  chorus,  trained  by  the  poet 
 or  some  other  skilled  person,  for  the  purpose  of  reci- 
 ting the  triumphal  hymn,  which  was  considered  the 
 fairest  ornament  of  the  festival.  It  was  during  either 
 the  [)rocession  or  the  banquet  that  the  hymn  was  reci- 
 ted, as  it  was  not  properly  a  religious  hymn,  which 
 could  be  combined  with  the  sacrifice.  The  form  of 
 the  poem  must,  to  a  certain  extent,  have  been  deter- 
 mined by  the  occasion  on  which  it  was  to  be  recited. 
 From  expressions  which  occur  in  several  epinikian 
 odes,  it  is  probable  that  all  odes  consisting  of  strophes 
 without  epodes  were  sung  during  a  procession  to  a 
 temple  or  to  the  house  of  the  victor ;  although  there 
 are  others  which  contain  expressions  denoting  move- 
 ment, and  which  yet  have  epodes.  It  is  possible  that 
 the  epodes  in  the  latter  odes  may  have  been  sung  at 
 certain  intervals  when  the  procession  was  not  ad- 
 vancing ;  for  an  epode,  according  to  the  statements  of 
 the  ancients,  always  required  that  the  chorus  should  be 
 at  rest.  But  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  odes  of 
 Pindar  were  sung  at  the  Gomus,  at  the  jovial  termi- 
 nation of  the  feast :  and  hence  Pindar  himself  more 
 frequently  names  his  odes  from  the  Comus  than  from 
 the  victory.  The  occasion  of  the  epinikian  ode — a 
 victory  in  the  sacred  games — and  its  end — the  enno- 
 bling of  a  solemnity  coimected  with  the  worship  of  the 
 gods — required  that  it  should  be  composed  in  a  lofty 
 and  dignified  style.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bois- 
 terous mirth  of  the  feast  did  not  admit  the  severity  of 
 the  antique  poetic  style,  like  that  of  the  hymns  and 
 nomes ;  it  demanded  a  free  and  lively  expression  of 
 feeling,  in  harmony  with  the  occasion  of  the  festival, 
 and  suggesting  the  noblest  ideas  connected  with  the 
 victor.  Pindar,  however,  gives  no  detailed  descrip- 
 tion of  the  victory,  as  this  would  have  been  only  a 
 repetition  of  the  spectacle  which  had  already  been  be- 
 held with  enthusiasm  by  the  assembled  Greeks  ;  nay, 
 he  often  bestows  only  a  few  words  on  the  victory,  re- 
 cording its  place,  and  the  sort  of  contest  in  which  it 
 was  won.  On  the  other  hand,  we  often  find  a  precise 
 enumeration  of  all  the  victories,  not  only  of  the  actual 
 victor,  but  of  his  entire  family:  this  must  evidently 
 have  been  required  of  the  poet.  Nevertheless,  he  does 
 not  (as  many  writers  have  supposed)  treat  the  victory 
 as  a  merely  secondary  object  ;  which  he  despatches 
 quickly,  in  order  to  pass  on  to  objects  of  greater  inter- 
 est. The  victory,  in  truth,  is  always  the  point  upon 
 which  the  whole  of  the  ode  turns  ;  only  he  regards  it, 
 not  simply  as  an  incident,  but  as  connected  with  the 
 whole  life  of  the  victor.  Pindar  establishes  this  con- 
 nexion by  forming  a  high  conception  of  the  fortunes 
 and  character  of  the  victor,  and  by  representing  the 
 victory  as  the  result  of  them.  And  as  the  Greeks 
 were  less  accustomed  to  consider  a  man  in  his  indi- 
 vidual capacity  than  as  a  member  of  his  state  and  his 
 family,  so  Pindar  considers  the  renown  of  the  victor 
 in  connexion  with  the  past  and  the  present  condition 
 of  the  race  and  state  to  which  he  belongs.  Even, 
 however,  when  the  skill  of  the  victor  is  put  in  the  fore- 
 ground, Pindar,  in  general,  does  not  content  himself 
 with  celebrating  this  bodily  prowess  alone,  but  he  usu- 
 ally adds  some  moral  virtue  which  the  victor  has 
 shown,  or  which  he  recommends  and  extols.  This 
 virtue  is  sometimes  moderation,  sometimes  wisdom, 
 sometimes  filial  love,  sometimes  piety  to  the  gods. 
 The  latter  is  frequently  represented  as  the  main  cause 
 of  the  victory  ;  the  victor  having  thereby  obtained  the 
 protection  of  the  deities  who  preside  over  gymnastic 
 contests,  as  Mercury  or  the  Dioscuri.  —  Whatever 
 might  be  the  theme  of  one  of  Pindar's  epinikian  odes, 
 it  would  naturally  not  be  developed  with  the  systemat- 
 ic completeness  of  a  philosophical  treatise.  Pindar, 
 however,  has  undoubtedly  much  of  that  sententious 
 1062 
 
 wisdom,  which  began  to  show  itself  among  the  Greeks 
 at  the  time  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men,  and  which  formed 
 an  important  element  of  elegiac  and  choral  lyric  poe- 
 try before  the  time  of  Pindar. — The  other  element 
 of  his  poetry,  his  mythical  narratives,  occupies,  how- 
 ever, far  more  space  in  most  of  his  odes.  Tliat  these 
 are  not  mere  digressions  for  the  sake  of  ornament  has 
 been  fully  proved  by  modern  commentators.  —  This 
 admixture  of  apophthegmatic  maxims  and  typical  nai 
 ratives  would  alone  render  it  difficult  to  follow  the 
 thread  of  Pindar's  meaning ;  but,  in  addition  to  this 
 cause  of  obscurity,  the  entire  plan  of  his  poetry  is  so 
 intricate,  that  a  modern  reader  often  fails  to  under- 
 stand the  connexion  of  the  parts,  even  where  he  thinks 
 he  has  found  a  clew.  Pindar  begins  an  ode  full  of 
 the  lofty  conception  which  he  has  formed  of  the  glori- 
 ous destiny  of  the  victor;  and  he  seems,  as  it  were, 
 carried  away  by  the  flood  of  images  which  this  con- 
 ception pours  forth.  He  does  not  attempt  to  express 
 directly  the  general  idea,  but  follows  the  strain  of 
 thought  which  it  suggests  into  its  details,  though 
 without  losing  sight  of  their  reference  to  the  main  ob- 
 ject. Accordingly,  when  he  has  pursued  a  train  of 
 thought,  either  m  an  apophthegmatic  or  mythical  form, 
 up  to  a  certain  point,  he  breaks  oft",  before  he  has  gone 
 far  enough  to  make  the  application  to  the  victor  sutfi- 
 ciently  clear;  he  then  takes  up  another  thread,  which 
 is,  perhaps,  soon  dropped  for  a  fresh  one  ;  and  at  the 
 end  of  the  ode  he  gathers  up  all  these  different  threads, 
 and  weaves  them  together  into  one  web,  in  which  the 
 general  idea  predominates.  By  reserving  the  expla- 
 nations of  his  allusions  until  the  end,  Pindar  con- 
 trives that  his  odes  should  consist  of  parts  which  are 
 not  complete  or  intelligible  in  themselves  ;  and  thus 
 the  curiosity  of  the  reader  is  kept  on  the  stretch 
 throughout  the  entire  ode. — The  characteristics  of 
 Pindar's  poetry,  which  have  just  been  explained,  may 
 be  discovered  m  all  his  epinikian  odes.  Their  agree- 
 ment, however,  in  this  respect,  is  quite  consistent 
 with  the  extraordinary  variety  of  style  and  expression 
 which  belongs  to  this  class  of  poems.  Every  epinik- 
 ian ode  of  Pindar  has  its  peculiar  tone,  depending 
 upon  the  course  of  the  ideas  and  the  consequent 
 choice  of  the  expressions.  The  principal  differences 
 are  connected  with  the  choice  of  the  rhythms,  which 
 again  is  regulated  by  the  musical  style.  According 
 to  the  last  distinction,  the  epinikia  of  Pindar  are  of 
 three  sorts,  Doric,  .iEolic,  and  Lydian  ;  which  can  be 
 easily  distinguished,  although  each  admits  of  innu- 
 merable varieties.  In  respect  of  metre,  every  ode  of 
 Pindar  has  an  individual  character,  no  two  odes  being 
 of  the  same  metrical  structure.  In  the  Doric  ode  the 
 same  metrical  forms  occur  as  those  which  prevailed  m 
 the  choral  lyric  poetry  of  Slesichorus,  namely,  sys- 
 tems of  dactyls  and  trochaic  dipodies,  which  most 
 nearly  approach  the  staleliness  of  the  hexameter.  Ac- 
 cordingly, a  severe  dignity  pervades  these  odes;  the 
 mythical  narrations  are  developed  with  greater  fulness, 
 and  the  ideas  are  limited  to  the  subject,  and  are  free 
 from  personal  feeling  ;  in  short,  their  general  charac- 
 ter is  that  of  calmness  and  elevation.  The  language 
 is  epic,  with  a  slight  Doric  tinge,  which  adds  so  its 
 brilliancy  and  digmtv.  The  rhythms  of  tbe.jEolic  odes 
 resemble  those  of  tlie  Lesbian  poetry,  ia  which  hght 
 dactylic,  trochaic,  or  logaeedic  metres  prevailed  :  these 
 rhythms,  however,  when  applied  to  chora!  lyric  poetry, 
 were  rendered  far  more  various,  and  thus  often  ac- 
 quired a  character  of  greater  volubility  and  liveliness. 
 The  ^olic  odes,  from  the  rapidity  and  variety  of  their 
 movement,  have  a  less  uniform  character  than  the  Do- 
 ric odes  ;  for  example,  the  first  Olympic,  with  its  joy- 
 ous and  glowing  images,  is  very  ditferemt  from  the 
 second,  in  which  a  lofty  melancholy  is  expressed, 
 and  from  the  ninth,  which  has  an  air  of  proud  antS 
 complacent  self-reliance.  The  language  of  the  JEx>- 
 lic  epinikia  is  also  bolder,  more  difl&cuh  in  its  sva- 
 
PINDARUS. 
 
 PIR 
 
 tar,  and  marked  by  rarer  dialectic  forms.  Lastly, 
 tfaeie  are  the  Lydian  odes,  the  number  of  which  is 
 inconsiderable :  their  metre  is  mostly  trochaic,  and 
 of  a  particuJarly  soft  character,  agreeing  with  the 
 tone  of  the  poetry.  Pindar  appears  to  have  preferred 
 the  Lydian  rhythms  for  odes  which  were  destined  to 
 be  snag  during  a  procession  to  a  temple  or  at  the  al- 
 tar, and  in  which  the  favour  of  the  deity  was  implored 
 in  an  humble  spirit.  (Mti.lla;  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  216,  se<jq.) 
 — The  scholar  comes  to  the  study  of  Pindar,  as  to  that 
 of  one  whom  fable  and  history,  poetry  and  criticism, 
 have  aiike  delighted  to  honour.  I'he  writers  of  Greece 
 speak  of  him  as  the  man  whose  birth  was  celebrated 
 by  the  sotigs  and  dances  of  the  deities  themselves,  in 
 joyous  sMticipation  of  those  immortal  hymns  which  he 
 was  ta  frame  in  their  praise  ;  to  whom  in  after  life 
 the  God  of  Poetry  himself  devoted  a  share  of  the  of- 
 ferings brought  to  his  shrine,  and  conceded  a  chair  of 
 honour  in  his  most  favoured  temple.  These  were  in- 
 deed fables,  but  fables  that  evinced  the  truth  :  the 
 reputation  which  they  testified  went  on  increasing  in 
 magnitude  and  splendour.  The  glory  of  succeeding 
 poets,  tiie  severity  of  the  most  refined  criticism,  the 
 spread  of  sceptic  philosophy  no  way  impaired  it  ;  it 
 was  not  obscured  by  the  literary  darkness  of  his  coun- 
 try ;  it  was  not  overpowered  by  the  literary  brightness 
 of  rival  states.  The  fastidious  Athenian  was  proud  of 
 the  complitnent  paid  to  his  city  by  a  Bceotian  ;  the  el- 
 egant Rhodian  inscribed  his  verses  in  letters  of  gold 
 within  the  temple  of  his  guardian  deity  ;  and,  in  a  la- 
 ter age,  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  "  bade  spare  the 
 house  of  Pindarus,"  when  Thebes  fell  in  ruins  beneath 
 his  hand.  Pindar  has  not  improperly  been  called  the 
 Sacerdotal  Poet  of  Greece  ;  and  that  he  must  have 
 been  of  high  consideration  with  the  priesthood  will  be 
 easily  believed.  He  stood  forth  the  champion  of  the 
 "  graceful  religion  of  Greece  ;"  and  he  seems  to  have 
 laboured,  on  the  one  hand,  to  defend  it  from  the  sneers 
 and  profaneness  of  the  philosophers  ;  and,  on  the  oth- 
 er, to  spiritualize  it,  and  to  prevent  its  degenerating 
 into  the  mere  image-worship  of  the  vulgar.  His  dei- 
 ties, therefore,  are  neither  like  those  of  Homer,  nor 
 the  insulted  Olympians  of  ^schylus  ;  they  come  in 
 visions  of  the  night  ;  they  stand  in  a  moment  before 
 the  eyes  of  the  mortal  who  prays  to  them,  and  whom 
 they  deign  to  favour  ;  they  see  and  hear  all  things  ; 
 they  flit  m  an  instant  from  land  to  land,  and  the  ele- 
 ments yield,  and  are  innoxuous  to  their  impassible 
 forms.  But  these  forms  are  not  minutely  described  ; 
 the  fables  respecting  them  are  rejected  in  the  whole 
 as  untrue,  or  better  versions  of  them  are  given.  With 
 Pindar  the  deity  is  not  the  capricious,  jealous  being, 
 whose  evil  eye  the  fortunate  man  has  reason  to  trem- 
 ble at  ;  but  just,  benignant,  the  author  and  wise  ruler 
 of  all  things;  whom  it  is  dreadful  to  slander,  and  with 
 whom  it  is  idle  to  contend  :  he  moulds  everything  to 
 hi«  will  ;  he  bows  tlie  spirit  of  the  high-mmded,  and 
 crowns  with  glory  the  moderate  and  humble  ;  he  is  the 
 guardian  of  princes,  and  if  he  deign  not  to  be  a  guide 
 to  the  tuler  of  the  city,  it  is  hard  indeed  to  restore  the 
 people  to  order  and  peace.  Nor  is  this  all.  Pindar 
 is  not  merely  a  devout,  but  he  is  also  an  eminently 
 moral  poet.  Plato  observes  of  htm,  in  the  Menon,  that 
 he  maintained  the  immortality  of  the  soul  ;  and  be  lays 
 down,  wnh  remarkable  distinctness,  the  doctrine  of 
 future  happiness  or  misery.  On  principles  such  as 
 these,  it  is  no  wonder  that  Pindar's  poetry  should 
 abound  with  maxims  of  the  highest  morality  in  every 
 part ;  not  a  page,  indeed,  is  without  them.  They 
 Bpreid  a  colour  over  the  whole,  of  which  no  idea  can 
 Ve  given  by  a  few  e.«lracts.  {Quarlcrlij  Review,  No. 
 66,  p.  410,  xeqq.) — We  have  remaining,  at  the  present 
 day,  forty-five  of  the  Epinikia,  or  triumphal  odes  of 
 Pindar,  together  with  some  few  fragments  of  his  other 
 productions.  The  Epinikia  are  divided  into  four  class- 
 is  or  kinds,  and  derive  their  names  respectively  from 
 
 the  four  great  games  of  Greece.  Thus  we  have,  1st, 
 Olympic  Odes,  to  the  number  of  fourteen  ;  2d,  Pyth- 
 ian, to  the  number  of  twelve ;  3d,  Nemean,  eleven 
 in  number ;  and,  4th,  Isthmmn,  amounting  to  eight. 
 This  division,  however,  is  not  that  of  the  poet  himself; 
 we  owe  it  to  the  grammarian  Aristophanes  of  Byzan- 
 tium. This  individual  selected  out  of  the  general  col- 
 lection of  Epinikia  a  certain  number  of  pieces  that  had 
 reference,  more  or  less,  to  victories  gained  at  the  sev- 
 eral games  of  Greece.  It  did  not  suffice,  in  the  eyes 
 of  this  critic,  that  an  ode  should  celebrate  some  victory 
 gained  in  these  assemblies  in  order  to  be  judged  wor- 
 thy of  a  place  in  his  selection  ;  for  there  are  fragments 
 remaining  of  the  poems  of  Pindar  which  have  direct 
 allusion  to  such  subjects,  and  yet  were  excluded  by 
 Aristophanes.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find,  in  the  se- 
 lection made  by  him,  one  ode,  having  no  reference  to 
 any  particular  victory,  namely,  the  second  Pythian  ;  as 
 well  as  some  others,  which,  though  they  celebrate 
 deeds  of  martial  prowess,  contain  no  mention  whatever 
 of  those  peculiar  exploits,  of  which  the  four  great  na- 
 tional celebrations  of  the  Hellenic  race  were  respect- 
 ively the  theatres. — Hermann  has  shown,  that  the  ba- 
 sis of  Pindar's  diction  is  epic,  but  that  he  employs 
 Doric  forms  as  often  as  they  appear  more  expressive, 
 or  are  better  adapted  to  the  metre  which  he  employs. 
 Sometimes  he  gives  the  preference  to  ^olic  forms, 
 which  was  his  native  dialect.  Hermann  also  remarks, 
 that  the  verses  of  Pindar  abound  in  hiatus,  without 
 there  being  any  appearance  of  his  having  used  the  di- 
 gamma,  which  in  his  days  had  partially  disappeared 
 from  the  .■Eolic  dialect,  and  which  Alcwus  and  Sappho 
 had  only  occasionally  employed.  After  the  example 
 of  the  ancient  poets,  he  makes  the  vowel  long  which 
 is  followed  by  a  mute  and  liquid.  The  remark  of  Pler- 
 mann  respecting  the  mixture  of  dialects  in  Pindar  has 
 been  acquiesced  in  by  Bbckh,  who  observes,  that  the 
 copyists  have  frequently  removed  the  Doricisms  from 
 the  Olympic  Qdes,  while  they  have  been  preserved 
 more  carefully  in  the  other  works  of  the  poet. — The 
 best  edition  of  Pindar  is  that  of  Bdckh,  Lips.,  18 1 1-22, 
 3  vols.  4to.  The  text  is  corrected  by  the  aid  of  thir- 
 ty-seven MSS.  Previous  to  the  appearance  of  this 
 edition,  that  of  Heyne  was  regarded  as  the  best. 
 Heyne's  work  appeared  in  1773,  Gotling.,  2  vols.  8vo. 
 A  second  edition  of  it  was  published  in  1798,  Gol- 
 ting.,  3  vols.  8vo,  containing  Hermann's  commentary 
 on  the  metres  of  Pindar.  The  third  edition  appeared, 
 after  Heyne's  death,  in  1817,  under  the  supervision  of 
 Schaeffer.  An  excellent  school  and  college  edition, 
 by  L.  Dissen,  based  on  that  of  Bbckh,  forms  part  of 
 Jacobs's  and  Rost's  "  Biblioiheca  Graeca,"  Goth,  et 
 Erfurdt.,  1830,  8vo.  (Scholl,  Gcsch.  Gr.  Lit.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  196,  seqq.—Id.  ib.,  vol  3,  p.  598.) 
 
 PiNPENissus,  a  city  of  Cilicia,  belonging  to  the 
 Eleuthero-Gilices.  It  was  situated  on  a  height  of 
 great  elevation  and  strength,  forming  part  of  the  range 
 of  Amanus.  Cicero  took  it  after  a  siege  of  57  days, 
 and  compelled  the  Tibareni,  a  neighbouring  tribe,  to 
 submit  likewise.  The  modern  Bchesni  is  supposed 
 to  occupv  Its  site.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  15,  4.- — Id., 
 Ep.  ad  Alt.,  5,  20.) 
 
 PiNDus,  I.  a  name  applied  bv  the  Greeks  to  the 
 elevated  chain  which  separates  Thessaly  from  Epirus, 
 and  the  waters  falling  into  the  Ionian  Sea  and  Ambra- 
 cian  Gulf,  from  those  streams  which  discharge  them- 
 selves into  the  Ji^gean.  Towards  the  north  it  joined 
 the  great  Illyrian  and  Macedonian  ridges  of  Bora  and 
 Scardus,  while  to  the  south  it  was  connected  with  the 
 ramifications  of  (Eta,  and  the  ..^^tolian  and  Acarnani- 
 an  mountains.  {Herodotus,  7,  \2^.—Sirabo,  430.— 
 Find.,  Pijth.,  9,  27.— Virgil,  Eclog.,  10,  U.—Ovid, 
 Meiamorph..  2,  224.  —  Cramer's  Ancient  Greece, 
 vol  1,  p.  353.)  —  II.  A  town  and  river  of  Doris  in 
 Greece.  The  river  flowed  into  the  Ccphissus  at 
 Lilasa,   a  Phocian  town.     According   to   Strabo,  the 
 
 1063 
 
PIR 
 
 PIRJCUS 
 
 earlier  name  of  the  town  was  Acryphas.      (Straho, 
 427.) 
 
 PirjEum,  a  small  fortress  of  Corinthia,  on  the  Sinus 
 Corinthiacus,  and  not  far  from  ihe  promontory  of  01- 
 miae.  It  was  taken  on  one  occasion  by  Agesiiaus. 
 (Xen.,  Hjst.  Or.,  4,  5,  b.—M.,  Vit.  Ages  ,  2,  18.)  We 
 must  not  confound  this  place  with  the  Corinthian  har- 
 bour of  Pirteus,  on  the  Sinus  Saronicus,  near  the  con- 
 fines of  Argolis.  (Cramer's  Anctent  Greece,  vol.  3, 
 p.  34.) 
 
 PiK^Ei's  (Ueipaioc),  or  Piraeus  (Tlsipaievc).  a  cel- 
 ebrated and  capacious  harbour  of  Athens,  at  some  dis- 
 tance from  it,  but  joined  to  it  by  long  walls,  called 
 fiaKpd  Teixv-  The  southern  wall  was  built  by  The- 
 mistocles,  and  was  35  stadia  long  and  40  cubits  high  ; 
 this  height  was  but  half  of  what  ^Fhemistocles  design- 
 ed. The  northern  was  built  by  Pericles  ;  its  height 
 the  same  as  the  former,  its  length  40  stadia.  Both  of 
 these  walls  were  sufficiently  broad  on  the  top  to  admit 
 of  two  wagons  passing  each  other.  The  stones  were 
 of  an  enormous  size,  joined  together  without  any  ce- 
 >ner,t,  but  with  clamps  of  iron  and  lead,  which,  with 
 their  own  weight,  easily  sufficed  to  unite  walLs  even 
 of  so  great  a  height  as  40  cubits  (00  feet).  Upon  both 
 of  the  walls  a  great  number  of  turrets  were  erected, 
 which  were  turned  into  dwelling-houses  when  the 
 Athenians  became  so  numerous  that  the  city  was  not 
 large  enough  to  contain  them.  The  wall  which  en- 
 compassed the  Munychia,  and  joined  it  to  the  Piraeus, 
 was  60  stadia,  and  the  exterior  wall  on  the  other  side 
 of  the  city  was  43  stadia,  in  length.  Athens  had  three 
 harbours,  of  which  the  Pirajus  was  by  far  the  largest. 
 East  of  it  was  the  second  one,  called  Munychia  ;  and, 
 still  farther  east,  the  third,  called  Phalerus,  the  least 
 frequented  of  the  three.  The  entrance  of  the  Pirseus 
 was  narrow,  being  contracted  by  two  projecting  prom- 
 ontories. Within,  however,  it  was  very  capacious, 
 and  contained  three  large  basins  or  ports,  named  Can- 
 tharus,  Aphrodisus,  and  Zea.  The  fii^t  was  called  af- 
 ter an  ancient  hero,  the  second  after  Venus,  the  third 
 from  the  term  (fa,  signifying  bread-corn.  The  Pirseus 
 is  said  to  have  been  capable  of  containing  300  ships. 
 The  walls  which  joined  it  to  Athens,  with  all  its  for- 
 tifications, were  totally  demolished  when  I.ysander  put 
 an  end  to  the  Peloponnesian  war  by  the  reduction  of 
 Attica.  They  were  rebuilt  by  Conon  with  the  money 
 supplied  by  the  Persian  commander  Pharnabazus,  after 
 the  defeat  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  in  the  battle  off  the 
 Arginusse  Insulse.  In  after  davs  the  Piraeus  suffered 
 greatly  from  Sylla,  who  demohshed  the  walls,  and  set 
 fire  to  the  armory  and  arsenals.  It  must  not  be  ima- 
 gined, however,  that  the  Pirsus  was  a  mere  harbour. 
 It  was,  in  fact,  a  city  of  itself,  abounding  with  temples, 
 porticoes,  and  other  magnificent  structures.  Strabo 
 compares  the  maritime  part  of  Athens  to  the  city  of 
 the  Rhodians,  since  it  was  thickly  inhabited,  and  en- 
 closed with  a  wall,  comprehending  within  its  circuit 
 the  Pir»us  and  the  other  ports.  Little,  however,  re- 
 mains of  the  former  splendour  of  the  Piraeus.  Ac- 
 cording to  Hobhouse,  nothing  now  is  left  to  lead  one 
 to  suppose  that  it  was  ever  a  large  and  flourishing  port. 
 (Journey,  vol.  \,  p.  299.)  The  ancient  Zea  is  a  marsh, 
 and  Cantharus  of  but  little  depth.  The  deepest  wa- 
 ter is  at  the  mouth  of  the  ancient  Aphrodisus.  He 
 adds,  that  the  ships  of  the  ancients  must  have  been  ex- 
 tremely small,  if  300  could  be  contained  within  the 
 Piraeus,  since  he  saw  an  Hvdrmte  merchant-vessel,  of 
 about  200  tons,  at  anchor  in  the  port,  which  appeared 
 too  large  for  the  station,  and  an  English  sloop  of  war 
 was  warned  that  she  would  run  aground  if  she  attempt- 
 ed to  enter,  and  was  therefore  compelled  to  anchor  in 
 the  straits  between  Salamis  and  the  port  once  called 
 Phoron.  The  Pirseus  is  now  called  Draco  by  the 
 Greeks,  but  by  the  Franks  Porto  Leone,  from  the  fig- 
 ure of  a  stone  lion  with  which  it  was  anciently  adorn- 
 ed, and  which  was  carried  av\'ay  by  the  Venetians. 
 1064 
 
 1.  Athenian  Imports  and  Exports. 
 
 The  commodities  which  Attica  did  not  produce  with- 
 in her  own  territory,  were  obtained  by  foreign  com- 
 merce, and,  unless  the  importation  was  prevented  by 
 some  extraordinary  obstacle,  such,  for  example,  as  war, 
 there  could  be  no  danger  of  a  scarcity,  even  in  the 
 case  of  a  failure  of  the  crops,  because  it  consumed  the 
 surplus  produce  of  other  countries.  (Jien.,  Hepub. 
 Alh.,  2,  6.)  Although  not  an  island,  yet  it  possessed 
 all  the  advantages  of  nisular  position,  that  is,  e.\cellent 
 harbours  conveniently  situated,  in  which  it  received 
 supplies  during  all  winds  ;  in  addition  to  which,  it  had 
 sufficient  facilities  for  inland  traffic  :  the  intercourse 
 with  other  countries  was  promoted  by  the  purity  of  the 
 coin,  as  the  merchant,  not  being  obliged  to  take  a  re- 
 turn freight,  had  the  option  of  carrying  out  bullion,  al- 
 though Athens  abounded  in  commodities  which  would 
 meet  with  a  ready  sale.  (Xen.,  de  Veet.,  1,  7.)  If 
 a  stagnation  in  trade  was  not  produced  by  war  or  pi- 
 racy, all  the  products  of  foreign  countries  came  to 
 Athens  ;  and  articles  which  in  other  places  could  hard- 
 ly be  obtained  single,  were  collected  together  at  the 
 Piraeus.  (Thucyd.,  2,  38. — Isocr.,  Paneg.,  p.  34,  ed. 
 Hall)  Besides  the  corn,  the  costly  wines,  iron,  brass, 
 and  other  objects  of  commerce,  which  came  from  all 
 the  regions  of  the  Mediterranean,  they  imported  from 
 the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea  slaves,  timber  for  ship- 
 building, salt  fish,  honey,  wax,  tar,  wool,  rigging, 
 leather,  goatskins,  &c.  ;  from  Byzantium.  Thrace, 
 and  Macedonia,  timber,  slaves,  and  salt  fish  ;  also, 
 slaves  from  Thessaly,  whither  they  came  from  the  in- 
 terior ;  and  carpets  and  fine  wool  from  Phrygia  and 
 Miletus.  "All  the  finest  products,"  says  Xenophon, 
 "of  Sicily,  of  Italy,  Cyprus,  Lydia,  the  Pontus,  and 
 the  Peloponnesus,  Athens,  by  her  empire  of  the  sea,  is 
 able  to  collect  into  one  spot."  (Repub.  Alh.,  2,  7.) 
 To  this  far-extended  intercourse  the  same  author  at- 
 tributes the  mixture  of  all  dialects  which  prevailed  at 
 Athens,  and  the  admission  of  barbarous  words  mto  the 
 language  of  ordinary  life.  On  the  other  hand,  Athens 
 conveyed  to  different  regions  the  products  of  her  own 
 soil  and  labour;  in  addition  to  which,  the  Athenian 
 merchant  trafficked  in  commodities  which  they  collect- 
 ed in  other  countries.  Thus,  they  took  up  wine  from 
 the  islands  and  shores  of  the  .-Egean  Sea,  at  Pepare- 
 thus,  Cos,  Thasus,  and  elsewhere,  and  transported  it 
 to  the  Euxine.  (Demosth.  in  Lacrit.,  p.  93.5.)  The 
 trade  in  books  alone  appears  to  have  made  but  small 
 advances  in  Greece,  a  branch  of  industry  which  was 
 more  widely  extended  in  the  Roman  Empire  after  the 
 reio-n  of  Augustus.  There  was,  it  is  true,  a  book- 
 market  (tu  jUSla)  at  Athens  (Jul.  Poll..  9,  47),  and 
 books  were  exported  to  the  Euxine  and  to  Thrace 
 (Xen.,  Anah.,  7,  5,  14),  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 
 that  the  books  meant  were  merely  blank  volumes. 
 The  trade  in  manuscripts  was  in  the  time  of  Plato  so 
 little  common,  that  Hermodorus,  who  sold  the  books 
 of  this  writer  in  Sicily,  gave  occasion  to  a  proverb, 
 "  Hermodorus  carries  on  trade  with  writings."  ( Cic, 
 Ep.  ad  Att.,  13,  21. — Siud.,  s.  v.  "koyoirrtv  'E/),ti6(5(j- 
 pof  ffirropeverai.)  At  a  subsequent  period,  while  Ze- 
 no  the  Stoic  was  still  a  youth,  dealers  in  manuscripts 
 are  mentioned  as  having  been  at  Athens.  (Diog. 
 Lacrt.,  in  Vit)  The  merchant-vessels  appear  to  have 
 been  of  considerable  size  ;  not  to  quote  an  extraordi- 
 nary instance,  we  find  in  Demosthenes  (in  Phorm.) 
 a  vessel  of  this  kind,  which,  besides  the  cargo,  the 
 slaves,  and  the  ship's  crew,  carried  300  free  inhabi- 
 tants. (Bockh,  PubUc  Economy  of  Athens,  vol.  1,  p. 
 6.5,  scqq.,  Eng.  transl.) 
 
 2.  Credit  System  of  the  Athenians. 
 
 The  advocates  for  a  credit  system  at  the  present 
 day  will  be  agreeably  surprised  to  find  one  fully  estab- 
 lished among  the  Athenians,  and  deemed  bv  that  in- 
 
PIR 
 
 PIS 
 
 telligent  people  essential  to  commercial  operations. 
 The  system  of  banking  pursued  at  Athens  gave  occa- 
 sion to  a  new  kind  of  money,  constructed  upon  the 
 credit  of  individuals  or  of  companies,  and  acting  as  a 
 substitute  for  the  legal  currency.  In  the  time  of  De- 
 mosthenes (vol.  2,  p.  1236,  cd.  Reiske),  and  even  at 
 an  earlier  period,  bankers  appear  to  have  been  numer- 
 ous, not  only  in  Piraeus,  but  also  in  the  upper  city  ; 
 and  it  was  principally  by  their  means  that  capital, 
 which  would  otherwise  have  been  unemployed,  was 
 distributed  and  made  productive.  Athenian  bankers 
 were,  ni  many  instances,  manufacturers  or  specula- 
 tors in  land,  conducting  the  different  branches  of  their 
 business  by  means  of  partners  or  confidential  servants, 
 and  acquiring  a  sufficient  profit  to  remunerate  them- 
 selves, and  to  pay  a  small  rate  of  interest  for  the  cap- 
 ita! intrusted  to  them.  But  this  was  not  the  only  ben- 
 efit they  imparled  to  the  operations  of  commerce. 
 Their  legers  were  books  of  transfer,  and  the  entries 
 made  in  them,  although  they  cannot  properly  be  called 
 a  part  of  the  circulation,  acted  in  all  other  respects  as 
 bills  of  e.tchange.  In  this  particular  their  banks  bore 
 a  strong  resemblance  to  modern  banks  of  deposite  A 
 depositor  desired  his  banker  to  transfer  to  some  other 
 name  a  portion  of  the  credit  assigned  to  him  in  the 
 books  of  the  bank  {Demosth  ,  7Tpd(;  KaAAtrr — vol.  2,  p. 
 1236,  ed.  Beiske) ;  and  by  this  method,  aided,  as  it 
 probably  was,  by  a  general  understanding  among  the 
 bankers  (or,  in  the  modern  phrase,  a  clearing  house), 
 credit  was  easily  and  constantly  converted  into  money 
 in  ancient  Athens.  "  If  you  do  not  know,"  says  De- 
 mosthenes, "  that  credit  is  the  readiest  capital  for  ac- 
 quiring wealth,  you  know  positively  nothing."  {El 
 (5e  TOVTO  (lyvoFi^,  on  -rrcari^  d<pop[irj  TcJv  TraaCiv  earl 
 uEyiaTT)  TTpoc  jp??|«rtrt(7//df,  nuv  av  uyvor^aeLa^. — vol 
 2,  p.  958,  cd.  Reiske.)  The  spirit  of  refinement  may 
 be  traced  one  step  farther.  Orders  were  certainly  is- 
 sued by  the  government  in  anticipation  of  future  re- 
 ceipts, and  may  fairly  be  considered  as  having  had  the 
 force  and  operation  of  exchequer  bills.  They  were 
 known  by  the  name  of  avofio'koyrij-iaTa.  We  learn, 
 for  instance,  from  the  inscription  of  the  Choiseul  mar- 
 ble {Bockh,  Corp.  iHscript.,  vol.  1,  p.  219),  written 
 near  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  that  bills  of 
 this  description  were  drawn  at  that  time  by  the  gov- 
 ernment at  Athens  on  the  receiver-general  at  Samos, 
 and  made  payable,  in  one  instance,  to  the  paymaster 
 at  Athens  ;  in  another,  to  the  general  of  division  at 
 Samos.  These  bills  were  doubtless  employed  as  mon- 
 ey, on  the  credit  of  the  in-coming  taxes,  and  entered 
 probably,  together  with  others  of  the  same  kind,  into 
 the  circulation  of  the  period.  {Cardwell's  Lectures 
 on  the  Coinage  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  p.  20, 
 scqq.) 
 
 Pi  RENE,  a  fountain  near  Corinth,  on  the  route  from 
 the  city  to  the  harbour  of  Lechteum.  According  to 
 the  statement  of  Pausanias  (2,  3),  the  fountain  was  of 
 white  marble,  and  the  water  issued  from  various  arti- 
 ficial caverns  into  one  open  basin.  This  fountain  is 
 celebrated  by  the  ancient  poets  as  being  sacred  to  the 
 Muses,  and  here  Bellerophon  is  said  to  have  seized 
 the  winged  horse  Pegasus,  preparatory  to  his  enter- 
 prise against  the  Chirnrera.  (Ptnd.,  Olymp  ,  13,  85. 
 —  Eurip..,  Med.,  67.— Id.,  Troad., '205.— Soph.,  Elec- 
 tr.,  475,  &c.)  The  fountain  was  fabled  to  have  de- 
 rived its  name  from  the  nymph  Pirene.  who  was  said 
 to  have  dissolved  in  tears  at  the  death  of  her  son  Cen- 
 chreas,  accidentally  slain  by  Diana.  {Vausayi.,  I.  c.) 
 PiRiTHous,  son  Jf  Ixion  and  Dia,  and  one  of  the 
 chieftains  (or,  according  to  another  account,  the  mon- 
 arch) of  the  Lapitha?.  He  is  memorable  in  mytholog- 
 ical narrative  for  his  friendship  with  Theseus,  which, 
 though  of  a  most  intimate  nature,  originated  never- 
 theless in  the  midst  of  arms.  The  renown  of  Theseus 
 having  spread  widely  over  Greece,  Pirithotis,  it  seems, 
 became  desirous  of  not  only  beholding  him,  but  also 
 6  T 
 
 of  witnessing  his  exploits,  and  he  accordingly  made 
 an  irruption  into  the  plain  of  Marathon,  and  carried  oflF 
 the  herds  of  the  King  of  Athens.  Theseus,  on  re- 
 ceiving information,  went  to  repel  the  plunderers. 
 The  moment  Pirithoiis  beheld  him,  he  was  seized  with 
 secret  admiration,  and,  stretching  out  his  hand  as  a 
 token  of  peace,  exclaimed,  "  Be  judge  thyself !  What 
 satisfaction  dost  thou  require?" — "Thy  friendship," 
 replied  the  Athenian  ;  and  they  thereupon  swore  eter- 
 nal fidelity.  Theseus  and  Pirithoiis  were  both  present 
 at  the  hunt  of  the  Calydonian  boar ;  and  the  former 
 also  took  part  in  the  famous  conflict  between  the  Cen- 
 taurs and  Lapithas.  The  cause  of  this  contest  was  as 
 follows  :  Pirithoiis,  having  obtained  the  hand  of  Hip- 
 podamia,  daughter  of  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos,  the 
 chiefs  of  his  nation,  the  Lapithae,  were  all  invited  to 
 the  wedding,  as  were  also  the  Centaurs,  who  dwelt  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  Pelion.  Theseus,  Nestor,  and 
 other  strangers  were  likewise  present.  At  the  feast, 
 Eurytion,  one  of  the  Centaurs,  became  intoxicated 
 with  the  wine,  and  attempted  to  offer  violence  to  the 
 bride.  A  dreadful  conflict  thereupon  arose,  in  which 
 several  of  the  Centaurs  were  slain,  and  they  were  final- 
 ly driven  from  Pelion,  and  obliged  to  retire  to  other 
 regions.  (Vjd.  LapithtE.) — Like  faithful  comrades, 
 Theseus  and  Pirithoiis  aided  each  other  in  every  pro- 
 ject, and,  the  death  of  Hippodamia  having  subsequent- 
 ly left  Pirithoiis  free  to  form  a  new  attachment,  the 
 two  friends,  equally  ambitious  in  their  love,  resolved 
 to  possess  each  a  daughter  of  the  king  of  the  gods. 
 Theseus  fixed  his  thoughts  on  Helen,  then  a  child 
 of  but  nine  years.  The  friends  planned  the  carrying 
 her  off,  and  succeeded.  Placing  her  under  the  care 
 of  his  mother  ^ihra,  at  Aphidnse,  Theseus  prepared 
 to  assist  his  friend  in  a  bolder  and  more  perilous  at- 
 tempt :  for  Pirithoiis  resolved  to  venture  on  the  daring 
 deed,  of  carrying  away  from  the  palace  of  the  monarch 
 of  the  under-world  his  queen  Proserpina.  Theseus, 
 though  aware  of  tlie  risk,  would  not  abandon  his  friend. 
 They  descended  together  to  the  region  of  shadows ; 
 but  Pluto,  knowing  their  design,  seized  them,  and  pla- 
 ced them  upon  an  enchanted  rock  at  the  gate  of  his 
 realms.  Here  they  sat,  unable  to  move,  till  Hercules, 
 passing  by  in  his  descent  for  Cerberus,  freed  Theseus, 
 having  taken  him  by  the  hand  and  raised  him  up  ;  but 
 when  he  would  do  the  same  for  Pirithoiis,  the  earth 
 quaked,  and  he  left  him.  Pirithoiis  therefore  re- 
 mained everlastingly  on  the  rock,  in  punishment  of  his 
 audacious  attempt.  (Apollod.,  I,  8,  2. — Id  ,  2,  5,  12. 
 —  Plut.,  Vit.  Thcs.  —  Hy<rin.,  fuh.,  14,  79,  155.— 
 Virg.,  Mn.,  7,  30i.—Kcighllei/s  Mythology,  p.  316, 
 323,  392.) 
 
 Pisa,  an  ancient  city  of  Elis,  giving  name  to  the 
 district  of  Pisatis,  in  which  it  was  situated.  Tradition 
 assigned  its  foundation  to  Pisus,  grandson  of  .^Eolus 
 {Pausan.,  6,  22);  but,  as  no  trace  of  it  remains,  its 
 very  existence  was  questioned  in  later  ages,  as  we  are 
 informed  by  Strabo  (350),  some  affirming  that  there 
 was  only  a  fountain  of  the  name,  and  that  those  writers 
 who  spoke  of  a  city  meant  only  to  express  the  king- 
 dom or  principality  of  the  Pisataj,  originally  composed 
 of  eight  towns.  Other  authors,  however,  have  ac- 
 knowledged its  existence  {Pind.,  01.,  2,  4. — Id,  Ol.j 
 10,  51);  and  Herodotus  states  that  the  distance  from 
 Pisa  to  Athens  was  1485  stadia  (2,  7).  Its  site  was 
 commonly  supposed  to  be  on  a  hill  between  two 
 mountains,  named  Ossa  and  Olympus,  and  on  the  left 
 bank  of  the  Alpheiis  {Strabo,  l  c.) ;  but  Pausanias 
 could  nowhere  discover  any  vestiges  of  a  town,  the 
 soil  being  entirely  covered  with  vines.  {Pausan.,  I.  c. 
 —Plin  ,4,  5.—  'Schol.  ad.  Pind-,  Olymp.,  10,  55.)  It 
 is  generally  agreed  that  the  Pisatae  were  m  possession 
 of  the  temple  of  Olympia,  and  presided  at  the  celebra- 
 tion of  the  crames  from  the  earliest  period  of  their  in- 
 stitution, till  their  rights  were  usurped  by  the  Eleans 
 and  Heraclidffi.     They  did  not,  however,  tamely  sub- 
 
 1065 
 
PIS 
 
 PIS 
 
 mit  to  this  injury  on  the  part  of  their  more  powerful 
 neighbours,  and,  having  procured  the  assistance  of 
 PUidon,  tyrant  of  Argos,  recovered  Olympia,  where,  in 
 the  eighih  Olympiad,  they  again  celebrated  the  fcsti- 
 Tal ;  but  the  Eieans,  in  their  turn,  obtaining  succour 
 from  Sparta,  defeated  Phidon,  and  once  more  expelled 
 the  Pisalaj  from  Olympia.  {Ephor.,  ap.  Sirab  ,  358. 
 • — Pattsan,  6,  22.)  These,  during  the  34th  Olym- 
 piad, being  at  that  time  under  the  autiiority  of  Panta- 
 leon,  who  had  possessed  himself  of  the  sovereign  pow- 
 er, made  another  effort  to  regain  their  ancient  prerog- 
 ative, and,  having  succeeded  in  vanq\nshing  their  op- 
 ponents, retained  possession  of  the  disputed  ground 
 for  several  years.  The  tinal  struggle  took  place  in  the 
 forty-eighth  Olympiad,  when  the  people  of  Pisa,  as 
 Pau.sanias  affirms,  supported  by  the  Triphylians,  and 
 other  neighhourmg  towns  which  had  revolted  from 
 Elis,  made  war  upon  that  state.  The  Eieans,  how- 
 ever, aided  by  Sparta,  proved  victorious,  and  put  an 
 end  for  ever  to  this  contest  by  the  destruction  of  Pisa 
 and  the  other  confederate  towns.  {Paiisan  ,  6,  32. — 
 Strabo,  355  )  According  to  the  scholiast  on  Pindar, 
 the  city  of  Pisa  was  distant  only  six  stadia  from  Olym- 
 pi'a,  in  which  case  we  might  fi.x  its  site  near  that  of 
 Miracca,  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  celebrated  spot  now 
 called  Anlilalla ;  but  Pausanias  evidently  leads  us  to 
 suppose  it  stood  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river. 
 (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  93,  scqq.) 
 
 VisjE  (or  Pisa,  as  it  is  sometimes  written),  a  city  of 
 Etruria,  on  the  river  Arnus  or  Arno,  about  a  league 
 from  its  mouth.  We  learn  from  Strabo  (222),  that 
 formerly  it  stood  at  the  junction  of  the  Ausar  [Scrchio) 
 and  Arnus,  but  now  they  both  flow  into  the  sea  by 
 separate  channels.  The  origin  of  Pisa3  is  lost  amid 
 the  fables  to  which  the  Trojan  war  gave  rise,  and  which 
 are  common  to  so  many  Italian  cities.  If  we  are  to 
 believe  a  tradition  recorded  by  Strabo  (I.  c),  it  owed 
 its  foundation  to  some  of  the  followers  of  Nestor,  in 
 their  wanderings  after  the  fall  of  Troy.  The  poets 
 have  not  failed  to  adopt  this  idea.  (Vii-g.,  JEn.,  10, 
 179. — RutiL,  Itin.,  I,  565.)  Lycophron  says  it  was 
 taken  by  Tyrrhenus  from  the  Ligurians  (v.  1241).  Ser- 
 vius  reports,  that  Cato  had  not  been  able  to  discov- 
 er who  occupied  Pisas  before  the  Tyrrheni  under  Tar- 
 cho,  with  the  e.Kception  of  the  Teutones,  from  which 
 account  it  might  be  inferred  that  the  most  ancient 
 possessors  of  Pisas  were  of  northern  origin.  {Serv. 
 ad.  Mil.,  10,  179.)  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  names 
 it  among  the  towns  occupied  by  the  Pelasgi  in  the 
 territory  of  the  Siculi.  The  earliest  mention  we  have 
 of  this  city  in  Iloinan  history  is  in  Polybius  (2,  16,  and 
 27),  from  whom  we  collect,  as  well  as  from  Livy  (21, 
 39),  that  its  harbour  was  much  frequented  by  the  Ro- 
 mans, in  their  communication  with  Sardinia,  Gaul,  and 
 Spaia.  It  was  here  that  Scipio  landed  his  army  when 
 returtting  from  the  mouths  of  the  Rhone  to  oppose 
 Hannibal  in  Italy.  It  became  a  colony  572  A.U.C. 
 (Lid.,  41,  43.)  Strabo  speaks  of  it  as  having  been 
 fortnerly  an  important  naval  station  :  in  his  day  it  was 
 still  a  very  flourishing  commercial  town,  from  the  sup- 
 plies of  timber  which  it  furnished  to  the  fleets,  and  the 
 costly  marbles  which  the  neighbouring  quarries  af- 
 forded for  the  splendid  palaces  and  villas  of  Rotne. 
 (Co{isult  Plin.,  3,  5. — PtoL,  p.  64.)  Its  territory 
 produced  wine,  and  the  species  of  wheat  called  sili<ro. 
 (PUn.,  14,  3— W.,  18,  9.)  The  Portus  Pisanus  was 
 at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  is  described  by  Rutilius. 
 (Ilin.,  1,  531.— C/awfr,  Anc.  It  ,  vol.  1,  p.  173.)  The 
 modern  Pisa  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city. 
 
 PiSANOER,  I.  an  early  Greek  poet,  born  at  Camirus, 
 in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  and  supposed  to  have  flour- 
 ished about  650  B.C.,  although  some  made  him  earlier 
 than  Ilcsiod,  and  contemporary  with  Eumolpus.  He 
 wrote  a  poem,  entitled  "  Heraclea,"  on  the  labours 
 and  exploits  of  Hercules,  of  which  frequent  mention  is 
 made  by  the  grammarians.  The  Alexandrean  critics 
 1U66 
 
 assigned  him  a  rank  among  epic  poets  after  Homer, 
 Hesiod,  Panyasis,  and  Antimaciius.  We  have  an  ep- 
 igram  in  his  praise,  among  those  ascribed  to  Theocri- 
 tus {ep.  20),  and  Strabo  likewise  mentions  him  among 
 the  eminent  natives  of  Rhodes.  {Strab.,  655 — Id., 
 688.  —  Compare  Quintilian,  10,  1,  56.)  Reiske  has 
 advanced  the  opinion,  that  the  24th  and  25ih  Idyls 
 of  Theocritus  are  portions  of  the  poem  of  Pisander. 
 Both  these  Idyls,  though  of  considerable  length,  are 
 imperfect.  One  is  entitled  'HpaK?uaiioc,  "  The  Young 
 Hercules  ;"  the  other  'HpaK'Ai/^  Aeoiro^wof ,  "  Hercu- 
 les, the  lion- slayer.''''  There  is  also  an  Idyl  of  Mos- 
 chus,  the  4th,  entitled  Meyupa,  yvvi]  'BpaKXiovg, 
 "  Mcgara,  wife  of  Hercules,''''  which  Reiske  assigns 
 to  the  same  source  with  the  two  other  pieces  just 
 mentioned.  {Cor\s\i\i  Harles,  ad  Thcocrit.,  Id.,2b. — 
 Heyne,  Excurs.,  1,  ad  Mn  ,  2,  p.  285.)— II.  A  Greek 
 poet,  born  at  Laraiida,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  in  Asia 
 Minor,  and  who  lived  during  the  reign  of  Alexan- 
 der Severus.  He  composed  a  long  poem,  entitled 
 'HpuiKal  Qeoyajitai,  in  whicli  he  sang  of  the  nuptials 
 of  gods  and  heroes.  The  16tli  book  of  this  poem  is 
 cited,  and  Suidas  calls  the  whole  production  a  history 
 varied  after  the  epic  manner.  One  of  the  interlocu- 
 tors in  the  Saturnalia  of  Macrobius  (5,  2)  accuses  Vir- 
 gil of  having  translated  from  Pisander  almost  all  the 
 second  book  of  the  iEneid,  and  particularly  the  story 
 of  the  wooden  horse.  It  is  evident  that  Macrobius  re- 
 fers in  this  to  Pisander  of  Camirus  ;  but  he  is  alto- 
 gether wrong.  We  know,  from  the  Chrestomathy  of 
 Proclus,  that  Virgil  borrowed  from  Arctinus  and  Les- 
 ches  the  history  of  the  horse  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  later 
 Pisander,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Severus,  borrowed 
 from  Virgil  himself.  {Heyyic,  Excurs.,  1,  ad  .3in.,  2, 
 p.  287.— Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  381.)— III. 
 An  epigrammatic  poet,  supposed  by  Jacobs  to  be  the 
 same  with  the  native  of  Camirus  above  mentioned. 
 {Catal.  Poet.  Epigr.,  p.  939.)  Heyne,  however, 
 thinks  that  he  was  identical  with  the  younger  Pisan- 
 der. (Excurs.,  \,ad  JEn.,  2,  p.  288.)— IV.  An  Athe- 
 nian,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  oligarchical  party,  and 
 instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  establishment  of 
 the  Council  of  Four  Hundred.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Alcib.) — 
 V.  A  Spartan  admiral,  in  the  time  of  Agesilaus,  slain 
 in  a  naval  battle  with  Conon  near  Cnidus,  B.C.  394 
 (Corn.  Ncp  ,  Vit.  Con.— Justin,  6,  3.) 
 
 PisAURUM,  a  city  of  Umbria,  on  the  seacoast,  below 
 Ariminum,  and  near  the  river  Pisaurus.  Its  origin  is 
 uncertain.  It  became  a  Roman  colony  A.U.C.  668 
 (Liv.,  39,  44),  but  whether  it  was  colonized  again  by 
 Julius  Caesar  or  Augustus  is  uncertain.  Inscriptions, 
 however,  give  it  the  title  of  Col.  Julia.  The  climate 
 of  Pisaurum  seems  to  have  been  in  bad  repute,  accord- 
 ing to  the  opinion  of  Catullus  (81,  3).  The  modern 
 name  of  the  place  is  Pcsaro.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  256.) 
 
 Pisaurus,  a  river  of  Umbria,  running  into  the  Adri- 
 atic near  Pisaurum.  Lucan  (2,  406)  writes  the  name 
 Isaurus.  (Consult  Corte,  ad  lot.)  The  modern  ap- 
 pellation is  la  Foglia. 
 
 PisiniA,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the 
 west  and  north  by  Phrygia,on  the  east  by  Isauria,  and 
 on  the  south  by  Pamphylia.  It  was  a  mountainous 
 country,  inhal)ited  by  a  race  of  the  same  origin  prob- 
 ably as  the  rude  inhabitants  of  Cicilia  Trachea.  They 
 seldom  paid  obedience  to  the  Persian  kings  ;  and  Al- 
 exander the  Great  found  them  divided  into  a  number 
 of  small  independent  republics.  After  the  time  of  Al- 
 exander, this  country  was  frequently  the  lurking-place 
 of  the  inferior  party.  In  the  time  of  the  Seleucidae, 
 several  Pisidian  dynasties  arose  on  the  frontiers  of 
 Phrygia  :  they  enlarged  their  territories  by  conquest, 
 so  that  several  of  the  towns  founded  by  the  kings  of 
 Syria  came  to  be  called  Pisidian  cities,  such  as  Anti- 
 ochia,  Laodicea,  &c.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans,  the 
 number  of  these  states  of  freebooters  seems  to  have 
 
PISIDIA. 
 
 PIS 
 
 increased,  while  in  the  interior  the  old  republics,  such 
 as  Tcrmessus,  Selge,  and  others,  mere  mountain-for- 
 tresses, still  remained  unrepressed,  so  that  it  was  very 
 seldom  any  of  the  towns  paid  tribute  to  the  mistress 
 of  the  world.  It  is  true  that  Augustus  did  subject 
 the  whole  of  Pisidia  to  the  Roman  empire,  but  it  was 
 only  in  name.  Even  the  Goths  could  do  nothing 
 against  it.  History,  therefore,  does  not  recognise  it 
 as  the  province  of  any  great  kingdom. — The  bound- 
 ary-line between  Pisidia  and  Patnphylia  is  a  matter 
 rot  very  clearly  ascertained.  The  following  remarks 
 of  Retmell  are  worthy  of  a  place  here.  "  The  an- 
 cients seem  to  have  been  agreed  in  the  opinion  that 
 Pamphylia  occupied  the  seacoast  from  Phaselis  to 
 Coracesium  ;  but  the  boundary  between  it  and  Pisidia 
 appears  not  to  have  been  decided.  For  instance,  Ter- 
 mcssus  is  said  to  be  m  Pamphylia  by  Livy  (38,  Ift), 
 and  also  by  Ptolemy  ;  but  Sirabo  places  it  in  Pisidia, 
 and  Arrian  calls  it  a  colony  of  Pisidia.  Livy  and 
 Ptolemy  arrange  Pamphylia  and  Pisidia  as  one  coun- 
 try, under  the  name  of  Pamphylia.  The  former,  who 
 describes  in  detail  the  history  of  the  Roman  wars  there, 
 and  who  may  be  supposed  to  have  studied  its  geogra- 
 phy, includes  Pisidia,  if  not  Isauria,  in  Pamphylia. 
 For  he  says  that  part  of  Pamphylia  lay  on  one  side, 
 and  part  on  the  other  side  of  Taurus  (38,  39).  Now 
 Pisidia  is  said  by  Strabo  to  occupy  the  summits  of 
 Taurus,  between  Sagalassus  and  Homonada,  togeth- 
 er with  a  number  of  cities,  which  he  specifies,  on  both 
 sides  of  Taurus,  including  even  Antiochia  of  Pisidia. 
 Livy,  then,  actually  includes  in  Pamphylia  the  prov- 
 ince described  by  Strabo  as  Pisidia,  and  appears  to 
 include  Isauria  also.  At  the  same  time,  he  admitted 
 the  existence  of  a  province  under  the  name  of  Pisidia  ; 
 for  he  repeatedly  mentions  it,  and  says  that  the  peo[)le 
 of  Sagalassus  are  Pisidians.  On  the  whole,  therefore, 
 one  cannot  doubt  hut  that  he  regarded  Pisidia  as  a 
 province  of  Pamphylia.  Ptolemy,  as  we  have  observ- 
 ed, arranged  Pamphylia  and  Pisidia  together  as  one 
 country  ;  or,  rather,  makes  Pisidia  a  province  of  Pam- 
 phylia, and  subdivides  it  into  Pisidia  proper  and  Pi- 
 sidia of  Phrygia.  He  has  also  a  province  of  Pam- 
 phylia. In  the  distribution  of  the  parts  of  Pamphylia 
 at  large,  Ptolemy  assigns  to  the  province  of  that  name 
 the  tract  towards  the  sea,  which  includes  Olbia,  At- 
 talea,  and  Side,  on  the  coast ;  Termessus,  Selge,  As- 
 pendus,  Perge,  &c.,  more  inland.  And  Pisidia  con- 
 tained the  inland  parts,  extending  beyond  Taurus 
 northward,  and  containing  the  cities  of  Baris,  Ambla- 
 da,  Lysinoe,  Cormasa,  &c.  Moreover,  his  Pisidia  ex- 
 tended to  the  neighbourhood  of  Celaenae  and  Apamea 
 Cibotus.  Pliny  is  much  too  brief  on  the  subject.  It 
 is  only  to  be  collected  from  him  (5,  27),  that  the  cap- 
 ital of  Pisidia  was  Antiochia  ;  and  that  the  other  prin- 
 cipal cities  were  Sagalassus  and  Oroanda.  That  it 
 was  shut  in  by  Lycaonia,  and  had  for  neighbours  the 
 people  of  Philomelium,  Thymbrium,  Peltse,  &c.  And, 
 finally,  that  the  state  of  Homonada,  formed  of  close 
 and  deep  valleys,  within  Taurus,  had  the  mountains 
 of  Pisidia  lying  above  it.  From  all  this  we  may  col- 
 lect, that  the  Pisidia  of  Pliny  extended  along  the  north 
 of  Pamphylia  and  of  Taurus,  from  the  district  of  Sa- 
 galassus westward,  to  that  of  Homonada  eastward  ; 
 the  latter  being  on  the  common  frontiers  of  Lycaonia, 
 Cilicia  Trachea,  and  Pisidia.  The  Pisidia  of  Pliny, 
 therefore,  agrees  with  that  of  Ptolemy,  and  will  he 
 found  to  agree  also  with  that  of  Strabo.  Strabo  (667) 
 clearly  distinguishes  Pisidia  and  Pamphylia  as  two 
 distinct  countries  :  that  is,  Pamphylia  as  a  maritime 
 country,  extending  from  Lycia  to  Cilicia  Trachea,  in 
 length  along  the  coast  640  stadia  ;  and  Pisidia  (p. 
 569,  seqq.)  occupying  the  summits  of  Taurus,  or,  ra- 
 ther, the  whole  base  of  that  region,  from  Sagalassus 
 and  Termessus  to  Homonada  ;  and  that  it  occupied 
 certain  tracts  of  land  below  Taurus  on  both  sides. 
 And   besides  the  general  extent  given  it  by  this  de- 
 
 scription, he  classes  so  many  places  belonging  to  it  afl 
 to  prove  that  it  has  a  great  extent  in  point  of  breadth ; 
 for  Selge  appears  to  have  been  at  a  great  distance  to 
 the  south  of  the  main  ridge,  and  Antiochia  of  Pisidia 
 is  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  miles  to  the  north  of  it." 
 {RenneWs  Geography  of  Western  Asia,  vol.  2,  p.  71, 
 seqq.) 
 
 PisisTRATiD^,  a  patronymic  appellation  given    to 
 Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  the  sons  of  Pisistraius. 
 
 PisisTRATUs,  a  celebrated  Athenian,  who  obtained 
 the  tyranny  at  Athens.  His  family  traced  their  de- 
 scent from  Peleus  ;  and  Codrus,  jhe  last  king  of  Ath- 
 ens, belonged  to  the  same  house.  (Lurcher,  ad  He- 
 rod ,  I,  59.)  Herodotus  relates,  that  Hippocrates,  the 
 father  of  Pisistratus,  being  present  on  one  occasion  at 
 the  Olympic  games,  met  with  a  remarkable  prodigy. 
 According  to  the  historian,  he  had  just  offered  a  sac- 
 rifice, and  the  caldrons  were  standing  near  the  altar, 
 filled  with  })ieces  of  the  flesh  of  the  victim  and  with 
 water,  when,  on  a  sudden,  these  bubbled  up  wiihout 
 the  agency  of  fire,  and  began  to  run  over.  C'hilo,  the 
 Lacedsemonian,  who  happened  to  be  present,  and  was 
 a  witness  of  what  had  taken  place,  advised  Hippoc- 
 rates not  to  marry,  or,  if  he  had  already  a  wife,  lo  re- 
 pudiate her.  His  counsel,  however,  was  disregarded, 
 and  Pisistratus  was  born  to  Hippocrates.  [Herod.,  1, 
 59.) — Not  long  after  the  legislation  of  Solon  had  been 
 established  at  Athens,  and  while  the  lawgiver  himself 
 was  away  in  foreign  lands,  the  state  became  again  dis- 
 tracted by  contentions  between  the  old  parties  of  the 
 Plain,  the  Coast,  and  the  Highlands.  The  first  of 
 these  was  headed  by  Lycurgus ;  the  second  by  Mega- 
 cles,  a  grandson  of  the  archon  who  brought  the  mem- 
 orable stain  and  curse  upon  his  house  bv  the  massacre 
 of  the  adherents  of  Cylon ;  and  the  third  by  Pisistratus. 
 Solon,  therefore,  on  his  return  to  Athens,  found  that 
 faction  had  been  actively  labouring  to  pervert  and  undo 
 his  work.  He  had  early  detected  the  secret  designs  ot 
 Pisistratus,  and  is  said  to  have  observed  of  him,  that 
 nothing  but  his  ambition  prevented  him  from  displaying 
 the  highest  qualities  of  a  man  and  a  citizen.  But  it 
 was  in  vain  that  he  endeavoured  to  avert  the  danger, 
 which  he  saw  threatened  by  the  struggle  of  the  factions, 
 and  in  vain  did  he  use  all  his  influence  to  reconcile  their 
 chiefs.  This  was  the  more  difficult,  because  the  views 
 of  all  were  perhaps  equally  selfish,  and  none  was  so 
 conscious  of  his  own  integrity  as  to  rely  on  the  pro- 
 fessions of  the  others.  Pisistratus  is  said  to  have  lis- 
 tened respectfully  to  Solon's  remonstrances  ;  but  he 
 waited  only  for  an  opportunity  of  executing  his  project. 
 When  his  scheme  appeared  to  be  ripe  for  action,  he 
 was  one  day  drawn  in  a  chariot  into  the  public  place, 
 his  own  person  and  his  mules  disfigured  with  recent 
 wounds,  inflicted,  as  the  sequel  proved,  by  his  own 
 hand,  which  he  showed  to  the  multitude,  while  he  told 
 them  that  on  his  way  into  the  country  he  had  narrowly 
 escaped  a  band  of  assassins,  who  had  been  employed 
 to  murder  the  friend  of  the  people.  While  the  indig- 
 nation of  the  crowd  was  fresh,  and  fiom  all  sides  as- 
 surances were  heard  that  they  would  defend  him  from 
 his  enemies,  an  assembly  was  called  by  his  partisans, 
 in  which  one  of  them,  named  Aristo,  came  forward 
 with  a  motion,  that  a  guard  of  fifty  citizens,  armed 
 with  clubs,  should  be  decreed  to  protect  the  person  of 
 Pisistratus.  Solon,  the  only  man  who  ventured  to 
 oppose  this  proposition,  w-arned  the  assembly  of  its 
 pernicious  consequences,  but  in  vain.  The  body-guard 
 was  decreed  ;  and  the  people,  who  eagerly  pa-sstd 
 the  decree,  not  keeping  a  jealous  eye  on  the  manner 
 of  its  execution.  Pisistratus  took  advantage  of  this  to 
 raise  a  force  and  make  himself  master  of  the  otadeL 
 Perhaps  his  partisans  represented  this  as  a  necessary 
 precaution,  to  guard  it  against  the  enemies  of  the 
 people.  Megacles  and  the  Alcmaonidae  left  the  city. 
 Solon,  after  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  rouse  his  coun- 
 trymen against  the  growing  power  which  was  making 
 
PISISTRATUS. 
 
 PISISTRATUS. 
 
 Buch  rapid  strides  towards  tyranny,  is  said  to  have 
 taken  down  his  arms,  and  laid  them  in  the  street  be- 
 fore his  door,  as  a  sign  that  he  had  made  his  last  ef- 
 fort in  the  cause  of  liberty  and  the  laws.  Lycurgus 
 and  his  parly  seem  to  have  submitted  quietly  for  a 
 time  to  the  authority  of  Pisistratus,  waiting,  as  the 
 event  showed,  for  a  more  favourable  opportunity  of 
 ovef.hrowing  him.  The  usurper  was  satisfied  with 
 the  substance  of  power,  and  endeavoured  as  much  as 
 possible  to  prevent  his  dominion  from  being  seen  and 
 felt.  He  made  no  visible  changes  in  the  constitution, 
 but  suffered  the  ordinary  magistrates  to  be  appointed 
 in  the  usual  manner,  the  tribunals  to  retain  their  au- 
 thority, and  the  laws  to  hold  their  course.  In  his  own 
 person  he  affected  the  demeanour  of  a  private  citizen, 
 and  displayed  his  submission  to  the  laws  by  appearing 
 before  the  Areopagus  to  answer  a  charge  of  murder, 
 which,  however,  the  accuser  did  not  think  fit  to  pros- 
 ecute. He  continued  to  show  honour  to  Solon,  to 
 court  his  friendship,  and  ask  his  advice,  which  Solon 
 did  not  think  himself  bound  to  withhold  where  it  might 
 be  useful  to  his  country,  lest  he  should  appear  to  sanc- 
 tion the  usurpation  which  he  had  denounced.  He 
 probably  looked  upon  the  government  of  Pisistratus, 
 though  at  variance  with  the  principles  of  his  constitu- 
 tion, as  a  less  evil  than  would  have  ensued  from  the 
 success  of  either  of  the  other  parties  ;  and  even  as 
 good,  so  far  as  it  prevented  them  from  acquiring  a 
 similar  preponderance.  Solon  died  the  year  following 
 that  in  which  the  revolution  took  place  (13.0.  559),  and 
 Pisistratus  soon  after  lost  the  power  which  he  had 
 usurped,  the  rival  factions  of  Lycurgus  and  Megacles 
 having  united  to  overthrow  him.  But  no  sooner  had 
 these  two  parties  accomplished  their  object,  than  they 
 quarrelled  among  themselves,  and,  at  the  end  of  five 
 years,  Megacles,  finding  himself  the  weaker,  made 
 overtures  of  reconciliation  to  Pisistratus,  and  offered 
 to  bestow  on  him  the  hand  of  his  daughter,  and  to  as- 
 sist him  in  recovering  the  station  he  had  lost.  The 
 contract  being  concluded,  the  two  leaders  concerted 
 a  plan  for  executing  the  main  condition,  the  restoration 
 of  Pisistratus.  For  this  purpose  Herodotus  supposes 
 them  to  have  devised  an  artifice,  which  excites  his  as- 
 tonishment at  the  simplicity  of  the  people  on  whom  it 
 wras  practised,  and  which  appears  to  him  to  degrade 
 the  national  character  of  the  Greeks,  who,  he  observes, 
 had  of  old  been  distinguished  from  the  barbarians  by 
 their  superior  sagacity.  Yet,  in  itself,  the  incident 
 seems  neither  very  extraordinary,  nor  a  proof  that  the 
 contrivers  reckoned  on  an  enormous  measure  of  credu- 
 lity in  their  countrymen.  In  one  of  the  Attic  villages 
 they  found  a  woman,  Phya  by  name,  of  unusually  high 
 etature,  and  comely  form  and  features.  Having  ar- 
 rayed her  in  a  complete  suit  of  armour,  and  instructed 
 her  to  maintain  a  carriage  becoming  the  part  she  was 
 to  assume,  they  placed  her  in  a  chariot,  and  sent  her- 
 alds before  her  to  the  city,  who  proclaimed  that  Mi- 
 nerva herself  was  bringing  back  Pisistratus  to  her  own 
 citadel,  and  exhorted  the  Athenians  to  receive  the  fa- 
 vourite of  the  goddess.  Pisistratus  rode  by  the  wom- 
 an's side.  When  they  reached  the  city,  the  Atheni- 
 ans, according  to  Herodotus,  believing  that  they  saw 
 the  goddess  in  per.soti,  adored  her  and  received  Pisis- 
 tratus. This  story  would  indeed  be  singular  if  we 
 consider  the  expedient  in  the  light  of  a  stratagem,  on 
 which  the  confederates  relied  for  overcoming  the  re- 
 sistance which  they  might  otherwise  have  expected 
 from  their  adversaries.  But  it  seems  quite  as  proba- 
 ble that  the  pageant  was  only  designed  to  add  extra- 
 ordinary solemnity  to  the  entrance  of  Pisistratus,  and 
 to  suggest  the  reflection  that  it  was  by  the  especial 
 favour  of  Heaven  he  had  been  so  unexf)ectedly  re- 
 stored. The  new  coalition  must  have  rendered  all  re- 
 sistance hopeless.  As  the  procession  passed,  the  pop- 
 ulace no  doubt  gazed,  some  in  awe,  all  in  wonder ; 
 but  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that  the  result  would 
 1068 
 
 have  been  different  if  they  had  all  seen  through  the 
 artifice.  Pisistratus,  restored  to  power,  nominally 
 performed  his  part  of  the  compact  by  marrying  the 
 daughter  of  Megacles  ;  but  it  was  soon  discovered  that 
 he  had  no  intention  of  really  uniting  his  blood  with  a 
 family  which  was  commonly  thought  to  be  struck  with 
 an  everlasting  curse,  and  that  he  treated  his  young 
 wife  as  one  only  in  name.  The  Alcmasonidee  were 
 indignant  at  the  affront,  and  at  the  breach  of  faith,  and 
 once  more  determined  to  make  common  cause  with 
 the  parly  of  Lycurgus.  Once  more  the  balance  in- 
 clined against  Pisistratus,  and,  unable  to  resist  the 
 combined  force  of  his  adversaries,  he  retirtd  into  exile 
 to  Eretria  in  Eubosa.  Here  he  deliberated  with  his 
 sons  Hippias,  Hipparchus,  and  Thessalus,  the  offspring 
 of  a  previous  marriage,  whether  he  should  not  aban- 
 don all  thoughts  of  returning  to  Attica.  They  appear 
 to  have  been  divided  in  their  wishes  or  opinions ;  but 
 Hippias,  the  eldest,  prevailed  on  his  father  again  to 
 make  head  against  his  enemies.  He  possessed  lands 
 on  the  river  Strymon  in  Thrace,  which  yielded  a  large 
 revenue,  and  his  interest  was  strong  in  several  Greek 
 cities,  especially  at  Thebes  and  Argos.  He  now  ex- 
 erted  it  to  the  utmost  to  gather  contributions  towards 
 his  projected  enterprise,  and  by  the  end  of  ten  years 
 he  had  completed  his  preparations  ;  a  body  of  merce- 
 naries was  brought  to  him  from  Argos,  the  Thebans 
 distinguished  themselves  by  the  liberality  of  their  sub- 
 sidies, and  Lygdamis,  one  of  the  most  powerful  men 
 in  the  island  of  Naxos,  came  to  his  aid  with  all  the 
 troops  and  money  he  could  raise.  In  the  eleventh  or 
 twelfth  year  after  his  last  expulsion,  he  set  sail  from 
 Eretria,  and  landed  on  the  plain  of  Marathon,  to  re- 
 cover his  sovereignty  by  open  force.  The  govern- 
 ment of  his  opponents  was  not  popular,  and  Pisistra- 
 tus had  many  friends  in  the  country  and  in  Athens, 
 who,  on  his  arrival,  flocked  to  his  camp.  The  result 
 proved  a  fortunate  one.  The  leaders  of  the  hostile 
 factions  found  themselves  deserted  eventually  by  all 
 but  their  most  zealous  adherents,  who,  with  them, 
 abandoned  the  city,  and  left  Pisistratus  undisputed 
 master  of  Athens.  What  he  had  so  hardly  won,  he 
 prepared  to  hold  henceforth  with  a  firmer  grasp.  He 
 no  longer  relied  on  the  afieciions  of  the  common  peo- 
 ple, but  took  a  body  of  foreign  mercenaries  into  con- 
 stant pay  ;  and  seizing  the  children  of  some  of  the 
 principal  citizens,  who  had  not  made  their  escape, 
 and  whom  he  suspected  of  being  ill-disposed  towards 
 him,  he  sent  them  to  Naxos,  which  he  had  reduced 
 under  the  power  of  his  friend  Lygdamis,  to  br  kept  as 
 hostages.  Pisistratus  appears  to  have  maintained  a 
 considerable  naval  force,  and  to  have  extended  the 
 Athenian  pov^-er  abroad  ;  while  at  home  he  still  pre- 
 served the  forms  of  Solon's  institutions,  and  courted 
 popularity  by  munificent  largesses,  and  by  throwing 
 open  his  gardens  to  the  poorer  citizens.  (Athenceus, 
 12,  p.  532  )  At  the  same  time  he  tightened  the  reins 
 of  government,  and  he  appears  to  have  made  use  of 
 the  authority  of  the  Areopagus  to  maintain  a  rigorous 
 police.  He  enforced  Solon's  law,  which  required  ev- 
 ery citizen  to  give  an  account  of  his  means  of  gaining 
 a  subsistence,  and  punished  idleness  ;  and  hence  by 
 some  he  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  author  of  it. 
 It  afforded  him  a  pretext  for  removing  from  the  city  a 
 great  number  of  the  poorer  sort,  who  had  no  regular 
 employment,  and  for  compelling  them  to  engage  in 
 rural  occupations,  in  which,  however,  he  assisted  the 
 indigent  with  his  purse.  The  same  policy  prompted 
 him,  no  less,  perhaps,  than  his  love  for  the  arts,  to  adorn 
 Athens  with  many  useful  or  magnificent  works. 
 Among  the  latter  was  a  temple  of  .Apollo,  and  one 
 dedicated  to  the  Olympian  Jove,  of  which  he  only  lived 
 to  complete  the  substructions,  and  which  remained 
 unfinished  for  700  years,  exciting  the  wonder,  and 
 sometimes  the  despair,  of  posterity  by  the  vastness  of 
 the  design,  in  which  it  surpassed  every  other  that  lh« 
 
PIS 
 
 PISO. 
 
 ancient  world  ever  raised  in  honour  of  the  father  of  the 
 gods.  Among  the  monuments  in  which  splendour  and 
 usefulness  were  equally  combined,  were  ihe  Lyceum, 
 a  garden  at  a  short  distance  from  Athens,  sacred  to  the 
 Ijycian  Apollo,  where  stately  buildings,  destined  for 
 the  exercises  o(  the  Athenian  youth,  rose  amid  shady 
 groves,  which  became  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
 haunts  of  [ihilosophy;  and  the  fountain  of  Callirrhoe, 
 which,  from  the  new  channels  in  which  Pisistratus  dis- 
 tributed its  waters,  was  afterward  called  the  fountain 
 o(  the  Nine  Springs  ('EvveuKpovvoc;).  To  defray  the 
 expense  of  these  and  his  other  undertakings,  he  laid  a 
 tithe  on  the  produce  of  the  land:  an  impost  which 
 seems  to  have  excited  great  discontent  in  the  class  af- 
 fected by  it,  and,  so  far  as  it  was  applied  to  the  pub- 
 lic buildings,  was,  in  fact,  a  tax  on  the  rich  for  the  em- 
 ployment of  the  poor  ;  but  which,  if  we  might  trust  a 
 late  and  obscure  writer,  was  only  revived  by  Pisistra- 
 tus after  the  example  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Attica. 
 {Diog.  Laert.,  1.  53.)  He  is  also  believed  to  have 
 been  the  author  of  a  wise  and  beneficent  law,  which 
 Solon,  however,  is  said  to  have  suggested,  for  support- 
 ing citizens  disabled  in  war  at  the  public  expense. 
 According  to  a  tradition  once  very  generally  received, 
 posterity  has  been  indebted  to  him  for  a  benefit  greater 
 than  any  which  he  conferred  on  his  contemporaries,  in 
 the  preservation  of  the  Homeric  poems,  which  till 
 now  had  been  scattered  in  unconnected  rhapsodies. 
 After  every  abatement  that  can  be  required  in  this 
 story  for  misunderstanding  and  exaggeration,  we  can- 
 not doubt  that  Pisistratus  at  least  made  a  collection  of 
 the  poet's  works,  superior  in  extent  and  accuracy  to 
 all  that  had  preceded  it,  and  thus  certainly  diffused  the 
 knowledge  of  them  more  widely  among  his  country- 
 men, perhaps  preserved  something  that  might  have 
 been  lost  to  future  generations.  In  either  case  he 
 might  claim  the  same  merit  as  a  lover  of  literature  : 
 and  this  was  not  a  taste  which  derived  any  part  of  its 
 gratification  from  the  vanity  of  exclusive  possession. 
 He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  person  in  Greece  who 
 collected  a  library,  and  to  have  earned  a  still  higher 
 praise  by  the  genuine  liberality  with  which  he  im- 
 parted its  contents  to  the  public.  On  the  whole, 
 though  we  cannot  approve  of  the  steps  by  which  he 
 mounted  to  power,  we  must  own  that  he  made  a 
 princely  use  of  it ;  and  may  believe  that,  though  un- 
 der his  dynasty  Athens  could  never  have  risen  to  the 
 greatness  she  afterward  attained,  she  was  indebted  to 
 his  rule  for  a  season  of  repose,  during  which  she  gain- 
 ed much  of  that  strength  which  she  finally  unfolded. 
 Pisistratus  retained  his  sovereignty  to  the  end  of  his 
 life,  and  died  at  an  advanced  age,  thirty-three  years 
 after  his  first  usurpation,  B.(3.  527.  He  was  succeed- 
 ed by  his  sons,  Hippias,  Hipparchus,  and  Thessalus. 
 {ThirlwaWs  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  55,  seqq.) 
 
 Piso,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family  at  Rome,  a 
 branch  of  the  Calpurnian  gens,  which  house  claimed 
 descent  from  Calpus,  the  son  of  Numa  Pompilius.  The 
 family  of  the  Pisones  had  both  a  patrician  and  plebeian 
 side.  The  principal  individuals  of  the  name  were  :  I. 
 C.  Calpurnlus  Piso,  city  prajtor  in  212  B.C.,  and  who 
 had  the  command  of  the  Capitol  and  citadel  when  Han- 
 nibal marched  out  against  Rome.  He  was  afterward 
 sent  into  f]truria  as  commander  of  the  Roman  forces, 
 and  at  a  subsequent  period  had  charge  of  Capua  in 
 Campania,  after  which  his  command  in  Etruria  was 
 renewed.  {Liv.,  25,  41.— /(i.,  26,  10,  15,  et  28.— Id., 
 27,  6,  &c.) — II.  C.  Calpurnius  Piso,  was  przetor  B.C. 
 187.  He  obtained  Farther  Spain  for  his  province, 
 where  he  signalized  his  valour,  and,  in  conjunction 
 with  L.  Quintius  Crispinus,  praetor  of  Hither  Spain, 
 gamed  a  decisive  victory  over  the  revolted  Spaniards. 
 More  than  thirty  thousand  of  the  enemy  fell  in  the  bat- 
 tle. On  his  return  to  Rome  he  obtained  a  triumph. 
 He  subsequently  attained  to  the  consulship  (B.C.  180), 
 in  which  office  he  died,  having  been  poisoned,  as  was 
 
 believed,  by  his  wife  Hostilia.  (Liv.,  39,  6. — Id.,  39,  8 
 et  21.— Id,  39,  30,  seq.—Id.,  40,  85.— /rf.,  40,  37.)— 
 III.  L.  Calpurnius  Piso,  surnamed  Frugi,  was  tribune 
 of  the  commons  B.C.  149,  and  afterward  twice  consul 
 (135  and  133  B.C.).  Piso  was  one  of  the  most  re- 
 markable men  of  the  Roman  state,  from  the  union  of 
 talents  and  virtues  that  marked  his  character.  An  able 
 speaker,  a  learned  lawyer,  a  sound  statesman,  and  a 
 wise  and  valiant  commander,  he  distinguished  himself 
 still  more  by  his  purity  of  morals,  and  by  a  frugality 
 and  old-Roman  plainness  of  life  which  obtained  for  hiin 
 the  surname  of  Fnigi.  He  quieted  the  troubles  to 
 which  the  revolt  of  the  slaves  had  given  rise  in  Sicily, 
 and  signalized  his  valour  against  the  insurgents.  Piso 
 wrote  memoirs  or  annals  of  his  time,  which,  according 
 to  Cicero  {Brut.,  27),  were  composed  in  a  very  dry 
 and  lifeless  manner,  although  Aulus  Gellius  (11,  14) 
 speaks  of  their  "  simpliassima  suavitas."  (Ctc,  de 
 Orat.,  2,  2^.  — Id.,  -pro  Font.,  2i.  —  Id.,  in  Verr.,  5, 
 69.— Val.  Max.,  2,  7.  —Id.,  4,  3.  —Le  Clerc,  Jour- 
 naux  chez  les  Komains,  p.  26,  150.) — IV.  L.  Calpur- 
 nius Piso,  son  of  the  preceding,  inherited,  if  not  the 
 talents,  at  least  the  virtues,  of  his  father.  He  was  sent 
 praetor  into  Spain,  where  he  died  soon  after.  (Ctc,  m 
 Verr.,  1,  2b— Id.  ib.,  3,  85,  &c.)— V.  C.  Calpurnius 
 Piso,  was  consul  with  Acilius  Glabrio,  67  B.C.,  and 
 signalized  his  magistracy  by  warmly  defending  the 
 prerogatives  of  the  consular  office  against  the  attacks 
 of  the  commons  and  their  tribunes.  He  was  also  the 
 author  of  a  law  against  bribery  at  elections.  (Cic, 
 pro  Flacc.,  75.— Val.  Max.,  3,  8.)— VI.  A  young  Ro- 
 man, whom  indigence  (the  result  of  profligate  habits) 
 and  a  turbulent  disposition  induced  to  take  part  in 
 the  conspiracy  cf  Catiline.  The  leading  men  at  Rome, 
 anxious  to  get  rid  of  a  troublesome  and  dangerous  in- 
 dividual, caused  him  to  be  sent  as  qusestor,  with  prsetori- 
 an  powers,  into  Hither  Spain.  He  was  not  long  after 
 assassinated  in  his  province,  (Sail.,  Cat.,  I8,seq.) — 
 VII.  C.  Calpurnius  Frugi,  a  descendant  of  the  individ- 
 ual mentioned  above  (No.  III.),  and  son-in-law  of  Ci- 
 cero. He  was  the  first  husband  of  Tullia,  and  is  high- 
 ly praised  by  Cicero  for  his  virtues  and  his  oratorical 
 abilities.  Piso  exerted  himself  strenuously  for  the  re- 
 call of  his  father-in-law,  but  died  a  short  time  before 
 this  took  place.  {Cic,  ad  Q.  post  red.,  3. — Id.,  Ep. 
 ad  Fam.,  14,  \.—Id,  Brut.,  78,  &c.)— VIII.  L.  Cal- 
 purnius Piso,  falher-in-law  of  Caesar,  and  consul  B.C. 
 58.  Before  attaining  to  this  office  he  had  been  ac- 
 cused of  extortion,  and  only  escaped  condemnation 
 through  the  influence  of  his  son-in-law.  Cicero  was 
 allied  to  Piso  by  marriage,  and  the  latter  had  given 
 him  many  marks  of  friendship  and  confidence;  but  Clo- 
 dius  eventually  gained  Piso  over  to  his  views,  by  prom- 
 ising to  obtain  for  him  the  province  of  Macedonia,  and 
 he  accordingly  joined  the  demagogue  m  his  efforts  to 
 procure  the  banishment  of  Cicero,  which  event  took 
 place  in  Piso's  consulship.  Having  obtained  the  re- 
 ward of  his  perfidy,  he  set  out  for  his  province  ;  but 
 his  whole  conduct  there  was  marked  by  debauchery, 
 rapine,  and  cruelty.  The  senate  recalled  him,  chiefly 
 through  the  exertions  of  Cicero,  who  in  this  way  aven- 
 ged himself  on  Piso  for  his  previous  conduct.  On 
 Piso's  return,  he  had  the  hardihood  to  attack  Cicero 
 in  open  senate,  and  complain  of  the  treatment  he  had 
 received  at  his  hands.  He  reproached  him  also  with 
 the  disgrace  of  exile,  with  excessive  vanity,  and  other 
 weaknesses.  Cicero  replied,  on  the  spot,  in  an  invec- 
 tive speech,  the  severest,  perhaps,  that  ever  fell  from 
 the  lips  of  any  man,  in  which  the  whole  life  and  con- 
 duct of  Piso  are  portrayed  in  the  darkest  colours, 
 and  which  must  hand  him  down  as  a  detestable  char- 
 acter to  all  posterity.  Notwithstanding  this,  how- 
 ever, Piso  was  afterward  censor  along  with  Appius 
 Claudius  (A.U.C.  702);  and  we  find  him,  at  a  sub- 
 sequent period,  appointed  one  of  the  three  commis- 
 sioners who  were  sent  by  the  senate  to  treat  with  An- 
 
 1069 
 
PIS 
 
 PI  T 
 
 lony.  Piso,  in  Ms  outward  deportment,  if  we  be'.icve 
 the  picture  drawn  of  hiin  by  Cicero,  affected  the  mien 
 and  garb  of  a  philosopher ;  but  this  garb  of  rigid  vir- 
 tue covered  a  most  lewd  and  vicious  mind.  (^Cic.  ni 
 Fts. — Mtddkloti's  Life  of  Cicero  ) — IX.  L.  Calpurni- 
 us  Piso,  son  of  the  preceding,  inherited  many  of  the 
 vices  of  his  father,  but  redeemed  them,  in  some  de- 
 gree, by  his  talents.  He  was  at  first  one  of  the  warm- 
 est opponents  of  the  party  of  Csesar,  and  took  an  ac- 
 tive part  in  the  war  in  Africa.  {Hilt.,  Bell.  Af)  Af- 
 ter the  death  of  C«sar,  he  followed  the  fortunes  of 
 Brutus  and  Cassius,  until  the  overthrow  of  the  repub- 
 lican forces.  Being  at  length  restored  to  his  country, 
 he  refused  all  public  offices,  until  Augustus  prevailed 
 upon  him  to  accept  the  consulship.  This  was  in  A  U.C. 
 731,  Augustus  himself  being  his  colleague.  He  was 
 afterward  named  governor  of  Pamphylia,  and  conduct- 
 ed himself  with  great  ability  in  his  province.  Having 
 subsequently  received  orders  to  pass  into  Europe,  in 
 order  to  oppose  the  Bessi,  a  Thrscian  tribe,  he  gained 
 a  complete  victory  over  them.  He  was  appointed, 
 after  this,  prefect  of  the  city  by  Tiberius,  whose  fa- 
 vour he  is  said  to  have  gained  by  drinking  with  him 
 for  two  days  and  two  nights  in  succession.  {Pirn., 
 14,  28.)  Piso  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  pleas- 
 ure, who  passed  his  evenings  at  table,  and  slept  till 
 noon  ;  but  he  possessed  such  capacity  for  business,  that 
 the  remainder  of  the  day  sufficed  for  the  despatch  of 
 those  important  affairs  with  which  he  was  successive- 
 ly intrusted  by  Augustus  and  Tiberius.  It  was  to  this 
 individual  and  his  two  sons  that  the  epistle  of  Horace, 
 coinmouly  called  the  "  Art  of  Poetry,"  was  addressed. 
 {Stielon.,  Vit.  Tib.,A'i.—Scnec.,  Ep.,  83.  — Veil.  Pa- 
 (crc,  2,  92.) — X.  Cn.  Calpurnius  Piso,  son  of  the  pre- 
 ceding, was  a  man  of  violent  passions,  impatient  of 
 control,  and  possessing  much  of  the  haughty  spirit  of 
 his  sire.  To  the  pride  derived  from  such  a  father  he 
 united  the  insolence  of  wealth,  acquired  by  his  mar- 
 riage with  Plancina,  who,  besides  her  high  descent, 
 possessed  immoderate  riches.  Tiberius  appointed  him 
 governor  of  Syria,  and  was  said  to  have  given  him  se- 
 cret instructions  to  thwart  the  movements  of  Germani- 
 cus.  Plancina,  in  like  manner,  had  her  lesson  from 
 Livia,  with  full  instructions  to  mortify,  in  every  possi- 
 ble way,  the  pride  of  Agrippina.  These  machinations 
 proved  but  too  successful.  Germanicus  was  cut  off, 
 and  Piso,  accused  of  having  poisoned  him  by  both 
 his  widow  Agrippina  and  the  public  voice,  and  finding 
 himself  deserted  by  all,  even  by  the  emperor,  put  an 
 end  to  his  existence,  A. D.  20.  (Tacit.,  Ann.,  2,  A3. — 
 Id.  2,  55.— /f/.,  2,  69,  seqg.)—Xl.  C.  Calpurnius  Piso, 
 leader  of  the  celebrated  conspiracy  against  Nero.  His 
 eloquence  and  his  amiable  qualities  had  conciliated  to 
 such  a  degree  the  public  esteem,  that  the  majority  of 
 the  conspirators  intended  him  as  the  successor  of  the 
 emperor.  The  plot  was  discovered  on  the  very  morn- 
 ing of  the  day  intended  for  its  execution,  and  Piso,  in- 
 stead of  at  once  adopting  energetic  measures,  and  at- 
 tempting to  seize  upon  the  throne  by  open  force,  as 
 his  friends  advised  him  to  do,  shut  himself  up  in  his 
 mansion  and  opened  his  veins.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,i5,AS, 
 seqq  ) — XII.  C.  Piso  Licinianus,  adopted  son  of  the 
 Emperor  Galba,  made  himself  universally  esteemed  by 
 his  integrity,  his  disinterestedness,  and  by  an  austerity 
 of  manners  that  recalled  the  earlier  days  of  Rome. 
 He  was  put  to  death,  by  order  of  Otho,  after  the  fall  of 
 Galba,  at  the  age  of  31  years.  {Tacit.,  Hist.,  1,  14. 
 —Id.  ib.,  3,  68.— 7(^  2b.,  4,  11,  40.) 
 
 PisTOR  {Baker),  a  surname  given  to  Jupiter  by  the 
 Romans,  because,  when  their  city  was  taken  by  the 
 Gauls,  the  god  was  believed  to  have  inspired  them 
 with  the  idea  of  throwing  down  loaves  from  the  Tar- 
 peian  Hill  where  they  were  besieged,  that  the  enemy 
 might  suppose  that  they  were  not  in  want  of  provisions, 
 though,  in  reality,  they  were  near  surrendering  through 
 famine.  This  deceived  the  Gauls,  and  they  soon 
 1070 
 
 after  raised  the  siege.     {Ovid,  Fast.,  6,  377,  seqq.-^ 
 Lactant.,  1,  20.) 
 
 PisTORiA,  a  town  of  Elruria,  northeast  of  Luca, 
 and  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines.  Pliny  calls  it 
 Pistorium  (3,  5),  but  Ptolemy  (p.  64)  and  others  give 
 it  the  appellation  of  Pistoria.  The  modern  name  is 
 Pistom.  This  town  is  memorable  in  the  history  of 
 Rome  as  having  witnessed  in  its  vicinity  the  close  of 
 Catiline's  desperate  but  short  career.  {Sail.,  Cat., 
 62.)  The  spot  on  which  the  action  was  fought  is  loo 
 imperfectly  marked  by  the  concise  narrative  of  Sallust 
 to  be  now  recognised.  We  may  conjecture  that  it 
 was  to  the  north  of  Pisloia,  and  near  the  modern  road 
 from  that  place  to  Modena.  {Cramer's  Aiic.  Greece, 
 vol.   1,  p.  177.) 
 
 PiTANE,  a  town  of  .iEolis,  in  Asia  Minor,  to  the 
 northwest  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Caicus.  Scylax 
 makes  mention  of  it,  and  Slrabo  gives  it  two  harbours. 
 {Scylax,  Peripl.,  p.  37. — Strab.,  614.)  The  small 
 river  Evenus  flowed  near  its  walls.  Herodotus  names 
 this  place  among  the  eleven  cities  of  .^olis.  {Man- 
 ncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  398.) 
 
 PiTHEctJsA.      Vid.  iEnaria. 
 
 PiTHoi.EOiN,  a  foolish  poet,  the  author  of  some  silly 
 epigrams,  in  which  Greek  and  Latin  expressions  were 
 intermingled  together.  {Schol.  ad  Hor.,  Sat.,  1,  10, 
 22.)  Bentley  thinks  that  the  individual  to  whom 
 Horace  refers  was  the  same  of  whom  Suetonius  {Vit. 
 Jul.,  75)  makes  mention,  under  the  name  of  Pitholaus, 
 as  having  been  the  author  of  some  defamatory  verses 
 against  Julius  Csesar,  and  that  Horace  styles  him  Pi 
 tholeon,  because  Pitholaus  would  have  been  unman 
 ageable  in  hexameter  verse.     {Bentl.  ad  Horat.,  I.  c.) 
 
 PiTTAcus,  a  native  of  Mytilene  in  Lesbos,  and  one 
 of  the  so-called  wise  men  of  Greece,  was  born  aboui 
 650  B.C.  Having  obtained  popularity  among  his 
 countrymen  by  successfully  opposing  the  tyrant  Me- 
 lanchrus,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  a 
 fleet,  in  a  war  with  the  Athenians  concerning  some 
 territory  which  they  had  seized  in  the  island.  In  the 
 course  of  this  war,  the  Athenian  commander  Phryno, 
 a  man  of  uncommon  size  and  strength,  challenged 
 him  to  single  combat.  Providing  himself  with  a  net, 
 which  he  concealed  under  his  buckler,  he  took  the  first 
 opportunity  to  throw  it  over  the  head  of  his  antago- 
 nist, and  by  this  means  gained  an  easy  victory.  {Diug. 
 Laert.,  Vit.  Pit.  —  Polyoin.,  1,  25.)  According  to 
 Strabo's  account,  Pittacus  came  into  the  field  armed 
 with  a  casting-net,  a  trident,  and  a  dagger  {Strab., 
 599),  and  it  is  said  that  from  this  stratagem  of  the  Myt- 
 ilenean  was  borrowed  the  mode  of  fighting  practised 
 by  the  Roman  gladiators  called  Reliarii.  {Poly an., 
 I.  c. — Festus,  s.  V.  Retianus.)  From  this  time  Pit- 
 tacus was  held  in  high  esteem  among  the  Mytileneans, 
 and  was  intrusted  with  the  supreme  power  in  the  state. 
 {Artstot.,  Polit.,  3,  15. — Diog.  Laert.,  in  Vit.)  Among 
 other  valuable  presents,  his  countrymen  offered  him 
 as  much  of  the  lands  which  had  been  recovered  from 
 the  Athenians  as  he  chose  ;  but  he  only  accepted  of  so 
 much  as  he  could  measure  by  a  single  cast  of  a  javelin  : 
 and  one  half  of  this  small  portion  he  afterward  dedicated 
 to  Apollo,  saying,  concerning  the  remainder,  that  the 
 half  was  better  than  the  whole.  {Plut.,  de  Herod. 
 Malign.,  p.  857.  — Op.,  ed.  Petske,  vol.  9,  p.  265. — 
 Hcs.,  Op.  et.  D.,  40.)  Cornelius  Nepos  says,  that  the 
 Mytileneans  offered  him  many  thousand  acres,  but  that 
 he  took  only  a  hundred.  {Vit.  Thrasyb.,  4,  11.) 
 Pittacus  displayed  great  moderation  in  his  treatment 
 o{  his  enemies,  among  whom  one  of  the  most  violent 
 was  the  poet  Alcasus,  who  frequently  made  him  the 
 object  of  his  satire.  Finding  it  necessary  to  lay  se- 
 vere restrictions  upon  drunkenness,  to  which  the  Les- 
 bians were  particularly  addicted,  Pittacus  passed  a 
 law  which  subjected  offenders  of  this  class  to  double 
 punishment  for  any  crime  committed  in  a  state  of  in- 
 to.xication.     When  he  had  established  such  regulations 
 
PLA 
 
 PLA 
 
 m  the  island   as  promised  to  secure  its  peace  and 
 
 Erosperity,  he  voluiitanly  resigned  his  power,  which 
 0  had  held  for  ten  years,  and  retired  to  private  life. 
 — The  following  maxims  and  precepts  are  ascribed  to 
 him.  The  first  oftice  of  prudence  is  to  foresee  threat- 
 ening misfortunes,  and  prevent  them.  Power  discov- 
 ers the  man.  Never  talk  of  your  schemes  before  they 
 are  executed,  lest,  if  you  fail  to  accomplish  them,  you 
 be  exposed  to  the  double  mortification  of  disappoint- 
 ment and  ridicule.  Whatever  you  do,  do  it  well. 
 Do  not  that  to  your  neighbour  which  you  would  take 
 ill  from  him.  I3e  watchful  of  opportunities.  {Diog. 
 Laert.,  in  Vit.  —  Pluf..,  Conviv.  Sap.  —  Lurcher,  ad 
 Herod.,  1,  27.— Enfield,  Hist.  Phil.,  vol.  1,  p.  144.) 
 
 PiTTHEus.  a  king  of  TVoezene  in  Argoiis,  son  of 
 Pelops  and  Hippodamia.  He  gave  his  daughter  .^thra 
 in  marriage  to  iflgeus,  king  of  Athens,  and  brought 
 up  Theseus  at  his  court.  ( Vtd.  Theseus  )  He  also 
 reared  Hippolytus,  the  son  of  Theseus.  {Eunp.,Hip- 
 poL,  11. — Schol.,ad  he.)  Pitlheus  was  famed  for  his 
 wisdom,  and  Pausanias  ascribes  to  him  a  work  on  the 
 art  of  speaking,  given  to  the  world  by  a  native  of  Epi- 
 daurus,  and  which  he  says  he  himself  saw.  He  also 
 states,  that  Pitlheus  taught  this  same  art  in  a  temple 
 of  the  Muses  at  Trcezene.  The  same  writer  likewise 
 mentions  the  tomb  of  Piltheus,  which  was  still  seen 
 in  his  day,  and  on  which  were  three  thrones  or  seats 
 of  white  stone,  on  which  the  monarch  and  two  assist- 
 ants were  accustomed  to  sit  when  dispensing  justice. 
 The  whole  story  of  this  monarch,  however,  appears  to 
 be  mythical  in  its  character.  {Pausan.,  2,  31. — Pltit., 
 Vit.  Thes.) 
 
 PiTYONESos,  a  small  island  off  the  coast  of  Argoiis. 
 It  lay  opposite  to  Epidaurus,  and  was  situate  six  miles 
 from  the  coast,  and  seventeen  from  ^Egina.  {Pltn., 
 4,  11.) 
 
 PiTYusA,  a  small  island  off  the  coast  of  Argoiis, 
 near  Arislera.  The  modern  name  is  2\dea.  {Plin., 
 4,  12.) 
 
 PiTYiJs^,  a  group  of  small  islands  in  the  Mediter- 
 ranean, oil"  the  coast  of  Spain,  and  lying  to  the  south- 
 west of  the  Baleares.  They  derived  their  name  from 
 the  number  of  pine-trees  {nirvQ,  a  pine)  which  grew 
 in  them.  The  largest  is  Ebusus  or  hnca,  and  next  to 
 it  is  Ophiusa  or  las  Columbrctes.  {Mela,  2,  7. — 
 Plin,  3,  5.) 
 
 Placentia,  a  city  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  at  the  con- 
 fluence of  the  Trebia  and  Padus.  It  is  now  Piaccnza. 
 This  place  was  colonized  by  the  Romans,  with  Cre- 
 mona, A.U.C  535,  to  serve  as  a  bulwark  against  the 
 Gauls,  and  to  oppose  the  threatened  approach  of 
 Hannibal.  {Polyb.,  3,  40.— Lju.,  21,  2^.— Veil.  Pa- 
 terc  ,  1,  14.)  Its  utility  in  this  latter  respect  was  fully 
 proved,  by  its  affording  a  secure  retreat  to  the  Roman 
 general  after  the  battle  of  Ticinus,  and  more  especially 
 after  the  disaster  of  Trebia.  (Polyb.,  3,  66. — Liv., 
 21,  56.)  Placentia  withstood  all  the  efforts  of  the 
 victorious  Hannibal,  and  also,  eleven  years  after,  the 
 attempts  which  his  brother  Hasdrubal  made  to  obtain 
 possession  of  it.  The  resistance  which  it  offered  to 
 the  latter  caused  a  delay  that  led  to  his  overthrow,  and 
 thus  eventuallv,  perhaps,  saved  the  empire.  After  the 
 termination  of  the  second  Punic  war,  it  was,  however, 
 taken  and  burned  by  the  Gauls,  headed  by  Hamilcar 
 the  Carthaginian  {Lw.,  31,  10),  but  soon  after  was  re- 
 stored by  the  consul  Valerius,  557  A.U.C.  (Liv.,  34, 
 21  )  Placentia  had  acquired  the  rights  of  a  munici- 
 pal city  in  Cicero's  lime.  (Or.  in  Pis.,  1.)  Strabo 
 speaks  of  it  as  a  celebrated  town  (216),  and  Tacitus 
 extols  it  as  a  powerful  and  opulent  colony.  (Hist.,  2, 
 17,  seqq.)  Its  theatre,  situate  without  the  walls,  was 
 burned  in  the  civil  war  between  Otho  and  VitelHus. 
 (SwJ.,  Olh.,  9.— Plin.,  3,  15.— Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 voi.  i,  p.  79,  scqq.) 
 
 Placidia,  a  daughter  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  and 
 sister  to  Arcadius  and  Honorius.     She  resided  most 
 
 commonly  at  the  court  of  the  latter,  and  was  present 
 when  Rome  was  first  invested  by  the  arms  of  Alaric, 
 being  then  about  twenty  years  of  age.  Placidia  be- 
 came a  ho-stage  in  the  hands  of  the  victor,  according 
 to  some  a  captive,  and  her  personal  attractions  won 
 for  her  the  hand  of  Ataulphus  or  Adolphus,  the  brother 
 in-law  of  Alaric,  and  king  of  the  Visigoths.  After  the 
 death  of  Ataulphus,  she  married  Constantins,  and  be- 
 came the  mother  of  Valenlmian  III.  Havinp  lost  her 
 second  husband,  she  acted  as  guardian  for  her  »on,  and 
 reigned  twenty-five  years  in  his  name,  and  the  charac- 
 ter of  that  unworthy  emperor  gradually  countenanced 
 the  suspicion,  that  Placidia  had  enervated  his  youth 
 by  a  dissolute  education,  and  studiously  diverted  bis 
 attention  from  every  manly  and  honourable  pursuit. 
 Amid  the  decay  of  military  spirit,  her  armies  were 
 commanded  by  two  generals,  Aetius  and  Boniface, 
 who  may  be  deservedly  named  as  the  last  of  the  Re- 
 mans. Placidia  died  at  Rome,  A.D.  450.  She  was 
 buried  at  Ravenna,  where  her  sepulchre,  and  even  her 
 corpse,  seated  in  a  chair  of  cypress  wood,  were  pre- 
 served for  ages.  (Ducange,  Fam.  Byzant.,  p.  72. — 
 Tillemont,  Hist,  des  Emp.,  vol.  5,  p.  260,  386,  &c. — 
 Id.  lb.,  vol.  6,  p.  240.  —  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  c. 
 31,  33,  35.) 
 
 Planasia,  a  small  island  between  Corsica  and  Ilva, 
 now  Pianosa.  Tacitus  relates,  that  Augustus  was 
 persuaded  by  Livia  to  banish  his  nephew  Agrippa 
 Posthumus  hither.  (A7in.,  1,  3  — Jbid.,  2,  39.)  This 
 island  is  also  noticed  by  Strabo  (123)  and  Ptolemy 
 (p.  67). 
 
 Plancina,  granddaughter  of  L.  Munatius  Plancus, 
 and  wife  of  Piso,  governor  of  Syria   in   the  reign   of 
 Tiberius.     (Vid.  Piso  X.)     She  was  supposed  lo  have 
 been  an  accomplice  with  her  husband  in  shortening 
 the  days  of  Germanicus,  but  was   saved  by  the  in- 
 fluence of  Livia,  her  protectress.     As  long  as  Piso, 
 who  had  been  put  to  his  trial,  had  any  hope  of  ac- 
 quittal, her  language  was  that  of  a  woman  willing  to 
 share  all  changes  with  her  husband,  and,  if  he  was 
 doomed  to  fall,  determined  to  perish  with  him.     But, 
 when  she  had  obtained  safety  for  herself,  she  left  him 
 to  his  fate.     At  a  later  period,  however,  she  was  about 
 being   proceeded    against    for  her   criminal  conduct, 
 when,  in  despair,  she  laid  violent  hands  on  herself,  and 
 suffered  at  last  the  slow  but  just  reward  of  a  flagitious 
 life.     (Turit.,  Ann.,  2,  43,  55,  75;   3,  9,  15;   6,  26.) 
 Plancus,  I.  T.  Bursa,  a  tribune  of  the  commons, 
 52  B.C.     He  took  part  in  the  troubles  e.xcited  by  the 
 death  of  Clodius,  and,  on  the  expiration  of  his  office, 
 was  accused  and  condemned,  notwithstanding  the  in- 
 terest made  by  Pornpey  in  his  behalf.     (Cic.,  Ep.  ad 
 Fam.,  2,  9.) — II.   L.  Munatius,  a  native  of  Tibur,  was 
 in  early  life  a  pupil  of  Cicero's,  and  obtained  consid- 
 erable eminence  in  the  oratorical  art.     He  afterward 
 commanded  a  legion  under  Caesar  in  Gaul.     On  the 
 assassination  of  that  individual,  Plancus  acted  at  first  a 
 very  equivocal  part,  and  frequently  changed  sides,  at- 
 taching himself  successively  to  each  party  according  as 
 it  became  powerful.     Thus  we  find  him,  after  llie  vic- 
 tory at  Mutina,  affecting  the  utmost  zeal  for  the  cause  of 
 Brutus  and  freedom  ;   and  subsequently,  when  he  saw 
 Antony  re-established  in  power,  he  went  over  to  him 
 with  four  legions  which  he  had  at  the  time  under  his 
 command.      He   obtained    upon    this   the   consulship 
 along  with  Lepidus,  B.C.  42.     Tired  at  last  of  Anto- 
 ny, he  sided  with  Octavius,  who  received  him  with 
 tlie  utmost  cordiality.      It  was  Plancus  who  proposed 
 in  the  senate  that  the  title  of  Augustus  should  be  be- 
 stowed on  Octavius.      The   ancient   writers  reproach 
 him,  besides  his  political  versatility,  with  a  total  forget- 
 I'ulness  on  one  occasion  of  all  dignity  and  self-respect. 
 This  was  at  the  court  of  Cleopatra,  in  Alexandrea, 
 when  he  appeared  on  the  public  stage  in  the  character 
 of  a  sea-god,  having  his   person   painted   green,  and 
 in  a  slate  of  almost  complete  nudity  ;  wearing  a  crown 
 
 1071 
 
PL  A 
 
 PLAT.EA. 
 
 of  reeds  on  his  head,  and  with  the  tail  of  a  fish  attached 
 to  his  body  behind,  Plancus,  however,  appears  to 
 have  been  a  man  of  literary  tastes,  and  we  have  an 
 ode  addressed  to  him  by  Horace  on  one  occasion, 
 when  he  had  become  suspected  of  disaffection  by  Au- 
 gustus, and  was  meditaimg  his  departure  from  Italy. 
 {Pint..  Vit.  Ant.— Veil.  Patcrc,  2,  63.—Borat,  Od., 
 1,  7,  &c.) 
 
 Planudes,  Masimus,  a  Greek  monk,  commonly 
 designated  "  of  Constantinople,"  probably  by  reason 
 of  his  having  long  resided  there  ;  for  he  was,  in  fact,  a 
 native  of  Nicoinedia.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learn- 
 ing and  various  acquirements,  and  flourished  in  the 
 fourteenth  century.  In  1327,  the  E.mperor  Androni- 
 cus  Palaeologus  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  the  Vene- 
 tian republic.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Greek 
 that  made  use  of  the  Arabic  numerals,  as  they  are 
 called.  Planudes  has  given  us,  1.  A  collection  of 
 ^sopic  fables,  together  with  a  very  absurd  life  of  the 
 ancient  fabulist  himself;  2.  An  Anthology,  selected 
 from  that  of  (Constantino  Cephalas  ;  3.  A  poetical 
 Eloge  on  Claudius  Ptolemasus  ;  4.  Some  grammatical 
 works ;  5.  A  Greek  translation  of  Caesar's  Commen- 
 taries of  the  Gallic  war  ;  6.  A  prose  translation  of  the 
 Metamorphoses  and  Heroides  of  Ovid  ;  7.  A  transla- 
 tion of  the  Disticha  of  Caio  into  Greek  verse  ;  8. 
 Various  unedited  works.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  252  ) 
 
 Plat^.^  (gef-  -^)  ^i*^  Plat^^  (gen.  -arum),  a 
 town  of  Boeoiia,  of  very  ancient  date,  situate  at  the  foot 
 of  Mount  Cilhferon,  and  near  the  river  Asopus,  which 
 divided  its  territory  from  that  of  Thebes.  {Straho, 
 412.)  Homer  writes  the  name  in  the  singular  {TlXu- 
 Taia),  but  the  historians  use  the  plural  {YlXaraiai). 
 The  Piatasans,  animated  by  a  spirit  of  independence, 
 had  early  separated  themselves  from  the  Boeotian  con- 
 federacy, conceiving  the  objects  of  this  political  union 
 to  be  hostile  to  their  real  interests  ;  and  had,  in  con- 
 sequence of  the  enmity  of  the  latter  city,  been  induced 
 to  place  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Athens. 
 {Herod,  6,  108.)  Grateful  for  the  services  which 
 they  received  on  this  occasion  from  that  power,  they 
 testified  their  zeal  in  its  behalf  by  sending  a  thousand 
 soldiers  to  Marathon,  who  thus  shared  the  glory  of 
 that  memorable  day.  {Herod.,  I.  c.)  The  Plataeans 
 also  manned  some  of  the  Athenian  vessels  at  Artemi- 
 sium,  and  fought  in  several  battles  which  took  place 
 off  that  promontory  ;  though  not  at  Salamis,  as  they 
 had  returned  to  their  homes  after  the  Greeks  withdrew 
 from  the  Euripus,  in  order  to  place  their  families  and 
 valuables  in  safety,  and  could  not,  therefore,  arrive  in 
 time.  {Herod.,  8,  45.)  They  also  fought  most  brave- 
 ly in  the  great  battle  which  took  place  near  their  city 
 against  Mardonius  the  Persian  general,  and  earned  the 
 thanks  of  Pausanias  and  the  confederate  Greek  com- 
 mandero  for  their  gallant  conduct  on  this  as  well  as 
 other  occasions.  {Herod.,  9,  23.  —  Thucyd.,  3,  53, 
 seqq.)  But  it  is  asserted  by  Demosthenes  that  they 
 afterward  incurred  the  hatred  of  the  Lacedaemonians, 
 and  more  especially  of  their  kings,  for  having  caused 
 the  inscription  set  up  by  Pausanias,  in  commemora- 
 tion of  the  victory  over  the  Persians,  to  be  altered. 
 {In  Nceer.,  p.  1378.)  Plataja,  which  was  afterward 
 burned  by  the  army  of  Xer.xes  {Herod..  8,  50),  was  soon 
 restored  with  the  assistance  of  Athens,  and  the  alli- 
 ance between  the  two  cities  was  cemented  more  closely 
 than  before.  The  attack  made  upon  Plataja  by  a  party 
 of  Thebans  at  night  was  the  first  act  of  aggression  com- 
 mitted on  the  Peloponnesian  side  in  the  war  which 
 took  place  not  long  after.  The  enterprise  failed. 
 {Thucyd.,  2,  1,  seqq.)  The  natural  enmity  of  Thebes 
 against  this  little  republic  was  now  raised  to  its  height 
 by  this  defeat,  and  pressing  solicitations  were  made 
 to  the  Spartan  government  to  assist  in  taking  signal 
 vengeance  on  the  Plalajans  for  their  adherence  to  the 
 Athenian  interests.  Accordingly,  in  the  third  year  of 
 1073 
 
 the  war,  a  large  Peloponnesian  force,  under  Archida- 
 mus,  king  of  Sparta,  arrived  under  the  wails  of  Pla- 
 t«a,  and,  having  summoned  the  inhabitants  to  aban- 
 don their  alliance  with  Athens,  proceeded,  on  their 
 refusal,  to  lay  siege  to  the  town.  The  narrative  of 
 these  operations,  and  the  heroic  defence  of  the  Plata;- 
 ans,  the  circumvallation  and  blockade  of  the  city  by 
 the  enemy,  with  the  daring  and  successful  escape  of  a 
 part  of  the  garrison,  are  given  with  the  greatest  detail 
 by  Thucydides,  and  certainly  form  one  of  the  most  in- 
 teresting portions  of  his  history.  {Thucyd.,  2,  71, 
 seqq. — Id.,  3,  20,  seqq.)  Worn  out  at  length  by  hun- 
 ger and  fatigue,  those  Plataeans  who  remained  in  the 
 town  were  compelled  to  yield  to  their  persevering  and 
 relentless  foes,  who,  instigated  by  the  implacable  re- 
 sentment of  the  Thebans,  caused  all  who  surrendered 
 to  be  put  to  death,  and  razed  the  town  to  the  ground, 
 with  the  exception  of  one  building,  constructed  out  of 
 the  ruins  of  the  city,  which  they  consecrated  to  Juno, 
 and  employed  as  a  house  of  reception  for  travellers. 
 From  Pausanias  we  learn,  that  Platsa  was  again  re- 
 stored after  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  ;  but  when  the 
 Spartans  seized  on  the  Cadmean  citadel,  the  Thebans, 
 suspecting  that  the  Platseans  were  privy  to  the  enter- 
 prise, took  possession  of  the  town  by  stratagem,  and 
 once  more  levelled  its  foundations  to  the  ground  (9, 
 1).  Though  it  seems  to  have  been  the  intention  of 
 Philip,  and  also  of  Alexander,  to  restore  Plataea  {Ar- 
 nan,  \,  9.  —  PhU.,  Vu.  Alex.,  c.  34),  this  was  not 
 carried  into  effect  till  the  reign  of  Cassander,  who  is 
 said  to  have  rebuilt  both  Thebes  and  Platasa  at  the 
 same  time.  {Pimsan.,  9,  3.)  Dicaearchus,  who  lived 
 about  that  period,  represents  the  town  as  still  existing, 
 when  he  says,  "  The  inhabitants  of  Plataea  have  no- 
 thing to  say  for  themselves,  except  that  they  are  col- 
 onists of  Athens,  and  that  the  battle  between  the  Per- 
 sians and  the  Greeks  took  place  near  their  town." 
 {Stat.,  Grcec.,  p.  14.)  —  The  ruins  of  Plataea,  accord- 
 ing to  Dr.  Clarke,  are  situated  upon  a  promontory 
 projecting  from  the  base  of  Cithaeron. — The  place  has 
 now  the  usual  appellation  bestowed  upon  the  ruins  of 
 Grecian  citadels ;  it  is  called  Pulao  Castro.  The 
 walls  are  of  the  earliest  kind  of  military  structure, 
 consisting  of  very  considerable  masses,  evenly  hewn, 
 and  well  built.  {Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  7,  p.  106, 
 Land,  cd.)  —  The  walls  of  Plataea,  according  to  Sir 
 .W-  Gell,  may  be  traced  near  the  little  village  of 
 Kockla  in  their  circuit.  The  whole  forms  a  triangle, 
 having  a  citadel  of  the  same  form  in  the  southern  an- 
 gle, with  a  gate  towards  the  mountain  at  the  point. 
 I'he  northwestern  angle  seems  to  have  been  the  por- 
 tion which  was  restored  after  the  destruction  of  the 
 city.  The  north  side  is  about  1025  yards  in  length, 
 the  west  1154,  and  the  east  1120.  It  is  about  six  ge- 
 ographical miles  from  the  Cadmeia  of  Thebes  {Ilin., 
 p.  111. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  2\2,seqq.) 
 — As  the  battle  of  Plataja,  between  the  Greeks  and 
 Persians,  forms  so  important  a  feature  in  their  history, 
 some  account  of  it  may  be  here  appended. — Mardonius, 
 being  informed  by  the  Argives,  who  were  secretly  in 
 his  interest,  that  the  Lacedaemonians  were  in  motion, 
 withdrew  his  army  into  Boeoiia,  for  the  sake  of  enga- 
 ging near  the  friendly  city  of  Thebes,  and  in  a  more 
 level  country,  and,  therefore,  more  favourable  to  his 
 cavalry.  Before  leaving  Athens  he  burned  and  demol- 
 ished what  remained  of  the  city.  The  Athenians 
 crossed  from  Salamis,  and  the  confederate  army  being 
 assembled  at  Eleusis,  advanced  to  Erythrae,  on  the  bor- 
 der of  Boeotia,  where  it  took  up  a  position  on  the  roots 
 of  Mount  Cithsron.  The  heavy-armed  troops  of  the 
 Grecian  army  amounted  to  38,700,  of  whom  the  Lace- 
 demonians contributed  10,000.  Of  these  5000  were 
 Spartans,  from  the  city,  each  of  whom  was  attended  by 
 seven  light-armed  Helots.  In  the  rest  of  the  army  it 
 is  computed  that  to  each  heavy-armed  soldier  there 
 was  one  light-armed  attendant.     Besides,  there  wero 
 
PLATJEA. 
 
 PLA 
 
 1800  light-arm*.d  Thespians,  the  remaining  strength  of 
 that  litile  slate,  all  its  heavy-armed  troops  having  fallen 
 at  Thermopylse,  and  those  who  remained  being  proba- 
 bly the  poorer  citizens,  who  were  unable  to  purchase 
 the  full  armour,  or  to  maintain  themselves  in  distant 
 warfare.  With  these  the  entire  numbers  were  nearly 
 110,000.  The  army  was  led  by  Pausanias,  the  Spar- 
 tan comcnander,  who  was  cousin  and  guardian  to  the 
 minor-king  Pleistarchus,  the  son  of  Leonidas.  The 
 Athenian  force  of  8000  heavy-armed  men  was  led  by 
 Aristides.  Mardonius's  army  consisted  of  300,000 
 Asiatics  and  ahout  50,000  Macedonian  and  Greek  aux- 
 iliaries.— The  first  attack  was  made  by  the  Persian 
 cavalry,  who,  continually  riding  up  in  small  parties, 
 discharged  their  arrows  and  retired,  annoying  the 
 Greeks  without  any  retaliation.  The  Megarians  being 
 placed  in  the  most  exposed  part  of  the  line,  sent  to 
 Pausanias  to  say  that  they  could  no  longer  maintain 
 their  ground,  and  a  picked  band  of  300  Athenians  vol- 
 unteered to  relieve  them.  They  took  with  them  some 
 archers,  a  service  which  the  Athenians  cultivated  with 
 an  attention  and  success  unusual  in  Greece;  and  soon 
 after  their  arrival,  Masislius,  the  general  of  the  Per- 
 sian cavalry,  his  horse  being  wounded  with  an  arrow, 
 was  dismounted  and  killed.  All  the  horse  now  ma- 
 king a  desperate  charge,  forced  back  the  300,  till  the 
 rest  coming  up  to  support  the  Athenians,  they  were 
 repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  The  army  was  encour- 
 aged by  this  success,  but  its  present  position  was  in- 
 convenient, particularly  for  want  of  water,  and  it  was 
 resolved  to  move  into  the  territory  of  Plataja.  A  dis- 
 pute arose  between  the  Athenians  and  the  Tegeans 
 for  the  post  of  honour  at  the  extremity  of  the  left  wing  ; 
 but  it  was  prevented  from  proceeding  to  extremity  by 
 the  wise  moderation  of  the  Athenian  commanders, 
 who,  still  maintaining  their  claim  of  right,  professed 
 themselves  willing,  nevertheless,  to  lake  their  place 
 wherever  the  Lacedsemonians  might  appoint.  The 
 Lacedaemonians  decided  in  their  favoXir,  placing  them 
 at  the  extremity  of  the  left  wing,  and  the  Tegeans  in 
 the  right,  next  to  themselves. — Mardonius  now  drew 
 tip  his  army  according  to  the  advice  of  the  Thebans, 
 opposing  the  Persians  to  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Te- 
 geans, the  Boeotians  and  other  Greeks  in  his  service 
 to  the  Athenians,  and  to  the  other  bodies  that  occu- 
 pied the  centre  the  Medes  and  the  rest  of  the  Asiatics. 
 The  soothsayers  on  each  side  predicted  success  to  the 
 party  which  received  the  attack  ;  in  compliance,  prob- 
 ably, with  the  policy  of  the  commanders,  each  of  whom, 
 being  posted  on  ground  advantageous  to  himself,  was 
 unwilling  to  leave  it  and  enter  on  that  which  had  been 
 chosen  by  his  adversary.  Ten  days  were  spent  in  in- 
 action, except  that  the  Persian  horse  were  harassing 
 the  Greeks,  and,  latterly,  intercepting  their  convoys; 
 but,  on  the  eleventh,  Mardonius,  growing  impatient, 
 called  a  council  of  war,  and  resolved,  against  the  opin- 
 ion of  Artabazus,  to  attack  the  Greeks  on  the  follow- 
 ing day.  The  same  night  Alexander  the  Macedonian, 
 riding  alone  and  secretly  to  the  Athenian  encampment, 
 asked  to  speak  to  the  commanders,  and  gave  them 
 notice  of  the  resolution  taken  — Pausanias,  beincr  in- 
 formed of  this  by  the  Athenian  generals,  proposed  a 
 change  in  the  order  of  battle,  by  which  the  Athenians 
 slioiild  be  opposed  to  the  Persians,  of  whose  mode  of 
 fighting  they  alone  had  experience,  while  in  their  place 
 the  Lacedemonians  should  act  against  the  Boeotian 
 and  other  Grecian  auxiliaries.  The  Athenians  readily 
 consented,  and  the  troops  began  to  move  while  the 
 morn  was  breaking  ;  but  Mardonius  made  a  counter- 
 movement  of  his  Greek  and  Persian  troops,  and  the 
 I>acedaemonians  desisted  from  their  purpose  when  they 
 saw  that  it  was  known.  Mardonius  sent  a  herald  to 
 reproach  them  with  their  fear,  and  then  commenced 
 the  action  with  his  horse,  who  harassed  the  Greeks 
 severely,  and  filled  up  the  spring  from  which  their  wa- 
 ter had  been  supplied.  The  Greeks  now  suffered 
 6U 
 
 both  from  the  attacks  of  the  cavalry,  and  from  the 
 want  of  water  and  food,  their  convoys  being  cut  off; 
 and  it  was  resolved  to  proceed  at  night  to  a  position 
 nearer  Plata^a,  where  water  abounded,  and  the  ground 
 was  less  favourable  to  horse.  Accordingly,  in  the 
 night  the  army  was  moved  ;  but  the  Greeks  of  the  cen- 
 tre had  been  so  disheartened  by  the  attacks  of  the  cav- 
 alry, that,  instead  of  taking  up  the  appointed  position, 
 they  fled  to  the  city  of  Platsa.  There  remained  on 
 the  one  wing  the  Laceda;monians  (10,000  heavy-arm- 
 ed) and  the  Tegeans  (1500);  on  the  other,  the  Athe- 
 nians (8000),  with  the  Platsans  (600),  who  always  ac- 
 companied them,  and  who  had  carried  their  zeal  so  far, 
 that,  though  an  inland  people,  they  helped  to  man  the 
 Athenian  ships  at  Artemisium.  Including  the  light- 
 armed,  those  who  stood  their  ground  -were,  of  the  La- 
 cediemonians  and  Tegeans  53,000,  of  the  Athenians 
 and  Platajans  about  17,200.  The  march  of  the  Lace- 
 daemonians and  Tegeans  was  delayed  by  the  obstinacy 
 of  Amompharetus,  a  Spartan  officer,  who,  viewing  the 
 intended  movement  as  a  flight,  long  refused  to  join  in 
 it.  The  day  was  dawning,  and  the  Lacedaemonians, 
 through  fear  of  the  horse,  proceeded  over  the  roots  of 
 Cithaeron.  The  Athenians,  who  had  waited  for  the 
 movement  of  the  allies,  went  by  the  plain.  Mardoni- 
 us, on  seeing  the  Greeks,  as  it  seemed,  retreating, 
 was  filled  with  exultation,  and  immediately  led  the 
 Persians  after  them,  while  the  other  Asiatics  followed 
 tumultuously,  thinking  the  day  won.  The  Lacedae- 
 monians, on  the  approach  of  the  cavalry,  sent  to  the 
 Athenians  for  assistance,  begging  that,  if  they  were 
 unable  to  come,  they  would  at  least  send  the  archers; 
 but  the  Athenians,  when  preparing  to  comply  with  the 
 summons,  were  prevented  by  the  attack  of  the  Greeks 
 in  the  Persian  service. — The  battle  was  joined  on  both 
 sides.  The  Persians  fought  with  great  bravery  ;  but 
 neither  bravery  nor  vast  superiority  in  numbers  could 
 compensate  for  their  inferiority  in  arms  and  discipline, 
 and  they  were  at  length  defeated  with  great  slaughter, 
 Mardonius  being  killed.  The  other  .Asiatics  fled  im- 
 mediately, when  they  saw  the  Persians  broken.  Of 
 the  Grecian  auxiliaries  opposed  to  the  Athenians, 
 many  were  slack  in  their  exertions,  as  not  being  hear- 
 ty in  the  cause  ;  but  the  Bceotians,  who  formed  the 
 strongest  body,  were  zealous  for  the  success  of  Mar- 
 donius, and  they  fought  long  and  hard  before  they 
 were  defeated.  The  Boeotians  fled  towards  Thebes, 
 the  Asiatics  to  their  intrenched  camp,  their  flight  be- 
 ing in  some  degree  protected  by  the  Asiatic  and  Boeo- 
 tian cavalry.  On  hearing  that  their  friends  were  vic- 
 torious, the  Greeks  of  the  centre  returned  in  haste  and 
 disorder  to  the  field ;  and  the  Megarians  and  Phliasians, 
 going  by  the  plain,  were  charged  and  broken  with  con 
 siderable  loss  by  some  Theban  horse. — The  fugitives 
 who  escaped  into  the  camp  were  in  time  to  close  the 
 gates  and  man  the  walls  against  the  Lacedaemonians 
 and  Tegeans ;  and,  the  assailants  being  unskilled  in 
 the  attack  of  fortifications,  they  made  a  successful  de- 
 fence till  the  arrival  of  the  Athenians,  who  went  about 
 the  work  more  skilfully,  and  soon  gained  entrance. 
 The  passions  of  the  Greeks  were  inflamed  to  the  ut- 
 most by  long  distress  and  danger,  and  no  mercy  was 
 shown.  Of^the  300,000  men  who  were  left  with  Mar- 
 donius, 40,000  had  been  led  from  the  field  by  Artaba- 
 zus when  it  first  became  evident  that  the  Persians 
 were  losing  the  battle  ;  but  of  the  others  not  3000  are 
 said  to  ha've  survived  the  battle  and  the  subsequent 
 massacre.  (Herod  ,  9,  25,  scqq.—Libr.  Us.  Knou-l., 
 Hist.  Greece,  p.  40,  segq.) 
 
 Plato,  L  a  celebrated  philosopher,  by  descent  ar. 
 Athenian,  but  the  place  of  whose  birth  was  the  islant 
 of  Ms'ma,  where  his  father,  Aristo,  resided  after  that 
 island  became  subject  to  Athens.  His  origin  is  traced 
 back,  on  his  father's  side,  to  Codrus,  and  on  that  of 
 his  mother,  Perictione.  through  five  generations,  to  So 
 Ion      (Proclus,  ad  Timmim,  p.  25.)     The  time  of 
 
 1073 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 hre  birth  is  commonly  placed  in  the  first  year  of  the 
 88th  Olympiad  (B.C.  428),  but,  perhaps,  may  be  more 
 accurately  fixed  m  B.C.  429.  (Cli'iton, Fast. Hcllc?i., 
 p.  63  )  Fable  has  made  Apollo  his  father,  and  has 
 said  that  he  was  born  of  a  virgin.  {Plat.,  Sympos., 
 8,  1. — Hieron.,  adv.  Jov.  Op.,  vol.  4,  p.  186,  ed.  Par.) 
 He  was  originally  named  Aristoclcs,  from  his  grand- 
 father, and  he  received  that  of  Plato  {HXaruv}  from 
 either  the  breadth  of  his  shoulders  or  of  his  forehead, 
 the  appellation  being  derived  from  TrAariif,  "iroor/." 
 This  latter  name  is  thought  to  have  been  given  him 
 in  early  youth.  {Dwg.  Lacrt.,  3,  4. —  Senec,  Ep., 
 58. — Apuleius,  de  dogm.  Plat. —  Op.,  cd.  Oudend., 
 vol.  2,  p.  180.)  Plutarch  relates  that  he  was  hump- 
 backed, but  this,  perhaps,  was  not  a  natural  defect  ; 
 it  may  have  first  appeared  late  in  life,  as  a  result  of 
 his  severe  studies.  (Plut.,  de  Audiend.  Poet.,  26,53.) 
 Other  ancient  writers,  on  the  contrary,  speak  in  high 
 terms  of  his  manly  and  noble  mien.  The  only  authen- 
 tic bust  that  we  have  of  him  is  at  present  in  the  gal- 
 lery at  Florence.  It  was  discovered  near  Athens  in 
 the  15th  century,  and  purchased  by  Lorenzo  de  Medi- 
 ci. In  this  bust,  the  forehead  of  the  philosopher  is 
 remarkably  large.  (Visconli,  Icon.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  172, 
 ed.  4to.) — Plato  first  learned  grammar,  that  is,  reading 
 and  writing,  from  Dionysius.  In  gymnastics,  Ariston 
 was  his  teacher ;  and  he  excelled  so  much  in  these 
 physical  exercises,  that  he  went,  as  is  said,  into  a  pub- 
 lic contest  at  the  Isthmian  and  Pythian  games.  (Di- 
 og.  Lacrt.,  3,4.  —  ApuL,  p.  184. —  Olijmpiod.,  Vit. 
 Plat.)  He  studied  painting  and  music  under  the  tui- 
 tion of  Draco,  a  scholar  of  Damon,  and  Metellus  of 
 Agrigentum.  But  his  favourite  employment  in  his 
 youthful  years  was  poetry.  The  lively  fancy  and  pow- 
 erful style  which  his  philosophical  writings  so  amply 
 display,  must  naturally  have  impelled  him,  at  an  early 
 period  of  life,  to  make  some  attempts  at  composition, 
 which  were  assuredly  not  without  influence  on  the 
 l)eautiful  form  of  his  later  works.  After  he  had  made 
 use  of  the  instruction  of  the  most  eminent  teachers  of 
 poetry  in  all  its  forms,  he  proceeded  to  make  an  essay 
 himself  in  heroic  verse  ;  but  when  he  compared  his 
 production  with  the  masterpieces  of  Homer,  he  con- 
 signed it  to  the  flames.  He  next  tried  lyric  poetry, 
 but  with  no  better  success  ;  and  finally  turned  his  at- 
 tention to  dramatic  composition.  He  elaborated  four 
 pieces,  or  a  tetralogy,  consisting  of  three  separate  tra- 
 gedies and  one  satyric  drama  ;  but  an  accident  in- 
 duced him  to  quit  for  ever  this  career,  to  which  he  was 
 not  probably  destined.  A  short  time  before  the  fes- 
 tival of  Bacchus,  when  his  pieces  were  to  be  brought 
 upon  the  stage,  he  happened  to  hear  Socrates  conver- 
 sing, and  was  so  captivated  by  the  charms  of  his  man- 
 ners as  from  that  moment  to  abandon  poetry,  and  ap- 
 ply himself  earnestly  to  the  study  of  philosophy. 
 (JElian,  Var.  Hist.,  10,  21,  scqq.—  Val.  Max.,  1,  6. 
 — Plin.,  1 1,  29  )  But,  though  Plato  abandoned  his  po- 
 etic attempts,  yet  he  still  attended  to  the  reading  of  the 
 poets,  particularly  Homer,  Aristophanes,  and  Sophron, 
 as  his  favourite  occupation  {Olympiod.,  Vit.  Plat.); 
 and  he  appears  to  have  derived  from  them,  in  part,  the 
 dramatic  arrangement  of  his  dialogues.  It  was  then 
 customary  for  young  men  who  were  preparing  for  the 
 polite  world,  or  to  distinguish  themselves  in  any  man- 
 ner, to  attend  a  course  in  philosophy.  Plato  had  al- 
 ready heard  the  instructions  of  Cratylus,  a  disciple  of 
 the  school  of  Heraclitus.  (Aristot.,  Metaphys.,  1,  6. 
 — ApuL,  p.  185.)  When  Diogenes,  Olympiodorus,  and 
 other  writers  assert  that  he  did  not  become  a  scholar 
 of  Cratylus  till  after  the  death  of  Socrates,  they  give 
 less  credit  to  Aristotle  and  Apuleius  than  they  deserve  ; 
 the  former  a  contemporary,  the  latter  drawing  his  in- 
 formation from  Speusippus.  (Tcntiemami's  Life  of 
 Plato,  Edivards^s  transl.,  p.  316,  seq.)  Plato  was  20 
 years  of  age  when  he  became  acquainted  with  Socra- 
 tes, and  he  continued  a  stated  disciple  of  that  philos- 
 1074 
 
 opher  for  the  space  of  eight  years,  until  the  death  of 
 the  latter.  During  all  this  period,  Socrates  regarded 
 him  as  one  of  his  most  faithful  pupils.  Light  as 
 must  have  been  the  task  of  education  in  respect  to  the 
 mind,  since  Plato  was  quite  teachable,  and,  in  addi- 
 tion to  his  eminent  talents,  possessed  of  great  suscep- 
 tibility for  moral  studies,  still,  on  the  other  hand,  t 
 was  difficult  for  Socrates  to  satisfy  the  a.spiring  ard 
 inquisitive  spirit  of  his  pupil.  In  all  his  conversalions, 
 he  started  questions,  raised  doubts,  and  always  de- 
 manded new  reasons,  without  allowing  himself  to  be 
 satisfied  with  those  already  given.  {Vit.  Plat.,  13. — 
 Bibliothek  der  Allen  Lit.)  This  liveliness  and  activ- 
 ity of  mind  could  not  render  Socrates  displeased  with 
 his  manner  of  thinking  :  so  little,  indeed,  was  this  the 
 case,  that  Plato  already,  in  the  lifetime  of  Socrates, 
 wrote  dialogues,  in  which  he  introduced  his  teacher  as 
 the  principal  person,  and  carried  on  the  discussions  in 
 a  method  that  was  not  entirely  his  own.  Many  wri- 
 ters think  they  have  discovered  that  Socrates  was  by 
 no  means  satisfied  with  the  course  of  Plato,  in  falsely 
 imputing  to  him  so  many  things  which  he  had  never 
 said.  But  they  can  adduce  no  satisfactory  ground  or 
 competent  testimony  for  their  conclusion.  The  single 
 thing  to  which  they  appeal  can  prove  nothing  for  them, 
 because  it  is  ambiguous.  It  is  said,  that  when  Plato 
 brought  forward  his  Lysis  in  the  presence  of  Socrates, 
 the  latter  exclaimed,  "  By  Hercules  !  how  many  things 
 does  the  young  man  falsely  report  of  me  !"  {Dwg. 
 Lacrt.,  3,  35.)  The  more  probable  opinion,  however, 
 is,  that  the  story  is  incorrectly  related,  and  that  Socra- 
 tes merely  alluded  to  the  rich  and  figurative  style  of 
 Plato,  as  contrasted  with  his  own  simple  manner  of 
 expression.  {Tenncmann,  Life  of  Plato,  Edw.  trans., 
 p.  324.)  Plato  always  cherished  a  deep  affection  and 
 esteem  for  his  master,  and,  when  the  latter  was  brought 
 to  trial,  undertook  to  plead  his  cause;  but  the  partiali- 
 ty and  violence  of  the  judges  would  not  permit  him  to 
 proceed.  After  the  condemnation,  he  presented  his 
 master  with  money  sufficient  to  redeem  his  life,  which, 
 however,  Socrates  refused  to  accept.  During  his  im- 
 prisonment Plato  attended  him,  and  was  present  at  a 
 conversation  which  he  held  with  his  friends  concern- 
 ing the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  substance  of  which 
 he  afterward  committed  to  writing  in  the  beautiful  di- 
 alogue entitled  Phaedo,  not,  however,  without  inter- 
 weaving his  own  opinions  and  language.  (Compare 
 Cicero,  de  Nat.  Dear.,  3,  33.)  Upon  the  death  of  his 
 master  he  withdrew,  with  several  other  friends  of  Soc- 
 rates, to  Megara,  where  they  were  hospitably  enter- 
 tained by  Euclid,  and  remained  till  the  ferment  at 
 Athens  subsided.  Brucker  says,  that  Plato  received 
 instruction  in  dialectics  from  Euclid.  {Hist.  Crit. 
 Philos.,  vol.  1,  p.  611,  633.)  But  no  other  writer  has 
 any  reference  to  it.  It  is  rather  probable  that  both,  in 
 their  philosophical  conversations,  sought  to  enrich  and 
 to  settle  each  other's  knowledge.  Hence  Cicero  re- 
 lates, that  the  Megarean  [ihilosopher  drew  many  of  his 
 opinions  from  Plato.  {Acadcm.  Quasi  ,A,  ^2.)  De- 
 sirous of  making  himself  master  of  all  the  wisdom  and 
 learning  which  the  age  could  furnish,  Plato,  after  this, 
 travelled  into  every  country  which  was  so  far  enlight- 
 ened as  to  promise  him  any  recompense  of  his  labour. 
 He  first  visited  that  part  of  Magna  Gra?cia  where  a 
 celebrated  school  of  philosophy  had  been  established 
 by  Pythagoras.  According  to  Cicero,  Quintilian,  and 
 Valerius  Maximus,  the  particular  object  of  this  visit 
 was  to  enrich  his  theoretical  knowledge  ;  but,  accord- 
 ing to  Apuleius,  it  was  with  more  especial  reference 
 to  moral  improvement.  It  is  commonly  believed  thai 
 Plato  became  formally  a  scholar  of  the  Pythagoreans, 
 and  many  persons  are  expressly  named  as  his  teachers 
 in  the  doctrines  of  that  sect  of  philosophy.  But  this 
 multitude  of  teachers  is  of  itself  sufficient  to  excite 
 suspicion  ;  and,  besides,  Plato  must  then  have  been 
 at   least  thirty   years   old,  and  v\'as  undoubtedly  ac- 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 quainted  with  the  Pythagorean  system  long  previous 
 to  his  Italian  voyage.  How  long  Plato  remained  in 
 Italy  cannot  be  determined,  since  all  the  accounts  rel- 
 ative to  this  point  are  deficient.  But  so  much  is  cer- 
 tain, that  he  did  not  leave  this  country  before  he  had 
 gained  the  entire  friendship  of  the  principal  Pythago- 
 reans, of  which  they  subsequently  gave  most  unequiv- 
 ocal proofs.  From  Italy  Plato  went  to  Cyrene,  a  cel- 
 ebrated Greek  colony  in  Africa.  It  is  not  certain 
 whether  he  visited  Sicily  in  passing.  According  to 
 Apuleius,  the  object  of  his  journey  was  to  learn  math- 
 ematics of  Theodorus.  This  mathematician,  whose 
 fame,  perhaps,  surpassed  his  knowledge,  had  given  in- 
 struction to  the  young  in  Athens  in  this  branch  of  sci- 
 ence ;  and  Plato,  in  all  probability,  merely  wished  now 
 to  complete  his  knowledge  on  this  subject.  {Tcnne- 
 matin's  Life  of  Plato,  Edrc.  tr.,  p  336.)  From  Cy- 
 rene he  proceeded  to  Egypt,  and,  in  order  to  travel 
 with  more  safety  upon  his  journey  to  the  last-named 
 country,  he  assumed  the  character  of  a  merchant,  and, 
 as  a  seller  of  oil,  passed  through  the  kingdom  of  Ar- 
 taxerxes  Mnemon.  Wherever  he  came,  he  obtained 
 information  from  the  Egyptian  priests  concerning  their 
 astronomical  observations  and  calculations.  It  has 
 been  asserted  that  it  was  in  Egypt  that  Plato  acquired 
 his  opinions  concerning  the  origin  of  the  world,  and 
 learned  the  doctrines  of  transmigration  and  the  immor- 
 tality of  the  soul ;  but  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
 he  learned  the  latter  doctrine  from  Socrates,  and  the 
 former  from  the  school  of  Pythagoras.  It  is  not  like- 
 ly that  Plato,  in  the  habit  of  a  merchant,  could  have 
 obtained  access  to  the  sacred  mysteries  of  Egypt ;  for, 
 in  the  case  of  Pythagoras,  the  Egyptian  priests  were 
 so  unwilling  to  communicate  their  secrets  to  stran- 
 gers, that  even  a  royal  mandate  was  scarcely  sufficient 
 in  a  single  instance  to  procure  this  indulgence.  Little 
 regard  is  therefore  due  to  the  opinions  of  those  who 
 assert  that  Plato  derived  his  system  of  philosophy  from 
 the  Egyptians.  {lamUich  ,  Myst.  JEg.,  1,  2,  p.  3.) 
 That  Plato's  stay  in  Egypt  extended  to  a  period  of 
 thirteen  years,  as  some  maintain,  or  even  three  years,  as 
 others  state,  is  highly  incredible  ;  especially  as  there  is 
 no  trace  in  his  works  of  Egyptian  research.  All  that 
 he  tells  us  of  Egypt  indicates  at  most  a  very  scanty 
 acquaintance  with  the  subject  ;  and,  although  he  prais- 
 es the  industry  of  the  priests,  his  estimate  of  their 
 scientific  attainments  is  far  from  favourable.  {Rcpub., 
 4,  p.  435.)  Nor  is  there  a  better  foundation  for  sup- 
 posing that,  during  his  residence  in  Egypt,  Plato  be- 
 came acquainted  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Hebrews, 
 and  enriched  his  system  with  spoils  from  their  sacred 
 books.  (Hiiet,  Dem.  Pr.,  4,  2,  (/  15. —  Gale's  Court 
 o/  the  Gentiles.)  This  opinion  has,  it  is  true,  been 
 maintained  by  several  Jewish  and  Christian  writers, 
 but  it  has  little  foundation  beyond  mere  conjecture ; 
 and  it  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  that  it  originated  in 
 that  injudicious  zeal  for  the  honour  of  revelation,  which 
 led  these  writers  to  make  the  Hebrew  scriptures  or 
 traditions  the  source  of  all  Gentile  wisdom.  After 
 his  Egyptian  travels  Plato  came  to  Sicily,  and  visited 
 Syracuse  when  ho  was  about  forty  years  of  age,  in  the 
 eightv-ninth  Olympiad,  and  in  the  reign  of  Dionysius 
 the  Elder.  According  to  the  statement  of  all  the  wri- 
 ters who  make  mention  of  this  tour,  his  only  object 
 was  to  see  the  volcano  of  Etna  ;  but,  from  the  seventh 
 letter  ascribed  to  him,  it  would  seem  that  higher  ob- 
 jects engaged  his  attention,  and  that  his  wish  was  to 
 study  the  character  of  the  inhabitants,  their  institu- 
 tions and  laws.  At  the  court  of  Dionysius  Plato  be- 
 came acquainted  with  Dio,  the  brother-in-law  of  the 
 tyrant,  and  Dio  endeavoured  to  produce  an  influence 
 upon  the  mind  of  Dionysius  by  the  conversation  of 
 Plato.  But  the  attempt  failed,  and  had  nearly  cost 
 the  philosopher  his  life.  Dionysius  was  highly  in- 
 censed at  the  result  of  an  argument  in  which  he  was 
 worsted  by  Plato,  who  took  occasion  also  to  advance 
 
 in  the  course  of  it  some  bold  and  unpalatable  truths, 
 and,  in  the  first  heat  of  his  passion,  he  would  almost 
 have  punished  the  hardihood  of  the  philosopher  with 
 death,  unless  Dio  and  Aristomenes  had  together  re- 
 strained him  from  it.  They  conceived,  therefore,  that 
 Plato  could  no  longer  stay  at  Syracuse  without  hazard, 
 and  accordingly  secured  a  passage  for  him  in  a  ship 
 which  was  about  to  carry  home  Polis,  a  Lacedaemonian 
 ambassador,  or,  according  to  Olympiodorus,  a  merchant 
 of  yEgina.  Dionysius  heard  of  it,  and  bribed  Poiis 
 either  to  throw  Plato  overboard,  or,  if  his  conscience 
 would  not  allow  him  to  do  that,  to  sell  him  as  a  slave. 
 He  was  accordingly  sold  by  the  treacherous  Polis  on 
 the  island  of  .^Egina,  which  was  then  involved  in  war 
 with  Athens.  According  to  some  writers,  he  was  sold 
 by  the  ^ginetans.  A  certain  Anniceris,  from  Cyrene, 
 redeemed  him  for  twenty  or  thirty  minae.  Plato's 
 friends  and  scholars  (according  to  some,  Dio  alone) 
 collected  this  sum  in  order  to  indemnify  Anniceris, 
 who,  however,  was  so  noble  minded,  that  with  the 
 money  he  purchased  a  garden  in  the  Academy,  and 
 presented  it  to  the  philosopher.  When  Plato  had 
 completed  his  travels,  and  had  reached  the  end  of 
 their  various  dangers  and  calamities,  he  returned  to 
 Athens,  and  began  publicly  to  teach  philosofihy  in  the 
 Academy.  He  had  here  a  garden  from  paternal  inheri- 
 tance, which  was  purchased  for  five  hundred  drachmae  ; 
 so  that,  if  the  story  of  Anniceris  be  true,  Plato  must 
 have  had  two  gardens  in  this  place,  which  also  a  pas- 
 sage from  Diogenes  allows  us  to  conjecture.  This 
 writer  remarks,  that  Plato  taught  philosophy  first  in 
 the  Academy,  but  afterward  in  a  garden  at  Colonus. 
 {Diog.,  3,  5.)  His  Academy  soon  became  celebrated, 
 and  was  numerously  attended  by  high-born  and  noble 
 young  men  ;  for  he  had  before,  by  means  of  his  travels, 
 and  probably  by  some  publications,  acquired  a  dis- 
 tinguished name.  (Tennemann,  Life  of  Plato,  Edw. 
 fra.,  p.  342,  scq.)  Plato  taught  in  the  Academy  for  a 
 period  of  twenty-two  years  prior  to  his  second  journey 
 to  Syracuse,  which  he  undertook  at  the  instigation  of 
 Dio,  who  hoped,  by  the  lessons  of  the  philosopher,  to 
 influence  the  character  of  the  new  ruler  of  Syracuse. 
 This  prince,  it  is  said,  had  been  brought  up  by  his 
 father  wholly  destitute  of  an  enlightened  education, 
 and  it  was  now  the  task  of  Plato  to  form  his  mind  by 
 philosophy.  It  seems,  at  the  same  time,  to  have  been 
 the  plan  of  Dio  and  Plato  to  bring  about,  by  philo- 
 sophical instruction,  a  wholesome  reform  of  the  Sicilian 
 constitution,  by  giving  it  a  more  aristocratic  charac- 
 ter. But,  whatever  may  have  been  their  intentions, 
 they  were  all  frustrated  by  the  weak  and  voluptuous 
 character  of  Dionysius.  Dio  became  the  object  of  the 
 tyrant's  suspicion,  and  was  conveyed  away  to  the 
 coast  of  Italy,  without,  however,  forfeiting  his  posses- 
 sions. In  this  conjuncture  of  atfairs,  Plato  did  not 
 long  remain  in  Syracuse,  where  his  position  would  at 
 best  have  been  ambiguous.  He  returned  to  Athens, 
 but,  in  consequence  of  some  fresh  disagreement  be- 
 tween Dionysius  and  Dio,  with  respect  to  the  property 
 of  the  latter,  he  was  induced  to  take  a  third  journey 
 to  Syracuse.  The  reconciliation,  which  it  was  his  ob- 
 ject to  effect,  completely  miscarried  ;  he  himself  came 
 to  an  open  rupture  with  Dionysius,  and  only  obtained 
 a  free  departure  from  Sicily  through  the  active  inter- 
 position of  his  Pythagorean  friends  at  Tarentum.  It 
 does  not  appear  that  he  took  any  part  in  the  later  con- 
 duct of  Sicilian  affairs,  though  his  nephew  and  disci- 
 ple Speusippus,  and  others  of  the  Academy,  rendered 
 personal  assistance  to  Dio,  in  a  warlike  expedition 
 against  Dionysius.  From  this  time  Plato  seems  to 
 have  passed  his  old  age  in  tranquillity  in  his  garden, 
 near  the  Academy,  engaged  with  the  instruction  of 
 numerous  disciples,  and' the  prosecution  of  his  literary 
 labours.  He  died  while  yet  actively  employed  about 
 his  philosophical  compositions.  Having  enjoyed  the 
 advantage  of  an  athletic  constitution,  and  lived  all  his 
 ^  1075 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 days  tem[ierately,  lie  arrived  at  the  eighty-first,  or,  ac- 
 cording lo  some  writers,  the  seventy-ninth,  year  of  his 
 age,  and  died,  through  the  mere  decay  of  nature,  m 
 the  first  year  of  the  108th  Olympiad.  He  passed  his 
 whole  life  in  a  state  jf  celibacy,  and  therefore  left  no 
 natural  heirs,  but  transferred  his  efTects  by  will  to  his 
 friend  Adiamantus.  The  grove  and  garden,  which 
 had  been  the  scene  of  his  philosophical  labours,  at  last 
 afforded  him  a  sepulchre.  Statues  and  altars  were 
 erected  to  his  memory  ;  the  day  of  his  birth  long  con- 
 tinued to  be  celebrated  as  a  festival  by  his  followers  ; 
 and  his  portrait  is  to  this  day  preserved  in  gems  ;  but 
 the  most  lasting  monuments  of  his  genius  are  his 
 writings,  which  iiave  been  transmitted,  without  mate- 
 rial injury,  to  the  present  times. — The  personal  char- 
 acter of  Plato  has  been  very  differently  represented. 
 On  the  one  hand,  his  encomiasts  have  not  failed  to 
 adorn  him  with  every  excellence,  and  to  express  the 
 most  superstitious  veneration  for  his  memory.  His 
 enemies,  on  the  other,  have  not  scrupled  to  load  him 
 with  reproach,  and  charge  him  with  practices  shame- 
 fully inconsistent  with  the  purity  and  dignity  of  the 
 philosophical  character.  (Alhenceus,  11,  p.  507. — 
 Diog.  Laerl.,  3,  26.)  We  cannot  so  implicitly  adopt 
 the  panegyrics  of  the  former,  as  to  suppose  him  to 
 have  been  free  from  human  frailties  ;  and  we  have  a 
 right  to  require  much  better  proofs  than  his  calumni- 
 ators have  adduced,  before  we  can  suppose  him  to 
 have  been  capable  of  sinking,  from  the  sublime  specu- 
 lations of  philosophy,  into  the  most  infamous  vices. 
 The  reproaches  with  which  Plato  has  been  assailed,  as 
 having  boasted  that  he  could  supply  their  master's  place 
 to  the  bereaved  disciples  of  Socrates,  but  ill  agrees  with 
 the  pious  affection  with  which  he  bewailed  his  death, 
 and  ascribed  to  him,  as  the  fruits  of  his  lessons,  his 
 whole  jihilosophy.  Nor  can  we  help  thinking  that  there 
 is  much  injustice  in  the  charge  brought  against  him, 
 of  malice  and  ill  feeling  towards  his  fellow-scholars; 
 though,  at  the  same  lime,  we  must  admit,  that,  to  all 
 «ppearances,  he  did  not  cultivate  a  very  intimate  friend- 
 ship with  any  one  among  them,  who  afterward  became 
 illustrious  in  philosophy  :  nay,  more,  it  appears  that 
 he  reviewed  with  some  bitterness  the  doctrines  of 
 Aristippus,  Antisthenes,  and  Euclid  To  the  more 
 soaring  flight  of  his  own  lofty  views,  their  incomplete 
 and  exclusive  notions  must  unquestionably  have  ap- 
 peared unworthy  of  the  school  of  Socrates,  and,  as 
 they  began  by  attacking  his  own  system,  it  was  but 
 natural  that  Plato  should  retaliate  with  some  degree 
 of  bitterness  and  warmth.  The  by  no  means  e.xalted 
 opinion  entertained  by  Plato  of  his  philosophical  con- 
 temjioraries  necessarily  became  a  farther  ground  for 
 the  charge  against  him  of  overweening  haughtiness  ; 
 and  it  would  even  appear  that  other  causes  existed  for 
 the  imputation.  A  certain  contempt  for  the  mass  of 
 the  people  stands  out  prominently  enough  in  his  wri- 
 tings, while  his  commendation  of  philosophy,  as  op- 
 posed to  common  sense,  might  easily  have  been  taken 
 as  personal.  Besides  all  this,  the  splendour  of  his 
 school,  especially  when  corrvpared  with  the  simplicity 
 and  even  poverty  of  the  Socratic,  seems  to  have  be- 
 tokened a  degree  of  pretension  and  display,  which  nat- 
 urally brought  upon  it  the  ridicule  of  the  comic  wri- 
 ters. It  cannot  be  dissembled,  that  Plato  gave  to 
 philosophy  and  to  human  culture  in  general  a  tenden- 
 cy towards  ornament  and  refinement,  a  s[ilendour  of 
 language  and  form,  far  removed  from  the  pristine  se- 
 verity and  rigour,  and  greatly  favouring  the  fast-grow- 
 ing spirit  of  effeminacy.  His  school  was  less  a  school 
 of  hardy  deeds  for  all,  than  of  polished  culture  for  the 
 higher  classes,  who  had  no  other  object  than  to  en- 
 hance the  enjoyment  of  their  privileges  and  wealth. 
 This  remark,  however,  does  not  so  much  apply  to 
 Plato  as  to  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and  to  which 
 nothing  else  was  left  than  to  moderate  and  retard  the 
 decline  of  morality  by  its  intellectual  progress  and  en- 
 1076 
 
 '  lightenment.     {Riitcr,  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  Si, 
 p.  152,  Eng.  /r.)— Several  anecdotes  are  preserved, 
 which  reflect  honour  upon  the  moral  principles  and 
 character  of  Plato.      Such  was  his  command  of  tem- 
 per, that,  when  he  was  lifting  up  his  hand  to  correct 
 his  servant  for  some  offence,  perceiving  himself  angry, 
 he  kept  his  arm  fixed  in  that  posture,  and  said  to  a 
 friend,  who  at  that  moment  asked  him  what  he  waa 
 doing,  "I  am  punishing  a  passionate  man." — At  an- 
 other time,  he  said  to  one   of  his  slaves,  "  1  would 
 chastise  you  if  I  were  not  angry." — At  the  Olympic 
 games  he  happened  to  pass  a  day  with  some  strangers, 
 who  were  much  delighted  with  his  easy  and  atiable 
 conversation,  but  were  no  farther  informed  concerning 
 him  than  that  his  name  was  Plato  ;  for  he   had  pur- 
 posely avoided  saying  anything  respecting  Socrates  or 
 the  .\cademy.     At  parting,  he  invited  them,  when  they 
 should  visit  Athens,  to  lake  up  their  residence  at  his 
 house.      Not  long  afterward  they  accepted  his  invita- 
 tion, and  were  courteously  entertained.     During  their 
 stay,  they  requested  that  he  would  introduce  them  to 
 his  namesake,  the  famous  philosopher,  and  show  them 
 his  Academy.      Plato,  smiling,  said,  "  I  am  the  person 
 you  wish  lo  see."     The  discovery  surprised  them  ex- 
 ceedingly ;   for  they  could  not  easily  jiersuade  them- 
 selves that  so  eminent  a  philosopher  would  condescend 
 to   converse   so   familiarly  with    strangers.      {JEliav, 
 Var.  Hist.,  4,  9.) — When  Plato  was  told  that  his  ene- 
 mies were  busily  employed  in  circulating  reports  to  his 
 disadvantage,  he  said,  "  I  will  live  so  that  none  shall 
 believe  them." — One  of  his  friends,  remarking  that  he 
 seemed  as  desirous  to  learn  himself  as  to  leach  others, 
 asked   him   how   long  he   intended    to    be   a   scholar. 
 "As  long,"  replied  he,  "as  I  am  not  ashamed  lo  grow 
 wiser  and  better." — It  is  from  the  writings  of  Plato 
 chiefly  that  we  are  to  form  a  judgment  of  his  merit  as 
 a  philosopher,  and  of  the  service  which  he  rendered  to 
 science.     No  one  can  be  conversant  with  these  with- 
 out perceiving  that  his  actions  always  retained  a  strong 
 tincture  of  that  poetical  spirit  which  he  discovered  in 
 his  first  productions.     This  is  the  ])rincipal  ground  of 
 those  lofty  encomiums  which  both  ancient  and  modern 
 critics  have  passed  upon  his  style,  and  jiarticularly  of 
 the  high  estimation  in  which  it  was  held  by  Cicero, 
 who,  treating  of  the  subject  of  diction,  says,  "That  if 
 Jupiter  were  to  speak  in  the  Greek  tongue,  he  would 
 use  the  language  of  Plato."     {De  Orat.,  3,  20.)  — 
 The  accurate  Stagirite  describes  it  as  "A  middle  spe- 
 cies of  diction,  between  verse  and  jirose."     {Anst., 
 ap.  Laert.)     Some  of  his  dialogues  are  elevated  by 
 such  sublime  and  glowing  conceptions,  are  enriched 
 with  such  copious  diction,  and  flow  in   so  harmonious 
 a   rhythm,  that  they  may  be  truly  pronounced  highly 
 poetical.     Even  in  the  discussion  of  abstract  subjects, 
 the  language  of  Plato  is  often  clear,  simple,  and  full  of 
 harmony.     At  other  times,  however,  he  becomes  tur- 
 gid and  swelling,  and  involves  himself  in  obscurities 
 which  were  either  the  offspring  of  a  lofty  fancy,  or  bor- 
 rowed from  the  Italic  school.     Several  ancient  critics 
 have  noticed  these  blemishes  in  the  writings  of  Plato. 
 The  same  inequality  which  is  so  ajiparent  in  the  style 
 of  Plato,  may  also   be  observed   in   his  conceptions. 
 While  he  adheres  to  the  school  of  Socrates,  and  dis- 
 courses upon  moral  topics,  he  is  much  more  pleasing 
 than  when  he  loses  himself  with  Pythagoras,  in  ab- 
 struse speculations. — The  dialogues  of  Plato,  which 
 treat  of  various  subjects,  and  were  written  with  differ- 
 ent views,  are  classed  by  the  ancients  under  the  two 
 heads  of  didactic  and  inquisitive.     The  didactic  are 
 subdivided   into  speculative  (including  physical  and 
 logical),    and  practical  (comprehending  ethical  and  po- 
 litical).    The  second  class,  the  inquisitive,  is  charac- 
 terized by  terms  taken  from  the  athletic  art,  and  divi- 
 ded into  the  gymnastic  and  agonistic.     The  dialogues 
 termed  gymnastic  were  imagined  to  be  similar  to  the 
 exercise,  and  were  subdivided  into  the  maieutic  (as  re- 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 sembliiig  the  teaching  of  the  rudiments  of  the  art) ; 
 and  the  peirastic  (as  represented  by  a  skirmish,  or 
 Irial  of  proficiency).  The  agonislir.  dialogues,  sup- 
 posed to  resemble  the  combat,  were  either  endcictic  (as 
 exhibiting  specimens  o(  siiill),  or  aiwtrf.ptic  (as  pre- 
 senting the  spectacle  of  a  perfect,  defeat).  Instead  of 
 this  whimsical  classification,  they  may  more  profierly 
 be  divided  into  physical,  logical,  ethical,  and  political. 
 — The  writings  of  Plato  were  originally  collected  by 
 Heniiodorus,  one  of  his  pupils.  One  circumstance  it 
 is  particularly  necessary  to  remark  :  that,  among  other 
 things  which  Plato  received  from  foreign  philosophy. 
 he  was  careful  to  borrow  the  art  of  concealing  his  real 
 opinions.  His  iticliiiation  towards  this  kind  of  con- 
 ceahnent  appears  from  the  obscure  language  which 
 abounds  in  his  writings,  and  may  indeed  be  learned 
 from  his  own  express  assertions.  "  It  is  a  difficult 
 thing,"  he  observes,  '•  to  discover  the  nature  of  the 
 Creator  of  the  universe  ;  and,  being  discovered,  it  is 
 impossible,  and  would  even  be  impious,  to  expose  the 
 discovery  to  vulgar  understandings."  This  concealed 
 method  of  philosophizing  he  was  induced  to  adopt  from 
 a  regard  to  personal  safety,  and  from  motives  of  vani- 
 ty. (^EnfiehVs  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  206, 
 seqq.) — Plato,  by  his  philosophical  education,  and  the 
 superiority  of  his  natural  talents,  was  placed  on  an 
 eminence  which  gave  him  a  commanding  view  of  the 
 systems  of  his  contemporaries,  without  allowing  him 
 to  be  involved  in  their  prejudices.  {Sophista,  vol.  2, 
 p.  252,  265,  ed.  Bip—Cratyl.,  p.  345,  286.)  He 
 always  considered  theoretical  and  practical  philoso- 
 phy as  forming  essential  parts  of  the  same  whole  ; 
 and  thought  it  was  only  by  means  of  true  philosophy 
 that  human  nature  could  attain  its  proper  perfection. 
 (De  Repub.,  vol.  7,  p.  76,  ed.  Bip.) — His  critical  ac- 
 quaintance Vviith  preceding  systems,  and  his  own  ad- 
 vantages, enabled  Plato  to  form  more  adequate  no- 
 tions of  the  proper  end,  extent,  and  character  of  phi- 
 losophy. Philosophy  he  defined  to  be  science,  prop- 
 erly so  called  The  source  of  knowledge  he  pronoun- 
 ced to  be,  not  the  evidence  of  our  senses,  which  are 
 occupied  with  contingent  matter,  nor  yet  the  under- 
 staniUng,  but  Reason  {PhcEilo,  vol.  1,  p.  225,  ed. 
 Bip.),  whose  object  is  that  which  is  invariable  and  aZi- 
 solute  (to  ovTog  6v. — Phadr.,  vol.  10,  p.  247,  ed. 
 Bip).  He  held  the  doctrine  of  the  existence  in  the 
 soul  of  certain  innate  ideas  {vor/fiara),  which  form  the 
 basis  of  our  conceptions,  and  the  elements  of  our  prac- 
 tical resolutions.  To  these  ISeat.,  as  he  termed  them 
 (the  eternal  irapadeiyp.aTa,  types  and  models  of  all 
 thiiitjs,  and  the  apx^i,  or  principles  of  our  knowledge), 
 we  refer  the  infinite  variety  of  individual  objects  pre- 
 sented to  us  (to  uTTEipov  and  rd  ttoA'Au.).  Hence  it 
 follows,  that  all  these  details  of  knowledge  are  not  the 
 results  of  experience,  but  only  developed  by  it.  The 
 60ul  recollects  the  ideas,  in  proportion  as  it  becomes 
 acquainted  with  their  copies  {ofioMf^iaTa),  with  which 
 the  world  its  filled  ;  the  process  being  that  of  recalling 
 to  itiivid  the  circumstances  of  a  state  of  pre-existence. 
 (Pk<edo,  vol.  I,  p  74,  75.  —  PA«rfr.,  vol.  10,  p.  249.) 
 Inasmuch  as  the  objects  thus  presented  to  the  mind 
 correspond  in  part  with  its  ideas,  they  must  have  some 
 {>ririci|)?e  in  common  ;  that  principle  is  the  Divinity, 
 whfl  has  formed  these  external  objects  after  the  model 
 
 of  iKe  ideas.     {De  Rcpuh.,  6,  vol.  7,  p.  116,  senq. 
 
 Tint  ,  vol.  9,  p.  348  )  Such  are  the  fundamental  doc- 
 trines of  the  philosophy  of  Plato  ;  in  accordance  with 
 whicl  he  placed  the  principles  of  identity  and  contra- 
 diction amontrthe  highest  laws  of  philosophy  {Phaidr., 
 vol.  10.  p  22fi,  230.  —  De  Repub.,  6,  vol.  7,  p.  I22! 
 &c.),  and  drew  a  distinction  between  Em/i/r/crt/ knowl- 
 edge and  Rational;  the  one  being  derived  from  the 
 SiiteSlectMal,  the  other  from  the  External  world  (k6(7- 
 (iOf  a'ia^riT('i^  and  vo»;rof)  ;  making  the  latter  the  only 
 true  object  of  philosophy. — The  division  of  philosophy 
 into  Logic  (Dialectics),  Metaphysics  (Physiology  or 
 
 Phys'iCs),  and  Morals  (the  Political  Science),  has  beeti 
 principally  brought  about  by  Plato  [Scxti/s  ad.  Math., 
 7,  16),  who  clearly  laid  down  the  chief  attributes  of 
 each  of  these  sciences,  and  their  mutual  dependen- 
 cies, and  distinguished  also  between  the  analytical  and 
 synthetical  methods.  Philosophy,  therefore,  is  under 
 great  obligation  to  him,  quoad  forrnam.  She  is  no 
 less  indebted  to  him  for  the  lights  he  has  thrown  upon 
 the  above  parts  considered  separately  ;  though  he  did 
 not  profess  to  deliver  a  system  of  each,  but  continu- 
 ally excited  the  attention  of  others,  in  order  to  farther 
 discoveries. — Plato  considered  the  soul  to  be  a  self- 
 acting  energy  (airo  tavTo  kivovv. — De  Leg.,  10,  vol. 
 
 9,  p.  88,  seqq  )  ;  and,  viewed  as  combined  with  the 
 body,  he  distinguished  in  it  two  parts,  the  rational 
 {TioyioTLKoq  vovi;),  and  the  irrational  or  animal  ((i/lo- 
 -yiariKov  or  iTridvfirjTLKov),  mutually  corrected  by  a 
 sort  of  middle  term  {^vfio^  or  to  ■&v/j.oci.6e().  The  an- 
 imal part  has  its  origin  in  the  imprisonment  of  the 
 soul  in  the  body  ;  the  intellectual  slill  retains  a  con- 
 sciousness of  the  Ideas,  whereby  it  is  capable  of  re- 
 turning to  the  happy  condition  of  spirits.  In  Plato 
 we  discover  also  a  more  complete  discrimination  of 
 the  faculties  of  knowledge,  sensation,  and  volition  (De 
 Repub.,  4,  vol.  6,  p.  367,  ed.  Bip  ),  with  admirable 
 remarks  on  their  operations,  and  on  the  different  spe- 
 cies of  perception,  of  sensation,  of  motives  determin- 
 ing the  will,  as  well  as  the  relations  between  thought 
 and  speech.  {Theat..,  ed.  Stcph.,  p.  189,  E.,  seqq. — 
 Phileh.,  p.  38,  D  ) — Plato  has  rendered  no  less  ser- 
 vice to  philosophy  by  affording  it  the  first  sketch  of  the 
 laws  of  thought,  the  rules  of  propositions,  of  conclu- 
 sions, and  proof,  and  of  the  analytic  method  :  the  dis- 
 tinction drawn  between  the  Universal  (koivov)  and 
 Substance  (ovaia) ;  and  the  Particular  and  the  Acci- 
 dental. He  diligently  investigated  the  characteristics 
 of  Truth,  and  detected  the  signs  of  the  phenomenon 
 or  apparent  Truth.  To  hmi  we  owe  the  first  attempt 
 at  the  construction  of  a  philosophical  language  (in  the 
 Craiylus)  ;  the  first  development  of  an  abstract  idea 
 of  knowledge  and  science  ;  the  first  logical  statement 
 of  the  properties  of  Matter,  Form,  Substance,  Acci- 
 dent, Cause  and  Effect,  of  Natural  and  Independent 
 causes  of  Reality  {tH  bv),  and  of  Apparent  Reality 
 (fpaivopsvov)  ;  a  more  adequate  idea  of  the  Divinity, 
 as  a  Being  eminently  good,  with  a  more  accurate  induc- 
 tion of  the  Divine  Attributes,  especially  the  moral  ones  ; 
 accompanied  by  remarks  on  the  popular  religion,  and 
 an  essay  towards  a  demonstration  of  the  existence  of 
 God  by  reasonings  drawn  from  Cosmology.     {De  Leg., 
 
 10,  vol.  9,  p.  68  ;  12,  vol.  9,  p.  2'Z9  —  Phileh.,  vol. 
 4,  p.  i'H.  —  Epinomis.,  vol.  9,  p.  254,  seqq)  He 
 represents  the  Divinity  as  the  author  of  the  world,  in- 
 asmuch as  he  introduced  into  rude  matter  {vatj — to 
 dfiop(pov)  order  and  harmony,  by  moulding  it  after 
 the  Ideas,  and  conferring,  together  with  a  rotatory  mo- 
 tion, a  harmonious  body,  governed,  as  in  the  case  of 
 individual  animals,  by  a  rational  spirit.  {Tcnncmann, 
 Manual  of  Philos.,i^.  UQ,  seqq.,  Johnston's  transl.) 
 — In  theology,  the  fundamental  doctrine  of  Plato,  as 
 of  all  other  ancient  philosophers,  is,  that  from  nothnig 
 nothing  can  proceed.  This  universal  axiom,  applied 
 not  only  to  the  infinite  efficient,  but  to  the  material 
 cause,  Plato,  in  his  Timaeus,  assumes  as  the  ground  of 
 his  reasoning-  concerning  the  origin  of  the  world.  In 
 this  dialogue,  which  comprehends  his  whole  doctrine 
 on  the  subject  of  the  formation  of  the  universe,  matior 
 is  so  manifestly  spoken  of  as  eternally  coexisting  with 
 God,  that  this  part  of  his  doctrine  could  not  have  been 
 mistaken  by  so  many  learned  and  able  writers,  had 
 they  not  been  seduced  by  the  de.sire  of  esiablishing  a 
 coincidence  of  doctrine  between  the  writings  of  1  lato 
 and  Moses.  It  is  certain  that  neither  Cicero  {Acad. 
 Qua-st.,  1,  6),  nor  Apuleius  (1.  p.  184),  nor  Alcmo.is 
 (c.  12),  nor  even  the  later  commentator  (.halcidius, 
 understood  their  master  in  any  other  sense  than  as  ad- 
 
 1077 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 milting  two  primary  and  incorruptible  principles,  God 
 and  Matter.  The  passages  quoted  by  those  who  main- 
 lain  the  contrary  opinion  are  by  no  means  sufficient 
 for  their  purpose. — Matter,  according  to  Plato,  is  an 
 eternal  and  inliinle  principle.  His  doctrine  on  this 
 head  is  thus  explained  by  Cicero  {Acad.  Qucest.,  1, 
 8) :  "  Matter,  from  which  all  things  are  produced  and 
 formed,  is  a  substance  without  form  or  quality,  but 
 capable  of  receiving  all  forms  and  undergoing  every 
 kind  of  change  ;  in  which,  however,  it  never  suffers 
 annihilation,  but  merely  a  solution  of  its  parts,  which 
 are  in  their  nature  infinitely  divisible,  and  move  in 
 j)ortions  of  space  which  are  also  infinitely  indivisible. 
 When  that  principle  which  we  call  quality  is  moved, 
 and  acts  upon  matter,  it  undergoes  an  entire  ciiange, 
 and  those  forms  are  produced  from  which  arises  the 
 diversified  and  coherent  system  of  the  universe." 
 This  doctrine  Plato  unfolds  at  large  in  his  Timseus, 
 and  |)articularly  insists  on  the  notion,  that  matter  has 
 originally  no  form,  but  is  capable  of  receiving  any. 
 He  calls  it  the  mother  and  receptacle  of  forms,  by  the 
 union  of  which  with  matter  the  universe  becomes  per- 
 ceptible to  the  senses  ;  and  maintains  that  the  visible 
 world  owes  its  form  to  the  energy  of  the  divine  intel- 
 lectual nature. — It  was  also  a  doctrine  of  Plato,  that 
 there  is  in  matter  a  necessary,  but  blind  and  refracto- 
 ry, force  ;  and  that  hence  arises  a  propensity  in  mat- 
 ter to  disorder  and  deformity,  which  is  the  cause  of 
 all  the  imperfection  that  appears  m  the  works  of  God, 
 and  the  origin  of  evil.  On  this  subject  Plato  writes 
 with  wonderful  obscurity  ;  but,  as  far  as  we  are  able 
 to  trace  his  conceptions,  he  appears  to  have  thought, 
 that  matter,  from  its  nature,  resists  the  will  of  the  Su- 
 preme Artificer,  so  that  he  cannot  perfectly  execute 
 his  designs  ;  and  that  this  is  the  cause  of  the  mixture 
 of  good  and  evil  which  is  found  in  the  material  world. 
 The  principle  opposite  to  matter,  in  the  system  of 
 Plato,  is  God.  He  taught  that  there  is  an  intelligent 
 cause,  which  is  the  origin  of  all  spiritual  being,  and 
 the  former  of  the  material  world.  The  nature  of  this 
 great  Being  he  pronounced  it  difficult  to  discover,  and, 
 when  discovered,  impossible  to  divulge.  The  exist- 
 ence of  God  he  inferred  from  the  marks  of  intelligence 
 ■which  appear  in  the  form  and  arrangement  of  bodies 
 in  the  visible  world  ;  and,  from  the  unity  of  the  mate- 
 rial system,  he  concluded  that  tiie  mind  by  which  it 
 was  formed  must  be  one.  God,  according  to  Plato,  is 
 the  Supreme  Intelligence,  incorporeal,  without  begin- 
 ning, end,  or  change,  and  capable  of  being  perceived 
 only  by  the  mind.  The  Divine  Reason,  the  eternal 
 region  of  Ideas  or  forms,  Plato  speaks  of  as  having  al- 
 ways existed,  and  as  the  Divine  principle  which  estab- 
 lished the  order  of  the  world.  He  appears  to  have 
 conceived  of  this  principle,  as  distinct  not  merely  from 
 matter,  but  from  the  efficient  cause,  and  as  eternally 
 containing  within  itself  Ideas,  or  intelligible  forms, 
 which,  flowing  from  the  fountain  of  the  divine  essence, 
 have  in  themselves  a  real  existence,  and  which,  in  the 
 formation  of  the  visible  world,  were,  by  the  energy  of 
 the  efficient  cause,  united  to  matter,  to  produce  sensi- 
 ble bodies. — It  was  another  doctrine  in  the  Platonic 
 system,  that  the  Deity  formed  the  material  world  after 
 a  perfect  archetype,  which  had  eternally  subsisted  in 
 liis  Reason,  and  endued  it  with  a  soul.  "God,"  says 
 he,  "  ()roduced  mind  prior  in  time  as  well  as  in  excel- 
 lence to  the  body,  that  the  latter  might  be  subject  to 
 the  former. — From  that  substance,  which  is  indivisible 
 and  always  the  same,  and  from  that  which  is  corporeal 
 and  divisible,  he  compounded  a  third  kind  of  sub- 
 stance, participating  in  the  nature  of  both." — This 
 substance,  which  is  not  eternal,  but  produced,  and 
 whicli  derives  the  superior  part  of  its  nature  from  God, 
 and  the  inferior  from  matter,  Plato  supposed  to  be  the 
 animating  principle  in  the  universe,  pervading  and 
 adorning  all  things.  This  third  principle  in  nature  is, 
 m  the  Platonic  system,  inferior  to  the  Deity,  being  de- 
 1078 
 
 rived  from  that  Divine  Reason  which  is  the  seat  of 
 the  Ideal  world  ;  herein  differing  fundamentally  from 
 the  Stoical  doctrine  of  the  soul  of  the  world,  which 
 sujjposed  the  essence  of  the  Divine  nature  diffused 
 through  the  universe.  It  is  evident,  from  this  account 
 of  the  doctrine  of  Plato  concerning  God  and  the  soul 
 of  the  world,  that  it  difi'ers  materially  from  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  Trinity  afterward  received  mto  the  Chris- 
 tian Church.  Plato  did  not  suppose  three  substances 
 in  one  divine  essence,  separate  from  the  visible  world  ; 
 but  taught  that  the  Xojo^,  or  Reason  of  God,  is  the 
 seat  of  the  intelligible  world  or  of  Ideas,  and  that  the 
 soul  of  the  world  is  a  third  subordinate  nature,  com- 
 pounded of  intelligence  and  matter.  In  the  language 
 of  Plato,  the  universe,  being  animated  by  a  soul  which 
 proceeds  from  God,  is  the  Son  of  God  ;  and  several 
 parts  of  nature,  particularly  the  heavenly  bodies,  are 
 Gods.  He  probably  conceived  many  subordinate  di- 
 vinities to  have  been  produced  at  the  same  time  with 
 the  soul  of  the  world,  and  imagined  that  the  Supreme 
 Being  appointed  them  to  the  charge  of  forming  animal 
 bodies,  and  superintending  the  visible  world  :  a  doc- 
 trine which  he  seems  to  have  borrowed  from  the  Pyth- 
 agoreans, and  particularly  from  Timaeus  the  Locrian. 
 — Plato  appears  to  have  taught,  that  the  soul  of  man 
 is  derived  by  emanation  from  God  ;  but  that  this  em- 
 anation was  not  immediate,  but  through  the  inter- 
 vention of  the  soul  of  the  world,  which  was  itself  de- 
 based by  some  material  admixture  ;  and,  consequently, 
 that  the  human  soul,  receding  farther  from  the  First 
 Intelligence,  is  inferior  in  perception  to  the  soul  of  the 
 world.  He  teaches,  also,  in  express  terms,  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  immortality  of  the  rational  soul  ;  but  he 
 has  rested  the  proof  of  this  doctrine  upon  arguments 
 drawn  from  the  more  fanciful  parts  of  his  system.  For 
 example  :  In  nature,  all  things  terminate  in  their  con- 
 traries ;  the  state  of  sleep  terminates  in  that  of  wa- 
 king ;  and  the  reverse  :  so  life  ends  in  death,  and  death 
 in  life.  The  soul  is  a  simple  indivisible  substance, 
 and  therefore  incapable  of  dissolution  or  corruption. 
 The  objects  to  which  it  naturally  adheres  are  spiritual 
 and  incorruptible;  therefore  its  nature  is  so.  All  our 
 knowledge  is  acquired  by  the  reminiscence  of  ideas 
 contemplated  in  a  [)rior  state  :  as  the  soul  must  have 
 existed  before  this  life,  it  is  probable  it  will  continue 
 to  exist  after  it.  Life  being  the  conjunction  of  the 
 soul  with  the  body,  death  is  nothing  more  than  their 
 separation.  Whatever  is  the  principle  of  motion  must 
 be  incapable  of  destruction.  Such  is  the  substance  of 
 the  arguments  for  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  contain- 
 ed in  the  celebrated  dialogue  of  the  Pfcado.  It  is 
 happy  for  mankind  that  their  belief  of  this  important 
 doctrine  rests  upon  firmer  grounds  than  ibis  futile 
 reasoning.  {Enjield's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  229.  scqg.) — The  interesting  research  which  Plato 
 cairied  so  far,  respecting  the  Supreme  Good,  belongs 
 to  the  subject  of  Morals.  Virtue  he  defined  to  be  the 
 imitation  of  God,  or  the  effort  of  man  to  attain  to  a  re- 
 semblance of  his  original ;  or,  in  other  terms,  a  anison 
 and  harmony  of  all  our  principles  and  actions  accwrd- 
 ing  to  reason,  whence  results  the  highest  degree  of 
 happiness.  Virtue  is  wjf,  but  compounded  of  fonr  el- 
 ements :  Wisdom,  Courage  or  Constancy,  Temper- 
 ance, and  Justice  ;  which  are  otherwise  termed  the 
 four  cardinal  virtues.  Such  virtues  he  describes  as 
 arising  out  of  an  independence  of,  and  superiority  to, 
 the  influence  of  the  senses.  In  his  practical  philoso- 
 phy Plato  blended  a  right  principle  of  moral  ob!igati®» 
 with  a  spirit  of  gentleness  and  humanity  ;  and  educa- 
 tion he  described  as  a  liberal  culiivaiion  and  nwral  dis- 
 cipline of  the  mind.  Politics  he  defiaed  to  be  the  ap 
 plication,  on  a  great  scale,  of  the  laws  of  morality ;  a 
 society  being  composed  of  individuals,  and  therefore 
 under  similar  obligations  ;  and  its  end  to  be  liberty 
 and  concord.  In  giving  a  sketch  of  his  Republic,  as 
 governed  according  to  reason,  Plato  had  particukr^y 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO 
 
 «K  eye  to  li.e  character  and  the  political  difficulties  of 
 the  Greeks,  coniiectnig  at  the  same  time  the  discus- 
 sion of  this  subject  with  his  metaphysical  opinions  re- 
 specting the  soul. — Beauty  he  considered  to  be  the  sen- 
 sible represenlatjon  of  moral  and  physical  perfection  ; 
 consequently  it  is  one  with  Truth  and  Goodness,  and 
 inspires  love  which  leads  to  virtue,  forming  what  is 
 called  Platonic  love.     (Tcnncmaiin,  Manual,  p.  117.) 
 
 I.  General  Vic^v  of  the  Philosophy  of  Plato. 
 
 It  requires,  indeed,  considerable  knowledge  of  the 
 history  of  philosophy  to  appreciate  the  whole  influence 
 which  Plato  has  exercised  upon  the  human  mind  ; 
 and,  still  more,  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  his  works 
 to  comprehend  their  real  scope  and  depth.  It  is, 
 therefore,  not  surprising  that  such  an  erroneous  esti- 
 mate of  his  character  should  generally  prevail ;  so  that, 
 as  Schleiermacher  well  observes  (Pref.  to  Inlrod.  la 
 Dialoguci-),  his  brilliant  passages  should  have  dazzled 
 the  eyes  o(  students  until  they  forgot  that  in  the  mind 
 of  Plato  these  were  but  resiing-stones  and  reliefs  (ne- 
 cessary concessions  to  human  weakness)  to  enable 
 the  mind  to  ascend  to  a  far  higher  range  of  thought. 
 And  yet  there  are  certain  eras  in  the  history  of  hu- 
 man reason,  in  which  the  operation  of  Platonism  comes 
 out  III  a  form  too  striking  to  permit  any  doubt  of  its 
 power  or  disrespect  to  its  memory.  It  was  something 
 more  than  eloquence  and  fancy  which  Cicero,  perplexed 
 as  he  sometimes  seems  to  be  with  the  dialectical  ma- 
 nosuvres  of  Plato,  discovered  in  those  theories  through 
 which  he  proposed  to  conduct  the  spirit  of  philosophy 
 into  Rome.  It  was  not  mere  ingenuity  and  abstraction 
 which  induced  the  reformers  of  heathenism  to  adopt 
 his  name,  so  that,  in  the  words  of  Augustine  (De  Civit. 
 Dei,  8,  10),  "recen/iorcs  quique  philosoplii  nobilissi- 
 mi,  quibns  Plato  scctandus  placuit,  nolucriiU  se  did 
 Penpatelicos  aut  Academicos,  scd  Platonicos.'"  Some- 
 thing more  than  ordinary  reason  (and  so  the  wisest 
 Chiistians  always  thought)  must  have  informed  that 
 spirit  which,  after  lying  dormant  for  three  centuries, 
 was  resuscitated  in  the  first  age  of  Chrii^tianily,  and 
 entered  into  that  body  of  rationalism  which,  whether 
 under  the  name  of  Gnosticism  or  the  Alexandrean 
 School,  rose  up  by  the  side  of  the  true  faith,  to  wres- 
 tle with  its  untried  strength,  and  to  bring  out  its  full 
 form,  in  precision,  by  struggles  with  an  antagonist  like 
 itself  Once  more,  at  the  revival  of  literature,  Plato 
 was  selected  as  the  leader  of  the  new  philosophical 
 spirit,  which  was  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Romanism, 
 and  with  it  the  law  of  Christianity.  Wherever  Plato 
 has  led,  he  has  elevated  and  improved  the  human  mind. 
 He  has  been  followed  too  far — farther  than  the  Chris- 
 tian may  follow  him  ;  and  many  fatal  errors  have 
 been  sheltered  under  his  name.  But  those  which 
 have  really  sprung  from  him  have  beeti  errors  of  the 
 heart;  errors  which  have  not  degraded  human  nature, 
 Eor  stifled  the  principle  of  virtue.  Even  the  scepti- 
 cism of  the  later  academics  offers  no  exception,  for  it 
 had  no  authority  whatever  in  the  general  principles  of 
 Plato.  Enthusiasm,  mysticism,  and  fanaticism  have 
 been  the  e.Uravagances  of  Platonism  ;  coldness,  ma- 
 terialism, and  scepticism  the  perversions  of  Aristotle. 
 Each,  when  retained  in  his  proper  subordination,  has 
 been  a  useful  servant  to  the  cause  of  Christianity. 
 But  the  work  which  Plato  has  performed  is  far  higher 
 than  that  o(  Aristotle  ;  one  has  drilled  the  intellect, 
 the  other  disciplined  the  affections  ;  one  aided  in  sink- 
 ing deep  the  truths  of  Chri.stianity,  and  expat, dinw  its 
 form,  the  other  complicated  and  entangled  its  parts  by 
 endeavouring  to  reduce  them  to  system  ;  one  supplied 
 materials,  the  other  lent  instruments  to  shape  them  ; 
 one  fairly  met  the  enemies  of  Christianity  upon  the 
 ground  of  reason,  the  other  secretly  gave  way  to 
 them  without  deserting  the  standard  of  authority  ;  one, 
 when  it  rebelled,  rebelled  openly,  and  threw  up  her- 
 esies; the  other  never  rebelled,  but  engendere<l  and 
 
 supported  corruption.  No  men  have  more  mistaken 
 the  nature  of  Plato's  system  than  those  who  have  re- 
 garded it  as  a  speculative  fabric,  such  as  men  of  pow- 
 erful intellect  have  wrought  out  at  times  in  schools  and 
 cloisters,  when  the  tranquillity  of  society  enabled  them 
 to  think,  without  any  necessity  for  action.  Much,  if 
 not  all,  of  the  Eastern  philosophy  was  of  this  caste. 
 It  sprung  up  like  a  tree  in  the  desert,  very  beautiful 
 but  very  useless,  under  an  atmosphere  fixed  and  change- 
 less, perfect  in  all  its  outlines  from  the  absence  of  any- 
 thing to  disturb  it.  Such,  also,  was  much  of  the  new 
 Alexandrean  speculations,  until  Julian  brought  them 
 to  bear  practically  upon  the  purification  of  the  heathen 
 polytheism.  Such  also  was  scholasticism,  and  such 
 manv  of  the  rival  theories  which  have  since  sprung  up 
 in  Germany  under  the  stimulus  of  a  craving  curiosity, 
 which  found  nothing  to  do  but  to  think.  We  shall, 
 however,  never  understand  the  value  of  Plato's  phi- 
 losophy, and  still  less  the  arrangement  and  dependance 
 of  its  parts,  without  viewing  it  in  this  light,  as  a  prac- 
 tical, not  a  speculative,  system.  Even  considered  as 
 a  revival  of  the  modified  doctrine  of  Pythagoras,  which, 
 probably,  is  the  true  point  of  view,  it  is  still  practical. 
 Pythagoras  was  full  of  other  thoughts  than  the  abstract 
 relation  of  numbers,  when  he  organized  his  wonderful 
 society  to  restore  something  like  right  government 
 and  religious  subordination  in  the  republics  of  Magna 
 Grsecia.  He  was  as  far  from  dreaming  away  his  rea- 
 son in  emjity  metaphysics,  though  high  and  abstract 
 truth  was  a  necessary  condition  of  his  system,  as  Loy- 
 ola was  from  resting  in  the  subtleties  of  scholastic 
 theology  when  he  created  his  singular  polity  for  up- 
 holding the  Romanist  faith.  Plato's  great  object  was 
 man.  He  lived  with  man,  felt  as  a  man,  held  in- 
 tercourse with  kings,  interested  himself  deeply  in  the 
 political  revolutions  of  Sicily,  was  the  pupil  of  one 
 whose  boast  it  was  to  have  brought  down  philosophy 
 from  heaven  to  earth,  that  it  might  raise  man  up  from 
 earth  to  heaven  ;  and,  above  all,  he  was  a  witness  and 
 actor  in  the  midst  of  that  ferment  of  humanity  exhibit- 
 ed in  the  democracy  of  Athens.  When  states  are  at 
 peace  and  property  secure,  and  the  wheels  of  common 
 life  move  on  regularly  and  quietly  upon  their  fixed 
 lines,  men  with  active  minds  may  sit  and  speculate 
 upon  the  stars,  or  analyze  ideas.  But  it  is  not  so  in 
 the  great  convulsions  of  society.  The  object  con- 
 stantly before  the  eyes  of  Plato  was  the  incorporated 
 spirit,  the  /xiya  -^pefifia  of  human  lawlessness.  (Rc- 
 pub.,  6,  p.  219.)  He  saw  it,  indeed,  in  an  exhausted 
 state,  its  power  passed  away,  its  splendour  torn  off, 
 and  all  the  sores  and  ulcers  {Gorgias,  p.  109)  which 
 other  demagogues  had  pampered  and  concealed,  now 
 laid  bare  and  bevond  cure.  But  it  was  still  a  specta- 
 cle to  absorb  the  mind  of  every  good  and  thoughtful 
 man.  The  state  of  the  Athenian  democracy  is  the 
 real  clew  to  the  philosophy  of  Plato.  It  would  be 
 proved,  if  by  nothing  else,  by  one  little  touch  in  the 
 Republic.  The  Republic  is  the  sutnmary  of  his  whole 
 system,  and  the  keystone  of  all  the  other  dialogues  are 
 uniformly  let  into  it.  But  the  object  of  the  Republic 
 is  to  exhibit  the  misery  of  man  let  loose  from  law,  and 
 to  throw  out  a  general  plan  for  making  him  subject  to 
 law,  and  thus  to  perfect  his  nature.  It  is  exhibited  on 
 a  large  scale  in  the  person  of  a  state,  and  in  the  mas- 
 terly^historical  sketch  with  which,  in  the  eighth  and 
 ninth  books,  he  draws  the  changes  of  society.  Hav- 
 ing painted  in  the  minutest  detail  the  form  of  a  licen- 
 tious democracv,  he  fixes  it  by  the  slightest  allusion 
 (it  was,  perhaps,  all  he  could  hazard)  on  the  existing 
 state  of  Athens  ;  and  then  passes  on  to  a  frightful 
 prophecy  of  that  tyranny  which  would  inevitably  fol- 
 low. All  the  other  dialogues  bring  us  to  the  Repub- 
 lic, and  the  Republic  brings  us  to  this  as  its  end  and 
 aim.  On  this  view  every  part  of  his  system  will  fall 
 naturally  into  place.  Even  questions  apparently  far- 
 thest from  anv  practical  intention  are  thus  connected 
 ^  '  1079 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 with  his  plan.  If  in  the  Sophist  he  indulges  in  the 
 most  subtle  analysis  of  our  notion  of  being,  it  is  to 
 overthrow  the  fundamental  fallacy  of  that  metaphysical 
 school  which  was  denying  all  virtue  by  confoutidmg 
 all  truth,  and  thus  poisoning  human  nature  at  iis 
 source,  and  justifying  the  grossest  crimes  both  of  the 
 state  and  of  its  leaders.  If  he  returns  again  and 
 aoain  to  his  noble  theory  of  Ideas,  it  is  to  fix  certain 
 iiiiinutable  distinctions  of  right  and  wrong,  good  and 
 evil  ;  and  to  raise  up  the  mind  to  the  contemplation 
 of  a  being  of  perfect  goodness,  prior  in  existence,  su- 
 perior in  power,  unamenable  in  its  independence  to 
 those  fancies  and  passions  of  mankind  which  had  be- 
 come, before  the  eyes  of  Plato,  in  individuals  unbri- 
 dled lusts,  and  in  the  state  an  insanity  of  tyranny.  If 
 in  the  Parmenides  he  takes  us  into  the  obstrusest 
 mysteries  of  metaphysics — the  nature  of  unity  and 
 number — this  also  was  rendered  necessary,  not  only  to 
 obviate  objection  to  his  own  theory  of  ideas,  but  to  fix 
 the  great  doctrine  of  unity  in  a  Divine  Being — unity  m 
 goodness — one  truth  in  action  and  thought — as  opposed 
 to  that  polytheism  of  reason  which  makes  every  man's 
 conscience  his  god.  It  grappled  also  with  a  mystery 
 which  meets  us  at  the  foundation  of  every  deep  theory, 
 and  in  the  fonns  of  every  popular  belief,  in  Christianity 
 as  well  as  in  heathenism  ;  a  mystery  which,  true  in 
 itself,  as  wholly  distinct  from  man,  has  yet  a  corre- 
 sponding mystery  in  the  constitution  of  the  human 
 mind  ;  and  which  compelled  even  the  heathen  philoso- 
 pher to  state  the  same  seeming  paradox  for  the  very 
 foundation  of  his  system,  which  Christianity  lays  down 
 at  once  as  its  grand  and  all-comprehensive  doctrine. 
 All  unity  implies  plurality — all  plurality  must  end  in 
 unity.  So  also  the  inquiry  in  the  Thea;letus  into  the 
 nature  of  science  bore  no  resemblance  whatever  in  its 
 object  to  any  mere  speculative  theories  of  Kant  or  his 
 followers.  It  was  a  necessary  part  of  that  system 
 which  was  to  become  the  antagonist  of  the  Sophists, 
 and  to  contend  for  the  preservation  of  truth  against 
 a  ruinous  sensualism  and  empiricism,  which  was  sap- 
 ping all  the  foundations  of  society.  Even  the  seem- 
 ingly frivolous  and  often  wearisome  subtleties  which 
 occur  in  the  Sophist,  the  Euthydemus,  and  the  Politi- 
 cus,  are  intended  as  dialectical  exercises  for  the  pupil 
 whom  Plato  is  forming  to  become  the  saviour  and 
 guardian  of  a  state.  Even  the  philological  absurdities 
 of  the  Cratylus  are  to  be  explained  in  the  same  way. 
 He  perpetually  suggests  the  fact  in  the  dialogues  them- 
 selves. And  in  the  Repui)lic  (lib.  7)  he  gives  at  length 
 the  principles  on  which  they  are  introduced.  Very 
 much  of  the  plan  of  his  dialogues,  for  reasons  which  he 
 himself  supplies,  is  purposely  left  in  obscurity.  And 
 the  test  of  the  statement  here  made  must  lie  in  a 
 careful  reference  to  the  works  themselves.  But  it  is 
 impossible  to  believe  that  Plato,  the  "first  of  philoso- 
 phers," who  made  practical  goodness  and  duty  the  one 
 great  end  of  life;  whose  whole  history,  as  well  as  his 
 theories,  are  full  of  views,  not  of  speeulati've  fancies,  but 
 of  practical  improvement  to  society  (Conviv  ,  p.  260) ; 
 the  friend  of  Dion,  the  adviser  of  Dionysius,  the  pupil 
 of  Socrates,  the  writer  of  the  Republic  and  the  Laws ; 
 who  recognised,  indeed,  intellect  and  truth  as  neces- 
 sary conditions  of  man's  perfection,  but  made  "  the 
 good  and  the  beautiful,"  his  heart  and  his  affections, 
 the  ruling  principle  of  his  actions  ;  who  never  looked 
 down  upon  minds  beneath  him  without  thinking  of  the 
 task  of  education,  and  never  raised  his  eyes  to  that 
 image  of  the  Deity  which  he  had  formed  from  all  im- 
 aginable perfection,  without  seeing  in  it,  not  merely  an 
 abstraction  of  intellect,  unity,  identity,  eternity,  but 
 goodness,  and  love,  and  justice  ;  the  Maker  of  the 
 world,  because  he  delighted  in  the  happiness  of  his 
 creatures  ;  the  Dispenser  of  rewards  beyond  the  grave, 
 the  Cause  of  all  good  things  {Rcpuh.,  lib.  10),  the  Fa- 
 ther and  King  of  all  :  it  is  impossible  to  believe  that 
 such  a  man,  with  strong  affections,  consummate  devo- 
 1080 
 
 [  tion  to  his  end,  absolute  unity  of  purpose  inculcatetl  m 
 all  his  doctrines,  and  exhibited  in  the  outlines  of  his 
 work,  should  have  stood  before  any  scene  of  humani- 
 ty, least  of  all  before  the  spectacle  of  an  Athenian 
 democracy,  without  having  his  whole  sou!  po.ssessed 
 by  man  and  the  relations  of  man,  instead  of  things  and 
 the  relations  of  things  ;  that  he  should  have  wasted 
 those  powers,  so  elevated  and  so  pure,  rn  idle  subtle- 
 ties ;  that  he  should  have  thrown  out  l>is  fancies  in 
 fragments,  as  one  whose  life  was  aimless  ;  or  that, 
 wrought  as  they  are  in  every  line  with  a  consummate 
 art,  linked  together  to  the  observing  eye  by  ten  thou- 
 sand of  the  finest  reticulations,  they  were  not  intended 
 as  a  system  ;  and  as  a  system  will  come  out  to  us 
 when  the  focus  is  rightly  adjusted,  and  the  whole  is 
 regarded  as  a  mighty  eflurt  to  elevate  man  to  his  per- 
 fection, and  his  perfection  where  only  it  can  be  reached, 
 in  a  social  and  political  form.  We  are  most  anxious 
 to  fix  attention  on  this  point  (let  it  be  a  fancy — take  it 
 as  hypothesis,  only  try  it),  because,  wherever  it  has 
 been  lost  (and  we  cannot  name  the  commentator  who 
 has  wholly  found  it),  the  whole  of  Plato's  works  have 
 been  viewed  in  inextricable  confusion.  Even  Schleicr- 
 macher  has  failed  in  his  clew.  Men  seem  to  have 
 wandered  about  as  in  a  maze  ;  here  admiring,  there 
 perplexed,  there  completely  at  a  stand.  No  order, 
 no  limits,  no  end.  Fragments  have  been  dealt  with 
 as  wholes,  and  wholes  as  fragments  ;  irony  mistaken 
 for  earnestness,  and  earnestness  for  irony  ;  play  for  the 
 fancy  gravely  dealt  with  as  meditation  for  the  reason, 
 and  exercises  for  boys  treated  as  the  serious  occupa- 
 tion of  men.  Spurious  pieces  have  been  admitted 
 which  destroyed  all  consistency  of  thought.  Doubts 
 raised  to  remove  error  or  rouse  curiosity,  have  been 
 carried  off  as  final  decisions,  until  Plato,  the  very  dog- 
 matist of  philosophy,  has  been  made  the  ringleader  of 
 Pyrrhonists  and  sceptics.  And  even  the  holiest  and 
 purest  of  ethics,  which  never  stopped  short  of  its  ob- 
 ject till  man's  mind  was  withdrawn  from  sense  and 
 his  heart  was  fixed  upon  its  God,  has  been  calumniated 
 and  perverted.  But  take  this  central  position  :  look 
 as  a  philosopher  on  man,  and  on  man,  in  his  whole  per- 
 sonality, as  a  living,  immortal  soul,  instinct  with  afl'oc- 
 lion  and  feeling,  which  cannot  rest  except  in  beings 
 like  himself.  See  him  vainly  struggling  to  realize  that 
 noble  creation  for  which  he  was  formed  at  first,  and  to 
 raise  up  a  polity  or  church  in  the  faculties  of  his  own 
 nature,  and  from  the  members  of  civil  society  ;  then 
 contemplate  the  wreck  of  such  a  plan  in  the  contam- 
 inated youth  and  remorseless  tyranny  of  the  Athenian 
 commonwealth  ;  all  that  was  noble  in  its  nature,  its 
 "  lion  heart"  and  "  human  reason"  (Repub  ,  lib.  9,  p. 
 345),  "starved,  emaciated,  and  degraded;"  and  the 
 "  many-headed  monster  of  its  passions,"  •rro/.i'(cf0c/,f~)v 
 ■&f)ifjfia,  "  howling  round  and  tearing  it  to  pieces  ;"  and 
 then  a  new  light  will  fall  upon  the  meaning  and  order 
 of  these  works,  which  were  intended  to  do  all  that 
 mere  philosophy  could  do — to  raise  a  solemn  protest 
 against  the  sins  which  it  witnessed  ;  to  overthrow  the 
 sophistries  which  pandered  to  those  corruptions  ;  to 
 open  a  nobler  scene  ;  and  to  create  some  yearning  for 
 its  attainment  in  those  few  untainted  minds  which  na- 
 ture had  prepared  for  its  enjoyment.  In  this  view  aill 
 will  be  clear :  the  grand  close  of  all  the  dialogues  in 
 the  Republic  and  Laws  ;  the  striking  mode  in  which 
 all  the  rest  are  worked  into  these  two  ;  the  commence- 
 ment of  them  in  the  Phadrus,  and  the  perfect  consi.st- 
 ency  of  that  piece,  in  any  other  view  so  wild  and  het- 
 erogeneous ;  the  deep,  melancholy  tone  which  pervades 
 every  allusion  of  Plato  to  scenes  before  his  eyes  ;  the 
 anticipation  of  coming  evil ;  the  sort  of  prophetic  ele- 
 vation as  he  opens  his  "dream"  of  that  city  wherein 
 all  goodness  should  dwell — "  whether  such  has  ever 
 existed  in  the  infinity  of  days  gone  by,  or  even  now 
 exists  in  the  East  far  from  our  sight  and  knowledge, 
 or  will  be  perchance  hereafter"— but  "  which,  though 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 it  De  not  on  earth,  must  have  a  pattern  of  it  laid  up  in 
 heaven,  for  him  who  wishes  to  behold  it,  and,  beholding, 
 resolves  to  dwell  there."  (Kepub.,  lib.  9,  p.  349.) 
 So  also  we  shall  enter  into  the  educational  character 
 of  his  works  ;  their  high  practical  morality,  the  mode 
 ii  which  every  question  is  carried  up  into  the  nature 
 of  truth,  and,  through  truth,  is  connected  with  virtue  ; 
 the  position  which  theology  occupies,  and  the  practical 
 mode  in  which  it  is  applied  ;  the  absence  of  those  ab- 
 stract metaphysical  speculations  on  the  nature  of  the 
 Deity,  into  which  human  reason  always  falls  when  it 
 analyzes  mental  conceptions  beyond  what  practical 
 duty  requires ;  and  into  which  the  Neo-Platonicians 
 did  fall,  and,  still  more,  the  Gnostics,  while  they  boasted 
 of  their  own  ingenuity,  and  ridiculed  Plato  as  one  who 
 had  not,  like  them,  penetrated  "  into  the  depths  of  the 
 Intelligible  Essence."  {Porphyr.,  Vit.  Plato,  c.  14.) 
 Even  the  form  of  Plato's  works  will  derive  new  light 
 and  beauty  from  considering  them  as  instruments  of 
 instruction,  not  vehicles  for  speculation.  The  mode 
 in  which  curiosity  is  roused  by  the  fractured  lines  of 
 the  dialogue  ;  the  arresting  the  attention  by  demand- 
 ing an  answer  to  every  position  ;  the  gradual  opening 
 of  difficulties  ;  the  carrying  of  the  eye  and  imagination 
 to  the  truth  by  portions  of  broken  winding-stairs  of 
 argument,  leading  to  dark  recesses,  and  ruinously  hung 
 together  in  masses,  rather  than  the  throwing  open  be- 
 fore the  reader  an  easy  ascending  plane,  which  requires 
 no  labour  and  stimulates  no  thought.  So  also  the 
 successive  overthrow  of  opinions  ;  the  sudden  starting 
 up  of  doubts  in  apparently  the  most  open  ground  ;  the 
 skill  with  which  the  drama  of  the  argument  is  broken 
 up  into  scenes  and  acts,  heightened  by  a  stage  dec- 
 oration, and  relieved  with  the  solemn  or  the  grotesque ; 
 the  rich  mclo-dramatic  myths  which  so  often  close 
 them  ;  the  character  of  Socrates  himself  imbodying 
 ■;he  attributes  and  duties  of  the  Greek  chorus  ;  the  se- 
 lection of  the  parties  among  the  young ;  the  tests 
 which  are  applied  to  ascertain  if  they  possess  the  qual- 
 ities of  mind  which,  in  the  Republic  (lib.  7).  are  de- 
 clared to  bo  necessary  for  those  who  make  any  prog- 
 ress in  goodness  ;  the  gradual  development  of  the  sys- 
 tem in  e.xact  proportion  to  the  industry  and  ingenuity 
 of  the  hearer  ;  and  the  order  of  the  sceptical  dialogue, 
 all  more  or  less  destructive  of  errors  without  any  dec- 
 laration of  the  truth,  and  forming  series  of  enigmas, 
 10  lead,  like  an  avenue  of  sphin.xes,  to  the  grand,  open 
 portal  of  the  Republic :  all  these  and  many  other 
 points  will  assume  a  wholly  different  character,  whether 
 we  consider  Plato's  work  as  intended  to  declare  his 
 opinions,  or  as  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  extrica- 
 ting, by  a  tried  and  thoughtful  process,  the  minds  which 
 it  was  still  possible  to  save  from  the  follies,  and  sins, 
 and  miseries  in  which  the  madness  of  the  age  and  a 
 vicious  system  of  education  were  plunging  them.  All 
 this,  to  persons  who  never  read  Plato,  or  read  him 
 carelessly  and  contemptuously,  as  men  in  this  day  do 
 read  whatever  they  do  not  understand,  at  the  first 
 glimpse  will  appear  exaggerated  and  enthusiastic. 
 And  no  answer  can  be  given  but  a  demand  that  the 
 trial  should  be  made,  and  the  hypothesis  taken  as  a 
 clew.  If  it  is  false,  it  will  fail.  But  none  whom  wise 
 men  would  wish  to  follow  have  ever  approached  the 
 name  of  Plato  without  reverence  and  gratitude.  All 
 have  been  impressed  especially  with  his  exquisite  skill 
 as  an  artist  or  constructor  of  his  works  (Schkier- 
 tnaclicr,  Inlrod.  Pief.)  ;  and  none  have  drawn  a  plan 
 which  gives  harmony  and  symmetry  to  them  all. 
 Some  plans,  however,  must  exist.  If  we  want  to  form 
 a  judgment  on  the  grandeur  of  some  vast  cathedral, 
 we  do  not  plant  ourselves  in  a  nook,  before  some  dis- 
 proportioned  arch,  or  out  of  sight  of  the  central  aisle. 
 We  seek  for  that  point  of  view  in  which  the  builder 
 himself  beheld  it  before  he  commenced  the  work,  and 
 then  the  whole  fabric  comes  out.  And  the  illustration 
 will  bear  to  be  dwelt  on.  Whoever  studies  Plato  is 
 6X 
 
 treading  on  holy  ground.  So  heathens  always  felt  it. 
 So  even  Christianity  confessed.  {Clem.  Alex.,  1,  p 
 39,  316.)  And  we  may  stand  among  his  venerable 
 works  as  in  a  vast  and  consecrated  fabric  ;  vistas  and 
 aisles  of  thoughts  opening  on  every  side ;  high  thoughts, 
 that  raise  the  mind  to  heaven  ;  pillars,  and  niches,  and 
 cells  within  cells,  mixing  in  seeming  confusion,  and  a 
 veil  of  tracery,  and  foliage,  and  grotesque  imagery 
 thrown  over  all,  but  all  rich  with  a  light  streaming 
 through  "dim  religions  forms  ;"  all  leading  up  to  God; 
 all  blessed  with  an  effluence  from  Him,  though  an  efflu- 
 ence dimmed  and  half  lost  in  the  contaminated  reason 
 of  man.  {British  Critic  and  Quarterly  Theological 
 Review,  No.  47,  p.  3,  scqq.) 
 
 II.    Works  of  Plato. 
 
 We  have  thirty-five  dialogues  generally  ascribed  to 
 Plato,  and  thirteen  epistles  ;  or  fifty-sis  dialogues,  if 
 we  count  each  book  of  the  Republic  and  Laws  sep- 
 arately. These  dialogues  have  somewhat  of  a  dra- 
 matic form,  and  are  intended  for  the  more  intelligent 
 class  of  readers,  and  those  who  are  habituated  to  the 
 exercise  of  reflection.  The  brilliant  imagination  of 
 the  author  has  strewed  upon  them  all  the  flowers  of 
 eloquence,  and  adorned  them  with  all  the  graces  of  the 
 Attic  diction  ;  and  he  has  frequently  interwoven  with 
 them  poetic  allegories,  and  political  and  theological 
 fictions.  The  analogy  between  the  dialogues  of  Plato 
 and  dramatic  pieces  is  in  many  respects  so  great,  that, 
 according  to  Diogenes  Laertius,  a  certain  Thrasyllus 
 formed  the  idea  of  dividing  them  into  so  many  tetral- 
 ogies. Still  we  must  not  imagine  from  this  that  Plato 
 had  proposed  to  himself  to  treat  of  the  same  subject  in 
 a  series  of  works. —  Schleierinacher,  the  celebrated 
 German  translator  of  Plato,  divides  these  dialogues 
 into  four  classes  :  those  of  the  first  class  comprehend 
 the  elements  of  philosophy  ;  as  the  Phaedrus,  Protago- 
 ras, Parinenides,  Lysis,  Laches,  Charmides,  and  Eu- 
 thyphron.  In  the  dialogues  of  the  second  class,  these 
 principles  receive  their  application  ;  as  in  the  Gor- 
 gias,  ThesBtetus,  Menon,  Eutliydeinus,  Sophists,  Po- 
 liticus,  Phajdon,  and  Philebus.  In  the  dialogues  of 
 the  third  class,  the  investigations  are  of  a  more  pro- 
 found character;  as  the  Timaeus,  Criiias,  Kepublic, 
 and  Laws.  The  fourth  class  comprehends  what  he 
 terms  dialogues  of  circumstance,  as  the  Crito,  and  the 
 Defence  of  Socrates.  This  distribution  is  certainly 
 an  ingenious  one  ;  but,  in  order  to  be  of  any  real  value, 
 the  first  three  classes  ought  to  form  also  three  chron- 
 ological series,  and  we  ought  thus  to  see  the  system 
 of  Plato  come  into  existence,  develop  itself,  and  at- 
 tain to  maturity  :  this,  however,  is  not  the  case. — An- 
 other German  writer  {Socher,  iiber  Platans  Schrift-en, 
 Munchcn,  1820,  8vo)  proposes  to  group  the  dialogues 
 in  the  following  manner :  I.  Dialogues  relative  to  the 
 trial  and  death  of  Socrates  :  the  Euihyphron,  Defence, 
 Crito,  Phsedrus,  Cratylus  :  2.  Dialogues  which  form 
 a  kind  of  continuation  to  each  other  :  the  Theselelus, 
 Sophists,  Politiciis,  Republic,  Timseus,  and  Ciitias: 
 3.  Dialogues  directed  against  false  philosophy  .  the 
 Euthydemus,  Protagoras,  Gorgias,  Ion,  Hippias  :  4. 
 Dialogues  treating  of  speculative  questions  :  the  Phse- 
 don,  Theffitetus,  Sophists,  Philebus,  Timaus,  and  Par- 
 menides  :  5.  Dialogues  devoted  to  politics,  or  the  art 
 of  government :  the  Polilicus,  Minos,  Repubhc,  Laws, 
 Epinomis  :  6.  Dialogues  treating  of  rhetorical  topics : 
 the  Gorgias,  Menexenus,  Phajdrus,  Banquet :  7.  Di- 
 alogues relative  to  individuals  accustomed  to  associate 
 with  Socrates  :  the  Theages,  first  Alcibiades,  Laches, 
 Theatetus  :  8.  Dialogues  in  which  the  question  is 
 discussed,  whether  virtue  can  be  taught  :  the  Euthy- 
 demus, Protagoras,  and  Menon  :  9.  Dialogues  in  which 
 false  opinions  are  considered  :  the  Theajtetus,  Soph- 
 ists,  Euthydemus,  Cratylus:  10.  Dialogues,  the  titles 
 of  which  indicate  particular  subjects  ;  as  the  Charmi- 
 des or  of  Moderation ;  the  Laches,  or  of  Bravery ; 
 
 1081 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 the  Lysis,  or  of  Friendship  ;  the  Euthyphron,  or  of 
 Piety,  &c. — It  will  appear  from  this  classification,  that 
 the  same  dialogue  may  thus  belotig  to  different  cate- 
 gories at  the  same  time,  according  to  the  point  of  view 
 in  which  we  regard  it ;  which  destroys,  of  course,  all 
 the  utility  of  the  arrangement. — We  come  now  to  an- 
 other question  of  much  greater  importance.  Inde- 
 pendently of  the  thirty-five  dialogues  commonly  at- 
 tributed to  Plato,  there  are  eight  which  the  unanimous 
 opitiions  of  the  grammarians,  at  the  commencement  of 
 our  er2,  has  rejected  as  spurious.  In  the  number, 
 however,  of  the  tiiirty-five,  there  are  several,  of  the  au- 
 thenticity of  which  doubts  have  been  entertained  from 
 time  to  time,  until,  in  our  own  days,  the  rigid  criticism 
 of  Germany  has  undertaken  to  eliminate  a  large  num- 
 ber of  these  dialogues  from  the  list  of  the  works  of 
 Plato.  Four  writers,  in  particular,  have  turned  their 
 attention  to  this  subject:  Tennetnaim,  Schleiermacher, 
 Ast,  and  Socher.  {Tcnnemann.  System  der  Plaionis- 
 chen  Philosophic.  4  vols.  8vo,  1792. — Schleiermacher, 
 Plalons  Werke,  8  vols.  8vo,  Berlin,  1817-26.-^5/, 
 Plafons  Lcben  unil  SchrifUn,  Leipzig,  1816,  8vo. — 
 Socher,  ilber  Platans  Schnften,  Mimchen,  1820,  8vo.) 
 To  these  may  be  added  Thiersch,  the  author  of  an  able 
 criticism  on  the  work  of  Ast  (Jahrbuch  der  Lttera/ur., 
 Wien.,  1818,  vol.  3.  p.  59,  scqq.).  What  renders  the 
 decision  of  this  question  peculiarly  difficult  is,  that,  of 
 the  writers  contemporary  with  Plato,  Xenophon  alone 
 remains  to  uis,  and  he  makes  no  mention  of  him.  Ar- 
 istotle, his  disciple,  refers  but  seldom  to  his  master's 
 dialogues;  sometimes  he  mentions  his  opinions,  but 
 always  under  the  name  of  Socrates,  and  that,  too,  when 
 he  even  refers  to  dialogues  in  which  the  last-mention- 
 ed |)hilosopher  is  not  one  of  the  interlocutors,  as  in  the 
 Laws.  All  the  works  of  the  philosophers  of  the  three 
 following  centuries  are  lost,  down  to  Dionysius  of 
 Halicarnassus,  who  is  one  of  the  principal  authorities 
 in  this  inquiry.  The  number  of  witnesses  increases 
 very  considerably  after  this  ;  but  they  lived  at  a  period 
 when  that  species  of  criticism  which  is  able  to  separ- 
 ate the  false  from  the  true  was  as  yet  completely  un- 
 known. The  classification  of  Thrasyllus  makes  us 
 acquainted  with  the  opinion  of  the  grammarians  of  his 
 time,  relative  to  the  authenticity  of  the  dialogues  of 
 Plato  ;  those  which  he  excludes  from  his  categories 
 were  regarded  as  supposititious,  but  we  are  unacquaint- 
 ed with  the  grounds  on  which  the  claim  of  legitimacy 
 was  allowed  to  the  rest,  unless  it  be  that  the  claim  in 
 their  case  was  never  contested.  Amid  this  array  of 
 negative  authorities,  Ast,  who  of  all  the  moderns 
 has  pushed  his  scepticism  on  this  head  the  farthest, 
 thinks  that  the  only  one  deserving  of  being  combated 
 is  that  of  Aristotle,  and  he  endeavours  to  destroy  the 
 weight  of  his  testimony  by  denying  Aristotle  any  au- 
 thority in  matters  of  criticism.  But  can  any  one  for  a 
 moment  imagine  that  a  man  of  high  intellectual  en- 
 dowments, after  having  passed  twenty  years  of  his  life 
 with  Plato,  could  be  so  grossly  deceived  respecting 
 the  works  of  his  master^  Admitting,  too,  the  possi- 
 bility that  one  so  eminently  gifted  with  discernment 
 and  taste  could  mistake  to  such  a  degree  the  style  of 
 his  master,  is  it  at  all  probable  that  he  could  have  been 
 deceived  also  as  to  the  fact  whether  Plato  did  com- 
 pose such  or  such  a  work?  After  having  rid  himself 
 in  this  unsatisfactory  manner  of  the  testimony  of  Aris- 
 totle, Ast,  acknowledging  the  authority  of  fourteen  dia- 
 logues, attacks  at  the  same  time  the  remaining  twenty- 
 one  by  arguments  deduced  from  the  style  in  which  they 
 are  written.  He  finds  them  inferior  in  this  point  of 
 view  to  the  others,  and  against  some  no  doubt  the 
 charge  will  hold  good  ;  but  the  question  may  fairly  be 
 asked  in  reply,  whether  a  writer,  in  other  respects  class- 
 ic, ought,  in  all  his  productions,  to  attain  to  that  perfec- 
 tion which  he  appears  to  have  reached  in  some  1  Most 
 of  the  arguments  advanced  by  Ast  have  been  refuted 
 by  Thiersch  and  Socher.  The  latter  writer,  however, 
 1082 
 
 in  assigning  to  Plato  the  greater  part  of  the  dialogues 
 which  Schleiermacher  and  Ast  consider  spurious,  is 
 unwilling  himself  to  acknowledge  the  legitimacy  of  the 
 Sophists,  Politicus,  and  Parmenides.  —  Another  inter- 
 esting question  is  that  which  has  reference  to  the 
 chronological  order  of  the  dialogues.  This  question 
 has  a  double  aspect :  it  regards  both  the  lime  when 
 the  dialogue  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place,  and  that 
 when  the  author  is  thought  to  have  composed  it.  It 
 is  often  impossible  to  fix  the  former  of  these  periods, 
 by  reason  of  the  numerous  anachronisms  with  which 
 Plato  is  justly  chargeable.  So  numerous,  indeed,  are 
 they,  that  we  are  tempted  to  believe  that  Plato  attach- 
 ed no  importance  whatever  to  the  giving  an  air  of  his- 
 toric probability  to  his  dialogues.  The  second  period, 
 that  of  their  composition,  is  important  in  a  different 
 point  of  view ;  for,  were  it  possible  to  fix  with  cer- 
 tainty the  time  when  each  dialogue  was  written,  and 
 thus  to  determine  the  chronological  order  of  the  whole 
 collection,  we  would  be  much  better  able  to  mark  the 
 development  of  his  system.  W^e  must  bear  in  mind, 
 however,  that  the  historical  data  afforded  by  any  one 
 dialogue  is  often  insufficient  for  fixing  the  period  when 
 it  was  written,  because  Plato  is  very  negligent  in  point 
 of  chronology  — ^l"he  literary  life  of  Plato  has  been  di- 
 vided into  four  periods  :  the  first  ends  with  the  death 
 of  Socrates,  and  reaches  to  the  thirtieth  year  of  Pla- 
 to's life  ;  the  second  extends  to  the  founding  of  the 
 Academy,  or  Plato's  fortieth  year;  the  third  embraces 
 the  maturity  of  his  life,  or  about  twenty  years  ;  the 
 fourth  his  old  age,  also  of  twenty  years. — To  the  first 
 of  these  ))eriods  belong  the  four  dialogues  in  which 
 reference  is  made  to  the  trial  and  death  of  Socrates, 
 such  as  the  Euthyphron,  Crito,  Defence  of  Socrates, 
 and  Phcedo.  Socher  is  undoubtedly  right  in  conjec- 
 turing that  this  latter  was  written  immediately  after 
 the  death  of  Socrates.  The  reasons  urged  by  Schleier- 
 macher for  placing  it  in  a  later  period  are  purely 
 speculative,  and  advanced  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
 supporting  his  system. — In  the  same  period,  and  even 
 prior  to  the  four  dialogues  just  named,  are  ranged  the 
 Theages,  one  of  the  first  of  Plato's  productions,  the 
 Laches,  first  Alcibiades,  Hipparchus,  Minos,  Rivals, 
 Charmides,  Lysis,  second  Hippias,  Clitophon,  Craty- 
 lus,  and  Meno,  supposing  all  these  to  be  the  composi- 
 tions of  Plato.  — Ten  dialogues  are  placed  in  the  sec- 
 ond period,  either  because  they  contain  some  chrono- 
 logical particular  which  enables  us  to  assign  them  to 
 the  time  that  intervened  between  the  death  of  Soc- 
 rates and  the  founding  of  the  Academy  ;  or  because, 
 though  wanting  such  an  index  of  their  age,  they  still 
 evidently  belong  to  this  period.  In  all  these  produc- 
 tions, Plato  appears  to  have  had  for  his  object  the  con- 
 tinuation of  the  enterprise  which  had  been  interrupted 
 by  the  death  of  Socrates,  namely,  the  war  against  the 
 Sophists.  These  dialogues  are  the  Ion,  Euthydemus, 
 the  first  Hippias,  the  Protagoras,  Gorgias,  Thesetetus, 
 Sophist,  Politicus,  Parmenides,  and  Philebus. — All  the 
 other  dialogues  of  Plato,  excepting  the  Timsus  and 
 Critias,  namely,  the  Ph*drus,  Men^xenus,  Banquet, 
 Republic,  were  written  by  him  in  the  prime  of  his  life, 
 and  before  age  had  impaired  his  mental  powers,  or 
 during  the  twenty  years  in  which  he  directed  the  Acad- 
 emy. In  the  fourth  period,  Plato  wrote  the  letters  that 
 have  come  down  to  us  (supposing  that  these  are  actu- 
 ally his),  his  great  work  on  the  laws,  and  the  two  dia- 
 logues entitled  Ti.majus  and  Critias. — We  will  now 
 proceed  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  individual  produc- 
 tions of  the  philosopher,  premising  that  most  of  the 
 Platonic  dialogues  have,  as  will  presently  be  perceived, 
 a  double  title.  The  former  of  these  is  commonly  the 
 name  of  the  individual  who  bears  the  most  prominent 
 part  in  the  dialogue  ;  the  second  is  the  addition  of 
 some  later  hand,  and  has  reference  to  the  contents  of 
 the  dialogue  itself  As  these  contents,  however,  are, 
 for  the  most  part,  very  diversified  in  their  nature,  thia 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 lecond  class  of  titles  are  frequently  apt  to  mislead  the  cas- 
 ual observer.  {Wolf,  ad  Sympos.,  p.  35,  seqq. — Ast, 
 ad  Rcpub.,  p.  313. — Morgenstern,ad  Repub.,  p.  29.) — 
 The  works  of  Plato,  then,  are  as  follows  :  1.  Tlpurayo- 
 pof, ;-}  "Loi^iaraL,  "  Frotagoras,  or  the  Sophists.'"  This 
 dialogue,  a  chef-d'ceuvre  of  Plato,  is  directed  against 
 the  sOptiists,  who  are  described  in  it  as  exceedingly 
 unfit  either  to  impart  knowledge  of  virtue  to  others,  or 
 to  inspire  them  with  the  desire  of  practising  it.  Pro- 
 tagoras, one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  this  class  of 
 philosophers,  and  who,  in  the  course  of  the  dialogue, 
 is  made  to  appear  a  model  of  charlatancrie,  had  arri- 
 ved at  Athens.  A  certain  Hippocrates,  unwilling  to 
 lose  so  favourable  an  opportunity  of  receiving  instruc- 
 tijn,  requests  Socrates  to  present  him  to  the  sophist. 
 Socrates  consents,  but  first  impresses  Hippocrates  with 
 the  propriety  of  his  ascertaining  the  true  nature  of  the 
 science  which  this  stranger  has  brought  with  him,  be- 
 fore he  ventures  to  become  one  of  his  pupils.  They, 
 in  consequence,  pay  a  visit  to  Protagoras,  and  find  him 
 surrounded  by  a  numerous  and  brilliant  auditory.  A 
 colloquy  thereupon  begins  between  the  sophist  and 
 Socrates,  in  which  Prodicus  and  Hippias,  friends  of 
 the  former,  also  bear  a  part.  The  object  of  Protago- 
 ras is  to  show  the  possibility  of  learning  virtue  as  one 
 learns  an  art  or  e.xercise  ;  but  the  questions  put  by 
 Socrates  embarrass  him  to  such  a  degree,  and  the  an- 
 swers he  makes  from  time  to  lime  involve  him  in  so  many 
 contradictions,  that  the  futility  of  the  pretended  science 
 of  the  sophists  becomes  fully  apparent.  No  little  mis- 
 take has  been  caused  by  giving  to  the  term  "sophist" 
 a  wrong  etymological  signification.  It  does  not  mean 
 what  is  denoted  by  the  word  in  English,  artful  and  il- 
 logical reasoners  :  the  Sophists  were  the  persons  who 
 professed  to  make  others  wise.  They  were  the  great 
 instructers.  Undoubtedly  the  office  they  assumed  im- 
 plied their  own  personal  wisdom  ;  and  the  necessity 
 of  maintaining  appearances  without  any  real  stock  of 
 knowledge,  cou])led  with  the  principle  of  pleasing  with- 
 out any  regard  to  truth,  seduced  them  into  the  habits 
 of  ingenious  trickery  which  have  since  been  known  by 
 their  name.  But,  as  Protagoras  himself  states,  it  was 
 as  the  original  introducers  of  a  wholly  new  scheme  of 
 education  that  they  took  their  stand,  made  their  money, 
 and  incurred,  in  no  few  instances,  the  odium  of  politi- 
 cal innovators.  In  this  light  they  were  regarded  by 
 Plato.  Nothing  could  be  more  tempting  than  the  con- 
 dition of  the  youth  of  Athens,  for  clever,  conceited, 
 ambitious  men,  by  their  own  theory  discumbered  of  a 
 conscience,  and  obliged,  by  a  sense  of  duty,  to  provide 
 for  their  own  indulgences,  to  undertake  the  task  of  fit- 
 ting them  for  those  public  duties  of  life  which  in  a 
 Grecian  democracy  occupied  the  whole  field  of  action. 
 And  rhetoric,  as  the  main  engine  of  political  eminence, 
 thev  were  thoroughly  capable  of  teaching.  The  habit 
 of  disputation,  which  sent  Hippias  every  year  to  the 
 Olympic  games,  to  challenge  a  run  upon  his  pantologi- 
 cal  budget,  and  to  improvise  on  all  possible  questions  ; 
 just  as  scholasticism,  in  the  middle  ages,  sent  scholars 
 iipanddownEuro|)e,topost  their  themes  and  syllogisms 
 at  the  gates  of  universities,  had  given  them  a  thorough 
 command,  not  over  language  alone,  but  over  all  the 
 arts  of  concealing  ignorance  and  misleading  weakness 
 which  were  necessary  to  a  popular  demagogue.  Lan- 
 guage, as  the  instrument  of  power  over  minds  ;  lan- 
 guage, as  the  imperfect  medium  of  communicating 
 ideas,  and,  therefore,  the  readiest  means  of  mixiiUT  and 
 embezzling  them  in  the  transfer;  language,  as  the  art 
 of  pleasing  ;  language,  as  the  never-failing  subject  for 
 etymological  ingenuity  to  anatomize  ;  language,  again, 
 as  tiie  natural  transcript  of  the  human  mind,  and  the 
 human  mind  in  that  low,  vulgar  form,  in  which  alone 
 a  popular  leader  or  an  expediency-philosopher  can  see 
 it,  or  wish  to  see  it  ;  language,  in  all  these  lights,  was 
 to  the  sophists  everything.  It  was  their  stock  in  trade  ; 
 the  nostrum  they  offered  for  sale,  the  ready,  unblush- 
 
 ing witness  to  all  their  paradoxes.  Hence  the  prom* 
 inence  given  in  so  many  of  Plato's  dialogues  to  the  sub- 
 ject of  language  ;  and  especially  the  unvariable  con- 
 nexion between  the  practical  abuse  of  rhetoric  and 
 metaphysical  discussions  on  the  nature  of  pleasure  and 
 of  truth.  This  is  also  the  key  to  the  Cratylus,  a  dia- 
 logue which,  by  the  most  singular  misconception,  has 
 been  searched  by  Greek  critics  for  etymologies,  but 
 which  is,  in  reality,  a  serious  estravaganza,  to  expose 
 the  Horne-Tookism  of  the  day,  and  its  connexion  with 
 the  metaphysics  of  sophistry.  (British  Critic  and 
 Quarterly  Theological  Review,  No  47,  p  31,  seq.)  — 
 1'he  Protagoras  shows  that  Plato,  vvhoUy  engrossed 
 with  the  jihilosophical  topics  which  he  niakes  Socrates 
 and  his  interlocutors  discuss,  troubles  himself  but  lit- 
 tle about  guarding  against  anachronisms.  In  this  dia- 
 logue Pericles  and  his  two  sons  are  still  living,  a  cir- 
 cumstance which  necessarily  supposes  the  era  of  the 
 piece  to  have  been  prior  to  B.C.  429  ;  and  yet,  at  the 
 same  time,  we  see,  in  the  course  of  this  same  dialogue, 
 that  the  rich  Callias  has  already  lost  his  father  Hippon- 
 icus.  Now  we  know,  from  a  passage  in  the  orator  An- 
 docides,  that  Hipponicus  was  killed  in  the  battle  of 
 Delium,  or  B  C.  424.  Thus  Plato  makes  Pericles  to 
 have  died  five  or  six  years  too  late,  or  Hipponicus  five 
 or  six  years  too  early.  (Journal  des  Savaiis,  1820,  p 
 678  )  —  2.  ^alSpoc,  7/  iTEpi  rov  KaXov,  '^  Phcedrus,  oi 
 concerning  Beauty."  This  dialogue  is  a  sort  of  con- 
 tinuation of  the  preceding.  In  the  Protagoras,  Plato 
 shows  that  the  sophists  were  bad  guides  to  conduct  one 
 along  the  path  to  virtue,  since  they  were  unacquainted 
 with  It  themselves ;  and  now,  in  the  Phredrus,  he 
 characterizes  their  rhetoric  as  a  futile  art.  Haenisch, 
 however,  gives  a  more  general  explanation  of  the  ob- 
 ject of  this  dialogue.  {Lysice  Amatorius,  Greece,  ed. 
 Hanisch.  Prcenussa  est  Commcntatw  de  auclore  ora- 
 tionis,  utruni  Lysia  sit  an  Platonis,  Lips.,  1827.) 
 This  dialogue  was  composed,  according  to  Stallbaum, 
 in  the  fourth  year  of  the  98th  Olympiad.  {Stallb.,  Dis- 
 pulatio  de  Platonis  vita,  &c.,  p.  2.5.)  It  may  be  regard- 
 ed as  consisting  of  two  parts,  the  first  of  which  has  a 
 practical,  the  other  a  theoretical  tendency.  In  the 
 first  of  these  Plato  proves  his  thesis  by  an  example, 
 namely,  by  a  discourse  on  love  or  beauty,  co.mposed 
 by  Lysias,  who  had  just  left  the  school  of  the  sophists, 
 and  to  which  Socrates  opposes  one  on  the  same  sub- 
 ject :  in  the  second  part,  the  principles  and  rules  of 
 the  sophists  are  examined.  It  is  in  this  dialogue  thaJ 
 we  remark  for  the  first  time  that  blending  of  the  So- 
 cralic  philosophy  with  the  dogmas  of  the  schools  of 
 Ionia,  Elea,  and  Italy,  which  characterizes  the  system 
 of  Plato.  These  dogmas  are,  that  of  a  previous  stale 
 of  existence,  the  reminiscences  of  which  are  the  source 
 of  all  our  knowledge  ;  that  of  the  immortality  of  the 
 soul ;  that  of  the  three  virtues,  or  energies  of  the  soul 
 (AoyLGTCKov,  QvjtLKOv,  'Il~i(hfiTiTiK6v).  The  Phae- 
 drus  is  filled  with  poetry,  and  the  discourse  on  Love, 
 put  in  the  mouth  of  .Socrates,  is  almost  a  eoniinuai 
 parody  on  Homer.  Whether  the  discourse  on  Love  or 
 Beauty,  mentioned  in  this  dialogue,  was  actually  a  pro- 
 duction of  Lysias,  is  a  question  which  Hsenisch  has 
 made  the  subject  of  a  separate  dissertation,  and  for  the 
 affirmative  of  which  he  gives  his  suffrage.  (Compare 
 Boclh,  ad  Plat.  Minotm,  p.  \82.—  Van  Hexts/k,  Inii. 
 Platen.,  vol.  1,  p.  101.)— 3.  Topyiac,  f/  ircpi  'Pr/ropt- 
 K7ig,  "  Gorgias,  or  concerning  Jihctoric."  Rhetoric, 
 which  in  the  Phtedrus  has  been  considered  as  an  art, 
 is  regarded  in  the  Gorgias  in  a  political  point  of  view. 
 Socrates  disputes  with  Gorgias,  the  rhetor  Polus,  and 
 Callicles,  on  the  utility  of  the  science  under  this  latter 
 aspect  :  he  represents  it  as  dangerous,  because,  in- 
 stead of  proposing  to  itself,  as  its  only  object,  the  tri- 
 umph of  truth,  it  is  mostly  employed  for  the  purpose  ol 
 training  the  suffrages  of  the  multitude.— In  this  dia- 
 foo-ue  Plato  not  only  attacks  the  sophists,  whose  po 
 luteal  influence  is  depicted  as  pernicious  to  the  repub. 
 
 1083 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 !ic,  but  also  the  enemies  and  calumnialors  of  Socrates, 
 and  even  many  of  the  illustrious  men  whom  Athens 
 had  produced,  especially  Pericles.  What  most  of  all, 
 however,  characterizes  this  production,  is,  that  Socra- 
 tes does  not  pursue  his  ordinary  method  of  question  and 
 answer ;  he  pronounces,  on  the  contrary,  connected 
 discourses  ;  and,  far  from  merely  stating  doubts,  he 
 expresses  his  sentiments  in  clear  and  precise  terms. 
 In  general,  there  reigns  in  this  dialogue  a  more  serious 
 tone  than  that  which  pervades  the  two  previous  ones, 
 and  less  of  irony.  But  the  place  of  the  latter  is  sup- 
 plied by  a  caustic  kind  of  manner,  which  is  not  found 
 in  the  others.  According  to  .Stallbaum,  this  dialogue 
 was  written  not  long  after  413  B.C.  A  writer  in  the 
 Jena  Review  controverts  this  opinion.  {Stallbaum, 
 ad  Pkileb.,  p.  xl — JenaAUgem.  Lit.  Zcit.,  1822,  No. 
 19ft.) — 4.  ^aidijv,  7]  nspl  i'lip/f,  ^^  Phcedon,  or  con- 
 cerning the  Soul.''  This  dialogue  is  one  of  the  most 
 remarkable  of  those  that  bear  the  name  of  Plato.  The 
 interlocutors  are  Phaedon,  the  subsequent  founder  of 
 the  school  of  Elis,  and  Echecrates.  The  former  of 
 these  gives  the  latter  an  account  of  all  that  happened 
 towards  the  close  of  Socrates'  life,  and  relates  the  con- 
 versation of  this  philosopher  with  Cebes  and  Sirnmias. 
 Socrates  undertakes  to  prove  the  immortality  of  the 
 soul  by  its  spirituality  ;  and  we  have  here  the  first 
 traces  of  a  demonstration,  which  modern  philosophy, 
 under  the  guidance  of  revelation,  has  carried  on  to  so 
 successful  a  result.  The  doctrine  which  Plato  here 
 puts  into  the  mouth  of  Socrates  is  not  entirely  pure  ; 
 it  is  amalgamated  with  the  Pythagorean  hypothesis  of 
 the  metempsychosis,  and  with  all  sorts  of  fables  bor- 
 rowed from  the  Greek  mythology. — The  Phadon  is 
 regarded  by  all  critics  as  one  of  the  dialogues  of  Plato 
 respecting  the  authenticity  of  which  not  the  least 
 doubt  can  be  raised.  And  yet,  if  we  are  to  believe 
 an  epigram  in  the  Anthology  {Epidict.,  n.  358,  .4m- 
 thol.  Pal.  ;  1,  44,  Anthol.  Plan.),  the  celebrated 
 Panaetius  rejected  it  as  supposititious.  It  is  most 
 probable,  however,  that  the  author  of  the  epigram 
 in  question  mistook  the  sense  of  the  passage  in  which 
 Panaetius  spoke  of  the  Phidon,  and  that  the  phi- 
 losopher merely  meant  to  say  that  Plato  puts  into 
 the  mouth  of  Socrates  a  doctrine  which  he,  Panaj- 
 tius,  did  not  admit;  foi  we  know  from  Cicero  that 
 Patiffitius  differed  in  this  point  from  the  tenets  of  Pla- 
 to. {Tiisc.  Disp.,  1,32.) — 5.  QeaiTijToq,?!  Tvepl  knia- 
 '"'//^Vf^  "  Thetztetus,  or  concerning  Science.'''  The 
 geometer,  Theodorus  of  Cyrene,  his  pupil  Theffitetus, 
 and  Socrates,  are  the  interlocutors  in  this  dialogue  : 
 the  subject  discussed  is  the  nature  of  science.  Socra- 
 tes, assuming  the  character  of  ignorance,  and  compa- 
 ring himself  to  a  midwife,  pretends  that  all  his  wisdom 
 is  limited  to  the  aiding  of  others  in  giving  birth  to  their 
 ideas.  Under  this  pretext  he  refuses  to  define  sci- 
 ence ;  and  yet,  at  the  same  time,  he  shows  the  inad- 
 missibility of  all  the  definitions  given  by  Theaetetus. 
 This  dialogue  is  a  kind  of  sportive  dialectics,  and  leads 
 to  no  positive  result.  In  it  Plato,  as  usual,  combats 
 the  sophists  ;  he  turns  his  arms,  too,  against  all  the 
 schools  that  had  been  produced  from  the  Socratic, 
 namely,  the  Megaric,  Cynic,  and  Cyrenaic  :  he  attacks, 
 in  particular,  the  dualistic  system  of  Heraclitus. — 6. 
 So^tCTT-^C-  V  ''■fp*  '^ov  fwTog,  "  The  Sophist,  or  con- 
 cerning that  which  exists.'"  This  dialogue  is  a  con- 
 tinuation, as  it  were,  of  the  preceding.  After  having 
 shown,  in  the  Theaetetus,  that  there  exists  no  science 
 obtained  through  the  medium  of  the  senses,  Plato  here 
 examines  the  contrary  doctrine,  maintained  by  the  Ele- 
 atic  school,  namely,  that  of  existence,  and  shows  its 
 inadmissibility.  Although  the  subject  of  this  dialogue 
 is  speculative  and  abstract  m  its  nature,  Plato  never- 
 theless has  succeeded  in  imparting  to  it  a  pleasing  and 
 varied  air.  and  has  sprinkled  it  with  many  satirical  al- 
 lusions :  the  greater  part  of  these  last,  however,  are 
 lost  for  us,  from  our  limited  acquaintance  with  the 
 1084 
 
 circumstances  to  which  they  refer. — 7.  HoXltiko^,  fj 
 TTupl  fiaai/iEiac,  "  The  Statesman,  or  concerning  the 
 Art  of  Governing."  The  researches  commenced  in 
 (he  Theaetetus  and  Sophist  are  applied  in  this  dialogue 
 to  the  case  of  the  statesman.  We  are  here  made  ac- 
 quainted with  Plato's  ideas  respecting  Providence,  or 
 the  manner  in  which  God  governs  the  world,  as  well 
 as  respecting  the  changes  which  the  latter  has  under- 
 gone. We  see  in  it  also  his  opinion  on  the  different 
 forms  of  government,  among  which  he  gives  the  pref- 
 erence to  that  in  which  the  power  is  vested  in  the 
 hands  of  a  single  person.  This  dialogue  contains  an 
 Oriental  mythus,  according  to  which  the  Deity  takes 
 rest  at  certain  periods,  and  during  this  time  abandons 
 to  chance  the  government  of  the  world.  Such  a  doc- 
 trine being  unworthy  of  Plato,  Socher  thinks  that  this 
 dialogue,  as  well  as  the  Sophist,  cannot  be  regarded 
 as  his.  And  yet  they  must,  in  that  event,  have  been 
 produced  by  some  contemporary,  since  Aristotle  cites 
 the  present  dialogue,  though  in  truth  without  assign- 
 ing it  to  Plato  by  name. — 8.  Hapucvliriq,  fj  Trcpi  '16- 
 cuv,  ^^  Parmenides,  or  concerning  Ideas."  This  dia- 
 logue is  a  kind  of  appendage  to  the  three  that  precede. 
 As  in  these  the  false  dialectics  of  the  Megaric  school 
 had  been  refuted,  so  in  this  Parmenides,  the  head  of 
 the  true  dialectic  system,  comes  forward  to  support  his 
 doctrine  of  absolute  unity,  and  does  it  with  great  force 
 of  reasoning.  The  Parmenides  is  the  most  difficult 
 of  all  Plato's  works,  as  well  from  the  abstract  topics 
 and  metaphysical  subtleties  discussed  in  it,  as  because 
 the  author  is  driven  to  the  necessity  of  employing 
 terms  either  entirely  new,  or  else  little  used,  in  treat- 
 ing of  matters  on  which  no  writer  had  as  yet  exer- 
 cised his  pen.  The  Parmenides  leads  to  no  positive 
 result ;  it  has  merely  for  its  end  the  demonstntion  of 
 certain  propositions  of  a  philosophical  nature  ;  and  it 
 tends  solely  to  exercise  the  mind  in  metaphysical  spec- 
 ulation, and  to  show,  by  an  example,  the  true  dialectic 
 method.  It  is  uncertain,  however,  whether  we  have 
 the  end  of  this  production.  The  Parmenides  has  a 
 form  entirely  philosophic,  and  without  any  dramatic 
 movement.  The  characters  of  the  several  interlocu- 
 tors are  not  as  distinctly  marked  as  in  the  other  dia- 
 logues. Socrates  appears  in  it  as  a  very  young  per- 
 son, and  as  one  just  beginning  to  turn  his  attention  to 
 philosophical  subjects,  and  to  whom  many  of  the  prop- 
 ositions of  the  schools  are  as  yet  new.  It  has  been 
 inferred  from  this  circumstance  that  Plato  wished  to 
 give  credit  to  the  tradition  that  Socrates  had  seen  Par- 
 menides in  his  youth.  Socher  rejects  this  dialogue, 
 together  with  the  two  that  immediately  follow.  (Con- 
 sult Schmidt,  Parmenides  als  dialektisches  Knnstiverk 
 dargcstclll,  Berlin,  1821.  —  Goctz,  Uchers.  des  Par- 
 men.,  pt.  iv,  p.  107.) — 9.  KparvTio^,  y  Tvepl  ivofidruv 
 opBoTTjTOc,  "  Cratylus,  or  concerning  the  Correct  Use 
 of  Words  "  This  dialogue  is  written  in  ridicule  of 
 the  etymologies  to  which  the  sophists  attached  so 
 much  importance  as  to  make  use  of  them  for  demon- 
 strations with  which  to  support  their  propositions. 
 They  even  went  so  far  as  to  assert  that  we  may  learn 
 the  nature  of  objects  from  the  words  by  which  they 
 are  designated,  inasmuch  as  a  perfect  accordince  pre- 
 vailed between  each  thing  in  nature,  and  the  appella- 
 tion by  which  it  was  known.  Agreeing  in  the  main 
 principle,  they  made  of  it  applications  widely  different 
 in  their  nature.  The  adherents  of  the  Eleatic  school 
 pretended  that  the  authors  of  language,  in  their  inven- 
 tion of  words,  went  on  the  supposition  that  everything 
 in  nature  is  immutable  :  the  followers  of  Heraclitus 
 maintained  directly  the  reverse.  Setting  out  from 
 these  two  points  of  view,  so  diametrically  opposed  to 
 each  other,  these  philosophers  analyzed  the  meaning 
 of  words,  each  in  accordance  with  his  favourite  the- 
 ory.— Of  the  interlocutors  of  the  Cratylus,  one,  Her- 
 mogenes,  a  disciple  of  Parmenides,  maintains  that 
 there  is  an  inherent  force  and  propriety  in  words,  in- 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 dependent  of  all  conventional  arrangement ;  the  other, 
 Cralylus,  a  disciple  of  Keraclitus,  regards  them  as  ar- 
 bitrary signs  of  our  ideas,  imposed  on  the  objects 
 which  they  designate,  either  from  accident,  use,  or 
 some  fitness  which  they  possess,  Socrates  shows  the 
 insufficiency  of  each  of  these  systems,  without,  how- 
 ever, replacing  them  by  a  third.  This  discussion  gives 
 rise  to  many  etymological  discussions,  which  cannot 
 now  be  very  interesting  for  us — 10.  <J>i7.7?6of,  ij  Tvepl 
 7/ihvf/g,  "  Philebus,  or  concermng  Pleasure."  This 
 dialogue  is  distinguished  from  those  already  mention- 
 ed in  that  it  is  not  Innited  to  the  overthrow  of  false 
 doctrines,  but  examines  the  subject  matter  itself  with 
 great  care.  It  has  an  end  in  view  strictly  dogmatical, 
 that  is,  to  establish  a  truth  and  enunciate  a  positive 
 proposition  :  this  proposition  is,  that  good  consists 
 neither  in  pleasure  nor  in  knowledge,  but  in  the  union 
 of  the  first  and  the  second  with  the  sovereign  good, 
 which  is  God.  The  Philebus  is  almost  entirely  de- 
 void of  irony  ;  but  it  is  sometimes  deficient  in  clear- 
 ness. It  is  one  of  the  principal  sources  from  which 
 to  obtain  an  acquaintance  with  the  moral  system  of 
 Plato. —  1 1.  HvfiTToaiov,  fj  nepi  tpuTOf,  "  The  Banquet, 
 or  concerning  Love."  Plato  appears  to  have  had  a 
 double  object  in  view  in  writing  this  dialogue  :  the 
 first,  to  discourse  upon  the  nature  of  love  ;  and  the 
 other,  to  defend  Socrates  against  the  calumnies  to 
 which  he  had  been  exposed.  Agathon  celebrates  by 
 a  banquet  a  poetical  victory  which  has  just  been  gained 
 by  him.  The  guests  agree  that  each  one,  in  turn, 
 shall  write  a  eulogium  on  love.  Phsdrus,  Pausa- 
 nias,  Eryximachus,  Aristophanes,  and  Agathon,  speak 
 each  on  this  subject,  accordmg  to  their  respective 
 principles  and  views  ;  and  in  this  species  of  oratorical 
 encounter,  Aristophanes  assumes  a  character  most  iu 
 accordance  with  his  peculiar  talent,  that  of  satire. 
 Socrates,  who  succeeds,  paints  metaphysical  love,  that 
 is,  philosophy,  the  end  of  which  is  to  excite  the  love 
 of  virtue,  the  only  true  and  imperishable  source  of 
 beauty.  The  Banquet  is  that  one  of  the  productions 
 of  Plato  on  which  he  would  seem  to  have  bestowed 
 the  greatest  care.  He  has  spread  over  it  all  the  riches 
 of  his  imagination,  his  eloquence,  and  his  talent  for 
 composition. — 12.  YloTitreia,  7/ ire  pi  diKaiov,  '■'■  A  Re- 
 puhlic,  or  concerniyig  lohat  is  Ju.sl."  The  following 
 able  analysis  of  this  celebrated  production  is  deserving 
 of  insertion.  (Southern  Reviciv,  No.  7,  p.  127,  seqq.) 
 "  To  say  of  Plato's  Republic  that  it  is  the  idea  of  a 
 perfect  commonwealth,  is  not  to  give  by  any  means  an 
 adequate,  or  even  a  just  description  of  it.  It  is,  in 
 one  sense,  to  be  sure,  a  dream  of  social  and  political 
 perfection,  and,  so  far,  its  common  title  is  not  alto- 
 gether inapplicable  to  it ;  but  it  bears  hardly  any  re- 
 semblance to  the  things  that  generally  pass  under  that 
 name  ;  to  the  figments,  for  example,  of  Harrington  and 
 Sir  Thomas  More.  Compared  with  it,  Telemachus, 
 though  a  mere  epic  in  prose,  is  didactic  and  practical ; 
 the  Cyropsdia  deserves  to  be  regarded  as  the  manual 
 of  soldiers  and  statesmen,  and  as  the  best  scheme  of 
 discipline  for  forming  them.  Plato's  is  a  mere  vision, 
 and  that  vision  is  altogether  characteristic  of  his  ge- 
 nius as  his  contemporaries  conceived  of  it.  It  is 
 something  between  prose  and  poetry  in  style  ;  it  is 
 something  made  up  both  of  poetry  and  philosophy  in 
 the  plan  and  design.  But  a  very  small  part  of  it  is 
 given  to  any  topics  that  can  pretend  to  the  character 
 of  political.  Indeed,  Socrates  expresslv  says,  that  the 
 institution  of  a  commonwealth  is  but  a  subordinate  ob- 
 ject with  him.  His  principal  aim  is  to  unfold  the  mys- 
 tery of  perfect  justice.  Of  the  title  of  the  work,  the 
 latter  [jsrt  (nepl  diKaiov)  is  unquestionably  the  more 
 appropriate  designation.  If  it  were  possible  to  have 
 any  doubts,  after  reading  the  work,  the  repeated  and 
 emphatic  declarations  of  the  philosopher  himself  would 
 remove  them.  It  is  in  the  second  book  that  he  first 
 alludes  to  the  commonwealth,  and  then  the  purpose 
 
 for  which  he  professes  to  treat  of  it  is  unequivocally  ex 
 plained.  He  compares  himself  to  one  who,  not  having 
 very  good  eyes,  is  required  to  read  a  text  at  some  dis- 
 tance from  him,  written  in  distressingly  small  letters, 
 and  who  prepares  himself  for  his  task  by  conning  over 
 the  very  same  text  which  he  happens  to  find  set  forth 
 somewhere  else  in  larger  characters.  The  justice,  the 
 high  and  perfect  justice,  whose  nature  he  is  endeav- 
 ouring to  penetrate  and  unfold,  exists  not  only  in  in- 
 dividuals, but,  on  a  grander  scale,  in  the  more  con- 
 spicuous and  palpable  image  of  that  artificial  being,  a 
 body  politic.  This  idea  is  perpetually  recurring. 
 Thus  it  runs  through  the  whole  eighth  book,  which, 
 it  may  be  remarked  by  the  way,  is  a  dissertation  of 
 incomparable  excellence,  and  decidedly  the  most  prac- 
 tical part  of  the  work.  In  this  hook  he  treats  of  tw- 
 justice.  He  again  resorts  to  the  larger  type,  to  the 
 capital  letters.  He  illustrates  the  effects  of  that  vice, 
 or,  rather,  of  that  vicious  and  diseased  state  of  the  soul, 
 by  corresponding  distempers  and  mutations  of  the 
 body  politic.  We  are  told  that  the  form  of  govern- 
 ment is  an  image  of  the  character  of  the  citizen ;  that 
 whatever  may  be  said  of  the  democracy  or  the  oli- 
 garchy, applies  as  strictly  to  the  democrat  and  the  oii- 
 garchist;  that  there  are  as  many  shapes  or  sfiecies  of 
 polity,  as  there  are  types  or  varieties  of  the  human 
 soul  ;  that,  as  the  most  perfect  commonwealth  is  only 
 public  virtue  imbodied  in  the  institutions  of  a  country, 
 so  every  vice  generates  some  abuse  or  corruption  in 
 the  state,  some  pernicious  disorder,  some  lawless  pow- 
 er incompatible  with  national  liberty.  In  running  this 
 parallel  between  the  individual  and  the  corporate  ex- 
 istence, he  unfolds  his  idea  of  the  to  diKaiov,  not  in  a 
 prologue,  as  Tiedemann  affirms,  but  throughout  the 
 whole  body  of  his  work.  He  begins  by  showing  that 
 there  can  be  no  happiness  without  it  here  ;  and  ends 
 by  a  revelation  of  other  worlds,  and  a  state  of  beatific 
 perfection,  which  it  fits  the  soul  to  enter  upon  hereaf- 
 ter. We  must  take  care,  however,  not  to  confound 
 this  sublime  justice  with  the  vulgar  attribute  common- 
 ly known  by  that  name.  Plato's  justice  is  that  so 
 magnificently  described  by  Hooker,  '  that  law  whose 
 seat  is  the  bosom  of  God,  and  whose  voice  the  har- 
 mony of  the  world  ' — The  whole  dialogue  is  a  Pytha- 
 gorean mystery.  Plato  finds  the  key  of  the  universe 
 in  the  doctrine  of  number  and  proportion.  He  sees 
 them  pervading  all  nature,  moral  and  physical,  holding 
 together  its  most  distant  parts  and  most  heterogene- 
 ous materials,  and  harmonizing  them  into  order,  and 
 beauty,  and  rhythm.  Socrates  declares  his  assent  to 
 the  Pythagorean  tenet,  that  astronomy  is  to  the  eye 
 what  music  is  to  the  ear.  The  spheres,  with  the  Si- 
 rens that  preside  over  them,  and  the  sweet  melodies 
 of  that  eternal  diapason,  the  four  elements  combined 
 in  the  formation  of  the  world,  the  beautiful  vicissitude 
 of  the  seasons,  light  and  darkness,  height  and  depth, 
 all  existences  and  their  negations,  all  antecedents  and 
 consequences,  all  cause  and  effect,  reveal  the  same 
 mystery  to  the  adept.  Man  is,  in  like  manner,  sub- 
 ject throughout  his  whole  nature  to  this  universal  law. 
 Of  the  four  cardinal  virtues,  take  temperance  for  an  ex- 
 ample. What  is  It  but  a  perfect  discipline  of  the  pas- 
 sions by  which  they  are  all  equally  controlled,  or,  rather, 
 a  perfect  concord  and  symphony  in  which  each  sounds 
 its  proper  note  and  noother;  in  which  no  desire  is  either 
 too  high  or  too  low  ;  in  which  the  enjoyment  of  the  [)res- 
 ent  moment  is  never  allowed  to  hurt  that  of  the  future, 
 nor  passion  to  rebel  against  reason,  nor  one  passion  to 
 invade  the  jirovince  or  to  usurp  the  rights  of  another. 
 The  TO  DiKaiov  goes  somewhat  farther.  It  is  that 
 state  of  the  soul  wherein  the  three  parts  of  which  it  is 
 composed,  the  intellectual,  the  irascible,  and  the  sen- 
 sual, exercise  each  its  proper  function  and  influence  ; 
 in  which  the  four  cardinal  virtues  are  blended  together 
 in  such  just  proportion,  in  such  symphonious  unison  ; 
 in  which  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  while  they  are 
 
 1085 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 hilly  developed,  are  so  well  disciplined  and  disposed, 
 that  nothing  jarring  or  discordant,  riOthing  uneven  or 
 irrcgniar,  is  ever  perceived  in  them.  And  so  in  the 
 larger  type,  a  perfect  polity  is  that  in  which  the  same 
 proportion  and  fitness  are  observed  ;  in  which  the  dif- 
 ferent orders  of  society  move  in  their  own  sphere,  and 
 do  only  their  appointed  work  ;  in  which  intellect  gov- 
 erns, and  strength  and  passion  submit ;  that  is,  coun- 
 sellors odvise,  soldiers  make  war,  and  the  labouring 
 classes  eiriploy  themselves  in  their  humble,  but  neces- 
 sary and  productive  calling.  The  division  of  labour  is 
 a  fundamental  principle  of  Plato's  legislation,  and  is 
 enforced  by  very  severe  penalties.  He  considers  it  as 
 in  the  highest  degree  absurd,  as  out  of  all  reason  and 
 proportion,  that  one  man  should  pretend  to  be  good  at 
 many  things. — On  the  other  hand,  the  most  fearfully 
 depraved  condition  of  society  is  that  which  Polybius 
 calls  an  ochlocracy;  an  anarchy  of  jacobins  and  sans- 
 culottes, where  every  passion  breaks  loose  in  wild  dis- 
 order, and  no  law  is  obeyed,  no  right  respected,  no  de- 
 corum observed  ;  where  young  men  despise  their  se- 
 niors, and  old  men  affect  the  manners  of  youth,  and 
 children  are  disobedient  to  their  parents,  wives  to  their 
 husbands,  slaves  to  their  masters.  The  justice  of 
 which  he  speaks  is  not,  therefore,  the  single  cardinal 
 virtue  known  by  that  name.  It  is  not  commutative 
 justice,  nor  retributive  justice,  nor  (except,  perhaps, 
 in  a  qualified  sense)  distributive  justice.  It  does  not 
 consist  in  mere  outward  conformity  or  specific  acts. 
 Its  seat  is  in  the  inmost  mind  ;  its  influence  is  the 
 music  of  the  soul ;  it  makes  the  whole  nature  of  the 
 true  philosopher  a  concert  of  disciplined  affections,  a 
 choir  of  virtues  attuned  to  the  most  perfect  accord 
 among  themselves,  and  falling  in  with  the  mysterious 
 and  everlasting  harmonies  of  heaven  and  earth. — This 
 general  idea  is  still  farther  illustrated  by  the  scheme 
 of  education  in  Plato's  Republic.  It  is  extremely  sim- 
 ple ;  for  young  men  it  consists  only  of  music  and  gym- 
 nastics ;  for  adepts  of  an  advanced  age,  it  is  the  study 
 of  truth,  pure  truth,  the  good,  the  to  6i>,  the  divine 
 monad,  the  one  eternal,  unchangeable.  It  is  in  the 
 third  book  that  he  orders  the  former  division  of  the 
 scheme.  It  is  necessary  to  cultivate  with  equal  care 
 both  the  parts  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  to  allow  of 
 no  excess  or  imperfection  in  either.  They  who  are 
 addicted  exclusively  to  music  become  effeminate  and 
 slothfid  ;  they,  on  the  other  hand,  who  only  discipline 
 their  nature  by  the  exercises  of  the  gymnasium,  be- 
 come rude  and  savage.  This  music,  as  Tiedemann 
 observes,  is  mystic  and  mathematical.  Pythagoras 
 and  Plato  thought  everything  musical  of  divine  origin. 
 — God  gave  us  these  great  correctives  of  the  soul  and 
 of  the  body,  not  for  the  sake  of  either  separately,  but 
 that  all  their  powers,  and  functions,  and  impulses, 
 should  be  fully  brought  out  into  action  ;  and,  above 
 all.  be  harmonized  into  mutual  assistance  and  perfect 
 unison.  Plato's  whole  method  and  discipline  is  di- 
 rected to  this  end.  He  banishes  from  his  ideal  terri- 
 tory the  Lydian  and  Ionic  measures  as  'softly  sweet' 
 and  wanton,  while  he  retains,  for  certain  purposes,  the 
 grave  Dorian  mood,  and  the  spirit-stirring  Phrygian. 
 So,  in  like  manner,  he  expels  all  the  poets  except  the 
 didactic,  with  Homer  at  their  head.  The  tragic  poets 
 were,  in  reference  to  moral  education,  especially  of- 
 fensive to  him.  In  conformity  with  the  same  princi- 
 ple, he  proscribes  all  manner  of  deliciousness  and  ex- 
 cess, Sicilian  feasts,  and  Corinthian  girls,  and  Attic 
 dainties,  as  leading  to  corruption  of  manners,  and  to 
 the  necessity  of  laws  and  penalties,  of  the  judge  and 
 executioner.  No  innovation  whatever  is  to  be  tolera- 
 ted in  this  system  of  discipline,  especially  in  what  re- 
 gards music  and  gymnastics  ;  the  slightest  change  in 
 which  Plato  affirms  to  produce  decided,  however  se- 
 cret and  insidious,  effects  upon  the  character  and  man- 
 ners of  a  whole  people.  When  his  citizens,  divided 
 uito  four  orders,  to  correspond  with  the  cardinal  vir- 
 1086 
 
 tuos,  have  gone  through  their  preparatory  discipline, 
 and  discharged  in  their  day  and  generation  the  duties 
 that  were  respectively  allotted  to  them,  they  (at  least 
 the  better  sort  of  them)  must,  in  the  calm  of  declining 
 life,  turn  to  the  study  of  the  true  philosophy;  not  such 
 as  is  taught  by  mercenary  sophists,  mere  shallow  fal- 
 lacies, mountebank  tricks  to  impose  upon  ignorance, 
 vile  arts  to  ingratiate  one's  self  with  that  savage  beast 
 (a  favourite  image  with  the  ancient  writers),  the  way- 
 ward and  tyrannical  demus.  Nor  such  philosophy  as 
 bestows  its  thoughts  upon  the  depraved  manners  of 
 men,  or  the  fluctuating  and  perishable  objects  around 
 us  ;  but  that  deep  wisdom,  that  rapturous  and  holy  con- 
 templation, which  abstracts  itself  from  the  senses  and 
 the  changeable  scenes  of  life  and  nature,  and  is  wrap- 
 ped u[i  in  the  harmony  and  grandeur  of  the  universe, 
 ill  communing  with  the  First  Good  and  the  First  Fair, 
 the  infinite  and  unutterable  beauty,  fountain  of  all  light 
 to  the  soul,  'the  bright  countenance  of  truth'  reveal- 
 ed to  the  purified  mind  'in  the  quiet  and  still  air  of 
 delightful  studies.  By  such  contemplations  the  soul 
 shall  attain  to  the  perfection  of  virtue,  and  be  prepared 
 for  the  great  moral  change,  the  glorious  transfiguration 
 that  is  to  crown  its  aspiring  progress  to  beatitude  and 
 immortality.' " — 13.  Ti/iatoc,  fj  nepi  (pvaeuc,  '^Trmaus, 
 or  concerning  Nature."  In  this  dialogue  Critias  relates 
 the  tradition  of  an  ancient  Athenian  state,  anterior  to 
 the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  and  which  was  governed  by 
 laws  not  unlike  those  of  Egypt.  The  Athenians,  said 
 this  tradition,  made  war,  at  this  remote  period,  against 
 the  inhabitants  of  Atlantis,  an  island  situate  beyoitd 
 the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  inhabitants  of  Atlantis 
 ruled  over  Libya  and  Western  Europe,  and  would 
 have  subjugated  the  Greeks  also,  had  not  the  Atheni- 
 ans made  successful  opposition  to  their  progress. 
 After  this  fable,  the  philosopher  Timreus,  of  Locri,  de- 
 velops his  system  concerning  God,  the  origin  and 
 nature  of  the  world,  men,  and  animals.  Through  the 
 whole  of  this  exposition  there  prevails  the  usual  tone 
 of  the  Pythagorean  school.  Plato  is  commonly  sup- 
 posed to  have  followed,  in  the  composition  of  this  dia- 
 logue, the  work  attributed  to  the  philosopher  of  Locri, 
 which  we  still  possess.  —  14.  KpiTiag,  ij  'AT?.avTiK6^, 
 "  Critias,  or  the  Atlantic.''''  This  dialogue  is  a  con- 
 tinuation of  the  preceding.  Critias  here  gives  in  de- 
 tail what  he  had  only  sketched  forth  in  the  Timaeus, 
 respecting  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  {vid.  Atlantis),  in- 
 habited anciently  by  a  civilized  and  conquering  race, 
 and  which  had  been  ingulfed  by  the  sea.  He  gives  an 
 account  of  the  laws,  manners,  and  institutions  of  this 
 people.  It  is  easy  to  perceive  that  the  whole  of  this 
 recital  is  a  mere  fiction,  a  species  of  political  romance, 
 by  which  Plato  wished  to  prove  the  possibility  of  such 
 a  republic  being  established  as  he  had  framed  in  his 
 own  imagination.  And  yet  it  is  more  than  probable 
 that  the  ancients  had  some  obscure  tradition  amonc 
 them  relative  to  the  existence  of  a  large  continent  to 
 the  west  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  of  this  we  find 
 traces  even  in  the  pages  of  Slrabo. — The  Critias  of 
 Plato  has  given  rise  to  various  hypotheses  and  reveries, 
 and  the  writers  of  the  last  two  centuries  have  very  ac- 
 tively exercised  their  pens  on  so  attractive  a  subject. 
 Some  have  found  the  Atlantis  of  Plato  in  Palestine, 
 others  in  India,  and  others,  again,  in  the  Canaries  and 
 Azores.  (Consult  Voss,  Wclthmde  der  Alten.  p.  8, 
 26. — Lalreille,  Memoires  sur  divers  sujcis,  &c.,  p. 
 146. — BailJy,  Lettres  sur  VAtlantide  de  Flaton,  &c., 
 Loud.,  1775,  8vo. — Vid.  Atlantis.) — This  dialogue  is 
 an  unfinished  one.  It  appears  that  death  prevented 
 the  author  from  putting  a  finishing  hand  to  it. — We 
 have  now  enumerated  the  fourteen  dialogues  which 
 Ast  believes  to  be  undoubtedly  authentic.  And  yet 
 we  have  seen  that  in  this  number  there  are  three  which 
 Socher  rejects.  We  will  now  proceed  to  the  twenty- 
 one  other  dialogues,  which,  though  commonly  regarded 
 as  the  productions  of  Plato,  have  nevertheless  become 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 the  subjects  of  critical  scepticism,  since  Schleiemia- 
 cher  thought  he  had  discovered  in  some  of  them  what 
 was  iMJt  characteristic  of  Plato,  and  since  Ast  has  re- 
 jected them  all  indiscriminately.  — 15.   No/zwv  7/  nepl 
 vofiodeaLai;  ^L6?ua  l6',  "Twelve  books  of  Laics,  or  con- 
 cerning Leg-islalion."     This  work  has,  until    lately, 
 been  regarded  as  that  production  of  antiquity  which 
 most  distinguishes  itself  by  the  importance  of  its  sub- 
 ject, and  the  richness  of  the  materials  connected  with 
 it ;  as  that  in  which  the  philosopher,  abandoning  the 
 paths  of  imagination,  enters  into  those  of  real  life,  and 
 unfolds  a  part  of  his  system,  the  putting  of  which  into 
 practice  he  considered  as  possible ;  for  it  cannot  but 
 be  admitted  that  the  Laws  are  to  be  viewed  as  the 
 production  o(  Plato's  old  age.     Bockh  makes  the  work 
 to  have  been  written  in  Plato's  seventy-fourth  year  (ad 
 Min.,  p.  73).     Plato  here  traces  the  basis  of  a  legis- 
 lation less  ideal,  and  more  conformable  to  the  weak- 
 ness of  human  nature,  than  that  which  he  had  given 
 in  his  Republic.     The  scene  of  the  dialogue  is  laid  in 
 the  island  of  Crete.     The  author  criticises  the  codes 
 of  Minos  and  Lycurgus,  as  having  no  other  object  in 
 view  but  the  formation  of  warriors.     He  shows  that 
 the  object  of  a  legislator  ought  to  be  to  maintain  the 
 freedom  and  union  of  the  citizens,  and  to  establish  a 
 wise  form  of  government.     Examining  the  different 
 forms  of  government  that  had  existed  in  Greece  or 
 other  countries,  he  exposes  their  several  defects.     In 
 the  course  of  these  remarks,  he  traces,  in  his  third 
 book,  a  character  of  Gyrus   far  different   from   that 
 which  Xenophon  has  left.     It  is  commonly  supposed 
 that  Plato  wished,  in  so  doing,  to  retaliate  on  Xeno- 
 phon, whose  Gyropsedia  appeared  to  him  to  have  been 
 directed  against  the  first  two  books  of  his  Republic. 
 Bockh,   however,    has   written   against    this    opinion. 
 (Dc   Simultale,  quam  Plato  cum  Xenopho)Ue   cxer- 
 cuissc  fertur,  BeioL,  1811.)     After  these  preliminary 
 observations,  the  philosopher  enters  more  directly  on 
 his  subject  in  the  fourth  book.      He  treats  at  first  of 
 the  worship  of  the  gods,  the  basis  of  every  well-regu- 
 lated   slate.     The  fifth   book  contains   the   elements 
 of  social  order,  the  duties  of  children  towards  their 
 parents,  of  parents  towards  their  children,  the  duties 
 of   citizens    and    of   strangers.      He    then    considers 
 the  political  form  of  the  state  that  is  to  be  founded. 
 Plato,  if  he  is  the  author  of  the  work,  renounces  in  it 
 all  the  chimeras  of  his  youth,  the  community  of  prop- 
 erty, and  of  women  and  children.     In  the  sixth  book 
 he  treats  of  magistrates,  of  the  laws  of  marriage,  of 
 slavery  ;  in  the  seventh  of  the  education  of  children  ; 
 in  the  eighth  of  public  festivals  and  of  commerce  ;   in 
 the  ninth  of  crimes  ;   in  the   tenth  of  religion  ;   in  the 
 eleventh  of  contracts,  testaments,  &c.  ;  in  the  twelfth 
 of  various  topics,  such  as  military  discipline,  oaths, 
 right  of  property,   prescription,  &c. — Every  page  of 
 the  Laws  is  in  contradiction  to  the  Republic.     Never- 
 theless, the  Laws  existed  in  the  time  of  Aristotle  ;  and 
 this  philosopher,  who  cites  them   by    name,  expresses 
 no  doubts  whatever  as  to  their  authenticity.     The  dif- 
 ference of  style  between  this  work  and  some  other 
 productions  of  Plato  may  be  easily  explained  by  the 
 difference  of  age.     Ast  objects,  that  Plato  himself  de- 
 clares the  Republic,  Timreus,  and  Gritias   to  be  his 
 last  works,  and  that  after  this  he  will  write  a  dialogue, 
 in  which  Hcrmogenes  shall  be  the  speaker.     Now,  as 
 the  ("ritias  appears  to  have  been  never  finished,  and  as 
 the  Hcrmogenes  was  not  written,  Ast  concludes  that 
 Plato   did   not   compose    the    dialogue   of   the  Laws. 
 (Asl,    f'lalon's  Lehen   und  Srhriflcn,  p.   379,  seqq.) 
 P'.a'.o,  however,  does  not  exactly  say  what  Ast  makes 
 him   assert.      He  merely  speaks  of  the  Timajus  and 
 Gritias  as  forming  a  kind  of  continuation  to  the  Re- 
 public, and  announces  that  he  will  one  day  add  to  them 
 the  Herrnogencs,  without,  however,  assuring  us  that 
 this  will  be  his  last  work.     May  we  not  suppose  that 
 it  was  the  composition  of  a  work  as  considerable  as 
 
 this  of  the  Laws  that  called  oft"  the  attention  of  the 
 author  from  his  design  of  writing  the  HermogenesT — 
 Diogenes  Laertius  informs  us  (3,  37),  that  Plato  died 
 before  publishing  his  Laws,  and  that  Philip  of  Opus, 
 one  of  his  disciples,  gave  to  the  world  the  manuscript, 
 which  he  found  among  his  master's  tablets.     This  cu- 
 rious account,  which  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  period 
 of  life  when  Plato  wrote  the  work  in  question,  has  fur- 
 nished Ast  with  a  new  hypothesis.     He  thinks  that 
 some  disciple  of  Plato  fabricated  the  Laws  to  serve  as 
 a  supplement  to  the  Republic.     The  authenticity  of 
 the  work,  on  the   other  hand,  has  been  supported  by 
 Thiersch,  in  his  critique  on  the  work  of  Ast  {Wien. 
 Jalirb.),  and  in  a  prize  essay  by  Dilthcy,   Goiting., 
 1820,   4to.  —  16.    'Enivoix}^,  ?}   vvKTepivog  aiO.loyog^ 
 "  Epmomis,  or  the  Nocturnal  AssemhlyV     This  dia- 
 logue forms  a  kind  of  supplement  to  the  Laws.     Il 
 treats  of  the  establishment  of  a  body  of  magistrates, 
 who  are  to  act  as  guardians  of  the  laws  and  conserv- 
 ators of  the  constitution.     Diogenes  Laertius  (3,  37) 
 says  that  Philip  of  Opus  was  regarded  as  the  author 
 of  the  Epinomis,  and  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  the 
 editor  of  a  posthumous  work  might  be  tempted  to  add 
 to  it  something  of  his  own.     (Compare  Suidas,  s.  v. 
 <pt?i.6(7o<j>o(.) — 17.  Mivuv,  rj  nepl  aperftg,  "■  Menon,  or 
 co7icerjiing  Virtue.'"     Various  questions  started  in  the 
 Protagoras,  Phasdrus,  Gorgias,  and   Phaedon,  are  de- 
 veloped more  fully  in  this  piece  :  they  all  have  refer- 
 ence to  the  fundamental  inquiry,  "  Gan  virtue  be  made 
 a  subject  of  instruction."     The  Menon  contains  men- 
 tion of  a  fact  (p.  90,  A.,  ed.   Stcph.)  which  proves  it 
 to  have  been  written  at  least  six  years  after  the  death 
 of  Socrates.     The  philosopher  just  mentioned  blames, 
 in  the  course  of  this  dialogue,  the  Theban  Ismenias 
 for  having  enriched  himself  with  the  gold  of  Persia*: 
 this  fact  belongs  to  the  third  year  of  the  96th  Olym- 
 piad (394   B.G.),    and    is   one   with    which  Socrates 
 could  not  have  been  acquainted.      (Bockh,  ad  Min.,  p. 
 46. — Id.,  dc  Sifnult.,  &c.,p.  24,  26. — Schlcicrmachcr, 
 Ucbersclz.  Plat.,  vol.  2,  pt.   1,  p.  3.56,  seqq. — On  the 
 opposite  side  of  the  question,  consult  Buttma7in,  ad 
 Mcno?i.,  ed.  3,  p.  48. — Stallbaum,  ad  Menon.,  p.  103, 
 seqq.)     Socher  maintains  the  authenticity  of  this  dia- 
 logue against  Ast.     On  the  tendency  of  the  piece,  and 
 the  period  whence  it  was  written,  consult  Stallbaum, 
 in  the  valuable  Prolegomena  to  his  edition  of  the  Me- 
 non ;   and,  on  the  difficult  mathematical  passage,  Moll- 
 weide,    in    his    "  Commcnlaliones  tres   Mathematico- 
 Philologic(E,"    Lips.,   1813;    and   also  Wex,    in    his 
 "  Commentatio  dc  loco  Mathcmalico  in  Platonis  Mc' 
 none,'''  Lips.,  182-5.     The  student  is  also  referred  to 
 the  Philolog.  Liltcraiurblatt  zvr  Allgem.   Schulzcit- 
 ung.,  Jahrg.,    1827,  2^e  Abtlial.  No.   5,  where    the 
 merits  of  Klijgel,  Wolf,  Miiller,  Gedike,  Schleierma- 
 cher,  Buttmann,  Mollweide,  Wex,  and  other  scholars, 
 in    elucidating    this    same    passage,   are   respectively 
 weighed. — 18.  Kvdvch'/fio^,  rj  ipiaTiKoq,  "  Euthydemus, 
 or  the  Disputcr.'^     In  this  dialogue,  Socrates   relates 
 to  Grito  the  conversation  which   he  has  had  with  two 
 sophists  of  the  Eristic  school,  named  Euthydemus  and 
 Dionysodorus.     He  ridicules  with  great  spirit  the  false 
 syllogisms    and   captious    reasonings   of  the  philoso- 
 phers of  this  school. — As  a  piece  of  composition,  this 
 dialogue  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  of  Plato's.     Schlei- 
 ermacher  admires  its  vivacity,  and  Ast,  who  regards 
 it  as  supposititious,   confesses  that   it  is  superior  tc 
 many  of  the  productions  of  Plato. — 19.  Xapfuthjc,  V 
 TTepl  cu(ppo(7vi'qc,  "  Charmuks,  or  concerning  Temper- 
 ance.^'    Socrates  here  refutes,  perhaps  with    a  little 
 too  much   subtlety,  the  definitions   which  the  young 
 Gharmides  gives  of  temperance  or  moderation.     Al- 
 though   this    dialogue   is   not    without  merit,    Socher 
 adds  himself  to  the  number  of  those  who  consider  it 
 as  supposititious.      Schleiermacher  is  of  the  opposite 
 opinion.      (Consult   Ochmann,   "  Charmulcs  Platonis 
 qui    fertur  dialogus   ninn    sit   genuinus    quaritur," 
 
 1087 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 tfre-fi  ,  1826) — 20.  Xvatc,  rj  ncpl  (pMac,  "Lysis,  or 
 •onpernin^  Friendship."  The  auth  jr  here  treats,  with- 
 in', eotniiig  to  any  decision,  a  quest/  )n  which  has  oc- 
 cupied much  of  the  attention  both  of  ancient  and  mod- 
 ern philosophers,  naipcly,  "What  produces  friend- 
 ship and  loveT'  (Plato's  and  Aristotle's  ideas  on 
 friendship  are  finely  given  by  Bouterwek,  in  the  fourth 
 volume  of  the  "  Nciun  Vesta")  According  to  Dio- 
 genes Laertiiis  (3,  24),  Socrates,  on  hearing  this  dia- 
 logue read,  e.xelaimed,  "By  Hercules!  how  many 
 things  does  this  young  man  falsely  report  of  me  !" 
 Hence  it  appears  to  have  been  the  work  of  Plato's 
 youth.  Schleiermacher  regards  this  dialogue  as  au- 
 thentic. Ast  and  Socher  reject  it. — 21.  'A?^Ki6cddr}c 
 6  f/eit^uv,  7j  Kept  (pvaeu^  uvdpu-Kov,  "  The  first  (or 
 greater)  Alcibiades,  or  conccrmng  the  Nature  of  Man" 
 The  second  member  of  this  title,  added  by  the  com- 
 mentators, does  not  suit  the  subject.  The  dialogue 
 has  reference  merely  to  Alcibiades,  who,  young  and 
 presumptuous,  without  knowledge  and  without  e.xperi- 
 ence,  is  on  the  point  oi  presenting  himself  before  the 
 people  to  he  employed  in  the  government  of  the  state. 
 Socrates  directs  him  to  study  first  the  principles  of 
 law  and  politics.  The  end  of  this  piece  is  to  show 
 the  true  nature  of  the  attachment  which  Socrates  had 
 for  this  young  man,  an  attachment  which  made  him 
 so  desirous  of  correctmg  his  faults. — As  Socrates,  in 
 the  course  of  this  dialogue,  compares  the  Deity  to 
 light,  certain  commentators  have  discovered  in  this 
 expression  the  gcrme,  as  they  think,  of  the  system  of 
 emanation,  in  which  God  is  light  and  matter  is  dark- 
 ness.—  Schleiermacher  considers  this  production  as 
 supposititious. — 22.  k'KKi.SLudr]^  /3',  ij  nepl  npocEvxiji, 
 "  The  second  Alcibiades,  or  concerning  Prayer.''^  Soc- 
 rates shows  Alcibiades  the  emptiness  and  inconsist- 
 ency of  the  prayers  which  mortals  address  to  the  di- 
 vinity, unable  as  they  are  to  tell  whether  the  things 
 for  which  they  pray  will  turn  to  their  advantage  or 
 not.  Socher  declares  against  this  dialogue. — 23. 
 Meveffj'Of,  //  tTrtrd^fOf,  "  Meiiexenus,  or  the  Funeral 
 Oration.'"  This  funeral  oration,  in  honour  of  those 
 Athenians  who  had  died  for  their  country,  is  put  in 
 the  mouth  of  Aspasia,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 an  extemporaneous  production  on  her  part.  The  end 
 of  Plato,  in  composing  this  satirical  piece,  was,  with- 
 out doubt,  to  show  that  oratory  was  not  a  very  diffi- 
 cult art.  Bockh  very  acutely  maintains,  in  his  com- 
 mentary on  the  Minos,  that  Plato,  in  many  of  his  dia- 
 logues, comes  forth  in  a  polemic  attitude  against  the 
 celebrated  Lysias,  and  especially  in  his  Menexenus. 
 {Bockh.  adMin.,  p.  182,  seqq.)  The  events  connect- 
 ed with  the  history  of  Athens,  which  are  alluded  to  in 
 the  course  of  this  dialogue,  reach  to  the  peace  of  An- 
 talcidas,  concluded  fourteen  years  after  the  death  of 
 Socrates.  This  anachronism,  which  may  be  pardoned 
 in  a  satirical  production,  has  nevertheless  induced 
 Schleiermacher  to  regard  as  supposititious  the  begin- 
 ning and  end  of  the  dialogue.  Schleiermacher's  opin- 
 ion, which  is  also  that  of  Ast,  and  which  was  first 
 started  by  Schlegel,  in  Wieland's  Atlische  Museum 
 (vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  262,  seqq.),  has  found  an  opponent 
 in  Loers,  in  his  edition  of  the  Menexenus,  Colon. 
 Agripp.,  1824. — 24.  Aa\7/f,  y  Trepl  uv(^peia(:,  "Laches, 
 or  concerning  Bravery."  The  author  shows  that  it  is 
 difficult  to  say  what  bravery  properly  is  :  his  principal 
 object,  however,  is  to  enforce  the  necessity  of  not 
 confining  the  education  of  the  young  to  mere  bodily 
 exercises. — 25.  'Iniriag  /.lei^uv,  ?/  nepl  rob  koXov, 
 "  The  greater  Hippias,  or  concerning  what  is  Beauti- 
 ful." A  piece  of  banter  against  the  sophist  Hippias. 
 — 26.  'lirnia^  6  e?m~tg)v,  t)  nepl  iI)ev6ovc,  "Hippias 
 the  Less,  or  concerning  Falsehood."  In  order  to  ridi- 
 cule more  effectually  the  vanity  of  Hippias,  who  pre- 
 tended to  a  knowledge  of  all  sciences  and  all  arts,  so 
 as  to  boast  that  he  carried  nothing  about  him  that  was 
 not  his  own  manufacture,  is  his  clothing,  his  ring, 
 1088 
 
 &c.,  Socrates  proves  that  this  universal  genius  is  not 
 able  to  maintain,  with  any  success,  a  thesis  evidently 
 true.  The  captious  reasonings  in  which  he  entangles 
 his  adversary,  extort  from  the  latter  a  proposition 
 manifestly  false,  namely,  that  a  lie  is  preferable  to  the 
 truth.  —  27.  EvOv(j)pcjv,  f]  nepl  oeriov,  "  Euthyphron, 
 or  concerning  Piety."  This  dialogue,  written  after 
 the  accusation  of  Socrates,  and  before  his  condemna- 
 tion, appears  to  have  a  double  end  ;  first,  to  establish 
 by  the  principles  of  dialectics  the  idea  of  piety,  which 
 Socrates  numbered  among  the  cardinal  virtues,  but 
 of  which  only  a  passing  notice  is  taken  in  the  previ- 
 ous dialogues  ;  and,  secondly,  that  of  defending  Soc- 
 rates against  the  charge  of  irreligion.  Plato  shows 
 the  falsity  of  the  ideas  entertained  by  the  vulgar,  and 
 even  by  the  priests,  in  relation  to  what  was  agre«a- 
 ble  to  the  Deity,  and  to  the  religious  duties  of  men  ; 
 and  he  justifies  Socrates  by  showing  that  it  was  only 
 on  this  ground  the  philosopher  attacked  the  national  re- 
 ligion. The  interlocutors  are  Socrates  and  a  certain 
 Euthyphron,  who,  from  a  sense  of  religious  duty,  misun- 
 derstood by  him,  was  induced  to  become  the  accuser  of 
 his  own  father.  Socrates  compels  him  to  confess  that 
 he  does  not  even  know  in  what  religious  duty  consists  ; 
 he  ridicules  the  notions  which  the  vulgar  entertain  of 
 the  Deity  ;  but,  unhappily,  he  is  satisfied  with  throw- 
 ing down,  without  thinking  of  building  up  again,  for  he 
 puts  nothing  in  the  place  of  the  system  which  he  has 
 prostrated  ;  it  would  have  been  dangerous,  however, 
 to  have  done  this,  under  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 
 The  light  tone  in  which  the  process  against  Socrates 
 is  alluded  to,  would  seem  to  show  that  his  friends  de- 
 ceived themselves  as  to  the  result.  —  .^st  attacks  the 
 authenticity  of  this  dialogue,  on  the  ground  principally 
 of  its  not  containing  any  one  speculative  view.  Wig- 
 gers,  on  the  contrary,  has  defended  it,  in  his  "  Com.- 
 mentatio  in  Platonis  Eulhyphronem,"  Rostoch,  1805, 
 4to. — 28.  'luv,  t}  TTcpl  'I'Aid^o^,  "Ion,  or  concerning 
 the  Iliad"  (more  correctly,  of  Poetic  Enthusiasm).  The 
 interlocutors  are  Socrates  and  Ion,  the  latter  a  native 
 of  Ephesus,  and  one  of  those  rhapsodists  who  roamed 
 through  Greece,  reciting  the  poems  of  Homer,  Hesi- 
 od,  and  other  great  masters  of  the  art.  Much  differ- 
 ence of  opinion  has  prevailed  in  relation  both  to  the 
 merit  of  this  dialogue  and  the  object  which  Plato 
 had  in  view  in  composing  it.  Sydenham  (Synopsis, 
 or  General  views,  of  the  Works  of  Plato,  Lond.,  1759, 
 4to)  and  Arnaud  (Mem.  de  V Acad,  des  Inscr.,  &c,, 
 vol.  37,  p.  1,  seqq.)  consider  this  production  as  level- 
 led at  the  poets,  "  those  eternal  enemies  of  truth." 
 As  Plato,  however,  was  afraid  of  incurring  the  re- 
 sentment of  this  irascible  class  of  persons,  he  only 
 attacked,  say  the  writers  just  named,  the  rhapso- 
 dists. Socher  also  views  this  dialogue  in  the  light 
 of  a  satire  against  ])oets.  Some  commentators,  on 
 the  other  hand,  think  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  go- 
 ing so  far  in  order  to  discover  Plato's  object:  it  was 
 to  repress  the  enthusiasm  of  the  blinded  admirers  of 
 poetry,  which  is  as  distinctly  opposed  to  truth  as  the 
 false  logic  of  the  sophists.  (Platonis  Ion,  cd.  Ailsch, 
 Lips.,  1822,  8vo.)  —  29.  HuKpdrovg  uno'Xoyia,  "De- 
 fence of  Socrates."  Diogenes  Laertius  (2,  41)  in- 
 forms us,  that  Plato  made  an  attempt  to  defend  Soc- 
 rates before  his  judges,  but  that  the  latter  refused  to 
 hear  him.  1'lie  present  piece,  vi-ntten  after  the  death 
 of  Socrates,  is  a  monument  erected  to  his  memory,  and 
 an  eloge  pronounced,  as  it  were,  before  all  Greece 
 Placed  in  the  mouth  of  him  whom  it  undertakes  to  at- 
 tend, it  combines  simplicity  and  modesty  with  truth, 
 and  with  that  dignity  which  a  good  man  derives  from 
 the  consciousness  of  innocence,  when  he  is  attacked 
 by  the  wicked.  We  learn,  indeed,  from  Xenophon 
 that  this  was  precisely  the  tone  in  which  Socrates  ad- 
 dressed his  judges,  and  that,  instead  of  deigning  to  re- 
 fute the  charges  alleged  against  him,  he  merely  unfold- 
 ed to  their  view  the  history  of  his  past  life.     Dionysius 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLATO. 
 
 of  Halicarnassus  calls  this  production  a  eulogium  un- 
 der the  form  of  an  apology  {ed.  Reiskc,  vol.  5,  p.  29.'), 
 358).     Bockh  maintains,  that  Plato  wrote  the  "  De- 
 fence of  Socrates"  in  a  spirit  of  rivalry  towards  the 
 one  composed  by  Lysias  ;    and   he  refers  to  Plutarch 
 (X  Orat.  Vit.—Op.,  ed.  Reuke,  vol.  9,  p.  324).    Ast, 
 on  the  contrary,  remarks  that  Plutarch  appears  rather 
 to  have  had  in  his  eye  the  oration  of  Lysias  mentioned 
 in  the  Pha^drus.    {Bockh,  ad  Min.,  p.  \8^.—Ast,  Pla- 
 tans Lcben,  &c.,  p.  492.  —  Compare  Beck,  Comment. 
 Societ.  Phdolog.   Lips.,  vol.  4,  pt.   1,  p.  28.)  — 30. 
 KpLT(jv,  rj  wepi  rcfiaKTEOv,  "  Crito,  or  concerning  the 
 Duty  of  a  Citizen.''^     The  scene  of  this  dialogue  be- 
 tween Crilo  and  Socrates  is  in  the  prison  where  the 
 latter  is  confined,  during  the  interval  between  his  con- 
 demnation and  death.     Crito  advises  him  to  fly,  and 
 hints  that  the  keeper  of  the  prison  has  been  bribed  by 
 him,  and  that  all  things  are  ready  for  his  escape.     Soc- 
 rates, on  the  other  hand,  maintains  that  it  is  not  allow- 
 ed a  citizen  to  withdraw  himself  from  that  authority 
 A'hich  has  power  over  him,  nor  to  break  the  tacit  com- 
 pact by  which  he  has  bound  himself  to  obey  the  laws 
 of  his  country.     Not  only  Ast,  but  another  writer  also, 
 has  attacked  the  authenticity  of  this  dialogue.     {Del- 
 briick,  Sokrates,  K'dln.,  1819,  8vo.)    It  has  found,  how- 
 ever, vigorous  supporters  in  Thiersch,  Socher,  and  Bre- 
 ini.    {I'hilologischc  Beytrage  aus  dcr  Schwciz.,  Zurich, 
 1819,  8vo,  p.  143.) — 31.  Qeuyrjc,  fj  nepl  aoifiaq,  "  The- 
 a§es,  or  concerning  Wisdom.''^     Demodocus   having 
 brought  to  Socrates  his  son  Theages,  desirous  of  learn- 
 ing that  kind  of  wisdom  by  which  one  is  fitted  for  gov- 
 erning the  state,  Socrates  declines  the  proposal,  on  the 
 ground  that  he  has  not  yet  heard  the  voice  of  his  Ge- 
 nius, without  whose  approbation  nothing  that  he  might 
 undertake  would  succeed.     The  end  of  the  dialogue 
 is  to  show  that  the  method  of  Socrates  differs  from  that 
 of  the  sophists,  in  that  the  former  gives  no  regular  in- 
 struction to  his  disciples,  but  forms  them  to  virtue  in 
 his  society  and  by  his  converse.     This  dialogue  con- 
 tains some  very  line    passages.     Schleiermacher  re- 
 gards it  as  supposititious. — 32.   'AvTepaarai,   ^^  The 
 KiKuls,"  also    entitled  'EpaoTai,  rj  nepl  (pL7\.oao(pLa^, 
 "  The  Lovers,  or  concerning  Philosophy.''''     A  very 
 feeble  dialogue,  the  object  of  which  is  to  show  that 
 Socrates  estimated    virtue  and   justice    above  every- 
 thing else,  and  cared  very  little  for  purely  speculative 
 researches. — 33.  "liznapxo^,  t)  (piXoKepi^r/^,  '■'  Hippar- 
 chus,  or  the  Lover  of  Gain.''''    This  dialogue,  which  is 
 very  probably  mutilated,  is  deficient  in  plan.      It  treats 
 of  the  false  ideas  that  men  entertain  respecting  the  ac- 
 quisition and  love  of  gain.     The  author  advances  in 
 the  course  of  it  some  historical  paradoxes.     Socher, 
 who  defends  several  dialogues  against  the  attacks  of 
 Schleiermacher  and    Ast,  acknowledges,   with    them, 
 and  also  with  Wolf  (Prolegom.  ad  Horn.,  p.  cliv.),  that 
 this   is  not  one  of  Plato's  productions      Valckenaer 
 {ad  Herod.,  5,  .55)  had  already   expressed  the  same 
 opinion.  —  34.  Mivug,  ij  Tvepl  v6/j.ov,  "  Minos,  or  con- 
 cerning Lnwj."     Socrates  discourses,  in  this  dialogue, 
 with  a  certain  Minos  on  the  nature  of  law,  which  he 
 bakes,  in  its  most  extended  sense,  as  the  rule  of  all  our 
 actions.     We  here  find  the  first  elements  of  the  doc- 
 trine of  modern  philosophers  respecting  the  law  of  na- 
 ture and  the  moral  law.     The  authenticity  of  this  dia- 
 logue has  been  ably  attacked   by  Bockh,  with  whom 
 Socher  agrees.     {B'ockh,  Comment,  in  Platoms  dialog. 
 qui  vulgo  inscribilur  Min.,  &c.,  Hala,  1806,  4to  ) — 
 35.  \\.}.ELTo<^uv,T}  TipoTpeiTTLKo^,  "  CUtopkou,  oT  the  Ex- 
 hortatwn.'"     This  discourse,  in  which  the  nature  of 
 virtue   is  investigated,  is   not  entire.     Stephens  and 
 Serranus  (De  Serres)  reject  it  from  the  list  of  Plato's 
 works. — We  will  now  give  the  titles  of  eight  other 
 productions,   also  attributed    to  this  philosopher,  but 
 which  bear  so  openly  upon  their  fronts  the  stamp  of 
 falsification,    that    the    ancients    themselves,    though 
 sometimes  far  from  scrupulous   in   matters  of   criti- 
 f.  Y 
 
 cism,  regarded  them  as  strangers  to  Plato.  1.  'Eprf- 
 iug,  7/  'EpaaiarpaToc,  V  '^epl  irXovrov,  "  Eryxias, 
 or  Erasistratus,  or  concerning  Wealth."  Diogenes 
 Laertius  already  regarded  this  dialogue  as  spurious 
 (3,  62).  It  is  the  same  that  is  sometimes  ascribed 
 to  ^-Eschines  Socraticus.  —  2  'AIkvuv,  r)  nepl  /j-etq- 
 HopipuGEuq,  "  Halcyon,  or  concerning  Metamorpho- 
 sis." This  dialogue,  which  is  found  also  among  the 
 works  of  Lucian,  treats  of  the  wonders  of  nature.  Di- 
 ogenes attributes  it  to  the  academician  Leo.  —  3.  2tff- 
 v(po^,  7/  TTEpl  Tov  (BovTiEVEaOai,  '^Sisyphus,  or  concerning 
 Deliberation.''^  —  4.  'Af('o;j;of,  ?}  nepl  -davurov,  "Axio- 
 chus,  or  concerning  Death."  This  dialogue  is  one  of 
 those  ascribed  to  iEschines,  or  Xenocrates  of  Chal- 
 cedon.  (Bockh,  Prcef.  in  Sim.  Socrat.  dial.,  p.  vi. — 
 Wyttcnbach,  Philomath.,  pt.  2,  p.  37.) — 5.  Arj/nodoKog, 
 7]  nepl  TOV  (jvfx6ov?iEvea6ai.,  "  Demodocus,  or  concern- 
 ing Consultation." — 6.  "Opot,  "■Definitions."  As- 
 cribed also  to  Speusippus. — 7.  Ilepi  apETfj^,  ei  SidaK- 
 TOV,  "  Concerning  Virtue,  whether  it  is  a  thing  to  be 
 taught."  This  dialogue  resembles  the  Menon  ;  it 
 treats  of  the  same  subject,  but  less  in  detail,  and  with 
 some  difference  of  manner.  Socher  regards  it  as  the 
 first  sketch,  or  else  an  imperfect  edition,  of  the  Men- 
 on, and  he  therefore  places  it  among  the  genuine 
 works  of  Plato.  Le  Clerc  attributes  it  to  -'Eschines. 
 {JEschinis  Socrat.,  Dial.,  Amst.,  1711.) — 8.  ITept  6t- 
 aalov,  '■'■Concerning  Justice."  In  1806,  Bockh  pub- 
 lished a  dissertation  on  the  Minos  of  Plato,  tending 
 to  show  that  the  opinion  of  Schleiermacher,  adopted 
 by  Wolf,  was  correct,  which  made  this  production  to 
 be  a  spurious  one.  He  advanced  also  a  peculiar  hy- 
 pothesis respecting  the  author  of  the  work.  Diogenes 
 Laertius  (2,  122)  informs  us,  that  Socrates  was  in  the 
 habit  of  frequenting  the  shop  of  a  certain  shoemaker 
 or  currier,  named  Simon,  for  the  purpose  of  discours- 
 ing there  with  his  friends  ;  that  this  Simon  was  accus- 
 tomed to  commit  to  writing  all  that  he  could  remem- 
 ber of  these  conversations  ;  and  that  he  afterward  pub- 
 lished thirty-three  of  these  dialogues,  among  which 
 were  four  with  the  following  titles  :  Ylepl  vofxov,  "  Of 
 Law;"  Uepl  (pi?iOKEp(hvc,  "  Of  the  Love  of  Gain;" 
 Hepl  SiKalov,  "  Of  Justice  ;"  and  Uepl  apETfj^,  "  Of 
 Virtue."  He  adds,  that  Simon  was  the  first  who 
 thought  of  publishing  the  Socratic  conversations,  and 
 that,  from  the  rank  in  life  of  the  one  who  gave  them 
 to  the  world,  they  were  called  'LkvtlkoI  AiuTioyoi, 
 "  The  Shoemaker-dialogues,"  and  from  their  contents, 
 "  Socratic."  Ast,  however,  regards  the  epithet  ukvti- 
 KOQ,  here,  as  indicating  something  "  low"  or  ■'  mean." 
 (Compare  Heindorff,  ad  Charmid.,  p.  83.)  Bockh, 
 after  having  shown  that  the  dialogue  entitled  Minos 
 originally  bore  the  appellation  nepl  vofxov,  and  the 
 Hipparchus  that  of  nepl  (bAoK£p6ovc,  concludes  that 
 these  two  dialogues,  hitherto  ascribed  to  Plato,  are  of 
 the  number  of  those  published  by  Simon.  This  hy- 
 pothesis having  met  with  no  opponents  during  three 
 years  (whether  it  was  that  the  conclusion  seemed  a 
 plausible  one,  or  because  it  was  in  accordance  with 
 the  sceptical  spirit  that  distinguishes  the  literature  of 
 Germany),  Bockh  grew  bolder,  and  in  1810  actually 
 gave  to  the  world  these  two  dialogues,  entitled  Trepi 
 upETi'ic  and  nepl  diKaiuv,  under  the  name  of  Simon  the 
 Socratic  ("  Simonis  Socratici,  ut  mdetur,  dialogi  iv., 
 de  lege,  de  lucri  cupidine,  de  justo,  ac  de  virlute.  Ad- 
 diti  sunt  incerti  auctoris  dialogi  Ery.xia  ct  Axiochus. 
 Graca  reccnsuit,  ct  prafationem  criticam  pramisit  A. 
 B'ockh,"  Hcidelh.,  1810,  8vo).  His  whole  theory,  how- 
 ever, has  been  ablv  refuted  by  Letroime.  {Journal 
 des  Savans,  1820, 'p-  675,  scqq.)— There  exists  also, 
 under  the  name  of  Plato,  »  correspondence  which 
 would  be  one  of  great  interest  if  it  really  came  from  the 
 founder  of  the  Academy,  because  it  contains  particu 
 lars  of  an  historical,  as  well  as  political  and  philosoph- 
 ical, nature.  These  Letters,  some  of  which  are  o( 
 considerable  length,  have  reference  to  the  visits  madi 
 ^  1089 
 
PLATO. 
 
 PLA 
 
 hy  Plato  to  Sicily,  and  to  the  intrigues  of  which  this 
 'sland  was  the  theatre,  in  consequence  of  the  tyranny 
 of  the  younger  Dionysius  and  the  movements  of  Dion. 
 The  correspondence  in  question  appears  to  have  been 
 published  by  some  of  the  followers  of  Plato  with  the 
 view  of  exculpating  their  master  and  themselves  from 
 the  charge  of  fomenting  troubles  in  Syracuse.  Cicero 
 seems  to  have  entertamed  no  doubt  of  these  letters 
 being  genuine,  and  he  cites  one  of  them  as  '' ■praclara 
 cpistoUi  Plalonis.''''  (Tusc.  Disp..  5,  35.)  The  fol- 
 lowing modern  scholars  have  denied  their  authenticity : 
 Meivers,  Commental.  Soc,  Gott.,  1783,  p.  51,  scqq. — 
 Groddeck,Lilcralur-Gcschlchle. — Ticdemann,  Gricch- 
 enlands  crsle  PhUosophcn,  p.  476,  scqq. — Ast,  Pla- 
 tans Lchcn  und  Scliriflen,  p.  370,  seqg.  —  Socher, 
 Ucber  Platans  Schnfien,  Munchen,  1820.— In  de- 
 fence of  their  genuineness  we  may  name,  Schlasser, 
 Platos  Brief e  ubersetzt  (Schniid  und  Sncll,  Philas. 
 Joiirn.,  vol.  2,  p.  3,  Gicssen,  1795). — Tcnncmann, 
 Lckren  und  Meinungen  dcr  Sokratiker,  p.  17,  seqq. 
 — Id  ,  System  der  Plat.  Philos.,  p.  106,  seqq. — Mor- 
 genslcrn.  Enlxcurf  van  Platos  Leben,  &c. — Grimm, 
 De  Epistolis  Platanis,  an  genuina  vel  suppositilicE 
 sint,  Berai,  1815. — We  have  six  lives  of  Plato  re- 
 maining, three  others  by  Speusippus,  Porphyry,  and 
 Aristo.xeims  being  lost.  The  most  ancient  of  these 
 six  lives  is  that  by  Apuleius,  in  the  first  book  of  his 
 worlc,  "  De  habitudine  doetrinarum  el  dc  nativitate 
 Plalanis.'"  The  other  five  are  written  in  Greek  ;  of 
 these,  one  is  by  Diogenes  Laertius,  and  is  found  in 
 the  third  book  of  his  compilation  ;  another  is  by  Olym- 
 piodorus,  and  is  given  at  the  head  of  his  commentary  on 
 the  first  Alcibiades  ;  the  third  is  by  Hesychius  of  Mi- 
 letus ;  the  fourth  and  fifth  are  anonymous.  All  these 
 lives  are  scanty  and  crowded  with  fables.  Two  of  the 
 best  modern  biographies  of  the  philosopher  are  those 
 of  Tennemann  and  Ast.  The  former  of  these  has 
 been  translated  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Edwards,  professor 
 in  the  Theological  Seminary  ar,  Andover,  and  forms 
 part  of  a  work,  entitled  "  Selections  from  German  Lit- 
 erature, by  B.  B.  Edicards  and  E.  A.  Park,  Profes- 
 sors Theol.  Sem.  Andover,'''  1839.  Valuable  mate- 
 rials have  been  obtained  by  us,  from  this,  for  our  bi- 
 ographical sketch  of  Plato.  The  commentaries  on 
 Plato  are  still  numerous,  though  very  many  have  been 
 lost.  A  Platonic  Lexicon  bv  Timseus  has  come  down 
 to  us,  of  which  Ruhnken  published  an  excellent  edi- 
 tion in  1754;  and  to  the  same  modern  scholar  we 
 owe  the  publication  of  some  valuable  Platonic  scholia 
 [Lvgd.  Bat ,  1800,  8vo).  A  new  edition  of  the  Lex- 
 icon of  Tima3us,  by  Koch,  appeared  from  the  Leipsic 
 press  in  1828. — Of  the  MSS.  of  Plato,  two  possess 
 great  value  on  account  of  their  early  date.  One  of 
 these  belongs  to  the  tenth  century,  and  is  at  present  in 
 the  Royal  Library  at  Paris,  being  known  among  its 
 collection  of  MSS.  as  No.  1807.  The  other  is  the 
 celebrated  one  brought  over  from  Greece  by  Dr. 
 Clarke,  the  well-known  traveller.  It  is  now  in  the 
 Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford.  This  is  the  earlier  of 
 the  two,  having  been  written  in  896  A.D.  It  contains 
 the  first  twenty-four  dialogues,  with  the  titles  precisely 
 as  they  are  given  in  the  Basle  edition  of  1534.  In  the 
 margin  are  written  scholia  in  a  very  ancient  han<l. 
 The  MS.  is  on  vellum.  In  1812,  Professor  Gaisford 
 published  an  account  of  it,  in  his  "  Cafalogus,  sive 
 Notitia  Manuscriptorum.  qui  a  eel.  E.  D.  Clarke  com- 
 parati,  in  Bibliothcca  Bodleiana  adserrantur,"  &c., 
 Oxon.,  1812,  4to.  In  1820,  the  same  scholar  publish- 
 ed a  collation  of  the  same,  under  the  title  of  "  Lectio- 
 nes  Platonicce,"  &c.,  Oxon.,  8vo. — The  works  of 
 Plato  were  first  published,  after  the  invention  of  print- 
 ing, by  Aldus  Manutius,  at  Venice,  in  1513.  The 
 commentaries  of  Serranus  and  Ficinus,  the  former  of 
 which  accompany  the  edition  of  H.  Stephens  of  1578, 
 and  the  latter  that  printed  at  Lyons  in  1590,  are  very 
 valuable ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  are  to  be  read  with 
 1090 
 
 caution  ;  for  Ficinus,  having  formed  his  conceptions 
 of  the  doctrine  of  Plato  after  the  model  of  the  AJexan- 
 drean  school,  frequently,  in  his  Arguments,  misrepre- 
 sents the  design  of  his  author,  and  in  his  version  ob- 
 scures the  sense  of  the  original ;  and  Serranus,  for 
 want  of  an  accurate  acquaintance  with  the  doctrine  of 
 his  author,  and  through  the  influence  of  a  strong  pre- 
 dilection for  the  scholastic  system  of  theology,  some 
 times  gives  an  incorrect  and  injudicious  explanation 
 of  the  text. — Among  the  most  useful  editions  of  the 
 entire  works  of  Plato,  the  following  may  be  enumer- 
 ated :  The  Bipant  edition,  12  vols.  8vo,  1781-1786; 
 that  of  Bekker,  BeroL,  1816-1818,  10  vols.  8vo  ;  that 
 of  Ast,  1819-1840,  still  in  a  course  of  publication,  of 
 which  the  text  and  some  volumes  of  the  commentary 
 have  appeared,  Lips.,  12  vols.  8vo ;  it  is  disfigur- 
 ed, however,  by  numerous  typographical  errors  ;  the 
 London  variorum  edition,  containing  selections  from 
 thirty-four  commentaries,  and  published  under  the 
 care  of  G.  Burges,  Land.,  1826,  11  vols.  8vo ;  and, 
 what  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  the  best,  that  of 
 Stallbaum,  still  in  a  course  of  publication,  and  form- 
 ing part  of  Jacobs's  and  Rost's  "  Bibliolheca  Grsca," 
 Lips.,  1827-1840,  8  vols.  8vo.— Of  the  select  dia- 
 logues of  Plato,  the  best  edition  is  that  of  HeindorflF, 
 BeroL,  1802-1810,  4  vols.  8vo,  a  second  edition  of 
 which  appeared  in  1827,  under  the  care  of  Buttmann, 
 BeroL,  4  vols.  Of  separate  dialogues  numerous  edi- 
 tions have  been  given  by  various  eminent  scholars,  for 
 an  account  of  which  consult  Schbll,  Gesch.  dcr  Griech. 
 Lit.,  vol.  ],  p.  524,  seqq.,  and  Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bibli- 
 ograph.,  vol.  3,  p.  285. — The  best  translations  of 
 Plato  are,  the  German  one  of  Schleierinacher,  Berlin, 
 1817-1828,  3  vols,  in  0,  8vo,  left  uncompleted  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  death  of  the  author;  and  the  French  ver- 
 sion of  Victor  Cousin,  Pans,  1821-1840,  13  vols.  8vo. 
 — For  some  remarks  on  the  doctrines  of  what  is  called 
 the  New  Platonic  school,  consult  the  article  Alexandri- 
 na  Schola. — II.  A  comic  writer,  who  flourished  about 
 the  period  of  Socrates's  death.  He  composed  twenty 
 comedies.  Suidas,  Plutarch,  and  Athenajus  cite  a 
 much  larger  number,  but  a  part  of  these  pieces  belong 
 to  another  Plato,  a  writer  of  the  Middle  Comedy,  and 
 who  lived  about  a  century  after  the  former.  The  an- 
 cient writers  praise  him  as  well  as  Cratinus  for  clear- 
 ness or  perspicuity  (Zo^7rpdr7?f).  His  patriotic  feel- 
 ings led  him  frequently  to  attack  the  corrujit  dema- 
 gogues of  the  day,  such  as  Cleon,  Hyperbolus,  CAeo- 
 phon,  and  others.  He  gave  his  name  to  a  particular 
 kind  of  metre.  The  fragments  of  this  writer  are  to  be 
 found  in  the  collection  of  Grotius.  Consult  also 
 Meiricke,  Curcr  Critiece  in  Comicorum  fragmcnta  ab 
 AthencEO  servata,  BeroL,  1814.  (Schbll,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  91.) — III.  A  comic  poet,  called,  for  dis- 
 tinction' sake  from  the  preceding,  the  younger.  It  is 
 difficult,  indeed  impossible,  to  separate  his  remains 
 from  those  of  the  elder  comic  poet  of  the  same  name. 
 He  flourished  about  300  B.C.  {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  114.) 
 
 Plautianus,  Fui.vius,  a  native  of  Africa,  and  a 
 relative,  according  to  some,  of  the  Emperor  Scptimius 
 Severus.  Other  accounts,  however,  made  him  to  have 
 been  of  obscure  origin,  and  to  have  been  banished  for 
 seditious  conduct,  as  well  as  many  acts  of  a  criminal 
 nature.  In  his  banishment,  according  to  these  latter 
 authorities,  he  became  acquainted  with  Severus,  who 
 some  years  after  ascended  the  imperial  throne.  (He- 
 rodian,  3,  10.)  When  Severus  attained  to  the  sov- 
 ereignty, Plautianus  was  rapidly  advanced  to  favour 
 and  power,  and  became  eventually  prfptorian  prefect. 
 Statues  were  erected  to  him  both  at  Rome  and  in  the 
 provinces,  as  well  by  individuals  as  by  the  senate  it- 
 self The  soldiers  and  senators  alike  swore  by  his 
 fortune,  as  had  been  formerly  done  in  the  case  of  Se- 
 janus,  and  he  wanted  but  little  to  be  equal  in  power 
 with  Severus.     {Dio  Cass.,  75,   15.)     Plautianus  is 
 
PLA 
 
 PLAUTUS. 
 
 charged  with  having  made  use  of  his  exorbitant  power 
 to  oppress  the  people,  and  to  excite  the  vindictive 
 passions  of  his  master.  By  the  marriage  of  his  daugh- 
 ter Plautilla  with  Caracalla,  who  had  already,  for  some 
 years,  enjoyed  the  ranii  of  Augustus,  he  obtamed  ad- 
 mittance into  the  imperial  household ;  where  his  pride, 
 and  the  influence  which  he  possessed  over  the  emper- 
 or, rendered  him  an  object  of  suspicion  and  dislike. 
 Being  at  last  accused  privately  to  the  emperor  of  aim- 
 inof  at  the  succession,  he  was  slain  by  a  soldier,  at  the 
 order  of  Caracalla,  in  the  presence  of  Severus.  Plau- 
 tilla was  banished  by  Severus,  along  with  her  brother 
 Plautus,  to  the  island  of  Lipara,  where,  seven  years 
 after,  she  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Caracalla,  A.D. 
 211.  {Herodian,  3,  10. — Dio  Cass.,  75,  14,  scgq. — 
 Spartian.,  Vit.  Sev.) 
 
 Plautus,  M.  Accius,  a  celebrated  comic  poet,  the 
 son  of  a  freedman,  and  born  at  Sarsina,  a  town  of  fim- 
 bria, about  525  A.U.C.  He  was  called  Plautus  from 
 his  splay-feet,  a  defect  common  to  the  Umbrians. 
 Having  turned  his  attention  to  the  stage,  he  soon 
 realized  a  considerable  fortune  by  the  popularity  of  his 
 dramas  :  but,  by  risking  it  in  trade,  or  spending  it,  ac- 
 cording to  others,  on  the  splendid  theatrical  dresses 
 which  he  wore  as  an  actor,  and  theatrical  amusements 
 being  little  resorted  to  on  account  of  the  famine  then 
 prevailing  at  Rome,  he  was  quickly  reduced  to  such 
 necessity  as  forced  him  to  labour  in  a  mill  for  his 
 daily  support.  {Auliis  Gellius,  N.  A.,  3,  3.)  Many 
 of  his  plays  were  written  in  these  unfavourable  cir- 
 cumstances, and,  of  course,  have  not  obtained  all  the 
 perfection  which  might  otherwise  have  resulted  from 
 his  increased  knowledge  of  life  and  his  long  practice 
 in  the  dramatic  art.  Twenty  plays  of  this  writer  have 
 come  down  to  us.  But,  besides  these,  a  number  of 
 comedies  now  lost  have  been  attributed  to  him.  Au- 
 lus  Gellius  {N.  A.,  3,  3)  mentions  that  there  were 
 about  a  hundred  and  thirty  plays  which,  in  his  age, 
 passed  under  the  name  of  Plautus  ;  and  of  these  nearly 
 forty  titles,  with  a  few  scattered  fragments,  still  remain. 
 From  the  time  of  Varro  to  that  of  Aulus  Gellius,  it 
 seems  to  have  been  a  subject  of  considerable  discus- 
 sion what  plays  were  genuine  ;  and  it  appears  that  the 
 best-informed  critics  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
 a  great  proportion  of  those  comedies  which  vulgarly 
 passed  for  the  productions  of  Plautus  were  spurious. 
 Such  a  vast  number  were  probably  ascribed  to  him 
 from  his  being  the  head  and  founder  of  a  great  dramat- 
 ic school ;  so  that  those  pieces  which  he  had,  perhaps, 
 merely  retouched,  came  to  be  wholly  attributed  to  his 
 pen.  "There  is  no  doubt,"  says  Aulus  Gellius,  "but 
 that  those  plays,  which  seem  not  to  have  been  written 
 by  Plautus,  but  were  ascribed  to  him,  were  by  certain 
 ancient  poets,  and  afterward  retouched  and  polished 
 by  him."  Even  those  comedies  written  in  the  same 
 taste  with  his  came  to  be  termed  Fahdcc  I'lauhncB  or 
 Plautian<E,  in  the  same  way  as  we  still  speak  of  yEso- 
 pian  fable  and  Homeric  verse.  ^'■Plautus  quidem," 
 says  Macrobius,  "  ca  re  clarus  fuit,  ut  post  jiiorUm 
 ejus  comocdi(z,  quce  inccrla  fercbanlur,  PlautincR  tamcn 
 esse,  de  jocoii/m  copia,  agnoscerenlur.'"  {Sat.,  2,  1.) 
 It  is  thus  evident,  that  a  sufficient  number  of  jests 
 stamped  a  dramatic  piece  as  a  production  of  Plautus 
 in  the  opinion  of  the  multitude.  But  Gellius  farther 
 mentions,  that  there  was  a  certain  writer  of  comedies 
 whose  name  was  Plautius,  and  whose  plays,  having 
 the  inscription  Plauli,  were  considered  as  by  Plautus, 
 when  they  were,  in  fact,  named  not  Plaulince.  from 
 Plautus,  but  Plautia?i(X  from  Plautius.  All  this  suf- 
 ficiently accounts  for  the  vast  number  of  plays  as- 
 cribed to  Plautus,  and  which  the  most  learned  and  in- 
 telligent critics  have  greatly  restricted.  They  have 
 differed,  however,  very  widely  as  to  the  number  which 
 they  have  admitted  to  be  genuine.  Some,  says  Ser- 
 vius,  maintain  that  Plautus  wrote  twenty-one  comedies, 
 others  forty,  others  a  hundred  {ad  Virg.,  Mn.,  init.). 
 
 Gellius  informs  us  that  Lucius  iElius,  a  most  learned 
 man,  was  of  opinion  that  not  more  than  twenty-five 
 were  his.  Varro  wrote  a  work  entitled  (^ucEsliones 
 Plauti7i(E,  a  considerable  portion  of  which  was  devoted 
 to  a  discussion  concerning  the  authenticity  of  the  plays 
 commonly  assigned  to  Plautus  ;  and  the  result  of  his 
 investigations  was,  that  twenty-one  were  unquestion- 
 ably to  be  admitted  as  genuine.  These  were  subse- 
 quently termed  Varronian,  in  consequence  of  having 
 been  separated  by  Varro  from  the  remainder,  as  no 
 way  doubtful,  and  universally  allowed  to  be  by  Plau- 
 tus. The  twenty-one  Varronian  plays  are  the  twenty 
 still  extant,  and  the  Vidularia.  This  comedy  appears 
 to  have  been  originally  subjoined  to  the  Palatine  MS. 
 of  the  still  existing  plays  of  Plautus,  but  to  have  been 
 torn  off,  since,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Truculentus, 
 we  find  the  words  "  Vidulana  incipit.'"  {Fabr.,  Bib. 
 Lat.,  1,  1. — Osann.,  Analect.  Cril.,  c.  8.)  And  Mai 
 has  recently  published  some  fragments  of  it,  which  he 
 found  in  the  Ambrosian  MS.  Such,  it  would  appear, 
 had  been  the  high  authority  of  Vairo,  that  only  those 
 plays  which  had  received  his  indubitable  sanction  were 
 transcribed  in  the  MSS.  as  the  genuine  works  of  Plau- 
 tus :  yet  it  would  seem  that  Varro  himself  had,  on 
 some  occasion,  assented  to  the  authenticity  of  several 
 others,  induced  by  their  style  of  humour  correspondmg 
 to  that  of  Plautus. — The  following  remarks  may  throw 
 some  light  on  the  general  scope  and  tenour  of  the  com- 
 edies of  Plautus.  In  each  plot  there  is  sufficient  ac- 
 tion, movement,  and  spirit.  'I'he  incidents  never  fiag, 
 but  rapidly  accelerate  the  catastrophe.  But,  if  we  re- 
 gard his  plays  in  the  mass,  there  is  a  considerable,  and, 
 perhaps,  too  great,  uniformity  in  his  fables.  They 
 hinge,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  love  of  some  dissolute 
 youth  for  a  courtesan,  his  employment  of  a  slave  to 
 defraud  a  father  of  a  sum  sufficient  for  his  expensive 
 pleasures,  and  the  final  discovery  that  his  mistress  is  a 
 free-born  citizen.  The  charge  against  Plautus  of  uni- 
 formiiy  in  his  characters  as  well  as  in  his  fables  has 
 been  echoed  without  much  consideration.  The  por- 
 traits of  Plautus,  it  must  be  remembered,  were  drawn 
 or  copied  at  the  time  when  the  division  of  labour  and 
 progress  of  refinement  had  not  yet  given  existence  to 
 those  various  descriptions  of  professions  and  artists, 
 the  doctor,  author,  attorney — in  short,  all  those  charac- 
 ters, whose  habits,  singularities,  and  whims  have  sup- 
 plied the  modern  Thalia  with  such  diversified  materi- 
 als, and  whose  contrasts  give  to  each  other  such  relief, 
 that  no  caricature  is  required  in  any  individual  repre- 
 sentation. The  characters  of  Alcmena,  Euclio,  and 
 Peripleclomenes  are  sufficiently  novel,  and  are  not  re- 
 peated in  any  of  the  other  dramas ;  but  there  is  ample 
 range  and  variety  even  m  those  which  he  most  fre- 
 quently employed,  the  avaricious  old  man,  the  de- 
 bauched young  fellow,  the  knavish  slave,  the  braggart 
 captain,  the  rapacious  courtesan,  ihe  obsequious  para- 
 site, and  the  shameless  pander.  The  severe  father 
 and  thoughtless  youth  are  those  in  which  he  has  best 
 succeeded.  The  captain  is  exaggerated,  and  the 
 change  which  has  taken  place  in  society  and  manners 
 prevents  us,  perhaps,  from  entering  fully  into  the  char- 
 acter of  the  slave,  the  parasite,  and  the  pander;  but 
 in  the  fathers  and  sons  he  has  shown  his  knowledge 
 of  our  common  nature,  and  delineated  them  with  the 
 truest  and  liveliest  touches. — The  Latin  style  of  Plau- 
 tus excels  in  briskness  of  dialogue  as  well  as  purity 
 of  expression,  and  has  been  extolled  by  the  learned 
 Roman  grammarians,  particularly  Varro,  who  declares 
 that  if  the  Muses  were  to  speak  Latin,  they  would  em- 
 ploy his  diction  {ap.  Qmnct.,  List.  Or.,  10,  1);  but, 
 as  Schlegel  has  remarked,  it  is  necessary  to  distin- 
 guish between  the  opinion  of  philologcrs  and  that  of 
 critics  and  poets.  Plautus  wrote  at  a  period  when  his 
 country  as  yet  possessed  no  written  or  literary  lan- 
 guage. Every  phrase  was  drawn  from  the  living 
 source  of  conversation.     This  early  simplicity  seems 
 
 1091 
 
PLAUTUS. 
 
 PLE 
 
 pleasing  and  artless  to  those  Romans  who  lived  in  an 
 age  of  excessive  refinement  and  cultivation  ;  but  this 
 apparent  merit  was  rather  accidental  than  the  eifect 
 of  poetic  art.  Making,  however,  some  allowance  for 
 this,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Plautus  wonderfully 
 improved  and  refined  the  Latin  language  from  the  rude 
 form  to  which  it  had  been  moulded  by  Ennius.  That 
 he  should  have  efTected  such  an  alteration  is  not  a  little 
 remarkable.  Plautus  v^^as  nearly  contemporary  with 
 the  Father  of  Roman  song;  accordmg  to  most  ac- 
 counts, he  was  born  a  slave  ;  he  was  condemned,  du- 
 ring a  great  part  of  his  life,  to  the  drudgery  of  the  low- 
 est manual  labour  ;  and,  as  far  as  we  learn,  he  was 
 not  distinguished  by  the  patronage  of  the  great,  nor 
 admitted  into  patrician  society.  Ennius,  on  the  other 
 hand,  if  he  did  not  pass  his  life  in  aliluence,  spent  it 
 in  the  exercise  of  an  honourable  profession,  and  was 
 the  chosen  and  familiar  friend  of  Cato,  Scipio  Africa- 
 nus,  Fulvius  Nobilior,  and  Laalius,  the  most  learned 
 and  polished  citizens  of  the  Roman  republic,  whose 
 unrestrained  conversation  and  intercourse  must  have 
 bestowed  on  him  advantages  which  Plautus  never  en- 
 joyed. But  perhaps  the  circumstance  of  his  Greek 
 original,  which  contributed  so  much  to  his  learning 
 and  refinement,  and  qualified  him  for  such  exalted  so- 
 ciety, may  have  been  unfavourable  to  that  native  pu- 
 rity of  Latin  diction,  which  the  Umbrian  slave  imbibed 
 from  the  unmixed  fountains  of  conversation  and  na- 
 ture.— The  chief  excellence  of  Plautus  is  generally 
 reputed  to  consist  in  the  wit  and  comic  force  of  his 
 dialogue  ;  and,  accordingly,  the  lines  in  Horace's  Art 
 of  Poetry,  in  which  he  derides  the  ancient  Romans  for 
 having  foolishly  admired  the  '^  Plautinos  sales,"  have 
 been  the  subject  of  much  reprehension  among  critics. 
 That  the  wit  of  Plautus  often  degenerates  into  buf- 
 foonery, scurrility,  and  quibbles,  sometimes  even  into 
 obscenity  ;  and  that,  in  his  constant  attempts  at  mer- 
 riment, he  too  often  tries  to  excite  laughter  by  exag- 
 gerated expressions  as  well  as  by  extravagant  actions, 
 cannot,  indeed,  be  denied.  This  was  partly  owing  to 
 the  immensity  of  the  Roman  theatres  arid  to  the  masks 
 of  the  actors,  which  must  have  rendered  caricature 
 and  grotesque  inventions  essential  to  the  production 
 of  that  due  effect  which,  with  such  scenic  apparatus, 
 could  not  be  created  unless  by  overstepping  the  mod- 
 esty of  nature.  It  must  always  be  recollected,  that 
 the  plays  of  Plautus  were  written  solely  to  be  repre- 
 sented, and  not  to  be  read.  Even  in  modern  times, 
 and  subsequent  to  the  invention  of  printing,  the  great- 
 est dramatists,  Shakspeare,  for  example,  cared  little 
 about  the  publication  of  their  plays  ;  and  in  every  age 
 or  country  in  which  dramatic  poetry  has  flourished,  it 
 has  been  intended  for  public  representation,  and  adapt- 
 ed to  the  tastes  of  a  promiscuous  audience.  In  the 
 days  of  Plautus,  the  smiles  of  the  polite  critic  were 
 not  enough  for  a  Latin  comedian,  because  in  those 
 days  there  were  few  polite  critics  at  Rome  ;  he  re- 
 quired the  shouts  and  laughter  of  the  multitude,  who 
 could  be  fully  gratified  only  by  the  broadest  grins  of 
 comedy.  Accordingly,  many  of  the  jests  of  Plautus 
 are  such  as  might  be  expected  from  a  writer  anxious 
 to  accommodate  himself  to  the  taste  of  the  times,  and 
 naturally  catching  the  spirit  of  ribaldry  which  then 
 prevailed.  It  being,  then,  the  great  object  of  Plautus 
 to  excite  the  merriment  of  the  rabble,  he,  of  course, 
 was  little  anxious  about  the  strict  preservation  of  the 
 dramatic  unities;  and  it  was  a  greater  object  with  him 
 to  bring  a  striking  scene  into  view,  than  to  preserve 
 the  unities  of  place.  In  the  Aulidaria,  part  of  the  ac- 
 tion is  laid  in  the  miser's  house,  and  part  in  the  vari- 
 ous places  where  he  goes  to  conceal  his  treasure  ;  in 
 the  Mostellaria  and  Truculentus,  the  scene  changes 
 from  the  street  to  apartments  in  various  houses.  But, 
 notwithstanding  these  and  other  irregularities,  Plautus 
 so  enchanted  the  people  by  the  drollery  of  his  wit  and  the 
 "ouffoonery  of  his  scenes,  that  he  continued  the  reigning 
 1U92 
 
 favourite  of  the  stage  long  after  the  plays  of  Ca^cilins, 
 Afranius,  and  even  Terence  were  first  represented. 
 {Dunlop's  Roman  Literature,  vol.  1,  p.  136,  seqq., 
 Lond.  ed.) — The  best  editions  of  Plautus  are,  thai  of 
 Camerarius,  Basil,  1558,  8vo;  that  of  Lambinus,  Lu 
 let.,  I57G,  fol. ;  that  of  Gruter,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1592,  in 
 which  the  division  into  acts,  scenes,  and  verses  first 
 appears;  that  of  Taubmann,  Wittcb.,\&'2,i,^\.o;  that  of 
 Miiller,  Berol.,  1755,  8vo,  2  vols. ;  that  of  Ernesii, 
 Lips.,  1760,  8vo,  2  vols.;  the  Bipont  edition,  1779- 
 88,  8vo,  2  vols.,  in  which  the  text  is  corrected  by 
 Brunck;  that  of  Schmieder,  Gotling.,  1804,  8vo,  2 
 vols. ;  that  of  Bothe,  Berol ,  1809,  8vo,  and  that  form- 
 ing part  of  the  collection  of  Lemaire,  Paris,  1830,  4 
 vols.  8vo. 
 
 Pleiades  {UXeiude^),  I.  the  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
 the  ocean-nymph  Pleione.  They  were  seven  in  num- 
 ber, and  their  names  were  Maia,  Electra,  Taygeta, 
 Halcyone,  Celaeno,  Sterope,  and  Merope.  The  first 
 three  became  the  mothers,  by  Jupiter,  of  Mercury,  Dar- 
 danus,  and  Lacedaemon.  Halcyone  and  Celjeno  bore 
 to  Neptune  Hyrieus  and  Lycus  ;  Sterope  brought 
 forth  CEnomaiis  to  Mars  ;  and  Merope  married  Sisy- 
 phus. {Schol.  ad  II.,  18,  iSG.—Apollod.,  3,  ].~Hy- 
 gin.  Poet.  Astron  ,  2,  21.)  These  nymphs  hunted 
 with  Diana  ;  on  one  of  which  occasions  Orion,  hap- 
 pening to  see  them,  became  enamoured,  and  pursued 
 them.  In  their  distress  they  prayed  to  the  gods  to 
 change  their  form,  and  Jupiter,  taking  compassion, 
 turned  them  into  pigeons,  and  afterward  made  them  a 
 constellation  in  the  sky.  (Schol.  ad  11.,  I.  c.)  Ac- 
 cording to  Pindar,  the  Pleiades  were  passing  through 
 Boeotia  with  their  mother,  when  they  were  met  by 
 Orion,  and  his  chase  of  them  lasted  for  five  years. 
 {Etym.  Mag.,  s.  v.  Jl/lcmc.)  Hyginus  (/.  c.)  says 
 seven  years.  {Kcighilcy's  Mythology,  p.  464.) — The 
 constellation  of  the  Pleiades,  rising  in  the  spring, 
 brought  with  it  the  spring-rains,  and  opened  naviga- 
 tion. Hence,  according  to  the  common  etymology, 
 the  name  is  derived  from  TcTiiu  {irXeicj),  "  to  sad," 
 and  is  thought  to  indicate  the  stars  that  are  favourable 
 to  navigation.  ( Volcker,  Mythol.  dcs  lap.  Geschleck- 
 les,  p.  77.)  Ideler,  however,  thinks  it  more  probable 
 that  the  appellation  is  derived  from  the  Greek  Tr/ltiof, 
 "/u//,"  denoting  a  cluster  of  stars  ;  whence,  perhaps, 
 the  expression  of  Manilius  ^4,  523),  "  glomerabile  st- 
 dus"  Aratus  (v.  257)  calls  the  Pleiades  eTrruTopot, 
 "  moving  in  seven  paths"  (compare  Eurip  ,  Iph.  in 
 Aul.,  V.  6),  although  one  can  only  discern  six  stars. 
 Hence  Ovid  says  of  these  same  stars  {Fast.,  4,  170), 
 "  QiicB  scptem.  diet,  sex  tamen  esse  sclent."  On  the 
 other  hand,  Hipparchus  asserts  (ad  Arat.,  Phan.,  1, 
 14),  that  in  a  clear  night  seven  stars  can  be  seen.  The 
 whole  admits  of  a  very  easy  solution.  The  group  of 
 the  Pleiades  consists  of  one  star  of  the  third  magni- 
 tude, three  of  the  fifth,  two  of  the  sixth  magnitude,  and 
 several  smaller  ones.  It  requires,  therefore,  a  very 
 good  eye  to  discern  in  this  constellation  more  than  six 
 stars.  Hence,  among  the  ancients,  since  no  more  than 
 six  could  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  and  yet  since, 
 as  with  us,  a  seventh  star,  a  IlAfu/f  FKTdarepo^  (Era- 
 tosth.,  c.  14),  was  mentioned,  the  conclusion  was  that 
 one  of  the  cluster  was  lost.  Some  thought  that  it  had 
 been  destroyed  by  lightning  (Theon.,  Schol.  ad  Arat., 
 I.  c.)  ;  others,  making  the  lost  Pleiad  to  have  been  Elec- 
 tra, fabled  that  she  withdrew  her  light  in  sorrow  at  the 
 fall  of  Ilium,  and  the  misfortunes  of  her  descendants, 
 Dardanus  having  been  the  son  of  Electra  and  Jupiter 
 (Schol.  ad  Arat.,  I.  c,  where  for  rod  yliov  we  must 
 read  rf/^  'l?^iov,  and  for  rdi'  rj'kiov  uAiaKO/xivov  must 
 substitute  ttjv  'lAiov  uXLaKOfiivrjv. — Compare  Ovid, 
 Fast.,  4,  177  :  ^'Electra  Troja.  spcctare  ruinas  iion 
 tulit.")  According  to  another  account,  the  "  lost 
 Pleiad"  was  Merope,  who  withdrew  her  light  because 
 ashamed  of  having  alone  married  a  mortal.  {Ovid, 
 Fast.,  4,  175  )     Others,  again,  affirmed  that  the  star 
 
PLI 
 
 PLINIUS. 
 
 in  question  moved  away  from  its  own  constellation, 
 and  became  the  third  or  middle  one  in  tiie  tail  of  the 
 Greater  Bear,  where  it  received  the  name  of ' KTiunrj^, 
 "the  Fox."  {Idelcr,  Sternnamen,  p.  145.) — From 
 their  rising  in  the  sprmg,  the  Pleiades  were  called  by 
 the  Romans  VcrgilicE.  (Festtis.  —  Isidor.,  Orig.,3, 
 70.)  This  constellation  appears  to  have  been  one  of 
 the  earliest  that  were  observed  by  the  Greeks.  It  is 
 mentioned  by  Homer  (//.,  18,  483,  se(]q.  —  Od.,  5, 
 272,  seqq.) ;  and  in  Hesiod  an  acquaintance  with  it  is 
 supposed  to  be  so  widely  spread,  that  the  daily  la- 
 bours of  the  farmer  can  be  determined  by  its  rising 
 and  setting.  {Hes.,  Op.  et  D  ,  383,  615  )  The  met- 
 rical form  of  the  name  is  nTi'/iT/idSs^  and  HE?i£i.u6ec, 
 and  hence  some  have  been  led  into  the  erroneous  opin- 
 ion, that  the  name  of  the  constellation  was  derived 
 from  ■nr^Aeia,  a  '^ pigeoit"  or  '■'■dove,"  in  allusion  to  the 
 fancied  appearance  of  the  cluster.  (ScIncenJc,  Mijlhol. 
 Ski2z.,p  2.) — The  Pleiades  are  assigned  on  the  ce- 
 lestial sphere  to  a  position  in  the  rear  of  Taurus.  (Wy- 
 gin..  Poet.  Astron.,  20.)  Proclus  and  Geminus,  how- 
 ever, place  them  on  the  back  of  the  animal ;  while 
 Hipparchus  makes  them  belong,  not  to  Taurus,  but  to 
 the  foot  of  Perseus.     {Theori.  ad  Aral.,  Phctn.,  254. 
 
 —  Vblcker,  Mythol.  der  lap.  Gcschl.,  p.  78.) — II.  The 
 name  of  Pleiades  was  also  given  to  seven  tragic  wri- 
 ters, and  the  same  appellation  to  seven  other  poets,  of 
 the  Alexandrean  school.  ( Vid.  Alexandrina  Schola, 
 near  the  conclusion  of  the  article.) 
 
 Pleionk,  one  of  the  Oceanides,  who  married  Atlas, 
 king  of  Mauritania,  by  whom  she  had  twelve  daughters, 
 and  a  son  called  Hvas.  Seven  of  the  daughters  were 
 changed  into  a  constellation  called  Pleiades,  and  the 
 rest  into  another  called  Hyades.    {Ovid,  Fast.,  5,  Si.) 
 
 Plemmyrium,  a  promontory  of  Sicily,  in  the  imme- 
 diate neighbourhood  of  Syracuse,  and  facing  the  island 
 of  Ortygia,  forming  with  this  island  the  entrance  to  the 
 great  harbour  of  that  city.  Its  modern  name  is  Mas- 
 sa  d''Olivcra.     (Dorvill.  Sic,  y).  191. —  Thucyd.,1,  A. 
 
 —  Wesseling,  ad  Diod.  Sic.,  vol.  6,  p.  555,  ed.  Bip.) 
 It  was  fortified  by  Nicias  during  the  siege  of  Syracuse 
 by  the  Athenians,  as  being  well  adapted  by  its  situa- 
 tion for  receiving  supplies  by  sea  ;  and  here  also  he 
 erected  three  forts  or  castles,  the  largest  of  which  con- 
 tained all  the  warlike  implements,  and  the  provisions 
 of  the  army.  At  a  subsequent  period  of  the  war,  the 
 Athenians  were  compelled  to  abandon  this  post,  and 
 fortified  themselves  near  Dascon,  in  its  vicinity.  ( Thu- 
 cyd.,  I.  c. — Id.,  7,  23.)  The  position  of  Plemmyrium 
 may  he  regarded  as  one  of  the  early  causes  of  the  fail- 
 ure of  the  expedition  against  Syracuse  ;  for,  as  the 
 place  was  destitute  of  freshwater,  and  the  soldiers  had 
 to  go  to  a  distance  for  it,  numbers  of  them  were  cut 
 off  from  day  to  day  by  the  Syracusans.  {Lctronne,  ad 
 Tkucyd.,  7,  4,  p.  76. — Gbller,  de  situ  et  origine  Syr- 
 acusarum,  p.  76,  seqq.) 
 
 Pf.EOMojLii,  a  people  of  Gallia  Belgica,  tributary  to 
 the  Nervii.  Their  precise  situation  is  unknown.  Le- 
 maire  places  them  in  the  vicinity  of  Tornacum,  now 
 Tournay.  {Ind.  Geogr.,ad  Cas.,  p.  339. — Cces.,  B. 
 G.,  5,  39.) 
 
 Pi.tNius,  r.  Secundus,  C,  surnamed  the  Elder,  and 
 also  the  Naturalist,  a  distinguished  Roman  writer, 
 horn  of  a  noble  family,  in  the  ninth  year  of  the  reign 
 of  Tiberius,  A.D.  23.  St.  Jerome,  in  his  Chronicle 
 of  Euscbius,  and  a  Life  of  Pliny  ascribed  to  Sueto- 
 nius, make  him  to  have  been  a  native  of  Gomum  ;  but 
 since,  in  the  dedicatory  epistle  prefixed  to  his  Natural 
 History,  he  calls  Catullus  his  compatriot  (conterra- 
 ncum),  aiid  since  Catullus  was  born  at  Verona,  this  last- 
 racntioned  city  has  disputed  with  Cornum  the  honour 
 O!  having  given  birth  to  the  naturalist,  and  writings 
 wUhout  number  have  been  elicited  by  the  controversy. 
 One  thing,  however,  is  certain,  that  the  Plinian  family 
 was  settled  at  Coinum,  and  possessed  a  large  property 
 ia  the  neighbourhood,  and  inscriptions  have  been  dis- 
 
 covered there  relative  to  several  of  its  members  It 
 was  at  Comum,  too,  that  the  younger  Pliny,  so  well 
 known  by  his  Letters,  and  the  nephew  of  the  natural- 
 ist, was  born.  Pliny  the  Elder  came  to  Rome  at  an 
 early  period,  and  attended  the  lectures  of  Appion,  but 
 it  does  not  appear  that  he  saw  the  Emperor  Tiberius, 
 the  latter  having  already  retired  to  Caprefe.  From  the 
 account  which  he  gives  of  the  jewels  which  he  saw  at 
 Lollia  Paulina's,  it  has  been  supposed,  that,  notwith- 
 standing his  youth,  he  assisted  occasionally  at  the  court 
 of  Caligula.  His  attention  was  attracted,  even  at  this 
 early  period,  by  the  interesting  productions  of  nature, 
 and  particularly  by  the  remarkable  animals  which  the 
 emjierors  exhibited  in  the  public  spectacles.  He  re- 
 lates in  detail,  and  as  an  eyewitness,  the  particulars 
 of  a  combat  in  the  presence  of  the  Roman  people,  with 
 a  large  monster  of  the  deep,  which  had  been  taken 
 alive  in  the  harbour  of  Ostia.  This  event  having  ta- 
 ken place  while  Claudius  was  constructing  the  port  in 
 question,  that  is,  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  Pliny 
 could  not  have  been  at  that  time  more  than  about 
 nineteen  years  of  age.  We  learn  from  himself,  that, 
 about  his  twenty-second  year,  he  resided  for  a  time  on 
 the  coast  of  Africa,  where  he  witnessed  the  change  of 
 sex  in  the  case  of  Larius  Cossicius,  who,  from  having 
 been,  as  was  supposed,  a  girl,  found  himself  trans- 
 formed, the  very  day  of  his  marriage,  into  a  boy  ! 
 Some  modern  writers  have  supposed,  on  no  very 
 strong  grounds,  however,  that  at  this  age  Pliny  served 
 in  the  Roman  fleet,  and  that  he  visited  Britain,  Egypt, 
 and  Greece.  It  appears,  on  the  contrary,  from  the 
 testimony  of  his  nephew,  that  he  was  employed,  while 
 yet  quite  young,  in  the  Roman  armies  in  Germany. 
 He  there  served  under  Lucius  Pomponius,  whose 
 friendship  he  gained,  and  who  intrusted  him  with  the 
 command  of  a  part  of  the  cavalry.  He  must  have 
 availed  himself  very  fully  of  this  opportunity  to  ex- 
 plore the  country  of  Germany,  since  he  informs  us 
 that  he  had  seen  the  sources  of  the  Danube,  and  had 
 also  visited  the  Chauci,  a  tribe  that  dwelt  on  the  bor- 
 ders of  the  ocean.  It  was  during  the  operations  in 
 Germany  that  he  wrote  his  first  work,  in  which  he 
 treated  of  the  art  of  hurling  a  javelin  from  on  horse- 
 back {De  Jacul.alionc  Equcstri).  His  second  work, 
 which  was  a  Life  of  Pomponius,  in  two  books,  was 
 dictated  by  his  strong  attachment  to  that  commander, 
 and  by  the  gratitude  which  he  felt  towards  him  for  his 
 numerous  favours.  A  dream  which  he  had  during 
 this  same  war,  and  in  which  the  shade  of  Drusus  ap- 
 peared to  him  and  urged  hirn  to  write  that  prince's 
 memoirs,  induced  him  to  engage  in  a  literary  enter- 
 prise of  great  labour,  that  of  writing,  namely,  the  his- 
 tory of  all  the  wars  carried  on  in  Germany  by  the  Ro- 
 mans, and  which  he  executed  eventually,  in  the  com- 
 pass of  twenty  books.  Having  returned  to  Rome 
 about  the  age  of  thirty  years,  he  there  pleaded  several 
 causes,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  Romans,  who 
 were  fond  of  allying  the  profession  of  arms  to  the  prac- 
 tice of  the  bar.  He  passed,  also,  a  part  of  his  time  at 
 Comum,  where  he  superintended  the  education  of  his 
 nephew  ;  and  it  was  probably  with  the  view  of  being 
 useful  to  the  latter  that  he  composed  a  work  entitled 
 Stiidiosus,  in  which  he  began  with  the  orator  from  his 
 cradle,  and  conducted  him  onward  until  he  had  reach- 
 ed the  perfection  of  his  art.  Judguig  from  a  quota- 
 tion made  by  Quintilian,  we  are  led  to  infer  that,  in 
 this  work,  Pliny  even  pointed  out  the  manner  in  which 
 the  orator  should  regulate  his  dress,  his  person,  his 
 deportment  on  the  tribunal,  &c.  It  appears,  that  du- 
 ring the  greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Nero,  Pliny  re- 
 mained without  employment.  His  nephew  informs 
 us,  that,  towards  the  close  of  Nero's  reign,  when  the 
 terror  inspired  by  that  monster  prevented  any  one  from 
 devoting  his  attention  to  pursuits  a  little  more  liberal 
 and  elevated  than  ordinary,  Pliny  composed  a  work 
 in  eight  bc-^ks,  entitled  Dubit  Sermoiiis,  which  was 
 ^  \093 
 
PLINIUS. 
 
 PLINIUS 
 
 wubout  doubt,  a  grammatical  treatise  on  the  precise 
 eignification  and  use  of  words.  And  yet  it  is  difficult, 
 if  we  follow  chronological  computation,  not  to  believe 
 that  Nero  named  him  his  procurator  in  Spain  ;  for  it 
 is  certain,  from  the  words  of  his  nephew,  that  he  filled 
 this  office :  he  himself  mentions  certain  observations 
 made  by  him  in  this  country,  and  we  find  no  other 
 period  in  his  life  in  which  he  could  have  gone  thither. 
 We  may  presume  that  he  continued  in  Spain  during 
 the  civil  wars  of  Galba,  Otho,  and  Vileliius,  and  even 
 during  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  It 
 was  durmg  this  period  that  he  lost  his  brother-in-law  ; 
 and,  being  unable,  by  reason  of  his  absence  abroad,  to 
 become  his  nephew's  guardian,  the  care  of  the  latter 
 was  intrusted  to  Virginius  Rufus.  On  his  return, 
 Pliny  would  seem  to  have  slopped  for  a  time  in  the 
 south  of  Gaul  ;  for  he  describes,  with  remarkable  ex- 
 actness, the  province  of  Narbonensis,  and,  in  particular, 
 the  fountain  of  Vaucluse.  He  informs  us  that  he  saw 
 in  this  quarter  a  stone  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven. 
 Vespasian,  with  whom  he  had  been  on  intimate  terms 
 during  the  wars  in  Germany,  gave  him  a  very  favour- 
 able reception,  and  was  in  the  habit  of  calling  him  to 
 him  every  morning  before  sunrise;  which,  according 
 to  Suetonius  and  Xiphilinus,  was  a  privilege  reserved 
 by  that  emperor  only  for  his  particular  friends.  It 
 cannot  be  affirmed,  with  any  great  degree  of  certainty, 
 that  Vespasian  elevated  Pliny  to  the  rank  of  senator. 
 Some  writers  state,  moreover,  though  without  any 
 proof,  that  Pliny  served  in  the  war  of  Titus  against  the 
 Jews.  W^hat  he  remarks  concerning  Judaea  is  not 
 sufficiently  exact  to  induce  us  to  believe  that  he  speaks 
 from  personal  observation  ;  and,  besides,  we  can  hard- 
 ly assign  to  any  other  part  of  his  life  except  this,  the 
 composition  of  his  work  on  the  History  of  his  ow>i 
 Tunes,  in  thirty-one  books,  and  forming  a  continua- 
 tion of  that  of  Aufidius  Bassus.  If  Fliny,  however, 
 did  not  serve  in  the  Jewish  war,  he  was  not  less  the 
 friend  of  Titus  on  that  account,  having  been  his  com- 
 panion in  the  course  of  other  contests  ;  and  it  was  to 
 this  prince  that  he  dedicated  the  last  and  most  impor- 
 tant of  his  writings,  his  Natural  History,  in  thirty-seven 
 hooks.  The  titles  given  to  Titus  in  the  dedication 
 show  that  this  laborious  work  was  concluded  in  the 
 78th  year  of  our  era ;  and  it  is  evident  that  it  must 
 have  occupied  the  greater  part  of  his  life  to  collect 
 together  the  materials.  This  great  work  is  the  only 
 one  of  Pliny's  that  has  come  down  to  us.  It  forms, 
 at  the  same  time,  one  of  the  most  valuable  monuments 
 left  us  by  antiquity,  and  is  a  proof  of  the  most  aston- 
 ishing industry  in  a  man  whose  time  was  so  much  oc- 
 cupied, first  by  military  affairs,  and  subsequently  by 
 those  of  a  civil  nature.  In  order  fully  to  appreciate 
 this  vast  and  celebrated  work,  we  must  regard  it  un- 
 der three  different  aspects  ;  its  plan,  \ls  facts,  and  its 
 style.  The  plan  is  an  immense  one.  Pliny  does  not 
 propose  to  himself  to  write  merely  a  natural  history,  in 
 the  restricted  sense  in  which  we  employ  the  phrase 
 at  the  present  day,  that  is,  a  treatise,  more  or  less  de- 
 tailed, respecting  animals,  plants,  and  minerals  ;  he 
 embraces  in  his  plan  astronomy,  physics,  geography, 
 agriculture,  commerce,  medicine,  and  the  arts,  as  well 
 as  natural  history  properly  so  called  ;  and  he  contin- 
 ually mingles  with  his  remarks  on  these  subjects  a 
 variety  of  observations  relative  to  the  moral  constitu- 
 tion of  man  and  the  history  of  nations  :  so  that,  in 
 many  respects,  his  work  may  be  regarded  as  having 
 been  in  its  day  a  sort  of  encyclopaedia.  After  having 
 given,  in  his  first  book,  a  kind  of  table  of  contents, 
 and  the  names  of  the  authors  who  are  to  supply  him 
 with  facts  and  materials,  he  treats,  in  the  second,  of 
 the  world,  the  elements,  the  stars,  &,c.  The  four  fol- 
 lowing books  give  a  geographical  sketch  of  the  then 
 known  world.  The  seventh  treats  of  the  different  ra- 
 ces of  men,  and  of  the  distinctive  qualities  of  the  hu- 
 man species,  of  the  great  characters  which  it  has  pro- 
 1094 
 
 duced,  and  of  the  most  remarkable  human  inventions. 
 Four  books  are  then  devoted  to  terrestrial  animals,  to 
 fishes,  to  birds,  and  to  insects.  The  species  belong- 
 ing to  each  class  are  arranged  according  to  their  size 
 or  importance  :  their  habits,  their  useful  or  hurtful 
 properties,  and  their  most  remarkable  characteristics 
 are  also  discussed.  At  the  end  of  the  book  on  insects 
 he  speaks  of  certain  substances  produced  by  animals, 
 and  of  the  parts  that  compose  the  humar  frame.  Bot- 
 any occupies  the  largest  space  in  the  work.  Ten 
 books  are  devoted  to  an  account  of  plants,  their  cul- 
 ture, their  uses  in  domestic  economy  and  the  arts,  and 
 five  to  an  enumeration  of  their  medicinal  properties. 
 F'ive  others  treat  of  the  remedies  derived  from  ani- 
 mals ;  and  in  the  last  five  Pliny  treats  of  metals,  mi- 
 ning, earths,  stones,  and  the  employment  of  the  latter 
 for  the  purposes  of  life,  for  the  calls  of  luxury,  and  for 
 the  arts ;  while  under  the  head  of  colours  he  makes 
 mention  of  the  most  celebrated  paintings,  and  under 
 the  head  of  stones  and  marbles  treats  of  the  finest  pie- 
 ces of  statuary  and  the  most  valuable  gems.  It  is  im- 
 possible but  that,  in  even  rapidly  running  over  this 
 prodigious  number  of  subjects,  Pliny  should  make  us 
 acquainted  with  a  multitude  of  remarkable  facts,  and 
 which  are  the  more  valuable  to  us  as  he  is  the  only 
 author  that  relates  them.  Unhappily,  however,  the 
 manner  in  which  he  has  collected  and  stated  them 
 makes  them  lose  a  large  portion  of  their  value,  as  well 
 from  his  mingling  together  the  true  and  the  false,  in 
 an  almost  equal  degree,  as  more  particularly  from  the 
 difficulty,  and,  in  some  cases,  the  impossibility,  of  dis- 
 covering exactly  to  what  creatures  he  alludes.  Pliny 
 was  not  such  an  observer  of  nature  as  Aristotle  ;  still 
 less  was  he  a  man  of  genius  sufficient  to  seize,  like 
 this  great  philosopher,  the  laws  and  the  relations  by 
 which  nature  has  regulated  her  various  productions. 
 He  is,  in  general,  nothing  more  than  a  mere  compiler, 
 and  often,  too,  a  compiler  unacquainted  himself  with 
 the  things  about  which  he  collects  the  opinions  of  oth- 
 ers, and,  consequently,  unable  to  appreciate  the  true 
 force  of  these  opinions,  or  sometimes  even  to  com- 
 prehend their  exact  meaning.  In  a  word,  he  is  a 
 writer  almost  entirely  devoid  of  critical  acumen,  who, 
 after  having  passed  a  large  part  of  his  time  in  making 
 extracts  from  the  works  of  others,  has  arranged  them 
 under  certain  chapters,  adding  thereunto,  from  time  to 
 time,  his  own  reflections,  which  have  nothing  to  do 
 with  scientific  discussion,  properly  so  called,  but  either 
 present  specimens  of  the  most  superstitious  belief,  or 
 are  the  declamations  of  a  chagrined  philosopher,  who 
 accuses,  without  ceasing,  men,  nature,  and  the  gods 
 themselves.  We  must  be  careful,  therefore,  not  to 
 regard  the  facts  which  he  has  accumulated  in  their  re- 
 lations to  the  opinion  which  he  himself  forms  ;  but 
 we  must  restore  them  in  thought  to  the  writers  from 
 whom  he  has  derived  them,  and  then  apply  to  theni 
 the  rules  of  sound  criticism,  in  conformity  with  what 
 we  know  of  the  writers  themselves,  and  the  circum 
 stances  in  which  they  found  themselves  placed.  Stud 
 led  in  this  way,  the  Natural  History  of  Pliny  presesita 
 one  of  the  richest  mines  of  learning,  since,  according 
 to  his  own  statement,  it  contains  extracts  from  more 
 than  two  thousand  volumes,  written  by  authors  of  ev- 
 ery description,  travellers,  historians,  geographers,  phi- 
 losophers, physicians,  &c.  ;  authors,  with  many  of 
 whom  we  only  become  acquainted  in  the  pages  of 
 Pliny.  A  comparison  of  his  extracts  with  the  origi- 
 nals themselves,  where  the  latter  have  come  down  tG 
 us,  and  more  particularly  with  the  writings  of  Aris- 
 totle, will  show  that  Pliny,  in  making  bis  selections, 
 was  far  from  giving  t'ne  preference,  on  every  occasion, 
 to  what  was  most  important  or  most  exact  ia  tho 
 authors  whom  he  consulted.  He  appears,  in  general, 
 to  have  a  strong  predilection  for  things  of  a  singular 
 or  marvellous  nature  ;  for  snch,  too,  as  harmoiiise 
 more  than  others  with  the  conlrasls  he  is  fond  of  insU 
 
PLINIUS. 
 
 PLINins. 
 
 tuting,  or  the  reproaches  he  is  in  the  habit  of  making 
 against  Providence.  He  does  not,  it  is  true,  extend 
 an  equal  degree  of  credence  to  everything  that  he  re- 
 lates, but  it  IS  at  mere  random  that  he  either  doubts  or 
 affirms,  and  the  most  puerile  tales  are  not  always  those 
 which  most  excite  his  incredulity.  There  is  not,  for 
 example,  a  single  fable  of  tlie  Greek  travellers,  con- 
 cerning men  without  heads,  others  without  mouths, 
 concerning  men  with  only  one  foot,  or  very  long  ears, 
 which  he  does  not  place  in  his  seventh  book,  and  that, 
 too,  with  so  much  confidence  as  to  terminate  this  cat- 
 alogue of  wonders  with  the  following  remark  ;  "  Hcec 
 ati{%e  talid  ex  homimun  genere,  ludtbria  sibi,  nobis 
 mir<LC\tla,  ingeniosa  fecit  natura."  We  may  without 
 difficulty,  therefore,  after  observing  this  facility  in  giv- 
 ing credence  to  ridiculous  stories  about  the  human 
 species,  form  an  idea  of  the  degree  of  discernment 
 which  Pliny  has  exercised  in  his  selection  of  authori- 
 ties respecting  animals  either  entirely  new  or  but  little 
 known.  Hence  the  most  fabulous  creations,  marti- 
 chori  with  human  heads  and  the  tails  of  scorpions, 
 winged  horses,  the  catoblepas  whose  sight  alone  was 
 able  to  kill,  play  their  part  in  his  work  by  the  side  of 
 the  elephant  and  lion.  And  yet  all  is  not  false,  even 
 in  those  narratives  that  are  most  replete  with  falsities. 
 We  may  sometimes  detect  the  truth  which  has  served 
 them  for  a  basis,  by  recalling  to  mind  that  these  are 
 extracts  from  the  works  of  travellers,  and  by  supposing 
 that  ignorance,  and  the  love  of  the  marvellous,  on  the 
 part  of  ancient  travellers,  have  led  them  into  these 
 exaggerations,  and  have  dictated  to  them  those  vague 
 and  superficial  descriptions,  of  which  we  find  so  great 
 a  number  even  in  modern  books  of  travels.  Another 
 very  important  defect  in  Pliny  is  that  he  does  not  al- 
 ways give  the  true  sense  of  the  authors  whom  he  trans- 
 lates, especially  when  designating  different  species  of 
 animals.  Notwithstanding  the  very  limited  means 
 possessed  by  us  at  the  present  day  of  judging  with  any 
 degree  of  certainty  respecting  this  kind  of  error,  it  is 
 easy  to  prove  that  on  many  occasions  he  has  substi- 
 tuted for  the  Greek  word,  which  in  Aristotle  desig- 
 nates one  kind  of  animal,  a  Latin  word  which  belongs 
 to  one  entirely  different.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  one 
 of  the  greatest  difficulties  experienced  by  the  ancient 
 naturalists  was  that  of  fixing  a  nomenclature,  and  their 
 vicious  and  defective  method  shows  itself  in  Pliny 
 more  than  in  any  other.  The  descriptions,  or,  rather, 
 imperfect  indications,  which  he  gives,  are  almost  al- 
 ways insufficient  for  recognising  the  several  species, 
 when  tradition  has  failed  to  preserve  the  particular 
 name  ;  and  there  is  even  a  large  number  whose  names 
 alone  are  given,  without  any  characteristic  mark,  or 
 any  means  of  distinguishing  them  from  one  another. 
 If  it  were  possible  still  to  doubt  respecting  the  advan- 
 tages enjoyed  by  the  modern  over  the  ancient  meth- 
 ods, thtse  doubts  would  be  completely  dispelled,  on 
 discovering  that  almost  all  the  ancient  writers  have 
 said  relative  to  the  virtues  of  their  plants  is  com- 
 pletely valueless  for  us,  from  the  impossibility  of  dis- 
 tinguishing the  individual  plants  to  which  they  refer. 
 Our  regret,  however,  on  this  account,  will  be  great- 
 ly diminished,  if  we  call  to  mind  with  how  little  care 
 the  ancients,  and  Pliny  in  particular,  have  designa- 
 ted the  medical  virtues  of  plants.  They  attribute  so 
 many  false  and  even  absurd  properties  to  those  plants 
 which  we  know,  that  we  may  be  allowed  to  be  very 
 ieidiffercnt  respecting  the  virtues  of  those  which  we 
 do  not  know.  If  we  believe  that  part  of  Pliny's  work 
 which  treats  of  llie  materia  medica,  there  is  no  hu- 
 man ailment  for  which  nature  has  not  prepared  twen- 
 ty remedies;  and,  most  unfortunately,  for  the  space 
 of  two  centuries  after  the  revival  of  learning,  med- 
 ical men  took  great  pleasure  in  repeating  these  pu- 
 erilities.— .\s  regards  the  facts,  therefore,  detailed  in 
 his  work,  Pliny  possesses  at  the  present  day  no  real 
 interest,  except  as  regards  certain  processes  followed 
 
 by  the  ancients  in  the  arts,  and  certain  particulars  of 
 an  historical  and  geographical  nature,  of  which  we 
 would  have  been  ignorant  without  his  aid.  That  por- 
 tion of  his  work  which  is  devoted  to  the  arts  is  the 
 one  that  merits  the  most  careful  study.  He  traces 
 their  progress,  he  describes  their  products,  he  names 
 the  most  celebrated  artists,  he  indicates  the  manner 
 in  which  their  labours  are  conducted,  and  it  cannot  ba 
 doubted  but  that,  if  well  understood,  he  would  make 
 us  acquainted  with  some  of  those  secrets  by  means  of 
 which  the  ancients  executed  works  that  we  have  only 
 been  able  imperfectly  to  imitate.  Here  again,  how- 
 ever, the  difficulties  of  his  nomenclature  present  them- 
 selves ;  he  names  numerous  substances,  they  are  sub- 
 stances that  must  enter  into  compositions,  or  be  sub- 
 jected to  the  operation  of  the  arts,  and  yet  we  know 
 not  what  they  are.  With  difficulty  are  we  enabled  to 
 divine  the  nature  of  a  few,  by  means  of  certain  rath- 
 er equivocal  characteristics  that  aie  related  of  them; 
 and  hence  it  is  that  we  may  be  said  to  be  in  want,  even 
 at  the  present  day,  of  a  true  commentary  on  Pliny's 
 Natural  History,  a  work  that  would  require  the  most 
 extensive  acquaintance  with  every  department  of  phys- 
 ical knowledge. — If,  however,  Pliny  has  but  little  merit 
 for  us  as  a  critic  and  a  naturalist,  the  case  is  different 
 with  regard  to  his  talents  as  a  writer,  and  the  immense 
 treasure  of  Latin  terms  and  forms  of  expression  with 
 which  the  abundance  of  his  materials  obliged  him  to 
 supply  himself,  and  which  make  his  work  one  of  the 
 richest  depots  of  the  Roman  tongue.  It  has  been 
 justly  remarked,  that  without  Pliny  it  would  be  impos- 
 sible to  re-establish  the  Latin  language  ;  and  this  re- 
 mark must  be  understood,  not  only  with  regard  to 
 words,  but  also  their  various  acceptations,  and  the  turn 
 and  movement  of  sentences.  It  is  certain,  also,  that 
 wherever  he  can  indulge  in  general  ideas  or  philo- 
 sophic views,  his  language  assumes  a  tone  of  energy 
 and  vivacity,  and  his  thoughts  somewhat  of  unex- 
 pected boldness,  which  make  amends  for  the  drync-ss 
 of  previous  enumerations,  and  may  find  favour  for 
 him  with  the  generality  of  his  readers,  and  atone  in 
 some  degree  for  the  insufficiency  of  his  scientific  in- 
 dications. It  must  be  confessed,  at  the  same  time, 
 however,  that  he  is  too  fond  of  seeking  for  points  and 
 antitheses  ;  that  he  is  occasionally  harsh  ;  and  that,  on 
 many  occasions,  his  language  is  marked  by  an  obpcu- 
 rity  which  arises  less  from  the  subject-matter  than  from 
 the  desire  of  ajipearing  sententious  and  condensed. 
 But  he  is  everywhere  dignified  and  grave,  everywhere 
 full  of  love  for  justice  and  of  respect  for  virtue  ;  of 
 horror  for  cruelty  and  baseness,  of  which  he  had  before 
 his  eyes  such  fearful  examples  :  and  of  contempt  for 
 that  unbridled  luxury  which  had  so  deeply  corrupted 
 the  spirit  of  his  countrymen.  In  this  point  of  view 
 Pliny  cannot  be  too  highly  praised  ;  and,  notwithstand- 
 ing the  defects  that  we  are  compelled  to  notice  in  him 
 when  we  view  him  as  a  naturalist,  we  may  still  regard 
 him  among  the  most  distinguished  writers,  and  those 
 most  worthy  of  the  epithet  of  classic,  that  flourished 
 after  the  age  of  Augustus. — In  his  religious  princi- 
 ples, Pliny  was  almost  an  atheist,  or,  at  least,  he  ac- 
 knowledged no  other  deity  but  the  world  ;  and  few  phi- 
 losophers have  explained  the  system  of  Pantheism 
 more  in  detail,  and  with  greater  spirit  and  energy,  than 
 he  has  done  in  his  second  book — The  Natural  His- 
 tory was  Pliny's  last  work,  for  he  perished  the  year 
 after  its  publication.  The  particulars  of  his  death  are 
 given  in  a  letter  of  the  younger  Pliny  to  the  historian 
 Tacitus,  who  was  anxious  to  transmit  an  account  of  it 
 to  posterity.  The  elder  Pliny  was  then  at  Misenum, 
 in  command  of  the  fleet  which  was  appointed  to  guard 
 all  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  comprehended  be- 
 tween Ilalv,  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Africa.  We  will  give 
 the  rest  of  the  account  in  the  words  of  his  nephew  : 
 "  On  the  24th  of  .\ugust,  about  one  in  the  alternoon, 
 my  mother  desired  him  to  observe  a  cloud  which  ap- 
 
 1095 
 
PLINIUS. 
 
 PLINIUS. 
 
 peared  of  a  very  unusual  size  and  shape.  He  had  just 
 returned  from  taking  the  benefit  of  the  sun,  and,  after 
 bathing  himself  in  cold  water,  and  taking  a  slight  re- 
 past, had  retired  to  his  study.  He  immediately  arose 
 and  went  out  upon  an  eminence,  from  whence  he  might 
 more  distinctly  view  this  very  uncommon  appearance. 
 It  was  not,  at  that  distance,  discernible  from  what 
 mountain  this  cloud  issued,  but  it  was  found  afterward 
 to  ascend  from  Vesuvius.  I  cannot  give  you  a  more 
 exact  description  of  its  figure  tlian  by  resembling  it  to 
 ;hai  of  a  pine-tree,  for  it  shot  up  to  a  great  height  in 
 the  form  of  a  trunk,  which  e.xtendcd  itself  at  the  to[) 
 into  a  sort  of  branches  ;  occasioned,  1  imagine,  either 
 by  a  sudden  gust  of  air  that  impelled  it,  the  force  of 
 which  decreased  as  it  advanced  upward,  or  the  cloud 
 itself,  being  pressed  back  again  by  its  own  weight, 
 expanded  in  this  manner :  it  appeared  sometimes 
 bright,  and  sometimes  dark  and  spotted,  as  it  was  either 
 more  or  less  impregnated  with  earth  and  cinders. 
 This  e.\traordinary  phaenomenon  excited  my  uncle's 
 philosophical  curiosity  to  take  a  nearer  view  of  it.  He 
 ordered  a  light  vessel  to  be  got  ready,  and  gave  me 
 the  liberty,  if  I  thought  proper,  to  attend  him.  I  rath- 
 er chose  to  continue  my  studies,  for,  as  it  had  hap- 
 pened, he  had  given  me  employment  of  that  kind. 
 As  he  was  coming  out  of  the  house,  he  received  a  note 
 from  Reclina,  the  wife  of  Bassus,  who  was  in  the  ut- 
 most alarm  at  the  imminent  danger  which  threatened 
 her;  for  the  villa  being  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Vesuvius,  there  was  no  way  to  escape  but  by  the  sea  ; 
 she  earnestly  entreated  him,  therefore,  to  come  co  her 
 assistance.  He  accordingly  changed  his  first  design, 
 and  what  he  began  with  a  philosophical,  he  pursued 
 with  a  heroic,  turn  of  mind.  He  ordered  the  galleys 
 to  put  to  sea,  and  went  himself  on  board  with  an  in- 
 tention of  assisting  not  only  Rectina,  but  several  oth- 
 ers ;  for  the  villas  stand  extremely  thick  on  that  beau- 
 tiful coast.  When  hastening  to  the  place  from  whence 
 others  fled  with  the  utmost  terror,  he  steered  his  di- 
 rect course  to  the  point  of  danger,  and  with  so  much 
 calmness  and  presence  of  mind  as  to  be  able  to  make 
 and  dictate  his  observations  upon  the  motion  and 
 figure  of  that  dreadful  scene.  He  was  now  so  nigh 
 the  mountain,  that  the  cinders,  which  grew  thicker  and 
 hotter  the  nearer  he  approached,  fell  into  the  ships, 
 together  with  pumice-slones,  and  black  pieces  of  burn- 
 ing rock.  They  were  likewise  in  danger,  not  only  of 
 being  aground  bv  the  sudden  retreat  of  the  sea,  but 
 also  from  the  vast  fragments  which  rolled  down  from 
 the  mountain,  and  obstructed  all  the  shore.  Here  he 
 stopped  to  consider  whether  he  should  return  back 
 again  ;  to  which  the  pilot  advising  him,  '  Fortune,'' 
 said  he,  '■  hefricnds  the  brave;  carry  me  to  Pomponi- 
 anus.^  Pomponianus  was  then  at  Slabiaa,  separated 
 by  a  gulf,  which  the  sea.  after  several  insensible  wind- 
 ings, forms  upon  the  shore.  He  had  already  sent  his 
 baggage  on  hoard  ;  for,  though  he  was  not  at  that  time 
 in  actual  danger,  yet.  being  within  the  view  of  it,  and, 
 indeed,  extremely  near,  if  it  should  in  the  least  increase, 
 he  was  determined  to  put  to  sea  as  soon  as  the  wind 
 should  change.  It  was  favourable,  however,  for  car- 
 rying my  uncle  to  Pomponianus,  whom  he  found  in 
 the  greatest  consternation.  He  embraced  him  with 
 eagerness,  encouraging  and  exhorting  him  to  keep  up 
 his  spirits  ;  and,  the  more  to  dissi[)ate  his  fears,  he  or- 
 dered the  baths  to  be  got  ready  with  an  air  of  com- 
 plete unconcern.  After  having  bathed,  he  sat  down 
 to  supper  with  great  cheerfulne.ss,  or,  at  least  (what  is 
 equally  heroic),  with  all  the  appearance  of  it.  In  the 
 mean  lime  the  eruption  from  Mount  Vesuvius  flamed 
 out  in  several  places  with  much  violence,  which  the 
 darkness  of  the  night  contributed  to  render  still  more 
 visible  and  dreadful.  But  my  uncle,  in  order  to  sooth 
 the  apprehensions  of  his  friend,  assured  him  it  was 
 only  the  burning  of  the  villages,  which  the  country 
 people  had  abandoned  to  the  flames.  After  this  he 
 1096 
 
 retired  to  rest,  and  it  is  most  cerU'.n  he  was  so  littlo 
 
 discomposed  as  to  fall  into  a  dc<?p  sleep;  for,  being 
 pretty  fat,  and  breathing  hard,  those  who  attended 
 without  actually  heard  bun  snore,  'i  he  court  which 
 led  to  his  apartment  being  now  almost  filled  with  stonea 
 and  ashes,  if  he  had  continued  there  any  time  longer, 
 it  would  have  been  impossible  for  him  to  have  made 
 his  way  out :  it  was  thought  proper,  therefore,  to  awa- 
 ken him.  He  got  up,  and  went  to  Pomponianus  and 
 the  rest  of  his  company,  who  were  not  unconcerned 
 enough  to  think  of  going  to  bed.  They  consulied  to- 
 gether whether  it  would  be  mo.'^t  prudent  to  trust  t« 
 the  houses,  which  now  shook  from  ^ide  to  side  witk 
 frequent  and  violent  concussions,  or  fly  to  the  opee 
 fields,  where  the  calcined  stones  atid  cinders,  though 
 light  indeed,  yet  fell  in  large  showers,  and  ibreatenea 
 destruction.  In  this  distress  they  resolved  for  the  fields, 
 as  the  less  dangerous  situation  of  the  two:  a  resolu- 
 tion which,  while  the  rest  of  the  company  were  hur- 
 ried into  it  by  their  fears,  my  uncle  embraced  upon 
 cool  and  deliberate  consideration.  They  went  out, 
 then,  having  pillows  tied  upon  their  heads  with  nap- 
 kins ;  and  this  was  their  whole  defence  against  the 
 storm  of  stones  that  fell  around  them.  It  was  now 
 day  everywhere  else,  but  there  a  deeper  darkness  pre- 
 vailed than  in  the  most  obscure  night  ;  which,  how- 
 ever, was  in  some  degree  dissipated  by  torches,  and 
 other  lights  of  various  kinds.  They  thought  proper  to 
 go  down  farther  upon  the  shore,  to  observe  if  they 
 might  safely  put  out  to  sea  ;  but  they  found  the  waves 
 still  running  extremely  high  and  boisterous.  There 
 my  uncle,  having  drunk  a  draught  or  two  of  cold  water, 
 threw  himself  down  upon  a  cloth  which  was  spread 
 for  him,  when  immediately  the  flames,  and  a  strong 
 smell  of  sulphur,  which  was  the  forerunner  of  them, 
 dispersed  the  rest  of  the  company,  and  obliged  him  to 
 rise.  He  raised  himself  up  with  the  assistance  of  two 
 of  his  servants,  and  instantly  fell  down  dead  ;  suffo- 
 cated, as  I  conjecture,  by  some  gross  and  noxious  va- 
 pour, having  always  had  weak  lungs,  and  being  fre- 
 quently subject  to  a  difficulty  of  breathing.  As  soon 
 as  it  was  light  again,  which  was  not  till  the  third  day 
 after,  his  body  was  found  entire,  and  without  any 
 marks  of  violence  upon  it,  exactly  in  the  same  posture 
 as  he  fell,  and  looking  more  like  one  asleep  than  dead." 
 {Flin.,  Ep.,  6,  16,  Melmoth's  Iransl.) — The  eruption 
 here  mentioned  is  evidently  the  one  of  which  many 
 historians  have  made  mention,  and  which,  occurring  in 
 the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Titus,  destroyed  the  cities 
 of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii, — The  younger  Pliny, 
 in  a  letter  to  Macer  (3,  5),  where  he  gives  a  list  of 
 his  uncle's  works,  states,  that  he  died  at  the  age  of 
 fifty-six  years.  We  cannot,  therefore,  comprehend 
 how  Sammonicus  Serenus,  and,  after  him,  Macrobius, 
 St.  Jerome,  and  St.  Prosper,  have  made  him  live  until 
 the  twelfth  year  of  the  reign  of  Trajan,  unless  they 
 have  confounded  together  the  uncle  and  nephew. — . 
 The  younger  Pliny  gives  an  interesting  account  of  his 
 uncle's  indefatigable  application.  "You  will  won- 
 der," he  observes,  in  another  of  his  letters,  "  bow  a 
 man  so  engaged  as  he  was  could  find  lime  to  com- 
 pose such  a  number  of  books,  and  some  of  them,  too, 
 upon  abstruse  subjects.  But  vour  surprise  will  rise 
 still  higher  when  you  hear  that  for  some  time  he  en- 
 gaged in  the  profession  of  an  advocate  ;  that  he  died  in 
 his  fifty-sixth  year  ;  that,  from  the  time  of  his  quitting 
 the  bar  to  his  death,  he  was  employed  in  the  highest 
 posts  and  in  the  service  of  his  prince.  But  he  had  a 
 quick  apprehension,  joined  to  unwearied  application. 
 In  summer  he  alwavs  began  his  studies  as  soon  as  it 
 was  night  ;  in  winter,  generally  at  one  in  the  morningj 
 but  never  later  than  two,  and  often  at  midnight.  No 
 man  ever  spent  less  time  in  bed,  insomuch  that  he 
 would  sometimes,  without  retiring  from  his  book,  take 
 a  short  sleep  and  then  pursue  his  studies.  After  a 
 short  and  light  repast  at  noon  (agreeably  to  the  good 
 
PLINIUS. 
 
 PLINIUS. 
 
 old  custom  of  our  ancestors),  he  would  frequently,  in 
 the  summer,  if  he  was  disengaged  from  business,  re- 
 pose himself  in  the  sun  ;  during  which  time  some  au- 
 thor was  read  to  him,  from  which  he  made  extracts 
 and  observations,  as,  indeed,  was  his  constant  method, 
 whatever  book  he  read  :  for  it  was  a  maxim  of  his, 
 that  '  no  book  was  so  bad  but  something  might  be 
 learned  from  it.'  When  this  was  over,  he  generally 
 went  into  the  cold  bath,  and,  as  soon  as  he  came  out 
 of  it,  just  took  some  slight  refreshment,  and  then  re- 
 posed himself  for  a  little  while.  Thus,  as  if  it  had 
 been  a  new  day,  he  immediately  resumed  his  studies 
 till  supper-time,  when  a  book  was  again  read  to  him, 
 upon  which  he  would  make  some  hasty  remarks.  I 
 remember  once,  his  reader  having  pronounced  some 
 word  wrong,  a  person  at  table  made  him  repeat  it 
 again,  upon  which  my  uncle  asked  his  friend  if  he  un- 
 derstood it.  The  other  acknowledging  that  he  did, 
 Wky,  then,  said  he,  ivould  you  make  him  go  back 
 again  1  We  have  lost  by  this  interruption  above  ten 
 lines :  so  covetous  was  this  great  man  of  his  time. 
 In  summer  he  always  rose  from  supper  by  daylight, 
 and  in  winter  as  soon  as  it  was  dark  :  and  this  was 
 an  invariable  rule  with  him.  Such  was  his  manner  of 
 life  amid  the  noise  and  hurry  of  the  city  ;  but  in  the 
 country  his  whole  time  was  devoted  to  study  without 
 intermission,  excepting  only  when  he  bathed.  But  in 
 this  exception  I  include  no  more  than  the  time  he  was 
 actually  in  the  bath,  for  all  the  time  he  was  rubbed 
 and  wiped  he  was  employed  either  in  hearing  some 
 book  read  to  him,  or  in  dictating  himself.  In  his 
 journeys  he  lost  no  time  from  his  studies;  but  his  mind 
 at  those  seasons  being  disengaged  from  all  other 
 thoughts,  applied  itself  wholly  to  that  single  pursuit. 
 A  secretary  constantly  attended  him  in  his  chariot, 
 who,  in  the  winter,  wore  a  particular  sort  of  warm 
 gloves,  that  the  sharpness  of  the  weather  might  not 
 occasion  any  interruption  to  his  studies  ;  and,  for  the 
 same  reason,  my  uncle  always  used  a  chair  in  Rome. 
 I  remember  he  once  reproved  me  for  walking  :  '  You 
 might,'  said  he,  'employ  those  hours  to  more  advan- 
 tage :'  for  he  thought  all  time  lost  not  given  to  study. 
 By  this  extraordinary  application  he  found  time  to 
 write  so  many  volumes,  besides  one  hundred  and  sixty 
 which  he  left  me,  consisting  of  a  kind  of  common- 
 place, written  on  both  sides,  in  a  very  small  character  ; 
 so  that  one  might  fairly  reckon  the  number  consider- 
 ably more."  {Cuvicr,  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  35,  p.  67, 
 seqq.)  The  best  edition  of  Pliny  is  that  forming  part 
 of  the  collection  of  Lemaire,  Pans,  1827-32,  11  vols. 
 8vo.  The  following  editions  are  also  valuable  :  that 
 of  Dalechamp,  Paris,  1587,  fol.  ;  that  of  Hardouin, 
 Paris,  1723,  3  vols.  fol.  (reprinted  with  additions  and 
 improvements  from  the  edition  of  1685,  in  5  vols. 
 4to) ;  and  more  particularly  that  of  Franzius,  Lips., 
 1778-91,  10  vols.  8vo.  There  is  also  a  French  trans- 
 lation, in  20  vols.  8vo.,  Paris,  1829-33,  by  De  Grand- 
 sagne,  with  annotations  by  some  of  the  most  eminent 
 scientific  men  in  France.  It  is  an  excellent  work. — 
 II.  C.  Plinius  Caecilius  Secundus,  surnamed,  for  dis- 
 tinction' sake,  the  "  Younger,"  was  born  at  or  near 
 Coinum,  about  the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Nero,  or 
 A.D.  61.  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  the  elder  Pliny  ; 
 and  as  he  lost  his  father,  Lucius  Caecilius,  at  an  early 
 age,  he  removed,  with  his  surviving  parent,  to  the 
 house  of  his  uncle.  Here  he  resided  for  some  years, 
 and,  having  been  adopted  by  his  uncle,  took  the  name 
 of  the  latter  in  addition  to  his  parental  one  of  Caecilius. 
 Pliny  the  younger  appears  to  have  been  of  a  delicate 
 constitution,  and  even  in  his  youlh  to  have  possessed 
 little  personal  activity  and  enter[)rise  ;  for,  at  the  time 
 of  the  famous  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  when  he  was  be- 
 tween seventeen  and  eighteen,  he  continued  his  stud- 
 ies at  home,  and  allowed  his  uncle  to  set  out  to  the 
 mountain  without  him.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that 
 the  latter  lost  his  life.  In  literature,  however,  the 
 6  Z 
 
 younger  Pliny  made  considerable  progress  even  at  an 
 early  age.  His  uncle  had  given  him  a  careful  educa- 
 tion ;  he  composed  a  Greek  tragedy  when  only  four- 
 teen, and  wrote  Latin  verses  on  several  occasions 
 throughout  his  life.  His  principal  attention,  however, 
 was  devoted  to  the  study  of  eloquence  ;  and  be  had 
 for  instructors  in  this  department  the  celebrated  Quin- 
 tilian,  and  others  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  the  day. 
 Pliny,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  was  nearly  eigh- 
 teen years  of  age  at  the  time  of  his  uncle's  death. 
 One  year  after  this  he  appeared  as  a  pleader  at  the 
 bar.  In  his  twentieth  year  he  served  as  a  tribune  in 
 Syria,  and  remained  eighteen  months  in  that  country. 
 On  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
 quaestors  of  the  emperor.  The  duties  of  these  func- 
 tionaries consisted  in  reading  to  the  senate  the  re- 
 scripts of  the  prince.  Not  long  after  he  became  tri- 
 bune of  the  people.  At  the  age  of  thirty  he  was  ap- 
 pointed praetor  ;  and  after  this  he  passed  several  years 
 in  retirement,  in  order  not  to  attract  the  notice  of 
 Domitian.  He  would  not,  however,  have  escaped  the 
 fate  which  threatened  all  the  eminent  men  of  the  day, 
 had  it  not  been  for  the  death  of  Domitian,  since  there 
 was  found  among  the  papers  of  the  latter  a  denuncia- 
 tion of  Pliny,  which  had  recently  been  sent  to  the  em- 
 peror. Nerva  and  Trajan  recalled  him  to  the  dis- 
 charge of  public  duties,  and  the  latter  prince  appoint- 
 ed him  administrator  of  the  public  treasury,  an  office 
 which  he  filled  for  the  space  of  two  years.  After  at- 
 taining to  the  high  offices  of  consul  and  augur,  Pliny 
 was  appointed  by  Trajan  to  the  government  of  Bithy- 
 nia,  a  province  in  which  many  abuses  existed,  and 
 which  it  required  a  man  of  ability  and  integrity  to  re- 
 move. {Epist.,  10,  41.)  Pliny  was  then  in  his  forty- 
 first  or  forty-second  year.  The  trust  so  honourably 
 committed  to  him  he  seems  to  have  discharged  with 
 great  fidelity  ;  and  the  attention  to  every  branch  of 
 his  duties,  which  his  letters  to  Trajan  display,  is  pecu- 
 liarly praiseworthy  in  a  man  of  sedentary  habits,  and 
 accustomed  to  the  enjoyments  of  his  villas,  and  the 
 stimulants  of  literary  glory  at  Rome.  He  remained  in 
 his  government  for  the  space  of  two  years,  and  it  was 
 during  this  period  (.^.D.  107)  that  he  wrote  his  cele- 
 brated letter  to  Trajan  respecting  the  Christians  in  his 
 province.  {Episl.,  10,97.)  This  letter,  and  the  em- 
 peror's reply,  furnish  numerous  important  testimonials 
 to  the  state  of  Christianity  at  that  early  day,  and  to 
 the  purity  of  Christian  principles.  —  The  period  of 
 Pliny's  death  is  quite  uncertain  ;  he  is  generally  sup- 
 posed, however,  to  have  ended  his  days  AD.  110,  in 
 the  forty-ninth  year  of  his  age. — His  character,  as  a 
 husband,  a  master,  and  a  friend,  was  affectionate,  kind, 
 and  generous.  He  displayed  also  a  noble  liberality  to- 
 wards Comum,  his  native  place,  by  forming  a  public 
 library  there,  and  devoting  a  yearly  sum  of  three  hun- 
 dred thousand  sesterces,  for  ever,  to  the  maintenance 
 of  children,  born  of  free  parents,  who  were  citizens  of 
 Comum. — A  man  like  Pliny,  of  considerable  talents  and 
 learning,  possessed  of  great  wealth,  and  of  an  amiable 
 and  generous  disposition,  was  sure  to  meet  with  many 
 friends,  and  with  still  more  who  would  gratify  his  van- 
 ity by  their  praises  and  apparent  admiration  of  his  abil- 
 ities. But  as  a  writer  he  has  done  nothing  to  entitle 
 him  to  a  very  high  place  in  the  judgment  of  posterity. 
 Still,  however,  no  Roman,  from  the  time  of  Cicero, 
 acquired  so  high  a  reputation  for  eloquence.  All  his 
 discourses,  however,  are  lost,  with  the  single  exce^. 
 tion  of  the  Panegyric  on  Trajan.  Phny,  having  been 
 appointed  consul,  addressed  to  the  emperor  a  discourse, 
 in  which  he  thanked  him  for  the  honour  bestowed,  and, 
 at  the  same  time,  eulogized  the  character  and  actions 
 of  the  prince.  It  was  delivered  in  open  senate,  and 
 was  then  enlarged  and  published.  {Epist.,  3,  18.) 
 This  production  belongs  to  a  class  of  compositions,  the 
 whole  object  of  which  was  to  produce  a  striking  effect, 
 and  It  must  not  aspire  to  any  greater  reward.     It  is  in- 
 
 1097 
 
PLO 
 
 PLU 
 
 genious  and  eloquent,  but  by  its  very  nature  affords 
 no  room  for  the  exercise  of  the  higher  faculties  of  the 
 mind  ;  nor  will  its  readers,  excepting  those  who  are 
 fond  of  historical  researches,  derive  from  it  any  more 
 substantial  benefit  than  the  pleasure  which  a  mere  el- 
 egant composition  can  impart.  To  those,  however, 
 who  are  curious  in  matters  of  history,  it  will  certainly 
 prove  interesting,  since,  although  it  only  covers  the 
 early  years  of  I'rajan's  sway,  it  nevertheless  furnishes 
 us  with  a  number  of  facts,  of  which  we  should  other- 
 wise be  ignorant ;  for  what  Suetonius  and  Tacitus  wrote 
 concerning  Trajan  is  lost,  as  is  the  case,  also,  with  this 
 same  portion  of  the  history  of  Dio  Cassius,  and  with 
 the  different  accounts  of  Trajan's  reign  that  are  cited 
 by  Lampridius,  in  his  life  of  Alexander  Severus. — 
 Pliny  is  also  known  to  modern  times  by  his  Letters. 
 These  consist  of  ten  books,  and  were  published  by 
 himself.  From  the  first  to  the  ninth  book  inclusive, 
 we  have  letters  addressed  to  individuals  of  all  descrip- 
 tions. The  tenth  book  contains  the  letters  and  reports 
 sent  by  Pliny  to  Trajan,  together  with  some  answers 
 of  that  prince.  The  Letters  of  Pliny  are  valuable  to 
 us,  as  all  original  letters  of  other  times  must  be,  be- 
 cause they  necessarily  throw  much  light  on  the  period 
 at  which  they  were  written.  But  many  of  them  are 
 ridiculously  studied,  and  leave  the  impression,  so  fatal 
 to  our  interest  in  the  perusal  of  such  compositions, 
 that  they  were  written  for  the  express  purpose  of  pub- 
 lication. Among  the  letters  of  Pliny  that  have  ob- 
 tained the  greatest  celebrity,  are  the  two  in  which  he 
 gives  an  account  of  the  elder  Pliny's  mode  of  life,  and 
 of  the  circumstances  connected  with  his  death  ;  two 
 others,  which  contain  a  description  of  villas  of  his  own  ; 
 and  one  in  which  he  gives  an  account  of  his  proceed- 
 ings against  the  Christians,  and  to  which  we  have  al- 
 ready referred.  The  authenticity  of  this  last-mention- 
 ed letter  has  been  attacked  by  Seinler,  an  eminent 
 German  divine  (Historiip,  EcclcsiasiiccE  Selecta  Capi- 
 ta, Hal.,  1767,  3  vols.  8vo. — Ncue  Vcrsuche  die  Kirch- 
 en-Historie  der  erslen  Jahrhundcrle  mehr  aufzukld- 
 ren,  Lcipz.,  1787,  8vo).  This  critic  maintains  that 
 the  letter  in  question  was  forged  by  TertuUian  ;  but 
 his  arguments,  if  they  deserve  the  name,  would  inval- 
 idate the  authority  of  almost  every  literary  monument 
 of  ancient  times  This  same  letter  of  Pliny's  gave 
 rise  to  an  absurd  legend  at  a  later  date,  according  to 
 which,  Pliny  havmg  met,  in  the  island  of  Crete,  with 
 Titus,  the  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  was  converted  by  him, 
 and  afterward  suffered  martyrdom. — The  design  of 
 writing  a  history,  which  Pliny  at  one  time  entertained, 
 be  never  carried  into  execution.  {Epist.,  5,  8.)  The 
 work  "  De  Vins  Illuslribus'^  has  been  erroneously 
 ascribed  to  him,  as  has  also  the  dialogue  "  De  Causis 
 corrup/m  el/]qu/:ntia:."  (MassoJi,  Vit.  Plin. — SchoU, 
 Hist.  LU.  Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  408,  scqq. — Bahr,  Gcsch. 
 Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  566,  setj.) — The  best  edition  of 
 Pliny  is  that  of  Lemaire,  Faris,  1823,  2  vols.  8vo. 
 It  is  the  edition  of  Cicsner,  improved  by  Schaeffer 
 {Lips  ,  1805,  8vo),  with  additions  l)y  Lemaire. 
 
 Plisthenes,  a  son  of  Atreus,  king  of  Argos,  fa- 
 ther of  Menelaus  and  Agamemnon.  (F«/.  Agamem- 
 non, and  Atrida}.) 
 
 Pf.oTiNopouis,  a  city  of  Thrace,  to  the  south  of 
 Hadrianopolis,  founded  and  named  in  honour  of  the 
 Empress  Plotina.  On  its  site,  at  a  later  period,  ap- 
 peared the  city  of  Didy  motichos,  now  Dcmotica.  {Itin. 
 Ant.,  322.— Procop.,  de  Aid.,  4,  11.) 
 
 Pt.OTCNirs,  a  philosopher  of  the  New-Platonic  school, 
 born  A.D.  205,  at  Lycopolis  in  P^gypt.  Nature  had 
 endowed  him  with  superior  parts,  particularly  with  an 
 extraorditiary  depth  of  understanding,  and  a  bold  and 
 vigorous  imagination.  He  early  manifested  these 
 abilities  in  the  school  of  Ammonius  at  Alcxandrea. 
 Subsequently  he  determined  to  accompany  the  army 
 of  Gordian  to  the  East,  in  order  to  study  the  Oriental 
 systems  on  their  native  soil.  He  returned  a  dreamer, 
 1098 
 
 perpetually  occupied  with  profound  but  extravagant 
 meditations,  labouring  to  attain  the  comprehension  of 
 the  absolute  by  contemplation  ;  a  notion  borrowed 
 from  Plato,  which  became  exaggerated  in  his  hands. 
 Carried  away  by  his  enthusiasm,  he  thought  that  he 
 was  developing  the  designs  of  the  philosopher  of  the 
 Academy,  when,  in  fact,  he  exhibited  his  thoughts  only 
 partially  and  incompletely.  The  impetuous  vivacity 
 of  his  temper,  which  caused  him  perpetually  to  fall  into 
 extravagances,  prevented  his  reducing  his  mystical 
 rationalism  to  a  system.  His  various  scattered  trea- 
 tises were  collected  by  Porphyry  in  six  Enneades. 
 Pie  died  in  Campania,  A.D.  270,  having  taught  at 
 Rome,  and  excited  the  almost  superstitious  veneration 
 of  his  disciples. — An  admirable  analysis  is  given  of 
 the  system  of  Plotinus  by  Tennemann,  though  occa- 
 sionally somewhat  obscure  in  its  details.  {Manual 
 of  the  History  of  Philosophy,  p.  187,  seqq.,  Johnsori's 
 tra7isl.)  The  best  edition  of  Plotinus  is  that  of  Creu- 
 zer,  Oxon.,  1835,  3  vols.  4to.  An  edition  of  the  trea- 
 tise De  Pulchritudine  was  published  in  1814,  8vo, 
 Lips.,  by  the  same  editor.  {Hoffmann,  Lex.  Bibiiogr., 
 vol.  3,  p.  336.) 
 
 Plutarchus,  one  of  the  most  generally  known  and 
 frequently  cited,  and  hence,  if  the  expression  be  al- 
 lowed, one  of  the  most  popular,  writers  of  antiquity. 
 He  was  a  native  of  Chseronea  in  Boeotia,  but  the  period 
 of  his  birth  is  not  exactly  ascertained.  Plutarch  him- 
 self informs  us,  that  he  was  studying  under  .Ammoni- 
 us, at  Delphi,  when  Nero  visited  Greece,  which  would 
 be  the  66th  year  of  our  era  ;  and  hence  we  may  con- 
 jecture that  he  was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  reign 
 of  Claudius,  about  the  middle  of  the  first  century. 
 Plutarch  belonged  to  an  honourable  family,  in  which  a 
 fondness  for  study  and  literary  pursuits  had  long  been 
 hereditary.  In  his  early  days  he  saw  at  one  and  the 
 same  time  his  father,  his  grandfather,  and  great  grand- 
 father in  being  ;  and  he  was  brought  up  under  this  in- 
 fluence of  ancient  manners,  and  in  this  sweet  family- 
 converse,  which  imparted  to  his  character  an  air  of  in- 
 tegrity and  goodness,  that  shows  itself  in  so  many  oi 
 his  numerous  writings.  In  the  school  of  Ammonius, 
 which  he  attended  when  still  quite  young,  and  where 
 he  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  a  descendant  of 
 Themistocles,  he  received  instruction  in  mathematics 
 and  philosophy.  Without  doubt,  he  carefully  attended 
 also,  under  able  instructors,  to  the  various  depart- 
 ments of  belles-lettres,  and  his  works  plainly  show 
 that  the  perusal  of  the  poets  had  supplied  his  memory 
 with  ample  materials.  It  appears  that,  while  still  quite 
 young,  he  was  employed  by  his  fellow-citizens  in  some 
 negotiations  with  neighbouring  cities.  The  same  mo- 
 tive led  him  to  Rome,  whither  all  the  Greeks  pos- 
 sessed of  any  industry  or  talent  had  been  accustomed 
 regularly  to  come  for  more  than  a  century,  to  seek 
 reputation  and  fortunes,  either  by  attaching  themselves 
 to  some  powerful  individuals,  or  by  giving  public  lec- 
 tures on  philosophy  and  eloquence.  Plutarch,  it  may 
 readily  be  supposed,  did  not  neglect  this  latter  mode 
 of  acquiring  celebrity.  He  himself  declares,  that  du- 
 ring his  sojourn  in  Italy,  he  could  not  find  time  to  be- 
 come sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  Latin  tongue, 
 by  reason  of  the  public  business  with  which  he  was 
 charged,  and  the  frequent  conferences  he  bad  with 
 educated  men  on  matters  of  a  philosophic  nature, 
 about  which  they  came  to  consult  him.  He  spoke, 
 he  professed  in  his  own  language  ;  according  to  the 
 privilege  which  the  Greeks  had  preserved  of  imposing 
 their  idiom  on  their  conquerors,  and  of  making  it  the 
 natural  language  of  philosophy  and  letters.  These 
 public  lectures,  these  declamations,  were  evidently 
 the  first  germe  of  the  numerous  moral  treatises  that 
 Plutarch  subsequently  composed.  The  philosopher  of 
 Chajronea  exercised  at  Rome  that  profession  of  soph- 
 ist, the  very  name  of  which  is  now  become  a  by- 
 word, and  the  mere  existence  of  which  seems  to  indi 
 
PLUTARCHUS. 
 
 PLUTARCHUS. 
 
 cate  the  decline  of  national  literature,  but  which  was 
 more  tiian  once  rendered  illustrious  at  Rome  by  great 
 talents  and  the  effects  of  persecution.  It  is  well 
 known,  that,  under  the  bad  emperors,  and  amid  tiie 
 universal  slavery  that  then  prevailed,  philosophy  was 
 the  only  asylum  to  which  liberty  fled  when  banished 
 from  the  forum  and  the  senate.  Philosophy,  in  earlier 
 days,  had  effected  the  ruin  of  the  republic  ;  it  was 
 then  only  a  vain  scepticism,  abused  to  their  own  bad 
 purposes  by  the  ambitious  and  the  corrupting.  Adopt- 
 ing a  better  vocation,  it  became,  at  a  later  period,  a 
 species  of  religion,  embraced  by  men  of  resolute  spirit; 
 they  needed  a  wisdom  that  might  teach  them  how  to 
 escape,  by  death,  the  cruelty  of  the  oppressor,  and  they 
 called,  for  this  purpose,  stoicism  to  their  aid.  Plutarch, 
 the  most  constant  and  the  most  contemptuous  opposer 
 of  the  Epicurean  doctrines  ;  Plutarch,  the  admirer  of 
 Plato,  and  a  disciple  of  his  in  the  belief  of  the  soul's 
 immortality,  of  divine  justice,  and  of  moral  good, 
 taught  his  hearers  truths,  less  pure,  indeed,  than  those 
 of  Christianity,  but  which,  nevertheless,  in  some  de- 
 gree adapted  themselves  to  the  pressing  wants  of  he- 
 roic and  elevated  minds. — It  is  not  known  whether 
 Plutarch  prolonged  his  stay  in  Italy  until  that  period 
 when  Domitian,  by  a  public  decree,  banished  all  phi- 
 losophers from  that  country.  Some  critics  liave  sup- 
 posed that  he  made  many  visits  to  Rome,  but  none 
 after  the  reign  of  this  emperor.  One  thing,  however, 
 appears  well  ascertained,  that  he  returned,  when  still 
 young,  to  his  native  country,  and  that  he  remained 
 there  for  the  rest  of  his  days.  During  this  his  long 
 sojourn  in  the  land  of  his  fathers,  Plutarch  was  con- 
 tinually occupied  with  plans  for  the  benefit  of  his 
 countrymen  ;  and,  to  give  but  a  single  instance  of  his 
 zeal  in  the  public  service,  he  not  only  filled  the  of- 
 fice of  archon,  the  chief  dignity  in  his  native  city, 
 but  even  discharged  with  great  e.\actness,  and  without 
 the  leasi  reluctance,  the  duties  of  an  inferior  office,  that 
 of  inspector  of  public  works,  which  compelled  him,  he 
 tells  us,  to  measure  tile,  and  keep  a  register  of  the 
 loads  of  stone  that  were  brought  to  him.  All  this  ac- 
 cords but  ill  with  the  statement  of  Suidas,  that  Plu- 
 tarch was  honoured  with  the  consulship  by  Trajan. 
 Such  a  supposition  is  contradicted  both  by  the  silence 
 of  history  and  the  usuages  of  the  Romans.  Another 
 and  more  recent  tradition,  which  makes  Plutarch  to 
 have  been  the  preceptor  of  Trajan,  appears  to  rest  on 
 no  better  foundation,  and  can  derive  no  support  what- 
 ever from  any  of  the  genuine  works  of  the  philosopher. 
 An  employment,  however,  which  Plutarch  does  seem 
 to  have  filled,  was  that  of  priest  of  Apollo,  which  con- 
 nected him  with  the  sacerdotal  corporation  at  Delphi. 
 The  period  of  his  death  is  not  known  ;  but  the  proba- 
 bility IS  that  he  lived  and  philosophized  until  an  advan- 
 ced age,  as  would  appear  both  from  the  tone  of  some 
 of  his  writings  and  various  anecdotes  that  are  related 
 of  him. — The  several  productions  of  this  writer  will 
 now  be  briefly  examined.  The  work  to  which  he  owes 
 his  chief  celebrity  is  that  which  bears  the  title  of  Bioi 
 napu?i.hjXui  {"-Parallel  Lives").  In  this  he  gives  bi- 
 ographical sketches  of  forty-four  individuals,  distin- 
 guished for  tlieir  virtues,  their  talents,  and  their  ad- 
 ventures, some  Greek,  others  Roman,  and  gives  them 
 in  such  a  way  that  a  Roman  is  always  compared  with 
 a  Greek.  Five  other  biographies  are  isolated  ones  ; 
 twelve  or  fourteen  are  lost.  The  five  isolated  lives 
 are  those  of  Arta.\erxes  Mnemon,  Aratus,  Galba,  Otho, 
 and  Homer,  though  this  last  is  probably  not  Plutarch's. 
 The  lives  that  have  perished  are  those  of  Epaminon- 
 das,  Scipio,  Augustus,  Tiberius,  (Caligula,  Claudius, 
 Nero,  Vitellius,  Hesiod,  Pindar,  Crates  the  Cynic, 
 Deiphaiitus,  .\ristomenes,  and  Aratus  the  poet. — Many 
 regard  the  Lives  of  Plutarch  as  models  of  biography. 
 The  principal  art  of  the  writer  consists  m  the  delinea- 
 tion of  character  ;  but  it  has  been  objected  to  him,  and, 
 it  w»  old  seem,  with  justice,  that  his  characters  are  all 
 
 of  a  piece ;  that  he  represents  his  heroes  either  as  com  ■ 
 pletely  enslaved  by  some  passion,  or  as  perfectly  virtu- 
 ous, and  that  he  has  not  been  able  to  depict  the  almost 
 infinite  variety  of  shades  between  vice  and  virtue 
 What  renders  the  perusal  of  these  biographies  partic- 
 ularly attractive,  is  our  seeing  his  personages  constant- 
 ly in  action  ;  we  follow  them  amid  public  affairs,  we 
 accompany  them  to  the  scenes  of  private  life,  to  the 
 interior  of  their  dwellings,  and  into  the  very  bosom  ol 
 their  families.  "  We  are  not  writing  histories,"  ob- 
 serves Plutarch  himself,  "  but  lives.  Neither  is  it  al- 
 ways in  the  most  distinguished  exploits  that  men's  vir- 
 tues and  vices  may  be  best  discerned  ;  but  frequently 
 some  unimportant  action,  some  short  saying  or  jest, 
 distinguishes  a  person's  real  character  more  than  fields 
 of  carnage,  the  greatest  battles,  or  the  most  important 
 sieges.  As  painters,  therefore,  in  their  portraits,  la- 
 bour the  likeness  in  the  face,  and  particularly  about 
 the  eyes,  in  which  the  peculiar  turn  of  mind  most  ap- 
 pears, and  run  over  the  rest  with  a  less  careful  hand, 
 so  must  we  be  permitted  to  strike  off  the  features  of 
 the  soul,  in  order  to  give  a  real  likeness  of  these  great 
 men,  and  leave  to  others  the  circumstantial  detail  of 
 their  toils  and  their  achievements."  (Vit.  Alex.,  c.  1.) 
 This  reasoning  of  Plutarch's  is  no  doubt  very  just,  but 
 it  supposes  that  the  writer  does  not  go  in  quest  of  an- 
 ecdotes, and  that  he  exercises  a  sound  and  rigid  crit- 
 icism in  the  selection  of  those  which  he  actually  re- 
 ceives. Such,  however,  is  not  the  case  with  Plu- 
 tarch.—  Another  defect  with  which  he  may  be  justly 
 charged,  is  the  having  entirely  neglected  the  order 
 of  chronology,  so  that  frequently  his  narrative  pre- 
 sents only  an  incoherent  mass  of  facts,  and  the  peru- 
 sal of  his  lives  leaves  behind  it,  at  times,  only  a 
 confused  impression.  On  tlie  other  hand,  the  Lives 
 of  Plutarch  contain  a  treasure  of  practical  philosophy, 
 of  morality,  and  of  sound  and  useful  maxims,  the 
 fruit  of  a  long  experience  :  indeed,  it  may  be  assert- 
 ed, that  oftentimes  these  Lives  are  only  so  many  his- 
 torical commentaries  on  certain  maxims.  Notwith- 
 standing all  their  faults,  however,  the  Lives  of  Plutarch 
 are  full  of  instruction  for  those  who  wish  to  become 
 well  acquainted  with  Greek  and  Roman  history,  since 
 the  author  has  drawn  from  many  sources  that  are 
 closed  upon  us.  He  cherished  an  ardent  love  for  lib- 
 erty, or,  rather,  democracy,  which  he  confounded  with 
 liberty,  and  he  has  been  reproached  with  allowing  him- 
 self, on  certain  occasions,  to  be  so  far  led  away  by  his 
 enthusiasm  as  to  mistake  for  heroism  a  forge ifuiii ess 
 of  the  sentiments  of  nature.  For  example,  though  he 
 would  seem  to  state  with  impartiality  the  difierent 
 sensations  produced  by  the  punishment  of  the  sons  of 
 Brutus,  and  the  assassination  of  the  brother  of  Timo- 
 ieon,  still  it  is  evident,  from  the  manner  in  which  he 
 expresses  himself,  that  he  approves  of  these  two  ac- 
 tions, and  that,  in  his  eyes,  the  authors  of  them  were 
 deserving  of  commendation,  and  free  from  all  reproach. 
 {Sainte-Croix,  Examen,  &c.,  p.  74,  2d  ed  )  Plu- 
 tarch, moreover,  is  not  even  entitled  to  the  praise  of 
 being  an  impartial  writer.  The  desire  of  showing  that 
 there  was  a  time  when  the  Greeks  vu-ere  superior  to 
 the  Romans,  pervades  all  his  recitals,  and  prejudices 
 him  in  favour  of  his  Grecian  heroes.  His  ignorance 
 of  the  Latin  tongue,  which  he  himself  avows  in  his 
 Lives  of  Demosthenes  and  Caio,  leads  him  into  va- 
 rious errors  relative  to  Roman  hi.-.tory.  His  style  has 
 neither  the  purity  of  the  Attic,  nor  the  noble  simplici- 
 ty which  distinguishes  the  classic  writers.  He  is 
 overloaded  with  erudition,  and  with  allusions  that  are 
 often  obscure  for  us.  —  An  able  examination  of  the 
 sources  whence  Plutarch  derived  the  materials  for  his 
 lives,  is  given  by  Heeren  (De  fontibux  el  aucloritale 
 vilarum  faraUelariim  Plntarchi  Commcntatwnes  IV., 
 Guttitig.,  1820,  8vo),  and  this  inquiry  becomes  indis- 
 pensably necessary  to  the  professed  scholar,  who  wishes 
 to  ascertain  the  degree  of  confidence  that  is  due  to  the 
 
 1099 
 
PLUTARCHUS. 
 
 PLU 
 
 biographical  sketches  of  Plutarch,  though  our  limits 
 forbid  our  entering  on  the  detail.  It  may  be  said,  in 
 a  few  words,  that  Plutarch,  in  the  composition  of  his 
 Lives,  consulted  all  the  existmg  historians  ;  that  he 
 did  not,  however,  blindly  follow  them,  but  weighed 
 their  respective  statements  in  the  balance  of  justice, 
 and,  when  their  accounts  were  contradictory,  adopted 
 such  as  seemed  to  him  most  probable. — The  other 
 historical  works  of  Plutarch  are  the  following:  1.  'Fu- 
 ua.Ka,  fj  Airiai  'Vufiaiaai.  ("  lioman  Questions"). 
 These  are  researches  on  certain  Roman  usages  :  for 
 example.  Why,  in  the  ceremony  of  marriage,  the  bride 
 is  required  to  touch  water  and  ttre  1  Why,  in  the  same 
 ceremony,  they  light  five  tapers  ]  Why  travellers,  who, 
 having  been  considered  dead,  return  eventually  home, 
 cannot  enter  into  their  houses  by  the  door,  but  must 
 descend  through  the  roof,  &,c. — 2.  'E?J^7iviku,  fj  At- 
 ricu,  'E?JiTiviKal  ("  Hellcnica,  or  Grecian  Ques- 
 tiotis").  We  have  here  similar  discourses  on  points  of 
 Grecian  antiquity.  —  3.  Hepi  7rapa'A?i7/Xuv  'EXXrjvi- 
 Kuv  Koi  'FuficuKcJv  ("  Parallels  drawn  from  Grecian 
 and  Roman  History").  In  order  to  show  that  certain 
 ev-ents  in  Grecian  history,  which  appear  fabulous,  are 
 entitled  to  full  confidence,  Plutarch  opposes  to  them 
 certain  analogous  events  from  Roman  history.  This 
 production  is  unworthy  of  Plutarch,  and  very  probably 
 supposititious.  It  possesses  no  other  merit  than  that 
 of  having  preserved  a  large  number  of  fragments  of 
 Greek  historians,  who  are  either  otherwise  unknown, 
 or  whose  works  have  not  come  down  to  us. — 4.  Hepl 
 Tf/(  'PG>/j.aiuv  Tvxn?  (■'  Of  the  Fortune  of  the  Ro- 
 mans").— 5.  and  6.  Two  discourses  nEpl  tt/c  'A/lef- 
 dvi^pov  Tvxvc  V  "pei'^f  ("  On  the  Fortune  or  Valour 
 of  Alexander").  In  one  of  these  Plutarch  undertakes 
 to  show  that  Alexander  owed  his  success  to  himself, 
 not  to  Fortune.  In  the  other,  he  attempts  to  prove,  that 
 his  virtues  were  not  the  offspring  of  a  blind  and  capri- 
 cious Fortune,  and  that  his  talents  and  the  resources  of 
 his  intellect  cannot  be  regarded  as  favours  bestowed 
 by  this  same  Fortune.  These  two  discourses  are  pre- 
 ceded by  one  (No.  4)  which  shows  the  true  object  of 
 the  others.  Plutarch,  in  this,  endeavours  to  prove, 
 that  the  Roman  exploits  are  less  the  effect  of  valour 
 and  wisdom,  than  the  result  of  the  influence  of  For- 
 tune ;  and,  among  the  favours  conferred  by  this  god- 
 dess, he  enumerates  the  unexpected  death  of  Alexan- 
 der, at  the  very  time  that  he  was  menacing  Italy  with 
 his  victorious  arms.  In  all  this  we  clearly  see  the 
 jealousy  and  vanity  of  the  Greeks,  who,  from  the  time 
 that  they  first  fell  under  the  Roman  yoke,  never  ceased 
 detracting  from  the  glory  of  this  republic,  and  ascribing 
 its  rapid  progress  to  some  blind  and  unknown  cause. 
 One  of  the  motives  that  induced  Polybius,  moreover, 
 to  write  his  history,  was  to  undeceive  his  countrymen 
 on  this  point,  and  prove  to  them  that  the  prosperity  of 
 Rome  was  owing,  not  to  the  caprices  of  Fortune,  but 
 to  good  conduct  and  valour. — 7.  HoTepov  'kdrjvaloL 
 Kara  noTiefiov  fj  Kara  aoijtiav  evSo^oTepoi ;  ('*  Wheth- 
 er the  Athenians  are  more  renowned  for  War  or  for 
 the  Sciences").  The  commencement  and  conclusion 
 are  wanting.  The  text  of  what  remains  of  this  piece 
 is  very  corrupt. — 8.  Uepl  '[olSoc  Kal  'Oaipido^  ("  Of 
 Isig  and  Osiris").  This  treatise  contains  a  number 
 of  very  curious  remarks  on  the  Egyptian  mythology, 
 but  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  that  very  one  of  the  works 
 of  Plutarch  in  which  his  want  of  critical  skill  is  most 
 apparent.  His  object  was  to  give  the  mythological 
 traditions  of  the  Egyptians  a  philosophical  sense,  in 
 order  to  justify  them  before  the  tribunal  of  reason. 
 Hence  this  treatise  can  only  be  employed  with  great 
 caution  in  studying  this  branch  of  ancient  mythology. 
 — 9.  'E-KLTOpLTj  rfig  avynptaeug  Vi.evavSpov  Kal  'kpta- 
 Tod/uvovg  ("  Abridgment  of  the  Comparison  between 
 Menander  and  Aristophanes").  An  extract,  probably, 
 Irom  some  lost  work  of  Plutarch's.  — 10.  Ilept  T?}f 
 'llpoSoTov  KUKorjOeiag  (''  Of  the  Malignity  of  Herodo- 
 
 uoo 
 
 tus").  From  a  mistaken  principle  of  patriotism,  Plu- 
 tarch here  attacks  the  veracity  of  Herodotus  as  an 
 historian.  The  latter  has  found  an  able  advocate  in 
 the  Abb6  Geinoz.  {Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.,  &c., 
 vols.  30,  36,  and  38. — 11.  Bt'of  tC)v  deKa  fjTj-iipuv 
 ("  Biography  of  the  ten  Orators").  This  work  is  evi- 
 dently supposititious.  Photius  has  inserted  it  in  his 
 Bibliotheca,  with  many  omissions  and  additions,  but 
 without  stating  that  it  was  written  by  Plutarch. 
 Hence  some  critics  have  ascribed  it  to  the  patriarch 
 himself.  This  piece,  however,  bears  the  stamp  of  an 
 age  much  earlier  than  that  of  Photius. — We  can  only 
 glance  at  the  philosophical,  or,  as  they  are  more  com- 
 monly called,  the  moral,  works  of  Plutarch.  He  was 
 not  a  profound  philosopher.  He  had  formed  for  him- 
 self a  peculiar  system,  made  up  from  the  opinions  of 
 various  schools,  but  particularly  from  those  of  Pla- 
 to and  the  Academicians,  which  he  has  sometimes 
 only  imperfectly  understood.  He  detested  the  doc- 
 trines of  Epicurus  and  the  Porch,  and  the  hatred  he 
 had  vowed  towards  their  respective  schools  renders 
 him  sometimes  unjust  towards  their  founders.  He 
 was  not  free  from  superstition,  and  he  pushed  to  ex- 
 cess his  devotion  towards  the  gods  of  paganism.  His 
 philosophical  or  moral  works  are  more  than  sixty  in 
 number.  They  are  full  of  information  as  regards  an 
 acquaintance  with  ancient  philosohpy ;  and  they  have 
 the  additional  merit  of  preserving  for  us  a  number 
 of  passages  from  authors  whose  works  have  perish- 
 ed. An  analysis  of  these  writings  is  given  by  Schbll 
 (Htst.  Lit.  Or.,  vol.  5,  p.  77,  segq.).  —  The  best  edi- 
 tions of  the  whole  works  of  Plutarch  are,  that  of 
 Reiske,  Lips.,  1774-82,  12  vols.  Svo  ;  that  of  Hutten, 
 Tubing.,  1796-98,  14  vols.  Svo,  and  that  forming 
 part  of  the  Tauchnitz  collection.  The  best  edition  of 
 the  Lives  alone  is  that  of  Coray,  Paris,  1809-15,  6 
 vols.  Svo  ;  and  the  best  edition  of  the  Moral  works  is 
 that  of  Wyttenbach,  Oxon.,  179.5,  6  vols.  4to,  and  12 
 vols   Svo 
 
 Pluto  (UIovtuv),  called  also  Hades  ("AiSrjc)  and 
 Aidoneus  {'M^uvevc),  as  well  as  Orcus  and  Dis,  was 
 the  brother  of  Jupiter  and  Neptune,  and  lord  of  the 
 lower  world,  or  the  abode  of  the  dead.  He  is  de- 
 scribed as  a  being  inexorable  and  deaf  to  supplication 
 — for  from  his  realms  there  is  no  return — and  an  object 
 of  aversion  and  hatred  to  both  gods  and  men.  (//.,  9, 
 158,  seq.)  All  the  latter  were  sure  to  be,  sooner  or 
 later,  collected  into  his  kingdom.  The  name  Hades 
 appears  to  denote  invisibility,  being  derived  from  a, 
 "  not,"  and  elSu,  "  to  see,"  and  significatory  of  the  na- 
 ture of  the  realm  over  which  he  bore  sway.  The  ap- 
 pellation of  Plulo  was  received  by  him  at  a  later  pe- 
 riod, and  would  seem  to  be  connected  with  the  term 
 TiXovTog,  "  wealth,"  as  mines  within  the  earth  are  the 
 producers  of  the  precious  metals.  This  notion  Voss 
 thinks  began  to  prevail  when  the  Greeks  first  visited 
 Spain,  the  country  most  abundant  in  gold.  {Mythol. 
 Briefe,  vol.  2,  p.  175.)  Heyne,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
 of  opinion  that  the  name  in  question  was  first  given 
 in  the  mysteries  {ad  Apollod.,  3,  12,  6).  It  is  em- 
 ployed occasionally  by  the  Attic  dramatists  {Soph., 
 Anlig.,  1200. — Eurip.,  Alcest.,  370.  —  Arislnph., 
 Plut.,  727),  and  it  became  the  prevalent  one  in  later 
 times,  when  Hades  came  to  signify  a  place  rather  than 
 a  person. — The  adventures  of  Pluto  were  few,  for  the 
 gloomy  nature  of  himself  and  his  realm  did  not  offer 
 much  field  for  such  legends  of  the  gods  as  Grecian 
 fancy  delighted  in  ;  yet  he  too  had  his  love-adventures. 
 The  tale  of  his  carrying  off  Proserpina  is  one  of  the 
 most  celebrated  in  antiquity.  (F?<i.  Proserpina.)  He 
 loved,  we  are  told,  and  carried  off  to  Erebus  the  ocean- 
 nymph  Leuce ;  and,  when  she  died,  he  caused  a  tree, 
 named  from  her  {Ievkji,  "  white  poplar"),  to  spring  up 
 in  the  Elysian  fields.  {Scrvius  ad  Virg.,  Eclog.,  7, 
 61.)  Another  of  his  loves  was  the  nymph  Mentha, 
 whom  Proserpina,  out  of  jealousy,  turned  into  the 
 
PLUTO. 
 
 PLU 
 
 plant  which  bears  her  name.  (Schol.  ad  Nicand.,  Al- 
 ex ,  374..  —  Oppia7i,  Hal.,  3,  486.  — Ovid,  Met.,  10, 
 730.) — Pluto,  Homer  tells  us,  was  once  wounded  in 
 the  shoulder  l)y  the  arrows  of  Hercules  ;  but,  from  the 
 eriibiguitv  of  the  phrase  used  by  the  poet  {ev  ttvTiu, 
 II,  5,  395),  it  is  ditFicuit  to  determine  the  scene  of  the 
 conflict.  Some  say  that  it  was  at  the  gate  of  the 
 nether  world,  wlien  the  hero  was  sent  to  drag  the  dog 
 of  Hades  to  the  realms  of  day.  {Schol.  ad  11. ,  I.  c. — 
 Hcyne  ad  II.,  I.  c— Schol.  ad  Od  ,  11,  605  )  Others 
 maintain  that  it  was  in  Pylos,  where  the  god  was  aid- 
 ing his  worshippers  against  the  son  of  Jupiter.  {Apol- 
 lod,  2,  7,  3.—Pausan.,  6,  2b.— Find.,  01.,  9,  50.— 
 Schol.  ad  Find.,  I.  c.)  Heyne,  Miiiler,  and  Buttmann 
 are  m  favour  of  this  sense  of  the  phrase. — The  region 
 over  which  Pluto  presided  is  represented  in  the  Iliad 
 and  m  the  Theogony  as  being  within  the  earth.  (//., 
 3,  278.— /A.,  9,  568.— /A.,  20,  61— 76,  23,  100.— 
 Theofr.,  455,  767.)  In  the  Odyssey  it  is  placed  in 
 the  dark  region  beyond  the  stream  of  Ocean.  (0(i., 
 10,  508. — lb.,  11,1.)  Its  name  is  Erebus,  with  which 
 the  appellation  Hades  became  afterward  synonymous. 
 The  poets  everywhere  describe  it  as  dreary,  dark,  and 
 cheerless.  The  dead,  without  distinction  of  good  or 
 evd,  age  or  rank,  wander  there,  conversing  about  their 
 former  stale  on  earth  :  they  are  unhappy,  and  they  feel 
 their  wretched  state  acutely.  They  have  no  strength, 
 or  power  of  mind  or  body.  Some  few,  enemies  of 
 th»  gods,  such  as  Sisyphus,  Tityus,  Tantalus,  are  pun- 
 ished for  their  crimes,  but  not  apart  from  the  rest  of 
 the  dead.  Nothing  can  be  more  gloomy  and  com- 
 fortless than  the  whole  aspect  of  the  realm  of  Hades 
 as  pictured  by  Homer.  —  In  process  of  time,  when 
 communication  with  Egypt  and  Asia  had  enlarged  the 
 sphere  of  the  ideas  of  the  Greeks,  the  nether  world 
 underwent  a  total  change.  It  was  now  divided  into 
 two  separate  regions :  Tartarus,  which,  in  the  time 
 of  Homer  and  Hesiod,  was  thought  to  lie  far  beneath 
 it,  and  to  be  the  prison  of  the  Titans,  became  one  of 
 these  regions,  and  the  place  of  punishment  for  wick- 
 ed men  ;  and  Elysium,  which  lay  on  the  shore  of 
 the  stream  of  Ocean,  the  retreat  of  the  children  and 
 relatives  of  the  king  of  the  gods,  was  moved  down 
 thither  to  form  the  place  of  reward  for  good  men.  A 
 stream  encompassed  the  domains  of  Hades,  over  which 
 the  dead,  on  paving  their  passage-money  {vavAov), 
 were  ferried  by  Charon.  The  three-headed  dog  Cer- 
 berus guarded  the  entrance  ;  and  the  three  judges,  Mi- 
 nos, ^fCacus,  and  Rhadamanthus,  allotted  his  place  of 
 bliss  or  of  pain  to  each  of  the  dead  who  was  brought 
 before  their  tribunal.  This  idea  is  probably  founded 
 on  the  passage  in  the  Odyssey  (11,  56iS)  where  the 
 hero  says  he  saw  Minos  judging  in  Erebus  ;  but,  ac- 
 cording to  the  earlier  belief,  he  only  judged  there  as 
 Orion  hunted  ;  in  other  words,  he  pursued  the  same 
 occupation  as  on  earth.  According  to  the  fine  myth 
 in  Plato  {Gorgias,  p.  523),  .Eacus  and  Rhadaman- 
 thus sit  at  the  point  in  the  mead  where  the  path  branch- 
 es oft"  to  the  Islands  of  the  Blessed  and  to  Tartarus  (com- 
 pare Virir.,  ASn.,  6,  540);  the  former  judging  the 
 dead  from  Europe,  the  latter  those  from  Asia.  If  any 
 case  proves  too  difficult  for  them,  it  is  reserved  for 
 the  decision  of  Minos. — The  River  of  Oblivion  (6  rr/f 
 "kJ/Oi^q  TiOTttfin^)  was  added  to  those  of  Homer's  trans- 
 Oceanic  region  (Acheron,  Pyriphlegethon,  and  Cocy- 
 tus),  and  the  dead  were  led  to  drink  of  its  waters  pre- 
 vious to  their  returning  to  animate  other  bodies  on 
 earth.  In  the  sixth  book  of  Virgil's  ^Eneid  will  be 
 found  the  richest  and  fullest  description  of  the  new- 
 modified  under-world,  and  for  those  who  love  to  trace 
 the  progress  and  change  of  ideas,  it  will  not  be  an  un- 
 interesting employment  to  compare  it  with  that  in  the 
 seventh  book  of  Homer's  Odyssey. — In  readimr  the 
 "portentous  falsehoods"  (Loieci-,  Aglaojih.,  p.  811) 
 of  the  Egyptian  priests  on  this  subject,  one  is  at  a  loss 
 which  most  to  wonder  at,  their  audacity,  or  the  credu- 
 
 lity of  the  Greeks.  For  the  former  asserted,  and  the 
 latter  believed,  that  Orpheus  and  Homer  had  both 
 learned  wisdom  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  ;  and  that 
 the  Erebus  of  Greece,  and  all  its  parts,  personages, 
 and  usages,  were  but  transcripts  of  the  mode  of  burial 
 in  Egypt.  Here  the  corpse  was,  on  payment  of  a  piece 
 of  money,  conveyed  by  a  ferryman  (named  Charon  in 
 the  language  of  Egypt)  over  the  Acherusian  lake,  after 
 it  had  received  its  sentence  from  the  judges  appointed 
 for  that  purpose.  Oceanus  was  but  the  Egyptian 
 name  for  the  Nile  ;  the  Gates  of  the  Sun  were  merely 
 those  of  Heliopolis;  and  Hermes,  the  conductor  of 
 souls,  was  familiar  to  the  Egyptians  ;  and  thus  they 
 boldly  and  falsely  appropriated  to  themselves  all  the 
 mythic  ideas  of  Greece  ! — It  is  worthy  of  notice,  with 
 what  unanimity  the  early  races  of  men  placed  the 
 abode  of  departed  souls  either  beneath  the  earth  or  in 
 the  remote  regions  of  the  West.  The  former  notion 
 owes  its  origin,  in  all  probability,  to  the  simple  cir- 
 cumstance of  the  mortal  remains  of  man  being  depos- 
 ited by  most  nations  in  the  bosom  of  the  earlh ;  and 
 the  habits  of  thinking  and  speaking  which  thence  aroac, 
 led  to  the  notion  of  the  soul  also  being  placed  in  a  re- 
 gion within  the  earth.  The  calmness  and  stillness  of 
 evening  succeeding  the  toils  of  the  day,  the  majesty 
 of  the  sun  sinking,  as  it  were,  to  rest  amid  the  glories 
 of  the  western  sky,  exert  a  powerful  influence  over  the 
 human  mind,  and  lead  us  almost  insensibly  to  picture 
 the  West  as  a  region  of  bliss  and  tranquillity.  The 
 idea  of  its  being  the  abode  of  the  departed  good  was 
 therefore  an  obvious  one.  Finally,  the  analogy  of  the 
 conclusion  of  the  day  and  the  setting  of  the  sun  with 
 the  close  of  life,  may  have  led  the  Greeks,  or,  it  may 
 be,  the  Phoenicians,  to  place  the  dwelling  of  the  dead 
 in  general  in  the  dark  land  on  the  western  shore  of 
 Ocean. — Hades,  we  are  told  by  Homer,  possessed  a 
 helmet  which  rendered  its  wearer  invisible  ;  it  was 
 forged  for  him  by  Vulcan,  the  later  writers  say,  in  the 
 time  of  the  war  against  the  Titans.  Minerva  wore  it 
 when  aiding  Diomede  against  Mars  (II.,  5,  845). 
 When  Perseus  went  on  his  expedition  against  the 
 Gorgons,  the  helm  of  invisibility  covered  his  brow. 
 {Apollod.,\,  6,2.) — By  artists  the  god  of  the  lower 
 world  was  represented  similar  to  his  brothers,  but  he 
 was  distinguished  from  them  by  his  gloomy  and  rigid 
 mien.  (Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  89,  seqq.)  Pluto 
 had  a  temple  at  Rome  under  the  title  of  Sunimaims, 
 dedicated  to  him  during  the  war  with  Pyrrhus.  (  Ovid, 
 Fast.,  6,  731.)  The  cypress,  the  narcissus,  the  adi- 
 anthus,  and  the  thighs  of  victims,  were  sacred  to  him  ; 
 black  animals  were  sacrificed  to  him,  such  as  black 
 oxen  and  sheep.  (TibulL,  3,  5,  33.)  His  title  Sum- 
 manus  was  given  to  him  as  being  surnmus  manium. ; 
 but  Ovid  questions  whether  this  deity  was  the  same 
 as  Pluto.     (Fuss,  Rom.  Ant.,  p.  360.) 
 
 Plutus,  son  of  lasion  or  lasius,  by  Geres,  the  god- 
 dess of  corn,  has   been  confounded   by  many  of  the 
 mythologists  with  Pluto,  though  plainly  distinguished 
 from  him  as  being  the  god  of  riches.      He  was  brought 
 up  by  the  goddess  of  peace,  and,  on  that  account.  Pax 
 was  represented  at  .Athens  as  holding  the  god  of  wealth 
 in  her  lap.     The  ancients  represented  him  as  blind, 
 and  bestowing  his  favours  indiscriminately  on  the  good 
 and  bad.      He  ai)pears  as  an  actor  in  the  comedy  of 
 .Aristophanes  called  after  his  name,  and  also  bears  a 
 part  in  the  Timon  of  Lucian.     The  Greek  form  lITiov 
 Tog  means  "  tcealt.h.''''     The  popular  belief  among  ih' 
 ancients  assigned  him  a  dwelling-place  in  the  subter 
 ranean  regions  of  Spain,  a  country  famed  for  its  pre 
 cious  metals.      Phsdrus  relates,  in  one  of  his   fables 
 that  when  Hercules  was  received  into  heaven,  and  wa( 
 saluting  the  gods  who  thronged  around  with  their  con 
 gratulations,  he   turned  away  his   look  when   Plutu) 
 drew  near,  assigning  as  a  reason  for  this  to  Jupiter, 
 who  inquired  the  cause  of  his  strange  conduct,  tha' 
 he  hated  Plutus  because  he  was  the  friend  of  the  bad, 
 
 1101 
 
POD 
 
 POL 
 
 and,  besides,  corrupted  both  good  and  bad  with  his 
 gifts.  The  fable  is  borrowed,  with  some  slight  alter- 
 ation, from  the  Greek      {Vhmdr.,  fah.,  4,  12.) 
 
 PluvIos,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  as  god  of  rain.  He 
 was  invoked  by  that  name  among  the  Romans,  when- 
 ever the  earth  was  parched  up  by  continual  heat,  and 
 was  in  want  of  refreshing  showers.     {TibulL,  1,8,26.) 
 
 Pnyi,  the  place  of  public  assembly  at  Athens,  es- 
 pecially during  elections,  so  called  from  the  crowds  ac- 
 customed to  assemble  therein  (utto  tov  neTrvKi'MaOac). 
 The  Pnyx  was  situate  on  a  low  hill,  sloping  down  to 
 the  north,  at  the  western  verge  of  the  city,  and  at  n 
 quarter  of  a  mile  to  the  west  of  the  Acropolis.  It  was 
 a  large  semicircular  area,  of  which  the  southern  side, 
 or  diameter,  was  formed  by  a  long  line  of  limestone 
 rock,  hewn  so  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  a  verti- 
 cal wall,  in  the  centre  of  which,  and  projecting  from 
 it,  was  a  solid  pedestal,  carved  out  of  the  living  rock, 
 ascended  by  steps,  and  based  upon  seats  of  the  same 
 material.  This  was  the  celebrated  Bema,  fiom  which 
 the  orators  addressed  the  people.  The  lowest  or  most 
 northern  part  of  the  semicircular  curve  was  supported 
 by  a  terrace  wall  of  polygonal  blocks.  ( Wordsiiwrth's 
 Greece,  p.  150. — Arisioph.,  Acharn.,  20. — Jul.  Poll., 
 8,  10.) 
 
 PoDALiRius,  son  of  .iEsculapius  and  Epione,  and  a 
 celebrated  physician  of  antiquity.  Xenophon  calls 
 him  and  his  brother  Machaon  pupils  of  Chiron  the 
 centaur  {Cynegei.,  1,  14),  an  assertion  which  Aris- 
 tides  takes  the  unnecessary  trouble  of  refuting.  ( Oral, 
 in  Asclepiad.,  vol.  1,  p.  76,  cd.  Cant.)  The  two 
 brothers  were  also  distinguished  for  eloquence,  and  for 
 their  acquaintance  with  the  military  an.  {Xen.,  I  c.) 
 According  to  Quintus  Calaber,  Machaon  was  the  elder, 
 and  also  instructed  Podalirius.  (Paralipom.,  Horn., 
 8,  60.)  They  were  both  present  at  the  siege  of  Troy, 
 and  made  themselves  so  conspicuous  by  then  valour, 
 that  Homer  ranks  them  among  the  P-st  of  the  Gre- 
 cian heroes.  Their  skill  in  the  hpuling  art  was  also 
 highly  serviceable  to  the  wcun''.2d,  and  they  were  at 
 last  excused  from  the  fight,  ind  from  all  the  fatigues 
 af  war,  in  order  to  have  more  time  to  attend  to  those 
 ivho  were  injured.  O".  bis  return  from  Troy,  Poda- 
 Irius  was  driven  bv  a  tempest  to  the  coast  of  Caria, 
 vhere  he  cither  pottl'.d  in,  or  founded,  the  city  of  Syr- 
 na,  calldd  by  ".ome  Syrus.  (Pausan.,  3,  26. — Siebe- 
 \ts,  ad  hc.^  Tlie  more  common  account  is  in  favour 
 ■A  his  having  founded  the  place,  and  he  is  said  to  have 
 -ailed  it  after  Syrna,  the  daughter  of  Damoetas,  king 
 jf  the  ccdntry.  He  had  cured  her,  it  seems,  of  the 
 •'Ficls  of  a  fall  from  the  roof  of  a  mansion,  by  bleeding 
 ^^er  in  both  arms  at  the  moment  when  her  life  was 
 despaired  of;  and  he  received  her  in  marriage,  to- 
 gether with  the  sovereignty  of  the  Carian  Chersonese. 
 (Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  l,vpva.)  This  story  furnishes  the 
 first  instance  of  a  physician's  having  practised  bleed- 
 ing, at  least  among  the  Greeks.  {Sprcngcl,  Hist,  de 
 la  Med.,  vol.  1,  p.  131.)  Another  account  makes 
 Podalirius  to  have  been  assassinated  on  the  coast  of 
 Ausonia,  in  the  territory  of  the  Daunians,  in  Italy,  and 
 to  have  been  worshipped  after  death  under  the  name 
 of  voouv  uKearri^,  "  healer  of  diseases."  {Lycophr., 
 1046,  seqq.)  Strabo,  moreover,  says,  that  the  tomb 
 of  Podalirius  was  to  be  seen  at  the  distance  of  100 
 stadia  from  the  sea,  in  the  country  of  the  Daunians. 
 {Sirab.,  436.) 
 
 PooARCEs,  I.  the  first  name  of  Priam.  When  Troy 
 was  taken  by  Hercules,  he  was  redeemed  from  slavery 
 by  his  sister  Hesione,  and  thence  received  the  name 
 of  Priam.  (F((i.  Priamus.)— II.  The  son  of  Iphiclus, 
 of  Thessaly,  and  brother  of  Protesilaus.  He  went 
 with  twenty  ships  to  the  Trojan  war,  and,  after  his 
 brother's  death,  commanded  both  divisions,  amounting 
 to  forty  vessels.  (Horn.,  II.  2,  698,  segq. — Eustath., 
 ad  loc. — Muncker,  ad  Hygin,fab.,  97.) 
 
 PoDARGE,  one  of  the  Harpies,  mother  of  two  of  the 
 1102 
 
 horses  of  Achilles  by  the  wind  Zephyrus.  (Horn.,  II., 
 16,  150. — Consult  Hcyne,  Excurs.,  ad  loc.)  '\'\i& 
 name  implies  swiftness  of  feet  (from  irovg,  "  a  foot,'" 
 aod  dp/cif,  "  swift.") 
 
 PcEAS,  the  father  of  Philoctetes.  The  son  is  hence 
 cilled  "  Pccantm  proles'^  by  Ovid.     (Met.,  13,  45.) 
 
 PcEciLE,  a  celebrated  portico  at  Athens,  which  re- 
 r^ived  its  name  from  the  paintings  with  which  it  was 
 adorned  {iruiKi'Krj  arou,  from  tt-oikiXoc,  "  diversified"). 
 ItR  more  ancient  name  is  said  to  have  been  Peisianac- 
 tlus.  (Diog.  Laert.,  Vit.  Zen. —  Plin.,  Vit.  dm.) 
 The  pictures  were  by  Polygnotus,  Micon,  and  Pam- 
 pbilus,  and  represented  the  battle  between  Theseus 
 and  the  Amazons,  the  contest  at  Marathon,  and  other 
 achievements  of  the  Athenians.  (Pavsan.,  1,  15. — 
 Diog.  Lacrt.,  I.  c. — Plin.,  35,  9 — jEtian,  Hist.  An., 
 7,  28.)  Here  were  suspended  also  the  shields  of  the 
 Scioneans  of  Thrace,  and  those  of  the  Lacedaemonians 
 taken  in  the  island  of  Sphacteria.  (Pavsan.,  1,  15.) 
 It  was  in  this  portico  that  Zeno  first  opened  his  school, 
 which  was  hence  denominated  the  "  Stoic."  (The 
 "  school  of  the  porch,"  from  arod.)  No  less  than  1500 
 citizens  of  Athens  are  said  to  have  been  destroyed  by 
 the  thirty  tyrants  in  the  Pcecile.  {Diog.  Laert ,  I.  c. 
 —  Isocr.,  Arcop. — .Sischin.,  de  Fals.  Leg.)  Colonel 
 Leake  supposes  that  some  walls,  which  are  still  to  be 
 seen  at  the  church  of  Panaghm  Fanaromeni,  are  the 
 remains  of  this  celebrated  portico.  {Topography  of 
 Athens,  p.  118. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p. 
 318.) 
 
 PcENi,  a  name  common  to  both  the  Phoenicians  and 
 Carthaginians.  (Consult  remarks  under  the  article 
 Phoenicia,  page  1049,  col.  2,  near  the  end.) 
 
 PoGON,  a  name  given  to  the  harbour  of  Troezene 
 from  its  shape,  being  formed  by  a  curved  strip  of  land 
 which  resembled  a  beard  (Trwywv) :  hence  arose  the 
 proverbial  joke,  nT^evaeia^  elc  TpoiCfjva,  which  was  ad- 
 dressed to  those  whose  chins  were  but  scantily  pro- 
 vided. (Adag.  Grccc.  Zenob.)  This  port  was  for- 
 merly so  capacious  as  to  contain  a  large  fleet.  We 
 are  told  by  Herodotus  that  the  Greek  ships  were  order- 
 ed to  assemble  there  prior  to  the  battle  of  Salamis 
 {(j  42. — Strab.,  273).  At  present  it  is  shallow,  ob- 
 structed by  sand,  and  accessible  only  to  small  boats. 
 {DodiceU,  vol.  2,  p.  ^(SS.— Chandler,  vol.  2,  p.  263.— 
 Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  266.) 
 
 PoLA,  a  town  of  Istria,  on  the  western  coast,  near 
 the  southern  extremity,  or  Promontorium  Polaticum. 
 It  still  preserves  its  name  unchanged.  Tradition  re- 
 ported it  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Colchians,  whom 
 .^etes  had  sent  in  pursuit  of  the  Argonauts.  It  be- 
 came afterward  a  Roman  colony,  and  took  the  name 
 of  Pietas  Julia.  {Pliny,  3,  19.— Me/a,  2,  4.— Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  136.) 
 
 PoLEMARCHUs.      Vid.  Archon. 
 
 PoLEMON,  I.  an  Athenian  of  good  family,  who  in 
 his  youth  was  addicted  to  infamous  pleasures.  The 
 manner  in  which  he  was  reclaimed  from  his  licentious 
 course  of  life,  and  brought  under  the  discipline  of  phi- 
 losophy, afilbrds  a  memorable  example  of  the  power  of 
 eloquence  when  it  is  employed  in  the  cause  of  virtue. 
 As  he  was  one  morning,  about  the  rising  of  the  sun, 
 returning  home  from  the  revels  of  the  night,  clad  in  a 
 loose  robe,  crowned  with  a  garland,  strongly  perfumed 
 and  intoxicated  with  wine,  he  passed  by  the  school  of 
 Xenocrates,  and  saw  him  surrounded  by  his  disciples. 
 Lnable  to  resist  so  fortunate  an  opportunity  of  indulging 
 his  sportive  humour,  he  rushed,  without  ceremony,  into 
 the  school,  and  took  his  place  among  the  philosophers. 
 The  whole  assembly  was  astonished  at  this  rude  and 
 indecent  intrusion,  and  all  but  Xenocrates  discovered 
 signs  of  resentment.  The  philosopher,  however,  pre- 
 served the  perfect  command  of  his  countenance  ;  and, 
 with  great  presence  of  mind,  turned  his  discourse  from 
 the  subject  on  which  he  was  lecturing  to  the  topics  of 
 temperance  and  modesty,  which  he  recommended  with 
 
POLEMON. 
 
 POL 
 
 so  much  strength  of  argument  and  energy  o'  \an- 
 guage,  that  Polemon  was  constrained  to  yield  to  the 
 force  of  conviction.  Instead  of  turning  Xenocrates 
 and  his  doctrnie  to  ridicule,  he  became  sensible  of 
 the  folly  of  his  former  conduct,  was  heartily  ashamed 
 of  the  contemptible  figure  which  he  made  in  so  re- 
 spectable an  assembly,  took  his  garland  from  his  head, 
 concealed  his  naked  arm  under  his  cloak,  assumed  a 
 sedate  and  thoughtful  aspect,  and,  in  short,  resolved 
 from  that  hour  to  relinquish  his  licentious  pleasures, 
 and  to  devote  himself  to  the  pursuit  of  wisdom.  Thus 
 was  this  young  man,  by  the  powerful  energy  of  truth 
 and  eloquence,  converted  from  an  infamous  liber- 
 tine to  a  respectable  philosopher.  In  such  a  sudden 
 change  of  character,  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  passing 
 from  one  extreme  to  another.  Polemon,  after  his  ref- 
 ormation, in  order  to  brace  up  his  mind  to  the  tone  of 
 rigid  virtue,  constantly  practised  the  severest  austerity 
 and  most  hardy  fortitude.  From  the  thirtieth  year  of 
 his  age  to  his  death  he  drank  nothing  but  water. 
 When  he  suffered  violent  pain,  he  showed  no  exter- 
 nal sign  of  anguish.  In  order  to  preserve  his  mind 
 undisturbed  by  passion,  he  habituated  himself  to  speak 
 in  a  uniform  tone  of  voice,  without  elevation  or  de- 
 pression. The  austerity  of  his  manners,  however, 
 was  tempered  with  urbanity  and  generosity.  He  was 
 fond  of  solitude,  and  passed  much  of  his  time  in  a 
 garden  near  his  school.  He  died  at  an  advanced 
 age,  of  consumption.  Of  the  tenets  of  Polemon  lit- 
 tle is  said  by  the  ancients,  because  he  strictly  adhered 
 to  the  doctrine  of  Plato.  The  direction  of  the  Acad- 
 emy devolved  upon  him  after  the  death  of  Xenocrates. 
 He  IS  said  to  have  taught  that  the  world  is  God  ;  but 
 this  was,  doubtless,  according  to  the  Platonic  system, 
 which  made  the  soul  of  the  world  an  inferior  divinity. 
 (Diog.  Lacrl.,  4,  \&.—Sidil.,  s.  v. — Val.  Max,  6,  9. 
 — Cic,  de  Fin.,  4,  6.  —  AlheiuBus,  2,  p.  44.  —  Slob., 
 Eclog.  Phys.,  1,  3.  —  Enfield's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  247,  seq.) — II.  A  son  of  Zeno  of  Apamea,  made 
 king  of  Pontus  by  Antony,  after  the  latter  had  de- 
 posed Darius,  son  of  Pharnaces.  (Appian,  Bell.  Civ., 
 5,  75.)  This  person,  who  had  the  art  to  ingratiate 
 himself  alike  with  Antony,  Augustus,  and  Agrippa, 
 was  made  king  of  that  eastern  part  of  Pontus,  named 
 Polemoniacus  after  him  He  was  killed  in  an  expe- 
 dition against  some  barbarians  of  Sindice,  near  the 
 Palus  Ma;otis  ;  but  his  widow,  Pythodoris,  was  reign- 
 ing in  his  stead  at  the  time  that  Strabo  wrote  his  Ge- 
 ography. (Slrab.,  556.  578.— Deo  Cass.,  53,  25.— 
 Id.,  54,  24.)  —  III.  Son  and  successor  of  the  pre- 
 ceding, was  placed  on  the  throne  by  Caligula,  and 
 had  his  dominions  afterward  enlarged  by  Claudius 
 with  a  portion  of  Cilicia.  Nero  eventually  converted 
 Pontus  into  a  Roman  firovince.  {Suet.,  Vit.  Ner.,  18. 
 —  Crusiu.i,  ad  loc.) — IV.  Antonius,  a  celebrated  soph- 
 ist and  public  speaker,  in  the  second  century  of  our 
 era.  He  was  a  native  of  Laodicea  on  the  Lycus,  and 
 of  a  consular  family,  and  was  held  in  high  esteem  by 
 Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius.  Polemon  spent 
 the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  Smyrna,  where  he  opened 
 a  school  of  rhetoric,  and  was  sent  on  several  occasions 
 as  ambassador  to  Hadrian.  He  accumulated  a  large 
 fortune  by  his  oratorical  talents,  but  made  many  ene- 
 mies by  his  excessive  haughtiness.  He  became  a 
 great  sufferer  by  the  gout,  and  at  the  age  of  fifty-six 
 years,  having  become  disgusted  with  life  on  account 
 of  the  tortures  to  which  his  complaint  subjected  him, 
 he  returned  to  his  native  city,  entered  the  tomb  of  his 
 family,  which  he  caused  to  be  closed  upon  him,  and 
 there  ended  his  existence.  We  have  remaining  of  his 
 works  only  two  declamations  or  oratorical  exercises, 
 entitled  "  Funeral  Discourses''''  ('ETTiTu(pioi  7i,6yoi). 
 They  are  discourses  feigned  to  have  been  delivered 
 in  honour  of  those  who  fell  at  Marathon,  by  their  own 
 fathers.  The  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  in  a  letter  to 
 Fronto,  describes  him  as  a  writer  of  ability,  but  less 
 
 pleasing  than  instructive.  {Front ,  Relig.,  p.  5'0,  ed. 
 Niebuhr.)  The  little  that  we  possess  of  the  writings 
 of  Polemon  neither  authorizes  us  to  adhere  to  this 
 opinion  nor  to  contradict  it.  It  is  true,  however,  that 
 the  two  declamations  which  have  reached  us  are  writ- 
 ten in  a  vigorous  style,  but  are  devoid  of  elegance.  It 
 was  principally,  too,  for  his  strength  and  vehemence 
 that  the  ancients  held  Polemon  in  esteem,  and  called 
 him  '■'■the  Trumpet  of  Olympus'''  {I,ulnij^  '0?iv/.iKia- 
 KTj).  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen  studied  and  imitated 
 him.  The  best  edition  of  the  two  declamations  of 
 Polemon  is  that  of  Orellius,  Lj;>s.,1819,  8vo.  {Sch'oll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  226,  seq.)—'V.  Surnamed 
 Periegetes,  lived  during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Epipha- 
 nes,  about  200  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Stoic 
 Panajtius,  and  wrote  a  "  History  of  Greece"  {Aojog 
 'E/lA7?v<K0f)  in  eleven  books,  wherein  he  carefully  ob- 
 served chronology.  This  work  is  lost.  Athenseus 
 cites  many  other  productions  of  Polemon,  "  On  the 
 Acropolis  of  Athens,'"  "  On  the  Paintings  to  be  seen 
 at  Sicyon"  (Plutarch  has  borrowed  from  the  latter  an 
 anecdote,  which  he  gives  in  his  Life  of  Aratus),  "  On 
 Inscriptions,"  &.c.  Polemon  appears  also  as  a  geo- 
 graphical writer.  He  composed  a  "  Description  of 
 the  Earth"  {KoajiiKy  liepiyyTjai^),  whence  he  obtained 
 the  surname  of  Periegetes  {U-EpiriyriTfj^).  He  wrote 
 also  a  ''  Description  of  Ilium"  {Tispi^yTjGig  'IMov), 
 and,  under  the  title  of  Kriaeic,  a  work  on  the  origin 
 of  the  cities  of  Phocis,  Pontus,  &c.  All  these  are 
 lost.  Strabo  and  the  scholiasts  cite  another  work  of 
 Polemon's,  written  against  Eratosthenes,  in  which  the 
 latter  was  accused  of  never  having  seen  Athens. 
 {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p  223.  — Id.  ib.,  vol. 
 3,  p.  390.— M  lb.,  vol.  4,  p.  53.)  — VI.  A  writer  on 
 Physiognomy,  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  the  pupil  of 
 Xenocrates  mentioned  above  (No.  I.).  He  composed 
 a  "  MaJiual  of  Physiognomy,''''  enUiled  ^vaLoyvufiiKov, 
 or  ^vGLoyvufiiKCjv  'Eyxetpi^iov.  It  was  published 
 by  Peruscus  at  the  end  of  his  ^lian,  Rom.,  1545, 
 4to,  and  is  also  contained  in  the  collection  of  Franz, 
 "  Scriplorcs  Physiognomies  Veteres,"  Altenb.,  1780, 
 8vo. 
 
 PoLEMONiuM,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  coast  of 
 Pontus,  situate,  according  to  Pliny  (6,  4),  one  hundred 
 and  twenty  miles  from  Amisus.  It  derived  its  name 
 from  Polemon,  the  son  of  Zeno,  its  founder.  This 
 place  is  not  mentioned  by  Strabo,  and  therefore  was 
 probably  founded  after  his  time  ;  but  it  is  noticed  by 
 Ptolemy  ;  and  in  the  Table  Itinerary  it  is  marked  as  a 
 place  of  consequence.  Mannert  is  inclined  to  think 
 that  Polemonium  was  built  on  the  site  of  an  earlier 
 place  called  Side.  The  modern  name  is  said  to  be 
 Valisa  or  Fatsa,  which  reminds  us  of  the  ancient  for- 
 tress of  Phalisane,  that  once  stood  about  ten  stadia  to 
 the  west.  {Arrian,  Pcripl.  Mar.  Eux.,  p.  17.  —  Pcr- 
 ipl.  Anon.,  p.  4.  —  Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p. 
 439.) 
 
 PoLi.A.s  (Ilo/lmf),  a  surname  of  Minerva,  as  the  pro- 
 tectress of  cities.  This  name  was  particularly  applied 
 to  her  in  Athens,  and  indicated  the  original  Minerva 
 of  Athens,  the  Minerva  who  had  contested  the  soil  of 
 Attica  with  Neptune,  and  had  triumphed  in  the  con- 
 test. She  wa.s,  therefore,  the  original  protectress  of 
 the  Acropolis  and  the  city  ;  to  her  the  embroidered 
 Peplus  at  the  festival  of  the  Panathena^a  was  dedica- 
 ted ;  it  was  to  her  temple  that  Orestes  came  as  a  sup- 
 pliant from  Delphi,  when  he  fled  from  the  Eumenidcs, 
 before  her  statue  burned  the  golden  lamp,  both  night 
 and  day,  which  was  fed  with  oil  only  once  a  year  ;  the 
 sacred  serpent,  the  guardian  of  the  Acropolis,  dwelt 
 here ;  here  was  the  silver-footed  throne,  on  which 
 Xerxes  sat  when  he  viewed  the  battle  of  Salamis; 
 and  here,  too,  was  the  sword  of  Mardonius,  the  Per- 
 sian general  at  PlatEea.— The  temple  of  Minerva  Polias 
 was  under  the  same  roof  with  the  Erechtheum,  the  two 
 formin<T  an  entire  building,  of  which  the  eastern  divis- 
 
 1103 
 
POL 
 
 POLLIO. 
 
 ion  was  consecrated  to  the  worship  of  the  goddess  ; 
 and  the  western,  including  the  northern  and  southern 
 porticoes,  was  sacred  to  the  deified  daughter  of  Ce- 
 crops,  the  nymph  Pandrosus.  On  the  same  site  had 
 previously  stood  the  temple  of  Erechtheus  ;  and  from 
 this  circumstance,  as  well  as  from  the  fact  that  his 
 altar  still  remained,  the  entire  building  relained  the 
 name  of  the  Erechlheum.  Within  the  sacred  enclo- 
 eiire  were  preserved  the  holiest  objects  of  Athenian 
 veneration,  among  which  the  most  precious  were  the 
 uiive  of  Minerva  and  the  fountain  of  Neptune,  both 
 of  which  sprung  up  at  the  bidding  of  those  divinities, 
 when  there  was  contention  among  the  gods  concerning 
 the  guardianship  of  Athens.  Here,  too,  was  the  old- 
 est and  most  deeply-venerated  of  the  statues  of  the 
 Athenian  goddess  ;  a  figure  carved  in  olive-wood,  but 
 of  which  the  legend  affirmed  that  it  had  fallen  from 
 heaven.  {Wordsworth'' s  Greece,  p.  144.  —  Stuart's 
 Antiquities  of  Athens,  p.  37,  Loud.,  1827,  ISmo.) 
 Miiller  has  written  an  interesting  work  on  the  Temple 
 and  Worship  of  Minerva  Polias,  under  the  following 
 title:  "  MinervcE  Poliadis  Sacra  et  JEdem  in  arce 
 Alhcnarum  illustravit  C.  O.  Miiller,'^  Gotting.,  1820, 
 4to. 
 
 PoLiORCKTEs  {'U.oTiiopKTjTTjQ),  '^  the  besieger  of  cit- 
 ies,^' a  surname  given  to  Demetrius,  son  of  Antigonus. 
 (Vtd.  Demetrius  I.) 
 
 PoLiTEs,  I.  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  killed  by 
 Pyrrhus  in  his  father's  presence.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  2, 
 526.) — H.  His  son,  who  bore  the  same  name,  fol- 
 lowed JSneas  into  Italy,  and  was  one  of  the  friends  of 
 young  Ascanius.     {Virg.,  5,  564.) 
 
 Poi,LA  Argentaria,  the  wife  of  the  poet  Lucan. 
 {Vid.  Lucanus.) 
 
 PoLLENTiA,  a  town  of  Liguria,  southeast  of  Alba 
 Pompeia.  It  was  a  municipium,  and  is  chiefly  cel- 
 ibrated  for  its  wool.  {Plin.,  8,  48.  —  Colum.,  7,  2. 
 —  Sil.  Ilai,  8,  599.)  A  battle  was  fought  in  its  vi- 
 cinity between  Stilico  and  the  Goths,  the  success  of 
 Tvhich  appears  to  have  been  very  doubtful.  {Oros., 
 7,  37.)  But  Claudian  speaks  of  it  as  the  greatest  tri- 
 umph of  his  hero.  (De  Bell.  Get.,  605.)  The  mod- 
 *tn  village  of  Polcnza  stands  near  the  site  of  the  an- 
 iient  city.     {Cramer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  28.) 
 
 PoLi-io,  I.  C.  Asinius,  a  Roman  consul  in  the  time 
 of  Augustus,  who,  though  of  humble  birth,  was  one 
 of  ths  most  remarkable  men  and  most  distinguished 
 patrons  of  literature  during  the  age  in  which  he  lived; 
 and  when  we  consider  the  brilliant  part  which  he  acted 
 as  a  militiiry  commander,  politician,  and  man  of  let- 
 ters. It  is  sii.'gular  we  have  so  few  remains  of  his  wri- 
 tings, and  sach  brief  records  of  his  actions.  Pollio 
 was  born  in  tin  675th  year  of  the  city,  and  he  had, 
 consequently,  rear.hed  the  age  of  thirty  before  the  liber- 
 ties of  his  country  were  subverted.  During  the  times 
 of  the  republic,  he  so  well  performed  the  parts  of  a  cit- 
 izen and  patriot,  that  in  one  of  Cicero's  letters  he  is 
 classed  with  Cato  for  his  love  of  liberty  and  virtue. 
 But  in  pursuing  this  line  of  conduct  he  offended  some 
 of  the  partisans  of  Pompey,  and  was  forced,  as  he  af- 
 terward alleged,  to  espouse  the  part  of  Caesar,  in 
 order  to  shield  himself  from  their  resentment.  {Cic, 
 Ep.  ad  Fam..,  10,  31.)  He  became  a  favourite  officer 
 of  Julius  Ca;sar.  whom  he  served  with  inviolable  fidel- 
 ity, and  ever  entertained  for  him  the  most  devoted  at- 
 tachment. A  short  while  before  the  dictator's  death, 
 he  was  sent  to  Spain  at  the  head  of  a  considerable 
 army,  to  crush  the  party  which  Se.xtus  Pompey  had 
 recently  formed  in  that  province  ;  but  he  was  not  very 
 successful  in  his  prosecution  of  this  warfare.  (Die 
 Ca.is.,  45.)  After  the  assassination  of  Caisar,  he  of- 
 fered his  army  and  services  to  the  senate  ;  and,  in  his 
 letters  to  Cicero,  made  the  strongest  professions  of  love 
 of  liberty  and  zeal  for  the  commonwealth,  declaring 
 that  he  would  neither  desert  nor  survive  the  republic. 
 (Ctc,  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  10,  33.)  The  hypocrisy  of  these 
 1104 
 
 protestations  was  evinced  almost  as  soon  as  the  letters 
 in  which  they  were  contained  had  reached  the  capital; 
 for  his  old  fellow-soldier,  Antony,  having  retreated  into 
 Gaul  after  his  defeat  at  Modena,  PoUio  joined  hitn 
 from  Spain  with  all  the  troops  he  commanded.  He 
 farther  contrived  to  disunite  the  fickle  Plancus  from 
 his  colleague  Decimus  Brutus,  and  to  bring  him  over, 
 with  his  army,  to  the  enemies  of  the  republic.  By 
 these  measures  he  contributed  more,  perhaps,  than 
 any  other  of  his  contemporaries,  to  extinguish  all  hopes 
 of  the  restoration  of  the  commonwealth,  and  to  throw 
 the  whole  power  of  the  state  into  the  hands  of  the  tri- 
 umvirate. Having  thus  been  chiefly  instrumental  in 
 ruining  the  cause  of  liberty,  that  proud  spirit  of  freedom 
 or  ferocia,  as  Tacitus  calls  it,  which  he  afterward  as- 
 sumed, and  the  restoration  of  the  Atrnim  liber  talis, 
 which  stood  on  the  Aventine  Hill,  must  have  been 
 looked  on  as  a  farce  by  his  fellow-citizens,  and  has  been 
 considered  by  posterity  as  little  better  than  imposture. 
 Pollio  was  present  at  the  formation  of  the  triumvirate 
 which  took  place  in  a  small  island  of  the  Reno,  a 
 stream  that  passes  near  Bologna.  Amid  other  sacri- 
 fices of  friends  and  relatives  then  made  by  the  heads 
 of  political  parties,  Pollio  gave  up  his  own  father-in- 
 law  to  the  resentment  of  his  new  associates.  He  is 
 said,  however,  to  have  repressed  by  his  authority  many 
 disorders  of  the  times,  and  to  have  mitigated,  so  far 
 as  was  in  his  power,  the  cruelty  of  the  triumvirs.  In 
 the  year  713,  which  was  that  of  his  first  consulship,  a 
 quarrel  having  arisen  between  Augustus  and  Lucius 
 Antonius,  the  brother  of  the  triumvir,  concerning  the 
 settlement  of  the  veterans  in  the  lands  allotted  them, 
 Pollio  occupied  the  north  of  Italy  for  the  Antonian 
 party.  His  spirit  and  valour  had  acquired  him  such 
 reputation  among  the  soldiery,  that,  while  his  friend 
 Munatius  Plancus,  though  of  higher  birth  and  rank, 
 was  deserted  by  his  troops,  Pollio  was  enabled  to 
 make  head  against  Agrippa  and  Augustus  with  not 
 less  thun  seven  legions,  and  to  retain  the  whole  of  the 
 Venetian  territory  in  the  interests  of  Antony.  In  or- 
 der to  subsist  his  forces,  he  laid  heavy  contributions 
 on  the  towns,  and  exacted  them  with  the  utmost  rig- 
 our. The  Paduans,  in  particular,  who  had  been  al- 
 ways attached  to  the  cause  of  liberty  and  the  republic, 
 smarted  severely  under  his  displeasure  and  avarice. 
 He  stripped  their  city  of  everything  valuable,  whether 
 public  or  private,  and  proclaimed  a  reward  to  the 
 slave  who  should  discover  the  concealment  of  his 
 master.  The  contest  between  Lucius  Antonius  and 
 Augustus  was  followed  by  the  treaty  of  Brundisium, 
 by  which  a  new  division  of  the  empire  was  made  among 
 the  triumvirs  ;  and,  according  to  this  distribution,  the 
 province  of  Dalmatia  was  included  in  the  department 
 of  the  empire  allotted  to  Marc  Antony.  This  rugged 
 country,  not  yet  completely  subdued  by  the  Romans, 
 had  been  constantly  in  the  view  of  Pollio  while  he 
 commanded  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Italy.  A  mas- 
 sacre committed  by  the  natives  on  a  Roman  colony 
 formed  a  pretext  for  its  invasion.  With  the  consent 
 of  Antony,  if  not  by  his  express  orders,  Pollio  led  the 
 army,  which  he  had  now  commanded  for  five  years, 
 to  quell  the  insurrection.  He  quickly  dispersed  the 
 tumultuary  bodies  of  natives  which  had  assembled 
 to  oppose  him  ;  took  their  capital,  Salona  (now  Spa- 
 latro),  and  returned  triumphant  to  Rome.  This  tri- 
 umph closed  his  military  and  political  career.  The 
 cause  of  Antony,  which  Pollio  had  supported  both  by 
 his  able  conduct  and  the  reputation  of  his  name,  had 
 now  sunk  so  low  in  Italy,  that  it  could  no  longer  be 
 maintained  against  his  rival  with  any  regard  to  safety, 
 interest,  or  character.  He  declined  however,  to  fol- 
 low Augustus  to  the  battle  of  Actium  ;  and  to  the  so- 
 licitations which  were  used  with  the  view  of  inducing 
 him  actually  to  espouse  his  interests,  Pollio  is  said  to 
 have  replied,  "  Mea  in  Antonium  niaiora  merita  sunt, 
 illius  in  me  beneficia  notiora ;  itaque  discrimine  ves- 
 
POLLIO. 
 
 POL 
 
 iro  me  subtraham,  et  ero  pr^da  victoris  "  Veil.  Pa- 
 /crc.,2, 86.)  From  this  period  till  his  deathivhich  hap- 
 pened at  his  Tusrulan  villa  iii  755  IJ.C,  when  he  had 
 reached  the  age  of  eighty)  Pollio  withdrew  almost  entire- 
 ly from  public  aflairs.  He  was  naturally  of  a  bold,  assu- 
 ming, and  overbearing  temper;  he  affected  a  stern  predi- 
 lection for  the  forms  and  manners  of  the  ancient  repub- 
 lic ;  and,  having  amassed  an  enormous  fortune  during 
 the  proscri[itions,  he  never  sought  to  ingratiate  himself 
 with  Augustus.  Accordingly,  though  he  was  respect- 
 ed and  esteemed,  he  was  not  beloved  by  the  emperor. 
 During  the  contest  with  Lucius  Anlonius,  several  sting- 
 ing epigrams  were  directed  against  him  by  Augustus. 
 Pollio  was  well  able  to  retort,  but  he  did  not  choose, 
 as  he  himself  expressed  it,  "  in  eum  scribere  qui  potest 
 proscribere."  {Macrob.,  Saturn.,  2, 'i.)  His  neutral- 
 ity during  the  war  with  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  though 
 permitted  by  Augustus,  would  little  tend  to  conciliate 
 his  favour;  and  that  prince  saw  around  hirn  so  many 
 able  ministers  who  had  uniformly  supported  his  inter- 
 ests, that  he  had  no  occasion  to  require  the  assistance 
 or  counsel  of  Pollio.  \\'ii.h  the  exception,  therefore,  of 
 occasionally  pleading  in  the  Forum,  Pollio  devoted  all 
 his  time  to  literary  composition  and  the  protection  of 
 literary  men.  No  Roman  of  that  period  was  more  ca- 
 Piible  of  enjoving  retirement  with  dignity,  or  relishing  it 
 with  taste.  He  possessed  everything  which  could  ren- 
 der his  retreatdelightful  :  an  e.xcellent  education,  distin- 
 guisiied  talents,  a  knowledge  of  mankind,  and  a  splen- 
 did fortune.  To  all  the  strength  and  solidity  of  under- 
 standing requisite  to  give  him  weight  in  the  serious  or 
 important  affairs  of  life,  he  united  the  most  lively  and 
 agreeable  vein  of  wit  and  |)leasantry.  His  genius  and 
 acquirements  enabled  him  likewise  to  shine  in  the 
 noblest  branches  of  polite  literature  :  poetry,  elo- 
 quence, and  history,  in  which  last  department  Seneca 
 prefers  his  style  to  that  of  Livy.  He  had,  no  doubt, 
 effectually  improved  the  opportunities  which  the  times 
 afforded,  of  enriching  himself  at  the  cost  of  others  ; 
 and  no  one  had  profited  more  by  the  forfeited  estates 
 during  the  period  of  the  proscriptions  ;  but  it  should 
 not  be  forgotten,  that  whatever  fortune  he  amassed 
 was  converted  to  the  most  laudable  purposes  :  the 
 formation  of  a  public  library,  the  collection  of  the  most 
 eminent  productions  of  art,  and  the  encouragement  of 
 learning  and  literary  men.  Pliny,  in  his  Natural  His- 
 tory, informs  us,  that  Pollio  was  the  first  person  who 
 erected  a  public  library  at  Rome.  It  was  placed  in  the 
 vicinity  of  the  Atrium  Lihertatis,  which  he  had  con- 
 structed on  the  Aventine  Hill  ;  and  the  expense  of  the 
 establishment  was  defrayed  from  the  spoils  of  conquer- 
 ed enemies  (7,  30  ;  35,  2).  From  the  same  author 
 we  have  an  account  of  his  fine  collection  of  statues 
 by  Praxiteles  and  other  masters  (34,  5),  which  he 
 was  ex'.remely  desirous  should  be  publicly  seen  and 
 commended.  Among  the  labours  of  Praxiteles  are 
 mentioned  a  Silenus,  an  Apollo,  a  Neptune,  and  a  Ve- 
 nus. The  specimens  of  the  works  of  other  artists  ex- 
 hibited the  (;;entaurs  carrying  off  the  Nymphs,  by  Ar- 
 chesitas  ;  Jupiter,  surnamcd  Hospitalis,  by  Pamphilus, 
 a  scholar  of  Praxiteles  ;  a  sitting  Vesta  ;  and,  finally, 
 Zethus,  Amphion,  and  Dirce,  fastened  by  a  cord  to  the 
 bull,  all  formed  out  of  one  stone,  and  brought  from 
 Rhodes  by  the  direction  of  Pollio.  Still  more  useful 
 and  praiseworthy  was  the  patronage  which  he  extended 
 to  men  of  genius.  In  youth,  his  character  and  con- 
 versational talents  had  rendered  him  a  favourite  with 
 the  masterspirits  of  Rome  :  Coesar,  Calvus,  and  Ca- 
 tullus, who  shone  in  his  earlier  years  ;  and  in  more  ad- 
 vanced life,  he  in  turn  favoured  and  protected  Virgil 
 and  Horace,  whose  eulogies  are  still  the  basis  of  his 
 fame.  Pollio  commanded  in  the  district  where  the 
 farm  of  Virgil  lay  ;  and  at  the  division  of  lands  among 
 the  soldiery,  was  of  service  to  him, in  procuring  the 
 restoration  of  his  properly.  That  distinguished  poet 
 composed  his  eclogues,  it  is  said,  by  the  advice  of 
 7  A 
 
 Pollio ;  and  in  the  fourth  of  the  number  he  has  Deau- 
 tifully  testified  his  gratitude  for  the  friendship  and  pro- 
 tection which  had  been  extended  to  him.  The  odes 
 of  Horace  show  the  familiarity  which  subsisted  be- 
 tween the  poet  and  his  patron  ;  the  farmer  ventures  to 
 give  the  latter  advice  concerning  the  history  of  the 
 civil  wars,  on  which  he  was  then  engaged  ;  and  to 
 warn  him  of  the  danger  to  which  he  might  be  exposed 
 by  treating  such  a  subject.  Timagenes,  the  rhetori- 
 cian and  historian,  spent  his  old  age  in  the  house  of 
 Pollio  ;  though  he  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Au- 
 gustus by  some  bitter  raillery  and  sarcasms  directed 
 against  the  imperial  family.  But,  while  Pollio  pro- 
 tected learned  men,  he  seems  to  have  been  a  severe, 
 and,  according  to  some,  a  capricious  critic,  on  the  wri- 
 tings both  of  his  own  contemporaries  and  of  authors 
 who  had  immediately  preceded  him.  He  was  envious 
 of  the  reputation  of  Cicero,  and  expressed  himself  with 
 severity  on  the  blemishes  of  his  style  (Seneca,  Suas., 
 6. — Quint.,  In.it.  Oral.,  12,  1)  :  he  called  in  question 
 the  accuracy  of  the  facts  related  in  Cajsar's  Commen- 
 taries {Sur.lon.,  de  lllust.  Grammat.)  ;  and  he  discov- 
 ered provincial  expressions  in  the  noble  history  ol 
 Livy.  {Qumt..  Tnsl.  Oral.,  1,  5.)  His  jealous  love 
 of  praise  and  spirit  of  competition  led  him  to  intro- 
 duce one  custom  which  probably  proved  injurious  to 
 poetry  :  the  fashion  of  an  author  reading  his  produc- 
 tions at  private  meetings  of  the  most  learned  and  re- 
 fined of  his  contemporaries.  These  recitations,  as 
 they  were  called,  led  to  the  desire  of  writing  for  the 
 sake  of  effect,  and  were  less  calculated  to  improve  the 
 purity  of  taste  than  to  engender  ostentatious  display. 
 (Dunlop's  Roman  Literature,  vol.  3,  p.  45,  seqq.) — 
 II.   Vedius.     (  FiV/.  Pausilypus.) 
 
 Pollux,  I.  (in  Greek  \lo7iv6evKr]^)  a  son  of  Jupiter 
 by  Leda,  the  wife  of  Tyndarus.  *  He  was  brother  to 
 Castor.  (F«Z.  Castor.) — II.  (or  IIoAinJfi'/fjyf)  Julius, 
 a  native  of  Naucratis,  in  Egypt,  who  flourished  about 
 175  A.D  ,  and  died  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Com- 
 inodus.  He  followed,  it  would  seem,  the  profession 
 of  sophist  at  Athens,  and  acquired  so  much  reputation 
 there,  that  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  intrusted  him 
 with  the  education  of  his  son  ;  but  the  instructions  of 
 the  preceptor  were  unable  to  correct  the  vicious  pro- 
 pensities of  the  pupil.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
 Lucian  intended  to  ridicule  Pollux  in  his  Lexiphanes 
 and  Rhctorum  Praccptor  ('Pijropuv  diddaKaXoc),  but 
 Hemsterhusius  has  undertaken  to  disprove  this,  in  the 
 preface  to  his  edition  of  the  Onomasticon.  The 
 strongest  argument  adduced  by  him  against  this  sup- 
 position, which  rests  on  the  testimony  of  one  of  the 
 scholiasts,  is  that  such  a  satire  would  be  unjust.  The 
 principal  work  of  Pollux,  and  the  only  one  that  re- 
 mains to  us,  is  entitled  'OvojiaariKov  ("  Onomasti- 
 con"). The  following  is  the  explanation  which  Hem 
 sterhusius  gives  of  this  title.  "  Onomasticorum  mu 
 mis  est  commoda  rebus  nomina  unpioncrc,  ct  docere 
 quibus  verbis  uberiore  quadam  et  Jlorente  clegajitia 
 rem  unam  designare  possimus :  nan  enim  in  Ononias- 
 ticis  vnquam  propria  qitodam  loco  de  vocum  difficilli- 
 morum  interpretatione  ageliatur,  sed  quo  pacta  pra- 
 prvs  res  qucevis  et  pluribus  insigniri  posset  verbis." 
 — Pollux  does  not,  like  other  lexicograjihers,  follow 
 the  alphabetical  arrangement  ;  he  has  divided  his  work 
 into  nine  books,  according  to  the  matters  of  which  he 
 treats,  or,  rather,  he  has  united  nine  separate  works 
 under  the  general  title  of  "  Onomasticon."  These 
 nine  productions  would  seem  to  have  been  published 
 originally  in  a  separate  and  consecutive  order,  from 
 the  circumstance  of  their  each  having  a  preface  or  ded- 
 ication, addressed  to  the  Emperor  Commodus.  The 
 subjects  of  the  nine  books  are  as  follows  :  J .  Of  Gods, 
 Kings,  Swiftness  and  Slowness,  Dyeing,  Commerce 
 and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  Fertility  and  Sterility,  Sea- 
 sons, Houses,  Ships,  things  relating  to  War,  Horses. 
 Agriculture,  the  component  parts  of  a  Plough,  those  ot 
 
 1105 
 
POL 
 
 POLYBIUS. 
 
 a  Chariot,  Bees. — 2.  Of  the  Age  of  Men;  of  what  pre- 
 cedes and  follows  Birth  ;  of  the  Members  of  the  Human 
 Frame  ;  of  the  External  and  Internal  Parts  of  the  Body. 
 — 3.  Of  the  various  relations  between  the  Members  of  a 
 Family  or  a  City  ;  of  Friends,  Country,  Love;  of  the 
 Relation  between  Master  and  Slave  ;  of  Metals,  Trav- 
 els, Roads  ;  of  Gayety  and  Sadness  ;  of  Happiness  ; 
 of  Rivers  ;  of  the  Avaricious,  the  Industrious,  and  the 
 Idle;  of  Buying  and  Selling,  &c.  —  4.  Of  tiie  Sciences. 
 — 5.  Of  the  Chase,  Animals,  &c. — 6.  Of  Repasts  ;  of 
 various  Crimes,  &c. — 7.  (Jf  various  Arts  and  Trades. 
 — 8.  Of  Justice,  and  the  public  Administration  of  it. 
 — 9.  Of  Cities,  Edifices,  Games,  &,c.  — 10.  Of  Vases, 
 Utensils,  &c. — The  value  of  the  work,  for  acquiring 
 not  only  a  knowledge  of  Greek  terms,  but  also  of  anti- 
 quities, is  conceded  by  all.  The  interest,  moreover,  is 
 considerably  increased  by  the  citations  from  authors 
 whose  works  are  lost.  Julius  Pollu-x  coin{)Osed  many 
 other  works  that  have  not  come  down  to  us,  such  as 
 Dissertations  {ALaAe^tir)  and  Declamations  (Mc/.e- 
 rat);  and  among  these  are  mentioned  a  discourse  pro- 
 nounced on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  Comnio- 
 dus,  an  eloge  on  Rome,  and  an  accusation  of  Socrates. 
 The  best  edition  of  the  Onomasticon  is  that  of  Ilem- 
 sterhusius,  Amst.,  1706,  fol.  There  is  a  later  one  by 
 W.  Dindorf,  Lips.,  1824,  5  vols.,  in  6  parts,  contain- 
 ing the  notes  of  former  editors. — III.  An  ecclesiasti- 
 cal writer  in  the  ninth  century,  not  to  be  confounded 
 with  the  author  of  the  Onomasticon.  He  compiled  a 
 chronology,  which  commences  with  the  creation.  The 
 author  calls  it  'laropia  (pvaiKTj  ("  a  physical  history''^), 
 because  his  work  enlarges  greatly  respecting  the  crea- 
 tion of  the  world.  It  is  rather,  however,  an  ecclesias- 
 tical than  a  political  history.  The  best  edition  is  that 
 of  Hardt,  Monach  ,  1792,  8vo.  Hardt  supposed  that 
 this  work  was  just  newly  discovered  ;  but  the  Abbe 
 Morelli  has  proved  that  this  is  the  same  work  with  that 
 entitled  Historia  Sacra  ab  orhe  condito  ad  Valetituua- 
 num  el  Valcjitem  Imp.  a  Biancono,  Bonon.,  1779,  fol. 
 PoLY.ENUs,  I.  a  native  of  Lampsacus,  and  one  of 
 the  friends  of  Epicurus.  He  had  attended  previously 
 to  mathematical  studies,  {Cic.,de  Fin.,  1,6.) — II.  A 
 native  of  Sardis,  a  sophist  in  the  time  of  Julius  Cassar, 
 and  who  is  thought  to  have  taken  his  praenomen  (Ju- 
 lius) from  the  family  that  protected  him.  We  have 
 four  epigrams  by  him  remaining.  —  III.  A  native  of 
 Macedonia,  a  rhetorician  or  advocate,  who  flourished 
 about  the  middle  of  the  second  century  of  our  era.  He 
 published  a  work  entitled  "^TpaTriyij/xarcKu  ("  Military 
 Stratagems'"),  in  eight  books,  ol  which  the  sixth  and 
 seventh  are  imperfect.  This  work,  addressed  to  Mar- 
 cus Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus,  during  their  campaign 
 against  the  Parthians,  is  of  little  value  to  military  men, 
 but  not  without  interest  in  an  historical  point  of  view. 
 It  is  well  written,  though  rather  atlected,  and  too  much 
 loaded  with  ornament.  Polyonnus  has  been  justly  cen- 
 sured for  admitting  into  his  list  of  stratagems  instan- 
 ces of  treachery  and  perfidy  unworthy  of  warriors,  and 
 undeserving  of  being  regarded  as  ruses  de  guerre.  He 
 IS  inexcusable  on  another  point :  he  mutilates  and  dis- 
 torts facts;  he  wishes  to  convert  every  military  opera- 
 '.ion  into  a  stratagem,  particularly  those  of  Alexander, 
 a  prince  v;ho  contended  openly  with  his  foes,  and  de- 
 tested stratagems  of  every  kind.  The  most  useful  edi- 
 tion of  Polyaenus  is  that  of  Mursinna,  Berol ,  1756, 
 12mo.  A  mor«  correct  text  than  the  former  is  given 
 by  Coray  iu  the  Parerga  Btbl.  Hell.,  Paris,  1809,  8vo, 
 forming  the  first  volume  of  this  collection.  A  critical 
 edition,  however,  is  still  a  desideratum.  {Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  268,  seqq.)—iy.  A  native  of  Ath- 
 ens, an  historical  writer.  {Euseb.,  Chron.,  1,  p.  25.) 
 PoLYBius,  an  eminent  Greek  historian,  born  at  Me- 
 galopolis, in  Arcadia,  about  B.C.  203.  His  father  Ly- 
 cortas  was  praetor  of  the  Achasan  republic  and  the  friend 
 of  Philopcemen,  and  under  the  latter  Polybius  learn- 
 ed the  art  of  war,  while  he  received  from  his  own  fa- 
 1106 
 
 ther  the  lessons  of  civil  and  political  wisdom.  H« 
 played  a  distinguished  part  in  the  history  of  his  country 
 as  ambassador  to  the  Roman  generals,  and  as  a  com- 
 mander of  the  Achasan  cavalry.  At  the  age  of  about 
 15  years  he  was  selected  by  his  father  to  join  an  em- 
 bassy to  Egypt,  which,  however,  was  not  sent.  At  the 
 age  of  40  years  he  was  carried  as  a  hostage  to  Rome, 
 and  continued  there  for  the  space  of  17  years.  He  be- 
 came the  friend,  the  adviser,  and  the  companion  in  arms 
 of  the  younger  Scipio.  In  order  to  collect  materials 
 for  his  great  historical  work,  which  he  now  projected, 
 he  travelled  into  Gaul,  Spain,  and  even  traversed  a  part 
 of  the  Atlantic.  Scipio  gave  him  access  to  the  regis- 
 ters or  records  known  by  the  name  of  libri  censimles, 
 which  were  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capito- 
 linus,  as  well  as  to  other  historic  monnments.  On  his 
 return  to  Greece,  after  the  decree  of  the  senate  which 
 granted  the  Achaean  hostages  permission  to  return  to 
 their  homes,  he  proved  of  great  service  to  his  coun- 
 trymen, and  endeavoured,  though  fruitlessly,  to  dis- 
 suade them  from  a  war  with  the  Romans.  The  war 
 broke  out  when  he  was  in  Africa,  whither  he  had  ac- 
 companied Scipio,  and  with  whom  he  was  present  at  the 
 taking  of  Carthage.  He  hastened  home,  but  appears 
 to  have  arrived  only  after  the  fall  of  Corinth.  Greece 
 having  been  reduced  under  the  Roman  power,  he  trav- 
 ersed the  Peloponnesus  as  commissary,  and  by  his 
 mild  and  obliging  deportment  won  the  afl^ections  of 
 all.  Some  years  after  he  travelled  into  Egypt ;  in 
 the  year  of  Rome  620,  he  accompanied  Scipio  into 
 Spain,  and  finally  he  returned  to  Achaia,  where  he  died 
 at  the  advanced  age  of  about  82  vears,  of  a  fall  from 
 his  horse. — Polybius  gave  to  the  world  various  histori- 
 cal writings,  which  are  entirely  lost,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  his  General  History  {'laTopia  Ka0o?.LK?/),  in 
 forty  books.  It  embraced  a  period  of  53  years,  from 
 the  commencement  of  the  second  Punic  vi'ar  (A  U.C. 
 555)  to  the  reduction  of  Macedonia  into  a  Roman 
 province  (A. U.C.  587).  Thirty-eight  books  were  de- 
 voted to  the  events  of  this  period  ;  while  two  others 
 precede  them,  and  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  work. 
 In  these  last  the  historian  runs  rapidly  over  the  inter- 
 val which  had  elapsed  between  the  taking  of  Rome  by 
 the  Gauls  and  the  first  descent  of  the  Romans  on  Sicily, 
 and  after  this  enumerates  what  had  occurred  up  to  the 
 coiTimencement  of  the  second  Punic  war.  His  object 
 was  to  prove  that  the  Romans  did  not  owe  their  great- 
 ness to  a  mere  blind  fatality  ;  he  wished  it  to  be  made 
 known  by  what  steps,  and  by  favour  of  what  events,  they 
 had  become  masters,  in  so  short  a  time,  of  so  extensive 
 an  empire.  (Lucas,  Uebcr  Poh/hius  Darstellung  des 
 ..^tolischcn  Bundcs,  Kbnig.i-b.,  1827,  p.  6,  scqq  )  His 
 history  is  of  a  general  nature,  because  he  does  not  con- 
 fine himself  merely  to  those  events  which  related  to  the 
 Romans,  but  embraces,  at  the  same  time,  whatever  had 
 passed  during  that  period  among  every  nation  of  the 
 world.  Of  the  40  books  which  it  originally  compre- 
 hended, time  has  spared  only  the  first  five  entire.  Of 
 the  rest,  as  far  as  the  17lh,  we  have  merely  fragments, 
 though  of  considerable  size.  Of  the  remaining  books 
 we  have  nothing  left  except  what  is  found  in  two  mea- 
 ger abridgments  which  the  Emperor  Constantino  Por- 
 phyrogenitus,  in  the  tenth  century,  caused  to  be  made 
 of  the  whole  work.  The  one  of  these  is  entitled  "  Em- 
 bassies," or  the  history  of  treaties  of  peace  ;  the  other 
 is  styled  "  Virtues  and  Vices."  Among  the  fragments 
 that  remain  of  Polybius  are  from  the  17th  to  the  40th 
 chapters  of  the  sixth  book,  inclusive,  which  treat  of 
 the  Roman  art  of  war,  and  have  often  been  published 
 separately  under  this  title.  That  part  of  the  history 
 which  is  lost  embraced  a  narrative  of  those  events  of 
 which  the  historian  was  himself  an  eyewitness  ;  an 
 irreparable  loss  for  us,  though  Livy  made  frequent 
 use  of  it.  The  history  of  Polybius  possesses,  in  one 
 respect,  a  peculiar  character,  distinguishing  it  from 
 the  works  of  all  the  historians  who  had  preceded  him. 
 
POLYBIUS. 
 
 POL 
 
 Not  content  with  relating  events  in  the  order  in  which 
 ihey  had  occurred,  he  goes  back  to  the  causes  which  pro- 
 duced them  ;  he  unfolds  their  attendant  circumstances, 
 and  the  consequences  they  have  brought  with  them. 
 He  judges  the  actions  of  men,  and  paints  the  charac- 
 ters of  the  principal  actors.  In  a  word,  he  forms  the 
 judgment  of  the  reader,  and  causes  him  to  indulge  in 
 reflections  which  ought  to  prepare  him  for  the  adminis- 
 tration of  public  affairs  {nfidyfinra).  Hence  the  title  of 
 his  history,  'laropia  irpay/iariK?'/.  Never  has  a  history 
 been  written  by  a  man  of  more  good  sense,  of  more 
 jierspicacity,  or  of  a  sounder  judgment,  and  one  more 
 free  from  all  manner  of  prejudice.  Few  writers  have 
 united  in  a  greater  degree  a  knowledge  of  military  and 
 political  affairs ;  no  one  has  carried  farther  a  rigid 
 impartiality,  and  a  respect  for  virtue.  Cicero  gives 
 an  animated  character  of  this  history  in  his  treatise 
 De  OraCore  (2,  15.  —  Compare  the  remarks  of  Ast, 
 Gruiidrins  dcr  Fkihlogic,  p.  202). — The  style  of  Po- 
 lybius  is  not  free  from  faults.  The  period  when  the 
 Attic  dialect  was  spoken  in  all  its  purity  had  long 
 passed  away,  and  he  wrote  in  the  new  dialect  which 
 had  arisen  after  the  death  of  Alexander.  A  long  resi- 
 dence also  out  of  his  native  country,  and  sometimes 
 among  barbarian  nations,  had  rendered  him,  in  some  lit- 
 tle degree,  a  stranger  to  his  mother-tongue  Though 
 his  diction  is  always  noble,  yet  he  occasionally  mingles 
 with  it  foreign  terms,  and  even  Latinisms.  We  find 
 in  him,  too,  phrases  borrowed  from  the  school  of  x'\l- 
 exandrea,  and  passages  taken  from  the  poets  ;  he  loves, 
 also,  occasional  digressions;  but,  whenever  he  indulges 
 in  these,  they  are  always  instructive. — "  In  Polybius," 
 says  Miiller,  "we  find  neither  the  art  of  Herodotus, 
 nor  the  strength  of  Thucydides,  nor  the  conciseness 
 of  Xenophon,  who  says  all  in  a  few  words  :  Polybius 
 is  a  statesman  full  of  his  subject,  who,  caring  little  for 
 the  approbation  of  literary  men,  writes  for  statesmen  ; 
 reason  is  his  distinctive  character."  {AUgcmeine  Ges- 
 chichle,  5,  2.) — Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (De  Comp. 
 Verb.,  c.  4)  remarks,  that  no  man  of  taste  can  endure 
 to  read  the  work  of  Polybius  to  the  end.  It  is  strange 
 that  he  did  not  take  into  consideration  the  highly  at- 
 tractive nature  of  the  events,  and  the  spirit  with  which 
 they  are  narrated. — Besides  his  general  history,  Polyb- 
 ius wrote  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Philopoemen"  (lib. 
 10,  Exc.  Peircsc,  p.  28),  a  work  on  "Tactics''  (lib. 
 9,  Exc,  c.  20),  and  a  letter  "on  the  situation  of  La- 
 conia,"  addressed  to  Zeno  of  Rhodes  (lib.  16,  Exc). 
 From  a  passage  of  Cicero,  moreover  (Ep.  ad  Fain.,  5, 
 12),  it  would  appear  that  Polybius  had  written  a  de- 
 tached "  History  of  the  Numantine  war."  It  is  proba- 
 ble that  his  visit  to  Spain,  during  the  second  consul- 
 ship of  Scipio,  gave  him  the  idea  of  this  last-mentioned 
 work,  and  furnished  him  with  the  materials. — Plutarch 
 relates  that  Marcus  Brutus,  the  assassin  of  Cajsar, 
 made  an  abridgment  of  the  history  of  Polybius,  and 
 that  he  was  occupied  with  this  in  his  tent  on  the  even- 
 ing preceding  the  battle  of  Philippi.  Casaubon  is 
 hence  led  to  infer  that  the  abridgment  or  epitome  which 
 we  possess,  from  the  7th  to  the  17th  books,  may  be 
 the  work  of  Brutus  ;  but  this  abridgment  is  made  with 
 so  little  judgment  that  we  cannot  properly  ascribe  it 
 to  that  distinguished  Roman. — The  best  edition  of  Po- 
 lybius is  that  of  Schweighaeuser,  Lips.,  1789-95,  9 
 vols.  8vo.  Orellius  published  in  1818,  from  the  Leip- 
 sic  press,  the  commentary  of  .Eneas  Tacticus,  in  one 
 volume  8vo,  as  a  supplement  to  this  edition.  The 
 Excerpta  Valicana  of  Polybius,  which  Mai  first  made 
 known  in  his  "Scri]ilorum  Vclerum  nova  Collectio" 
 (vol.  2,  Rom.,  1827,  4to,  p.  369-464),  were  after- 
 ward published  anew,  under  the  title  of  '■^  Polybii  His- 
 toriarum  Excerpta  Vaficava,"  by  Geel,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1829,  8vo  ;  and  "■  Polybii  et  Appiani  Historiarum 
 Excerpta  Valicana,'"  by  Lucht,  AUotkb,  1830,  8vo. 
 {Scholl,  Gesch.  Griech.  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  135,  seqq. — 
 U.  ib.,  vol.  3,  p.  603.)  I 
 
 Pof>YBUs,  a  king  of  Corinth,  and  the  adoptive  lather 
 ofQ^dipus.  (l'7c/.  CEdipus.)  He  was  succeeded  by 
 Adrastus,  who  had  fled  to  Corinth  for  protection. 
 {Pausan.,  2,  6.) 
 
 PoLvc.tRPus,  a  father  and  martyr  of  the  church,  born 
 probably  at  Smyrna  during  the  reign  of  Nero.  He  was 
 a  disci|)le  of  the  Apostle  John,  and  was  by  him  ap- 
 pointed bishop  of  that  city  ;  and  he  is  thought  to  be 
 the  angel  of  the  church  of  Smyrna,  to  whom  the  epis- 
 tle in  the  second  chapter  of  Revelations  is  addressed. 
 Ignatius  also  esteemed  Polycarp  highly,  who,  when  the 
 former  was  condemned  to  die,  comforted  and  encoura- 
 ged him  in  his  sufferings.  On  the  event  of  a  contro- 
 versy between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  re- 
 specting the  proper  time  for  celebrating  Easter,  Poly- 
 carp undertook  a  journey, to  Rome  to  confer  with  Ani- 
 cetus  ;  but,  though  nothing  satisfactory  took  place  on 
 that  affair,  he  violently  while  at  Rome,  opposed  the 
 heresies  of  Marcion  and  Valentinus,  and  converted 
 many  of  their  followers.  During  the  persecution  of 
 the  Christians  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  Polycarp  suf- 
 fered martyrdom  wiih  the  most  heroic  fortitude,  A.D. 
 169.  When  he  was  going  to  the  flames,  the  procon- 
 sul oflfercd  him  his  life  if  he  would  blaspheme  Christ, 
 to  which  the  venerable  prelate  answered,  ^^Eighly  and 
 six  years  have  I  served  him,  and  he  has  ever  treated 
 me  unth  kindness  ;  how,  then,  can  I  blaspheme  htm  V 
 His  "  Epistles  to  the  Philippians,"  the  only  one  of  his 
 pieces  which  has  been  preserved,  is  contained  in  Arch- 
 bishop Wake's  "  Genuine  Epistles."  The  best  edi- 
 tion of  the  original  is  that  by  Aldrich,  Oxon.,  8vo,  1 708. 
 Another  edition  appeared  from  the  same  press,  by 
 Smith,  1709,  4to. 
 
 Poi.Yci.ETUs,  I.  a  celebrated  sculptor  and  statuary, 
 who  flourished  about  430  B.C.  Pausanias  (6,  6)  calls 
 him  an  .'^rgive  ;  but  Pliny  (34,  8,  19)  introduces  his 
 name  with  the  epithet  of  "Sicyonian."  In  order  to 
 reconcile  these  two  conflicting  authorities,  it  has  been 
 conjectured  that  the  artist  was  descended  from  Sicy- 
 onian parents,  and  was  born  at  Sicyon,  but  was  after- 
 ward presented  by  the  Argives  with  the  freedom  of 
 their  city.  Another  supposition  is,  that,  when  a  young 
 man,  he  went  to  Argos,  in  order  to  avail  himself  of 
 the  instructions  of  the  celebrated  Ageladas,  that  he  re- 
 mained there,  and  having  thus  made  .^rgos,  as  it  were, 
 his  second  native  city,  styled  himself  on  his  produc- 
 tions, not  a  Sicyonian,  but  an  Argive.  {Sillig,  Diet. 
 Art.,  p.  103.) — Polycletus  ttiay  be  said  to  have  per- 
 fected that  which  his  predecessor,  Phidias,  had  in- 
 vented. He  did  not  possess  the  grandeur  of  imagin- 
 ation which  characterized  this  great  artist,  nor  did 
 he  even  attempt,  like  him,  to  create  the  images  of  the 
 most  powerful  deities.  It  seems,  indeed,  that  he  ex- 
 celled less  in  representing  the  robust  and  manly  gra- 
 ces of  the  human  frame,  than  in  the  sweet,  tender,  and 
 unconscious  loveliness  of  childhood.  In  his  works, 
 however,  he  manifested  an  equal  aspiration  after  ideal 
 beauty  with  Phidias.  He  seems  to  have  laboured  to 
 render  his  statues  perfect  in  their  kind,  by  the  most 
 scrupulous  care  in  the  finishing.  Hence  he  is  said 
 to  have  observed,  that  "  the  work  becomes  most  dif-  ■ 
 ficult  when  it  comes  to  the  nail."  He  framed  a  statue 
 of  a  life-guardsman  (Aoptx^opof,  Doryphorus),  so  mar- 
 vellously  exact  in  its  proportions,  and  so  exquisite  in  its 
 symmetry,  that  it  was  called  "  /he  Rule"  {Kavuv),  and  ^ 
 became  the  model  whence  artists  derived  their  canons  • 
 of  criticism  which  determined  the  correctness  of  a 
 work.  (Plin.,  I.  c  —  Cic,  Brut.,  H6.— Lucian,  de 
 Saltat.,  75.)  He  executed  also  a  statue  of  a  youth 
 binding  a  fillet  {AtaiSovfievoc,  Diadumenns),  of  so  per- 
 fect a  beauty  that  it  was  valued  at  the  high  price 
 of  ahundredtalents.  Another  of  his  celebrated  works 
 represented  two  boys  playing  at  dice,  which  was  re- 
 garded with  the  highest  admiration  in  after  days  at 
 Rome,  where  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Emperor 
 Titus      Polycletus  is  said  to  have  carried  alto-relievo 
 
 1107 
 
PO  L 
 
 POL 
 
 which  Phidias  invented,  to  perfection.  He  discovered 
 the  art  of  balancing  of  figures  on  one  leg  ;  and  is  said 
 to  have  been  so  partial  to  this  mode  of  representing 
 the  human  form,  that  he  almost  invariably  adopted  it 
 in  his  statues.  He  is  accused  by  Varro  of  too  great 
 uniformity  in  his  figures,  and  the  constant  repetition  of 
 the  same  idea.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  exactness 
 of  symmetry  vifith  which  he  framed  his  statues  ;  but  it 
 seems  that  they  were  destitute  of  passion,  sentiment, 
 find  expression.  It  is  singular  that,  notwithstanding 
 the  refinement,  the  e.vtreme  polish,  and  exactness  of 
 finishing  with  which  his  works  were  in  general  elabo- 
 rated, he  represented  the  hair  in  knots,  after  the  fash- 
 ion of  the  ancient  sculptors.  These  defects,  however, 
 seem  to  have  derogated  but  little  from  his  fame,  either 
 in  his  own  age  or  in  after  times.  {Encycl.  Mc/rnpoL, 
 div.  2,  vol.  1,  p.  400,  scq.) — Polycletus  used,  in  many 
 of  his  works,  the  brass  of  ^-Egina.  (Plin.,  34,  2,  5.) 
 His  highest  glory,  perhaps,  was  obtained  from  a  statue 
 made  of  ivory  and  gold,  and  dedicaied  in  the  Herceum 
 by  the  citizens  of  Argos  and  Mycenae.  The  estima- 
 tion in  which  this  work  was  held  is  evident  from  Stra- 
 bo  (551).  The  production  itself  is  described  in  Pau- 
 sanias  (2,  17,  4),  whose  remarks  are  admirably  illus- 
 trated by  Boiliger  (A  ndciU.,  122) — Like  other  statu- 
 aries of  the  same  age,  Polycletus  was  also  distinguish- 
 es as  an  architect,  and  erected  a  theatre,  with  a  dome, 
 at  Epidaurus,  on  a  piece  of  ground  consecrated  to  ,Es- 
 culapius.  This  building  Pausanias  pronounces  to  be 
 superior,  in  respect  of  symmetry  and  elegance,  to  ev- 
 ery other  theatre,  not  excepting  even  those  at  Rome. 
 All  ancient  writers  bestow  the  highest  praises  on  Pol- 
 ycletus. Cicero  pronounces  his  works  absolutely 
 perfect.  {Brut.,  18.)  Quintilian  mentions  his  dili- 
 gence and  the  gracefulness  of  his  ])roductions,  but  in- 
 timates that  they  were  deficient  in  majestic  dignity. 
 {Quint.,  \2,  10)  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  says  of 
 his  works,  conjointly  with  those  of  Phidias,  that  they 
 were  esteemed  Kara  to  aefivov  koI  /leyuTiOTexvov  Kal 
 a^LufiaTLKov  (de  Isocr  ,  p.  95,  ed.  Sylh.).  The  breasts 
 of  his  statues  were  particularly  admired.  {Auct.  ad 
 Hcrcnn.,^,  6.)  We  find  also,  in  other  writers,  several 
 narratives  illustrative  of  his  skill,  and  his  accurate 
 judgment  of  the  arts.  Consult,  in  particular,  Plutarch 
 {Symp.,  2,  3)  and  ^lian  (V.  H.,  14,  8,  16).  He 
 wrote  also  a  treatise  on  the  Symmetry  nf  the  Members 
 of  the  Human  Body,  of  which  Galen  makes  mention. 
 (Flcpi  Tuv  Kad'  'ImroKp.  nal  IlAf/r  ,  4,  3,  vol  5,  p. 
 449,  cd.  Kuhn.—SilHg,  Did.  Art.,  p.  104.)— H.  A 
 statuary,  a  native  of  Argos,  who  flourished  a  little  be 
 fore  Olymp.  100.  He  executed,  among  other  works, 
 a  figure  of  Hecate  at  Argos,  the  Amyclean  Venus,  and 
 a  statue  of  Alcibiades.  (Pavsan  ,  2,  22. —  Dio  Chry- 
 tflst.,  Orat.,  37,  vol.  2,  p.  122,  ed.  Rciskc.  —  SilUg, 
 Diet.  Art.,  p.  104.) 
 
 PoLYCRATEs,  I.  a  tyrant  of  Samos,  who  raised  him- 
 self to  the  chief  power,  from  the  condition  of  a  private 
 Eerson,  by  his  abilities  alone,  about  566  B.C.  His 
 istory  is  narrated  at  length  by  Herodotus.  He  shared, 
 at  first,  the  government  of  his  country  with  his  two 
 brothers  Pantaleon  and  Syloson  ;  but  subsequently 
 he  caused  the  former  to  be  put  to  death,  and  expelled 
 the  latter  ;  after  which  he  reigned  with  undivided  au- 
 thority. His  successes  were  great  and  rapid,  and  he 
 acquired  a  power  which  made  him  dreaded  equally  by 
 his  subjects  and  neighbours  ;  and  his  alliance  was 
 courted  by  some  of  the  most  powerful  sovereigns  of 
 that  period.  He  conquered  the  Lesbians  and  other 
 islanders,  and  had  a  fleet  of  100  ships,  a  navy  superior 
 to  that  of  any  one  state  recorded  at  so  early  a  date. 
 (Herod.,  3,  39.~rJmcyd.,  1,  \3.—  Strab.,  637.)  The 
 Samians  attempted  to  revolt  from  him  ;  but,  though 
 .hey  were  assisted  in  the  undertaking  by  the  Lacedas- 
 monians,  they  failed  of  success,  and  many  were  driven 
 into  exile.  (Herod.,  3, 44,  seqq.)  The  Spartans  land- 
 ed in  the  island  with  a  large  force,  and  besieged  the 
 1108 
 
 principal  city  with  vigour,  but  they  were  finally  forced 
 to  abandon  the  enterprise,  after  the  lapse  of  forty  days. 
 {Herod,  3,  54,  seqq  )  The  Samiari  exiles  then  re- 
 tired to  Crete,  where  they  founded  Cydonia. — Polyc- 
 rates  was  remarkable  for  the  good  fortune  which,  foi 
 a  long  period,  constantly  attended  him.  So  e.xlraor 
 dinary,  in  fact,  was  the  prosperity  which  he  enjoyed, 
 that  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt,  his  friend  and  ally,  ad- 
 vised him  by  letter  to  break  the  course  of  it,  by  de- 
 priving himself  of  some  one  of  his  most  valuable  jios- 
 sessions.  This  advice  was  in  accordance  with  the 
 heathen  belief,  that  a  long  career  of  uninle.rrupted  fe- 
 licity was  sure  to  terminate  in  the  greatest  misery. 
 Polycrates,  having  resolved  to  follow  the  counsels  of 
 Amasis,  selected  an  emerald  ring  which  he  was  ac- 
 customed to  use  as  a  signet,  and  which  he  regarded 
 as  his  rarest  treasure  ;  he  then  embarked  on  board  a 
 galley,  and,  when  he  had  reached  the  open  sea,  con- 
 signed this  ring  to  the  waves.  Strange  to  relate,  about 
 five  or  six  days  afterward,  while  Polycrates  was  still 
 grieving  for  the  loss  of  the  co.'illy  jewel,  a  fisherman 
 brought  to  his  palace,  as  a  present  for  the  monarch,  a 
 very  large  tish  which  he  had  caught,  and,  on  opening 
 it.  the  ring  was  found  in  its  belly  !  Polycrates  wrote 
 word  of  this  to  Amasis,  who  iminediately  broke  off  the 
 alliance  with  him,  through  fear  of  sharing  the  evil  for- 
 tune with  which  he  was  certain  that  the  tyrant  of  .Sa- 
 mos would  ultimately  be  visited.  {Hciod.,  3,  40, 
 scqq.)  The  prediction  of  Amasis  was  at  last  fatally 
 venfipd.  Polycrates  fell  a  victim  to  the  cruel  and  art- 
 ful designs  of  the  Persian  satrap  Orcetes,  who  lured 
 him  on  by  the  temi)tation  of  immense  wealth;  and, 
 having  induced  him  to  come  to  Magnesia,  on  the  river 
 Ma?ander,  and  thus  got  him  into  his  power,  nailed  him 
 to  a  cross.  {Herod,  3,  120,  seqq.)  Herodotus  alle- 
 ges two  reasons  for  this  conduct  on  the  part  of  Orce- 
 tes ;  one,  that  he  was  led  to  the  step  by  the  reproaches 
 of  an  acquaintance,  the  governor  of  Dascyliuin,  who 
 upbraided  him  for  not  having  added  Samos  to  the 
 Persian  dominions,  when  it  lay  so  near,  and  had  been 
 seized  by  a  private  citizen  (Polycrates),  with  the  help 
 of  but  fifteen  armed  men;  the  other,  that  a  messen- 
 ger from  Orates  had  been  disrespectfully  treated  by 
 Polycrates.  The  daughter  of  Polycrates  had  dissua- 
 ded her  father  from  going  to  Oroetes,  on  account  of  ill- 
 omened  dreams  with  which  she  had  been  visited,  but 
 her  advice  was  disregarded.  She  dreamed,  for  exam- 
 ple, that  she  saw  her  father  aloft  in  the  air,  washed 
 by  Jupiter  and  anointed  by  the  sun.  The  circum- 
 stance of  her  father's  being  suspended  on  a  cross  ful- 
 filled the  vision.  He  was  washed  by  Jupiter,  that  is, 
 by  the  rain,  and  anointed  by  the  sun,  "  which  ex- 
 tracted," says  Herodotus,  "  the  moisture  from  his 
 body."  {Herod.,  3,  125.) — Polycrates,  though  taint- 
 ed by  many  vices,  knew  how  to  estimate  and  reward 
 merit.  He  cultivated  a  friendship  with  Anacreon,  and 
 retained  the  physician  Democedes  at  his  court.  Py- 
 thagoras was  also  his  contemporary  ;  but,  unable  to  wit- 
 ness, as  it  is  said,  the  dependance  of  his  country,  he 
 quitted  Samos,  in  order  to  cultivate  science  in  foreign 
 countries.  {Herod.,  3.  121.  — /li.,  3,  \^\.—  Strab., 
 638.) — IL  An  Athenian  rhetorician  and  sophist,  who 
 wrote  an  encomium  on  Busiris,  and  another  on  Cly- 
 temnestra.  His  object  in  selecting  these  as  the  sub- 
 jects of  his  imaginary  declamations  appears  to  have 
 been  to  attract  public  notice.  {Quintil, 2,  17.)  He 
 wrote  also  an  Oration  against  Socrates  ;  not  the  one, 
 however,  which  his  accuser  uttered  against  that  phi- 
 losopher, but  a  mere  exercise  of  his  skill.  It  was 
 composed,  too,  after  the  death  of  Socrates.  Isocrates 
 criticises  both  the  eulogium  on  Busiris  and  the  speech 
 against  Socrates,  in  his  treatise  entitled  also  Busiris. 
 {Isocr.,  Busir.,  2. — Argument,  incert.  auct.  ad  Isocr., 
 Busir. — JElian,  Var.  Hisl.,\\,  10. — Pen::  on.  ad  ML, 
 I.  c. — Athenaus,  8,  p.  335,  a.) 
 
 PoLYDAMAS,  I.  a  Trojan,  son  of  Antenor  by  The 
 
POL 
 
 POL 
 
 ano,  the  sister  of  Hecuha.  He  married  Lycaste,  a 
 natural  daiigliter  of  Priam.  According  to  Dares,  Po- 
 lydamas,  in  conjunction  with  Anterior  and  .tineas,  be- 
 trayed Troy  10  the  Greeks.  (Dar.,  Phri/g.,  39,  scqe/.) 
 — II.  A  sou  of  Panlhoiis,  and  born  the  same  night  as 
 Hector.  He  was  distinguished  for  wisdom  and  val- 
 our. Dictys  of  Crete  makes  him  to  have  been  slain 
 by  Ajax.  Homer,  however,  is  siltnl  about  the  man- 
 ner of  his  death.  {Diet.  CreL,  2,  7. — Horn.,  II.,  II. 
 ST.— /(/.  \b.,  14,  458,  &c.)— III.  A  celebrated  athlete 
 of  Scoius.'SK,  remarkable  for  his  great  size  and  strength 
 of  body,  in  both  of  which  respects  he  is  said  to  have 
 surpassed  all  tlie  men  of  his  time.  He  was  conquered, 
 indeed,  according  to  one  account,  by  Promachus  of 
 Pallene,  at  the  Olympic  games,  but  this  was  denied 
 by  his  couriirymen  the  Thessalians.  {Pausan  ,  6,  5. 
 — Id.,  7,  27.)  He  is  said  to  have  killed  lions  with  his 
 hands,  tearing  them  in  pieces  like  so  many  lambs. 
 {Diod  Sic,  fragm.,  18,  p.  640,  ed.  Wess)  Pansa- 
 nias,  however,  merely  says  that  he  met  a  lion  on  one 
 occasion,  and,  though  unarmed,  destroyed  it  in  emu- 
 lation of  Hercules  (6,  5).  At  another  time  he  seized 
 the  largest  and  fiercest  bull  in  a  herd,  and  held  it  so 
 lirmly  by  one  of  its  hind  legs,  that  the  animal,  after 
 many  efforts,  only  managed  to  escape  at  length  with 
 the  loss  of  its  hoof.  He  could  also  hold  back  a  char- 
 iot, when  advancing  at  full  speed,  so  firmly  wiih  one 
 hand,  that  the  charioteer  could  not  urge  it  onward  in 
 the  least  by  the  most  vigorous  application  of  the  lash 
 to  his  steeds.  The  fame  of  his  exploits  obtained  for 
 him  an  invitation  to  the  court  of  Arta.xerxes,  where  he 
 slew  three  of  the  royal  body-guard,  called  the  immor- 
 tals, who  attacked  him  at  once.  He  lost  his  life  by  an 
 act  of  foolhardiness  ;  for,  having  one  day  entered  a 
 cave  along  with  some  friends  for  the  purpose  of  carous- 
 ing in  this  cool  retreat,  the  roof  of  the  cave  became 
 rent  on  a  sudden,  and  was  on  the  point  of  falling.  The 
 rest  of  the  party  fled  ;  but  Polydamas,  endeavouring 
 10  su[)port  with  his  arms  the  falling  mass,  was  crushed 
 beneath  it.  A  statue  was  erected  to  him  at  Olympia, 
 on  the  pedestal  of  which  was  inscribed  a  narrative  of 
 his  exploits.  (Pausaii ,  6,  5.)  Lucian  says,  that  the 
 touch  of  this  statue  was  believed  to  cure  fevers. 
 {Deor.  Coned. ,  12  ) 
 
 PoLYDECTEs,  king  of  the  island  of  Seriphus  when 
 Danae  and  her  son  Perseus  were  wafted  thither.  (Vid. 
 Danae,  and  Perseus.) 
 
 PoLVDORUs,  I.  a  son  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia. 
 He  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne  of  Thebes, 
 and  married  Nycte'is,  daughter  of  Nycteus,  by  whom 
 he  became  the  father  of  Labdacus.  {Apollod.,  3,  4, 
 2. — Id.,  3,  5,  4. — Consult  Heyne,  ad  loc.) — II.  A  son 
 of  Priatn  and  Hecuba,  treacherously  put  to  death  by 
 Polyianestor,  king  of  Thrace,  to  whose  care  his  father 
 had  consigned  him,  on  account  of  his  early  years,  to- 
 wards the  close  of  the  Trojan  war.  {Vid.  Polymnes- 
 tor.)  According  to  the  legend  followed  by  Euripides, 
 ill  his  play  of  the  "  Hecuba,"  the  body  of  the  young 
 Tfojati  prince  was  thrown  into  the  sea,  and,  having 
 been  washed  up  by  the  waves  on  the  beach,  was  there 
 found  by  Hecuba,  then  a  prisoner  to  the  Greeks.  Vir- 
 gil, however,  following  a  different  version  of  the  fable, 
 cfiitkes  hiia  to  have  been  transfixed  by  many  spears, 
 and  these  spears  to  have  grown  into  trees  over  his 
 corpse.  When  ^Eiieas  visited  the  Thracian  coast,  and 
 was  preparing  to  oli'er  a  eacrilice  in  this  spot,  he  en- 
 deavoured to  pull  up  some  of  these  trees,  in  order  to 
 procure  boughs  for  shading  the  altar.  From  the  root 
 of  the  first  tree  thus  plucked  from  the  earth,  drops  of 
 blood  issued.  The  same  thing  happened  when  an- 
 other was  pulled  up  ;  until  at  last  the  voice  of  Poly- 
 dorus  was  heard  from  the  ground,  entreating  ^neas 
 to  forbi^ar.  Funeral  rites  were  thereufion  prepared  for 
 hitn,  and  a  tomb  erected  to  his  memory,  {^n.,  3, 
 19,  ee(jq.) 
 
 PoLycNOTUs,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  painters 
 
 of  antiquity.  He  was  a  native  of  Thasos.  but  obtained 
 the  right  of  citizenship  at  Athens  ;  and  hence  Theo- 
 phrasius  calls  him  an  .\thenian  {ap.  Plin.,  7,  56). 
 The  period  when  he  fiouri.shed  has  been  made  a  mat- 
 ter of  dispute.  Plmy  observes,  thai  he  lived  before 
 the  90th  Olympiad  ;  some  modern  philologists,  how- 
 ever, conjecture  that  the  period  of  his  fame  was  about 
 Olymp.  80.  (Jen.  Lit  Juurv.,  1805,  vol  3,  p.  34.) 
 — As  Polvgnoius  was  born  at  Thasos,  and  was  there 
 instructed  by  his  father  Aglaophon,  it  seems  necessa- 
 ry to  inquire  at  what  period  he  removed  to  Athens  ; 
 and  no  lime  can  be  fixed  on  with  greater  probability 
 than  that  in  which  Ciinon  returned  to  Athens,  after 
 bringing  Thasos  under  the  dominion  of  his  country- 
 men. {Milller,  Nunt.  Liter.  Gottmg.,  1824,  sad. 
 115.)  It  is  a  very  consistent  supposition,  that  Polvg- 
 noius accompanied  Cimon  on  his  return  ;  and  there 
 existed  a  powerful  reason  for  Cimon  to  solicit  the  ar- 
 tist 10  remove  with  him  to  .Athens,  that  he  might  have 
 his  assistance,  namely,  in  embellishing  with  paintings 
 those  public  buildings  which  he  had  either  begun  to 
 erect  or  had  in  contemplation.  .4mong  the  most  im- 
 portant of  these  buildings  was  the  temple  of  Theseus, 
 still  existing,  reared  on  the  ashes  of  the  ancient  hero, 
 which  were  brought  by  Cimon  from  Scyros.  This  last 
 circumstance  took  place  B.C.  469  ;  and  it  is  highly 
 probable  that  in  the  following  year  the  temple  itself 
 was  commenced.  All  these  particulars  concur  to  sup- 
 port the  opinion  that  Poiygnotus  flourished  about 
 Olymp.  80. — This  distinguished  painter  seems  to  have 
 contributed  more  largely  to  the  advancement  of  his 
 art  than  all  who  had  preceded  him.  Before  his  time, 
 the  countenance  was  represented  as  destitute  of  ani- 
 mation and  fire,  and  a  kind  of  leaden  dulness  per- 
 vaded its  features.  His  triumph  it  was  to  kindle  up 
 expression  in  the  face,  and  to  throw  feeling  and  intel- 
 lect into  the  whole  frame.  He  was  the  Prometheus 
 of  painting.  He  also  first  represented  the  mouth  open, 
 so  that  the  teeth  were  displayed,  and  occasion  was 
 given  to  use  that  part  of  the  visage  in  the  expression 
 of  peculiar  emotions.  He  first  clothed  his  figures  in 
 light,  airy,  and  transparent  draperies,  which  he  ele- 
 gantly threw  about  the  forms  of  his  women  He  was, 
 in  short,  the  author  of  both  delicacy  and  expression 
 in  the  paintings  of  Greece  :  but  his  style  is  said  to 
 have  been  hard,  and  his  colouring  not  jqual  to  his  de- 
 sign.— His  great  works  consisted  of  .nose  with  which 
 he  adorned  the  Precilc  {l\oLKi'Ari  Ztou)  at  Athens. 
 The  decoration  of  this  building  ■  as.  on  the  part  of 
 Poiygnotus,  gratuitous  (,Plut.,  V d.  Cim.,  4)  ;  where- 
 as Mycon,  a  contemporary  artisi,  who  was  employed 
 in  adorning  another  part  of  the  same  building,  received 
 a  liberal  compensation  for  the  exertions  of  his  genius. 
 Poiygnotus,  however,  was  not  without  his  reward. 
 The  Amphiciyonic  council  offered  him  a  public  ex- 
 pression of  thanks  for  having  also  gratuitously  embel- 
 lished the  temple  at  Delphi,  and  decreed  that,  when- 
 ever he  should  travel,  he  was  to  be  entertained  at  the 
 public  expense.  One  of  his  pictures  was  preserved  at 
 Rome,  representing  a  man  on  a  scaling-ladder,  with  a 
 target  in  his  hand,  so  contrived  that  it  was  inifiossible 
 to  tell  whether  he  was  going  upward  or  descending.- - 
 Poiygnotus  and  Mycon  were  the  first  who  used,  in 
 painting,  the  kind  of  ochre  termed  .Athenian  "  seV." 
 (Plin.,  33,  12,  56.)  The  former  likewise  made  a 
 kind  of  ink  from  the  husks  of  grapes,  styled  "  lit/- 
 ginon"  (Plm,  35,  6,  25);  and  he  left  behind  him 
 some  paintings  in  enamel.  (PIni  ,  35,  11,  36  )  Ci- 
 cero mentions  him  among  those  who  executeti  paint- 
 ings with  only  four  colours  {Cic  ,  Brut.,  18);  and 
 Quintilian  observes,  that  his  productions  were  very 
 highly  esteemed  even  in  later  periods.  (QinntiL,  la, 
 10.)  Aristotle  calls  him  ypn(}>Fvr  ifiiKOC  {Poht.,  8.  5); 
 and  he  elsewhere  contrasts  the  three  artists,  Poiygno- 
 tus. Panso,  and  Dionysius,  in  that  the  paintings  of  the 
 first  were  more  favourable  than  nature,  those  of  the 
 
 1109 
 
POL 
 
 POL 
 
 second  more  unfavourable,  and  those  of  the  last  exact 
 
 representations.  {ArisL,  Fo'et.,  2,  2.)  Pliny  stales, 
 that  Polygnolus  likewise  gave  attention  to  statuary. 
 (Flin.,  34,  8,  l8.—SMii{,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v  ) 
 
 Polyhymnia  and  Polymn'u,  one  of  the  Muses, 
 daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne,  who  presided 
 over  siiiuing  and  rhetoric,  and  was  deemed  the  mvenl- 
 ress  of  harmony.  She  was  represented  veiled  in  while, 
 holding  a  sceptre  in  her  left  hand,  and  with  her  right 
 raised  up,  as  if  ready  to  harangue.  Ausonius  describes 
 her  attributes  in  the  following  line,  "  Signal  cuncta 
 manu,  loquitur  Polyhymnia  gcstu.  ( Idyll.,  ult  )  The 
 etymology  of  the  name  is  disputed.  According  to  the 
 common  acceptation  of  the  term,  it  comes  from  t:oAv(;, 
 '•  miich,'^  and  vjivog,  "a  song"  or  '^  hymn,"  and  indi- 
 cates one  who  is  much  given  to  singing.  Some,  how- 
 ever, deduce  it  from  Tro/liif  and  jiveia,  "  memory,''' 
 and  therefore  write  the  name  Polymncia,  making  her 
 the  Muse  that  watches  over  the  remembrance  of  things 
 and  the  establishment  of  truth.  Hence  Virgil  remarks, 
 "  Nam  verum  fatcamur :  amat  Folymncia  verum." 
 {Cirts,  5.T. — Consult  Hcyne,  ad,  loc.  m  Tar.  Lect.) 
 
 PoLYMNESTOR  or  PoL VMESTOR,  a  king  of  the 'i'hra- 
 cian  Chersonese,  who  married  Ilione,  one  of  the  daugh- 
 ters of  Priam.  When  Troy  was  besieged  by  the 
 Greeks,  Priam  sent  his  youngest  son  Polydorus,  with 
 a  large  amount  of  treasure,  to  the  court  of  Polymnes- 
 tor,  and  consigned  him  to  the  care  of  that  monarch. 
 His  object  in  doing  this  was  to  guard  the  young  prince 
 against  the  contingencies  of  war,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
 to  provide  resources  for  the  surviving  members  of  his 
 family,  in  case  Troy  should  fall.  As  long  as  the  city 
 withstood  the  attacks  of  its  foes,  Polymneslor  remain- 
 ed faithful  to  his  charge.  But  when  the  tidings  reach- 
 ed him  of  the  death  of  Priam  and  the  destruction  of 
 Troy,  he  murdered  Polydorus.  and  seized  upon  the 
 treasure.  .\  very  short  time  after  this,  the  Grecian 
 fleet  touched  at  the  Chersonese  on  its  return  home, 
 bearing  with  it  the  Trojan  captives,  in  the  number  of 
 whom  was  Hecuba,  the  mother  of  Polydorus.  Here 
 one  of  the  female  Trojans  discovered  the  corpse  of  the 
 young  prince  amid  the  waves  on  the  shore,  Polymnes- 
 lor having  thrown  it  into  the  sea.  The  dreadful  in- 
 telligence was  immediately  communicated  to  Hecuba, 
 who,  calling  to  mind  the  fearful  dreams  which  had 
 visited  her  during  the  previous  nighi,  immediately  con- 
 cluded that  Polymnestor  was  the  murderer.  Resolv- 
 ing to  avenge  the  death  of  her  son,  and  having  obtain- 
 ed from  Agamemnon  a  promise  that  he  would  not  in- 
 terfere, she  enticed  Polymnestor  within,  under  a  prom- 
 ise of  showing  him  where  some  treasures  were  hid,  and 
 then,  with  the  aid  of  the  other  female  captives,  she  de- 
 prived him  of  sight,  having  tiist  murdered  before  his 
 eyes  his  two  sons  who  had  accompanied  him.  {Eu- 
 rip.,  Hec.)  —  Hyginus  gives  a  different  version  of  the 
 legend.  According  to  this  writer,  when  Polydorus 
 was  sent  to  Thrace,  his  sister  Ilione,  apprehensive  of 
 her  husband's  cruelty,  changed  him  for  her  son  Diphi- 
 lus,  who  was  of  the  same  age,  so  that  Polydorus  pass- 
 ed for  her  son,  and  Diphikis  for  her  brother,  the  mon- 
 arch being  altogether  unacquainted  with  the  imposi- 
 tion After  the  destruction  of  Trov,  the  conquerors, 
 who  wished  the  house  and  family  of  Priam  to  be  e.x- 
 tirpated,  offered  Electra,  the  daughter  of  Agamemnon, 
 in  marriage  to  Po!'"nnestor,  if  lie  would  destroy  Ilione 
 and  Polydorus.  The  ""larch  accepted  the  offer,  and 
 immediately  murdered  hu-,  ., .  n  son  Diphilus.  whom  he 
 had  been  taught  to  regard  as  Polydorus.  Polydorus, 
 who  passed  as  the  son  of  Polymnestor,  consulted  the 
 oracle  after  the  murder  of  Diphihis;  and  when  he  was 
 informed  that  his  father  was  dead,  his  mother  a  cap- 
 tive in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  and  his  country  in 
 ruins,  he  communicated  the  answer  of  the  god  to  Ili- 
 one. whom  he  had  always  regarded  as  his  parent.  Il- 
 ione told  him  the  measures  she  had  pursued  to  save 
 his  life,  and  upon  this  he  avenged  the  perfidy  of  Pol- 
 1110 
 
 ymnestor  by  putting  out  his  eyes.  (Hygin.,  Jab., 
 109.) 
 
 Poi.YNicEs,  a  son  of  CEdipus,  king  of  Thebes,  by 
 Jocasta.  He  inherited  his  father's  throne  with  his 
 brother  Eteocles,  and  it  was  agreed  between  the  two 
 brothers  that  they  should  reign  each  a  year  alternate- 
 ly. Eteocles  first  ascended  the  throne  by  right  of  se- 
 niority ;  but,  when  the  year  was  expired,  he  refused  to 
 resign  the  crown  to  his  brother.  Polynices  thereupon 
 fled  to  Argos,  where  he  married  Argia,  the  daughter 
 of  Adrastus,  king  of  the  land.  Adrastus  levied  a  large 
 army  to  enforce  the  claims  of  his  son  in-law  to  the 
 throne,  and  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Thebes.  The 
 command  of  the  army  was  divided  among  seven  chief- 
 tains, who  were  to  attack  each  one  of  the  seven  gates 
 of  the  city.  All  the  Argive  leaders,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  Adrastus,  were  slain,  and  the  war  ended  by  a 
 single  combat  between  Eteocles  and  Polynices,  in 
 which  boih  brothers  fell.     {Vid.  Eteocles.) 
 
 Polyphemus,  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  one  of  the  Cy- 
 clopes in  Sicily.  He  is  represented  as  of  monstrous 
 size,  with  but  one  eye,  and  that  in  the  centre  of  his 
 forehead,  and  as  leading  a  pastoral  life.  According  to 
 the  Homeric  fable,  Ulysses,  on  his  return  from  Troy, 
 was  thrown  upon  that  part  of  the  coast  of  Sicily  which 
 was  inhabited  by  the  Cyclopes;  and  having,  with  twelve 
 of  his  companions,  entered  the  cave  of  Polyphemus 
 during  his  absence,  they  were  found  therein  by  him 
 on  his  return,  and  were  kept  immured  for  the  purpose 
 of  being  devoured.  Four  of  the  companions  of  the 
 Grecian  chief  fell  a  prev  to  the  voracity  of  the  mon- 
 ster ;  and  Ulysses  would  probably  have  shared  the 
 same  fate,  had  he  not  adopted  the  following  expedient. 
 Having  intoxicated  the  Cyclops,  he  availed  himself  of 
 his  state  of  insensibility  to  deprive  him  of  sight,  by 
 means  of  a  large  stake  which  had  been  discovered  in 
 the  cave,  and  which,  after  having  sharpened  it  to  a 
 point  and  heated  it  in  the  fire,  he  plunged  into  his 
 eye.  Polyphemus  roared  so  loudly  with  pam  that  he 
 roused  the  other  Cyclopes  from  their  mountain  re- 
 treats. On  inquiring  the  cause  of  his  outcries,  they 
 were  told  by  Polyphemus  that  No  man  [Ovr:c),  the 
 name  which  Ulysses  had  applied  to  himself,  had  in- 
 flicted the  calamity,  whereupon  they  retired  to  their 
 dens,  recommending  him  to  supplicate  his  father  Nep- 
 tune for  aid,  since  his  malady  came  not,  as  he  himseiJ 
 said,  from  human  hands,  and  must  therefore  be  a  visit- 
 ation from  Jove.  The  monster  then,  having  removed 
 the  immense  stone  which  blocked  up  the  mouth  of  the 
 cave,  placed  himself  at  its  entrance  to  prevent  the  es- 
 cape of  his  enemies,  Ulysses,  however,  eluded  his 
 vigilance  by  fastening  the  sheep  together,  "three  and 
 three,"  with  osier  bands,  and  by  tying  one  of  his  com- 
 panions beneath  the  middle  one  of  every  three.  In 
 this  way  the  whole  party  passed  out  safely,  the  hero 
 himself  bringing  up  the  real,  and  clinging  to  the  belly 
 of  a  thick-fleeced  and  favourite  ram.  (Horn.,  Od.,  9, 
 172,  scgq  )  Virgil  has  embellished  his  iEneid  by  in- 
 terweaving the  story  of  Ulysses  and  the  Cyclops.  He 
 feigns  that  the  prince  of  Ithaca,  in  the  hurry  of  de- 
 parture, had  left  behind  him  one  of  his  followers,  Acha?- 
 menides  by  name,  who,  after  supporting  a  miserable 
 existence  in  the  woods  by  the  meager  fare  of  roots 
 and  berries,  gladly  threw  hirflseif  into  the  hands  of  the 
 Trojsiis  svhen  ^Eneas  was  coasting  along  the  islantj 
 of  Sicily.  {Virg.,  jEn.,  3,  588,  scqg.)  Homer  re- 
 lates, that  it  was  the  wrath  of  Neptune  for  the  injury 
 inflicted  on  his  son  by  Ulysses  that  induced  the  god 
 to  destroy  bis  vessel  on  the  Phaeacian  coast.  {Od., 
 11    101,  segg.—Od.,  5,  286,  segq.) 
 
 PoLYSPERCHON,  an  ^Etolian,  a  general  of  Alexart- 
 der's,  who  commanded  the  Stymph^ans  in  the  battle 
 of  Arbela,  and  afterward  subdued  Bubacene  for  the 
 conqueror.  The  freedom  of  his  remarks  on  a  subso 
 quent  occasion,  when  he  saw  a  Persian  prostratii^ 
 himself  before  Alexander,  so  offended  that  prince,  lii^ 
 
POLYSPERCHON. 
 
 POL 
 
 he  threw  him  into  prison,  and  only  pardoned  him  after 
 le  considerable  time  had  elapsed.  We  find  Polysper- 
 chon,  subsetpently  to  this,  again  iiitnisled  with  a  com- 
 mand, and  sent  to  besiege  the  city  of  Ora,  on  Alex- 
 ander's inaich  to  India.  He  took  the  place  in  a  short 
 time.  After  Alexander's  death,  he  passed  over  into 
 Europe,  and  subdued  the  Thessalians,  who  had  revolted 
 from  the  Macedonian  power.  In  B.C.  319,  Antipa- 
 tcr,  then  on  his  deathbed,  bestowed  the  regency  ol 
 the  eitjpife  on  Polysperchon,  as  the  oldest  ol  all  the 
 surviving  captains  of  Ale.vander,  and  committed  to  his 
 care  the  two  kings,  who  appear  to  have  resided  at 
 Pella  ever  since  the  death  of  Perdiccas.  Cassander, 
 the  son  of  Antipater,  deeply  irritated  at  this  prefer- 
 ence of  a  stranger,  endeavoured  to  form  a  party  against 
 the  new  regent,  and  with  this  view  engaged  Ptolemy 
 and  Antigonus  on  his  side.  Polysperchon,  on  his 
 part,  neglected  nothing  that  was  necessary  to  strength- 
 en his  nUercsts  ;  and  he  found  himself  compelled  to 
 have  recourse  to  measures,  of  which  some  were  inju- 
 dicious, and  others  positively  hurtful.  The  only  wise 
 step  which  he  took  during  this  emergency  was  an  al- 
 liance with  Eumenes,  whom,  in  the  name  of  the  kings, 
 he  appointed  sole  general  of  the  army  serving  in  Asia, 
 and  invested,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  uncontrolled 
 disposal  of  all  the  resources  of  the  eastern  empire. 
 Desirous,  too,  by  all  possible  means,  to  increase  the 
 popularity  of  his  cause  in  Macedon,  and  to  check  the 
 influence  of  Eurydice,  who  had  still  a  powerful  party 
 in  the  army,  Polysperchon  advised  the  recall  of  Olyin- 
 pias,  the  mother  of  Alexander.  But  he  had  soon  rea- 
 son to  repent  of  this  step  ;  for  Olympias,  still  un- 
 taught by  events,  and  thirsting  for  revenge,  returned 
 to  the  Macedonian  capital  only  to  gratify  her  worst 
 passions,  and  to  disturb  the  tranquillity  of  private  life. 
 But  of  all  the  measures  into  which  Polysperchon  was 
 driven  by  the  pressure  of  affairs,  none  was  more  ques- 
 tionable than  the  following.  Eager  to  retain  the 
 Greeks  in  his  interest,  and  to  defeat  the  plans  of  Cas- 
 sander, who,  before  the  death  of  Antipater  was  known 
 at  Athens,  had  sent  Nicanor  thither  to  succeed  Me- 
 ryllus  in  the  command  of  the  garrison  of  Munychia, 
 and  had  soon  after  made  himself  master  of  the  Pirajus, 
 Polysperchon  published  an  edict  for  re-establishing 
 democracy  in  all  the  states  which  owned  the  protec- 
 tion of  Macedon,  The  policy  of  this  step  was  not 
 less  wicked  than  its  efiects  were  pernicious  :  the  boon 
 of  democracy  created  such  a  degree  of  contention  and 
 popular  licentiousness  in  most  of  the  states,  that  the 
 arms  of  the  citizens  were  for  a  time  employed  against 
 one  another.  Almost  every  individual  distinguished 
 by  rank  or  merit  was  stripped  of  his  property,  ban- 
 ished, or  put  to  death.  The  condition  of  Athens,  con- 
 trolled by  the  garrison  in  the  Munychia,  prevented  the 
 people  of  that  city  from  partaking  of  the  benefit  held 
 out  to  them  by  Polysperchon.  But  when  Alexander, 
 tlie  son  o{  the  latter,  reached  Athens  with  a  body  of 
 forces,  the  democracy  was  restored,  and  Phocion  and 
 others  were  put  to  death.  {Vid.  Phocion.)  Cassan- 
 der, however,  soon  after  made  himself  master  of  Ath- 
 ens, and  Polysperchon,  on  receiving  intelligence  of 
 this,  immediately  hastened  to  besiege  him  in  that  city  ; 
 but,  as  the  siege  took  up  much  time,  he  left  part  of 
 his  troops  before  the  place,  and  advanced  with  the 
 rest  into  the  Peloponnesus,  to  force  the  city  of  Mega- 
 lopolis to  surrender.  The  attempt,  however,  was  an 
 unsuccessful  one:  and  it  was  fortunate  for  the  mili- 
 tary character  o(  the  protector  that  an  apology  for  his 
 sudden  retreat  into  Macedon  was  afforded  by  the  vio- 
 lent conduct  of  Olyrnpias,  who  had  already  embroiled 
 that  part  of  the  kingdom  so  seriously  as  to  endanger 
 the  life  and  power  of  the  elder  king.  In  the  contest 
 that  ensued,  Cassander  proved  ultimately  victorious; 
 Olym|)ias  was  taken  and  put  to  death,  and  Polysper- 
 chon, driven  from  Macedon,  took  refuge  amonor  his 
 countrymen  the  ^Etolians.     After  the  murder  of  Al- 
 
 exander /Egus  and  his  mother  Roxana  by  Cassander, 
 Polysperchon,  who  still  retained  some  strongholds  in 
 the  Peloponnesus,  invited  from  Pergamus  Hercules, 
 the  son  of  Alexander  by  Barcine,  four  years  older  than 
 his  brother  recently  murdered,  but  from  the  illegiti- 
 macy of  his  birth  deemed  incapable  of  succession. 
 On  the  arrival  of  the  young  prince,  Polysperchon  be- 
 gan hostile  movements  :  he  obtained  the  hearty  co- 
 operation ol  the  yEtolians;  his  standard  was  joined 
 by  many  malcontents  from  Macedon,  and  he  stood  on 
 the  frontiers  of  that  kingdom  with  an  army  twenty 
 thousand  strong,  while  the  troops  which  Cassander 
 sent  to  oppose  him  wavered  in  their  affections.  The 
 danger  was  imminent ;  but  Cassander  knew  the  man 
 with  whom  he  had  to  deal.  By  bribes  and  promises 
 he  prevailed  upon  Polysperchon  to  murder  the  youth, 
 whom  he  affected  to  honour  as  his  sovereign.  Poly- 
 sperchon, however,  did  not  obtain  the  principal  ob|ect 
 for  which  he  had  been  tempted  to  incur  this  most 
 enormous  guilt.  This  was  the  command  of  the  Pelo- 
 ponnesus, towards  which  country,  with  the  recom- 
 mendation and  aid  of  Cassander,  he  now  directed  his 
 march.  But  the  inhabitants  of  that  peninsula,  assisted 
 by  the  Bceotians,  opposed  his  return  southward.  He 
 was  obliged  to  winter  in  Locris,  and  thence  returned 
 to  a  castle  commanding  a  small  district  between  Epi- 
 rus  and  ./Etolia.  I'he  recovery  of  this  stronghold, 
 which  had  formerly  belonged  to  him,  and  of  which  he 
 had  been  deprived  by  Cassander,  now  rewarded  his 
 detestable  wickedness  ;  and  here  probably  this  vete- 
 ran in  villany,  who  had  once  swayed  the  protcctoral 
 sceptre,  ended  many  years  afterward  his  ignominious 
 life  ;  a  life  deformed  by  everything  atrocious  m  cru- 
 elty and  detestable  in  crime.  (Dwd.  Sic,  lib.  17,  18, 
 19,  &.c—Qmn/.  Curt.,  4,  13.— Id  ,  5,  4.— Id.,  8,  5. 
 —Justin,  10,  10.— W.,  13,  Q—Id.,  14,  .0,  &c.— 
 Tzetz.  in  Lycophr.,  801.) 
 
 Poi.vxE.^A,  a  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  cele- 
 brated tor  her  beauty  and  misfortunes.  According  to 
 the  account  given  by  Dictys  of  Crete,  Hecuba,  accom- 
 panied by  manv  Trojan  females,  and  among  the  rest 
 by  Cassandra  and  Polyxena,  was  performing  certaui 
 sacred  rites  to  Apollo  in  the  vicinity  of  Troy,  when 
 Achilles,  who  was  anxious  to  witness  these  ceremo- 
 nies, came  suddenly  on  the  party  with  some  compan- 
 ions of  his.  Struck  by  the  beauty  of  Polyxena,  the 
 warrior,  alter  fruitlessly  contending  with  his  passion 
 for  a  few  days,  sent  to  ask  the  maiden  in  marriage 
 from  Hector.  The  Trojan  chief  agreed  to  give  his 
 sister,  provided  Achilles  would  betray  to  him  the  whole 
 Grecian  army.  Achilles  returned  for  answer  that  he 
 would  bring  the  whole  war  to  a  cloee  if  Polyxena 
 were  delivered  to  him.  Hector  replied  that  he  must 
 either  betray  the  whole  host,  or  else  slay  the  Atrida; 
 and  Ajax.  This,  of  course,  irritated  Achilles,  and  the 
 negotiation  was  broken  off.  After  the  death  of  Hec- 
 tor, Polyxena,  according  to  the  same  authority,  accom- 
 panied her  father  to  the  tent  of  Achilles,  in  order  to 
 obtain  the  restoration  of  her  brother's  corpse,  and  the 
 Grecian  chieftain,  on  beholding  her,  felt  all  his  former 
 passion  renewed.  Some  time  after  this,  Priam,  taking 
 advantage  of  a  truce  occasioned  by  a  sacrifice  to  the 
 Thymhrean  Apollo,  in  which  both  armies  joined,  sent 
 a  herald  to  Achilles  with  a  private  message  relative  to 
 Polyxena.  The  Grecian  chief  received  the  messenger 
 in  the  grove  of  Apollo,  and,  having  then  entered  the 
 temple,  was  treacherously  slain  by  Paris  and  Deipho- 
 bus.  After  the  capture  of  Troy,  Polyxena  was  immo- 
 lated by  Neoptolemus  to  the  manes  of  his  father. 
 According  to  one  account,  the  shade  of  Achilles  ap- 
 peared oirthe  summit  of  his  tomb,  and  demanded  the 
 sacrifice.     (Diet.  Cret.,  3,  2,  scqq.  —  U  ,  4.  10.— W., 
 
 .5,  13,  &c. Hi/iTin..  fah  .  110. — Tzciz.  ad  Lycophr., 
 
 269.— Ovid,  Met ,  13,  439,  seqq.—Eurip.,  Hcc,  37. 
 —  Virg.,  .En.,  3,  321  ) 
 1       PoLYXo,  I.  a  priestess  of  Apollo's  temple  in  Lem- 
 
 nil 
 
POM 
 
 POM 
 
 nos.  She  was  also  nurse  lo  Queen  Hypsipyle.  It 
 was  by  her  advice  thai  the  Lcinnian  women  in\irdcred 
 their  husbands.  {Apoll.  Khod.,  1,  668. —  Val.  Flacc, 
 2,  316. — Hijg2n.,fah.,  16.) — II.  A  female,  a  native  of 
 Argos,  who  married  Tlepolemus,  son  of  Hercules. 
 When  her  husband  was  com|)elled  to  flee,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  accidental  homicide  of  Licymniiis,  broth- 
 er of  Alcwiena,  Polyxo  accompanied  him  to  Rhodes, 
 where  the  inhabitants  chose  hmi  for  their  king.  On 
 the  death  of  Tlepolemus,  who  fell  in  the  Trojan  war, 
 Polyxo  became  sole  mistress  of  the  kingdom,  and  du- 
 ring her  reign  Helen  came  to  Khodes,  having  been 
 driven  from  the  Peloponnesus,  after  the  death  of  Men- 
 elaus,  by  Nicostratus  and  Megapenlhes.  Polyxo,  de- 
 termined to  avenge  her  husband's  fall,  caused  some  of 
 her  female  attendants  to  habit  themselves  like  Furies, 
 seize  Helen  while  bathing,  and  hang  her  on  a  tree. 
 The  Rhodians  afterward,  m  memory  of  the  deed,  con- 
 secrated a  temple  to  Helen,  giving  her  the  surname  of 
 De7idriUs  (AfvJfurif)  from  the  manner  of  her  death. 
 {Pausa7i,3,  19,  10. — Sichclis  ad  Pausan.,  I.  c. — Bot- 
 iiger,  Funenmaskc,  p.  47,  stq.) 
 
 PoLYZELus,  I.  a  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  who  flour- 
 ished about  the  time  of  the  battle  of  ArginussB.  The 
 titles  of  some  of  his  pieces  have  reached  us.  (Fabric, 
 Bi/il.  Gr.,  V.  2,  p.  488,  ed.  Harks. — Hetnsterhus.  ad 
 Polluc,  10,  76  ) — II.  An  historian,  a  native  of  Rhodes. 
 I  Voss,  Hisl.  Gr.,  3,  p.  40G.—Alhc)i(Bus,  8,  p.  361,  c.) 
 
 PoMETiA.      Vid   Suessa  Pomelia. 
 
 Po.m6.\.\  (from  pomum,  "fruit"),  a  goddess  among 
 the  Romans,  presiding  over  fruit-trees.  Her  worship 
 was  of  long  standing  at  Rome,  where  there  was  a 
 FLamen  Pvmonalis,  who  sacrificed  to  her  every  year 
 for  the  preservation  of  the  fruit.  The  story  of  Pomo- 
 na and  Vertumnus  is  prettily  told  by  Ovid.  This 
 Hamadryad  lived  in  the  time  of  Procas,  king  of  Alba. 
 She  was  devoted  to  the  culture  of  gardens,  to  which 
 she  confined  herself,  shunning  all  society  with  the 
 male  deities.  Vertumnus,  among  others,  was  enam- 
 oured of  her,  and  under  various  shapes  tried  to  win 
 lier  hand  :  sometimes  he  came  as  a  reaper,  sometimes 
 as  a  haymaker,  sometimes  as  a  ploughman  or  a  vine- 
 dresser :  he  was  a  soldier  and  a  fisherman,  but  to 
 equally  little  purpose.  At  length,  under  the  guise  of 
 an  old  woman,  he  won  the  confidence  of  the  goddess  ; 
 and,  by  enlarging  on  the  evils  of  a  single  life  and  the 
 blessings  of  the  wedded  slate  ;  by  launching  out  into 
 the  praises  of  Vertumnus,  and  relating  a  tale  of  the 
 punishment  of  female  cruelty  to  a  lover,  he  sought  to 
 move  the  heart  of  Pomona  :  then  resuming  his  real 
 form,  he  obtained  ihe  hand  of  the  no  longer  reluctant 
 nymph.  [Ovid,  Met.,  14,  623,  scgq.  —  KeAghtley's 
 Mythology,  p.  539.) 
 
 PoMPEiA  Gens,  an  illustrious  plebeian  family  at 
 Rome,  divided  into  two  branches,  the  Riifi  and  Stra- 
 hones.  A  subdivision  of  the  Rufi  bore  the  surname 
 of  Buhynims.  from  a  victory  gained  by  one  of  their 
 number  in  Bithynia.  From  the  line  of  the  Strabones 
 Pompey  the  Great  was  descended.  {Yell.  Paterc,  2, 
 2\.—Putean.  ad  Veil,  I.  c.) 
 
 PoMPEiA,  I.  daughter  of  Q,  Pompeius,  and  third 
 wife  of  Julius  Caesar.  She  was  suspected  of  criminal 
 intercourse  with  Clodius,  who  introduced  himself  into 
 her  dwelling,  during  the  festival  of  the  Bona  Dea,  in 
 the  disguise  of  a  female  musician.  Cssar  divorced 
 Pompeia  ;  but  when  the  trial  of  Clodius  came  on  for 
 this  act  of  impiety,  he  gave  no  testimony  against  him  ; 
 neither  did  he  affirm  thai  he  was  certain  of  any  injury 
 done  to  his  bed  :  he  only  said,  "  he  had  divorced  Pom- 
 peia, because  the  wife  of  Ccssar  ought  not  only  to  be 
 clear  from  such  a  crime,  but  also  from  the  very  suspi- 
 cion of  it."  (Plui.,  Vit.  Cces.—Id,  Vit.  Cic.)—U. 
 Daughter  of  Pompey  the  Great,  was  married  to  Faus- 
 tus  Sylla.  After  the  battle  of  Thapsus,  she  fell  into 
 the  hands  of  Csesar,  who  generously  preserved  her  lil'e 
 and  pioperty.  {Hirt.,  Bell.  Afr.,  95.) — III.  A  daugh- 
 1112 
 
 ter  of  Sextus  Pompeius  and  Scribonia,  promised  iii 
 marriage  to  Metellus,  as  a  pledge  of  peace  between 
 her  fattier  and  the  triumvirs.  She  was  wedded,  how- 
 ever, eventually  to  .Scribonius  Libo. — IV.  Macrina, 
 great-granddaughter  of  Theophanes  of  Miletus,  who 
 had  been  a  firm  friend  to  Pompey.  Tiberius  put  her 
 to  death  because  she  belotiijed  to  a  family  that  had 
 been  hosiile  to  Caesar.      {Tacit  ,  Ann.,  6,  18  ) 
 
 PoMi-EiA  Lex,  I.  de  Parncidio,  a  law  proposed  by 
 Pompey  when  consul,  and  enacted  by  the  people.  It 
 gave  a  wider  acceptation  to  the  term  "  parricide,"  and 
 made  it  apply  to  the  killing  of  any  near  relation. 
 (Heinecc.,  Ant.  livm.,  cd.  Huubold,  ]>.  790.  sf^) — II. 
 Devi,  by  Pompey  when  sole  consul,  A.U.C.  701,  that 
 an  inquiry  should  be  made  into  the  murder  of  Clodius 
 on  the  Appian  Way,  the  burning  of  the  senate-house, 
 and  the  attack  made  on  the  house  of  Lepidus  the  in- 
 terrex.  [Sigonius,  de  Jiiduiis,  2,  33,  p.  676.  — . 
 Heinecc,  ed  Hauhold,  p.  796.) — III.  De  amhitu,  by 
 the  same,  against  bribery  and  corruption  in  elections, 
 with  the  infliction  of  new  and  severe  puriishinents. 
 {Dio  Cass.,  39.  27.— Id.,  40,  52.)— IV.  Juduinrm, 
 by  the  same  ;  retaining  the  Aurelian  law,  but  ordain- 
 ing that  the  Judices  should  be  chosen  from  among 
 those  of  the  highest  fortune  in  the  different  orders. 
 (C2C.  m  Pis.,  '39.— Id.,  Phil.,  1,  8.)— V.  De  Co- 
 mitiis,  by  the  same,  that  no  one  should  be  allowed  to 
 stand  candidate  for  an  office  in  his  absence.  In  this 
 law  Julius  Cffisar  was  expressly  excepted.  {Sueton., 
 Vit.  Jul,  28  -Dig  Cass  ,  40,  66.) 
 
 Pompeii  or  Pompeia  (the  first  being  the  Latin,  the 
 second  the  Greek,  form  of  its  name),  a  city  of  Campa- 
 nia in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  Of 
 this  city  it  may  be  truly  said,  that  it  has  become  far 
 more  celebrated  in  modern  times  than  it  ever  could 
 have  been  in  the  most  flourishing  period  of  its  exist- 
 ence. Tradition  ascribed  the  origin  of  Pompeii,  as 
 well  as  that  of  Herculaneum,  to  Hercules  {Dion.  Hal., 
 c.  44),  and,  like  that  city,  it  was  in  turn  occupied  by 
 the  Oscans,  Etruscans,  Samnites,  and  Romans.  At 
 the  instigation  of  the  Samnites,  Pompeii  and  Hercu- 
 laneum took  an  active  part  in  the  Social  war,  but  were 
 finally  reduced  by  Sylla.  {Veil.  Paterc,  2,  16.)  In 
 the  general  peace  which  followed,  Pompeii  obtained 
 the  rights  of  a  municipal  town,  and  became  also  a  mil- 
 itary colony,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Publius  Sylla, 
 nephew  of  the  dictator.  This  officer  being  accused 
 before  the  senate  of  having  excited  some  tumult  at 
 Pompeii,  was  ably  defended  by  Cicero.  {Oraf.  pro 
 Syll.,  21.)  Other  colonies  appear  to  have  been  subse- 
 quently sent  hither  under  Augustus  and  Nero  In  the 
 reign  of  the  latter,  a  bloody  affray  occurred  at  Pompeii, 
 during  the  exhibition  of  a  fight  of  gladiators,  betweeis 
 the  inhabitants  of  that  place  and  those  of  Nuceria,  in 
 which  many  lives  were  lost.  The  Pompciani  were,  in 
 consequence,  deprived  of  these  shows  for  ten  years, 
 and  several  individuals  were  banished.  {Tac,  Anti.y 
 14,  17.)  Shortly  after,  we  hear  of  the  destruction  of 
 a  considerable  portion  of  the  city  by  an  earthquake. 
 {Tac,  Ann.,  15,  22.  — SfWfc,  Qnest.  ISat..  6.  1.) 
 Of  the  more  complete  catastrophe  which  buried  Pom- 
 peii under  the  ashes  of  Vesuvius,  we  have  no  positive 
 account ;  but  it  is  reasonably  conjectured  thai  it  was 
 caused  bv  the  famous  eruption  in  the  reign  of  Ti- 
 tus. {Vid.  Herculaneum.)  The  ruins  of  Pompeii 
 were  accidentally  discovered  in  1748,  consequently 
 long  after  the  time  of  Cluverius.  It  is  curious  to 
 follow  that  indefatigable  geographer  in  his  search  of  its 
 position,  which  he  finally  fixes  at  Scnfaii,  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Sar7w.  He  would  have  been  more  correct  if 
 he  had  removed  it  about  two  miles  from  that  river,  and 
 placed  it  nearer  the  base  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  (Cra' 
 nic?'*  A71C.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  179  )  The  opinion  gen- 
 erally maintained,  that  the  people  of  this  city  were  sur- 
 prised and  overwhelmed  by  the  volcanic  storm  while 
 in  the  theatre,  is  not  a  very  probable  one.     The  num- 
 
POM 
 
 POMPEIUS. 
 
 ber  of  skeletor.s  discovered  in  Pompeii  does  not  ex- 
 ceed sixty  ;  and  ten  times  this  number  would  be  in- 
 consideral)le,  when  compared  witii  the  extent  and  pop- 
 ulation of  the  city.  Besides,  the  first  agitation  and 
 threatening  aspect  of  the  mountain  must  have  lilled 
 every  breast  with  terror,  and  banished  all  gayety  and 
 amusement.  No  doubt  the  previous  intimations  were 
 of  such  a  nature  as  to  have  fully  apprized  the  inhabi- 
 tants of  their  danger,  and  induced  the  great  mass  of 
 them  to  save  themselves  by  flight.  The  discovery  of 
 Pompeii  (vid.  Hcrculaneuin),  after  having  lain  so  long 
 buried  and  unknown,  has  furnished  us  with  many  cu- 
 rious and  valuable  remains  of  antiquity.  The  excava- 
 tions are  still  continued.  Although  two  thirds  are  still 
 covered,  it  is  estimated  that  the  town  was  three  quar- 
 ters of  a  mile  in  length  by  nearly  half  a  mile  in 
 breadth.  The  walls  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet 
 high,  and  twelve  thick,  and  contained  several  main 
 gates,  of  which  six  have  been  uncovered.  Twenty 
 streets,  fifteen  feet  wide,  paved  with  lava,  and  having 
 footways  of  three  feet  broad,  have  also  been  excava- 
 ted. The  houses  are  joined  together,  and  are  gener- 
 ally only  two  stories,  with  terraces  for  roofs.  The 
 fronts  are  often  shops,  with  inscriptions,  frescoes,  and 
 ornaments  of  every  kind.  The  {)rincipal  rooms  are  in 
 the  rear  :  in  the  centre  is  a  court,  which  often  con- 
 tains a  marble  fountain.  In  some  of  the  houses  the 
 rooms  have  been  found  very  richly  ornamented.  A 
 forum,  surrounded  by  handsome  buildings,  two  thea- 
 tres, temples,  baths,  fountains,  statues,  urns,  utensils 
 of  all  sorts,  &c.,  have  been  discovered.  Most  of  the 
 objects  of  curiosity  have  been  deposited  in  the  nmse- 
 ums  of  Naples  and  Portici  :  among  them  are  a  great 
 number  of  manuscripts.  It  is  certainly  surprising, 
 that  this  most  interesting  city  should  have  remained 
 undiscovered  till  so  late  a  period,  and  that  antiquaries 
 and  learned  men  should  have  so  long  and  materially 
 erred  about  its  situation.  In  many  places,  masses 
 of  ruins,  portions  of  the  buried  theatres,  temples,  and 
 houses,  were  not  two  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
 soil.  The  country  people  were  continually  digging  up 
 pieces  of  worked  marble  and  other  antique  objects. 
 In  several  spots  they  had  even  laid  0[)en  the  outer 
 walls  of  the  town  ;  and  yet  men  did  not  find  out  what 
 it  was  that  the  peculiarly  isolated  mound  of  cinders  and 
 ashes,  earth  and  pumice-stone  covered.  There  is  an- 
 other circumstance  which  increases  the  wonder  of 
 Pompeii  being  so  long  concealed.  A  subterraneous 
 canal,  cut  from  the  river  Sarno,  traverses  the  city,  and 
 is  seen  darkly  and  silently  gliding  under  the  temple 
 of  Isis.  This  is  said  to  have  been  cut  towards  the 
 middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  to  supply  the  contiguous 
 town  of  Torre  delV  Annunziata  with  fresh  water ;  it 
 probably  ran  anciently  in  the  same  channel  ;  but,  in  cut- 
 ting It  or  clearing  it,  workmen  must  have  crossed  un- 
 der Pompeii  from  one  side  to  the  other. — For  a  more 
 detailed  account  of  the  excavations  made  at  this  place, 
 consult  Sir  W.  Gell's  ^' Pompeiana,'^  Lo7id.,  1832, 
 8vo  ;  Within's  Views  of  Pompeii ;  Cooke's  Delinea- 
 twns  {Ijondo7i,  1827,  2  vols,  fol.,  90  plates) ;  Bibent's 
 Plan  of  Pompeii  {Paris,  1826),  showing  the  progress 
 of  the  excavations  from  1763  to  1825  ;  Romanelli, 
 Viaggio  a  Pompci  cd  Ercolavo,  &c. 
 
 PoMPBius,  I.  Q.  Nepos  Rufus,  was  consul  B.C. 
 141,  and  the  first  of  the  Pompeian  family  who  was  ele- 
 vated to  that  high  office.  He  is  said  to  have  attained 
 to  it  by  practising  a  deception  on  his  friend  Lselius, 
 who  was  a  candidate  for  the  same  station,  by  promi- 
 sing to  obtain  votes  for  him,  but  obtaining  them,  in 
 fact,  for  himself  Pompeius  was  sent  into  Spain, 
 where  he  laid  fruitless  siege  to  Numantia:  he  gained, 
 however,  some  slight  advantages  over  the  Edetani. 
 Having  been  continued  in  command  the  ensuino-  year 
 he  again  besieged  Numantia,  and  by  dint  of  intrigues 
 induced  the  inhabitants  to  solicit  a  treaty  of  peace, 
 which  he  granted  them  on  very  advantageous  terms 
 7B 
 
 Not  long  after  this,  however,  when  a  successor  had 
 come,  Pompeius  denied  the  whole  affair,  and  insisted 
 that  the  Numantines  had  surrendered  at  discretion. 
 The  matter  was  laid  before  the  Roman  senate,  and, 
 notwithstanding  the  numerous  proofs  adduced  by  the 
 Numanline  deputies,  it  was  decided  that  no  such  trea^ 
 ty  had  been  made.  Pompeius  was  afterward  accused 
 of  extortion,  but  his  great  wealth  afforded  him  the 
 means  of  acquittal.  He  was  chosen  censor  B  C.  130. 
 {Veil.  Palerc,  2,  \.—Id.,'i,  21. —Id.,  2,  Qit.—  Florus, 
 2,  18.) — II.  Q  Hufus,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  con- 
 sul with  Sylla,  B.C.  88,  and,  together  with  his  col- 
 league, opposed  the  law  by  which  the  tribune  Sulpi- 
 cius  sought  to  extend  the  rights  of  citizenship  to  all  the 
 Italian  allies.  War  having  been  declared  against 
 Mithradates,  and  Asia  and  Italy  being  named  the  prov- 
 inces of  the  consuls,  the  latter  fell  to  the  lot  of  Pom- 
 peius. {Appian,  Bell.  Muh  ,  55  )  Before  Sylla  de- 
 parted for  his  command,  he  endeavoured,  together  with 
 his  colleague,  to  baffle  the  projects  of  Sulpicius  by 
 proclaiming  frequent  holydays,  and  ordering,  conse- 
 quently, a  suspension  of  the  public  business.  But 
 Sulpicius,  on  one  of  these  occasions,  attacked  the  con- 
 suls with  an  armed  force,  calling  upon  them  to  repeal 
 their  proclamation  for  the  festival  ;  and,  on  their  refu- 
 sal, a  riot  ensued,  in  which  Pompeius  escaped  with 
 difficulty  to  a  place  of  concealment;  but  his  son  was 
 killed.  At  a  subsequent  period,  when  Sylla  had  made 
 himself  master  of  Rome  and  re-established  his  party, 
 Pompeius  was  sent  to  take  command  of  the  army,  that 
 was  still  kept  on  foot,  to  oppose  the  remnants  of  the 
 Italian  confederacy.  But  he  was  murdered  by  the 
 troops  as  soon  as  he  arrived  among  them,  the  soldiers 
 having  been  instigated  to  the  deed  by  Cn.  Pompeius, 
 the  general  whom  Quintus  was  to  supersede.  {Ap- 
 pian, Bell.  Civ.,  1,  55,  seqq.—  Vell.  Palerc.,  2,  17. — 
 Liv  ,  Epit.,  77.) — III.  Cn.  Strabo,  father  of  Pompey 
 the  Great,  was  one  of  the  principal  Roman  command- 
 ers in  the  Social  war.  He  brought  the  siege  of  Ascu- 
 lum  to  a  triumphant  issue  {Liv.,  Epil  ,  75,  76),  an 
 event  which  was  peculiarly  gratilying  to  the  Romans, 
 as  that  town  had  set  the  first  example  of  revolt,  and 
 had  accompanied  it  with  the  massacre  of  two  Roman 
 officers  and  a  number  of  Roman  citizens.  He  also 
 gained  a  victory  over  the  Marsi,  and  compelled  that 
 people,  together  with  the  Vestini,  Marrucini,  and  Pe- 
 iigni,  to  make  a  separate  peace.  This  is  the  same 
 Cn.  Pompeiu.s  who  is  mentioned  at  the  close  of  the 
 previous  article  (No.  II  ),  as  having  instigated  his  sol- 
 diery to  murder  Q.  Pompeius,  the  new  commander 
 sent  to  supersede  him.  He  retained,  after  that,  the 
 command  of  the  army  in  TJmbria,  and  was  applied  to 
 by  the  senate  for  aid  against  Cinna ;  but,  being  more 
 anxious  to  make  the  troubles  of  his  country  an  occa- 
 sion of  his  own  advancement,  he  remained  for  some 
 time  in  suspense,  as  if  waiting  to  see  which  party 
 would  purchase  his  services  at  the  highest  price,  and 
 thus  allowed  Cinna  and  his  faction  to  consolidate 
 their  force  beyond  the  possibility  of  successful  resist- 
 ance. At  last,  however,  he  resolved  to  march  to 
 Rome,  and  espouse  the  cause  of  the  senate.  A  battle 
 was  fought  between  his  army  and  that  of  Cinna  im- 
 mediately under  the  walls  of  the  capita!.  But,  though 
 the  slaughter  was  great,  the  event  seems  to  have  been 
 indecisive  ;  and,  soon  after,  Cn.  Pompeius  was  killed 
 by  lightning  in  his  own  tent.  (Veil.  Palerc,  2,  44. 
 —Appinn,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  68  )— According  to  Plutarch, 
 the  Romans  never  entertained  a  stronger  and  more 
 rancorous  hatred  for  any  general  than  for  Pompeius 
 Strabo.  They  dragged  his  corpse  from  the  biei  on 
 the  way  to  the  funeral  pile,  and  treated  it  with  the 
 greatest  indignity.  {Pl"t;  V<t.  Pomp.  vnL)—JV. 
 Cneius,  surnamed  Magnus,  or  "the  Great,"  was  the 
 son  of  Cn.  Pompeius  Strabo  (No.  III.),  and  holds  a 
 conspicuous  rank  in  Roman  history,  by  reason  of  his 
 numerous  exploits,  and,  more  particularly,  his  collision 
 ^  1113 
 
POMPEIUS. 
 
 POMPEIUS. 
 
 with  Julius  Ca5sar.  He  was  born  B.C.  106,  the  same 
 year  with  Cicero.  As  soon  as  he  had  assumed  the 
 maidy  gown,  he  entered  the  Roman  army,  and  made 
 his  first  campaigns  with  great  distinction  under  the 
 orders  of  his  |)arcnt.  The  beauty  of  his  person,  the 
 grace  and  elegance  of  his  manners,  and  his  winning 
 eloquence,  gained  him,  at  an  early  age,  the  hearts  of 
 both  citizens  and  soldiers;  and  he  even,  on  one  occa- 
 KioM,  possessed  sufficient  influence  to  save  the  life- of 
 his  father,  when  Cinria  had  gained  over  some  of  the 
 soldiery  of  Straho,  and  a  mutiny  ensued.  After  the 
 death  of  his  parent,  a  charge  was  preferred  against  the 
 latter  that  he  had  converted  the  public  money  to  his 
 own  use  ;  and  Pompey,  as  his  heir,  was  obliged  to  an- 
 swer it.  But  he  pleaded  his  own  cause  with  so  much 
 ability  and  acuteness,  and  gained  so  much  applause, 
 that  Antistius,  the  praetor,  who  had  the  hearing  of  the 
 cause,  conceived  a  high  regard  for  him,  and  offered 
 him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  After  the  establish- 
 ment of  Cinna's  power  at  Rome,  Pompey  retired  to 
 Picenum,  where  he  possessed  some  property,  and 
 where  his  father's  memory,  hated  as  it  was  by  the 
 Romans,  was  regarded  with  respect  and  affection. 
 To  account  for  this,  we  must  suppose  that,  during  the 
 long  period  of  his  military  command  in  that  neighbour- 
 hood, he  had  prevented  his  soldiers  from  being  bur- 
 densome to  the  people,  and  had  found  means  of  obli- 
 ging or  gratifying  some  of  the  principal  inhabitants. 
 Be  this  as  it  may,  the  son  possessed  so  much  influence 
 in  Picenum  as  to  succeed  in  raising  an  army  of  three 
 legions,  or  about  sixteen  or  seventeen  tliousand  men. 
 With  this  force  he  set  out  to  join  Sylla,  and,  after 
 successfully  repelling  several  attacks  from  the  adverse 
 party,  he  effected  a  junction  with  that  commander, 
 who  received  him  in  the  most  flattering  manner,  and 
 saluted  him,  though  a  mere  youth,  only  23  years  of 
 age,  with  the  title  of  Impcrator.  So  struck,  indeed, 
 was  Sylla  with  the  merits  of  the  young  Roman,  that 
 he  persuaded  Pompey  to  divorce  the  daughter  of  An- 
 tistius, and  marry  ^Emilia,  the  daughter-in-law  of  Syl- 
 la. Three  years  after  this  (B  C.  80),  Pompey  retook 
 Sicily  from  the  partisans  of  Marius,  and  drove  them 
 also  from  Africa,  in  forty  days.  The  Roman  people 
 were  astonished  at  these  rapid  successes,  but  they 
 served  at  the  same  time  to  excite  the  jealousy  of 
 Sylla,  who  commanded  him  to  dismiss  his  forces  and 
 return  to  Rome.  On  his  coming  back  to  the  capital, 
 Pompey  was  received  with  every  mark  of  favour  by 
 Sylla.  According  to  Plutarch,  the  latter  hastened  to 
 meet  hitn,  and,  embracing  him  in  the  most  affectionate 
 manner,  saluted  him  aloud  with  the  surname  of  ''Mag- 
 nus," or  "  the  Great,"  a  title  which  Pompey  thence- 
 forward was  always  accustomed  to  bear.  The  jeal- 
 ousy of  the  dictator,  however,  was  revived  when 
 Pompey  demanded  a  triunifih.  Sylla  declared  to  him 
 that  he  should  oppose  this  claim  with  all  his  power; 
 but  Potnpev  did  not  hesitate  to  reply,  that  the  people 
 were  more  ready  to  worship  the  rising  than  the  setting 
 sun,  and  Sylla  yielded.  F'ompcy  therefore  obtained 
 the  honour  of  a  triumph,  though  he  was  the  first  Ro- 
 man who  had  been  admitted  to  it  without  possessing 
 a  hioher  dignity  than  that  of  knighthood,  and  was  not 
 yet  of  the  legal  age  to  be  received  into  the  senate. 
 Sylla  soon  after  abdicated  the  dictatorship,  and,  at  the 
 consular  election,  had  the  mortification  to  feel  his 
 rival's  ascendancy.  After  the  death  of  Sylla,  Pompey 
 came  to  be  generally  considered  as  chief  of  the  aristo- 
 cratic party,  and  as  heir  of  the  influence  exercised  by 
 Sylla  over  the  minds  of  the  soldiery.  New  troubles 
 soon  broke  out,  occasioned  principally  by  the  ambitious 
 projects  of  the  consul  Lepidus,  who  aimed  at  supreme 
 power  ;  but  he  was  soon  overpowered  by  the  united 
 forces  of  CatuUis  and  Pompey.  A  period  of  quiet 
 now  ensued,  and  Catulus  endeavoured  to  oblige  Pom- 
 pev  to  dismiss  his  troops.  This  the  latter  evaded  un- 
 der various  pretexts,  until  the  progress  of  Serlorius 
 1114 
 
 induced  the  senate  to  send  Pompey,  now  thirty  years 
 of  age,  to  the  support  of  MelcUus,  who  was  unequal  to 
 cope  with  so  able  an  adversary.  He  was  invested  with 
 proconsular  power.  The  two  commanders,  who  acted 
 independently  of  each  other,  though  with  a  mutually 
 good  understanding,  were  bolh  defeated  through  the 
 superior  activity  and  skill  of  Serlorius.  Pompey  lost 
 two  battles,  and  was  personally  in  danger  ;  and  as  long 
 as  Sertorius  w»s  alive,  the  war  was  continued  with 
 little  success.  But  Sertorius  having  been  murdered 
 by  his  own  officers,  and  succeeded  in  the  command 
 by  Perpenna,  Pompey  and  Metellus  soon  brought  the 
 struggle  to  an  end.  On  his  return  to  Italy  the  servile 
 war  was  raging.  Crassus  had  already  gained  a  deci- 
 sive victory  over  Spartacus,  the  leader  of  the  rebels, 
 and  nothing  was  left  for  Pompey  but  to  complete  the 
 destruction  of  the  remnant  of  the  servile  forces;  yet 
 he  assumed  the  merit  of  this  triumph,  and  displayed 
 so  little  moderation  in  his  success,  that  he  was  sus- 
 pected of  wishing  to  tread  in  the  footsteps  of  Sylla. 
 He  triumphed  a  second  time,  and  was  chosen  consul 
 B.C.  70,  although  he  had  yet  held  none  of  those  civil 
 offices,  through  which  it  was  customary  to  pass  to  the 
 consulship.  His  colleague  was  Crassus.  Two  years 
 after  the  expiration  of  this  office,  the  pirates,  encour- 
 aged by  the  Mithradatic  war,  had  become  so  powerful 
 in  the  Mediterranean,  that  they  carried  on  a  regular 
 warfare  along  a  great  extent  of  coast,  and  were  mas- 
 ters of  100(1  galleys  and  400  towns.  The  tribune  Ga- 
 binius,  a  man  devoted  to  the  interests  of  Pompey,  pro- 
 posed that  an  individual  (whose  name  he  did  not  men- 
 tion) should  be  invested  with  extraordinary  powers,  by 
 sea  and  land,  for  three  years,  to  put  an  end  to  the  out- 
 rages ol  the  pirates.  Several  friends  of  the  constitu- 
 tion spoke  with  warmth  against  this  proposition  ;  but 
 it  was  carried  by  a  large  majority,  and  the  power 
 was  conferred  on  Pompey,  w'lth  the  title  of  procon- 
 sul. In  four  months  he  cleared  the  sea  of  the  ships 
 of  the  pirates,  got  possession  of  their  fortresses  and 
 towns,  set  free  a  great  number  of  prisoners,  and  took 
 captive  20,000  pirates,  to  whom,  no  less  prudently  than 
 humanely,  he  assigned  the  coast-towns  of  Cilicia  and 
 other  provinces,  which  had  been  abandoned  by  their 
 inhabitants,  and  thus  deprived  them  of  an  opportunity 
 of  returning  to  their  former  course.  Meanwhile  the 
 war  against  Mithradates  had  been  carried  on  with  va- 
 rious fortune  ;  and  although  Lucullus  had  pushed  the 
 enemy  hard,  yet  the  latter  still  found  new  means  to 
 continue  the  contest.  The  tribune  Manilius  then 
 proposed  that  Pom])ey  should  be  placed  over  Lucullus 
 in  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Mithradates  and  Ti- 
 granes,  and  likewise  over  all  the  other  Roman  gener- 
 als in  the  Asiatic  provinces,  and  that  all  the  armies  in 
 that  quarter  should  be  under  his  control,  at  the  same 
 time  that  he  retained  the  supreme  command  by  sea. 
 This  was  a  greater  accumulation  of  power  than  had 
 ever  been  intrusted  to  any  Roman  citizen,  and  several 
 distinguished  men  were  resolved  to  op|)ose  a  proposi- 
 tion so  dangerous  to  freedom  with  their  whole  influ- 
 ence :  but  Pompey  was  so  high  in  the  popular  favour, 
 that,  on  the  dav  appointed  for  considering  the  proposi- 
 tion, only  Hortensius  and  Catulus  had  the  courage  to 
 speak  against  it;  while  Cicero,  who  hoped  to  obtain 
 the  consulship  through  the  support  of  the  Pompeian 
 partv,  advocated  it  with  all  his  eloquence,  and  C.'Esar, 
 to  whom  such  deviations  from  the  constitution  were 
 acceptable,  used  all  his  influence  in  favour  of  it.  Ci- 
 cero's oration  Pro  Lege  Manilia  contains  a  sketch  of 
 Pompey's  public  life,  with  the  most  splendid  eulogy 
 that  perhaps  was  ever  made  on  any  individual.  The 
 law  was  adopted  by  all  the  tribes,  and  Pompey,  with 
 assumed  reluctance,  yielded  to  the  wishes  of  his  fel- 
 low-citizens. He  arrived  in  Asia  B.C.  67,  and  re- 
 ceived the  command  from  Lucullus,  who  was  the  less 
 able  to  conceal  his  chagrin,  as  Pompey  industriously 
 abolished  all  his  regulations.     The  operations  of  Pom- 
 
POMPEIUS. 
 
 POMPEIUS. 
 
 pey,  in  bringing  the  Milhradatic  war  to  a  close,  have 
 been  related  elsewhere.  ( Firf.  Mithradates  VI.)  Af- 
 ter Pompey  had  settled  the  alTairs  of  Asia,  he  visited 
 Greece,  where  he  disi)layed  his  respect  for  philosophy 
 by  making  a  valuable  gift  to  the  city  of  Athens.  On 
 his  return  to  Italy,  he  dismissed  his  army  as  soon  as 
 he  landed  at  Brundisium,  and  entered  Rome  as  a  pri- 
 vate man.  The  whole  city  met  him  with  acclama- 
 tions ;  his  claim  of  a  trmmph  was  admitted  without  op- 
 position, and  never  had  Rome  yet  witnessed  such  a 
 display  as  on  the  two  days  of  his  triumphal  procession. 
 Pompey's  plan  was  now,  under  the  a[)pearance  of  a 
 private  individual,  to  maintain  the  first  place  in  the 
 state  ;  hut  he  found  obstacles  on  every  side.  Lucul- 
 lus  and  Crassus  were  superior  to  him  in  wealth  ;  the 
 zealous  republicans  looked  upon  him  with  suspicion  ; 
 and  Csesar  was  laying  the  foundation  of  his  future 
 greatness.  The  last-mentioned  individual,  on  his  re- 
 turn from  Spain,  aspired  to  the  consulship.  To  ef- 
 fect this  purpose,  he  reconciled  Pompey  and  Crassus 
 with  each  other,  and  united  them  in  forming  the  co- 
 alition which  is  known  in  history  under  the  name  of 
 the  First  Triumvirate.  He  was  chosen  consul  B.C. 
 59,  and,  by  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Julia  with 
 Pompey  (xi^milia  having  died  in  childbed),  seemed 
 to  have  secured  his  union  with  the  latter.  From  this 
 time  Pompey  countenanced  measures  which,  as  a  good 
 citizen,  he  should  have  opposed  as  subversive  of  free- 
 dom. He  allowed  his  own  eulogist,  Cicero,  to  be 
 driven  into  banishment  by  the  tribune  Clodius,  whom 
 he  had  attached  to  his  interest  ;  but,  having  after- 
 ward himself  quarrelled  with  Clodius,  he  had  Cicero 
 recalled.  He  supported  the  illegal  nomination  of  Cae- 
 sar to  a  five  years'  command  in  Gaul  ;  the  fatal  con- 
 sequences of  which  compliance  appeared  but  too 
 plainly  afterward. — The  fall  of  Crassus  in  Parthia  left 
 hut  two  masters  to  the  Roman  world  ;  and,  on  the 
 death  of  Julia  in  childbed,  these  friends  became  rivals 
 {EncyrJop.  Americ,  vol.  10,  p.  239,  scqq.)  Poinpey's 
 studied  deference  to  the  senate  secured  his  intluenfe 
 with  that  body  ;  and  he  gained  the  good-will  of  the 
 people  by  his  judicious  discharge  of  the  duties  of  com- 
 missary of  supplies  during  a  time  of  scarcity.  In  the 
 mean  time,  he  secretly  fomented  the  disorders  of  the 
 state,  and  the  abuses  practised  in  the  filling  up  the 
 magistracies,  many  of  which  remained  vacant  for  eight 
 months,  and  others  were  supplied  by  insufficient  and 
 ignorant  persons,  through  the  disgust  of  those  who 
 were  capable  of  sustaining  them  with  ability  and  hon- 
 our. The  friends  of  Pompey  whispered  about  the  ne- 
 cessity of  a  dictator,  and  pointed  to  him  as  the  man 
 whose  great  services,  and  whose  devotion  to  the  sen- 
 ate and  the  people,  entitled  him  to  expect  the  general 
 suti'rage  ;  while  he  himself  appeared  to  decline  the  sta- 
 tion, and  even  made  a  show  of  being  indignant  at  the 
 proposal.  His  position  at  Rome,  while  CsBsar  was 
 absent  in  his  province,  was  singularly  advantageous  to 
 his  pretensions:  he  had,  in  fact,  always  kept  himselt 
 in  the  public  eye  ;  and  ni  the  triumvirate  division  of 
 power,  which  he  had  himself  planned  (B.C.  .50),  in  or- 
 der to  strengthen  his  own  influence  by  the  rising  tal- 
 ents and  activity  of  Cresar.  and  the  high  birth  and 
 riches  of  Crassus,  he  had  taken  care  to  reserve  to  him- 
 self Rome,  where  he  continued  to  reside,  governing 
 the  Spains  by  his  lieutenants,  while  he  despatched 
 Crassus  to  Asia  and  Caesar  to  the  Gauls.  He  had 
 also  acquired  a  popularity  by  rescinding,  under  one  of 
 his  consulships,  the  law  which  SvUa,  for  his  own  pur- 
 poses, had  enacted,  to  restrain  the  power  of  the  tri- 
 bunes of  the  commons.  At  this  time  he  gratified  both 
 senate  and  people  by  procuring,  through  the  agency  of 
 the  tribune  Milo  (B.C.  57),  the  recall  of  Cicero  from 
 the  banishment  into  which  he  had  been  driven  by 
 the  tribune  Clodius,  on  a  charge  of  having  executed 
 Cethegus  and  Lentulus  (implicated  in  the  Catilinarian 
 conspiracy)  without  the  forms  of  law.     Cicero  had 
 
 provoked  the  enmity  of  Clodius  by  prosecuting  him 
 lor  intruding,  in  the  disguise  of  a  musician,  into  a  fe 
 male  religious  assembly,  where  he  sought  an  assigna 
 tion  with  Pumpeia,  the  wife  of  Csesar.  Ca?sar,  though 
 he  divorced  the  lady,  with  the  observation  that  '•  Cse 
 sar's  wife  should  not  even  be  suspected,"  overlooked 
 the  affront  of  Clodius  to  himself,  withheld  his  own  ev- 
 idence against  him  at  the  trial,  and  even  furthered  his 
 election  to  the  tribuneship.  He  was  actuated  in  this 
 by  resentment  towards  Cicero,  who  had  termed  the 
 triumvirate  a  conspiracy  against  the  public  liberty  ;  and, 
 under  a  similar  feeling,  Pompey  had  at  first  connived 
 at  Cicero's  banishment  (B.C.  58) ;  but,  as  Clodius, 
 who  had  seized  Cicero's  villas  and  confiscated  his  prop 
 erty,  began  to  carry  himself  arrogantly  towards  Pom- 
 pey, and  conceive  himself  his  equal,  Pompey,  as  has 
 been  said,  within  two  years  procured  the  decree  to  be 
 reversed.  The  sequel  of  this  intrigue  was  such  as  to 
 accelerate  his  advance  to  the  dictatorship.  Clodius, 
 as  he  was  returning  to  Rome  on  horseback  from  the 
 country,  was  set  upon  and  murdered  by  Milo  and  some 
 attendants,  who  were  quitting  the  city.  As  Milo  was 
 on  his  way  to  his  native  town,  in  disgust  at  the  perfidy 
 of  Pompey,  who  had  disappointed  him  of  the  consul- 
 ship promised  as  the  price  of  his  services,  it  should 
 not  seem  that  this  affray  was  the  result  of  Poinpey's 
 instigation.  The  populace,  struck  with  consternation, 
 passed  the  night  in  the  streets,  and,  with  the  dawn  of 
 day,  brought  in  the  body  of  Clodius.  At  the  sugges- 
 tion of  some  tribunes,  his  friends,  it  was  carried  into 
 the  senate-house,  either  to  intimate  suspicion  of  the 
 senate,  or  in  honour  of  the  senatorian  rank  of  the  de- 
 ceased. Here  the  benches  were  torn  up,  a  pile  con- 
 structed, and  the  body  consumed;  but  the  conflagra- 
 tion caught  the  senate-house  and  several  adjoining 
 buildings.  Milo,  less  apprehensive  of  punishment  than 
 irritated  at  the  respect  paid  to  Clodius,  returned  to  the 
 city  with  his  colleague  Csecilius,  and,  distributing 
 money  to  a  part  of  the  multitude,  addressed  them  from 
 the  tribunal  as  if  they  were  a  regular  assembly  ;  ex- 
 cusing the  affair  as  an  accidental  rencounter,  and  en- 
 deavouring to  obtain  a  verdict  of  acquittal  :  he  ended 
 with  inveighing  against  Clodius.  While  he  was  ha- 
 ranguing, the  rest  of  the  tribunes,  and  that  part  of  the 
 populace  which  had  not  been  bribed,  rushed  into  the 
 forum  armed  :  Milo  and  CiEcilius  put  on  slaves'  habits 
 and  escaped  ;  but  a  bloody,  indiscriminate  assault  was 
 made  on  the  other  citizens,  of  which  the  friends  of  Milo 
 were  not  alone  the  objects,  but  all  who  passed  by  or 
 fell  in  the  way  of  the  rioters,  especially  those  who  were 
 splendidly  dressed  and  wore  gold  rings.  The  tumult 
 continued  several  days,  during  which  there  was  a  sus- 
 pension of  all  government ;  stones  were  thrown  and 
 weapons  drawn  in  the  streets,  and  houses  set  on  lire. 
 The  slaves  armed  themselves,  and,  breaking  into  dwell- 
 ings under  pretence  of  searching  for  Milo,  carried  off 
 everything  of  value  that  was  portable.  The  senate 
 assembled  in  a  state  of  great  terror,  and,  turni?)g  their 
 eyes  upon  Pompey,  proposed  to  him  the  acceptance  of 
 the  dictatorship.  But,  by  the  persuasion  of  Cato,  they 
 invested  him  with  the  same  power  under  the  title  of 
 Sole  Consul.  This  was  probably  with  the  secret  un- 
 derstanding of  Pompey  himself,  as  the  title  of  dictator 
 had  become  odious  since  the  tyranny  of  Sylla.  That 
 Pompey  and  Cato  were  in  agreement,  appears  from 
 this  :  that  the  vote  of  the  latter  was  recompensed  by 
 the  appointment  of  quaestor  to  Cyprus  ;  the  senate 
 having  decreed  the  reduction  of  that  island  to  a  Roman 
 province,  and  the  confiscation  of  the  treasures  of  King 
 Ptolemv,  on  account  of  the  exorbitant  ransom  demand- 
 ed for  Clodius  when  taken  by  pirates.  Pompey  pro- 
 ceeded to  restore  order  and  to  pass  popular  acts.  He 
 condemned  Milo  for  murder.  He  framed  a  law  against 
 briberv  and  corruption,  and  instigated  an  inquiry  into 
 the  acts  of  administration  of  all  who  had  held  magis 
 tracies  from  the  time  of  his  own  first  consulship 
 
 ins 
 
POMPEIUS. 
 
 POMPEIUS. 
 
 This,  although  plausibly  directed  at  what  Pompey 
 justly  called  llie  root  of  the  stale  disorders,  seemed  to 
 be  aimed  coverily  at  Caesar ;  though  Pompey  appeared 
 offended  at  the  suggestion,  and  affected  to  consider 
 C«sar  as  above  suspicion.  He  presided  in  the  court 
 during  the  trials  with  a  guard,  that  the  judges  might 
 not  be  intimidated.  Several,  convicted  of  intrigue  and 
 malversation,  were  banished,  and  others  fined.  With 
 a  great  ap|)e.arance  of  moderation,  he  declined  to  hold 
 the  single  consulship  to  the  e.xtent  of  the  full  period, 
 and  for  the  rest  of  the  year  adoj)tcd  his  father-in-law, 
 Lucius  Sc  pio,  as  his  colleague  ;  but,  even  after  the 
 leturn  to  the  regular  consulships,  as  well  as  for  the 
 months  during  which  Scipio  was  associated  with  him- 
 self in  office,  he  continued,  in  reality,  to  direct  the  af- 
 fairs of  state.  The  senate  gave  him  two  additional 
 legions,  and  prolonged  his  command  in  his  provinces. 
 Hitherto  Pompey  had  proceeded  with  infinite  address; 
 but  the  craftiness  of  his  policy  was  no  match  for  the 
 frankness  and  directness  of  that  of  C»sar,  who  acted 
 in  this  conjuncture,  so  critical  to  the  Roman  liberty, 
 with  a  real  moderation  and  candour  that  absolutely 
 disconcerted  his  rival.  Cajsar,  indeed,  who  was  made 
 acquainted,  liy  the  exiles  that  flocked  to  his  camp,  with 
 everything  passing  at  Rome,  and  who  found  himself 
 obliged  to  stand  on  the  defensive,  availed  himself  of 
 the  means  which  his  acquired  wealth  placed  in  his 
 hands,  and  which  the  practice  of  the  age  too  much 
 countenanced,  to  divide  the  hostile  party  by  buying 
 off  the  enmity  of  some  of  them  newly  elected  to  office. 
 Aware  of  the  cabals  which  were  forming  against  him, 
 Ca3sar  knew  that,  in  returning  to  a  private  station,  he 
 should  be  placed  at  the  feet  of  Pompey  and  his  party  . 
 he  therefore  resisted  the  decree  of  his  recall  till  he 
 could  assure  himself  of  such  conditions  as  would  pre- 
 vent his  obedience  from  being  attended  with  danger. 
 His  demands  were  reasonable;  his  propositions  fair 
 and  open,  and  his  desire  of  effecting  a  compromise 
 apparently  sincere.  The  unintermitted  continuation 
 of  a  consul's  office  through  several  years,  and  even 
 his  creation  in  his  absence,  were  not  unconstitutional : 
 both  had  been  granted  to  Marius  ;  and  Cajsar  him- 
 self had  been  re-elected,  while  absent,  by  the  ten 
 tribunes  ;  Pompey,  when  he  brought  in  the  law  against 
 allowing  absent  candidates  to  stand,  having  made  a 
 special  exception  in  favour  of  Caesar,  and  recorded 
 it.  His  requests  that  he  might  stand  for  the  con- 
 sulship in  his  absence ;  that  he  might  retain  his  army 
 till  chosen  consul ;  that  he  might  have  his  command 
 prolonged  in  the  province  of  Hither  Gaul,  should 
 that  of  Farther  Gaul  not  be  also  conceded  to  him, 
 were  refused.  In  the  irritation  of  the  moment,  he 
 U  said  to  have  grasped  the  hilt  of  his  sword,  and  ejac- 
 ulated, "This  shall  give  it  me."  Curio,  in  the  mean 
 time,  loudly  protested  against  Cffisar's  being  recalled, 
 unless  Pompey  would  also  disband  his  legions  and  re- 
 sign his  provinces ;  and  the  people  were  so  satisfied 
 with  the  equity  of  the  proposal,  that  they  accompanied 
 the  tribune  to  his  own  door,  and  strewed  flowers  in  his 
 way.  Pompey  professed  that  he  had  received  his  com- 
 mand against  his  will,  and  that  he  would  cheerfully  lay 
 St  down,  though  the  time  was  not  yet  expired  ;  thus 
 contrasting  his  own  moderation  with  the  unwillingness 
 of  Caesar  to  relinquish  office,  even  at  the  termination 
 of  the  full  period.  Curio,  however,  contended  openly 
 that  the  promise  was  not  to  be  taken  for  the  perform- 
 ance ;  but  exclaimed  against  Pompey's  avarice  of 
 power ;  and  urged  with  such  adroitness  the  necessity 
 either  of  both  retaining  their  commands,  that  the  one 
 might  be  a  check  on  any  unconstitutional  designs  of 
 ihe  other,  or  of  both  alike  resigning,  that  he  brought 
 the  senate  over  to  his  opinion,  the  consul  Marcellus 
 bitterly  observing  to  the  majority,  "  Take  your  victory, 
 and  have  Cssar  for  your  master."  But  on  a  rumour 
 that  Csesar  had  crossed  the  Alps  and  was  on  his  march 
 to  Romii,  the  consul  ran  to  Pompey,  and,  presenting  him 
 1116 
 
 with  a  sword,  said,  "  We  order  you  to  march  against 
 Caesar  and  fight  for  your  country."  Curio  fled  to 
 Cajsar,  who  had  lately  returned  from  Britain,  and  was 
 approaching  Ravenna  ;  and  urged  him  to  draw  loneth- 
 er  his  forces  and  advance  upon  Rome.  But  Csesar 
 was  still  apparently  anxious  for  peace;  and  sent,  hv 
 Curio,  letters  to  the  senate,  in  which  he  distinctly  of- 
 fered to  resign  his  command,  provided  Pompey  would 
 do  the  same  ;  otherwise  he  would  not  only  retain  it,  but 
 would  come  in  person,  and  revenge  the  injuries  offered 
 to  himself  and  to  the  country.  This  was  received  with 
 loud  cries,  as  a  declaration  of  war  ;  and  Lucius  Domi- 
 titis  was  appointed  as  Caesar's  successor,  and  ordered  to 
 march  with  tour  thousand  new-raised  troops.  Neither 
 the  senate  nor  Pompey  seem  to  have  been  in  the  least 
 prepared.  Pompey,  with  his  usual  art,  had  redemanded 
 from  C*sar  the  legion  which  he  had  lent  him,  on  pre- 
 tence of  an  expedition  to  Syria  against  the  Parthians. 
 CtBsar  had  not  only  sent  back  the  legion,  but  added 
 another  of  his  own.  They  halted  at  Capua,  and  spread 
 the  report,  either  from  ignorance,  or,  as  they  were 
 handsomely  paid  by  Caesar,  probably  from  instructions 
 given  thetn,  that  Caesar's  army  was  disaffected  to  him, 
 and,  if  occasion  served,  would  gladly  come  over  to 
 Pompey.  His  credulity  and  security  were  such,  that 
 he  neglected  to  make  the  necessary  levies  till  the  op- 
 portunity was  lost.  While  he  was  at  last  exerting 
 himself,  under  the  authority  of  the  senate,  in  collecting 
 13,000  veterans  from  Thessaly,  and  mercenaries  from 
 fereign  nations,  and  in  making  forced  coiuributions  of 
 money  and  munitions  of  war  in  the  cities  of  Italy, 
 Caesar,  leaving  his  commanders  to  concentrate  and 
 hasten  the  march  of  the  rest  of  his  army,  took  the  field 
 with  some  cavalry  and  a  division  of  5000  men.  He 
 sent  forward  a  picked  detachment  to  surprise  Arimi- 
 num,  the  first  Italian  city  after  passing  the  frontier 
 of  Gaul,  and,  throwing  himself  into  his  chariot  while 
 his  friends  were  sitting  at  the  supper-table,  crossed 
 the  Rubicon,  with  the  exclamation,  "  The  die  is  cast." 
 When  the  news  reached  Rome,  the  senate  repented 
 their  rejection  of  Caesar's  equitable  pro[)osals ;  and 
 Cicero  moved  that  an  embassy  should  be  sent  to  him 
 to  treat  for  peace,  but  was  overruled  by  the  consuls. 
 Pompey  had  boasted  that,  if  need  were,  he  could  raise 
 an  army  by  stamping  with  his  foot;  and  Favonius  re- 
 minded him,  in  a  tone  of  raillery,  that  "it  was  high 
 time  for  him  to  stamp."  Domitius,  who  had  been  sent 
 to  supersede  Ca3sar,  was  by  him  besieged  in  Corfinium, 
 taken  prisoner,  and  honourably  dismissed,  his  troops 
 going  over  to  Caesar.  Pompey,  with  the  consuls,  and 
 the  greater  part  of  the  senate  and  the  nobility,  aban- 
 doned Rome  and  passed  over  into  Greece.  On  enter- 
 ing Rome,  Caesar  was,  by  the  remnant  of  the  senate, 
 created  dictator ;  but  he  iield  the  office  only  eleven 
 days,  exchanging  it  for  that  of  consul,  and  taking  Ser- 
 vilius  as  his  colleague.  Having  seized  the  treasury, 
 and  secured  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  the  granaries  of  Rome, 
 by  appointing  hfs  governors,  he  set  out  for  Sfiain, 
 where,  in  the  hither  province,  he  reduced,  by  cutting 
 off  their  supplies,  the  Pompeian  army  under  Petreius 
 and  Afranius,  consisting  of  five  legions,  whom  he  dis- 
 missed in  safety,  and  allowed  to  join  Pompey  ;  and  in 
 the  farther  province  he  compelled  the  surrender  of  Var- 
 ro  with  his  legion.  It  is  singular  that  his  lieutenants 
 were  everywhere  unsuccessful  :  Dolabella  and  Caius 
 Antonius,  who  had  it  in  charge  to  secure  the  Adriatic, 
 were  surrounded  with  a  superior  fleet  by  Pompey's 
 lieutenant,  Octavius  Libo  ;  Domitius  lost  an  army  in 
 Pontus  ;  and  Curio,  in  Africa,  after  his  troops  had  suf- 
 fered much  by  drinking  of  poisoned  waters,  risked  a 
 rash  action  with  Varus  and  Juba,  king  of  Mauritania, 
 the  ally  of  Pompey,  and  was  slain.  Caesar  himself  ex- 
 perienced a  reverse  in  lUyricum,  where,  his  army  being 
 reduced  to  such  straits  as  to  eat  bread  made  with  herbs, 
 he  assaulted,  near  Dyrrachium,  the  intrenched  camp 
 of  Pompey,  whose  policy  had  been  to  decline  a  battle, 
 
POMPEIUS. 
 
 POMPEIUS. 
 
 and  was  repulsed,  with  the  general  panic  of  his  troops 
 and  the  loss  of  many  standards  ;  and  his  own  camp 
 would  have  been  taken  if  Pompey  had  not  drawn  off 
 his  forces  in  apprehension  of  an  ambuscade  ;  on  which 
 (Ja-sar  remarked  that  "  the  war  could  have  been  at  an 
 end,  if  Pompey  knew  how  to  use  victory."  Caesar 
 retreated  into  Thessaly,  and  was  followed  by  Pompey. 
 A  general  battle  was  fought  on  the  plains  of  Pharsa- 
 lus  ;  the  army  of  Pompey  bemg  greatly  superior  in 
 numbers,  as  it  consisted  of  40,000  fool  and  12,000 
 horse,  composed  of  the  transmarme  legions  and  the 
 auxiliary  forces  of  different  knigsand  tetrarchs  ;  while 
 that  of  Caesar  did  not  exceed  30,000  foot  and  1000 
 horse.  Pompey  was,  however,  out-manoeuvred,  his 
 artny  thrown  into  total  rout,  his  camp  pillaged,  and 
 himself  obliged  to  fly,  leaving  the  field  with  only  his 
 son  Sextus  and  a  few  followers  of  rank.  He  set  sail 
 from  Mytilene,  having  taken  on  board  his  wife  Cor- 
 nelia, and  made  for  Egypt,  intending  to  claim  the  hos- 
 pitality of  the  young  King  Ptolemy,  to  whom  the  sen- 
 ate had  appointed  him  guardian.  As  he  came  near 
 Mount  Casius,  the  Egyptian  army  was  seen  on  the 
 shore,  and  their  fleet  lying  off  at  some  distance,  when, 
 presently,  a  boat  was  observed  approaching  the  ship 
 from  the  land.  The  persons  in  the  boat  invited  him 
 to  enter,  for  the  purpose  of  landing  ;  but,  as  he  was 
 slefiping  ashore,  he  was  stabbed  in  the  sight  of  his  wife 
 and  son  ;  and  his  head  and  ring  were  sent  to  Caesar, 
 who,  shedding  tears,  turned  away  his  face,  and  ordered 
 the  head  to  be  burned  with  perfumes  in  the  Roman 
 method. — (Elton's  Roman  Emperors,  p.  4,  scqq.,  In- 
 Irod.)  —  Cornelia  and  her  friends  instantly  put  to  sea, 
 and  escaped  the  pursuit  of  the  Egyptian  fleet,  which 
 at  first  tlireatened  to  intercept  them.  Their  feelings, 
 as  is  natural,  were,  for  the  moment,  so  engrossed  by 
 their  own  danger  that  they  could  scarcely  compre- 
 hend the  full  extent  of  their  loss  (C«c.,  Tusc.  Disp  , 
 3,  27) ;  nor  was  it  till  they  reached  the  port  of  Tyre 
 in  safely  that  grief  succeeded  to  apprehension,  and 
 they  oegan  to  understand  what  cause  they  had  for  sor- 
 row. But  the  tears  that  were  shed  for  Pompey  were 
 not  only  those  of  domestic  affliction  ;  his  fate  called 
 forth  a  more  general  and  honourable  mourning.  No 
 man  had  ever  gained,  at  so  early  an  age,  the  affections  of 
 his  countrymen  ;  none  had  enjoyed  them  so  largely,  or 
 preserved  them  so  long  with  so  little  interruption  ;  and, 
 at  the  distance  of  eighteen  centuries,  the  feeling  of 
 his  contemporaries  may  be  sanctioned  by  the  sober 
 judgment  of  history.  He  entered  upon  public  life 
 as  a  distinguished  member  of  an  oppressed  parly, 
 which  was  just  arriving  at  its  hour  of  triumph  and 
 retaliation  ;  he  saw  his  associates  plunged  in  rapine 
 and  massacre,  but  he  preserved  himself  pure  from 
 the  contagion  of  their  crimes  ;  and  when  the  death 
 of  Sylla  left  him  at  the  head  of  the  aristocratical 
 party,  he  served  them  ably  and  faithfully  with  his 
 sword,  while  he  endeavoured  to  mitigate  the  evils  of 
 their  ascendancy,  by  restoring  to  the  commons  of 
 Home,  on  the  earliest  opportunity,  the  most  important 
 of  those  privileges  and  liberties  which  thev  had  lost 
 under  the  lyrannv  of  their  late  master.  He  received 
 the  due  rewanl  of  his  honest  patriotism  in  the  unusual 
 honours  and  trusts  that  were  conferred  upon  him  ;  but 
 his  greatness  could  not  corrupt  his  virtue;  and  the 
 boundless  powers  with  which  he  was  repeatedly  in- 
 vested, he  wielded  with  the  highest  ability  and  up- 
 rightness to  the  accomplishment  of  his  task,  and  then, 
 without  any  utidue  attempts  to  prolong  their  duration, 
 he  honestly  resigned  them.  At  a  period  of  general 
 cruelly  and  extortion  towards  the  enemies  and  sub- 
 jects of  the  commonwealth,  the  character  of  Pompey, 
 in  his  foreign  commands,  was  marked  by  its  humanity 
 and  spotless  integrity  ;  his  conquest  of  the  pirates  was 
 effected  with  wonderful  rapidity,  and  cemented  by  a 
 merciful  policy,  which,  instead  of  taking  vengeance 
 for  the  past,  accomplished  the  prevention  of  evil  for  the 
 
 future-,  his  piesence  in  Asia,  when  he  conducted  the 
 war  witii  Mithradates,  was  no  less  a  relief  to  the  prov- 
 inces from  the  tyranny  of  their  governors,  than  it  was 
 their  protection   from  the  arms  of  the  enemy.      It  is 
 true  that  wounded  vanity  led  him,  after  his  return  from 
 Asia,  to  unite  himself,  lor  a  lime,  with  some  unworthy 
 associates  ;   and  this  connexion,  as  it  ultimately  led  to 
 all  the  misfortunes,  so  did  it  immediately  tenipl  him 
 to  the  worst  faults  of  his  political  life,  and   involved 
 him  in  a  career  of  difficulty,  mortification,  and  shame. 
 But  after  this  disgraceful  fall,  he  again  returned  to  his 
 natural  station,  and  was  universally  regarded  as  the  fit 
 protector  of  the  laws  and  liberty  of  his  country,  when 
 they   were   threatened   by  Casar's  rebellion.     In  the 
 conduct  of   the  civil    war  he   showed   something  of 
 weakness   and   vacillation  ;    but  his    abilities,  though 
 considerable,  were  far  from  equal   to  those  of  his  ad- 
 versary ;  and  his  inferiority  was  most  seen  in  that  want 
 of  steadiness  in  the  pursuit  of  his  own   plans,  which 
 caused   h;m   to  abandon  a  system   already  sanctioned 
 by  success,  and  to   [lersuade  himself  that  he   might 
 yield  with  propriety  to  the  ill-judged  impatience  of  his 
 followers  for  battle.      His  death  is  one  of  the  few  tra- 
 gical events  of  those   times  which   may  be  regarded 
 with  unmixed  compassion.      It  was  not  accompanied, 
 like  that  of  Cato  and  Brutus,  with  the  rashness  and 
 despair  of  suicide  ;   nor  can   it  be  regarded,  like  that 
 of  Csesar,  as  the  punishment  of  crimes,  unlawfully  in- 
 flicted, indeed,  yet  suffered  deservedly.      With  a  char- 
 acter of  rare  purity  and  tenderness  in  all  his  domestic 
 relations,  he  was   slaughtered   before  the  eyes  of  his 
 wife  and  son  ;   while  flyirig  from   the  ruin  of  a  most 
 just  cause,  he  was  murdered  by  those  whose  kindness 
 he  was  entitled  to  claim.      His  virtues  have  not  been 
 transmitted  to  posterity  with  their  deserved  fame  ;   and 
 while  the  violent  republican  writers  have  exalted   the 
 memory  of  (Jato  and  Brutus,  Pompey's  many  and  rare 
 merits  have  been  forgotten  in  the  faults  of  the  Trium- 
 virate, and   in  the  weakness  of  temper  which  he  dis- 
 jilayed    in   the  conduct  of  his   last  campaign.     {En- 
 cycl  Metropol.,  div    3,  vol.  2,  p.   252  ) — V.   Cnems, 
 elder  son  of  Pompey  the  Great,  was  sent  by  his  fa- 
 ther into  Asia,  at  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war, 
 to  raise  a  large  naval  and  land  force  from  all  the  prov- 
 inces of  the  East.      After  the  death  of  his  parent   he 
 passed  into  Spain,  where   two  lieutenants  of  Pompey 
 had  reunited  some  of  the  scattered  remnants  of  the 
 republican  army.      His  parly  soon  became    powerful, 
 and  he  saw  himself  in  a   few  months  al  the  head  of 
 thirteen  legions,  atid  in  possession  of  a  consideralde 
 fleet.     Cajsar,  finding  that  he  must  act  in  person  against 
 him,  left  Rome  for  the  Spanish  peninsula,  and,  by  a 
 series  of  bold  manoeuvres,  compelled  the  son  of  Pom- 
 pey to  engage  in   battle  in    the   plain    of  Munda   (4.5 
 B.C.).     This  action,  the  last  that  was  fought  between 
 the  Pompeian  party  and  Caesar,  terminated,  after  the 
 most  desperate  efforts,  in  favour  of  the  latter :  and  the 
 son  of  Pompey,  having  been  wounded  in  the  fight,  was 
 slain    in   endeavouring  to  make  his  escape.     (Auct , 
 Bell  Ifisp.  —  Appian,  Bell    Civ.,  2,  87,  seqq.)  —  VI. 
 Sextus,   second   son    of   Pompey  the  Great,  and  sur- 
 named  sometimes,  for  distinction'  sake,  Pompey  the 
 Younger,  is  celebrated  in  Roman  history  for  the  part 
 that  he  played  after  the  death  of  Caesar,  and  for  the  re- 
 sistance which  he  made  to  Atitony  and  Octavius      Af- 
 ter the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  he  proceeded,  with  some 
 senators,  to  rejoin  his  father  in  Painphylia  ;  but,  hearing 
 of  the  latter's  death,  he  fled  to  Cyprus,  thence  to  Af- 
 rica, and  finally  to  Spain,  where  he  joined  his  brothei 
 Cneius  with  a  few  vessels.     The  disastrous  battle  of 
 Munda,  however,  again  compelled  him  to  fly  ;   but  h« 
 found  himself,  after  some  lapse  of  time,  at  the  head  ol 
 a  considerable  force,  composed  of  the  remnants  of  thf 
 army  at  Munda.  and  he   succeeded    in   defeating  tw« 
 lieutenants  of  Caesar.     After  the  death  of  the  latter, 
 Sextus  Pompey  applied  to  the  Roman  senate  for  th» 
 
 1117 
 
POM 
 
 PON 
 
 restitution  of  his  father's  property.  Antony  supported 
 his  claim,  and  Sextus,  without  obtaining  precisely  what 
 he  sohciled,  still  received  as  an  indeirinily  a  large  sum 
 of  money  from  the  public  treasury,  and  with  it  the  title 
 of  commander  of  the  seas.  In  place,  however,  of 
 going  to  Rome  to  enjoy  his  success,  he  got  together 
 all  the  vessels  he  could  find  in  the  harbours  of  Spain 
 and  Gaul,  and,  as  soon  as  he  saw  the  second  trium- 
 virate formed,  he  made  himself  master  of  Sicily,  and 
 gained  over  Oclavius  the  battle  of  Scylla.  While  pro- 
 scription was  raging  at  Rome,  Sextus  opened  an  asy- 
 lum for  the  fugitives,  and  promised  to  any  one  who 
 should  save  the  life  of  a  proscribed  person  twice  as 
 much  as  the  triumvirs  offered  for  his  head.  Many  were 
 saved  in  consequence  by  his  generous  care.  At  the 
 same  time,  his  fleet  increased  to  so  large  a  size  in  the 
 Mediterranean  as  to  intercept  the  supplies  of  grain  in- 
 tended for  the  Roman  capital,  and  the  people,  dread- 
 intr  a  famine,  compelled  Antony  and  Octavius  to  ne- 
 gotiate for  a  peace  with  the  son  of  Pompcy.  Sextus 
 demanded  nothing  less  than  to  be  admitted  into  the 
 triumvirate  at  the  expense  of  Lepidus,  who  was  to  be 
 displaced  ;  and  he  would,  in  all  likelihood,  have  ob- 
 tained what  he  sought,  had  not  his  friends  compelled 
 him  to  hasten  the  conclusion  of  the  alliance.  As  it 
 was,  however,  the  terms  agreed  upon  were  extremely 
 favourable  to  Sextus.  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and 
 Achaia  were  given  him  ;  he  was  promised  the  consul- 
 ship for  the  ensuing  year,  and  the  proscribed  persons 
 whom  he  had  saved  were  erased  from  the  fatal  list. 
 The  peace,  however,  proved  a  hollow  one.  Hostilities 
 soon  commenced  anew,  and  Octavius  encountered  two 
 defeats,  one  through  his  lieutenant  Calvisius,  and  an- 
 other in  person.  Two  years  after,  however,  having 
 repaired  his  losses,  he  proved  more  successful.  Agrip- 
 pa,  his  lieutenant,  gained  an  important  advantage  over 
 the  fleet  of  Pompey  oft"  Mylae,  on  the  coast  of  Sicily, 
 and  afterward  a  decisive  victory  between  Mylae  and 
 Naulochus.  Sextus,  now  without  resources,  fled  with 
 sixteen  vessels  to  Asia,  where  he  excited  new  troubles  ; 
 but,  at  the  end  of  a  few  months,  he  fell  into  the  hands 
 of  Antony's  lieutenants,  who  put  him  to  death  B.C. 
 35.  In  allusion  to  his  great  naval  power,  Sextus  Pom- 
 pey used  to  style  himself"  the  son  of  Neptune"'  {Nep- 
 tunius. —  Horat.  Epod.,  9,  7.  —  MitscL,  ad  loc. — 
 Dio  Cass.,  48,  19.  —  Veil.  Paterc,  2,  72.  —  Flor.,  4, 
 2.— Plat.,  Vit.  Ant.—Appia7i,  Bell.  Civ.,  2,  105.— 
 Id  ib.,  4,  84,  &c.) 
 
 PoMPiii.o,  a  city  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  in  the 
 territory  of  the  Vascones,  now  Pampcluna.  {Plin., 
 1,  ^.—Strab.,  161.) 
 
 PoMPiLius  NuM.\,  the  second  king  of  Rome.  {Vid. 
 Nunia.) 
 
 PoMt'oMus,  I.  Atticus.  (Fjrf.  Atticus  )— 11.  Mela. 
 (Firf.  Mela.)— III.  Festus.  (Fit/.  Festus.)— IV.  An- 
 dronicus,  a  native  of  Syria,  and  a  follower  of  the  Epi- 
 curean sect.  He  pursued,  at  Rome,  the  profession  of 
 a  grammarian,  but  his  attachment  to  philosophical  pur- 
 suits prevented  him  from  being  very  useful  as  a  philo- 
 logical instructer.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  M.  An- 
 tonius  Gnipho,  who  was  one  of  Cicero's  instructers. 
 Finding  this  latter  grammarian,  as  well  as  others  of 
 inferior  note,  preferred  to  himself,  he  retired  to  Cumae, 
 where  he  lived  in  great  poverty,  and  composed  several 
 works.  These  were  published  by  Orbilius  after  the 
 death  of  Andronicus.  {Siieton.,  dc  Illuslr.  Gram., 
 9.) — V.  Marcellus,  a  Latin  grammarian  in  the  time 
 of  Tiberius.  Suetonius  describes  him  as  a  most  troub- 
 lesome exactor  of  correctness  in  Latin  style.  He  oc- 
 casionally pleaded  causes,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
 originally  a  pugilist.  {Saelon.,  de  Illuslr.  Gram., 
 220 — VI.  Secundus,  a  Roman  tragic  poet,  who  flour- 
 ished in  the  middle  of  the  first  century  of  our  era,  and 
 died  GO  A.D.,  after  having  held  the  office  of  consul. 
 His  works  are  lost.  He  is  said  to  have  been  more  re- 
 markable for  eloquence  and  brilliancy  as  a  writer,  than 
 1118 
 
 for  tragic  spirit.  {Dial,  dc  cans  corr.  eloq.,  \'3.—  Lip' 
 ,sius,ad  Tuc,  Ann  ,  11,  13. — Bahr,  Gcsch. Horn.  Lit., 
 p.  88  ) — VII.  Sextus,  a  Roman  lawyer,  who  appears  to 
 have  lived  in  the  time  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius. 
 He  attained  to  high  re[)uiation  as  a  jurist,  and  wrote 
 several  works  on  jurisprudence.  {Bdhr,  Gesch.  Rom. 
 Lit  ,  p.  749.) 
 
 PoMPTiN^  Pai.udes.      Vid.  Pontinae  Paludes. 
 
 PontI,*,  now  Ponza,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  La- 
 tium,  and  south  of  the  promontory  of  Circeii.  Ac- 
 cording to  Livy  (9,  38),  it  received  a  Roman  colony 
 A.U.(3.  441,  and  it  obtained  the  thanks  of  the  Roman 
 senate  in  the  second  Punic  war.  It  became  after- 
 ward the  spot  to  which  the  victims  of  Tiberius  and 
 Caligula  were  secretly  conveyed,  to  be  afterward  de- 
 spatched, or  doomed  to  a  jterpetual  exile.  {Suet., 
 Tib.,  64. — Id.,  Cal.,  15  )  Among  these  might  be 
 numbered  many  (Jhrislian  martyrs.  {Cramer'' s  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  135.) 
 
 PoNTlNiU,    PoMETIN^,    Or   PoMPTINiE    Paluhes,  a 
 
 marshy  tract  of  country  in  the  territory  of  the  Volsci, 
 deriving  its  appellation  from  the  town  of  Suessa  Po- 
 inetia,  in  whose  vicinity   it  was  situate.     These  fens 
 are  occasioned  by  the  quantity  of  water  carried  into 
 the  plain  by  numberless  streams  which  rise  at  the  foot 
 of  the  adjacent  mountains,  and,  for  want  of  a  sufficient 
 declivity,  creep  sluggishly  over  the  level  space,  and 
 sometimes  stagnate  in  pools,  or  lose  themselves  in  the 
 sands.     Two  rivers  principally  contributed  to  the  for- 
 mation of  these  marshes,  the  Ufens  or   Vffcnie,  and 
 the  Nymphaeus  or  Ninfo.     The  flat  and  swampy  tract 
 spread  to  the  foot  of  the  Volscian  mountains,  and  cov- 
 ered an  extent  of  eight  miles  in  breadth  and  thirty  in 
 length  with  mud  and  infection.     We  are  informed  by 
 Mucianus,  an  ancient   writer  quoted   by   Pliny,    that 
 there  were  at  one  time  no  less  than  twenty-three  cities 
 to  be  found  in  this  district  (3,  5).      Consequently,  it  is 
 to  be  inferred  that  formerly  these  marshes  did  not  ex- 
 ist, or  that  they  were  confined  to  a  much  smaller  spare 
 of  ground.      That  it  was   cultivated    appears  clearly 
 from  Livy  (2,  34)  ;  and  we  are  told  by  the  same  his- 
 torian that  the  Pomptinus  ager  was    once  portioned 
 out  to  the  Roman  people  (6,  21).     Indeed,  it  is  evi- 
 dent that  the  waters  must  have  been  gradually  increas- 
 ing from  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  until  the 
 successful  exertions  made  by  the  Roman  pontiffs  ar- 
 rested their  baneful  progress.     When  this  district  was 
 occupied  by  flourishing  cities,  and  an  active  and  in- 
 dustrious   population    was    ever  ready   to  check  the 
 increase  of  stagnation,   it  might    easily  be    kept  un- 
 der ;  but  after  the   ambition  of  Rome  and    her   sys- 
 tem of  universal  dominion  had  rendered  this  tract  of 
 country  desolate,  these  wastes    and  fens  naturally  in- 
 creased,   and,  in    process  of   time,  gained    so   much 
 ground  as  to  render  any  attempt  to  remedy  the  evil 
 only  temporary  and   inefficient.     It  is  supposed  that, 
 I  when  Appius  Claudius  constructed  the  road    named 
 after  him,  he  made  the  first  attempt    to  drain   these 
 marshes  ;  but  this  is  not  certain,  as  no  such  work  is 
 mentioned  in    the  accounts   we  have    of   the  forma- 
 tion of  this  Roman  way.     {Liry,  9,  29.)     But  about 
 one  hundred  and  thirty  years  after,  there   is  a  posi- 
 tive statement  of  that  object  having  been  partly  ef- 
 fected by  the  consul  Corn.  Cethegus.     (Liv  ,  Epil., 
 46.)     Julius  Cssar  is  said  to  have  intended  to  divert 
 the  course  of  the  Tiber  from  Ostia,  and  carry  it  through 
 these  marshes  toTerracina;  but  the  plan  perished  with 
 him,  and   gave  way  to  the  more   moderate  but  more 
 practicable  one  of  Augustus.     This  emperor  endeav- 
 oured to  carry  off  the  superfluous  waters  by  opening 
 a  canal  all  along  the  Via  Appia,  from  Forum  Appii 
 to  the  grove  of  Feronia.     It  was  customary  to  em- 
 bark  on  the    canal    in    the   nighttime,  as  Strabo  re- 
 lates and  Horace  practised,  because  the  vapours  that 
 arise  from  these  swamps  are  less  noxious  in  the  cool 
 of  the  night  than  in  the  heat  of  the  day.     This  canal 
 
PON 
 
 PO  P 
 
 BtiU  remains,  and  is  called  Cavata.  These  marshes 
 were  neglected  after  the  time  of  Augustus  until  the 
 reigns  of  Nerva  and  Trajan,  the  latter  of  svhom  drained 
 the  country  from  Trepoiiii  and  Terracma,  and  restored 
 the  Appian  Way,  wiiicii  the  neglect  of  the  marshes 
 in  the  previous  rcigiis  had  rendered  nearly  im[)assable. 
 During  the  convulsions  of  the  followuig  centuries,  the 
 marshes  were  again  overflowed,  \uitil  again  drained 
 in  the  reign  of  Thcodoric,  by  (vscilius  Deems,  a  pub- 
 lic-spirited individual,  and  apparently  with  good  effect. 
 {Cassiod.,  2,  Epist.  32  and  33.)  They  were  never, 
 however,  com[)letely  exhausted  of  their  water  until  the 
 pontificate  of  Pius  VI.,  although  many  preceding  popes 
 had  made  the  experiment.  During  the  French  inva- 
 sion, however,  the  precautions  necessary  to  keep  open 
 the  canals  of  communication  were  neglected,  and  the 
 waters  again  began  to  stagnate.  These  marshes, 
 therefore,  are  agam  formidable  at  the  present  day,  and, 
 though  contracted  in  tiieir  limits,  still  corrupt  the  at- 
 mosphere for  many  miles  around.  {Cramcr^s  Arte. 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  96,  seqq.) 
 
 Pontius,  an  able  commander  of  the  Samnites,  who 
 entrapped  the  Roman  army  in  the  defile  of  Samnium 
 called  the  "  Caudine  Forks"  {Fnrcce  Caudmte),  and 
 compelled  them  to  pass  under  the  yoke.  {Liv.,  9,  2, 
 seqq.)  He  was  afterward  defeated  in  his  turn,  and 
 subjected  to  the  same  ignominy  by  the  Romans. 
 {Lw.,  9,  15.) 
 
 PoNTus,  I.  a  country  of  Asia  Minor.     The  name 
 implies  a  political  rather  than  a  geographical  division 
 of  territory  :   having  been  ap[)lied,  in  the  first  instance, 
 to  the  coast  of  the  Eu.viiie,  situated  between  the  Col- 
 chian  territory  and  the  river  Halys,  it  was,  in  process 
 of  time,  extended  to  the  mountainous  districts  which 
 lie  towards  Cappadocia  and  Armenia  ;   and  it  even,  at 
 one  time,  included  Paphlagonia  and  part  of  Bithynia. 
 The  denomination  itself  was  unknown  to  Herodotus, 
 who  always  designated  this  part  of  Asia  by  referring 
 to  the  particular  tribes  who  inhabited  it,  and  who  then 
 enjoyed  a  separate  political  existence,  though  tributa- 
 ry to  the  Persian   empire.      Xenophon  also  appears  to 
 have  been  ignorant  of  it,  since  he  adheres  always  to 
 the  same  local  distinctions  of  nations  and  tribes  used 
 by  Herodotus;  such  as  the  Chalybes,  Tibareni.  Mo- 
 synceci,  &.c.      It  was  not  till  after  the  death  of  Alex- 
 ander that  the  Pontine  dynasty  makes   any  figure  in 
 history  ;  and  an  account  of  it  will  be  found  under  the 
 article  Milhradates. — After  the  overthrow  of  Mithra- 
 datcs  the  Great,  Ponipey  annexed  the  greater  part  of 
 Pontus  to  Bithynia,  and  the  rest  he  assigned  to  Deio- 
 tarus,  tetrarch  of  Galatia,  and  a  zealous  ally  of  Rome  ; 
 a  small  portion  of  Paphlagonia  being  reserved  for  some 
 native  chiefs  of  that  country.     (StraO  ,541,  seqq. — 
 Appian,  Bell    Mithrad.,   c.   114.)     During   the   civil 
 wars  waged  by  Cassar  and   Pompey,  Pharnaces  made 
 an  attempt  to  recover  his   hereditary  dominions,  and 
 succeeded  in  taking  Sinope,  Amisus,  and  some  other 
 towns  of  Pontus.     But  Julius  Casar,  after  the  defeat 
 and  death  of  Pompey,  marched  into  Pontus,  and,  en- 
 countering the  army  of  Pharnaces   near  the  city  of 
 Zela,  gamed   a   complete   victory  ;    the   facility  with 
 which  it  was  obtained  being  expressed  by  the  victor 
 in  those  celebrated  words,  "  Veni,  Vuli,  Vjci.^'    {Hirt., 
 Bell.  Alex.,  c.  7'2.—PhU.,  Vit.  Cas— Sue/on.,  Vil. 
 Jul,  c.  37.  —  K/o  Cass.,  42,  47.)     After  his  defeat, 
 Pharnaces  retired  to  the  Bosporus,  where  he  was  slain 
 by  some  of  his  own  followers.     (Appian,  Bell.  Milhr., 
 120. —  Dio  Cass  ,  I.  c.)     He  left  a  son  named  Darius, 
 who  was  made  king  of  Pontus  for  a  short  time   by 
 Antony,  but   he  was  soon  deposed,  and  Polemo,  son 
 of  Zeno  of  Aparnea,  was  appointed  in  his  stead.     This 
 person,  who  had  the  art  to  ingratiate  himself  alike  with 
 Antony,  Augustus,  and   Agrippa,  was  made  king  of 
 the  eastern  ])ortion  of  Pontus,  named  from  him  Pole- 
 moniacus.     Polemo  was  slain  in  an  expedition  against 
 some  barbarians  of  Sindice,  near  the  Palus  Maeoiis ; 
 
 but  his  widow,  Pythodoris,  was  reigning  in  his  stead 
 at  the  time  that  Slrabo  wrote  his  Geography.  {Slrah,, 
 556,  578.— X»;o  Cass.,  53.  'lb —Id.,  54,  24.)— Ptole- 
 my divides  Pontus  into  three  districts,  which  he  terms 
 Galalicus,  Cappadoacus,  and  I'olcmo7iiacHs ;  and, 
 under  the  Byzantine  emperors,  the  two  former  were 
 included  under  the  name  of  Hclenoponlus,  derived 
 from  Helena,  the  mother  of  Conslantine,  as  they  had 
 been  usually  comprehended  before  by  the  Romans 
 themselves  under  that  of  Ponlica  Prima.  (Dio  Cass., 
 51,  '2.—Surton.,  Vit.  Ner.,  \8.—Plol.,  p.  125. — Tus- 
 lin.,  Novell.,  28,  1.) — Pontns  was  chiefly  a  mountain- 
 ous country,  especially  towards  the  northeast  frontier. 
 Here  we  have  some  of  the  highest  table-land  in  Asia, 
 whence  flow  the  great  streams  of  the  Euphrates  and 
 Tigris,  the  A  raxes  and  Phasis.  The  climate  was  con- 
 sequently extremely  bleak  and  severe,  the  soil  rugged 
 and  barren,  and  the  different  tribes  scattered  over  its 
 surface  wild  and  savage  to  the  last  degree.  (A'ew., 
 Anal).,  5,  4. —  Slrab.,  548,  seq.)  But  the  western 
 portion  of  the  country,  around  the  Halys,  and  the  val- 
 leys of  the  Thermodon  and  Iris,  were  rich  and  fertile, 
 and  abounded  in  produce  of  every  kind,  and  furnished 
 the  finest  flocks  and  herds.  There  were  also  mine.s 
 of  salt,  iron,  and  rock  crystal  ;  and  the  coast  exhibited 
 some  large  and  flourishing  Greek  cities,  possessed  of 
 good  harbours,  and  having  an  extensive  traffic  with 
 the  other  parts  of  the  Euxine,  the  Hellespont,  and  the 
 ^gcan.     {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  256,  seqq.) 
 
 Pontus  Euxinus,  the  ancient  name  for  the  Black 
 Sea.  According  to  the  common  opinion,  its  earliest 
 name  was  'Afevof  ("  inhuspuablc"),  in  allusion  to  the 
 character  of  the  nations  along  its  sliores  ;  and  this  ap- 
 pellation was  changed  to  Ei'^EH'Of  ("  hospitable^'), 
 when  Grecian  colonies  had  settled  on  these  same 
 coasts,  and  had  introduced  the  usages  of  civilized  life. 
 Some  Biblical  commentators,  however,  think  they  dis- 
 cover the  name  of  Euxine,  or  rather  "A^evoc.  in  the 
 Scripture  term  Aschkenaz.  (Kosenmuller,  Schol.  in 
 Genes.,  10,  3.) — The  Pontus  Euxinus  is  now  probably 
 in  the  same  state  that  it  was  in  the  earliest  historic 
 age  ;  the  western  part  is  shallow,  but  the  eastern, 
 which  is  very  deep,  has  been  attempted  to  be  fathom- 
 ed in  some  places  without  success.  The  water  of 
 that  sea  is,  in  many  places,  as  fresh  as  that  of  the 
 rivers  which  flow  into  it.  The  evaporation  of  the 
 fresh  water  facilitates  the  formation  of  ice,  which  is 
 not  uncommon  ;  the  congelation  is  thus  occasioned  by 
 the  freshness  of  the  wafer,  and  that  large  sea  is  some 
 limes  frozen  to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  shore. 
 — The  Pontus  Euxinus  is  nothing  more  than  a  vast 
 lake  ;  it  bears  all  the  marks  of  one  ;  flows,  like  those 
 in  North  America,  through  a  kind  of  river,  which  forms 
 at  first  the  narrow  channel  of  Constantinople,  orThra- 
 cian  Bosporus  ;  it  then  assumes  the  appearance  of  a 
 small  lake,  called  the  Proponlis,  or  Sea  of  Marmara, 
 passes  towards  the  southwest,  and  takes  anew  the 
 form  of  a  large  river,  which  has  been  termed  the  Hel- 
 lespont, or  Dardanelles.  These  channels  resemble 
 many  other  outlets  of  lakes  ;  the  great  body  of  water 
 that  flows  through  so  narrow  an  opening  need  not  ex- 
 cite wonder,  although  it  has  given  rise  to  various  hy- 
 potheses. (Vtd.  Mediterraneum  Mare.— Malte-Brun, 
 Geogr.,\o].  C,  [>.  121,  Am.  ed.) 
 
 PopiLius,  I.  M.  Popilius  Lasnas,  was  consul  B.C. 
 356,  and  in  that  same  year  defeated  the  Tiburtines, 
 who  had  made  a  nocturnal  incursion  into  the  Roman 
 territory,  and  had  advanced  to  the  city  gales.  (Liv., 
 7,  12.)'  At  a  subsequent  period  he  accused  C.  Licm- 
 lus  Stolo  under  his  own  law,  and  effected  his  condem- 
 nation. {Liv.,  7,  16.)  He  obtained  the  consulship 
 a  second  time,  B.C.  353  ;  and  a  third  time,  B.C.  347, 
 in  which  year  he  defeated  the  Gauls,  who  had  made  an 
 irruption  into  the  Latin  territory,  and  obtained  for  this 
 a  triumph.  {Ltv.,  7,  23,  seq.)  Two  years  after  thjs 
 he  was  chosen  consul  for  the  fourth  time.     {Liv.,  7, 
 
 1119 
 
POP 
 
 POP 
 
 26.)  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  of  the  Popilian 
 family  thai  bore  the  surname  of  Laenas,  and  this  a[)|)el- 
 latioii  IS  said  to  have  been  olitamcd  as  follows.  Being 
 at  one  time  priesi  of  Cannenta  {FLamcn  Carmcnialis), 
 and  conducting  a  public  sacrttice  in  his  sacerdotal  robe, 
 or  l<Ena.y  intelligence  was  brought  him  that  a  sedition 
 had  broken  out  among  the  commons  ;  he  hastened  to 
 the  piililic  assemiily  arrayed  in  his  Uena,  and  quelled 
 the  tumult  by  his  authority  and  eloquence.  (Cicero. 
 Brut.,  14.) — ir  M.  Popilius  Lnenas,  was  consul  173 
 B.C.  Having  marched  of  his  own  accord,  during  the 
 war  witn  the  Ligurians,  into  the  territory  of  the  Sa- 
 telliates,  who  had  committed  no  sort  of  hostility  against 
 the  Romans,  and  coming  to  an  engagement  with 
 them,  he  obtained  a  complete  victory,  and  sold  those 
 who  had  survived  the  battle  into  slavery.  The  senate 
 immediately  passed  a  decree,  ordering  him  to  restore 
 the  money  which  he  had  received  from  the  sale  of  the 
 Satelliates,  to  set  the  latter  at  liberty,  give  them  back 
 Iheir  effects  and  arms,  and  immediately  to  quit  the 
 province.  Popilius,  however,  disobeyed  this  mandate  ; 
 and  yet,  notwithstanding  this  open  contumacy,  he  pro- 
 ceeded to  Rome,  inveighed  severely  against  the  as- 
 sembled senate,  and  then  returned  to  his  province. 
 Being  afterward  accused  for  this  outrage  against  the 
 laws,  he  was  sheltered  from  punishment  by  the  in- 
 fluence of  his  brother.  (Vid.  PopiVwjs  111  )  He  after- 
 ward accompanied  the  consul  Philippus  to  Macedonia 
 8s  military  tribune,  B.C.  169.  (Ljy.,  40,  43. — Id., 
 41,  14,  seq.—Id.,  42,  7,  seqq.—Id.,  44,  l.)-ni.  C. 
 Popilius  Lnsnas,  brother  of  the  preceding,  attained  to 
 the  consulship  B.C.  172,  and  only  signalized  his  ad- 
 ministration of  that  office  by  his  intrigues  in  favour  of 
 his  brother  when  charged  with  official  misconduct. 
 (  Vid.  Popilius  n.)  Not  long  after  this  he  was  sent,  with 
 two  other  senators,  to  Egyj)!,  on  account  of  the  differ- 
 ences subsisting  between  Cleopatra  and  Ptolemy  Eu- 
 ergetes  on  the  one  hand,  and  Antiochus  Epiphanes  on 
 the  other  Antiochus  was  at  the  gates  of  Aiexandrea, 
 and  jjreparing  to  lay  siege  to  the  city  when  the  Roman 
 ileputies  arrived.  The  decree  of  the  senate,  which 
 •  hey  communicated  to  him,  was  to  the  following  effect : 
 ihal  Antiochus  should  make  peace  with  Ptolemy  and 
 retire  from  Egypt ;  but,  Antiochus  wishing  to  elude  it 
 by  evasive  answers,  Popilius  haughtily  drew  a  circle 
 round  him  in  the  sand  with  a  rod  which  he  held  in  his 
 hand,  and  ordered  the  monarch  to  give  him  an  answer 
 to  carry  home  to  the  senate  before  he  stirred  out  of 
 the  circle  which  had  just  been  traced.  The  king  was 
 struck  with  astonishment,  but,  after  a  moment's  reflec- 
 tion, promised  to  obey,  and  accordingly  evacuated 
 Egypt.  (Liv.,  41,  18.— W.,42,  9,  scqq.—U.,  44,  19, 
 seqq.—Id,  45,  ]0.—  Vcll.  Palerr..,  12,  \Q.—Juslin, 
 34,  3  ) — IV.  A  tribune,  who  commanded  the  party 
 which  slew  Cicero.  It  is  said  that  the  orator  hatJ 
 defended  him  at  one  time  against  a  charge  of  parri- 
 cide. This,  however,  some  regard  as  a  pure  inven- 
 tion of  the  later  grammarians,  who  sought  for  brilliant 
 themes  on  which  to  declaim.  {Scnec.  Rhet.,  3,  con- 
 trov.  17.) 
 
 Popi.icor-.'^.     Vid.  Pubmcola. 
 
 PopPiE.^  S.tBiNA,  I.  daughter  of  Poppius  Sabinus, 
 and  wife  of  T.  OUius.  She  lived  in  the  time  of  the 
 Em[)eror  Claudius,  and  was  the  most  beautiful  woman 
 of  her  time,  but  disgraced  herself  by  her  scandalous 
 excesses.  Messalina,  having  become  jealous  of  her, 
 compelled  her  to  destroy  herself  {Tacit.,  Ann  ,  11, 
 2.— Id  lb.,  11,  \.—Id.  lb.,  13,  45.)— II.  Daughter  of 
 the  preceding,  inherited  all  her  mother's  beauty  and 
 frailty.  Her  father  was  T.  Ollius,  who  had  been  in- 
 volved in  the  disgrace  of  Sejanus,  and  she  preferred 
 to  his  name,  therefore,  that  of  her  maternal  grandfa- 
 ther PoppaRUs  Sabinus,  who  had  borne  the  consulship, 
 and  had  been  graced  with  the  insignia  of  a  triumph. 
 {Tacit.,  Ann.,  13,  45.)  The  young  Poppaja  united  in 
 herself  every  attraction  of  wealth,  beauty,  and  noble 
 
 birth.  She  possessed  all  things,  in  fine,  to  borrow  the 
 words  of  'I'acitus,  except  a  virtuous  heart.  ("  Huic 
 mulicii  cuncia  aiia  Juerc,  prcrtcr  hancntum  ammum." 
 'I'acit.,  l.  c.)  She  was  first  married  to  Rufus  Crispi- 
 nus,  prffilect  of  the  praitorian  cohorts  under  Claudius, 
 and  l)ore  him  a  daughter;  but,  having  been  seduced 
 by  Otho,  she  left  her  husband  and  lived  with  the  lat- 
 ter. JNero  was  now  on  the  throne,  and  Otho  was  the 
 companion  ol  bis  debaucheries,  Either  throuoh  vani- 
 ty or  mdiscretion,  the  cliaims  of  Poi)pKa  were  made 
 a  constant  theme  ol  eulogium  by  Otho  in  the  presence 
 of  the  emperor,  until  the  curiosity  of  the  latter  was 
 excited,  and  he  became  desirous  of  beholding  her.  His 
 licentious  spirit  soon  acknowledged  the  power  of  her 
 charms,  and  the  air  of  modest  reserve  assumed  by  this 
 artful  and  abandoned  woman  only  drew  him  the  more 
 eti'ectually  into  her  toils.  Otho  was  put  out  of  the 
 way  by  being  sent  to  Lusitania  with  the  title  of  gov- 
 ernor ;  and  Popfjsea  now  obtained  over  the  emperor 
 such  an  irresistible  ascendancy,  that  he  no  longer  lis- 
 tened to  the  admonitions  of  Seneca,  or  to  the  remon- 
 strances of  Burrhus.  Having  herself  violated  all  the 
 bonds  of  chastity  and  connubial  faith,  the  mistress  ol 
 the  emperor  wished  to  become  his  wife ;  but,  as  she 
 could  not  hope  to  see  the  Empress  Octavia  repudiated 
 while  Agrippina  lived,  she  employed  every  art  of  in- 
 trigue and  lalsehood  upon  the  mmd  of  her  paramour, 
 with  the  view  of  exciting  suspicion  against  his  mother, 
 and  thereby  paving  the  way  tor  that  act  of  parricide 
 which  has  lell  so  indelible  a  stain  upon  his  character. 
 Alter  the  destruction  of  Agrippina,  Nero  divorced  Oc- 
 tavia, and  the  unprincipled  Po])pffia  was  raised  to  the 
 throne.  I'he  schemes  of  this  wicked  woman  did  not. 
 however,  end  here.  Fearful  lest  the  mild  virtues  of 
 Octavia  might  cause  a  return  of  affection  on  the  part 
 of  Nero,  she  procured  her  banishment  from  Rome,  on 
 false  testimony  of  adulterous  conduct  ;  and  when, 
 through  fear  of  an  insurrection  of  the  pco|)le,  the  em- 
 peror was  compelled  to  recall  the  daughter  of  Claudi- 
 us, the  artful  Poppaea  alarmed  the  fears  of  Nero  by 
 telling  hiin  that  his  former  wife  was  at  the  head  of  a 
 numerous  party  in  the  state,  and  the  unfortunate  Oc- 
 tavia was  deprived  of  existence.  In  the  year  63, 
 Poppasa  was  delivered  of  a  daughter,  an  event  whicii 
 threw  Nero  into  transports  of  joy.  He  named  the  in- 
 fant Claudia,  and  decreed  to  her  and  her  mother  the 
 title  of  Augusta.  The  child,  however,  the  subject  of 
 so  many  hopes,  died  at  the  end  of  lour  months,  and 
 the  grief  of  Nero  was  as  excessive  as  had  been  his  joy 
 at  its  birth.  PoppKa  herself  survived  her  offspring 
 only  two  years,  having  expired  from  a  blow  which  she 
 received  from  the  foot  of  her  brmal  husband,  when 
 many  months  advanced  in  her  pregnancy,  .A.D  65. 
 On  returning  to  himself,  Nero  was  the  more  afflicted 
 at  her  death,  since  with  her  he  lost  the  only  hope  he 
 had  entertained  of  an  heir  to  his  dominions.  Her  body 
 was  embalmed,  and  placed  in  the  tomb  of  the  Caesars. 
 The  emperor  himself  pronounced  her  funeral  eulogy, 
 and  not  being  able  to  praise  her  virtues,  contented 
 himself,  as  Tacitus  remarks,  with  eulogizing  her  beau- 
 ty, and  the  favours  which  fortune  had  heaped  upoii 
 her. — No  female  ever  carried  to  a  greater  extent  the 
 refinements  and  luxuries  of  the  toilet.  She  is  said 
 to  have  been  the  first  Roman  lady  that  wore  a  mask 
 on  her  face  when  going  abroad,  in  order  to  protect 
 her  complexion  fronr  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Whenever 
 she  made  any  excursion  from  Rome,  she  was  follow- 
 ed by  a  train  of  500  asses,  whose  milk  furnished  her 
 with  a  bath  for  preserving  the  fairness  and  softness  of 
 her  skin.  She  was  the  inventress  also  of  a  species  of 
 pommade,  made  of  bread  soaked  in  asses'  milk,  and 
 laid  over  the  face  at  night.  {Juvenal,  6,  467. — Botti- 
 ger,  Sabina.,  p.  14.)  —  Otho,  who  never  ceased  to 
 cherish  an  attachment  for  Poppaea,  caused  her  statues, 
 which  had  been  thrown  down  with  those  of  Nero,  to 
 be  replaced  on  their  pedestals  during  the  short  period 
 
FOR 
 
 FOR 
 
 *hat  he  was  in  power.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  13,  45. — Id. 
 t.V,  15,  71.— Id.  ih.,  13,  46.— /</.  lb.,  14,  60.— /d.  ib., 
 15,  23.— /(Z.  lb.,  16,  6,  &.C.) 
 
 Popp.(Eus  Sabinus,  the  maternal  grandfather  of  the 
 Empress  Poppaea.  He  held  under  Tiberius  the  gov- 
 ernment of  Moesia,  to  which  were  added  Achaia  and 
 Macedonia.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  80.)  In  A.D.  25,  he 
 obtained  the  insignia  of  a  triumph  for  successes  over 
 the  Thracian  tribes.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  4,  46  )  He  also 
 attained  to  the  office  of  consul.  Poppaeus  died  A.D. 
 35.     {Tacit.,  Ann.,  6,  39.) 
 
 Popui.oNiA  (or  Popi'(.onic.m),  a  flourishing  city  of 
 Etruria,  on  the  coast,  on  a  line  with  Vetulona.  It  was 
 the  naval  arsenal  of  the  Etrurians,  and  was  the  only 
 considerable  place  which  that  nation  founded  imme- 
 diately on  the  coast.  In  other  instances  they  were 
 prevented  from  doing  this  by  the  want  of  commodious 
 havens,  and  through  their  fear  of  being  exposed  to  the 
 attacks  of  pirates.  But  the  harbour  of  Populonium, 
 DOW  Porto  Baratio,  possessed  peculiar  advantages  ;  it 
 was  secure  and  of  great  extent,  and,  from  its  proximity 
 to  the  island  of  Elba,  so  rich  in  metals,  of  the  highest 
 im[)ortance;  as  the  produce  of  the  mines  appears  never 
 to  have  been  prepared  for  use  in  the  island  itself,  but 
 was  always  sent  over  to  Populonium  for  that  purpose. 
 {Artstot.,  de  Mirab.,  p.  1158.— .SY/aio,  223.)  Strabo 
 has  accurately  described  the  site  of  Populonium  from 
 personal  inspection  ;  he  tells  us  that  it  was  placed  on 
 a  lofty  cliff  that  ran  out  into  the  sea  like  a  peninsula. 
 On  the  summit  was  a  tower  for  watching  the  approach 
 of  the  thunny  fish.  The  real  name  of  this  city,  as  we 
 may  perceive  from  its  numerous  coins,  was  Pupluna, 
 in  which  a  strong  analogy  exists  with  some  Etruscan 
 names,  such  as  Luna,  and  Vettluna,  and  probably  others 
 belonging  to  cities  which  we  know  only  by  their  Latin 
 names.  {Lanti,  Saggio,  &,c.,  vol.  2,  p.  27.  —  Cra- 
 mer^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  188,  seqq.) 
 
 PoRciA,  a  daughter  of  the  younger  Cato  (Uticensis). 
 She  was  first  married  to  Bibulus,  and,  after  his  death, 
 to  her  cousin  Brutus.  When  the  latter  had  taken 
 part  in  the  conspiracy  against  Cssar,  and  strove  to 
 conceal  from  his  wife  the  uneasiness  which  the  fatal 
 secret  occasioned  him,  Porcia,  having  suspected  that 
 he  was  revolving  in  mind  some  difficult  and  dangerous 
 enterprise,  gave  herself  a  severe  wound  in  the  thigh, 
 which  she  concealed  from  her  husband,  but  which 
 brought  on  considerable  fever.  Brutus  was  much  af- 
 flicted on  her  account,  and,  as  he  was  attending  her  in 
 the  height  of  her  suffering,  she  discovered  to  him  the 
 wound  which  she  had  inflicted  on  her  own  person,  and, 
 in  assigning  a  motive  for  the  deed,  said  that  her  object 
 was  to  see  whether  she  was  proof  against  pain,  and 
 whether  she  had  courage  to  share  his  most  hidden  se- 
 crets. The  husband,  struck  with  admiration  of  this 
 heroic  firmness,  disclosed  to  her  the  conspiracy  which 
 was  forming.  According  to  one  account,  she  ended 
 her  days,  after  the  overthrow  and  death  of  Brutus,  by 
 holding  burning  coals  in  her  mouth  until  she  was  suf- 
 focated. Another  statement,  however,  made  her  to 
 have  died  before  her  husband.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Brutt.) 
 Valerius  Maximus,  however,  says  that  she  gave  her- 
 self the  wound  after  the  secret  had  been  imparted  to 
 her,  and  on  the  night  after  the  assassination  of  Caesar. 
 (Fa/.  Max.,  3,  2,  15.) 
 
 PorcIa  Lex,  de  civitate,  ordained  that  no  magistrate 
 should  punish  with  death,  or  scourge  with  rods,  a  Ro- 
 man citizen  when  condemned,  but  should  allow  him 
 the  alternative  of  exile.  It  was  brought  forward  by 
 M.  Porcius  Leca,  tribune  of  the  commons,  A.U.C. 
 557,  and  was,  in  fact,  only  a  renewal  of  the  Valerian 
 law,  which  had  been  twice  renewed  previously  ;  once 
 by  Valerius  Publicola  and  Horatius  (A.U.C.  305),  and 
 again  by  Valerius  Corvus  (A.U.C.  453).  The  Porcian 
 law  strengthened  it  by  increasing  the  penalty  against 
 infraction.  But  even  this  Porcian  law,  the  existence 
 of  which  is  attested  by  a  coin,  fell  into  neglect,  and  is 
 7C 
 
 supposed,  from  a  passage  in  Aulus  Gcllius  (10,  3),  Is* 
 have  been  last  revived  by  Sempronius  Gracchus.  It 
 referred  probably  to  those  who  had  been  condemne«l 
 by  a  magistrate  in  the  first  instance,  not  to  such  a* 
 had  been  cast  in  an  appeal  from  his  sentence.  {Fun, 
 Rom.  Antiq.,  p.  75,  xcq.—Liv.,  10,  9.—Sallust,  Bel, 
 Cat.,  51.) 
 
 PoRcius,  Latro,  a  rhetorician,  styled  by  Quintiliai 
 (10,  5)  "  Imprimis  clan  nomnus  ■professor.''^  He  i: 
 supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  decla 
 mation  against  Cicero,  which  has  come  down  to  us 
 which  others  ascribe  to  Sallust  or  to  Vibius  Crispu«. 
 He  killed  himself  while  labouring  under  a  quartan 
 ague  (A.U.C.  750.— B.C.  4). 
 
 PoRPHYRioN,  son  of  Coelus  and  Terra,  one  of  the 
 giants  who  made  war  against  Jupiter,  by  whom,  in 
 conjunction  with  Hercules,  he  was  slain.  {Avollod., 
 1,  6,  2.— Moral.,  Od.,  3,  4,  54.) 
 
 PoRPHYRius,  a  celebrated  Plotinian  philosopher,  of 
 the  Platonic  school,  a  learned  and  zealous  supporter  of 
 pagan  theology,  and  an  inveterate  enemy  to  the  Chris- 
 tian faith.  He  was  a  native  of  Tyre,  and  was  born 
 A.D.  233.  His  father  very  early  introduced  him  to 
 the  study  of  literature  and  philosophy  under  the  Chris- 
 tian preceptor  Origen,  probably  while  the  latter  was 
 teaching  at  Caesarea  in  Palestine.  His  juvenile  edu- 
 cation was  completed  at  Athens  by  Longinus,  whose 
 high  reputation  for  learning  and  genius  brought  him 
 pupils  from  many  distant  countries.  Under  this  ex- 
 cellent instructer  he  gained  an  extetisive  acquaintance 
 with  antiquity,  improved  his  taste  in  literature,  and  en- 
 larged his  knowledge  of  the  Plotinian  philosophy.  It 
 is  doubtless,  in  a  great  measure,  to  be  ascribed  to  Lon- 
 ginus, that  we  find  so  many  proofs  of  erudition,  and 
 so  much  elegance  of  style,  in  the  writings  of  Porphyry. 
 His  original  name  was  Melek,  which  in  Syriac  signi- 
 fies king,  and  hence  he  was  sometimes  called  king. 
 Afterward  Longinus  changed  his  name  to  Por[)hyrius, 
 from  ■ii0p(j)vpa,  the  Greek  for  purple,  a  colour  usually 
 worn  by  kings  and  princes.  From  this  time  we  have 
 little  information  concerning  this  philosopher,  till  wc 
 find  him,  about  the  thirteenth  year  of  his  age,  becoming 
 at  Rome  a  disciple  of  Plotinus,  who  had  before  this 
 time  acquired  great  fame  as  a  teacher  of  philosophy. 
 Porphyry  was  six  years  a  diligent  student  of  the  eclec- 
 tic system,  and  became  so  entirely  attached  to  his 
 master,  and  so  perfectly  acquainted  with  his  doctrine, 
 that  Plotinus  esteemed  him  one  of  the  greatest  orna- 
 ments of  his  school,  and  frequently  employed  him  in 
 refuting  the  objections  of  his  opponents,  and  in  ex- 
 plaining to  his  younger  pupils  the  more  difficult  parts 
 of  his  writings  :  he  even  intrusted  him  with  the  charge 
 of  methodising  and  correcting  his  works.  The  fanat- 
 ical spirit  of  philosophy,  to  which  Porphyry  addicted 
 himself,  concurred  with  his  natural  propensity  towards 
 melancholy  to  produce  a  resolution,  which  he  formed 
 about  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  bis  age,  of  putting  an 
 end  to  his  life  ;  purposing  hereby,  according  to  the 
 Platonic  doctrine,  to  release  his  soul  from  her  wretch- 
 ed prison,  the  body.  From  this  mad  design  he  was, 
 however,  dissuaded  by  his  master,  who  advised  hini 
 to  divert  his  melancholy  by  taking  a  journey  to  Sicily, 
 to  visit  his  friend  Probus,  an  accomplished  and  excel- 
 lect  man,  who  lived  near  Lilybapum.  Porphyry  follow- 
 ed the  advice  of  Plotinus,  and  recovered  the  vigour 
 and  tranquillity  of  his  mind.  After  the  death  of  Plo- 
 tinus, Porphyry,  still  remaining  in  Sicily,  appeared  as 
 an  open  and  implacable  adversary  to  the  Christina  re- 
 ligion. Some  have  maintained  that  in  his  youth  he 
 had  been  a  Christian  ;  but  o^  this  there  is  no  sufficient 
 proof.  It  is  not  improbable,  that  while  he  was  a  boy 
 under  the  care  of  Origen,  he  gained  some  acquaintance 
 with  the  Jewish  and  Christian  scriptures.  He  wrote 
 fifteen  different  treatises  against  Christianity,  which 
 the  Emperor  Theodosius  ordered  to  be  destroyed  :  an 
 injudicious  act  of  zeal,  which  the  real  friends  of  Chris- 
 
 1121 
 
POR 
 
 PORSENNA. 
 
 tianity,  no  less  than  its  enemies,  will  always  regret ; 
 for  truth  can  never  suffer  by  a  fair  discussion  ;  and 
 falsehood  and  calumny  must  always,  in  the  issue,  serve 
 the  cause  they  are  designed  to  injure.  The  spirit  of 
 those  writings  of  Porphyry  which  are  lost,  may  be  in 
 Borne  measure  apprehended  from  the  fragments  which 
 are  preserved  by  ecclesiastical  historians.  Many  able 
 advocates  for  Christianity  ajipeared  on  this  occasion, 
 the  principal  of  whom  were  Methodius,  Apollinaris,  and 
 Eusebius.  So  vehement  and  lasting  was  the  indigna- 
 tion which  was  excited  against  the  memory  of  Por- 
 phyry, that  Constantino,  in  order  to  cast  the  severest 
 possible  censure  upon  the  Arian  sect,  published  an 
 edict  ranknig  them  among  the  professed  enemies  of 
 Christianity,  and  requiring  that  they  should,  from  that 
 time,  be  branded  with  the  name  of  Porphyrians.  Por- 
 phyry, after  remaining  many  years  in  Sicily,  returned 
 to  Rome,  and  taught  the  doctrines  of  Plotinus  ;  pre- 
 tendino'  to  be  not  only  a  philosopher,  endued  with  su- 
 perior wisdom,  but  a  divine  person,  favoured  with  su- 
 pernatural communications  from  Heaven.  He  him- 
 self relates  {Vit.  Plot.,  c.  23),  that,  in  the  sixty-eighth 
 year  of  his  age,  he  was  in  a  sacred  ecstasy,  in  which  he 
 saw  the  Supreme  Intelligence,  the  God  who  is  supe- 
 rior to  all  gods,  without  an  image.  This  vision  Au- 
 gustine supposes  to  have  been  an  illusion  of  some  evil 
 spirit :  it  was  more  probably  the  natural  effect  of  a 
 heated  imagination  ;  unless,  indeed,  it  be  added  to  the 
 long  list  of  fictions  with  which  the  writings  of  Porphy- 
 ry abound.  He  died  about  304  A.D.  Of  his  numer- 
 ous works,  the  only  pieces  which  have  escaped  the 
 depredations  of  time  (except  sundry  fragments,  dis- 
 persed through  various  authors)  are  his  "  Life  of  Py- 
 thagoras^' {tlvdayopov  (Bioc),  a  book  "On  the  Cave 
 of  the  Nymphs  in  the  Odyssey''  {Wepl  tov  iv  'OSva- 
 ceia  TcJii  Nv/j-tpuv  avrpov),  "  Homeric  Questions'^ 
 ('OfiripiKu  ^Tjr^iJ.aTa),  a  fragment  "  On  the  Styx"  {Hepl 
 IiTvyng),  "An  Epistle  to  Anebo,  the  Egyptian"  (Jlpb^ 
 'AveGu  tov  klyvnTiov),  a  treatise  "  On  the  Five  Pred- 
 trahles"  {Tlepl  tuv  nlvre  (pui'iJv),  commonly  prefix- 
 ed to  the  logical  works  of  Aristotle,  "  Thoughts  on 
 Intclligibles"  (Hpof  ra  voriru  'A(j>opi(7/ioi),  a  treatise 
 "  On  Abstinence  from  Ammal  food""  {Xlepl  uTroxJ}g 
 Tuv  e/ifvxuv),  a  "  Life  of  Plotinus"  {Tlepl  UXutIvov 
 Piov),  "  A  Commentary  on  the  Harmonics  of  Ptolemy" 
 (E{f  ra  'ApfioviKa  IlroAf/iaiou  VTzniivTjfi.a),  and  a  few 
 other  unimportant  pieces.  {Enfield's  History  of  Phi- 
 losophy, vol.  2,  p.  65,  seqg. — Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  .5,  p.  131,  seqq  )  The  best  edition  of  the  Life  of 
 Pythagoras  is  that  given  by  Kiessling  at  the  end  of 
 his  edition  of  lambUchus's  Life  of  Pythagoras  {Lips., 
 1818,  2  vols.  8vo)  •,  of  the  treatise  on  Abstinence  from 
 Animal  Food,  the  best  is  that  of  Rhoer  {Lugd.  Bat., 
 1792,  4to),  which  contains  also  in  the  same  volume 
 Van  Goen's  edition  of  the  work  on  the  Cave  of  the 
 Nymphs.  The  life  of  Plotinus  is  given  with  the  edi- 
 tion of  the  Enneades  of  tlie  latter. 
 
 PoRsENNA  or  PoRsisNA  (Called  also  Lars  Porsenna), 
 was  Lucumo  of  Clusium,  and  the  most  powerful  of  all 
 the  Etrurian  monarchs  of  his  time.  Tarquinius  Su- 
 perbus,  after  being  driven  from  his  throne,  finding  the 
 inability  of  the  Veientians  and  Tarquinians  to  replace 
 him,  applied  to  Porsenna.  This  monarch  raised  a 
 larce  army  and  marched  towards  Rome.  He  was  met 
 by  the  Romans  near  the  fortress  on  the  Janiculan 
 Hill ;  but  almost  at  the  first  encounter  they  took  to 
 flioht,  and  the  Etrurians  pursued  them  impetuously  as 
 they  sought  safety  by  crossing  the  Pons  Sublicius. 
 ft  was  then  that  the  gallant  feat  of  Codes  was  per- 
 formed, who,  seeing  the  danger  of  the  city's  being 
 taken  at  once  if  the  enemy  should  enter  it  along  with 
 the  flying  Romans,  posted  himself  on  the  bridge,  made 
 head  against  the  pursuers,  and,  calling  on  his  country- 
 men to  cut  down  the  part  of  the  bridge  between  him 
 and  the  city,  plunged  into  the  Tiber  when  this  was 
 efTected,  and  swam  in  safety  to  the  opposite  side. 
 1122 
 
 Porsenna,  however,  retained  possession  of  the  Janje« 
 
 uluin,  and,  sendmg  his  army  across  the  river  in  boats, 
 pillaged  the  country,  cut  off  all  supplies,  and  reduced 
 Rome  to  the  utmost  distress  by  famine.  In  thi.s  emer- 
 gency, Caius  Mutius  undertook  to  rid  his  country  of 
 this  dangerous  enemy.  He  made  his  way  into  the 
 camp  of  Porsenna,  and  entered  into  the  very  prajiori- 
 um,  where  he  slew  the  king's  secretary,  mistaking  him, 
 from  his  appearance,  for  the  monarch  himself.  He 
 was  immediately  seized  and  brought  before  Porsenna. 
 Here  he  acknowledged  the  deed,  and  told  the  king  that 
 his  danger  was  by  no  means  over.  Porsenna  threat- 
 ened him  with  death  by  torture  unless  he  divulged 
 the  plots  by  which  his  life  was  threatened.  Muiins 
 immediately  stretched  forth  his  right  hand,  and  thrust 
 it  into  the  fire  of  an  altar  which  was  burning  before 
 the  king,  saying,  "  Behold  how  much  I  regard  your 
 threat  of  torture."  He  held  it  in  the  flames  till  it  was 
 consumed,  without  a  feature  of  his  stern  countenance 
 indicating  that  he  felt  the  pain.  Porsenna,  struck 
 with  his  noble  daring  and  contempt  of  suffering,  com- 
 manded him  to  be  set  at  liberty  ;  and  Mutius  then 
 told  him,  in  requital  for  his  generosity,  that  he  was 
 only  one  of  three  hundred  patrician  youths  who  had 
 vowed  to  kill  the  monarch,  and  that  he  must  prepare 
 for  their  attempts,  which  would  be  not  less  daring  than 
 his  own.  From  that  time  Mutius  was  called  Scccvola, 
 or  "left-handed,"  because  he  had  thus  lost  the  use  of  his 
 right  hand.  Alarmed  by  the  dangers  which  threatened 
 him  from  foes  so  determined,  Porsenna  offered  terms 
 of  peace  to  the  Romans.  A  treaty  was  at  length  con- 
 cluded, according  to  which  Porsenna  ceased  to  main- 
 tain the  cause  of  the  Tarquins  ;  but  demanded  the  res- 
 titution of  all  the  lands  which  the  Romans  had  at  any 
 time  taken  from  the  states  of  Etruria,  and  that  twenty 
 hostages,  ten  youths  and  ten  maidens,  of  the  first 
 houses,  should  be  given  up  to  him  for  security  that  the 
 treaty  would  be  faithfully  observed.  The  legend  re- 
 lates that  Clcelia,  one  of  the  hostages,  escaped  froit 
 the  Etrurian  camp,  swam  across  the  Tiber  on  horse- 
 back, amid  showers  of  darts  from  her  baffled  pursuers; 
 but  that  the  Romans,  jealous  of  their  reputation  for 
 good  faith,  sent  her  back  to  Porsenna.  Not  to  be 
 outdone  in  generosity,  he  gave  to  her  and  her  female 
 companions  their  freedom,  and  permitted  her  to  take 
 with  her  half  of  the  youths  ;  while  she,  with  the  deli- 
 cacy of  a  Roman  maiden,  selected  those  only  who 
 were  of  tender  years.  The  Romans  then,  at  the  final 
 settlement  of  the  treaty,  sent,  as  a  present  to  Porsen- 
 na, an  ivory  throne  and  sceptre,  a  golden  crown,  and 
 a  triumphal  robe,  the  offerings  by  which  the  Etruscan 
 cities  had  once  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Tar- 
 quinius. When  Porsenna  quitted  Koine,  he  entered 
 the  Latin  territories,  and  attacked  Aricia,  the  chief 
 town  of  Latium.  The  .Aricians,  being  aided  by  the 
 other  Latin  cities,  and  also  by  the  Cuma>ans,  under 
 the  command  of  Aristodemus,  defeated  the  Etruscans 
 in  a  great  battle,  and  put  a  stop  to  their  aggressions. 
 The  Romans  received  the  fugitives  from  Porsenna's 
 army,  and  treated  them  with  great  kindness  ;  in  requital 
 of  which,  Porsenna  restored  to  them  the  lands  which  he 
 had  conquered  beyond  the  Tiber.  {Liv  ,  2,  9,  &c. — 
 Plut.,  Vit.  Public. —  Floras,  1, 10.) — Such  is  an  outline 
 of  the  ])oetical  legends  respecting  the  great  war  with 
 Porsenna.  Niebuhr  has  examined  the  subject  with  great 
 ability,  and  has  been  followed  by  Arnold  and  other 
 writers.  The  war  with  Porsenna  was  in  reality  a 
 great  outbreak  of  the  Etruscan  power  upon  the  nations 
 southward  of  Etruria,  in  the  very  front  of  whom  lay 
 the  Romans.  The  result  of  the  war  is,  indeed,  as 
 strangely  disguised  as  Charlemagne's  invasion  of  Spain 
 is  in  the  Romances.  Rome  was  completely  conquered  ; 
 all  the  territory  which  the  kings  had  won  on  the  right 
 bank  of  the  Tiber  was  now  lost.  Rome  itself  was 
 surrendered  to  the  Etrurian  conqueror  (whence  the 
 language  of  Tacitus:  "  Scdem  Jovis  optimi  maximi. 
 
POS 
 
 POT 
 
 .  .  .  quam  non  Porsenna,  dedita  urbe,  neque  Galli 
 capta,  tcmerare  potuissent.'" — Hist.,  3,  72) ;  his  sov- 
 ereignty was  fully  acknowledged  by  the  offerings  of 
 the  ivory  throne,  the  sceptre,  crown,  and  triumph- 
 al robe,  the  usual  badges  of  submission  among  the 
 Etrurian  cities,  as  we  have  already  remarked.  {Dion. 
 Hal.,  5,  34.)  The  Romans,  moreover,  gave  up  their 
 arms,  and  only  recovered  their  city  and  territory  on 
 condition  of  their  renouncing  the  use  of  iron,  except 
 for  implements  of  husbandry.  Hence  the  language 
 of  Pliny  <^34,  14) :  "■  In  fxderc,  quod  expulsis  regibus 
 pcpido  Romano  dedit  Porsenna,  nominalim  compre- 
 kensitm  invenimris,  ne  ferro  7iisi  in  agricultura  ute- 
 rentur."  In  this  latter  statement  we  have  an  inci- 
 dental hint  of  the  Eastern  origin  and  customs  of  the 
 Etrurians ;  in  proof  of  which,  reference  may  be  made 
 to  the  way  in  which  the  Philistines  tyrannized  over 
 the  Israelites  during  one  of  their  periods  of  conquest. 
 (Compare  1  Samuel,  x\ii.,  19,  scqq.  —  Niebuhr,  Rom. 
 Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  475,  seqq. — Arjiold's  History  of 
 Rom£,  vol.  I,  p.  125,  seq  ) — The  remains  of  Porsenna 
 were  interred  in  a  splendid  mausoleum  near  Clusium, 
 for  some  remarks  on  which  consult  the  article  on 
 Clusium. 
 
 PoRTUMNUs,  a  sea-deity.     {Vid.  Melicerta.) 
 
 PoRtrs,  king  of  a  part  of  northern  India,  between 
 the  Hydaspes  and  Acesines,  and  remarkable  for  stat- 
 ure, strength,  and  dignity  of  mien.  When  Alexander 
 invaded  India,  Porus  collected  his  forces  on  the  left 
 bank  of  the  Hydaspes  to  defend  the  passage.  The 
 stream  was  deep  and  rapid,  and,  at  the  time  Alexander 
 reached  it,  was  perhaps  little  less  than  a  mile  broad. 
 The  Macedonian  monarch,  however,  crossed  the  river 
 by  stratagem,  at  the  distance  of  a  day's  march  above 
 his  camp,  and  defeated  the  son  of  Porus.  In  a  sub- 
 sequent action  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  Porus 
 himself,  who  was  taken  prisoner.  On  being  brought 
 into  the  presence  of  Alexander,  all  that  Porus  would 
 ask  of  his  conqueror  was  to  be  treated  as  a  king  ; 
 and  when  Alexander  replied  that  this  was  no  more 
 than  a  king  must  do  for  his  own  sake,  and  bade  him 
 make  some  request  for  himself,  his  reply  was  still, 
 that  all  was  included  in  this.  His  expectations  could 
 scarcely  have  equalled  the  conqueror's  munificence. 
 He  was  not  only  reinstated  in  his  royal  dignity,  but 
 received  a  large  addition  of  territory-  Yet  it  was 
 certainly  not  pure  magnanimity  or  admiration  of  his 
 character  that  determined  Alexander  to  this  proceed- 
 ing. His  object  seems  to  have  been,  in  some  de- 
 gree, to  secure  the  Macedonian  ascendancy  in  the 
 Pendjab  by  a  stroke  of  policy,  and  to  adjust  the  bal- 
 ance of  power  between  Porus  and  Taxiles,  who  might 
 have  become  formidable  without  a  rival.  (Pint.,  Vit. 
 Alex.  —  Arrian,  Exp.  Al.,  5,  8,  &c. —  Curl.,  8,  8, 
 &c.—  Tkirlwuirs  Greece,  vol.  7,  p.  22.) 
 
 PosiDEUM,  I.  a  promontory  in  Caria,  between  Mi- 
 letus and  the  lassian  Gulf.  (Mela,  1,  17.)  — II.  A 
 promontory  of  Chios,  nearest  the  mainland  of  Ionia. 
 — III.  A  promontory  in  the  northern  part  of  Bithynia, 
 now  Tschautsche- Aghisi,  &c. — The  name  implies  a 
 promontory  sacred  to  Neptune  (IlocretfJajv). 
 
 PosinoN  (Unasif'ioJv),  the  name  of  Neptune  amonw 
 the  Greeks.      (Vid.  Neptunus.) 
 
 PosidonTa.      Vid.  Psstum. 
 
 PosiDONius,  I.  a  Stoic  philosopher,  a  native  of 
 Apamea  in  Syria,  and  the  last  of  that  series  of  Stoics 
 which  belongs  to  the  history  of  the  Greek  philosophy. 
 He  taught  at  Rhodes  with  so  great  reputation,  that 
 Pompey  came  hither,  on  his  return  from  Syria,  after 
 the  close  of  the  Mithradatic  war,  for  the  purpose  of 
 attending  his  lectures.  AVhen  the  Roman  command- 
 er arrived  at  his  house,  he  forbade  his  lictor  to  knock, 
 as  was  usual,  at  the  door.  The  hero,  who  had  sub- 
 dued the  Eastern  and  Western  world,  paid  homaoe  to 
 philosophy  by  lowering  the  fasces  at  the  gate  of  Pos- 
 idouius.    When  he  was  informed  that  he  was  at  that 
 
 time  sick  of  the  gout,  he  visited  him  in  his  conhne- 
 ment,  and  expressed  great  regret  that  he  could  not 
 attend  upon  his  school.  Upon  this,  Posidonius,  for- 
 getting his  pain,  gratified  his  guest  by  delivering  a 
 discourse  in  his  presence,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
 prove  that  nothing  is  good  which  is  not  honourable. 
 (Cic,  Tusc.  QiicEst.,  2,  25.—Plm.,  Epist.,  6,  30.) 
 Posidonius  studied  natural  as  well  as  moral  science  ; 
 and,  in  order  to  represent  the  celestial  phenomena,  he 
 constructed  a  kind  of  planetarium,  by  means  of  which 
 he  exhibited  the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun,  moon, 
 and  planets  round  the  earth.  (Cic,  N.  D.,  2,  34.) 
 Cicero  says  that  he  himself  attended  upon  this  philos- 
 opher (iV.  D.,  1,  3) ;  and  a  later  writer  asserts,  that 
 he  was  brought  to  Rome  by  Marcellus,  A.U.C.  702. 
 (Said.,  s.  V. — Enfield's  Hist.  Phtlos.,  vol.  1,  p.  360, 
 seq.)  Posidonius  was  also  known  as  an  historical 
 writer,  having  composed  a  continuation  of  the  history 
 of  Polybius,  under  the  title  of  "  A  History  of  the 
 events  that  have  occurred  subsequent  to  Polybius" 
 ('laTopia  tC>v  fiETfi  YloXvSiov).  It  appears  to  have 
 extended  to  B.C.  63,  or  the  close  of  the  Mithradatic 
 war.  This  work  is  lost,  and,  though  its  loss  is  much 
 to  be  regretted,  since  we  have  no  historians  for  the 
 period  of  which  it  treated,  yet  our  disappointment  is 
 somewhat  diminished  by  the  consideration  that  Plu- 
 tarch drew  from  it  a  large  part  of  his  materials  for  the 
 lives  of  Marius.  Sylla,  and  Sertorius.  (Sch'dll,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Or.,  vol.  4,  p.  76  )  The  fragments  of  Posido- 
 nius were  collected  and  edited  by  Bake,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1810,  8vo. — II.  An  astronomer  and  mathematician  of 
 Alexandrea.  He  was  the  disciple  of  Zeno,  and  con- 
 temporary with,  or  else  a  short  time  posterior  to,  Era- 
 tosthenes. He  probably  flourished  about  260  B.C. 
 He  is  particularly  celebrated  on  account  of  his  having 
 employed  himself  in  endeavouring  to  ascertain  the 
 measure  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth  by  means 
 of  the  altitude  of  a  fixed  star.  According  to  Cleom- 
 edes,  he  concluded  that  it  was  240,000  stadia  ;  but, 
 according  to  Strabo,  he  made  it  180,000  only.  He  is 
 the  reputed  author  of  a  treatise  on  military  tactics, 
 mentioned  in  the  first  chapter  of  Lilian's  work  on  the 
 same  subject.  No  fragments  of  his  writings  remain. 
 (Consult  in  relation  to  him,  Delambre,  in  Biogr.  Univ., 
 vol.  35,  p.  481,  and  the  work  of  the  same  writer  on 
 the  History  of  Ancient  Astronomy,  vol.  1,  p.  219,  223, 
 &c.) 
 
 PosTVERTA,  a  goddess  at  Rome,  who  presided  over 
 [lainful  travails  of  women.  (Ovid,  Fast.,  1,  633. — 
 Varro,  ap.  GrlL,  N.  A.,  16,  16.  —  Gruter,  Inscript., 
 p.  50,  n.  9.) 
 
 PoTAMiDEs,  nymphs  who  presided  over  rivers  and 
 fountains,  as  their  name  (derived  from  Tvorafioc,  "  a 
 river")  implies. 
 
 PoTAiMON,  a  philosopher  of  Alexandrea,  whose  era 
 is  not  determined.  While  he  selected  what  he  judged 
 most  tenable  from  every  system,  he  pretended  to  form 
 of  these  extracts  a  separate  doctrine  of  his  own  ;  con- 
 cerning which  we  have  not  sufficient  details  to  enable 
 us  to  judge.  (Diog.  Lacrt.,  1,  21.  —  Tenncmaun, 
 Manual  of  Phil.,  p.  172.) 
 
 PoT.iMos,  a  borough  of  Attica,  connected  with  the 
 tribe  Leontis,  where  was  the  tomb  of  Ion,  the  son  of 
 Xanthns.  (Pausan.,  \,-i\.)  The  remains  of  Po/awuw 
 are  laid  down  in  modern  maps  at  the  mouth  of  a  small 
 river  to  the  south  of  port  Raphti.  (Cramer's  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  381.) 
 
 PoTiDvEA,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  situated  on  the  isth- 
 mus connecting  the  peninsula  of  Pallcne  with  the 
 mainland.  It  was  founded  by  the  Corinthians  (Thu- 
 cyd..  I,  5CK—Scymn.,  ch.,  v.  628),  though  at  what  pe- 
 riod is  not  apparent ;  it  must,  however,  have  existed 
 some  time  before  the  Persian  war,  as  we  know  from 
 Herodotus  that  it  sent  troops  to  Platsa  (9,  28),  having 
 already  surrendered  to  the  Persians  on  their  march 
 into  Greece.    (Herod.,  7,  123.)     But,  after  the  battle 
 
 1133 
 
PR.'E 
 
 PR^NESTE. 
 
 of  Salamis,  it  closed  its  gates  against  Artabazus,  who, 
 •t  the  head  of  a  large  detachment  from  the  army  des- 
 tined to  act  under  Mardonius,  had  escorted  Xerxes 
 to  the  Hellespont.  On  his  return,  this  general  laid 
 siege  to  the  place,  of  which  he  would  probably  have 
 obtained  possession,  through  the  treachery  of  one  of 
 its  citizens,  had  not  the  plot  been  actually  discovered. 
 The  attempt  subsequently  made  against  Potidsea  by 
 the  Persians  proved  very  disastrous,  from  a  sudden 
 influx  of  the  sea,  which  occurred  as  the  troops  were 
 crossing  the  bay  to  attack  the  town,  and  which  occa- 
 sioned the  loss  of  a  great  part  of  the  Persian  forces, 
 obliging  the  remainder  to  make  a  hasty  retreat.  {He- 
 rod., 8,  127,  seqq  )  After  the  termination  of  this  war, 
 Potidaea  appears  to  have  fallen  under  the  subjection  of 
 the  Athenians,  as  it  was  then  termed  a  tributary  city. 
 We  learn  from  Thucydides,  that  the  harsh  conduct  of 
 Athens  towards  the  Potidaeans,  who  were  naturally 
 inclined  to  the  Dorian  interest,  compelled  them  to  re- 
 volt, and  to  seek  the  protection  of  Perdiccas  and  the 
 Corinthians  (1,  56,  seqq.).  After  a  severe  action,  in 
 which  the  Athenians  were  finally  victorious,  the  town 
 was  regularly  besieged  by  both  sea  and  land  ;  but  it 
 was  not  until  near  the  conclusion  of  the  second  year 
 that  it  capitulated,  when  the  Athenian  troops,  greatly 
 diminished  by  the  plague,  which  had  been  conveyed 
 thither  from  Athens,  entered  the  place,  the  inhabitants 
 being  allowed  to  withdraw  whither  they  chose.  It 
 was  afterward  recolonized  from  Athens.  {Thucyd.,  2, 
 70.)  On  the  occupation  of  Amphipolis,  and  other 
 towns  of  Thrace,  by  Brasidas,  that  general  attempted 
 to  seize  upon  the  garrison  of  Potidaea  ;  but  the  at- 
 tack having  failed,  he  withdrew  his  forces  from  the 
 walls.  {Thucyd.,  4,  135  )  Many  years  after  this 
 event,  Potidaea  appears  to  have  revolted  from  Athens 
 (Xen  ,  Hist.  Gr.,  5,  216) ;  as  we  learn  from  Diodo- 
 rus  that  it  was  taken  by  Timotheus,  general  of  that 
 republic.  It  was  subsequently  occupied  by  Philij)  of 
 Macedon,  who  allowed  the  Athenian  troops  to  return 
 home  without  ransom. — When  (^assander  ascended 
 the  throne,  he  founded  a  new  city  on  the  neck  of  the 
 peninsula  of  Pallene  ;  thither  he  transferred  the  in- 
 habitants of  several  neighbouring  towns,  and,  among 
 others,  those  of  Potidaea,  and  the  remnant  of  the  pop- 
 ulation of  Olynlhiis.  Cassandrea  is  said  to  have  sur- 
 passed all  the  Macedonian  cities  in  opulence  and 
 splendour.  From  Procopius  we  learn  that  it  fell  a 
 prey  to  the  barbarian  Huns,  who  left  scarcely  a  ves- 
 tige of  it  remaining.  {^Bcll.  Pers.,  2,  4. — De.  JEdif., 
 4,  3. — Cramer''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  244,  seqq.) 
 
 PoTiTius.     Vid.  Pinarius. 
 
 PoTNiiE,  a  city  of  Bceotia,  about  ten  stadia  to  the 
 southwest  of  Thebes.  It  had  a  sacred  grove  dedica- 
 ted to  Ceres  and  Proserpina.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  5, 
 451.)  It  was  here  that  Glaucus  was  said  to  have  been 
 torn  in  pieces  by  his  infuriated  mares.  {Sfraho,  409. 
 —  Virg.,  Georg.,  3,  267.)  The  site  of  this  place,  al- 
 ready in  ruins  when  Pausanius  wrote,  corresponds 
 nearly  with  that  occupied  by  the  village  of  Taki. 
 {GeWs  Itiv.,  p  110.)  Strabo  informs  us,  that  some 
 authors  regarded  Potniae  as  the  Hypothebae  of  Homer. 
 {11. ,  2,  505.) 
 
 Pr^eneste,  now  Paleslrina,  an  ancient  city  of  La- 
 lium,  southeast  of  Rome.  Strabo  makes  the  interve- 
 ning distance  25  miles  (200  stadia) ;  but  the  Itiner- 
 aries give,  more  correctly,  23  miles.  Its  citadel  is  de- 
 scribed by  Strabo  as  remarkable  for  its  strength  of  po- 
 sition. It  stood  on  the  brow  of  a  lofty  hill  which 
 overhung  the  city,  and  was  cut  off  from  the  prolonga- 
 *.ion  of  the  chain  by  a  narrow  slip  of  inferior  elevation. 
 The  origin  of  Praenoste,  like  that  of  many  of  the  an- 
 cient towns  in  Italy,  is  fabulous.  According  to  some, 
 M  was  founded  by  Caeculus,  the  son  of  Vulcan  (Firo-,, 
 JEn.,  7,  678) ;  while  others  ascribe  it  to  a  chief  of  the 
 Dame  of  Prajnestus,  grandson  of  Ulysses  and  Circe. 
 Zvnodot.,  Troezcn..,  ap.  Steph.  Byz.)  Strabo,  ho w- 
 1124 
 
 ever,  tells  us  more  plainly  that  it  claimed  a  Greek 
 origin,  and  had  been  named  formerly  Uolvartibavo^ 
 (238).  Pliny  (3,  5)  also  observes  that  it  was  once 
 called  Stephane.  We  may  infer  from  Dionysius 
 (1,  31)  that  Praeneste  was  afterward  colonized  by  Al- 
 ba. It  shared  the  fate  of  the  other  Latin  towns,  in 
 becoming  subject  to  Rome,  upon  the  failure  of  the 
 attempts  made  in  common  to  assist  the  family  of  Tar- 
 quin.  (Liv.,  2,.  19.)  Subsequently  we  find  the  Prae- 
 nestini  oftener  uniting  with  the  Volsci  and  other  ene- 
 mies in  their  attacks  on  Rome,  than  remaining  firm 
 in  their  allegiance  to  that  power.  {Lw  ,  6,  27. )  They 
 were  defeated,  however,  by  T.  Quinctius  Cincinnaius, 
 near  the  river  Allia,  and  eight  of  their  towns  and  cas- 
 tles fell  into  the  victor's  hands,  when  they  thought 
 proper  to  submit.  (7(i,  6,  29.)  Again  they  revolted, 
 and  were  again  conquered  by  Camillus.  {Id  ,  8,  13.) 
 — The  strength  of  Praeneste  rendered  it  a  place  of  too 
 great  importance  to  be  overlooked  by  the  contending 
 parties  of  Sylla  and  Marius.  It  was  induced  to  join 
 the  cause  of  the  latter  by  Cinna,  and,  during  the  short 
 success  which  that  faction  obtained,  was  its  strongest 
 hold  and  support.  But,  on  the  return  of  Sylla  from 
 the  war  against  Mithradatcs,  Praeneste  had  soon  reason 
 to  repent  the  part  it  had  taken.  The  younger  Marius, 
 defeated  by  that  victorious  commander,  was  soon  obli- 
 ged to  take  refuge  within  its  walls  ;  and,  when  all  at- 
 tempts on  the  part  of  his  confederates  failed  in  raising 
 the  siege,  he  preferred  to  die  by  the  sword  of  one  of 
 his  own  soldiers  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  his  adver- 
 saries. PrsDneste  was  compelled  to  yield  to  the  vic- 
 tors, who  did  not  fail  to  satisfy  their  thirst  of  vengeance 
 by  a  bloody  massacre  of  the  unfortunate  inhabitants, 
 and  the  entire  plunder  of  their  town,  which  finally  was 
 sold  by  auction.  (Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  94. — Flut., 
 Vit.  Syll. — Flor.,  3,  21.)  It  survived,  however,  these 
 disasters,  and,  as  it  would  seem,  gathered  strength 
 from  a  colony  of  those  very  troops  which  had  beeji  so 
 instrumental  in  hastening  its  downfall.  Even  Sylla 
 himself,  as  if  to  make  some  atonement  for  his  cruelty, 
 employed  himself  in  repairing  and  embellishing  one  of 
 its  public  edifices,  the  famous  temple  of  Fortune,  a 
 goddess  whose  protection  he  specially  acknowledged. 
 Praeneste  was  again  threatened  in  the  tumult  excited 
 by  the  seditious  Catiline  ;  but,  as  he  himself  boasts, 
 was  saved  by  the  vigilance  and  foresight  of  Cicero. 
 {Cat.,  1,  3.)  In  the  wars  of  Antony  and  Octavianus, 
 it  was  occupied  by  Fulvia.  wife  of  the  former,  and  be- 
 came the  chief  hold  of  that  party.  But  it  does  not 
 appear  to  have  suffered  much  in  the  contests. — But 
 the  pride  and  boast  of  Praeneste  was  the  temjjle  of 
 Fortune,  which  has  already  been  alluded  to.  Both 
 historians  and  poets  make  mention  of  its  celebrity,  as 
 well  as  of  the  magnificence  of  its  structure.  Cicero, 
 in  his  treatise  on  Divination  (2,  41),  alludes  more  than 
 once  to  the  antiquity  of  the  oracle,  known  by  the  name 
 of  the  PrcencstincB  sortcs  ;  and  relates,  that  when  the 
 celebrated  Carneades  came  to  Rome  and  visited  Prae- 
 neste, he  was  heard  to  declare  that  he  had  never  seen 
 a  more  fortunate  Fortune  than  the  goddess  of  that 
 city.  From  this  anecdote,  it  is  evident  that  this  tem- 
 ple was  much  more  ancient  than  the  time  of  Sylla, 
 who  has  been  erroneously  supposed  by  some  to  have 
 erected  it.  The  veneration  in  which  this  temple  was 
 held  is  also  apparent  from  the  privilege  which  it  en- 
 joyed of  affording  an  asylum  to  criminals  and  fugitives. 
 {Polyh.,  6,  11.)  Sylla,  however,  certainly  beautified 
 the  edifice  ;  for  Pliny  says,  the  first  mosaic  pavement 
 {Ulhostrata)  introduced  into  Italy,  was  made  by  order 
 of  that  general  for  the  temple  of  Fortune  at  Praeneste. 
 {Flin.,  36,  25.) — Whether  the  famous  Barbcrini  pave- 
 ment, which  undoubtedly  was  taken  from  the  ruins  o( 
 this  building,  be  the  same  as  that  of  Sylla,  is  very 
 doubtful.  Suetonius  tells  us  that  Augustus  often  made 
 excursions  from  Rome  to  Praeneste,  but  generally  em- 
 ployed two  days  in  journeying  thither.     {Aug.,  27. ^ — 
 
PR  A 
 
 PRI 
 
 Among  the  productions  of  the  territory  of  Praeneste, 
 none  are  so  often  remarked  as  its  walnuts.  {Cat.,  R. 
 R.,  8.)  Henc(!  the  Praenestini  are  sometimes  nick- 
 named Nucula;  especially  by  Cicero,  who  quotes  Lu- 
 cilius  as  his  authority  for  so  doing.  {Dc  Oral.,  2,  262.) 
 But  Festus  accounts  for  the  name  in  another  manner  ; 
 he  says,  the  Praenestini  were  so  called  from  their  coun- 
 trymen having  subsisted  on  walnuts  when  besieged 
 by  Hannibal  in  Casilinum,  the  garrison  of  which  they 
 formed,  in  the  second  Punic  war.  {Liv.,  23,  17. — L., 
 19.)  It  may  be  observed,  that  the  Pramestini  appear 
 to  have  had  some  peculiarities  of  idioms  which  distin- 
 guished them  from  their  neighbours.  This  is  seen  from 
 Festus  (s.  V.  Tammodo. — I'Uiutus,  True,  3.  2. — 
 Quintil.,  Insl.  Or.,  1,  5. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol. 
 2,  p.  66,  scqq.). 
 
 pR^TOKi.i,  or  Augusta  Pr^torh,  a  city  of  Cisal- 
 pine Gaul,  in  the  territory  of  the  Salassi.  It  was  built 
 on  the  site  occupied  by  the  camp  of  Terentius  Varro, 
 when  that  commander  was  sent  by  Augustus  to  re- 
 press the  plundering  movements  of  the  Salassi  and  to 
 seize  upon  their  country.  Augustus  honoured  the 
 rising  colony  by  giving  it  the  name  of  Augusta  Pre- 
 toria. (Stralio,  205.)  It  is  now  known  as  Aoste, 
 which  gives  its  name  to  the  fine  valley  in  which  it 
 lies,  and  where  several  remains  of  the  ancient  city  are 
 still  to  be  seen.  According  to  Pliny  (5,  10),  Augusta 
 Praetoria  was  reckoned  the  extreme  point  of  Italy  to 
 the  north.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  I,  p.  50.) 
 
 Pratinas,  a  native  of  Phlius,  contemporary  with 
 -Eschylus,  and  a  dramatic  poet  of  considerable  talent. 
 He  once  obtained  a  tragic  victory.  But  the  manifest 
 pre-eminence  of  the  youthful  ^schylus  probably  de- 
 terred the  Phliasian  from  continuing  to  cultivate  the 
 graver  form  of  the  art,  and  led  him  to  contrive  a  novel 
 and  mixed  kind  of  play.  Borrowing  from  tragedy  its 
 external  form  and  mythological  materials,  Pratinas 
 added  a  chorus  of  Satyrs,  with  their  lively  songs,  ges- 
 tures, and  movements.  This  new  composition  was 
 called  the  Satyric  Drama,  of  which  he  must  therefore 
 be  regarded  as  the  inventor.  (Smd.,  s.  v.  Ylpariva^. 
 — Casaub.,  Sat.  Pucs.,  p.  122,  scqq.)  Pratinas,  ac- 
 cording to  Suidas,  exhibited  fifty  dramas,  of  which 
 thirty- two  were  satyric.  On  one  occasion,  when  he 
 was  acting,  his  wooden  stage  gave  away,  and,  in  con- 
 sequence of  that  accident,  the  Athenians  built  a  stone 
 theatre.  The  Phliasians  seem  to  have  taken  great  de- 
 light in  the  dramatic  performances  of  their  country- 
 man (Schneider,  de  Orig.  Trag.,  p.  90),  and,  accord- 
 ing to  Pausanias  (2,  13),  erected  a  monument  in  their 
 market-place  in  honour  of  -'Aristias,  the  son  of  Pra- 
 tinas, who,  with  his  father,  excelled  all  except  ^schy- 
 lus  in  writing  satyric  dramas."  Pratinas  wrote  also 
 Hyporchemes.  {Alhenceus,  14,  p.  617,  c.  —  Theatre 
 of  Ike  Greeks,  p.  61,  ith  ed.) 
 
 Praxagoras,  an  Athenian,  who  flourished  about 
 345  A.D.  At  the  age  of  nineteen,  he  published  a 
 History  of  the  Kings  of  Attica,  and,  three  years  after, 
 the  liilc  of  Coiistantine,  in  which  he  speaks  favourably 
 of  that  prince,  a  circumstance  wliich  would  show  that 
 Praxagofas  was  not  a  very  bigoted  pagan.  He  wrote 
 also  a  I.ife  of  Alexander  the  Great.  His  works  are 
 lost.     {SJiijll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p.  335.) 
 
 PRAKiTEi.gs,  a  statuary  and  sculptor  of  the  greatest 
 eminence,  who  flourished  together  with  Euphranor, 
 aliout  Olympiad  104,  B.C.  364.  The  city  of  his 
 birth  is  uncertain.  Cedrenus  {Annal.,  265)  notices 
 hiin  as  a  native  ai  Cnidus ;  but  this  is  evidently  a  mis- 
 take, arising  perha|i.s  from  the  previous  mention  of  the 
 statue  of  VcHus  at  Cnidus.  Meyer  {ad  Winck.,  Op., 
 6,  2,  162)  contends  that  he  wa.s  a  native  of  Andros, 
 and  adduces  in  support  of  this  opinion  an  epigram  of 
 Damagetes  (AnthoL  Pal.,  7,  355.)  But  no  one 
 who  peruses  the  piece  in  question,  free  from  the  in- 
 fluence of  preconceived  opinion,  can  view  it  as  estab- 
 liebing  this  conclusion.     The  writer  of  the  lines  speaks, 
 
 indeed,  of  some  Praxiteles  of  Andros,  but  the  name 
 Praxiteles  was  exceedingly  common  among  the  Greeks. 
 The  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  Praxiteles  was  a 
 native  of  Paros.  {Sdlig,  Diet.  Art.,  p.  107  )  —  In 
 praising  Praxiteles  as  an  original  inventor,  as  the  dis- 
 coverer of  a  new  style,  writers  very  generally  have 
 mistaken  the  influence  exercised  by  his  genius  upon 
 the  progress  and  character  of  sculpture.  Finding  the 
 highest  sublimity  in  the  more  masculine  graces  of 
 the  art  already  reached  ;  perceiving,  also,  that  the 
 taste  of  his  age  tended  thitherward,  he  resolved  to 
 woo  extensively  the  milder  and  gentler  beauties  of 
 style.  In  this  pursuit  he  attamed  to  eminent  success. 
 None  ever  more  happily  succeeded  in  uniting  softness 
 with  force,  or  elegance  and  refinement  with  simplicity  : 
 his  grace  never  degenerates  into  the  affected,  nor  his 
 delicacy  into  the  artificial.  He  caught  the  delightful 
 medium  between  the  stern  majesty  which  awes,  and 
 the  beauty  which  merely  seduces;  between  the  ex- 
 ternal allurements  of  form,  and  the  colder,  bet  loftier 
 charm  of  intellectuality.  Over  his  compositions  he 
 has  thrown  an  expression  spiritual  at  once  and  sen- 
 sual ;  a  voluptuousness  and  modesty  which  touch  the 
 most  insensible,  yet  startle  not  the  most  retiring.  The 
 works  that  remain  of  this  master,  either  in  originals 
 or  in  repetitions — the  Faun  ;  the  Thespian  Cu])id,  in 
 the  museum  of  the  Capitol;  the  Apollo  with  a  lizard, 
 one  of  the  most  beautiful,  as  well  as  difficult,  speci- 
 mens of  antiquity — abundantly  justify  this  character. 
 Of  the  works  that  have  utterly  perished,  the  nude  and 
 draped,  or  Co:in  and  Cnidian  Venus  of  Praxiteles, 
 fixed  each  a  standard  which  subsequent  invention 
 dared  scarcely  to  alter.  Indeed,  he  appears  to  have 
 been  the  first,  perhaps  the  sole  master,  who  attained 
 to  the  true  ideal  on  this  subject,  in  the  perfect  union 
 of  yielding  feminine  grace  with  the  dignity  of  intel- 
 lectual expression.  The  Venus  of  Cnidus,  in  her  rep- 
 resentative the  Medicean,  still  enchants  the  world. 
 {Memes,  History  of  the  Fine  Arts,  p.  63.)  An  enu- 
 meration of  the  works  of  Praxiteles  may  be  found  in 
 Sillig  {Diet.  Art.,  p.  108,  scqq.).  For  some  remarks 
 relative  to  the  Cnidian  Venus,  consult  the  article  Cni- 
 dus ;  and  for  the  story  of  tht^  Cupid,  ind.  Phryne. 
 
 Priamidks,  a  patronymic  applied  to  Paris,  as  being 
 son  of  Priam.  It  is  also  given  to  Hector,  De'iphobus, 
 and  all  the  other  children  of  the  Trojan  monarch. 
 {Ovid,  Her.—  Virg,  JEn  ,  3,  295,  &c.) 
 
 Pri.\mus,  the  last  king  of  Troy,  was  son  of  Laome- 
 don.  When  Hercules  took  the  city  of  Troy  {vid. 
 Laomedon),  Priam  was  in  the  number  of  his  prisoners; 
 but  his  sister,  Hesione,  redeemed  him  from  captivity, 
 and  he  exchanged  his  original  name  of  Podarces  for 
 that  of  Priam,  which  signifies  bought  or  ransomed. 
 {Vid.  Hesione,  towards  the  close  of  that  article,  and 
 also  Podarces.)  He  was  placed  on  his  father's  throne 
 by  Hercules,  and  employed  himself  with  well-directed 
 diligence  in  repairing,  fortifying,  and  embellishing  the 
 city  of  Troy.  He  had  married,  by  his  father's  orders, 
 Arisba,  whom  now  he  divorced  for  Hecuba,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Dymas  the  Phrygian  {II ,  16,  718),  or,  according 
 to  others,  of  Cisseus.  {Eunp.,  Hcc  .  3  )  Hecuba 
 bore  him  nineteen  children  {II ,  24,  496),  of  whom 
 the  chief  were.  Hector,  Paris  or  Alexander.  Deipho- 
 bus,  Helenus,  Troilus,  Polites,  Polydorus,  Cassandra, 
 Creiisa,  and  Polyxena.  After  he  had  reigned  for  some 
 time  in  the  greatest  prosperity,  Priam  expressed  a 
 desire  to  recover  his  sister  Hesione,  whom  Hercules 
 had  carried  into  Greece,  and  married  to  Telarnon, 
 his  friend.  To  carry  this  plan  into  execution.  Priam 
 manned  a  fleet,  of  which  he  gave  the  command  to  his 
 son  Paris,  with  orders  to  bring  back  Hesione.  Paris, 
 to  whom  the  goddess  of  Beauty  had  jiromised  the  fair- 
 est woman  in  the  world  {vid.  Paris),  neglected,  in  some 
 measure,  his  father's  injunctions,  and,  as  if  to  make 
 reprisals  upon  the  Greeks,  he  carried  away  Helen,  the 
 wife  of  Menelaiis,  king  of  Sparta,  during  the  absence  of 
 
 1125 
 
PRI 
 
 PRI 
 
 her  husband.  This  violation  of  hospitality  kindled  the 
 flames  of  war.  All  the  suiters  of  Helen,  at  the  request 
 of  Menelaiis  {vid.  Menelaiis),  assembled  to  avenge  the 
 abduction  of  his  spouse,  and  the  combined  armament 
 set  sail  for  Troy.  Priam  might  have  averted  the  im- 
 pending blow  hy  the  restoration  of  Helen  ;  but  this  he 
 refused  to  do  when  the  ambassadors  of  the  Greeks 
 came  to  him  for  that  purpose.  Troy  was  accordingly 
 beleaguered,  and  frequent  skirmishes  took  place,  in 
 which  the  success  was  various.  The  siege  was  con- 
 tinued for  ten  successive  years,  and  Priam  had  the 
 misfortune  to  see  the  greater  part  of  his  sons  fall  in 
 defence  of  their  native  city.  Hector,  the  eldest  of 
 these,  was  the  only  one  upon  whom  now  the  Trojans 
 looked  for  protection  and  support ;  but  he,  too,  fell  a 
 sacrifice  to  his  own  courage,  and  was  slain  by  Achil- 
 les. The  father  thereupon  resolved  to  go  in  person  to 
 the  Grecian  camp,  and  ransom  the  body  of  the  bravest 
 of  his  children.  The  gods  interested  themselves  in  his 
 behalf,  and  Mercury  was  directed  to  guide  the  aged 
 monarch  in  safety  amid  the  dangers  of  the  way,  and 
 conduct  him  to  the  tent  of  Achilles.  The  meeting  of 
 Priam  and  Achilles  was  solemn  and  affecting.  'I'he 
 conqueror  paid  to  the  Trojan  monarch  that  attention 
 and  reverence  which  was  due  to  his  dignity,  his  years, 
 and  his  misfortunes  ;  and  Priam,  in  a  suppliant  man- 
 ner, addressed  the  prince  whose  hands  had  robbed  him 
 of  the  greatest  and  best  of  his  sons.  Achilles  was 
 moved  by  his  tears  and  entreaties.  He  restored  Hec- 
 tor, and  permitted  Priam  a  truce  of  12  days  for  the 
 funeral  of  his  son.  Some  time  after,  Troy  was  betray- 
 ed into  tlie  hands  of  the  Greeks  by  Antenor  and  ^ne- 
 as,  and  Priam  was  slain  by  Neoptojemus,  the  son  of 
 Achilles,  at  the  foot  of  the  altar  of  Jupiter  Hercseus,  at 
 which  that  prince  had  killed  the  wounded  Polites,  one 
 of  the  sons  of  Priam,  who,  after  the  example  of  his  fa- 
 ther and  mother,  had  fled  thither  for  protection  during 
 the  burning  of  the  city.  (Horn.,  IL,  24,  139,  scqq. — 
 Virg.,  JEn.,  2,  507,  &c.—Horat,  Od.,  10,  U.—Hy- 
 gin,fab.,  110.  — Q.   Smijrn.,  15,  226.) 
 
 Priapus,  I.  a  deity  introduced  at  a  comparatively 
 late  period  into  the  Grecian  mythology.  He  was  a  ru- 
 ral god,  worshipped  by  the  people  of  Lampsacus,  a 
 city  on  the  Hellespont  famous  for  its  vineyards.  Pri- 
 apus was  not,  as  is  supposed,  from  the  employment 
 usually  assigned  him  by  the  Romans  after  they  had 
 adopted  his  worship,  merely  the  god  of  gardens,  but  of 
 fruitfulncss  in  general.  "  This  god,"  says  Pausanias, 
 "  is  honoured  elsewhere  by  those  who  keep  sheep  and 
 goats,  or  stocks  of  bees,  calling  hirn  the  son  of  Bac- 
 chus and  Venus."  {Pausan.,  9,  31.)  Fishermen  also 
 made  offerings  to  him,  as  the  deity  presiding  over  the 
 fishenes  (Anlhol.,  6,  33,  190,  192);  and  in  the  Anthol- 
 ogy, Priapus  of  the  haven  {Aiixevirac)  is  introduced, 
 giving  a  pleasing  description  of  the  spring,  and  inviting 
 the  mariners  to  put  to  sea.  It  was  fabled  that  Priapus 
 was  the  son  of  Venus  by  Bacchus,  whom  she  met  on 
 his  return  from  his  Indian  expedition  at  the  Lampsa- 
 cene  town  Aparnis.  Owing  to  the  malignity  of  Juno, 
 he  was  born  so  deformed  that  his  mother  was  struck 
 with  horror  and  rennunccd  (amipveiTo)  him.  (Schol. 
 ad  ApoU.  Rhod.,  1,  932.)  Others  said  that  he  was  the 
 eon  of  Bacchus  bv  Chione,  or  a  Naiad  (Schol.  ad 
 Theocr.,  1,  21);  others,  that  he  had  a  long-eared  fa- 
 ther. Pan  or  a  satyr,  perhaps,  or  it  may  be  his  own 
 sacred  heast,  the  ass.  {Afran.,  ap.  Macrob.,  Sat.,  6, 
 ^—Ovid,  Fast.,  1,  391.— /(/.  ib.,  6,  345) ;  others  gave 
 him  Mercurv  or  Adonis  (Hi/gin.,  fab.,  160 — Eudoeia, 
 24).  or  even  Jove  himself  for  a  sire.  {Endocia,  345  ) 
 — Priapus,  like  the  other  rural  gods,  is  of  a  ruddy  com- 
 plexion. His  cloak  is  filled  with  all  kinds  of  fruits; 
 he  has  a  scythe  in  his  hand,  and  usually  a  horn  of  plen- 
 ty. (Kaghtln/'s  Mj/thnlopy.  p  236.)  Knight  lakes 
 a  more  philosophical  view  of  the  character  and  attri- 
 butes of  this  deitv.  According  to  him,  Priaj)u.-5,  like 
 Osiris,  is  a  type  of  the  great  generating  or  productive 
 1126 
 
 principle  of  the  universe.  In  this  universal  character 
 he  IS  celebrated  by  the  Greek  poets  under  the  title  of 
 Love  or  Attraction,  the  first  principle  of  Animation; 
 the  father  of  gods  and  men  ;  and  the  regulator  and  dis- 
 poser of  all  things  {Arisloph.,  Av.,  693,  ed.  Branch. 
 —  Parmenid.,  ap.  Slob.,  c.  12. — Orph.,  Hymn.,  5,  5.) 
 He  is  said  to  pervade  the  universe  with  the  motion  of 
 his  wings,  bringing  pure  light ;  and  thence  to  be  called 
 the  splendid,  the  self-illumined,  the  ruling  Priapus 
 {Orph.,  Hymn.,  5,  5)  ;  light  being  considered,  in  this 
 primitive  philosophy,  as  the  great  nutritive  principle  of 
 all  things.  {Soph.,  Qid.  Tyr.,  1437.)  Wings  are  at- 
 tributed to  him  as  the  emblems  of  spontaneous  motion  ; 
 and  he  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  egg  of  night, 
 because  ihe  egg  was  the  ancient  symbol  of  organic 
 matter  in  its  inert  state.  (Inquiry,  &c.,  (;  23. —  Class 
 Journ.,  vol.  23,  p.  12.)  —  The  same  writer  considers 
 the  name  Priapus  as  equivalent  to  Briapns  (BPIA- 
 nOY2),  i.  e.,  '■'■Clamorous,^'  from  the  ancient  custom 
 of  attaching  bells  to  statues  and  figures  of  this  deity  ; 
 the  ringing  of  bells  and  clatter  of  metals  being  almost 
 universally  employed  as  a  means  of  consecration,  and 
 a  charm  against  the  destroying  and  inert  powers. 
 (Class.  Journ.,  vol.  26,  p.  48.)  Schwenck  makes 
 Priapus  identical  with  the  Sun,  the  great  source  of 
 life  and  fecundity  ;  and  taking  uTrrra,  '^father,"  as  a 
 cognate  term,  derives  Uplairo^  from  Bpiairog  ((ipi,  in- 
 tensive, and  aTTOf),  '■'■the  mighty  father,'"''  i.  e,  the 
 great  parent  of  being.  (Andcutung.,  p.  217.) — II.  A 
 town  of  Mysia,  not  far  from  Lampsacus,  which  had  a 
 harbour  on  the  Propontis.  It  derived  its  name  from 
 the  god  Priapus,  who  was  worshipped  here  with  pecu- 
 liar honours  ;  and  to  this  place  he  is  said  to  have  re- 
 tired when  driven  away  from  Lampsacus.  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  Karaboa.     (Plin  ,  5,  31. — Mela,  1,  19.) 
 
 Priene,  a  city  of  Carta,  north  of  the  mouth  of  the 
 Mseander,  and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Mycale.  It  was 
 not  properly  a  maritime  place,  and  both  Strabo  and 
 Ptolemy  remove  it  some  distance  inland.  Yet  Herod- 
 otus speaks  of  the  vessels  which  it  furnished  for  the 
 Ionian  fleet  (6,  8),  and  Scylax  assigns  it  two  harbours 
 (37).  One  of  these  was  probably  choked  up  at  a  later 
 period  by  the  alterations  which  the  Maeander  has  made 
 along  this  coast.  Priene  was  an  Ionian  colony  (Pau- 
 san.,  7,  2),  and  formed  one  of  the  twelve  confederate 
 cities  of  the  Ionian  league  ;  it  lay,  however,  according 
 to  Herodotus  and  all  subsequent  writers,  in  Caria. 
 (Herod.,  1,  142.)  It  was  the  native  place  of  Bias,  one 
 of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece.  7'he  ancient  city  would 
 seem  to  have  existed  as  late  as  A.D.  1280.  (Pachy- 
 mercs,  vol.  1,  p.  320.)  The  modern  village  of  <Saj»- 
 son-Kalesi  now  occupies  its  site.  (Maiinerl,  Ccogr., 
 vol.  6,  pt.  3,  p.  264.) 
 
 PRisci.iNUs,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  gramma- 
 rians of  antiquity,  surnamed  Cie.'iariey»sis,  either  frona 
 having  been  born  in  Cssarea  in  Palestine,  or  from 
 having  there  principally  taught  his  art.  He  passed  a 
 part  of  his  life  at  Constantinople,  during  the  xeign  of 
 the  Emperor  Justinian  ;  as  appears,  not  only  frora  nbe 
 title  of  the  13ih  chapter  of  the  Orthography  of  Ctssi- 
 odorus,  his  contemporary,  bat  also  from  a  Hamburg 
 manuscript  bearing  the  following  inscriptioa  :  "  Pri»- 
 elani  ars  Grainmatim  viri  eloguenSissimi,  grammalic-i 
 Casarknsis  ;  scripsi  ego  Tkeodoms  Dimvysvi  V.  D 
 memorialis  sacri  serinii,  epistolarum  el  adjeciw  Y.  M. 
 qmtstoris  in  urhe  Roma  ConstantiyiopolUana,  die  CaS. 
 Oct.  indictionc  quinta,  Oiibris  viro  clanssimo  Cos.*" 
 This  Olibrius  was  sole  consul  in  526,  the  year  in  which 
 the  manuscript  was  written,  the  copyist  of  which  calls 
 himself  the  disciple  of  Priscian.  (Fabr.,  Bihl.  LaS., 
 vol.  3,  p.  308,  ed.  Ermsti.)  Priscian  is  the  author  oJ 
 the  most  complete  grammar  thai  has  come  down  t*  as 
 from  the  ancients.  It  is  entitled  "  Comnientariervm 
 grummalkorum  lihri,  xviii.,"  or  "  i3«  oclo  pstrhhus 
 oratioms  earmtdemque  tmislruclione,''^  and  is  address- 
 ed to  Julian,  a  man  of  consular  and  |»lrician  lajJu 
 
PRI 
 
 PRO 
 
 The  first  sixteen  books,  which  are  commonly  styled 
 ♦'  the  Great  Priscian,"  treat  of  the  eight  parts  of 
 speech;  the  last  two,  generally  called  "the  Little  Pris- 
 cian," are  occupied  with  the  Syntax.  {Putsch.,  p. 
 592.)  This  is  not,  however,  the  only  grammatical 
 work  of  Priscian  ;  we  have  also  from  him  treatises 
 on  accents  ;  on  the  declension  of  nouns  ;  on  comic  me- 
 tres ;  on  numbers,  rules,  and  measures  ("  De  figuris 
 cl  ttjomimbiis  numcrorum,  el  de  normis  ac  ponderi- 
 tiis"),  &,c.  He  is  probably,  too,  the  author  of  three 
 poems,  erroneously  ascribed  to  Rhamnius  Fannius. 
 One  of  these  is  a  version  of  the  Itinerary  of  Diony- 
 sius  of  Oharax,  the  second  is  on  weights  and  meas- 
 ures;, and  the  third  on  the  stars.  The  first  of  these 
 poems,  entitled  Periegcsis  6  Dionysio,  or  Dc  situ,  or- 
 bis  terrx,  is  an  imitation  rather  than  strict  version 
 of  the  Greek  original,  and  consists  of  1087  verses. 
 Priscian  follows,  in  general,  the  author's  train  of  ideas  ; 
 but  he  makes,  at  the  same  lime,  certain  alterations 
 which  he  deems  necessary,  especially  in  substituting 
 Christian  ideas  for  what  related  in  the  original  to  the 
 worship  of  the  heathen  gods.  To  the  description  of 
 places  he  adds  various  remarkable  particulars,  gener- 
 ally obtained  from  Solinus.  The  object  being  the  in- 
 struction of  the  young,  to  whom  he  wished  to  present 
 a  general  summary  of  geography,  he  writes  in  a  very 
 clear  and  simple  style,  without  even  venturing  on  any 
 flight  of  poetry.  The  poem  on  weights  and  measures 
 is  incomplete  ;  we  have  only  162  verses.  In  the  first 
 55,  the  author  treats  briefly  of  weights,  probably  be- 
 cause he  had  already  discussed  this  branch  of  his  sub- 
 iect  more  fully  in  his  prose  work  already  mentioned. 
 He  enters,  however,  into  very  full  details  respecting 
 the  measures  of  liquids  and  fruits,  to  which  the  rest  of 
 the  poem  is  entirely  devoted.  The  third  poem  of 
 Priscian's  contains  no  more  than  200  verses  ;  it  is  a 
 dry  nomenclature  of  the  stars  and  planets,  and  is  en- 
 titled "  Epitome  phcE/wmendn"  or  "  De  Siderihus.'" 
 These  three  j)oems  are  given  in  the  fifth  volume  of 
 Weriisdorfl  "s  Poetcz  Lattni  Minores,  and  the  third  also 
 in  Burmann's  Anthology  (vol.  2,  p.  333).  The  gram- 
 matical works  of  Priscian  are  given  by  Putschius 
 among  the  Grammatici  Lalini,  1605.  The  latest  edi- 
 tion of  the  Grammatical  Commentaries  is  that  of 
 Krehl,  Li^s.,  1819,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  and  of  the  minor 
 works,  that  of  Lindemann,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1818.  {Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Rum.,  vol.  3,  p.  113,  329.— BMr,  Gesch. 
 Rom.  Lit.,  p.  541.) 
 
 Privernum,  a  city  of  Latium,  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Volsci  ;  the  ancient  name  of  which  is  but  partially  lost 
 in  that  of  the  modern  Piperno,  which  marks  its  situa- 
 tion. Virgil  makes  it  the  birthplace  of  Camilla  {JEri., 
 11,  539).  We  have  the  authority  of  the  same  poet 
 (Z.  c.)  for  ascribing  it  to  the  Volsci ;  but  Strabo  (231) 
 would  seem  to  consider  the  Privernales  as  a  distinct 
 people  from  the  Volsci,  for  he  particularizes  them 
 among  the  petty  nations  conquered  by  the  Romans 
 and  incorporated  in  Latium.  The  same  geographer 
 elsewhere  points  out  the  situation  of  Privernum  be- 
 tween the  Latin  and  Appian  Ways.  (Strabo,  237.) 
 This  apparently  insignificant  place,  trusting,  as  it  would 
 seem,  to  its  natural  strength  and  remote  situation,  pre- 
 sumed to  brave  the  vengeance  of  Rome  by  making 
 incursions  on  the  neighbouring  colonies  of  Setia  and 
 Norba.  (Liv.,  7,  15.)  A  consul  was  immediately 
 despatched  to  chastise  the  offenders,  and  in  the  sub- 
 mission of  the  town  obtained  the  honours  of  a  triumph. 
 The  Pnvernates  again,  however,  renewed  their  hostile 
 depredations  ;  and  the  offence  was  repeated  so  often, 
 that  it  was  found  necessary  to  demolish  their  walls  and 
 remove  their  senate  to  Rome.  An  assembly  was  held 
 in  that  city,  and  a  debate  ensued  on  the  punishment 
 to  be  inflicted  on  the  inhabitants  of  Privernum.  A 
 deputy  of  the  conquered  town  being  asked  what  pen- 
 alty their  rebellious  conduct  deserved,  boldly  replied, 
 "Such  punishment  as  they  merit  who  claim  their  free- 
 
 dom." The  Romans  had  the  generosity  and  good 
 sense  to  be  pleased  with  this  spirited  reply  ;  and,  in- 
 stead of  executing  farther  severity,  they  admitted  the 
 Privernates  to  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens.  (Liv.,  8, 
 1,  seqq. —  Val.  Max.,  6,  2.)  Festus,  however,  men- 
 tions it  among  the  pra-fecturce,  or  those  towns  in  which 
 the  pra3lur  at  Rome  administered  justice  by  deputy. 
 Frontinus  classes  Privernum  among  the  military  colo- 
 nies.    (Cramcr^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  109,  seqq.) 
 
 Probus,  I.  M.  AuREi.ius  Severus,  a  native  of  Sir- 
 mium  in  Pannonia.  Having  been  left  early  an  orphan 
 by  his  father  Maximus,  who  died  a  tribune  in  Egypt, 
 and  having  opened  a  road  to  distinction  by  his  sword, 
 he  was  long  regarded  as  the  man  upon  whom  the  elec- 
 tion to  the  empire  was,  at  one  time,  likely  to  fall. 
 Aurelian,  when  appomting  him  to  the  command  of  the 
 tenth,  his  own  legion,  which  had  been  that  of  Claudi- 
 us, says  in  his  letters,  that,  "  by  a  sort  of  prerogative  of 
 good  fortune,  it  had  been  always  commanded  by  men 
 who  were  one  day  to  be  princes."  Tacitus  had  recom- 
 mended Probus  to  the  senate  as  a  fitter  person  than  him- 
 ielf  for  their  sovereign  ;  and,  when  acquainting  Probus 
 with  the  circumstances  of  his  own  election,  wrote  to 
 him,  "You  know,  however,  that  the  weight  of  the  com- 
 monwealth rests  rather  upon  your  shoulders,  and  the 
 senate  knows  it  too."  When  the  tribunes,  on  the  usur- 
 pation of  Florianus,  harangued  their  divisions  in  dif- 
 ferent parts  of  the  camp,  they  confined  themselves,  on 
 a  concerted  plan,  to  describing  what  the  qualities  of 
 an  emperor  should  be,  without  directly  naming  Pro- 
 bus  ;  but  the  cohorts  everywhere,  as  by  a  unanimous 
 impulse,  broke  out  into  acclamations,  "  Probus  Au- 
 gustus, the  gods  preserve  thee  !"  Snatching  a  purple 
 robe  trom  the  statue  of  a  neighbouring  temple,  they 
 threv\'  it  over  the  shoulders  of  Probus,  and  hurried  him 
 along  to  a  tribunal  of  turf,  which  had  been  hastily 
 raised,  that  he  might  deliver  to  them  his  inaugural  ha- 
 rangue. On  the  receipt  of  the  despatches  by  the  sen- 
 ate, one  of  their  number,  Manlius,  whose  turn  it  was  to 
 speak,  enlarged  upon  the  victories  of  Probus  over  the 
 Franks  and  Alemanni,  the  Sarmatians  and  Goths,  the 
 Parthians  and  Persians  ;  on  his  respectable  life  ;  his 
 clemency  and  justice,  in  which  he  resembled  Trajan; 
 but  he  was  interrupted  by  shouts  of  "all,  all,"  in  at- 
 testation of  their  unanimous  assent.  Though  the  laws 
 had  not  consolidated,  the  grace  of  Probus  confirmed 
 the  privileges  which  Tacitus  had  granted  to  the  sen- 
 ate, and  the  right  of  appointing  proconsuls,  hearing 
 appeals  from  the  courts,  and  ratifying  the  constitutions 
 or  edicts  of  the  emperor.  The  Franks  and  Burgundi- 
 ans  having  overrun  Gaul,  Probus  marched  to  repel 
 their  invasion.  In  the  several  battles  fought  400,000 
 of  the  barbarians  fell,  70  cities  opened  their  gates, 
 the  spoil  which  had  been  taken  was  restored,  contri- 
 butions were  furnished  of  corn,  of  cattle,  of  horses, 
 and  of  sheep ;  16,000  Germans  were  draughted  into 
 the  legions  of  Rome,  and  nine  princes  ofTered  their 
 hostages  and  their  homage.  Having  recovered  Gaul, 
 he  carried  his  arms  into  the  countries  beyond  the 
 Adriatic  ;  forced  the  Gets;  to  submit  to  his  arms  or 
 court  his  alliance;  overcame  the  Sarmatae  ;  liberated 
 Isauria  from  the  oppression  of  Palfurius,  a  famous  rob- 
 ber, who  was  slain  ;  obtained  by  his  arms  peace  from 
 the  Persians  ;  subdued  the  Blemmya>,  a  people  inhab- 
 iting the  borders  of  Egypt  and  ^Ethiopia  ;  rescued 
 Coptos  and  Ptolemais  from  the  barbarian  yoke  ;  re- 
 duced Saiurninus,  Proculus,  and  Bonosus,  the  former 
 of  whom  had  usurped  the  sovereignty  in  Egypt,  and 
 the  two  latter  in  Gaul  ;  and,  after  various  battles,  van- 
 quished the  Vandals,  many  of  whom  he  had  trans- 
 planted to  the  Roman  soil,  and  who  had  broken  their 
 pledcre  of  fidelity.  Groups  of  all  nations  preceded  his 
 triumphal  car.  Amid  the  transplanted  trees  that 
 formed  a  forest  in  the  amphitheatre,  thousands  of 
 stags,  wild  boars,  and  goats  were  turned  loose  as 
 prizes  for  the  most  dexterous  of  the  people  ;   three  hun- 
 
 1127 
 
PRO 
 
 PROCLUS. 
 
 dr«d  bears  were  exposed  to  the  archers  ;  and  a  hun- 
 dred lions,  transfixed  by  the  javelins  of  the  h\inters, 
 lay  stretched  between  Isaiirian  robbers  and  Blenirnyan 
 captives ;  of  the  latter  tradition  tells  us,  perhaps  from 
 some  peculiirity  in  their  armour,  that  they  were  head- 
 less, and  that  their  eyes  and  mouths  were  seated  in 
 their  breasts. — It  was  the  favourite  maxim  of  Probus, 
 after  he  had  secured  peace  by  his  victories,  that  in  a 
 short  time  soldiers  would  be  unnecessary.  With  the 
 wisdom  of  a  statesman  and  the  policy  of  a  general,  he 
 employed  them,  during  the  intervals  of  war,  in  the 
 construction  of  bridges  and  aqueducts,  and  in  the 
 planting  of  Mount  Alma,  at  Sirmium,  with  vines. 
 The  draining  of  a  marsh,  at  ihe  latter  place,  which 
 was  the  place  of  his  birth,  proved  fatal  to  him.  The 
 soldiers,  impatient  of  their  labours,  aggravated  by  a 
 hot  sun,  rose  in  mutiny,  and,  pursuing  their  emperor 
 into  an  iron  turret,  which  he  had  erected  for  the  more 
 convenient  inspection  of  the  workmen,  put  him  to 
 death,  in  the  50th  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  six 
 years  and  four  months,  A.D.  282.  The  deed  was  no 
 sooner  executed  than  they  repented.  They  raised  a 
 monument  to  his  memory,  and  inscribed  on  the  mar- 
 ble, "  Probus,  emperor,  a  man  of  real  probity,  the  con- 
 queror of  the  barbarians  and  the  usurpers."  A  weapon 
 or  a  piece  of  armour  was  the  sole  share  which  Probus 
 could  be  prevailed  upon  to  receive  of  the  booty  of  the 
 field.  On  the  soldiers  pressing  upon  him  an  Alan 
 horse,  which  was  said  to  run  a  hundred  miles  in  a  day, 
 he  said,  "  it  was  fitter  for  a  runaway  soldier  than  for 
 a  fighting  one."  The  simplicity  of  his  maimers  stri- 
 kingly contrasted  with  the  pride  and  spirit  of  his  bear- 
 ing as  a  Roman  general.  An  embassy  from  the  Per- 
 sians entered  his  camp  with  a  pompous  retinue,  bear- 
 ing presents  to  the  Emperor  of  Rome.  They  found 
 him  seated  on  the  grass  at  the  hour  of  his  repast,  hard 
 pease  and  coarse  bacon  forming  his  only  viands.  Look- 
 ing up  at  the  astonished  and  half-incredulous  envoy, 
 he  spoke  lightly  of  their  presents,  saying  "  that  all  their 
 king  possessed  was  already  his,  and  that  he  should 
 come  for  the  rest  whenever  he  chose."  Then,  remo- 
 ving the  cap  which  he  wore,  and  exposing  the  crown 
 of  his  head,  he  added,  "  Tell  your  master  that,  if  he 
 does  not  submit  to  Rome,  I  will  make  his  kingdom  as 
 bare  as  this  head  is  bald."  The  threat  was  believed, 
 and  the  submission  was  tendered.  ( Vopisc,  Vit. 
 Prob. — Zosim,  ],M,seqq. —  Elton's  Eoman  Emper- 
 ors, p.  181  ) — II.  ^milius,  a  grammarian  in  the  age 
 of  Theodosius.  The  lives  of  excellent  commanders, 
 written  by  Cornelius  Nepos,  have  been  falsely  attrib- 
 uted to  him  by  some  authors.     {Vid.  Nepos.) 
 
 Procas,  a  king  of  Alba,  after  his  father  Aventinus. 
 He  was  father  of  Amulius  and  Numitor.  {Liv.,  1,  3. 
 —Ovid,  Met.,  14.  622  —  Fn-^  ,  ^n.,  6,  767.) 
 
 Prochyta,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Campania,  and 
 adjacent  to  .tnaria.  It  is  now  Procida.  (Virg:, 
 lEn.,  9,  714.  — Si/.  Ita\.,  8,  542.)  The  poet  last 
 quoted  makes  Prochyta  to  have  been  placed  on  the 
 giant  Mimas,  as  Inarime  was  on  lapetus  or  Typhceus 
 (12,  147). 
 
 Procles,  a  son  of  Aristodemus  and  Argia,  and 
 twin-brother  of  Eurysthenes.     {Vid   Eurysthenes.) 
 
 ProclTd^'e,  the  descendants  of  Procles,  who  sat  on 
 the  throne  of  Sparta  together  with  the  Eurysthenidae. 
 (F/V/.  Eurysthenes.) 
 
 Proci.us,  a  celebrated  philosopher  of  the  New-Pla- 
 tonic sect,  born  at  Constantinople  A.D.  412.  He 
 spent  his  ardent  and  enthusiastic  youth  at  Xanlhus,  in 
 liVcia,  a  city  devoted  to  Apollo  and  Minerva,  where 
 his  parents  resided  ;  and  from  this  circumstance  he 
 was  called  "  the  Lycian."  From  Xanlhus  he  removed 
 to  Alexandrea,  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
 Olympiodorus,  a  celebrated  Pythagorean.  From  Al- 
 exandrea he  went  to  Athens-,  and  became  the  disciple 
 of  the  Platonist  Syrianus,  and  of  Asclepigenia,  daugh- 
 ter of  Plutarch.  At  the  age  of  twenty-eight  he  wrote 
 1128 
 
 his  Commentary  on  the  Timcrus  of  Plato,  which  it 
 generally  regarded  as  a  masterpiece  of  erudition. 
 Syrianus  designated  him  as  his  successor,  and  from 
 this  circumstance  he  obtained  the  surname  of  Dtado- 
 chiis  {Ai(i6oxo^,  ^^  successor").  Proclus  threw  hirr.- 
 self  blindly  into  the  mystic  theology  of  the  day,  and 
 was  initialed  into  the  arcana  of  all  the  Oriental  sects. 
 He  united  an  imaginative  temper  to  great  learning, 
 but  was  unable  to  balance  his  acquiri  inents  by  any 
 weight  of  understanding.  He  looked  upon  the  Orphic 
 Hymns  and  Chaldaan  Oracles,  which  he  had  diligent 
 ly  studied,  as  divine  revelations,  and  capable  of  be- 
 coming instrumental  to  philosophy  by  means  of  an  al- 
 legorical ex])osition ;  whereby,  also,  he  endeavoured 
 to  make  Plato  and  Aristotle  agree.  He  called  him- 
 self the  last  link  of  the  Hermeic  chain,  that  is,  the  last 
 of  men  consecrated  by  Hermes,  in  whom,  by  j>erpet- 
 ual  tradition,  was  preserved  the  occult  knowledge  of 
 the  mysteries.  (Marini,  Vita  Prodi,  p.  53,  seqq. — 
 Id.  ibid.,  p.  76.)  He  elevated  faith  above  science, 
 as  forming  a  closer  bond  of  union  with  Good  and  Uni- 
 ty. {Tkeolog.  Plat.,  1,  25,  29.)  His  sketch  of  phi- 
 losophy contains  a  commentary  on  the  doctrines  of 
 Plotinus,  and  an  attempt  to  establish  this  point,  that 
 there  is  but  one  real  cause  and  principle  of  all  things, 
 and  that  this  principle  is  Unity,  which  produces  all 
 things  in  one  uniform  order,  by  triads.  His  obscure 
 system  was  founded  on  an  imperfect  analysis  and  syn- 
 thesis of  the  properties  of  Being,  of  which  it  admitted 
 three  grand  divisions,  Existence,  Life,  and  Reason,  or 
 NoDf.  All  these  he  derived  from  Unity,  and  made 
 them  the  source  of  three  other  triads.  He  distin- 
 guished the  Divinities  (making  these  also  descend 
 from  Unity  and  give  birth  to  triads)  into  Intelligible 
 and  Intelligent,  Supernatural  and  Natural;  attributed 
 a  supernatural  efficacy  to  the  name  of  the  Supreme 
 Being;  and,  like  his  predecessors,  exalted  Theurgy 
 above  Philosophy.  Proclus  also  attacked  the  Chris- 
 tian religion,  being  principally  offended  by  the  doctrine 
 of  the  creation  of  the  world.  In  his  three  treatises 
 on  Providence,  Fate,  and  Evil,  he  states  with  great 
 ability  his  notion  that  the  latter  does  not  spring  from 
 Matter,  but  from  the  limitation  of  power,  and  labours 
 to  reconcile  the  system  of  Plotinus  with  the  conclu- 
 sions of  sound  reason.  Proclus  died  A  D.  485,  with 
 a  reputation  for  wisdom  and  even  for  miraculous  pow- 
 ers approaching  adoration,  leaving  behind  him  a  crowd 
 of  followers.  {Tennemann,  Manual  of  Philosophy, 
 p.  200,  seqq.,  Johnson's  tra?isl ) — The  best  edition  of 
 the  entire  works  of  this  philosopher  is  that  of  Cousin, 
 1820-27,  Paris,  6  vols.  8vo.  We  have  of  Proclus, 
 1.  A  work  on  the  Theology  of  Plato  (E/'f  rr/v  HXd- 
 ruvoc;  ■deoT.oyiav),  in  six  books.  It  was  published  in 
 1618,  fol.,  from  the  Hamburg  press.— 2.  Thtological 
 Institutes  {'ZTOLX^Li,)aL(;  ■deoXoyiKTj),  the  best  edition  of 
 which  is  that  of  Creuzer,  Francof.,  1822,  8vo. — 3.  A 
 work  On  Motion  {Ylepl  KLvqasi^^),  also  entitled  "^roi- 
 Xeiuatc  ^vaiKT]  ("  Physical  Institutes'"),  the  best  edi- 
 tion of  which  is  that  of  Wels,  Basil.,  1545,  8vo. — 4. 
 A  Commentary  on  the  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod 
 {'T-Ko^vrifia  fif  ~ii  'Ylaiodov  'Epja  kqI  'Uuepac),  ap- 
 pended as  scholia  to  some  of  the  editions  of  Hesiod. 
 5.  A  Grammatical  Chrestomafhy  (Xpearo/juhsia  ypnu- 
 fiaTLKi]),  in  two  books.  It  is  a  sort  of  treati.^e  on 
 style,  extracted  and  derived  from  the  ancient  gramma- 
 rians, and  its  principal  object  is  to  point  out  the  dif- 
 ferent kinds  of  poetry,  and  the  writers  who  have  dis- 
 tinguished themselves  in  the  same.  We  have  only 
 fragments  of  this  work  remaining,  which  lead  us  to 
 regret  very  deeply  the  loss  of  the  other  portions. 
 These  fragments  are  of  three  kinds  :  ta)  Notices  ex- 
 tracted from  the  (^hrestomaihy  by  Pholius,  and  pre- 
 served in  his  Biblioiheca.  (/3)  .\  Life  of  Homer,  which 
 owes  its  preservation  to  its  Iwving  been  placed  by 
 some  copyists  at  the  head  of  certain  MSS.  of  the  Iliad. 
 (>')  Arguments  of  many  of  the  minor  epic  poems,  ap- 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 pertaining  to  the  mythic  and  Trojan  cycles,  now  lost. 
 — 6.  Eighteen  Arguments  against  the  Christians 
 ('Emxeipy/mra  u)  iiara  XpiariaviJv).  In  this  work 
 Proclus  attempts  to  prove  the  eternity  of  the  world, 
 that  favourite  thesis  of  Platonism.  The  treatise  would 
 probably  have  been  lost,  had  not  Johannes  Philoponus 
 written  a  refutation,  in  which  lie  has  literally  inserted 
 the  work  which  he  attacks. — 7.  A  Commentary  on  the 
 TivKPMS  of  Plato  {E'cg  rbv  tov  TiXaTuvo^  Tifiaiov 
 VKOfivTi/iaTa),  in  five  books.  As  these  five  books  con- 
 tain no  more  than  one  third  of  the  dialogue,  it  is  pos- 
 sible that  this  work  may  not  have  reached  us  entire. 
 It  is  regarded  as  the  best  of  the  productions  of  Pro- 
 clus, and  has.  moreover,  the  accidental  merit  of  having 
 preserved  for  us  the  work  of  Tima^us  of  Locri,  because, 
 viewing  it  as  the  source  whence  Plato  derived  his  ma- 
 terials, he  placed  it  at  the  head  of  his  commentary. — 
 8.  A  Commentary  on  the  First  Alcihiades  of  Plato 
 (E(V  TOV  nAarwvof  npiJTov  'ATiKiStddrjv).  The  best 
 edition  is  that  of  Crcuzer,  Franrof,  1820,  8vo. — 9. 
 Commentary  on  the  Republic  of  Plato  (E(f  ti/v  YiTid- 
 Tuvoq  TToTiireiav),  &c.  {Schiill,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 7,  [).  104,  scqq.) — Proclus  was  also  the  author  of  six 
 hymns,  one  to  the  Sun,  another  to  the  Muses,  two  to 
 Venus,  one  to  Hecate  and  Janus,  and  one  to  Minerva. 
 They  belong  properly  to  the  same  class  with  the  Or- 
 phic hymns.  The  latest  edition  of  the  Hymns  is  that 
 of  Boissonade,  Paris,  1824,  32mo. 
 
 Pkocne.      Vid.  Philomela. 
 
 Proconnesus  (or  the  Isle  of  Stags),  an  island  and 
 city  of  Asia  Minor  to  the  northeast  of  Cyzicus.  It  is 
 now  Marmara,  whence  the  modern  name  of  the  Pro- 
 pontis  is  derived  (Sea  of  Marmara).  Proconnesus 
 was  much  celebrated  for  its  marble  quarries,  which 
 supplied  most  of  the  public  buildings  in  Cyzicus  with 
 their  materials.  {Strabo,  588)  The  marble  was 
 while,  with  black  streaks  intermi.ted.  (Blasiiis,  Ca- 
 ryoph.  de  Marm.  Antiq.)  Aristeas,  who  wrote  a  po- 
 em on  the  Arimaspians,  vfas  a  native  of  the  city. 
 (Herod.,  4,  lA.—Strab.,  588.) 
 
 PBOcopius,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  historians 
 of  the  Eastern  empire.  He  was  born  at  Csesarea  in 
 Palestine,  and  exercised  at  Constantinople  the  profes- 
 sion of  rhetorician  and  sophist.  It  has  been  disputed 
 whether  he  was  a  Christian  or  not.  The  indiflerence 
 and  silence  with  which  he  pas.ses  over  the  religious 
 disputes  that  agitated  the  Church  in  his  day  have 
 caused  hirn  to  be  suspected  of  paganism,  but  it  is 
 more  than  probable  that  he  regarded  these  miserable 
 quarrels  as  unworthy  to  occupy  a  place  in  a  political 
 history.  Justin  the  elder  assigned  him  to  Belisarius 
 as  his  secretary  and  counsellor,  with  the  charge  of  ac- 
 companying this  general  in  his  several  expeditions. 
 This  nomination  took  place  a  short  time  previous  to 
 A.D.  527,  the  year  when  Justin  died.  Belisarius, 
 whom  he  had,  in  consequence  of  this  appointment, 
 followed  in  his  campaign  in  Africa  against  the  Van- 
 dals, sent  him  to  Syracuse,  on  some  business  relative 
 to  the  army.  In  536  he  employed  him  usefully  in  his 
 campaign  against  the  Goths  in  Italy.  Subsequently 
 to  559  he  was  named  a  senator,  and  about  562  prefect 
 of  (Constantinople,  a  place  which  Justinian  afterward 
 took  from  him.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age  — In  his 
 History  of  his  own  times  (Tiiv  kuO'  avrov  laTopiCiv 
 ^ifjlia  oKTLi),  in  eight  books,  of  which  the  first  four 
 bear  the  title  of  Persica,  and  the  others  that  of  Goth- 
 ica,  Procopius  describes  the  wars  of  the  Byzantine 
 Em[)ire  with  the  Persians,  the  Vandals,  the  Moors, 
 and  the  Coths,  adding  to  the  narrative,  from  time  to 
 time,  an  account  of  contemporaneous  events.  Ac- 
 cording to  two  modern  Oriental  scholars,  Procopius 
 derived  his  materials  for  an  account  of  Persia  and  Ar- 
 menia from  the  Armenian  work  of  the  Bishop  Puzunt 
 Posdus,  who  was  born  at  Constantinople,  of  Greek 
 parents,  and  who  wrote  a  history  of  Armenia  in  six 
 books,  of  which  the  last  four  have  reached  us.  (Cha- 
 7D 
 
 han  de  Cirhied,  and  F.  Martin. —  Recherches  sur 
 VHist.  ancienne  de  VAsie,  Paris,  1806,  8vo,  p.  294.) 
 Procopius  is  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  Anecdota, 
 or  secret  history,  in  which  Justinian  and  his  Empress 
 Theodora  are  represented  in  the  most  odious  light. 
 Procopius  assigns  as  a  reason  for  writing  this  last 
 work,  that  in  his  history  he  could  not  speak  of  per- 
 sons and  things  as  he  wished.  He  was  the  aiuhor  of 
 a  third  work,  "On  the  edifices  erected  by  the  Emperor 
 Justinian."  As  an  eyewitness  of  many  events  which 
 he  describes,  Procopius  is  entitled  to  great  attention. 
 He  writes  like  one  free  from  all  the  prejudices  of  his 
 age  ;  when,  however,  he  makes  mention  of  the  em- 
 peror and  his  court,  he  appears  entitled  only  to  that 
 degree  of  credit  which  is  due  to  one  who  writes  un 
 der  the  constraint  and  eye  of  his  prince.  The  works 
 of  Procopius  form  part  of  the  collection  of  the  By- 
 zantine historians.     {Scholt,  vol.  6,  p.  349,  seqq.) 
 
 Procrustes,  a  famous  robber  of  Attica,  killed  by 
 Theseus  near  the  Cephissus.  He  comp>elled  travel- 
 lers to  lie  down  on  a  couch,  and,  if  their  length  ex- 
 ceeded that  of  the  couch,  ^'e  lopped  off  as  much  of 
 their  limbs  as  would  suffice  to  make  the  length  equal. 
 If  they  were  shorter  than  the  couch,  he  stretched 
 them  to  the  requisite  length.  Theseus  proceeded 
 against  and  slew  him.  According  to  Pkitarch,  his 
 true  name  was  Damastes,  and  Procrustes  was  only  a 
 surname.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Thcs.,  11.)  Pausanias,  on 
 the  other  hand,  makes  it  to  have  been  Polypemon. 
 (Pausan.,  1,  38.) 
 
 Proculeius,  a  Roman  knight,  and  the  intimate 
 friend  of  Augustus,  who  held  him  in  such  high  esteem 
 as  to  entertain  thoughts  at  one  time  of  making  him  his 
 son-in-law.  He  is  celebrated  by  Horace  for  his  fra- 
 ternal affection  towards  his  brothers  L.  Licinius  and 
 M.  Terentius.  They  had  lost  their  estates  for  siding 
 with  the  party  of  Pompey,  and  Proculeius  thereupon 
 generously  shared  his  own  with  them.  He  was  the 
 individual  sent  by  Augustus  to  Cleopatra  to  endeavour 
 to  bring  her  alive  into  his  presence.  He  destroyed 
 himself  when  suffering  under  a  severe  malady.  {Ho- 
 rat.,  Od.,  2,  2,  b.—Plin.,  36,  24.) 
 
 Procijlus,  I.  JuT-iiis,  a  Roman,  who,  after  the 
 death  of  Romulus,  declared  that  he  had  seen  him  in 
 appearance  more  than  human,  and  that  he  had  ordered 
 him  to  bid  the  Romans  offer  him  sacrifices  under  the 
 name  of  Quirinus,  and  to  rest  assured  that  Rome  was 
 destined  by  the  gods  to  become  the  capital  of  the 
 world.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Rom.—Liv,  1,  16.)— II.  A  Ro- 
 man elegiac  poet,  mentioned  by  Ovid  as  an  imitaior  ot 
 Callimachus.  (Ep.  ex  Pont.,  4,  16,  33.)— III.  A 
 Roman  lawyer  mentioned  in  the  Pandects.  He  is 
 supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  same  with  the 
 Proculus  of  whom  Tacitus  speaks  as  praetorian  prae- 
 fect  in  the  reign  of  Oiho.  {Tacit  ,  Hist.,  1,  87.)  He 
 gave  name  to  the  legal  party  termed  Proculiam. 
 {Dig.,  lib.  1,  tit.  2,  leg.  2.) 
 
 Procyon,  a  constellation,  so  called  from  its  rising 
 just  before  the  dog-star  {TlpoKixJv,  from  Trpo,  "ie- 
 fore,''^  "in  front  of,'''  and  kvuv,  "a dog");  whence  its 
 Latin  name  of  Aniecanis  or  Ante-Canem.  (Compare 
 Cicero,  K  D.,  2,  41.— P/m  ,  18.  28,  and  the  remarks 
 of  Ideler  on  the  last-cited  anihoThy .  —  Sternnameii, 
 p.  283  ) 
 
 Prodicus,  a  sophist  and  rhetorician  of  lulis  in  the 
 island  of  Ceos,  contemporarv  with  Democritus  and 
 Gorgias  of  Leontini,  and  a  disciple  of  Protagoras. 
 He  flourished  in  the  86th  Olympiad,  and  had,  among 
 other  disciples,  Socrates,  Euripides,  Tberamenes,  and 
 Isocrates.  His  countrymen,  after  bestowing  upon 
 him  several  public  eniialoyments,  had  sent  him,  it 
 seems,  as  ambassador  to  Athens,  and  he  was  so  well 
 received  here  as  to  be  induced  to  open  a  school  of 
 rhetoric.  Plato,  who  makes  frequent  mention  of  him, 
 and  even  with  applause,  but  not  without  sometimes 
 employing   irony,  insinuates,    that  a  desire  of  gain 
 
 ^    '    "         ^  1129 
 
PR(E 
 
 PRO 
 
 prompted  Prodicus  to  open  this  school,  and,  indeed, 
 he  aniassed  considerable  wealth  by  his  lectures.  Phi- 
 lostratus  also  declares  that  Prodicus  was  fond  of  mon- 
 ey. He  used  to  go  from  one  city  to  another  display- 
 ing his  eloquence,  and,  though  he  did  it  in  a  merce- 
 nary way,  he  nevertheless  had  great  honours  paid  to 
 hini  ill  'i'hebes,  and  still  greater  in  Lacedaemon.  His 
 charge  to  a  pupil  was  fifty  drachms.  The  style  of 
 Prodicus  must  have  been  very  eloquent,  since  such 
 numbers  flocked  to  hear  him,  although  he  had  a  disa- 
 greeable voice.  (Philoslr.,  Vtt.  Soph  )  It  is  related 
 Jhat  Xenophon,  when  a  prisoner  in  Boeotia,  being  de- 
 sirous of  hearing  Prodicus,  procured  the  requisite  bail, 
 and  went  and  gratified  his  curiosity.  (Philoslr.,  I.  c) 
 Few  pieces  have  been  oftener  referred  to  than  that  in 
 which  Prodicus  narrated  what  is  termed  "The  Choice 
 of  Hercules."  The  original  is  lost;  but  we  have  the 
 substance  of  it  in  the  Memorabilia  of  Xenophon  (2.  1, 
 21).  Prodicus  was  at  last  put  to  death  by  the  Athe- 
 nians, on  the  charge  of  corrupting  their  youth.  Se.x- 
 tus  Empiricus  ranks  him  among  the  atheists,  and  Ci- 
 cero remarks  that  some  of  his  doctrines  were  subver- 
 sive of  all  religion.  {Cic,  N.  D.,  1,  adfin.—Bayle, 
 Diet.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Prcetidks,  the  daughters  of  Prcetus,  king  of  Argo- 
 lis,  were  three  in  number,  Lysippe,  Iphinoe,  and  Iphi- 
 anassa.  They  were  seized  with  insanity  for  contemn- 
 ing, according  to  one  account,  the  rites  of  Bacchus. 
 {Apollod.,  2,  2.—  Eustath.  ad  Od.,  15,  p.  1746.) 
 Another  legend  made  them  to  have  been  thus  punished 
 for  casting  ridicule  on  Juno  and  her  temple.  (Schol. 
 ad  Od.,  15,  225.)  While  under  the  influence  of  their 
 phrensy,  the  Prcetides  roamed  over  the  plains,  the 
 woods,  the  wastes  of  Argolis  and  Arcadia,  fancying 
 themselves  changed  into  cows.  (Virg.,  Erlo<^.,  5,  48 
 — Serv.,  ad  loc.)  Proelus  thereupon  applied  to  Me- 
 lampus  to  cure  his  daughters  ;  but  the  soothsayer,  who 
 was  the  first  that  exercised  the  art  of  medicine,  de- 
 manded beforehand,  as  a  recompense,  one  third  of  the 
 kingdom.  Proetus  refused.  Thereupon  the  madness 
 of  the  maidens  increased,  and  even  extended  to  the 
 other  women,  who  killed  their  children,  abandoned 
 their  dwellings,  and  fled  to  the  wilds.  The  reluc- 
 tance of  Proetus  was  now  overcome,  and  he  offered  to 
 comply  with  the  terms  of  Melampus  ;  but  the  sooth- 
 sayer would  not  now  employ  his  art  without  another 
 third  of  the  realm  being  given  to  his  brother  Bias. 
 Proetus,  fearing  that  delay  would  only  make  him  ad- 
 vance farther  in  his  demand,  consented,  and  Melam- 
 pus set  about  the  cure.  He  took  a  number  of  the 
 ablest  young  men  of  the  place,  and  made  them,  with 
 shouts  and  a  certain  inspired  kind  of  dance,  chase  the 
 maidens  from  the  mountains  to  Sicyon.  In  the  chase, 
 Iphinoe,  the  eldest  of  the  Prcetides,  died  ;  but  the  oth- 
 ers were  restored  to  sanity  ;  and  PrtEtus  gave  them  in 
 marriage  to  Melampus  and  his  brother  Bias.  (Keight- 
 ley's  Mylkolugtj,  p.  413.)  A  fragment  of  Hesiod, 
 cited  by  Eustathius  (I.  c.),  describes  the  complaint  of 
 the  ProElides  as  a  species  of  leprosy,  a  malady  often 
 followed  by  insanity.  The  cure  appears  to  have  been 
 effected  by  the  cutaneous  trans[)iration  brought  about 
 by  the  violent  exercise  to  which  the  daughters  of  Prce- 
 tus were  subjected,  and  also  to  their  havino-  been 
 made  to  bathe  after  this  in  the  waters  of  the  Anigrus, 
 which  were  long  after  this  famous  for  their  medical 
 virtues  in  healing  the  leprosy.  (Stralio,  533. — Spren- 
 gel.  Hist,  de  la  Med  ,  vol.  1,  p.  95,  scq.) 
 
 P«(ETus,  a  king  of  Argos,  son  of  .\bas  and  Ocalea. 
 He  was  twin  brother  to  Acrisius,  with  whom  he  quar- 
 relled even  before  their  birth.  This  dissension  be- 
 tween the  two  brolhers  increased  with  their  years. 
 After  their  father's  death,  they  both  tried  to  obtain  the 
 kingdom  of  Argos  ;  but  the  claims  of  .\crisius  pre- 
 vailed, and  Prostus  left  Peloponnesus,  and  retired  to 
 the  court  of  Jobates,  king  of  Lycia,  where  he  married 
 StenobcEa,  called  by  some  Antea  or  Antiope.  He  af- 
 1130 
 
 terward  returned  to  Argolis,  and,  by  means  of  his  fa- 
 ther-in-law, he  made  himself  master  of  Tirynthus. 
 Stcnobcea  had  accompanied  her  husband  to  Greece, 
 and  she  became  by  him  mother  of  the  Prcetides,  and 
 of  a  son  called  Mcgapenihes,  who,  after  his  father's 
 death,  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Tirynthus.  ( Vtd. 
 Stenoboea. — Apollod.,  2,  2  ) 
 
 Prometheus,  a  son  of  lapetus,  by  Clymene,  one  of 
 the  Oceanides.  He  was  brother  of  Epimeiheus,  Me- 
 ncslius,  and  Atlas,  and  was  fabled  to  have  surpassed 
 all  mankind  in  sagacity.  In  Prometheus  and  Epime- 
 theus  are  personified  the  intellectual  vigour  and  weak- 
 ness of  man.  In  this  myth,  however,  there  is  great 
 confusion,  for  its  original  sense  seems  to  have  been 
 lost  very  early,  and  Prometheus  to  have  been  viewed 
 as  a  Titan,  and  the  creator  or  insiructcr  of  men.  In 
 Homer  there  is  no  allusion  whatever  to  Prometheus. 
 Hesiod,  however,  says,  that  when  the  gods  and  men 
 had  a  controversy  at  Mecone,  Prometheus  took  an  ox, 
 and,  dividing  it,  put  the  flesh  and  entrails  in  the  hide, 
 and,  wrapping  the  bones  up  in  the  inside  fat,  desired 
 Jupiter  to  take  which  he  would.  The  god,  though 
 aware  of  the  deceit,  selected  the  bones  and  fat.  and  in 
 revenge  he  withheld  fire  from  man.  But  Prometheus 
 again  deceived  him,  and,  stealing  the  fire  in  a  hollovy 
 slaff  {vilpOrj^,  ferula),  brought  it  and  gave  it  to  man. 
 Jupiter  then  sent  Pandora  on  earth,  to  deceive  man  to 
 his  ruin,  and  he  bound  Prometheus  with  chains  to  a 
 pillar,  and  sent  an  eagle  to  prey  without  ceasing  on 
 his  liver,  which  grew  every  night  as  much  as  it  had 
 lost  in  the  day.  After  a  long  interval  of  lime,  how- 
 ever (according  to  some,  thirty  thousand  years).  Her- 
 cules slew  the  eagle  and  freed  the  sufferer.  (Blomf., 
 Gloss  ad  Msch.,  P.  V.,  94.) — In  this  narrative  there 
 IS  a  combination  of  a  local  myth  of  Sicyon  (anciently 
 called  Mecone)  with  a  doctrine  of  a  much  higher  na- 
 ture. The  former  legend  was  manifestly  devised  to 
 account  for  the  custom  at  Sicyon,  as  at  Sparta,  of  of- 
 fering to  the  gods  m  sacrifice  the  bones  of  the  victim 
 wrapped  in  the  caul,  instead  of  some  of  the  choicest 
 parts  of  the  flesh  as  elsewhere.  (  Welcker,  Tnl.,  78. 
 —  Voss.,  Myth.  Br.,  vol.  2,  p.  353,  seqq.)  The  lat- 
 ter myth  may  be,  perhaps,  thus  explained.  The  first 
 men  lived  in  a  state  of  bliss  on  the  abundant  produc- 
 tions of  the  earth.  The  spring  was  perpetual,  and 
 the  cold  was  unfelt,  and  they  therefore  needed  not  fire, 
 which  Jupiter,  in  kindness,  withheld  from  them.  But 
 the  inquisitive  and  inventive  genius  (i.  e.,  Prometheus) 
 introduced  fire,  and  the  arts  which  result,  from  it,  and 
 man  henceforth  became  a  prey  to  care  and  anxiety,  the 
 love  of  gain,  and  other  evil  passions  which  torment 
 him,  and  which  are  personified  in  the  eagle  that  fed  on 
 the  inconsumable  liver  of  Prometheus.  {Miiller,  Pro- 
 leg.,  p.  122. — Petronius,  ap.  Fulgent.,  2,  9.)  In  a 
 word,  we  have  here  a  Grecian  myth  of  the  fall  of 
 man,  which  we  shall  find  carried  out  in  that  of  Pan- 
 dora. {Vid.  Pandora.) — The  simple  narrative  of  He- 
 siod was,  as  usual,  expanded  by  later  writers,  and 
 Mount  Caucasus  was  fixed  upon  as  the  place  of  Pro- 
 metheus' punishment.  The  pragmatisers  also  explain- 
 ed the  myth  after  their  own  fashion.  Prometheus  was, 
 they  say,  a  king  of  the  Scythians,  and  his  country 
 was  wasted  by  a  river  named  Eagle  ('Afrof),  whose 
 inundations  when  he  was  unable  to  prevent,  his  sub- 
 jects laid  him  in  chains.  But  Hercules,  coming  thith- 
 er, opened  a  passage  for  the  Eagle  into  the  sea,  and 
 thus  freed  the  captive  monarch.  (Apoll.  Rkod.,  2, 
 1248.)  —  The  name  of  Prometheus  led  to  his  being 
 viewed  as  the  beslower  of  all  knowledge  on  mankind. 
 {jEsch.,  Prom.  Vtnct.,  442.  seq.  —  Id.  ib.,  505,  seq.) 
 A  philosophical  myth,  in  Plato,  says  that  the  gods 
 formed  man  and  other  animals  of  clay  and  fire  within 
 the  earth,  and  then  committed  to  Prometheus  and  his 
 brother  the  task  of  distributing  powers  and  qualities 
 to  them.  Epimetheus  prayed  to  be  allowed  to  make 
 the  distribution.     Prometheus  assented  ;  but,  when  he 
 
PROMETHEUS. 
 
 PRO 
 
 came  to  survey  the  work,  he  found  that  the  silly  Epi- 
 metheus  had  abundantly  furnished  the  inferior  animals, 
 while  man  was  left  naked  and  helpless.  As  the  day 
 for  their  emerging  from  the  earth  was  at  hand,  Pro- 
 metheus was  at  a  loss  what  to  do.  At  length,  as  the 
 only  remedy,  he  stole  fire,  and  with  it  the  artist-skill 
 of  Minerva  and  Vulcan,  and  gave  it  to  man.  He  was 
 also  regarded  as  the  creator  of  the  human  race.  An- 
 other legend  said,  that  all  mankind  having  perished  in 
 Deucalion's  flood,  Jupiter  directed  Prometheus  and 
 Mirserva  to  make  images  of  clay,  on  which  he  caused 
 the  winds  to  blow,  and  thus  gave  them  life.  (Etym. 
 ATau;.,  et  Sieph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'licoviov.)  A  third  said, 
 that  Prometheus  had  formed  a  man  of  clay,  and  Mi- 
 nerva, beholdmg  it,  offered  him  her  aid  m  procuring 
 anything  in  heaven  that  might  contribute  to  its  per- 
 fection. Prometheus  said,  that  he  could  iwt  tell  what 
 there  might  be  in  heaven  suitable  for  his  purpose,  un- 
 less he  could  go  thither  and  judge  for  himself.  The 
 goddess  then  bore  him  to  heaven  in  her  sevenfold 
 shield,  and  there,  seeing  everything  animated  by  the 
 celestial  heat,  he  secretly  applied  his  ferula  to  the 
 wheel  of  the  sun's  chariot,  and  thus  stole  some  of  the 
 fire,  which  he  then  applied  to  the  breast  of  his  man, 
 and  thus  animated  him.  Jupiter,  to  punish  Promethe- 
 us, bound  him,  and  appointed  a  vulture  to  prey  upon 
 his  liver,  and  the  incensed  gods  sent  fevers  and  oth- 
 er diseases  among  men.  {ApoUod  ,  1,  7,  1.  —  Ovid, 
 Met.,  1,  82. — Horat.,  Od.,  1,  3,  29,  seq.—Serv.  ad 
 Virg.,  Eclog.,  6,  42.)  —  On  the  story  of  Prometheus 
 has  been  founded  the  following  very  pretty  fable ; 
 When  Prometheus  bad  stolen  tire  from  heaven  for 
 the  good  of  mankind,  they  were  so  ungrateful  as  to 
 betray  him  to  Jupiter.  For  their  treachery,  they  got 
 in  reward  a  remedy  against  the  evils  of  old  age;  but, 
 not  duly  considering  the  value  of  the  gift,  instead  of 
 carrying  it  themselves,  they  put  it  on  the  back  of  an 
 ass,  and  let  him  trot  on  before  them.  It  was  sum- 
 mer-time, and  the  ass,  quite  overcome  by  thirst,  went 
 up  to  a  fountain  to  drink  ;  but  a  snake  forbade  all  ap- 
 proach. The  ass,  ready  to  faint,  most  eartiestly  im- 
 plored relief.  The  cunning  snake,  who  knew  the 
 value  of  the  burden  which  the  ass  bore,  demanded  it 
 as  the  price  of  access  to  the  fount.  The  ass  was 
 forced  to  comply,  and  the  snake  obtained  possession 
 of  the  gii't  of  Jupiter,  but  with  it,  as  a  punishment  of 
 his  art,  he  got  the  thirst  of  the  ass.  Hence  it  is  that 
 the  snake,  by  casting  his  skin  annually,  renews  his 
 youth,  while  man  is  borne  down  by  the  weight  of  the 
 evils  of  old  age.  The  malignant  snakes,  moreover, 
 when  they  have  an  opportunity,  communicate  their 
 thirst  to  mankind  by  biting  them.  {JElian,  Nat.  An., 
 6,  51.  —  Nicander,  Ther.,  340,  seq.  —  Schul.,  ad  loc.) 
 — The  wife  of  i'rometheus  was  Pandora  {Hesiod,  tip. 
 Sclwl.  ad  Apoll.  Rhod  ,  3,  1086),  or  Clymene  {Schol. 
 ad  Od.,  10,  2),  or  Hesione  {JEsch.,  Prum.  Vinct., 
 560),  or  Asia  {Herod.,  4,  45).  His  only  child  was 
 Deucalion.  {Keightln/s  Mythology,  p.  288,  scqq.) — 
 Rosenmiiller  sees  in  the  fable  of  Prometheus  a  resem- 
 blance to  the  scripture  account  of  the  fall  (Rosenm., 
 ad  Gen.,  3,  7  — Schiltz,  Excurs.  1,  ad  Prom.  Vinct. 
 —  Battmann,  Mythologus,  vol.  1,  p.  60.)  Others  car- 
 ry tliis  theory  still  farther,  and  in  the  combined  fables 
 of  Prometheus,  Epimethens,  and  Pandora,  discover  an 
 analocjy,  not  only  to  the  fall  of  Adam,  but  also  to  the 
 promise  of  a  Redeemer.  (Compare  Home's  Intro- 
 duction, vol.  I,  p  163,  Am.  ed.)  Nay,  some  of  the 
 early  fathers  even  proceeded  to  the  length  of  tracing  a 
 resemblance  between  Prometheus  and  our  Saviour. 
 (Sr'iulz.  Excurs.,  uhi  supra)  Another  sohitmn  of 
 this  myth  refers  it  to  the  overthrow  of  some  early  re- 
 ligious system  in  Greece.  Tzctzes,  in  his  scholia  on 
 Lycopliron  (v.  1191),  relates,  that  Ophion,  and  Euryn- 
 omc,  daughter  of  Oceanus,  reigned  over  the  gods 
 previous  to  Saturn  and  Rhea.  Saturn  overthrew 
 Ophion,  and  Rhea  overcame  Euryiiomc  in  wrestling, 
 
 and  they  hurled  them  both  to  Tartarus.  Prometheua 
 conquered  by  Jove  is  thought  to  be  a  tradition  of  a 
 similar  nature  ;  and  an  ancient  monument  at  Athens, 
 at  the  entrance  of  a  temple  of  Minerva,  in  the  Aca- 
 demia,  fully  testified,  if  we  believe  the  scholiast  to 
 Sophocles  {Olid.  Col ,  57),  the  priority  of  the  Titan 
 Prometheus  to  the  Homeric  Vulcan.  Prometheus 
 and  Vulcan  were  there  represented,  and  the  former, 
 as  the  first  and  eldest  of  the  two,  held  a  sceptre  in  his 
 hand  {<i  fitv  Ylpo/u7]6evc,  T^pCnog  Kai  npec6vTepof,  h  de^- 
 td  aKfjirrpov  £X^'^>  ^  ^^  'H^aioTo^  vioc  Kal  df\jrtpog). 
 Compare  Constant,  de  la  Religion,  vol.  2,  p.  316. 
 Kruse  adopts  the  same  opinion,  and  makes  the  contest 
 in  question  to  have  taken  place  between  the  Pelasgi  on 
 Olympus  (the  fabled  seat  of  Jove),  and  some  primitive 
 race  occupying  the  region  of  Mount  Otbr)'s,  the  latter 
 of  whom  were  conquered,  and  compelled  to  wander 
 from  their  previous  settlements  towards  the  mountains 
 of  Caucasus.     {Kruse,  Hellas,  vol.  1,  p.  471.) 
 
 Pronapides,  an  ancient  Greek  poet,  a  native  of 
 Athens,  and  the  reputed  preceptor  of  Homer.  {Dtod. 
 Sic,  3,  Q6.— Fabric,  Bibl.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  27) 
 
 Pronijba,  a  surname  of  Juno,  because  she  presided 
 over  marriages.     {Vid.  Juno.) 
 
 Propertius,  Sextus  Aurelius,  a  celebrated  Roman 
 elegiac  poet,  born  in  Umbria  on  the  confines  of  Etru- 
 ria.  Seven  towns  of  the  Umbnan  territory  disputed 
 with  each  other  the  honour  of  being  the  birthplace  of 
 Propertius.  From  the  poet's  own  account,  Mevania 
 (the  modern  Bevagna)  appears  to  prefer  the  strongest 
 claims  on  this  head  (4,  1,  121).  The  time  of  Proper- 
 tius' birth  has  also  been  made  a  subject  of  controversy, 
 being  placed  by  some  writers  as  early  as  696  A.U.O., 
 and  by  others  as  late  as  705.  From  the  import  of 
 eight  lines  in  the  fourth  book  of  his  elegies  (4,  1,  123), 
 which  refer  to  himself,  the  year  of  his  birth  may  be 
 most  safely  placed  between  these  periods,  and  no  great 
 error  will  probably  be  committed  if  it  be  fixed  in  the 
 year  700.  In  these  verses  we  are  told  that  his  father 
 died  prematurely,  while  Propertius  was  yet  young,  and 
 that  his  inheritance,  about  the  same  tune,  was  divided 
 among  the  soldiery. — Propertius  was  descended  of  an 
 equestrian  family  of  considerable  possessions.  But, 
 his  father  having  espoused  the  side  of  the  consul  Lucius 
 Antonius,  brother  of  the  triumvir,  in  the  dissensions 
 that  arose  with  Octavius,  he  was  made  prisoner  on  the 
 capture  of  Perugia,  and  slain  at  the  altar  erected  to 
 the  memory  of  Julius  Caesar.  About  these  state)nent3 
 there  exists,  however,  a  great  deal  of  doubt.  While 
 Propertius  was  yet  in  his  boyhood,  the  chief  part  oj 
 his  inheritance,  like  that  of  Tibullus,  was  divided,  as 
 we  have  seen,  among  the  soldiers  of  the  trmmvirs. 
 With  the  view  of  re-establishing  his  fortune,  he  wen) 
 to  Rome  in  early  life,  and  there  commenced  those 
 studies  which  might  qualify  him  to  shine  as  a  patron 
 in  the  Forum.  He  soon,  however,  relinquished  this 
 pursuit,  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  Muses. 
 His  early  proficiency  in  poetry,  his  learning  and  agree- 
 able manners,  procured  for  him  the  friendship  of  Gal- 
 lus,  of  the  poet  Ponticus  Bassus,  and  of  Ovid,  who 
 frequently  attended  the  private  recital  of  his  elegies. 
 These  productions  appear  to  have  been  written  about 
 the  year  730.  In  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  books, 
 our  poet  gives  Octavius  Cajsar  the  name  of  Augustus, 
 which  was  first  bestowed  on  him  in  727.  In  the  third 
 book  he  alludes  to  the  death  of  Marccllus,  who  died 
 in  730.  Farther,  in  the  last  elegy  of  the  second  book, 
 he  speaks  of  Virgil  as  still  alive,  and  of  his  JEneid  as 
 a  work  which  was  in  progress,  and  of  which  the  high- 
 est expectations  had  been  formed.  Now  Virgil  com- 
 menced his  ^Eneid  in  724,  and  had  made  considerable 
 progress  in  730,  in  which  year  he  read  three  books  ol 
 it  to  .Augustus  and  his  sister  Octavia.  Virgil  sur- 
 vived till  the  year  734,  and  the  ^Erieid  was  published 
 immediately  after  his  death. — The  first  appearance  of 
 the  elesies  attracted  the  notice  of  Maecenas,  who  as- 
 
 1131 
 
PROPERTIUS. 
 
 PRO 
 
 signed  Propertius  a  house  in  his  own  gardens  on  the 
 Es^qiiiline  Hill.  He  also  procured  for  him  the  patron- 
 age of  Volcatius  Tullus,  who  was  consul  with  Augus- 
 tus in  the  year  731,  and  became,  after  the  death  of 
 Maecenas,  the  general  protector  of  learning  and  the 
 arts.  It  appears  that  the  patrons  of  those  days  teased 
 their  dependant  poets  with  pressing  solicitations  to 
 accompany  them  on  military  e.vpeditions  and  embas- 
 sies. An  invitation  of  this  sort  from  Tullus,  request- 
 ing Propertius  to  attend  him  (o  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor, 
 seems  to  have  been  declined  (lib.  1,  el.  6).  But  it 
 would  appear  that  he  at  length  undertook  a  journey 
 to  Athens,  probably  as  a  follower  of  Ma;cenas,  when 
 he  attended  Augustus  in  his  progress  through  Greece 
 (3,  21).  Little  farther  is  known  concerning  the  events 
 of  his  life,  and  even  the  precise  period  of  his  death 
 is  uncertain.  He  was  alive  in  736,  when  the  em- 
 peror promulgated  a  law  concerning  marriage,  in 
 which  severe  penalties  were  imposed  on  celibacy. 
 His  death  is  generally  placed  about  the  year  740, 
 when  he  had  not  exceeded  the  age  of  40.  But  there 
 seems  no  sufficient  proof  that  he  died  earlier  than  760, 
 at  which  time  Ovid,  during  his  banishment,  wrote  an  el- 
 egy, where  he  speaks  of  him  as  deceased. — The  whole 
 life  of  Propertius  was  devoted  to  female  attachments. 
 He  was  first  enticed,  in  early  youth,  by  Lycinna,  an 
 irtful  slave ;  but  subsequently  Cynthia  became  the 
 more  permanent  object  of  his  affections.  The  lady 
 whom  he  has  celebrated  und.er  this  name  was  the 
 laughter  of  the  poet  Hostius,  and  her  real  name  was 
 Hostia  (3,  13).  This  fascinating  object  of  his  ruling 
 and  permanent  attachment  had  received  an  education 
 equal  to  that  of  the  most  distinguished  Roman  ladies 
 of  the  day.  She  was  skilled  in  music,  poetry,  and 
 every  other  accomplishment  calculated  to  make  an  im- 
 pression on  a  youthful  and  susceptible  mind.  But  with 
 bU  these  advantages,  she  shared  no  small  portion  of  the 
 artifice  and  extravagance  which  characterized  the  do- 
 mestic manners  of  the  Roman  fair  in  the  age  of  Au- 
 gustus. Hence  our  poet  was  the  constant  sport  of  the 
 varying  humours  of  his  Cynthia.  But,  notwithstand- 
 ing occasional  jealousies  and  estrangements  of  affec- 
 tion, this  female,  until  her  death  (which  happened  when 
 the  poet  was  about  thirty  years  of  age),  continued  to 
 be  his  reigning  passion,  and  the  chief  theme  of  his  el- 
 egies.— These  productions,  which  are  nearly  one  hun- 
 dred in  number,  are  divided  into  four  books.  1'he 
 first  book  is  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the  celebra- 
 tion of  the  poet's  love  for  Cynthia.  In  the  second  and 
 third  books,  also,  she  is  still  his  [irincipal  theme,  but 
 his  strain  becomes  moral  and  didactic.  He  now  de- 
 claims against  the  extravagance  of  his  age  ;  against  that 
 love  of  pomp  and  luxury,  which,  in  his  time,  dishon- 
 oured the  Roman  fair,  and  which  he  beautifully  con- 
 trasts with  the  simple  manners  of  a  distant  period,  con- 
 cluding with  a  pathetic  prediction  of  the  fall  of  Rome, 
 accelerated  by  its  own  overgrown  wealth,  and  the  per- 
 nicious thirst  of  gold.  The  elegies  of  the  fourth  book, 
 which  were  not  made  public  till  after  the  death  of  the 
 poet,  are  entirely  of  a  different  descrijition  from  those 
 by  which  they  are  preceded.  They  are  chiefly  heroi- 
 cal  ai;d  didactic,  comprehending  the  praises  of  Augus- 
 tus, and  long  narrations  drawn  from  Roman  fable  and 
 Italian  antiquities.  —  In  point  of  general  composition, 
 the  elegies  of  Propertius  are  almost  perfect.  He  flour- 
 ished at  a  period  and  in  a  capital  in  which  style  had 
 attained  its  greatest  purity.  He  lived  in  the  society 
 of  Gallus,  Ovid,  and  Maecenas,  and  under  the  sway 
 of  a  prince  whose  greatest  boast  was  the  protection  of 
 learning  and  genius.  The  patronage  and  society  he 
 enjoyed  communicated  to  his  writings  a  degree  of  taste 
 and  politeness,  which  they  might  not  have  attained 
 had  he  lived  at  an  earlier  period,  or  at  a  distance  from 
 the  court  of  Augustus.  Even  a  slight  acquaintance 
 with  his  works  may  convince  us  that  he  was  an  exten- 
 sive reader,  and  his  learning  had  supplied  him  with 
 1133 
 
 such  numerous  topics  of  allusion  and  illustration,  that 
 it  seduced  him  into  what  has  justly  been  considered  as 
 his  chief  fault.  Whatever  is  pleasing  or  natural  in  his 
 elegies,  he  destroys  by  mixing  up  with  it  history  and 
 fable  ;  and  it  is  this  injudicious  and  ill-timed  pedantry 
 that,  pervading,  as  it  does,  almost  all  the  elegies  of 
 Propertius,  renders  them  often  fatiguing,  perplexing, 
 and  obscure.  The  adoption  of  this  style  of  writing 
 must,  in  a  great  measure,  be  attributed  to  Propertius' 
 study  and  imitation  of  the  Greek  authors.  None  of 
 the  Latin  poets  had  so  sedulously  studied  the  Alexan- 
 drean  writers,  or  so  closely  formed  on  them  their  style 
 and  sentiments.  The  great  objects  of  his  imitation 
 were  Callimachus  and  Philetas,  the  latter  the  precep- 
 tor of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. — In  this  respect  Proper- 
 tius is  totally  different  from  Tibullus,  with  whom  he 
 has  been  so  frequently  compared.  The  writings  of  Ti- 
 bullus breathe  a  native  freshness,  a  simplicity  and  pu- 
 rity which  are  remarkably  contrasted  with  the  profu- 
 sion of  obscure  mythological  fables  by  which  the  ele- 
 gies of  Propertius  are  entangled  and  darkened.  In 
 consequence  of  this  learned  imitation  of  the  Greeks, 
 there  is  an  appearance  of  labour  and  display  in  most  of 
 the  elegies  of  Propertius,  and  he  has  always  the  air  of 
 what  has  been  called  an  ambitious  writer.  Tibullus 
 is  a  poet,  and  in  love  ;  his  successor  is  more  of  an  au- 
 thor. The  love  of  Propertius  partook  more  of  tem- 
 perament and  less  of  sentiment  than  the  passion  of 
 Tibullus.  Propertius  often  thought  what  he  should 
 write  ;  Tibullus  always  wrote  what  he  thought. — Be- 
 fore closing  this  article,  we  may  remark,  that  one  pe- 
 culiarity distinguishes  the  versification  of  Propertius 
 from  that  of  all  the  other  Latin  poets  ;  his  pentame- 
 ters often  terminate  in  a  polysyllable,  while  those  of 
 Tibullus  and  Ovid  end  almost  always  in  a  word  of  two 
 syllables,  forming  at  one  time  an  iambus,  at  another  a 
 pyrrhic.  Critics  are  not  agreed  whether  this  is  the  re- 
 sult of  accident  or  design  on  the  part  of  Propertius. 
 It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  plan  pursued  by  Tibul- 
 lus and  Ovid  is  far  more  conducive  to  harmony.  (Dun- 
 lop^s  Roman  Literature,  vol.  3,  p.  316,  seqq. — Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  1,  p.  334,  seqq.) — The  best  edi- 
 tions of  Propertius  are,  that  of  Brouckhusius,  Amst., 
 1727,  4tn  ;  that  of  Vulpius,  Palav.,  175.5,  2  vols.  4to  ; 
 that  of  Burmann,  Traj.  ad.  Rhen  ,  1780,  4to  ;  that  of 
 Lachmann,  Lips.,  1816,  8vo;  and  that  forming  part 
 of  the  collection  of  Lemaire,  Paris,  1832,  8vo. 
 
 Propontis,  a  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  that  mi- 
 nor basin  which  lies  between  the  ^-Egean  and  Euxine, 
 and  communicates  with  those  seas  by  means  of  two 
 narrow  straits,  the  Hellespont  and  Bosporus.  Herodo- 
 tus estimates  its  breadth  at  500  stadia,  and  its  length 
 at  1400.  {Herod.,  4,,  85.)  Modern  navigators  reckon 
 about  120  miles  from  one  strait  to  another ;  while  its 
 greatest  breadth,  from  the  European  to  the  Asiatic 
 coast,  does  not  exceed  40  miles.  It  received  its  ancient 
 name  from  the  circumstance  of  its  lying  in  front  of,  or 
 before  the  Pontus  Euxinus  (irpo  Hovtov).  The  mod- 
 ern appellation  is  the  Sea  of  Marmara,  from  the  mod- 
 ern name  of  the  island  Proconnesus.  (Mela,  1,  19. 
 —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  34.)  As  regards 
 the  probable  formation  of  the  Propontis,  vid.  Mediter- 
 raiieum  Mare,  and  Cyaneae. 
 
 Proserhi.n.^,  a  daughter  of  Ceres  by  Jupiter,  called 
 by  the  Greeks  Persephone  (UepaeijidvTi).  The  legend 
 connected  with  her  will  be  found  under  the  article 
 Ceres. — Proserpina,  like  Diana,  presents  the  double 
 idea  of  the  creative  and  destroying  power,  and  hence 
 she  is  styled,  in  one  of  the  Orphic  Hymns  (29,  15), 
 i^iorj  nal  iJavarof  /xoi'vrj  ■dvijToIc  iroT-vfinxf^oig.  On 
 the  same  association  of  ideas  was  founded  the  curious 
 belief  which  ranked  Venus  among  the  Parca3  or  Fates. 
 (Compare  Pausan.,  1,  19  — Herm.  und  Creuzer, 
 Bnefeuber  Homer,  &.c.,  p.  38.)  Wilford  endeavours 
 to  prove  that  the  name  Proserpina  {Uepac^ovj;)  is  of 
 Sanscrit  origin.     But  this,  like  many  other  of  his  Ori- 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 ental  etymologies,  is  remembered  only  to  be  condemn- 
 ed. (Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  5,  p.  298.)  On  the 
 supposition  that  Proserpina  was  regarded  as  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Mother  Earth,  and  a  personification  of  the  corn, 
 her  name  will  signify  Food-shower  (from  (^tipu,  (pef)6(j, 
 "to  feed"  and  (jxitj,  ^a/vw,  "to  show."  —  Volcker, 
 Myth,  der  lap.,  p.  201,  seq.)  Regarded,  however,  as 
 the  queen  of  the  monarch  of  Erebus,  the  appellation 
 will  mean  Light-destroyer,  the  first  part  of  the  name 
 being  akin  to  nvp,  "Jire,"  and  to  the  Fers  m  Perse 
 and  Perseus.  {Schrrenck.  Andcut.,  p.  247.)  The 
 cotn?non  explanation  of  the  term  is  Deaih-bearer,  from 
 (fttpo),  "  to  bear,"  and  (povog,  "  destruction,"  "  death." 
 The  Fersephatta  of  the  Dramatists  seems  to  be  only 
 a  corruption  of  Fersephonc,  and  the  same  remark  may 
 be  made  of  the  Latin  Froserpina.  Vossius  is  right  in 
 condemning  the  etymology  given  by  Arnobius  :  "  Di- 
 citis  quod  sata  in  lucem  proserpant,  cognominatam 
 esse  Froserpinam."  (^4r?io6.,  3,  p.  1 19.)  According 
 to  Knight,  Proserpina  was  in  reality  the  personification 
 of  the  heat  or  fire  supposed  to  pervade  the  earth,  which 
 was  held  to  be  at  once  the  cause  and  eft'ect  of  fertility 
 and  destruction,  as  being  at  once  the  cause  and  effect 
 of  fermentation,  from  which  both  proceed.  {Knight''s 
 Inquiry,  117. — Class.  Journ.,  vol.  25,  p.  39.) 
 
 Prot.\g6r.*s,  a  Greek  philosopher,  a  native  of  Ab- 
 dera,  and  disciple  of  Democritus.  In  his  youth,  his 
 poverty  obliged  him  to  perform  the  servile  offices  of  a 
 porter ;  and  he  was  frequently  employed  in  carrying 
 logs  of  wood  from  the  neighbouring  fields  of  Abdera. 
 It  happened,  that  as  he  was  going  on  briskly  one  day 
 towards  the  city  under  one  of  these  loads,  he  was  met 
 by  Democritus,  who  was  particularly  struck  with  the 
 neatness  and  regularity  of  the  bundle.  Desiring  him 
 to  stop  and  rest  himself,  Democritus  examined  more 
 closely  the  structure  of  the  load,  and  found  that  it  was 
 put  together  with  mathematical  exactness.  On  this 
 he  invited  the  youth  to  follow  him,  and,  taking  him  to 
 his  own  house,  maintained  him  at  his  own  expense 
 and  taught  him  philosophy.  Protagoras  afterward  ac- 
 quired reputation  at  Athens,  among  the  sophists,  for 
 his  eloquence,  and  among  the  philosophers  for  his  wis- 
 dom. His  public  lectures  were  much  frequented,  and 
 he  had  many  disciples,  from  whom  he  received  the 
 most  liberal  rewards,  so  that,  as  Plato  relates,  he  be- 
 came exceedingly  rich.  At  length,  however,  he  brought 
 upon  himself  the  displeasure  of  the  Athenian  state,  by 
 leaching  doctrines  favourable  to  impiety.  His  wri- 
 tings were  ordered  to  be  diligently  collected  by  the 
 common  crier,  and  burned  in  the  market-place,  and  he 
 himself  was  banished  from  Attica.  He  wrote  many 
 pieces  upon  logic,  metaphysics,  ethics,  and  politics, 
 none  of  which  are  at  present  extant.  After  having 
 lived  many  years  in  Epirus,  he  was  lost  by  sea  on  his 
 vovage  from  that  country  to  Sicily.  The  tenets  of 
 Protagoras,  as  far  as  they  have  been  discovered,  ap- 
 pear to  have  leaned  towards  scepticism.  {Enfield's 
 History  of  Fhtlosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  432,  seqq.) 
 
 Pkotesilaus,  a  king  of  part  of  Thessaly,  son  of 
 Iphiclus,  originally  called  lolaus,  grandson  of  Phyla- 
 cus,  and  brother  to  Alcimede,  the  mother  of  Jason. 
 He  married  Laodamia,  the  daughter  of  Acastus,  and, 
 some  time  after,  departed  with  the  rest  of  the  Greeks 
 for  the  Trojan  war.  lie  was  the  first  of  the  Greeks 
 who  set  foot  on  the  Trojan  shore,  and  was  killed  as 
 soon  as  he  had  leaped  from  his  ship.  Homer  has  not 
 mentioned  the  [lerson  who  slew  him.  His  wife  Lao- 
 damia destroyed  herself  when  she  heard  of  his  death. 
 {Vid.  Laodamia.)  Protesilaus  has  received  the  patro- 
 nymic of  Fhylacides,  either  because  he  was  descended 
 from  Phvlacus,  or  because  he  was  a  native  of  Phylace. 
 (Horn.,  11.,  2,  698.  — OwW,  Met.,  11,  fab..  I.— Her., 
 13. — Fropert.,  1,  19. — Hygin,  fab.,  103.) 
 
 Pboteus,  a  sea-deity,  son  of  Oceanus  and  Tethvs, 
 or,  according  to  some,  of  Neptune  and  Phcenice.  In 
 the  fourth  book  of  the  Odyssey  Homer  introduces  this 
 
 sea-god.  He  styles  him,  like  Nercus  and  Phorcys,  a 
 Sea-elder,  and  gives  him  the  power  of  foretelling  th* 
 future.  {Od.,  4,  384  ;  5,  561.)  He  calls  him  .Egyp- 
 tian, and  the  servant  of  Neptune  {Od.,  5,  385),  and 
 says  that  his  task  was  keeping  the  seals  or  seacalves. 
 (Od.,  5,411.)  When  Menelatis  was  wind-bound  at 
 the  island  of  Pharos,  off  the  coast  of  Egypt,  and  he 
 and  his  crew  were  suffering  from  want  of  food,  Er- 
 dothea,  the  daughter  of  Proteus,  accosted  him,  and, 
 bringing  sealskins,  directed  him  to  disguise  himself 
 and  three  of  his  companions  in  them  ;  and  when  Pro- 
 teus, at  noon,  should  come  up  out  of  the  sea  and  go  to 
 sleep  amid  his  herds,  to  seize  and  hold  him  till  he  dis 
 closed  some  means  of  relief  from  their  present  distress. 
 Menelaiis  obeyed  the  nymph  ;  and  Proteus  came  up 
 and  counted  his  herds,  and  then  lay  down  to  rest. 
 The  hero  immediately  seized  him,  and  the  god  turned 
 himself  into  a  lion,  a  serpent,  a  pard,  a  boar,  water, 
 and  a  tree.  At  length,  finding  he  could  not  escape, 
 he  resumed  his  own  form,  and  revealed  to  Menelaus 
 the  remedy  for  his  distress.  He  at  the  same  time  in- 
 formed him  of  the  situation  of  his  friends,  and  partic- 
 ularly notices  his  having  seen  Ulysses  in  the  island  of 
 Calvpso — a  clear  proof  that  his  own  abode  was  not  con- 
 fined to  the  coast  of  Egypt.  Homer  does  not  name 
 the  parent  of  this  marine  deity,  and  there  is  no  men- 
 tion of  him  in  the  Theogony.  Apollodorus  makes  him 
 the  son  of  Neptune,  and  Euripides  would  seem  to 
 make  Nereus  his  sire.  (Apollod,  2,  5,  9.  —  Eurip., 
 Hel.,  15.)  Those  who  embraced  the  theory  of  repre- 
 senting the  gods  as  having  been  originally  mere  men, 
 said  that  Proteus  was  a  king  of  Egypt ;  and  the  Egyp- 
 tian priests  told  how  he  detained  Helen  when  Paris 
 was  driven  to  Egypt,  and  gave  him  an  image  or  phan- 
 tom in  her  stead,  and  then  restored  her  to  Menelaiis. 
 (Keightley's  Mythology,  p.  246,  seq.)  'I'he  name  of 
 this  deity,  signifying  First  (Tvpb,  npcjTog),  has  induced 
 Creuzer  to  consider  him  as  representing  the  various 
 forms  and  shapes  assumed  by  the  primitive  matter  (rj 
 h7.t]  TTp(jr6yovog),  the  substance  itself  remaining  al- 
 ways the  same.     (Symboitk,  vol.  1,  p.  425.) 
 
 pROTOGENEs,  a  Very  eminent  painter  and  statuary, 
 one  of  the  contemporaries  of  Apelles.  He  appears, 
 however,  to  have  survived  the  latter  artist,  inasmuch 
 as  he  was  still  living  in  Olymp.  119,  when  Rhodes 
 was  besieged  by  Demetrius.  Meyer  (Htst.  Art.,  1, 
 180)  conjectures,  with  considerable  probability,  that  he 
 was  born  about  Olymp.  104.  Protogenes  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Caunus.  a  Carian  city,  subject  to  the  Rhodians. 
 Suidas  alone  makes  him  to  have  been  born  at  Xan- 
 thus  in  Lycia.  His  early  efforts  were  made  amid  the 
 pressure  of  very  contracted  means.  Who  his  mas- 
 ter was  is  unknown  ;  and  necessity  for  a  long  time 
 compelled  him  to  employ  his  abilities  on  subjects  alto- 
 gether unworthy  of  them.  Compelled  to  paint  orna- 
 ments on  vessels  in  order  to  secure  a  livelihood,  he 
 passed  fifty  years  of  his  life  without  the  gifts  of  for- 
 tune, and  without  any  marked  reputation.  His  talents 
 and  perseverance  at  length  triumphed  over  every  ob- 
 stacle ;  and  possibly  the  generous  aid  of  Apelles  may 
 have  contributed  to  hasten  this  result;  for  the  latter, 
 on  perceiving  that  the  paintings  of  Protogenes  were 
 neither  sought  after  nor  held  in  much  estimation  by 
 the  Rhodians,  is  said  to  have  purchased  some  himself 
 at  the  high  price  of  fifty  talents,  and  to  have  openly 
 declared  that  he  intended  to  sell  them  again  for  his 
 own  productions.  This  friendly  stratagem  opened  at 
 length  the  eyes  of  his  contemporaries,  and  Protogenes 
 rose  rapidly  in  fame.  Pliny  tells  a  very  pleasing  sicrjr 
 of  Apelles  and  Protogenes.  The  former  having  come 
 to  Rhodes,  where  Protogenes  was  residing,  paid  a  visit 
 to  the  artist,  but,  not  finding  him  at  home,  obtained 
 permission,  from  a  domestic  in  waiting,  to  enter  the 
 atelier  of  the  painter.  Finding  herr?  a  piece  of  canvass 
 ready  on  the  frame  for  the  artist's  pencil,  he  drew  upon 
 it  a  line  (according  to  some,  a  figure  in  outline)  with 
 
 1133 
 
PROTOGENES. 
 
 PRU 
 
 wonderful  precision,  and  then  retired  without  disclo- 
 sing his  name.  Protogenes,  on  returning  home,  and 
 discovering  what  had  been  done,  exclaimed  that  Apel- 
 Ics  alone  could  have  executed  such  a  sketch.  Still, 
 however,  he  drew  another  himself,  a  line  more  perfect 
 than  that  of  Apelles,  and  left  directions  with  his  do- 
 mestic, that,  when  the  stranger  should  call  again,  he 
 should  be  shown  what  had  been  done  by  him.  Apel- 
 les came  accordingly,  and  perceiving  that  his  line  had 
 been  excelled  by  Protogenes,  drew  a  third  one  still 
 more  perfect  than  the  other  two,  and  cutting  both. 
 Protogenes  now  confessed  himself  vanquished  ;  he 
 ran  to  the  harbour,  sought  for  Apelles,  and  the  two  ar- 
 tists became  the  warmest  friends.  (Consult,  as  re- 
 gards the  question  whether  the  story  refers  to  a  mere 
 number  of  separate  lines  having  been  drawn  on  this 
 occasion,  or  to  entire  outlines,  the  remarks  of  Quatre- 
 mere  de  Quincy,  Mem.  de  rinstit.,  vol.  7. — Journ. 
 dcs  Sav  ,  Avril,  1823,  p.  219. — Mugasin  Encydop., 
 1808,  vol,  4,  p.  153,  407.)  The  canvass  contaming 
 this  famous  trial  of  skill  became  highly  prized,  and  at 
 a  later  day  was  placed  in  the  palace  of  the  Caesars  at 
 Rome.  It  wa-s  destroyed  by  a  conflagration,  together 
 with  the  edifice  itself.  Protogenes  was  employed  for 
 seven  years  in  finishing  a  picture  of  lalysus,  a  cele- 
 brated huntsman,  supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of 
 Apollo,  and  the  founder  of  Rhodes.  During  all  this 
 time  the  painter  lived  only  upon  lupines  and  water, 
 thinking  that  such  aliments  would  leave  him  greater 
 Bights  of  fancy  ;  but  all  this  did  not  seem  to  make  him 
 more  successful  in  the  perfection  of  his  picture.  He 
 was  to  represent  in  the  piece  a  dog  panting,  and  with 
 froth  at  his  mouth  ;  but  this  he  never  could  do  with 
 satisfaction  to  himself;  and,  when  all  his  labours  seem- 
 ed to  be  without  success,  he  threw  his  sponge  upon 
 the  piece  in  a  fit  of  anger.  Chance  alone  brought  to 
 perfection  what  the  labours  of  art  could  not  accom- 
 plish :  the  fall  of  the  sponge  upon  the  picture  repre- 
 sented the  froth  at  the  mouth  of  the  dog  in  the  most 
 perfect  and  natural  manner,  and  the  piece  was  univer- 
 sally admired.  The  same  story  is  told  of  Nealces 
 while  engaged  in  painting  a  horse  ;  and  probably  one 
 of  these  anecdotes  has  been  copied  from  the  other. 
 According  to  Pliny,  Protogenes  painted  this  picture 
 with  four  layers  of  colours,  in  such  a  way,  that,  when 
 one  was  destroyed  by  the  hand  of  time,  the  layer  un- 
 derneath would  reproduce  the  piece  in  all  its  original 
 freshness  and  beauty.  The  account  appears  a  diffi- 
 cult one  to  comprehend.  Apelles,  on  seeing  this  pro- 
 duction of  the  pencil,  is  said  to  have  broken  out  into 
 loud  expressions  of  admiration  ;  but  what  consoled 
 him  was  the  reflection  that  his  own  pieces  surpassed 
 those  of  Protogenes  in  grace.  When  Demetrius  be- 
 sieged Rhodes,  he  refused  to  set  fire  to  a  part  of  the 
 city,  which  might  have  made  him  master  of  the  whole, 
 because  he  was  informed  that  this  part  contained  some 
 of  the  finest  productions  of  the  pencil  of  the  artist.  Pro- 
 togenes himself  occupied,  during  the  siege,  a  house  in 
 the  suburbs,  in  the  very  midst  of  the  enemy's  lines; 
 and  when  Demetrius  exi)ressed  his  astonishment  at  the 
 feeling  of  security  which  the  painter  displayed,  the  lat- 
 ter replied,  "  I  know  very  well  that  Demetrius  is  ma- 
 king war  upon  the  Rhodians,  not  upon  the  arts."  The 
 prince  thereupon,  for  greater  safety,  posted  a  guard 
 around  his  dwelling. — During  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
 sketches  and  designs  of  Protogenes  were  to  be  seen  at 
 Rome,  which  were  regarded  as  models  of  the  heaic  ideal. 
 His  i;icture  of  lalysus  was  brought  from  Greece,  and 
 placed  in  the  temple  of  Peace  in  the  Roman  capital, 
 where  it  perished  in  a  conflagration. — Protogenes  was 
 also  an  excellent  modeller,  and  executed  several  statues 
 in  bronze.  Suidas  states  that  he  wrote  two  works,  on 
 painting  and  on  figures.  {Plin.,  35,  10,  36.) — The 
 talents  of  Protogenes  were  not  so  fertile  as  those  of 
 many  artists,  a  circumstance  to  be  ascribed  to  his  mi- 
 nute and  scrupulous  care.  This  is  the  quality  which 
 1134 
 
 Quintilian  mentions  as  his  great  characteristic  ;  and 
 Peironius  likewise  observes,  that  his  outlines  vied  in 
 accuracy  with  the  works  of  nature  themselves.  {Qmn- 
 liL,  12,  \0.—Petron.,  Sat..,  84.) 
 
 Proxenus,  a  BcEotian,  one  of  the  commanders  of 
 the  Greek  forces  in  the  army  of  Cyrus  the  younger- 
 He  was  put  to  death  with  his  fellow-commanders  by 
 Artaxerxes.  Proxenus  was  the  one  who  induced 
 Xenophon  to  join  in  the  expedition  of  Cyrus,  and,  after 
 the  death  of  Proxenus,  Xenophon  was  chosen  to  supply 
 his  place.     (A7iab  ,  1,  1,  II.— Ibid.,  2,  6,  1.  d:c.) 
 
 Pkudentius,  Aurelius  Clemens,  a  Latm  poel, 
 who  flourished  about  A.D.  392.  He  was  born  at  Cal- 
 agurris  {Calahorra),  or,  according  to  a  less  probable 
 opinion,  at  Ccesaraugusta  {Saragassa).  (Nic.  Anion., 
 Bibl.  Vet.  Hisp.,  2,  10,  p.  218,  sc</q.—Middeldorpf, 
 de  Frudeiilio,  &c.,  Wralislav.,  1823,  4to,  p.  3,  scgy.) 
 Some  particulars  of  his  life  are  given  in  the  poetical 
 preface,  appended  to  one  of  his  works  (KadriisEpivuv 
 Liber),  from  which  we  learn,  that,  according  to  the 
 custom  of  his  time,  he  first  attended  the  schools  of 
 rhetoric,  and  then  followed  the  profession  of  an  advo- 
 cate, in  which  he  appears  to  have  acquired  considera- 
 ble reputation,  as  he  was  twice  appointed  Prcefcctus 
 Urbis,  but  over  what  places  is  not  mentioned.  He 
 was,  after  this,  elected  to  a  still  higher  oflUce,  but 
 whether  military  or  civil  in  its  nature  is  uncertain, 
 probably  the  latter  :  this  was  under  the  Emperor  The- 
 odosius.  { Middeldorpf,  p.  8,  seqq. — Ntc.  Anton  ,  p. 
 221.)  At  last,  at  the  age  of  fifty-seven  {Pro:/,  ad 
 Cath.,  V.  1,  seqq.),  he  abandofied  the  world,  in  order 
 to  pass  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  devotion.  From 
 this  period  (A.D.  405)  to  the  time  of  his  death  (about 
 A.D.  413),  he  is  supposed  to  have  been  occupied  with 
 the  composition  of  the  works  that  have  come  down  to 
 us.  Prudentius  is  sometimes  styled  "  the  first  Chris- 
 tian poet ;"  a  title,  however,  which  means  but  little. 
 In  no  case  can  he  be  compared  with  the  classic  wri- 
 ters. He  is  even  decidedly  inferior  to  Claudian  and 
 Ausonius.  His  style  is  often  marked  by  inaccuracies, 
 and  he  offends  heavily  against  the  laws  of  metre. — 
 The  poem  entitled  Apotheosis  is  directed  against  the 
 Patripassians,  Sabellians,  and  other  heretics  ;  and  we 
 may  regard  as  a  continuation  of  it  the  other  poem 
 "  On  the  Origin  of  Siti"  (Hamariigenia,  'A/iapriyi' 
 veia).  In  this  latter  production  the  author  refutes  the 
 error  of  the  Marcioniles  and  Manichaeans,  who  attribu- 
 ted the  origin  of  evil  to  an  evil  principle.  The  Psycho- 
 machia  ('i'vxonax'i^a)  describes  the  combats  between  our 
 virtues  and  vices,  of  which  the  heart  is  the  arena.  We 
 may  also  regard  as  didactic  the  poem  of  Prudentius 
 against  Symmachus  {contra  Symmachi  Orationem 
 libri  duo),  relative  to  the  restoration  of  the  altar  of 
 Victory.  The  poet  gives  the  origin  of  the  gods  of 
 mythology,  and  narrates  their  scandalous  histories  ; 
 and  he  then  proceeds  to  show,  that  Rome  could  never 
 have  owed  her  greatness  to  such  contemptible  divini- 
 ties. The  lyric  pieces  of  Prudentius  form  two  collec- 
 tions ;  one  entitled  KaO/j/iepivui'  Liber,  containing 
 twelve  hymns  for  the  different  parts  of  the  year  and 
 for  certain  festivals  ;  the  other,  De  Coronis,  or  Jlcpl 
 CTCipuvuv  Liber,  comprising  fourteen  hymns  in  honour 
 of  as  many  martyrs.  These  lyric  effusions  contain 
 some  agreeable  and  touching  passages,  and  Christian 
 sentiments  expressed  with  great  force,  but  also  a  great 
 many  superstitious  ideas.  Those  of  them  that  are 
 written  in  elegiac  measure  are  distinguished  by  facil- 
 ity of  versification  :  as,  for  example,  the  hymn  in  hon- 
 our of  St.  Hippolytus.  There  is  also  attributed  to 
 Prudentius  a  Biblical  Manual  {Diptychon  seu  En- 
 chiridium  utriiisque  Testamcnti),  containing  an  abridg- 
 ment of  Sacred  History  in  forty-nine  sections,  each 
 section  consisting  of  four  verses.  It  is  doubtful,  how- 
 ever, whether  Prudentius  ever  wrote  it.  Some  are 
 of  opinion  that  it  is  the  production  of  a  native  oi  Spain, 
 who  lived  in  the  fifth  century,  and  who  is  named  Pru- 
 
PRU 
 
 PSA 
 
 dentius  AmcKnus  in  a  Slrasburg  manuscript.  (^Fabric, 
 Comment,  ad  Poet.,  p.  7. —  Leyser,  Hist.  Poet.,  p. 
 10.) — Ttie  best  editions  of  Prudentius  are,  that  of 
 VVeitzius,  Hannov.,  1613,  8vo ;  that  of  Cellarius, 
 Hal.,  17tt3,  1739,  8vo  ;  and  that  of  Teollius,  Parma:, 
 1788,  2  vols.  4to.  (SclwU,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3, 
 p.  72,  seqq. —  Bdhr,  Gcsch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  41, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Prusa,  a  city  of  Bithynia,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Olympus,  and  hence  called  Prusa  ad  Oiympum  {Tlpou- 
 aa  cm  TcJ  '0/1?3//7tm).  Pliny  asserts,  without  naming 
 his  authority,  that  this  town  was  founded  by  Hannibal 
 (5,  32).  By  which  expression  we  are  probably  to  un- 
 derstand that  it  was  built  at  the  instigation  of  this 
 great  general,  when  he  resided  at  the  court  of  Prusias, 
 from  whom  the  name  of  the  city  seems  evidently  de- 
 rived. But  Strabo,  following  a  still  more  remote  tra- 
 dition, affirms  that  it  was  founded  by  Prusias,  who 
 made  war  against  Croesus.  {Strab.,  564.)  In  Stepha- 
 nus,  who  copies  Strabo,  the  latter  name  is  altered  to 
 Cyrus  (s.  v.  IVpovaa).  But  it  is  probable  that  both 
 readings  are  faulty,  though  it  is  not  easy  to  see  what 
 substitution  should  be  made.  (Consult  the  Frevch 
 Strabo,  vol.  4,  lib.  12,  p.  82.)  Dio  Ciiryso.stom,  who 
 was  a  native  of  Prusa,  did  not  favour  the  tradition 
 which  ascribed  to  it  so  early  an  origin  as  that  author- 
 ized by  the  reading  in  Strabo.  (Oral.,  43,  p.  585.) 
 Stephanos  informs  us  that  Prusa  was  but  a  small 
 town.  Strabo,  however,  states  that  it  enjoyed  a  good 
 government.  It  continued  to  flourish  under  the  Ro- 
 man empire,  as  may  be  seen  from  Pliny  the  younger 
 (10,  85)  ;  but  under  the  Greek  emperors  it  suffered 
 much  from  the  wars  carried  on  against  the  Turks. 
 (Nicet.  Chan.,  p.  186,  D.,  p.  339,  A.)  It  finally  re- 
 mained in  the  hands  of  the  descendants  of  Osman, 
 who  made  it  the  capital  of  their  empire,  under  the  cor- 
 rupted name  of  Brusa  or  Broussa.  It  is  still  one  of 
 the  most  flourishing  towns  possessed  by  the  infidels 
 in  Anatolia.  {Browne'' s  Travels,  in  Walpolc's  Tur- 
 key, vol.2,  p.  108.  —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1, 
 p.  176.) 
 
 Prusias,  I.  king  of  Bithynia,  son  of  Zielas,  began 
 to  reign  about  B  C  228,  and  was  still  reitrning  B.C. 
 190,  at  the  time  of  the  war  between  the  Romans  and 
 Antiochus  ;  for  Polybius  intimates  that  the  Prusias 
 who  was  solicited  by  Antiochus  had  been  reigning  for 
 some  time.  {Pclyh.,  21,  9.)  In  B.C.  216  Prusias 
 defeated  the  Gauls  in  a  great  battle.  (Polyh.,  5,  111.) 
 In  B.C.  207  he  invaded  the  territories  of  Attalus  I. 
 He  was  included  in  the  treaty  with  Philip  in  B.C. 
 205.  {Liv  ,  29.  12.)  Strabo  asserts  that  it  was  this, 
 the  elder,  Prusias  with  whom  Hannibal  sought  refuge. 
 {Sirah.,  563.)  And  the  accounts  of  other  writers 
 contain  nothing  to  disprove  this  testimony.  But  if 
 the  elder  Prusias  received  Hannibal,  he  was  still  liv- 
 ing at  the  death  of  Hannibal  in  B.C  183.  (Clinton, 
 Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  2,  p.  415,  scq.) — II.  The  second  of 
 the  name  appears  to  have  ascended  the  throne  of  Bi- 
 thynia between  B.C.  183  and  B.C.  179.  The  two 
 reigns  of  Prusias  I.  and  Prusias  II.  occupied  a  period 
 of  about  79  years  (B.C.  228-150).  Prusias  II.  mar- 
 ried the  sister  of  Perseus,  king  of  Maccdon.  {Appi- 
 an.  Bell.  Milhrad.,  c.  2.)  He  was  surnamed  u  Kvvrj- 
 yof.  or  Tke  Hunter,  and  was  long  engaged  in  war 
 With  Attalus,  king  of  Pergamus.  lie  is  commonly 
 supposed  to  have  been  the  monarch  who  abandoned 
 Hannil)al  when  the  latter  was  sought  after  by  the  Ro- 
 mans ;  though  Strabo  assigns  this  to  Prusias  I.  This 
 monarch  extended  considerably  the  limits  of  iheBithyn- 
 ian  empire,  by  the  accession  of  some  im[)ortant  towns 
 conceded  to  him  by  his  ally  Philip  of  Macedon  {Slrab., 
 563. — Liv.,  32,  34),  and  several  advantages  gained 
 over  the  Byzantines  and  King  Attalus.  But  the  lat- 
 ter was  finally  able  to  overcome  his  antagonist,  by 
 stirring  up  against  him  his  own  son  Nicomedes,  who", 
 after  drawing  the  troops  from  their  allegiance  to  his 
 
 father,  caused  him  to  be  assassinated.  (Liv.,  Epit.^ 
 bO.— Justin,  34,  A.— Clinton,  Fast.  Hell,  vol.  2,  p. 
 417. — Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  169.) 
 
 PsAMMENiTus,  the  last  king  of  Egypt,  and  a  mem- 
 ber of  the  Saitic  dynasty,  the  twenty- si.xth  of  the  loyal 
 lines  that  ruled  in  this  country.  Julius  A fricanus  calls 
 him  Psammechentes.  He  was  the  son  and  successor 
 of  Amasis,  and  ascended  the  throne  at  the  very  mo- 
 ment that  Cambyses  was  marching  against  Egypt  to 
 dethrone  the  father.  Psammenilus  met  Cambyses  on 
 the  frontiers,  near  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile, 
 with  all  his  forces,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Carians, 
 but  was  totally  defeated  m  a  bloody  battle.  Shutting 
 himself  up  in  Memphis,  he  was  besieged  here  by  Cam- 
 byses, and,  according  to  Ctesias,  was  finally  betrayed 
 and  taken  prisoner.  All  Egypt  thereupon  fell  vnder 
 the  Persian  power,  and  the  reign  of  Psammenilus  end- 
 ed after  a  duration  of  only  six  months.  The  greatest 
 outrages  were  heaped  upon  the  unfortunate  monarch 
 and  his  family ;  but  the  firmness  with  which  he  en- 
 dured them  all  touched  at  last  even  the  ferocious 
 Cambyses  with  compassion.  Psammenitus  was  there- 
 upon retained  at  court,  treated  with  honour,  and  final- 
 ly sent  to  Susa  along  with  6000  Egyptian  captives. 
 Having  been  accused,  however,  subsequently,  of  at- 
 tempting to  stir  up  a  revolt,  he  was  compelled  to 
 drink  bull's  blood,  and  ended  his  days.  (Herod.,  3, 
 10,  seqq. —  Ctes.,  Pcrs  ,  9.  —  Bdhr,  ad  Ctcs.,  I.  c. — 
 St.  Martin,  in  Biogr.   Univ.,  vol.  36,  p.  177,  seq.) 
 
 PsA.MMiTicHus,  the  first  king  of  Egypt  who  opened 
 that  country  to  strangers,  and  induced  the  Greeks  to 
 come  and  settle  in  it.  He  was  the  fourth  prince  of 
 the  .Saitic  dynasty,  and  the  son  of  Necos  or  Nechao, 
 who  had  been  put  to  death  by  the  Ethiopians,  at  that 
 time  masters  of  Egypt.  Psi.mmitichus,  being  quite 
 young  at  the  lime  of  his  father's  death,  had  been  car 
 ried  into  Syria  to  avoid  a  similar  fate,  and,  after  the 
 retreat  of  the  conquerors,  was  recalled  to  his  native 
 country  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Saitic  nome.  It 
 would  seem  that  the  Ethiopians,  on  their  departure, 
 had  left  Egypt  a  prey  to  trouble  and  dissension,  and 
 that  the  early  princes  of  the  Saitic  dynasty,  also,  had 
 never  enjoyed  sovereign  authority  over  the  whole 
 kingdom.  When  Psammitichus,  therefore,  ascended 
 the  throne,  he  was  obliged  to  share  his  power  with 
 eleven  other  monarchs,  and  Egypt  was  thus  divided 
 into  twelve  independent  sovereignties.  This  form  of 
 government  was  like  what  the  Greeks  called  a  duO' 
 dccarchy  (SvoSeKapxia).  The  twelve  kings  regulated 
 in  common,  in  a  general  council,  all  that  related  to  the 
 affairs  of  the  kingdom  considered  as  a  whole.  This 
 state  of  things  lasted  for  fifteen  years,  when  it  met 
 with  a  singular  termination.  An  oracle  had  declared 
 that  the  whole  kingdom  would  fall  to  the  lot  of  that 
 one  of  the  twelve  monarchs  who  should  one  day  oflfer 
 a  libation  with  a  brazen  cup.  It  happened,  then,  one 
 day,  that  the  kings  were  all  sacrificing  in  common  in 
 the  temple  of  Vulcan  at  Memphis,  and  that  the  high 
 priest,  who  distributed  the  golden  cups  for  libations, 
 had  brought  with  him,  by  some  accident,  only  eleven. 
 When  it  came,  therefore,  to  the  turn  of  Psammitichus, 
 who  was  the  last  in  order  to  pour  out  a  libation,  he 
 unthinkingly  employed  for  this  purpose  his  brazen 
 helmet.  This  incident  occasioned  great  disquiet  to 
 his  colleagues,  who  thought  they  saw  in  it  the  fulfil- 
 ment of  the  oracle.  Being  unable,  however,  with  any 
 appearance  of  justice,  to  punish  an  unpremeditated  act, 
 they  contented  themselves  with  banishing  him  to  hi» 
 own  kingdom,  which  lay  on  the  coast,  and  with  for- 
 bidding him  to  take  any  part  thereafter  in  the  general 
 affairs  of  the  country.  Psammitichus.  however,  re- 
 taliated upon  them  by  calling  to  his  aid  some  Greek 
 mercenaries  who  had  landed  on  the  Egyptian  shore, 
 and  eventually  conquered  all  his  colleagues,  and  made 
 himself  master  of  the  whole  of  Egypt,  B.C.  652.  The 
 monarch  now  recompensed  his  Greek  allies,  not  only 
 
 1135 
 
PSO 
 
 PSY 
 
 ay  paying  them  the  sums  of  money  which  he  had  prom- 
 ised, but  also  in  assigning  them  larjds  oa  the  Syrian 
 frontier,  where  they  formed,  in  fact,  a  military  colony. 
 Psamtnitichus  showed  a  great  partiality  for  the  Greeks 
 on  all  occasions  ;  and,  in  a  Syrian  ex|)edition,  he  gave 
 ihem  the  place  of  honour  on  the  right,  while  he  as- 
 signed the  left  to  the  Egyptians.  The  discontent  of 
 the  national  troops  was  so  great  at  this,  that  a  large 
 number  of  the  military  caste,  amounting,  it  is  said,  to 
 24(1,000  men,  left  Egypt  and  retired  to  Ethiopia. 
 (Consult,  on  this  subject,  the  learned  note  of  St.  Mar- 
 tin. Biogr.  Utile,  vol.  36,  p.  180,  seq.)  So  strong 
 was  the  partiality  of  Psammitichus  for  everything 
 Greek,  that  he  caused  a  number  of  children  to  be 
 trained  up  after  the  Grecian  manner,  and  with  these 
 he  formed  the  caste  of  interpreters,  whom  Herodotus 
 found  in  his  day  e.\isting  in  Egypt.  Psammitichus 
 also  embellished  his  capital  with  several  beautiful 
 structures,  and,  among  others,  with  the  southern  pro- 
 pybia  of  the  great  temple  of  Vulcan.  He  carried  on 
 a  long  war  in  Syria,  and  his  forces  are  said  to  have 
 remained  29  years  before  the  city  of  Azotus.  It  was 
 during  this  period,  probably,  that  he  arrested  by  pres- 
 ents the  victorious  career  of  the  Scythians,  who  had 
 overrun  Asia  Minor,  and  were  advancing  upon  Pales- 
 tine and  Egypt.  This  event  would  seem  to  have 
 happened  62t3  B C,  or  in  the  13lh  year  of  the  reign 
 of  the  Jewish  king  Josiah,  when  the  prophet  Isaiah 
 announced  the  approaching  irruption  of  the  Scythians 
 into  the  territories  of  Israel.  Psammitichus  died  after 
 a  reign  of  54  years,  leaving  the  crown  to  his  son  Ne- 
 cos. — Herodotus  relates  a  very  foolish  story  of  Psam- 
 mitichus, who,  it  seems,  was  desirous  of  ascertaining 
 what  nation  was  the  most  ancient  in  the  world  ;  or, 
 in  other  words,  what  was  the  primitive  language  of 
 men.  In  order  to  discover  this,  he  took  two  newly- 
 born  children,  and,  having  caused  them  to  be  placed 
 in  a  lonely  hut,  directed  a  shepherd  to  nourish  them 
 with  the  milk  of  goats,  which  animals  were  sent  in  to 
 them  at  stated  times,  and  to  take  care  himself  never 
 to  utter  a  word  in  their  hearing.  The  object  was  to 
 ascertain  what  words  they  would  first  utter  of  them- 
 selves. At  length,  on  one  occasion,  when  the  shep- 
 herd went  in  to  them  as  usual,  both  the  children,  run- 
 ning up  to  him,  called  out  Bckos.  Psammitichus,  on 
 being  informed  of  the  circumstance,  made  inquiries 
 about  the  word,  and  found  that  it  was  the  Phrygian 
 term  for  bread.  He  therefore  concluded  that  the 
 Phrygians  were  the  most  ancient  of  men  !  The  truth 
 is,  the  cry  which  the  children  uttered  (supposing  the 
 story  to  be  true)  was  hek  (with  the  Greek  termination 
 as  given  by  Herodotus,  bek-os),  and  the  children  had 
 learned  it  from  the  cry  of  the  goats  which  suckled 
 them.  (Herod.,  2,  151,  seqq. — St.  Martin,  in  Biogr. 
 Univ.,  vol.  36,  p.  178,  scqq.)  —  II.  A  descendant  of 
 the  preceding,  who  came  to  the  throne  about  400  B.C., 
 as  a  kind  of  vassal  king  to  Persia.  {St.  Martin,  in 
 Riogr.  Univ.,  vol.  36,  p.  181.) 
 
 Psoi'His,  a  very  ancient  city  in  the  northwestern 
 part  of  Arcadia.  Pausanias  places  it  at  the  foot  of  the 
 chain  of  Erymanthus,  from  which  descended  a  river 
 of  the  same  name,  which  flowed  near  the  city,  and,  af- 
 ter receiving  another  small  stream  called  Aroanius, 
 joined  the  Alpheus  on  the  borders  of  Elis  (8,  24). 
 Psophis  itself  had  previously  borne  the  names  of  Ery- 
 manthus and  Phegea.  At  the  time  of  the  Social  war, 
 it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Elcans,  on  whose  ter- 
 ritory it  bordered,  as  well  as  on  that  of  the  Acha'ans  ; 
 and,  as  it  was  a  place  of  considerable  strength,  proved 
 a  source  of  great  annoyance  to  the  latter  people.  It 
 was  taken  by  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  then  in  alliance 
 with  the  Achaeans,  and  made  over  by  him  to  the  latter 
 people,  who  garrisoned  it  with  their  troops. — The  re- 
 mains of  Psophis  are  to  be  seen  near  the  Khan  of  Tri- 
 potamia,  so  called  from  the  junction  of  three  rivers. 
 {Puoqucville,\o\.b,^.  448.  —  Gell,  Itinerary  of  Mo- 
 1136 
 
 rca,  p.  122.  —  Cramei's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  fi,  p. 
 323.) 
 
 Psyche  ('^vxv)<  a  young  maiden  beloved  by  Cupid, 
 and  of  whom  the  following  legend  is  related  by  Apu- 
 leius  :  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  king  and  queen,  and 
 the  youngest  of  three  sisters.  Her  beauty  was  so  re- 
 markable that  people  crowded  from  all  parts  to  gaze 
 upon  her  charms,  altars  were  erected  to  her,  and  she 
 was  worshipped  as  a  second  Venus.  The  Queen  of 
 Love  was  irritated  at  seeing  her  own  altars  neglected 
 and  her  adorers  diminishing.  She  summoned  her  son, 
 and  ordered  him  to  inspire  Psyche  with  a  passion  for 
 some  vile  and  abject  wretch.  The  goddess  then  de- 
 parted, after  having  conducted  her  son  to  the  city  where 
 Psyche  dwelt,  and  left  him  to  execute  her  mandate. 
 Meantime  Psyche,  though  adored  by  all,  was  sought  as 
 a  wife  by  none.  Her  sisters,  who  were  far  inferior  to 
 her  in  charms,  were  married,  but  she  remained  single, 
 hating  that  beauty  which  all  admired.  Her  father  con- 
 sulted the  oracle  of  Apollo,  and  was  ordered  to  expose 
 her  on  a  rock,  whence  she  would  be  carried  away  by 
 a  monster.  The  oracle  was  obeyed,  and  Psyche,  amid 
 the  tears  of  the  people,  was  placed  on  a  lofty  crag. 
 Here,  while  she  sat  weeping,  a  zephyr,  sent  for  the 
 purpose,  gently  raised  and  carried  her  to  a  charming 
 valley.  Overcome  by  grief,  she  fell  asleep,  and,  on 
 awakening,  beholds  a  grove  with  a  fountain  in  the 
 midst  of  it,  and  near  it  a  stately  palace  of  most  splen- 
 did structure.  Venturing  to  enter  this  palace,  she  goes 
 over  it,  lost  in  admiration  of  its  magnificence  ;  when, 
 suddenly,  she  hears  a  voice,  telling  her  that  all  there  is 
 hers,  and  that  her  commands  will  be  obeyed.  She 
 bathes,  sits  down  to  a  rich  repast,  and  is  regaled  with 
 music  by  invisible  performers.  At  night  she  retires 
 to  bed  ;  an  unseen  youth  addresses  her  in  the  softest 
 accents,  and  she  becomes  his  bride.  Her  sisters, 
 meanwhile,  had  come  to  console  their  parents  for  the 
 loss  of  Psyche,  whose  invisible  spouse  informs  her  of 
 the  event,  and  warns  her  of  the  danger  likely  to  anso 
 from  it.  Moved  by  the  tears  of  his  bride,  however, 
 he  consents  that  her  sisters  should  come  to  the  palace. 
 The  obedient  zephyr  conveys  them  thither.  They 
 grow  envious  of  Psyche's  happiness,  and  try  to  per- 
 suade her  that  her  invisible  lord  is  a  serpent,  who  will 
 finally  devour  her.  By  their  advice  she  provides  her- 
 self with  a  lamp  and  a  razor  to  destroy  the  monster. 
 When  her  husband  was  asleep,  she  arose,  took  her  lamp 
 from  its  place  of  concealment,  and  ap[)roached  the 
 couch  ;  but  there  she  beheld,  instead  of  a  dragon.  Love 
 himself.  Filled  with  amazement  at  his  beauty,  she 
 leaned  in  rapture  over  him  :  a  drop  of  oil  fell  from  the 
 lamp  on  the  shoulder  of  the  god  :  he  awoke  and  flew 
 away.  Psyche  caught  at  him  as  he  rose,  and  was 
 raised  into  the  air,  but  fell  ;  and,  as  she  lay,  the  god 
 reproached  her  from  a  cypress  for  her  breach  of  faiih. 
 The  abandoned  Psyche  now  roams  through  the  world 
 in  search  of  Cupid,  and  making  many  fruitless  en- 
 deavours to  destroy  herself.  She  arrives  at  the  king- 
 dom of  her  sisters  ;  and,  by  a  false  tale  of  Cupid's  love 
 for  them,  causes  them  to  cast  themselves  from  the  rock 
 on  which  she  had  been  exposed,  and  through  their 
 credulity  they  perish.  She  still  roams  on,  persecuted 
 and  subjected  to  numerous  trials  bv  Venus.  This  god- 
 dess, bent  on  her  destruction,  despatches  her  to  Pro- 
 serpina with  a  box,  to  request  some  of  her  beauty. 
 Psyche  accomplishes  her  mission  in  safety  ;  but,  as 
 she  is  returning,  she  thinks  she  may  venture  to  open 
 the  box  and  take  a  portion  for  herself  She  opens  the 
 box,  when,  instead  of  beauty,  there  issues  from  it  a 
 dense,  black  exhalation,  and  the  imprudent  Psyche 
 falls  to  the  ground  in  a  deep  slumber  from  its  eti'ects. 
 In  this  state  she  is  found  by  Cupid,  who  had  escaped 
 by  the  window  of  the  chamber  where  he  had  been  con- 
 fined by  his  mother  :  he  awakens  her  with  the  point  of 
 one  of  his  arrows,  reproaches  her  with  her  curiosity, 
 and  then  proceeds  to  the  palace  of  Jupiter,  to  interest 
 
PTO 
 
 PTOLEM^US. 
 
 mm  in  her  favour.  Jupiter  takes  pity  on  her  and  en- 
 dows lier  with  iniinortality  :  Venus  is  retcnciled,  and 
 the  marriage  of  Psyclie  with  Oupid  takes  place  amid 
 great  joy  in  the  skies.  The  ofl'spring  of  their  union 
 was  a  child,  whom  his  parents  named  Pleasure.  {Ap^i- 
 leius,  Met.,  4,  83,  seqq. — Op.,  ed  Owlend.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 300,  seqq. — Keighlley's  Mythologrj,  p.  148,  scqq. — 
 Among  the  various  e.tplanations  that  have  been  given 
 of  this  beautiful  legend,  the  following  appears  the 
 most  satisfactory  :  This  fable,  it  is  said,  is  a  represent- 
 ation of  the  human  soul  {^vxrj)-  The  soul,  which  is 
 of  divine  origin,  is  here  below  subjected  to  error  in  its 
 prison-house,  the  body.  Hence  trials  and  purifications 
 are  set  before  it,  that  it  may  become  ca[)able  of  a 
 higher  view  of  things,  and  of  true  desire.  Two  loves 
 meet  it :  the  earthly,  a  deceiver,  who  draws  it  down  to 
 earthly  things  ;  the  heavenly,  who  directs  its  view  to 
 the  original,  fair  and  divine,  and  who,  gaining  the  vic- 
 tory over  his  rival,  leads  off  the  soul  as  his  bride. 
 (Hirt,  Berlin  Akad.,  1816. — Crcwzer,  Symbolik,  vol. 
 3,  p.  573.) 
 
 PsVLi.i,  a  people  of  Libya  near  the  Syrtes,  very  ex- 
 pert in  curing  the  venomous  bite  of  serpents,  which 
 had  no  fatal  effect  upon  them.  They  were  destroyed 
 by  the  Nasamones,  a  neighbouring  people.  It  seems 
 very  probable  that  the  Nasamones  circulated  the  idle 
 story  respecting  the  destruction  of  the  Psylli,  which 
 Herodotus  relates,  without,  however,  giving  credit  to 
 it.  He  states  that  a  south  wind  had  dried  up  all  the 
 reservoirs  of  the  Psylli,  and  that  the  whole  country, 
 as  far  as  the  Syrtes,  was  destitute  of  water.  They  re- 
 solved, accordingly,  after  a  public  consultation,  to 
 make  an  e.xpediiion  against  the  south  wind  ;  but,  hav- 
 ing reached  the  deserts,  the  south  wind  overwhelmed 
 Ihem  beneath  (he  sands.  {Lucan,  9,  894,  937.— //e- 
 'od.,  4,  U2.—Pausari.,  9,  28.) 
 
 Pteri.\,  a  small  territory,  forming  part  of  Cappa- 
 docia  according  to  Herodotus  (1,  76),  or,  more  prop- 
 erly speaking,  of  Paphlagonia,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
 the  city  of  Sinope.  Here  the  first  battle  took  place 
 between  Croesus  and  Cyrus.  (Herod,  I.  c.  —  Lar- 
 ehcr.  Hist.  Herod.,  vol.  8,  p.  468.) 
 
 ProLEM^EUs,  I.  surnamed  Soter,  and  sometimes 
 Lagi  (i.  e.,  son  of  Lagus),  king  of  Egypt,  and  son  of 
 Arsinoe,  who,  when  pregnant  by  Philip  of  Macedonia, 
 married  Lagus.  {Vid.  Lagus.)  Ptolemy  was  edu- 
 cated in  the  court  of  the  King  of  Macedonia.  He  be- 
 came one  of  the  friends  and  associates  of  Alexander, 
 and,  when  that  monarch  invaded  Asia,  the  son  of  Ar- 
 sinoe attended  him  as  one  of  his  generals.  During 
 the  expedition  he  behaved  with  uncommon  valour  ; 
 he  killed  one  of  the  Indian  monarchs  in  single  com- 
 bat, and  it  was  to  his  prudence  and  courage  that  Alex- 
 ander was  indebted  for  the  reduction  of  the  rock  Aor- 
 nus.  After  the  conqueror's  death,  in  the  general  di- 
 vision of  the  Macedonian  empire,  Piolemy  obtained 
 as  his  share  the  government  of  Egypt,  with  Libya, 
 and  part  of  the  neighbouring  territories  of  Arabia.  In 
 this  appointment  the  governor  soon  gained  the  esteem 
 of  the  people  by  acts  of  kindness,  by  benevolence  and 
 clemency,  though  he  did  not  assume  the  title  of  inde- 
 pendent monarch  till  seventeen  years  after.  He  made 
 himself  master  of  Ccelosyria,  Phnenicia,  and  the  neigh- 
 bouring coast  of  Syria ;  and  when  he  had  reduced  Je- 
 rusalem, he  carried  above  100,000  prisoners  to  Egypt, 
 to  people  the  extensive  city  of  Alexandrea,  which  be- 
 came the  capital  of  his  dominions.  After  he  had  ren- 
 dered these  prisoners  the  most  attached  and  faithful  of 
 his  subjects  by  his  liberality  and  the  grant  of  various 
 privileges,  Ptolemy  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Egypt, 
 and  soon  after  reduced  Cyprus  under  his  power.  He 
 made  war  with  success  against  Demetrius  and  Antiao- 
 nus,  who  disputed  his  right  to  the  provinces  of  Syria  ; 
 and  from  the  assistance  he  gave  to  the  people  of 
 Rhodes  against  their  common  enemies,  he  received 
 the  name  of  Soter.  While  he  extended  his  dominions, 
 7  E 
 
 Ptolemy  was  not  negligent  of  the  interests  ol  his  suti- 
 jects  at  home,  and  established  many  wise  regulations 
 for  the  improvement  o(  his  people,  and  the  cultivation 
 of  literature  and  the  arts.  He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
 four,  having  governed  Egypt  as  viceroy  for  seventeen 
 years,  and  then  ruled  over  it  as  monarch  for  twenty- 
 three  years.  The  date  of  his  death  is  B.C  283. 
 (Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  1,  p.  184 —/(i  ib.,  p.  237. 
 — Id.  lb.,  vol.  2,  p.  379.)  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
 son  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who  had  been  his  partner 
 on  the  throne  the  last  two  years  of  his  reign.  Ptole- 
 my has  been  conmiended  for  his  abilities  not  only  as  a 
 sovereign,  but  as  a  writer  ;  and  among  the  many  val 
 uable  compositions  of  antiquity  which  have  been  lost, 
 we  have  to  lament  a  history  of  the  life  and  expeditions 
 of  Alexander  the  Great  by  the  King  of  Egypt,  greatly 
 admired  and  valued  for  elegance  and  authenticity,  and 
 from  which  Arrian  obtained  important  materials  for  his 
 work  on  the  same  subject. — II.  Son  of  Ptolemy  the 
 First,  succeeded  his  father  on  the  Egyptian  throne,  and 
 was  called  I'hiladelphns  from  the  affection  entertained 
 by  him  for  his  sister  and  wife  Arsinoe.  He  showed 
 himself  worthy  in  every  respect  to  succeed  his  great 
 father,  and,  conscious  of  the  advantages  which  arise 
 from  an  alliance  with  powerful  nations,  he  sent  am- 
 bassadors to  Italy  to  solicit  the  friendship  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, whose  name  and  military  reputation  had  become 
 universally  known  for  the  victories  which  they  had 
 just  obtained  over  Pyrrhus  and  the  Tarentines.  But 
 while  Ptolemy  strengthened  himself  by  alliances  with 
 foreign  powers,  the  internal  peace  of  his  kingdom  was 
 disturbed  by  the  revolt  of  Magas,  his  brother,  king  of 
 Cyrene.  The  sedition,  however,  was  stopped,  though 
 kindled  by  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  and  the  death  of 
 the  rebellious  prince  re-established  peace  for  some 
 time  in  the  family  of  Philadelphus.  Antiochus,  thp 
 Syrian  king,  married  Berenice,  the  daughter  of  Ptole- 
 my ;  and  the  father,  though  old  and  infirm,  conducted 
 his  daughter  to  her  husband's  kingdom,  and  assisted  at 
 the  nuptials.  Philadelphus  died  in  the  sixty-fourth 
 year  of  his  age,  two  hundred  and  forty-six  years  before 
 the  Christian  era.  He  left  two  sons  and  a  daughter 
 by  Arsinoe,  the  daughter  of  Lysimachus.  He  had 
 afterward  married  his  sister  Arsinoe,  whom  he  loved 
 with  uncommon  tenderness,  and  to  whose  memory 
 he  began  to  erect  a  celebrated  monument.  ( Vid.  Di- 
 nocrates.)  During  the  whole  of  his  reign,  Philadel- 
 phus was  employed  in  exciting  industry,  and  in  encoura- 
 ging the  liberal  arts  and  useful  knowledge  among  his 
 subjects.  The  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  countries 
 were  allured  by  promises  and  presents  to  increase  thfi 
 number  of  the  Egyptian  subjects,  and  Ptolemy  could 
 boast  of  reigning  over  numerous  well  peopled  cities. 
 He  gave  every  possible  encouragement  to  commerce  ; 
 and  by  keeping  two  powerful  fleets,  one  in  the  Medi- 
 terranean, and  the  other  in  the  Red  Sea,  he  madf 
 Egypt  the  mart  of  the  world.  His  army  consisted  of 
 200,000  foot,  40,000  horse,  besides  300  elephants, 
 and  2000  armed  chariots.  With  justice,  therefore,  he 
 has  been  called  the  richest  of  all  the  princes  and  mon- 
 archs of  his  age  ;  and,  indeed,  the  remark  is  not  false, 
 when  it  is  observed  that  at  his  death  he  left  in  hi.s 
 treasury  750,000  Egyptian  talents,  a  sum  equivalent 
 to  two  hundred  millions  sterling.  His  palace  was  the 
 asylum  of  learned  men,  whom  he  admired  and  patro- 
 nised ;  and  by  increasing  the  library  which  he  himself, 
 or,  according  to  others,  his  father  had  founded,  he 
 showed  his  taste  for  learning,  and  his  wish  to  encour- 
 age genius.  (Vid.  Alexandrea,  and  Alexandrina 
 Schola.)  The  whole  reign  of  Philadelphus  was  38 
 years,  and  from  the  death  of  his  father  36  years. 
 (Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  2,  p.  379.)— III.  The  third 
 of  the  name,  succeeded  his  father  Philadelphus  on  the 
 Egyptian  throne  B.C.  245.  He  early  engaged  in  a 
 war  awainst  Antiochus  Theos  for  his  unkindness  to 
 Berenfce,  the  Egyptian  king's  sister,  whom  he  had 
 
 1137 
 
PTOLEMiEUS. 
 
 PTOLEM^US. 
 
 married  with  the  consent  of  Philadelphus.     With  the 
 most  rapid  success  he  conquered  Syria  and  Ciiicia, 
 and  advanced  as  far  as  Bacinana  and  the  confines  of 
 India;   but  a  sedition  at  home  stopped  his  progress, 
 and  he  relumed  to  Egypt  loaded  with  the  spoils  of 
 conquered    nations.       Among    the    immense    riches 
 which  he  brought,  he  had  many  statues  of  the  Egyp- 
 tian gods,  which  Cambyses  had  carried  away  into  Per- 
 sia when  he  conquered  Egypt.      These  were  restored 
 to  the  temples,  and  the  Egyptians  called  their  sover- 
 eign Eucrgclts  (or  Benefactor),  in  acknowledgment 
 of  his  attention,  beneficence,  and  religious  zeal  for  the 
 gods  of    his  country.      The  last  years  of  Ptolemy's 
 reign  were  passed  in  peace   if  we  except  the  refusal 
 of  the  Jews  to   pay  the  tribute  of  20  silver  talents 
 which  their  ancestors  had  always  paid  to  the  Egyptian 
 monarchs.     Euergeles  died  221  years  before  Christ, 
 after  a  reign  of  25  years  ;   and,  like  his  two  illustrious 
 predecessors,  was  the  patron  of  learning. — IV.  The 
 fourth,  succeeded  his  father  Euergetes  on  the  throne  of 
 Egypt,  and  received  the  surname  of  Philopator,  prob- 
 ably from  the  regard  which  he  manifested  for  the  mem- 
 ory of  his  father  ;  though,  according  to  some  authori- 
 ties, he  destroyed  him  by  poison.     He  began  his  reign 
 with  acts  of  the  greatest  cruelty,  and  he  successively 
 sacrificed  to  his  avarice  his  own  mother,  his  wife,  his 
 sister,  and  his  brother.     He  received,  in  derision,  the 
 name  of  Typhon,  from   his  evil  morals,  and   that  of 
 GaUus,  because  he  appeared  in  the  streets  of  Alex- 
 andrea  with  all  the  gestures  of  the  priests  of  Cybele. 
 In  the  midst  of  his  pleasures  Philopator  was  called  to 
 war  against  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  and  at  the  head 
 of  a  powerful  army  he  soon  invaded  his  enemy's  ter- 
 ritories, and  might  have  added  the  kingdom  of  Syria  to 
 Egypt  if  lie  had  made  a  prudent  use  of  the  victories 
 which  attended  his  arms.     In  the  latter  part  of  his 
 reign,  the  Romans,  whom  a  dangerous  war  with  Car- 
 thage had  weakened,  but,  at  the  same  time,  roused  to 
 superior  activity,  renewed,  for  political  reasons,  the 
 treaty  of  alliance    which   had    been    made    with    the 
 Egyptian  monarchs.     Philopator  at  last,  weakened  and 
 enervated  by  intemperance  and  continued  debauchery, 
 died  in  the  37lh  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  17 
 years,  204  years  before  the  Christian  era. — V.  The 
 fifth,  succeeded  his  father  Philopator  as  king  of  Egypt, 
 though  only  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  age.     During  the 
 years  of  his  minority  he  was  under  the  protection  of 
 Sosicius  and  of  Aristomenes,  by  whose  prudent  ad- 
 ministration Antiochus  was  dispossessed  of  the  prov- 
 inces of  Ccelosyria  and  Palestine,  which  he  had  con- 
 quered in  war.      The  Romans  also  renewed  their  al- 
 liance with  him  after  their  victories   over  Hannibal, 
 and  the  conclusion  of  the  second   Punic  war.      This 
 flattering  embassy  induced  Aristomenes  to  ofTer  the 
 care  of  the  patronage  of  the  young  monarch  to  the 
 Romans;   but  the  regent  was  confirmed  in  his  honour- 
 able office,  and,  by  making  a  treaty  of  alliance  with 
 the  people  of  Achaia,  he  convinced  the  Egyptians  that 
 he  was  qualified  to  wield  the  sceptre   and  to  govern 
 the  nation.     But,  now  that  Ptolemy  had  reached  his 
 14th   year,   according    to    the    laws  and   customs  of 
 Egypt,  the  years  of  his  minority  had  expired.     He  re- 
 ceived the  surname  of  Epiphanes,  or  llhisLrious,  and 
 was  crowned  at  Alexandrea  with  the  greatest  solem- 
 nity, and  the  faithful  Aristomenes  resigned   into  his 
 hands  an  empire  which  he  had  governed  with  honour 
 to  himself  and  with  credit  to  his  sovereign.     Young 
 Ptolemy  was  no  sooner  delivered  from  the  shackles  of 
 a  superior,  than  he  betrayed  the  same  vices  which  had 
 characterized  his  father.     The  counsels  of  Aristome- 
 nes were  despised,  and  the  minister,  who  for  ten  years 
 had  governed  the  kingdom  with  equity  and  modera- 
 tion, was   sacrificed  to  the  caprice  of  the  sovereign, 
 who  abhorred  him  for  the   salutary  advice  which  his 
 own  vicious  inclinations  did  not  permit  him  to  follow. 
 His  cruelties  raised  seditions  among  his  subjects,  but 
 1138 
 
 these   were  twice  quelled  by  the  prudence  and  Ih* 
 moderation  of  one  Polycrates,  the  most  faithful  of  hia 
 corrupt  ministers.     In  the  midst  of  his  e.'stravagance, 
 Epiphanes  did  not  forget  his  alliance  with  the  Romans. 
 Above  all  others,  he  showed  himself  eager  to  cultivate 
 friendship  with  a  nation  from  whom  he  could  derive  so 
 many  advantages,  and  during  their  war  against  Antio- 
 chus he  ofTered  to  assist  them  with  money  against  a 
 monarch  whose  daughter,  Cleopatra,  he  had  married, 
 but  whom  he  hated  on  account  of  the  seditions  he  had 
 raised  in  the  very  heart  of  Egypt.     After  a  reign  of  24 
 years,  Ptolemy  was  poisoned,  180  years  before  Christ, 
 by  his  ministers,  whom  he  had  threatened  to  rob  of 
 their  possessions  to  carry  on  a  war  against  Seleiicus, 
 king  of  Syria. — VI.  The  sixth,  succeeded  bis  father 
 Epiphanes  on  the  Egyptian  throne,  and  received   the 
 surname   of  Philomclor,  probably  by   antiphrasis,  an 
 account  of  his  hatred  against  his  mother  C)eof)atra. 
 He  was  in  the  sixth  year  of  his  age  when  he  ascended 
 the  throne,  and  during  his  minority  the  kingdom  was 
 governed  by  his  mother,  and  at  her  death  by  a  eu- 
 nuch, who  was  one  of  his  favourites.     He  made  war 
 against  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria,  to  recov- 
 er the  provinces  of  Palestine  and   Ccelosyria,  which 
 were  part  of  the  Egyptain  dominions,  and,  after  seve- 
 al  successes,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemy,  who 
 detained  him  in  confinement.    During  the  captivity  of 
 Philometor,  the   Egyptians    raised   to  the   throne  his 
 youngcc  brother  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  or  Physcoii,  also 
 son  of  Epiphanes  ;  but  he  was  no  sooner  established  in 
 his  power  than   Antiochus   turned  his   arms   against 
 Egypt,  drove  out  the  usurper,  and  restored  Philometor 
 to  all  his  rights  and  privileges  as  king  of  Egypt.    This 
 artful  behaviour  of  Antiochus  was  soon  comprehended 
 by  Philometor;  and  when  he  saw  that  Pelusium,  the 
 key  of  Egypt,  had  remained  in  the  hands  of  his  Syrian 
 ally,  he  recalled  his  brother  Physcon,  and  made  him 
 partner  on  the  throne,  and  concerted  with  him  how  to 
 repel  their  common  enemy.     This  union  of  interest  in 
 the   two  royal  brothers  incensed   Antiochus  :   he  en- 
 tered Egypt  with  a  large  army,  but  the  Romans  check- 
 ed his  progress  and  obliged  him  to  retire.     No  sooner 
 were  they  delivered  from  the  impending  war,  than  Phil- 
 ometor and  Physcon,  whom  the  fear  of  danger  had 
 united,  began  with  mutual  jealousy  to  oppose  each 
 other's  views.     Physcon  was  at  last  banished  by  the 
 superior  power  of  his  brother,  and,  as  he  could  find  no 
 support  in  Egypt,  he  immediately  repaired  to  Rome. 
 To  excite  more  effectually  the  compassion  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, and  to  gain  their   assistance,   he  appeared   in 
 the  meanest  dress,  and  took  his  residence  in  the  most 
 obscure  corner  of  the  city.      He  received  an  audience 
 from  the  senate,  and  the  Romans  settled  the  dis])ute 
 between  the  two  royal  brothers  by  making  them  in- 
 dependent  of   one    another,   and   giving  the   govern- 
 ment of  Eibya  and  Cyrene  to  Physcon,  and  confirm- 
 ing  Philometor  in  the  possession  of  Egypt  and  the 
 island  of  Cyprus.      These  terms   of  accommodation 
 were    gladly    accepted  ;    but    Physcon    soon  claimed 
 the    dominion    of   Cyprus,  and   in    this   he  was  sup- 
 ported  by  the   Romans,   who   wished  to    aggrandize 
 themselves  by  the  diminution  of  the  Egyptian  pow- 
 er.    Philometor  refused  to  give  up  the  island  of  Cy- 
 prus, and,  to  call  away  his  brother's  attention,  he  fo- 
 mented the  seeds  of  rebellion   in  Cyrene.     But  the 
 death  of  Philometor,  14.5  years  before  the  Christian 
 era,  left  Physcon  master  of  Egypt  and  all  the  depend- 
 ant provinces. — VII.  The  seventh  Ptolemy,  surnamed 
 Physcon   on  account  of  an  abdominal  protuberance, 
 produced    by  his  intemperate  habits  {vid.   Physcon), 
 ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt  after  the  death  of  his 
 brother  Philometor ;  and,  as  he  had  reigned  for  some 
 time  conjointly   with  him  {vid.   Ptolemseus  VI.),  his 
 succession  was  approved,  though  the  wife  and  the  son 
 of  the  deceased  monarch  laid  claims  to  the  crown. 
 Cleopatra  was  supported  in  her  claims  by  the  Jews, 
 
PTOLEM-f:US. 
 
 PTOLEM.EUS. 
 
 and  it  was  at  last  agreed  that  Physcon  should  marry  the 
 queen,  and  that  her  son  should  succeed  on  the  throne 
 at  his  death.  The  nuptials  were  accordingly  cele- 
 brated, but  on  that  very  day  the  tyrant  murdered  Cle- 
 opatra's son  in  her  arms.  He  ordered  himself  to  be 
 called  Euergeles,  but  the  Alexandreans  refused  to  do 
 it,  and  stigmatized  him  with  the  appellation  of  Kakcr- 
 getes,  or  Evil-doer,  a  surname  which  he  deserved  by 
 his  tyranny  and  oppression.  A  series  of  barbarities 
 rendered  him  odious  ;  but,  as  no  one  attempted  to  rid 
 Egypt  of  her  tyrant,  the  Alexandreans  abandoned  their 
 habitations,  and  fled  from  a  place  which  continually 
 streamed  with  the  blood  of  their  massacred  fellow- 
 citizens.  If  their  migration  proved  fatal  to  the  com- 
 merce and  prosperity  of  Alexandrea,  it  was  of  the  most 
 essential  service  to  the  countries  where  they  retired  ; 
 and  the  numbers  of  Egyptians  that  sought  a  safe  asy- 
 lum m  Greece  and  Asia,  introduced  among  the  inhab- 
 itants of  those  countries  the  different  professions  that 
 were  practised  with  success  in  the  capital  of  Egypt. 
 Physcon  endeavoured  to  repeople  the  city  which  his 
 cruelty  had  laid  desolate  ;  but  the  fear  of  sharing  the 
 fate  o(  its  former  inhabitants  prevailed  more  than  the 
 promise  of  riches,  rights,  and  immunities.  The  king, 
 at  last,  disgusted  with  Cleopatra,  repudiated  her,  and 
 married  her  daughter  by  Philometor,  called  also  Cleo- 
 patra. He  still  continued  to  exercise  the  greatest  cru- 
 elty upon  his  subjects;  but  the  prudence  and  vigilance 
 of  his  ministers  kept  the  people  in  tranquillity,  till  all 
 Egypt  revolted  when  the  king  had  basely  murdered  all 
 the  young  men  of  Alexandrea.  Without  friends  or 
 support  in  Egypt,  he  fled  to  Cyprus,  and  Cleupatra, 
 the  divorced  queen,  ascended  the  throne.  In  his  ban- 
 ishment Physcon  dreaded  lest  the  Alexandreans  should 
 also  place  the  crown  on  the  head  of  his  son,  by  his  sis- 
 ter Cleopatra,  who  was  the  governor  of  Cyrene  ;  and 
 under  these  apprehensions  he  sent  for  the  young 
 prince,  called  Memphitis,  to  Cyprus,  and  murdered  him 
 as  soon  as  he  reached  the  shore.  To  make  the  bar- 
 barity more  complete,  he  sent  the  limbs  of  Memphitis 
 to  Cleopatra,  and  they  wore  received  as  the  queen  was 
 going  to  celebrate  her  birthday.  Soon  after  this  he 
 invaded  Egypt  with  an  army,  and  obtained  a  victory 
 over  the  (brces  of  Cleopatra,  who,  being  left  without 
 friends  or  assistance,  fled  to  her  eldest  daughter  Cleo- 
 patra, who  had  married  Demetrius,  king  of  Syria. 
 This  decisive  blow  restored  Physcon  to  his  throne, 
 where  he  continued  to  reign  for  some  time,  hated  by 
 his  subjects  and  feared  by  his  enemies.  He  died  at 
 Alexandrea  in  the  67th  year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign 
 of  29  years,  about  116  years  before  Christ.  This 
 prince,  notwithstanding  his  cruel  disposition,  was  a 
 lover  of  learning,  and  received  from  some  the  appella- 
 tion of  FhiloUigist.  Aristarchus  was  his  preceptor,  and 
 he  is  said  also  to  have  made  important  additions  to  the 
 Alcxandrean  library,  as  well  in  original  manuscripts 
 as  in  copies. — VIII.  The  eighth,  surnamed  Soter  II  , 
 succeeded  his  father  Physcon  as  king  of  Egypt.  He 
 had  no  sooner  ascended  the  throne  than  his  mother 
 Cleopatra,  who  reigned  conjointly  with  hirn,  expelled 
 him  to  Cyprus,  and  placed  the  crown  on  the  head  of 
 his  brother  Ptolemy  Alexander,  her  favourite  son. 
 Soter,  banished  from  Egypt,  became  king  of  Cyprus  ; 
 and  soon  after  he  appeared  at  the  head  of  a  large  army, 
 to  make  war  against  Alexander  .Janna-us,  king  of  Ju- 
 diKa,  through  whose  assistance  and  intrigue  he  had 
 been  expelled  by  Cleopatra.  The  Jewish  monarch 
 was  conquered,  and  50,000  of  his  men  were  left  on  the 
 field  of  battle.  Soter,  after  he  had  exercised  the 
 greatest  cruelty  upon  the  Jews,  and  made  vain  at- 
 tempts to  recover  the  kingdom  of  Egypt,  retired  to 
 Cyprus  till  the  death  of  his  brother  Alexander  re- 
 stored him  to  his  native  dominions.  Some  of  the  cit- 
 ies of  Egypt  refused  to  acknowledge  him  as  their  sov- 
 ereign, and  Thebes,  for  its  obstinacy,  was  closely  be- 
 sieged for  three  successive  years,  and  from  a  powerful 
 
 and  populous  city  it  was  reduced  to  ruins.     In  the 
 latter  part  of  his  reign  Soter  was  called  upon  to  assist 
 the  Romans  with  a  navy  for  the  conquest  of  Athens  ; 
 but  Lucullus,  who  had  been  sent  to  obtain  the  wanted 
 supply,  though  received  with  kingly  honours,  was  dis- 
 missed with  evasive  and  unsatisfactory  answers,  and 
 the   monarch    refused   to  part   with  troops    which  he 
 deemed  necessary  to  preserve  the  peace  of  his  king- 
 dom.    Soter  died  81  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
 after  a  reign  of  36  years  since  the  death  of  his  father 
 Physcon,    eleven   of  which    he  had    passed    with  his 
 mother  Cleopatra  on  the  Egyptian  throne,  eighteen  in 
 Cyprus,   and  seven  after   his   mother's  death.     This 
 monarch  is  sometimes  called  Lalhyrus,  from  an  ex- 
 crescence  like   a  vetch  {TiaOvpoi;)  on  his  nose. — IX. 
 The    ninth,  called    also   Alexander  Ptolemy    1.,  was 
 raised  to  the  throne  by  his  mother  Cleopatra,  in  pref- 
 erence to  his  brother,  and  conjointly  with  her.     Cleo- 
 patra expelled,  but  afterward  recalled  him  ;  and  Alex- 
 ander, to  prevent   being  expelled  a  second  time,  .put 
 her  to  death  ;   for  which  unnatural  action  he  was  him- 
 self murdered  by  one  of  his  subjects. — X.   The  tenth, 
 or  Alexander  Ptolemy  II  ,  was  son  of  the  preceding. 
 He  was  educated  in  the  island  of  Cos,  and,  having  fall- 
 en   into    the    hands   of   Mithradates,   escaped    subse 
 quently  to  Sylla.     He  was  murdered  'oy  his  own  sub- 
 jects.— XI.   The  eleventh,  or  Alexander  Ptolemy  III., 
 was  king  of  Egypt  after  his  brother  Alexander,  the  last 
 mentioned.     After  a  peaceful  reign  he  was  banished 
 by  his  subjects,  and  died   at  Tyte  B.C.  65,  leaving 
 his  kingdom  to  the  Romans — Xll.  The  twelfth,  the  ' 
 illegitimate  son  of  Soter  II.,  ascended  the  throne  of 
 Egypt  at  the  death  of  Alexander  III.     He  received 
 the  surname  of  Aiiletes,  from  the  skill  with  which  he 
 played   upon   the  flute.     Besides,  however,  this  deri- 
 sory title,  he  had  the  surnames  of  Phtlopatnr,  Phila- 
 delphus,  and  Neodionysus  (the  New  Bacchus  or  Osiris, 
 these  deities   being  often  confounded  by  the  Greeks) 
 His  rise  showed  great  marks  of  prudence  and  circum- 
 spection ;   and  as  his  predecessor,  by  his  will,  had  left 
 the  kingdom  of  Egypt  to  the  Romans,  Auletes  knew 
 that  he  could  not  be  firmly  established  on  his  throne 
 without  the  approbation  of  the  Roman  senate.     He  was 
 successful  in   his   applications  ;   and  Ca;sar,  who  was 
 then   consul   and   in    want  of  money,  established  his 
 succession,  and  granted   him  the  alliance  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, after  he   had  received  a  very  Iprge  sum.     But 
 these  measures   rendered   the  monarch    unpopular  at 
 home  ;  and,  when  he  had  suffered  the  Romans  quietly 
 to  take  possession  of  Cyprus,  the  Egyptians  revolted, 
 and  Auletes  was  obliged  to  fly  from  his  kingdom,  and 
 seek  protection  among  the  most  jjowerful  of  his  allies. 
 His  complaints  were  heard  at  Rome  at  first  with  in- 
 difference ;  and  the  murder  of  a  hundred  noblemen  of 
 Alexandrea,  whom   the  Egyptians  had  sent  to  justify 
 their  proceedings  before  the  Roman  senate,  rendered 
 him   unpopular    and    suspected.      Pompey,   however, 
 supported  his  cause,  and  the  senators  decreed  to  re- 
 establish .'\uletes  on  his  throne  ;  but,  as  they  proceeded 
 slowly  in   the  execution  of  their  plans,  the  monarch 
 retired  from  Rome  to  Ephesus,  where  he  lay  conceal- 
 ed for  some  time  in  the  temple  of  Diana.     During  his 
 absence  from  Alexandrea,  his  daughter  Bf  renice  had 
 made  herself  absolute,  and  established  herself  on  the 
 throne  by  a  marriage  with  Archelaus,  a  priest  of  Bel- 
 lona's  temple   at  Comana  ;    but  she  was  sq99^driven 
 from  Egypt,  when  Gabinius,  at  the  head  9/;  a  Roman 
 army,  approached    to   replace  Auletes-.ion„his   'hrof)^, 
 Auletes  was  no  sooner  restored  to  pQ>v.ep|than  he  ^ig 
 rificed  to  his  ambition  his  daughter  flprFi?ic9.,4^bs, 
 haved  with  the  greatest  ingratitudp  ?ffdiR^^<J^,fftrftrft 
 birius,  a  Roman  who  had  supplier)  .hjip  NAfi^^,,m/y^ 
 when  expelled  from  his  kingdom.  |   4^1f.)cs,d,w4,,W 
 years  after  his  restoration,  about  i^j7y'>pars,.li^liL)re  (|J)§ 
 Christian  era.     He  left  two  ^pf>s,ai?d- ;',\Xft(flaMg,VfiFiS> 
 and  by  his  will  ordered  the  el.4e^,/»f  iW^jfefls  .^fl.mftfflr 
 
PTOLEM^US. 
 
 PTOLEMiEUS. 
 
 Ihe  elder  of  his  daughters,  and  to  ascend  with  her  the 
 vacant  throne.  As  these  children  were  young,  the 
 dying  monarch  recommended  them  to  the  protection 
 and  paternal  care  of  the  Romans  ;  and  accordingly 
 Poinpey  the  Great  was  appointed  by  the  senate  to  be 
 their  patron  and  their  guardian.  Their  reign  was  as 
 turbulent  as  that  of  their  predecessors,  and  it  is  re- 
 markable for  no  uncommon  events  ;  only  we  may  ob- 
 serve that  the  young  queen  was  the  Cleopatra  who 
 soon  after  became  so  celebrated. — XIH.  The  thir- 
 teenth, ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt  conjointly  with 
 his  sister  Cleopatra,  whom  he  had  married  according  to 
 the  directions  of  his  father  Auletes.  {Vtd.  Cleopatra 
 VII.) — XIV.  Apion,  king  of  Cyrene,  was  the  illegiti- 
 mate son  of  Ptolemy  Physcon.  After  a  reign  of  twenty 
 years  he  died  ;  and,  as  he  had  no  children,  he  made  the 
 Romans  heirs  of  his  dominions.  The  Romans  pre- 
 sented his  subjects  with  their  independence  — XV. 
 Ceraunns,  a  son  of  Ptolemy  Soter  by  Eurydice,  the 
 daughter  of  Antipater.  Unable  to  succeed  to  the 
 throne  of  Egypt,  Ceraunus  fled  to  the  court  of  Seleu- 
 cus,  where  he  was  received  with  friendly  marks  of  at- 
 tention. Seleucus  was  then  king  of  Macedonia,  an 
 empire  which  he  had  lately  acquired  by  the  death  of 
 Lysimachus  in  a  battle  in  Phrygia  :  but  his  reign  was 
 short  ;  and  Ceraunus  perfidiously  murdered  him,  and 
 ascended  his  throne  280  B.C.  The  murderer,  how- 
 ever, could  not  be  firmly  established  in  Macedonia  as 
 lon<T  as  Arsinoe  the  widow,  and  the  children  of  Lysim- 
 achus, were  alive,  and  entitled  to  claim  his  kingdom 
 as  the  lawful  possession  of  their  father.  To  remove 
 these  obstacles,  Ceraunus  made  offers  of  marriage  to 
 Arisnoe,  who  was  his  own  sister.  The  queen  at  first 
 refused,  but  the  protestations  and  solemn  promises  of 
 the  usurper  at  last  prevailed  upon  her  to  consent. 
 The  nuptials,  however,  were  no  sooner  celebrated  than 
 Ceraunus  murdered  the  two  young  princes,  and  con- 
 firmed his  usurpation  by  rapine  and  cruelty.  But  now 
 three  powerful  princes  claimed  the  kingdom  of  Mace- 
 donia as  their  own  :  Antiochus,  the  son  of  Seleucus  ; 
 Antigonus,  the  son  of  Demetrius  ;  and  Pyrrhus,  the 
 king  of  Epirus.  These  enemies,  however,  were  soon 
 removed  ;  Ceraunus  conquered  Antigonus  in  the  field 
 of  battle,  and  stopped  the  hostilities  of  his  two  other 
 rivals  by  promises  and  money.  He  did  not  long  re- 
 main inactive  :  a  barbarian  army  of  Gauls  claimed  a 
 tribute  from  him,  and  the  monarch  immediately  march- 
 ed to  meet  them  in  the  field.  The  battle  was  long  and 
 bloody.  The  Macedonians  might  have  obtained  the 
 victory  if  Ceraunus  had  shown  more  prudence.  He 
 W,as  thrown  down  from  his  elephant,  and  taken  prison- 
 er by  the  enemy,  who  immediately  tore  his  body  to 
 pieces.  Ptolemy  had  been  king  of  Macedonia  only 
 eighteen  months.  {Justin,  24,  &c.  —  Pausan.,  10, 
 10. — XVI.  An  illegitimate  son  of  Ptolemy  Soter  11., 
 or  Lathyrus,  king  of  Cyprus,  of  which  he  was  tyran- 
 nically dispossessed  by  the  Romans.  Cato  was  at  the 
 head  of  the  forces  which  were  sent  against  Ptolemy  by 
 the  senate,  and  the  Roman  general  proposed  to  the 
 monarch  to  retire  from  the  throne,  and  to  pass  the  rest 
 of  his  days  in  the  obscure  office  of  high-priest  in  the 
 temple  of  Venus  at  Paphos.  This  ofTer  was  rejected 
 with  the  indignation  which  it  merited,  and  the  monarch 
 poisoned  himself  at  the  approach  of  the  enemy.  The 
 treasures  found  in  the  island  amounted  to  the  enor- 
 mous sum  of  £1,356, 2o0  sterling,  which  were  carried 
 to  Rome  by  the  conquerors. — XVII.  A  son  of  Pyr- 
 rhus, king  of  Epirus.  by  Antigone,  the  daughter  of 
 Berenice.  He  was  left  governor  of  Epirus  when  Pyr- 
 rhus w«nt  to  Italy  to  assist  the  Tarentines  against  the 
 Romans,  where  he  presided  with  great  prudence  and 
 moderation.  He  was  killed,  bravely  fighting,  in  the 
 expedition  which  Pyrrhus  undertook  against  Sparta 
 and  Argos. — XVIII.  (Claudius,  a  celebrated  astron- 
 omer, chronologer,  musical  writer,  and  geographer  of 
 antiquity,  born  in  Egypt,  and  who  flourished  about  the 
 1140 
 
 middle  of  the  second  century  of  our  era,  under  the  An- 
 tonines.      During  the  middle  ages,  it  was  generally  sup- 
 posed that  he  had  reigned  in  Egypt,  and  the  first  edi- 
 tion of  his  Almagest,  that  of  Grynjeus,  1.038,  is  dedi- 
 cated to  the  King  of  England  as  the  production  of  a 
 king.     This  error  is  thought  to  have  originated  with 
 Albumazar,  an  Arabian  of  the  ninth  century,  who  was 
 led  into  the  mistake  by  the  Arabic  name  of  the  astron- 
 omer {Bathalmius),    which,   according    to    Herhelot, 
 means  in  Arabic  "a  king  of  Egypt"  {Bibliolheca  Ori- 
 ent., s.  V  ),  just  as  the  ancient  monarchs  of  the  land 
 were    named    Feraoun  {Pharaohs).     Ptolemy,   how- 
 ever, is  styled  King  of  Alexandrca  almost  two  centu- 
 ries before  Albumazar,  by  Isidorus  of  .Seville.      (Ori- 
 ginum,  3,  25.) — Another  opinion,  not  less  generally 
 received,  but   probably  just  as  erroneous   as  the  for- 
 mer, is  that  which  makes  Ptolemy  to  have  been  born 
 at  Pelusium.     Suidas  and  Eudoxia  call  him  a  philoso- 
 pher  of  Alexandrea  ;   but  it  has  been   said   that  this 
 appellation  has  only  been  given  him  on  account  of  his 
 long   sojourn   in  the  capital   of  Egypt.     No   ancient 
 writer  makes  mention  of  his    native  country,  though 
 many   manuscripts  of    the    Latin    translations   of   his 
 works,  and  also  the  printed  editions  of  these  versions, 
 style  him  Pheludiensis,  which  many  regard  as  a  cor- 
 ruption   for   Pciusiensis.      Raidel   {Comment,    in    C. 
 Ptol.  Geogr.,  Norimb  ,  1737,  4to,  p.  3)  cites  the  Arab 
 scholiast  on  the  Teirabiblos,  Ali-Ihn-Rednan,  named 
 Haly,  to  prove  that   Pelusium  was  the  native  place  of 
 our  astronomer.     Buttmann,  on  the  other  hand,  proves 
 the  citation  of  Raidel  to  be  false       Haly,  or  his  trans- 
 lator, makes  no  mention  whatever  of  ilie  native  place 
 of  Ptolemy  ;  he  only  calls  this  writer  al-Feludhi  {Phe- 
 ludianus),   from  the  surname  which  the  Arabs  have 
 given  him.      It  is  true,  in  a  biography  or  preface  found 
 at  the  head  of  a  Latin  version  of  the  Almagest,  made 
 from  the  Arabic,  we  read   the  following:  •'■Hie  autem 
 ortiis  et   edticutus  fuit  in  Alexandrea  majori,  terra 
 JEgypti.     Hujiis  /amen  propago  de  terra  Sem,  et  de 
 provincia  qua:  dicitur  Pheuludia."     This  absurd  pas- 
 sage, however,  which  does  not  even  say  that  Ptolemy 
 was  born  out  of  Alexandrea,  proves  nothing  else  but 
 the  desire  of  the  .\rab  translator  to  represent  the  as- 
 tronomer as  the  descendant  of  an  .Arabian  or  a  Syrian 
 {de  terra  Sem. — Museum  der  Allerthums.,   Wissen- 
 schafl,  vol.  2,  p.  463,  seqq.). — Theodorus  Meliteniota 
 states  that  Ptolemy  was  born  at  Ptolema'is,  or  Herme- 
 ion,  in  the  Thebaid,  and    that  he  was  contemporary 
 with  Antoninus  Pius.      This  writer  does  not,  it  is  true, 
 cite  his  authority  ;  yet  nothing  prevents  our  admitting 
 the  accuracy  of  his  statement,  derived,  no  doubt,  from 
 some  ancient  writer,  provided  we  can  reconcile  it  with 
 the  surname  Al  Feludi.  which  the  .■Xrabians  have  given 
 to  Ptolemy.      This  surname   has  only  thus    far   been 
 found   in  the  Latin  translations  :  in  the  Arabic  books 
 Piolemy  is  sometimes  named  Bathalmius.  al  Kaludi 
 {Ahulpharagii  Hist.,  p.  73,  1.  5  ;   p.  105,  1.  3  ;   p.  123, 
 1.  atitcp  — Casiri,  Bibliolh.  Anah.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  348. 
 —  Mcmotrcs  siir  VEgypte,  p.  389,  where  an  extract  is 
 given  from  Alderasrhid  el  Bakin,  who  calls  Ptolemy 
 Bdrthahnyous  el  Qloudy).     Kaludi    is  expressed  by 
 (Maudius  in  the  Latin  versions.     The  change  from  Ka- 
 ludi to  Fiiludi  is  extremely  simple,  since  in  Arabic  the 
 letter  K  is  distinguished  from  F  only  by  an  additional 
 point.     Thus  Pheludianus  is  merely  corrupted  from 
 Claudius,  and  ought  not  to  be  rendered  by  Pelusianus. 
 Thus,  too,   Bathalmius  al  Kaludi  is  only  an  Arabic 
 version  of  nro/le^atof  6  K2.aiJ6ioc,  as  Suidas  writes 
 the  name,  the  praenomen  being  mistaken  by  the  Arabi- 
 an translators  for  an  appellative. — Another  point,  of 
 more  importance    is  to  ascertain  the  place  where  Ptol- 
 emy made  his  observations,  because  on  this  depends  the 
 degree  of  precision  of  which  his  observations  on  lati- 
 tude were  susceptible.     The  astronomer  states  posi- 
 tively that  he  made  these  observations  under  the  par- 
 allel of  Alexandrca ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
 
PTOLEMJEUS. 
 
 PTOLEM^EUS. 
 
 exists  a  schc  im  of  Olympiodorus  {in  Phcr.d.,  Plat. — 
 Bomlland,  Tistimonia  de  PtoleriKBo,  p  205.),  which  in- 
 forms us  ihat  Ploleiny  passed  4(1  years  of  his  life  h' 
 irrepol^  tov  KavuCov  {"in  the  wings  of  Canobus"), 
 occupied  with  astronomical  observations,  and  that  he 
 placed  columns  thereon  which  he  caused  to  be  cut  the 
 theorems  of  which  he  had  been  the  author.  An  in- 
 scription lias  come  down  to  us  which  illustrates  this 
 remark  of  Olympiodorus:  9fw  Iitjrf/pc  KXavdio^  UtuX- 
 cfiaio^  apx'^i  '^'^^  vKodiati^  fiatirsjiaTLKag,  k.  t.  A., 
 "Claudius  Ptolcmij  dedicalex  to  the  God,  the  Preserver, 
 his  mathematical  principles  and  theses,"  &c.  Combi- 
 ning this  dedication  with  the  scholium  ol  Olympiodorus. 
 the  Abbe  Halma  states,  that  he  would  be  inclined  to 
 believe  the  deity  alluded  to  in  tlie  insc;iplion  to  be  Ca- 
 nobiis,  if  the  inscription  did  not  expressly  declare,  far- 
 ther on,  that  the  monument  containing  it  was  |)laccd 
 ill  the  city  of  Canobus  {kv  Kai'ufiw),  whence  he  infers 
 that  the  protecting  deity  is  Serapis,  and  that  Ptolemy 
 made  his  observations  m  the  side-buildings  connected 
 with  the  temple  of  this  god.  He  thinks  that  this  posi- 
 tion is  not  in  contradiction  with  the  passage  in  which 
 Ptolemy  informs  us  that  he  made  tliein  under  the  par- 
 allel of  Ale.xandrea  ;  for,  according  to  Halma,  the  city 
 of  Alexandrea  was  gradually  extended  to  Canopus, 
 .which  became  a  kind  of  suburbs  to  it,  so  that  Ptole- 
 my, though  residing  at  Canopus,  may  nevertheless  be 
 «aid  to  have  observed  at  Alexandrea,  or  that,  observ- 
 :ng  at  Canopus,  he  had  no  need  of  reducing  his  ob- 
 servations to  the  parallel  of  Alexandrea,  by  reason  of 
 the  trifling  difference  of  latitude.  A  difficulty  here 
 presents  itself,  of  which  the  Abbe  Halma  is  aware,  and 
 which  he  proposes  to  remedy  by  an  alteration  of  the 
 text.  If  Ptolemy  had  made  his  observations  in  the 
 tem[)le  of  Serapis  at  Canopus,  Olympiodorus,  in  place 
 of  saying  kv  Tirepotc  tov  Kavo)6ov,  "in  the  wings  of 
 (the  temple  of)  Canobus,'''  would  have  had  kv  nrepotg 
 TJjg  Kavudov,  "the  side-buildings  o/(the  city  of)  Ca- 
 nobus." Halma  therefore  proposes  to  substitute  the 
 latter  reading  for  the  former,  or  else  to  regard  Canobus 
 as  the  same  divinity  with  Serapis,  and  to  suppose  that 
 Ptolemy  observed  in  the  temple  of  Canobus  at  Cano- 
 pus. This  reasoning  of  Halma's  has  been  attacked 
 by  [yCtronne,  and  ably  refuted.  The  latter  shows, 
 that  Canopus,  situate  at  the  distance  of  120  stadia,  or 
 more  than  two  and  a  half  geographical  miles,  northeast 
 of  Alexandrea,  never  made  part  of  that  capital,  since 
 there  were  several  places,  such  as  Nicopolis  and  Ta- 
 posiris  Parva,  between  the  two  cities  ;  that,  conse- 
 quently, the  Serapeum.  in  which  Ptolemy  observed, 
 could  not  have  belonged  to  Canopus  ;  and,  finally,  that 
 Ptolemy  knew  the  difference  in  latitude  between  Ca- 
 nopus and  Alexandrea,  and  could  not  confound  them 
 together  in  one  point.  It  is  more  probable,  as  Letronne 
 remarks  {Journal  dcg  Savans,  1818,  p.  202),  that 
 Olympiodorus  was  mistaken  as  to  the  place  where 
 Ptolemy  oliserved.  It  is  ascertained  that  there  was  a 
 temple  of  Serapis  at  Canopus  as  well  as  at  Alexan- 
 «lrea.  {Strabo,  801.)  Olympiodorus,  therefore,  must 
 have  supposed  that  the  word  Serapeum,  in  the  author 
 from  whom  he  copied  his  remark,  belonged  exclusive- 
 ly to  (he  first  of  these  cities,  when  it  referred,  in  fact, 
 in  this  particular  instance,  to  Alexandrea  the  capital. 
 The  error  oi  Olympiodorus,  moreover,  is  the  easier  to 
 be  cr|)laincd,  front  the  circumstance  of  the  Serapeum 
 at  Caiiofius  having  become  at  one  time  a  celebrated 
 fceat  of  the  New-Plalonists,  and  having  acquired  great 
 distinction  on  this  account  among  the  last  apostles  of 
 {laganism.  A  cotnmetitator  on  Plato,  therefore,  would 
 be  very  ready  to  suppose  that  this  last  asylum  of  true 
 light,  as  he  believed  it.  was  the  place  where  the  ^reat 
 Ptolemy  also  made  liie  observations  and  discoveries. 
 — We  will  now  proceed  to  the  works  of  this  distin- 
 guished writer.  1.  Mcyu/*.??  SJiToftf  {"Great  Con- 
 etruf.tiorr),  in  thirteen  books.  This  work  contains  all 
 the  astronomical  observations  of  the  ancients,  such  as 
 
 those  of  Aristyllus,  Timochares,  Meton,  Eucternon, 
 and,  above  all,  of  Hipparchus.  After  the  example  of 
 all  his  predecessors,  excepting  Aristarchus,  Ptolemy 
 regards  the  earth  as  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and 
 makes  the  stars  to  revolve  around  it.  This  system 
 was  that  of  all  succeeding  astronomers  until  the  days 
 of  Copernicus.  Ptolemy  is  the  inventor  of  epicycles, 
 as  they  are  called,  an  erroneous  but  ingenious  system, 
 and  the  only  one  that  can  explain  the  irregular  revolu- 
 tions of  the  planets,  if  we  deny  the  sun  to  be  the  cen- 
 tre of  our  system.  He  inserted  into  his  work,  with 
 additions,  the  catalogue  of  the  stars  made  by  Hippar- 
 chus ;  the  list,  however,  contains  only  1022  stars,  di- 
 vided into  48  catasterisins.  He  corrected  the  theory  of 
 the  lunar  revolutions,  by  determining  the  equation  in 
 the  mean  distances  between  the  new  and  full  moon  ;  he 
 reduced  to  a  more  regular  system  the  parallax  of  the 
 moon,  though  he  has,  in  fact,  traced  it  too  large  ;  he  de- 
 termined that  of  the  sun  by  the  size  of  the  shadow 
 which  the  earth  casts  on  the  moon  in  eclipses  ;  he  taught 
 the  mode  of  finding  the  diameter  of  the  moon,  and  of 
 calculating  lunar  and  solar  eclipses.  "  Ptolemy,"  says 
 Delambre,  "  was  not,  indeed,  a  great  astronomer,  since 
 he  observed  nothing,  or,  rather,  has  transmitted  to  us  no 
 observation  on  which  we  can  rely  with  the  least  confi- 
 dence ;  but  he  was  a  learned  and  laborious  man,  and  a 
 distinguished  mathematician.  He  has  collected  to- 
 gether into  one  body  all  the  learning  that  lay  scatter- 
 ed in  the  separate  works  of  his  predecessors  ;  though, 
 at  the  same  time,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that  he 
 might  have  been  more  sober  in  his  details,  and  more 
 communicative  respecting  certain  observations  which 
 are  now  lost  to  us  for  ever."  The  same  modern 
 writer,  after  complaining  of  the  little  reliance  that 
 can  be  placed  on  the  calculations  of  Ptolemy,  prais- 
 es the  trigonometrical  portion  of  the  TeTpu&iSTioq,  and 
 the  mathematical  theory  of  eclipses;  adding,  how- 
 ever, the  remark,  that  here  Ptolemy  would  seem  only 
 to  have  copied  from  Hipparchus,  who  had  resolved  all 
 these  problems  before  him  Indeed,  it  ought  to  be 
 borne  in  mind,  as  a  general  remark,  that  Ptolemy 
 owed  a  part  of  his  great  reputation  to  the  circum- 
 stance of  Ihe  writings  of  Hipparchus  being  extremely 
 rare,  and  having  been,  soon  after  Ptolemy's  time, 
 completely  lost.— An  analysis  of  the  Meyd/lj?  "Lvv- 
 ra^tg  is  given  by  Halma  in  the  preface  of  his  edition. 
 This  work  of  Ptolemy's  was  commented  upon  by 
 Theon  of  Alexandrea,  Pappus,  and  Ammonius.  Of 
 these  commentaries  we  have  remaining  only  that  of 
 Theon,  and  some  notes  of  Pappus.  We  have,  how- 
 ever, the  labours  of  Nilus  (or  Nicolaus)  Cabasilas,  a 
 mathematician  of  the  thirteenth  century,  on  the  third 
 book.  The  MeyuXTj  Stiirafif  of  Ptolemy  was  trans- 
 lated into  Arabic  in  the  9th  century.  The  Arabians 
 gave  it  the  title  of  Tahrir  al  magesih,  the  last  word 
 being  corrupted  from  the  Greek  /uyiarog  ("  the  great- 
 est"), and  this  title  is  intended  to  express  the  admira- 
 tion with  which  the  work  had  inspired  them.  From 
 the  Arabic  words  just  given  was  formed  the  appella- 
 tion of  Alma^t-9t,  under  which  name  the  work  is  still 
 frequently  cited  ;  for  the  knowledge  of  this  production 
 was  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Arabians,  who,  du- 
 ring the  middle  ages,  were  the  sole  depositaries  of  all 
 the  sciences.  The  first  Arabic  translation  was  made 
 about  827  A. D.,  by  Al-Hacer-ben-Juscf  au<\  the  Chris- 
 tian Sergws.  The  Caliph  Almamoun  himself  also 
 lent  his  literary  aid  to  the  undertakini;  The  second 
 version  is  that  of  Honain  or  Ishaclien  Honuht,  a  Chris- 
 tian physician,  who  had  fled  to  the  court  of  the  Ca- 
 liph Motawakl.  It  was  on  these  Arabic  translaiions 
 that  a  Spanish  one  was  made  by  Isaac  ben- Sid-el- 
 Haza.  The  Emperor  Frederic  II.,  a  member  of  that 
 Suabian  house  under  which  Germany  began  to  emerge 
 from  barbarism,  and  to  enjoy  a  dawning  of  national 
 literature  before  any  other  of  the  countries  of  Europe, 
 directed  JE^idms   Tebuldinus  to    turn    this   Spanish 
 
 1141 
 
PTOLEM^US. 
 
 PTOLEM-f:US. 
 
 Tersion  into  Latin.  Another  translation  was  made 
 frotn  the  Arabic  text  into  Latin  by  Gerard  of  Cremo- 
 na, an  astronomer  of  the  twelfth  century,  who  estab- 
 lished himself  for  some  time  at  Toledo,  in  order  to 
 learn  the  Arabic  language.  He  did  not  understand  it 
 perfectly,  and  was  therefore  unable  to  translate  cer- 
 lam  technical  terms,  which  he  was  consequently  com- 
 pelled to  leave  in  the  original  language.  His  classical 
 erudition  could  not  have  been  very  profound,  since  he 
 was  unacquainted  with  Hipparchus,  whom  he  every- 
 where calls  Abrachir,  as  the  Arabic  translator  had 
 ''one. — It  was  not  until  the  fifteenth  century  that  a 
 manuscript  of  the  original  Greek  was  discovered,  from 
 which  the  astronomer,  John  Mijiler,  better  known  by 
 the  name  of  Regiomontanus,  made  his  Latin  abridg- 
 ment. About  the  same  period,  George  of  Trebisond 
 made  a  Latm  translation  from  this  original,  but  a  very 
 unfaithful  one. — The  Alexandreans  called  the  work  of 
 Ptolemy  which  we  have  just  been  considering  the 
 Great  Astronomer,  Miyac  uarpovofiog,  in  contradis- 
 tinction to  another  collection  which  they  called  the 
 Little  Astronomer,  Mt«pof  acrrpovojuoc,  and  which  was 
 composed  of  the  works  of  Theodosius  of  Tripolis  ;  the 
 Data,  Optics,  Catoptrics,  &c.,  of  Euclid  ;  the  works 
 of  Autolycus,  Aristarchus  ofSamos,  Hypsicles,  &c. — 
 The  best  and  most  useful  edition  of  the  Almagest  is 
 that  of  Halma,  Paris,  1813-1828,  2  vols.  4to.  It 
 contains  a  new  French  version,  and  notes  by  Delam- 
 bre. — 2.  The  second  work  of  Ptolemy,  as  we  have 
 arranged  it,  is  the  Upuxeipoi  Kavovrc.  This  is  a  col- 
 lection of  Manual  Tables  intended  for  makers  of  al- 
 manacs, to  facilitate  their  calculations,  and  which 
 are  often  only  extracts  from  the  Almagest.  Halma 
 gave  the  editio  princeps  of  this  work  in  the  first  vol- 
 ume of  his  edition  of  Theon's  Commentary,  which  he 
 published  in  1822.— 3.  TeTpu6i6?iOc,  tj  Swrafif  /laO- 
 Tj/xiiTinr/  ("  Telrabiblus,  or  Mathematical  Syntaxis^'), 
 in  four  books,  consisting  of  astronomical  predictions. 
 It  is  commonly  cited  under  the  title  of  Quadripartilum. 
 Some  critics  consider  this  work  as  unworthy  of  Ptole- 
 my, and  supposititious.  Proclus  has  made  a  para- 
 phrase of  it.  The  latest  edition  is  that  of  Melancthon, 
 Basil,  1553,  8vo — 4.  KapTroc  {"  Friiit'^),  that  is,  one 
 hundred  astrological  propositions  collected  from  the 
 works  of  Ptolemy.  It  is  usually  cited  under  the  title 
 of  Centum  Dicta.  It  is  published  with  the  Quadri- 
 ptirlitum. — 5.  ^uaeic  unAaviJv  iiaTepuv  Kal  ovvayo>yij 
 enini-JnaaiCiv  {"-Appearances  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  a 
 collection  of  the  things  indicated  by  them'").  This  is  a 
 species  of  almanac,  giving  the  rising  and  setting  of 
 the  stars,  the  prognostics  of  the  principal  changes  of 
 temperature,  &c.  The  work  is  intended  for  all  cli- 
 mates ;  and,  to  make  it  answer  this  end.  and  prove 
 useful  to  all  the  Greeks  spread  over  the  surface  of  the 
 globe,  Ptolemy  gives  the  appearance  of  the  stars  for 
 five  parallels  at  once,  namely,  Syene,  Lower  Egypt, 
 Rhodes,  the  Hellespont,  and  the  Pontus  Euxinus. 
 The  best  edition  is  that  of  Halma,  Paris,  1820,  4to. 
 It  was  preceded  by  the  edition  of  Ideler,  BeroL,  1819. 
 — 6.  Hepl  'Ava?.rj/i/iaToc  ("  Of  the  Analemma").  The 
 Analemma  was  a  species  of  sundial,  and  in  this  work 
 we  have  an  exposition  of  the  whole  gnomonic  theory 
 of  the  Greeks — 7.  'Tnoftemg  tC>v  TT'kavufdvuv  {''  Hif- 
 pothcsis  of  the  Planets").  The  latest  edition  is  that 
 of  Halma,  Pans,  1820,  4to. — 8  "Arr/lwo-ff  eTTKpm'siac 
 a(l>aipac  (^'Planisphere'")  This  work  exists  only  in 
 an  .Arabic  version,  bv  Maslcm,  and  a  Latin  translation 
 made  from  this.  It  is  a  treatise  on  what  is  called  ste- 
 reographic  projections.  The  work  is  probably  one  of 
 Hipparchus's.  The  latest  edition  is  that  of  Comman- 
 dinus,  from  the  press  of  Paiilus  Mantitius,  Venet., 
 1558,  4to.— 9.  'Ap/ioviKu  {'■'Elements  of  Harmony'"), 
 in  three  books.  Pioleniy  has  the  merit  of  having  re- 
 duced the  thirteen  or  fifteen  tones  of  the  ancients  to 
 seven.  It  is  generally  supposed,  also,  that  he  determin- 
 ed the  true  relations  of  certain  intervals,  and  thus  ren- 
 1142 
 
 dered  the  diatonic  octave  more  conformable  to  tiai- 
 mony.  Some  critics,  however,  are  inclined  to  as- 
 cribe this  improvement  rather  to  the  New-Pythago- 
 rean Didymus,  whom  Ptolemy  has  frequently  criti- 
 cised, though  he  obtained  from  his  writings  a  large 
 portion  of  his  own  work.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
 Wallis,  Oxon.,  1682,  4to.  —  10.  'Otttikt/  ■Kpajfinreia 
 ("  A  treatise  on  Optics"),  cited  by  Heliodorus  of  La- 
 rissa,  and  frequently  also  by  the  Arabians,  but  now 
 lost.  A  Latin  translation,  from  two  Arabian  MSS., 
 exists  in  an  unedited  state  in  the  Royal  Library  at 
 Paris.  It  contains,  however,  only  four  books  of  the 
 five  which  composed  the  original.  In  this  work  Ptol- 
 emy gives  the  most  complete  idea  of  astronomic  re^ 
 fraction  of  any  writer  down  to  the  time  of  Kepler. — 
 1 1 .  Kaviiv  'Baai'Xeuv  ("  Canon,  or  Table,  of  Kings"), 
 a  part,  properly,  of  the  IlpbxeLpoL  Kavwff.  This  table 
 contains  fifty-five  reigns,  twenty  of  which  belong  to 
 kings  of  Babylon  subsequent  to  Nabonassar,  ten  to 
 kings  of  Persia,  thirteen  to  kings  of  Egypt  of  the  line  of 
 the  Ptolemies,  and  the  remainder  to  Roman  emperors 
 after  the  time  of  Augustus.  This  canon  was  not  pre- 
 pared with  an  historical  view,  but  was  intended  for  as- 
 tronomers, to  facilitate  the  calculation  of  intervals  of 
 time  that  may  have  elapsed  between  different  astronom- 
 ical observations.  As,  however,  the  years  of  each 
 monarch's  reign  are  indicated  in  it  with  great  exact- 
 ness, it  becomes,  consequently,  of  great  value  and  in- 
 terest in  historical  chronology.  It  must  be  remark- 
 ed, at  the  same  tune,  that  all  the  dates  of  this  canon 
 are  given  in  Egyptian  years,  an  arrangement  very  well 
 adapted  to  the  object  in  view,  but  productive  of  some 
 inconvenience  for  chronology.  Thus,  for  example, 
 the  reigns  of  the  Babylonian,  Persian,  and  Roman 
 monarchs,  calculated  according  to  the  method  of  their 
 respective  countries,  ought  to  be  in  advance  of,  or  be- 
 hind, the  years  numbered  in  Ptolemy's  canon,  by  some 
 days,  or  even  months.  In  the  case  of  the  Roman  em- 
 perors, the  difference,  in  Ptolemy's  time,  amounted 
 to  forty  days,  and  the  variation  must  have  been  still 
 more  marked  as  regarded  the  Babylonian  and  Persian 
 reigns.  The  only  exact  part  is  that  which  relates  to 
 the  line  of  the  Ptolemies.  Halma  gave  the  latest 
 edition  of  this  work  in  1820,  Paris,  4to. — 12.  Teu- 
 YpoipiKTi  'k<iniyrjaLQ  ("  Geographical  Narration,"  or 
 "  System  of  Geography").  'I'his  work  is  in  eight 
 books,  and  during  nearly  fourteen  centuries  was  the 
 only  known  manual  of  systematic  geography.  It  still 
 remains  for  us  one  of  the  principal  sources  whence 
 we  derive  our  information  respecting  the  geography 
 of  the  ancients.  Pursuing  the  plan  traced  out  by 
 Marinus  of  Tyre,  Ptolemy  undertook  to  perfect  the 
 labours  of  that  geographer.  The  map  of  Marinus  and 
 Ptolemy  was  covered,  as  it  were,  with  a  species  of 
 network  ;  the  meridians  were  traced  on  it  for  every 
 five  degrees  ;  the  degrees  of  latitude  were  marked  by 
 lines  running  parallel  to  ihe  equator,  and  passed 
 through  the  principal  cities,  such  as  Syene,  Alexao- 
 drea,  Rhodes,  Byzantium,  and,  consequently,  were  at 
 unequal  distances  from  each  other.  In  this  network 
 were  marked  the  points,  the  height  of  which  had 
 been  taken  according  to  their  true  latitude  ;  but,  in  or- 
 der to  determine  their  longitude,  and  the  positions, 
 also,  of  other  |ilaces,  which  were  only  known  by  the 
 geometric  distance,  it  was  necessary  to  fix  the  length 
 of  a  degree  on  one  of  the  great  circles  of  the  globe, 
 Marinus  and  Ptolemy,  without  themselves  measuring 
 any  great  distances,  took  the  most  accurate  measure- 
 ments existing  in  their  day,  and  gave  500  stadia  as 
 the  length  of  a  degree.  This  was  oj>e  sixth  less  thaw 
 the  truth,  and  from  this  error  must  necessarily  have 
 resulted  many  faults  and  erroneous  deductions.  Ptol- 
 emy determined  the  length,  from  west  to  cast,  of  alf 
 the  known  part  of  the  globe,  under  the  parallel  of 
 Rhodes,  at  72,000  stadia,  following  geometrical  meaa- 
 urements.    These  72,000  stadia  make,  accoiding  to  bis 
 
PTOLEM^US. 
 
 PTOLEMJEUS. 
 
 «»lc«Ution,  180  degrees ;  and  in  this  way  he  believed 
 he  had  discovered  the  extent  of  one  half  of  the  globe. 
 The  fact,  however,  is,  that  he  was  acquainted  with 
 only  125  degrees.  His  error,  consequently,  is  nearly  a 
 third,  nasjely,  one  sixth  by  reason  of  the  mistake  he 
 commits  relative  to  the  measurement  of  a  degree  as 
 above  mentioned,  and  about  a  sixth  as  the  result  o{ 
 errors  u»  geometric  distances.  With  regard  to  lati- 
 tudes, a  large  number  of  which  were  based  on  astro- 
 tiomicai  determidatioRs,  the  errors  committed  by  Ptol- 
 emy are  very  unimportant ;  and  the  latitude,  for  exam- 
 ple, which  he  gives  to  the  southern  point  o{  Spain  is 
 so  exact,  as  to  lead  us  to  imagine  that  observations 
 had  been  made  in  this  quarter  by  some  of  his  prede- 
 cessors.— Strabo  had  limited  to  42  degrees  the  lati- 
 tude o£  the  known  part  o(  the  earth  (situate  between 
 the  i2th  and  54th  degree  of  north  latitude).  Ptole- 
 my, on  tlie  other  hand,  makes  80  degrees,  from  16° 
 south  latitude  to  63'^  north  ;  and  yet  he  believed  that 
 he  knew  only  about  a  quarter  more  than  the  earlier 
 geographers,  because  these  allowed  700  stadia  to  a 
 degree,  which  makes  nearly  30,000  stadia  altogether; 
 whereas  Ptolemy,  admitting  only  500  stadia,  found 
 the  sum  total  to  be  40,000. — iMarinus  and  Ptolemy 
 derived  some  iiifortnation  respectmg  the  easternmost 
 parts  of  Asia  from  the  Itineraries  of  a  Macedonian 
 trader,  who  had  sent  his  factors  on  overland  journeys 
 from  Mesopotamia,  along  Mount  Taurus,  through  In- 
 dia, and  even  to  the  distant  capital  o{  the  Seres. 
 These  journeys  must  have  been  prosecuted  very  soon 
 after  the  time  of  Ale.xander  the  Great,  under  the  first 
 two  inonarchs  of  the  dynasty  of  the  SeleucidiE  ;  since 
 it  is  not  probable  that,  after  the  defection  of  the  13ac- 
 trians  and  Parlhians,  a  route  remained  open  through 
 these  countries  to  the  traffic  of  the  Greeks.  Ptolemy 
 thus  could  hardly  have  gained  much  information  re- 
 specting these  lands  from  the  narratives  of  overland 
 travellers.  The  communication  by  sea,  however,  be- 
 tween Egypt  and  India,  became  frequent  in  the  time 
 of  the  Ptolemies.  Strabo  speaks  of  fleets  that  sailed 
 for  India,  and,  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  the  coast  of  the 
 country  this  side  of  the  Ganges  was  perfectly  well 
 known.  The  navigators  of  the  West,  however,  did 
 not  go  beyond  this  stream.  It  was  supposed  that 
 from  this  point  the  shore  of  Asia  bent  directly  to  the 
 north,  and  joined  the  eastern  extremity  of  Taurus. 
 At  a  later  jieriod  navigators  went  beyond  the  mouths 
 of  the  Ganges,  and,  to  their  great  astonishment,  found 
 that  the  land  redescended  towards  the  south,  and 
 formed  a  large  gulf  (Bay  of  Bengal — Sinus  Gangeti- 
 cus).  They  pushed  their  adventurous  career  still  far- 
 ther ;  taking  their  departure  from  the  southern  part 
 of  the  western  peninsula  of  India,  they  crossed  the 
 gulf  in  a  straight  line,  and  reached  the  coast  of  Siam 
 and  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  ;  this  last  they  called 
 the  Golden  Chersonese,  a  proof  of  the  profitable  trade 
 which  was  there  carried  on  by  them.  Having  doubled 
 the  extremity  q(  this  second  peninsula,  they  entered 
 on  a  new  gulf  (that  of  Siam — Magnus  Sinus).  From 
 the  eastern  coast  of  the  Golden  (Chersonese  they 
 passed  ill  a  southern  direction,  and  reached  a  large 
 contineat,  on  the  shore  of  which  was  situate  the  city 
 of  Katligara.  This  country  was  probably  the  Isle  of 
 Borneo.  The  discoverer  of  this  country  was  called 
 Alexander.  {PtoL,  Gcogr.,  2,  14.)  Ptolemy,  who, 
 as  well  as  this  adventurer,  believed  that  the  coast  was 
 a  prolongation  of  that  which  formed  the  Gulf  of  Siam 
 (the  coast  of  CamhoUia),  founded  thereon  his  hypoth- 
 esis, that  the  Indian  was  a  meiliterranean  sea.  He 
 supposed  that,  after  Kattigara,  the  land  extended  from 
 east  to  west  as  far  as  the  southeast  coast  of  Africa,  with 
 which  it  united,  forming  one  common  continent  — Ma- 
 rinut;  and  Ptolemy  were  well  acquainted  with  the  east- 
 ern coast  of  Africa,  and  mention  is  no  longer  made,  in 
 their  pages,  of  the  fabulous  monsters  which  the  credu- 
 lity of  a  previous  age  had  established  as  the  dwellers  of 
 
 this  region.  They  knew  the  coast,  however,  only  to 
 the  tenth  degree  of  south  latitude,  that  is,  to  the  prom- 
 ontory of  Prasum,  which  is  probably  the  same  with 
 the  modern  Cape  Del  Gardo,  as  his  city  of  Rapta  would 
 seem  to  be  Melinda.  From  the  promontory  of  Prasum, 
 Ptolemy  makes  the  African  coast  bend  round  to  the 
 east  for  the  purpose  of  joining  that  of  Kattigara.  His 
 island  of  Menuthias,  placed  by  him  near  Cape  Prasum, 
 but  which  an  ancient  periplus  brings  near  to  Rapta,  is 
 Zanzibar,  or  one  of  the  other  islands  ofT  the  coast  of 
 Zanguebar.  Ptolemy's  acquaintance  with  the  eastern 
 coast  does  not  extend  beyond  the  modern  Ma.datras- 
 car. — After  the  decline  of  the  commerce  of  Carthage 
 and  Gades,  no  new  discoveries  had  been  made  on  the 
 western  coast  of  Africa,  and  hence  the  knowledge  of 
 Ptolemy  in  this  quarter  was  not  extended  beyond  that 
 of  his  predecessors ;  he  introduces,  however,  more  of 
 method  into  the  information  obtained  from  Hanno  and 
 Scylax. — Ptolemy  is  the  first  who  indicates  the  true 
 figure  of  Spain,  Gaul,  and  the  southern  part  of  Al- 
 bion ;  but  he  gives  an  erroneous  description  of  the 
 northern  part  of  this  island,  which,  according  to  him, 
 extends  towards  the  east.  Ireland,  the  lerne  of  Stra- 
 bo, and  the  Juvernia  of  Ptolemy,  ceases  to  be  situated 
 to  the  north  of  Albion,  as  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo 
 thought ;  it  is  placed  by  Ptolemy  to  the  west,  but  its 
 northern  point  is  parallel  to  the  northern  extremity  of 
 Albion  To  the  north  of  this  latter  island  he  places 
 the  Orcades,  and  a  little  farther  to  the  north  (about 
 63°  N.  L.),  the  isle  of  Thule,  the  northernmost  ex- 
 tremity of  the  geographical  system  of  Ptolemy.  This 
 Thule  is  probably  Mainland,  situate  about  60°  N  . 
 the  same  that  was  seen  by  the  Roman  fleet  under 
 Agricola,  covered  with  ice  and  eternal  snow.  {Tacit., 
 Vit.  Agr.,  c.  10.)  —  The  description  which  Ptolemy 
 gives  of  the  shores  of  Germany  as  far  as  the  Elbe,  as 
 well  as  of  Scandinavia,  extends  no  farther  than  the 
 accounts  already  given  by  Pliny  and  Tacitus.  He 
 describes  the  Cimbric  Chersonese,  and  the  German 
 coast  of  the  Baltic  as  far  as  the  Dwina,  with  consid- 
 erable accuracy,  but  he  is  not  aware  that  this  sea  is  a 
 mediterranean  one,  for  his  Gulf  of  Veneda  is  only  a 
 part  of  this  sea,  from  Memel  to  Dantzic.  The  question 
 has  been  asked.  By  what  chance  Ptolemy  was  enabled 
 to  obtain  more  accurate  notions  respecting  those  coun- 
 tries than  those  which  Pliny  and  Tacitus  possessed, 
 and  that,  too,  although  the  principal  depot  of  amber, 
 the  well-known  production  of  the  shores  of  the  Baltic, 
 was  in  the  capital  of  Italy  1  The  answer  is,  that  if 
 the  amber  was  chiefly  carried  to  Rome,  the  traffic  was 
 conducted  by  merchants  from  Alexandrea,  and  it  was 
 through  them  that  Ptolemy  obtained  the  materials  for 
 this  portion  of  his  work. — In  the  last  book  of  his  geog- 
 raphy, Ptolemy  teaches  the  mode  of  preparing  charts 
 or  maps.  We  here  find  the  first  principles  of  projec- 
 tion ;  but  the  book  itself  has  reached  us  in  a  very  cor- 
 rupt state  through  the  fault  of  the  copyists.  The  more 
 modern  maps  long  preserved  traces  of  those  of  Ptole- 
 my and  his  successors.  The  Caspian  Sea,  for  exam- 
 ple, retained  the  form  traced  for  it  by  Ptolemy  as  late 
 as  the  eighteenth  centurv  ;  for  a  part  of  the  coasts  of 
 the  Black  Sea,  and  of  Africa  beyond  Egypt-  our  maps 
 still  conform  to  the  general  outline  of  Ptolemy,  and 
 the  substitution  of  modern  for  ancient  names  is  the 
 onlv  difference.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  assertion  of 
 Mannert  {Geogr..  vol.  1.  p.  191).  — No  good  com- 
 plete edition  of  Ptolemy's  Geography  has  ever  ap- 
 peared. One,  however,  has  recently  been  commenced 
 in  Germany,  by  Wilherg,  of  which  the  first  fascuichix, 
 containing  the  first  book,  has  thus  far  appeared.  E*- 
 *e«(/j6?,  1838,  4to.  In  li75,  Uc\\lenslc\n  (Lerdapis] 
 printed  at  Cologne,  in  folio,  the  Latin  translation  ot 
 this  work,  made"  by  Angelo,  a  Florentine  scholar  ol 
 the  fifteenth  century,  or,  rather,  commenced  by  Chry- 
 solaras  and  finished  by  Angelo.  It  was  revised,  foj 
 the  purposes  of  this  publication,  by  Vadius  and  Picar- 
 ^     ^  1143 
 
PTOLEM^US. 
 
 PUB 
 
 dus.  The  translation  of  Angelo  was  reprinted,  with 
 corrections  made  from  a  manuscript  of  the  Greek  text, 
 by  Calderino,  Romce,  1478,  fol.  Twenty- seven  maps 
 accompany  this  edition,  which  appears  to  have  been 
 printed  by  Arnold  Pannartz.  This  is  the  second  wor)<, 
 with  a  date,  that  is  accompanied  with  engravings  on 
 copper.  In  1482,  Donis,  a  German  monk,  and  a  good 
 astronomer  for  liis  time,  gave  a  new  edition  to  the  world, 
 printed  by  Holl,  at  Ulm,  in  fol:o.  It  has  fewer  mis- 
 takes m  the  figures  than  those  which  preceded  it,  but 
 just  as  many  in  the  names.  Several  editions  followed, 
 l)ut  all  swarming  with  errors.  The  celebrated  Pico 
 de  Mirandola  sent  to  Essler,  at  Strasbourg,  a  Greek 
 manuscript  of  Ptolemy's  work,  by  the  aid  of  which 
 that  scholar  gave  a  new  edition,  not  in  the  translation 
 of  Angelo,  but  in  another,  very  literal  and  somewhat 
 barbarous,  by  Philesius.  Essler  made  many  changes 
 in  this  version,  and,  to  justify  himself,  generally  added 
 the  Greek  term  to  the  Latin  He  placed  in  it  46 
 maps  cut  on  wood.  Brunei  calls  this  edition  one  of 
 little  value ;  in  this  he  is  mistaken.  The  edition  we 
 have  just  spoken  of  was  reprinted  at  Strasbourg  in 
 1520,  and  also  in  1522.  A  new  translation,  made  by 
 the  celebrated  Pirckheymer,  appeared  in  1525,  from 
 the  Strasbourg  press,  fol.  It  contains  fifty  maps 
 cut  on  wood. — The  first  Greek  edition  was  that  of 
 Erasmus,  printed  from  a  manuscript  which  Theobald 
 Fettich,  a  physician,  had  sent  him,  and  which  issued 
 from  the  press  of  Froben,  at  Bale,  1533,  in  4to.  The 
 manuscript  was  a  very  good  one.  but,  through  the  fault 
 of  the  printer,  a  great  number  of  errors  were  allowed 
 to  creep  in  among  the  figures.  Not  having  a  suffi- 
 cient quantity  of  the  peculiar  type  or  mark  which  in- 
 dicated ^.  he  employed  in  its  place  the  letter  r,  which 
 signifies  \.  He  made  use,  also,  of  the  same  letter 
 on  many  occasions  to  designate  f.  The  fraction  § 
 is  marked  by  yo,  but  the  manuscript  often  places  the  o 
 above  the  y,  and  in  a  smaller  character.  The  compos- 
 itor, not  attending  to  this,  contented  himself  with  put- 
 ting in  its  place  r  alone,  which  is  equivalent  to  ^. 
 The  confusion  resulting  from  such  a  course  is  appa- 
 rent, and  the  only  mode  to  remedy  the  evil  is  to  have 
 recourse  to  the  Latin  editions  which  appeared  pre- 
 vious to  15.33.  The  B4le  edition  was  reprinted  by 
 Wechel,  at  Paris.  1.546,  4to — Michael  Servetus  (Vil- 
 lanovanus)  retouched  the  translation  of  Pirckheymer,  af- 
 ter a  manuscript,  and  published  it,  with  fifty  maps  cut  on 
 wood,  at  Lyons,  in  1530,  and  again,  with  corrections 
 and  additions,  in  the  same  city,  in  1541.  These  two 
 editions  of  Ptolemy  play  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
 history  of  religious  fanaticism  ;  Calvin  derived  from 
 them  one  of  his  grounds  of  accusation  against  Serve- 
 tus. He  was  charged  with  having  added  to  the  de- 
 scription that  accompanies  the  map  of  Palestine,  a 
 passage  which  contradicts  what  jMoses  says  respecting 
 the  fertility  of  that  country.  The  interpolated  pas- 
 sage does  actually  exist,  but  it  was  added  by  Phrisius, 
 who  took  charge  of  the  edition  of  1522  — The  last  im- 
 pression of  the  Greek  te.\t  was  in  1618  and  1619,  in 
 2  vols.  4to,  from  the  Amsterdam  [)ress,  by  Bertius. 
 Many  faults  of  the  previous  editions  are  corrected  in 
 this  one,  by  the  aid  of  a  Heidelberg  manuscript,  but  the 
 same  errors  in  the  figures  still  remain,  and,  to  aug- 
 ment the  confusion,  the  editor  has  placed  beside  them 
 those  of  the  Latin  editions,  which  often  differ  widely. 
 The  only  recent  edition  of  the  mathematical  part  of 
 Ptolemy's  Geography  is  that  of  Halina.  containing 
 only  the  first  book  and  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh, 
 with  a  French  version  and  notes,  Paris,  1828,  4to. 
 [Schiill,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  240,  scqq.—Id.  ibid.. 
 vol.  .5,  p.  271.— Id.  ibid.,  vol.  6,  p.  312,  &c.— Com- 
 pare Dclambre,  in  Biosr.  Univ.,  vol.  36,  [).  263.) — 
 XIX.  A  native  of  Ascalon,  who  followed  the  profes- 
 sion of  a  grammarian  at  Rome  before  the  time  of  He- 
 rodian,  bv  whom  he  is  cited.  He  wrote  a  work  on 
 Synonyrnes,  Ucpi.  6ia(i)opu(  Xs^euv  ("  On  the  difference 
 1144 
 
 of  Words").  It  is  properly  the  fragment  merely  nf '* 
 larger  work.  Ptolemy  was  the  author  also  of  a  Ho- 
 meric Prosody,  a  treatise  on  metres,  and  a  disser- 
 tation on  Aristarchus's  revision  of  Homer.  The  Irag'- 
 ment  on  "the  Difference  of  WDrds"  is  given  by  Fa- 
 bricius,  Bibl.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  515,  of  the  old  edition; 
 vol.  6,  p.  117,  of  the  new. — XX.  Surnamed  Chen- 
 nus,  flourished  under  the  emperors  Trajan  and  Ha- 
 drian. Photius  has  preserved  for  us  some  fragments 
 of  his  work,  llepl  rfj^  etc  iro'kvfiadiav  KULvfjr  icro- 
 pla^  ("  Neio  History  of  varied  Erudition"),  in  seven 
 books.  To  give  some  idea  of  this  compilation,  we 
 will  mention  some  of  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats : 
 the  death  of  Protesilaus;  that  of  Sophocles;  that  of 
 Hercules;  the  history  ofCrcesus;  the  death  of  Achil- 
 les; thatofLaius;  the  history  of  Tiresias  ;  the  death 
 of  Adonis;  the  origin  of  several  epithets  given  to  the 
 heroes  of  the  Iliad,  and  to  other  personages  of  the 
 fabulous  times.  Ptolemy  also  wrote  a  drama  entitled 
 the  Sphinx.  He  dared  even  to  enter  the  lists  against 
 Homer  with  a  poem  in  twenty-four  books  or  cantos, 
 entitled  'Avdu/nrjpog  ("The  Anli-Homer").  Gale  has 
 placed  the  fragments  of  Ptolemy  Chennus  in  his  His- 
 turicB  Poelicie  Scriptorcs,  p.  303,  seqq.,  and  to  the 
 eighth  chapter  is  prefi.xed  a  dissertation  on  this  wri- 
 ter. The  fragments  are  also  given  in  the  edition  of 
 Conon  and  Parthenius  by  Teucher.  {Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.   Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  44.) 
 
 Ptolemais,  I.  a  seaport  town  of  Phoenicia.  {Vid. 
 Ace.) — II.  A  city  on  the  coast  of  Cyrenaica  in  Af- 
 rica, and  the  port  of  Barce.  It  suffered  so  severe- 
 ly from  want  of  water,  that  the  inhabitants  were 
 obliged  to  relinquish  their  dwellings,  and  disperse 
 themselves  about  the  country  in  different  directions. 
 The  attempts  of  Justinian  to  obviate  this  evil  proved 
 unavailing.  The  ruins  are  called  at  the  present 
 day  Ptolemata.  A  description  of  the  remains  of  this 
 ancient  city  is  given  by  Captain  Beechey  and  oth- 
 ers. {Modern  Traveller,  pt.  50,  p.  114,  scqq.) — III. 
 A  city  of  Egypt,  in  the  northern  part  of  Thebais, 
 northeast  of  Abydus.  It  rose  in  importance  as  the 
 last-mentioned  city  declined,  and  eventually  rivalled 
 Memphis  in  size.  Ptolemais  would  seem  to  have 
 been  founded  by  one  of  the  Ptolemies,  or.  at  all  events, 
 re-established  by  him  on  the  site  of  some  more  ancient 
 city,  as  the  Greek  name,  TlTo'kenalg  ?/  'Epfteiov  (Ptol 
 emais,  the  city  of  Hermes),  would  seem  to  indicate 
 The  city,  therefore,  was  originally  consecrated  to  the 
 Egyptian  Hermes.  It  appears  to  have  received  a  se- 
 vere blow  to  its  prosperity,  by  reason  of  its  resistance 
 to  the  Emperor  Probus.  The  modern  village  of  Men 
 sieh  is  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Ptolemais. 
 [Mannert,  Geoffr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  381,  seqq  ) — IV. 
 Originally  a  small  promontory,  on  the  western  coast  of 
 the  Sinus  Arabicus.  It  was  near  the  inland  sea  Mo- 
 noleus.  A  fortified  port  was  established  here  by  Eu- 
 rnedes,  a  commander  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  ;  and  the 
 spot  was  selected  on  account  of  the  large  forest  in  the 
 vicinity,  which  furnished  valuable  naval  timber  for  the 
 fleets  of  the  Ptolemies.  In  this  forest,  also,  wild  ele- 
 phants abounded  ;  and,  as  Ptolemy  wanted  these  ani- 
 mals for  his  armies,  a  regular  hunting  establishment 
 was  formed  here,  and  the  place  received  from  this  cir- 
 cumstance its  second  name  of  OrffMov,  and  also  that 
 of  'E-nriOr/pa^  (trri  -Q^pa^).  In  a  commercial  point  of 
 view  it  was  of  no  great  importance,  as  Arrian  merely 
 mentions  among  its  e.xports  tortoise-shell  and  ivory  ; 
 but  to  the  ancient  astronomers  and  geographers  it  was 
 directly  the  reverse,  since  they  regarded  it  as  the  fit- 
 test place  for  measuring  a  ilegree,  and  thus  ascertain- 
 ing the  circumference  of  the  globe.  The  harbour  ol 
 Mirza  Momhamh,  ahowX.  15  geographical  miles  north 
 of  Massua,  appears  to  indicate  the  ancient  Ptolemais. 
 {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  44,  seqq.) 
 
 PuBi.icoLA.  a  surname  given  to  Publius  Valerius, 
 according  to  Dionysius  and  Plutarch,  on  account  of  his 
 
PUB 
 
 PUP 
 
 protecting  the  rights  of  the  people  (popitlum  and  colo, 
 Poplicola,  Pubhcola).  Niebuhr  dissents  from  this  ety- 
 mology ill  the  following  remarks  :  "  We  cannot  agree 
 with  the  Greeii  Dionysius  and  Plutarch  in  translating 
 J'ubUcola,  as  a  compound  term  by  6?jfiOKr]S/jc,  '  the 
 protector  of  the  people;'  but  we  must  recognise  there- 
 in the  old  Latin  form  of  the  adjective  with  a  superflu- 
 ous teriiiiiiation,  which  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  a 
 diiniiiutive,  soineliines  for  a  compound.  It  is  equiva- 
 Unt  to  Pu.blicus,  in  tlie  sense  of  drijioTLKog.  Thus 
 Sciecola.  is  not  the  diminutive,  but  synonymous  with 
 Saevus,  and  JSquicolus  is  nothing  but  JEquus  or 
 jEquifus  ;  Fo/«cm/m«  nothing  but  V'ulscus."  {Roman 
 History,  vol.  1,  p.  360,  Waller's  Irons.) 
 
 PuBUii.iA  Lex,  I.  a  law  proposed  l)y  Publilius  the 
 Dictator,  .\.U.O.  414,  ordaining  tliat,  before  the  peo- 
 ple gave  their  votes,  the  senate  should  authorize  what- 
 ever they  might  determine.  (Livt/,  8,  12.) — IL  A 
 law  ordaining  that  the  plebeian  magistrates  should  be 
 created  at  the  comitia  tribula.     {Liv.,  2,  56  ) 
 
 PuBLius  SvKus,  a  celebrated  composer  and  actor  of 
 mimes.  He  was  a  native  of  Syria,  and  was  brought 
 from  Asia  to  Italy  in  early  youth  in  the  same  vessel 
 with  his  countryman  and  kinsman  Manlius  Antiochus, 
 the  professor  of  astrology,  and  Staberius  Eros,  the 
 grammarian,  who  all,  by  some  desert  in  learning,  rose 
 above  their  original  fortune.  He  received  a  good  ed- 
 ucation and  liberty  from  his  master,  in  reward  for  his 
 witticisms  and  his  facetious  disposition.  He  first  rep- 
 resented his  mimes  in  the  provincial  towns  of  Italy, 
 whence,  his  fame  having  spread  to  Rome,  he  was  sum- 
 moned to  the  capital,  to  assist  in  those  public  specta- 
 cles which  Cajsar  offered  his  countrymen  in  exchange 
 for  their  freedom.  (Macrob..  Sat.,  2,  7.)  On  one  oc- 
 casion he  challenged  all  persons  of  his  own  profession 
 to  contend  with  him  on  the  stage  ;  and  in  this  compe- 
 tition he  successfully  overcame  every  one  of  his  rivals. 
 By  his  success  in  the  representation  of  these  po[)ular 
 entertainments,  he  amassed  considerable  wealth,  and 
 lived  with  such  luxury  that  he  never  gave  a  great  sup- 
 per without  having  sow's  udder  at  table,  a  dish  which 
 was  prohibited  by  the  censors  as  being  too  great  a 
 luxury  even  for  the  table  of  patricians.  (Piin.,  8,  SL') 
 Nothing  farther  is  known  of  his  history,  except  that 
 he  was  still  continuing  to  perform  his  mimes  with  ap- 
 plause at  the  [leriod  of  the  death  of  Laberius,  which 
 happened  ten  months  after  the  assassination  of  Csesar. 
 {Ckron.  Euseb  ,  ad  Olymp.,  184.)  We  have  not  the 
 names  of  any  of  the  mimes  of  Publius,  nor  do  we  pre- 
 cisely know  their  nature  or  subject ;  all  that  is  pre- 
 served from  them  being  a  number  of  detached  senti- 
 ments or  maxims,  to  the  amount  of  800  or  900,  seldom 
 exceeding  a  single  line,  but  containing  reflections  of 
 unrivalled  force,  truth,  and  beauty,  on  all  the  various 
 relations,  situations,  and  feelings  of  human  life.  Both 
 the  writers  and  actors  of  mimes  were  probably  careful 
 to  have  their  memory  stored  with  commonplaces  and 
 precepts  of  morality,  in  order  to  introduce  them  appro- 
 priately in  their  extemporaneous  performances.  The 
 maxims  of  Publius  were  interspersed  through  his 
 dramas  ;  but,  being  the  only  portion  of  these  produc- 
 tions now  remaining,  they  have  just  the  appearance  of 
 thoughts  or  sentiments,  like  those  of  Rochefoucauld. 
 His  mimes  must  either  have  been  very  numerous,  or 
 very  thickly  loaded  with  these  moral  aphorisms.  It  is 
 also  surprising  that  they  seem  raised  far  above  the  ordi- 
 nary tone  even  of  regular  comedy,  and  appear  for  the 
 greater  part  to  be  almost  stoical  maxims.  Seneca  has  re- 
 marked, that  many  of  his  eloquent  verses  are  fitter  for 
 the  buskin  than  the  slipper.  (Ep,8.)  How  such  ex- 
 alted precepts  should  have  been  grafted  on  the  lowest 
 farce,  and  how  passages,  which  would  hardly  be  appro- 
 priate in  the  most  serious  sentimental  comedy,  were 
 adapted  to  the  actions  or  manners  of  gross  and  drunken 
 buffoons,  is  a  difficulty  which  could  only  be  solved  had 
 we  fortunately  received  entire  a  larger  portion  of  these 
 7F 
 
 productions,  which  seem  to  have  been  peculiar  to  Ro- 
 man genius.  The  sentiments  of  Publius  Syrus  now  ap- 
 pear trite.  They  have  become  familiar  to  mankind,  and 
 have  been  re-echoed  by  poets  and  moralists  from  age 
 to  age.  All  of  them  are  most  felicitously  expressed, 
 and  few  of  them  seem  erroneous,  while,  at  the  same 
 lime,  they  are  perfectly  free  from  the  selfish  or  worldly- 
 minded  wisdom  of  Rochefoucauld  or  Lord  Burleigh. 
 {Dunlop's  Roman  Literature,  vol.  1,  p.  558,  scqq.) 
 The  sentences  of  Publius  Syrus  are  appended  to  many 
 of  the  editions  of  Phsedrus.  The  most  useful  edition  of 
 these  sentences  is  perhaps  that  of  Gruter,  Lngd.  Bat., 
 1727,  8vo.  The  latest  and  most  accurate  edition, 
 however,  is  thai  of  Orellius,  appended  to  his  edition  of 
 Phasdrus,  Turici,  1832,  8vo.  It  contains,  also,  thirty 
 sentences  never  before  published.  {B'dhr,  Gesch  Lit. 
 Rum.,  vol.  1,  p.  776  ) 
 
 PuLCHERiA,  I.  sister  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  and 
 celebrated  for  her  piety  and  virtues. — II.  A  Roman 
 empress,  daughter  of  Arcadius,  and  sister  of  Theodo- 
 sius the  younger.  She  was  created  Augusta  A.D. 
 414,  and  shared  the  imperial  power  with  her  brother- 
 After  the  death  of  the  latter  (.\.D.  450),  she  gave  her 
 hand  to  Marcianus.  ( F((i,  Marcianus  I)  Pulcheria 
 died  A.D.  454,  and  was  interred  at  Ravenna,  where 
 her  tomb  is  still  to  be  seen. 
 
 PuLcHRUM  Promontorium,  the  same  with  Hermas- 
 um  Promontorium.     {Vid.  Hermsum.) 
 
 PuNicuM  Bellum,  the  name  given  to  the  wars  be- 
 tween Rome  and  Carthage.  The  Punic  wars  were 
 three  in  number.  The  first  took  its  rise  from  the  af- 
 fair of  the  Mamertini,  an  account  of  which  will  be 
 found  under  the  article  Messana,  page  836,  col.  \. 
 This  was  ended  by  the  naval  battle  fought  ofT  the 
 .iEgates  Insulae  ;  and  it  was  also  memorable  for  the 
 naval  victory  of  Duilius,  the  first  ever  gained  by  the 
 Romans.  (Vid.  Carthago,  iji  4. — Duilius. — ^■ilgates.) 
 The  Second  I'unic  War  commenced  with  the  affair  of 
 Saguntum,  and  was  terminated  by  the  battle  of  Zama. 
 During  its  continuance  Hannibal  carried  on  his  cele- 
 brated campaigns  against  the  Romans  in  Italy.  (Vid. 
 Carthago,  (j  4. —  Hannibal.  — Metaurus. — Zama.)  The 
 Third  Punic  War  was  the  siege  and  destruction  of 
 Carthage  itself.     (  Vid.  Carthago,  I)  4.) 
 
 PopiENUs,  Marcus  Clodius  Maximus,  a  man  of 
 obscure  family,  who  raised  himself  by  his  merit  to  the 
 highest  offices  in  the  Roman  armies,  and  gradually  be- 
 came a  praetor,  consul,  prefect  of  Rome,  and  a  govern- 
 or of  the  provinces.  His  father  was  a  blacksmith. 
 After  the  death  of  the  Gordians,  Pupienus  was  elected 
 with  Balbinus  to  the  imperial  throne,  and,  to  rid  the 
 world  of  the  usurpation  and  tyranny  of  the  Maximifii, 
 he  immediately  marched  against  these  tyrants  ;  but  he 
 was  soon  informed  that  they  had  been  sacrificed  to  the 
 fury  and  resentment  of  their  own  soldiers.  He  prepar- 
 ed, after  this,  to  make  war  against  the  Persians,  who 
 insulted  the  majesty  of  Rome,  but  was  massacred,  A.D. 
 236,  by  the  praetorian  guards.  Balbinus  shared  bis 
 fate.  Pupienus  is  sometimes  called  Masimns.  In 
 his  private  character  he  appeared  always  grave  and  se- 
 rious. He  was  the  constant  friend  of  justice,  modera- 
 tion, and  clemency,  and  no  greater  encomium  can  be 
 passed  upon  his  virtues  than  to  say  that  he  was  in- 
 vested with  the  purple  without  soliciting  it,  and  thai 
 the  Roman  senate  said  they  had  selected  him  from 
 thousands,  because  they  knew  no  person  more  worthy 
 or  better  qualified  to  support  the  dignity  of  an  em- 
 peror.    (Capitol,  Vit.  Maxim.  — Jd.,  Vtt.  Gord.) 
 
 Pupius,  a  tragic  poet  at  Rome,  contemporary  with 
 Cassar.     He  was  famed  for  his  power  in  exciting  emo- 
 tion.    Hence  the  scholiast  on  Horace  remarks  ( Ejiist., 
 1,   1,  67),   "■  Pu-piiis,   Traga:diograpkus,  ita  affectum 
 spcclantium  movit,  ut  cos  flere  compclleret.     hide  is- 
 turn  versum  fecit  : 
 "  '  Flcbunt  amici  ct  bene  noti  mortem  meam  ; 
 Nam  vovulus  in  me  vivo  lacrymatu  est  satis.'  " 
 ^  1145 
 
PUT 
 
 PYG 
 
 PoRP  jrari^,  islands  off  the  coast  of  Mauritania,  so 
 called  from  the  manufacture  of  purple  dye  established 
 in  them.  They  answer  al  the  present  day  to  Madeira 
 and  the  adjacent  isles.     {Plm.,  6,  32.) 
 
 PuTKOi.i,  a  city  of  Campania,  now  Pozzuoli,  on  the 
 coast,  and  not  far  from  the  Lucrine  Lake.  Its  Greek 
 name  was  Dicaearchia  ;  but,  when  the  Romans  sent  a 
 colony  thither,  they  gave  it  the  name  of  Puteoli,  proba- 
 bly from  the  number  of  its  walls,  or  perhaps  from  the 
 stench  which  was  emitted  by  the  sulphureous  and  alu- 
 minous springs  in  the  neighbourhood.  (Stral)O,  245. 
 — Plin.,  31,  2  )  Ilespectmg  the  origin  of  this  place, 
 we  learn  from  Slrabo  that  it  was  at  first  the  harbour  of 
 Cuina?.  Hence  we  may  fairly  regard  it  as  a  colony  of 
 that  city,  without  calling  in  the  Samians  to  assist  in  its 
 foundation,  as  Stepharius  Byzantinus  reports,  and  Hie- 
 ronymus.  {Eusch.,  Ckron.,  2.)  The  Romans  appear 
 to  have  first  directed  their  attention  to  this  spot  in  the 
 second  Punic  war,  when  Fabius  the  consul  was  order- 
 ed to  fortify  and  garrison  the  town,  which  had  only 
 been  frequented  hitherto  for  commercial  purposes. 
 (L(».,  24,  7.)  In  the  following  year  it  was  attacked 
 by  Hannibal  without  success  (Ltu.,  24,  13),  and  about 
 this  time  became  a  naval  station  of  considerable  im- 
 portance :  armies  were  sent  to  Puteoli  from  thence 
 {Liv.,  26,  17),  and  the  embassy  sent  from  Carthage, 
 which  was  to  sue  for  peace  at  the  close  of  the  second 
 Punic  war,  disembarked  here,  and  proceeded  to  Rome 
 by  land  {Liv.,  30,  22),  as  did  St.  Paul  about  250  years 
 afterward  The  apostle  remained  seven  days  at  Puteoli 
 before  he  set  forward  on  his  journey  by  the  Appian 
 Way.  {Ads,  x.Kviii.,  13.)  In  the  tiineof  Strabo,  this 
 city  appears  to  have  been  a  place  of  very  great  com- 
 merce, and  particularly  connected  with  Ale.xandrea  ; 
 the  imports  from  that  city,  which  was  then  the  empori- 
 um of  the  East,  being  much  greater  than  the  exports 
 of  Italy.  {Straho,  792.— Suet.,  Aug.,  98,—  Sencc., 
 Ep.,  77.)  The  harbour  of  Puteoli  was  spacious  and 
 of  peculiar  construction,  being  formed  of  vast  piles  of 
 mortar  and  sand,  which,  owing  to  the  strongly  cement- 
 ing properties  of  the  latter  material,  became  very  solid 
 and  compact  masses  ;  and  these,  being  sunk  in  the  sea, 
 afforded  secure  anchorage  for  any  number  of  vessels. 
 {Stiah.,  245  )  Pliny  (35,  13)  has  remarked  this  qual- 
 ity of  the  sand  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Puteoli,  which 
 now  goes  by  the  name  of  Pozzolana.  The  same  wri- 
 ter informs  us  (36,  12),  that  this  harbour  possessed 
 also  the  advantage  of  a  conspicuous  lighthouse.  The 
 remains  which  are  yet  to  be  seen  in  the  harbour  of 
 Puteoli  are  commonly,  but  erroneously,  considered  to 
 he  the  ruins  of  Caligula's  bridge  :  whereas  that  em- 
 peror is  said  expressly  to  have  used  boats,  anchored  in 
 a  double  line,  for  the  construction  of  the  bridge  which 
 he  threw  over  from  Puteoli  to  Baiae  ;  these  were  cov- 
 ered with  earth,  after  the  manner  of  Xerxes's  famous 
 bridtfc  across  the  Hellespont.  Upon  the  completion 
 of  the  work,  Caligula  is  described  as  appearing  there 
 in  crreat  pomp,  on  horseback  or  in  a  chariot,  for  two 
 days,  followed  by  the  prastorian  band  and  a  splendid 
 retinue.  U  is  evident,  therefore,  that  this  structure 
 was  desiorned  for  a  temporary  purpose,  and  it  is  farther 
 mentioned  that  it  v^'as  begun  from  the  piles  of  Puteoli. 
 (Suet.,  Calig.,  19 — Josephu.';,  Antiq.  Jud.,  19,  I.) — 
 Puteoli  became  a  Roman  colony  A.U.C.  558,  was  re- 
 colonized  by  Augustus,  and  again,  for  the  third  time, 
 by  Nero.  {Tacit,  Ann.,  14,  27.)  This  place  ap- 
 pears to  have  espoused  the  cause  of  Vespasian  with 
 great  zeal,  from  which  circumstar;:;c,  according  to  an 
 inscription,  it  obtained  the  title  of  Colonia  Flavia. 
 The  same  memorial  informs  us,  that  Antoninus  Pius 
 caused  the  harbour  of  Puteoli  to  be  repaired.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Itahj,  vol.  2,  p.  103,  scqq.) 
 
 PiiTiciJH,  a  place  at   Rome,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 
 Esquiline.     The  Campus  Esquilinus  was,  in  the  early 
 
 days  of   Rome,  without  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  a 
 
 number  of  pits  were  dug  in  it  to  receive  the  dead 
 
 1146 
 
 bodies  of  the  lower  orders.  These  holes  were  called 
 putwuii,  from  their  resemblance  to  wells,  or,  more 
 probably,  from  the  stench  which  issued  from  them,  in 
 consequence  of  this  practice.  {Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  5. — 
 Fr.st.,  s.  V.  Putic.)  The  Esquiliae  seem  to  have  been 
 considered  as  unwholesome  till  this  mode  of  Durial 
 was  discontinued,  which  change  took  place  in  the 
 reign  of  Augustus,  when  the  gardens  of  .Ma-cenas  were 
 laid  out  here.     {Hor.,  Sat.,  1,  88.— Id.,  Ep.,  5,  100.) 
 
 PvDNA,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  on  the  western  coast 
 of  the  Sinus  Thcrmaicus,  above  Dium.  The  earliest 
 mention  of  this  town  is  in  Scylax,  who  styles  it  a  Greek 
 city  (p.  26),  from  which  it  appears  at  that  time  to  have 
 been  independent  of  the  Macedonian  princes.  Thu- 
 cydides  speaks  of  an  attack  made  upon  it  by  the  Athe- 
 nians before  the  Peloponnesian  war  (1,  61).  It  was 
 afterward  taken  by  Archelatis,  king  of  Macedon,  who 
 removed  its  site  twenty  stadia  from  the  sea,  as  Dio- 
 dorus  asserts  ;  but  Thucydides  stales,  that  it  had  been, 
 long  before  that  period,  in  the  possession  of  Alexan- 
 der the  son  of  Amyntas,  and  that  Theinistocles  sailed 
 thence  on  his  way  to  Persia  (1,  137).  After  the  death 
 of  Archelaiis,  Pydna  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
 Athenians;  but  the  circumstances  of  this  change  are 
 not  known  to  us.  It  was  afterward  taken  from  them 
 by  Phili[),  and  given  to  Olynthus.  The  next  fact  rel- 
 ative to  Pydna  which  is  recorded  in  history,  is  pos- 
 terior to  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great,  whose 
 mother  Olympias  was  here  besieged  by  Cassander  ; 
 and,  all  hopes  of  relief  being  cut  off  by  the  intrench- 
 ment  having  been  made  round  the  town  from  sea  to 
 sea,  famine  at  length  compelled  01ym[)ias  to  surrender, 
 when  she  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  afterward  put 
 to  death.  {Dwd.  Sic,  19,  51.) — Pydna  is  also  famous 
 for  the  decisive  victory  gained  in  its  neighbourhood  by 
 Paulus  /Emilius  over  the  Macedonian  army  under 
 Perseus,  which  put  an  end  to  that  ancient  empire.  — 
 The  epiiomiser  of  Strabo  says,  ihat  in  his  time  it  was 
 called  Kitros  {Strah  ,  509)  ;  as  likewise  the  scholiast 
 to  Demosthenes;  and  this  name  is  still  attached  to  the 
 spot  at  the  present  day.  Dr.  Clarke  observed  at  Ki- 
 tros a  vast  tumulus,  which  he  considered,  with  much 
 probability,  as  marking  the  site  of  the  great  battle 
 fought  in  these  plains.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol 
 1,  p.  214,  seqq.) 
 
 PvGM^i,  a  fabulous  nation  of  dwarfs,  placed  by 
 Aristotle  near  the  sources  of  the  Nile  {Hist.  An.,  8, 
 V2.— Milan.  H.  A.,  2,  1  ;  3,  13);  by  Ctesias,  in  In- 
 dia (hid.,  11)  ;  and  by  Eustathius,  amusingly  enough, 
 in  England,  over  against  Thule  {ivda  ra  'lyy'kiKu. — 
 Eustalh.,  ad  11.,  3,  6,  p.  372  ) — They  were  of  a  very 
 diminutive  size,  being,  according  to  one  account,  of 
 the  height  merely  of  a  Tvvyfiri,  or  20  fingers'  breadth 
 {Eustath.,  I.  c),  while  others  made  them  three  airida- 
 fiai,  or  27  inches  in  size.  {Plin.,  7,  2.)  The  Pyg- 
 mies are  said  to  have  lived  under  a  salubrious  sky  and 
 amid  a  perpetual  spring,  the  northern  blasts  being  kept 
 off  by  lofty  mountains.  {Plin,  I.e.)  .An  annual  war- 
 fare was  waged  between  them  and  the  cranes  {Horn., 
 II.,  3,  3) ;  and  they  are  fabled  to  have  advanced  to 
 battle  against  these  birds,  mounted  on  the  backs  of 
 rams  and  goats,  and  armed  with  hows  and  arrows. 
 They  used  also  a  kind  of  bells  or  rattles  {KporaXa)  to 
 scare  them  away.  {Hecalaus,  ap.  Schol.  ad  11. ,  3 
 6, — Heyne,  ad  loc. — Plin.,  I.  c.)  Every  spring  they 
 came  down  in  warlike  array  to  the  seashore,  for  the 
 purpose  of  destroying  the  eggs  and  young  of  the  cranes, 
 since  otherwise  they  would  have  been  overpowered  by 
 I  the  number  of  their  feathered  antagonists.  {Hecatctns, 
 ap  Plin.,  I.  c.)  Their  dwellings  were  constructed  of 
 I  clay,  feathers,  and  the  shells  of  eggs.  Aristotle,  how- 
 I  ever,  makes  them  to  have  lived  in  caves,  like  Troglo- 
 '  dytes,  and  to  have  come  out  at  harvest-time  with  hatch- 
 \  ets  to  cut  down  the  corn,  as  if  to  fell  a  forest.  {Eu- 
 stalh., I.  c.) — Philostratus  relates,  that  Hercules  once 
 I  fell  asleep  in  the  deserts  of  Africa  after  he  had  con- 
 
PYG 
 
 PYL 
 
 quered  AntBeus,  and  that  he  was  suddenly  awakened  by 
 an  attack  which  had  been  made  upon  his  body  by  an 
 army  of  these  LiUputians,  who  professed  to  be  the 
 avengers  of  Antaeus,  since  they  were  his  brethren, 
 and  earthborn  hke  himself.  A  simultaneous  onset 
 ■was  made  upon  his  head,  hands,  and  feet.  Arrows 
 were  discharged  at  him,  his  hair  was  ignited,  spades 
 were  thrust  into  his  eyes,  and  coverings  or  doors  (i^j;- 
 pac)  were  applied  to  his  mouth  and  nostrils  to  prevent 
 respiration.  The  hero  awoke  in  the  midst  of  the  war- 
 fare, and  was  so  much  pleased  with  the  courage  dis- 
 played by  his  tiny  foes,  that  he  gathered  them  all  into 
 his  lion  skin  and  brought  them  to  Eurystheus.  {Fhi- 
 lostr..  Icon.,  3,22,  p.  817,  ed.  Morell.)— The  Pygmies 
 of  antiquity,  like  those  of  more  modern  times,  may  be 
 safely  regarded  as  mere  creatures  of  the  imagination. 
 We  have  had  them  even  placed,  by  popular  belief,  in 
 our  own  country.  A  number  of  small  graves,  two  or 
 three  feet  in  length,  were  found  in  the  West,  contain- 
 ing fragments  of  evidently  adult  bones.  The  idea  of 
 a  pigmy  race  was  immediately  conceived  ;  but  it  was 
 unknown  to  the  discoverers,  that  the  Indians,  after  dis- 
 interring their  dead,  buried  them  in  graves  just  large 
 enough  to  hold  the  bones  made  up  into  a  small  bun- 
 dle for  the  convenience  of  transportation.  (M^Cul- 
 loch.  Researches  on  America,  p  516.) — With  respect 
 to  the  Pygmies  of  ancient  fable,  it  may  be  remarked, 
 that  Homer  places  them  merely  in  southern  lands,  with- 
 out specifying  their  particular  locality  ;  nor  does  he 
 say  a  word  respecting  their  diminutive  size.  {Heyne, 
 ad  Horn.,  II.,  3,  3.)  Aristotle,  as  we  have  already  said, 
 assigns  them  a  residence  near  the  sources  of  the  Nile 
 {Hist.  An.,  8,  15),  in  which  he  is  followed  by  ./Elian 
 (//.  A.,  2,  1  ;  3,  15)  and  others.  Some  agree  with 
 Ctesias  in  making  India  their  native  country.  Pliny, 
 in  one  passage,  places  them  also  in  India  (7,  2),  but  in 
 another  in  Thrace  (4,  2).  Others,  again,  making  the 
 cranes  to  wing  their  way  from  the  northern  regions 
 over  the  Poiitus  Euxinus,  regard  Scythia  and  Thrace 
 as  the  Pygmy  land. — Many  have  supposed  that  the  fa- 
 ble of  the  Pygmies  and  cranes  has  a  reference  to  the 
 country  of  Egypt.  As  the  cranes  make  their  appear- 
 ance there  about  the  month  of  November,  the  lime  in 
 which  the  waters  are  subsided,  and  devour  the  corn 
 sown  on  the  lands,  the  whole  fable  of  the  Pygmies  may 
 be  explained  by  supposing  them  to  have  been  none 
 other  than  the  Egyptians,  and  the  term  pygmy  (Trry- 
 uaiog)  not  to  refer  to  any  diminutivcness  of  size,  but 
 to  the  cubiCs  {nvynai,  ■anxeic^)  of  the  Nile's  rise.  Some 
 scholars  suppose  the  germe  of  the  fable  to  be  found  in 
 the  remarks  of  Strabo,  respecting  the  fiiKpofpvtav  rtiv 
 iv  Ai6vTi  (jivofisvuv.  {Straho,  820.)  Barrow,  in  his 
 Travels  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (vol.  1,  p.  239), 
 endeavours  to  identify  the  Bosjesmans  of  the  Cape 
 and  the  Pygmies  of  the  ancients,  but  with  no  great 
 success.  Heeren  regards  the  whole  Pygmy  narrative 
 as  fabulous,  but  assigns  it  an  Indian  origin,  and  makes 
 it  to  have  spread  from  the  East  into  the  countries  of  the 
 West  {Idecn,  vol.  1,  p.  368.)  Malle-Brun  inclines 
 in  favour  of  the  existence  of  a  pygmy  race,  from  the 
 accounts  of  modern  travellers,  who  state  that  they 
 have  seen  in  the  remote  East  small  and  deformed  beings 
 not  unlike  in  appearance  to  the  pygmies  of  former  days, 
 and  for  the  most  part  only  four  feet  in  size.  Hence 
 bethinks  it  not  unlikely  that  a  diminutive  race,  resem- 
 bling, in  some  degree,  the  ancient  pygmies,  may  still 
 be  existing  among  the  remote  and  desert  regions  of 
 Thibet!  (Malte- Brim,  Annales  dc;  Voyages,  \o\.  1, 
 p.  355,  seqq. — Bahr,  ad  Cles.,  p.  295.) 
 
 PvGMAi.ioN',  F.  a  king  of  Tyre,  son  of  Bolus,  and 
 brother  to  the  celebrated  Dido.  (Vid.  Dido.) — II.  A 
 celebrated  statuary  of  the  island  of  Cyprus.  The  de- 
 bauchery of  the  females  of  Amathus,  to  which  he  was 
 a  witness,  created  in  him  such  an  aversion  for  the  fair 
 sex,  that  he  resolved  never  to  marry.  The  affection 
 which  he  had  denied  to  the  other  sex    he  liberally  be- 
 
 stowed upon  the  works  of  his  own  hands.  He  be- 
 came enamoured  of  a  beautiful  statue  of  ivory  which 
 he  had  made,  and,  at  his  earnest  request  and  prayers, 
 according  to  the  mythologists,  the  goddess  of  Beauty 
 changed  this  favourite  statue  into  a  woman,  whom  the 
 artist  married,  and  by  whom  he  had  a  son  called  Pa- 
 phus,  who  founded  the  city  of  that  name  in  Cyprus. 
 {Ovid,  Met.,  10,  9.) — Compare  the  other  version  of 
 the  legend,  as  given  from  the  Cyprian  fables  of  Philo- 
 stephanus,  by  Clemens  of  Alexandrea  {Protrept.,  p. 
 50),  and  by' Arnobius  (adv.  Gent,  lib.  6,  p.  206). 
 Consult,  also,  Phiiostratus  {Vit.  Apollon.,  5,  5)  and 
 Meursius  {Cypr.,  2). 
 
 PvLADEs,  I.  a  son  of  Strophius,  king  of  Phocis,  by 
 one  of  the  sisters  of  Agamemnon.  He  was  educated 
 together  with  his  cousin  Orestes,  with  whom  he  form- 
 ed a  most  intimate  friendship,  and  whom  be  aided  in 
 avenging  the  murder  of  Agamemnon  by  the  punish- 
 ment of  Clytffimnestra  and  .^gisthus.  He  received 
 in  marriage  the  hand  of  Eleclra,  the  sister  of  Orestes, 
 by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Medon  and  Strophius. 
 The  friendship  of  Orestes  and  Pylades  became  pro- 
 verbial. (  Vid.  Orestes.) — II.  A  celebrated  actor  in 
 the  reign  of  Augustus,  banished  by  that  emperor  foi 
 pointing  with  his  finger  to  one  of  the  audience  who  had 
 hissed  him,  and  thus  making  him  known  to  all.  {Suet., 
 Vit.  Aug.,  45. — Macrob.,  Sat ,  2,  7.) 
 
 PvljK  {Tlv2.at),  a  general  name  among  the  Greeks 
 for  any  narrow  pass.  The  most  remarkable  were  the 
 following.  I.  Pylae  Albaniae.  (F(rf.  Caucasus.) — II. 
 Pylas  Amanicw,  a  pass  through  the  range  of  Mount 
 .Amanus,  between  Cilicia  Campestris  and  Syria.  Da- 
 rius marched  through  this  pass  to  the  battle  field  of 
 Issus.  {Quint.  Curt.,  3,  A.—  Ftol,  5,  S.—  Plin.,  5, 
 27)— III.  Pylae  Caspiae.  (  Fiff.  Caspian  Porta;  )— IV. 
 Pylas  Caucasise  (  F?rf.  Caucasus.) — V.  Pylse  CiliciiB, 
 a  pass  of  Cilicia,  in  the  range  of  Mount  Taurus, 
 through  which  flows  the  river  Sarus.  {Flin  ,  5,  27. 
 —Polyb,  12,  8.)— VI.  Pylae  SarmatijB.  {Vid.  Cau- 
 casus, towards  the  close  of  that  article.) — VII.  Pylae 
 SyrisB,  a  pass  leading  from  Cilicia  into  Syria,  and 
 bounded  on  one  side  by  the  sea.  {Xen.,  Anab.,  1,  4. 
 — Arrian,  Exp.  Alex.,  2,  8.) 
 
 Pvi.os,  I.  an  ancient  city  of  Elis,  about  eighty  sta- 
 dia to  the  east  of  the  city  of  Elis,  and  which  disputed 
 with  two  other  towns  of  the  same  name  the  honoui 
 of  being  the  capital  of  Nestor's  dominions  ;  these  were 
 Pylos  of  Triphylia,  and  the  Messenian  Pylos.  This 
 somewhat  interesting  question  in  Homeric  geography 
 will  be  considered  under  the  head  of  the  last-mention- 
 ed city.  Pausrnias  informs  us  (6,  22)  that  the  Eiean 
 city  was  origimlly  founded  by  Pylns,  son  of  Cleson, 
 king  of  Megars  ;  but  that,  having  been  destroyed  by 
 Hercules,  it  was  afterward  restored  by  the  Eleans. 
 (Compare  Xen  ,  Hist.  Gr.,  7,  4,  16.)  This  town  was 
 deserted  and  in  ruins  when  Pausanias  made  the  toui 
 of  Elis.  We  collect  from  Strabo  (339)  that  Pylos 
 was  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pholoe,  and  between  the 
 heads  of  the  rivers  Peneus  and  SeDe'is.  This  site 
 agrees  sufficient'y  with  a  spot  named  Paries,  where 
 there  are  vestiges  of  antiquity,  under  Mount  Mavro^ 
 bmini.  which  mvist  be  the  Pholoe  of  the  ancients.  ( Gelt, 
 I/in.  of  the  Morea.  p.  30,  seq. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p  91  )— II.  A  city  of  Elis.  in  the  district  of 
 Triphvlia,  regarded  by  Strabo,  with  great  probability,  as 
 the  city  of  Nestor.  (  Vid  Pylos  III.)  It  is  placed  by 
 that  geographer  at  a  distance  of  thirty  stadia  from  the 
 coast,  and  near  a  small  river  once  called  Amathus  and 
 Pamisus,  but  subsequently  Mamaus  and  Arcadicns. 
 The  epithet  of  ?}fiaO(ki(.  applied  bv  Homer  to  the  Pyli- 
 an  territory,  was  referred  to  the  first  of  these  names. 
 {Stiabo,  344.)  Notwithstanding  its  ancient  celebri^ty, 
 this  city  is  scarcely  mentioned  in  later  times.  Pau- 
 sanias, even,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  aware  of 
 its  existence  (6,22).  Strabo  affirms  that  on  the  con- 
 quest of  Triphylia  bv  the  Eleans,  they   annexed  its 
 
PYLOS. 
 
 PYR 
 
 terntory  to  the  neighbouring  town  of  Leprceum. 
 (Slrab.^  SSS.)  The  vestiges  of  Pylos  are  thought  hy 
 Sir  W.  Gell  to  correspond  with  a  I'alaio  Castru,  sit- 
 uated at.  Fisclnne  or  Piskini,  about  two  miles  from 
 the  coast.  Near  this  is  a  village  called  Sarene,  per- 
 haps a  corruption  of  Arene.  {Itin.  of  the  Morca,  p. 
 40. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  117  ) — III.  A 
 city  of  Messenia,  on  the  western  coast,  off  which  lay 
 the  island  of  Sphacteria.  It  was  situated  at  the  foot 
 of  Mount  -i^galeus,  now  Geranio  ox  Agio  Elia.  (S/ra- 
 bo,  459.)  This  city  was  regarded  hy  many  as  the 
 capital  of  Nestor's  dominions,  and,  at  a  later  period, 
 was  celebrated  for  the  brilliant  successes  obtained 
 there  by  the  Athenians  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  It 
 is  necessary,  however,  to  distinguish  between  the  an- 
 cient city  of  Pylos,  and  the  fortress  which  the  Athe- 
 nian troops  under  Demosthenes  erected  on  the  spot 
 teriued  Coryphasium  hy  the  Lacedaemonians.  {Thu- 
 cyd.,  4,  3  )  Slrabo  affirms,  that  when  the  town  of  Py- 
 los was  destroyed,  part  of  the  inhabitants  retired  to 
 Coryphasium;  but  Pausanias  makes  no  distinction  be- 
 tween the  old  and  new  town,  simply  stating  that  Py 
 los,  founded  by  Pylus,  son  of  Cleson,  was  situated  on 
 the  promontory  of  Coryphasium.  To  Pylus  he  has 
 also  attributed  the  foundation  of  Pylos  in  Elis,  whith- 
 er that  chief  retired  on  his  expulsion  from  Messenia 
 by  Neleus  and  the  Thessalian  Pelasgi.  He  adds,  that 
 a  temple  of  Minerva  Coryphasia  was  to  be  seen  near 
 the  town,  as  well  as  the  house  of  Nestor,  whose  mon- 
 ument was  likewise  to  be  seen  there.  Strabo,  on  the 
 contrary,  has  been  at  considerable  pains  to  prove  that 
 the  Pylos  of  Homer  was  not  in  Messenia,  but  in  Tri- 
 phylia.  From  Homer's  description,  he  observes,  it  is 
 evident  that  Nestor's  dominions  were  traversed  by  the 
 Alpheus  ;  and,  from  his  account  of  Telemachus'  voy- 
 age when  returning  to  Ithaca,  it  is  also  clear  that  the 
 Pylos  of  the  Odyssey  could  neither  be  the  Messenian 
 nor  Elean  city  ;  since  the  son  of  Ulysses  is  made  to 
 pass  Cruni,  Chalcis,  Phea,  and  the  coast  of  Elis,  which 
 he  could  not  have  done  if  he  had  set  out  from  the  last- 
 mentioned  place  ;  if  from  the  former,  the  navigation 
 would  have  been  much  longer  than  from  the  descrip- 
 tion we  are  led  to  suppose,  since  we  must  reckon  400 
 stadia  from  the  Messenian  to  the  Triphylian  Pylos 
 only,  besides  which,  we  may  presume,  the  poet  would 
 in  that  case  have  named  the  Neda,  the  Acidon,  and 
 the  intervening  rivers  and  places.  Again,  from  Nes- 
 tor's account  of  his  battle  with  the  Epeans,  he  must 
 have  been  separated  from  that  people  by  the  Alpheus, 
 a  statement  which  cannot  be  reconciled  with  the  po- 
 sition of  the  Elean  Pylos.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
 suppose  him  to  allude  to  the  Messenian  city,  it  will 
 appear  very  improbable  that  Nestor  should  make  an 
 incursion  into  the  country  of  the  Epei,  and  return 
 from  thence  with  a  vast  quantity  of  cattle,  which  he 
 had  to  convey  such  a  distance.  His  pursuit  of  the 
 enemy  as  far  as  Buprasium  and  the  Olenian  rock,  after 
 their  defeat,  is  equally  incompatible  with  the  supposi- 
 tion that  he  marched  from  Messenia.  In  fact,  it  is 
 not  easy  to  understand  how  there  could  have  been 
 any  communication  between  the  Epeans  and  the  sub- 
 jects of  Nestor,  if  they  had  been  so  far  removed  from 
 each  other.  But  as  all  the  circumstances  mentioned 
 hy  Homer  agree  satisfactorily  with  the  situation  of  the 
 Triphvlian  city,  we  are  necessarily  induced  to  regard 
 it  as  the  Pylos  of  Nestor.  Such  are  the  chief  argu- 
 ments adduced  by  Strabo. — According  to  Thucydides, 
 the  Messenian  Pylos  had  two  entrances,  one  on  each 
 side  of  the  island  of  Sphacteria,  but  of  unequal 
 breadth  ;  the  narrowest  being  capable  of  admitting 
 only  two  vessels  abreast.  The  harbour  itself  must 
 have  been  ver/  capacious  for  two  such  considerable 
 fleets  as  those  of  Athens  and  Sparta  to  engage  within 
 it.  These  characteristics  sufficiently  indicate  the  port 
 or  bay  of  Navarino  as  the  scene  of  those  most  inter- 
 esting events  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  which  are  de- 
 1148 
 
 tailed  in  the  fourth  book  of  Thucydides.  A  spot  na- 
 med I'lla,  and  laid  down  in  Lapie's  map  as  nearly  in 
 the  centre  of  the  bay,  probably  answers  to  the  ancient 
 Pylos.  {Cramer  s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  132,  seqq  ) 
 Pyrai«ides,  famous  monuments  of  Egypt,  of  mass- 
 ive masonry,  which,  from  a  square  base,  rise  diminish- 
 ing to  a  point  or  vertex  when  viewed  from  below. — 
 The  pyramids  commence  immediately  south  of  Ciiirn, 
 but  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Nile,  and  extend  in  an 
 uninterrupted  range  for  many  miles  in  a  southerly  di- 
 rection parallel  with  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  per- 
 pendicular height  of  the  first,  which  is  ascribed  to 
 Cheops,  is  480  feet  9  inches,  that  is,  43  feet  9  inches 
 higher  than  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  136  feet  9  inch- 
 es higher  than  St.  Paul's  in  London.  The  length  of 
 the  former  base  was  764  feet,  that  of  the  present  l>ase 
 is  746  feet.  {Vyse,  Operations  at  the  Pyramids  of 
 Gizch,  vol.  2,  p.  109.)  The  following  are  the  dimen- 
 sions of  the  second  pyramid  :  the  base,  684  feel  ;  the 
 central  line  down  the  front  from  the  apex  to  the  base, 
 568  ;  the  perpendicular,  356  ;  coating  from  the  lop  to 
 where  it  ends,  140.  These  dimensions,  being  consid- 
 erably greater  than  those  usually  assigned  even  to  the 
 first  or  largest  pyramid,  are  to  be  accounted  for  by 
 their  being  taken  (by  Belzoni)  from  the  base  as  clear- 
 ed from  sand  and  rubbish,  while  the  measurements  of 
 the  first  pyramid  given  by  others  only  applied  to  it  as 
 measured  from  the  level  of  the  surrounding  sand  — 
 The  antiquity  of  these  erections,  and  the  purpose  for 
 which  they  were  formed,  have  furnished  matter  for 
 much  ingenious  conjecture  and  dispute  in  the  absence 
 of  certain  information.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
 they  were  intended  for  scientific  purposes,  such  as 
 that  of  establishing  the  proper  length  of  the  cubit,  of 
 which  they  contain,  in  breadth  and  height,  a  certain 
 number  of  multiples.  They  were,  at  all  events,  con- 
 structed on  scientific  principles,  and  give  evidence  of 
 a  certain  progress  in  astronomy  ;  for  their  sides  are 
 accurately  adapted  to  the  four  cardinal  points.  Wheth- 
 er they  were  applied  to  sepulchral  uses,  and  intended 
 as  sepulchral  monuments,  has  been  doubted  ;  but  the 
 doubts  have  in  a  great  measure  been  dispelled  by  the 
 recent  discoveries  made  by  means  of  laborious  exca- 
 vations. The  drifting  sand  had,  in  the  course  of  ages, 
 collected  around  their  base  to  a  considerable  height, 
 and  had  raised  the  general  surface  of  the  country 
 above  the  level  which  it  possessed  when  they  were 
 constructed.  The  entrance  to  the  chambers  had  also 
 been,  in  the  finishing,  shut  up  with  large  stones,  and 
 built  round  so  as  to  be  uniform  with  the  rest  of  the 
 exterior.  The  largest,  called  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops, 
 had  been  opened,  and  some  chambers  discovered  in  it, 
 but  not  so  low  as  the  base,  till  Mr.  Davison,  British 
 consul  at  Algiers,  explored  it  in  1763,  when  accom- 
 panying Mr.  Wortley  Montague  to  Egypt.  He  dis- 
 covered a  room  before  unknown,  and  descended  the 
 three  successive  wells  to  a  depth  of  155  feet.  Cap- 
 tain Caviglia,  master  of  a  merchant-vessel,  afterward 
 pursued  the  principal  oblique  passage  200  feet  farther 
 down  than  any  former  explorer,  and  found  it  com- 
 municate with  the  bottom  of  the  well.  This  circum- 
 stance creating  a  circulation  of  air,  he  proceeded  28 
 feet  farther,  and  found  a  spacious  room  66  feet  by  27, 
 but  of  unequal  height,  under  the  centre  of  the  pyr- 
 amid, supposed  by  Mr.  Salt  to  have  been  the  place 
 for  containing  the  theca  or  sarcophagus,  (hough  now 
 none  is  found  in  it.  The  room  is  30  feet  above  the 
 level  of  the  Nile.  The  upper  chamber,  35^  feet  by 
 I7j,  and  18 j  high,  still  contains  a  sarcophagus. — ■ 
 Three  chambers,  hitherto  undiscovered,  were  exposed 
 and  opened,  in  1836-7,  by  Colonel  Vyse.  The  long- 
 est, measuring  38  feet  1  inch,  by  17  feet  1  inch,  has 
 been  denominated  by  him  the  "  Wellington  Cham- 
 ber;"  the  second  (38  feet  9  inches,  by  16  feet  8  inch- 
 es) he  named  "  Nelson's  ;"  and  the  third  (37  feet  4 
 inches,  by   16  feet   4  inches)   has  been  called   afigr 
 
PYRAMIDES.    • 
 
 PYRAMIDES. 
 
 Lady  Arbuthnot,  who  was  present  at  the  time  of  the 
 discovery.  These  chambers  vary  as  to  height,  and 
 the  blocks  of  granite  which  form  tlie  ceihng  of  the  one 
 below  serve  as  the  pavement  of  the  one  abovi  it. 
 Accoiding  lo  Colonel  Vyse,  these  three  chambers  were 
 chierty  intended  as  voids  in  that  portion  of  the  pyra- 
 mid above  what  is  termed  the  "king's  chamber"  (the 
 only  one  that  appears  to  have  had  any  destination), 
 and  thereby  to  lessen  the  superincumbent  mass.  (Con- 
 sult the  costly  and  elaborate  work  of  Colonel  Vyse, 
 *'  Operations  carried  on  at  the  Fyramids  of  Gizeh  ui 
 1837,"  &c.,  London,  1840,  3  vols.  4to.— vol.  1,  p  205, 
 23.'j,  256.) — In  the  course  of  the  work  just  alluded  lo 
 (vol.  2,  p.  105),  Colonel  Vyse  has  some  remarks  on  the 
 question  whether  ihe  pyramids  were  connected  in  any 
 way  with  astronomical  purposes.  It  seems  that,  in  si.x 
 pyramids  which  have  been  opened,  the  principal  pas- 
 sage preserves  the  same  inclination  of  26°  to  the  ho- 
 rizon, being  directed  to  the  polar  star.  "  As  it  had 
 been  supposed,"  remarks  the  colonel,  "  that  the  in- 
 clined passages  were  intended  for  astronomical  pur- 
 poses, I  mentioned  the  circumstance  to  Sir  John  Her- 
 schel,  who,  with  the  utmost  kindness,  entered  into  va- 
 rious calculations  to  ascertain  the  lact.  I  also  in- 
 formed Sir  John  of  the  allusion  in  the  'Quarterly  Re- 
 view' to  Mr.  Caviglia's  remarks  respecting  the  polar 
 star,  and  likewise  of  its  having  lieen  seen  by  Captains 
 Irby  and  Mangles  from  the  inclined  passage  in  the 
 Great  Pyramid,  at  the  period  of  its  culminating,  on 
 the  night  of  the  21st  of  March,  1817.  It  would  ap- 
 pear from  the  remarks  of  Sir  John,  which  here  follow, 
 that  the  direction  of  the  passage  was  determined  by 
 the  star  which  was  polar  at  the  time  that  the  pyramid 
 was  constructed,  and  that  the  exact  aspect  of  the 
 building  was  regulated  by  it  ;  but  it  could  not  have 
 been  used  for  celestial  observation.  The  coincidence 
 of  the  relative  position  of  a  Draconis  is  at  all  events 
 very  remarkable." 
 
 1.   Sir  John  HcrscheVs  Observations  on  the  Entrance 
 Passages  in  the  Pyramids  of  Gizeh. 
 
 "  Four  thousand  years  ago,  the  present  polar  star,  a 
 Urs<B  Minoris,  could  by  no  possibility  have  been  seen 
 at  any  time  in  the  twenty-four  hours  through  the  gal- 
 lery in  the  Great  Pyramid,  on  account  of  the  preces- 
 sion of  the  Equinoxes,  which  at  that  time  would  have 
 displaced  every  star  in  the  heavens,  from  its  then  ap- 
 parent position  on  the  sphere,  by  no  less  a  quantity  than 
 55"  45'  of  longitude,  and  would  have  changed  all  the 
 relations  of  the  constellations  to  the  diurnal  sphere. 
 The  supposed  date  of  the  pyramid,  2123  years  B.C., 
 added  to  our  present  date,  1839,  form  3962  years  (say 
 4000),  and  the  effect  of  the  precession  on  the  longi- 
 tudes of  the  stars  in  that  interval  having  been  to  in- 
 crease them  all  by  the  above-named  quantity,  it  will 
 follow  that  the  pole  of  the  heavens,  at  the  erection  of 
 the  pyramid,  must  have  stood  very  near  to  the  star  a 
 Draconis,  that  is,  2°  51'  1.5"  from  it  to  the  westward, 
 as  we  should  now  call  it  ;  a  Draconis  was  therefore, 
 at  that  time,  the  polar  star  ;  and  as  it  is  comparatively 
 insignificant,  and  only  of  the  third  magnitude,  if  so 
 much,  it  can  scarcely  be  supposed  that  it  could  have 
 been  seen  in  the  daytime  even  in  the  climate  of  Gizeh, 
 or  even  from  so  dark  a  recess  as  the  inclined  entrance 
 of  the  Great  Pyramid.  A  latitude,  however,  of  30°, 
 and  a  polar  distance  of  the  star  in  question  of  1°  51' 
 15",  would  bring  it,  at  its  lower  culmination,  to  an  al- 
 titude of  27°  91',  and  therefore  it  would  have  been  di- 
 rectly in  view  of  an  observer  stationed  in  the  descend- 
 ing passage,  the  opening  of  which,  as  seen  from  a 
 point  sixty-three  feet  within,  would,  by  calculation, 
 subtend  an  angle  of  7°  7' ;  and  even  from  the  bot- 
 tom, near  the  sepulchral  chamber,  would  still  appear 
 of  at  least  2°  in  breadth.  In  short,  speaking  as  in  or- 
 dinary parlance,  the  passage  may  be  said  to  have  been 
 directly  pointed  at  a  Draconis,  at  its  inferior  culmina- 
 
 tion, at  which  moment  its  altitude  above  the  horizon 
 of  GiZeh  (lat.  30)  would  have  been  27°  9' — refraction 
 being  neglected  as  too  trifling  (about  2')  to  atfect  the 
 question.  The  present  polar  star,  a  Ursa  Minuns, 
 was  at  this  epoch  23°  more  or  less  in  arc  from  the 
 then  pole  of  the  heavens,  and,  of  course,  at  us  lower 
 culmination,  it  was  only  7°  above  the  horizon  of 
 Gizeh."     (  Vyse,  Operations,  &c.,  vol.  2,  p.  107,  seq.) 
 
 2.   Operations  of  Belzom. 
 
 Belzoni,  after  some  acute  observations  on  the  ap- 
 pearances connected  with  the  second  pyramid,  or  that 
 of  Chephrenes,  succeeded  in  opening  it.  The  stones 
 which  had  constituted  the  coaling  (by  which  the  sides 
 of  most  of  the  pyramids,  which  now  rise  in  stej)8,  had 
 been  formed  into  plain  and  smooth  surfaces)  lav  in  a 
 state  of  compact  and  ponderous  rubbish,  presenting  a 
 formidable  obstruction  ;  but  somewhat  looser  m  the 
 centre  of  the  front,  showing  traces  of  operations  for  e.\- 
 ploring  it  in  an  age  posterior  to  the  erection.  On  the 
 east  side  of  the  pyramid  he  discovered  the  foundation 
 of  a  large  temple,  connected  with  a  portico  appearing 
 above  ground,  which  had  induced  him  to  explore  that 
 part.  Between  this  and  the  pyramid,  from  which  it 
 was  fifty  feet  distant,  a  way  was  cleared  through  rub- 
 bish forty  feet  in  height,  and  a  pavement  was  found  at 
 the  bottom,  which  is  supposed  to  extend  quite  round 
 the  pyramid  ;  but  there  was  no  appearance  of  any  en- 
 trance. On  the  north  side,  notwiihsiandmg  the  same 
 general  appearance  presented  itself  after  the  rubbish 
 was  cleared  away,  one  of  the  stones,  though  nicely 
 adajited  to  its  place,  was  observed  to  be  loose  ;  and 
 when  it  was  removed,  a  hollow  passage  was  found,  ev- 
 idently forced  Dy  some  former  enterprising  explorer, 
 and'  rendered  dangerous  by  the  rubbish  which  fell  from 
 the  roof;  it  was  therefore  abandoned.  Reasoning  by 
 analogy  from  the  entrance  of  the  first  pyramid,  which 
 IS  to  the  east  of  the  centre  on  the  north  side,  he  ex- 
 plored in  that  situation,  and  found,  at  a  distance  of  thirty 
 feet,  the  true  entrance.  After  incredible  perseverance 
 and  labour,  he  found  numerous  passages,  all  cut  out  of 
 the  solid  rock,  and  a  chamber  forty-six  feet  three  inches 
 by  sixteen  feet  three  inches,  and  twenty-three  feet  six 
 inches  high.  It  contained  a  sarcophagus  in  a  comer, 
 surrounded  by  large  blocks  of  granite.  VN'hen  opened, 
 after  great  labour,  this  was  found  lo  contain  bones, 
 which  mouldered  down  when  touched,  and,  from  speci- 
 mens afterward  examined,  turned  out  to  be  the  bones 
 of  an  ox  Human  bones  were  also  found  in  the  same 
 place.  All  Arabic  inscription,  made  with  charcoal, 
 was  on  the  wall,  signifying  that  "  the  place  had  been 
 opened  by  Mohammed  Ahmed,  lapicide,  attended  by 
 the  master  Othman,  and  the  king  Alij  Mohammed," 
 supposed  to  be  the  Ottoman  emperor,  Mohammed  I., 
 in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  It  was  ob- 
 served that  the  rock  surrounding  the  pyramids,  on  the 
 north  and  west  sides,  was  on  a  level  with  the  upper 
 part  of  the  chamber.  It  is  evidently  cut  away  all 
 around,  and  the  stones  taken  from  it  were  most  prob- 
 ably applied  to  the  erection  of  the  pyramid.  I'here 
 are  many  places  in  the  neighbourhood  where  the  rock 
 has  been  evidently  quarried,  so  that  there  is  no  found- 
 ation tor  the  0[»inior  formerly  common,  and  given  by 
 Herodotus,  that  the  stones  had  been  brought  from  the 
 east  side  of  the  Nile,  which  is  only  probable  as  ap- 
 plied to  the  granite  brought  from  Syene.  The  opera- 
 tions of  Belzoni  have  thrown  light  on  the  manner  in 
 which  the  pyramids  were  constructed,  as  well  as  the 
 purposes  for  which  they  were  intended.  That  they 
 were  meant  for  sepulchres  can  hardly  admit  of  a  doubt. 
 It  is  remarkable  that  no  hieroglyphical  inscriptions  are 
 found  in  or  about  the  pyramids  as  in  the  other  tombs  ; 
 a  circumstance  which  is  supposed  to  indicate  the  peri- 
 od of  their  construction  to  have  been  prior  to  the  in- 
 vention of  that  mode  of  writing,  though  some  think 
 that  the  variation  may  be  accounted  for  by  a  difference 
 
 1149 
 
PYRAMIDES. 
 
 PYRAMIDES. 
 
 in  the  usages  of  different  places  and  ages.  Belzoni, 
 however,  says  that  he  found  some  hieroglyphics  on  one 
 of  the  blocks  forming  a  mausoleum  to  the  west  of  the 
 first  pyramid.  The  first  pyramid  seems  never  to  have 
 been  coaled,  as  there  is  not  the  slightest  mark  of  any 
 covering.  The  second  pyramid  showed  that  the  coal- 
 ing had  been  executed  from  the  summit  downward,  as 
 it  appeared  that  it  had  not,  in  this  instance,  been  finish- 
 ed to  the  bottom. 
 
 3.    Who  were  tke  labourers  employed  on  the  Pyra- 
 mids ? 
 
 A  very  curious  inquiry  now  remains  as  to  the  la- 
 bourers employed  in  erecting  these  stupendous  struc- 
 tures, and  the  following  remarks  on  this  subject,  though 
 they  may  not  be  acceded  to  in  their  full  extent,  will 
 vet,  it  is  conceived,  not  prove  unacceptable.  They 
 are  from  CalmeCs  Dictionary  (vol.  3,  p.  217,  seq.). 
 On  the  supposition  that  they  were  native  Egyptians, 
 Voltaire  has  founded  an  argument  in  proof  of  the  sla- 
 very of  that  people  ;  but  that  they  were  really  natives 
 is  a  point  which  admits  of  considerable  doubt.  The 
 uniform  practice  of  the  ancient  Oriental  nations  seems 
 to  have  been,  to  employ  captive  foreigners  in  erecting 
 laborious  and  painful  works,  and  Diodorus  (1,  2)  ex- 
 pressly asserts  this  of  the  Egyptian  Sesostris.  Is  it 
 improbable  to  suppose  that  one  at  least,  if  not  all,  of 
 the  structures  in  question,  were  tlie  work  of  the  Israel- 
 ites ?  Bondage  is  expressly  attributed  to  thetn  in  the 
 sacred  writings ;  and  that  the  Israelites  d:d  not  make 
 brick  only,  but  performed  other  labours,  may  be  in- 
 ferred from  Exodus,  9,  8,  10.  Moses  took  '-ashes  of 
 the  furnace,''  no  doubt  that  which  was  tendered  him 
 by  his  people.  So  Psalm  81,  6,  "I  removed  his 
 shoulder  from  the  burden,  and  his  hands  were  deliv- 
 ered from  the  mortar-basket,"  not  pots,  as  in  our 
 translation  ;  and  with  this  rendering  agree  the  Septu- 
 agint,  Vulgate,  Symmachus,  and  others.  Added  to 
 this,  we  have  the  positive  testimony  of  Josephus  that 
 the  Israelites  were  employed  on  the  Pyramids.  The 
 space  of  time  allotted  for  the  erection  of  these  im- 
 mense masses  coincides  with  what  is  usually  assigned 
 to  the  slavery  of  the  Israelites.  Israel  is  understood 
 to  have  been  in  Egypt  215  years,  of  which  Joseph 
 ruled  seventy  years  ;  nor  was  it  till  long  after  his 
 death  that  a  "  new  king  arose  who  knew  not  Joseph." 
 If  we  allow  about  forty  years  for  the  extent  of  the 
 generation  which  succeeded  Joseph,  added  to  his 
 seventy,  there  remain  about  105  years  to  the  Exo- 
 dus. According  to  Herodotus  (2,  124,  seqq.),  Egypt, 
 until  the  reign  of  Rhampsinitus,  was  remarkable  for 
 its  abundance  and  excellent  laws.  Cheops,  who  suc- 
 ceeded this  prince,  degenerated  into  extreme  profli- 
 gacy of  conduct.  He  barred  the  avenues  of  every 
 temple,  and  forbade  the  Egyptians  from  offering  sac- 
 rifices. He  next  proceeded  to  make  them  labour  ser- 
 vilely for  himself  by  building  the  first  pyramid.  Che- 
 ops reigned  fifty  years.  His  brother  Chephrenes  suc- 
 ceeded, and  adopted  a  similar  course  ;  he  reigned  fifty- 
 six  years.  Thus,  for  the  space  of  106  years,  were  the 
 Egyptians  exposed  to  every  species  of  oppression  and 
 calamity  ;  not  having,  during  all  this  period,  permis- 
 sion even  to  worship  in  their  temples.  The  Egyp- 
 tians had  so  strong  an  aversion  to  the  memory  of 
 these  two  monarchs,  that  they  would  never  mention 
 their  names,  but  always  attributed  their  pyramids  to 
 one  Philitis,  a  shepherd  ivho  kept  his  cattle  in  those 
 parts.  We  have  here  very  plain  traces  of  a  govern- 
 ment by  ?i.  foreign  family  ;  and  of  a  worship  contrary 
 to  that  which  had  been  previously  established  in  Egypt, 
 as  appears  in  the  prohibition  of  sacrifices.  In  its  con- 
 tinuance, moreover,  of  106  years,  it  coincides  with  the 
 bondage  of  the  Israelites.  There  appears  to  be  some- 
 thing mysterious  concealed  under  the  name  and  men- 
 tion of  the  shepherd  Philitis.  It  is  clear  that  the 
 Egyptians  did  not  call  the  kings,  by  whose  orders  the 
 1150 
 
 pyramids  were  built,  by  this  name  ir.  the  hearing  of 
 Herodotus,  since  they  referred  them  to  their  kings  Che- 
 ops and  Chephrenes.  It  would  seem,  moreover,  that 
 the  shepherd  Philitis  had  formerly,  and  at  other  times, 
 customarily  fed  his  cattle  elsewhere.  The  following, 
 then,  may  be  regarded  as  the  meaning  of  the  passage 
 in  question  :  they  attributed  the  labour  of  constructing 
 the  pyramids  to  a  shepherd  who  came  from  Philistia, 
 but  who,  at  that  time,  fed  his  cattle  in  the  lai>d  of 
 Egypt ;  implying  that  they  more  readily  told  the  ap- 
 pellation of  the  workman  (the  son  of  Israel,  the  shep- 
 herd. Gen.,  47,  5)  employed  in  the  building,  than  of 
 the  kings  by  whose  commands  they  were  built.  They 
 seem  to  have  pursued  the  same  course  in  the  days  af 
 Diodorus,  who  remarks  (1,2),  "  They  admit  that  these 
 works  are  superior  to  all  which  are  seen  in  Egypt,  not 
 only  by  the  immensity  of  their  mass  and  by  their  pro- 
 digious cost,  but  still  more  by  the  beauty  of  their 
 construction  ;  and  the  workmen,  who  have  rendered 
 them  so  perfect,  are  much  more  estimable  than  the 
 kings  who  paid  their  cost ;  for  the  former  have  hereby 
 given  a  proof  of  their  genius  and  skill,  whereas  the 
 kings  contributed  only  the  riches  left  them  by  their  an- 
 cestors, or  extorted  from  their  subjects.  They  say 
 the  first  was  erected  by  Armaus  ;  the  second  by  .4m- 
 mosis ;  the  third  by  Inaron.''^  In  the  common  Greek 
 text  we  read  'Afiaai^  for  the  second  name,  but  the 
 best  critics  decide  in  favour  of 'A/ZjUutrtf.  If  we  make 
 a  slight  change  also  in  the  first  name,  and,  instead  of 
 Armaeus  (' kpfialoc),  read  Aramaeus  (' Afyafialog),  the 
 result  will  be  a  curious  one.  On  comparing  the 
 names  a  Mousis  and  in  Aron  with  the  Hebrew  de- 
 scription of  Moses  and  Aaron,  we  find  that  the  proper 
 appellation  is  the  same,  as  near  as  pronunciation  by 
 natives  of  different  countries  could  bring  it :  a  Mousis, 
 or  ha  Mousis,  is  hu  Mouseh  in  Hebrew  ;  and  in  Aron, 
 or  hin  Aron,  is  written  Am  Aaron,  which  certainly, 
 when  two  vowels  came  together,  took  a  consonant  be- 
 tween them,  being  spoken  as  if  written  hun  Aaron. 
 This  testimony,  therefore,  agrees  with  the  supposition 
 that  the  Israelites  were  employed  on  the  pyramids ; 
 first  under  the  appellation  of  the  Syrian  or  Ararnaan 
 (the  very  title  given  to  Jacob,  Dent.,  26,  5,  "An  Ara- 
 mite  ready  to  perish,"  &,c.),  and  afterward  under  the 
 names  of  the  two  most  famous  leaders  of  that  nation, 
 Moses  and  yiaroM.     (Calmet's  Dictionary,  I.  c.) 
 
 4.    Various  etymologies  of  the  word  Pyramid 
 (Tlvijafiic). 
 
 Some  derive  the  name  Pyramid  (Pyramis,  Tlvpa- 
 /lig)  from  nvpo^,  '^  wheat,"  on  the  supposition  that 
 they  were  meant  for  granaries  !  (Sttph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 — Etymol.  Mag.,  s.  v.)  It  is  surprising  that  this  silly 
 derivation  should  have  been  approved  of  by  Vossius. 
 Another  class  of  etymologists  deduce  the  term  from 
 the  Greek  word  Tvvp,  "  /ire,"  in  allusion  to  the  flame- 
 shaped  appearance  of  the  structure,  as  it  tapers  to  a 
 point.  {Etymol.  Mag.,  s.  v.  —  Sylburg.,  ad  he. — 
 Schol.  ad  Horat.,  Od.,  3,  30,  2.—Amm.  Marcel  I.,  22, 
 15.)  These  and  other  derivations  proceed  upon  the 
 supposition  that  the  word  pyramid  is  of  Greek  origin, 
 than  which  nothing  can  be  more  erroneous.  (Jablon- 
 ski,  Voc.  JEgypt.  —  Opusc,  vol.  1,  p.  221.)  Some, 
 taking  the  passage  of  Pliny  for  their  guide,  where  he 
 explains  the  term  obeliscus  by  '■'■radius  Sulis,"  and, 
 regarding  the  obelisk  as  a  species  of  pyramid,  deduce 
 the  latter  word  from  the  Coptic  Pt-ra-mu-e,  which 
 they  make  to  signify  "  a  ray  of  the  sun."  {Jablonski, 
 p.  222.)  Wilkins  thinks  that  pT/ramis  comes  from  the 
 Coptic  Poura  misi,  equivalent  to  '^regia  generatio," 
 the  pyramids  being  so  called,  according  to  him.  be- 
 cause they  served  as  places  of  sepulture  for  lines  of 
 kings.  Jablonski,  however,  well  observes,  that  Poura 
 (or  Pouro)  misi  can  signify  nothing  else  but  "  de- 
 scended from  kings."  Finally,  De  Sacy,  the  late  cmi- 
 1  nent  Oriental  scholar  of  France,  favours  us  with  the 
 
P  i^R 
 
 PYR 
 
 following.  He  makes  tf,  in  the  word  ITvpajUtf,  a  mere 
 Greek  termination.  Hi  is  then  the  Egyptian  article, 
 for  which  the  Greeks  wrote  Hv,  in  their  wish  to  de- 
 duce the  term  from  nvp,  "Jire."  I'he  syllable  pafi  he 
 refers  to  the  root  ram,  which,  according  to  him,  had 
 in  the  Egyptian  tongue  the  meaning  of  separatmg,  or 
 setting  anything  apart  from  common  use.  Ilvpa/j,ig, 
 therefore,  will  denote  a  sacred  place  or  edifice,  set 
 apart  for  some  religious  purpose.  {De  Sacy,  Obser- 
 vations swr  Vorigine  du  nom  donni  par  Ics  Grecs  et 
 Us  Arabes  atix  Pyramides  d'JEgyplc. — Te  Water,  ad 
 Jabloriik.,   Voc.  JEgypt.,  p.  224.) 
 
 Pyramus,  I.  a  youth  of  Babylon.  ( Vid.  Thisbe.) 
 — II.  A  river  of  Cilicia  Cainpestns,  rising  in  Mount 
 Taurus,  and  falling  iiiio  the  Sinus  Issicus.  It  is  now 
 the  Geihoon.  This  river  forces  its  way,  by  a  deep 
 and  narrow  channel,  through  the  barrier  of  Taurus  ; 
 and  such  was  the  quantity  of  soil  which  it  carried  down, 
 that  an  oracle  affirmed  that  one  day  it  would  reach 
 the  sacred  isle  of  Cyprus.  {Strah.,  526.)  This,  how- 
 ever, has  not  taken  place  ;  but  a  remarkable  change 
 has  occurred  with  respect  to  the  course  of  this  river, 
 which  now  finds  its  way  into  the  sea,  twenty-three 
 miles  more  to  the  east,  in  the  Gulf  of  Scanderoon. 
 (^Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  351.) 
 
 PvREN^i,  a  well-known  range  of  mountains,  separ- 
 ating Gallia  from  Hispania.  The  name  was  com- 
 monly supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Greek  term 
 7ri>/9,  "Jire,"  and  various  explanations  were  attempted 
 to  be  given  of  this  etymology.  According  to  some, 
 these  mountains  had  once  been  devastated  by  fire,  an 
 opinion  which  Posidonius  deemed  not  improbable. 
 [Diod.  Sic,  5,35— Strab.,  H6.—Lucret.,  5.  12,  42.) 
 The  true  derivation,  however,  is  evidently  the  Celtic 
 Pyrcn  or  Pyrn,  "  a  high  mountain,"  and  from  this 
 same  may  in  like  manner  be  deduced  the  name  of 
 Mount  Brenner  in  the  Tyrol ;  that  of  Pycrn,  in  upper 
 Austria,  that  of  Pernor,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  many  others. 
 [Adelang,  Muhradates,  vol.  2,  p.  67.) — The  range  of 
 the  Pyrenees  is  about  294  miles  in  length.  I'hese' 
 mountains  are  steep,  difficult  of  access,  and  only  pass- 
 able at  five  places:  1st,  From  Langucdoc  to  Catalo- 
 nia; 2d,  from  Comininge  into  Aragon;  3d,  at  Ta- 
 raffa;  4th,  at  Maya  and  Pampcluna,  in  Navarre  ;  and 
 5th,  at  Sebastians,  in  Biscay,  which  is  the  easiest  of 
 aii.     {Polyb  ,  3,  34,  seqq.—Mela,  2,  5.—Plin.,  3,  3.) 
 
 PvRGOTEi.Es,  a  celebrated  engraver  on  gems  in  the 
 age  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  had  the  exclusive 
 privilege  of  engraving  the  conqueror,  as  Lysippus  was 
 the  only  sculptor  who  was  permitted  to  make  statues 
 of  him.  Two  gems  carved  by  this  artist  are  said  to  be 
 extant  {Bracci,  Memorie,  tub.  98,  99) ;  but  Winckel- 
 ;nann  has,  by  many  powerful  arguments,  proved  them 
 to  be  spurious.     {Op.,  6,  1,  p.  107,  seqq.) 
 
 PvKRUA,  I.  a  daughter  of  Epimetheus  and  Pandora, 
 and  wife  of  Deucalion.  {Vid.  Deucalion.) — II.  A 
 promontory  of  Thessaly,  on  the  western  coast  of  the 
 Sinus  Pagasaeus,  and  a  short  distance  below  Demetri- 
 as.  It  is  now  Cape  Ankisiri. — III.  A  rock,  with  an- 
 other in  Us  vicinity  named  Deucalion,  near  the  prom- 
 ontory mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  {Slra- 
 bo,  435.) 
 
 PvRRHO,  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher,  a  native 
 of  Elea.  In  his  youth  he  practised  the  art  of  paint- 
 ing ;  but,  either  through  disinclination,  or  because  his 
 inind  aspired  to  higher  pursuits,  he  passed  over  from 
 the  school  of  painting  to  that  of  philosophy.  He  stud- 
 ied and  admired  the  writings  of  Dcrnocritus,  and  had, 
 as  his  first  preceptor,  Bryson,  the  son  of  Stilpo,  a  dis- 
 ciple of  Clinomachus.  After  this  he  became  a  disci- 
 ple of  Anaxarchus,  who  was  contemporary  with  Alex- 
 ander, and  he  accompanied  his  master,  in  the  train  of 
 Alexander,  into  Asia.  Here  he  conversed  with  the 
 Brahmans  and  Gymnosophists,  imbibing  from  their 
 doctrine  whatever  might  seem  favourable  to  his  natu- 
 ral disposition  towards  doubting :  a  disposition  which 
 
 was  cherished  by  his  master,  who  bad  formerly  been  a 
 disciple  of  a  sceptical  philosopher,  Metrodoru.s  of 
 Chios.  Every  advance  which  Pyrrho  made  in  the 
 study  of  philosophy  involving  him  in  fresh  uncertainly, 
 he  left  the  school  of  the  Dogmatists  (so  those  philoso- 
 phers were  called  who  professed  to  be  possessed  of  a 
 certain  knowledge),  and  established  a  new  school,  in 
 which  he  taught  that  every  object  of  human  knowledge 
 is  involved  in  uncertainly,  so  thai  it  is  impossible  ever 
 to  arrive  at  the  knowledge  of  truth.  {Diog.  Laert., 
 58,  scqg.)  It  is  related  of  this  philosopher  that  he 
 acted  upon  his  own  principles,  and  carried  bis  scepti- 
 cism to  so  ridiculous  an  extreme,  that  his  friends  were 
 obliged  to  accompany  him  wherever  he  went,  that  he 
 might  not  be  run  over  by  carriages  or  fall  down  preci- 
 pices. If  this  was  true,  it  was  not  without  reason  that 
 he  was  ranked  among  those  whose  intellects  were  dis- 
 turbed by  intense  study.  But,  if  we  pay  any  atlenlicn 
 to  the  respect  with  which  be  is  mentioned  by  ancient 
 writers,  or  give  any  credit  to  the  general  history  of  bis 
 life,  we  must  conclude  these  reports  to  have  been  cal- 
 umnies invented  by  the  Dogmatists,  whom  he  op- 
 posed. He  spent  a  great  part  of  his  life  in  solitude, 
 and  always  preserved  a  settled  composure  of  counte- 
 nance, undisturbed  by  fear,  or  joy,  or  grief.  He  en- 
 dured bodily  pain  with  great  fortitude,  and  in  the  midst 
 of  dangers  discovered  no  signs  of  apprehension.  In 
 disputation  he  was  celebrated  for  the  subtlety  of  his 
 arguments  and  the  perspicuity  of  his  language.  Epi- 
 curus, though  no  friend  to  scepticism,  was  an  admirer 
 of  Pyrrho,  because  he  recommended  and  practised  that 
 self-command  which  produces  undisturbed  tranquillity, 
 the  great  end,  in  the  judgment  of  Epicurus,  of  all 
 physical  and  moral  science.  So  highly  was  Pyrrho 
 esteemed  by  his  countrymen,  that  they  honoured  him 
 with  the  office  of  chief  priest,  and,  out  of  respect  to 
 him,  passed  a  decree,  by  which  all  philosophers  were 
 indulged  with  immunity  from  public  taxes.  He  was  a 
 great  admirer  of  the  poets,  particularly  of  Homer,  and 
 frequently  repeated  passages  from  his  poems.  Could 
 such  a  man  be  so  foolishly  enslaved  by  an  absurd  sys- 
 tem as  to  need  a  guide  to  keep  him  out  of  danger  1 
 Pyrrho  flourished  about  B.C.  340,  and  died  about  the 
 ninetieth  year  of  his  age,  probably  about  B.C.  228. 
 After  his  death,  the  Athenians  honoured  his  memory 
 with  a  statue,  and  a  monument  to  him  was  erected  in 
 his  own  country.  {Enfield,  History  of  PkUusophy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  482.) 
 
 PvRRHUs,  I.  a  son  of  Achilles  and  De'idamia,  the 
 daughter  of  King  l.ycomedes,  who  received  this  name 
 from  the  yellowness  of  his  hair.  He  was  also  called 
 Neoptolemus,  or  7iew  warrior,  because  he  came  to  the 
 Trojan  war  in  the  last  years  of  the  celebrated  siege  of 
 the  capital  of  Troas.  He  was  brought  up,  and  re- 
 mained at  the  court  of  his  maternal  grandfather  until 
 after  his  father's  death.  The  Greeks,  then,  according 
 to  an  oracle,  which  had  declared  that  Troy  could  not 
 be  taken  unless  one  of  the  descendants  of  .^acus  were 
 among  the  besiegers,  despatched  Ulysses  and  Phoeni-^c 
 to  Scyros  for  the  young  prince.  He  had  no  sooner  ar- 
 rived belbre  Troy,  than,  having  paid  a  visit  to  the  tomb 
 of  Achilles,  he  was  appointed  to  accompany  Ulysses  in 
 his  expedition  to  Lemnos,  for  the  purpose  of  prevailing 
 on  Philoctetes  to  repair  with  the  arrows  of  Hercules 
 to  the  scene  of  action.  Pyrrhus  greatly  signalized 
 himself  during  the  siege,  and  was  the  first,  according 
 to  some  accounts,  that  entered  the  wooden  horse.  He 
 was  not  inferior  to  his  father  in  cruel  and  vindictive 
 feelings.  After  breaking  down  the  gates  of  Priam's 
 palace,  he  pursued  the  unhappy  monarch  to  the  altar 
 of  Jupiter,  and  there,  according  to  some  accounts,  he 
 slaughtered  him  ;  while,  according  to  otliers,  he  drag- 
 ged him  by  the  hair  to  the  tomb  of  Achilles,  where  he 
 sacrificed  him  to  the  manes  of  his  father.  Pyrrhus  is 
 also  among  the  number  of  those  to  whom  the  precipi- 
 tation of  the  young  Astyanax  from  the  summit  of  a 
 
 1151 
 
PYRRHUS. 
 
 PYRRHUS. 
 
 tower  is  attributed  ;  and  it  was  he  that  immolated 
 Polyxeiia  to  his  father's  shade.  In  the  division  of  the 
 captives  after  the  termination  of  the  war,  Andromache, 
 the  widow  o(  Hector,  and  Helenas,  the  brother  of  the 
 latter,  were  assigned  to  Pyrrhus.  After  some  time 
 had  elapsed,  he  gave  u[)  Andromache  to  Helenas,  and 
 sought  and  obtained  the  liand  of  Hermione,  daughter 
 of  Menelaus  and  Helen  ;  but  he  was  slain  for  this  by 
 Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon.  {Eiirip.,  Androin.,  1244, 
 seqq. —  Virg  ,  Jin.,  3,  319,  seqq.  —  Hcync,  Excurs  , 
 12,  ad  jEn.,  3  ) — U.  A  king  of  Epirus,  descended 
 from  Achilles  on  the  mother's  side.  He  was  saved 
 when  an  infant,  by  the  fidelity  of  his  servants,  from 
 the  pursuits  of  the  enemies  of  his  father,  who  had  been 
 banished  from  his  kingdom,  and  he  was  carried  to  the 
 court  of  Glautias,  king  of  Illyricum,  who  educated  him 
 with  great  tenderness.  Cassaiider,  king  of  Macedo- 
 nia, wished  to  despatch  him  ;  but  Glautias  not  only 
 refused  to  deliver  him  up  into  the  hands  of  his  enemy, 
 but  he  even  went  with  an  army,  and  placed  him  on  the 
 throne  of  Epirus,  though  only  twelve  years  of  age. 
 About  five  years  after,  the  absence  of  Pyrrhus  to  at- 
 tend the  nuptials  of  one  of  the  daughters  of  Glautias 
 raised  new  commotions.  The  monarch  was  e.xpelled 
 from  his  throne  by  Neoptolemus,  who  had  usurped  it 
 after  the  death  of  yEacides  ;  and  being  still  without 
 resources,  he  applied  to  his  brother-in-law  Demetrius 
 for  assistance.  He  accompanied  Demetrius  at  the 
 battle  of  Ipsus,  and  fought  there  with  all  the  prudence 
 and  inirepidiiy  of  an  experienced  general.  He  after- 
 ward passed  into  Egypt,  where,  by  his  marriage  with 
 Antigone,  the  daughter  of  Berenice,  he  soon  obtained 
 a  sufficient  force  to  attempt  the  recovery  of  his  throne. 
 He  was  successful  in  the  undertaking  ;  but,  to  remove 
 all  causes  of  quarrel,  he  took  the  usurper  to  share  with 
 him  the  royalty,  and  some  time  after  he  put  him  to 
 death,  under  pretence  that  he  had  attempted  to  poison 
 him.  In  the  subsequent  years  of  his  reign  Pyrrhus 
 engaged  in  the  quarrels  winch  disturbed  the  peace  of 
 the  Macedonian  monarchy.  He  marched  against  De- 
 metrius, and  gave  the  Macedonian  soldiers  fresh  proofs 
 of  his  valour  and  activity.  By  dissimulation  he  ingra- 
 tiated himself  in  the  minds  of  his  enemy's  subjects  ; 
 and  when  Demetrius  laboured  under  a  momentary  ill- 
 ness, Pyrrhus  made  an  attempt  upon  the  crown  of  Ma- 
 cedonia, which,  if  noc  then  successful,  soon  after  ren- 
 dered him  master  of  the  kingdom.  This  he  shared 
 with  Lvsimachus  for  seven  months,  till  the  jealousy  of 
 the  Macedonians  and  the  ambition  of  his  colleague 
 obliged  him  to  retire.  Pyrrhus  was  meditating  new 
 conquests,  when  the  Tareiitines  invited  him  to  Italy 
 to  assist  them  against  the  encroaching  power  of  Rome. 
 He  gladly  accepted  the  invitation,  but  his  passage 
 across  the  Adriatic  proved  nearly  fatal,  and  he  reached 
 the  shores  of  Italy  after  the  loss  of  the  greatest  part  of 
 his  troops  in  a  storm.  At  his  entrance  into  Taren- 
 tum,  B  0.  280,  he  began  to  reform  the  manners  of  the 
 inhabitants,  and,  by  introducing  the  strictest  discipline 
 amonff  their  troops,  to  accustom  them  to  bear  fatigue 
 and  to  despise  dangers.  In  the  first  battle  which  he 
 fought  with  the  Romans  he  obtained  the  victory  ;  but 
 for  this  he  was  more  particularly  indebted  to  his  ele- 
 phants, whose  bulk  and  uncommon  appearance  aston- 
 ished the  Romans,  and  terrified  their  cavalry.  The 
 number  of  the  slain  was  equal  on  both  sides,  and  the 
 conqueror  said  that  another  such  victory  would  rum 
 him.  He  also  sent  Cineas,  his  chief  minister,  to 
 Rome,  and,  though  victorious,  he  sued  for  peace. 
 These  oflfers  of  peace  were  refused  ;  and  when  Pyrrhus 
 questioned  Cineas  about  the  manners  and  the  charac- 
 ter of  the  Romans,  the  sagacious  minister  replied  that 
 their  senate  was  a  venerable  assembly  of  kings,  and 
 that  to  fight  against  them  was  to  attack  another  Hydra. 
 A  second  battle  was  soon  after  fought  near  Asculum, 
 but  the  slaughter  was  so  great,  and  the  valour  so  con- 
 spicuous on  both  sides,  that  the  Romans  and  their  en- 
 1152 
 
 emies  reciprocally  claimed  the  victory  as  their  own. 
 Pyrrhus  still  conimued  the  war  in  favour  of  the  Tareii- 
 tines, when  he  was  invited  into  Sicily  by  the  inhabi- 
 tants, who  laboured  under  the  yoke  of  Carthage  and 
 the  cruelty  of  their  own  petty  tyrants.  His  fondness 
 for  novelty  soon  determined  him  to  quit  Italy.  He 
 left  a  garrison  at  'i'arentum,  and  crossed  over  to  Si- 
 cily, where  he  obtained  two  victories  over  the  Cartha- 
 ginians, and  took  many  of  their  towns.  He  was  for  a 
 while  successful,  and  formed  the  project  of  invading 
 Africa  ;  but  his  popularity  soon  vanished.  His  troops 
 became  insolent,  and  he  behaved  with  haughtiness, 
 and  showed  himself  oppressive,  so  that  his  return  to 
 Italy  was  deemed  a  fortunate  event  for  all  Sicily.  He 
 had  no  sooner  arrived  at  Tarentum  than  he  renewed 
 hostilities  with  the  Romans  with  gr^at  acrimony  ;  but 
 when  his  army  of  80,000  men  had  been  defeated  by 
 20,000  of  the  enemy  under  Curius,  he  left  Italy  with 
 precipitation,  B.C.  274,  ashamed  of  the  enterprise,  and 
 mortified  by  the  victories  which  had  been  obtained  over 
 one  of  the  descendants  of  Achilles.  In  Epirus  he  be- 
 gan to  repair  his  military  character  by  attacking  Anti- 
 gonus,  who  was  then  on  the  Macedonian  throne.  He 
 gained  some  advantages  over  his  enemy,  and  was  at 
 last  restored  to  the  throne  of  Macedonia.  He  after- 
 ward marched  against  Sparta  at  the  request  of  Cleony- 
 mus  ;  but,  when  all  his  vigorous  operations  were  insuf- 
 ficient to  take  the  capital  of  Lacoiiia,  he  retired  to 
 Argos,  where  the  treachery  of  Aristeus  invited  him. 
 The  Argives  desired  him  to  retire,  and  not  to  interfere 
 in  the  affairs  of  their  republic,  which  were  confounded 
 by  the  ambition  of  two  of  their  nobles.  He  complied 
 with  their  wishes;  but  in  the  night  he  marched  his 
 forces  into  the  town,  and  might  have  made  him- 
 self master  of  the  place  had  he  not  retarded  his  prog- 
 ress by  entering  it  with  his  elephants.  The  combat 
 that  ensued  was  obstinate  and  bloody  ;  and  the  monarch, 
 to  fight  with  more  boldness,  and  to  encounter  dangers 
 with  more  facility,  exchanged  his  dress.  He  was  at- 
 tacked by  one  of  the  enemy  ;  but,  as  he  was  going  to 
 run  him  through  in  his  own  defence,  the  mother  of  the 
 Argive,  who  saw  her  son's  danger  from  the  top  of  a 
 house,  threw  down  a  tile,  and  brought  Pyrrhus  to  the 
 ground.  His  head  was  cut  off  and  carried  to  Ar.li- 
 gonus,  who  gave  his  remains  a  magnificent  funeral, 
 and  presented  his  ashes  to  his  son  Helenus,  272  years 
 before  the  Christian  era. — In  person  Pyrrhus  was  ath- 
 letic and  commanding,  and  his  strength  and  power  of 
 bearing  the  severest  fatigue  were  such  as  called  forth 
 the  admiration  of  all  who  knew  him.  The  turn  and 
 character  of  his  mind  corresponded  with  such  powers 
 of  body  ;  and  he  seemed  to  be  formed  for  war  as  much 
 by  his  spirit  of  enterprise  and  resolution,  as  by  his  i-kill 
 in  the  use  of  arms  and  the  power  of  enduring  priva- 
 tions. His  patience  was  not  merely  the  endurance  of 
 physical  evils  ;  it  was  a  moral  quality  of  much  higher 
 value,  which  showed  that  he  had  not  naturally  an  ar- 
 bitrary and  tyrannical  disposition  ;  and  it  was  admira- 
 bly exemplified  in  the  calmness  with  which  he  bore  tiie 
 reproofs  of  Cineas,  and  the  pleasure  he  took  in  listening 
 to  the  rough  and  homely  truths  uttered  by  Fabricius. 
 His  admiration  of  the  Romans  arose  as  much  from 
 his  veneration  for  their  probity  as  from  astonishment 
 at  their  resoluteness  ;  and  though  his  policy  sometimes 
 partook  of  the  tortuous  character  of  the  Greek  and 
 Asiatic  courts,  in  action  he  was  always  magnanimiius. 
 This  great  quality  showed  itself  even  in  his  domestic 
 intercourse  with  his  friends,  and  checked  that  ardour 
 and  quickness,  which,  without  it,  would  have  made 
 him  a  tyrant  as  well  as  a  conqueror.  The  whole  of 
 his  history  shows  that  he  was  misled  by  passions  not 
 sufficiently  controlled,  but  that  his  understanding  was 
 powerful,  quick,  and  acute.  His  rapidity,  indeed,  in 
 projecting  and  executing,  hurried  him  into  an  excess, 
 and  he  seldom  allowed  himself  time  enough  for  delib- 
 eration and  judgment :  hence  it  was  that  he  might  be 
 
P  YT 
 
 PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 said  to  deserve  the  sarcastic  remark  of  Antigonus,  who 
 compared  him  to  a  gambler,  "who  makes  many  good 
 throws,  but  never  seems  to  know  when  he  has  the  best 
 of  the  game."  (Plut.,  Vit.  Pyrrh. — Encydop.  Metro- 
 pol,  div.  2,  vol.  1,  p.  667.) 
 
 PviHAGoRAs,  a  celebrated  philosopher  of  Samos. 
 Great  uncertainty  exists  as  to  the  year  when  he  was 
 born.  Some,  as,  for  example,  La  Nauze  and  Freret, 
 make  it  to  have  been  the  first  year  of  the  43d  Olym- 
 piad. Bentley  is  in  favour  of  the  fourth  year  of  the 
 same  Olympiad,  Meiner  contends  for  the  second  of 
 the  49th,  Dodwell  for  the  fourth  of  the  52d.  There  is 
 a  difTerence  of  sixty-three  years  between  the  extremes 
 o(  these  dates.  Some  authors  assert  that  all  which 
 can  be  stated  with  any  degree  of  certainty  is,  that  sev- 
 enty-five or  eighty-five  years  of  the  life  of  Pythagoras 
 (for  even  the  duration  of  his  life  is  a  subject  of  con- 
 troversy) fall  within  the  one  hundred  and  forty-two 
 years  that  elapsed  between  A.C.  608  and  A.C.  466. 
 Viscoiiti  gives  the  preference  to  Eusebius,  who,  in 
 fixmg  the  death  of  Pythagoras  in  the  496th  year  B.C., 
 expresses  his  doubts  respecting  the  advanced  age  to 
 which  the  philoso()her  is  said  to  have  attained.  By  his 
 mother's  side  he  is  said  to  have  been  connected  with 
 one  of  the  oldest  families  in  the  island.  But  his  fa- 
 ther. Mnesarchus,  was  generally  believed  to  have  been 
 a  foreigner,  and  not  of  purely  Greek  origin,  though  it 
 was  disputed  whether  he  was  a  Phoenician,  or  belonged 
 to  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgians  of  Lemnos  or  Imbros,  and 
 to  a  branch,  therefore,  of  the  Pelasgian  race.  If  we 
 dismiss  the  tales  of  lamblichus  concernmg  the  early 
 wisdom,  gravity,  and  temperance  of  Pythagoras,  which 
 are  said  to  have  been  such  as  to  have  filled  all  men 
 with  admiration,  to  have  commanded  respect  and  rev- 
 erence from  gray  hairs,  and  even  to  have  led  many  to 
 assert  that  he  was  the  son  of  God  (Iamb.,  Vit.  Pylh., 
 w.  6),  we  meet  with  no  other  credible  particulars  of 
 his  childiiood  and  early  education,  but  that  he  was  first 
 iiisiructeil  in  his  own  country  by  Creophilus,  and 
 afterward  by  Pherecydes  in  the  island  of  Scyros. 
 (Thirl irair.i  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  140,  in  notis.)  When 
 he  had  paid  the  honours  to  his  preceptor,  for  whom  he 
 appears  to  have  entertained  a  high  respect,  he  returned 
 to  Samos,  and  again  studied  under  the  direction  of 
 his  first  master.  Much  is  said  by  lamblichus  and 
 other  later  biographers  of  Pythagoras's  early  journey 
 into  Ionia,  and  his  visits  to  Thales  and  Anaximander ; 
 but  we  find  no  ancient  account  of  his  journey,  nor  any 
 traces  of  its  effpc(s  on  his  doctrine,  which  differs  es- 
 sentiallv  from  that  of  the  Ionic  school.  On  his  way 
 to  Kgypt,  lamblichus  asserts  that  he  visited  Phoenicia, 
 and  conversed  with  the  descendants  of  Mochus  and 
 other  priests  of  that  country,  and  was  initiated  into 
 their  peculiar  mysteries.  And  it  may  seem  not  en- 
 tirely iin[)rol)able  that  he  might  wish  to  be  farther  ac- 
 quainted with  the  Phojnician  philosophy,  of  which  he 
 had  doubtless  heard  a  general  report  from  his  father, 
 who  was  probably  of  Phoenician  origin.  But  it  is  cer- 
 tainly a  fiction  of  the  Alexandrean  school  that  Pythag- 
 oras received  his  doctrines  of  numbers  from  the  Phoe- 
 nicians, for  their  knowledge  of  numbers  extended  no 
 farther  than  to  the  practical  science  of  arithmetic.  In 
 Egypt,  Pythagoras  was  introduced,  by  the  recommend- 
 ation of  Polycrates,  tyrant  of  Samos,  to  Amasis,  king 
 of  Egypt,  a  great  patron  of  learned  men,  particularly 
 those  of  Greece,  that  he  might  the  more  easily  obtain 
 access  to  the  colleges  of  the  priests.  The  king  him- 
 self could  scarcely,  with  all  his  authority,  prevail  upon 
 the  priests  to  admit  a  stranger  to  the  knowledge  of 
 their  sacred  mysteries.  The  college  of  Ileliopolis,  to 
 whom  the  king's  instructions  were  sent,  referred  Py- 
 thagoras to  the  college  of  Memphis,  as  of  greater  anti- 
 quity :  from  Memphis  he  was  dismissed,  under  the 
 same  pretence,  to  Thebes.  The  Theban  priests,  not 
 daring  to  reject  the  royal  mandate,  yet  loth  to  comply 
 •  with  it,  prescribed  Pvthagoras  manv  severe  and  troub- 
 7G  ' 
 
 lesome  preliminary  ceremonies,  among  which  was  that 
 of  circumcision,  hoping  thereby  to  discourage  him 
 from  prosecuting  his  design.  Pythagoras,  however, 
 executed  all  their  injunctions  with  such  wonderful  pa- 
 tience and  perseverance,  that  he  obtained  their  entire 
 confidence,  and  was  instructed  in  their  most  recondite 
 doctrine.  He  passed  twenty-two  years  in  Egypt. 
 During  this  tune  he  made  himself  perfectly  master  of 
 the  three  kinds  of  writing  which  were  used  in  that 
 country,  the  epistolary,  the  hieroglyphic,  and  the  sym- 
 bolical ;  and,  having  obtained  access  to  their  most 
 learned  men,  in  every  celebrated  college  of  priests,  he 
 became  intimately  conversant  with  their  ancient  rec- 
 ords, and  gained  an  accurate  knowledge  of  their  doc- 
 trines concerning  the  origin  of  things,  with  their  as- 
 tronomy and  geometry,  and,  in  short,  with  Egyptian 
 learning  in  its  whole  extent.  To  his  stay  in  Egypt 
 he  was  most  likely  indebted,  not  so  much  for  any  pos- 
 itive knowledge  or  definite  opinion,  as  for  hints  which 
 roused  his  curiosity,  and  impressions  which  decided 
 the  bias  of  his  mind.  In  the  science  of  the  Egyptians 
 he  perhaps  found  little  to  borrow  ;  but  in  their  political 
 and  religious  institutions  he  saw  a  mighty  engine,  such 
 as  he  might  wish  to  wield  for  nobler  purposes.  Many 
 writers  who  flourished  after  the  commencement  of  the 
 Christian  era,  both  pagan  and  Christian,  have  related 
 that  Pythagoras,  immediately  after  he  left  Egypt,  vis- 
 ited the  Persian  and  Chaldaean  Magi,  and  travelled  so 
 far  into  the  East  as  to  converse  with  the  Indian  Gym- 
 nosophists.  The  occasion  of  this  journey  is  thus  re- 
 lated by  lamblichus:  "After  spending  twenty-two 
 years  in  Egypt,  he  was  conveyed  by  the  victorious 
 army  of  Cambyses,  among  a  numerous  train  of  cap- 
 tives, to  Babylon,  where  he  made  himself  perfectly  ac- 
 quainted with  the  learning  and  philosophy  of  the  East ; 
 and,  after  the  expiration  of  twelve  years,  when  he  was 
 in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age,  he  returned  to  Samos." 
 Cicero,  Eusebius,  Lacfantius,  and  Valerius  Maximus, 
 though  they  say  nothing  of  the  captivity,  agree  that  he 
 visited  the  Persian  Magi.  Some  have  even  maintain- 
 ed that  in  this  journey  he  attended  upon  the  instruc- 
 tions of  the  celebrated  Zoroaster;  while  others,  who 
 have  placed  the  life  of  Zoroaster  in  an  earlier  period 
 than  that  of  Pythagoras,  have  asserted  that  the  latter 
 conversed  with  certain  .Tewish  priests,  who  were  at 
 that  time  in  captivity  at  Babylon,  and  by  this  means 
 become  intimately  acquainted  with  the  Jewish  laws 
 and  customs.  After  all,  however,  there  is  great  rea- 
 son to  suspect  the  truth  of  the  whole  narrative  of 
 Pythagoras's  journey  into  the  East  ;  for  the  relation  is 
 encumbered  with  inextricable  chronological  difficul- 
 ties. The  whole  proof  of  the  reality  of  this  expedition 
 rests  either  upon  the  evidence  of  certain  Alexandrean 
 Platonists,  who  were  desirous  of  exalting  as  much  as 
 possible  the  reputation  of  those  ancient  philosophers  to 
 whom  they  looked  back  as  the  first  oracles  of  wisdom  ; 
 or  upon  that  of  certain  Jewish  and  Christian  writers, 
 who  were  willing  to  credit  every  tale  vshich  might  seem 
 to  render  it  probable  that  the  Pythagorean  doctrine 
 was  derived  from  the  Oriental  philosophers,  and  ulti- 
 mately from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  It  seems,  there- 
 fore, on  the  whole,  most  reasonable  to  look  upon  the 
 story  of  his  eastern  journey  as  a  mere  fiction,  and  to 
 conclude  that  Pythagoras  never  passed  over  from 
 Egypt  to  the  East,  but  returned  thence  immediately 
 to  Samos.  Pythagoras,  on  his  return  to  his  native 
 island,  was  desirous  that  his  fellow-citizens  should 
 reap  the  benefit  of  his  travels  and  studies,  and  for  this 
 purpose  attempted  to  institute  a  school  for  their  in- 
 struction in  the  elements  of  science,  but  chose  to 
 adopt  the  Egyptian  mode  of  teaching,  and  communi- 
 cate his  doctrines  under  a  symbolical  form.  His  at- 
 tempt was  unsuccessful.  He  then  visited  in  succes- 
 sion Delos,  Crete,  Sparta,  Elis  (being  present  at  the 
 Olympic  games  celebrated  in  the  latter  district),  and 
 finally  Phlius  in  .^chaia,  the  residence  of  Leon,  king 
 
 1153 
 
PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 of  the  Phliasians.  Here  he  first  assumed  the  appella- 
 tion of  philosopher.  Cicero  ascribes  the  invention  of 
 this  term  to  Pythagoras.  If  this  be  correct,  Pythago- 
 ras probably  did  not  intend,  as  has  been  commonly 
 imagined,  to  deprecate  the  reputation  for  wisdom,  but 
 to  profess  himself  devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  it.  The 
 well-known  story,  which  e.xplains  the  origin  of  the 
 name,  suggests  an  entirely  false  notion  of  his  view  of 
 life,  so  far  as  it  implies  that  he  regarded  contemplation 
 as  the  highest  end  of  human  existence.  The  story  is 
 as  follows:  It  seems  that  Leon,  charmed  with  the  in- 
 genuity and  eloquence  with  which  he  discoursed  on 
 various  topics,  asked  him  in  what  art  he  principally 
 excelled,  to  which  Pythagoras  replied,  that  he  did  not 
 profess  himself  master  of  any  art,  but  that  he  was  a 
 philosopher.  Leon,  struck  with  the  novelty  of  the 
 term,  asked  Pythagoras  who  were  philosophers,  and 
 wherein  they  differed  from  other  men.  Pythagoras 
 replied  that,  as  in  the  public  games,  while  some  are 
 contending  for  glory,  and  others  are  buying  and  selling 
 in  pursuit  of  gain,  there  is  always  a  third  class,  who  at- 
 tend merely  as  spectators ;  so  in  human  life,  amid  the 
 various  characters  of  men,  there  is  a  select  number 
 who,  despising  all  other  pursuits,  assiduously  apply 
 themselves  to  the  study  of  nature  and  the  search  after 
 wisdom ;  these,  added  Pythagoras,  are  the  persons 
 whom  I  denominate  philosophers.  —  Pythagoras  is 
 generally  believed  to  have  found  Polycrales  ruling 
 at  Samos,  on  his  return  from  his  travels,  and  his  aver- 
 sion to  the  tyrant's  government  was  sometimes  as- 
 signed as  the  motive  which  led  him  finally  to  quit  his 
 native  island.  If  there  were  any  foundation  for  this 
 story,  it  must  probably  be  sought,  not  in  any  personal 
 enmity  between  him  and  Polycrates — who  is  said  to 
 have  furnished  him  with  letters  of  recommendation  to 
 Amasis — but  in  his  conviction  that  the  power  of  Po- 
 lycrates would  oppose  insuperable  objections  to  his  de- 
 signs. For  it  seems  certain  that,  before  he  set  out  for 
 the  West,  he  had  already  conceived  the  idea  to  which 
 he  dedicated  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  only  sought 
 for  a  fit  place  and  a  favourable  opportunity  for  carry- 
 ing it  into  effect.  We,  however,  find  intimations,  that 
 he  did  not  leave  Samos  until  he  had  acquired  some 
 celebrity  among  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  by  the  introduc- 
 tion of  certain  mystic  rites,  which  Herodotus  repre- 
 sents as  closely  allied  to  the  Egyptian,  and  to  those 
 which  were  celebrated  in  Greece  under  the  name  of 
 Orpheus  as  their  reputed  founder.  But  as  we  cannot 
 believe  that  the  establishment  of  a  new  form  of  reli- 
 gion was  an  object  that  Pythagoras  ever  proposed  to 
 himself  apart  from  his  political  views,  we  could  only 
 regard  these  mysteries,  supposing  the  fact  ascertained, 
 in  the  light  of  an  essay  or  an  experiment,  by  which  he 
 sounded  the  disposition  or  the  capability  of  his  coun- 
 trymen for  the  reception  of  other  more  practical  doc- 
 trines. The  fame  of  his  travels,  his  wisdom,  and 
 sanctity  had  probably  gone  before  him  into  Greece, 
 where  he  appears  to  have  stayed  some  time,  partly,  per- 
 haps, to  enlarge  his  knowledge,  and  parlly  to  heighten 
 his  reputation.  It  was  no  doubt  for  the  former  pur- 
 pose that  he  visited  Crete  and  Sparta,  where  he  found 
 a  model  of  government  and  discipline  more  congenial 
 to  his  habits  of  thinking  than  he  could  have  met  with 
 anywhere  else  but  in  Egypt  or  India.  If,  as  is  highly 
 probable,  he  stopped  on  the  same  journey  at  Oly  mpia  and 
 at  Delphi,  it  was,  perhaps,  less  from  either  curiosity  or 
 devotion,  than  from  the  desire  of  obtaining  the  sanction 
 of  the  oracles,  and  of  forming  a  useful  connexion  with 
 Iheir  ministers.  Thus  we  are  told  that  he  was  in- 
 debted for  many  of  his  ethical  dogmas  to  Themistoclea 
 of  Delphi,  probably  the  priestess.  The  legends  about 
 his  appearing  at  Olympia — where  he  is  said  to  have 
 shown  a  thigh,  like  the  shoulder  of  Pelops,  of  gold  or 
 of  ivory,  and  to  have  fascinated  an  eagle  as  it  flew 
 over  his  head — may  very  well  be  connected  with  this 
 journey,  and  would  indicate  that  he  was  looked  upon  j 
 1154 
 
 zs  a  person  partaking  of  a  superhuman  natnre,  and  as 
 an  especial  favourite  of  Heaven.  How  far  he  excited 
 or  encouraged  such  a  delusion,  is  in  all  cases  very 
 difficult  to  determme ;  but  it  seems  unqnesiionabl* 
 that  be  did  not  rely  solely  on  his  genuine  merit*  and 
 acquirements,  but  put  forward  marvellous  pretensions 
 which  he  must  have  been  conscious  had  no  real 
 ground,  and  which,  we  must  suspect,  were  calculated 
 to  attract  the  veneration  of  the  credulous.  The  mos* 
 famous  of  these  was  the  claim  he  laid  to  the  privi 
 lege — conferred  on  him,  as  he  asserted,  by  the  gofi 
 Hermes  —  of  preserving  a  distinct  remembrance  of 
 many  states  of  existence  which  bis  soul  had  passed 
 through  ;  an  imposture  attested  by  bis  contemporary 
 Xenophanes,  who,  as  his  character  in  this  respect 
 stands  much  higher  than  that  of  Pythagoras,  appears 
 to  have  treated  it  in  his  elegies  with  deserved  ridi- 
 cule. {Diog.  Laert.,  8,  36.) — What  were  the  precise 
 motives  which  induced  him  finally  to  fix  his  residence 
 among  the  Italian  Greeks,  and  particularly  at  Crotona, 
 is  only  matter  for  conjecture.  The  peculiar  salu- 
 brity of  the  air  of  this  place,  its  arislocratical  govern- 
 ment, a  state  of  manners  which,  though  falling  far 
 short  of  his  idea,  was  advantageously  contrasted  with 
 the  luxury  of  Sybaris,  might  suffice  to  determine  his 
 choice,  even  if  there  were  no  other  circumstances  in 
 its  condition  which  opened  a  prospect  of  successful 
 exertion.  In  fact,  however,  the  state  of  parties  in 
 Crotona,  at  the  time  when  he  arrived  there,  seems  to 
 have  been  singularly  favourable  to  the  undertaking 
 which  he  meditated.  Causes  of  discord  were  at  work 
 there,  as  in  most  of  the  neighbouring  cities,  very  sim- 
 ilar to  those  which  produced  the  struggle  between  the 
 patricians  and  plebeians  at  Rome.  There  was  a  body, 
 called  a  senate,  composed  of  a  thousand  members, 
 and  probably  representing  the  descendants  of  the  more 
 ancient  settlers,  invested  with  large  and  irresponsible 
 authority,  and  enjoying  privileges  which  had  begun  to 
 excite  discontent  among  the  [)eoplc.  The  power  of 
 the  oligarchy  was  still  preponderant,  but  apparently 
 not  so  secure  as  to  render  all  assistance  superfluous. 
 The  arrival  of  a  stranger  outwardly  neutral,  who  en- 
 gaged the  veneration  of  the  multitude  by  his  priestly 
 character,  and  by  the  rumour  of  his  supernatural  en- 
 dowments, and  who  was  willing  to  throw  all  his  influ- 
 ence into  the  scale  of  the  government,  on  condition 
 of  exercising  some  control  over  its  measures,  was  an 
 event  which  could  not  but  be  hailed  with  great  joy  by 
 the  privileged  class.  And,  accordingly,  Pythagoras 
 seems  to  have  found  the  utmost  readiness  in  the  sen- 
 ate of  Crotona  to  favour  his  designs.  The  real  na- 
 ture of  these  designs,  and  of  the  means  by  which  he 
 endeavoured  to  carry  them  into  execution,  is  a  ques- 
 tion which  has  exercised  the  sagacity  of  many  inqui- 
 rers, and  has  been  variously  solved,  according  to  the 
 higher  degree  of  importance  which  Pythagoras  has 
 been  supposed  to  have  attached  to  religion,  or  to  phi- 
 losophy, or  to  government.  But  it  seems  clear  that 
 his  object  was  not  exclusively,  or  even  predominantly 
 religious,  or  philosophical,  or  political,  and  that  none  of 
 the  objects  stood  in  the  relation  of  an  end  to  the  other 
 two  as  its  means.  On  the  other  hand,  we  cannot  be 
 satisfied  with  the  opinion  of  a  modern  author,  that  the 
 aim  of  Pythagoras  was  to  exhibit  the  ideal  of  a  Do- 
 rian state.  {Midler,  Dorians,  3,  9,  l.").)  This  is,  per- 
 haps, in  one  sense  more,  and  in  another  less,  than  he 
 really  attempted,  and  the  opinion  seems  to  affect  the 
 character  of  the  Dorians  rather  than  the  views  of  Py- 
 thagoras. His  leading  thought  appears  to  have  been, 
 that  the  state  and  the  individual  ought,  each  in  its 
 way,  to  reflect  the  image  of  that  order  and  harmony 
 by  which  he  believed  the  universe  to  be  sustained  and 
 regulated.  He  did  not  frame  a  constitution  or  a  code 
 of  laws  ;  nor  does  he  appear  ever  to  have  assumed 
 any  public  office.  He  instituted  a  society — an  order 
 we  might  now  call  it — of  which  he  became  the  lead- 
 
PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 er.  It  was  composed  of  young  men  carefully  select- 
 ed from  the  noblest  families,  not  only  of  Crotona,  but 
 of  other  Italiot  cities.  Their  number  amounted,  or 
 was  confined,  to  three  hundred  ;  and  if  he  expected 
 by  their  co-operation  to  exercise  a  sway  firmer  and 
 more  lasting  than  that  of  a  lawgiver  or  a  magis- 
 trate, first  over  Crotona,  and,  in  the  end,  over  all  the 
 Italiot  cities,  his  project,  though  new  and  bold,  ought 
 not  to  be  pronounced  visionary  or  extravagant.  This 
 celebrated  society,  then,  was  at  once  a  philosophical 
 school,  a  religious  brotherhood,  and  a  political  associa- 
 tion; and  all  these  characters  appear  to  have  been  in- 
 separably united  m  the  founder's  mind.  The  ambition 
 of  Pythagoras  was,  assuredly,  truly  lofty  and  noble. 
 He  aimed  at  establishing  a  dominion  which  he  be- 
 lieved to  be  that  of  wisdom  and  virtue,  a  rational  su- 
 premacy of  minds,  enlightened  by  philosophy  and  pu- 
 rified by  religion,  and  of  characters  fitted  to  maintain 
 an  ascendant  over  others  by  habits  of  self-command. 
 At  first  Pythagoras  obtained  unbounded  influence  over 
 all  classes  at  Crotona,  and  effected  a  general  reforma- 
 tion in  the  habits  of  the  people;  while  in  other  Italian 
 cities  he  gained  such  a  footing  as  enabled  hitn  either 
 to  counteract  revolutionary  movements,  or  to  restore 
 aristocratical  government  where  it  had  given  way  to 
 tyranny  or  democracy. — After  the  celebrated  battle  in 
 which  the  people  of  Crotona  defeated  the  Sybarites, 
 and  after  which  they  destroyed  the  city  of  the  latter, 
 the  senate  of  Crotona  and  the  Pythagorean  associates 
 seem  to  have  been  so  elated  by  this  success  as  to 
 have  fancied  that  it  was  the  triumph  of  their  cause, 
 and  that  they  alone  were  to  reap  its  fruits.  When  the 
 question  arose  as  to  the  distribution  of  the  spoil  and 
 of  the  conquered  land,  they  insisted  on  retaining  the 
 whole  in  the  name  of  the  state,  and  refused  to  con- 
 cede any  share  to  those  who  had  earned  it  all  by  their 
 toil  and  blood.  The  commonalty  were,  of  course,  ir- 
 ritated by  the  attempt.  Their  fury  was  directed 
 against  the  society,  chiefly,  it  is  said,  by  Cylon,  a  no- 
 ble and  wealthy  man,  who  is  believed  to  have  been 
 rejected  by  Pythagoras  when  he  sought  to  be  admit- 
 ted among  his  followers.  A  turn-out  took  place,  in 
 which  the  populace  set  fire  to  Milo's  house,  where  the 
 Pythagoreans  were  assembled.  Many  perished,  and 
 the  rest  only  found  safety  in  exile.  It  is  not  clear 
 whether  Pythagoras  himself  was  at  Crotona  during 
 this  commotion  ;  the  general  belief  seems  to  have 
 been  that  he  died,  not  long  after,  at  Metapontum.  The 
 rising  at  Crotona  appears  to  have  been  followed  by 
 similar  scenes  in  several  other  Italian  cities,  as  at 
 Caulonia,  Locri,  and  Tarentum,  which  would  prove 
 the  extensive  ramifications  of  the  order,  and  that  it 
 everywhere  disclosed  the  same  political  character. 
 Many  of  the  fugitives  took  refuge  in  Greece,  but  con- 
 fusion and  bloodshed  continued  to  prevail  for  many 
 years  in  the  cities  which  had  been  the  seats  of  the  so- 
 ciety. Tranquillity  was  at  length  restored  by  the  me- 
 diation of  the  Achffians  of  the  mother  country,  and 
 sixty  of  the  exiles  returned  to  their  homes.  But  their 
 presence  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  fresh  troubles, 
 perhaps  through  their  opposition  to  the  deinocratical 
 institutions  which  Crotona  and  other  cities  adopted 
 from  Achaia  :  and  at  a  later  period  we  find  some  cel- 
 ebrated Pythagoreans  in  Greece,  who  had  been  driven 
 out  of  Italy  by  their  political  adversaries,  while  oth- 
 ers remained  there,  and  endeavoured,  with  partial  suc- 
 cess, to  revive  the  ancient  influence  of  the  order. 
 {Thirlu-aW s  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  145,  seqq. — Riltcr's 
 History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p.  327.)  —  Many  tales 
 are  related  of  Pythagoras  which  carry  with  them 
 their  own  refutation.  That,  by  speaking  a  word, 
 he  tamed  a  Daunian  bear,  which  had  laid  waste  the 
 country ;  that  he  prevented  an  ox  from  eating  beans 
 by  whispering  in  its  ear  ;  that  he  was  on  the  same  day 
 present,  and  discoursed  in  public,  at  Metapontum  in 
 Italy,  and  at  Tauromeniura  in  Sicily  ;    that  he  pre- 
 
 dicted earthquakes,  storms,  and  other  future  events  , 
 and  that  a  river,  as  he  passed  over  it  with  his  friends, 
 cried  out,  "Hail,  Pythagoras,"  are  wonders  which  would 
 require  much  clearer  and  better  evidence  to  gain  them 
 credit    than    the  testimony  of  Apollonius,  Porphyry, 
 and   lamblichus,  or  even  of  Laeriius  and    Pliny.     It 
 appears  upon  the  face  of  the  history  of  this  philosopher, 
 that  he  owed  much  of  his  celebrity  and  authority  to 
 seeking  to  excite  the  veneration  of  the  credulous.     His 
 whole  manner  of  life,  as  far  as  it  is  known,  confirms 
 this  opinion.     Clothed   in  a  long  white  robe,  with  a 
 flowing  beard,  and,  as  some  relate,  with  a  golden  crown 
 on  his  head,  he  preserved  among  the  people,  and  in 
 the  presence  of  his  disciples,  a  commanding  gravity 
 and  majesty  of  aspect.     He  made  use  of  music  to  pro- 
 mote the  tranquillity  of  his  mind,  frequently  singing 
 for  this  purpose   hymns  of  Thales,  Hesiod,  and  Ho- 
 mer.    He  had  such  an  entire  command  over  himself, 
 that  he  was  never  seen  to  express  in  his  countenance 
 grief,  joy,  or  anger.     He  refrained  from  animal  food, 
 and  confined  himself  to  a  frugal  vegetable  diet.     By 
 this  artificial  demeanour,  Pythagoras  passed   himself 
 off  upon  the  vulgar  as  a  being  of  an  order  superior  to 
 the  common    condition   of  humanity,  and  persuaded 
 them  that  he  had  received  his  doctrine  from  heaven. 
 Pythagoras  married  Theano   of  Crotona,  or,  as  some 
 relate,  of  Crete,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Tclauges 
 and  Mnesarchus,  who,  after  his  death,  took  charge  of 
 his  school. — Whether  Pythagoras  left  behind  him  any 
 writings  is  a  point  much  disputed.     Diogenes  Laertius 
 enumerates  many   pieces  which   appeared   under   his 
 name,  and  lamblichus  and  Pliny  increase  the  list.    But 
 Plutarch,  Josephus,  Lucian,  and  others,  confess  that 
 there  were  no  genuine  works  of  Pythagoras  extant ; 
 and  from  the  pains  which  Pythagoras  took  to  confine 
 his  doctrine  to  his  own  school  during  his  life,  it  ap- 
 pears highly  probable    that  he  never  committed   his 
 philosophical  system  to  writing,  and  that  those  pieces 
 to  which  his  name  was  early  affixed  were  written  by 
 some  of  kis  followers,  according  to  the  tenets  which 
 they  had  learned  in  his  school.      Among  the  pieces  at- 
 tributed to  Pythagoras,  no  one  is  more  famous  than  the 
 Golden  Verses  (Xpvad  errtj),  which  Hierocles  has  il- 
 lustrated with  a  commentary.     It  is  generally  agreed 
 that  they  were  not  written  by  Pythagoras  ;  and   per- 
 haps they  are  to  be  ascribed  to  Epicharmus  or  Em- 
 pedocles.     {Stanley,  Hist.   Phil.,  p.   301.  —  Fabric, 
 Bill  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  IM.  —  Brucker,  Hist.  Phil.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  1 109.)     They  may  be  considered  as  a  brief  sum- 
 mary of  his  popular  doctrines. — The  method  of  in- 
 struction adopted  by  Pythagoras  was  twofold,  exoter- 
 ic and  esoteric,  or  public  and  private.     This  distinc- 
 tion he  had  seen  introduced  with  great  advantage  by 
 the  Egyptian  priests,  who  found  it  admirably  adapted 
 to  strengthen  their  authority  and  increase  their  emolu- 
 ment.    He    therefore  determined,  as  far   as  circum- 
 stances would   admit,  to   form  his    school    upon   the 
 Egyptian  model.     For  the  general  benefit  of  the  peo- 
 ple he  held  public  assemblies,  in  which  he  delivered 
 discourses  in  praise  of  virtue  and  against  vice  ;  and 
 in  these  he  gave  ])articular  instructions,  in   different 
 classes,  to  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  children, 
 and  others  who  filled  the  several  relations  of  society. 
 The  auditors  who  attended  these  public  lectures  did 
 not  properly  belong  to  his  .school,  but  continued  to  fol- 
 low their  usual  mode  of  living.     Besides  these,  he  had 
 a  select  body  of  disciples,  whom  he  called  his  compan- 
 ions and  friends,  who  submitted  to  a  peculiar  plan  of 
 discipline,  and  were  admitted  by  a  long  course  of  in-  ' 
 struction  into  all  the  mysteries  of  his  esoteric  doctrine. 
 Before  any  one  could  be  admitted  into  this  fraternity, 
 Pythagoras  examined  his  features  and  external  appear- 
 ance ;    inquired  in  what  manner  he  had  been  accus- 
 tomed to  behave  towards  his  parents  and  friends  ;  re- 
 marked his  manner  of  conversing,  laughing,  and  keep- 
 ins  silence ;  and  observed  what  passions  he  was  most 
 ^  1155 
 
PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 inclined  to  indulge,  wiih  what  kind  of  company  he  ]  number,  lived  together,  as  in  one  family,  with  their 
 ciiose  to  associate,  how  he  passed  his  leisure  moments,  wives  and  children,  in  a  public  building  called  ofiaKoi- 
 and    what    incidents   appeared    to  excite   in  him   the  ]  ov,  the  common  auditory.     The  whole  business  of  the 
 
 strongest  emotions  of  joy  and  sorrow.  From  these 
 and  other  circumstances,  Pythagoras  formed  an  accu- 
 rate judgment  of  the  (pjalifications  of  the  candidate  ; 
 and  he  admitted  no  one  into  his  society  till  he  was  ful- 
 ly persuaded  of  his  capacity  of  becoming  a  true  philos- 
 opher. Upon  the  first  probationary  admission,  the 
 fortitude  and  self-command  of  the  candidate  was  put 
 to  the  trial  by  a  long  course  of  severe  abstinence  and 
 rigorous  exercise.  The  injunction  of  silence  has  al- 
 ready been  alluded  to.  This  silence,  or  txefivOia,  as 
 it  was  termed,  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  that  sa- 
 cred reserve  with  which  all  the  disciples  of  Pythagoras 
 were  bound,  upon  oath,  to  receive  the  doctrines  of 
 their  master,  that  they  might,  from  no  inducement 
 whatsoever,  suffer  them  to  pass  bevond  the  limits  of 
 their  sect.  Pythagoras,  like  all  other  philosophers, 
 had  his  exoteric,  or  public,  and  his  esoteric,  or  private, 
 doctrines.  The  restraint  which  he  put  upon  the  words 
 of  his  pupils,  by  enjoining  silence  for  so  long  a  time, 
 was  certainly,  in  one  point  of  view,  a  very  judicious 
 expedient,  as  it  restrained  impertinent  curiosity,  and 
 prevented  every  inconvenience  of  contradiction.  Ac- 
 cordingly, we  find  that  his  disciples  silenced  all  doubts, 
 and  refuted  all  objections,  by  appealing  to  his  author- 
 ity. AiTOf  ifa,  ipse  dixit  ("he  himself,"  i.  e.,  the 
 master,  "  said  so"),  decided  every  dispute.  Nor  was 
 this  preparatory  discipline  deemed  sufficiently  severe 
 without  adding,  during  the  years  of  initiation,  an  en- 
 tire prohibition  of  seeing  their  master,  or  hearing  his 
 lectures  except  from  behind  a  curtain.  And  even  this 
 privilege  was  too  great  to  be  commonly  allowed  ;  for 
 in  this  stage  of  tuition  they  were  usually  instructed 
 by  some  inferior  preceptor,  who  barely  recited  the  doc- 
 trine of  Pythagoras,  without  assigning  the  reasonings  or 
 demonstrations  on  which  they  were  founded,  and  re- 
 quired the  obedient  pupil  to  receive  them  as  unques- 
 tionable truths  upon  their  master's  word.  Those  who 
 had  sufficient  perseverance  to  pass  these  several  steps 
 of  probation  were  at  last  admitted  among  the  Esoter- 
 ics, and  allowed  to  see  and  hear  Pythagoras  behind  the 
 curtain.  But  if  it  happened  that  any  one,  through  im- 
 patience of  such  rigid  discipline,  chose  to  withdraw 
 from  the  society  before  the  expiration  of  the  term  of 
 trial,  he  was  dismissed  with  a  .share  of  the  common 
 stock,  the  double  of  that  which  he  had  advanced  ;  a 
 tomb  was  erected  for  him  as  for  a  dead  man  ;  and  he 
 was  to  be,  as  such,  forgotten  by  the  brethren  as  if  he 
 had  been  actually  dead.  It  was  the  peculiar  privi- 
 lege of  the  Esoterics   to    receive    a  full  explanation 
 
 society  was  conducted  with  the  most  perfect  regular- 
 ity. Every  day  was  begun  with  a  distinct  deliliera- 
 tion  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  should  be  spent,  and 
 concluded  with  a  careful  retrospect  of  the  events  which 
 had  occurred,  and  the  business  which  had  been  trans- 
 acted. They  rose  before  the  sun,  that  they  might  pay 
 him  homage  ;  after  which  they  repeated  select  verses 
 from  Homer  and  other  poets,  and  made  use  of  music, 
 both  vocal  and  instrumental,  to  enliven  their  spirits, 
 and  fit  them  for  the  duties  of  the  day.  They  then  em- 
 ployed several  hours  in  the  study  of  science.  These 
 were  succeeded  by  an  interval  of  leisure,  which  was 
 commonly  spent  in  a  solitary  walk  for  the  purpose  of 
 contemplation.  The  next  portion  of  the  day  was  al- 
 lotted to  conversation.  The  hour  immediately  before 
 dinner  was  filled  up  with  various  kinds  of  athletic  ex- 
 ercises. Their  dinner  consisted  chiefly  of  bread,  hon. 
 ey,  and  water  ;  for,  after  they  were  perfectly  initiated, 
 they  wholly  denied  themselves  the  use  of  wine.  The 
 remainder  of  the  day  was  devoted  to  civil  and  domes- 
 tic affairs,  conversation,  bathing,  and  religious  cere- 
 monies. The  Exoteric  disciples  of  Pythagoras  were 
 taught  after  the  Egyptian  manner,  by  images  arid  sym- 
 bols, which  must  have  been  exceedingly  obscure  to 
 those  who  were  not  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  the 
 school.  And  they  who  were  admitted  to  this  privilege 
 were  trained,  from  their  first  admission,  to  observe  in- 
 violable silence  with  respect  to  the  recondite  doctrines 
 of  their  master.  That  the  wisdom  of  Pythagoras 
 might  not  pass  into  the  ears  of  the  vulgar,  they  com- 
 mitted it  chiefly  to  memory  ;  and  where  they  found  it 
 necessary  to  make  use  of  writing,  they  were  careful 
 not  to  suffer  their  minutes  to  pass  beyond  the  limits  ol 
 the  school.  After  the  dissolution  of  their  assembly  by 
 Cylon's  faction,  Lysis  and  Archippus  thought  it  neces- 
 sary, in  order  to  preserve  the  Pythagorean  doctrine 
 from  total  oblivion,  to  reduce  it  to  a  systematic  sum- 
 mary ;  at  the  same  time,  however,  strongly  enjoining 
 their  children  to  preserve  these  memoirs  secret,  and  to 
 transmit  them  in  confidence  to  posterity.  From  this 
 time  books  began  to  multiply  among  the  followers  of 
 Pythagoras,  till  at  length,  in  the  time  of  Plato,  Philo- 
 laus  exposed  the  Pythagorean  records  to  sale,  and  Ar- 
 chytas  of  Tarentum  gave  Plaio  a  copy  of  his  com- 
 mentaries upon  the  aphorisms  and  precepts  of  his  mas- 
 ter. It  is  sufficiently  evident,  from  this  account  of  the 
 manner  in  which  Pythagoras  taught  his  followers,  that 
 the  sources  of  information  concerning  his  doctrine 
 must  be  very  uncertain.     Instructions  designedly  con- 
 
 of  the  whole  doctrine  of  Pythagoras,  which   to  others  j  cealed  under  the  veil  of  symbols,  and  chiefly  transinit- 
 
 was  delivered  in  brief  precepts  and  dogmas  under 
 the  concealment  of  symbols.  They  were  also  per- 
 mitted to  take  minutes  of  their  master's  lectures  in 
 writing,  and  to  propose  questions  and  offer  remarks 
 upon  every  subject  of  discourse.  These  disciples 
 were  particularly  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of 
 the  Pythagoreans  ;  they  were  also  called  the  Math- 
 ematicians, from  the  studies  upon  which  they  enter- 
 ed immediately  after  their  initiation.  After  they  had 
 made  a  sufficient  progress  in  geometrical  science, 
 they  were  conducted  to  the  study  of  nature,  the  in- 
 vestigation of  primary  principles,  and  the  knowledge 
 of  God.  Those  who  pursued  these  sublime  specula- 
 tions were  called  Theorists  ;  and  such  as  more  par- 
 ticularly devoted  themselves  to  theology  were  styled 
 aedaaTLKoi,  religious.  Others,  according  to  their  re- 
 spective abilities  and  inclinations,  were  engaged  in 
 the  study  of  morals,  economics,  and  policy  ;  and  were 
 afterward  employed  in  managing  the  affairs  of  the  fra- 
 ternity, or  sent  into  the  cities  of  Greece  to  instruct 
 them  in  the  principles  of  government,  or  assist  them 
 in  the  institution  of  laws.  The  brethren  of  the  Py- 
 thagorean college  at  Crotona,  who  were  about  600  in 
 1156 
 
 ted  by  oral  tradition,  must  always  have  been  liable  to 
 misrepresentation.  Of  the  imperfect  records  of  the 
 Pythagorean  philosophy  left  by  Lysis,  Archytas,  and 
 others,  nothing  has  escaped  the  wreck  of  time,  except, 
 perhaps,  sundry  fragments  collected  by  the  diligence  of 
 Stobaeus,  concerning  the  authenticity  of  which  there 
 are  some  grounds  for  suspicion  ;  and  which,  if  admit- 
 ted as  genuine,  will  only  exhibit  an  imperfect  view  of 
 the  moral  and  political  doctrine  of  Pythagoras  under 
 the  disguise  of  symbolical  and  enigmatical  language. 
 The  strict  injunction  of  secrecy,  which  was  given  by 
 oath  to  the  initiated  Pythagoreans,  has  effectually  pre- 
 vented any  original  records  of  their  doctrine  concern- 
 ing nature  and  God  from  passing  down  to  posterity. 
 We  are  entirely  to  rely  for  information  on  this  head, 
 and,  indeed,  concerning  the  whole  doctrine  of  Pythag- 
 oras, upon  Plato  and  his  followers.  Plato  himself, 
 while  he  enriched  his  system  with  stores  from  the 
 magazine  of  Pythagoras,  accommodated  the  Pythago- 
 rean doctrines,  as  he  did  also  those  of  his  master  Soc- 
 rates, to  his  own  system,  and  thus  gave  an  imperfect, 
 and,  we  may  suppose,  in  many  particulars,  a  false  rep- 
 resentation of  the  doctrines  of  the  Samian  philosopher. 
 
PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 Il  was  farther  corrupted  by  the  followers  of  Plato,  even 
 jn  the  Old  Academy,  and  afterward  in  the  Alexan- 
 drean  school.  The  latter,  especially,  made  no  scruple 
 of  obtruding  their  own  dogmas  upon  the  world,  under 
 the  sanction  of  Pythagoras  or  any  other  ancient  sage, 
 and  were  chiefly  employed  in  attempting  to  reconcile, 
 or,  rather,  confound  the  doctrmes  of  the  ancient  phi- 
 losophers with  later  systems. — If  the  unconnected  and 
 doubtful  records  which  remain  can  enable  us  to  form 
 any  judgment  upon  ihis  subject,  the  following  may 
 perhaps  be  considered  as  a  faint  delineation  of  the  Py- 
 thagorean philosophy  :  The  end  of  philosophy  is  to 
 free  the  mind  from  those  encumbrances  which  hinder 
 its  progress  towards  perfection,  and  to  raise  it  to  the 
 couiemplation  of  immutable  truth,  and  the  knowledge 
 of  divine  and  spiritual  objects.  This  effect  must  be 
 produced  by  easy  ste[)s,  lest  the  mind,  hilheno  con- 
 versant only  with  sensible  things,  should  revolt  at  the 
 change.  The  first  step  towards  wisdom  is  the  study 
 of  mathematics,  a  science  which  contemplates  objects 
 that  lie  in  the  middle  way,  being  corporeal  and  incor- 
 poreal beings,  and,  as  it  were,  on  the  confines  of  both. 
 and  which  most  advantageously  inures  the  mind  to 
 contemplation. — The  most  probable  explanation  of  the 
 Pythagorean  doctrine  of  numbers  is,  that  they  are 
 used  as  symbolical  or  emblematical  representations  of 
 the  first  principles  and  forms  of  nature,  and  partic- 
 ularly of  those  eternal  and  immutable  essences  to 
 which  Plato  afterward  gave  the  appellation  of  Ideas. 
 Not  being  able,  or  not  choosing,  to  explain  in  sim- 
 ple language  the  abstract  notions  of  principles  and 
 forms,  Pythagoras  seems  to  have  made  use  of  num- 
 bers, as  geometricians  make  use  of  diagrams,  to  as- 
 sist the  conceptions  of  scholars.  More  particularly, 
 conceiving  some  analogy  between  numbers  and  the 
 intelligent  forms  which  subsist  in  the  Divine  Mind, 
 he  made  the  former  a  symbol  of  the  latter.  As  num- 
 bers proceed  from  unity,  or  the  Monad,  as  a  simple 
 root,  whence  they  branch  out  into  various  combina- 
 tions, and  assume  new  properties  in  their  progress,  so 
 he  conceived  the  different  forms  of  nature  to  recede, 
 at  different  distances,  from  their  common  source,  the 
 pure  and  simple  essence  of  Deity,  and  at  every  de- 
 gree of  distance  to  assume  certain  properties  in  some 
 measure  analogous  to  those  of  numbers  ;  and  hence  he 
 concluded  that  the  origin  of  things,  their  emanation 
 from  the  first  being,  and  their  subsequent  progression 
 through  various  orders,  if  not  capable  of  a  perfectly 
 clear  explanation,  might,  however,  be  illustrated  by 
 symbols  and  resemblances  borrowed  from  numbers. 
 According  to  some  writers,  the  Pythagorean  Monad 
 denotes  the  active  principle  in  nature,  or  God  ;  the 
 Duad,  the  passive  principle,  or  matter  ;  the  Triad,  the 
 world  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  former  ;  and 
 the  Tetractys,  the  perfection  of  nature.  The  Tetrac- 
 tys,  or  quadrate,  according  to  the  Pythagoreans,  was 
 the  root  of  the  eternally  flowing  nature.  {Carm., 
 Aur.,  U.—IfimblkL,  Vit.  Pythag.,  162.)  What  they 
 Utidorstood  by  the  grand  Tecraclys,  whether  the  sum 
 of  the  fust  four  numbers,  that  is,  ten;  or  the  sum  of 
 the  first  fjur  odd  and  the  first  four  even,  that  is,  thir- 
 ty-six, (s  unimportant;  for  the  essential  is  not  the 
 sywibol,  but  what  the  symbol  represented.  {PLut.,  dc 
 is.  ct  On..  76.  —  /(/.,  lie  Anim.  Procr.,  20.—Ruter, 
 Hi^st.  of  Pkiios,  vol  I,  p.  363.)  Next  to  numbers, 
 music  had  the  chief  place  in  the  preparatory  exercise 
 of  the  Pythagorean  school,  by  means  of  which  the 
 mind  was  to  be  raised  above  the  dominion  of  passion, 
 and  inured  to  contemplation.  Pythagoras  considered 
 music  not  only  as  an  art  to  be  judged  of  by  the  ear 
 but  as  a  science  to  be  reduced  to  mathematical  prin- 
 ciples and  proportions.  The  musical  chords  are  said 
 to  have  been  discovered  by  him  in  the  following  man- 
 ner :  As  he  was  one  day  redecting  on  this  subject, 
 happening  to  pass  by  a  smith's  forge  where  several 
 Hea  were  succe»sively  striking  with  their  hammers  a 
 
 piece  of  heated  iron  upon  an  anvil,  he  remarked  inat 
 all  the  sounds  produced  by  their  strokes  were  harmo- 
 nious except  one.  The  sounds  which  he  observed  to 
 be  chords  were  the  octave,  the  fifth,  and  the  third  ; 
 but  that  sound  which  he  perceived  to  lie  between  the 
 third  and  the  fifth  he  found  to  be  discordant.  Going 
 into  the  workshop,  he  observed  that  the  diversity  of 
 sounds  arose,  not  from  the  forms  of  the  hammers,  nor 
 from  the  force  with  which  they  were  struck,  nor  from 
 the  position  of  the  iron,  but  merely  from  the  diflerence 
 of  weight  in  the  hammers.  Taking,  therefore,  the  ex- 
 act weight  of  the  several  hammers,  he  went  home,  and 
 suspended  four  strings  of  the  same  substance,  length, 
 and  thickness,  and  twisted  in  the  same  degree,  and 
 hung  a  weight  at  the  lower  end  of  each,  respectively, 
 equal  to  the  weight  of  the  hammers  ;  upon  striking 
 the  strings,  he  found  that  the  musical  chords  of  the 
 strings  corresponded  with  those  of  the  hammers. 
 Hence  it  is  said  that  he  proceeded  to  form  a  musical 
 scale,  and  to  construct  stringed  instruments.  His 
 scale  was,  after  his  death,  engraved  on  brass,  and  pre- 
 served in  the  temple  of  Juno  at  Samos.  Pythagoras 
 conceived  that  the  celestial  spheres  in  which  the  plan- 
 ets move,  striking  upon  the  ether  through  which  they 
 j)ass,  must  produce  a  sound,  and  that  this  sound  must 
 vary  according  to  the  diversity  of  their  magnitude,  ve- 
 locity, and  relative  distance.  Taking  it  for  granted 
 that  everything  respecting  the  heavenly  bodies  is  ad- 
 justed with  perfect  regularity,  he  farther  imagined  that 
 all  the  circumstances  necessary  to  render  the  sounds 
 produced  by  their  motions  harmonious,  were  fixed  in 
 such  exact  proportions,  that  the  most  perfect  harmony 
 was  produced  by  their  revolutions.  This  fanciful  doc- 
 trine respecting  the  music  of  the  spheres  gave  rise  to 
 the  names  which  Pythagoras  applied  to  musical  tones. 
 The  last  note  in  the  musical  octave  he  called  Hy- 
 pate  {vTrdrii),  because  he  supposed  the  sphere  of  Sat- 
 urn, the  highest  planet,  to  give  the  deepest  tone;  and 
 the  highest  note  he  called  Neale  (veurij),  from  the 
 sphere  of  the  moon,  which,  being  the  lowest  or  near- 
 est the  earth,  he  imagined  produced  the  shrillest  sound. 
 In  like  manner  of  the  rest.  It  was  said  of  Pythag'^- 
 ras  by  his  followers,  who  hesitated  at  no  assertion, 
 however  improbable,  v^'hich  might  seem  to  exalt  their 
 master's  fame,  that  he  was  the  only  mortal  so  far  fa- 
 voured by  the  gods  as  to  have  been  permitted  to  hear 
 the  celestial  music  of  the  spheres.  Besides  arithme- 
 tic and  music,  Pythagoras  cultivated  geometry,  which 
 he  had  learned  in  Egypt  ;  but  he  greatly  improved  it 
 by  investigating  new  theorems,  and  by  digesting  its 
 principles,  in  an  order  more  perfectly  systematical 
 than  had  before  been  done.  Several  Grecians,  about 
 the  time  of  Pythagoras,  applied  themselves  to  mathe- 
 matical learning,  particularly  Thales  in  Ionia.  But 
 Pythagoras  seems  to  have  done  more  than  any  other 
 philosopher  of  this  period  towards  reducing  geometry 
 to  a  regular  science.  His  definition  of  a  point  is  a 
 monad  or  unity  with  position.  He  taught  that  a  geo- 
 metrical point  corresponds  to  unity  in  arithmetic,  a  line 
 to  two,  a  superficies  to  three,  a  solid  to  four.  Of  the 
 geometrical  theorems  ascribed  to  him.  the  following 
 are  the  principal  :  That  the  interior  angles  of  every 
 triangle  are  together  equal  to  two  right  angles  ;  that 
 the  only  polygons  which  will  fill  up  the  whole  space 
 about  a  given  point  are  the  equilateral  triangle,  the 
 square,  and  the  hexagon  ;  the  first  to  be  taken  six 
 times,  the  second  four  times,  and  the  third  three  times  ; 
 and  that,  in  rectangular  triangles,  the  square  of  the 
 side  which  subtends  the  right  angle  is  equal  to  the  sum 
 of  the  squares  of  the  sides  that  contain  the  right  angle. 
 Upon  the  invention  of  this  latter  proposition  {Euc'tid, 
 1,  47),  Plutarch  says  that  Pythagoras  offered  an  ox, 
 others,  an  hecatomb  to  the  gods.  But  this  story  is 
 thought  by  Cicero  inconsistent  with  the  institutions  of 
 Pythagoras,  which,  as  he  supposes,  did  not  admit  of 
 animal  sacrifices. — Pythagoras  inferred  the  stature  of 
 
 1157 
 
PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 PYT 
 
 Hercules  from  the  length  of  the  Olympic  course, 
 which  measured  six  hundred  of  his  feet.  Ohserving 
 how  much  shorter  a  course  six  hundred  times  the 
 length  of  an  ordinary  sized  man  was  than  the  Olympic 
 course,  he  inferred,  by  the  law  of  proportion,  the  length 
 of  Hercules'  foot ;  whenc-e  the  usual  proportion  of  the 
 length  of  the  foot  to  the  height  of  a  man  enabled  him 
 to  determine  the  problem. — On  Astronomy,  the  doc- 
 trine of  Pythagoras,  or,  at  least,  of  the  ancient  Pyth- 
 agoreans, was  as  follows :  The  term  Heaven  either 
 denotes  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars,  or  the  whole 
 space  between  the  fixed  stars  and  the  moon,  or  the 
 whole  world,  including  both  the  celestial  sphere  and 
 the  earth.  There  are  ten  celestial  spheres,  nine  of 
 which  are  visible  to  us;  namely,  that  of  the  fixed  stars, 
 those  of  the  seven  planets,  and  those  of  the  earth. 
 The  tenth  is  the  Antichthon,  or  an  invisible  sphere 
 opposite  to  the  earth,  which  is  necessary  to  complete 
 the  harmony  of  nature,  as  the  Decad  is  the  completion 
 of  the  numerical  harmony.  Fire  holds  the  middle 
 place  in  the  universe  ;  or  in  the  midst  of  the  four  el- 
 ements is  placed  the  fiery  globe  of  unity  ;  the  earth  is 
 not  without  motion,  nor  situated  in  the  centre  of  the 
 spheres,  but  is  one  of  those  planets  which  make  their 
 revolutions  about  the  sphere  of  fire.  The  distance  of 
 the  several  celestial  spheres  from  the  earth  corresponds 
 to  the  proportion  of  notes  in  a  musical  scale.  The 
 moon  and  other  planetary  globes  are  habitable.  The 
 earth  is  a  globe,  which  admits  of  Antipodes.  From 
 several  of  these  particulars  respecting  the  astronomical 
 doctrine  of  Pythagoras,  it  has  been  inferred  that  he 
 was  possessed  of  the  true  idea  of  the  solar  system, 
 which  was  revived  by  Copernicus,  and  fully  established 
 by  Newton.  With  respect  to  God,  Pythagoras  ap- 
 pears to  have  taught,  that  he  is  the  universal  mind, 
 diffused  through  all  things,  the  source  of  all  animal 
 life,  the  proper  and  intrinsic  cause  of  all  motion,  in 
 substance  similar  to  light,  in  nature  like  truth,  the  first 
 principle  of  the  universe,  incapable  of  pain,  invisible, 
 incorruptible,  and  only  to  be  comprehended  by  the 
 mind.  Cicero  also  remarks,  that  Pythagoras  conceived 
 God  to  be  a  soul  pervading  all  nature,  of  which  every 
 human  soul  is  a  portion,  which  is  nothing  more  than 
 the  modern  system  of  Pantheism.  The  doctrine  of 
 the  Pythagoreans  respecting  the  nature  of  brute  ani- 
 mals, and  /xeTtjuipi'xo)<yiCi  'he  Transmigration  of  Souls, 
 was  the  foundation  of  their  abstinence  from  animal 
 food,  and  of  the  exclusion  of  animal  sacrifices  from 
 their  religious  ceremonies.  This  doctrine  Pythagoras 
 probably  learned  in  Egypt,  where  it  was  commonly 
 taught.  Nor  is  there  any  sufficient  reason  for  under- 
 standing it,  as  some  have  done,  symbolically. — We 
 will  end  this  article  with  a  few  specimens  of  his  Spn- 
 lols,  which,  though  they  were  at  first  made  use  of  for 
 the  purpose  of  concealment,  and  though  their  meaning 
 has  always  been  religiously  kept  secret  by  the  Pytha- 
 goreans themselves,  have  awakened  much  curiosity, 
 and  given  occasion  to  many  ingenious  conjectures, 
 which,  however,  unless  they  were  more  satisfactory, 
 it  would  answer  no  purpose  to  repeat.  Among  the 
 Symbols  of  Pythagoras,  recited  by  lamblichus  and 
 others,  are  the  following;  .\dore  the  sound  of  the  j 
 whispering  wind.  Stir  not  the  fire  with  a  sword. 
 Turn  aside  from  an  edged  tool.  Pass  not  over  a  bal- 
 ance. Setting  out  on  a  journey,  turn  not  back,  for  the 
 Furies  will  return  wiih  you.  Breed  nothing  that  has 
 crooked  talons.  Rp,<;eive  not  a  swallow  into  your 
 house.  I^ook  not  in  a  mirror  by  the  light  of  a  candle. 
 At  a  sacrifice  pare  not  your  nails.  Eat  not  the  heart 
 or  brain.  Taste  not  that  which  has  fallen  from  the 
 table  Break  not  bread.  Sleep  not  at  noon.  When 
 it  thunders,  touch  the  earth.  Pluck  not  a  crown. 
 Roast  not  that  which  has  been  boiled.  Sail  not  on 
 the  ground.  Plant  not  a  palm.  Breed  a  cock,  but 
 do  not  sacrifice  it,  for  it  is  sacred  to  the  sun  and  moon. 
 Plant  melons  in  thy  garden,  but  eat  them  not.  Ab- 
 1158 
 
 stain  from  beans. — The  precept  prohibiting  the  use  of 
 beans  is  one  of  those  mysteries  which  the  ancient  Pyth- 
 agoreans never  disclosed,  and  which  modern  inge- 
 nuity has  in  vain  attempted  to  discover.  Its  meaning 
 was  probably  rather  dietetic  than  physical  or  moral. 
 The  prohibition  from  beans  was  an  Eg-yptian  custom, 
 according  to  Herodotus  (2,  37).  Aristoxenns,  on  the 
 other  hand,  says  that  Pythagoras  recommended  bean* 
 before  all  other  food.  {Aul.  Gcll.,  4,  4.)  The  ab- 
 stinence from  fish  is  another  resemblance  to  Egyptian 
 customs  ;  but  the  tradition  on  this  point  is  not  very 
 extensive,  and  rests  on  fables.  On  abstinence  from 
 flesh  there  is  a  variety  of  traditions.  (Eudox.,  ap. 
 Forph.,  V.  P.,  1.— Iambi.,  V.  P.,  85,  H)%  —Diog. 
 Laerl.,  8,  20.)  It  is  safest  to  follow  Aristotle,  ac- 
 cording to  whom,  the  Pythagoreans  only  abstained 
 from  particular  kinds  of  fish.  (Aul.  GelL,  I.  c  — Diog. 
 Lacrt.,  8,  19.)  The  statement  of  Aristoxenus,  that 
 they  only  abstained  from  the  ploughing  os  and  the 
 wether,  evidently  on  account  of  their  usefulness,  ap- 
 pears to  be  a  later  version.  {Diog.  Laert.,  8,  20. — 
 Compare  AthencBus,  10,  p.  418.)  Pythagorean  pre- 
 cepts of  more  value  are  these.  Above  all  things,  gov- 
 ern your  tongue.  Engrave  not  the  image  of  God  in 
 a  ring.  Quit  not  your  station  without  the  command 
 of  your  general.  {Enfield's  History  of  Philosophy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  .365,  segq. — Rilter,  Hist.  Philos.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 326,  seqq.) 
 
 Pytheas,  a  native  of  Massilia  (Marseille).  His  era 
 is  uncertain  ;  some  writers  place  him  under  the  reign 
 of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  but  Bougainville  (Mem.  de 
 I'Acad.  des  Inscr.,  vol.  19,  p.  148)  has  undertaken  to 
 show  that  he  was  anterior  to  Aristotle.  Pytheas  is 
 numbered  among  the  Greek  geographical  writers.  He 
 made  many  important  discoveries  in  a  voyage  which 
 he  undertook  to  the  north  of  Europe,  and  was  the  first 
 geographer  who  could  call  astronomical  knowledge  to 
 his  aid.  Leaving  the  harbour  of  Massilia,  and  sailing 
 from  cape  to  cape,  he  coasted  along  all  the  eastern 
 shore  of  Spain,  passed  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  naviga- 
 ted the  coasts  of  Lusitania,  Aquilania,  and  Armorica, 
 entered  the  English  Channel,  followed  the  eastern 
 shore  of  Britain,  and.  on  reaching  its  northern  extrem- 
 ity, advanced  six  days'  sail  farther  to  the  north,  until 
 he  reached  a  country  which  the  inhabitants  called 
 Thule,  and  where  the  length  of  the  Solstitial  day  was 
 24  hours,  which  corresponds  to  66°  30'  N.  L.,  or  mod 
 em  Iceland.  D'Anville  (Mem.  de  rAcad.,  &c.,  vo} 
 37,  p.  436)  maintains  that  Pytheas  did  not  go  farther 
 than  the  Shetland  Isles.  Schcening,  on  the  other 
 hand,  makes  the  Thule  of  this  navigator  to  he  a  coun- 
 try of  Norway,  which  still  bears  the  name  of  Thile  or 
 Thilemark.  In  a  second  voyage,  Pytheas  passed 
 through  the  English  Channel  into  the  German  Oce»n, 
 and  thence  into  the  Baltic,  where  be  reached  the 
 mouth  of  a  river  which  he  calls  the  Tanais,  but  which 
 is,  perhaps,  the  Vistula  or  Rodaan.  In  this  vicinity 
 the  amber  of  commerce  was  obtained.  Pylheas  wrote 
 in  Greek  two  works,  one  entitled  "  A  Description  of 
 the  Ocean,''''  of  which  Geminns  Rbodius  makes  mett- 
 tion  (Elem.  Astro».,  c.  5. — Vranohg.  Pei&v.,  p.  24, 
 ed.  Paris,  1630),  and  the  other  a  '■'■  Prriplvs"  or  "P«- 
 riodus  of  the  Earth,'''  mentioned  by  Marcianus,  the 
 scholiast  on  ApoUonius  Rhodiijs.  The  Jilile  thai  we 
 know  of  these  two  productions  is  obtained  from  the 
 pages  of  Strabo  and  Pliny,  bat  it  is  so  altered  and  dis- 
 figured as  to  be  almost  unintelligible.  Pytheas  has 
 been  generally  regarded  as  very  mendacious  in  his 
 narratives.  His  memory,  however,  has  been  saccess- 
 fully  vindicated  by  several  modern  writers.  {Bom- 
 gainville,  loc.  cit. — Schoming,  Ahhan>il>i'»g.  r<»  Allg. 
 Weltgesch.,  Halle,  vol.  31.  —  AdcU^ig,  AelttsU  Ge- 
 schichte  der  Deiitschett,  Leipz,  1806,  8vo. — 3/a»- 
 nert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  73,  seqq.  —  SckSll,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  198.) 
 
 PythTa,  I.  the  priestess  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.    (Fid 
 
QUA 
 
 QUI 
 
 DelpW,  and  Oraculum.)  —  II.  Games  celebrated  in 
 liotraur  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  They  were  first  institu- 
 ted,  according  to  the  fabulous  opinion,  by  Apollo  him- 
 self, in  ccmioemoration  of  the  victory  which  he  had 
 obtained  over  the  serpent  Python,  from  which  they 
 received  their  name  ;  but  their  origin  seems,  in  fact,  to 
 have  been  a  Pai>egyris  {ilavfjyvpi-g),  or  Festal  Com- 
 munion, in  connexion  with  the  Delphic  oracle.  With 
 this  tlie  Delphia«s  combined  games  for  the  purposes 
 of  amusement,  which  originally  consisted  of  a  contest 
 betweett  singers  in  praise  of  the  Delphian  god.  This 
 assembly  was,  i«  its  enore  important  capacity,  denom- 
 inated the  Amphictyonic  council,  and  was  charged 
 with  the  superintendence  of  the  games.  (  WachsmiUh, 
 Gr.  Ant.,  vol.  1,  p.  163,  Eng.  Oans/.)— The  Pythian 
 games  were,  at  their  first  institution,  only  celebrated 
 once  in  nine  years,  but  afterward  every  fifth  year. 
 The  crown  was  of  bay. — For  an  account  of  the  e.^er- 
 cises  in  the  public  games  of  the  Greeks,  consult  the 
 article  Olympia.     (Potter,  Gr.  Ant.,  2,  23.) 
 
 PvTKius,  I.  a  Syracusan,  who  defrauded  Canius,  a 
 Roman  knight,  to  whom  he  had  sold  his  gardens,  <S:c. 
 (Cic,  de  Off.,  3,  14.)  —  II.  A  surname  of  Apollo, 
 which  he  received  for  his  having  conquered  the  serpent 
 Python,  or  because  he  was  worshipped  at  Delphi ; 
 called  also  Pytho.     {Vid.  Pytho.) 
 
 PvTHo,  the  ancient  name  of  the  town  of  Delphi, 
 which  it  was  said  to  have  received  oltto  tov  nv6ea6ai, 
 because  the  serpent  which  Apollo  killed  rotted  there. 
 A  better  derivation,  however,  is  from  nvOiadat,  "  to 
 inquire"  with  reference  to  the  oracle  that  was  consult- 
 ed here.  The  difference  of  quantity  (IliJ^w,  Trvd^cOai) 
 does  not  appear  to  form  a  material  objection,  although 
 Passow  thinks  otherwise.     (Gr.  D.  Handwort.,  s.  v. 
 
 mdu) 
 
 Python,  a  celebrated  serpent  sprung  from  the  mud 
 and  stagnated  waters  which  remained  on  the  surface  of 
 the  earth  after  the  deluge  of  Deucalion.  This  monster 
 abode  in  the  vicinity  of  Delphi,  and  destroyed  the 
 people  and  cattle  of  the  surrounding  country.  Apollo, 
 on  coming  to  Delphi,  slew  the  serpent  with  his  arrows  ; 
 and  as  it  lay  expiring,  the  exulting  victor  cried,  "Now 
 rot  {TTvdev)  there  on  the  man-feeding  earth ;"  and 
 hence,  says  the  legend,  the  place  and  oracle  received 
 the  appellation  of  Pytho.  (Firf.  Pytho.)  The  Pythi- 
 an games  were  fabled  to  have  been  established  in 
 commemoration  of  this  victory.  (Vid.  Pythia.)  — 
 Dodwell  supposes  that  the  true  explanation  of  the  al- 
 legorical fiction  relating  to  Apollo  and  Python  is,  that 
 the  serpent  was  the  river  Cephissus,  which,  after  the 
 deluge  of  Deucalion  had  overflowed  the  plains,  sur- 
 rounded Parnassus  with  its  serpentine  involutions,  and 
 was  reduced  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  within  its  due  lim- 
 its. (DodwelVs  Tour,  vol.  1,  p.  I  SO.)  It  is  more 
 probable,  however,  that  the  fable  was  one  of  Oriental 
 origin,  and  was  carried  from  that  quarter  of  the  world 
 to  Greece.     {Vid.  remarks  under  the  article  Apollo.) 
 
 QuAW,  a  German  nation  on  the  southeastern  bor- 
 ders of  the  country,  in  what  is  now  Moravia.  They 
 were  connected  with  the  Marcomanni,  and,  along  with 
 them,  waged  war  against  the  Romans.  The  Emperor 
 Marcus  Antoninus  proceeded  against  them  in  person 
 aiMi  repressed  their  inroads,  but  ihey  soon  after  re- 
 newed bostiiitics  with  increased  vigour.  Their  name 
 disappears  from  history  about  the  filth  century.  Their 
 territory  was  lioundc^i  on  tlie  south  by  the  Danube,  on 
 the  east  by  the  river  Gran  and  the  Jazyges,  on  the  north 
 by  the  Carpates  and  Siidetes,  and  on  the  west  bv  the 
 MarcomaiMii.  {Tac  ,  Germ.,  42,  scgg. — Id.,  Ann.,  2, 
 6S.  — Dw  Caxs  ,  71,  8,  sc^q.—Amm.  Marccll.,  17, 
 12.— /<£.,  29,  6.  —  Wdkclni,  Gcmianicn^  &lc..  p.  223, 
 aeqq. — Reichard,  GermaJiiem,  p.  146,  seqq. —  Wersebe, 
 ubcr  die  Vblkcr  de*  alien  TeutschUinds,  p.  172,  seqq.) 
 
 QuADRiFRONs  or  QuADRicEPs,  a  sumame  of  Janus, 
 because  he  was  sometimes  represented  with  four  faces. 
 {Vid.  remarks  under  the  article  Janus.) 
 
 QuiNDEciMviRi,  an  order  of  priests  whom  Tarquin 
 the  Proud  appointed  to  take  care  of  the  Sibylline 
 books.  They  were  originally  two,  but  afterward  the 
 number  was  increased  to  ten,  to  whom  Sylla  added 
 five  more,  whence  their  name.  {Vid.  Decemviri  and 
 Duumviri.) 
 
 QoiNQUATKiA,  a  festival  in  honour  of  Minerva  at 
 Rome,  at  first  for  one  day,  but  afterward  for  five 
 (qtiinque),  whence  the  name.  The  beginning  of  the 
 celebration  was  the  19th  of  March.  On  the  days  of 
 the  celebration,  scholars  obtained  holyday,  and  it  was 
 usual  for  them  to  ofl'er  prayers  to  Minerva  for  learning 
 and  wisdom  ;  and  on  their  return  to  school,  to  present 
 their  master  with  a  gift,  which  received  the  name  of 
 Minerml.    {Ovid,  Fast.,  3,  810.— Aul.  Geli,  2,  21.) 
 
 QuiNTiLi.lNUs,  Marcus  Fabius,  an  eminent  Ro- 
 man rhetorician,  born  at  Calagurris,  a  city  of  Hispa- 
 nia  Tarraconensis,  A.D.  42. — The  orthography  of 
 the  name  varies  in  different  editions.  Gibson  was  the 
 first  that  gave  the  form  Quiuctilianus,  m  which  he  has 
 been  followed  by  several  ;  but  as  this  form  is  only 
 found  in  a  single  inscription  and  on  a  single  coin,  the 
 other  mode  of  expressing  the  name  has  become  well 
 established.  (Compare  Spalding,  Prcef.  ad.  QuintiL, 
 p.  xxiii.,  seqq.) — Quintilian  was  still  young  when  his 
 father,  after  the  death  of  Nero,  conveyed  him  to 
 Rome,  and  this  circumstance  appears  to  be  the  cause 
 why  some  editors  have  believed  that  he  was  born  in  this 
 last-mentioned  city.  The  father  of  Quintilian  was  a 
 professor  of  rhetoric,  and  the  son,  devoting  himself  to 
 the  same  pursuits,  opened  a  school  under  Vespasian. 
 He  was  the  first  rhetorician  that  received  a  regular 
 salary  from  the  imperial  treasury,  and  his  emoluments 
 amounted  to  100,000  sesterces.  Flavia  Domitilla, 
 niece  of  Domician,  and  Pliny  the  younger,  were 
 among  the  number  of  his  pupils.  He  obtained  the 
 distinction  of  the  laticlave,  or  senatorian  dress,  and 
 under  Domitian  he  was  nominated  consul.  After 
 having  lost  his  wife  and  two  sons,  he  united  himself 
 by  a  second  marriage  to  a  daughter  of  the  rhetorician 
 Tutilius,  by  whom  he  had  a  daughter  who  espoused 
 Nonius  Celer,  governor  of  Spain.  He  had  professed 
 rhetoric  for  the  space  of  twenty  years,  when  he  re- 
 tired from  active  life,  and  composed,  between  92  and 
 94  A.D.,  his  Institutes  of  the  Orator.  The  year  of 
 his  death  is  unknown  :  it  was  subsequent,  however, 
 to  118  .\.D.  There  exist,  under  the  name  of  Quin- 
 tilian, nineteen  declamations  of  some  length,  and  for- 
 ty-five minor  ones.  They  are  incorrectly,  however, 
 ascribed  to  him,  and  are  rather  the  productions  of  a 
 much  later  age,  and  of  several  writers.  Gerard  Vos- 
 sius  {de  Rhet  nat.  et.  const.,  p.  108)  thinks  that 
 they  were  written  by  Postumus  the  younger,  one  of 
 those  ephemeral  emperors  called  in  Roman  history  the 
 thirty  tyrants.  Some  manuscripts  give  M  Florus  as 
 their  author,  a  personage  entirely  unknown. — The 
 work  by  which  Quintilian  has  immortalized  his  name 
 is  entitled  De  Inslitutione  Oratoria,  or,  rather,  Institu- 
 lioncs  OratoriLR.  It  is  m  twelve  books,  and  dedicated 
 to  Marcellus  Victorius.  This  work  is  not  merely  a 
 complete  treatise  on  the  rhetorical  art  ;  it  embraces  a 
 plan  of  study  for  the  orator,  from  the  first  elements 
 of  grammar.  Quintilian  here  states  the  results  of 
 long  experience  and  deep  reflection.  He  gives  signal 
 proofs  in  it  of  an  excellent  judgment,  of  a  refined 
 critical  spirit,  of  a  pure  taste,  and  of  extensive  and 
 varied  reading.  This  work  is  preferable  to  all  tha 
 we  have  from  Cicero  respecting  the  theory  of  elo- 
 quence. Quintilian  has  profited  by  the  precepts  of 
 this  great  master,  but  he  does  not  stop  where  the  oth- 
 er stops :  he  adds  to  his  labours  the  observations 
 which  a  lono  course  of  practical  experience  had  sug- 
 gested He^has  formed  his  style  upon  that  of  Cicero^ 
 ^         ■  1159 
 
Q  UI 
 
 QUINTUS. 
 
 and  he  writes  with  an  elegance  which  would  entitle 
 him  to  a  rank  by  the  side  of  the  purest  models  of  the 
 Augustine  age,  if  certain  obscure  expressions  and 
 some  specimens  of  aflfectcd  phraseology  did  not  betray 
 the  writer  of  a  later  age.  His  tenth  book,  where  he 
 speaks  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  authors  of  the  high- 
 er class,  is  one  of  the  most  instructive,  and  of  great 
 importance  in  relation  to  the  history  of  ancient  litera- 
 ture. Time  has  preserved  for  us  only  two  manu- 
 scripts of  the  Institutes  of  Quinlilian.  One,  which 
 is  complete,  was  found,  at.  the  period  of  the  council 
 of  Constance,  in  a  tower  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Gall, 
 by  the  celebrated  Poggio  of  Florence  ;  he  made  a 
 copy  of  this,  which  is  now  in  England.  Nearly  at  the 
 same  lime  Leonard  Aretin  discovered  a  second  man- 
 uscript in  Italy,  but  very  defective.  From  these  two 
 original  ones  are  derived  all  the  other  manuscripts  of 
 Quintilian.  It  is  not  known  what  has  become  of  the 
 manuscri[)t  of  St.  Gall. — With  regard  to  the  dialogue 
 Dc  Claris  Oratoribus.  commonly  ascribed  to  Quintil- 
 ian, some  remarks  will  be  offered  under  the  article 
 Tacitus. — The  best  editions  of  Quintilian  are,  that  of 
 BurmaiHi,  Lugd.  Bat  ,  1720,  3  vols.  4to  ;  that  of  (^ap- 
 peronier,  Paris,  1725,  fol.  ;  that  of  Gesner,  Gotting., 
 1766,  4to  ;  and  particularly  that  of  Spalding,  Lips., 
 1798-1834,  6  vols.  8vo,  the  fifth  volume  of  which 
 contains  supplsmentary  armolalions  by  Zumpt,  and 
 the  si.\lh  a  Lexicon  and  Indexes  by  Bonelli.  The 
 edition  of  Quintilian  forming  part  of  Leinaire's  collec- 
 tion is  a  reprint,  for  the  nrost  part,  of  Spalding's. 
 (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  398,  seqq.  —  B'dhr, 
 Gesch.  Rom.  Lit,  p.  401,  scqq.  —  Fukrmann,  Rom. 
 Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  168,  scqq.) 
 
 QuiNTUS  CuRTius  RuKi's,  a  Latin  historical  writer, 
 with  regard  to  whose  era  great  uncertainty  prevails. 
 No  ancient  writer  makes  mention  of  him  ;  the  first 
 who  speak  of  him  are  John  of  Salisbury  and  Pierre 
 de  Blois,  who  lived  m  the  12lh  century.  Curtius 
 himself  furnishes  no  information  res[)ecting  his  own 
 condition  and  origin,  if  we  except  one  passage  in 
 which  he  speaks  of  an  event  which  happened  in  his 
 times  (10,  9).  He  mentions  this  event,  however,  in 
 such  obscure  terms,  that  the  commentators  are  all  at 
 variance  respecting  the  period  when  he  flourished. 
 Some,  as,  for  example,  Pithou  and  Bongars,  place  him 
 in  the  Augustan  age.  Others,  as  Ausonius  Popma 
 and  Perizonius,  under  Tiberius.  Others,  as  Justus 
 Lipsius  and  Brisson,  under  Claudius.  Others,  as 
 Freinsheiin,  Rutgers,  Vossius,  and  many  other  edi- 
 tors, under  Vespasian.  Some,  following  the  example 
 of  Pontanus,  make  him  to  have  flourished  under  Tra- 
 jan. Count  Bagnolo  {Di'Jla  urnte  Curzia  c  ddV  eta 
 di  Q.  Curzio,  &c.,  Bologna,  1741,  8vo),  and  one  of 
 the  latest  editors  of  Curtius,  Cunze,  whose  edition 
 appeared  at  Helmstadt  in  1795,  8vo.  have  adduced 
 some  specious  arguments  for  fixing  the  period  of  this 
 writer  under  Conslantine  the  Great.  Finally,  Barth 
 brings  hiin  down  as  low  as  the  first  Theodosius — The 
 history  of  Quintus  Curtius  is  entitled  De  rebus  gestis 
 Alcxandri  Magni  ("  Of  the  exploits  of  Alexander  the 
 Great").  It  was  divided  originally  into  ten  books,  but 
 the  first  two,  the  end  of  the  fifth,  and  the  beginning 
 of  the  sixth  are  lost.  Freinsheim  has  written  a  sup- 
 )ilement  to  the  work,  so  as  to  complete  what  is  thus 
 defective,  and  has  succeeded  in  bringing  together  a 
 learned  collection  of  facts  from  the  different  historians 
 who  have  made  mention  of  the  operations  of  Alexan- 
 der.— The  work  of  Quintus  Curtius  is  rather  to  be 
 termed  a  romance  than  an  historical  composition. 
 It  is  the  production  of  a  rhetorician  who  sacrifices 
 truth  to  the  desire  of  brilliancy  of  expression,  and  to 
 a  love  of  the  marvellous.  The  harangues  which  he 
 puts  into  the  mouths  of  his  heroes  are  mere  scholastic 
 declamations,  without  any  regard  to  the  characters  of 
 those  who  are  to  utter  them.  As  a  critical  historian 
 Quintus  is  very  far  below  mediocrity.  He  is  only  su- 
 1160 
 
 perficially  acquainted  with  the  good  historians  of  Alex- 
 ander, and  appears  to  have  given  the  preference  to  those 
 Greek  writers  who  had  distorted  by  fable  the  true  his- 
 tory of  the  Macedonian  monarch,  such  as  Clitarchus 
 and  Hegesip[)us.  His  compilation  is  made  without 
 any  judgment ;  he  gives  himself  no  trouble  to  recon- 
 cile the  contradictions  which  exist  among  the  authors 
 whom  he  follows,  nor  does  he  at  all  concern  himself 
 about  testing  the  truth  of  their  narratives.  It  would 
 seem,  moreover,  that  his  knowledge  of  Greek  is  very 
 slight.  So  ignorant  is  he  in  the  military  art,  that  it  is 
 difficult  to  understand  his  accounts  of  battles  and 
 sieges ;  and  oftentimes  it  is  but  too  apparent  that  he 
 does  not  understand  himself  what  he  copies  mechan- 
 ically from  others.  Fn  geography  and  astronomy  his 
 ignorance  is  equally  great.  He  confounds  Mount 
 Taurus  with  Caucasus,  and  makes  the  Caspian  and 
 Hyrcanian  seas  two  different  sheets  of  water.  He  ob- 
 serves no  chronological  order,  and  does  not  mention 
 either  the  years  or  the  seasons  in  which  the  events  of 
 which  he  treats  took  place.  If,  however,  Quintus 
 Curtius  be  refused  the  name  of  an  historian,  we  cannot 
 deny  his  claim  to  being  considered  an  amusing  and  in- 
 teresting writer.  His  diction  is  pure  and  elegant. 
 Some  of  his  harangues  are  master-pieces  of  their  kind. 
 He  is  rich  in  beautiful  descriptions.  His  style  is  too 
 ornamented,  and  sometimes  declamatory ;  offener, 
 however,  he  happily  imitates  his  model,  Livy.  In  the 
 beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  an  imjiostor,  named 
 Hugo  Rugerius  or  Ruggieri,  a  native  of  Rhcgio,  pub- 
 lished a  pretended  collection  of  the  letters  of  Quintus 
 Curtius,  divided  into  five  books,  and  supposed  to  con- 
 tain not  only  letters  written  by  the  historian  himself, 
 but  others  also  from  various  distinguished  individuals. 
 The  fabrication,  however,  was  so  clumsily  executed, 
 that  no  one  was  imposed  upon.  The  best  editions  of 
 Quintus  Curtius  are,  that  of  Snakenburg,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1724,  4to  ;  that  of  Schmieder,  Gotting.,  1804,  2  vols 
 8vo;  and  that  of  Lemaire,  Pans,  1822-24,  3  vols. 
 8vo.  {SchiiU,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  383,  seqg. 
 — Bdhr,  Gcsch.  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  441,  seqq.) — II. 
 (or  Cointus)  Calaber,  a  Greek  poet,  a  native  of  Smyrna, 
 but  surnamed  Calaber  from  the  circumstance  of  the 
 Cardinal  Bessarion's  having  found  a  manuscript  of  his 
 work  in  a  convent  of  Calabria,  in  Lower  Italy  ;  and 
 thus  a  distinguished  scholar,  a  native  of  Greece,  only 
 became  acquainted  with  one  of  the  poets  of  his  nation, 
 because  chance  had  conducted  him  to  the  convent  of 
 St.  Nicholas,  in  the  city  of  Otranto.  Quintus  (or  Coin- 
 tus) lived  probably  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
 century.  He  is  the  author  of  a  poem  in  fourteen  can- 
 tos, entitled  YlapaXtLTcoficva  'Ofir/pc^  ("  Things  omit- 
 ted by  Homer").  It  is  a  continuation  of  the  Iliad 
 down  to  the  destruction  of  Troy,  or,  rather,  an  historical 
 composition  in  verse,  interspersed  with  mythological 
 fictions,  and  adorned  with  abundant  imagery.  Vicious 
 in  its  arrangement,  because  no  unity  either  of  action 
 or  of  interest  prevails  in  it,  this  production  is,  at  the 
 same  time,  not  without  merit  as  regards  its  ornaments 
 and  diction.  The  imitation  of  Homer  is  everywhere 
 apparent ;  but  it  shows  itself  only  in  details,  and  the 
 author  did  not  possess  the  art  of  varying  his  descrip- 
 tions of  combats,  in  which  his  model  shows  himself  so 
 superior.  He  offends,  also,  in  too  frequent  an  intro 
 duction  of  deities  into  the  combats  of  the  two  con- 
 tending parties,  and  their  intervention  is  frequently  a» 
 uncalled  for  as  their  departure  is  unexpected.  N,»t- 
 withstanding  these  defects,  however,  the  poem  of 
 Quintus  appears  so  far  superior  to  the  other  produc- 
 tions of  the  age  in  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  lived, 
 that  many  critics  have  regarded  these  Paralipomena 
 as  a  kind  of  enlargement  or  amplification  of  the  Littio 
 Iliad  of  Lesches,  which  is  lost.  Others  have  viewed 
 it  as  a  cento  of  various  passages  borrowed  from  the 
 cyclic  poets. — Another  poem,  ascribed  to  Quintus,  ia 
 found  in  MS.  in  the  library  of  St.  Marc,  and  in  that  ol 
 
R  AB 
 
 R  A  V 
 
 the  king  of  Bavaria  at  Munich.  It  is  on  the  twelve 
 labours  of  Hercules. — The  best  editions  of  Quintus 
 Calaber  are,  that  of  Rhodomannus,  Hanov.,  1604,  Svo  ; 
 that  of  De  Pauw,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1784,  8vo  ;  and  that  of 
 Tychsen,  Argent.,  1807,  8vo.  The  last,  however,  has 
 never  been  completed.  (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 6,  p.  91,  scqq.) 
 
 QuiRiNALis,  a  hill  at  Rome,  added  to  the  city  by 
 Servius  Tullius.  {Liv.,  1.  44.)  Numa,  indeed,  had 
 a  house  upon  this  mountain,  but  it  was  not  considered 
 a  part  of  the  city  until  enclosed  within  the  Tuilian 
 wall.  The  temple  of  Romulus  Quirinus,  from  which 
 it  derived  its  name,  was  built  by  Numa,  but  afterward 
 reconstructed  with  greater  magnificence  by  Papirius 
 Cursor,  the  dictator.  {Liv.,  10,  46.)  Some  vestiges 
 of  this  edifice  are  said  to  exist  in  the  gardens  of  the 
 Jesuits,  close  to  the  church  of  ^.  Andrea,  a  Monte 
 Cavallo.  The  expression  Monte  Cavallo  is  a  corrup- 
 tion from  Mons  Cahallus,  a  name  ap|)lied  to  the  Quiri- 
 nal  at  a  later  day  from  two  marble  horses  placed  there. 
 The  Quirinal  is  the  only  one  of  the  Seven  Hills  at  the 
 present  day  that  is  populous.  It  is  covered  with  noble 
 palaces,  churches,  streets,  and  fountains.  {Rome  in 
 the  Ninelcenlh  Century,  vol.  1,  p.  206,  Am.  ed.) 
 
 QuiRisus,  I.  a  surname  of  Mars  among  the  Romans. 
 This  name  was  also  given  to  Romulus  after  his  trans- 
 lation to  the  skies.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  2,  475.)— II.  A  sur- 
 name of  the  god  Janus.  ( Vid.  remarks  under  the  ar- 
 ticle Janus.) 
 
 Qui  RITES,  (Vid.  remarks  under  the  article  Roma, 
 page  1172,  col.  2) 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabirius,  I.  C  a  Roman  knight  contemporary  with 
 Julius  Cffisar.  The  latter  had,  on  one  or  two  occa- 
 sions, expressed  with  some  ostentation  his  attachment 
 to  the  party  of  Marius,  and  he  now  attempted  to  vindi- 
 cate the  memory  of  L.  Saturninus,  who,  having  been  for 
 a  long  time  the  associate  of  Marius,  was  afterward  op- 
 posed by  him  as  the  reluctant  instrument  of  the  senate, 
 and,  having  been  taken  by  him  in  actual  rebellion,  had 
 been  murdered  by  the  a'rmed  citizens,  who  broke  into 
 his  place  of  confinement.  Czesar,  it  is  said  {Sueton., 
 Vit.  Jul.,  12),  instigated  Labienus,  at  this  time  one 
 of  the  tribunes,  and  afterward  distinguished  as  one  of 
 Caesar's  lieutenants  in  Gaul,  to  accuse  Rabirius,  then 
 advanced  in  years,  as  the  perpetrator  of  this  murder. 
 The  cause  was  first  tried  before  L.  Csesar  and  C.  Cae- 
 sar (Dig  Cuss  ,  37,  42),  who  were  appointed  by  lot  to 
 act  as  special  commissioners  in  this  case,  by  virtue  of 
 the  praitor's  order  ;  and  the  accused  was  arraigned 
 according  to  the  old  law  of  murder,  by  which,  if  he  had 
 been  found  guilty,  he  would  have  been  condemned  to 
 be  hanged.  But  this  mode  of  proceeding  was  stopped 
 by  Rabirius  appealing  to  the  people,  or  by  the  inter- 
 ference of  Cicero  as  consul,  as  his  speech  seems  to 
 imply  {pro  Rah.,  c.  4,  seq.),  and  his  procuring  the  re- 
 moval of  the  cause  before  another  tribunal.  The  peo- 
 ple, however,  it  is  said,  were  likely  to  condemn  the 
 accused,  when  Q  Metelellus  Celer,  one  of  the  prae- 
 tors, obliged  the  meeting  to  break  up,  by  tearing  down 
 the  ensign  which  was  always  flying  on  the  Janiculum 
 while  the  people  were  assembled,  and  without  which, 
 according  to  ancien*.  custom,  they  could  not  lawfully 
 continue  their  deliberations.  In  this  manner  Rabirius 
 escaped  ;  for  Labienus  or  his  instigators  did  not  think 
 proper  to  bring  forward  the  business  again  ;  whether 
 desfiairing  of  again  finding  the  people  equally  disposed 
 to  condemn  the  accused,  or  whether  the  progress  of  the 
 conspiracy  of  Catiline  began  now  to  turn  men's  atten- 
 tion more  entirely  to  a  different  subject.  {Dio  Cass., 
 37.  42.  — Cjc,  (Jr.  pro  Rab.)—U.  C.  Poslumus,  a 
 Roman  knight,  son  of  C  Curius.  and  adopted  son  of 
 the  preceding.  He  became  implicated  in  the  affair  of 
 Gab>nius  and  Ptolemy  Auletes.  Gabinius  had  been 
 7H 
 
 accused  and  condemned  for  receiving  a  very  large  sum 
 of  money  (10,000  talents)  for  restoring  the  Egyptian 
 king.  His  estate,  however,  did  not  yield,  when  sold, 
 sufficient  to  reimburse  this  sum,  and  Rabirius  there- 
 fore, who  was  concerned  in  the  affair,  was  sued  for 
 the  balance  (causa  de  residuis).  Rabirius,  it  seems, 
 had  advised  Gabinius  to  undertake  the  restoration  of 
 the  king,  and  accompanied  him  into  Egypt.  Here  he 
 was  employed  to  .«olicit  the  payment  of  the  money,  and 
 lived  at  Alexandrea  for  that  purpose,  in  the  king's  ser- 
 vice, as  the  public  receiver  of  his  taxes.  Cicero's  de- 
 fence of  Gabinius  and  Rabirius,  especially  the  former, 
 excited  great  surprise,  as  Gabinius  had  ever  been  his 
 most  vehement  enemy.  It  was  occasioned,  however, 
 by  Pompey's  influence.  Rabirius  was  acquitted. 
 (CicproRab.  Post..,  c.  8,  12.— Val.  Max.,  4,  2— III. 
 A  Roman  epic  poet,  who  flourished  during  the  Augus- 
 tan age.  Velleius  Paterculiis  names  him  immediately 
 after  Homer  (2,  26),  but  Quintilian  speaks  of  him  in  a 
 much  more  moderate  tone.  (Inst.  Or  ,  10,  1.)  The 
 grammarians  have  preserved  for  us  some  verses  of  one 
 of  his  poems.  Its  subject  was  the  battle  of  Actium. 
 {SchoLl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  1,  p.  221.) 
 
 Ramnes  or  Ramnenses,  one  of  the  three  centu- 
 ries instituted  by  Romulus.     {Vid.  Roma.) 
 
 Rampsinitus,  an  Egyptian  monarch,  of  whom  He- 
 rodotus relates  the  following  legend.  "After  this,  they 
 said,  Rampsinitus  descended  alive  into  those  places 
 which  the  Grecians  call  Hades  ;  where,  playing  at  dice 
 with  Ceres,  he  sometimes  won,  and  at  other  times  lost; 
 that,  at  his  return,  he  brought  with  him  as  a  present  a 
 napkin  of  gold"  (2,  122).  Szathmari  applies  it  to  the 
 years  of  plenty  and  scarceness  which  happened  under 
 Pharaoh.  Creuzer,  however,  refers  it  to  the  great 
 principles,  pervading  all  nature,  of  decay  and  restora- 
 tion.    (Symbolik,  vol.  4,  p.  231.) 
 
 Raudii  Campi,  plains  about  ten  miles  to  the  north- 
 west of  Mediolanum,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  which  were 
 rendered  memorable  by  the  bloody  defeat  of  the  Ciiii- 
 bri  by  Marius.  (Flor.,  3,  ^.—  Vell.  Palcrc.,  2,  12.— 
 Oros.,  .5,  16.)  The  spot,  however,  on  whicli  the  bat- 
 tle took  place,  seems  very  uncertain,  as  no  author  ex- 
 cept Plutarch  mentions  the  situations  of  these  plains. 
 He  describes  them  as  lying  in  the  vicinity  of  Vercellae 
 (Vit.  Mar.) ;  but  even  this  designation  is  very  general. 
 The  Cimbri  are  represented  as  having  entered  Italy  by 
 the  Tridentine  Alps  or  the  Tyrol;  and  we  farther 
 learn,  that,  after  beating  back  the  consul  Calulus  on 
 the  Athesis  or  Adige,  they  forced  the  passage  of  that 
 river,  by  which  time  Marius  having  come  up  with  con- 
 siderable re-enforcements,  a  battle  took  place  in  the 
 plains  of  which  we  are  speaking.  ( Walckeiiaer,  sur 
 la  situation  des  Ru7idii  Campi. —  Mem.  de  I' A  cad. 
 dcs  Inscr  ,  &.C.,  vol.  6,  p.  360)  The  small  place 
 called  Rho  is  thought  by  D'Anville  to  preserve  some 
 traces  of  the  ancient  appellation.  {Crumcr^s  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  52  ) 
 
 Ravenna,  an  important  city  of  Cisal|)ii>e  Gau),  sit- 
 uate on  the  coast,  a  short  distance  below  the  Spinetic 
 mouth  of  the  Padus  or  Po.  It  laid  claim  to  an  ori- 
 gin of  remote  antiquity  ;  for  Strabo  (214)  re|iorts  it 
 to  have  been  founded  by  some  Thessalians  ;  but  they 
 subsequently  abandoned  it  to  the  Umlni,  bei)>g  iiiiaWe 
 to  resist  the  aggressions  of  the  Tyrrheni,  or  'i'liscans. 
 When  Pliny  says  it  was  a  colony  of  the  Sabines,  he 
 perhaps  alludes  to  an  old  tradition,  which  considered 
 that  people  as  descended  from  the  Urnhri.  {Plm.,  3, 
 18.)  Strabo  informs  us,  that  Ravenna  was  siltiated 
 in  the  midst  of  marshes,  and  built  entirely  on  wooden 
 piles.  A  communication  was  established  between  the 
 different  parts  of  the  town  by  means  of  bridges  and 
 boats.  (Compare  Sil.  Ital,  8,  &02.  — Martial,  13, 
 18,  &c.)  But,  as  Strabo  observes,  the  noxious  aii 
 arisino  from  the  stagnant  waters  was  so  purified  by 
 the  tide,  that  Ravenna  was  considered  by  the  Romans 
 a  very  healthy  place ;  in  proof  of  which,  they  sent  glad- 
 
 1161 
 
RAVENNA. 
 
 REG 
 
 lators  mere  to  be  trained  and  exercised.  The  vine 
 grew  in  the  marshes  with  the  greatest  luxuriance,  but 
 perished  in  the  course  of  four  or  five  years.  {Strabo, 
 218  — Plin„  14,  2.)  Water  was  scarce  at  this  place, 
 and  hence  Martial  observes  that  he  would  rather  have 
 a  cistern  of  water  at  Ravenna  than  a  vineyard,  since 
 he  could  sell  the  water  for  a  much  higher  price  than 
 the  wine.  {Ep.,  3,  56.)  The  same  writer  sportively 
 alludes  to  his  having  been  imposed  upon  by  a  tavern- 
 keeper  at  Ravenna  :  on  his  calling  for  a  glass  of  wa- 
 ter, he  received  one  of  wine  ! — We  are  not  informed 
 at  what  period  Ravenna  received  a  Roman  colony 
 (Slrab.,  217)  ;  but  it  is  not  improbable,  from  a  passage 
 in  Cicero  (Oral,  pro  Ball.,  22),  that  this  event  took 
 place  under  the  consulship  of  Gn.  Pompeius  Strabo. 
 Ravenna  became  the  great  naval  station  of  the  Ro- 
 mans on  the  Adriatic,  in  the  latter  times  of  the  re- 
 public, a  measure  which  seems  to  have  originated 
 with  Pompey  the  Great.  It  was  from  Ravenna  that 
 Caesar  held  a  parley  with  the  senate,  when  on  the 
 point  of  invading  Italy.  {Bell.  Civ.,  1,  5.)  It  was 
 from  this  city,  also,  that  he  set  forward  on  that  march 
 which  brouglit  him  to  tlie  Rubicon,  and  involved  his 
 country  and  the  world  in  civil  war.  {Appian,  Bell. 
 Cio.,  2,  II.) — It  is  well  observed  by  Gibbon  {Misc. 
 Works,  vol.  2,  p.  179),  that  •'  Caesar  had,  for  good 
 reasons,  fixed  his  quarters  at  Ravenna.  He  wished 
 to  obtain  possession  of  Picenum,  a  rich  and  populous 
 country,  and  thus  deprive  Pompey  of  the  resources  he 
 might  have  found  in  a  provmce  e.vtremelv  devoted  to 
 his  family,  and  from  which  that  general  might  have 
 made  legions  spring  up  by  merely  striking  the  ground 
 with  his  foot.  He  wished  to  turn  the  capital  with  his 
 army.  Had  he  attempted  to  march  straight  to  Rome, 
 Pompey  would  have  made  himself  master  of  the  diffi- 
 cult passes,  a:;d  stopped  his  progress,  and  Italy  would 
 have  become  the  theatre  of  war.  But,  by  marching 
 towards  Ariminum,  Ancona,  and  Corfinium,  he  made 
 it  seem  to  be  his  design  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  his 
 enemies,  and  his  boldness  threw  them  into  such  con- 
 sternation, that  they  hastened  to  embark  at  Brundi- 
 sium.  Lastly,  he  wished  to  make  sure  of  Ariminum. 
 This  im.portant  place  was  distant  from  the  Rubicon 
 eighteen  miles  by  the  .■Emilian  road,  and  only  eleven 
 by  that  of  Ravenna.  Caesar  could  send  forward  bod- 
 ies of  troops  under  twenty  different  pretences;  but 
 the  moment  he  passed  it,  his  designs  were  unmasked 
 Ariminum  was  therefore  to  be  surprised  by  a  forced 
 march." — The  old  port  of  Ravenna  was  situated  at 
 the  mouth  of  the  river  Bedesis  (//  Ronco).  But  Au- 
 gustus caused  a  new  one  to  be  constructed  at  the  en- 
 trance of  the  little  river  Candianus  into  the  sea,  and 
 about  three  miles  from  Ravenna.  He  established  a 
 communication  between  this  harbour  and  a  branch  of 
 the  Po,  by  means  of  a  canal  which  was  called  Fossa 
 Augusti  ;  and  he  also  made  a  causeway  to  connect 
 the  port  and  city,  which  obtained  the  name  of  Via 
 Cxsafis.  As  the  new  harbour,  from  thenceforth,  be- 
 came the  usual  station  for  the  fleet,  it  received  the  dis- 
 tinguishing appellation  of  Portus  Classis,  a  name  which 
 still  subsists  in  that  of  a  well  known  monastery  near 
 the  modern  town  oi  Ravenna.  Ravenna  continued  to 
 flourish  as  a  naval  station  long  after  the  reign  of  Au- 
 gustus. (Saet.,  Aug.,  49. — Tacit.,  Ann  ,  4,  5. — Id., 
 Hut ,  2,  LOO.— P/oZ ,  p.  63.— Zasiw.,  5.  28.)— Hono- 
 rius  made  this  city  the  place  of  his  residence  both  be- 
 fore and  after  Alaric  had  captured  and  burned  Rome. 
 When  Odoacer  made  the  conquest  of  Italy,  he  resided 
 at  Ravenna,  and  sustained  here  a  siege  of  three  years, 
 at  the  termination  of  which  he  was  taken  and  slain  by 
 Theodoric.  This  latter  monarch  fixed  the  seat  of  his 
 empire  here,  and  greatly  adorned  and  embellished  the 
 place.  Here  also  resided  the  exarch  or  governor  ap- 
 pointed by  the  Emperor  of  the  East  when  Italy  was  in 
 possession  of  the  Lombards.  In  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
 mans it  was  seated  on  a  kind  of  bay.  The  mud 
 1162 
 
 thrown  up  by  the  tide  has  formed  a  tract  of  lan^, 
 which  is  cultivated,  and  on  which  the  city  itself  ha» 
 been  enlarged  towards  the  sea.  The  air  is  insalubri- 
 ous, but  has  been  somewhat  amended  by  conveying 
 along  the  sides  of  the  city  the  rivers  Menlone  and  Ron- 
 co, which  carry  ofF  the  fcetid  water  from  the  marshy 
 grounds.      {Cramcr^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  94,  scq.) 
 
 Rauraoi,  a  people  of  Belgic  Gaul,  on  the  Upper 
 Rhine,  northeast  of  the  Sequani.  Their  capital  was 
 Augusta  Rauracorum,  now  Augst.     {Cas.,   B.    G., 
 
 4,  17.) 
 
 Reate,  an  old  Sabine  town  on  tlie  river  Velinus, 
 a  branch  of  the  Nar.  Its  modern  name  is  Rieli.  hi 
 the  antiquity  of  its  origin  this  place  was  equalled  by 
 few  of  the  cities  of  Italy,  since,  at  the  most  remote  pe- 
 riod to  which  the  records  of  that  country  extend,  it  is 
 reported  to  have  been  the  first  seat  of  the  Umbri,  who 
 are  regarded  by  some  as  the  Aborigines  of  Italy.  {Ze- 
 nod.,  Trocz.,  ap.  Dion.  Hal.,  2,  49.— W.,  1,  14.)  It 
 was  here,  likewise,  that  the  Arcadian  Pelasgi  probably 
 fixed  their  abode,  and,  by  intermixing  with  the  earlier 
 natives,  gave  rise  to  those  numerous  tribes,  known  to 
 the  Greeks  by  the  name  of  Opici,  and  subsequently  to 
 the  Romans  under  the  various  apptllations  of  Latins, 
 Oscans,  and  Campanians  ;  these  subsequently  drove 
 the  Siculi  from  the  plains,  and  occupied  in  their  stead 
 the  shores  of  the  Tyrrhennian  sea.  If  we  may  credit 
 Silius  Italicus,  Reate  derived  its  name  from  Rhea,  the 
 Latin  Cybele  (8,  417).  From  Cicero  {in  Cat.,  3)  we 
 learn  that  it  was  only  a  prafcclura  in  his  time  ;  from 
 Suetonius,  on  the  other  harid,  we  collect  that  it  was  a 
 municipal  town.  {Vesp.,  1.)  Reate  was  particularly 
 celebrated  for  its  excellent  i)reed  of  mules  {Strab.,  228), 
 and  still  more  so  for  that  of  its  asses,  which  sometimes 
 brought  the  enormous  price  of  60,000  sestertii,  about 
 £484  sterling.  (  Varru,  R  R.,  2,  \.—PHn.,  8,  43.) 
 — The  valley  of  the  Velinus,  in  which  this  city  was 
 situated,  was  so  delightful  as  to  merit  the  appellation 
 of  Tempe  {Cic,  Ep.  ad  Aui.,  4,  15) ;  and  from  their 
 dewy  freshness,  its  meadows  obtained  the  name  of 
 Rosei  Campi.  {Varro,  R.  R,],  7.  —  Plin.,  17,  4.) 
 According  to  Holstenius  {ad  Slcph.  Byz.,  p.  110), 
 they  still  bear  the  name  of  Zc  Rose.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  414,  seqq.) 
 
 Redonks,  a  Gallic  nation  in  the  interior  of  Lugdu- 
 nensis  Tenia,  north  of  the  Namnetes,  and  the  mouth 
 of  the  Liger  or  Loire.  Their  capital  was  Condate,  af- 
 terward Redones,  now  Rennes.  {Cas.,  B.  G.,  7,  75. 
 —PI in.,  4,  18.) 
 
 RegilLvE  or  Regillu.m,  a  Sabine  town  near  Ere- 
 tum,  which  latter  place  was  north  of  Nomentum  and 
 northwest  of  Tibur.  Regillum  is  only  known  as  tho 
 birthplace  of  Atta  Clausus,  who,  under  the  name  of 
 Appius  Claudius,  became  the  founder  of  the  Clanlian 
 family  at  Rome.     {Liv.,  2,  \Q.—Dion.  Hal.,  5,  40.) 
 
 Regillus,  a  small  lake  of  Latium,  northwest  of 
 Praeneste,  and  southeast  of  Gabii.  It  was  the  scene 
 of  a  great  battle  between  the  Romans  and  Latins,  after 
 the  expulsion  of  Tarquin,  in  which  the  latter  were  to- 
 tally defeated.  {Dion.  Hal.,  6,  18.)— The  lake  Re- 
 gillus is  thought  to  be  il  Lnghetto  della  Colonna,  near 
 the  small  town  of  that  name.  {Cic,  N.  D.,  2. — Plin., 
 33,  6.— Fa/.  Max,  1,  8.  — Floras,  4.  2.) 
 
 RegTum  LepIdum  or  Forum  LepIdi,  a  city  of  Cis- 
 alpine Gaul,  between  Parma  and  Mutina.  In  Cicero 
 we  find  it  sometimes  under  the  name  of  Regium  Lep- 
 idi  {Ep.  ad  Fam.,  12,  5),  or  simply  Regium  (11,  9). 
 This  place  probably  owed  its  origin  to  M.  /Eiiiilius 
 Lepidus,  who  constructed  the  ^-Emilian  road,  on  which 
 it  stood  ;  but  when  or  from  what  cause  it  took  the 
 name  of  Regium  is  unknown  It  is  farther  noticed  in 
 history  as  having  witnessed  the  death  of  the  elder  Bru- 
 tus by  order  of  Pompey,  to  whom  he  had  surrendered 
 himself.     {Liv.,  Epit.,  90.— FaZ.  Max.,  6,  S.—Oroa., 
 
 5,  22.) 
 
 Regulus,  M.  Attilius,  a  consul  during  the  first 
 
REGUI.US. 
 
 REGULUS. 
 
 Punic  war.  He  reduced  Brundisiiim,  and,  in  his  sec- 
 ond consulship,  took  04,  and  sunk  30,  galleys  of  the 
 Carthaginian  fleet  off  Ecnomus,  on  the  coast  of  Sicily. 
 After  this  victory,  Regulus  and  his  colleage  Mantius 
 sailed  to  Africa,  and  seized  on  Clupea,  a  place  situ- 
 ate to  the  east  of  Carthage,  not  far  from  the  Hermean 
 promontory,  which  they  made  their  place  of  arms. 
 Manlius  was  recalled,  but  Rcgulus  was  left  to  prose- 
 cute the  war ;  and  so  rapid  was  his  success,  that  he 
 made  himself  master  of  about  200  places  on  the  coast, 
 in  the  number  of  which  wasTunelum  or  Tunix.  The 
 Carthaginians  sued  for  peace,  but  Regulus  would  grant 
 them  none,  except  on  conditions  that  could  not  be  en- 
 dured. His  rapid  success  had  rendered  him  haughty 
 and  intractable,  and  now  it  made  him  rash  and  impru- 
 dent. A  Lacedaemonian  leader,  named  Xanthippus, 
 arrived  at  Carthage  with  a  re-enforcement  of  Greek 
 troops,  and  soon  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.  Ob- 
 serving to  the  Carthaginians  that  their  overthrows 
 were  entirely  owing  to  their  having  fought  on  ground, 
 where  their  cavalry,  in  which  alone  they  were  superior 
 to  the  Romans,  had  not  room  to  act,  he  promised  to 
 repair  this  mistake,  and  accordingly  posted  his  forces 
 in  a  plain,  where  the  elephants  and  Carthaginian  horse 
 might  be  of  service.  Regulus  followed  him,  imagin- 
 ing himself  invincible  ;  but  he  was  defeated  and  taken 
 prisoner,  along  with  500  of  his  countrymen.  After 
 being  kept  some  years  in  prison,  he  was  sent  to  Rome 
 to  propose  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  having  been  first 
 compelled  to  bind  himself  by  an  oath  that  he  would  re- 
 turn in  case  he  proved  unsuccessful.  When  he  came 
 to  Rome,  he  strongly  dissuaded  his  countrymen  against 
 an  exchange  of  prisoners,  arguing  that  such  an  exam- 
 ple would  be  of  fatal  consequence  to  the  republic  :  that 
 citizens  who  had  so  basely  surrendered  their  arms  to 
 the  enemy  were  unworthy  of  the  least  compassion  and 
 incapable  of  serving  their  country  :  that,  with  regard 
 to  himself,  he  was  so  far  advanced  in  years,  that  his 
 death  ought  to  be  considered  as  a  matter  of  no  impor- 
 tance ;  whereas  they  had  in  their  hands  several  Car- 
 thaginian generals,  in  the  flovver  of  their  age.  and  ca- 
 pable of  doing  their  country  great  services  tor  many 
 years.  It  was  with  difficulty  the  senate  complied  with 
 so  "generous  and  unexampled  a  counsel.  The  illus- 
 trious exile  therefore  left  Rome,  in  order  to  return  to 
 Carthage,  unmoved  by  the  sorrow  of  his  friends,  or  the 
 tears  of  his  wife  and  children  ;  and  was  treated  on  his 
 return,  according  to  the  ordinary  account,  with  the  ut- 
 most degree  of  cruelty,  the  Carthaginians  having  heard 
 that  their  offer  had  been  rejected  entirely  through  the 
 Opposition  of  Regulus.  They  imprisoned  him  for  a 
 long  while  in  a  gloomy  dungeon,  whence,  after  cutting 
 off  his  eyelids,  they  brought  him  suddenly  into  the  sun, 
 when  its  beams  darted  their  strongest  heat.  They 
 next  put  him  into  a  kind  of  chest  full  of  nails,  the 
 points  of  which  did  not  allow  him  a  moment's  ease 
 day  or  night.  Lastly,  after  having  been  long  torment- 
 ed by  being  kept  continually  awake  in  this  dreadful 
 torture,  his  merciless  enemies  nailed  him  to  a  cross, 
 their  usual  punishment,  and  left  him  to  die  on  it.  In 
 retaliation  for  this  cruelty,  the  senate  at  Rome  are  said 
 to  have  delivered  two  captives  into  the  hands  of  the 
 widow  of  Regulus,  to  do  with  them  what  she  pleased  ; 
 but  that  her  cruelty  towards  them  was  so  great,  that 
 the  senate  themselves  were  compelled  at  length  to  in- 
 terfere.— Such  is  a  general  outline  of  the  story  of 
 Regulus.  The  question  respecting  its  truth  or  false- 
 hood has  given  rise  to  considerable  discussion.  Pal- 
 merius  first  started  an  objection  to  the  common  nar- 
 rative (Excrcit.  in  Avct.  Grccr.  ,  p.  151,  seqq),  and, 
 as  well  from  the  silence  of  Polyhius  on  this  point  as 
 from  a  fragment  of  Diodorus  Siculus  (lib.  24,  p.  273, 
 geqq  ,  ed.  Vales  ;  vol.  2,  p  566,  ed.  Wesxeling ;  vol.  9, 
 p.  524,  ed.  Bip  ),  ingeniously  conjectured  that  Regulus 
 was  never  sent  from  Carthage  to  Rome  ;  that  he  was 
 not  the  victim  of  toitures,  but  died  of  a  disease  during 
 
 his  captivity  ;  and  that  the  whole  story  respecting  hit 
 punishment  was  invented  by  the  Roman  writers,  or 
 else  by  the  wife  of  Regulus,  in  order  to  palliate  the 
 cruelty  of  which  the  latter  had  been  guilty  towards  the 
 Carthaginian  captives  delivered  into  ber  hands.  This 
 same  opinion  has  been  embraced  by  many  subsequent 
 writers.  (Compare  Gesner,  in  Chrestom.,  Cir.,  p. 
 547. —  Wcsseling,  ad  Diod.,  I.  c. — Jani,  ad  Uarat., 
 Od.,  3,  5,  i9.—Lcfcb.,  ad  Sil.  Ttal.,  6,  539.— To/onrf, 
 Collection  of  several  pieces,  Lond.,  1726,  vol.  2,  p. 
 28.  —  Foreign  Rcviexo,  vol.  1,  p.  305.  —  Bbltirher, 
 Geschichle  der  Carthagcr,  p.  205,  &c. — Beaufort,  sur 
 rincerlilude  de  VHisloire  Romaine,  1738,  Bvo,  sub 
 fin.  —  Rooss,  Do  SuppUciis  quibus  Regulus  Carlha- 
 gine  f  radii  us  intcrfcclus. — Mngazin  fiir  offtnll.  Schu- 
 len,  Bremen,  1791,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  50,  seqq.)  The 
 arguments  in  favour  of  this  opinion  are  strong,  and  we 
 might  almost  say  decisive.  In  the  first  place,  the  Ro- 
 man writers  are  all  at  variance  among  themselves  re- 
 specting the  nature  of  the  punishment  supposed  tc 
 have  been  inflicted  on  Regulus.  Cicero  {De  Fin.,  2, 
 20.  — Ibid..  5,  27.  — Pis.,  c.  19  -De  Off.,  3,  27), 
 Seneca  {De  Prov.,  c.  3),  Valerius  Maximus  (9,  2, 
 ext.  1),  Tuditanus  and  Tubero  {<ip.  Aul.  Gell ,  6,  4), 
 Silius  Italicus  (6,  539,  seqq.),  Aurelius  Victor  (c. 
 40),  and  Zonaras  {Ann.,  vol.  2),  make  Regulus  to 
 have  had  his  eyelids  cut  off,  and  to  have  died  of  want 
 of  sleep  and  of  hunger.  Seneca  {loc.  cit.,  Epist.,  el 
 98),  Silius  Italicus  (2,  343,  seqq.).  and  Florus  (2,  2), 
 speak  also  of  the  cross  as  an  instrument  of  his  suffer- 
 ings. And,  finally,  Seneca  {Dc  Prov.,  c.  3. — De 
 tranq.  an.,  c.  15. —  Episl.,  67),  Cicero  {Pis.,  19), 
 Valerius  Maximus  (9,  2,  ext.  1),  Aurelius  Victor  and 
 Zonaras  (//.,  cc),  Silius  Italicus  (6,  539,  seqq.),  Oro- 
 sius  (4,  8).  Augustin  {De  Civ.  Dei,  1,  15),  Appian 
 {De  Reb.  Pun.,  c.  i.—Exc.,  2,  ex.  lib.  5.—De  Rcb. 
 Sic.,  vol.  1,  p.  93,  ed.  Schveigh.),  tell  of  a  narrow 
 box  or  barrel,  full  of  nails,  in  which  he  was  confined  ; 
 and,  being  compelled  to  stand  continually,  perished  at 
 last  with  exhaustion.  'J  his  discrepance,  therefore, 
 gives  the  whole  story  much  the  appearance  of  a  popu- 
 lar fable,  owing  its  origin  to,  and  heightened  in  many 
 of  its  features  by,  national  feeling. — Another  argnment 
 against  the  authenlicitv  of  the  narrative  in  question  is 
 derived  from  the  total  silence  of  Polybius,  who  treats 
 fully,  in  his  history,  of  the  events  of  the  first  Punic 
 war,  respecting  not  merely  the  punishment  of  Regu- 
 lus, but  even  his  coming  to  Rome  and  his  return  to 
 Carthage. — A  third  and  still  stronger  argument  is  de- 
 duced from  the  language  of  Diodorus  Sicu)us,  who 
 makes  the  widow  of  Regulus  to  have  been  urged  to 
 punish  the  captives  in  her  hands  from  the  persuasioa 
 that  her  husband  had  died  the  victim  oi  carelessness  ^ni 
 neglect  on  the  part  of  the  Carthaginians  (vo^iaaaa  Si' 
 ufieXetav  avTov  iK^eXonrivai  to  ^yv,  fiag.,  lib.  24  ; 
 vol.  9,  p.  344,  ed.  Bip.)  The  natural  inference 
 from  such  language  is,  that  the  husband  had  not  been 
 treated  with  suflficient  care  while  labouring  under  some 
 malady,  and  that  this  neglect  caused  his  death;  it  is 
 impossible  to  derive  from  the  words  of  the  t8:?t  any 
 meaning  favourable  to  the  idea  of  positive  and  actual 
 punishment. — The  captives  in  the  hands  of  the  widow 
 of  Rcgulus  were  two  in  number,  Bostarand  Hamilcar, 
 and  they  had  been  delivered  up  to  her,  it  is  said,  to 
 pacify  her  complaints,  and  as  hostages  for  the  safely 
 of  Regulus.  For  five  days  they  were  kept  without 
 food  :  Bostar  died  of  hunger  and  grief,  and  Hamilcar 
 was  then  shut  up  with  the  dead  body  for  five  days  lon- 
 ger, a  scanty  allowance  of  food  being  at  the  same  time 
 given  him.  The  stench  from  the  corpse  and  other 
 circumstances  caused  the  affair  to  become  known,  and 
 the  sons  of  Regulus  narrowly  escaped  being  condemn- 
 ed to  death  by  the  people.  Hamilcar  was  taken  away 
 from  his  cruel  keeper,  and  carefully  attended  until  his 
 restoration  to  health.  {Diod.  Sic,  frag.,  lib.  24,  vol 
 9,  p    346,  ed    Bip)     Would  the  Roman  senate  anA 
 
 1163 
 
RH  A 
 
 RHE 
 
 people  have  acted  ihiis,  had  the  story  of  Reguhis  and 
 his  cruel  sufferings  been  true  ?  If  any,  notwithstand- 
 ing what  has  been  here  adduced,  are  inclined  to  favour 
 the  other  side  of  the  question,  they  will  find  some  plau- 
 sible arguments. in  its  su[)port  in  Ruperti's  edition  of 
 Silius  Italicus  (Ad  Arg.,  lib.  6). 
 
 RcMi,  a  people  of  Gallia  Belgica,  southwest  of  the 
 Treveri,  and  southeast  of  the  Vcromandui.  Their 
 capital  was  Durocortorum, now i^Acms.  {Cas  ,  B.  G., 
 2,  :J,  5.—Tac.,  Hist.,  4,  67.— Plin.,  4,  17.) 
 
 Remus,  the  brother  of  Romulus,  exposed  togeth- 
 er with  him  by  the  cruelty  of  his  grandfather.  ( Vid. 
 Romulus.) 
 
 Res^na,  a  city  on  the  river  Chaboras,  in  northern 
 Mesopotamia.  {Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  'PeaLva.)  Its  site 
 was  afterward  occupied  by  Theodosiopolis  {Chron., 
 Edessen.,  p.  3;)9),  which  must  not  be  confounded 
 with  another  city  of  the  same  name  in  northern  Arme- 
 nia. The  modern  name  of  Ressena  is  Ras-cl-aim. 
 (Niebuhr,  vol.  2,  p.  394.) 
 
 Rha  (T(2),  a  large  river,  now  the  Wolga.  No  wri- 
 ter, prior  to  Ptolemy,  mentions  either  its  name  or 
 course.  The  appellation  occurs,  it  is  true,  in  our  edi- 
 tions of  Mela  (3,  5),  but  it  is  a  mere  interpolation. 
 The  true  reading  in  Mela  is,  "JE  Ccraumis  montibus 
 uno  alvco  dcscefidil,  duohus  exit  in  Caspium  [Rha] 
 Araxcs  Tauri  latere  demissvs.''''  The  word  Rha, 
 which  we  have  enclosed  in  brackets,  does  not  belong 
 to  the  te.xt. — Ptolemy's  acquaintance  with  this  river 
 was  so  accurate,  that  he  knew  not  only  its  mouth,  but 
 its  western  bending  towards  the  Tanais,  its  double 
 sources  (the  Wolga  and  the  Kama),  the  point  of  their 
 union,  and  the  course  of  some  streams  flowing  from 
 the  mountains  on  the  east  into  the  Wolga.  All  this 
 knowledge  of  the  Rha  was  obtained  from  the  caravan 
 traders,  e.Kcept,  perhaps,  a  small  portion  made  known 
 to  the  world  by  the  Roman  conquests  in  this  quarter. 
 Subsequent  writers  never  lost  sight  of  this  river. 
 Agathemerus  (2,  30)  reckons  it  among  the  larger  sized 
 rivers,  and  calls  it,  probably  by  a  corrupt  name,  Rhos 
 ('P(jf).  Ammianus  Marcellinus  (22,  8)  speaks  of  a 
 plant  growing  on  its  banks  of  great  use  in  medicine. 
 Every  one  will  see  that  he  alludes  to  the  rhubarb  (/i^Aa 
 harbarum)  of  pharmacy.  The  plant,  it  is  true,  did  not, 
 in  fact,  grow  here,  but  was  brought  to  this  quarter  by 
 the  caravan  trade.  As  the  Romans,  however,  re- 
 ceived their  supplies  of  it  from  this  part  of  the  world, 
 they  associated  with  it  the  name  of  the  river,  and  thus 
 the  appellation  arose.  The  name  Rha  appears  to 
 be  an  appellative  term,  having  affinity  with  Rhea  or 
 Reka,  which,  in  the  Sarmatian  or  Sclavonian  lan- 
 guage, signifies  a  riner ;  and  from  the  Russian  denom- 
 ination of  Vclika.  Reka,  or  Great  River,  appears  to 
 be  formed  the  name  of  Wolga.  In  the  Byzantine  and 
 other  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  this  stream  is  called 
 Aid  or  Elel,  a  term,  in  many  northern  languages,  sig- 
 nifying great  or  illustrious.  (Compare  the  German 
 adel.)  The  approximation  of  the  Tanais  to  this  river, 
 before  it  changes  its  course  to  the  Palus  Masotis,  is 
 the  occasion  of  the  erroneous  opinion  of  some  authors, 
 that  it  is  only  an  emanation  of  the  Rha  taking  a  differ- 
 ent route.     (Mannerl,  Geogr.,  vol.  4,  p,  341.) 
 
 Rhacotis,  the  name  of  a  maritime  place  in  Egypt, 
 on  the  site  of  which  Alexandrea  was  subsequently  erect- 
 ed. (Strabo,  792. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1, 
 p.  619.) 
 
 Rhadamanthus,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  and 
 brother  to  Minos  and  Sarpedon.  These  three  brethren 
 fell  into  discord,  says  the  legend,  on  account  of  a 
 youth  named  Miletus,  the  son  of  Apollo,  or  of  Jupiter. 
 The  youth  testifying  most  esteem  for  Sarpedon,  Minos 
 drove  them  out  of  Crete,  their  native  island.  Mile- 
 tus, going  to  Caria,  built  a  town  there,  which  he  named 
 from  himself.  Sarpedon  went  to  Lycia,  where  he  aid- 
 ed Cilix  against  the  people  of  that  country,  and  ob- 
 tained the  sovereignty  of  a  part  of  it.  Rhadamanthus 
 1164 
 
 passed  into  the  Cyclades,  where  he  ruled  with  justice 
 and  equity.  Having  committed  an  accidental  homi- 
 cide, he  retired  subsequently  to  Bceotia,  where  he  mar- 
 ried Alcmena,  the  mother  of  Hercules.  According  to 
 Homer  (0(/.,  4,  164),  Rhadamanthus  was  placed  on  the 
 Elysian  plain,  among  the  heroes  to  whom  Jupiter  al- 
 lotted that  blissful  abode.  Pindar  (0/.,  2,  127)  seems 
 to  make  him  a  sovereign  or  judge  in  the  island  of  the 
 blessed.  Latin  poets  place  him  with  Minos  and  .^Eacus 
 in  the  lower  world,  where  their  office  is  to  judge  the 
 dead.     {Kei ghtley'' s  Mythology,  p.  455,  seq.) 
 
 Rh^ti,  the  inhabitants  of  Rha;tia.  (Vid.  Rhsetia.) 
 RHiETiA,  a  country  of  Europe,  which  occupied  a 
 part  of  the  Alps,  and  was  situate  to  the  north  of  Italy 
 and  east  of  Helvetia.  It  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  its 
 limits  to  the  north,  but  we  may  say  that  it  was  bound- 
 ed in  that  quarter  by  Vindelicia,  and,  in  general,  that  it 
 corresponded  to  the  country  of  the  Grisons,  and  to  the 
 cantons  of  Uri,  Glaris,  &.C.,  as  far  as  the  Lake  of 
 Constance :  it  extended  also  over  the  Tyrol.  This 
 country  was  called  western  Illyricum,  and  was  sub- 
 jected to  the  Romans  by  Drusus,  in  the  reign  of  Au- 
 gustus. Soon  afterward  Vindelicia  was  reduced  by 
 Tiberius,  so  that  the  Roman  possessions  extended  to 
 the  Danube.  This  double  conquest  formed  a  prov- 
 ince called  Rhstia,  comprehending  Vindelicia,  with- 
 out obliterating  altogether  the  distinction.  But  in  the 
 multiplication  that  Dioclesian,  and  some  other  em- 
 perors after  him,  made  of  the  provinces,  Rhaetia  was 
 divided  into  two,  under  the  names  of  Prima  and  Se- 
 cunda  ;  a  circumstance  which  caused  Rhsetia  Prop- 
 er and  Vindelicia  to  reassume  their  primitive  distinc- 
 tions. (Virg.,  G.,  2,  96.— Plin.,  3,  20;  14,  2,  &c.— 
 Hor.,  Od.,  4,  4,  14.) 
 
 Rhamnus,  a  town  of  Attica,  situate  on  the  coast, 
 sixty  stadia  northeast  of  Marathon.  {Pausan.,  1,  32. 
 — Strabo,  399.)  It  was  so  named  from  the  plant 
 rhamnus  (thornbush),  which  grew  there  in  abundance. 
 This  demus  belonged  to  the  tribe  ^Eantis,  and  was 
 much  celebrated  in  antiquity  for  the  worship  of  Nem- 
 esis, hence  styled  Rhammisia  virgo.  (For  an  ac- 
 count of  ner  temple  and  statue,  vid.  Nemesis.)  Scylax 
 speaks  of  Rhamnus  as  being  fortified.  (Peripl.,  p.  21.) 
 It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  orator  Antiphon.  A  mod- 
 ern traveller,  who  has  accurately  explored  the  site  of 
 this  ancient  town,  informs  us  that  it  now  bears  the 
 name  of  Vmo  Castro.  The  ruins  of  the  temple  of 
 Nemesis  lie  at  the  head  of  a  narrow  glen  which  leads 
 to  the  principal  gale  of  the  town.  The  building  must 
 have  been  inferior  in  size  to  those  Doric  temples 
 which  still  remain  in  Attica.  Its  fall  seems  to  have 
 been  occasioned  by  some  violent  shock  of  an  earth- 
 quake, the  columns  being  more  disjointed  and  broken 
 than  in  any  other  ruin  of  the  kind.  (Raike's  Journal, 
 in  Walpolc's  Memoirs,  vol.  1,  p.  307. —  Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  389,  seqq.) 
 
 RhampsinItus.      Vid.  Rampsinitus. 
 Rhamses  or  Ramises,  a  powerful  king  of  Egypt, 
 the  same  with  Ramses  VI.,  the  famed  Sesostris.    {Vid. 
 Sesostris.) 
 
 Rharius  Campus,  a  part  of  the  Thriasian  plain,  in 
 Attica,  near  Eleusis.  It  was  in  this  plain  that  Ceres 
 was  said  to  have  first  sown  corn.  {Pausan.,  1,  38  ) 
 Dodwell  observes,  that  the  soil,  though  arid,  still  pro- 
 duces abundant  harvests  (vol.  1,  p.  588). 
 
 Rhea,  I.  a  daughter  of  Coelus  and  Terra,  who  mar- 
 ried Saturn,  by  whom  she  had  Vesta,  Ceres,  Jui.o, 
 Pluto,  Neptune,  &c.  Her  husband,  however,  de- 
 voured them  all  as  soon  as  born,  as  he  had  succeeded 
 to  the  throne  with  the  solemn  promise  that  he  would 
 raise  no  male  children,  or,  according  to  others,  be- 
 cause he  had  been  informed  by  an  oracle  that  one  of 
 his  sons  would  dethrone  him.  To  stop  the  cruelty  of 
 her  husband,  Rhea  consulted  her  parents,  and  was 
 advised  to  impose  upon  him.  Accordingly,  when  she 
 brought  forth,  the  child  was  immediately  concealed, 
 
 I 
 
RHE 
 
 RHE 
 
 and  Saturn  devoured  a  stone  which  his  wife  had  given 
 him  as  her  own  child.  The  fears  of  Saturn  were 
 soon  proved  to  be  well  founded.  A  year  after,  the 
 child,  whose  name  was  Jupiter,  became  so  strong  and 
 powerful,  that  he  drove  his  father  from  his  throne. 
 (Vzd.  Saturnus.) — II.  or  Rhea  Silvia,  the  mother  of 
 Romulus  and  Remus.     (Vtd.  Ilia.) 
 
 Rhkgium,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and  flourish- 
 ing cities  of  Magna  Grsecia,  at  the  extremity  of  Italy, 
 ill  the  territory  of  the  Bruttii,  and  in  a  southeastern  di- 
 rection from  Messana  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Sicily. 
 This  city  is  known  to  have  been  founded  nearly  700 
 years  B.C.,  by  a  party  of  Zanclaeans  from  Sicily,  to- 
 gether with  some  Chalcidians  from  Euboea,  and  Mes- 
 senians  from  the  Peloponnesus.  {Anlioch.  Syrac, 
 Stiab.,  257. — Herac,  Pont,  fragm.,  25. — Pausan.,  4, 
 23.)  It  may,  however,  lay  claim  to  a  still  more  re- 
 mote origin,  if  it  be  true,  as  Cato  affirmed,  that  it  was 
 once  in  the  possession  of  the  Aurunci.  {A-p.  Val. 
 Prob.  eel.  et.  Fragm.  Hist.)  According  to  .lEschylus, 
 as  quoted  by  Strabo,  the  name  of  Rhegium  was  sup- 
 posed to  refer  to  the  great  catastrophe  which  had  once 
 separated  Italy  from  Sicily  {a(f  oi)  dij  'Pij-yiov  KiKXija- 
 KETat. —  Compare  Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  414).  That  geog- 
 rapher suggests  as  his  own  opinion,  that  this  term 
 was  derived  from  the  Latin  word  Regium  ;  and  thus 
 considers  it  as  only  expressive  of  the  importance  and 
 dignity  of  the  town  to  which  it  was  attached.  {St.rab., 
 257.)  It  appears,  however,  from  the  more  ancient 
 coins  of  Rhegium,  that  the  original  name  of  the  place 
 was  RECIOiSl.  In  these  the  epigraph  is  REC.  RECI. 
 RECINOS,  in  characters  partaking  more  of  the  Os- 
 can  than  of  the  Greek  form.  Those  of  a  more  recent 
 date  are  decidedly  Greek.  PHF.  PHriNiiN,  being  in- 
 scribed on  them.  {Sestirii,  Mon.  Vet.,  p.  18.) — We 
 inay  collect  from  different  passages,  that  the  constitu- 
 tion of  Rhegium  was  at  first  an  oligarchy  under  the 
 superior  direction  of  a  chief,  who  was  always  chosen 
 from  a  McKsenian  family.  (Hcyne,  Opusc.  Acad.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  270. — SaiiUe-Croix,  sur  la  Legist,  de  la  Grande 
 Grece,  Mem.  des  Acad,  dcs  Inscr.,  vol.  42,  p.  312.) 
 Charondas,  the  celebrated  lawgiver  of  Catana  in  Sici- 
 ly, is  said  also  to  have  given  laws  to  the  Rhegians. 
 (Heracl.  Pont.,  I.  c.—2Eiian,  V.  H ,  3,  \l.—Arisiot., 
 Poht.,  2,  10.)  This  form  of  government  lasted  near- 
 ly 200  years,  until  Anaxilaus,  the  second  of  that  name, 
 usurped  the  sole  authority,  and  became  tyrant  of  Rhe- 
 gium about  496  B.C.  {Straho,  I.  c. — Aristot.,  Poht.,  6, 
 12.)  Under  this  prince,  who,  though  aspiring  and 
 ambitious,  appears  to  have  been  possessed  of  consid- 
 erable talents  and  many  good  qualities  (Justin,  4,  2), 
 the  prosperity  of  Rhegium,  far  from  declining,  reached 
 its  highest  elevation.  Ana.\ilaus  having  succeeded  in 
 making  himself  master  of  Messana,  in  conjunction  with 
 a  party  of  Samians,  who  had  quitted  their  country, 
 which  was  then  threatened  with  the  Persian  yoke  (He- 
 rod., 6,  23.  —  Thucyd.,  6,  5),  confided  the  sovereignty 
 of  that  important  town  to  his  son  Cleophron.  (Sehol. 
 ad  Pind.,  Pyth.,  2,  34.)  His  views  were  next  direct- 
 ed against  the  Locrians  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  here 
 also  he  would  have  been  successful,  having  already  ob- 
 tained a  decided  advantage  over  them  in  the  field,  and 
 having  proceeded,  farther,  to  lay  siege  to  their  town 
 (Justin,  21,  3),  when  he  was  compelled  to  withdraw 
 his  forces  by  the  influence  of  Hicro,  king  of  Syracuse, 
 whose  enmity  he  was  unwilling  to  incur.  (Schol. 
 ad  Pind.,  I.  c.)  Anaxilaus  reigned  eighteen  years, 
 and,  on  his  death,  intrusted  the  sovereignty  to  Mici- 
 thus,  his  minister  and  chief  counsellor,  until  his  sons 
 should  arrive  at  a  proper  age  to  undertake  the  man- 
 agement of  affairs.  He  held  the  power  until  the  younor 
 princes  had  attained  this  age,  and  then  resigning  it 
 to  them,  retired  to  Tegea.  About  six  years  after  his 
 resignation,  the  Rhegians  succeeded  in  recovering 
 their  liberty,  and  freeing  themselves  from  the  tyranni- 
 cal government  of  the  sons  of  Anaxilaus.     The  city, 
 
 however,  remained  long  a  prey  to  adverse  factions, 
 and  it  was  not  till  it  had  undergone  various  changes 
 and  revolutions  in  its  internal  administration  that  it 
 obtained  at  last  a  moderate  and  stable  form  of  gov- 
 ernment. (Thucyd.,  4,  1. — Justin,  4,  3.)  The  con- 
 nexion which  subsisted  between  Rhegium  and  the 
 Chalcidian  colonies  in  Sicily,  induced  Rhegium  to 
 take  part  with  the  Athenians  in  their  first  hostilities 
 against  the  Syracusans  and  Locrians  ;  the  latter,  in- 
 deed, proved  their  constant  enemies,  and  sought  to  in- 
 jure them  by  every  means  in  their  power.  (Thucyd., 
 4,  24.)  In  the  great  Sicilian  expedition  the  Rhegians 
 observed  a  strict  neutrality  ;  for,  though  the  Athenian 
 fleet  was  long  moored  in  their  roads,  and  its  com- 
 manders employed  all  their  arts  of  persuasion  to  pre- 
 vail upon  them  to  join  their  cause,  they  remained  firm 
 in  their  determination.  (Thucyd.,  6,  44.)  The  same 
 policy  seems  to  have  directed  their  counsels  at  the 
 time  that  Dionysius  the  elder  was  meditating  the  sub- 
 jection of  Sicily  and  Magna  Graecia.  They  constant- 
 ly opposed  the  designs  of  that  tyrant  ;  and,  had  the 
 other  states  of  Magna  Graecia  displayed  the  same  en- 
 ergy, the  ambitious  views  of  this  artful  prince  would 
 have  been  completely  frustrated  ;  but,  after  the  defeat 
 experienced  by  their  forces  on  the  EUeporus,  they  of- 
 fered no  farther  resistance  ;  and  Rhegium  being  thus 
 left  unsupported,  was  compelled,  after  a  gallant  de- 
 fence of  nearly  a  year,  to  yield  to  the  Sicilian  forces. 
 The  few  inhabitants  who  escaped  from  famine  and  the 
 sword  were  removed  to  Sicily,  and  the  place  was  giv- 
 en up  to  pillage  and  destruction.  Some  years  after, 
 it  was,  however,  partly  restored  by  the  younger  Uio- 
 nysiiis,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Phcebia.  (Straho, 
 258.)  During  the  war  with  Pyrrhus,  this  city  was 
 seized  by  a  body  of  Campanians,  who  had  been  sta- 
 tioned there  as  a  garrison  by  the  Romans,  and  was,  in 
 consequence,  exposed  to  all  the  licentiousness  and  ra- 
 pacity of  those  mercenary  troops.  The  Roman  sen- 
 ate at  length  freed  the  unfortunate  citizens  from  their 
 persecutors,  and  consigned  the  latter  to  the  fate  which 
 they  so  justly  merited.  (Straho,  I.  c. — Polyb.,  1,  7. 
 —  lAv.,  Epit.,  12  et  15.) — The  city  of  Rhegium  sus- 
 tained great  injury  at  a  later  period  from  the  repeated 
 shocks  of  an  earthquake,  which  occurred  not  long  be- 
 fore the  Social  war,  or  90  B.C.  It  was,  in  conse- 
 quence, nearly  deserted  when  Augustus,  after  having 
 conquered  Sextus  Pompeius,  established  there  a  con- 
 siderable body  of  veteran  soldiers  for  his  fleet  ;  and 
 Strabo  affirms,  that  in  his  day  this  colony  was  in  a 
 flourishing  state.  (Strah.,  259.)  Hence  also  the  ap- 
 pellation of  Julium,  which  later  authors  have  applied 
 to  designate  this  town.  (PtoL,  p.  62  )  Few  cities 
 of  Magna  Graecia  could  boast  of  having  given  birth  to 
 so  many  distinguished  characters  as  Rhegium,  wheth- 
 er statesmen,  philosophers,  men  of  literature,  or  artists 
 of  celebrity.  Among  the  first  were  many  followers  of 
 Pythagoras,  who  are  enumerated  by  lamblichus  in  his 
 life  of  that  philosopher.  Theagenes,  Hippys,  Lycus, 
 surnamed  Butera,  and  Glaucus,  were  historians  of 
 note  ;  Ibycus,  Cleomenes,  and  Lycus,  the  adoptive 
 father  of  Lycophron,  were  poets,  whose  works  were 
 well  known  in  Greece.  Clearchus  and  Pythagoras 
 are  spoken  of  as  statuaries  of  great  reputation  ;  the 
 latter,  indeed,  is  said  to  have  even  excelled  the  fa- 
 mous Myron.  (Plin.,  35,  8. — Pausan.,  6,  4.)  The 
 modern  name  of  the  place  is  Keggio.  (Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  427.) 
 
 Rhenea,  a  small  island  near  Delos  ;  so  near,  in  fact, 
 that  Polycrates  of  Sarnos  is  said  to  have  dedicated  it 
 to  Apollo,  connecting  it  to  the  latter  island  by  means 
 of  a  chain.  (Thucyd.,  3,  lOi)  Strabo  says  the  dis- 
 tance which  separates  them  is  four  stadia.  (Strabo, 
 iSO.— Herod.,  3,  96.— Plin.,  4,  12.)  Its  other  names 
 were  Celadussa  and  Artemis.  According  to  modern 
 maps,  Rhenea,  which  is  larger  than  Delos,  is  also  call- 
 ed Sdili.     (Cramer's  Atic.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  401.) 
 
 1165 
 
RHI 
 
 RHO 
 
 Rhenus,  I.  a  celebrated  river  of  Europe,  rising  in 
 the  Lepontine  Alps,  a  little  to  the  east  of  Mount  Si. 
 Gothard,  in  the  country  of  the  Grisojis.  It  passes 
 tnrougli  Lacus  Brigantinus,  or  the  Lake  of  Constance, 
 and  afterward  through  Lacus  Acronius,  or  the  LaAc 
 of  Zcll,  and  continues  to  run  nearly  west  until  it 
 reaches  Basilia  or  Basic.  Here  it  takes  a  northern 
 direction,  and  becomes  the  boundary  between  Gallia 
 and  German ia,  and  afterward  between  the  latter  and 
 Belgium.  At  Sckenck,  or  Schcnken  Schans,  the 
 Rhenus  sends  o<f  its  left-hand  branch,  the  Vahalis  or 
 Waal,  which  flows  west,  and  joins  the  Mosa  or 
 Metisc.  After  piarting  with  the  Vahalis,  the  Rhenus 
 flows  on  tt  few  miles  farther  to  the  north,  and  then 
 divides  into  two  streams,  of  which  the  one  to  the 
 right  hand  had  the  name  of  Flevo,  or  Flevus,  or  Fle- 
 vum,  now  the  Yssal,  and  the  other  that  of  Helium, 
 now  the  Leek.  The  latter  joins  the  Meuse  above  Rol- 
 terd<itiu  The  Yssal  was  originally  unconnected  with 
 the  Rhine,  but  was  joined  to  it  by  the  canal  of  Dru- 
 8US.  Before  it  reached  the  sea,  it  traversed  a  small 
 lake  called  Flevo,  which,  by  the  increase  of  waters  it 
 received  through  the  Yssal  from  the  Rhine,  became 
 in  time  expanded,  and  forms  now  the  Zayder  Zee. 
 {Vid  Flevo.)  The  whole  course  of  the  Rhine  is  900 
 miles,  of  which  630  are  navigable  from  Basle  to  the 
 sea.  The  Rhine  was  long  a  barrier  between  the  Ro- 
 mans and  Germans  ;  it  was  first  crossed  by  Julius 
 Caesar. — The  word  Rkein,  which  signifies  a  "current" 
 or  "  stream,"  appears  to  be  of  Celtic  or  ancient  Ger- 
 manic origin.  (C(£s.,  B.  G  ,  4,  20.  —  Tac.,  Germ.,  1, 
 28,  29  —Id.,  Ann.,  2,  6  — /rf..  Hist.,  2,  26.  — Mela, 
 2,  5.— Id,  3,  l.  —  Hin.,  4,  15.)— II.  A  small  river  of 
 Cisalpine  Gaul,  rising  in  the  northern  part  of  Eiruria, 
 and  falling  into  the  Padus  or  Po.  It  is  now  the 
 Reno,  and  is  celebrated  in  history  for  the  meeting  of 
 the  second  triumvirate,  which  took  place  A.U.C  709, 
 in  an  island  formed  by  its  stream.  Apjjian  seems  to 
 place  the  island  in  the  Lavinius  ;  but  his  testimony 
 ought  not  to  stand  against  the  authority  of  Plutarch 
 {Vit.  Cic.  et  Ant.),  Dio  Cassius  (46,  55),  and  Sue- 
 tonius ( Vit.  Aug.,  c.  96),  who  all  agree  in  placing  the 
 scene  of  the  event  close  to  Boiionia  or  Bologna. 
 The  spot  which  witnessed  this  famous  meeting  is 
 probably  that  which  is  now  known  by  the  name  of 
 Crocetta  del  Trebbo,  where  there  is  an  island  in  the 
 Rheno,  about  half  a  mile  long  and  one  third  broad, 
 and  about  two  miles  to  the  west  of  Bologna.  {Cra- 
 mer^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  88.) 
 
 Rhesus,  a  king  of  Thrace,  son  of  the  Strymon  and 
 the  muse  Terpsichore,  who  marched,  at  a  late  period 
 of  the  Trojan  war,  to  the  aid  of  Priam,  with  a  nu- 
 merous army.  His  arrival  was  expected  with  great 
 impatience,  as  an  ancient  oracle  had  declared  that 
 Troy  should  never  be  taken  if  the  horses  of  Rhesus 
 drank  the  waters  of  the  Xanthus,  and  fed  upon  the 
 grass  of  the  Trojan  plains.  This  oracle  was  well 
 known  to  the  Greeks,  and  therefore  two  of  their  best 
 generals,  Diomedes  and  Ulysses,  were  commissioned 
 by  the  rest  to  intercept  the  Thracian  prince.  The 
 Greeks  entered  his  camp  in  the  night,  slew  him,  and 
 carried  away  his  horses  to  their  camp.  (Apollod.,  1, 
 3.—  Virg.,  JEn,  1,  473.— Oyitf,  Met.,  13,  98.) 
 
 Rhianus,  a  Greek  poet,  a  native  of  Bena  in  Crete, 
 who  flourished  about  230  B.C.  He  was  originally  a 
 alave  in  a  school  of  exercise.  Rhianus  wrote  an  Her- 
 acleid,  Thessalica,  Messeniaca,  Aeha'ica,  and  Eliaca. 
 Of  all  these  poems  we  have  only  about  thirty-three 
 lines  remaining.  The  titles  of  his  productions  appear 
 to  indicate,  that  if,  like  Choerilus  of  Saraos,  he  gave 
 history  an  epic  form,  his  choice,  nevertheless,  fell  on 
 subjects  which  lost  themselves  in  remote  antiquity,  or 
 which,  like  the  Messenian  war,  were  almost  as  much 
 within  the  domain  of  imagination  as  of  history. — The 
 fragments  of  Rhianus  are  contained  in  the  collections 
 of  Winterton,  Brunck,  Gaisford,  and  Boissonade. 
 1166 
 
 Ten  epigrams  of  his  also  remain,  which  are  given  in 
 the  Anthology.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 123.) 
 
 Rhinocolura,  a  town  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
 ranean ;  assigned  at  one  time  to  Egypt,  at  another  to 
 Syria,  and  lying  on  the  confines  of  both.  It  was  an 
 important  commercial  place,  and  the  great  mart  for 
 the  Arabian  trade.  The  modern  FA  Arish  occupies 
 its  site.  It  derives  its  name,  according  to  Slrabo, 
 from  the  circumstance  of  oflenders  being  sent  thither 
 as  to  a  place  of  exile,  after  having  been  first  deprived 
 of  their  noses  {piv,  the  nose,  and  kuXvd,  to  mutilate),  a 
 custom  said  to  have  been  practised  by  one  of  the  .lEihi- 
 opian  invaders  of  Egypt.  {Strab.,  780.)  The  story  is 
 evidently  untrue  ;  and  the  name  would  appear  to  be, 
 not  of  Greek,  but  Egyptian  origin.  Diodorus  Siculus 
 (1,  60)  says  that  this  town  was  destitute  of  all  the 
 conveniences  of  life  ;  that  its  water  was  bitter  and  ob- 
 noxious ;  and  that  it  was  surrounded  with  salt  marshes. 
 It  was  in  the  vicinity  of  this  place  that  the  Israelites 
 were  nourished  with  quails.  {Liv.,  45,  11. — Flin.,5, 
 12.—Itin.  Ant.,  \b\.—Hierocl.,  p.  726.) 
 
 Rhion,  or,  as  the  Latins  write  the  word,  Rhium,  a 
 promontory  of  Achaia,  opposite  Antirrhium  in  .A'tolia. 
 The  strait  is  seven  stadia  across.  The  castle  of  the 
 Morea  occupies  the  site  of  this  place  at  the  present 
 day.  {Itin.  of  Morea,  p.  6  —  Cha?idler's  Travels, 
 vol.  2,  ch.  72.)  Strabo  makes  the  strait  only  five 
 stadia,  but  he  seems  to  identify  Rhium  with  Drepa- 
 num.  {Strab.,  335. — Vid.  remarks  under  Antirrhium.) 
 
 Rhiph^i,  mountains  in  the  north  of  Europe,  near 
 the  sources  of  the  Tanais,  according  to  Ptolemy. 
 What  he  designates,  however,  as  such,  do  not,  in  real- 
 ity, exist  there.  If  he  marks  a  chain  of  mountains 
 more  to  the  north,  actual  observation  affords  nothing 
 corresponding,  except  it  be  the  chain  which  separates 
 Russia  from  Siberia.  {Plin.,  4,  12. — Lucan,  3,  272  ; 
 3,  382  ;  4,  ^\Q.—  Virg.,  G.,  1,  240  ;  4,  518  ) 
 
 Rhodanus  or  Rhone,  a  large  and  rapid  river  of 
 Europe,  rising  among  the  Lepontine  Alps,  not  more 
 than  two  leagues  souih  of  the  sources  of  the  Rhine. 
 It  passes  through  the  Lacus  Lemanus,  or  Lake  of 
 Geneva,  five  leagues  below  which  it  disappears  be- 
 tween two  rocks  for  a  considerable  way,  rises  again, 
 flows  with  great  rapidity  in  a  southern  direction,  and 
 discharges  itself  by  three  mouths  into  the  Sinus  Gal- 
 licus,  or  Gulf  of  Lyons,  in  the  Mediterranean.  The 
 largest  of  these  mouths  was,  in  the  days  of  Pliny, 
 called  Massilioticum  ;  the  other  two  were  inucli  less, 
 and  had  the  common  name  of  Libyca,  although  each 
 was  also  known  by  a  distinct  appellation.  Hispani- 
 ense  Ostium  denoted  the  western  or  the  one  next  to 
 Hispania,  and  Metapinum  that  in  the  middle.  The 
 course  of  the  Rhone  is  about  400  miles,  during  which 
 it  falls  5400  feet.  In  Strabo's  time  it  was  navigable 
 some  distance  up  ;  but  its  mouths  are  now  so  full 
 of  rocks,  brought  down  from  the  mountains  by  its 
 impetuous  current,  that  no  ship  can  enter  them.  The 
 upward  navigation  in  smaller  vessels  can  only,  on  ac- 
 count of  the  rapid  current,  be  performed  by  draught 
 or  steam.  This  river  is  largest  in  summer,  and  is  at 
 its  greatest  height  soon  after  the  longest  day.  This  is 
 most  probably  occasioned  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  melt- 
 ing part  of  the  snow  on  the  Alps  during  the  summer 
 months.  For  some  remarks  on  the  origin  of  the  name 
 Rhodanus,  vid.  Eridanus.  (Mela,  2,  5  ;  3,  3. — Ovid, 
 Met.,  2,  258— «?7.  Ital,  3,  447.— C^s.,  B.  G.,  1,  1. 
 —Plin,  3,  i.— Lucan,  1,  433  ;  6,  475.) 
 
 Rhodope,  a  mountain  range  of  Thrace,  forming,  in 
 a  great  degree,  its  western  boundary,  and  evidently 
 identical  with  the  Scomius  of  Thucydides  (2,  96). 
 Herodotus  gives  it  the  appellation  of  Rhodope,  and 
 asserts  that  the  Thracian  river  Escius  (now  Isker) 
 rises  in  this  mountain  (4,  49),  while  Thucydides  makes 
 it  flow  from  Scomius.  Again,  Herodotus  has  placed 
 Rhodope  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Bisaltae,  who  were  cer- 
 
RHO 
 
 RHODUS. 
 
 tafnly  much  to  the  south  of  the  sources  of  the  Stry- 
 mon'  But  all  this  is  easily  explained,  when  we  taiie 
 into  consideration  the  vague  manner  in  which  these 
 writers  employ  the  various  names  of  this  great  chain. 
 Virgil  has  several  times  mentioned  Rhodope  as  a 
 mountain  of  Thrace.  (Georg.,  3,  461  ;  ^bid.,  4,  461. 
 — Eclog.,  6,  30.) — Theocritus  classes  it  among  the 
 highest  summits  of  the  ancient  world  (7,  77. —  Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  272). 
 
 Rhodopis  or  Rhodope,  a  celebrated  hetaerist  of  an- 
 tiquity, a  native  of  Thrace.  She  was  contemporary 
 with  yEsop,  the  fabulist,  and  was  a  slave  under  the 
 same  roof  with  him  at  Samos.  Xanthus,  a  Samian, 
 afterward  took  her  to  Egypt,  where  she  was  purchased 
 and  manumitted  by  Charaxus  of  Mytilene,  the  brother 
 of  Sappho,  who  became  deeply  enamoured  of  her. 
 {Herod,  2,  134. — Slrab.,  808.)  She  settled,  after  her 
 manumission,  at  Naucratis,  in  Egypt ;  and,  according 
 to  one  account,  a  pyramid  was  erected  in  honour  of 
 her  by  some  of  the  governors  of  the  adjacent  nomes, 
 at  their  common  expense.  {Diod.  Sic,  1,  64. — Stra- 
 bo,  I.  c.)  iElian  relates,  that  as  Rhodopis  was  bath- 
 ing on  one  occasion,  an  eagle,  having  flown  down, 
 seized  upon  one  of  her  sandals,  and,  having  conveyed 
 it  through  the  air  to  Memphis,  dropped  it  into  the  bo- 
 som of  Psamniitichus,  who  was  dispensing  justice  at 
 the  time.  The  monarch,  having  admired  the  beauty 
 and  elegant  shape  of  the  sandal,  and  being  struck  also 
 by  the  singular  mode  in  which  he  had  become  pos- 
 sessed of  it,  caused  inquiry  to  be  made  for  the  owner 
 throughout  the  land  of  Egypt ;  and  when  he  discovered 
 that  the  sandal  belonged  to  Rhodopis,  he  made  her  his 
 queen.  (JElian,  V.  H.,  13,  33.— &7;ai.,  I.  c.)  Ac- 
 cording to  this  version  of  the  story,  the  pyramid  was 
 erected  to  her  after  death,  as  a  royal  tomb. — Herodo- 
 tus, in  arguing  against  the  supposition  that  the  pyra- 
 mid in  question  was  the  tomb  of  Rhodopis,  makes  her 
 to  have  lived  under  Amasis  (2,  134).  Now,  as  there 
 was  an  interval  of  forty-five  years  between  the  death 
 of  Psammitichus  and  the  accession  of  Amasis,  Perizo- 
 nius  is  no  doubt  right  in  thinking  that  there  were  two 
 hela?rists  named  Rhodopis,  one  who  became  the  queen 
 of  Psammitichus,  and  the  other  the  fellow-slave  of 
 iEsop,  in  the  time  of  Amasis.  The  latter  will  be  the 
 one  whom  Sappho  calls  Doricha,  and  of  whom  her 
 brother  Chara.xus  was  enamoured.  {Pcrizon  ,  ad  JS/., 
 I.  c — Bayle,  Diet.,  s.  v.  Rhodope.)  Achilles  Talius 
 states,  that  there  was  near  Tyre  a  small  island  which" 
 the  Tyrians  called  the  tomb  of  Rhodope.  This,  how- 
 ever, may  be  the  mere  fiction  of  the  writer.  {Achiil. 
 Tat.,  dc  cut.  et  Lcue.  am.,  2,  17.) 
 
 RH6Dus('P6(5of),  a  celebrated  island  in  the  Mediter- 
 ranean Sea,  lying  southwest  of  the  coast  of  Caria,  and 
 being  about  forty-three  miles  distant  from  the  main- 
 land. It  is  longer  from  north  to  south  than  from  east 
 to  west.  Slrabo  gives  its  circuit  900  stadia  {Strabo, 
 651),  but  Pliny  130  miles,  or,  according  to  another 
 measurement,  103.  {Pliny,  5,  28.)  According  to 
 Sonnini,  its  greatest  length  is  about  twelve  leagues, 
 and  its  breadth  six,  while  its  circumference  is  com- 
 monly estimated  at  forty-four  leagues.  Its  form  is 
 nearly  triangular,  whence  it  obtained  the  name  of  Tri- 
 nacria.  According  to  Strabo,  it  was  originally  called 
 Ophiussa  {^Q(pLovaaa)  and  Stadia,  and  subsequently 
 Telchinis.  Its  latest  name,  Rhodus,  was  derived, 
 according  to  Diodorus  Siculus  (5,  55),  from  Rhodus,  a 
 daughter  of  Neptune  and  Halia.  Others,  however, 
 have  sought  for  the  origin  of  this  appellation  in  the 
 Greek  p66ov,  signifying  a  rose,  with  which  species  of 
 flower  the  island  is  said  to  abound  ;  and,  in  confirma- 
 tion of  this  etymology,  it  has  been  alleged  that  the 
 figure  of  a  rose  is  given  on  the  reverse  of  many  Rho- 
 dian  coins  still  extant.  {Rasche,  Lex.  Rei.  Num., 
 vol.  7,  p.  1027. — Bayer,  Di.is.  dc  Nummo  Rhodio,  p. 
 492.— Compare  Sr.hol.  ad  Find.,  Olymp.,  7,  24.)  Rit- 
 ter,  however,  maintains,  that  the  flower  here  mistaken 
 
 for  a  rose  is  none  other  than  the  lotus,  and  he  seeks 
 from  this  to  connect  the  early  religious  system  of 
 Rhodes  with  the  most  ancient  worship  of  the  East. 
 ( Vorhalle,  p.  338.)  Bochart,  of  course,  is  in  favour  of 
 a  PhoEuician  etymology,  and,  availing  himself  of  one 
 of  the  ancient  names  of  the  island  mentioned  above, 
 namely,  Ophiussa  or  "  Snake  Island,"  given  to  it  on 
 account  of  the  numerous  serpents  it  contained  when 
 first  inhabited,  says  that  the  Phoenicians  also  called  it 
 Snake  Island,  which  in  their  language  was  Gezirath- 
 Rhod.  From  this  last  word,  which  signifies  "a 
 snake,"  the  Greeks,  he  thinks,  formed  the  name  'PoJof 
 (Rhodes).  The  same  scholar  derives  the  appellation 
 Stadia  from  the  Hebrew  or  Phoenician  Tsadia,  "  deso- 
 late." {Gcogr.  Sacr.,  1,  7,  c.  369,  seqq.) — In  addition 
 to  the  earlier  names  cited  above  from  Strabo,  it  may 
 not  be  amiss  to  mention  the  following  as  given  by 
 Pliny  (5,  31),  namely,  Asteria,  ^^threa,  Corymbia, 
 Poeessa,  Atabyria,  Macris,  and  Oloessa. — As  this  isl- 
 and lay  on  the  dividing  line  between  the  .rEgean  and 
 the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  it  bt;came,  at  a 
 very  early  period,  a  stopping  place  for  navigators,  as 
 well  for  the  Phoenician  mariners  in  their  voyages  to 
 Greece,  as  for  the  Greeks  in  their  route  to  the  farther 
 coast  of  Asia.  Hence,  too,  it  became  very  speedily 
 inhabited.  As  its  first  settlers,  we  find  the  Telchines 
 mentioned,  who  are  styled  "  sons  of  Thalassa"  {viol 
 Qa/MGGijQ),  I.  e.,  "  of  the  sea,'"  in  allusion,  evidently, 
 to  their  having  come  from  foreign  parts.  {Diod.  Sic.,  5, 
 55. — Slrabo,  654.)  They  were  said  to  have  migrated 
 originally  from  Crete  to  Cyprus,  and  from  the  latter 
 island  to  Rhodes.  They  brought  with  them  the  art  of 
 working  iron  and  copper;  they  were  the  first,  also,  to 
 form  statues  of  the  gods,  and  they  were,  in  addition 
 to  this,  powerful  enchanters,  who  could  summon  at 
 pleasure  clouds,  rain,  hail,  and  snow,  and  could  as- 
 sume various  forms.  {Diod.  Sic.  el  Slrabo,  U.  cc.) 
 In  all  this  we  recognise  the  wonder  produced  among 
 a  barbarous  race  of  men,  by  a  race  of  strangers  pos- 
 sessed of  the  elements  of  useful  knowledge,  and 
 taught  by  experience  to  prognosticate  the  variations 
 of  the  atmosphere  (  Vid.  Telchines).  Tradition  goes 
 on  to  state,  that  Neptune,  who  had  now  attained  to 
 manhood,  became  the  father  of  six  sons  and  one  daugh- 
 ter by  Halia,  the  sister  of  the  Telchines.  This  daugh- 
 ter's name  was  Rhodus,  and  hence,  according  to  the 
 legend,  was  derived  the  name  of  the  island.  The  Tel- 
 chines subsequently,  made  aware,  by  their  skill  in  div- 
 ination, of  an  approaching  deluge,  left,  nearly  all  of 
 them,  the  island,  and  were  scattered  over  various  coun- 
 tries. Some  of  their  number,  however,  remained,  and, 
 when  the  deluge  came,  fled  to  the  higher  grounds, 
 where  they  saved  themselves.  It  was  here  that  the 
 Sun  beheld  Rhodus,  and  became  captivated  by  her 
 beauty.  He  checked  the  inundation,  called  the  island 
 after  her  name,  and  became  by  her  the  father  of  the 
 Heliadaa,  seven  in  number,  and  of  one  daughter,  called 
 Electryone.  The  Heliadaj  are  said  to  have  been  well 
 skilled  in  the  sciences,  to  have  invented  astrology,  to 
 have  taught  the  art  of  navigation,  and  to  have  divided 
 the  day  into  hours.  From  one  of  their  number  the 
 Egyptians  obtained  a  knowledge  of  astrology.  {Died. 
 Sic.,  5,  57.)  The  island  of  Rhodes  remained  from 
 henceforth  consecrated  to  the  sun  ;  and,  according  to 
 Pliny  (2,  62),  it  continued  ever  after  a  favourite  boast 
 on  the  part  of  the  Rhodians,  that  not  a  day  passed 
 during  which  their  island  was  not  illumined,  for  an 
 hour  "at  least,  by  the  solar  ravs.  The  eldest  of  the 
 Heliadas  was  succeeded  in  the  government  of  the  isl- 
 and by  his  three  sons,  Lindus,  lalyssus,  and  Carnirus, 
 who  each  founded  a  city,  and  called  it  after  his  name. 
 About  this  period,  Danaiis,  flying  from  Egypt,  came 
 to  Rhodes,  with  his  daughters,  and  built  a  temple  to 
 Minerva  ;  and,  not  long  after,  Cadmus,  with  his  Phos- 
 nicians,  also  came,  being  in  quest  of  his  sister  Europa. 
 From  these  and  other  mythological  legends,  it  will  ap 
 
 1167 
 
RHODUS. 
 
 RHODUS. 
 
 pear  very  plainly  that  the  earliest  known  inhabitants  of 
 Kiiodes  were  not  Greeks,  but  persons  from  the  neigh- 
 bouring iiiainiaiid.  The  Greeks  came  in  at  a  later  pe- 
 riod, and  drove  the  earlier  settlers  into  the  interior  of 
 tlie  island  :  hence  we  find  all  the  cities  on  the  coast 
 with  Grecian  forms  of  constitution,  and  .Strabo  ex- 
 pressly styles  the  inhabitants  as  of  Dorian  origin. 
 {Strab  ,  653.) — All  that  we  have  thus  far  related  coin- 
 cides with  the  period  prior  to  the  Trojan  war,  except 
 the  migration  of  the  Greeks,  which  took  place  in  tlie 
 course  of  the  century  next  after  the  fall  of  Troy.  It 
 was  long  before  the  Rhodians  attracted  the  notice  of 
 the  rest  of  the  Greeks,  and  before  their  commercial  op- 
 erations raised  them  to  any  consequence.  They  fell 
 under  the  power  of  Persia,  and  in  the  war  between  this 
 power  and  the  Greeks,  and  in  those  between  Sparta 
 and  Athens,  it  always  sided  with  the  conquering 
 party,  though  without  adding  any  remarkable  weight 
 to  the  scale.  The  execution  of  a  plan  subsequently 
 conceived  first  laid  the  foundation  of  the  political  im- 
 portance of  Rhodes.  The  three  cities  of  Lindus, 
 lalyssus,  and  Camirus  came  to  the  conclusion,  to- 
 wards the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  of  uniting  to- 
 gether and  forming  one  common  city.  This  city,  sit- 
 uate in  the  northern  quarter  of  the  island,  took  the 
 name  of  Rhodus,  and  continued  ever  after  the  capital. 
 The  three  older  cities,  which  had  united  in  its  erec- 
 tion, did  not  actually  cease  to  exist  from  this  period, 
 though  a  large  portion  of  their  inhabitants  migrated  to 
 the  new  city.  The  inhabitants  of  the  new  capital  were 
 oligarchically  governed  when  under  Lacedaemonian  su- 
 premacy ;  democratically  when  under  Athenian  ;  but 
 the  slate  flourished  under  both.  When  Rhodes  com- 
 bined with  Chios  and  Byzantium  in  revolt  against  the 
 Athenians,  the  democracy  seems  to  have  been  still 
 maintained  ;  but  after  the  termination  of  that  war  it 
 was  overthrown  by  an  insurrection  of  the  wealthy  few 
 and  their  adherents,  assisted  by  Mausohis,  the  king  of 
 Caria.  Under  its  new  government,  Rhodes  continued 
 to  increase  in  trade  and  shijiping ;  from  which  it  may 
 be  inferred  that  the  administration  was  not  inattentive 
 to  the  wishes  and  interests  of  the  people  ;  for  mari- 
 time power  always  strengthened  the  popular  party,  and 
 a  jealous  and  arbitrary  oligarchy  would  therefore  have 
 discouraged  rather  than  favoured  the  growth  of  the 
 navy.  We  are  told,  indeed,  in  one  fragment  of  a  con- 
 temporary historian  (Theopompus,  quoted  by  Athe- 
 na;us),  that  there  was  a  lime  when  all  power  was  in 
 the  hands  of  a  small  knot  of  profligate  men,  who  sup- 
 ported each  other  in  every  outrage  which  their  fierce 
 passions  or  brutal  caprices  could  prompt.  But,  what- 
 ever chances  may  have  enabled  a  small  faction  to  ex- 
 ercise for  a  while  so  hateful  a  tyranny,  it  must  have 
 quickly  fallen,  and  the  government  have  reverted  to 
 the  great  body  of  citizens  having  certain  qualifications 
 of  birth  and  property.  In  the  ordinary  state  of  the 
 Rhodian  aristocracy,  its  conduct  was  moderate  and 
 upright  ;  so  we  are  told  by  ancient  writers,  and  their 
 testimony  is  confirmed  by  the  prosperity  of  the  com- 
 monwealth, and  by  its  continual  increase  in  commer- 
 cial wealth  and  naval  power.  When  all  the  Grecian 
 seas  were  swarming  with  pirates,  the  Rhodians  alone 
 for  the  common  good  undertook  and  effected  their  su|)- 
 pression.  They  were  highly  respected  by  Alexander, 
 though  he  kept  a  garrison  in  their  city,  which,  on  re- 
 ceiving the  news  of  his  death,  they  immediately  ex- 
 pelled. As  the  Macedonian  supremacy  appears  to 
 have  been  generally  favourable  to  oligarchy,  notwith- 
 standing the  patronage  which  Alexander,  in  the  outset 
 of  his  career,  found  it  expedient  to  bestow  on  the  dem- 
 ocratical  interest  in  Asia  Minor,  it  is  possible  that  this 
 change  was  accompanied  with  an  increase  of  power  in 
 the  great  body  of  the  people.  The  Rhodians  stood 
 aloof  from  the  quarrels  of  the  chiefs  who  divided  the 
 empire  of  Alexander,  and  kept  friendship  with  them 
 all,  thus  enjoying  peace  when  every  other  state  was  at 
 1168 
 
 war.  This  could  not  last  for  ever.  Their  habits  and 
 interests  especially  inclined  them  to  close  connexion 
 with  Ptolemy  and  Egypt ;  and  though  ihey  avoided 
 giving  any  just  cause  of  offence  to  Antigonus,  his  vio- 
 lent spirit  would  be  satisfied  with  nothing  short  of  un- 
 qualified support.  This  being  refused,  he  commis- 
 sioned officers  to  seize  the  Rhodian  traders  bound  lor 
 Egypt ;  and  when  the  execution  of  the  order  was  re- 
 sisted, he  prepared  an  armament  against  the  island. 
 The  Rhodians  endeavoured  to  pacify  him  by  compli- 
 ments and  submissions  ;  but,  finding  him  inexorable, 
 they  made  ready  for  defence. — In  the  year  which  fol- 
 lowed the  attack  of  Antigonus  on  Egypt  (B.C.  304), 
 Demetrius  laid  siege  to  Rhodes.  The  Rhodians  sent 
 to  solicit  aid  of  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus,  and  Cassander, 
 and  took  measures  to  increase  to  the  utmost  their  mil- 
 itary force,  and  to  unite  the  hearts  and  quicken  the 
 zeal  of  all  who  vvere  in  the  city.  Strangers  and  foreign 
 residents  were  invited  to  join  in  the  defence,  but  all 
 unserviceable  persons  were  sent  away.  It  was  voted 
 that  slaves,  who  fought  with  courage  and  fidelity, 
 should  be  purchased  from  their  masters,  emancipated, 
 and  made  citizens  ;  that  every  citizen  who  fell  in  bat- 
 tle should  have  a  public  funeral  ;  that  his  surviving 
 parents  should  be  supported,  and  his  children  educated 
 by  the  state  ;  that  marriage  portions  should  be  given 
 to  his  daughters,  and  a  suit  of  armour  publicly  present- 
 ed at  the  feast  of  Bacchus  to  each  of  his  sons  on  com- 
 ing of  age.  The  rich  men  freely  gave  their  money, 
 the  poor  their  labour,  the  artificers  their  skill ;  all  strove 
 to  surpass  each  other  in  zeal  and  execution.  The  be- 
 sieging army  was  numerous  and  disciplined,  well  sup- 
 plied and  well  appointed,  and  provided  with  every  va- 
 riety of  warlike  engines  which  the  science  of  the  age 
 and  the  mechanical  genius  of  the  commander  could 
 furnish.  Assaults  were  made  by  land  and  sea,  in  va- 
 rious fashions  and  with  various  success  ;  but  no  deci- 
 sive advantage  could  be  gained  over  the  resolute  and 
 active  defenders  of  the  city,  who  not  only  kept  the 
 walls,  but  made  several  vigorous  sallies,  in  some  of 
 which  they  succeeded  in  destroying  many  ships  and  en- 
 gines of  the  besiegers.  Demetrius  at  length  gave  up 
 the  hope  of  successfully  attacking  them  from  the  sea, 
 and  turned  all  his  attention  to  his  operations  on  the 
 side  towards  the  land.  The  Rhodians,  taking  advan- 
 tage of  this  to  employ  their  ships  in  distant  cruises, 
 made  prizes  of  many  vessels  belonging  to  .Antigonus, 
 and  intercepted  some  convoys  which  were  coming  to 
 the  enemy's  camp.  Meantime  the  siege  was  pressed 
 by  land,  and  the  walls  were  shaken  in  many  places, 
 all  which  the  Rhodians  made  good  by  new  defences 
 built  within  ;  and  just  as  they  were  beginning  to  be 
 discouraged  by  the  power  and  perseverance  of  their  ad- 
 versary, their  confidence  was  renewed  by  the  arrival 
 of  an  Egyptian  fleet,  with  supplies  in  great  abundance. 
 — The  siege  was  protracted  for  a  year.  A  second 
 fleet  was  sent  by  Ptolemy,  which  brought  large  sup- 
 plies, and  a  considerable  re-enforcement  of  troops. 
 Ambassadors  came  from  Athens  and  from  many  other 
 Grecian  states,  to  entreat  that  Demetrius  would  be 
 reconciled  with  the  Rhodians.  He  yielded  so  far  as 
 to  grant  a  suspension  of  arms  and  commence  a  ne- 
 gotiation ;  but  the  terms  could  not  be  agreed  on,  and 
 the  war  was  renewed.  He  then  attempted  a  surprise 
 by  night.  Under  cover  of  the  darkness,  a  chosen  body 
 of  soldiers  entered  the  town  through  a  breach  which 
 had  been  made  ;  and  the  rest  of  the  army  supported 
 them  at  daybreak  by  a  general  assault  on  the  walls. 
 But  the  Rhodians  were  cool  and  firm.  All  who  were 
 defending  the  ramparts  remained  at  their  posts,  and 
 made  them  good  against  the  enemies  without ;  while 
 the  rest  of  the  citizens,  with  the  auxiliaries  from  Egypt, 
 went  against  those  within  the  city.  In  the  violent 
 contest  which  ensued,  the  townsmen  were  victorious, 
 and  few  of  the  storming  party  escaped  out  of  their 
 hands. — Letters  now  came  from  Antigonus,  directing 
 
RHODUS. 
 
 RHO 
 
 Di's  son  to  make  peace  with   the   Rliodians  on  what 
 conditions  he  could  ;  and  Demetrius  accordingly  wish- 
 ed  for  an   accominodaiion  oa  any  terms  that  would 
 save  his  credit.     The  Rhodians  were  no  less  anxious 
 for  peace  ;  and  the  more  so,  as  Ptolemy  had  written 
 to  thetn,  promising  farther  aid   in  case  of  need,  but 
 advisincr  them  to  put  an  end  to  the  war  on  any  reason- 
 able conditions.     Peace  was  soon  concluded  on  the 
 terms  that  the  Rhodians  should  be  independent,  and 
 should  retain  all  their  revenues  ;   but  that  they  should 
 assist  Antigonus  in  all   his  wars,  excepting  against 
 Ptolemy,  and  should  give  one  hundred   hostages   in 
 pledge   of   fidelity  to   their  engagements.     Thus   re- 
 leased from  danger,  the  Rhodians  proceeded  to  fulfil 
 their  promises,  and  reward  those  who  had  served  them 
 well.     Fit  honours  were  bestowed  upon  the  bravest 
 combatants  among  the  free  inhabitants,  and  "freedom, 
 with  citizenship,  given  to   such  of  the  slaves  as  had 
 deserved  it.      Statues  were  erected  to  Ptolemy,  Ly- 
 simachns,  and  Cassander,  all  of  whom   had   assisted 
 them   largely   with   provisions.     To   Ptolemy,  whose 
 benefits  had  been  by  far  the  most  conspicuous,  more 
 extravagant   honours  were   assigned.     The  oracle  of 
 Ammon  was  consulted,  to  learn  whether  the  Rhodians 
 might  not  be  allowed  to  worship  him  as  a  god  ;  and, 
 permission  being  given,  a  temple  was  actually  erected 
 in  his  honour.     Such  instances  had  already  occurred  in 
 the  case  of  Alexander,  and  in  that  of  Antigonus  and 
 Demetrius  at  Athens  ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
 such  a  practice  would  not  bear,  in  Grecian  eyes,  the 
 same  unnatural  and  impious  character  which  it  does 
 in  ours,  since  the  step  was  easy  from  hero-worship, 
 which  had  long  formed  an  important  part  of  their  re- 
 ligion, to   the   adoration  of  distinguished   men,  even 
 while  alive      {Hist,  of  Grace,  p.  161,  scqq.  —  Libr. 
 Us.  Knowl.) — After  mingling  more  or  less  m  the  vari- 
 ous colliaious  which  ensued  between  the  successors  of 
 Alexander  and   their  respective  descendants,  Rhodes 
 sided  with  the  Romans,  and  became  a  valuable  auxili- 
 ary to  the  rising  power.     In  return  for  the  important 
 services  thus  rendered,  it  received  from  its  new  friends 
 the  territories  of  Lycia  and  Caria  ;  but  suspicion  and 
 distrust  eventually  arose,  the  Rhodians  were  deprived 
 of  their  possessions  in  Asia,  and  at  last,  in  the  reign 
 of  Vespasian,  of  their  freedom,  and  with  it  of  the  right 
 they  had  so  long  enjoyed  of  being  governed  by  their 
 own  lava's.     A  new  province  was  formed,  consisting 
 of  the  islands  near  the  coast,  of  which  Rhodes  was  the 
 capital,  and  the  island  henceforth  became  an  integral 
 part  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  shared   in  its  various 
 vicissitudes.     In  a  later  age,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
 tlie  knights  of  St.  John,  after  they  had  lost  possession 
 of  Palestine,  A.D.  1309.     In   1480   they  repelled  an 
 attack  of  the  Turks,  but  in  1522  were  compelled  to 
 surrender  the  island  to  Soliman  II.     The  population 
 is  differently  estimated  :  Savary  makes  it  3G,.500,  of 
 which  about  one  third  arc  Greeks,  with  an  archbishop. 
 I'he  capital,  Rhodes,  has  a  population  of  about  0000 
 'i'urks.     The  suburb,  Ncochorio,  is  inhabited  by  3000 
 .(rreeks,  who  are  not   permitted    to   reside  within  the 
 city.     The  town  is  surrounded  with  three  walls  and  a 
 double  ditch,  and  is  considered  by  the  Turks  as  im- 
 pregnable.     It  has  two  fine  harbours,  separated  only 
 by  a  mole. — Rhodes  was  celebrated  for  its  Colossus,  an 
 account  of  which  will  be  found  elsewhere.     (Vid.  Co- 
 lossus.)    Its  maritime  laws  were  also  in  high  repute, 
 and  were  adopted  as  the  basis  of  marine  law  on  all  the 
 coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.     Their  main'  principles 
 are  still  interwoven  into  the  maritime  codes  of  modern 
 times.     The  legislative  enactments  at  Rhodes  respect- 
 ing the  condition  of  the  poorer  classes  were  also  very 
 remarkable.     The  government,  though  far  from  beiiin- 
 a  democracy,  had  a  special  regard  for  the  poor.     Thev 
 received  an  allowance  of  corn  from  the  pulilic  stores  ; 
 and  the  rich  were  taxed  for  their  support.     There  were 
 likewise  certain  works  and  offices  which  they  were 
 71 
 
 called  upon  by  law  to  undertake,  on  receiving  a  certaiin 
 fixed  salary.  (Strab.,  653.)  Rhodes  produced  many 
 distinguished  characters  in  philosophy  and  literature  ; 
 among  these  may  be  mentioned  Panaetius  (whom  Ci- 
 cero has  so  much  followed  in  the  Offices),  Stratocles, 
 Andronicus,  Eudemus,  and  Hieronymus.  Posidonius 
 the  Stoic  resided  for  a  long  time  in  this  island,  and  gaVe 
 lectures  in  rhetoric  and  philosophy.  The  poet  Pisan- 
 der,  author  of  the  Heracleid,  as  well  as  Simmias  and 
 Aristides,  are  likewise  found  in  the  list  of  the  Rhodian 
 literati. — The  serene  sky  of  the  island,  its  soft  climate, 
 fertile  soil,  and  fine  fruits,  are  still  praised  by  modem 
 travellers.  "  Rhodes,"  observes  Dr.  Clarke,  "  is  a 
 truly  delightful  spot :  the  air  of  the  place  is  healthy, 
 and  its  gardens  are  filled  with  delicious  fruit.  Here, 
 as  in  Cos,  every  gale  is  scented  with  the  most  power- 
 ful fragrance,  which  is  wafted  from  groves  of  orange 
 and  citron  trees.  Numberless  aromatic  herbs  exhale 
 at  the  same  lime  such  profuse  odour,  that  the  whole 
 atmosphere  seems  to  be  impregnated  with  a  spicy  per- 
 fume. The  present  inhabitants  of  the  island  confirm 
 the  ancient  history  of  its  climate  ;  maintaining  that 
 hardly  a  day  passes  throughout  the  year  in  which  the 
 sun  is  not  visible.  The  winds  are  liable  to  little  va- 
 riation :  they  are  north  or  northwest  during  almost  ev- 
 ei-y  month." — (Trf^vcls,  vol.  3,  p.  278,  Lond.  cd. — 
 Compare  Turncr''s  Tour  in  the  Levant,  vol.  3,  p.  10.) 
 
 Rhcecus,  I.  one  of  the  Centaurs,  slain  by  Atalanta. 
 (Apollod.,  3,  9,  2.)  —  II.  One  of  the  giants,  slain  by 
 Bacchus  under  the  form  of  a  lion,  in  the  conflict  be- 
 tween the  giants  and  the  gods.  {Horat.,  Od.,  2,  19, 
 23.)  The  Greek  form  most  in  use  is  Tot/cof,  but,  as 
 Bentley  remarks,  the  Latin  writers  in  general  prefer 
 the  form  Rhalus.  (Compare  Heync,  ad  Apollod.,  3, 
 9,  2.) 
 
 Rhceteum,  a  promontory  of  Troas,  on  the  shore  of 
 the  Hellespont,  in  a  northeastern  direction  nearly  from 
 Siga?um.  On  the  sloping  side  of  it  the  body  of  Ajax 
 was  buried,  and  a  tumulus  still  remains  on  the  spot. 
 {Mela,  1,  18.—Plin.,  5,  30.—Liv.,  37,  37.)  Between 
 this  promontory  and  that  of  Sigasum  was  the  position 
 of  the  Grecian  camp,  ((^'onsult  licnnell,  Topography 
 of  Troy,  p.  70  )  According  to  Leake,  Faleo  Kastro, 
 near  the  Turkish  village  of  It-ghclmes,  marks  the  prob- 
 able site  of  Rhceteum.     {Tom\  p.  275.) 
 
 Rhosus,  a  city  of  Syria,  the  southernmost  one  in 
 the  district  of  Pieria,  fifteen  miles  from  Seleucia,  and 
 lying  on  the  Sinus  Issicus.  It  was  northwest  of  An- 
 tiochia.  When  Pliny  speaks  of  it  as  lying  near  the 
 Syrian  Pass,  he  must  be  understood  as  speaking  of  the 
 southern  pass,  not  the  northern  one  on  the  confines 
 of  Syria.     {ITui.,  5,  22.  — Cic,  Ep.  ad  Atl.,  C,  1.) 
 
 Riiox.tT.ANi,  a  Sarmatian  race  to  the  north  of  the 
 Palus  Ma;otis.  From  the  testimony  adduced  by  Mal- 
 te-Brun  and  others,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
 the  appellation  of  Russians  is  derived  from  that  of 
 the  Rhoxalani  or  Rhoxani.  This  derivation  is  neither 
 difficult  nor  improli^ble.  The  x,  it  is  supposed,  was 
 substituted  by  the  Greeks  for  the  s.<r  or  th  of  the  bar- 
 barians. In  the  Doric  and  Ji^olic  dialects,  that  char- 
 acter was  expressed  by  the  simple  s.  Hence,  from 
 Rhoxani  to  Rhossani,  Rossani,  Rosi  (the  proper  or- 
 thography requires  the  o,  not  the  it,  in  the  first  sylla- 
 ble), the  transition  is  natural  and  easy.  A  manuscripr. 
 of  Jornandes,  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan,  has 
 Ros.somannorum  instead  of  Rhoxolannorum,  a  reading 
 which  confirms  the  identity  of  sound  between  the  x 
 and  the  ss.  The  addition"  by  that  historian  of  the 
 Gothic  termination  mann  to  the  primitive  word  will 
 surprise  no  one.  In  the  time  of  Strabo,  the  Rhoxalani 
 were  settled  on  the  vast  plains  near  the  source  of  the 
 Tanais  and  Borysthcnos.  Appian  tells  us  that  they 
 were  warlike  and  powerful ;  and  we  learn  from  other 
 writers  of  at  least  equal  weight,  that,  having  joined 
 their  arms  to  those  of  a  neighbouring  nation,  they 
 freouently  attacked  the  Roman  confines  near  the  Dan- 
 ^        ^  1169 
 
ROM 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 vibe  and  the  Carpathian  Mountains ;  that  in  A.D.  68 
 thev  surprised' McEsia  ;  in  166  carried  on  war  against 
 the  Marcoinanni,  and  in  270  were  numbered  among 
 the  enemies  over  whom  Aurclian  triumphed.  During 
 the  first  lliree  centuries  they  occupied  the  southern 
 parts  of  Poland,  Red  Russia,  and  Kiovia,  the  very 
 seats  possessed  by  the  Russians  of  the  ninth  century. 
 Jornandes  assigns  them  the  same  region  ;  and  the 
 anonymous  geographer  of  Ravenna  fixes  them  iu  Li- 
 thuania and  the  neighbouring  countries.  These  au- 
 thorities are  to  us  decisive  that  the  Rhoxalani  and  the 
 Russians  are  the  same  people  ;  but,  if  any  doubt  re- 
 mained, it  would  be  removed  by  the  concurrent  tes- 
 timony of  the  native  chronicles,  the  Polish  traditions, 
 the  Byzantine  historians,  and  the  Icelandic  sagas,  all 
 of  which  are  unanimous  in  applying  the  term  Russian 
 to  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  formerly  possessed 
 by  the  Rhoxalani.  Hence,  as  they  were  the  most  cel- 
 ebrated of  the  original  tribes,  that  term,  by  synecdoche, 
 became  generic.  {Foreign  Quarterly  Review.,  No.  5, 
 p.   151,  seqq.) 
 
 Rhuteni  or  RuTHENr,  a  people  of  Gallia  Aqui- 
 tanica,  in  Narbonensis  Prima.  The  territory  was  sit- 
 uate on  either  side  of  the  Tarnis  or  Taryi.  Segodu- 
 num,  now  Rodez,  was  their  chief  town.  (Cffi5.,  B.  G., 
 1,  l.—Plin.,  4,  19.)  ♦ 
 
 Rhyndacus,  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising  in  Mount 
 Temnus,  on  the  northern  borders  of  Phrygia.  Pliny 
 states,  that  the  Rhyndacus  was  formerly  called  Lycus, 
 and  took  its  source  in  the  lake  Antynia,  near  Miletop- 
 olis;  that  it  received  the  Macestus  and  other  rivers, 
 and  separated  the  province  of  Asia  from  Bithynia. 
 (Plin.,  5,32.)  His  account,  though  quite  at  variance 
 with  that  of  Strabo,  is  confirmed  by  other  writers,  and 
 especially  by  modern  geographers,  so  that  he  alone  is 
 to  be  followed.     (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  50.) 
 
 RiGODULUM,  a  town  of  Gallia  Belgica,  in  the  terri- 
 tory of  the  Treveri,  and  northeast  of  Augusta  Trevero- 
 rum.  It  lay  on  the  river  Mosella,  and  answers  to  the 
 modern /?t'o/.     {Tac.,  Hist..  4:,  71.) 
 
 RoBiGO  or  RoBiGt's,  a  deity  of  the  Romans,  wor- 
 shipped to  avert  mildew.  The  Robigalia  were  cele- 
 brated on  the  25th  of  April,  just  before  the  Floralia. 
 {OeiJ,  Fast.,  4,  911.  — Pliny,  18,  2.—  Terlidl.  ad 
 Gent.,  ItJ,  25.) 
 
 Roma,  the  celebrated  capital  of  Italy  and  of  the  Ro- 
 man empire,  situate  on  the  Tiber,  below  the  junction 
 of  that  river  with  the  Anio.  The  history  of  the  impe- 
 rial city  is  identified  with  that  of  the  empire  itself,  and 
 may  be  found  scattered  under  various  heads  throughout 
 the  present  volume.  A  much  more  interesting  subject 
 of  inquiry  is  that  which  relates  to  the  authenticity 
 of  the  earlier  Roman  history,  as  it  has  been  handed 
 down  to  us  by  the  Romans  themselves.  The  re- 
 searches of  modern  scholars  have  here  produced  the 
 most  surprising  results,  and  especially  those  of  the 
 celebrated  Niebuhr.  In  what  may  be  called,  however, 
 the  work  of  demolition,  even  Niq^uhr  himself  appears 
 to  have  had  several  [)rodecossors.  The  sceptical  tem- 
 per of  Bayle  did  not  suffer  him  to  acq\]iesce  in  a  nar- 
 rative so  open  to  a  reasonable  incredulity  as  the  early 
 history  of  Rome.  Beaufort's  treatise  on  the  "Uncer- 
 tainty of  the  Roman  History,"  though  it  did  not  go  to 
 the  bottom  of  the  matter,  was  sufficiently  convincing 
 to  all  persons  who  were  not  tmwillingto  be  convinced. 
 His  views  are  often  false  ;  but  his  arguments  utterly 
 destroyed  the  credit  of  the  received  stories.  Hooko 
 endeavoured  to  refute  him  ;  but  all  that  he  could  make 
 out  was  a  general  presumption  that  Beaufort  pushed 
 his  case  too  far,  when  he  considered  the  history  of  the 
 republic  down  to  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  the 
 Gauls  as  uncertain  as  the  history  of  the  kings.  To 
 this  modification  of  Beaufort's  conclusions  even  Nie- 
 buhr assents.  Ferguson  showed  the  conviction  which 
 Beaufort's  treatise  had  worked  in  his  mind,  by  passing 
 very  rapidly  over  all  the  period  anterior  to  the  second 
 1170 
 
 Punic  war,  and  commencing  his  more  circumstantial 
 narrative  of  the  Roman  history  only  at  the  point  where 
 its  events  had  begun  to  be  noted  by  contemporary  an- 
 nalists. Bayle  and  Beaufort  were  popular  writers,  and 
 their  remarks  produced  a  wide  and  general  effect.  At 
 a  somewhat  earlier  period,  Perizonius,  a  scholar  of  an 
 acute  and  comprehensive  mind,  had  criticised  the  Ro- 
 man History  with  great  freedom  and  originality  in  his 
 "  A7iimadversioncs  Historicce  ;"  but  the  consequence 
 of  his  outstripping  his  age  was,  that  his  disquisitions 
 remained  in  obscurity.  Bayle  and  Beaufort  take  no 
 notice  of  him  ;  and  his  inquiries  were  unknown  even 
 to  Niebuhr  when  he  published  his  history  (note  678, 
 vol.  1).  Perizonius  anticipated  Niebuhr  in  his  per 
 ception  of  the  poetical  origin  of  the  history  of  the  early 
 ages  of  Rome,  and  pointed  out  the  evidence  for  the  ex- 
 istence among  the  Romans  of  popular  songs  in  praise 
 of  the  heroes  of  old  time.  That  Niebuhr  should  have 
 perceived  this  truth  in  an  age  in  which  scholars  are  ac- 
 customed to  comprehend  a  wide  range  of  objects  and 
 to  form  independent  judgments,  is  not  extraordinary  ; 
 especially  after  Wolf's  prolegomena  to  Homer  had 
 given  birth  to  a  new  school  of  criticism  in  all  that  re- 
 lates to  the  early  literature  of  nations.  But  that  Peri 
 zonius  should  have  discovered  it  at  a  time  when  learn 
 ed  men  had  scarcely  ceased  to  receive  with  unques- 
 tioning faith  everything  that  was  written  in  Latin  or 
 Greek,  gives  a  high  notion  of  the  originality  and 
 strength  of  his  conceptions.  Niebuhr,  therefore,  m 
 showing  the  early  history  of  Rome  to  be  unworthy  of 
 credit,  has  only  followed  a  path  already  open,  or,  rath- 
 er, already  beaten.  He  has  done  more,  however,  than 
 those  who  have  preceded  him,  by  resolving  the  vulgar 
 narrative  into  its  elements,  and  showing  how  it  ac- 
 quired its  present  shape.  He  has  thus  examined  the 
 whole  subject  thoroughly,  and  made  it  impossible  for 
 any  one  ever  to  revive  the  old  belief.  Still,  however, 
 though  we  may  now  safely  withhold  our  assent  from  a 
 large  portion  of  what  used  to  pass  current  as  the  early 
 history  of  Rome,  we  must  take  care  not  to  carry  this 
 scepticism  so  far  as  to  reject,  by  one  sweeping  sen- 
 tence of  condemnation,  every  portion  that  has  come 
 down  to  us  on  this  head.  Even  allowing  a  considera- 
 ble degree  of  doubt  and  uncertainty  to  {)ervade  the 
 first  records  of  the  Roman  history,  from  the  alleged 
 foundation  of  the  city  to  its  capture  by  the  Gauls,  for 
 that  is  a  point  which  Livy  himself  does  not  scruple  to 
 concede  (6,  1),  we  must  yet  regard  even  this  dubious 
 period  as  luminous  and  authentic,  when  compared  with 
 the  times  which  preceded  the  foundation  of  Rome. 
 Few  sober-minded  critics,  indeed,  will  be  disposed  to 
 indulge  in  scepticism,  so  far  as  to  imagine  that  every- 
 thing which  relates  to  the  kings  of  Rome  is  fictitious 
 and  apocryphal.  It  appears  to  us  tiiat  there  are  cer- 
 tain facts  recorded  in  the  early  history  of  that  city, 
 which  rest  on  too  undisputed  a  basis,  too  universal  a 
 consent  of  authorities  to  be  easily  set  aside.  Where 
 these  are  borne  out  by  the  succeeding  and  indubitable 
 parts  of  the  history,  and  exhibit  a  connected  account 
 of  the  growth  and  progress  of  the  constitution  of  thisr 
 great  city,  surely  it  would  be  injudicious  to  reject 
 them,  except  in  the  case  of  evident  contradiction  or 
 striking  improbability.  Great  uncertainty  exists,  no 
 doubt,  on  many  points  ;  but,  after  all,  it  is  more  in 
 matters  of  detail  than  of  real  importance,  and  especial- 
 ly in  the  relation  of  those  petty  events  and  circum- 
 stances with  which  Livy  and  Dionysius  have,  perhaps, 
 without  due  discrimination,  endeavoured  to  dress  up 
 the  meager  chroniclers  who  preceded  them,  and  to  in- 
 fuse some  spirit  into  the  dry  records  of  the  pontifical 
 volumes.  Let  us  retrench,  if  it  must  be  so,  the  gaudy 
 decorations  and  fanciful  ornaments  with  which  these 
 historians  have  embellished  their  work,  but  let  us  net, 
 at  the  same  time,  overthrow  the  whole  fabric.  W'e 
 may  prune  what  is  exuberant  or  decayed,  and  weed 
 what  IS  rank  and  unprofitable  ;  but  we  must  beware, 
 
ROMA. 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 in  the  process,  of  encroaching  upon  what  is  sound,  or 
 rooting  out  wliat  is  wholesotne  and  nutritious.  Let  it 
 be  granted  that  the  rape  of  the  Sabine  women  is  a  fic- 
 tion, It  may  still  be  true  that  the  Sabines  became,  at 
 one  time,  an  element  in  the  population  of  Rome, 
 l^hough  it  be  uncertain,  with  respect  to  the  Horatii  and 
 Curiatii,  which  belonged  to  Rome  and  which  to  Alba, 
 we  may  still  believe  that  the  latter  citv  sank  beneath 
 its  mofc  powerful  rival.  The  elder  Tarquin's  reign 
 does  not  cease  to  be  an  historical  fact,  because  we  hear 
 an  absurd  story  of  an  eagle  uncovering  his  head  on  his 
 arrival  at  the  gates  of  Rome.  The  constitution  said  to 
 have  been  formed  by  Servius  TuUius  may  have  been 
 the  result  of  longer  experience  and  more  practical  wis- 
 dom than  falls  to  the  lot  of  a  single  reign  ;  but  it  was 
 such  a  constitution  as  Rome  did  receive,  and  which  it 
 was  afterward  enabled  to  bring  to  a  state  of  greater  per- 
 fection than  any  ancient  form  of  government  that  we 
 are  acquainted  with.  Suppose  the  story  of  Lucretia 
 false,  we  cannot  deny  that  monarchy  was  abolished  at 
 Rome,  and  made  way  for  consular  authority  about  the 
 time  that  Livy  pretends,  though  that  historian  may 
 be  wrong  in  giving  Valerius  Publicola,  and  not  Hora- 
 tius  Barbatus,  as  a  colleague  to  Brutus.  {Polyb.,  2, 
 23.)  The  valour  of  Horatius  Codes,  and  the  forti- 
 tude of  Mutius  Scaevola,  may  be  left  to  the  admiration 
 of  schoolboys  ;  but  the  siege  of  Rome  by  Porseniia  is 
 no  idle  tale  invented  for  their  amusement,  though  it 
 slio\ild  be  proved  that  the  consequences  of  that  event 
 were  not  so  honourable  to  the  Romans  as  Livy  has 
 chosen  to  represent  them.  {Tacil.,  3,  72. — Plin.,  34, 
 14.)  It  is  a  disputed  point  whether  two  or  five  tribunes 
 of  the  people  were  elected  at  first ;  but  does  that  doubt 
 invalidate  the  fact  of  the  secession  to  the  Mons  Sa- 
 cerl  Cancel  three  fourths  of  the  Roman  victories  and 
 triumphs  over  the  ^■Equi  and  Volsci,  will  it  be  less 
 true  that  the  former  were  nearly  destroyed,  the  latter 
 completely  subjugated  1  Say  it  was  gold,  and  not  the 
 valour  of  her  dictator  and  his  troops,  which  delivered 
 Rome  from  the  Gauls  ;  she  may  surely  boast  of  having 
 lived  to  revenge  herself  on  the  barbarian  foe,  and  of 
 having,  by  a  hundred  triumphs,  blotted  out  the  stain  of 
 that  transaction,  and  of  the  shameful  rout  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Allia.  In  short,  though  we  may  sometimes 
 pause  when  reading  the  early  annals  of  Rome,  and 
 hesitate  what  judgment  to  form  on  many  of  the  events 
 which  they  record,  there  are  landmarks  enough  to  pre- 
 vent us  from  straying  far  from  our  course,  and  to  lead  us 
 on  safely  to  the  terra  firma  of  her  history.  But  we  have 
 not  the  same  assistance  for  tracing  our  way,  nor  the 
 same  guarantees  to  certify  us  that  we  are  treading  in  the 
 right  path,  when  we  come  to  explore  the  truth  of  the 
 accounts  on  which  the  origin  of  Rome,  and  the  actions 
 of  its  reputed  founder,  must  mainly  depend  for  their 
 credibility.  On  the  contrary,  after  reading  all  that 
 Plutarch  has  said  in  the  opening  of  his  life  of  Romu- 
 lus, and  all  that  Dionysius  has  collected  on  the  sub- 
 ject, it  is  impossible  not  to  feel  convinced  that  the  re- 
 ceived story  of  the  foundation  of  Rome  rests  on  very 
 questionable  grounds.  Here  it  is  not  merely  the  more 
 undisguised  appearance  of  fiction,  or  the  greater  fre- 
 quency of  the  marvellous,  which  is  calculated  to  awa- 
 ken suspicion  ;  b\it  it  is  the  inconsistency  and  improb- 
 abiliiy  of  the  whole,  as  an  attempt  to  explain  the  first 
 rise  and  progress  of  unquestionably  the  most  interest- 
 ing city  of  antiquity,  which  ought  to  startle  the  mind 
 and  revolt  the  judgment  of  the  jihilosopher  and  the 
 critic.  It  is  not  also  because  these  tales  are  to  be 
 traced  to  a  Greek  source  that  we  would  reject  them  ; 
 for  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  early  Greek  his- 
 torians who  made  the  antiquities  of  Italy  their  study, 
 and  they  form  a  numerous  class,  were  better  informed 
 about  what  they  wrote,  and  more  trustworthy,  than 
 perhaps  they  are  generally  allowed  to  be.  The  objec- 
 tion rather  lies  against  the  particular  authority  on  whose 
 testimony  they  seem  entirely  to  rest  for  support.    Dio- 
 
 des of  Pepareihus,  an  author  mentioned  by  no  ono 
 else,  is  said  by  Plutarch,  in  his  liife  of  Romulus,  to 
 have  been  the  first  to  accredit  the  received  accounts  of 
 the  circumstances  relative  to  the  origin  of  Rome  ;  and 
 it  was  upon  his  authority  that  Fabius  Pictor,  the  ear- 
 liest Roman  historian,  brought  them  into  repute  with 
 his  countrymen.  Now,  unless  we  are  informed  what 
 peculiar  sources  of  information  were  open  to  this  ob- 
 scure writer,  which  were  not  possessed  by  the  othc* 
 early  historians  of  his  nation,  to  whom  the  name  ol' 
 Romulus  seems  to  have  been  known,  there  can  be  no 
 reason  why  we  should  give  him  the  preference.  It 
 will  not  be  enough  to  say  that  the  approval  of  Fabius 
 is  a  sufficient  testimony  in  his  favour  ;  for,  as  his  ac- 
 count of  the  birth  of  their  founder  was  most  flattering 
 to  the  vanity  of  the  Romans,  their  partiality  towards 
 him  would  be  easily  accounted  for,  and,  by  a  natural 
 consequence,  would  tend  to  lower  rather  than  raise 
 our  opinion  of  his  credibility.  But  the  most  solid  ob- 
 jection which  can  be  urged  against  the  popular  ac- 
 count of  the  foundation  of  Rome  by  Romulus,  is  chief- 
 ly grounded  on  the  inconsistency  of  the  circumstan- 
 ces under  which  that  city  is  said  to  have  commenced 
 its  political  career,  with  the  character  and  condition 
 which  is  ascribed  to  it  immediately  after.  If  it  be 
 true  that  Romulus  was  surrounded  by  so  much  state 
 and  dignity,  and  possessed  not  only  the  insignia  of 
 royalty,  but  also  a  force  such  as  no  despicable  city 
 could  display,  since  we  are  told  that  he  could  bring 
 into  the  field  formidable  armies,  then  we  may  assert 
 confidently  that  Rome  did  not  date  its  beginning 
 from  a  motley  assemblage  of  lawless  depredators  and 
 runaway  slaves,  and  that  its  first  walls  held  within 
 their  circuit  something  more  than  the  lowly  huts  of 
 shepherds,  or  the  rude  palace  of  a  village  king.  Not 
 were  there  traditions  wanting  to  give  strength  to  such 
 an  hypothesis,  by  ascribing  to  this  great  city  an  exist- 
 ence anterior  to  that  which  it  had  afterward  as  a  colony 
 of  Alba.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  \,  p.  347,  scqq): 
 — But  let  us  now  proceed  to  the  question  respecting 
 the  real  origin  of  Rome. 
 
 1.   Origin  of  Rome. 
 
 When  we  inquire  into  the  real  origin  of  the  city  of 
 Rome,  we  meet  with  a  tradition  which  carries  it  back 
 to  the  age  of  the  Pelasgians.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Rom.  ir^l.) 
 The  Pelasgic  origin  of  Rome  is  implied  in  the  legend 
 of  the  settlement  of  the  Arcadian  Evander  on  the  Pal- 
 atine Mount.  The  religion  and  the  language  of  Rome 
 sanction  this  belief.  The  same  opinion  was  probably 
 held,  at  least  by  the  earliest  of  the  many  writers  who, 
 according  to  Dionysius,  supposed  it  to  be  a  Tyrrhenian 
 city.  {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  29.)  If  any  by  this  expression 
 meant  that  it  was  Etruscan,  we  may  oppose  to  this 
 the  well-grounded  opinion  that  the  Etrurian  sway  was 
 not  extended  so  far  south  as  the  lower  part  of  the  Ti- 
 ber till  about  the  close  of  the  second  century  of 
 Rome.  We  have,  however,  express  testimony  that 
 Rome  was  a  Siculian  town.  Varro  informs  us,  that 
 the  old  annals  reported  that  the  Siculi  were  sprung 
 from  Rome  (L.  L.,  4,  10) ;  and  the  legend  of  Antio- 
 chus  has  been  preserved,  which  derived  the  appella- 
 tion of  the  Siceli  in  ffinotria  and  Sicily  from  a  mythic 
 chief  Sicelus,  who  fled  from  Rome,  and  was  enter- 
 tained by  Morges,  king  of  (Enotria.  {Dion.  Hal.,  1, 
 73.)  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  that  Sicelus 
 is  a  personification  of  the  nation,  and  that  we  have 
 here  a  record  of  its  original  seat,  and  of  its  subsequent 
 micrration.  The  considerations  which  tend  to  show 
 that  the  Siceli  or  Siculi  were  a  Pelasgian  tribe,  will 
 be  found  under  another  article.  ( Fid.  Sicuii.)  The 
 Siceli  fled  from  the  Opici ;  and  the  Pelasgians  of  Lati- 
 um  were  overpowered  by  the  Casci,  who  were  proba- 
 bly an  Opican  or  Oscan  tribe.  Whether  Rome  fell 
 into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors  we  cannot  be  certain, 
 but  it  is  very  probable.  It  is  thus  we  must  interpret 
 ^  ^  1171 
 
ROMA. 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 the  legend  preserved  by  Pl\itarcli,  that  Romus,  king 
 of  the  Latins,  expelled  the  Tyrrhenians.  (Pint.,  Vu. 
 Rom.)  Such  a  conquest  would  give  rise  to  the  tradi- 
 tion that  Rome  was  founded  as  a  colony  from  Alba. 
 Palatium,  the  settlement  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  probably 
 took  its  name  from  Palatium,  a  town  of  the  Oscan 
 Aborigines,  on  the  declivity  of  the  Apennines.  {Dion. 
 Hal.,  1,  14.) 
 
 2.   Original  silc,  and  subsequent  growth  of  Rome. 
 
 All  traditions  agree,  that  the  original  site  of  Rome 
 was  on  the  Palatine,  whether  they  ascribe  its  founda- 
 tion to  Evander  or  to  Romulus.  The  steepness  of 
 the  sides  of  the  hill  would  be  its  natural  defence  ;  and 
 on  one  quarter  it  was  still  farther  strengthened  by  a 
 swamp  which  lay  between  the  hill  and  river,  which 
 was  afterward  drained  and  called  the  Yelabrum.  In 
 the  course  of  time  dwellings  sprung  up  around  the 
 foot  of  the  hill ;  but  the  Palatine  must  still  have  re- 
 mained the  citadel  of  the  growing  town ;  just  as  at 
 Athens  that  which  was  the  original  city  {noTiLr)  be- 
 came eventually  the  Acropolis  {uKpimo'Xig).  These 
 suburbs  were  enclosed  with  a  Inie,  probably  a  rude 
 fortificatio^,  which  the  learning  of  Tacitus  enabled 
 him  to  trace,  and  which  he  calls  the  pommrium  of 
 Romulus.  {Ann.,  12,  24.)  It  ran  under  three  sides 
 of  the  hill :  the  fourth  side  was  occupied  by  the  swamp 
 just  mentioned,  where  it  was  neither  needful  nor  pos- 
 sible to  carry  a  wall.  The  ancient  city  comprised 
 within  this  outline,  or,  possibly,  only  the  city  on  the 
 summit  of  the  hill,  was  called  by  Roman  antiquaries 
 the  "  Square  Rome''  {Roma.  Quadrala.  —  Ennius,  ap. 
 Fest.,  s.  V.  Quadrala  Roma.  —  Plut.,  Vit.  Rom. — 
 Dio  Cass.,  fragm.  —  Dion.  Hal,  1,  88).  There  is 
 reason  to  suppose,  that  some  at  least  of  the  adjacent 
 hills  were  the  seat  of  similar  settlements.  The  le- 
 gend of  the  twin  brothers,  Romulus  and  Remus,  ap- 
 pears to  have  arisen  from  the  pro.ximity  to  Rome  of 
 a  kindred  town  called  Remoria,  either  on  the  Aven- 
 tine,  or  on  an  eminence  soinewhat  more  distant  to- 
 wards the  sea.  {Dion.  Hal.,  1,  85. — Niebuhr,  Rom. 
 Hist.,  vol.  1,  note  618.) — The  first  enlargement  of 
 Rome  seems  to  have  been  effected  by  the  addition  of 
 the  Ca?lian  Hill,  which,  as  we  shall  presently  show,  was 
 probably  occupied  by  a  different  tribe  from  the  people 
 of,  the  Palatine.  Dionysius  speaks'of  Romulus  as 
 holdmg  both  the  Palatine  and  the  Caelian  Mount  (2, 
 50),  The  next  addition  to  the  city  was  the  Esqui- 
 line  Hill.  The  festival  of  Septimontium  preserved 
 the  memory  of  a  time  when  Rome  included  only  Pa- 
 latium, with  its  adjacent  regions,  Velia,  Cermalus,  and 
 Fagutal  ;  the  Cselian  Hill  ;  and  Oppius  and  Cispius, 
 the  two  summits  of  the  Esquiline.  {FcsIais,  s.  v.  Sep- 
 timontium.—  Niebuhr,  vol.  1,  p.  382.)  The  Capito- 
 line,  Quirinal,  and  Viminal  Hills  were  not  yet  com- 
 prehended in  the  pomoerium  :  the  Aventine  was  al- 
 ways excluded  from  the  hallowed  boundary,  even  when 
 it  was  substantially  a  part  of  the  city.  Thus  we  see 
 that  the  notion  that  Rome  was  built  on  seven  hills, 
 was  fitted  originally  to  circumstances  diflferent  from 
 those  to  which  it  was  afterward  applied. — The  Quirinal 
 and  Capitoline  Hills  seem  to  have  been  the  seat  of  a 
 Sabine  settlement,  distinct  from  the  Rome  on  the 
 Palatine,  and  in  early  times  even  hostile  to  it.  The 
 most  poetical  incident  in  the  legend  of  Romulus,  the 
 rape  of  the  Sabine  virgins,  involves  an  historical  mean- 
 ing. It  appearr.  to  refer  to  a  time  when  the  Romans 
 did  not  possess  the  right  of  intermarriage  with  some 
 neighbouring  Sabine  states,  and  sought  to  extort  it  by 
 force  of  arms.  {Niebuhr,  vol.  I,  p.  286.)  By  the 
 right  of  intermarriage  {connubium)  is  meant  the  mu- 
 tual recognition,  that  the  children  of  parents,  citizens 
 of  the  two  states,  were  entitled  to  the  full  rank  of 
 citizens  in  the  state  of  their  father.  This  right  among 
 the  ancient  states  of  both  Greece  and  Italy  was  es- 
 tablished only  by  express  treaty.  A  citizen  might  live 
 1172 
 
 with  a  foreign  woman  as  his  wife ;  but,  unless  the  irj» 
 tennarriage  were  sanctioned  by  public  compact,  his 
 children  lost  their  paternal  rank.  Niebuhr  has  ob- 
 served, that  even  the  poetic  legend  did  not  regard 
 Rome  as  a  genuine  and  lawful  colony  from  Alba; 
 otherwise  it  would,  from  the  very  beginning,  have  en- 
 joyed the  right  of  intermarriage  with  the  mother  city 
 and  the  other  Latin  towns ;  and  there  would  have 
 been  no  consistency  in  the  story  of  the  want  of  wom- 
 en (vol.  1,'note  628). — In  the  narrative  of  tlie  war 
 with  the  Latins,  Livy  calls  Tatius  only  king  of  the  Sa- 
 bines  ;  but  w-hen  he  mentions  that,  at  the  close  of  the 
 war,  the  Sabine  appellation  Quirites  was  extended  to 
 the  people  of  Romulus,  he  derives  it  from  Cures. 
 {Liv.,  1,  10,  13.)  Dionysius  has  followed  the  An- 
 nalists, who  expressly  specified  Cures  as  the  seat  of 
 the  kingdom  of  ^Tatius.  Strabo  adopted  the  same 
 tradition.  Now,  when  we  consider  the  exceedingly 
 narrow  limits  within  which  all  the  other  incidents  of 
 the  early  Roman  traditions  are  confined,  and  even  the 
 historical  events  of  the  first  years  of  the  republic,  after 
 the  kingly  dominion  of  the  city  was  reduced,  it  seems 
 very  unlikely  that  Rome,  in  its  infancy,  could  have 
 come  into  collision  with  Cures,  whicfi  was  distant 
 from  it  more  than  twenty  miles.  Moreover,  nothing 
 is  told  of  the  war  before  the  seizure  of  the  Capitoline 
 Hill.  This  is  the  point  from  which  all  the  attacks  of 
 the  Sabines  proceed.  Again,  after  the  termination  of 
 the  war,  we  hear  nothing  of  the  return  of  Tatius  to 
 Cures.  He  apparently  deserts  his  old  dominion,  and 
 establishes  himself  and  his  Sabines  on  the  Capitoline 
 and  Quirinal  Hills.  {Dion.  Hal.,  2,  46,  50.)  The 
 senate  of  the  people  of  Romulus  and  Tatius  met  in 
 conference  in  the  valley  between  the  Palatine  and 
 Capitoline  Hills  ;  and  as  the  Palatine  was  the  proper 
 seat  of  the  one,  so  the  Capitoline  must  have  been  that 
 of  the  other.  Cures  vi^nishcs  from  our  sight ;  and 
 though  the  union  of  the  Romans  with  the  Sabine  peo- 
 ple, with  whom  they  had  warred,  endured  unbroken, 
 there  is  no  trace  of  their  possessing  a  wider  territory 
 than  the  district  immediately  adjacent  to  the  hills  of 
 Rome. — These  considerations  are  suflicient  to  expose 
 the  inconsistency  of  the  vulgar  legend  :  but  the  testi- 
 mony to  the  incorporation  of  a  part  of  the  Sabines 
 with  the  Roman  people  is  far  too  strong  to  be  set 
 aside.  The  most  probable  supposition  is,  as  has  been 
 before  stated,  that  the  Sabines,  who  in  the  early  pe- 
 riod of  their  national  existence  extended  themselves 
 down  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  had  advanced  even 
 to  the  neighbourhood  of  Rome,  and  had  established  a 
 settlement  on  the  Quirinal  and  Capitoline  Hills.  Of 
 this  town  the  Capitoline  must  have  been  the  citadel. 
 It  was  likewise  the  seat  of  its  religious  worship:  for 
 the  pontifical  books  recorded,  that,  before  the  building 
 of  the  Capitol,  its  site  was  occupied  by  shrines  and 
 fanes  consecrated  by  Tatius.  {Liv.,  I,  55.)  Tatius 
 we  can  scarcely  regard  as  a  more  certainly  historical 
 personage  than  Romulus,  though  the  story  of  his  death 
 at  Lavinium  has  an  historical  aspect.  He  is  only  the 
 personification  of  the  tribe  of  the  Titienses  or  Titles, 
 who  are  said  to  have  taken  their  name  from  him. 
 But  his  people  had  a  real  existence.  The  name  of 
 their  town  has  been  lost :  their  own  name  was  un- 
 doubtedly Quirites.  'This  people  lived  in  close  neigh- 
 bourhood with  the  Romans  on  the  Palatine  ;  but  they 
 were  of  different,  and  even  hostile  races,  and  no  inter- 
 course subsisted  betv/een  them.  Between  two  petty 
 states,  so  situated  in  immediate  neighbourhood,  it  is 
 not  at  all  improbable  that  women  may  have  been  a 
 cause  of  contention.  We  can  gather  from  the  tradi- 
 tions that  war  took  place  between  them,  which  ended 
 at  last  in  a  compact,  by  which  not  only  the  right  of 
 intermarriage,  and  a  community  of  all  other  rights, 
 were  granted,  but  the  two  nations  were  combined  into 
 one.  We  can  even  trace  the  stages  of  their  union. 
 It  appears  at  first  to  have  been  a  federal  union.     Each 
 
ROMA. 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 people  had  its  own  king  and  its  own  senate ;  and  they 
 only  met  to  confer  upon  matters  of  common  interest. 
 Afterward  one  liing  was  aclinowledgcd  as  the  common 
 chief  of  the  united  people :  the  two  senates  became 
 one  body,  and  consulted  for  the  welfare  of  the  whole 
 stale  :  the  national  names  of  Romans  and  Quiriies 
 were  extended  indifferently  to  both  divisions  of  the 
 citizens ;  and  they  were  no  longer  distinguished  as 
 nations,  but  only  as  tribes  of  the  same  people,  under 
 the  denomination  of  Ramnes  and  Titienses. 
 
 3.  Early  Roman  Tribes. 
 
 We  are  told  that  the  people  of  Rome  were  divided 
 into  three  tribes  ;  and,  besides  the  Ramnes  and  Titi- 
 enses, a  third  tribe  appears,  who  are  called  Luceres. 
 That  they  were  looked  upon  as  an  important  element 
 in  the  state,  is  manifest  from  the  legend  that  Roma 
 was  the  daughter  of  Italus  and  Luceria.  As  the  dis- 
 tinction of  the  two  former  tribes  arose  from  the  dif- 
 ference of  their  national  origin,  so  we  may  conclude 
 that  the  Luceres  were  a  people  of  a  third  race,  and 
 united  either  by  confederacy  or  subjection  with  the 
 other  two.  The  origin  of  the  Titienses  is  distinctly 
 marked  :  they  were  Sabines.  That  of  the  first  tribe, 
 the  Ramnes,  the  genuine  Romans  of  the  Palatine,  is 
 not  so  clear  ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  they  belonged 
 to  the  Opican  stock  of  the  Latins.  From  these  cir- 
 cumstances we  might  reasonably  conjecture  that  the 
 third  tribe,  the  Luceres,  were  the  remains  of  a  people 
 of  the  Pelasgian  race.  They  are  always  enumerated 
 in  the  third  place,  as  the  Ramnes  are  in  the  first,  which 
 accords  well  with  the  idea  that  they  were  a  conquered 
 and  subject  class.  But  there  is  evidence  that  points 
 more  directly  to  this  conclusion.  Though  the  origin 
 of  the  Luceres  was  accounted  uncertain  by  the  Ro- 
 man historians,  so  that  Livy  does  not  venture  to  assign 
 a  cause  for  their  name  {Liv.,  1,  13),  yet  it  was  gen- 
 erally supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Etruscan  Lu- 
 cumo,  who  had  fought  with  Romulus  against  Tatius. 
 {Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  9.—  Cic.,  Repub.,  2,  8.  —  Propert., 
 4,  1,  29.)  Now  "  Lucumo"  was  only  a  title  mista- 
 ken for  a  proper  name,  so  that  nothing  could  be  de- 
 rived from  it,  even  if  the  incidents  of  the  legend  were 
 received  as  historical  facts.  Moreover,  the  Etruscans, 
 in  the  infancy  of  Rome,  had  not  penetrated  so  far  to 
 the  south.  But  the  story  becomes  clear,  if  we  admit 
 that  we  have  here  the  customary  confusion  between 
 the  Etruscans  and  Tyrrhenians,  and  that  the  allies  of 
 the  Ramnes  of  the  Palatine  were  a  Tyrrhenian  or  Pe- 
 lasgian people,  a  portion  of  the  old  inhabitants  of  La- 
 tium.  Dionysius  adds  a  circumstance  to  the  legend 
 which  confirms  this  hypothesis.  He  says  that  Lucu- 
 mo brought  his  Tyrrhenians  from  the  city  Sol.onium 
 (2,  37).  No  such  city  is  known  to  have  existed  ;  but 
 the  level  tract  on  the  seacoast  south  of  the  Tiber, 
 lying  between  Rome  on  the  one  hand,  and  Laurentum 
 and  Lavinium  on  the  other,  was  called  the  Solonian 
 plain.  This  region  Dionysius  probably  fo\md  men- 
 tioned in  some  annals  :  this  would  assuredly  be  the 
 seat  of  Pelasgian  Latins;  and  in  this  very  direction 
 we  are  expressly  told  that  the  early  dominion  of  Rome 
 extended  most  widely.  (Nicbuhr,  vol.  1,  note  739.) 
 The  Tyrrhenian  or  Pelasgian  origin  of  the  Luceres 
 may  be  deduced  yet  r.iore  clearly  from  the  legend 
 which  described  their  leader  as  Lucerus,  king  of  Ar- 
 dca.  {Fcslus,  s.  v.  Lucacnses.)  If  we  inquire  for 
 the  town  or  chief  settlement  of  the  Luceres,  we  shall 
 find  reason  to  conjecture  that  it  was  ujion  the  Csclian 
 Hill.  We  have  seen  that,  according  to  one  tradition, 
 Romulus  was  supposed  to  possess  the  Palatine  and 
 the  Cojlian,  while  Tatius  and  his  Qiiirites  held  the 
 Quirinal  and  the  Capitoline.  {Dinti.  Hal.,2,h0.)  As 
 the  latter  hills  were  the  seat  of  the  second  tribe,  the 
 Titienses  ;  and  the  Palatine  of  the  Ramnes,  the  first 
 and  genuine  Romans,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude 
 that  the  C*lian  wa."  '.h"  ='te  of  *he  third  and  subject 
 
 tribe,  the  Luceres.  Moreover,  there  is  a  tradition, 
 though  a  confused  one,  that  the  Caelian  took  its  name 
 from  a  Tyrrhenian  or  Tuscan  chief,  Cajlius  or  Cailes, 
 an  auxiliary  of  Romulus  ;  in  short,  the  Lucumo  from 
 whom  the  Luceres  were  supposed  to  deduce  their  ap- 
 pellation. {Dio7i.  Hal.,  2,  36.— Ffl/To,  L.  L.,  4,  8, 
 9. — Feslus,  s.  V.  CcbUus  Mons. — Tac,  Ann.,  4,  65.) 
 
 4.    Of  Patricians  and  Clients;  and  of  the  Plebeian 
 
 Order. 
 
 Among  the  original  population  of  the  city,  those 
 who  could  show  a  noble  or  free  ancestry  constituted 
 the  Patrician  Order,  the  term  Patricii  being  equivalent 
 to  ingenui  (Liv.,  10,8. —  Cincius,  ap.  Fcsl.,  s.  v.Pa- 
 Iricios) ;  and  to  them  alone  belonged  a  share  in  the 
 government  of  the  stale.  The  rest  of  the  people  were 
 subject  to  the  king  and  to  the  body  of  the  Patricians  : 
 and  each  man,  with  his  household,  was  attached,  un- 
 der the  appellation  of  Client,  to  the  head  of  some  Pa- 
 trician family,  whom  he  was  bound  to  serve,  and  from 
 whom  he  looked  for  protection  and  help.  It  has  al- 
 ready been  stated,  that  after  the  Sabine  war  and  the 
 union  of  the  people  of  Romulus  and  Tatius,  the  citi- 
 zens were  distributed  into  three  tribes,  to  which  were 
 given  the  names  of  Ramnes,  Titienses,  and  Luceres  ; 
 these  three  primitive  tribes  were  subdivided  into  thirty 
 curiit,  ten  in  each  tribe.  In  the  national  assembly  the 
 people  were  called  together  in  their  curice :  the  votes 
 of  the  householders  in  each  curia  were  taken  in  the 
 separate  curice  ;  and  the  votes  of  the  greater  number 
 of  the  thirty  curice  determined  the  business  before  the 
 assembly.  This  assembly  was  called  the  Comilia  Cu- 
 riata.  Besides  this  popular  assembly,  there  was  a  se- 
 lect and  perpetual  council,  called  the  senate.  At  its' 
 first  institution  it  was  composed  of  a  hundred  chief 
 men  of  the  Patrician  order.  Ten  of  these  were  of 
 higher  rank  than  the  rest  ;  and  to  one,  the  chief  of  all, 
 was  intrusted  the  care  of  the  city  whenever  the  king 
 should  be  absent  in  war.  After  the  completion  of  the 
 union  with  the  people  of  Tatius,  the  senate  was  doubled 
 bv  the  addition  of  a  hundred  Sabines;  and  the  first 
 Tarquinius  added  a  third  hundred  to  the  ancient  num- 
 ber. The  senators  admitted  by  Tarquinius  were  call- 
 ed "  Fathers  of  the  Less  Houses  or  Kins"  {Patres 
 Minorum  Gentium) ;  and  the  old  senators,  "  Fathers 
 of  the  Greater  Houses  or  Kins"  {Patres  Majorttm 
 Gentium).  Such  is  a  correct,  although  imperfect  out- 
 line of  the  forms  of  the  primitive  constitution. — The 
 leadino-  feature  in  this  outline  is  the  position  that  the 
 original  population  of  Rome  was  composed  only  of  the 
 Patrician  order  and  their  Clients.  Upon  this  state- 
 ment all  our  authorities  are  agreed,  either  by  express 
 assertion  or  implied  consent.  But  this  statement  is 
 generally  accompanied  by  another,  arising  from  a  false 
 conception,  which  has  obscured  and  embarrassed  the 
 whole  course  of  early  Roman  history.  The  Clients 
 are  supposed  to  have  been  the  same  with  the  Plebeians. 
 They  are  conceived  to  have  been  called  Plebeians  as  a 
 body,  in  opposition  to  the  Patrician  body,  but  Clients 
 individually,  in  relation  to  their  particular  patrons. 
 Such,  at  least,  is  the  explicit  statement  of  Dionysius, 
 and  of  Plutarch,  who  has  followed  his  authority  ;  and 
 this  view  of  the  matter  has  been  adopted  without 
 question  by  modern  writers.  This,  however,  is  a  pos- 
 itive error.  The  Plcbs,  or  Commonalty,  was  of  more 
 recent  origin  ;  and  the  Plebeians,  in  their  civil  rights, 
 held  a  mid"dle  place  between  the  ruling  Patricians  and 
 their  dependant  clients.  One  proof  of  this,  and  per- 
 haps the  strongest  that  can  be  adduced,  is  drawn  from 
 the  nature  of  the  Comilia  Curiala.  This  great  na- 
 tional council  was  the  most  important  of  all  the  insti- 
 tutions connected  with  the  curm.  At  its  first  origin, 
 and  as  long  as  it  continued  to  have  a  real  existence, 
 it  was  compo.sed  exclusively  of  the  Patrician  order. 
 ■  {Dion.  Hal.,  2,  21.)  It  cannot  be  thought  strange 
 that  the  Clients,  an  inferior  order  of  men,  personally 
 
 1173 
 
ROMA. 
 
 ROMA. 
 
 dependant  on  individuals  of  the  Patrician  body,  should 
 not  appear  in  the  supreme  council  of  the  state.  The 
 great  distinction  which  demands  our  attention  is  this, 
 that  the  Plebeians  were  still  more  certainly  excluded 
 from  it.  Even  when  the  Plebeian  state  had  grown  up 
 to  such  magnitude  and  importance  that  it  had  its  pe- 
 culiar magistrates,  and  was  become  a  chief  element 
 in  the  constitution  of  the  commonwealth,  even  then 
 the  Comitia  Curiata  were  exclusively  Patrician,  and 
 'he  Plebeians  had  no  part  in  them.  The  fact  was,  that 
 the  distribution  of  the  people  into  tribes  and  curise, 
 and  the  still  farther  division  into  Gcntes,  or  Houses, 
 had  respect  only  to  the  original  stock  of  the  nation  ; 
 and  this  original  stock  kept  itself  distinct  from  the 
 body  of  new  citizens,  which  was  added  by  conquest, 
 or  sprung  up  insensibly  from  other  causes.  The  Cli- 
 ents, inasmuch  as  they  were  attached  to  individual 
 Patricians,  were  attached  to  the  Gentes  ;  and  so  may 
 be  considered,  in  this  sense,  as  included  in  the  greater 
 divisions  of  curis  and  tribes  ;  although  it  is  manifest 
 that  they  could  not  appear  as  members  of  the  curiae, 
 uhen  these  were  called  together  as  the  component 
 parts  of  the  sovereign  popular  assembly.  But  the 
 Plebeians  grew  up  as  a  separate  body  by  the  side  of 
 the  original  Patrician  citizens,  and  were  never  incor- 
 porated in  their  peculiar  divisions.  They  were  not 
 members  of  the  Gentes.  or  of  the  curire,  or  of  the  three 
 tribes  ;  consequently  they  had  no  share  in  the  Comi- 
 tia Curiata  ;  and  this  assembly,  in  which  resided  the 
 supreme  power  of  the  stale,  was,  as  we  have  already 
 said,  exclusively  Patrician.  It  is  needless  to  insist 
 upon  the  importance  of  this  distinction  to  a  right  view 
 of  the  constitution,  and  of  its  successive  changes  ; 
 and,  indeed,  to  a  right  notion  of  the  whole  internal 
 history,  which,  for  more  than  two  centuries,  is  made  up 
 of  the  struggles  of  the  Patrician  and  Plebeian  orders. 
 Yet  this  distinction  was  overlooked  by  ail  the  writers 
 on  Roman  history  ;  and  they  suffered  themselves  to 
 be  misled  by  the  superficial  theory  of  Dionysius,  who 
 represented  the  government  of  Rome  as  thoroughly 
 democratical  from  the  very  foundation  of  the  city,  and 
 conceived  the  public  assembly  to  be  composed  of  the 
 %vhole  male  population  of  the  state,  with  the  exception 
 of  househokl  slaves. 
 
 5.  Of  the  Patrician  Gentes  or  Houses. 
 
 The  Patrician  citizens  of  Rome  were  all  compre- 
 hended in  certain  bodies  which  were  called  Gentes 
 (Kins  or  Houses).  The  word  Kin  would  be  the  most 
 exact  translation  of  Gens  ;  but  as  this  word  is  nearly 
 obsolete,  except  in  particular  phrases,  and  as  the  trans- 
 lators of  Niebuhr  have  rendered  Gens  by  House,  the 
 latter  term  is  now  generally  adopted.  (Philol.  Muse- 
 um, No  2,  p.  348.)  The  members  of  the  same  Gc7is 
 were  called  Gentiles.  In  each  house  were  contained 
 several  distinct  families.  It  is  probable  that  these 
 families  were  originally  single  households  ;  but  where 
 their  numbers  increased,  they  became  families  in  the 
 wider  acceptation  of  the  term.  From  the  etymology 
 of  the  term  Geris,  it  is  evident  that  a  connexion  by 
 birth  and  kindred  was  held  to  subsist  among  all  the 
 members  of  the  same  house.  The  name  of  the  house 
 seems  always  to  have  been  derived  from  some  mythic 
 hero  ;  and  in  the  popular  belief,  the  hero  from  whom 
 the  house  was  named  was  regarded  as  a  common  an- 
 cestor. Thus  the  Julian  house  was  regarded  as  the 
 progeny  of  Julus,  the  son  of  ^'Eneas  ( Dion.  Hal.,  1,  70. 
 —  Virg.,  JEn.,  6,  789)  ;  and  the  Valerian  house  was 
 derived  from  Volesus,  a  Sabine  warrior,  and  compan- 
 ion of  Tatius.  (Dion.  Hal,  2,  46.)  Even  those 
 whose  superior  information  enabled  them  to  reject 
 these  fabulous  genealogies,  adhered  to  the  notion  of 
 an  original  connexion  by  birth  ;  and  a  fictitious  and 
 conventional  kindred  was  acknowledged  by  the  mem- 
 bers of  the  same  house.  In  describing  this  kindred 
 of  the  Gentiles  as  fictitious  and  conventional,  we  do 
 1174 
 
 not  mean  to  assert  that  in  no  case  did  such  a  con- 
 nexion really  exist.  No  doubt  what  were  called 
 Houses  were  first  formed  by  natural  consanguinity. 
 But  it  is  probable  that  these  natural  alliances  had  sug- 
 gested an  artificial  arrangement,  and  that  families  not 
 akin  to  one  another  had  been  distributed  into  houses  by 
 some  legislative  power.  This  will  appear  certain,  if 
 we  shall  be  convinced  of  the  existence  of  the  precise 
 numerical  divisions  which  will  be  explained  presently. 
 If  it  be  true  that  originally  each  curia  contained  ten 
 gentes,  and  each  gens  ten  householders,  it  is  obvious 
 that  this  exact  division  must  have  been  made  arbitrari- 
 ly. A  precisely  similar  division  exisitcd  among  the 
 ancient  Athenians.  The  Eupatrids,  a  body  which 
 corresponds  to  the  Patrician  order  at  Rome,  were  di- 
 vided into  four  Phyla;;  which  correspond  to  the  three 
 Roman  tribes  ;  each  Phyla  into  three  Phratrise,  which 
 correspond  to  the  Curiae  ;  and  each  Phratria  into  thir- 
 ty Genea  or  Houses  ;  so  that  the  total  number  of 
 Houses  was  three  hundred  and  sixty.  The  Athenian 
 Houses  were  distinguished  by  names  of  a  patronymic 
 form,  which  were  derived  from  some  hero  or  mythic 
 ancestor.  But,  notwithstanding  this  fictitious  kindred, 
 and  though  all  the  terms  which  expressed  the  relation 
 were  derived  etymologically  from  the  notion  of  con- 
 nexion by  birth,  the  authorities  from  which  we  draw 
 our  precise  knowledge  of  the  institution  directly  and 
 pointedly  deny  the  reality  of  such  a  connexion,  and 
 ascribe  the  origin  of  the  Genea  to  an  arbitrary  di- 
 vision. {Pollux,  8,  9,  111. — Harpocration,  s.  v.  yev- 
 VTjTaL. — Nicbuhr,  vol.  1,  note  795.)  The  great  bond 
 of  union  among  the  members  of  a  House  was  a  partici- 
 pation in  its  common  religious  rites.  It  seems  that 
 each  House  had  its  peculiar  solemnities,  which  were 
 performed  at  a  stated  time  and  place.  There  can  be 
 no  doubt  that,  at  a  fitting  age,  the  children  of  the 
 Gens  were  admitted  to  these  solemnities,  and  publicly 
 recognised  as  members  of  it ;  just  as  in  Attica,  at  the 
 feast  of  Apaturia,  Athenian  citizens  of  the  pure  blood 
 were  admitted  and  registered  in  their  hereditary  Phra- 
 triae. — We  have  spoken  of  the  Gentes  as  pertaining 
 only  to  the  Patricians.  This  is  affirmed  upon  direct 
 testimony.  {Liv.,  10,  8.  —  Niebuhr,  vol.  1,  p.  316, 
 note  821.)  But,  in  making  this  statement,  we  must 
 bear  in  mind  that  constructions  of  a  similar  nature  ex- 
 isted among  the  Plebeians,  which  had  their  origin  when 
 the  subject  and  municipal  towns  were  independent 
 states.  I'he  Gentile  connexions  of  the  Plebeians  were 
 older  than  their  character  as  Roman  citizens.  Thus, 
 the  CEEcilii,  though  Plebeians  at  Rome,  were  Patri- 
 cians of  Prsneste,  and  claimed  as  the  ancestor  of  their 
 house  Calculus,  the  son  of  Vulcan.  The  distinction 
 between  the  Patrician  and  Plebeian  Houses  was,  in  the 
 first  place,  that  every  Patrician  was  a  member  of  a 
 House,  while,  among  the  Plebeians,  comparatively  but 
 few  families  could  claim  the  honours  of  hereditary  no- 
 bility ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  that  the  Patrician 
 Houses  were  constituent  elements  of  the  Roman  stale. 
 Their  existence  affected  the  constitution  of  the  great 
 councils  of  the  nation,  the  Comitia  Curiata  and  the 
 senate,  and  their  internal  laws  and  usages  were  part 
 of  the  common  law  of  the  Roman  people  ;  while  of 
 the  Plebeian  Houses  the  state  took  no  cognizance. — 
 The  nature  of  the  Roman  Gentes  may  be  illustrated 
 in  some  points  by  the  analogy  of  the  Gajlic  clans.  All 
 who  belonged  to  tjie  Gens  or  to  the  Clan  bore  a  com- 
 mon name.  But  as  the  clan  contained  not  only  the 
 freemen  or  gentlemen  of  the  cJau,  the  Duinhewnsals, 
 who  were  the  companions  of  the  chief  and  the  warri- 
 ors of  the  clan,  but  also  their  dependants,  to  whom 
 was  left  their  scanty  tillage  and  the  keeping  of  the 
 cattle,  and  who,  if  ever  they  were  called  to  follow  the 
 warlike  array  of  the  clan,  were  imperfectly  armed,  and 
 placed  in  the  hindmost  ranks  ;  so  the  Roman  Gens 
 consisted  of  the  freeborn  Patricans  and  of  their  Clients. 
 And  our  theory,  that,  notwithstanding  the  conventiona 
 
ROM 
 
 ROMULUS. 
 
 kindred  of  the  Gentiles,  the  Gentes  were  really,  in 
 many  cases,  cooiposed  of  families  which  had  no  na- 
 tional consanguinity,  but  had  been  arbitrarily  arranged 
 in  them,  will  appear  less  strange  when  we  remember 
 that  not  only  the  Duinhewasals,  but  the  meanest  fol- 
 lowers of  a  Highland  clan,  claim  kindred  with  their 
 chief,  although,  in  many  cases,  it  rnay  be  shown,  by 
 the  strictest  historical  evidence,  that  the  chief  and  his 
 blood  relations  are  of  an  entirely  different  race  from 
 the  rest  of  the  clan.  The  clansmen  are  Gaels  or  Celts, 
 while  the  chief  is  not  unfrequently  of  Norman  descent. 
 {Maldoi's  Roman  History,  p.  123,  scgq.) 
 
 RoMULiD^,  a  patronymic  given  to  ihe  Roman  peo- 
 ple from  Romulus,  their  first  king,  and  the  founder  of 
 the  city.     ( Vtrg.,  JEn.,  8,  638.) 
 
 Romulus,  according  to  the  old  poetic  legend,  was  the 
 son  of  Mars  and  Ilia  or  Rea  Silvia,  daughter  of  Numitor, 
 and  was  born  at  the  same  birth  with  Remus.  Amulius, 
 who  had  usurped  the  throne  of  Alba,  in  defiance  of  the 
 right  of  his  eldrer  brother  Numitor,  ordered  the  infants 
 to  be  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  and  their  mother  to  be 
 buried  alive,  the  doom  of  a  vestal  virgin  who  violated 
 her  vow  of  chastity.  The  river  happened  at  that  lime 
 to  have  overflowed  its  banks,  so  that  the  two  infants 
 were  not  carried  into  the  middle  of  the  stream,  but 
 drifted  along  the  margin,  till  the  basket  which  contain- 
 ed them  became  entangled  in  the  roots  of  a  wild  vine 
 at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine  Hill.  At  this  time  a  she- 
 wolf,  coming  down  to  the  river  to  drink,  suckled  the 
 infants,  and  carried  them  to  her  den  among  the  thickets 
 hard  by.  Here  they  were  found  by  Faustulus,  the  king's 
 herdsman,  who  took  them  home  to  his  wife  Laurentia, 
 by  whom  they  were  carefully  nursed,  and  named  Romu- 
 lus and  Remus.  The  two  youths  grew  up,  employed  in 
 the  labours,  the  sports,  and  the  perils  of  the  pastoral  oc- 
 cupation of  their  foster-father.  But,  like  the  two  sons 
 of  Cymbeline,  their  royal  blood  could  not  be  quite  con- 
 cealed. Their  superior  mien,  courage,  and  abilities 
 soon  acquired  for  them  a  decided  superiority  over 
 their  young  compeers,  and  they  became  leaders  of  the 
 youthful  herdsmen  in  their  contests  with  robbers  or  with 
 rivals.  Having  quarrelled  with  the  herdsmen  of  Nu- 
 mitor, whose  flocks  were  accustomed  to  graze  on  the 
 neighbouring  hill  Aventinus,  Remus  fell  into  an  am- 
 buscade, and  was  dragged  before  Numitor  to  be  pun- 
 ished. While  Numitor,  struck  with  the  noble  bearing 
 of  the  youth,  and  influenced  by  the  secret  stirrings  of 
 nature  within,  was  hesitating  what  punishment  to  in- 
 flict, Romulus,  accompanied  by  Faustulus,  hastened  to 
 the  rescue  of  Remus.  On  their  arrival  at  Alba,  the 
 secret  of  their  origin  was  discovered,  and  a  plan  was 
 speedily  organized  for  the  expulsion  of  Amulius,  and 
 the  restoration  of  their  grandfather  Numitor  to  his 
 throne.  This  was  soon  accomplished  ;  but  the  twin- 
 brothers  felt  little  disposition  to  remain  in  a  subordi- 
 nate position  at  Alba,  after  the  enjoyment  of  the  rude 
 liberty  and  power  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed 
 among  their  native  hills.  They  therefore  requested 
 from  their  grandfather  permission  to  build  a  city  on 
 the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  where  their  lives  had  been  so 
 miraculously  preserved.  Scarcely  had  this  permission 
 been  granted,  when  a  contest  arose  between  the  two 
 brothers  respecting  the  site,  the  name,  and  the  sover- 
 eignly of  the  city  which  they  were  about  to  found. 
 Romulus  wished  it  to  be  bullion  the  Palatine  Hill,  and 
 to  be  called  by  his  name  ;  Remus  preferred  the  Aven- 
 tine,  and  his  own  name.  To  terminate  their  dispute 
 amicably,  they  agreed  to  refer  it  to  the  decision  of  the 
 gods  by  augury.  Romulus  took  his  station  on  the  Pal- 
 aline  Hill,  Remus  on  the  Avenline.  At  sunrise  Remus 
 saw  six  vultures,  and  immediately  after  Romulus  saw 
 twelve.  The  superiority  was  adjudged  to  Romulus, 
 because  he  had  seen  the  greater  number ;  ao-ainst 
 which  decision  Remus  remonstrated  indignantfy,  on 
 the  ground  that  he  had  first  received  an  omen.  Rom- 
 ulus then  proceeded  to  mark  out  the  boundaries  for 
 
 the  wall  of  the  intended  city.  This  was  done  by  a 
 plough  with  a  brazen  ploughshare,  drawn  by  a  bull 
 and  a  heifer,  and  so  directed  that  the  furrow  should 
 fall  inward.  The  plough  was  lifted  and  carried  over 
 the  spaces  intended  to  be  left  for  gates ;  and  in  this 
 manner  a  square  space  was  marked  out,  including  the 
 Palatine  Hill,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  land  at  its 
 base,  termed  Roma  Quadrata.  This  took  plpo  on  the 
 21st  April,  on  the  day  of  the  festival  of  Pales,  the 
 goddess  of  shepherds.  While  the  wall  was  beginning 
 to  rise  above  the  surface,  Remus,  whose  mind  was  still 
 rankling  with  his  discomfiture,  leaped  over  it,  scorn- 
 fully saying,  "  Shall  such  a  wall  as  that  keep  your  . 
 city  V  Immediately  Romulus,  or,  as  others  say,  Ce- 
 ler,  who  had  charge  of  erecting  that  part  of  the  wall, 
 struck  him  dead  to  the  ground  with  the  implement 
 which  he  held  in  his  hand,  exclaiming,  "  So  perish 
 whosoever  shall  hereafter  overleap  these  ramparts." 
 By  this  event  Romulus  was  left  the  sole  sovereign  of 
 the  city  ;  yet  he  felt  deep  remorse  at  his  brother's 
 fate,  buried  him  honourably,  and,  when  he  sal  to  ad- 
 minister justice,  placed  an  empty  seat  by  his  side,  with 
 a  sceptre  and  crown,  as  if  acknowledging  the  right  of 
 his  brother  to  the  possession  of  equal  power.  To 
 augment  as  speedily  as  possible  the  number  of  his  sub- 
 jects, Romulus  set  apart,  in  his  new  city,  a  place  of 
 refuge,  to  which  any  man  might  flee,  and  be  there  pro- 
 tected from  his  pursuers.  By  this  device  the  popula- 
 tion increased  rapidly  in  males,  but  there  was  a  great 
 deficiency  in  females  ;  for  the  adjoining  states,  regard- 
 ing the  followers  of  Romulus  as  little  better  than  a 
 horde  of  brigands,  refused  to  sanction  intermarriages. 
 But  the  schemes  of  Romulus  were  not  to  be  so  frus- 
 trated. In  honour  of  the  god  Census,  he  proclaimed 
 games,  to  which  he  invited  the  neighbouring  states. 
 Great  numbers  came,  accompanied  by  their  families  ; 
 and,  at  an  appointed  signal,  the  Roman  youth,  rushing 
 suddenly  into  the  midst  of  the  spectators,  snatched  up 
 the  unmarried  women  in  their  arms,  and  carried  them 
 off  by  force.  This  outrage  was  immediately  resented, 
 and  Romulus  found  himself  involved  in  a  war  with  all 
 the  neighbouring  slates.  Fortunately  for  Rome,  though 
 those  states  had  sustained  a  common  injury,  they  did 
 not  unite  their  forces  in  the  common  cause.  They 
 fought  singly,  and  were  each  in  turn  defeated ;  Cae- 
 nina,  Crustumerium,  and  Antemnse  fell  successively 
 before  the  Roman  arms.  Romulus  slew  with  his  own 
 hands  Acron,  king  of  Csenina,  and  bore  off  his  spoils, 
 dedicating  them,  as  spolia  opinia,  to  Jupiter  Feretrius. 
 The  third  part  of  the  lands  of  the  conquered  towns  was 
 seized  by  the  victors  ;  and  such  of  the  people  of  these 
 towns  as  were  willing  to  remove  to  Rome  were  re- 
 ceived as  free  citizens.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Sa- 
 bines,  to  avenge  the  insult  which  they  had  sustained, 
 had  collected  together  forces  under  Titus  Tatius,  king 
 of  the  Quirites.  The  Romans  were  unable  to  meet 
 so  strong  an  army  in  the  field,  and  withdrew  within 
 their  walls.  They  had  previously  placed  their  flocks 
 in  what  they  thought  a  place  of  safety,  on  the  Capito- 
 line  Hill,  which,  strong  as  it  was  by  nature,  they  had 
 still  farther  secured  by  additional  fortifications.  Tar- 
 peia,  the  daughter  of  the  commander  of  that  fortress, 
 having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Sabines,  agreed  to 
 betray  the  access  to  the  hill  for  the- ornaments  they 
 wore  upon  their  arms.  At  their  approach  she  opened 
 the  gate,  and,  as  they  entered,  they  crushed  her  to 
 death  beneath  their  shields.  From  her  the  cliff  of  the 
 Capitoline  Hill  was  called  the  Tarpeian  Rock.  The 
 attempt  of  the  Romans  to  regain  this  place  of  strength 
 brought  on  a  general  engagement.  The  combat  was 
 long  and  doubtful.  At  one  lime  the  Romans  were 
 almost  driven  into  the  city,  which  the  Sabines  were 
 on  the  point  of  entering  along  with  them,  when  fresh 
 courage  was  infused  into  the  fugitives  in  consequence 
 of  Romulus  vowing  a  temple  to  Jupiter  Staler,  and  by 
 a  stream  of  water  which  rushed  out  of  the  temple  of 
 
 1175 
 
ROMULUS. 
 
 ROS 
 
 janus,  and  swept  away  the  Sabincs  from  the  gate. 
 The  bloody  struggle  was  renewed  during  several  suc- 
 cessive days,  with  various  fortune  and  great  mutual 
 slaughter.  At  length,  the  Sabine  women  who  had 
 been  carried  away,  and  who  were  now  reconciled  to 
 their  fate,  ruslied  with  loud  outcries  between  the  com- 
 batants, infiploring  their  husbands  and  tlieir  fathers  to 
 spare  on  each  side  those  who  were  now  equally  dear. 
 Both  parties  paused  ;  a  conference  began,  a  peace  was 
 concluded,  and  a  treaty  framed,  by  which  the  two  na- 
 tions were  united  into  one,  and  Romulus  and  Tatius 
 became  the  jomt  sovereigns  of  the  united  peo])le.  But, 
 though  united,  each  nation  continued  to  be  governed  by 
 its  own  king  and  senate.  During  the  double  sway  of 
 Romulus  and  Tatius,  a  war  was  undertaken  against 
 the  Latin  town  of  Cameria,  which  was  reduced  and 
 made  a  Roman  colony,  and  its  people  were  admitted 
 into  the  Roman  slate,  as  had  been  done  with  those 
 whom  Romulus  previously  subdued.  Tatius  was  soon 
 afterward  slain  by  the  people  of  Ijaurentum,  because 
 he  had  refused  to  do  them  justice  against  his  kinsmen, 
 who  had  violated  the  laws  of  nations  by  insulting  their 
 ambassadors.  The  death  of  Tatius  left  Romulus  sole 
 monarch  of  Rome.  He  was  soon  engaged  in  a  war 
 with  Fidenas,  a  Tuscan  settlement  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Tiber.  This  people  he  likewise  overcame,  and  placed 
 in  the  city  a  Roman  colony.  This  war,  extending  the 
 Roman  frontier,  led  to  a  hostile  collision  with  Veii,  in 
 which  he  was  also  successful,  and  deprived  Veii,  at 
 that  time  one  of  the  most  powerful  cities  of  Etruria, 
 of  a  large  portion  of  its  territories,  though  he  found  that 
 the  city  itself  was  too  strong  to  be  taken.  The  reign 
 of  Rom\)lus  now  drew  near  its  close.  One  day, 
 while  holding  a  military  muster  or  review  of  his  army, 
 on  a  plain  near  the  Lake  Capra,  the  sky  was  suddenly 
 overcast  with  thick  darkness,  and  a  dreadful  tempest 
 of  thunder  and  lightning  arose.  The  people  fled  in 
 dismay;  and,  when  the  storm  abated,  Romulus,  over 
 whose  head  it  had  raged  most  fiercely,  was  nowhere 
 to  be  seen.  A  rumour  was  circulated,  that,  during  the 
 tempest,  he  had  been  carried  to  heaven  by  his  father, 
 the  god  Mars.  This  opinion  was  speedily  confirmed 
 by  the  report  of  Julius  Proculus,  who  declared  that, 
 as  he  was  returning  by  night  from  Alba  to  Rome, 
 Romulus  appeared  unto  him  in  a  form  of  more  than 
 mortal  majesty,  and  bade  him  go  and  tell  the  Romans 
 that  Rome  was  destined  by  the  gods  to  be  the  chief 
 city  of  the  earth  ;  that  human  power  should  never  be 
 able  to  withstand  her  people  ;  and  that  he  himself  would 
 be  their  guardian  god  Quirinus.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Rom  — 
 lAv;  1,  4,  scqq.  —  Dion.  Hal.,  &c.)  —  So  terminates 
 what  may  be  termed  the  legend  of  Ronmlus,  the  found- 
 er and  first  king  of  Rome.  That  such  an  individual 
 jiever  exist  ;d  is  now  very  generally  allowed,  and,  of 
 course,  the  whole  narrative  is  entirely  fabulous.  As 
 to  Romulu'i  were  ascribed  all  those  civil  and  military 
 institutions  of  the  Romans  which  were  handed  down 
 by  immemjrial  tradition  ;  those  customs  of  the  nation 
 to  which  1.0  definite  origin  could  be  assigned  ;  so  to 
 Numa  were  attributed  all  the  ordinances  and  establish- 
 ments of  the  national  religion.  As  the  idea  of  the  an- 
 cient polity  was  imbodicd  under  the  name  of  Romu- 
 lus, so  was  the  idea  of  the  national  religion  under  the 
 name  of  Numa.  The  whole  story  of  Romulus,  from 
 the  violation  of  his  vestal  mother  by  Mars,  till  the  end 
 of  his  life,  when  he  is  borne  away  in  clouds  and  dark- 
 ness by  his  divine  parent,  is  essentially  poetical.  In 
 this,  as  in  other  cases,  the  poetical  and  imaginative 
 form  of  the  tradition  is  also  the  most  ancient  and  gen- 
 uine :  and  the  variations,  by  which  it  is  reduced  into 
 something  physically  possible,  are  the  falsifications  of 
 later  vjriters,  who  could  not  understand  that,  in  popu- 
 lar leyends,  the  marvellous  circumstances  are  not  the 
 only  parts  which  are  not  historically  true,  and  that,  by 
 the  substitution  of  commonplace  incidents,  they  were 
 spoiling  a  good  poem  without  making  a  good  history. 
 1176 
 
 Romulus,  the  founder  of  Rome,  is  merely  the  Romar 
 people  personified  as  an  individual.  It  was  the  fash- 
 ion in  ancient  tradition  to  represent  races  and  nations 
 as  sprung  from  an  ancestor,  or  composed  of  the  fol- 
 lowers of  a  leader,  whose  name  they  continued  to 
 bear  ;  while,  in  reality,  the  name  of  the  fictitious  chief 
 was  derived  from  the  name  of  the  people  ;  and  the 
 transactions  of  the  nation  were  not  unfrequently  de- 
 scribed as  the  exploits  of  the  simple  hero.  {Hether- 
 wc;ton''s  History  of  Rome,  p.  4,  scqq. — Maiden's  Hist 
 Rome.  p.  122,  seqq  ) 
 
 RoMtJLUs  Su.vius,  I.  a  king  of  Alba. — IT.  Momyl- 
 lus  Augustulus,  the  last  of  the  emperors  of  the  west- 
 ern empire  of  Rome.     (Vii.  Augustulus.) 
 
 RoMus,  a  king  of  the  Latins,  who  expelled  the  Tyr- 
 rhenians from  the  city  afterward  called,  from  him,  Ro- 
 ma. (Plut.,  Vit.  Rom. — Consult  remarks  under  the 
 article  Roma,  page  1172,  col.  1.) 
 
 RosciA  Lex,  de  Thealris,  by  L.  R(^cius  Olho,  the 
 tribune,  A.U.C.  6S5.     (Vul.  Otho  II.  ' 
 
 RosciANUM,  a  fortified  port  on  the  coast  of  Bruttium, 
 below  Sybaris.  It  is  now  Rossano.  The  haven  of 
 the  Thurians,  by  name  Roscia,  was  nearer  the  sea,  at 
 the  mouth  of  a  small  river,  (//m.  Ant. — Procop., 
 Rer.  Goth.,  3. — Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vul.  2,  p.  387.) 
 
 Roscius,  I.  Q.,  a  Roman  actor,  from  his  surname 
 Gallus  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Gaul,  north 
 of  the  Po,  although  educated  in  the  vicuiity  of  Lanu- 
 vium  and  Aricia.  He  was  so  celebrated  on  the  stage 
 that  his  name  has  become,  in  modern  times,  a  usual 
 term  to  designate  an  actor  of  extraordinary  excellence. 
 Cicero,  in  his  work  on  Divination  (1,  36),  makes  his 
 brother  Quinlus  say  that  the  young  Roscius  was  found 
 one  night  in  his  cradle  enveloped  in  the  folds  of  a  ser- 
 pent;  that  his  father,  having  consulted  the  auspices 
 respecting  this  prodigy,  they  told  him  that  his  child 
 would  attain  great  celebrity.  Quintus  adds,  that  a 
 certain  Praxiteles  had  represented  this  in  sculpture, 
 and  that  the  poet  Archias  had  celebrated  it  in  a  song. 
 Roscius  had  some  defect  in  his  eyes,  and  is  therefore 
 said  to  have  been  the  first  Roman  actor  who  used  the 
 Greek  mask  ;  the  performers,  before  this,  using  only 
 caps  or  beavers,  and  having  their  faces  daubed  and 
 disguised  with  the  lees  of  wine,  as  at  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  dramatic  an  in  Greece.  And  yet,  as  ap- 
 pears from  the  followij|g  passage  of  Cicero,  the  mask 
 was  not  invariably  worn  even  by  Roscius  :  "  All," 
 savs  Cicero,  "  depends  upon  the  face,  and  all  (he  pow- 
 er of  the  face  is  centred  in  the  eyes.  Of  this  our  old 
 men  are  the  best  judges,  for  they  were  not  lavish  of 
 their  applause  even  to  Roscius  in  a  mask."  {De 
 Oral.,  3,  59.)  Valerius  Maximus  (8,  7)  states,  that 
 Roscius  studied  with  the  greatest  care  the  most  triflmg 
 gesture  which  he  was  to  make  in  public  ;  and  Cicero 
 relates,  that  though  the  house  of  this  comedian  was  a 
 kind  of  school  where  good  actors  were  formed,  yet 
 Roscius  declared  that  he  never  had  a  pupil  with  whom 
 he  was  completely  satisfied.  If  Plutarch  be  correctly 
 informed,  Cicero  himself  studied  under  this  great  ac- 
 tor ;  he  was  certainly  his  friend  and  admirer.  Macro- 
 bius  {Sat.,  2,  10)  informs  us,  that  Cicero  and  Roscius 
 sometimes  tried  which  of  the  two  could  express  a 
 thought  more  forcibly,  the  one  by  his  words,  or  the 
 other  by  his  gestures,  and  that  these  exercises  gave 
 Roscius  so  high  an  opinion  of  his  art,  that  he  wrote  a 
 work,  in  which  he  made  a  comparison  between  it  and 
 eloquence.  The  same  author  mentions  that  Sylla,  the 
 dictator,  to  testify  his  admiration,  sent  the  actor  a  gold 
 ring,  a  symbol  of  equestrian  rank.  His  daily  profits 
 were  1000  denarii  (nearly  one  hundred  and  eighty  dol- 
 lars). According  to  Pliny,  his  annual  gains  were  about 
 twenty  thousand  dollars.  Roscius  died  about  62  B.C. ; 
 for,  in  Cicero's  defence  of  Archias,  which  was  deliv- 
 ered A.TJ.  693,  the  death  of  Roscius  is  alluded  to  as 
 a  recent  event.  {Herat.,  Epist.,  2,  1,  S2. —Plvt., 
 Vit.  Cic.—Dunlofs  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  591.'>— II. 
 
RUB 
 
 RUG 
 
 Sextus,  a  native  of  Anieria,  defended  by  Cicero  in  the 
 first  public  or  criminal  trial  in  which  that  orator  spoke. 
 The  father  of  Roscius  had  two  mortal  enemies,  of  his 
 own  name  and  district.  During  the  proscriptions  of 
 Sylla,  he  was  assassinated  one  evening  while  return- 
 ing home  from  supper  ;  and  on  the  pretence  that  he 
 was  in  the  list  of  the  proscribed,  his  estate  was  pur- 
 chased for  a  mere  nominal  price  by  Chrysogonus,  a 
 favourite  slave,  to  whom  Sylla  had  given  freedom,  and 
 whom  he  had  permitted  to  buy  the  property  of  Roscius 
 as  a  forfeiture.  Part  of  the  valuable  lands  thus  ac- 
 quired was  made  over  by  Chrysogonus  to  the  Roscii. 
 These  new  proprietors,  in  order  to  secure  themselves 
 in  the  possession,  hired  one  Erucius,  an  informer  and 
 prosecutor  by  profession,  to  charge  the  son  with  the 
 murder  of  his  father,  and  they,  at  the  same  time,  sub- 
 orned witnesses,  in  order  to  convict  him  of  the  parri- 
 cide. Cicero  succeeded  in  obtaining  his  acquittal, 
 and  was  highly  applauded  by  the  whole  city  for  his 
 courage  in  espousing  a  cause  so  well  calculated  to 
 give  offence  to  Sylla,  then  in  the  height  of  his  power. 
 The  oration  delivered  on  this  occasion  is  still  e.xtant, 
 and  must  not  be  confounded  with  another  that  has 
 also  come  down  to  us  in  defence  of  the  tragedian 
 Roscius,  and  which  involved  merely  a  question  of 
 civil  right.  (Cic,  pro  Rose.  Ama-.)  —  III.  Otho. 
 {Vid.Oiholl) 
 
 RoToMAGUs,  a  city  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  at  a  la- 
 ter period  the  capital  of  Lugdunensis  Secunda.  Now 
 Rouen.     {Ftol.) 
 
 Rox.vNA,  a  Bactrian  female,  remarkable  for  her  beau- 
 ty. She  was  the  daughter  of  O.xyartes,  commander 
 of  the  Sogdian  rock  for  Darius  ;  and,  on  the  reduction 
 of  this  stronghold  by  Alexander,  became  the  wife  of 
 the  conqueror.  At  the  death  of  the  monarch  she  was 
 enceinte,  and  was  subsequently  delivered  of  a  son, 
 who  received  the  name  of  Alexander  .^Sgus,  and  who 
 was  acknowledged  as  king  along  with  Philip  Aridajus. 
 Roxana  having  become  )ea!ous  of  the  authority  of 
 Statira,  the  other  wife  of  Alexander,  destroyed  her  by 
 the  aid  of  Perdiccas  ;  but  she  herself  was  afterward 
 shut  up  in  Amphipolis,  and  put  to  death  by  Cassander. 
 (Plut.,  Vit.  Alex.— Quint.  Curt ,  8,  ^.—M.,  10,  6.— 
 Justin,  12,  15,  &c.) 
 
 RoxoL.ANi.      Vid.  Rhoxolani. 
 
 RuBEAS  Promontorium,  a  promontory  mentioned 
 by  Pytheas  {Plin.,  4,  13),  and  supposed  by  many  to 
 be  the  same  with  the  North  Cape,  but  shown  by  Man- 
 nert  to  correspond  rather  to  the  northern  extremity  of 
 Curland.     (Gcogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  300,  scqq.) 
 
 RuBi,  a  town  of  Apulia,  between  Canusium  and 
 Butuntun,  now  Ruvo.  The  inhabitants  were  called 
 Rubustini  and  Ruhitini.  {Plin.,  3,  11.)  It  is  also 
 referred  to  by  Horace  and  Frontinus.     {Horat.,  Sat., 
 
 1,  5,  94. — Froniin.,  de  Col.)  For  an  account  of  some 
 interesting  discoveries  made  near  Ruvo,  consult  Ro- 
 manelli  (vol.  2,  p.  172. — Cramefs  Ancient  Italy,  vol. 
 
 2,  p.  299). 
 
 Rubicon,  a  small  stream  of  Italy,  falling  into  the 
 Adriatic  a  little  to  the  north  of  Ariminum,  and  form- 
 ing, in  part,  the  northern  boundary  of  Italia  Propria.  It 
 was  on  this  last  account  that  it  was  forbidden  the  Ro- 
 man generals  to  pass  the  Rubicon  with  an  armed  force, 
 under  the  most  dreadful  imprecations  ;  for  in  viola- 
 ting this  injunction  they  would  enter  on  the  immedi- 
 ate territory  of  the  republic,  and  would  be,  in  effect, 
 declaring  war  (ipon  their  country.  Caesar  crossed  this 
 stream  with  his  army  at  the  commencement  of  the  civil 
 war,  and  harangued  his  troops  at  Ariminum.  When 
 Augustus  subsequently  included  Gallia  Cisalpina  with- 
 in the  limits  of  Italy,  the  Rubicon  sank  in  importance  ; 
 and  in  modern  times  it  is  diiricult  to  ascertain  the  po- 
 sition of  the  true  stream.  DWnville  makes  it  corre- 
 spond with  a  current  which,  formed  of  three  brooks,  is 
 called  at  its  mouth  'Fiume.iino.  A  formal  papal  de- 
 cree, however,  issued  in  1756,  decided  in  favour  of  the 
 7K 
 
 Lusa  ;  but  popular  tradition  designates  the  Pisalcll 
 as  the  true  stream,  and  this  river  best  suits  the  account 
 we  have  of  the  situation  of  the  Rubicon.  {Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  1,  p.  2iZ,seqq. — Appian,  Bdl.  Civ.., 
 
 2,  l^i.—Suet.,  Cces.,  30.— P/m/I.,  V2I.  Cces.  et  Pomp. 
 —  Cic.,  Phil.,  6,  3.—Strab.,  227.— Plin.,  3,  IP  ) 
 
 RuBiGo,  a  goddess.     {Vid.  Robigo.) 
 
 RuBO  or  RhuboN;  a  river  of  Sarmatia,  now  the 
 Windcni  according  to  Wilhclm  {Germarnen,und  seine 
 Bewohncr,  Weimar,  1833) ;  but,  according  to  Gossel- 
 lin,  the  Niemen. 
 
 RudLe,  I.  a  city  pf  Italy,  in  the  territory  of  the  Ca- 
 labri,  in  lapygia,  and  below  Brundisium.  It  was  ren- 
 dered famous  by  being  the  birthplace  of  Ennius.  {Sil. 
 Ital.,  12,  293.— Horat.,  Od,  4,  8,  20— Orid,  A.  A., 
 
 3,  409. — Strabo,  281.)  The  more  proper  Ibrm  of  the 
 name  is  Rhudiae,  the  appellation  being  one  of  Greek 
 origin.  According  to  an  antiquarian  writer,  the  re- 
 mains of  Rhudis,  still  known  by  the  name  of  Rage, 
 were  to  be  seen  close  to  those  of  the  town  of  Lupiae ; 
 he  also  states,  that  these  towns  were  so  near  to  each 
 other  that  they  might  be  said  to  form  but  one.  {Ant. 
 de  Ferar.  de  sit.  lapyg.,  p.  77. — Compare  D\inville, 
 Anal  Geogr.  de  Vltalie,  p.  230. — Cramer's  Anc.  It- 
 aly, vol.  2,  p.  308.)  —  II.  A  town  of  Apulia,  in  Italy, 
 placed  in  the  Tabula  Theodosiana  betv\-een  Canusium 
 and  Rubi.  It  is  sometimes  called,  for  distinction' 
 sake,  Rudia;  (or  Rhudiae)  Peucetii,  as  it  lay  in  the 
 district  of  Peucetia  ;  the  other  Rudite  being  styled 
 Rudiae  Calabrice.  Romanelli  places  the  site  of  this 
 town  at  Andria  (vol.  2,  p.  \70.— Plin.,  3,  U.—Mela, 
 2,  'i.— Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  299.) 
 
 RuFiNus,  I.  minister  of  state  to  the  Emperors  The- 
 odosius  and  Arcadius,  and  a  native  of  Gaul.  He  was 
 naturally  vindictive  and  cruel,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
 stimulated  Theodosius  to  the  dreadful  massacre  of 
 Thessalonica.  After  the  death  of  this  monarch,  he 
 succeeded,  in  fact,  to  absolute  authority  over  the  East- 
 ern  empire  in  the  reign  of  Arcadius.  He  soon,  how- 
 ever, fell  beneath  the  power  of  Stilicho,  general  under 
 Honorius  in  the  Western  empire,  and  was  put  to  death 
 by  the  army.  He  is  said  to  have  aspired  to  the  supreme 
 authority.  —  II.  A  I^atin  poet,  supposed  to  have  flour- 
 ished about  the  sixth  century.  Cruquius  published  a 
 small  poem,  which  he  attributed  to  Rufinus,  on  the  fa- 
 ble of  Pasiphae,  which  he  found  in  an  old  manuscript. 
 This  poem  is  composed  of  verses  written  in  all  the  dif- 
 ferent measures  employed  by  Horace,  and  is,  therefore, 
 sometimes  prefixed  to  editions  of  the  latter  poet.  It 
 is  regarded  by  many  as  the  production  of  some  gram- 
 marian, and,  probably,  of  the  same  Rufinus,  a  treatise 
 on  metres  by  whom  still  remains,  as  waW  as  a  small 
 poem,  in  thirty-two  verses,  on  Love.  {Biirmann,  An- 
 thol.  Lat.,  vol.  1,  p.  513,  663.  — .ScAo//,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  99.) — HI.  A  grammarian  of  Antioch, 
 alluded  to  in  the  previous  article.  Besides  the  works 
 there  mentioned,  he  wrote  also  a  commentary  on  tho 
 metres  of  Terence. — IV.  An  ecclesiastical  writer,  a 
 native  of  Concordia,  a  place  near  Aquileia.  By  some 
 he  is  called  Toranius.  He  was  the  friend  of  St.  Je- 
 rome, with  whom,  however,  he  had  at  one  time  a  quar- 
 rel on  points  of  doctrine.  His  death  occurred  A.D. 
 40t^.  Rufinus  translated,  from  Greek  into  Latin,  Jo- 
 sephus,  and  the  Ecclesiastical  History  oi  Eusebius, 
 &c. ;  besides  which,  he  left  some  treatises  in  defence 
 of  Origen,  and  on  other  subjects.  His  works  were 
 printed  at  Paris  in  1580. 
 
 RuGii,  a  people  of  Germany,  on  the  coast  of  the  Si- 
 nus Codanus,  between  the  Viadrus  or  Oder  and  the 
 Vistula,  and  situate  to  the  west  of  the  Goihones. 
 They  were  in  possession  of  the  isle  of  Rugia  (now  Ru- 
 gen),  where  the  goddess  Hertha  was  worshipped  with 
 peculiar  reverence.  Ptolemy  gives  Rhugium  as  their 
 capital.  At  a  subsequent  period  they  founded  a  new 
 kingdom  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Danube,  named 
 after  them  Rugiland,  in  Austria  and  Upper  Hungary, 
 
 1177 
 
RUT 
 
 SAB 
 
 which  was  overthrown  by  Odoacer.     (Tac,  Germ., 
 43. — Tour.  Get.,  50,  57  ) 
 
 RupiLius,  a  native  of  Praeneste,  surnamed  Rex,  who, 
 having  been  proscribed  by  Octavianus,  then  a  trium- 
 vir, fled  to  the  army  of  Rutus,  and  became  a  fellow- 
 soldier  of  Horace.  Jealous,  however,  of  the  military 
 advancement  which  the  latter  had  obtained,  Rupilius 
 reproached  him  with  the  meanness  of  his  origin,  and 
 Horace  therefore  retaliates  in  the  seventh  Satire  of 
 the  first  book,  where  a  description  is  given  of  a  suit 
 between  this  Rupilius  and  a  certain  Persius,  tried  be- 
 fore Marcus  Brutus,  at  that  time  governor  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor. (Compare  Gesner,  ad  loc. — Dunlop's  Roman 
 Literature,  vol.  3,  p.  251.) 
 
 RuTENi,  a  people  of  Celtic  Gaul,  whose  territory 
 answered  to  the  modern  Rouergue.  Their  chief  city 
 was  Segodunum,  now  Rhodez.  (Cces.,  B.  G.,  1,  45. 
 —Id.  lb.,  7,  7,  &c.) 
 
 RutilIus,  I.  .Lupus,  a  rhetorician,  a  treatise  of 
 whose,  in  two  books,  de  Figuris  Sentenliarum  el  Elo- 
 culionis,  still  remains.  l"he  period  when  he  flour- 
 ished is  uncertain.  A  false  reading  in  Quintilian  (3, 
 1,  21)  has  given  rise  to  the  belief  that  he  was  con- 
 temporary with  this  writer  ;  but  Ruhnken  has  shown 
 that,  in  this  passage  of  Quintilian,  we  must  read  Ta- 
 tilius  for  Rutilius,  and  that  Rutilius  was  anterior  to 
 Celsus,  who  lived  under  Augustus  and  Tiberius.  The 
 work  of  Rutilius  already  alluded  to  is  extracted  and 
 translated  from  a  work  by  a  certain  Gorgias,  a  Greek 
 writer  contemporary  with  him,  and  not  to  be  con- 
 founded with  the  celebrated  Gorgias  of  Leontini. 
 The  best  edition  is  that  of  Ruhnken,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1768,  8vo,  republished  by  Frotscher,  Lips.,  1831, 
 8vo. — n.  Numatianus,  a  native  of  Gaul,  born  either 
 at  Tolosa  {Toulouse)  or  Pictavii  {Poitiers),  and  who 
 flourished  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  and  commence- 
 ment of  the  fifth  centuries  of  our  era.  We  have  an 
 imperfect  poem  of  his  remaining,  entitled  Itinerarium, 
 or  De  Reditu.  It  is  written  in  elegiac  verse,  and, 
 from  the  elegance  of  its  diction,  the  variety  and  beauty 
 of  its  images,  and  the  tone  of  feeling  which  pervades 
 it,  assigns  its  author  a  distinguished  rank  among  the 
 later  Roman  poets.  Rutilius  had  been  compelled  to 
 make  a  journey  from  Rome  into  Gaul,  for  the  purpose 
 of  visiting  his  estates  in  the  latter  country,  which  had 
 been  ravaged  by  the  barbarians,  and  the  Itinerary  is 
 intended  to  express  the  route  which  he  took  along  the 
 coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  Rutilius  is  supposed  by 
 some  to  have  been  prefect  at  Rome  when  that  city 
 was  taken  by  Alaric,  A.D.  410.  He  was  not  a  Chris- 
 tian, as  appears  from  several  passages  of  his  poem, 
 though  the  heavy  complaints  made  by  him  against  the 
 Jewish  race  ought  not,  as  some  editors  have  ima- 
 gined, to  be  extended  to  the  Christians.  We  have  re- 
 maining of  this  poem  the  first  book,  and  sixty-eight 
 lines  of  the  second  ;  and  perhaps  the  particle  potius, 
 in  the  first  line  of  the  first  book,  would  indicate  that 
 the  commencement  of  this  book  was  also  lost.  The 
 remains  of  the  poetry  of  Rutilius  are  given  by  Bur- 
 mann  and  Wernsdorff,  in  their  respective  editions  of 
 the  Poeta  Latini  Minores.  There  are  also  separate 
 editions. 
 
 RuTijLi,  a  people  of  Latium,  along  the  coast  be- 
 low the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  They  were  a  small  com- 
 munityj  who,  though  perhaps  originally  distinct  from 
 the  Latins,  became  subsequently  so  much  a  part  of 
 that  nation  that  they  do  not  require  a  separate  notice. 
 Their  capital  was  Ardea,  and  Turnus  was  their  prince, 
 according  to  the  fable  of  the  ^Eneid,  when  the  Trojans 
 arrived  in  Italy.     {Vid.  Ardea,  Latium,  Turnus.) 
 
 RuTUPi.<5E  (called  also  RitupcE,  Partus  Ritupis,  and 
 Partus  Ritupius),  a  harbour  on  the  coast  of  Brit- 
 ain, famed  for  its  excellent  oysters.  It  is  generally 
 considered  as  corresponding  to  Richboraiigh,  though 
 D'Anville  is  in  favour  of  Sandivich.  (Compare  Bcde, 
 1,  1,  "  Rutubi,  nunc  corrupte  Reptacostir.""*  Rutu- 
 1178 
 
 piae  was  the  port  to  which  the  Romans  commonly 
 came,  from  the  opposite  coast  of  Ga^l,  the  harbour  on 
 this  latter  side,  whence  they  usually  started,  beinor  Ge- 
 soriacum.  Thus  the  Itinerarium  Marilimum  (p.  496) 
 says,  "  A  poriu  Gesoriacensi  ad  portum  Ritupium 
 Stadia  CCCCL"  (46  geographical  miles).  It  is  on 
 this  account  that  the  name  of  the  Ritupian  harbour 
 frequently  occurs  in  the  later  writers.  The  Itin.  Ant. 
 (p.  463)  gives  the  same  statement  as  the  Itin.  Marit. 
 relative  to  the  passage  across.  {Mannerl,  Geogr., 
 vol.  2,  pt.  2,  p.  160.)  As  regards  the  Rutupian  oys- 
 ters, consult  Juvenal  (4,  141),  and  the  remarks  of  the 
 commentators,  and  also  Pliny  (9,  54 ;  32,  6). 
 
 S.\BA,  the  capital  of  the  Sabaei,  in  Arabia  Felix, 
 situate  on  a  rising  ground,  in  the  interior  of  the  coun- 
 try, and  in  a  northeastern  direction  from  the  harbour 
 of  Pudun  {Dsjesan).  According  to  Strabo  (778),  it 
 was  also  called  Meriaba,  and  in  this  he  is  followed  by 
 later  writers,  who,  however,  give  the  more  correct 
 form  Mariaba.  It  would  seem,  that  Mariaba  is  a  gen- 
 eral term  for  a  chief  city,  and  hence  we  find  more  than 
 one  appearing  in  the  geography  of  Arabia.  Accord- 
 ing to  Mannert,  Saba  would  appear  to  correspond  with 
 the  modern  Saada  or  Saade.  {Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1, 
 p.  66.) 
 
 Sabachus  or  Sabacon,  a  king  of  Ethiopia,  who  in- 
 vaded Egypt,  and  reigned  there  after  the  expulsion  of. 
 King  Amasis.  After  a  reign  of  fifty  years  he  was 
 terrified  by  a  dream,  and  retired  into  his  own  king- 
 dom. Diodorus  Siculus  states  (1,  66),  that  after  the 
 departure  of  Sabachus,  there  was  an  anarchy  of  two 
 years,  which  was  succeeded  by  the  reign  of  twelve 
 kings,  who,  at  their  joint  expense,  constructed  the  laby- 
 rinth. (Consult  remarks  under  the  article  Psammiti- 
 chus.)  The  name  of  Sabacon,  in  hieroglyphic  char- 
 acters, has  been  found  amid  the  ruins  of  Abydos, 
 {Bahr,  ad  Herod.,  2,  36.) 
 
 Sab^ei,  a  people  of  Arabia  Felix,  represented  by 
 some  of  the  ancient  writers,  especially  the  poets,  as 
 one  of  the  richest  and  happiest  nations  in  the  world, 
 on  account  of  the  valuable  products  of  their  land. 
 Another  name,  viz.,  that  of  the  Homeritae  (thought  to 
 be  derived  from  Himiar,  the  name  of  a  sovereign,  and 
 which  signifies  the  red  king),  appears  in  a  later  age 
 confounded  with  that  of  the  Sabceans.     {Vid.  Saba.) 
 
 Sabate,  a  town  of  Etruria,  northeast  of  Caere,  and 
 not  far  from  the  site  of  the  present  Bracciano.  It  was 
 in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  lake,  called  from  it  the 
 Lacus  Sabatinus.  The  town  was  said  to  have  been 
 swallowed  up  by  the  waters  of  the  lake,  and  it  vvas 
 even  asserted,  that  in  calm  weather  its  ruins  might 
 still  be  seen  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  {Sotion., 
 de  Mirand.  Font.)  Columella  notices  the  fish  of  the 
 lake,  and  Frontinus  speaks  of  its  water  being  conveyed 
 by  an  aqueduct  to  the  capital.  {ColumclL,  8,  16. — 
 Front.,  de  Aquad.,  1. —  Cramefs  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  235.) 
 
 Sabatini,  a  people  of  Campania,  who  derived  their 
 name  from  the  small  river  Sabatus  that  flowed  through 
 their  territory.  They  are  mentioned  by  Livy  (26,  33) 
 among  the  (>ampanian  tribes  that  revolted  to  Hanni- 
 bal.    {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  247.) 
 
 Sabatus,  a  river  rising  in  Campania,  and  flowing 
 into  Samnium,  where  it  joined  the  Calor,  near  Bene- 
 ventum.  It  is  now  the  Sabbato.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  247.) 
 
 Sabazius,  a  surname  of  Bacchus,  given  him,  ac- 
 cording to  some,  by  the  Thracians  {Schul.  ad  Arisl., 
 Vesp.,  V.  9),  or,  according  to  others,  by  the  Phrygi- 
 ans. {Strabo,  470. — Schol.  ad  Aristoph.,  Av.,  v.  874. 
 — Schol.  ad  Lysist ,  v.  398.)  De  Sacy  inclines  to  the 
 opinion  that  the  root  of  this  appellation  may  be  found 
 in  the  name  of  the  Arabian  city  Saba.     {Samte-Croix, 
 
SAB 
 
 SABINI. 
 
 Mysteres  du  Paganisme,  vol.  2,  p.  95,  edit.  De 
 Sacy.) 
 
 Sabbata  or  Sabbatha,  a  city  of  Arabia  Felix,  the 
 capital  of  the  Chatraniatitaj.  Most  commentators  on 
 the  Periplus,  in  which  mention  is  made  of  it,  suppose 
 it  to  be  the  same  with  Schibani  or  Scebam,  which  Al- 
 Edrisi  places  in  Hadramaut,  at  four  stations,  or  a 
 hundred  miles,  from  March.  {Viiicent's  Periplus,  p. 
 334.)  Mannert,  however,  declares  (or  March  {Geogr., 
 vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  83).  The  modern  name  March  will 
 be  a  corruption  from  Mariaba,  a  name  common  to 
 many  cities  of  Arabia.  This  place  was  the  great  de- 
 pot for  the  incense-trade.     (Vid.  Saba.) 
 
 Sabei.li.      Vid.  Sabini. 
 
 Sabina,  Julia,  grand-niece  of  the  Emperor  Trajan, 
 end  wife  of  Hadrian,  to  whom  she  became  united 
 chit;fly  through  the  means  of  the  Empress  Plotina. 
 She  lived  unhappily  with  her  husband,  partly  from  her 
 own  asperity  of  temper,  and  partly,  perhaps,  from  the 
 gross  vices  of  her  consort.  Hadrian's  unkindness  to 
 her  is  said  to  have  been  the  cause  of  her  death.  ( Vid. 
 Hadrianus.) 
 
 Sabini,  a  people  of  Italy,  whose  territory  lay  to  the 
 northeast  of  Rome.  The  Sabines  appear  to  be  gen- 
 erally considered  as  one  of  the  most  ancient  indige- 
 nous tribes  of  Italy,  and  one  of  the  few  who  preserved 
 their  race  pure  and  unmixed.  {Strabo,  228.)  We 
 are  not  to  e.xpect,  however,  that  fiction  should  have 
 been  more  sparing  of  its  ornaments  in  setting  forth 
 their  origin,  than  in  the  case  of  other  nations  far  less 
 interesting  and  less  celebrated.  Dionysius  of  Halicar- 
 nassus,  amoncr  other  traditions  respecting  the  Sabines, 
 mentions  one  which  supposes  them  to  have  been  a  col- 
 ony of  the  Lacedaemonians  about  the  time  of  Lycurgus 
 (3,  49),  an  absurd  fable  which  has  been  eagerly  caught 
 up  by  the  Latin  poets  and  rnythologists.  {Sil.  Ital., 
 15,  545. — Omd,  Fast.,  1,  260. — Hygin.,  ap.  Serv.ad 
 JEn.,  8,  638.)  Their  name,  according  to  Cato,  was 
 derived  from  the  god  Sabus,  an  aboriginal  deity,  sup- 
 posed to  be  the  same  as  the  god  invoked  by  the  Latins 
 in  the  expression  Medius  Fidius.  {Cramer's  Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  297.) — The  Romans,  observes  Nie- 
 buhr,  have  no  common  national  name  for  the  Sabines, 
 and  the  tribes  which  are  supposed  to  have  issued  from 
 them  :  the  latter,  whether  Marsians  and  Pelignians,  or 
 Samnitesand  Lucanians,  they  term  Sabellians.  That 
 these  tribes  called  themselves  Savini  or  Sabini  is 
 nearly  certain,  from  the  inscription  on  the  Samnite  de- 
 narius coined  in  the  Social  war  ;  at  least  as  to  the 
 Samnites,  whose  name  is  in  every  form  manifestly,  and 
 in  the  Greek  Sawtrat  directly,  derived  from  Savini : 
 but  the  usage  of  a  people  whose  writings  have  perish- 
 ed, like  everything  that  is  extinct  in  fact,  has  lost  its 
 rights.  I  think  myself  at  liberty  to  employ  the  term 
 Sabellians  for  the  whole  race;  since  the  tribes  which 
 were  so  named  by  the  Romans  are  far  more  impor- 
 tant than  the  Sabines,  and  it  would  clearly  have  ofi'end- 
 ed  a  Latin  ear  to  have  called  the  Samnites  Sabines. 
 — When  Rome  crossed  the  frontiers  of  Latium,  the 
 Sabellians  were  the  most  widely-extended  and  the 
 greatest  people  in  Italy.  The  Etruscans  had  already 
 sunk,  as  they  had  seen  the  nations  of  earlier  greatness 
 sink,  the  Tyrrhenians,  Umbrians,  and  Ausonians.  As 
 the  Dorians  were  great  in  their  colonies,  the  mother- 
 country  remaining  little;  and  as  it  lived  in  peace, 
 while  the  tribes  it  sent  forth  diffused  themselves  widely 
 by  conquests  and  settlements,  so,  according  to  Cato, 
 was  it  with  the  old  Sabine  nation.  Their  original 
 home  is  placed  by  him  about  Amiternum,  in  the  high- 
 »st  Apennines  of  the  Abruzzo,  where,  on  Mount  Ma- 
 jella,  the  snow  is  said  never  wholly  to  disappear,  and 
 where  the  mountain-pastures  in  summer  receive  the 
 Apulian  herds.  From  this  district  they  issued  in  very 
 ancient  times,  long  before  the  Trojan  war  ;  and,  ex- 
 pelling in  one  quarter  the  Aborigines,  in  another  the 
 Umbrians,  took  possession  of  the  territory  which  for 
 
 three  thousand  years  has  borne  their  name.  Out  ol 
 this  the  overflowing  population  migrated  to  diflerent 
 parts.  It  was  an  Italian  religious  usage,  in  times  of 
 severe  pressure  from  war  or  pestilence,  to  vow  a  sa- 
 cred spring  (ver  sacrum) ;  that  is,  all  the  creatures 
 born  in  the  spring  :  at  the  end  of  twenty  years  the  cat 
 tie  were  sacrificed  or  redeemed,  the  youth  sent  out. 
 (Liv.,Z^,  44. — Fcstus,s.  v.  Mamertini. — Dioji.  Hal., 
 1,  16.)  Such  a  vow  the  Romans  made  in  the  second 
 year  of  the  second  Punic  war  ;  but  only  as  to  their 
 flocks  and  herds.  {Liv.,  22,  9.)  Such  vows,  the  tra- 
 dition runs,  occasioned  the  sending  out  of  the  Sabine 
 colony  :  the  gods  to  whom  each  was  dedicated  charged 
 sacred  animals  to  guide  them  on  their  way.  One  col- 
 ony was  led  by  a  woodpecker,  the  bird  of  Mamers, 
 into  Picenum,  then  peopled  by  Pelasgians  or  Liburni- 
 ans  :  another  multitude  by  an  ox  into  the  land  of  the 
 Opicans  ;  this  became  the  great  Samnite  people :  a 
 wolf  guided  the  Hirpini.  That  colonies  issued  from 
 Samnium  is  known  historically.  The  Frentani  on  the 
 Adriatic  were  Samnites,  who  emigrated  in  the  course 
 of  the  second  Roman  war  ;  Samnites  conquered  Cam- 
 pania and  the  country  as  far  as  the  Silarus;  another 
 host,  calling  themselves  Lucanians,  subdued  and  gave 
 name  to  Lucania. — The  Italian  national  migrations 
 came  down  like  others  from  the  North  ;  and  Cato's 
 opinion,  that  the  origin  of  all  the  Sabellians  was  de- 
 rived from  the  neighbourhood  of  Amiternum,  admits 
 of  no  other  rational  meaning  than  that  the  most  ancient 
 traditions,  whether  they  may  have  been  Sabine  or  Um- 
 brian,  assigned  that  district  as  the  habitation  of  the 
 people  that  conquered  Reate.  Dionysius,  indeed, 
 seems  to  have  understood  Cato  as  having  derived  all 
 the  Sabines,  and,  consequently,  through  them  their  col- 
 onies, from  a  single  village,  Testrina,  near  Amiter- 
 num, as  it  were  from  a  germe  ;  but  so  extravagant  an 
 abuse  of  genealogy  ought  not  surely  to  be  imputed  to 
 Cato's  sound  understanding.  He  must  have  known 
 and  remembered  how  numerous  the  nation  was  at  the 
 time  of  its  utmost  greatness,  when  it  counted  perhaps 
 millions  of  freemen.  At  Reate,  in  the  Sabina,  in  the 
 country  of  the  Marsians,  they  found  and  subdued  or 
 expelled  the  Aborigines  ;  about  Beneventum,  Opicans, 
 and  probably,  therefore,  in  the  land  of  the  Hirpini  also. 
 On  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber  they  dwelt  in  the  time  of 
 the  Roman  kings,  low  down,  intermingled  with  the  Lat- 
 ins, even  south  of  the  Anio,  not  merely  at  Collatia  and 
 Regillum,  but  also  on  two  of  the  Roman  hills.  Wars 
 with  the  Sabines  form  a  great  part  of  the  contents  in 
 the  earliest  annals  of  Rome  ;  but  with  the  year  306 
 they  totally  cease,  which  evidently  coincides  with 
 their  diffusion  in  the  south  of  Italy.  Towards  this 
 quarter  the  tide  now  turned,  and  the  old  Sabines  on 
 the  Tiber  became  quite  insignificant. — Strictness  of 
 morals  and  cheerful  contentcdness  were  the  peculiar 
 glory  of  the  Sabcllian  mountaineers,  but  especially  of 
 the  Sabines  and  the  four  northern  cantons  :  this  they 
 preserved  long  after  the  ancient  virtue  had  disappeared 
 at  Rome  from  the  hearts  and  the  demeanour  of  men. 
 Most  of  the  Sabellian  tribes,  and  the  Sabines  them- 
 selves, inhabited  open  hamlets  ;  the  Samnites  and  the 
 members  of  the  northern  confederacy  dwelt,  like  the 
 Epirots,  around  the  fortified  summits  of  their  hills, 
 where  a  brave  people  could  defend  the  approaches 
 even  without  walls  :  not  that  they  had  no  fortified 
 towns,  but  the  number  was  small. — The  Sabellians 
 would  have  made  themselves  masters  of  all  Italy,  had 
 they  formed  a  united  or  even  a  firmly-knit  federal  state, 
 which  should  have  lastingly  appropriated  its  conquests, 
 holding  them  in  dependance,  and  securing  them  by  col- 
 onies. But,  unlike  the  Romans,  the  enjoyment  of  the 
 greatest  freedom  was  what  they  valued  the  highest ; 
 more  than  greatness  and  power,  more  than  the  perma- 
 nent preservation  of  the  state.  Hence  they  did  not 
 keep  their  transplanted  tribes  attached  tothe  mother- 
 countrv  •  thev  became  forthwith  foreign,  and  frequently 
 ^  ■       ^  1179 
 
SAC 
 
 SAG 
 
 hostile  to  the  state  they  had  issued  from:  while  Rome, 
 sending  out  colonies  of  small  numbers,  was  sure  of 
 their  fidelit)' ;  and  by  means  of  these,  and  by  imparting 
 dependant  civil  rights,  converted  a  far  greater  number 
 of  subdued  enemies  into  devoted  subjects.  (Niclmkr, 
 History  of  Eome,  vol.  1,  p.  71,  scqq.,  Cambridge 
 translation.) — In  fixing  the  limits  of  the  Sabine  terri- 
 tory, we  must  not  attend  so  much  to  those  remote 
 times  when  they  reached  nearly  to  the  gates  of  Rome, 
 as  to  that  period  in  which  the  boundaries  of  the  differ- 
 ent people  of  Italy  were  marked  out  with  greater  clear- 
 ness and  precision,  namely,  the  reign  of  Augustus. 
 We  shall  then  find  the  Sabines  separated  from  Latium 
 by  the  river  Anio  ;  from  Etruria  by  the  Tiber,  begin- 
 ning from  the  point  where  it  receives  the  former 
 stream,  to  within  a  short  distance  of  Otricoli.  The 
 Nar  will  form  their  boundary  on  the  side  of  Umbria, 
 and  the  central  ridge  of  the  Apennines  will  be  their 
 limit  on  that  of  Ficenum.  To  the  south  and  southeast 
 it  may  be  stated  generally,  that  they  bordered  on  the 
 jEqui  and  Vestiiii.  From  the  Tiber  to  the  frontiers 
 of  the  latter  people,  the  length  of  the  Sabine  country, 
 which  was  its  greatest  dimensions,  might  be  estimated 
 at  1000  stadia,  or  120  miles,  its  breadth  being  much 
 less  considerable.  {Strabo,  228. — Cramer's  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  300.) 
 
 S.^BiN'us,  Aulus,  a  Roman  poet,  the  friend  and  con- 
 temporary of  Ovid,  and  to  whom  the  last  six  of  the  he- 
 roic epistles  of  that  bard  are  generally  ascribed  by 
 commentators.  These  are,  Paris  to  Helen,  Helen  to 
 Paris,  Leander  to  Hero,  Hero  to  Leander,  Acontius  to 
 Cydippe,  and  Cydippe  to  Acontius.  He  was  the  au- 
 thor, also,  of  several  answers  to  the  epistles  of  Ovid,  as 
 Ulysses  to  Penelope,  ^Eneas  to  Dido,  &c.,  and  like- 
 wise of  a  work  on  Days,  which  his  death  prevented 
 him  from  completing.  This  last-mentioned  produc- 
 tion is  thought  by  some  to  have  given  Ovid  the  idea 
 of  his  Fasti.    {Bahr,  Gesch.  Rom..  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  291.) 
 
 S.tBis,  I.  a  river  of  Gallia  Pelgica,  rising  in  the  ter- 
 ritory of  the  Nervii,  and  falling  into  the  Mosa  {Maese) 
 at  Namurcum  (Namur),  in  the  territory  of  the  Aduat- 
 ici.  It  is  now  the  Sambrc.  {Ccbs.,  B.  G.,  2,  16,  18.) 
 — If.  A  river  of  Carmania,  between  the  southern  prom- 
 ontory of  Carmania  and  the  river  Andanis.  Man- 
 nert  is  inclined  to  identify  it  with  the  Anamis,  which 
 runs  by  the  city  of  Hormuza,  and  falls  into  the  Persian 
 Gulf  near  the  promontory  of  Armozum.  {Mela,  3,  8. 
 —Piin.,  6,  23.)  It  is  also  called  the  Saganus.— III. 
 A  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  rising  in  Umbria,  and  fall- 
 ing into  the  Adriatic  north  of  the  Rubicon.  It  is  now 
 the  Savio.  At  its  mouth  lay  the  town  of  Savis,  now 
 Torre  del  Savio. 
 
 Sabr.Xta,  a  city  of  Africa,  in  the  Regio  Syrtica, 
 west  of  Q^a  and  east  of  the  Syrtis  Minor.  It  formed, 
 together  with  CEa  and  Leptis  Magna,  what  was  called 
 Tripolis  Africana.  Justinian  fortified  it,  and  it  is  now 
 Sabart  or  Tripoli  Vccchio.  (Itin.  Anton. — Solin.,  c. 
 27.—Plin,  5,  i.—Procop.,  JEdif.,  6,  4.) 
 
 Sabrina,  also  called  Sabriana,  now  the  Severn  in 
 England.     {Ptol.—Tac.,  Ann.,  12,  31.) 
 
 Sac^,  a  name  given  by  the  Persians  to  all  the  more 
 northern  nations  of  Asia,  but  which,  at  a  subsequent 
 period,  designated  a  particular  people,  whose  territory 
 was  bounded  on  the  west  by  Sogdiana,  north  and  east 
 by  Scythia,  and  south  by  Bactriana  and  the  chain  of 
 Imaus.  Their  country,  therefore,  corresponds  in  some 
 degree  to  Little  Bucharcy  and  the  adjacent  districts. 
 The  Sacffi  were  a  wild,  uncivilized  race,  of  nomadic 
 habits,  without  cities,  and  dwelling  in  woods  and  caves. 
 (Herod  ,  7,  9.— Mela,  3,  7.— Pirn.,  6,  \7.—Ammian. 
 MareelL,  23,  6.)— As  regards  the  origin  of  the  name 
 SaccE,  which  some  etymologists  deduce  from  the  Per- 
 sian Ssagh,  "  a  dog,"  and  which  they  suppose  to  have 
 been  used  as  a  term  of  contempt  for  a  people  of  dif- 
 ferent race  and  religion,  consult  remarks  under  the 
 article  Scvthia. 
 'il80 
 
 Sacra  Insula,  an  island  in  the  Tiber,  not  far  from 
 its  mouth,  formed  by  the  separation  of  the  two  branch- 
 es of  that  river.  It  received  its  name  from  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  the  snake's  having  darted  on  shore  here, 
 which  the  Romans  had  brought  from  Epidaurus,  sup- 
 posing it  to  be  ^sculapius.     {Procop.,  B.  G.,  1,  26.) 
 
 Sacra  Via,  a  celebrated  street  of  Rome,  where  a 
 treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  was  fabled  to  have  been 
 made  between  Romulus  and  Tatius.  It  led  from  the 
 Amphitheatre  to  the  Capitol,  by  the  temple  of  the  God- 
 dess of  Peace  and  the  temple  of  Caesar.  The  trium- 
 phal processions  passed  through  it  to  the  Capitol. 
 {Moral.,  Od.,  4:,2— Sat.,  1,  9.— Liu.,  2,  13.—Cic., 
 Plane.,  7.—Att.,  Ep.,  4,  3  ) 
 
 Sacrum,  I.  BELLum,  a  name  given  to  the  war  car- 
 ried on  against  the  Phocians,  for  their  sacrilege  in  re- 
 lation to  the  sanctuary  at  Delphi.  (Vid.  Phocis.) — 
 II.  Promontorium,  a  promontory  of  Spain,  now  Cape 
 St.  Vincent,  called  by  Strabo  the  most  westerly  part 
 of  the  earth.  It  was  called  Sacrum  because  the  an- 
 cients believed  this  to  be  the  place  where  the  sun,  at 
 his  setting,  plunged  his  chariot  into  the  sea.  {Mela, 
 2,  6.  —  Plin.,  4,  22.)  —  III.  Another  promontory,  on 
 the  coast  of  Lycia,  near  the  Chelidonian  Islands,  and 
 now  Cape  Kelidonia.  This  headland  obtained  great 
 celebrity  from  its  being  commonly  looked  upon  as  the 
 commencement  of  the  great  chain  of  Taurus,  which 
 was  accounted  to  traverse,  under  various  names,  the 
 whole  continent  of  Asia.  {Plin.,  5,  27.)  But  Stra- 
 bo observes,  that  Taurus  really  began  in  Caria  {Strab., 
 666) ;  and  other  geographers  even  supposed  it  to  com- 
 mence with  Mycale.  {Arrian,  Exp.  AL,  5,  5,  2.) 
 The  modern  name  of  the  Sacred  Promontory  comes 
 from  the  group  of  the  Chelidonian  Lslands,  in  its  im- 
 mediate vicinity,  to  which  we  have  already  referred 
 {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  256.) — IV.  Anothei 
 at  the  southern  extremity  of  Corsica,  now  Cape  Cor- 
 so.     {Ptol.) 
 
 Sadv.Ites,  one  of  the  Mermnadoe,  who  reigned  in 
 Lydia  12  years  after  his  father  Gyges.  He  made  war 
 against  the  Milesians  for  six  years.     {Herod.,  1,  16.) 
 
 S^ETARis,  I.  a  river  of  (Spain,  between  the  Iberus 
 and  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  According  to  some,  it 
 is  now  the  Cennia  or  Scnia ;  Ukert,  however,  makes 
 it  the  same  with  the  Udubra  of  Pliny  and  the  Turu- 
 lis  of  Ptolemy.  {Mela,  2,  6.) — II.  A  city  of  Spain 
 {Hispania  Tarraconcnsis),  in  the  territory  of  the  Cou- 
 testani,  and  situate  on  a  height,  just  below  the  river 
 Sucro  or  Xucar.  It  was  a  municipinin,  and  had  re- 
 ceived a  Roman  colony,  from  which  latter  circum- 
 stance it  took  the  name  of  Augusta.  Saetabis  was 
 famed  for  its  linen  manufacture.  {Plin.,  19,  2. — Ca- 
 tulL,  12.— Id.,  20,  H.—Sil.  Ital.,  3,  373.)  The  Ara- 
 bians changed  the  name  to  Xativa.  {Marea,  Hisp., 
 2,  6,  p,  UH.—Laborde,  Itin.,  vol.  1,  p.  226.)  Since 
 the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  however, 
 its  more  usual  appellation  is  S.  Phclippe.  {Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  i25.— Ukert,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  405.) 
 
 Sagaris.      Vid.  Sangaris. 
 
 Sagra  or  Sagras,  a  river  of  Magna  Graccia,  in  the 
 territory  of  the  Bruttii,  falling  into  the  Sinus  Taren- 
 tinus,  a  short  distance  above  the  Zephyrian  promonto- 
 ry. It  was  on  the  banks  of  the  Sagra.s  that  the  mem- 
 orable overthrow  of  the  Crotoniataj  took  place,  when 
 they  were  defeated  by  a  force  of  10,000  Locrians,  with 
 a  small  body  of  Rhcgians.  So  extraordinary  a  result 
 did  this  appear,  that  it  gave  rise  to  the  proverbial  ex- 
 pression, d2.T/0t(Tr€pa  Tuv  ewt  'Euypa.  Among  other 
 marvellous  circumstances  connected  with  this  event, 
 it  was  reported  that  the  issue  of  the  battle  was  known 
 at  Olympia  the  very  day  on  which  it  was  fought. 
 {Strab.,  26[.— Cicero,  iV.  D.,  2,  2.— Justin,  20, 
 2  )  Geographers  differ  much  as  to  the  modern  river 
 which  corresponds  with  this  celebrated  stream  ;  but, 
 if  Romanelli  is  correct  in  affirming  that  the  mountain 
 from  which  the  Alaro  takes   its  source  is  still  called 
 
S  AI 
 
 SAL 
 
 Sagra,  vvc  can  have  no  difficnlty  in  recognising  that 
 river  as  the  ancient.  Sagras  ;  more  especially  as  its 
 situation  accords  perfectly  with  the  topography  of  Stra- 
 bo.     {Cramer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  402.) 
 
 S/iGUNTOM  or  Saguntus,  a  city  of  Hispania  Tar- 
 raconensis,  north  of  Valentia,  and  some  distance  be- 
 low the  month  of  the  Iberus.  It  was  situate  on  a 
 rising  ground,  about  1000  paces  from  the  shore;  Po; 
 lybius  (3,  17)  says  seven  stadia,  Pliny  (3,  4)  three 
 miles.  This  place  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
 a  colony  from  Zacynthus  {ZuKvvdoc,  luyovvTOC,  Sa- 
 guntus), intermingled  with  llutulians  front  Ardea. 
 (Liv.,  21,  7,  li.—Sil.  Ital,  1,  291,  &c.)  It  became 
 at  an  early  period  the  ally  of  the  Romans  {Polyb.,  3, 
 30),  and  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Hannibal  previous 
 to  his  march  upon  Italy.  The  siege  lasted  eight 
 months,  and,  being  an  infraction  of  the  treaty  with  tlie 
 Iloman.s,  led  at  once  to  the  second  Punic  war.  Han- 
 nibal's object  was  to  prevent  the  Romans  retaining  so 
 important  a  place  of  arms,  and  so  powerful  an  ally  in 
 a  country  from  which  he  was  about  to  depart.  The 
 desperate  valour  of  the  citizens,  who  chose  to  perish 
 with  all  their  effects  rather  than  fall  into  the  enemy's 
 hands,  dejirived  the  conqueror  of  a  great  part  of  his 
 anticipated  spoils  ;  the  booty,  however,  which  he  saved 
 from  this  wreck,  enabled  him,  by  his  liberalities,  to 
 gain  the  affection  of  his  army,  and  to  provide  for  the 
 execution  of  his  design  against  Italy.  {Liv.,  21,  8. — 
 Mela,  2,  G.—Diod.  Sic,  Eclog.,  25,  5.~Sil.  Ilal,  13, 
 673.)  Eight  years  after  it  was  restored  by  the  Ro- 
 mans. {Liv.,  24,  42. — Plin.,  3,  5.) — Saguntum  was 
 famous  for  the  cups  manufactured  there.  {Plin.,  35, 
 12. — Martial,  4,  46,  cfcc.)  The  modern  Murvicdro 
 (a  corruption  of  Muri  vc(crcs)  marks  the  ancient  city. 
 {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  428. —  Vkert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  415.)^ 
 
 Sais,  a  city  of  Egypt,  situate  in  the  Delta,  between 
 the  Sebennytic  and  Canopic  arms  of  the  Nile,  and 
 nearly  due  west  from  the  city  of  Sebennytus.  It  was 
 not,  indeed,  the  largest,  but  certainly  the  most  famous 
 and  important  city  in  its  day  of  all  those  in  the  Delta 
 of  Egypt.  This  pre-eminence  it  owed,  on  the  one 
 hand,  to  the  yearly  festival  celebrated  here  in  honour 
 of  Neith,  the  Egyptian  Minerva,  to  which  a  large  con- 
 course of  spectators  was  accustomed  to  flock  {Herod., 
 2,  59)  ;  and,  on  the  other,  to  the  circumstance  of  its 
 being  the  native  city,  the  capital,  and  the  burying-place 
 of  the  last  dynasty  of  the  Pharaohs.  {Herod.,  2,  169.) 
 For  the  purpose  of  embellishing  it.  King  Amasis  built 
 a  splendid  portico  to  the  temple  of  Neith  in  this  city, 
 far  surpassing  all  others,  according  to  Herodotus,  in 
 circumference  and  elevation,  as  well  as  in  the  dimen- 
 sions and  quality  of  the  stones  :  he  also  adorned  the 
 building  with  colossal  statues,  and  the  immense  figures 
 of  Androsphinx.  Herodotus  likewise  informs  us,  that 
 a  large  block  of  stone,  intended  for  a  shrine,  was 
 brought  hither  from  Elephantis.  Two  thousand  men 
 were  employed  three  whole  years  in  its  transportation. 
 The  exterior  length  of  the  stone  was  twenty-one  cu- 
 bits, its  breadth  fourteen,  and  ils  height  eight.  The 
 inside  was  eighteen  cubits  and  twenty-eight  digits  in 
 length,  twelve  cubits  in  breadth,  and  five  in  height. 
 This  remarkable  edifice  was  placed  by  the  entrance  of 
 the  temple,  it  being  found  impossible,  it  would  seem, 
 to  drag  it  within,  although  Herodotus  assigns  a  differ- 
 ent reason  (2,  175). — When  Egypt  had  fallen  under 
 the  Persian  power,  Memphis  became  the  new  capital, 
 and  Sa'is  was  neglected.  It  did  not,  however,  fall  as 
 low  as  the  other  cities  of  the  Delta.  Strabo,  even  in 
 his  days,  acknowledges  it  to  have  been  the  chief  city 
 of  Lower  Egypt  ;  he  speaks  also  of  a  temple  of  Neith, 
 and  of  the  tomb  of  Psammitichus.  In  another  pas- 
 sage, he  remarks,  that  somewhat  to  the  south  of  this 
 city  was  a  very  sacred  temjjle  of  Osiris,  in  which,  ac- 
 cording to  tradition,  that  deity  was  buried.  {Sirah., 
 802.)     Sais  was  also  famous  for  its  festival  of  lamps. 
 
 The  modern  Sa,  with  ils  ruins,  marks  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  Sais. — This  city  must  not  be  confounded  with 
 another  more  easterly,  Sais,  commonly  called  Tanis. 
 {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  I,  p.  561,  seqq.) 
 
 Salamis,  I.  a  daughter  of  the  river  Asopus  by  Mc- 
 ihone.  Neptune  became  enamoured  of  her,  and  car- 
 ried her  to  an  island  of  the  ^Egean,  which  afterward 
 bore  her  name,  and  where  she  gave  birth  to  a  son  call- 
 ed Cenchreus.  {Diod.  Sic.,  4,  72. — Compare  the  re- 
 marks of  Siebelis,  ad  Pausan.,  1,  35,  2.) — II.  An  isl- 
 land  in  the  Sinus  Saronicus,  opposite  Eleusis  and  the 
 coast  of  Attica,  and  said  to  have  derived  its  name 
 from  Salamis,  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article.  It 
 was  also  anciently  called  Scyras  and  Cychrea,  from 
 the  heroes  Scyrus  and  Cychreus,  and  Pityussa  from 
 its  abounding  in  firs.  (/SV?'rt6.,  393.)  It  had  been  al- 
 ready celebrated  in  the  earliest  period  of  Grecian  his- 
 tory from  the  colony  of  the  ^Eacidas,  who  settled  there 
 before  the  siege  of  Troy.  {Slrab.,  I.  c.)  The  pos- 
 session of  Salamis,  as  wc  learn  from  Strabo,  was  once 
 obstinately  contested  by  the  Athenians  and  Megareans ; 
 and  he  affirms  that  both  parties  interpolated  Homer,  in 
 order  to  prove  from  his  poems  that  it  had  belonged  to 
 them.  Having  been  occupied  by  Athens,  it  revolted 
 to  Megara,  but  was  again  conquered  by  Solon,  or,  ac- 
 cording to  some,  by  Pisistratus.  {Plutarch,  Vit.  So- 
 lon.) From  this  period  it  appears  to  have  been  al- 
 ways subject  to  the  Athenians.  On  the  invasion  of 
 Xerxes,  they  were  induced  to  remove  thither  with 
 their  families  ;  in  consequence  of  a  prediction  of  the 
 oracle,  which  pointed  out  this  island  as  the  scene  of 
 the  defeat  of  their  enemies  {Herodotus,  8,  56) ;  and, 
 soon  after,  by  the  advice  of  Themistocles,  the  whole 
 of  the  naval  force  of  Greece  was  assembled  in  the  Bay 
 of  Salamis.  Meanwhile,  the  Persian  fleet  station- 
 ed at  Phalerum  held  a  council,  in  which  it  was  deter- 
 mined to  attack  the  Greeks,  who  were  said  to  be  plan- 
 ning their  flight  to  the  Isthmus.  The  Persian  fleet  ac- 
 cordingly were  ordered  to  surround  the  island  during 
 the  night,  with  a  view  of  preventing  their  escape.  lu 
 the  morning,  the  Grecian  galleys  moved  on  to  the  at- 
 tack, the  ^ginetans  leading  the  van,  seconded  by  the 
 Athenians,  who  were  opposed  to  the  Phoenician  ships, 
 while  the  Peloponnesian  squadron  was  engaged  with 
 the  lonians.  The  Persians  were  completely  defeated, 
 and  retired  in  the  greatest  disorder  to  Phalerum  ;  not- 
 withstanding which,  Xerxes  is  said  to  have  made  dem- 
 onstrations of  an  intention  to  renew  the  action,  and 
 with  that  intent  to  have  given  orders  for  joining  the 
 island  of  Salamis  to  the  continent  by  a  mole.  The 
 following  night,  however,  the  whole  of  his  fleet  aban- 
 doned the  coast  of  Attica,  and  withdrew  to  the  HeU 
 lespont.  {Herod.,  8,  83.)  A  trophy  was  erected  to 
 commemorate  this  splendid  victory  on  the  isle  of  Sala- 
 mis, near  the  temple  of  Diana,  and  opposite  to  Cyno- 
 sura,  where  the  strait  is  narrowest.  Here  it  was  seen 
 by  Pausanias  (1,  30),  and  some  of  its  vestiges  were 
 observed  by  Sir  W.  Gell,  who  reports  that  it  consisted 
 of  a  column  on  a  circular  base.  {Itin.,  p.  303.)  Stra- 
 bo informs  us  that  the  island  contained  two  cities  ; 
 the  more  ancient  of  the  two,  which  was  situated  on 
 the  southern  side,  and  opposite  to-.-Egina,  was  deserted 
 in  his  time.  The  other  stood  in  a  bay,  formed  by  a 
 neck  of  land  which  advanced  towards  Attica.  {Stra- 
 bo, 393.)  Both  were  called  by  the  same  name  with 
 the  island.  Pausanias  remarks,  that  the  city  of  Sala- 
 mis was  destroyed  by  the  Athenians,  in  consequence 
 of  its  having  surrendered  to  the  Macedonians  when 
 the  former  people  were  at  war  with  Cassander;  there 
 still  remained,  however,  some  ruins  of  the  agora,  and 
 a  temple  dedicated  to  Ajax.  Chandler  states  that  the 
 walls  may  still  be  traced,  and  aj-.pear  to  have  been 
 about  four  miles  in  circumference  (vol.  2,  ch.  46. — 
 Compare  Gell,  Itin.,  p.  303). — Salamis,  according  to 
 the  Greek  geographers,  measured  seventy  or  eighty 
 stadia  in  length,  or  between  nine  and  ten  miles.     Its 
 
 1181 
 
SAL 
 
 SAL 
 
 present  name  is  Colouri,  which  is  that  also  of  the  prin- 
 cipal town.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  364, 
 seqq.) — III.  A  city  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  situate 
 about  the  middle  of  the  eastern  side.  It  was  founded 
 by  Teucer,  son  of  Teiamon,  and  called  by  him  after 
 Salarnis,  his  native  place,  from  which  he  had  been  ban- 
 ished by  his  father.  {Horat.,  1,  7,  21.)  This  city 
 was  the  largest,  strongest,  and  most  important  one  in 
 the  island.  {Diod.  Sic,  14,  98.— 7(Z ,  16,42.)  Its 
 harbour  was  secure,  and  protected  against  every  wind. 
 and  sufficiently  large  to  contain  an  entire  fleet.  (Scij- 
 lax,  p.  U.—bwd.,  20,  21.)  The  monarchs  of  Sala- 
 rnis exercised  a  leading  influence  in  the  affairs  of  the 
 island,  and  the  conquest  of  this  place  involved  the 
 fate  of  Cyprus  at  large.  {Diod,  I.  c.  —  Id.,  12,  3.) 
 Under  the  Roman  dominion  the  entire  eastern  part  of 
 the  island  was  attached  to  the  jurisdiction  of  Salarnis. 
 The  insurrection  of  the  Jews  in  Trajan's  rei^n  brought 
 with  it  the  ruin  of  a  great  portion  of  the  city  [Euseb., 
 Chron.,  ann.  19,  Traj.  —  Oros.,  7,  12);  it  did  not, 
 however,  cause  the  entire  downfall  of  Salarnis,  as  it  is 
 still  mentioned  after  this  period  by  Ptolemy  and  in  the 
 Peutinger  Table.  In  the  reign  of  Constaritine,  how- 
 ever, an  earthquake  and  inundation  of  the  sea  com- 
 pleted the  downfall  of  the  place,  and  a  large  portion  of 
 the  inhabitants  were  buried  beneath  its  ruins.  (Ce- 
 drenus,  ad  ann.  29,  Constant.  Mag. — Malala,  Chron., 
 1.  xii.,  Sub.  Constanlio  Chloro.)  Constantius  restored 
 it,  made  it  the  capital  of  the  whole  island,  and  called 
 it,  from  his  own  name,  Constantia.  (Hierocles,  p. 
 706.)  A  few  remains  of  this  city  still  exist.  (Po- 
 cocke,  2,  p.  313.  —  Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p. 
 572,  seqq.) 
 
 SALAPi.i,  a  city  of  Apulia,  near  the  coast,  above  the 
 river  Aufidius,  and  between  that  river  and  the  Salapi- 
 na  Palus.  According  to  Strabo,  it  was  the  emporium 
 of  Arpi :  without  such  authority,  however,  we  should 
 have  fixed  upon  Sipontum  as  answering  that  purpose 
 better,  from  its  greater  proximity.  {Slrab.,  282.)  This 
 town  laid  claim  to  a  Grecian  origin.  Tlie  Rhodians, 
 who  early  distinguished  themselves  by  a  spirit  of  en- 
 terprise in  navigation,  asserted,  that,  among  other  dis- 
 tant colonies,  they  had  founded,  in  conjunction  with 
 some  Coans,  a  city  named  Salpia,  on  the  Daunian 
 coast.  This  account  of  Strabo's  (654)  seems  con- 
 firmed by  Vitruvius,  who  attributes  the  foundation 
 of  this  settlement  to  a  Rhodian  chief  named  Elpias 
 (I,  4. — Compare  Meurs.  in  Rhod.,  1,  18).  It  is  prob- 
 able, however,  that  Salapia  was  at  first  dependant 
 upon  the  more  powerful  city  of  Arpi,  and,  like  that 
 city,  it  subsequently  lost  much  of  the  peculiar  charac- 
 ter which  belonged  to  the  Greek  colonies  from  its  in- 
 tercourse with  the  natives.  We  do  not  hear  of  Sala- 
 pia in  Roman  history  till  the  second  Punic  war,  when 
 it  is  represented  as  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Car- 
 thaginians, after  the  battle  of  Canna;  {Lin.,  24,  20); 
 but,  not  long  after,  it  was  delivered  up  to  Marcellus 
 by  the  party  which  favoured  the  Roman  interest,  to- 
 gether with  the  garrison  which  Hannibal  had  placed 
 there.  {Livy,  26,  28.)  The  Carthaginian  general 
 seems  to  have  felt  the  loss  of  this  town  severely  ;  and 
 it  was  probably  the  desire  of  revenge  which  prompted 
 him,  after  the  death  and  defeat  of  Marcellus,  to  adopt 
 the  stratagem  of  sending  letters,  sealed  with  that  com- 
 mander's ring,  to  the  magistrates  of  the  town,  in  order 
 to  obtain  admission  with  his  troops.  The  Salapitani, 
 however,  being  warned  of  his  design,  the  attempt 
 proved  abortive.  (Liv.,  27,  28. — App.,  Han.,  51.) 
 The  proximity  of  Salapia  to  the  lake  or  marsh  already 
 mentioned,  is  said  to  have  proved  so  injurious  to  the 
 health  of  the  inhabitants,  that  some  years  after  these 
 events  they  removed  nearer  the  coast,  where  they 
 built  a  new  town,  with  the  assistance  of  M.  Hostilius, 
 a  Roman  praitor,  who  caused  a  communication  to  be 
 opened  between  the  lake  and  the  sea.  Considerable 
 remains  of  both  towns  are  still  standing,  at  some  dis- 
 1182 
 
 I  tance  from  each  other,  under  the  name  of  Salpi,  which 
 confirms  this  account  of  Vitruvius  (1,  4. — Compare 
 Cicero,  de  Leg.  Agr.,  2. — Plm.,  3,  11.  —  Cramer^s 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  284). 
 
 S.ALASsi,  a  people  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  in  the  north- 
 western angle  of  that  country,  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
 Alps.  The  main  part  of  their  territory  lay  chiefly, 
 however,  in  a  long  valley,  which  reached  to  the  sum- 
 mits of  the  Graiati  and  Pennine  Alps,  the  Little  and 
 Great  St.  Bernard.  The  passages  over  these  mount- 
 ains into  Gaul  were  too  important  an  object  for  the 
 Romans  not  to  make  them  anxious  to  secure  them  by 
 the  conquest  of  the  Salassi.  But  these  hardy  mount- 
 aineers, though  attacked  as  early  as  609  U.C.,  held 
 out  for  a  long  time,  and  were  not  finally  subdued  till 
 the  reign  of  Augustus.  Such  was  the  difficult  nature 
 of  their  country,  that  they  could  easily  intercept  all 
 communication  through  the  vallevs  by  occupying  the 
 heights.  Strabo  represents  them  as  carrying  on  a 
 sort  of  predatory  warfare,  during  which  they  seized 
 and  ransomed  some  distinguished  Romans,  and  even 
 ventured  to  plunder  the  baggage  and  military  chest  of 
 Julius  Caesar.  Augustus  caused  their  country  at  last 
 to  be  occupied  permanently  by  a  large  force  under 
 Terentius  Varro.  A  large  number  of  the  Salassi  per- 
 ished in  this  last  war,  and  the  rest,  to  the  number  of 
 36,000,  were  sold  and  reduced  to  slavery.  {Strabo, 
 205.— D/o  Cass.,  1.  53.—  Oros.,  5,  i..—  Liv.,  Epit., 
 53.)  A  city  was  built  on  the  ground  occupied  by 
 V^arro's  camp,  and  Augustus  honoured  the  rising  col- 
 ony by  giving  it  the  name  of  Augusta  Praetoria,  now 
 Aosta.     {Cramer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  49,  seqq.) 
 
 Salentini,  a  people  of  Italy,  in  the  territory  of 
 Messapia.  They  cannot  be  distinguished  with  accu- 
 racy from  the  Calabri,  as  we  find  the  former  appella- 
 tion used  by  several  writers  in  a  very  extensive  sense, 
 and  applied,  not  only  to  the  greater  part  of  Messapia 
 or  lapygia,  but  even  to  districts  entirely  removed  fronn 
 it.  Strabo  himself  confesses  the  difficulty  of  assign- 
 ing any  exact  limits  to  these  two  people;  and  he  con- 
 tents himself  with  observing,  that  the  country  of  the 
 Salentini  lay  properly  around  the  lapygian  promontory. 
 (Strab.,  277,  281.)  It  was  asserted  that  they  were  a 
 colony  of  Cretans,  who,  under  the  conduct  of  Idome- 
 neus  their  king,  had  arrived  thither  in  their  wanderings 
 after  the  capture  of  Troy.  (Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  400.) 
 The  Romans,  under  pretence  of  their  having  assisted 
 Pyrrhus  in  his  expedition  into  Italy,  soon  after  invaded 
 the  territory  of  this  insignificant  people,  and  had  no 
 difficulty  in  taking  the  few  towns  which  they  possess- 
 ed. {Florus,  1,  20.— Liv.,  Epit.,  15.)  The  Salen- 
 tini subsequently  revolted,  during  the  second  Punic 
 war,  but  they  were  again  reduced  by  the  consul  Clau- 
 dius Nero.  (Ln) ,  27,  36.) — It  is  probable  that  they 
 derived  their  name  from  a  town  called  Salentia,  the 
 existence  of  which  is,  however,  only  attested  by  Ste- 
 phanus  Byzantinus,  who  calls  it  a  Messapian  city  (s. 
 V.  'LakevTla).  —  The  Salentinian  promontory  is  the 
 same  with  the  lapygian.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  313.) 
 
 Salernum,  a  city  of  Campania,  southeast  of  Neap- 
 olis,  and  near  the  shore  of  the  Sinus  Paestanus.  It 
 was  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Romans  as  a  check 
 upon  the  Picentini.  It  was  not,  therefore,  like  the 
 modern  town  of  Salerno,  close  to  the  sea,  but  on  the 
 height  above,  where  considerable  remains  have  been 
 observed.  (Cluv.,  Ilal.  Antiq.,  vol.  2,  p.  1189. — Ro- 
 manelli,  vol.  3,  p.  612.)  According  to  Livy,  Saler- 
 num became  a  Roman  colony  seven  years  after  the 
 conclusion  of  the  second  Punic  war  (34,  45. — Veil. 
 Paterc,  1,  14). — Horace  tells  us,  that  the  air  of  Sa 
 lernum  was  recommended  to  him  by  his  physician  for 
 a  complaint  in  his  eyes.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2, 
 p.  214,  seqq.) 
 
 SalIi,  I.  a  college  of  priests  at  Rome,  instituted  in 
 honour  of  Mars,  and  appointed  by  Numa  to  take  care 
 
SAL 
 
 SALLUSTIUS. 
 
 of  the  sacred  shields  called  Ancilia,  B.C.  709.  (Vid. 
 Ancile.)  They  were  twelve  in  number.  Their  chief 
 was  called  prcEsul,  who  seems  to  have  gone  foremost 
 .  in  the  procession  ;  their  principal  musician,  valex  ;  and 
 he  who  admitted  new  members,  magisler.  Their 
 number  was  alterward  doubled  by  Tullus  Hostilius, 
 after  he  had  obtained  a  victory  over  the  Fidenates,  in 
 consequence  of  a  vow  which  he  had  made  to  Mars. 
 The  SSalii  were  all  of  patrician  families,  and  the  office 
 was  very  honourable.  The  1st  of  March  was  the  day 
 in  which  the  Salii  observed  their  festival  in  honour  of 
 Mars.  They  were  generally  dressed  in  a  short  scarlet 
 tunic,  of  which  only  the  edges  were  seen  ;  they  wore 
 a  larce  purple-coloured  belt  above  the  waist,  which 
 was  fastened  with  brass  buckles.  They  had  on  their 
 heads  round  bonnets  with  two  corners  standing  up, 
 in  their  right  hand  they  carried  a  small  rod,  and  in 
 their  left  a  small  buckler,  one  of  the  ancilia,  or  shields 
 of  Mars.  Lucan  says  that  it  hung  from  the  neck.  In 
 the  observation  of  their  solemnity,  they  first  offered 
 sacrifices,  and  afterward  went  through  the  streets  dan- 
 cing in  measured  motions,  sometimes  all  together,  or 
 at  other  times  separately,  while  musical  instruments 
 were  playing  before  them.  Hence  their  name  of  Salii, 
 from  their  moving  along  in  solemn  dance  {Salii  a  soli- 
 cndo).  They  placed  their  body  in  different  attitudes, 
 and  struck  with  their  rods  the  shields  which  they  held 
 in  their  hands.  They  also  sung  hymns  in  honour  of 
 the  gods,  particularly  of  Mars,  Juno,  Venus,  and  Mi- 
 nerva, and  they  were  accompanied  in  the  chorus  by  a 
 certain  number  of  virgins,  habited  like  themselves,  and 
 called  Salm.  We  have  in  Varro  a  few  fragments  of 
 the  Salian  hymns,  which,  even  in  the  time  of  that  wri- 
 ter, were  scarcely  intelligii)le.     Thus,  for  example, 
 
 "  Divum  exla  cante,  Divum  Deo  svpplice  cajilc," 
 
 i.  e.,  Deonim  exta  canile,  Deorum  Deo  (Jano)  sxip- 
 plicitcr  canite  ;  and  also  the  following  : 
 
 '^  omnia 
 dapatilia  comisse  jani  cusioncs 
 duonus  ceruses  divius  janusquc  renit,'" 
 
 i.  e.,  Omnia  dapalia  comcdisse  Jani  Curioncs.  Bo- 
 nus creator  Divius  Janusquc  venit. — Their  feasts  and 
 entertainments  were  uncommonly  sumptuous,  whence 
 dapcs  saliarcs  is  proverbially  applied  to  such  repasts 
 as  are  most  splendid  and  costly.  (Liv.,  1,  20. — Var- 
 ro, L  L,  4,  15.— Ovid,  Fast.,  3,  387.)  — II.  A  Ger- 
 man tribe  of  Frankish  origin,  whose  original  seat  is 
 not  clearly  ascertained.  Wiarda  make*  it  between 
 the  Silva  Carbonaria  (part  of  the  forest  of  Ardennes) 
 and  the  River  Ligeris  {Lys,  in  Brabant) ;  Wersebe, 
 however,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Sala  or  Saale.  They 
 first  made  their  appearance  on  the  Insula  Batavorum. 
 where  they  were  conquered  by  Julian  ;  afterward  in 
 the  territory  of  the  Chamavi,  by  the  Mosa  or  Meuse. 
 Mannert  seeks  to  identify  them  with  the  Cherusci. 
 {Amm.  Marcell.,  17,  8,  seqq. — Tiosim.,  3,  6.) 
 
 Sallustius,  Crispus,  a  celebrated  Latin  historian, 
 born  at  Amilernum,  in  the  territory  of  the  Sabines,  in 
 the  year  of  Rome  668.  He  received  his  education  in 
 the  latter  city,  and  in  his  early  youth  appears  to  have 
 been  desirous  to  devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits. 
 But  it  was  not  easy  for  one  residing  in  the  capital  to 
 escape  the  contagious  desire  of  military  or  political 
 distinction.  He  obtained  the  situation  of  quaestor, 
 which  entitled  him  to  a  seat  in  the  senate,  at  the  anre 
 of  twenty-seven  ;  and  about  si.x  years  afterward  he 
 was  elected  tribune  of  the  commons.  While  in  this 
 oflice  he  attached  himself  to  the  fortunes  of  Ca'sar, 
 and,  along  with  one  of  his  colleagues,  conducted  the 
 prosecution  against  Milo  for  the  murder  of  Clodius. 
 In  the  year  of  the  city  704,  he  was  excluded  from  the 
 senate  on  the  pretext  of  immoral  conduct,  but  more 
 probably  from  the  violence  of  the  patrician  party,  to 
 which  he  was  opposed.     Aulus  Gellius,  on  the  au- 
 
 thority of  Varro's  treatise,  Pius  aut  de  Pace,  informs 
 us  that  he  incurred  this  disgrace  in  consequence  of  an 
 intrigue  with  Fausta,  the  wife  of  Milo.  who  caused 
 him  to  be  scourged  by  his  slaves.  (iV.  A.,  17,  18.) 
 It  has  been  doubted,  however,  by  modern  critics, 
 whether  it  was  the  historian  Sallust  who  was  thus  pun- 
 ished, or  his  nephew  Crispus  Sallustius,  to  whom  Hor- 
 ace has  addressed  the  second  ode  of  the  second  book. 
 It  seems,  indeed,  unlikely  that,  in  so  corrupt  an  age, 
 an  amour  with  a  woman  of  Fausta's  abandoned  char- 
 acter should  have  been  the  real  cause  of  his  expulsion 
 from  the  senate.  After  undergoing  this  ignominy, 
 which,  for  the  present,  baffled  all  his  hopes  of  prefer- 
 ment, he  quitted  Rome,  and  joined  his  patron,  Cspsar, 
 in  Gaul.  He  continued  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  that 
 commander,  and,  in  particular,  bore  a  share  in  the  ex- 
 pedition to  Africa,  where  the  scattered  remains  of 
 Pompey's  party  had  united.  That  region  being  finally 
 subdued,  Sallust  was  left  by  Caesar  as  praetor  of  Nu- 
 midia  ;  and  about  the  same  time  married  Terentia,  the 
 divorced  wife  of  Cicero.  He  remained  only  a  year  in 
 his  government,  but  during  that  period  enriched  him- 
 self by  despoiling  the  province.  On  his  return  to 
 Rome  he  was  accused  by  the  Numidians,  whom  he 
 had  plundered,  but  escaped  with  impunity  by  means 
 of  the  protection  of  Caesar,  and  was  quietly  permitted 
 to  betake  himself  to  a  luxurious  retirement  with  his  ill- 
 gotten  wealth.  He  chose  for  his  favourite  retreats  a 
 villa  at  Tibur,  which  had  belonged  to  Caesar,  and  a 
 magnificent  palace,  which  he  built  in  the  suburbs  of 
 Rome,  surrounded  by  delightful  pleasure-grounds,  af- 
 terward well  known  and  celebrated  by  the  name  of  the 
 Gardens  of  Sallust.  In  these  gardens,  or  his  villa  ac 
 Tibur,  Sallust  passed  the  concluding  years  of  his  life, 
 dividing  his  time  between  literary  avocations  and  the 
 society  of  his  friends  ;  among  whom  he  numbered  Lu- 
 cullus,  Messala,  and  Cornelius  Nepos.  —  Such  being 
 his  friends  and  studies,  it  seems  highly  improbable 
 that  he  indulged  in  that  excessive  libertinism  which 
 has  been  attributed  to  him,  on  the  erroneous  supposi- 
 tion that  he  was  the  Sallust  mentioned  by  Horace  in 
 the  first  book  of  his  Satires.  The  subject  of  Sallust's 
 character  is  one  which  has  excited  some  investigation 
 and  interest,  and  on  which  very  different  opinions  have 
 been  formed.  That  he  was  a  man  of  loose  morals  is 
 evident ;  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  he  rapaciously 
 plundered  his  province,  like  most  Roman  governors  of 
 the  day.  But  it  seems  doubtful  if  he  was  that  mon- 
 ster of  iniquity  he  has  been  sometimes  represented. 
 He  was  extremely  unfortunate  in  the  first  permanent 
 notice  taken  of  his  character  by  his  contemporaries. 
 The  decided  enemy  of  Pompey  and  his  faction,  he  had 
 said  of  that  celebrated  chief,  in  his  general  history, 
 that  he  was  a  man  "oris  prohi,  animo  inverecu7ido." 
 Lenffius,  the  freedman  of  Pompey,  avenged  his  master, 
 by  the  most  virulent  abuse  of  his  enemy  (Suclnnius, 
 de  Illusir.  Gramm.,  15),  in  a  work  which  should  rath- 
 er be  rewarded  as  a  frantic  satire  than  an  historical 
 document.  Of  the  injustice  which  he  has  done  to  the 
 life  of  the  historian,  we  may,  in  some  degree,  judge 
 from  what  he  says  of  him  as  an  author.  He  calls  him, 
 as  we  farther  learn  from  Suetonius,  ''Ncbuloncm  vita 
 scriptisquc  monstrosum  ;  prcEterca  prisoorum  Caionis- 
 quc  incruditissimum  furcm."  The  life  of  Sallust,  by 
 Asconius  Pedianus,  which  was  written  in  the  age  of 
 Augustus,  and  might  have  acted,  at  the  present  day, 
 as  a  corrective  or  palliative  of  the  unfavourable  impres- 
 sion produced  by  this  injurious  libel,  has  unfortunately 
 perished  ;  and  the  next  work  on  the  subject  now  extant 
 is  a  professed  rhetorical  declamation  against  the  char- 
 acter of  Sallust,  which  was  given  to  the  world  in  the 
 name  of  Cicero,  but  was  not  written  till  long  after  the 
 death  of  that  orator,  and  is  now  generally  assigned  by 
 critics  to  a  rhetorician  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  called 
 Porcins  T.atro.  The  calumnies  invented  or  exaggera- 
 ted bv  LensEUS,  and  propagated  in  the  scholastic  tUeme 
 ^  1183 
 
SALLUSTIUS. 
 
 SALLUSTIUS. 
 
 of  Porcius  Latro,  have  been  adopted  by  Lc  Clerc,  pro- 
 fessor of  Hebrew  at  Amsterdam,  and  by  Professor 
 Meisner,  of  Prague,  in  their  respective  accounts  of  the 
 life  of  Sallust.  His  character  has  received  more  jus- 
 tice from  the  prefatory  memoir  and  notes  of  De  Bros- 
 ses,  his  French  translator,  and  from  tlie  researches  of 
 "VVieland  in  Germany. — From  what  is  linown  of  Fabi- 
 us  Pictor  and  his  immediate  successors,  it  must  be  ap- 
 parent that  the  art  of  historic  composition  at  Rome 
 was  in  the  lowest  stale,  and  that  Sallust  had  no  model 
 to  imitate  among  the  writers  of  his  own  country.  He 
 therefore  naturally  recurred  to  the  productions  of  the 
 Greek  historians.  The  native  exuberance  and  loqua- 
 cious familiarity  of  Herodotus  were  not  adapted  to 
 his  taste  ;  and  simplicity,  such  as  that  of  Xenophon, 
 is,  of  all  things,  the  most  difficult  to  attain  ;  he  there- 
 fore chiefly  emulated  Thucydides,  and  attempted  to 
 transplant  into  his  own  language  the  vigour  and  con- 
 ciseness of  the  Greek  historian;  but  the  strict  imita- 
 tion with  which  he  followed  him  has  gone  far  to  lessen 
 the  effect  of  his  own  original  genius. — The  first  work 
 of  Sallust  was  the  Conspiracy  of  Catiline.  There  ex- 
 ists, however,  some  doubt  as  to  the  precise  period  of 
 its  composition.  Tlie  general  opinion  is,  that  it  was 
 written  immediately  after  the  author  went  out  of  office 
 as  tribune  of  the  commons,  that  is,  A.U.C.  703.  And 
 the  composition  of  the  JUgurthinc  War,  as  well  as  of 
 his  general  history,  is  fi.xcd  by  Le  Clerc  between  that 
 period  and  his  appointment  to  the  prKtorship  of  Nu- 
 midia.  But  others  have  supposed  that  they  were  all 
 written  during  the  space  which  intervened  between 
 his  return  from  Numidia  in  709,  and  his  death,  which 
 happened  in  718,  four  years  previous  to  the  battle  of 
 Actium.  It  is  maintained  by  the  supporters  of  this 
 last  idea,  that  he  was  too  much  engaged  in  politi- 
 cal tumults  previous  to  his  administration  of  Nu- 
 midia to  have  leisure  for  so  important  compositions  ; 
 that,  in  the  introduction  to  Catiline's  Conspiracy,  he 
 talks  of  himself  as  withdrawn  from  public  affairs, 
 and  refutes  accusations  of  his  voluptuous  life,  which 
 were  only  applicable  to  this  period  ;  and  that,  while 
 instiiuting  the  comparison  between  Csesar  and  Gato, 
 he  speaks  of  the  existence  and  competition  of  these 
 celebrated  opponents  as  things  that  had  passed  over. 
 — "  Scd  mca  memoria,  ingr.nti  virtutc,  diversis  mor- 
 ibus,  fucre  viri  duo,  Marcus  Cato  et  Caius  Ccesar." 
 0-n  this  passage,  too,  Gibbon,  in  particular,  argues, 
 that  such  a  flatterer  and  party  tool  as  Sallust  would 
 not,  during  the  life  of  Cajsar,  have  put  Cato  so  much 
 on  a  level  with  him  in  the  comparison.  De  Brosses 
 argues  vvith  Le  Clerc  in  thinking  that  the  Conspiracy 
 of  Catiline  at  least  must  have  been  written  immediately 
 after  703  ;  as  he  would  not,  after  his  marriage  with 
 Terentia,  have  commemorated  the  disgrace  of  her  sis- 
 ter, who,  it  seems,  was  the  vestal  virgin  whose  in- 
 trigue with  Catiline  is  recorded  by  Sallust.  But, 
 whatever  may  be  the  case  as  to  Catiline's  Conspiracy, 
 it  is  quite  clear  that  the  Jugurthinc  War  was  written 
 subsequently  to  the  author's  residence  in  Numidia, 
 which  evidently  suggested  to  him  this  theme,  and  af- 
 forded him  the  means  of  collecting  the  information 
 necessary  for  completing  his  work.  —  The  subjects 
 chosen  by  Sallust  form  two  of  the  most  important  and 
 prominent  topics  in  the  history  of  Rome.  The  peri- 
 ods, indeed,  which  he  describes  were  painful,  but  they 
 were  interesting.  Full  of  conspiracies,  usurpations, 
 and  civil  wars,  they  chiefly  exhibit  the  mutual  rage 
 and  iniquity  of  imbittered  factions,  furious  struggles 
 between  the  patricians  and  plebeians,  open  corruption 
 in  the  senate,  venality  in  the  courts  of  justice,  and 
 rapine  in  the  provinces.  This  state  of  things,  so  for- 
 cibly painted  by  Sallust,  produced  the  conspiracy,  and, 
 in  some  degree,  the  character  of  Catiline.  13ut  it 
 was  the  oppressive  debts  of  individuals,  the  temper  of 
 Sylla's  soldiers,  and  the  absence  of  Pompey  with  his 
 army,  which  gave  a  possibilitv,  and  even  a  prospect, 
 1184 
 
 of  success  to  a  plot  which  affected  the  vital  esistenc* 
 of  the  commonwealth;  and  which,  although  arrested 
 in  its  commencement,  was  one  of  those  violent  shocks 
 which  hasten  the  fall  of  a  state. — The  History  of  the 
 .lugurthine  War,  if  not  so  imposing  or  menacino'  to 
 the  vital  interests  or  immediate  safety  of  Rome,  exhib- 
 its a  more  extensive  field  of  action,  and  a  greater  the- 
 atre of  war.  No  prince,  except  Mithradates,  gave  so 
 much  employment  to  the  arms  of  the  Romans.  In 
 the  course  of  no  war  in  which  they  had  ever  been  en- 
 gaged, not  even  the  second  Carthaginian  war,  were 
 the  people  more  desponding,  and  in  none  were  they 
 more  elated  with  ultimate  success.  Nothing  can  be 
 more  interesting  than  the  accounts  of  the  vicissitudes 
 of  this  contest.  The  endless  resources  and  hair- 
 breadth escapes  of  Jugurtha;  his  levity;  his  fickle  and 
 faithless  disposition,  contrasted  with  the  perseverance 
 and  prudence  of  the  Roman  commander  Metellus,  are  ali 
 described  in  a  manner  the  most  vivid  and  picturesque. 
 — Sallust  had  attained  the  age  of  twenty-two  when 
 the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  broke  out,  and  was  an  eye- 
 witness of  the  whole  proceedings.  He  had,  there- 
 fore, sufficient  opportunity  of  recording  with  accu- 
 racy and  truth  the  progress  and  termination  of  the  con- 
 spiracy. Sallust  has  certainly  acquired  the  praise  of 
 a  veracious  historian,  and  we  do  not  know  that  he  has 
 been  detected  in  falsifying  any  fact  within  the  sphere 
 of  his  knowledge.  Indeed,  there  are  few  historical 
 compositions  of  which  the  truth  can  be  proved  on  such 
 evidence  as  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline.  The  facts 
 detailed  in  the  orations  of  Cicero,  though  differing  in 
 some  minute  particulars,  coincide  in  everything  of  im- 
 portance, and  highly  contribute  to  illustrate  and  verify 
 the  work  of  our  historian.  But  Sallust  lived  too  near 
 the  period  of  which  he  treated,  and  was  too  much  en- 
 gaged in  the  political  tumults  of  the  day,  to  give  a 
 faithful  account,  unbiased  by  animosity  or  predilec- 
 tion ;  he  could  not  have  raised  himself  above  all  hopes, 
 and  fears,  and  prejudices,  and  therefore  could  not,  in 
 all  their  extent,  have  fulfilled  the  duties  of  an  impartial 
 writer.  A  contemporary  historian  of  such  turbulent 
 times  would  be  apt  to  exaggerate  through  adulation, 
 or  conceal  through  fear ;  to  instil  the  precepts,  not  of 
 the  philosopher,  but  the  partisan  ;  and  colour  facts 
 into  harmony  with  his  own  system  of  patriotism  or 
 friendship.  x'\n  obsequious  follower  of  Caesar,  he 
 has  been  accused  of  a  want  of  candour  in  varnishing 
 over  the  views  of  his  patron  ;  yet  it  is  hard  to  be- 
 lieve that  Caesar  was  deeply  engaged  in  the  conspir- 
 acy of  Catiline,  or  that  a  person  of  his  prudence 
 should  have  leagued  with  such  rash  associates,  or 
 followed  so  desperate  an  adventurer.  But  the  chief 
 objection  urged  against  his  impartiality  is  the  fee- 
 ble and  apparently  reluctant  commendation  he  be- 
 stowed on  Cicero,  who  is  now  acknowledged  to  have 
 been  the  principal  actor  in  detecting  and  frustra- 
 ting the  conspiracy.  Though  fond  of  displaying  h»» 
 talents  in  drawing  characters,  he  exercises  none  of  it 
 on  Cicero,  whom  he  merely  terms  "  homo  egrcgius  et 
 oplumus  consul,"  which  was  but  cold  applause  for  one 
 who  had  saved  the  commonwealth.  It  is  true,  that,  in 
 the  early  part  of  the  history,  praise,  though  sparingly 
 bestowed,  is  not  absolutely  withheld.  The  election 
 of  Cicero  to  the  consulship  is  fairly  attributed  to  the 
 high  opinion  entertained  of  his  talents  and  capacity, 
 which  overcame  the  disadvantages  of  obscure  birth. 
 The  mode  adopted  of  gaining  over  one  of  the  accom- 
 plices, and  for  fixing  his  own  wavering  and  disaffected 
 colleague,  the  dexterity  manifested  in  seizing  the  Al- 
 lobrogian  deputies  with  the  letters,  and  the  irresisti- 
 ble effect  produced  by  confronting  them  with  the  con 
 spirators,  are  attributed  exclusively  to  Cicero.  It  is  in 
 the  conclusion  of  the  business  that  the  historian  with- 
 holds from  him  his  due  share  of  applause,  and  contrives 
 to  eclipse  him  by  always  interposing  the  character  of 
 Cato,  though  it  could  not  be  unknown  to  any  witness 
 
SALLUSTIUS. 
 
 SALLUSTIUS. 
 
 of  those  transactions  that  Cato  himself  and  other  sen- 
 ators publicly  hailed  the  consul  as  ihe  father  of  his 
 country  ;  and  tiiat  a  public  thanksgiving  to  the  gods 
 was  decreed  in  his  nauie,  for  having  preserved  the 
 city  from  conflagration,  and  ihe  citizens  from  massa- 
 cre. This  omission,  which  may  have  originated  part- 
 ly in  enmity,  and  partly  in  disgust  at  the  ill-disguised 
 vanity  of  the  consul,  has  in  all  times  been  regarded  as 
 the  chief  defect,  and  even  stain,  in  the  history  of  the 
 Catilmarian  Conspiracy. — Although  not  an  eyewitness 
 of  the  war  with  Jugurtha,  Sallusc's  situation  as  praetor 
 of  Nuinidia,  which  suggested  the  composition,  was  fa- 
 vourable to  the  authority  of  the  work,  by  affording  op- 
 p-jriunity  of  collecting  materials,  and  procuring  infor- 
 mation. He  examined  into  the  different  accounts, 
 written  as  well  as  traditionary,  concerning  the  history 
 of  Africa,  particularly  the  documents  preserved  in  the 
 archives  of  King  Hiempsal,  which  he  caused  to  be 
 translated  for  his  own  use,  and  which  proved  peculiar- 
 ly serviceable  in  the  detailed  account  which  he  has 
 given  of  the  inhabitants  of  Africa.  In  this  history  he 
 has  been  accused  of  showing  an  undue  partiality  to- 
 wards the  character  of  Marius  ;  and  of  giving,  for  the 
 sake  of  his  favourite  leader,  an  unfair  account  of  the 
 marsacre  at  Vacca.  But  he  appears  to  do  even  more 
 than  am|)le  justice  to  Metellus,  since  he  represents  the 
 war  as  almost  finished  by  him  previous  to  the  arrival 
 of  Marius,  though  it  was,  in  fact,  far  from  being  con- 
 cluded.— Sallust  evidently  regarded  a  fine  style  as  one 
 of  the  chief  merits  of  an  historical  work.  The  style 
 on  which  he  took  so  much  pains  was  carefully  formed 
 on  that  of  Thucydides,  whose  manner  of  writing  was, 
 in  a  great  measure,  original,  and,  till  the  time  of  Sal- 
 lust,  peculiar  to  himself.  The  Roman  has  wonderfully 
 succeeded  in  imitating  the  vigour  and  conciseness  of 
 the  Greek  historian,  and  infusing  into  his  composition 
 something  of  that  dignified  austerity  which  distinguishes 
 the  work  of  his  great  model  ;  but  when  we  say  that 
 Sallust  has  imitated  the  conciseness  of  Thucydides, 
 we  mean  the  rapid  and  compressed  manner  in  which 
 his  narrative  is  conducted  ;  in  short,  brevity  of  idea 
 Taiher  than  of  language.  For  Thucydides,  although 
 he  brings  forward  only  the  principal  idea,  and  discards 
 what  is  collateral,  yet  frequently  employs  long  and  in- 
 volved periods.  Sallust,  on  the  other  hand,  is  abrupt 
 and  sententious,  and  is  generally  considered  as  having 
 carried  this  sort  of  brevity  to  a  vicious  excess.  The 
 use  of  copulatives,  either  for  the  purposes  of  connect- 
 ing his  sentences  with  each  other,  or  uniting  the  claus- 
 es of  the  same  sentence,  is  in  a  great  measure  reject- 
 ed. This  produces  a  monotonous  effect,  and  a  total 
 want  of  that  flow  and  variety  which  is  the  principal 
 charm  of  the  historic  period.  Seneca  accordingly 
 {Episf.,  114)  talks  of  the  ^'  Amputaltt  scnlcnlice,  cl 
 verha  ante  crpeclatum  cadenlia,"  which  the  practice 
 of  Sallust  had  succeeded  in  rendering  fashionable.  It 
 was,  perhaps,  partly  in  imitation  of  Thucydides  that 
 Sallust  introduced  into  his  history  a  number  of  words 
 almost  considered  as  obsolete,  and  which  were  select- 
 ed from  the  works  of  the  older  authors  of  Rome,  par- 
 ticularly (^ato  the  censor.  It  is  on  this  point  he  has 
 been  chiefly  attacked  by  Pollio,  in  his  letters  to  Plan- 
 cus.  He  has  also  been  ta.xed  with  the  opposite  vice, 
 of  coining  new  words,  and  introducing  Greek  idioms  ; 
 but  the  severity  of  judgment  which  led  him  to  imitate 
 the  ancient  and  austere  dignity  of  style,  made  him  re- 
 ject those  sparkling  ornaments  of  composition  which 
 were  beginning  to  infect  the  Roman  taste,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  increasing  popularity  of  the  rhetorical 
 schools  of  declamation,  and  the  more  frequent  inter- 
 course with  Asia.  On  the  whole,  in  the  style  of  Sal- 
 lust, there  is  too  much  appearance  of  study,  and  a  want 
 rf  that  graceful  ease,  which  is  generally  the  effect  of 
 art,  but  in  which  art  is  nowhere  discovered. — Of  all 
 the  departments  of  history,  the  delineation  of  character 
 is  the  most  trying  to  the  temper  and  impartiality  of  the 
 7  1/ 
 
 writer,  more  especially  when  he  has  been  contempo- 
 rary with  the  individuals  he  portrays,  and  in  some  de- 
 gree engaged  in  the  transactions  he  records.      Five  or 
 six  of  the  characters  drawn  by  Sallust  have  in  all  ages 
 been  regarded  as  master-pieces.     He  has  seized  the 
 delicate  shades,  as  well  as  the  prominent  features,  and 
 thrown  over  them  the  most  lively  and  appropriate  col- 
 ouring.     Those  of  the  two  principal  actors  in  his  tra- 
 gic histories  are  forcibly  given,  and  prepare  us  for  the 
 incidents  which  follow.     The  portrait  drawn  of  Cat- 
 iline conveys  a  lively  notion  of  his  mind  and  person, 
 while  the  parallel  drawn  between  Cato  and  Ca-sar  is 
 one  of  the  most  celebrated  passages  in  the  history  of 
 the  conspiracy.     Of  both  these  lamed  opponents  we 
 are  presented  with  favourable  likenesses.     Their  de- 
 fects are  thrown  into  the  shade  ;  and  the  bright  qual- 
 ities  of  each   different  species  by   which   they    wer« 
 distinguished,  are  contrasted  for  the  purpose  of  show- 
 ing the  various  qualities  by  which  men  arrive  at  em- 
 inence.    The  introductory  sketch  of  the  genius  and 
 manners  of  Jugurtha  is  no  less  able  and  spirited  than 
 the  character  of  Catiline.     The  portraits  of  the  other 
 principal   characters   who    figured    in    the   Jugurthine 
 war  are  also  well  brought  out.     That  of  Marius,  in 
 particular,  is  happily  touched.     His  insatiable  ambition 
 is  artfully  disguised  under  the  mask  of  patriotism  ;  his 
 cupidity  and  avarice  are  concealed  under  that  of  mar- 
 tial simplicity  and  hardihood  ;   but,  though  we  know, 
 from  his  subsequent  career,  the  hypocrisy  of  his  pre- 
 tensions, the  character  of  Marius  is  presented  to  us  in 
 a  more  favourable  light  than  that  in  which  it  can  be 
 viewed  on  a  survey  of  his  whole  life.     We   see  the 
 blunt  and  gallant  soldier,  and  not  that  savage  whose  in- 
 nate cruelty  of  soul  was  first  about  to  burst  forth  for  the 
 destruction  of  his  countrymen.     In  drawing  the  por- 
 trait of  Sylla,  the  memorable  rival  of  Marius.  the  his- 
 torian represents  him  also  such  as  he  appeared  at  that 
 period,  not  such  as  he  afterward  proved  himself  to  be. 
 VVc  behold  him  with  pleasure  as  an  accomplished  and 
 subtle  commander,  eloquent  in  speech  and  versatile  in 
 resources  ;  but  there  is  no  trace  of  the  cold-blooded 
 assassin,  the  tyrant,  and  usurper. — History,  in  its  ori- 
 ginal state,  was  confined  to  narrative  ;   the  reader  being 
 left  to  form  his  own  reflections  on  the  deeds  or  events 
 recorded.      The   historic    art,   however,  conveys   not 
 complete  satisfaction,  unless  these  actions  be  connect- 
 ed with  their  causes — the  political  springs  or  private 
 passions  in  which  they  originated.      It  is  the  business, 
 therefore,  of  the  historian,  to  apply  the  conclusions 
 of  the  politician  in  explaining  the  causes  and  effects 
 of   the  transactions  he  relates.      These    transactions 
 the  author  must  receive  from    authentic  monuments 
 or  records,  but  the  remarks  deduced  from  them  must 
 be  the  offspring  of  his  own  ingenuity.     The  reflections 
 with  which  Sallust  introduces  his  narrative,  and  those 
 he  draws  from  it.  are  so  just  and  numerous,  that  he 
 has  by  some  been  considered  the  father  of  philosophic 
 history.     It  must  alwavs,  however,  be  remembered, 
 that  the  proper  subject  of  history  is  the  detail  of  na- 
 tional transactions  ;   that  whatever  forms  not  a  part  of 
 the  narrative  is    episodical,  and    therefore    improper, 
 if  it  be  too  long,  and  do  not  grow  naturally  out  of  the 
 subject.      Now  .some  of   the  political  and   moral  di- 
 gressions of  Sallust  are  neither  very  immedialely  con- 
 nected with  his  subject  nor  very  obviously  suggested 
 by  the  narration.     The  discursive  nature  and  inordi- 
 nate length  of  the  introduction  to  his   histories  have 
 been  strongly  objected  to.     The  first  four  sections  of 
 Catiline's  Conspiracy  have  indeed  little  relation  to  the 
 topic.     They  might  as  well  have  been  prefixed  to  any 
 other  history,  and  much  better  to  a  moral  or  philosoph- 
 ic treatise.     In  fact,  a  considerable  part  of  them,  dea- 
 cantincT  on  the  fleeting  nature  of  wealth  and  beauty, 
 and   all   such  adventitious  possessions,  are  borrowed 
 from  the   second   oration  of  Isocrates.     Perhaps  th«, 
 eight  following  sections  are  also  disproportioned  to  ih» 
 
 1165 
 
SALLUSTIUS. 
 
 SAL 
 
 length  of  the  history ;  but  the  preliminary  essay  they 
 contain  on  the  degradation  of  Roman  manners  and 
 decline  of  virtue,  is  not  an  unsuitable  introduction  to 
 the  conspiracy,  as  it  was  this  corruption  of  morals 
 which  gave  birth  to  it,  and  bestowed  on  it  a  chance 
 of  success.  The  preface  to  the  Jugurthine  War 
 has  much  less  relation  to  the  subject  which  it  is 
 intended  to  introduce.  The  author  discourses  at 
 large  on  his  favourite  topic,  the  superiority  of  men- 
 tal endowments  over  corporeal  advantages,  and  the 
 beauty  of  virtue  and  genius.  He  contrasts  a  life  of 
 listless  indolence  with  one  of  honourable  activity  ; 
 and  finally  descants  on  the  task  of  ihe  historian  as  a 
 suitable  exercise  for  the  highest  faculties  of  the  mind. 
 Besides  the  Conspiracy  of  Catiline  and  the  Jugurthine 
 War,  which  have  been  preserved  entire,  and  from 
 which  our  estimate  of  the  merits  of  Sallust  must  be 
 chiefly  formed,  he  was  the  author  of  a  civil  and  mili- 
 tary history  of  the  republic,  in  five  books,  entitled 
 Hisloria  renim  in  Repiiblica  Romana  Gestarum 
 This  work  was  the  mature  fruit  of  the  genius  of  Sal- 
 lust,  having  been  the  last  he  composed,  and  is  inscribed 
 to  Lucullus,  the  son  of  the  celebrated  commander  of 
 that  name.  It  included,  properly  speaking,  only  a  pe- 
 riod of  thirteen  years,  extending  from  the  resignation 
 of  the  dictatorship  by  Sylla  till  the  promulgation  of 
 ihe  Manilian  Law,  by  which  Pompey  was  invested  with 
 authority  equal  to  that  which  Sylla  had  relinquished; 
 and  obtained,  with  unlimited  power  in  the  East,  the 
 command  of  the  army  destined  to  act  against  Milhrada- 
 les.  This  period,  though  short,  comprehends  some  of 
 the  most  interesting  and  luminous  points  which  appear 
 in  the  Roman  annals.  During  this  interval,  and  almost 
 at  the  same  moment,  the  republic  was  attacked  in  the 
 East  by  the  most  powerful  and  enterprising  of  the 
 Hionarchs  with  whom  it  had  yet  waged  war  ;  in  the 
 We;t  by  one  of  the  most  skilful  of  its  own  generals  ; 
 and  n  the  bosom  of  Italy  by  its  gladiators  and  slaves. 
 The  work  was  also  introduced  by  two  discourses,  the 
 one  presenting  a  picture  of  the  government  and  man- 
 ners of  the  Romans,  from  the  origin  of  their  city  to 
 the  commencment  of  the  civil  wars  ;  the  other  con- 
 taining a  general  view  of  the  dissensions  of  Marius  and 
 Sylla  ;  so  that  the  whole  book  may  be  considered  as 
 connecting  the  termination  of  the  Jugurthine  War  and 
 the  breaking  out  of  Catiline's  conspiracy.  The  loss 
 of  this  valuable  production  is  the  more  to  be  regretted, 
 as  all  the  accounts  of  Roman  history  which  have  been 
 ■written  are  defective  during  the  interesting  period  it 
 eomprehended.  Nearly  seven  hundred  fragments  be- 
 longing to  it  have  been  amassed,  from  scholiasts  and 
 grammarians,  by  Dc  Brosses,  the  French  translator  of 
 Sallust ;  but  they  are  so  short  and  unconnected  that 
 ihey  merely  serve  as  landmarks,  from  which  we  may 
 conjecture  what  subjects  were  treated  of  and  what 
 events  recorded.  The  only  parts  of  the  history  which 
 have  been  preserved  in  any  degree  entire,  are  four 
 orations  and  two  letters.  'I'he  first  is  an  oration  pro- 
 nounced against  Sylla  by  the  turbulent  M.  ..Emilius 
 Lepidus,  who,  as  is  well  known,  being  desirous,  at  the 
 expiration  of  his  year,  to  be  appointed  a  second  time 
 consul,  excited  for  that  purpose  a  civil  war,  and  ren- 
 dered himself  master  of  great  part  of  Italy.  His 
 speech,  which  was  pr»  laratory  to  these  designs,  was 
 delivered  after  Sylla  had  abdicated  the  dictatorship, 
 but  was  still  supposed  to  retain  great  influence  at 
 Rome.  He  is  accordingly  treated  as  being  still  the 
 tyrant  of  the  state  ;  and  the  people  are  exhorted  to 
 throw  off  the  yoke  completely,  and  to  follow  the 
 apeaker  to  the  bold  assertion  of  their  liberties.  The 
 second  oration  is  that  of  Lucius  Philippus,  which  is 
 an  invective  against  the  treasonable  attempt  of  Lep- 
 idus, and  was  calculated  to  rouse  the  people  from  the 
 apathy  with  which  they  beheld  proceedings  that  were 
 likely  to  terminate  in  the  total  subversion  of  the  gov- 
 ernment. The  third  harangue  was  delivered  by  the 
 1186 
 
 tribune  Licinius.  It  was  an  efTort  of  that  demagoga* 
 to  depress  the  patrician  and  raise  the  tribonitian  pow- 
 er ;  for  which  purpose  he  alternately  flatters  the  peo- 
 ple and  reviles  the  senate.  The  oration  of  Marcus 
 Cotta  is  unquestionably  a  fine  one.  He  addressed  it  to 
 the  people,  during  the  period  ol  bis  consulship,  in  order 
 to  calm  their  minds  and  allay  their  resentment  at  the 
 bad  success  of  public  affairs  ;  which,  without  any 
 blame  on  his  part,  had  lately,  in  many  respects,  been 
 conducted  to  an  unprosperous  issue.  Of  the  two  let- 
 ters which  are  extant,  the  one  is  from  Pompey  to  the 
 senate,  complaining  in  very  strong  terms  oi  the  defi- 
 ciency in  the  supplies  for  the  army  which  he  com- 
 manded in  Spain  against  Sertorius  ;  the  other  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  addressed  from  Mithradates  to  Arsaces, 
 king  of  Parthia,  and  to  be  written  when  the  affairs  of 
 the  former  monarch  were  proceeding  unsuccessfully. 
 It  exhorts  him,  nevertheless,  with  great  eloquence  and 
 power  of  argument,  to  join  him  in  an  alliance  against 
 the  Romans  :  for  this  purpose,  it  places  in  a  strong 
 point  of  view  their  unprincipled  policy  and  ambitious 
 desire  of  universal  empire  :  all  which  could  not,  with- 
 out this  device  of  an  imaginary  letter  by  a  foe,  have 
 been  so  well  urged  by  a  national  historian.  It  con- 
 cludes with  showing  the  extreme  danger  which  the 
 Parthians  would  incur  from  the  hostility  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, should  they  succeed  in  finally  subjugating  Pon- 
 tus  and  Armenia.  The  only  other  fragment  of  any 
 length,  is  the  description  of  a  splendid  entertainment 
 given  to  Metellus  on  his  return,  after  a  year's  absence 
 from  his  government  of  Farther  Spain.  It  appears, 
 from  several  other  fragments,  that  Sallust  had  intro- 
 duced, on  occasion  of  the  Mithradatic  war,  a  geograph- 
 ical account  of  the  shores  and  countries  bordering  on 
 the  Euxine,  in  the  same  manner  as  he  enters  into  a 
 topographical  description  of  Africa  in  his  history  of  the 
 Jugurthine  War.  This  part  of  his  work  has  been  much 
 applauded  by  ancient  writers  for  exactness  and  liveli- 
 ness, and  is  frequently  referred  to,  as  the  highest  au- 
 thority, by  Strabo,  Pomponius  Mela,  and  other  geogra- 
 phers. Besides  his  historical  works,  there  exist  two 
 political  discourses,  concerning  the  administration  of 
 the  government,  in  the  form  of  letters  to  Julius  (Jaesar, 
 which  have  generally,  though  not  on  sufficient  grounds, 
 been  attributed  to  the  pen  of  Sallust.  The  best  edi- 
 tions of  Sallust  are,  that  of  Cortius,  Lips.,  1742,  4to; 
 that  of  Havercamp,  Amst.,  1742,  4to,  2  vols.  ;  that  of 
 Burnouf,  Paris,  1821,  8vo  ;  that  of  Cierlach,  Basil., 
 1823,  scqq.,  3  vols.  4to  ;  and  that  of  Frotscher,  Lips., 
 1823-30,  2  vols.  8vo.  {Dtinlop's  Roman  Literature, 
 vol.  2,  p.   143,  scqq.) 
 
 SALM.icis,  a  fountain  near  Halicarnassus  in  Caria, 
 which  was  fabled  to  render  effeminate  all  who  drank 
 ot  its  waters.  It  was  here  that  Hermaphroditus,  ac- 
 cording to  the  poets,  underwent  his  strange  metamor- 
 phosis. The  fountain  was  situate  at  the  foot  of  a 
 rock,  and  on  the  summit  of  this  rock  was  a  very  strong 
 castle,  which  a  Persian  garrison  long  held  against 
 Alexander.     (Arnan,  Exp.  Ai,  1,  24.) 
 
 SALM.iNTiCA,  a  city  of  llispania,  in  the  northeastern 
 angle  of  Lusitania.  It  is  very  probably  the  same  with 
 the  Elmantica  of  Polybius  (3,  14)  and  the  Hermandica 
 ofLivy  (21,  .5),  which  Hannibal  took  in  his  expedition 
 against  the  Vaccasi.  It  is  now  Salamanca.  {Man- 
 nert,  vol.  1,  p.  348.) 
 
 Salmone,  a  city  of  Elis,  of  great  antiquity,  north- 
 west of  Olmypia.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
 Salmoneus.     {Apollod.,  1,  9,  1.— Strabo,  3.56  ) 
 
 Salmoneus,  a  king  of  Elis,  son  of  .■Eolus  and 
 Enarete,  who  married  Alcidice,  by  whom  he  had 
 Tyro.  He  wished  to  be  called  a  god,  and  to  receive 
 divine  honours  from  his  subjects  ;  and,  therefore,  to 
 imitate  the  thunder,  he  used  to  drive  his  chariot  over 
 a  brazen  bridge,  and  darted  burning  torches  on  every 
 side,  as  if  to  imitate  the  lightning.  This  impiety  pro 
 voked  Jupiter.     Salmoneus  was  struck  with  a  thun- 
 
S  AM 
 
 SAM 
 
 derbolt,  and  placed  in  the  infernal  regions  near  his 
 brother  Sisyphus. — Consult,  in  explanation  of  this  le- 
 gend, the  article  Elicius,  p.  467,  col.  1,  near  the  end. 
 (Horn.,  Od.,  11,  'Z35.—Apollod,  1,  %.—Hijgin.,  fab., 
 m.—  Vtrg.,  JEn.,  6.  5,85.) 
 
 Sai.mydessus  (2a/l/zT;(i/;(T(T0f),  or,  as  the  later  Greek 
 and  the  Latin  writers  give  tlie  name,  Halmydessus  ('AA- 
 fiv^rj(SG6^),  a  city  of  Thrace,  on  the  coast  of  the  Eux- 
 ine,  below  the  promontory  of  'I'hynias.  The  name 
 properly  belonged  to  the  entire  range  of  coast  from 
 the  Thynian  promontory  to  the  mouth  of  the  Bospo- 
 rus. And  it  was  this  portion  of  the  coast  in  particu- 
 lar that  obtained  for  the  Euxine  its  earlier  name  of 
 Azcnos,  or  "  inhospitable."  The  shore  was  rendered 
 dangerous  by  shallows  and  marshes  ;  and  when  any 
 vessels,  either  through  want  of  skill  or  the  violence 
 of  the  wind,  became  entangled  among  these,  the  Thra- 
 cian  inhabitants  poured  down  upon  them,  plundered 
 the  cargoes,  and  made  the  inhabitants  slaves.  In 
 their  eagerness  to  obtain  the  booty,  quarrels  often 
 arose  among  the  petty  tribes  in  this  quarter,  and  hence 
 catne  eventually  the  singular  custom  of  marking  out 
 the  shore  with  stones,  as  so  many  limits  within  which 
 each  were  to  plunder.  {Xen.,  Anab.,  7,  6.)  Strabo 
 names  the  AstK  as  the  inhabitants  of  this  region, 
 whose  territory  reached  to  the  north  as  far  as  Apollo- 
 nia.  The  Thyni,  no  doubt,  are  included  under  this 
 name.  The  republic  of  Byzantium  put  an  end  to  this 
 system  of  plunder. — The  modern  Midjeh  answers  to 
 the  ancient  city  of  Salmydessus.  (Mela,  2,  2. — 
 Plin  ,  4,  11. — Diod.  Sic,  14,  33. — Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  7,  p.  149.) 
 
 Salon,  now  Salotia,  the  principal  harbour  of  Dal- 
 matia,  and  always  considered  as  an  important  post  by 
 the  Romans  after  their  conquest  of  that  country.  Pliny 
 styles  it  a  colony  (3,  22),  which  is  confirmed  by  vari- 
 ous inscriptions.  (Grutcr.,  Thfs  ,22,  12.)  The  name 
 is  sometimes  written  Salona  and  Salonae.  (Cces.,  B. 
 G.,  3,  9. — Hnt .  B.  Alex  ,  43.)  It  was  not  the  na- 
 tive place  of  the  Emperor  Dioclesian,  as  is  commonly 
 supposed.  That  monarch  was  born  at  Dioclea,  in  its 
 ■vicinity  ;  and  to  this  quarter  he  retired  after  he  had 
 abdicated  the  imperial  power.  Here  he  built  a  splen- 
 did palace,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  at 
 Spala/ro,  about  three  miles  from  Salona.  (Wesscl- 
 ing,  ad.  Itin.  Anion  ,  p.  270. — Adam''s  Antiquities  of 
 Spalatro — Cramer''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol    1,  p.  36.) 
 
 Sai.vianus,  a  native  of  Colonia  Agrippina  (Co- 
 logne), one  of  the  early  fathers  of  the  Christian  Church. 
 He  led  a  religious  life  at  Massilia  during  the  greater 
 part  of  the  5th  century,  and  died  in  that  city.  Salvian 
 was  the  author  of  several  works  on  devotional  sub- 
 jects, of  which  there  are  yet  extant  a  treatise  "  on 
 the  Providence  of  God"  (De  gubernatione  Dei,  &c.), 
 in  eight  books  ;  another  in  four  books,  written 
 "  Against  avarice,  especially  in  priests  and  clerical 
 persons;"  and  nine  pastoral  letters  His  works,  as 
 far  as  they  remain,  were  collected  and  printed  to- 
 gether, in  two  volumes  8vo,  by  Baluzins,  Paris,  1663. 
 
 Sacyes,  a  people  of  Gaul,  extending  from  the 
 Rhone,  along  the  southern  bank  of  the  Druentia  or 
 Durance,  almost  to  the  Alps.  They  were  powerful 
 opponents  to  the  Greeks  of  Massilia.     (Liv.,  5,  34.) 
 
 Samara,  a  river  of  Gaul,  now  called  the  Sommr.. 
 The  name  of  this  stream  in  intermediate  geography 
 was  Surnina  or  Sumena,  corrupted  into  Sumona ; 
 whence  the  modern  appellation.    (V'ld  Samarobriva.) 
 
 Samaria,  a  city  and  country  of  Palestine,  famous 
 in  sacred  history.  The  district  of  Samaria  lay  to  the 
 north  of  Judia.  The  origin  of  the  Samaritan  nation 
 was  as  foJlows  :  In  the  reign  of  Rehoboatn,  a  division 
 was  made  of  the  people  of  Israel  into  two  distinct 
 kingdoms.  One  of  these  kingdoms,  called  Judah, 
 consisted  of  such  as  adhered  to  Rehoboam  and  the 
 house  sf  David,  comprising  the  two  tribes  of  Judah 
 and  Benjamin  ;  the  other  ten  tribes  retained  the  an- 
 
 cient name  of  Israelites  under  Jeroboam.  The  capi- 
 tal of  the  state  of  these  latter  was  Samaria,  which 
 was  also  the  name  of  their  country.  The  Samaritans 
 and  the  people  of  Judea  were  lasting  and  bitter  ene- 
 mies. I'lie  former  deviated  in  several  respects  from 
 the  strictness  of  the  Mosaic  law,  though  afterward  the 
 religion  of  the  two  nations  became  more  closely  as- 
 similated ;  and,  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  the  Samar- 
 itans obtained  leave  of  that  conqueror  to  build  a  tem- 
 ple on  Mount  Gerizim,  near  the  city  of  Samaria,  m 
 imitation  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  where  they  prac- 
 tised the  same  forms  of  worship.  Among  the  people 
 of  Judasa,  the  name  of  Samaritan  was  a  term  of  bit- 
 ter reproach,  and  disgraceful  in  a  high  degree.  The 
 city  of  Samaria  was  situate  on  Mount  Sameron,  and 
 was  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  from  Omri  its 
 founder  to  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom.  It  was 
 razed  to  the  ground  by  Hyrcanus,  but  rebuilt  by  He- 
 rod, who  completed  the  work  begun  by  (Jabinius,  pro- 
 consul of  Syria.  Herod  called  it  Sebaste,  in  honour 
 of  Augustus.  (1  Kings,  16,  24.  —  Ibid,  17,  6. — 
 Ibid.,  22,  52.-2  Kings,  17,  Q.  —  Jerem  ,  23,  13.— 
 Jos.,  Ant ,  8,  7.— Id.  ibid.,  13,  15.  — /d.  ihid.,  15, 
 n.—Bell.  Jud.,  1,  6.) 
 
 Samarobriva.  a  town  of  Gaul,  now  Amiens,  the 
 capital  of  the  Ambiani.  Its  name  appears  to  mean 
 "  the  city  on  the  Samara,"  since  it  lay  on  this  river, 
 and  since  the  termination  briva.  in  Celtic  is  thought  to 
 have  had,  among  its  other  meanings,  that  of  "city"  or 
 "place."  (Vid  Meseinbria  )  Some,  less  correctly, 
 make  it  signify  "  the  bridge"  or  "  passage  of  the  Sa- 
 mara," as,  for  example,  Lemaire,  in  his  Geographical 
 Index  to  Cajsar.  (Amm.  MarcclL,  15,  27. — Cais.,  B. 
 G.,  5,  24;    45,  51.) 
 
 Same,  the  only  town  in  the  island  of  Cephallenia  no- 
 ticed by  Homer,  from  which  we  may  infer  that  it  was 
 the  most  ancient  and  considerable  (0(/.,  2,  249.)  It 
 was  maintained  by  Apollodorus,  that  the  fioct  used  the 
 word  Samos  to  designate  the  island,  and  Same  the 
 town.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  in  another  passage 
 (Od.,  14,  122),  the  latter  name  is  applied  to  the  island. 
 (Strabo,  453.)  When  Cephallenia  submitted  to  the 
 Romans,  Same,  with  other  towns,  gave  hostages  ;  but 
 having  afterward  revolted,  it  sustained  a  vigorous  siege 
 for  four  months.  At  length  the  citadel  Cyatis  being 
 taken,  the  inhabitants  retired  into  their  larger  fortress  ; 
 but  surrendered  the  following  day,  when  they  were  all 
 reduced  to  slavery.  (Lir,.,  38,  28,seqq.)  Strabo  re- 
 ports that  some  vestiges  of  this  town  remained  in  his 
 day  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island.  (Strabo,  455.) 
 This  spot  retains  the  name  of  Samo,  which  is  also  that  of 
 the  bay  at  the  extremity  of  which  it  is  situated.  It  ex- 
 hibits still  very  extensive  walls  and  excavations  among 
 its  ruins,  which  have  afforded  various  specimens  of  an- 
 cient ornaments,  medals,  vases,  and  fragments  of  stat- 
 ues. (Holland's  Travels,  vol.  1,  p.  55. — Dodwcll, 
 vol.  1,  p.  75. — Cramer's  Anc   Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  52.) 
 
 Samni'tes,  a  people  of  Italy,  whose  territory  was 
 bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Peligni  and  Frentani  ;  to 
 the  west  it  bordered  on  the  extremity  of  Latium  and 
 on  Campania,  being  separated  from  the  latter  province 
 by  the  Vulturnus,  Mons  Callicula,  and  the  chain  of 
 Mount  Tifala.  To  the  south  a  prolongation  of  the 
 same  ridge  divided  the  Samnites  from  the  Picentini 
 and  Lucani.  To  the  east  they  were  contiguous  to 
 .\pulia,  from  the  river  Tifcrnus  to  the  source  of  the 
 Aulidus.  It  is  usual  with  geographers  to  regard  the 
 ancient  Samnites  as  divided  into  three  tribes,  the  Car- 
 aceni,  Pentri,  and  Hirpmi  ;  to  which  others  have  added 
 the  Caudini  and  Frentani  ;  but  the  former  classifica- 
 tion seems  to  rest  on  better  authority  — Whatever  dif- 
 ference of  opinion  may  prevail  among  the  writers  of 
 antiquity  respecting  the  origin  of  other  Italian  tribes, 
 they  seem  agreed  in  ascribing  that  of  the  Samnite  na- 
 tion to  the  Sabines.  (Consult  remarks  under  the  arti- 
 cle Sabini.)     The  Samnites,  like  the  Romans,  were  an 
 
 1187 
 
SAMNITES. 
 
 SAM 
 
 ambitious  and  rising  nation,  rendered  confident  by  their 
 successes  over  the  Tuscans  and  the  Oscans  of  Cam- 
 pania ;  and  formidable  not  only  from  their  own  re- 
 sources, but  also  from  the  ties  of  consanguinity  which 
 connected  them  with  the  Freniani,  Vesiini,  Peligni,  and 
 oihrr  hardy  tribes  of  Central  Italy.  The  rich  and  fer- 
 tile territory  of  Campania  was  then  the  nominal  object 
 of  the  contest  which  ensued,  but  in  reality  they  founht 
 for  the  dominion  of  Italy,  and  consequently  that  of  the 
 world  ;  which  was  at  stake  so  long  as  the  issue  of  the 
 war  was  doubtful.  Livy  seems  to  have  formed  a  just 
 idea  of  the  importance  of  that  struggle,  and  the  fierce 
 obstinacy  with  which  it  was  carried  on,  when  he  pauses 
 in  the  midst  of  his  narrative,  in  order  to  point  out  the 
 unwearied  constancy  with  which  the  Samnites,  though 
 so  often  defeated,  renewed  their  efforts,  if  not  for  em- 
 pire, at  least  for  freedom  and  independence  (10,  32). 
 But  when  that  historian  recounts  an  endless  succession 
 of  reverses  sustained  by  this  nation,  attended  with 
 losses  which  must  have  quickly  drained  a  far  greater 
 population,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  suspecting  him  of 
 considerable  exaggeration  and  repetition  ;  especially 
 as  several  campaigns  are  mentioned  without  a  single 
 distinct  fact  or  topographical  mark  to  give  reality  and 
 an  appearance  of  truth  to  the  narrative.  Nor  is  Livy 
 always  careful  to  point  out  the  danger  which  not  un- 
 frequently  threatened  Rome  on  the  part  of  these  for 
 midable  adversaries.  It  is  true  that  he  relates  with 
 great  beauty  and  force  of  description  the  disaster 
 which  befell  the  Roman  arms  at  the  defiles  of  Caudi- 
 um  ;  but  has  he  been  equally  e.xplicit  in  laying  before 
 his  readers  the  consequences  of  that  event,  which  not 
 only  opened  to  the  victorious  Samnites  the  gates  of 
 several  Volscian  cities,  but  exposed  a  great  portion  of 
 Latium  to  be  ravaged  by  their  troops,  and  brought 
 them  nearly  to  the  gates  of  Rome  1  (Liv.,9,  12. — 
 Compare  Sfraho,  232,  249.)  In  fact,  though  often  at- 
 tacked in  their  own  territory,  we  as  often  find  the 
 Samnile  legions  opposed  to  their  inveterate  foes  in 
 Apulia,  in  the  territories  of  the  Volsci  and  Ilernici, 
 and  even  in  those  of  the  Umbrians  and  Etruscans. 
 (Ljw  ,  10  )  Admirably  trained  and  disciplined,  they 
 executed  the  orders  of  their  commanders  with  the 
 greatest  alacrity  and  promptitude  ;  and  such  was  the 
 warlike  spirit  of  the  whole  population,  that  they  not 
 unfrequently  brought  into  the  field  80,000  foot  and 
 8000  horse.  (Strabo,  259.)  A  victory  over  such  a 
 foe  might  well  deserve  the  honours  of  a  triumph;  and 
 when  the  Romans  had  at  length,  by  repeated  successes, 
 established  their  superiority,  they  could  then  justly  lay 
 claim  to  the  title  of  the  first  troops  in  the  world.  But 
 though  the  Samnites  were  often  overmatched  and 
 finally  crushed  by  the  superior  conduct  and  power 
 of  the  Romans,  it  is  evident  that  the  spirit  of  inde- 
 pendence still  breathed  strong  in  their  hearts,  and 
 waited  but  for  an  opportunity  to  display  itself  Thus, 
 when  Pyrrhus  raised  his  standard  in  the  plains  of 
 Apulia,  the  Sammte  bands  swelled  his  ranks,  and 
 seemed  rather  to  strengthen  the  forces  of  that  prince 
 than  to  derive  assistance  from  his  army.  Nor  did  they 
 neglect  the  occasion  which  presented  itself,  on  the  ap- 
 pearance of  Hannibal  in  their  country,  for  shaking  ofl" 
 the  Roman  yoke,  but  voluntarily  offered  to  join  him  in 
 the  field  against  the  common  enemy.  (Liv  ,  23,  42.) 
 Rome  had  already  triumphed  over  Carthage,  Macedon, 
 and  Antiochus,  and  was  regarded  as  mistress  of  the 
 world,  when  a  greater  danger  than  any  she  had  before 
 encountered  threatened  her  dominion  in  Italy,  and 
 shook  the  very  seat  of  her  power.  This  was  the  break- 
 ing,out  of  the  Social  war,  which  afforded  the  most  con- 
 vincing proof  that  the  Samnite  people  were  not  yet 
 conquered,  in  that  bloody  contest  which,  in  the  space 
 of  a  few  years,  is  said  to  have  occasioned  the  loss  of 
 300,000  lives.  {Veil.  Paterc,  2,  15.)  This  people 
 formed  the  chief  strength  and  nerve  of  the  coalition  : 
 •uch  was  their  determined  enmity  against  the  Romans, 
 USA 
 
 that  they  even  invited  Mithradates,  king  of  Pontns,  to 
 join  his  forces  to  those  of  the  confederates  in  Italy. 
 (Diod.,  Excerpt.,  37.)  Even  though  deserted  by  iheir 
 allies  and  left  to  their  own  resources,  they  still  con- 
 tinued in  arms  till  the  fortune  of  Sylla  and  the  Homans 
 prevailed,  and  they  ceased  to  exist  as  a  nation.  It 
 was  not  till  he  had  achieved  the  total  destruction  of 
 the  last  Samnite  army,  at  the  very  gates  of  Rome,  that 
 Sylla  at  length  felt  assured  of  permanent  success,  and 
 ventured  to  assume  the  title  of  Felix.  His  fear  o(  the 
 Samnite  name,  however,  led  him  farther  to  persecute 
 that  unhappy  people,  thousands  of  whom  were  butch- 
 ered at  his  command,  and  the  rest  proscrilied  and  Ijari- 
 ished.  He  was  said,  indeed,  to  have  declared,  that 
 Rome  would  enjoy  no  rest  so  long  as  a  number  of 
 Samnites  could  be  collected  together.  {Slralio,  249. 
 —Flur.,  3,  2\.—  Vell.  Paterc,  2,  26.—Liv,  Epit , 
 88. — Plut.,  Vit.  SylL. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Iiahj,  vol.  2, 
 p.  221,  seqq.) 
 
 SamnIum,  I.  a  region  of  Italy,  inhabited  by  the 
 Samnites.  (Fid.  Samnites  ) — II  A  city  of  Samnium. 
 It  was  long  a  matter  of  great  doubt  with  antiquaries 
 and  geographers,  whether  we  could  admit  the  exist- 
 ence of  a  city  called  Samnium  in  the  |)iovince  of  the 
 same  name,  as  the  evidence  of  this  fart  rested  only  on 
 an  obscure  passage  of  Florus  (1,  16),  and  the  still 
 more  uncertain  testimony  of  Paulus  Diaconiis.  (A'er. 
 Lan<r.,  2,  20  )  But  it  seemed  to  acquire  addinoual 
 confirmation  from  an  inscription  discovered  in  the  tomb 
 of  the  Scipios,  in  which  the  name  of  Samnium  occurs 
 as  that  of  a  town  taken  by  Scipio  Barbntus  ;  nor  can 
 farther  evidence  be  required  on  this  point,  after  the 
 [iroofs  adduced  by  Romanclli  from  old  ecclesiastical 
 chronicles,  which  speak  of  a  town  named  Samnia  or 
 Samne,  on  the  site  now  called  Cerro,  near  the  source 
 of  the  Vulturnus.  ( Crar/ier's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 227.) 
 
 SammonTum  or  Sai.mone,  as  we  find  it  written  in 
 the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (27,  7),  a  promoniory  of 
 Crete,  forming  the  extreme  point  of  the  island  towards 
 the  coast.  (Dio/iys.  Perieg.,  109.)  Strabo  says  it 
 faces  the  Isle  of  Rhodes  and  Egypt ;  but  his  assertion 
 that  it  is  nearly  in  the  same  latitude  with  the  Promon- 
 tory of  Sunium  is  erroneous  (Strab  ,  474),  since,  ac- 
 cording to  the  best  maps.  Cape  Salomone,  by  which 
 name  it  is  now  distinguished,  is  more  than  two  degrees 
 to  tne  east  of  the  Attic  headland.  Mannert  has  en- 
 deavoured to  prove  that  (^ape  Sidero  or  Sunio,  as  it  is 
 sometimes  called,  is  the  Sammonium  of  the  ancients; 
 but  his  reasons  are  certainly  not  conclusive.  The  very 
 fact,  indeed,  of  the  Periplus  allowing  120  stadia  from 
 the  Dionysiades  Insula;  to  the  Sammoiiian  Promontory 
 is  decisive  against  him  ;  as  that  distance  agrees  [)er- 
 fectly  with  Cape  Salomone,  whereas  Cape  Sidero  is 
 only  fifty  stadia  at  most  from  those  islands.  {Cro- 
 oner's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  371. — Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  8,  p.  706.) 
 
 Samos,  an  island  of  the  .(Egean,  lying  off  the  lower 
 part  of  the  coast  of  Ionia,  and  nearly  opposite  the  1'ro- 
 gilian  Promontory.  The  intervening  strait  was  not 
 more  than  seven  stadia  in  the  narrov^est  part.  {Strab., 
 637.)  The  first  inhabitants  were  Carians  and  Leie 
 ges,  whose  king  Ancanis,  according  to  the  poet  Asius, 
 cited  by  Pausanias,  married  Samia,  daughter  of  the 
 Majander.  The  first  Ionian  colony  came  into  the  isl- 
 and from  E))idaurus,  having  been  expelled  from  the 
 latter  quarter  hy  the  Argives.  The  leader  of  this  col- 
 ony was  Procles,  a  descendant  of  Ion.  Under  his  son 
 Leogoras,  the  settlement  was  invaded  by  the  Ephe- 
 sians,  under  the  pretext  that  Leogoras  had  sided  with 
 the  Carians  against  Ephesus.  The  colony  being  ex- 
 pelled from  Samos,  retired  for  a  time  to  Ansea  in  Ca- 
 ria,  whence  they  again  invaded  the  island,  and  finally 
 expelled  the  Ephesians.  Samos  is  early  distinguished 
 in  the  maritime  annals  of  Greece,  from  the  naval  as- 
 cendancy it  acquired  in  the  time  of  Polycrates.    ( Vid. 
 
SAMOS. 
 
 SAM 
 
 Polycrates  )  After  the  death  of  this  ruler,  the  govern- 
 ment was  held  for  some  tunc  by  M^aiidrius,  his  sec- 
 retary ;  but  he  was  excelled  by  the  troops  of  Darius, 
 who  placed  on  the  throne  Syloson,  the  brother  of  Po- 
 lycrates, on  account  of  some  service  he  had  rendered 
 him  in  Eifvpt,  when  as  yet  he  was  but  a  private  per- 
 son. (Herod  ,'3,  140.)  S.rabo  reports,  ihat  the  yoke 
 of  this  new  tyrant  pressed  more  heavily  on  the  Saini- 
 ans  than  that  of  Polvcraies,  and  that,  in  consequence, 
 the  island  became  nearly  deserted  ;  whence  arose  the 
 proverb,  "Enijri  Sn/ioawi'rof  £vpvx(jpiTi.  (Slrah  ,  638. 
 — Compare  Heraclid.,  I'ont.,  p.  211.)  From  Herodo- 
 tus, however,  we  learn,  that  tlie  Samians  took  an  ac- 
 tive part  III  ihe  Ionian  revolt,  and  furnished  sixty  ships 
 10  the  fleet  assembled  at  Lade  ;  but,  by  the  intrigues 
 of  yEaces,  son  of  Syloson,  who  had  been  deposed  by 
 Aristagoras,  and  consequently  favoured  the  Persian 
 arms,  the  greater  part  of  their  squadron  deserted  the 
 confederacy  m  the  battle  that  ensued,  and  thus  con- 
 tributed greatly  to  the  defeat  of  the  allies  (Herod., 
 6,  8,sef/q.)  On  learning  the  result  of  the  battle,  many 
 of  the  Samians  determined  to  quit  the  island  rather 
 than  submit  to  the  Persian  yoke,  or  that  of  a  tyrant 
 imposed  by  them.  They  accordingly  embarked  on 
 board  their  ships,  and  sailed  for  Sicily,  where  they 
 first  occu[)ied  Calacte,  and  soon  after,  with  the  assist- 
 ance of  Anaxilas,  tyrant  of  Rhegium,  the  important 
 town  and  harbour  of  Zancle.  ..i^aces  was  replaced  on 
 the  throne  of  Satnos,  and,  out  of  consideration  for  his 
 services,  the  town  and  its  temples  were  spared.  After 
 the  battle  of  Salamis,  the  Samians  secretly  sent  a  dep- 
 utation to  the  Greek  fleet  stationed  at  Delos,  to  urge 
 them  to  liberate  Ionia,  they  being  at  that  time  gov- 
 erned by  a  tyrant  named  Theomestor,  appointed  by 
 the  Persian  king.  (Herod.,  9,  90.)  In  consequence 
 of  this  invitation,  Leotychidas,  the  Spartan  command- 
 er, advanced  with  his  fleet  to  the  coast  of  Ionia,  and 
 gained  the  important  victory  of  Mycale.  The  Sami- 
 ans having  regained  their  independence,  joined,  to- 
 gether with  the  other  Ionian  states,  the  Grecian  con- 
 federacy, and  with  them  passed  under  the  protection, 
 or.  rather,  the  dominion  of  Athens.  The  latter  power, 
 however,  having  attempted  to  change  the  constitution 
 of  the  island  to  a  democracy,  had  nearly  been  expelled 
 by  the  oligarchical  party,  aided  by  Pissuthnes,  satrap 
 of  Sardis  Being  overpowered,  however,  finally  by 
 the  overwhelming  force  brought  against  them  by  the 
 Athenians  under  Pericles,  the  Samians  were  com- 
 pelled to  destroy  ihcir  fortifications,  give  up  their  ships, 
 deliver  hostages,  and  pay  the  expense  of  the  war  by 
 instalments.  This  occurred  a  few  years  before  the 
 breaking  out  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  (Thucyd.,  1, 
 115.  xeqq  )  After  this  we  hear  little  of  Samos  till 
 the  end  of  the  Sicilian  expedition,  when  the  maritime 
 war  was  transferred  to  the  Ionian  coast  and  islands. 
 At  this  time  Samos  became  the  great  poivt  d'appui  of 
 the  Athetiian  fleet,  which  was  stationed  there  for  the 
 defence  of  the  colonics  and  subject  states  ;  and  there 
 is  little  doubt  that  the  power  of  Athens  was  alone  pre- 
 served at  this  time  by  means  of  that  island.  We 
 learn  from  Polybius  (5,  35,  11),  that,  after  the  death 
 of  Alexander,  !<>amo6  became  for  a  time  subject  to  the 
 kings  of  Egypt.  Subsequently  it  fell  into  the  hands 
 of  Antiochus,  and,  on  his  defeat,  into  those  of  the  Ro- 
 mans. It  lost  the  last  shadow  of  republican  freedom 
 under  the  E^mperor  Vespasian,  A. (3.  70. — The  tem- 
 ple and  worship  of  Juno  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
 fame  and  aflSuence  of  Samos.  Pausanias  asserts  that 
 this  edifice  was  of  very  great  antiquity  ;  this,  he  says, 
 was  apparent  from  the  statue  of  the  goddess,  which 
 was  of  wood,  and  the  work  of  Smilis,  an  artist  con- 
 temfiorary  with  Dnedalus.  (Vaugan.,  7,  4 — Callim., 
 Epif(r.,aji.  Ewscb..Prap.  Et>ancr.,3,S  — Clem.  Alex., 
 Prntr.,  p  30  )  In  Strabo's  time,  this  temple  was 
 •adorned  with  a  profusion  of  the  finest  works  of  art,  es- 
 liecially  paintings,  both  in  the  nave  of  the  build in^  and 
 
 the  several  chapels  adjoining.  The  outside  was  equal- 
 ly decorated  with  beautiful  statues  by  the  most  cele- 
 brated sculptors.  Besides  this  great  temple,  Herodo- 
 tus describes  two  other  works  of  the  Samians  which 
 were  most  worthy  of  admiration  :  one  was  a  tunnel 
 carried  through  a  mountain  for  the  length  of  seven 
 stadia,  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  water  to  the  city 
 from  a  distant  fountain.  Another  was  a  mole,  made 
 to  add  security  to  th^  harbour  ;  its  depth  was  twenty 
 fathoms,  and  its  length  more  than  two  stadia.  (He- 
 rod., 3,  60.) — The  circuit  of  this  celebrated  island, 
 which  retains  its  ancient  name,  is  600  stadia,  according 
 to  Sirabo.  Agathemerus  reckons  630.  Pliny,  how- 
 ever. 87  miles,  which  make  upward  of  700  stadia. 
 (Plin.,  5,  31.)  It  yielded  almost  every  kind  of  prod- 
 uce, with  the  exception  of  wine,  in  such  abundance, 
 that  a  proverbial  expression,  used  by  Menander.  was 
 ajiplied  to  it,  ^ipei  Koi  bpviduv  ydXa.  {Slrab.,  637.) 
 — The  city  of  Samos  was  situate  exactly  ojiposite  the 
 Trogilian  Promoniory  and  Mount  Mycale.  The  jiort 
 was  secure  and  convenient  for  ships,  and  the  towi,,  for 
 the  most  part,  stood  in  a  plain,  rising  gradually  from 
 the  sea  towaids  a  hill  situate  at  some  distance  from 
 it.  The  citadel,  built  by  Polvcrates,  was  called  Asty- 
 palaja.  (S/epft.  Bijz.,  s.  v.'kaTVKuAaLa.  —  Cramer's 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p  402,  seqq.)  Dr.  Clarke  has 
 the  following  remarks  concerning  this  island  :  "  As 
 we  sailed  to  the  northward  of  the  island  of  Patmos, 
 we  were  surprised  to  see  Samos  so  distinctly  in  view. 
 It  is  hardly  possible  that  the  relative  situation  of  Sa- 
 mos and  Patmos  can  be  accurately  laid  down  in 
 D'Anville's.  or  any  more  recent  chart  ;  for,  keeping 
 up  to  windward,  we  found  ourselves  to  be  so  close 
 under  Samos,  that  we  had  a  clear  view  both  of  the 
 island  and  of  the  town.  This  island,  the  most  con- 
 spicuous object,  not  only  of  the  Ionian  Sea,  but  of  all 
 the  ^gean,  is  less  visited,  and,  of  course,  less  known 
 than  any  other  ;  it  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  con- 
 siderable of  them  all  ;  and  so  near  to  the  mainland, 
 that  it  has  been  affirmed  persons  upon  the  opposite 
 coasts  may  hear  each  other  speak.  Its  surprising  ele- 
 vation and  relative  position  with  regard  to  the  lower 
 islands  of  Fuorni  and  Nicaria  make  it  a  landmark  all 
 over  the  Archipelago.  According  to  Conslaiitiiie  Poi- 
 phyrogenitus,  any  very  lofty  place  was  called  Samos. 
 The  name  of  KaraCdr?/  was  anciently  given  to  that 
 terrible  rock  which  forms  the  cape  and  precipice  upon 
 its  western  side,  as  collecting  the  clouds  and  genera- 
 ting thunder."     (Travels,  vol.  6,  p   67,  Lond.  ed.) 
 
 Samos.jlta  (Tu  ^afxoaara,  but  in  Ammianus  jMar- 
 cellinus,  14,  8,  Samosata,  -a),  a  city  of  Syria,  the 
 capital  of  the  province  of  Commagene.  and  the  resi- 
 dence of  a  petty  dynasty.  (Amm.  MarcelL,  18,  4.) 
 It  was  not  only  a  strong  city  itself,  but  had  also  a 
 strong  citadel,  and  in  its  neighbourhood  was  one  of  the 
 ordinary  passages  of  the  Eu|)hrates,  on  the  western 
 bank  of  which  river  Samosata  was  situated.  .Samos- 
 ata was  the  birthplace  of  Lucian.  The  modern  name 
 is  Somiiisalh  or  Seempsal.  (Ahulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.,  p. 
 244.— M(i((«crt,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  1,  p.  491.) 
 
 S.tMOTHRACE,  an  island  in  the  .Egeaii,  off"  the  coast 
 of  Thrace.  According  to  Plmy  (4,  12),  it  lay  opposite 
 to  the  mouth  of  the  Hebrus,  and  was  twenty-eight 
 miles  from  the  coast  of  Thrace,  and  sixty-two  from 
 Thasos.  The  same  authority  makes  it  thiriy-two  miles 
 in  circuit.  Though  insignificant  in  itself,  consider- 
 able celebrity  attaches  to  it  from  the  mysteries  of  Cy- 
 bele  and  her  Corybantes,  which  are  said  by  some  to 
 have  originated  there,  and  to  have  been  dissemina- 
 ted thence  over  Asia  Minor  and  difl'erciit  [larts  of 
 Greece.— It  was  said  that  Dardanus,  the  son  of  Jupi- 
 ter and  Electra,  who  wasihe  imputed  founder  of  Troy, 
 had  long  dwelt  in  Samothrace  before  he  passed  over 
 into  .^sia  ;  and  it  is  allirmed,  that  he  first  introduced 
 into  his  new  kingdom  the  mysteries  practised  in  the 
 island    from  which   he   had   migrated    (Siraho,  331), 
 
 1189 
 
SAN 
 
 SAN 
 
 and  which,  by  some  writers,  was  from  that  circum- 
 stance named  Dardania.  (Callim.,  ap.  Pirn.,  4,  12.) 
 JSamoihrace  was  also  famous  lor  the  worship  of  the 
 Cabiri,  with  which  these  mysteries  were  intimately 
 connected.  (Vid.  Cabiri.) — Various  are  the  names 
 which  this  island  is  said  to  have  borne  at  different  pe- 
 riods. It  was  called  Dardania,  as  we  have  already 
 seen  ;  also  Electris,  Melite,  lyeucosia  (Slrabo,  472. — 
 Schol.  in  Apoll.  Rhod.,  1,  917),  and  was  said  to  have 
 been  named  Samothrace  (Thracian  Samos)  by  a  col- 
 ony from  the  Ionian  Samos,  though  Strabo  conceives 
 this  assertion  to  have  been  an  invention  of  the  Sami- 
 ans.  He  deduces  the  name  either  from  the  word 
 2Ia/iOf,  which  implies  an  elevated  spot,  or  from  the 
 iSaii,  a  Thracian  people,  who  at  an  early  period  were 
 in  possession  of  the  island.  (Strabo,  457.)  Homer, 
 in  his  frequent  allusion  to  it,  sometimes  calls  it  sim- 
 ply Samos  (//.,  24,  18.—II,  24,  753);  at  other  times 
 the  Thracian  Samos.  {II.,  13,  12.) — The  Samothra- 
 cians  joined  the  Persian  fleet  in  the  expedition  of 
 Xerxes  ;  and  one  of  their  vessels  distinguished  itself 
 in  the  battle  of  Salamis.  (Herod.,  8,  90.)  Perseus, 
 after  the  battle  of  Pydna,  took  refuge  in  Samothrace, 
 and  was  there  seized  by  the  Romans  when  preparing 
 to  escape  from  Demetrmm,  a  small  harbour  near  one 
 of  the  promontories  of  the  island.  On  this  occasion, 
 Livy  asserts  that  the  chief  magistrate  of  Samothrace 
 was  dignified  with  the  title  of  king  (45,  6).  Siephanus 
 Byzantinus  informs  us  there  was  a  town  of  the  same 
 name  with  the  island.  This  island  was  reduced,  in 
 the  reign  of  Vespasian,  along  with  the  other  isles  of 
 the  yEgeari,  to  the  form  of  a  province.  It  is  now  Sam- 
 othraki.     {Cramer's  Ana.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  335  ) 
 
 Sana,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  on  the  Sinus  Singiti- 
 cus,  and  situated  on  a  neck  of  land  connecting  Athos 
 with  the  continent.  On  the  opposite  side  was  Acan- 
 thus, and  between  the  two  places  was  cut  the  carial 
 of  Xerxes.      (Vid.  Acanthus.) 
 
 Sanchoniatho.n,  a  Phcenician  author,  who,  if  the 
 fragments  of  his  works  that  have  reached  us  be  genu- 
 ine, and  if  such  a  person  ever  existed,  must  be  re- 
 garded as  the  most  ancient  writer  of  whom  we  have 
 any  knowledge  after  Moses  His  father's  name  was 
 Thabion,  and  he  himself  was  chief  hierophant  of  ihe 
 Phoenicians.  According  to  some,  he  was  a  native  of 
 Berytus,  but  Athenaeus  (3,  37)  and  Suidas  make  him 
 a  Tyrian  As  to  the  period  when  he  flourished,  all  is 
 uncertain.  Some  accounts  carry  him  back  to  the  era 
 of  Semiramis.  others  assign  him  to  the  period  of  the 
 Trojan  war.  St.  Martin,  however,  endeavours  to  prove 
 that  he  was  a  contemporary  of  Gideon,  the  judge  of 
 Israel,  and  flourished  during  the  fourteenth  century 
 before  the  Christian  era.  {Biograjihie  Univ.,  vol.  40, 
 p.  305,  seqq.)  The  titles  of  the  three  principal  works 
 of  this  writer  are  as  follows  :  1.  Wepl  rf/c  'Ep/uoii  <j>v- 
 aioXoyiac  ("  Of  the  Phy.fica!  Si/stem  of  Hermes"). — 
 2.  .KlyvKTiaKj]  Qeoloyia  ("  Ef^yplian  Theologif) — 3. 
 ^oivLKu  ("  Phoenician  Htstorif),  cited  also  under 
 other  titles,  one  of  which  is  <!^oiviKLdv  QeoT-oy'ia  ("  The- 
 ology of  the  Phxnicians'"). — All  these  works  were 
 written  in  Phcenician,  and  the  preceding  are  their  ti- 
 tles in  Greek.  The  history  was  translated  into  the 
 Greek  language  by  Herennius  Philo,  a  native  of  Bvb- 
 lus,  who  lived  in  the  second  century  of  our  era.  It  is 
 from  this  translation  that  we  obtain  all  the  fragments 
 of  Sanchoniathon  that  have  reached  our  times.  Philo 
 had  divided  his  translation  into  nine  books,  of  which 
 Porphyry  made  use  in  his  diatribe  against  the  Chris- 
 tians. It  IS  from  the  fourth  book  of  this  last  work  that 
 Eusebius  took,  for  an  end  directly  opposite  to  this,  the 
 passages  that  have  come  down  to  us.  (Prcrp.  Evang., 
 1,  p  31.)  And  thus  we  have  these  documents  rela- 
 tive to  the  mythology  and  history  of  the  Phoenicians  i 
 from  the  fourth  hand. — St.  Martin  and  others  are  in- 
 clined to  tlie  opinion  that  the  three  works  mentioned 
 above  as  having  been  written  by  Sanchoniathon,  were 
 1190 
 
 only  so  many  parts  of  one  main  production.  Accord- 
 ing to  Porphyry,  the  PboBnic-ian  history  of  Sanchonia 
 thon  was  divided  into  eight  books,  while  we  learn,  oe 
 the  other  hand,  from  Eusebius,  that  the  version  of 
 Philo  consisted  of  nine.  Hence  it  has  been  supposed 
 that  the  Greek  translator  had  united  two  works,  and 
 that  thus  the  treatise  on  the  physical  system  of  Her- 
 mes, or  that  on  Egyptian  theology,  became  a  kind  of 
 introduction  to  the  Phoenician  History,  and  increased 
 ihe  number  of  books  in  the  latter  by  one.  And  it  has 
 been  farther  supposed  that  the  two  titles  of  "  Egyptian 
 Theology"  and  "  Physical  System  of  Hermes"  belong- 
 ed both  to  one  and  the  same  work.  (Compare  Bo- 
 chart,  Geogr.  Sacr.,  2,  17.) — The  long  interval  of 
 time  between  Sanchoniathon  and  his  translator  ren- 
 ders it  extremely  probable  that  the  latter  must  often 
 have  erred  in  rendering  into  Greek  the  ideas  of  his 
 Phoenician  original  ;  and  we  may  suppose,  too,  that 
 occasionally  Philo  may  have  been  tempted  to  substitute 
 some  of  his  own.  And  yet,  at  the  same  time,  the 
 fragments  of  Sanchoniathon  contain  so  many  things  ev- 
 idently of  Oriental  origin,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult 
 to  beheve  they  were  forged  by  Philo.  A  difl'erence 
 of  opinion,  however,  ever  has  existed,  and  will  con- 
 tinue to  exist  on  this  head.  Grotius  and  other  writers 
 highly  extol  the  fragments  in  question,  on  account  of 
 the  agreement  which  they  discover  between  them  and 
 the  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  Cumlierland  and 
 Meiners,  on  the  other  hand,  only  see  in  them  an  at- 
 tempt to  prop  up  the  religious  system  of  the  Phoeni- 
 cians and  Egyptians,  and  discover  in  them  no  other 
 principle  but  those  of  the  Porch  concealed  under  Phoe- 
 nician names.  {Cumberland,  Sanchonia thnn's  Phoeni- 
 cian Hist.,  Land.,  1720,  8vo. — Meiners''  Hist.  Doctrtna 
 de  Vera  Deo,  \o\.  1,  p.  63.  —  Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Grec., 
 vol.  4,  p.  1 15.) — In  1836  a  work  appeared  m  Germany 
 with  the  following  title  :  "  Satichoniathons  Urgeschich- 
 tc  dcr  Phonizier  in  einem  Auszuge  aus  der  wiedei 
 aufgcfundencn  Handschrifi  von  Philos  vollst'dndigcr 
 Uebersetzung.  JSebsl  Bernerkungen  von  Fr  Wagen- 
 feld.  Mit  einem  Vorworte  vom  Dr.  G.  F.  Grotefend, 
 Hanover,  1836"  (Sanchoniathon's  early  History  of  the 
 Phoenicians,  condensed  from  the  lately-found  man- 
 uscript of  Philo's  complete  translation  of  that  work. 
 With  annotations  by  Fr.  Wagenfeld,  and  a  preface  by 
 Dr.  G.  F.  Grotefend).  This  was  followed,  in  1837,  by 
 another  work,  purporting  to  be  the  Greek  version  of 
 Philo  itself,  with  a  Latin  translation  by  Wagenfeld  : 
 "  Sanchomalhonis  Historiarum  Phcenicia  lihros  no- 
 vem,  Grace  versos  a  Pkilone  Byhlw,  edidtt,  iMhnaqne 
 versions  donavit  F.  Wagenfeld,  Bremce,  1837."  — 
 The  whole  is  a  mere  forgery,  very  clumsily  executed; 
 and  the  imposture  has  been  very  ably  exposed  in  the 
 37th  and  39th  numbers  of  the  Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
 view. 
 
 Sancus,  a  deity  of  the  Sabines,  according  to  some, 
 identical  with  Hercules.  The  name  is  said  to  have 
 signilied  "heaven"  in  the  Sabine  tongue.  {Lyd.,de 
 Mens.,  p.  107  ed.  Schow.,  p.  250  ed.  Jtaihcr.)  San- 
 cus at  first  view  would  seem  to  have  some  connexion 
 in  form  with  the  Sandacus  of  CiUcia  and  the  Sandon 
 of  Lydia.  Another  name  for  this  deity  was  Semo, 
 which  recalls  the  Sem  or  Som  of  Egypt.  {Cnuzef's 
 Si/mbolik;  par  Guigniuut,  vol.  3,  p.  493.) 
 
 Sandaliotis,  a  name  given  to  Sardinia  from  its  re- 
 semblance to  a  sandal.     {Vid.  Ichnusa  ) 
 
 Sandrocottus,  an  Indian  of  mean  origin,  wW,  hav- 
 ing on  one  occasion  been  guilty  of  insolent  conduct 
 towards  Alexander,  was  ordered  by  that  monarch  to  be 
 seized  and  put  to  death.  He  escaped,  however,  by  a 
 rapid  flight,  and  at  length  dropped  down  t-omplc-tely 
 exhausted.  As  he  slept  on  the  grouiid,  a  lion  of  ini>- 
 mense  size  came  up  to  him,  licked  the  perspiration  frofni 
 his  face,  and,  having  awakened  him,  fawned  upon  and 
 then  left  him.  The  singular  lameness  of  the  animaS 
 appeared  preternatural  to  Sandrocottus,  and  was  coa- 
 
SAP 
 
 SAP 
 
 etrued  bj  him  into  an  omen  of  future  success.  Hav- 
 ing collected,  therefore,  a.  band  of  robbers,  and  having 
 roused  the  people  of  India  to  a  change  of  affairs,  he 
 finally  attsuned  to  sovereign  power,  and  made  himself 
 master  of  a  (jart  of  the  coi;iiLry  which  had  been  previ- 
 ously in  the  hands  of  Selcucus.  It  is  said,  that, 
 while  waging  war,  and  iK-fore  co«ning  to  the  throne,  a 
 wild  elephant  ol  vefy  large  stze  approached  him  on 
 one  occasion,  ajwl  with  the  greatest  docility  suffered 
 hiai  txj  tuourit  on  it^s  back,  and  used  after  this  to  bear 
 hiui  into  the  tight.  (Juxiin,  IF>,  4.)  The  Sandroco4- 
 tus  of  tlie  Greeks  is  thought  to  be  the  same  with 
 the  Charidragoupta  of  tho  Hindu  wnter.s.  And  Chan- 
 drajfouj>ta  <(.  e.,  "  saved  the  moon")  is  regarded  by 
 many  as  a  mere  epithet  or  surname  of  the  Hindu 
 monarch  V^ischarada.  (/?€  Marks,  Htst.  de  Vlnde, 
 vol.  3,  p.  2hb.—l<L  ji'.,  vol    I,  p.  420.) 
 
 SxNG.tRi'js,  a.  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising  near  a 
 place  called  Sangia  C^^ayyia),  in  Mount  Adoreus,  a 
 branch  of  Mount  Dindyinus,  in  Galatia,  and  falling  into 
 the  Euxme  on  the  coast  of  Bilhynia.  Its  source  was 
 150  stadia  from  Pessiniis.  According  to  Strabo  (543), 
 it  formed  the  true  eastern  boundary  of  Bithynia,  and 
 his  account  coincides  in  this  with  that  of  the  earlier 
 writers.  {Scyiax^p.'SA. — Apdl.  liJiod.,^,  72'1.)  The 
 Biihyiiian  kings,  however,  gradually  extended  their 
 dominions  farther  to  the  east,  and  the  Romans  gave 
 the  country  a  still  farther  enlargement  on  this  side 
 This  river  is  called  Saiigaris  by  ("onstantine  Porphy- 
 rogenitus  (I,  5),  and  Sagaris  by  Ovid  {ep.  e  Pont.,  4, 
 10).  The  modern  name  is  the  Sakaria.  (Mannert^s 
 Geogr ,  vol    6,  pt.  :5,  p.  607.) 
 
 Sannvrion,  an  Athenian  comic  poet,  contemporary 
 with  Aristophanes.  Liiile  is  known  of  him.  One  of 
 his  plays,  entitled  Aamr/  (Da)iac),  in  which  he  bur- 
 lesqued a  verse  of  the  Orestes  of  Euripides  {SckoL  ad 
 Aristoph,  Ran,  p.  142.  —  Schol.  ad  Eurip.,  Orest., 
 27'J),  appears  to  have  been  acted  about  407  B.C. 
 {Clinton,  Fast.  Hcllcn.,  p.  81.)  Another  comedy  of 
 his,  entitled  Fe/ltjf  {''Laughter'''),  is  also  mentioned 
 (Cluiloii,  Fast.  Hellcri.,  p.  91. — Bcntlcy''s  Pkalaris, 
 vol.  1,  p.  261,  ed.  Dyce.) 
 
 S.t.NToMis,  a  people  of  Gallia  Aquitanica.  north  of 
 the  mouth  of  the  Garumna,  on  the  coast.  Their  cap- 
 ital was  Mediolanum  Santonum,  now  Sainlcs.  {Plin., 
 4,  Id.—Cas.,  B.  G,  1,  10.— W.  x/nd.,  3,  1 1  ) 
 
 Sapis,  a  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  rising  in  IJmbria, 
 and  falling  into  the  Hadriatic  below  Ravenna.  It  is 
 now  the  Saiiw  or  Alps.  It  was  also  called  Isapis. 
 (Ptm,  3,  15.— .S'l^.  Ila!..,  8,  449.— Lwcnn  ,  2,  405.) 
 
 Sapor,  I.  a  king  of  Persia,  who  succeeded  his  fa- 
 ther, Artaxerses,  about  the  2:i8ih  year  of  the  Christian 
 era.  Naturally  fierce  and  ambitious,  Sapor  wished  to 
 increase  his  paternal  dominions  by  conquest ;  and,  as 
 the  indolence  of  the  emperors  of  lloine  seemed  favour- 
 able to  his  views,  he  laid  waste  the  provinces  of  .Meso- 
 potamia, Syria,  and  CilicJa;  and  he  might  have  be- 
 come master  of  ail  As;a  if  Odenatus  had  not  stopped 
 his  progress.  If  Gordian  attempted  to  repel  him,  his 
 efforts  were  weak,  and  Philip,  who  succeeded  hmi  on 
 the  imperial  throne,  bought  the  peace  of  Sapor  with 
 money.  Valerian,  who  was  afterward  invested  with 
 the  purple,  marched  against  the  Persian  monarch,  but 
 was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  Odenatus  no  soon- 
 er heard  that  the  Roman  cmjieror  was  a  captive  in 
 the  hands  of  Sapor,  than  he  attempted  to  release  him 
 by  force  of  arms.  The  forces  of  Persia  were  cut  to 
 piecis,  the  wives  and  treasures  of  the  monarch  fell 
 into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  and  Odenatus  pene- 
 trated, with  little  opposition,  into  <lie  very  heart  of  the 
 kingdom.  Sapor,  soon  after  this  defeat,  was  assassi- 
 nated by  his  subjects,  A  U.  27:},  after  a  reign  of  32 
 years.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  called  Hormis- 
 da«. — II  The  second  of  that  name,  sucirecdcd  his  fa- 
 ther Hormisdas  on  the  throne  of  Persia.  He  was  as 
 great  as  his  ancestor  of  the  same  name,  and  by  under- 
 
 taking a  war  against  the  Romans,  he  attempted  to  en- 
 large his  dominions,  and  to  add  the  provinces  on  th« 
 west  of  the  Euphrates  to  his  empire.     Julian  marched 
 against  him,  but  fell  by  a- mortal  wound.     Jovian,  who 
 succeeded  Julian,  made  peace  with   Sapor ;    but  the 
 monarch,  always  restless  and  indefatigable,  renewed 
 hostilities,  invaded  Armenia,  and  defeated  the  Emper- 
 or Valens.     Sapor  died  A.D.  380,  after  a  reign  of  70 
 years,  in  which  he  had  often  been  the  sport  of  fortune. 
 He  was  succeeded  by  Artaxerxes,  and  Artaxerxes  by 
 vSapor  III.,  a  prince  who  died  after  a   reign  of  five 
 years,  A.D.  389,  in  the  age  of  Theodosius  the  Great. 
 Sappho,  I.  a  celebrated  poetess,  a  native  of  Myti- 
 lene  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  and  nearly  contempora- 
 neous with  her  countryman  Alcseus,  although  she  must 
 have  been  younger,  since  she  was  still   alive   in  568 
 B  C.      About  596  B.C.  she  sailed  from  Mylilene  in 
 order  to  take  refuge  in  Sicily.     {Marm.  Par.,  ep.  36.) 
 The  cause  of  her  flight  appears  to  have  been  a  politi- 
 cal one,  and  she  must  at  that  time  have  been  in  the 
 bloom  of  her  life.     At  a  much  later  period  she  produced 
 the  ode  ineniioned  by  Herodotus  (2,  135),  in  which  she 
 reproaches  her  brother  Charaxus  for  having  purchased 
 Rhodopis,  and  for  having  been   induced  by  his  love 
 to  emancipate   her,     {Midler,  Hist.   Grec.  Liter.,  p. 
 172  )      Of  all   the  females   that   ever   cultivated   the 
 poetic  art,  Sappho  was  certainly  the  most  eminent, 
 and   ancient  Greece   fully  testified    its  high  sense  of 
 her  powers  by  bestowing  on  her  the  appellation  of  the 
 "Tenth  Muse."     How  great,  indeed,   was  Sappho's 
 fame    among  the  Greeks,  and    bow  rapidly  it  spread 
 throughout  Greece  itself,  may  he  seen  in  the  history 
 of  Solon,  who  was  contemporary  with  the  Lesbian  po- 
 etess.    Hearing  his  nephew  recite  one  of  her  poems, 
 he  IS  said  to  have  exclaimed  that  he  would  not  willing- 
 ly  die   till    he   had  learned    it    by   heart.     {Stvb<cus, 
 Scrm.,  29,  28.)     Indeed,  the  whole  voice  of  antiquity 
 has  declared  that  the  poetry  of  Sappho  was  unrivalled 
 in  grace  and  sweetness.      This  decision  has  been  con- 
 firmed by  posterity,  though  we  have  only  a   few  ver- 
 ses remaining  of  her  poetic  effusions  ;   for  these  are  of 
 a  high  character,  and  stamped  with  the  true  impress 
 of  genius. — The  history  of  Sapjiho  is  involved  in  great 
 uncertainly.     It   is  known  that,  as  wc   have  already 
 stated,  she  was  born  at  Mylilene,  in  the  island  of  Les- 
 bos ;   but  if  we  subject  to  a  rigorous  criticism  the  opin- 
 ion so  generally  received    in  relation  to  her  amorous 
 propensities,  and  the  misfortunes  attendant  upon  these, 
 we  will  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  story  of  her 
 passion  for  Phaon  and   its  tragical  consequences  is  a 
 mere  fiction.     It  is  certain  that  Sappho,  in  her  odes, 
 made  frequent  mention  of  a  youth,  to  whom  she  gave 
 her  whole  heart,  while  he  requited  her  passion  with 
 cold  indifference.     But  there  i.s  no  trace  whatever  of 
 her  having  named  the  object  of  her  passion,  or  sought 
 to  win   his  favour  by  her  beautiful  verses.     The  pre- 
 tended name  of  this  youth,  Phaon,  although  frequent- 
 ly mentioned   in   the  .Mtic   comedies,  appears   not  to 
 have  occurred  in  the  poetry  of  Sappho.     If  Phaon  had 
 been  named  in  her  verses,  the  opinion  could  not  have 
 arisen  that   it  was  the  courtesan   Sappho,  and  not  the 
 poetess,  who  was  in  love  wiih    Phaon.     {Alkcntus, 
 13,   p.  596,  c.)     Moreover,  the  marvellous  stories  of 
 the  beauty  of  Phaon  have  manifestly  been  borrowed 
 from  the  myth  of  Adonis.     {Mulkr,  Hist.  Gr.  L)t., 
 p.  174.)     According  to  the  ordinary  account,  Sappho, 
 despised  by  Phaon, "took  the  leap  from  the  Leucadian 
 rock,  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  cure  for  the  pangs  of  un- 
 requited love.      But  even  this  is  rather  a  poetical  im- 
 age than  a  real  event  in  the  life  of  Sap[>ho.     The  Leu- 
 cadian leap  was  a  religious  rite,  belonging  to  the  ex- 
 piatory festivals  of  .\pollo,  which  were  celebrated    in 
 this  as  in  other  parts  of  Greece.     At  appointed  times, 
 criminals,  selected  as  expiatory  victims,  were  thrown 
 from  the   high  overhanging   rock  into   the    sea  :    they 
 were,  howov"cr,  sometimes  caught  at  the  bottom,  and, 
 
 1191 
 
SAPPHO. 
 
 SAPPHO. 
 
 if  saved,  were  sent  away  from  Leucadia.  (Concern- 
 ing the  connexion  of  this  custom  with  the  worship  of 
 Apollo,  see  Mullcr's  Dorians,  b.  1,  ch.  11,  ^  10.) 
 This  custom  was  applied  ni  various  ways  by  the  j)oels 
 of  the  time  to  the  description  of  lovers.  Stesichorus, 
 in  his  poetical  novel  named  Calyce,  spoke  of  the  love 
 of  a  virtuous  maiden  for  a  youth  who  despised  her 
 passion  ;  and,  in  despair,  she  threw  herself  from  the 
 Leucadian  rock.  Tlie  effect  of  the  leap  in  the  story 
 of  Sappho  (namely,  the  curing  her  of  her  intolerable 
 passion)  must,  therefore,  have  been  unknown  to  Ste- 
 sichorus. Some  years  later,  Aiiacreon  says  in  an  ode, 
 "Again  casting  myself  from  the  Ijeucadian  rock,  I 
 pluiigeJ  into  the  gray  sea,  drunk  with  love"  (ap.  He- 
 ■phcEst ,  p.  130).  The  ])oet  can  scarcely,  by  these 
 words,  be  supposed  to  say  that  he  cures  himself  of  a 
 vehement  passion,  but  rather  means  to  describe  the 
 delicious  into.\icalion  of  violent  love.  The  story  of 
 Sappho's  leap  probably  originated  in  some  poetical  im- 
 ages and  relations  of  this  kind  ;  a  similar  story  is  told 
 of  Venus  in  regard  to  her  lament  for  .Adonis.  (PtoL, 
 Hcphczsl  .  ap.  Phot.,  cod.,  191. —  ed.  Bekk.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 153.)  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  leap 
 from  the  Leucadian  rock  may  really  have  been  made, 
 in  ancient  times,  by  desperate  and  frantic  persons. 
 Another  proof  of  the  fictitious  character  of  the  story  is, 
 that  it  leaves  the  principal  point  in  uncertainty,  name- 
 ly, whether  Sappho  survived  the  leap  or  perished  in  it. 
 [Mailer,  Hist.  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  175.)  —  It  appears  that 
 Sappho  became  united  in  marriage  to  an  individual 
 named  Cercolas,  and  the  fruit  of  this  union  was  a 
 daughter,  named  Cleis  (KAfif),  who  is  mentioned  by 
 the  poetess  in  one  of  her  fragments.  Having  lost  her 
 husband,  Sappho  turned  her  attention  to  literary  pur- 
 suits, and  inspired  many  of  the  Lesbian  females  with 
 a  taste  for  similar  occupations.  She  composed  lyric 
 pieces,  of  which  she  left  nine  books,  elegies,  hymns. 
 dc.  The  admiration  which  these  productions  excited 
 was  universal;  her  contemporaries  carried  it  to  the 
 highest  pitch  of  enthusiasm,  and  saw  in  her  a  superior 
 being:  the  Lesbians  placed  her  image  on  their  coins, 
 as  that  of  a  divinity. — Sappho  had  assembled  around 
 her  a  number  of  young  females,  natives  of  Lesbos, 
 whom  she  instructed  in  music  and  poetry.  They  re- 
 vered her  as  their  benefactress,  and  her  attachment  to 
 them  was  of  the  most  affectionate  description.  This 
 intimacy  was  made  a  pretext  by  the  licentious  spirit  of 
 later  ages  for  the  most  dishonourable  calumnies.  An 
 expression  in  Horace  ("  mascula  Sappho,"  Ep.,  1,  19, 
 28)  has  been  thought  to  countenance  this  charge,  but 
 its  meaning  has  been  grossly  misunderstood  ;  and, 
 what  is  still  more  to  the  pur[)ose,  it  would  appear  that 
 the  illustrious  poetess  has  been  ignorantly  confounded 
 with  a  dissolute  female  of  the  same  name,  a  native  of 
 Lesbos,  though  not  of  Mytileiie.  {Vid.  Sappho  H.) 
 Indeed,  as  the  Abbe  Barthelemv  has  remarked,  the  ac- 
 counts that  have  reached  us  respecting  the  licentious 
 character  of  Sappho,  have  come  only  from  writers  long 
 subsequent  to  the  age  in  which  she  lived.  Sappho, 
 the  favoured  of  the  Muses,  was,  as  we  have  just  en- 
 deavoured to  show,  never  enamoured  of  Phaon,  nor 
 did  she  ever  make  the  leap  of  Leucadia.  Indeed,  the 
 severity  with  which  Sappho  censured  her  brother  Cha- 
 raxus  for  his  love  for  the  courtesan  Rhodopis,  enables 
 us  to  form  some  judgment  of  the  principles  by  which 
 she  guided  her  own  conduct.  For  although,  at  the 
 time  when  she  wrote  this  ode  to  him,  the  fire  of  youth- 
 ful fdssion  had  been  quenched  within  her  breast,  yet 
 she  i.ever  could  have  reproached  her  brother  with  his 
 love  for  a  courtesan,  if  she  had  herself  been  a  courte- 
 san in  her  youth  ;  and  Charaxus  might  have  retaliated 
 upon  her  with  additional  strength.  Besides,  we  may 
 plainly  discern  the  feeling  of  unimpeached  honour  due 
 to  a  freeborn  and  well-educated  maiden,  in  the  verses 
 which  refer  to  the  relation  of  Alcaeus  and  Sappho. 
 Alcaeus  testifies  that  the  attractions  and  loveliness  of 
 1192 
 
 Sappho  did  not  derogate  from  her  moral  worth,  when 
 he  calls  her  "  violet  crowned,  pure,  sweeily-siniling 
 Sappho  "  (Alcaus,fragm.,  38,  ed.  Blomf.)—fiap])Uo"s 
 misfortunes  arose  not,  therefore,  from  disappointed 
 love  ;  they  had,  on  the  contrary,  a  political  origin,  and 
 terminated  in  exile.  It  is  probable  that,  being  drawn 
 into  a  conspiracy  against  Pittacus,  tyrant  of  Mytilene, 
 by  the  persuasions  of  AIcsbus,  she  was  banished  from 
 Lesbos  along  with  that  poet  and  his  partisans.  (Marm., 
 Oxon.,  ep.  37  )  She  retired,  as  we  have  already  re- 
 marked, to  Sicily. — We  know  nothing  farther  of  the 
 life  of  Sappho.  Her  productions,  which  gained  for 
 her  so  exalted  a  reputation,  are  almost  equally  un- 
 known. All  that  has  reached  us  consists  of,  1.  A 
 beautiful  Ode  to  Venus,  in  the  Sapphic  measure,  pre- 
 served by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus. — 2.  A  second 
 ode,  in  the  same  measure,  still  more  beautiful,  de- 
 scriptive of  the  tumultuous  emotions  of  love,  and  pre- 
 served in  part  by  Longinus. — 3.  Various  fragments, 
 all  unfortunately  very  short,  found  in  Aristotle,  Plu- 
 tarch, Athenoeus,  Stobaeus,  Hephaestion,  Macrobius, 
 Eustathius,  and  others. — 4.  Three  epigrams. — Sap- 
 pho also  composed  hymns  to  the  gods,  in  which  she 
 invoked  them  to  come  from  their  favourite  abodes  in 
 different  countries  ;  but  there  is  little  information  ex- 
 tant rospeciing  their  contents. — The  poems  of  Sappho 
 are  little  susceptible  of  division  into  distinct  classes. 
 Hence  the  ancient  critics  divided  them  into  books, 
 merely  according  to  the  metre,  the  first  containing  the 
 odes  in  the  Sapphic  measure,  for  the  poetess  enriched 
 the  melody  of  the  language  by  a  lyric  measure  of  the 
 most  harmonious  characier,  called  after  her  own  name; 
 a  measure  which  Catullus  and  Horace  afterward  intro- 
 duced with  so  much  success  into  the  Latin  tongue. — 
 The  best  text  of  Saf-pho  is  that  given  by  Blomfield,  in 
 the  Museum  Criticum  (vol.  1,  p.  3,seqq.).  The  best 
 and  fullest  edition,  however,  is  that  of  Neue,  Berol., 
 1827,  4to.  (.S't7(o//.  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  205.— 
 Mullcr,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr  ,  p.  172.  —  Barnes,  Vit.  Anacr., 
 p.  29. — Bayle,  Diet.,  s.  v.  Sappho.) — II.  A  native  of 
 Eresus,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  for  a  long  time  con- 
 founded with  Sappho  of  Mytilene.  The  distinction 
 between  the  two  has  only  been  recently  drawn,  and 
 the  memory  of  the  celebrated  poetess  has  at  last  been 
 freed  from  the  dishonourable  imputations  which  had 
 been  so  long  attached  to  it.  An  ancient  medal,  brought 
 from  Greece  in  1822,  presents,  along  with  the  name 
 5;Ari<l>i2  (Sappho),  a  female  head,  with  the  letters 
 EPECI  [Ercsi),  the  allusion  being  to  the  Lesbian  city 
 of  Eresus,  where' the  medal  was  struck.  (Consu'c  De 
 Hautcroche,  Notice  surla  courtisane  Sappho  d'Eresus, 
 Paris,  1822.)  This  settles  the  question  as  to  there 
 having  been  two  Sapphos,  both  natives  of  the  same 
 island.  The  period  when  this  second  Sappho  flour- 
 ished is  far  from  being  easy  to  determine.  That  she 
 was  a  female  of  some  celebrity  appears  evident  from 
 the  inhabitants  of  Eresus  having  stamped  her  image 
 on  their  coins  ;  but,  unfortunately,  we  have  only  a  few 
 words,  scattered  here  and  there  in  ancient  authors,  rel- 
 ative to  this  namesake  of  the  Mytilenaan  Sappho. 
 The  first  of  these  authors  is  the  historian  Nymphis, 
 cited  by  Alhenaeus  (13.  p.  596,  c  ),  who  speaks  of 
 Sappho,  a  courtesan  of  Eresus.  as  having  been  enam- 
 oured of  Phaon  (Kat  /;  £§  'Epeaov  ds  tic  eralpa  Sajr- 
 (pu),  Tov  Ka^ov  ^'luvoc  tpaadeiaa,  trspifJorjroc  t/v,  u( 
 <j>r]ai  Ni',u^(f  tv  IlfpfirAv  'Aff/af). — The  second  au- 
 thority is  ^Elian  {Var.  Hist.,  12,  19),  who  remark.s, 
 "  I  learn,  too,  that  there  was  also  another  Sap[)ho  in 
 the  island  of  Lesbos,  a  courtesan,  not  a  poetess"  (Hw- 
 Bdvopai  6e,  uTi  Kal  erepa  £v  rfi  Xia&ifi  kye.vsTO  Sott^, 
 ETaipa,  ov  noir/Tpia). — A  third  authority  is  Suidas, 
 who  distinguishes  between  Sappho  the  poetess,  and 
 Sappho  who  was  enamoured  of  Phaon.  and  who  leaped 
 from  Leucate  ;  only  by  some  negligence  or  other  ho 
 makes  the  poetess  a  native  of  Eresus,  and  the  other  of 
 Mytilene.     The  fact  of  the  existence  of  two  Sapphos 
 
S  A  II 
 
 S  AR 
 
 teing  thus  proved  by  the  testimony  of  three  authors, 
 it  remains  to  examine  which  of  the  two  was  the  one 
 that  loved  Phaon,  and  leaped  in  despair  from  the 
 promontory  of  Leucate.  Herodoms,  the  oldest  au- 
 thor that  makes  mention  of  Sappho,  only  knew  the 
 native  of  Mylileiie.  He  is  silent  respecting  her  love 
 for  Phaon,  and,  considering  the  discursive  nature  of 
 his  history,  he  no  doubt  would  have  mentioned  it 
 had  the  circumstance  been  true.  Ilerinesianax,  a 
 piece  of  whose  on  the  loves  of  poets  is  quoted  by 
 AlhensBus  (13,  p.  598,  scqq),  speaks  of  Sappho's 
 attachment  for  Anacreon,  hut  is  silent  respecting 
 Pliaon,  wiien,  in  fact,  her  fatal  passion  for  the  latter, 
 and  particularly  its  sad  catastro|)he,  suited  so  well 
 the  spirit  of  his  piece,  that  he  could  not  have  avoid- 
 ed mentioning  them  had  they  been  true.  In  an  epi- 
 gram by  Antipaterof  Sidon  {Ep.,  70 — Jacobs's  An- 
 thologia  Gr,  vol.  2,  p  25),  relative  to  the  death  of 
 Sappho,  that  poet  is  not  only  silent  respecting  her 
 tragical  end  at  Leucate,  but,  according  to  him,  she 
 fell  in  the  course  of  nature,  ami  her  tomb  was  in  her 
 native  island.  In  the  Bibliolheca  of  Photius,  to  which 
 we  have  already  referred  (vol.  1,  p.  153,  ed.  Bekkcr), 
 an  extract  is  given  from  a  work  of  Ptolemy,  son  of 
 HepliJestion,  in  which  is  detailed  a  kind  of  history  of 
 the  leaps  from  Leucate.  It  is  remarkable  that  no 
 mention  is  made  m  this  account  of  the  fate  of  Sappho, 
 although  manv  instances  are  cited  of  those  who  had 
 made  the  hazardous  experiment.  All  these  negative 
 authorities  would  seem  to  more  than  counterbalance 
 the  testimony  of  Ovid,  who,  in  one  of  his  Heroides, 
 confounds  the  female  who  was  enamoured  of  Phaon 
 with  the  lyric  poetess  — According  to  Strabo  (452), 
 Menander  made  Sappho  to  have  been  the  first  that 
 ever  took  the  leap.  {Menandrt,  Reiiq  ,  ed.  Meineke, 
 p.  105  )  Now  Menander  lived  in  the  fourth  century 
 before  our  era,  and  the  existence  of  the  Sappho,  there- 
 fore, who  threw  herself  from  the  rock  of  Leucate,  may 
 be  traced  up  as  far  at  least  as  three  centuries  prior  to 
 the  Christian  era.  It  docs  not,  however,  go  back  as 
 far  as  the  tifih  century,  since  Herodotus,  who  flourish- 
 ed at  that  period,  makes  no  mention  of  the  tragic  end 
 of  the  Mytileniaii  poetess  :  the  natural  inference, 
 therefore,  is,  that  Sappho  of  Mytilene  did  not  leap 
 from  the  promontory  of  Leucate,  and  that  Sappho 
 of  Eresus,  who  did,  was  not  born  when  Herodotus 
 wrote  his  history. — Visconti  has  the  merit  of  having 
 been  the  first  modern  writer  who  suspected  that  the 
 episode  of  Phaon  and  the  catastrophe  at  Leucate  be- 
 longed rather  to  the  second  than  the  first  Sappho. 
 {lamogr.  Grera,  vol.  I,  p  81,  scqq.)  His  suspicions 
 would  have  been  changed  into  certainty  if  he  could 
 have  foreseen  the  discovery  of  the  ancient  medal, 
 brought  to  light  after  his  decease,  and  which  so  fully 
 establishes  the  existence  of  a  second  Sappho,  a  native 
 of  Kresus.  {Bw^r.  Univ.,  vol.  40,  p.  398.  —  Com- 
 pare the  remarks  of  Wclcker,  Sappho  ron  einem  herr- 
 tchenden  vonirtheil  befreyt,  Gbtt.,  1816,  8vo.) 
 
 S.\RACENi,or,  more  correctly,  ARKACBNi.a  name  first 
 belonging  to  a  people  in  Arabia  Felix,  and  derived 
 most  probably  from  that  of  the  town  Arra.  The  ap- 
 plication of  the  name  Saraceni  to  all  the  Arabians, 
 and  thence  to  all  Mohammedans,  is  of  comparatively 
 recent  origin.  Ammianus  Marcellinus  employs  the 
 term  in  question  as  having  been  used  by  others  before 
 him.  {Ammmnus  MarcelL,  14,4;  22,  15;  23,  6: 
 24,  2  ) 
 
 S*RDAN'AP.U.us.  the  last  king  of  Assyria,  infamous 
 for  his  luxury  and  voluptuousness.  The  greatest  part 
 of  his  lime  was  spent  in  the  company  of  his  wives 
 and  favourites,  and  the  monarch  getierally  appeared  in 
 the  midst  of  them  disguised  in  the  habit  of  a  female, 
 and  spinning  wool  for  his  amusement.  This  efTemi- 
 nacy  irritated  his  officers  ;  Belesis  and  Arsaces  con- 
 ipired  against  him,  and  collected  a  numerous  force  to 
 dethrone  him.  Sardanapalus  quitted  for  a  while  his 
 7M 
 
 voluptuous  retreat,  and  appeared  at  the  head  of  his 
 armies.  The  rebels  were  defeated  in  three  successive 
 battles  ;  but  at  last  Sardanapalus  was  beaten  and  be- 
 sieged in  the  city  of  Ninns  for  two  years.  When  all 
 appeared  lost,  he  burned  himself  in  his  palace,  with 
 his  eunuchs,  concubines,  and  all  his  treasures,  and 
 the  empire  of  Assyria  was  divided  among  the  con- 
 spirators. This  event  happened  B  C.  820,  according 
 to  Eusebius ;  though  Justin  and  others,  with  less 
 probability,  place  it  80  years  earlier.  (Herod.,  2,  150 
 —  Cic,  Tusc,  5,  35.) 
 
 Sakdi,  the  inhabitants  of  Sardinia.  {Vid.  Sar- 
 dinia.) 
 
 Sardes.     Vid.  Sardis. 
 
 SardTca  or  SERDicA,and  alsoUtPU  SARi)iCA,acity 
 belonging  originally  to  Thrace,  but  subsequently  in- 
 cluded within  the  limits  of  Dacia  Ripensis,  and  made 
 the  capital  of  this  province.  It  was  situated  in  a  fer- 
 tile plain,  through  which  flowed  the  river  CEscus. 
 The  Emperor  Maximian  was  born  in  its  vicinity,  and 
 it  is  known  in  the  annals  of  the  Church  from  a  coun- 
 cil having  been  held  within  its  walls.  Attila  destroyed 
 the  city,  but  it  was  rebuilt,  and  the  name  changed  by 
 the  Bulgarians  to  Trmditza,  under  which  appellation 
 it  still  exists.     (Eulrop.,  9,  22. — Nicetas,  3  ) 
 
 Sardinia,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  south  of 
 Corsica  and  west  of  Italy.  The  oldest  Greek  form 
 for  the  name  was  EapJoJ,  undeclined,  but  oi  the  fem- 
 inine gender,  which  the  Jjatins  converted  into  Sardin- 
 ia. Herodotus  writes  cf  l,apdu  ;  Scylax  and  Scym- 
 nus  give  no  inflections  of  the  word  ;  and  Diodorus,  in 
 most  instances,  follows  the  original  usage  [Herod., 
 I,  170.— /(/.,  5,  \()G.— Scylax,  p.  2.  —  Scymn.,  ch.  v., 
 204.  —  Diod.,  4,  29,  82,  &c.)  At  a  later  period  the 
 form  began  to  be  gradually  declined,  and  hence  we 
 have  SnpJtii'fl  in  Polybius,  though  he  gives  Sapf^w 
 (from  which  others  have  the  genitive  I,ap(hv^)  as  the 
 form  of  the  nominative.  Strabo  writes  2ap(5(j.  gen. 
 SfiptSdvof.  The  inhabitants  were  called  Sardoi  ("Eap- 
 flijoi)  and  Sardonii  (lapdovioL) ;  the  Romans  named 
 them  Sardi,  rarely  Sardinienses. —  Scylax  gives  the 
 distance  between  Sardinia  and  the  mainland  as  one 
 and  a  half  days'  sail,  or  750  stadia  ;  this,  however,  is 
 too  small,  and  .Artemidorus  is  more  correct  when  he 
 makes  it  1200  stadia.  {Sojlax,  p.  2.— Strabo,  222.) 
 That  the  island  can  be  seen  on  a  clear  day  from  the 
 coast  of  Italy,  we  learn  from  Strabo,  and  also  from 
 modern  travellers.  The  area  of  Sardinia  is  given  at 
 the  present  day  at  9200  miles,  and  the  number  of  the 
 inhabitants  is  estimated  at  about  4,000,000. — The 
 Greeks  compared  the  shape  of  this  island  to  that  of 
 the  human  foot,  and  hence  the  appellation  of  Ichnusa 
 that  was  sometimes  given  to  it  ('Ixvovrro — ',\vo(;y 
 vestigium).  Others,  from  its  resemblance  to  the  low- 
 er part  of  the  sandal,  term  it  Sandaliotis.  (Vid. 
 Ichnusa,  and  compare  the  remark  of  Pliny,  3,  7, 
 "  Sardiniam  Timmis  Sandalwtim  appellavrt  ah  effigie 
 solcce,  Myrsiliis  Ichnvsam  a  simiUludine  vestigii.") 
 — Sardinia  may  be  called  a  mountainous  island,  a 
 chain  of  mountains  running  through  it  from  north  to 
 south,  though  nearer  to  the  eastern  than  the  western 
 coast.  From  the  northern  part  of  this  chain  another 
 rises,  which  proceeds  from  cast  to  west,  and  which 
 separates  the  island,  as  it  were,  into  two  parts,  from 
 the  present  Capo  Comino  to  Capo  Malargin.  This 
 cross  range  is  c.illcd  bv  Ptolemy  Maivoficva  vpt]  (In- 
 sani  Mantes— ''The  Mad  Mountains").  The  mount- 
 ains of  Sardinia  exercise  a  very  important  influence 
 on  the  character  of  its  coast,  on  the  temperature,  and 
 on  the  productiveness  of  the  island.  The  numerous 
 side  ranges,  running  down  to  the  very  coast,  form 
 spacious^bays,  and,  on  the  southern  and  western 
 shores,  safe  harbours.  On  the  east  side  of  the  island, 
 however,  the  cliffs  are  high  and  steep,  and  scarcely  af- 
 ford anywhere  a  safe  anchoring  place  ;  while  gusts  of 
 wind  frequently  blow  with  very  sudden  and  great  fury 
 
 1193 
 
SARDINIA. 
 
 SARDINIA. 
 
 from  the  interior  of  the  mountain  ranges,  and  do  great 
 dadiage  to  vessels  along  these  shores.  Hence  proha- 
 bly  the  appellation  of  "  Insani  Monies,''''  and  hetice, 
 too,  the  language  of  Claudian  {Bell.  Gildon.,  v.  512), 
 "  hifanos  infamat  navila  monies."  Along  the  whole 
 range,  therefore,  of  the  eastern  coast,  although  so  con- 
 veniently situated  for  intercourse  with  Italy,  the  an- 
 cients had  but  one  harbour,  Olbia.  and  that  far  to  the 
 north  ;  and  in  modern  days,  too,  no  place  of  any  im- 
 portance is  found  along  this  part  of  Sardinia.  The 
 mountain  atmosphere  was  healthy,  but  the  rugged  na- 
 ture of  the  ranges  and  the  wild  character  of  the  m- 
 habitants  forbade  any  attempts  at  cultivation.  In  the 
 we.stern  and  southern  parts,  on  the  other  hand,  the  soil 
 was  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  but  the  climate  very 
 unhealthy.  Thus  Mela  remarks  (2,7),  "  ul  fecimda  ila 
 fane  peslilens  insula.'''  The  no.xious  effects  of  the 
 climate  were  still  more  sensibly  felt  by  strangers  than 
 by  natives.  Hence,  whenever  the  Romans  wished  to 
 designate  a  particularly  unhealthy  region,  they  named 
 Sardinia  ;  and  so  greatly  did  they  dread  the  effects  of 
 its  climate,  that  they  never  ventured  to  keep  a  stand- 
 ing force  in  it  for  any  length  of  time.  (Cic  ,  ep.  ad 
 Quint.,  fratrem,  2,  3. — Slrabo,  225.)  The  principal 
 causes  of  this  utihealthiness  were  the  pools  of  stag- 
 nant water  in  the  hollows  of  the  island,  and  the  want 
 of  northerly  winds.  These  winds  were  kept  off,  as 
 Pausanias  believed  (10,  17),  by  the  mountains  of  Cor- 
 sica and  even  of  Italy.  The  Insani  Montes  also 
 contributed  their  share  in  producing  this.  (Claudian, 
 Bell.'  Gildonic,  v.  512,  seqq.) — 'I'he  fertility  of  the 
 island  is  attested  by  all  the  ancient  writers  ;  neither 
 was  it  infested  by  anv  snakes,  nor  by  any  beasts  of 
 prey.  Rome  obtained  her  supplies  of  grain  not  only 
 from  Sicily,  but  also  from  Sardinia  ;  large  quantities 
 of  salt,  too,  as  in  modern  times,  were  manufactured 
 on  the  western  and  southern  coasts.  The  ancient 
 writers  speak  of  mines,  and  Solinus  (c.  11)  of  silver 
 ones  :  the  names  of  various  places  in  the  island  indi- 
 cate a  mining  country,  as  Metalla,  Insula  Plumbaria, 
 &c.  ;  and  Ptolemy  makes  mention  of  several  mineral 
 springs  and  baths.  Two  products  of  the  island,  how- 
 ever, deserve  particular  notice.  One  of  these  is  its 
 wool.  Numerous  herds  of  cattle  were  reared  in  the 
 island,  as  might  be  e.xpected  among  a  people  who  paid 
 little  attention  to,  and  derived  little  subsistence  from 
 agriculture.  {Diod.,  5,  15  )  It  must  be  remarked, 
 however,  that  the  animals  chiefly  killed  for  food  were 
 of  a  mongrel  kind,  begotten  between  a  sheep  and  a 
 goat,  and  called  musmones.  {I'li?i  ,  8.  49. — Pausan., 
 10,  17)  They  were  covered  with  a  long  and  coarse 
 hair,  and  their  skins  served  for  the  common  clothing 
 of  the  mountaineers,  whom  Livy  hence  styles  PcllUi. 
 In  winter  they  wore  the  hair  inward.  (JElian,  H.  A  , 
 16,  34.)  In  war  they  had  small  bucklers  covered 
 with  these  skins.  They  were  named  from  this  attire 
 Mastrucati ;  and  the  Ma.<ilrucati  Latrunculi  were  of- 
 ten very  dangerous  antagonists  for  the  Romans  The 
 other  remarkable  product  of  Sardinia  was  a  species 
 of  wild  parsley  {apiaslrum),  called  by  Solinus  hcrba 
 Sardonid.  It  grew  very  abundantly  around  springs 
 and  wet  places.  Whoever  ate  of  it  died,  apparently 
 laughing  ;  in  other  words,  the  nerves  became  con- 
 tracted, and  the  lips  of  the  sufferer  assumed  the  ap- 
 pearance of  an  involuntary  and  painful  laugh.  Hence 
 the  e.iC[)ression  Sardonicus  risus  {Pausan.,  10,  17. 
 —  Soiin.,  c.  11. — Plin,  20,  11.)  It  must  be  remark- 
 ed, however,  that  the  phrase  jj.nt'njaE  'Zapdovtov  oc- 
 curs also  in  Homer  {Od.,  20,  302),  and  that  other  ex- 
 planations besides  the  one  just  mentioned  are  given 
 by  Eustathius.  —  Whence  Sardinia  received  its  first 
 inhabitants  we  are  not  informed  by  any  ancient  writer. 
 They  speak,  indeed,  of  settlements  made  at  various 
 times  in  the  island,  but  the  new-comers  always  found 
 a  rude  race  of  inhabitants  already  in  possession.  The 
 first  that  migrated  to  Sardinia  were  said  to  have  been 
 1144 
 
 the  Etrurians  and  Tyrrhenians,  under  Phorcys,  a  son 
 of  Neptune:  these  settled  on  the  eastern  coast.  {Ser- 
 vius,  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  5,  829.)  At  a  subsequent  pe- 
 riod, Sardus,  a  son  of  Hercules,  led  a  colony  thither. 
 He  introduced  among  the  rude  inhabitants,  who  were 
 accustomed  to  dwell  in  caves,  the  first  rudiments  of 
 civilization  ;  taught  them  agriculture,  and  was  their 
 earliest  lawgiver.  In  gratitude  to  him,  they  called  the 
 island  after  his  name,  Sardinia  ;  sent,  at  a  later  period, 
 his  statue  to  Delphi,  and  worshipped  him  as  a  god 
 under  the  appellation  of  Sardus  pater,  whence  arose 
 the  forms  Sardtpater  and  Surdopaler.  {Serv.  ad  Virg., 
 jEn  ,  8,  564  )  After  the  Libyans  came  a  colony  of 
 Iberians  under  Norax,  from  Baetica.  He  settled  in 
 the  southern  part  of  the  island,  and  founded  the  city 
 of  Nora,  which  he  called  after  his  own  name.  Tra- 
 dition also  makes  AristKus,  the  father  of  Actseon,  to 
 have  come  to  Sardinia  with  some  Grecian  followers 
 after  the  death  of  his  son.  {Sil  Ilal  ,  12,  3i">8  )  He 
 was  the  first  to  plant  trees,  and  to  teach  the  inhabi- 
 tants how  to  make  oil  and  cheese. — As  regards  the 
 Grecian  settlements  in  this  island,  it  may  be  remarked, 
 that,  though  the  date  of  their  first  coming  cannot  be 
 ascertained,  it  would  appear,  however,  to  have  taken 
 place  at  a  very  early  period.  'J'he  first  of  these  colo- 
 nies was  that  led  by  lolaus.  He  brought  with  him 
 many  of  the  Thespiadce  or  sons  of  Hercules,  together 
 with  a  considerable  number  of  Attic  families.  The 
 inhabitants  of  the  part  conquered  by  him  were  called 
 from  him  lolai,  and  even  at  the  present  day  a  part  of 
 the  territory  of  Cas^hari  is  styled  Euraduria  di  lola. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  4,  24,"&c.— M,  .5,  15.)  The  fertility  of 
 Sardinia  soon  invited  over  numerous  Grecian  settlers  ; 
 and  various  petty  republics  were  established,  independ- 
 ent of  each  other.  All  of  these  engaged  with  activ- 
 ity in  agriculture  and  commerce,  and  all  rendered  di- 
 vine honours  to  Sardus,  Aristseus,  and  lolaus.  Traces 
 of  Grecian  customs  and  attire  are  said  still  to  remain. 
 {H'drschclmann,  Gcschichte  der  Sardimen,  p  7.)  Tlie 
 (Carthaginians  would  seem  to  have  obtained  a  footing 
 in  Sardinia  at  a  very  early  period,  as  the  situation  of 
 the  island  in  a  commercial  point  of  view  was  too  im- 
 portant to  be  neglected.  Its  fertility,  moreover,  made 
 it  one  of  their  granaries,  and  they  used  every  means 
 in  their  power  to  promote  agricultural  labours.  Sar- 
 dinia fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  237  B.C.,  in 
 the  interval  between  the  first  and  second  Punic  wars. 
 Its  new  masters  could  only,  as  the  Carthaginians  had 
 done  before  them,  obtain  possession,  for  a  long  period, 
 of  the  shores  of  the  island.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
 interior  defended  themselves  successfully  for  nearly 
 100  years.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  Sardinia  was 
 never  completely  subdued  by  the  Roman  arms  (Slrabo, 
 225),  and  the  predatory  movements  of  the  mountain- 
 eers still  occasioned  trouble  in  the  days  of  the  emper- 
 ors. (Tac.,  Ann.,  2,  85.)  In  the  fifth  century  it  fell 
 into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals.  {Procop.,  Bell.  Vand., 
 2,  13.)  The  interior  of  the  island,  even  at  the  present 
 day,  exhibits  an  astonishing  degree  of  barbarism  :  the 
 peasants  are  still  dressed  in  leather  or  skins,  and  the 
 mountains  are  still  infested  by  banditti, — 'I'he  present 
 island  of  Sardinia  presents  many  monuments  that  re- 
 call the  successive  sway  of  its  several  conquerors. 
 The  most  remarkable,  however,  of  these,  are  the  very 
 ancient  structures  called  Nnragcs  or  Nuiaghes,  which 
 have  exercised  the  sagacity  of  various  travellers.  The 
 number  of  these  monuments  is  about  600.  Those 
 which  are  entire  are  50  feet  high,  with  a  diameter  of 
 90  feet  at  the  base,  and  terminating  at  the  summit  m 
 a  cone.  They  are  built  on  little  hills,  m  a  plain,  of 
 different  sorts  of  stone,  and,  in  some  cases,  are  sur- 
 rounded by  a  wall.  The  blocks  of  stone  are  of  large 
 size,  and  put  together  without  cement.  Some  nura- 
 ghes  are  flanked  by  cones,  to  the  number  of  from  three 
 to  seven,  which  are  grouped  around  the  principal  cone; 
 they  form  a  kind  of  casemates.     The  encompassing 
 
S  AR 
 
 S  A  R 
 
 wall  is  surmounted  with  a  parapet.  Each  nuraghe  is 
 divided  into  three  chambers  or  stories,  the  communi- 
 catioti  to  which  is  eU'ected  by  a  kind  of  spiral  ascent 
 in  the  side  wall.  {MimanI,  Histoire  ih  Sardtugnc, 
 Pans,  1825 — De  la  Marmora,  Voyn<;c  r.n  Sardaigne, 
 Paris,  1826. — PeM  Radel,  Notices  sur  Ics  Nuragh.es 
 de  La  Sardaigve,  Pans,  1826.)  The  author  last  cited 
 regards  tlie  nuraghes  as  of  Cyclopian  or  Pclasgic  ori- 
 gin, and  carries  back  the  period  of  their  construction 
 to  the  15th  century  before  the  Christian  era.  {Man- 
 ■nerl,  Gcosr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  468. — Balbi,  Abrege  dc 
 Geographic,  p.  294.) 
 
 S.^Kiiis  or  S.^RDEs  (the  Ionic  forms  of  the  name  are 
 ai  2(rp(5(f  and  Idpthec,  llie  ordinary  CJreek    form  is 
 al  2ap(5e«f),  a  city  of  Lydia,  the  ancient  capital  of 
 the  inonarchs  of  the  country.     It  was  situate  at  tlie 
 foot  of  Mount  Tmolus,  on  the  river  Pactolus,  which 
 ran  througli  the  place  ;    and  on  one  of  the  elevations 
 of  the  mountain,  comprehended  within  the  circuit  of 
 the  city,  was  the  site  of  a  strong  citadel.     According 
 to  Herodotus  (1,  84),  a  concubine  of  Males,  king  of 
 Lydia,  had  brought  forth  a  young  lion,  and  the  mon- 
 arch was  informed  by  the  Telmessian  diviners,  that  if 
 this  animal  were  carried  by  him  quite  round  the  works 
 of  the  city,  Sardis  should    be   for  ever    impregnable. 
 The  young  bun  was  brought  to  every  other  part  of  the 
 place  except  the  steep  side  of  the  citadel  which  faced 
 Mount  Tmolus,  this  latter  part  being  neglected  as  al- 
 together insuperable  and  inaccessible;  and  yet  by  this 
 very   part  it  was  subsequently   taken.      This  legend, 
 codibined  with  the  statement  of  Joannes   Lydus   (de 
 Mens.,   p.  42),  that  Sardis  was  an  old   Lydian  word 
 denoting  "  the  Year,"  has  led  Creuzer  to  give  an  as- 
 tronomical turn  to  the  whole  tradition.     (Creuzer  und 
 Hermann,  Brief e,  p.  100,  in  iiolis.) — Sardis  was   said 
 to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  Cimmerians  during  their 
 inroad  into  Asia  (Slraho.  627),  but  to  have  been  soon 
 after  rebuilt  and  strongly  fortified  :   it  is  to  this  latter 
 period,  no  doubt,  that  the  legend  above  mentioned  re- 
 fers.     As  the  capital  of  Ocesus,  king  of  Lydia,  it  is 
 frequently  mentioned   in  Herodotus,  and  the  historian 
 relates   the   manner  in  which  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
 Cyrus,  the  citadel  having  been  surprised  on  the  very 
 side  that  was  deemed  inaccessible.      The  city  retained 
 its  size  and  importance  \inder  the  Persian  dominion. 
 Herodotus  (7,  31)   names  it,  by  way  of  distinction, 
 ♦'the  city  of  the  Lydians'"  (rwr  Aii6uv  to  darv),  and 
 it  became   the  seat  of  the  Persian  satraps,  as  it  had 
 been  of  the  Lydian  kings.     The  fortifications,  how- 
 ever, must  have    been  destroyed  by  its  new  masters, 
 since  otherwise  the  Greeks  could   not  have  so  easily 
 penetrated  into  the  place  in  the  expedition  which  pre- 
 ceded the  Persian  war.     From  the  account  of  Herod- 
 otus (5,  100),  the  citadel  alone  would  appear  to  have 
 remained.      And   vet,    with   all    its   greatness,  Sardis 
 could  not  have  been  in  these  early  times  a  well-built 
 city  ;  at  least  the  greater  part  of  the  houses  would 
 seem  to  have  been  constructed  of  reeds,  according  to 
 the  account  of  Herodotus,  and  even  those  which  were 
 built  with   bricks  were   roofed   with   reeds.     One  of 
 these,  on  this  occasion,  was  set  on  fire  by  a  soldier, 
 and  immcdiatelv  the  flame  spread  from  house  to  house, 
 and  consumed  the  whole  city.     The  temple  of  Cybele 
 also  suffered  in  the  conflagration,  and  it  was  this  cir- 
 cumstance that  save  Xerxes  a  pretext  for  destroying 
 the  temples  of   Greece. — The  city  and   acropolis  sur- 
 rendered, at  a  later  day,  on  the  approach  of  Alexander 
 after  the  battle  of  the  Granicus.      He  encamped  by  the 
 river  Hermus,  which  was  20  stadia,  or  two  miles  and 
 a    half,  distant.      He  went  up  to  the  acropolis,  which 
 was  then  fortified  by  a  tri[)le  wall,  and  gave  orders  to 
 Rave  erected  in  it  a  temple  and  altar  to  Jupiter  Olym- 
 pus, on  the  site  of  the  royal  palace  of  the  Lydian  mon- 
 archs      The  place,  on  account  of  its  importance,  was 
 confided  to  Pausanias.  one  of  his  most  trusty  generals. 
 {Arrian,  Exp.  Alex.,  1,  18.)    After  Alexander's  death, 
 
 we  find  Sardis  to  be  the  residence  of  Achaeus,  the  gor- 
 ernor,  under  the  Syrian  kings,  of  the  whole  Asiatic 
 peninsula.  (Polyb.,  577.)  It  was  taken,  after  a  long 
 siege,  by  Antiochus  {Polyb.,  7,  If).— Id.,  8,  23),  and 
 again  laid  waste.  At  a  subsequent  period  we  find 
 Sardis  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  who,  in  accord- 
 ance, probably,  with  a  general  rule  pursued  bv  them 
 in  Asia  Minor,  dismantled  the  citadel  ;  at  least,  neither 
 Strabo  nor  any  writer  after  him  makes  mention  of  the 
 castle  of  Sardis.  The  city  sank,  after  this,  into  a 
 place  of  inferior  importance,  and  its  principal  tiade 
 was  transferred  to  Smyrna  and  Ephesus.  The  Ro- 
 mans, however,  made  it  the  seat  of  a  conventus  jviid- 
 icus  for  the  northeastern  part  of  Lydia,  and  its  size 
 still  remained  considerable.  (Strabo,  625  —  TroAtf 
 fieydlj].)  In  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  Sar- 
 dis, along  with  eleven  other  of  the  principal  cities  of 
 Lower  Asia,  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  The 
 calamity,  according  to  Tacitus  (2,  47),  happened  in 
 the  night,  and  was,  for  that  reason,  the  more  disastrous. 
 Hills  are  said  to  have  sunk,  and  valleys  to  have  risen  to 
 mountains.  The  emperor  made  liberal  grants  to  the 
 ruined  cities;  and  Sardis  was  indebted  for  ils  restora- 
 tion to  his  m.uniftcence.  Its  inhabitants  were  e.xempted 
 from  all  taxes  for  five  years  ;  and  received  a  supply  of 
 one  hundred  thousand  great  sesterces. — Sardis  is  re- 
 markable in  the  annals  of  Christianity  as  having  been 
 one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia. — The  'I'urks  made 
 themselves  masters  of  Sardis  in  the  eleventh  century, 
 but  soon  lost  it  again.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  how- 
 ever, it  again  fell  into  their  hands,  together  with  its 
 citadel.  Timur  subsequently  took  both,  and  by  him 
 the  place  was  probably  destroyed  for  the  last  lime. 
 A  miserable  village  called  Sart  is  now  found  on  the 
 site  of  this  once  famous  city.  For  an  account  of  the 
 present  condition  of  the  place,  and  of  the  antiquities 
 in  its  neighbourhood,  consult  ylri/w^/c//'s  Sci^en  Church- 
 es of  A.na,  p.  \7G,seq(].  —  Milncr,  History  of  the 
 Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  p.  303,  seqq.  —  Leake's 
 Tour,  p.  265,  342. 
 
 S.ARDUs,  a  son  of  Hercules,  who  led  a  colony  to 
 Sardinia,  and  gave  it  his  nair.e.      (Vid.  Sardinia.) 
 
 Sarepta  or  Zarephath,  now  Sarfend,  a  city  on 
 the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  between  Tyre  and  Si- 
 don.  It  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  miracles  of  Eli- 
 jah.    (1  Kings,  17,  9  ) 
 
 Sarmatia,  an  extensive  country,  bounded,  accord- 
 ing to  Mela  (3.  4),  on  the  west  by  the  river  Vistula, 
 and  extending  from  the  Sinus  Codanns  or  Baltic  Sea, 
 to  the  Tanais  or  Don.  Ptolemy,  on  the  other  hand, 
 makes  it  reach  from  the  Vistula  to  the  Rha  or  Wolga, 
 and  to  he  separated  by  the  river  Tanais  into  two  great 
 divisions:  1.  Sarmaiia  Europspa,  the  boundaries  of 
 which  tract  of  country  were,  the  Vistula  on  the  west, 
 Mount  Carpatus  and  the  river  Tyras  (or  Dniester)  on 
 the  south,  the  Pains  Ma-otis  on  the  east,  and  the  Si- 
 nus Codanus  on  the  north.  It  corresponded  to  what  is 
 now  part  of  Russia,  Poland,  Lilhvunia,  Prussia.  Lit- 
 tie  Tartiiry,  &c. — 2.  Sarinalia  Asiatica.  This  coun- 
 try reached  from  the  Tanais  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rha, 
 and  from  the  northernmost  point  of  Caucasus  to  un- 
 known regions  in  the  north  It  corresponded,  there- 
 fore, to  Astrackhan.  (henhurg.  &c.— Pioiemy  ban- 
 ished from  his  map  of  Europe  the  name  oi  Scythia  ; 
 hut  we  must  not  suppose  that  he  regarded  all  the  na- 
 tions between  the  Tanais  and  Vistula  as  Sarmalians. 
 On  the  contrary,  he  expressly  calls  the  Alani,  whom  he 
 places  between  the  Borysthenes  and  Tanais,  a  Scyth- 
 ian race.— The  greater  part  of  the  Sarmatic  nations, 
 in  the  strictest  sense  of  this  name,  were  confounded 
 together  under  the  name  of  Hamaxobii.  a  term  which 
 alludes  to  their  living,  like  the  Scythians,  m  wagons 
 (Mulie  Brun,  Hist,  de  la  Geogr.,  vol.  l,p.  126,  scqq. 
 Brussels  cd) 
 
 Sarnus,  a  river  of  Campania,  now  the  Sarno,  fall 
 inc  into  the  sea  about  a  mile  from  Pompeii.     Accord 
 ^  1195 
 
SAR 
 
 SAT 
 
 ing  to  Strabo,  it  formeii  the  harbour  of  that  town,  which 
 was  also  coimnon  to  tlie  itiiatid  cities  of  Noia,  Acerrae, 
 and  Nucena.  The  same  writer  adds,  that  it  was  navi- 
 gable for  tlie  space  of  eighteen  miles  ;  a  circiiinstance 
 which  will  scarcely  be  found  applicable  to  the  present 
 stream;  whence  we  should  be  led  to  conclude  that  a 
 considerable  change  has  taken  place  in  its  course. 
 {Strabo,  247.)  'I'lie  Pelasgi,  who  occupied  this  coast 
 at  an  early  period,  are  said  to  have  derived  the  name 
 of  Sarrastes  from  this  river.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p    180.; 
 
 Sakon,  a  king  of  Troezene,  unusually  fond  of  hunt- 
 ing. He  was  drowned  in  the  sea  while  pursuing  a 
 stag  which  had  taken  to  the  water,  and  divine  iion- 
 ours  were  paid  him  after  death.  According  to  one  ac- 
 count, he  gave  name  to  the  Sinus  Saronicu.s.  Saron 
 built  a  temple  to  Diana  at  Troezene,  and  instituted 
 festivals  ill  honour  of  her,  called  from  himself  Saronia. 
 {Paiisan.,  2,  30. — Mela,  2,  3.) 
 
 SakonIuus  Sinus,  now  the  Gulf  of  Engia,  a  bay 
 »f  the  yEgean  Sea,  lying  to  the  southwest  of  Attica, 
 Hid  northeast  of  Argolis,  and  commencing  between 
 the  promontories  of  Sunium  and  Scylleum.  Some 
 suppose  that  this  part  of  the  sea  received  its  name 
 from  Saron,  who  was  drowned  there,  or  from  a  small 
 river  which  discharged  itself  on  the  coast.  Pliny, 
 however,  makes  the  name  to  have  come  from  the  for- 
 ests of  oak  which  at  one  time  covered  the  shores  of 
 the  gulf,  the  term  aapuvl^,  in  early  Greek,  signifyinor 
 "an  oak."  (Flimj,  4,  9.  —  Compare  Schol.  ad  Cal- 
 lim.,  H  in  Jov.,  22  ) 
 
 Sarpedon,  1.  a  son  of  Jupiter  by  Europa,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  Agenor.  He  was  driven  from  Crete  by  his  broth- 
 er Minos  (eid.  Rhadamanthus),  and  thereupon  retired  to 
 Lycia,  where  he  aided  Cilix  against  the  people  of  that 
 country,  and  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  a  part  of  it. 
 Jupiter  IS  said  to  have  bestowed  upon  him  a  life  of 
 treble  duration.  (Apollod.,  3,  1,  2.  —  Hcyne,  ad  be.) 
 — 11.  A  son  of  Jupiter  and  Laodamia  the  daughter  of 
 Bellerophon.  He  was  king  of  Lycia,  and  leader  with 
 Glaucus  of  the  Lycian  auxiliaries  of  Priam.  The  char- 
 acter of  Sarpedon  is  represented  as  the  most  faultless 
 and  amiable  in  the  Iliad.  He  was  by  birth  superior 
 to  all  the  chiefs  of  either  side,  and  his  valour  was  not 
 unworthy  of  his  descent.  The  account  of  his  conflict 
 with  Patroclus  ;  the  concern  of  Jupiter  at  his  perilous 
 situation  ;  the  deliberation  of  the  god  whether  he  should 
 avert  the  hostile  decrees  of  fate  ;  and  the  subsequent 
 description  of  his  death,  are  among  the  most  striking 
 of  all  the  episodes  of  the  Iliad.  (Horn.,  II.,  16,  419° 
 seq<{.) — III.  A  promontory  of  the  same  name  in  Cili- 
 cia,  beyond  which  Antiochus  was  not  permitted  to  sail 
 by  a  treaty  of  peace  which  he  had  made  with  the  llo- 
 mans.     {Lity,  38,  2%.— Mela,  1,  13.) 
 
 Sakra,  the  earlier  Latin  name  for  the  city  of  Tyre. 
 The  Oriental  form  was  Tsor  or  Sor,  for  which  the 
 Carthaginians  said  Tsar  or  Sar,  and  the  Romans,  re- 
 ceiving the  term  from  those,  converted  it  into  Sarra, 
 whence  they  also  formed  the  adjective  Sarranus, 
 equivalent  to  "Tyrian."  {Virg-.,  Georg.,  2,  506. — 
 Scaliger,  ad,  Paul.  Diac,  s.  v.  Sarra.)  Servius  erro- 
 neously deduces  the  appellation  from  Sar,  which,  ac- 
 cording to  him,  is  the  Phoenician  name  for  the  murex, 
 or  shellfish  that  yielded  the  purple.  (Serv.  ad  Virg., 
 I.  c  )  The  Greek  naineTiipof  proceeds  probably  from 
 an  Aramaic  pronunciation.  Tor.  (Gcscnius,  Hebr. 
 Lex.,  vol.  2,  p.  672,  ed.  Leo.) 
 
 Sarrastks,  a  people  of  Campania  on  the  Sarnus. 
 (^tig.,  JEa.,  7,  738. —  Vid.  remarks  under  the  article 
 Sarnus,  at  the  end.) 
 
 Saksina,  a  city  of  Umbria,  in  the  northern  part  of 
 the  country  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sapis,  towards 
 its  source.  It  still  retains  its  name.  This  city  was 
 the  birthplace  of  Plautus,  the  comic  writer,  a  circum- 
 stance to  which  he  alludes  in  his  Mostellaria  (3,  2). 
 Sarsina  must  have  been  once  a  place  of  note,  as  it 
 il96 
 
 gave  its  name  to  a  numerous  Umbrian  tribe.  {Polyo., 
 2,  24.)  From  ancient  inscriptions  we  may  collect 
 that  it  was  a  municipal  town.  (Cramer's  A7ic.  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  237.) 
 
 Satu.'ijla,  a  town  of  Samnium,  the  site  of  which 
 has  not  been  precisely  determined.  It  seems,  howev- 
 er, evident  from  Livy  (23.  14),  that  we  must  stek  ior 
 It  among  the  mountains  south  of  the  Vulturniis  .ind 
 on  the  borders  of  Campania.  It  is  supposed  to  corre- 
 spond to  the  modern  Agala  dei  Gutt.  (Cramer' & 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  237.) 
 
 Satiikeium,  a  town  in  the  Tarentine  territory,  fre- 
 quently alluded  to  by  the  ancient  writers.  It  was 
 tamed  for  the  fertility  of  the  surrounding  country  and 
 for  its  breed  of  horses.     (Hurat.,  Sal.,  1,  6,  59.) 
 
 Saturnalia,  a  festival  in  honour  of  Saturn,  and 
 the  most  remarkable  one  in  the  whole  Roman  year. 
 It  was  celebrated  in  December,  and  at  first  lasted  but 
 one  day  (the  19th) ;  it  was  then  extended  to  three, 
 and  subsequently,  by  order  of  Caligula  and  Claudius, 
 to  seven.  (Macrob.,  Sat.,  1,  10.)  The  utmost  liber- 
 ty prevailed  during  its  continuance  :  all  was  mirth  and 
 festivity;  friends  made  presents  to  each  other  ;  schools 
 were  closed  ;  the  senate  did  not  sit ;  no  war  was  pro- 
 claimed ;  no  criminal  executed  ;  slaves  were  permit- 
 ted to  jest  with  their  masters,  and  were  even  wailed 
 on  at  table  by  them.  This  last  circumstance  probably 
 was  founded  on  the  original  equality  of  master  and 
 slave,  the  latter  having  been,  in  the  early  times  of 
 Rome,  usually  a  captive  taken  in  the  war  or  an  insol- 
 vent debtor,  and,  consequently,  originally  the  equal  of 
 his  master.  (Dion.  Hal.,  4,  24.  —  Niebuhr,  Hist. 
 Rom  ,  vol.  1,  p  319.)  According  to  some,  the  Satur- 
 nalia were  emblematic  of  the  freedom  enjoyed  in  the 
 golden  age,  when  Saturn  ruled  over  Italy.  (Kcight- 
 ley's  Mythology,  p.  524.) 
 
 Satuknia,  I.  a  name  given  to  Italy,  because  Saturn 
 was  fabled  to  have  reigned  there  during  the  golden 
 age.  (Virg.,  G.,  2,  173.) — II.  A  name  given  to  Juno, 
 as  being  the  daughter  of  Saturn. — III.  An  ancient 
 city  of  Etruria,  whose  ruins  may  be  seen  near  the 
 source  of  the  Albinia,  and  which  is  mentioned  by  Di- 
 onysius  of  Halicarnassus  (1,  21)  as  formerly  occupied 
 by  the  Pelasgi.  According  to  Pliny  (3,  5),  its  more 
 ancient  name  was  .\urinia.  Aurinia  received  a  colony 
 from  Rome,  A.U.C.  569.     (Liv.,  39,  55.) 
 
 Saturninus,  I.  L.  Apuleius,  a  tril>une  of  the  com- 
 mons, who,  in  A.U.C.  654,  B.C.  100,  united  with 
 Marius  against  the  patricians,  excited  a  sedition  at 
 Rome,  intimidated  the  senate,  caused  several  popular 
 laws  to  be  passed,  and  exercised  a  sort  of  usurped  and 
 tyrannical  power  for  the  space  of  three  years.  At 
 length  breaking  out  into  open  rebellion,  and  seizing, 
 with  his  adherents,  upon  the  Capitol,  he  was  besieged 
 there  by  Marius,  who  was  now  compelled,  as  consul, 
 to  act  against  him.  Saturninus  and  his  adherents 
 eventually  surrendered  themselves  to  Marius,  upon 
 his  promising  to  save  their  lives  ;  but  the  people  fell 
 upon  and  destroyed  them.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Mar. — Flor., 
 3,  16  )  —  II.  P.  Sempronius,  a  general  of  Valerian, 
 proclaimed  emperor  m  Egypt  by  his  troops  after  he 
 had  rendered  himself  celebrated  by  his  victories  over 
 the  barbarians.  His  integrity,  his  complaisance  and 
 affability,  had  gained  him  the  affection  of  the  people  ; 
 but  his  fondness  of  ancient  discipline  provoked  his 
 soldiers,  who  wantonly  murdered  him  in  the  43d  year 
 of  his  age,  A.D.  262. — III.  Sextus  Julian,  a  Gaul,  in- 
 timate with  Aurelian.  The  emperor  esteemed  him 
 greatly,  not  only  for  his  private  virtues,  but  for  his 
 abilities  as  a  general,  and  for  the  victories  which  he 
 had  obtained  in  different  parts  of  the  empire.  He  was 
 saluted  emperor  at  Alexandrea,  and  compelled  by  ifte 
 clamorous  army  to  accept  of  the  purple,  which  he  had 
 rejected  with  disdain  and  horror.  Probus,  who  was 
 then  emperor,  marched  his  forces  against  him,  and 
 besieged  him  in  Alpamea,  where  be  destroyed  himsolt 
 
SAT 
 
 SAT 
 
 when  unable  to  make  head  against  his  powerful  adver- 
 sary.— IV.  Pompeius,  a  writer  in  the  reign  of  Trajan. 
 He  was  greatly  esteemed  by  Pliny  the  younger,  who 
 S[)eaks  of  him  with  great  warmth  and  approlialion  as  an 
 historian,  a  poet,  and  an  orator.  Phny  always  con- 
 sulled  the  opinion  of  Saturninus  before  he  published 
 his  compositions.  (I'lin.,  Epist,  \,8.  —  Id.,  1,  16) 
 Satuknus  (called  by  ihe  Greeks  Kpoi'of),  a  son  of 
 CobIus  or  Uranus,  and  Terra,  or  the  goddess  of  the 
 earth  'I'crra  bore  to  Uranus  a  mighty  progeny,  the 
 'J'ltans,  six  males  and  six  females.  The  youngest  of 
 the  former  was  Saturn.  These  children  were  hated 
 by  their  father,  who,  as  soon  as  they  were  born,  thrust 
 ihein  out  of  his  sight  into  a  cavern  of  Earth.  ( Volckcr, 
 Mylh.  der  lap.,  283.  —  {Jom[)are  Apollod.,  1,  1,  3.) 
 Earth,  grieved  at  this  unnatural  conduct,  produced 
 "  the  substance  of  hoary  steel,"  and,  forming  from  it  a 
 sickle,  roused  her  children,  the  'I'itans,  to  rebellion 
 against  their  father;  but  fear  seized  on  them  all 
 except  Saturn,  who,  lying  in  wait  with  the  sickle  with 
 which  his  mother  had  armed  him,  mutilated  his  unsus- 
 pecting father.  The  drops  which  fell  on  the  earth 
 from  the  wound  gave  birth  to  the  Erinnyes,  the  Giants, 
 and  the  Melian  nymphs.  (Hes.,  Thcog.,  Xttb.seqq.) — 
 After  this,  Saturn  obtained  his  father's  kingdom,  with 
 the  consent  of  his  brethren,  provided  he  did  not  bring 
 up  any  male  children.  Pursuant  to  this  agreement, 
 Saturn  always  devoured  his  sons  as  soon  as  born,  be- 
 cause, as  some  observe,  he  dreaded  from  them  a  retal- 
 iation of  his  unkindness  to  his  father,  till  his  wife 
 Rhea,  unwilling  to  see  her  children  perish,  concealed 
 from  her  husband  the  birth  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and 
 Pluto,  and,  instead  of  the  children,  she  gave  him  large 
 stones,  which  he  immediately  swallowed,  without  per- 
 ceiving the  deceit.  The  other  Titans  having  been  in- 
 formed that  Saturn  had  concealed  his  male  children, 
 made  war  against  him,  dethroned  and  imprisoned  him 
 with  Rhea  ;  and  Jupiter,  who  was  secretly  educated 
 in  Crete,  was  no  sooner  grown  up,  than  he  flew  to  de- 
 liver his  father,  and  to  place  hlin  on  his  throne.  Sat- 
 urn, uuinindrul  o(  his  son's  kindness,  conspired  against 
 him;  but  Jupiter  banished  him  from  his  throne,  and  the 
 father  fled  for  safety  into  Italy,  where  the  country  re- 
 tamed  the  name  of  La/iurn,  as  being  the  place  of  his 
 conceaiincnt  (from  lulco,  "to  lie  concealed").  Janus, 
 who  was  then  King  of  Italv,  received  Saturn  with 
 marks  of  attention.  He  made  him  his  partner  on  the 
 throne  ;  and  the  King  of  Heaven  employed  himself  in 
 civilizing  the  barbarous  mantiers  of  the  people  of  Italy, 
 and  in  teaching  them  agriculture,  and  the  useful  and 
 liberal  arts.  His  reign  there  was  so  mild  and  popular, 
 so  beneficent  and  virtuous,  that  mankind  have  called  it 
 the  golden  age,  to  intimate  the  happiness  and  tranquil- 
 lity which  the  earth  then  enjoyed.  Saturn  was  father 
 of  Ghiron,  ttie  centaur,  by  Philyra,  whom  he  [)reviously 
 changed  into  a  mare,  to  avoid  the  observation  of  Rhea. 
 — Hesiod.  in  his  didactic  poem,  savs  that  Saturn 
 ruled  over  the  Isles  of  the  Blessed,  at  the  end  of  the 
 earth,  by  the  '-deep-eddying  ocean"  {Op.  el  D.,  167, 
 seq.)  ;  and  Pindar  gives  a  luxuriant  description  of  this 
 blissful  abode,  where  the  departed  heroes  of  Greece 
 dwelt  beneath  the  mild  rule  of  Saturn  and  his  assessor 
 Rhadamauthus  {01.,  2.  123,  srqq.)  At  a  later  pe- 
 riod, it  was  fabled  that  Saturn  lay  asleep,  guarded  by 
 Hriareus.  in  a  desert  island  near  Britannia,  in  the 
 Western  Ocean.  {Plut.,  de  Defect.  Orac,  18. — Id., 
 de  Far.  in  Orb.  Ltin.,  26.  —  Procnp.,  Bell.  Goth.,  4, 
 20. — Compare  Tzetz.  ad  Lycoflir.,  1204.)  Saturn 
 was  in  after  times  confounded  with  the  grim  deity 
 Moloch,  to  whom  the  Tynans  and  Carthaginians  of- 
 fered their  children  in  sacrifice.  The  slight  analogy 
 of  this  practice  with  the  legend  of  Saturn's  devourincr 
 his  children,  may  have  sufficed  for  the  Greeks  to  infer 
 an  identity  of  their  ancient  deity  with  the  object  of 
 Phoenician  worship.  It  was  not  improbably  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  both  gods  being  armed  with  a  sickle, 
 
 which  led  to  the  inference  of  the  K/io'j/of  of  the  Greeks 
 being  the  same  with  the  Saturnus  of  the  Latins. 
 (But/mann,  Mylhologus,  vol.  2,  p.  28,  seqq.)  The 
 fabled  flight  of  this  last  frorh  Olympus  to  Hesperia  or 
 Italy,  and  his  there  establishing  the  golden  age,  may 
 have  been  indebted  for  its  origin  to  the  legend  of  the 
 reign  of  Kronus  over  the  Islands  of  the  Blessed  in  the 
 western  stream  of  Ocean.  There  were  no  temples  of 
 Kronus  in  Greece  ;  but  there  was  a  chapel  of  Kronus 
 and  Rhea  at  .Athens  {Pausan.,  1,  18,  7).  and  sacrifices 
 were  made  to  him  on  the  Kronian  Hill  at  Olymjiia. 
 {I'ausan.,  6,  20,  1.)  The  .'Athenians,  moreover,  had 
 a  festival  in  his  honour,  named  the  Kronia,  which  was 
 celebrated  on  the  twelfth  day  of  the  month  Hecatom- 
 bason,  or  at  the  end  of  July,  and  which,  as  described, 
 strongly  resembles  the  Italian  Saturnalia.  {Demosth., 
 Timocr.,  p.  708. — Philoc.,  np.  Miicrob.,  Sat.,  1,  ID.) 
 — The  only  epithet  given  to  Kronus  by  the  elder  poets 
 is  crooked-counselled  {ayKvXofj.T/T7jc).  Nonnus  (25, 
 234)  calls  him  hroadheardcd  {evpvyiveio^)  {Keight- 
 Icy's  Mythology,  p.  68,  seqq.) — Among  the  Romans, 
 in  the  sacrifices  the  priest  always  performed  the  cere- 
 mony with  his  head  uncovered,  which  was  unusual  at 
 other  solemnities.  ^I'he  god  is  generally  represented 
 as  an  old  man  bent  through  age  and  infirmity.  He 
 holds  a  scythe  in  his  right  hand,  with  a  serpent  which 
 bites  its  own  tail,  which  is  an  emblem  of  time  and  of 
 the  revolution  of  the  year.  In  his  left  hand  he  has 
 a  child,  which  he  raises  up  as  if  instantly  to  devour  it. 
 Tatiu.s,  king  of  the  Sabines,  is  fabled  to  have  first 
 built  a  temple  to  Saturn  on  the  Capitoline  Hill  ;  a 
 second  was  afterward  added  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  and 
 a  third  by  the  first  consuls  On  his  statues  were  gen- 
 erally hung  fetters,  in  commemoration  of  the  chains  he 
 had  worn  when  imprisoned  by  Jupiter.  From  this 
 circumstance,  all  slaves  that  obtained  their  liberty 
 generally  dedicated  their  fetters  to  him.  During  the 
 celebration  of  the  Saturnalia,  the  chains  were  taken 
 from  the  statues,  to  intimate  the  freedom  and  inde- 
 pendence which  mankind  enjoyed  during  the  golden 
 age  At  Rome  the  treasury  was  in  his  temple,  inti- 
 mating, it  is  said,  that  agriculture  is  the  .--ource  of 
 wealth.  {Plut.,  QiicBst.  Rom.,  42.)  The  Nundintg, 
 or  market  days,  were  also  sacred  to  this  god.  {Aul. 
 GclL,  13,  -1%.—Lwy,  8,  \.—Id.,  45,  33.)— Bochart 
 considers  Saturn  to  have  been  the  same  with  JN'oah  ; 
 and  so  well  convinced  of  this  is  he,  as  to  remark, 
 "  Noam  esse  Sattirimm  tarn  iniilta  docenl,  ut  vi.x  sit 
 duhitandi  locus  ^''  {Geogr.  Sacr.,  I,  1.)  This  school 
 of  mythology,  however,  has  long  ago  been  succeeded 
 by  one  of  a  more  rational  nature.  According  to  oth- 
 ers, Saturn  was  the  same  with  Time,  the  Greek  words 
 which  stand  for  Saturn  and  Time  differing  only  in 
 one  letter  (Kpovof,  Saturn,  XP'>'^'^C^  time);  and  on  this 
 account  Saturn  is  represented  as  devouring  his  chil- 
 dren, and  casting  them  up  again,  as  Time  devonrs  ai:d 
 consumes  all  things  which  it  has  produced,  which  at 
 length  revive  again,  and  are,  as  it  were,  renewed  ;  or 
 else  days,  months,  and  years  are  the  children  of  Tune, 
 which  he  constantly  devours  and  [iroduces  anew.  l\ie- 
 buhr  regards  Saturn  and  Ops  as  the  god  and  goddess 
 of  the  earth,  its  vivifvmg  and  its  receptively-productive 
 powers.  {Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  66,  Cainbr.  transl.) 
 Creuzer  makes  Saturn  the  great  god  of  nature,  in 
 many  respects  assimilated  to  Janus.  He  is  the  god 
 who  suflSces  for  himself,  the  god  who  is  satisfied  with 
 his  own  comprehensive  powers.  (Symholik,  par  Guig- 
 niaut,  vol.  3,  p.  499.)  Hence  the  derivation  of  the 
 name  from  the  Latin  Satur,  •'  full,"  "  satisfied." 
 
 S.tTYHi,  demigods  of  the  country,  whose  origin  is 
 unknown.  Thev  are  represented  like  men,  but  with 
 the  feet  and  the  legs  of  goats,  short  horns  on  the  hi  ad, 
 and  the  whole  body  covered  with  thick  hair.  The 
 Romans  called  them  indiscriminately  Fauni,  Panes, 
 and  Silvam. — Hesiod  is  the  first  who  mentions  th« 
 Satyrs  ;  he  savs  that  they,  the  Curetes,  and  the  mount 
 
 1197 
 
sc^ 
 
 SC  A 
 
 •in-nymphs,  were  the  offspring  of  the  five  daughters  of 
 the  union  of  Hecaisus  with  the  daughter  of  Phoroneus 
 {ap.  Strab.,  471).  'I"he  Laconian  term  for  a  Satyr  was 
 Tityrus  {Schol.  ad  Thcocr.,  7,  72),  which  also  signified 
 the  buck  goal,  or  the  ram  that  led  the  flock.  {S'-hol.  ad 
 TheiKr.,  3,  2.)  ^Eschylus  calls  a  Satyr  a  biick-goat 
 (Tp«yof. — Fragni.,  ap.  Pluf.,  de  Cap.,  2). — The  Sa- 
 tyrs were  associated  with  Bacchus,  and  they  formed 
 the  chorus  of  the  species  of  drama  which  derived  its 
 name  from  thfin.  It  has  been  supposed  that  they 
 were  indebted  for  their  deification  to  the  festivals  of 
 this  deity,  and  that  they  were  originally  merely  the 
 rustics  who  formed  the  chorus,  and  danced  at  them  in 
 their  goatskin  dresses.  {Wetckcr,  Narhtr.  zur  Tril., 
 p.  211,  seqq — Kcighlky's  Mylhology,  p.  233,  seq.) 
 
 Sauromat.*:,  a  people  called  Sarmata  by  the  Lat- 
 ins.    {Vid.  Sarmatia  ) 
 
 Savus,  a  river  of  Pannonia,  rising  in  the  Alpes  Car- 
 nicae,  and  flowing  into  the  Danube  at  Singidunum.  It 
 forms  near  its  mouth  the  southeastern  boundary  of 
 Pannonia,  and  is  now  the  Sau-  or  Saave.  (^Plin.,  3, 
 18. — Appian,  III.,  22.)  The  Danube,  after  its  junc- 
 tion with  the  Savus,  took  the  name  of  Ister.  {Vtd. 
 Danuhius.) 
 
 Saxones,  a  people  of  Germany,  whose  original  seats 
 appear  to  have  been  on  the  neck  of  the  Cimbric  Cher- 
 sonese, from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  to  the  Sinus  Co- 
 danus  and  the  river  Chalusus  {or  Trave),  correspond- 
 ing to  modern  Holslein.  They  appeared  for  the  first 
 time  in  history  aiiout  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
 tury, as  the  chief  tribe  among  the  Inga;vones.  In  the 
 eighth  century  we  find  them  in  possession  of  a  large 
 part  of  Germany.  A  portion  of  the  northwestern  Sax- 
 ons, in  the  fifth  century,  in  connexion  with  the  Angli, 
 conquered  England.  —  For  some  remarks  on  the  ety- 
 mology of  the  name  of  Saxones,  vid.  the  article  Scylhia. 
 
 Si;.«;a  {scil.  Porta. — "LKnia,  scil.  Tru/lr/),  one  of  the 
 gatesof  Troy.  Itreceived  itsname  from  aKaL6i:,"ltfl," 
 as  it  was  on  the  left  side  of  the  city,  facing  the  sea  and 
 the  Grecian  camp.     {Vjd.  Troja.) 
 
 Sc^VA,  I.  a  centurion  in  (Jssar's  army,  who  beha- 
 ved with  great  courage  at  Dyrrhachium.  {Cces.,  B. 
 C,  3,  53  —.SHt/o/(..  Vit.  Jul.,  68.— FflZ  Max.,  3,  2.) 
 — II.  Memor,  a  Latin  poet  in  the  reign  of  Titus  and 
 Domitian — III  A  friend  of  Horace,  to  whom  the  poet 
 addressed  Ep.  1,  17. 
 
 ScEvoLA,  the  surname  of  the  most  celebrated  branch 
 of  the  house  of  the  Mncii,  and  said  to  have  been  de- 
 rived from  that  individual  of  the  line  who  acted  with 
 so  much  heroic  firnmess  in  the  presence  of  Porsenna. 
 {Vid.  Porsenna.)  The  most  distinguished  of  the  name 
 were  the  following:  I.  Gains  Mucins  Scasvola.  {Vid. 
 Porsenna  ) — II.  Quintus  Mucins  Scajvola,  was  prator 
 in  216  B.C.  The  next  year  he  received  vSardinia  as  a 
 province.  He  died  209  B.C  ,  while  holding  the  of- 
 fice of "  Decemvir  sacris  fuciundis .'''' — III.  Publius  Mu- 
 cins Scffvola,  the  younger  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
 quaestor  183  B.C.,  tribune  of  the  commons  183  B  C, 
 prastor  nrbanus  179  B.C.,  and  finally  consul  with  M. 
 .^milins  Lepidus,  175  B.C.  In  conjunction  with  his 
 colleaune,  he  carried  on  the  war  successfully  in  Cisal- 
 pine Gaul,  especially  against  the  Ligurians,  and  ob- 
 tained the  honours  of  a  three  days'  thanksgiving  and  a 
 triumph.  This  last  circumstance  is  confirmed  by  the 
 Capitoline  fragments,  and  also  by  some  consular  med- 
 als.— IV.  P.  Mucins  Sca?vola,  elder  son  of  the  prece- 
 ding, and  a  celebrated  jurist.  He  was  conspicuous 
 also  as  a  defender  of  the  good  old-Roman  virtues  and 
 manners  against  the  corruption  and  license  which  had 
 been  introduced  into  Italy  from  abroad.  In  141  B.C. 
 he  was  tribune  of  the  commons,  and  accused  the  prae- 
 tor L  Tubulus  of  bribery  on  a  certain  trial  where  he 
 had  presided.  Tubulus  anticipated  his  sentence  by 
 going  into  exile.  As  aedile  (133  B.C.)  Scaevola  re- 
 stored the  temple  of  Hercules,  which  had  fallen  in  ruins 
 to  the  ground.  In  131  B.C.  he  was  praetor  urbanus ; 
 1198 
 
 and  soon  after  consul.  He  obtained  Italy  for  his  proT 
 ince. — V.  Publius  Mncius  Scaevola,  son  of  the  prece- 
 ding, was  at  first  tribune  of  the  commons,  then  prJB- 
 tor,  and  at  last  pontifex  maximus.  He  was  particu- 
 larly conspicuous  as  an  opponent  of  the  Gracchi.  Hav- 
 ing obtained  the  province  of  Asia,  he  distinguished 
 himself  so  much  in  that  government  by  his  probity  and 
 justice,  that  the  Asiatics  celebrated  a  festival  in  hia 
 honour. — VI.  Quintus  Mucins  Scaevola,  more  com- 
 monly called  by  the  Roman  jurists  Quintus  Mucins, 
 enjoyed  a  distinguished  rej-utation  as  a  lawyer.  He 
 collected  together  the  opinions  of  previous  lawyers,  and 
 he  also  gave  a  better  order  to  the  civil  code.  Mucins 
 is  the  earliest  jurist  mentioned  in  the  Pandects.  He 
 was  Cicero's  legal  instructer. — VII.  Cervidius  Scaevo- 
 la, one  of  the  most  eminent  jurists  of  later  times.  He 
 is  ranked  by  Modestinus  alter  Paulus  and  Alpranus. 
 {Arnold,  de  Vitis  Scavolarum,  ed.  Arnzen  UUraj., 
 1767.) 
 
 ScAL.iBis,  a  city  of  Lusitania,  north  of  the  Tagus, 
 called  by  Ptolemy  Scalabiscus.  It  formed  the  third 
 Conventus  Juridicus  of  the  province,  and  its  jurisdic- 
 tion probably  took  in  all  the  country  that  lay  to  the 
 north  of  the  river.  As  a  Roman  colony  it  took  the 
 name  of  Praesidium  .lulium.  It  answers  to  the  mod- 
 ern Sanlarem,  a  corruption  for  St.  Irene.  {Plin.,  4, 
 22.—llm.  Anl.,  p.  420.) 
 
 ScAi.Dis,  a  river  of  Gallia  Belgica  Secunda,  rising 
 in  the  territory  of  the  Atrebates,  and  falling  into  the 
 Mosa  or  Meuse.  It  is  now  the  Schelde.  {Cees.,  B. 
 C,  6,  37.—Plm.,  4,  13  ) 
 
 ScAMANDER,  a  river  near  Troy,  rising  in  Mount  Ida, 
 and,  after  receiving  the  Simois,  falling  into  the  Hel- 
 lespont near  the  promontory  of  Sigaeum.  According 
 to  Homer,  it  was  called  Xanthus  by  the  gods  and 
 Scamander  by  men.  The  name  Xanthus  would  seem 
 to  refer  to  the  colour  of  its  waters  (Eai'6'of,  ''  yellow"). 
 The  modern  name  of  the  Scamander  is  the  river  of 
 Bounarbarhi.  {Vid.  Troja. — Cramer^s  Asia,  Minor, 
 vol.  1,  p.  97.) 
 
 Scandinavia,  a  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  that 
 tract  of  territory  which  contains  the  modern  Norway, 
 Swedcji,  Denmark,  Lapland,  Finland,  &c.  The  an- 
 cients had  a  very  imperfect  knowledge  of  Scandinavia, 
 believing  it  to  be  totally  encompassed  by  the  sea,  or 
 even  composed  of  many  islands.  The  manner  in  which 
 these  islands,  of  the  name  of  Scandia»,  are  represent- 
 ed in  the  chart  prepared  from  Ptolemy,  has  no  relation 
 to  the  real  state  of  the  country.  The  southern  extrem- 
 ity, however,  and  of  which  the  Danish  isles  oi  Iceland, 
 Funen,  &c.,  make  a  part,  recall,  in  the  name  of  Skany 
 or  Scanc,  the  memory  of  its  ancient  denomination. 
 Tacitus,  without  naming  Scandinavia,  speaks  of  this 
 country  as  being  environed  by  the  ocean,  which  forms 
 spacious  gulfs,  embracing  islands  of  great  extent ;  he 
 ascribes  it  to  Snevia,  and  places  two  nations  thereon. 
 What  he  reports  of  the  Suiones,  in  having  a  marine, 
 appears  remarkable  when  we  recollect  that  the  ancient 
 laws  concerning  navigation  had  their  origin  in  Wisby, 
 in  the  isle  of  Gothland.  {Germ.,  44,  seqq.)  The 
 country  to  which  Tacitus  conducts  ns  retains  the  name 
 of  Sueonia  in  the  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  speaking 
 precisely  of  Sweden.  The  other  nation,  the  Siiones, 
 whose  sovereignly  was  in  the  hands  of  a  woman,  may 
 have  been  Norway.  According  to  Pliny,  the  only 
 part  of  Scandinavia  which  was  known  was  occupied  by 
 the  Hilleviones,  a  numerous  nation.  {D^Anville,  vol. 
 1,  p.  122,  seqq.) 
 
 ScAPTESYLE  or  Scapte-Hvue  {liKanTTj  vlrj),  which 
 latter  is  the  more  correct  form,  a  place  on  the  coast  of 
 Thrace,  over  against  the  island  of  Thasos.  It  was 
 celebrated  for  its  gold-mines,  which,  according  to  He- 
 rodotus, belonged  to  the  Thracians,  and  produced  an- 
 nually eighty  talents.  In  these  mines  Thucydides  the 
 historian  had  some  property,  as  he  informs  us  (4,  104). 
 The  author  of  his  hfe  states  that  he  resided  there  alter 
 
SCE 
 
 SCI 
 
 his  baniahment,  and  employed  himself  in  arranging  the 
 materials  for  his  history.  (Marcellin  ,  Vil.  Thucyd., 
 p.  10,  ed.  Bip.—Pluf,  de  ExiL,  p.  60;").) 
 
 S«-.*RDus  or  ScoRous,  a  ridge  of  iofiy  mountains, 
 forinmg  the  natural  boundary  ot  Iliyria  on  the  side  of 
 Macedonia.  It  was  connected  on  the  north  with  the 
 great  chain  extending  from  the  head  of  the  Adriatic 
 to  tiie  Eu.tine,  and  so  well  known  in  ancient  times 
 under  the  names  of  Orbelus,  Rhodope,  and  Ilsmus  ; 
 while  to  the  south  its  prolongatioti  assumed  tlie  appel- 
 lation of  Pindus  The  'I'urks  and  Servians  call  the 
 range  of  Scardus  Tchar  Dagh.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Gr., 
 vol.  I,  p.  79,  seqq.) 
 
 ScAURUs,  I.  M.  ^Emilius,  a  Roman  consul,  who 
 distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  at  the  bar,  and 
 by  his  successes  in  Spain  in  the  capacity  of  command- 
 er. He  was  sent  against  Jugurtha,  and  was,  some 
 time  after,  accused  of  suffering  himself  to  be  bribed 
 by  the  Numidian  prince.  According  to  Sallust,  this 
 nobleman  tarnished  the  lustre  of  his  splendid  talents 
 by  avarice  and  other  degrading  passions  ;  while  Cice- 
 ro, on  the  contrary,  speaks  of  him  in  the  highest  terms 
 in  various  parts  of  his  writings.  Sallust's  known  dis- 
 like to  the  nobility  may  account,  in  some  degree,  for 
 this  discrepance.  Scaurus  wrote  a  work  in  three 
 books,  recording  the  principal  occurrences  and  trans- 
 actions of  his  own  life,  which  Cicero  commends,  and 
 considers  equal  to  Xenophon's  Life  of  Cyrus.  Scau- 
 rus conquered  the  Ligurians,  and  in  his  censorship  he 
 built  the  Milvian  bridge  at  Rome,  and  began  to  pave 
 the  road  which,  from  him,  was  called  the  ^^^milian. 
 His  son,  of  the  same  name,  made  himself  known  by 
 the  large  theatre  he  built  during  his  jedileship.  This 
 theatre,  which  could  contain  30, 000  spectators,  was 
 supported  by  3G()  columns  of  marble,  38  feet  in  height, 
 and  adorned  with  3000  brazen  statues.  This  cele- 
 brated edifice,  according  to  Plinv,  proved  more  fatal 
 to  the  manners  and  the  simplicity  of  the  Romans  than 
 the  proscriptions  and  wars  of  Sylla  had  done  to  the 
 inhabitnnls  of  the  city.  {Cic  ,  Brut.,  29. —  Val.Max., 
 4,  i.—  t'lm.,  31,  7/3G,  2.)— 11.  A  Roman  of  consu- 
 lar dignity.  When  the  Cimhri  invaded  Italy,  the  son 
 of  Scaurus  behaved  with  great  cowardice,  upon  which 
 the  father  sternly  ordered  him  never  to  appear  again 
 in  the  field  of  battle.  The  seventy  of  the  father's  re- 
 proach induced  the  son  to  destroy  himself. 
 
 ScKLERATUs,  I.  Ca.mpus,  a  plain  at  Rome  near  the 
 Collme  gale,  where  the  vestal  Minucia  was  buried 
 alive  when  convicted  of  unchastity,  and  where  a  sim- 
 ilar punishment  was  afterward  accustomed  to  be  in- 
 flicted on  other  similarly  oflending  vestals.  (Liv  ,  8, 
 14  ) — II.  One  of  the  gates  of  Rome  was  called  <Sce- 
 lerata,  because  the  300  Fabii  who  were  killed  at  the 
 river  Cremera  had  passed  through  it  when  they  went 
 to  attack  the  enemy.  It  was  before  named  Carmen- 
 talis. — III.  There  was  also  a  street  at  Rome  which 
 received  the  name  of  the  Scelcraius  Vicus,  because 
 there  TuUia  had  ordered  her  charioteer  to  drive  over 
 the  body  of  her  father,  Servius  Tnllius.  {Liv.,  I,  48. 
 —Otid,  lb.,  365.) 
 
 ScENA  or  ScENUs,  a  river  of  Hibcrnia,  now  the 
 Shannon.     {Oros.,  1,  2.) 
 
 ScknjE,  I.  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the  borders 
 of  Babylonia  {Slraho,  748.) — II.  Mandra;,  a  city  of 
 Middle  Egypt,  the  seal  of  a  bishopric,  between  Aph- 
 rodiiopolis  and  Babylon.  {Itin.  Ant.,  p.  163,  169  ) 
 —  III.  Veteranorum,  a  village  in  Lower  Egypt,  on 
 the  cast  side  of  the  Nile,  between  Ileliopolis  and  Vi- 
 cus  Juda?orum.     {Ilin.  Anl.,  p.  169.) 
 
 ScENiTiE,  I.  a  nomadic  tribe  in  Arabia  Felix. 
 {Plin,  5,  II.  24.) — II.  A  nomadic  tribe  in  Ethiopia 
 {I'lin.,  6.  26)  ;  according  to  Strabo,  in  Mesopotamia. 
 Scepsis,  a  city  of  Troas,  situate  beyond  the  river 
 Ocbren,  near  the  highest  part  of  Ida.  It  was  founded 
 by  the  Milesians  ;  though  Demetrius,  a  native  of  the 
 place,  a.ssigns  its  origin  to  the  son  of  Hector,  and  As- 
 
 canius  the  son  of  -Eneas.  The  city  was  a  strong 
 one,  and  possessed  a  strong  citadel ;  and,  at  a  later 
 period,  was  the  seat  of  a  particular  dynasty  of  Dardan 
 origin,  which  acknowledged,  however,  the  Per-sian  su- 
 premacy. {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr  ,  lib.  3,  p.  285,  cd.  Sfcpli  ) 
 Antigonus,  at  a  later  period,  transferred  its  inhabitants 
 to  his  new  city  of  Alexandrea  ;  they  returned,  how- 
 ever, under  Lysimachus,  and  founded  another  ciiy,  to 
 the  north  of  the  older  Scepsis,  which  latter  place  from 
 thenceforth  took  the  name  of  Pala;a  Scepsis.  'I'he  old 
 city  was  afterward  again  inhabited  ;  the  new  one, 
 however,  long  survived  it.  and  is  supposed  to  answer 
 to  the  modern  Eskiupschi.  {Sfrabo,  607. — Phn.,  5, 
 30.) — Strabo  relates  that  the  library  of  Aristotle,  lefl 
 by  him  to  Theophrastus,  fell,  together  with  that  of 
 the  latter,  into  the  hands  of  Neleus,  a  scholar  of  The- 
 ophrastus. Neleus  left  his  books  to  his  descendants, 
 illiterate  persons,  who  kept  them  locked  up  and  neg- 
 lected ;  and,  when  Attains  of  Pergamus  was  seeking 
 to  enlarge  his  library,  they  hid  them  under  ground, 
 where  they  were  much  injured  by  ihe  damp  and  by 
 worms.  They  were  at  last  sold  for  a  large  sum  to 
 Apellicon  of  Teos.  (Strabo,  609.)  The  whole  sub- 
 ject is  discussed  by  Brandis  in  the  Rheimsches  Mu- 
 seum (No.  1,  p.  236,  scqq.). 
 
 ScHEDiA,  a  considerable  village  of  Egypt,  on  the 
 western  side  of  the  Canopic  arm  of  the  Nile,  and  the 
 place  where  duties  were  levied  on  exports  and  imports. 
 {Strabo,  800.)  According  to  Reichard,  its  site  is  now 
 occupied  by  Dsjedjc. 
 
 ScHERiA,  an  ancient  name  of  Corcyra.  {Pausan., 
 2,  o—Plin,  4,  12.) 
 
 Sci.Kthos,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Thessaly,  about 
 four  miles  to  the  east  of  the  Magnesian  promontory. 
 It  is  nearly  fifteen  miles  in  circuit.  (Plin  ,  4,  12.) 
 The  island  once  possessed  a  town  of  some  size,  which 
 was  destroyed  by  Philip,  the  son  of  Demetrius,  to  pre- 
 vent its  falling  into  the  hands  of  Attalus  and  the  Ro- 
 mans. (Liv.,  31,  28.— Id.,  44,  13.  — Slrab.,  436) 
 According  to  Scymnus  (v.  582),  its  first  settlers  were 
 Pelasgi  from  Thrace,  wlio  were  succeeded  by  some 
 Chalcidians  from  Eubasa.  It  produced  good  wine. 
 (Athen.,  1,  51.) — The  modern  name  is  Sciatho.  {Cra- 
 mer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p   451.) 
 
 Scii.Lus,  a  town  of  Elis,  below  the  Alpheus,  and 
 not  far  from  the  coast.  Xenophon  places  it  on  the 
 road  leading  from  Laced*mon  to  Olympia,  about  20 
 stadia  from  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus.  The 
 place  is  rendered  interesting  from  Xenophon's  having 
 fixed  his  abode  there  during  his  exile.  The  town  it- 
 self had  been  destroyed  by  the  Eleans,  in  consequence 
 of  its  uniting  against  them  in  the  war  with  Pisa.  But 
 the  territory  being  afterward  wrested  from  Elis  by  the 
 Lacedemonians,  they  made  it  over  10  Xenophon,  when 
 that  celebrated  Athenian  was  banished  by  his  fellow- 
 citizens  for  having  served  in  the  army  of  the  younger 
 Cyrus.  (Pausan.,  5,  G.)  Xenophon  has  himself  giv- 
 en us,  in  the  Anabasis,  an  interesting  account  of  his 
 residence  at  Scillus,  where  he  erected  a  temple  to  Di- 
 ana Ephesia,  in  performance  of  a  vow  made  during 
 the  famous  retreat  which  he  so  ably  conducted.  {An- 
 ab.,  5,  3,  7.)  Pausanias,  who  visited  the  ruins  of  Scil- 
 lus, states  that  the  tomb  of  Xenophon  was  pointed  out 
 to  him,  and  over  it  his  statue  of  Pentelic  marble.  He 
 adds,  that  when  the  Eleans  recovered  Scillus,  they 
 brought  Xenophon  to  trial  for  having  accepted  the 
 estate  at  the  hands  of  the  Spartans,  but  that  he  was 
 acquitted,  and  allowed  to  reside  there  without  moles- 
 tation (5,  6.— Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.3,  p.  112). 
 
 SciNis,  a  cruel  robber,  who  tied  men  to  the  boughs 
 of  trees  which  he  had  forcibly  brought  together, 
 and  which  he  afterward  allowed  to  fly  back,  so  that 
 their  limbs  were  torn  in  an  instant  from  their  body. 
 (Ovid,  Met.,  7.  440.) 
 
 ScipiAD/E,  a  name  applied  by  Virgil  to  the  two 
 Scipios,  Africanus  Major  and  Minor.     (yEn.,  6,  843.) 
 
 1199 
 
SCIPIO. 
 
 SCIPIO. 
 
 SciPio,  a  celebrated  family  at  Rome,  whose  name 
 is  iiieniified  with  some  of  the  most  splendid  triumphs 
 of  the  Koinan  arms.  They  were  a  branch  of  the 
 Cornehan  House,  and  arc  said  to  have  derived  their 
 fatnily  appellation  from  the  Latin  term  scipio,  "  a 
 staff,"  because  one  of  their  number,  (Cornelius,  had 
 guided  his  blind  father,  and  been  to  him  as  a  staff; 
 or,  as  Macrobius  expresses  it,  "  Non  aliter  dicti 
 i^ctpiones ;  nist  quod  Cornelius,  qui  cngnominem  pa- 
 trem  lumimbus  carentern  pro  baculo  regchat,  Scipio 
 cognoniinalus,  notnen  ex  cognomine  poslcris  dedil." 
 {Sat.,  1,  6  ) — The  most  eminent  of  the  name  were,  I. 
 P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  who  served,  B  C.  393,  under  the 
 dic^ator  Camdlus,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
 taking  of  Veii.  In  392  B.C.  he  was  chosen  military 
 tribune  with  consular  power,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
 his  colleague  Cossus,  ravaged  the  territory  of  the  Fa- 
 lisci,  and  compelled  them  to  sue  for  peace. — II.  P. 
 Cornelius  Scipio,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  curule 
 adde  363  B.C. — III.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  son  of  the 
 preceding,  was  master  of  the  horse  to  the  dictator 
 Camillus,  346  B.C. — IV.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  son  of 
 the  preceding,  was  dictator  305  B.C.  ;  having  been 
 appointed  such,  not  so  much  with  a  view  to  any  war- 
 like operations,  as  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  con- 
 sular comitia,  the  two  consuls  being  absent  in  the 
 field. — V.  L.  Cornelius  Scipio,  son  of  the  preceding, 
 was  chosen  iiiterrex  on  the  refusal  of  the  dictator 
 Manlius  to  hold  the  election  for  consuls  under  the  Li- 
 cinian  law.  He  softened  down  the  irritated  feelings 
 of  the  commons  by  procuring  the  election  of  C.  Mar- 
 cius  llutilius,  a  plebeian,  to  the  consulship.  He  ob- 
 tained the  consulship  himself  348  B.C.,  but,  being 
 prevented  by  severe  illness  from  conducting  the  war 
 against  the  Gauls,  he  transferred  the  command  to  his 
 plebeian  colleague,  M.  Popilius  Laenas. — VI.  L.  Cor- 
 nelius Scipio  Barbatus,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
 was  consul  298  B.C.  He  fought  a  bloody  but  inde- 
 cisive battle  with  the  Etrurians,  near  Volaterra.  The 
 enemy,  however,  having  abandoned  their  camp  in  the 
 night-season,  the  consul  laid  waste  the  adjacent  coun- 
 try with  fire  and  sword.  He  also  reduced  Samnium 
 and  Lucania.  His  tomb  was  discovered  in  1780,  con- 
 taining an  epitaph  in  very  early  Latin,  commemorating 
 the  events  of  his  life  and  his  many  virtues.  {Dun- 
 lop's  Rom.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p.  52,  seq.)  —  VII.  Cn.  Cor- 
 nelius Scipio  Asina,  so  called  from  his  having  brought 
 into  the  forum,  on  the  back  of  a  she-ass  {asina),  the 
 money  for  a  piece  of  ground  which  he  had  purchased, 
 or,  according  to  another  account,  his  daughter's  mar- 
 riage-portion, in  order  to  display  it  before  the  eyes  of 
 suiters.  He  was  the  son  of  the  preceding.  In  200 
 B.C.  be  superintended,  with  Duilius  the  consul,  the 
 building  of  the  first  Roman  lleet,  and  subsequently 
 sailed  with  17  ships,  in  advance  of  the  main  fleet,  to 
 Messana  in  Sicily.  He  was  taken,  however,  by  a 
 Carthaginian  squadron,  and  carried  to  Africa.  Hav- 
 inof  been  at  length  released  from  confinement  in  Car- 
 thage, he  returned  home  and  obtained  the  consulship; 
 and  he  now  avenged  his  former  disgrace  by  taking 
 many  places  in  Sicily,  and  particularly  Panomius. 
 He  conquered  also  great  part  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica. 
 He  was  father  to  Publius  and  Cneus  Scipio.  Publius, 
 in  the  beginning  of  the  second  Punic  war,  was  sent 
 with  an  army  to  Spain  to  oppose  Hannibal ;  but,  when 
 he  heard  that  his  enemy  had  passed  over  into  Italy,  he 
 attempted,  by  his  quick  marches  and  secret  evolutions, 
 to  stop  his  progress.  He  was  conquered  by  Hannibal 
 near  the  Ticinus,  where  be  would  have  lost  his  life  had 
 not  his  son,  afterward  snrnamed  Africanus,  courageous- 
 ly defended  him.  He  again  passed  into  Spain,  where 
 he  obtained  some  memorable  victories  over  the  Car- 
 thaginians and  the  inhabitants  of  the  country.  His 
 brother  Cneus  shared  the  supreme  command  with  him, 
 but  their  great  confidence  proved  their  ruin.  They 
 separated  their  armies,  and  soon  after  Publius  was  at- 
 1200 
 
 tacked  by  the  two  Hasdrubals  and  Mago,  who  com* 
 manded  the  Carthaginian  armies.  The  forces  of  Pub- 
 lius were  too  few  to  resist  with  success  the  three  Car- 
 thaginian generals,  'j'he  Romans  were  cut  to  pieces, 
 and  their  commander  was  left  on  the  field  of  battle. 
 No  sooner  had  the  enemy  obtained  this  victorv,  than 
 they  immediately  marched  to  meet  Cneus  Scipio, 
 whom  the  revolt  of  30,000  CeUiberiaris  had  weakeued 
 and  alarmed.  The  general,  who  was  already  apprized 
 of  his  brother's  death,  secured  an  eminence,  where  he 
 was  soon  surrounded  on  all  sides.  After  desperate 
 acts  of  valour  he  was  left  among  the  slain,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  some,  he  fled  into  a  tower,  where  he  was 
 burned  with  some  of  his  friends  by  the  victorious  ene- 
 my.—  VIII.  Publius  Cornelius,  surnamed  Ajricunus, 
 was  son  of  Publius  Scipio,  who  was  killed  in  Spain. 
 He  first  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Ticinus, 
 where  he  saved  his  father's  life.  The  battle  of  (Jan- 
 nae,  which  proved  so  fatal  to  the  Roman  arms,  did  not 
 dishearten  the  young  Scipio;  and  he  no  sooner  heard 
 that  some  of  his  countrymen  wished  in  despair  to  aban- 
 don Italy,  than,  sword  in  hand,  he  obliged  ihcm  to 
 swear  eternal  fidelity  to  Rome,  and  to  promise  to  [lut 
 to  immediate  death  the  first  person  who  attempted  to 
 retire  from  his  country.  In  his  twenty-first  year  Scip- 
 io was  made  a?dile.  Not  long  after  this,  the  Romans 
 heard  of  the  defeat  and  death  of  the  two  Scipios  in 
 Spain,  and  immediately  young  Scipfo  was  appointed  to 
 avenge  the  death  of  his  father  and  of  his  uncle,  and 
 to  vindicate  the  military  honour  of  the  republic  It  was 
 soon  known  how  able  he  was  to  be  at  the  head  of  an 
 army.  The  various  nations  of  Spain  were  conquered, 
 and  in  four  years  the  Carthaginians  were  completely 
 driven  out.  The  whole  province  became  tributary  to 
 Rome  ;  New  ('arthage  submitted  in  one  day  ;  and 
 in  a  battle  54,000  of  the  enemy  were  left  dead  on 
 the  field.  After  these  signal  victories.  Scipio  was 
 recalled  to  Rome,  which  still  trembled  in  continual 
 dread  of  Hannibal,  who  was  at  her  gates.  The  con- 
 queror of  the  Carthaginians  in  Spain  was  looked  ivjion 
 as  a  proper  general  to  encounter  Hannibal  in  Italy  ; 
 but  Scij)io  opposed  the  measure)  which  his  coun- 
 trymen wished  to  pursue,  and  he  declared  in  the  sen- 
 ate that  if  Hannibal  was  to  be  conquered,  he  nnist 
 be  conquered  in  Africa.  These  bold  measures  were 
 immediately  adopted,  though  opposed  by  the  age  and 
 experience  of  the  great  Fabius,  and  Scipio  was  em- 
 powered to  conduct  the  war  on  the  coast  of  Africa. 
 With  the  dignity  of  consul  he  embarked  for  Carthage. 
 Success  attended  his  arms  ;  his  conquests  were  here 
 as  rapid  as  in  Spain.  The  Carthaginian  armies  were 
 routed,  the  camp  of  the  crafty  Asdrubal  was  set  on 
 fire  during  the  night,  and  his  troof)s  totally  defeated  in 
 a  drawn  battle.  These  repeated  losses  alarmed  Car- 
 thage. Hannibal,  who  was  victorious  at  the  gates  of 
 Rome,  was  instantly  recalled  to  defend  the  walls  of 
 his  country,  and  the  two  greatest  generals  of  the  age 
 met  each  other  in  the  field.  Terms  of  accommodation 
 were  projiosed  ;  but  in  the  parley  which  the  two  com- 
 manders had  together,  nothing  satisfactory  was  offiered  ; 
 and,  while  the  one  enlarged  on  the  vicissitudes  of  hu- 
 man affairs,  the  other  wished  to  dictate  like  a  con- 
 queror, and  recommended  the  decision  of  the  contro- 
 versv  to  the  sword.  This  celebrated  battle  was  fought 
 near  Zama,  and  both  generals  displayed  their  military 
 knowledge  in  drawing  up  their  armies  and  in  choosing 
 their  ground.  Their  courage  and  intrepidity  were  not 
 less  conspicuous  in  charging  the  enemy.  A  thousand 
 acts  of  valour  were  performed  on  both  sides  ;  and  though 
 the  Carthaginians  thought  in  their  own  defence,  and  the 
 Romans  for  fame  and  glory,  yet  the  conqueror  of  Italy 
 was  vanquished.  About  20,000  Carthaginians  were 
 slain,  and  the  same  number  made  prisoners  of  war, 
 B.C.  202.  Only  2000  of  the  Romans  were  killed 
 This  battle  was  decisive  :  the  Carthaginians  sued  f« 
 peace,  which  Scipio  at  last  granted  on  the  most  sevei. 
 
SCIPIO. 
 
 SCIPIO. 
 
 and  humiliating  terms.  The  conqueror  after  this  re- 
 turned 10  Rome,  where  he  was  received  with  ihe  most 
 unbounded  applause,  honoured  with  a  triumph,  and 
 dignified  with  the  appellation  of  Afnca7ius.  Here  he 
 enjoyed  for  some  time  the  tranquillity  and  the  honours 
 which  his  exploits  merited  ;  but  in  him  also,  as  in  other 
 great  men,  fortune  showed  herself  inconstant.  Scipio 
 offended  the  populace  in  wishing  to  distmguish  the 
 senators  from  the  rest  of  the  people  at  the  public  ex- 
 hibitions ;  and  when  he  canvassed  for  the  consulship 
 for  two  of  his  friends,  Scipio  Nasica  and  Caius  Lajlius, 
 he  had  the  mortification  to  see  his  application  slighted, 
 and  the  honours  which  he  claimed  bestowed  on  a  man 
 of  no  character,  and  recommended  neither  by  abilities 
 nor  meritorious  actions.  He  retired  from  Rome  no 
 longer  to  be  a  spectator  of  the  ingratitude  of  his  coun- 
 trymen, and  in  the  capacity  of  lieutenant  he  accom- 
 panied his  brother  against  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria. 
 In  this  expedition  his  arms  were  attended  with  his 
 usual  success,  and  the  Asiatic  monarch  submitted  to 
 the  conditions  which  the  conquerors  dictated.  At  his 
 return  to  Rome  Africanus  found  the  malevolence  of 
 his  enemies  still  unabated.  Cato,  his  inveterate  rival, 
 seemed  bent  on  his  ruin  ;  and  he  urged  on  the  Petilii, 
 two  tribunes  of  the  commons,  to  move  in  the  senate 
 that  Africanus  should  be  cited  to  give  an  account  of 
 all  the  money  he  had  received  from  Antiochus,  to- 
 gether with  such  spoil  as  was  taken  in  that  war.  As 
 soon  as  the  Petilii  had  preferred  their  charge  in  the 
 senate,  Scipio  arose,  and,  taking  a  roll  of  papers  out  of 
 his  bosomj  which  had  heen  drawn  up  by  his  brother, 
 he  said,  "  In  this  is  contained  an  accurate  statement 
 of  all  you  wish  to  know ;  in  it  you  will  find  a  particu- 
 lar account  both  of  the  money  and  plunder  received 
 from  Antiochus." — "Read  it  aloud,"  was  the  cry  of  the 
 tribunes,  "and  afterward  let  it  be  deposited  in  the  treas- 
 ury." "  That  I  will  not  do,"  said  Scipio  ;  "  nor  will  I 
 so  insult  myself;"  and,  without  saying  a  word  more, 
 he  tore  it  in  pieces  in  the  presence  of  all.  It  is  not 
 improbable  that  this  tearing  of  his  accounts  furnished 
 his  enemies  with  the  chief  advantage  they  suhsecjuent- 
 ly  had  against  him.  Not  long  after  this,  a  tribune  of 
 the  name  of  Najvius  cited  Scipio  to  answer  before  the 
 people  10  the  same  charges  as  those  which  the  Petilii 
 had  brought  forward,  and  to  other  additional  ones  of  a 
 similar  purport.  The  first  day  was  spent  in  hearing 
 the  different  charges.  On  the  second  day  the  trib- 
 unes took  their  seats  at  a  very  early  hour.  The  ac- 
 cused soon  after  arrived,  with  a  numerous  train  of 
 friends  and  clients  ;  and,  passing  through  the  midst  of 
 the  assembly  to  the  rostra,  ascended  without  the  least 
 emotion,  and,  with  that  air  of  dignity  and  confidence 
 which  conscious  innocence  and  superior  virtue  alone 
 are  able  to  inspire,  addressed  the  assembly  as  follows  : 
 "  On  this  day,  tribunes  of  the  people,  and  you,  Ro- 
 mans, I  conquered  Hannibal  and  the  Carthaginians. 
 Is  it  becoming  to  spend  a  day  like  this  in  wrangling 
 and  contention  ?  Let  us  not  then,  I  beseech  you,  be 
 vngratcfid  to  the  gods,  hut  let  us  leave  this  man  here, 
 and  go  to  the  Capitol,  to  thank  them  for  the  many  fa- 
 vows  they  have  vouchsafed  us."  These  words  had 
 the  desired  effect.  The  tribes  and  all  the  assembly 
 followed  Scipio  ;  the  court  was  deserted,  and  the  trib- 
 unes were  left  alone  in  the  seat  of  judgment.  Yet, 
 when  this  memorable  day  was  past  and  forgotten,  Af- 
 ricanus was  a  third  time  summoned  to  appear :  but 
 he  had  fled  before  the  impending  storm,  and  retired  to 
 his  country-house  at  Liternum.  The  accusation  was 
 therefore  stopped,  and  the  accusers  silenced,  when 
 Gracchus,  one  of  the  tribunes,  formerly  distinguished 
 for  his  opposition  to  Scipio,  rose  to  defend  him,  and 
 declared  in  the  assembly  that  it  reflected  the  highest 
 disgrace  on  the  Roman  people  that  the  conqueror  of 
 Hannibal  should  become  the  sport  of  the  populace, 
 end  be  exposed  to  the  malice  and  envy  of  disappointed 
 ambition.  Some  time  after,  Scipio  died  in  the  place 
 7N 
 
 of  his  retreat,  about  184  years  before  Christ,  in  tho 
 57th  year  of  his  age  ;  and  .so  strong  was  his  sense  of 
 the  ingratitude  of  his  countrymen,  that  he  directed  his 
 remains  to  be  interred  at  Liternum,  not  to  be  con- 
 veyed to  Rome.  {Vid.  Liternum.) — Notwithstanding 
 all  the  displeasure  and  rancorous  feeling  that  existed 
 among  certain  individuals  at  Rome,  the  day  on  .ihicli 
 the  news  of  Scipio's  death  was  known  proved  a  day 
 of  general  sorrow  :  for  the  very  men  who  refused  to 
 pay  him,  when  alive,  the  appropriate  and  usual  honours, 
 could  not  help  mingling  their  tears  with  those  of  the 
 people  at  large.  Livy  says  he  saw  at  Liternum  the 
 monument  which  was  erected  to  him,  and  the  statue 
 which  had  stood  on  the  top  of  it  lying  on  the  ground, 
 where  it  had  been  blown  down  by  a  storm  (38,  56). 
 Pliny  writes,  that  in  his  lime  was  to  be  seen  a  myrtle 
 of  an  extraordinary  size  growing  at  Liternum,  under- 
 neath which  was  a  cave,  wherein,  it  was  said,  a  dragon 
 watched  the  soul  of  that  great  man.  There  were  also 
 to  be  seen  some  olive-trees  planted  by  his  own  hand. 
 {Plin.,  16,  43.)  All  these  inconsiderable  objects  seem 
 to  show  how  much  the  idea  of  greatness  is  attached 
 to  every  circumstance  connected  in  the  most  distant 
 manner  with  illustrious  men  ;  and  the  reason  is,  that 
 each  inspires  interest,  and,  in  spite  of  us,  claims  some 
 degree  of  attention. — No  character  has  been  celebrated 
 with  more  cordial  praise  than  that  of  the  elder  Afri- 
 canus. Besides  the  many  rare  gifts  of  nature  that 
 Scipio  had  above  all  others,  there  was  in  him  also,  as 
 the  old  writer  of  his  life  words  it,  "  a  certain  princely 
 grace  and  majesty.  Furthermore,  he  was  marvellous 
 gentle  and  courteous  unto  them  that  came  to  him, 
 and  had  an  eloquent  tongue,  and  a  passing  gift  to 
 win  every  man.  He  was  very  grave  in  his  gesture 
 and  behaviour,  and  ever  wore  long  hair.  In  fine,  he 
 was  a  truly  noble  captain,  worthy  of  all  commendation, 
 and  excelled  in  all  virtues,  which  did  so  delight  his 
 mind  that  he  was  wont  to  say  that  he  was  never  less 
 idle  than  when  at  leisure,  nor  less  alone  than  when 
 alone."  (Cic,  Off.,  3,  1.) — In  all  Scipio's  campaigns, 
 Laelius  was  his  chief  assistant,  and  the  man  in  whom 
 he  placed  the  greatest  confidence.  But  the  friendship 
 subsisting  between  them  was  not  more  conspicuous 
 than  that  which  connected  afterward  the  son  of  the 
 one  with  the  grandson  of  the  other.  Whether  Lislius 
 cheered  the  hours  of  Scipio's  retirement  is  not  dis- 
 tinctly marked  in  history  by  any  writer.  The  poet 
 Ennius  is  known  to  have  been  held  in  such  esteem  by 
 him,  that  he  ordered  the  statue  of  his  learned  friend  to 
 be  placed  on  his  sepulchre  by  his  own,  and  the  re- 
 mains of  the  poet  to  be  deposited  in  the  same  tomb. 
 {Plin.,  7,  30.— Ovid,  A.  A.,  3,  409.)  As  an  instance 
 of  Scipio's  continence,  ancient  authors  state  that  the 
 conqueror  of  Spain  refused  to  see  a  beautiful  princess 
 that  had  fallen  into  his  hands  after  the  taking  of  New 
 Carthage,  and  that  he  not  only  restored  her  inviolate 
 to  her  parents,  but  also  added  large  presents  for  the 
 person  to  whom  she  was  betrothed.  (Berwick's  Life 
 of  Scipio  Africanus,  p.  140,  seqti.) — IX.  Lucius  Cor- 
 nelius Scipio,  surnamed  Asiaticus,  accompanied  his 
 brother  Africanus  in  his  expedition  into  Spain  and  Af 
 rica.  He  was  rewarded  with  the  consulship  .\.U.C. 
 562,  for  his  service  to  the  state,  and  was  empowered 
 to  attack  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  who  had  declared 
 war  against  the  Romans.  Lucius  was  accompanied 
 in  this  campaign  by  his  brother  Africanus  ;  and  by  his 
 own  valour  and  the  counsels  of  the  conqueror  of  Han- 
 nibal, he  soon  routed  the  enemy-  and  in  a  battle  near 
 the  city  of  Sardes  he  killed  50,000  foot  and  4000 
 horse.  Peace  was  soon  after  settled  by  the  submis- 
 sion of  Antiochus,  and  the  conqueror,  at  his  return 
 home,  obtained  a  triumph  and  the  surname  of  Asiati- 
 cus. He  did  not,  however,  long  enjoy  bis  prosperity. 
 Cato,  after  the  death  of  Africanus,  turned  his  rancour 
 acrainst  Asiaticus,  and  the  two  Petilii,  his  devoted  ad- 
 herents, presented  a  petition  to  the  people,  in  which 
 
 1201 
 
SCIPIO. 
 
 SCIPIO. 
 
 they  prayed  that  an  inquiry  might  be  made  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  ascertaining  what  money  had  been  received 
 irom  Antiochiis  and  from  his  allies.  The  pciilion 
 was  instantly  received,  and  Asiatinus,  charged  with 
 having  suffered  himself  to  be  corrupted  by  Antiochus, 
 was  summoned  to  appear  before  the  triiaunal  of  Te- 
 rentius  Ouleo,  who  was  on  this  occasion  created  pra;- 
 tor.  The  judge,  who  was  an  inveterate  enemy  to  the 
 family  of  the  .Scipios,  soon  found  Asiaticus,  with  his 
 two  lieutenants  and  his  quaestor,  guilty  of  having  re- 
 ceived, the  first  6000  pounds'  weight  of  gold  and  480 
 pounds'  weight  of  silver,  and  the  others  nearly  an  equal 
 sum,  from  the  monarch  against  whom,  in  the  name  of 
 the  Roman  people,  they  were  enjoined  to  make  war. 
 They  were  condemned  to  pay  large  fines  ;  but,  while 
 the  others  gave  security,  Scipio  declared  that  he  had 
 accounted  to  the  public  for  all  the  money  which  he 
 had  brought  from  Asia,  and  therefore  that  he  was 
 innocent.  Notwithstanding  this  grave  protestation, 
 the  officers  of  justice  were  ordered  to  convey  him  to 
 prison  ;  but,  while  they  were  in  the  actual  discharge 
 of  their  duty,  Sempronius  Gracchus,  one  of  the  trib- 
 unes, interfered,  and  declared,  "  that  he  should  make 
 no  objection  to  their  raising  the  money  out  of  his  ef- 
 fects, but  that  he  would  never  suffer  a  Roman  general 
 to  be  dragged  to  the  common  prison,  wherein  the  lead- 
 ers of  the  enemy,  that  were  taken  in  battle  by  him, 
 nad  been  confined."  When  the  entire  property  of 
 Lucius  Scipio  was  seized  and  valued,  it  was  found  in- 
 adequate to  the  payment  of  the  sum  demanded  ;  and 
 what  redounded  to  his  honour  was,  that,  among  all  his 
 sffects,  there  was  not  found  the  trace  of  the  smallest 
 article  that  could  be  considered  Asiatic.  His  friends 
 and  relations,  indignant  at  the  treatment  he  had  re- 
 leived,  came  and  offered  to  make  compensation  for 
 .lis  loss  ;  but  he  refused  to  accept  of  anything  except 
 what  was  barely  necessary  for  subsistence.  Whatever 
 was  needful,  says  Livy,  for  domestic  use,  was  pur- 
 chased at  the  sale  of  his  property  by  his  nearest  rela- 
 tions ;  and  the  public  hatred  now  recoiled  on  all  who 
 were  concerned  in  the  prosecution.  (Livy,  38,  60.) 
 Some  time  after  he  was  appointed  to  settle  the  dis- 
 putes between  Eumenes  and  Seleucus  ;  and,  at  his  re- 
 turn, the  Romans,  ashamed  of  their  severity  towards 
 him,  rewarded  his  merit  with  such  uncommon  liberal- 
 ity, that  Asiaticus  was  enabled  to  celebrate  games,  in 
 honour  of  his  victory  over  Antiochus.  for  ten  success- 
 ive days  at  his  own  expense. — X.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio 
 Nasica  was  son  of  Cneus  Scipio,  and  cousin  to  Scipio 
 Africanus.  He  was  refused  the  consulship,  though 
 supported  by  the  interest  and  the  fame  of  the  conquer- 
 or of  Hannibal  ;  but  he  afterward  obtained  it,  and  in 
 that  honourable  office  conquered  the  Boii,  and  gained 
 a  triumph.  He  was  also  successful  in  an  expedition 
 which  he  undertook  in  Spain.  When  the  statue  of 
 Gybele  was  brought  to  Rome  from  Phrygia,  the  Ro- 
 man senate  delegated  one  of  their  body,  who  was  the 
 most  remarkable  for  the  purity  of  his  manners  and  the 
 innocence  of  his  life,  to  go  and  meet  the  goddess  in 
 the  harbour  of  Ostia.  Nasica  was  the  object  of  their 
 choice,  and,  as  such,  he  was  enjoined  to  bring  the 
 statue  of  the  goddess  to  Rome  with  the  greatest 
 pomp  and  solemnity.  Nasica  also  distinguished  him- 
 self by  the  active  part  he  took  in  confuting  the  accu- 
 sations laid  against  the  two  Scipios,  Africanus  and 
 Asiaticus.  There  was  also  another  of  the  same  name, 
 who  distinguished  himself  by  his  enmity  against  the 
 Gracchi,  to  whom  he  was  nearly  related. — {Paterc,  2, 
 1,  &c.—Flor.,  2,  15.— Li/).,  29,  14,  &c.)— XI.  Pub- 
 lius  .■Emilianus,  son  of  Paulus  ^Emilius,  the  conquer- 
 or of  Perseus,  was  adopted  by  the  son  of  Scipio  Af- 
 ricanus, being  already  a  relation  of  the  Scipio  family, 
 since  Africanus  had  married  his  aunt.  He  received 
 the  same  surname  as  his  grandfather,  and  was  called 
 Africanus  the  Younger  on  account  of  his  victories 
 ^er  Carthage.  iEniilianus  first  appeared  in  the  Ro- 
 1302 
 
 man  armies  under  his  father,  and  afterward  distin- 
 guished himself  as  a  legionary  tribune  in  the  Spanish 
 provinces,  where  he  killed  a  Spaniard  of  gigantic 
 stature,  and  obtained  a  mural  crown  at  the  siewe  of 
 Intercatia.  He  passed  into  Africa  to  visit  King  Mas- 
 inissa,  the  ally  of  Rome,  and  he  was  the  spectator  of 
 a  long  and  bloody  battle  which  was  fought  between 
 that  monarch  and  the  Carlhaginiahs.  {Vtd.  Masinis- 
 sa.)  Some  time  after  .^Emilianos  was  made  ajdile, 
 and  next  appointed  consul,  though  under  the  age  re- 
 quired for  that  important  office.  The  surname  which 
 he  had  received  from  his  grandfather  he  was  destined 
 lawfully  to  claim  as  his  own.  He  was  empowered  to 
 finish  the  war  with  Carthage  ;  and  as  he  was  permitted 
 by  the  senate  to  choose  his  colleague,  he  took  with 
 him  his  friend  Laelius,  whose  father  of  the  same  name 
 had  formerly  enjoyed  the  confidence  and  shared  the 
 victories  of  the  first  Africanus.  The  siege  of  Car- 
 thage was  already  begun,  but  the  operations  of  the 
 Romans  were  not  continued  with  vigour.  Scipio  bad 
 no  sooner  appeared  before  the  walls  of  the  enemy  than 
 every  communication  with  the  land  was  cut  off,  and, 
 that  they  might  not  have  the  command  of  the  sea,  a 
 stupendous  mole  was  thrown  across  the  harbour  with 
 immense  labour  and  expense.  This,  which  might 
 have  disheartened  the  most  active  enemy,  rendered 
 the  Carthaginians  more  eager  in  the  cause  of  freedom 
 and  independence  ;  all  the  inhabitants,  without  dis- 
 tinction of  rank,  age,  or  sex,  employed  themselves 
 without  cessation  to  dig  another  harbour,  and  to  build 
 and  equip  another  fleet.  In  a  short  time,  in  spite  of 
 the  vigilance  and  activity  of  ^■^^milianus,  the  Romans 
 were  astonished  to  see  another  harbour  formed,  and 
 fifty  gallies  suddenly  issued  under  sail,  ready  for  the 
 engagement.  This  unexpected  fleet,  by  immediately 
 attacking  the  Roman  ships,  might  have  gained  the  vic- 
 tory ;  but  the  delay  of  the  Carthaginians  proved  fatal 
 to  their  cause,  and  the  enemy  had  sufficient  time  to 
 prepare  themselves.  Scipio  soon  got  the  possession 
 of  a  small  eminence  in  the  harbour,  and,  by  the  suc- 
 cess of  his  subsequent  operations,  he  broke  open  one 
 of  the  gates  of  the  city  and  entered  the  streets,  where 
 he  made  his  way  by  fire  and  sword.  The  surrender 
 of  above  50,000  men  was  followed  by  a  reduction  of 
 the  citadel,  and  the  total  submission  of  Carthage,  B.C. 
 147.  The  captive  city  was  set  on  fire  ;  and,  though 
 Scipio  was  obliged  to  demolish  its  very  walls  to  obey 
 the  orders  of  the  Romans,  yet  he  wept  bitterly  over 
 the  melancholy  and  tragical  scene  ;  and,  in  bewailing 
 the  miseries  of  Carthage,  he  expressed  his  fears  lest 
 Rome,  in  her  turn,  in  some  future  age,  should  exhibit 
 such  a  dreadful  conflagration.  The  return  of  ^-f^mili- 
 anus  to  Rome  was  that  of  another  conqueror  of  Han- 
 nibal, and,  like  him,  he  was  honoured  with  a  magnifi- 
 cent triumph,  and  received  the  surname  of  Africanus. 
 He  was  not  long  left  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  glory  be 
 fore  he  was  called  to  obtain  fresh  honours.  He  was 
 chosen  consul  a  second  time,  and  appointed  to  finish 
 the  war  which  the  Romans  had  hitherto  carried  on 
 without  success  against  Numantia.  The  fall  of  Nu- 
 mantia  was  more  glorious  for  Scipio  than  that  of  the 
 capital  of  Africa.  From  his  conquests  in  Spain 
 ^milianus  was  honoured  with  a  second  triumph,  and 
 with  the  surname  of  Nvmantinus.  Yet  his  populari- 
 ty was  short-lived  ;  and,  by  telling  the  people  that  the 
 murder  of  their  favourite,  his  brother-in-law  Grac- 
 chus, was  lawful,  since  he  was  turbulent  and  inimical 
 to  the  peace  of  the  republic,  Scipio  incurred  the  dis- 
 pleasure of  the  tribunes,  and  was  received  with  hisses 
 by  the  assembled  people.  His  authority  for  a  mo- 
 ment quelled  their  turbulence,  when  he  reproached 
 them  for  their  cowardice,  and  exclaimed,  Factious 
 wretches  !  do  you  think  that  your  clamours  can  intim- 
 idate me  1  me,  whom  the  fury  of  your  enemies  never 
 daunted  ?  Is  this  the  gratitude  that  you  owe  to  my 
 father  Paulus,  who  conquered  Macedonia,  and  to  me  1 
 
S  CI 
 
 SCO 
 
 Without  my  family  you  were  slaves.  Is  this  the  re- 
 spect you  owe  to  your  deliverers  ?  Is  this  your  affec- 
 tion ?  This  firmness  silenced  the  murmurs  of  the  as- 
 sembly ;  and,  some  time  after,  Scipio  retired  from  the 
 clamours  of  Rome  to  Ca'ieta,  where,  with  his  friend 
 Laelius,  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  time  in  innocent 
 pleasures  and  amusement,  in  diversions  which  had 
 pleased  them  when  children ;  and  these  two  eminent 
 men  were  often  seen  on  the  seashore  picking  up  light 
 pebbles,  and  throwing  them  on  the  smooth  surface  of 
 the  waters.  Though  fond  of  retirement  and  literary 
 ease,  Scipio  often  interested  himself  in  the  affairs  of 
 state.  His  enemies  accused  him  of  aspiring  to  the 
 dictatorship,  and  the  clamours  were  most  loud  against 
 him  when  he  had  opposed  the  Sempronian  law,  and 
 declared  himself  the  patron  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
 provinces  of  Italy.  This  active  part  of  Scipio  was 
 seen  with  pleasure  by  the  friends  of  the  republic  ;  and 
 not  only  the  senate,  but  also  the  citizens,  the  Latins, 
 and  the  neighbouring  states,  conducted  their  illus- 
 trious friend  and  patron  to  his  house.  It  seemed  al- 
 most the  universal  wish  that  the  troubles  might  be 
 quieted  by  the  election  of  Scipio  to  the  dictatorship, 
 and  many  presumed  that  that  honour  would  be  on  the 
 morrow  conferred  upon  him.  In  this,  however,  the 
 expectations  of  Rome  were  frustrated  :  Scipio  was 
 found  dead  in  his  bed,  to  the  astonishment  of  all ;  and 
 those  who  inquired  for  the  causes  of  this  sudden 
 death,  perceived  violent  marks  on  his  neck,  and  con- 
 cluded that  he  had  been  strangled,  B.C.  128.  This 
 assassination,  as  it  was  then  generally  believed,  was 
 committed  by  the  triumvirs,  Papirius  Carbo,  C.  Grac- 
 chus, and  Fulvius  Flaccus,  who  supported  the  Sem- 
 pronian law,  and  by  his  wife  Sempronia,  who  is  charg- 
 ed with  introducing  the  murderers  into  his  room.  No 
 inquiries  were  made  after  the  authors  of  his  death. 
 Gracchus  was  the  favourite  of  the  mob,  and  the  only 
 atonement  which  the  populace  made  for  the  death  of 
 Scipio  was  to  attend  his  funeral,  and  to  show  their 
 concern  by  their  loud  lamentations,  ^milianus,  like 
 his  grandfather,  was  fond  of  literature,  and  he  is  said 
 to  have  saved  from  the  tlames  of  Carthage  many  val- 
 uable compositions,  written  by  Phoenician  and  Punic 
 authors.  In  the  midst  of  his  greatness  he  died  poor ; 
 and  his  nephew,  Q.  Fabius  Maximus,  who  inherited 
 his  estate,  scarce  found  in  his  house  thirty-two  pounds' 
 weight  of  silver  and  two  and  a  half  of  gold.  His 
 liberality  to  his  brother  and  to  his  sisters  deserves  the 
 greatest  commendations  ;  and,  indeed,  no  higher  enco- 
 mium can  be  passed  upon  his  character,  private  as 
 well  as  public,  than  the  words  of  his  rival  Metellus, 
 who  told  his  sons,  at  the  death  of  Scipio,  to  go  and 
 attend  the  funeral  of  the  greatest  man  that  ever  lived 
 or  should  live  in  Rome. — XII.  Q.  Metellus  Scipio, 
 adopted  son  of  Quintus  Cscilius  Metellus.  His  pre- 
 vious name  was  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica.  Metel- 
 lus Scipio  was  consul  with  Pompey,  his  son-inlaw, 
 towards  the  close  of  the  year  52  B.C.,  the  latter  hav- 
 ing been  sole  consul  previously.  Metellus  and  Pom- 
 pey re-established  the  consulship,  which  had  been 
 completely  prostrated  by  Clodius;  and  the  former 
 was  afterward  sent  into  Syria  as  proconsul,  having 
 sided,  of  course,  with  Pompey  against  Cssar.  After 
 the  battle  of  Pharsalia  he  passed  into  Africa  to  Juba, 
 assembled  a  body  of  troops  there  along  with  that 
 prince  and  Cato,  and  finally  engaged  with  Cssar  in 
 the  battle  of  Thapsus,  but  was  totally  defeated,  46 
 B.C.  Having  endeavoured  to  escape  to  the  coast  of 
 Spain,  and  being  driven  back  by  stress  of  weather  to 
 the  African  shore,  his  vessels  were  overpowered  by 
 the  fleet  of  P.  Sithius,  and  he,  to  avoid  fallmg  into  the 
 hands  of  Ca3sar,  destroyed  himself.  {Appian,  Bell. 
 Civ.,  2,  100.— ^Mc^,  Bell.  A/ric.,  96.) 
 
 SciRON,  a  celebrated  thief  in  Attica,  who  plundered 
 (he  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  threw  them  down 
 from  the  highest  rocks  info  the  sea,  after  he  had  obliged 
 
 them  to  wait  upon  him  and  to  wash  his  feet.  Theseus 
 attacked  him,  and  treated  him  in  the  way  that  he  him- 
 self was  accustomed  to  treat  travellers.  According  to 
 Ovid,  the  earth,  as  well  as  the  sea,  refused  to  receive 
 the  bones  of  Sciron,  which  remained  for  some  time 
 suspended  in  the  air,  till  they  were  changed  into  large 
 rocks,  called  Scironides  Petrce,  or  Scironia  Saxa. 
 ( Vid.  Scironides  Petras.)  (Ovid,  Met.,  7,  Ui.—Mela, 
 2,  12.— Plin,  2,  47.— Seneca,  N.  Q.,  5,  17.) 
 
 Scironides  Petr.*:  or  Scironia  Saxa,  a  celebrated 
 pass  or  defile  on  the  southern  coast  of  Megaris,  said  to 
 have  been  the  haunt  of  the  robber  Sciron  until  he  was 
 destroyed  by  Theseus.  {Eurip.,  Htppol.,  979. — Ovid, 
 Met.,  7,  444.)  This  narrow  pass  was  situated,  as  we 
 learn  from  Strabo  (391),  between  Megara  and  Crom- 
 omyon,  a  small  maritime  town  belonging  to  Corinth. 
 The  road  followed  the  shore  for  the  space  of  several 
 miles,  and  was  shut  in  on  the  land  side  by  a  lofty  mount- 
 ain, while  towards  the  sea  it  was  lined  by  dangerous  pre- 
 cipices. Pausanias  reports  ( 1 ,  44),  that  it  was  rendered 
 more  accessible  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  so  that  two 
 carriages  could  pass  each  other.  According  to  mod- 
 ern travellers,  the  Scironian  Way,  now  called  KaJci 
 Scala,  is  difficult  and  rugged,  and  only  frequented  by 
 passengers.  The  precipices  are  two  hours  from  Me- 
 gara and  six  from  Corinth.  (Chandler,  vol.  2,  c.  44. 
 — Dodwell,  vol.  2,  p.  182. —  Walpole's  Collection,  vol 
 1,  p.  332.) 
 
 ScoDRA,  a  city  of  Illyria,  the  capital  of  Gentius,  sit- 
 uate between  the  rivers  (Clausula  and  Barbana.  From 
 the  position  here  given  to  Scodra,  which  is  that  as- 
 signed by  Livy  (44,  31),  the  site  of  the  place  does  not 
 precisely  correspond  to  that  of  Scutari.  Scodra  was 
 a  place  of  great  strength,  and  might  easily  have  de- 
 fended itself  against  the  Romans  in  their  war  with 
 Gentius  ;  but,  instead  of  offering  any  resistance,  il 
 surrendered  on  the  first  approach  of  the  enemy's  forces. 
 Polybius  calls  it  Scorda.  (Excerpt.,  28,  7.)  In  the 
 division  of  the  territories  of  Gentius,  Scodra  retained 
 its  distinction  as  capital  of  the  Labeates.  (Cramer's 
 Aiic.  Greece,  vol    1,  p.  41.) 
 
 ScoMBRUs,  a  mountain  range  of  Thrace,  near  Rho- 
 dope,  and,  together  with  the  latter,  forming  part  of  the 
 same  great  central  chain.  Thucydides  calls  the  name 
 Scomius  (2,  96),  but  Aristotle  Scombrus.  (Meteorol., 
 1,  13.) 
 
 ScoPAS,  a  celebrated  architect  and  sculptor,  born  in 
 the  island  of  Paros,  and  who  appears  to  have  flour- 
 ished chiefly  between  Olymp.  97  and  107  (B.C.  392 
 and  3.52).  It  was  his  fortune  to  he  employed  as  one 
 of  the  four  artists  who  were  engaged  by  Artemisia, 
 queen  of  Caria,  in  erecting  and  adorning  the  Mauso- 
 leum, that  splendid  monument  to  the  memory  of  her 
 husband  Mausolus.  Scopas  was  employed  also  to 
 contribute  one  of  the  columns  to  the  temple  of  Diana 
 at  Ephesus,  and  the  one  which  he  executed  was  re- 
 garded as  the  most  beautiful  of  all.  He  seems,  in- 
 deed, to  have  been  scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  Poly- 
 cletus  or  Myron.  His  statues  were  numerous  ;  among 
 the  most  remarkable  of  them  were,  the  images  of  Ve- 
 nus, Pothus,  and  Phaethon.  Many  of  his  compositions 
 were  among  the  noblest  ornaments  of  Rome  in  the 
 days  of  Pliny.  An  Apollo  of  his  workmanship  stood 
 on  the  Palatine  Mount.  A  Vesta  seated,  with  two 
 female  attendants  reclining  on  the  ground,  adorned  the 
 Servilian  gardens.  His  statues  also  of  Neptune,  of 
 Thetis,  and  of  Achilles,  of  the  Nereids  riding  on  the 
 mightiest  monsters  of  the  drop,  were  highly  prized, 
 and  placed  in  the  chapel  of  Cneius  Domitius  in  the 
 Flaminian  circus.  A  colossal  image  of  Mars,  and  an 
 exquisite  statue  of  Venus,  were  also  greatly  admired 
 at  Rome,  and  the  latter  was  preferred  to  a  similar  stat- 
 ue by  Praxiteles,  which  has  been  thought  to  have  fur- 
 nished the  original  idea  of  the  Venus  de  Medicis. 
 (Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.  —  Strab.,  604. — Pausan.,  8, 
 45,  i.—Plm.,  36,  5,  4.) 
 
 1203 
 
SC  Y 
 
 SC  Y 
 
 ScoRDisci,  a  numerous  and  powerful  tribe  of  Illy- 
 ria,  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  and  reaching  as  far 
 as  the  Danube.  Strabo  divides  them  into  the  greater 
 and  the  less,  and  places  the  former  between  the  Noaras 
 or  Gurck,  and  the  river  Margus.  The  latter  adjoined 
 the  Tnballi  and  Mysi  of  Thrace.  The  Scordisci  hav- 
 ing successively  subdued  the  nations  around  them, 
 extended  their  dominion  from  the  borders  of  Thrace 
 to  the  Adriatic.  They  were,  however,  in  their  turn 
 conquered  by  the  Romans,  though  not  without  numer- 
 ous struggles  and  much  bloodshed.  Though  Strabo 
 classes  the  Scordisci  with  the  Illyrian  nations,  he  seems 
 also  to  acknowledge  them  as  of  Gallic  origin  :  they 
 were  probably  of  the  same  race  as  the  Taurisci  and 
 Carni,  both  Celtic  people.  {Strah.,  313.— /(i.,  318. — 
 Flor.,  3,  4. — Liv.,  Epit.,  63. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  46.) 
 
 ScoTi,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Scotland.  It  is 
 generally  conceded  that  the  earliest  inhabitants  of 
 Caledonia  were  of  Celtic  origin.  According  to  Scot- 
 tish traditions,  the  Scoti  came  from  Spain,  and  were 
 one  people  with  the  Silures,  who  occupied  what  now 
 answers  to  Wales.  They  first  possessed  themselves 
 of  Ireland,  which  from  them  received  the  name  of  Sco- 
 tia, and  for  some  time  retained  the  appellation.  They 
 jifterward  passed  over  into  what  was  called  from  them 
 Scotland.  (Ammian.  MarcelL,  20,  1. — Id.,  26,  4. — 
 Jd.,  27,  8.  —  Beda,  Hist.  Eccles.,  1,  1. — Adclung, 
 Mithradates,  vol.  2,  p.  84. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  1, 
 pt.  2,  p.  92,  scqq.) 
 
 ScBiBONiA,  a  daughter  of  Scribonius,  who  married 
 Augustus  after  he  had  divorced  Claudia.  He  had  by 
 her  a  daughter,  the  celebrated  .lulia.  Scribonia  was 
 some  time  after  repudiated  that  Augustus  might  marry 
 Livia.  She  had  been  married  twice  before  she  be- 
 came the  wife  of  the  emperor.     {Suet.,  Vit.  Aug.,  62.) 
 
 Scribonius,  I.  L.  Libo,  a  Roman  historian,  author 
 of  Annals  cited  by  Cicero  {Ep.  ad  Alt.,  13,  31). — 
 II.  Largus  Designatianus,  a  physician,  born  at  Rome, 
 or  in  the  island  of  Sicily.  In  A.D.  43  he  accompanied 
 the  Emperor  Claudius  on  his  expediton  into  Britain. 
 He  was  a  physician  of  the  Eclectic  school,  and  wrote 
 a  treatise  De  Coinpositionc  mcdicamentorum.  As  this 
 work  is  written  in  very  inferior  Latin,  some  critics 
 have  supposed  that  it  was  originally  composed  in 
 Greek,  and  afterward  translated  into  Latin.  Scribo- 
 nius has  copied  from  Nicander,  and  has  also  derived 
 many  absurd  and  superstitious  remedies  from  other 
 medical  writers.  The  best  edition  of  this  work  is  that 
 of  Rhodius,  Palav.,  1655,  4to. 
 
 ScuLTENNA,  a  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  rising  on  the 
 northern  confines  of  Etruria,  and  flowing  from  the  east 
 of  Mutina  into  the  Padus.  It  is  now  the  Panaro. 
 {Strab  ,  218.— Liu.,  41,  12) 
 
 ScYLAciuM,  a  Greek  city,  on  the  coast  of  the  Bruttii, 
 in  a  southwest  direction  from  Crotona,  and  communi- 
 cating its  name  to  the  adjacent  gulf  (Sinus  Scylacius). 
 According  to  Strabo,  it  was  colonized  by  the  Atheni- 
 ans under  Mnestheus  ;  but  he  neither  mentions  the 
 time,  nor  the  circumstances  which  led  to  its  estab- 
 hshment.  {Strab. ,3Gl.)  Servius,  however,  observes, 
 that  these  Athenians  were  reluming  from  Africa  {ad 
 yE«.,  3,  552).  At  a  later  period  it  received  a  Roman 
 colony.  {Veil.  Palerc,  1,  15.)  Scylacium  was  the 
 birthplace  of  Cassiodorus.  It  is  now  SquiUace.  The 
 epithet  navifragum  is  applied  by  Virgil  to  this  place. 
 {JEn.,  3,  553.)  Heyne  considers  the  appellation  to 
 allude  to  the  rocky  and  dangerous  shore  in  its  vicinity, 
 or  else  to  the  frequent  storms  which  prevailed  in  this 
 quarter,  between  Tria  Promontoria  lapygum  and  Co- 
 cinthum.  {Heyne,  ad  Virg.,l.  c. — Cramcr^s  Anc.  It- 
 aly, vol.  2,  p.  398.) 
 
 ScYLAX,  a  celebrated  geographer  and  mathematician 
 of  Caryanda  in  Caria  He  is  noticed  by  Herodotus 
 in  a  passage  where  the  latter  speaks  of  various  dis- 
 coveries made  in  Asia  by  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes, 
 1204 
 
 and  tells  of  Scyla.t  of  Caryanda  being  sent  by  that 
 monarch,  along  with  others,  to  ascertain  where  the  In- 
 dus entered  the  sea.  He  makes  them  to  have  reached 
 the  Indus,  sailed  down  the  river  to  the  sea,  and  then, 
 continuing  their  voyage  on  the  sea  towards  the  west, 
 to  have  reached,  in  the  30th  month,  the  place  from 
 which  the  Phoenician  king  despatched  the  Phoenicians 
 to  circumnavigate  Africa.  {Herod.,  4,  44.)  Suidas 
 gives  a  brief  account  of  Scylax,  m  which  he  has  evi- 
 dently confounded  different  persons  of  the  same  name: 
 "Scylax  of  Caryanda,  a  mathematician  and  musician, 
 wrote  a  periplus  of  the  coast  beyond  the  Pillars  of 
 Hercules,  a  book  respecting  Heraclides,  king  of  My- 
 lassa,  a  description  of  the  circuit  of  the  earth,  and  an 
 answer  to  Polybius's  history."  The  periplus,  which 
 still  remains,  bearmg  the  name  of  Scylax,  is  a  brief 
 survey  of  the  countries  along  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
 terranean and  Euxine,  of  the  western  coast  of  Europe, 
 together  with  part  of  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  sur- 
 veyed by  Hanno,  as  far  as  the  island  of  Cerne.  It 
 concludes  with  an  account  of  the  passages  across  the 
 sea,  from  Greece  to  Asia,  and  an  enumeration  of  20 
 important  islands  in  the  order  of  their  magnitude.  A 
 question  has  been  raised  as  to  the  date  of  the  periplus 
 of  Scylax.  The  subject  has  been  discussed  by  Nie- 
 buhr,  in  his  historical  and  philological  tracts.  {Kleine 
 historische  und  philologische  Schriflen,  p.  105,  seqq.) 
 Having  first  stated  the  opinions  of  former  critics,  and 
 rejected  the  argument  derived  from  the  omission  of 
 the  city  of  Rhodes  (which  was  founded  408  B.C.),  on 
 account  of  the  corruption  of  the  text,  Niebuhr  re- 
 marks that  the  proofs  of  its  date  are  partly  positive 
 and  partly  negative,  viz.,  derived  either  from  the  no- 
 tice of  or  a  silence  respecting  certain  towns.  By  pos- 
 itive arguments,  it  is  shown  that  this  work  was  written 
 after,  by  negative  that  it  was  written  before,  a  certain 
 date.  The  uncertain  interval  being  thus  narrowed  by 
 different  historical  proof,  Niebuhr  determines  that  this 
 periplus  was  written  about  360  B.C.  {Foreign  Re- 
 view, vol.  4,  p.  193.)  Letronne  has  subsequently 
 written  on  the  same  subject  {Journal  dcs  Savans, 
 Fevr.  Avr.  et  Mai,  1825),  and  has  pronounced  the 
 periplus  of  Scyla.x  a  compilation,  in  which  the  materi- 
 als of  different  writers  and  times  have  been  made  use 
 of.  In  this  opinion  Miiller  coincides.  {Etrusker,\o\. 
 1,  p.  159.)  Clinton  {Fasti  Hellenici,  pt.  2,  p.  564) 
 thinks  that  Suidas  confounded  him  with  the  more  an- 
 cient Scylax,  who  wrote,  according  to  him,  after  Po- 
 lybius,  B.C.  146,  and  he  considers  the  opinion  of  Vos- 
 sius  most  probable,  that  the  extant  work  is  an  epitome 
 of  the  ancient  Scylax.  This  periplus  has  reached  us 
 in  a  corrupted  state.  The  best  editions  of  Scylax  are, 
 that  of  Hudson,  in  the  Geographi  Grceci  Minores; 
 and  that  of  Gail,  in  his  edition  of  the  same  writers, 
 Paris,  1826,  vol.  1,  p.  151,  scqq. 
 
 ScYLLA,  I.  a  daughter  of  Nisus,  king  of  Megara, 
 who  became  enamoured  of  Minos  as  that  monarch 
 besieged  her  father's  capital.  {Vid.  Nisus.) — II.  A 
 fearful  monster,  of  whom  mention  is  made  in  the 
 Odyssey.  Having  escaped  the  Sirens,  and  shunned 
 tlie  Wandering  Rocks,  which  Circe  had  told  him  lay 
 beyond  the  mead  of  these  songsters,  Ulysses  came  to 
 the  terrific  Scylla  and  Charybdis,  between  which,  the 
 goddess  had  informed  him,  his  course  lay.  She  said 
 {Od.,  12,  73,  seqq  )  he  would  come  to  two  lofty  cliffs 
 opposite  each  other,  between  which  he  must  pass. 
 One  of  these  cliffs  towers  to  such  a  height  that  its 
 summit  is  for  ever  enveloped  in  clouds,  and  no  man. 
 even  if  he  had  twenty  hands  and  as  many  feet,  could 
 ascend  it.  In  the  middle  of  this  cliff,  she  says,  is  a 
 cave  facing  the  west,  but  so  high  that  a  man  in  a  ship 
 passing  under  it  could  not  shoot  up  to  it  with  a  bow. 
 In  this  den  dwells  Scylla  {Bitch),  whose  voice  sounds 
 like  that  of  a  young  whelp;  she  has  twelve  feet  and 
 six  long  necks,  with  a  terrific  head,  and  three  rows  of 
 close-set  teeth  on  each.     Evermore  she  stretches  ofui 
 
SC  Y 
 
 SC  Y 
 
 these  necks  and  catches  the  porpoises,  seaJogs,  and 
 other  large  animals  of  the  sea  which  swim  by,  and  out 
 of  every  ship  that  [lasses  each  mouth  lakes  a  man. 
 The  0|)[)iisite  rock,  the  goddess  informs  him,  is  much 
 lower,  lor  a  man  could  shoot  over  it.  A  wild  fig-tree 
 grows  on  it,  stretching  its  branches  down  to  the  wa- 
 ter ;  but  beneath,  "  divine  Charybdis"  three  times  each 
 day  absorbs  and  regorges  the  dark  water.  It  is  much 
 more  dangerous,  she  adds,  to  pass  Charybdis  than  Scyl- 
 la.  As  Ulysses  sailed  by,  Scylla  took  six  of  his  crew; 
 and  when,  afier  he  had  lost  his  shi[)  and  companions, 
 he  was  carried  by  wind  and  wave,  as  he  floated  on  a 
 part  of  tlie  wreck  between  the  monsters,  the  mast  by 
 which  he  supported  him.-elf  was  sucked  in  by  Charyb- 
 dis, and  he  held  by  the  wild  fig-tree  till  it  was  thrown  out 
 again,  when  he  resumed  his  voyage — Such  is  the  ear- 
 liest account  we  have  of  these  monsters,  in  which, 
 indeed,  it  may  be  doubted  if  Charybdis  is  to  be  regard- 
 ed as  an  animate  being.  The  ancients,  who  were  so 
 anxious  to  localize  all  the  wonders  of  Homer,  made 
 the  Straits  of  Messina  the  abode  of  Scylla  and  Charyb- 
 dis. The  whole  fable  has  been  explained  by  Spallan- 
 zani,  according  to  whom  Scylla  is  a  lofty  rock  on  the 
 Calabrian  shore,  with  some  caverns  at  the  bottom, 
 which,  by  the  agitation  of  the  waves,  emit  sounds  re- 
 sembling the  barking  of  dogs.  The  only  datiger  is 
 when  the  current  and  wind  are  in  opposition,  so  that 
 vessels  are  impelled  towards  the  rock.  Charybdis  is 
 not  a  whirlpool  or  involving  vortex,  but  a  spot  where 
 the  waves  are  greatly  agitated  by  pointed  rocks,  and 
 the  depth  does  not  exceed  500  feet.  (Spallanz.,  3, 
 p.  99.) — In  Homer  the  mother  of  Scylla  is  named  Cra- 
 taeis  (Od.,  12,  124),  but  her  sire  is  not  spoken  of 
 Stesichorus  called  her  mother  Lamia  {Euducia,  377)  ; 
 Hesiod  said  she  was  the  daughter  of  Phorbas  and  Hec- 
 ate (Schol.  ad  ApoU.  Rhod.,  4:,  828)  ;  Arcesilaus  said, 
 of  Phorcys  and  Hecate  {SchoL  ad  Od.,  12,  85)  ;  oth- 
 ers asserted  that  Triton  was  her  sire.  (Eudoria,  377.) 
 Later  poets  feigned  that  Scylla  was  once  a  beautiful 
 maiden,  who  was  fond  of  associating  with  the  Nere- 
 ids. The  seagod  Glaucus  beheld  and  fell  in  love  with 
 her,  and,  being  rejected,  applied  to  Circe  to  exercise 
 her  magic  arts  in  his  favour.  Circe  wished  him  to 
 transfer  his  affections  to  herself;  and,  filled  with  rage 
 at  his  refusal,  she  infected  with  noxious  juices  the 
 water  in  which  Scylla  was  wont  to  bathe,  and  thus 
 transformed  her  into  a  monster.  (Ovid,  Met.,  14,  1, 
 seqq. — Hygin.,  fab.,  199.)  According  to  another  ac- 
 count, the  change  in  Scylla's  form  was  effected  by 
 Amphitrite,  in  consequence  of  her  intimacy  with  Nep- 
 tune. (Tze/z.  ad  Lytophr.,  650.)  Charybdis  was 
 said  to  have  been  a  woman  who  stole  the  oxen  of  Her- 
 cules, and  'vho  was,  in  consequence,  struck  with  thun- 
 der by  Jupiter,  and  turned  into  a  whirlpool.  (Serv. 
 ad  JSn.,3,  420. — Keighllcy's  Mythology,  p.  271,  seqq.) 
 
 Scvi.i,.*;uM,  a  promontory  of  Argolis,  opposite  the 
 Attic  promontory  of  Sunium,  and  said  to  have  derived 
 its  name  from  Scylla,  the  daughter  of  Nisus.  It 
 formed,  together  with  the  promontory  of  Sunium,  the 
 entrance  of  the  Saronic  Gulf,  and  closed,  also,  the 
 Bay  of  Hermione.     (Sirab.,  373.) 
 
 ScvMNUs.  a  Greek  geographer,  a  native  of  Chios, 
 who  flourished  about  80  B C  during  the  reign  of 
 Nicoinedes  II.,  king  of  Bithynia.  He  dedicated  to 
 this  monarch  his  work  entitled  Pcricgesis  {UepiTJ-yri- 
 <7<c).  or  Description  of  the  World,  written  in  Greek 
 Iambics.  VN'e  have  remaining  of  this  the  first  741 
 lines,  and  fragments  of  2.'?6  others,  which  together 
 form,  according  to  the  critics,  not  more  than  a  fourth 
 part  of  the  entire  work.  Scymnus  informs  the  mon- 
 arch that  he  has  collected  and  abridged,  for  his  use, 
 all  the  information  he  found  scattered  among  various 
 writers  respecting  the  establishment  of  colonies  the 
 founding  of  cities,  &.c.  He  proposes  to  give,  first,  an 
 account  of  all  that  is  clear  and  well  ascertained  in  ge- 
 ographical knowledge  ;  while  he  promises  to  treat,  in 
 
 a  separate  part  of  the  work,  of  what  is  obscure,  in  or- 
 der that  Nicomcdcs  may  thus  have  a  concise  outline 
 of  the  geography  of  the  day.  This  work,  which  has 
 little  nil  rit  as  a  poem,  is  somewhat  more  valuable  as 
 a  geographical  treatise  ;  the  information  it  gives  re- 
 specting the  establishment  of  the  Greek  colonies  is 
 particularly  useful  ;  but  in  some  other  respects  it  is 
 not  very  accurate.  This  production,  together  with 
 the  fragments  (which  wc  owe  to  the  labours  of  Hol- 
 stenius),  may  be  found  in  the  minor  Greek  geogra 
 phers,  of  Hudson,  Gail,  &;c. 
 
 ScYRiAS,  a  name  applied  to  Deidamia  as  a  native  of 
 Scyros.     (Ovid,  A.,  \,  682.) 
 
 ScvRos,  an  island  of  the  ^fCgean  Sea,  northeast  of 
 Eubcea,  and  now  called  Scyro.  Thucydides  informs 
 us  that  its  first  inhabitants  were  Dolopians,  who  were 
 afterward  expelled  by  the  Athenians  (1,  98).  It  is  to 
 this  early  period  that  wc  must  assign  the  adventures 
 of  Achilles  and  the  birth  of  Neoptolemus.  {Strabo, 
 437.)  Here  Theseus  was  said  to  have  terminated  his 
 existence,  by  having  fallen,  or  been  pushed  down  a 
 precipice.  (Lycophr.,  1324)  Scyros,  according  to 
 Strabo,  was  also  celebrated  for  its  breed  of  goats  and 
 its  quarries  of  varied  marble,  which  vied  with  those  of 
 Carystus  and  Synnada.  In  the  geographer's  time  it 
 was  in  great  request  at  Rome  for  public  edifices  and 
 other  ornamental  purposes.  (.S^rai.,  437. — PUn.,36, 
 26. —  Cramer's  Ave.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  453.) 
 
 ScYTH.E,  the  inhabitants  of  Scythia.     (  V^d.  Scythia.) 
 
 ScvTHiA,  a  general  natne  given  by  the  ancient 
 Greeks  and  Romans  to  a  large  portion  of  .\sia,  and  di- 
 vided by  them  into  ScylMa  intra  and  extra  Imaum, 
 that  is,  on  either  side  of  Mount  Imaus.  The  Scythi- 
 ans have  been  considered  by  some  writers  as  the  same 
 people  with  the  Gomerians,  and  as  being  the  descend- 
 ants of  Gomer,  the  eldest  son  of  Japhet.  Their  name 
 is  derived  by  some  from  the  Teutonic  schcten  or  schu- 
 ten,  or  the  Gothic  skiiila,  all  signifying  "to  shoot," 
 this  nation  being  very  expert  with  the  bow,  (Compare 
 Jamieson''s  Hermes  Scythicus,  p.  6.)  Others  make 
 it  equivalent  to  the  Latin  polatores  ;  others,  again, 
 derive  it  from  shakhaa,  "a  quiver;"  while  a  fourth 
 class  deduce  the  term  from  the  Persian  Ssagh,  "a 
 dog,"  and  suppose  it  to  have  been  applied  by  way  of 
 contempt,  i'his  last  opinion,  however,  to  say  nothing 
 of  the  others,  is  decidedly  erroneous,  since  the  dog 
 was  held  in  high  estimation  among  the  Persians,  and 
 ranked  among  the  good  animals  of  Ormusd.  {Plut., 
 de  Isid.  et  Osir.,  p.  369,  F ,  p.  514,  Wylt.)  It  was 
 a  symbol  also  of  faith,  and  especially  of  the  hope  of  an 
 immortal  existence,  and  holds  a  conspicuous  ))lace, 
 therefore,  on  sepulchral  monuments.  ((Compare  Creu- 
 zer,  Symbolik,  vol.  1,  p.  752  )  Sir  William  Jones 
 likewise  indulges  in  some  speculations  on  this  subject 
 (Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  2,  p.  401),  as  well  as  Ritter 
 in  his  Erdkunde  (vol.  2,  p.  729).  Von  Hammer, 
 however,  appears  to  furnish  the  most  ingenious  expla- 
 nation. According  to  this  learned  Orientalist,  the  wri- 
 ters of  the  East,  and,  more  particularly,  the  work  en- 
 titled Schahnameh,  refer  what  the  Greeks  tell  us  con- 
 cerning the  incursion  of  the  Saca%  to  the  Turks  and 
 Ssakalib,  as  they  are  styled  ;  and  even  the  very  fe.s- 
 tival  which  the  Greeks  term  ra  'SuKaia  is  found  in  the 
 ancient  Persian  calendar  as  a  day  set  apart  to  com- 
 memorate a  victory  gained  over  the  Turks.  Hence 
 Von  Hammer  proposes  to  read  Tovpyovr  for  'Afiovp- 
 yiovc  in  the  text  of  Herodotus  (7.  64).  These  Turks 
 are  the  same,  according  to  the  German  scholar,  with 
 the  Turanians,  and  with  the  Ssakalib  of  the  Schah- 
 nameh ;  and  this  name  Ssnkalib,  from  Ssaklah  or 
 Scoklob,  presents  a  remarkable  coincidence  with  what 
 Herodotus  states  respecting  the  Scythians  (4,  6),  that 
 they  call  themselves  Iko?.6-oi.  As  in  Herodotus, 
 therefore,  the  Sacaj  and  Amyrgii  are  said  to  be  tho 
 same,  so  in  the  Schahnameh  the  Turks  and  the  Ssa- 
 kalib are  identical.      This   same  term    Ssakalib  will 
 
 1205 
 
SED 
 
 SE  J 
 
 furnish  also  the  root  of  the  name  Slavi ;  and  if  the  the- 
 ory of  another  writer  be  admitted,  the  Saxoiies  will  be 
 descended  from  the  Sacce.  (Compare  Bahr,ad  Clcs., 
 p.  97.) — The  earliest  detailed  account  of  the  Scyth- 
 ian race  is  given  by  Herodotus,  who  states,  as  has 
 already  been  remarked,  that  they  called  themselves  by 
 the  general  name  of  Scoloii  (S/coAdrot).  The  appel- 
 lation of  Scytliians  (ZnvQai)  ox\gin?i\.eA  with  the  Greeks 
 along  the  Euxiiie.  Their  primitive  seats  were  in  the 
 vicmity  of  the  Caspian  ;  but,  being  driven  from  these 
 by  the  Massagetae,  they  migrated  to  the  countries 
 around  the  Tana'is  and  north  of  the  Euxine,  and  the 
 head  settlement  of  the  race,  according  to  Herodotus, 
 was  now  between  the  Tana'is  and  Borysthenes.  Only 
 a  few  tribes  attended  to  agricultural  pursuits  and  had 
 fixed  abodes  ;  the  greater  part  were  of  nomadic  hab- 
 its, and  roamed  about  in  their  wagons,  which  served 
 them  for  abodes.  These  last  subsisted  on  the  produce 
 of  their  flocks  and  herds.  Herodotus  divides  them 
 into  Royal  Scylhians  (Baci/l^iof  "LKvOai.),  the  Noma- 
 dic Scythians  (Ny/id(5ff),  and  the  Agricultural  (Veup- 
 yol).  Besides  these,  there  were  other  tribes  living  to 
 the  west  of  the  Borysthenes,  and  separated  from  the 
 main  body  of  the  race,  such  as  the  CallipodcB  and 
 Alazones.  Until  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  but  little  was 
 known  respecting  the  Scythians  except  what  had  been 
 obtained  from  the  narrative  of  Herodotus.  In  the 
 days  of  Ptolemy,  Scythia,  as  known  to  Herodotus, 
 had  changed  its  name  to  that  of  Sarmatia  (compare 
 Plin.,  4,  12),  and  the  northern  part  of  Asia  above  the 
 Sacae  and  beyond  Sogdiana,  with  an  indefinite  extent 
 towards  the  east,  was  now  denominated  Scythia.  The 
 range  of  Mount  Imaus  was  considered  as  dividing  this 
 extensive  region  into  two  parts,  and  hence  arose  the 
 two  divisions  of  Scythia  intra  Iniaum  and  Scyth- 
 ia extra  Imaum,  or  Scythia  within  and  without  the 
 ratige  of  Imaus.  The  for.Tier  of  these,  Scythia  intra 
 Iniaum,  had  the  following  limits  assigned  to  it:  on 
 the  north,  unknown  lands;  on  the  east,  Imaus;  on  the 
 south,  the  Sacae.  Sogdiana,  and  Margiana,  as  far  as  the 
 mouth  of  the  Oxus,  and  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  mouth 
 of  the  Rha  ;  on  the  west,  Asiatic  Sarmatia.  Scythia 
 extra  Imaum  had  the  following  boundaries  ;  on  the 
 north,  unknown  lands  ;  on  the  west,  Imaus ;  on  the 
 south,  a  part  of  India  ;  and  on  the  east,  Serica. — The 
 Scythians  made  several  irruptions  into  the  more  south- 
 ern provinces  of  Asia,  especially  'B.C.  624,  when  they 
 remained  in  possession  of  Asia  Minor  for  28  years. 
 
 ScvTHOPOLis,  a  city  of  Judaea,  belonging  to  the  half 
 tribe  of  Manasseh,  on  the  west  of  and  near  to  the  Jor- 
 dan. Its  Hebrew  name  was  Bethsan,  Bethshcan,  or 
 Bethshan.  It  was  called  Scythopolis,  or  the  city  of 
 the  Scythians,  as  the  Septuagint  has  it  (S/cf^tiv  Tro^tf. 
 — Judges,  1,  27),  from  its  having  been  taken  posses- 
 sion of  by  a  body  of  Scythians  in  their  invasion  of  Asia 
 Minor  and  Syria.  It  is  now  Bi/san  or  Baisan.  {Plin., 
 5,  18. — Ammian.  MurcclL,  19,  27. — Joseph,  Ant, 5, 
 I.— Id   ibid.,  12,  12.— 7*j!.,  Bell.  Jud.,  3,  4.) 
 
 Sebaste,  I.  vid.  Samaria. — II.  The  name  was  com- 
 mon to  several  cities,  as  it  was  in  honour  of  Augustus. 
 Sebaste  {Zekaarf},  so.  TroKig)  is  the  Greek  form  for 
 Augusta,  sc.  urbs. 
 
 Skbennytus,  a  town  of  the  Delta  in  Egypt,  north 
 of  Busiris,  and  the  capital  of  the  Sebennytic  nome. 
 The  modern  /Se/nenwtZ  corresponds  to  its  site.  {Plin., 
 5,  18.) 
 
 Sebetus,  a  small  river  of  Campania,  now  the  Mad- 
 dalona,  falling  mto  the  Bay  of  Naples,  whence  the  epi- 
 thet Sebelis,  given  to  one  of  the  nymphs  who  fre- 
 quented its  borders,  and  became  mother  of  CEbalus  by 
 Telon.     {Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  734.) 
 
 SEnKTANi,  a  people  of  Spain,  supposed  to  have  been 
 the  same  with  the  Edetani.     {Vid.  Edetani.) 
 
 Seduni,  a  nation  of  Gaul  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
 Rhodanus,  to  the  east  of  Lacus  Lemanus.  They  op- 
 posed Hannibal  near  the  very  summit  of  the  Alps, 
 1206 
 
 when  he  crossed  these  lofty  mountains  to  ii  vadc  Italy 
 Their  capital  was  afterward  called  civitas  Sedunorum, 
 now  Sion.  They  appear  to  have  sent  out  numerous 
 colonies,  in  quest,  no  doubt,  of  a  milder  climate. 
 Hence  we  find  tribes  of  this  name  in  various  places. 
 {C(Es.,  B.  G.,  3.) 
 
 Sedusii,  a  German  nation  on  the  northeast  bank  of 
 the  Rhenus.  They  are  named  in  conjunction  with  the 
 Marcomanni,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  situate 
 between  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Nccket 
 {Nicer). 
 
 Segesta,  a  town  of  Sicily.     {Vid.  ^gesta.) 
 
 Segni,  a  people,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name,  irt 
 Belgic  Gaul.  A  small  town,  called  Signet,  points  out 
 the  place  which  they  once  inhabited.    {Cces.,  B.  G  ,  6.) 
 
 Segobriga,  the  capital  of  the  Celtiberi,  m  Hispania 
 Tarraconensis,  southwest  of  Caesaraugusta.  Accord- 
 ing to  Reichard,  it  is  now  Priego  ;  but  the  actual  po- 
 sition is  much  disputed.  (Compare  Vkert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  459.) 
 
 Segontia  or  Seguntia,  I.  a  town  of  Hispania  Tar- 
 raconensis, in  the  territory  of  the  Celtiberi,  and  to  the 
 west  of  Caesaraugusta. — II.  A  city  of  the  Arevaci,  in 
 Hispania  Tarraconensis,  now  Siguenza.  {Inn.  Ant., 
 436,  438.) 
 
 Segovia,  a  city  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  in  the 
 farthest  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Arevaci,  towards 
 the  southwest.     It  is  now  Segovia.     {Plin.,  3,  4.) 
 
 Sejanus,  iEnus,  a  native  of  Vulsinii,  in  Etruria, 
 and  prime  minister  to  the  Emperor  Tiberms.  His  fa- 
 ther was  Seius  Strabo,  a  Roman  knight,  commander 
 of  the  praetorian  guard  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  His 
 mother  was  descended  from  the  Junian  family.  Seja- 
 nus  was  at  first  one  of  the  train  of  Caius  Caesar,  but 
 he  afterward  gained  so  great  an  ascendancy  over  Ti- 
 berius, that  the  emperor,  who  was  naturally  of  a  sus- 
 picious temper,  was  free  and  open  with  him,  and,  while 
 he  distrusted  others,  he  communicated  his  greatest  se- 
 crets to  this  fawning  favourite.  For  eight  years  did 
 this  unprincipled  man  retain  an  undivided  influence 
 over  the  mind  of  the  emperor  ;  and  during  that  period 
 he  contrived  to  procure  the  death  or  banishment  of  al- 
 most every  person  who  might  have  checked  his  prog- 
 ress to  the  possession  of  imperial  power,  which  was 
 the  object  of  his  treacherous  ambition.  The  death  of 
 Drusus,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  was  effected  by  him  and 
 the  adulterous  Livilla  {vid.  Drusus  II.)  ;  to  him  also  is 
 attributed  the  death  of  the  two  eldest  sons  of  Germani- 
 cus,  and  the  banishment  of  their  mother,  ihe  celebrated 
 Agrippina.  The  younger  son,  Caligula,  escaped,  in  all 
 probability,  in  consequence  of  his  almost  constant  resi- 
 dence with  the  army.  But  the  master-stroke  of  poli- 
 cy by  which  Sejanus  strove  to  secure  his  object,  was 
 his  persuading  the  emperor  to  remove  from  the  cares 
 and  dangers  of  Rome,  and  to  indulge  his  passions  in  a 
 retirement  where  he  would  have  none  around  him  but 
 the  depraved  ministers  of  his  vices.  Tiberius  accord- 
 ingly retired  to  Capre«,  where  he  abandoned  himself  to 
 the  most  disgusting  and  unnatural  indulgences,  leaving 
 Sejanus  at  Rome,  in  possession  of  all  bat  the  name  of 
 imperial  power.  To  this  base  and  bloody  favourite  the 
 senate  displayed  the  most  degrading  servility  ;  the  peo- 
 ple gave  him  honours  second  only  to  those  of  the  em- 
 peror ;  and  the  sceptre  itself  seemed  on  the  point  of 
 passing  into  his  grasp.  Already  were  his  statues  sef. 
 up  by  the  Romans  in  their  dwellings,  in  public  places 
 and  in  temples,  along  with  those  of  the  reigning  family 
 when  Tiberius,  in  an  interval  of  sobriety  (he  was  now 
 almost  always  intoxicated),  either  of  himself  perceived 
 the  pass  to  which  matters  had  come,  or  was  mada 
 aware  of  the  real  views  of  Sejanus  by  his  own  suit  foi 
 the  hand  of  an  imperial  princess,  the  adulterous  widow 
 of  Drusus  ;  or  finally,  as  Josephus  states,  was  infornfj- 
 ed  of  his  plans  by  a  billet  from  Antoiiia,  the  widow  of 
 the  emperor's  brother.  The  whole  demeanour  and 
 management  of  Tiberius,  when  he  had  formed  the  i«s- 
 
SEL 
 
 SEL 
 
 olution  of  destroying  tlie  man  who  had  hitherto  been 
 his  all-intrusted  confidant  and  all-powerful  minister,  is 
 admirably  described  by  Dio  Gassius.  After  a  singu- 
 lar course  of  dissembling,  by  which  he  withheld  his  vic- 
 tim from  proceeding  to  extremities,  he  sent  Macro 
 with  full  powers  to  arrest  Sejanus,  put  him  to  death, 
 and  take  his  place.  The  decree  of  arrest  was  accord- 
 ingly read  in  the  senate  ;  Sejanus  was  enticed  into  the 
 senate-house,  by  the  pretext  that  Macro  was  the  bear- 
 er of  a.  letter,  bv  virtue  of  which  the  minister  was  to 
 receive  the  dignity  of  tribune;  and,  being  instantly 
 condemticd,  was  dragged  through  the  streets,  and  put 
 to  death  with  the  utmost  ignominy,  by  those  who,  a 
 few  hours  before,  had  followed  him  with  acclamations. 
 The  execution  o(  Sejanus  was  followed  by  that  of  his 
 innocent  children,  relations,  and  even  distant  connex- 
 ions. Tlie  numerous  persons  crowded  into  the  pris- 
 ons as  friends  of  Sejanus  were,  without  any  judicial 
 proceeding,  massacred  en  masse,  and  even  their  bodies 
 were  subjected  to  indignities.  {Suet.,  Vit.  Tib. — 
 Tacit.,  Attn.,  4,  l,seqq. — Id.  ib.,  5. — Dio  Cass.,  58, 
 9,  scqq) 
 
 SicLEMNas.      Vid.  Argyra  II. 
 
 Sklene,  the  sister  of  Helios,  and  the  same  with 
 Luna  or  the  Moon.  According  to  another  view  of 
 the  subject,  she  was  the  daughter  of  Helios,  the  lat- 
 ter being  regarded  as  the  source  of  light.  {Eurtp., 
 Phaen.,  178,  seqq  — Nonnus,  44,  191.)  A  third  view 
 makes  her  the  mother  by  hitn  of  the  four  Seasons. 
 (Quint.  Sinym.,  10,  331,  seq.)  In  one  of  the  Ho- 
 meric hymns  Selene  is  called  the  daughter  of  Pallas, 
 son  of  Megamedes.  It  was  said  that  Selene  was  en- 
 amoured of  Endymion,  on  whom  Jupiter  had  bestowed 
 the  boon  of  perpetual  youth,  but  united  with  perpet- 
 ual sleep  ;  and  that  she  used  to  descend  to  him  every 
 night,  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Latmus,  the  place  of 
 his  repose.  She  bore  to  Jupiter  a  daughter  named 
 Pandia;  and  Hersa  {Dew)  was  also  the  offspring  of  the 
 King  of  Heaven  and  the  Goddess  of  the  Moon.  {Horn. 
 Hymn.,  32,  15. — Akman,  ap.  Plut.,  Quccst.  Nat., 
 24.)  In  explanation  of  this  last  legend  it  may  be  re- 
 marked, that  the  moon  was  naturally,  though  incorrect- 
 ly, regarded  as  the  cause  of  dew  ;  and  nothing,  there- 
 fore, was  more  obvious  than  to  say  that  the  dew  was 
 the  progeny  of  the  moon  and  sky  personified  after  the 
 usual  manner  of  the  Greeks. — The  name  Selene 
 {11eXr/v7i)  is  plainly  derived  from  asXag,  brightness,  and 
 is  one  of  the  large  family  of  words  of  which  eAa  or 
 ITiri  {Helle,  Germ.),  may  be  regarded  as  the  root. 
 {Keigktlcy's  Mythology,  p.  61,  seq.) 
 
 Seleccia,  I.  a  famous  city  of  Asia,  built  by  Seleu- 
 cus,  one  of  Alexander's  generals,  and  situate  on  the 
 western  bank  of  the  Tigris,  about  forty-five  miles 
 north  of  ancient  Babylon.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
 Macedonian  conquests  in  Upper  Asia,  and  is  said  to 
 have  been  the  first  and  principal  cause  of  the  destruc- 
 tion o(  Babylon.  Pliny  reports  (6,  26)  that  the  inten- 
 tion of  Scleucus  was  to  raise,  in  o[)position  to  Babylon, 
 a  Greek  city  with  the  privilege  of  being  free.  Many 
 ages  afier  the  fall  of  the  Macedonian  empire,  Seleucia 
 retained  the  genuine  characteristics  of  a  Grecian  col- 
 ony, arts,  military  virtue,  and  the  love  of  freedom. 
 Its  population  consisted  of  600.000  citizens,  governed 
 by  a  senate  of  300  nobles.  The  rise  of  Ctesiphon, 
 however,  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  proved  injurious  to 
 Seleucia  ;  hut  it  was  fated  to  receive  its  death-blow 
 from  the  hands  of  the  Romans.  The  inhabitants  hud 
 ever  shown  themselves  friendly  t<i  the  latter  people, 
 and  had  yielded  them  very  effectual  aid  in  their  expe- 
 ditions against  the  Parlhians  ;  and  yet  a  general  of 
 the  F^tnperor  Trajan's  plundered  and  set  fire  to  the 
 place.  The  cause  of  this  severe  treatment  is  un- 
 known :  it  may  have  been  that  the  inhabitants,  accus- 
 tomed to  self-government,  were  restless  under  the 
 yoke  of  their  new  allies.  {Dio  Cass.,  68,  30.)  The 
 •udden  death,  however,  of  Trajan,  and  the  rapid  de- 
 
 parture of  his  army,  prevented  at  this  time  the  tota« 
 destruction  of  the  city.  That  fate  befell  it  under  Ve- 
 rus,  the  colleague  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  A  general  of 
 his,  notwithstanding  a  friendly  reception  from  the  in- 
 habitants, destroyed  the  city  under  the  pretext  of  its 
 having  violated  its  faith.  {Eutrop.,  8,  5. — Capilobn., 
 Vcrus,  c.  8.  —  Dio  Cass.,  71,  2.)  Some  idea  of  the 
 size  of  the  place  in  its  best  days  may  be  formed  from 
 the  circumstance  that  even  at  this  period  400,000 
 prisoners  were  taken.  {Orus.,  8,  15.)  The  ruins  of 
 Seleucia,  and  those  of  Ctesi[)hon  on  the  opposite  side 
 of  the  river,  are  called  by  the  Arabs  at  the  present 
 day  Al  Modain  (El  Madeien),  or  "  the  two  cities." 
 {Manncrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  5,  p.  397,  seqq  ,  part  2.) — II. 
 A  city  of  Susiana,  in  the  territory  of  the  Elymaei.  Ac- 
 cording to  Sirabo,  it  was  subsequently  called  Solyce 
 (SoAjjkt;),  and  lay  on  the  river  Hedyphon.  {Strabo, 
 7U.—Plin.,  6,  27.)— III.  A  city  of  Cilicia  Trachea, 
 a  short  distance  to  the  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Caly- 
 cadnus.  It  was  founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  is 
 sometimes  called,  for  distinction'  sake,  Seleucia  Tra- 
 chea. {Steph.  Byz  ,  s.  v. — Amm.  MarcelL,  14,  2.) — 
 IV".  A  city  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Pisidia,  south 
 of  Amblada.  It  was  sometimes  called  Seleucia  Fer- 
 rea,  and  ad  Taurum.  (HicrocL,  p.  673.) — V.  A  city 
 on  the  coast  of  Pamphylia,  west  of  Side,  and  coinci- 
 ding probably  with  the  Syllon  of  Scylax.  —  VI.  A 
 city  of  Apamene,  not  far  from  the  city  of  Apamea. 
 It  was  sometimes  called  Seleucia  ad  Belum.  {Pliny, 
 5,  23.  —  Hierocles,  p.  712.)  — VII.  A  city  of  Syria, 
 on  the  seacoast,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes, 
 and  southwest  of  Aniioch.  It  was  called  Seleucia 
 Pieria,  from  Mount  Pierus  in  its  vicinity,  and  was 
 founded  by  Seleucus.  The  city  was  strongly  forti- 
 fied, and  had  a  large  and  secure  harbour.  Browne 
 identifies  Seleucia  with  Suadca,  the  port  of  Antioch, 
 about  four  hours  distant  from  it.  Others  give  the 
 modern  name  as  Kepsc.  {Strabo,  751. — Polyb.,  5, 
 59.— Mela,  1,  12.— Pliny,  5,  18.) 
 
 SeleucidjE,  a  surname  given  to  the  dynasty  of  Se- 
 leucus, comprising  the  monarchs  who  reigned  over 
 Syria  from  B  C.  312  to  B.C.  66.  The  first  of  these 
 dates  gives  the  commencement  of  the  reigii  of  Seleu- 
 cus Nicator,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty.  The  last 
 date  gives  the  time  when  Pompey  reduced  Syria  un- 
 der the  Roman  sway.  Some  compute  the  era  of  the 
 Seleucida;  from  B.C.  301,  the  date  of  the  battle  of 
 Ipsus.  (Consult  Vaillant,  Seleucidarum  Imperium, 
 Horag.,  1732.  —  Reineccius,  FamiUa  Seleucidarum, 
 Wittenb.,  1571.— Clinton,  Fast.  Hell.,  vol.  2,  p.  308, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Seleucis,  a  division  of  Syria,  which  received  its 
 name  from  Seleucus,  the  founder  of  the  Syrian  em- 
 pire, after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  It  was 
 called  Tetrapolis  from  the  four  cities  it  contained, 
 called  also  sister  cities  ;  Seleucia,  Antioch,  Laodicea, 
 and  Apamea. 
 
 Seleucus,  I.  surnamed  Nicator,  or  "  the  Conquer- 
 or," was  the  son  of  Antiochus,  a  general  of  Philip's. 
 He  served  from  early  youth  under  Alexander,  accom- 
 panied him  to  Asia,  and  there  had  commonly  the  com- 
 mand of  the  elephants.  After  the  death  of  that  mon- 
 arch he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  cavalry, 
 and,  on  the  second  division  of  the  provinces,  leceived 
 the  government  of  Babylonia.  He  was  at  first  on 
 friendly  terms  with  Antigonus,  and  acknowledged  his 
 authority  ;  but  the  latter  having  taken  offence  at  some 
 slight  provocation,  Seleucus  fled  to  Ptolemy  in  Egypt. 
 Returning  with  an  army  which  he  had  collected  from 
 various  quarters,  Seleucus  recovered  the  possession  of 
 Babylon,  which  had,  after  his  departure,  fallen  into  the 
 hands  of  Antigonus  ;  and  the  citizens  of  the  place 
 themselves,  by  whom  his  mild  government  had  made 
 him  much  beloved,  aided  him  in  effecting  this  (B.C. 
 312).  Nicanor  and  Evagoras,  the  governors  of  Media 
 and  Persia,  immediately  took  up  arms  in  behalf  of 
 
 1207 
 
SELEUCUS. 
 
 SEL 
 
 Antigonus,  the  latter  himself  atid  his  son  Demetrius 
 being  too  far  distant  to  act  in  person.  But  Seleurus, 
 having  planted  an  ambuscade,  surjjrised  the  hostile 
 camp  in  the  night,  and  gained  a  complete  victory. 
 From  the  recovery  of  Bat)ylon  by  Selencus,  the  his- 
 torians of  all  nations,  except  the  Chaldeans  alone, 
 dale  the  era  of  the  Seleucid:B,  or  dynasly  of  .Stleutus, 
 in  Upper  Asia.  A  temporary  absence  of  Selencus  in 
 Media,  where  he  was  prosecuting  his  conquests,  left 
 Babylon  at  the  mercy  of  the  enemy,  and  Ucinetrius, 
 by  rapid  marches,  was  enabled  to  regain  possession  of 
 it ;  but  his  subsequent  departure,  and  the  return  of  Se- 
 leucu.s,  soon  restored  things  to  their  former  condition. 
 Selencus  now  carried  his  victorious  arms  into  Persia, 
 Bactria,  Hyrcania,  and  many  other  countries  of  Upper 
 Asia,  and,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  of  his  conquests, 
 assumed  the  title  of  Nicator,  and  with  it  that  of  king, 
 in  imitation  of  the  other  successful  generals  of  Alex- 
 ander. Having  united  subsequently  with  Ptolemy, 
 Cassander,  and  Lysimachus  against  Antigonus,  and 
 the  latter  having  lost  his  life  in  the  defeat  at  Ipsus, 
 the  kingdom  of  Syria,  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  Cata- 
 lonia, and  a  part  of  Asia  Minor,  were  added  to  the 
 possessions  of  Seleucus,  and  he  became  the  greatest 
 and  most  powerliil  of  all  the  generals  of  Alexander. 
 He  now  built  Antiochia,  calling  it  after  the  name  of 
 his  father,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  his  dominions. 
 Many  other  cities,  too,  were  erected  in  other  quarters. 
 The  great  power  of  Seleucus  having  caused  at  first 
 uneasiness,  and  afterward  having  given  rise  to  a  con- 
 federacy against  him,  this  monarch  sought  to  draw 
 Demetrius  to  his  side,  by  giving  him  in  marriage  his 
 daughter  Stratonice,  and  intrusting  him  with  an  army. 
 But  jealousy  towards  his  son-in-law  soon  induced  Se- 
 leucus to  deprive  him  of  his  new  command,  and  hold 
 him  in  confinement  until  his  death.  Seleucus  after 
 this  took  up  arms  against  Lysimachus,  at  the  urgent 
 entreaties  of  the  friends  of  Agathocles,  son  of  Lysim- 
 achus, whom  the  father  had  put  to  death  on  a  false 
 charge  brought  against  him  by  his  stepmother.  His 
 real  motive,  however,  was  the  removal  of  a  dangerous 
 neighbour  ;  and  in  this  he  was  completely  successful ; 
 for,  having  invaded  Asia  Minor,  he  defeated  and  slew 
 Lysimachus  in  the  battle  of  Compedion  (B.C.  281). 
 Ptolemy  Soter  had  died  above  a  year  before  this  bat- 
 tle took  place,  and  Seleucus  now  remained  alone  of 
 all  the  Macedonian  captains,  the  fellow-soldiers  and 
 friends  of  Alexander.  He  became  ardently  desirou,' 
 of  revisiting  Macedonia,  and  reigning  in  a  country 
 where  he  had  first  drawn  breath  ;  but  his  schemes 
 were  frustrated  by  assassination.  As  he  was  on  his 
 inarch  to  Macedon,  he  was  murdered  by  Ptolemy  Ce- 
 raunus,  the  expatriated  prince  of  Egypt,  who  wished  to 
 obtain  for  himself  the  Macedoiiian  throne  ;  and  he 
 thus  fell  B  C.  280,  in  the  73d  year  of  his  age,  and  the 
 32d  of  his  reign. — H.  The  second  of  the  name,  sur- 
 named  Callinicjis,  succeeded  his  father  Antiochus 
 Theos  on  the  throne  of  Syria.  He  attempted  to 
 make  war  against  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  but  his 
 fleet  was  shipwrecked  in  a  violent  storm,  and  his  ar- 
 mies soon  after  conquered  by  his  enemy.  He  was  at 
 last  taken  prisoner  by  the  Parthians,  and  retained  by 
 ihem  ten  years,  until  the  period  of  his  death,  which 
 was  occasioned  by  a  fall  from  his  horse  in  hunting, 
 B.C.  226. — IH.  The  third,  succeeded  his  father  Se- 
 leucus H.,  while  the  latter  was  in  captivity.  He  was 
 surnamed  Ceraunus  ("  thunderbolt"),  an  ostentatious 
 and  unmerited  title,  as  he  was  a  very  weak,  timid,  and 
 irresolute  monarch.  He  was  murdered  by  two  of  his 
 officers  after  a  reign  of  three  years,  B.C.  223,  and 
 his  brother  Antiochus,  though  only  fifteen  years  old, 
 ascended  the  throne,  and  rendered  himself  so  celebra- 
 ted that  he  acquired  the  name  of  the  Great. — IV.  The 
 fourth,  succeeded  his  father  Antiochus  the  Great  on 
 the  throne  of  Syria.  He  was  surnamed  Philopato); 
 m,  according  to  Josephus,  Soter.  His  empire  had 
 1208 
 
 oeen  weakened  by  the  Romans  when  he  necame  i 
 monarch,  and  the  yearly  tribute  of  a  thousand  talents 
 to  these  victorious  enemies  concurred  in  lessening  his 
 power  and  consequence  among  nations.  Seleucus 
 was  poisoned  after  a  reign  of  twelve  years,  B.C.  175. 
 His  .son  Demetrius  had  been  sent  to  Rome,  there  to 
 receive  his  education,  and  he  became  a  prince  of 
 great  abilities. — V.  The  fifth,  succeeded  his  father 
 Demetrius  Nicator  on  the  throne  of  Syria,  in  the 
 twentieth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  put  to  death  in 
 the  first  year  of  his  reign  by  Cleopatra,  his  mother, 
 who  had  also  sacrificed  her  husband  to  her  ambition. 
 He  is  not  reckoned  by  many  historians  in  the  number 
 of  the  Syrian  monarchs. — VL  The  sixth,  one  of  the 
 Seleucidae,  son  of  Antiochus  Gryphus,  killed  his  uncle 
 Antiochus  Cyzicenus,  who  wished  to  obtain  the  crown 
 of  Syria.  He  was  some  time  after  banished  from  his 
 kingdom  by  Antiochus  Pius,  son  of  Cyzicenus,  and 
 fled  to  Cilicia,  where  he  was  burned  in  a  palace  by 
 the  inhabitants,  B.C.  93. — VH.  A  prince  of  Syria,  to 
 whom  the  Egyptians  offered  the  crown  of  which  they 
 had  robbed  Auletes.  Seleucus  accepted  it,  but  he 
 soon  disgusted  his  subjects,  and  received  the  surname 
 of  Cyhiosactes,  for  his  meanness  and  avarice.  He 
 was  at  last  murdered  by  Berenice,  whom  he  had  mar- 
 ried. 
 
 Selge,  the  largest  and  most  powerful  of  the  cities 
 of  Pisidia,  situate  north  of  the  Eurymedon.  It  is  said 
 by  some  of  the  ancient  writers  to  have  been  founded 
 by  a  Laceda!monian  colony.  {Sirabo,  570. — Dionys. 
 Peneg.,  v.  Sm.—Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.—Polyb.,  5,  76.) 
 The  probability,  however,  is,  that  this  was  a  mere  sup- 
 position, grounded  upon  the  valour  of  the  inhabitants, 
 since,  independent  of  the  difficulty  of  establishing  a 
 colony  in  an  inland  and  mountainous  country,  amid 
 rude  and  savage  tribes,  we  find  Arrian  expressly  sty- 
 ling the  inhabitants  of  Selge  Barharians,  when  ma- 
 king mention  of  an  embassy  sent  by  them  to  Alexan- 
 der. {Exp.  Alex-  1,  28.  1.)  In  a  later  age,  how- 
 ever, we  find  the  people  of  Selge  laying  open  claim  to 
 the  honour  of  a  Spartan  origin,  and  even  adding  to 
 their  medals  the  name  of  Lacedaemon. — The  city  was 
 large,  and  the  inhabitants  very  warlike.  They  could 
 bring  into  the  field,  according  to  Strabo,  an  army  of 
 20,000  men  (Strab.,  570),  and  they  maintainGd  their 
 independence  for  a  long  period  against  the  petty 
 princes  in  the  vicinity.  To  the  Romans  they  subse- 
 quently paid  a  stipulated  sum  for  permission  to  live 
 under  their  old  republican  institutions  ;  but  under  the 
 weak  emperors  after  the  time  of  the  Antonines  they 
 rendered  little  more  than  a  mere  nominal  obedience. 
 At  a  later  period  we  read  of  its  effectually  resisting  an 
 army  of  the  Goths.  (Zosimus,  5,  15.)  Mr.  Fellows 
 describes  some  splendid  ruins,  which  he  considers  to 
 be  those  of  Selge.     {Asia  Minor,  p.  172,  seq.) 
 
 Selinus  {-vntis.  —  l-eXivovg,  -ovvro^),  I.  a  large 
 and  flourishing  city  of  Sicily,  situate  on  the  southern 
 shore  of  the  western  part  of  the  island,  and  in  a  south- 
 west direction  from  Lilybaeum.  It  was  founded,  ac- 
 cording to  Thucydides  (6,  4),  by  a  Doric  colony  from 
 Megara  or  Hybla,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  a 
 hundred  years  after  the  establishment  of  the  parent 
 city,  which  latter  event  took  place  about  the  eigh- 
 teenth Olympiad.  (Compare,  however,  the  remarks 
 of  Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p  370.) — Selinus 
 soon  became  a  rich  and  powerful  city,  in  consequence 
 of  the  fertile  territory  in  which  it  was  situated,  and 
 was  engaged  in  almost  continual  wars  with  the  neigh- 
 bouring city  of  ..-Egesta  or  Segeste.  The  weakness 
 of  the  latter  place  induced  its  inhabitants  to  call  in 
 the  aid  of  Carthage,  which  power  gladly  availed  it- 
 self of  an  opportunity  of  meddling  in  the  affairs  of  the 
 island.  A  powerful  Carthaginian  army  was  according- 
 ly sent,  and  Selinus,  notwithstanding  the  brave  resist- 
 ance of  its  inhabitants,  was  taken,  plundered,  and  in 
 a  great  measure  destroyed.     {Diod.  Sic,  13,  42. — Jd.^ 
 
SEM 
 
 SEMIRAMIS. 
 
 13,  57.)  About  16,000  men  fell  in  the  siege  or  during 
 the  slaughter  that  followed  the  taking  of  the  place, 
 5000  were  led  away  to  Carthage  into  slavery,  2600 
 fled  to  Agrigentum,  and  many  wandered  about  the  ad- 
 jacent country.  Seliiius  would  seem,  from  this  ac- 
 count, to  have  been  a  city  of  more  than  30,000  inhabi- 
 tants.— The  Carthaginians  afterward  allowed  the  fugi- 
 tives to  return  to  their  ruined  city,  and  again  inhabit 
 it.  (Diod.,  13,  59.)  A  short  time  before  his  death, 
 Dionysius  the  elder,  of  Syracuse,  made  himself  master 
 of  Selinus  and  the  adjacent  places,  but  they  all,  not 
 iontf  after,  reverted  to  their  former  possessors.  The 
 Carthagmians  at  last,  during  the  first  Punic  war,  feel- 
 ing the  dirticulty  ol'  maintaining  this  post,  transferred 
 the  few  remaining  inhabitants  to  Lilybsum,  and  Seli- 
 nus was  destroyed.  (Diod.  Sic  .  24,  I.  —  Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  370,  sefj(j.)  A  description  of  the 
 ruins  of  Selinus  may  be  found  in  Hoare's  Classical 
 Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  78,  seqq.  The  ruins  exist  near  what 
 is  called  Torre  di  I'olluce,  and,  accordmg  to  Sir  R. 
 Hoare,  their  modern  appellation  is  Pilicri  del  Castel 
 Vetrano.  —  II.  A  city  of  Cilicia  Trachea,  the  most 
 westerly  place  in  that,  province  with  the  exception  of 
 Laertes,  and  situated  on  the  coast.  Its  site  was  on  a 
 rock  surrounded  by  the  sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
 Selinus.  The  Emperor  Trajan  died  here  ;  and  from 
 him  the  place  took  the  new  name  of  Trajanopolis. 
 {Siraho,  681.  —  Liv..  33,20.)  The  modern  name  is 
 Sclenli.  —  Its  territory  was  called  Selenlis.  {Man- 
 nerly Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2.  p.  85.) 
 
 SellasI.\,  a  town  of  Laconia,  northeast  of  Sparta, 
 and  commanding  one  of  the  principal  passes  in  the 
 country.  It  was  situate  near  tlie  confluence  of  the 
 CEnus  and  Gongylus,  in  a  valley  confined  between 
 two  mountains,  named  Evas  and  Olympus.  {Polyb., 
 2,  6.)  It  commanded  the  only  road  by  which  an  army 
 could  enter  Laconia  from  the  north,  and  was,  there- 
 fore, a  position  of  great  importance  for  the  defence  of 
 the  capital.  Thus,  when  Epaminondas  made  his  at- 
 tack on  S[)arta,  his  first  object,  after  forcing  the  passes 
 which  led  from  Arcadia  into  the  enemy's  country,  was 
 to  march  directly  upon  Sellasia  with  all  his  troops. 
 (Xe7i.,  Hist.  Gr.,  5,  5,  17.)  Cleomenes,  tyrant  of 
 Sparta,  was  attacked  in  this  strong  position  by  Antig- 
 onus  Doson,  and  totally  defeated  after  an  obstinate 
 conflict.  (Polyb.,  2,  66,  seqq.) — No  modern  traveller 
 appears  to  have  explored  the  site  of  Sellasia.  {Cra- 
 mer's Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  221.) 
 
 Ski.leis,  a  river  of  Elis,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  rising 
 in  Mount  Pholoe,  and  falling  into  the  sea  below  the 
 Peneus.  Near  its  mouth  stood  the  town  of  Ephyre. 
 {Slrabo,  337  ) 
 
 Selymbria,  a  city  of  Thrace,  founded  by  the  Me- 
 garensians  at  a  still  earlier  period  than  Byzantium. 
 {Scymn,  c.  IW.  —  Scylax,  p  28 .  —  Hcrodot . ,  6,  33.) 
 The  name  of  its  founder,  the  leader  of  the  colony,  was 
 Selys  (S^At^f),  at  least,  Strabo  explains  the  name  by 
 'Er'/Xovc  noXig  ("  the  city  of  Selys"),  the  term  bria  be- 
 ing the  Thracian  word  for  "  a  city."  It  became  a 
 flourishing  city,  of  considerable  strength,  and  for  a  long 
 time  defended  itself  against  the  inroads  of  the  Thra- 
 cians,  and  the  attempts  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  It  fell 
 at  last,  however,  into  the  hands  of  this  monarch.  It 
 sank  in  importance  after  this  event. — With  the  com- 
 mon people  in  the  Doric  dialect,  the  form  Salambria 
 was  used.  The  writers  of  the  middle  ages  give  Se- 
 lybria,  from  which  comes  the  modern  Selivria.  The 
 city  changed  its  name  at  a  late  period  to  that  of  Eu- 
 doxiapolis,  in  honour  of  the  wife  of  the  Kmpcror  Ar- 
 cadius.     {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  173,  scqq.) 
 
 Semei.e,  a  daughter  of  Cadmus  by  Hermione,  the 
 daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus.     {Vid.  Bacchus.) 
 
 SkmirImis,  a  celebrated  queen  of  Assyria,  daughter 
 
 of  the  goddess   Derceto  by  a  young  Assyrian.     She 
 
 was  exposed  in  a  desert,  but  her  life  was  preserved 
 
 bv  doves  for  one  whole  year,  till  Simmas,  one  of  the 
 
 70 
 
 shepherds  of  Ninus,  found  her  and  brought  her  up  a» 
 his  own  child.  Semirainis,  when  grown  up,  married 
 Menones,  the  governor  of  Nineveh,  and  was  present 
 at  the  siege  of  Bactra,  where,  by  her  advice  and  di- 
 rections, she  hastened  the  king's  operations  and  look 
 the  city.  I'he  monarch,  having  seen  and  become  en- 
 amoured of  Semiramis,  asked  her  of  her  husband,  and 
 offered  him  his  daughter  Sosana  instead;  but  Meno- 
 nes, who  tenderly  loved  his  wife,  refused,  and,  when 
 Ninus  had  added  threats  to  entreaties,  be  hung  him- 
 self. No  sooner  was  Menones  dead  than  Semirainis 
 married  Nmus,  by  whom  she  had  a  son  called  Ninyas. 
 Not  long  after  this  Ninus  died,  and  Semiramis  became 
 sole  ruler  of  Assyria.  Another  account,  however, 
 makes  her  to  have  put  Ninus  to  death.  According 
 to  this  latter  statement,  Semiramis,  having  secured 
 the  co-operation  of  the  chief  men  of  the  state  by  gifts 
 and  promises,  solicited  the  king  to  put  the  sovereign 
 power  in  her  hands  for  five  days.  He  yielded  to  her 
 request,  and  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire  were  com- 
 manded to  obey  Semiramis.  These  orders  were  ex- 
 ecuted but  too  exactly  for  the  unfortunate  Ninus,  who 
 was  put  to  death,  says  this  account,  either  immediate- 
 ly, or  after  some  years'  imprisonment.  Semiramis, 
 on  attaining  to  sovereign  power,  resolved  to  immor- 
 talize her  name,  and  with  this  view  commenced  the 
 building  of  the  great  city  of  Babylon,  in  which  work 
 she  is  said  to  have  employed  two  millions  of  men, 
 who  were  collected  out  of  all  the  provinces  of  her  vast 
 empire.  She  visited  every  part  of  her  dominions,  and 
 left  everywhere  monuments  of  her  greatness.  To 
 render  the  roads  passable  and  communication  easy, 
 she  hollowed  mountains  and  filled  up  valleys,  and  wa- 
 ter was  conveyed,  at  a  great  expense,  by  large  and 
 convenient  aqueducts  to  barren  deserts  and  unfruitful 
 plains.  She  was  not  less  distinguished  for  military 
 talents,  and  reduced  many  neighbouring  and  also  dis- 
 tant nations  under  her  sway.  India,  in  particular,  felt 
 the  power  of  her  arms.  At  length,  being  plotted 
 arrainst  by  her  son  Ninyas,  and  recalling  to  mind  a 
 response  which  she  had  received  some  time  before 
 from  the  oracle  of  Ammon,  she  voluntarily  abdicated 
 in  favour  of  her  son,  and  immediately  disappeared  from 
 the  eyes  of  men.  Some  said  that  she  was  changed 
 into  a  dove,  and  that  several  birds  of  this  species  hav- 
 ing alighted  upon  the  palace,  she  flew  away  along 
 with  them.  Hence,  according  to  the  legend,  the  dove 
 was  held  sacred  by  the  Assyrians.  Semiramis  is  said 
 to  have  lived  62  years,  and  to  have  reigned  42  years. 
 {Diod.  Sic,  2,  4,  seqq.—  Val.  Max.,  9,  Z.  — Herod., 
 1,  185— Me/a,  1,  Z.—Patcrc  ,  1,  6. — Tuslin,  1,  1, 
 &c. — Properl.,  3,  11,  21.)  — For  an  account  of  Se- 
 miramis altogether  different  from  the  received  one, 
 consult  the  work  of  Cirbied  and  Martin,  Reeherches 
 Curieuses  sur  V Histoire  Ancicnne,  cap.  17,  p.  176, 
 seqq. — The  legend  of  Semiramis  serves  to  connect 
 together  the  Assyrian  and  Syrian  mythologies.  That 
 she  was  an  historical  personage  seems  extremely  doubt- 
 ful, inasmuch  as  all  that  is  related  of  her  wears  so  ev- 
 idently the  garb  of  ficiion.  There  appears,  indeed,  a 
 very  striking  resemblance  between  the  account  given 
 of  Semiramis  and  the  Hindu  fable  of  Mahadevi  and 
 Parvadi  as  detailed  in  the  Puranas,  and  both  narra- 
 tives have  probably  emanated  from  the  same  source. 
 The  very  name,  too,  would  seem  to  favour  this  idea, 
 for  Semiramis  becomes  in  Sanscrit  Sami-Rnmcsi  or 
 Isi,  ''qucB  Sami  arborem  colit."  Others,  however, 
 give  a  different  etymology,  and  make  the  term  Semir- 
 amis denote  "  a  wild  dove"  {cobtmbam  feram  mon- 
 tanamque),  and  a  third  class  regard  it  as  equivalent 
 to  "  the  mother  of  doves"  {Scmir  or  Somir,  the  Syr- 
 iac  for  "  a  dove,"  and  Amis).  The  worship  of  doves 
 among  the  Syrians  and  Assyrians  is  well  known,  and 
 appears  to  lie  at  the  base  of  the  whole  fable.  (Con- 
 sult Voss.,  IdoloL,  1,  23.— Creucer,  Symbolik,  vol.  2, 
 n  70  seoQ  — Van  Hammer,  Fundgrubcn  des  Orients, 
 ^'  ^^'  1209 
 
SEM 
 
 SEN 
 
 vol.  1,  p.  209. — Id.,  ad  Schirin.,  vol.  1,  p.  36,  n.  4. — 
 Dalberg,  ad  Scheik  Mohammed,  Fanis  Dabistan,  p. 
 110,  seqq. — Bdkr,  ad  Ctes.,  p.  415.) — Regarded  as  a 
 matter  of  authentic  history,  the  narrative  of  Semiramis 
 presents  many  chronological  difficulties.  This  is  fully 
 apparent  in  the  discrepance  that  exists  among  various 
 writers  relative  to  the  era  of  her  reign.  Thus,  for  ex- 
 ample, if  we  adopt  the  traditions  which  Ctesias,  Di- 
 odorus  Siculus,  Justin,  Eusebius,  and  Georgius  Syn- 
 ceiius  have  followed  as  their  guides,  Semiramis  will 
 have  been  anterior  to  Augustus  at  least  eighteen  cen- 
 turies ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Larcher  makes  her 
 to  have  been  the  wife  of  Nabonassar,  and  to  have  ex- 
 ercised sovereign  sway  during  the  latter  years  of  that 
 prince's  reign,  when  he  was  prevented  from  ruling  by 
 a  severe  malady.  {Larcher,  Hist.  d'Herod. — Chro- 
 nol.,  vol.  7,  p.  171.) 
 
 Semnones,  called  by  Strabo  "Zifivuveg,  by  Ptolemy 
 "Lijivove^,  by  Velleius  Paterculus  Senones,  and  by  Ta- 
 citus Semnones.  They  were  a  German  nation,  and, 
 according  to  Velleius  Paterculus  (2,  106),  the  Albis 
 or  Elbe  separated  their  territories  from  those  of  the 
 Hermunduri ;  while,  from  Ptolemy's  account,  they 
 would  seem  to  have  inhabited  what  is  now  Branden- 
 burg. They  originally  formed  a  part  of  the  kingdom 
 of  Maroboduus,  but  afterward  separated  from  it  along 
 with  the  Langobardi.  Mannert  is  of  opinion  that  the 
 name  of  Semnones  was  given  by  the  German  tribes, 
 not  to  a  single  nation,  but  to  all  the  nations  in  the  vi- 
 cinity of  the  Elbe,  from  whom  the  more  southern  Ger- 
 mans were  descended.  (Gcoo-r.,  vol.  3,  p  334.)  The 
 Semnones  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Senones, 
 a  Celtic  race  who  settled  on  the  coast  of  TJmbria. 
 {Vid.  Senones.) 
 
 Semones,  an  inferior  class  of  divinities,  such  as 
 Priapus,  Silenus,  the  Fauns,  &c.  They  were  called 
 Semones  (i.  e.,  semi-homines)  from  their  holding  a 
 middle  kind  of  rank  between  gods  and  men.  Certain 
 deified  heroes  were  also  included  under  this  appella- 
 tion.    {Ovid,  Fast.,  6,  213.) 
 
 Sempkonia,  I.  a  Roman  matron,  daughter  of  Scipio 
 Africanus  the  elder,  and  mother  of  the  two  Gracchi. 
 (  Vtd.  Cornelia  III.) — II.  A  sister  of  the  Gracchi,  and 
 wife  of  the  younger  Scipio  Africanus.  She  was  sus- 
 pected of  having  been  privy,  along  with  Carbo,  Grac- 
 chus, and  Flaccus,  to  the  murder  of  her  husband. — 
 The  name  of  Sempronia  was  common  to  the  females 
 of  the  families  of  the  Sempronii,  Scipios,  and  Gracchi. 
 
 Sempronia  Lex,  I.  de  Magistratibus,  by  C.  Sem- 
 pronius  Gracchus,  the  tribune,  A.U.C.  630,  ordained 
 that  no  person  who  had  been  legally  deprived  of  a 
 magistracy  for  misdemeanours  should  be  capable  of 
 bearing  an  office  again.  This  law  was  afterward  re- 
 pealed by  the  author. — II.  Another,  de  Civitate,  by  the 
 same,  A.U.C.  630.  It  ordained  that  no  capital  judg- 
 ment should  be  passed  over  a  Roman  citizen  without 
 the  order  of  the  people. — III.  Another,  de  Comitiis,  by 
 the  same,  A.U.C.  63.5.  It  ordained  that,  in  giving 
 their  votes,  the  centuries  should  be  chosen  by  lot,  and 
 not  give  it  according  to  the  order  of  their  classes. — 
 IV .  Another,  d^  Provinciis,  by  the  same,  A.U.C.  630. 
 It  enacted  that  the  senators  should  appoint  provinces 
 for  the  consuls  every  year  before  their  election. — V. 
 Another,  called  agraria  prima,  by  T.  Sempronius 
 Gracchus,  the  tribune,  A  U.C.  620.  {Vid.  Agrarise 
 Leges.) — VI.  Another,  called  agraria  altera,  by  the 
 same.  It  required  that  all  the  ready  money  which  was 
 found  in  the  treasury  of  Attalu,s,  king  of  Pergainus, 
 who  had  left  the  Romans  his  heirs,  should  be  divided 
 among  the  poorer  citizens  of  Rome,  to  supply  them 
 with  all  the  various  instruments  requisite  in  husbandry, 
 and  that  the  lands  of  that  monarch  should  be  farmed 
 out  by  the  Roman  censors,  and  the  money  drawn  from 
 thence  should  be  divided  among  the  people. — VII. 
 Another,  de  Civitate  Ilalis  danda,  by  the  same,  that 
 the  freedom  of  the  state  should  be  given  to  all  the 
 1210 
 
 Italians. — VIII.  Another,  called  Frumentaria,  by  C. 
 Sempronius  Gracchus.  It  required  that  corn  should 
 be  distributed  among  the  people,  so  much  to  every  in- 
 dividual, for  every  modius  (or  peck)  of  which  it  was 
 required  that  they  should  only  pay  the  trifling  sum  of  a 
 semissis  and  a  triens. — IX.  Another,  de  UsuTa,hy  M. 
 Sempronius,  the  tribune,  A.U.C.  560,  long  before  the 
 time  of  the  Gracchi.  It  ordained  that,  in  lending 
 money  to  the  Latins  and  the  allies  of  Rome,  the  Ro- 
 man laws  should  be  observed  as  well  as  among  the 
 citizens.  The  object  of  this  law  was  to  check  the 
 fraud  of  usurers,  who  lent  their  money  in  the  name  of 
 the  allies  at  higher  interest  than  what  was  allowed  at 
 Rome. — X.  Another,  de  Judicibus,  by  C.  Sempronius 
 Gracchus,  A.U.C.  630.  It  required  that  the  right  of 
 judging,  which  had  been  assigned  to  the  senaioriait 
 order,  should  be  transferred  from  them  to  the  Roman 
 knights. — XI.  Another,  Militaris,  by  the  same,  A.U  C. 
 630.  It  enacted  that  the  soldiers  should  be  clothed  at 
 the  public  expense,  without  any  diminution  of  their 
 usual  pay.  It  also  ordered  that  no  person  should  be 
 obliged  to  serve  in  the  army  before  the  age  of  seven- 
 teen.    {Plat.,  Vit.  Grace.) 
 
 Sempronius,  the  father  of  the  Gracchi.  {Vid. 
 Gracchus  ) 
 
 Sena,  I.  Julia,  a  city  of  Etruria,  to  the  east  of 
 Volaterrae.  The  designation  Julia  implies  a  colony 
 founded  by  Julius  or  Augustus  Cffisar.  It  is  mention- 
 ed by  Tacitus  {Hist.,  A,  45)  and  Pliny  (3,  5).  The 
 modern  name  is  Sienna. — II.  A  city  of  Umbria  in 
 Italy,  on  the  seacoast,  northwest  of  Ancona,  and  near 
 the  mouth  of  the  river  Misus.  It  was  a  settlement 
 made  by  the  Galli  Senones,  after  their  irruption  into 
 Italy,  A.U.C.  396.  The  Romans  colonized  it  after 
 they  had  expelled,  or,  rather,  exterminated  the  Seno- 
 nes, A.U.C.  471  {Polyb.,  2,  19),  but,  according  to 
 Livy  {Epit.,  1 1),  some  years  before  that  dale.  During 
 the  civil  war  between  Sylla  and  Marius,  Sena,  which 
 sided  with  the  latter,  was  taken  and  sacked  by  Pom- 
 pey.  {Appian,  Civ.  Bell,  1,88.)  The  modern  name 
 is  Scnigaglia.     {Cramer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  258.) 
 
 Seneca,  I.  M.  Ann^eus,  a  rhetorician  and  orator, 
 born  at  Corduba,  in  Spain,  of  equestrian  family,  about 
 .58  B.C.  He  came  to  Rome,  vi?here  he  contracted  an 
 intimate  friendship  with  Porcius  Latro,  and  where  he 
 taught  rhetoric  and  oratory  until  his  fifty-second  year. 
 He  then  returned  to  his  native  city,  and  married  Hel- 
 via,  a  female  distinguished  for  her  beauty  and  talents, 
 who  made  him  the  father  of  three  sons,  L.  Annaeus 
 Seneca,  the  philosopher  ;  M.  AnnoRus  Novatus,  who, 
 having  been  adopted  by  Junius  Gallio,  took  the  name 
 of  Junius  Annans  Gallio,  and  was,  as  proprstor  of 
 Achaia,  the  judge  of  St.  Paul  {Acts,  18,  12);  and 
 AnnaBUs  Mela,  the  father  of  the  poet  Lucan.  After 
 the  birth  of  his  three  sons,  Seneca  went  back  to  Rome, 
 and  there  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.  We  have 
 two  works  of  this  writer  remaining,  one  entitled  Sua- 
 soriarum  liber  i.,  the  other  Controversiarum  hbri  x. 
 Each  of  these  contains  passages  from  discourses  which 
 had  been  pronounced  on  various  occasions,  and  from 
 debates  which  had  taken  place  in  the  schools,  in  his 
 presence,  between  the  most  celebrated  rhetoricians. 
 The  subjects  of  these  were  fictitious  causes  or  ques- 
 tions, proposed  for  discussion  by  the  professors,  such 
 as  the  following:  "Shall  Alexander  emlark  on  the 
 ocean  I" — "  Shall  the  three  hundred  Sparttns  atTher- 
 mopyla;,  after  being  abandoned  by  the  otl  er  Greeks, 
 betake  themselves  to  flight  1"' — "Shall  Cicero  apolo- 
 gize to  Marc  Antony?"  —  "Shall  Cicero  consent  to 
 burn  his  works,  if  Antony  insists  upon  the  sacrifice  1" 
 &c. — Seneca  addressed  these  works  to  his  sons.  We 
 discover  in  them  some  fine  thoughts,  and  some  traits 
 of  eloquence  ;  but  they  are  filled,  at  the  same  time, 
 with  subtle  refinements  and  frigid  declamation.  We 
 see  plain  indications  of  a  declining  taste.  Neither  of 
 these  productions  is  complete.     They  have  been  often 
 
SENECA. 
 
 SENECA. 
 
 printed  along  with  tlie  works  of  Seneca  the  philoso- 
 pher, and  the  best  of  the  editions  thus  given  is  that  of 
 Heinsius,  Amst.,  1620,  8vo.  A  separate  edition  ap- 
 peared from  the  Bipont  press  in  1783,  8vo  ;  and  in 
 1831,  from  the  Paris  press,  by  Bouiliet,  forming  part 
 of  the  collection  of  Lemaire.  From  some  researches 
 of  Niebuhr,  he  would  seem  to  have  been  the  author 
 also  of  a  history.  {Ntebvhr,  ad  Cic,  Liv.  el  Scncc(t, 
 frasm-,  p-  104,  Rom  ,  1820  )  —  II.  L.,  A  celebrated 
 Roman  writer,  son  of  M.  Annipus  Seneca,  the  rheto- 
 rician, and  Helvia,  born  at  Corduba,  in  the  second  or 
 third  year  of  the  Christian  era.  He  was  still  very 
 youno-  when  his  father  removed  to  Rome,  where  the 
 son  received  his  education.  The  oratorical  profes- 
 sion became  his  choice  when  he  attained  to  years  of 
 maturity,  and  he  plead  in  several  causes  before  the 
 public  tribunals.  The  frantic  (Caligula,  who  was  jeal- 
 ous of  every  species  of  talents,  sought  to  destroy  him. 
 but  spared  his  life,  it  is  said,  when  it  was  represented 
 to  him  that  Seneca's  health  was  feeble,  and  that  he 
 would,  in  all  probability,  be  only  short  lived.  He  after- 
 ward attained  to  the  qua>storship.  In  the  first  year  of 
 the  reign  of  Claudius,  Messalma,  who  hated  him,  had 
 Seneca  implicated  in  the  accusation  of  adultery  which 
 was  brought  against  the  paramours  of  Julia,  daughter 
 of  Germanicus,  and  caused  him  to  be  banished  to  the 
 island  of  Corsica,  where  he  passed  eight  years  of  se- 
 clusion. Agrippina,  the  second  wife  of  (Claudius,  re- 
 called him  from  banishment,  and  appointed  him  tutor 
 to  Nero,  in  conjunction  with  Burrhus.  The  latter  was 
 the  young  prince's  instructer  in  military  science,  and 
 endeavoured  to  communicate  his  own  sedateness  and 
 gravity  of  manners.  Elegant  accomplishments,  taste 
 for  the  arts,  and  polite  address  were  Seneca's  prov- 
 ince. Among  other  tutorial  employment,  he  com- 
 posed Nero's  speeches.  The  first,  a  funeral  oration 
 for  Claudius,  was  unfortunate  in  its  effect,  according 
 to  Tacitus.  {Ann.,  13,  3  )  Nero's  next  harangue, 
 probably  also  written  by  Seneca,  though  Tacitus  does 
 not  say  so,  gave  universal  satisfaction.  It  was  de- 
 livered on  his  first  appearance  in  the  senate,  and  prom- 
 ised a  reign  of  moderation.  Dio  Cassius  says  that 
 this  address  was  ordered  to  be  engraven  on  a  pillar  of 
 solid  silver,  and  to  be  publicly  read  every  year  when 
 the  consuls  entered  on  their  office. — Seneca  soon  ob- 
 tained an  exclusive  influence  over  his  pupil,  and  en- 
 gaged Annffius  Serenus,  who  stood  high  in  his  esteem 
 and  friendship,  to  assist  him  in  the  means,  not  very 
 creditalile,  of  preserving  his  ascendancy,  by  supplying 
 Nero  with  a  mistress,  and  persecuting  his  patroness 
 Agrippina,  whose  indignation  rose  above  all  restraint. 
 Tacitus  [)uts  into  her  mouth  a  few  emphatic  words, 
 said  to  have  been  uttered  in  the  emperor's  hearing. 
 They  have  been  finely  imitated  and  expanded  by  Ra- 
 cine, in  his  tragedy  of  Britatmicus  ;  and  Gray,  in  his 
 short  fragment  of  Agrippina,  has  done  little  more  than 
 translate  Racine.  Agrippina  regained  a  temporary  in- 
 fluence, and  succeeded  in  punishing  some  of  her  ac- 
 cusers and  rewarding  her  friends.  Among  the  pro- 
 motions obtained  by  her  was  that  of  Balbilius  to  the 
 province  of  Egypt.  It  seems  strange  that  a  person  so 
 highly  spoken  of  by  Seneca  should  have  been  patron- 
 ised by  Agrippina  at  this  juncture. — It  was  not  till 
 Suillius  had  too  justly  u|)braided,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
 coarsely  reviled  Seneca,  that  the  latter  incurred  any 
 hrge  portion  of  popular  censure.  Among  the  grounds 
 on  which  Suillius  attacked  him  were  those  of  usury, 
 avarice,  and  rapacity.  That  he  was  avaricious  is  be- 
 yond all  question  ;  but  his  practices  must  have  been 
 exorbitant  to  justify  so  violent  an  invective  as  that 
 recorded  by  Tacitus,  and  where  Suillius  charges  him 
 with  having  amassed  300,000,000  sesterces.  (Ann., 
 13,  42  )  The  only  historical  authority  on  which  Sen- 
 eca's memory  is  loaded  with  the  charge  of  usury,  is 
 that  of  Dio,  who  says  that  the  philosopher  had  placed 
 very  large  sums  out  at  interest  in  Britain,  and  that  his 
 
 vexatious  and  unrelenting  demands  of  payment  had 
 been  the  cause  of  in.surrections  among  the  Britons. 
 But  Dio's  veracity  has  been  suspected  on  some  occa- 
 sions ;  and  as  for  the  colour  given  to  the  imputation 
 by  the  passage  quoted  from  Tacitus,  it  must  be  re- 
 membered that  it  occurs  as  proceeding  from  the  mouth 
 of  an  enraged  enemy.  These  imputed  faults  could 
 scarcely  escape  a  hint  from  Juvenal,  although  he  had 
 made  use  of  him  before  as  a  contrast  to  Nero,  and 
 seems  generally  favourable  to  his  character. — Sene- 
 ca's share  in  the  death  inflicted  on  Agrippina  by  hel 
 son,  and  a  strong  suspicion  that  he  drew  up  the  pallia- 
 tive account  of  it.  bears  still  harder  on  his  fame.  The 
 savacre  mode  of  the  assassination,  and  the  meanness 
 of  the  posthumous  honours  paid  to  her,  a  circumstance 
 of  infinitely  more  importance  than  modern  ideas  at- 
 tach to  it,  as  affecting  the  future  happiness  and  con- 
 dition of  the  departed  spirit,  reflect  incredible  disgrace 
 on  all  concerned.  Retribution  soon  overtook  these 
 unworthy  compliances  with  the  will  of  a  wicked  mas- 
 ter. Nero,  to  whom,  in  the  usual  descent  from  bad  to 
 worse,  the  slightest  infusion  of  virtue  was  an  offence, 
 listened  to  evil  counsellors,  and  with  complacency  al- 
 lowed the  most  respectable  of  his  adherents  to  be  tra- 
 duced, and  among  them,  in  particular,  Seneca.  He 
 was  charged  with  having  exorbitant  wealth,  above 
 the  condition  of  a  private  citizen,  and  yet,  with  unap- 
 peasable avarice,  grasping  after  more  :  his  rage  for 
 popularity  was  represented  as  no  less  violent ;  he  was 
 accused  of  courting  the  affections  of  the  people,  and, 
 by  the  grandeur  of  his  villas  and  the  beauty  of  his 
 gardens,  hoping  to  vie  with  imperial  splendour.  In 
 matters  of  taste  and  genius,  too.  and  especially  in  po- 
 etic composition,  he  had  the  hardihood  to  become  the 
 rival  of  his  imperial  master.  The  skill  of  the  prince, 
 moreover,  in  the  management  of  chariots,  was  reported 
 to  be  with  him  a  matter  of  raillery.  {Ann.,  14,  52.) 
 There  is  too  much  reason  to  believe  that  his  numerous 
 villas,  his  extensive  gardens  and  great  riches,  whetted 
 the  edge  of  these  accusations.  His  speech  to  the  em- 
 peror, in  which  he  offers  to  resign  all  his  wealth  and 
 power,  and  asks  permission  to  retire,  is  a  fine  speci- 
 men of  apologetic  eloquence.  His  admissions  con- 
 firm Dio's  account  of  his  immoderate  riches  ;  but  the 
 historian  probably  exaggerates  when  he  imputes  the 
 insurrection  in  Britain  lo  his  exactions.  From  this 
 time  he  avoided  the  court,  and  lived  an  abstemious 
 life  in  constant  danger.  His  works,  however,  show 
 that  he  was  more  useful  in  retirement  than  while  fill- 
 ing high  offices.  He  devoted  himself  to  philosophy, 
 natural  and  moral.  Nero  now  sought  his  destruction  ; 
 and  Piso's  conspiracy,  to  which  he  was  supposed  to 
 be  a  party,  gave  an  opportunity.  {Tae  ,  Ann.,  15, 
 60,  seqq.)  His  death  took  place  in  the  following 
 manner :  Sylvanus  the  tribune,  by  order  of  Nero,  sur- 
 rounded Seneca's  magnificent  villa,  near  Roific,  with 
 a  troop  of  soldiers,  and  then  sent  in  a  centurion  to  ac- 
 quaint him  with  the  emperor's  orders,  that  he  should 
 put  himself  to  death.  On  the  receipt  of  this  command, 
 he  opened  the  veins  of  his  arms  and  legs,  and  then 
 was  put  into  a  hot  bath  :  this  was  found  ineffectual  ; 
 at  his  time  of  life,  says  Tacitus,  the  blood  was  slovf 
 and  languid.  The  decay  of  nature,  and  the  impover- 
 ishing diet  to  which  he  had  used  himself,  left  him  in 
 a  feeble  condition.  He  ordered  the  vessels  of  his  legs 
 and  joints  to  be  punctured.  After  that  operation  he 
 began  to  labour  with  excruciating  pains.  Lest  his  suf- 
 ferings should  overpower  the  constancy  of  his  wife,  oi 
 the  sight  of  her  afTlictions  prove  too  much  for  his  sensi- 
 hility .  he  persuaded  her  to  retire  into  another  room.  He 
 called  for  his  secretaries,  and,  as  life  was  ebbing  away, 
 dictated  his  final  discourse.  Fatigued  at  last  with  pain, 
 worn  out.  and  exhausted,  he  requested  his  friend  Sta- 
 tius  Anna^us,  whose  fidelity  and  medical  skill  he  had 
 often  experienced,  to  administer  a  draught  of  hemlock. 
 The  potion  was  swallowed,  but  without  any  immediate 
 ^  1211 
 
SENECA. 
 
 SENECA. 
 
 effect.  He  then  desired  to  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath, 
 and,  the  vapour  soon  overpowering  him,  there  breathed 
 his  last.  Seneca's  wife  was  permitted  to  live. — Ju- 
 venal bestows  high  commendation  on  Seneca,  and 
 other  ancient  authors  as  well  as  Juvenal,  who  was  a 
 diligent  reader  of  Seneca's  works,  have  been  lavish  of 
 their  praises.  Martial  takes  many  occasions  of  men- 
 tioning him  with  some  commendatory  epithet.  Why 
 did  St.  Jerome  saint  himi  The  reason  is  thus  ex- 
 plained by  Dr.  Ireland,  in  a  communication  to  Mr. 
 Girtord  while  translating  Juvenal.  —  "The  writer  to 
 whom  you  refer  seems  to  have  used  the  term  without 
 much  consideration.  In  Jerome's  time,  it  was  applied 
 to  Christians  at  large,  as  the  general  distinction  from 
 the  pagans.  Indeed,  it  was  given  to  those  who  had 
 not  yet  received  baptism,  but  who  looked  forward  to 
 Jt,  and  were  therefore  called  candidates  for  the  faith. 
 [t  could  be  only  a  charitable  extension  of  this  term 
 Ihat  led  Jerome  to  place  Seneca  among  the  sancli ; 
 for  he  still  calls  him  a  stoic  philosopher.  The  case  is, 
 that  in  the  time  of  St.  Jerome  certain  letters  were  ex- 
 tent, which  were  said  to  have  passed  between  Seneca 
 and  St.  Paul.  In  one  of  these  the  former  had  ex- 
 pressed a  wish,  that  he  were  to  the  Romans  what 
 Paul  was  to  the  Christians.  This  Jerome  seems  to 
 Jiavo  interpreted  as  an  evangelical  sentiment.  He 
 therefore  placed  Seneca  among  the  ecclesiastical  wri- 
 i,ers  and  saints ;  in  other  words,  he  presumptively 
 (tyled  him  a  Christian,  though  not  born  of  Christian 
 parents."  —  The  sketch  of  Seneca's  life  here  given, 
 when  checked  by  the  authorities,  will  not  warrant  his 
 Deing  ranked  in  any  respect  with  the  first  Christian 
 worthies.  His  early  career  was  confessedly  irregular 
 ind  licentious.  This,  if  sincerely  repented  of,  might 
 be  forgiven.  But  his  conduct  after  his  recall,  ma- 
 king allowance  for  the  calumny  and  wholesale  libel  of 
 the  times,  was,  to  speak  of  it  in  measured  and  negative 
 terms,  not  altogether  commendable.  That  his  philo- 
 sophical professions  had  some  occasional  influence 
 on  his  imperial  pupil;  that  they  did  a  liitle  towards 
 stemming  the  torrent  of  profligacy  with  the  people  for 
 a  time,  we  are  willing  and  desirous  to  concede  :  but 
 that  the  practice  of  the  preacher  too  frequently  coun- 
 teracted the  tendency  of  his  preaching,  it  would  be 
 uncandid  to  deny.  Of  the  later  political  delinquen- 
 cies he  was  unquestionably  innocent.  With  respect 
 to  Piso's  conspiracy,  it  w'as  the  current  report  at 
 Rome,  that  the  conspirators,  after  having  employed 
 Piso  to  get  rid  of  Nero,  meant  to  destroy  Piso  him- 
 self, and  raise  Seneca  to  the  vacant  throne;  but  the 
 conception  of  such  a  scheme  could  have  been  nothing 
 short  of  madness.  Seneca  was  at  the  time  old  and 
 infirm;  and  his  tamperings  in  conduct  with  the  virtue 
 which  he  rigidly  taught,  and  with  the  self-denial  he  stoi- 
 callyenforced  in  his  writings  as  what  the  wiseman  could 
 undeniably  exemjjlify,  had  rendered  him  too  unpopular 
 to  make  the  tenure  of  the  empire  safe  in  his  hands 
 for  the  shortest  period  of  time.  In  respect  of  this 
 charge  he  was  shamefully  treated.  But  his  personal 
 biography,  on  the  whole,  has  an  unfortunate  tendency. 
 "Whatever  may  be  thought  of  his  excellences  or  de- 
 fects as  a  writer,  or  of  the  caricature  and  priggishness 
 of  the  Stoic  sect,  he  was  in  his  writings  an  earnest,  a 
 highly-pretending,  and  apparently  a  sincere  advocate 
 of  ascetic  severity.  When  the  professions  of  such 
 persons  are  belied  by  their  lives  and  conduct,  the  in- 
 terests of  society  cannot  fail  to  suffer.  If  his  ministry 
 was  corrupt,  his  behaviour  under  Nero's  frown  was 
 not  magnanimous.  It  is  true,  he  did  not  abandon  his 
 literary  pursuits  ;  but  his  resignation  was  lip-deep ; 
 and  his  exaggerated  affectation  of  sickness  under  in- 
 firmity, his  anxiety  about  diet  and  fear  of  poison,  show 
 that  his  fine  reasoning  and  great  calmness  when  doom- 
 ed to  die,  his  excellent  discourses  and  ostentation  of 
 firmness,  had  more  of  theatrical  exhibition  than  of  nat- 
 ural and  self-possessed  reality.  His  calling  for  the 
 I2I2 
 
 particular  poison  (hemlock)  which  was  given  to  crim- 
 inals at  Athens,  shows  that  philosophical  ostentation 
 adhered  to  him  even  in  the  agonies  of  death  ;  for  he 
 had  thus  expressed  himself  in  one  of  his  letters;  "ci- 
 cuta  magnum  Socratcm  fecit :  Catoni  gladium  asser- 
 torem  liberlatis  extorque,  magnam  partem  delraxeris 
 glorice.'"  (Ep.  13.) — His  character  and  love  of  Sto- 
 ical paradox  are  admirably  delineated  by  Massinger, 
 who  had  considered  him  well ;  and,  though  the  quamt- 
 ness  and  studied  point  of  his  manner  had  rendered  him 
 almost  indiscriminately  acceptable  to  the  readers  and 
 writers  of  that  period,  the  shrewd  old  dramatist  had 
 thoroughly  ap[)reciated  him  where  he  was  weak  as 
 well  as  where  he  was  strong.  —  It  remains  that  we 
 consider  Seneca  as  a  philosopher  and  an  author.  He 
 was  the  principal  ornament  of  Stoicism  in  his  day,  and 
 a  valuable  instructer  of  mankind.  If,  when  com- 
 manded to  die,  neither  he  nor  his  nephew  Lucan  main- 
 tained to  the  utmost  the  dignity  of  philosophy,  the  in- 
 firmity of  human  nature  may  plead  as  the  excuse. 
 Some  little  vanity  may  appear  on  the  scene  of  Seneca's 
 dissolution  ;  but  there  was  nothing  cowardly  and  no- 
 thing inconsistent.  As  a  writer,  he  was  exactly  made 
 of  that  stuff  which  invites  to  controversy.  To  say 
 that  his  style  is  faulty  is  to  say  no  more  than  that  he 
 lived  after  the  Augustan  age.  But  perhaps  our  admi- 
 ration of  pure  style,  and  our  desire,  by  constant  con- 
 templation, to  impregnate  our  own  with  the  same  spir- 
 it, makes  us  too  exclusive.  We  shall  lose  much  that 
 is  instructive  and  valuable  if  we  determine  to  read 
 nothing  which  is  not  perfectly  written.  Tacitus  and 
 Juvenal,  as  well  as  Seneca  and  Lucan,  are  beyond  the 
 pale  of  best  Latinity.  Yet  who  would  relinquish  the 
 possession  of  either.  Mr.  Hodgson  thinks  that  Quin- 
 tilian's  character  of  Seneca  is  nothing  short  of  absolute 
 condemnation.  He  asks  why  he  should  have  been  so 
 scrupulous  in  omitting  Seneca's  name,  while  he  exam- 
 ined every  different  style  of  eloquence,  if  he  intended 
 to  attack  him  at  the  close  of  his  discussion.  The 
 spirited  and  poetical  annotator  of  Juvenal  is  right  in 
 his  estimate  of  Seneca  to  a  certain  extent ;  but  sure'y 
 he  bears  a  little  hard  on  Quintilian,  as  he  avers  that 
 the  great  critic  does  on  his  client.  In  various  passa- 
 ges Quintilian  will  be  found  to  bestow  no  faint  praise 
 upon  Seneca.  Suetonius,  in  his  Caligula,  gives  the 
 contradictory  opinions  of  the  emperor  and  the  public 
 rather  than  his  own.  The  decision  of  Aulus  Gellius 
 is  unfavourable,  but  his  verdict  is  comparatively  of 
 little  importance,  though  the  anecdotes  in  his  miscel- 
 lany pleasantly  fill  up  many  an  hiatus  in  the  small  talk 
 of  classical  literature.  {Malkin^s  Classical  Disquisi- 
 tions, p  286,  seqq.) — The  works  of  Seneca  that  have 
 come  down  to  us  are  the  following:  1.  De  Ira.  "On 
 Anger,"  in  three  books.  Lipsius  concludes,  from  a 
 passage  of  this  treatise,  that  it  was  composed  in  the 
 time  of  Caligula  ;  whence  it  would  follow  that  this  is 
 the  earliest  of  the  productions  of  Seneca,  since  it  is  as- 
 certained with  sufficient  certainty  that  all  the  others 
 were  composed  under  Claudius  and  Nero.  The  in- 
 ference drawn  by  .Lipsius,  however,  has  been  disputed. 
 The  work  itself  is  well  written,  and  contains  s  >me 
 good  reasoning,  blended,  however,  with  some  exagger- 
 ation as  regards  the  principles  of  the  porch. — 2.  De 
 Consolatione,  ad  Helviam  matrem,  "  On  Consolation, 
 addressed  to  his  mother  Helvia."  Seneca  addressed 
 this  work  to  his  mother  during  his  banishment  to  Cor- 
 sica, to  console  her  not  only  under  the  misfortune  that 
 had  befallen  her  in  his  sentence,  but  under  all  that  had 
 ever  been  experienced  by  her.  It  is  well  written,  and 
 is  that  one  of  his  works  which  inspires  the  reader  with 
 most  esteem  for  the  moral  character  of  the  author. — 3. 
 De  Consolatione,  ad  Polyhium,  "On  Consolation,  ad- 
 dressed to  Polybius."  This  piece  was  written,  ac- 
 cording to  the  generally-received  opinion,  during  the 
 third  year  of  Seneca's  banishment,  to  a  freedman  of 
 Claudius  named  Polybius,  who  had  lately  lost  a  broth- 
 
SENECA. 
 
 SEN 
 
 er,  a  young  man  of  great  promise.  It  contains  some 
 fine  passages,  but  is  unworthy  of  coming  from  the  pen 
 of  Seneca,  on  account  of  tiie  gross  flattery  with  which 
 it  abounds.  Diderot,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Life  of  Sen- 
 eca, has  attacked  the  authenticity  of  the  work,  and 
 Ruhkopf,  one  of  the  latest  editors  of  Seneca,  has  fol- 
 lowed in  the  same  path. — 4.  De  Consolalionc,  ad  Mar- 
 dam.  Another  consolatory  epistle  to  a  friend  who 
 had  lost  her  son.  It  is  a  touching  and  eloquent  piece, 
 and  was  written  under  Claudius,  after  the  return  of 
 Seneca  from  exile. — 5.  De  Providenlia,  sive  quare 
 boms  viris  mala  accidant,  cum  sit  Providentia,  "  On 
 Providence,  or  why,  if  there  be  a  superintending  Prov- 
 idence, evils  happen  to  the  good !"  It  is  not  a  general 
 dissertation  on  Providence,  but  merely  an  attempt  to 
 justify  Providence,  and  refute  the  cavils  and  murmurs 
 of  the  discontented.  The  piece  ends  with  recom- 
 mending suicide  to  the  unfortunate  as  their  last  ref- 
 uge!  It  was  written  under  the  reign  of  Nero,  and 
 forms  part  of  a  complete  treatise  on  ethics,  of  which 
 Seneca  speaks  in  his  letters. — 6.  De  Animi  Iran- 
 quillilate,  "  On  Serenity  of  Mind."  This  work,  writ- 
 ten soon  after  the  return  of  Seneca  to  Rome,  has  not 
 the  usual  form  of  his  productions.  It  is  [)receded  by 
 a  letter  of  Ann?eus  Serenus,  in  which  that  friend 
 depicts  to  Seneca  the  disquietude,  and  disgust  of  life, 
 which  torment  him,  and  requests  his  advice.  Seneca 
 replies,  and  shows  the  mode  in  which  this  mental  mal- 
 ady may  be  combated.  —  7.  De  Conslanlia  sapien- 
 tis,  sivc  quod  in  savientem  non  cadit  injuria,  "  Of 
 the  firmness  of  the  sage,  or  proof  that  the  wise  man 
 can  suffer  no  injury."  This  work  is  based  on  the 
 princi[)les  and  paradoxes  of  the  porch.  It  is  addressed 
 to  AniiiEus  Serenus. — 8.  De  Clcmcntia,  "  On  Clem- 
 ency." Addressed  to  Nero.  It  was  in  three  books, 
 and  was  composed  during  the  second  year  of  the 
 prince's  reign.  The  subject  is  rather  the  mild  ad- 
 ministration of  government.  A  great  part  of  the  sec- 
 ond, and  the  third  book,  are  lost. — The  diction  in  this 
 work  is  snnpler  and  nobler  than  in  the  other  works  of 
 Seneca — 9.  De  BrerAtatc  vilcB,  "  On  the  shortness 
 of  life."  Addressed  to  Paulinus,  the  father,  or  else 
 the  brother  of  Seneca's  second  wife,  and  who  filled 
 the  station  of  Prcp.fectus  Annona;.  Seneca  recom- 
 mends him  to  renounce  his  public  employments  in  a 
 spirit  directly  contrary  to  that  in  which  he  urges  Se- 
 renus to  engage  in  public  affairs.  These  contradic- 
 tions sometimes  occur  in  the  works  of  Seneca. — 10. 
 De  Vila  Beata.  "  On  a  Happy  Life."  Addressed 
 to  Gallio,  the  brother  of  Seneca. — 11.  De  Olio  aut 
 sccessu  sajpicnlis,  "  On  the  Leisure  or  Retirement 
 of  the  Sage."  The  first  twenty-seven  chapters  are 
 wanting.  Some  critics  believe  that  it  formed  part  of 
 the  preceding. — 12.  De  Bencficiis,  "  On  Benefits." 
 In  seven  books.  Seneca  treats,  in  this  fine  work,  of 
 the  manner  of  conferring  benefits,  and  the  duty  of 
 him  who  receives  them,  and  collaterally  of  gratitude 
 and  ingratitude.  It  vvas  written  at  the  close  of  Sene- 
 ca's life,  when  he  had  retired  from  the  court  of  Nero 
 to  the  solitude  of  his  villa. — 13.  One  hundred  and 
 twenty-four  letters,  addressed  to  Lucilius  Junior. 
 Though  Seneca  has  given  to  these  pieces  an  episto- 
 lary form,  they  arc  rather  moral  treatises  on  various 
 subjects.  We  find  in  them  many  excellent  maxims, 
 and  a  real  treasure  of  practical  philosophy.  They 
 were  written  during  the  later  years  of  Seneca,  after 
 his  retirement  from  court. — 14.  'AnoKoTiOKvvOiocrtc, 
 "The  Metamorphosis  into  a  Gourd."  A  Varronian 
 Satire,  directed  against  the  Emperor  Claudius.  It  is 
 unworthy  a  philosopher  like  Seneca,  and  in  very  bad 
 taste. — 1.')  Naluralium  Qudslionum  libri  vii.,  "Sev- 
 en books  of  Questions  on  Nature."  Independently  of 
 the  importance  of  the  subjects  discussed,  the  work 
 has  the  accidental  merit  of  making  us  acquainted  with 
 the  point  to  which  the  ancients  carried  their  scientific 
 researches  without  the  aid  of  instruments.     In  some 
 
 cases  it  will  be  found  that  they  have  anticipated  mod- 
 ern discoveries.  "  The  theory  of  earthquakes,"  says 
 Humboldt,  "  as  given  by  Seneca,  contains  the  germe 
 of  all  that  has  been  slated  in  our  own  times  concern- 
 ing the  action  of  elastic  vapours  enclosed  in  the  inte- 
 rior of  the  globe."  {Voyage  aux  contrees  equinoxia- 
 Ics,  vol.  1,  p.  313,  ed.  4to.) — We  have  also,  in  the 
 early  editions,  fourteen  letters  of  Seneca  to  St.  Paul, 
 or  of  the  apostle  to  the  philosopher,  wliich  were  a( 
 one  time  received  as  genuine,  but  are  now  regarded 
 as  spurious.  And  yet  St.  Jerome  and  St.  Augustine 
 cite  them,  without  expressing  the  least  doubt  as  to 
 their  authenticity.  It  may  be  remarked,  moreover, 
 that  an  old  tradition  in  the  church  makes  an  intimate 
 friendship  to  have  subsisted  between  St.  Paul  and 
 Seneca.  This  tradition  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as 
 mere  fable,  and  derives  considerable  support  from  the 
 singular  resemblance  that  has  been  found  to  exist  be- 
 tween many  passages  from  the  writings  of  these  dis- 
 tinguished men.  (Consult  Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.  2,  p,  446,  seqq.)  Neither  is  there  anything  im- 
 probable in  this  tradition  as  regards  the  lime.  The 
 apostle  is  supposed  to  have  arrived  in  Rome  in  the 
 spring  of  fil  A.D.  The  prsetorian  prefect  allowed 
 him  to  occupy  a  separate  dwelling,  with  a  soldier  for 
 a  guard.  This  prefect  was  Burrhus,  the  friend  of  Sen- 
 eca ;  and  the  latter,  it  is  very  natural  to  suppose, 
 heard  of  the  new-comer  through  him.  Seneca,  in- 
 deed, may  have  received  some  information  respecting 
 the  apostle  at  an  earlier  period  ;  for  the  propraetor  of 
 Achaia,  before  whom  vSt.  Paul  was  brought  at  Corinth, 
 was  Seneca's  own  brother,  who,  having  passed  by 
 adoption  into  another  family,  had  taken  the  name  of 
 Junius  Annseus  Gallio.  Tiie  Roman  governor  could 
 hardly  fail  to  make  some  mention  of  the  apostle  in  his 
 letters  home. — There  are  also  some  tragedies  ascribed 
 to  Seneca.  Quintilian  supposes  that  the  Medea  is  his 
 composition  ;  while,  according  to  others,  the  Troades 
 and  the  Hippolylus  were  also  written  by  him.  and  the 
 Agamemnon,  Hercules  Parens,  Thycstes,  and  Hercu- 
 les in  CEta,  were  composed  by  his  father.  Lipsius 
 has  imagined  that  the  Medea,  which  he  regards  as  the 
 best  of  ihese  tragedies,  vvas  written  by  Seneca  the 
 philosopher,  and  that  the  rest  were  the  productions  of 
 another  of  the  same  name,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
 Trajan.  Most  critics,  following  the  first  part  of  the 
 hypothesis  of  Lipsius,  assign  the  Medea  to  Seneca, 
 but  they  likewise  ascribe  to  him  the  Hippolylus, 
 Agamemnon,  and  Troades  ;  and  some  of  them  give 
 this  latter  piece  the  preference  to  the  Medea.  I'he 
 remaining  tragedies  they  consider  to  be  the  produc- 
 tions of  various  writers,  appended  to  the  tragedies  of 
 Seneca  by  editors  or  copyists.  As  to  these  composi- 
 tions, it  is  hardly  possible  to  find  a  really  good  tragedy 
 among  them.  All,  even  the  Medea,  are  defective  in 
 plan  and  in  the  management  of  the  piece  ;  they  are 
 all  barren  of  action  and  full  of  declamation.  We 
 find  in  them,  it  is  true,  occasional  bold  thoughts,  and 
 expressions  approaching  the  sublime,  but  they  are  of- 
 ten misplaced.  They  are  modelled  after  the  Greek 
 tragedies,  but  are  very  far  from  being  good  copies,  and 
 are  generally  fatiguing  by  reason  of  the  exaggeration 
 and  emphatic  tone  which  reign  throughout.  The  best 
 editions  of  Seneca  are,  that  of  Lipsius,  Antv  ,  16.52, 
 fol.  (the  best  of  his  five)  ;  that  cum  notis  variorum, 
 printed  at  Amsterdam,  1672,  3  vols.  8vo ;  that  of 
 Ruhkopf.  Lips.,  1797-1811.  5  vols.  8vo ;  of  the  phil- 
 osophical  works,  that  of  Bouillet,  Paris,  1827-30,  5 
 vols.  8vo,  forming  part  of  the  collection  of  Leniaire. 
 The  best  editions  of  the  tragedies  separately  are,  that 
 of  Gronovius,  Lugd.  Bat  ,  1661,  8vo;  that  of  Baden, 
 Lips.,  1821,  8vo,  2  vols.  ;  and  that  of  Pierrot,  Parts, 
 1829-32,  3  vols.  8vo,  forming  part  of  Lemaire's  col- 
 lection. 
 
 Senones,  I.   a  nation  of  Gallia  Transalpine,  who, 
 under  the  conduct  of  Brennus,  invaded  Italy  and  pil- 
 
 1213 
 
SE  R 
 
 SER 
 
 aged  Rome.  They  afterward  settled  in  Umbria,  on 
 the  coast  of  the  Adriatic.  After  some  years  of  con- 
 flict with  the  Romans  they  were  expelled,  or  rather 
 exterminated,  A.U.G.  471.  {Polyb.,  2,  19.)  Livy, 
 however,  makes  the  date  of  this  event  some  years  ear- 
 lier. (Ltp.,  Epit.,  11.) — II.  A  people  of  Germciny. 
 {Vid.  Semnones.) 
 
 Skptimios  I.  orTiTcs  Skptimius,  a  Roman  knight, 
 intimate  with  Horace,  and  to  whom  the  latter  address- 
 ed one  of  his  Odes  (2,  6).  He  appears,  from  the 
 words  of  Horace  on  another  occasion  {Eptst.,  1,  3,  9, 
 scqq.),  to  have  been  a  votary  of  the  Muses;  and,  ac- 
 cording to  one  of  the  scholiasts,  he  composed  lyric 
 pieces  and  tragedies.  None  of  his  productions  have 
 reached  us. — II.  Aulus  Septimius  Severus,  a  Roman 
 poet,  who  flourished  under  Vespasian.  He  was  high- 
 ly esteemed  for  his  lyric  talents,  but  none  of  his  pieces 
 have  reached  us.  One  of  his  poems  was  entitled 
 Opuscuia  Ruralia  or  Opuscula  Runs,  consisting  of 
 several  books  ;  another  was  called  Falisca,  in  which 
 he  sang  the  praises  of  his  villa  among  the  Falisci. 
 The  metre  of  this  poem  was  peculiar  in  its  kind,  each 
 line  being  composed  of  three  dactvls  and  a  pyrrhic. 
 Wernsdorff  ascribes  to  him  the  Morctum,  a  poem 
 commonly  assigned  to  Virgil.  {Burmann,ad  Anthol. 
 Lat.,  lib.  I,  ep.  27. —  Wernsdorff,  Poet.  Lat.  Min., 
 vol.  2,  p.  247,  seqq.) — III.  Q.  Septimius,  the  transla- 
 tor of  the  work  of  Dictys  Cretensis  into  Latin,  and 
 who  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Dioclesian. 
 (Vid.  Dictys  I.) 
 
 Sequana  (called  by  Ptolemy  liEKOvavea),  a  river  of 
 Gallia  Transalpine,  rising  in  the  territory  of  ihciEdui, 
 and  flowing  by  Lutetia  or  Paris  into  the  Atlantic.  It 
 is  now  \.\\e~Seine.     (Ctes.,  B.  G.,  1,  l.~Id.  ib.,  8,  87.) 
 
 Sequani,  a  people  of  Gallia  Transalpine,  whose  ter- 
 ritory lay  to  the  east  of  that  of  the  /Edui  and  Lingones, 
 and  was  separated  from  them  by  the  Arar ;  while  it 
 was  parted  from  that  of  the  Helvetii  by  the  range  of 
 Mount  Jura.  Their  country  answers  to  the  modern 
 Dcpartmens  du,  Doubs  et  du  Jura.  {Ctss.,  B.  G.,  1, 
 9.— W.  tb.,  6,  12,  &c.) 
 
 Serapeum  or  SerapIon,  I.  a  name  given  to  the 
 temples  of  Serapis  in  Egypt,  of  which  there  were  a 
 great  number.  {Creuzer,  Dionysus,  p.  181.) — II.  A 
 telebrated  temple  of  Serapis  in  Ale.xandrea,  and  one 
 of  the  two  temples  in  which  the  famous  library  was 
 •deposited.  {Vid.  Serapis,  and  Alexandrea.)  —  III. 
 Another  temple  of  Serapis  in  Egypt,  situate  to  the 
 Bouth  of  Herobpolis.  A  settlement  grew  up  around  it ; 
 and  the  place  was  also  famous  for  being  the  middle 
 point  in  the  road  from  north  to  south.  (Manncrt, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt  1,  p.  486.)— IV.  A  temple  of  Se- 
 rapis at  Rome,  on  the  Capitoline  Hill,  erected  by  Car- 
 acalla.     (Fj'rf.  Serapis.) 
 
 Serapion.      Vid.  Serapeum. 
 
 Serapion,  I.  a  physician  of  Alexandrea,  the  suc- 
 cessor of  Philinus,  in  what  was  called  the  Empiric 
 aehool  (i.e.,  the  school  of  observation  and  experience.) 
 In  consequence  of  the  great  extension  which  he  gave 
 lo  this  system,  he  is  regarded  by  some  as  its  inventor. 
 {Cels.,  Prczf ,  p.  3.)  Mead  believes  that  he  was  a 
 disciple  of  Erasislratus,  from  his  having  found  the 
 name  of  Serapion  on  a  medal  discovered  at  Smyrna  ; 
 but  this  opinion  is  untenable.  {Sprcngel,  Hist,  dc  la 
 Med.,  vol.  1,  p.  483,  scqq  )  —  II.  An  epigrammatic 
 poet,  a  native  of  Alexandrea,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
 Trajan.  One  of  his  epigrams  is  preserved  in  the  An- 
 thology. {Jacobs,  Calal.  Poet.  Epig.,  s.  v.) — III.  An 
 Alexandrean  rhetorician.  {Suid.,  ed.  Kust.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 284.( — IV.  A  philosophical  poet  of  Alexandrea.  {Plut., 
 Op.,  vol.  2,  p.  396,  D.  F.) 
 
 Ser-Ipis  or  Sabapis,  a  celebrated  Egyptian  deity. 
 There  would  appear  to  have  been  two  of  the  name, 
 ^n  earlier  and  a  later  one.  I.  The  earlier  Serapis, 
 we  are  assured  by  Plutarch,  was  none  other  than  Osi- 
 ris himself.  {Plut.,de  Sid.,  c.  28.)  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 1214 
 
 lus  makes  the  same  declaration  (1,2) ;  and  in  a  hymn 
 of  Martianus  Capelta  we  find  both  these  names  as- 
 signed to  one  god  :  "  Te  Serapim  Nilus,  Memphis 
 veneratur  Osirim.'"  (Hymn,  ad  Sol.)  The  same  in- 
 ference may  be  drawn  from  the  connexion  of  the 
 name  of  Serapis  with  that  of  Isis.  He  is  frequently 
 mentioned  by  ancient  authors  as  the  consort  of  this 
 goddess,  which  shows  that  they  regarded  Serapis  as 
 another  title  of  Osiris.  Diogenes  Laertius,  Clemens 
 of  Alexandrea  {Strom.,  5,  p.  4.5),  and  Macrobius  (Sat., 
 1,  20),  to  whom  we  might  add  many  other  authors, 
 speak  of  Isis  and  Serapis  as  the  great  divinities  of  the 
 Egyptians.  Yet  the  same  authors  make  some  dis- 
 tinction between  Osiris  and  Serapis.  Thus,  Plutarch 
 asserts  that  Serapis  was  Osiris  after  he  had  changed 
 his  nature,  or  after  he  had  passed  into  the  subterrane- 
 an world  ;  and  it  is  apparently  in  conformity  with  this 
 idea  that  Diodorus  calls  him  the  Egyptian  Pluto. 
 {Cuper.,  Harpocr.,  p.  85.)  Jablonski,  after  having 
 regarded  Osiris  as  simply  the  orb  of  the  sun,  obtains 
 an  easy  explanation  of  the  nature  and  distinction  of 
 Serapis.  The  latter,  according  to  this  author,  repre- 
 sented the  sun  in  the  winter  months,  after  he  had 
 passed  the  autumnal  equinox,  and  had  reached  the 
 latter  days  of  his  career  ;  or  the  solar  Osiris,  after  he 
 had  entered  upon  the  period  of  his  decrepitude  in  the 
 month  of  Athyr.  Osiris  then  descended  to  the  shades, 
 and  it  was  at  this  era  that  he  became  Serapis.  {Pri- 
 chard.  Analysis  of  Egyptian  Mythology,  p.  89,  seqq.) 
 — II.  Another  and  later  Egyptian  deily,  whose  statue 
 and  worship  were  brought  from  Sinope  to  Alexandrea, 
 during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Soier.  A  curious  pas- 
 sage in  Tacitus  {Hist.,  4,  83)  gives  us  the  legend  con- 
 nected with  this  singular  aflfair.  The  worship  of  this 
 Serapis  had  not  been  confined  to  Sinope,  but  bad 
 spread  along  the  coasts  of  the  Euxine,  and  the  deity 
 was  regarded  by  mariners  in  this  quarter  as  the  patron 
 of  maritime  traffic.  His  fame  had  even  travelled 
 eastward,  and  a  temple  anciently  raised  to  him  in  Bab- 
 ylon was  repaired  and  adorned  by  Alexander.  Ptole- 
 my's object  in  bringing  the  worship  of  this  divinity  into 
 Egypt  appears  to  have  been,  that  the  blind  supersti- 
 tions directed  in  that  country  against  a  seafaring  life 
 might  be  counteracted  by  other  superstitions  of  a  more 
 useful  tendency.  In  what  way  his  worship  was  blend- 
 ed with  that  of  the  earlier  Serapis  we  are  unable  to 
 say.  Possibly  there  were  some  general  points  of  re- 
 semblance in  the  attributes  of  the  two  deities,  and  some 
 accidental  similarity  in  name.  Be  this  as  it  may,  how- 
 ever, the  worship  of  the  latter  Serapis  soon  merged  in 
 itself  that  of  the  earlier  Osiris,  and  Jupiter- Serapis 
 became  the  great  divinity  of  Alexandrea.  (Compare 
 Creuser,  Dionysus,  p.  183,  scqq.) 
 
 Serbonis,  a  lake  between  Egypt  and  Palestine,  and 
 near  Mount  Casius.  Pliny  makes  it  to  have  been  150 
 miles  long.  Strabo  assigns  it  200  stadia  of  length 
 and  50  of  breadth.  It  had  communicated  with  the 
 Mediterranean  byan  opening  which  was  filled  up  in 
 the  time  of  Strabo.  The  fable  makes  Typhon  to  have 
 lain  at  the  bottom  of  this  lake  or  morass,  and  the 
 Egyptians  called  its  opening  the  breathing-place  of 
 Typhon.  The  place  has  taken  the  name  of  Sebaket- 
 Bardoil,  from  a  king  of  Jerusalem  of  that  name,  who 
 died  at  Rhinocolura  on  his  return  from  an  expedition 
 into  Egypt. 
 
 Seres,  a  nation  of  Asia.  Isaac  Vossius,  in  his 
 commentary  on  Pomponius  Mela  {ad  Pomp.  Mel ,  2, 
 27),  observes,  that  whoever  doubts  the  identity  of  the 
 Seres,  mentioned  by  the  ancient  writers,  with  the  mod- 
 ern Chinese,  may  as  well  doubt  whether  the  sun  which 
 now  shines  be  the  same  with  that  which  formerly  im- 
 parted light :  "  Sinenses  hodiernos  antiquorum  Seres 
 esse  qui  dubitat,  is  quogue  dubitet  licet  idemne  nunc  at- 
 que  olim  sol  luxerit."  An  eminent  geographer  of  more 
 recent  times,  M.  Malte-Brun  {System  of  Geography, 
 vol.  2,  p.  462. — Compare  the  note  of  the  English  trans- 
 
SERES. 
 
 SERES. 
 
 lator),  has  ventured,  however,  in  opposition  to  an  opin- 
 ion so  positively  expressed,  to  consider  Serica,  or  the 
 country  of  the  Seres,  as  including  merely  the  western 
 parts  of  Thibet,  Serinagur,  Cashmere,  Little  Thibet, 
 atid  periiaps  a  small  portion  of  Little  liuckhana.  On 
 the  other  hand,  an  English  writer,  Mr.  Murray,  in  a  pa- 
 per inserted  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society 
 of  Edinburgh  (vol.  8,  p  171),  maintains,  in  accordance 
 with  Vossius,  the  perfect  identity  of  the  Seres  with 
 the  natives  of  China.  This  latter  production  we  have 
 never  had  the  opportunity  of  perusing.  It  is  said, 
 however,  to  be  extremely  niteresting  and  satisfactory, 
 and  to  be  based  in  part  upon  the  narrative  of  Ptolemy 
 the  geographer,  and  in  part  upon  various  discoveries 
 made  by  modern  travellers  in  the  mountainous  regions 
 of  Asia  wiiich  lie  immediately  north  of  India.  This 
 subject  has  likewise  been  discussed  in  some  of  the 
 numbers  of  the  Classical  Journal  (vol.  1,  p.  53;  3,  p. 
 295;  6,  p.  204;  7,  p.  32).— As  Ptolemy  is  our  chief 
 authority  in  settling  this  long-agitaled  question,  liis 
 statement  is  entitled  to  the  first  notice,  although  he  is 
 far  from  being  the  earliest  writer  who  makes  mention 
 of  the  Seres.  According  to  this  geographer  {PtoL, 
 Geogr.,  cd.  Erasm.,  p.  25,  seqq.),  it  appears  that  the 
 agents  of  a  Macedonian  merchant,  on  their  way  from 
 Hierapolis  to  Sera,  crossed  the  rivers  Euphrates  and 
 Tigris,  entered  Assyria,  and  advanced  to  Ecbatana, 
 the  capital  of  Media  ;  then  passing  through  the  Pylae 
 Caspiae,  and  the  chief  cities  of  Parthia,  Hyrcania,  and 
 Margiana,  on  the  north  of  Persia,  they  arrived  at  Bac- 
 tra ;  thence  they  proceeded  to  the  mountainous  coun- 
 try of  the  Comedes,  and  reached  a  place  in  Scythia 
 called  AiOlvoc;  nvpyoc,  the  Stone-  Castle  or  Tower  of 
 Stone;  from  this  spot  to  Sera,  the  capital  of  Serica, 
 they  were  travelling  during  the  space  of  seven  months. 
 What  is  meant  by  the  Stone-Castle  seems  never  to 
 have  been  satisfactorily  explained  until  very  recently. 
 Dr.  Hager,  in  his  Numisrnatical  History  of  the  Chinese 
 {Description  des  Medaillcs  Chinoises  dii  Cabinet  Im- 
 perial de  France,  precede  d'un  Essai  du  Numisma- 
 tir/uc  Chinoise:  par  J.  Hager. — Compare  Class.  Jour., 
 vol.  1,  p.  54),  considers  the  Stone-Castle  to  have  been 
 the  same  with  the  Tashkand  of  modern  times,  and  the 
 principal  city  of  eastern  Turkistan.  This,  indeed,  he 
 demonstrates,  not  only  from  geographical  coincidences, 
 but  from  the  obvious  etymology  of  its  Tartar  name  ; 
 Tash  signifying  "  a  stone,"  and  kand  " a  castle,"  "tow- 
 er," or  "  fortress."  And  in  this  etymology  he  is  con- 
 firmed by  parallel  instances  given  by  Du  Halde,  in  his 
 description  of  China,  by  the  Oriental  geography  of 
 Ebn  Haukal,  and  other  works.  The  route  of  the  car- 
 avans, after  leaving  the  Stone-Castle  and  proceeding 
 farther  to  the  east,  is  involved  in  difficulty  and  obscu- 
 rity. Ptolemy's  only  source  of  information  respecting 
 this  part  of  their  journey  seems  to  have  been  the  ver- 
 bal statements  of  the  traders  themselves.  They  in- 
 formed him  that  the  time  occupied  by  this  part  of  the 
 undertaking  was  seven  months,  and  that  the  direction 
 along  which  they  proceeded  inclined  from  east  a  little 
 to  the  south.  Marinus,  the  geographer,  as  quoted  by 
 Ptolemy,  computes  these  seven  months'  travel  at 
 36,20i)  stadia ;  Ptolemy,  however,  taking  into  con- 
 sideration the  slow  progress  which  the  caravans  must 
 necessarily  make  in  passing  over  mountains  more  or 
 less  covered  with  snow,  and  in  stopping  at  various 
 places  on  the  route,  diminishes  this  distance  by  one 
 half,  and  makes  the  space  traversed  during  these  seven 
 mouths  to  have  been  about  18,100  stadia, or  1709geo- 
 graphical  miles.  It  appears  unnecessary  here  to  enter 
 into  the  computation  of  latitude  and  longitude  as  made 
 by  the  Greek  geographer.  {PtoL,  Geogr.,  cd.  Erasm., 
 p.  113,  et  seqq.)  The  computation  of  Mannert,  how- 
 ever, is  followed  This  writer  observes,  that  the  dimi- 
 nution is  incorrectly  printed  in  the  edition  of  Erasmus : 
 ("In  derErasmischen  griechischen  Ausgabe  ist  diese 
 Verkleinerung  unrichtig  ausgedriickt.")     Suffice  it  to 
 
 say,  that,  to  one  who  examines  the  text  with  care 
 and  attention,  the  Sera  of  Ptolemy  will  appear,  if  not 
 actually  to  coincide  with,  at  least  to  have  been  in  the 
 immediate  vicinity  of,  Singan,  the  chief  city  of  the  mod- 
 ern province  of  Shen-si  in  China.  {Mannert,  Gcogr., 
 vol.  4,  p.  505  ) — Let  us  now  compare,  for  a  moment, 
 with  what  we  have  thus  far  stated,  the  account  given 
 of  Serica  by  Piolemy  himself.  {Plolcm.,  Geogr.,  p. 
 414.)  '11  ijipiKTj  TTiptoiji^ETai,  a-KO  filv  dvatui  rij  ik- 
 Ti>g  'Ijiaov  opt'vg  llnvdia.  'Atto  6e  apKruv,  cijvtiffry 
 yij-  ofjLULug  Je  /cat  air'  avaro'kiJv  uyvuaTu  yy.  'And  ie 
 fieai]fiOpiaq  tCj  re  TiomiJ  fiepei  Tfjg  'cK-hq  Tuyyov  '\v6i- 
 Kiii  Kal  Itl  "Llvaig.  "  Serica  is  bounded  on  the  west 
 by  Scythia  beyond  Imaus  {Scylhia  extra  Imanm);  on 
 the  north  by  unknown  land,  as  well  as  on  the  east;  on 
 the  south  by  the  remaining  portion  of  India  beyond 
 the  Ganges,  and  also  by  the  Sinae."  The  geographer 
 then  proceeds  to  state  {ibid  )  ;  'Op?]  Si:  Sii^uaev  2^- 
 piK7/v,  Tu  7f  KokovjiEva  'AvviCa.  Kal  tCiv  kv^aniuv  to 
 uvaToXiKov  fiipog,  Kal  tu  KakovfiEva  'Aa/xipata  opt], 
 Kal  Tuv  Kaaiuv  to  uvaToT^iKov  fitpog,  Kai  to  Ouyov- 
 pov  opoQ,  Iti  (5e  tuv  'H/zuddiv  koI  "LtjplkCjv  Ka7^ovfiivt}v 
 TO  avaTo'X.LKOv  /lepog,  Kal  to  Ka?^ovfievov  'OTTopoKopfiag. 
 "  Mountains  intersect  Serica  ;  namely,  the  range 
 which  is  called  Anniba,  and  the  eastern  part  of  the 
 Auxakian  chain,  together  with  those  that  are  denomi- 
 nated Asiniraea,  the  eastern  part  of  the  (.^asian  range, 
 Mount  Thaguron,  the  eastern  part  of  the  Monies 
 Emodi  and  the  Seric  chain  as  they  are  styled,  and 
 what  is  called  Ottorokorras."  The  continuation  of  the 
 Auxakian  chain  is  in  the  Russian  province  of  Irkulchk; 
 the  Asmiraean  Mountains  are  those  which  form  the  nor- 
 thern boundary  of  the  desert  of  Cobi;  the  Casian  range 
 extends  from  the  country  of  the  Chochotes  for  the 
 most  part  along  the  Chinese  wall  towards  the  north- 
 east ;  Mount  Thaguron  is  the  southern  part  of  the  Mon- 
 golian Mountains,  which  stretch  from  the  Hoang-ho 
 towards  the  north  ;  the  eastern  part  of  the  Montes 
 Emodi  is  the  chain  which  stretches  from  Northern 
 Thibet  towards  the  southern  part  of  the  Chinese  prov- 
 ince of  Shen-si,  while  Ottorokorras  is  its  continuation, 
 traversing  the  province  of  Shen-si,  and  giving  rise  to 
 numerous  tributaries  of  the  Hoang-ho.  {Maimer!,  Ge- 
 ogr., vol.  4,  p.  495.)  The  geographer  next  proceeds  to 
 describe  the  rivers  of  Serica.  According  to  him,  two 
 streams  in  particular  flow  through  the  greater  part  of 
 the  country  of  the  Seres  {Aiappiovai,  6e  6vo  fia'AioTa 
 TTOTa/iol  TO  TToTiv  Ti}(  2//p(K^f),  the  CEchardcs  {Olxdp- 
 dz/f)  and  the  Bautisus  {BavTiaog).  (The  Erasmian 
 edition  of  Ptolemy  calls  this  river  Bavrr/g.)  The  for- 
 mer of  these  springs  from  three  sources  :  one  among 
 the  Auxakian  Mountains  under  the  51st  parallel  of 
 latitude  ;  a  second  farther  to  the  southeast,  among  the 
 Asmirasan  Mountains,  under  the  parallel  of  47^  ;  and 
 the  third  niuch  farther  to  the  west,  among  the  Casian 
 Mountains,  under  the  44th  parallel.  The  CEchardes, 
 from  this  description  of  it,  appears  to  be  no  other  than 
 the  modern  Selanga.  The  Bautisus,  the  second  river 
 which  is  mentioned,  rises  in  the  Casian  chain,  on  the 
 borders  of  Serica,  to  the  southwest  of  one  of  the 
 sources  of  the  QEchardes,  under  the  43d  parallel,  runs 
 towards  the  southeast  to  the  Montes  Emodi,  for  the 
 distance  of  about  four  degrees,  and  here  receives  a 
 second  arm.  This  last  branch  rises  among  the  Mon- 
 tes Emodi  under  the  37ih  parallel.  {Chartc  des 
 Piolernmis,  appended  to  V kerfs  Geogr.)  From  this 
 map  it  will  appear  that  the  51st  parallel  nearly  coin- 
 cides with  the  mouth  of  the  Borysthenes,  and  the  43d 
 nearly  with  that  of  Byzantium.  The  parallel  of  37  is 
 one  degree  north  of  that  of  Rhodes  by  the  same  map. 
 Eight  degrees  eastward  of  the  spot  where  these  two 
 arms  unite,  the  Bautisus  receives  a  third  branch, 
 which  rises  among  the  range  of  Ottorokorras.  It 
 would  be  difficult  for  one  at  the  present  day,  who  had 
 to  describe,  from  mere  oral  state.ments,  the  Hoang-ho 
 in  the  earlier  part  of  its  course,  to  do  it  more  accu- 
 
 1215 
 
SERES. 
 
 SERES. 
 
 ralely  than  Ptolemy  has  done  ;  for  that  the  Bautisus 
 and  Hoang-ho  are  one  and  the  same  river  hardly  ad- 
 mits of  a  doubt.  Its  northern  arm,  the  Olan-Muzcn, 
 rises  in  the  country  of  the  Chochotes,  or  Calmucks  of 
 Hoho-Nor,  among  the  mountains  which  bound  the 
 desert  of  Gobi,  and  to  the  northeast  of  it  rises  the  El- 
 zinc,  which  must  liierefore  be  one  of  the  sources  of 
 the  CEchardes.  The  Hoaiigho  takes  its  course  to- 
 wards the  southeast,  m  order  to  unite  vvith  its  south- 
 ern arm,  the  Hara-Muzcn,  which  rises  in  the  southern 
 chain  of  mountains  between  China  and  Thibet,  and 
 directs  its  course  to  the  northeast.  After  this,  the 
 united  streams  take  a  high  northerly  direction,  cross- 
 ing the  great  wall,  and  then,  bending  to  the  south, 
 pass  once  more  the  great  wall,  and  re-enter  China 
 proper.  Of  the  northern  part  of  their  course  Ptole- 
 my makes  no  mention,  for  a  very  natural  reason,  be- 
 cause it  passes  far  beyond  the  ancient  caravan  routes. 
 They  make  their  appearance  again  near  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  capital  of  Serica,  where  Ptolemy  again  men- 
 tions them,  and  where  he  places  the  third  tributary, 
 probably  the  Hori-ho.  From  all  that  has  been  said,  it 
 follows,  as  an  irresistible  consequence,  that  the  Serica 
 of  antiquity  comprehends  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
 country  of  the  Chochotes,  the  Chinese  province  of 
 Shcn-si  and  also  Mogul  Tarlary  from  the  northern  con- 
 fines of  China  as  far  as  the  southern  limits  of  Siberia. 
 {Mannert,  ubi  supra.) — D'Anville,  it  is  true,  gives  in 
 his  map  of  the  ancient  world  a  somewhat  different  view 
 of  this  quarter.  But  D'Anville  erred  in  placing  too 
 much  reliance  on  the  false  representations  given  by 
 Mercator  to  the  rivers  of  Serica,  in  his  maps  illustrating 
 the  geography  of  Ptolemy.  Still,  the  authority  of  the 
 French  geographer  is  valuable  as  far  as  it  goes,  since  he 
 so  far  makes  Serica  a  portion  of  (Jhina  as  to  consider 
 Sera,  its  metropolis,  identical  with  KaJilchcon  in  the 
 modern  province  of  Shefi-si.  {DWnville,  Geogr.  Anc. 
 ahrcg.,\o\.  2,  p.  326. — Id.,  Recherchcs  Geogr.  ct  His- 
 toriques  sur  la  Serique  dcs  Anckns.  —  Mcmoircs  de 
 r Academic  des  Inscrijilions,  vol.  32,  p.  573,  et  seqq.) 
 In  pointing  out  the  land  of  Serica,  Ptolemy  {Piolem., 
 Geogr. — Compare  Mannert,  vol.  4,  p  506)  makes 
 mention  also  of  two  other  caravan  routes,  a  northern 
 and  a  southern  one.  The  former  of  these  commenced 
 at  the  city  of  Tanais,  situate  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
 of  the  same  name  (the  modern  Don),  and  ran  onward 
 to  the  farthest  east.  It  was  by  means  of  this  route 
 that  Ptolemy  obtained  his  information  respecting  what 
 are  now  the  Volga  and  Jcik,  of  which  nothing  was 
 known  before  his  time  by  the  Greeks.  He  learned  also 
 the  existence  of  the  mountainous  chains  along  the  south- 
 ern confines  of  Siberia,  and  was  enabled  to  give  a  tol- 
 erably correct  account  of  their  situation  and  direction. 
 He  even  pushed  his  inquiries  as  far  as  the  Issedones, 
 the  most  remote  people  to  the  east.  All  this  informa- 
 tion he  obtained  from  the  traders.  No  Greek  seems 
 ever  to  have  undertaken  this  long  and  perilous  journey. 
 Unacquainted  with  the  manners  and  language  of  the 
 various  predatory  tribes  which  roamed  along  this  vast 
 tract  of  country,  the  attempt  would  have  exposed 
 themselves  to  certain  destruction,  and  their  merchan- 
 dise to  the  cupidity  of  the  savage  Nomades.  The 
 traders,  therefore,  of  whom  mention  has  just  been 
 made,  must  have  belonged  to  some  one  of  the  native 
 tribes  in  this  quarter,  perhaps  to  the  same  Kirgish  Tar- 
 tars who  at  the  present  day  carry  on  the  Russia  inland 
 traffic  with  the  countries  to  the  south.  In  this  way, 
 and  in  this  alone,  can  we  satisfactorily  account  for  the 
 knowledge  possessed  by  the  Greeks  of  the  countries 
 mentioned  above,  and,  at  the  same  time,  for  the  very 
 loose  and  general  nature  of  their  information.  The 
 most  eastern  people  with  whom  the  caravan  route  had 
 communication  appear  to  have  been  the  Issedones. 
 They  would  seem  to  have  been  identical  with  the  Is- 
 sedones of  Herodotus,  whom  that  historian  names  as 
 the  most  remote  nation  of  the  northeast  (lib.  4,  c.  13 
 1216 
 
 and  27).  If  an  opinion  may  be  ventured  respecting 
 them,  it  would  be  that  they  coincide  with  the  modern 
 Kalkas  of  Mongolia  in  Chinese  Tartary.  {Mannert, 
 ubi  supra.)  Ptolemy,  in  one  part  of  his  work,  consid- 
 ers this  nation  as  a  part  of  Serica,  inasmuch  as  they 
 were  under  the  sway  of  the  Seres.  In  his  eighth 
 book,  however,  he  calls  them  a  Scythian  race,  and 
 even  their  capital  bore  the  name  of  'loarj^uv  IkvOlk^ 
 among  the  Greeks.  (Ptolcm.,  Geogr. — Compare  Man- 
 nert, ubi  supra.)  These  Issedones  had  cities  of  their 
 own,  and  were,  of  course,  some  degrees  removed  from 
 the  barbarism  of  the  Nomadic  state.  Their  cities 
 must  also  have  been  well  known,  since  Ptolemy  gives 
 us  the  longest  day  of  two  of  them.  This  nation  appears 
 to  have  formed  the  link  of  communication  between  the 
 caravan  traders  and  the  country  of  the  Seres,  a  circum- 
 stance which  arose  from  their  being  in  subjection  to 
 the  Seres,  all  immediate  access  to  whom  was  debarred 
 the  merchant.  Two  cities  close  to  the  borders  of 
 China  seem  to  have  been  the  marts  of  this  traffic  :  'Iff- 
 arjdiov  "LrjpLKT],  so  called  from  its  having  among  its 
 inhabitants  Seres  as  well  as  Issedones,  and  i^puauxr;, 
 farther  to  the  southeast.  It  is  curious  to  compare 
 with  what  has  just  been  stated  a  passage  from  Ammi- 
 anus  Marcellinus,  in  which  he  makes  mention  of  the 
 Seres.  According  to  this  writer  {Amniianus  Marcel- 
 linus, 23,  6,  p.  299,  ed.  Ernesli),  a  high,  circular,  and 
 continuous  wall  surrounds  the  land  of  tlie  Seres,  "/ra 
 orbis  spcciem  consertcB  cclsorum  aggcrum  summilates 
 ambiunt  Seras."  Is  not  this  a  description  of  the 
 great  wall  of  China  which  encloses  the  country  of  the 
 north'!  When  this  writer  speaks  of  the  western  side 
 of  Serica,  and  of  the  route  of  the  caravans  beyond  the 
 Stone  Castle,  he  makes  no  mention  whatever  of  any 
 wall,  which  in  reality  does  not  e.xist  on  this  side,  but 
 only  on  the  north  — The  second  {Mannert,  vol.  4,  p. 
 bW.—l'lol,  Geogr.,  1,  17)  of  the  routes  alluded  to 
 above  proceeded  from  Palimbothra,  the  modern  Patna 
 on  the  Gatiges,  in  a  northeast  direction  through  Thibet, 
 and  from  thence  along  the  southern  arm  of  the  Bauti- 
 sus or  Hoang-ho,  in  an  eastern  direction  to  Sera. 
 This  is  precisely  the  same  route  which  the  Jesuits 
 Gruebner  and  D'Orville  took  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
 tury. {Thevenot,  Divers  Voyages,  fol.,  vol.  2.)  It 
 is,  moreover,  the  oldest  and  most  frequented.  By 
 it  the  people  of  India  obtained  the  silk  and  other 
 productions  of  China,  conceahng,  at  the  same  time, 
 from  the  natives  of  the  west,  the  true  quarter  whence 
 these  commodities  were  brought.  The  Europeans 
 received  the  silk  of  which  they  were  in  quest  from 
 the  hands  of  the  Indians,  and,  in  answer  to  their  in- 
 quiries respecting  the  country  which  produced  it,  they 
 only  received  statements  that  were  calculated  to  lead 
 them  astray.  The  truth,  however,  could  not  remain 
 long  concealed,  and  accordingly  we  find  even  Ptolemy 
 in  possession  of  the  true  account.  The  natives  of 
 India  informed  him  that  Serica  and  the  city  of  Sera 
 lay  to  the  north  of  the  Sinse;  that  there  was  another 
 route  to  this  quarter  besides  the  one  by  the  Stone  Cas- 
 tle ;  and  that  this  route  was  through  India  by  the  way 
 of  Palimbothra.  {Mannert,  ubi  supra  )  From  this 
 last-mentioned  city  the  route  in  question  led  through 
 India,  until,  having  proceeded  eight  degrees  north  of 
 Palimbothra,  it  passed  over  the  high  mountains  in 
 Northern  Thibet.  Here  was  situate  the  city  of  Sota, 
 having  on  its  left  the  range  of  Imaus,  and  on  its  right 
 the  eastern  portion  of  the  chain  denominated  Montes 
 Emodi,  and  which  formed  the  boundary  between  India 
 and  Serica.  Farther  on  to  the  northeast  was  a  city 
 named  Chaurana,  and  then  the  way  proceeded  along  the 
 southern  arm  of  the  Bautisus,  passing  by  the  city  of  Oio- 
 sana.  The  route  then  led  to  the  city  of  Ottorokorra,  the 
 capital  of  a  people  named  Ottorokorra*,  from  whom 
 the  easternmost  portion  of  the  Montes  Emodi  received 
 the  appellation  of  Ottorokorras.  We  now  stand  on 
 ground  with  which,  it  is  curious  to  observe,  the  Greeks 
 
SERES. 
 
 SERES. 
 
 seem  to  have  had  some  acquaintance  long  before  the 
 time  of  Ptolemy.  In  the  earlier  fables  and  traditions 
 of  the  West,  mention  is  made  of  a  people  named  Atta- 
 cori,  dwelling  in  a  valley  which  was  always  warmed 
 by  the  genial  rays  of  the  sun,  and  protected  by  encir- 
 cling mountains  from  the  rude  blasts  of  the  north,  a 
 people  closely  assimilated  in  the  peculiarities  of  their 
 situation  to  the  fabled  Hyperboreans.  (Compare  Plin., 
 6,  17,  who  quotes  an  earlier  author,  Amometus.) — Af- 
 ter leaving  the  Ottorokorrae,  the  route  led  by  Solona,  in 
 0  a  northeast  direction,  to  the  city  of  Sera — Kosmas 
 Indicopleustes  {Kosmas  Indicopl,  Mon/faiic,  N.  Coll. 
 Patr.,  2,  137,  D.,  ct  seqq)  states,  that  the  Brahmins 
 informed  him,  that  if  a  line  were  drawn  from  the  coun- 
 try of  the  Smae  {T^^lviT^a)  through  Persia  into  the  Ro- 
 man world,  so  as  to  strike  Byzantium,  it  would  divide 
 the  earth  into  two  equal  parts.  Froih  this  account 
 also,  loose  as  it  is,  we  may  obtain  very  satisfactory 
 data  for  the  position  of  Serica,  which  in  the  days  of 
 Kostnas  was  confounded  with  the  land  of  the  Sinnp, 
 both  of  them  being  known  merely  as  the  country  of 
 silk. — Among  modern  writers,  the  author  of  the  "  De- 
 cline and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire"  is  decidedly  in 
 favour  of  identifying  the  Seres  with  the  people  of  Chi- 
 na {Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  R.  E.,  c.  40),  and 
 his  extensive  and  accurate  learning  is  sufficiently  well 
 known.  But  the  most  conclusive  authority  on  the 
 subject  is  to  be  found  in  the  pages  of  one  of  the  first 
 Oriental  scholars  of  the  present  day.  {Klaproth,  Ta- 
 bleaux: Hisloriqucs  de  VAsie,  dcpais  la  monarchic  de 
 Cyrus  jusqii'a  nos  jours.,  p.  58.)  "II  n'y  a  plus  de 
 doute,"  observes  this  writer,  "  que  les  Seres  des  an- 
 ciens  ne  soient  les  Chinois.  D'apres  les  auteurs  Grecs, 
 le  mot  cijp  designe  et  le  ver  a  soie  et  les  hahilants  de 
 la  Sirique  ou  les  Seres ;  or,  ce  fait  demontre,  que  le 
 nom  de  ces  derniers  leur  venait  de  la  marchandise 
 precieuse  que  les  peuples  de  I'Occident  allaient  cher- 
 cher  chez  eux.  En  Armenien,  I'insecte  qui  produit 
 la  soie  s'appelle  eheram,  nom  qui  resseinble  assez  au 
 ci'ip  des  Grecs.  II  est  naturel  de  croire  que  ces  deux 
 mots  avaient  ete  empruiites  a  des  peuples  plus  Orien- 
 taux.  C'est  ce  que  les  langues  Mogole  et  Mandchoue 
 nous  donnent  la  facility  de  d^montrer.  II  en  resultera 
 que  le  nom  de  la  soie,  chez  les  anciens,  est  veritable- 
 roent  originaire  de  la  partie  Orientale  de  IWsie.  La 
 soie  s'appelle  sirkch  chez  les  Mogols,  et  sirglii  chez 
 les  Mandchoux.  Ces  deux  nations  habitaient  au  nord 
 et  au  nord-est  de  la  Chine.  Est-il  presumable  qu'elles 
 eussent  re9u  ces  denominations  des  peuples  Occidcn- 
 laux?  D'un  autre  cote,  le  mot  Chinois  sse  ou  szu, 
 qui  ^signe  la  soie,  montre  de  la  ressemblancc  avec 
 sirghe  ou  sirkch,  et  avec  le  arip  des  Grecs.  Cette 
 analogie  frappera  d'autant  plus  quand  on  saura  que, 
 dans  la  langue  mandarine,  le  r  ne  se  prononce  pas, 
 tandis  que  cette  finale  ss  trouvait  vraisemblablemcnl 
 dans  les  anciens  dialects  de  la  Chine.  Mais  le  mot  co- 
 reen  sir,  qui  designe  la  soie,  est  tout  a  fait  ideniique 
 avec  le  ai'ip  des  Grecs,  qui  devait  se  prouoncer  aussi 
 sir.  La  soie  a  done  donne  son  nom  au  peuple  qui  la 
 fabriquait  et  qui  I'envoyail  dans  I'Occident,  ct  les  Seres 
 sonl  evidemment  les  Chinois,  quoi  qu'en  puissent  dire 
 les  geographes,  qui  ne  savent  employer  que  le  compas- 
 pour  chercher  I'emplacemcnt  des  nations."  Previous 
 to  the  appearance  of  the  work  from  which  the  above 
 extract  is  made,  its  author  had  already  published  a 
 conjecture  on  the  name  of  the  Seres  in  one  of  the  pe- 
 riodicals of  the  day.  It  is  to  this  last  that  M.  Abel- 
 Remusat,  another  distinguished  Orientalist,  alludes  in 
 the  following  remarks  (^Melanges  Asiatiques,  vol.  1, 
 p.  290),  confirming,  at  the  same  time,  the  opinion  of 
 Klaproth.  Ce  que  I'article  consacr^  h  la  Chine  ofTre 
 de  plus  remarquable,  c'est  I'obscrvation  sur  I'origine 
 du  nom  de  Serique,  cherch^  par  M.  Klajiroth,  dans  le 
 nom  ineme  de  la  soie,  sse,  en  Chinois,  qui  vraisembla- 
 blement,  dit-il,  a  pu  etre,  dans  d'autres  dialectes  du 
 nord  de  la  Chine,  change  en  sir.  M.  Klaproth,  ayant 
 7P 
 
 deja  public  cette  conjecture  (Journal  Asiatique,  vol. 
 2,  p.  243),  j'ai  eu  I'occasion  d'y  joindre  I'indication 
 d'un  fait  qui  me  parait  propre  a  la  changer  en  certi- 
 tude: c'est  qu'en  effet,  dans  un  vocabulaire  coreen, 
 qui  fait  partie  de  I'Encyclopedie  Japonaise.  la  soie  est 
 designee  par  le  nom  de  Sirou  (pronoiicez  Sir),  qui  est 
 tout-a-fait  identique  avec  le  27/p  (prononcez  Sir)  des 
 ^crivains  Grecs.  It  has  been  asserted,  from  a  very 
 respectable  quarter  {Documents  relative  to  the  Manu- 
 facturing of  Sill:,  laid  before  the  Congress  of  the  Uni- 
 ted States  of  America  by  the  secretary  of  state,  1-^28), 
 that  the  Seres  were  originally  a  people  of  China,  driven 
 into  the  territories  of  Little  Buckharia  by  the  inroads 
 of  the  Huns.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  whence  the 
 data  could  have  been  obtained  for  this  singular  hvjioth- 
 esis,  except  from  the  pages  of  Gibbon  or  Ue  Guig- 
 nes.  In  the  former  of  these  writers  (Gibbon,  Decline 
 and  Full  of  the  R.  E.,  c.  26),  it  is  asserted,  as  a  mere 
 hypothesis,  without  any  authority  whatever,  that  "  the. 
 ancient,  perhaps  the  original,  scat  of  the  Huns  was  an 
 extensive,  though  dry  and  barren,  tract  of  country  im- 
 mediately on  the  north  side  of  the  great  wall."  Of 
 De  Guigncs,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  with  truth  be 
 said,  in  the  words  of  Klaproth  (Tableaux  Hisloriqucs, 
 p.  242) :  "  Malgre  la  facilite  que  I'erudition  de  cet 
 ecrivain  celebre  lui  procurait  de  puiscr  dans  les  au- 
 teurs Chinois,  Arabes  et  Syriens,  il  lui  manquait  une 
 chose  essenlielle,  c'etait  une  idee  juste  de  la  parente 
 des  nations  de  I'Asie.  En  confondant  ensemble  les 
 nations  Turques,  Mongoles,  Toungouses,  Finnoise.i 
 et  autres,  il  a  inanque  son  but,  de  sorte  que  son  ou- 
 vrage  n'est  reellement  qu'un  magasin  immense  de  mate- 
 riaux  precieux,  entass6s  sans  discernment."  It  seems 
 that  De  CJuignes  found,  both  before  and  after  the 
 Christian  era,  a  powerful  Nomadic  nation,  called  Hi- 
 oung  nou  by  the  Chinese,  which  continually  infested 
 the  "territories  of  their  neighbours.  They  occupied 
 the  mountainous  country  to  the  north  of  China.  The 
 mere  resemblance  of  names  led  De  Guignes  to  con- 
 clude that  these  Hioung  nou  were  the  same  people  with 
 the  Huns.  Klaproth,  however,  has  shown  most  con- 
 clusively (Tableaux  Hist.,  p.  101,  et  seqq.),  from  the 
 Chinese  historians,  that  the  Hioung  nou  were  a  branch 
 of  the  Turkish  race,  who  were  dispersed  by  the  Chinese 
 near  the  sources  of  the  Irtysh,  about  the  91st  year  of 
 our  present  era.  The  remnant  of  this  nation  directed 
 their  course  towards  the  west,  in  order  to  penetrate 
 into  Sogdiana,  but  they  could  not  reach  this  country, 
 and  were  compelled  to  stop  in  the  region  to  the  north 
 o(  Khouei  thsu,  or  the  Koutche  of  modern  days.  Af- 
 ter this  they  moved  towards  the  northeast,  and  occu- 
 pied a  part  of  the  Steppe  of  Kirghiz,  where  the  annals 
 of  China  cease  to  make  mention  of  them.  And  yet 
 De  Guignes,  without  giving  the  least  authority  for  what 
 he  advances,  observes  :  "  Ce  sont  les  Huns  qui  passe- 
 rent  dans  la  suite  en  Europe  sons  le  regno  de  I'Empe- 
 reur  Valens."  It  may  not  be  amiss,  before  leaving  this 
 part  of  the  subject,  to  say  a  few  words  in  relation  to 
 the  early  history  of  the  Huns,  in  order  to  disprove 
 more  fully  the  statement  which  has  led  to  these  re- 
 marks. (Compare  Klaproth,  uhi  supra  )  The  most 
 ancient  author  who  makes  mention  of  the  Huns  is 
 Dionysius  Periegetes.  This  geographer,  who  wrote 
 probably  about  A.D.  160,  enumerates  four  nations, 
 which,  in  the  order  of  this  narrative,  followed  each 
 other,  as  regarded  position,  from  north  to  south  along 
 the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  viz.,  the  Scythians,  the 
 Huns  (Oi'i'i'oO,  the  Caspians,  and  the  Albanians. 
 (Dionysii  Periegcsis,  v.  730,  ct  Euslath.,  in  loe.) 
 Eratosthenes,  cited  by  Strabo  (Straho,  cd.  Tzsch.,  vol. 
 4,  p.  458),  places  these  nations  in  the  same  order ; 
 in  place  of  the  Huns,  however,  he  makes  mention  of 
 the  Ouitiens  (Ovtrioi),  who  were  probably  the  most 
 eastward  tribe  of  the  Huns.  Ptolemy  (Ptol,  Geogr.,. 
 ed.  Erasmus,  p.  409,  et  seqq.),  who  lived  about  'he 
 middle  of  the  third  century,  places  the  Huns  (Xov- 
 
 1217 
 
SERES. 
 
 SERES. 
 
 vol)  between  the  Bastarnes  and  Roxolani,  and,  conse- 
 quently, on  the  two  hanks  of  the  Boryslhenes.  The 
 Armenian  historians  make  mention  of  them  under  the 
 jiame  of  Hounk,  and  assign  them,  for  their  place  of 
 residence,  the  country  to  the  north  of  Caucasus,  be- 
 tween the  Volga  and  the  Don.  For  this  same  reason 
 they  call  the  pass  of  Derbciid  the  rampart  of  the  Huns. 
 In  the  geography  which  is  incorrectly  ascribed  to  Mo- 
 ses of  Khorene,  the  following  passage  also  occurs  : 
 "  The  Massagetaj  inhabit  as  far  as  the  Caspian,  where 
 is  the  branch  of  Mount  Caucasus  which  contains  the 
 rampart  of  Tarpant  (Derbend),  and  a  wonderful  tower 
 built  in  the  sea  ;  to  the  north  are  the  Huns,  with  their 
 city  of  Varhatchan,  and  others  besides."  Moses  of 
 Khorene,  in  his  Armenian  history,  makes  mention  of 
 the  wars  which  King  Tiridales  the  Great,  who  reigned 
 from  A.D.  259  to  AD.  312,  waged  against  the  north- 
 ern nations  who  had  made  an  irruption  into  Armenia. 
 This  monarch  attacked  them  in  the  plains  of  the  Kar- 
 keriens,  in  northern  Albania,  between  Derbend  and  Te- 
 rek, defeated  them,  slew  their  prince,  and  pursued  them 
 into  the  country  of  the  Hounk  or  Huns.  It  were  use- 
 less, however,  to  multi[)ly  authorities.  (Compare 
 Klaproth,  p.  235.)  Sufficient  has  been  said  to  prove 
 that,  in  all  probability,  the  original  seats  of  the  Huns 
 were  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Caspian.  That  they  were 
 not  of  the  Mongol  or  Calmuck  race,  is  apparent  of  it- 
 self, if  any  reliance  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  descrip- 
 tions that  are  given  of  their  personal  deformity  by  the 
 ancient  writers.  Scarcely  a  single  feature  of  the  well- 
 known  Tartar  physiognomy  enters  into  these  accounts 
 of  them.  They  were  probably  the  same  with  |,he  eastern 
 division  of  the  Fins  {Klapwth,  p.  246),  and  hence  the 
 theory  which  makes  them  to  have  dispossessed  of  their 
 primitive  seats  the  ancient  nations  of  the  Seres,  errs 
 in  placing  the  original  settlements  of  the  Huns  too  far 
 altogether  to  the  east. — We  will  now  proceed  to  the 
 .more  immediate  subject  of  inquiry,  the  knowledge 
 which  the  Greeks  and  Romans  possessed  in  relation 
 to  the  silk  manufacture  of  antiquity.  The  first  writer 
 who  gives  any  direct  information  on  this  head  is  Aris- 
 totle {Hist.  Animal.,  5,  19).  The  surprising  accuracy 
 of  his  account,  considering  his  imperfect  sources  of  in- 
 telligence, may  well  demand  our  attention.  The  pas- 
 sage is  as  follows  :  'E«  (5e  tlvo^  aicMTjKor  jiejuXov, 
 6g  l^^et  olov  Kipara  kuI  diatpipsL  tuv  uXkuv,  yiverai 
 
 <5£    TTpUTOV    flEV,    /XCTaGa'XoVTOC    TOV    aKUMjKO^,    KUflnTJ, 
 
 tTZELTa  [3o/i6v2.iog,  £K  6e  tovtov  veKvSaXor-  kv  ef  6e 
 jiTjal  jLETaduXKeL  ravrag  ruf  fiopi^ag  nuaa^'  e/c  6e  tov- 
 tov Tod  ^uov  Kal  Tci  liofj.6vKLa  avaXvovat  tuiv  yvvui- 
 
 KO)V   TtVEC;  UVaKljl'l.i^UftEVat  KUTTELTa  V(j>aLV0VaL.       ilpUTT] 
 
 (Je  TityETaL  v<j>uvai  kv  Kcj  TlaiKpl'Ar]  AaTUiov  ^vyaTTjp. 
 Athenasus  refers  to  this  passage  in  the  following  terms  : 
 'laropEi  ['ApioTOTE/irjc;}  on,  Kal  Ik  tt/c  tuv  <l)6£tpuv 
 oxeiac  «'  liovidEg  yEvvCivrai,  ical  oti  ek  tov  anuTirjKog 
 fiETataXXovTog  yiverat  icu/xtt?],  e^  7/f  Bo/zfiwAiOf,  u<p'  ov 
 VEKvdaXog  ovofia^ofievog.- — Dr.  Vincent  unites  these 
 two  passages  together,  making  the  one  supply  what  is 
 defective  in  the  other,  and  gives  the  following  transla- 
 tion of  them  :  "There  is  a  worm  which  issues  from  [an 
 egg  as  small  as]  the  nit  of  lice  ;  it  is  of  a  large  size, 
 and  has  [protuberances,  bearing  the  resemblance  of] 
 horns,  [in  which  respect]  it  differs  from  other  worms. 
 The  first  change  which  it  undergoes  is  by  the  conver- 
 sion of  the  worm  into  a  caterpillar;  it  then  becomes  a 
 grub  or  chrysalis,  and  at  length  a  moth.  The  whole 
 of  this  transformation  is  completed  in  si.x  months. 
 There  arc  women  who  wind  off  a  thread  from  this  an- 
 imal, which  it  spun  while  it  was  in  the  state  of  a  cater- 
 pillar ;  and  that  is  the  material  from  which  they  after- 
 ward form  the  texture  of  the  web.  This  invention  is 
 attributed  to  Pamphila,  a  woman  of  the  isle  of  Cos, 
 and  daughter  of  Latoius."  —  The  learned  translator 
 then  enters  into  a  full  examination  of  this  passage  of 
 Aristotle,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  the 
 silk  mentioned  in  it  be  the  true  silk  which  we  have  at 
 1218 
 
 the  present  day,  and  produced  by  the  true  silkworm. 
 He  considers  a  link  of  the  chain  to  be  wanting  in  the 
 passage  under  review,  inasmuch  as  the  silken  thread 
 IS  not  wound  off  from  the  animal  itself,  but  from  the 
 cocoon.  In  the  next  place,  the  true  silkworm  is  not 
 of  large  size,  but  small,  at  its  first  appearance  and  be- 
 fore it  becomes  a  caterpillar.  "  Neither  can  it  proper- 
 ly be  called  a  worm,  as  distinguished  from  the  cater- 
 pillar. A  caterpillar  is  discriminated  from  a  worm  by 
 Its  small  protuberances  which  serve  for  legs,  and  is 
 called  Kufj-TTTi  in  Greek,  from  its  bending  or  undulating  • 
 motion  ;  these  legs  of  the  reptile  rnay  be  hardly  dis- 
 tinguishable at  its  first  production,  which  may  have  in- 
 duced Aristotle  to  call  it  a  worm.  As  regards  the 
 Coan  vestments,  no  one,  after  reading  the  passage  ci- 
 ted above,  will  feel  inclined  to  maintain  that  they  were 
 of  cotton.  They  seem  to  have  been  entirely  of  fine, 
 thin,  transparent  silk,  inferior,  however,  in  softness 
 and  splendour  to  the  Oriental.  Salmasius  and  Hoff- 
 man furnish  an  additional  reason  for  the  inferiority  of 
 the  Coan  article,  which  is,  that  the  Coans  suffered  the 
 aurelia  to  eat  its  way  out  of  the  cocoon.  This  ruins 
 the  silk  for  all  fine  work,  for  the  thread  is  then  ol)tain- 
 ed  by  spinning  it  from  a  flock  ;  whereas,  to  have  it 
 reeled  otf  continuous,  the  aurelia  must  be  killed  by  heat, 
 and  the  co(joon  preserved  from  perforation."  W^e  find 
 no  mention  made  of  the  Seres,  or  their  peculiar  manu- 
 facture, in  any  Greek  author  for  a  long  period  subse- 
 quent to  the  age  of  Aristotle,  unless  it  be  that  the  fine 
 stuffs  of  Amorgos  {Bor.kk,  Slaatshaushaltung  dcr 
 Athcner,  vol.  1,  p.  115,  and  the  authorities  there  cited), 
 which  are  described  as  having  been  almost  transparent, 
 and  in  point  of  fineness,  as  well  as  of  price,  ranked 
 before  those  made  of  Byssus  and  Carpathus,  were  sim- 
 ilar to  those  manufactured  in  the  island  of  Cos.  —  The 
 Romans  appear  to  have  first  become  acquainted  with 
 the  name  and  product  of  the  Seres  about  the  reign  of 
 Augustus.  Hence,  whatever  we  find  on  this  subject 
 becomes,  of  course,  a  matter  of  common  knowledge 
 for  both.  Virgil  appears  to  be  the  first  Roman  wrilei 
 vi'ho  makes  mention  of  the  Seres.  {Gcorg  ,  2,  121, 
 scqq.)  Who  are  meant  in  this  passage  by  the  .-Ethio- 
 pians  has  been  a  subject  of  much  more  controversy, 
 especially  as  the  geographical  situation  of  the  Seres 
 will  depend,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  this.  ".,33thio- 
 pians"  {kWioTnc)  was  a  general  name  among  the 
 Greeks  for  every  nation  of  a  dark  or  swarthy  complex- 
 ion, an  effect  supposed  to  be  produced  by  the  burning 
 rays  of  the  sun.  Their  first  acquaintance  with  a  race 
 of  this  description  seems  to  have  been  derived,  from 
 Egypt  and  Phoenicia,  in  both  of  which  countries'  they 
 would  naturally  meet  with  many  accounts  of  the  tribes 
 that  occupied  the  interior  of  Africa.  The  name  was 
 afterward  extended  to  the  dark-brown  natives  of  south- 
 ern Arabia,  who  brought  their  wares  to  Sidon  by  the 
 overland  trade,  and  hence  it  is  that  Homer  makes 
 mention  of  two  ^Ethiopian  races,  the  western  and 
 eastern.  (Odyssey,  1,  v.  23.)  The  opinion  of  Aris- 
 larchus  (Euslalhnis,  p.  1386),  and  other  of  the  Gre- 
 cian commentators  on  Homer,  which  makes  the  Nile 
 to  have  been  the  dividing  line  between  these  two 
 races,  is  too  refined  for  the  age  of  the  poet,  and  im- 
 plies a  more  accurate  acquaintance  with  the  interior 
 of  Africa,  and  the  course  of  the  river  of  Egypt,  thari 
 he  appears  to  have  possessed.  Homer's  western  ."Ethi- 
 opians are  the  natives  of  inland  Africa;  the  east- 
 ern, those  of  southern  Arabia,  who  were  thought  by 
 the  earlier  Greeks  to  dwell  in  the  immediate  vicini- 
 ty of  the  great  source  of  light.  When  the  army  of 
 Xerxes,  in  a  subsequent  age,  was  poured  upon  Greece, 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  latter  country,  perceiving  some 
 dark-coloured  nations  among  the  followers  of  the  mon- 
 arch, applied  to  them  the  name  of  Ethiopians,  in  per- 
 fect conformity  with  its  original  import ;  and  hence 
 Herodotus  (7,  69  and  70  ;  3,  94  and  97),  in  speakmg 
 of  the  forces  which  served  on  that  expedition,  enu- 
 
SERES. 
 
 SERES. 
 
 merates  two  distinct  races,  the  eastern  and  western 
 iEthio[)iaris.  It  is  easy  to  perceive,  from  his  descrip- 
 tion ol  the  former,  and  their  "  long,  straight  hair," 
 that  none  other  are  meant  than  the  peo|)lc  of  India. 
 If  this  deduction  be  correct,  the  Seres  of  Virgil  will, 
 of  course,  be  the  people  of  China.  As  to  their  comb- 
 t»^'  fleeces  from  the  leaves  of  trees,  the  allusion  is 
 manifestly  to  silk,  which  many  of  the  ancients  be- 
 lieved to  be  a  sort  of  down  gathered  from  the  leaves 
 of  trees.  Thus  Pliny  {Plin.,  6,  17),  in  a  subsequent 
 age,  remarks,  "  I'rimi  sunt  hominiim  qui  noscantur 
 Seres,  lanicio  syhanim  twhiles,  perfusam  aqua  depec- 
 tentes  frondium  caiiicicm." — The  moment  silk  be- 
 came known  among  the  western  nations,  it  was  ea- 
 gerly purchased  as  an  article  of  luxury,  and  began  to 
 form  a  conspicuous  part  of  Greek  and  Roman  attire. 
 At  that  period  of  growing  corruption,  it  was  no  won- 
 der that  such  an  invention  should  be  hailed  with  trans- 
 port, which,  while  it  su[)plied  the  person  with  a  cov- 
 ering, still,  like  our  gauze,  exposed  every  limb  to  the 
 eye  of  the  beholder  in  almost  perfect  nudity.  The 
 Emperor  Heliogabalus,  it  is  true,  in  a  later  age,  was 
 the  lirst  who  disgraced  himself  by  appearing  in  a  dress 
 u-hoUy  of  silk  ;  yet  Seric  and  Coan  vestments  are  fre- 
 quently mentioned  by  the  Roman  writers  either  con- 
 temporary with,  or  not  long  subsequent  to,  the  time 
 of  Virgil.  {Tibullus,  2,  4,  29— Id.,  2,  6,  2^.— Pro- 
 pert.,  I.  4.  ^2.— Id.,  4,  8,  23.— Ovid,  Am.,  1,  4,  16.) 
 About  the  period  of  which  we  arc  speaking,  it  would 
 appear  that  Seric  vestments  found  their  way  to  Rome 
 also  from  foreign  nations.  Florus  {Floras,  4,  12,  16) 
 states,  that  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  an  embassy 
 from  the  Seres  came  to  Rome,  with  presents  of  pre- 
 cious stones,  elephants,  and  other  gifts.  Among 
 these  last,  Seric  vestments,  or  else  raw  silk,  were  no 
 doubt  included.  If  we  glance  at  the  Greek  writers 
 who  flourished  about  this  period,  we  shall  be  surprised 
 to  find  Strabo  passing  over,  in  almost  total  silence, 
 both  the  nation  of  the  Seres  as  well  as  their  singular 
 manufacture,  the  more  especially  as  his  contemporary, 
 Dionysius  Pcriegetes,  makes  such  full  mention  of  it. 
 Thus  we  find  Dionysius  describing  the  Seres  as  a  na- 
 tion of  the  farthest  East,  who  paid  no  attention  to  cat- 
 tle or  sheep,  but  occupied  themselves  in  comhmg  the 
 variegated  flowers  produced  from  their  otherwise  neg- 
 lected land,  and  in  nutking  vestments  of  an  ingenious 
 and  costly  kind,  resembling  in  hue  the  meadow- flow- 
 ers, and  with  which  even  spiders'  webs  could  not  com- 
 pare as  to  the  fineness  of  texture.  {Dionysii  Perie- 
 gesis,  v.  752,  et  seqq.)  Eustathius,  archbishop  of 
 Thessalonica,  who  flourished  about  1160  A.D.,  and 
 wrote  a  learned  commentary  on  the  work  whence  this 
 extract  is  taken,  gives  a  very  curious  account  of  the 
 Seres,  which  would  tend  still  more  strongly  to  con- 
 firm the  belief  that  they  were  identical  with  the  Chi- 
 nese. He  describes  them  (Eustath.,  in  Dionys.  Pe- 
 rieg.,  p.  239,  ed.  Oxon.)  as  an  unsocial  nation,  refu- 
 sing all  intercourse  with  strangers  (unpoafiLysi^  ut'- 
 OpuTTOL  Kol  uvdfj.i'XrjToi).  They  marked  the  price  on 
 the  articles  which  they  wished  to  sell,  and,  having 
 left  them  in  a  particular  place,  retired.  The  traders 
 then  came,  and  placed  by  the  side  of  the  goods  the 
 amount  demanded,  or  else  so  much  as  they  were  will- 
 ing to  give.  Upon  this  they  withdrew  in  their  turn, 
 and  the  Seres  coming  back,  either  took  what  was  of- 
 fered, or  carried  away  the  goods  again.  We  have  here 
 the  same  cautious  system  of  commercial  dealing  which 
 characteri'zes  the  Chinese  of  our  own  days,  only  in  a 
 far  stricter  degree.  This  peculiarity  in  the  traffic  of 
 the  Seres  is  noticed  also  by  Pliny,  Pomponius  Mela, 
 and  Amrnianus  MarccUinus.  (Plin.,  6,  17. — Pompo- 
 nius Mela,  3,  7. — Amrnianus  MarccUinus,  23,  6,  p. 
 299,  ed.  Erncsti.) — But  to  return  to  the  order  of 
 chronology  ;  in  the  reign  of  ihe  Emperor  Tiberius, 
 according  to  Tacitus  {Tacit.,  Annal,  2,  33),  a  law 
 was  passed  at  Rome  ordaining  that  men  should  not 
 
 disgrace  themselves  by  the  use  of  Seric  vestments,  or, 
 to  adopt  the  strong  language  of  the  original,  "  nc  vcs- 
 lis  Serica  viros  fadarct^'  Lipsius,  in  an  Excursus  on 
 this  passage,  endeavours  to  prove  that  a  Seric  vestment 
 means  one  of  cotton  tiiat  grows  spontaneously  on  trees 
 in  the  country  of  the  Seres,  atid  that  vestis  bombycina, 
 on  the  other  hand,  means  one  of  silk.  But  surely  the 
 use  of  a  cotton  garment  would  hardly  have  called  foi 
 the  interposition  of  the  Roman  senate.  Besides,  Syl- 
 vester {Forcel,  Lex  Tot.  Lat.,  s.  v.  Bomhyx),  in  his 
 remarks  on  the  2d  Satire  of  Juvenal  (v.  66),  has  con- 
 clusively shown  that  scrievm  means  "  silk  on  the 
 loom,"  and  bombyx  "raw  silk." — At  a  later  period 
 we  find  Seneca  {Seneca,  dc.  Benef.,  7,  9)  exclaiming, 
 "  Video  Sericas  vestes,  si  vestcs  vociridcc  sunt,  in 
 quibus  nihil  est  quo  defendi  aut  corpus,  aut  denique 
 pudor  possit  :  quibus  sumtis,  mulier  purum  liquido 
 nudam  se  non  esse  jurabit.  Ho:c  ingenti  summa  ab 
 ignotis  etiam  ad  commercium  gentibus  acccrsuntur." 
 And  again,  in  another  portion  of  his  works,  wc  have 
 the  following  {Id.,  Ep.,  90):  "Posse  vos  vcstitos 
 esse  sine  commercio  Serum." — It  is  in  the  elder  Pliny, 
 however,  that  wc  find  the  strongest  authorities  on  this 
 subject.  The  passage  of  Aristotle,  which  we  have 
 cited  above,  he  quotes  once  {Plin  ,  11,  26)  expressly 
 and  once  {Id.,  6,  20)  incidentally.  In  another  {Id., 
 6,  17)  instance,  he  alludes,  in  the  following  expres.s- 
 ive  words,  to  the  object  of  the  Roman  females  in 
 adopting  this  dress  :  "  ut  in  publico  maVrona  transln- 
 ceat."  In  the  proem  to  the  12th  book,  he  remarks, 
 "  Ccedi  montes  in  marmora,  vestes  ad  Seras  peli." 
 Among  many  other  passages  in  this  author,  there  is 
 one  too  long  to  quote  here,  which  proves  conclusively 
 that  the  Coan  vestments  were  of  silk,  and  the  produce 
 of  a  particular  kind  of  silkworm  bred  in  the  island  of 
 Cos.  Forcellini  {Lex  Tot.  Lat.,  s  v.  Bombyx)  cites 
 the  opinion  of  Salmasius  (Saumaise),  who  thought 
 that  the  silkworms  of  Pliny  were  the  same  as  those  of 
 our  own  time,  and  that  Pliny  had,  from  want  of  suf- 
 ficient information  on  the  subject,  quoted  an  incorrect 
 description  of  them  from  some  earlier  writer. — Quin- 
 tilian  also  alludes  to  the  toga  serica  {Qutntilian,  Inst. 
 Orat.,  12,  10),  and  Juvenal,  as  may  well  be  imagined, 
 finds  this  an  ample  theme  for  indignant  satire.  {Ju- 
 venal, Sat.,  a,  v.  260.— Sat.,  8,  v.  101,  and  the  com- 
 ments of  Ruperti.)  In  Martial,  likewisse,  the  allu- 
 sions to  Seric  vestments  are  more  than  once  met 
 with.  {Martial,  Epistles,  11,  28.  — Id.  ib.,  9,38.) 
 Suetonius  {Suetonius,  Vit.  Calig.,  c.  52)  only  onca 
 makes  mention  of  Seric  garments,  and  then  very 
 slightly,  in  the  case  of  the  Emperor  Caligula;  "  Scfpe 
 depictas,  gcmmatasque  indutus  pccnulas,  mamdcatus, 
 et  armillatus  in  publicum  processit,  aiiquando  serica- 
 tus."  They  are  named,  also,  once  in  Plutarch  {Plu- 
 tarch, Conjug  Pracep.  —  Op.,  ed  Reiske,  vol.  6,  p. 
 550),  but  the  allusion  is  a  very  general  one.  A  young 
 female  is  admonished  not  to  make  use  of  ra  cr/piKu, 
 which  can  only  be  obtained  at  great  expense.  Pau- 
 sanias  is  the  next  writer  in  the  order  of  time  who  cha-l- 
 lenges  our  attention  on  this  subject.  He  gives  a  long 
 account  of  the  silkworm,  in  a  very  interesting  passage, 
 which  may  be  translated  as  follows  :  "  There  is  a 
 worm  {(^G)V<j)iov)  in  their  (the  Seres')  country,  which 
 the  Greeks  call  ser  {uv  ai'/pa  Kalovaiv'EA/.r/ve^),  but 
 to  which  the  natives  give  a  different  appellation.  It 
 is  twice  as  large  as  the  largest-sized  beetle,  but  in 
 other  respects  resembles  the  spiders  which  weave 
 their  webs  under  the  trees,  and,  like  them,  it  has  eight 
 feet.  The  Seres,  in  summer  as  well  as  winter,  rear 
 these  insects  in  houses  specially  adapted  to  that  pur- 
 pose. They  work  a  very  slender  thread,  which  is 
 twined  around  their  feet.  They  are  fed  ^nearly  four 
 years  on  panic  {Traptxavrcg  a(pcai  Tpofyv  llviiov)  ;  in 
 the  fifth  (for  they  know  that  they  will  not  live  longer) 
 they  wive  them  a  green  reed  to  eat.  This  is  the  ani- 
 mal's^favourite  food,  which  it  devours  until  it  bursts 
 
 1219 
 
SERES. 
 
 SERES. 
 
 from  repletion.  The  Seres  obtain  a  quantity  of  thread 
 from  its  bowels."  What  Pausanias  adds,  however, 
 ifespecting  the  situation  of  Serica,  that  it  is  "an  island 
 in  the  recess  of  the  Indian  Ocean,"  probably  refers  to 
 Ceylon,  and  is  grounded  ui)on  the  mistaken  idea  {Ril- 
 tcfs  Vorhallcp.  113)  that  the  silk,  which  formed  a  chief 
 article  of  export  from  that  island,  was  likewise  manu- 
 factured there.  Tertullian  {de  Pallio,  c.  3)  and  Cle- 
 mens Alexandrinus  {in  Paclagog.,  2,  10)  also  speak 
 of  the  silkworm,  and  ap[)ear  better  acquainted  with 
 the  several  changes  which  it  undergoes  than  Pausani- 
 as. The  principal  points  in  which  they  differ  from  the 
 correct  accounts  of  modern  times  arc,  their  making  the 
 insect  in  question  resemble  the  spider  in  the  mode  of 
 forming  its  thread,  and  their  assigning  a  different  leaf 
 from  that  of  the  mulberry  for  its  food.  {Mcmoires  de 
 V Academic  des  Inscriplioiis,  vol.  7,  p.  342.)  Dio 
 Cassius  and  Herodian  both  make  mention  of  the  Seric 
 manufactures.  The  former  describes  the  ancient  arip- 
 iKov  in  the  following  language  {Dio  Cassius,  ed.  Rei- 
 mar,  43,  24,  p.  358,  1.  2.5)  :  Tovto  6e  to  i'facrf/a  x'^-i-- 
 (h~/c  (iap6upov  earlv  tpyov,  Kal  Trap'  ekelvuv  kuI  npo^ 
 i/fiur,  £f  Tpv(pTjv  Tuv  7TUVV  )'vvau<C)v  TTcpiTTj'jv.  "  Thls 
 species  of  tissue  is  a  work  of  barbarian  lu.xury,  and 
 has  found  its  way  from  that  distant  quarter  even  unto 
 us,  in  order  to  furnish  our  higher  class  of  females  with 
 the  materials  for  excessive  extravagance."  Herodian 
 speaks  of  Seric  vestments  as  filler  for  females  than 
 for  men  {Herodian,  ed.  Irmisch.,  .'5,  5,  9,  vol.  3,  p. 
 144) :  Td  Toiavra  Ka?.2.(jKiafj,aTa  ovk  uvdpuaiv  uXla 
 ^jjXEi.aig  TvpcTTStv.  Vopiscus  {Vit.  AurcL,  c  45)  in- 
 forms us,  "  Ve.slem  holosericam  ncque  ipse  {Aurclia- 
 nus)  in  vcstiario  sno  hahuit,  ncque  al/cri  vtendam  dedit. 
 Et  quiim  ab  co  uxor  sua  pcleret,  ut  unico  pallio  blattco 
 serico  uteretur,  ille  respondit :  absit  ut  auro  fila  pen- 
 sentur  ;  libra  enim  auri  hmc  libra  serici  fait.'''  The 
 extravagant  price  which  is  here  mentioned,  a  pound 
 of  gold  for  a  pound  of  silk,  may  easily  be  accounted 
 for  by  the  circumstance  of  the  overland  trade  to  Seri- 
 ea  being  rendered  more  precarious  by  the  rapid  rise 
 of  the  second  Persian  Empire.  Passing  by  the  sev- 
 eral authors  who  mention  the  Seric  vestments  without 
 any  accompanying  circumstances  sufficiently  impor- 
 tant to  merit  a  quotation,  wo  come  to  Lampridius, 
 who  devotes  to  infamy  the  Emperor  Heliogabalus 
 {Lampridius,  Vit.  Heliogab.,  c.  26)  for  having  first 
 dared  to  appear  in  a  dress  wholly  of  silk.  St.  Basil 
 {S.  Basil,  in  exam,  homil.,  8)  makes  a  curious  appli- 
 cation of  the  knowledge  that  appears  to  have  been 
 generally  diffused,  about  this  period,  respecting  the 
 trans-formations  of  the  silkworm,  by  exhorting  the 
 rich,  who  could  not  be  induced  to  dispense  with  gar- 
 ments of  silk,  to  remember,  at  least,  in  putting  them 
 on,  that  the  worm,  of  whose  substance  they  were 
 made,  is  a  type  of  the  resurrection.  Julius  PoUu.x 
 (c.384,  31,  cap.  17,  lib  7)  also  alludes  to  this  insect: 
 2/c(j?7;/cff  eicTLV  o'l  (iojitmKF.g,  ik^  (jv  tu,  vrjiiaTa  avvov- 
 rat,  uanep  6  dpaxvriq-  evloi  de  Kai  rove  2?;paf  und 
 
 rOlOVTUV    ETtpOV    t^tiuOV    uOpoiL,ElV    ^laol    TU,    V(l>U(T/iaTa. 
 
 Ammianus  Marcellinus  {Anunian.  Marccll.,  23, 6)  next 
 follows,  who  gives  the  following  narrative  :  "They 
 (the  Seres)  weave  a  delicate  and  tender  thread,  form- 
 ed from  moistened  wool,  combining  it  into  a  kind  of 
 fleece  by  frequently  sprinkling  with  water  the  pods  of 
 the  trees ;  spinning  this  into  inner  garments,  they 
 manufacture  that  celebrated  silk  which  anciently  com- 
 posed the  dress  of  the  (Roman)  nobility,  bnt  in  my 
 age  is  the  indiscriminate  and  extravagant  clothing  of 
 our  lower  rank.s."  It  is  rather  surprising  to  find  so 
 much  ignorance  of  the  true  origin  of  silk  in  so  late  an 
 age,  and  on  the  part  of  a  writtjr  otherwise  so  intelli- 
 gent. One  would  imagine  that  Ammianus  was  de- 
 scribing the  cotton-tree.  A  distinction  appears  to 
 have  been  made,  long  before  this  period,  between 
 Bombycinum  and  Scricum :  the  former  appellation 
 being  given  to  the  produce  of  the  Assyrian  silkworm 
 1220 
 
 and  that  of  Cos,  the  latter  being  used  to  denote  the 
 genuine  silk,  whether  the  work  of  an  insect  or  the 
 produce  of  a  plant.  Hence  we  find  the  distinction  -ob- 
 served in  St,  Jerome  {S.  Hieron.,  de  Instil.  pueUs), 
 "  Spernat  Bomhycnm  tclas.  Serum  vellcra.'"  Next 
 in  order  is  the  lexicographer  Hesychius  {Hesychius, 
 s.  V.  "LijpE^),  who  makes  "Lyp  to  have  been  the  name 
 of  the  insect  whence  the  silk  was  obtained,  and  the 
 silk  itself  to  have  been  named  'OTioaripiKOv,  or,  to  use 
 his  own  words,  "LiipEq.  ^ua  vi'iOovTa  /lETu^av,  f/  6vo/xa 
 lOvovc  oOev  tpxETat.  Kal  to  67.oai]pLKOv.  And  yet,  as 
 if  to  show  how  very  fluctuating  was  all  the  knowledge 
 which  the  ancients  possessed  on  this  subject,  we  find 
 .'\chilles  Tatius,  about  this  same  period,  speaking  of 
 silk  as  a  very  fine  down,  deposited  by  birds  on  the 
 leaves  of  trees,  and  carefully  collected  by  the  Indians. 
 It  remains  but  to  add  some  passages  from  Isidorus. 
 '■  Bombycina  est  a  Bombyce,  vernnculo,  qui  lungissi- 
 ma  ex  se  fila  general,  quorum  texlura  bombycinum 
 dicilur,  conficiturque  in  insula  Co. — Serica  a  Serico 
 dic/a,  vcl  quod  etiam  Seres  pnmi  miserunl ;  holoserica 
 tola  serica ;  tramoserica  stamine  lineo,  Irama  ex  seri- 
 co ;  holoporphyra  tola  ex  purpura;  hyssma  Candida, 
 confccta  ex  quodavi  gcnere  lini  grossioris."  {Isido- 
 rus, de  colonbus,  lib.  19,  c.  17,  p.  1294.)  And  again, 
 "  Byssum  genus  est  quoddam  lini  nimium  candidi  et 
 mollissimi,  quod  Groeci  papatem  vocant.  —  Sericum 
 dictum,  quia  id  Seres  primi  miserunl :  vermiculi  enim 
 ibi  nasci  perhibentur,  a  quibus  hsec  circum  arbores 
 fila  ducuntur;  vermes  autem  ipsi  Graece  (36/iCvKeg 
 nominantur."  {Id.,  de  nominibus  Vestium,  c.  22,  p. 
 1299.) — Before  concluding  we  will  take  the  liberty  of 
 adding  a  few  remarks  in  relation  to  the  high  price  of 
 silk  in  the  ancient  world,  for  which  we  are  indebted 
 to  the  pen  of  Dr.  Vincent.  {Class.  Joiirn.,  vol.  7, 
 p.  35.)  "  As  late  as  the  time  of  Aurelian,  Vopiscus 
 informs  us  that  silk  sold  for  its  weight  in  gold.  The 
 Coan  fabric  seems  never  to  have  reached  this  extrav- 
 agant price,  but  only  the  pure  Oriental  silk.  The  ex- 
 pcniie  of  conveyance  undoubtedly,  and  the  difficulty 
 of  obtaining  it,  v^-ere  the  immediate  causes  of  this  enor- 
 mous value  being  assigned  to  the  article.  The  price 
 sesms  never  to  have  been  depressed  until  Constanti- 
 nople became  the  centre  of  commerce  for  the  Eastern 
 and  V^^estern  world  ;  and  there  the  de[)ression  advanced 
 till  the  fifth  century,  when  Ammianus  mentions  that 
 silk,  which  had  formerly  been  worn  only  by  the  nobil- 
 ity, was  then  the  common  dress  of  the  lower  orders." 
 The  learned  writer  then  puts  the  question,  why  Justin- 
 ian, as  Procopius  {Procopius,  Goth.,  4,  17)  informs 
 us,  should  send  to  China  for  the  true  breed,  if  both 
 the  itisect  and  the  manufacture  were  in  existence  at 
 Cos  ]  The  one  was  a  journey  of  hazard  and  difficul- 
 ty, of  nearly  three  thousand  miles  ;  the  other  a  pleas- 
 ant voyage  short  of  four  hundred. — He  proposes  an 
 answer  to  the  question,  namely,  that  the  manufacture 
 of  Oriental  silk  had  superseded  the  manufacture  at 
 Cos,  which  could  only  have  happened  from  the  supe- 
 riority of  the  material  or  the  manner  of  its  fabrication. 
 "Silk,"  as  he  informs  us,  "had  been  woven  in  the  Ro- 
 man empire  long  before  it  was  fully  understood  how 
 the  material  was  obtained  ;  for  Msra^a  vF/ua  'ZripiKov, 
 or  silk  thread,  was  an  article  subject  to  a  duty  in  the 
 custom,-house  of  Alexandrea:  and  whether  the  web  of 
 Tyre  was  wrought  from  this,  or  whether  women  reeved 
 out  the  web,  introduced  through  Media  and  Assyria, 
 as  Pliny  asserts,  it  makes  no  difference  in  point  of 
 time,  but  it  proves  that  the  commodity  was  so  supe- 
 rior in  quality  that  the  manufacture  of  Cos  was  driven 
 out  of  the  market." — The  learned  writer,  however,  is 
 wrong  in  censuring  D'Anville  for  supfosing  that  the 
 monks  sent  by  Justinian  went  only  as  far  as  Sirhend 
 in  India,  and  not  to  China  itself  There  is  every  rea- 
 son to  believe  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  of  India 
 which  lies  between  the  Pcndjab  and  the  river  Jumna 
 had  learned  the  process  of  silk  manufacture  from  their 
 
SER 
 
 SERTORIUS. 
 
 Eastern  neighbours.  Hence  their  territory  and  capi- ' 
 tal  took  the  name  of  Soinda  (.Serind),  and  even  at  , 
 the  present  day  the  name  continues  to  be  Serhend,  or 
 "  the  land  where  the  Hindus  nurture  the  silkworm." 
 It  was  to  this  quarter,  very  probably,  that  the  monks 
 of  Justinian  came.  Gibbon,  however,  boldly  asserts 
 that  these  monks  were  missionaries,  who  had  pre- 
 viously penetrated  to  China,  and  resided  at  Nan-kin. 
 {Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  40  ) 
 
 Sekiphus,  an  island  of  the  ..T^gcan,  south  of  Cyth- 
 nus,  and  now  Scrpho.  It  was  celebrated  in  mytholo- 
 gy as  the  scene  of  some  of  the  most  remarkable  ad- 
 ventures of  Perseus,  who  changed  Polydectes,  king  of 
 the  island,  and  his  subjects,  into  stones,  to  avenge  the 
 wrongs  oflered  to  his  mother  Danae.  {Find.,  Fyth., 
 12,  19.)  Strabo  seems  to  account  for  this  fable  from 
 the  rocky  nature  of  the  island.  {Strah.,  487.)  Pliny 
 makes  its  circuit  twelve  miles.  In  Juvenal's  time 
 state-prisoners  were  sent  there  (10,  169).  The  frogs 
 of  this  island  were  said  to  be  mute,  but  to  utter  their 
 usual  note  when  carried  elsewhere ;  and  hence  the 
 }>roverbial  saying,  Burpaxoc  tK  "Lepl^ov  (liana  Seri- 
 ■phia),  applied  to  dull  and  silent  persons,  who  on  a  sud- 
 den became  loquacious.  (Compare,  however,  the  re- 
 marks of  Erasmus,  Chil.  1,  cent.  5,  ad.  31,  ed. 
 Stepk.,  p.  1C6.) 
 
 Skrranus,  I.  a  surname  given  to  C.  Atilius,  from 
 his  having  been  engaged  in  sowing  his  field  {sercre, 
 "  to  sow")  when  intelligence  was  brought  him  of  his 
 having  been  appointed  to  the  dictatorship.  {Plin.,  18, 
 4. — Fcrizon.,  Animadv.  Hist.,  c.  1. — Liv.,  3,  26. — 
 Virg  ,  JEn.,  6,  844.) — II.  A  poet  in  the  time  of  Nero, 
 to  whom  Sarpe  has  ascribed  the  eclogues  that  pass  un- 
 der the  name  of  Calpurnius.  {Quast.  Fhilolog.,  c. 
 2,  p.  11,  scqq. — Bdhr,  Gesch.  Ram.  Lit.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 303.) 
 
 Sertorius,  QuiXTUS,  a  distinguished  Roman  gen- 
 eral, born  at  Nursia.  He  made  his  first  campaign 
 under  Cajpio,  when  the  Cimbri-  and  Teutones  broke 
 into  Gaul ;  and  he  distinguished  himself  subsequently 
 under  Marius,  when  the  same  enemy  made  their  mem- 
 orable irruption  into  Italy.  x\fter  the  termination  of 
 this  war  he  was  sent  as  a  legionary  tribune,  under  Did- 
 ius,  into  Spain,  and  soon  gained  for  himself  a  high 
 reputation  in  this  country.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he 
 ■was  appointed  quaestor  for  Cisalpine  Gaul  ;  and  the 
 Marsian  war  soon  after  breaking  out,  and  Sertorius 
 being  employed  to  levy  troops  an-J  provide  arms,  he 
 made  himself  e.^tremely  useful  in  that  capacity,  and 
 performed  important  services  for  the  state.  On  the 
 ruin  of  the  Marian  party,  to  which  he  himself  belong- 
 ed, Sertorius  hastened  back  to  Spain,  and  found  no 
 difficulty  in  resuming  possession  of  that  province.  As 
 soon  as  Sylla  was  informed  of  this  act  of  rebellion,  he 
 sent  into  Spain  a  considerable  army  under  Caius  An- 
 nius,  with  orders  to  crush  the  insurgent  forces.  Ser- 
 torius, compelled  to  yield  to  the  powerful  force  thus 
 brought  against  him,  was  induced  to  seek  for  safety  in 
 Africa.  Pursued  by  bad  fortune  even  to  the  wilds  of 
 Mauritania,  he  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  again 
 putting  to  sea  ;  but,  being  unable  to  effect  a  re-landing 
 in  Spain,  he  strengthened  his  little  fleet  by  the  addi- 
 tion of  some  of  the  Cilician  pirates,  and  made  a  de- 
 scent upon  the  island  of  Ebusus  (now  Ivica),  in  which 
 Annius  had  placed  a  small  garrison.  The  lieutenant 
 of  Sylla  made  haste  to  succour  this  insular  colony, 
 and,  sailing  to  Ebusus  with  a  strong  squadron,  was  re- 
 solved to  bring  Sertorius  to  battle.  A  storm  prevent- 
 ed the  engagement ;  most  of  the  ships  were  driven 
 ashore,  or  swallowed  up  in  the  waves ;  and  Sertorius, 
 who  had  with  difficulty  escaped  from  the  fury  of  the 
 tempest,  bore  away  with  a  few  small  vessels  for  the 
 Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and,  landing  near  the  mouth  of 
 the  Boelis,  refreshed  his  men  on  the  shores  of  the  At- 
 lantic Ocean.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that,  fatiaued 
 by  the  vicissitudes  of  a  hard  fortune,  and  filled  with 
 
 gloomy  views  of  the  future,  he  is  said  to  have  listened 
 to  the  romantic  description  of  cirtain  sailors,  who 
 charnicd  his  cars  with  the  delights  and  peaceful  secu 
 rity  of  a  group  of  happyi.slands  lying  scattered  at  a 
 convenient  distance  in  the  Western  sea.  He  would 
 have  retired  to  that  fabled  paradise,  had  not  the  Cili- 
 cian rovers,  who  preferred  a  more  enterprising  life, 
 refused  to  accompany  him,  and  sailed  back  to  the 
 coast  of  Africa.  Sertorius  in  like  manner  returned 
 into  the  Mediterranean,  and,  having  landed  in  Africa, 
 soon  came  in  contact  with  Pacianus,  a  lieutenant  of 
 Sylla's,  and,  though  greatly  inferior  in  number,  gained 
 a  decisive  victory,  and  took  nearly  all  the  opposite 
 army  prisoners.  The  reputation  acquired  by  this  vic- 
 tory retrieved  the  affairs  of  Sertorius.  The  Lusitani- 
 ans,  irritated  at  the  conduct  of  Annius,  resolved  to 
 throw  off  the  yoke;  and,  inviting  the  conqueror  of  Pa- 
 cianus to  assume  the  command  of  their  army,  they 
 took  the  field  against  the  deputy  of  Sylla,  and  set  the 
 whole  power  of  Rome  at  defiance.  The  most  brilliant 
 success  attended  the  arms  of  Sertorius.  With  2600 
 men,  whom  he  called  Romans  (though  of  these  700 
 were  Africans),  and  an  addition  of  4000  light-armed 
 Lusitanians  and  700  horse,  he  carried  on  the  war 
 against  four  Roman  generals,  who  had  120,000  fool, 
 6000  horse,  2000  archers  and  slingers,  and  cities  with- 
 out number  under  their  command.  Of  the  officers 
 opposed  to  him,  he  beat  Cotta  at  sea,  near  the  moder.n 
 Trafalgar  ;  he  defeated  Phidius,  who  had  the  chief 
 command  in  Bastica,  and  killed  4000  Romans  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Bsetis.  By  his  quffstor  he  vanquished 
 Domitius,  and  Lucius  Manlius,  proconsul  of  Hither 
 Spain;  he  likewise  slew  Thoranius,  one  of  the  officers 
 sent  against  him  by  Metellus,  and  cut  off  the  whole 
 army  under  his  command.  Even  Metellus  himself, 
 one  of  the  most  experienced  and  successful  generals 
 of  the  age,  was  not  a  match  for  Sertorius  in  the  spe- 
 cies of  warfare  which  the  Lusitanians  waged  under  his 
 direction.  Constantly  changing  his  post,  and  flying 
 from  one  fastness  to  another  with  a  small  body  of  ac- 
 tive men,  he  cut  oft'  the  Romans  in  every  quarter, 
 without  allowing  them  time  to  make  any  arrangement 
 for  their  defence,  or  even  to  see  the  enemy  under 
 whose  hands  their  numbers  were  so  rapidly  reduced. 
 In  short,  he  combined  in  his  character  all  the  activity 
 and  hardiness  of  savage  life  with  the  policy  and  milita- 
 ry skill  of  a  Roman  general.  Nor  did  Sertorius  think 
 it  enough  to  fight  the  battles  of  the  Spaniards ;  he 
 also  undertook  to  establish  among  them  the  habits  and 
 advantages  of  civilization.  He  taught  their  soldiers 
 all  the  more  useful  parts  of  Roman  tactics  ;  he  found- 
 ed schools  for  the  education  of  youth  ;  distinguished 
 the  meritorious  by  marks  of  his  approbation ;  and 
 even  introduced  among  the  higher  orders  the  dress  of 
 Roman  citizens.  Sertorius  possessed  unbounded  in- 
 fluence over  the  minds  ol  the  natives,  as  well  from 
 the  high  degree  of  military  talent  which  he  displayed, 
 as  from  the  conviction  on  the  part  of  the  Lusitanians 
 that  he  held  secret  communion  with  Heaven.  This 
 belief  arose  principally  from  the  circumstance  of  his 
 being  attended  wherever  he  went  by  a  tame  white 
 fawn,  which  he  led  the  rode  natives  to  believe  was  a 
 gift  from  Diana,  and  disclosed  to  him  many  important 
 secrets. — The  dangerous  state  of  their  affiairs  in  Spain 
 induced  the  Romans  to  send  Poinpey  to  the  aid  of 
 Metellus.  But  this  new  commander  proved  in  no  de- 
 gree more  successful  than  the  old  ;  nay,  on  one  occa- 
 sion, Pompev  had  the  mortification  of  seeing  the  city 
 of  Lauron  taken  and  burned  by  Sertorius,  without 
 being  able  to  render  it  any  assistance,  though  near 
 enou'gh  (to  use  the  strong  language  of  an  ancient  wri- 
 ter) to  have  warmed  his  hands  at  the  flame.  At  last, 
 however,  private  treachery  efl^^cled  what  the  arms  of 
 open  foes  had  been  unable  to  accomplish.  Perpenna, 
 one  of  .his  officers,  who  was  jealous  of  his  fame  and 
 tired  of  a  superior,  conspired  against  him.     At  a  ban- 
 
 1221 
 
SER 
 
 SERVIUS. 
 
 quel  the  conspirators  began  to  open  their  intentions  by 
 speaking  with  freedom  and  licentiousness  in  the  pres- 
 ence of  Sertorius,  whose  age  and  character  had  hith- 
 erto claimed  deference  from  others.  Pcrpenna  over- 
 turned a  glass  of  wine  as  a  signal  to  the  rest,  and  im- 
 mediately Antonius,  one  of  his  officers,  stabbed  Ser- 
 torius, and  the  rxainplo  was  followed  by  all  the  other 
 conspirators  (B.C.  73). — No  sooner  had  Pcrpenna  ac- 
 com[)lished  his  nefarious  object,  than  he  announced 
 himself  as  the  successor  of  Sertorius.  But  he  soon 
 proved  as  unfit  for  the  duties  as  he  was  unworthy  of 
 the  honour  attached  to  that  high  office.  Pompey, 
 upon  hearing  that  his  formidable  antagonist  was  no 
 more,  attacked  the  traitor,  whom  he  easily  defeated. 
 lie  was  taken  prisoner,  and  afterward  executed  as  an 
 enemy  to  his  country ;  and  in  this  way  ended  a  war 
 which  at  one  time  threatened  the  overthrow  of  the 
 whole  fabric  of  the  Roman  power  in  Spain. — Of  Ser- 
 torius it  has  justly  been  remarked,  that  his  great  quali- 
 ties and  military  talents  would  have  undoubtedly  raised 
 him  to  the  first  rank  among  the  chiefs  of  his  coun- 
 try, had  he  been,  not  the  leader  of  a  party,  but  the 
 commander  of  a  stale.  With  nothing  to  support  him 
 but  the  resources  of  his  own  mind,  he  created  a  pow- 
 erful kingdom  among  strangers,  and  defended  it  for 
 more  than  ten  years  against  the  arms  of  Rome,  al- 
 though wielded  by  the  ablest  generals  of  his  time  ;  and 
 he  displayed  public  and  private  virtues  which  would 
 have  rendered  a  people  happy  under  his  rule  at  a  less 
 turbulent  period.  {^Plut.,  Vit.  Sertor. —  Veil.  Paterc, 
 2,  30,  seqq.—Flor.,  3,  21,  scqq.) 
 
 Servilia  Lex,  I.  de  Pecimiis  repetundis,  by  C. 
 Servilius,  the  praetor,  A.U.C.  653.  It  ordained  se- 
 verer penalties  than  formerly  against  extortion  ;  and 
 that  the  defendant  should  have  a  second  hearing. 
 {Cic.  in  Verr.,  1,  9.) — II.  Another,  de  Jiidicibus,  by 
 Q.  Servilius  Caspio,  the  consul,  A.U.C.  647.  It  di- 
 vided the  right  of  judging  between  the  senators  and 
 the  equites,  a  privilege  which,  though  originally  be- 
 longing to  the  senators,  had  been  taken  from  them  by 
 the  Sempronian  Law,  and  given  to  the  equites,  who 
 had  exercised  it,  in  consequence,  for  seventeen  years. 
 {Cic,  Brut.,  43,  seq.  —  Tac,  Ann,  12,  60,)  — III. 
 Another,  dc  Civitate,  by  C.  Servilius Glaucia,  ordained 
 that  if  a  Latin  accused  a  Roman  senator  so  that  he 
 was  condemned,  the  accuser  should  be  honoured  with 
 the  name  and  the  privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen. — IV. 
 Another,  Agraria,  by  P.  Servilius  RuUus,  the  tribune, 
 A.U.C.  690.  It  ordained  that  ten  commissioners 
 should  be  created,  with  absolute  power,  for  five  years, 
 over  all  the  revenues  of  the  republic  ;  to  buy  and  sell 
 what  lands  they  saw  fit,  at  what  price  and  from  whom 
 they  chose  ;  to  distribute  them  at  pleasure  to  the  citi- 
 zens ;  to  settle  new  colonies  wherever  they  judged 
 proper,  and  particularly  in  Campania,  &c.  But  this 
 law  was  prevented  from  being  passed  by  the  eloquence 
 of  Cicero,  who  was  then  consul.     {Cic.  in  Pis.,  2.) 
 
 Servilius,  I.  Pubi.ius  Ahai.a,  a  master  of  horse  to 
 the  dictator  Cincinnatus.  When  Majlius  refused  to 
 appear  before  the  dictator  to  answer  the  accusations 
 which  were  brought  against  him  on  suspicion  of  his 
 aspiring  to  tyranny,  Ahala  slew  him  in  the  midst  of 
 the  people  whose  protection  he  claimed.  Ahala  was 
 accused  of  this  murder,  and  banished  ;  but  this  sen- 
 tence was  afterward  repealed.  He  was  raised  to  the 
 dictatorship. — II.  Publius,  a  proconsul  of  Asia  during 
 the  age  of  Milhradates.  He  conquered  Isauria,  for 
 which  service  he  was  surnamed  hauricus,  and  re- 
 warded with  a  triumph.  (Fi(L  Isauria.) — III.  Nonia- 
 nus,  a  Latin  historian,  who  wrote  a  history  of  Rome 
 in  the  reign  of  Nero.  He  is  praised  by  Quinlilian 
 (10,  1,  102). 
 
 Sekvius,  I.  TuLLius,  the  sixth  king  of  Rome.     The 
 
 accounts  respecting  his  origin  are  as  obscure  as  those 
 
 of  any  of  his  predecessors.     The  most   ancient  and 
 
 poetical  legend  represents  him  as  the  son  of  Ocrisia, 
 
 1222 
 
 a  captive  and  slave  of  Tanaquil,  the  wife  of  Tarqum 
 ius  Priscus,  by  the  Lar,  or  household  god.  Later  le- 
 gends made  him  a  son  of  one  of  the  king's  clients,  and 
 for  some  time  a  slave  ;  or  the  son  of  a  man  of  rank 
 and  power  in  one  of  the  conquered  Latin  cities,  who 
 being  slain  in  the  war,  his  widow  was  carried  to  Rome 
 in  her  pregnancy,  and  she  and  her  infant  son  were 
 protected  by  Tanaquil.  Another  account  of  the  ori- 
 gin of  Servius  has  been  preserved  by  a  speech  of  the 
 Emperor  Claudius,  as  given  in  the  Etruscan  Annals. 
 This  speech  was  engraved  on  a  brass  plate,  and  was 
 dug  up  at  Lyons  about  two  centuries  ago.  Ii  is  now 
 preserved  in  that  city.  It  was  printed  by  Brotier  at 
 the  end  of  his  edition  of  Tacitus,  and  has  been  also 
 published  in  the  Collections  of  Inscriptions.  Claudius 
 begins  to  recount  how  often  the  form  of  government 
 had  been  changed,  and  even  the  royal  dignity  bestowed 
 on  foreigners.  Then  he  says  of  Servius  Tullius,  ■'  Ac- 
 cording to  our  Annals,  he  was  the  son  of  the  captive 
 Ocrisia  ;  but  if  we  follow  the  Tuscans,  he  was  the 
 faithful  follower  of  Ca>les  Vibenna^  and  shared  all 
 his  fortunes.  At  last,  quitting  Etruria  with  the  re- 
 mains of  the  army  which  had  served  under  Caeles,  he 
 went  to  Rome,  and  occupied  the  Czelian  Hill,  giving 
 it  that  name  after  his  former  commander.  He  ex- 
 changed his  Tuscan  name,  Mastama,  for  a  Roman  one, 
 obtained  the  kingly  power,  and  employed  it  to  the  great 
 advantage  of  the  state."  (Nieb  ,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 381.) — All  accounts,  however,  represent  him  as  enjoy- 
 ing the  favour  of  Tarquin  and  his  queen,  as  having 
 married  the  daughter  of  that  monarch,  and  obtaining  the 
 throne  in  a  great  measure  by  the  judicious  manage- 
 ment of  the  latter.  It  would  seem  as  if  Servius  had 
 in  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  encountered  the 
 opposition  of  the  patricians.  He  is  said  not  to  have 
 allowed  any  interregnum,  or  to  have  permitted  the  sen- 
 ate to  take  the  lead  in  his  election  to  the  sovereignty; 
 but,  as  he  had  already  acted  as  king  before  the  death 
 of  Tarquinius  was  publicly  known,  to  have  made  a  di- 
 rect application,  without  any  other  preliminary  pro- 
 cess, to  the  comitia  curiala,  and  to  have  been  by  them 
 invested  with  the  powers  of  former  kings.  The  only 
 historical  conclusion  which  can  be  deduced  from  these 
 incidental  notices  is,  that  a  contest  had  begun  be- 
 tween the  kings  and  the  patrician  body,  in  which  the 
 kings  deemed  it  their  soundest  policy  to  diminish  the 
 power  of  the  patricians,  in  order  to  maintain  their  own. 
 But  as  no  direct  diminution  of  their  power  could  have 
 been  attempted  without  exciting  an  immediate  insur- 
 rection, it  was  deemed  expedient  by  these  kings  to 
 raise  a  counterbalancing  power  in  the  state,  which, 
 having  received  its  existence  from  them,  might  be  ex- 
 pected to  lend  them  aid  in  repressing  the  exorbitant 
 power  of  the  patrician  body,  combined  with  their  he- 
 reditary privileges.  That  Servius  was  a  friend  of  the 
 people,  and  that  the  patricians  hated  and  plotted  against 
 him,  appears  from  a  passage  of  Fesius  :  "  Patricius 
 Vicus  Roma  dictus  eo  quod  ihi  patric.ii  Italilavcrunt, 
 jubenle  Servio  Tullio,  ut,  si  quid  violircntur  adversus 
 ip.ivm,  ex  locis  supcrioribus  oppnmerenlur."  Indeed, 
 it  might  be  indirectly  gathered  from  the  statement  of 
 Livy  (1,  44),  that  he  chose  his  habitation  on  the  Es- 
 quilme,  for  that  was  the  plebeian  quarter.  (Dion. 
 Hal.,  4,  13.)  The  government  of  Servius  Tullius 
 was,  from  beginning  to  end,  a  sort  of  revolution.  The 
 organic  changes  ascribed  to  him  can  hardly  be  con-  '! 
 ccived  of,  as  projected  under  any  but  republican  insti- 
 tutions. At  all  events,  they  seem  to  have  paved  the 
 way  for  the  republic.  Servius  prepared  his  constitu- 
 tional innovations  by  a  division  of  land  and  of  building- 
 ground  for  habitations  to  the  poor.  His  constitution, 
 however,  had  no  resemblance  to  a  pure  democracy 
 Property  was  adopted  as  the  standard  for  apportioning 
 the  public  contributions  and  franchise ;  and  on  this 
 principle  his  famous  division  into  classes  was  based. 
 When  it  is  considered    that   out   of  a  hundred  and 
 
SERVIUS. 
 
 SES 
 
 eighty-nine  (or  ninety-three)  centuries,  the  first  class 
 alone  contained  eighty,  to  which  must  be  added  the 
 eighteen  centuries  of  cquilcs,  and  that  the  last  class  had 
 either  only  one  voice  or  none  at  all,  it  is  easy  to  see 
 that  Servius,  if  in  effect  he  made  this  arrangement, 
 euhstituted  an  aristocracy  of  wealth  for  the  former  pa- 
 trician preponderance  in  the  curies..    As  in  these  times 
 the  property  of  land  was  for  the  most  part  in  the  hands 
 of  the  patricians,  they  of  course  retamed  preponder- 
 ance in  the  new  aristocracy  likewise.     But  this  was 
 accidental,  and  soon  ceased  to  be  the  case. — The  war- 
 like undertakings  of  Servius  were  pruicipally  directed 
 against  the  Etrurians.     He  is  said  to  have  carried  on 
 war,  for  twenty  years,  with  the  citizens  of  Veil,  Casre, 
 Tarquinii,  and,  lastly,  with  the  collective  force  of  the 
 Etruscans,  till  all  allowed  the  pre-eminence  of  Rome 
 and  her  king. — Servius  enlarged   the  city,  so   as  to 
 bring  within  its  compass  the  Viminal  and  Esquiline 
 Hills ;  he  finished  the  work  begun  by  Tarquinius,  by 
 building  the  walls  of  the  city  of  hewn  stone  ;  and,  for 
 the  purpose  of  consolidating  more  firmly  the  union  of 
 the  races  of  which  the  nation  was  composed,  he  erect- 
 ed the  temple  of  Diana  on  the  Aventine  Hill,  which  was 
 to  be  the  chief  abode  of  the  Latin  population  recently 
 brought  to  Rome. — The  horrible  tale  of  the  last  Tar- 
 quin's  accession  to   the  throne  might  be  regarded  as 
 incredible,  were  it  not  that  Italian  history  in  the  mid- 
 dle ages  affords  us  many  similar  examples.     The  nar- 
 rative in  question  is  as  follows:  The  two  daughters 
 of  Servius  were  married  to  the   two  sons  of  the  elder 
 Tarquin.     The  one  murdered  her  husband  Aruns,  and 
 her  sister,  with  the  aid    of  the  other  son  of  Tarquin, 
 and  paved  the  way  to  the  throne  for  herself  and  her 
 new  husband  by  the  murder  of  her  father. — The  per- 
 sonal   existence   of   Servius  Tullius   is   regarded    by 
 many  recent  writers  as  involved  in  considerable  doubt. 
 The   constitution  of  the  classes  and  centuries  is  as 
 real  as  Magna  Charla,  or  the  Bill  of  Rights,  in  Eng- 
 .ish  history  ;  yet  its  pretended  author  seems  scarcely 
 a  more  historical  personage  than  King  Arthur.     We 
 do  not  even  know  with  certainty  his  name  or  his  race  ; 
 still  less  can  we  trust  the  pretended  chronology  of  the 
 common  story.     The  last  three  reigns,  according  to 
 Livy,  occupied  a  space  of  107  years;  yet  the  king, 
 who,  at  the  end  of  this  period,  is  expelled  in  mature, 
 but  not  in  declining  age,  is  the  son  of  the  king  who 
 ascends  the  throne  a  grown  man,  in  the  vigour  of  life, 
 at  the  beginning  of  it :    Servius  marries  the  daughter 
 of  Tarquinius  a  short  time  before  he  is  made  king,  yet 
 immediately  after  his  accession  he  is  the  father  of  two 
 grown-up  daughters,  whom  he  marries  to  the  brothers 
 of  his  own  wife.     The  sons  of  Ancus  Marcius  wait  pa- 
 tiently eight-and-thirty  years,  ajid  then  murder  Tar- 
 quinius to  obtain  a  throne  which  they  had  seen  him  so 
 long  quietly  occupy.     Still,  then,  we  are,  in  a  manner, 
 upon  enchanted  ground  ;  the  unreal  and  the  real  are 
 strangely  mixed  up  together  ;   but,  although  some  real 
 elements  exist,  yet  the  general  picture  before  us  is  a 
 mere  fantasy  :  single  trees  and  buildings  may  be  cop- 
 ied from  nature,  but  their  grouping  is  ideal,  and  they 
 are  placed  in  the  midst  of  fairy  palaces  and  fairy  be- 
 ings, whose  originals  this  earth  never  witnessed.    (Liv., 
 1,  41,  scyq. — Jlclkcnngtons  History  of  Rome,  p.  23, 
 seqq. — Arnold's  Roman  History,  vol.  1,  p.  48,  scqq.) 
 —  H.  Sulpitius  Rufus,  an  eminent   Roman  jurist  and 
 statesman,  descended  from  an  illustrious  family.     He 
 was  contemporary  with  Cicero,  and  probably  born  about 
 a  century  B.C.     He  cultivated  polite  literature  from  a 
 very  early  period,  es|)ccially  philosophy  and    poetry. 
 At  an  early  age  he  appeared  as  a  pleader  at  the  bar. 
 In  consequence  of  a  reproof  received  from  Quintus  Mu- 
 cins, an  eminent  lawyer,  grounded  upon  his  ignorance 
 of  the  law,  he  applied  himself  with  great  industry  to 
 legal  studies,  and  became  one  of  the  most  eminent 
 lawyers  of  Rome.     Cicero  highly  commends  his  legal 
 knowledge.     Sulpitius  passed  through  the  various  civil 
 
 offices  of  the  Roman  state,  and  was  consul  B.C.  51. 
 Caesar  made  him  governor  of  Achaia  after  the  battle 
 of  Pharsalia  ;  but,  when  that  chief  was  taken  off,  Sul- 
 pitius returned  to  Rome,  and  acted  with  the  republi- 
 can party.  He  died  in  the  camp  of  Antony,  under  the 
 walls  of  Modena,  having  been  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
 that  leader  from  the  Roman  senate.  Cicero,  in  his 
 9th  Philippic,  pleads  for  a  brazen  statue  to  be  erected 
 to  Sulpitius,  which  honour  was  granted  by  the  senate. 
 —  HI.  Honoratus  Maurus,  a  learned  grammarian  in. 
 the  age  of  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  He  has  left  Latin 
 commentaries  upon  Virgil,  still  extant.  These  are, 
 however,  considered  rather  as  a  collection  of  ancient 
 remarks  and  criticisms  on  the  poet  than  as  composed 
 by  himself.  They  contain  many  valuable  notices  of 
 the  geography  and  arts  of  antiquity.  The.se  commen- 
 taries are  found  annexed  to  some  of  the  older  editions 
 of  Virgil.  They  are  most  correctly  given  in  the  edi- 
 tion of  Virgil  by  Burmann,  Amsl.,  1746,  4  vols.  4to. 
 
 Sesostris,  a  celebrated  king  of  Egypt,  whose  era 
 will  be  considered  in  the  course  of  the  present  article. 
 According  to  the  common  account,  his  father  ordered 
 all  the  children  in  his  dominions  who  were  born  on  the 
 same  day  with  him  to  be  publicly  educated,  and  to  pass 
 their  youth  in  the  company  of  his  son.     This  plan  suc- 
 ceeded fully,  and   Sesostris,  on  attaining  to  manhood, 
 saw  himself  surrounded  by  a  number  of  faithful  min- 
 isters and  active  warriors,  whose  education  and  inti- 
 macy with  their  prince  rendered  them  inseparably  de- 
 voted to  his  interest.     When  Sesostris,  after  achiev- 
 ing several  brilliant  conquests  as  his  father's  lieuten- 
 ant, had  succeeded  his  parent  on  the  throne,  he  became 
 ambitious  of  military  fame,  and,  after  he  had  divided 
 his  kingdom  into  36  different  districts  or  nomes,  he 
 marched  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army  to  make  the 
 conquest  of  the  world.     Libya,  JIthiopia,  Arabia,  with 
 all  the  islands  of  the  Red  Sea,  were  conquered,  and 
 the  victorious  monarch  marched    through   Asia,  and 
 penetrated  farther  into  the  East  than  the  conqueror 
 of  Darius.     He   also    invaded   Europe,  and   subdued 
 the  Thracians  ;  and,  that  the  fame  of  his  conquests 
 might  long  survive  him,  he  placed  columns  and  im- 
 ages in  the  several  provinces  he  had  subdued  ;  and, 
 many  ages  after,   inscriptions  were  still   to  be  seen 
 commemorating  his  conquests.     At  his  return  home 
 the  monarch  employed   his   time  in  encouraging  the 
 fine  arts,  and  in  improving  the  revenues  of  his  king- 
 dom.    He  erected  one  hundred  temples  to  the  gods 
 for  the  victories  he  had  obtained,  and  mounds  of  earth 
 were    heaped   up   in   several   parts  of  Egypt,  where 
 cities  were  built  for  the  reception  of  the  inhabitants 
 during  the  inundations  of  the  Nile.     After  a  long  and 
 glorious  reign,  Sesostris,  now  grown  old  and  infirm, 
 is  said    to  have  destroyed   himself.     (Diod.   Sic,   1, 
 53,  scqq.) — Such  is  the  common  legend  relative  to 
 this  celebrated  king  and  conqueror  :   the  hero  of  Cham- 
 pollion's  system,  as  of  all  early  Egyptian  history,  and, 
 if  we  are  to  believe  Diodorus,  of  their  poetry,  the  Se- 
 sostris of  Herodotus,  the   Sesoosis  of  Diodorus,  the 
 Sethos  of  Manetho,  the    Rhamses  the   Great  of  the 
 monuments,  he  appears  at  the  head  of  the  nineteenth 
 dynasty  as  the  greatest  of  the  Theban  kings.     Every- 
 where this  mighty  monarch  stands  forth  in  prominent 
 grandeur.     Before  and  in  the  temples  of  the  Southern 
 Ipsambul,  no  less  than  in  Thebes  and   in  the  ruins  of 
 Memphis,  his  colossal  statues  appear  stamped,  Cham- 
 pollion  asserts,  with  the  reality  of  portraiture.     In  al- 
 most every  temple,  up  to  the  confines  of  .Ethiopia, 
 his  deeds  and    triumphs   are  wrought    in   relief  and 
 painting.     The  greater  part  of  the  celebrated  obelisks 
 either  are  inscribed   to  him  or  bear  his  record.     That 
 of  the  Lateran  has  been  long  known  (from  the  curious 
 interpretation  of  it  in  Ammianus  Marcellinus)  to- be- 
 long to  a  King  Rameses  ;  one  side  of  Cleopatra's  Nee- 
 dle is  occupied  with  his  deeds;  and,  besides  his  le- 
 gends in  the  ruins  of  Luxor  and  Carnac,  the  immensfl 
 
 1223 
 
SESOSTRIS. 
 
 SESOSTRIS. 
 
 edifice  on  the  western  side  of  the  river,  which  corre- 
 sponds with  singular,  if  not  perfect,  exactness  to  the 
 magnificent  palace  of  Osyniaodyas  described  by  Dio- 
 dorus,  is  so  covered  with  his  legends  as  to  be  named 
 by  Champollion,  without  the  least  hesitation,  the 
 Rhameseion. — The  date  of  the  accession  of  Sesostris, 
 as  the  head  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  is  of  great  im- 
 portance, but,  like  all  such  points,  involved  in  much 
 diriiculty.  M.  Champollion  Figeac,  by  an  ingenious 
 argument  deduced  from  the  celebrated  Sothic  period 
 of  1460  years,  reckoned  according  to  data  furnished 
 by  Ccnsorinus,  and  a  well-known  fragment  of  Theon 
 of  Alexandrea,  makes  out  the  date  of  1473  B.C.  Dr. 
 Young  assumes  1424.  Mr.  Mure  maintains  that  it 
 cannoi  be  placed  higher  than  1410,  nor  lovver  than 
 1400.  {Remarks  on  the  Chronology  of  the  Egyjptia7\ 
 Dynasties,  Land.,  1829.)  M.  Champollion  Figeac's 
 argument  is  unsatisfactory,  and  chielly  from  the  un- 
 certainty of  fixing  the  reign  of  Menophres,  which  is  the 
 basis  of  the  whole  system,  and  which  is  altogether  a 
 gratuitous  assumption.  It  appears,  however,  that  the 
 question  may  be  brought  to  a  short,  if  not  precise,  con- 
 clusion. The  first  date  which  approximates  to  cer- 
 tainty is  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Sesac  or  Se- 
 sonchosis  ;  the  first  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty,  in 
 the  year  971,  or,  at  the  earliest,  975  B.C.  What, 
 then,  was  the  intervening  time  between  this  event  and 
 the  accession  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty"!  The  reigns 
 of  the  three  series,  as  given  by  Mr.  Mure  from  the  va- 
 rious authorities,  stand  thus  :  and  first  from  Eusebius 
 in  the  Latin  text  of  Jerome  : 
 
 Nineteenth  Dynasty  .        .        ,        ,        194 
 
 Twetitieth         '• ]T8 
 
 Twenty  first     " )30 
 
 502 
 Add  date  of  capture  of  Jerusalem    ,        .        971 
 
 1473 
 
 Next  from  Eusebius,  according  to  the  Greek  text 
 (Syncellus — Scaliger)  ; 
 
 Nineteenth  Dynasty  ....        202  (1943 
 
 Twentieth        " 178 
 
 Twenty  first     " 130 
 
 510 
 Add  as  before 971 
 
 1481 
 
 Next  from  Eusebius,  according  to  the  Armenian  text : 
 
 Nineteenth  Dynasty  ....        194 
 
 'J'wenlieth        " 172 
 
 Twenty-first     " 130 
 
 406 
 Add 971 
 
 HC7 
 
 Next  from  Africanus  (Syncellus)  : 
 
 Nineteenth  Dynasty         ....        210(204) 
 
 Twentieth         " 135 
 
 Twenty-first    " 130 
 
 475 
 Add   ...  ....        971 
 
 144tj 
 
 And,  lastly,  from  the  Old  Chronicle  : 
 
 Nineteenth  Dynasty         ....        104 
 
 Twentieth        " 228 
 
 Tvventy-flrst    " 121 
 
 543 
 \:<M 971 
 
 1514 
 
 The  question  resolves  itself  into  the  relative  degrees  of 
 weight  attached  to  Africanus,  Eusebius,  or  the  Old 
 Chronicle,  as  to  the  reign  of  the  Twentieth  Dynasty. 
 It  should  be  observed,  that  there  may  be  five  years  of 
 error  in  the  date  of  the  capture  of  J^erusalcm,  and  it 
 is  uncertain  at  what  period  in  the  reign  of  Sesac  that 
 1224 
 
 event  tool%  p^ace.  M.  Champollion  Figeac's  date,  there- 
 fore, for  diircrent  reasons  from  his  own,  is  as  probable 
 as  any  other.— Ancient  history  is  full  of  the  triumphs 
 of  this  Egyp.tian  Alexander  :  was  it  the  echo  of  native 
 legends,  either  poetical,  or,  if  historical,  embellished 
 by  national  vanity,  or  containing  substantial  truth? 
 The  memorable  passage  in  Tacitus  is  at  once  the  most 
 brief  and  the  fullest  statement  of  the  glories  of  his 
 reign.  On  the  visit  of  Germanicus  to  Thebes,  the 
 elder  of  the  priests,  interpreting  the  inscriptions  in  his 
 native  language,  related  to  the  wondering  Roman  tho 
 forces,  the  conquests  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  Europe,  and 
 the  tribute  levied  by  the  Great  Rhamses.  {Tacitiis, 
 Ann.,  2,  60.) — Let  us  trace  this  line  of  conquest, 
 which  appeared  so  vast,  and  perhaps  romantic,  as  to 
 have  induced  those  writers  who,  tovi'ards  the  end  of  the 
 last  century,  were  for  resolving  all  history,  mytliology, 
 and  religion  into  astronomy,  upon  grounds  rather  more 
 plausible  than  usual,  to  consider  the  great  king  of 
 Egypt  no  more  than  a  mythological  personification  of 
 "  the  giant  that  rejoiceth  to  run  his  course  from  one 
 end  of  Heaven  to  the  other."  The  first  conquest  gen- 
 erally attributed  to  Sesostris  is  ^-Ethiopia.  Some  wri- 
 ters, indeed,  make  hitii  commence  with  a  maritime 
 expedition  against  Cyprus  and  Phoenicia  ;  but  the 
 most  probable  account  states  that,  either  during  his 
 father's  life  or  after  his  own  accession,  he  led  the  tri- 
 umphant banners  of  Egypt  along  the  whole  course  of 
 the  Nile  to  the  sacred  Meroe.  He  conquered,  says 
 Diodorus,  the  southern  ^Ethiopians,  and  forced  them 
 to  pay  tribute,  ebony,  gold,  and  elephants'  teeth.  No- 
 vi'here  do  the  monuments  so  strikingly  illustrate  the 
 history.  In  the  Nubian  temples,  representations  of 
 the  victories  of  this  great  king  line  the  walls.  One  at 
 Kalabsche  has  been  described  with  great  spirit  by 
 Heeren,  from  Gau's  engravings.  It  represents  a  na- 
 ked queen  with  her  children  imploring  the  mercy  of 
 the  conqueror.  Now,  though  female  sovereigns  were 
 rarely  known  in  Egypt,  in  Ethiopia  they  were  com- 
 mon. Even  at  a  late  period,  the  Candace  of  the  Acts 
 will  occur  to  every  reader.  Besides  the  queen,  ihere 
 are  the  spoils  at  the  feet  of  the  conqueror,  what  seems 
 to  be  ivory,  with  golden  ingots,  and  huge  logs  of  eb- 
 ony. We  proceed  on  our  course,  first  remarking  a 
 fact  which,  if  we  remember  rightly,  has  escaped  the 
 notice  of  Heeren,  that  the  career  of  Sesostris  is  led 
 precisely  along  the  line  on  which  he  has  traced,  with 
 so  much  ingenuity  and  research,  the  road  of  ancient 
 commerce.  It  might  almost  seem  that  the  conqueror 
 followed  the  track  of  the  caravan  or  fleet,  to  plunder 
 or  make  hiinself  master  of  the  successive  centres  or 
 emporia  of  commerce,  and  of  the  different  countries 
 from  which  the  richest  articles  of  trafiic  were  sent 
 forth.  The  first  step,  as  stated,  was  the  subjugation 
 of  ^^Dthiopia,  the  next  of  Africa  to  the  west :  of  this, 
 it  is  true,  we  have  but  an  indifferent  voucher,  that  of 
 a  Latin  poet,  and  one,  in  general,  more  to  be  suspected 
 of  tumid  hyperbole  than  his  brethren,  namely,  Lucan. 
 {Venit  ad  occasum,  miindinuc  cxlrcma  Sesostris,  10, 
 276  )  Still,  some  extensive  subjugation  of  the  Libyan 
 tribes  inay  be  assumed  without  much  hesitation.  The 
 wild  animals  of  the  desert  are  perpetually  led  in  the 
 triumphs  of  the  Egyptians — the  antelopes,  the  apes, 
 the  giraffes,  and  the  ostriches. — Arabia,  to  the  older 
 world,  was  the  land  of  wonder  and  of  wealth.  From 
 the  Hebrew  prophets,  who  delighted  to  dwelTon  "the 
 gifts  to  be  brought  from  Arabia  and  Saba,"  to  the  la- 
 tost  Greek  and  Latin  poets,  the  geographer  Dionysius 
 and  the  luxuriant  Nonnus,  the  riches  and  marvels  of 
 the  land  and  people  arc  perpetually  displayed.  Araby 
 the  Blessed,  either  producing  or  possessing  the  car- 
 rying trade  of  those  costly  spices  and  incenses  which 
 were  so  prodigally  used  in  Egypt  in  embalming  the 
 dead  and  worshipping  the  gods,  would  naturally  be  an 
 object  of  ambition  to  an  Egyptian  conqueror.  Ac- 
 cordingly, even  before  the  triumphant  career  of  Rham- 
 
SESOSTRIS. 
 
 SESOSTRIS. 
 
 Bes  the  Great,  curious  vestiges  of  Egyptian  conquest 
 in  the  Arabian  peninsula  have  been  brought  to  light, 
 and  Arabah  ^the  Red  Earth)  is  described  as  under  the 
 feet  of  Rameses  Meiamoun,  in  one  of  those  curious 
 representations  of  his  conquests  said  to  line  the  walls 
 at  Medinet-Abou.  It  was  on  a  height  overlooking  the 
 narrow  strait  which  divides  Africa  from  Arabia  that 
 Sesostris,  according  to  Strabo,  erected  one  of  his  col- 
 umns. The  wars  between  the  later  Abyssinian  kings 
 and  the  sovereigns  of  Yemen,  in  the  centuries  prece- 
 ding Mohammed,  may  illustrate  these  conquests.  The 
 hatred  or  terror  of  the  sea  attributed  to  the  later 
 Eo-yptians  was  either  unknown  to  or  disdained,  as  the 
 monuments  clearly  prove,  by  the  great  Theban  kings  ; 
 more  than  one  regular  naval  engagement,  as  well  as 
 descents  from  invading  fleets,  being  represented  in 
 the  sculptures.  On  the  Red  Sea,  Sesostris,  according 
 to  history,  fitted  out  a  navy  of  four  hundred  sail  ;  but 
 whither  did  he  or  his  admirals  sail  1  Did  they  com- 
 mit themselves  to  the  trade-winds,  and  boldly  stretch 
 across  towards  the  land  of  gold  and  spice?  Are  some 
 of  the  hill-forts  represented  in  the  sculptures  those  of 
 India  1  Did  his  triumphant  arms  pass  the  Ganges  1 
 Do  the  Indian  hunches  on  the  cattle,  noticed  by  Mr. 
 Hamilton,  confirm  the  legend  so  constantly  repeated 
 of  his  conquests  in  that  land  of  ancient  fable  1  Or, 
 according  to  the  modest  account  of  Herodotus,  did 
 they  coast  cautiously  along,  and  put  back  when  they 
 encountered  some  formidable  shoals  1  Did  they  fol- 
 low the  course  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  assail  the  rising 
 monarchies  of  the  Assyrians  and  Medes,  or  press  on 
 to  that  great  kingdom  of  Bactria,  which  dimly  arises 
 amid  the  gloom  of  the  earliest  ages,  the  native  place 
 of  Zoroaster,  and  the  cradle  of  the  Magian  religion  1 
 ChampoUion  boldly  names  Assyrians,  Medes,  and 
 Bactrians  as  exhibited  on  the  monuments  ;  but  the 
 strange  and  barbarous  appellations  which  he  has  read, 
 as  far  as  we  remember,  bear  no  resemblance  to  those 
 of  any  of  the  Oriental  tribes  ;  earlier  travellers,  how- 
 ever, have  observed  that  the  features,  costume,  and 
 arms  of  the  nations  with  which  the  Egyptians  join 
 battle  are  clearly  Asiatic  ;  the  long,  flowing  robes,  the 
 line  of  face,  the  beards,  the  shields,  in  many  respects 
 are  remarkably  similar  to  those  on  the  Babylonian  cyl- 
 inders and  the  sculptures  of  Persepolis.  "The  do- 
 minions of  Sesostris,"  our  legend  proceeds,  "  spreads 
 over  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor.  His  images  were  still 
 to  be  seen  in  the  days  of  Herodotus,  one  on  the  road 
 between  Ephesus  and  Phocaea,  and  another  between 
 Smyrna  and  Sardis.  They  were  five  palms  high, 
 armed  in  the  Egyptian  and  Ethiopian  manner,  and 
 held  a  javelin  in  one  hand  and  a  bow  in  the  other  ; 
 across  the  breast  ran  a  line,  with  an  inscription  : 
 '  This  region  I  conquered  by  my  strength  (lit.  my 
 shoulders).'  They  were  mistaken  for  statues  of  Mem- 
 non."  This  universal  conqueror  spread  his  dominion 
 into  Europe  ;  but  Thrace  was  the  limit  of  his  victo- 
 ries. On  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Eu,xine  he  left,  ac- 
 cording to  tradition,  a  part  of  his  army,  the  ances- 
 tors of  the  circumcised  people,  the  Colchians.  But 
 his  most  formidable  enemies  were  the  redoubted 
 Scythians.  Pliny  and  other  later  writers  assert  that 
 he  was  vanquished  by  them,  and  fled.  But  Egyptian 
 pride  cither  disguised  or  had  reason  to  deny  the  defeat 
 of  iier  hero.  There  is  a  striking  story  in  Herodotus,  that 
 when  the  victorious  Darius  commanded  that  his  statue 
 should  take  the  place  of  that  of  Sesostris,  the  priests 
 boldly  interfered,  and  asserted  the  superiority  of  their 
 monarch,  who  had  achieved  what  Darius  had  in  vain  a*,- 
 tem[ited,  the  subjugation  of  the  Scythians. — Are  we 
 then  to  dismiss  all  this  long  history  of  triumphs  and 
 conquests  into  the  regions  of  mythic  or  allegoric  legend  1 
 Are  we  to  consider  it  the  pure  creation  or  the  monstrous 
 exaggeration  of  national  vanity  1  to  resolve  it  into  the 
 audacious  mendacity  of  the  priest  or  the  licensed  fiction 
 of  the  bard  1     A  priori,  there  is  nothing  improbable  in 
 
 the  existence  of  one  or  of  a  line  of  Egyptian  conquer- 
 ors :  Egypt  was  as  likely  to  send  forth  "  its  mighty 
 hunter,  whose  game  w*s  man,"  as  Assyria,  Persia, 
 Macedonia,  Arabia,  or  Tartary.  On  the  other  hand, 
 we  have  the  uniform  testimony  of  ancient  history,  an- 
 cient tradition,  and  existing  monuments.  Egyptian 
 history  is  reported  to  us  by  every  ancient  author, 
 Herodotus,  Diodorus,  Manetho,  Strabo,  and  is  assu- 
 redly deserving  of  as  much  credit  as  the  scattered  frag- 
 ments of  the  Oriental  annals,  which  bear  the  name  of 
 Berosus  or  Sanchoniathon,  or  the  traditions  preserved 
 by  more  modern  antiquaries.  The  only  history  which 
 approximates  to  this  period  is  that  of  the  Bible,  and 
 this  we  shall  presently  consider.  How  far  the  general 
 tradition  may  be  traced  to  Egypt  as  its  sole  fountain- 
 head,  may  be  doubted  ;  there  is  some  semblance  of  a 
 connexion  with  Scythian  tradition  preserved  in  Justin 
 and  Jornandes  ;  in  the  former  we  find  the  name  of  a 
 Scythian  king  contemporary  with  Sesostris.  But  the 
 monuments  which  cover  the  walls  of  the  Nubian  cit- 
 ies, more  particularly  of  Thebes,  afl!brd  the  strongest 
 confirmation  to  the  extensive  conquests  of  one  or  more 
 of  the  mighty  Pharaohs.  These  monuments,  entirely 
 independent,  it  must  be  remembered,  of  the  interpre- 
 tations of  their  legends  by  ("hampollion,  represent  bat- 
 tles and  sieges,  combats  by  land  and  sea,  in  countries 
 apparently  not  African,  against  nations  which  have 
 every  character  of  remote,  probably  Asiatic  races. 
 There  are  rivers  which  cannot  be  the  Nile  ;  fortresses 
 which,  in  their  local  character,  seem  totally  unlike 
 those  of  the  districts  bordering  on  Egypt. — But  how  is 
 it  that  the  sacred  writings  preserve  a  profound  silence 
 on  all  the  invasions,  conquests,  and  triumphs  of  this 
 Egyptian  Alexander,  or,  if  ChampoUion  is  to  be  cred- 
 ited, this  race  of  Alexanders'!  We  must  take  up  the 
 question  of  the  connexion  between  the  sacred  and 
 Egyptian  history  at  an  earlier  period.  On  this  inter- 
 esting inquiry  two  writers,  M.  Coquerel,  a  Protestant, 
 and  M.  Greppo,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine,  have  en- 
 tered with  much  candour  and  ingenuity.  To  what  pe- 
 riod in  the  Egyptian  history  is  the  Mosaic  Exodus 
 to  be  assigned!  This  question  seems  to  have  been 
 debated,  if  we  may  so  speak,  on  the  scene  of  action 
 among  the  Jewish  and  Grecian  writers  in  Alexandrea. 
 The  fact  was  umversally  admitted,  though  the  chro- 
 nology was  warmly  contested  ;  as  to  the  fact,  it  may- 
 be fearlessly  asserted  that  the  Mosaic  record,  inde- 
 pendent of  its  religious  sanction,  has  generally  as  high 
 a  claim  to  the  character  of  authenticity  and  credibility 
 as  any  ancient  document  ;  he  who  should  reject  it 
 would  not  merely  expose  his  own  sincerity  as  a  be- 
 liever in  revealed  religion,  but  his  judgment  as  a  phil- 
 osophical historian.  Nor  can  we  read  the  histories  of 
 Diodorus,  or  Tacitus,  or  the  treatise  of  Josephus 
 against  Apion,  without  clearly  seeing  that  the  Egyp- 
 tian historians,  however  they  might  disfigure,  no  doubt 
 did  notice  the  servitude  and  the  escape  of  the  Israel- 
 ites from  Egypt.  But  both  this  and  the  chronological 
 question  were  carried  on  with  the  blinding  feelings  of 
 national  pride  and  animosity  on  each  side,  and  it  is  far 
 from  likely  that  we  should  disentangle  the  web  which 
 has  thus  been  ravelled,  nor  can  we  expect  to  receive 
 any  direct  information  on  this  subject  from  the  mon- 
 uments. One  pious  writer  has  taken  alarm  at  this  si- 
 lence ;  but  surely  without  much  reason,  for  the  monu- 
 ments almost  exclusively  belong  to  Upper  Egypt  ; 
 nor  does  a  proud  nation  inscribe  on  its  enduring  sculp- 
 tures its  losses  and  calamities  ;  it  is  the  victorious, 
 not  the  discomfited,  monarch  whose  deeds  are  hewn 
 in  stone. — Both  M.  Coquerel  and  M.  Gref>po  adopt 
 the  common  Usherian  date,  1491,  for  the  Exodus. 
 Now,  though  this  date  is  as  probable  as  jny  other,  we 
 cannot  think  it  certain.  The  great  variation  of  chro- 
 nologists  on  this  point  is  well  known ;  nor  is  any 
 question  of  biblical  criticism  more  open  to  fair  debate 
 than  the  authenticity  of  the  text  of  1  Kiyigs,  6,  1,  the 
 
 1225 
 
SESOSTRIS. 
 
 SESOSTRIS. 
 
 basis  of  this  calculation.  Our  authors  likewise  adopt 
 M.  Champollion  Figeac's  date,  1473,  for  the  access- 
 ion of  Sesostris,  and  tlic  common  term  of  two  hun- 
 dred and  fifteen  years  for  the  residence  of  the  Israel- 
 ites in  Egypt.  Joseph  might  thus  have  been  sold  under 
 Mceris  ;  Jacob  and  his  family  entered  Egypt  under  his 
 successor,  Miphre-Thoutmosis,  and  departed  in  the 
 third  year  of  Ainenophis  Ilhamses,  father  of  Sesostris. 
 Several  curious  incidental  points  make  in  favour  of  this 
 system.  At  a  period  assigned  to  the  ministry  of  Jo- 
 seph, clearly,  the  native  princes  were  on  the  throne  ; 
 the  priesthood  were  in  honour  and  power,  particularly 
 those  of  Phrc.  The  obelisk  raised  by  Moeris  Miphra, 
 at  Heliopolis,  will  be  remembered  :  his  son  likewise 
 bore  the  title  of  Miphre.  Now  Joseph  was  married  to 
 the  daughter  of  Pet-e-phre,  the  priest  of  Phre,  at  On  or 
 Heliopolis.  At  this  period,  too,  the  shepherds  were  re- 
 cently expelled,  and,  therefore,  an  "  abomination  to  the 
 Egyptians,"  and  the  land  of  Goshen  was  vacant  by 
 their  expulsion.  Diodorus,  it  may  be  observed,  gives 
 seven  generations  between  Moeris  and  Sesostris,  which, 
 at  three  for  a  century,  amounts  nearly  to  the  date  of 
 the  residence  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt.  Towards 
 the  close  of  the  period  the  race  of  Rhamses  ascended 
 the  throne  ;  and  Raamses  is  the  name  of  one  of  the 
 cities  built  by  the  oppressed  Israelites.  Such  are  the 
 curious  incidental  illustrations  of  this  system,  the  same, 
 we  may  observe,  with  that  of  Usher  and  Bishop  Cum- 
 berland ;  but  we  must  not  dissemble  the  difficulties. 
 The  Exodus,  according  to  the  dates  adopted,  took 
 place  seventeen  years  before  the  death  of  Amenophis  ; 
 he,  therefore,  could  not  have  been  the  Pharaoh  drowned 
 in  the  Red  Sea ;  a  difficulty  rendered  still  more  start- 
 ling by  the  very  interesting  description  of  the  sepul- 
 chral cave  of  this  Amenophis  V.  by  Champollion,  and 
 which  seems  clearly  to  intimate  that  this  Pharaoh  re- 
 posed with  his  ancestors  in  the  splendid  excavation 
 of  &ban-el-Malook.  Here,  however,  M.  Greppo  moves 
 a  previous  question. — Have  we  distinct  authority  in 
 the  Hebrew  Scriptures  for  the  death  of  Pharaoh  1 
 In  the  contemporary  descriptions  it  is  the  host,  the 
 chariots,  the  horsemen  of  Pharaoh  which  are  swal- 
 lowed up  ;  and  there  is  no  expression  that  intimates, 
 with  any  degree  of  clearness,  the  death  of  the  mon- 
 arch ;  the  earliest  apparently  express  authority  for 
 the  death  of  the  king  is  a  poetic  passage  in  the  one 
 hundred  and  thirty-sixth  Psalm  (v.  15),  which  is  gen- 
 erally considered  to  have  been  written  after  the  cap- 
 tivity, and  even  this  may,  perhaps,  bear  a  different 
 construction.  There  is  a  second  difficulty  still  more 
 formidable. — The  scene  of  the  Mosaic  narrative  is  un- 
 doubtedly laid  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  seems  to  fix  the 
 residence  of  the  kings  in  some  part  of  the  northern  re- 
 gion ;  but  it  seems  equally  clear  that  Thebes  was  the 
 usual  dwelling-place  of  this  Ammonian  race  of  sover- 
 eigns. Tradition  agrees  with  the  general  impression 
 of  the  narrative  ;  it  hovers  between  Tanis  and  Mem- 
 phis, with  a  manifest  predilection  for  the  former.  The 
 Tanitic  branch  of  the  Nile  is  said  to  be  that  on  which 
 Moses  was  exposed;  and  the  "wonders  in  the  field 
 of  Zoan"  indicate  the  same  scenes  on  much  higher  au- 
 thority. The  l.XX.  and  the  Chaldec  [laraphrast  ren- 
 der Zoan  by  Tanis.  We  are  aware  that  Champollion 
 will  not  "  bear  a  rival  near  the  throne"  of  his  magnifi- 
 cent Pharaohs,  and  other  opponents  may  object  the 
 "  all  Egypt"  of  the  Scriptures.  As  to  the  latter  ob- 
 jection, it  may  certainly  be  o'jcstioned  whether  "  all 
 Egypt"  included  the  Thebaid ;  but  if  Champollion 
 (were  we  to  suggest  the  possibility  of  a  collateral  dy- 
 nasty and  a  second  kingdom,  at  this  period,  in  the 
 northern  part  of  the  region)  should  urge  the  improb- 
 ability that  conquering  sovereigns  like  Horus,  Man- 
 dpuee,  or  especially  Rameses  Meiamoun,  would  en- 
 dure the  independence  of  a  part,  as  it  were,  of  the 
 great  Egyptian  monarchy,  we  can  only  rejoin  the  fre- 
 quency with  which  the  great  sovereignties  of  the  East 
 1226 
 
 are  dismembered  by  the  assertion  of  independence  of 
 some  powerful  satrap,  or  the  division  between  the  sons 
 on  the  death  of  a  king.  In  the  twenty-eighth  year  of 
 /Egyptus  (the  Rameses  Meiamoun  of  the  monuments), 
 says  Euscbius,  in  the  Chronicon  (_Arme7i.  Vers.), 
 "  Busiris  in  partibus  Ndi  fiuvii  tyrunnidcm  exerce- 
 hat,  transeunlesque  perigrinos  spoliabat." — Have  any 
 monuments  been  discovered  in  Lower  Egypt  between 
 Moeris  and  Sesostris  1  Would  not  the  restriction  of 
 the  dominions  of  the  latter  part  of  the  great  Theban 
 dynasty  to  Upper  Egypt,  and  of  their  conquests  to  the 
 south  and  east,  account  for  Herodotus,  who  wrote 
 from  Memphian  authority,  making  Sesostris  the  im- 
 mediate successor  of  Moeris  1  Might  not  the  blow  in- 
 flicted on  the  Tanite  kingdom  by  the  loss  of  its  slave 
 population  and  its  army,  enable  Sesostris  with  greater 
 ease  to  consolidate  the  whole  realm  into  one  mighty 
 monarchy  ]  We  are  not,  however,  blind  to  the  ob- 
 jections against  this  scheme,  and  rather  throw  it  out 
 for  consideration  than  urge  it  with  the  least  positive- 
 ness.  Yet  far  be  it  from  us  to  confine  the  inquisitive 
 reader  to  a  choice  between  these  two  hypotheses. 
 He  may  consult  Mr.  Faber,  who  will  inform  him  that 
 the  Pharaoh  who  perished  in  the  Red  Sea  was  one 
 of  the  shepherd  kings.  We  may  turn  to  Josephus, 
 and  find  that  the  shepherds  and  the  Israelites  were  the 
 same  ;  but  by  what  strange  transformation  a  peaceful 
 minister  and  his  family  of  seventy  persons  became  a 
 horde  of  conquering  savages  and  a  dynasty  of  kings, 
 we  are  at  a  loss  to  conceive  :  Perizonius,  however, 
 has  ably  supported  this  untenable  hypothesis.  There 
 is  another  theory,  which  we  are  inclined  to  suspect 
 was  that  of  Manetho,  and,  therefore,  worthy  of  con- 
 sideration ;  but  it  is  so  strangely  disfigured  in  Jose- 
 phus, that  it  is  difficult  to  know  to  whom  we  are  to 
 ascribe  the  flagrant  contradictions.  By  this  account, 
 Amenophis  was  inserted  by  Manetho  after  Sesostris 
 and  his  son  Rhamses,  yet  he  is  immediately  after  rep- 
 resented, either  by  Manetho  or  Josephus,  as  their  pre- 
 decessor ;  he  it  was  who  expelled  a  second  race  of 
 leprous  shepherds,  and  his  fate  was  moulded  up  with 
 a  tradition  of  a  great  catrastrophe  connected  with  re- 
 ligion. This  would  throw  the  Exodus  a  century  later 
 (the  Jewish  date  comes  as  low  as  1312),  and  would 
 be  somewhat  embarrassing  to  chronology,  but  it  would 
 settle  the  question  about  Sesostris ;  and  the  Jews  of 
 all  ages  were  more  likely  to  exaggerate  than  depress 
 the  antiquity  of  their  nation. — If,  however,  according  to 
 the  general  view,  we  place  the  Exodus  before  the  ac- 
 cession of  Sesostris,  in  what  manner  do  we  account  for 
 the  silence  of  the  holy  books  concerning  this  universal 
 conqueror  1  M.  Coquerel  and  M.  Greppo  answer  at 
 once,  and  with  apparent  probability,  that  the  trium- 
 phant armies  of  the  Egyptian  marched  through  Pales- 
 tine during  the  forty  years  which  the  Israelites  passed 
 in  the  secret  and  inaccessible  desert.  Yet  a  prelimi- 
 nary question  may  be  started — according  to  the  general 
 accounts,  Did  the  Egyptian  pass  througii  Palestine  1 
 By  the  line  of  march  which  we  have  drawn  out  from 
 what  seem  the  best  authorities,  he  certainly  did  not, 
 excepting  possibly  on  his  return,  and  of  his  return  no- 
 thing is  said,  excepting  that  he  arrived,  whether  by  land 
 or  sea  is  not  stated,  at  Pelusium.  We  will  not  urge 
 the  words  of  Justin,  that  this  great  conqueror  had  a 
 strange  predilection  for  remote  conquests,  and  de- 
 spised those  which  lay  near  his  own  borders ;  but  it  is 
 possible  that  the  comparative  insignificance  of  Pales- 
 tine, or  its  ready  submission,  might  preserve  it  from 
 actual  invasion,  if  it  did  not  happen  to  be  on  the  line 
 of  march.  It  is  true  that  Herodotus  sends  forth  the 
 Egyptian  to  win  his  first  laurels  by  the  conquest  of 
 Cyprus  and  Phoenicia ;  but  the  subjugation  of  the  isl- 
 and clearly  denotes  a  maritime  expedition.  The  con- 
 quest of  Phoenicia  is  confirmed  by  a  very  singular 
 monument,  a  bilinguar  inscription  in  hicroglypnics  and 
 arrow-headed  characters  the  former  of  which  show  the 
 
SES 
 
 SE  V 
 
 legend  of  Rharr.ses  the  Great.  This  has  been  found 
 at  Nahar-el-kelb,  in  Syria,  near  the  ancient  Berytus. 
 In  fact,  while  Phoenicia,  already  perhaps  mercantile, 
 might  attract  an  Egyptian  conqueror,  Palestine,  only 
 rich  in  the  fruits  of  the  soil,  which  Egypt  produced  in 
 the  utmost  abundance,  was  a  conquest  which  might 
 flatter  the  pride,  but  would  offer  no  advantage  to  the 
 sovereign  of  the  Nile.  Herodotus,  indeed,  expressly 
 asserts,  that  he  had  seen  one  of  his  obscene  trojihies  of 
 victory  raised  among  those  nations  which  submitted 
 without  resistance  in  Syria  Palajstina.  Larcher  has 
 already  observed  on  the  loose  way  in  which  the  bound- 
 aries of  Palestine  were  known  by  the  Greeks,  and  has 
 urffcd  the  improbability  that  the  magnificent  sovereigns 
 of  Judaea,  David  and  Solomon,  would  suffer  such  a 
 monument  of  national  disgrace  to  stand  ;  he  supposes, 
 therefore,  that  it  might  be  in  the  territory  of  Ascalon. 
 We  are  somewhat  inclined  to  suspect  that  many  of 
 these  pillars  might  be  no  more  than  the  symbols  of 
 the  worship  of  Baal-Peor.  Was  Herodotus  likely  to 
 read  a  hieroglyphic  inscription  without  the  assistance 
 of  his  friends,  the  priests  of  Egypt  1  Be  this  as  it 
 may,  after  all,  if  we  can  calmly  consider  the  nature  of 
 the  Jewish  history  in  the  Bible,  all  difficulty,  even  if 
 we  suppose  the  peaceful  submission  to  the  great  con- 
 queror, ceases  at  once.  The  Book  of  Judges,  in  about 
 fourteen  chapters,  from  the  third  to  the  sixteenth,  con- 
 tains the  history  of  between  three  and  four  centuries. 
 Its  object  appears  to  be  to  relate  the  successive  calam- 
 ities of  the  nation,  and  the  deliverances  wrought  "by 
 men  raised  by  the  Lord."  But  the  rapid  march  of 
 Sesostris  through  the  unresisting  territory,  as  it  might 
 exercise  no  oppression,  would  demand  no  deliverance. 
 More  particularly,  if  it  took  place  during  one  of  the 
 periods  of  servitude,  when  masters  and  slaves  bowed 
 together  beneath  the  yoke,  it  would  have  added  no- 
 thing to  ihe  ignominy  or  burden  of  slavery.  {Quai- 
 terly  Review,  vol.  43,  p.  141,  scqq.) 
 
 Skstos,  a  city  of  Thrace  on  the  shores  of  the  Hel- 
 lespont, nearly  opposite  to  Abydos,  which  lay  some- 
 what to  the  south.  From  the  situation  of  Sestos  it 
 was  always  regarded  as  a  most  important  city,  as  it 
 commanded  in  a  great  measure  the  narrow  channel  on 
 which  it  stood.  {Theopomp.,  ap.  Slrab.,  591.)  It 
 appears  to  have  been  founded  at  an  early  period  by 
 some  Cohans.  {Scymnus,  ch.  708.)  The  story  of 
 Hero  and  Leander,  and  still  more  the  passage  of  the 
 vast  armament  of  Xerxes,  have  rendered  Sestos  cele- 
 brated in  ancient  history.  Sestos  is  said  by  Herodo- 
 tus to  have  been  strongly  fortified  ;  and,  when  besieged 
 by  the  Greek  naval  force,  after  the  battle  of  Mycale, 
 it  made  an  obstinate  defence  ;  the  inhabitants  being 
 reduced  to  the  necessity  of  eating  the  thongs  which  fast- 
 ened their  beds.  The  barbarians  at  length  abandoned 
 the  place,  which  surrendered  to  the  besiegers.  {Herod., 
 9, 115. — Thucyd.,  1,  89.)  The  Athenians,  when  at  the 
 height  of  their  power,  justly  attached  the  greatest  value 
 to  the  possession  of  Sestos,  which  enabled  them  to  com- 
 mand the  active  trade  of  the  Euxine  ;  hence  they  were 
 wont  to  call  it  the  corn-chest  of  the  Piraeus.  (Aristot., 
 Rhet.,  3,  10,  7.)  After  the  battle  of  ^Egospotamos, 
 Sestos  recovered  its  independence  with  the  rest  of 
 the  Chersonese  ;  but  the  Athenians,  many  years  after, 
 having  resolved  to  recover  that  fertile  province,  sent 
 Chares  to  the  Hellespont  with  a  considerable  force 
 to  attempt  its  conquest.  The  Seslians  were  sum- 
 moned to  surrender  their  town,  and,  on  their  refusal, 
 were  speedily  besieged  ;  after  a  short  resistance  the 
 place  was  taken  by  assault,  when  Chares  barbarously 
 caused  all  the  male  inhabitants  capable  of  bearing  arms 
 to  be  butchered.  This  severe  blow  probably  caused 
 the  ruin  of  the  town,  as  from  this  period  little  mention 
 of  it  occurs  in  history.  Strabo,  however,  speaks  of 
 Sestos  as  being  a  considerable  place  in  his  time ;  he 
 observes,  that  the  current  which  flowed  from  the  shore 
 near  Sestos  greatly  facilitated  the  navigation  of  ves- 
 
 sels from  thence,  the  reverse  being  the  case  with  those 
 sailing  from  Abydos.  {Slrab.,  r,9l.—Polyb.,  16,  29.) 
 Mannert  says  the  site  of  Sestos  is  now  called  lalowa 
 {Gcogr.,  vol.  7,  p.  193. — Cramer^s  Anc.  Greece,  vol. 
 1,  p.  328). 
 
 Sethon,  a  priest  of  Vulcan,  who  made  himself  king 
 of  Egypt  after  the  death  of  Anysis.  He  was  attacked 
 by  the  Assyrians,  and  delivered  from  this  powerful  en- 
 emy by  an  immense  number  of  rats,  which  in  one 
 night  gnawed  their  bowstrings  and  thongs,  so  that  on 
 the  morrow  their  arms  were  found  to  be  useless. 
 From  this  wonderful  circumstance  Sethon  had  a  statue 
 which  represented  him  with  a  rat  in  his  hand,  with  the 
 inscription  of  Whoever  fixes  his  eyes  on  me,  let  him  be 
 pious. — "The  Babylonian  Talmud,"  observes  Pri- 
 deaux,  "  states  that  the  destruction  made  upon  the 
 army  of  the  Assyrians  was  executed  by  lightning,  and 
 some  of  the  Targums  are  quoted  for  saying  the  same 
 thing ;  but  it  seems  most  likely  that  it  was  effected 
 by  bringing  on  them  the  hot  wind  which  is  frequent  in 
 those  parts,  and  often,  when  it  lights  among  a  multi- 
 tude, destroys  great  numbers  of  them  in  a  moment,  as 
 frequently  happens  to  caravans ;  and  the  words  of 
 Isaiah,  that  God  would  send  a  blast  against  Senache- 
 rib,  denote  also  the  same  thing.  Herodotus  gives  us 
 some  kind  of  a  disguised  account  of  this  deliverance 
 from  the  Assyrians  in  a  fabulous  application  of  it  to 
 the  city  of  Pelusium  instead  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  Se- 
 thon the  Egyptian  instead  of  Hezekiah."  The  learned 
 dean  then  remarks  upori  the  strong  confirmation  given 
 to  the  account  in  Scripture  by  the  statement  of  He- 
 rodotus, and  his  mentioning  the  very  name  of  Sen- 
 acherib.  {Prideaux's  Connexions,  vol.  1,  p.  23,  seqg., 
 ed.  1831.) 
 
 Setia,  a  town  of  Latium,  northeast  of  Antium  and 
 north  of  Circii.  It  is  now  Sezza.  Its  situation  on  a 
 steep  and  lofty  hill  is  marked  by  a  verse  of  Lucili- 
 us,  preserved  by  Aulus  Gellius  (16,  9).  The  wine  of 
 this  town  was  in  considerable  repute,  and  Augustus, 
 according  to  Pliny  (14,  G),  gave  it  the  preference,  as 
 being  of  all  kinds  the  least  calculated  to  injure  the 
 stomach.  We  may  infer  from  Statins  {Sih.,  2,  6), 
 that  it  was  sometimes  poured  on  the  ashes  of  the  weal- 
 thy dead.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  107.) 
 
 Severus,  I.  Lucius  Septimius,  a  Roman  emperor, 
 born  at  Leptis  in  Africa,  of  an  equestrian  family. 
 Upon  coming  to  Rome  in  early  life,  he  received  the 
 benefit  of  a  liberal  education,  and  was  subsequently 
 raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  senator  by  the  favour  of  Mar- 
 cus Aurelius.  His  youth,  it  is  said,  did  not  escape 
 untainted  by  the  impurities  that  disgraced  the  capital ; 
 and  on  one  occasion  he  was  tried  for  a  flagrant  crime 
 at  the  tribunal  of  Didius  Julianus,  whom  he  afterward 
 deposed  and  put  to  death.  Having  held  the  usual  of- 
 fices which  qualified  a  candidate  for  the  consular  power, 
 Severus  was  intrusted  with  several  military  appoint- 
 ments of  great  honour  and  importance.  He  served  in 
 Africa,  in  Spain,  and  in  Gaul ;  and  finally  obtain'ea 
 one  of  the  most  desirable  commands  in  the  empire, 
 that,  namely,  of  the  legions  employed  in  Pannonia,  to 
 defend  the  banks  of  the  Danube  against  the  inroads  of 
 the  barbarian  tribes  who  dwelt  beyond  it.  When  the 
 news  was  conveyed  to  him  that  Didius  Julianus  had 
 ascended  the  imperial  throne,  rendered  vacant  by  the 
 assassination  of  Pertinax,  he  resolved  to  seize  the  op- 
 portunity which  was  thereby  presented  for  gratifying  the 
 ambition  which  had  long  been  lurking  in  his  bosom. 
 The  memory  of  Pertinax  was  dear  to  the  legions  of 
 Pannonia,  whom  he  had  often  led  to  victory ;  and 
 Severus  lost  no  time  in  taking  advantage  of  this  rever- 
 ence and  affection  for  the  murdered  prince.  The  ar- 
 dour of  the  troops  which  he  addressed  on  this  occasion, 
 led  them  to  salute  their  chief  on  the  field  by  the  names  of 
 emperor  and  Augustus,  and  a  rapid  march  soon  brought 
 him  to  Rome.  Julianus  was  put  to  death  by  a  decree  of 
 the  senate,  Severus  ascended  the  imperial  throne,  the 
 
 1227 
 
SEVERUS. 
 
 SEVERUS. 
 
 Praalorian  guards,  who  had  murdered  Pertinax  and  sold 
 the  empire  to  Didius,  were  disbanded  by  the  new  mon- 
 arch, and  a  triumphal  pageant  witnessed  the  entrance  of 
 Severus  into  the  Roman  capital.  Next  followed  the 
 overthrows  of  Niger  and  Albinus,  the  two  competitors 
 with  Severus  for  the  empire  {vid.  Niger  and  Albinus) ; 
 and  these  events  were  succeeded  by  the  death  of  many 
 nobles  of  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  also  of  twenty-nine  sena- 
 tors of  Rome,  who  were  accused  of  having  been  the 
 abetters  of  Albinus.  Meanwhile  the  Parthians,  under 
 Vologeses,  availing  themselves  of  the  absence  of  Seve- 
 rus, had  overrun  Mesopotamia,  and  besieged  Ijffitus,  one 
 of  his  lieutenants,  in  Nisibis.  The  emperor  resolved 
 to  march  agamst  them,  and  it  was  his  intention  to  es- 
 tablish the  power  of  Rome  beyond  the  Euphrates  on 
 a  much  firmer  foundation  than  it  had  enjoyed  since  the 
 days  of  Trajan.  The  Parthians  retired  at  his  approach  : 
 he  ascended  the  Euphrates  with  his  barks,  while  the 
 army  marched  along  its  banks ;  and  having  occupied 
 Seleucia  and  Babylon,  and  sacked  Ctesiphon,  he  car- 
 ried off  100,000  inhabitants  alive,  with  the  women  and 
 treasures  of  the  court.  Leading  his  army,  after  this, 
 against  the  Atrcni,  through  the  desert  of  Arabia,  his 
 foragers  were  incessantly  cut  off  by  the  light  cavalry 
 of  the  Arabs  ;  and  after  lying  before  Atra  twenty  days, 
 and  making  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  storm,  he  was 
 compelled  to  raise  the  siege  and  retire  into  Palestine. 
 Hence  he  made  the  tour  through  Egypt,  visited  Mem- 
 phis, and  e.xplored  the  Nile.  His  return  to  Rome  was 
 celebrated  by  a  combat  of  400  wild  beasts  in  the  am- 
 phitheatre, and  by  the  nuptials  of  his  son  Bassianus 
 Caracalla  with  the  daughter  of  Plautianus.  (Vid. 
 Plautianus.)  After  a  short  residence  in  his  capital, 
 a  period  marked  by  increased  severity  on  the  part  of 
 the  emperor,  and  a  degree  of  tyranny  rendered  the 
 more  odious  from  its  being  the  result  of  a  naturally 
 suspicious  temper,  Sei-erus  took  refuge  from  the  dis- 
 sensions between  his  two  sons,  Geta  and  Caracalla, 
 and  from  the  intrigues  of  state,  in  the  stirring  scenes 
 of  a  foreign  war.  He  passed  over  into  Britain,  accom- 
 panied by  liis  sons,  with  the  view  of  securing  the  north- 
 ern boundaries  of  the  Roman  province  against  the  in- 
 cursions of  the  Caledonians,  and  of  the  other  barba- 
 rous tribes  who  dwelt  between  the  wastes  of  Northum- 
 berland and  the  Grampian  Mountains.  He  had  hoped, 
 also,  that  the  love  of  military  glory  might  e.xalt  the 
 ambition  of  his  sons,  and  chase  from  their  breasts  those 
 malignant  passions,  which  at  once  disturbed  his  do- 
 Tiestic  repose,  and  ever  and  anon  threatened  to  tear 
 the  commonwealth  in  pieces.  His  success  against  the 
 foreign  enemy  was  much  more  complete  than  his 
 scheme  for  restoring  fraternal  concord.  The  difficul- 
 ties which  he  had  to  overcome,  however,  were  very 
 great,  and  must  have  conquered  the  resolution  of  a 
 mind  less  firm  than  that  of  Severus.  He  was  obliged 
 to  cut  down  forests,  level  mountains,  construct  bridges 
 over  rivers,  and  form  roads  through  fens  and  marshes. 
 H'is  triumph,  such  as  it  was,  was  soon  disturbed  by 
 the  restless  spirit  of  the  Caledonians,  and  by  the  in- 
 trigues of  his  ungrateful  son  ([laracalla.  This  young 
 prince,  after  failing  in  an  attempt  to  excite  the  soldiers 
 to  mutiny,  is  said  to  have  drawn  his  own  sword  against 
 the  person  of  his  father.  Irritated  by  such  conduct, 
 on  the  part  of  his  friends  as  well  as  of  his  enemies, 
 Severus  allowed  himself  to  fall  a  prey  to  the  corroding 
 feelings  of  anger  and  disappointment.  He  invited  his 
 son  to  complete  his  act  of  meditated  parricide;  while 
 in  respect  to  the  revolted  Britons,  who  had  abused  his 
 clemency,  he  expressed,  in  the  words  of  Homer  (//., 
 6,  57,  serjq),  his  fixed  resolution  to  exterminate  them 
 from  the  face  of  the  earth.  But  death  soon  put  an 
 end  to  his  sufferings  and  to  all  his  plans  for  revenge. 
 Having  returned  as  far  as  York  (Eboracum),  he  was 
 attacked  with  a  disease  which  he  himself  foresaw 
 would,  at  no  distant  period,  terminate  his  career  ;  and, 
 in  the  expectation  of  this  event,  he  called  for  both  his 
 1228 
 
 sons,  whom  he  once  more  exhorted  to  union  and  mu- 
 tual aiiection.  He  expired  at  York,  A.D.  21 1,  in 
 the  sixty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  having  reigned  nearly 
 eighteen  years. — It  is  difficult  to  obtain  from  the  pa- 
 ges of  ancient  writers  a  fair  or  consistent  representa- 
 tion of  the  character  of  Severus.  One  of  the  authors 
 of  the  Augustan  history  applies  to  him  an  expression 
 which  was  suggested  by  the  efl'ects  which  the  conduct 
 of  the  first  Roman  emperor  (.\ugustus)  had  upon  the 
 fortunes  of  his  country,  namely,  that  it  would  have 
 been  well  for  the  state  if  he  had  never  been  born,  or 
 had  never  died.  {Sparlian.,  c.  18.)  This  remark 
 has  in  it,  perhaps,  more  point  than  truth  ;  for,  though 
 Severus  was  no  ordinary  man,  he  nevertheless  rather 
 followed  than  directed  the  general  current  of  events. 
 He  considered  the  Roman  world  as  his  property,  and 
 had  no  sooner  secured  the  possession,  than  he  bestow- 
 ed the  utmost  care  on  the  cultivation  and  improve- 
 ment of  so  valuable  an  acquisition.  Judicious  law, 
 executed  with  firmness,  soon  corrected  most  of  the 
 abuses  which,  since  the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  had 
 infected  every  department  of  the  state.  Yet  in  his 
 maxims  of  government  he  often  displayed,  not  the  le- 
 gislator, but  the  mere  soldier.  Harsh,  unpitying,  and 
 suspicious,  although  generous  to  those  for  whom  he 
 had  conceived  an  attachment,  it  was  perhaps  fortunate 
 for  Rome  that  the  operations  of  distant  warfare  en- 
 gaged his  principal  thoughts,  and  employed  the  great- 
 er part  of  his  reign. — His  taste  for  public  buildings 
 and  magnificent  spectacles  recommended  him  very 
 greatly  to  the  Roman  people.  He  also  showed  him- 
 self a  patron  of  literature.  The  habits  of  a  life  spent 
 chiefly  in  the  camp  were,  no  doubt,  quite  incompatible 
 with  any  distinguished  progress  in  science  or  in  let- 
 ters;  but  his  taste,  notwithstanding,  induced  him  to 
 spend  his  hours  of  leisure  in  the  study  of  philosophy. 
 He  was  much  devoted,  however,  to  that  perversion 
 of  natural  knowledge  which  was  known  by  the  an- 
 cients under  the  name  of  magic.  Astrology  also  came 
 in  for  its  share  of  his  attention ;  and  he  is  said  to  have 
 been  determined  in  his  choice  of  a  second  wife  by 
 the  discovery  that  a  young  Syrian  lady,  whose  name 
 was  -lulia,  had  been  born  with  a  royal  nativity. — Se- 
 verus wrote  Memoirs  of  his  own  Life,  in  Latin  ;  a  work 
 of  v/hich  Aurelius  Victor  praises  the  style  not  less 
 than  the  fidelity.  But  Dio  Cassius,  who  had  better 
 means  for  forming  a  correct  judgment,  insinuates  that 
 Severus  did  not,  on  all  occasions,  pay  the  strictest 
 regard  to  truth,  and  that,  in  .his  attempts  to  vmdicate 
 himself  from  the  charge  of  cruelty,  he  laid  greater 
 stress  on  hidden  motives  and  refined  views  of  policy, 
 than  on  the  palpable  facts  which  met  the  eye  ef  the 
 public.  {Sparlian.,  Vit.  Did.  Jul. — Id.,  Vit.  Pes- 
 cenn.  Niff.  —  Id.,  Vit.  Albin.  —  Id.,  Vit.  Sev. — Dio 
 Cass.,  lib.  74,  scq.—Hcrodian,  2,  9,  2,  &c.)— II.  Al- 
 exander or  Marcus  Aurelius  Alexander  Severus.  a  na- 
 tive of  Syria,  and  cousin  to  the  Emperor  Heliogaba- 
 lus.  Maesa,  grandmother  of  the  latter,  perceiving  his 
 folly  and  grossly  vicious  disposition,  thought  of  con- 
 ciliating the  Romans  by  prevailing  upon  her  dissolute 
 grandson  to  associate  Alexander  Severus  with  him- 
 self in  the  empire.  But  Heliogabalus  becoming  af- 
 terward jealous  of  him,  and  wishing  to  put  him  out 
 of  the  way,  spread  a  false  report  of  Alexander's  death, 
 whereupon  the  praetorians  broke  out  into  open  mutiny, 
 Heliogabalus  was  slain,  and  Alexander  Severus  suc- 
 ceeded to  the  empire.  The  new  emperor  was  of  a 
 character  diametrically  opposite  to  that  of  his  prede- 
 cessor. Among  the  first  acts  of  bis  sovereignty,  he 
 banished  all  the  guilty  and  abandoned  creatures  of 
 Heliogabalus,  restored  the  authority  of  the  senate,  and 
 chose  his  counsellors  and  ministers  of  state  of  the  best 
 members  of  that  body,  and  revoked,  also,  all  the  per- 
 secuting edicts  that  had  been  issued  by  his  predeces- 
 sor against  the  Christians.  This  just  and  merciful 
 procedure  is  thought  to  have  been  adopted  by  the  ad- 
 
SE^ 
 
 SI  B 
 
 vice  of  his  mother  Mammsea,  who  maintained  an  inter- 
 course with  sotne  of  the  most  distinguished  Chris- 
 tians, among  others,  the  celebrated  Origen,  and  who 
 was,  perhaps,  herself  a  convert.  But,  however  de- 
 sirous of  peace,  that  he  might  prosecute  his  schemes 
 of  reform,  Alexander  was  soon  called  to  encounter 
 the  perils  and  toils  of  war.  A  revolution  in  the  East, 
 which  began  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  was  pro- 
 ductive of  consequences  deeply  important  to  all  Asia. 
 Ardeshir  Babegan,  or  Artaxerxes,  who  pretended  to  be 
 descended  from  the  imperial  race  of  ancient  Persia, 
 raised  a  rebellion  against  the  Parthian  monarchs,  the 
 Arsacidos.  The  Parthian  dynasty  was  overturned, 
 and  the  ancient  Persian  restored  ;  and  with  its  resto- 
 ration was  renewed  its  claims  to  the  sovereignty  of 
 all  Asia,  which  it  had  formerly  possessed.  This  claim 
 gave  rise  to  a  war  against  the  Romans,  and  Alexander 
 Sevcrus  led  his  troops  into  the  East,  to  maintain  the 
 imperial  sway  over  the  disputed  territories.  In  the 
 army  he  displayed  the  high  qualities  of  a  warrior,  and 
 gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Persians,  bui  was  pre- 
 vented from  following  up  his  success  in  consequence 
 of  a  pestilence  breaking  out  among  his  troops.  The 
 Persians,  however,  were  willing  to  renounce  hostili- 
 ties for  a  time,  and  the  emperor  returned  to  Rome  in 
 triumph.  Scarcely  had  Alexander  tasted  repose  from 
 his  Persian  war,  when  he  received  intelligence  that 
 the  Germans  had  crossed  the  Rhine  and  were  inva- 
 ding Gaul.  He  at  once  set  out  to  oppose  this  new 
 enemy,  but  he  encountered  another  still  more  formi- 
 dable. The  armies  in  Gaul  had  sunk  into  a  great  re- 
 laxation of  the  rigid  discipline  necessary  for  even  their 
 own  preservation.  Alexander  began  to  restore  the 
 ancient  military  regulations,  to  enforce  discipline,  and 
 to  reorganize  such  an  army  as  might  be  able  to  keep 
 the  barbarians  in  check.  The  demoralized  soldiery 
 could  not  endure  the  change.  A  conspiracy  was 
 formed  against  him,  and  the  youthful  emperor  was 
 murdered  in  his  tent,  in  his  29th  year,  after  a  short 
 but  glorious  reign  of  thirteen  years. — It  cannot  be  de- 
 nied, that  much  of  what  rendered  the  reign  of  Alexan- 
 der Sevcrus  truly  glorious  was  owing  to  the  counsels 
 of  his  mother  Mammaea.  Ulpian,  too,  the  friend  of 
 Papinian,  the  most  rigidly  upright  man  of  his  time,  a 
 man  more  skilled  in  jurisprudence  than  any  of  his  con- 
 temporaries, was  the  friend  of  Alexander,  and  the  only 
 person  with  whom  he  was  accustomed  to  converse  in 
 strict  confidence.  This  alone  may  be  regarded  as  the 
 young  emperor's  highest  praise.  The  character  of 
 Alexander  presented  so  many  points  worthy  of  praise, 
 that  the  writer  of  his  life  in  the  Augustan  History 
 exhausts  all  his  powers  of  description  in  the  attempt 
 to  do  it  justice.  {Lamprid.,  Vif.  Alex.  Sev. — Dio 
 Cass.,  lib.  80.  —  Herodian,  5,  3,  7,  scqq  ) — III.  Sul- 
 pitiu«,  an  ecclesiastical  historian,  who  died  A.D.  420. 
 The  best  of  his  works  is  his  Historia  Sacra,  from  the 
 creation  of  the  world  to  the  consulship  of  Stilicho,  the 
 style  of  which  is  superior  to  that  of  the  age  in  which 
 he  lived.  The  best  edition  is  in  2  vols.  4to,  Patavii, 
 1741. — IV.  A  celebrated  architect,  employed,  with 
 another  architect  named  Celer,  in  erecting  Nero's 
 "Golden  House."  {Tacit.,  Annal,  15,  42.  —  Vid. 
 Nero.) 
 
 Sevo,  a  ridge  of  mountains  between  Norway  and 
 Sweden.  It  assumes  various  names  in  different  parts 
 of  its  course  ;  as,  the  Lan'rfichl  Mountains,  the  Do- 
 frafield  Mountains,  &c.  Some  suppose  the  ridge  of 
 Sevo  to  have  been  the  Rhiphaean  Mountains  of  anti- 
 quity.    {Plin  ,  4,  15.) 
 
 vSEXTii^  Aqu^,  now  Aiz,  a  town  of  Gallia  Narbon- 
 ensis,  and  the  metropolis  of  Narbonensis  Secunda.  It 
 owed  its  foundation  to  Sextius  Calvinus,  who,  in  the 
 first  expedition  of  the  Romans  into  Gaul,  reduced  the 
 Salluvii  or  Salyes,  in  whose  territory  it  was  situate. 
 It  was  founded  on  account  of  the  warm  mineral  springs 
 in  its  neighbourhood.     These  springs,   however,  had 
 
 already  lost  their  warmth,  and  much  of  their  efficacy, 
 in  the  time  of  Augustus.  {Liv.,  Epit..,  61. — Scrabu, 
 180.)  Marius  defeated  the  Teutones  near  this  place. 
 {Pint.,  Vil.  Mar.— Floras,  3,  3.) 
 
 S1BVLL./E,  certain  females  supposed  to  be  inspired 
 by  Heaven,  who  flourished  in  difl'erent  parts  of  the 
 world.  Accorduig  to  the  received  opinion,  founded 
 on  the  authority  of  Varro,  they  were  ten  in  number: 
 the  Jirst  w^as  the  Persian  Sibyl,  of  whom  Nicatior, 
 one  of  the  historians  of  Alexander  the  Great,  made 
 mention  ;  the  second  was  the  Libyan,  alluded  to  by 
 Euripides  in  the  prologue  of  one  of  his  lost  plays,  the 
 Lamia  ;  the  tlard  was  the  Delphian,  mentioned  by 
 Chrysippus  in  his  lost  work  on  Divination  ;  \.\ia  fourth 
 was  the  Cumcean,  in  Italy,  spoken  of  by  Njevius,  and 
 other  Latin  writers,  especially  Virgil ;  the  fifth  was 
 the  Erylhraan,  whom  ApoUodorus  o( Erylhra:  claimed 
 as  a  native  of  that  city,  though  sotne  made  her  to 
 have  been  born  in  Babylonia.  She  is  said  to  have 
 predicted  to  the  Greeks,  when  they  were  sailing  for 
 Troy,  that  this  city  was  destined  to  perish,  and  that 
 Homer  would  compose  falsities  in  relation  to  it  ;  the 
 sixth  was  the  Samian,  of  whom  Eratosthenes  said  he 
 found  mention  in  the  ancient  annals  of  the  Samians  ; 
 the  seventh  was  of  Cyma,  in  ^olis,  and  was  called 
 Amalth*a,  Demophile,  or  Herophile  ;  the  eighth  was 
 the  Hcllespontmc,  born  at  Marpessus,  in  the  Trojan 
 territory.  According  to  Hcraclides  Ponticus,  she  flour- 
 ished in  the  time  of  Cyrus  and  Solon  ;  the  ninlh  was 
 the  Phrygian,  who  gave  oracles  at  Ancyra  ;  the  tenth 
 was  the  Tihurtine,  at  Tibur,  in  Italy,  and  was  named 
 Albunea.  {Varro,  ap.  Lactant.,\,&. — Avgust.,  Civ. 
 D.,  18,  23.)  The  most  celebrated  one  of  the,  whole 
 number  was  the  Cumaean,  the  poetic  fable  relative  to 
 whom  is  as  follows  :  Apollo,  having  become  enam- 
 oured of  her,  offered  to  give  her  whatever  she  should 
 ask.  The  Sibyl  demanded  to  live  as  many  years  as 
 she  had  grains  of  sand  in  her  hand,  but  unfortunately 
 forgot  to  ask  for  the  enjoyment  of  health  and  bloom  of 
 which  she  was  then  in  possession.  The  god  granted 
 her  request,  but  she  refused,  in  return,  to  listen  to  his 
 suit ;  and  the  gift  of  longevity,  therefore,  unaccom- 
 panied by  freshness  and  beauty,  proved  a  burden  rather 
 than  a  benefit.  She  had  already  lived  about  700  years 
 when  ^neas  came  to  Italy,  and,  as  some  have  ima- 
 gined, she  had  six  centuries  more  to  live  before  her 
 years  were  as  numerous  as  the  grains  of  sand  which 
 she  had  held  in  her  hand.  At  the  expiration  of  this 
 period  she  was  to  wither  quite  away,  and  become  con- 
 verted into  a  mere  voice.  {Ovid,  Met,  14,  104. — 
 Scrv.  ad  Virg.,  JEn.,  6,  321.)  This  was  the  Sibyl 
 that  accompanied  ^neas  to  the  lowxr  world.  It  was 
 usual  with  her  to  write  her  predictions  on  leaves,  and 
 place  them  at  the  entrance  of  her  cave  ;  and  it  re- 
 quired great  caution  on  the  part  of  those  who  consult- 
 ed her  to  take  up  these  leaves  before  the  wind  drove 
 them  from  their  places,  and,  by  mingling  them  together, 
 broke  the  connexion,  and  rendered  their  meaning  unin- 
 telligible.— According  to  a  well-known  Roman  legend, 
 one  of  the  Sibyls  came  to  the  palace  of  Tarquin  the 
 Second  with  nine  volumes,  which  she  offered  to  sell 
 for  a  very  high  price.  The  monarch  declined  the  offer, 
 and  she  immediately  disappeared,  and  burned  three  of 
 the  volumes.  Returning  soon  after,  she  asked  the 
 same  price  for  the  remaining  six  books  ;  and,  when 
 Tarquin  again  refused  to  buy  them,  she  burned  three 
 more,  and  still  persisted  in  demanding  the  same  sum 
 of  money  for  the  three  that  were  left.  This  extraor- 
 dinary behaviour  astonished  the  monarch,  and,  with 
 the  advice  of  the  augurs,  he  bought  the  books  ;  upon 
 which  the  Sibyl  immediately  disappeared,  and  was 
 never  seen  after.  These  books  were  preserved  with 
 great  care,  and  called  the  StlnjUine  verses.  A  college 
 of  priests  was  appointed  to  have  charge  of  them,  and 
 they  were  consulted  with  the  greatest  solemnity  v\'hen 
 the  state  seemed  to  be  in  danger.     When  the  Capi'ol 
 
 1229 
 
SIBYLL.E. 
 
 SIC 
 
 was  burned  in  the  troubles  of  Sylla,  the  Sibylline  ver- 
 ses, which  were  deposited  there,  perished  in  the  con- 
 flagration ;  and,  to  repair  the  loss  which  the  republic 
 seemed   to  have    sustained,  commissioners  were  im- 
 mediately sent  to  dili'ereiit  jiarts  of  Greer.e  to  collect 
 whatever  could  be  found  of  the  inspired  writings  of  the 
 Sibyls. — Thus  far  the  common  account.     It  is  gen- 
 erally conceded,  however,  that  what  the  ancients  tell 
 us  respecting  these  projihetesses  is  all  very  obscure, 
 fabulous,   and  full  of  contradictions.     It  appears  that 
 the  name  Sibylla  is  properly  an  appellative  term,  and 
 denotes  "an  inspired  person;"  and  the  etymology  of 
 the  word  is  commonly  sought  in  the  /Eolic  or  Doric 
 2<of,   for  ^EOQ,    "  a  god,'"   and    (iovly,    "  advice''    or 
 "counsel." — As  regards  the  final  fate  of  the  Sibyllme 
 verses,  some  uncertainty  prevails.     It  would  seem,  how- 
 ever, according  to  the  best  authorities,  that  the  Emper- 
 or Ilonorius  issued  an  order,  A.D.  399,  for  destroying 
 them  ;   in  pursuance  of  which,  Stilicho  burned  all  these 
 pro()hetic  writings,  and  demolished  the  temple  of  Apol- 
 lo ill  which   they  had  been  deposited.     Nevertheless, 
 there  are  still  preserved,  in  eight  books  of  Greek  verse, 
 a  collection  of  oracles  pretended  to  be  Sibylline.     Dr. 
 Cave,  who  is  well  satisfied  that  this  collection  is  a  for- 
 gery, supposes  that  a  large  jjart  of  it  was  composed  in 
 the  time  of  Hadrian,  about  A.D.  130  ;   that  other  parts 
 were   added  in  the   time  of   the  iAnloiiines,  and  the 
 whole  completed  in  the  reign  of  Commodus.     Dr.  Pri- 
 deau.t  says  that  this  collection  must  have  been  made 
 between  A.D.  138  and  167.     Some  of  the  Christian 
 fathers,  not  regading  the  imposition,  have  often  cited 
 the  books  of  the  Sibyls  in  favour  of  the  Christian  reli- 
 gion ;    and    hence  Celsus  takes  occasion  to  call  the 
 Christians  Sibyllists.     Dr.  Lardri%r  stales  his  convic- 
 tion that  the  Sybilline  oracles  quoted  by  St.  Clement 
 and  others  of  the  Greek  fathers  are  the  forgeries  of 
 some  Christian.      Bishop  Horsley  has  ably  supported 
 the  opinion,  however,  that  the   Sibylline  books  con- 
 tained records  of  prophecies  vouchsafed  to  nations  ex- 
 traneous  to  the  patriarchal   families   and    the   Jewish 
 coinmonwealth,  before  the  general  defection  to  idola- 
 try.     Although    the  books  were  at  last  interpolated, 
 yet,  according  to  the  views  taken  of  the  subject  by  the 
 learned  bishop,  this  was  too  late  to  throw  discredit  on 
 the  confident  appeal  made  to  them  by  Justin. — The 
 first  ancient  writer  that  makes  mention  of  the  Sibyl- 
 line verses  appears  to  have  been  Heraclitus.     {Creu- 
 zer,  ad  Cic,  N.  D.,  2,  3,  p.  221.)     The  leading  pas- 
 sage, however,  in  relation  to  them,  is  that  of  Dionysius 
 of  Halicarnassus  (4,  63).     The  most  ancient  Sibylline 
 prophecy  that  has  been  preserved  for  us  is  that  men- 
 tioned by  Pausanias  (10,  9),  and  which  the  .'Athenians 
 apjilied    to   the    battle    of   .Egospotamos,  because    it 
 speaks  of  a  fleet  destroyed    through  the  fault  of  its 
 coipimaiidcrs.     Another  Sibylline  prediction  is  found 
 in   Plutarch  {Vit.  Dcmos/h. — Op.,  cd.  Reiske,  vol.  4, 
 p.  723),  and  which  relates  to  a  bloody  battle  on   the 
 banks  of  the  Thermodon.      The  Athenians  applied  this 
 oracle  to  the  battle  of  Chaeronea.      Plutarch  states  that 
 there  was  no  river  of  this   name,   in  his   time,  near 
 Chasronea,  and  he  conjectures  that  a  small  brook,  fall- 
 ing into  the  Cephissus,  is  here  meant,  and  wliich  his 
 fellow  townsmen    called    Alj-iuv    {Hccmon),    or    "  the 
 bloody"  brook.     Pausanias  (9,  19)  speaks  of  a  small 
 stream  in  Boeotia  called  Thermodon;   but  ho  places  it 
 some  distance  from  Chff.ronca. — The  history  of  Rome 
 has  preserved  for  us  two  Sibylline  predictions,  not,  in- 
 deed, in  their  literal  form,  but  yet  of  a  very  definite 
 nature.     One  of  these  forbade  the  Romans  to  extend 
 their  sway  beyond  Mount  Taurus.    Were  it  well  ascer- 
 tained that  this  prohibition,  with  which  we  are  made 
 acquainted  by  Livy  (38,  18),  actually  formed  part  of 
 the  Sibylline  hooks,  it  would  suffice  to  show  that  these 
 books  were  not  composed  for  the  Romans  ;  a  prophecy 
 vvhich  fi.'ces  Mount  Taurus  as  the  eastern  limit  of  an 
 nnpire,  could  only  have  been  made  for  the  monarchs 
 1230 
 
 of  Lydia.     It  is  almost  superfluous,  moreover,  to  re- 
 mark, that,  with  regard  to  Rome,  at  least,  this  predic- 
 tion  was   contradicted   by  subsequent   events. — The 
 second  jjrophecy  preserved  for  us  in  Roman  history  is 
 the  one  that  was  ap[)lied   to  the  case  of  Ptolemy  Au- 
 letes.     This  prince  having  solicited  aid  from  the  sen- 
 ate against  his  rebellions  subjects,  the  Sibylline  books 
 were  consulted,  and   the  following  answer  was  found 
 in  them  :   "  If  a  king  of  Egypt  come  to  ask  aid  of 
 you,  refuse  him  not  your  alliance,  but  give  him   no 
 troops."     The  turbulence  and  faction  of  the  day  ren- 
 der it  extremely  probable  that  this  prediction  was  a 
 mere   forgery.     \Vhat  we  have  remaining  under  the 
 title  of   Sibylline    Oracles  were   evidently  fabricated 
 by  the  pious  fraud  of  the  early  Christians,  ever  anx 
 ious  to  discover  traces  of  their  faith  in  pagan  mythol- 
 ogy.    St.  Clement  of  Rome  himself  is  not  free  from 
 the  suspicion  of  having  participated  in   the  falsifica- 
 tion, or  else  of  having  attached  credit  too  readily  to  a 
 corrupted  te.xt.     According  to  St.  Justin,  this  pontiff 
 had  cited,  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  the  Sib- 
 ylline predictions,   for   the  purjiose  of  confirming  by 
 their  means   the  truths  which  he  was   announcing  to 
 the    pagans.     {QucEst.  ad  Orthod.  Resp.   ad  quczst., 
 Ixxiv.)     A  contemporary  of  St.  Clement's,  the  histo- 
 rian Josephus,  refers   to  passages  in  these  same  ora- 
 cles, where  allusion   is  made  to  the  tower  of  Babel 
 {Antiq.  Jiid.,  1,  5),  a  circumstance,  by-the-way,  which 
 proves    the    early    falsification   of   these    predictions. 
 Celsus,  in  express  terms,  accused  the  Christians  of 
 forging  the  Sibylline  collection.      (Orig.  adv.  Cels., 
 lib.  7.)    The  fathers  of  the  Church  in  the  second,  and, 
 still  more  frequently,  those  in  the  third  century,  refer 
 to    passages   evidently  interpolated,  as    if  they  were 
 genuine.    {Thorlacn  libri  Sihyllistarum,  &c.,  Hafnice, 
 1615,  8vo.) — The  Sibylline  collection,  as  it  exists  at 
 the  present  day,  is  composed  of  eight  books.     In  the 
 first  book,  the  subjects  are,  the  Creation,  the  Fall,  and 
 the  Deluge.     It  is  apparent  not  only  that  this  book  is 
 taken  from  Genesis,  but  also  that  its  author  made  use 
 of   the   Greek   translation   of  the    Septuagint.      The 
 subject  of  the  second  book  is  the  Last  Judgment.     In 
 the  third  Antichrist  is  announced.     The  fourth  pre- 
 dicts the  fall  of  divers  monarchies.     The  fifth  is  oc- 
 cupied with  the  Romans  down  to  Lucius  Yerus.     In 
 the  sixth  the  Baptism  of  our  Saviour  by  St.  John  is 
 made  the   subject.     The   seventh   is  devoted  to   the 
 Deluge,  and  the  fall  of  various  States  and  Monarchies. 
 The  eighth  relates  to  the  Last  Judgment  and  the  De- 
 struction   of    Rome. — A    manuscript    discovered    by 
 Maio  in  the  Ambrosian   Library  at  Milan,  contains  a 
 fourteenth  book,  in  334  verses  ;  the  books,  however, 
 between  it  and  the  eighth  are   lost.     This  last-men- 
 tioned book,  the  fourteenth,  speaks  of  a  destruction  of 
 Rome  so  complete  that  the  traveller  will  find  no  tra- 
 ces of  the  city  remaining,  and  its  very  name  will  dis- 
 appear.    The  prophetess  then  goes  on  to  enumerate  a 
 long  series  of  princes  under  whom  Rome  shall  be  re- 
 built.— The  most  complete  edition  of  the  Sibylline  or- 
 acles is  that  of  Gallasus,  which  appeared  at  Amster- 
 dam in  1688-9,  2  vols.  4to,  to  which  must  be  added 
 the  I4th  book,  published  by  Maio,  at  Milan,  1817,  8vo. 
 — In  relation  to  the  Sibylline  oracles  generally,  con 
 suit  the  remarks  of  Niebuhr  {Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 441,  scqq.,  Cambridge  transl). 
 
 SiCAMBRi  or  Sygambri,  a  powerful  German  tribe, 
 whose  original  scats  were  around  the  Rhine,  the  Sieg, 
 and  the  Lippe.  They  were  dangerous  foes  to  the 
 Romans,  who  finally  conquered  them  under  the  lead- 
 ing of  Drusus.  Tiberius  transferred  a  large  part  o*" 
 this  people  to  the  left  or  southern  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
 where  they  reappear  under  the  name  of  Gugerni. 
 {Flor.,  42,  12.  — Cffis.,  B.  G  ,  4,  \&.—Dio  Cassius, 
 .'54,  32.— Tac,  Ann.,  2,  2(i.—Id.  ibid.,  4,  12.) 
 
 SicANi,  an  ancient  nation  of  Sicily.  {Vid.  remarks 
 under  the  article  Sicilia.) 
 
SI  c 
 
 SICILIA. 
 
 SicANiA,  an  ancient  name  of  Sicily.  (Vid.  Sicilia.) 
 Sicca  Venerea,  a  city  of  Nunudia,  on  the  banks 
 of  the  river  Bagradas,  and  at  some  distance  from  the 
 coast.  We  are  first  made  acquainted  wiih  the  exist- 
 ance  of  this  place  in  the  history  of  the  Jugurthine 
 war.  {Sail.,  Bell.  Jug.,  3,  56.)  Plmy  styles  it  a 
 colony  (5,  3) ;  and,  though  no  other  vvriier  gives  it  this 
 title,  yet,  from  the  way  in  which  it  is  represented  on 
 the  Peutinger  table,  as  well  as  from  Ptolemy's  having 
 selected  it  for  one  of  his  places  of  astronomical  cal- 
 culation, we  see  plainly  that  it  must  have  been  an  im- 
 portant cit^.  It  received  the  appellation  of  Ve7i£rea 
 from  a  temple  of  Venus  which  it  contained,  and 
 where,  in  accordance  with  a  well-known  Oriental  cus- 
 tom, the  young  maidens  of  the  place  were  accustomed 
 to  j)rosiitute  their  persons,  and  thus  obtain  a  dowry  for 
 marriage.  {Val.  Max.,  2,  6.)  Bochart  and  De  Bros- 
 ses  derive  the  name  of  Sicca  from  the  Punic  Succolh 
 Bcnolh  ("  tabernacula  puellarum"),  and  make  Benoth 
 ("  puella")  the  origin  of  the  name  Venus  among  the 
 Romans. — Shaw  regarded  the  modern  KaJJ  as  near 
 the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  having  found  an  inscrip- 
 tion there  with  the  Ordo  Siccensiu in  on  it.  ButMan- 
 nerl  thinks  the  stone  was  brought  to  Kaff  from  some 
 other  quarter,  a  circumstance  by  no  means  uncom- 
 mon in  these  parts.  (Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2, 
 p.  322,  seqq.) 
 
 SicH^us.      Vid.  Acerbas. 
 
 SiciLiA,  the  largest,  most  fruitful,  and  populous  isl- 
 and of  the  Mediterranean,  lying  to  the  south  of  Italy, 
 from  which  it   is   separated  by  the   Fretum  Siculum, 
 the  strait  or  faro  of  Messina,  which,  in  the  narrowest 
 part,  is  only  two  miles  wide.     Its  short  distance  from 
 the    mainland    of   Italy    gave    rise    to  an  hypothesis, 
 among  the  ancient  writers,  that  it  once   formed  part 
 of  that  country,  and  was  separated  from  it  by  a  pow- 
 erful flood.     (Compare  the  authorities  cited  by  Clu- 
 vtr,  Sicil.,  1,  1.)     This   theory,  however,  is   a    very 
 improbable    one,  the   more    particularly    as   the  point 
 where  the  mountains  commence  on  the  island  by  no 
 means  corresponds  with  the  termination  of  the  chain 
 of  the  Apennines  .at  the  promontory  of  Leucopetra, 
 now  Capo  deir  armi,  but  is  many  miles  to  the  north. 
 It  is  more  natural  to  suppose,  therefore,  that,  in  the 
 first  formation  of  our  globe,  the  waters,  finding  a  hol- 
 low here,  poured  themselves  into  it. — The  island  is  a 
 three-cornered  one,  and  this  shape  obtained  for  it  its 
 earliest  name  among  the  Grecian  mariners,  TpivaKta 
 {Tnnakia,  i.  e,  "  three-cornered").     This  name,  and, 
 consequently,  the  acquaintance  which  the  Greeks  had 
 with  the  island,  must  have  been  of  a  very  early  date, 
 since  Homer  was  already  acquainted  witli  the  "  island 
 Thrinakia"  {QpivaKLTj  vriaoc; — Od.,  12,  135),  with  the 
 herds  of  Helios  that  pastured  upon  it,  and  places  in 
 its  vicinity  the  wonders  of  Scylla  and  Charybdis,  to- 
 gether with    the   islands  which    he    terms    Planghia: 
 (JWayKTai),  or  "  the  Wanderers."     The  later  Greek 
 writers,  and  almost  all  the  Latin  authors,  make  a  slight 
 alteration  in  the  name,  calling  it  Trinacria,  and  Pliny 
 (3,  8)  translates   the  term   in  question   by  Tnqueira, 
 a  form  which  frequently  appears  in  the  poets.     The 
 name  Trinacria  very  ])robably  underwent  the  change 
 just  alluded  to,  in  order  to  favour  its  derivation  from 
 the  Greek  Tpel^  {three),  and  axpu  {a  promonionj),  in 
 allusion   to   its   three   promontories  ;  though,  in  fact, 
 only  one  of  them,  that  of   Pachynus  namely,  is  de- 
 serving of  the. appellation.      Homer's  name  QpivaKia, 
 on  the  other  hand,  or  rather  that  oiTpivaKia,  is  much 
 more  appropriate,  since  the  root  is  uktj,  "  a  point." — 
 The  island  of  Sicily  is  indebted  for  its  existence  to  a 
 chain  of  mountains,  which  commences  in  the  vicinity 
 of  the  Fretum  Siculum.  runs  towards  the  west,  keep- 
 ing constantly  at  only  a  small  distance  from  the  north- 
 ern coast,  and  terminating  on  the  northwestern  coast, 
 -  near  the  modern  Capo  di  St.   Vita.     The  name  of 
 Ihis  range  is  Monies  Ncbrodes.     A  side  chain  issues 
 
 from  it  and  pursues  a  southern  direction,  and  out  of 
 this  jEtna  rears  its  lofty  head.  From  the  same  Mon- 
 ies Nebrodes  another  chain  runs  through  the  middle 
 of  the  island,  called  Montes  Herai  {'Upala  vptj).  and 
 dividing  at  one  time  the  territories  of  the  Siculi  from 
 those  of  the  Sicani.  (Diod  Sic.,  4,  84.) — Sicily  has 
 no  large  rivers  ;  the  moderate  extent  of  the  island, 
 and  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country,  pre- 
 venting this.  The  only  considerable  streams  are  the 
 Syma'ihus  and  the  Hiinera.  The  former  of  these  re- 
 ceives most  of  the  small  rivers  that  flow  from  the 
 eastern  side  of  the  Herman  Mountains  :  the  Hiinera 
 also  is  swelled  by  numerous  smaller  streams  m  its 
 course  through  the  island — A  country  like  Sicily,  ly- 
 ing between  the  36lh  and  38th  parallels  of  latitude, 
 and,  consequently,  belonging  to  the  southernmost  re- 
 gions of  Europe,  and  which  is  well  supplied  with 
 streams  of  water  from  its  numerous  mountain  chains, 
 must,  of  course,  be  a  fertile  one.  Such,  indeed,  v\as 
 the  character  of  the  island  throughout  all  aniiquity  ; 
 and  the  Romans,  while  they  regarded  it  as  one  of  the 
 granaries  of  the  capital,  placed  it,  in  point  of  jiroduct- 
 iveness,  by  the  side  of  Italy  itself,  or  rather  regarded 
 it  as  a  portion  of  that  country.  The  staple  of  Sicily 
 was  its  e.xcellent  wheat.  The  Romans  found  it 
 growing  wild  in  the  extensive  fields  of  Leontini,  and, 
 when  cultivated,  it  yielded  a  hundred  fold  :  that  which 
 grew  in  the  plains  of  Enna  was  regarded  as  decidedly 
 the  best.  It  was  natural  enough,  therefore,  in  the 
 early  inhabitants  of  the  island  to  regard  it  as  the  pa- 
 rent-country of  grain  ;  and  they  had  a  deity  among 
 them  whom  they  considered  as  the  patroness  of  fc  rtility, 
 and  the  discoverer  of  agriculture  to  man.  In  tli is  god- 
 dess the  Greeks  recognised  their  Ceres,  and  they  made 
 Minerva,  Diana,  and  Proserpina  to  have  spent  their 
 youth  here,  and  the  last  mentioned  of  the  three  to  have 
 been  carried  off  by  Pluto  from  the  rich  fields  of  Enna. 
 — It  has  been  already  remarked,  that  the  Romans  re- 
 garded Sicily  as  one  of  their  granaries.  They  obtained 
 from  it,  even  at  an  early  period,  the  necessary  supplies 
 when  their  city  was  suffering  from  scarcity.  King 
 Hiero  II.,  also,  frequently  bestowed  very  acceptable 
 presents  of  grain  on  these  powerful  neighbours  of  his, 
 and  how  many  and  extensive  demands  were  made  by 
 the  Romans  in  later  days  on  the  resources  of  the  island, 
 after  it  had  fallen  by  right  of  concjucst  into  their  hands, 
 will  plainly  appear  from  a  passage  of  Cicero  {iti  Verr., 
 2,  2). — The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Sicily,  accord- 
 ing to  the  Grecian  writers,  were  the  Cyclopes  and 
 Eaestrygones.  Homer,  it  seems,  had  spoken  of  these 
 oriant-races,  and  subsequent  writers  could  find  no  more 
 probable  place  for  their  abode  than  an  island  vvhera 
 the  strange  phenomenon  presented  by  Jitna  seemed 
 to  point  to  an  equally  strange  race  of  inhabitants. 
 Homer,  it  is  true,  had  not  made  these  two  races  neigh- 
 bours to  each  other,  nor  had  he  jdaced  them  both  in 
 his  island  of  Thrinakia  ;  the  expounders  of  his  my- 
 thology, however,  regardless  of  geographical  difficul- 
 ties, considered  the  point  as  accurately  settled,  and 
 here,  therefore,  according  to  them,  dwelled  the  Cy- 
 clopes and  Laestrygones.  Thucydides  alone  (6,  2), 
 after  mentioning  the  common  tradition,  honestly  con 
 fesses  that  he  cannot  tell  what  has  become  of  these 
 giant-races.  Other  writers,  however,  were  belter  in 
 formed,  it  seems,  and  made  the  Cyclopes  disappear 
 from  view  in  the  bowels  of  ^Etna,  and  amid  the  cav- 
 erns of  the  Lipari  isles.— From  actual  inquiry,  the 
 Greeks  became  acquainted  with  the  fact  of  the  exist- 
 ence of  two  early  tribes  in  this  island,  ihe  Sicani  and 
 Siculi.  They  knew,  also,  that  the  former  of  these 
 lived  at  a  much  earlier  period  than  the  latter;  bu< 
 they  were  divided  in  their  opinions  as  to  the  origin  of 
 the  more  ancient  people.  The  most  of  them,  with 
 Thucydides  at  their  head  (fi,  2),  derive  the  Sican< 
 from  Iberia,  and  make  them  to  have  been  driven  bj 
 the  Licves  (Ligures)  from  their  original  seats  in  tha 
 «'■'  "  1231 
 
SICILIA. 
 
 SICILIA. 
 
 country,  around  the  river  Sicanus,  to  the  island  which, 
 from  them,  received  the  name  of  Sicania.     But,  on  a 
 more  intimate  acquaintance  with  Iberia,  the  Greciis 
 found  no  river   there  of  the  name  of  Sicanus  ;   they 
 therefore  conceived  it  to  be  identical  with  the  Sicoris, 
 a  tributary  of   the  Iberus.     No  Ligurians,  however, 
 ever  settled   in  Spain,  and   therefore    no  Sicani  could 
 ever  have  been   driven    by  thcni  from  that  country. 
 The  only  solution  of  this  difficulty  is,  that  as  the  Ibe- 
 rians settled  also  along  the  coast  of  Gaul,  the  Sicanus 
 was   a  river  of   southern  Gaul,   which   subsequently 
 changed  its  name,  and  could  not  afterward  be  identified. 
 But   another  difficulty  presents  itself     In  what  way 
 did  the  Sicani,  after  being  thus  expelled,  reach  the  isl- 
 and of  Sicily  1     The  nearest  and  readiest  route  was 
 by  sea  ;  but  where  could  these  rude  children  of  nature 
 have  obtained  a  fleet!      Did   they  proceed  by  land! 
 This  path  would  be,  if  possible,  still  more  arduous,  as 
 they  would   have    to  cut   their   way  through   various 
 branches  of  their  very  conquerors,  the  Ligures,  and 
 then  encounter    many  valiant    tribes    in  central    and 
 southern  Italy.     Virgil  seems  to  have  been  startled  by 
 the  difficulties  of  this  hypothesis,  since  he  makes  the 
 Sicani  inhabitants  of  Latium,  or,  rather,  with  the  li- 
 cense of  a  poet,  confounds  them  wiih  the  Siculi.    {JEn., 
 7,  795  ;  8,  342  )     Other  writers,  however,  whom  Di- 
 odorus  Siculus  (5,  2)  considers  most  worthy  of  reli- 
 ance, declared  themselvefe  against  this  wandering  of 
 the  Sicani,  and  made  them  an  indigenous  race  in  Sici- 
 ly.    The  chief  argument  in  favour  of  this  position  was 
 deduced  from  the  traditions  of  the  people  themselves, 
 who  laid  clai.m  to  the  title  of  Autochthones.     {Thu- 
 cyd.,  6,  2.)     This  opinion  found  a  warm  supporter  in 
 Timasus,  as  we  are  informed  by  Diodorus  (5,  6). — To 
 these  primitive  inhabitants  came  the  Siculi.     These 
 were  an  Italian  race  from  Latium  {vid.  Siculi),  and, 
 previously  to  their  settlement  in  Sicily,  thoy  had  es- 
 tablished themselves,  for  a  time,  among  the  Morgctes, 
 in  what   is  now  called   Calabria.     On  their  crossing 
 over  into  the  island,  the  Siculi  took  possession  of  the 
 country  in  the  vicinity  of  yEtna.     They  met  with  no 
 opposition  at  first  from  the  Sicani,  for  that  people  had 
 long  before  been  driven  away  by  an  eruption  from  the 
 mountain,  and  had  fled  to  the  western  parts  of  the  isl- 
 and.    {Diod..  5,  G.)     As  the  Siculi,  however,  extend- 
 ed themselves  to  the  west,  they  could  not  fail  eventu- 
 ally of  coming  in  contact  with  the  Sicani.     Wars  en- 
 sued, unl:l  they  regulated  by  treaty  their  respective 
 limits.     (Diod.,  5,  6.)    According  to  Thucydides,  how- 
 ever',  the    Siculi   defeated    in   battle   the  Sicani,  and 
 drove  and  confined  them  to  the  southern  and  western 
 parts  of  the  island. — Sicily  received  accessions  also  to 
 the  number  of  its  inhabitants  from  other  sources.      1, 
 The  Cretans  ;   these,  according  to  traditions  half  his- 
 torical and  half  mythological,  came  to  this  island  along 
 with  Minos,  when  in  pursuit  of  D^dalus.     After  the 
 death  of  their  king,  they  settled  in  the  territories  of 
 Cocalus,  a  monarch  of  the  Sicani.     They  subsequent- 
 ly became  blended  with  the  Siculi.     2.  The  Elymi. 
 According  to  Thucydides,  a  number  of  Trojans  es- 
 caping to  Sicily,  and  settling  in  the  country  bordering 
 on  the  Sicani,  they  both  together  obtained  the  name  of 
 Elymi.     3.  The  Phoenicians,  loo,  formed  settlements 
 around  the  whole  of  Sicily,  taking  in  the  promontories 
 and  little  islands  adjacent.     These  settlements  were 
 not,  however,  meant  as  colonies,  but  only  commercial 
 stations.     After,  however,  the  Greeks  had  come  over 
 in  great  numbers,  they  abandoned  the  greater  part  of 
 their  settlements,  and  drew  together  the  rest,  occu- 
 pying Motya,  Solceis,  and  Panormus,  near  the  Elymi, 
 both  in  reliance  on  their  assistance,  and  because  from 
 this  part  of  Sicily  was  the  shortest  passage  to  Carthage. 
 {Thuryd.,  C,  2.)     An  account  of  the  Grecian  settle- 
 ments is  given  in  Thucydides  (6,  3),  and  they  had  al- 
 ready attained  a  llourishing  maturity  before  a  new  pow- 
 er devcloj)cil  itself  and  entered  the  lists  with  them  for 
 1232 
 
 the  possession  of  the  island.     This  was  Carthage,  and 
 the  first,  serious  demonstration  was  made  when  Xerx- 
 es was   prosecuting    his   invasion   of  Greece.      The 
 Carthaginians,  who,  as  Diodorus  asserts,  were  in  league 
 with  the  Persian  monarch,  landed  with  a  large  army  at 
 Panormus,  and  threatened  Himera.     The  pretext  for 
 this  movement  on  the  part  of  Carthage  was  furnished 
 by  a  quarrel  with  Theron,  tyrant  of  Agrigentum  ;  and, 
 according  to  the  usual  practice  of  the  Carthaginians, 
 the  armament  had  been  strengthened  from  many  bar- 
 barous nation.s,  the  Tuscan  fleet  being  also  joined  to  it 
 by  treaty.     But  Gelon,  monarch  of  Syracuse,  marched 
 to  the  assistance  of  Theron,  leaving  the  command  of 
 his  fleet  to  his  brother  Iliero  ;    and    Hiero    defeated 
 the  Carthaginian  and  Tuscan  fleet,  while,  about  the 
 same  time,  the  Carthaginian  land  force  was  complete- 
 ly broken  at  Himera  by  the  united  armies  of  Syracuse 
 and  Acragas.     It   is  said  by  some  authors   that  Ge- 
 lon's  victory  took  place  on  the  same  day  with  the  bat- 
 tle of  Salanlis.     No  farther  conquest  was  attempted 
 in   Sicily  by  Carthage  for   many  years   after,  though 
 she  still  remained  in  possession  of  the  old  Phoenician 
 settlements,  and  could  therefore  make  a  descent  ou 
 the  island  whenever  she  might  again  feel  inclined.     It 
 was  not  till  after  the  termination  of  the  contest  be- 
 tween the  Athenians  and  Syracusans,  when  the  latter, 
 notwithstanding  their  success,  remained  greatly  enfee- 
 bled by  the  struggle,  that  Carthage  again  sought  an  op- 
 portunity of  invading  the  island.     This  was  soon  af- 
 forded by  the  disputes  between  Selinus  and  ..Egesta  ; 
 the  Carthaginians  landed  at  Motya,  took  Selinus,  and 
 established  themselves  over  the  entire  western  half  of 
 Sicily.     They  would  have  spread  themselves  farther, 
 had  it  not  been  for  the  power  of  Dionysius  of  Syra- 
 cuse ;  and  to  this  man,  with  all  his  tyrannical  quali- 
 ties, the  Greeks  of  Sicily  were  mainly  indebted    for 
 their  deliverance  from  the  yoke  of  Carthage.     He  was 
 often  defeated,  it  is  true,  but  as  often  found  the  means 
 of  withstanding  his  opponents  anew  ;  until  at  last  it 
 was  agreed  between  the  contending  parlies  that   the 
 river  Himera  should  form  the  limit  belween  the  Syr- 
 acusan  and  Grecian  territories  on  the  east,  and  the 
 Carthaginian  dependencies  on  the  west.    The  peace 
 that  ensued  was,  however,  of  short  duration,  and  Car- 
 thage sought  every  opportunity  of  advancing  her  pow- 
 er, afforded  by  the  internal  dissensions  of  the  Greeks, 
 as  often  as  these  occurred.     From  time  to  time,  it  is 
 true,  there  arose  at  Syracuse  men  of  eminent  abilities, 
 such  as  a  Timoleon  and  an  Agathocles,  who  kept  in 
 check  the  aspiring  power  of  Carthage  ;  yet  it  was  but 
 too  apparent  that  this  power  was  gaining  a  decided 
 ascendancy,  when  the  Romans,  alarmed  at  the  move- 
 ments of  so  powerful  a  neighbour,  were  induced  to 
 interfere  (vid.  Messana),  and,  after  a  protracted  strug- 
 gle of  twenty-four  years,  succeeded  in  making  them- 
 selves   masters    of  the  whole  of  Sicily.     {Vid.  Vz- 
 nicum    Bellum.)     It    must    not    be    supposed,   how- 
 ever, that,  during  these  contests  of  the  Carthaginians 
 with  the  Greeks  in  the  first  instance,  and  afterward 
 of  the  former  with  the  Romans,  the  early  inhabitants 
 of  the  country  were  merely  idle  spectators.     In  what 
 relation  the  Sicani,  in  the  western  part  of  the  island, 
 stood  to  the  Greeks,  we  have  no  means  of  ascertain- 
 ing.    When  the   Carthaginians  appeared  there    they 
 submitted  without  a  struggle  ;  though  at  times,  as  Syr- 
 acusan  leaders  penetrated  into  their  territories,  they 
 assumed  a  brief  attitude  of  independence.     The  oitua- 
 tion  of  the  Siculi,  in  the  eastern  quarter  of  the  island, 
 was  different  from  this.     They  acknowledged  the  sway 
 of  Gelon,  and  also  of  his  two  brothers  ;   but  when,  ou 
 the  expulsion  of  the  latter  of  these,  intestine  dissen- 
 sions arose  in  Syracuse,  an  individual  of  commanding 
 character  among  the  Siculi,  by  name  Duketius,  suc- 
 ceeded in  forming  a  union  among  the  petty  states  of 
 his  countrymen,  and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
 confcderacv.     The  effort  was,  however,  only  short- 
 
S  IC 
 
 SIC 
 
 lived.  Afier  some  successes  he  was  compelled  to 
 surrender  to  the  Syracusans,  who  sent  him  to  Corinth 
 in  exile.  Here,  however,  he  soon  raised  new  forces, 
 returned  to  Sicily,  and,  landing  on  the  northern  coast, 
 at  a  point  where  the  Grecian  arms  had  not  reached, 
 founded  there  a  city  called  Calacta.  Death  frustrated 
 the  schemes  which  he  had  again  formed  for  the  union 
 of  tlie  Siculi,  and  the  latter  were  reduced  once  more 
 beneath  the  sway  of  Syracuse  :  hut  they  did  not  long 
 continue  in  this  state  of  forced  obedience.  We  find 
 them  appearing  as  the  enemies  of  the  Syracusans  at 
 the  time  of  the  Athenian  expedition  ;  and  also  as  the 
 allies  of  the  Carthaginians  when  the  latter  had  be- 
 pun  to  establish  themselves  in  the  island.  Dionysius, 
 however,  again  reduced  them  ;  and  Timoleon  after- 
 ward restored  to  them  their  freedom,  and  they  con- 
 tinued for  some  time  subsequently  either  in  the  en- 
 joyment of  a  brief  independence,  or  subject  to  that 
 power  which  chanced  to  have  the  ascendancy  in  the 
 islntid,  whether  Syracusan  or  Carthaginian,  untd  the 
 whole  of  Sicily  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 
 Under  this  new  power  tho  cities  on  the  coast  of  the 
 island  were  seriously  injuicu,  tiotn  because  the  Ro- 
 man policy  ,  was  not  very  favourable  to  commerce, 
 and  the  conquerors  were  unwilling  that  the  Greek 
 colonies  in  Sicily  should  again  become  powerful. 
 With  some  exceptions,  however,  the  Sicilian  cities 
 were  allowed  the  enjoyment  of  their  civil  rights  as  far 
 as  regarded  the  form  and  administration  of  their  gov- 
 ernments, and  hence  the  mention  so  often  made  by 
 Cicero  of  a  Senatu.s  I'opulusque  in  many  cities  of  the 
 island.  Hence,  too,  the  power  they  enjoyed  of  regu- 
 lating their  own  coinage.  As,  however,  collisions 
 arose  between  this  conceded  power  and  the  magis- 
 trates sent  to  govern  them  from  Rome,  we  read  of  a 
 commission  of  ten  individuals,  at  the  head  of  which 
 was  the  pra;tor  Publius  Rutilius,  by  whom  a  perma- 
 nent form  of  government  was  devised,  which  the  Si- 
 cilians ever  alter  regarded  as  their  palladium  against 
 the  tyranny  of  Roman  magistrates.  At  a  later  pe- 
 riod, Julius  CsRsar  extended  to  the  whole  island  the 
 Jus  Latti,  and,  by  the  last  will  of  the  dictator,  as  An- 
 tony pretended,  though  brought  about,  in  fact,  by  a 
 large  sum  of  money  paid  to  the  latter,  all  the  inhabi- 
 tants of  Sicily  were  admitted  to  the  rights  of  Roman 
 citizens.  {Cic  ,  Ep.ad  Att.,\^,\'2,.)  It  would  seem, 
 howc'i'er,  to  have  been  a  personal  privilege,  and  not  to 
 have  extended  to  their  lands,  since  we  find  Augustus 
 establishing  in  the  island  the  five  Roman  colonies  of 
 Messana.  Tauromcnium,  Catana,  Syracusas,  and  Ther- 
 ms {Piin.,  I.  38. -Dio  Casx.,  54,  7.)  Strabo  names 
 also  as  a  Roman  colony  the  city  of  Panormus.  {Stra- 
 bo, 272. — Manncrt,  Grogr.,  vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p  23.5,  seqq.) 
 — The  Romans  remained  in  possession  of  Sicily  until 
 Gciiseric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  conquered  it  in  the 
 fifth  century  of  our  era.  Belisarius,  Justinian's  gen- 
 eral, drove  out  the  Vandals,  A.D.  535,  and  it  remained 
 in  the  hands  of  the  Greek  emperors  nearly  three  cen- 
 turies, when  it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  A.D.  827. 
 The  Normans,  who  ruled  in  Naples,  conquered  Sicily 
 A.D.  1072,  and  received  it  from  the  pope  as  a  papal 
 fief.  Roger,  a  powerful  Norman  prince,  took  the  title 
 of  King  of  Sicily  in  1102,  and  united  the  island  with 
 the  kingdom  of  Naples,  under  the  name  of  the  King- 
 dom of  the  two  Sicilies. 
 
 SiciNius.  Dentatus  L.,  a  tribune  of  Rome,  cele- 
 brated for  his  valour,  and  the  honours  he  obtained  in 
 the  field  of  battle  during  the  period  of  40  years,  in 
 which  he  was  engaged  in  the  Roman  armies.  He  was 
 present  in  120  battles;  obtained  14  civic  crowns;  3 
 mural  crowns  ;  8  crowns  of  gold  ;  180  gold  chains 
 (torques);  160  bracelets  (armilla)  ;  18  spears  {hastiE 
 purer) ;  25  sets  of  horse-trappings  ;  and  all  as  the  re- 
 ward of  his  extraordinary  valour  and  services.  He 
 could  show  the  scars  of  40  wounds  which  he  had  re- 
 ceived, all  in  the  breast.  (Val.  Max.,  3,  2,  24.)  Dio- 
 7R 
 
 nysius  of  Halicarnassus,  who  calls  him  Siccius,  states 
 that  he  gave  great  oflence  subsequently  to  Appius 
 Claudius,  the  decemvir,  by  the  freedom  of  his  re- 
 marks relative  to  the  incapacity  of  the  Roman  leaders 
 who  were  at  that  time  carrying  on  war  agaitisl  the  en- 
 emy ;  and  that  Appius,  pretending  to  coincide  with 
 him  in  his  views,  induced  Siccius  to  go  askgatus  to 
 the  Roman  cam[)  near  Crustumeria.  When  the  brave 
 man  had  reached  the  camp  of  his  countrymen,  the 
 generals  there  prevailed  upon  him  to  take  the  com- 
 mand ;  and  then,  upon  his  objecting  to  the  site  of  their 
 camp,  as  being  m  their  own  territory,  not  that  of  the 
 enemy,  they  begged  him  to  select  a  new  spot  for  an 
 encampment.  A  body  of  their  immediate  partisans, 
 to  the  number  of  100  men,  were  sent  with  him,  on  his 
 setting  out  for  this  purpose,  as  a  guard  for  his  person, 
 who  attacked,  and,  after  a  valiant  resistance  on  his  part, 
 slew  him  on  the  route,  in  accordance  with  previous  in- 
 structions, and  then  brought  back  word  that  he  had 
 been  slain  by  the  enemy.  The  falsehood,  however, 
 was  soon  discovered,  and  the  army  gave  Siccius  a 
 splendid  burial.     {Dion   Hal.,  11,  37.) 
 
 SicoRis,  a  river  of  Spain,  now  tne  Scgre,  rising  in 
 the  Pyrenees,  and  running  into  the  Iberus,  after  flow- 
 ing by  the  city  of  Ilerda.  It  divided  the  terril'<ries  of 
 the  Ilergets  from  those  of  the  Lacetani.  Some  writers 
 regard  it  as  the  Sicanus  of  Thucydides.  (Cas.,  B.  C, 
 1,  40.— P/m.,  3,  3  ) 
 
 SicuLi,  an  ancient  nation,  who  in  very  early  times 
 dwelt  in  Latium  and  about  the  Tiber,  and,  indeed,  upon 
 the  site  of  Rome  itself.  All  this  is  confirmed  by  Latin 
 and  CEnotrian  traditions.  {Dion.  Hal ,  1,  9. — Id  ,  2, 
 1. — Varro,  L.  L.,  4,  10. — Antiochvs,  ap.  Dion.  Hal., 
 
 1,  73.)  A  part  of  the  town  of  Tibur  bore  the  name 
 of  Sicelion  {Sicelium)  in  the  time  of  Dionysius  (1, 
 16).  The  arguments  of  Niebuhr  lead  to  the  conclu- 
 sion that  these  Siculi  were  the  Pelasgians  of  Latium. 
 They  were  eventually  driven  out  by  an  indigenous 
 race,  highlanders  of  the  Apennines,  who  descended 
 upon  them  from  the  mountains,  and  from  the  basins 
 of  the  Nar  and  Velinus.  Moving  south  after  this  dis- 
 lodginent,  they  eventually  crossed  over  into  Sicily 
 then  named  Sicania,  and  gave  its  new  and  latest  ap 
 pellation  to  that  island.  {Vnl.  Sicilia,  and  Roma. — 
 Maiden's  History  of  Rome,  p.  109.) 
 
 SiciJi.UM  Fretum,  the  straits  that  separated  an- 
 cient Italy  from  Sicily  ;  now  the  Straits  of  Mcssi7ia, 
 or  Faro  di  Messina.  The  name  was  applied  in  strict 
 ness  to  that  part  of  the  strait  which  lay  between  the 
 Columna  Rhegina  on  the  Italian  side,  and  a  similar 
 column  or  tower  on  the  promontory  of  Pelorum.  The 
 Columna  Rhegina  marked  the  termination  of  the  con- 
 sular road  leading  to  the  south  of  Italy.  The  mosf 
 prevalent  and  the  best  grounded  opinion  seems  to  be 
 that  which  identifies  this  spot  with  the  modern  la  Ca- 
 tona.  The  Sicilian  strait  was  generally  supposed  by 
 the  ancients  to  have  been  formed  by  a  sudden  disrup- 
 tion of  the  island  from  the  mainland.  But  consult 
 remarks  at  the  commencement  of  the  article  Sicilia. 
 {Mela.  2,  4. — Plin.,  3,  5. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol. 
 
 2,  p.  427.) 
 
 SicvoN,  a  city  of  Greece,  in  the  territory  of  Sicyo- 
 nia,  northwest  of  Corinth.  Few  cities  of  Greece  could 
 boast  of  so  high  antiquity,  since  it  already  existed 
 under  the  names  of  ^-Egialea  and  Mecone  long  before 
 the  arrival  of  Pelops  in  the  peninsula.  {Strabo,  382. 
 —Pausan.,  2,  d.  —  Hcsiud,  Theog.,  537.)  Homer 
 represents  Sicyon  as  forming  part  of  Uie  kingdom  of 
 Mycente,  with  the  whole  of  Achaia.  {Ih.,  2,  572.) 
 Pausanias  and  other  genealogists  have  handed  down 
 to  us  a  long  list  of  the  kings  of  Sicyon,  from  ^gialus, 
 its  founder,  to  the  conquest  of  the  city  by  the  Dorians 
 and  Heraclidfe,  from  which  period  it  became  subject 
 to  Argos.  {Pausan.,  2,  6. — Euseb.,  Chron — Clem 
 Alex,  Strom  ,  1,  321.)  Its  population  was  then  di- 
 vided into  four  tribes,  named  HyUus,  Pamphyli,  Dy- 
 
 1233 
 
SICYON. 
 
 SID 
 
 mants,  and  iEgialus,  a  classification  inlroduced  by  the 
 Dorians,  and  adopted,  as  we  learn  from  Herodotus  (.5, 
 68),  by  tiic  Argivcs.     How  long  a  connexion  subsisted 
 between  the  two  states  we  are  not  informed  ;   but  it 
 appears  that  when  (jlisthenes  became  tyrant  of  Sicyoii, 
 they  were  independent  of  each  other,  since  Herodotus 
 relates  that,  while  at  war  witii  Argos,  he  changed  the 
 names  of  the  Sicyonian  tribes,  which  were  Dorian,  that 
 ihey  might  not  be  the  same  as  those  of  the  adverse 
 city  ;  and   in  order  to  ridicule  the  Sicyonians,  the  his- 
 torian adds  that  he  named  them  afresb,  after  such  an- 
 imals as  pigs  and  asses  ;   sixty  years  after  his  death 
 the  former  appellations  were,  however,  restored.     Si- 
 cyon  continued  under  the  dominion  of  tyrants  for  the 
 Bjjace  of  one  hundred  years  ;   such  being  the  mildness 
 of  their  rule,  and  their  observance  of  the  existing  laws, 
 that  the  people  gladly  beheld  the  crown  thus  transmit- 
 ted from  one  generation  to  another.     (AristoL,  I'otil., 
 S,  12. — Strab.,  382.)     It  appears,  however,  from  Thii- 
 cydides,  that,  at  the  time  of  the  Pelopoiinesian  war,  it 
 had  been  changed  to  an  aristocracy.     In  that  contest, 
 the  Sicyoniaiis,  from  their  Dorian  origin,  naturally  es- 
 poused the  cause  of  Sparta,  and  the  maritime  situa- 
 tion of  their  country  not   unfrequentiv  exposed  it  to 
 the   ravages  of  the  naval    force   of   Athens.      {Xcn., 
 Hist    dr.,  4,  4,  7.)     After  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  we 
 learn  from  Xenophon  that  Sicyon  once  more  became 
 Bubject  to  a  despotic  government,  of  which  Euphron, 
 one  of  its  principal  citizens,  had  placed  himself  at  the 
 head,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Argives  and  Arcadi- 
 ans.    {Xen.,  Hist    Gr.,  7,  1,  32  )     His  reign,  howev- 
 er, was   not    of  long   duration,   he   being    waylaid  at 
 Thebes,  whither  he  went  to  conciliate  the  favour  of 
 that  power,  by  a  party  of  Sicyonian  exiles,  and  mur- 
 dered in  the  very  citadel.     {Xcn.,  Hist.  Gr  ,  7,  3,  4.) 
 — On  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Sicyon  fell 
 into  the  hands  of  Alexander,  son  of  Poly sperchon;  but, 
 on  his  being  assassinated,  a  tumult  ensued,  in  which 
 the  inhabitants  of  the  citv  attempted   to  regain   their 
 liberty.     Such,  however,  was  the  courage  and  firmness 
 displayed    by    Cratesipolis,  his   wife,    that   they    were 
 finally  overpowered.     Not  long  after  this  event,  De- 
 metrius  Poliorcetes  made  himself  master  of  Sicyon, 
 and,  having  persuaded  the  inhabitants  to  retire  to  the 
 acropolis,  he  levelled  to  the  ground  all  the  lower  part 
 of  the  city  which  connected  the  citadel  with  the  port. 
 A  new  tower  was  then  built,  to  which  the  na.me  of 
 Demetrius  was  given.     Tiiis,  as  Strabo  reports,  was 
 placed  on  a  forlitied  hill  dedicated  to  Ceres,  and  dis- 
 tant about  12  or  20  stadia  from  the  sea.     {Strab.,  382. 
 — Compare  Patisan.,  2,  7.)     The  change  which  was 
 thus  effected  in  the  situation  of  this  city  does  not  ap- 
 pear to  have  produced  any  alteration  in  the  character 
 and   political   sentiments    of  the   people.     For    many 
 years  after  they  still  continued  to  be  governed   by  a 
 succession   of   tyrants,  until    Aratiis   united    it   to  the 
 Achajan  league.     By  the  great  abilities  of  this  its  dis- 
 tinguished citizen,  Sicyon  was  raised  to  a  high  rank 
 among  the  other  Ach^san   slates,  and,  being  already 
 celebrated  as  the  first  school  of  painting  in  Greece, 
 continued  to  flourish  under  his  ausjiices  in  the  cultiva- 
 tion of  all  the  finest  arts  ;   it  being  said,  as  Plutarch 
 reports,  that  the  beauty  of  the  ancient  style  had  there 
 alone  been  preserved  pure  and  uncorrupted.     {Pint., 
 Vit.  Aral.  — Strabo,  •■i92.  —  Plin.,  35,   12)     Aratus 
 died  at  an  advanced  age,  after  an  active  and  glorious 
 life,  not  without  suspicion  of  having  been  poisoned  by 
 order  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon.     lie  was  interred  at 
 Sicyon  with  great  pomp,  and  a   splendid   monument 
 was    erected    to   him    as    the   deliverer   of   the    city. 
 {Plut.,  Vit.  Arat. — Pausan.,  2,  8.)     After  the  disso- 
 lution of  the  Achaean  league,  little  is  known  of  Sicyon  ; 
 it  is  evident,  however,  that  it  existed  in  the  time  of 
 Pausanias,  from  the  number  of  remarkable  edifices  and 
 monuments   which   he    enumerates  within   its  walls  ; 
 though  he  allows  that  it  had  greatly  suffered  from  va- 
 1^34 
 
 1  rious  calamities,  but  especially  from  an  earthqaalie, 
 which  nearly  reduced  it  to  desolation.  The  ruins  o/ 
 this  once  great  and  flourishing  city  are  still  to  be  «ecn 
 near  the  small  village  of  Basilico.  Dr.  Clarke  informs 
 us  that  these  remains  of  ancient  magnificence  are  still 
 considerable,  and  in  some  instances  exist  in  such  a 
 state  of  preservation,  that  it  is  evident  the  buildings  of 
 the  city  must  either  have  svirvived  the  earthquake  to 
 which  Pausanias  alludes,  or  have  been  constructed  al 
 some  later  period.  In  this  number  is  the  theatre, 
 which  that  traveller  considers  as  the  finest  and  most 
 perfect  structure  of  the  kind  in  all  Greece.  {Clarke''s 
 Travels,  vol.  6,  p.  553,  Land,  ed.)  Sir  W.  Gell  re- 
 ports, that  "  Basilico  is  a  village  of  fifty  houses,  situ- 
 ated in  the  angle  of  a  little  rocky  ascent,  along  which 
 ran  the  walls  of  Sicyon.  This  city  was  in  shape  trian- 
 gular, and  placed  upon  a  high  flat,  overlooking  the 
 plain,  about  an  hour  from  the  sea,  where  is  a  great  tu- 
 mulus on  the  shore.  On  the  highest  angle  of  Sicyon 
 was  the  citadel."  {Itin.  of  the  Murca,  p.  15.  —  JJod- 
 well,  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  294.  —  Cramer's  Arte.  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p.  46,  seqq.) — Sicyonian  almonds  arc  mention- 
 ed by  AthenKUs  (8,  p.  349,  c.),  and  are  supposed  to 
 have  been  of  a  softer  shell  than  ordinary.  {Casaub., 
 ad  loc  )  We  read  also  of  the  Sicyonian  shoes  (Sjkv- 
 (jvta),  which  were  very  celebrated,  and  were  worn  by 
 the  luxurious  and  eflTeminate  in  other  countries.  {Athe- 
 ncBus,  4,  p.  155,  c.) 
 
 SicvoNi.\,  the  territory  of  Sicyon,  on  the  Sinus 
 Corinthiacus,  west  of  Corinthia,  and  separated  from  it 
 by  the  small  river  Nemea.  {Strabo,  382. —  Vtd.  Si- 
 cyon.) 
 
 Side,  I.  a  city  of  Pamphylia,  west  of  the  river  Me- 
 las,  and  lying  on  the  Chelidonian  bay.  It  was  found- 
 ed by  the  CumsBans  of  iEolis.  {Sci/lax,  PeripL,  p. 
 40. — Strab.,  667.)  Arrian  relates,  that  the  Sidetaj, 
 soon  after  their  settlement,  forgot  the  Greek  language, 
 and  spoke  a  barbarous  tongue  peculiar  to  themselves. 
 It  surrendered  to  Alexander  in  his  march  through  Pam- 
 phylia. {Arnu.n,  Exp.  Alex.,  1,  26  )  Side,  many 
 years  after,  was  the  scene  of  a  naval  engagement  be- 
 tween the  fleet  of  Antiochus,  commanded  by  Hannibal, 
 and  that  of  the  Rhodians,  in  which,  after  a  severe 
 contest,  the  former  was  defeated.  {Livy,  37,  23, 
 scqq.)  When  the  pirates  of  .\sia  Minor  had  attained 
 to  that  degree  of  audacity  and  power  which  rendered 
 them  so  formidable,  we  learn  from  Strabo  that  Side 
 became  their  princi|)al  harbovir,  as  well  as  the  market- 
 place where  they  disposed  of  their  prisoners  by  auc- 
 tion. {Strabo,  664.)  Side  was  still  a  considerable 
 town  under  the  emperors;  and,  when  a  division  was 
 made  of  the  province  into  two  parts,  it  became  the 
 metropolis  of  Pamphylia  Prima.  {Hierocl,  p.  682  — 
 Consil.  Const.,  2,  |).  240.)  Minerva  was  the  deity 
 principally  wor.shipped  here. — An  interesting  account 
 of  the  ruins  in  this  place  is  to  be  found  in  (.^aptain 
 Beaufort's  valuable  work,  with  an  accurate  plan.  "It 
 stands,"  observes  this  writer,  "  on  a  low  peninsula, 
 and  was  surrounded  by  walls.  The  theatre  appears 
 like  a  lofty  acropolis  rising  from  the  centre  of  the 
 town,  and  is  by  far  the  largest  and  best  preserved  of 
 any  that  came  under  our  observation  in  .Asia  Minor. 
 The  harbour  consisted  of  two  small  moles,  connected 
 with  the  quay  and  principal  sea-gate.  At  the  extrem- 
 ity of  the  peninsula  were  two  artificial  harbours  for 
 larger  craft.  Both  are  now  almost  filled  with  sand 
 and  stones,  which  have  been  borne  in  by  the  swell." 
 {Beaufort's  Karamania,  p.  146,  se//g.)  Mr.  Fellows, 
 however,  says,  that  the  ruins  of  Side  are  inferior  in 
 scale,  date,  and  age  to  any  that  he  had  previously 
 seen.  The  Greek  style  is  scarcely  to  be  traced  in 
 any  of  the  ruins ;  but  the  Roman  is  visible  in  every 
 part.  In  few  buildings  except  the  theatre  are  the 
 stones  even  hewn,  the  cement  being  wholly  trusted  to 
 for  their  support.  "  The  glowing  colours,"  continues 
 Mr.  Fellows,  "  in  which  this  tovsn  is  described  in  the 
 
SI  u 
 
 SID 
 
 '  Modern  Traveller,'  as  quoted  from  Captain  Beaufort's 
 admirable  survey,  show  how  essential  it  is  to  know 
 upon  wtiat  standard  a  description  is  formed.  It  would 
 have  given  (yapiain  Beaufort  much  pleasure  to  have 
 gone,  inland  for  a  few  miles,  and  to  have  seen  the  the- 
 atres and  towns  in  perfect  preservation  as  compared 
 with  Side,  and  of  so  much  finer  architecture.  From 
 tlie  account  which  he  gives,  I  was  led  to  expect  that 
 this  would  form  the  climax  of  the  many  cities  of  Asia 
 Minor,  but  I  found  its  remains  among  the  least  inter- 
 esting." (Fcllmcs''  JournaJ  of  an  Excursion  in  Asia 
 Minor  in  18:J8,  p.  '203,  scg.) — In  the  middle  ages  the 
 site  of  this  place  bore,  the  name  of  Scamldor  or  Can- 
 Aeloro,  but  it  is  now  commonly  called  Esky  Adalia. 
 (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  283.) — II.  A  town 
 of  Pontus,  to  the  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Thermodon, 
 and  giving  name  to  the  adjacent  plain  (Sidene).  The 
 river  Sidm,  which  flows  at  the  present  day  in  this  same 
 quarter,  recalls  the  ancient  name  of  the  town.  {Cra- 
 mer's Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  271  ) 
 
 SiniciNOM,  or,  more  correctly,  Teanuin  Sidicinum, 
 a  town  of  the  Sidicini,  in  Campania.  (  V^id.  'i'eanum.) 
 • — The  territory  of  the  Sidicini  was  situate  to  the  east 
 of  that  of  the  Anrunci.  They  were  once  apparently 
 an  independent  peo[)le,  but  included  afterward  under 
 the  common  name  of  Campani.  This  nation  was  of 
 Oscan  origin,  and  powerful  enough  to  contend  with 
 the  neighbouring  Samnites,  and  even  to  afford  em- 
 ployment to  a  large  Roman  force.  The  period  of 
 their  reduction  by  the  Romans  is  not  mentioned. 
 {Cramer's  Ancient  Ilahj,  vol.  2,  p.  193  ) 
 
 SiDON,  in  Scri|)tnre  Tzidon,  the  oldest  and  most 
 powerful  city  of  Phoenicia,  five  geographical  miles 
 north  of  Tyrus,  on  the  seacoast.  It  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  founded  by  Sidon,  the  eldest  son  of  Canaan, 
 which  will  carry  up  its  origin  to  about  2000  years  be- 
 fore Christ.  {Gen.,  10,  15  — Roscnm.  ad  Gen.,  I.  c. — 
 Bocliart,  Geogr.  Sacr.,  4,  35.)  But  if  it  was  founded 
 by  Sidon,  his  descendants  were  driven  out  by  a  body 
 of  Phoenician  colonists,  most  probably,  who  are  sup- 
 posed either  to  have  given  it  its  name,  or  to  have  re- 
 tained the  old  one  in  compliment  to  their  god  Siton  or 
 Dagon.  Justin  says  that  the  name  Sidon  had  refer- 
 ence to  the  abundance  of  fish  in  this  quarter  {nam  pis- 
 cem  Phccnices  Sidon  vacant,'^  68,  3),  an  opinion  in 
 which  Bochart  concurs,  who  understands  by  "  Sidon, 
 the  eldest  son  of  Canaan,"  merely  the  progenitor  of 
 the  Sidonians  and  the  founder  of  Sidon,  whatever  his 
 individual  name  may  have  been — The  inhabitants  of 
 Sidon  a[)pear  to  have  early  acquired  a  pre-etninencc 
 in  arts,  manufactures,  and  commerce  ;  and  from  their 
 superior  skill  in  hewing  timber  (by  which  must  be  un- 
 derstood their  cutting  it  out  and  [jreparing  it  for  build- 
 ing, as  well  as  the  mere  act  of  felliiig  it),  Sidonian 
 workmen  were  hired  by  Solomon  to  prepare  the  wood 
 for  the  building  of  his  Temple.  The  Sidonians  arc 
 said  to  have  been  the  first  manufacturers  of  glass,  and 
 Homer  often  speaks  of  them  as  excelling  in  many  use- 
 ful and  ingenious  arts,  giving  them  the  title  of  no2.v- 
 6ai<^a?iOt.  {II.,  23,  742.)  Add  to  this,  they  were  at 
 a  very  early  period  distinguished  for  their  commerce 
 and  their  skill  in  maritime  affairs.  The  natural  result 
 of  these  advantages  to  Sidon  was  a  high  degree  of 
 wealth  and  prosperity  ;  and,  content  with  the  riches 
 which  their  trade  and  manufactures  brought  them, 
 they  lived  in  ease  and  luxury,  trusting  the  defence  of 
 their  city  and  property,  like  the  Tyrians  after  them,  to 
 hired  troops  ;  so  that  to  live  in  ease  and  security  is 
 said  in  Scripture  to  live  after  the  manner  of  the  Sido- 
 nians. In  all  these  respects,  however,  Sidon  was  to- 
 tally eclipsed  by  Tyre,  at  first  her  colony  and  after- 
 ward her  rival.  The  more  enterprising  inhabitants  of 
 this  latter  city  pushed  their  commercial  dealing  to  the 
 extremities  of  the  known  world  ;  raised  their  city  to  a 
 rank  in  power  and  opulence  before  unknown,  and  con- 
 verted it  into  a  luxurious  metropolis,  and  the  empori- 
 
 um of  the  produce  of  all  nations.  —  Sidon,  however, 
 under  her  own  kings,  continued  to  enjoy  a  consider- 
 able degree  of  commercial  prosperity.  From  Joshu* 
 we  learn  that  Sidon  was  nch  and  powerful  when  the 
 Israelites  took  possession  of  Canaan  ;  and  St.  Jerome 
 states  that  it  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  tribe  of  Asher.  In 
 the  year  1015  B.C.  Sidon  was  dependant  on  Tyre,  but 
 in  720  it  shook  off  the  yoke,  and  Burrendered  to  Salma- 
 nazar when  he  entered  Phoenicia.  When  the  Persians 
 became  masters  of  this  city  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus, 
 they  jjerinitted  the  Sidonians  to  have  kings  of  their 
 own.  Sidon  was  ruined  in  the  year  351  B.C.  by 
 Ochus,  king  of  Persia.  When  the  inhabitants  saw 
 the  enemy  in  the  city,  they  shut  themselves  up  in  their 
 houses  with  their  wives  and  children,  and  perished  in 
 the  flames  of  the  place.  According  to  Diodorus  Sicu- 
 lus,  those  Sidonians  who  were  absent  from  the  city  at 
 the  time,  returned  and  rebuilt  it  after  the  Persian 
 forces  were  withdrawn.  Sidon  afterward  passed  into 
 the  hands  of  the  Macedonians,  and,  lasilv,  into  those 
 of  the  Romans.  After  the  Roman  it  fell  under  the 
 Saracen  power,  the  Seljukian  Turks,  and  the  sultan 
 of  Egypt  i  who,  in  A.D.  1289,  that  they  might  never 
 more  afford  shelter  to  the  Christians,  deslroyed  both  it 
 and  Tyre,  But  it  again  revived,  and  has  ever  since 
 been  in  the  possession  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Sidon, 
 at  present  called  Saide,  is  still  a  considerable  trading 
 town,  and  the  chief  man  for  Damascus  and  upper 
 Syria  ;  but  the  port  is  nearly  choked  up  with  sand. 
 Though  presenting  an  imposing  appearance  at  a  dis- 
 tance, as  it  rises  from  the  water's  edge,  it  is,  like  all 
 Turkish  towns,  ill-built  and  dirty,  and  full  of  ruins; 
 having  still  discoverable  without  the  walls  some  frag- 
 ments of  columns,  and  other  remains  of  the  ancient 
 city.  Mr.  Conner  makes  the  number  of  inhabitants 
 15,000;  of  whom  2000  are  Christians,  chiefly  Maro- 
 nites,  and  400  Jews,  who  have  one  synagogue.  They 
 are  chiefly  employed  in  spinning  cotton  ;  which,  with 
 some  silk,  and  boots  and  shoes,  or  slippers,  or  morocco 
 leather,  form  their  articles  of  commerce.  {Mansford's 
 Scripture  Gazetteer,  p.  438,  seqq.) 
 
 SiDOMORUM  Insula,  islands  in  the  Persian  Gulf, 
 supposed  to  be  the  same  with  the  Sidodona  of  Arrian. 
 {Vincent's  Commerce  of  the  Ancients,  vol.  1,  p.  358. — 
 Bis  chuff  und  Mollcr,  Wbrtcrh.  dcr  Geogr  ,  p.  916.) 
 
 SiuoNius  Apoli.inaris,  a  Christian  poet  and  writer. 
 He  was  a  native  of  Gaul,  in  which  country  his  father 
 and  grandfather  had  exercised  the  functions  of  prselo- 
 rian  prefect,  and  was  born  at  Lugdunum  {Lyons)  about 
 438  A.D.  He  received  a  very  finished  educatio.-i,  and 
 was  well  accjuainted  with  all  the  sciences  known  in 
 his  time;  but  poetry  was  his  favourite  occupation. 
 He  married  Papianilla,  daughter  of  the  consul  Fl. 
 Avitus,  who  in  455  was  named  emperor.  Sidonius 
 accompanied  his  father-in-law  to  Rome,  and  there  pro- 
 nounced, on  the  first  day  of  the  ensuing  year,  a  jjoeti- 
 cal  panegyric  in  honour  of  the  new  monarch,  who  rec- 
 ompensed liis  talent  by  appointing  him  senator  and 
 prefect  of  Rome,  and  raising  a  statue  to  him  in  the  li- 
 brary of  Trajan's  forum.  Soon  after,  Riciiner,  that 
 Frank  who  enjoyed  at  Rome  a  much  greater  power 
 than  the  emperor  himself,  deposed  Avitus,  and  named 
 Majorianus  in  his  stead.  Sidonius  was  present  in  the 
 battle  in  which  his  father-in-law  lost  his  life.  He 
 then  retired  to  Lyons,  and  fell  with  this  city  into  the 
 hdiids  of  the  conqueror,  who  treated  him  so  well,  that, 
 in  the  following  year,  Sidonius  pronounced  a  eulogi- 
 um  on  this  emperor,  and  was  honoured  with  the  title 
 of  count  {comes).  Under  the  reign  of  Severus,  and 
 during  the  interregnum  which  succeeded  his  death, 
 Sidonius  retired  once  more  to  Gaul,  and  settled  in  the 
 province  which  afterward  bore  the  mme  o(  Auvergne. 
 Here  he  lived  for  some  months  on  an  estate  which 
 beloTicred  to  his  wife.  Anthernius  having  obtained 
 the  empire  in  467,  Sidonius  went  to  Rome,  and  pro- 
 nounced a  panegyric  upon  him.     The  prince,  in  r© 
 
 1235 
 
SIG 
 
 SIL 
 
 turn,  named  him  anew  prefect  of  Rome  and  senator.  ' 
 Although  Sidonius  was  not  then  a  priest,  his  country- 
 men, notwithstanding  this,  chose  hitn,  in  472,  Bishop 
 of  Augustunometum  {CIci-mont  in  Auvergne).  After 
 having  traoslerred  to  Ins  son  his  honours  and  his  for- 
 tune, he  entered  on  the  duties  of  the  episcopate,  and 
 acquitted  himself  with  zeal  and  tidelity.  \Vhen  the 
 Visigoths  seized  u|)On  a  portion  of  Gaul,  Sidonius  fell 
 inio  the  power  of  Euric,  their  king;  but,  through  the 
 protection  of  Leo,  the  minister  of  this  barbarian  mon- 
 arch, he  was  re-established  in  his  bishopric,  and  dischar- 
 ged the  episcopal  functions  until  the  day  of  his  death, 
 "which  appears  to  have  taken  place  in  484.  A  French 
 savant  traces  the  pedigree  of  the  Polignac  family  to 
 ApoUinaris.  {^Maiigon  dc  la  Latide:  Essais  histor- 
 iques,  &;c.,  1828. — Compare  Rcvuc  Frangaise.  1828,  n. 
 6,  p.  303,  seqq  ) — We  have  remaining  ot  Sidonius  a  col- 
 lection of  letters  in  prose  ;  and  twenty-four  poems,  the 
 principal  of  which  are  the  three  panegyrics  pronounced 
 as  above,  and  some  epithalamia.  We  see  in  these  the 
 productions  of  a  man  of  talent,  not  deficient  in  imagi- 
 nation and  poetic  fire,  and  who  knows  how  to  interest 
 and  please.  Although  marked  by  the  vices  which 
 characterized  thi  literary  efforts  of  the  age,  namely, 
 subtle  conceits  and  exaggerated  metaphors,  he  may 
 still  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  of  the  Christian 
 poets. — The  best  edition  of  Sidonius  Apollinaris  is  that 
 of  Labbaeus  (Labhe),  Pans,  4to,  1652.  {Schbll,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Rom  ,  vol.  3,  p.  96,  seqq.) 
 
 SiGA,  a  city  in  the  western  part  of  Niimidia,  or 
 what  was  afterward  called  Mauritania  Cajsariensis. 
 The  Itinerary  Antoninus  makes  it  three  miles  distant 
 from  the  coast,  whereas  Ptolemy  ranks  it  among  the 
 maritime  cities.  It  had  a  harbour,  probably,  on  the 
 sea,  while  the  city  itself  stood  inland,  Siga  was  an 
 old  Tyriari  settlement,  and  is  the  only  one  of  the  many 
 mentioned  by  Scylax  in  this  quarter  that  we  can  fix 
 upon  with  certainty.  A  river  of  the  same  name  ran 
 by  It.  Syphax,  prince  of  the  Massa?syli,  selected  this 
 citv  for  his  residence,  having  taken  it  from  the  Car- 
 thaginians. He  afterward  took  up  his  abode  in  Cirta. 
 The  modern  Ned-Roma,  mentioned  by  Leo  Africanus, 
 is  thought  to  answer  to  the  ancient  city.  {Mannert, 
 Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  427.) 
 
 SiG^UM  or  SiGEUM,  I.  a  celebrated  promontory  of 
 Troas,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Scamander.  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  Cape  Jenischchr,  or,  as  it  is  more  com- 
 "inonly  pronounced,  Cape  Ja?i?s.var7/.  Homer  does  not 
 ""mention  either  the  promontory  of  Sigaeum  or  of  Rhoe- 
 teum.  These  names  rather  referred  to  cities  which 
 ■were  built  after  his  time.  These  two  promontories 
 formed  the  limits  on  either  side  of  the  station  of  the 
 'Grecian  fleet.  Achilles,  Patroclus,  and  Antilochus 
 "were  buried  on  Sig.-eum,  and  three  large  tumuli,  or 
 mounds  of  earth,  are  supposed  to  mark  at  the  present 
 day  the  three  tombs  ;  though,  from  a  passage  of  Ho- 
 Tner  {Od  ,  24,  75,  seqq.),  it  would  seem  that  one  mound 
 or  tomb  covered  the  ashes  of  all  three.  "  We  visit- 
 ed," says  Dr.  Clarke,  "the  two  ancient  tumuli  called 
 "the  tombs  of  Achilles  and  Patroclus.  They  are  to  the 
 "northeast  of  the  village  of  Ycni-Chcr.  A  third  was 
 discovered  by  Sir  W.  Gell  near  the  bridge  for  passing 
 the  Mender;  so  that  the  three  tumuli  mentioned  by 
 Strabo  are  yet  entire.  {Strain.  596  )  The  largest 
 •was  opened  by  order  of  M.  de  Choiscul.  Many  au- 
 thors bear  testimony  to  the  existence  of  the  tomb  of 
 'Achilles,  and  to  its  situation  on  or  by  the  Sigean  prom- 
 ontory. It  is  recorded  of  Alexander  the  Great,  that 
 "he  anointed  the  stele  upon  it  with  jierfumcs,  and  ran 
 'naked  around  jt,  according  to  the  custom  of  honouring 
 '■^he  manes  of  a  hero.  {Mlian,  Var.  Hist.,  12,  7. — 
 ■Diod.  Sic,  17,  17.)  ^^lian  distinguishes  the  tomb 
 "of  Achilles  from  that  of  Patroclus,  by  relating  that  Al- 
 "(ftxander  crowned  one,  and  Hephtestion  the  other.  It 
 tiiW  not,  therefore,  be  easy  to  determine,  at  the  present 
 (flay,  which  of  the  three  tombs  now  standing  upon  this 
 1236 
 
 promontory  was  that  formerly  venerated  by  the  inhab- 
 itants of  Sigsum  for  containing  the  ashes  of  Achillea. 
 
 —  It  should  also  be  observed,  that  to  the  south  of  Si- 
 gaeum. upon  the  shore  of  the  JEgean,  are  yet  other 
 tumuli,  of  equal  if  not  greater  size,  to  which  hardly 
 any  attention  has  yet  been  paid  ;  and  these  are  visil)le 
 far  out  at  sea."  (Travels,  vol.  3,  p.  210,  seqq.) — II. 
 A  town  of  Troas,  on  the  sloping  side  of  the  promon- 
 tory. It  was  founded  posterior  to  the  siege  of  'i'roy 
 l)y  an  ./Eolian  colonv,  headed  by  Archseanax  of  Myti- 
 lene.  He  is  said  to  have  employed  the  stones  of  an- 
 cient Ilium  in  the  construction  of  his  town.  The 
 Athenians,  some  years  afterward,  sent  a  body  of  truops 
 there,  headed  by  Phrynon,  a  victor  at  the  Olymfiic 
 games,  and  expelled  the  Lesbians.  This  act  of  aggres- 
 sion led  to  a  war  between  the  two  states,  which  was 
 long  waged  with  alternate  success.  Piltacus,  one  of 
 the  seven  sages,  who  commanded  the  Mytilenians,  is 
 said  to  have  slain  Phrynon,  the  Athenian  leader,  in 
 single  fight.  The  poet  .Mcseus  was  engaged  ni  one 
 of  the  actions  that  took  place,  and  had  the  misfortune 
 to  lose  his  shield.  At  length  both  parties  agreed  to 
 refer  their  dispute  to  Periander  of  Corinth,  who  de- 
 cided in  favour  of  the  .Athenians.  {Strab.,  599. — //e- 
 rorf.,  5,  95. — Diog  Laert.,  1,74.)  The  latter  people, 
 or,  rather,  the  Pisistratidsp,  remained  then  in  posses- 
 sion of  Sig*um,  and  Hip|.iias,  afier  being  expelled  from 
 Athens,  is  known  to  have  retired  there,  together  with 
 his  family.  {Herod  .  5,  65.)  The  town  of  Sigaeum 
 no  longer  existed  when  Strabo  wrote,  having  l)teii 
 destroyed  by  the  citizens  of  New  Ilium.  {Strab. ,  600 
 —Plin.,  5.  30.— Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  109  ) 
 The  modern  Je7ii  Schehr  marks  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 Sigseum.     (LcaA'c's  7'oMr,  p.  276.) 
 
 SiGM.t,  a  city  of  Latium.  southwest  of  Anagnia 
 It  became  a  Roman  colony  as  early  as  the  reign  of 
 Tarquinius  Superbus.  At  first  it  was  only  a  military 
 post,  which,  ill  process  of  time,  however,  became  a 
 city.  {Dion.  Hal.,  4.  63  )  When  Tarquin  was  de- 
 throned, he  sought  the  assistance  of  Sigma,  but  the  in- 
 habitants remained  faithful  to  Rome.  {Dion.  Hal ,  5, 
 58.)  They  appear  to  have  continued  in  the  same  sen- 
 timents even  during  the  severe  trial  of  the  second  Pu- 
 nic war  ;  as  we  find  Signia  mentioned  by  Livy  among 
 the  colonies  of  that  period  most  distinguished  for  their 
 steady  adherence  to  the  Roman  power  (27,  10).  Sig- 
 nia is  noticed  by  several  writers  as  producing  a  wine 
 of  an  astringent  nature.     {Strabo,  237 — Plni ,  14,  6. 
 
 —  Sil.  Itat.,  8,  380  —Martial,  13,  116  )  It  was  no- 
 ted, also,  for  a  particular  mode  of  flooring  with  bricks, 
 which  was  called  "  opus  Signi?ivm.''     {Pint.,  15.  12. 
 
 —  Vitruv.,  8,  in  fin.)  The  modern  Segrii  marks  the 
 ancient  site.     {Cramer's  Anc.  It.,  vol.  2,  p.  103.) 
 
 Si  I. A  Sii.vA,  a  forest  of  vast  extent,  in  the  country 
 of  the  Bruttii.to  the  south  of  Consentia.  It  consisted 
 chiefly  of  fir,  and  was  celebrated  for  the  quantity  of 
 pitch  which  it  vielded.  {I'lin.,  15,7.  —  Columella,  12, 
 20. — Dioscorides,  I,  98.)  Strabo  describes  the  Sila 
 as  occupying  an  extent  of  700  stadia,  or  eighty-seven 
 miles,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Rhegium  northward. 
 {Strab  ,  260  —Plin.,  3,  11.)  Virgil  also  alludes  to  it 
 in  a  beautiful  passage.  {Mn  ,  12,  715  )  These  im- 
 mense woods  may  probably,  in  ancient  times,  have 
 furnished  the  Tyrrheni  with  timber  for  their  fleets,  as 
 we  know  they  afterward  did  to  the  sovereigns  of  Si- 
 cily and  to  the  Athenians.  {Thvcyd.,  6,  90. — Athen., 
 5,'A2— Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  437.) 
 
 Sii.ANUs,  the  name  of  a  Roman  family  belonging 
 to  the  plebeian  house  of  the  Junii.  The  most  remark- 
 able of  the  name  were  the  following  :  T.  Marcus  Si- 
 lanus,  served  under  Scipio  in  Spain  (B  C.  207),  and 
 was  sent,  on  one  occasion,  bv  that  commander  with 
 10, .500  men  against  Mago  and  the  Celtiberians,  whom 
 he  succeeded  in  conquering.  In  the  following  year 
 he  bro'ight  to  Scipio  the  auxiliaries  from  the  Spanish 
 prince  Colcha,  and  aided  him  in  gaining  the  victory 
 
SIL 
 
 SIL 
 
 near  Baecula.  over  the  forces  of  the  Carthaginians. — 
 II.  Marcus  Junius  Silanus,  was  consul  B.C.  109  with 
 Q.  (Jacilius  Meteilus.  He  obtained  ihe  coiiiinand  of 
 the  forces  against  the  Ciinbri,  but  was  so  unlorlunate 
 as  to  be  more  than  once  defeated,  and  even  to  lose 
 his  camp.  Five  years  itiler  this,  the  tribune  Domilius 
 brou<rht  him  lo  trial  for  this  ill-success,  but  only  two 
 tribes  condemned  hiin — HI.  D.  Junius  Silanus,  son 
 of  the  prtcediiig,  was  consul  elect  B.C.  63,  when  Ci 
 cero  a.sked  turn  his  opinion  in  the  Roman  senate  as  to 
 the  puiiishmeiit  to  be  inflicted  on  the  accomplices  of 
 Catiline.  He  gave  his  opinion  in  favour  of  punish- 
 ment. In  the  following  year  he  entered  on  tl»e  con- 
 sular office  with  L.  Licinius  Mur»na  — IV.  M.  Junius 
 Silanus,  son  of  the  preceding,  served  first  under  Ca;sar 
 as  lieutenant  in  Caul,  and,  alter  the  assassination  of 
 that  individual,  attached  himselt  to  the  party  of  Lepi- 
 dus.  'I'his  party,  however,  he  afterward  left,  and  join- 
 ed that  of  A  ntonv.  In  consequence  of  this,  he  was 
 proscribed  and  his  propeitv  contiscated.  He  after- 
 ward, however,  was  pardoned  by  Augustus,  and,  re- 
 turning to  Rome,  became  at  last  on  such  good  terms 
 with  Augustus,  that  the  latter  made  him  his  colleague 
 in  the  consulship,  25  B.C. — V.  Junius  Silanus  Creti- 
 cus,  was  consul  A.D.  7,  and  afterward  proconsul  of 
 Syria.  Tiberius  removed  hiiii  from  that  province,  on 
 account  of  the  friendship  subsisting  between  him  and 
 Germanicus. — VI.  D.  Junius  Silanus,  was  banished  by 
 Augustus  for  adultery  with  Julia.  He  obtained  his 
 recall  under  Tiberius,  through  the  intercession  of  his 
 brother. — VII  M.  Junius  Silanus,  brother  of  the  pre- 
 ceding, was  a  man  of  great  reputation  and  influence, 
 on  account  of  his  talents  as  an  orator.  His  daughter 
 Claudia  married  Caligula,  and  he  himself  was  after- 
 ward sent  as  governor  into  Spain.  The  tyrant,  be- 
 coming jealous  of  him,  compelled  hiin  to  destroy  him- 
 self.—  Vni.  L.  Junius  Silanus,  prstor  A.D.  49,  a 
 brave  and  illustrious  individual,  stood  so  high  in  the 
 favour  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  that  the  latter  intend- 
 ed to  give  him  his  daughter  Octavia  in  marriage. 
 This,  however,  was  prevented  by  the  artful  Agrippi- 
 na,  who  obtained  her  hand  for  her  own  son  Nero. 
 Various  false  charges  were  brought  against  Silanus  ; 
 he  was  expelled  from  the  senate,  and,  in  his  despair, 
 destroyed  himself — IX.  Turpilius,  an  officer  of  Me- 
 tellus  in  the  Jugurthine  war.  Having  been  left  by 
 that  commander  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  garrison  in 
 Vacca,  and  having,  through  want  of  care,  allowed  the 
 town  to  be  retaken  by  the  inhabitants,  he  was  tried, 
 and  condemned  to  death.  (Sallusl,  Bell.  Jug„  66, 
 69.)  Plutarch,  however,  makes  the  accusaion  to  have 
 been  a  false  one,  and  Turpilius  to  have  been  con- 
 demned through  the  agency  of  Marius.  {Plutarch, 
 Vii.  Mat.) 
 
 Sii.ARUs,  I.  a  river  of  Lucania,  in  Italy,  dividing 
 that  province  from  Campania.  It  takes  its  rise  in  that 
 part  of  the  .\peimines  which  belonged  to  the  Hirpini  ; 
 and,  after  receiving  the  Tanager,  now  Negri,  and  the 
 (.^alof,  now  Galore,  it  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Salerno. 
 The  waters  of  this  river  are  stated  by  ancient  wri- 
 ters to  have  possessed  the  property  of  incrusting,  bv 
 means  of  a  calcareous  deposition,  any  pieces  of  wood 
 or  twigs  which  were  thrown  into  them.  {Strabo,  251. 
 I'lin.,2,  lOfi  )  This  fact  is  confirmed  by  Baron  Anto- 
 niiii,  dilla  Lucania,  p.  2,  disc.  I.  The  banks  of  this 
 river  were  greatly  infested  by  the  gadfly.  ( Virxr., 
 Oeorg.,  3.  146.  aeqq.)  The  modern  name  of  the 
 Btreain  is  the  Silaro.  (Cramer's  AneietU  Italy,  vol. 
 2.  p.  36(».) — H.  A  river  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  to  the  east 
 of  Bononia,  running  into  the  Padusa,  or  Spinetic  branch 
 of  the  Padus.  It  is  now  the  Silaro.  {Crainer''$  An- 
 cient I/atij,  vol.  1,  p.  89.) 
 
 Sii-KSTiARiug,  Pauliis,  a  poet  in  the  reign  of  the 
 Emperor  Justinian.  He  was  the  primanus  or  chief 
 of  the  Silentiarii  at  the  court  of  that  monarch,  whence 
 the  second  part  of  bis  name.     The  title  of  Silentianus, 
 
 it  may  be  remarked  in  passing,  designates  various  em- 
 ployments ;  it  is  sometimes  t.ytionymous  with  7/(n';^o- 
 TToioj',  and  denotes  an  oHicer  whose  Uuty  it  is  to  pre- 
 serve quiet  in  the  imperial  palace  ;  at  other  limes  the 
 Silentiarius  is  a  private  secretary  ol  the  prince. — • 
 Paul,  the  Silentiary,  has  left  \arious  poetical  produc- 
 tions, which  are  not  without  nit-rii.  In  the  Greek  An- 
 thology we  liave  uliout  eighty  epigrams  ol  his,  a  por- 
 tion ol  which  are  ot  an  erotic  character.  I'hey  are  de- 
 hcieni  neither  in  spirit  nor  elegance.  W  v  perceive 
 that  liieir  author  was  well  read  in  the  ancient  writers  ; 
 but  It  is  evident,  at  the  same  time,  that  his  verses 
 have  not  the  conci.'-eness  so  essential  to  the  epigram, 
 i  he  most  celelirattd  ol  liis  productions,  however,  are, 
 his  poem  on  the  Pythian  B<iihs  in  Biiliynia  {'Hjxiafi6a 
 elc  Tu  Ev  UrfiiuLi;  (feiijMi),  and  his  description  of  llic 
 Church  of  St.  So[)hia  ('EK(ppaaLi  r//f  /jeyu'/iyi;  iuhAriai- 
 Of),  which  was  publicly  read  at  the  uedicaiion  of  that 
 structure,  A.  D.  n62.  V\'e  have  also  a  third  potin,  form- 
 ing, in  fact,  a  supplenitnt  to  the  second,  on  ihe  pulpit 
 placed  in  the  great  aisle  ot  the  patriarchal  palace  ('E«- 
 (ftpaaig  Tuv  'kpCuvoq,  k.  t.  A).  The  poem  on  the  Pyih- 
 lan  Baths  is  given  in  Bruiick's  Analecta,  and  in  the  edi- 
 tions of  the  Anthology.  The  description  of  the  Church 
 of  St.  Sophia  IS  given  at  the  end  of  the  history  of  Jo- 
 hannes Cmnamus,  m  the  edition  of  Ducange.  In  1822, 
 GroeH'e  published  a  critical  edition  at  Leipzig,  in  8vo, 
 to  which  IS  added  the  Description  of  the  .^mbon  or 
 pulpit.  Bekker  gave  an  edition  of  this  last-mentioned 
 poem,  from  a  Heidelberg  manuscript,  Hcrol,  1815,  4to. 
 {Sr.hdll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr  ,  vol.  6,  p.  46,  115) 
 
 SiLENUs,  a  demigod,  who  became   the   nurse,   the 
 preceptor,    and    the   attendant   of   Bacchus.      Pindar 
 calls  him  the  Maiad's  husband  {fragui.  incert ,  73). 
 Socrates  used  to  compare  himsell,  on  account  of  his 
 baldness,  his  flat  nose,  and  the  quiet  raillery  in  which 
 he  was  so  fond  of  indulging,  to  the  Sileni  born  of  the 
 divine  Naiads.      {Xeitojikon,  Symp.,   5,  7. -^Compare 
 JElian,  V.  H.,  3,  18.)     Others  said   that  Silenus  was 
 a  son  of  Earth,  and  sprung  from   the  blood-drops  of 
 Uranus.     {Serv.  ad  Virg.,  Eel.,  6,  13. — Nomius.  14, 
 97.-- -/rl,  29,  262.)    Marsyas  is  called  a  Silenus.     Like 
 the  seagods,  Silenus  was  noted   for  wisdom.      Hence 
 some  modern  expounders  of  mythology  think  that  Si- 
 lenus was   merely  a   river-god,   and    they  derive  the 
 name  from  lHu,  el'Aiu,  to  roll,  expressive  of  the  mo- 
 tion of  the  streams.      The  connexion  between  Silenus 
 and   Bacchus  and  the  Naiades  thus  becomes  easy  of 
 explanation  ;   in  their  opinion,  all  lieing  deities  relaiirig 
 to   water  or    moisture.       {Keightley's  Mythology,  p. 
 234.) — The  two  legends  relative  to  Midas  and  Silenus 
 have  already  been   noticed  under  the  former  article. 
 {Vid.  Midas.) — Silenus  was  represented   as  old,  bald, 
 and  flat-nosed,  ridmg  on  a   broad-backed  ass,  usually 
 intoxicated,  and  carrying  his  can  (cantharus),  or  tot- 
 tering along  supported   by  his  stafi'  of  fennel  {ferula). 
 — For  other  views  of  the  legend  of  Silenus,  consult 
 Creuzer  {Symbolik.  vol.  3,  p.  207.  seqq.).  Rolle  {Re- 
 cherchcs  sur  Ic  Culte  dc  Bacchus,  vol   3,  p  354,  se(jq.), 
 and   Welcker  {Nach.  zur   Tril  ,  p.  214.  seqq.) — Ac- 
 cording to  another  account,  Midas  mixed  some  wine 
 with  the  waters  of  a  fountain  lo  which  Silenus  was 
 accustomed    to  come,  and   so   inebriated   and    caught 
 hiin.      He  detained  him   for  ten  days,  and  afterward 
 restored  him  to  Bacchus,  for  which  he  was  rewarded 
 with    the    power    of  turning    into  gold  whatever    he 
 touched.      Some   authors   assert   that  Silenus   was    a 
 philosopher,  who  accompanied  Bacchus  m  his  Indian 
 expedition,  and  assisted   liim  by  the  soundness  of  his 
 counsels.      From  this   circumstance,  therefore,  he   is 
 often   introduced    speaking,  with  all   the  gravity  of  a 
 philosopher,  concerning    the   formation  of   the  world 
 and  the  nature  of  things.— The  legend  of  Silenus  is 
 evidently   of  Oriental    origin.      (Syrtibolik,   vol,  3,  p. 
 207,  scqq.  —  Consult   also  Kolle.  Rechcrches  sur  It 
 Culte  de  Bacchus,  vol.  3,  p.  354,  seqq.) 
 
 1237 
 
SILIUS  ITALICUS. 
 
 SILIUS  ITALICUS. 
 
 SiLios  Italicus,  C.  a  Latin  poet,  born  about  the 
 25th  year  of  the  Christian  era.  He  has  been  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  a  native  of  Italica,  ni  Spain  ;  but 
 his  not  being  cianned  as  a  fellow-countryman  by  Mar- 
 tial, who  has  bestowed  upon  him  the  highest  praises, 
 renders  this  nnprobable.  Some  make  hnn  to  liave  been 
 a  native  of  Corlinnim,  a  city  of  the  Piligni,  in  Italy, 
 which,  according  to  Slral>o,  was  called  lialica  in  the 
 time  of  the  Social  war  ;  but  Velleiiis  Paterciilus  in- 
 forms us  that  Corhnium  merely  intended  to  change  its 
 name  to  Italica,  and  that  the  project  was  never  car- 
 ried into  effect.  Whether,  however,  he  were  a  native 
 of  Italica  in  Spain,  or  of  an  Italica  elsewhere,  his  sur- 
 name certainly  does  not  show  it  ;  for  in  that  event  it 
 would  have  been  Italicensis.  It  is  most  probable  that 
 Ilalicus  was  a  family  name  ;  and  it  may  have  been 
 given  to  one  of  his  ancestors,  when  residing  in  some 
 province,  to  show  that  he  was  of  Italian  origin. — 
 Silius  Italicus  applied  himself  with  great  ardour  to  the 
 study  of  eloquence  and  poetry.  In  the  former  of  these 
 pursuits  he  took  Cicero  for  his  model,  and  acquired  at 
 the  bar  the  reputation  of  an  eminent  speaker.  In  po- 
 etry he  gave  the  preference  to  Virgil.  His  predilec- 
 tion for  these  two  great  writers  led  him  to  purchase 
 two  estates  which  had  belonged  to  them,  that  of  Ci- 
 cero at  Tusculum,  and  that  of  Virgil  near  Naples,  on 
 which  the  poet  had  been  interred.  Silius  often  visited 
 the  tomb  of  the  latter,  and  celebrated  his  birthday 
 annually  with  great  solemnities. — Our  poet  passed 
 through  all  the  public  employments  which  led  to  the 
 consulship.  He  is  said  also  to  have  insinuated  him- 
 self into  the  favour  of  Nero  by  following  the  vile  trade 
 of  an  informer.  Pliny  the  younger,  who  mentions 
 this  fact,  which,  for  the  honour  of  literature,  one  could 
 wish  might  he  impugned,  adds,  that  if  it  be  true  that 
 Silius  was  thus  guilty,  he  made  amends  for  his  fault 
 by  a  long  course  of  subsequent  virtue,  and  enjoyed  at 
 Rome  a  high  degree  of  consideration.  The  first  con- 
 sulship of  Silius  (for  it  is  thought,  on  no  very  suffi- 
 cient grounds,  however,  that  he  thrice  held  this  ma- 
 gistracy) was  in  the  famous  year  68,  when  Nero  died. 
 —  Silius  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Vitellius  and  Vespa- 
 sian :  under  the  latter  he  was  proconsul  of  Asia. 
 Loaded  with  honours,  and  hav,-ing  accumulated  an  am- 
 ple fortune,  he  retired  in  his  old  age  to  Campania,  and 
 there  passed  the  rest  of  his  days  in  the  society  of  the 
 Muses.  Attacked,  at  the  age  of  7.5  years,  with  an  in- 
 curable malady,  he  starved  himself  to  death,  in  the 
 reign  of  Trajan,  A.D.  100. — Silius,  through  all  his 
 life,  had  a  strong  attachment  for  poetry  and  literature, 
 and  devoted  to  them  all  the  leisure  moments  which 
 his  public  employments  allowed.  It  was  only,  how- 
 ever, in  his  later  years,  and  during  his  retreat  at  Na- 
 ples, that  he  formed  the  serious  idea  of  aiming  at  a 
 place  in  the  list  of  poets  He  then  composed  an  e|)ic, 
 or,  rather,  historical  poem,  in  seventeen  cantos,  the  sub- 
 ject of  which  was  the  second  Punic  war.  This  poem, 
 entitled  Punirn,  has  come  down  to  our  times.  It  con- 
 firms the  judgment  which  Phny  passed  upon  its  au- 
 thor when  he  said  that  he  wrote  with  more  diligence 
 than  genius.  (Ep.,  'i.  7,  5  )  It  appears  that  Silius 
 was  one  of  those  men  to  whom  Nature  has  granted  a 
 certain  facility,  which  makes  them  succeed  in  some 
 degree  in  wharever  they  undertake,  and  which,  when 
 it  IS  seconded  by  learning  and  taste,  may,  to  a  certain 
 degree,  occupy  the  place  of  genius.  The  subject 
 wliich  he  chose  for  his  poem  was  one  tl)at  possessed 
 an  unusual  share  of  interest  to  the  Romans.  Three 
 centuries  had  passed  away  since  this  memorable  pe- 
 riod, and,  though  all  the  details  of  the  war  were  still 
 well  known,  because  many  Greek  and  Roman  histo- 
 rians had  recorded  them  in  their  respective  works, 
 still  there  remained  a  wide  field  for  the  imagination  of 
 the  poet,  and  he  might  indulge  in  the  fictions  and  em- 
 ploy all  the  machinery  of  which  the  epic  poem  was 
 naturally  susceptible.  Silius  disdained  not  these 
 1238 
 
 means  for  interesting  and  pleasing  his  teaders  ;  but, 
 like  Lucan,  he  chose  a  defective  plan,  in  preferring 
 the  historical  method,  that  makes  known  all  the  con- 
 sequences resulting  from  any  event,  to  the  poeiie 
 mode,  that  selects  from  a  series  of  facts  some  single 
 circumstance,  which  it  makes  the  principal  action, 
 and  towards  which,  as  a  common  centre,  all  things 
 ought  to  tend.  Had  he  transported  his  readers  in  th» 
 very  outset  to  the  later  years  of  the  war,  he  might 
 have  taken  for  his  theme  Hannibal's  attempt  lo  make 
 himself  master  of  Rome  ;  this  would  have  afforded 
 the  different  parts  that  are  regarded  as  necessary  for 
 an  epic  action,  namely,  a  commencement,  a  plot,  and 
 a  catastrophe.  By  pursuing  a  ditl'erent  plan,  by  pre- 
 ferring to  the  epopee  the  march  of  history,  he  ought 
 to  have  seen  that  he  was  debarred  from  I  he  employ- 
 ment of  mythological  fictions,  which  are  entirely  out 
 of  place  in  an  historical  narrative.  And  yet,  falling 
 into  the  same  error  as  Lucan,  he  calls  these  very  fic- 
 tions to  his  aid.  It  is  this  intermingling  of  the  sober 
 details  of  history  with  the  flights  of  mythology  that  has 
 given  birth  to  a  strange  and  missha[)en  offspring,  to 
 which  it  would  be  no  easy  task  to  assign  its  proper  ap- 
 pellation. Is  it  an  epic  poem  1  it  wants  unity.  Is 
 it  an  historical  production?  its  fictions  become  so 
 many  revolting  improbabilities,  and  its  machinery  is 
 altogether  out  of  place. — S  ilius  drew  the  subject  of  his 
 poem  from  the  histories  of  Livy  and  Polybius;  his  po- 
 etic ornaments  he  chiefly  borrowed  from  Virgil;  but  he 
 does  not  possess  the  art  of  borrowing  these  last  in  such 
 way  as  to  conceal  their  parent  source  ;  his  imitations, 
 on  the  contrary,  are  altogether  too  palpable  Nor  are 
 these  imitations  limited  to  Virgil ;  Silius  has  pillaged 
 also  Lucretius,  Horace,  Homer,  and  Hesiod,  a  circum- 
 stance which  imparts  a  disagreeable  inequality  to  his 
 style.  Like  Valerius,  he  endeavours  to  hide  his  medi- 
 ocrity under  an  appearance  of  erudition  and  affecta- 
 tion of  pomp,  which  imjiarts  an  air  of  coldness  to  his 
 composition.  To  give  the  character  of  Silius  in  a  few 
 words,  we  may  say  that  he  possessed  a  jiortion  of  those 
 talents,  the  union  of  which  forms  the  great  poet ;  he 
 was  versed  in  historical,  geographical,  and  physical 
 knowledge,  which  imparts  to  his  poem  a  character  of 
 greater  interest  in  the  eyes  of  antiquarian  critics,  from 
 the  circumstance  of  its  containing  various  facts  omit- 
 ted by  Livy.  He  chose  a  subject  at  once  great  and 
 interesting;  his  personages  have  a  character  of  his- 
 toric truth,  but  there  is  wanting  that  degree  of  eleva- 
 tion which  true  poetry  would  have  bestowed.  He  is 
 most  successful  in  his  description  of  battles.  Silius 
 wants  enthusiasm  :  his  style  consists  of  borrowed 
 phrases,  which  he  has  not  known  how  to  appropriate 
 to  himself,  or  mark,  as  it  were,  with  the  impress  of  his 
 own  zeal.  Does  he  attempt  to  express  anger  or  ten- 
 derness'! his  coldness  freezes  the  reader — Whatever 
 may  have  been  the  reputation  which  this  poet  enjoyed 
 among  his  contemporaries,  he  fell  soon  afterward  into 
 neglect ;  no  grammarian  cites  him,  and  Sidonius  .Apol- 
 linaris  alone  names  him  among  the  eminent  poets. 
 .At  the  revival  of  letters,  the  conviction  was  so  strong 
 that  the  poem  was  lost,  as  lo  inspire  the  celebrated 
 Petrarch  with  the  idea  of  supplying  its  place  by  his  Af- 
 rica, the  subject  of  which  production  is  also  the  second 
 Punic  war.  This  point,  however,  is  contested  among 
 scholars.  During  the  sittings  of  the  couiirril  of  C«n- 
 stance,  Poggio  succeeded  in  finding  a  manuscript  of 
 Silius,  probably  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Gall.  A  copj 
 was  made  of  this,  which  thus  became  the  original  of 
 all  those  of  which  the  earlier  editors  made  use,  until 
 Carrion  discovered,  about  157.5,  at  ('ologne,  another 
 manuscript,  which  he  thought  might  date  from  the  era 
 of  Charlemagne.  A  third,  of  still  more  modern  date, 
 was  found  at  O.xford.  Villebrune,  who  published,  in 
 1781,  an  edition  of  Silius  Italicus.  which  he  pretended 
 was  the  first  complete  one  that  had  as  yet  appeared, 
 inserted  into  the  sixteenth  book,  after  the  iwenty-sev 
 
SIM 
 
 SIM 
 
 «nth  verse,  ihirty-three  other  verses  which  he  said  he 
 h«<l  found  ill  a  MS.  at  Paris,  and  which  exist,  with 
 some  slight  changes,  in  the  sixth  book  of  Petrarch's 
 I.atin  poem  entitled  Africa.  More  recent  critics,  how- 
 ever, and  especially  Heync,  in  a  review  written  by 
 hitn  on  Villelirune's  edition,  think  that  the  thirty-three 
 verses  in  question  are  rather  froiri  the  pen  of  Petrarch 
 than  from  that  of  Siliiis. — The  best  editions  of  Sihus 
 luhciis  are,  thatof  lluperli,  GoUing.,  1795-98,  2  vols. 
 8vo,  and  that  of  Lernaire,  Paris,  182:3,  2  vols.  8vo. 
 The  following  editions  are  also  valuable  :  that  of  Ura- 
 kenliorch,  Traject.  ad  Kkett ,  1717,  4to  ;  that  of  Ville- 
 brutie,  i'aris,  1781,  8vo  ;  and  that  of  Ernesti,  Lips., 
 1791-92,  2  vols.  8vo.  {SckbU,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  496,  sC'qq.  —  ('ompare  B'dkr,  Gcsch.  Rom.  Lit., 
 vol.  I,  p.  15 1,  seqq  ) 
 
 SiLVANUs,  a  dedy  among  the  Romans  who  had  the 
 care  of  fields  and  cattle  {Virg.,  Mn.,  8,  601),  and 
 who  also  presided  over  boundaries.  {Horal.,  Epod., 
 2,  22.)  Groves  were  consecrated  to  him,  whence  per- 
 haps his  name.  He  was  usually  represented  as  old, 
 and  bearing  a  cypress  plucked  up  by  the  roots  {Virg., 
 Georg.,  I,  20);  and  the  legend  of  Apollo  and  Cypa- 
 rissus  was  transferred  to  him.  (>S'erc  ad  Virg.,  Geor- 
 gica,  1,  20  )  The  usual  ofiering  to  Silvanus  was  milk. 
 {HoraL,  Epist.,  2,  1,  143.) — According  to  the  Agri- 
 mensors,  every  po.ssession  should  have  three  Silvani : 
 one  domestic,  for  the  jiossession  itself;  one  agrestic, 
 for  the  herdsman  ;  a  third  oriental,  for  whom  there 
 should  be  a  grove  on  the  boundary.  (Seal,  ad  Fesl., 
 s.  V.  Alarspedis.)  The  meaning  of  this  obscure  pas- 
 sage probably  is,  that  Silvanus  was  to  be  worshipped 
 under  three  different  titles  :  as  protector  of  the  family, 
 for  we  meet  with  an  inscription  Silpa7io  Larum  ;  of 
 the  cattle,  perhaps  those  on  the  public  pastures  ;  and 
 of  the  boundaries,  that  is,  of  the  whole  possession. 
 The  Mars  Silvanus,  to  whom  Caio  directs  prayer  to  be 
 made  for  the  health  of  the  oxen,  is  probably  the  second 
 (R.  R  ,  80),  and  the  third  is  the  tutor  finium  of  Hor- 
 ace.    {Keightley's  Mythology .  p.  536.) 
 
 SiLUREs,  the  people  of  South  Wales  in  Britain,  oc- 
 cupying the  counties  of  Hereford,  Monmouth,  Rad- 
 nor, Brecon,  and  Glamorgan.  Their  capital  was  Isca 
 Silurum,  now  Carkoii,  on  the  river  Isca  or  Uske,  in 
 Glamorganshire.  Caractacus  was  a  prince  of  the  Si- 
 lures.     (7«c.,  Ann.,  12,  32.— PUn,  4,  16.) 
 
 SiMKTHus,  a  river  of  Sicily,  rising  in  the  Herasan 
 Mountains,  and  fallmg  into  the  sea  below  Catana.  It 
 receives  a  number  ol  small  tributaries,  and  is  now  the 
 Gtarclla.     (Tkucyd.,  2,  65  —Plui.,  3,  8.) 
 
 SiM.MiAs,  I.  a  native  of  Rhodes,  who  flourished  be- 
 tween the  I20th  and  170th  Olympiad.  The  period 
 when  he  existed  cannot  be  ascertained  with  more  pre- 
 cision. He  published  a  collection  of  poems,  in  four 
 books,  entitled  ^id.(j>opa  noirifiaTa.  Athensus  cites 
 one  of  these  pieces,  entitled  Gorge,  which  appears  to 
 have  been  of  an  epic  character.  Simmias  is  perhaps 
 the  inventor  of  a  kind  of  sport,  which  we  do  not  find 
 to  have  existed  before  him,  and  which  could  only  have 
 been  conceived  of  at  a  period  when  the  public  taste 
 had  become  eiclrcmely  corrupt.  It  consisted  in  so 
 arranging  verses  of  different  length  as  to  rejiresent  an 
 altar,  an  axe,  a  pair  of  wings,  &.c  ,  the  several  verses 
 at  the  same  time  making  one  poem.  A  production  of 
 this  kwid,  forming  a  SiVk}'^,  or  Pandean  pipe,  has  been 
 »flen  ascribeJ  to  Theocritus.  It  consists  of  twenty 
 ferses,  every  two  of  the  same  size,  and  each  pair  less 
 «  length  than  the  preceding;  thus  representing  an  in- 
 itrument  tomposed  of  ten  pipes,  each  shorter  than  the 
 Jther.  {Stkoll,  {{at.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  126  )  The 
 teinains  of  Simmias  are  given  in  the  Anthology,  and 
 n  the  PoetsB  Grs-ci  Minores. — H.  .\  Theban  philos- 
 opher, a  disciple  of  Socrates.  He  was  the  author  of 
 iwenty-three  dialogues,  which  are  lost.  (SchoU,  Hist. 
 Lit  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  357.) 
 
 SiHois  (-entis),   a  river  of  Troas,  which  rises  in 
 
 Mount  Ida,  and  falls  into  the  Xanthus.  (Consult  re- 
 marks on  the  Topography  of  Troy,  under  the  article 
 Troja.) 
 
 Simon,  a  shoemaker  or  currier  of  Athens,  from 
 whom  the  so-called  ckvtlkoI  6ia'Af)yot,  mentioned  un- 
 der the  article  Plato,  are  supposed  to  have  derived 
 their  origin.  {Vid.  Plato,  near  the  conclusion  of  that 
 article.) 
 
 SiMONiDEs,  I.  a  poet  of  Amorgus  (one  of  the  Cyc- 
 lades),  who  died  490  B.C.  He  was  grandfather  to 
 the  poet  of  Ceos,  frotn  whom  he  is  distinguished  by 
 the  title  of  'lafx6oypuij)o^,  "  writer  of  Iambics."  We 
 have  a  fragment  of  his  preserved  by  Siobsus  ;  it  is  a 
 salyric  piece,  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  ele- 
 gance, and  is  entitled  TTspl  yvvaiKuv,  "  Of  Women." 
 This  fragment  is  given  in  the  collections  of  Winterton, 
 Brunck,  Gaisford,  and  separateley  by  Koeler,  Goett., 
 1781,  8vo,  and  Welcker,  Bonn,  1835,  8vo.— II.  A 
 celebrated  poet  of  Ceos,  son  of  Leoprepas,  and  grand- 
 son of  the  preceding,  born  at  the  city  of  lulis,  556 
 B.C.,  and  who  lived  until  B.C.  467.  He  attained,  in 
 fact,  to  a  very  advanced  age.  so  as  to  become  a  con- 
 temporary not  only  of  Pittacus  and  the  Pisistratidae, 
 but  also  of  Pausanias,  king  of  Sparta :  and  he  is 
 named  as  the  friend  of  these  illustrious  men.  He  was 
 held  in  high  estimation  at  the  court  of  Hiero  I.,  king 
 of  Syracuse,  and  acted  as  a  mediator  between  this 
 prince  and  Theron,  king  of  Agrigentum,  reconciling 
 these  two  sovereigns  at  the  very  moment  when  the 
 two  armies  were  on  the  point  of  contending.  Plato 
 calls  him  a  wise  man  (Ue  Repub.,  1,  p.  411),  and 
 Cicero,  in  speaking  of  him,  says,  "  Non  enim  pacta 
 suams,  verum  etiam  ccEteroquin  doctus  sapiertsque 
 iraditur."  (N.  D  ,  1,  22.)  He  was  the  master  of 
 Pindar.  Simonides  is  regarded  as  the  first  who  ap- 
 plied the  alternating  hexameter  and  pentameter,  or,  in 
 other  words,  the  early  elegiac  measure  to  mournful 
 and  [)Iaintive  themes.  This  measure  at  first  was  mar- 
 tial in  its  character,  not  plaintive,  and  Cullinus  is  said 
 to  have  been  its  inventor.  Neither  was  it  called  elegy 
 originally,  but  eTrof,  a  general  term,  subsequently  con- 
 fined to  heroic  verse.  Simonides  became  so  distin- 
 guished in  elegy  (in  the  later  acceptation  of  the  term) 
 that  he  must  be  included  among  tiie  great  masters  of 
 elegiac  song.  He  is  stated  to  have  been  victorious  at 
 Athens  over /Eschylus  himself,  in  an  elegy  in  honour  of 
 those  who  fell  at  Marathon,  the  Athenians  having  insti- 
 tuted a  contest  of  the  chief  poets.  The  ancient  biogra- 
 pher of  ^Eschylus  who  gives  this  account,  adds,  in  ex- 
 planation, that  the  elegy  requires  a  tenderness  of  feeling 
 which  was  foreign  to  the  character  of  ^"Eschylus.  To 
 what  degree  Simonides  possessed  this  quality,  and,  in 
 general,  how  great  a  master  he  was  of  the  pathetic,  is 
 proved  by  his  celebrated  lyric  piece,  containing  the 
 lament  of  Danae,  and  by  other  remains  of  his  poetry. 
 Probably,  also,  in  the  elegies  upon  those  who  died  at 
 Marathon  and  Platsa,  he  did  not  omit  to  bewail  the 
 death  of  so  many  brave  men,  and  to  introduce  the 
 sorrows  of  the  widows  and  orphans,  which  was  quite 
 consistent  with  a  lofty,  patriotic  tone,  [>articularly  at 
 the  end  of  the  poem.  Simonides  likewise  used  the 
 elegy  as  a  plaintive  song  for  the  death  of  individuals  ; 
 at  least  the  Greek  .\nthology  contains  several  pieces 
 of  his,  which  appear  not  to  be  entire  epigrams,  but 
 fragments  of  longer  elegies,  lamenting,  with  heartfelt 
 pathos,  the  death  of  persons  dear  to  the  poet.  Among 
 these  are  the  beautiful  and  touching  verses  concerning 
 (iorgo,  who.  while  dying,  utters  these  words  to  her 
 mother:  '^  Remain  here  with  my  father,  and  become, 
 imth  a  happier  fate,  the  mother  of  another  daughter, 
 who  may  tend  thee  m  thy  old  age.'" — It  was  Simonides 
 who  first  gave  to  the  e|)igram  the  perfection  of  which, 
 consistently  with  its  purpose,  it  was  capable.  In  this 
 respect  he  was  favoured  by  the  circumstances  of  his 
 time ;  for,  on  account  of  the  high  consideration  which 
 he  enjoyed  in  both  Athens  and  the  Peloponnesus,  he 
 
 1239 
 
SIM 
 
 SIN 
 
 was  frequently  employed  by  the  states  which  had  fought 
 against  the  Persians,  to  adorn  with  inscriptions  the 
 tombs  of  their  fallen  warriors.  'l"he  best  and  most 
 celebrated  of  these  ejjigrams  is  the  mimitable  inscrip- 
 tion on  the  Spartans  who  died  at  Thennopyis,  and 
 which  actually  existed  on  the  spot :  "  Stranger,  tell 
 the  Lar.edcrmiDiians  that  we  are  lying  here  in  obedience 
 to  their  laws  "  Never  was  heroic  courage  expressed 
 with  such  calm  and  unadorned  grandeur.  With  the 
 epita[)hs  are  naturally  connected  the  inscrijitions  on 
 sacred  otlienngs,  especially  where  both  refer  to  the  Per- 
 sian war  ;  the  former  being  the  discharge  of  a  debt  to 
 the  dead,  the  latter  a  thanksgiving  of  the  survivers  to 
 the  gods.  Among  these,  one  of  the  best  refers  to  the 
 battle  of  Marathon,  which,  from  the  neatness  and  ele- 
 gance of  the  expression,  loses  its  chief  beauty  in  a 
 prose  translation  (fragin..,  25,  ed.  Guisf). — The  form 
 of  nearly  all  the  epigrams  of  Simonides  is  elegiac. 
 When,  however,  a  name  (on  account  of  a  short  be- 
 tween two  long  syllablt-s)  could  not  be  ada[)ted  to  the 
 dactylic  metre  (as  'A(ixtvavrrjr,  'iTTiroviKor),  he  em- 
 ployed trochaic  measures.  {Muller,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 p.  125,  seijq.)  —  Simonides  became  avaricious  and 
 mercenary  towards  the  close  of  his  life;  and  it  is  men- 
 tioned as  a  suliject  of  dispraise,  that  he  was  the  first 
 who  wrote  verses  for  money-  Plutarch  relates,  that 
 some  one  having  reproached  him  with  his  sordid  ava- 
 rice, he  returned  for  answer  that  age,  being  deprived 
 of  all  other  sources  of  enjoyment,  the  love  of  money 
 was  the  only  passion  left  for  it  to  gratify.  {Pint.,  An 
 sent  sit  gcrenda  rcsjnihl. — 0pp.,  ed  Reiske,  vol.  9,  p. 
 142.) — To  Simonides  the  Greek  alphabet  is  indebted 
 for  four  of  its  letters,  E,  Y,  H,  il;  and  to  him,  also,  is 
 attributed  the  invention  of  a  system  of  Mjicmomcs,  or 
 artificial  memory.  (Compare  Cic,  de  Orat.,  2,  84  — 
 Plin.,  7,  2\.—  Quintil.,  11,2,  11.)— It  was  Simonides 
 that  gave  the  celebrated  answer,  when  Hiero  of  Syra- 
 cuse inquired  of  him  concerning  the  nature  of  God. 
 The  poet  requested  one  day  for  deliberating  on  the 
 subject ;  and  when  Hiero  repeated  his  question  on  the 
 morrow,  the  poet  asked  for  two  days.  As  he  still 
 went  01)  doubling  the  number  of  days,  and  the  mon- 
 arch, lost  in  wonder,  asked  him  why  he  did  so,  "  Be- 
 cause, the  longer  I  reflect  on  the  subject,  the  more 
 obscure  does  it  appear  to  me  to  be."  (Cic.  N.  D.,  1, 
 22  ) — The  remains  of  the  poetry  of  Simonides  are 
 given  in  the  collections  of  Stephens,  Brunck,  Gaisford, 
 Boissonade,  and  others.  The  latest  separate  edition  is 
 that  of  Schncideivin,  Bruns.,  1835,  8vo.  (Schbll,  Hist. 
 Gr.  Lit.,  vol  1,  p  242  — /(/  ih.,  vol.  2,  p.  129.— 
 Com()are  Bode,  Gesch.  der  Lyrischen  Dickikunst,  vol. 
 2,  p.  122,  seijq.) — HI.  A  son  of  the  daughter  of  the 
 preceding.  Being  also  a  native  of  Ceos,  he  was  dis- 
 tinguished from  the  former  by  the  appellation  of  the 
 "Younger"  He  wrote  "on  Inventions"  [iTEpl  evpj]- 
 fiuTuv),  and  a  work  in  three  books  on  Genealogies. 
 (BeiireHe,  Mem.  de  fArad.  des  Inscr.,  &c  ,  vol.  13, 
 p.  257. —  Van  Gocns.  De  Siinonide  Ceo  et  philosopho, 
 Traj.  ad  Rhcn.,  1768,  4to  ) 
 
 SiMPLicius,  a  native  of  Cilicia,  the  clearest  and  most 
 intelligent  of  the  commentators  on  Aristotle.  His 
 commentaries  are  extremely  valual)le,  from  their  con- 
 taining numerous  fragments  of  the  works  of  previous 
 philosophers.  He  flourished  in  the  seventh  century 
 of  our  era,  and  was  involved  in  some  disputes  witli 
 the  Christian  writers,  particularly  .lohn  Pbiloponus,  on 
 the  subject  of  the  eternity  of  the  world  His  com- 
 mentary on  the  Mamial  or  Enchiridion  of  f;pictetiis  is 
 regarded  as  one  of  the  best  moral  treatises  that  has 
 come  down  to  ns  from  antiquity,  and  proves  that  Sim- 
 plicius  did  not  confine  himself  to  the  tenets  of  the  Per- 
 ipatetic school.  The  works  of  Aristotle  on  which  we 
 have  the  commentaries  of  Simplicius  are,  the  eight 
 books  of  Physics,  the  ("atcgories,  the  four  books  of  the 
 Heavens,  and  the  three  of  the  Soul.  The  best  edition 
 of  the  commentary  on  Epictetus  is  that  of  Schweig- 
 1240 
 
 haeuser,  making  part  of  his  edition  of  Epiclelus.  Th« 
 commentary  on  the  Physics  of  Aristotle  was  published 
 at  the  .Aldine  press.  Yen  ,  1526.  fol.,  and  a  Latin  ver- 
 sion by  Lucillus  Philalthaeiis,  Vcn.,  1543,  fol.  I'he 
 most  correct  edition  of  the  commentary  on  the  Cat- 
 egories IS  that  printed  at  Basle.  1551,  fol.  There  is  a 
 Latin  version  by  Dorotheiis,  Yen.,  1541,  1550,  1567, 
 fol.  The  commentary  on  the  treatise  De  Cmlo  was 
 published  at  the  Aldine  press,  Yen.,  1526.  fol.  There 
 IS  a  Latin  version  by  Morbeke,  printed  in  1540.  and 
 another  by  Doroihcns,  in  1544.  both  from  the  Venice 
 press.  The  commentary  on  the  treatise  De  Anima 
 was  published  at  the  Aldine  piess  in  1527,  and  a  ver- 
 sion by  Faseolns,  made  from  a  more  perfect  manu- 
 script, in  1543,  both  at  Venice.  'J  here  is  another 
 version  by  Lungus,  which  has  been  often  reprinted  at 
 Venice.      (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  129,  seijq.) 
 
 SiNiE,  I.  a  people  of  India,  called  by  Pioleniy  the 
 most  eastern  nation  of  the  world.  These  Sinae,  who 
 dwelt  beyond  the  river  Serus,  or  Menan,  are  supposed 
 to  have  occupied  what  is  now  Corhin- China.  —  II. 
 There  was  another  nation  of  the  same  name  east  of 
 Serica,  who  were  probably  settled  in  Shen-si,  the 
 most  westerly  province  of  China,  immediately  adjoin- 
 ing the  great  wall.  In  this  province  was  a  kingdom 
 called  Tsin,  which  probably  gave  name  to  these  Sinae. 
 
 SiND!,  a  people  of  Asiatic  Sarmatia,  below  the  <Jiin- 
 merian  Bosporus,  and  opposite  the  I'auric  Chersonese. 
 Their  name  would  seem  to  indicate  an  Indian  origin, 
 and  Ritter  has  attempted  to  prove  this  in  his  learned 
 work  on  the  earlier  history  of  some  of  the  ancient  na- 
 tions.     (Ritter,  Vorhalle,  p.  157,  seqq  ) 
 
 SiNGARA,  a  strongly  fortified  city  of  Mesopotamia, 
 the  southernmost  possession  of  the  Romans  on  the 
 eastern  side  of  that  country,  from  Trajan  to  Constan- 
 tius.  It  is  now  Sindschar.  (Plin.,  5,  25. — Amm. 
 MarcelL,  18,  5.) 
 
 SiNGUs,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  in  the  peninsula  of 
 Sithonia,  on  the  lower  shore  of,  and  giving  name  to,  the 
 Sinus  .Singiticus.  The  modern  name  of  the  gulf  ia 
 that  of  Monte  Santo.  [Herod.,  7,  122. — Thucyd.,  5, 
 18) 
 
 SiNON,  a  Greek,  who  accompanied  his  countrymen 
 to  the  Trojan  war.  When  the  Greeks  had  fabricated 
 the  famous  wooden  horse,  Sinon  went  to  Troy,  at  the 
 instigation  of  Ulysses,  with  his  hands  bound  behind 
 his  back,  and  by  the  most  solemn  protestations  assured 
 Priam  that  the  Greeks  were  gone  from  .\sia,  and  that 
 they  had  been  ordered  to  sacrifice  one  of  their  soldiers 
 to  render  the  wind  favourable  to  their  return  ;  and  that, 
 because  the  lot  had  fallen  uj)on  him,  he  had  fled  away 
 from  their  camp,  not  to  he  cruelly  sacrificed.  These 
 false  assertions  were  immediately  credited  by  the  'I'ro- 
 jans,  and  Sinon  advised  Priam  to  bring  into  his  city 
 the  wooden  horse  which  the  Greeks  had  left  bciiind 
 them,  and  to  consecrate  it  to  Minerva.  His  aavice 
 was  followed,  and  Sinon,  in  the  night,  to  complete  his 
 perfidy,  opened  the  side  of  the  horse,  from  which  issued 
 a  number  of  armed  Greeks,  who  surprised  the  Trojans 
 and  pillaged  their  city.  (Dares  Phryg. — Hovi  ,  Od., 
 8,  492— Kjro-..  Ain.,  2,  79,  &c.—Pausan.,  10,  21  — 
 Q.  Smyrn  ,  12,  &c.) 
 
 SiNoi'E,  I.  a  daughter  of  the  .Asopus  by  Methone. 
 She  was  beloved  by  Apollo,  who  carried  her  away  to 
 the  borders  of  the  Euxine  Sea,  in  .\sia  Minor,  where 
 she  gave  birth  to  a  son  called  Syrus.  {Apoli.  Rhod., 
 2,  946. — Schoi,  ad  loc.) — II  A  city  of  Paphlagonia, 
 on  the  eastern  coast,  and  a  little  below  its  northern  ex- 
 tremity. It  was  the  most  important  commercial  place 
 on  the  shores  of  the  Eu.xine,  and  was  founded  by  a 
 Milesian  colony  at  a  very  early  period,  even  prior  to 
 the  rise  of  the  Persian  empire.  The  particular  year 
 of  its  origin,  however,  is  not  known  :  the  Peripl.  Anon. 
 (p  8)  says  it  was  at  the  time  when  the  Cimmerians 
 were  ravaging  Asia  Minor.  The  leader  of  the  colony 
 was  named  Autolycus,  and  he  received  from  the  lalel 
 
SIN 
 
 SIP 
 
 inhabitants  of  the  place  divine  honours.  In  the  my- 
 ihologv  o(  the  Greeks  he  became  one  of  the  compan- 
 ions of  Ja.~oii  Various  accounts,  too,  are  given  of 
 the  origin  of  the  city's  name,  one  of  which  traces  it  to 
 Sinopc,  daughter  of  the  Asopus.  (Compare  Apoll. 
 Rhod.,  2,  946.— Sc/jo/.,  ad  loc.—l'lut.,  Vit.  Lucull. — 
 VaL.  Flacc,  5,  108  )  —  The  situation  of  Sinojie  was 
 extremely  well  chosen.  It  was  liuilt  on  tlie  neck  of  a 
 peninsula  ;  and,  as  this  peninsula  was  secured  Irom  any 
 hostile  landing  along  its  outer  shores  by  high  cliffs,  the 
 citv  only  needed  defending  on  the  narrow  isthmus 
 connecting  it  with  the  mainland,  while  at  the  same 
 time  It  had  two  convenient  harbours,  one  on  either 
 side.  The  outer  part  of  the  peninsula  atiorded  room 
 for  spacious  suburbs,  for  gardens  and  fields,  on  which 
 the  city  could  easily  rely  for  support  in  case  of  any 
 scarcity  produced  by  a  siege.  (I'ulyb.,  4,  56.  —  Slra- 
 bo,  545.)  Sinope  soon  increased  in  wealth  and  pow- 
 er, and  became  jiossessed  of  a  dependant  territory 
 which  readied  ag  far  as  the  Halvs,  and  which  was  in- 
 habited by  the  Leucosyrii ;  it  became  also  the  parent 
 city  of  many  colonies  along  the  coast.  So  flourishing 
 a  place  could  not  but  excite  the  envy  of  the  people  in 
 the  interior  ;  and  accordingly  we  find,  from  scattered 
 hints,  that  it  was  occasionally  besieged  by  the  neigh- 
 bouring satraps  of  Pa[ihlagonia  and  Cappadocia  ;  and 
 yet  at  other  times,  we  are  informed  by  Xenophon  (,4?t- 
 ab.,  lib.  5  et  6),  it  stood  on  a  very  friendly  footing  with 
 them.  It  encountered  more  danger  from  the  monarchs 
 that  arose  subsequently  to  the  time  of  Alexander. 
 Against  open  attacks  from  these,  however,  it  was  able 
 to  make  a  successful  stand  {Polyb.,  4,  56)  ;  but  jt 
 could  not  defend  itself  against  a  surprise  on  the  part 
 of  Pharnaces  (Strabo,  I.  c.)  It  lost  its  freedom,  but 
 not  its  commerce  and  prosperity,  and  from  this  time 
 forward  became  the  residence  of  the  monarchs  of  Pon- 
 lus,  until  LucuUus  took  it  from  the  last  Mithradates. 
 It  suffered  severely  on  this  occasion,  and  the  Roman 
 commander  stripped  it  of  many  fine  statues  and  valu- 
 able works  of  art.  Among  the  articles  carried  off  on 
 this  occasion  Straho  makes  mention  of  the  sphere  of 
 Billarus  From  this  period  Sinope  remained  subject 
 to  the  Roman  power,  and  received,  according  to  Stra- 
 bo  and  Pliny  (Plin.,  6,  2),  a  Roman  colony.  This 
 colony  was  settled  there  in  the  year  of  Julius  Caesar's 
 assassination.  Strabo  found  the  city  in  his  time  well 
 fortified,  and  adorned  with  many  handsome  edifices 
 both  public  and  private.  The  commerce  of  the  place, 
 indeed,  had  somewhat  declined,  having  been  drawn  off 
 partly  to  Byzantium,  and  in  part  to  the  cities  of  the 
 Tauric  Chersonese.  Still  the  thunny- fisheries  in  its 
 immediate  vicinity  continued  to  afford  a  very  lucra- 
 tive branch  of  trade  to  Sinope.  The  city,  however, 
 had  begun  to  decline  in  political  importance,  and  we 
 find,  not  it,  but  the  city  of  Amasea  the  capital  of  the 
 later  province  of  Hellenopontus.  In  the  middle  ages 
 Sinope  made  part  of  the  petty  Greek  kingdom  of  Tra- 
 pezus  ;  and  after  this  it  had  independent  Christian 
 monarchs  of  its  own,  who  became  conspicuous  for  their 
 naval  power  and  their  piracies.  {Abalfeda,  p.  318.) 
 The  last  of  this  dynasty  surrendered  his  city  and  pow- 
 er to  Mohammed  II.  in  1461.  The  modern  Suiub  is 
 BtiU  one  of  the  most  important  Turkish  cities  along 
 this  coast. — Sinope  was  the  birthplace  of  the  Cynic  Di- 
 ogenes. {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3.  p.  \\,seqq.) 
 —  III.  An  ancient  Greek  city  of  Campania.  {Vid. 
 Sinuessa.) 
 
 SiNTi,  a  Thracian  community,  who  appear  to  have 
 occupied  a  district  on  the  banks  of  the  Strymon  north 
 of  the  Siropaeones.  (Thucyd.,  2,  98.)  Strabo  affirms 
 that  they  once  occupied  ihe  island  of  Lemnos,  thus 
 identifying  them  with  the  Sinties  of  Homer.  (//  1 
 593.  — 0</.,  8,  'ZQi.—Slrab.,  231.— Id.,  457.— /d.[ 
 549  — Sckol.  ad  Thucyd.,  2,  98.  — Gal/erer,  Com- 
 ment. Soc,  GoU.,  a.,  1784,  vol.  6,  p.  53.)  Livy  in- 
 forms us  that,  on  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the 
 7S 
 
 Romans,  the  Sinti,  who  then  formed  part  of  that  em 
 pire,  were  included  in  the  first  region,  together  with 
 the  Bisallae  ;  and  he  expressly  stales  that  this  part  of 
 the  region  was  situated  west  of  the  Strymon,  litat  is, 
 on  the  right  bank  of  that  river  (45,  29).  Ptolemy 
 gives  the  name  of  Sintice  to  the  district  in  question 
 (p.  83 — Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  3U4). — 
 Etymologists  derive  the  name  of  the  Sinties  from  the 
 Greek  verb  aivu,  "  to  hurt"  {aivTi^g,  "  an  injurer;''  civ 
 Tig,  "a  pirate"),  either  because  they  were  reputed  to 
 have  been  the  inventors  of  weapons,  or  from  their  hav- 
 ing been  notorious  for  piracy.  Ritter,  however,  seeks 
 to  connect  their  name,  and,  consequently,  their  origin, 
 with  that  of  India.      (  VurhaUc,  p.  162.) 
 
 Sinuessa,  a  city  of  Campania,  subsequently  of 
 New  Latium,  on  the  seacoast,  southeast  of  .Miniurnae 
 and  the  mouth  of  the  Liris.  It  was  said  to  have  been 
 founded  on  the  ruins  of  Sinope,  an  ancient  Greek 
 city.  {Livy,  10,  2l.  —  Plmy,  3,  5.— Mela,  2,  4.) 
 Strabo  tells  us  that  Sinuessa  stood  on  the  shore  of 
 the  Sinus  Setinus,  and  derived  its  name  from  that 
 circumstance,  or,  in  other  "vords,  from  the  sinuosi'y 
 of  the  coast  {alvo(;  yup  6  KO/lTrof.  —  Slrab,  234). 
 The  same  writer,  as  well  as  the  Itineraries,  informs 
 us  that  it  was  traversed  by  the  Appian  Way.  Hor- 
 ace also  confirms  this.  {Sat.,  1,  5,  39,  scqq.)  Sin- 
 uessa was  colonized  together  with  Minturnse,  .\.U.C. 
 456  {Liv.,  10,  21),  and  ranked  also  among  the  mari- 
 time cities  of  Italy.  (Id.,  27,  38.— Folyh,  3,  91.) 
 Its  territory  suffered  considerable  devastation  from 
 Hannibal's  troops  when  opposed  to  Fabius.  Caesar, 
 in  his  pursuit  of  Pompey,  halted  for  a  few  days  at 
 Sinuessa,  and  wrote  from  that  place  a  very  concilia- 
 tory letter  to  Cicero,  which  is  to  be  found  in  the 
 correspondence  with  Atticus  (9,  16). — The  epithet  of 
 lepens,  which  Silius  Italicus  applies  to  this  city  (8, 
 529),  has  reference  to  some  warm  sources  in  its  neigh- 
 bourhood, now  called  Bagni,  while  Sinuessa  itself  an- 
 swers to  the  rock  of  Monte  Dragone.  The  Aquae 
 Smuessanae  are  noticed  by  Livy  (22,  14),  Tacitus 
 {Hist.,  1,  n.  —  Ann.,  12.  66),  Plutarch  {Vit.  0th.), 
 Pliny  (31,  2),  Martial  (6,  42),  and  others.  {Cramer's 
 Am.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  133.) 
 
 SioN,  one  of  the  hills  on  which  Jerusalem  was 
 built.     {Vid.  Hierosolyma.) 
 
 SiPHNOs,  an  island  in  the  .^gean  Sea,  one  of  the 
 Cyclades,  southeast  of  Seriphus,  and  northeast  of  Me- 
 los.  Herodotus  reports  that  it  was  colonized  by  the 
 lonians  (8,  48),  and  elsewhere  speaks  of  the  Siphnians 
 as  deriving  considerable  wealth  from  their  gold  and 
 silver  mines.  In  the  age  of  Polycrates  their  revenue 
 surpassed  that  of  all  the  other  islands,  and  enabled 
 them  to  erect  a  treasury  at  Delphi  equal  to  those  of 
 the  most  opulent  cities  ;  and  their  own  principal 
 buildings  were  sumptuously  decorated  with  Parian 
 marble.  Herodotus  states,  however,  that  they  after- 
 ward sustained  a  heavy  loss  from  a  descent  of  the 
 Samians,  who  levied  upon  the  island  a  contribution  of 
 100  talents  (3,  57,  seqq).  In  Slrabo's  time  it  was  so 
 poor  and  insignificant  as  to  give  rise  to  the  j)roverbs 
 )Ji.(pviov  uarf)dya?.ov,  and  SiciviOf  appn^i'ov.  {Slrab., 
 'H.—Eustath.,  ad  Dion.  Perteg.,  525.)  Pliny  makes 
 it  twenty-eight  miles  in  circuit  (4,  12).  Siphnos  was 
 famed  for  its  excellent  fruit,  and  its  pure  and  whole 
 some  air.  The  modern  name  is  S//)Aa«/o.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  405. — Bundelmonli,  Ins.  Ar- 
 chipcL,  p.  82.) 
 
 SiPONTUM,  or,  as  the  Greeks  write  it,  Sjttok  (gen. 
 -ovvToc),  a  city  of  Apulia,  in  the  district  of  Daunia, 
 and  to  the  southwest  of  the  promontory  of  Garganum. 
 Ii  lay  on  the  Sinus  Urias.  Sipontum  was  a  place  of 
 great  antiquity,  and  unquestionably  of  Greek  origin, 
 even  though  the  tradition  which  ascribes  its  founda- 
 tion to  Diomcdc  should  be  regarded  as  fabulous. 
 Strabo,  who  mentions  this  story,  states  that  the  name 
 of  this  city  was  derived  from  the  circumstance  of 
 
 1241 
 
S  IR 
 
 SIR 
 
 great  quantities  of  cutilc-fish  (in  Greek  etr]Tcia)  being 
 thrown  up  by  the  sea  on  its  shore.  (Slrah.,  284.) 
 Liiile  is  l<nown  of  the  history  of  Sipontiim  before  its 
 name  appears  in  the  annals  of  Rome.  We  are  told 
 by  Livy  that  it  was  ocrupiec!  by  Alexander,  king  of 
 Epirus,  when  he  was  invited  into  Italy  to  aid  the  I'a- 
 rentines  against  the  Brutlii  and  Lncani  (8,  24).  Sev- 
 eral years  after,  that  is,  A.U.C.  558,  the  same  histo- 
 rian informs  us  that  a  colony  was  sent  to  Sipontuin  ; 
 but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  prospered  ;  for,  after 
 the  lapse  of  a  few  years,  it  was  reported  to  the  senate 
 that  the  town  had  fallen  into  a  state  of  complete  des- 
 olation, upon  which  a  fresh  supply  of  colonists  was 
 sent  there  (34,  45  ;  39,  22).  Siponturn  is  said  to 
 have  been  once  dependant  upon  the  city  of  Arpi  In 
 Strabo's  time  its  harbour  could  still  boast  of  some 
 trade,  particularly  in  corn,  which  was  conveyed  from 
 the  int(;rior  by  means  of  a  considerable  stream,  which 
 formed  a  lake  near  its  mouth.  (S/rah  ,  284  )  This 
 river,  which  Strabo  does  not  name,  is  probably  the 
 Cerbalus  of  Pliny  (3,  II),  now  Cervaro.  The  ruins 
 of  Sipontum  are  said  to  exist  about  two  miles  to  the 
 west  of  Manfredoni'i,  the  foundation  of  which  led  to 
 the  final  desertion  of  Sipontum  by  its  inhabitants,  as 
 they  were  transferred  by  Kitig  Manfred  to  this  modern 
 town,  which  is  known  to  have  risen  under  his  au- 
 spices.    {Cramer's  Anr.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p   279.) 
 
 SiPYi.us,  I.  a  mountain  in  Lydia,  rising  to  the 
 south  of  Magnesia,  and  separated  by  a  small  valley 
 fro-n  the  chain  of  Tmolus  to  the  southeast,  and  by 
 another  from  Mount  Mastinsia  to  the  south.  Sipyhis 
 •is  celebrated  in  Grecian  mythology  as  the  residence 
 of  Tantalus  and  Niobe,  and  the  cradle  of  Pelops. 
 These  princes,  though  more  commonly  referred  to  by 
 classical  writers  as  belonging  to  Phrygia,  must,  in  re- 
 ality, have  reigned  in  Lydia  if  they  occupied  Sipylus  ; 
 not  the  mountain  merely,  liut  a  city  of  the  same  name, 
 situate  on  its  slope.  {Cramer  s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1, 
 p.  437.)  "  It  was  growing  dark,"  observes  Mr. 
 Arundell,  "  or  we  might  have  seen,  as  the  traveller  by 
 daylight  may,  the  abrupt  termination  of  Mount  Sipy- 
 lus at  a  considerable  distance  on  the  left,  behind  which 
 lies  the  town  of  Magnesia."  It  is  described  by  (3his- 
 hull  as  a  stupendous  precipice,  consisting  of  a  naked 
 mass  of  stone,  and  rising  perpendicularly  almost  a  fur- 
 long high  It  was  here,  too,  that  ChishuU  saw  "  a 
 certain  cliff  of  the  rock,  representing  an  exact  niche 
 and  statue,  with  the  due  shape  and  proportion  of  a  hu- 
 man body."  {ArundcWs  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  18.) 
 The  rock  just  mentioned  as  the  termination  of  Sipy- 
 \us,  and  also  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis  behind  the 
 town  of  Magnesia,  have  been  supposed  to  contain 
 some  magnetic  iron  ;  and  the  magnet  is  said  to  have 
 taken  its  name  from  this  locality.  Mr.  Arundell  and 
 some  friends  made  experiments  in  this  quarter,  to  test, 
 as  far  as  it  could  be  done,  the  truth  of  the  story,  and 
 foand  clear  indications  of  considerable  magnetic  in- 
 fluence. (Ariindcir.s  Asia  Minor,  I.  c  ,  in  not.) — II. 
 A  city  of  Lydia,  situate  on  the  slope  of  Mount  Sipy- 
 lus. According  to  traditions  preserved  in  the  country, 
 it  was  swallowed  up  at  ati  early  period  by  an  earth- 
 quake, and  was  plunged  into  a  crater  afterward  filled 
 by  a  lake.  The  existence,  of  this  lake,  named  Sale  or 
 Salce,  is  attested  by  Pausanias,  who  reports,  that  for 
 some  time  the  ruins  of  the  town,  which  he  calls  Idea, 
 if  the  word  be  not  corrupt,  could  be  seen  at  the  bot- 
 tom. (P«»/s«n  ,  7,  24. — Siehelis,  adloc. — Cramer's 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  437.) 
 
 SiKENEs  (Sftpr/i'ff),  two  maidens  celebrated  in 
 fable,  who  occupied  an  island  of  Ocean,  where  they 
 sat  in  a  mead  close  to  the  seashore,  and  with  their 
 melodious  voices  so  charmed  those  that  were  sailing 
 by,  that  they  forgot  home  and  everything  relating  to 
 it,  and  abode  with  these  maidens  till  they  perished 
 from  the  impossibility  of  taking  nourishment,  and 
 their  bones  lay  whitening  on  the  strand.  As  Ulysses 
 1242 
 
 and  his  companions  were  on  their  homeward  voyage 
 from  A-liea,  they  came  first  to  the  island  of  ihe  Sirens. 
 Hut  they  passed  in  safety  ;  for,  by  the  directions  of 
 ("irce,  Ulysses  slopped  the  ears  of  his  companions  with 
 wax,  and  had  himself  tied  lo  the  mast;  so  that,  although, 
 when  he  heard  the  song  of  the  Sirens,  he  made  signs 
 to  his  companions  to  unbind  him,  they  only  secured 
 him  the  more  closely;  and  thus  he  listened  to  the  ac- 
 cents of  the  Sirens,  and  yet,  notwithstanding,  escaped. 
 (Od.,  12,  52,  seqq.)  —  Hesiod  describes  the  mead  of 
 the  Sirens  as  blooming  with  flowers  {uvdejjheaaa),  and 
 their  voice,  he  said,  stilled  the  winds.  (Schol.  ad 
 Apoll.  Rhod.,  4.  892— Schol.  ad  Od.,  12,  169.)  Their 
 names  were  said  to  be  .^glaiopheme  (Clear-voice)  and 
 Thelxiepea  {Magic-speech);  and  it  was  feigned  that 
 they  threw  themselves  into  the  sea  with  vexation  at 
 the  escape  of  Ulysses,  an  oracle  having  predicted  that, 
 as  long  as  they  should  arrest  the  attention  of  all  pas- 
 sengers by  the  sound  of  their  voice,  they  should  live, 
 but  no  longer.  The  author  of  the  Orphic  Argonau- 
 tics,  however,  places  them  on  a  rock  near  the  shore  ol 
 ^tna,  and  makes  the  song  of  Orpheus  end  their  en- 
 chantment, and  cause  them  to  fling  themselves  into 
 the  sea,  where  they  were  changed  into  rocks.  {Orph., 
 Argon.,  1284,  seqq.  —  Compare  Nonnus,  13,  312  )  — 
 It  was  afterward  fabled  that  they  were  the  daughters 
 of  the  river-god  Acheloiis  by  the  muse  Terpsichore 
 or  Calliope,  or  by  Sterojie,  daughter  of  Porihaon. 
 {Apoll.  Rhod.,  4,  S95.—Apollod.,  1,  3,  4.— Tee/:,  ad 
 Lycojihr  ,  712  — Eudocia,  373.)  Some  said  that  they 
 sprang  from  the  blood  which  ran  from  the  god  of  the 
 .Acheloiis  when  his  horn  was  lorn  off  by  Hercules. 
 Sophocles  calls  them  the  daughters  of  Phorcys  {ap. 
 Pint.,  Sympos.,  9,  14);  and  Euripides  terms  them  the 
 children  of  Earth.  {HcL,  168.)  Their  number  was 
 also  increased  to  three,  and  their  names  are  given 
 with  much  variety.  One  was  said  to  play  on  the  lyre, 
 another  on  the  pipes,  and  the  third  to  sing.  {Tzct- 
 zes  ad.  Lycophron., 712.) — Contrary  to  the  usual  pro- 
 cess, the  mischievous  part  of  the  character  of  the  Si- 
 rens was  afterward  left  out,  and  they  were  regarded  as 
 purely  musical  beings  with  entrancing  voices.  Hence 
 Plato,  in  his  Republic  (10,  p.  617),  places  one  of 
 them  on  each  of  the  eight  celestial  spheres,  where 
 their  voices  form  what  is  called  the  music  of  the 
 spheres  ;  and  when  the  Laceda-monians  had  laid  siege 
 to  Athens  {01. ,  94,  1),  Bacchus,  it  is  said,  appeared 
 in  a  dream  to  their  general,  Lysander,  ordering  him 
 to  allow  the  funeral  rites  o.f  the  new  Siren  to  be  cele- 
 brated, which  was  at  once  understood  to  be  .Sophocles, 
 then  just  dead.  (Paitsan,  I,  21,  1.  —  Plm  ,  7,  29.) 
 Eventually,  however,  the  artists  laid  hold  on  the  Sirens, 
 and  furnished  them  with  the  feathers,  feet,  wings,  and 
 tails  of  birds. — The  ordinary  derivation  of  the  word 
 Siren  is  from  aeipn,  "c;  chain,"  to  signify  their  attrac- 
 tive power.  The  Semitic  shir,  "song,"  appears, 
 however,  more  likely  to  be  the  true  root ;  and  the 
 Sirens  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders  told  of 
 by  the  Phoenician  mariners.  {Keighlley's  Mythology, 
 p.  269,  seqq.) 
 
 SIRENUS..E  Insuj,^,  three  small  rocks  on  the  south 
 side  of  the  proinontorv  of  Surrenturn  or  Minerva,  de- 
 tached from  the  island,  and  celebrated  in  fable  as  the 
 islands  of  the  Sirens  {Strabo,  22.— Id.,  247. — Mela, 
 2,  4  —Plin.,  3,  5.) 
 
 SiRis,  a  city  of  Lucania,  on  the  Sinus  Tarcntinus,  at 
 the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  now  the  Sinno. 
 It  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a  Trojan  colony, 
 which  was  afterward  expelled  by  some  lonians,  who 
 migrated  from  (>olophon  under  the  reign  of  Alyattes, 
 king  of  Lydia  ;  and  who,  having  taken  the  town  hy 
 force,  changed  its  name  to  that  of  Polioeum  {Straho, 
 264.)  The  earliest  writer  who  has  mentioned  this 
 ancient  city  is  the  poet  Archilochus,  cited  by  Atnenae- 
 us  (12,  5).  He  speaks  with  admiration  of  the  sur- 
 rounding country,  and  in  a  manner  which  proves  that 
 
SIS 
 
 SIS 
 
 he  was  well  acquainted  with  its  beauties.  In  the  pas- 
 sage of  Athensiis  where  Archilochus  is  cited,  Athe- 
 najus  represents  the  inhabitants  of  Siris  as  rivalling  in 
 all  respects  the  luxury  and  affluence  of  the  Sybarites. 
 Siris  and  Sybaris  had  reached,  about  500  B.C.,  the 
 summit  of  their  prosperity  and  opulence.  Shortly  af- 
 terward, accordmg  to  Justin  (20,  2),  the  former  of  the 
 two  was  almost  destroyed  in  a  war  wilh  Mecaponlurn 
 and  Sybaris,  When  the  Tarentines  settled  at  Hera- 
 clca  they  removed  all  the  Sirites  to  the  new  town,  of 
 which  Siris  became  the  harbour.  (Diod.  Sic  ,  12,  36. 
 — Slrabo,  263.)  No  vestiges  of  this  ancient  colony 
 are  now  apparent;  hut  it  stood  probably  on  the  left 
 bank,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sinno.  {Cramer'' s  Anc. 
 Jiaiij,  vol.  2.  p.  352.) 
 
 SiRius  (Se/ptof),  a  name  given  to  the  dog-star. 
 Homer,  though  he  mentions  the  dog-star  twice,  does 
 not  employ  the  term.  Hesiod,  however,  uses  the  ap- 
 pellation on  several  occasions  {Op.  et  D.,  417,  587, 
 619.  —  Scut.  Here,  397.)  But  then,  in  the  first  of 
 these  passages,  he  means  by  Sirius  the  sun.  Nor  is 
 this  the  only  instance  of  such  a  usage.  In  Hesychius, 
 for  example,  we  have,  Iicipio^,  6  0uoc,  Kal  o  tov  kv- 
 v('(f  doTT/p,  "  Sirins,  the  sun,  and  also  the  dog-star.'^ 
 He  then  goes  on  to  remark,  Zo^o/cAryf  tov  aarpCiov 
 Kvva'  6  6e  ' Apxi^oxoc  fuv  ij'kuiv,  'IdvKoq  6e  nuvra  tu 
 dcTTpa,  "  Sophocles  calls  the  dog-star  so  ;  Archtlochus 
 thesiin;  Ihycus,  however,  all  the  stars.''''  Eratosthenes, 
 moreover  (c  33),  observes  :  "  Such  stars  (as  Sinus)  as- 
 tronomers call  lieiplov^  (Sirios)  diu  Tf/v  r?}f  (pTioybg 
 Kivrjaiv,  "  on  account  of  the  tremulous  motion  of  their 
 light.'''  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  aeipio^  was 
 originally  an  appellative,  in  an  adjective  form,  em- 
 ployed to  indicate  any  bright  and  sparkling  star;  but 
 which  originally  became  a  proper  name  for  the  bright- 
 est of  the  fixed  stars.  The  verb  ceipcuEiv,  formed 
 from  this,  is,  according  to  Proclus,  a  svnonyme  of 
 ?,dfineiv,  ''to  shine,''''  "to  be  bright."  {Ideler,  Stern- 
 namen,  p.  239,  scqq.) 
 
 SiKMio,  a  peninsula  on  the  shores  of  the  Lacus 
 Betiacus  {Lago  di  Garda),  now  Sirmione,  and  the  fa- 
 vourite residence,  in  former  days,  of  the  poet  Catullus. 
 {Calull  ,  31.) 
 
 SiKMiuM,  an  important  city  of  Pannonia  Inferior, 
 on  the  norlhern  side  of  the  Saavus  or  Save,  between 
 Ulmi  and  Bassiana.  Under  the  Roman  sway  it  was 
 the  metropolis  of  Pannonia.  The  Emperor  Probus 
 was  born  here.  The  ruins  of  Sirniium  may  be  seen  at 
 the  present  day  near  the  town  of  Mitrowitz.  {Plin., 
 3,  25  — Zosim.,  2,  13  — Herodian,  7,  2.  —  A7nm. 
 Marc,  21,  10.) 
 
 Sis.ipo,  a  town,  or,  rather,  village  of  Hispania,  in  the 
 northern  part  of  Bajtica,  supposed  to  answer  to  Alma- 
 den,  on  the  southwestern  limits  of  La  Manrha.  The 
 territory  around  this  place  not  only  yielded  silver, 
 but  excellent  cinnabar  ;  and  even  at  the  present  day 
 large  quantities  of  quicksilver  are  still  obtained  from 
 the  mines  at  Almadcn.  The  Sisapone  of  Ptolemy 
 (probably  the  same  with  the  Cissalone  of  Antoninus) 
 was  a  different  place,  and  lay  more  to  the  northwest 
 of  the  former,  among  the  Oretani.  {Manncrt,  Ge- 
 ogr.,  vol.  I.  p.  i\Q—UI;ert,  vol,  2,  p,  378  ) 
 
 SisENN.*,  L.,  a  Roman  historian,  the  friend  of  Pom- 
 ponius  Atiicus,  He  wrote  a  history,  from  the  taking 
 of  Rome  by  the  Gauls  down  to  the  wars  of  Sylla,  of 
 which  some  fraamcnts  are  quoted  in  difTerciit  authors. 
 He  was  considered  superior  to  all  the  Roman  histo- 
 rians that  had  preceded  him,  and  hence  Varro  entitled 
 his  own  treatise  on  history  Siscnna.  This  same  wri- 
 ter commented  on  Plautus.  {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.  I.  p    164.) 
 
 SisiOAMBis  or  SisYGAMBis,  the  mother  of  Darius, 
 the  last  king  of  Persia.  She  was  taken  prisoner  by 
 Alexander  the  Great,  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  wilh  the 
 rest  of  the  royal  family.  The  conqueror  treated  her 
 with  the  greatest  kindness  and  attention,  saluted  her 
 
 with  the  title  of  mother,  and  often  granted  •o  her  in- 
 tercession what  he  had  sternly  denied  to  his  favouritei 
 and  ministers.  On  the  death  of  Alexander,  a  most 
 touching  tribute  to  his  memory  was  offered  by  Sisy- 
 gambis.  She  who  had  survived  the  massacre  of  hei 
 eighty  brothers,  who  had  been  put  to  death  in  one  day 
 by  Ochus,  the  loss  of  all  her  children,  and  the  entir« 
 downfall  of  her  house,  now,  on  the  decease  of  the  eji- 
 emy  and  conqueror  of  her  line,  seated  herself  on  the 
 ground,  covered  her  head  with  a  veil,  and,  notwith- 
 standing the  entreaties  of  her  grandchildren,  refused 
 nourishment,  until,  on  the  fifth  day  after,  she  expired. 
 {Qmnt.  Curt.,  3,  3,  22.— Id.,  5,  2,  20.— Id.,  10,  5,  24. 
 — Thirhmll's  Greece,  vol   7,  p.  117) 
 
 Sisyphus,  I.  the  son  of  yEolus,  was  said  to  have 
 been  the  founder  of  Ephyra,  or  ancient  Corinth.  He 
 married  Merope,  the  daughter  of  Atlas,  by  whom  ho 
 had  four  sons,  Glaucus,  Ornytion,  Thersandrus,  and 
 Halmiis.  When  Jupiter  carried  off  ^Egina,  the  daugh- 
 ter of  the  Asopus,  the  river-god,  in  his  search,  came 
 after  her  to  Corinth.  Sisyphus,  on  his  giving  him  a 
 spring  for  Acrocorinthus,  informed  him  who  the  rav- 
 isher  was.  The  King  of  the  Gods  sent  Death  to  punish 
 the  informer  ;  but  Sisyphu.s  contrived  to  outwit  Death, 
 and  even  to  put  fetters  on  him  ;  and  there  was  great 
 joy  among  mortals,  for  no  one  died  Pluto,  however, 
 set  Death  at  liberty,  and  Sisy[)hus  was  given  up  to 
 him.  When  dying,  he  charged  his  wife  to  leave  hil 
 body  unburied  ;  and  then,  complaining  to  Pluto  of  hei 
 unkindness,  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  the 
 light,  to  upbraid  her  with  her  conduct.  But,  when 
 he  found  himself  again  in  his  own  house,  he  refused 
 to  leave  it.  Mercury,  however,  reduced  him  to  obe- 
 dience ;  and  when  he  came  down,  Pluto  set  hitn  to 
 roll  a  huge  stone  up  a  hill,  a  never-ending  still-begin- 
 ning toil  ;  for,  as  soon  as  it  reached  the  summit,  i( 
 rolled  back  again  down  to  the  plain.  The  craft  of 
 Sisyphus,  of  which  the  following  is  an  instanoe,  waj 
 proverbial.  Autolycus,  the  son  of  Mercury,  the  cele- 
 brated cattle-stealer,  who  dwelt  on  Parnassus,  used 
 to  deface  the  marks  of  the  cattle  which  he  carried  ofl 
 in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  nearly  impossible  to 
 identify  them.  Among  others,  he  drove  off  those  of 
 Sisyphus,  and  he  defaced  the  marks  as  usual ;  but, 
 when  Sisyphus  came  in  quest  of  them,  he,  to  the  great 
 surprise  of  the  thief,  selected  his  own  beasts  out  of 
 the  herd  ;  for  he  had  marked  the  initial  of  bis  name 
 under  their  hoof.  (The  ancient  form  of  the  2  was  C, 
 which  is  of  the  shape  of  a  horse's  hoof.)  Autolycus 
 forthwith  cultivated  the  acquaintance  of  one  who  had 
 thus  proved  himself  too  able  for  him  ;  and  Sisyphus, 
 it  is  said,  seduced  or  violated  his  daughter  Anticiea 
 (who  afterward  married  Eaertes),  and  thus  was  the 
 real  father  of  Ulysses.  {Pherccyd.,  ap.  Schol.ad  Od., 
 19.  ii.-Schol  ad  II. ,  10.  267— Tzetz.  ad  Lyccrphr., 
 344,  &c.) — Homer  calls  Sisyphus  the  most  crafty  of 
 men  (//.,  6,  153)  ;  Hesiod  speaks  of  him  in  a  similar 
 manner  (ap.  Schol.  ad  Find,  Fyth.,  4,  252);  Ulys- 
 ses sees  him  rolling  his  stone  in  Erebus  {Od.,  1 1,  593). 
 Of  the  antiquity  of  this  legend,  therefore,  there  can 
 be  little  doubt.  Sisyphus,  that  is,  the  Vcrij  irise,  or 
 perhaps  the  Over-wise  {'2icv^oc,  quasi  "Lt-ao^oc,  by  a 
 common  reduplication),  seems  to  have  originally  be- 
 longed to  that  exalted  class  of  myths  in  which  we  find 
 the  lapotidae,  Ixion,  Tantalus,  and  others,  where,  un- 
 der the  character  of  persons  with  significant  names, 
 lessons  of  wisdom,  morality,  and  religion  were  sensibly 
 impressed  on  the  minds  of  men  Sisyphus  is.  then, 
 the  representative  of  the  restless  desire  of  knowledge, 
 which  aspires  to  attain  a  height  it  is  denied  man  to 
 reach  ;  and,  exhausted  in  the  effort,  suddenly  falls 
 back  into  the  depths  of  earthly  weakness.  This  is 
 expressed  in  the  fine  picture  of  the  Odyssey,  where 
 every  word  is  significant,  and  where,  we  may  observe, 
 Sisyphus  is  spoken  of  in  indefinite  terms,  and  not  as- 
 signed any  earthly  locality  or  parentage.     ( WdckeTf 
 
 1243 
 
SM  A 
 
 SMI 
 
 TriL,  p.  550.)  In  the  legendary  history,  however,  we 
 find  him  placed  at  Corinth,  and  apparently  the  repre- 
 sentative of  the  trading  spirit  of  that  city.  He  is,  as 
 we  have  already  said,  a  son  of  /Eoliis,  probahly  on 
 account  of  his  name  (AidAof,  "  cunning'')  ;  or  it  may 
 be  that  the  crafty  trader  is  the  son  of  the  Windnian, 
 as  the  wind  enahles  him  to  import  and  ex()ort  his  mer- 
 chandise. He  is  married  to  a  daughter  of  the  symbol 
 of  navigation,  Atlas,  and  her  name  would  seem  to  in- 
 dicate that  he  is  engaged  with  men  in  the  active  busi- 
 ness of  life  (MtywTrff,  mortals,  from  /topor,  ihalh  ; 
 o%l)  being  a  mere  adjectival  ending).  His  children  are 
 Glaucus,  a  name  of  the  sea-god  ;  Oriiviion  (Quick- 
 mover);  Tliersandrus(VVWm  ;««?();  and  lialmus(.SVyz- 
 man),  who  apparenlly  denote  the  fervour  and  bustle 
 of  cotnmerce.  (KeigfUlcy's  Mi/thnlogi/,  p  399,  sefj(/ 
 —  Wei'diCf,  Till.,  p.  550,  seqi/. —  Vblckcr,  Mijih.  der 
 lap.,  p.  lis,  tiof.) — H.  A  dwarf  of  M.  Antony.  He 
 was  of  very  small  stature,  under  two  feet,  but  extreme- 
 ly shrewd  and  acute,  whence  he  obtained  the  name 
 of  Sisyphus,  in  allusion  to  the  cunning  and  dexterous 
 chieftain  of  fabulous  times.  {Moral.,  Sat.,  1,  3,  47. — 
 Compare  Heindiorf,  ad  lac.) 
 
 Sitho.nIa,  the  ct:ntral  one  of  the  three  promonto- 
 ries which  lie  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Chalcidice 
 in  Macedonia.  As  Chalcidice  was  originally  a  part 
 of  Thrace,  the  term  Sithonia  is  often  applied  by  the 
 poets  to  the  latter  country  ;  hence  the  epithet  Suhonis. 
 — The  Sithonians  are  mentioned  by  more  than  one 
 writer  as  a  people  of  Thrace.  {Lycophr.,  1408,  el 
 Schol ,  ad  loc.)  Elsewhere  the  same  poet  alludes  ob- 
 scurely to  a  people  of  Italy  descended  from  the  Sitho- 
 liiaii  giants  (v.  1354). 
 
 SiTo.vEs,  a  German  tribe  in  Scandinavia  {Tacitus, 
 Germ.,  54),  separated  by  the  range  of  Mount  Sevo 
 from  the  Suiones.  Ileichard  places  them  on  the 
 southern  side  of  Lake  Malar,  where  the  old  city  of 
 Si-lur?i  or  Sig-luiia  once  lay.  {Bischoff  und  Mbllcr, 
 Worterb.  der  Geogr.,  p.  923.) 
 
 SiTiius,  P.,  a  Roman  knight,  a  native  of  Nuceria, 
 and  hence  called  Nuccrinus  by  Sallust  {Cat.,  21). 
 Having  been  prosecuted  a  short  time  before  the  dis- 
 covery of  Catiline's  conspiracy,  he  fled  from  a  trial, 
 and,  being  accompanied  by  a  body  of  followers,  betook 
 himself  to  Africa,  where  he  afterward  proved  of  ser- 
 vice to  Julius  Cajsar,  against  Scipio  and  Juba,  and 
 received  the  city  of  Cirta  as  his  reward.  {Appian, 
 Bell.  Civ  ,  4,  hb.  —  Vid   Cirta.) 
 
 Sl.*.vi,  an  ancient  and  powerful  tribe  in  Sarmatia, 
 stretching  from  the  Dniester  to  the  Tanais,  and  called 
 ftlso  by  the  name  of  .\ntes.  Having  united  with  the 
 Tenedi,  tliey  moved  onward  towards  Germany  and  the 
 Danube,  and  became  engaged  in  war  with  the  Franks 
 that  dwelt  north  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  reign  of  Jus- 
 tinian they  crossed  the  Danube,  invaded  Dalmatia, 
 and  finally  settled  in  the  surrounding  territories,  espe- 
 cially in  what  is  now  called  Slavonia.  As  belonging 
 to  them  were  reckoned  the  Bohemani  or  Bohemi  {Bo- 
 kemiaiui)  ;  the  Maharenses  ;  the  Sorabi.  between  the 
 Elbe  and  Saale  ;  the  Silesii,  Poloiii,  Cassubii,  Rugii, 
 &.C.  They  did  not  all  live  under  one  common  rule, 
 but  in  separate  communities.  They  are  represented 
 as  large,  strong,  and  warlike,  but  very  dclicient  in  per- 
 sonal cleanliness.  Among  the  descendants  of  the 
 Slavonic  race  may  be  enumerated  the  Russians,  Pulr.s, 
 Bokemiaus.  Moravians,  Carinihians,  &c.  (Consult 
 Hclmond,  Chron.  Slavorum. — Karamsin,  Histoire  de 
 VEmpirc  de  Russie,  trad,  par  St.  Thomas,  Paris, 
 \8\9-'2Q.— Foreign  Quarterly,  vol   3,  p.  \b'i,seqq.) 
 
 Smaragdus  Mons  (S/zupay(5of  (Ipof),  a  mountain 
 of  Egypt,  to  the  north  of  Berenice,  where  emeralds 
 {smaragdi)  were  dug  It  appears  to  have  been  one 
 of  a  group  of  mountains,  and  the  highest  of  the  num- 
 ber ;  and  all  oi  them  would  seem  to  have  contained 
 more  or  less  of  this  valuable  material.  The  modern 
 name  of  this  mountain  is  Zubara,  and  the  situation  is 
 1244 
 
 twenty- five  miles  in  a  straight  line  from  the  Red  Sea. 
 These  mines  were  formerly  visited  by  Bruce,  whose 
 account  of  them  is  amply  confirmed  by  the  latest  trav- 
 ellers. The  Smaragdus  Mons  appears  to  have  been 
 a  very  short  distance  from  the  sea  ;  being  that  called 
 by  the  Arabs  Maadcn  Uzzumurud,  or  the  Mine  of 
 Emeralds.  {Strab.,  225.— f/m.,  37,  5.— Russell's 
 Egypt,  p.  418.) 
 
 Smerdis,  I.  a  son  of  Cyrus,  put  to  death  by  order 
 of  his  brother  Cambyses.  The  latter,  it  seems,  had 
 become  jealous  of  Smerdis,  who  had  succeeded  in  par- 
 tially bending  the  bow  which  the  Ichlhyophagi  had 
 brought  from  the  King  of  ^Ethiopia,  a  feat  which  no 
 other  Persian  had  been  able  to  accomplish.  Camby- 
 ses had  also  subsequently  dreamed  that  a  courier  had 
 come  to  him  from  Persia  (he  was  at  this  period  in 
 Egypt)  with  the  intelligence  that  Smerdis  was  seated 
 on  his  throne,  and  touched  the  heavens  with  his  head. 
 This  vision  having  filled  him  with  alarm,  lest  Smerdis 
 might  destroy  him  in  order  to  seize  upon  the  crown, 
 be  despatched  Prexaspes,  a  confidential  agent,  to  Per- 
 sia, with  orders  to  kill  Smerdis,  which  was  according- 
 ly done.  According  to  one  account,  he  led  the  prince 
 out  on  a  hunt,  and  then  slew  him  ;  while  others  said 
 that  he  brought  him  to  the  borders  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
 and  there  threw  him  headlong  from  a  precipice.  (7/e- 
 rod.,  3,  30  ) — II.  One  of  the  Magi,  who  strongly  re- 
 sembled Smerdis  the  brother  of  Cambyses.  As  the 
 death  of  the  prince  was  a  slate  secret,  to  which,  how- 
 ever, some  of  the  Magi  appear  to  have  been  privy,  the 
 false  Smerdis  declared  himself  king  on  the  death  of 
 Cambyses.  This  usurpation  would  not,  perhaps,  have 
 been  known,  had  he  not  taken  too  many  precautions 
 to  conceal  it.  Otanes,  a  Persian  noble  of  the  first 
 rank,  suspecting  at  last  that  there  was  some  impos- 
 ture, from  the  circumstance  of  Smerdis  never  quitting 
 the  citadel,  and  from  his  never  inviting  any  of  the  no- 
 bility to  his  presence,  discovered  the  whole  aflair 
 through  his  daughter  Phaedyma.  This  female  had 
 been  the  wife  of  Cambyses,  and,  with  the  other  wives 
 of  the  late  king,  had  been  retained  by  the  usurper. 
 At  her  father's  request,  she  felt  the  head  of  Smerdis 
 while  he  slept,  and  discovered  that  he  had  no  ears. 
 Otanes,  on  this,  was  fully  convinced  that  the  pretend- 
 ed monarch  was  no  other  than  the  magus  Smerdis,  he 
 having  been  deprived  of  his  ears  by  Cyrus  on  account 
 of  some  atrocious  conduct.  Upon  this  discovery,  the 
 conspiracy  ensued  which  ended  with  the  death  of 
 Smerdis,  and  the  elevation  of  Darius,  son  of  Hystas- 
 pes,  to  the  vacant  throne.  {Herod.,  3,  69,  scqq  )  A 
 general  massacre  of  the  Magi  also  ensued,  which  was 
 commemorated  by  the  annual  festival  called  by  the 
 Greeks  Magophoiiia.  (Consult  lemarks  at  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  article  Magi  ) 
 
 Smintheus  (two  syllables),  one  of  the  surnames  of 
 .Apollo.  He  was  worshipped  under  this  name  in  the 
 city  of  Chrysa,  where  he  also  had  a  temple  called 
 Sminihium.  The  names  Smintheus  and  Smintliiuin 
 are  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the  term  afilvOoc, 
 which  in  the  -Eolic  dialect  signifies  a  rat;  and  Sira- 
 bo  gives  the  following  legend  on  the  subject,  from  ihe 
 old  poet  Callinus.  According  to  him,  the  Teucri, 
 migrating  from  Crete,  were  told  by  an  oracle  to  seiile 
 in  that  place  where  they  should  first  be  attacked  by 
 the  original  inhabitants  of  the  land.  Having  halted 
 for  the  night  in  this  place,  a  large  number  of  field- 
 mice  came  and  gnawed  away  the  leathern  straps  of 
 their  baggage  and  thongs  of  their  armour.  Deeming 
 the  oracle  fulfilled,  they  settled  on  the  spot,  and  raised 
 a  temple  to  Apollo  Smintheus.  Various  other  fabu- 
 lous tales  respecting  these  rats  are  to  be  found  in 
 Strabo,  who  observes  that  there  were  numerous  spots 
 on  this  coast  to  which  the  name  of  Sminthia  was  at- 
 tached. The  temple  itself  was  called  Sminthium. 
 (Strab..  604,  612.)  The  same  geographer,  however, 
 does  not  allow,  as  Scylax  does  (p.  36),  that  this  edi- 
 
SM  Y 
 
 soc 
 
 fice,  or  the  Chrysa  here  mentioned,  were  those  to 
 which  Horner  has  alluded,  in  the  commencement  of  the 
 firsi  l)ook  of  the  Hiad,  as  the  abode  of  Chryses,  the 
 priest  of  Apollo.  He  places  these  more  to  the  soutii, 
 and  oti  the  Adrainytuan  Gulf.  {Strab  ,  I.  c.) — The 
 best  ex[)laiiation,  however,  of  the  whole  fable  appears 
 to  be  tiiai  which  makes  the  rat  to  have  been  in  l^gypt 
 a  type  of  primitive  night.  Hence  this  animal,  placed 
 at  (he  feet  of  Apollo's  statne,  indicated  the  victory  of 
 day  over  night  ;  and  at  a  later  period  it  was  regarded 
 as  an  emblem  of  the  prophetic  power  of  the  god.  which 
 read  the  events  of  the  future,  noiwittistanding  the  dark- 
 ness that  enveloped  them.  (Cunslant,  De  la  Reli- 
 gion, vol  2,  p.  391,  in  notis.) 
 
 8mvkna,  a  celebrated  city  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
 coast  of  Ionia,  and  at  the  head  of  a  bay  to  which  it 
 gave  name.  The  place  was  said  to  have  derived  its 
 name  from  an  Amazon  so  called,  who,  having  con- 
 quered Ephcsus,  had  in  the  first  instance  transmitted 
 her  apfiellation  to  that  city.  'I'he  E|)hesians  afterward 
 founded  the  town,  to  which  it  has  ever  since  been  ap- 
 propriated ;  and  ."Strabo,  who  dwells  at  length  on  this 
 point,  cites  several  poets  to  prove  that  the  name  of 
 Smyrna  was  once  applied  specifically  to  a  s[)Ot  near 
 Ephesus,  and  afterward  generally  to  the  whole  of  its 
 precincts.  The  same  writer  aftirms  that  the  Ephe- 
 sian  colonists  were  afterward  expelled  from  Smyrna 
 by  theyEolians  ;  but,  being  aided  by  the  Colophonians, 
 who  h:id  received  them  iiiio  their  city,  they  once  more 
 returned  to  Siruriia  and  retook  it.  (Slrabn,  634.) 
 Herodotus  ditl'crs  from  Strabo  in  some  particulars  : 
 he  states  that  Smyrna  or  ginally  belonged  to  the  ^Koli- 
 ans,  who  received  into  the  city  some  Uolophonian  ex- 
 iles. Tliese  afterward  basely  requited  the  hospitality 
 of  the  inhabitants  by  shutting  the  gales  upon  them 
 while  they  were  without  the  walls  celebrating  a  festi- 
 val, and  so  made  themselves  masters  of  the  place. 
 (J'ausiin.,  5.  8.)  They  were  besieged  by  the  ^oli- 
 ans,  but  to  no  purpose  ;  and  at  last  it  was  agreed  that 
 they  should  remain  in  possession  of  the  place  upon 
 delivering  up  to  the  former  itihabitants  their  private 
 propertv.  (f/erorf  ,  1,  149  )  Smyrna  after  this  ceased 
 10  tie  an  .■Eolian  city,  atid  became  a  member  of  the 
 Ionian  cotifederacy.  It  was  subsequently  taken  and 
 destroyed  by  Alyattes,  king  of  Lydia,  and  the  inhabi- 
 tants were  scattered  among  the  adjacent  villages. 
 {Hernd,  1,  \G  —  Sajlax,  ]}.  37)  They  lived  thus 
 for  the  space  of  four  hundred  years,  and  the  city  re- 
 mained during  all  this  time  deserted  and  in  ruins, 
 until  .^lltigonus,  one  of  .Alexander's  generals,  charmed 
 with  the  situation,  foumled,  about  twenty  stadia  from 
 the  site  of  ilie  old,  a  tiew  city  called  Smyrna,  on  the 
 southern  shore  of  the  gulf.  Lysimacliiis  completed 
 what  .\ntigoiius  had  begun,  and  the  new  city  became 
 one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  Lower  Asia.  {S/raho, 
 64fi  )  Another  account  makes  Alexander  the  founder 
 of  this  city,  and  Pliny  and  Pausanias  both  adopt  this 
 Opinion;  but  it  is  contradicted  by  the  simple  fact  that 
 Alexander,  in  his  expedition  against  Darius,  never 
 came  to  this  spot,  but  passed  on  ra[)idlv  from  Sardis  to 
 E[)hesus.  {Pliny,  ft,  29 — Pausiin.,  7,  .5  ) — Smyrna 
 was  one  of  the  many  places  that  laid  claim  to  being 
 the  birthplace  of  Homer,  and  it  enjoyed,  [)erhaps,  the 
 best  title  of  all  to  this  distinguished  honour.  In  com- 
 memoration of  the  bard,  a  beautiful  s(iuare  structure 
 was  erected,  called  Homerion,  in  which  his  statue  was 
 placed.  This  same  name  was  given  to  a  brass  coin, 
 struck  at  Smyrna  in  cotnmemoration  of  the  same 
 event.  (Slrahn,  I.  c.  —  Cic,  pro  Arch.,  c.  8.)  The 
 Smyrneans  also  showed  a  cave,  where  it  was  said  that 
 Homer  composed  his  verses.  Chandler  informs  us 
 that  he  had  searched  for  this  cavern,  and  succeeded  in 
 discovering  it  above  the  aqueduct  of  the  Meles.  It  is 
 about  four  feet  wide,  the  roof  formed  of  a  huge  rock, 
 cracked  and  slanting,  the  sides  and  bottom  sandy. 
 Beyond  it  is  a  passage  cut,  leading  into  a  kind  of  well. 
 
 {Travels  in  Asia  Minor,  p.  91.) — Under  the  Roman 
 sway  Smyrna  still  continued  a  flourishing  city,  '.hough 
 not,  as  some  have  su[)posed,  the  capital  of  the  province 
 of  Asia.  Its  schools  of  eloquence  and  philosophy 
 were  in  considerable  repute  (Aris/id.,  in  Sniyrn.) 
 The  Christian  Church  flourished  also  through  the  zeal 
 and  care  of  Polycarp,  its  first  bishop,  who  is  said  to 
 have  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  stadium  of  the  city, 
 about  166  years  after  the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  {Ircn., 
 3,  3,  4,  p.  176  )  There  is  also  an  epistle  from  Ignatius 
 to  the  Smyrneans,  and  another  addressed  to  Polycarp. 
 Smyrna  experienced  great  vicissitudes  under  the  Greek 
 emperors.  Having  been  occupied  by  Tzachas,  a  Turk- 
 ish chief,  towards  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  it 
 was  nearly  destroyed  by  a  Greek  fleet,  commanded  by- 
 John  Ducas.  It  was,  however,  restored  by  the  Etn- 
 peror  (^omnenus,  but  suffered  again  severely  from  a 
 siege  which  it  sustained  against  the  forces  of  Tamer- 
 lane. Not  long  after  this  (.A.D.  1083),  it  fell  into  the 
 hands  of  the  Turks.  The  Greeks  shortly  after  ob- 
 tained possession  of  it  anew,  only  again  to  lose  it  ;  and, 
 under  Mohammed  I.,  the  city  became  tinally  attached 
 to  the  Turkish  empire.  It  is  now  called  Ismir,  and 
 by  the  Western  nations  Smyrna,  and  is  the  great 
 mart  of  fae  Levant  trade.  {Maiincrt,  Geogr.,  vol.  6, 
 pt.  3,  p.  332,  serjq. — Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  I,  p. 
 337,  seqq.) 
 
 SocRATKs,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  born  at  Alo- 
 pece,  a  village  near  Athens,  B.C.  469.  His  parents 
 were  of  low  rank.  His  father,  So[)hronisciis,  was  a 
 statuary  ;  his  mother,  Phaenarete,  a  midwife.  So- 
 phroiiiscus  brought  up  his  son,  contrary  to  his  incli- 
 nation, in  his  own  manual  employment;  in  which 
 Socrates,  though  his  mind  was  constantly  aspiring  after 
 higher  objects,  was  not  unskilled.  While  he  was  a 
 young  man,  he  is  said  to  have  made  statues  ol  the 
 habited  Graces,  which  were  allowed  a  place  in  the 
 citadel  of  Athens.  Upon  the  death  of  his  father  he 
 was  left  with  no  other  inheritance  than  the  small  sum 
 of  80  min(B  (about  1400  dollars),  which,  through  the 
 dishonesty  of  a  relation,  to  whom  Sophrnniscus  left 
 the  charge  of  his  affairs,  he  soon  lost.  This  laid  hiin 
 under  the  necessity  of  supporting  himself  by  labour, 
 and  he  continued  to  practise  the  art  of  statuary  in 
 .Athens  ;  at  the  same  time,  however,  devoting  all  the 
 leisure  he  could  command  to  the  study  of  philosophy. 
 Crito,  a  wealthy  Athenian,  remarking  the  strong  pro- 
 pensity to  study  which  this  young  man  discovered, 
 and  admiring  his  ingenious  disposilioi:  and  distin- 
 guished abilities,  took  him  under  his  patronage,  and 
 intrusted  hiin  with  the  instruction  of  his  children.  The 
 opportunities  which  Socrates  by  this  means  enjoyed  of 
 attending  the  public  lectures  of  the  most  eminent  phi- 
 losophers, so  far  increased  his  thirst  after  wisdom,  that 
 he  determined  to  relinquish  his  occupation,  and  every 
 prospect  of  emolument  which  that  might  afford,  in 
 order  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  his  favourite  pur- 
 suit. His  first  preceptor  in  philoso[)hy  was  Aiiaxag- 
 oras.  After  this  eminent  master  of  the  Ionic  school 
 left  Athens,  Socrates  attached  himself  to  Arrhehius. 
 Under  these  instructers  he  diligently  prosecuted  the 
 study  of  nature,  in  the  usual  manner  of  the  philo.-o- 
 phers  of  the  age,  and  became  well  acquainted  with 
 their  doctrines.  Prodicus,  the  soj>hist,  was  his  pre- 
 ceptor in  eloquence,  Evenus  in  poetry,  Theodorus  m 
 geometry,  and  Damo  in  music.  .Aspasia,  a  woman 
 no  less  celebrated  for  her  intellectual  than  her  per- 
 sonal accomplishments,  whose  house  was  frequented 
 by  the  most  celebrated  characters  of  the  day,  had  also 
 some  share  in  the  education  of  Socrates.  With  these 
 endowments,  both  natural  and  acquired,  Socrates  ap- 
 peared in  Athens  under  the  respectable  characters  of 
 a  good  citizen  and  a  true  philosopher.  Being  called 
 upon  by  his  country  to  take  up  arms  in  the  long  and 
 severe  struggle  between  Athens  and  S[)arta,  he  signal- 
 ized himself  at  the  siege  of  Potidaea  by  both  his  valodr 
 
 1245 
 
SOCRATES. 
 
 SOCRATES. 
 
 »nd  the  hardihood  with  which  he  endured  fatigue. 
 During  the  severity  of  a  Thracian  winter,  while  others 
 were  clad  in  furs,  he  wore  only  his  usual  clothuig,  and 
 walked  barefoot  upon  the  ice.  In  an  engagement,  in 
 which  he  saw  Alcibiacles,  whom  he  accompanied  du- 
 ring this  expedition,  fulling  down  wounded,  he  ad- 
 vanced to  defend  hiin,  and  saved  both  him  and  his 
 arms,  and  then,  with  the  utmost  generosity,  entreated 
 the  judges  to  give  the  prize  of  valour,  although  justly 
 his  own  due,  to  the  y0(ing  Alcibiades.  ^Several  years 
 afterward,  Socrates  voluntarily  entered  u[)on  a  military 
 expedition  against  the  Bteotians,  during  which,  in  an  un- 
 successful engagement  at  Delium,  he  retired  with  great 
 coolness  from  the  field  ;  when,  observing  Xenophon 
 lying  wounded  on  the  ground,  he  took  hnn  upon  Ins 
 shoulders,  and  bore  him  out  of  the  reach  of  the  enemy. 
 Soon  afterward  lie  went  out  a  third  time,  in  a  military 
 capacity,  in  the  e.Kpedition  for  the  purpose  of  reducing 
 Amphipolis  ;  but  this  proving  unsuccessful,  he  return- 
 ed to  Athens,  and  retnained  there  until  his  death.  It 
 was  not  until  Socrates  was  upward  of  sixty  years  of 
 age  that  he  undertook  to  .serve  his  country  in  any 
 civii  office.  At  that  age  he  was  chosen  to  represent 
 his  own  district  in  the  senate  of  live  hundred.  In  this 
 office,  though  he  at  first  e.xposed  himself  to  some  de- 
 gree of  ridicule  from  want  of  experience  in  the  forms 
 of  business,  he  soon  convinced  his  colleagues  that  he 
 was  superior  to  them  all  in  wisdom  and  integrity. 
 While  they,  intimidated  by  the  clamours  of  the  ()Opu- 
 lace,  were  willing  to  put  to  the  vote  the  illegal  propo- 
 sition relative  to  the  Athenian  commanders  who  had 
 conquered  at  the  Arginusae,  Socrates,  as  presiding  of- 
 ficer for  the  day,  remained  unshaken,  and  declared 
 that  he  would  only  act  as  the  law  permitted  to  be  done. 
 Under  the  subsequent  tyranny  he  never  ceased  to 
 condemn  the  op|)ressive  and  cruel  proceedings  of  the 
 thirty  tyrants  ;  and  when  his  boldness  provoked  their 
 resentment,  so  that  his  life  was  in  danger,  fearing 
 neither  treachery  nor  violence,  he  still  continued  to 
 support,  with  undaunted  firmness,  the  rights  of  his 
 feliow-citizcns.  The  tyrants,  that  they  might  create 
 some  new  ground  of  complaint  against  Socrates,  sent 
 an  order  to  him  to  apprehend,  along  with  several  oth 
 ers,  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Salamis  :  the  rest  executed 
 the  commission  ;  but  Socrates  refused,  saying  that  he 
 would  rather  himself  suffer  death  than  be  instrument- 
 al in  inflicting  it  unjustly  upon  another.  Observing 
 with  regret  how  much  the  opinions  of  the  Athenian 
 youth  were  misled,  and  their  principles  and  taste  cor- 
 rupted by  so-called  philosophers,  who  spent  all  their 
 time  in  refined  speculations  upon  nature  and  the  origin 
 of  things  ;  and  by  mischievous  sophists,  who  taught  in 
 their  schools  the  arts  of  false  eloquence  and  deceitful 
 reasoning,  Socrates  formed  the  wise  and  generous  de- 
 sign of  instituting  a  new  and  more  useful  method  of 
 instruction.  He  therefore  assumed  the  character  of  a 
 moral  philosopher;  and,  looking  upon  the  whole  city  of 
 Athens  as  his  school,  and  all  who  were  disposed  to 
 lend  their  attention  as  his  p\ipils,  he  seized  every  oc- 
 casion of  communicating  moral  wisdom  to  his  fellow- 
 citizens.  He  passed  his  time  chiefly  in  public.  It  was 
 his  custom  in  the  morning  to  visit  the  places  of  public  re- 
 sort, and  those  set  apart  for  gymnastic  exercises;  at 
 noon  to  appear  among  the  crowds  in  the  market-jilace  or 
 courts  of  law  ;  and  to  spend  the  rest  of  the  day  in  those 
 parts  of  the  city  where  he  would  be  likely  to  meet  with 
 the  largest  number  of  persons.  The  method  of  instruc- 
 tior  which  Socrates  chiefly  made  use  of  was  to  pro- 
 pose a  series  of  questions  to  the  person  with  whom 
 he  conversed,  in  order  to  lead  him  to  some  unforeseen 
 conclusion.  He  first  gained  the  assent  of  his  respond- 
 ent to  some  obvious  truths,  and  then  obliged  him  to 
 admit  others,  in  consequence  of  their  relation  or  resem- 
 blance to  those  to  which  he  had  already  assented. 
 Without  making  use  of  any  direct  argument  or  persua- 
 fiion,  he  chose  to  lead  the  person  he  meant  to  instruct 
 1246 
 
 to  deduce  the  truths  of  which  he  wished  to  convince 
 him,  as  a  necessary  conse<iuence  from  his  own  conces- 
 sions. He  commonly  conducted  these  conferences 
 with  such  address  as  to  conceal  his  design,  till  the  re- 
 spondent had  advanced  too  far  to  recede.  On  some 
 occasions  he  made  use  of  ironical  language,  that  vain 
 men  might  be  caught  in  their  own  replies,  and  be  com- 
 pelled to  confess  their  ignorance,  lie  never  assumed 
 the  air  of  a  morose  and  rigid  preceptor,  but  communi- 
 cated useful  instruction  with  all  the  ease  and  pleasan- 
 try of  polite  conversation  Socrates  was  not  less  dis- 
 tinguished by  his  modesty  than  his  wisdom.  His  dis- 
 courses betrayed  no  marks  of  arrogance  or  vanity.  He 
 professed  "  to  know  only  this,  that  he  knew  nothing." 
 In  this  declaration,  which  he  frequently  repeated,  ho 
 had  no  other  intention  than  to  convince  his  hearers  of 
 the  narrow  limits  of  the  human  understanding.  No- 
 thing was  farther  from  his  thoughts  than  to  encourage 
 universal  scepticism  :  on  moral  subjects  he  always  ex- 
 pressed himself  with  confidence  and  decision  ;  but  ho 
 was  desirous  of  exposing  to  contempt  the  arrogance  of 
 those  pretenders  to  science  who  would  acknowledge 
 themselves  ignorant  of  nothing. — The  moral  lessons 
 which  Socrates  taught,  he  himself  diligently  practised  ; 
 and  hence  he  excelled  other  philosophers  in  personal 
 merit  no  less  than  in  his  method  of  instruction.  His 
 conduct  was  uniformly  such  as  became  a  teacher  of 
 moral  wisdom. — Though  Socrates  was  rather  unfortu- 
 nate in  his  domestic  connexion,  yet  he  converted  this 
 infelicity  into  an  occasion  of  exercising  his  virtues. 
 Xanthippe,  concerning  whose  ill-humour  ancient  wri- 
 ters relate  many  amusing  tales,  was  certainly  a  wom- 
 an of  a  high  and  unmanageable  spirit.  But  Socrates, 
 while  he  endeavoured  to  curb  the  violence  of  her  tem- 
 per, improved  his  own.  And,  after  all,  indeed,  it  is 
 very  probable  that  the  infirmities  of  this  female  have 
 been  greatly  exaggerated,  and  that  calumny  has  had 
 some  hand  in  finishing  the  picture.  (  Vid.  Xanthippe.) 
 — We  have  already  alluded  to  the  constant  warfare  be- 
 tween Socrates  and  the  Sophists.  It  was  this  same 
 warfare  that  brought  him,  how  undeservedly  we  need 
 hardly  say,  under  the  lash  of  the  comic  Aristophanes. 
 Not  that  the  poet  was  in  this  case  guilty  either  of  the 
 foulest  motives  or  of  the  grossest  mistake  ;  but  if  we 
 suppose,  what  is  in  itself  much  more  consistent  with 
 the  opinions  and  pursuits  of  the  comic  bard,  that  he 
 observed  the  philosopher  attentively,  indeed,  but  from 
 a  distance,  which  permitted  no  more  than  a  superficial 
 acquaintance,  we  are  then  at  no  loss  to  understand 
 how  he  might  have  confounded  him  with  a  class  of 
 men  with  which  he  had,  in  reality,  so  little  in  common, 
 and  why  he  singled  him  out  to  represent  them.  He 
 probably  first  formed  his  judgment  of  Socrates  by  the 
 society  in  which  he  usually  saw  him.  Aristophanes, 
 too,  might  either  immediately,  or  through  hearsay,  have 
 become  acquainted  with  expressions  and  arguments  of 
 Socrates,  apparently  contrary  to  the  established  reli- 
 gion. And,  indeed,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  deter- 
 mine the  precise  relation  in  which  the  opinions  of  Soc- 
 rates stood  to  the  Grecian  polytheism.  He  not  only 
 spoke  of  the  gods  with  reverence,  and  conformed  to  the 
 rites  of  the  national  worship,  but  testified  his  respect  for 
 the  oracles  in  a  manner  which  seems  to  imply  that  he  be- 
 lieved their  pretensions  to  have  some  just  ground.  On 
 the  other  hand,  he  acknowledged  one  Supreme  Being  as 
 the  framer  and  preserver  of  the  universe  (6  tov  u'Xov 
 Kofj/iov  avvTuTTuv  T£  Kal  avvt'xuv. — Mem.,  4,  3,  13): 
 used  the  singular  and  the  plural  number  indiscrimi- 
 nately concerning  the  object  of  his  adoration  ;  and 
 when  he  endeavoured  to  reclaim  one  of  his  friends, 
 who  scoffed  at  sacrifices  and  divination,  it  was,  ac- 
 cording to  Xenophon,  by  an  argument  drawn  exclu- 
 sively from  the  works  of  the  one  Creator.  (Mem.,  1, 
 4.)  We  are  thus  tempted  to  imagine  that  he  treated 
 many  points  to  which  the  vulgar  attached  great  impor- 
 tance, as  matters  of  indifference,  on  which  it  was  nei- 
 
SOCRATES. 
 
 SOCRATES. 
 
 ther  possible  nor  very  desirable  to  arrive  at  any  certain 
 conclusion  :  that  he  was  only  careful  to  exclude  from 
 his  notion  of  the  gods  all  attributes  which  were  incon- 
 sistent with  the  moral  qualities  of  the  Sii|)reine  Being  ; 
 and  that,  with  this  restriction,  he  considered  the  popu- 
 lar mythology  as  so  harmless  that  its  language  and 
 rites  might  lie  innocently  adopted. — The  motives  which 
 induced  Aristophanes  to  bring  Socralcs  on  the  stage 
 in  preference  to  any  other  of  the  sophistical  teachers, 
 are  much  more  obvious  than  the  causes  through  which 
 he  was  led  to  confound  them  together.  Socrates,  from 
 the  time  that  he  abandoned  his  hereditary  art,  became 
 one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  notorious  persons  in 
 Athens.  There  was,  perhaps,  hardly  a  mechanic  who 
 had  not,  at  some  time  or  other,  been  puzzled  or  divert- 
 ed by  his  questions.  (Mem.,  1,  2,  37.)  His  features 
 were  so  formed  by  nature,  as  to  serve,  with  scarcely 
 any  exaggeration,  for  a  highly  laughable  mask.  His 
 usual  mien  and  gait  were  no  less  remarkably  adapted 
 to  the  comic  stage.  He  was  subject  to  fits  of  ab- 
 sence, which  seem  now  and  then  to  have  involved  him 
 in  ludicrous  mistakes  an<l  disasters.  Altogether,  his  ex- 
 terior was  such  as  might  of  itself  have  tempted  an- 
 other poet  to  find  a  place  for  him  in  a  comedy.  It 
 would  be  wrong,  however,  to  suppose,  as  some  have 
 done,  that  the  holding  up  of  Socrates  to  ridicule  in  the 
 comedy  of  the  "  Clouds"  was  the  prelude,  and,  in 
 fact,  the  true  cause  of  his  condemnation  and  death. 
 In  the  (irst  place,  twenty-four  years  intervened  be- 
 tween the  first  representation  of  the  "  Clouds"  and 
 the  trial  of  the  philosopher  ;  and,  besides,  Aristopha- 
 nes was  not  the  only  comic  poet  who  traduced  him 
 and  his  disciples  on  the  stage.  Eupolis,  for  example, 
 had  charged  him  with  a  sleight  of  hand  like  that  de- 
 scribed in  the  "  Clouds"  (Schol.  ad  Nttb.,  180),  and 
 had  also  introduced  Chaerephon,  in  his  KoAuKef,  as  a 
 parasite  of  Callias.  {Sr.hol.,  Plat.,  Bckkcr,  p.  331.) 
 The  time,  in  fact,  in  which  Socrates  was  brought  to 
 trial,  was  one  in  which  great  zeal  was  professed,  and 
 some  was  undoubtedly  felt,  for  the  revival  of  the  an- 
 cient institutions,  civil  and  religious,  under  which 
 Athens  had  attained  to  her  past  greatness  ;  and  it  was 
 to  be  expected  that  all  who  traced  the  public  calami- 
 lies  to  the  neglect  of  the  old  laws  and  usages  should 
 consider  Socrates  as  a  dangerous  person.  But  there 
 were  also  specious  reasons,  which  will  presently  be 
 mentioned,  for  connecting  him  more  immediately  with 
 the  tyranny  under  which  the  city  had  lately  groaned. 
 His  accusers,  however,  were  neither  common  syco- 
 phants, nor  do  they  appear  to  have  been  impelled  by 
 purely  patriotic  motives.  This,  however,  is  a  point 
 which  must  always  remain  involved  in  great  uncer- 
 tainty. Anytus,  who  seems  to  have  taken  the  lead  in 
 the  prosecution,  and  probably  set  it  on  foot,  is  said  to 
 have  been  a  tanner,  and  to  have  acquired  great  wealth 
 by  his  trade  {SchoL,  Plat.,  Apol.  Socr.,  p.  331,  Bek- 
 ker)  ;  but  he  was  also  a  man  of  great  political  activ- 
 ity and  influence,  for  the  Thirty  thought  him  consider- 
 able enough  to  include  him  in  the  same  decree  of  ban- 
 ishment with  Thrasybulus  and  Alcibiades  (Xcn.,  Hist. 
 Gr.,  2,  3,  42),  and  he  held  the  rank  of  general  in  the 
 army  at  Phyle.  (Lysias,  Agorat.,  p.  137.)  With 
 him  were  associated  two  persons  much  inferior  to  him 
 in  reputation  and  popularity  :  a  tragic  poet  named 
 Melitus  or  Meletus,  m  whose  name  the  indictment 
 was  brought,  and  who,  if  we  may  judge  of  him  from 
 the  manner  in  which  he  is  mentioned  by  Aristopha- 
 nes, was  not  very  celebrated  or  successful  in  his  art. 
 The  other  associate  was  one  Lycon,  who  is  described 
 as  an  orator  {Apol.,  p.  24. — Compare  Diog.  Laert., 
 2,  3S),  and  who  probably  furnished  all  the  assistance 
 that  could  be  derived  from  experience  in  the  proceed- 
 ings and  temper  of  the  law-courts.  Accordincr  to  an 
 opinion  ascribed  to  Socrates  himself  (Apol.,  p.  23), 
 ibey  were  all  three  instigated  by  merely  personal  re- 
 sentment, which  he  had  innocently  provoked  by  bis 
 
 personal  habits. — The  indictment  charged  Socrates 
 with  three  distinct  offences  :  with  not  believing  in  the 
 gods  which  the  state  believed  in  ;  with  introducing 
 new  divinities  ;  and  with  corrupting  the  young.  The 
 case  was  one  of  those  in  which  the  prosecutor  was  al- 
 lowed to  [)ropose  the  penally  due  to  the  criine  (uyuv 
 Ti/xjjTuc,) ;  jMelitus  pro|)osed  death.  Before  the  cause 
 was  tried,  Lysias  composed  a  speech  in  defence  of 
 Socrates,  and  brought  it  to  him  for  his  use.  Bui  he 
 declined  it  as  too  artificial  in  its  character.  Among 
 the  works  of  Plato  is  an  A()ology,  which  purports  to 
 be  the  defence  which  he  really  made  ;  and,  if  this  was 
 written  by  Plato,  it  probably  contains  the  substance 
 at  least  of  his  answer  to  the  charge.  The  tone  is 
 throughout  that  of  a  man  who  does  not  expect  to  be 
 acquitted.  The  first  head  of  the  indictment  he  meets 
 with  a  direct  denial,  and  observes  that  he  has  been 
 calumniously  burdened  with  the  physical  doctrines  of 
 Anaxagoras  and  other  philosophers.  But  ihal  part 
 which  relates  to  the  introduction  of  new  divinities  he 
 does  not  positively  contradict  ;  he  only  gets  rid  of  it 
 by  a  question  which  involves  his  adversary  in  an  ap- 
 [larent  absurdity.  The  charge  itself  seems  to  have 
 been  insidiously  framed,  so  as  to  aggravate  and  distort 
 a  fact  v\hich  was  universally  notorious,  but  which  wag 
 then  very  little  understood,  and  has  continued  ever 
 since  to  give  rise  to  a  multitude  of  conjectures. 
 Socrates,  who  was  accustomed  to  reflect  profound- 
 ly on  the  state  of  his  own  mind,  had,  it  seems,  grad- 
 ually become  convinced  that  he  was  favoured  by 
 the  gods  (who,  as  he  believed,  were  always  willing 
 to  communicate  such  a  knowledge  of  futurity  to  their 
 worshippers  as  was  necessary  to  their  welfare)  with 
 an  inward  sign,  which  he  describes  as  a  voice,  by 
 which,  indeed,  he  was  never  positively  directed,  but 
 was  often  restrained  from  action.  It  was  by  this 
 inward  monitor  that  he  professed  to  have  been  pro- 
 hibited from  taking  a  part  in  public  business.  In 
 the  latter  part  of  his  life  its  warning  had  been  more 
 frequently  repeated,  and  it  had  consequently  become 
 a  matter  of  more  general  notoriety.  There  was  no- 
 thing in  such  a  claim  at  all  inconsistent  with  any  doc- 
 trine of  the  Greek  theology-  But  the  language  of  the 
 indictment  was  meant  to  insinuate  that  in  this  super- 
 natural voice  Socrates  pretended  to  hear  some  new 
 deity,  the  object  of  his  peculiar  worship. — His  answer 
 to  the  third  charge  is  also  somewhat  evasive,  and  seems 
 to  show  that  he  did  not  understand  its  real  drift.  Nev- 
 ertheless, we  have  the  best  evidence  that  it  was  on  this 
 the  issue  of  the  trial  mainly  turned.  .iEschines,  who 
 had  often,  probahly,  heard  all  I  he  particulars  of  this 
 celebrated  cause  from  his  father,  asserts  that  Socrates 
 was  put  to  death  because  it  a[)pcared  that  he  had  been 
 the  instructer  of  Critias  (Timarch.,p.  24);  and  that 
 the  orator  neither  was  mistaken,  nor  laid  too  much 
 stress  on  this  fact,  seems  to  be  clearly  proved  by  the 
 anxiety  which  Xcnophon  shows  to  vindicate  his  mas- 
 ter on  this  head.  (Mem.,  1,2.)  But,  at  the  same 
 time,  we  learn  from  him,  that  the  prosecutors  did  not 
 confine  themselves  to  this  example  of  the  evils  which 
 had  arisen  from  the  teaching  of  Socrates,  and  that 
 they  made  him  answerable  also  for  the  calamities 
 which  Alcibiades  had  brought  upon  his  country.  It 
 was,  however,  no  doubt,  the  case  of  Critias  that  sup- 
 plied them  with  their  most  efficacious  appeals  to  the 
 passions  of  their  hearers.  Critias,  the  bloodthirsty 
 tyrant,  the  deadly  enemy  of  the  people,  had  once 
 sought  the  society  of  Socrates,  and  had  introduced 
 his  young  cousin  and  ward,  Charmides,  to  the  philos- 
 opher's acquaintance.  It  was  true,  and  probably  was 
 not  disputed  by  the  accusers  of  Socrates,  that  Critias 
 had  afterward  been  entirely  alienated  from  him.  But 
 this  fact,  and  many  others  along  with  it,  were  not  like- 
 ly to  counteract  the  impression  that  he  contributed  to 
 form  the  mind  and  character  of  Critias.  When  we 
 consider,  too,  that  Socrates,  notwithstanding  his  con- 
 
 1247 
 
SOCRATES. 
 
 SOL 
 
 duct  during  the  Anarchy,  must  have  been  accounted 
 one  of  ihe  party  of  the  city,  since  he  ren^aiued  there 
 throughout  the  whole  period,  and  that  the  prosecutors 
 were  probably  able  to  give  evidence  of  many  express- 
 ions apparently  uiilavourable  to  democracy,  which  had 
 fallen  from  him  in  his  manifold  conversations,  we  can- 
 not be  surprised  that  the  verdict  was  against  him,  but 
 rather,  as  he  himself  professed  to  be,  that  the  votes  of 
 the  judges  were  almost  equally  divided.  It  appears, 
 indeed,  most  likely,  that  if  his  defence  had  been  con- 
 ducted in  the  usual  manner,  he  would  have  been  ac 
 quilted  ;  and  ihat,  even  alter  the  conviction,  he  would 
 not  have  been  condemned  to  death  if  he  had  not  pro- 
 voked the  anger  of  the  court  by  a  deportment  which 
 must  have  been  interpreted  as  a  sign  of  profound  con- 
 tempt or  of  insolent  defiance.  When  the  verdict  had 
 been  given,  tlie  prisoner  was  entitled  to  speak  in  miti- 
 gation of  the  penally  proposed  by  the  prosecutor,  and 
 to  assign  another  for  the  court  to  decide  upon.  Soc- 
 rates is  represented  as  not  only  disdaining  to  depre- 
 cate its  severity  by  such  appeals  as  were  usually  made 
 in  the  Athenian  tribunals  to  the  feelings  of  the  jurors, 
 but  as  demanding  a  reward  and  honour  instead  of  the 
 punishment  of  a  malefactor  ;  and  he  was  at  last  only 
 induced  by  the  persuasions  and  offers  of  his  friends  to 
 natnca  trifling  pecuniary  mulct.  The  execution  of  his 
 sentence  was  delayed  by  the  departure  of  the  Theoris, 
 the  sacred  vessel  which  carried  the  yearly  ofTerings  of 
 the  Athenians  to  Delos.  From  the  moment  that  the 
 priest  of  Apollo  had  crowned  its  stern  with  laurel 
 until  its  return,  the  law  required  that  the  city  should 
 be  kept  pure  from  all  pollution,  and,  therefore,  that  no 
 criminal  should  be  put  to  death  The  opening  cere- 
 mony had  taken  place  on  the  day  before  the  trial  of 
 Socrates,  and  thirty  days  elapsed  before  the  Theoris 
 again  sailed  into  the  Pira-us.  During  this  interval 
 some  o(  his  wealthy  friends  pressed  him  to  take  ad- 
 vantage of  the  means  of  escape  which  they  could  ea- 
 sily have  procured  for  him.  But  he  refused  to  prolong 
 a  life  which  was  so  near  to  its  natural  close — for  he 
 was  little  less  than  seventy  years  old — by  a  breach  of 
 the  laws,  which  he  bad  never  violated,  and  in  defence 
 of  which  he  had  before  braved  death;  and  his  attach- 
 ment to  Athens  was  so  strong  that  life  had  no  charms 
 for  him  in  a  foreign  land.  His  imprisonment  was 
 cheered  by  the  society  of  his  friends,  and  was  probably 
 spent  chiefly  in  conversation  of  a  more  than  usually 
 elevated  strain.  When  the  summons  came,  he  drank 
 the  fatal  cup  of  hemlock  in  the  midst  of  his  weeping 
 friends,  with  as  much  composure,  and  as  little  regret, 
 as  the  last  draught  of  a  long  and  cheerful  banquet. 
 The  sorrow  which  the  Athenians  are  said  to  have  man- 
 ifested for  his  death,  by  signs  of  public  mourning,  and 
 by  the  punishments  inflicted  on  his  prosecutors,  seems 
 not  to  be  so  well  attested  as  the  alarm  it  excited 
 among  his  most  eminent  disciples,  who  j)crhaps  con- 
 sidered it  as  the  signal  of  a  general  persecution,  and 
 are  said  to  have  taken  refuge  at  Megara  and  other  cit- 
 ies. (Dioff.  Larrt.,  2,  19,  scqq  — Enfield,  Hist.  Phi- 
 los.,  vol.  4,  p.  164,  sci/q. — Kitlr.r,  Hisl.  Pkilos.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  1,  16,  scqq. — Thirlwairs  Greece,  vol.  4,  p.  265, 
 seqq.) — II.  Surnamrd  Scholasticus,  an  ecclesiastical 
 historian,  who  flourished  about  ihe  middle  of  the  fifth 
 century.  He  was  a  native  of  Constantinople,  and  a 
 pupil  of  the  grammarians  Ammonius  and  Helladius. 
 Socrates  wrote  an  ecclesiastical  history  in  seven  books, 
 from  306  to  439  A.D.  He  at  first  took  for  his  guide 
 the  work  of  Rulinus  ;  but  having  afterward  perceived, 
 from  the  works  of  Athanasius  and  from  the  corre- 
 spondence of  other  fathers  of  the  church,  that  Rufinus 
 had  fallen  into  great  errors,  he  retouched  the  first  two 
 books  of  his  history.  It  is  an  exact  and  judicious 
 work,  and  is  written  with  great  simplicity.  The  se- 
 verely orthodox  have  charged  him  with  leaning  to  the 
 opinions  of  the  Novatians,  and  at  other  times  with 
 being  led  away  by  a  certain  Sabinus,  who  made  a 
 1248 
 
 collection  of  the  acts  of  councils.  Both  reproaches, 
 however,  are  devoid  of  foundation. — The  best  edition 
 of  his  history  is  that  of  Reading,  Cant.,  1720,  fol 
 
 SoGDiANA,  a  country  of  Upper  Asia,  between  the 
 Jaxartes  and  Oxus,  lying  to  the  west  of  Scythia  extra 
 Imaum,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  ranee  of 
 Imaus.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Jaxartes, 
 and  on  the  south  by  the  Oxus,  and  appears  to  corre- 
 spond at  the  present  day  to  northern  liucharey,  the 
 country  of  the  Usheck  Tartars,  a  part  of  the  coui:iry 
 of  I'cLur  and  of  Litlle  Thibet.  The  chief  ratige  of 
 mountains  in  this  tract  was  called  the  Sogdian,  tnd 
 traversed  the  whole  region  between  the  Oxus  and  Jax- 
 artes. Among  the  tribes  in  this  quarter  may  be  enu- 
 merated the  Sogdiani,  the  Passicae,  the  latii,  the  Ta- 
 chori,  &c.,  along  the  Sogdian  Mountains  ;  the  Mardy- 
 eni  in  what  is  now  the  land  of  the  Usheck  Tartars  ; 
 Ihe  Oxiani  and  Chorasmii  along  the  Oxus;  the  Drep- 
 siani,  at  the  sources  of  the  Jaxartes,  &c.  In  the  mid- 
 dle ages,  Sogdiana  became  famous,  under  the  Arabic 
 name  of  Saghd,  for  its  great  fertility,  and  was  repre- 
 sented as  a  country  eight  days'  journev  in  lefiglh, 
 full  of  gardens,  groves,  cornfields,  &.c.  The  territory 
 around  Samarcand,  in  particular,  the  Arabian  geogra- 
 [)hers  describe  as  a  terrestrial  paradise.  The  rich  val- 
 ley of  Soghd  presented  so  great  an  abundance  of  ex- 
 quisite grapes,  melons,  pears,  and  ap[)les,  that  they 
 were  exported  to  Persia,  and  even  to  Hindustan. 
 Marcanda  answers  to  the  modern  Samarcand.  {Bis- 
 chojj  und  Mollcr,  Wortcrh.  dcr  Gcogr.,  p.  925.— MaZ- 
 te-Hrun,  Gcogr  ,  vol.  2,  p.  378,  Am.  cd.) 
 
 SooniANUs,  a  natural  son  of  Ariaxerxes  Longima- 
 nus,  who  murdered  his  brother  Xerxes.  He  was  de- 
 throned, however,  in  his  turn  by  Ochus,  after  a  reign 
 of  only  six  months  and  fifteen  days,  and  was  suffocated 
 in  ashes  according  to  the  Persian  custom.  {Diod.  Sic, 
 \2,7\.  —  Ctes.,  47,  srqq.) 
 
 Sol,  the    Sun.     {Vid.  Apollo,  Hercules,  Mithras, 
 
 Soi.iNus,  C.  Jiii.uis,  a  Latin  writer,  whose  period 
 is  unknown.  Some  critics  place  him  in  the  middle 
 of  the  second  century;  while  others  make  him  con- 
 temporary with  the  Emperor  Heliogabalus,  because 
 they  find  that  this  prince  had  for  a  colleague,  in  his 
 first  consulship,  a  certain  Advenlus,  and  Solinus  dedi- 
 cates his  work  to  a  friend  of  the  same  name.  This 
 production  is  entitled  Polyhistor,  and  is  divided  into 
 fifty-six,  or,  according  to  other  editions,  seventy  chap- 
 ters. It  is  a  collection  of  various  notices,  principally 
 geographical,  taken  from  different  authors,  many  of 
 whom  are  now  lost,  but  particularly  from  Pliny,  whose 
 text  may  perhaps  he  corrected  from  this  abridgment. 
 Salmasius  has  proved,  as  far  as  things  of  this  nature 
 are  susceptible  of  ])roof,  that  Solinus  published  two 
 editions  of  his  work,  the  first  under  the  title  of  Collec- 
 tanea rerum  rncmoi  ahdnim,  and  the  other,  retouched 
 and  enlarged,  under  that  of  Polyhistor.  These  two 
 editions  have  been  blended  and  confounded  together 
 by  the  copvists.  We  have  also  twentv-two  verses,  a 
 poem,  by  Solinus,  entitled  Pantica.  {Burmann,  An- 
 thol.  Lat.,  vol.  2,  p.  383.)  —  The  best  edition  of  the 
 Polyhistor  is  that  of  Salmasius  (Saumaise),  Traj. 
 1689,  2  vols.  8vo. 
 
 Soi.is  FoNs,  a  celebrated  fountain  in  Africa.  (Vid 
 Ammon.) 
 
 SoLOE,  I.  a  city  of  Cyprus,  on  the  northern  shore 
 of  the  island,  and  southwest  of  the  promontory  Crom- 
 myon.  The  inhabitants  were  called  Soiti,  whence 
 some  later  writers  give  the  name  of  the  city  as  Sob. 
 It  was  founded  by  an  Athenian  colony  {Siraho,  683), 
 and  Solon  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  as  having  vis- 
 ited Philocyprus,  the  tyrant  of  the  place,  and  having 
 praised  him  in  his  verse  (5,  113).  Plutarch  informs 
 us  that,  at  the  time  of  Solon's  arrival,  Philocyprus 
 reigned  over  a  small  city  near  the  river  Clarius,  in  a 
 strong  situation  indeed,  but  in  a  very  indifferent  soil 
 
SOL 
 
 SOLON. 
 
 As  there  was  an  agreeable  plain  below,  Solon  per- 
 suaded him  to  raise  ihere  a  larger  and  more  pleasant 
 city,  and  to  transfer  thiiher  the  inhabitants  of  the  other. 
 He  also  assisted  in  laying  out  the  whole,  and  building 
 it  in  the  best  manner  for  convenience  and  defence,  so 
 that  Philocyprus  shortly  had  it  peopled  in  such  a  man- 
 ner as  to  excite  the  envy  of  the  neighbouring  princes  : 
 and,  therefore,  though  the  former  city  was  called  /Epia, 
 yet,  in  honour  of  Solon,  he  called  the  new  one  Soli. 
 This  story,  however,  appears  to  want  confirmation, 
 the  more  particularly,  as  Herodotus,  who  is  fond  of 
 relating  such  things,  makes  no  mention  of  the  matter. 
 It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  anecdote  owed  its 
 origin  to  the  accidental  similarity  between  the  name 
 of  Solon  and  that  of  the  city.  Pococke  found  traces 
 of  the  ancierit  place,  which  still  bore  the  name  of  So- 
 Ica  (vol.  2,  p.  324). — The  inhabitants  of  this  city,  as 
 well  as  those  of  Soloe  in  Gilicia,  were  charged  with 
 speaking  very  ungrainmatical  Greek,  whence  the  term 
 Solecism  {I,o?MiKLafi6g),  to  denote  any  gross  violation 
 of  the  idiom  of  a  language.  {Suidas,  s.  v.  I,6?i.oi.) — 
 H.  A  city  of  Gilicia  Campestris,  near  the  mouth  of 
 the  river  Lamus.  It  was  founded  by  an  Argive  col- 
 ony, strengthened  by  settlers  from  the  city  of  Lindus 
 :n  Rhodes.  By  intermingling  with  the  rude  Cilicians, 
 -he  inhabitants  so  far  corrupted  their  own  dialect  as 
 to  give  rise-  to  the  term  Solecism  (2o/.ot/vtcr//of),  to 
 denote  any  violation  of  the  id:om  of  a  language.  (  Vid. 
 Soloe  I.)  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  term  in  question 
 belongs  properly  to  the  city  we  are  now  considering, 
 or  the  one  in  Cyprus  ;  the  greater  number  of  authori- 
 ties appear  to  be  in  favour  of  the  former.  Soloe  suf- 
 fered severely  from  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia,  who 
 wrested  the  greater  part  of  Syria,  and  also  Cilicia, 
 from  the  Scleucidae.  He  carried  the  inhabitants  of 
 the  place  to  Tigranocerta,  his  Armetiian  capital,  in 
 order  to  introduce  there  European  culture.  Pompey, 
 therefore,  found  Soloe  nearly  desolate  in  his  visit  to 
 these  parts  during  the  war  with  the  pirates,  and  estab- 
 lished here  the  remainder  of  the  latter  after  they  were 
 conquered.  The  city  was  henceforward  known,  be- 
 sides its  own  name,  by  that  of  Pompeiopolis.  {Sirab., 
 671.— Appmn,  Bell.  Milhrad.,  105.)  — This  city  was 
 the  birthplace  of  Chrys-'ippus,  Menander,  and  Aratus. 
 {Mela,  1,  13. — Slraljo,  I.  c)  Captain  Beaufort  gives 
 a  detailed  account  of  the  topography  and  remains  of 
 this  interesting  city.  (Karamania,  p.  261,  scqq.)  Mc- 
 zc/ln  is  the  name  which  most  of  the  natives  give  to 
 the  modern  site.  {Beaufort,  lb  ,  p.  26G. — Mannert, 
 Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  67.) 
 
 Soi.cuis,  a  promontory  on  the  western  coast  of  Mau- 
 ritania Tingitana,  now  Cape  Cantin.  {Herod.,  2,  32. 
 —Id.,  4,  43.) 
 
 Soi.oN,  a  celebrated  Athenian  lawgiver,  and  one  of 
 the  seven  sages  of  Greece.  According  to  the  most 
 authentic  accounts,  he  was  the  son  of  E.xccestides, 
 and  was  sprung  from  the  line  of  Codrus.  His  father 
 had  reduced  his  fortune  by  his  imprudent  liberality  ; 
 and  Solon,  in  his  youth,  is  said  to  have  been  compelled, 
 in  order  to  repair  the  decay  of  his  patrimony,  to  em- 
 bark in  commercial  adventures — a  mode  of  acquiring 
 wealth  which  was  not  di.«dained  by  men  of  the  highest 
 tiirth,  as  it  frequently  afforded  them  the  means  of  form- 
 ing honourable  alliances  in  foreign  countries,  and  even 
 of  raising  themselves  to  [irincely  rank  as  the  founders 
 of  colonies.  It  was,  however,  undoubtedly  not  more 
 the  desire  of  affluence  than  the  thirst  of  knowledge 
 that  impellc'd  Solon  to  seek  distant  shores ;  and  the 
 most  valuable  fruit  of  his  travels  was  the  experience 
 he  collected  of  men,  manners,  and  institutions.  We 
 are  unable  to  ascertain  the  precise  time  at  which  he 
 returned  to  settle  in  Athens  ;  but  if,  as  is  most  prob- 
 able, it  was  in  the  period  following  Cylon's  conspira- 
 cy, he  found  his  country  in  a  deplorable  condition, 
 distracted  within  by  the  contests  of  exasperated  par- 
 ties, and  scarcely  able  to  resist  the  attacks  of  its  least 
 7T 
 
 powerful  neighbours.  Even  the  little  state  of  Megara 
 was  at  this  time  a  formidable  ejiemy.  It  had  suc- 
 ceeded in  wresting  the  island  of  Salamis  from  the 
 Athenians,  who  had  been  repeatedly  baffled  in  their 
 attempts  to  recover  what  they  esteemed  their  rightful 
 possession.  The  losses  they  had  sustained  -in  this 
 tedious  war  had  broken  their  spirit,  and  had  driven 
 them  to  the  resolution  of  abandoning  for  ever  the  as- 
 sertion of  their  claims.  A  decree  had  been  passed, 
 which,  under  penalty  of  death,  forbade  any  one  si 
 much  as  to  propose  the  renewal  of  the  desperate  un- 
 dertaking. Solon,  who  was  himself  a  native  of  Sala- 
 mis,  and  was,  perhaps,  connected  by  various  ties  with 
 the  island,  was  indignant  at  this  pusillanimous  policy  ; 
 and  he  devised  an  extraordinary  plan  for  rousing  hi.s 
 countrymen  from  their  despondency.  He  was  endow- 
 ed by  nature  with  a  happy  poetical  talent,  of  which 
 some  specimens  are  still  extant  in  the  fragments  of 
 his  numerous  works  ;  which,  though  they  never  rise 
 to  a  very  high  degree  of  beauty,  possess  the  charm  of 
 a  vigorous  and  graceful  simplicity.  He  now  com- 
 posed a  poem  on  the  loss  of  Salamis,  which  Plutarch 
 praises  as  one  of  his  most  ingenious  productions.  To 
 elude  the  prohibition,  he  assumed  the  demeanour  of  a 
 madman  ;  and,  rushing  into  the  marketplace,  mounted 
 the  stone  from  which  the  heralds  were  used  to  make 
 their  proclamations,  and  recited  his  poem  to  the  by- 
 standers. It  contained  a  vehement  expostulation  on 
 the  disgrace  which  the  Athenian  name  had  incurred, 
 and  a  summons  to  take  the  field  again,  and  vindicate 
 their  right  to  the  lovely  island.  The  hearers  caught 
 the  poet's  enthusiasm,  which  was  seconded  by  the  ap- 
 plause of  his  friends,  and  particularly  by  the  eloquence 
 of  his  young  kinsman  Pisistratus.  The  restraining 
 law  was  repealed,  and  it  was  resolved  once  more  to 
 try  the  fortune  of  arms.  Solon  not  only  inspired  his 
 countrymen  with  hope,  but  led  them  to  victory,  aided 
 in  the  camp,  as  in  the  city,  by  the  genius  of  Pisistra- 
 tus. The  stratagem  with  which  he  attacked  the  Me- 
 gariflns  is  variously  related  ;  but  he  is  said  to  have  fin- 
 ished the  campaign  by  a  single  blow,  and  certainly 
 succeeded  in  speedily  recovering  the  island.  We  may 
 even  conclude  that  the  Athenians  at  the  same  time 
 made  themselves  masters  of  the  port  of  Megara  Ni- 
 saea,  since  it  is  said  to  have  been  soon  after  reconquer- 
 ed by  the  Megarians.  The  reputation  which  Solon 
 acquired  by  this  enterprise  was  heightened,  and  more 
 widely  diffused  throughout  Greece  by  the  part  he  took 
 in  the  Sacred  War,  which  ended  with  the  destruction 
 of  Cirrha.  But  already,  before  this,  he  had  gained 
 the  confidence  of  his  fellow-citizens,  and  had  begun 
 to  exert  his  influence  in  healing  their  intestine  divis- 
 ions. The  outcry  against  Megacles  and  his  associates 
 in  the  massacre  had  risen  so  high,  that  it  became  ev- 
 ident that  quiet  could  never  he  restored  until  they  had 
 expiated  their  offence,  and  had  delivered  the  city  from 
 the  curse  which  they  seemed  to  have  brought  upon  it. 
 Solon,  with  the  assistance  of  the  most  moderate  no- 
 bles, prevailed  on  the  party  of  Megacles  to  submit 
 their  cause  to  the  decision  of  an  impartial  tribunal. 
 Under  such  circumstances  their  condemnation  was  in- 
 evitable :  those  who  had  survived  went  into  exile,  and 
 the  bones  of  the  deceased  were  taken  out  of  their 
 graves  and  transported  beyond  the  frontier.  In  the 
 mean  while  the  Megarians  had  not  relinquished  their 
 pretensions  to  Salamis,  and  they  took  advantage  of 
 the  troubles  which  occupied  the  attention  of  the  .Athe- 
 nians to  dislodge  their  garrison  from  Nisoea,  and  to 
 reconquer  the  island,  where  five  hundred  Athenian 
 colonists,  who  had  voluntarily  shared  Solon's  first  ex- 
 pedition, had  been  rewarded  with  an  allotment  of 
 lands,  which  gave  them  a  predominant  influence  in 
 the  government.  It  seems  probable  that  it  was  after 
 this  event  that  the  two  states,  seeing  no  prospect  of 
 terminating  by  arms  a  warfare  subject  to  such  vicissi- 
 tudes, and  equally  harassing  to  both,  now  that  theix 
 
 1249 
 
SOLON. 
 
 SOLON. 
 
 honour  had  been  satisfied  by  alternate  victories,  agreed 
 to  refer  their  claim*  to  arbitration.  .\t  their  reijnest 
 the  Lacedasmonians  a])poiiited  five  commissioners  to 
 try  the  cause.  Solon,  who  was  the  chief  spokesman 
 on  the  Athenian  side,  maintained  their  title  on  the 
 ground  of  ancient  possession,  by  arguments  which, 
 though  they  never  silenced  the  Megarians,  appear  to 
 have  convinced  the  arbitrators  The  strongest  seem 
 to  have  been  derived  from  the  Athenian  customs,  of 
 which  he  pointed  out  traces  in  the  mode  of  interment 
 observed  in  Salamis,  as  well  as  inscriptions  on  the 
 tombs,  which  attested  the  Attic  origin  of  the  persons 
 they  commemorated.  He  is  said  also  to  have  adduced 
 the  authority  of  the  Homeric  catalogue  of  the  Grecian 
 fleet,  by  forging  a  line  which  described  Ajax  as  ran- 
 ging the  ships  which  he  brought  from  Salamis  in  the 
 Athenian  station;  and  he  interpreted  some  oracular 
 verses,  which  spoke  of  Salamis  as  an  Ionian  island,  in 
 a  similar  sense.  Modern  criticism  would  not  have 
 been  much  better  satisfied  with  the  plea,  which  he 
 grounded  on  the  Attic  tradition,  that  the  sons  of  the 
 same  hero  had  settled  in  Attica,  and  had  been  adopt- 
 ed as  Athenian  citizens,  and,  in  return,  had  transferred 
 their  hereditary  dominion  over  the  island  to  their  new 
 countrymen.  The  weight,  however,  of  all  these  argu- 
 ments determined  the  issue  in  favour  of  the  Atheni- 
 ans ;  and  it  seems  more  probable  that  the  Megarians 
 acquiesced  in  a  decision  to  which  they  had  themselves 
 appealed,  than  that,  as  Plutarch  represents,  they  al- 
 most immediately  renewed  hostilities.  Party  feuds 
 continued  to  rage  with  unabated  violence  at  Athens. 
 The  removal  of  the  men  whom  public  opinion  had  de- 
 nounced as  objects  of  divine  wrath,  was  only  a  pre- 
 liminary step  towards  the  restoration  of  tranquillity ; 
 but  the  evil  was  seated  much  deeper,  and  required  a 
 difTerent  kind  of  remedy,  which  was  only  to  be  found 
 in  a  new  organization  of  the  state.  This,  it  is  proba- 
 ble, Solon  already  meditated,  as  he  must  long  have 
 perceived  its  necessity.  But  he  saw  that,  before  it 
 could  be  accomplished,  the  minds  of  men  must  be 
 brought  into  a  frame  fitted  for  its  reception,  and  that 
 this  could  only  be  done  with  the  aid  of  religion. 
 There  were  superstitious  fears  to  be  stilled,  angry  pas- 
 sions to  be  soothed,  barbarous  usages,  hallowed  by 
 long  prescription,  to  be  abolished  ;  and  even  the  au- 
 thority of  Solon  was  not  of  itself  sufficient  for  these 
 purposes.  He  therefore  looked  abroad  for  a  coadju- 
 tor, and  fame  directed  his  view  to  a  man  peculiarly 
 qualified  to  meet  the  extraordinary  emergency.  This 
 was  no  other  than  the  famous  E[)imenides,  whom  his 
 contemporaries  regarded  as  a.being  of  a  superior  na- 
 ture, and  who,  even  to  us,  appears  in  a  mysterious,  or, 
 at  least,  an  ambiguous  light,  from  our  inability  to  de- 
 cide how  far  he  himself  partook  in  the  general  opinion 
 which  ascribed  to  him  an  intimate  conne.vion  with 
 higher  powers.  This  person  was  publicly  invited  to 
 Athens,  to  exert  his  marvellous  powers  on  behalf  of 
 the  distracted  city  ;  and,  when  his  work  was  accom- 
 plished, he  was  dismissed  with  tokens  of  the  warmest 
 gratitude.  (F/ti.  Epimenides.)  But,  though  the  visit 
 of  Epimenides  was  attended  with  the  most  salutary 
 consequences,  so  far  as  it  applied  a  suitable  remedy  to 
 evils  which  were  entirely  seated  in  the  imagination, 
 and,  though  it  may  have  wrought  still  happier  effects 
 by  calming,  soothing,  and  opening  hearts  which  had 
 before  only  beaten  with  wild  and  malignant  passions, 
 still  it  had  not  produced  any  real  change  in  the  state 
 of  things,  but  had,  at  the  utmost,  only  prepared  the 
 way  for  one.  This  work  remained  to  be  achieved  by 
 Solon.  The  government  had  long  been  in  the  hands 
 of  men  who  appear  to  have  wielded  it  only  as  an  in- 
 strument for  aggrandizing  and  enriching  themselves. 
 They  had  reduced  a  great  part  of  the  class  whose  in- 
 dustry was  employed  in  the  labours  of  agriculture  to 
 a  state  of  abject  depcndance,  in  which  they  were  not 
 only  debarred  from  all  but,  perhaps,  a  merely  nominal 
 1250 
 
 share  of  political  rights,  but  held  even  their  personal 
 freedom  by  a  precarious  tenure,  and  were  frequently 
 reduced  to  actual  slavery.  The  smaller  proprietors, 
 impoverished  by  bad  times  or  casual  disasters,  were 
 com[)elled  to  borrow  money  at  high  interest,  and  to 
 mortgage  their  lands  to  the  rich,  or  to  receive  them 
 again  as  tenants  upon  the  same  hard  terms  as  were 
 imposed  upon  those  who  cultivated  the  estates  of  the 
 great  land-owners.  According  to  the  laws  made  by 
 the  nobles,  the  insolvent  debtor  might  be  seized  by 
 his  creditor  and  sold  into  slavery  ;  or  torn  from  his 
 home  and  condemned  to  end  his  days  in  the  service 
 of  a  foreign  master,  or  driven  to  the  still  harder  ne- 
 cessity of  selling  his  own  children.  The  eyes  of  So- 
 lon had  frequently  been  struck  with  the  dismal  mon- 
 uments of  aristocratical  o])pression  scattered  over  the 
 fields  of  Attica,  in  the  stone-posts,  which  marked  that 
 what  was  once  a  property  had  become  a  pledge,  and 
 that  its  former  owner  had  lost  his  independence,  and 
 was  in  danger  of  sinking  into  a  still  more  degaded  and 
 miserable  condition  ;  and  such  spectacles  undoubted- 
 ly moved  him,  no  less  than  that  which  roused  the  holy 
 indignation  of  the  elder  Gracchus  against  the  Roman 
 grandees.  (Pint ,  Tib.  Giacch.,  c.  8.)  Those  who 
 groaned  under  this  tyranny  were  only  eager  for  a 
 I  change,  and  cared  little  about  the  means  by  which  it 
 I  might  be  effected.  But  the  population  of  Attica  was 
 !  not  simply  composed  of  these  two  classes.  An  an- 
 I  cient  geographical  division  of  the  country,  which,  from 
 time  immemorial,  had  determined  the  pursuits  and  the 
 character  of  its  inhabitants,  now  separated  them  into 
 three  distinct  parties  {TleSiEl^  or  Tle6taloi,  lowland- 
 ers ;  AiuKpioi,  h'ffldandcrs  ;  and  Ilupa/loi,  the  men 
 of  the  coast),  animated  each  by  its  peculiar  interests, 
 views,  and  feelings.  The  possessions  of  the  nobles 
 lay  chiefly  in  the  plains.  As  a  body,  they  desired  the 
 continuance  of  the  existing  stale  of  things,  on  which 
 their  power  and  exclusive  privileges  depended  ;  but 
 there  were  among  them  some  moderate  men,  who 
 were  willing  to  make  concessions  to  prudence,  if  not 
 to  justice,  and  to  resign  a  part  for  the  sake  of  secu- 
 ring the  rest.  The  inhabitants  of  the  highlands,  in  the 
 eastern  and  northern  parts  of  Attica,  do  not  seem  to 
 have  suffered  any  of  the  evils  inflicted  on  the  lowland 
 peasantry  ;  but,  though  independent,  they  were  prob- 
 ably, for  the  most  part,  poor,  and  generally  wished  for 
 a  revolution  which  should  place  them  on  a  level  with 
 the  rich.  Uniting  their  cause  with  that  of  the  op- 
 pressed, they  called  for  a  thorough  redress  of  griev- 
 ances, by  reducing,  namely,  that  enormous  inequality 
 of  possessions,  which  was  the  source  of  degradation 
 and  misery  to  them  and  their  fellows.  {Pint.,  Sol., 
 13,  29.)  The  men  of  the  coast,  who  probably  com- 
 posed a  main  part  of  that  class  which  subsisted  by 
 trade,  by  the  exercise  of  the  mechanical  arts,  and  per- 
 haps by  the  working  of  the  mines,  and  now  included 
 a  considerable  share  of  affluence  and  intelligence, 
 were  averse  to  violent  measures,  but  were  desirous  of 
 a  reform  in  the  constitution,  which  should  promote  the 
 prosperity  of  the  country  by  removing  all  ground.s  of 
 reasonable  complaint,  and  should  admit  a  larger  num- 
 ber to  the  enjoyment  of  those  rights  which  were  now 
 engrossed  and  abused  by  a  few.  The  people  in  gen- 
 eral felt  the  need  of  a  leader,  and  would  have  prefer- 
 red even  the  despotic  rule  of  one  man  to  the  tyranny 
 of  their  many  lords.  As  Solon  belonged  to  ihe  iiobil- 
 iiy  by  birth  and  station,  and  had  recommended  him- 
 self to  the  people  by  the  proofs  he  had  shown  of  ac- 
 tivity, prudence,  justice,  and  humanity,  he  was  cho- 
 sen, with  the  unanimous  consent  of  all  parties,  to  me- 
 diate between  them,  and  arbitrate  their  quarrels,  as 
 the  person  most  capable  of  remedying  the  disorders 
 of  the  state  ;  and,  under  the  title  of  archon,  was  in- 
 vested with  full  authority  to  frame  a  new  constitution 
 and  a  new  code  of  laws  (01.  46.3.  B.C.  594).  As 
 such  an  office,  under  such  circumstances,  conferred 
 
SOLON. 
 
 SOLON. 
 
 almost  unlimited  power,  and  an  ambitious  man  might 
 easily  have  abused  it  to  make  himself  master  of  the 
 state,  vSolon's  friends  exhorted  him  to  seize  the  oppor- 
 tunity of  becoming  tyrant  of  Athens  ;  and  they  were 
 not  at  a  loss  for  fair  arguments  to  colour  their  foul  ad- 
 vice, reminding  him  of  recent  instances — of  Tynnon- 
 das  in  Kubosa,  and  Pittacus  at  Mytilene,  who  had  ex- 
 ercised a  sovereignty  over  their  fellow-citizens  without 
 forfeitinir  their  love.  Solon  saw  through  their  sophis- 
 try, and  was  not  tcmj)ted  by  it  to  betray  the  sacred 
 trust  reposed  in  him  ;  but,  satisfied  with  the  approba- 
 tion of  his  own  conscience  and  the  esteem  of  his  coun- 
 trymen, instead  of  harbouring  schemes  of  self-aggran- 
 dizement, he  bent  all  his  thoughts  and  energies  to  the 
 execution  of  the  great  task  which  he  had  undertaken. 
 'This  task  consisted  of  two  main  parts  :  the  first  and 
 most  pressing  business  was  lo  relieve  the  present  dis- 
 tress of  the  commonalty  ;  the  next  to  provide  against 
 the  recurrence  of  like  evils,  by  regulating  the  rights 
 of  all  the  citizens  according  to  equitable  prii/cijiles, 
 and  fixing  them  on  a  permanent  basis.  In  [iroceeding 
 to  tiie  first  part  of  his  undertaking,  Solon  held  a  mid- 
 dle course  between  the  two  extremes — those  who 
 wished  to  keep  all,  and  those  who  were  for  taking  ev- 
 erything away.  While  he  resisted  the  reckless  and 
 extravagant  demands  of  those  who  desired  all  debts  to 
 be  cancelled,  and  the  lands  of  the  rich  to  be  confis- 
 cated and  parcelled  out  among  the  poor,  he  met  the 
 reasonable  expectations  of  the  public  by  his  dishur- 
 dcning  ordinance  (^etrsdxOeLo),  and  relieved  the  debt- 
 or, partly  by  a  reduction  of  the  rate  of  interest,  which 
 was  probably  made  retrospective,  and  thus,  in  many 
 cases,  would  wipe  ofF  a  great  part  of  the  debt,  and 
 partly  bv  lowering  the  standard  of  the  silver  coinage, 
 so  that  the  debtor  saved  more  than  one  fourth  in  ev- 
 ery payment.  (I'Liit-,  So/.,  15. — Vid.  Bocckh,  S/.aatsfi., 
 2,  p.  360.)  He  likewise  released  the  pledged  lands 
 from  their  eticumbrances,  and  restored  them  in  full 
 property  to  their  owners  ;  though  it  does  not  seem  cer- 
 tain whether  this  was  one  of  the  express  objects  of 
 the  measure,  or  only  one  of  the  consequences  which 
 it  involved.  Finally,  he  abolished  the  inhuman  law 
 which  enabled  the  creditor  to  enslave  his  debtor,  and 
 restored  those  who  were  pining  at  home  in  such  bond- 
 age to  immediate  liberty  ;  and  it  would  seem  that  he 
 compelled  those  who  had  sold  their  debtors  into  for- 
 eign countries  to  procure  their  freedom  at  their  own 
 expense.  The  debt  itself,  in  such  cases,  was  of 
 course  held  to  be  extinguished.  Solon  himself,  in  a 
 poern  which  he  afterward  comjiosed  on  the  subject  of 
 his  legislation,  spoke  with  a  becoming  pride  of  the 
 happy  change  which  this  measure  had  wrought  in  the 
 face  of  Attica,  of  the  numerous  citizens  whose  lands 
 he  had  discharged,  and  whose  persons  he  had  eman- 
 cipated, and  brought  back  from  hopeless  slavery  in 
 strange  lands.  He  was  only  unfortunate  in  bestowing 
 his  confidence  on  persons  who  were  incapable  of  imi- 
 tating his  virtue,  and  who  abused  his  intimacy.  At 
 the  time  when  all  men  were  uncertain  as  to  his  inten- 
 tions, and  no  kind  of  jiroperty  could  be  thought  se- 
 cure, he  privately  informed  three  of  his  friends  of  his 
 determination  not  lo  touch  the  estates  of  the  land-own- 
 ers, but  only  to  reduce  the  amount  of  debt.  He  had 
 aft(;rward  the  vexation  of  discovering,  that  the  men  to 
 whom  he  had  intrusted  this  secret  had  been  base 
 enough  to  take  advantage  of  it,  by  making  large  pur- 
 chases of  land — which  at  such  a  juncture  bore,  no 
 doubt,  a  very  low  price — with  borrowed  money.  For- 
 tunately for  his  fame,  the  state  of  his  private  affairs 
 ■was  such  as  to  exempt  him  from  all  suspicion  of  havini 
 had  any  share  in  this  sordid  transaction.  He  had  him- 
 self a  considerable  sum  out  at  interest,  and  was  a  loser 
 in  pro[)ortion  by  his  own  enactment.  This  seems  the 
 most  probable  and  accurate  account  of  Solon's  meas- 
 ures of  relief.  There  was,  however,  another,  adopted 
 bv  some  ancient  writers,  which  represented   him  as 
 
 having  entirely  cancelled  all  debts,  and  as  having  only 
 disguised  the  violence  of  this  proceeding  under  a  soft 
 and  attractive  mien.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  an- 
 cients saw  anything  to  censure  in  his  conduct  accord- 
 ing to  cither  view.  But  the  example  of  Solon  cannot 
 fairly  be  pleaded  by  those  who  contend  that  either 
 public  or  private  failh  may  be  rightly  sacrificed  to  ex- 
 |)ediency.  He  must  be  considered  as  an  arbitrator,  to 
 whom  all  the  parties  interested  submitted  their  claims, 
 with  the  avowed  intent  that  they  should  be  decided 
 by  him.  not  upon  the  footing  of  legal  ri"ht,  but  accord- 
 ing to  his  own  view  of  the  public  interest.  It  was  in 
 this  light  that  he  himself  regarded  his  office,  and  he 
 ap|5cars  to  have  discharged  it  faithfully  and  discreetly. 
 The  strongest  proof  of  the  wisdom  and  equity  of  his 
 measures  is,  that  they  subjected  him  to  oblorpiv  from 
 the  violent  spirits  of  both  the  extreme  parties.  But 
 their  murmurs  were  soon  drowned  in  the  general  ap- 
 probation with  which  the  disburdening  ordinance  was 
 received  ;  it  was  celebrated  with  a  solemn  festival ; 
 and  Solon  was  encouraged,  by  the  strongest  assurances 
 of  the  increased  confidence  of  his  fellow. citizens,  to 
 proceed  with  his  work  ;  and  he  now  entered  on  the  sec- 
 ond and  more  difficult  part  of  his  task.  He  began  by* 
 repealing  all  the  laws  of  Draco,  except  those  which 
 concerned  the  repression  of  bloodshed,  which  were, 
 in  fact,  customs  hallowed  by  lime  and  bv  religion,  and 
 had  been  retained,  not  introduced,  by  his  predeces- 
 sor. As  a  natural  consequence,  perhaps,  of  this  meas- 
 ure, he  published  an  amnesty,  or  act  of  grace,  which 
 restored  those  citizens  who  had  been  deprived  of  their 
 franchise  for  lighter  offences,  and  recalled  those  who 
 had  been  forced  inlo  exile  ;  and  it  seems  probable  that 
 this  indulgence  was  extended  to  the  house  of  Mega- 
 cles,  the  Alcm*onids,  as  they  were  called  from  a  re- 
 mole  ancestor,  the  third  in  descent  from  Nestor,  and 
 to  the  partners  of  his  guilt  and  punishment  :  the  city, 
 now  purified  and  tranquillized,  might  be  supposed  to 
 be  no  longer  either  polluted  or  endangered  by  their 
 [iresence  ;  and  it  was  always  liable  to  be  disturbed  by 
 their  machinations  so  long  as  they  remained  in  ban- 
 ishment. The  four  ancient  tribes  were  retained,  with 
 all  their  subdivisions  ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  So- 
 lon admitted  a  number  of  new  citizens  ;  for  it  is  said 
 ihat  he  invited  foreigners  to  Athens  by  this  boon, 
 though  he  confined  it  lo  such  as  settled  their  whole 
 family  and  substance,  and  had  dissolved  their  connex- 
 ion with  their  native  land.  The  distingiii.^hing  feature 
 of  the  new  constitution  was  the  substitution  of  proper- 
 ty for  birth,  as  a  title  to  the  honours  and  offices  of  the 
 stale.  (Compare  Niebuhr,  Bom  Hist.,  2,  305,  2d  ed., 
 Camb.  trans.)  This  change,  though  its  consequences 
 were  of  infinite  importance,  would  not  appear  so  vio- 
 lent or  iriomentous'to  the  generation  which  witness- 
 ed it,  since  at  this  lime  these  two  claims  general- 
 ly concurred  in  the  same  person.  Solon  divided  the 
 citizens  into  lour  classes,  according  lo  the  grada- 
 tions of  their  fortunes,  and  regulated  the  extent  of 
 their  franchise  and  their  contributions  to  the  public 
 necessities  by  the  amount  of  their  incomes.  The 
 first  class,  as  its  name  expressed,  consisted  of  persons 
 whose  estates  yielded  a  nett  yearly  income,  or  rent, 
 of  500  measures  of  dry  or  liquid  produce  (UevraKoa- 
 lofii^tiivoi).  The  qualification  of  the  second  class  was 
 three  fifths  of  this  amount :  that  of  the  third,  two  thirds, 
 or,  more  probably,  half  of  the  latter,  'i'he  members  of 
 •he  second  class  were  called  kniglUs,  being  accounled 
 able  lo  keep  a  warhorse  ;  the  name  of  the  third  class, 
 whom  we  might  call  yeomen,  was  derived  from  the 
 yoke  of  cattle^'for  the  plough,  which  a  farm  of  the  ex- 
 tent described  was  sup[)Osed  to  require  {7.n-,iTai). 
 The  fourth  class  comprehended  all  whose  incomes  fell 
 below  that  of  the  third,  and,  according  lo  its  name, 
 consisted  of  hired 'labourers  in  husbandry  (e^rcf). 
 The  first  class  was  exclusively  eligible  to  the  highest 
 offices,  those  of  the  nine  archons,  and  probably  to  all 
 
 1251 
 
SOLON. 
 
 SOLON. 
 
 others  which  had  hitherto  been  reserved  to  the  nobles ; 
 they  were  also  destined  to  fill  tlie  highest  commands 
 in  the  army,  as  it  laler  times,  when  Athens  became  a 
 maritime  power,  tiiey  did  in  the  fleet.  Some  lower 
 offices  were  undoubtedly  left  open  to  the  second  and 
 third  class,  though  we  are  unable  to  define  the  extent 
 of  their  privileges,  or  to  ascertain  whether,  in  their  po- 
 litical rights,  one  had  any  advantage  over  the  other. 
 'J'hey  were  at  least  distinguished  from  each  other  by 
 the  mode  of  their  military  service  ;  the  one  furnishing 
 the  cavalry,  the  other  the  heavy-armed  infantry.  But, 
 for  their  exclusion  from  the  dignities  occupied  by  the 
 wealthy  few,  they  received  a  compensation  in  the 
 comparative  lightness  of  their  burdens.  They  were 
 assessed,  not  in  exact  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
 their  incomes,  but  at  a  much  lower  rale;  the  nominal 
 value  of  their  property  being  for  this  purpose  reduced 
 below  the  truth,  that  of  the  knights  by  one  sixth,  that 
 of  the  third  class  by  one  third.  The  fourth  class  was 
 excluded  from  all  share  in  the  magistracy,  and  from 
 the  honours  and  duties  of  the  full-armed  warrior,  the 
 expense  of  which  would,  in  general,  exceed  their  means ; 
 by  land  they  served  only  as  light  troops  ;  in  later  tunes 
 they  manned  the  fleets.  In  return,  they  were  exempt- 
 ed from  all  direct  contributions,  and  they  were  permit- 
 ted to  take  a  part  in  the  popular  assembly,  as  well  as 
 in  the  exercise  of  those  judicial  powers  vvhich  were 
 row  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  people.  We  shall 
 shortly  have  occasion  to  observe  how  amply  this  boon 
 compensated  for  the  loss  of  all  the  privileges  that  were 
 withheld  from  them.  Solon's  classification  takes  no 
 notice  of  any  otiier  than  landed  property  ;  yet,  as  the 
 example  of  Solon  himself  seems  to  prove  that  Attica 
 must  already  have  carried  on  some  foreign  trade,  it  is 
 not  unlikely  that  there  were  fortunes  of  this  kind  equal 
 to  those  which  gave  admission  to  the  higher  classes. 
 But  it  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  they  placed  their 
 possessors  on  a  level  with  the  owners  of  the  soil ;  it 
 is  more  probable  that  these,  together  with  the  newly- 
 adopted  citizens,  without  regard  to  their  various  de- 
 grees of  affluence,  were  all  included  in  the  lowest 
 class.  Solon's  system  then  made  room  for  all  free- 
 men, but  assigned  to  them  different  places,  varying 
 with  their  visible  means  of  serving  the  state.  His 
 general  aim  in  the  distribution  of  power,  as  he  himself 
 explains  it  in  a  fragment  which  Plutarch  has  preserved 
 from  one  of  his  poems,  was  to  give  such  a  share  to  the 
 commonalty  as  would  enable  it  to  protect  itself,  and  to 
 the  wealthy  as  much  as  was  necessary  for  retaining 
 their  dignity  ;  in  other  words,  for  ruling  the  people 
 without  the  means  of  oppressing  it.  He  threw  his 
 strong  shield,  he  says,  over  both,  and  permitted  neither 
 to  gain  an  unjust  advantage.  The  magistrates,  though 
 elected  upon  a  different  qualification,  retained  their  an- 
 cient authority  ;  but  they  were  now  responsible  for 
 the  exercise  of  it,  not  to  their  own  body,  but  to  the 
 governed.  The  judicial  functions  of  the  archons  were 
 perhaps  preserved  nearly  in  their  full  extent  ;  but  ap- 
 peals were  allowed  from  their  jurisdiction  to  courts 
 numerously  composed,  and  filled  indiscriminately  from 
 all  classes.  {Plut.,  Sol.,  18.)  Solon  could  not  fore- 
 see the  change  of  circumstances  by  which  this  right 
 of  appeal  became  the  instrument  of  overthrowing  the 
 equilibrium  which  he  hoped  to  have  established  on  a 
 solid  basis,  when  that  which  he  had  designed  to  exer- 
 cise an  extraordinary  jurisdiction  became  an  ordinary 
 tribunal,  which  drew  almost  all  causes  to  itself,  and 
 overruled  every  other  power  in  the  state.  He  seems  to 
 have  thought  that,  while  he  provided  sufficiently  for  the 
 security  of  the  commonalty  by  permitting  the  lowest  of 
 its  members  to  vote  in  the  popular  assembly,  and  to  sit 
 in  judgment  on  cases  in  which  the  parties  were  dissatis- 
 fied with  the  ordinary  modes  of  proceeding,  he  had 
 also  ensured  the  stability  of  his  new  order  of  things 
 by  two  institutions,  which  appeared  to  be  sufficient 
 guards  against  the  sallies  of  democratical  extravagance 
 1252 
 
 — anchors,  as  Plutarch  expresses  it,  on  which  the  ves- 
 sel of  state  might  ride  safely  in  every  storm.  These 
 were  the  two  councils  of  the  Four  Hundred  and  the 
 Areopagus.  The  institution  of  the  council  of  the 
 Four  Hundred  was  uniformly  attributed  to  Solon  ;  and, 
 if  this  opinion  be  correct,  which  has,  however,  becH 
 made  the  subject  of  some  dispute,  then,  according  to 
 the  theory  of  Solon's  constitution,  the  assembly  of  the 
 people  will  appear  to  have  been  little  more  than  the 
 organ  of  that  council,  as  it  could  only  act  upon  the 
 proposition  laid  before  it  by  the  latter.  But  the  judi- 
 cial power  which  Solon  had  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the 
 people  was  the  most  powerful  instrument  on  which 
 he  relied  for  correcting  all  abuses  and  remedying  all 
 mischiefs  that  might  arise  out  of  the  working  of  his 
 constitution.  A  body  of  6000  citizens  was  every  yeai 
 created  by  lot  to  form  a  supreme  court,  called  Heliaea 
 which  vvas  divided  into  several  smaller  ones,  not  limit- 
 ed to  any  precise  number  of  persons.  The  qualifica- 
 tions required  for  this  were  the  same  with  those  which 
 gave  admission  into  the  general  assembly,  except  that 
 the  members  of  the  former  might  not  be  under  the  age 
 of  thirty.  It  was  therefore,  in  fact,  a  select  portion  of 
 the  latter,  in  which  the  powers  of  the  larger  body  were 
 concentrated,  and  exercised  under  a  judicial  form. 
 Passing  over  the  other  features  of  the  Athenian  con- 
 stitution, as  settled  by  Solon,  on  which  our  limits  will 
 not  allow  us  to  dwell,  we  proceed  at  once  to  the  re- 
 mainder of  his  history.  Solon  was  not  one  of  those 
 reformers  who  dream  that  they  have  put  an  end  to  in- 
 novation, and  that  the  changes  they  have  wrought  are 
 exempt  from  the  general  condition  of  mutability.  But 
 the  very  provisions  which  he  made  for  the  continual 
 revision  and  amendment  of  his  laws,  seems  to  show 
 the  improbability  of  Plutarch's  account :  that  he  en- 
 acted them  to  remain  in  force  for  no  more  than  a  cen- 
 tury. They  were  inscribed  on  wooden  tablets,  ar- 
 ranged in  pyramidal  blocks  turning  on  an  axis  ;  which 
 were  kept  at  first  in  the  Acropolis,  but  were  after- 
 ward, for  more  convenient  inspection,  brought  down 
 to  the  I'ryianeum.  According  to  Plutarch,  Solon,  af- 
 ter the  completion  of  his  work,  found  himself  exposed 
 to  such  incessant  vexation  from  the  questions  of  tho 
 curious  and  the  cavils  of  the  discontented,  that  he 
 obtained  permission  to  withdraw  from  Athens  for  ten 
 years,  and  set  out  on  the  travels  in  which  he  visited 
 Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  and  Egypt,  collecting  and  dif- 
 fusing knowledge,  and  everywhere  leaving  traces  of 
 his  presence  in  visible  monuments  or  in  the  mem- 
 ories of  men.  But  there  is  some  difficulty  in  reconci- 
 ling this  story  with  chronology,  since  it  supposes  him 
 to  have  found  Croesus  in  Lydia,  who  did  not  mount 
 the  throne  within  twenty  or  thirty  years  after;  and  the 
 alleged  occasion  of  the  journey  is  very  doubtful,  though 
 it  is  in  substance  the  same  with  that  assigned  by  Herod- 
 otus. It  is  probable  that  Solon  remained  for  several 
 years  at  Athens,  to  observe  the  practical  efi'ect  of  his 
 institutions,  and  to  second  their  operation  by  his  per- 
 sonal influence.  He  was,  undoubtedly,  well  aware 
 how  little  the  letter  of  a  political  system  can  avail  un- 
 til its  practice"  has  become  familiar,  and  us  principles 
 have  gained  a  hold  on  the  opinions  and  feelings  of  the 
 people,  and  that  this  must  be  a  gradual  process,  and 
 liable  to  interruption  and  disturbance.  Hence  it 
 could  not  greatly  disappoint  or  afflict  him  to  hear 
 voices  raised  from  time  to  time  against  himself,  and 
 to  perceive  that  his  views  were  not  generally  or  fully 
 comprehended.  But  he  may  at  length  have  thought 
 it  prudent  to  retire  for  a  season  from  the  public  eye, 
 the  better  to  maintain  his  dignity  and  popularity  ;  and, 
 as  he  himself  declared,  that  age,  while  it  crept  upon 
 him,  still  found  him  continually  learning,  we  need  not 
 be  surprised  if,  at  an  unusually  late  period  of  life,  he 
 set  out  on  a  long  course  of  travels.  On  his  return,  he 
 found  that  faction  had  been  actively  labouring  to  per- 
 vert and  undo  his  work,  and  was  compelled  eventually 
 
SOP 
 
 SOPHOCLES. 
 
 10  witness  the  partial  overthrow  of  his  system  in  the 
 usurpation  of  I'lsistratus.  {Vtd.  Pisistratus.)  —  II  is 
 not  certain  how  long  he  survived  this  inroad  upon  his 
 jnstitutions ;  one  account,  apparently  the  most  auihen- 
 lic.  places  his  death  in  the  year  following  that  in 
 which  the  revolution  occurred  (B.C.  559).  The  lei- 
 sure of  his  rciirenicnt  from  puhlic  life  was  to  the  last 
 devoted  to  the  Muses  :  and  if  we  might  trust  Pla- 
 to's assertions  on  such  subjects,  he  was  engaged  at 
 liie  time  of  his  death  in  the  composition  of  a  great  po- 
 em, in  which  he  had  designed  to  describe  the  flourish- 
 ing slate  of  Attica  before  the  Ogygian  flood,  and  to 
 celebrate  the  wars  which  it  waged  with  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  vast  island  which  afterward  sank  in  the  Atlantic 
 Ocean.  On  the  fragments  of  this  poem,  preserved  in 
 the  family,  Plato,  himself  a  descendant  of  Solon,  pro- 
 fesees  to  have  founded  a  work  which  he  left  unfinished, 
 but  in  which  he  had  meant  to  exhibit  his  imaginary 
 state  in  life  and  action.  It  is  certainly  not  improba- 
 ble that  Solon,  when  the  prospect  of  his  country  be- 
 came gloomy,  and  his  own  political  career  was  closed, 
 indulged  his  imagination  with  excursions  into  an  ideal 
 world,  where  he  may  have  raised  a  social  fabric  as  un- 
 l.ke  as  possible  to  the  reality  which  he  had  before  his 
 <^yes  at  home,  and  perhaps  suggested  by  what  he  had 
 seen  or  heard  in  Egypt.  It  is  only  important  to  ob- 
 serve that  the  fact,  if  admitted,  can  lead  to  no  safe 
 conclusions  as  to  his  abstract  political  principles,  and 
 can  still  less  be  allowed  to  sway  our  judgment  on  the 
 design  and  character  of  his  institutions.  {T/LirlwaWs 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  23.  sci/q  ) — Solon  is  generally  ranked 
 under  the  gnomic  poets,  and  some  fragments  of  his 
 productions  in  this  department  have  been  preserved 
 by  the  ancient  writers.  Of  these  the  finest  is  his 
 "  Prayer  to  the  Muses."  The  fragments  of  Solon 
 are  found  in  the  collections  of  H.  Stephens,  Winter- 
 ton,  Brunck,  Gaisford,  and  Boissonnade. — {SchuU, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  238.) 
 
 SoLYMi,  a  people  of  Lycia,  of  whom  an  account  is 
 given  under  the  head  of  Lycia. 
 
 SoMNUs,  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  was  one  of  the 
 deities  of  the  lower  world,  and  the  god  of  Sleep.  The 
 Latin  poet  Ovid  {Met.,  11,  592,  seqq.),  probably  after 
 some  Grecian  predecessor,  as  was  usually  the  case, 
 gives  a  beautiful  description  of  the  Cave  of  Sleep,  near 
 the  land  of  the  Cimmerians,  and  of  the  cortege  which 
 there  attended  on  him,  as  Morpheus,  Icelos  or  Phor- 
 bet^r,  and  Phantasos  ;  the  first  of  whom  takes  the  form 
 of  man  to  a|)pcar  in  dreams,  the  second  of  animals,  the 
 third  of  inanimate  objects.  {Keightlcy''s  Mythology, 
 p.  200.) 
 
 SoN'us,  a  river  of  India,  falling  into  the  Ganges,  and 
 now  the  Saone  or  Son.  As  this  river  towards  its  ori- 
 gin is  called  Ando-nadi,  it  appears  that  the  name  An- 
 domalis  (given  also  in  Arriati),  or.  rather,  Ando-natis, 
 can  denote  no  other  than  it.     (Piin.,  6,  18.) 
 
 SoPHiiNE,  a  country  of  Armenia,  between  the  prin- 
 cipal stream  of  the  Euphrates  and  Mount  Masius.  It  is 
 now  called  Zoph.     (Dio  Cass.,  36,  SG.—Plin.,  5,  12  ) 
 
 Sopn6ci.Es,  a  celebrated  tragic  poet,  born  at  Colo- 
 nus,  a  village  little  more  than  a  mile  from  Athens, 
 B.C.  495.  He  was,  consequently,  thirty  years  junior 
 to  .^schylus,  and  fifteen  senior  to  Euripides,  the  for- 
 mer having  been  born  B.C.  525,  and  the  latter  B.C. 
 480. — Sophilus,  his  father,  a  man  of  opulence  and  re- 
 spectability, bestowed  u|)0n  his  son  a  careful  educa- 
 tion in  all  the  literary  and  personal  accomplishments 
 of  his  age  and  country.  The  powers  of  the  future 
 dramatist  were  developed,  strengthened,  and  refined  by 
 a  careful  instruction  in  the  principles  of  music  and  poe- 
 try ;  while  the  graces  of  a  person  eminently  handsome 
 derived  fresh  elegance  and  ripened  into  a  noble  man- 
 hood amid  the  exercises  of  the  palnestra.  The  gar- 
 lands which  he  won  attested  his  attainments  in  both 
 th€Bc  departments  of  Grecian  education.  A  still  more 
 •Inking  proof  of  his  personal  beauty  and  early  profi- 
 
 ciency is  recorded  in  the  fact  that  when,  after  the  bat- 
 tle of  Salamis,  the  population  of  Athens  stood  in  sol- 
 emn assembly  around  the  trophy  raised  by  their  val- 
 our, Sophocles,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  was  selected  to 
 lead,  with  dance  and  lyre,  the  chorus  of  youths  who  per- 
 formed the  [)3eaii  of  their  country's  triumph.  (Athen., 
 1,  p.  20,  e.)  The  commencement  of  his  dramatic  ca- 
 reer was  marked  not  more  by  its  success  than  by  the 
 singularity  of  the  occasion  on  which  his  first  tragedy 
 appeared.  The  bones  of  Theseus  had  been  solemnly 
 transferred  by  Cimon  from  their  grave  in  the  isle  ol 
 Scyros  to  Athens  (B  C  468. — Marm.  Arund  ,  No. 
 57).  An  eager  contest  between  the  tragedians  of  the 
 day  ensued.  Sophocles,  then  in  his  twenty-fifth  year, 
 ventiiTed  to  come  forward  as  one  of  the  candidates, 
 amon^  .vhom  was  the  veteran  ^schylus,  now  for  thir- 
 ty years  the  undoubted  master  of  the  Athenian  stage. 
 Party  feelings  excited  such  a  tumult  among  the  spec- 
 tators, that  the  archon  Aphepsion  had  not  balloted 
 the  judges,  when  Cimon  advanced  with  his  nine  fel- 
 low-generals to  offer  the  customary  libations  to  Bac- 
 chus. No  sooner  were  these  completed,  than,  detain- 
 ing his  colleagues,  he  directed  them  to  take  with  him 
 the  requisite  oath,  and  then  seat  themselves  as  judges 
 of  the  performance.  Before  this  self-constituted  tri- 
 bunal Sophocles  exhibited  his  maiden  drama,  and  by 
 their  decision  was  proclaimed  first  victor.  This  re- 
 markable triumph  was  an  earnest  of  the  splendid  ca- 
 reer before  him.  From  this  event,  B.C.  468,  to  his 
 death,  B.C.  405,  during  a  space  of  three-and-sixty 
 years,  he  continued  to  compose  and  exhibit.  Twenty 
 limes  did  he  obtain  the  first  prize,  still  more  frequent- 
 ly the  second,  and  never  sank  to  the  third.  An  accu- 
 mulation of  success  which  left  the  victories  of  his  two 
 great  rivals  far  behind,  ^schylus  won  but  thirteen 
 dramatic  contests.  Euripides  was  still  less  fortunate. 
 — Such  a  continuation  of  poetic  exertion  and  triumph 
 is  the  more  remarkable,  from  the  circumstance  that 
 the  powers  of  Sophocles,  so  far  from  becoming  dulled 
 and  exhausted  by  these  multitudinous  efforts,  seem  to 
 have  contracted  nothing  from  labour  and  age  save  a 
 mellower  tone,  a  more  touching  pathos,  a  sweet  and 
 gentle  character  of  thought  and  expression.  The  life 
 of  Sophocles,  however,  was  not  altogether  devoted  to 
 the  service  of  the  Muses.  In  his  fifty-seventh  year  he 
 was  one  of  the  ten  generals,  with  Pericles  and  Thu- 
 cydides  among  his  colleagues,  and  served  in  the  war 
 against  Samos.  But  his  military  talents  were  proba- 
 bly of  no  high  order,  and  his  generalship  added  no 
 brilliancy  to  his  dramatic  fame.  At  a  more  advanced 
 age  he  was  appointed  priest  to  Alon,  one  of  the  an- 
 cient heroes  of  his  country  ;  an  office  more  surted  to 
 the  peaceful  temper  of  Sophocles.  In  the  civil  duties 
 of  an  Athenian  citizen  he  doubtless  took  a  part. 
 Nay,  in  extreme  age,  we  find  him  one  of  the  commit- 
 tee of  the  7rp66ov?.oi,  apfioiutcd,  in  the  progress  of  the 
 revolution  brought  about  by  Pisander,  to  investigate 
 the  state  of  affairs,  and  report  thereon  to  the  people  as- 
 sembled on  the  hill  of  Colonus,  his  native  place.  (Aris- 
 lot.,  Rhet.,  3,  18.)  And  there,  as  Trpofiot'^oc,  he  as- 
 sented, with  characteristic  easiness  of  temper,  to  the 
 establishment  of  oligarchy,  under  the  council  of  four 
 hundred,  "as  a  bad  thing,  but  the  least  pernicious  meas- 
 ure which  circumstances  allowed."  The  civil  dissen- 
 sions and  extreme  reverses  which  marked  the  conclu- 
 ding years  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  must  have  fallen 
 heavily  on  the  miiid  of  one  wliose  chief  delight  was  in 
 domestic  tranquillity,  and  who  remembered  that  proud 
 day  of  Salaminian  triumph  in  which  he  bore  so  con- 
 spicuous a  part.  His  sorrows  as  a  patriotic  citizen  were 
 acTravated  by  the  unnatural  conduct  of  his  own  fami- 
 ly.'^ {Vit.  Anon.—  Cic  ,  dc  Sen.,  ^  7.)  Jealous  at  the 
 old  man's  affection  for  a  grandchild  by  a  second  wife, 
 an  elder  son  or  sons  endeavoured  to  deprive  him  of 
 the  management  of  his  property,  on  tiie  ground  of  do- 
 tage and  incapacity.     The  only  refutation  which  the 
 
 1253 
 
SOPHOCLES. 
 
 SOPHOCLES. 
 
 ftlher  produced,   was   to  read  before  the  court  his 
 CEdipus  at  Colonus,  a  piece  which  he  had  just  com- 
 posed ;  or,  according  to  others,  that  beautiful  chorus 
 only  in  which  ho  celebrates   the  loveliness  of  his  fa- 
 vourite residence  {Cic.,<lc  Fin.,  5,  1).     The  admiring 
 judges  instantly  arose,  dismissed  the  cause,  and  ac- 
 companied the  aged  poet  to  his  house  with  the  utmost 
 honour  and  respect.     Sophocles  was  spared  the  mis- 
 ery of  beholding  the  utter  overthrow  of  his  declining 
 country.     Early  in  the  year  405  B.C.,  some  months 
 before  the  defeat  of  .il'gospotamos  put  the  finishing 
 stroke  to  the  misfortunes  of  Athens,  death  came  gen- 
 tly upon  the  venerable  old  man,  full  of  years  and  glory. 
 1'he  accounts  of  his  death  are  very  diverse,  all  tendmg 
 to  the  marvellous.     Ister  and  Neanthes  state  that  he 
 was  choked  by  a  grape;   Satyrus  makes  him  to  expire 
 from  e.\cessive  exertion,  in  reading  aloud  a  long  para- 
 graph out  of  the  Antigone  ;  others  ascribe  his  death 
 to  extreme  joy  at  being  proclaimed  the  Tragic  victor. 
 Not  content   with    the    singularity  of  his  death,  the 
 ancient  recorders  of  his  life  add  prodigy  to  his  funeral 
 also.      He  died  when  the  Athenians  were  cooped  up 
 within  their  walls,  and   the  Lacedaemonians  were  in 
 possession  of  Decelea,  the  place  of  his  family  sepul- 
 chre.    Bacchus  twice  appeared  in  a  vision  to  Lysan- 
 der,  the  Spartan  general,  and  bid  him  allow  the  inter- 
 ment ;   which  accordingly  took  place  with  all  due  so- 
 lemnity.     Pausanias,  however,   tells  the  story  some- 
 what differently  (1,  21).     Ister  states,  moreover,  that 
 the  Athenians  passed  a  decree  to  appoint  an  annual 
 sacrifice  to  so  admirable  a  man.     (Vit.  A7i07i.) — Sev- 
 en  tragedies  alone   remain   out  of  the  great  number 
 which  Sophocles  composed  ;    yet  among  these  seven 
 we  probably  possess  the  most  splendid  productions  of 
 his  genius.      Suidas  makes  the  number  which  he  wrote 
 one    hundred   and    twenty-three.      Aristophanes,   the 
 grammarian,    one   hundred    and    thirty,    seventeen   of 
 which   he    deemed   spurious.     Bockh   considers  both 
 statements  erroneous.     It  appears  from  the  argument 
 to   the  Antigone,  that  this  play  was  exhibited  a  little 
 before  the  generalship  of  Sophocles,  B.C.  441,   and 
 that  this  was  his  thirty-second  drama  ;  and  it  is  known 
 that  Sophocles  began  to   exhibit   B.C.  468.     Hence 
 Bockh  argues  that,  as  during  the  first  twenty-seven 
 years  of  his  dramatic  career  he  produced  thirty-two  tra- 
 gedies, so  during  the  remaining  thirty-six  years  it  is  not 
 probable  he  composed  many  more  than  this  number. 
 He  therefore  supposes  that  the  true  number  is  seventy, 
 or  nearly  so.     To  lophon,  the  son  of  Sophocles,  he  re- 
 fers many  of  the  plays  which  bore  the  father's  name  ; 
 others  he  ascribes  to  the  favourite  grandson,  Sopho- 
 cles, son  of  Ariston,  by  his  wife  or  mistress  Theoris. 
 The  result  of  Bockh's  investigation  is,  that  of  the  one 
 hundred  and  six  dramas  whose  titles  remain,  only  twen- 
 ty-six can,  with  any  certainty,  be  assigned  to  the  elder 
 Sophocles.     ( Bockh,  ad  Trag.  Grac,  c.  8,  scqq.) — The 
 personal  character  of  Sophocles,  without  rising  into 
 sfJbtlcss  excellence  or  exalted  heroism,  was  honoura- 
 ble, calm,  and  amiable.      In  his  younger  days  he  seems 
 to  have  been  addicted  to  intem[)crance  In  love  and  wine. 
 {Cic,  Off.,  1,  'iO. —Athen.,  13,  p.  G03.)     And  a  say- 
 ing of  his,  recorded  by  Plato,  Cicero,  and  AthennRiis, 
 while  it  confirms  the  charges  just  mentioned,  would 
 also  imply  that  years  had  cooled  ihe turbulentpassions 
 of  his  youth.     "  I  thank  old  age,"  said  the  poet,  "  for 
 delivering  me  from  the  tyranny  of  my  appetites."    Yet 
 even  in  his  later  days,  the  charms  of  a  Theoris  and 
 an  Archipfie  are  reported  to  have  been  too  powerful  for 
 the  still  susceptible  dramatist.      Aristophanes,  who,  in 
 his  Ilanje,  manifests  so  much  respect  for  Sophocles, 
 then  just  dead,  had,  fourteen  years  before,  accused  him 
 of  avarice  ;    an  imputation,  however,  scarcely  recon- 
 cilable with  all  that  is  known  or  can  be  itiferred  re- 
 specting the  character  of  Sophocles.     The  old  man, 
 who  was  so  absorbed  in  his  art  as  to  incur  a  charge  of 
 lunacy  from  the  utter  neglect  of  his  affairs,  could  hard- 
 1251 
 
 ly  have  been  a  miser.  A  kindly  and  contented  dispo- 
 sition, however  blemished  by  intemperance  in  pleasure, 
 was  the  characteristic  of  Sophocles  :  a  characteristic 
 which  Aristophanes  himself  so  simply  and  yet  so  beau 
 tifully  depicts  in  that  single  line. 
 
 'O  d'  evKoTiog  fiev  hddd',  evKolog  6'  kKtl. — Ran.,  82. 
 
 It  was  Sophocles  who  gave  the  last  improvements  to 
 the  form  and  exhibition  of  tragedy.     To  the  two  per- 
 formers of  -Eschylus  he  added  a  third  actor  ;  a  num- 
 ber which  was  never  afterward  increased.     Under  his 
 directions  the  effect  of  theatric  exhibitions  was  height- 
 ened by  the  illusion  of  scenery  carefully  painted  and 
 duly  arranged.     The  choral   parts  were   still  farther 
 curtailed,  and  the  dialogue  carried  out  to  its  full  de- 
 velopment.    The  odes  themselves  are  distinguished 
 by  their  close  connexion  with  the  business  of  the  play, 
 the  correctness  of  their  sentiments,  and  the  beauty  of 
 their  poetry.     His  language,  though  at  times  marked 
 by   harsh   metaphors  and  perplexed  constructions,  is 
 pure  and  majestic,  without  soaring  into  the  gigantic 
 phraseology  of  ^Eschylus  on  the  one  hand,  or  sinking 
 into  the   commonplace  diction  of  Euripides  on    the 
 other.     His  management  of  a  subject    is  admirable. 
 No  one  understood  so  well  the  artful  envelopment  of 
 incident,  the  secret  excitation  of  the  feelings,  and  the 
 gradual  heightening  of  the  interest  up  to  the  final  cri- 
 sis, when  the  catastrophe  bursts  forth  in  all  the  force 
 of  overwhelming  terror   or  compassion.      Such   was 
 Sophocles  ;    the    most    perfect   in  dramatic    arrange- 
 ments, the  most  sustained  in  the  even  flow  of  digni- 
 fied thought,  word,  and  tone,  among  the  tragic  trium- 
 virate.     Longinns,  it   is    true,   while  bestowing    the 
 highest  praises  upon  Sophocles,  alleges  a  frequent  in- 
 equality ;   but  this  is  scarcely  borne  out  by  anything 
 in  his  extant  tragedies  (ij  33. —  Theatre  of  Ihe  Greeks, 
 3d  ed.,  p.  43,  seqq.). — Nature,  observes  Sclilegel,  had 
 refused  Sophocles  only  one  gift,  a  voice  for  song.     He 
 could  only  call  forth  and  guide  the  harmonious  effu- 
 sions of  other  voices,  and  is   therefore   said  to  have 
 departed  from  the   established  custom  that  the  poet 
 should  act  a  part  in  his  own  play  ;   so  that  once,  only, 
 he  made  his  appearance  in  the  character  of  the  blind 
 songster,  Thamyris,  playing  on  the  lyre. — In  so  far  as 
 he  had  ..-Eschylus  for  his  predecessor,  who  had  fashion- 
 ed tragedy  from  its  original  rudeness  into  the  dignity 
 of  his  Cothurnus,  Sophocles  stands,  in  respect  to  the 
 history  of  his  art,  in  such  a  relation  to  that  poet,  that 
 he  could  avail  himself  of  the  enterprise  of  that  original 
 master  ;   so  that  .^schylus  appears  as  the  projecting 
 predecessor,   Sophocles    as    the   finisliiiig   successor. 
 That  there  is  more  art  in  the  compositions  of  the  lat- 
 ter is  evident  :   the  restriction  of  the  chorus  in  propor- 
 tion to  the  dialogue,  the  finish  of  the  rhythms  and  of 
 the  pure  Attic  diction,  the  introduction  of  more  nu- 
 merous persons,  the  richer  connexion  of  the   fables, 
 the  greater  multiplicity  of  incidents,  and  the  complete 
 development,  the  more  quiet  sustentation  of  all  mo- 
 menta of  the  action,  and  the  more  theatrical  display 
 of  the  decisive  ones,  the  more  finished  rounding  oft 
 of  the  whole,  even  in  a  mere  outward  point  of  view. 
 But  there  is  yet  another  respect  in  which  he  outshines 
 -Eschylus,  and  deserved  the  favour  of  Destiny,  which 
 allowed  him  such  a  predecessor,  and  to  compete  with 
 him  on  the  same  subjects  :   I  mean  the  inward  harmo- 
 ny and  completeness  of  his  mind,  by  virtue  of  which 
 he  satisfied,  from  his  own  inclination,  every  requisi- 
 tion of  the  beautiful  ;   a  mind  whose  free  impulse  was 
 accompanied   bv  a  self-consciousness   clear  even   to 
 transparency.     To  surpass  x'Eschylus  in  daring  concep- 
 tion might  be  impossible  ;    but  I   maintain  that  it  is 
 only  on  account  of  his  wise  moderation  that  Sophocles 
 seems  to  be  less  daring  ;  since  everywhere  he  goes 
 to  work  with  the  greatest  energy,  nay,  perhaps   with 
 more  sustained  severity  :  as  a  man  who  is  accurately 
 acquainted  with  his  limits  insists  the  more  confident- 
 
SOPHOCLES, 
 
 SOS 
 
 ly  on  his  rights  within  those  limits.  As  ^schylus 
 delights  in  carrying  all  his  fictions  into  the  disturban- 
 ces of  the  old  world  of  Titanisin,  Sophocles,  on  the 
 contrary,  seems  to  avail  himself  of  Divine  interference 
 only  of  necessity.  He  formed  human  beings,  as  was 
 the  general  agreement  of  antiquity,  better,  that  is,  not 
 more  moral  and  unerring,  but  more  beautiful  and  noble 
 than  they  arc  in  reality. — As  characteristic  of  this  poet, 
 the  ancients  have  praised  that  native  sweetness  and 
 gracjfulness,  on  account  of  which  they  called  him  the 
 Attic  Bee.  Whoever  has  penetrated  into  the  feeling 
 of  this  peculiarity,  may  flatter  himself  that  the  spirit 
 for  antique  art  has  arisen  within  him  ;  for  modern  sen- 
 sibihty,  very  far  from  being  able  to  fall  in  with  that 
 judgment,  would  be  more  likely  to  find  in  the  Sopho- 
 clean  tragedy,  both  in  respect  of  the  representation  of 
 bodily  suffering  and  in  the  sentiments  and  arrange- 
 ments, much  that  is  insufferably  austere. — We  will 
 now  proceed  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  tragedies  of 
 Sophocles  that  have  come  down  to  us.  I.  Alaq  ixaa- 
 Tiyo(^6poc,  "  Ajat  armed  with  the  lash."  The  sub- 
 ject of  this  piece  is  the  madness  of  Ajax,  his  death, 
 and  the  dispute  which  arises  on  the  subject  of  his  in- 
 terment. Many  critics  have  regarded  the  play  as  de- 
 fective, because  the  action  does  not  terminate  with 
 the  death  of  the  hero  ;  but,  after  this  catastrophe,  an 
 incident  occurs  which  forms  a  second  action.  To  this 
 it  has  been  replied  that  there  is  not,  in  fact,  any  double 
 action,  since  the  first  is  not  terminated  by  the  death  of 
 Ajax,  to  whom  burial  is  refused  :  as  the  deprivation 
 of  funeral  rites  was  regarded  by  the  ancients  in  the 
 light  of  one  of  the  greatest  misfortunes,  the  spectators 
 could  not  have  gone  away  satisfied  so  long  as  the 
 question  of  burial  remained  unsettled  in  the  case  of  one 
 whose  death  they  had  mourned. — 2.  'HAt'/crpn,  "  Elcc- 
 Ira."  The  subject  of  this  piece  is  the  vengeance 
 which  a  son,  urged  on  by  an  oracle,  and  in  obedience 
 to  the  decree  of  Heaven,  takes  on  the  murderers  of  his 
 father,  by  consigning  to  death  his  own  mother.  The 
 character  of  Electra,  the  daughter  of  Agamemnon, 
 who  here  plays  the  principal  part,  is  admirably  deline- 
 ated, and  sustained  with  exceeding  ability  throughout 
 the  whole  play.  The  recognition  between  the  brother 
 and  sister  forms  one  of  the  most  touching  scenes  in 
 the  whole  compass  of  the  Grecian  drama. — 3.  0161- 
 TTOvg  TCpavvoQ,  ''■King  CEdipus."  It  would  be  diffi- 
 cult to  conceive  a  subject  more  thoroughly  tragical 
 than  that  which  forms  the  basis  of  this  play.  The 
 grand  and  terrific  meaning  of  the  fable,  however,  as 
 Schlegel  has  well  remarked,  is  a  circumstance  which 
 is  generally  overlooked  :  to  that  very  Qildipus,  who 
 solved  the  riddle  of  human  life  propounded  by  the 
 Sphinx,  his  own  life  remained  an  inexplicable  riddle, 
 till  it  was  cleared  up,  all  too  late,  in  the  most  dreadful 
 manner,  when  all  was  irrecoverably  lost.  This  is  a 
 striking  image  of  the  arrogant  pretensions  of  hviman 
 wisdom,  which  always  proceeds  upon  generalities, 
 without  teaching  its  possessor  the  right  application  of 
 them  to  himself  The  Qildipus  Tyrannus  is  regarded 
 not  merely  as  the  chef  d'oeuvre  of  Sophocles,  but  also, 
 as  regards  the  choice  and  disposition  of  the  fable,  as 
 the  finest  tragedy  of  antiquity.  And  yet  we  know 
 that  it  failed  of  obtaining  the  prize.  It  has  been  imi- 
 tated by  Seneca,  P.  Corncille,  and  Voltaire. — 4.  'Av- 
 riyovr],  "  Antigonc.^^  Creon,  king  of  Thebes,  had  or- 
 dered that  no  one  should  bestow  the  rites  of  burial  on 
 Polynices,  and  his  object  in  so  doing  was  to  punish 
 him  for  having  borne  arms  against  his  country.  Anti- 
 gone, sister  to  the  young  prince,  listening  to  the  dic- 
 tates of  affection  rather  tiian  those  of  fear,  ventures  to 
 disregard  this  mandate,  and  falls  a  victim  to  her  pious 
 act. — 5.  Tpaxnnai,  "  The  Trachinian  Women,"  or 
 the  death  of  Hercules.  The  scene  is  laid  at  Trachis, 
 and  the  chorus  is  composed  of  young  females  of  the 
 country.  Seneca  has  imitated  this  piece  in  his  Her- 
 cules Furens,  and  Rotrou  in  his  Hcrculc  Moarant. — 
 
 6.  ^ikoKTriTtiq,  "  Philoctetes."  It  having  been  de- 
 creed by  fate  that  Troy  could  not  be  taken  without 
 the  presence  of  Philoctetes,  whom  the  Greeks  had 
 abandoned  in  the  island  of  Lemnos,  Ulysses  and  Pyr- 
 rhus  are  sent  to  him  to  induce  him  to  return  to  the 
 Grecian  camp.  They  succeed  with  great  difficulty  in 
 accomplishing  their  object.  This  tragedy,  though 
 very  simple  in  its  plot,  is  marked  by  a  constantly  in- 
 creasing interest,  and  the  characters  are  well  support- 
 ed.— 7.  OtdtTToi'f  £7rZ  KoP.tji'tj,  "  CEdipus  at  Colomis.''' 
 The  subject  is  the  death  of  CEdipus,  near  the  temple  of 
 the  Eumenides  at  Colonus.  CEdipus,  blind  and  driv- 
 en from  his  throne,  seeks,  under  the  guidance  of  his 
 daughter,  for  a  tomb  in.  a  foreign  land,  where  the  tale 
 of  his  woes  had  arrived  before  him,  and  causes  his  in- 
 tended presence  to  be  regarded  with  dread.  There  is 
 need  of  manifest  proof  of  Divine  protection  to  enable 
 him  to  find  an  asylum  and  tomb  in  this  stranger- land, 
 atid  these  proofs  are  vouchsafed  him  at  the  closing 
 scene  of  his  life. — The  best  editions  of  Sophocles  are, 
 that  of  Brunck,  Argent.,  1786,  4to,  2  vols.,  and  1786- 
 9,  8vo,  3  vols.  ;  that  of  Erfurdt,  Lips.,  1802-1811.  7 
 vols.  8vo ;  and  that  of  Hermann,  Loud.,  1826,  2  vols. 
 8vo.  The  separate  editions  of  the  plays  are  numerous, 
 and  some  of  them  valuable. 
 
 Soi'HO.NMSBA,  a  daughter  of  Asdrubal,  the  Cartha- 
 ginian, celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  unfortunate  end. 
 \Vnl.  Masinissa.) 
 
 SoPHRON,  a  native  of  Syracuse,  born  about  420 
 B.C.,  and  celebrated  as  a  writer  of  mimes.  His 
 pieces,  composed  in  the  Doric  dialect,  and  not  in  verse 
 properly  so  called,  but  in  a  species  of  cadenced  prose 
 \KaTa7.0Yu6j]v.  —  Allien.,  ed.  Srhweigh.,  vol.  11,  p. 
 315),  were  great  favourites  with  Plato,  who  became  ac- 
 quainted with  them  through  Dion  of  Syracuse,  and 
 spread  the  taste  for  this  species  of  composition  at 
 Athens.  We  have  only  a  few  titles  and  fragments 
 remaining  of  the  mimes  of  Sophron,  which  are  alto- 
 gether insufficient  to  enable  us  to  form  any  very  defi- 
 nite opinion  of  the  character  of  these  compositions ; 
 although  we  know  that  the  fifteenth  Idyl  of  Theocri- 
 tus is  an  imitation  of  one  of  Sophron's  mimes.  Bar- 
 thelcmy  thinks  that  these  productions  were  in  the 
 style  of  the  Fables  of  La  Fontaine.  Athenoeus  cites 
 two  kinds  of  mimes  :  one  called  Mi/iot  avSpeioi  {Male 
 mimes);  the  other  Mtfioi  yvvaiKEioi  {Female  mimes). 
 Apollodorus  of  Athens  wrote  a  commentary  on  the 
 mimes  of  Sophron. — The  fragments  of  Sophron  are 
 given  in  the  Classieal  Jourrial,  vol.  4,  p.  380,  and 
 with  additions  and  corrections  in  the  Museum  Crili- 
 cum,  vol.  2,  p.  340-358,  559-560.  Both  these  col- 
 lections are  by  Blomfield.  {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr., 
 vol.  2,  p.  117. — Consult  Miiller,  Die  Dorier,  vol.  2, 
 p.  300,  seqq.) 
 
 SopiiKON'iscus,  the  father  of  Socrates. 
 
 SoRAUTK,  a  mountain  of  Etruria,  a  little  to  tho 
 southeast  of  Falerii,  now  Monte  Santo  Silve.ftro,  or. 
 as  it  is  by  modern  corruption  sometimes  termed,  Sant" 
 Oreste.  On  the  summit  was  a  temple  and  grove  ded- 
 icated to  Apollo,  to  whom  an  annual  sacrifice  was  of- 
 fered by  a  |)eopIe  of  the  country,  distinguished  by  the 
 name  of  Hirpii,  who  were  on  that  account  held  sa- 
 cred, and  exempted  from  military  service  and  other 
 duties.  {Piin.,7,2)  The  sacrifice  consisted  in  their 
 passing  over  heaps  of  red-hot  embers  v^Tthout  being 
 injured  by  the  fire.  {Mn.,  11,  785.  — Sil.  Ital.,  b, 
 175.)  A  remarkable  fountain,  the  exhalations  of 
 which  were  fatal  to  birds,  is  mentioned  as  existing  in 
 the  vicinity  of  this  mountain  by  Pliny  (31.  2)  and  Vi- 
 truvius  (8,'  3.— Crrt7nfr's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  230). 
 
 SosiGENEs,  an  Egyiitian  mathematician,  who  as- 
 sisted Julius  CoBsar  in  regulating  the  Roman  calendar. 
 The  philosopher,  by  tolerably  accurate  observations, 
 discovered  that  the  year  was  365  days  and  6  hours  ; 
 and,  to  make  allowance  for  the  odd  hours,  he  invent- 
 ed the  intercalation  of  one  day  in  four  years.     The 
 
 12.55 
 
SPA 
 
 SPARTA. 
 
 duplication  of  the  sixth  day  before  the  calends  of 
 March  was  called  the  intercalary  day,  and  the  year  in 
 which  this  took  place  was  stykd  Bissextile.  This 
 was  the  Julian  year,  the  reckoning  by  which  com- 
 menced 45  B.C.,  and  continued  till  it  gave  place  to 
 something  more  accurate,  and  a  still  farther  reforma- 
 tion under  Po])e  Gregory  XIII.  Sosigenes  was  the 
 author  of  a  commentary  upon  Aristotle's  book  dc 
 Cdlo. 
 
 Sosii,  celebrated  booksellers  at  Rome,  in  the  age  of 
 Horace.     {Ep  ,  1,  20,  l.—Ep.  ad  Pis.,  345.) 
 
 SosTR.^TUs,  I.  a  grammarian  in  the  age  of  Augus- 
 tus. He  was  Strabo's  preceptor. — 11.  An  architect 
 of  Cnidus,  B.C.  284,  who  bulk  the  tower  of  Pharos, 
 in  the  Bay  of  Alexandrea.  {^Vid.  Pharos.) — III.  A 
 poet,  who  wrote  a  poem  on  the  expedition  of  Xerxes 
 into  Greece.     (Juv.,  10,  178. —  Lemairc,  ad.  loc) 
 
 SoTAPEs,  I  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  middle  come- 
 dy. {Schbll.,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  115.)— II.  A 
 Greek  poet,  a  native  of  Maronea,  whose  name  has  de- 
 scended to  posterity  covered  with  infamy.  He  was 
 the  author  of  Cinajdologic  strains,  which  exceeded  in 
 impurity  anything  that  had  gone  before  them.  These 
 poems,  at  first  called  lonica,  were  subsequently  de- 
 nominated Sotadica.  Having,  before  leaving  Alex- 
 andrea, where  he  had  been  living  some  time,  written  a 
 very  gross  epigram  on  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  that 
 prince  caused  him  to  be  pursued.  Sotades  was  seiz- 
 ed in  the  island  of  Caunus,  enclosed  in  a  case  of 
 lead,  and  cast  into  the  sea.  {A then  ,  14,  p.  620,  cd. 
 Schwetgh.,  vol.  5,  p.  247.) 
 
 SoTKR,  a  surname  of  the  first  Ptolemy.  {Vid. 
 Ptolemaeus  I.) 
 
 SoTHis,  the  Egyptian  name  of  the  star  Sirius. 
 {Vid.  Sirius.) 
 
 SoTi.vTEs,  a  people  of  Gaul  conquered  by  Caesar. 
 Their  country,  which  formed  part  of  Aquitania,  ex- 
 tended along  the  Garumna  or  Garonne,  and  their 
 chief  town  was  Sotiatum,  of  which  some  traces  still 
 remain  at  the  modern  Sos.     (Cces.,  B.  G.,  3,  20.) 
 
 SoTioN,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandrea,  preceptor  to 
 Seneca,  B.C.  204.     {Senec,  Ep.,  49,  50.) 
 
 SozoMEN,  an  ecclesiastical  historian,  born,  accord- 
 ing to  some,  at  Salamis,  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  but, 
 according  to  others,  at  Gaza  or  Bethulia,  in  Palestine. 
 He  died  450  A.D.  His  history  extends  from  the 
 year  324  to  439,  and  is  dedicated  to  Theodosius  the 
 Younger,  being  written  in  a  style  of  inelegance  and 
 mediocrity.  He  is  chargeable  with  several  notorious 
 errors  in  the  relation  of  facts,  and  has  incurred  cen- 
 sure for  his  commendations  of  Theodorus  of  Mopsu- 
 esta,  with  whom  originated  the  heresy  of  two  persons 
 in  Christ.  His  history  is  usually  printed  with  that  of 
 Socrates  and  the  other  ecclesiastical  historians.  The 
 best  edition  is  that  of  Reading,  Cantab  ,  1720,  folio. 
 A  work  of  Sozomen,  not  now  extant,  containing,  in 
 two  books,  a  summary  account  of  the  affairs  of  the 
 Church  from  the  ascension  of  our  Saviour  to  the  de- 
 feat of  Licinius,  was  written  before  his  history. 
 
 Spart.v,  a  celebrated  city  of  Greece,  the  capital  of 
 Laconia.  It  was  situated  in  a  plain  of  some  extent, 
 bounded  on  one  side  by  the  chain  of  Taygetus,  on  the 
 other  by  the  less  elevated  ridge  of  Mount  Thornax, 
 and  through  which  flowed  the  Eurotas.  In  the  age  of 
 Thucydides  it  was  an  inconsiderable  town,  without 
 fortifications,  presenting  rather  the  appearance  of  a 
 collection  of  villages  than  of  a  regularly-planned  and 
 well-built  city.  The  public  buildings  also  were  very 
 few,  and  these  conspicuous  neither  for  their  size  nor  ar- 
 chitectural beauty  :  so  that  the  appearance  of  Laceda;- 
 mon,  as  the  historian  observes,  conveyed  a  very  inad- 
 equate idea  of  the  power  and  resources  of  the  nation 
 (I,  10).  Before  the  Peloponnesian  war,  a  great  por- 
 tion of  the  city  had  been  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
 which  also  occasioned  considerable  damage  in  other 
 parts  of  the  country.  ^Elian  states  that  only  five 
 1256 
 
 houses  were  left  in  Sparta  after  the  shock  had  ceased. 
 {^Var.  Hist.,  6,  7.— Compare  Plut.,  Vit.  Cim.—Cic, 
 de  Divin.,  1,  50. — Plin.,  2,  79.)  It  continued  with- 
 out walls  during  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Spar- 
 tan history,  Lycurgus  having  inspired  his  countrymen 
 with  the  idea  that  the  real  defence  of  a  town  con- 
 sisted solely  in  the  valour  of  its  citizens.  When, 
 however,  Sparta  became  subject  to  despotic  rulers, 
 fortifications  were  erected,  which  rendered  the  town 
 capable  of  sustaining  a  regular  siege.  By  that  time  it 
 had  increased  considerably,  being  forty-eight  stadia 
 in  circumference,  as  we  are  informed  by  Polybius, 
 who  adds,  that  it  was  double  the  size  of  Megalopolis 
 in  regard  to  the  number  of  its  houses  and  inhabitants, 
 though  It  did  not  occupy  an  equal  extent  of  ground, 
 since  the  circuit  of  the  Arcadian  city  was  fifty  stadia. 
 The  remains  of  Sparta  are  about  two  miles  distant 
 from  the  modern  town  of  Misitru.  Sir  W.  Gell  ob- 
 serves, that  "  the  walls  are  of  the  lower  ages,  and 
 consist  of  fragments  and  blocks  taken  from  ancient 
 edifices.  The  whole  city  appears  to  have  been  a  mile 
 long,  in  which  were  included  five  hills;  some  of 
 these  have  ruins  on  their  summits."  {Itin.  of  the  Mo- 
 rca,  p.  221.  —  Compare  Dodwcll,  vol.  2,  p.  408.) — 
 We  will  now  proceed  to  give  a  brief  outline  of  Spar- 
 tan history.  According  to  fable,  LacedfEmon,  son  of 
 Jupiter,  and  of  the  nymph  Taygeta,  married  Sparta, 
 daughter  of  Eurotas,  king  of  the  Leleges,  succeeded 
 his  father-in-law  on  the  throne,  and  gave  the  country 
 his  own  name,  calling  the  city  by  that  of  his  wife. 
 He  was  probably  a  Hellenic  prince,  and  one  of  the 
 leaders  of  the  Acheean  colony,  which  Archander  and 
 .\rchiteles  led  into  Laconia,  after  their  expulsion  from 
 Phthiotis.  Here  Lacedaeinon,  having  persuaded  the 
 natives  to  receive  a  colony,  gave  his  own  name  to  tho 
 united  people.  Among  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
 early  kings  was  Tyndarus,  with  whose  sons  Castoi 
 and  Pollux  the  male  line  of  Lacedaemon  became  ex- 
 tinct. Menelaus,  between  whom  and  Lacedaemon  five 
 kings  had  reigned,  married  Helen,  the  daughter  of 
 Tyndarus,  and  thus  acquired  the  throne.  Orestes,  son 
 of  Agamemnon,  who  had  married  Hermione,  the 
 daughter  of  Menelaus,  united  Argos  and  Mycenae 
 with  Lacedaemon.  In  the  reign  of  his  son  and  suc- 
 cessor Tisamenes,  it  was  conquered  by  the  Heraclidas, 
 about  1080  B.C.,  who  established  a  diarchy  or  double 
 dynasty  of  two  kings  in  Sparta.  For,  as  neither  the 
 mother  nor  the  Delphic  oracle  could  decide  which  of 
 the  twin  sons  of  Aristodemus,  Eurysthenes  and  Pro- 
 cles,  was  first  born,  the  province  of  Laconia  was  as- 
 signed to  them  in  common  ;  and  it  was  determined 
 that  the  descendants  of  both  should  succeed  them. 
 The  Lacedaemonians,  however,  had  little  cause  to  re- 
 joice at  the  arrival  of  the  foreigners,  whose  fierce  dis- 
 putes, under  seven  rulers  of  both  houses,  distracted 
 the  country  with  civil  feuds,  while  it  was,  at  the  same 
 time,  involved  in  constant  wars  with  its  neighbours, 
 particularly  the  Argivcs.  The  royal  authority  was 
 continually  becoming  feebler,  and  the  popular  power 
 was  increased  by  these  divisions,  until  the  govern- 
 ment ended  in  an  ochlocracy.  At  this  time  Lycur- 
 gus was  born  for  the  healing  of  the  troubles.  Ha 
 was  the  only  man  in  whom  all  parties  confided  ;  and, 
 under  the  auspices  of  the  gods,  whose  oracle  he  con- 
 sulted, he  established  a  new  constitution  of  govern- 
 ment in  Sparta  (about  880  B.C.),  and  thus  became 
 the  savioui  of  his  country.  Lacedaemon  now  acquired 
 new  vigour,  which  was  manifested  in  her  wars  against 
 her  neighbours,  particularly  in  the  two  long  Messenian 
 wars,  which  resulted  in  the  subjugation  of  the  Messe- 
 nians  (B.C.  668).  The  battle  of  Thermopylaj  (B.C. 
 480),  in  which  the  Spartan  king  Leonidas  successfully 
 resisted  the  Persian  forces  at  the  head  of  a  small  body 
 of  his  countrymen,  gave  Sparta  so  much  distinction 
 among  the  Grecian  states,  that  even  Athens  consented 
 to  yield  the  command  of  the  confederated  forces,  bv 
 
SPARTA. 
 
 SPARTA. 
 
 land  and  sea,  to  the  Spartans.  Pausanias,  guardian 
 of  the  infant  son  of  Leonidas,  gained  the  celebrated 
 victory  of  Platx'a  over  the  Persians  (B  C.  479),  at  itie 
 head  of  the  allies.  Un  the  same  day,  ilie  Grecian 
 army  and  fleet,  under  the  command  of  the  iSpartan 
 king  Leotychides,  and  the  Athenian  general  Xanthip- 
 pus,  defeated  tlie  Persians,  by  land  and  sea,  near  My- 
 cale.  Wiih  the  rise  of  the  political  importance  of 
 Sparta,  the  social  organization  of  the  nation  was  de- 
 veloped. The  power  of  the  kin^s  was  gradually  limit- 
 ed, while  that  of  the  ephori  was  increased.  After  the 
 Persians  had  been  victoriously  repelled,  the  Grecian 
 states,  having  acquired  warlike  habits,  carried  on  hos- 
 tilities against  each  other.  The  jealousy  of  Sparta 
 towards  Athens  rose  to  such  a  height,  that  the  Lace- 
 dtemonians,  under  pretence  that  the  Persians,  in  case 
 of  a  renewal  of  the  war,  would  find  a  tenable  position 
 in  Athens,  opposed  the  rebuilding  of  its  walls  and  the 
 fortification  of  the  Pirsus.  Theinislocles,  discerning 
 the  real  grounds  of  this  proceeding,  balfled  the  designs 
 of  Sparta  by  a  stratagem,  and  thus  contributed  to 
 increase  the  ill-will  of  that  state  towards  Athens. 
 The  tyrannical  conduct  of  Pausanias  alienated  the 
 other  allies  from  Sparta  ;  and  most  of  them  submitted 
 to  the  command  of  Athens.  But,  while  Sparta  was 
 learning  moderation,  Athens  became  so  arrogant  to- 
 wards the  confederates,  that  they  again  attached  them- 
 selves to  the  former  power,  which  now  began  to 
 make  preparations  in  secret  for  a  new  struggle.  The 
 Athenians,  however,  formally  renounced  the  friend- 
 ship of  Sparta,  and  began  hostilities  (B.C.  431).  This 
 war,  the  Peloponnesian,  ended  in  the  ascendancy  of 
 Sparta,  and  the  entire  humiliation  of  her  rival  (40.5), 
 The  rivalry  of  the  .Spartan  general  l^ysander  and  the 
 king  Pausanias  soon  after  produced  a  revolution, 
 which  delivered  the  Athenians  from  the  Spartan  yoke. 
 The  Spartans  ne.tt  became  involved  in  a  war  with 
 Persia,  by  joining  Cyrus  the  Younger  in  his  rebellion 
 against  his  brother  Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  The  Per- 
 sian throne  was  shaken  by  the  victories  of  Agesi- 
 iaus ;  but  Athens,  Thebes,  Corinth,  and  some  of 
 the  Peloponnesian  states  were  instigated  by  Persian 
 gold  to  declare  war  against  the  Lacedaemonians,  who 
 found  it  necessary  to  recall  Agesilaus.  The  latter 
 defeated  the  Thebans  at  Coronaia  ;  but,  on  the  other 
 hand,  the  Athenian  commander,  Conon,  gained  a  vic- 
 tory over  the  Spartan  fleet  at  Cnidus,  and  took  fifty 
 galleys.  This  war,  known  as  the  Boeotian  or  Co- 
 rinthian war,  lasted  eight  years,  and  increased  the  rep- 
 utation and  power  of  Athens  by  the  successes  of  her 
 admiral,  Conon,  and  her  fortunate  expeditions  against 
 the  Spartan  coasts  and  the  islands  of  the  ^gean. 
 The  arrogance  of  Athens  again  involved  her  in  hostil- 
 ities with  Persia;  and  Antalcidas  (B.C.  388)  conclu- 
 ded the  peace  which  bears  his  name,  and  which,  though 
 highly  advantageous  to  Persia,  delivered  Sparta  from 
 her  enemies.  The  ambitious  designs  of  Sparta  in 
 concluding  this  peace  soon  became  apparent :  she  con- 
 tinued to  oppress  her  allies,  and  to  sow  dissension  in 
 every  quarter,  that  she  might  have  an  opportunity  of 
 acting  as  umpire.  Besides  other  outrages,  she  occu- 
 pied, without  provocation,  the  city  of  Thebes,  and  in- 
 troduced an  aristocratical  constitution  there.  Pelopi- 
 das  delivered  I'hebes,  and  the  celebrated  Theban  war 
 followed,  in  which  Athens  took  part,  at  first  against 
 Sparta,  but  afterward  in  her  favour.  The  latter  was 
 so  much  enfeobled  by  the  war  that  she  thenceforward 
 ceased  to  act  a  distinguished  part  in  Greece.  No 
 stale  was  strong  enough  to  lake  the  lead,  and  the  Ma- 
 cedonian king  Philip  at  last  made  himself  master  of 
 all  (Jrcecc.  Agis,  king  of  Sparta,  one  of  the  bravest 
 and  noblest  of  its  princes,  ventured  to  maintain  a  stru"- 
 gle  for  the  liberties  of  Greece  ;  but  he  lost  his  life  in 
 the  battle  of  Megalopolis,  against  Antipater.  Archi- 
 damus  IV.  was  attacked  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and 
 Sparia  was  saved  with  difRculty.  New  troubles  soon 
 7U 
 
 arose  :  Cleonymus,  nephew  of  the  king  Areus,  inirited 
 Pyrrhus  into  the  country  in  aid  of  his  ambitious  [iro- 
 jects,  which  were  frustrated,  jiartly  by  the  negligence 
 of  Pyrrhus,  and  partly  by  the  courage  of  the  Spartins. 
 Luxury  and  licentiousness  were  continually  growing 
 more  and  more  prevalent,  and,  though  several  suc- 
 ceeding kings  attempted  to  restore  the  constitution  of 
 Lycurgus,  and  restrain  the  power  of  the  ephori,  it  was 
 without  success.  Cleomencs,  indeed,  accomplished  a 
 reform,  but  it  was  not  permanent.  After  an  obstinate 
 war  against  the  Achaeans  and  .^ntigonus,  king  of  Ma- 
 cedonia, Cleomenes  fled  to  Egypt,  where  lie  died. 
 The  state  remained  three  years  without  a  head,  and 
 was  then  ruled  by  the  tyrants  Machanidas  and  Nabis, 
 by  the  latter  of  whom  the  most  atrocious  cruelties 
 were  committed.  The  Romans  and  the  Achaean  league 
 efTected  the  final  fall  of  the  state,  which  had  been  up- 
 held for  a  short  time  by  Nabis.  Sparta  was  obliged 
 to  join  the  Achaean  league,  with  which  it  afterward 
 passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans.  {Ency- 
 c.lop.  Americ,  vol.  1 1,  p.  529,  seqq.) — This  appears  the 
 proper  place  to  make  a  few  remarks  relative  to  the 
 legislation  of  l^ycurgus.  The  first  important  change 
 introduced  by  this  lawgiver  into  the  Spartan  constitu- 
 tion was  the  creation  of  a  senate,  consisting  of  twenty- 
 eight  members,  who,  being,  in  all  matters  of  delibera- 
 tion, possessed  of  equal  authority  with  the  kings, 
 proved  an  effectual  check  against  any  infringement  of 
 the  laws  on  their  part,  and  preserved  a  just  balance  in 
 the  state  by  supporting  the  crown  against  the  encroach- 
 ments of  the  people,  and  protecting  the  latter  against 
 any  undue  influence  of  the  regal  power.  It  was  also 
 enacted  that  the  people  should  be  occasionally  sum- 
 moned, and  have  the  power  of  deciding  any  question 
 proposed  to  them.  No  measure,  however,  could  origi- 
 nate with  them  ;  they  had  only  the  right  of  approving 
 or  rejecting  what  was  submitted  to  them  by  the  senate 
 and  two  kings.  But,  as  danger  was  to  be  apprehend- 
 ed from  various  attempts  subsequently  made  by  the 
 people  to  extend  their  rights  iti  these  meetings,  it  was 
 at  length  ordained  that,  if  the  latter  endeavoured  to 
 alter  any  law,  the  kings  and  senate  should  dissolve  the 
 assembly  and  annul  the  amendment.  With  a  view  of 
 counterbalancing  the  great  power  thus  committed  to 
 the  legislative  assembly,  and  which  might  degenerate 
 into  oligarchy,  five  annual  magistrates  were  appointed, 
 named  ephori,  whose  office  it  was,  like  that  of  the 
 tribunes  at  Rome,  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  the 
 people,  and  protect  them  against  the  influence  of  the 
 aristocracy.  {Vid.  Ephori.) — Lycurgus,  in  order  to 
 banish  wealth  and  luxury  from  the  state,  made  a  new 
 division  of  lands,  by  which  the  income  and  possessions 
 of  all  were  rendered  equal.  He  divided  the  territory 
 of  Sparta  into  9000  portions,  and  the  remainder  of 
 Laconia  into  30,000,  of  which  one  lot  was  assigned  to 
 each  citizen  and  inhabitant.  These  parcels  of  land 
 were  supposed  to  produce  seventy  medimni  of  grain 
 for  a  man  and  twelve  for  a  woman,  besides  a  sufficient 
 quantity  of  wirre  and  oil.  The  more  eflfectually  to 
 banish  the  love  of  riches,  the  Spartan  lawgiver  prohib- 
 ited the  use  of  gold  and  silver,  and  allowed  only  iron 
 money,  affixing  even  to  this  the  lowest  value.  He 
 also  instituted  public  repasts  termed  Phidilia,  where 
 all  the  citizens  partook  in  common  of  such  frugal  fare 
 as  the  law  directed.  The  kings  even  were  not  ex- 
 empted from  this  regulation,  but  ate  with  the  other 
 citizens  ;  the  only  distinction  observed  with  respect  to 
 them  being  that  of  having  a  double  portion  of  food. 
 The  Spartan  custom  of  eating  in  public  appears  to 
 have  been  borrowed  from  the  Cretans,  who  called 
 these  repasts  Andria.  {P!ut.,  Vil.  Lycurg—Aris- 
 tot.,  Polit.,  2,  8.) — .At  the  age  of  seven,  all  the  Spar- 
 tan children,  by  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  were  enrolled 
 in  companies,  and  educated  agreeably  to  his  rules  of 
 discipline  and  exercise,  which  were  strictly  enforced. 
 These  varied  according  to  the  ages  of  the  boys,  but 
 
 257 
 
SPA 
 
 S  PE 
 
 were  not  entirely  remitted  even  after  they  had  attained 
 to  manhood.  For  it  was  a  maxim  with  I.ycurgus, 
 that  no  man  should  hve  for  himself,  but  for  his  coun- 
 try. Every  Spartan,  therefore,  was  regarded  as  a 
 soldier,  and  the  city  itself  resembled  a  great  camp, 
 where  every  one  had  a  fixed  allowance,  and  was  re- 
 quired to  perform  regular  service.  In  order  that  they 
 might  have  more  leisure  to  devote  themselves  to 
 martial  pursuits,  they  were  forbidden  to  exercise  any 
 mechanical  arts  or  trades,  which,  together  with  the 
 labours  of  agriculture,  devolved  upon  the  Helots. — 
 Till  the  seventh  year  the  child  was  kept  in  the  gy- 
 nsceum,  under  the  care  of  the  women  ;  from  that  age 
 to  the  eighteenth  year  they  were  called  hoys  (ttputtj- 
 ftEc),  and  thence  to  the  age  of  thirty  youths  (i(jtr/6oL). 
 In  the  thirtieth  year  the  Spartan  entered  the  period  of 
 manhood,  and  enjoyed  the  full  rights  of  a  citizen.  At 
 the  age  of  seven  the  boy  was  withdrawn  from  the  pa- 
 ternal care,  and  educated  under  the  public  eye,  in  com- 
 pany with  others  of  the  same  age,  without  distinction 
 of  rank  or  fortune.  If  any  person  withheld  his  son 
 from  the  care  of  the  state,  he  forfeited  his  civil  rights. 
 The  principal  object  of  attention,  during  the  periods 
 of  boyhood  and  youth,  was  the  physical  education, 
 which  consisted  in  the  practice  of  various  gymnastic 
 exercises — running,  leaping,  throwing  the  discus,  wres- 
 tling, boxing,  the  chase,  and  the  pancratium.  These 
 exercises  were  performed  naked,  in  certain  buildings 
 called  gymnasia.  Besides  gymnastics,  dancing  and 
 the  military  exercises  were  practised.  A  singular  cus- 
 tom was  the  flogging  of  boys  (diamasligosis)  on  the 
 annual  festival  of  Diana  Orthia,  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
 uring them  to  bear  pain  with  firmness.  (Vid.  Bomon- 
 icae.)  To  teach  the  youth  cunning,  vigilance,  and 
 activity,  they  were  encouraged  to  practise  theft  in  cer- 
 tain cases  ;  but  if  detected,  they  were  flogged,  or  obli- 
 ged to  go  without  food,  or  compelled  to  dance  round 
 the  altar,  singing  songs  in  ridicule  of  themselves.  Tlie 
 dread  of  the  shame  consequent  on  being  discovered 
 Bometmies  led  to  the  most  extraordinary  acts.  Thus 
 it  is  related  that  a  boy  who  had  stolen  a  young  fox, 
 and  concealed  it  under  his  clothes,  suffered  it  to  gnaw 
 out  his  bowels  rather  than  reveal  the  theft  by  suffer- 
 ing the  fox  to  escape.  Modesty  of  deportment  was 
 also  particularly  attended  to  ;  and  conciseness  of  lan- 
 guage was  so  much  studied,  that  the  term  laconic  is 
 still  employed  to  signify  a  short  and  pithy  manner  of 
 speaking.  The  Spartans  were  the  only  people  of 
 Greece  who  avowedly  despised  learning,  and  excluded 
 it  from  the  education  of  youth.  Their  whole  instruc- 
 tion consisted  in  learning  obedience  to  their  superiors, 
 the  endurance  of  all  hardships,  and  to  conquer  or  die 
 in  war.  The  youth  were,  however,  carefully  instruct- 
 ed in  a  knowledge  of  the  laws,  which,  not  being  re- 
 duced to  writing,  were  taught  orally.  The  education 
 of  the  females  was  entirely  dillcrent  from  that  c-f  the 
 Athenians.  Instead  of  remaining  at  home,  as  in  Ath- 
 ens, spinning,  &.C.,  they  danced  in  public,  wrestled 
 with  each  other,  ran  on  the  course,  threw  the  discus, 
 &c.  The  object  of  this  training  of  the  women  was  to 
 give  a  vigorous  constitution  to  their  children.  {Eyicy- 
 clop.  Amcric,  vol.  11,  p.  529,  scqq. — Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  158,  segr/.) 
 
 Spaktacus,  a  celebrated  gladiator,  a  Thracian  by 
 birth,  who  escaped  from  the  gladiatorial  training-school 
 at  Capua  along  with  some  of  his  companions,  and  was 
 soon  followed  by  great  numbers  of  other  gladiators. 
 Bands  of  desperate  men,  slaves,  murderers,  robbers, 
 and  pirates,  flocked  to  him  from  all  quarters  ;  and  he 
 soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  force  able  to  bid  defi- 
 ance to  Rome.  Four  consular  armies  were  successive- 
 ly defeated  by  this  daring  adventurer,  and  Rome  itself 
 was  considered  in  imminent  danger.  But  subordina- 
 tion could  not  be  maintained  in  an  army  composed  of 
 such  materials.  Spartacus  proposed  to  march  into 
 Gaul,  invite  Sertorius  to  join  him,  and  then  together 
 125fJ 
 
 march  on  Rome.  Had  this  plan  been  carried  into  ef- 
 fect, Rome,  in  all  probability,  must  have  fallen  into  the 
 hands  of  the  combined  forces  ;  but  the  tumultuous  fol- 
 lowers of  Spartacus.  longing  for  the  pillage  of  the  cap- 
 ital, compelled  their  leader  to  abandon  his  intention, 
 and  bend  his  course  towards  Rome.  He  was  met  and 
 completely  routed  by  the  pra3toi  Crassus,  who  thus  ac- 
 quired some  renown  in  war,  in  addition  to  the  influ- 
 ence which  he  possessed  from  his  unequalled  wealth. 
 Spartacus  behaved  with  great  valour;  when  wounded 
 in  the  leg,  he  fought  on  his  knees,  covering  himself 
 with  his  buckler  in  one  hand,  and  using  his  sword  with 
 the  other  ;  and  when  at  last  he  fell,  it  was  upon  a  heap 
 of  Romans  whom  he  had  sacrificed  to  his  fury  (B.C. 
 71).  In  this  battle  no  less  than  40,000  of  the  follow- 
 ers of  Spartacus  were  slain,  and  the  war  was  thus 
 brought  to  an  end.  (PluL,  Vit.  Crass.  —  Liv.,Ej>it., 
 97.—Eutrop.,  6,  2.—Paterc.,  2,  30  ) 
 
 Sparti  CEnapToi),  a  name  given  to  the  men  who 
 sprang  from  the  dragon's  teeth  which  Cadmus  sowed. 
 They  all  destroyed  one  another  except  five,  who  sur- 
 vived, and  assisted  Cadmus  in  building  Thebes.  The 
 names  of  the  five,  as  given  by  the  scholiast  on  Eurip- 
 ides {Pha:niss.,  498),  arc  Chthonius,  Udseus,  Pelorus, 
 Hyperenor,  and  Echion.     {Vid.  (Cadmus.) 
 
 Spaktani  or  Spartiat^,  the  inhabitants  of  Sparta. 
 
 Spartianus  .(Emus,  a  Roman  historian  in  the 
 reign  of  Dioclesian.  In  his  life  of  ^Elius  Verus,  he 
 informs  us  of  his  intention  to  give  the  biographies  of 
 all  the  emperors  and  Caesars  from  the  time  of  Julius. 
 Whether  he  ever  executed  this  project  is  uncertain  : 
 we  have  only  from  his  pen  the  lives  of  Hadrian.  iElius 
 Verus,  Didius  Julianus,  Septimius  Severus,  Pescen- 
 nius  Niger,  Caracalla,  and  Gcta,  among  which  the  first 
 part  of  the  life  of  Hadrian,  drawn  from  good  sources, 
 is  the  best.  The  first  part  of  these  biographies  is 
 addressed  to  Dioclesian  ;  that  of  Caracalla  to  no  one  ; 
 the  life  of  Geta  is  dedicated  to  Conslantine.  Heyne, 
 therefore,  is  led  to  conclude  that  the  last  mentioned 
 biography  is  not  by  Spartianus.  Casaubon  had  start- 
 ed this  opinion  before  him. — Spartianus  is  not  re- 
 markable for  historical  arrangement  and  method  :  his 
 style  also  bears  evident  marks  of  the  decline  of  the 
 language.  His  works  form  part  of  the  collection 
 known  by  the  name  of  •'  Scrtplores  Historice  Avgus- 
 Im,"  the  best  edition  of  which  is  that  from  the  I..ey- 
 den  press  (Lugd.  Bat.,  1671.  2  vols.  8vo.—S>holl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  153. — B'dhr,  Gcsch.  Rojn. 
 Lit.,  p.  337). 
 
 Sperchius  (IiKepxeioc),  a  river  of  Thessaly,  flow- 
 ing from  Mount  Tymphrestus,  a  lofty  range  forming 
 part  of  the  chain  of  Pindus,  in  the  country  of  the 
 ^nianes.  {Slrabo,  433.)  Homer  frequently  men- 
 tions this  river  as  belonging  to  the  territory  of  Achil- 
 les, around  the  Malian  Gulf.  (//.,  16,  174.— 7/^,  23, 
 142.)  The  tragic  poets  likewise  allude  to  it.  {JEsch., 
 Pers.,  492.  —  Soph.,  Philoct.,  722.)  The  ancient 
 name  appears  to  have  reference  to  its  rapid  course 
 {aiTf-pxeaOai,  '■  to  move  rapidly").  The  modern  ap- 
 pellation is  the  Hcllada.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  438.) 
 
 Speusippus,  an  Athenian  philosopher,  nephew  to 
 Plato,  who  occupied  the  chair  of  instruction  during 
 the  term  of  eight  years  from  the  death  of  bis  master. 
 Through  the  interest  of  Plato,  he  enjoyed  an  intimate 
 friendship  with  Dion  while  he  was  resident  at  Ath- 
 ens ;  and  it  was  at  his  instigation  that  Dion,  encour- 
 aged by  the  promise  of  support  from  the  malcontents 
 of  Syracuse,  undertook  his  expedition  against  Diony- 
 sius  the  Tyrant,  by  whom  he  had  been  banished. 
 Contrary  to  the  practice  of  Plato,  Speusippus  required 
 from  his  pupils  a  stated  gratuity.  He  placed  statues 
 of  the  graces  in  the  school  which  Plato  had  built.  On 
 account  of  his  infirm  state  of  health,  he  was  common- 
 ly carried  to  and  from  the  academy  in  a  vehicle.  On 
 his  way  thither  he  one  day  met  Diogenes  and  saluted 
 
SPI 
 
 STA 
 
 him ;  the  surly  philosopher  refused  to  return  the  sa- 
 lute, ami  told  him  that  such  a  feeble  wretch  ought  to 
 be  ashamed  to  live  ;  to  which  Speusippus  replied, 
 that  he  lived,  not  in  his  limbs,  but  in  his  mind.  At 
 length,  being  wholly  iiwapacitated  by  a  paralytic 
 stroke  for  the  dunes  of  the  chair,  he  resigned  it  to 
 Xeiiocrates.  He  is  said  to  have  been  of  a  violent 
 tem[)er,  fond  of  pleasure,  and  e.\ceediiigly  avaricious. 
 S|)uusippus  wrote  many  phih)sophical  works  which  are 
 now  lost,  but  which  Aristotle  thought  sufficiently  val- 
 uable 10  purchase  at  the  expense  of  three  talents. 
 From  the  fevv  fragments  which  remain  of  his  philoso- 
 phy, it  appears  that  he  adhered  very  strictly  to  the 
 doctrines  of  his  master.  {Enfield,  Hmlory  oj  Phi- 
 loiophi/,  vol.  1,  p.  243,  seqq.) 
 
 Spiiacteria,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Mycenae, 
 and  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbour  of  Pylos  Messeni- 
 acus,  which  it  nearly  closed.  It  was  also  known  by 
 the  name  of  Sphagia,  which  it  stiil  retains.  8phacle- 
 na  is  celebrated  in  Grecian  history  for  the  defeat  and 
 capture  of  a  Laceda;monian  detachment  in  the  sev- 
 enth year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.     {Slrabo,  359.) 
 
 Sphinx,  a  fabulous  monster,  an  account  of  which 
 will  be  found  under  the  article  ffidipns. — The  Sphinx 
 is  not  meniioued  by  Homer ;  but  the  legend  is  no- 
 ticed in  tiie  'I'heogony  (v.  32C),  where  she  is  called 
 *if.  Though  this  legend  is  probably  older  than  the 
 tune  of  the  hrst  intercourse  with  Egypt,  the  Theban 
 monster  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  the  symbolical 
 statues  placed  before  the  temples  of  that  land  of  mys- 
 tery. In  the  praginatizing  days  it  was  said  {Pausan., 
 9,  26)  that  the  Sphinx  was  a  female  pirate,  who  used 
 to  land  at  Anthedon,  and  advance  to  the  Phicean  Hill, 
 whence  she  spread  her  ravages  over  the  country. 
 CKdipus,  according  to  these  e.xpounders  of  mythology, 
 came  from  Corinth  with  a  numerous  army,  and  de- 
 feated and  slew  her.  {Kciglulafs  Mythology,  p. 
 341,  not.)  —  The  Sphinx  was  a  favourite  emblem 
 among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  served,  according 
 to  some,  as  a  type  of  the  enigmatic  nature  of  the 
 Egy|)tian  theology.  M.  MaiUet  is  of  opinion  that  the 
 union  of  the  head  of  a  virgin  with  the  liody  of  a  lion 
 is  a  symbol  of  what  happens  in  Egypt  when  the  Sun 
 is  in  the  signs  of  Leo  and  Virgo,  and  the  Nile  over- 
 flows. According  to  Herodotus,  however,  the  Egyp- 
 tians had  also  their  Androsphinges,  with  the  body  of 
 a  lion  and  the  face  of  a  man.  At  the  present  day 
 there  still  remains,  about  300  paces  cast  of  the  second 
 pyramid,  a  celebrated  statue  of  a  sphinx,  cut  in  the 
 solid  rock.  Formerly,  nothing  but  the  head,  neck,  and 
 top  of  tife  back  were  visible,  the  rest  being  sunk  in  the 
 sand.  It  was,  at  an  expense  of  800^  or  900/  (con- 
 tributed by  some  European  gentlemen),  cleared  from 
 the  accumulated  sand  in  front  of  it  under  the  superin- 
 tendence of  Captain  Caviglia.  This  monstrous  pro- 
 duction consists  of  a  virgin's  head  joined  to  the  body 
 of  a  quadruped.  The  body  is  principally  formed  out 
 of  the  solid  rock  ;  the  paws  are  of  masonry,  extend- 
 ing forward  50  feet  from  the  body  ;  between  the  paws 
 are  several  sculptured  tablets,  so  arranged  as  to  form 
 a  small  temple  ;  and  farther  forward  a  square  altar 
 with  horns.  The  lengih  of  the  statue,  from  the  fore- 
 part of  ihe  neck  to  the  tail,  is  125  feet.  The  face 
 has  been  disfigured  by  the  arrows  and  lances  of  the 
 Arabs,  who  are  taught  by  their  religion  to  hold  all  im- 
 ages of  men  or  animals  in  detestation. 
 
 Spina,  a  city  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  near  the  entrance 
 of  the  most  southern  branch  of  the  Padiis,  called  from 
 it  Ostium  Spineticum.  If  we  arc  to  believe  Dionysius 
 of  Halicarnassus,  who  derives  his  information  appa- 
 rently from  Hellaiiicus  of  Lesbos  {Ant.  Rum.,  1,  18), 
 Spina  was  founded  by  a  numerous  band  of  Pelastri, 
 who  arrived  on  this  coast  from  Epirus  long  before  the 
 Trojan  war.  The  same  writer  goes  on  to  state  that, 
 in  process  of  time,  this  coloriy  became  very  flourish- 
 ing, and  held  for  many  years  the  dominion  of  the  sea, 
 
 from  the  fruits  of  which  it  was  enabled  to  present  to 
 the  temple  of  Delphi  tithe  offerings  more  costly  than 
 those  of  any  other  city.  Afterward,  however,  being 
 attacked  by  an  overwhelming  force  of  the  surrounding 
 barbarians,  the  Pelasgi  were  forced  to  quit  their  settle- 
 ment, and  finally  to  abandon  Italy.  It  appears  that  no 
 doubt  can  be  entertained  of  the  existence  of  a  Greek 
 city  of  this  name,  near  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Po, 
 since  it  is  noticed  in  the  Periplus  of  Scylax  (p.  13),  and 
 by  the  geograjihers  Eudo.xus  and  Artemidorus,  as  cited 
 by  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  {s.  v.  '^nlva).  Strabo 
 also  speaks  of  it  as  having  been  once  a  celebrated  city. 
 The  same  geographer  adds,  that  Spina  was  still  in  ex- 
 istence when  he  wrote,  though  reduced  to  the  condi- 
 tion of  a  mere  village.  {Slrab., 214,. — id. ,421. — Plin., 
 3,  6.)  But  the  extreme  antiquity  which  is  assigned 
 to  the  foundation  of  this  city  by  Dionysius  of  Halicar- 
 nassus has  been  thought  by  some  modern  critics  to 
 be  liable  to  dispute.  (Consult,  in  particular,  the  dis- 
 sertation of  Freret,  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscr.,  vol. 
 18,  p.  90.)  —  Spina  would  seem  to  have  stood  on  the 
 left  bank  of  the  Po  di  Piimaro,  not  far  from  the  later 
 town  or  village  of  Argenta.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  97,  seqq.) 
 
 Spintharus,  a  Corinthian  architect.  By  the  order 
 of  the  Amphictyonic  council  he  erected  a  new  temple 
 at  Delphi  after  the  burning  of  the  old  one  (Olymp. 
 58.1. — B.C.  544).  Respecting  the  latter  event,  con- 
 sult Philochor.  fragm.,  p.  45.  —  Clinton,  Fast.  Hell., 
 p.  4.  The  age  of  Spintharus  may  be  very  probably 
 fixed  about  Olymp.  60.     {Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Spoletium,  a  city  of  Umbria,  northeast  of  Interam- 
 na,  in  the  southwestern  section  of  the  country.  It 
 was  colonized  A.tJ.C.  513  {Veil.  Patcrc.,  1,  14),  and 
 is  famous  in  history  for  having  withstood  an  attack 
 from  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of  Thrasymene.  {Liv., 
 22,  9.)  This  resistance  had  the  efl'ect  of  checking  the 
 advance  of  the  Carthaginian  general  towards  Rome, 
 and  compelled  him  to  draw  off  his  forces  to  Pice- 
 num.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  Polybius 
 makes  no  mention  of  this  attack  upon  Spoletium  ;  but 
 expressly  states  that  it  was  not  Hannibal's  intention 
 to  approach  Rome  at  that  time,  but  to  lead  his  army 
 to  the  seacoast  (3,  86).  This  city  suffered  severely 
 in  the  civil  wars  of  Marius  and  Sylla,  from  proscrip- 
 tion. {Flor.,  3,  21. — Appian,  Bell.  Civ.,  5,  33.) 
 The  modern  name  is  Spolelo.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  271.) 
 
 Sporades,  a  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the  nu- 
 merous islands  scattered  (like  so  many  seed,  aixEipu, 
 spargd)  around  the  Cyclades,  with  which,  in  fact,  sev- 
 eral of  them  are  intermixed,  and  those  also  which  lay 
 towards  Crete  and  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  {Slraho, 
 AM.—ScyL,  PcripL,  p.  \8.—Plni.,  4,  12.) 
 
 Spurinna,  an  astrologer,  who  told  Ca;sar  to  beware 
 of  the  ides  of  ]\Iarch.  As  he  went  to  the  senate-house 
 on  the  morning  of  the  ides,  Caesar  said  to  Spurinna, 
 "  The  ides  are  at  last  come."  '•  Yes,^'  replied  Spu- 
 rinna, "  but  not  yet  past."  Coesar  was  assassinated  a 
 short  time  after.  {Sueton.,  Vit.  Jul.,  81. — Dio  Cass., 
 44,  18.— Fa/.  Max.,  8,  11,  2.) 
 
 Stabi.(E,  a  town  of  Campania,  on  the  coast,  about 
 two  miles  below  the  river  Sarnus,  now  Castclamarg 
 di  Slabia.  It  was  once  a  place  of  some  note,  but, 
 having  been  destroyed  by  Sylla  during  the  civil  wars, 
 its  site  was  chiefly  occupied  by  villas  and  pleasure- 
 grounds.  {Pltn.,  3,  5.)  It  was  at  Stabiae,  after  hav- 
 mg  just  left  the  villa  of  his  friend  Pomponianus,  that 
 the  elder  Pliny  fell  a  victim  to  his  ardent  curiosity  and 
 thirst  for  knowledge.  (/V/«.,  L>.,  6,  16.)  According 
 to  Columella  {R.  R  ,  10),  this  spot  was  celebrated  for 
 its  fountains  ;  and  such  was  the  excellence  of  the  pas- 
 tures in  its  vicinity,  that  the  milk  of  this  district  was 
 reputed  to  be  more  wholesome  and  nutritious  than  that 
 of  any  other  country.  {Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol. 
 2,  p.  181.) 
 
 1259 
 
ST  A 
 
 STE 
 
 Stagira,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  on  the  upper  shore  of 
 the  [leninsula  of  Mount  Athos,  near  its  junction  with 
 the  mainland,  and  on  the  coast  of  tho  Sinus  Stry- 
 monicus.  It  was  a  colony  of  Andros,  as  we  learn 
 from  Thucydidcs  (4,  188),  and  celebrated  as  the  birth- 
 place of  Aristotle.  (Diog.  Lac)t.,5,  \i,  SCI/.)  Some 
 trace  of  the  ancient  name  is  apparent  in  that  of  Slauros. 
 
 Staseas,  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  who  resided 
 many  years  at  Rome  with  M.  Piso.  {Cic  ,  de  Oral., 
 1,  22.— 7(f.,  Fm.,  5,  3,  el  25.) 
 
 Stasinus,  an  early  poet  of  Cyprus,  the  author,  ac- 
 fording  to  some,  of  the  Cyprian  Epics,  which  others 
 ascribe  to  Hegesias.  This  poem,  entitled  in  Greek  tu 
 Kvnpia  Itttj,  was  in  eleven  books,  and  comprehended 
 for  its  subject  the  whole  period  from  the  nuptials  of 
 Peleus  and  Thetis  to  the  time  when  Jupiter  resolved 
 to  e-tcite  the  quarrel  between  Achilles  and  Agamem- 
 non. It  would  appear  from  a  passage  in  Herodotus 
 (2,  117),  that  this  poem  was  ascribed  by  some  to  Ho- 
 rner. The  Hymn  to  Venus  is  thought  to  have  formed 
 part  of  the  Cyprian  Epics.  We  have  only  a  few 
 verses  otherwise  remaining  of  the  poem.  (Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  166,  seq.) 
 
 Statira,  I.  the  sister  and  wife  of  Darius,  taken 
 captive  by  Alexander,  who  treated  her  with  the  utmost 
 respect.  She  died  in  childbed,  and  was  buried  by  the 
 conc]ueror  with  great  magnificence.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Alex. 
 — Consult,  however,  the  remarks  of  Bougainville,  as 
 to  the  accuracy  of  Plutarch's  statement  respecting  the 
 cause  of  her  death,  Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.,  vol. 
 25,  p.  34,  segq.) — II.  The  eldest  daughter  of  Da- 
 rius, taken  in  marriage  by  Alexander.  The  nuptials 
 were  celebrated  at  Susa  with  great  magnificence. 
 She  appears  to  have  changed  her  name  to  Arsinoe 
 after  this  union.  This  is  Droysen's  conjecture,  which 
 seems  happily  to  explain  the  variations  in  the  name 
 '  which  we  find  in  Arrian  (7,  4),  compared  with  Pho- 
 tius  (p.  686,  seq.)  and  other  authors.  (ThirlwaWs 
 Greeee,  vol.  7,  p,  77.)  She  was  murdered  by  Rox- 
 ana,  who  was  aided  in  this  by  Perdiccas.  {Plut.,  Vit. 
 Alex.,  sub  fin.) — HI.  A  wife  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon, 
 poisoned  by  her  mother-in-law,  Queen  Parysatis. 
 (Plut,  Vit.  Artax.) — IV.  A  sister  of  Mithradates  the 
 Great,  celebrated  for  the  fortitude  with  which  she  met 
 her  end,  when  Mithradates,  after  his  defeat  by  Lucul- 
 lus,  sent  Bacchides,  the  eunuch,  with  orders  to  put  his 
 wives  and  sisters  to  death.     (Plut.,  Vit.  Lucull.) 
 
 Statius,  Publius  Papinius,  a  Latin  epic  poet,  born 
 at  Neapolis  A.D.  61,  and  descended  from  a  family 
 that  came  originally  from  Epirus.  His  father,  who 
 was  distinguished  by  his  talent  for  poetry,  taught  at 
 Neapolis  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  and  litera- 
 ture. Statius  received  his  education  at  Rome,  his 
 father  having  gone  with  him  to  this  city,  where  he  be- 
 came one  of  the  preceptors  of  the  young  Domitian. 
 This  prince  fixed  his  attention  on  the  son  of  his  in- 
 structer,  who  had  been  recommended  to  him  by  Paris, 
 a  celebrated  comedian,  and  a  favourite  of  Domitian. 
 Statius,  who  was  very  poor,  had  sold  to  this  actor  his 
 tragedy  of  Agave,  which  Paris  published  as  his  own 
 composition.  Out  of  gratitude,  he  invited  the  poet  to 
 a  grand  imperial  banquet. — Statius  gained  the  prize 
 three  times  in  the  Alban  games,  but  was  defeated  in 
 the  Capitoline.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  years  he  mar- 
 ried the  widow  of  a  musician  ;  her  name  was  Claudia ; 
 and  he  extols,  in  many  of  his  productions,  her  abilities 
 and  virtues.  Disgusted  at  last,  as  he  himself  informs 
 us,  at  the  luxury  of  the  Romans,  he  retired,  a  year  be- 
 fore his  death,  to  a  small  estate  in  the  vicinity  of  Na- 
 ples, which  the  emperor,  perhaps,  had  given  him,  and 
 there  died,  still  quite  young,  A.D.  96. — Statius  gained 
 many  admirers  at  Rome  by  the  great  facility  with 
 which  Nature  had  endowed  him  for  composing  verses, 
 on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  upon  all  kinds  of  subjects. 
 He  collected  these  productions  together  in  a  work 
 which  he  entitled  Sylvcz,  or,  as  we  would  call  it,  Mi- 
 ]260 
 
 langes.  It  is  divided  into  five  books,  and  compre- 
 hends thirty-two  small  poems,  mostly  written  in  hex- 
 ameters. Each  book  has  a  preface  in  prose,  and  is 
 dedicated  to  one  of  the  friends  of  the  poet.  In  the 
 preface  to  the  first  book  Statius  informs  us  that  these 
 poems  have  been  composed  in  haste ;  that  no  one  of 
 them  occupied  more  than  two  days,  and  that  some  are 
 the  work  of  merely  a  single  day.  These  pieces  treat 
 of  various  subjects  :  we  find  among  them  a  compli- 
 mentary eflfusion  addressed  to  Domitian,  on  the  occa- 
 sion of  an  equestrian  statue  being  erected  to  him  ;  an 
 epithalamium  ;  an  ode  for  Lucan's  birthday,  &c. — 
 Statius  has  also  left  an  epic  poem  in  twelve  books,  en- 
 titled Theba'is  ("  The  Theba'id"),  and  the  commence- 
 ment of  another,  called  Acfnlleis,  which  his  death  pre- 
 vented him  from  completing.  The  Theba'id,  address- 
 ed to  Domitian,  is,  like  the  Punica  of  Silius  Italicus, 
 the  Argonautica  of  Valerius  Flaccus,  and  the  Pharsa- 
 lia  of  Lucan,  rather  a  historic  than  an  epic  poem.  The 
 principal  source  whence  Statius  borrowed  was  the 
 poet  Antimachus,  whose  Theba'id  has  not  come  down 
 to  us  :  his  model  was  Virgil. — The  subject  of  the  The- 
 ba'id was  well  chosen  ;  the  war  between  the  sons  of 
 CEdipus  ofTered  a  fable  truly  epic,  and  rich  in  fearful 
 scenes.  Statius,  however,  has  spoiled  it,  by  giving  it 
 an  historical  form,  adorned  merely  with  episodes  and 
 machinery.  He  is  not  wanting  in  imagination,  and  in 
 bold  and  daring  ideas  and  sentiments  ;  in  this  respect, 
 indeed,  he  is  preferable  to  Valerius  P^laccus  ;  but  he 
 is  ignorant  of  the  sublime  art  in  which  Homer  surpass- 
 es all  poets,  that  of  giving  each  hero  an  individual 
 character.  His  diction  is  deficient  in  simplicity  and 
 native  ease;  he  mistakes  exaggeration  for  grandeur, 
 and  subtle  refinements  for  proofs  of  talent.  These 
 defects  are  the  characteristics  of  his  age,  as  well  as 
 that  of  making  a  great  display  of  erudition,  a  fault 
 which  shows  itself  in  all  the  epic  poets  of  this  period. 
 Scaliger  passes  rather  a  favourable  opinion  on  Statius. 
 According  to  this  critic,  he  ranks  next  to  Virgil.  (Po- 
 et., 6,  p.  841.) — Of  the  Achillc'is,  Statius  finished  only 
 the  first  book  ;  the  second  remains  imperfect.  It  is 
 probable  that  this  poem,  had  the  author  lived  to  finish 
 it,  would  have  presented  the  same  beauties  and  the 
 same  defects  as  the  Theba'id.  The  pian  was  defect- 
 ive ;  the  poet  had  not  attended  to  unity  of  action,  but 
 profiosed  to  himself  to  give  the  entire  life  of  his  hero. 
 — The  best  editior^  of  Statius  are,  that  of  Gronovius, 
 Amst.,  1653,  12mo  ;  that  of  Earth,  Cygna,  1664,  2 
 vols.  4to  ;  that  of  Markland  (the  Sylva  merely),  Lorad., 
 1728,  4to ;  and  that  of  Amar  and  Lemaire,  Paris, 
 1825,  4  vols.  8vo.  (Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  JRom.,  vol.  2, 
 p.  303,  seqq.) 
 
 Stator,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  given  him  by  Rom- 
 ulus, because  he  stopped  the  flight  of  the  Romans  in 
 their  battle  with  the  Sabines,  after  the  carrying  oflf  by 
 the  Roman?  of  the  Sabine  virgins.  Romulus  erected 
 a  temple  on  the  spot  where  he  had  stood  when  he  in- 
 voked Jupiter,  in  prayer,  to  stay  the  flight  of  his  for- 
 ces.    The  name  is  derived  a  sistendo.     (Liv.,  1,  12.) 
 
 Stei.lio,  a  youth  turned  into  a  kind  of  lizard  by 
 Ceres,  because  he  derided  the  goddess.  (Ovid,  Met., 
 5,  461.) 
 
 Stentor,  a  Grecian  warrior  in  the  army  against 
 Trov.  His  voice  was  louder  than  the  combined  voices 
 of  fifty  men.  He  is  erroneously  regarded  by  some 
 commentators  as  a  mere  herald.  (Horn.,  II.,  5,  785, 
 seq. — Hcyne,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Stentoris  Lagos,  an  estuary  which  the  Hebr.i8 
 forms  at  its  mouth.     (Herod  ,  7,  58.) 
 
 St^phanus,  a  grammarian,  who  flourished,  as  is 
 conjectured,  about  the  close  of  the  fifth  century.  He 
 was  professor  in  the  imperial  college  at  (ilonstantino- 
 ple,  and  composed  a  dictionary  containing  words  de- 
 noting the  names  of  places,  and  designating  the  inhab- 
 itants of  those  places.  Of  this  work  there  exists  only 
 [an  abridgment  made  by  Hcrmdaus,  and  dedicated  to 
 
STH 
 
 STI 
 
 the  Emperor  Justinian'.  This  work  was  known  by  tho 
 title  KeiH  ll6?.e(jv,  de  Urbibus,  but  that  of  the  original 
 was  EdfiKu  ;  hence  it  has  been  niferred  that  the  au- 
 thor's intention  was  to  write  a  geographical  work.  It 
 seems  that  Stcplianus,  who  is  usually  quoted  by  the 
 title  of  Sicphanus  Byzanlinus,  or  Stcphanus  of  Byzan- 
 tium, not  only  gave  in  his  original  work  a  catalogue 
 of  countries,  cities,  nation.s,  and  colonies,  but,  as  op- 
 portunity ofiiercd,  he  described  the  characters  of  dif- 
 ferent nations,  mentioned  the  founders  of  cities,  and 
 related  the  mythological  traditions  connected  with 
 each  place,  mingled  with  grammatical  and  etymologi- 
 cal remarks.  All  this  appears  not  in  the  meager 
 abridgment  of  Hcrmolaus.  We  have  a  fragment, 
 however,  remaining  of  the  original  work  relative  to 
 Dodona.  The  best  edition  of  Stephanus  is  that  of 
 Berkell,  completed  by  Gronovius,  L.  Bat.,  1688,  fol. 
 There  is  a  very  recent  edition  of  the  te.\t  by  Wester- 
 mann.  Lips  ,  1839,  8vo.  {Sckiill,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol. 
 r,  p.  36.) 
 
 Stesichorus,  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  born  at  Himera, 
 In  Sicily,  and  who  flourished  about  570  B.C.  He 
 lived  in  the  time  of  Phalaris,  and  was  contemporary 
 with  Sappho,  Alcsus,  and  Piitacus.  {Clinton,  Fast. 
 Hellen.,  p.  5.)  His  special  business  was  the  training 
 and  directing  of  choruses,  and  he  assumed  the  name 
 of  Stesichorus,  or  "  leader  of  choruses,"  his  original 
 name  being  Tisias.  This  occupation  must  have  re- 
 mained hereditary  in  his  family  in  Himera  ;  a  younger 
 Stesichorus  of  Himera  came,  in  Olympiad  73.1  (B.C 
 485),  to  Greece  as  a  poet  {Mann.,  Par.,  ep.  50) ; 
 and  a  third  Stesichorus  of  Himera  was  victor  at 
 Athens  in  Olympiad  102.3  (B.C.  370).  The  eldest 
 of  them,  StesichorusTisias,  made  a  great  change  in 
 the  artistical  form  of  the  chorus.  He  it  was  who  first 
 broke  the  monotonous  alternation  of  the  strophe  and 
 antistrophc  through  a  whole  poem,  by  the  introduc- 
 tion of  the  epode,  differing  in  measure,  and  by  this 
 means  made  the  chorus  stand  still.  The  chorus  of 
 Stesichorus  seems  to  have  consisted  of  a  combination 
 of  several  rows  or  members  of  eight  dancers  ;  the 
 number  eight  appears,  indeed,  from  various  traditions, 
 to  have  been,  as  it  were,  consecrated  by  him.  The 
 musical  accompaniment  was  the  cithara.  On  his  ar- 
 rangement of  the  strophe,  antistrophc,  and  cpodc,  was 
 founded  the  Greek  proverb,  "  Ihc  three  things  of  Ste- 
 sichorus''' {ra  rpia  ZrTjaixopov).  His  compositions, 
 which  consisted  of  hymns  in  honour  of  the  gods,  odes 
 in  praise  of  heroes,  lyrico-epic  poems,  such  as  an  'IXiov 
 rrepai^  ("  Destruction  of  Troy"),  an  Orcstiad,  &,c., 
 were  written  in  the  Doric  dialect,  and  are  all  now  lost 
 except  a  few  fragments.  Stesichorus  possessed,  ac- 
 cording to  Dionysius,  all  the  excellences  and  graces  of 
 Pindar  and  Simonides,  and  surpassed  thcin  both  in 
 the  grandeur  of  his  subjects,  in  which  he  well  pre- 
 served the  characteristics  of  manners  and  persons  ; 
 and  Quintilian  represents  him  as  having  displayed  the 
 sublimity  of  his  genius  by  the  selection  of  weighty 
 topics,  such  as  important  wars  and  the  actions  of 
 great  commanders,  in  which  he  sustained  with  his  lyre 
 the  dignity  of  epic  poetry.  Accordingly,  Alexander 
 the  Great  ranks  him  among  those  who  were  the  proper 
 .study  of  princes.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  fable 
 of  the  horse  and  the  stag,  which  Horace  and  some 
 other  poets  have  imitated,  and  this  he  wrote  to  pre- 
 vent his  countrymen  from  making  an  alliance  with 
 Phalaris.  The  best  collections  of  the  fragments  of 
 Stesichorus  are  given  by  Blomficld,  in  the  Museum 
 Crilicum,  No.  6,  p.  256  ;  and  by  Kleine,  Bcrol,  1828, 
 8vo.  They  are  also  found  in  Gaisford's  Poeta  Mino- 
 res  Gntci,  cd.  Lips.,  vol.  3,  p.  336-348.  {Muller, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr,  p.  198.) 
 
 Sthenelus,  I.  a  king  of  Mycena?,  son  of  Perseus 
 and  Andromeda.  He  married  Nicippe,  the  daughter 
 of  Pelops,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters,  and  a  son 
 called  Eurystheus.     The  name  of  this  son  is  connect 
 
 ed  with  the  legend  of  Hercules,  he  having  been  bom 
 before  Hercules,  and,  therefore,  exercising  a  control 
 overhirn.  {Vid.  Hercules.)— H.  A  son  of  Capaneus. 
 He  was  one  of  the  Epigoni,  and  also  one  of  the  suiters 
 of  Helen,  lie  went  to  the  Trojan  war.  and  was,  ac- 
 cording to  Virgil,  in  the  number  o(  ihose  who  were  shut 
 up  in  the  wooden  horse.  {Pausan.,  2,  18. —  Virg., 
 Jin.,  2,  10.) 
 
 Sthenobusa,  a  daughter  of  Jobates,  king  of  Lycia, 
 who  married  Prcetus,  king  of  Argos.  She  became  en- 
 amoured of  Bellero[)hon,  who  had  taken  refuge  at  her 
 husband's  court  after  the  murder  of  his  brother ;  and 
 when  he  refused,  she  falsely  accused  him  before  Prce- 
 tus of  attempts  upon  her  virtue.     {Vid.  Bellerophon  ) 
 
 Stii-icho,  a  Vandalic  general,  in  the  service  of  the 
 Emperor  Theodosius  the  Great,  whose  niece  Serena  he 
 married.  Theodosius  having  bequeathed  the  empire 
 of  the  East  to  his  son  Arcadius,  and  that  of  the  West 
 to  his  second  son  Honorius,  the  former  was  left  under 
 the  care  of  Rufinus,  and  the  latter  under  the  guardian- 
 ship of  Stilicho.  No  sooner  was  Theodosius  removed 
 by  death,  than  Rulinus  stirred  up  an  invasion  of  the 
 Goths,  in  order  to  procure  the  sole  dominion  ;  but 
 Stilicho  put  down  this  scheme,  and  effected  the  de- 
 struction of  his  rival.  After  suppressing  a  revolt  iu 
 Africa,  he  marched  against  Alaric,  whom  he  signally 
 defeated  at  Pollentia.  After  this,  m  A.D.  406,  he  re- 
 pelled an  invasion  of  barbarians,  who  penetrated  into 
 Italy  under  Rhadagasius,  a  Hun  or  Vandal  leader, 
 who  formerly  accompanied  Alaric,  and  effected  the 
 entire  destruction  of  the  force  and  its  leader.  Either 
 from  motives  of  policy  or  from  state  necessity,  he 
 then  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Alaric,  whose  preten- 
 sions upon  the  Roman  treasury  for  a  subsidy  he 
 warmly  supported.  This  conduct  e.xcited  a  suspicion 
 of  his  treachery  on  the  part  of  Honorius,  who  massa- 
 cred all  his  friends  during  his  absence.  He  received 
 intelligence  of  this  fact  at  the  camp  of  Bononia  {Bo- 
 logna), whence  he  was  obliged  to  flee  to  Ravenna. 
 Here  he  took  shelter  in  a  church,  from  which  he  was 
 inveigled  by  a  solemn  oath  that  no  harm  was  intended 
 him,  and  was  conveyed  to  immediate  execution,  which 
 he  endured  in  a  manner  worthy  his  great  military  char- 
 acter. Stilicho  was  charged  with  the  design  of  de- 
 throning Honorius,  in  order  to  advance  his  son  Euche- 
 rius  in  his  place  ;  and  the  memory  of  this  distintruished 
 captain  has  been  treated  l)y  the  ecclesiastical  writers 
 with  great  severity.  Zosimus,  however,  allhouoh 
 otherwise  unfavourable  to  him,  acquits  him  of  the 
 treason  which  was  laid  to  his  charge  ;  and  he  will  live 
 in  the  poetry  of  Claudian  as  the  most  distinguished 
 commander  of  his  age.  {Encydop.  Americ  ,  vol.  12, 
 p.  7. — Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  c.  29,  seq.) 
 
 Stii.po,  a  philosopher  of  Mcgara,  who  flourished 
 about  336  B.C.  He  was  not  only  celebrated  for  his 
 eloquence  and  skill  in  dialectics,  but  for  the  success 
 with  which  he  applied  the  moral  precepts  of  philos- 
 ophy to  the  correction  of  his  natural  propensities. 
 Though  in  his  youth  he  had  been  much  addicted  to 
 intemperance  and  licentious  pleasures,  after  he  had 
 ranked  himself  among  philosophers  he  was  never 
 known  to  violate  the  laws  of  sobriety  or  chastity. 
 With  respect  to  riches  he  exercised  a  virtuous  moder- 
 ation. When  Ptolemy  Soter,  at  the  taking  of  Mega- 
 ra,  presented  him  with  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  re- 
 quested him  to  accompany  him  to  Egypt,  he  returned 
 the  greater  part  of  the  present,  and  chose  to  retire,  du- 
 ring Ptolemy's  stay  at  Mcgara,  to  the  island  of.Egina. 
 Afterward,  when  Mcgara  was  again  taken  by  Deme- 
 trius, son  of  Antigomis,  the  conqueror  ordered  the  sol- 
 diers to  spare  the  house  of  Stilpo  ;  and,  if  aiiything 
 should  be  taken  from  him  in  the  hurry  of  the  plunder, 
 to  restore  it.  So  great  was  the  fame  of  Stilpo,  that, 
 when  he  visited  Athens,  the  people  ran  out  of  their 
 shops  to  see  him,  and  even  the  most  eminent  philoso- 
 phers of  Athens  took  pleasure  in  attending  upon  his 
 
 1261 
 
S  TO 
 
 STR 
 
 discourses.  On  moral  topics  Stilpo  is  said  to  have 
 taught,  liiat  the  highest  felicity  consists  in  a  mind  free 
 from  the  dominion  of  |)assion,  a  doctrine  similar  to 
 that  of  the  Stoics.  {Enfield's  History  nf  Philosopliy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  202.) 
 
 SioB/EUs,  Joannes,  a  native  of  Stobi,  in  Macedonia, 
 whence  his  name  Siobasus.  The  particulars  of  his 
 life  are  unktiown,  and  we  are  even  igiionint  of  the 
 age  in  which  he  lived.  All  that  can  he  said  of  his  era 
 is,  that  he  was  subsequent  to  Hicrocies  of  Alo.xandrea, 
 since  he  has  left  us  extracts  from  his  worlis  ;  and  as 
 he  cites  no  more  recent  writer,  it  is  probable  that  he 
 lived  not  lontr  after  hiui.  Stobaeus  had  read  much; 
 he  had  acquired  the  habit  of  reading  with  a  pen  in  his 
 hand,  and  of  making  extracts  from  whatever  seemed 
 to  him  remarkable.  Having  made  a  large  collection 
 of  these  extracts,  he  arranged  them  in  systematic  or- 
 der for  the  use  of  his  son,  whose  education  seems  to 
 have  constituted  the  father's  principal  employment. 
 This  was  the  origin  of  a  collection  in  four  books, 
 which  he  published  under  the  title  of  'KvOo'AoyLov  ek- 
 TioyCjv,  uno(pdEy/j.uTuv,  VTiodrjKojv  (''  An  Anlhoiogy  of 
 E-xtracls,  Sentences,  and  Frccepts"').  This  work  has 
 come  down  to  us,  but  under  a  form  somewhat  differ- 
 ent, and  which  has  consequently  embarrassed  the  com- 
 mentators. We  .have  three  books  of  extracts  made 
 by  Stobseus,  but  they  are  given  in  the  manuscripts  as 
 two  distinct  works:  one  composed  of  two  books,  the 
 oilier  of  a  single  one.  The  former  is  entitled  "  Phys- 
 ical, Dialectic,  and  Moral  Selections,"  the  latter 
 "  Discourses .'"  There  exists,  however,  some  confu- 
 sion in  this  respect  in  the  manuscripts.  Some,  which 
 contain  merely  the  Eclogce  or  Extracts,  call  them  the 
 first  and  second  books  of  Stob^us,  williout  any  more 
 particular  designation.  Others  give  both  works  the 
 title  of  Anthology. — In  the  Eclog»  and  Discourses, 
 Stobsus  appears  to  have  proposed  to  himself  two  dif- 
 ferent objects.  The  Eclogae  form,  so  to  speak,  an  his- 
 torical work,  because  they  make  us  acquainted  with 
 the  opinions  of  ancient  authors  on  questions  of  a  phys- 
 ical, speculative,  and  moral  nature,  whereas  the  Dis- 
 courses constitute  merely  a  moral  work.  It  is  on  ac- 
 count of  this  diversity  that  some  critics  have  thought 
 that  the  Eclogaj  never  formed  part  of  the  Anthology, 
 but  originally  made  a  separate  work,  and  that  the  third 
 and  fourth  books  of  the  Anthology  are  lost.  This  hy- 
 pothesis, however,  seems  at  variance  with  the  account 
 that  Piiotius  gives  of  the  .Anthology  of  Stobaeus. 
 "  The  first  book,"  says  he,  "is  entirely  physical ;  the 
 commencement  of  the  second  is  strictly  philosophical 
 {AoyiKoc),  but  the  greater  part  is  moral.  The  third 
 and  fourth  books  are  almost  entirely  devoted  to  moral 
 and  political  subjects."  It  would  seem  from  this  that 
 it  is  wrong  to  divide  the  extracts  of  Stobaeus  into  two 
 works,  and  that  we  possess  actually,  under  two  titles, 
 his  Anthology  in  four  books,  excepting  that  the  cojiy- 
 ists  have  united  the  third  and  fourth  books  into  one. — 
 It  is  from  Photius  also  that  we  learn  the  object  which 
 Stobaeus  had  in  view  when  he  made  these  selections, 
 for  we  have  not  the  beginning  of  the  lirst  book,  where 
 110  doubt  it  was  stated.  Stobsus  had  devoted  this 
 part  to  a  eulogium  on  philosophy,  which  was  followed 
 by  an  historical  sketch  of  the  ancient  schools,  and  of 
 their  doctrines  in  relation  to  geometry,  music,  and 
 ariihinetic  :  of  this  chapter  we  have  only  the  end,  in 
 wiiieh  the  subject  of  arithmetic  is  treated.  The  object 
 of  Si.obaL'us,  accordmg  to  Photius,  was  to  erect  a  col- 
 umn which  might  serve  as  a  landmark  to  his  son  Sep- 
 titnius  (luring  the  lalter's  course  through  life.  The 
 first  book  is  subdivided  into  sixty  chapters;  the  sec- 
 ond contained  forty-six,  but  we  have  only  the  first 
 nine.  The  third  book,  or  the  lirst  of  the  Discourses, 
 was,  in  the  time  of  Photius,  composed  of  forty- two 
 chapters,  and  the  second  of  fifty  eight.  In  the  manu- 
 scripts these  one  hundred  chapters  form  only  one 
 book:  the  copyists,  however,  have,  by  their  subdivis- 
 1362 
 
 ion  of  some  of  the  Discourses,  made  the  number  of 
 chapters  amount  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  five,  or, 
 rather,  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven.  Each  chapter 
 of  the  Eclogae,  and  each,  discourse,  has  a  particular 
 title,  under  which  the  author  has  arranged  his  extracts, 
 commencing  wiih  the  p.oets,  and  jiassing  from  them,  in 
 order,  to  orators,  jihilosophers,  [ihysicians,  &c.  The 
 source  whence  each  extract  is  obtained  is  indicated 
 in  the  margin.  These  extracts  are  drawn  from  more 
 than  five  hundred  authors,  both  poets  and  prose  wri- 
 ters, whose  works  have  in  a  great  measure  perished. 
 \^'e  find  here,  in  particular,  numerous  passages  from 
 the  ancient  comic  writers — The  best  edition  of  the 
 Eclogae  is  that  of  Heeren,  Gbt/ing.,  1792,  2  vols,  (in 
 4)  8vo.  It  contains  a  very  valuable  dissertation  by 
 the  editor,  on  the  sources  whence  .Stoba;us  obtained 
 his  materials.  (Commciitatio  ile  Fontihvs  Eclognrum 
 Joannis  Slobcci.) — The  best  edition  of  the  Discourses 
 is  that  of  Gaisford,  under  the  title,  Joannis  Stobai 
 Florilrgium,  Oxon.,  1822,  4  vols.  Svo.  {Schbll,  Hisi. 
 Lit    Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.   133,  scqq.) 
 
 Stobi,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  in  the  district  of  P.ionia, 
 to  the  north  of  Edessa,  and  not  far  from  the  junction 
 of  the  Erigonus  and  Axius.  Livy  informs  us  that 
 Philip  wished  to  found  a  new  city  in  its  vicinity,  to  be 
 called  Perses,  after  his  eldest  son  (39,  54).  On  the 
 conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans,  Stobi  was 
 made  the  depot  of  the  salt  with  which  the  Dardani  were 
 supplied  from  that  country  (45,  29).  At  a  later  period 
 it  became  not  only  a  Roman  colony,  but  a  Roman 
 municipium,  a  ))rivilege  rarely  conferred  beyond  the 
 limits  of  Italy.  (P/in.,  4,  10.— £//;?.,  Dig.  de  Cons. 
 lex  ult.)  In  the  reign  of  Constantine,  Stobi  was  con- 
 sidered as  the  chief  town  of  Macedonia  Secunda.  or 
 Salutaris,  as  it-  was  then  called.  (Hierocl  ,  Syn  ,  p. 
 641. — Malch.,  Exc.  Legal.,  p.  61.)  Stobi  was  the 
 birthplace  of  Joannes  Stobaeus,  the  author  of  the  Greek 
 Florilegium  which  bears  his  name.  The  modern  Istib 
 is  said  to  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  {Cra- 
 mer's Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  271. — Bisehojf  und 
 Mbller,  Worterh.  der  Gcogr  ,  p.  931.) 
 
 STCECH.iDEs,  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  off  the 
 coast  of  Gaul,  and  in  a  southeast  direction  from  Telo 
 Martins  or  Toulon,  now  Isles  d'Hicrcs.  Strabo  and 
 Ptolemy  make  them  five  in  number,  but  Pliny  only 
 three.  They  are  called  Prote  {Parquerolles),  Mese 
 (Porto  Cros),  and  Hypfea  (dtc  Levant  or  Titan). 
 They  are  said  to  have  their  name  from  their  being 
 ranged  on  the  same  line  {(jrolxog — Piin  ,  3,  5. — Mela, 
 2,  7). 
 
 Stoict,  a  celebrated  sect  of  philosophers,  founded  by 
 Zeno  of  Citium..  They  received  their  name  from  the 
 portico  (oTod)  where  the  philosopher  delivered  his  lec- 
 tures. This  was  the  "  Poecile,"  adorned  with  various 
 paintings  from  the  pencil  of  Polygnotus  and  other  em- 
 inent masters,  and  hence  was  called,  by  way  of  emi- 
 nence, the  Porch.  An  account  of  the  Stoic  doctrine 
 will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  article  Zeno. 
 
 Str.ado,  I.  a  Roman  cognomen  in  the  Fannian, 
 Pompeian,  and  other  families.  It  was  first  applied  to 
 those  whose  eyes  were  distorted,  but  afterward  became 
 a  general  name. — II.  A  celebrated  geographer,  born  at 
 Amasca  in  Pontus.  The  year  of  his  birth  is  not  ex- 
 actly known,  but  it  may  be  placed  about  fiftv-four  J3.C. 
 {Clmlon,  Fasti  Hcllenici,  pt.  2,  p.  277.)  He  studied 
 at  Nyssa  under  Aristodemus,  at  Amisus  under  Tyran- 
 nion,  and  at  Seleucia  under  Xenarchus.  He  then  pro- 
 ceeded to  Alexandrca,  and  attached  himself  first  to  the 
 peripatetic  Borthus  of  Sidon  ;  but  Athenodorus  of  Tar- 
 sus eventually  gained  him  over  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
 Porch.  He  then  visited  various  parts  of  Asia  Minor, 
 Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Egypt  as  far  as  Syene  and  the 
 (Cataracts  of  the  Nile.  In  this  latter  country  he  formed 
 an  intimate  acquaintance  with  ^Elius  Gallus,  the  Ro- 
 man governor.  In  the  year  24  B.C.  this  general 
 undertook,  by  order  of  Aug-ustus,  an  expedition  into 
 
STRABO 
 
 STRABO. 
 
 Arabia.  At  a  subspqiient  period,  Strubo  travelled 
 over  Greece,  Macedonia,  and  Italy  with  the  exception 
 of  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  Liguria  It  is  important  to 
 determine  the  extent  of  Strubo's  travels,  that  we  may 
 know  when  he  speaks  as  an  eyewitness,  and  when 
 he  merely  c0j)ics  the  accounts  of  liis  predecessors,  or 
 gives  the  narratives  of  other  travellers.  At  an  ad- 
 vanced period  of  life  he  compiled  a  work  on  Geogra- 
 phy {Teuypa(l)iKd),  in  seventeen  hooks,  which  has  come 
 down  to  us  complete,  with  the  exception  of  the  seventh 
 book,  which  is  nnperfect. — It  is  remarkable  that,  du- 
 liria  a  space  of  near  five  hundred  years,  from  the  lime 
 of  Herodotus  to  that  of  Slrabo,  so  little  should  have 
 been  added  to  the  science  of  geography.  The  con- 
 quests of  the  Romans  westward  did  certainly  bring 
 them  acquainted  with  parts  of  Europe  hitherto  little 
 known  ;  but  in  the  East,  neither  the  Macedonian  nor 
 the  Iloinan  expeditions  seem  to  have  brought  much  to 
 light  that  was  before  unknown  of  the  state  of  Asia  ; 
 while  in  Africa,  as  Reiinell  justly  observes,  geography 
 lost  ground.  In  the  course  of  this  period,  indeed, 
 many  writers  on  this  subject  ap[)eared  ;  but,  whatever 
 were  their  merits  (and  the  merits  even  of  the  most 
 eminent  among  them  seem  to  be  not  highly  rated  by 
 Strabo),  it  is  certain  that  they  are  all  lost.  We  may 
 collect,  indeed,  from  a  curious  circumstance  little 
 known  or  regarded,  that  no  complete  or  systematic 
 work  on  geogra[)hy  at  that  time  existed  :  for  it  appears 
 from  two  or  three  of  Cicero's  letters  to  .^tlicus,  that  he 
 once  entertairied  thoughts  of  writing  a  treatise  himself 
 on  the  subject.  He  was  deterred,  however,  he  says, 
 whenever  he  considered  it,  by  the  magnitude  of  the 
 tindertaking,  and  by  perceiving  how  severely  even 
 Eratosthenes  had  been  censured  by  the  writers  who 
 succeeded  him.  In  fact,  he  was  probably  restrained  by 
 a  consciousness  of  his  own  incompetency  in  point  of 
 science,  of  which  he  makes  a  pretty  broad  confession  to 
 his  friend  ;  and  whoever  values  the  reputation  of  Cice- 
 ro cannot  regret  that  it  v«'as  never  risked  on  a  system 
 of  geouraphv,  to  be  f;of-  up,  as  he  himself  hints  it  was 
 intended  to  lie,  during  a  short  summer  tour  among  his 
 country  houses  in  Italy. — It  is  not,  however,  merely 
 to  the  respective  character  of  the  two  individuals  that 
 we  must  atlrib\ite  the  inferiority  of  the  geography  of 
 Herodotus,  in  all  essential  requisites,  to  that  of  Strabo. 
 Much  undoubtedly  is  owing  to  the  manners  and  com- 
 plexion of  the  times  in  which  they  respectively  lived. 
 The  former  came  to  the  task  with  few  materials  sup- 
 plied to  his  hands.  Everything  was  to  be  collected 
 by  his  own  industry,  without  the  aid  of  previous  his- 
 tory, without  political  documents  or  political  authori- 
 ty. The  taste,  moreover,  and  the  habits  of  the  people 
 for  whom  he  wrote,  which  must  ever  have  a  powerful 
 influence  over  the  composition  of  any  writer,  demanded 
 other  qualities  than  rigid  authenticity,  and  a  judicious 
 selection  of  facts.  It  should  be  remembered  that  he 
 was  hardly  yet  emerged  from  the  story-telling  age  ; 
 the  pleasure  of  wondering  had  not  yet  been  superse- 
 ded by  the  |)lcasure  of  knowing  ;  and  the  nine  deities 
 who  give  name  to  his  books  might  De  allowed  to  im>- 
 part  sonic  share  of  their  priviletje  of  fiction,  when- 
 ever sober  truth  has  been  insufficient  to  complete  or 
 adorn  his  narrative.  Before  the  age  of  Augustus, 
 however,  an  entire  revolution  had  been  effected  in  the 
 intellectual  habits  and  literary  pursuits  of  men.  The 
 world  had  become  in  a  manner,  what  it  now  is,  a  read- 
 ing world.  Books  of  every  kind  were  to  he  had  in 
 every  place.  Accordingly,  ii  became  the  chief  busi- 
 ness of  writers  who  projected  any  extensive  work,  lo 
 examine  and  compare  what  had  been  already  written; 
 to  weigh  probabilities;  lo  adjust  and  reconcile  apparent 
 difficulties;  and  to  decide  between  contending  authori- 
 ties, as  well  as  to  collect  and  methodise  a  multitude 
 of  independent  facts,  and  to  mould  them  into  one  reir- 
 ular  and  consistent  form.  It  was  not  without  a  just 
 Hcnse  of  the  magnitude  and  difficulty  of  the  underta- 
 
 king that  Strabo  engaged  in  this  task,  as  is  sufficiently 
 proved  by  his  own  elaborate  introduction.  How  many 
 years  were  emplo)cd  upon  it  is  not  certain  ;  but  wo 
 are  sure,  from  the  incidental  mention  made  in  different 
 passages  of  historical  events  widely  distant  from  each 
 other,  that  it  occupied  a  considerable  portion  of  his 
 life.  It  is  impossible,  indeed,  to  read  any  of  his  lar- 
 ger descriptions  without  feeling  the  advantages  pos- 
 sessed by  an  eyewitness  over  a  mere  compiler.  The 
 strong  and  expressive  outlines  which  he  draws  con- 
 vey a  lively  idea,  not  merely  of  the  fignre  and  dimen- 
 sions, but  of  the  surface  and  general  character,  of  ex- 
 tensive districts.  These  outlines  are  carefully  filled 
 up  bv  a  methodical  and  often  minute  survey  of  the 
 whole  region,  marking  distinctly  its  coasts,  its  towns, 
 rivers,  and  mountains;  the  produce  of  the  soil,  the 
 condition  and  manners  of  the  inhabitants,  their  origin, 
 language,  and  traffic  ;  and  in  the  more  civilized  parts 
 of  the  world,  in  the  states  of  Greece  especially,  we 
 meet  with  continual  information  respecting  persons 
 and  events,  the  memory  of  which  is  sacred  to  every 
 one  at  all  conversant  with  the  writers  of  that  extraor- 
 dinary j)eople.  But  it  is  not  merely  from  the  number 
 and  authenticity  of  the  facts  which  it  communicates 
 that  this  work  derives  its  value.  Every  page  bears 
 evidence  of  a  philosophical  and  reflecting  mind ;  a 
 mind  disciplined  by  science,  and  accustomed  to  trace 
 the  causes  and  connexion  of  things,  as  v;ell  in  the 
 province  of  physical  phenomenon,  as  in  the  more 
 intricate  and  varying  system  of  human  affairs.  In 
 this  respect  Strabo  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to 
 Polybius.  But  with  the  fondness  of  that  historian 
 for  reflections  and  his  steady  love  of  truth,  he  has 
 not  copied  the  formality  of  his  digressions,  which 
 so  often  interrupt  the  flow  of  the  history,  and  v.'hich 
 would  be  yet  more  unsuited  in  a  geographical  work. 
 The  reasonings  and  reflections  of  Strabo  are  just  liiose 
 which  would  naturally  be  excited  in  a  mind  pre- 
 viously well  informed  by  the  scenes  over  which  he 
 was  travelling ;  but  they  never  tempt  him  to  lose 
 sight  of  his  main  purpose,  the  collection  and  ar- 
 rangement of  facts.  There  is  a  gravity,  a  plainness, 
 a  sobriety,  and  good  sense  in  all  his  remarks,  which 
 constantly  remind  us  that  they  are  subordinate  and  in- 
 cidental, suggested  immediately  by  the  occasion;  and 
 they  are  delivered  with  a  tincture  of  literature,  such  as 
 a  well-educated  man  cannot  fail  of  imparting  to  any 
 subject.  On  these  accounts  Strabo  would  be  entitled 
 to  the  perusal  of  every  scholar,  even  if  the  gcogra[)hi- 
 cal  information  were  less  abundant  and  authentic  than 
 it  really  is. — Strabo  lived  prior  to  any  arrangement  of 
 the  distances  on  the  globe  by  measures  taken  from  de- 
 grees of  longitude  and  latitude.  But  this  writer  and 
 his  predecessor  in  the  same  branch  of  science  were 
 not  unacquainted  with  the  practice  of  measuring  the 
 distance  from  the  equator  as  from  a  fixed  line,  by 
 which  the  comparatively  northerly  or  southerly  situa- 
 tions of  places  might  be  determined  ;  nor  were  they 
 ignorant  of  some  methods  by  which  the  longitude  or 
 distance  of  places  to  the  east  or  west  of  each  other 
 might  be  estimated.  But  it  was  reserved  for  Pioleniy 
 to  reduce  these  observations  into  a  regular  system  and 
 to  a  tabular  form,  by  which  the  situation  of  any  one 
 place,  if  correctly  ascertained,  might  be  compared  with 
 that  of  any  other,  and  also  with  its  distance  from  the 
 equator  and  from  the  first  meridian,  drawn  through 
 Ferro,  in  the  Canary  or  Fortunate  Islands,  as  being 
 the  most  westerly  point  of  the  earth  known  at  that 
 time.— The  ancient  astronomers  and  geographers  could 
 not  but  be  conscious  how  defective  were  their  instru- 
 ments for  observing  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  and  how 
 much  greater  dependance  might  be  placed  on  their 
 mechanical  measurement  of  distances,  to  the  accuracy 
 of  which  we  have  reason  to  think  they  paid  great  at- 
 tention, than  on  their  celestial  observations,  lo  ascer- 
 tain the  truih  of  which  they  had  so  little  artificial  as- 
 
 1263 
 
STRABO. 
 
 STRABO. 
 
 sistance.  The  proportion  of  the  Inngth  of  ihe  gnomon 
 to  that  of  its  meridian  shadow  at  the  solstice  and  the 
 equinoxes,  afforded  the  principal  method  of  determin- 
 ing the  distance  of  places  from  the  equator,  and  these 
 were,  indeed,  under  a  clear  sky,  a  briglit  sun,  and  con- 
 tinued opportunities  of  repealing  observations,  laid 
 down,  in  many  instances,  more  nearly  to  the  truth 
 than  could  be  expected  from  so  simple  and  so  rude  an 
 instrument.  Still,  however,  they  were  liable  to  great 
 uncertainty.  The  penumbra  at  the  extremity  of  the 
 shadow  made  the  prof)ortions  doubtful.  The  semi-di 
 ameter  of  the  sun  (although  Cleomedes  seemed  to  be 
 aware  that  this  should  be  taken  into  the  account) 
 does  not  appear  to  be  added  to  the  altitude,  and  the 
 circumstances,  less  important,  indeed,  though  not  to 
 be  neglected,  of  parallax  and  refraction,  were  altogeth- 
 er unknown.  Instances  of  the  incorrectness  of  gno- 
 tnonic  or  sciothenic  observations  may  be  given,  too 
 gross  to  be  ascribed  to  any  of  these  defects,  and  cvi- 
 Jently  owing  to  inaccuracy  in  the  observers.  Strabo 
 mentions,  in  no  less  than  four  places,  that  the  same 
 proportion  of  the  length. of  the  gnomon  to  its  solstitial 
 shadow  was  found  at  Byzantium  and  at  Marseilles, 
 though  the  former  was  situated  in  41°  IT,  and  the 
 other  in  43°  17'  of  latitude,  a  difference  of  no  less 
 than  136'  on  the  equator,  equal  to  158  English  miles  ; 
 and  this  fact  is  reported  on  the  authority  of  Hippar- 
 chus  and  Eratosthenes,  in  a  case,  too,  which  was  ob- 
 vious to  the  senses,  and  depended  neither  on  hypothesis 
 nor  calculation.  It  is  more  extraordinary  that  this  mis- 
 take, after  being  adopted  by  Ptolemy,  should  be  con- 
 tinued down  to  ages  not  very  remote  from  our  own. 
 A  still  greater  error  is  to  be  found  in  Strabo  respecting 
 the  situation  of  Carthage.  He  says  that  the  propor- 
 tion of  the  length  of  the  gnomon  to  that  of  the  equi- 
 noctial shadow  is  as  eleven  to  seven.  This  gives  by 
 plane  trigonometry  a  latitude  of  32°  20',  which  is 
 very  near  to  the  one  adopted  by  Ptolemy.  The  true 
 latitude  of  Carthage,  according  to  the  best  observa- 
 tions, is  36'=  5'.  The  error,  therefore,  is  272',  or  313 
 English  miles.  These,  and  other  remarks  which  might 
 be  here  made,  tend  fully  to  show,  that  the  ancient  ge- 
 ographers are  more  deserving  of  praise  when  they  ex- 
 press distances  by  measurements,  in  the  correctness 
 of  which  they  excelled,  than  when  they  give  them  by 
 calculations  or  observations,  the  principles  of  which 
 they  understood,  but  had  not  the  means  of  reducing  to 
 practice  (Quarlerhj  Review,  vol.  5,  p.  274,  seqq.) — 
 But  to  return  more  immediately  to  Strabo.  A  cir- 
 cumstance which  cannot  fail  to  surprise  us  is  the  lit- 
 tle success  with  which  Strabo's  work  appears  to  have 
 met  among  the  ancients,  as  far,  at  least,  as  we  may 
 infer  from  the  silence  which  their  writers  for  the  most 
 part  preserve  in  relation  to  his  labours.  Marcianus  of 
 Heraclea,  Athenwus,  and  Harpocration  are  the  only 
 ancient  authors  that  cite  him.  Pliny  and  Pausanias 
 do  not  even  appear  to  have  been  acquainted  with  him 
 by  name.  Josephus  and  Plutarch  make  mention  of 
 Strabo,  but  it  is  only  to  speak  of  his  Historical  Me- 
 moirs. The  celebrity  of  Strabo  dates  from  the  middle 
 ac^es  :  it  was  then  so  universal,  that  the  custom  arose 
 of  designating  him  by  the  sim|)le  title  of  "  the  Geog- 
 rapher.''— The  Geogra[)hy  of  Strabo  consists  of  two 
 parts:  the  first,  cosmographical,  giving  a  description 
 of  the  world,  and  comprising  the  first  and  second 
 books  ;  the  second,  chorographical,  furnishing  a  de- 
 tailed account  of  particular  countries.  This  latter  part 
 commences  v^ith  the  third  and  ends  with  the  seven- 
 teenth book ;  and  thus  consists  of  fifteen  books,  of 
 which  eight  are  devoted  to  Euro[)e,  six  to  Asia,  and 
 one  to  Africa. — The  first  hook  of  the  Geography  of 
 Strabo  contains  the  general  introduction  to  the  work. 
 In  it  the  author  shows  the  importance  and  utility  of 
 geographical  studies.  On  this  occasion  he  treats  of 
 the  extent  of  Homer's  geographical  knowledge,  and  de- 
 fends him  aoainst  his  detractors,  even  to  such  a  degree 
 1264 
 
 as  to  support  the  authority  of  the  fables  related  by  the 
 bard.  After  Homer,  Strabo  passes  in  review  the  vvorks 
 of  Anaximander,  HccatiEus,  Democrilus,  and  Eudoxus 
 of  Cnidus:  he  commends  the  latter  for  his  mathematical 
 acquirements  and  for  everything  he  relates  concertnng 
 Greece,  while  he  censures  him  for  being  fabulous  in  hia 
 account  of  the  Scythians.  He  names  Dicsearchus  amonif 
 the  writers  that  have  treated  of  general  geography, 
 whereas  we  merely  know  that  he  wrote  the  B(of  'E}Jm- 
 (Joe.  Strabo  ends  his  list  of  ancient  geograj)hers  with 
 Ephorns  of  Cumae  ;  Eratosthenes,  Hipparchus,  Po- 
 lybius,  and  Posidonius  forming  the  class  of  modern 
 ones.  His  criticism  on  the  first  two  books  of  Eratos- 
 thenes furnishes  him  with  an  opportunity  of  indulging 
 in  some  researches  relative  to  the  adventures  of  Ulys- 
 ses as  given  by  Homer,  the  degree  of  acquaintance 
 which  the  poet  had  with  Egypt,  and  also  the  revolu- 
 tions which  the  surface  of  the  earth  has  undergone. — 
 In  the  second  book  Strabo  continues  his  criticism  on 
 the  work  of  Eratosthenes,  and  takes  up  the  third 
 book  of  that  production.  He  makes  many  corrections 
 on  Hipparchus,  and  defends  Eratosthenes  against 
 many  unjust  criticisms.  He  then  proceeds  to  an  ex- 
 amination of  the  works  of  Posidonius  and  Polybius. 
 The  remainder  of  the  book  treats  of  the  knowledge 
 requisite  for  a  geographer,  and  particularly  that  of  a 
 mathematical  nature  :  he  then  treats  of  the  figure  of 
 the  earth,  its  general  divisions  and  climates.  He 
 states  that  the  earth  has  the  form  of  a  globe,  or, 
 rather,  seems  to  have  such  a  form.  The  habitable 
 portion  of  the  earth  resembles,  according  to  him,  a 
 chlamys  or  military  cloak  ;  it  is  contained  between 
 two  parallels,  one  of  which  passes  through  lerne  ot 
 Ireland,  and  the  other  through  what  is  now  the  island 
 of  Ceylon.  The  earth  is  immoveable  and  in  the  cen- 
 tre of  the  universe.  The  length  of  the  earth  from  the 
 equator  to  the  north  is  38,100  stadia,  that  of  the  hab- 
 itable world  29,000.  The  breadth  is  about  70,000 
 stadia.  The  Caspian  Sea  is  a  gulf.  The  Sacrum 
 Promontorium  (Cape  St.  Vineent)  is  the  most  wester- 
 ly point  of  Europe. — With  the  third  book  commences 
 the  chorographical  part.  Spain  is  the  first  country  that 
 occupies  Strabo's  attention  ;  he  first  describes  Ba;tica, 
 then  Lusitania  and  the  northern  coast  as  far  as  the 
 Pyrenees,  then  the  southern  coast  from  the  Columns 
 of  Hercules  to  the  same  range,  and,  finally,  the  islands 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  Spain,  the  Baleares,  Gades, 
 and  the  Cassiterides.  In  giving  the  description  of 
 this  country  Strabo  follows  three  writers  who  had 
 travelled  in  it.  The  first  of  these  is  Artemidorus, 
 who  boasted  of  having  pushed  his  way  as  far  as 
 Gades,  although  the  account  which  be  gives  of  the 
 phenomena  that  there  attended  the  setting  of  the  sun 
 does  not  seem  to  indicate  one  who  had  observed  them 
 himself:  this  traveller  was  very  exact  in  his  determi- 
 nation of  distances.  The  second  source  whence 
 Strabo  derived  his  information  concerning  Spain,  and 
 his  principal  guide  in  this  book,  is  Posidonius.  The 
 third  is  Polybius.  Strabo,  however,  notes  the  changes 
 which  had  taken  place  since  the  period  of  the  last- 
 mentioned  writer.  Independently  of  these  three  au- 
 thorities, our  geographer  cites  Ephorus,  Eratosthenes, 
 Timosthenes,  Asclcpiades  of  Myrlea,  and  Athenodo- 
 rus. — The  fourth  book  is  taken  up  with  the  descrip- 
 tion of  Gaul,  Britain,  Ireland,  Thule,  and  the  Alps. 
 After  having  treated  of  the  four  grand  divisions  of 
 Gaul,  Narbonensis,  Aquitania,  Lugdunensis,  and  Bel- 
 gica,  Strabo  gives  some  general  details  on  this  coun- 
 try and  its  inhabitants.  The  Alps  afford  him  an  op- 
 portunity of  treating  of  the  Ligurians,  Salyes,  Rha;lii, 
 Vindclicii,  Taurisci,  and  other  inhabitants  of  these 
 mountains.  For  his  description  of  Gaul  Strabo  could 
 easily  obtain  information  from  persons  who  had  filled 
 public  offices  in  that  country  (for  in  his  day  this  coun- 
 try was  completly  subject  to  the  Romans),  as  well  as 
 from  those  who  had  traded  thither.     In  other  respects 
 
8TRAB0. 
 
 STRABO. 
 
 CsEsar  was  his  principal  guide,  especially  in  the  de- 
 scription of  the  Silva  Arduenna,  and  the  account  of 
 the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Germans  in  general 
 He  makes  use,  also,  of  the  same  geographers  that  had 
 aided  him  in  the  third  book.  For  example,  his  de- 
 scription of  the  Rhone  and  hcii;,  of  their  embou- 
 chures, and  of  tlie  countries  lyitjg  between  these  rivers, 
 appears  to  be  taken  from  Artcmidorus.  hi  the  de- 
 scription of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  of  which  Ca;sar  does 
 not  treat,  Polybius  is  his  authority.  In  what  relates 
 to  the  ancient  constitution  of  Massilia  (Marseille)  he 
 has  followed  Polybius,  or  perhaps  Aristotle's  work  on 
 Governments.  Strabo,  it  is  true,  does  not  cite  the 
 latter  writer  on  this  occasion,  but  we  see  from  another 
 passage  that  he  had  consulted  his  work.  {Slraio, 
 ;3'21.)  The  other  accounts  that  lie  gives  respecting 
 Massilia  are  obtained  from  travellers  with  whom 
 Strabo  was  personally  acquainted.  He  gives  the  nar- 
 rative of  Timagenes,  according  to  whom  the  treasure 
 which  (Japio  found  at  Tolosa  made  part  of  the  plun- 
 der which  the  Tectosages  had  carried  ofT  from  Delphi. 
 With  respect  to  Britain,  the  description  of  which  fol- 
 lows that  of  Gaul,  as  this  country  was  not  yet  sub- 
 jected to  the  Romans,  Strabo  had  no  other  sources  of 
 information  than  the  fifth  book  of  Cassar's  Commen- 
 taries, and  the  verbal  accounts  of  travellers.  He 
 confesses,  also,  that  he  has  but  scanty  materials  for  Ire- 
 land. In  speaking  of  Thule,  he  makes  mention  of 
 Pytheas,  whom  he  unjustly  considers  as  a  writer  deal- 
 ing altogether  in  fable.  For  the  description  of  the 
 Alps,  and  of  their  inhabitants,  which  terminates  the 
 fourth  book,  his  authority  was  Polybius. — The  fifth 
 and  sixth  books  are  devoted  to  Italy.  The  sixth  ends 
 with  a  survey  of  the  Roman  power.  ^V'ith  the  ex- 
 ception of  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  Liguria,  Strabo  knew 
 Italy  from  personal  observation.  Polybius  is  his  prin- 
 cipal guide  among  the  writers  whom  he  cites,  partic- 
 ularly for  Cisalpine  Gaul  :  in  his  description  of  Ligu- 
 ria he  quotes  also  from  Posidonius.  What  he  says 
 respecting  the  origin  of  the  Etrurians  is  found  in  He- 
 rodotus :  his  account  of  the  early  kings  of  Rome  is 
 probably  abridged  from  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus. 
 In  treating  of  the  Etrurians,  he  makes  a  digression 
 concerning  the  Pelasgi,  and  cites  Ephorus,  Anticlides, 
 and  others.  For  the  description  of  Etruria  he  has  con- 
 sulted Polybius,  Eratosthenes,  and  ArtcmiHorus.  In 
 giving  the  dimensions  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  he  re- 
 fers, for  the  first  time,  to  an  author  whom  he  merely 
 cites  under  the  title  of  a  "  Chorographcr,"  but  whoin 
 he  distinguishes  fro.m  Eratosthenes,  Polybius,  and  Ar- 
 tcmidorus. This  is  a  Roman  writer,  fur  his  measure- 
 ments are  not  in  stadia,  but  in  miles  ;  and  perhaps  he  is 
 the  same  with  the  Agrippa  who  prepared  a  description 
 of  the  Roman  empire,  which  Auaustus  caused  to  be 
 placed  in  the  portico  commenced  by  his  sister.  {Plin., 
 3,  2.)  Fabius  Pictor  and  Cscilius  are  his  authorities 
 for  what  he  says  respecting  the  origin  of  the  Romans; 
 and  for  the  rest  of  Central  Italy  and  Magna  Grsecia, 
 he  follows  Polybius,  Arlemidorus,  Ephorus,  Timseus, 
 Apollodorus,  but,  above  all,  Antiocbus  of  Syracuse. 
 For  Sicily  he  cites  Posidonius,  Artemidorus,  Ephorus, 
 and  Timsus — The  seventh  book  commences  with  a 
 descrifition  of  the  countries  situate  along  the  Isler  or 
 Danube,  and  inhabited  by  the  Germans,  Cimbri,  Gets, 
 and  Tauri  ;  it  then  proceeds  to  notice  the  regions  be- 
 tween this  river,  the  Euxine,  the  Adriatic,  Illyricum, 
 and  Epirus.  The  chapters  on  Tlirace  and  Macedonia 
 are  lost.  Here  Strabo  was  unable  to  procure  as  good 
 authorities  as  in  the  preceding  books,  and  he  himself 
 confesses  that  he  was  wandering  in  the  dark.  Strabo 
 seems  to  have  had  under  his  eyes  an  historian  who 
 treated  of  the  wars  between  the  Romans  and  Ger- 
 mans, and  who  was  subsequent  to  Cajsar.  The  name 
 of  this  writer  apjiears  to  have  been  Asinius.  All  that 
 Strabo  relates  concerning  the  Cimbri  is  taken  from 
 Posidonius  ;  for  Ephorus  the  grammarian,  Apollodo- 
 7X 
 
 rus,  ^Tid  Hypsicrates  of  Amisa  are  only  cited  for  iso- 
 lated facts.  The  two  latter  appear  to  have  left  histo- 
 ries of  the  war  with  Mithradates.  Illyricum  is  one  of 
 the  countries  which  Strabo  himself  traversed.  —  From 
 what  he  says  on  the  subject,  we  see  that  in  Aristotle's 
 work  on  Governments,  the  constitutions  of  Acarnania, 
 Megaris,  /Etolia,  and  0()untia  were,  among  others, 
 considered.  Polybius  and  Posidonius  have  snp[)lied 
 Strabo  with  his  materials  for  these  regions  ;  Theo- 
 pompus  and  Ephorus  were  his  guides  in  Epirus,  and 
 Philochorus  in  what  relates  to  Dodona.  He  cites,  also, 
 a  certain  Cineas  ;  but  whatever  he  drew  from  this  other- 
 wise unknown  author  has  ])erished  with  the  end  of  the 
 book. — The  eighth  book,  and  the  two  immediately  fol- 
 lowing, contain  Greece  in  general,  and  the  Peloponne- 
 sus in  particular.  In  the  description  of  Greece,  Stra- 
 bo takes  the  Homeric  poems  for  a  basis.  In  the  cho- 
 rographical  part  he  consults  also  Ephorus  and  Polyb- 
 ius ;  in  the  physical  part,  Posidonius  and  Hipparchus ; 
 in  the  description  of  bays  and  harbours,  Artemidorus 
 and  Timosthenes  ;  and,  in  addition  to  all  this,  draws 
 largely  on  his  own  information  as  a  traveller  in  this 
 country.  Passing  on  to  the  description  of  Elis,  he 
 cites,  for  the  fabulous  ages.  Homer  and  his  commen- 
 tators, Apollodorus,  and  Demetrius  of  Scepsis,  as  well 
 as  the  other  early  poets  ;  he  relies  principally,  however, 
 upon  Ephorus.  The  other  writers  consulted  by  him 
 for  his  account  of  the  Peloponnesus  are  Philochorus, 
 Callisthenes,  Hellanicus,  Demetrius  of  Scepsis,  Theo- 
 pompus,  Thucydides,  and  Aristotle.  What  he  says  of 
 the  Achaean  league  is  taken  from  Polybius.  The  dis- 
 tances between  places  are  obtained  from  Artemidorus 
 and  Eratosthenes.  —  In  the  ninth  book  he  describes 
 Megaris,  Attica,  Boeotia^  Phocis,  Locris,  and  Thessa- 
 ly,  as  well  as  Hellas,  properly  so  called.  The  dimen- 
 sions of  Attica  are  taken  from  Eudoxus,  the  mathema- 
 tician; its  history  from  the  Atthidographi,  among  whom 
 he  cites  Philochorus  and  Androii.  He  has  consulted, 
 also,  the  memoirs  of  Demetrius  Phalcreus,  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  learning  the  condition  of  Attica  during  the  time 
 of  that  individual.  For  Boeotia,  Locris,  and  Phocis, 
 Ephorus  and  others  have  been  his  authorities.  What 
 he  gives  respecting  Tliessaly  is  a  kind  of  commentary 
 on  those  passages  in  Homer  where  mention  is  made  of 
 the  Thessalians. — The  tenth  book  is  occupied  with  the 
 rest  of  Greece ;  Eubcea,  Arcarnania,  Etolia,  Crete, 
 the  Cyclades,  Sporades,  6ic.  For  the  antiquities  of 
 Eubcea,  Homer  and  his  commentators  have  been  con- 
 sulted ;  for  its  history,  Theopompus  and  Aristotle. 
 When  he  treats  of  .Acarnania  and  .F^iolia,  he  follows 
 Homer  and  another  epic  poet,  probably  a  Cyclic  bard, 
 who  had  composed  an  .\lcinseonid,  which  Ephorus  had 
 under  his  eyes.  His  other  sources  of  information 
 were  Apollodorus,  Demetrius  of  Scepsis,  and  Artemi- 
 dorus. Before  passing  to  Crete,  Strabo  makes  a  long 
 digression  respecting  the  Curetes.  Among  the  crowd 
 of  writers  who  had  treated  of  the  subject,  he  distin- 
 guishes Demetrius  of  Scepsis,  from  whom  he  appears 
 to  have  derived  the  account  that  l:c  gives  respecting 
 the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Cretans  ;  he  refers,  also, 
 to  Archemachusof  Eubcea,  an  historian  of  an  unknown 
 epoch,  cited  frequently  b^  Athenaeus,  to  Pherecydes  of 
 Scyros,  Acusilas  of  .'^rgos,  who  gave  a  prose  transla- 
 tion of  the  poetry  of  Hesiod,  and  to  Stesimbroius  of 
 Thasos.  For  the  description  of  Crete  his  principal  au- 
 thority was  Sosicrates.  He  names  also  Eudoxus,  .Ar- 
 temidorus, Hieronymus  of  Cardia,  and  Staphylus  of 
 Naucralis.  What  relates  to  the  government  of  Crete 
 is  taken  from  Ephorus.  Tlie  account  of  the  islands  of 
 the  Ji^gean  is  the  result  of  Strabo's  own  observations. 
 — The  eleventh  book  begins  the  description  of  Asia. 
 Strabo  bounds  this  part  of  the  world  by  the  Tanais, 
 the  Ocean,  and  what  is  now  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  ;  but 
 he  believed  it  to  be  much  less  extensive  than  it  is  in  re- 
 ality. He  was  unacquainted  with  the  vast  regions  of 
 Asiatic  Russia,  and  with  those  of  Central  Asia  occu- 
 
 1.^65 
 
STRABO. 
 
 STRABa 
 
 pied  by  Tartar  and  Mongul  tribes  ;  be  knew  merely  a 
 portion  of  Soulhcrn  Asia.  What  lie  s'ates  respecting 
 the  shores  of  the  Pains  Majotis  and  E  jxine,  is  drawn, 
 for  the  most  part,  if  not  altogether,  from  the  narra- 
 tives of  travellers;  perhaps,  also,  frorn  his  own  per- 
 sonal observations.  For  the  measurement  of  distan- 
 ces he  follows  Artemidorus.  In  relation  to  Iberia  and 
 Albania,  Strabo  consulted,  besides  Artemidorus,  the 
 historians  of  tlie  Mithradatic  war,  of  whom  Theophancs 
 and  Posidonius  were  the  two  princijjal  ones.  To  these 
 must  be  added  Mctrodorus  of  Scepsis,  and  Hypsicrates 
 of  Amisa.  From  the  latter  is  taken  the  digression  re- 
 specting the  Amazons.  In  his  description  of  the  Caspi- 
 an Sea,  Strabo  has  followed  very  bad  guides.  His  prej- 
 udice against  Herodotus  prevented  him  from  following 
 that  historian,  who  knew  very  well  that  the  Caspian  is  a 
 lake,  and  who  gives  its  dimensions  with  tolerable  accu- 
 racy. The  opinion  which  made  it  a  gulf  of  the  North- 
 ern Ocean  originated  very  probably  with  the  followers 
 of  Ale.xander,  who  were  either  deceived  as  to  its  na- 
 ture, or  misled  by  national  vanity.  The  chief  author 
 of  Strabo's  mistake  relative  to  the  Caspian  appears 
 to  have  been  Patroclus,  the  admiral  of  Seleucus  and 
 Antiochus.  Pliny  states  that  this  navigator  entered 
 into  the  Northern  Ocean  by  the  way  of  the  Caspian 
 Sea  ;  but  Strabo  corrects  Pliny's  error,  by  making 
 Patroclus  merely  conjecture  that  one  might  sail  by  this 
 route  to  India.  The  description  of  Hyrcania  and 
 the  neighbouring  countries  is  taken  from  Patroclus, 
 Eratosthenes,  Aristobulns,  and  Polycletus  ;  that  of 
 the  Massagetffi  from  Herodotus  ;  that  of  Bactriana 
 from  Eratosthenes.  For  Parthia,  Strabo's  authority 
 was  ApoUodorus  of  Artemis,  whom  we  know  merely 
 through  the  medium  of  the  geographer,  but  who  would 
 si.eiii  to  have  lived  only  a  short  time  before  him,  since 
 he  had  written  the  history  of  the  war  between  the  Ro- 
 mans and  Parlhians.  An  extract  from  the  same  his- 
 torian, on  the  kingdom  of  Bactria,  is  almost  all  the  in- 
 formation that  is  given  us  respecting  this  state.  The 
 exact  ideas  which  Strabo  has  in  relation  to  the  Oxus 
 and  laxartes  are  owing  to  Patroclus  ;  the  fables  re- 
 specting the  Derbices,  Caspii,  and  Hyrcanii  are  found 
 in  Herodotus.  For  the  description  of  Media  he  cites 
 Apollonides,  and  especially  Q.  Dellius,  the  friend  and 
 companion  of  Marc  Antony,  whom  Plutarch  mentions 
 in  his  life  of  the  triumvir.  In  place  of  Q.  Dellius, 
 some  editions  of  Strabo  have  the  corrupt  reading  Adel- 
 phius. — In  the  twelfth  book  commences  the  description 
 of  Asia  Minor.  Here  Strabo  finds  himself  in  the 
 country  of  his  youth,  and  relates  much  that  he  him- 
 self had  seen.  As  regards  the  earlier  periods,  he  re- 
 lies on  the  authority  of  Hellanicus,  Ephorus,  Theo- 
 pompus,  the  historians  of  the  Mithradatic  wars,  and 
 particularly  Theophanes.  When  treating  of  the  Mys- 
 ians,  to  whom  some  writers  join  the  Lydians,  he 
 speaks  of  Xanthus  the  Lydian,  and  of  Menecrates  of 
 Elea,  his  contemporary,  who  had  written  an  'YAlrja- 
 TTOVTcaKT}  nepiodo^,  and  a  work  on  the  origin  of  cities 
 {nepl  KTLaeuv). — In  the  Ihirtccnlh  hook  Strabo  returns 
 towards  the  Propontis,  and  describes  the  seacoast  from 
 Cyzicus  to  Cuma3,  comprehending  the  Troad  and  /Eo- 
 lis.  To  this  he  adds  an  account  of  Lesbos,  which  lies 
 opposite.  From  thence,  turning  towards  the  interior, 
 he  stops  by  the  way  at  the  cities  of  Pergamus,  Sardis, 
 Hierapolis,  and  some  others.  In  his  description  of 
 the  Troad,  Homer  is  Strabo's  first  and  leading  author- 
 ity ;  the  commentators  on  the  poet,  namely,  Eudoxus 
 of  Cnidus,  Damastes  of  Sigaeum,  Charon  of  Lampsa- 
 cus,  Scylax,  and  Ephorus,  occupy  the  second  rank. 
 To  these  must  be  added  Callisthencs,  and  a  writer 
 born  in  this  country,  Demetrius  of  Scepsis,  who  had 
 written  thirty  books  on  sixty  verses  of  the  Iliad. 
 From  this  author  is  taken  the  story  about  Aristotle's 
 library.  {Vid.  Scepsis.)  Ephorus,  Thucydides,  and 
 Artemidorus  are  cited  for  distances  ;  Lycurgus  the 
 orator,  Hellanicus,  and  Menecrates  are  the  authorities 
 1266 
 
 for  the  different  theories  among  the  ancients  respect-' 
 ing  the  origin  of  the  Trojans. — In  ihe  fozirlte nth  Look 
 Strabo  is  still  occupied  with  Asia  Minor  ;  he  describes 
 Ionia,  with  the  islands  of  Samos  and  Chios  ;  the  Isle 
 of  Rhodes,  Caria,  Lycia,  Pamphylia,  Cilicia,  and  the 
 isle  of  Cyprus.  The  ancient  history  of  Ionia  is  taken 
 from  Pherecydes  of  Scyros,  and  the  poets,  such  as 
 Mimnermus  and  Hipponax.  On  the  subject  of  the 
 founding  of  Miletus,  our  author  consulted  Ephorus; 
 and,  as  regards  the  colonies  planted  by  this  city,  An- 
 aximines  of  Lampsacus.  The  history  of  Polycrates 
 is  taken  from  Herodotus  ;  that  of  the  Athenian  expe- 
 dition to  Samos,  from  Thucydides.  In  the  account 
 of  the  early  history  of  Ephesus,  Artemidorus  is  follow- 
 ed ;  in  the  case  of  the  other  cities,  Pherecydes  of 
 Scyros,  and  Ephorus,  as  well  as  the  poets.  The  his- 
 tory of  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus,  and  of  the  attempt 
 of  Aristonicus,  is  taken,  very  probably,  from  Posido- 
 nius. Strabo  had  himself  visited  these  countries  and 
 collected  materials  ;  the  same  was  the  case  with 
 Rhodes.  For  Caria  he  obtained  accounts  from  the 
 grammarian  ApoUodorus  ;  but  especially  frotn  a  cer- 
 tain Philip,  who  had  written  a  history  of  the  early 
 times  of  Caria.  The  authority  for  Lycia  was  proba- 
 bly Artemidorus,  whom  Strabo  cites  for  distances. 
 What  he  states  respecting  Cilicia,  and  of  the  great 
 number  of  slaves  sent  from  that  country  to  the  slave- 
 market  at  Delos,  in  order  to  supply  the  Roman  de- 
 mand for  this  unfortunate  class  of  beings,  appears  to 
 have  been  extracted  from  Posidonius.  It  is  certain, 
 at  least,  that  the  writer  from  whom  Strabo  obtained 
 these  particulars  was  subsequent  to  the  war  of  Pom- 
 pey  with  the  pirates.  Strabo  then  engages  in  a  dis- 
 cussion against  the  grammarian  ApoUodorus,  who,  ac- 
 cording to  him,  had  misunderstood  both  Homer  and 
 Ephorus  in  many  things  relating  to  Asia  Minor.  In 
 the  description  of  Cyprus  he  corrects  Damastes  and 
 Eratosthenes,  on  the  authority,  probably,  of  Artemi- 
 dorus.— In  the  fifteenth  hook  Strabo  commences  the 
 description  of  Asia  beyond  Taurus,  or  Southern  Asia  ; 
 this  book  is  devoted  to  India  and  Persia.  Here  our 
 author  describes  regions  which  he  never  saw.  He 
 himself  acknowledges  that  all  that  was  known  in  his 
 day  respecting  India  was  full  of  obscurity  and  contra- 
 diction. His  own  idea,  too,  concerning  the  shape  of 
 this  country,  is  altogether  false  ;  he  represents  it  as  a 
 rhomboid,  the  northern  and  southern  sides  of  which 
 measured  3000  stadia  (nearly  115  leagues)  more  than 
 the  eastern  and  western.  He  had,  consequently,  no 
 knowledge  whatever  of  the  peninsula  of  Decan.  In 
 the  whole  of  India  he  was  only  acquainted  with  three 
 cities  :  Taxila,  Patala,  and  Palibothra.  If,  however, 
 the  geographical  information  relative  to  this  country 
 be  meager  and  unsatisfactory,  the  deficiency  is,  in 
 some  degree,  compensated  by  the  very  full  account 
 that  is  given  of  the  manners  and  institutions  of  the 
 people.  Besides  Eratosthenes,  who  is  his  principal 
 guide,  Strabo  has  derived  much  information  from  the 
 historians  of  Alexander  and  his  successors,  particular- 
 ly Patroclus  and  Aristobulus,  whom  he  considers 
 most  worthy  of  reliance  ;  after  them  he  ranks  Megas- 
 thenes  and  Nearclius  :  he  gives  little  credit  to  Onesic- 
 ritus,  Daimachus,  and  Clitarchus.  In  treating  of  the 
 course  of  the  Ganges,  he  gives  the  opinion  of  Artemi- 
 dorus :  he  cites  the  account  given  by  Nicolaus  Damas- 
 cenus  of  his  interview  with  the  ambassadors  sent  from 
 Taprobana  to  Augustus  :  he  quotes,  also,  a  certain 
 Megillus,  who  had  written  on  the  culture  of  rice. — 
 After  India,  Strabo  describes  the  Empire  of  Persia. 
 He  comprehends,  under  the  name  of  Ariana,  the  prov- 
 inces situate  between  the  Indus  and  a  line  drawn 
 from  the  Caspian  Gates  (Pylae.  Caspise)  to  the  embou- 
 chure of  the  Persian  Gulf.  In  his  description  of  the 
 coasts  of  Persia  he  follows  Nearchus  and  Onesicritus  ; 
 and  with  regard  to  the  countries  in  the  interior,  he  re- 
 marks, that  he  has  nothing  more  to  say  respecting 
 
STRABO. 
 
 STR 
 
 them  than  Eratosthenes  had,  who  himself  derived  his 
 own  information  from  the  historians  of  Alexander. 
 For  the  dimensions  of  the  country  he  cites  Breton 
 and  Dioijnetes.  His  authorities  for  the  description 
 of  Persia  Proper  (or  Persis)  are  Eratosthenes  and 
 Polyclitus  :  his  account  of  Persepolis  and  Pasargada 
 is  borrowed  from  Aristobulus,  and  is  found  also  in 
 Arrian.  In  speaking  of  the  worship  of  fire,  he  gives 
 us  to  understand  that  he  has  been  an  eyewitness  of  the 
 ceremony,  since  he  remarks  that  Cappadocia,  a  jirov- 
 ince  over  which  he  had  travelled,  contained  many  Ma- 
 gi, or  worship[)ers  of  fire  {TTvpaiUoi).  The  remainder 
 of  his  account  of  Persian  manners  is  taken  from  He- 
 rodotus and  Xenophon.  —  The  sixteenth  look  termi- 
 nates the  account  of  Asia  :  it  contains  a  description 
 of  Assyria,  a  name  under  which  Sirabo,  besides  Adia- 
 bene,  comprehends  also  Babylonia  and  Meso[)Otamia  ; 
 to  this  succeeds  an  account  of  Syria,  together  with 
 Fhcenicia  and  Palestine  ;  and  last  of  all  comes  Arabia. 
 The  description  of  Aturia,  or  the  Assyrian  province  in 
 which  was  situate  the  city  of  Ninus,  is  taken  from  an 
 historian  of  Alexander,  who,  together  with  Herodotus, 
 Polyclitus,  and  Eratosthenes,  has  also  been  his  author- 
 ity for  Babylonia.  What  he  states  concerning  the 
 Parthian  empire  is  probably  taken  from  Posidonius  ; 
 /or  mention  is  made,  in  the  course  of  it,  of  the  war 
 waged  by  Pompey  against  Tigranes.  The  account 
 which  he  gives  of  the  stone  dikes,  by  which  the  As- 
 syrians had  fettered  the  navigation  of  the  Tigris,  is 
 found  also  in  Arrian,  and  appears  to  have  been  bor- 
 rowed from  Aristobulus  and  Nearchus.  The  picture 
 of  Babylonian  manners  is  traced  after  the  original 
 drawn  by  Herodotus,  and  also  after  that  of  Posidonius. 
 Strabo  hid  travelled  in  Syria,  and  therefore  speaks  of 
 it  as  an  eyewitness.  He  gives  the  distances  accord- 
 ing to  Eratosthenes  and  Artemidorns  ;  in  the  history 
 of  the  Seleucidw  he  follows  Posidonius.  We  find 
 here  a  remarkable  passage  respecting  Moses  and  the 
 Jews,  taken  from  some  autlior  who  vvrote  after  the 
 capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey. — \^'hat  Strabo  men- 
 tions under  the  head  of  Arabia  is  taken  from  Eratos- 
 thenes, with  the  Exception  of  the  account  that  is  given 
 of  the  western  part  of  the  country  ;  this  appears  to 
 have  been  drawn  from  Artemidorns,  who  had  himself 
 copied  it  from  Agatharchidas.  The  book  concludes 
 with  accounts  derived  l)y  Sirabo  from  conversations 
 with  travellers,  particularly  with  the  Stoic  philosopher, 
 Athenodorus  of  Tarsus,  the  friend  aTid  preceptor  of  Au- 
 gustus, who  had  visited  Pelra,  the  chief  city  of  the 
 Nabathsi,  and  in  company  with  .Elius  Galhis,  with 
 whom  Strabo  became  acijuainted  in  Egypt. — The  sev- 
 rnleenlh  and  last  hook  comprehends  Egypt,  Ethiopia, 
 and  Libya,  which  we  call  Africa,  and  which  comprised 
 under  the  name  of  Libya  the  countries  of  Cyrenaica, 
 Mauritania,  and  the  territories  of  (yarihage.  The  di- 
 vision of  the  Roman  empire  into  provinces  terminates 
 the  work.  What  Strabo  relates  concerning  the  Nile 
 is  obtained  from  Eratosthenes,  Eudoxus,  and  Ariston. 
 Strabo.  moreover,  was  personally  acquainted  with  the 
 course  of  the  stream  as  far  as  the  Cataracts.  His  ac- 
 count of  the  Ptolemies  is  based  upon  the  testimony  of 
 Polybius,  and  in  part,  very  probably,  upon  his  conlin- 
 ualor,  Posidonius.  In  the  narrative  of  Alexander's 
 march  across  the  desert  to  the  oracle  of  Ammon,  Stra- 
 bo follows  Callisthencs  and  the  other  companions  of 
 the  prince.  The  recital  of  Petronius,  who,  during  the 
 reign  of  .\ugustus.  carried  on  war  against  the  Ethio- 
 pians, the  work  of  Agatharchidas,  and  the  history  of 
 Herodotus,  are  the  sources  whence  he  draws  his  ma- 
 terials for  an  account  of  the  countries  lying  to  the 
 south  of  Egypt.  With  regard  to  Libya,  and  particu- 
 larly the  Oases  and  the  temple  of  Ammon,  he  takes 
 Eratosthenes  for  his  guide,  and  for  tha  distances,  Ar- 
 lemidorus  ;  while  for  the  historical  portion,  Posido- 
 nius, in  all  likelihood,  served  as  authority.  He  cites 
 also  Timoslhenes  and  Iphicrates,  writers  otherwise  un- 
 
 known, who  had  treated  of  the  botany  of  Libya.  Al- 
 though, in  treating  of  Mauritania,  he  makes  mention  of 
 the  two  Jubas,  he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  acquaint- 
 ed with  the  work  of  the  younger  on  Africa  ;  for,  had 
 he  known  it,  he  would  certainly  have  furnished  us  with 
 many  mteresling  selections  relative  to  the  interior  of 
 the  country. — There  exists  an  abridgment  or  Chrestom- 
 alhy  of  the  entire  work  of  Strabo,  made  subsequent- 
 ly to  A.D.  980,  by  which  the  text  of  the  main  work 
 has  often  been  corrected,  the  latter  having  come  to  us 
 in  a  very  corrupt  state.  Besides  the  Chrestomathv, 
 several  collections  of  extracts  from  Strabo  have  reach- 
 ed our  time  :  they  are  still  in  manuscript,  and  to  be 
 found  in  Eurojjean  libraries.  By  the  help  of  these,  the 
 text  of  the  large  work  might  be  still  farther  corrected. 
 — Strabo  wrote  also  an  historical  work,  a  continuation 
 of  Polybius,  which  he  himself  cites  under  the  title  of 
 'T-ofiv/i/iaTa  LOTopiKa  (Hisloricnl  Memoirs).  These 
 memoirs  were  carried  down  a  little  farther,  it  would 
 seem,  than  the  continuation  of  the  same  historian  made 
 by  Posidonius  ;  for  it  appears  from  Plutarch  that  the 
 death  of  Caesar  was  mentioned  in  them. —  Among  the 
 most  useful  editions  of  Sirabo  may  be  mentioned  that 
 of  Casaubon,  Gcncv-,  1587,  fol.,  reprinted  at  Paris  hy 
 Morel,  after  the  death  of  Casaubon,  1620,  fol.  ;  that  of 
 Almeloveen,  Amst.,  1708,  fol.,  which  is  a  reprint  of 
 (^asaubon's,  enriched  with  notes  from  various  scholars  ; 
 that  of  Siebenkees,  continued  by  Tzschucke,  and  af- 
 ter him  by  Friedemann,  but  never  completed,  Lips., 
 1796-1818.  7  vols.  8vo  ;  and  that  of  Coray,  Paris, 
 1816-19,  4  vols.  8vo.  This  last  contains  the  best 
 Greek  text  :  it  has  no  Latin  version,  but  is  accompa- 
 nied by  an  excellent  commentary  and  several  tables. 
 The  Oxford  edition  of  Strabo,  by  Falconer,  1507,  2 
 vols.  fol..  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  typooraphy,  but  a 
 very  unfortunate  model  of  accurate  scholarship  :  it  is 
 noted  also  for  having  given  rise  to  an  angry  controver- 
 sy between  the  Edinburgh  Review  and  some  of  the 
 scholars  of  England. — The  French  translation  of  Stra- 
 bo, undertaken  at  the  command  of  government,  and 
 executed  by  Du  Thcil  and  Coray,  enjoys  a  high  repu- 
 tation. The  translation,  with  the  critical  and  histori- 
 cal notes,  was  assigned  to  the  two  scholars  just  named  ; 
 and  M.  Gossellin  had  charge  of  the  formation  of  the 
 maps  and  the  geographical  illustrations.  It  appeared 
 during  1805-20,  and  is  in  5  vols.  4to.  An  able  re- 
 view of  it  is  given  in  the  London  Quarterly,  vol.  5,  p. 
 273,  sc(jq.     {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.    Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.   278, 
 
 .SCJf}  ) 
 
 Str.ito,  I.  a  philoso})her  of  Lampsacus,  disciple 
 and  successor  in  the  school  of  Theoplyastus,  or  the 
 peripatetic  school, of  which  he  took  charge  B.C.  286, 
 and  who  continued  over  it  for  eighteen  years,  with  a 
 hiirh  reputation  for  learning  and  eloquence.  Ptolemy 
 Philadel[)hus  made  him  his  ])rcrep;or,  and  re[)aid  hia 
 services  with  a  royal  present  of  eighty  talents.  In 
 his  opinion  concerning  matter,  Strato  departed  essen- 
 tially from  the  svstetn  both  of  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
 and  he  is  said  to  have  nearlv  a))proachcd  that  svstem 
 of  atheism  which  excludes  the  deity  from  the  forma- 
 tion of  the  world.  Cicero  states  that  this  philosopher 
 conceived  all  Divine  power  to  be  sealed  in  nature, 
 which  possesses  the  causes  of  production,  increase, 
 and  diminution,  but  is  wholly  destitute  of  sensation 
 and  figure.  He  taught,  also,  that  the  seat  of  the  soul 
 is  in  the  middle  of  the  brain,  and  that  it  onlv  acts  bv 
 means  of  the  senses.  (E>i field's  Hi.itnry  of  Philoso- 
 fhy,  vol.  I,  p.  295.  seq  )  — H-  A  physician  of  Bcrv- 
 tus,  a  pupil  of  Erasistratus,  and,  like  him,  a  deter- 
 mined enemy  to  bleeding.  He  became  the  head  of 
 a  school.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p  408.)— 
 III.  A  licentious  poet,  a  native  of  Sardis.  Many  epi 
 grams  of  his  are  preserved  in  the  Greek  Anthology 
 {Srhbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  50.) 
 
 Str.\tox.      Vid.  Strato. 
 
 Stratonicb,  wife  of  Aniiochus  I.  (Soter),  king  c ' 
 
 1267 
 
STR 
 
 STY 
 
 Syria,  and  previously  the  wife  of  Seleucus.  (Con- 
 Bult  remarks  at  the  commencement  of  the  article  An- 
 tiochus.) 
 
 Stratonicea,  I.  a  city  of  Caria,  between  Alabanda 
 and  Atlinda,  and  one  of  the  three  most  iniporlaiii 
 cities  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  It  was  founded 
 and  fortified  by  Antiochus  Soler,  and  called  after  his 
 wife  Stratonice.  The  modern  Eskiliissar  marks  the 
 ancient  site.  It  would  seem  from  Stephanus  of  Byzan- 
 tmm  (s.  V.  'E,i<aT7jaia),  that  an  earlier  city  calkd  Irdias, 
 and  also  Hecatesia  and  Chrysaoris,  occ\ipied  the  spot 
 where  Stratonicea  was  afterward  founded.  In  con- 
 sequence of  some  restorations  by  Hadrian,  this  latter 
 city  received  the  name  of  Hadrianopolis,  but  did  not 
 long  retain  it.  (Hierocl.  —  Strabo,  660. — Pohjh.,  'SO, 
 19. — Plin.,  5,  29.)  Ptolemy  gives  the  name  of  the 
 place  as  Stratonice.  {Leake's  Tour,  p.  235.  —  Chis- 
 huU,  Antiq.  Asial.,  p.  155.) — II.  A  city  near  Mount 
 Taurus,  called  Stratonicea  ad  Taurum  CErpaTovLKeta 
 7/  Ttpbc  Tu)  Tavp(^},  to  distinguish  it  from  the  former. 
 (Straho,  I.  c.) 
 
 Stratoms  TuRRis,  a  city  of  Judaea,  afterward 
 called  Gajsarea  by  Herod,  in  honour  of  Augustus. 
 (  Vid.  Caesarea.) 
 
 Strongyle,  one  of  the  Lipari  isles,  or  the  first  of 
 the  ^oliae  Insulae  to  the  northeast.  It  was  called 
 Scrongyle  {I.Tpoyyv?ii])  by  the  Greeks  on  account  of 
 its  round  figure,  whence,  by  corruption,  the  modern 
 name  Slromholi.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  extraordinary 
 volcano,  which  is  the  only  one  known  whose  erup- 
 tions are  contmued  and  uninterrupted.  The  island  is, 
 in  fact,  merely  a  single  mountain,  whose  base  is  about 
 nine  miles  in  circumference.  The  crater  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  anciently  situated  on  the  summit  of  the 
 mountain  ;  it  is  now  on  the  side.  From  various  tes- 
 imonies  collected  by  Spallanzani,  he  concludes  that 
 he  volcano  has  burned  for  more  than  a  century  where 
 it  now  does,  without  any  sensible  change  in  its  situa- 
 tion. The  same  writer  is  of  opinion  that  the  material 
 origin  and  increase  of  Stroml)oli  is  to  be  attributed 
 to  porphyry,  which,  melted  by  subterraneous  confla- 
 grations, and  rarefied  by  elastic  gaseous  substances, 
 arose  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and,  exlendmg  itself 
 on  the  sides  in  lava  and  scoria;,  has  formed  an  island 
 of  its  present  size.  The  earliest  eruptions  of  Strom- 
 boli,  authenticated  by  historical  accounts,  are  prior 
 to  the  Christian  era  by  about  290  years,  the  date  of 
 the  reign  of  Agathocles  of  Syracuse.  {Sckol.  ad 
 Apoil.  Rhod.,  4,  761.)  It  burned,  likewise,  in  the 
 time  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius.  After  this  latter  pe- 
 riod, a  long  succession  of  ages  ensued,  during  which, 
 from  the  want'of  historical  documents,  we  are  ignorant 
 of  the  state  of  Stromboli.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
 we  again  know  that  it  ejected  fire,  which  it  has  con- 
 tinued to  do  to  the  present  lime.  The  ancients  made 
 this  island  the  residence  of  ^Eolus,  monarch  of  the 
 winds  ;  and  Pliny  gives  us  the  gcrme  of  the  whole  fa- 
 ble when  he  states  that  the  inhabitants  could  tell  three 
 days  beforehand,  from  the  smoke  of  the  volcano,  what 
 winds  were  going  to  blow.  (Plin.,  3.  8.) — Strongyle 
 was  inhabited  as  early  as  the  days  of  Thucydides. 
 About  twenty-five  years  ago,  Stromholi  did  not  con- 
 tain more  than  two  hundred  inhabitants  ;  but  at  pres- 
 ent more  than  two  thousand  are  collected  in  a  single 
 town.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  9,  pi.  2,  p.  465.— ^/a^ 
 ic-Brun.  vol.  7,  p.  .75(1.) 
 
 STR()PH.\nEs,  small  islands  off  the  coast  of  Elis, 
 in  the  Ionian  Sea.  They  were  two  in  number,  and, 
 according  to  Slrabo,  belonged  to  the  territory  of  Cypa- 
 rissa.  {Strah.,  359.)  They  were  first  called  PlotK, 
 but  took  their  name  of  Slrophadcs  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  Zetes  and  Calais,  the  sons  of  Boreas,  having 
 returned  from  thence  (aTpe^u,  "  to  turn")  after  they 
 bad  driven  the  Harpies  thither  from  the  table  of  Phin- 
 eus.  {Apoll.  Rhod.,  2,  295.)  According  to  the  scho- 
 liast, however,  the  islands  w^re  so  called  because  the 
 1268 
 
 sons  of  Boreas  turned  to  Jupiter  .^nesius,  whose  al- 
 tar stood  on  a  promontory  of  Cephallenia,  and  sup- 
 plicated him  for  aid  to  overtake  the  Harpies.  (Heyne, 
 ad  Apnllod  ,  1,  7,  21.) — These  islands  are  known  to 
 navigators  at  the  present  day  under  the  name  of  Stri- 
 vali.     (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  121.) 
 
 StrophIus,  I.  a  king  of  Phocis.  He  married  a  sis- 
 ter of  Agamemnon,  by  whom  he  had  Pylades,  cele- 
 brated for  bis  friendship  with  Orestes.  After  the 
 murder  of  Agamemnon  by  Clytemnestra  and  ^'Egis- 
 thus,  the  king  of  Phocis  educated  at  his  own  house, 
 with  the  greatest  care,  his  nephew,  whom  Electra  had 
 secretly  removed  from  the  dagger  of  his  mother  and 
 her  adulterer.  {Pausan.,  2,  29.  —  Hygin  ,  fab.,  1, 
 17.) — II.  A  son  of  Pylades  by  Electra,  the  sister  of 
 Orestes. 
 
 Strvmox,  a  large  river  of  Thrace,  forming  the  bound- 
 ary of  that  country  on  the  side  of  Macedonia,  {ScyL, 
 Pcri'pL,  p.  27.)  It  rises  in  the  chain  of  Mount  Sco- 
 mius,  and,  after  a  course  of  nearly  two  hundred  miles, 
 through  the  territory  of  the  Paeonians,  the  MaBdi,  Sinti, 
 and  Edones,  which  were  Thracian  tribes,  falls  into  the 
 gulf  to  which  it  communicated  the  name  of  Strymoni- 
 cus,  now  Golfo  di  Contcssa.  {Slrabo,  331  )  Pliny 
 states,  that  the  Strymon  had  its  source  in  Mount  Hw- 
 mus,  and  that  it  formed  seven  lakes  before  it  proceed- 
 ed on  its  course  (4,  10).  The  Strymon  gave  its  name  ' 
 to  a  wind  which  was  prevalent  in  the  gulf  into  which 
 that  river  discharges  itself,  and  blew  with  great  vio- 
 lence from  the  north.  {Herod.,  8,  118.)  The  Stry- 
 mon was  also  celebrated  for  its  eels.  {Antiph.,  ap. 
 Alhen.,  7,  54.)  According  to  Lucas,  the  modern 
 name  of  this  stream  is  Karasou,  or  the  "  Black  River ;'' 
 but  some  maps  term  it  the  river  of  Orphano,  from  a 
 small  town  near  its  mouth.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  l,p.  289.) 
 
 Stvmphalis,  I.  a  region  of  Macedonia,  south  of 
 Orestis,  and  annexed  to  the  former  country  upon  the 
 conquest  of  that  kingdom  by  the  Romans.  {Liv  ,  45, 
 30.) — II.  Palus,  a  lake  of  Arcadia,  near  the  towr.  of 
 Stymphalus,  and  once  the  fabled  haunt  of  birds,  thence 
 called  Stymphalides.  {ApoUod.,  2,  5,  6. — Schol.  ad 
 Apoll.  Rhod.,  2,  1054.)  Pausanias  imagines  that  these 
 came  from  Arabia,  as  there  existed  some  of  the  same 
 name  in  that  country  (8,  22).  The  Stymphalides, 
 confounded  by  others  with  the  Harpies,  are  said  to  feed 
 on  human  flesh,  and  were  fabled  to  have  been  de- 
 stroyed by  Hercules.  The  Stymphalian  lake  was  sup- 
 posed to  communicate  with  the  Erasinus,  a  small  river 
 ofArgolis.  {Herod., e, 76.— Strabo,37l.)  The  Em- 
 peror Hadrian  caused  water  to  be  conveyed  from  a 
 fountain  in  the  Stymphalian  territory  to  Corinth. 
 {Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  309.) 
 
 Stymphalus,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  northeast  of  Or- 
 chomenus,  and  near  the  confines  of  Achaia.  In  the 
 time  of  Pausanias  it  was  annexed  to  Argolis  by  the 
 voluntary  choice  of  its  inhabitants;  but  it  was  an  Ar- 
 cadian town  at  the  epoch  of  the  Trojan  vvar,  having 
 been  founded,  according  to  the  traditions  of  the  country, 
 long  before  that  |)eriod  by  Stymphalus,  a  descendant 
 of  Areas.  {Pausan.,  8,  22  )  Its  antiquity  is  also  at- 
 tested by  Pindar,  who  calls  it  the  mother  of  Arcadia. 
 {Olymp.,  6,  167.)  The  remains  of  Stymphalus  are 
 about  an  hour  to  the  west-southwest  of  Zaraka,  and 
 stand  upon  a  rocky  eminence  rising  I'rom  the  northeast 
 side  of  the  lake.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p. 
 309.) 
 
 Stvx,  I.  a  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethvs.  She 
 married  Pallas,  by  whom  she  had  Victory,  Strength, 
 Luck  {Zi'/Xog. — Heyric  ad  Apollod.,  1,  2,  4,  not.  crit.), 
 and  Violence.  {Apollod.,  I.  c.) — II.  A  celebrated  tor- 
 rent in  .\rcadi3,  which  precipitated  itself  over  a  rocky 
 height  in  the  vicinity  of  Nonacris,  to  join  the  river 
 Crathis.  The  waters  of  the  Styx  were  said  to  be  poi- 
 sonous, and  to  possess  the  property  of  dissolving  met- 
 als and  other  hard  substances  exposed  to  their  actiou 
 
SUA 
 
 SUE 
 
 The  only  thing  in  which  it  could  be  kept  was  a  mule's 
 hoof;  every  oiher  kind  of  vessel  sp\a  imiiiedraiely  on 
 receiving  it.  Hence,  say  the  ancient  writers,  it  was 
 in  a  mule's  hoof  that  some  of  tiiis  water  was  sent  to 
 Asia  l>y  Aniipater,  for  the  purpose  of  poisoning  Alex- 
 ander. {I'ltii,  30,  53.— .li//a«,  H.  A.,  10,  40. — fus- 
 tm,  12,  li.— Quint.  Curt.,  10,  \0,  i5. —Sencc, 
 Qucest.  Nat.,  3,  25. —  Vilruv.,  8,  3. —  Varro,  ap.  Solin., 
 c.  7.)  Herodotus  relates  that  Cieonienes,  king  of 
 Sparta,  assembled  in  this  quarter  the  Arcadian  chiefs 
 whom  he  had  united  in  a  plot  against  that  city,  and 
 made  them  swear  by  this  "  infernal"  stream  that  they 
 would  persevere  in  their  resolutions.  The  historian 
 describes  the  Nonacrian  Styx  as  a  scanty  rill,  distilling 
 from  the  rock,  and  falling  into  a  hollow  basin  surround- 
 ed by  a  wall  (6,  75).  Pausanias,  however,  represents 
 the  .Styx  as  falling  from  one  of  the  most  elevated  sum- 
 mits that  he  had  ever  seen  (S.  17,  5).  and  this  state- 
 ment agrees  with  the  accounts  of  modern  travellers. 
 (  Von  Slackelbcvff,  La  Gricc,  Vucs  fittoresqucs,  &c., 
 livrai.t.  xvii.,  Paris,  1831. — Pouqucville,  Voyage  de 
 la  Gre.cc.  vol.  5.  p.  458.)  On  comparing  the  language 
 of  Herodotus  with  that  of  Pausajiias  in  another  [)as- 
 sage  (S,  18.  2),  it  would  appear  that  the  historian 
 jiierely  speaks  of  the  Stvx  after  it  has  descended  from 
 the  mountain-height.  The  modern  name  of  the  Styx 
 is  Mavrovcro,  or  "Black  ^^'ater,"  an  appellation  de- 
 rived from  the  dark  colour  of  the  rocks  over  which  it 
 flows.  {Von  Stackclherg,  I.  c. — Pouqucville,  I.  c.) 
 Various  etymologies  are  assigned  for  the  ancient  name. 
 Servius  derives  it  from  the  hateful  and  gloomy  nature 
 of  the  stream  (utto  too  arvyepov. — Scrv.  ad  Virg., 
 JEn.,  6,  133).  According  to  another  account,  when 
 Ceres,  in  the  course  of  her  wandering  to  recover  her 
 lost  daughter,  was  pursued  by  Neptune,  and  compelled 
 to  change  herself  into  a  mare,  she  came  to  this  Arca- 
 dian stream,  and,  having  beheld  her  altered  form  in  it, 
 was  so  disgusted  at  the  sight  that  she  regarded  its  wa-' 
 ters  with  lialred,  and  made  them  black  of  hue  (tcrry- 
 yi/at:  re  Kai  ro  i'dop  jii'/.av  e-oirjae. — Plot.,  Hejthast., ' 
 ap.  Phot.,  cod.,  190  ;  vol.  1,  p.  148,  ed.  Bel:k.).—m. 
 A  fabulous  river  of  the  lower  world,  the  idea  of  which 
 was  in  all  probability  borrowed  from  the  Styx  of  Arca- 
 dia. It  was  said  to  encompass  the  lower  region  nine 
 times  in  its  winding  course  (Virg.,  Gcorg.,  4.  480), 
 and  is  described  by  the  poets  as  a  broad,  dull,  and  slug- 
 gish stream  of  but  little  depth,  whence  the  expression 
 "Stygian  lake"  ( Ji'«.,  6,  134),  "Stygian  fen"  (JSn., 
 6,  323),  and  the  like,  so  frequently  applied  to  it.  Ac- 
 cording to  the  popular  belief,  the  gods  regarded  this 
 stream  with  so  much  reverence  that  they  were  accus- 
 tomed to  swear  by  it,  and  deemed  such  an  oath  the 
 most  binding  in  its  nature.  (JEn.,  f>,  324.)  ^f.  how- 
 ever, any  deity  ever  violated  an  oath  thus  taken,  the 
 punishment  was  believed  to  be  deprivation  of  nectar 
 and  ambrosia,  and  the  loss  of  all  heavenly  privileges 
 for  the  space  of  ten  whole  years.  Hesiod,  in  a  curious 
 passage  of  the  Theogony,  gives  the  particulars  of  this 
 punishment  very  minutely,  but  makes  it  apply  to  the 
 case  of  celestial  [)erjury  in  general,  not  merely  to  the 
 violation  of  an  oath  taken  in  the  name  of  the  infernal 
 river.  According  to  the  [)oct,  when  any  one  of  the 
 gods  is  guilty  of  perjury.  Iris  is  sent  down  to  Hades, 
 and  brinas  up  thence,  in  a  golden  vase,  some  of  the 
 chilling  water  of  this  cekbraicd  stream.  The  ofTend- 
 ing  deity  is  compelled  to  swallow  the  noxious  draught, 
 and  thereupon  he  lies  outstretched  for  one  whole  year, 
 without  scr.se  or  motion,  nor  partakes  of  the  nectar 
 and  ambrosia.  At  the  end  of  this  year  other  troubles 
 are  in  store  for  hiin.  For  nine  whole  years  is  he  now 
 separated  from  the  society  of  the  gods,  neither  attend- 
 ing at  the  council  of  Jove  nor  partaking  of  the  banquet. 
 In  the  tenth  year  his  punishment  ends,  and  he  is  re- 
 stored 10  his  former  privilcge.s.  (Hcs.,  Theog.,  783, 
 $cqq. — Compare  Hnm.,  II.,  14,  272. — Hcyne,  ad  lor.) 
 SoADA,  the  goddess  of   Persuasion,  called   Piiho 
 
 (Tlei66)  by  the  Greeks.     ITcrmesianax  made  her  one 
 of  the  Graces.     {Hermes.,  ap.  Patisan.,  9,  35.) 
 
 SuASTUs,  a  river  of  India,  falling  into  the  Indus 
 near  the  modern  city  o{  A/lock.  D'Anville  makes  the 
 modern  name  of  the  Suastus  to  be  the  Swat.  Man- 
 nert  supposes  this  to  be  the  same  river  with  that  called 
 Choaspcs  by  Strabo  and  Curtius,  and  the  name  Suas- 
 tus, which  is  used  by  Ptolemy  in  speaking  of  this 
 stream,  to  be  an  error.  {Mannert,  G'eogr.,  vol.  5,  pt. 
 1,  p.  30.) 
 
 SuHLicius  Pons,  the  most  ancient,  and  also  the 
 first  in  order,  if  we  ascend  the  river,  of  all  the  bridges 
 thrown  over  the  Tiber  at  Rome.  It  was  called  Sub- 
 lieius  because  constructed  of  wood,  and  resting  on 
 piles  or  stakes  {subliea:.  —  Fesl,  s.  v.  Sublicius). 
 This  bridge  was  built  by  Ancus  Marcius  {Liv.,  1,33), 
 but  was  rendered  more  celebrated  for  the  gallant  man- 
 ner in  which  it  was  defended  by  Horatius  Codes 
 against  the  forces  of  Porsenna.  For  some  centuries 
 alter,  this  bridge  was,  through  motives  of  religious  feel- 
 mo,  kept  constantly  in  repair  with  the  same  materials 
 of  which  it  had  been  originally  framed,  without  the  ad- 
 dition of  a  single  nail  for  the  purpose.  This  contin- 
 ued, as  we  learn  from  Dio  Cassius  (50,  9),  till  towards 
 the  end  of  the  republic,  when  it  was  rebuilt  of  stone 
 by  the  censor  Paulus  /Emilius  Lepidus.  {Plul.,  Vit. 
 Num.)  Julius  Capilolinus  states  (c.  8)  that  it  was 
 repaired  by  Antoninus  Pius  in  marble.  {Cramer's 
 Aiie.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  467.) 
 
 Suburb.*,  one  of  the  most  populous  and  busy  parts 
 of  ancient  Rome.  If,  however,  the  Suburra  was  one 
 of  the  most  frequented  parts  of  Rome,  it  was  also  the 
 most  profligate.  (Proper/.,  4,  7,  15,  seq. — Horat., 
 Epod..  5,  57.— Martial,  6,  66.)  The  term  Suburra 
 is  sometimes  used  synonymously  with  that  of  Rome, 
 especially  by  Juvenal.  {Sat,  3,  5—76,  10,  1.55.) 
 Julius  Cffisar  is  said  to  have  first  lived  in  this  part  of 
 Rome,  and  in  rather  an  humble  dwelling.  (Sueton  , 
 Vit.  Jul.,  46.)  Varro  gives  various  etymologies  for 
 the  name  {L.  L  ,  4,  8),  but  they  all  appear  unsatisfac- 
 tory.    (Crayner's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1.  p.  369.) 
 
 SucRO,  I.  now  Xuear,  a  river  of  Hispania  Tarra- 
 conensis,  in  the  territory  of  the  Coiitestani.  It  rises  in 
 Mount  Idubcda,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean. 
 {Mela,  2,  6.—Plin.,  3,  3.)— II.  A  city  of  Hispania 
 Tarraconensis,  in  the  territory  of  the  Edetani,  and  at 
 the  mouth  of  the  river  Sucro.  It  lay  between  Carthago 
 Nova  and  the  river  Iberus.  It  was  in  rums  as  early  as 
 the  days  of  Pliny.  The  modern  Cullera  marks  its 
 site.     (Plin.,  3,  3.—Liv.,  28,  26.— Id  ,  29,  19.) 
 
 SuEssA,  I.  Pometia,  an  ancient  Volscian  city,  the 
 site  of  which  must  ever  remain  a  matter  of  mere  con- 
 jecture. It  appears  to  have  been  in  the  neighbourhood 
 of  the  PomptinsB  Paludes,  to  which  it  gave  name. 
 This  town  was  taken  and  sacked  by  Tarquinius  Su- 
 perhus,  and  the  booty  is  said  to  have  furnished  him 
 with  the  means  for  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Capi- 
 tol. (Liv.,  1,  53.)  It  was  again,  at  a  later  period, 
 taken  and  sacked  by  the  consul  Servilius,  and  from 
 that  period  we  lose  all  traces  of  it  in  history.  Suessa 
 Pometia  was  a  colony  of  Alba,  according  to  Dionysius 
 (1,4)  and  Virgil  {.En.,  6,  77':^ —Cramer  s  Anc.  Italy 
 vol.  2,  p.  95.  seq.). —  II.  Aurunca,  the  capital  of  the 
 Aurunci.     (Vid.  Anrunci.) 
 
 SuEssioNKS,  a  people  of  Gallia  Belgica,  between 
 the  Remi,  Veromaiidui.  Vadocasses,  Meldi,  and  Cata- 
 launi.  Their  capital.  Augusta,  afterward  Suessiones, 
 now  Soissons,  stands  on  Gxona,  now  the  Aisne. 
 They  were  subdued  by  Ca»sar.  {Gets.,  B.  G.,  8,  6. — 
 Liv.,  Epit.,  104— /Ym.,  4,  17.) 
 
 Suetonius,  I.  C.  Paulinus,  a  Roman  commander, 
 who  in  the  rci^n  of  Claudius,  made  war  upon  the 
 Mauri,  and  was  the  first  Roman  general  that  crossed 
 Mount  Atlas  with  an  army.  He  cofrimanded  subse- 
 quently in  Britain,  and  there  crushed  a  dangerous  re- 
 bellion     He  wrote  an  account  of  his  campaign  in  Af- 
 
 1269 
 
SUE 
 
 SUL 
 
 rica. — II.  Tranqnilliis,  a  Komnti  historian,  born  about 
 the  beginning  of  tlie  reign  of  Vespasian.  His  father, 
 Suetonius  Lenis,  was  tribune  of  the  thirteenth  legion 
 in  the  war  of  Otho.  The  son  followed  at  Rome  the 
 jjrofession  of  a  graiinnarian  and  rhetorician.  He  be- 
 came nititnately  acquainted  with  the  youni'er  l^liny, 
 who  reconnnendcd  him  to  Trajan,  and  procured  for  him 
 the  office  of  tribune,  and  the  Jus  trium  Uhnroium, 
 though  he  had,  in  fact,  no  is.sue.  Under  the  Emperor 
 Hadrian  he  was  appointed  private  secretary  {jMiii;islcr 
 Epislolariun),  but  was  degraded  from  this  post  for 
 having  been  wanting  in  respect  to  the  Empress  Sabi- 
 iia.  The  year  of  his  death  is  not  known. — The  prin- 
 cipal work  that  reinams  to  us  of  Suetonius  is  his  Bi- 
 ography of  tiio  lirst  twelve  Csesars,  In  some  inanu- 
 scri|)ts  these  lives  are  divided  into  eiglit  l)ook.s,  an  ar- 
 rangement most  probably  made  by  the  copyists.  The 
 object  of  Suetonius  was  not  so  much  to  give  a  history 
 of  the  political  and  military  events  that  occurred  during 
 the  reign  of  each  of  these  princes,  as  to  delineate  their 
 private  characters,  their  virtues  and  vices,  in  a  word, 
 the  whole  of  their  private  life.  His  narratives  do  not 
 follow  a  chronological  order  :  the  division  is  rather  one 
 resulting  directly  from  the  subject  matter  ;  as,  for  ex- 
 ample, the  birth  of  each  emperor,  his  manner  of  life, 
 occupations,  amusements,  &c.  Suetonius  traces  his 
 characters  with  remarkable  fidelity,  and,  according  to 
 St.  Jerome,  with  the  same  freedom  with  which  they 
 lived;  '■'■■pari  liber/ale  ac  ipsi  vixenint."  Like  Plu- 
 tarch, he  seems  to  have  collected  his  materials  from 
 several  very  different  authorities  ;  but  he  had  one 
 great  advantage  over  the  Greek  biographer  in  the  su- 
 perior knowledge  which  he  naturally  possessed  of  the 
 laws  and  usages  of  the  Romans  ;  so  that  on  those  sub- 
 jects his  testimony  is  much  more  trustworthy.  We 
 do  not  see  any  grounds  for  the  charge  of  malignity 
 which  has  been  sometimes  brought  against  him  ;  on 
 the  contrary,  he  appears  to  have  recorded  the  virtues 
 and  vices  of  the  Cassars  with  great  impartiality  ;  and 
 certainly  it  is  not  the  fault  of  Suetonius  if  their  vices 
 seem  to  pre[)onderate.  He  merely  gives  a  plain  and 
 candid  account  of  facts,  many  of  them  otherwise  un- 
 known, but  of  the  greatest  importance  for  history. 
 His  style  is  simple,  concise,  and  correct,  without  either 
 ornament  or  affectation. — Besides  these  biographies, 
 we  have  from  the  pen  of  Suetonius  an  account  of  dis- 
 tinguished grammarians,  and  a  fragment  of  a  similar 
 work  on  celebrated  rhetoricians.  To  him  also  are  as- 
 cribed lives  of  Terence,  Horace,  Lucan,  Pliny  the 
 elder,  Juvenal,  and  Persius.  These  are  probably  sup- 
 posititious. Suelonius  wrote  also  other  works,  on  the 
 Schools  of  .the  Greeks,  on  Rome  and  its  institutions, 
 n  genealogy  of  Roman  families,  &c.,  liut  these  are  all 
 lost. — The  best  editions  of  Suetonius  are,  that  of  Pi- 
 ,iscus,  Leovard.,  1714,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  that  of  Oudendorp, 
 L.  Bat.,  1751,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  that  of  Ernesti,  Ltps., 
 1775,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  but  particularly  that  of  Crusius, 
 Lips.,  1816-18,  3  vols.  8vo.  {Sch'dU,  Hisf.  Lit. 
 Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  387  ) 
 
 SuEvi,  a  powerful  people  of  Germany,  consisting 
 of  many  tribes,  and  inhabiting  the  eastern  section  of 
 the  country,  from  the  Danube  to  the  Sinus  Codanus. 
 Among  the  separate  tribes  composing  this  nation, 
 Ptolemy  enumerates  the  Langobardi,  Semnones,  and 
 Angli.  The  Catti,  Mareomanni,  Ubii,  Sygainbri,  &c  , 
 were  often  included  under  the  same  general  appella- 
 tion. In  process  of  time,  the  names  of  the  several 
 tribes  became  gradually  more  prevalent,  that  of  Suevi 
 less  and  less  frequent,  until  the  term  became  h.xed  as 
 a  designation  of  those  that  had  settled  in  what,  at  the 
 present  day,  is  denominated  Simhia.  (dce.'i.,  B.  G., 
 4,  1,  seqr/.  —  Tar.,  Germ.,  38,  45.  —  Pliny,  4,  14. — 
 Pcrlz.,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  1.  101),  283,  519.)  Lu- 
 can calls  them  Flavi,  from  their  having,  in  general, 
 reddish  hair,  which  their  name  is  likewise  said  to  sig- 
 nify. {Lur.iin,  2,  51.) 
 1270 
 
 SuiD.\s,  a  Greek  lexicographer,  of  whom  so  littl* 
 is  known  that  some  have  doubted  whether  a  person  of 
 this  name  ever  existed.  His  name,  however,  is  found 
 in  all  the  MSS.  of  his  Lexicon,  and  is  often  mentioned 
 by  Eustathius  in  his  commentary  on  Homer.  He 
 seems  to  have  flourished  between  900  and  1025  A.D. 
 He  is  the  author  of  a  Lexicon  compiled  from  various 
 authors.  It  difl'ers  essentially  from  other  works  of 
 this  kind,  in  giving  not  oidy  the  explanation  of  words, 
 but,  at  the  same  time,  an  historical  notice  of  the  most 
 celebrated  authors,  and  extracts  from  their  works. 
 On  account  of  the  peculiar  uniformity  of  style  which 
 prevails  in  the  biographical  notices,  it  has  been  con- 
 jectured that  vSuidas  borrowed  them  all  from  some 
 Onomaslicon  ;  and,  from  an  expression  which  he  him- 
 self uses  in  the  article  Hesychius,  some  have  been  led 
 to  believe  that  a  work  of  the  latter  furnished  him  with 
 his  chief  materials.  In  making  his  c9mpilation,  how- 
 ever, Suidas  has  shown  great  negligence,  and  a  total 
 want  of  judgment  and  critical  talent.  He  cites  from 
 vitiated  and  corrupt  readings;  he  confounds  individ- 
 uals and  authors  ;  and  oftentimes  his  citations  do  not 
 prove  what  he  intends.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the 
 carelessness  of  copyists  may  not  have  been  the  cause 
 of  many  of  these  errors.  Notwithstanding  its  errors 
 and  imperfections,  it  is  a  very  useful  book,  and  a  store- 
 house of  all  sorts  of  erudition.  It  furnishes  an  ac- 
 count of  poets,  orators,  historians,  &.c.,  with  many 
 passages  from  ancient  authors  whose  works  are  lost. 
 The  best  edition,  until  of  late,  used  to  be  that  of  Kus- 
 ter,  Caniab.,  1705,  3  vols.  fol.  In  1834,  however, 
 a  new  edition  of  Kuster's  work  appeared  from  the 
 Clarendon  press,  Oxford,  in  2  vols,  fol,  by  Gaisford, 
 which  is  in  every  respect  far  superior  to  the  former. 
 In  the  same  year,  Bernhardy,  a  German  scholar,  com- 
 menced re-editing  Gaisford's  labours,  in  the  4to  form, 
 at  the  Halle  press.  This  latter  work  is  still  in  a  course 
 ofpublication.  {Hoffmann,  Lex.  Biblinoraph.,  vol.  3, 
 p.  650.— .S'tAbV/,  Hist.  Lit.  Or.,  vol.  6,  p.  289.) 
 
 SuioNEs,  a  people  of  Scandinavia,  famed  for  their 
 skill  in  navigation  as  early  as  the  days  of  Tacitus 
 (Germ.,  44).  They  were  the  earliest  inhabitants  of 
 what  is  now  called  Sweden,  which  country  in  early 
 times  was  called  Sviar.  From  them  Sweden,  in  the 
 middle  ages,  received  the  appellation  of  Sveonland  and 
 Suconia.  {Bisehoff  and  Mollcr,  Wbrterb.  der  Geogr., 
 p.  935  ) 
 
 Sulla.      Vid.  Sylla. 
 
 SuLMo,  I.  a  city  of  Latium,  which  stood  on  the 
 site  of  the  modern  Scrmonetta  Vecchia.  It  must  not 
 be  confounded  with  the  place  of  the  same  name  situ- 
 ated among  the  Pcligni.  Virgil  probably  alludes  to  it 
 when  he  gives  the  name  of  Sulmo  to  a  Latin  warrior. 
 {jEn.,  10,  517.)  In  Pliny's  time  no  veslige  of  it  re- 
 mained.— II.  A  city  of  the  Petisni,  about  seven  miles 
 southeast  of  Corhnium,  now  Sulmone.  It  was  the 
 birthplace  of  Ovid,  who  has  made  us  acquainted  with 
 that  fact  in  more  than  one  passage.  The  improbable 
 story  of  its  having  been  founded  by  Solymus,  a 
 Phrygian,  one  of  the  coinp.inions  of  .^'Eneas,  which 
 we  find  in  the  same  poet  {Fast.,  4,  79),  is  re-echoed 
 by  Silius  Italicus  (9,  76).  We  learn  from  Florus  (3, 
 21)  that  this  city  was  exposed  to  all  the  vengeance  of 
 Sylla  for  having  been  attached  to  the  cause  of  Mari- 
 na. It  was  not,  however,  destroyed  by  that  general, 
 since  we  soon  after  hear  of  its  having  fallen  into  the 
 hands  of  Cssar,  together  witli  Corfinium.  {Belt. 
 Civ  ,  1,  16.)  Frontmus  stales  that  it  was  a  Roman 
 colony.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Ita/y,  vol.  1,  p.  334.) 
 
 SuLPiTi.<,  a  poetess  in  the  time  of  Domitian,  who 
 wrote  a  poem  on  the  banishment  of  the  philosophers 
 by  that  emperor.  We  have  remaining  a  Satire  in 
 seventy  verses,  entitled  "  De  edicto  Domitiani,  qua 
 Phifosnphos  urhe  cjecerit."  It  is  found  in  many  edi- 
 tions of  Persius  and  Juvenal,  and  even  of  Ausonius. 
 This  is  supposed  to  be,  iu  fact,  the  production  of  Sui- 
 
S  UL 
 
 SUN 
 
 pitia.  <B'dhr,  Gcsch.  Rom.  Lit.,  p.  181.)  The  Sul- 
 piiia  here  alluded  to  must  not  be  confounded  with 
 another  in  the  linie  of  Tibullus.  To  the  latter  are  as- 
 cribed by  some  critics  a  portion  of  the  elegies  in  the 
 fourlh  book  of  Tibullus,  namely,  from  the  2d  to  the 
 12th  iticlusive.  (Barthc,  Advcrs.,  59,  16. — Brouck- 
 hu.i,  ad  TibulL,  p.  384  ) 
 
 Sut.iMiiA.  Lkx,  I.  Mditaris,  by  P.  Sulpitins,  the  trib- 
 une, A.U.C.  665.  It  ordained  that  the  prosecution 
 of  the  Mithradaiic  war  should  be  taken  from  Sylla  and 
 vested  in  Marius. — II.  Another,  dc  Henalu,  by  Servius 
 Sulpitius,  the  irilnine,  A.U.C.  665.  It  recjuired  that 
 no  senator  should  contract  a  debt  over  2000  denarii 
 (;i;;)00).  —  III.  Another,  de  Cicitatc,  by  P.  Sulpitius, 
 the  tribune,  A.U.U.  665.  That  the  Italian  allies, 
 who  had  obtained  the  rights  of  citizenship,  and  had 
 been  formed  into  eight  new  tribes,  should  be  distribu- 
 ted throughout  the  thirty-five  old  tribes  ;  and  also  that 
 the  maiiumiiled  slaves,  who  used  formerly  to  vote  only 
 in  the  four  city  tribes,  might  vote  in  all  the  tribes. 
 
 SuLi'iTl.t  Gens,  a  distinguished  patrician  fannly  at 
 Rome,  the  two  principal  branches  of  which  were  the 
 Camerini  and  Galbae. 
 
 Sulpitius,  I.  Servius  Sulpitius  Rufus,  a  distin- 
 guished patrician,  brother-in-law  of  C.  Licmius  Stolo. 
 He  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  talents  and  virtues, 
 and  filled  many  important  otTiccs  in  the  state.  Sul- 
 pitius was  four  times  military  tribune  with  consular 
 power  ;  the  last  of  these  times  in  400  B.CJ. — II.  Ser- 
 vius Sulpitius  Pasticus,  was  consul  U.C.  362,  with  Li- 
 cinius  Stolo.  Scenic  exhibitions  are  said  to  have 
 been  first  given  during  this  year,  and  it  was  during 
 this  same  year  that  Sulpitius  drove  a  nail  into  the 
 side  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  on  account  of  the  ceas- 
 ing of  a  pestilence. — III.  Publius  Sulpitius  Savcrio, 
 Was  consul  B.C.  279,  with  P.  Decius  Mus,  and  de- 
 feated Pvrrhus  at  Asculum. — IV.  Servius  Sulpitius 
 Galba.  (Vjd.  Galba  II.  and  III.) — V.  Caius  Suljiitius 
 Gallus.  ( ['id.  Gailus  I.) — VI.  Publius  Sulpitius,  a  trib- 
 une of  the  commons  in  122  B.C.,  and  a  person  of 
 most  turbulent  character.  As  a  jiartisan  of  iMarius, 
 he  brought  forward  a  law  to  de|)rive  Sylla  of  tlie 
 charge  of  the  war  against  Mithradates,  and  to  vest  it  in 
 Marius.  He  also  proposed  another  law  respecting  the 
 Italian  allies.  {Vid.  Sulpitia  Lex  III.)  While  these 
 matters  were  pending,  he  paraded  the  streets,  sur- 
 rounded by  armed  bands,  and  a  set  of  rufiians  whom 
 he  called  his  anti-senate  :  the  Italians  also  streamed 
 in  extraordinary  numbers  to  the  city,  to  await  the  pas- 
 sage of  the  law  in  which  they  were  interested.  On 
 their  first  insertion  into  the  register  of  citizens,  eight 
 new  tribes  had  been  created  for  them,  whose  sulTrages 
 were  only  then  demanded  when  the  old  tive-and- thirty 
 gave  no  decision.  Sulpitius  now  proposed  by  iiis  law 
 to  distribute  them  throughout  all  the  tribes.  Rome 
 became  thereupon  a  scene  of  confusion  and  riot ; 
 both  parties,  the  old  citizens  and  the  Italians,  fought 
 with  sticks  and  clubs  in  the  streets  and  forum  ;  and 
 the  law  was  near  being  passed  by  force,  when  Sylla, 
 who  remained  at  Home,  came  to  the  aid  of  the 
 senatorial  [)arly.  The  senate  was  assembled  in  the 
 temple  ol  (.."astor,  and  regularly  besieged  by  the  peo- 
 ple because  it  had  caused  to  be  announced  the  meas- 
 ure usual  ill  extreme  confusion  of  an  interruption  of 
 all  public  business.  In  the  tumult  that  arose,  Sylla's 
 son-inlaw  was  slain  ;  his  colleague  escaped  the 
 hands  of  the  mob  with  difficulty  ;  and  Sylla  himself, 
 to  save  his  life,  was  compelled  to  take  oil'  the  restric- 
 tion upon  public  business  merely  to  be  let  out  of  the 
 city.  He  betook  himself  to  his  army,  while  Sulpitius 
 carried  his  law,  and  the  appointment  also  of  .Marius  in 
 Sylla's  stead,  as  commander-in-chief  against  .Mithra- 
 dates.  Sylla  now  marched  upon  Rome,  and  the  city 
 was  stormed  like  a  hostile  town.  Sulpitius  the  trib- 
 une perished,  a  price  having  been  set  ujion  his  head, 
 and  Marius  himself  narrowly  escaped  being  taken. - 
 
 I  VII.  Servius  Sulpitius  Rufus,  a  contemporary  and 
 friend  of  Cicero's,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  law- 
 yers of  his  time.  He  had  been  a  pupil,  in  judxial 
 studies,  of  F.  Balbus  and  C.  Aquilius  Gallus.  Ac- 
 cording to  the  testimony  of  Cicero,  Sulpitius  was  the 
 first  that  gave  a  scientific  form  to  Roman  jurispru- 
 dence ;  in  other  words,  he  carried  it  back  to  first 
 principles.  He  was  consul  50  B.C.,  with  M.  Mar- 
 cellus.  Of  his  legal  writings  {Keprehcnsa  M.  Sca- 
 volce  capita  ;  Dc  lesta>tdis  sacns ;  De  dote,  &c.), 
 and  also  of  his  speeches,  nothing  remains.  (Consult 
 Olto,  "de  Vita,  studii.'i,  scriptis,  ct  hmwnbus  Scrv.  H. 
 Ruji,"  Traj.  ad  Rkcn.,  1737  )— VIII.  C.  Sulpitius 
 Apollinaris,  a  native  of  (,'arthage,  and  grammarian, 
 flourished  in  the  time  of  the  Antonines.  We  have 
 nothing  from  him  relative  to  the  branch  of  knowledge 
 which  he  professed  to  teach.  I'he  verses,  however, 
 that  are  found  at  the  commencement  of  Terence's 
 plays,  as  arguments  to  the  respective  pieces,  are  sup- 
 jjosed  to  be  his.  We  have  also  an  epigram  of  his  on 
 the  order  which  Virgil  gave  to  burn  the  ..•tneid. 
 (Bunna/ui,  Anlkol.  Lut.,  vol.  1,  p.  352.  —  Sck'dll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  308  )— IX.  Sulpitius  Se- 
 verus,  an  ecclesiastical  historian,  born  about  363  A.D., 
 in  Aquitania.  W'e  have  from  him  a  sacred  history 
 (Hi.itoria  Sacra),  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to 
 A.D.  410  ;  a  Life  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  and  some 
 dialogues  and  letters.  I'he  latest  edition  of  his  united 
 works  is  that  of  Prato,  VeroncB,  1741-5,  2  vols.  4to. 
 
 SuM.MANL's,  an  Etrurian  deity,  whose  worship  was 
 adopted,  probably  very  early,  at  Rome.  A  temple 
 was  erected  to  him  at  the  Circus  Maximus  in  the  time 
 of  the  war  with  Pyrrhus  (Ovid,  Fast  ,  6,  731),  and  liis 
 earthen  statue  stood  on  the  top  of  the  temple  of  Jupi- 
 ter on  the  Capitol.  (Cic,  Dio  ,  1,  10.)  IN'octurnal 
 lightnings  were  ascribed  to  Summanus,  as  diurnal  ones 
 were  to  Jupiter  {I'lin.,  2,  53. — August.,  Civ.  D  ,  4, 
 23) ;  and  when  trees  had  been  struck  with  lightning, 
 the  Fratres  Arvalcs  sacrificed  to  him  black  wethers. 
 {Gruter,  Inscrip.,  p.  121.)  He  may,  therefore,  have 
 been  only  a  god  of  the  night  ;  but  we  are  assured  that 
 he  was  Pluto  and  Dispiter.  {Mart.,  Capcli,  2,  40  — 
 Arnoh.,  adc.  Gent.,  37.)  Varro  joins  him  with  Vul- 
 canus,  as  one  of  the  gods  worshipped  by  the  Sabine 
 Tatius.  (L.  L.,  4,  p.  22.)  As  his  Roman  name 
 was  probably  a  translation,  the  usual  derivation  of  it, 
 Summus  Manium,  is  perhaps  founded  on  truth.  His 
 festival,  the  Summanaha,  was  on  the  20th  of  June, 
 when  cakes  shaped  like  a  wheel  were  oii'ered  to  hiin. 
 {Kcightlcy''s  Mytliuhigy,  p.  530,  scij.) 
 
 Su.N'iu.M,  a  celebrated  promontory  of  Attica,  forming 
 the  extreme  point  of  that  province  towards  the  south. 
 Near  the  promontory  stood  the  town  of  the  same  name, 
 with  a  harbour.  (Fausan.,  1,  1.)  Sunium  was  held 
 es[)ecially  sacred  to  Minerva  as  early  as  the  time  of 
 Homer  (Ot/.,  3,  27S),  and  here  the  goddess  had  a 
 beautiful  temple,  whence  her  appellation  of  Sunias. 
 The  promontory  of  Sunium  is  frequently  mentioned  in 
 Grecian  history.  Herodotus,  in  one  place  (4,  S)9), 
 calls  it  the  Suniac  angle  (juv  yovvbv  rbv  "LovviaKov), 
 Tiiucydidcs  reports  that  it  was  fortified  by  the  Athe- 
 nians after  the  Sicilian  expedition,  to  protect  their 
 vessels  which  conveyed  corn  from  Eubrea,  and  were, 
 consequently,  obliged  to  double  the  promontory  (8,4). 
 — Travellers  who  have  visited  Sunium  inform  us  that 
 this  edifice  was  originally  decorated  with  six  columns 
 in  front,  and  probably  thirteen  on  each  side.  Spohn  re- 
 ports, that  in  his  time  nineteen  columns  were  still 
 standing.  The  whole  edifice  was  of  white  marble, 
 and  of  the  most  perfect  architecture. — According  to 
 Hobhouse  (v  )1.  1,  p.  342,  Am.  cd.),  nine  columns, 
 without  their  entablatures,  front  the  sea,  in  a  line  from 
 west-northwest  to  cast-sout!ieast ;  three  are  stand- 
 ini'  on  the  side  towards  the  land,  on  the  north  ;  and 
 two,  with  a  pilaster,  next  to  the  corner  one  of  the 
 northern  columns,  towards  the  sea  on  the  east ;  and. 
 
 1271 
 
sus 
 
 SY  A 
 
 there  is  a  solitary  on  >  on  the  southeastern  side.  This 
 last  has  obtained  for  the  proinontory  the  name  of  Cape 
 Colonni,  or  the  Cape  of  the  Column.  'J'he  whiteness 
 of  the  marble  has  been  preserved  probably  by  the  sea- 
 vapour,  in  the  same  manner  as  Trajan's  triumphal 
 arch  at  Ancona.  The  rock  on  which  the  columns 
 stand  is  precipitous,  but  not  inaccessible,  nor  very 
 high.  It  bears,  accorduig  to  Hobliouse,  a  strong  re- 
 semblance to  the  picture  in  P'alconer's  "Shipwreck  ;" 
 but  the  view  given  in  Anacharsis  places  the  temple 
 just  in  the  wrong  position.  Sunium  was  considered 
 by  the  Athenians  an  important  post,  atid  as  much  a 
 town  as  the  Pira-us,  but  could  not  have  been  very 
 large,  according  to  Hobhouse,  who  is  of  opinion  that, 
 when  Euripides  styles  it  the  rich  rock  of  Sunium  in 
 his  Cyclops,  he  alludes  to  the  wealth  of  the  temple, 
 not  the  lertility  of  the  soil.  The  same  writer  justly 
 considers  the  assertion  of  Pausanias  lo  be  unworthy 
 of  belief,  when  he  states  that  the  spear  and  the  crest 
 of  the  statue  of  Minerva  in  the  Acropolis  might  be 
 seen  from  yuiiium,  a  straight  line  of  nearly  30  miles. 
 — Sir  W.  Cell  observes  that  "nothing  can  exceed 
 the  beauty  of  this  spot,  commanding  from  a  portico  of 
 white  marble,  erected  in  the  happiest  period  of  Gre- 
 cian art,  and  elevated  300  feet  above  the  sea,  a  pros- 
 pect of  the  Gulf  of  ^.gina  on  one  side,  and  the  ^ge- 
 an  on  the  other."  (Itin.,  p.  82  )  Dodwell  states  that 
 "  the  temple  is  supported  on  its  northern  side  by  a 
 regularly  constructed  terrace  wall,  of  which  seventeen 
 layers  of  stone  still  remain.  The  fallen  columns  are 
 scattered  about  below  the  temple,  to  which  they  form 
 the  richest  foreground  The  walls  of  the  tower,  of 
 which  there  are  a  few  remains,  may  be  traced  nearly 
 down  to  the  port  on  the  southern  side  ;  the  greater 
 part  of  the  op|)osite  side,  upon  the  edge  of  the  preci- 
 pice, was  undefended,  except  by  the  natural  stremrth 
 of  the  place  and  the  steepness  of  the  rock  ;  the  walls 
 were  fortified  with  square  towers."  {Tour,  vol.  1,  p. 
 540. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  377.) 
 
 SuPERUM  M.4RB,  a  name  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  as  sit- 
 uate above  Italy.  The  name  of  Marc  Infcrum  was 
 applied  for  the  o[)posite  reason  to  the  sea  below  Italy. 
 
 SuRENA,  a  powerful  officer  under  Orodes,  king  of 
 Parthia,  and  who  had  aided  in  raising  that  monarch  to 
 the  throne.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  storming 
 of  Seleucia,  and  was  afterward  appointed  commander 
 of  the  Parthian  forces  against  Crassus,  whom  he  over- 
 threw in  the  memorable  victory  at  Charrae,  and  after- 
 ward entrapped  and  put  to  death.  Surena  himself 
 was  not  long  after  put  to  death  by  Orodes.  {Plat., 
 Vit.  Crass.) 
 
 SuRRENTUM,  a  city  of  Campania,  on  the  lower  shore 
 of  the  Sinus  Crater,  and  near  the  Proinontorium  Mi- 
 nervse.  The  place  is  reported  to  have  been  of  very 
 ancient  date,  and  was  said  to  have  derived  its  name 
 from  the  Sirens,  who,  as  poets  sung,  in  days  of  yore 
 made  this  coast  their  favourite  haunt,  and  had  a  tem- 
 ple consecrated  to  them  here.  {Strah.,  247.)  Sur- 
 renlum  appears  to  have  become  a  Roman  colony  in 
 the  reign  of  Augustus.  The  wine  of  the  Surrentine 
 hills  was  held  in  great  estimation  by  the  ancients. 
 (Ovid,  Met.,  15,  709.  — Martial,  13,  110.  — .S7a/., 
 Sylv.,  3,  5.)  Pliny,  however,  relates  that  Tiberius 
 used  to  say  of  this  wine,  that  physicians  had  agreed 
 to  give  it  a  name,  but  that,  in  reality,  it  was  only  a  bet- 
 ter sort  of  vinegar.  {Plin.,  14,  IC.)  The  modern 
 name  of  Surrentum  is  Sorrento,  and  it  is  celebra- 
 ted as  the  birthplace  of  Tasso,  and  admired  for  the 
 exquisite  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  the  salubrity  of 
 its  climate.     (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  183.) 
 
 SusA  (-orum),  a  celebrated  city  of  Susiana  in  Per- 
 sis,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Eulasus  or  Choaspes. 
 (Herod.,  5,  52.)  The  founder,  according  to  Herodo- 
 tus, was  Darius;  whereas  Strabo  gives,  from  Grecian 
 traditions,  the  name  of  Tithonus,  the  father  of  Mem- 
 non ;  and  Memnon  himself  is  said  to  have  built  the 
 1273 
 
 palace  at  Susa,  afterward  called  Memnoniuni  or  Mem>- 
 nonia.  Susa  itself  is  sometimes  called  Alemnonia. 
 (  Vid.  Memnon  I.)  Susa  was  120  stadia  in  circumfer- 
 ence ;  according  to  Polyclitus  200  stadia  ;  and  the  ac- 
 count of  the  last-mentioned  writer,  which  Strabo  quotes, 
 that  the  city  had  no  walls,  deserves  full  credit,  since, 
 in  all  the  movements  of  Alexander  and  his  successors 
 in  this  quarter,  it  is  constantly  represented  as  an  unfor- 
 tified city.  (Strabo,  727.)  When,  therefore,  men- 
 tion is  made  in  other  writers  of  walls,  we  must  refer 
 what  is  said  to  the  citadel  merely.  This  citadel  was 
 termed  Memnonium,  and  is  represented  as  a  place  of 
 great  strength.  Alexander  found  great  treasures  liere. 
 (Strabo,  731.)  We  are  informed  by  Strabo  that  Susa 
 or  Susan  meant  in  Persian  "a  lily,"  and  that  the  city- 
 was  so  called  from  the  abundance  of  these  flowers  that 
 grew  in  the  vicinity.  Perhaps  the  appellation  may 
 have  had  somewhat  more  of  an  Oriental  meaning,  and 
 have  denoted  the  lily  (i.  e.,  the  fairest)  among  cities. 
 — Great  difficulty  exists  in  relation  to  the  site  of  this 
 ancient  place.  Mannert  declares  for  Tester  or  Schosch- 
 ter,  and  not  for  the  more  northwestern  Sxis ;  but 
 consult  the  remarks  of  Williams  (Geography  of  An- 
 cient Asia,  p.  12,  seqq.).  It  was  customary  with  the 
 kings  of  Persia  to  spend  the  summer  in  the  cool, 
 mountainous  country  of  Ecbatana,  and  the  winter  at 
 Susa,  the  climate  being  warmer  there  than  elsewhere. 
 
 SusARiON,  a  Greek  poet  of  Megara,  who  is  supposed 
 by  some  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  comedy,  on  the 
 authority  of  the  Arundel  marble.  If  the  marble,  how- 
 ever, be  correct,  by  the  term  Ku[iu6ia,  as  applied  to 
 him,  we  can  understand  nothing  beyond  a  kind  of 
 rough,  extemporal  farce,  performed  by  the  chorus,  into 
 which  Susarion  might  have  itnproved  the  Phallic  song. 
 His  date  may  be  inferred  to  be  about  562  B.C.  (The- 
 atre of  the  Greeks,  3d  ed.,  p.  70,  in  notis. — Compare 
 the  remarks  of  Bentley,  Dissertation  on  Phalaris,  vol. 
 1,  p.  249,  scqq.,  ed.  Dyce.) 
 
 Susiana  or  Susis,  a  province  of  Persia,  to  the  east 
 of  Babylonia  proper.  It  was  a  large  level  tract,  shut 
 in  by  lofty  mountains  on  all  sides  but  the  south,  and 
 was  hence  exposed  to  the  hot  winds  from  this  quarter, 
 while  the  cool  winds  from  the  north  were  kept  ofi'  by 
 the  mountains.  Hence  Susiana  was  selected  as  the 
 winter  residence  of  the  Persian  king,  but  suffered 
 much  from  heat  in  summer.  The  chief  rivers  were 
 the  Ulaaus  and  Tigris,  and,  on  the  confines  of  Persis, 
 the  Oroatis.  The  modern  name  of  Susiana  is  Chu- 
 sisfan.  The  ancient  capital  was  Susa,  whence  the 
 appellation  of  Susiana  was  derived.      (Vid.  Susa.) 
 
 SusiD>E  Pyi..'E,  narrow  passes  over  mountains  from 
 Susiana  into  Persia.  (Curl.,  5,  3,  17.  —  Consult 
 Schmicdcr,  ad  loc,  and  Diad    Sic,  17,  68.) 
 
 SuTHUL,  a  town  of  Numidia,  of  which  mention  is 
 made  only  in  Sallust  (Bell.  Jug.,  37)  and  Priscian 
 (5,  2;  vol.  1,  p.  173,  ed.  Krchl).  Barbie  du  Bocage 
 suspects  that  this  town  is  the  same  with  that  called 
 Sufetala  (now  Sbaitlu)  in  the  Itin.  Ant.  The  name 
 Suihul  is  said  by  some  to  signify  "  the  town  of  eagles," 
 but  with  what  authority  it  is  hard  to  say.  Gesenius 
 more  correctly  deduces  its  mciining  from  the  Hebrew, 
 and  makes  it  equivalent  to  '^ pluntalio,"  i.  e.,  settle- 
 ment or  colony.     (Gesen.,  Phan.  Mon.,  p.  427.) 
 
 SuTRiuM,  a  city  of  Etruria.  about  eight  miles  to  the 
 west  of  Nepete,  and  in  a  northeastern  direction  from 
 f^are.  It  was  a  city  of  some  note,  and  was  consid- 
 ered by  the  Romans  as  an  imjiortant  acquisition  in 
 furtherance  of  their  designs  against  Etruna.  Having 
 been  surprised  by  the  latter  power,  it  fell  into  their 
 hands,  but  was  almost  immediately  recovered  by  Ca- 
 inillus.  (Liv.,  6,  3.)  Sutrium  was  colonized  by  the 
 Romans,  as  Velleius  Patercnlus  reports,  seven  years 
 after  Rome  had  been  taken  by  the  Gauls  (1,  14).  It 
 is  now  Sulri.     (Cramer's  Ave.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  234.) 
 
 Sv.Xgrus,  an  early  Greek  poet,  who,  according  to 
 ^EHan  (V.  H.,  14,  21),  lived  after  Orpheus  and  Mu 
 
S  YB 
 
 SYE 
 
 saeus,  and  was  the  first  that  sang  of  the  Trojan  war.  ' 
 DioCTcnes  Laertius  writes  the  name  Sagaris,  and  makes 
 him  to  have  been  the  contemporary  and  rival  of  Ho- 
 mer.     {Diog.  Laert  ,  2,  46.) 
 
 SvBARis,  I.  a  river  of  Lucania,  running  by  the  city 
 of  the  same  name,  and  falling  into  the  Sinus  Tarenii- 
 nus.  It  is  now  the  Cochde.  Its  waters  were  said  to 
 render  horses  shy.  {^Irab.,  'iQ'i.  — JElian,  H  N.,  2, 
 36.) — II.  A  celebrated  city  of  Lucania,  on  the  Sinus 
 Tarentinus,  and  near  the  confines  of  liruttium.  It 
 was  situate  between  the  rivers  Syharis  and  Crathis, 
 and  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  people  of 
 TrcEjene,  not  long  after  the  siege  of  Troy.  {Aris/ot  , 
 Fold.,  5,  3. — Suli/i.,  8.)  But  these  were  subsequently 
 joined  by  a  more  numerous  colony  of  Achapans,  under 
 the  conduct  of  Iseliceus  (^Strah.,  263),  about  720  B.C. 
 (Eiiscb.,  Chro7i.,  2  )  The  rise  and  progress  of  this 
 celebrated  republic  mu.st  have  been  wonderfully  rapid. 
 We  are  told  that  it  held  dominion  over  four  dirterent 
 peO[)le  and  twenty-live  towns  ;  and  (hat  the  cily  extend- 
 ed fifty  stadia,  or  upward  of  six  miles,  along  the  Cra- 
 this. But  the  number  of  Us  inhabitants  capable  of  bear- 
 ing arms,  which  are  computed  at  300,000  by  several 
 ancient  writers,  and  which  are  said  to  have  been  actu- 
 ally brought  into  the  field,  is  so  prodigious  as  to  raise 
 considerable  doubts  as  to  the  accuracy  of  these  state- 
 ments. The  accounts  which  we  have  of  their  luxury 
 and  opulence  are  not  less  extraordinary  :  to  such  a 
 degree,  indeed,  did  they  indulge  their  taste  for  pleas- 
 ure, that  a  Sybarite  and  a  volujituary  became  synony- 
 mous terms.  Athena»us,  in  particular,  dwells  on  their 
 inordinate  sensuality  and  excessive  refinement.  His 
 details  arc  chiefly  drawn  from  Timsus,  Phylarchus, 
 and  Aristotle.  Among  other  particulars  which  he 
 gives,  upon  the  auihority  of  these  Greek  writers,  are 
 the  following.  It  was  forbidden  by  law  to  exercise  in 
 the  city  any  trade  or  craft,  the  practice  of  which  was 
 attended  with  noise,  lest  the  sleep  of  its  inhabitants 
 might  be  disturbed  ;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  an  edict 
 was  enforced  against  the  breeding  of  cocks.  On  the 
 other  hand,  great  encouragement  was  held  out  to  all 
 who  should  discover  any  new  refinement  in  luxury, 
 the  profits  arising  from  which  were  secured  to  the  in- 
 ventor by  patent  for  the  space  of  a  year.  P'ishermen 
 and  dyers  of  purple  were  specially  exempted  from  the 
 payment  of  taxes  and  duties.  A  crown  of  gold  was 
 awarded  to  those  who  distinguished  themselves  by 
 the  sumptuousness  of  their  entertainments,  and  their 
 names  were  proclaimed  by  heralds,  at  the  solemn  festi- 
 vals, as  public  benefactors.  To  these  banquets  their 
 women  were  also  invited,  and  invitations  were  sent 
 them  a  year  in  advance,  that  they  might  have  suf- 
 ficient time  to  provide  themselves  with  dresses  suita- 
 ble to  the  occasion.  These  were  of  the  most  costly 
 description,  generally  purple  or  saffron-coloured,  and 
 of  the  finest  Milesian  wool.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse, 
 having  become  possessed  of  one  of  these  robes,  which 
 was  esieemed  a  singular  rarity  from  its  peculiar  mag- 
 nificence, sold  it  to  the  Carthaginians  for  120  talents, 
 upward  of  20,000i.  When  they  retired  to  their  vil- 
 las, the  roads  were  covered  with  an  awnin"-,  and  the 
 journey,  which  might  easily  have  been  accomplished 
 111  one  day,  was  the  work  of  three.  Their  cellars  were 
 generally  constructed  near  the  seaside,  whither  the 
 wine  was  conveyed  from  the  country  by  means  of 
 pipes.  The  Sybarites  were  also  said  to  have  invent- 
 ed vaf)Our  baths — History  has  recorded  the  name  of 
 one  individual,  famed  beyond  all  his  countrymen  for 
 his  effeminacy  and  sensuality.  Smindrydcs,  the  son 
 of  Hippocrates,  is  stated  by  Herodotus  to  have  been 
 by  far  the  most  luxurious  man  that  ever  lived  (6,  127). 
 It  is  reported,  that  when  he  went  to  Sicyon  as  suiter 
 to  the  daiitrhter  of  Clisthcnes,  tyrant  of  that  city,  he 
 was  accompanied  by  a  train  of  a  thousand  cooks  and 
 fowlers,  and  that  he  far  surpassed  that  prince  and  all 
 bis  court  in  magnificence  and  splendour.  {Athcn  12 
 7Y 
 
 3.)  But  this  prosperity  and  excess  of  luxury  were 
 not  of  long  duration  ;  and  the  fall  of  Sybaris  was  hast- 
 ened with  a  rapidity  only  equalled  by  that  of  its  sud- 
 den elevation.  The  events  which  led  to  this  catas» 
 tro[ihe  are  thus  related  by  Diodorus  Siculus.  A  dern- 
 ocratical  party,  at  the  head  of  which  was  'i'elys,  hav- 
 ing gained  the  ascendancy,  expelled  five  hundred  of 
 the  principal  citizens,  who  sought  refuge  at  Crotona. 
 This  ciiy,  upon  receiving  a  summons  to  give  up  the 
 fugitives  or  prepare  for  war,  by  the  advice  of  Pythag- 
 oras made  choice  of  the  latter  alternative  ;  and  the 
 hostile  armies  met  near  the  river  Traens,  in  the  Cro- 
 toniat  territory.  The  forces  of  Crotona,  headed  by 
 the  celebrated  Milo,  amounted  to  100,000  men,  while 
 those  of  Sybaris  were  triple  that  number ;  the  former, 
 however,  gained  a  complete  victory,  and  but  few  of 
 the  Sybarites  escaped  from  the  sword  of  the  enemy  in 
 the  route  which  ensued.  The  victorious  Crotoniats, 
 following  up  their  success,  advanced  against  Sybaris, 
 and,  finding  it  in  a  defenceless  state,  totally^estroyed 
 the  town  by  turning  the  waters  of  the  Crathis,  and 
 thus  overwhelming  it  with  the  inundation.  This  event 
 is  supposed  to  have  happened  nearly  510  years  B.C. 
 (Dtod.  Sic,  12,  9.  — Herod.,  5,  U.—Slrabo,  263.) 
 The  greater  part  of  the  Sybarites  who  escaped  from 
 the  general  destruction  retired  to  their  colonies  on 
 the  Tyrrhenian  Sea ;  but  a  small  remnant  still  ad- 
 hered to  their  native  soil,  and  endeavoured,  but  in 
 vain,  to  restore  their  fallen  city.  The  city  of  Thurii 
 was  afterward  erected  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  {Vid. 
 Thurii.)  —  As  Sybaris  was  utterly  destroyed,  no  ruins 
 remain  to  guide  us  in  our  search  of  its  position. 
 Swinburne  imagined,  however,  that  he  had  discovered 
 some  vestiges  of  this  city  about  three  miles  from  the 
 coast.     (Cramer  s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  354,  segq.) 
 
 Sybakita,  an  inhabitant  of  Sybaris.  {Vid.  Syba- 
 ris.) 
 
 Syene,  now  Assuan,  a  town  of  Thebais,  on  the  ex- 
 tremities of  Egypt.  Juvenal,  the  poet,  was  banished 
 there  on  pretence  of  commanding  a  legion  stationed  in 
 the  neighbourhood. — It  is  famous  for  being  the  place 
 where  the  first  attempt  was  made  to  ascertain  the  meas- 
 ure of  the  circumference  of  the  earth  by  Eratosthenes. 
 In  this  town,  according  to  Strabo,  a  well  was  sunk, 
 which  marked  the  summer  solstice,  and  the  day  was 
 known  when  the  style  of  the  sundial  cast  no  shade  at 
 noon  ;  at  that  instant  the  vertical  sun  darted  his  rays 
 to  the  bottom  of  the  well.  The  observations  of  the 
 French  astronomers  place  Asstian  in  24°  5'  23"  of 
 north  latitude.  If  this  was  formerly  situated  under  the 
 tropic,  the  position  of  the  earth  must  be  a  little  alter- 
 ed, and  the  obliquity  of  the  ecli[ilic  diminished.  But 
 we  should  be  aware  of  the  vagueness  of  observations 
 made  by  the  ancients,  which  have  conferred  so  much 
 celebrity  on  these  places.  The  phenomenon  of  the 
 extinction  of  the  shadow,  whether  within  a  deep  pit  or 
 round  a  perpendicular  gnomon,  is  not  confined  to  one 
 exact  mathematical  position  of  the  sun,  but  is  common 
 to  a  certain  extent  of  altitude,  corresponding  to  the  visi- 
 ble diameter  of  that  luminary,  which  is  more  than  half 
 a  degree.  It  would  be  sufficient,  therefore,  that  the 
 northern  margin  of  the  sun's  disk  should  reach  the  zen- 
 ith of  Syene  on  the  day  of  the  summer  solstice,  to  abol- 
 ish all  lateral  shadow  of  a  perpendicular  object.  Now, 
 in  the  second  centurv,  the  obli<)uity  of  the  ecliptic, 
 reckoned  from  the  observations  of  Hipparchus,  was 
 23°  49'  2^"-  If  we  add  the  semidiameter  of  the  sun, 
 which  is  1.5'  57",  we  find  for  the  northern  margin  24°  5' 
 22",  which  is  within  a  second  of  the  actual  latitude  of 
 Syene.  At  present,  when  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  is 
 23°  28',  the  northern  limb  of  the  sun  comes  no  nearer 
 the  latitude  of  Syene  than  21'  3",  yet  the  shadow  is 
 scarcely  perceptible.  We  have,  therefore,  no  imperi- 
 ous reason  for  admitting  a  greater  diminution  in  the 
 obliquity  o(  the  ecliptic  than  that  which  is  shown  by 
 real  astronomical  observation  of  the  most  authentic  and 
 
 1273 
 
SYL 
 
 SYLLA. 
 
 exact  kind.  That  of  the  well  of  Syene  is  not  among 
 the  number  of  lliese  last,  and  can  give  us  no  assistance 
 in  ascertaining  the  position  of  the  tropic  thirty  centu- 
 ries ago,  as  some  respectable  men  of  science  seem  to 
 have  believed.  —  Nature  presents  a  peculiar  spectacle 
 around  Syene.  Here  are  the  terraces  of  reddish  gran- 
 ite of  a  particular  character,  hence  called  Syenite ;  a 
 term  applied  to  those  rocks  which  differ  from  granite 
 in  containing  particles  of  hornblende.  These  mighty 
 terraces,  shaped  into  peaks,  cross  the  bed  of  the  Nile, 
 and  over  them  the  river  rolls  majestically  its  impetu- 
 ous and  foaming  waves.  Here  are  the  quarries  from 
 uhich  the  obelisks  and  colossal  statues  of  the  Egyp- 
 tian tcmjjles  were  dug.  An  obelisk,  partially  formed 
 and  still  remaining  attached  to  the  native  rock,  bears 
 testimony  to  the  laborious  and  patient  efforts  of  human 
 art.     {^Malle-Brun,  vol.  4,  p.  89,  scijq..  Am.  cd.) 
 
 SvENNissis,  a  satrap,  or,  rather,  tributary  monarch 
 of  Cilicia,  when  Cyrus  the  Younger  made  war  upon 
 his  brollpr  Artaxerxes.  The  name  Syennesis  appears, 
 in  fact,  to  have  been  a  common  appellation  for  the  na- 
 tive princes  of  this  country.  (Consult  Bdhr,  ad  He- 
 rod., 1,  64. — Krilgcr,  ad  Xen.,  Anab.,  1,  3,  12. — 
 Stanl.,  ad  JEsch.,  Pers.,  ;126.) 
 
 Sylla,  Lucius  Cornelius,  was  born  at  Rome 
 i\..U.C.616,  B.C.  138,  in  the  consulship  of  M.  .I::milius 
 I^epidus  and  C.  Hostilius  .Mancinus,  four  years  before 
 the  death  of  Tiberius  Gracchus.  Sylla  was  a  patrician 
 hy  birth  ;  his  father,  however,  did  nothing  to  promote 
 either  the  honour  or  the  wealth  of  his  family,  and  his 
 son  was  born  with  no  very  flattering  prospects  either 
 of  rank  or  fortune.  We  know  not  by  whom  his  edu- 
 cation was  superintended  ;  but  he  acquired,  either 
 from  his  instructers,  or  by  his  own  exertions  in  after 
 life,  an  unusual  portion  of  knowledge  ;  and  he  had  the 
 character  of  being  very  profoundly  versed  in  the  liter- 
 ature of  both  his  own  country  and  Greece.  {Sallust, 
 Bell.  Jug.,  95.)  But  intellectual  su})eriority  affords 
 no  security  for  the  moral  principles  of  its  possessor  ; 
 and  Sylla,  from  his  earliest  youth,  was  notorious  for 
 gross  sensuality,  and  for  his  keen  enjoyment  of  low 
 and  profligate  society.  He  is  said  to  have  merely  oc- 
 cupied lodgings  at  Rome,  and  to  have  lived  in  a  way 
 which  seems  to  have  been  reckoned  disgraceful  to  a 
 man  of  patrician  family,  and  to  have  incurred  great  in- 
 digence. For  his  first  advancement  in  life  he  was  in- 
 debted to  the  fondness  of  a  prostitute,  who  had  ac- 
 quired a  large  sum  of  money,  and  left  it  all  to  him  by 
 her  will  ;  and  he  also  inherited  the  property  of  his 
 mother-in-law,  who  regarded  him  as  her  own  son.  Syl- 
 la was  chosen  one  of  the  quaestors  A.U.C.  646,  and 
 joined  the  army  of  Marius,  who  was  then  in  his  first 
 consulship,  and  carrying  on  the  war  against  Jugurtha 
 in  Africa.  Here  his  services  were  of  great  impor- 
 tance, since  it  was  to  him  that  Jugurtha  was  at  last  sur- 
 rendered by  Bocchus,  king  of  Mauritania.  This  latter 
 circumstance  excited,  as  is  said,  the  jealousy  of  Ma- 
 rius ;  but  Sylla  nevertheless  served  under  him  as  one 
 of  his  lieutenants  in  the  war  with  the  Cimbri,  where 
 he  again  greatly  distinguished  himself.  Finding,  how- 
 ever, the  ill  will  of  his  general  daily  increasing,  he  left 
 him,  and  served  in  the  army  of  Lutatius  Catulus,  the 
 colleague  of  Marius :  and  in  this  situation,  being 
 charged  with  the  duly  of  supplying  the  soldiers  with 
 provisions,  he  performed  it  so  well,  that  the  army  of 
 Catulus  was  in  the  midst  of  abundance,  while  that  of 
 Marius  was  labouring  under  severe  privations.  This 
 still  farther  inflamed  the  animosity  wiilt  which  Marius 
 already  regarded  him.  For  some  years  after  this  pe- 
 riod Sylla  seems  to  have  lived  in  the  mere  enjoyment 
 of  his  favourite  pleasures  of  intellectual  and  sensual 
 excitement.  At  length,  A.U.C.  657,  he  became  a 
 candidate  for  the  ofl^ice  of  prcetor,  but  without  success. 
 In  the  following  year,  however,  he  was  more  fortu- 
 nate, having  been  elected  to  this  same  magistracy  with- 
 out the  previous  step  of  going  through  the  office  of 
 1274 
 
 asdile  ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  exhibited  on  the  occa- 
 sion no  fewer  than  a  hundred  lions  ;  the  first  lime,  it 
 is  said,  that  the  male  lion  was  ever  brought  forward  in 
 the  sports  of  the  circus.  {Flin.,  8,  16.)  On  the  ex- 
 piration of  the  praslorship  he  obtained  the  province  of 
 Cilicia,  and  was  commissioned  to  replace  on  the  throne 
 Ariobarzanes,  king  of  Cappadocia,  who  had  been  late- 
 ly expelled  by  Mithradates.  (Plut.,  Vit.  Syll.,  c.  5. 
 — Liv.,  Epit.,  70.)  This  he  easily  effected  ;  for  Mith- 
 radates was  not  yet  prepared  to  encounter  the  power 
 of  Rome  ;  and  it  is  farther  mentioned  as  a  memorable 
 circumstance  in  the  life  of  Sylla,  that  while  he  was  yet 
 in  Cappadocia,  he  received  the  first  communication 
 ever  made  to  any  Roman  officer  by  the  sovereign  of 
 Parlhia.  Arsaces,  king  of  that  country,  perceiving 
 that  the  Romans  extended  their  influence  into  his 
 neighbourhood,  sent  an  embassy  to  Sylla  to  solicit 
 their  alliance.  In  the  interview  between  the  Roman 
 praslor  and  the  Parthian  ambassador.  Sylla  claimed  the 
 precedence  in  rank  with  the  usual  arrogance  of  his 
 countrymen  ;  and  by  this  behaviour,  in  all  probability, 
 left  no  very  friendly  feeling  in  the  mind  of  Arsaces  ; 
 and  rather  encouraged  than  lessened  that  jealousy  of 
 the  Roman  power,  which  the  Parthians  in  the  sequel 
 were  often  enabled  to  manifest  with  more  success  than 
 any  other  nation  since  the  time  of  Hannibal.  On  Syl- 
 la's  return  to  Rome,  he  was  threatened  with  a  prose- 
 cution on  account  of  corrupt  proceedings  in  his  prov- 
 ince ;  but  the  matter  was  never  brought  to  a  trial. 
 Soon  after  this  the  Social  War  broke  out,  in  which 
 Sylla  served  as  lieutenant  under  the  consul  Lucius  Ju- 
 lius Caesar;  and  during  this  same  contest  the  name  of 
 Marius  is  hardly  mentioned,  whereas  the  services  of 
 Sylla  were  of  the  most  eminent  kind.  Towards  the 
 close  of  this  war,  B.  C.  88,  Sylla  went  to  Rome  to 
 stand  candidate  for  the  consulship  ;  and  the  prosf>ect 
 of  his  attaining  to  that  dignity  was  most  galling  to  the 
 jealousy  of  Marius,  especially  as  a  war  with  Miihra- 
 dates  now  appeared  certain  ;  and,  if  a  general  of  Sylla's 
 reputation  tilled  the  office  of  consul,  his  claims  to  the 
 command  of  the  army  employed  in  the  contest  would 
 prevail  over  all  others.  Sylla's  application  for  the  con- 
 sulship was  a  successful  one,  and  Q.  Pompeius  was 
 chosen  as  his  colleague.  Information  soon  after  was 
 received  that  Mithradates  had  attacked  and  overrun 
 the  Roman  dominions  in  Asia  Minor,  and  war  was 
 therefore  declared  against  him  at  Rome  ;  whereupon 
 Asia  and  Italy  being  named  as  the  province  of  the  con- 
 suls, the  latter  fell  to  the  lot  of  Q.  Pompeius,  and  the 
 former  to  that  of  Sylla.  But  the  turbulent  tribune 
 Publius  Sulpilius,  the  devoted  partisan  of  Marius,  was 
 determined  that  this  arrangement  should  not  be  carried 
 into  effect.  The  army  which  Sylla  was  to  command 
 was  at  this  time  employed  near  Nola.  as  that  city, 
 which  had  revolted  in  the  Social  War,  still  refused  to 
 submit  to  the  Romans  ;  but  he  himself  remained  in 
 the  city  with  his  colleague,  endeavouring  to  baffle  the 
 project  of  Sulpitius  by  proclaiming  frequent  holydays, 
 and  ordering,  consequently,  a  suspension  of  public  bu- 
 siness. A  violent  tumult  in  consequence  ensued  ; 
 Sylla,  finding  himself  in  the  power  of  his  enemies,  was 
 compelled  to  yield,  and  immediately  thereafter  left 
 Rome  for  his  army,  and  Sulpitius  soon  caused  a  law 
 to  be  passed  depriving  Sylla  of  the  con^mand  against 
 Mithradates,  and  vesting  it  in  Marius.  Two  military 
 tribunes  were  sent  to  announce  this  change  to  Sylla. 
 The  army  of  the  latter,  however,  were  as  indignant 
 as  himself  at  this  new  arrangement.  The  two  mil- 
 itary tribunes  were  murdered,  and  the  whole  force, 
 consisting  of  six  legions,  broke  up  from  its  quarters, 
 and  began  to  march  upon  Rome.  The  city  was  as- 
 saulted and  taken  ;  Sulpitius,  being  betrayed  by  one 
 of  his  slaves,  was  put  to  death  by  Sylla's  orders,  and 
 his  head  exposed  on  the  rostra  ;  while  Marius,  aftcj 
 a  series  of  romantic  adventures,  escaped  to  Afri- 
 ca.    Sylla  having  thus  crushed  the  opposite  faction, 
 
SYLLA. 
 
 SYLLA. 
 
 jjioscribed  Marios,  his  son,  and  his  chief  adhe- 
 rents, re-established  the  power  of  the  senate,  and  ap- 
 pointed his  friend  Octavius  and  his  enemy  Cinna  lo 
 the  consulship,  set  out  against  Miihradates.  The  re- 
 lief of  Greece  was  the  first  object  of  Sylla  ;  and  this 
 he  accomplished  after  taking  Athens  by  storm,  and 
 deft-atmtj  the  armies  of  Mithradates  in  two  great  bat- 
 ties.  \Veakened  and  dispirited  by  these  reversesi,  the 
 KiiiiT  of  Pontus  readily  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
 Jioinan  general,  who,  on  his  part,  was  equally  desi- 
 rous of  a  peace,  that  he  might  return  to  Rome,  where 
 the  Marian  faction  had  regained  the  ascendancy.  .Syl- 
 la  had  probably  expected  to  produce  a  comparative 
 equilibrium  at  Rome  by  the  appointment  to  the  con- 
 sulship of  one  from  each  of  the  contending  factions. 
 Here,  however,  his  policy  failed,  probably  from  being 
 too  refined,  or  from  his  not  taking  into  consideration 
 the  new  element  which  had  been  introduced  by  the 
 adinission  of  the  Italian  states  to  the  citizenship.  He 
 had,  in  a  great  measure,  exterminated  the  democratic 
 parly  in  Rome  itself,  and  restored  the  power  of  the 
 senate  ;  but  Cinna  perceived  the  means  of  raising  a 
 powerful  body  of  new  adherents,  by  proposing  to 
 throw  open  all  the  tribes  to  the  Italian  stales,  which 
 would  have  given  them  a  preponderance  in  every  pop- 
 ular assembly.  This  the  other  consul,  Octavius,  op- 
 posed ;  and  Cinna  was  compelled  to  withdraw  to  the 
 country,  where  he  soon  mustered  a  powerful  army  of 
 the  disaflecled  allies.  Marius,  who  had  fled  to  Africa, 
 being  informed  of  the  turn  which  ati'airs  had  taken  at 
 Rome,  conceived  hopes  of  recovering  his  power,  and 
 immediately  returned  to  Italy,  joined  Cinna,  and,  at 
 the  head  of  an  immense  horde  of  robbers  and  semi- 
 barbarians,  the  very  dregs  of  the  populace  of  all  Italy, 
 who  flocked  to  his  standard  from  all  quarters,  advan- 
 ced against  the  city.  At  his  approach  Rome  was 
 thrown  into  consternation  ;  and  there  not  being  any 
 forces  sufficient  to  oppose  him,  the  senate  offered  to 
 capitulate,  on  condition  that  the  lives  of  the  opposite 
 party  should  be  spared.  During  the  progress  of  these 
 negotiations,  Marius  entered  the  city  at  the  head  of 
 his  armed  and  barbarous  adherents,  secured  the  gates 
 that  none  might  escape,  and  gave  the  signal  for 
 slaughter.  On  rushed  his  barbarians  like  wolves, 
 sparing  neither  age  nor  sex,  while  Marius  gazed  on 
 the  horrid  scene  with  grim  and  savage  delight.  Du- 
 ring five  days  and  five  nights  the  hideous  massacre 
 was  continued  with  relentless  ferocity,  while  the  streets 
 were  deluged  with  blood,  and  the  heads  of  the  inur- 
 dered  victims  were  exhibited  in  the  forum,  or  laid  be- 
 fore the  monster  himself  for  his  peculiar  gratification. 
 At  length  Cinna  grew  sick  of  the  ()rotracted  butchery  ; 
 but  the  barbarians  of  Marius  could  not  be  restrained 
 till  thev  were  themselves  surrounded  and  cut  to  pieces 
 by  Ciniia's  soldiers.  Having  gratified  his  revenge  by 
 this  bloody  butchery,  Marius  nominated  himself  consul 
 for  the  seventh  time,  and  chose  Cinna  to  be  his  col- 
 league. This  he  did  without  the  formalities  of  a  pub- 
 lic assembly,  as  if  to  consummate  his  triumph  over 
 the  liberties  of  his  country,  thus  trampled  upon  by  an 
 act  at  once  of  violation  and  of  insult.  But  a  short  time 
 did  he  enjoy  his  triumph  and  revenge.  In  the  seven- 
 teenth day  of  his  seventh  consulate,  and  in  the  sev- 
 eittieth  year  of  his  age,  he  expired,  leaving  behind  him 
 the  character  of  having  been  one  of  the  most  suc- 
 cessful generals  and  most  pernicious  citizens  of  Rome. 
 Svlla,  having  concluded  a  treaty  with  Mithradates,  re- 
 lumed at  the  head  of  his  victorious  army,  prepared 
 and  determined  lo  inflict  the  most  signal  and  ample 
 vengeance  upon  the  Marian  faction,  whom  he  deemed 
 equally  foes  to  himself  and  to  the  republic.  Before 
 his  arrival  in  Italy,  Cinna  had  been  killed  in  a  mutiny 
 of  his  own  troops  ;  and  none  of  the  other  leaders  pos- 
 sessed talent  and  influence  enough  to  make  head 
 against  him.  Afler  a  short  but  severe  struggle,  Sylla 
 prevailed,  and  immediately  commenced  his  dreadful, 
 
 !  deliberate,  and  systematic  course  of  retribution.  AH 
 who  had  either  taken  part  directly  with  Marius,  or 
 who  were  suspected  of  attachment  to  the  democratic 
 party,  were  put  lo  death  without  merc^,  and,  what 
 was  almost  more  terrible,  apparently  without  wrath. 
 Sylla  even  produced  publicly  a  list  of  those  he  had 
 doomed  lo  death,  and  oflered  a  reward  for  the  heads 
 of  each.  He  thus  set  the  example  of  proscrij)lion, 
 which  was  afterward  so  fatally  imitated  in  the  various 
 convulsions  of  the  state.  His  next  step  was  lo  de- 
 populate entirely  several  of  those  Italian  states  which 
 had  joined  the  Marian  faction,  and  to  parcel  out  tlie 
 lands  among  his  own  veteran  troops,  whom  he  thus  at 
 once  rewardi-d  and  disbanded  in  lite  only  manner  like- 
 ly lo  reconcile  them  to  peaceful  habits.  Having  thus 
 satisfied  his  revenge,  his  next  care  was  to  reform  and 
 reconstruct  the  constitution  and  government  of  the 
 state,  shattered  to  pieces  by  long  and  fierce  intestine 
 convulsions.  He  caused  himself  lo  be  appointed  dic- 
 tator for  an  unlimited  lime.  He  restrained  the  influ- 
 ence of  the  tribunes  by  abolishing  their  legislative 
 privileges,  reformed  and  regulated  the  magistracy, 
 limited  the  authority  of  governors  of  provinces,  enact- 
 ed police  regulations  for  the  maintenance  of  public 
 tranquillity,  deprived  several  of  the  Italian  states  of 
 their  right  of  citizenship,  and,  having  supplied  the  due 
 number  of  the  senate  by  additions  from  ihe  equestrian 
 order,  he  restored  to  it  the  possession  of  the  judica- 
 tive order.  Having  at  length  completed  his  career  as 
 a  political  reformer,  Sylla  voluntarily  resigned  his  dic- 
 tatorship, which  he  had  held  for  nearly  three  years, 
 declared  himself  ready  to  answer  any  accusation  that 
 could  be  made  against  him  during  his  administration, 
 walked  unmolested  in  the  streets  as  a  private  person, 
 and  then  withdrew  to  his  villa  near  Cumoe,  where  he 
 amused  himself  with  hunting  and  other  rural  recrea- 
 tions. Whether  his  reliiement  might  have  remained 
 long  undisturbed  by  the  relatives  of  his  numerous  vic- 
 tims cannot  be  known,  as  he  died  in  the  year  after 
 his  abdication  of  power,  leaving,  by  his  own  direction, 
 the  following  characteristic  inscription  to  be  engraved 
 on  his  tomb  :  "  Here  lies  Sylla,  who  was  never  out- 
 done in  good  offices  by  his  friend,  nor  in  acts  of  hos- 
 tility by  his  enemy."  The  civil  wars  between  Marius 
 and  Sylla  may  be  considered  even  more  worthy  the 
 careful  study  of  the  historian  than  those  of  Csesar  and 
 Pompcy,  for  a  right  understanding  of  the  circumstan- 
 ces which  led  to  the  destruction  of  Roman  liberty,  as 
 the  latter  but  concluded  what  the  former  had  begun. 
 Indeed,  the  strife  between  Marius  and  Sylla  was  itself 
 the  natural  sequel  of  that  contest  betvs-een  the  aristo- 
 cratic and  democratic  factions,  if  thev  ought  not  rath- 
 er to  be  termed  the  factions  of  wealth  and  poverty, 
 which  gave  rise  lo  the  sedition  of  the  Gracchi,  and 
 which,  being  conducted  on  both  sides  with  no  spirit 
 of  mutual  concession,  none  of  mutual  regard  lor  pub- 
 lic welfaire,  deepened  into  the  most  bitter  and  rancor- 
 ous animosity,  such  as  could  end  in  nothing  but  mu- 
 tual destruction.  Of  the  worst  spirit  of  democracy, 
 we  see  in  Marius  what  may  be  called  a  personification  ; 
 fierce,  turbulent,  sanguinary,  relentless  ;  brave  lo  ex- 
 cess, but  savagely  ferocious  ;  full  of  wily  stratagems 
 in  order  to  gain  his  object,  then  dashing  Iroiii  him  ev- 
 ery hard-won  advantage  by  his  reckless  brutality.  On 
 the  other  hand,  the  aristocratic  spirit  had  its  represent- 
 ative in  Sylla  ;  haughty,  cautious,  and  determined, 
 forming  his  schemes  with  deep  forethought,  prosecu- 
 ting ihem  with  deliberate  perseverance,  and  abandon- 
 ing them  with  cold  contempt  when  his  object  was  ac- 
 complished. He  held  his  dictatorial  sway  till  lip  had 
 satiated  his  revenge,  and  re-established,  as  he  thought, 
 the  aovernment  on  an  aristocratical  basis  ;  then  scorn- 
 fully laid  aside  his  power,  and  yielded  himself  up  to 
 voluptuous  indulgence.  By  these  means  it  was  made 
 clearly  evident  lliat  Rome  no  longer  possessed  suffi- 
 cient public  or  private  virtue  to  tnaintain  her  republican 
 
 1275 
 
SYN 
 
 SYP 
 
 institutions;  thnt  she  was  loitering  on  the  very  brink 
 of  a  coinjilete  and  final  revolution,  leadujg  with  fatal 
 certainty  to  a  military  despotism  ;  and  the  only  ques- 
 tion was,  whether  her  despotic  ruler  should  be  a 
 Marius  or  a  Sylla  ;  whether  he  should  spring  from 
 among  the  democratic  po])ulace  or  the  aristocratic  no- 
 bility :  a  question  not  long  to  be  left  in  doubt.  Many 
 of  the  laws  enacted  by  Sylla  were  of  a  wise  and  bene- 
 ficial character,  though  their  general  aim  was  too  man- 
 ifestly the  restoration  of  aristocratic  power  to  the 
 senate.  What  effect  his  personal  influence,  had  his 
 life  been  prolonged,  might  have  had  in  consolidating 
 his  political  reforms,  cannot  certainly  be  known,  though 
 it  may  very  safely  be  conjectured  that  not  even  his 
 power  could  long  have  prevented  new  convulsions. 
 Tiie  malady  lay  too  deep  to  be  reached  by  any  merely 
 political  measures  of  a  remedial  nature.  It  had  its 
 essence  in  the  degeneracy  and  moral  turpitude  of  the 
 entire  body  of  the  republic,  both  nobles  and  people, 
 which  there  was  nothing  in  their  external  circumstan- 
 ces to  prevent,  or  in  their  national  religion  to  heal. 
 Besides,  as,  in  the  recent'  wars  and  revolutions,  almost 
 all  property  had  experienced  a  change  of  possessors, 
 there  were  vast  numbers  throughout  all  Italy  eager  for 
 a  counter  revolution.  Several  young  men  also  of  abil- 
 ities and  ambition  were  prepared  to  emulate  the  career 
 of  Marius  or  of  Sylla,  which  could  not  be  done  without 
 a  renewal  of  that  contest,  the  heavings  of  which  had 
 not  yet  wholly  subsided.  Of  these,  the  chief  were 
 I<epidus,  Crassus,  Pompey,  and  Sertorius,  and  perhaps 
 Lu-.ullus.  (He  I  he  ring  Ion's  Hist.  Rome,  p.  141,  seqq. 
 Encydop.  MetropoL,^div.  3,  vol.  2,  p.  113.) 
 
 Symmachus,  a  Roman  senator  of  the  fourth  cen- 
 tury, who  became  prefect  of  Rome,  pontitf,  augur, 
 and  proconsul  of  Africa.  He  vigorously  resisted  the 
 changes  that  were  made  in  the  national  religion  by 
 the  triumphs  of  Christianity,  and  headed  a  deputation 
 from  the  senate  to  the  Emperor  Valentinian  II.,  re- 
 questing the  re-establishment  of  priests  and  vestals, 
 and  of  the  altar  of  Victory.  This  application  was  re- 
 sisted by  St.  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  who  composed 
 an  answer  to  the  petition  of  Symmachus,  as  did  also 
 the  poet  Prudenlius.  Symmachus  lost  his  cause,  and 
 for  some  reason  was  banished  by  Valentinian  or  Theo- 
 dosius,  the  latter  of  whom  recalled  him,  and  raised 
 him  to  the  consulship,  A.D.  391.  The  petition  above 
 mentioned  is  preserved  in  the  ten  books  of  Symma- 
 chus's  epistles,  still  extant.  His  oratory  was  of  that 
 kind  which  characterized  the  decline  of  Roman  litera- 
 ture. "The  luxuriance  of  Symmachus,"  says  Gib- 
 bon, ''  consists  of  barren  leaves  without  fruit,  and  even 
 without  flowers.  Few  facts  and  few  sentiments  can 
 be  extracted  from  his  verbose  correspondence."  Of 
 these  epistles,  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Scioppius, 
 Mogunl.,  1608,  4to.  {Sch'oll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3, 
 p.  200,  seqq.) 
 
 Sv.mpleg.Xdes,  two  islands  or  rocks  at  the  entrance 
 of  the  Eu.xine  Sea.     {Vid.  Cyaneae.) 
 
 SvNCEi.t.us,  one  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  who 
 derived  his  name  from  his  being  SijnccUus,  or  Con- 
 stant  Re.iident,  with  Tarasius,  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
 nople. Syncellus  lived  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
 and  began  to  write  his  history  in  793,  but  was  pre- 
 vented by  death  from  extending  it  beyond  the  times 
 of  Maxiniian  and  Maximin.  Notwithstanding  its  many 
 defects,  the  work  of  Syncellus  forms  a  valuable  addi- 
 tion to  the  study  of  ancient  chronology.  Since  the 
 f.rst  book  of  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius  was  discov- 
 ered, it  has  been  ascertained  that  this  work  was  one 
 of  the  principal  sources  whence  Syncellus  drew  his 
 materials.  He  has,  in  fact,  copied  Eusebius  to  such  a 
 degree,  that,  by  reuniting  the  scattered  passages  which 
 he  has  culled  from  him,  we  might  almost  re-establish 
 the  text  of  the  former.  The  only  edition,  until  lately, 
 was  that  of  Goar,  Paris,  1652,  fol.  A  new  edition, 
 however,  corrected  from  two  valuable  Paris  MSS., 
 1276 
 
 was  pnlilishcd  in  1829,  2  vols.  8vo,  as  part  of  the 
 Bonn  collection  of  the  Byzantine  writers.  {Scholl, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p.  365.) 
 
 Synesius,  I.  a  native  of  Cyrene,  afnd  one  of  the 
 most  remarkable  among  the  literary  men  of  the  fifth 
 century.  He  was  born  A.D.  378,  of  a  distinguished 
 family,  and  studied  at  Alexandrea  under  Hypatia  and 
 other  celebrated  instructers.  So  rapid  was  the  prog- 
 ress he  made,  that,  at  the  age  of  nineteen  years,  he 
 was  chosen  by  the  inhabitants  of  Cyrene  to  present 
 to  the  Emperor  Arcadius  a  golden  crown  which  had 
 been  voted  him.  The  discourse  which  he  delivered 
 on  this  occasion,  and  which  is  still  preserved,  has  been 
 much  admired.  At  this  period  he  was  still  a  pagan  : 
 subsequently,  however,  he  was  persuaded  by  Theophi- 
 lus,  bishop  of  Alexandrea,  to  embrace  Christianity. 
 He  was  for  a  long  time,  however,  very  unsettled  in 
 his  theological  notions,  and  it  was  this  very  uncer- 
 tainty which  induced  him  for  a  considerable  time  to 
 withstand  the  solicitations  of  Synesius,  and  not  ac- 
 cept a  bishopric.  He  yielded,  however,  A.D.  410, 
 and  separating  from  a  wife  for  whom  he  cherished  a 
 deep  affection,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Ptolema'is 
 in  Cyrenaica.  Synesius  appears  to  have  died  prior  to 
 431,  since,  among  the  members  of  the  council  of  Eph- 
 esus,  which  was  held  this  same  year,  we  find  Euoptius, 
 the  brother  of  Synesius,  and  his  successor  in  the  dio- 
 cese of  Ptolema'is. — The  works  of  Synesius  are  rather 
 philosophical  and  literary  than  theological.  They  are 
 written  with  elegance.  When  the  subject  admits,  his 
 diction  is  elevated,  and  sometimes  even  sublime.  He 
 possesses  the  art  of  rendering  abstract  subjects  agree- 
 able, by  intermingling  with  them  mythological  and  his- 
 torical, or  else  poetical  passages.  His  letters,  which 
 are  154  in  number,  afford  varied,  amusing,  and  in- 
 structive reading.  His  Hymns,  in  iambics  of  four  or 
 five  feet,  present  a  singular  mixture  of  poetic  images. 
 Christian  truths,  and  Platonic  reveries,  for  it  was  to 
 the  school  of  Plato  that  he  always  continued  to  be 
 more  or  less  attached.  The  most  complete  edition  of 
 his  works  is  that  of  Petavius  (Petau),  Paris,  1612, 
 fol.  ;  reprinted  in  1631  and  1640.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  7,  p.  91.) — II.  A  philosopher,  who  wrote  a 
 commentary  on  the  work  of  Democritus  respecting 
 things  of  a  physical  and  mystical  nature.  It  is  found 
 in  the  Bibliotheca  Grccca  of  Fabricius  (vol.  8,  p.  233). 
 
 Synn  AS  {-ados),  or  Synnada  {-drum),  a  town  of  Phry- 
 gia,  northwest  of  the  plain  of  Ipsus.  Ptolemy  gives 
 the  name  as  Synade,  probably  through  an  error  of  the 
 copyists  :  the  form  Si/nnas  {-ados)  is  customary  with 
 the  poets.  {Slat.,  Sijlv.,  1,  5,  36  )  According  to 
 Stephanus  Byzantinus,  the  name  arose  from  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  many  Grecian  colonists  settling  here, 
 the  city  being  originally  called  Synna  {'Svi'ala),  and 
 this  term  being  corrupted  by  the  neighbouring  inhabi- 
 tants into  Synnada  {'2,vvala,from  avv  and  vaiu,  to  live), 
 Straho  calls  it  a  small  place  {ov  fieyakr]  tt^TiLQ. — Slra- 
 bo,  577),  and  we  know  nothing  very  important  in  rela- 
 tion to  it  :  with  the  Romans,  however,  it  was  a  Con- 
 vcntus  Juridicus.  {Plini),  5,  29,  where  the  name  ap- 
 pears as  a  feminine,  Synnada.) — Between  this  place 
 and  Docimsum,  which  lay  to  the  northwest,  were  fa- 
 mous marble  quarries,  whence  a  beautiful  kind  of 
 white  marble,  with  red  spots,  was  obtained.  This 
 was  held  in  very  high  repute  by  the  Romans,  and  was 
 much  used  in  buildings.  The  Romans  named  this 
 marble,  after  the  town  of  Synnada,  lapis  Synnndicits  ; 
 whereas  the  inhabitants  of  the  counlry  called  it  ?J(>o^ 
 i^oKifxiTTig  or  AoKi/ialog,  from  Docimsum.  Strabo 
 speaks  of  the  high  decree  of  value  attached  to  it,  and 
 of  slabs  and  columns  of  it  having  been  transported  to 
 Rome  at  a  great  expense. — The  site  of  Synnada  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mod- 
 ern Bulwudim,  where  extensive  quarries  are  still  to  be 
 seen.     {Leake's  Tour,  p.  54  ) 
 
 SvPHAX,  a  king  of  the  Masassyli    in  Libya,   vrhq 
 
SYR 
 
 SYRACUSE. 
 
 married  Sophonisba,  the  daughter  of  Asdrubal,  and 
 forsook  the  alliance  of  the  Romans  to  join  himself  to 
 the  mterest  of  his  father-in-law  and  of  Carthage. 
 Encain|iing  his  army  apart  from  that  of  Asdrubal,  both 
 camps  were  in  the  night  surprised  and  burned  by 
 Scipio.  Afterward,  in  a  general  engagement,  the 
 united  Carthaginian  and  Numidian  armies  were  de- 
 feated. Syphax,  upon  this,  hastened  back  to  his  own 
 country  ;  but,  being  pursued  by  Ls'lius  and  Masinissa, 
 he,  together  with  his  son  Verinina,  was  taken  pris- 
 oner, and  brought  back  to  Scipio.  The  conqueror 
 carried  him  to  Rome,  where  he  adorned  his  triumph. 
 Sypha)c  died  at  Tibur,  B  C.  201,  and  was  honoured 
 with  a  [lublic  funeral.  His  possessions  were  given  to 
 Masinissa.  {Liv.,  24,  48,  scqq. — Id.,  29,  23,  seqq. — 
 Id.,  30,  5,  scqq.  —  Id  ,  30,  4.').)  —  This  pro[)er  name 
 has  the  [Penult  in  the  oblicjue  cases  always  long,  ex- 
 cept in  a  single  instance  in  Claudian  (15,  91),  where 
 we  find  Syphdcem.  The  context  {haurire  veuena 
 r.ompulimns)  cannot  by  any  possibility  a|)ply  to  Sy- 
 phax,  and  therefore  Barlhe  conjectures  Ilannibulcm 
 for  Si/phacem,  in  the  pa.ssage  of  Claudian  just  referred 
 to,  an  emendation  which  is  now  very  generally  re- 
 ceived. Artaud,  however  (in  Leinaire's  edition),  re- 
 tains the  old  reading. 
 
 SYRAciJs^,  a  celebrated  city  of  Sicily,  founded 
 about  732  years  before  the  Christian  era,  by  Archias, 
 a  Corinthian,  and  one  of  the  Hcraclids.  {Thiicyd.,  6, 
 3.) — The  parts  of  the  city  were  five  in  number  :  Or- 
 lygia.  Achradina,  Tyca,  Neapolis,  and  E[)ipolae.  The 
 first  was  that  originally  colonized  and  fortified  by  the 
 Corinthians  under  Archias;  and  being  then  an  island, 
 and  most  of  it  rocky  and  of  difficult  approach,  it  must 
 have  been  very  strong.  It  is  now  about  two  miles  in 
 circumference,  and  probably  obtained  its  name  from 
 the  abundance  of  quails  there  [('prv^,  "  a  quail").  In 
 process  of  time  the  city  extended  to  the  continent, 
 and  a  suburb  was  added,  called  Achradina,  probably 
 from  tlie  rockiness  of  the  ground.  This,  in  time,  oc- 
 cu[)ied  all  the  lower  part  of  that  peninsula  between  the 
 Porlus  Laccius  and  the  Portus  Trogiliorum,  and  was, 
 next  to  Ortygia,  the  best  peopled,  though  not,  perhaps, 
 in  proportion  to  its  extent.  A  wall  was  then  drawn  in 
 a  straight  line  from  the  Portus  Trogiliorum  to  the 
 docks  at  Syracuse,  and  this  was  for  some  time  the  lim- 
 its of  the  city.  Afterward,  however,  were  added  no 
 less  than  three  suburbs,  Tyca,  Temenites  (subsequent- 
 ly Neapolis),  and  Epipolaj.  Temenites  and  Tyca  were 
 so  called  from  the  temples  of  Apollo  and  of  Fortune  sit- 
 uated there,  and  of  which  the  Tificvq,  or  sacred  closes, 
 no  douhi,  originally  occii])ied  a  great  part  of  their  sites. 
 TvKT]  was  probably  Syracusan  for  tvxii  {^^ fortune"). 
 Neapolis  was  of  later  foundation,  and  occupied  the  site 
 of  Temenites.  These  several  parts  were  all  gradual- 
 ly surrounded  by  walls,  and  included  in  the  city  ;  and 
 thus,  in  the  end,  Syracuse  became  one  of  the  most  ex- 
 '.ensivc  cities  in  Euro|)e.  Ortygia,  being  the  original 
 city,  was  called  the  citadel,  or  the  citij,  kut'  e^oxt'iv. 
 The  Epipola?,  which  was  north  of  Temenites  and  Tyca, 
 and  of  a  triangular  figure,  derived  its  name  from  its 
 elevated  site,  now  called  Belvedere  ;  the  highest  parts 
 of  which  were  occupied  by  the  Syracusan  castles  of 
 Euryalus  and  Labdalum.  (Compare  Goiler,  dc  silu 
 et  originc  Sijrucusaruni,  Lips,  1818,  8vo. —  Bloom- 
 field  ad  Thur.yd.,  6,  75;  vol.  3,  p.  118,  m  iiotis.) — 
 Syracuse  had  two  harbours,  formed  by  the  island  of 
 Ortygia  :  one  called  the  smaller  harbour,  and  also 
 Portus  Laccius,  between  the  upper  side  of  Ortygia 
 and  the  mainland  ;  the  other  on  the  southern  side,  be- 
 tween Ortygia  and  the  Plemmyrian  promontory,  and 
 running  up  far  like  a  bay  ;  this  was  called  the  great 
 harbour,  and  was  not  only  extremely  capacious,  but 
 also  perfectly  secure  against  storms  and  the  violence 
 of  the  sea. — The  orisimal  constitution  of  Syracuse, 
 like  that  of  so  many  Dorian  settlements,  was  aristo- 
 
 cratical.  It  subsequently  fell  under  the  power  of  ty- 
 rants, some  of  whom  advanced  its  power  and  prosper- 
 ity to  a  very  high  pitch.  {Vtd.  Gelon,  Hiero,  Di- 
 onysius.)  —  It  occupies  also  a  conspicuous  place  in 
 the  Peloponnesian  '.var,  on  account  of  the  unfortunate 
 expedition  sent  hither  by  the  Athenians.  {Vid.  Pelo- 
 ponnesiacum  IBellum.)  After  a  long  period  of  alter- 
 nate fortune,  Syracuse  at  last  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
 Romans  under  .Marcellus,  after  a  siege  of  about  three 
 years,  B  C.  312. — Of  the  five  ancient  divisions  of  Syr- 
 acuse, Ortygia  alone  is  now  remaining  ;  it  is  about 
 two  miles  round,  and  supposed  to  contain  about  17,000 
 inhabitants.  Tliere  are  some  remains,  however,  still 
 visible  of  the  ancient  Syracuse,  in  the  ruins  of  porti- 
 coes, temples,  and  palaces.  The  famous  fountain  of 
 Arethusa  rose  in  the  island  of  Ortvgia  ;  but,  though 
 still  a  sinking  object  from  its  discharge  of  waters,  it 
 now  serves  merely  as  a  resort  for  washerwrfhien. — 
 "  If  mighty  names  and  events,"  observes  a  modern 
 writer,  "  crowd  upon  the  mind  when  we  barely  read 
 the  name  of  Syracuse,  what  vivid  historic  associations 
 must  be  awakened  by  the  soil  itself!  The  city  of 
 Syracuse  was  invoked  by  Pindar  as  '  The  Fane  of 
 Mars,''  and  extolled  by  Cicero  as  the  most  beautiful 
 in  the  Grecian  world.  It  was  the  scene  of  some  of 
 the  greatest  beings  and  events  of  antiquity  ;  of  Ge- 
 lon's  patriotism,  of  Harmocrates's  valour,  and  of  Di- 
 onysius's  transcendant  genius.  It  baffled  Carthage  ; 
 it  crushed  and  captured  the  proudest  armada  equipped 
 by  Athens  in  the  plenitude  of  her  power;  and,  after 
 opposing  the  science  of  Archimedes  to  the  strength  of 
 Rome,  it  was  lost  only  by  the  inebriety  of  its  guards 
 during  the  night  of  Diana's  festival.  Its  fate  stirred 
 compassion  even  in  the  heart  of  its  rugged  conqueror. 
 When  Marcellus  looked  down  at  morning  from  its 
 heights  on  the  whole  expanse  of  Syracuse,  the  sight  ol 
 its  palaces  and  temples  glittering  in  the  sun,  of  its 
 harbours  so  lately  impregnable,  and  its  fleets  so  lately 
 invincible,  the  recollection  of  its  ancient  glory,  the 
 knowledge  of  its  impending  fate,  and  the  importance 
 of  his  own  victory  impressed  him  with  such  emotions 
 that  he  burst  into  tears.  After  a  lapse  of  two  thousand 
 years,  the  traveller  who  looks  down  from  the  same 
 s|)ot  sees  the  scene  of  desolation  completed.  Groves, 
 palaces,  and  temples  have  all  disappeared,  and  the 
 arid  rock  alone  remains,  where  the  serpent  basks,  a.. 
 the  solitary  wild-flower  is  unbent  by  human  footsteps. 
 From  the  Roman  conquest  the  city  dated  its  decay  ; 
 its  treasures  plundered,  its  pictures  and  statues  lorn 
 away,  and  its  liberties  crushed,  arts,  commerce,  agri- 
 culture, and  population  simultaneously  declined.  Some 
 vestiges  of  the  grandeur  of  Syracuse  undoubtedly  re- 
 mained, even  under  the  oppression  of  Rome  and  the 
 degeneracy  of  the  Byzantine  empire ;  but  the  convul- 
 sion of  earthquakes  and  the  fanatic  fury  of  Saracenic 
 invaders  at  last  effaced  it  from  the  catalogue  of  large 
 cities  ;  and  now,  under  tlie  feeblest  branch  of  the 
 Bourbons,  it  has  only  a  squalid,  superstitious,  and  idle 
 population  of  17,000  souls.  The  portion  of  its  land 
 that  was  once  rno.st  fertile  is  at  present  become  a  pes- 
 tilent marsh.  But  though  at  this  day  there  are  so  few 
 remains  of  the  numerous  and  vast  buildings  of  Syra- 
 cuse that  it  is  difficult  to  guess  how  their  materials 
 have  disappeared,  there  are  still  some  noble  traces  of 
 its  ancient  architecture.  In  the  island  of  the  harbour 
 called  Ortygia,  some  foundations  have  been  discov- 
 ered which  apparently  belonged  to  the  stupendous 
 granaries  built  amid  the  fortifications  of  the  place  by 
 the  great  Dionysius.  The  modern  cathedral,  dedica- 
 ted to  '  Our  Lady  of  Columns,'  is  so  called  from  its 
 enclosing  within  its  walls  the  celebrated  temple  of  Mi- 
 nerva, w'ith  twenty-four  of  its  noble  pillars,  twenty- 
 eii'ht  feet  in  height,  and  six  feet  six  inches  in  diame- 
 ter. The  nave  of  the  modern  church  is  formed  out 
 of  the  ancient  cella,  the  walls  having  been  perforated 
 
 1277 
 
SYR 
 
 SYRIA. 
 
 to  admit  of  passages  into  the  side  aisles,  which  consist 
 of  the  norih  and  south  porticoes  of  the  ancient  peri- 
 style. Cicero  is  diffuse  in  his  description  of  this  an- 
 cient edifice,  which,  though  spared  by  Marcellus,  was 
 stripped  to  the  bare  walls  of  all  its  splendid  ornaments 
 by  the  infamous  Verres.  Upon  the  summit  of  its  roof 
 there  was  elevated  an  enormous  gilded  shield,  that 
 was  consecrated  to  Minerva.  This  object,  which  was 
 risible  a  great  way  off  in  the  reflection  of  the  sun, 
 was  beheld  with  religious  respect;  and  the  mariner  at 
 sea  made  an  offering  when  he  took  leave  of  its  last 
 glimmerings.  In  that  quarter  of  the  city  which  was 
 called  Achradiiia  there  are  also  vestiges  of  the  walls 
 once  delended  by  the  genius  of  Archimedes.  Here 
 and  there  the  rock  itself  is  chiselled  into  battlements; 
 and,  wherever  there  are  remains  of  gateways,  they  are 
 found  SQ  placed  that  they  must  have  obliged  the  as- 
 .sailant  to  ap[)roach  them  for  a  great  length  of  way  with 
 his  unshielded  right  side  unprotected.  The  Hexapy- 
 lon  of  Syracuse  was  not,  as  many  commentators  on 
 Livy  have  supposed,  a  mere  part  of  the  wall,  but  a 
 noble  fortress,  constructed  with  such  consummate 
 skill  as  to  have  excited  the  admiration  of  the  best 
 modern  judges  of  military  architecture.  Its  ruins  still 
 exhibit  the  size  and  extent  of  its  subterranean  passa- 
 ges, whence  both  infantry  and  cavalry  might  make 
 their  sallies,  and  retreat  again  under  protection  of  the 
 fort ;  the  huge,  square  towers  of  its  solid  masonry  are 
 still  to  be  traced  ;  and  the  ground  is  strewn  with  the 
 vast  blocks  of  parapets,  which  are  bored  with  grooves 
 for  pouring  melted  pitch  and  lead  on  the  heads  of  the 
 assailants.  Such  was  ancient  Syracuse.  The  fullest 
 sympathy  need  not  prevent  our  repeating  a  doubt  as 
 to  the  vast  population  of  old  ascribed  to  it.  True, 
 the  circuit  of  its  walls  was  twenty-two  miles  ;  and 
 Thucydides,  long  before  its  era  of  prosperity  under 
 Dionysius,  ^llows  that  it  was  equal  to  Athens;  but 
 the  increase  of  its  population  after  Thucydides'  time 
 is  merely  conjectured,  and  the  inhabitants  of  all  At- 
 tica scarcely  exceeded  half  a  million." 
 
 Syria,  a  country  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  east  by 
 the  Euphrates  and  a  small  portion  of  Arabia,  north  by 
 the  range  of  Taurus,  west  by  the  Mediterranean,  and 
 south  by  Arabia.  The  name  Syria  has  been  trans- 
 mitted to  us  from  the  Greeks.  Pococke  conjectures 
 that  it  might  possibly  come  from  Sur,  the  ancient  name 
 of  Tyre,  the  chief  city  of  the  whole  country.  It  is 
 more  natural,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  name 
 Syria  is  a  corruption  or  abridgment  of  Assyria,  and 
 that  the  form  in  question  was  first  adopted  by  the 
 lonians,  who  frequented  these  coasts  after  the  Assyri- 
 ans of  Nineveh  had  made  this  country  a  part  of  their 
 empire,  about  750  B.C.  {Mamiert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt. 
 1,  p.  432,  scqq.) — It  was  divided  into  several  districts 
 and  provinces,  including,  besides  Syria  Proper,  Phoeni- 
 cia, Palestine,  and,  according  to  Pliny,  Mesopotamia 
 and  Babvloiiia.  Syria  is  called  in  Scripture  Aram, 
 and  the  inhabitants  Aramaeans,  a  name  derived  from 
 Aram,  the  filth  son  of  Sheiu,  the  father  of  the  Syrians 
 Mesopotamia  is  also  called  Aram  in  the  sacred  text; 
 but  the  appellation  Nahariin,  i.  e.,  between  the  riverx, 
 is  always  added,  for  distinction'  sake,  to  the  latter. 
 The  name  transmitted  to  us  by  the  Greeks  is,  as 
 above  slated,  a  corruption  or  abridgment  of  Assyria. 
 The  Greeks,  however,  were  not  unacquainted  with  the 
 term  Aram.^ans,  but  they  gave  it  a  wide  appellation, 
 making  it  com|)reheud  the  Syrians,  the  inhabitants  of 
 Mesopotamia,  the  Assyrians,  and  the  White  Syrians, 
 or  Leuco-Syrii,  as  far  as  Pontus,  because  they  saw 
 thit  all  these  nations  used  a  common  language,  the 
 same  customs,  and  the  same  religious  faith.  The  his- 
 tory of  Syria  is  included  in  that  of  its  conquerors.  It 
 appears  to  have  been  first  reduced  by  Tiglalh  Pilescr, 
 king  of  Assyria,  about  750  B.C. ;  previously  to  whose 
 im'asion  it  was  divided  into  petty  territories,  of  which 
 1278 
 
 the  kingdom  of  Damascus  was  the  principal.  Alter 
 the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy  it  came  under  the 
 Chaldean  yoke  ;  it  shared  the  fate  of  Babylonia  when 
 conquered  by  the  Persians  ;  and  was  again  subdued 
 by  Alexander  the  Great.  At  his  death,  B.C.  323,  it 
 was  erected  into  an  independent  monarchy  under  the 
 Seleucidae,  and  continued  to  be  governed  by  its  own 
 sovereigns  till,  weakened  and  devastated  by  civil  wara 
 between  competitors  for  the  throne,  it  was  finally  re- 
 duced by  Pompey  to  a  Roman  province,  about  55 
 B.C.,  after  the  monarchy  had  subsisted  two  hundred 
 and  fifty-seven  years.  The  Saracens,  in  the  decline 
 of  the  Roman  empire,  next  became  the  masters  of 
 Syria,  about  A.D.  622.  When  the  crusading  armies 
 poured  into  Asia,  this  country  became  the  grand  thea- 
 tre of  the  contest  between  the  armies  of  the  cross  and 
 the  crescent,  and  its  plains  were  deluged  with  Chris- 
 tian and  Moslem  blood.  Aniioch,  under  the  Roman 
 empire  the  magnificent  and  luxurious  capital  of  the 
 East,  and,  next  to  Rome  and  Alexandrea,  the  greatest 
 city  in  the  empire,  was  the  first  object  of  the  invaders. 
 It  sustained,  in  1008,  a  protracted  siege  uninjured, 
 during  which  the  Christian  camp  experienced  all  the 
 horrors  of  famine:  carrion  was  openly  dressed,  and  hu- 
 man flesh  is  said  to  have  been  eaten  in  secret.  It  fell 
 at  length  through  treachery  :  in  the  silence  of  the 
 night,  the  crosses  commenced  their  indiscriminate 
 butchery  of  its  sleeping  inhabitants.  The  dignity  of 
 age,  the  helplessness  of  infancy,  and  the  beauty  of  the 
 weaker  sex,  were,  say  the  historians,  alike  disregarded 
 by  the  Latin  savages  ;  and  Greeks  and  Armenians 
 were  for  some  time,  equally  with  the  Mussulmans,  ex- 
 posed to  their  fury.  More  than  ten  thousand  victims 
 perished  in  this  massacre.  In  the  following  spring 
 Jerusalem  shared  the  same  fate.  On  the  erection  of 
 the  transitory  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  the  coun- 
 try of  Tripoli  formed  a  distinct  but  dependant  princi- 
 pality. In  the  ecclesiastical  division,  Berytus,  Sidon, 
 Acre,  and  Panias  were  episcopal  sees  in  the  province 
 of  Tyre.  Tyre  itself  was  a  royal  domain.  The  bat- 
 tle of  Tiberias,  in  1186,  made  the  illustrious  Saladin 
 the  master  of  these  places;  Jerusalem  capitulated  the 
 following  year,  and  Antioch  submitted  to  the  Moslem 
 conqueror,  who  thus  became  lord  of  both  Syria  and 
 Egypt.  Syria  remained  subject  to  the  sultans  of 
 Egypt  till,  in  1517,  Selim  I.  overthrew  the  j\Iaina- 
 louk  dynasty,  and  Syria  and  Egypt  became  absorbed 
 in  the  Ottoman  empire. — The  situation  of  Syria,  its 
 distance  from  the  scat  of  government,  and  the  nature 
 of  the  country,  have  rendered  it  difficult  to  keep  it  in 
 regular  subjection  ;  and  the  power  of  the  Porlc  in  this 
 country  has  been  for  some  time  on  the  decline,  espe- 
 cially since  the  time  of  Djezzar  Pacha.  A  number  of 
 petty  independent  chiefs  have  sprung  up,  who  have  set 
 the  power  of  the  sultan  at  defiance.  Burckhardt  states 
 that  Badjazze,  Alexandretta,  and  Antakia  (Antioch) 
 had  each  an  independent  aga.  Berber,  a  formidable 
 rebel  who  had  fixed  his  seat  at  Tripoli,  where  he  had 
 maintained  himself  for  six  years,  had  been  but  recently 
 subdued  (in  1812)  by  the  Pacha  of  Damascus.  Ain- 
 tab  (to  the  north  of  Aleppo),  as  well  as  Edlip  and 
 Shogre  (between  Aleppo  and  Latikia),  had  also  their 
 own  chiefs.  Throughout  Syria,  as  is  the  case,  in- 
 deed, with  respect  to  the  whole  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
 the  Turks  do  not  form  more  than  two  fifths  of  the  pop- 
 ulation. All  civil  and  military  employments,  however, 
 are  in  their  hands.  Besides  Turks,  and  those  natives 
 who  may  claim  to  be  considered  as  of  genuine  Syrian 
 extraction,  the  country  is  inhabited  by  Kourds,  Tur- 
 comans, Bedouin  Arabs,  Chinganes,  and  other  no- 
 made  hordes  ;  by  Druses,  Enzairies,  and  Motoualis ; 
 by  Maronites,  Armenians,  Greek  Christians,  and  Jews. 
 No  country,  perhaps,  exhibits  a  greater  variety  in  the 
 character  of  its  population.  The  old  Syrian  language 
 is  said  to  be  spoken  in  a  few  districts,  chiefly  in  the 
 
TAB 
 
 T  A  C 
 
 neighbourhood  of  Damascus  and  Mount  Libanus.  The 
 Arabic  predominates  both  in  the  country  and  the 
 towns.  A  corrupt  mixture  of  Syriac  and  Chaldee  is 
 spoken  in  some  parts  by  the  peasantry,  while  the  Turk- 
 ish is  spoken  by  the  Osmanhs  and  tlie  nomade  hordes 
 of  the  north.  These  various  nations  and  tribes  will 
 come  more  particularly  under  our  notice  in  describing 
 the  districts  to  which  they  respectively  belong;.  The 
 most  natural  division  of  the  country  is  that  which  cor- 
 responds to  its  present  political  distribution  into  pa- 
 shalics,  to  which  we  shall  accordingly  adhere.  The 
 coast  from  Akka  to  Djebail,  with  the  mountains  in- 
 habited by  the  Druses,  is  comprehended  under  the 
 paslialic  of  Seide  and  Akka.  Near  Djebail,  the  pa- 
 shalic  of  Tarabolos  (Tripoli)  begins,  and  extends  along 
 the  coast  to  Latikia.  The  north  of  Syria,  from  the 
 licvant  to  the  Euphrates,  is  included  within  that  of 
 Haleb  (Aleppo).  The  remainder  of  the  country,  in- 
 cluding by  far  the  largest  territory,  is  the  vircroyalty 
 of  the  Pacha  of  Sham  (Damascus).  {Mod.  Trav.,  pt. 
 3,  p.  1.) 
 
 SvRiNX,  a  nyrnph  of  Arcadia,  daughter  of  the  river 
 Ladon.     {Vid.  Pan,  page  967,  col.  2.) 
 
 SvROS,  an  island  in  the  /Egean  Sea,  one  of  the  Cyc- 
 lades,  situate  between  Cylhnus  and  Rhenea.  It  was 
 celebrated  for  having  given  birth  to  Pherecydes,  the 
 philoso[)her,  a  disciple  of  Pittacus.  (Dioff.  LacrC,  1, 
 119. — Slrabo,  487.)  It  is  singular  that  Strabo  should 
 allirm  that  the  first  syllable  of  the  word  Syros  is  pro- 
 nounced long,  whereas  Homer,  in  the  passage  which 
 hequotes,  has  made  it  short.  (Od.,  15,  402.)  Syros, 
 now  Syra,  is  said  by  Pliny  to  be  twenty  miles  in  cir- 
 cumference. {Pliny,  4,  12. — Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p.  409.) 
 
 Syrtes,  two  gulfs  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
 one  called  Syrtis  Minor,  on  the  coast  of  Byzacium,  and 
 now  the  Gulf  of  Cubes;  the  other  called  Syrtis  Ma- 
 jor, on  the  coast  of  Cyrena'ica,  now  the  Gulf  of  Sidra. 
 The  former  is  supposed  to  derive  its  modern  name 
 from  the  city  of  Tacape,  which  was  at  the  head  of  it. 
 The  latter  is  called  by  the  natives  Syrle-a'-Kibber,  i. 
 e.,  "  The  great  Syrtis,"  which  the  sailors  have  cor- 
 rupted into  Sidra.  The  Syrtis  Minor  is  about  45 
 geographical  miles  in  breadth,  and  run.s  up  into  the 
 continent  about  75  miles.  It  is  still  an  object  of  ap- 
 prehension to  sailors,  in  consequence  of  the  variations 
 and  uncertainties  of  the  tides  on  a  flat  and  shelvy 
 coast.  The  Syrtis  Major  is  about  180  geographical 
 miles  between  the  two  capes,  and  penetrates  100  miles 
 into  the  land.  The  name  Syrlis  is  generally  derived 
 from  the  Greek  avpu,  "  to  drag,"  in  allusion  to  the  agi- 
 tation of  the  sand  by  the  force  of  the  tides.  (Com- 
 pare Sallust,  Bell.  Jug.,  c.  78.)  It  is  more  than  prob- 
 able, however,  that  the  appellation  is  to  be  deduced 
 from  the  term  Serf,  which  still  exists  in  Arabic  as  tine 
 name  for  a  desert  tract  or  region:  for  the  term  Syrlis 
 does  not  appear  to  have  been  confined  to  the  mere 
 gulfs  themselves,  but  to  have  been  extended  also  to 
 the  desert  country  adjacent,  which  is  still,  at  the  pres- 
 ent day,  called  Sert.  {Rilter,  Erdkunde,  vol.  1,  p. 
 929.  2(Z  ed.) 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabei.i.arT/IE  Leges,  laws  passed  at  various  times 
 for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  Roman  commons  to 
 vote  by  ballot,  and  no  longer  viva  voce.  The  object  of 
 these  laws  was  to  diminish  the  power  of  the  nobility. 
 Voting  by  ballot  was  allowed  by  the  Gabinian  law, 
 A.U.(J.  614,  in  conferring  honours;  two  years  after, 
 at  all  trials  except  for  treason,  by  the  Cassian  law  ;  in 
 passing  laws,  by  the  Papirian  law,  A.U.{.\  622  ;  and, 
 lastly,  in  trials  for  treason,  also  by  the  Ccelian  law, 
 A.U.C.  630. 
 
 Tabernve,  I.  Rhenanae,  a  city  of  Gallia  Belgica,  in 
 the    territory  of   the   Ncmetcs,   now   Rhcin-Zahcrn. 
 
 {Amm.  Mnrcell.,  16,  2.)— II.  A  city  of  Gallia  Belgica, 
 between  Argeiitcratum  {Slrashnr<i)  and  Divodurum 
 (Mc/z).  The  modern  name  is  Bcrg-Zabcrn.  —  III. 
 Triboccorum,  a  town  in  the  territory  of  the  Tribocci, 
 now  Elsass-Zabcrn.  {Btschoff  und  Mollcr,  Worlerh. 
 der  Geogr.,  p.  942.) 
 
 Tabor,  a  mountain  of  Galilee.     {Vid.  Itabyrius.) 
 
 Tabrace,  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Numidia,  and  near 
 the  limits  of  the  Provincia  Zeugitana,  now  Taliarca. 
 {Folyb.,  12,  11.)  Ptolemy  writes  the  name  Thabra- 
 ca ;  and  Pliny,  Tabracha.     {I'tin.,  5,  3.) 
 
 Taburnus,  a  lofty  mountain  in  Samniuin,the  south- 
 ern declivities  of  which  were  covered  with  olive 
 grounds.  It  closed  in  the  Caudine  Pass  on  the  south- 
 ern side.  The  modern  name  is  Taburno  or  Tabor. 
 It  derives  celebrity  from  Virgil.  {jEn.,  12,  715. — 
 Georg  ,  2,  307.) 
 
 TAcii'E,  a  town  of  Africa,  at  the  head  of  the  Syrtis 
 Minor.  It  is  now  Cubes  or  Gaps.  Near  it  were  some 
 medicinal  waters,  called  Aqua:  Tacapince.  now  El- 
 Hamma.  {Plin.,  5,  4. — Ilin.  Anton.,  50,  59,  74, 
 &c.) 
 
 Tacfarinas,  a  Numidian  by  birth,  and  the  leader 
 of  a  revolt  in  Africa  again.<t  the  Roman  power,  in  the 
 reign  of  Tiberius.  He  had  served  among  the  Roman 
 au.xiliaries,  and  acquired  in  this  way  some  knowledge 
 of  military  discipline.  Deserting,  subsequently,  from 
 the  forces  among  which  he  had  been  enrolled,  he  col- 
 lected together  some  predatory  bands,  whom  he  ac- 
 customed to  discipline,  and  finally  appeared  as  the  lead- 
 er of  the  Musulani,  a  powerful  nation  on  the  borders 
 of  the  desert.  The  Mauri  also  were  drawn  into  the 
 confederacy,  and  the  Cinithii  too  were  forced  to  join 
 it.  Furius  Camillus,  the  proconsul  of  Africa,  marched 
 against  and  defeated  him.  He  afterward,  however, 
 renewed  the  war,  and  was  again  defeated  by  Apronius, 
 and  driven  into  the  desert.  Still  unsubdued  in  spirit, 
 he  appeared  a  third  time  as  an  enemy,  and  was  de- 
 feated by  Blaeus.  He  again  carried  on  the  war,  after 
 this,  with  renewed  strength  and  vigour,  but  was  again 
 overcome  by  Dolabella,  and  fell  fighting  bravely. 
 {Tacit.,  An7i.,  2,  52. —Id.  ib.,  3,  20.— Id.  ib.,  3,  74. 
 — Id.  ib.,  4,  23,  seqq.) 
 
 Tachampso,  an  island  in  the  Nile,  near  Philae.  The 
 Egyptians  held  one  half  of  this  island,  and  the'rest  was 
 in  the  hands  of  the  -.-Ethiopians.  (Consult  Herod.,  2, 
 29.) — The  name  Tachampso  is  thought  to  signify  "  the 
 island  of  crocodiles,"  the  Egyjitian  term  for  these  ani- 
 mals being  ;^;d/ii/^ai,  according  to  Herodotus  (2,  70. — 
 Consult  Crcuzer,  Comment.  Herod.,  p  83. — Jablon- 
 ski,  Voc.  JEgypt.,  p.  388.  —  Cho'mpollion,  VEgypte 
 sous  Ics  Pharaons,  vol.  1,  p.  152).  Mannert  makes 
 it  answer  to  the  modern  Dcrar  {Geogr.,  vol.   10,  pt. 
 
 1,  p.  231);  but  Heeren  is  in  favour  of  Calaptschi 
 {Idccn,  vol.  2,  pt.  I,  p.  359. — Consult  Bdhr,  ad  Herod., 
 
 2,  29). 
 
 Tachos,  a  king  of  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Artaxerx- 
 cs  Ochus.  Having  revolted  against  the  Persians,  he 
 drew  the  Greeks  over  into  his  interests,  especially  the 
 Athenians  and  Spartans.  The  former  sent  Chabrias 
 to  his  aid  ;  the  latter,  Agesilaus.  A  misunderstand- 
 ing soon  arose  between  the  Spartan  leader  and  Ta- 
 chos, on  account  of  Agesilaus  having  otfered  advice 
 which  was  rejected  by  Tachos,  and  also  because  the 
 former  had  merely  the  command  of  the  mercenaries, 
 whereas  Chabrias  had  charge  of  the  fleet,  while  Ta- 
 chos exercised  supreme  control  over  all  the  forces. 
 Agesilaus,  in  consequence  of  this,  espoused  the  inter- 
 ests of  Nectanebis,  cousin  to  Tachos,  and  had  him 
 proclaimed  king  while  Tachos  was  absent  in  Phcenicia 
 with  the  Egyptian  forces.  Tachos,  upon  this,  fled  to 
 the  Persians,  B.C.  361.  He  reigned  about  two  vears. 
 {Corn.  Ncp.,  Vit.  Agcs.  —  Dwd.  Sic,  15,  92.  — /rf., 
 16,  48,  seqq.)  ^ 
 
 Tacitus,  C.  Cornei.u's,  a  celebrated  Latin  histori- 
 an, born  in  the  reign  of  Nero.     The  exact  year  cannot 
 
 1279 
 
TACITUS. 
 
 TACITUS. 
 
 be  ascertained  ;  but  as  Pliny  the  Younger  informs  us 
 thai  he  and  Tacitus  were  nearly  of  the  same  age,  it  is 
 supposed  that  Tacitus  was  born  A.U.C.  809  or  810, 
 about  the  sixth  year  of  Nero's  reign.  The  place  of  his 
 nativity  is  nowhere  mentioned,  but  it  is  generally 
 thought  to  have  been  Interaniiia  (now^  Tcrni),  in  Uin- 
 bria.  He  was  the  son  of  (Cornelius  Tacitus,  a  procu- 
 rator a[)pointed  by  the  prince  to  manage  the  imperial 
 revenue  and  govern  a  [)rovince  in  Belgic  Gaul.  The 
 person  so  etnployed  was,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  of 
 equestrian  rank.  The  place  where  Tacitus  received 
 his  education,  Massilia,  now  Marseille,  was  at  that 
 time  tiie  scat  of  literature  and  polished  manners. 
 Agricoia  was  trained  up  there  ;  but  there  is  no  reason 
 to  think  that  Tacitus  formed  and  enlarged  his  mind  at 
 the  same  place,  since,  when  he  relates  the  fact  about 
 his  father-in-law,  he  is  silent  respecting  himself.  If 
 he  was  educated  at  Koine,  we  may  be  sure  that  it 
 was  a  method  very  different  from  the  fashion  then  in 
 vogue.  Tacitus,  it  is  evident,  did  not  imbibe  the 
 smallest  tincture  of  that  frivolous  science  and  that 
 vicious  eloquence  that  debased  the  Roman  genius. 
 He  most  probably  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  formed 
 upon  the  plan  adopted  in  the  time  of  the  republic  ;  and 
 with  the  help  of  a  sound  scheme  of  home  discipline, 
 and  the  best  domestic  example,  he  grew  up,  in  a  course 
 of  virtue,  to  that  vigour  of  mind  which  gives  such  an- 
 imation to  his  writings.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
 that  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Quintilian,  who,  in  op- 
 position to  the  sophists  of  Greece,  taught  for  more 
 than  twenty  years  the  rules  of  that  manly  eloquence 
 which  is  so  nobly  displayed  in  his  Institutes.  Some 
 critics  have  applied  to  Tacitus  the  passage  in  which 
 Quintilian,  after  enumerating  the  writers  who  flourish- 
 ed in  that  period,  says,  "There  is  another  person  who 
 gives  additional  lustre  to  the  age  ;  a  man  who  will  de- 
 serve the  admiration  of  posterity.  I  do  not  mention 
 him  at  present:  his  name  will  l)e  known  hereafter"  (10, 
 1).  —  If  this  passage  relates  to  Tacitus,  the  prediction 
 has  been  fully  verified.  When  Quintilian  published  his 
 great  work,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  Tacitus  had  not 
 then  written  his  Annals  or  his  History.  Those  im- 
 mortal compositions  were  published  in  the  time  of  Tra- 
 jan.—  The  infancy  of  Tacitus  kept  him  untainted  by 
 the  vices  of  Nero's  court.  He  was  about  twelve 
 years  old  when  that  emperor  finished  his  career  of  guilt 
 and  folly  ;  and  in  the  tempestuous  times  that  ensued,  he 
 was  still  secured  by  his  tender  years.  Vespasian  re- 
 stored the  public  tranquillity,  revived  the  liberal  arts, 
 and  gave  encouragement  to  men  of  genius.  Our  au- 
 thor's first  ambition  was  to  distinguish  himself  at  the 
 bar. — Agricoia  was  joint  consul  with  Domitian,  A.U.C. 
 830,  for  the  latter  part  of  the  year.  Tacitus,  though 
 not  quite  twenty,  had  given  such  an  earnest  of  his  fu- 
 ture fame,  that  Agricoia  chose  him  for  his  son-in-law. 
 Thus  distinguished,  our  author  began  the  career  of 
 civil  preferment.  Vespasian  had  a  just  discern- 
 ment of  men,  and  was  the  friend  of  rising  merit. 
 Rome  at  length  was  governed  by  a  prince  who  had 
 the  good  sense  and  virtue  to  consider  himself  as  the 
 chief  magistrate,  whose  duty  it  was  to  redress  all 
 grievances,  restore  good  order,  and  give  energy  to  the 
 laws.  In  such  times,  the  early  genius  of  Tacitus  at- 
 tracted the  notice  of  the  emperor,  'i  he  foundiition  of 
 his  fortune  was  laid  by  Ves[)asian.  Tacitus  does  not 
 tell  the  particulars,  but  it  is  probable  that  he  began 
 with  the  functions  of  the  Vigintivirale  ;  a  body  of 
 twenty  men  commissioned  to  e.^ecute  an  inferior  ju- 
 risdiction for  the  better  regulation  of  the  city.  That 
 office,  according  to  the  system  established  by  Augus- 
 tus, was  a  preliminary  step  to  the  gradations  of  the 
 magistracy.  The  senate  had  power  to  dispense  with 
 it  in  particular  cases,  and  accordingly  we  find  Tibe- 
 rius applying  to  the  fathers  for  that  indulgence  in  fa- 
 vour of  brusus,  the  son  of  Germanicus.  It  is  prob- 
 able that  Tacitus  became  one  of  the  Vigmtivirale, 
 1230 
 
 and,  consequently,  that  the  road  of  honour  was  laid 
 open  to  him.  The  death  of  Vespasian  did  imt  check 
 him  in  his  progress.  Titus  was  the  friend  of  virtue. 
 The  office  of  qusstor  was,  in  the  regular  course,  the 
 ne.xt  [jublic  honour  ;  and  it  qualified  the  person  who 
 discharged  it  for  a  seat  in  the  senate.  Titus  reigned 
 little  more  than  two  years.  Domitian  succeeded  to 
 the  imperial  dignity.  Suspicious,  dark,  and  sullen,  he 
 made  the  policy  of  Tiberius  the  model  of  his  govern- 
 ment. He  saw  public  virtue,  and  he  destroyed  it ; 
 and  yet,  in  that  disastrous  period,  Tacitus  rose  to  pref- 
 erment. The  historian  himself  furnishes  a  solution 
 of  this  enigma.  Agricoia,  he  tells  us,  had  the  address 
 to  restrain  the  headlong  violence  of  the  tyrant  by  his 
 prudence  and  moderation.  Tacitus  imitated  this  line 
 of  conduct,  and,  instead  of  giving  umbrage  to  the 
 prince  and  provoking  the  tools  of  power,  he  was  con- 
 tent to  display  his  eloquence  at  the  bar.  Tacitus  had 
 a  talent  for  poetry,  and  his  verses,  most  probably, 
 served  to  ingratiate  him  with  the  tyrant,  who  affected 
 to  be  a  votary  of  the  Muses.  If,  in  addition  to  this, 
 he  was  the  author  of  a  book  of  apophthegms  called  Fa- 
 ceticE,  that  very  amusement  could  not  fail  to  prove 
 successful  in  gaining  for  him  the  notice  of  Domitian. 
 By  this  emperor  Tacitus  was  made  prstor,  A.D.  88  ; 
 he  was  also  appointed  one  of  the  college  of  Quinde- 
 cimviri.  In  A.D.  78  he  married  the  daughter  of  Ju- 
 lius Agricoia.  On  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  AD. 
 93,  he  quitted  Rome,  but  returned  t-o  it  in  the  year  97, 
 when'Nerva  was  on  the  throne.  This  prince  named 
 him  successor  in  the  consulship  to  Virginius  Rufus, 
 who  had  just  died.  In  honour  of  Virginius,  the  sen- 
 ate decreed  that  the  rites  of  sepulture  should  be  per- 
 formed at  the  public  expense.  Tacitus  delivered  the 
 funeral  oration  from  the  rostra.  Praise  from  such  an 
 orator,  Pliny  says,  was  sufficient  to  crown  the  glo- 
 ry of  a  well-spent  life.  {Epist.,  2,  1.)  Nerva  died 
 A.U.C.  851,  having  about  three  months  before  ado{it- 
 ed  Trajan  for  his  successor.  In  that  short  internal 
 the  critics  have  agreed  to  place  the  publication  of  the 
 life  of  Agricoia  ;  and  their  reason  is,  because  Taciius 
 mentions  Nerva  Ccesar,  but  does  not  style  him  Divuis-, 
 the  deified  Nerva,  which,  they  say,  would  have  been 
 the  case  if  the  emperor  was  then  deceased  ;  but  they 
 forget  that,  in  the  same  tract  (c.  44),  our  author  tells 
 us  how  ardently  Agricoia  wished  to  see  the  elevation 
 of  Trajan  to  the  seat  of  empire,  and  that  wish  would 
 have  been  an  awkward  compliment  to  the  reigning 
 prince.  It  seems  therefore  probable  that  the  Life  of 
 Agricoia  was  published  in  the  reign  of  Trajan. — The 
 production  just  mentioned  is  one  of  the  most  perfect 
 specimens  of  biography  that  any  language  can  show, 
 and  the  noblest  monument  ever  erected  by  any  writer 
 to  any  individual.  We  know  not,  on  perusing  it, 
 which  most  to  admire,  the  exalted  and  amiable  char- 
 acter of  the  hero,  or  the  truth,  sensibility,  and  tone  of 
 calmness  that  prevail  throughout  the  piece.  The  mis- 
 fortunes of  the  times  had  imparted  an  air  of  melan- 
 choly to  the  stvle  of  Tacitus,  which  gives  the  work  in 
 question  a  sombre  and  touching  character.  His  friend- 
 ship towards  his  father-in-law  never  renders  him  un- 
 faithful to  the  truth,  nor  does  he  attempt  to  conceal 
 his  indignation  at  the  policy  of  the  Roman  govern- 
 ment, of  which  Agricoia  was  sometimes  compelled  to 
 be  the  instrument. — The  Treatise  on  the  Manners  of 
 the  Germans  (De  situ,  monlnts,  ct.  pnpulis  Gcrmania), 
 it  is  generally  agreed,  made  its  appearance  in  the  year 
 of  Rome  851.  The  new  emperor,  whose  adoption 
 and  succession  had  been  confirmed  by  a  decree  of  the 
 senate,  was  at  the  head  of  the  legions  of  Germany 
 when  he  received  the  intelligence  of  the  death  of 
 Nerva  and  his  own  accession  to  the  empire.  Being 
 of  a  warlike  disposition,  he  was  not  in  haste  to  leave 
 the  army,  but  remained  there  during  the  entire  year. 
 In  such  a  juncture,  a  picture  of  German  manners  could 
 not  fail  to  excite  the  curiosity  of  the  public.     Tha 
 
TACITUS. 
 
 TACITUS. 
 
 second  consulship  of  Trajan  is  mentioned  in  the  tract 
 (c.  37),  and  that  was  A.U.C.  851,  in  conjunction  with 
 Nerva,  who  died  before  the  end  of  January.  It  is 
 therefore  certain  that  the  description  of  Germany  saw 
 the  light  in  the  course  of  that  year. — In  this  treatise 
 but  little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  geographical 
 notices  of  Tacitus,  which  are  very  defective.  His  re- 
 marks on  the  manners,  usagos,  and  political  institu- 
 tions of  this  people  are,  on  the  other  hand,  peculiarly 
 valuable.  The  historian  is  supposed  by  the  best  crit- 
 ics to  have  derived  his  principal  information  relative 
 to  the  Germans  from  persons  who  had  served  against 
 them,  and,  in  particular,  from  Virgiiiius  Ilufus,  who, 
 as  we  learn  from  the  Letters  of  Pliny,  was  the  friend 
 of  Tacitus.  The  great  work,  also,  of  the  elder  Pliny 
 on  Germany,  now  lost,  must  have  been  an  important 
 aid.  As  to  the  object  of  the  hietorian  in  composing 
 this  work,  some  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  suppose 
 that  his  sole  intention  was  to  satirize  the  corrupt  mor- 
 als of  his  contemporaries,  by  holding  forth  to  view  an 
 ideal  and  highly-coloured  picture  of  barbarian  virtue. 
 According  to  these  same  v\'ritcrs,  his  object  was  to  bring 
 back  his  countrymen  to  their  ancient  simplicity  of  man- 
 ners, and  thus  op|iosc  an  eflectual  barrier  to  those  en- 
 emies who  menaced  the  safety  of  their  descendants. 
 But  a  perusal  of  the  work  in  question  destroys  all  this 
 fanciful  hypothesis.  The  analogy  between  many  of 
 the  rude  manners  of  the  early  Germans  and  those  of 
 the  aborigines  of  North  America  at  once  stamps  the 
 work  with  the  seal  of  truth.  What  if  Tacitus  dwells 
 with  a  certain  predilection  upon  the  simple  manners 
 of  Germany  !  It  surely  is  natural  in  one  who  had  be- 
 come disgusted  with  the  excesses  of  Italy.  We  are 
 not  to  suppose,  however,  that  this  work  of  Tacitus  is 
 free  from  errors.  The  very  manner  in  which  he  ac- 
 quired his  information  on  this  subject  must  have  led 
 lo  misconceptions  and  mistakes.  Religious  prejudi- 
 ces also  served  occasionally  to  mislead  the  historian, 
 who  beheld  the  traces  of  Greek  and  Roman  mytholo- 
 gy even  in  the  North. — The  friendship  that  subsisted 
 between  Tacitus  and  the  younger  Pliny  is  well  known. 
 It  was  founded  on  the  consonance  of  their  studies  and 
 their  virtues.  They  were  both  convinced  that  a  stri- 
 king picture  of  former  tyranny  ought  to  be  placed  in 
 contrast  to  the  felicity  of  the  times  that  succeeded. 
 Pliny  acted  up  to  his  own  idea  of  this  in  the  panegyric 
 on  Trajan,  where  we  find  a  vein  of  satire  against  Domi- 
 tian  running  throughout  the  whole  piece.  It  appears 
 in  his  letters  that  he  had  some  thoughts  of  writing  a 
 history  on  the  same  principle  ;  but  he  had  not  resolu- 
 tion to  undertake  that  arduous  task.  Tacitus  had 
 more  vigour  of  mind  ;  he  thought  more  intensely,  and 
 with  deeper  penetration  than  his  friend.  We  find 
 that  he  had  formed,  at  an  early  period,  the  plan  of  his 
 History,  and  resolved  to  execute  it  in  order  to  show 
 the  horrors  of  slavery,  and  the  debasement  of  the  Ro- 
 man people  through  the  whole  of  Domitian's  reign. 
 {Vit.  Agr.,  c.  3.)  He  did  not,  however,  though  em- 
 ployed in  a  great  and  important  work,  renounce  im- 
 mediately all  his  practice  in  the  forum,  but  continued 
 to  be  employed  there  until  the  trial  of  Marius  Prisons, 
 who  had  been  proconsul  of  Africa,  and  stood  im- 
 peached before  the  senate  at  the  suit  of  the  province. 
 Priscus  had  presented  a  memorial,  praying  to  be  tried 
 by  a  commission  of  select  judges.  Tacitus  and  Pliny, 
 by  the  special  appointment  of  the  fathers,  were  advo- 
 cates on  the  part  of  the  Africans.  They  thought  it 
 their  duty  to  inform  the  house  that  the  crimes  alleged 
 against  Priscus  were  of  too  atrocious  a  nature  to  fall 
 within  the  cognizance  of  an  inferior  court.  The  case 
 was  therefore  heard  at  an  adjourned  meeting  of  the 
 senate,  and  the  eloquence  of  Pliny  and  Tacitus,  but 
 more  particularly  of  the  latter,  succeeded  in  establish- 
 ing the  guilt  of  the  accused.  The  senate  concluded 
 the  business  with  a  declaration  that  Tacitus  and  Pliny 
 had  executed  the  trust  reposed  in  them  to  the  full  sat- 
 7  Z 
 
 isfaction  of  the  house.  The  cause  was  tried  A.U.C. 
 853,  in  the  third  year  of  Trajan's  reign.  From  that 
 time  Tacitus  dedicated  himself  altogether  to  his  His- 
 tory. Pliny  informs  us  (£/?.,  4,  13),  that  our  author 
 was  frequented  by  a  number  of  visiters,  who  admired 
 his  genius,  and  for  that  reason  went  in  crowds  to  his 
 levee.  From  that  conflux  of  men  of  letters  Tacitus 
 could  not  fail  to  gain  the  best  information.  Pliny 
 sent  a  full  detail  of  all  the  circumstances  attending  the 
 death  of  his  uncle,  the  elder  Pliny,  who  lost  his  life  in 
 the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  in  order  that  an  exact  rela- 
 tion of  that  event  might  be  transmitted  to  posterity. 
 — Trajan  reigned  nineteen  years.  He  died  suddenly 
 in  Cilicia,  A.U.C.  870,  A.D.  117.  The  exact  time 
 when  Tacitus  published  his  History  is  uncertain,  but 
 it  was  111  some  period  of  Trajan's  reign.  He  was  re- 
 solved to  send  his  work  into  the  world  in  that  happy 
 age  when  he  could  think  with  freedom,  and  what 
 he  thought  he  could  publish  with  perfect  security. 
 (Hist.,  1,  1.)  He  began  from  the  accession  of  Galba, 
 A.U.C.  822,  and  followed  down  the  thread  of  his  nar- 
 rative to  the  death  of  Domitian,  in  the  year  849  ;  the 
 whole  comprising  a  period  of  seven-and-twenty  years, 
 full  of  important  events  and  sudden  revolutions,  in 
 which  the  prstorian  bands,  the  armies  in  Germany, 
 and  the  legions  in  Syria  claimed  a  right  to  raise 
 whom  they  thought  proper  to  the  imperial  seat,  with- 
 out any  regard  for  the  authority  of  the  senate.  Such 
 was  the  subject  Tacitus  had  before  him.  The  sum- 
 mary view  which  he  has  given  of  those  disastrous 
 times  is  the  most  awful  picture  of  civil  commotion 
 and  the  wild  distraction  of  a  frantic  people.  It  is  not 
 exactly  known  into  how  many  books  the  work  was  di- 
 vided. Vossius  makes  the' number  no  less  than  thir- 
 ty ;  but,  to  the  great  loss  of  the  literary  world,  we 
 have  only  the  first  four  books,  and  the  commencement 
 of  the  fifth.  The  work  must  have  been  a  large  one, 
 if  we  may  judge  from  the  portion  that  has  reached  us, 
 since  this  contains  the  transactions  of  little  more  than 
 a  single  year.  The  reign  of  Titus,  "  the  delight  of 
 human  kind,"  is  totally  lost,  and  Domitian  has  esca- 
 ped the  vengeance  of  the  historian's  pen.  The  His- 
 tory being  finished,  Tacitus  did  not  think  that  he  had 
 completed  his  portraiture  of  slavery.  He  viient  back 
 to  Tiberius,  who  left  a  model  of  tyranny  for  his  suc- 
 cessors. This  second  work  he  called  by  the  name  of 
 Annals.  It  included  a  period  of  four-and-fifty  years, 
 from  the  year  767  to  the  death  of  Nero  in  S2i.  Du- 
 ring the  period  embraced  by  the  History  the  whole 
 empire  was  convulsed,  and  the  author  had  lo  arrange 
 the  operations  of  armies  in  Germany,  Batavia,  Gaul, 
 Italy,  and  Judx'a,  all  in  motion  almost  at  the  same 
 time.  This  was  not  the  case  in  the  Annals,  The 
 Roman  world  was  in  a  state  of  general  tranquillity, 
 and  the  history  of  domestic  transactions  was  to  sup- 
 ply Tacitus  with  materials.  The  author  has  given  us, 
 with  his  usual  brevity,  the  true  characters  of  this  part  of 
 his  work.  "  The  detail,"  he  says,  "into  which  he  was 
 obliged  to  enter,  while  it  gave  lessons  of  prudence,  was 
 in  danger  of  being  dry  and  unentertaining.  In  other 
 histories,  the  operations  of  armies,  the  situation  of 
 countries,  the  events  of  war,  and  the  exploits  of  illustri- 
 ous generals  awaken  curiosity  and  expand  the  imagina- 
 tion. We  have  nothing  before  us  but  acts  of  despo- 
 tism, continual  accusations,  the  treachery  of  friends, 
 the  ruin  of  innocence,  and  trial  after  trial,  always  end- 
 ing in  the  same  catastrophe.  Events  like  these  will 
 give  to  the  work  a  tedious  uniformity,  without  an  ob- 
 ject to  enliven  attention,  without  an  incident  to  prevent 
 satiety."  (Ann  ,  4,  33.)  But  the  genius  of  Tacitus 
 surmounted  every  difiiculty.  He  was  able  to  keep  at- 
 tention awake,  to  please  the  imagination,  and  enlighten 
 the  understanding.  The  style  of  the  Annals  differs 
 from  that  of  the  History,  which  required  stately  peri- 
 ods, pomp  of  expression,  and  harmonious  sentences. 
 The  Annals  arc  written  in  a  strain  more  subdued  and 
 
 1381 
 
TACITUS. 
 
 TACITUS. 
 
 temperate  :  every  phrase  is  a  maxim  ;  the  narra- 
 tive goes  on  with  rapidity  ;  the  author  is  sparing  of 
 words,  and  prodigal  of  sentiment  ;  the  characters  arc 
 drawn  with  a  profound  knowledge  of  human  nature  ; 
 and  when  we  see  them  figuring  on  the  stage  of  public 
 business,  we  perceive  the  internal  spring  of  their  ac- 
 tions ;  we  see  their  motives  at  work,  and,  of  course, 
 are  prepared  to  judge  of  their  conduct.  The  Annals, 
 as  well  as  the  History,  have  suffered  by  the  barbarous 
 rage  and  more  barbarous  ignorance  of  the  tribes  that 
 overturned  the  Roman  empire.  Of  the  si,xteen  books 
 which  originally  composed  the  Annals,  the  following 
 are  lost  :  a  part  of  the  fifth,  from  the  seventh  to  the 
 tenth  both  inclusive,  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh,  and 
 the  end  of  the  sixteenth.  We  miss,  therefore,  three 
 years  of  Tiberius,  the  entire  four  years  of  Caligula,  the 
 first  six  of  Claudius,  and  the  last  two  of  Nero.  And, 
 on  the  other  hand,  we  have  the  history  of  the  reign  of 
 Tiberius,  with  the  exception  of  the  three  years  just 
 mentioned,  the  latter  years  of  Claudius,  and  the  his- 
 tory of  Nero  down  to  A.D.  67. — We  find  that  Taci- 
 tus intended,  if  his  life  and  health  continued,  to  re- 
 view the  reign  of  Augustus  {Ann.,  3,  24),  in  order  to 
 detect  the  arts  by  which  the  old  constitution  was  over- 
 turned, to  make  way  for  the  government  of  a  single 
 ruler.  This,  in  the  hands  of  such  a  writer,  would  have 
 been  a  curious  portion  of  history  ;  but  it  is  probable  he 
 did  not  live  to  carry  his  design  into  execution.  The 
 time  of  his  death  is  not  mentioned  by  any  ancient  au- 
 thor. It  seems,  however,  highly  probable  that  he  died 
 in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  and  we  may  reasonably  conclude 
 that  he  survived  his  friend  Pliny.  Those  two  writers 
 were  the  ornaments  of  the  age  ;  both  men  of  genius  ; 
 both  encouragers  of  literature  ;  the  friends  of  liberty 
 and  virtue.  The  esteem  and  affection  which  Pliny 
 cherished  towards  our  author  is  evident  in  many  of 
 his  letters,  but  nowhere  more  than  in  the  following  pas- 
 sage :  "  I  never  was  touched  with  a  more  sensible 
 pleasure  than  by  an  account  which  I  received  lately 
 from  Cornelius  Tacitus.  He  informed  me  that,  at  the 
 last  Circensian  games,  he  sat  next  to  a  stranger,  who, 
 after  much  discourse  on  various  topics  of  learning, 
 '•ed  him  if  he  was  an  Italian  or  a  Provincial.  Ta- 
 citus replied,  'Your  acquaintance  with  literature  must 
 have  informed  you  who  I  am.'  '  Ay  !'  said  the  man  ; 
 'pray,  then,  is  it  Tacitus  or  Pliny  I  ain  talking  withV 
 I  cannot  express  how  highly  I  am  pleased  to  find  that 
 our  names  are  not  so  much  the  proper  appellations  of 
 men  as  a  kind  of  distinction  for  learning  itself."  (Ep., 
 10,  23.)  Had  Pliny  been  the  surviver,  he,  who  la- 
 mented the  loss  of  all  his  friends,  would  not  have  fail- 
 ed to  pay  the  last  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Tacitus. 
 The  commentators  assume  it  as  a  certain  fact  that 
 our  author  must  have  left  issue  ;  and  their  reason  is, 
 because  they  find  that  M.  Claudius  Tacitus,  who  was 
 created  emperor  A.D.  276,  deduced  his  pedigree  from 
 the  great  historian.  (Vopisc,  Vit.  Tac.)  That  ex- 
 cellent prince  was  only  shown  to  the  world.  He  was 
 snatched  away  by  a  fit  of  illness  at  the  end  of  six 
 months,  having  crowded  into  that  short  reign  a  num- 
 ber of  virtues.  Vopiscus  tells  us  that  he  ordered  the 
 image  of  Tacitus,  and  a  complete  collection  of  his 
 works,  to  be  placed  in  the  public  archives,  with  a  spe- 
 cial direction  that  ten  copies  should  be  made  every 
 year  at  the  public  expense.  But,  when  the  mutilated 
 state  in  which  our  author  has  come  down  to  posterity 
 is  considered,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
 orders  of  the  prince  were  never  executed. — Tacitus 
 has  well  deserved  the  appellation  that  has  been  be- 
 stowed upon  him  of  "  the  greatest  historian  of  antiqui- 
 ty." To  the  generous  and  noble  principle  which  gui- 
 ded his  pen  throughout  his  work,  he  united  a  fund  of 
 knowledge  and  the  colours  of  eloquence.  Every  short 
 description  is  a  picture  in  miniature  :  we  see  the  per- 
 sons acting,  speaking,  or  suffering  ;  our  passions  are 
 kept  in  a  tumult  of  emotion  ;  they  succeed  each  other 
 1282 
 
 in  quick  vicissitude  ;  they  n)ix  and  blend  in  variout 
 combinations  ;  we  glow  with  indignation,  we  melt  into 
 tears.  The  Annals,  in  fact,  may  be  called  an  histori- 
 cal picture-gallery.  It  is  by  this  magic  power  that  Ta- 
 citus has  been  able  to  animate  the  dry  regularity  of 
 the  chronologic  order,  and  to  spread  a  charm  over  the 
 whole  that  awakens  curiosity  and  unchains  attention. 
 How  different  from  the  gazette-style  of  Suetonius, 
 who  relates  his  facts  in  a  calm  and  unimpassioned 
 tone,  unmoved  by  the  distress  of  injured  virtue,  and 
 never  rising  to  indignation.  Tacitus,  on  the  contrary, 
 sits  in  judgment  on  the  prince,  the  senate,  the  consuls, 
 and  the  people  ;  and  he  finds  eloquence  to  affect  the 
 heart,  and  through  the  imagination  to  inform  the  un- 
 derstanding.— Tacitus  has  been  called  the  Father  of 
 Philosophical  History  ;  and  the  title  is  well  bestowed 
 if  it  be  considered  as  confined  to  his  acute  and  forcible 
 criticisms  on  individual  character,  and  the  moral  dig- 
 nity and  pathos  of  his  manner  ;  but  of  Political  philos- 
 ophy we  discover  in  this  excellent  writer  but  few 
 traces.  To  this  department  of  wisdom,  the  times, 
 both  those  which  Tacitus  saw  and  those  of  which  his 
 fathers  could  tell  him,  were  fatally  unpropitious.  They 
 exhibited  a  frame  of  society  (if  we  may  disgrace  that 
 expression  by  so  applying  it)  suffering  a  course  of  ex- 
 periments too  frightfully  violent  to  issue  in  fine  results. 
 In  a  nation  thus  tried  with  extremes,  we  could  hardly 
 expect  to  meet  with  the  refinements  of  political  sci- 
 ence ;  and  supposing  them  there  to  exist,  an  historical 
 account  of  such  a  nation  affords  little  scope  for  the 
 display  of  them. — It  may  be  expected  that  some  no- 
 tice should  be  taken  of  the  objections  which  have  been 
 urged  against  Tacitus  by  the  vai-ious  writers  who  have 
 thought  proper  to  place  themselves  in  the  chair  of 
 criticism.  The  first  charge  exhibited  against  our  au  • 
 thor  is,  that  he  has  written  bad  Latin.  This  shall  bo 
 answered  by  a  writer  who  was  master  of  as  much 
 elegance  as  can  be  attained  in  a  dead  language 
 ';Who,"  exclaims  Muretus,  "are  we  moderns,  even 
 if  all  who  have  acquired  great  skill  in  the  Latin  lan- 
 guage were  assembled  in  a  body ;  who  are  we,  that 
 presume  to  pronounce  against  an  author  (Tacitus) 
 who,  when  the  Roman  language  still  flourished  in  all 
 its  splendour  (and  it  flourished  to  the  time  of  Hadri- 
 an), was  deemed  the  most  eloquent  orator  of  his 
 time  1  When  vie  reflect  on  the  number  of  ancient 
 authors  whose  works  have  been  destroyed,  which  of 
 us  can  pretend  to  say  that  the  words  which  appear 
 new  in  Tacitus  were  not  known  and  used  by  the  an- 
 cients '\  and  yet,  at  the  distance  of  ages,  when  the  pro- 
 ductions of  genius  have  been  wellnigh  extinguished, 
 we  of  this  day  take  upon  us  a  decisive  tone  to  con- 
 demn the  most  celebrated  writers,  whose  cooks  and 
 mule-drivers  understood  the  Latin  language,  and  spoke 
 it,  better  than  the  most  confident  scholar  of  the  pres- 
 ent age."  —  The  next  allegation  against  Tacitus  is 
 grounded  upon  the  conciseness  and  consequent  ob- 
 scurity of  his  style.  The  love  of  brevity,  which  dis- 
 tinguishes Tacitus  from  all  other  writers,  was  proba 
 bly  the  result  of  his  early  admiration  of  Seneca;  and, 
 perha])s,  was  carried  farther  by  that  constant  habit  of 
 close  thinking,  which  could  seize  the  principal  idea, 
 and  discard  all  unnecessary  appendages.  Tacitus  was 
 sparing  of  words  and  lavish  of  sentiment.  Montes- 
 quieu says  he  knew  everything,  and  therefore  abridge* 
 everything.  In  the  political  maxims  and  moral  re 
 flections,  which,  where  we  least  expect  it,  dart  a  sud 
 den  light,  yet  never  interrupt  the  rapidity  of  the  narra 
 tive,  the  comprehensive  energy  of  the  sentence  gives* 
 all  the  pleasure  of  surprise,  while  it  conveys  a  deep 
 reflection.  The  observations  which  Quintilian  calls 
 lumina  sentcntiarum  crowded  fast  upon  the  author's 
 mind,  and  he  scorned  to  waste  his  strength  in  words; 
 he  gave  the  image  in  profile,  and  left  the  reader  to 
 take  a  round-about  view. — It  may  be  asked,  Is  Taci- 
 tus never  obscure  ''     He  certainly  is  :  his  own  laconic 
 
TACITUS. 
 
 TACITUS. 
 
 manner,  and,  it  may  be  added,  the  omissions  of  the 
 copyists,  have  occasioned  some  difficulties  ;  but  he 
 who  has  made  himself  familiar  with  the  peculiarities 
 of  his  style  will  not  be  much  emharrassed.  B:*  still 
 it  may  be  said  that,  in  so  long  a  work,  one  continued 
 strain  of  studied  brevity  fatigues  the  ear,  and  tires  the 
 reader  by  an  unvaried  and  disgusting  monotony.  Va- 
 riety, it  must  be  admitted,  would  give  new  graces  to 
 the  narrative,  and  prevent  too  much  uniformity.  The 
 celebrated  Montaigne  observes,  that  Tacitus  abounds 
 with  strong  and  vigorous  sentences,  often  constructed 
 with  point  and  subtlety,  agreeably  to  the  taste  of  the 
 age,  which  delighted  in  the  gay  and  brilliant  ;  and 
 when  those  were  not  in  the  thought,  the  writer  was 
 sure  to  find  an  antithesis  in  the  exi)ression.  And  yet 
 it  is  remarkable  that  the  same  writer,  who  owns  that 
 for  twenty  years  together  he  read  by  fits  and  starts, 
 tells  us  himself  that  he  read  Tacitus  a  second  time  in 
 one  regular  train,  without  interruption.  —  A  third  alle- 
 gation of  the  critics  is,  that  Tacitus  was  a  misanthrope, 
 who  beheld  human  nature  with  a  malignant  eye,  and, 
 always  suspecting  the  worst,  falsified  facts,  in  order 
 to  paint  men  worse  than  they  were.  The  answer  is 
 obvious  :  Tacitus  was  fallen  on  evil  times ;  he  says, 
 "  A  black  and  evil  period  lies  before  me.  The  age 
 was  sunk  to  the  lowest  depth  of  sordid  adulation,  in- 
 somuch that  not  only  the  most  illustrious  citizens,  in 
 order  to  secure  themselves,  were  obliged  to  crouch  in 
 bondage  ;  but  even  men  of  consular  and  praetorian 
 rank,  and  the  whole  senate,  tried,  with  emulation,  who 
 should  be  the  most  obsequious  of  slaves."  {A7m., 
 fi.  65.)  In  such  times,  who  could  live  free  from  suspi- 
 cion 1  Tacitus  knew  the  character  of  Tiberius;  he 
 was  an  accurate  observer  of  mankind  :  but  he  must 
 have  been  credulous  indeed,  or  the  willing  dupe  of  a 
 profligate  court,  if  he  had  not  laid  open  the  secret  mo- 
 tives of  all,  and  traced  their  actions  to  their  first  prin- 
 ciples. At  the  head  of  the  critics  who  have  endeav- 
 oured to  enforce  the  charge  of  falsehood  and  malevo- 
 lence stands  Famianus  Strada,  the  elegant  author  of 
 the  well-known  Prolusioucs  Acadcmicce,  and  the  wars 
 in  Holland,  entitled  Dc  Bella  Bclgico:  but  it  will  be 
 sufficient,  in  answer  to  his  laboured  declamations,  to 
 say  with  Lord  Bolingbroke,  "He  was  a  rhetor,  who 
 condemned  Tacitus,  and  {)resumed  to  write  history 
 himself" — The  imputation  of  atheism,  which  has  been 
 urged  by  critics  of  more  piety  than  discernment,  is 
 easily  refuted.  Whatever  were  our  author's  doubts 
 concerning  fate,  free-will,  and  the  influence  of  the 
 planets,  let  the  fine  apostrophe  to  the  departed  spirit 
 of  Agricola  be  perused  with  attention,  and  every  sen- 
 timent will  discover  a  mind  impressed  with  the  idea 
 of  an  overruling  Providence.  There  are  many  pas- 
 sages in  the  Annals  and  the  History  to  the  same  ef- 
 fect :  but  more  on  this  head  is  unnecessary.  Nor 
 does  the  paradox  suggested  by  Boccalini  deserve  a 
 longer  discussion.  That  author  gives  it  as  his  opin- 
 ion, that  the  whole  design  of  the  Annals  was  to  teach 
 the  art  of  despotism  :  it  may,  with  as  good  reason,  be 
 said,  that  Lord  Clarendon  wrote  the  history  of  the 
 Grand  Rebellion  with  intent  to  tea>.h  schismatics, 
 Puritans,  and  Republicans  how  to  murder  the  king. 
 {Murphy,  Essay  on  the  Life  and  Genius  of  Tacitus, 
 p.  10,  seqq.) — There  has  come  down  to  us  a  dialogue 
 entitled  De  claris  oratoribus,  sive  de  causis  corruptcB 
 eloquenticE.  The  manuscripts  and  old  editions  name 
 Tacitus  as  the  author  of  this  production  ;  a  great 
 number  of  commentators,  however,  ascribe  it  to  Quin- 
 tilian,  and  some  to  Pliny  the  Younger.  They  who 
 argue  from  the  language  of  manuscri[)ts  allege  in  their 
 favour  Pomponius  Sabinus,  a  grammarian,  who  states 
 that  Tacitus  had  given  to  the  works  of  Maecenas  the 
 epithet  of  calamislri.  Now  the  passage  to  which  the 
 grammarian  alludes  is  actually  found  in  the  26th  chap- 
 ter of  the  dialogue  under  consideration.  The  author 
 of  the  dialogue,  moreover,  informs  us,  in  the  first  chap- 
 
 ter, that  he  was  a  very  young  man  (juvenis  admodutn) 
 when  he  wrote  it,  or,  at  least,  when  he  supposes  it  to 
 have  been  held  in  his  presence.  This  point  of  time 
 is  clearly  determined  in  the  17th  chapter;  it  was  the 
 sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  A.D.  75.  Taci- 
 tus at  this  period  would  be  about  sixteen  years  of  age. 
 From  what  has  been  said  then,  it  will  be  perceived 
 that,  as  far  as  chronology  is  concerned,  nothing  pre- 
 vents our  regarding  Tacitus  as  the  author  of  the  dia- 
 logue in  question.  It  is  true,  we  find  a  marked  differ- 
 ence between  the  style  of  the  writer  of  this  dialogue 
 and  that  of  the  historian  ;  but  would  not  ihe  interve- 
 ning period  of  forty  years  sufficiently  account  for  this 
 discrepance,  and  the  language  of  the  man  be  diflerent 
 from  the  tone  of  early  youth  1  Might  not,  too,  the 
 same  writer  have  varied  his  style  in  order  to  adapt 
 it  to  different  subjects'!  Ought  he  not  to  assimilate 
 it  to  the  various  characters  who  bear  a  part  in  the 
 dialogued  Induced  by  these  and  other  reasons,  Pi- 
 thou,  Dodwell,  Schulze,  and  many  others,  have  giv- 
 en their  opinion  in  favour  of  our  adhering  to  the  ti- 
 tles of  the  manuscripts,  and  have  ascribed  the  dia- 
 logue to  Tacitus.  Rhenanus  was  the  first  who  en- 
 tertained doubts  respecting  the  claim  of  Tacitus  to 
 the  authorship  of  this  production,  and  since  his  time, 
 Dousa,  Stephens,  Freinshemius,  and  others  no  less 
 celebrated,  have  contended  that  Quintilian,  not  Taci- 
 tus, must  be  regarded  as  the  true  writer  of  the  work. 
 They  place  great  reliance  on  two  passages  of  Quin- 
 tilian, where  that  writer  says  expressly  that  he  had 
 composed  a  separate  treatise  on  the  causes  of  the  cor- 
 ruption of  eloquence  {Inst.  Or.,  6,  8,  6),  as  well  as  on 
 many  other  passages  in  which  this  same  work  is  cited, 
 without  the  author's  indicating  the  title.  How  can 
 we  suppose,  it  is  asked,  that  either  Tacitus  or  Pliny 
 would  be  inclined  to  treat  of  a  subject  which  had  al- 
 ready been  discussed  by  Quintilian  1  These  same 
 critics  observe,  moreover,  that  there  appears  to  be  a 
 great  analogy,  not  only  between  the  matters  treated  of 
 in  this  dialogue  and  those  which  form  the  subject  of 
 Quintilian's  writings,  but  also  between  his  style  and 
 that  of  the  work  in  question.  But  it  may  be  replied, 
 in  the  first  place,  that,  at  the  time  when  the  dialogue 
 was  written,  Quintilian  was  already  thirty-three  years 
 of  age,  a  period  of  life  to  which  the  expression  juvenis 
 admodiim  can  with  no  propriety  whatever  be  made  to 
 apply.  In  the  next  )jlace,  the  argument  deduced  from 
 analogy  of  style  is  not  the  most  conclusive,  since  those 
 critics  who  assign  tlie  work  to  Pliny  or  Tacitus  ad- 
 duce a  similar  argument  in  support  of  their  claims. 
 On  the  other  hand,  the  argument  which  has  beeu 
 drawn  from  identity  of  title  would  be  a  very  strong 
 one,  if  it  were  not  a  fact  that  the  second  title,  which 
 is  found  in  modern  editions,  De  cau.iis  corruptw  elu- 
 ijucnticE,  owes  its  existence  entirely  to  Lipsius,  who 
 thought  fit  to  add  this  second  title,  which  he  had  found 
 in  Quintilian  All  the  manuscripts  and  the  early  edi- 
 tions merely  have  the  title  De  claris  oralonbus,  or  else 
 this  one,  Dialogus  an  sui  s<zculi  oratorcs  ct  quare  con- 
 ccdant.  Another  circumstance  very  much  agai-iist  the 
 idea  of  Quintilian's  being  the  author  of  the  piece,  is 
 the  fact  of  his  more  than  once  referring  the  reader  to 
 his  other  work  for  matters  of  which  the  dialogue  we 
 are  considering  makes  not  the  slightest  mention  ;  such, 
 for  example,  are  the  hyperbole  and  exaggeration,  of 
 which  he  speaks  in  the  third  book,  ch.  3  and  6.  The 
 latest  editor  of  Quintilian,  Spalding,  has  carefully  col- 
 lected all  these  passages,  which,  in  his  opinion,  show 
 that  Quintilian  was  not  the  author  of  the  dialogue. — 
 On  the  introduction  of  printing,  the  manuscript  of  the 
 Annals  had  become  so  scarce,  that,  when  Vindelinua 
 of  Spires  published  his  edition,  in  1468  or  1469,  of  ' 
 the  works  of  Tacitus,  it  contained  merely  the  last  six 
 books  of  the  Annals,  four  books  of  the  History,  with 
 part  of  the  fifth,  the  Treatise  on  the  .Manners  of  the 
 Germans,  and  the  Dialogue  concerning  Oratory.     Th** 
 
 1283 
 
TACITUS. 
 
 T^N 
 
 first  six  books  of  the  Annals  had  not  then  been  found. 
 Leo  X.  promised  a  pecuniary  recompense  and  indulgen- 
 ces to  any  one  who  should  find  the  lost  portions  of 
 the  work.  One  of  his  agents,  Angelo  Arcomboldi, 
 discovered  in  the  monastery  of  Corvey,  in  Westpha- 
 lia, a  manuscript  which  had  belonged  to  Anschaire, 
 the  founder  of  the  convent,  and  a  bishop  of  the  church. 
 It  contained  the  first  five  books  of  the  Annals,  the  last 
 book  imperfect.  Beroaldus  published  them  at  Rome, 
 in  1515,  by  order  of  the  pope. — Among  the  numerous 
 editions  of  Tacitus,  the  following  may  be  mentioned 
 as  the  best:  that  of  Gronovius,  L.  Bat.,  1721,  2  vols. 
 4to  ;  that  of  Brotier,  Paris,  1776,  7  vols.  12mo  (re- 
 printed by  Valpy,  Land.,  1823,  4  vols.  8vo) ;  that  of 
 Ernesti,  Lips.,  1760,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  that  of  Oberlinus, 
 Lips.,  1801,  2  vols.  8vo,  in  four  parts,  reprinted  at  Ox- 
 ford in  1813,  4  vols.  8vo  ;  that  of  Walthcr,  Hal.  Sax., 
 1831-3,  4  vols.  8vo  ;  and  that  of  Naudet,  forming  part 
 of  Lemaire's  collection,  Paris,  1819-20,  5  vols.  8vo. 
 {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  2,  p.  366,  scqq.—B'dhr, 
 Gesch.  Rum.  Lit.,  p.  311,  scqq.) — II.  M.  Claudius,  a 
 Roman,  elected  emperor  by  the  senate  after  the  death 
 3f  Aurelian.  The  assassination  of  Aurelian  had  so 
 much  enraged  the  army,  that  the  soldiers  were  more 
 intent,  for  a  time,  on  bringing  his  murderers  to  condign 
 punishment  than  on  providing  a  successor.  Even 
 after  they  had  recovered  from  the  first  paroxysm  of 
 wrath,  they  hesitated  whether  they  should  immediately 
 exercise  the  right  which  long  custom  had  placed  in 
 their  hands,  or  wait  for  the  advice  and  concurrence  of 
 the  senate  in  choosing  a  head  for  the  em])ire.  Upon  a 
 short  deliberation,  they  adopted  the  latter  alternative, 
 and  resolved  to  write,  or  else  to  send  a  deputation  to 
 Rome.  The  senators,  long  unused  to  such  deference, 
 knew  not  how  to  act  when  the  message  came ;  and, 
 unwilling  to  incur  responsibility,  referred  the  matter 
 hack  to  the  legions.  But  the  army,  actuated  by  a  very 
 uncommon  degree  of  moderation,  renewed  their  re- 
 quest to  the  civil  authorities  to  supply  them  with  a 
 general  and  ruler ;  and  it  was  not  until  this  reciprocal 
 compliment  was  urged  and  rejected  three  times  that 
 the  senators  agreed  to  assemble  and  discharge  their 
 duty  to  the  empire.  Meanwhile,  six  or  seven  months 
 had  insensibly  passed  away  ;  an  amazing  period,  it  has 
 been  remarked,  of  tranquil  anarchy,  during  which  the 
 Roman  world  remained  without  a  sovereign,  without 
 a  usurper,  and  without  a  sedition.  {Vopisc,  Vit. 
 Tacit.,  c.  1.)  On  the  25th  of  September,  A.D.  275, 
 the  senate  was  convoked  to  exercise  once  more  the 
 valuable  prerogative  with  which  the  constitution  of 
 Rome  had  invested  their  order.  The  individual  whom 
 they  elected  inherited  the  name  and  the  virtues  of 
 Tacitus,  the  celebrated  historian,  and  was,  besides,  re- 
 spected for  his  wisdom,  his  experience  in  business,  and 
 his  mild  benevolence.  This  venerable  legislator  had 
 already  attained  his  75th  year,  a  circumstance  which 
 he  urged,  with  a  great  show  of  reason,  for  declining  the 
 honour  which  was  now  assigned  him.  But  his  objec- 
 tions were  repelled  by  the  most  flattering  encomiums, 
 and  his  election  was  confirmed  by  acclamation  among 
 both  citizens  and  soldiers.  It  was  the  wisdom  not 
 less  than  the  inclination  of  the  aged  emperor  that  in- 
 duced him  to  leave  much  of  the  supreme  power  in  the 
 hands  from  which  he  received  it.  He  encouraged  the 
 senate  to  resume  their  wonted  authority  ;  to  appoint 
 proconsuls  in  all  the  provinces,  and  to  exercise  all  the 
 other  privileges  which  had  been  conferred  upon  them 
 by  Augustus.  His  moderation  and  simplicity  were 
 not  affected  by  the  change  of  his  condition  ;  the  only 
 expense  which  he  permitted  to  himself  was  the  en- 
 couragement which  he  bestowed  on  the  fine  arts,  and 
 the  only  personal  indulgences  which  he  would  not  re- 
 sign were  reading  and  conversation  with  literary  men. 
 He  took  great  pains  to  preserve  the  writings  of  his 
 ancestor  the  historian ;  for  which  purpose  he  gave  or- 
 ders that  every  public  library  should  possess  that  au- 
 1284 
 
 thor's  works,  and  that,  to  render  this  object  more  prac- 
 ticable, ten  copies  of  them  should  be  transcribed  every 
 year  in  one  of  the  public  offices.  His  short  reign, 
 however,  prevented  any  good  results  from  being  pro- 
 duced by  this  decree. — Having  obtained  the  approba- 
 tion of  the  citizens,  Tacitus  departed  from  the  capital 
 to  show  himself  to  the  army  in  Thrace.  The  usual 
 largesses  secured  his  popularity  among  the  soldiers; 
 and  the  reverence  which  he  found  still  subsisting  for 
 the  memory  of  Aurelian,  dictated  the  punishment  of 
 certain  chiefs  of  the  conspiracy  which  had  taken  away 
 his  life.  But  his  attention  was  soon  withdrawn  from 
 the  investigation  of  past  delinquencies  to  meet  an  ur- 
 gent danger.  When  the  late  emperor  was  making 
 preparations  to  invade  Persia,  he  had  negotiated  with 
 a  Scythian  tribe,  the  Alani,  to  re-enforce  his  ranks  with 
 a  detachment  of  their  best  troops.  The  barbarians, 
 faithful  to  their  engagement,  arrived  on  the  Roman 
 frontiers  with  a  strong  body  of  cavalry  ;  hut,  before 
 they  made  their  appearance,  Aurelian  was  dead,  and 
 the  Persian  war  suspended.  In  these  circumstances, 
 the  Alani,  impatient  of  repose,  and  disappointed  of 
 their  prey,  soon  turned  their  arms  against  the  unfor- 
 tunate provinces.  They  overran  Pontus,  Cappadocia, 
 and  Cilicia  before  Tacitus  could  show  his  readiness 
 to  satisfy  their  claims  or  punish  their  aggressions. 
 Upon  recovering,  however,  the  stipulated  reward,  the 
 greater  number  retired  peaceably  to  their  deserts ; 
 while  those  who  refused  to  listen  to  terms  were  sub- 
 dued at  the  point  of  the  sword.  {Vopi.sc,  Vit.  Ta- 
 citus, c.  13. — Zosim.,  1,  63,  seqq. — Zonar.,  12,  27.) 
 But  the  triumphs  and  reign  of  this  venerable  sovereign 
 were  not  of  long  duration.  It  is  said  that  he  fell  a 
 victim  to  the  jealousy  of  certain  officers  of  rank,  who 
 were  offended  at  the  undue  promotion  of  his  brother 
 Florianus  ;  or  to  the  angry  passions  of  the  soldiery, 
 who  despised  his  pacific  genius  and  literary  habits. 
 But  it  is  no  less  probable  that  he  sank  under  the  fa- 
 tigues of  the  campaign,  and  the  severity  of  the  cli- 
 mate, to  both  of  which  the  pursuits  of  his  later  years 
 had  rendered  him  a  stranger.  It  is  clear,  at  all  events, 
 that  he  died  at  Tyana,  in  Cappadocia,  after  having 
 swayed  the  sceptre  of  the  Roman  empire  about  two" 
 hundred  days.  {Vopisc,  Vit.  Tacit.,  c.  13. — Zosim., 
 1,  63.—Encyclop:  Mctropol,  div.  3,  vol.  3,  p.  57.) 
 
 Tader,  a  river  of  Spain,  near  New  Carthage,  called 
 by  Ptolemy  the  Terebris.  It  is  now  the  Scgura. 
 {Plin.,  3,  i.—PtoL,  2,  6.) 
 
 T^N.\Rus,  a  promontory  of  Laconia,  forming  the 
 southernmost  point  of  the  Peloponnesus.  It  is  now 
 called  Cape  Matapan,  which  is  a  modern  Greek  cor- 
 ruption from  the  ancient  fisTurvov,  a  fro7it,  the  prom- 
 ontory boldly  projecting  into  the  Mediterranean.  An- 
 cient geographers  reckoned  thence  to  Cape  Phycus 
 in  Africa  3000  stadia,  to  Cape  Pachynus  in  Sicily 
 4600  or  4000,  and  to  the  promontory  of  Malea  670. 
 {Slrabo,  363.)  Near  it  was  a  cave,  said  to  be  the  en- 
 trance to  Orcus,  by  which  Hercules  dragged  Cerberus 
 to  the  upper  regions.  Pausanias  cites  another  version 
 of  the  fable  from  Hecatasus  of  Miletus,  which  makes 
 the  cavern  to  have  been  the  haunt  of  a  large  and  dead- 
 ly serpent,  conquered  by  Hercules,  and  brought  to  Eu- 
 rystheus  (3,  25. — Crcuzcr,  Hist.  Gr.  Fragm.,  p.  46). 
 There  was  a  temple  on  the  promontory  sacred  to  Nep- 
 tune, and  which  was  accounted  an  inviolable  asylum. 
 It  seems  to  have  been  a  species  of  cavern.  On  the 
 promontory,  also,  was  a  statue  of  Arion  seated  on  a 
 dolphin.  Toenarus  became  subsequently  famous  for 
 the  beautiful  marble  of  its  quarries,  which  the  Romans 
 held  in  the  highest  estimation.  It  was  a  species  of 
 Vcrd  Antique.  About  forty  stadia  from  the  promon- 
 tory stood  the  city  of  Tanarus.  afterward  called  Caene 
 or  Cajucpolis.  Mr.  Morritt,  in  his  journey  through 
 Laconia  {WalpoWs  Memoirs,  vol.  1,  p.  56),  was  in- 
 formed that  there  were  considerable  remains  of  an  an- 
 cient city  on  Cape  Grosso,  agreeing,  as  far  as  the  dis- 
 
TAM 
 
 TAN 
 
 tanccs  could  be  ascertained,  with  Pausanias's  descrip- 
 tion of  Coenepolis.  [Cramer^ s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p. 
 188.) 
 
 Tages,  an  Etrurian  divinity  or  Genius,  said  to  have 
 come  forth  from  a  clod  of  earlh,  an  infant  in  form,  but 
 with  all  the  wisdom  and  experience  of  an  aged  person. 
 He  first  appeared,  according  to  the  legend,  unto  a 
 husbandman  near  the  city  of  Tarquinii,  while  the  lat- 
 ter was  engaged  in  ploughing.  (Cic,  Div.,  2,  23. — 
 Crciizcr,  et  Moscr,  ad  loc. — Isidor.,  Orig.,  8,  9,  p. 
 374,  cd.  Arcvall. —  Lydus,  dc  OstciUis,  p.  6,  scqq., 
 cd.  Hasc.)  According  to  the  last  of  the  authorities 
 just  cited,  the  individual  labouring  in  the  field  when 
 Tages  appeared  was  Tarchon,  the  founder  of  Tar- 
 quinii, and  the  principal  hero  of  Etrurian  mythology. 
 (Compare  Muller,  Etrusk.,  vol.  2,  p.  26  )  Another 
 account  made  Tages  the  son  of  Genius,  and  grandson 
 of  Jupiter;  and  it  was  he  that  instructed  the  twelve 
 communities  of  Etruria  in  the  art  of  predicting  future 
 events  by  the  inspection  of  victims.  {Fcstus,  p.  557, 
 cd.  Dacicr.) — The  form  of  this  infant  deity,  his  birth, 
 and  his  attributes,  all  carry  us  back  to  the  telluric  di- 
 vinities of  Samolhrace  and  Lemnos,  and  the  mystic 
 religion  of  the  Pelasgi.  The  books,  or,  rather,  oracles 
 of  Tages  are  frequently  mentioned  by  the  ancient 
 writers,  and  were  originally  in  verse.  The  Romans 
 are  said  to  have  translated  a  part  of  them  into  prose. 
 {Lydu.t,  de  Mens.,  p.  130,  ed.  Schow. ;  de  Ostcnt.,  p. 
 190,  cd.  Hase. — Gwigniaut,  vol.  2,  pt.  1,  p.  459,  seq.) 
 
 Taous,  a  river  of  Spain,  rising  among  the  Celtiberi 
 in  Mons  Idubeda.  It  pursues  a  course  nearly  due 
 west,  verging  slightly  to  the  south,  and  traverses  the 
 territories  of  the  Celtiberi,  Carpetani,  Vettones,  and 
 Lusitani,  until  it  reaches  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
 Tagus  is  the  largest  river  in  Spain,  though  Strabo 
 considers  the  Minius  as  such,  an  evident  error.  The 
 sands  of  this  stream  produced  grains  of  gold,  and,  ac- 
 cording to  Mela,  precious  stones.  It  is  now  called  by 
 the  Portuguese  the  Tajo,  though  its  ancient  name  still 
 remains  in  general  use.  At  the  mouth  of  this  river 
 stood  Olisipo,  now  Lisbon.  {Mela,  3,  1. — Ovid,  Met., 
 2,  251.— S^l,  4,  2M.—Lucan,  7,  755.  — Martial,  4, 
 55,  &c.) 
 
 Talus,  called  otherwise  Perdix,  a  nephew  of  Daed- 
 alus.    {Vid.  Perdix.) 
 
 Tamara,  I.  a  river  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  on 
 the  norlliwestern  or  Atlantic  coast,  and  a  short  dis- 
 tance below  the  Promontorium  Artabrum,  now  the 
 Tamhre.  {Mela,  3,  I.— Pliny,  31,  2.)— II.  A  (own 
 of  Britain,  on  the  river  Tamarus,  in  the  territory  of 
 the  Damnonii,  and,  according  to  Cambden,  now  Tam- 
 erton,  near  Plymouth.  {Cambden,  Brilann.,  p.  158, 
 ed.  1600.) 
 
 Tamakus,  I.  a  river  of  Britain,  now  the  Tamar. 
 {Cambden,  Brilann,  p.  158,  ed.  1600.)  — II  or,  ac- 
 cording to  the  Itin.  Ant.  (103),  Thamarus,  a  river  of 
 Samnium,  rising  in  the  Apennines,  and  falling  into  the 
 Galore.  It  is  now  the  Tamaro.  {Cramer's  Aneient 
 Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  261.) 
 
 Tamasus  or  Tamasicus  {Tafiilaeo^,  Sleph.  Bi/z), 
 a  city  of  Cyprus,  southeast  of  Sojoe,  and  to  the  north- 
 west of  Mount  Olympus.  The  adjacent  territory  was 
 celebrated  for  its  rich  mines  of  copper,  and  for  the 
 metallic  composition  prepared  on  the  spot,  and  called 
 chalcanlhum.  (S/rtti.,  083.)  These  mines  appear  to 
 have  been  known  as  early  as  the  days  of  Homer,  for 
 they  are  referred  to  in  the  Odyssey  (I,  183).  It  has 
 been  disputed,  however,  among  commentators,  wheth- 
 er the  poet  alludes  to  the  Cyprian  Tamasus,  or  the 
 Italian  Temesa  or  Tempsa,  also  famous  for  its  cop- 
 per mines.  (Compare  Supli.  Bijz.,  s  v.  Ta/iuaeoc. — 
 Nonn.,  Dionys.,  13,  445.  —  I'lin.,  5,  31.)  In  the  vi- 
 cinity of  Tamasus  was  a  celebrated  plain,  sacred  to 
 Venus,  and  where  the  goddess  is  said  to  have  gathered 
 the  golden  apples  by  which  Hippomanes,  to  whom 
 she  gave  them,  was  enabled  tc  conquer  Atalanta  in 
 
 the  race.     {Ovid,   Met.,  10,   644,  seqq.  —  Cramer'a 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  388.) 
 
 Tamksis,  a  river  of  Britain,  now  the  Thames.  Cae- 
 sar is  generally  supposed  to  have  crossed  this  river  at 
 Coway  Stakes,  seven  or  eight  miles  above  Kingston  ; 
 but  Horsley  seems  to  be  of  opinion  that  he  forded  it 
 near  that  town.     {Cces.,  B.  G.,  5,  11.) 
 
 Tamos,  a  native  of  Memphis,  and  a  faithful  adherent 
 of  Cyrus  the  younger,  whose  fleet  he  commanded 
 {Xen.,  Anab.,  1,  2,  2\.—ld.  ib.,  1,  4,  2.)  After  the 
 death  of  Cyrus,  he  fled  with  his  vessels,  through  fear 
 of  Tissaphernes,  to  Egypt,  unto  King  Psammitichus, 
 but  was  put  to  death  by  the  latter,  together  with  his 
 children.  The  object  of  the  Egyptian  kit.'g,  in  thus 
 violating  the  rights  of  hospitality,  was  to  get  posses- 
 sion of  the  fleet  and  treasures  of  Tamos.  {Diod.  Sic., 
 14,  19.— /(/.,  14,  35.) 
 
 Tanagra,  a  city  of  Bosotia,  situate  on  an  eminence, 
 on  the  north  bank  of  the  Asopus,  and  near  the  mouth 
 of  that  river.  Its  more  ancient  appellation  was  Graea. 
 {Ham.,  II.,  2,  498.  —  Lycophr.,  644.)  An  obstinate 
 battle  was  fought  in  this  neighbourhood,  between  the 
 Athenians  and  Lacedjemonians,  prior  to  the  Peloponne- 
 sian  war,  when  the  former  were  defeated.  The  ruins 
 of  Tanagra  were  first  discovered  by  Cockercll,  at  Gt(C- 
 mada  or  Grimalhi. — This  place  was  famed  among  the 
 ancients  for  its  breed  of  fighting-cocks.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  2G9.) 
 
 Tanagrus  or  TanIger,  a  river  of  Lucania,  rising 
 in  the  central  chain  of  the  Apennines,  between  Casal 
 Nuovo  and  Lago  Negro,  and,  after  flowing  thirty 
 miles  through  the  valley  of  Diano,  loses  itself  under 
 ground  for  the  space  of  two  miles,  and  not  twenty 
 as  it  is  stated  in  Pliny  (2,  103).  It  reappears  be- 
 yond La  Polla,  at  a  place  called  Pertosa,  and  falls  into 
 the  Silanus  below  Contursi.  The  modern  name  of 
 the  river  is  Negro.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 377.) 
 
 Tanais,  I.  now  the  Don,  a  large  river  of  Europe, 
 rising,  according  to  Herodotus,  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Thyssagetes,  from  a  large  lake,  and  falling  into  the 
 Palus  Ma3otis.  Herodotus  appears  to  have  confounded 
 the  Tanais  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course  with  the 
 Rha  or  Wolga.  Of  the  course  of  the  latter,  and  its 
 falling  into  the  Caspian,  he  appears  to  have  known 
 nothing.  The  Tanai's  rises  in  the  Valdai  hills,  in  the 
 government  of  Tula,  and  is  about  800  miles  in  length. 
 This  river  separated  in  ancient  times  European  and 
 Asiatic  Sarmatia.  In  voyages  written  more  than 
 half  a  century  ago,  it  is  called  the  Tane  ;  at  the  same 
 time  communicating  this  name  to  the  Palus  .Majotis  ; 
 the  modern  name  Don  is  only  a  corrupt  abbreviation 
 of  the  ancient  appellation.  A  city  named  Tanais, 
 situate  at  its  mouth,  and  which  was  the  emporium  of 
 the  commerce  of  the  country,  is  celebrated  in  tradi- 
 tion by  the  Slavons  under  the  name  of  Aas-grad,  or 
 the  city  of  Aa.'i;  and  it  is  remarkable  to  find  the  name 
 of  Azof  subsisting  on  the  same  site.  It  may,  more- 
 over, be  remarked,  that  this  name  contributes  to  com- 
 pose that  of  Tanais,  formed  of  two  members,  the  first 
 of  which  expresses  the  actual  name  of  the  river.  The 
 Greeks  in  the  age  of  Alexander  confounded  the  Tan- 
 ais with  the  laxartes.  {Vid.  laxartes.)— Dr.  Clarke 
 {Travels  in  Russia,  &c.,  vol.  1,  p.  337,  Land,  ed.) 
 found  the  Cossack  pronunciation  of  the  name  of  this 
 river  to  be  Dnnaeiz,  Tdanactz,  or  Tanaelz,  and  when 
 sounded  with  quickness  and  volubility,  it  appeared  to 
 be  the  same  as  Tanais.  Hence  the  ancient  name  of 
 the  river  may  satisfactorily  be  accounted  for.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  same  intelligent  traveller,  when  the  word 
 Tanais  was  introduced  mto  the  Greek  language,  it  had 
 reference,  not  to  the  Don,  but  to  another  river,  which 
 enters  that  stream  about  ninety-nine  miles  from  its 
 mouth,  and  which,  according  to  a  notion  entertained 
 from  time  immemorial  by  the  people  in  this  quarter, 
 it  leaves  again,  taking  a  northwesterly  direction,  and 
 
 1285 
 
TAN 
 
 TAN 
 
 falling  into  the  Palus  Maolis  to  the  north  of  all  the 
 other  mouths  of  the  Don.  This  northernmost  mouth 
 of  the  Don,  owing  to  the  river  whose  waters  its  chan- 
 nel is  supposed  peculiarly  to  contain,  is  called  Dana- 
 etz  also,  and,  to  express  either  its  sluggish  current 
 or  its  lapse  into  the  sea,  Dead  Danaclz.  The  Greeks, 
 steering  from  the  Crimea  towards  the  mouths  of  the 
 Don,  and,  as  their  custom  was,  keeping  close  to  the 
 shor,e,  entered  first  this  northernmost  mouth  of  the 
 river,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Tanais,  from  its  native 
 appellation.  As  regards  the  etymology  of  the  name, 
 on  which  head  Dr.  Clarke  is  silent,  it  may  be  remark- 
 ed that  Bayer  {Commt.  Acad.  Petr.,  vol.  9,  p.  375) 
 supposes  an  early  European  people  to  have  once  ex- 
 isted, in  whose  language  a  word  like  Tan,  Ton,  Don, 
 or  Dunai  may  have  signified  "  water,"  from  which 
 were  gradually  derived  such  names  of  rivers  as  Tan- 
 ais, Danapcris,  Danastcr,  Danubius  {Tunowe  in  the 
 Nichdangenlicd,  v.  6116.  —  ^.uvov6Li  in  Procopius), 
 Don,  Duna,  'Vovdov  (in  Ptolemy),  Eridan,  Ro-dan, 
 &c.  It  is  a  curious  confirmation,  in  part  at  least,  of 
 this  hypothesis,  that  the  Ossetes,  a  Caucasian  tribe, 
 have  the  word  Don  in  their  language  as  a  general  term 
 for  "  water,"  "  river,"  &c.,  and  designate  all  moutit- 
 ain  streams  by  this  appellation.  (Compare  Lehrberg, 
 Unlersuchungen,  &c. ,  Pctersb.,  p.  400. — Ritter,  Vor- 
 hallc,  (See,  p.  304.) — II.  A  city  in  Asiatic  Sarmatia,  at 
 the  mouth  of  the  Tanais,  wh^ch  soon  became  suffi- 
 ciently powerful,  by  reason  of  its  extensive  commerce, 
 to  withdraw  itself  from  the  sway  of  the  kings  of  the 
 Bosporus,  and  establish  its  independence.  One  of 
 these  same  moiiarchs,  however,  by  name  Polemo,  sub- 
 sequently took  and  destroyed  it.  It  was  afterward 
 rebuilt,  but  never  attained  its  former  eminence.  The 
 ruins  of  the  place  are  to  the  west  of  the  modern  Azof. 
 {Plin.,  6,  l.—Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.) 
 
 Tanaquh,,  in  Etrurian  Tanchufil {Muller,  Elrusker, 
 1,  p.  72),  called  also  Caia  Cczcilia,  was  the  wife  of 
 Tarquinius  Priscus,  the  fifth  king  of  Rome.  {Vid. 
 Tarquinius  I.)  Niebuhr  makes  the  Tarquin  family  of 
 Latin,  not  of  Etrurian  origin  ;  and  thmks  that  the 
 name  Caia  CcBcilia  belongs  to  a  legend  concerning 
 Tarquinius  entirely  difl'erent  from  that  which  became 
 prevalent.  "  In  the  latter  legend,"  observes  this  em- 
 inent writer,  "  Tanaquil  comes  to  Rome  with  Tarquin, 
 and  outlives  him  ;  it  is  not  even  pretended  anywhere 
 that  she,  too,  changed  her  Etruscan  name.  Caecilia 
 had  a  statue  in  a  temple,  so  intimately  was  she  asso- 
 ciated with  the  older  tradition  ;  and  her  name  implies 
 a  connexion  with  Prceneste,  said  to  have  been  built  by 
 Caeculus  {Serv.  ad  Virg.,  Mn.,  7,  681),  the  hero  after 
 whom  the  Ccecilii  were  called.  In  this  point  the 
 feigned  Etruscan  Tarquinius  has  not  quite  obliterated 
 the  traces  of  the  Latin  Priscus  :  the  historians  throw 
 aside  altogether  what  they  cannot  bring  into  unison 
 with  their  accoutits."  {Niebiihr^s  Rom.  Hist.,  vol. 
 1,  p.  324,  Camhr.  transl.) — Tanaquil  was  represent- 
 ed in  the  Roman  traditions  as  a  woman  of  high  spirit, 
 and  accustomed  to  rule  her  husband  ;  hence  the  name 
 rs  used  by  the  Latin  poets  to  indicate  generally  any 
 imperious  consort.  {Auson.,  Episl.,  33,  31. — Juve- 
 nal, Sat.,  6,  564.)  She  was  also  celebrated  in  the 
 same  legends  as  an  excellent  spinster  (lanifiea)  and 
 housewife  ;  and  her  distaff  and  spindle  were  preserved 
 in  the  temple  of  Saticus  or  Hercules.  {Cic,  proMur., 
 12. — Plin.,  8,  48.)  It  was  Tanaquil  that,  after  the 
 murder  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  managed  adroitly  to  se- 
 cure the  succession  to  ServiusTulllus,  her  son-in-law. 
 [Vid.  Tarquinius  I.,  near  the  close  of  that  article.) 
 
 Tanis,  a  city  of  Egypt,  at  the  entrance  of,  and  giv- 
 ing name  to,  the  Tanitic  mouth  of  the  Nile,  between 
 the  Mendesian  and  Pelusiac.  This  city  is  the  Zoan 
 of  the  Scriptures,  and  its  remains  are  still  called  Sail. 
 The  Ostium  Taniticum  is  now  the  Omm-Faiedje 
 mouth.     (Ninnhers,  13,  22— Isaiah,  19,  11,  13.) 
 
 TANTAi.inics,  a  patronymic  applied  to  the  descend- 
 )286 
 
 ants  of  Tantalus,  such  as  Niobe,  Hermione,  &c. 
 
 Agamemnon  and  Menelaiis,  as  grandsons  of  Tantalus, 
 are  called  "  Tantalidcs  fratrcs"  by  Ovid.  {Her.  8, 
 45,  122.) 
 
 Tantalus,  a  king  of  Lydia,  son  of  Jupiter  by  a 
 nymph  called  Pluto  {Wealth),  was  the  father  of  Pe 
 lops,  and  of  Niobe  the  wife  of  Amjjhion. — Ulysses, 
 when  relating  to  the  Phajacians  what  he  had  be- 
 held in  the  lower  world,  describes  Tantalus  as  stand- 
 ing up  to  the  chii.  in  water,  which  constantly  eludes 
 his  lip  as  often  as  he  attempts  to  quench  the  thirst 
 that  torments  him.  Over  his  head  grow  all  kmds  of 
 fruits ;  but,  whenever  he  reaches  forth  his  hands  to 
 take  them,  the  wind  scatters  them  to  the  clouds.  {Od., 
 11,  581,  scqq.)  The  passage  of  Homer,  however,  on 
 which  this  account  rests,  was  regarded  by  Aristar- 
 chus  as  spurious,  according  to  the  scholiast  on  Pindar 
 {Olymp.,  1,07).  If  we  reject  the  verses  of  the  Odys- 
 sey which  have  just  been  referred  to,  and  the  authen- 
 ticity of  which  has  been  farther  invalidated  by  an  un- 
 edited scholiast  whom  Porson  cites  {ad  Eurip.,  Orest., 
 5),  we  then  come,  in  the  order  of  time,  to  the  account 
 given  first  by  Archilochus  {Pausan.,  10,  21,  12),  and 
 after  him  by  Pindar.  According  to  this  poet,  Jupiter 
 hung  a  vast  rock  in  the  air  over  the  head  of  Tantalus, 
 which,  always  menacing  to  descend  and  crush  him, 
 deprives  him  of  all  joy,  and  makes  him  "  a  wanderer 
 from  happiness."  {01.,  1,  57,  scqq.,  cd.  Bockh. — 
 Bockh,  ad  loc.)  Pindar  does  not  mention  the  place 
 of  his  punishment,  but  Euripides  says  it  was  the  air 
 between  heaven  and  earth,  and  that  the  rock  was  sus- 
 pended over  him  by  golden  chains.  {Eurip.,  Orest., 
 6,  7,972,  seq.) — The  offence  of  Tantalus,  which  call- 
 ed down  upon  him  this  severe  infliction,  is  variously 
 stated.  The  common  account  makes  him  to  have 
 killed  and  dressed  his  son  Pelops,  and  to  have  placed 
 his  remains  as  food  before  the  gods,  whom  he  had  in- 
 vited to  a  banquet,  in  order  to  test  their  divinity.  {Vid. 
 Pelops.)  Pindar,  however,  rejects  this  legend  as  un- 
 becoming the  majesty  of  the  gods,  and  says,  that  if 
 ever  mortal  man  was  honoured  by  the  dwellers  of 
 Olympus,  it  was  Tantalus;  but  that  he  could  not  di- 
 gest his  happiness.  They  admitted  him,  he  adds,  to 
 feast  at  their  table  on  nectar  and  ambrosia,  which  made 
 him  immortal  ;  but  he  stole  some  of  the  divine  food, 
 and  gave  it  to  his  friends  on  earth.  This,  according 
 to  Pindar,  was  the  crime  for  which  he  was  punished. 
 {Paid.,  I.  c.)  Euripides,  on  the  other  hand,  says  that 
 the  offence  of  Tantalus  was  his  not  restraining  his 
 tongue  ;  that  is,  probably,  his  divulging  the  secrets  of 
 the  gods.  {Eurip.,  Orest.,  10.) — The  residence  of 
 Tantalus  was  placed  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Sipylus  in 
 Lydia.  Hence,  according  to  another  legend,  Jupiter 
 cast  this  mountain  upon  him  ;  for  Pandareus  having 
 stolen  the  golden  dog  which  had  guarded  the  goat  that 
 reared  the  god,  gave  it  to  Tantalus  to  keep.  Mercury 
 being  sent  to  reclaim  the  dog,  Tantalus  denied  all 
 knowledge  of  it,  and,  for  his  falsehood,  the  mountain 
 was  thrown  upon  him.  {Schol.  ad  Pind.,  01.,  1,  97. 
 — Anton.,  lib.  36.)  This  last  trifling  legend  is,  as  we 
 may  easily  see,  one  of  the  many  attempts  at  localizing 
 the  ancient  myths;  for  Sipylus,  it  is  plain,  was  design- 
 ed to  take  the  place  of  the  mythic  rock.^ — The  name 
 Tantalus  is,  like  Sisyphus,  a  reduplication,  and  his 
 myth  is  evidently  one  of  those  handed  down  from  grave 
 old  Pelasgic  times.  The  root  of  Tantalus  is  probably 
 ■&u7ilu,  and  he  re[)rescnts  the  man  who  xs  jluvrishing 
 and  abounding  in  vvealtli,  but  whose  desires  are  insa- 
 tiable (Gu/l0a/lof,  for  euphony  made  Tavrakoq,  the 
 letters  6,  r,  A,  and  v  being  frequently  commuted. — 
 Wclcker,  ap.  Sehwenck,  Andcut.,  p.  265. —  Volcker, 
 Myth,  dcr  lap.  GcschL,  p.  355).  The  Homeric  pic- 
 ture exhibits  in  lively  colours  the  misery  of  such  a 
 state.  The  other  form  of  the  legend  represents,  per- 
 haps, the  cares  and  fears  attendant  upon  riches  ;  or. 
 it  may  be,  as  has  ingeniously  been  conjectured,  an  im- 
 
TAP 
 
 TAR 
 
 tge  of  the  evils  of  ambition  and  the  inordinate  pursuit 
 of  honours  ;  for  when  Tantalus,  it  was  said,  had  at- 
 tained his  ultimate  desire,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
 table  of  the  gods,  his  joy  was  converted  into  terror  by 
 his  fancying  a  rock  suspended  over  his  head,  and  ready 
 to  crush  him ;  and  he  sought  permission  to  resign  his 
 seat  at  the  celestial  table.  {Alcman,  ap.  Schol.  ad 
 Find.,  I.  c.—N'tc.  Damasc,  ap.  Slob.,  14,  l.—Wdck- 
 er,  das  Episcke  Cyclus,  p.  280,  seijq.)  Jt  was  prob- 
 ably the  idea  of  the  great  wealth  of  J-ydia  that  caus- 
 ed the  myth  of  Tantalus  to  be  localized  at  Sipylus. 
 [Kaghtky's  Mythology,  p.  442,  scq.) 
 
 Taphi.*,  islands  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  on  the  north 
 coast  of  Ithaca,  or,  rather,  between  Leucadia  and  the 
 east  of  Acarnania.  They  form  a  considerable  group, 
 and  are  often  mentioned  by  Homer  and  other  classical 
 writers  as  the  haunt  of  notorious  pirates.  {Od.,  1, 
 417.)  The  principal  island  is  that  which  is  called  by 
 Homer  Taphos,  but  by  later  writers  Taphius  and  Ta- 
 phiussa  {Strabo,  458),  and  is  probably  the  one  known 
 to  modern  geographers  by  the  name  of  Mcganisi. 
 Mr.  Dodwell  informs  us  that  Calamn,  another  of  the 
 Taphian  group,  produces  perhaps  the  finest  flour  in  the 
 world,  which  is  sent  to  Corfu,  and  sold  as  a  luxury 
 (vol.  I,  p  61).  The  Taphia3  were  also  called  Tela- 
 boa?.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  55.)  They 
 were  fabled  to  have  received  these  names  from  Taphi- 
 us and  Telebous,  the  sons  of  Neptune,  who  reigned 
 there.  The  Taphians  made  war  against  Electryon, 
 king  of  Mycen®,  and  murdered  all  his  sons;  upon 
 which  the  monarch  promised  his  kingdom  and  his 
 dauo-hter  in  marriage  to  whoever  could  avenge  the 
 death  of  his  children  upon  the  Taphians.  Amphitryon 
 did  it  with  success,  and  obtained  the  hand  of  the 
 maiden.     (Apollod.,  2,  4.) 
 
 Taphr^,  a  city  in  the  Tauric  Chersonese,  on  the 
 narrowest  part  of  the  isthmus.  The  ancient  name  is 
 derived  from  racppoc,  a  dilch  or  trench,  one  having 
 been  cut  close  to  the  town  to  defend  the  entrance  into 
 the  Chersonese.  The  modern  Prekop  marks  the  site 
 of  the  ancient  city.     {Mela,  2,  1. — Piin.,  4,  12.) 
 
 Taphros,  ihe  strait  between  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
 now  the  straits  of  St.  Bonifacio.     (Plin.,  3,  6.) 
 
 Taprobane,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  now 
 called  Ceylon.  The  Greeks  first  learned  the  exist- 
 ence of  this  island  after  the  expedition  of  Ale.'sander, 
 when  ambassadors  were  sent  by  them  to  the  court  of 
 Palimbothra.  The  account  then  received  was  ampli- 
 fied so  much,  that  this  island  was  deemed  the  com- 
 mencement of  another  world,  inhabited  by  antichthones, 
 or  men  in  a  position  opposite  to  those  in  the  known 
 hemisphere.  Ptolemy,  better  informed,  makes  it  an 
 island,  five  times  greater,  however,  than  it  really  is. 
 Strabo  speaks  of  it  as  though  it  lay  off  the  hither  coast 
 of  India,  looking  towards  the  continent  of  Africa. 
 The  name  of  SaJice,  which  we  learn  from  Ptolemy  to 
 have  been  the  native  denomination  of  the  island,  is 
 preserved  in  that  of  Sclen-divc,  com])oundc(l  of  the 
 proper  name  Sclcn  and  the  appellative  for  an  island  in 
 the  Indian  language,  and  it  is  apparent  that  the  name 
 of  Ccilan  or  Ceyhm,  according  to  the  European  usage, 
 is  only  an  alteration  in  orthography.  Ptolemy  calls  it 
 a  very  fertile  island,  and  mentions  as  its  produce  rice, 
 honey  (or  rather,  perhaps,  sugar),  ginger,  and  also 
 precious  stones,  with  all  sorts  of  metals  ;  he  s[)eaks, 
 toe,  of  its  elephants  and  tigers.  It  is  surprising,  how- 
 ever, that  neither  Ptolemy  nor  those  who  preceded 
 him  say  anything  of  the  cinnamon,  which  now  forms 
 the  chief  produce  of  the  island.  The  ancients  could 
 not  be  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  this  article,  especially 
 as  they  called  a  portion  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa 
 by  the  name  of  llegio  Cinnamomifera.  {Strabo,  72. 
 — 7^  .  dQO.—McIa,  3,  l.—Plin.,  6,  22.— Coamas  In- 
 dicffjd,  11,  p.  336) 
 
 Tapsus,  a  small  and  lowly  situated  peninsula  on  the 
 eastern  coast  of  Sicily.     Its  name  has  reference  to  its 
 
 low  situation,  from  i?a7rrw,  sepelio.  It  lay  oflf  Hybla. 
 The  neck  of  land  connecting  it  with  the  main  island 
 of  Sicily  was  so  low  that  Servius  calls  the  promontory 
 itself  an  island  ;  and  it  is  even  now  styled  Isola  delli 
 Manghisi.     {Virg.,  JEn.,  3,  689.) 
 
 Taras  {-antis),  I.  a  son  of  Neptune,  who,  according 
 to  some,  was  the  founder  of  Tarentum,  called  in 
 Greek  'Yupaq.  {Vid.  Tarentum.) — II.  A  small  river 
 to  the  west  of  Tarentum,  now  the  Tara.  {Steph. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  Tupac.) 
 
 Tarasco,  a  city  of  Gaul,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
 Rhone,  and  north  of  A  relate.  It  is  now  Tarascon, 
 lying  opposite  to  Beaucaire.  {Bischoff  und  Moller, 
 Wiirtcrb.  der  Gcogr.,  p.  947.) 
 
 Tarbelli,  a  people  of  Aquitanic  Gaul,  at  the  foot   / 
 of  the  Pyrenees,  whose  chief  city  was  Aquae  Augustae, 
 now  Aqs,  or,  according  to  some,  Dax.     {Cas.,  B.  G., 
 3,  27.) 
 
 Tarentum  (in  Greek  Tupac;),  now  Taranto,  a  cele- 
 brated city  of  Lower  Italy,  situated  in  the  northeastern 
 angle  of  the  Sinus  Tarentinus,  and  in  the  territory  of 
 Messapia  or  lapygia.     It  was  founded,  according  to 
 some,  by  a  Cretan  colony  before  the  Trojan  war,  and 
 received   its    name   from    the    leader   of   the    colony. 
 Taras,  a   reputed   son   of  Neptune   (i.  e.,  a  powerful 
 naval  chieftain).     In  the  21st  Olympiad,  a  strong  body 
 of  emigrants  arrived  under  Philanlhus  from  Laconia, 
 so  that  it  seemed  to  be  refounded.     The  new  colony 
 established  themselves  upon  an  aristocratical  plan,  en- 
 larged the  fortifications  of  the  city,  and  formed  it  into  a 
 near  resemblance  of  Sparta.    Most  of  the  nobles  having 
 subsequently  perished  in  a  war  with  the  Iapyges,dcmoc' 
 racy  was  introduced.     The  favourable  situation  of  the 
 place  contributed  to  its  rapid  prosperity.     Placed  in 
 the  centre,  as  it  were,  it  obtained  the  whole  commerce 
 of  the  Adriatic,  Ionian,  and  Tyrrhenian  Seas.     The  ad- 
 jacent country  was  fertile  in  grain  and  fruit ;  the  pastures 
 were  excellent,  and  the  flocks  aflbrded  a  very  fine  wool. 
 At  this  most  prosperous  period  of  the  republic,  which 
 may  be  supposed  to  date  about  400  B.C.,  when  Rome 
 was  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Vcii,  and  Greece  was  en- 
 joying some  tranquillity  after  the  long  struggle  of  the 
 Peloponnesian  war,  Archytas,  a  distinguished  philoso- 
 pher of  the  school  of  Pythagoras,  and  an  able  statesman, 
 presided  over  her  counsels  as  strategos.     Her  navy 
 was  far  superior  to  that  of  any  other  Italian  colony. 
 Nor  were  her  military  establishments  less  formidable 
 and  efficient,  since   she  could  bring  into  the  field  a 
 force  of  30,000  foot  and  5000  horse,  exclusive  of  a 
 select   body   of    cavalry  called    Hipparchi.     {Hcyne, 
 Opusc.  Acad  ,  vol.  2,  p.  223.)     The  Tarentines  were 
 long  held  in  great  estimation  as  auxiliary  troops,  and 
 were   frequently   employed  in  the   armies   of  foreign 
 princes    and    states.      {Strabo,    280. — JElian,    Var. 
 Hist.,  7,  ^.—Polyb.,  11,  \%.—Id,  16,  15.)— Nor  was 
 the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  of  literature  forgotten 
 in  the  advancement  of  political  strength  and  civiliza- 
 tion.    The  Pythagorean  sect,  which  in  other  parts  of 
 Magna   Gricia  had    been   so   barbarously  oppressed, 
 here  found  encouragement  and  refuge  through  the  in- 
 fluence of  Archytas,  who  was  said  to  have  entertained 
 Plato  during  his  residence  in  this  city.    (Cic.,dc  .Sen., 
 12.)     And  the  first  sculptors  and  painters  of  Greece 
 contributed  to  embellish  Tarentum  with  several  splen- 
 did moumcnts,  which  ancient  authors  have  dwell  upon 
 with  admiration,  and  which,  at  a  later  period,  when 
 transferred  to   Rome,  served  to  decorate  the  Capitol. 
 But  their    grandeur    was  not   of   long  duration;   for 
 wealth  and  abundance  soon  engendered  a  love  of  ease 
 and  luxury,  the  consequences  of  which  proved  fatal  to 
 the  interests  of  Tarentum,  by  sapping  the  vigour  of 
 her  institutions,  enervating  the  minds  and  corrupting 
 the  morals  of  her  inhabitants.     Effeminacy  and  volup- 
 tuousness gradually  usurped  the  place  of  energy  and 
 courage,  and   the  Tarentines  became  the  abandoned 
 slaves''  of  licentiousness  and  vice.     To  such  excess, 
 
 1287 
 
TARENTUM. 
 
 TAR 
 
 indeed,  was  the  love  of  pleasure  carrifd,  that  the  num- 
 ber of  their  annual  festivals  is  said  to  have  exceeded 
 that  of  the  days  of  the  year.  Hence  the  expressions 
 so  ofte..  applied  to  it  by  Horace,  of  ''molle"  and  "tni- 
 helle  Tarcntum,^''  and  by  Juvenal  (6,  297),  of  "  A/- 
 que  coronatum  et  petulans  madulumque  Tarcntum." 
 (Slrabo,  280.  —  Thcvpomp.,  ap.  Alh.cn.,  4,  19.  —  Clc- 
 arch.,  ap.  Einid.,  13,  i.—JEiia7t,  V.  //.,  12,  30.)  En- 
 feebled and  degraded  by  this  system  of  xlemoralizalion 
 and  corruption,  the  Tarcnlines  soon  found  themselves 
 unable,  as  heretofore,  to  overawe  and  keep  in  subjec- 
 tion the  neighbouring  barbarians  of  lapygia,  who  had 
 always  hated  and  feared,  but  now  learned  to  despise 
 them.  These,  leagued  with  the  still  more  warlike 
 Ijucanians,  who  had  already  become  the  terror  of 
 Magna  Graecia,  now  made  constant  inroads  into  their 
 territory,  and  even  threatened  the  safety  of  the  city. 
 Incapable  of  exertion,  and  having  no  leaders  possess- 
 ed of  any  military  talent  or  energy,  the  Tarentines 
 were  compelled  to  call  in  to  their  aid  experienced 
 commanders  from  Greece,  whom  ambition,  perhaps,  or 
 the  desire  of  gain,  might  induce  to  quit  their  native 
 soil  in  search  of  wealth  and  renown.  A  more  gener- 
 ous motive,  perhaps,  influenced  Archidamus,  king  of 
 Sparta,  who  was  the  first  to  engage  in  their  defence, 
 for  he  might  regard  Tarentum  as  having  just  claims  to 
 his  protection  as  a  Spartan  colony.  But  this  valiant 
 prince  fell  in  the  first  engagement  with  the  enemy. 
 Alexander  of  Epirus,  who  was  the  next  ally  of  the 
 Tarentines,  was  soon  disgusted  with  their  feeble  and 
 irresolute  conduct,  and  abandoned  their  cause  to 
 prosecute  his  own  ambitious  designs.  {Strab.,  I.  c. 
 — Liv.,  8,  17.)  He  was  followed  by  the  Spartan  Cle- 
 omenes,  and  afterward  by  Agathocles  ;  but  the  ser- 
 vices of  these  adventurers  were  productive  of  little 
 benefit  to  the  republic,  they  being  more  intent  on  their 
 own  interests  tlian  those  of  the  people  which  sought 
 their  aid.  Tarcntum,  in  fconsequenee  of  these  failures, 
 might  have  been  induced  to  depend  upon  her  own  re- 
 sources, had  the  barbarians  of  lapygia  or  Lucania  re- 
 mained her  only  foes.  But  a  more  formidable  enemy 
 now  entered  the  lists.  This  was  Rome,  who,  by  con- 
 tinued successes  over  the  Samnites,  and  the  subjec- 
 tion ol  Apulia,  had  now  extended  her  dominion  nearly 
 to  the  walls  of  Tarentum.  A  pretext  for  war  was 
 soon  found  by  these  powerful  invaders.  An  insult 
 said  to  have  been  publicly  ofTered  one  of  the  Roman 
 ambassadors  was  here  the  plea  assigned  for  the  decla- 
 ration of  war,  and  the  Tarentines  again  had  recourse, 
 in  this  emergency,  to  foreign  aid.  The  valour  and 
 forces  of  Pyrrhus  for  a  time  averted  the  storm  ;  but, 
 vvhen  that  prince  withdrew  from  Italy,  Tarentum  could 
 no  longer  withstand  her  powerful  enemies,  and  soon 
 after  fell  into  their  hands  ;  the  surrender  of  the  town 
 being  hastened  by  the  treachery  of  the  Epirot  force 
 which  Pyrrhus  had  left  there.  The  Tarentines  were 
 compelled  by  the  Romans  to  surrender  their  arms  and 
 their  ships  of  war  ;  their  walls  were  dismantled,  and 
 a  heavy  fine  was  imposed  as  the  condition  of  peace. 
 (Liv.,  Epit.,  15.)  To  this  harsh  treatment  may  just- 
 ly be  ascribed  the  subsequent  conduct  of  the  Taren- 
 tines during  the  second  Punic  war,  in  declaring  for 
 Hannibal,  whom  they  must  have  regarded  more  in  the 
 light  of  a  deliverer  from  a  state  of  oppression  than  as 
 an  invader  of  their  country.  They  opened  their  gates 
 to  his  forces,  and  warmly  seconded  his  efforts  to  re- 
 duce the  Roman  garrison,  which  still  held  out  in  the  cit- 
 adel. (JVyi.,8,  26. — Liv.,  25,  9.)  Such,  however, 
 was  the  strength  of  their  fortress,  that  it  effectually 
 withstood  all  the  attacks  made  upon  it ;  and  when  the 
 attention  of  the  Carthaginian  general  was  drawn  off 
 to  other  parts  of  Italy,  Tarentum  was  surprised  and 
 recaptured  by  the  Romans,  under  the  command  of 
 Fabius  Maximus,  who  treated  it  as  a  city  taken  from 
 the  enemy.  The  plunder  obtained  by  them  on  this 
 occasion  was  immense  ;  the  pictures  and  statues  be- 
 1288 
 
 ing  said  to  have  nearly  equalled  in  number  those  of 
 Syracuse.  Livy  commends,  on  this  occasion,  the 
 moderation  of  Fabius,  and  intimates  that  he  allowed 
 these  works  of  art  to  remain  undisturbed  (27,  16)  ; 
 but  Strabo  asserts  that  many  articles  were  removed 
 by  that  general,  and,  among  others,  a  colossal  bronze 
 statue  of  Hercules,  the  work  of  the  celebrated  Lysip- 
 pus.  From  this  period  the  prosperity  and  political  ex- 
 istence of  Tarentum  may  date  its  dechne,  which  was 
 farther  accelerated  by  the  preference  shown  by  the 
 Romans  to  the  port  of  Brundisiiim  for  the  fitting  out 
 of  their  naval  armaments,  as  well  as  for  commercial 
 purposes.  The  salubrity  of  its  climate,  the  singular 
 fertility  of  its  territory,  its  purple  dye,  and  its  advan- 
 tageous situation  on  the  sea,  as  well  as  on  the  Appian 
 Way,  still  rendered  it,  however,  a  city  of  consequence 
 in  the  Augustan  age.  Strabo  reports  that,  though  a 
 great  portion  of  its  extent  was  deserted  in  his  lime, 
 the  inhabited  part  still  constituted  a  large  town. 
 That  geographer  describes  the  inner  harbour  as  being 
 100  stadia,  or  12^  miles  in  circuit  ;  a  computation, 
 however,  which  does  not  agree  with  modern  measure- 
 ments, which  represent  the  circuit  of  the  harbour  at 
 16  miles.  Strabo  makes  the  site  of  the  town  very 
 low,  but  the  ground  to  rise,  however,  a  little  towards 
 the  citadel. — The  modern  town  now  occujiies  the  site 
 of  the  ancient  citadel.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2, 
 p.  318.) 
 
 Tarichea,  I.  a  strong  city  of  Palestine,  south  of  Ti- 
 berias, and  lying  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
 Lake  of  Genesareth.  or  Sea  of  Tiberias.  Its  situa- 
 tion was  well  adapted  for  fisheries  ;  and  from  the  pro- 
 cess of  pickling  fish  {Tapi^cviJ,  "  to  pickle''),  which 
 was  carried  on  here  upon  a  very  extensive  scale,  the 
 town  derived  its  name.  {Plin.,  5,  6. — Joseph.,  B. 
 J.,  3,  17.)^II.  Several  towns  on  the  coast  of  Egypt- 
 bore  this  name  from  a  similar  cause. 
 
 Tarpa,  Spurhis  MiEcius  or  Mecius,  a  critic  at 
 Rome  in  the  age  of  Augustus.  He  was  appointed, 
 with  four  others,  to  examine  into  the  merits  of  every 
 dramatic  production  before  it  was  allowed  to  be  repre- 
 sented on  the  stage ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  dischar- 
 ged this  office  with  the  greatest  impartiality.  {Horat., 
 Sat.,  I,  10,  38.— Compare  Ep.  ad  Pis.,  387.) 
 
 Tarpscia,  I.  the  daughter  of  Tarpeius,  the  governor 
 of  the  citadel  of  Rome.  She  promised  to  open  the 
 gates  of  the  city  to  the  Sabines,  provided  they  gave 
 her  their  gold  bracelets,  or,  as  she  expressed  it,  what 
 they  carried  on  their  left  arms.  Tatius,  the  king  of 
 the  Sabines,  consented  ;  and,  as  he  entered  the  gates, 
 to  punish  her  perfidy,  he  threw,  not  his  bracelet,  but 
 his  shield  upon  Tarpeia.  His  followers  imitated  his 
 example,  and  Tarpeia  was  crushed  under  the  weight 
 of  the  shields  of  the  Sabine  army.  (Liv.,  1,  11.) 
 This  version  of  the  story  represents  Tarpeia  as  a  venal 
 traitress.  Piso,  however,  one  of  the  earlier  annalists, 
 endeavours  to  exalt  the  daughter  of  Tarpeius  to  a  he- 
 roine, who  meant  to  sacrifice  herself  for  her  country. 
 She  was  described  by  him  as  having  planned  to  make 
 the  Sabines,  by  virtue  of  their  agreement,  ratified  as  it 
 was  by  oath,  deliver  up  to  her  their  arms  and  armour, 
 and  so  to  consign  them,  disarmed,  to  the  Romans:  the 
 laying  down  of  the  arms  was  to  lake  place  on  the  Cap- 
 itol, a  spot  where  not  a  Roman,  except  perhaps  pris- 
 oners, would  have  been  to  be  found  !  Livy  alludes  to 
 this  version  of  the  tale,  but  makes  no  remark  about 
 its  utter  absurdity.  (Liv.,  I.  c. — Compare  NichuKr, 
 Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  199,  Cavibr.  transl.)  Tar[)eia 
 was  buried  on  the  hill,  and  from  her  one  of  the  two 
 summits  of  the  Capitoline  Mount  took  the  name  of  the 
 Tarpeian  rock  (Tarpeia  Riipes,  called  also  Tarpeius 
 Mons),  and  from  it  state  criminals  were  afterward  ac- 
 customed to  be  thrown.  (Vid.  Tarpeius  Mons.) — Nie- 
 buhr,  who  very  properly  rejects  the  whole  story  about 
 Tarpeia  as  purely  fabulous,  observes,  that  the  Roman 
 poet  who  invented  the  legend  "  conceived  the  poor 
 
TAR 
 
 TAR, 
 
 Sabines  covered  with  gold,  as,  Fauriel  remarks,  the 
 bards  of  modern  Greece  do  their  Ciephls.  Here  is 
 popular  poetry  unequivocally  obvious  for  one  who  has 
 eyes  to  see  it.  The  fiction  of  Propertius  (4,  4)  seems 
 to  be  a  transfer,  warranted  by  no  tradition,  from  the 
 history  of  the  Megarian  Scylla."  (Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  192.)  The  same  writer  informs  us,  that  the  re- 
 membrance of  Tarpeia's  guilt  still  lives  in  a  popular 
 legend  at  the  present  day.  "  The  whole  of  the  Capi- 
 toline  Hill,"  he  observes,  "  is  pierced  with  quarries, 
 passages  of  remote  antiquity  worked  through  the  loose 
 tufo  :  many  of  these  have  been*walled  up  ;  but  near 
 the  houses  erected  upon  the  rubbish  which  covers  the 
 Hundred  Steps,  on  the  side  of  the  Tarpeian  rock  that 
 looks  towards  the  forum,  beside  some  ruinous  build- 
 ings known  by  the  name  of  the  Palazzacio,  several  are 
 accessible.  A  report  of  a  well  of  extraordinary  depth, 
 which  must  have  been  older  than  the  aqueducts,  since 
 no  one  would  have  spent  the  labour  on  it  afterward, 
 and  which,  no  doubt,  secured  a  supply  of  water  to  the 
 garrison  during  the  Gallic  siege,  attracted  me  into  this 
 labyrinth  :  we  were  conducted  by  girls  from  the  ad- 
 joining houses,  who.  related,  as  we  went,  that  in  the 
 heart  of  the  hill  the  fair  Tarpeia  sits,  covered  with 
 gold  and  jewels,  enchanted  :  he  who  endeavours  to 
 reach  her  never  finds  out  the  way  ;  once  only  she  had 
 been  seen  by  the  brother  of  one  of  our  guides.  The 
 inhabitants  of  this  quarter  are  smiths  and  low  victual- 
 lers, without  the  slightest  touch  of  that  seemingly  liv- 
 ing knowledge  of  antiquity  which  other  classes  have 
 drawn  from  the  most  turbid  sources  of  vulgar  books. 
 Real  oral  tradition,  therefore,  has  kept  Tarpeia  for  five- 
 and-twenty  hundred  years  in  the  mouth  of  the  com- 
 mon people,  who  for  many  centuries  have  been  stran- 
 gers to  the  names  of  ClcFlia  and  Cornelia."  (Niebuhr, 
 Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  193.) — II.  One  of  the  female 
 attendants  of  Camilla  in  the  Rutulian  war.  {Virg., 
 Mn.,  11,  656.) 
 
 Tarpeius,  Sp.,  the  governor  of  the  citadel  of  Rome 
 under  Romulus.  {Vid.  Romulus,  Tarpeia,  and  Capit- 
 olinus  ni.) 
 
 Tarpeius  Mon's,  or,  more  correctly,  Tarpeia  Ru- 
 PEs,  a  celebrated  rock  at  Rome,  forming  a  part  of  the 
 Mons  Capitolinus,  and  on  the  steepest  side,  where  it 
 overhung  the  Tiber.  From  this  rock  state  criminals 
 were  accustomed  to  be  thrown  in  the  earlier  Roman 
 times.  It  received  its  name  in  commemoration  of  the 
 treachery  of  Tarpeia,  and  of  her  having  been  killed 
 here  by  the  Sabines. — Vasi  gives  the  present  height 
 at  fifty-five  feet.  A  modern  tourist  remarks  as  fol- 
 lows :  "  Though  it  is  certain'  that  the  Tarpeian  rock 
 was  on  the  western  side  of  the  Capitoline  Mount,  it 
 would  be  in  vain  to  inquire  where  was  the  precise  spot 
 of  execution  ;  whether  Manlius  was  hurled  down  that 
 pan  of  the  precipice  at  the  extremity  of  Monte  Capri- 
 no,  or  that  behind  the  Palazzo  de'  Conscrvatori. 
 There  is  still  height  enough  in  either  to  make  the  pun- 
 ishment both  tremendous  and  fatal  ;  although  net  only 
 have  the  assaults  of  time,  war,  and  violence,  but  the 
 very  convulsions  of  nature,  contributed  to  lower  it  ; 
 for  repealed  earthijuakes  have  shattered  the  friable  tufo 
 of  which  it  is  composed,  and  large  fragments  of  it  fell 
 as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
 fall  of  these  masses  has  diminished  the  elevation  in 
 two  ways  :  by  lowering  the  actual  height,  and  filling 
 up  the  base,  to  which  the  ruins  of  the  overthrown  build- 
 ings that  once  stood  upon  it  have  materially  contribu- 
 ted. Still  the  average  of  various  measurements  and 
 computations  of  its  present  elevation  make  it  above 
 60  feet ;  nor  do  I  think  it  overrated.  Certainly  those 
 who  have  maintained  that  there  would  be  no  danger  in 
 leaping  from  its  summit,  would  not,  I  imagine,  be  bold 
 enough  to  try  the  experiment  themselves.  The  en- 
 trance to  it  is  through  a  mean,  filthy  passage,  which 
 leads  to  an  old  wooden  door."  (Rome  in  the  Nine- 
 teenth Century,  vol.  1,  p.  179,  Am.  ed.) 
 8  A 
 
 Tarquinii,  one  of  the  most  powerful  cities  of  Etru- 
 ria,  and  celebrated  in  history  for  its  early  connexion 
 with  Rome.  It  was  situate  in  the  lower  part  of  Etru- 
 ria,  near  the  coast,  and  to  the  northwest  of  Coere. 
 Strabo  ascribes  the  foundation  of  the  place  toTarchon, 
 the  famous  Etruscan  chief,  who  is  so  often  mentioned 
 by  the  poets.  Justin  makes  it  to  have  been  founded 
 by  some  Thessalians  and  Spinumbri,  meaning,  doubt- 
 less, the  Pelasgi  and  Umbri,  who  came  from  Spina  on 
 the  Adriatic.  According  to  the  common  account,  the 
 progenitor  of  the  Tarquinian  family,  Demaratus,  set- 
 tled here,  and  from  this  city  the  Tarquinian  family 
 came  to  Rome.  Niebuhr,  however,  holds  a  different 
 opinion,  and  makes  the  Tarquinian  family  of  Latin,  not 
 Etruscan,  origin.  (Consult  remarks  under  the  articles 
 Tanaquil,  and  Tarquinius  I.)  Some  ruins,  to  which 
 the  name  of  Turchina  is  attached,  point  out  the  an- 
 cient site  of  Tarquinii.  {Cramer^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  197.)  The  Etrurians  regarded  Tarquinii  as  the 
 metropolis,  or  parent  of  all  their  other  cities  :  a  strong 
 proof  in  favour  of  civilization  having  come  to  this  coun- 
 try from  the  sea.     {MitUcr,  Elruskcr,  vol.  1,  p.  72.) 
 
 Tarquinia,  a  daughter  of  Tarquinius,  who  married 
 Servius  Tullms.  When  her  husband  was  murdered 
 by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  and  public  rites  of  sepulture 
 were  denied  to  his  remains  by  the  usurper,  she,  togeth- 
 er with  a  few  friends,  conveyed  away  the  corpse  by 
 night,  and  gave  it  a  private  burial.  Tarquinia  survived 
 her  consort  only  one  day,  having  died  either  through 
 grief,  which  caused  her  to  commit  suicide,  or  else  hav- 
 ing been  put  to  death  secretly  by  Tarquinius  Superbus 
 and  his  wife.     {Dion.  Hal,  4,  40.) 
 
 Tarquinius,  I.  Priscus,  the  fifth  king  of  Rome. 
 According  to  the  common  account,  as  found  in  the 
 Latin  writers  (for  Niebuhr's  theory  will  be  given  at 
 the  end  of  this  article),  he  was  a  noble  and  wealthy 
 Tuscan,  son  of  Demaratus,  a  native  of  Corinth,  who 
 had  come  from  Greece  and  settled  in  Etruria.  (Fjrf. 
 Demaratus  H.)  Demaratus  having  married  an  Etrus- 
 can female  of  high  rank,  his  son,  whose  original  name 
 was  Lucumo,  belonged,  on  the  mother's  side,  Xo  the 
 Lucumones,  or  ruling  caste  of  Etruria.  {Vid.  Lu- 
 cumo.) But  the  pride  of  that  caste  would  not  permit 
 them  to  suffer  a  person  of  mixed  descent  to  participate 
 in  their  hereditary  honours.  He  married  an  Etruscan 
 lady  of  the  noblest  birth,  Tanaquil  by  name,  who  could 
 not  brook  that  her  husband  should  be  disparaged  by 
 her  haughty  kindred.  They  left  Tarquinii  and  jour- 
 neyed to  Rome,  in  the  hope  of  being  received  by 
 Ancus  in  a  manner  more  suited  to  their  dignity.  They 
 had  reached  the  brow  of  the  Janiculum,  and  were  in 
 sight  of  Rome,  when  an  eagle  hovering  over  them, 
 stooped,  snatched  his  cap,  and,  after  soaring  aloft  with 
 it  to  a  great  height,  again  descended  and  placed  it  on 
 his  head.  Tanaquil,  versed  in  the  lore  of  Tuscan  au- 
 gury, understood  the  omen,  and  embracing  her  hus- 
 band, bade  him  proceed  joyfully,  for  the  loftiest  for- 
 tunes awaited  him.  He  was  received  as  a  Roman 
 citizen,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Lucius  Tarquinius. 
 His  courage,  his  wisdom,  and  his  wealth,  soon  recom- 
 mended him  to  the  favourable  notice  of  the  king,  and 
 made  him  greatly  esteemed  also  by  the  people  gener- 
 ally. On  the  death  of  Ancus  he  was  chosen  king,  and 
 received  from  the  assembly  the  customary  sanction  to 
 his  assumption  of  sovereignty.  Scarcely  wasTarquin 
 seated  on  the  throne,  when  the  Latin  states  broke  the 
 treatv  which  they  had  made  with  Ancus,  and  began  to 
 make  inroads  upon  the  Roman  territory.  Tarquinius 
 marched  against  them,  defeated  them  in  battle,  and  took 
 and  plundered  Apiolre.  where  he  obtained  an  immense 
 booty.  Prosecuting  his  victorious  career,  he  made 
 himself  master  of  Camcria,  Crustumerium.  Mcdullia, 
 Ameriola,  Ficulnca,  Corniculum,  and  Nomentum.  The 
 kqui  also  fell  the  power  of  his  arms,  and  were  obliged 
 to  humble  themselves  before  him.  While  he  was  en- 
 aaged  with  the  Latins,  the  Sabines  availed  themselves 
 ^  ^  1289 
 
TARQUINIUS. 
 
 TARQUINIUS. 
 
 of  his  absence,  mustered  their  forces,  crossed  the  Anio, 
 and  ravaged  the  country  up  to  the  very  walls  of  Rome. 
 Tarquinius  returned  from  his  Latin  wars,  encountered 
 the  Sabines,  and,  after  a  desperate  conflict,  drove  ihcm 
 fiom  the  Roman  territories.  Ne.xt  year  they  again 
 jassed  the  Anio  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  and  advanced 
 towards  Rome.  Tarquinius  met  them  in  battle,  and, 
 by  the  superiority  of  his  cavalry,  gained  a  complete 
 victory.  During  the  battle,  a  party  of  Romans,  sent 
 for  that  purpose,  burned  the  bridge  of  boats,  so  that  the 
 routed  Sabmes  were  cut  off  from  their  retreat  and 
 driven  into  the  river,  where  great  numbers  of  them 
 perished.  Their  bodies  and  arms,  floating  down  the 
 Tiber,  brought  the  first  intelligence  of  the  victory  to 
 Rome.  He  then  crossed  the  river,  inflicted  upon  them 
 a  second  defeat,  and  compelled  them  to  surrender  the 
 town  and  lands  of  GoUatia,  which  they  had  previously 
 taken  from  the  Latins.  Tarquinius  placed  a  strong 
 garrison  in  the  town,  and  assigned  the  capture  to  his 
 brother's  son,  who  thence  took  the  name  of  Collatinus. 
 In  this  war,  the  king's  son,  a  youth  of  fourteen,  slew  a 
 foe  with  his  own  hand,  and  received  as  a  reward  of 
 honour  a  robe  bordered  with  purple,  and  a  hollow  ball 
 of  gold  to  be  suspended  round  his  neck  ;  and  these 
 continued  to  be  the  distinctive  dress  and  ornament  of 
 Roman  youth  of  patrician  rank,  till  they  assumed  the 
 toga  virilis,  or  manly  gown.  Tarquinius  is  likewise 
 said  to  have  engaged  in  war  with  the  Etruscan  nations, 
 to  have  taken  several  of  their  cities,  and  to  have  over- 
 thrown them,  notwithstanding  a  confederacy  of  all  their 
 twelve  states  against  him.  In  token  of  their  submis- 
 sion to  his  power,  the  Etruscans  at  length  sent  him  a 
 golden  crown,  an  ivory  throne  and  sceptre,  a  purple 
 tunic  and  robe  figured  with  gold,  and  twelve  axes 
 bound  up  in  bundles  of  rods,  to  be  borne  before  him, 
 such  as  they  used  when  their  twelve  cities  chose  a 
 common  leader  in  war.  These,  by  the  permission  of 
 the  people,  Tarquinius  adopted  as  the  insignia  of  king- 
 ly power;  and,  with  the  e.xception  of  the  crown  and 
 of  the  embroidered  robe,  they  remained  as  such  both 
 to  his.successors  on  the  throne  and  to  the  consuls,  un- 
 less on  the  days  when  they  went  in  public  triumph  to 
 the  Capitol.  Such  were  the  military  exploits  ascribed 
 to  Tarquinius  ;  and  there  is  nothing  so  improbable  in 
 them  as  to  startle  our  belief.  It  is,  indeed,  manifest 
 from  other  indications,  that  about  the  period  assumed 
 as  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  as  he  is  called  for 
 sake  of  distinction,  the  dominions  of  Rome  must  have 
 comprised  nearly  all  the  territory  which  he  is  said 
 to  have  conquered,  and  also  that  the  city  must  have 
 risen  to  great  wealth  and  power.  The  latter  point  is 
 proved  by  the  great  public  works  which  all  accouiits 
 agree  in  ascribing  to  him.  He  built  the  cloaca  maxi- 
 ma, or  great  sewers,  to  drain  off  the  water  from  be- 
 tween the  Palatine  and  Capitoline,  and  the  Palatine 
 and  Aventine  Hills.  This  vase  drain  was  constructed 
 of  huge  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  triply  arched,  and  of 
 such  dimensions  that  a  barge  could  float  along  in  it 
 beneath  the  very  streets  of  the  city.  Earthquakes 
 have  shaken  the  city  and  the  adjacent  hills  ;  but  the 
 cloaca  maxima  remains  to  this  day  unimpaired,  an  en- 
 during monument  of  the  power  and  skill  of  the  king 
 and  the  people  by  whom  it  was  constructed.  The 
 Circus  Maximus,  or  great  racecourse,  was  also  a  work 
 of  this  monarch,  intended  for  the  display  of  what  were 
 called  the  great,  or  Roman  games.  The  forum,  with 
 its  rows  of  shops,  was  also  the  work  of  Tarquinius  ; 
 and  he  began  to  surround  the  city  with  a  wall  of 
 tnassy  hewn  stones.  He  likewise  made  preparation 
 to  fulfil  a  vow  to  build  a  great  temple  on  the  Cap- 
 itoline Hill  to  the  chief  deities  of  Rome.  To  con- 
 clude the  legendary  history  of  Tarquinius,  he  is  said 
 to  have  been  murdered  by  the  treachery  of  the  sons 
 of  his  predecessor  Ancus  Marcius.  They,  perceiving 
 the  favour  with  which  the  king  regarded  Servius 
 Tullius,  and  fearing  an  attempt  to  make  him  king, 
 1290 
 
 to  the  exclusion  of  their  own  pretensions  ani  hopes, 
 hired  two  countrymen  to  pretend  a  quarrel,  and  to  ap- 
 pear before  the  king  seeking  redress.  While  he  was 
 listening  to  the  complaint  of  one,  the  other  struck  him 
 on  the  head  with  an  axe,  and  then  they  both  made  their 
 escape.  The  conspirators  did  not,  however,  obtain 
 the  fruit  of  their  treachery.  Tanaquil  gave  out  that 
 the  king  was  not  dead,  but  only  stunned  by  the  blow, 
 and  had  appointed  Servius  TuUius  to  rule  in  his  name 
 till  he  should  recover.  Servius  immediately  assumed 
 the  ensigns  and  exercised  the  powers  of  royalty.  The 
 murderers  were  seized  and  punished,  and  the  Marcii 
 fled,  disappointed,  from  the  city.  When  the  death  of 
 Tarquinius  could  no  longer  be  concealed,  the  power 
 of  Servius  was  so  well  established,  that  the  people 
 were  perfectly  ready  to  grant  him  the  usual  confirma- 
 tion in  the  powers  of  the  sovereignty.  (Hcthering- 
 ton's  Hist,  of  Rome,  p.  19,  .icqq.) — Such  is  a  sketch 
 of  the  first  Tarquin,  as  given  by  the  ancient  writers. 
 Niebuhr,  however,  insists  that  the  Grecian  origin  of 
 the  Tarquinian  family  is  a  mere  and  very  clumsy  in- 
 vention of  the  Roman  annalists,  and  utterly  at  variance 
 with  the  received  chronology.  {Jtom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 319,  scqq.)  The  notion  that  Tarquinius  was  an 
 Etruscan,  arose,  as  he  conceives,  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  his  name  having  been  deduced  from  that  of 
 the  Etruscan  city  ;  so  that  he  seemed,  moreover,  a 
 suitable  person  for  the  Tuscan  epoch  of  Rome  to  be 
 referred  to.  "  Far  from  regarding  Tarquinii  as  the 
 birthplace  of  his  race,  I  hold  that  race,"  observes  Nie- 
 buhr, "  of  Latin  origin.  The  account  which  makes 
 him  and  Collatinus  members  of  nothing  more  than  a 
 single  family,  is  disproved  by  the  fact  that  a  whole 
 Tarquinian  house  existed  at  Rome,  which  was  banish- 
 ed along  with  the  last  king.  We  also  find  mention  oi 
 Tarquins  of  Laurentum  {Dion.,  Hal,  5,  54) :  these 
 may  be  supposed  to  have  been  exiles  of  that  house  ; 
 but,  even  assuming  this,  yet  the  legend  or  tradition 
 must  have  made  them  turn  their  steps  thither,  as  it 
 made  Collatinus  settle  at  Lavinium.  When  such  a 
 belief  was  current,  assuredly  Tarquinii  was  not  looked 
 upon  as  their  home.  The  Latin  origin  of  the  Tarquins 
 is  pointed  out  by  the  surname  of  the  first  king,  in  the 
 same  way  in  which  the  names  of  other  patricians 
 pointed  out  from  what  people  they  sprang.  Thus  we 
 have  Aurunculus,  Siculus,  Tuscus,  Sabinus,  &c.  The 
 name  Priscus  has  the  exact  form  and  character  of  the 
 national  names,  Tuscus,  Cascus,  Opscus.  The  same 
 is  the  meaning  of  Priscus  as  a  surname  of  the  Servilii, 
 and  as  the  original  one  of  the  censor  Marcus  Porcius, 
 who  was  born  in  the  land  of  the  Sabines,  and  descend- 
 ed from  Latin  ancestors.  {Plut.,  Vit.  Cat.,  c.  1.) 
 Supposing  the  house  of  Tarquinius  to  have  sprung 
 from  one  of  the  Tyrrhenian  cities  on  the  coast,  this  ac- 
 counts for  that  worship  of  the  Grecian  gods  at  the  Ro- 
 man games,  which  in  an  Etruscan  is  quite  incompre- 
 hensible. Lucumo,  too,  would  have  been  just  such  a 
 name  for  an  Etruscan,  as  Patricius  for  a  Roman.  That 
 no  such  ever  occurred  among  the  Tuscans  is  a  matter 
 on  which  the  gravestones,  were  it  needed,  might  serve 
 as  witnesses.  If  the  legends  of  the  Romans  give  it  to 
 individuals,  to  the  ally  of  Romulus,  to  the  nobleman  of 
 Clusium  {Dion.  Hal ,  2,  37.— Liw.,  5,  33),  and  to  Tar- 
 quinius, it  is  a  proof  how  utterly  uninformed  they  were 
 on  everything  that  concerned  a  nation  so  close  to  them  ; 
 a  natural  consequence  of  their  not  understanding  a 
 word  of  its  language."  {Niebuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  323,  scqq.) — II.  Superbus,  the  seventh  and  last 
 king  of  Rome.  All  the  Roman  aimalists,  with  the 
 exception  of  Piso,  who  adulterated  what  he  found, 
 followed  Fabius  in  calling  Tarquinius  Superbus  the 
 son  of  Priscus;  and  this  account  was  adopted  by  Ci- 
 cero and  Livy.  On  the  other  hand,  Piso  the  annalist, 
 and  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  make  Superbus  the 
 grandson  of  Priscus,  a  refinement  which,  according  to 
 Niebuhr,  "  destroys  all  manner  of  connexion  in  the 
 
TARQUINIUS. 
 
 TARQUINIUS. 
 
 story  of  the  Tarquins,  and  necessitates  still  more  fal- 
 silications  than  they  themselves  had  any  notion  of,  in 
 order  to  restore  even  a  scantling  of  sense  and  unity." 
 (Niehuhr,  Rom.  Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  320.  —  Compare,  in 
 opposition  to  this,  however,  the  dissertation  of  Valla, 
 Free/.,  not.  in  Lio.) — According  to  the  ordinary  ac- 
 count, Scrvius  Tulliiis  had  given  his  two  daughters  in 
 marriai'o  to  Tarquinius  and  his  brother  Aruns.  Now 
 it  hapfjened  that  these  daughters  were  of  very  unlike 
 tempers,  as  were  also  their  husbands.  The  elder 
 Tullia  was  of  a  gentle  disposition  ;  her  younger  sister 
 fierce,  imperious,  and  ambitious.  Aruns  Tarquinius 
 was  of  a  mild  and  quiet  character  ;  his  brother  Lucius 
 proud,  restless,  and  domineering.  To  counteract  these 
 tempers,  Servius  had  given  the  gentle  princess  to  the 
 ambitious  prince,  and  made  the  haughty  damsel  wife 
 to  the  mild  husband.  But  this  dissimilarity  of  temper 
 did  not  produce  the  effect  which  he  had  e.xpected. 
 The  fiery  tempered  of  each  couple  became  dissatisfied 
 with  the  one  of  gentler  nature  ;  the  milder  wife  and 
 husband  perished  by  the  crimes  of  their  aspiring  mates, 
 who  were  speedily  united  in  a  second  shameless  mar- 
 riage. Then  did  the  aspiring  temper  of  the  one  urge 
 on  the  haughty  and  ambitious  heart  of  the  other,  till 
 they  resolved  to  make  way  to  the  throne  by  the  mur- 
 der of  the  good  old  man,  their  king  and  father.  To 
 this  attempt  Lucius  was  encouraged  by  the  unconceal- 
 ed dissatisfaction  of  the  patricians  with  the  influence 
 obtained  by  the  plebeians  in  the  new  constitution. 
 Their  dissatisfaction  was  increased  by  a  rumour  that 
 Servius  intended  to  abolish  the  monarchical  form  alto- 
 gether, and  divide  the  sway  between  the  two  consuls, 
 one  to  be  chosen  from  the  patrician,  and  one  from  the 
 plebeian  body.  Having  formed  a  strong  faction  among 
 the  patricians,  Tarquinius  went  to  the  senate-house, 
 seated  himself  in  the  royal  chair,  and  summoned  the 
 senators  to  meet  King  Tarquinius.  Servius,  having 
 heard  the  rumour,  hastened  to  the  senate-house,  ac- 
 cused Tarquinius  of  treason,  and  laid  hold  of  him  to 
 remove  him  from  the  royal  chair.  The  usurper  in- 
 stantly seized  the  old  man,  dragged  him  to  the  door, 
 and  threw  him  with  great  force  down  the  steps.  There 
 he  lay  for  a  few  moments,  stunned  and  bleeding  with 
 the  fall ;  then,  rising  slowly,  staggered  away  towards 
 his  palace.  Some  ruffians  employed  by  Tarquinius 
 pursued,  overtook,  and  killed  him,  leaving  the  body 
 lying  bleeding  in  the  street.  Meantime,  tidings  of 
 what  was  going  on  had  reached  Tullia,  who  immedi- 
 ately mounted  her  chariot,  drove  to  the  senate-house, 
 and  saluted  Tarquinius  as  king.  He  bade  her  with- 
 draw from  such  a  tumult ;  and  she,  on  her  return,  drove 
 her  chariot  over  the  body  of  her  newly-murdered  fa- 
 ther. (FiW.  Tullia.)  Tarquinius,  havmg  thus  obtain- 
 ed the  forcible  possession  of  the  throne,  declined  to 
 submit  to  the  form  of  an  election,  or  to  make  the  cus- 
 tomary appeals  to  the  comitia  curiata  for  the  ratifica- 
 tion of  his  kingly  power.  He  seized  the  crown  as  if 
 it  were  hereditary,  and  seemed  resolved  to  rule  without 
 the  concurrence  of  any  of  the  great  assemblies.  But 
 as  he  had  been  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  aid  of  the 
 patricians,  his  first  act  was  to  gratify  them  by  repeal- 
 ing the  privileges  which  Servius  had  granted  to  the 
 plebeians.  He  suppressed  the  institution  of  the  comi- 
 tia ccnturiata,  and  even  prohibited  the  meetings  of  the 
 country  tribes  at  the  paganalia.  But  this  was  only  the 
 begiiuiing  of  his  tyranny.  He  depressed  the  commons 
 or  plebeians;  but  he  had  no  intention  to  permit  the 
 power  of  the  patricians  to  become  too  strong,  espe- 
 cially as  he  was  himself  but  too  well  aware  of  their 
 treachery  to  the  former  king.  He  therefore  surround- 
 ed himself  with  a  body-guard,  the  ready  instruments 
 of  his  oppression,  and,  under  colour  of  justice,  banish- 
 ed or  put  to  death,  on  false  accusations,  all  who  were 
 either  too  powerful  or  too  wealthy  to  be  trusted,  or 
 whom  he  suspected  of  disaffection  to  himself.  In  this 
 manner  he  reduced  the  patricians  into  a  state  of  sub- 
 
 jection almost  as  deep  as  that  into  which  they  had 
 assisted  him  to  reduce  the  plebeians.  Being  now 
 possessed  of  nearly  despotic  power,  he  turned  his  at- 
 tention to  the  enlargement  of  his  kingdom.  He  gave 
 his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Octavius  Mamilius  of 
 Tusculum,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Latin  chiefs; 
 and  partly  by  intrigues,  partly  by  force,  he  procured 
 Rome  to  be  acknowledged  the  head  of  the  Latin  con- 
 federacy. Herdonius,  the  only  man  who  dared  to  op- 
 pose his  proud  demeanour,  he  caused  to  be  put  to 
 death  by  false  accusations,  and  completely  incorpora- 
 ted the  Latin  troops  with  those  of  Rome.  The  Her- 
 nici  were  also  included  in  this  confederacy.  One 
 Latin  city,  Gabii,  refused  to  join  this  league,  and  was 
 assailed  by  Tarquinius.  The  struggle  was  long  and 
 severe,  but  at  length  he  obtained  possession  of  it  by 
 means  of  a  stratagem,  conducted  by  his  son  Sextus, 
 similar  to  that  by  which  Zopyrus  gained  the  city  of 
 Babylon  for  Darius  Hystaspis.  (Firf.  Tarquinius  IV.) 
 He  next  turned  his  arms  against  the  Volsci,  and  took 
 Suessa  Pometia,  where  he  obtained  a  very  great  booty, 
 the  tithe  of  which  he  retained  for  his  own  share.  Thus 
 powerful  and  enriched,  he  next  proceeded  to  finish 
 the  great  works  left  incomplete  by  his  predecessors. 
 He  finished  the  cloaca  maxima,  and  prepared  to  build 
 the  temple  which  Tarquinius  Priscus,  during  the  Sa- 
 bine war,  had  vowed  to  the  three  great  deities,  Jupiter, 
 Juno,  and  Minerva.  This  edifice  is  the  famous  Capito- 
 lium.  (Fj(Z.  Capitolium.)  About  this  same  time,  too, 
 the  strange  story  of  the  Sibyl  is  told,  which  we  have  no- 
 ticed under  another  article.  (^Vid.  Sibyllaj.) — The  sway 
 of  Tarquinius,  however,  had  now  nearly  reached  its 
 limits,  and  various  portents  foreshowed  its  approaching 
 overthrow.  According  to  the  legend,  the  first  indica- 
 tions of  the  coming  doom  were  seen  in  an  unnatural  vi- 
 olation of  the  sacred  rites.  A  huge  snake  crawled  out 
 from  an  altar  in  the  court  of  the  palace  at  the  time 
 of  sacrifice  ;  the  fire  suddenly  died  out,  and  the  snake 
 devoured  the  victim.  To  ascertain  what  this  prodigy 
 portended,  the  king  sent  two  of  his  sons  to  consult  the 
 oracle  at  Delphi,  and  the  princes  took  with  them  their 
 cousin  Lucius  Junius  Brutus.  (F«/.  Brutus  I.)  The 
 answer  of  the  oracle  was,  that  the  king  should  fall 
 when  a  dog  should  speak  with  human  voice.  This 
 response  was  of  course  intended  secretly  to  apply  to 
 Brutus,  and  his  unexpected  display  of  mental  ability. 
 (^Vid.  Brutus  I.)  The  young  princes  also  asked 
 which  of  the  king's  sons  should  succeed  him  ;  and 
 were  answered  in  general  terms,  that  the  regal  power 
 should  be  enjoyed  by  the  person  who  should  first  sa- 
 lute his  mother.  Brutus,  as  they  were  departing,  pur- 
 posely stumbled  and  fell,  and,  kissing  the  earth,  thus 
 fulfilled,  unobserved  by  his  companions,  the  meaning 
 of  the  oracle.  Soon  after  this  event,  Tarquinius  wa- 
 ged war  against  Ardea,  the  capital  of  the  Rutuli,  a 
 people  on  the  coast  of  Latium  ;  and  while  his  army 
 lay  encamped  before  the  place,  the  affair  of  Lucretia 
 occurred,  which  has  been  detailed  under  another  arti- 
 cle {vid.  Lucretia),  and  which  hurled  him  from  his 
 throne.  In  vain  did  the  cities  of  Tarquinii  and  Veii 
 take  up  arms  to  effect  his  restoration  ;  in  vain,  ac- 
 cording to  the  common  account,  did  Porsenna,  the 
 Lucumo  of  Clusium,  endeavour  to  effect  the  same  end 
 (vid.  Porsenna)  ;  in  vain,  too,  did  the  Latins  exert 
 themselves  in  his  behalf.  In  a  bloody  battle  fought 
 at  the  Lake  Regillus,  the  two  sons  of  Tarquinius  were 
 slain  ;  and  the  father  at  length  gave  up  the  contest 
 with  his  former  subjects,  and  retired  to  Curnw,  where 
 he  ended  his  days  in  259  A. U.C,  or  495  B.C.  {Liv., 
 1,  'lG,seqq. — Dion.  Hal.,  4,  41,  scqq.—Hethcringlon, 
 Hist.  Rom.,  p.  26,  jc^^,/. —Compare  Nicbuhr,  Rom. 
 Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  448,  scqq.)  — For  a  very  ingenious 
 theory  respecting  the  Tarquin  dominion  in  Rome,  dif- 
 fering essentially  from  that  of  Niebuhr,  and  tracing  it 
 to  Etruria,  consult  the  remarks  of  Miiller  {Etruskcr, 
 vol  l,p  118,  seqq.). — III.  Collatinus,  the  husband  of 
 ^      ^'  1291 
 
TA  R 
 
 TAR 
 
 Lucrctia.  (Vid.  Collatinus.) — IV.  Sextus,  eldest  son 
 of  Tarquinius  Superbus  according  to  Dionysius  of 
 Halicarnassus  (4,  55),  but,  according  to  Livy  (1,  53), 
 the  youngest.  His  name  is  celebrated  in  the  old  le- 
 gend for  the  stratagem  by  which  he  placed  the  city  of 
 Gabii  in  the  power  of  his  father.  Having  played  the 
 part  of  an  insurgent  against  his  parent,  the  king,  for 
 whose  anger  his  wanton  insolence  afforded  a  specious 
 provocation,  condemned  him  to  a  disgraceful  punish- 
 ment, as  if  he  had  been  the  meanest  of  his  subjects. 
 Scitus  thereupon  came  to  the  Gabines,  to  all  appear- 
 ance a  fugitive  :  the  bloody  marks  of  his  ill-treatment, 
 and,  above  ail,  the  infatuation  which  comes  over  such 
 as  are  doomed  to  perish,  gained  him  belief  and  good- 
 will :  at  first  he  led  volunteers,  then  troops  were  in- 
 trusted to  his  charge  ;  every  enterprise  succeeded  ;  for 
 booty  and  soldiers  were  thrown  into  his  way  at  certain 
 appointed  places  :  the  deluded  citizens  raised  the  man, 
 under  whose  command  they  promised  themselves  the 
 pleasures  of  a  successful  war,  to  the  dictatorship. 
 The  last  step  of  his  treachery  was  yet  to  come  :  where 
 the  troops  were  not  hirelings,  it  was  a  hazardous  ven- 
 ture to  open  a  gate.  Sextus  sent  a  confidential  slave 
 to  demand  of  his  father  \n  what  way  he  should  deliver 
 up  Gabii  into  his  hands.  Tarquinius  was  in  his  gar- 
 den when  he  admitted  the  messenger  into  his  presence: 
 he  walked  along  in  silence,  striking  off  the  heads  of 
 the  tallest  poppies  with  his  staff,  and  dismissed  the  man 
 without  an  answer.  On  this  hint  Sextus  put  to  death, 
 or,  by  means  of  false  charges,  banished  such  of  the  Ga- 
 bines as  were  able  to  oppose  him :  the  distribution  of 
 their  fortunes  purchased  him  partisans  among  the  low- 
 est class;  and,  possessing  himself  of  the  uncontested 
 rule,  he  brought  the  city  to  acknowledge  his  father's 
 supremacy.  {Liv.,  1,  53. — Dion.  Hal.,  4,  55.)  This 
 story,  as  Niebuhr  well  observes,  is  patched  up  from 
 the  well-known  two  in  Herodotus  (3,  154  ;  5,  92. — 
 Vid.  Zopyrus,  and  Periander).  Besides,  it  is  quite 
 impossible  that  Gabii  should  have  fallen  into  the  hands 
 of  the  Roman  king  by  treachery  :  had  such  been  the 
 case,  no  one  would  have  granted  the  Roman  franchise 
 to  the  Gabines,  and  have  spared  them  all  chastisement 
 by  the  scourge  of  war,  as  Tarquinius  is  said  to  have 
 done  by  Dionysius  himself  (4,  58. — Niebuhr,  Rom. 
 Hist.,  vol.  1,  p.  450). — The  violence  which,  some  time 
 after  this,  Sextus  offered  to  Lucretia,  was  the  cause 
 of  his  father's  banishment,  and  the  downfall  of  the 
 whole  line.  He  himself  retired  to  Gabii,  of  which  his 
 father  had  before  this  made  him  king  {Dion.  Hal.,  4, 
 58),  and  was  assassinated  here  by  certain  persons 
 whom  his  acts  of  bloodshed  and  rapine  had  roused  to 
 vengeance.  {Liv  ,  1,  60.) — V.  Aruns,  a  brother  of 
 Tarquinius  Superbus.  {Vid.  Aruns  I.) — VI.  Aruns, 
 a  son  of  Tarquinius  Superbus.     {Vid.  Aruns  II.) 
 
 Tarr.vco,  now  Tarragona,  a  town  of  the  Cosetani 
 in  Hispania  Citerior,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterrane- 
 an, and  northeast  of  the  mouth  of  the  Iberus.  This 
 was  the  first  place  where  the  Scipios  landed  in  the 
 second  Punic  war,  and  which,  after  having  fortified  it, 
 they  made  their  place  of  arms,  and  a  Roman  colony. 
 {Plin.,  3,  4.  —  Solin.,  c.  23,  26.)  Tarraco,  in  conse- 
 quence of  this,  soon  rose  to  importance,  and  in  time 
 became  the  rival  of  Carthago  Nova.  It  was  the  usual 
 place  of  residence  for  the  Roman  praetors.  On  the  di- 
 vision of  Spain,  which  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Au- 
 gustus {vid.  Hispania),  this  city  gave  the  name  of  Tar- 
 raconensis  to  what  had  been  previously  called  His|)ania 
 Citerior.  {Plin.,  I.  c. — Mela,  2,  6. — Compare  Ukert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  420.) 
 
 TarsIus,  a  river  of  Troas,  near  Zeleia,  which,  ac- 
 cording to  Strabo,  had  to  be  crossed,  on  account  of  its 
 meandering  route,  twenty  times  by  those  who  followed 
 the  road  along  its  banks.  Homer  styles  it  Heptaporus, 
 referring  to  its  being  crossed  seven  times.  {Strabo, 
 587.) 
 
 Tarsus,  a  celebrated  city  of  Cicilia  Campestris,  on 
 1292 
 
 the  river  Cydnus,  not  far  from  its  mouth.  Xenophon 
 gives  its  name  a  plural  form,  Tupaoi  {r/Xaae  .  .  .  .  eig 
 Tapaov(,Ayiab.,  1,  2,  23);  later  writers,  however,  adopt 
 the  singular,  Tapaof.  This  city  was,  from  the  earli- 
 est authentic  records  that  we  have  of  it,  the  capital  of 
 Cilicia,  and,  during  the  Persian  dominion,  was  the  resi- 
 dence of  a  dependant  king.  The  people  of  Tarsus  as- 
 cribed the  origin  of  their  city  to  Sardanapalus,  who  is 
 said  to  have  built  it,  together  with  Anchiale,  in  one 
 day.  {Vid.  Anchiale.)  When,  however,  the  Greeks 
 established  themselves  here  after  the  conquest  of  Al 
 exander,  they  discarded  the  old  account  of  the  oriorjt, 
 of  Tarsus,  and  in  its  stead  adopted  one  of  a  more  po 
 etic  cast.  Tarsus  (Taptrof)  in  their  language  signified 
 a  heel,  and  also  a  liQof.  This  name  they  connected 
 with  the  old  legend,  that  Bellerophon  had  been  con- 
 veyed, in  the  course  of  his  wanderings,  by  the  wmged 
 horse  Pegasus  to  the  country  of  Cilicia.  Upon  this 
 they  founded  the  fable  that  the  horse  Pegasus  had 
 stumbled  here,  and  left  behind  a  deep  impression  of 
 one  of  his  feet.  According  to  another  account,  he  lost 
 a  hoof  in  this  quarter  ;  while  a  third  made  Bellerophon 
 to  have  been  unhorsed  in  this  place,  and,  in  falling,  to 
 have  struck  the  earth  violently  with  his  heel.  {Diojiys. 
 Pcrieg.,  v.  869.  —  Eustalh.  ad  Dionys.,  I.  c. — Steph. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  TapaoQ.)  Strabo,  however,  makes  the  city 
 to  have  been  founded  by  Triptolemus  and  his  Argive 
 followers,  who,  in  sending  for  information  about  the 
 wandering  lo,  found  here  the  traces  of  her  hoofs. 
 {Strab.,  673.)  The  Greeks,  upon  their  first  coming 
 hither,  found  Tarsus  a  large  and  flourishing  city,  trav- 
 ersed by  the  Cydnus,  a  stream  200  feet  broad.  {Xen., 
 Anab.,  1,  2,  23.)  It  continued  to  flourish  for  a  long 
 period  after,  and  became  so  celebrated  for  learning  and 
 refinement  as  to  be  the  rival  of  Athens  and  Alexan- 
 drea.  Alexander  nearly  lost  his  life  by  bathing,  when 
 overheated,  in  the  cold  stream  of  the  Cydnus,  and  it 
 was  here  that  Cleopatra  paid  her  celebrated  visit  to  An- 
 tony in  all  the  pomp  and  pageantry  of  Eastern  luxury, 
 herself  attired  like  Venus,  and  her  attendants  like  Cu- 
 pids, in  a  galley  covered  with  gold,  whose  sails  were 
 of  purple,  the  oars  of  silver,  and  cordage  of  silk  ;  a 
 fine  description  of  which  may  be  seen  in  Shakspeare's 
 play  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra  {act  2,  sc.  2).  In  the 
 civil  wars  Tarsus  sided  with  Caesar,  and  the  inhabi- 
 tants called  their  city,  out  of  compliment  to  him,  Juli- 
 opolis.  This,  though  it  exposed  them  at  first  to  many 
 annoyances  from  the  opposite  party,  secured  for  them, 
 eventually,  both  freedom  and  exemption  from  tribute, 
 after  Caesar  had  become  master  of  the  Roman  world. 
 {Appian,  B.  C,  4,  64. — Id.,  5,  7.)  Tarsus  was  the 
 birthplace  of  St.  Paul.  {Acts,  22,  3.)  It  still  survives, 
 but  only  as  the  shadow  of  its  former  self.  It  is  now 
 called  Tarsous,  and  is  in  subjection  to  Adana,  an  ad- 
 jacent city.  {Pococke,  vol.  2,  p.  256  )  —  Julian  the 
 Apostate  was  buried  in  the  suburbs  of  this  city.  {Am.- 
 mian.  MarcelL,  23,  3. — Mannert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt. 
 2,  p.  96,  scgq.) 
 
 Tartarus  (in  the  plural  -a,  ■arum),  the  fabled  place 
 of  punishment  in  the  lower  world.  According  to  the 
 ideas  of  the  Homeric  and  Hesiodic  ages,  it  would 
 seem  that  the  World  or  Universe  was  a  hollow  globe, 
 divided  into  two  equal  portions  by  the  flat  disk  of  the 
 earth.  {E.,  8,  \Q.-^Hes.,  Thcog.,  720.)  The  exter- 
 nal shell  of  this  globe  is  called  by  the  poets  brazen 
 and  iron,  probably  only  to  express  its  solidity.  The 
 superior  hemisphere  was  nampd  Heaven,  the  inferior 
 one  Tartarus.  The  length  of  the  diameter  of  the  hol- 
 low sphere  is  given  thus  by  Hesiod.  It  would  take, 
 he  says,  nine  days  for  an  anvil  to  fall  from  Heaven  to 
 Earth  ;  and  an  equal  space  of  time  would  be  occupied 
 by  its  fall  from  Earth  to  the  bottom  of  Tartarus.  {Thc- 
 og., 722.)  The  luminaries  which  gave  light  to  gods  and 
 men  shed  their  radiance  through  all  the  interior  of  the 
 upper  hemisphere  ;  while  that  of  the  inferior  one  was 
 filled  with  eternal  gloom  and  darkness,  and  its  still  ait 
 
TAT 
 
 T  AU 
 
 was  unmoved  by  any  wind.  Tartarus  was  regarded, 
 at  this  period,  as  the  prison  of  the  gods,  and  not  as  the 
 place  of  torment  for  wicked  men,  being  to  the  gods 
 what  Erebus  was  to  men,  the  abode  of  those  who  were 
 driven  from  the  supernal  world.  The  Titans,  when 
 conquered,  were  shut  up  in  it,  and  in  the  Iliad  (8,  13) 
 Jupiter  menaces  the  gods  with  banishment  to  its  mur- 
 ky regions.  The  Oceanus  of  Homer  encompassed  the 
 whole  earth,  and  beyond  it  was  a  region  unvisited  by 
 the  sun,  and  therefore  shrouded  in  perpetual  darkness, 
 the  abode  of  a  people  whom  he  names  Cimmerians. 
 Here  the  poet  of  the  Odyssey  also  places  Erebus,  the 
 'ealm  of  Pluto  and  Proserpina,  the  final  dwelling  of  all 
 the  race  of  men,  a  place  which  the  poet  of  the  Iliad 
 describes  as  lying  within  the  bosom  of  the  earth.  At 
 a  later  period,  the  change  of  religious  ideas  gradually 
 aflectcd  Erebus,  the  abode  of  the  dead.  Elysium  was 
 moved  down  to  it,  as  the  place  of  reward  for  the  good  ; 
 and  Tartarus  was  raised  up  to  it,  to  form  the  prison  in 
 which  the  wicked  sufTercd  the  punishment  due  to  their 
 crimes.     (Kcightla/s  Mythology,  p.  32,  39,  43.) 
 
 Tartessus,  a  town  of  Spain,  situate,  according  to 
 the  most  general,  though  not  the  most  correct  opinion, 
 in  an  island  of  the  same  name  at  the  mouth  of  the  Baetis, 
 formed  by  the  two  branches  of  the  river.  No  traces  of 
 this  island  now  remain,  as  one  of  the  arms  of  the  riv- 
 er has  disappeared.  With  regard  to  the  actual  position 
 of  the  town  itself,  much  difference  of  opinion  exists 
 both  in  ancient  and  modern  writers.  Mannert  is  in  fa- 
 vour of  making  Hispalis  the  Tartessus  of  Herodotus, 
 and  opposes  the  idea  of  its  being  the  same  either  with 
 Carteia  or  Gades,  as  many  ancient  writers  maintain. 
 It  could  not,  according  to  him,  correspond  with  Car- 
 teia, since  Tartessus  lay  without  the  Straits  of  Hercu- 
 les ;  nor  could  it  be  the  same  as  Gades,  since  Herodo- 
 tus speaks  of  both  Gades  and  Tartessus  by  their  re- 
 spective names,  and  the  latter  was  not  subject  to  the 
 Phoenicians,  but  had  a  king  of  its  own.  (Mannert, 
 Geogr.,  vol.  1,  p.  294.)  According  to  Strabo,  the 
 Bajtis  itself  was  anciently  called  Tartessus,  and  the  ad- 
 jacent country  Tartessis.  (S/r«io,  148).  Bochart, how- 
 ever, makes  Tartessus  to  have  been  the  Tarshish  of 
 Scripture,  and  the  same  with  Gades.  {Geogr.  Sacr., 
 3,  7,  coll.  170.) 
 
 Taruan.\a,  a  city  of  Gallia  Bclgica  Secunda,  in  the 
 territory  of  the  Morini,  now  Teroucnnc.  {Ptolemy. — 
 Ilin.  Ant.,  376.) 
 
 Tarvisiom,  an  ancient  city  of  Venetia,  on  the  river 
 Silis.  At  a  later  period  it  became  the  seat  of  a  bish- 
 opric, and  only  a  town  of  note  about  the  middle  ages. 
 It  is  now  Trcviso.  {Frocop.,  B.  G.,  3,  1.  —  Paul. 
 Diac,  2,  12.) 
 
 Tati.Inus,  a  Syrian  rhetorician,  converted  to  Chris- 
 tianity by  Justin  Martyr,  whom  he  followed  to  Rome  in 
 the  latter  part  of  the  second  century.  After  the  death 
 of  Justin,  the  opinions  of  his  proselyte  took  a  turn  to- 
 wards those  of  Marcion,  with  whom  he  was  contem- 
 jiorary  ;  but,  differing  from  that  heresiarch  in  some 
 material  points,  he  became  the  head  of  a  sect  of  fol- 
 lowers of  his  own,  who  acquired  the  appellation  of  Eu- 
 cratitaeand  Ilydroparastata;,  from  the  abstinence  which 
 they  enjoined  from  wine  and  animal  food,  and  their 
 substitution  of  water  for  the  former  in  the  administra- 
 tion of  the  Eucharist.  The  cdilio  princcps  by  Gesner, 
 Tigur.,  1540,  fol.,  contains  merely  the  Greek  text. 
 The  best  edition  is  that  of  Worth  {Gr.  ct  Lat),  Oxon., 
 1700,  8vo.  Tatian's  work  is  sometimes  appended  to 
 editions  of  Justin  Martyr.  ( Clarke,  Bibliograph.  Did., 
 vol.  6,  p.  150.) 
 
 Tatienses  or  Titienses,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
 three  original  Roman  tribes.  {Vid.  Roma,  p.  1173, 
 col.  1.) 
 
 Tatios,  Titus,  king  of  the  Sabines,  reigned  con- 
 jointly with  Romulus.     {Vid.  Romulus.) 
 
 Tatta,  a  salt  lake  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Phry- 
 gia,  now  Tuslag  {i.  e.,  "the  Salt").     According  to 
 
 Strabo,  it  produced  salt  in  such  abundance,  that  any 
 substance  immersed  in  it  vk-as  very  soon  entirely  cov- 
 ered with  the  crystal ;  and  birds  were  unable  to  fly  if 
 they  once  dipped  their  wings  in  it.  {Strah.,  568.) 
 The  lake  still  furnishes  all  the  surrounding  country 
 with  salt,  and  its  produce  is  a  valuable  royal-farm  in 
 the  hands  of  the  Pacha  of  Kir-Shchr.  In  1638,  Sul- 
 tan Murad  IV.  made  a  causeway  across  the  lake,  upon 
 the  occasion  of  his  army  marching  to  take  Bagdad 
 from  the  Persians.     (Leake's  Tour,  p.  70.) 
 
 Taunus,  a  mountain  range  of  Germany,  lying  in  a 
 northwest  direction  from  Frankfort  on  the  Maync,  be- 
 tween Wiesbaden  and  llornhcrg.  It  is  now  called 
 the  H'ohe  or  Heyrich.  (Bischoff  und  Moller,  W&r- 
 lerb.  der  Geogr.,  p.  950.) 
 
 Tauri,  a  people  of  European  Sarmatiat  vvho  inhab- 
 ited Taurica  Chersonesus,  and  sacrificed  all  strangers 
 to  Diana.  The  statue  of  this  goddess,  which  they  be- 
 lieved to  have  fallen  down  from  heaven,  was  fabled  to 
 have  been  carried  away  to  .Sparta  by  Iphigenia  and  Ores- 
 tes. (Herod.,  4,  99.— il/c/a,  2,  \.—Pausan.,  3,  16. — 
 Eurip.,  Iphig.) 
 
 Taurica  Chersonesus.     Vid.  Chersonesus  III. 
 
 Taurica,  a  surname  of  Diana,  because  worshipped 
 by  the  inhabitants  of  Taurica  Chersonesus.  {Vid. 
 Tauri.) 
 
 Taurini,  a  people  of  Liguria,  occupying  both  banks 
 of  the  Padus,  in  the  earlier  part  of  its  course,  but  es- 
 pecially the  country  situated  between  that  river  and 
 the  Alps.  The  river  Orcus  (now  Orca)  marked  the 
 extent  of  their  territory  tov-fards  the  east.  The  Tau- 
 rini are  first  mentioned  in  history  as  having  opposed 
 Hannibal  soon  after  his  descent  from  the  Alps  {Polyb., 
 3,  60);  and  their  capital,  which  Appian  calls  Taura- 
 sia  (Bell.  Hami.,  c.  5),  was  taken  and  plundered  by 
 that  general,  after  an  ineffectual  resistance  of  three 
 days.  As  a  Roman  colony,  it  subsequently  received 
 the  name  of  Augusta  Taurinorum,  now  Turino  (Turin) 
 in  Piedmont.     {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  32.) 
 
 Tauromenium,  now  Taormino,  a  town  of  Sicily, 
 between  Messana  and  Catana,  but  nearer  the  latter 
 than  the  former.  An  ancient  city  named  Naxos  previ- 
 ously occupied  the  site  of  Tauromenium.  There  were, 
 in  fact,  two  cities  of  the  name  of  Naxos,  both  erected 
 in  succession  on  the  same  spot.  The  first  was  de- 
 stroyed by  Dionysius  the  tyrant,  and  the  inhabitants 
 scattered  over  Sicily.  (Diod.  Sic,  14,  15.)  The 
 Siculi,  instigated  by  the  Carthaginians,  subsequently 
 rebuilt  the  city,  but  Dionysius  again  reduced  it.  In- 
 stead of  destroying,  however,  he  colonized  it  with  a 
 number  of  his  mercenary  soldiers.  {Diod.  Sic.,  14, 
 59  et  96.)  In  process  of  time  Syracuse  regained  her 
 freedom,  and  Andromachus,  a  rich  inhabitant  of  Nax- 
 os, having  invited  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  latter  city 
 to  return  to  their  home,  they  accepted  the  offer.  The 
 city  now  changed  its  name  to  Tauromenium,  from 
 Taurus,  the  name  of  an  adjacent  mountain,  and  //ov^, 
 a  place  of  abode,  the  appellation  being  selected  as  des- 
 ignating more  particularly  their  new  place  of  residence. 
 (Diod.  Sic.,  16,  7.) — ^The  hills  in  the  neighbourhood 
 were  famous  for  the  fine  grapes  which  they  produced, 
 and  they  surpassed  almost  the  whole  world  for  the  ex- 
 tent and  beauty  of  their  prospects.  {Mannert,  Geogr., 
 vol.  9,  pt.  2,  p.  282.) 
 
 Taurus,  I.  the  mountains  of  Taurus,  according  to 
 all  the  descriptions  of  the  ancients,  extended  from  the 
 frontiers  of  India  to  the  -Egeari  Sea.  Their  principal 
 chain,  as  it  shot  out  from  Mount  Imaus  towards  the 
 sources  of  the  Indus,  wound,  like  an  immense  serpent, 
 between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Euxine  on  the  one 
 side,  and  the  sources  of  the  Euphrates  on  tfic  other. 
 Caucasus  seems  to  have  formed  part  of  this  line,  ac- 
 cording to  Pliny  ;  but  according  to  Strabo,  who  was 
 better  informed,  the  principal  chain  of  Taurus  runs  be- 
 tween the  basis  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Araxcs  ;  and 
 the  geographer  observes  that  a  detached  chain  of  Cau- 
 
 1293 
 
TAURUS. 
 
 TEA 
 
 casus,  that  of  the  Moschian  mountains,  runs  in  a  south- 
 ern direction  and  joins  the  Taurus.     Modern  accounts 
 represent  this  junction  as  not  very  marked.     Strabo, 
 who  was  born  on  the  spot,  and  wlio  had  travelled  as 
 far  as  Armenia,  considers  the  entire  centre   of  Asia 
 Minor,  together  with  all  Armenia,  Media,  and  Gordy- 
 ene,  or  Koordistan,  as  a  very  elevated  country,  crowned 
 with  several  chains  of  mountains,  all  of  which  are  so 
 closely  joined  together  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  one. 
 "Armenia  and  Media,"  says  he,  "are  situated  upon 
 Taurus."      This   plateau   seems  also  to  comprehend 
 Koordistan.  and  the  branches  which  it  sends  out  ex- 
 tend into  Persia  as  far  as  the  great  desert  of  Kerman 
 on  one  side,  and  towards  the  sources  of  the  Gihon  and 
 the  Indus  oij  the  other.     By  thus  considering  the  vast 
 Taurus  of  the  ancients  as  an  upland  plain,  and  not  as 
 a  chain,  the  testimonies  of  Strabo  and  Pliny  may  be 
 reconciled   with    the  accounts  of  modern    travellers. 
 Two  chains  of  mountains  are  detached  from  the  pla- 
 teau of  Armenia  to  enter  the  peninsula  of  Asia  ;   the 
 one  first  confines  and  then  crosses  the  channel  of  the 
 Euphrates  near  Samosata ;   the  other  borders  the  Pon- 
 tus  Eu.xinus,  leaving  only  narrow  plains  between  it  and 
 that,  sea.     These  two  chains,  one  of  which  is  in  part 
 the  Anti-Taurus,  and  the  other  the  Paryadres  of  the 
 ancients,  or  the  mountain  Tcheldir  or  Keldir  of  the 
 moderns,  are  united  to  the  west  of  the  Euphrates,  be- 
 tween the  towns  of  Siwas,  Tocas,  and  Kaisarich,  by 
 means  of  the  chain  of  Argsus,  now  named  Argeh- 
 Dag,  whose  summit  is  covered  with  perpetual  snows, 
 a  circumstance  which,  under  so  low  a  latitude,  shows 
 an  elevation  of  from  9  to  10,000  feet.     The  centre  of 
 Asia  resembles  a  terrace  supported  on  all    sides  by 
 chains  of  mountains.     The  chain  which,  breaking  off 
 at  once  from  Mount  Argaeus  and  from  Anti-Taurus, 
 bounds  the  ancient  Cilicia  to  the  north,  is  more  par- 
 ticularly known  by  the  name  of  Taurus,  a  name  which 
 in  several  languages  appears  to  have  one  common  root, 
 and  simply  signifies  mountain.     The  elevation  of  this 
 chain  must  be  considerable,  since  Cicero  affirms  that 
 it  was  impassable  to  armies  before  the  month  of  June, 
 on  account  of  the  snow.     Diodorus  details  the  fright- 
 ful ravines  and  precipices  which  it  was  necessary  to 
 cross  in  going  from  Gilicia  into  Cappadocia.     Modern 
 travellers,  who  have  crossed  more  to  the  west  of  this 
 chain,  now  called  Alah-Dag,  represent  it  as  similar  to 
 that  of  the  Apeninnes  and  Mount  Haemus.     It  sends 
 off  to  the  west  several  branches,  some  of  which  termi- 
 nate on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  the  Cra- 
 gus,  and  the   Masicystes  of  the  ancients,  in  Lycia ; 
 the   others,  greatly   inferior    in    elevation,  extend    to 
 the  coasts  of  the  Archipelago  opposite  the  islands  of 
 Cos  and  Rhodes.     To  the  east.  Mount  Amanus,  now 
 the    Alma- Dag,  a  detached    branch  of  the    Taurus, 
 separates    Cilicia   from  Syria,  having    only  two  nar- 
 row passes,  the  one  towards  the  Euphrates,  the  oth- 
 er close  by  the  sea  ;    tlie  first  answers   to  the  Pylte 
 ."^manicaa  of  the  ancients,  the  other  to  the  Pylse  Syria. 
 Two  other   chains  of   mountains    are   sent   off  from 
 the  western   part  of   the   central    plateau.     The  one 
 is  the  Baba-Dag  of  the  moderns,  which  formed  the 
 Tmolus,  the   Messogis,  and    the    Sipylus  of  the  an- 
 cients, and  which  terminates  towards  the  islands  of 
 Samos  and  Chios;  the  other,  extending  in  a  north- 
 west direction,  presents  more  elevated  sunnnits,  among 
 which  are  the  celebrated  Ida  and  the  Mysian  Olympus. 
 Lastly,  the  northern  side  of  the  plateau  is   propelled 
 towards  the  Euxine,  and  gives  rise  to  the  chain  of  ihe 
 Olgassus,  now  Elkas-Dag,  a  chain  which  fills  with  its 
 brancheg  all  the  chain  between  the  Sangarius  and  the 
 Halys.      Throughout    the    range    of  mountains   just 
 described,    limestone  ^rocks   appear    to   predominate. 
 {Malte-Bnm,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  64,  scqq.)  —  II.    A 
 mountain  and  promontory  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sici- 
 ly, near  which  Tauromeniurn  was  built.     It  is  now 
 Capu  di  S.  Croce.     {Vid.  Tauromeniurn.) — III.  Sta- 
 1294 
 
 tilius  Taurus,  a  friend  of  Agrippa's,  conquered  Lepi- 
 dus  in  Sicily,  and  gained  also  many  victories  in  Afri- 
 ca, for  which  he  obtained  triumphal  honours  (B.C.  26). 
 He  was  twice  consul  ;  and  is  said  also  to  have  built 
 the  first  durable  amphitheatre  of  stone,  at  the  desire  of 
 Augustus.  —  IV.  Staiilius  Taurus,  was  proconsul  of 
 Africa  A.D.  53,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius.  On  his  re- 
 turn, Agri[)[)iiia,  who  was  anxious  to  get  possession  of 
 his  fine  gardens,  induced  Tarquitius,  who  had  been  his 
 lieutenant  in  Africa,  to  accuse  him  of  extortion,  and 
 also  of  having  practised  magic  rites.  Taurus,  indie- 
 nant  at  the  charge,  would  not  wait  for  the  decision  of 
 the  senate,  hut  destroyed  himself. 
 
 T.1YGETUS,  or,  in  the  plural  form,  Taygeta  (-ornm), 
 part  of  a  lofty  ridge  of  mountains,  which,  traversing 
 the  whole  of  Laconia  from  the  Arcadian  frontier,  ter- 
 minates in  the  sea  at   the  Promontory  of  Taenarus. 
 Its  elevation  was  said  to  be  so  great  as  to  command 
 a  view  of  the  whole  Peloponnesus,  as  may  be  seen 
 from  a  fragment  of  the  Cyprian  verses  preserved  by 
 the    scholiast   on    Pindar.     (Nem.,    10,    113.)     This 
 great  mountain  abounded  with  various  kinds  of  beasts 
 for  the  chase,  and  supplied  also  the  celebrated  race  of 
 hounds,  so  much  valued  by  the  ancients  on  account 
 of  their  sagacity  and  keenness  of  scent.     It  also  fur- 
 nished a  beautiful  green  marble  much  esteemed  by  the 
 Romans.     {Strabo,  367. — PUn.,  37,  18.)    In  the  ter- 
 rible earthquake  which  desolated  Laconia  before  the 
 Peloponnesian  war,  it  is  related  that  immense  masses 
 of   rock,    detaching  themselves    from   the    mountain, 
 caused  dreadful  devastation  in  their  fall,  which  is  said 
 to   have  been   foretold  by   Anaximander  of  Miletus. 
 {riin.,  2,  K^.— Strabo.  367.)     The  principal  summit 
 of  Taygetus,  named  Taletum,  rose  above  Brysese.    It 
 was   dedicated    to   the  sun,  and   sacrifices  of  horses 
 were  there  offered  to  that  planet.     This  point  is  prob- 
 ably the  same  now  called  St.  Elias.     (Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  216  )     "  From  the  western  side  of 
 the  plain,"  observes  Mr.  Dodwell,  "  rise  the  grand  and 
 abrupt  precipices  of  Taygetus,  which  is  broken  into 
 many  summits.     The  bases  also  of  the  mountain  are 
 formed  by  several  projections  distinct  from  each  oth- 
 er, which  branch  into  the  plain,  and  hence  produce 
 that   rich   assemblage   and    luxuriant    multiplicity  6f 
 lines,  and  tints,  and  shades,  which  render  it  the  finest 
 locality  in  Greece.     All  the  plains  and  mountains  that 
 I  have  seen  are  surpassed  in  the  variety  of  their  com- 
 binations  and  in  the  beauty  of   their  appearance  by 
 the  plain  of  Lacedamion  and  Mount  Taygetus.     The 
 landscape  may  be  exceeded  in  the  dimensions  of  its 
 objects,  but  what  can  exceed  it  in  beauty  of  form  and 
 richness  of  colouring  1 — The  mountain  chain  runs  in 
 a  direction  nearly  north  and  south,  uniting  towards 
 the  north  with  the  chain  of  Lycson.    Its  western  side 
 rises  from  the  Messenian  Gulf,  and  its  eastern  foot 
 bounds  the  level  plain  of  Amyclae,  from  which  it  rises 
 abruptly.    It  is  visible  from  Zantc,  which,  in  a  straight 
 line,  is  distant  from  it  at  least  eighty-four  miles.    The 
 northern  crevices  are  covered  with  snow  during  the 
 whole  of  the  year.     Its  outline,  particularly  as  seen 
 from  the  north,  is  of  a  more  serrated  form  than  the 
 other  Grecian  mountains.     It  has  five  principal  sum- 
 mits, whence  it  derived  the  modern  name  of  Pente- 
 daclyhis,  as  it  was  designated  by  Constantino  Porjjhy- 
 rogenitus.     In  winter  it  is  covered  with  snow,  which 
 renders  the  vicinity   extremely  cold.     In  summer  it 
 reflects  a  powerful  heat  upon  the  Spartan  plain,  from 
 which   it  keeps  the   salubrious  visits    of  the  western 
 winds,  and  thus  makes  it  one  of  the  hottest  places  in 
 Greece,  and  subjects  the  inhabitants  to  fevers."    (Dod- 
 wclVs  Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  410.) — Compare  the  account 
 of  Colonel  Leake  {Travels  in  the  Morea,  vol.  1,  p. 
 84,  191,  &c.). 
 
 Teanum,  I.  Apulicum,  a  city  of  Apulia,  on  the  right 
 bank  of  the  river  Frento  (Fortore).  The  appellation 
 of  Apulicum  was  added  to   distinguish  it  from  the 
 
TEG 
 
 TEL 
 
 lown  of  the  Sidicini.  Strabo,  speaking  of  the  Apu- 
 lian  Tcanurn,  says  it  was  situate  at  some  distance 
 from  the  coast,  and  at  the  head  of  a  lake  formed  by 
 the  sea,  which  here  encroaches  so  considerably  upon 
 the  land,  that  the  breadth  of  Italy  between  this  point 
 and  Puteoli  did  not  exceed  1000  stadia.  {Slrabo, 
 285  )  The  ruins  of  this  place  arc  said  to  exist  on  the 
 site  of  Civitalc,  about  a  mile  from  the  right  bank  of 
 the  Fortore,  and  ten  miles  from  the  sea.  {Cramer^ s 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  272.) — II.  Sidicinum,  the  only 
 city  ascrihed  to  the  Sidicini,  a  Campanian  tribe.  It 
 i.s  now  Tcano,  and  was  distant  about  fifteen  miles  from 
 Capua,  in  a  northwest  direction.  Strabo  informs  us 
 that  it  stood  on  the  Latin  Way,  being  the  most  con- 
 siderable of  all  the  towns  so  situated,  and  inferior  to 
 Capua  only  in  extent  and  importance  among  the  Cam- 
 panian cities.  (^Strab.,  237,  248.)  This  fact  seems 
 to  derive  additional  confirmation  from  the  numerous 
 remains  of  walls  and  public  buildings  said  to  be  still 
 visible  on  its  ancient  site.  Teanum  became  a  Roman 
 colony  under  Augustus.  {Front.,  dc  Col.  —  Plin.,  3, 
 5.) — Some  cold  acidulous  springs  are  noticed  in  its  vi- 
 cinity by  Vitruvius  :  they  arc  now  called  Acqua  dclle 
 Caldarelle.  {Pratilli,  Via  Appta,  2,  9.  —  Cramer'' s 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  194.) 
 
 Tearus.  a  river  of  Thrace,  rising  in  the  same  rock 
 from  38  different  sources,  some  of  which  are  hot,  and 
 others  cold.  Its  sources,  according  to  Herodotus, 
 were  equidistant  from  Heraeum,  a  city  near  Perin- 
 thus,  and  from  Apollonia  on  the  Euxine,  being  two 
 days'  journey  from  each.  It  emptied  into  the  Conta- 
 desdus,  this  last  into  the  Agrianes,  and  the  Agrianes 
 into  the  Hebrus.  Its  waters  were  esteemed  of  ser- 
 vice in  curing  cutaneous  disorders.  Darius  raised  a 
 column  there  when  he  marched  against  the  Scythians, 
 to  denote  the  sweetness  and  salubrity  of  the  waters  of 
 that  river.     {Herod,,  4,  90,  &lc.—PUii.,  4,  II.) 
 
 Tecmessa,  the  daughter  of  a  Phrygian  prince,  call- 
 ed by  some  Teuthras,  and  by  Sophocles  Teleutas. 
 When  her  father  was  killed  by  Ajax,  son  of  Telamon, 
 at  the  time  the  Greeks  sacked  the  towns  in  the  neigh- 
 bourhood of  Troy,  the  young  princess  became  the 
 property  of  the  conqueror,  and  by  him  she  had  a  son 
 called  Eurysaces.  Sophocles  introduces  her  as  one 
 of  the  characters  in  his  play  of  the  Ajax.  {Schol.  ad 
 Soph.,  Aj.,  200.) 
 
 Tectosages,  a  Gallic  tribe,  belonging  to  the  stem 
 of  the  Volcae,  and  whose  territory  lay  between  the 
 Sinus  Gallicus  and  the  Ausci,  and  in  the  immediate 
 vicinity  of  the  Pyrenees.  They  appear  to  have  been 
 a  numerous  and  powerful  race.  A  part  of  them  were 
 led  off  by  Sigovesus  in  quest  of  other  settlements,  and, 
 passing  through  the  Hercynian  forest,  spread  them- 
 selves over  Pannonia  and  Illyricum,  and  subsequently 
 made  an  inroad  into  Macedonia.  From  Europe  a  por- 
 tion of  them  then  passed  into  Asia  Minor,  and  at  last 
 occupied  the  central  portion  of  what  was  called,  from 
 its  Gallic  settlements,  Gallatia.  Their  towns  in  this 
 country  were  less  numerous  than  those  of  their  fel- 
 low-tribes ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  could  boast 
 of  having  for  their  capital  the  largest  and  most  cele- 
 brated city  of  the  who^e  province,  namely,  Ancyra. 
 (Vid.  Ancyra. —  Thierry,  Hist,  dcs  Gaulois,  vol.  1, 
 p.  131,  se//7. —  Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  91.) 
 
 Tegea  or  TEGyEA,  a  city  of  Arcadia,  next  to  Man- 
 tinea,  the  most  ancieiit  and  important  in  the  country. 
 It  lay  in  an  eastern. direction  from  the  southern  part  of 
 the  Maenalian  ridge.  This  place  was  said  to  have 
 been  founded  at  a  remote  period  by  Tegeus,  son  of 
 Lycaon.  At  this  early  period  the  republic  consisted 
 of  several  small  townships,  enumerated  by  Pausanias, 
 which  were  probably  all  united  by  Aleus,  an  Arcadian 
 chief,  who  was  thus  regarded  as  the  real  founder  of 
 the  ci'.y.  {Pansan.,  8,  Ab.—Straho,  337.)  The  Te- 
 geatae  were  early  distinguished  for  their  bravery  amona 
 the  Peloponnesian  states  :  they  could  boast  that  their 
 
 king,  Echcmus,  had  engaged  and  slain  in  single  combat 
 Hyllus,  chief  of  the  Heraclidae  {Herod.,  9,  26),  and 
 also  of  many  victories  obtained  over  the  warlike  Spar- 
 tans. {Herod.,  1,  &b.—Pausan.,  3,  3.)  It  was  not 
 till  the  latter  had,  in  compliance  with  the  injunctions 
 of  an  oracle,  gained  possession  of  the  bones  of  Orestes, 
 and  conveyed  them  from  the  Arcadian  territory,  that 
 they  were  enabled  to  vanquish  their  antagonists,  and 
 compel  tjiem  to  acknowledge  their  supremacy  (1,  C5). 
 In  the  battle  of  Plataja,  the  Tegeatte  furnished  3000 
 soldiers,  and  disputed  the  post  of  honour  with  the 
 Athenians,  to  whom  it  was,  however,  adjudged  by  the 
 Lacedaemonians.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  they  re- 
 mained firm  in  their  adl\crence  to  Sparta.  After  the 
 battle  of  Leuctra,  however,  the  Tegcatae  united  with 
 the  rest  of  the  Arcadians  in  forming  a  league  inde- 
 pendent of  Sparta,  which  involved  them  in  hostilities 
 with  that  power.  {Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  6,  .5,  16.)  Tegea, 
 having  subsequently  entered  into  the  Achaean  confed- 
 eracy, was  taken  by  Cleomenes,  from  whom  it  was  re- 
 captured by  Antigonus  Doson.  {Polyb.,  2,  46.)  It 
 successfully  resisted,  some  time  after,  the  attack  of 
 Lycurgus,  tyrant  of  Sparta  (5,  17,  1),  but  yielded  to 
 Machanidas  ;  after  his  defeat  and  death  it  was,  how- 
 ever, reconquered  by  Philopremen  (11,  18,7;  16,36). 
 Tegea  was  the  only  town  in  Arcadia  which  in  Sirabo's 
 time  preserved  some  degree  of  consequence  and  pros- 
 perity {Strabo,  388);  and,  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
 description  of  Pausanias,  it  still  continued  to  flourish 
 more  than  a  century  later.  The  vestiges  of  this  an- 
 cient city  are  to  be  seen  on  the  site  now  called  Ptaii, 
 about  an  hour  east  of  Tripolizza  ;  but  they  consist 
 only  of  scattered  fragments,  and  broken  tiles  and  stones, 
 which  cover  the  fields.  Other  ruins  are  to  be  seen  on 
 the  site  of  Palaio  Episkopi,  some  hundred  yards  from 
 the  village  of  Piali.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3, 
 p.  350,  seqq.) 
 
 Teios.      Vid.  Teos. 
 
 Tel.\mon,  a  king  of  the  island  of  Salamis,  son  of 
 ^acus  and  Ende'is.  He  was  brother  to  Peleus,  and 
 father  to  Teucer  and  Ajax,  the  latter  of  whom  is,  on 
 that  account,  often  called  ''  Tclamonius  heros."  Tel- 
 amon was  banished,  with  Peleus,  from  his  father's 
 court,  for  the  accidental  murder  of  their  step-brother 
 Phocus  ;  and,  embarking  on  board  a  vessel,  he  was 
 thrown  upon  the  island  of  Salamis.  Here  be  was  not 
 only  hospitably  entertained  by  its  king  Cychreus,  but 
 received  from  him  his  daughter  Glauce  in  marriage, 
 with  the  proiriise  of  succession  to  the  throne.  After 
 the  death  of  Glauce  he  married  Periboea,  the  daughter 
 of  Alcathoiis  ;  and,  on  the  conquest  of  Troy  by  Her- 
 cules, whom  he  accompanied  and  aided,  he  received 
 from  that  hero  the  hand  of  Hesione,  daughter  of  La- 
 omedon,  and  sister  of  Priam,  from  which  last-men- 
 tioned union  sprang  Teucer,  who  was,  therefore,  the 
 half-brother  of  Ajax.  Telamon  distinguished  himself 
 at  the  Calydonian  boar-hunt,  and  also  in  the  -■^rgo- 
 nautic  cxj)edition  ;  and,  when  the  Trojan  war  broke 
 out,  he  despatched  his  sons  Ajax  and  Teucer  to  sus- 
 tain that  glory,  to  which  the  feebleness  of  age  preclu- 
 ded him  from  any  longer  aspiring.  Ajax  slew  himself 
 in  the  course  of  the  war,  on  account  of  the  arms  of 
 Achilles,  which  had  been  awarded  to  Ulysses  ;  and 
 the  indignation  of  Telamon  at  the  supincness  of  Teu- 
 cer in  not  having  avenged  his  brother's  death,  caused 
 him  to  banish  the  young  prince  from  his  native  island. 
 {Vid.  Teucer.— Soph  ,  Aj.—ApoUod.,  3,  12,  6,  &c. 
 —Hygiv.,  fab.,  97.) 
 
 Tei.amoniades,  a  patronymic  given  to  the  descend- 
 ants of  Telamon. 
 
 Telchines,  an  ancient  race  in  the  island  of  Rhodes, 
 said  to  have  been  originally  from  Crete.  They  were 
 the  inventors  of  many  useful  arts,  and,  according  to 
 Diodorus,  passed  for  the  sons  of  the  Sea.  {Diod.  Sic, 
 5,  55.)  Hence  Simmias  the  Rhodian  made  Zdip  (a 
 word  meaning  "  sea")  their  mother.     (Compare  Bo- 
 
 1295 
 
TEL 
 
 TE  L 
 
 chart,  Phal.,  p.  371,  where  the  line  from  Clemens  of 
 Alexandrca,  Strom.,  5,  p.  374,  is  corrected.)  With 
 respect  to  their  names  and  number,  the  ancient  writers 
 differ.  Nonnus  applies  to  them  the  two  Dactyli-names 
 Kdmisand  Danmameneus.  {Dionys.,\A,  36.)  Tzcl- 
 zes,  on  the  other  hand,  names  five  Telchines,  Ac/a-us, 
 Mci^ralesius,  Onncmis,  Nikon,  and  Simon.  {CliiL,  7, 
 125.)  Tiie  Telchines  are  also  represented  as  power- 
 ful enchanters,  who  hold  in  control  the  elements,  and 
 could  bring  clouds,  rain,  hail,  and  snow  at  pleasure. 
 {Hesych.,  s.  v.  Qe?t,yive(. — Stdd.,  s.  v.  TePtjjx'ff. — 
 Zcnobius,  Proverb.,  5,  131. — Hock,  Kreta,  vol.  1,  p. 
 345,  scqq. — /(/.  ib.,  vol.  1,  p.  354. — Consult  remarks 
 at  the  commencement  of  the  article  Rhodus.) 
 
 Telebo^  or  Teleboes,  a  people  of  ^Etolia,  called 
 also  Taphians.     {Vid.  Taphiae.) 
 
 TEf.EBolDES,  islands  between  Leucadia  and  .A.car- 
 nania.     {Vid.  Taphiae.) 
 
 TelegoiVus,  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe,  born  in 
 the  island  of  JExa,  where  he  was  educated.  When 
 arrived  at  the  years  of  manhood,  he  wetit  to  Ithaca  to 
 make  himself  known  to  his  father,  but  he  was  ship- 
 wrecked on  the  coast,  and,  being  destitute  of  provis- 
 ions, he  plundered  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  isl- 
 and. Ulysses  and  Telemachus  came  to  defend  the 
 property  of  their  subjects  against  this  unknown  inva- 
 der ;  a  quarrel  arose,  and  Telegonus  killed  his  father 
 without  knowing  who  he  was.  He  afterward  returned 
 to  his  native  country,  and,  according  to  Hyginus,  he 
 carried  thither  his  father's  body,  where  it  was  buried. 
 Telemachus  and  Penelope  also  accompanied  him  in 
 his  return,  and  soon  after  the  nuptials  of  Telegonus 
 with  Penelope  were  celebrated  by  order  of  Miner- 
 va. Penelope  had  by  Telegonus  a  son  called  Italus. 
 Telegonus  was  said  to  have  founded  Tusculum  in 
 Italy,  and,  according  to  some,  he  left  one  daughter 
 called  Mamilia,  from  whom  the  patrician  family  of  the 
 Mamilii  at  Kome  were  descended.  {Herat.,  Od.,  3, 
 29,  8.— Ovid,  Fast,  3,  i.^Trist.,  1,  \.~Hysm.,fab., 
 127.) 
 
 Telemachus,  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Penelope.  He 
 was  still  in  the  cradle  when  his  father  went  with  the 
 rest  of  the  Greeks  to  the  Trojan  war.  At  the  end  of 
 this  celebrated  contest,  Telemachus,  anxious  to  see 
 his  father,  went  in  quest  of  him  ;  and,  as  the  place  of 
 his  residence  and  the  cause  of  his  long  absence  were 
 then  unknown,  he  visited  the  court  of  Menelaus  and 
 Nestor  to  obtain  information.  He  afterward  returned 
 to  Ithaca,  where  the  suiters  of  his  mother  Penelope 
 had  conspired  to  destroy  him  ;  but  he  avoided  their 
 snares,  and  by  means  of  Minerva  he  discovered  his 
 father,  who  had  arrived  in  the  island  two  days  before 
 him,  and  was  then  in  the  house  of  Eumceus.  With 
 this  faithful  servant  and  Ulysses,  Telemachus  con- 
 certed how  to  deliver  his  mother  from  the  importuni- 
 ties of  her  suiters,  and  his  efforts  were  crowned  with 
 success.  After  the  death  of  his  father,  Telemachus 
 is  said  to  have  gone  to  the  island  of  ^Easa,  where  he 
 married  Circe,  or,  according  to  others,  Cassiphone,  the 
 daughter  of  Circe,  by  whom  he  had  a  son  called  La- 
 tinus.     {Horn.,  Od.—Hygin,  fab.,  95,  125.) 
 
 Telephus,  I.  a  king  of  Mysia,  son  of  Hercules  and 
 Auge,  the  daughter  of  Aleus.  He  was  exposed  as 
 soon  as  born  on  Mount  Parthcnius,  on  the  confines  of 
 Argolis  and  Arcadia  ;  but  the  babe  was  protected  by 
 the  care  of  the  gods  ;  for  a  hind,  which  had  just  calved, 
 came  and  suckled  him  ;  and  the  shepherds,  finding  him, 
 named  him  Telephus  from  that  circumstance  (T7//I- 
 £<^or,  from  tXacpog,  a  hind.)  Aleus  gave  his  daughter 
 Auge  to  Nauplius,  the  son  of  Neptune,  to  sell  her  out 
 of  the  country  ;  and  he  disposed  of  her  to  Teuthras, 
 king  of  Teuthrania,  on  the  Cayster,  in  Mysia,  who 
 made  her  his  wife.  Telephus  having,  when  grown  up, 
 consulted  the  oracle  respecting  his  parents,  came  to 
 Mysia,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Teuthras, 
 whom  he  succeeded  in  his  kingdom.  Telephus,  after 
 1296 
 
 this,  married  one  of  the  daughters  of  King  Priam,  and, 
 as  the  son-in-law  of  that  monarch,  prepared  to  assist 
 Priam  against  the  Greeks,  and  with  heroic  valour  at- 
 tacked them  when  they  had  landed  on  the  Mysian 
 coast.  The  carnage  was  great,  and  Telephus  would 
 have  been  victorious  had  not  Bacchus,  who  protected 
 the  Greeks,  suddenly  raised  a  vine  from  the  earth, 
 which  entangled  the  feet  of  the  monarch,  and  laid  him 
 flat  on  the  ground.  Achilles  immediately  rushed  upon 
 him,  and  wounded  him  so  severely  that  he  was  car- 
 ried away  from  the  battle.  The  wound  was  mortal, 
 and  Telephus  was  informed  by  the  oracle  that  he 
 alone  who  had  inflicted  it  could  totally  cure  it.  Upon 
 this,  application  was  made  to  Achilles,  but  in  vain  ; 
 till  Ulysses,  who  knew  that  Troy  could  not  be  taken 
 without  the  assistance  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Hercules, 
 and  who  wished  to  make  Telephus  the  friend  of  the 
 Greeks,  persuaded  Achilles  to  obey  the  directions  of  the 
 oracle.  Achilles  consented  ;  and  as  the  weapon  which 
 had  given  the  wound  could  alone  cure  it,  the  hero 
 scraped  the  rust  from  the  point  of  his  spear,  and,  by 
 applying  it  to  the  sore,  gave  it  immediate  relief.  It 
 is  said  that  Telephus  showed  himself  so  grateful  to 
 the  Greeks,  that  he  accompanied  them  to  the  Trojan 
 war,  and  fought  with  them  against  his  father-in-law. 
 For  other  versions  of  the  legend  of  Telephus,  espe- 
 cially his  exposure  in  infancy,  consult  the  remarks  of 
 Heyne  {ad  Apollod.,  3,  9,  1).  Euripides,  in  his  play 
 entitled  Telephus,  adopted  that  form  of  the  narrative 
 which  made  Telephus  and  his  mother  to  have  been 
 shut  up  in  au  ark  or  coffer,  and  cast  into  the  sea,  the 
 waves  of  which  bore  them  to  the  mouth  of  the  river 
 Ca'icus.  {Hcyne,  I.  c.)  The  wanderings  and  pov- 
 erty of  Telephus,  while  in  quest  of  his  parents,  are 
 often  alluded  to  by  the  poets.  {Arisloph.,  Nub..,  918. 
 — Id.,  Ran.,  866. — Horal.,  Ejpisl.  ad  Pis.,  96. — Hy- 
 gin.,fab.,  101.) 
 
 Tellus,  the  goddess  of  the  Earth.  {Vid.  Ops, 
 and  Terra.) 
 
 Telmessus  or  Telmissus,  I.  the  last  city  of  Lycia 
 towards  the  west,  and  at  the  head  of  the  Glaucus  Si- 
 nus. It  was  famous  for  the  skill  possessed  by  its  in- 
 habitan|s  in  the  art  of  divination  {Arrian,  Exp.  Alex., 
 2,  3),  and  they  were  consulted  at  an  early  period  by 
 Crcesus,  king  of  Lydia.  {Herod.,  1,  78.)  The  ruins 
 of  Telmissus  are  found  at  Mii,  the  port  of  Makri. 
 The  theatre,  and  the  porticoes  and  sepulchral  chare^ 
 hers  excavated  in  the  rocks  at  this  place,  are  some 
 the  most  remarkable  remains  of  antiquity  in  Asia  Mr 
 nor.  {Lcake''s  Tour,  p.  128. —  Compare  Cliirke' 
 Travels,  vol.  3,  p.  292,  scqq.,  Lond.  ed. ;  and  Fellows, 
 Excursion  in  Asia  Minor,  p.  244,  acq.) — II.  A  city 
 of  Caria,  about  sixty  stadia  to  the  southeast  of  Hali- 
 carnassus,  and  on  the  Sinus  Ceramicus.  {Suid.,  s.  v. 
 TeTificGdc.  —  Larcher,  Herod.,  To.hl.  Geogr.,  s.  v.) — • 
 III.  A  city  of  Pisidia,  on  the  confines  of  the  Solymi, 
 southeast  of  Themisonium.  Its  more  usual  name  was 
 Tcrmissus.     {Arrian,  Exp.  Alex.,  1,  27.) 
 
 Telo  Martius,  a  city  and  harbour  on  the  coast  of 
 Gallia  Narbonensis  Secunda,  now  Toulon.  It  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  an  obscure  place  among  the  an- 
 cients, and  to  have  grown  into  a  city  from  a  large  col- 
 our establishment  commenced  here  by  the  Romans  in 
 the  fifth  century.  The  Itin.  Ant.  (566)  alone  makes 
 mcntiwu  of  it.  {Bischoff  und  M'dllcr,  Worterb.  der 
 Gcogr.,  p.  953.) 
 
 Telpiius.\,  a  city  of  Arcadia,  forty  stadia  from  Caiis, 
 and  in  a  northeastern  direction  from  Heraea.  Pausan- 
 ias  found  it  in  ruins  and  nearly  deserted  ;  but  in 
 earlier  times  it  appears  to  have  been  a  place  of  some 
 note,  and  celebrated  for  the  worship  of  the  goddess 
 Erinnys  and  Apollo  Oncaeus,  whose  temples  were  to 
 be  seen  at  a  place  called  Oncceum,  on  the  banks  of 
 the  Ladon.  {Pausan.,  8,  Z5.  —  Steph.  Bys.,  s.  v. 
 'OyKEiov.)  The  city  derived  its  name  from  Telphusa, 
 a  daughter  of  the  river  Ladon.     There  was  a  fountain 
 
TEN 
 
 TEN 
 
 here,  the  waters  of  which  were  so  extremely  cold, 
 that  Tiresias  was  fabled  to  have  died  of  dririidng  of 
 them.  The  site  of  this  place  is  supposed  by  Sir  VV. 
 Gel!  to  correspond  with  the  kalybea  of  Vamna  {Itin- 
 erary of  the  Morea,  p.  120)  ;  but  Miiller  is  inclined  to 
 idciuifv  it  with  Katzioula,  which  is  dosmbed  by  Gell 
 as  a  miserable  place  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  large 
 ruined  city.  (Dorians,  vol.  2,  p.  448,  Oxford  transl. 
 —  Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  323.) 
 
 Temenus,  son  of  Arisiomachus,  and  one  of  the  Her- 
 aclida;.     (F/f/.  Heraclidce  ) 
 
 Temerinda,  according  to  Pliny  (6,  7),  the  Scythian 
 name  for  the  I'alus  Mn'oiis. — Compare  the  remarks  of 
 Hitler  (  For/ia/Zc,  p.  161,  seqq  ). 
 
 Temesa,  I.  a  town  of  the  Bruttii,  southwest  of 
 Terina,  and  near  the  coast.  It  was  a  place  of  great 
 antiquity,  and  celebrated  for  its  copper-mines,  to  which 
 Homer  is  supposed  to  have  referred  in  the  Odyssey  (1, 
 182).  This  circumstance,  however,  is  doubtful,  as 
 there  was  a  town  of  the  same  name  in  Cyprus  (.S7ra//o, 
 255);  while  others,  again,  considered  the  Homeric 
 Temesa  as  identical  with  Brundisium.  (Euslath.  ad 
 Horn.,  Od.,  I.  c.)  In  Sirabo's  time  these  mines  ap- 
 pear to  have  been  exhausted.  The  situation  of  Tcin- 
 esa  is  not  fully  ascertained.  Opinions  vary  between 
 Maivito,  San  Lucito,  Torre  Lappa,  and  Torre  del  pi- 
 ano del  Casale.  (Cramer's  -Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 418.) — II.  According  to  some,  the  same  with  Brundis- 
 ium. (Vid.  preceding  article.) — III.  A  place  in  the 
 island  of  Cyprus.     (Vid.  Temesa  I.) 
 
 Tempe  (plnr.  neul),  a  valley  in  Thessaly,  between 
 Mount  Olympus  at  the  north  and  Ossa  at  the  south, 
 through  which  the  river  Peneus  flowed  into  the  ^ge- 
 an.  The  poets  have  described  it  as  a  most  delightful 
 spot,  with  cool  shades  and  verdant  walks,  which  the 
 warbling  of  birds  rendered  more  pleasing  and  attract- 
 ive. Tempe  extended  about  five  miles  in  length,  but 
 varied  in  its  breadth  so  as  to  be  in  some  places  only  a 
 plethruin  (about  100  feel)  or  a  little  more. — /Elian  has 
 left  a  very  animated  and  picturesque  description  of  its 
 scenery  (Var.  Hist.,  3,  1). — It  appears  to  have  been 
 a  generally  received  notion  among  the  ancients,  that 
 the  gorge  of  Tempo  was  caused  by  some  great  convul- 
 sion in  nature,  which,  bursting  asunder  the  mountain- 
 barrier  by  which  the  waters  of  Thessaly  were  pent  up, 
 aflTorded  them  an  egress  to  the  sea.  Modern  travel- 
 lers differ  in  their  accounts  of  this  celebrated  vale. 
 Hawkins  (Walpole's  Collect.,  vol.  1,  p.  517)  stales 
 that  "  the  scenery  by  no  means  corresponds  with  the 
 idea  that  has  been  generally  conceived  of  it,  and  that 
 the  elo(|ucncc  of /Klian  has  given  rise  to  expectations 
 which  the  traveller  will  not  find  realized  "  He  woiild 
 seem,  however,  to  have  confounded  the  V'ale  of  Tempe 
 with  the  narrow  defile  which  the  Peneus  traverses  be- 
 tween Mount  Olympus  and  Mount  Ossa,  near  its  en- 
 trance into  the  sea.  Professor  Palmer,  of  Cambridge, 
 appears  to  have  been  more  successful  in  the  search. 
 "  After  riding  nearly  an  hour  close  to  the  bav  in  which, 
 the  Peneus  discharges  itself,  we  turned,"  says  this 
 traveller,  "south,  through  a  delightful  plain,  which,  af- 
 ter a  quarter  of  an  hour,  brought  us  to  an  opening  be- 
 tween Ossa  and  Olympus  ;  the  entrance  to  a  vale,  that, 
 in  situation,  extent,  and  beauty,  amply  satisfies  what- 
 ever the  poets  have  said  of  Tempe."  (  Walpole's  MS. 
 Journal,  Clarkc''s  Travels,  pt.  2,  s.  3.  p.  274. — Con- 
 sult Cramer's  Description  of  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  1, 
 p.  378.) 
 
 Tenchttieri,  a  nation  of  Germany,  who,  in  con- 
 junction with  the  Usipetes,  crossed  the  Rhine,  were 
 defeated  bv  the  Romans,  and  found  protection  and 
 new  settlements  amonsj  the  Sicambri.  In  their  most 
 flourishing  period,  the  Tenchiheri  dwell  in  the  southern 
 part  of  the  Uuchy  of  Clcve,  and  also  in  that  of  Berg; 
 they  also  took  part  in  the  confederacy  of  the  Cherusci. 
 (Cats.,  B.  G.,  4,  IG.—Tac.,  Ann.,  13,  56.— Id.,  Hist., 
 4,  21.— /rf..  Germ.,  32.) 
 SB 
 
 Tenedos,  an  island  of  the  .^gean,  oflf  the  coast  of 
 Troas,  about  56  miles  to  the  north  of  Lesbos,  whither 
 the  Greeks  retired,  as  Virgd  relates,  in  order  to  sur- 
 prise the  Trojans.  (An.,  2,  21.— lb.,  254  )  This  isl- 
 and was  at  an  earlier  period  called  Leucophrys,  from 
 its  white  cliffs  (Euslath.  ad  II.,  p.  33.  —  Lycophr., 
 346) ;  and  it  took  the  name  of  Tenedos  from  Tenes, 
 son  of  Cycnus.  (Vid.  Tenes.)  Tenedos  received  a 
 colony  of  .i:olians  (Herod.,  1,  H^.—Thiuyd.,  7,  57), 
 which  flourished  for  many  years,  and  became  cele- 
 brated for  ihe  wisdom  of  its  laws  and  civil  institutions. 
 This  we  collect  from  an  ode  of  I'itidar,  inscribed  to 
 Aristagoras,  prytanis  or  chief  magistrate  of  the  island. 
 (Nem.,  11.)  Aristotle  is  known  to  have  written  on 
 the  polity  of  Tenedos.  (Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Tfvedof.l 
 Apollo  was  the  principal  deity  worshipped  in  the  isl- 
 and, as  we  know  from  Homer  (//  ,  1,  37).  According 
 to  the  same  poet,  Tenedos  was  taken  by  Achilles 
 during  the  siege  of  Troy.  (// ,  1 1,  624.)  'When  the 
 prosperity  of  Tenedos  was  on  the  decline,  the  inhab- 
 itants placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the 
 flourishing  city  of  Alexandrea  Troas.  At  a  still  later 
 period,  it  derived  again  some  importance  from  the 
 granaries  which  Justinian  caused  to  be  erected  there, 
 lor  the  purpose  of  housing  the  cargoes  of  corn  brought 
 from  Egypt  and  intended  for  Constantinople,  but 
 which  were  frequently  delayed  by  contrary  winds  blow- 
 ing from  the  Hellespont.  (Procop.,  -Ed.  Justin. ,b,  1.) 
 There  were  several  proverbs  connected  with  the  his- 
 tory of  Tenedos,  which  may  be  found  in  Siephanus  of 
 Byzantium  (s.  v.  TcvcSog).  It  may  be  worth  while  to 
 remark,  that  Nymphiodorus,  a  geographical  writer  quo- 
 ted by  Athenaeus,  affirmed,  that  the  women  of  Tene- 
 dos were  of  surpassing  beauty  (13,  p.  60) — ^^'hen 
 Chandler  visited  this  island,  which  retains  its  ancient 
 name,  he  found  there  "  but  few  remains  of  antiquity 
 worthy  of  notice ;  in  the  streets,  the  walls,  and  bury- 
 ing-grounds  were  pieces  of  marble  and  fragments  of  pil- 
 lars, with  a  few  inscriptions."  (Travels  in  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, p.  22  )  The  position  of  Tenedos,  so  near  the 
 mouth  of  the  Hellespont,  has  always  rendered  it  a  place 
 of  importance  in  both  ancient  and  modern  times.  Bo- 
 chart  derives  the  name  from  the  Pha?niciaii  word  Tine- 
 dum,  red  clay,  which  was  found  here  and  used  for  earth- 
 enware.   (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  Ill,  seqq.) 
 
 Tenes  (or,  more  correctly,  Tennes),  son  of  Cyc- 
 nus, king  of  ColonsR,  a  town  of  Troas,  and  of  Proclea 
 the  daughter  of  Clytius.  After  the  death  of  Proclea, 
 Cycnus  married  Philonome,  daughter  of  Craugasus, 
 who  became  enamoured  of  Tennes  ;  but,  finding  it  im- 
 possible to  shake  his  principles  of  duty,  she  accused 
 him  to  her  husband  of  a  dishonourable  act  of  violence. 
 The  father  believed  the  charge,  and,  confining  Tennes 
 and  his  sister  in  an  ark  or  coffer  (tf  'AapvaKo),  cast 
 them  into  the  sea.  They  both,  however,  came  safe  to 
 Tenedos,  then  called  Leucophrys,  the  name  of  which 
 Tennes  changed  to  Tenedos  after  himself,  and  became 
 monarch  of  the  island.  Some  time  after,  Cycnus  dis- 
 covered the  guilt  of  his  wife  Philonome.  and,  as  he 
 wished  to  be  reconciled  to  his  son,  whom  he  had  so 
 grossly  injured,  he  went  to  Tenedos  ;  but,  when  he 
 had  secured  his  ship  to  the  shore,  Tennes  cut  the  fast- 
 enings with  a  hatchet,  and  sufi'ercd  his  father's  ship 
 to  be  tossed  about  in  the  sea.  Prom  this  circum- 
 stance, the  hatchet  of  Tennes  became  proverbial  to  inti- 
 mate a  resentment  that  could  not  be  pacified.  Some, 
 however,  suppose  that  the  proverb  arose  from  the  se- 
 verity of  a  law  made  bv  a  king  of  Tenedos  against 
 adultery,  by  which  the  guilty  were  both  decapitated 
 with  a  hatchet,  and  under  which  law  his  own  son  suf- 
 fered death.  (Suid.,  s.  v.  Tfi'f'tSuf  ivv^yopoc:.)  Ten- 
 nes, as  some  sujipose.  was  killed  by  Achilles  as  hi 
 defended  his  island  against  the  Greeks,  ad  he  receiv. 
 ed  divine  honours  alter  death.  (I'ausan.,  10,  4. — 
 Heracl.  Pont.,  Polit  ,  p.  209.— S^rato,  380,  604  — 
 Canon,  Narrat.,  p.  24,  130.) 
 
 1297 
 
TER 
 
 TE  R 
 
 Tenos,  a  small  island  in  the  ^gean,  near  Andros, 
 called  also  Hi/drussa,  from  the  number  of  its  springs. 
 It  was  very  inountaitious,  but  produced  excellent 
 wines,  universally  esteemed  by  the  ancients.  Tenos 
 was  about  15  miles  in  extent.  The  capital  was  also 
 called  Tenos.  Near  the  town  was  situate  a  temple  of 
 Neptune,  held  in  great  veneration,  and  much  frequent- 
 ed by  the  inhabitants  of  the  surroundnig  isles,  who 
 came  thither  to  offer  sacrifices  to  the  gud.  {SlraLo, 
 487.— Mela,  2,  7.— Ovid,  Met.,  7,  409  ) 
 
 'i'ENTYRA  (ptur.)  and  Tentyris,  a  city  of  Egypt  in 
 the  Thebaid,  situate  on  the  Nile,  to  the  northwest  of 
 Koptos.  This  city  was  at  variance  with  Ornbos,  the 
 former  killing,  the  latter  adoring,  the  crocodile  ;  a  hor- 
 rid instance  of  religious  fury,  which  took  place  in  con- 
 sequence of  this  quarrel,  forms  the  subject  of  the  fit- 
 teenth  satire  of  Juvenal.  About  half  a  league  from 
 the  ruins  of  this  city  stands  the  modern  village  of 
 Denderah.  Among  the  remains  of  'i'etityra  is  a  tem- 
 ple of  Isis,  one  of  the  largest  structures  in  the  The- 
 baid, and  by  far  the  most  beautiful,  and  in  the  best 
 preservation.  It  contained,  until  lately,  the  famous  zo- 
 diac, which  was  framed  in  the  ceiling  of  the  temple. 
 This  interesting  monument  of  former  ages  was  taken 
 down  by  a  French  traveller,  M.  Lelorrain,  after  the 
 most  persevering  exertions  for  twenty  days,  and  trans- 
 ported down  the  Nile  to  Alexandrea,  whence  it  was 
 shipped  to  France.  The  King  of  France  purchased  it 
 for  150,000  francs.  The  dimensions  of  the  stone  are 
 twelve  feet  in  length  by  eight  in  breadth,  including 
 some  ornaments,  which  were  two  feet  in  length  on  each 
 side.  In  thickness  it  is  three  feet.  The  planisphere 
 and  the  square  in  which  it  was  contained  were  alone 
 removed,  the  side  ornaments  being  allowed  to  remain. 
 To  obtain  this  relic  of  former  ages  proved  a  work  of 
 immense  labour,  as  it  had  actually  to  be  cut  out  of 
 the  ceiling  and  lowered  to  the  ground.  Many  con- 
 jectures have  been  advanced  by  the  learned,  es[)ecially 
 of  France,  on  the  antiquity  of  this  zodiac  ;  but  recent 
 discoveries  have  shown  the  folly  of  these  speculations  ; 
 the  temple  having  been,  in  fact,  erected  under  the  Ro- 
 man sway,  and  the  name  of  the  Emperor  Nero  appear- 
 ing upon  it.     {Avi.  Quarterly,  vol.  4,  p.  43.) 
 
 Teos  or  Teios,  a  city  on  the  east  of  Ionia,  situated 
 upon  a  peninsula  southwest  of  Smyrna.  It  belonged 
 to  the  Ionian  confederacy,  and  had  a  harbour  which 
 Livy  calls  Gerajsticus  (37,  27).  During  the  Persian 
 sway  we  learn  that  the  inhabitants,  despairing  of  being 
 able  to  resist  the  power  of  that  great  empire,  aban- 
 doned nearly  all  of  them  their  native  city,  and  retired 
 to  Abdera  in  Thrace.  This  colony  became  so  flour- 
 ishing in  consequence,  that  it  quite  eclipsed  the  parent 
 state.  {Herod.,  1,  168.— .SVrai.,  633.)  Teos  is  cel- 
 ebrated in  the  literary  history  of  Greece  for  having 
 given  birth  to  .Anacreon,  and  also  to  Hecatasus  the 
 historian,  though  the  latter  is  more  frequently  known 
 by  the  surname  of  the  Abderite.  (Strob.,  I.  c.)  This 
 town  produced  also  Protagoras  the  sophist,  Scyth- 
 mus  an  Iambic  poet,  Andron  a  geographical  writer, 
 and  Apellicon  the  great  book-collector,  to  whom  liter- 
 ature is  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  the  works  of 
 Aristotle.  Though  deserted,  as  we  have  already  re- 
 marked, by  the  greater  part  of  its  inhabitants,  Teos 
 still  continued  to  exht  as  an  Ionian  city,  as  may  be 
 seen  from  Thucydides  (3,  32).  The  chief  produce  of 
 the  Teian  territory  was  wine  {lAv.  37,  27),  and  Bac- 
 chus was  the  deity  princif)ally  revered  by  the  inhabi- 
 tants. It  is  singular  that  Pliny  (5,  38)  should  rank 
 Teos  among  the  islands  of  Ionia  ;  at  most,  it  could 
 only  be  reckoned  as  a  peninsula.  The  site  once  occu- 
 pied by  this  ancient  city  is  now  called  Boudroun. 
 {Criimer^s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  353.) 
 
 Terentia,    I.   the   wife   of  Cicero.     She  became 
 
 mother  of  M.  Cicero,  and  of  a  daughter  called  Tulli- 
 
 ola.     Cicero  repudiated  her,  and  she  married  Sallust, 
 
 Cicero's    enemy,  and  afterward  Messala   Corvinus. 
 
 1298 
 
 She  lived  to  her  103d,  or,  according  to  Pliny,  to  her 
 117lh  year.  (Pint.,  Vtt.  Cic. —  Val.  Max.,  8,  13. — 
 Ep.  ad  Attic,  11,  16,  &c.) 
 
 Terentianus,  I.  a  Roman,  to  whom  Longinus  ded-i- 
 cated  his  treatise  on  the  Sublime. — II.  Maurus.^  a 
 grammarian.      {Vid.  Maurus  Terentianus.) 
 
 Tere.ntius  Puiji-Ius,  a  Latin  comic  poet,  a  native 
 of  Carthage,  born  about  the  560th  year  of  Rome.  In 
 what  manner  he  came  or  was  brought  to  the  latter  city 
 is  uncertain.  He  was  m  his  earliest  youth  the  slave 
 of  one  Terentius  Lucanus  at  Rome,  whose  name  has 
 been  perpetuated  only  by  the  glory  of  his  slave.  Hav-  ' 
 ing  obtained  his  freedom,  he  became  the  friend  of  Lae- 
 lius  and  the  younger  Africanus,  and  it  is  both  proba- 
 ble in  itself,  and  ajipears  to  have  been  credited  as  a 
 fact  by  the  ancients,  that  he  was  assisted  m  the  com- 
 position of  his  dramas  by  Laelius  and  Scipio,  as  ama- 
 teur critics.  After  he  had  given  six  comedies  to  the 
 stage,  Terence  lelt  Rome  for  Greece,  whence  he  never 
 returned.  According  to  one  account  he  perished  at 
 sea  while  on  his  voyage  from  Greece  to  Italy,  bring- 
 ing with  him  a  hundred  and  eight  comedies,  which  he 
 had  translated  from  Menander.  According  to  others, 
 he  died  in  Arcadia  for  grief  at  the  loss  of  those  come- 
 dies, which  he  had  sent  before  him  by  sea  to  Rome. 
 In  whatever  way  it  was  occasioned,  his  death  happen- 
 ed at  the  early  age  of  thirty-four,  and  A.TJ  C.  694. — 
 The  titles  of  his  six  plays  are  as  follows  :  the  Andria, 
 Eunuchus,  Heaiitontvnoroumenos,  Adelphi,  Phormw, 
 and  Hecyra. — His  Andria  was  not  acted  till  the  year 
 587  ;  two  years,  according  to  the  Eusebian  Chronicle, 
 after  the  death  of  Caecilius ;  which  unfortunately 
 throws  some  doubt  on  the  agreeable  anecdote  record- 
 ed by  Donatus,  of  his  introduction,  in  a  wretched  garb, 
 into  the  house  of  Caecilius.  in  order  to  read  his  com- 
 edy to  that  poet,  by  whom,  as  a  mean  person,  he  was 
 seated  on  a  low  stool,  till  he  astonished  hi.m  with  the 
 matchless  grace  and  elegance  of  the  Andria,  when  he 
 was  placed  on  the  couch,  and  invited  to  partake  the 
 supper  of  the  veteran  dramatist.  Several  writers  have 
 conjectured  that  it  might  be  to  some  other  than  Cse- 
 cilius  that  Terence  read  his  comedy;  or,  as  it  is  not 
 certain  that  the  Andria  was  his  first  comedy,  that  it 
 might  be  some  of  the  others  which  he  read  to  Csecili- 
 us.  Supposing  the  Eusebian  Chronicle  to  be  accurate 
 in  the  date  which  it  fixes  for  the  death  of  Cafcilius,  it 
 is  just  possible  that  Terence  may  have  written  and 
 read  to  him  his  Andria,  two  years  previous  to  its  rep- 
 resentation.— Most,  if  not  all,  of  Terence's  plots  were 
 taken  by  him  from  the  Greek  stage.  He  has  given 
 proof,  however,  of  his  taste  and  judgment  in  the  ad- 
 ditions and  alterations  made  on  those  borrowed  sub- 
 jects ;  and,  had  he  lived  an  age  later,  when  all  the  arts 
 were  in  full  glory  at  Rome,  and  the  empire  at  its  height 
 of  power  and  splendour,  he  would  have  found  domes- 
 tic subjects  sufficient  to  supply  his  scene  with  interest 
 and  variety,  and  would  no  longer  have  accounted  it  a 
 greater  merit  •'  Grcecas  transferre  quam  prnpnas  scri- 
 here.'" — Terence  was  a  more  rigid  observer  than  his 
 predecessors  of  the  unities  of  time  and  place  ;  but  in 
 none  of  his  dramas,  with  a  single  exception,  has  that 
 of  plot  been  adhered  to.  The  simplicity,  and  exact 
 unity  of  fable  in  the  Greek  comedies  would  have  been 
 insipid  to  a  people  not  thoroughly  instructed  in  the 
 genuine  beauties  of  the  drama.  Such  plays  were  of 
 too  thin  contexture  to  satisfy  the  somewhat  gross  and 
 lumpish  taste  of  a  Roman  audience.  The  Latin  po- 
 ets, therefore,  bethought  themselves  of  combining  two 
 stories  into  one  ;  and  this  junction,  which  we  call  the 
 double  plot,  affording  the  opportunity  of  more  inci- 
 dents, and  a  greater  variety  of  action,  was  better  suited 
 to  the  tastes  of  those  they  had  to  please.  Of  all  the 
 Latin  comedians,  Terence  appears  to  have  practised 
 this  art  the  inost  assiduously.  Plautus  has  very  fre- 
 quently single  plots,  which  he  was  enabled  to  support 
 by  the  force  of  drollery.     Terence,  whose  genius  led 
 
TERENTIUS. 
 
 T  E  R 
 
 another  way,  or  whose  taste  was  abhorrent  from  all 
 sort  of  bun'ooniry,  had  recourse  to  the  other  expedi- 
 ent of  double  plots  ;  and  this  probably  gained  him  the 
 popular  reputation  of  bemg  the  most  artful  writer  for 
 the  stage.  The  Hecyra  is  the  only  one  of  his  come- 
 dies of  the  true  ancient  cast  ;  hence  the  want  of  suc- 
 cess with  which  it  met  on  its  first  and  second  repre- 
 sentations. When  first  brought  forward,  in  589,  it 
 was  iiitcrrupted  by  the  spectators  leaving  the  theatre, 
 attracted  by  the  superior  interest  of  a  boxing-match 
 and  rope-dancers.  A  combat  of  gladiators  had  the 
 like  unfortunate  eflect  when  it  was  attempted  to  be 
 again  exhibited  in  594.  The  celebrated  actor,  L.  Am- 
 bivius,  encouraged  by  the  success  which  he  had  expe- 
 rienced in  reviving  the  condemned  plays  of  CsEcilius, 
 ventured  to  produce  it  a  third  time  on  the  stage,  when 
 it  recivcd  a  patient  hearing,  and  was  frequently  repeat- 
 ed. Still,  however,  most  of  the  old  critics  and  com- 
 mentators speak  of  it  as  greatly  inferior  to  the  other 
 plays  of  Terence.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  plots 
 of  Terence  are,  in  most  respects,  judiciously  laid  :  the 
 incidents  are  selected  with  taste,  arranged  and  con- 
 nected with  inimitable  art,  and  painted  with  exquisite 
 grace  and  beauty. — In  the  representation  of  characters 
 and  manners,  Terence  was  considered  by  the  ancients 
 as  surpa.ssing  all  their  comic  poets.  In  this  depart- 
 ment of  his  art,  he  shows  that  comprehensive  knowl- 
 edge of  the  humours  and  inclinations  of  mankind, 
 which  enabled  him  to  delineate  characters  as  well  as 
 manners  with  a  genuine  and  apparently  unstudied  sim- 
 plicity. All  the  inferior  passions  which  form  the 
 range  of  comedy  are  so  nicely  observed  and  accurately 
 expressed,  that  we  nowhere  find  a  truer  or  more  lively 
 representation  of  human  nature. — Erasmus,  one  of  the 
 best  judges  of  classical  literature  at  the  revival  of 
 learning,  says  that  there  is  no  author  from  whom  we 
 can  better  learn  the  pure  Roman  style  than  from  the 
 poet  Terence.  Ii  has  been  farther  remarked  of  him, 
 that  the  Romans  thought  themselves  in  conversation 
 when  they  heard  his  comedies  Terence,  in  fact,  gave 
 to  the  Roman  tongue  its  highest  perfection  in  point  of 
 elegance  and  grace.  For  this  inejfalnlis  amxnitas,  as 
 it  is  called  by  Heinsius,  he  was  equally  admired  by  his 
 own  contemporaries  and  the  writers  in  the  golden  pe- 
 riod of  Roman  literature.  He  is  called  by  Csesar  piiri 
 sermonis  amator,  and  Cicero  characterizes  him  as 
 
 "  Qiiicqiiid  come  loquens,  ac  omnia  dulcia  diccns.'^ 
 
 Even  in  the  last  age  of  Latin  poetry,  and  when  his 
 pure  simplicity  was  so  different  from  the  style  affected 
 by  the  writers  of  the  day,  he  continued  to  be  regarded 
 as  the  model  of  correct  composition.  Ausonius,  in 
 his  beautiful  poem  addressed  to  his  grandson,  hails 
 him,  on  account  of  his  style,  as  the  ornament  of  La- 
 tium.  Among  all  the  Latin  writers,  indeed,  from  En- 
 nius  to  Ausonius,  we  meet  with  nothing  so  simple,  so 
 full  of  grace  and  delicacy — in  fine,  nothing  that  can 
 be  compared  to  his  comedies  for  elegance  of  dialogue, 
 presenting  a  constant  flow  of  easy,  genteel,  unaf- 
 fected conversation,  which  never  subsides  into  vulgar- 
 ity or  grossness,  and  never  rises  higher  than  the  ordi- 
 nary level  of  polite  conversation.  Of  this,  indeed,  he 
 was  so  careful,  that  when  he  employed  any  sentence 
 which  he  had  found  in  the  tragic  poets,  he  stripped  it 
 of  that  air  of  grandeur  and  majesty  which  rendered  it 
 unsuitable  for  common  life  and  comedy.  The  narra- 
 tives in  particular  possess  a  beautiful  and  picturesque 
 simplicity.  As  to  what  may  be  called  the  poetical 
 style  of  Terence,  it  has  been  generally  allowed  that 
 he  has  used  very  great  license  in  his  versification 
 Poliiian  is  thought  to  have  been  the  first  who  at  all 
 divided  his  plays  into  lines ;  but  a  separation  was  af- 
 terward more  correctly  executed  by  Erasmus.  Pris- 
 cian  says  that  Terence  uses  more  licenses  than  any 
 other  writer.  Bentley,  after  Priscian,  admitted  every 
 variety  of  iambic  and  trochaic   measure  ;   and  such 
 
 were  the  apparent  number  of  licenses  and  mixture  of 
 different  species  of  verse,  that,  according  to  W'ester- 
 hovius,  in  order  to  reduce  the  lines  to  their  original 
 accuracy,  it  would  be  necessary  to  evoke  La?Iius  and 
 Scipio  from  the  shades. — As  regards  the  respective 
 merits  of  Terence  and  Plautus,  it  may  be  observed 
 that  the  former  was  chiefly  desirous  of  rccommendir.g 
 himself  to  the  approbation  of  a  select  few,  who  were 
 possessed  of  true  wit  and  judgment,  and  the  dread  of 
 whose  censure  always  kept  hirn  within  the  bounds  of 
 good  taste,  while  the  sole  object  of  Plautus,  on  the 
 other  hand,  was  to  excite  the  merriment  of  an  audi- 
 ence endued  with  little  refinement.  If,  then,  we 
 merely  consider  the  intrinsic  merit  of  their  produc- 
 tions, without  reference  to  the  circumstances  or  situa- 
 tion of  the  authors,  still  Plautus  will  be  accounted  su- 
 perior in  that  vivacity  of  action  and  variety  of  inci- 
 dent which  inflame  curiosity  and  hurry  on  the  mind  to 
 the  conclusion.  We  delight,  on  the  contrary,  to 
 dwell  on  every  scene,  almost  on  every  sentence  of 
 Terence.  Sometimes  there  are  chasms  in  Plautus's 
 fables,  and  the  incidents  do  not  properly  adhere  ;  in 
 Terence  all  the  links  of  the  action  depend  on  each 
 other.  Plautus  has  more  variety  in  his  exhibition  of 
 characters  and  manners,  and  more  art  in  working  up 
 materials  from  the  different  employments  and  pursuits 
 of  men  ;  but  his  pictures  are  often  overcharged, 
 while  those  of  Terence  are  never  more  highly  colour- 
 ed than  becomes  the  modesty  of  nature.  The  lan- 
 guage of  Plautus  is  more  rich  and  luxuriant  than  that 
 of  Terence,  but  is  far  from  being  so  equal,  uniform, 
 and  chaste.  It  is  often  stained  with  vulgarity,  and 
 sometimes  swells  beyond  the  limits  of  comic  dialogue, 
 while  that  of  Terence  is  pttro  simillimus  amni.  The 
 verses  of  Plautus  are,  as  he  himself  calls  them,  nu- 
 mcri  innumcri ;  and  Hermann  declares  that,  at  least 
 as  now  printed,  they  are  full  of  every  kind  of  error. 
 Terence  attends  more  to  elegance  and  delicacy  in  the 
 expression  of  passion,  Plautus  to  comic  expression. 
 In  fact,  the  great  object  of  Plautus  seems  to  have 
 been  to  excite  laughter  among  his  audience,  and  in 
 this  object  he  completely  succeeded  ;  but  for  its  at- 
 tainment he  has  sacrificed  many  graces  and  beauties 
 of  the  drama.  The  humour  of  Plautus  consists  chief- 
 ly in  words  and  actions,  that  of  Terence  in  matter. 
 The  pleasantries  of  Plautus,  which  were  so  often  flat, 
 low,  or  extravagant,  finallv  drew  down  the  censure  of 
 Horace,  wliile  Terence  was  extolled  by  that  poetical 
 critic  as  the  most  consummate  master  of  dramatic  art. 
 In  short,  Plautus  was  more  gay,  Terence  more  chaste  ; 
 the  first  has  more  genius  an(l  fire,  the  latter  more  man- 
 ner and  solidity.  Plautus  excels  in  low  comedy  and 
 ridicule,  Terence  in  drawing  just  characters,  and  in 
 maintaining  them  to  the  last.  The  plots  of  both  aro 
 artful,  but  Terence's  are  more  apt  to  languish,  while 
 Plautus's  s[)irit  maintains  the  action  with  vigour. 
 His  invention  was  greatest  ;  Terence's  art  and  man- 
 agement Plautus  gives  the  stronger,  Terence  a 
 more  elegant  delight.  Plantns  a[)pears  the  better  co- 
 median of  the  two,  Terence  the  better  poet.  Plautus 
 shone  most  on  the  stage,  Terence  pleases  best  in  the 
 closet.  (IJunlop's  Roman  Li/cralitrr,  vol.  1,  p.  279, 
 scqq.,  Lond.  cd. — Malkin's  Classical  Disquisitions, 
 p.  5,  scqq) — The  l)est  editions  of  Terence  are,  that 
 of  Bentley,  Caniab.,  1726,  and  Amst.,  1727,  4to 
 (that  of  Amsterdam  being  the  better  of  the  two)  ; 
 that  of  Westerhovius,  Hag.  Com.,  1726,  2  vols.  4to  ; 
 and  that  of  Zeune,  Lips.,  1774,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  beauti- 
 fully, but  not  very  accurately,  rejirinted  at  the  London 
 press  in  1820.2  vols  8vo.  — II.  Varro.  (Vid.  Varro  I.) 
 Tereus  (two  svllaliles),  I.  a  king  of  Thrace.  He 
 married  Progne,  the  daughter  of  Pandion,  king  of 
 Athens,  whom  he  had  assisted  in  a  war  against  Me- 
 gara  ;  and  he  offered  violence  to  his  sister-in-law  Phi- 
 lomela, whom  he  was  conducting  to  Thrace  by  desire 
 of  Progne.     {Vid.  Philomela,  and  Progne.) 
 
 1299 
 
TER 
 
 TER 
 
 Tergeste,  a  city  of  Venclia,  in  the  territory  of  the 
 Carni,  now  Trieste.  It  was  situate  at  llie  noriheast- 
 ern  extremity  of  the  Siniis  Tergestiiius.  In  iStrabo 
 we  find  it  soniclinies  called  Tergesta,  or  TergcslEE 
 in  the  plural.  (Slrub.,  314.)  'J"he  Greeks  knew  it 
 by  the  name  of  Tcrgestrum.  {ArtcmiiL,  ap.  Stcph. 
 By:. — Dionus.  Vcrteg.,  v.  381  )  It  suHercd  severe- 
 ly, on  one  occasion,  from  a  sudden  incursion  of  the 
 lapydcs.     {Appian,  B.  Ill,  18.— S/raho,  207.) 
 
 Tekina,  a  lown  of  the  Brutiii,  on  the  coast  of  the 
 Mare  Tyrrhcnum.  It  is  now  St.  Eitphemm.  The  ad- 
 jacent bay  was  called  Sinus  Teriiiffius.  The  earliest 
 writers  who  have  noticed  this  place  arc  Scyla.x  (I'cri- 
 pliis,  p.  5)  and  Lycophron.  Straho  informs  us  ihat  it 
 was  destroyed  by  Hannibal,  when  he  found  that  lie 
 could  no  longer  retain  it.  It  was  probably  restored  at 
 a  later  period,  as  we  find  it  named  by  Pliny  and  Ptol- 
 emy.    {Critincr's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  416.) 
 
 TERMlLyE.      Vid.  Lycia. 
 
 Tek.minalia,  an  annual  festival  at  Rome,  observed 
 in  honour  of  the  god  Terminus,  in  the  month  of  Feb- 
 ruary. It  was  then  usual  for  peasants  to  assemble  near 
 the  principal  landmarks  wliich  separalud  their  fields, 
 and,  after  they  had  crowned  them  with  garlands  and 
 flowers,  to  make  libations  of  milk  and  wine,  and  to 
 sacrifice  a  lamb  or  a  young  pig.  This  festival  was 
 originally  established  by  Numa;  and  though  at  first 
 it  was  forbidden  to  shed  the  blood  of  victims,  yet,  in 
 process  of  time,  landmarks  were  jilentifully  sprinkled 
 with  it.     (^Ovid,  Fast.,  2,  641.) 
 
 Terminus,  a  divinity  at  Koine,  who  was  supposed 
 to  preside  over  boundaries.  His  worship  was  first  in- 
 troduced at  Rome  by  Numa.  who  persuaded  his  sub- 
 jects that  the  limits  of  their  lands  were  under  the  im- 
 mediate care  and  superintendence  of  Heaven.  His 
 temple  was  on  the  Tarpeian  rock,  and  he  was  repre- 
 sented with  a  human  head,  without  feet  or  arms,  to  in- 
 timate that  he  never  moved,  wherever  he  was.  It  is 
 said  that  when  Tarquin  the  Proud  wished  to  build  a 
 temple  on  the  Tarpeian  rock  to  .Jupiter,  the  god  Ter- 
 minus alone  refused  to  give  way.  {Ovid,  Fast.,  2, 
 Gil.— Plut.,  Vit.  Num.) 
 
 Terpander,  a  lyric  poet  and  musician  of  Lesbos, 
 670  B.C.,  whose  date  is  determined  by  his  appearance 
 in  the  mother-country  of  Greece  :  of  Ids  early  life  in 
 Lesbos  notliing  is  known.  The  first  account  of  him 
 describes  him  in  Peloponnesus,  which  at  that  time 
 surpassed  the  rest  of  Greece  in  political  power,  in  well- 
 ordered  governments,  and  probably  also  in  mental  cul- 
 tivation. It  is  one  of  the  most  certain  dates  of  an- 
 cient chronology,  that,  in  the  26th  (Olympiad (B.C.  676), 
 musical  contests  were  first  introduced  at  the  feast  of 
 Apollo  Carneius,  and  at  their  first  celebration  Terpan- 
 der was  crowned  victor.  He  was  also  victor  four  suc- 
 cessive times  in  the  musical  contest  at  the  Pythian 
 temple  of  Delphi.  In  Laceda>mon,  whose  citizens, 
 from  the  earliest  times,  had  been  distinguished  for  their 
 love  of  music  and  dancing,  the  first  scientific  cultiva- 
 tion of  music  was  ascribed  to  Terpander  {I'lut  ,  de 
 Mas.,  c.  9)  ;  and  a  record  of  the  precise  time  had  been 
 preserved,  probably  in  the  registers  of  public  games. 
 Hence  it  appears  that  Terpander  was  a  younger  con- 
 temporary of  Callinus  and  Archilochus  ;  so  that  the 
 dispute  among  the  ancients,  whether  Terpander  or  .Ar- 
 chilochus were  the  older,  must  probably  lie  decided  by 
 supposing  them  to  have  lived  about  the  same  lime.  At 
 the  head  of  all  the  inventions  of  Terpander  stands  the 
 seven-stringed  cithara.  The  only  accompaniment  for 
 the  voice  used  by  the  early  Greeks  was  a  four-stringed 
 cithara,  the  tclrachord  ;  and  this  instrument  had  been 
 so  generally  used,  and  held  in  such  repute,  that  the 
 whole  system  of  music  was  founded  ui)0n  the  tetra- 
 chord.  Terpander  was  the  first  who  added  three 
 strings  to  this  instrument,  as  he  himself  testifies  in 
 two  extant  verses.  {Euclid,  Introd.  Harm,  p.  19. 
 — For  some  remarks  on  Terpandcr's  invention,  and  on 
 1300 
 
 the  Greek  musical  scale  generally,  consult  Mutter, 
 Hist.  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  151,  seq(j.) 
 
 Terpsichore,  one  of  the  Muses,  daughter  of  Jupi- 
 ter and  Mnemosyne.  She  jjresided  over  dancing,  of 
 which  she  was  reckoned  the  inv«;nlress,  and  in  which, 
 as  her  name  intimates,  she  took  delight  (from  Ttpnu, 
 "  to  delight,"  and  ;^'op6f,  a  chorus  or  dance).  To  her 
 was  sometimes  ascribed  the  invention  of  the  cithara, 
 and  not  to  Mercury.  She  is  represented  like  a  young 
 virgin  crowned  with  laurel,  and  holding  in  her  hand  a 
 musical  instrument.     {Juv.,  Sat.,  7,  35.) 
 
 Terra,  one  of  the  most  ancient  deities  in  classical 
 mythology,  wife  of  Uranus,  and  mother  of  Oceanus, 
 the  Titans,  Cyclopes,  Giants,  Thea,  Rhea,  Themis, 
 Phoebe,  Tethys,  and  Mnemosvne.  ( Vid.  Ops,  and 
 Tcllus  ) 
 
 Terkacina,  a  city  of  Latium,  called  also  Anxur, 
 situate  on  the  seacoast,  in  a  northeastern  direction  from 
 the  Circeian  Promontory.  Anxur  was  probably  its 
 Volscian  name.  {Vid.  Anxur.)  We  learn  from  Hor- 
 ace {Sat.,  1,  5,  25)  that  this  city  stood  on  the  lofty 
 rock  at  the  foot  of  which  the  modern  Tcrracina  is  sit- 
 uated. According  to  Strabo  (233),  it  was  first  named 
 Trachina,  a  Greek  appellation  indicative  of  the  rugged- 
 ness  of  its  situation.  Ovid  calls  it  Trachas.  {Met.,  lb, 
 717.)  In  Dionysius  it  is  written  Tap^JOKr/va.  \\'ith 
 the  generality  of  Latin  writers  it  is,  however,  called 
 Tarracina  {Mela,  2,  4),  and  sometimes,  in  the  plural, 
 TarracinsB.  {Liv.,  4,  59.)  The  Romans  took  this 
 place  after  a  siege  of  short  duration,  when  it  was  given 
 up  to  plunder.  {Liv.,l.  c)  It  was,  however,  retaken 
 by  the  Volsci,  who  surprised  the  garrison.  {Liv.,  5,  8.) 
 It  subsequently  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, and  became  of  consequence  as  a  naval  station. 
 Its  port  is  noticed  by  Livy  (27,  4),  and  it  is  classed 
 by  that  historian  with  those  colonies  which  were  re- 
 quired to  furnish  sailors  and  stores  for  the  Roman  lUet 
 (27,  38).  It  is  styled  '•  splcndidus  locus"  by  Valerius 
 Maximus,  who  relates  a  remarkable  trial  which  took 
 place  there  (8,  1,  13).  From  Tacitus  we  learn  that  it 
 was  a  municipium  {Hist.,  4,  5) ;  and  the  efforts  made 
 by  the  parties  of  V^itellius  and  Vespasian  to  obtain  pos- 
 session of  this  place,  suillciently  prove  that  it  was  then 
 looked  upon  as  a  very  important  post.  {Hist.,  3,  76, 
 seaq.)  The  Emperor  Galba  was  born  at  a  village  neai 
 Tcrracina,     {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  100  ) 
 
 Tertulli.Inus.  J.  StsPTi.viitJs  Fi.oRENs,  a  celebra- 
 ted (Christian  writer,  born  at  (/arthage  about  the  mid- 
 dle of  the  second  century,  and  considered  the  most 
 early  Latin  father  extant.  He  was  originally  a  pagan, 
 but  afterward  embraced  Christianity,  of  which  he  be- 
 came an  able  advocate  by  his  writings,  which  showed 
 that  he  was  possessed  of  a  lively  imagination,  impet- 
 uous elo(]uence,  elevated  style,  and  strength  of  rea- 
 soning. It  is  not  known  at  what  period  ol  life  he  be- 
 came a  Christian.  He  himself  informs  us  that  he  was 
 originally  a  pagan,  and  of  corrupt  morals;  but  the  lat- 
 ter phrase  must  necessarily  be  taken  in  a  mild  sense, 
 with  reference  to  one  who  practised  such  rigid  moral- 
 ity as  Tertullian  subsequently  did.  It  is  probable 
 that  before  his  conversion  he  taught  rhetoric,  and  fol- 
 lowed the  profession  of  an  advocate  ;  at  least,  his 
 works  show  a  great  acquaintance  with  the  principles 
 of  law.  He  became  priest  at  Carthage,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  the  vulgar  opinion,  at  Koine.  He  soon,  how- 
 ever, separated  from  the  Catholic  Church  to  throw 
 himself  into  the  errors  of  the  Montanists,  who,  exag- 
 gerating Christian  purity,  regarded  as  a  sin  all  [larti- 
 cipation  in  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  all  communi- 
 cation with  individuals  attached  to  idolatry,  atid  even 
 the  study  of  the  sciences  of  the  day.  St.  Jerome  says 
 that  the  envy  and  the  calumnies  of  the  Roman  clergy 
 against  Tertullian  was  the  occasion  of  this  step  on  his 
 part ;  and  from  this  remark  some  have  concluded, 
 though  without  sufficient  grounds,  that  he  was  cu- 
 pelled from   the  Church  of  Rome    by   the  intolrrant 
 
TEU 
 
 TEU 
 
 spirit  of  his  clerical  brethren.  However  this  may  have 
 been,  a  distinction  is  carefully  observed  between  the 
 works  which  Tertullian  wrote  previous  to  his  separa- 
 tion from  the  Catholic  Church  and  those  which  he 
 composed  afterward,  when  he  had  ranged  himself 
 among  the  followers  of  Montanus.  The  former  are 
 four  in  numlier,  his  Apologclkus,  and  those  which 
 treat  of  baptism,  of  penitence,  and  prayer.  The  last 
 of  these  is  regarded  as  his  first  production.  Some 
 authors  add  a  work  in  two  volumes,  addressed  to  his 
 wife,  in  which  he  gives  iier  directions  as  to  the  co\irse 
 of  conduct  which  she  should  pursue  in  the  slate  of 
 widowhood.  Most  critics  consider  this  to  have  been 
 composed  by  him  at  an  advanced  age.  The  works 
 written  by  Tertullian  after  he  had  become  a  Monfa- 
 nist  arc.  Apologies  for  Christianity,  Treatises  on  Ec- 
 clesiastical Discipline,  and  two  species  of  polemical 
 works,  the  one  directed  against  heretics,  and  the  other 
 against  Catholics.  The  Jailer  arc  four  in  number,  I)e 
 Pudicilia,  De  Fuga  in  I'crsecutione,  De  Jejunio,  De 
 Monogamia.  His  principal  work  is  the  Apologcticus 
 Ailversus  Gentcs  mentioned  altove.  It  is  addressed 
 to  the  governors  of  the  provinces  ;  it  refutes  the  cal- 
 umnies which  had  been  uttered  against  the  religion  of 
 the  gospel,  and  shows  that  its  professors  were  faithful 
 and  obedient  subjects.  It  is  the  best  work  written  in 
 favour  of  Christianity  during  the  early  ages  of  the 
 Church.  It  contains  a  number  of  very  curious  histor- 
 ical passages  on  the  ceremonies  of  the  Christian 
 Church  ;  as,  for  example,  a  description  of  the  agapa 
 or  love-feasts.  Tertullian  remoulded  this  work,  and 
 it  appeared  under  the  new  title  Ad  Nationes.  In  its 
 altered  state  it  {)ossesses  more  method,  but  less  fire 
 than  the  first.  The  writings  of  Tertullian  show  an 
 ardent  and  impassioned  spirit,  a  brilliant  imagination, 
 a  high  degree  of  natural  talent  and  profound  erudition. 
 His  style,  however,  is  obscure,  though  animated,  and 
 betrays  the  foreign  extraction  of  the  writer.  The  pe- 
 rusal of  Tertullian  is  very  important  for  the  student  of 
 ecclesiastical  history.  He  informs  us,  more  correctly 
 than  any  other  writer,  respecting  the  Christian  doc- 
 trines of  his  time,  the  constitution  of  the  ('hurch,  its 
 ceremonies,  and  the  attacks  of  heretics  against  Chris- 
 tianity. Tertullian  was  held  in  very  high  esteem  by 
 the  subsequent  fathers  of  the  Church.  St.  Cyprian 
 read  his  works  incessantly,  and  used  to  call  him,  hy 
 way  of  eminence.  The  Master.  Vincent  of  Lerins 
 used  to  say  "  that  every  word  of  Tertullian  was  a  sen- 
 tence, and  every  sentence  a  triumph  over  error." 
 The  best  edition  of  the  entire  works  of  Tertullian  is 
 that  of  Semler,  4  vols.  8vo,  Hal.,  1770  :  and  of  his 
 Apology,  that  of  Havercamp,  8vo,  L.  Bat.,  WI8 
 
 Tethvs,  the  wife  of  Oceanus,  and  daughter  of  Ura- 
 nus and  Terra.  Their  oH'spring  were  the  rivers  of 
 the  earth,  and  three  thousand  daughters,  named  Oce- 
 anides  or  Ocean-nyrn[)hs.  (Hcs.,  Theog.,  337,  scqq.) 
 The  name  of  Tcthys  (Vi^Ovr^)  is  thought  to  mean  the 
 ?iurse,  the  Rearer.  Hermann  renders  it  Aliunnia. 
 {Keighlley's  Mythology,  p.  51.) 
 
 Tetkapoms,  I.  a  name  given  to  the  city  of  Antioch, 
 the  capital  of  vSyria,  because  divided,  as  it  were,  into 
 four  cities,  each  having  its  separate  wall,  besides  a 
 common  one  enclosing  all.  {Vid.  Antiochia  I.) — II. 
 A  name  applied  to  Doris,  in  Greece  {Dorica  Tclrap- 
 olis),  from  its  four  cities.      {Vid.  Doris.) 
 
 Teuckr,  I.  a  king  of  part  of  Troas,  son  of  the  Sca- 
 tnander  by  Ida;a.  His  subjects  were  called  Tcucri, 
 from  his  name  ;  and  his  daughter  Batea  married  Dar- 
 danus,  a  Samothracian  prince,  who  succeeded  him  in 
 the  government.  Dardanus  founded  the  city  of  the 
 same  name,  and  also  gave  to  the  whole  adjacent  coun- 
 trv  the  name  of  Dardania.  (Apollod  ,'S,  12,  1. —  Virg., 
 .K/i.,  3,  108.)— II.  A  son  of  Telamon,  king  of  Sala- 
 mis,  by  Hesione,  the  daughter  of  Laomcdon.  He 
 was  one  of  Helen's  suiters,  and,  accordingly,  accom- 
 panied the  Greeks  to  the  Trojan  war,  where  he  sig- 
 
 nalized himself  by  his  valour  and  intrepidity.  It  is 
 said  that  his  father  refused  to  receive  him  into  his 
 kingdom,  because  he  had  left  the  death  of  his  l>rothcr 
 Ajax  unavenged.  This  severity  of  the  faihcr  did  not 
 dishearten  the  son  ;  he  left  Salamis  and  retired  lo  Cy- 
 prus, where,  with  the  assistance  of  Beiiis,  k'.ijg  of  Si- 
 don,  he  built  a  town  which  he  called  Salamis,  after 
 his  native  country. 
 
 Teucri,  a  name  given  to  the  Trojans,  from  Teucer, 
 their  king.  According  to  a  ))assage  in  Virgil  (jEn.,  3, 
 108),  the  Teucri  were  a  colony  from  Crete,  who  settled 
 in  Troas  previous  to  the  founding  of  Trov,  and  were 
 the  founders  of  the  Trojau  race.  Apollodorus.  how- 
 ever, following,  probably,  the  current  Grecian  fables 
 on  this  subject,  makes  the  Teucri  to  have  been  de- 
 scended from  Teucris,  a  son  of  the  Scamander.  Heyne, 
 in  an  excursus  to  the  passage  of  Virgil  mentioned 
 above,  gives  the  preference  to  the  latter  account.  It 
 is  probable  that  the  Teucri  were  only  a  branch  of  the 
 inhabitants  of  Troas,  and  originally  of  Thracian  de- 
 scent. Such,  at  least,  is  the  o|)inion  of  Marinen,  and 
 with  him  agrees  Cramer  {Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  77, 
 seqq.). 
 
 Teuta,  a  queen  of  Illyricum  B.C.  231,  who  ordered 
 some  Roman  ambassadors  to  be  put  to  death.  This 
 act  of  violence  gave  rise  to  a  war,  which  ended  in  her 
 overthrow.     {Vid.  Illyricum.) 
 
 Teutas  or  TeutXtf.s,  a  name  of  Mercury  among 
 the  Gauls,  who  ofFerfd  human  victims  to  this  deity. 
 — He  was  worshipjied  by  the  Britons  also.  Sorrwj  de- 
 rive the  name  from  two  British  words,  dcu-tott,  which" 
 signify  God,  the  parent  or  creator  ;  a  name  properly 
 due  only  to  the  Su])reme  Being,  who  was  originally 
 intended  by  that  name.      {Luran.  1,  445  ) 
 
 Teuthras,  a  king  of  Mysia,  on  the  borders  of  the 
 Caicus.      {Vid.  Tele|)hus.) 
 
 Teutoburgiensis  Sai.tus,  a  forest  of  Germany,  ly- 
 ing in  an  eastern  direction  from  Paderborn,  and  reach- 
 ing as  far  as  the  territory  of  Osnahruch.  It  is  famous 
 for  the  slaughter  of  Varus  and  his  three  legions,  by 
 the  Germans  under  ArmJnius.  {Tac,  Ann  ,  1,  60.) 
 For  a  more  particular  idea  of  the  locality,  consult  the 
 remarks  of  Tappes  {Die  wahre  Gegend  und  Linie 
 der  Hernia nnusschlacht,  Essen.,  18'20,  Svo). 
 
 Teutoni  and  Teutones,  a  name  given  to  several 
 united  tribes  of  Germany,  who,  together  with  the  Cim- 
 bri,  made  a  memorable  inroad  into  southern  Europe. 
 The  most  erudite  inquiries  as  to  the  origin  and  causes 
 of  this  migration  from  the  north  have  led  to  no  defi- 
 nite results,  owing  to  the  almost  entire  ignorance,  on 
 the  part  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  of  the  nature  of 
 the  northern  po|)ulation  and  languages.  That  the  mi- 
 gration was  neither  purely  Scandinavian  or  German, 
 nor  purely  Celtic  or  Gallic,  clearly  appears  from  the 
 accounts  of  the  order  of  march  of  the  Cimbri  and  Teu- 
 tones, as  well  as  of  their  bodily  stature  and  mode  of 
 lighting.  The  barbaria.n  torrent  seems  to  have  origi- 
 nally been  loosed  from  the  farther  side  of  the  Elbe  ; 
 whence  a  mongrel  horde  of  Germans  and  Scandinavi- 
 ans, of  gigantic  stature,  savage  valour,  and  singular  ac- 
 coutrements, descended  towards  the  south.  On  theii 
 route,  a  number  of  Celtic  tribes,  of  which  the  Tigu- 
 rini  and  Tectosagae  are  distinguished  by  name  above 
 the  others,  joined  them  ;  and,  in  conjunction  wi.h 
 them,  threatened  to  pour  n[)on  ihe  Romans,  who  ji.st 
 then  were  pressing  farther  and  farther  on  the  side  of 
 what  is  now  Carinthm  towards  modern  Austria,  and 
 on  the  west  from  Frovence  towards  Toulouse.  On 
 the  side  of  Carinthm,  the  Romans  look  the  whole  of 
 Noricnin  under  their  protection  ;  and  Carbo  was  de- 
 stroyed will)  his  army  in  endeavouring  to  keep  otTthe 
 Teutones  from  that  territory.  On  the  olher,  they  had 
 extended  their  sway  from  the  .Alps  lo  the  Pyrenees, 
 and  iiad  forced  the  native  tribes  as  far  as  Lugdunum 
 (Lue"«'»  to  accept  their  protection.  The  barbarians, 
 howevo.    instead  of  pouring  upon  Italy  after  the  de- 
 
 1301 
 
TH  A 
 
 TH  A 
 
 feat  of  Carbo,  turned  back  and  spread  desolation  in 
 Gaul  ;  and  the  Romans  despatched  an  army  against 
 them  under  8j)uriiis  Cassius.  This  army  was  annihi- 
 lated by  the  (Jeltic  hordes,  who  had  associated  them- 
 selves with  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones.  The  barbarians 
 terrified  the  Romans  by  their  enormous  stature,  by 
 their  firmness  in  order  of  battle,  and  by  their  mode  of 
 figiiting,  of  which  the  peculiarity  consisted  in  extend- 
 ing their  lines  so  as  to  enclose  large  tracts  of  ground, 
 and  in  forming  barriers  around  them  with  their  wagons 
 and  chariots.  The  danger  to  the  Romans  from  the 
 combined  German  and  Celtic  populations  seemed  the 
 greater,  as  the  Jugurthine  wars,  in  the  beginning  of 
 the  contest,  engaged  their  best  generals.  'I'hey  there- 
 fore sent  into  Gaul  L.  Servilius  Ca^pio,  a  consul,  with 
 a  consular  army.  Ca^pio,  quite  in  the  spirit  of  the 
 senatorial  party  of  his  times,  plundered  the  Gauls,  and 
 seized  their  sacred  treasures  instead  of  preserving  dis- 
 cipline. This  was  in  A.U.C.  647.  The  next  year, 
 Cajpio  was  declared  proconsul  of  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
 and  Cneius  Manluis,  the  consul,  was  appointed  his 
 colleague.  These  two  generals,  neither  of  whom  pos- 
 sessed any  merit,  happening  not  to  agree,  separated 
 their  forces,  but  were  both  attacked  at  the  same  time, 
 one  by  the  Gauls,  the  other  by  the  Cimbri,  and  their 
 armies  were  cut  to  pieces.  The  consternation  which 
 this  occasioned  at  Rome  was  increased  by  the  spread- 
 ing of  a  report  that  the  enemy  were  preparing  to  pass 
 the  Alps.  But  the  barbarians,  instead  of  concentra- 
 ting their  force  for  a  descent  upon  Italy,  wasted  Spain 
 and  scoured  the  Gallic  territories.  Marius  was  now 
 chosen  consul ;  and,  while  the  foe  were  plundering 
 Spain  and  Gaul,  he  was  actively  employed  m  exerci- 
 sing and  disciplining  his  army.  At  length,  in  the  third 
 year  of  his  command  in  Gaul,  in  his  fourth  consulship, 
 the  Teutones  and  Ambrones  made  their  appearance 
 in  the  south  of  Gaul  ;  while  the  Cimbri,  and  all  the 
 tribes  united  with  them,  attempted  to  break  into  Italy 
 from  the  northeast.  Marius  defeated  the  Teutones 
 and  .Ambrones  near  Aquae  Sextia;  (now  Aix),  in  Gaul  ; 
 and,  in  the  following  year,  uniting  his  forces  with 
 those  of  Catulus,  he  entirely  defeated  the  Cimbri  in 
 the  plain  of  VercellK,  to  the  north  of  the  Po,  near  the 
 Sessites.  In  these  two  battles  the  Teutones  and  Am- 
 brones are  said  to  have  lost  the  incredible  number  of 
 290.000  men  (200,000  slain,  and  90,000  taken  pris- 
 oners), and  the  Cimbri  200,000  men  (140,000  slain, 
 and  60,000  taken  prisoners. — Liv.,  Epil.,  68. —  Vid. 
 Marius.) 
 
 Thais,  a  celebrated  Greek  hetserist,  who  accom- 
 panied Alexander  on  his  expedition  into  Asia,  and  in- 
 stigated him,  while  under  the  influence  of  wine,  to  set 
 fire  to  the  royal  palace  at  Persepolis.  {Vid.  Persepo- 
 lis.)  After  the  death  of  Alexander  she  attached  her- 
 self to  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  by  whom  she  had  two 
 sons  and  a  daughter.  This  daughter  was  named 
 Irene,  and  became  the  wife  of  Ennostus,  king  of  Soli, 
 in  the  island  of  Cyprus.  There  is  no  good  reason  for 
 the  opinion  that  she  lived  with  the  [)oel  Mcnander  be- 
 fore accompanying  the  army  of  .Alexander.  This  sup- 
 position arose  from  Menandcr's  having  composed  a 
 piece  entitled  Thais.  (Athcncens,  13,  p.  576,  D. — 
 Bayle,  Diet.,  s.  v. — Michaud,  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  45, 
 p.  230.) 
 
 Thala,  a  city  of  Africa,  in  the  dominions  of  Jii- 
 gurtha.  It  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  same  with 
 Telepte,  now  Ferrcanach,  though  this  seems  doubtful. 
 Manncrt,  however,  inclines  to  this  opinion.  (Consult 
 Sliau-'s  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  1,  pt.  2,  c.  5.) 
 
 Thales,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  the  founder  of 
 the  Ionic  sect,  born  at  Miletus  in  the  first  year  of  the 
 35th  Olympiad.  He  was  descended  from  Plitenician 
 parents,  who  had  left  their  country  and  settled  at  Mi- 
 'etus.  The  wealth  which  he  inherited,  and  his  own 
 superior  abilities,  raised  him  to  distinction  among  his 
 countrymen,  so  that  he  was  early  employed  in  public 
 1302 
 
 affairs.  Like  the  rest  of  the  ancients,  he  travelled  in 
 quest  of  knowledge,  and  for  some  time  resided  in 
 Crete,  Phoenicia,  and  Egypt.  Under  the  priests  of 
 Memphis  he  is  said  to  have  been  taught  geometry,  as- 
 tronomy, and  philosophy.  It  is  probable,  however, 
 that  he  was  more  indebted  to  his  own  ingenuity  than 
 to  their  instructions  ;  for,  while  he  was  among  them, 
 he  taught  them,  to  their  great  astonishment,  how  to 
 measure  the  height  of  their  pyramids.  It  cannot  bo 
 supposed  that  Thales  could  acquire  much  mathtinati- 
 cal  knowledge  from  a  peoj)le  incapable  of  solving  so 
 easy  a  problem.  The  method  pursued  by  Thales  was 
 this  :  at  the  termination  of  the  shadow  of  the  pyramid, 
 he  erected  a  stafi'  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the 
 earth,  and  thus  obtained  two  right-angled  triangles, 
 which  enabled  him  to  infer  the  ratio  of  the  height  of 
 the  pyramid  to  the  length  of  its  shadow,  from  the  ratio 
 of  the  height  of  the  start"  to  the  length  of  its  shadow. 
 In  mathematics,  Thales  is  said  to  have  invented  sev- 
 eral fundamental  propositions,  which  were  afterward 
 incorporated  into  the  elements  of  Euclid,  particularly 
 the  following  theorems  :  that  a  circle  is  bisected  by 
 its  diameter  ;  that  the  angles  at  the  base  of  an  isosce- 
 les triangle  are  equal  ;  that  the  vertical  angles  of  two 
 intersecting  lines  are  equal  ;  that  if  tvi'O  angles  and 
 one  side  of  one  triangle  be  equal  to  two  angles  and 
 one  side  of  another  triangle,  the  remaining  angles  and 
 sides  are  respectively  equal  ;  and  that  the  angle  in  a 
 semicircle  is  a  right  angle.  Astronomical  as  well  as 
 mathematical  science  seems  to  have  received  consid- 
 erable improvements  from  Thales.  He  was  so  well  ac- 
 quainted with  the  celestial  motions  as  to  be  able  to 
 predict  an  eclipse,  though  probably  with  no  great  de- 
 gree of  accuracy  as  to  time  ;  lor  Herodotus,  who  re- 
 lates this  fact,  only  says  that  he  foretold  the  year  in 
 which  it  would  happen.  He  taught  the  Greeks  the 
 division  of  the  heaven  into  five  zones,  and  the  solsti- 
 tial and  equinoctial  points,  and  approached  so  near  to 
 the  knowledge  of  the  true  length  of  the  solar  revolu- 
 tion, that  he  corrected  their  calendar,  and  made  their 
 year  contain  365  days. — Thales  held  that  the  first  prin- 
 ciple of  natural  bodies,  or  the  first  simple  substance 
 from  which  all  things  in  the  world  are  lormed,  is  wa- 
 ter. It  is  probable  that  by  the  term  u-aler,  Thales 
 meant  to  express  the  same  idea  which  the  cosmogonists 
 ex|)ressed  by  the  word  chaos,  the  notion  annexed  to 
 which  was,  a  turbid  and  muddy  mass,  from  which  all 
 things  were  produced.  His  most  celebrated  pupils 
 and  successors  in  the  Ionic  school  were  Anaximander, 
 Anaximenes,  Anaxagoras.  and  Archclaus,  the  master 
 of  Socrates.  Thales  died  at  the  age  of  90,  in  the  58th 
 Olympiad.  {Sosicr.,  ap.  Dios!.  Laer/..,  1,  38. —  Clin- 
 Ion,  Fast.  Hellen.,  vol.  1,  p.  3. — Evficld,  Hist.  Phi- 
 los.,  vol.  1,  p.  149,  scqq.) 
 
 Thalkstkis,  otherwise  called  Minithya  [Justin,  2, 
 4),  a  queen  of  the  Amazons,  who,  accompanied  by 
 300  women,  came  25  davs'  journey,  through  the  most 
 hostile  nations,  to  meet  Alexander,  in  his  .Asiatic  con- 
 (]uests,  and  raise  ofi'spring  by  him.  {Justin,  12,  3. — 
 Quint.  Curt  ,  6,  5.) 
 
 Thalia  [OuAeia,  "the  Bloomi'n<!  one"),  I.  one  of  the 
 Muses,  generally  regarded  as  the  patroness  of  comedy. 
 .She  was  supposed  by  some,  also,  to  preside  over  hus- 
 bandry and  planting. — II.  One  of  the  Graces.  {Vid. 
 Gratia;  ) 
 
 Thamyris,  an  early  Thracian  bard,  son  of  Philam- 
 mon  and  Argiope.  He  is  said  to  have  been  remarka- 
 ble for  beauty  of  [lerson  and  skill  on  the  lyre,  and  to 
 have  challenged  the  Muses  to  a  contest  of  skill.  He 
 was  conquered,  and  the  Muses  de[)rived  him  of  sight 
 for  his  presumption.  {Apnllod.,  1,  3,  3.) — Consult  the 
 remarks  of  Heyne  (ad  Apolhid.,  I.  c.)  on  the  nature  of 
 the  stipulation  between  the  contending  parties.  (Ham., 
 II..  2,  595.  scijq. — Heyne,  ad  loe.) 
 
 Thapsacus,  a  city  and  famous  ford  on  the  Euphra- 
 tes.    The  city  was  situate  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
 
TH  A 
 
 THE 
 
 river,  nearly  opposite  to  the  modern  Racca.  Geogra- 
 phers are  wrong  in  removing  it  to  Ul-Decr.  (  Wil- 
 liams, Gcogr.  of  Asia,  p.  129,  seqq.)  Tliis  ford  was 
 passed  by  Cyrus  the  Younger  in  his  expedition  against 
 Artaxerxes;  afterward  by  Darius  after  his  defeat  by 
 Alexander  at  Issus  ;  and  near  three  years  after  by  Al- 
 exander in  pursuit  of  Darius,  previous  to  the  battle  of 
 Arbela.  {Xen.,  Anab.,  1,  4. — I'tin.,  5,  21 — Stepk. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Thapsus,  I.  now  Dcmsas,  a  town  of  Africa  Propria, 
 on  the  coast,  southeast  of  Hadruinetuin,  where  Scipio 
 and  Juba  were  defeated  by  Cajsar.  It  was  otherwise 
 a  place  of  little  consequence.  {Manncrt,  Gco<{r.,  vol. 
 10,  pt.  2.  p.  241.) — II.  A  town  of  Sicily,  on  the  east- 
 ern coast,  not  far  to  the  north  of  Syracuse.  It  was 
 situate  on  a  peninsula,  which  was  sometimes  called  an 
 island,  and  which  now  bears  the  name  of  Macromsi. 
 The  place  probably  obtained  its  name  from  the  penin- 
 sula producing  the  ti^ai/'Of,  a  sort  of  plant  or  shrub 
 used  for  dyeing  yellow.  {Thucyd.,  6,  4. — Bloomficld, 
 ad  Thucyd.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Th.vsu.s,  an  island  in  the  /Egean,  off  the  coast  of 
 Thrace,  and  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Nestus.  It 
 received,  at  a  very  remote  period,  a  colony  of  Phccni- 
 cians.  under  the  conduct  of  Thasus  {Herod.,  6,  47. 
 —  Scymn.,  Ch.,  v.  660),  that  enterprising  [)eo})le  having 
 already  formed  settlements  in  several  islands  of  the 
 ^gean.  {Thucyd.,  1,  8.)  They  were  induced  to 
 possess  themselves  of  Tha-^us,  from  the  valuable  sil-  I 
 ver-mines  which  it  contained,  and  which,  it  appears, 
 they  afterward  worked  with  unremitting  assiduity. 
 Herodotus,  who  visited  this  island,  reports  that  a  large 
 mountain  on  the  side  of  Samothrace  had  been  turned 
 upside  down  {uvFarpafifiivov)  in  search  of  the  precious 
 metal.  Thasus,  at  a  later  period,  was  recolonizcd  by 
 a  party  of  Parians,  pursuant  to  tlie  command  of  an  or- 
 acle to  the  father  of  the  poet  Arehilochus.  From  this 
 document,  quoted  by  Stephanus,  we  learn  that  the 
 ancient  name  of  the  island  was  .,f]ria.  {Pliny,  4, 
 12.)  It  is  said  by  others  to  have  been  also  named 
 Chrysc.  {Eustath.,  ad  Dion.  Pericg.,  p.  97.)  His- 
 tisus  the  Milesian,  during  the  disturbances  occasioned 
 by  the  Ionian  revolt,  fruitlessly  endeavoured  to  make 
 himself  master  of  this  island,  which  was  subsequently 
 concjuercd  by  Mardoiiius,  when  tlie  Thasians  were 
 commanded  to  pull  down  their  fortifications,  and  re- 
 move their  ships  to  Abdera.  {Herod.,  6,44.)  On  the 
 expulsion  of  the  Persians  from  Greece,  Thasus,  to- 
 gether with  the  other  islands  on  tliis  coast,  became 
 tributary  to  Athens  ;  disputes,  however,  having  arisen 
 between  the  islanders  and  that  power  on  the  subject  of 
 the  mines  on  the  Thracian  coast,  a  war  ensued,  and 
 the  Thasians  were  besieged  for  three  years.  On  their 
 surrender  their  fortifications  were  destroyed,  and  their 
 ships  of  war  removed  to  Athens.  {Thucyd.,  1,  101.) 
 Thasus  once  more  revolted,  after  the  great  failure  of 
 the  Athenians  in  Sicily,  at  which  time  a  change  was 
 eflected  in  the  government  of  the  island  from  democ- 
 racy to  oligarchy.  {Thucyd  ,  8,  64.)  According  to 
 Herodotus,  the  revenues  of  Thasus  amounted  to  two 
 hundred,  and  sometimes  three  hundred,  talents  annu- 
 ally. These  funds  were  principally  derived  from  the 
 mines  of  Scapte-hylc,  in  Thrace  (6,  48). — The  cajiital 
 of  the  island  was  Thasus. — Thasus  furnished,  besides 
 gold  and  silver,  marbles  and  wine,  which  were  much 
 esteemed.  {Plin,  ".lo,  6.  —  Senrr.,  Episl.,  86. — 
 Athcn.,  1,  51.)  The  soil  was  excellent.  {Dion.  Pe- 
 ricg., V.  523  )  The  modern  name  of  the  island  is 
 Thaso  or  Tasso.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p. 
 333) 
 
 Thaum.Xci,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  in  the  district  of 
 Phthiotis,  and  in  a  northwest  direction  from  the  head 
 waters  of  the  Sinus  Maliacus.  It  is  said  to  have  de- 
 rived its  name  from  the  singularity  of  its  situation,  and 
 the  usto7nshmc)it  {dai\ua)  produced  on  the  minds  of 
 travellers  upon  first  reaching  it.     Livy,  who  describes 
 
 it  as  placed  on  the  great  road  leading  from  Thermopy- 
 la!  by  Lamia  to  the  north  of  Thessaly,  speaks  of  it  in 
 the  following  terms:  "You  arrive,"  says  the  histori- 
 an, "after  a  very  difficult  and  rugged  route  over  hill 
 and  dale,  when  you  suddenly  open  on  an  immense 
 plain  like  a  vast  sea,  which  stretches  below  as  far  as  the 
 eye  can  reach  "  The  town  was  situate  on  a  very  lofty 
 and  perpendicular  rock,  which  rendered  it  a  place  of 
 great  strength.  The  modern  name  is  Thaumacos. 
 DodwcU  describes  the  view  from  this  place  as  the 
 most  wonderful  and  extensive  he  ever  beheld.  Sir 
 W.  Gell  gives  Thaiimakon  as  the  modern  name. 
 {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  414.) 
 
 Thau.mantias,  an  appellation  given  to  Iris,  the  god- 
 dess of  the  rainbow,  as  the  daughter  of  Thauraas 
 {Wonder.— Hes  ,  Thcog.,  265). 
 
 The.ano,  I.  daughter  of  Cisseus,  and  sister  of  Hec- 
 uba. She  married  Antenor,  and,  being  priestess  also 
 of  Minerva,  was  prevailed  upon  by  her  husband  to  de- 
 liver up  to  him  the  Palladium,  which  he  treacherously 
 gave  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks.  {Hum.,  11.,  6, 
 29S.— Pausan.,  10,  27.  — Diet.  Cret.,  5,  8  )  — II. 
 The  wife  of  Pythagoras.  She  was  a  native  of  Cro- 
 tona,  and  the  first  female,  it  is  said,  that  turned  her 
 attention  to  philosophy.  She  was  also  a  poetess. 
 {Suid.,  s.  V. — Diog.  Laert.,  8,  42,  seqq. — Meitag., 
 ad  Diog.,  I.  c.)  —  III.  A  daughter  of  Pythagoras. 
 {Aucl.,  Vit.  Pylhag.,  ap.  Plut.  —  Mcnag.,  ad  Diod., 
 8.  42.) — IV.  The  mother  of  Pausanias.  She  was  the 
 first,  as  it  is  reported,  who  brought  a  stone  to  the  en- 
 trance of  Minerva's  temple  to  shut  up  her  son,  when 
 she  heard  of  his  perfidy  to  his  country.  {Vtd.  Pausa- 
 nias I.) 
 
 THE.iTRUM  :  under  this  head  it  is  proposed  to  give 
 a  brief  sketch  of  the  ancient  drama,  arranged  undei 
 proper  heads  : 
 
 1 .   History  of  Tragedy  from  its  rise  to  the  time  of 
 JEschylus. 
 
 The  drama  owes  its  origin  to  that  principle  of  imi- 
 tation which  is  inherent  in  human  nature.  Hence  its 
 invention,  like  that  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  the 
 other  imitative  arts,  cannot  properly  be  restricted  to 
 any  one  specific  age  or  peo()le.  In  fact,  scenical  rep- 
 resentations are  found  among  nations  so  totally  sep- 
 arated by  situation  and  circumstances,  as  to  make  it 
 impossible  for  any  one  to  have  borrowed  the  idea  from 
 another.  In  Greece  and  Hindustan  the  drama  was  at 
 the  same  period  in  high  repute  and  perfection,  while 
 Arabia  and  Persia,  the  intervening  countries,  were 
 utter  strangers  to  this  kind  of  entertainment.  The 
 Chinese,  again,  have  from  time  immemorial  possessed 
 a  regular  theatre.  The  ancient  Peruvians  had  their 
 tranedies,  comedies,  and  interludes  ;  and  even  among 
 the  savage  and  solitary  islanders  of  the  South  Sea,  a 
 rude  kind  of  play  was  observed  by  the  navigators  who 
 discovered  them.  Each  of  these  people  must  have  in- 
 vented the  drama  for  tliemsclves.  The  only  point  of 
 connexion  was  the  sameness  of  the  cause  which  led 
 to  these  several  independent  inventions  ;  the  instinct- 
 ive propensity  to  imitation,  and  the  pleasure  arising 
 from  it  when  successfully  exerted. — The  elements  of 
 the  Grecian  Drama  are  to  be  sought  in  an  age  far  an- 
 tecedent to  all  regular  historic  record.  In  those  re- 
 mole  times,  the  several  seasons  of  the  year  had  among 
 the  Greeks  their  respective  festivals.  That  religion, 
 which  peopled  with  divinities  wood,  and  hill,  and 
 stream,  and  gave  to  every  art  and  event  of  ordinary 
 life  its  peculiar  deity,  entered  largely  into  the  feelings 
 and  customs  of  these  annual  festivities.  Among  an 
 agricultural  population  like  that  of  early  Greece,  "Dio- 
 nysus, at  what  time  soever  his  name  and  worship  had 
 been  introduced,  as  the  inventor  of  wine  and  god  of 
 the  vineyard,  possessed,  of  necessity,  a  distinguished 
 sacrifice  and  feast. — Music  and  poetry,  wherever  they 
 exist  are  almost  invariably  employed  in  the  services  o. 
 
 1303 
 
THEATRUM. 
 
 THEATRUM. 
 
 divine  worship.  In  Greece,  pre-eminently  the  land  of 
 the  song  and  the  lyre,  this  practice  [irevailed  from  the 
 most  ancient  tunes.  At  the  periodic  festivals  of  tlieir 
 several  deities,  bands  of  choristers,  accompanied  by 
 the  pipe,  the  lute,  or  the  harp,  sang  the  general  (jraises 
 of  the  god,  or  episodic  narrations  ol  his  various  achieve- 
 ments. The  feasts  of  Bacchus  had,  of  course,  their 
 sacred  choruses  ;  and  these  choruses,  from  the  cir- 
 cumstances of  the  festival,  naturally  fell  into  two 
 classes  of  very  diilerent  character.  The  hymns  ad- 
 dressed immediately  to  the  divinity,  round  the  hal- 
 lowed altar  during  the  solemnity  of  the  service,  were 
 grave,  lofty,  and  restrained.  The  songs  inspired  by 
 the  carousals  of  the  banquet,  and  uttered  amid  the  rev- 
 elries of  the  Phallic  procession,  were  coarse,  ludi- 
 crous, and  satirical,  interspersed  with  mutual  jest  and 
 gibe.  The  hymn  which  accompanied  tbe  opening  sac- 
 rifice was  called  ()i,diJpafi6og,  a  term  of  doubtful  ety- 
 mology and  import.  Perhaps,  like  the  repulsive  sym- 
 bol of  the  Phallic  rites,  its  origin  must  be  referred  to 
 an  Eastern  clime. — Besides  the  chanters  of  the  Dithy- 
 ramb and  the  singers  of  the  Phallic,  there  was,  proba- 
 bly from  the  first  introduction  of  Bacchic  worslnp,  a 
 third  class  of  performers  in  these  annual  festivals. 
 Fauns  and  Satyrs  were,  in  [lopular  belief,  the  regular 
 attendants  of  the  deity  ;  and  the  received  character  of 
 these  singular  beings  was  in  admirable  harmony  with 
 the  merry  Dionysia.  The  goat,  as  an  animal  espe- 
 cially injurious  to  the  vines,  and,  therefore,  peculiarly 
 obno.vious  to  the  god  of  the  vineyard,  was  the  appro- 
 priate offering  in  the  Bacchic  sacrifices.  In  the  horns 
 and  hide  of  the  victim,  all  that  was  requisite  to  furnish 
 satvric  guise  was  at  hand  ;  and  thus  a  band  of  mum- 
 mers was  easily  formed,  whose  wit,  waggery,  and  gri- 
 mace would  prove  no  insignificant  addition  to  the 
 amusements  of  the  village  carnival. — In  these  rude 
 festivities  the  splendid  drama  of  the  Greeks  found  its 
 origin.  The  lolly  poetry  of  the  Dithyramb,  combined 
 with  the  lively  e.xhibiiion  of  the  Satync  chorus,  was  at 
 length  wrought  out  into  the  majestic  tragedy  of  Soph- 
 ocles. The  Phallic  song  was  expanded  and  improved 
 into  the  wonderful  comedy  of  Aristophanes. — In  the 
 first  rise  of  the  Bacchic  festivals,  the  rustic  singers 
 used  to  pour  forth  their  own  unpolished  and  extempo- 
 raneous strains.  By  degrees,  these  rude  choruses  as- 
 sumed a  more  artificial  form.  Emulation  was  excited, 
 and  contests  between  neighbouring  districts  led  to  the 
 successive  introduction  of  such  improvements  as  might 
 tend  to  add  interest  and  effect  to  the  rival  exhibitions. 
 It  was  probably  now  that  a  distinction  in  prizes  was 
 made.  Heretofore  a  goat  appears  to  have  been  the 
 ordinary  reward  of  the  victorious  choristers  ;  and  the 
 term  rpayuiSia  {rpayov  t'jrf//),  or  goat-song,  to  have 
 comprehended  the  several  choral  chanlings  in  the  Di- 
 onysia. To  the  Dithyramb  a  bull  was  now  assigned, 
 as  a  nobler  meed  for  its  sacred  ode  ;  the  successful 
 singers  of  the  Phallic  received  a  basket  of  figs  and  a 
 vessel  of  wine  ;  while  the  goat  was  left  to  the  Satyric 
 chorus.  Subsequently,  when  the  Dithyramb  and  the 
 drama  had  become  established  in  all  their  perfection 
 throutrhout  the  cities  of  Greece,  the  general  prize  was 
 a  tripod,  which  was  commonly  dedicated  by  the  victor 
 to  Bacchus,  with  a  tablet,  bearing  the  names  of  the 
 successful  composer,  choragus,  and  tribe. — The  Dithy- 
 ramb was  at  a  very  early  period  admitted  into  the 
 Doric  cities,  and  there  cherished  vviih  peculiar  atten- 
 tion by  a  succession  of  poets  ;  among  whom  Archilo- 
 chus  of  Pares,  Arion  of  Mcthymne,  Simomdes  of 
 Ceos,  and  Lasus  of  Ilermione  were  especially  distin- 
 guished. Under  their  hands  the  rude  e.xtemporaneous 
 hymn  of  a  peasant  chorus  was  gradually  refined  into  a 
 laboured  composition,  lofty  in  sentiment,  studied  in  dic- 
 tion, and  adorned  with  all  the  graces  which  music, 
 rhvthm,  and  the  dance  could  supply.  Thus  fostered  by 
 the  patronage  of  city  communities,  and  so  improved  by 
 the  skill  and  talent  of  rival  poets,  the  Dithyrambic  cho- 
 1304 
 
 rus,  in  the  sublimity  of  its  odes  and  splendour  of  the  ac- 
 comjianinienls,  became  one  of  the  most  imposing  shows 
 among  the  public  spectacles  of  Greece. — In  the  mean 
 tune,  the  representation  of  the  laughter-loving  Satyrs 
 had  been  moulded  into  a  more  regular  body,  and  contin- 
 ued to  delight  the  populace  with  their  grotesque  aj)- 
 pearance  and  merry  pranks.  It  is  here  that  we  firsf 
 discover  something  of  a  dramatic  nature.  The  sing- 
 ers of  the  Dithyramb  were  mere  choristers  ;  they  as- 
 sumed no  characters,  and  exhibited  no  imitation.  The 
 performers  in  the  Satyric  chorus  had  a  part  to  sustain  ; 
 they  were  actors  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word. 
 iMoreover,  in  their  extemporaneous  bursts  of  descrip- 
 tion, remark,  jest,  and  repartee,  a  kind  of  dialogue 
 was  introduced  ;  irregular,  no  doubt,  and  wild,  yet 
 still  a  dialogue.  Here,  then,  in  this  acting  and  this 
 dialogue,  we  have,  at  once,  the  elements  and  the  es- 
 sence of  the  drama, — The  Satyric  chorus,  like  the 
 Dithyramb,  had  found  an  early  entrance  into  the  Do- 
 rian cities,  and  was  particularly  cultivated  at  Phlius, 
 a  town  of  Sicyon.  In  Attica,  the  future  scene  of  the 
 perfected  drama,  there  remains  no  direct  record  of 
 these  Dionysian  rejiresentations  until  the  middle  of 
 the  sixth  century  before  our  era.  At  that  time  Thes- 
 pis,  a  native  of  Icaria,  an  Athenian  village,  was 
 struck  with  the  possibility  of  introducing  various  im- 
 provements into  the  Satyric  chorus. — He  saw  that  an 
 incessant  round  of  jest,  and  gambol,  and  grimace  be- 
 came, in  the  end,  exhausting  to  the  performers  and 
 wearisome  even  to  the  spectators.  Accordingly,  the 
 Icarian  contrived  a  break  in  the  representation  {Diog. 
 Laert.,  Flat. ,66),  by  coining  forward  in  person  {Plut., 
 Vit.  Sol.,  c.  29),  and,  from  an  elevated  stand,  descri- 
 bing in  gesticulated  narration  so.me  mythological  story. 
 When  this  was  ended  the  chorus  again  commenced 
 their  peformances.  The  next  step  was  to  add  life  and 
 spirit  to  these  monologues,  by  making  the  chorus  take 
 [lart  in  the  narrative  through  an  occasional  exclama- 
 tion, question,  or  remark.  This  was  readily  sugijested 
 by  the  practice  of  interchanging  observations  already 
 established  among  the  members  of  the  chorus.  And 
 thus  was  the  germe  of  the  dialogue  still  farther  de- 
 veloped. In  order  to  disguise  his  features,  and  so 
 produce  a  certain  degree  of  histrionic  illusion,  Thes- 
 pis  is  said  first  to  have  smeared  his  face  with  vermilion, 
 then  with  a  jiigment  prepared  from  tlie  herb  purslain, 
 and  lastly  to  have  contrived  a  kind  of  rude  mask  made 
 of  linen.  {Suid  .  s.  v.  Oeanig  ) — Besides  the  addition 
 of  the  actor,  Thespis  did  much  for  the  improvement 
 of  the  chorus  itself.  He  invented  dances,  which 
 were  handed  down  through  four  generations  to  the 
 time  of  Aristophanes.  (Vesp.,  1470.)  They  were, 
 as  might  be  expected  from  the  chorus  for  which  they 
 were  devised,  of  a  nature  more  energetic  than  grace- 
 ful. Yet  their  protracted  existence  proves  them  to 
 have  possessed  popularity  and  comparative  excellence. 
 In  these  dances  he  assiduously  trained  his  choristers. 
 Whatever  advantages  could  be  derived  from  the  sister 
 art  of  music  were  no  doubt  added,  and  care  extend- 
 ed to  the  general  organization  and  equipment  of  the 
 chorus.  The  metre  of  his  recitative  was  apparently 
 trochaic  ;  the  measure  in  which,  amid  frolic  and  dance, 
 the  Satyric  chorus  gave  vent  to  its  ebullitions  of  joke 
 and  merriment.  {Aristot.,  Poet,  4,  17.)  Indeed, 
 from  its  formation,  the  trochee  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
 lively  and  sportive  movements.  {Aristot.,  Rhct.,  3, 
 7.)  Thespis  probably  reduced  the  whole  performance 
 into  some  kind  of  unity,  by  causing  this  intermixturo 
 of  song  and  recitative,  as  a  whole,  to  tend,  howevei 
 loosely,  to  the  setting  forth  of  some  one  passage  in 
 Bacchic  history.  But  the  language  of  both  actor  and 
 choristers  was  of  a  light  and  ludicrous  cast;  the  sub- 
 jects of  the  short  episodes  were  handled  in  a  jocose 
 and  humorous  manner  ;  and  the  whole  performance, 
 with  its  dance,  song,  story,  and  bufToonery,  resembled 
 a  wild  kind  of  ballet-farce. — The  introduction  of  an 
 
THEATRUM. 
 
 THEATRUM. 
 
 tctor  with  his  episodic  recitations  was  so  important 
 ail  advance,  as  leading  directly  to  the  formation  of 
 dramatic  plot  and  dialogue  ;  and  the  other  in)prove- 
 ments,  which  imparted  skill,  regularity,  and  unity  to 
 the  movements  ol  the  chorus,  were  of  so  intlucnlial  a 
 description,  that  Tnespis  is  generally  considered  the 
 inventor  of  the  drama.  Of  tragedy,  properly  so  call- 
 ed, he  does  not  appear  to  have  had  any  idea.  Stories, 
 more  or  less  ludicrous,  generally  turning  upon  Bac- 
 chus and  his  followers,  interwoven  with  the  dance  and 
 the  song  of  a  well-trained  chorus,  formed  the  drama 
 of  Thespis. — The  Satyric  chorus  had  by  this  time 
 been  adniilted  into  Athens;  contests  were  set  on  fool; 
 and  the  success  which  attended  the  novelties  of  Thes- 
 pis sharpened,  no  doubt,  the  talents  of  his  competi- 
 tors. This  emulation  would  naturally  produce  im- 
 firovement  upon  improvement  :  but  we  discover  no 
 eadiiig  change  in  the  line  of  the  incipient  drama  until 
 the  appearance  of  Phrynichus,  the  son  of  Polyphrad- 
 mon  and  the  pu[)il  of  Thespis.  At  the  close  of  the 
 si.vth  icntiirv  before  Christ,  the  elements  of  tragedy, 
 though  still  in  a  separate  state,  were  individually  so 
 fitted  and  prepared  as  to  require  nothing  but  a  master 
 hand  to  unite  them  into  one  whole  of  life  and  beauty. 
 The  Dithyramb  presented  in  its  solemn  tone  and  lofty 
 strains  a  rich  mine  of  choral  poetry  ;  the  regular  nar- 
 rative and  mimetic  character  of  the  Thespian  chorus 
 furnished  the  form  and  materials  of  dramatic  exhibi- 
 tion. To  Phrynichus  belongs  the  chief  merit  of  this 
 combination.  Drop[)ing  the  light  and  farcical  cast  of 
 the  Tliespian  drama,  and  dismissing  altogether  Bac- 
 chus with  his  satyrs,  he  sought  for  the  subjects  of  his 
 pieces  in  the  grave  and  striking  events  registered  in  the 
 mythology  or  history  of  his  country.  This,  however, 
 was  not  a  practice  altogether  original  or  uiie.\ampled. 
 Tiic  fact,  casually  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (5,  67), 
 that  the  tragic  choruses  at  Sicyon  sung,  not  the  adven- 
 tures of  Bacchus,  but  the  woes  of  Adraslus,  shows 
 that,  in  the  Cyclic  chorus  at  least,  melancholy  incident 
 and  mortal  personages  had  long  before  been  intro- 
 duced. There  is  also  some  reason  for  supposing  that 
 the  young  tragedian  was  deejily  indebted  to  Homer  in 
 the  formation  of  his  drama.  Aristotle  distinctly  at- 
 tributes to  the  author  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  the 
 primary  suggestion  of  tragedy,  as  in  his  Margites  was 
 given  the  hrst  idea  of  comedy.  {Poet,  4,  12.)  Now 
 it  is  an  historical  fact,  that,  a  few  years  before  Phryn- 
 ichus began  to  e.\hibit,  the  Homeric  poems  had  been 
 collected,  revised,  arranged,  and  published  by  the  care 
 of  Pisistratus.  (Cic,  tie  Oral.,  3,  .'54  )  Such  an 
 event  would  naturally  attract  attention,  and  add  a 
 deeper  interest  to  the  study  of  this  mighty  master  ; 
 and  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how  his  fii./^n'/aei^  ^pafian- 
 Kai,  as  Aristotle  terms  them,  would  strike  and  operate 
 upon  a  mind  acute,  ready,  and  ingenious,  as  that  of 
 Phrvnichus  must  have  been.  At  any  rate,  these  two 
 facts  stand  iii  close  chronological  connexion — the  first 
 edition  of  Homer,  and  the  birth  of  tragedy  {)ropurly  so 
 called — Taking,  then,  the  ode  and  the  tone  of  the 
 Dithyramb,  the  mimetic  personifications  of  Homer  and 
 the  themes  which  additional  tradition  or  even  recent 
 events  su|)plicd,  Phrynichus  combined  these  several 
 maltrials  together,  and  so  brought  them  forward  under 
 the  dramatic;  form  of  the  Thespian  exhibition.  Thus, 
 at  length,  does  tragedy  dawn  upon  us. — These  changes 
 in  the  character  of  the  drama  necessarily  produced 
 corresponding  alterations  in  its  form  and  manner.  The 
 recitative  was  no  longer  a  set  of  disjointed,  rambling 
 episodes  of  humorous  legend,  separated  by  the  wild 
 dance  and  noisy  song  of  a  Satyr  choir,  but  a  connected 
 succession  of  serious  narrative  or  grave  conversation, 
 with  a  chorus  composed  of  personages  involved  in  the 
 story,  all  relating  to  one  subject,  and  all  tending  to 
 one  result.  This  recitative  again  altematrd  with  a 
 series  of  choral  odes,  composed  in  a  spirit  of  deep 
 thought  and  lofty  poetry,  themselves  turning  more  or 
 8  \j 
 
 less  directly  upon  the  theme  of  tlie  interv;oven  dia 
 logue.  —  In  correspondence  with  these  alterations  ir 
 tone  and  composition,  the  actor  and  the  choristers 
 must  have  assumed  a  different  aspect.  The  perform 
 ers  were  now  the  representatives,  not  of  Siltnus  and 
 the  Satyrs,  but  of  heroes,  princes,  and  their  attendants. 
 The  goatskin  guise  and  obstreperous  sportiveness 
 were  laid  aside  for  the  staid  deportment  of  persons 
 engaged  m  matters  of  serious  business  or  deep  afflic- 
 tion, and  a  garb  belitting  the  rank  and  state  of  the  sev- 
 eral individuals  emjjloyed  in  the  piece.  Nor  are  we 
 to  suppose  that,  as  the  actor  was  still  but  one,  so 
 never  more  than  one  personage  was  introduced.  For 
 it  is  very  probable  that  this  one  actor,  changing  his 
 dress,  appeared  in  diHerent  characters  during  the  course 
 of  the  play  ;  a  device  frequently  employed  in  later 
 times,  when  the  increased  number  of  actors  made  sucIj 
 a  contrivance  less  necessary.  This  actor  sometimes 
 represented  female  personages ;  for  Phrynichus  is  sla- 
 ted to  have  first  brought  a  female  character  on  the 
 stage. — Thus,  from  the  midst  of  the  coarse  butFooner- 
 ies  and  rude  imitations  of  the  Salyric  chorus,  did  trage- 
 dy start  up  at  once  in  her  proper,  though  not  her  per- 
 fect, form.  For,  mighty  as  had  been  the  stride  to- 
 wards the  establishment  of  the  Serious  Drama,  yet  in 
 the  exhibitions  of  Phrynichus  we  find  the  infancy,  not 
 the  maturity, of  tragedy.  There  was  still  many  an  ex- 
 crescence to  be  removed  ;  many  a  chasm  to  be  filled 
 up  ;  many  a  rugged  point  to  be  smoothed  into  regular- 
 ity ;  and  many  an  embryo  part  to  be  expanded  into 
 its  full  and  legitimate  dimensions.  The  management 
 of  the  piece  was  simple  and  inartificial  even  to  rude- 
 ness. The  argument  was  some  naked  incident,  my- 
 thologic  or  historical,  on  which  the  chorus  sang  and 
 the  actor  recited  in  a  connected  but  desultory  succes- 
 sion. There  was  no  interweaving  or  development  of 
 plot ;  no  studied  arrangement  of  tact  and  catastrophe; 
 no  skilful  contrivance  to  heighten  the  natural  interest 
 of  the  tale,  and  work  up  the  feelings  of  the  audience 
 into  a  climax  of  terror  or  of  pity.  The  odes  ol  the 
 chorus  were  sweet  and  beautiful  ;  the  dances  scien- 
 tific and  dexterously  given;  but  then  these  odes  and 
 dances  still  composed  the  principal  part  of  the  perform- 
 ance. {Aristol.,  rrold.,  19,  31.)  They  contracted 
 the  episodes  of  the  actor,  and  threw  them  into  com- 
 parative insignificance.  Nay,  not  unfrequently,  while 
 the  actor  appeared  in  a  posture  of  thought,  wo,  or  con- 
 sternation, the  chorus  would  prolong  its  dance  and  chant- 
 ings,  and  leave  to  the  performer  little  more  than  the  part 
 of  a  speechless  image.  In  short,  the  drama  of  Phryn- 
 ichus was  a  serious  opera  of  lyric  song  and  skilful 
 dance,  and  not  a  tragedy  of  artful  plot  and  interesting 
 dialogue — Such  was  Phrynichus  as  an  inventor.  Still 
 we  must  remember,  in  tracing  the  inventive  improvers 
 of  tragedy,  that  the  real  claims  of  Phrynichus  are  not 
 to  be  measured  by  what  he  finally  achieved  through 
 imitation  of  others,  but  by  the  productions  of  his  own 
 unassisted  ingenuity  and  talent.  In  this  view,  those 
 claims  must  almost  entirely  be  restricted  to  the  com- 
 bination of  the  poetry  of  the  Cyclic  with  the  acting  of 
 the  Thespian  chorus  ;  the  conversion  of  Salyric  gaye- 
 ty  into  the  solemnity  and  pathos  of  what  was  thence- 
 forth peculiarly  styled  Tra<rciUj.  In  all  succeeding 
 alterations  and  additions,  Phrynichus  seems  to  have 
 been  simply  the  follower  of  /Eschyliis. — Between 
 Phrynichus  and  ^Eschylus  two  oiher  tragedians,  Choeri- 
 lus  and  Pratinas,  intervened,  of  whom  very  little  is 
 known.  The  dramas  of  Choerilus  appear  originally  to 
 have  been  of  a  Satyric  character,  like  those  of  Thespis. 
 In  his  later  days  he  naturally  copied  the  improvements 
 of  Phrvnichus;  and  we  find  him,  accordingly,  contend- 
 ing for  ihe  tragic  prize  against  Phrynichus,  Pratinas,  and 
 .Eschylus,  ofvmp  70,  B  C.  499  ;  the  time  when  .Es- 
 j  chylus  first  exhibited.  His  pieces  are  said  to  have 
 amounted  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  {Suni  ,  s.  v.);  not  a 
 i  fragment,   iiowcver,  remains ;    and,  if  we  may  trust 
 
 1305 
 
THEATRUM. 
 
 THEATRUM. 
 
 Hermeas  and  Proclus,  the  commentators  on  Plato, 
 the  loss  is  not  very  great.  —  Pralinas  was  a  native  of 
 Phlius,  and  a  poet  of  higher  lalcnl  He  too  attempt- 
 ed the  new  style  of  dramatic  composition,  and  once 
 obtained  a  tragic  victory.  But  the  manifest  pre-emi- 
 nence of  the  youthful  ^iCschylus  probably  deterred  llie 
 Phliasian  Iroiu  continuing  to  cultivate  the  graver  form 
 of  the  art,  and  led  him  to  contrive  a  novel  and  mixed 
 kind  of  play.  Borrowing  from  tragedy  its  e.xlernal 
 form  and  mythological  materials,  Pratinas  addid  a 
 chorus  of  Satyrs,  with  their  lively  songs,  gestures,  and 
 movements.  This  new  composition  was  called  the 
 Safj/nc  Drama.  The  novelty  was  exceedingly  well- 
 timed.  The  innovations  of  'I'hespis  and  Phrynichus 
 had  banished  the  Satyric  chorus,  with  its  wild  pranks 
 and  merriment,  to  the  great  displeasure  of  the  com- 
 monalty, who  retained  a  strong  regret  for  their  old 
 amusement  amid  the  new  and  more  refined  exhibitions. 
 The  Satyric  drama  gave  them  back,  under  an  improved 
 form,  the  favourite  diversion  of  former  times  ;  and  was 
 received  with  such  universal  applause,  that  the  tragic 
 poets,  in  compliance  with  the  humour  of  their  auditors, 
 deemed  it  advisable  to  combine  this  ludicrous  exhibi- 
 tion with  their  graver  pieces.  One  Satyric  drama  was 
 added  to  each  tragic  trilogy,  as  long  as  the  custom 
 of  contending  with  a  series  of  plays,  and  not  with  sin- 
 gle pieces,  continued.  ^Eschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Eu- 
 ripides were  all  distinguished  Satyric  composers  ;  and 
 in  the  Cyclops  of  the  latter  we  possess  the  only  extant 
 specitnen  of  this  singular  composition.  As  regards 
 the  changes  produced  by  ..Eschylus  in  the  drama,  vid. 
 .^schylus. 
 
 2.  Dramatic  Contests. 
 
 The  precise  time  at  which  the  contests  of  the  dra- 
 ma commenced  is  uncertain.  The  Arundel  Marble 
 would  make  them  coeval  with  the  first  inventions  of 
 Thespis.  On  the  other  hand,  Plutarch  assures  us  that 
 no  scenic  contests  were  established  until  some  years 
 after  the  early  Thespian  exhibitions.  {Vlt.  Sol.,  'Z9  ) 
 The  true  account  appears  to  be  this:  The  contests  of 
 theDithyramhic  and  Satyric  choruses  were  almost  con- 
 temporaneous with  their  origin.  Those  of  the  Dithy- 
 ramb continued  without  interruption  to  the  latest  pe- 
 riod of  theatric  sjjectacle  in  ancient  Greece  ;  and  al- 
 though the  great  improvements  of  Thespis  might,  for 
 the  moment,  excite  admiration  rather  than  competi- 
 tion, yet  doubtless  his  distinguished  success  soon 
 stimulated  others  to  attempt  this  new  and  popular 
 kind  of  entertainment,  and  rival  the  originator.  Un- 
 der .^schvlus  and  his  immediate  successors  the  the- 
 atrical contests  advanced  to  a  high  degree  of  impor- 
 tance. They  were  placed  under  the  superintendence 
 of  the  magistracy  ;  the  representations  were  given 
 with  every  advantage  of  stage  decoration,  and  the  ex- 
 penses defrayed  as  a  public  concern.  These  contests 
 were  maintained  at  Athens  with  more  or  less  splen- 
 dour and  talent  for  several  centuries,  long  surviving 
 her  independence  and  grandeur. — In  accordance  with 
 the  origin  of  the  drama,  its  contests  were  confined  to 
 the  Dionysia,  or  festivals  of  Bacchus,  the  patron  deity 
 of  scenic  entertainments.  These  festivals  were  four 
 in  number,  and  occurred  in  the  (ith,  7ih,  8th,  and  9th 
 months  respectively  of  the  Attic  year.  {Donaldson, 
 Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p.  132,  and  the  authorities  quo- 
 ted by  hiin,  in  notis.) — 1.  The  "  Cimnl ry-Dionysia" 
 (Tfi  Kar'  dypoiir;  Atovvata)  were  held  in  all  the  coun- 
 try towns  and  villages  throughout  Attica,  in  Posei- 
 deon,  the  sixth  Athenian  month,  corresponding  to  the 
 latter  part  of  December  and  the  beginning  of  January. 
 Aristophanes  has  left  us  a  picture  of  this  festival  in 
 the  Acharnians  (v.  235,  &c.).  About  to  offer  a  sac- 
 rifice to  Bacchus,  Dicaeapolis  appears  on  the  stage, 
 with  his  household  marshalled  in  regular  procession. 
 His  young  daughter  carries  the  sacred  basket  ;  a  slave 
 bears  aloft  the  mystic  symbol  of  the  god;  the  honest 
 1306 
 
 old  countryman  himself  comes  last,  chantintr  the  Phal- 
 lic song,  while  the  wife,  stationed  upon  the  house- top, 
 looks  on  as  spectatress.  The  number  of  actors  is 
 here,  of  course,  limited  to  one  family,  as  Dica;apolis 
 had  purchased  the  truce  for  himself  alone.  In  times 
 of  peace  and  quiet  the  whole  population  of  the  (5/}/jof 
 joined  in  the  solemnities. — 2.  'i  he  "  Festival  of  the 
 ici7)e-prcss'"  {tu  A//vata)  was  lield  in  the  month  Ga- 
 melion,  which  corresponded  to  the  Ionian  month  Le- 
 na'on,  and  to  part  of  January  and  February.  It  was, 
 like  the  rural  Dionysia,  a  vinlagefcstival,  but  difieied 
 froin  it  in  being  confined  to  a  particular  spot  in  the 
 city  of  Athens,  called  the  Lenaeon,  where  the  first 
 winepress  (A?/ydf)  was  erected — 3.  The  " Anthes- 
 teria"  {tu  'AvdeaTi'/pia,  or  tu  iv  Aifivatg)  were  held 
 on  the  11th,  12th,  and  13th  days  of  the  month  Anthes- 
 terion.  'i'his  was  not  a  vintage-festival  like  the  other 
 two.  The  new  wine  was  dravm  from  the  cask  on  the 
 first  day  of  the  feast,  which  was  called  lliOoiyta,  or 
 "  the  Broachings.'"  It  was  tasted  on  the  second  day, 
 which  was  called  Xoeg,  or  "  Ike  drinking-cups  ;"  while 
 the  third  day  was  called  'HvTpoi,  on  account  of  the 
 banqueting  which  went  on  then.  At  the  C/joes,  each 
 of  the  citizens  had  a  separate  cup,  a  custom  which 
 arose,  according  to  tradition,  from  the  presence  of 
 Orestes  at  the  feast  before  he  had  been  duly  purified 
 {Mixller's  Eumemden,  <)  50) :  it  has  been  thought, 
 however,  to  refer  to  a  difference  of  castes  among  the 
 worshippers  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  Dionys- 
 ian  rites  in  the  city. — 4.  The  "  Great  Dionysia'''  {tu 
 iv  doTEL,  TU  Kaf  i'laTv,  or  TU  uaTiiiu)  were  celebrated 
 between  the  8th  and  18th  of  Elaphebohon.  {Msehin., 
 nepl  -iTapmrpeaTz.,  p.  36.)  This  festival  is  always  to 
 be  understood  when  the  Dionysia  are  mentioned  with- 
 out any  qualifying  epithet. — At  the  first,  second,  and 
 fourth  of  these  festivals,  it  is  known  that  theatrical  ex- 
 hibitions took  place.  The  exhibitions  at  the  country 
 Dionysia  were  generally  of  old  pieces.  Indeed,  there 
 is  no  instance  of  a  play  being  acted  on  those  occasions 
 for  the  first  time,  at  least  after  the  Greek  drama  had 
 arrived  at  perfection.  At  the  Lenaea  and  the  great 
 Dionysia,  both  tragedies  and  comedies  were  perform- 
 ed ;  at  the  latter,  the  tragedies  at  least  were  always 
 new  pieces.  —  At  the  lime  of  the  greater  Dionysia 
 there  was  always  a  great  concourse  of  strangers  in 
 Athens  :  deputations  bringing  the  tribute  from  the 
 several  dependant  states,  visitants  from  the  cities  in 
 alliance,  and  foreigners  from  all  parts  of  the  civilized 
 world  :  for  these  Aiovvata  were  the  dramatic  Olympia 
 of  Greece.  {Artstoph.,  Arharn.,Al^.) — We  may  es- 
 timate the  importance  attached  to  these  scenic  exhi- 
 bitions from  the  care  manifested  in  providing  by  pub- 
 lic enactment  for  their  due  regulation  and  support. 
 They  were  [ilaced  under  the  immediate  superintend- 
 ence of  the  first  magistrates  in  the  state  :  the  repre- 
 sentations at  the  great  Dionysia  under  that  of  the 
 chief  archon,  those  at  the  Lcncva  under  that  of  him 
 called  the  king-archon.  {Jul.  Pollux,  8,  89,  sc</g.) 
 To  this  presiding  archon  the  candidates  presented 
 their  pieces.  He  selected  the  most  deserving  compo- 
 sitions, and  assigned  to  every  poet  thus  deemed  wor- 
 thy of  admission  to  the  contest  three  actors  by  lot, 
 together  with  a  chorus.  The  equipment  of  these  cho- 
 ruses was  considered  a  public  concern,  and,  as  such, 
 like  the  fitting  out  of  triremes  and  the  other  Itnovp- 
 yini,  or  stale  duties,  was  imposed  upon  the  wealthier 
 members  of  the  community.  The  l-ipf/j/Tai  of 
 each  tribe  selected  one  of  their  body  to  bear  tlie  cost 
 and  superintend  the  training  of  a  chorus.  This  in- 
 dividual was  termed  Xopijyoc,  his  office  XopTjyla. 
 The  Choragus  was  considered  as  the  religious  repre- 
 sentative of  the  whole  [leople.  Hence  his  person  and 
 the  ornaments  which  he  proctired  for  the  occasion 
 were  sacred.  {Dcmosth.  rn  Mid  ,  p.  519.)  He  was 
 said  to  do  ti.e  state's  work  for  it  {?^eiTnvpynv. — Con- 
 sult V ale kcnaer  ad  Amnion.,  2,  16.  —  Kuhnk.,  Epist. 
 
THEATRUM. 
 
 THEATRUM. 
 
 Crit.,  1,  p.  54.)     The  Choragia,  the  Gymnasiarchy, 
 the  Feasting  of  t'.ie  Tribes,  and  the  Architheoria,  he- 
 longed  to  the  class  of  regularly-recurring  state  burdens 
 {kyKVK?.ioi.  ?.£iTovpyiai),  to  which  all    persons  whose 
 property  exceeded  three  talents  were  liable.      It  was 
 the  business  of  the  Choragus  to  provide  the  chorus  in 
 all  plays,  whether  tragic  or  comic,  and  also  for  the 
 lyric  choruses  of  men  and  boys,  Pyrrhichists,  Cyclian 
 dancers,  and  others.     His  first  duty,  after  collecting 
 his  chorus,  was  to  jjrovide  and  pay  a  teacher  {xopodi- 
 6dr7Ka?.0(;),  who  instructed  them  in  the  songs  and  dan- 
 ces which  they  had  to  perform  ;  and  it  appears  that  Cho- 
 ragi  drew  lots  for  the  first  choice  of  teachers.     The 
 Choragus  had  also  to  pay  the  musicians  and  singers 
 who  composed   the  chorus,  and  was  allowed  to  press 
 children,  if  their  parents  did  not  give  them  up  of  their 
 own  accord.     He  was  obliged   to  lodge  and  maintain 
 the  chorus  till  the  time  of  performance,  and  to  supply 
 the  singers  with  such  aliments  as  conduce  to  strength- 
 en the  voice.     In  the  laws  of  Solon,  the  age  prescribed 
 for  the  Choragus  was  forty  years ;  but  this  law  does 
 not  appear  to  have  been  long  in  force.     The  relative 
 expense  of  the  different  choruses  in  the  time  of  Lysias 
 is  given  in  a  speech  of  that  orator.     {'A.~oX.  (5upo6., 
 p.  698.)     We  learn  from  this  that  the  tragic  chorus 
 coj.t  nearly  twice  as  much  as  the  comic,  though  nei- 
 ther of  the  dramatic  choruses  was  so  expensive  as  the 
 chorus  of   men  or  the  chorus  of  tlute-players.     (De- 
 moslh.  in  MuL,  p.  565.)     No  foreigner  was  allowed 
 to  dance  in  the  choruses  of  the  great  Dionysia.     {Pe- 
 tit, p.  353.)     If  any  Choragus  was  convicted  of  em- 
 ploymg  one  in  his  chorus,  he  was  liable  to  a  fine  of 
 a  thousand  drachms.      This  law  did  not  extend  to  the 
 Lcruca  (I'ctit,  p.  3o3) ;   there  the  MtrofA-of  also  might 
 be  Clioragi.     The  rival  Choragi  were  termed  avTL^upTj- 
 yoL  ;   the  contending  dramatic  poets,  and   the  compo- 
 sers for  the  Cyclian  or  other  choruses,  uvTidu^ucKokoi. ; 
 the  performers,  uvrLTEx^ot.     {Alciphron,  3,  48  ) — Du- 
 ring one  period  in  the  history  of  the  Athenian  stage, 
 the  tragic  candidates  wtre  each  to  produce  three  seri- 
 ous and  one  Satyric  drama,  together  entitled  a  rerpa- 
 /jiyia  ;  otherwise,  omitting  the  Satyric  drama,  the  three 
 tragedies,  taken  by  themselves,  were  called  a  Tpi?.oyia. 
 The  earliest  rerpaAoyia  on  record  is  that  one  of  .'Es- 
 chylus  which  contained  the  Persa,  and  was  exhibited 
 B.C.  472.     From  that  date  down  to  B.C.  415,  a  space 
 of  fifty-seven  years,  we  have  frequent  notices  of  tetral- 
 ogies.    In  B.C.  415,  Euripides  represented  a  tetralo- 
 gy, one  of  the  dramas  in  which  was  the  Troadcs.     Af- 
 ter this  lime  it  does  not  ap()ear  from  any  ancient  testi- 
 mony whether  the  custom  was  continued  or  not.     In- 
 deed, it  is  matter  of  great  doubt  whether  the  practice 
 was  at  any  time  regular  and   indispensable.      Some- 
 times, as  in  the  Oresteiad  of  .^Eschylus,  and  the  Pan- 
 dionid  of  Philocles,  the  three  tragedies  were  on  a  com- 
 mon and  connected  subject ;   in  general  we  find   the 
 case  otherwise.     {Ansloiik.,  Ran.,  1122.  —  /(/ ,  Av., 
 280.) — The  prize  of  tragedy  was,  as  has  already  been 
 noticed,  originally  a  goat ;  of  comedy,  a  jar  of  wine 
 and  a  basket  of  figs  :    but  of  these  we  have  no  intima- 
 tion after  the  first  stage  in  the  history  of  the  drama. 
 In  later  times  the  successful  poet  was  sitnplv  reward- 
 ed with  a  wreath  of  ivy.      (A/km,  5,   p.  217)      His 
 name  was  also  proclaimed   before  the  audience.      His 
 Choragus  and  performers  were  adorned  in  like  manner. 
 The  poet  used  also,  with  his  actors,  to  sacrifice  the 
 tirLviKia,  and   provide  an  entertainment,  to  which  his 
 friends  were  invited.     The  victorious  Choragus  in  a 
 tragic  contest  dedicated  a  tablet  to  Hacch\is,  inscribed 
 with  the  names  of  himself,  his  poet,  and   the  archon. 
 In  coincdv  the  (Jhoragus  likewise  consecrated  to  the 
 same  god  the  dress  and  ornaments  of  his  actors.     The 
 Choragus  who  had  exhibited   the  best  musical  or  the- 
 atrical entertainment  generally  received  a  tripod  as  a 
 levvard  or  prize.     This  he  was  at  the  expense  of  con- 
 secrating ;  and  in  sotne  cases  he  built  the  monument 
 
 [on  which  it  was  placed.     (Lysias,  ub.  supr.,  p.  202. 
 
 I — Wordsu-orth's  Athens  and  Attica,  p.  153,  seqq.) 
 Thus  the  beautiful  choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates, 
 which  is  still  standing  at  A.thens,  was  undoubtedly  sur- 
 mounted by  a  tripod. — The  merits  of  the  candidates 
 were  decided  by  judges  appointed  by  lot,  and  these 
 were  generally,  but  not  always,  five  m  number.  The 
 archon  administered  an  oath  to  them,  and  in  the  case 
 of  the  Cyclian  choruses,  any  injustice  or  partiality  was 
 punishable  by  fine.  No  prize  drama  was  allowed  to 
 be  exhibited  a  second  lime  ;  but  an  unsuccessful  piece, 
 after  being  altered  and  retouched,  might  be  again  pre- 
 sented. The  plays  of  ^iCschylus  were  exempted  by  a 
 special  decree  from  this  regulation.  Afterward  {Aul. 
 GelL,  7,  5)  the  same  privilege  was  extended  to  tho.se 
 of  Sophocles  and  p]uripides  ;  but  as  the  superiority  of 
 these  great  masters  was  so  decided,  few  candidates 
 could  be  found  to  enter  the  lists  against  their  produced 
 tragedies.  A  law  was  consequently  passed,  forbidding 
 the  future  exhibition  of  these  three  dramatists,  and  di- 
 recting that  they  should  be  read  in  public  every  year. 
 — The  whole  time  of  representation  was  portioned  out 
 in  equal  spaces  to  the  several  competitors  by  means  of 
 a  clepsydra,  and  seems  to  have  been  dependant  upon 
 the  number  of  pieces  represented.  {Anslut.,  Poet., 
 7.)  It  was  the  poet's  business,  therefore,  so  to  limit 
 the  length  of  his  play  as  not  to  occupy  in  the  acting 
 more  than  the  time  allowed  It  is  impossible  now  to 
 ascertain  the  average  number  of  pieces  produced  at  one 
 representation.  Perhaps  from  ten  to  twelve  dramas 
 might  be  exhibited  in  the  course  of  the  day.  {Donald- 
 son, Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p.  138.) 
 
 3.  The  Theatre. 
 In  the  first  stage  of  the  art  no  building  was  required 
 or  provided  for  its  representations.  In  the  country, 
 the  Dionysian  performances  were  generally  held  at 
 some  central  point,  where  several  roads  met ;  as  a 
 rendezvous  most  easy  of  access,  and  convenient  in 
 distance  to  all  the  neighbourhood.  {Virg.,  Gcorg., 
 2,  382.)  In  the  city  the  public  place  was  the  ordi- 
 nary site  of  exhibition.  But  when,  at  Athens,  tragedy 
 began  to  assume  her  proper  dignity,  and  dramatic 
 contests  were  becoming  matter  of  national  pride  and 
 attention,  the  need  of  a  suitable  building  was  soon 
 felt.  A  theatre  of  wood  was  erected.  {Photius,  s.  v. 
 "iKpia.)  Through  the  weakness  of  the  material  or 
 sotne  defect  in  the  construction,  this  edifice  fell  be- 
 neath the  weight  of  the  crowds  assembled  to  witness 
 a  representation,  in  which  /Eschylus  and  Pratinas  were 
 rivals.  {Liban.^  Arg.  in  Ohjnlh.,  1. —  Suidas,  s.  v. 
 Uparivag.)  It  was  then  that  the  noble  theatre  of 
 stone  was  erected,  within  the  Ai]valov,  or  enclosure 
 dedicated  to  Bacchus.  The  building  was  commenced 
 in  the  year  500  B.C.,  but  not  finished  till  about  381 
 B.C.,  when  Lycurgus  was  manager  of  the  treasury. 
 The  student  who  wishes  to  form  an  adequate  notion 
 of  the  Greek  theatre  must  not  forget  that  it  was 
 only  an  improvement  upon  the  mode  of  representation 
 adopted  by  Thespis,  which  it  resembled  in  its  general 
 features.  The  two  necessary  parts  were  the  ^vfiiXri, 
 or  altar  of  Bacchus,  round  which  the  Cyclian  chorus 
 danced,  and  the  }.oynov,  or  stage,  from  which  the  ac- 
 tor or  exarchus  spoke.  It  was  the  rc[)resentative  of 
 the  wooden  table  from  which  the  earliest  actor  ad- 
 dressed his  chorus,  and  was  also  called  uKptCag.  {Jul. 
 Pollux,  4.  123.)— To  form  an  accurate  conception  of 
 the  Athenian  theatre  in  all  its  minutia;,  as  it  stood  in 
 the  davs  of  Pericles,  is  now  impracticable.  The  only 
 detailed  accounts  left  us  on  this  subject  are  two,  that 
 of  Vilruvius,  the  architect  of  .\iigustus,  and  that  of 
 Julius  Pollux,  his  junior  by  two  centuries.  From  the 
 descriptions  of  these  writers,  aided  and  explained  by  in- 
 cidental hints  in  other  ancient  authors,  and  a  reference 
 to  the  several  theatric  remains  in  Greece,  .\sia  Minor, 
 Sicily,  and  Italy,  Geiielli,  an  able  scholar  and  architcc 
 
 1307 
 
THEATRUM. 
 
 THEATRUM. 
 
 of  Berlin,  nas  drawn  up  a  statement,  in  the  main  satisHic- 
 tory.  (Gr.nclli,  Das  Tlicatcr  zti  Allien,  Ikiim,  1818.) 
 ■ — The  theatre  of  Bacchus  at  Athens  stood  on  the  souih- 
 eastern  side  of  the  eminence  crowned  hy  liie  noliie 
 buildniys  of  the  Acropolis.  From  the  level  of  the  plain 
 a  scnucircular  excavation  gradnally  ascended  n[)  the 
 slope  of  a  hill  to  a  considerable  height.  Round  the 
 concavity,  seats  for  an  audience  of  thirty  thousand  [)er- 
 sons  arose  range  above  range  ;  and  the  whole  was  top- 
 ped md  enclosed  by  a  lofty  portico,  adorned  with  stat- 
 ues md  surmounted  by  a  balustraded  terrace.  The 
 tieis  of  benches  were  divided  into  two  or  three  broad 
 belts,  by  passages  termed  Sia^ujuara  (called  in  the 
 Roman  theatres  pracinctiouci),  and  again  transverse- 
 ly into  wedge-like  masses,  called  KipKidec  (in  Latin 
 cunei),  by  several  (lights  of  steps,  radiating  upward 
 from  the  level  below  to  the  portico  above.  The  lower 
 seats,  as  being  the  better  adapted  for  hearing  and  see- 
 ing, were  considered  the  cnost  honourable,  and  there- 
 fore appropriated  to  the  high  magistrates,  the  priests, 
 and  the  senate.  This  space  was  named  BinOievTiKoi'. 
 {Arisloph.,  Av.,  294.— £^,  669  )  The  body  of  the 
 citizens  were  probably  arranged  according  to  their 
 tribes.  The  young  men  sat  apart  in  a  division,  en- 
 titled 'E(j)ri6u;6v.  The  sojourners  anii  strangers  had 
 also  their  places  allotted  tliem. — Twelve  feet  beneath 
 the  lowest  range  of  seats  lay  a  level  space,  partly  en- 
 closed by  the  sweep  of  the  excavation,  and  [lartly  ex- 
 tending outward  right  and  left  in  a  long  parallelo- 
 gram. This  was  the  "Opxrjarpa.  In  the  middle  of 
 this  open  tlat  stood  a  small  platform,  square  and  slightly 
 elevated,  called  QvftiXi/,  which  served  both  as  an  altar 
 for  the  sacrifices,  that  preceded  the  exhibition,  and  as 
 the  central  point  to  which  the  choral  movements  were 
 all  referred.  That  part  of  the  orchestra  which  lay 
 without  the  concavity  of  the  seats,  and  ran  along  on 
 either  hand  to  the  boundary  wall  of  the  theatre,  was 
 called  Afju/io^  (the  Roman  I/cr).  The  wings,  as  they 
 might  be  termed,  of  this  £^p6/iOQ,  were  named  HapoSoi, 
 and  the  entrances  which  led  into  them  through  tlie 
 boundary  wall,  were  entitled  FJa6(ht  (the  Roman 
 Aditus).  —  On  the  side  of  the  orchestra  opposite  the 
 amphitheatre  of  benches,  and  exactly  on  a  level  with 
 the  lowest  range,  stood  the  platform  of  the  S/cr/r??  or 
 stage,  in  breadth  nearly  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the 
 semicircular  part  of  the  orchestra,  and  communicating 
 with  the  Apofxog  by  a  double  flight  of  steps.  The 
 stage  was  cut  breadthwise  into  two  divisions.  The 
 one  in  front,  called  Aoydov  (the  Latin  pulpilum),  was 
 a  narrow  parallelogram  projecting  into  the  orchestra. 
 This  was  generally  the  station  of  the  actors  when 
 speaking,  and  therefore  was  constructed  of  wood,  the 
 better  to  reverberate  the  voice.  The  front  and  sides 
 of  the  Af/}'tiO)',  twelve  feet  in  height,  adorned  with 
 columns  and  statues  between  them,  were  called  ~u 
 vnoani'iVLa. — The  part  of  the  platform  behind  the  Ao- 
 yelov  was  called  the  Y[pnaKi)viov,  and  was  built  of 
 stone,  in  order  to  support  the  heavy  scenery  and  dec- 
 orations, which  there  were  placed.  The  proscenium 
 was  backed  and  flanked  by  lofty  buildings  of  stone- 
 work, representing  externally  a  palace-like  mansion, 
 and  containing  within,  withdrawing-rooms  for  the  ac- 
 tors and  receptacles  for  the  stage  machinery.  In  the 
 central  edifice  were  three  entrances  upon  the  prosceni- 
 um, which,  by  established  practice,  were  made  to  desig- 
 nate the  rank  of  the  characters  as  they  came  on  ;  the 
 highly  ornamented  portal  in  the  middle,  with  the  altar 
 of  .Apollo  on  the  right,  being  assigned  to  royalty,  the 
 two  side  entrances  to  inferior  personages.  {Pollux, 
 4,  9.)  In  a  similar  way,  all  the  personages  who  made 
 their  appearance  bv  the  Efcrof^of  on  the  right  of  the 
 stage,  were  understood  to  come  from  the  country  ; 
 while  such  as  came  in  from  the  left  were  supposed  to 
 approach  from  the  town. — On  each  side  of  the  prosce- 
 nium and  its  erections  ran  the  TlapaaKrjvia,  high  lines 
 of  building  with  architectural  front,  which  contained 
 1308 
 
 spacious  passages  into  the  theatre  from  without,  com- 
 muhicating  on  the  one  hand  with  the  stage  and  its 
 contiguous  a])artments ;  on  the  other,  through  two 
 halls,  with  the  IlapoJof  of  the  orchestra,  and  with  the 
 portico  which  ran  round  the  to])inost  range  of  the 
 seats. — Behind  the  whole  mass  of  stage  buildings  was 
 an  open  space,  covered  with  turf  and  planted  with 
 trees.  Around  this  ran  a  portico,  called  the  cumenic, 
 which  was  the  place  of  rehearsal  for  the  chorus,  and, 
 with  the  upper  portico,  aflbrded  a  ready  shelter  to  the 
 audience  during  a  sudden  storm.  There,  too,  the  ser- 
 vants of  the  wealthier  spectators  awaited  the  depart- 
 ure of  their  masters. — Such  was  the  construction  and 
 arrangement  of  the  great  Athenian  theatre.  Its  di- 
 mensions must  have  been  immense.  If,  as  we  are  as- 
 sured, 30,<)()0  persons  could  be  seated  on  its  benches, 
 the  length  of  the  Apo/iof  could  not  have  been  less  than 
 400  feet,  and  a  spectator  in  the  central  point  of  the 
 topmost  range  must  have  been  300  feet  from  the  ac- 
 tor in  the  Xoyelov.  {Gcnclli,  p.  52  ) — The  scenery 
 of  the  Athenian  stage  was  doubtless  corresponding  to 
 the  magnificence  of  the  theatre.  The  catalogue  which 
 Julius  Pollux  has  left  us  bespeaks  great  variety  of  de- 
 vices and  much  ingenuity  of  contrivance,  although  we 
 may  not  altogether  be  able  to  comprehend  his  obscure 
 descriptions.  We  may,  however,  safely  conclude  that 
 the  age  and  city  which  witnessed  the  dramas  of  a 
 Sophocles,  the  statues  of  a  Phidias,  and  the  paintings 
 of  a  Zeuxis,  possessed  too  much  taste  and  too  much 
 talent  to  allow  of  aught  mean  and  clumsy  in  the  scen- 
 ery of  an  exhibition,  which  national  pride,  individual 
 wealth,  and  the  sanctity  of  religion  conspired  to  exalt 
 into  the  most  splendid  of  solemnities. — The  massive 
 buildings  of  the  proscenium  were  well  ada|)ted  for  the 
 generality  of  tragic  dramas,  where  the  chief  charac- 
 ters were  usually  princes,  and  the  front  of  their  palace 
 the  place  of  action.  But  not  unfrequently  the  locality 
 of  the  play  was  very  different.  Out  of  the  seven  ex- 
 tant pieces  of  Sophocles,  there  are  but  four  which 
 could  be  performed  without  a  change  of  prosce- 
 nium. The  Qildipus  Coloneus  requires  a  grove,  the 
 Ajax  a  camp,  and  the  Philoctetes  an  island  solitude. 
 In  comedy,  which  was  exhibited  on  the  same  stage, 
 the  necessity  of  alteration  was  still  more  common. 
 To  produce  the  requisite  transformations  various  means 
 were  employed.  Decorations  were  introduced  before 
 the  proscenic  buildings,  which  masked  them  from  the 
 view,  and  substituted  a  prospect  suitable  to  the  play. 
 These  decorations  were  formed  of  woodwork  below ; 
 above  were  paintings  on  canvass,  resembling  our 
 scenes,  and,  like  them,  so  arranged  on  perspective  prin- 
 ciples as  to  produce  the  proper  illusion.  {Pollux,  4, 
 19.)  No  expense  or  skill  seems  to  have  been  spared 
 in  the  preparation  of  these  scenic  representations; 
 nay,  it  is  not  improbable  that  even  living  trees  were 
 occasionally  introduced,  to  produce  the  better  effect. 
 The  stage-machinery  appears  to  have  comprehended 
 all  that  modern  ingenuity  has  devised.  As  the  inter- 
 course between  earth  and  heaven  is  very  frequent  in 
 the  mythologic  dramas  of  the  Greeks,  the  number  of 
 aerial  contrivances  was  proportionably  great.  Were 
 the  deities  to  be  shown  in  converse  aloft  1  there  was 
 the  QEo7.oyElvo,  a  platform  surrounded  and  concealed 
 by  clouds.  Were  gods  or  heroes  to  be  seen  passing 
 through  the  void  of  the  sky,  there  were  the  Aiupai,  a 
 set  of  ropes,  which,  suspended  from  the  upper  part  of 
 the  proscenic  building,  served  to  support  and  convey 
 the  celestial  being  along. — The  Mj/xav?/,  again,  was 
 a  sort  of  crane  turning  on  a  pivot,  with  a  suspender  at 
 tached,  placed  on  the  right,  or  country  side  of  the 
 stage,  and  employed  suddenly  to  dart  out  a  god  or  hero 
 before  the  eyes  of  the  spectators,  and  there  keep  him 
 hovering  in  air  till  his  part  was  performed,  and  then  as 
 suddenly  withdraw  him.  The  Ttpavoc  (Pollux,  4, 
 19)  was  something  of  the  same  sort,  with  a  grapple 
 hanging  from  it,  used  to  catch  up  persons  from  the 
 
THEATRUM. 
 
 THEATRUM. 
 
 earth,  and  rapidly  whirl  them  within  the  circle  of  scen- 
 ic clouds;  Aurora  was  thus  made  to  carry  off  the 
 dead  hody  of  her  son  Memnon. — There  was,  more- 
 over, the  BpovTEiov,  a  connivance  ni  the  'Y-rToaKT/viov, 
 or  room  beneath  the  Aoytlov,  where  bladders  full  of 
 pebbles  were  rolled  over  sheets  of  copper,  to  produce 
 a  noise  like  the  rumbling  of  thunder.  'I'he  Kcpavvo- 
 OKO-dov  was  a  place  on  the  io[)  of  the  stage  buildings, 
 whence  the  artificial  lightning  was  made  to  play  through 
 the  clouds,  which  concealed  the  operator. — \\'hen  the 
 action  was  simply  on  earth,  there  were  certain  pieces 
 of  framework,  ihe  i/iOTT?/,  'VelxiK,  Tlvp)o(,  and  <^fn•/c- 
 rCipiov,  representing,  as  their  names  import,  a  look- 
 out, a  fortress-wall,  a  tower,  and  a  beacon.  These 
 were  either  set  apart  from  the  stationary  erections  of 
 the  proscenium,  or  connected  so  as  to  give  them,  with 
 the  assistance  of  the  canvass  scene,  the  proper  aspect. 
 Here  a  sentinel  was  introduced,  or  a  spectator,  sup- 
 posed to  be  viewing  some  distant  object.  The  'Mfu- 
 KVK/uov  was  a  semicircular  machine,  placed,  when 
 wanted,  on  the  country  side  of  the  stage,  which  en- 
 closed a  representation  of  the  sea  or  a  city  in  the  dis- 
 tance, towards  which  the  eye  looked  through  a  pas- 
 sage between  cliffs  or  an  opening  among  trees,  ^^'hat 
 the  ILrpocjxiov  and  'lifiia-poipdoii  were,  it  is  difficult 
 to  make  out.  It  would  seem  that  they  were  con- 
 structed something  like  the  'U/iiKi'KXtov,  but  moved 
 on  a  pivot,  so  that,  l)y  a  sudden  v\hirl,  the  object  they 
 presented  might  be  shown  or  withdrawn  in  an  instant. 
 They  were  employed  to  exhibit  heroes  transported  to 
 the  company  of  deities,  and  men  perishing  in  the  waves 
 of  the  sea  or  the  tumult  of  battle. — In  some  cases  one 
 or  more  stories  of  the  front  wall  in  a  temporary  house 
 were  made  to  turn  upon  hinges,  so  that  when  this 
 front  was  drawn  back,  the  interior  of  a  room  could  be 
 wheeled  out  and  exposed  to  view,  as  in  the  Acharni- 
 ans,  where  Euri[)ides  is  so  brought  forward.  This 
 contrivance  was  called  ''EKKVuTiTj/xa.  (Pollux,  4,  19.) 
 — Such  were  some  of  the  devices  for  the  scenes  of 
 heaven  and  earth  ;  but  as  the  ancient  dramatists  fetch- 
 ed their  personages  not  unfreqnently  from  Tartarus, 
 other  provisions  were  required  for  their  due  appear- 
 ance.— Beneath  the  lowest  range  of  scats,  under  the 
 stairs,  which  led  up  to  them  from  the  orchestra,  was 
 fixed  a  door,  which  opened  into  the  orchestra  from  a 
 vault  beneath  it  by  a  flight  of  steps  called  XapuinoL 
 K/JfiaKcg.  Through  this  passage  entered  and  disap- 
 peared the  shades  of  the  departed.  Somewhat  in 
 front  of  this  door  and  steps  was  another  communica- 
 tion by  a  trap-door  with  the  vault  below,  called  'Aj'd- 
 irieaua  ;  by  means  of  which,  any  sudden  appearance, 
 like  that  of  the  Furies,  was  effected.  A  second  'Ava- 
 ■Khafia  was  contained  in  the  floor  of  the  Aoynov  on 
 the  right  or  country  side,  whence  particularly  marine 
 or  river  gods  ascended,  when  occasion  required — In 
 tragedy  the  scene  was  rarely  changed.  In  comedy, 
 however,  this  was  frequently  done.  To  conceal  the 
 stage  during  this  operation,  a  curtain,  called  av'Aaia, 
 wound  round  a  roller  beneath  the  floor,  was  drawn  vp 
 through  a  slit  between  the  Aoyelov  and  proscenium. 
 
 4.  Audience. 
 
 Originally  no  admission  money  was  demanded. 
 (Ihysrh  ,  Sitid.  et  Ilarpocr.,  s  v.  Qeup'iKa. — Lilian., 
 Arf.'.  in  Ohjnlh.,  1)  The  theatre  was  built  at  the 
 public  expense,  and,  therefore,  was  open  to  every  in- 
 dividual. The  consequent  crowding  and  quarrelling 
 for  places  among  so  vast  a  multitude  was  the  cause  of 
 a  law  being  passed,  which  fixed  the  entrance  price  at 
 one  drachma  each  person.  This  regulation,  debarring, 
 as  it  did,  the  poorer  classes  from  their  favourite  enter- 
 tainment, was  too  unpopular  to  continue  long  unre- 
 pealed. Pericles,  anxious  to  ingratiate  himself  with 
 the  commonalty,  brought  in  a  decree  which  enacted 
 that  the  price  should  be  reduced  to  two  oboli ;  and, 
 farther,  that  one  of  the  magistrates  should  furnish  out 
 
 of  the  public  funds  these  two  oboli  to  any  ore  who 
 might  choose  to  apply  for  it,  jirovided  his  name  was 
 registertd  in  the  book  of-  the  citizens  {Xrj^iapxiKov 
 ypa/jjuardov).  The  entrance-money  was  paid  to  the 
 lessee  of  the  theatre  (•&EaTpijviig,  T^tarpoTrili/.TK,  or 
 apxiTiKTuv),  who  paid  the  rent,  and  made  the  neces- 
 sary repairs  out  of  the  proceeds.  The  sum  obtain- 
 ed for  this  purpose  from  the  public  funds  was  drawn 
 from  the  contributions  originally  paid  by  the  allies  to- 
 wards carrying  on  war  against  the  Persians.  Bv  de- 
 grees, the  expenses  of  the  festivals  engrossed  the 
 whole  of  this  fund  ;  and  that  money,  which  ought  to 
 have  been  employed  in  su|)porting  a  military  force  for 
 the  common  defence  of  Greece,  was  scandalously  lav- 
 ished away  upon  the  idle  pleasure  of  the  Athenian 
 people.  This  measure  proved  most  ruinous  to  the 
 republic  ;  yet  so  jealous  were  the  multitude  of  any  in- 
 fringement upon  their  thcoric  expenses,  that,  when  an 
 orator  had  ventured  to  propose  the  restoration  of  the 
 sums  then  squandered  upon  spectacles  foreign  to  their 
 original  purpose,  a  decree  was  instantly  framed,  ma- 
 king it  death  to  offer  any  such  scheme  to  the  general 
 assembly.  Demosthenes  twice  cautiously  endeavour- 
 ed to  convince  the  people  of  their  follv  and  injustice  ; 
 but,  finding  his  exhortations  were  ill-received,  he  was 
 constrained  reluctantly  to  acquiesce  in  the  common 
 resolution.  —  The  lessee  sometimes  gave  a  gratu- 
 itous exhibition,  in  which  case  tickets  of  admission 
 were  distributed.  {Thcopkrast ,  Charact,  \\.)  Any 
 citizen  might  buy  tickets  for  a  stranger  residing  at 
 Athens.  (Thcophrasi.,  Charact.,  9.)  We  have  no 
 doubt  that  women  were  admitted  to  the  dramatic  ex- 
 hibitions. Julius  Pollux  uses  the  term  -^earpia  (2, 
 55;  4,  121),  which  is  alone  some  evidence  of  the 
 fact.  It  is  stated,  however,  expressly  by  Plato  (Gor- 
 gias,  p.  502,  D.—Leg.,  2,  p.  6.58,  D.—lb.,  7,  p.  817, 
 C)  and  by  Aristophanes  {Ecclcs.,  21,  scqq.).  —  The 
 spectators  hastened  to  the  theatre  at  the  dawn  of  day 
 to  secure  the  best  places,  as  the  performances  com- 
 menced very  early.  After  the  first  exhibition  was 
 over,  the  audience  retired  for  a  while,  until  the  second 
 was  about  to  commence.  There  were  three  or  four 
 such  representations  in  the  course  of  the  day,  thus 
 separated  by  short  intervals.  During  the  jierforinance 
 the  peojile  regaled  themselves  with  wine  and  sweet- 
 meats. The  number  of  spectators  in  the  Athenian 
 theatre  amounted  occasionally  to  thirty  thousand. 
 {I'lalo,  Si/mp.,  p.  13.)  This  immense  assembly  were 
 wont  to  express  in  no  gentle  terms  their  opinion  of  the 
 piece  and  actors.  Murmurs,  jeers,  hootings,  and 
 angry  cries  were  directed  in  turn  against  the  offending 
 performer.  They  not  iinfrequently  proceeded  still  far- 
 ther ;  sometimes  compelling  the  unfortunate  obj-cct  of 
 their  dissatisfaction  to  i)ull  off  his  mask  and  expose 
 his  face,  that  they  might  enjoy  his  disgrace  ;  some- 
 times, assailing  him  with  every  species  of  missile  at 
 hand,  they  drove  him  from  the  stage,  and  ordered  the 
 herald  to  summon  another  actor  to  su|)ply  his  (ilace, 
 who,  if  not  in  readiness,  was  liable  to  a  fine.  In  the 
 time  of  Machon  it  was  even  customary  to  pelt  a  bad 
 performer  with  stones.  {Athenaus,  6,  p.  245.)  On 
 the  other  hand,  where  the  impetuous  spectators  hap- 
 ])ened  to  be  gratified,  the  clapping  of  hands  and  shouts 
 of  a[>plause  were  as  loud  as  the  expression  of  their 
 displeasure.  In  much  the  same  manner  the  dramatic 
 candidates  themselves  were  treated. 
 
 5.  Actors. 
 
 In  the  origin  of  the  drama  the  member.*  of  the  cho 
 rus  were  the  onlv  performers.  Thespis  first  introdu- 
 ced an  actor  distinct  from  that  body.  ^Cschylus  add- 
 ed a  second,  and  Sophocles  a  third  actor  ;  and  this 
 continued  ever  after  to  be  the  legitimate  number. 
 Hence,  when  three  characters  happened  to  be  alieady 
 on  the  stage,  and  a  fourth  was  to  come  on,  one  cf  the 
 three  was  obliged  t3  retire,  change  his  dress,  and  so 
 
 1309 
 
THEATRUM. 
 
 THEATRUM. 
 
 cturn  as  the  fourth  personage.  The  poet,  however, 
 might  introduce  any  number  of  vivlcs,  as  guards,  at- 
 tendants, &c.  The  actors  were  called  vnoKpiTai  or 
 u-yuviaTai  'yrroKpiveaOai  was  originally  to  ansivcr 
 {Hcrodol.,  1,  78,  et  j)assini)  ;  hence,  when  a  locutor 
 was  introduced  who  answered  the  chorus,  he  was  call- 
 ed 6  VTTOKpiTT/^,  or  the  answerer ;  a  name  which  de- 
 scended to  the  more  numerous  and  refined  actors  in 
 after  days.  Subsequently  v-oKpiT/Jc,  from  its  being 
 the  name  of  a  performer  assuming  a  feigned  character 
 on  the  stage,  came  to  signify  a  man  who  assumes  a 
 feigned  character  in  his  intercourse  with  others,  a 
 hypocrite. — The  three  actors  were  termed  npurayDV- 
 icri/c,  devTEpayuviaTr/g,  TpcrayuviarTjg,  respectively, 
 according  as  each  performed  the  principal  or  one  of 
 the  two  inferior  characters.  They  took  every  pains  to 
 attain  perfection  in  their  art  :  to  acquire  muscular  en- 
 ergy and  pliancy  they  frequented  the  palasstra,  and  to 
 give  strength  and  clearness  to  their  voice  they  ob- 
 served a  rigid  diet.  An  eminent  performer  was  ea- 
 gerly sought  after  and  liberally  rewarded.  The  cele- 
 brated Polus  would  sometimes  gain  a  talent  (or  nearly 
 $1060)  in  the  course  of  two  days.  The  other  states 
 of  Greece  were  always  anxious  to  secure  the  best  At- 
 tic performers  for  their  own  festivals.  They  engaged 
 them  long  beforehand,  and  the  agreement  was  gener- 
 ally accompanied  by  a  stipulation,  that  the  actor,  in 
 case  he  failed  to  fulfil  the  contract,  should  pay  a  cer- 
 tain sum.  The  Athenian  government,  on  the  other 
 hand,  punished  their  performers  with  a  heavy  fine  if 
 they  absented  themselves  during  the  city's  festivals. 
 Eminence  in  the  histrionic  profession  seems  to  have 
 been  held  in  considerable  estimation  in  Athens  at 
 least.  Players  were  not  unfrequently  sent,  as  the 
 representatives  of  the  republic,  on  embassies  and  dep- 
 utations. Hence  they  became  in  old,  as  not  unfre- 
 quently in  modern  times,  self-conceited  and  domineer- 
 ing, fiEi^ov  duvavrai.,  says  Aristotle,  rwv  ttoitjtcjv  ol 
 VKOKpirai.  (Rhet.,  3,  1.)  They  were,  however,  as  a 
 body,  men  of  loose  and  dissipated  character,  and,  as 
 such,  were  regarded  with  an  unfavourable  eye  by  the 
 moralists  and  philosophers  of  that  age. 
 
 6.   Chorus. 
 
 The  chorus,  once  the  sole  matter  of  exhibition, 
 though  successively  diminished  by  Thespis  and  Ms- 
 chylus,  was  yet  a  very  essential  part  of  the  drama  du- 
 ring the  best  days  of  the  Greek  theatre.  The  splen- 
 dour of  the  dresses,  the  music,  the  dancing,  combined 
 with  the  loftiest  poetry,  formed  a  spectacle  peculiarly 
 gratifying  to  the  eye,  ear.  and  intellect  of  an  Attic  au- 
 dience. The  number  of  the  tragic  chorus  for  the 
 whole  trilogy  appears  to  have  been  50  ;  the  comic 
 chorus  consisted  of  24.  The  chorus  of  the  tetralogy 
 was  broken  into  four  sub-choruses,  two  of  15,  one  of 
 12,  and  a  Satyric  chorus  of  8.  When  the  chorus  of 
 15  entered  in  ranks  three  abreast,  it  was  said  to  be 
 divided  Kara  (vyd  ;  when  it  was  distributed  into  three 
 files  of  five,  it  was  said  to  be  icaru  ctoixovc-  The 
 situation  assigned  to  the  chorus  was  the  orchestra, 
 whence  it  always  took  a  part  in  the  action  of  the  dra- 
 ma, joining  in  the  dialogue  through  the  medium  of 
 its  KOpv6alo^,  or  leader.  The  choristers  entered  the 
 orchestra  preceded  by  a  player  on  the  flute,  who  rea- 
 ulated  their  steps,  sometimes  in  single  file,  more  fre- 
 quently three  in  front  and  five  in  depth  {Karu  aroi- 
 Xovc),  or  vice  versa  {Kara  (vyd),  in  tragedy  ;  and  four 
 in  front  by  six  in  depth,  or  inversely,  in  comedy.  Its 
 first  entrance  was  called  TzupoSoc; ;  its  occasional  de- 
 parture, (iirnvdaraaLr  :  its  return,  sTvinupoihr  ;  its 
 final  exit,  arf)or5of.  (Jul.  Pol.,  4,  15.)  According 
 to  the  rules  of  the  drama,  the  chorus  was  to  be  con- 
 sidered as  one  of  the  actors  :  Kal  rbv  x°9^v  6h  Iva 
 6el  VTro?^a6eiv  raJv  VKOKpiruv  Kal  finpiov  tlvat  tov 
 hlov,  Koi  avvayiJviCeaOai.  {Aristotle.  Poflica,  18, 
 21.)  Horace  lays  down  the  same  law  in  describing 
 1310 
 
 the  duties  of  the  chorus  (Ep.  ad  Pis.,  193.)  Some- 
 time.s,  again,  the  chorus  was  divided  into  two  groups, 
 each  with  a  corypha;us  stationed  in  the  centre,  who 
 narrated  some  event,  or  communicated  their  plan, 
 their  fears,  or  their  hopes ;  and  sometimes,  on  critical 
 occasions,  several  members,  in  short  sentences,  gave 
 vent  to  their  feelings.  Between  the  acts,  the  chorus 
 poured  forth  hymns  of  supplication  or  thanksgiving  to 
 the  gods,  didactic  odes  upon  the  misl'ortunes  of  life, 
 the  instability  of  human  affairs,  and  the  excellence  *»f 
 virtue,  or  dirges  upon  the  unhappy  fate  of  some  un- 
 fortunate personage  ;  the  whole  more  or  less  inter- 
 woven with  the  course  of  action.  "While  engaged  in 
 singing  these  choral  strains  to  the  accompaniment  of 
 flutes,  the  performers  were  also  moving  through  dan- 
 ces in  accordance  with  the  measure  of  the  music  ; 
 (lassing,  during  the  strophe,  across  the  orchestra,  from 
 right  to  left  ;  during  the  antislrophe,  back,  from  left 
 to  right  ;  and  stopfiing,  at  the  epode,  in  front  of  the 
 spectators.  Each  department  of  the  drama  had  a  pe- 
 culiar style  of  dance  suited  to  its  character.  That  of 
 tragedy  was  called  'tjifiiTiELa  ;  that  of  comedy,  Kupda^; 
 that  of  the  Satyric  drama,  aiKivvig. — The  music  ot 
 the  chorus  was  of  a  varied  kind,  according  to  the  na- 
 ture of  the  occasion  or  the  taste  of  the  poet.  The 
 Doric  mood  seems  to  have  been  originally  preferred 
 for  tragedy  (Athencrvs,  14,  p.  624) ;  it  was  sometimes 
 combined  with  the  Mixo-Lydian  [Plut.,  de  Mus.,  p. 
 1136),  a  pathetic  mood,  and  therefore  adapted  to 
 mournful  subjects.  The  Ionic  mood,  also,  was,  from 
 its  austere  and  elevated  character,  well  suited  to  tra- 
 gedy. {Atheti.,  14,  p.  625.)  Sophocles  was  the  first 
 who  set  choral  odes  to  the  Phrygian  mood.  Euripi- 
 des introduced  the  innovations  of  Timotheus,  for 
 which  he  is  severely  attacked  by  Aristophanes  in  the 
 KancB. — The  choruses  were  all  trained  with  the  great- 
 est care  during  a  length  of  time  before  the  day  of 
 contest  arrived.  Each  tribe  felt  intensely  interested 
 in  the  success  of  the  one  furnished  by  its  Choragus  ; 
 and  the  Choragi  themselves,  animated  with  all  the  en- 
 ergies of  rivalry,  spared  no  expense  in  the  instruction 
 and  equipment  of  their  respective  choruses.  They 
 engaged  the  most  celebrated  choral  performers,  em- 
 ployed the  ablest  xopodiSdcjKaTLOi  to  perfect  the  chor- 
 isters in  their  music  and  dancing,  and  provided  sump- 
 tuous dresses  and  ornaments  for  their  decoration. 
 The  first  tragic  poets  were  their  own  xopo'5iddaKa?.oi 
 .lEschylus  taught  his  chorus  figure-dances. 
 
 7.   Scenic  Dresses  and  Ornamcjits 
 
 In  the  first  age  of  the  drama,  the  rude  performers 
 disguised  their  faces  with  wine-lees,  or  a  sj)ecies  of 
 pigment  called  jiarpaxelov.  {Schol.  ad  Aristoph., 
 Eg.,  320.)  jEschylus,  among  his  many  improve- 
 ments, introduced  the  mask,  first  termed  rcpoaunov, 
 and  subsequently  Ttpoacmelov.  The  mask  was  made 
 of  bronze  or  copper,  and  was  so  constructed  as  to 
 give  greater  power  to  the  voice,  and  enable  the  actor 
 to  make  himself  heard  by  the  most  distant  spectators. 
 This  was  effected  by  connecting  it  with  a  tire  or  peri- 
 wig (7T7JVIKT1,  <pevuK7]),  which  covcrcd  the  head,  and 
 left  only  one  passage  for  the  voice,  which  was  gen- 
 erally circular,  converging  inward,  and  fjom  its  shape, 
 and  Its  being  lined  with  brass,  resembled  the  opening 
 of  a  speaking  trumpet.  The  voice,  therefore,  might 
 he  said  to  sound  through  this  opening,  and  hence  the 
 Latin  name  for  a  mask,  persona,  a persoriando.  (Aul. 
 GelL,  5,  7.)  These  masks  were  of  various  kinds,  to 
 express  every  age,  sex,  country,  condition,  and  com- 
 plexion ;  to  which  they  were  assimilated  with  the 
 greatest  skill  and  nicety.  (Jul.  Poll.,  4,  133.)  With 
 equal  care,  the  dresses  of  the  actors  were  adapted  to 
 the  characters  represented.  Gods,  heroes,  satyrs, 
 kings,  soothsayers,  soldiers,  hunters,  peasants,  slaves, 
 pimps,  and  parasites,  young  and  old,  the  prosperous 
 and  the  unfortunate,  were  all  arrayed  in  their  appropri- 
 
THEATRUM 
 
 THE 
 
 ate  vestments  ;  each  of  which  Julius  Pollux  has  sep- 
 arately and  niinutcly  described  in  a  chapter  devoted 
 to  the  siiliji'ct.  1'liis  writer  divides  the  tragic  masks 
 alone  into  twenty-six  classes  (4,  133,  scrjf/.).  The 
 comic  masks  were  much  more  numerous.  He  speci- 
 fies only  four  or  five  kinds  of  Satyric  masks.  Most 
 of  the  male  wigs  were  collected  into  a  forelop  {oyKO^), 
 which  was  an  angular  projection  above  the  forehead, 
 shaped  like  a  A,  and  was  [jrobably  borrowed  from  the 
 Kpufu'Aov  of  the  old  Athenians.      {Jul.  I'ulL,  4,  133. 
 
 —  Thuri/(l.,  1,  6  )  The  female  masks,  however,  were 
 often  surmounted  in  a  similar  manner.  The  object 
 of  this  projection  was  to  give  the  actor  a  height  pro- 
 portioned to  the  size  of  the  theatre,  an  object  for  which 
 the  cothurnus  was  also  intended.  It  appears  from 
 Polhi.x  (4,  141)  that  the  masks  were  coloured  ;  and 
 the  art  of  enamelling  or  painting  bronze  seems  to  have 
 been  one  of  great  esteem  in  the  time  of  .Eschylus. 
 {Mschyl,  Agam.,  62-i.—  \Vclcker,  Nachlrao- ,  p."42.) 
 — Another  peculiarity  which  distinguished  the  Greek 
 manner  of  acting  from  our  own,  was  the  probable  neg- 
 lect of  everything  like  hjplay  and  mcikinff  poin/s, 
 which  are  so  eft'ective  on  the  modern  stage.  The 
 distance  at  which  the  spectators  were  placed  would 
 prevent  them  from  seeing  those  little  movements,  and 
 hearing  those  low  tones,  which  have  made  the  fortune 
 of  many  a  modern  actor.  The  mask,  too,  precluded 
 all  attempts  at  varied  expression  ;  and  it  is  probable 
 thai  nothing  more  was  expected  from  the  performer 
 than  good  recitation  — The  buskin,  or  colhurnus  (k6- 
 Oojivoc;),  was  the  ancient  Cretic  hunting  boot.  For 
 tragic  use  it  was  soled  with  several  layers  of  cork,  to 
 the  thickness  of  three  inches.  It  was  laced  up  in  front 
 as  high  as  the  calf,  which  kept  the  whole  tight  and 
 firm,  in  spite  of  the  enormous  sole. — It  was  not  worn 
 by  all  tragic  characters,  nor  on  all  occasions.  Aga- 
 memnon IS  introduced  by  .-Eschylus  in  sandals.  The 
 sandal  raised  by  a  cork  sole  was  called  e^6ar7?f.  The 
 ladies  and  the  chorus  had  also  the  buskin,  but  that  of 
 the  latter  had  only  an  ordinary  sole.  These  buskins 
 were  of  various  colours.  W^hite  was  commonly  the 
 colour  for  ladies,  red  for  warriors.  Those  of  Bacchus 
 were  purple.  Slaves  wore  the  low  shoe  called  the 
 sock,  which  was  also  the  ordinary  covering  for  the 
 foot  of  the  comic  actor. — As  the  cork  sole  of  the  co- 
 thurnus gave  elevation  to  the  stature,  so  the  KuX-zufia, 
 or  stuffings,  swelled  out  the  person  to  heroic  dimen- 
 sions. Judiciously  managed,  it  added  expansion  to  the 
 chest  and  shoulders,  muscular  fulness  to  arm  and  limb. 
 
 —  The  dresses  were  very  various.  There  was  the 
 XiTuv  no<^7}f)T/(;  for  gods,  heroes,  and  old  men.  That 
 Ibr  hunters,  travellers,  and  young  nobles  and  warriors 
 when  unarmed,  was  shorter,  and  sat  close  to  the  neck. 
 The  girdle  for  heroes  was  that  called  the  Persian.  It 
 was  very  broad,  made  of  scarlet  slufT,  and  fringed  at 
 the  lower  edge.  Goddesses  and  ladies  wore  one  broad 
 and  plain,  of  purple  and  gold.  The  crvp/xa  was  a  long 
 pur[)le  robe  for  queens  and  princesses,  with  a  train 
 which  swept  the  ground.  The  lower  part  of  the  sleeve 
 was  broidercd  with  white. — The  XvaTirj  was  a  short 
 train  with  short  sleeves  drawn  over  the  ;\;tr(ji'  Tro(5//- 
 p^r.  Slaves  wore  the  liiuriov,  a  kind  of  short  shirt, 
 or  the  t^u/iK;,  a  shirt  with  only  one  sleeve  for  the  right 
 arm  ;  the  left  was  bare  to  the  shoulder.  Herdsmen 
 and  shepherds  were  clad  in  the  (hcpdipa,  a  kind  of  goat- 
 skin tunic  without  sleeves.  Hunters  had  the  ifiuTtov, 
 and  a  short  horseman's  cloak  of  a  dark  colour.  If 
 they  were  great  personages,  they  were  dressed  in  a 
 tunic  of  deep  scarlet,  with  a  rich  and  embroidered 
 mantle.  Warriors  were  arrayed  in  every  variety  of 
 armour,  with  helmets  adorned  with  plumes.  The  pal- 
 la  or  mantle  for  heroes  was  ample  enough  to  cover 
 the  whole  person.  So  large,  also,  was  the  ladies'  ITt- 
 ttXov,  of  fine  cloth,  embroidered.  Matrons  wore  this 
 peplum  fastened  veil-like  on  the  head  ;  virgins, clasped 
 on  the  shoulder.     The  peplum  of  a  queen  was  like 
 
 that  assigned  to  Juno,  decked  with  golden  stars  and 
 fastened  beiiind  the  diadem.  The  dress  of  the  gods 
 was  particularly  splendid.  .  Bacchus,  for  instance,  was 
 represented  in  a  saflron-coloured  inner  vest,  rich  with 
 purple  figures  and  glittering  with  golden  stars,  and 
 falling  in  many  folds  to  the  ground.  The  vest  was 
 girt,  female  fashion,  high  up  under  the  breast  and 
 shoulders,  with  a  broad  girdle  of  dark  purple  set  with 
 gold  and  jewels.  Over  this  inner  robe  was  thrown 
 the  palla,  of  purple  also,  and  such  was  the  colour  of 
 his  buskins.  'I'he  comic  dresses  were,  of  course, 
 chiefly  those  of  ordinary  life,  except  durinc  an  occa- 
 sional burlesque  upon  the  tragic  eqc'pment.  {Thea- 
 tre of  the  Greeks,  p.  1,  scqq.,  3d  cd — Dcr.aldson, 
 Theatre  of  the  Greeks,  p.  132,  seqq.) 
 
 Thkb.e  {-arum.),  I.  (or,  more  coriectly,  Thebe, 
 Or'/fir/),  a  city  of  Mysia,  north  of  Adramyttiurn,  and  call- 
 ed, for  distinction' sake,  Hypoplakia.  This  name  it  re- 
 ceived from  the  adjacent  district,  which  was  stvled 
 Hypoplakia,  because  lying  at  the  fool  of  Mount  Plakos 
 {vTTo  and  IlXuKog).  As  regards  the  existence,  how- 
 ever, of  such  a  mountain,  some  doubt  exists.  (Com- 
 pare Heyne,  ad  II ,  6,  396.)  Thebe  is  said  to  have 
 derived  its  name  from  a  daughter  of  Cilix.  {Diod. 
 Sic,  5,  49.)  It  was  the  native  city  of  Andromache, 
 and  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Achilles  during  the 
 Trojan  war.  It  never  rose  from  its  ruins;  but  the 
 name  remained  throughout  antiquity  attached  to  the 
 surrounding  plains,  famed  for  their  fertility,  and  often 
 ravaged  and  plundered  by  the  different  armies  whom 
 the  events  of  war  brought  into  this  part  of  .Asia. 
 {Xc7i.,  Anab,  7,  8,  i.—Folijb.,  16,  1,  7.— Id.,  21,  8, 
 13.  — Lry.,37,  19.  — Pomp  Mc!.,  1,  18.)— II.  (and 
 Thebe,  Qi/6ai  and  Qi/Cri,  more  frequently  the  former), 
 one  of  the  most  ancient  and  celebrated  of  the  Grecian 
 cities,  the  capital  of  Bceotia,  situated  near  the  river 
 Ismenus,  and  in  a  northeastern  direction  from  Platoea. 
 It  was  said  to  have  been  originally  founded  by  Cad- 
 mus, who  gave  it  the  name  of  Cadmeia,  which  in  after 
 times  was  confined  to  the  citadel  only.  Lycophron, 
 however,  who  terms  it  the  city  of  Calydmus,  from  one 
 of  its  ancient  kings,  leads  ns  to  suppose  that  it  already 
 existed  before  the  time  of  Cadmus  (v.  1209).  Non- 
 nus  affirms  that  Cadmus  called  this  city  Thebes,  after 
 the  Egyptian  one  of  the  same  name.  {Dioiiys.,  5,  85.) 
 He  also  reports  that  it  was  at  first  destitute  of  walls 
 and  ramparts  (5,  50),  and  this  is  in  unison  with  the  ac- 
 counts transmitted  to  us  by  Homer  and  other  writers, 
 who  all  agree  in  ascribing  the  erection  of  the  walls  of 
 the  city  to  .\mphion  and  Zethus.  {Horn.,  Od.,  1 1,  262. 
 — Eurip. .  Phaen, 8i'2. — Horn.,  Hynmin  ApoL,  225.) — 
 Having  already  mentioned  much  of  what  is  common  to 
 Thebes,  in  the  general  history  of  Bceotia,  it  will  be  here 
 sufTicient  to  notice  briefly  those  events  which  have 
 peculiar  reference  to  that  city. — Besieged  by  the  Ar- 
 give  chiefs,  the  allies  of  Polynices,  the  Thebans  suc- 
 cessfully resisted  their  attacks,  and  finally  obtained  a 
 signal  victory  ;  but  the  Epigoni,  or  descendants  of  the 
 seven  warriors,  having  raised  an  army  to  avenge  the 
 defeat  and  death  of  their  fathers,  the  city  was  on  this 
 occasion  taken  by  assault  and  sacked.  {Pausan.,  9, 
 9.)  It  was  invested  a  third  time  by  the  Grecian  army 
 under  Pausanias,  after  the  battle  of  Platasa;  but,  on 
 the  surrender  of  those  who  had  proved  themselves 
 most  zealous  partisans  of  the  Persians,  the  siege  was 
 raised,  and  the  confederates  withdrew  from  the  The- 
 ban  territory.  (Herod.,  9,  S8.)  Many  years  after,  the 
 Cadmeia  was  surprised,  and  held  by  a  division  of  La- 
 cedaemonian troops  until  they  were  compelled  to  evac- 
 uate the  place  by  Pelopidas  and  his  associates. — Philip 
 having  defeated  the  Thebans  at  Chajronea,  placed  a 
 garrison  in  their  citadel  ;  but,  on  the  accession  of  Al- 
 exander, they  revolted  against  that  prince,  who  storm- 
 ed their  city,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground,  B  C.  335. 
 {Arrian,  Exp.  Alex.,  1,  7,  seqq. — Ptuc,  Vit.  Alex., 
 5,  11.)     Twenty  years  afterward  it  was  restored  by 
 
 1311 
 
THEB.E. 
 
 THEB^. 
 
 Ctcsiinilef.  when  the  Atlionians  are  said  to  have  gcn- 
 fcioiist^  comnbiUfd  tlirir  aid  in  rebuilding  the  walls,  an 
 e.v-tiTfjn;  ^1■Ilu^h  was  followed  by  other  places.  {I'au- 
 saii.,  9,  l.—FI-dt.,  PoUt.  Pracep..  p.  814,  B)  Sub- 
 Bcqiiently  we  find  that  Thebes  was  twice  taken  by 
 De/neir^os  Poliorcetes.  {Plnf  ,  Vit.  Dcmclr.,  c.  39.) 
 Dicrearchus  has  given  a  very  detailed  and  interesting 
 account  of  this  great  city  about  this  period.  (Stat., 
 Gr.,  p.  14.)  At  a  later  period  Thebes  was  greatly 
 reduced  and  impoverished  by  the  rapacious  Sylla. 
 {Pansan.,  9,  7  )  Strabo  affirms,  that  in  his  time  it 
 vx'as  little  more  than  a  village.  (.SVrai.,  403.)  Thebes, 
 though  nearly  deserted  towards  the  decline  of  the  Ro- 
 man empire,  appears  to  have  been  of  some  note  in  the 
 middle  ages  [Nicct.,  Ann.,  2,  p.  50.  —  Lewie,  Ann., 
 p.  267),  and  it  is  still  one  of  the  most  populous  towns 
 of  northern  Greece.  Tlie  natives  call  it  Thiva.  It 
 retains,  however,  according  to  Dodwell,  scarcely  any 
 traces  of  its  former  magnificence.  Of  the  walls  of  the 
 Cadmeia  a  few  fragments  remain,  which  are  regularly 
 constructed.  These  were  probably  erected  by  the 
 Athenians  when  Cassander  restored  the  town.  (Tour, 
 vol.  1,  p.  26'i.— Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  223, 
 sc(]q.) — III.  Phthiolics,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  in  the  dis- 
 trict of  Phlhioiis.  situate,  according  to  Polybius,  about 
 300  stadia  from  Larissa,  and  not  far  from  the  sea.  In 
 a  military  point  of  view  its  importance  was  great,  as 
 It  commanded  the  avenues  of  Magnesia  and  Thessaly, 
 from  its  vicinity  to  Demetrius,  Pherae,  and  PharsaUis. 
 Sir  VV.  Gell  describes  some  ruins  between  Armiro 
 and  Volo.  which  he  suspects  to  be  those  of  this  town. 
 {Itin.,  p.  2.58.  —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  402.) 
 — IV.  A  celebrated  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  the  capital 
 of  Thcbais.  The  name  is  corrupted  from  the  Tape  of 
 the  Coptic,  which,  in  the  Memphitic  dialect  of  that 
 language,  is  pronounced  Theba.  Pliny  in  one  place 
 writes  the  name  of  Thebes  in  the  singular:  '■^Thebe 
 purtarum  centum  nobilis  fama,'"  (5,  9).  The  appella- 
 tion of  Diospolis,  often  applied  to  it  by  the  Greeks, 
 B  a  translation  of  Amunci,  or  "the  abode  of  Am- 
 mon,"  who  represents  the  Egyptian  Jupiter.  Another 
 name  given  to  it  by  the  Greeks  was  Hecatompylos, 
 which  will  be  considered  below.  The  origin  of  this 
 great  city  is  lost  amid  the  obscurity  of  lable.  By 
 some  it  was  ascribed  to  Osiris,  by  others  to  one  of 
 the  earliest  of  the  Egyptian  kings.  The  probability 
 is,  that  it  was  at  first  a  sacerdotal  establishment,  con- 
 nected with  commercial  operations,  like  so  many  of 
 the  early  cities  of  Egypt,  and  that  it  gradually  attained 
 to  its  vast  dimensions  in  consequence  of  the  additions 
 made  by  successive  monarchs,  The  Egyptians,  how- 
 ever, according  to  Diodorus  (1,  50),  believed  Thebes 
 to  have  lieen  the  first  city  founded  upon  the  earth  ; 
 and,  in  truth,  we  have  no  account  at  the  present  day 
 of  any  of  earlier  origin.  Its  most  flourishing  period 
 appears  to  have  been  prior  to  the  building  of  Memphis, 
 when  Thebes  was  the  capital  of  all  Egypt,  the  royal 
 residence,  and  abode  of  the  highest  sacerdotal  college 
 in  the  land.  It  must,  from  its  very  situation,  have 
 been  the  middle  point  for  the  caravan  trade  to  the 
 south,  and  through  it  passed,  verv  probably,  all  the  pro- 
 ductions and  wares  of  Asia.  Homer,  therefore,  who 
 describes  it  as  a  powerful  city,  containing  a  hundred 
 gates,  must  have  derived  his  information  from  the  Phoe- 
 nicians cngaued  in  the  overland  trade.  It  is  idle  lo 
 supjiose  that  the  poet  himself  had  been  there  in  person, 
 when  of  the  rest  of  Egypt  he  knew  nothing  but  the 
 mere  name,  and  had  but  a  confused  idea  even  of  the 
 Mediterranean  coast.  The  poet  informs  us  that  out 
 of  each  these  100  gates,  Thebes  could  send  forth  200 
 chariots  to  oppose  an  enemy :  an  evident  exaggera- 
 tion, either  originating  in  his  own  fancy,  or  received 
 from,  and  characteristic  of,  the  Phoenician  traders.  It 
 is  to  its  numerous  portals  that  the  epithet  of  Hecatom- 
 jiylos  ("  hundred-gated")  refers.  As  the  city,  how- 
 ever, contrary  to  the  usual  belief,  was  never  surrounded 
 3312 
 
 by  walls,  these  gates  or  portals  must  either  be  those  of 
 its  numerous  palaces,  or  else,  and  what  is  more  proba- 
 ble, the  ojienings  in  the  great  circus  or  hippodrome, 
 that  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city.  This  circus 
 enclosed  a  space  of  2000  metres  in  length  and  1000 
 in  breadth,  and  was  surrounded  with  triumjjhal  struc- 
 tures that  gloriously  announced  the  approach  to  the  an- 
 cient capital  of  Egypt.  Thebes  sank  in  importance 
 when  Lower  Egypt  began  to  be  more  thickly  inhabited, 
 and  the  new  capital  Mem[ihis  arose.  A  second  and  a 
 third  sacerdotal  college  were  established  in  the  same 
 i  quarter  ;  hither,  too,  trade  and  commercial  intercourse 
 j  of  all  kinds  directed  their  course,  and  Thebes,  in  conse- 
 quence, became  almost  a  deserted  city  compared  with 
 its  former  sfilendour.  It  still  remained,  however,  the 
 chief  seat  of  the  religion  of  Egypt  ;  a  circumstance 
 which  enabled  it  to  retain  a  tolerable  population,  until 
 the  fury  of  Cambyses,  or,  more  correctly  speaking, 
 his  religious  fanaticism,  destroyed  most  of  its  priest- 
 hood, and  overthrew  its  proudest  structures.  From 
 this  period  it  rapidly  declined.  Herodotus  visited  the 
 city  during  the  Persian  government  of  Egypt,  and 
 speaks  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  ;  but  his  silence  re- 
 specting the  condition  of  the  rest  of  the  city  must  al- 
 ways remain  an  enigma.  Diodorus,  who  speaks  of 
 Thebes  as  of  a  city  already  in  ruins,  takes  particular 
 notice  of  four  principal  temples.  He  mentions  sphinx- 
 es, colossal  figures  decorating  the  entrances,  porticoes, 
 pyramidal  gateways,  and  stones  of  astonishing  mag- 
 nitude which  entered  into  their  structure.  In  the  de- 
 scriptions given  by  modern  travellers,  these  monu- 
 ments are  still  recognised.  Browne  tells  us  that 
 "  there  remain  four  immense  temples,  yet  not  so  mag- 
 nificent nor  in  so  good  a  state  of  preservation  as 
 those  of  Denderah."  Norden  remarks,  "It  is  sur- 
 prising how  well  the  gilding,  the  ultra-marine,  and  va- 
 rious other  colours  still  preserve  their  brilliancy." 
 He  speaks  also  of  a  colonnade,  of  which  thirty-two  col- 
 umns are  still  standing:  of  platforms,  preserved  gal- 
 leries, and  other  remains  of  antiquity,  which  he  has 
 represented  in  his  plates,  and  which  he  thinks  the 
 more  worthy  of  attention  as  they  appear  to  be  the 
 same  that  are  mentioned  by  Philostratus  in  his  ac- 
 count of  the  temple  of  Memnon.  No  description  can 
 give  an  adequate  idea  of  these  wonders  of  antiquity, 
 both  in  regard  to  their  incredible  number  and  their  gi- 
 gantic size.  Their  form,  proportions,  and  construc- 
 tion are  almost  as  astonishing  as  their  magnitude. 
 The  mind  is  lost  in  a  mass  of  colossal  objects,  every 
 one  of  which  is  more  than  sufficient  to  absorb  its 
 whole  attention.  On  the  western  side  of  the  river 
 stood  the  famed  Memnonium  ;  here  also  are  number- 
 less tombs  in  the  form  of  subterraneous  excavations, 
 and  containing  many  human  bodies  iij  the  state  of 
 mummies,  sometimes  accompanied  with  pieces  of  pa- 
 pyrus and  otlier  ancient  curiosities.  These  have  been 
 the  subject  of  ardent  research  ;  and  the  trade  of  dig- 
 ging for  tombs  and  mummies  being  found  gainful,  has 
 been  resorted  to  by  numerous  Arabs  belonging  to  the 
 place.  With  respect  to  the  mummies,  some  are  found 
 in  wooden  cases  shaped  like  the  human  body.  These 
 belonged  to  persons  superior  to  the  lower  rank,  but 
 dilTering  from  one  another  in  the  quantity  and  qualitv 
 of  the  linen  in  which  the  body  had  been  wrapped. 
 The  mummies  of  the  [loorest  classes  are  found  with- 
 out any  wooden  covering,  and  wrapped  in  the  coarsest 
 linen.  These  differ  from  the  former  also  in  being  oft- 
 en accom[ianied  with  pieces  of  papyrus,  on  which 
 Belzoni  supposes  that  an  account  of  the  lives  of  the 
 deceased  had  been  written,  while  a  similar  account 
 was  carved  on  the  cases  of  the  more  opulent.  These 
 cases  are  generally  of  Egyptian  sycamore,  but  very 
 different  from  one  another  with  respect  to  plainness  or 
 ornament.  Sometimes  there  are  one  or  two  inner 
 cases  besides  the  outer  one.  Ecaves  and  flowers  of 
 acacia  are  often  found  round  the  body,  and  sometimes 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 lumps  of  asphaltuni  about  two  pounds  in  weight. 
 The  case  is  covered  with  a  cement  rescmbUng  plas- 
 ter of  Pans,  in  which  various  figures  are  cast.  The 
 whole  is  painted,  generally  with  a  yellow  ground,  on 
 which  are  hieroglyphics  and  figures  of  green. — But  to 
 return  to  the  rum  of  Thebes  :  on  the  east  side  of  the 
 Nile,  at  Karnac  and  Luxur,  anud  a  multitude  of  tem- 
 ples, there  arc  no  tombs  ;  these  are  conlined  to  the 
 west  bank.  An  iron  sickle  was  lately  found  under 
 one  of  the  buried  statues,  nearly  of  the  shape  of  those 
 which  are  now  in  use,  though  thicker  ;  it  is  supposed 
 to  have  lain  there  since  the  invasion  of  Camliyses, 
 when  the  idols  were  concealed  by  the  superstitious  to 
 save  them  from  destruction.  Belzoni  and  others  un- 
 covered and  carried  away  many  specimens  of  these 
 antique  remains,  such  as  sphiii.\cs,  obelisks,  and  stat- 
 ues. On  this  same  side  of  the  river,  no  palaces  or 
 traces  of  ancient  human  habitations  are  met  with  ; 
 whereas,  on  the  western  side,  at  Mcdiuct  Aboxi,  there 
 are  not  only  propyla;a  and  temples  highly  valued  by 
 •he  antiquarian,  but  dwelling-houses,  which  seem  to 
 point  out  that  place  as  having  been  once  a  royal  resi- 
 dence. (Manncrt,  Geugr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  1,  p.  334, 
 fcqq.  —  Wilkinson,  Topogiajj/iy  of  Thebes,  London, 
 1835,  8vo.) 
 
 Thkbais,  I.  the  southernmost  division  of  Egypt,  of 
 which  Thebes  was  the  capital.  {Vid.  ^Egyptus,  page 
 37,  col.  1,  i)  4.) — H.  The  title  of  a  poem  by  Statins. 
 "■Vid.  Statius  ) 
 
 Thebk       Vid.  Thebae. 
 
 Theue,  the  wife  of  Al-exander,  tyrant  of  Phcras. 
 :>he  assassinated  him.  (  Vid.  Alexander  I.,  page  109, 
 col.  2,  ()  6.) 
 
 Themis,  the  goddess  of  Justice  or  Law.  This 
 deity  appears  in  the  Iliad  among  the  inhabitants  of 
 Olympus  (//.,  15,  87.— lb.,  20,  4);  and  in  the  Odys- 
 sey (2,  G8)  she  is  namejd  as  presiding  over  the  assem- 
 blies of  men,  but  nothing  is  said  respecting  her  rank 
 or  origin.  By  Hesiod  {Tlicog.,  135,  901,  seqq.),  she 
 is  said  to  be  a  Titaness,  one  of  the  daughters  of 
 Heaven  and  Earth,  and  to  have  borne  to  Jupiter  the 
 Fates,  and  the  Seasons,  Peace,  Order,  Justice,  the 
 natural  progeny  of  Law  {Qifiiq),  and  all  deities  benefi- 
 cial to  mankind.  In  Pmdar  and  the  Homeridan 
 hvinns,  Themis  sits  by  Jupiter,  on  his  throne,  to  give 
 him  counsel.  Themis  is  said  to  have  succeeded  her 
 mother  Earth  in  the  possession  of  the  Delphic  oracle, 
 and  to  have  voluntarily  resigned  it  to  her  sister  Phoebe, 
 who  gave  it  as  a  natal-gift  unto  Phoebus  Apollo. — 
 Welcker  says  that  Themis  is  merely  an  epithet  of 
 Earth.  {Trtl.,  p.  39.)  Hermann  also  makes  Themis 
 f  physical  being,  rendering  her  name  Slalina  ;  while 
 Bottigcr,  with  apparently  more  justice,  says,  "  She  is 
 Ihc  oldest  purely  allegorical  personification  of  a  vir- 
 tue." {Kunst-Mythoi,  2,  110. — Keightlcy'^  Mytholo- 
 gy, p.  198.) 
 
 Thkmiscyra,  a  city  of  Pontus,  capital  of  a  district 
 of  llie  same  name.  The  town  of  Themiscyra  appears 
 to  have  been  one  of  very  early  origin.  Scylax  men- 
 tions It  as  a  Grecian  stale,  and  Herodotus  also  speaks 
 of  It.  {Scijlax,  p.  33.  —  Herod.,  4,  86.)  Both  of 
 these  writers,  however,  i)lace  it  at  the  mouth  of  the 
 Thcrinodon  ;  whereas  Ptolemy  locates  it  in  the  centre 
 of  the  district  Themiscyra,  that  is,  more  inland.  This 
 place  appears  to  have  been  destroyed  in  the  course  of 
 the  Mithradatic  war.  (Appian,  B.  Muhrad.,  c.  78.) 
 Hence  Slrabo  makes  no  mention  of  it  ;  and  Mela 
 merely  states,  that,  in  the  territory  around  the  Ther- 
 modon,  there  once  stood  an  ancient  city  named  The- 
 miscyra (I,  19).  It  is  rather  surprising  that  many  of 
 the  ancient  writers,  and  among  them  even  ^Eschylus, 
 never  use  the  name  Themiscyra  as  that  of  a  city,  but 
 always  as  designating  a  plain.  {JEsch.,  Prom.  V., 
 749.  —Compare  Slcph.  Byz  ,  s.  v.  XtiJtOia. — Apol- 
 lod.,  2,  b.—Apoll.  Khod  ,  2.  370.)  Diodorus,  how- 
 ever, makes  the  founder  of  the  Amazonian  nation  to 
 8  1) 
 
 have  built  this  city  on  the  Thermodon  (2,  44).  In  the 
 plains  of  Themiscyra  the  Amazons  were  said  to  have 
 founded  a  [lowerful  kingdom.  Here  they  were  con- 
 quered by  Hercules,  and  many  slain.  The  followers 
 of  Hercules,  on  retiring  from  their  country,  took  with 
 them  on  board  their  vessels  as  many  Amazons  as  they 
 could  find  alive  ;  these,  however,  when  at  sea,  rose 
 upon  the  (ireeks,  as  is  said,  slew  them  to  a  man,  and, 
 being  Ignorant  themselves  of  navigation,  were  carried 
 by  the  winds  and  the  waves  to  Creinni  on  the  Palus 
 Maeotis,  and  their  name  still  lingered  in  fable  for  many 
 ages,  in  conne.\ion  with  the  regions  of  Caucasus. 
 (Herod.,  4,  110. — Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p. 
 443.) 
 
 Themison,  a  celebrated  physician,  born  at  Laodi- 
 cea,  and  the  pupil  of  Asclepiades.  He  established 
 himself  at  Rome  about  90  B.C.  Themison  wished  to 
 find  a  middle  course  between  the  empiric  system  and 
 dogmatism.  This  middle  course,  or  method,  he  be- 
 lieved he  had  discovered  in  the  theory  of  his  master. 
 He  became,  therefore,  the  founder  of  the  school  of 
 Methodists,  which  introduced  a  greater  degree  of  pre- 
 cision into  the  system  of  Asclepiades.  Themison 
 taught  that  there  exists  not  only  in  the  vessels,  but, 
 generally  speaking,  in  all  parts  of  the  human  frame,  a 
 disproportion  which  is  the  source  of  all  maladies. — H« 
 was  the  first  practitioner,  also,  that  made  use  of  leech- 
 es, which  he  applied  to  the  temples  in  disorders  of  the 
 head.  (SclibH,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  338.—Spren- 
 gel,  Hist,  de  la  Med.,  vol.  2,  p.  20,  seqq.) 
 
 TiiEMisTius,  a  celebrated  orator  and  philosopher  In 
 the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  He  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Paphlagonia,  but  passed  the  greater  part  of  his 
 days  at  Constantinople,  where  he  enjoyed  the  highest 
 favour  with  the  Emperor  Constantius,  who  elevated 
 him  to  the  rank  of  senator.  He  stood  high  also  in  the 
 estimation  of  Julian,  who  made  him  prefect  of  Con- 
 stantinople, and  kept  up  an  epistolary  correspondence 
 with  him.  He  was  highly  regarded,  too,  by  the  suc- 
 cessors of  this  prince  down  to  Theodosius  the  Great, 
 who  confided  to  Thcmistius,  although  the  latter  was  a 
 pagan,  the  education  of  his  son  Arcadius.  He  was 
 employed,  also,  in  various  public  matters,  and  on  sev- 
 eral embassies.  Themistius  was  the  master  of  Liba- 
 nius  and  St.  Augustin,  and,  what  was  of  rare  occur- 
 rence in  his  day,  presented  a  model  of  religious  toler- 
 ation and  forbearance :  hence  we  find  an  intimate 
 friendship  subsisting  between  him  and  Gregory  of 
 Nazianzus,  and  the  latter  styling  him  "the  king  of  el- 
 oquence" {Baai?^evg  'Aoyuv).  Thcmistius  resided  for 
 some  time  also  at  Rome,  and,  both  in  this  city  as  well 
 as  in  Constantinople,  he  leciured  on  the  systems  of 
 Pythagoras,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,  but  more  particularly 
 the  latter.  He  received  no  fees  from  his  auditors;  on 
 the  contrary,  though  not  rich  himself,  he  was  liberal  in 
 ministering  to  the  necessities  of  his  less  wealthy  fol- 
 lowers. The  public  discourses  which  remain  to  us  of 
 this  orator,  as  well  as  his  [ihilosophical  works,  justify 
 the  high  opinion  which  his  contemporaries  entertained 
 of  him.  His  style,  formed  by  an  attentive  perusal  of 
 Plato,  is  marked  by  great  perspicuity,  elegance,  and 
 sweetness  ;  nor  is  it,  at  the  same  tune,  at  all  wanting 
 in  strength  and  energy.  Although  the  greater  part  of 
 his  discourses  have  for  their  subject  the  praises  of  em- 
 perors, and  although  this  kind  of  writing  is  in  itself 
 both  arid  and  devoid  of  interest,  yet  Themistius  ha» 
 succeeded  in  attracting  the  aitention  ol  his  readers  by 
 the  numerous  allusions  wliich  he  makes  both  to  the 
 inythology  and  the  history  of  the  Greeks,  and  by  the 
 instructive  examples  which  he  draws  from  the  works 
 of  the  ancient  philosophers. — A  memorable  instance 
 of  the  liberal  spirit  of  Themistius  is  related  by  eccle- 
 siastical historians.  The  Emperor  Valens,  who  fa- 
 voured the  Arian  party,  inflicted  many  hardships  and 
 sufferings  upon  the  Trinitarians,  and  daily  threatened 
 them  with   still  greater  severities.      Themistius,   to 
 
 1313 
 
THE 
 
 THEMISTOCLES. 
 
 whom  these  measures  were  exceedingly  displeasing, 
 addressed  the  emperor  upon  the  subject  in  an  elo- 
 quent speech,  in  which  he  represented  the  diversity  of 
 opinions  among  the  (Christians  as  inconsiderable  com- 
 pared with  that  of  the  pagan  philosophers,  and  plead- 
 ed that  this  diversity  could  not  be  displeasing  to  God, 
 since  it  did  not  prevent  men  from  worshipping  him 
 with  inic  piety.  By  these  and  olher  arguments  The- 
 misiius  prevailed  upon  the  emperor  to  treat  the  Trin- 
 itarians with  greater  lenity. — Themistius  illustrated 
 several  of  the  works  of  Aristotle,  particularly  the  Ana- 
 lytics, the  Physics,  and  the  Book  on  the  Soul. — Of 
 his  discourses  Photius  enumerates  thirty-six  :  we  have 
 only,  at  the  present  day.  thirty-three,  and  one  other,  the 
 thirty-third,  in  a  Latin  translation.  An  edition  of  the 
 entire  remains  of  Themistius  appeared  from  the  Al- 
 dine  press  in  1534,  fol.  Of  the  orations,  the  best  edi- 
 tion used  to  be  that  of  Pctavius  (Petau),  Paris,  1634, 
 fol.  ;  but  now,  for  the  text  of  Themistius,  the  best 
 edition  is  that  of  Dindorf,  Cnobloch,  1832,  8vo. 
 
 Themistoci.ks,  a  celebrated  Athenian  statesman 
 and  leader.  His  father  Neocles  was  a  man  of  high 
 birth  after  the  Athenian  standard,  but  his  mother  was 
 not  a  citizen,  and,  according  to  most  accounts,  not 
 even  a  Greek.  His  patrimony  seems  to  have  been 
 ample  for  a  man  of  less  aspiring  temper.  Tlie  anec- 
 dotes related  of  his  youthful  wilfulness  and  wayward- 
 ness ;  of  his  earnest  application  to  the  pursuit  of  use- 
 ful knowledge  ;  of  his  neglect  of  the  elegant  arts,  which 
 already  formed  part  of  the  Athenian  education  ;  of  his 
 profusion  and  his  avarice  ;  of  the  sleepless  nights  in 
 which  he  meditated  on  the  trophies  of  Miltiades,  all 
 point,  with  more  or  less  of  particular  truth,  the  same 
 way  ;  to  a  soul  early  bent  on  great  objects,  and  form- 
 ed to  pursue  them  with  steady  resolution,  incapable 
 of  being  diverted  by  trifles,  embarrassed  by  scruples, 
 or  deterred  by  difficulties.  The  end  he  aimed  at 
 was  not  mereJy  the  good  of  his  country,  still  less 
 was  it  any  petty  mark  of  selfish  cupidity.  The  pur- 
 pose of  his  life  was  to  make  Athens  great  and  pow- 
 erful, that  he  himself  might  move  and  command  in  a 
 large  sphere.  The  genius  with  which  nature  had  en- 
 dowed him  warranted  this  noble  ambition,  and  it  was 
 marvellously  suited  to  the  critical  circumstances  in 
 which  he  was  placed  by  fortune.  The  peculiar  faculty 
 of  his  mind,  which  Thucydides  contemplated  with  ad- 
 miration, was  the  quickness  with  which  it  seized  every 
 object  that  came  in  its  way,  perceived  the  course  of 
 action  required  by  new  situations  and  sudden  junc- 
 tures, and  penetrated  into  remote  consequences. 
 Such  were  the  abilities  which,  at  the  period  when  he 
 came  forward,  were  most  needed  for  the  service  of 
 Athens.  At  the  time  when  Themistocles  was  be- 
 ginning to  rise  into  credit  with  his  fellow-citizens,  an- 
 other man  of  very  difierent  character  already  possessed 
 their  respect  and  confidence.  Tliis  was  Aristides,  son 
 of  Lysimachus.  (Vid.  Aristides.)  Like  Themisto- 
 cles, he  too  had  the  welfare  of  Athens  at  heart,  but 
 simply  and  singly,  not  as  an  instrument,  but  as  an 
 end.  On  this  he  kept  his  eye,  without  looking  to  any 
 mark  beyond  it,  or  stooping  to  any  private  advantage 
 that  lay  on  his  road.  It  is  not  surprising  that  a  man 
 of  such  a  mould  should  have  come  into  frequent  con- 
 flict with  a  statesman  like  Themistocles,  though  their 
 immediate  object  was  the  same,  and  though  there  was 
 no  great  discordance  between  their  general  views  of 
 the  public  interest.  When  Aristides,  without  having 
 incurred  accusation  or  reproach,  without  being  sus- 
 y)ected  of  any  ambitious  designs,  was  sent  by  the  os- 
 tracism into  honourable  banishment,  because  he  had 
 no  equal  in  the  highest  virtue,  his  removal  left  The- 
 mistocles in  almost  undivided  possession  of  the  popu- 
 lar favour.  His  thoughts  had  long  been  turned  to- 
 wards the  struggle  that  was  now  approaching.  He 
 had  seen  that  Athens  could  not  remain  stationary  ;  that 
 the  must  either  cease  to  exist  as  an  independent  state, 
 1314 
 
 or  else  must  take  up  a  new  position,  and  rise  to  a  new 
 rank  in  Greece  :  and  this  it  was  evident  she  could  only 
 do  by  cultivating  the  capacity  she  had  received  from 
 nature,  and  of  becoming  a  great  maritime  power. 
 Early  in  the  interval  between  the  first  and  second 
 Persian  invasion,  he  had  dexterously  prevailed  on  the 
 people  to  appropriate  the  profits  of  the  silver-mines  at 
 Laurium  (which  they  had  hitherto  shared  among  them- 
 selves) to  the  enlargement  of  their  navy.  Yet  it  wa» 
 not  by  holding  out  the  danger  of  a  new  Persian  inva- 
 sion that  he  gained  their  consent,  but  by  appealing  to 
 their  hatred  and  jealousy  of  ^Egina,  which  was  siill  at 
 war  with  them,  and  was  mistress  of  the  sea.  To  be 
 able  to  cope  with  this  formidable  rival,  they  built  a 
 hundred  new  galleys,  and  thus  increased  their  naval 
 force  to  two  hundred  ships  ;  and  it  was  ])robably  at 
 the  same  time  that  they  were  persuaded  to  pass  a  de- 
 cree, which  directed  twenty  triremes  to  be  built  every 
 year.  {Bockk,  Staalshaushalt.  der  Ath.,  2,  c.  19.) 
 While  the  storm  of  the  Persian  invasion  was  slowly 
 approaching,  Themistocles  was  busied  in  allaying  ani- 
 mosity and  silencing  disputes  among  the  Grecian  cit- 
 ies ;  and  when,  not  long  after  this,  the  Athenians, 
 alarmed  for  their  safely,  had  sent  to  Delphi  for  advice, 
 he  is  supposed,  on  very  good  grounds,  to  have  influ- 
 enced the  well-known  answer  of  the  oracle,  "that  Jove 
 had  granted  the  prayer  of  his  daughter  Minerva,  and 
 that,  when  all  beside  was  lost,  a  wooden  wall  should 
 still  shelter  the  citizens  of  Athens."  This  wooden  wall, 
 which  was  to  afford  the  only  refuge  in  the  hour  of 
 danger,  seemed  best  explained  by  the  fleet,  which, 
 since  it  had  been  increased  according  to  the  advice  of 
 Themistocles,  might  well  be  deemed  the  surest  bul- 
 wark of  Athens.  The  elder  citizens,  however,  thought 
 it  incredible  that  Minerva  should  abandon  her  ancient 
 citadel,  and  resign  her  charge  to  the  rival  deity,  with 
 whom  she  had  anciently  contended  for  the  possession 
 of  Attica.  To  them  it  seemed  clear  that  the  oracle 
 must  have  spoken  of  the  hedge  of  thorns,  which  once 
 fenced  in  the  rock  of  Pallas,  and  that  this,  if  repaired 
 and  strengthened  with  the  same  materials,  would  be 
 an  imprcgnal)le  barrier  against  all  assaults.  The  ex- 
 istence of  Athens  hung  on  the  issue  of  these  delibera- 
 tions. The  people,  in  their  uncertainty,  looked  to  The- 
 mistocles for  advice.  His  keen  eye  had  probably 
 caught  a  prophetic  glimpse  of  the  events  that  were  to 
 hallow  the  shores  of  Salamis  ;  and  he  now  reminded 
 his  hearers  that  a  Grecian  oracle  would  not  have  called 
 the  island  the  divine  (this  term  had  been  used  in  the 
 response  just  alluded  to)  if  it  was  to  be  afllicted  with 
 the  triumph  of  the  barbarians,  and  was  not  rather  to 
 be  the  scene  of  their  destruction.  He  therefore  ex- 
 horted them,  if  all  other  safeguards  should  fail  them, 
 to  commit  their  safety  and  their  hopes  of  victory  to 
 their  newly-strcngthcned  navy.  This  counsel  prevail- 
 ed.— When  intelligence  of  the  capture  of  Athens  was 
 brought  to  the  Greeks  assembled  with  their  vessels  at 
 Salamis,  and,  amid  the  consternation  that  ensued,  it 
 was  resolved  in  council  to  retire  from  Salamis  and 
 give  battle  near  the  shore  of  the  Isthmus,  it  was  owing 
 to  the  bold  deportment  of  Themistocles  alone  that  the 
 allies  were  induced  to  change  their  determination  and 
 give  battle  in  the  straits.  According  to  the  accounts 
 that  have  been  given  of  this  transaction,  as  Themisto- 
 cles was  returning  to  his  ship  from  the  council  in 
 which  it  had  been  resolved  to  sail  away  from  Salamis, 
 he  was  met  by  Mucsiphilus,  an  Athenian  officer,  who, 
 on  hearing  the  issue  of  the  conference,  exclaimed  that 
 (Irecce  was  lost  if  such  a  counsel  were  adopted  ;  for 
 the  allies,  if  now  allowed  to  retreat,  could  no  longer 
 be  kept  together,  but  would  be  scattered  to  their  sev- 
 eral cities.  This  suggestion  falling  in  with  the  opin- 
 ion of  Themistocles,  induced  him  to  return  to  the  Spar- 
 tan Eurybiades  who  commanded  in  chief,  and  pressing 
 on  him,  with  many  additions,  the  arguments  of  Mne- 
 siphilus,  he  persuaded  him  to  reconvene  the  council. 
 
THEMISTOCLES. 
 
 THEMISTOCLES. 
 
 TTiemistocIcs  now  urged  the  commanders  lo  remain, 
 both  on  account  of  the  advantage  which  the  narrow 
 straits  of  Salamis  gave  to  the  Greeks,  inferior  as  well 
 in  the  speed  as  in  the  number  of  their  ships,  and  also 
 because,  by  so  doing,  they  would  preserve  Megara, 
 Salamis,  and  .Egiiia,  with  the  Athuiiian  women  and 
 children  deposited  in  the  latter  [ilaces.  When  he 
 found  them  still  obstinate,  he  declared  that  the  Athe- 
 nians, if  their  feelings  and  interests,  after  all  they  had 
 done,  were  so  little  regarded,  would  abandon  the  anna- 
 ment,  and,  taking  on  board  their  families,  would  seek 
 a  scttlecncnt  elsewhere.  Tiiis  threat  prevaded,  and  it 
 was  agreed  to  remain  ;  but  at  the  approach  of  the  en- 
 emy the  Pelopcnnesians  again  were  eager  to  depart  and 
 provide  for  the  defence  of  their  own  territories  ;  on 
 which  Themistocles,  to  prevent  the  mischiefs  he  fore- 
 saw, and  partly,  also,  with  the  double  policy  which 
 marked  his  character,  to  secure  to  himself,  in  case  of 
 defeat,  an  interest  with  the  conquerors,  sent  private 
 information  lo  the  Persian  admiral  of  the  flight  which 
 was  meditated  by  the  Greeks,  and  advised  him  to 
 guard  against  it  by  occupying  both  ends  of  the  strait 
 between  Salamis  and  the  main-land.  After  the  glori- 
 ous dav  of  Salamis,  when  the  remnant  of  the  Persian 
 fleet  had  been  pursued  as  far  as  the  island  of  Andres, 
 Themistocles  proposed  to  continue  the  chase,  and  then 
 to  sail  lo  the  Hellespont  and  break  down  the  bridge. 
 Eurybiades  opposed  him,  on  the  ground  that  there  was 
 danger  lest  the  Persians,  being  rendered  desperate, 
 might  yet  be  successful ;  and  the  Peloponnesians  gen 
 eraily  agreeing  with  Eurybiades,  the  proposal  was  re- 
 jected. On  this,  Themistocles  persuaded  the  Atheni- 
 ans, who  had  been  most  eager  for  pursuit,  to  acqui- 
 esce ;  while,  if  we  believe  in  the  motives  commonly 
 ascribed  to  him,  he  took  advantage  of  the  incident  to 
 secure  for  hiinself,  in  case  of  banishment,  a  refuge  in 
 Persia,  by  sending  a  secret  messenger  to  Xerxes,  to 
 inform  him  of  the  plan  which  had  been  proposed,  and 
 say  that  Themistocles,  thro\igh  friendship  to  him,  had 
 procured  its  rejection.  This  view  of  the  case,  howev- 
 er, can  hardly  be  the  correct  one.  It  may  be  easily 
 conceived  that  a  man  like  Themistocles  loved  the  arts 
 in  which  he  excelled  for  their  own  sake,  and  might  ex- 
 ercise the  faculties  with  which  he  was  pre-eminently 
 gifted  upon  very  slight  occasions.  In  devising  a  plan, 
 conducting  an  intrigue,  surmounting  a  difficulty,  in 
 leading  men  to  his  ends  without  their  knowledge  and 
 against  their  will,  he  might  find  a  delight  which  might 
 often  be  in  itself  a  suflicieiit  motive  of  action.  We 
 should  be  led,  therefore,  to  supjiose  that  this  was  the 
 inducement  which  caused  him  to  send  this  other  secret 
 message  lo  Xerxes.  For  that,  in  the  very  moment  of 
 victory,  when  he  had  just  risen  to  the  highest  degree 
 of  reputation  and  influence  among  his  countrymen,  he 
 should  have  foreseen  the  changes  wliich  fortune  had  in 
 store  for  him,  and  have  conceived  the  thought  of  pro- 
 viding a  place  of  refuge  among  the  barbarians,  to  which 
 he  might  fly  if  he  should  be  driven  out  of  Greece,  is  a 
 conjecture  that  might  very  naturally  be  formed  after 
 the  event,  but  would  scarcely  have  been  thought  prob- 
 able before  it. — .Ml  Greece  now  resounded  with  the 
 fame  of  Themistocles.  The  deliverance  just  clFected 
 was  universally  ascribed,  ne.xt  to  the  favour  of  the 
 gods,  to  his  foresight  and  presence  of  mind ;  and  when 
 the  Grecian  commanders  met  in  the  temple  of  Neptune 
 on  the  Isthmus,  to  award  the  palm  of  individual  merit, 
 no  one  was  generous  enough  to  resign  the  first  place 
 to  another,  but  most  were  just  enough  to  award  the 
 second  to  Themistocles  Still  higher  honours,  how- 
 ever, awaited  him  from  Sparta,  a  severe  judge  of  Athe- 
 nian merit.  He  went  thither,  according  to  Plutarch, 
 invited  ;  wishing,  Herodotus  says,  to  be  honoured. 
 The  Spartans  gave  him  a  chaplet  of  olive  leaves  :  it 
 ^was  the  reward  thev  had  bestowed  on  their  own  admi- 
 ral Eurybiades.  They  added  a  chariot,  the  best  the 
 city  possessed  ;  and,  to  distinguish  him  above  ail  other 
 
 foreigners  that  had  ever  entered  Sparta,  they  sent  toe 
 three  hundred  knights  to  escort  him  as  far  as  the  bor- 
 ders of  Tegea  on  his  return.  He  himself  subsequently 
 dedicated  a  temple  to  Diana,  as  the  goddess  of  good 
 counsel. — Immediately  after  the  battle  of  Plataea,  the 
 Athenian  [leople  had  begun  to  bring  back  their  fami- 
 lies, and  to  rebuild  their  city  and  ramparts.  But  the 
 jealousy  excited  in  the  Peloponnesians  by  the  power 
 and  s[iirit  which  .Athens  had  displayed  was  far  stronger 
 than  their  gratitude  for  what  it  had  done  and  sulfered 
 in  the  common  cause.  An  embassy  arrived  from  Pe- 
 loponnesus to  urge  the  Athenians  not  to  go  on  with 
 their  fortifications,  but  rather,  as  far  as  in  them  lay,  to 
 demolish  the  walls  of  all  other  cities  out  of  the  Pelopon- 
 nesus, that  the  enemy,  if  he  again  returned,  might  have 
 no  strong  place  to  fix  his  headquarters  in,  as  recently 
 in  Thebes.  If  this  demand  had  been  complied  with, 
 Athens  would  have  become  entirely  subject  to  Lace- 
 daemon.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  dangerous  to  refuse, 
 since  from  the  past  conduct  of  Lacedoemon  there  waa 
 little  ground  to  expect  that  gratitude  would  prevent  it 
 from  any  action  prompted  by  jealousv  or  ambition  ; 
 while  it  was  vain  to  hojje,  that  the  military  force  of 
 Athens,  weakened  by  the  number  of  citizens  absent 
 with  the  fleet,  would  be  able  to  maintain  itself  without 
 the  aid  of  walls  against  the  united  strength  of  Pelo- 
 ponnesus. In  this  difficulty  Themistocles  advised 
 them  immediately  to  send  away  the  Lacedaemonian 
 ambassadors,  to  raise  up  the  walls  with  the  utmost 
 possible  celerity,  men,  women,  and  children  joining  in 
 the  work,  and,  choosing  himself  and  some  others  as 
 ambassadors  to  Sparta,  to  send  him  thither  at  once,  but 
 to  detain  his  colleagues  until  the  walls  had  attained  a 
 sufficient  height  for  defence.  He  was  accordingly 
 sent  to  Lacedaemon,  where  he  put  off  Ins  audience 
 from  day  to  day,  excusing  himself  by  saying  that  he 
 waited  for  his  colleagues,  who  were  daily  expected,  and 
 wondered  that  they  were  not  come.  But  when  re- 
 ports arrived  that  the  walls  were  gaining  height,  he 
 bade  the  magistrates  not  to  trust  to  rumour,  but  to  send 
 some  competent  persons  to  examine  for  themselves. 
 They  sent  accordingly,  and,  at  the  same  time,  Themis- 
 tocles secretly  directed  the  Athenians  to  detain  the 
 Lacedaemonian  commissioners,  but  with  the  least  pos- 
 sible show  of  compulsion,  till  himself  and  his  col- 
 leagues should  return.  The  latter  were  now  arrived, 
 and  brought  news  that  the  walls  had  gained  the  height 
 required  :  and  Themistocles  declared  to  the  I^aceda;- 
 monians  that  Athens  was  already  sufliciently  fortified, 
 and  that  henceforth,  if  the  Lacedsmonians  and  their 
 allies  had  anything  to  do,  they  must  do  it  as  to  persons 
 able  to  judge  both  of  the  common  interest  and  their  own. 
 The  S|)arians  were  secretly  mortified  at  their  failure, 
 and  probably  not  the  less  so  from  the  consciousness 
 that  the  attempt  had  been  an  unliandsome  one  ;  but 
 their  discontent  did  not  break  out  openly,  and  the  am- 
 bassadors on  each  part  went  home  unquestioned  — Xo 
 (jreek  had  yet  rendered  services  such  as  those  of  The- 
 mistocles lo  the  common  cause  ;  no  Athenian  except 
 Solon  had  conferred  equal  benefits  upon  Athens. 
 Themistocles  was  not  unconscious  of  his  own  merit, 
 nor  careful  to  suppress  his  sense  of  it.  He  was 
 thought  lo  indicate  it  loo  plainly  when  he  dedicated 
 his  temple  above  mentioned  to  Diana,  and  the  otfcnce 
 •  was  aggravated  if  he  himself  placed  his  statue  there, 
 !  where  it  was  still  seen  in  the  days  of  Plutarch,  who 
 I  pronounces  the  form  no  less  heroic  than  the  soul  of  the 
 !  man.  In  the  same  spirit  are  several  stories  related  by 
 '  Plutarch,  of  the  indiscretion  with  which  he  sometimes 
 alluded  lo  the  magnitude  of  the  debt  which  his  coun- 
 trymen owed  him.  He  would  seem,  indeed,  not  to 
 have  discovered,  till  it  was  too  late,  that  there  are  obli- 
 !  crations  which  neither  princes  nor  nations  can  endure, 
 I  and  which  are  forfeited  if  they  are  not  discharged. 
 I  .After  the  battle  of  Salamis,  and  while  the  terrors  o 
 I  the  invasion  were  still  fresh,  his  influence  at  Athe.., 
 
 1315 
 
TIIEMISTOCLES. 
 
 THEMISTOCLES. 
 
 was  predominant,  and  his  power  consequently  great  J  ostracisnn  which  he  had  himself  before  directed  against 
 wherever  tiie  ascendancy  of  Alliens  was  acknowledg-  [  Aristides.  He  took  up  his  abode  at  Argos,  which  ho 
 ed  :  and  he  did  not  always  scruple  to  convert  the  glory    had  served  in  his  prosperity,  and  which  welcomed,  if 
 
 not  the  saviour  of  Greece,  at  least  the  enemy  of  Spar- 
 ta. Here  he  was  still  residing,  though  he  occasionally 
 visited  other  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus,  when  Pausa- 
 nias  was  convicted  of  his  treason.  In  searching  for 
 farther  traces  of  his  plot,  the  ephori  found  some  parts 
 
 will)  which  lie  ought  to  have  been  satisfied  into  a 
 source  of  petty  profit.  Immediately  after  the  retreat 
 of  Xer.xes,  he  exacted  contributions  from  the  islanders 
 who  had  sided  with  the  barbarians,  as  the  price  of  di- 
 verting from  them  the  resentment  of  tlie  Greeks.     An- 
 
 other opportunity  for  enriching  himself  he  found  in  the  of  a  correspondence  between  him  and  Themistocles, 
 factions  by  which  many  of  tlie  maritime  states  were  which  appeared  to  afford  sufficient  ground  for  charging 
 divided.  Almost  everywhere  there  was  a  party  or  in-  !  the  Athenian  with  having  shared  his  friend's  crime, 
 dividuals  who  needed  the  aid  of  his  authority,  and  were  j  They  immediately  sent  ambassadors  to  Athens  to  ac- 
 willing  to  purchase  his  mediation.      Themistocles,  in    cuse  him,  and  to  insist  that  he  should  be  punished   in 
 
 short,  accumulated  e.Ktiaordmary  wealth  on  a  less  than 
 moderate  fortune.     When  his  troubles  had  commen- 
 ced, a  great  part  of  his  property  was  secretly  conveyed 
 into  Asia  by  his  friends  ;   but  that  part  which  was  dis- 
 covered and  conliscated   is  estimated   by  Theopomjius 
 nt.    a    hundred    talents,   by    Theophrastus    at    eighty  ; 
 though,  before  he  engaged  in  public  affairs,  all  he  pos- 
 sessed did   not  amount  to  so   much  as  three  talents. 
 (Plut.,    Vil.  ThemisL,  c.  25.) — But  if  he  made  some 
 enemies  by  his  selftshness,  he  jirovoked  others,  whose 
 resentment   proved  more  formidable,  by  his  firm  and 
 enlightened  pairiotism.     Sparta  never  forgave  him  the 
 shame  he  brought  u[)on  her  by  thwarting  her  insidious 
 attempt  to  suppress  the  independence  of  her  rival,  and 
 he  farther  exasperated  her  animosity  by  detecting  and 
 baffling  another  stroke  of  her  artful  policy.      The  Spar- 
 tans proposed  to  punish  the  stales  which  had  aided  the 
 barbarians,  or  had  abandoned  the  cause  of  Greece,  by 
 depriving  ihein  of  the  right  of  being  represented  in  the 
 Amphictyonic    congress.     By    this    measure,    Argos, 
 Thebes,  and   the  northern   stales,  which   had  hitherto 
 composed  the  majority  in    that  assembly,  would   have 
 been  excluded  from  it,  and   the  eliiect  would   probably 
 have  been  that  Spartan  inlkience  would   have  prepon- 
 derated  there.      Themistocles  frustrated   this  attempt 
 by  throwing  the  weight  of  Athens  into  the  opposite 
 scale,  and  by  pointing  out  the  danger  of  reducing  the 
 council  to  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  two  or  three 
 of  its  most  powerful  members.     The  enmity  which  he 
 thus  drew  upon  himself  would  have  been  less  honour- 
 able to  him,  if  there  had  been  any  ground  for  a  story, 
 which  apparently  was   never  heard  of  till  it  became 
 current    among    some    late    collectors   of  anecdotes, 
 from  whom  Plutarch  received  it:  it  has  been  popular 
 because  it  seemed   to   illustrate   the  contrast  between 
 the  characters  of  Themistocles  and  Aristides,  and  to 
 display  the  magnanimity  of  the  Athenians.      Themis- 
 tocles IS  made  to  tell  the  Athenians  that  he  has  some- 
 thing to  propose  which  will  be  highly  beneficial  to  the 
 commonwealth,  but  which  must  not  be  divulged.     The 
 people  depute  Aristides  to  hear  the  secret,  and  to  judge 
 of  the  merit  of  the  proposal.     Tliemistocles  discloses 
 a  plan  for  firing  the  allied  fleet  at  Pagasas,  or,  accord- 
 ing to  another   form  of  ihe  siory  adopted   bv  (vicero 
 (Off.,  3,    11),   the    Lacedemonian    fleet   at    Gythium. 
 Upon  this,  Aristides  reports  to  the  assembled  |)eople 
 that  nothing  could   be  more   advantageous  to  Athens 
 than  the  counsel  of  Themistocles,  but  nothing  more 
 dishonourable  and    unjust.      The  generous  people  re- 
 ject   the    proffered    advantage,    without    even    being 
 tempted   to   inquire  in  what  it  consisted. — Themisto- 
 cles was  gradually  supplanted  in  public  favour  by  men 
 worthy  indeed  to  be   his  rivals,  but   who  owed  their 
 Tfictory  less  to  their  own  merit  than  to  the  towering 
 pre-eminence  of  his  deserts.     He  himself,  as  we  have 
 observed,  seconded  them  by  his  indiscretion  in  their 
 endeavours  to  persuade  the  people  that  he  had  risen 
 too  high  above  the  common  level  to  remain  a  harmless 
 citizen  in  a  free  slate  :  that  his  was  a  case  which  call- 
 ed for  the  extraordinary  remedy  prescribed  by  the  laws 
 •gainst  the  power  and  greatness  of  an  individual  which 
 threatened  to  overlay  the  young  democracy.     He  was 
 condemned  to  temporary  exile  bv  the  same  process  of 
 1316 
 
 like  manner  with  the  partner  of  his  guilt.     We  have 
 no  reason  to  believe  that   there  was  any  more   solid 
 foundation  for  the  charge  than  what  Plutarch  relates  ; 
 that  Pausanias,  when  he  saw  Themistocles  banished, 
 believing  that  he  would  embrace  any  opportunity  of 
 avenging  himself  on  his  ungrateful  country,  opentd  his 
 project  to  him   in  a  letter.     Themistocles   thought  it 
 the  scheme  of  a  madman,  but  one  which  he  was  noi 
 bound,  and  had  no   inducement,  to  reveal.     He  maj 
 have  written,  though  his  prudence  renders  it  improba- 
 ble, something  that  implied  his  knowledge  of  the  se- 
 cret.    But  his  cause  was  never  submitted  to  an  impar- 
 tial  tribunal :  his  enemies  were  in  possession  of  the 
 public  mind  at  Athens,  and  officers  were  sent  with  the 
 Spartans,  who  tendered  their  assistance,  to  arrest  hinn 
 and  bring  him  to  Athens,  where,  in  the  prevailing  dis- 
 position of  the  people,  almost  inevitable  death  awaited 
 him.     This  he  foresaw,  and  determined  to  avoid.     In 
 the  Peloponnesus  he  could  no  longer  hope  to  find  a  safe 
 refuge.     He  sought  it  first  in  Corcyra,  which  was  in- 
 debted to  him  for  his   friendly  mediation  in  a  dispute 
 with  Corinth  about  the  Leucadian  peninsula,  and  had, 
 by  his    means,  obtained   the  object   it  contended  for. 
 The  Corcyreans,  however  willing,  were  unable  to  shel- 
 ter him  from  the  united  power  of  Athens  and  Sparta, 
 and  he  crossed  over  to  the  opposite  coast  of  Epirus. 
 The  Molossians,  the  most  powerful  people  of  this  coun- 
 try, were  now  ruled  by  a  king  named  Admetus,  whom 
 Themistocles,  in  the  day  of  his  power,  had  thwarted  in 
 a  suit  which  he  had  occasion  to  make  to  the  Atheni- 
 ans, and  had  added   insult  to  disappointment.     The- 
 mistocles adopted  the  desperate  resolution  of  throwing 
 himself  upon  the  mercy  of  this  his  personal  enemy. 
 The  king  was  fortunately  absent  from  home  when  the 
 stranger  arrived  at  his  gate,  and  his  queen  Phthia,  in 
 whom  no  vindictive  feelings  stifled  her  womanly  com- 
 passion, receive'^   .,,in  with  kindness,  and   instructed 
 him  in  thf    .,jsi  effectual  manner  of  disarming  her  hus- 
 band's lesentment  and  securing  his  protection.     M^hen 
 Admetus  returned,  he  found    i'hemistocles   seated  at 
 his  hearth,  holding  the  youi.g  prince  whom  Phthia  had 
 placed  in  his  hands.     This  among  the  Molossians  was 
 the  most  solemn  form  of  supplication,  more  powerful 
 than  the  olive-branch  among  the  Greeks.     The  king 
 was  touched  ;  he  raised   the  suppliant  with  an  assu- 
 rance of  protection,  which  he  fulfilled,  when  the  Athe- 
 nian and  Lacedemonian  commissioners  dogged  their 
 ])rey  lo  his  mansion,  by  refusing  to  surrender  his  guest. 
 Themistocles,  however,  would  seem  not  to   have  in- 
 tended to  fix  his  abode  among  the  Molossians,  and  be 
 had  probably  very  early  conceived  the  design  of  seek- 
 ing his  fortune  at  the  court  of  Persia.      He  is  said   to 
 have  consulted  the  oracle  at  Dodona,  perha[)s  less  for 
 a  direction  than  for  a  pretext  :   the  answer  seemed   to 
 point  to  the  great  king;  and  Admetus,  practising  the 
 hospitality  of  the  heroic  ages,  supplied  his  guest  with 
 the  means  of  crossing  over  to  the  coast  of  the  zEgean. 
 At  the  Macedonian  port  of  Pydna  he  found  a  mer- 
 chant-ship bound  for  Ionia,  and,  after  a  narrow  escape 
 from   '.he  Athenian   fleet,  which    was    then   besieging 
 Naxos,  and  to  the  coast  of  which  island  he  had  been 
 carried  by  a  storm,  Themistocles  was  safely  landed  in 
 the  harbour  of  Ephesus.     It  was  by  letter  that  he  first 
 
THEMISTOCLES. 
 
 T  H  E 
 
 made  himself  known  to  Artaxerxes,  who  was  then  on 
 the  Persian  throne.  In  his  communication  he  ac- 
 knowledged the  evil  he  had  inflicted  on  the  royal  honsc 
 in  the  defence  of  his  country,  but  claimed  the  merit  of 
 having  sent  the  timely  warning  by  winch  Xerxes  was 
 enabled  to  cflTect  his  retreat  from  Salainis  in  safety, 
 and  of  having  diverted  the  Greeks  from  the  design  of 
 nitcrccpiing  iiim.  lie  ventured  to  add,  that  his  perse- 
 cution and  exile  were  owing  to  his  zeal  for  the  inter- 
 ests of  the  King  of  Persia,  and  that  he  had  the  power 
 of  proving  his  attachment  by  still  greater  services  ;  but 
 he  desired  that  a  year  might  be  allovved  him  to  acquire 
 the  means  of  disclosing  his  plans  in  person.  His  re- 
 quest was  granted,  and  he  assiduously  a[ipiied  himself 
 lo  study  the  language  and  manners  ot  ihe  country,  with 
 which  he  became  sutfitienily  familiar  to  conciliate  the 
 favour  of  .\rtaxerxes  by  his  conversation  and  addres.s, 
 no  less  than  by  the  promises  which  he  held  out,  and 
 the  prudence  of  which  he  gave  proofs.  If  we  may  be- 
 lieve Plutarch,  he  even  excited  the  jealousy  of  the 
 Persian  courtiers  by  the  superior  success  with  which 
 he  cultivated  their  arts:  he  was  continually  by  the 
 king's  side  at  the  chase  and  in  the  palace,  and  was  ad- 
 milted  to  the  presence  of  the  king's  mother,  who  hon- 
 oured him  with  especial  marks  of  condescension.  He 
 was  at  length  sent  down  to  the  maritime  provinces, 
 perhaps  lo  wait  for  an  opportunity  of  striking  the  blow, 
 by  which  he  was  to  raise  the  power  of  Persia  upon  the 
 ruin  of  his  country.  In  the  mean  time,  a  [jension  was 
 conferred  upon  him  in  the  Oriental  form  ;  three  flour- 
 ishing towns  were  assigned  to  him  for  his  maintenance, 
 of  which  Magnesia  was  to  supply  him  with  bread,  Myus 
 with  viands,  and  Lampsacus  with  the  growth  of  her 
 celebrated  vineyards.  He  fixed  his  residence  at  Mag- 
 nesia, in  the  vale  of  the  .Msander,  where  the  royal 
 grant  invested  him  with  a  kind  of  princely  rank. 
 There  death  overlook  him,  hastened,  as  it  was  com- 
 monly supposed,  by  his  consciousness  of  being  unable 
 to  perform  the  promises  which  he  had  made  to  the 
 king.  Thucydides,  however,  evidently  did  not  believe 
 the  story  that  he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  by  poison. 
 That  fear  of  disappointing  the  Persian  king  should 
 have  ur<jed  him  to  such  an  act  is  indeed  scarcely  cred- 
 ible. Yet  we  can  easily  conceive  that  the  man  who 
 had  been  kept  awake  by  the  trophies  of  Milliades, 
 must  have  felt  some  bitter  pangs  when  he  heard  of  the 
 rising  glory  of  Cnnon.  Though  his  character  was  not 
 so  strong  as  his  mind,  it  was  great  enough  to  be  above 
 the  wretched  satisfaction  implied  in  one  of  Plutarch's 
 anecdotes  :  that,  amid  the  splendour  of  his  luxurious 
 table,  he  one  day  exclaimed,  "  How  much  we  should 
 have  lost,  my  children,  if  we  had  not  been  ruined." 
 It  must  have  been  wiih  a  far  different  feeling  that  he 
 desired  his  bones  to  be  secretly  conveyed  to  Attica, 
 though  the  uncertainly  which  hangs  over  so  many  ac- 
 tions of  his  life  extends  to  the  fate  of  his  remains.  A 
 splendid  monument  was  raised  to  him  in  the  public 
 place  at  Magnesia  ;  but  a  tomb  was  also  pointed  out 
 by  the  seaside,  within  the  port  of  Piraeus,  which  was 
 generally  believed  to  contain  his  bones.  His  descend- 
 Aiitti  continued  to  enjoy  some  peculiar  privileges  at 
 Magnesia  in  the  time  of  Plutarch;  but  neither  ihcy 
 nor  his  posterity  at  Athens  ever  revived  the  lustre  of 
 his  name.  Themistocles  died  In  his  65th  year,  about 
 449  B  C.  {ThirliralPs  History  of  Greece,  vol.  2,  p. 
 265,  Kt'ifq  ) — There  are  certain  letters  which  go  under 
 the  nime  of  Themistocles,  and  which  have  come  down 
 to  our  times.  These  letters  have  been  ascribed  to  the 
 Athenian  commander  of  the  same  name,  but  without 
 sufficient  evidence.  They  are  the  production  of  some 
 one  who  has  amused  himself  with  this  species  of  lit- 
 erary imposture,  and  has  placed  himself,  in  itnatfina- 
 tion,  in  the  position  occupied  by  the  conqueror  of  Sal- 
 amis,  after  he  had  experienced  the  ingratitude  of  his 
 cauntrvmcn.  The  deception  is  well  kept  up.  The 
 best  edition  is  that  of  Schoettgen,  Lipt.,  1 710,  8vo, 
 
 republished  in  1722.  Bremer's  edition  is  liltic  more 
 than  a  reprint  of  this,  Lcmgov.,  1776,  8vo.  {Hoff- 
 mann, Lex.  Bihliograph.,  vol.  3,  p.  661  ) 
 
 TheocrItus,  a  celebrated  Greek  Bucolic  poet,  a 
 native  of  Syracuse,  who  flourished  under  Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus,  knig  of  Egypt,  and  Hiero  II.  of  Syra- 
 cuse, B.C.  270.  He  was  instructed,  in  his  earlier 
 years,  by  Asclepiades  of  .Samos,  and  Philetas  of  Cos; 
 subsequently  he  became  the  friend  of  Aratus,  and  pass- 
 ed a  part  of  his  days  at  Alexandrea,  and  the  remain- 
 der in  Sicily.  It  has  been  supposed  that  he  was  stran- 
 gled by  order  of  Hiero,  king  of  Sicily,  in  revenge  for 
 some  satirical  invectives  ;  but  the  passage  of  Ovid,  on 
 which  the  sup|)osition  re.sts,  mentions  oidy  ''  the  Syra- 
 cusan  poet,"  and  it  does  not  follow  that  this  was  our 
 bard.  {Orid,  I/i  ,  Stil.)  Theocritus  distinguished 
 himself  by  his  poetical  compositions,  and  has  carried 
 Bucolic  verse  to  its  highest  perfection.  No  one  of 
 those  who  have  endeavoured  lo  surpass  him,  whether 
 among  the  ancients  or  moderns,  has  been  able  to  equal 
 his  simplicily,  his  naivete,  and  his  grace.  He  is  not, 
 however,  free  from  the  faults  of  his  age,  m  which  the 
 decline  of  pure  taste  had  already  become  apparent. 
 His  Bucolics  are  written  in  the  Doric  dialect.  They 
 consist  of  thirty  poems,  which  bear  the  title  oi  Idyls 
 {Y,l6vX7.La),  and  twenty  one  other  smaller  pieces  un- 
 der the  name  of  epigrams.  The  thirty  Idyls,  how- 
 ever, are  not  all  by  Theocritus.  It  appears  that  they 
 had  been  composed  by  differerit  poets,  and  united  into 
 one  body  by  some  grammarians.  These  thirty  pieces 
 are  not  all,  strictly  speaking,  of  the  Bucolic  order  ; 
 some  appear  to  be  fragments  of  e|)ic  poems  ;  two  of 
 them  would  seem  to  resemble  mimes  ;  several  belong 
 to  lyric  poetry. — Theocritus  has  sometimes  been  cen- 
 sured for  the  rusticity,  arid  even  indelicacy,  of  some  ol 
 his  expressions.  The  latter  charge  admits  of  no  de- 
 fence. With  regard  to  the  former,  it  must  be  observ- 
 ed, that  they  who  conceive  that  the  manners  and  senti- 
 ments of  shepherds  should  always  be  represented,  not 
 as  they  are  or  have  been  in  any  age  or  country,  but 
 greatly  embellished  or  refined,  do  not  seetn  to  have  a 
 just  idea  of  the  nature  of  pastoral  jioetry.  The  Idyls 
 of  Theocritus  are,  in  general,  faithful  copies  of  nature, 
 and  his  characters  hold  a  pro|jer  medium  between  rude- 
 ness and  refinement. — The  "  Epilhalamium  of  Helen," 
 one  of  the  thirty,  has  been  supposed  to  bear  a  resem- 
 blance to  the  Song  of  Solomon.  Some  have  conclu- 
 <led  from  this  that  Theocritus  was  acquainted  with  the 
 latter  piece.  The  discussion  is  a  very  interesting  one 
 for  biblical  critics  ;  since,  if  it  can  be  shown  that  The- 
 ocritus knew  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  commonly 
 received  opinion,  according  to  which  this  [loem  did  not 
 exist  in  Greek  at  the  time  of  Theocritus  (Ptolemy 
 Philadel[)hus  having  only  caused  the  Pentateuch  to  be 
 translated  into  Greek),  is  completely  refuted.  Our 
 limits  forbid  any  investigation  of  this  subject.  It  is 
 believed,  however,  that  an  examination  of  the  point 
 will  end  in  the  conviction  that  Theocritus  never  saw 
 the  composition  in  question. — "The  poetry  of  Theoc- 
 ritus," observes  Ellon,  '-is  marked  by  the  strength 
 and  vivacity  of  original  genius.  Everything  is  distinct 
 and  peculiar;  everything  is  individualized;  and  is 
 brought  strongly  and  closely  to  the  cyf-  "Jud  under- 
 standing of  the  reader,  so  as  to  stamp  the  impression 
 of  reality.  His  scenes  of  nature,  and  Ins  men  and 
 women,  are  equally  striking  for  circumstance  and  man- 
 ners, and  may  equally  be  described  by  the  epithet  pic- 
 turesque. His  humour  is  chiefly  shown  in  the  por- 
 traiture of  middle-rank  ciiy-life,  where  it  abounds  with 
 strokes  of  character  that  arc  not  confined  lo  ancient 
 times  or  national  peculiarities,  but  suit  all  ages  and  all 
 climates.  He  is  not  limited  to  rustic  or  comic  dia- 
 logue or  incident,  but  passes  with  equal  facility  to  re- 
 fined and  elevated  subjects  ;  and  they  who  have  heard 
 only  of  the  rusiicity  of  Theocritus,  will  be  unexpect- 
 edly struck  by  the  delicacy  of  his  thoughts,  and  the 
 
 1317 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 richness  and  elegance  of  liis  fancy.  While  some  have 
 made  coarseness  an  olijeclion  to  Theocritus,  others 
 liavc  affected  lo  talk  of  his  assigning  to  his  goatlierds 
 sentiments  above  their  station  ;  as  if  Theocritus  were 
 not  the  beat  )udge  of  the  manners  of  his  own  country- 
 men. If  the  allusion  to  talcs  of  mythology  be  meant, 
 these  were  doubtless  familiar  in  the  mouths,  and  cur- 
 rent in  the  imvrovisi  songs,  of  the  peasants  of  Sicily. 
 They  who,  in  conformily  with  the  ma\^kish  modern 
 theory  of  pastorals,  sit  in  judgmeiil  to  decide  what  idyls 
 are,  and  what  are  not, legitimate  pastorals,  may  be  told, 
 in  the  words  of  Pope  on  his  own  pastorals,  while  iron- 
 ically depreciating  them  in  comparison  of  those  of 
 Philips,  to  which  they  are,  in  fact,  inferior,  that  if  cer- 
 tain idyls  be  not  pastorals,  they  are  something  belter. 
 But  the  term  idyl,  among  the  Greeks,  was  miscella- 
 neous and  general.  It  liesignated  what  we  call  Fugi- 
 tive Poetry  :  and  such  also  among  the  Latins  are  the 
 Eidyllia  of  Claudian  and  Ausonius.  Thus,  in  Theocri- 
 tus, besides  the  country  eclogue,  we  find  under  the  title 
 of  idyl  the  dramatic  town  eclogue,  the  epithalami- 
 um,  the  panegyric,  and  the  tale  of  heroic  mythology. 
 'Fhe  coarse  indecency  of  allusion  in  some  passages 
 may  be  objected  lo  with  belter  reason  ;  not  as  unsuit- 
 able to  that  innocence  of  an  ideal  golden  age  which 
 has  been  foolishly  thought  essential  to  pastoral ;  for 
 the  only  pastoral  that  has  either  value  or  intelligible 
 meaning  is,  properly,  a  representation  of  common  life, 
 rural  manners,  and  rural  scenes  as  they  are;  but  these 
 passages  are  objectionable  in  every  sense.  They  show 
 character,  indeed  ;  but  it  is  character  thai  were  belter 
 hidden  :  the  depraved  grossness  of  manners  corrupted, 
 and  of  human  nature  degenerated."  {Spcrimcns  of 
 the  Classic  Facts,  vol.  1,  p.  241.)  —  The  best  editions 
 of  Theocritus  are,  that  of  Wharton,  Oxon  ,  1770,  2 
 vols.  4to;  thalof  Valckenaer, /..  Bat.,  1773,  &c.,  8vo ; 
 that  of  Gaisford,  in  the  Poetae  Minores  (Oxon.,  1816- 
 20,  4  vols  8vo),  and  that  of  Kiessling,  Lips.,  1819, 
 8vo,  republished,  along  with  Heindorf 's  Bioii  and  Mos- 
 chus,  by  Valpy,  LoniL,  1829,  2  vols.  8vo.  —  II.  An 
 epigrammatic  poet,  a  native  of  Chios,  who  flourished 
 in  the  time  of  Ale.xander.  (Consult  Alhenceus,  6,  p. 
 831,  rd.  Schwetgh  ,  vol.  2,  p.  380,  and  HchM,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  125.) 
 
 Theodectes,  I.  a  Greek  orator  and  poet  of  Phase- 
 lis  in  Pamphylia,  son  of  Aristander,  and  disciple  of 
 Isocrates.  He  wrote  50  tragedies,  besides  other  works, 
 of  which  some  fragments  exist.  He  was  one  of  those 
 selected  by  Queen  Artemisia  to  deliver  funeral  eulo- 
 gies on  her  deceased  husband  Mausolus  ;  and,  accord- 
 ing lo  one  account,  he  gamed  the  prize  in  a  dramatic 
 contest  connected  with  the  funeral  obsequies  of  the 
 prince.  He  died  at  Athens,  at  the  age  of  41 .  (Suiii., 
 s.  V.  &£odiKTr]C.) — II.  A  son  of  the  preceding,  and  a 
 rhetorician.  He  wrote  a  eulogy  on  Alexander  of  Epi- 
 rus,  and  also  historical  commentaries,  as  well  as  other 
 works.     {Siiid.,  s.  V.) 
 
 Theodoka,  wife  of  the  Emperor  Justinian.  (Vid. 
 Justinianus.) 
 
 Theodoretus,  one  of  the  Greek  fathers,  a  native 
 of  Anlioch,  and  a  discij>le  of  Chrysosiom.  He  was 
 made  bishop  of  Cyrrhus,  in  Syria,  A.D  420,  and,  after 
 having  favoured  the  opinions  of  Nestorius,  he  wrote 
 against  that  heresiarch.  His  zeal  for  the  Catholic  faith 
 rendered  him  oUno.xious  to  the  Eutychi;ins,  bv  whom 
 he  was  deposed  in  the  synod  which  they  held  at  Ephe- 
 sus  ;  but  he  was  restored  lo  his  diocese  by  the  council 
 of  (jhalcedon,  A.D.  421.  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
 farther  history, except  that  he  was  alive  till  after  A.D. 
 460.  He  is  the  author  of  a  history  commencing  A.D. 
 324,  where  that  of  Euscbius  ends,  and  continued  down 
 to  A.D.  429.  The  best  edition  is  thai  of  Heading, 
 Cant ,  1720,  fol.  Theodoret  bears  a  high  rank  among 
 the  commentators  on  the  Scriptures  for  the  purily  of  i 
 his  style.  Occasionallv,  however,  he  abounds  loo  ! 
 much  with  metaphors.  His  work  is  rather  deficient  , 
 1318 
 
 in  clironological  exactness,  yet  it  contains  many  valu. 
 able  documents,  and  some  remarkable  circumstances 
 which  other  ecclesiastical  historians  have  omitted.  He 
 wrote,  besides  his  history,  commcniaries  on  the  Scrip- 
 tures, e[)istles,  lives  of  famous  anchorites,  dialogues, 
 books  on  heresy,  and  discourses  on  Providence  and 
 against  the  pagans. — His  works  have  been  edited  by 
 Sirmond  and  Gamier,  Fans,  1642-84,  5  vols,  fol., 
 and  also  published  at  Halle,  1709-74,  5  vols.  fol. 
 
 Theodokus,  I.  a  philosopher,  disciple  of  A nicerris, 
 and  a  native  ol  Cyrene.  For  the  freedom  with  which 
 he  spoke  concerning  the  gods,  he  was  stigmatized  with 
 the  name  of  atheist,  and  banished  from  Cyrene.  He 
 took  refuge  in  Athens;  but  his  impiety  would  have 
 proved  fatal  to  him,  had  not  Demetrius  Phalereus  in- 
 terposed in  his  favour.  Under  his  protection  he  gained 
 access  to  the  court  of  Ptolemy  Lagi.  Venturing, 
 after  a  long  interval,  to  return  to  Athens,  it  is  related 
 that  he  suffered  death  by  hemlock ;  but  whether  his  of- 
 fence was,  in  reality,  atheism,  or  whether  it  was  mere- 
 ly contempt  for  the  Grecian  superstitions,  has  been 
 much  disputed.  {Enfield,  Hist.  Fhilos.,  vol.  1,  p. 
 196.) — II.  A  rhetorician  of  Gadara,  or,  as  he  is  more 
 commonly  called,  of  Rhodes.  He  was  the  preceptor 
 of  Tiberius,  who  was  afterward  emperor,  and  hit  off 
 his  character  so  well  when  he  described  him  as  a  mix- 
 ture of  mud  and  blood  {mjAov  aifj-ari  necjivpafuvov). 
 Suidas,  however,  ascribes  these  words  to  Alexander 
 of  JEgss  when  speaking  of  Nero.  {Sucton.,  Vit.  Tib., 
 c.  57.)  According  to  Quintilian,  Theodorus  wrote 
 several  works  (3,  1,  18).  His  writings,  which  have 
 perished,  were  recommended  by  Dio  Chrysostomus 
 as  models  of  style.  {Dio  Chrys.,  -Kspl  ?i6y.  uan. — 
 Sch'oll,  Gesch.  Gr.  Lit.,  vol.  2,  p.  529.)— III.  A  wri- 
 ter on  architecture.  (Consult  the  remarks  of  Finder  in 
 Scholl,  Gesch.  Gr.  Lit  ,\o\.  3,  p.  601.)— IV.  A  Greek 
 monk,  surnamed  Prodromus,  who  lived  in  the  early 
 part  of  the  12th  century.  He  has  left  various  poems, 
 only  a  part  of  which  have  been  edited.  He  is  the  au- 
 thor, also,  of  a  very  poor  romance,  entitled  ''The  Loves 
 of  Rhodanthe  and  Dosicles."  There  is  only  one  edi- 
 tion of  this  work,  that  of  Gaulman,  Faris,  1625,  8vo. 
 Theodosia,  a  town  on  the  southeast  side  of  the 
 Tauric  Chersonese,  called  also  Capha,  now  Caffa  or 
 Feodosia.     {Mela,  2,  1.) 
 
 Theodosiopolis,  I.  a  town  of  Armenia,  built  by 
 Theodosius.  It  was  situate  east  of  Arze.  on  the  riv- 
 er Araxes,  and  was  a  frontier  town  of  the  lower  em- 
 pire. It  is  now  called  Hassan- Cala,  and  otherwise 
 Call  cala,  or  the  Beautiful  Castle.  {Frocop  ,  Fcrs  , 
 1,  10.-7(1,  de  Aidif.,  3,  5.) — II.  Another  in  Meso- 
 potamia, on  the  river  Chaboras.  Its  previous  name 
 was  Resaina,  and  it  was  founded  by  a  colony  in  the 
 reign  of  Septimius  Severus.  Hence  it  was  sometimes 
 called  Colonia  Scplimia  Kcsaincsionim.  The  mod- 
 ern name  Ras-am  is  one  of  Arabic  origin,  and  signi- 
 fies the  fuuntaiu  of  a  river,  in  allusion  to  the  numer- 
 ous springs  which  are  here.  The  ancient  name  Re- 
 saina was  in  all  probability  of  similar  origin,  and  was 
 merely  re<ained  when  the  Roman  settlement  was  made 
 here.  {Amm.  MarcelL,  23,  14. — Bischof  mid  Moller, 
 Worlerh.  der  Gcogr.,  p.  344.) 
 
 Theodosius,  I.  a  distinguished  ofSccr  in  the  reign 
 of  Valentinian  I.,  whose  brave  and  skilful  conduct 
 preserved  Britain  and  recovered  Africa.  He  was  un- 
 justly put  lo  death  by  Graiian.  shortly  after  the  lat- 
 ler's  accession  lo  the  throne  — II.  Flavius,  surnamed 
 "  the  Great,"  a  celebrated  Roman  emperor,  son  of  the 
 preceding.  He  was  invested  with  the  imperial  purple 
 by  Graiian,  who  made  him  his  colleague,  and  gave 
 hiin  the  eastern  empire,  with  the  addition  of  Illyricuro. 
 Theodosius,  thus  raised  to  a  share  of  the  sovereign 
 authority,  speedily  showed  himself  worthy  of  the  high 
 trust  committed  to  him,  that  of  restoring  tho  fortiincf 
 of  a  falling  empire.  The  courage  of  the  Romans  ba«2 
 been  so  much  shaken  by  a  recent  defeat  near  Adriaa- 
 
THEODOSIUS. 
 
 THEODOSIUS. 
 
 opolis,  in  which  the  Ernperor  Valens  and  almost  two 
 thirds  of  liis  army  were  slain  by  iht  Golhs,  that  Tbe- 
 odosius  did   not  deem  il  jjruduiit  to  liazard  a  general 
 eiigai'eiucHt  with  tlie  same  foe  ;   but,  like  another  Fa- 
 bius,   he  saved   his  own  forces,  harassed   the  enemy, 
 taught  Jus  men  that  the  Cioths  were  not  invincible,  and 
 gradually  restored  to  them  tlieir  courage,  perfected  by 
 improved  discipline  and  temperate  caution.     At  length 
 FrUigern,  the  hostile  leader,  died,  and  the  Goths,  hav- 
 inu'  no  longer  a  chief  capable  of  controlling  the  haugh- 
 ty subordinate  leaders  ot  their  illcompacled  confeder- 
 acy, became  disunited,  and  one   by  one  submitted  to 
 the  superior  skill,  policy,  and  authority  of  Theodosius. 
 Great  numbers  of  tliem  received  the  pay  and  were  in- 
 corporated into  the  armies  of  that  empire  which  they 
 had  recently  been  on  the  brink  of  destroying,  and  the 
 remainder  voluntarily  engaged  to  defend  the  Danube 
 against  the    Huns.     Thus,    in   about  four  years,    the 
 £astern  Emtnre  was  rescued  from  the  most  formida- 
 ble danger  by  which   it  had   ever   been   assailed,  and 
 seemed  once  more  in  a  stale  of  security.     While  The- 
 odosms  was  thus  em|)loyed,  another  calamity  befell  the 
 Western  Emp-ire.     Maxiinus  revolted  against  Gratian, 
 and  the  latter,  who  was  then  in  Gaul,  having  fled  to- 
 wards Italy,  was  overtaken  and   put  death  at  Lugdn- 
 num.      The  death  of  this  prince  left  his  young  brother, 
 Valentinian  11.,  nominal  emperor  of  the  West,  though 
 the  usurper  .Vlaximus  assumed  that  title.      Theodosius 
 was  obliged  to    conceal    his    resentment   against    the 
 murderer  of  his  benefactor,  not  being  yet  in  a  condition 
 to  quit  iiis  own  dominions;   and  he  even  entered  into  a 
 treaty  with  him,  leaving  him  in  undisputed  j)Ossession 
 of  Gaul  and   Britain.      But  Maximus,  encouraged  bv 
 the  success  with  which  his  rebellion  had  been  attended, 
 resolved   to  deprive  Valentinian  of  even   the  nominal 
 power  which  he  enjoyed  in   Italy.      Unable  to  defend 
 his  territories,  the  latter  lied   to  Theodosius  and  be- 
 sought his  aid.     Theodosius,  thereupon,  having  com- 
 pleted the  pacirtcation  of  his  own  dominions,  immedi- 
 ately marched  against  the  usurper,  defeated  hiin  in  two 
 successive  engagements,  and,  his  own   troops  having 
 yielded   him  uj),  put   him   to  death.      Valentinian  II. 
 was  thus  restored  to  the  throne  of  the  Western  empire  ; 
 a  throne  which  his  weak  character  did  not  enable  him 
 to  till  and  to  defend.     Theodosius,  after  his  triumph 
 over  Maximus,  resolved  to  visit  Rome,  and  aid  his  im- 
 perial pupil  in  reforming  the  abuses  prevalent  in  that 
 city.     This  visit  is  mentioned  on  account  of  the  de- 
 crees published   by  Theodosius  for  the  complete  sup- 
 pression of  idolatrous  worship  at  Rome.     .'Ml  sacrifices 
 were  prohibited  under  heavy  penalties,  the  idols  were 
 defaced,  and  the  temples  of  the  gods  were  abandoned 
 to  ruin  and  contempt.     These  decrees  met  but  a  fee- 
 ble  resistance,  and   from  that  time  may  be  dated  the 
 complete   and   final    overthrow   of   pagan   idolatry   in 
 Rome.     Having  thus  completed  the  triumph  of  Chris- 
 tianity  over  [laganism,   Theodosius   returned    to    the 
 East,  and  em[)loyed  himself  in  the  kindred  task  of  put- 
 ting an  end   to  the  heresies  of  the  (yhiirch.  and  estab- 
 lishing the  predominance  of  the  ortJiodox  over  the  .Arian 
 parly.     Valentinian  H.  had  but  a  short  time  recovered 
 possession  of  the  empire  of  the  West,  when  he  was 
 murdered  by  Arbogastos,  a  Frank  of  a  bold  and  war- 
 like character,  who  had   obtained  a  great  ascendancy 
 over  him.      Arbogasies    did    not  himself  assume  the 
 purple,  hut  gave  it  to  Eugcniiis,  deeming  it  more  safe 
 to  possess  tlie  power  than  the  name  of  em|>eror.      The- 
 odosius once  more  prepared  to  avenge  the  murder  of  a 
 colleague.     He    raised   a  powerful   armv,  forced    the 
 passes  of  the  .\lps,  encountered  the  army  of  the  usurp- 
 er, and  iiiflirted  on  him  a  decisive  overthrow.      Eu- 
 genius  was  killed  by  his  own  defeated  troops  ;  and  Ar- 
 bogasies. fearing  the  just  resentment  of  the  victor,  died 
 by  his  own  hand.     The   whole  Roman  empire   mioht 
 have  been   once   more  reunited    under  one    imperial 
 •overeign,  had  Theodosius  been  ambitious  of  that  sole 
 
 dominion.     But,  being  perfectly  persuaded  of  the  ne 
 cessity  of  an  emperor  in  each  of  the  imperial  cities,  he 
 assigned  to  his  younger  son  Honorius  the  sceptre  of 
 the  Western  empire,  and  associated  .Arcadius  the  el- 
 der with  himself  in  the  East.     Scarcely  had  he  com 
 pleted  this  arrangement,  when  his  constitution,  which 
 had  always  been  feeble,  overtasked  with  the  oxertiona 
 of  this  campaign  and  the  cares  of  state,  yielded  to  the 
 shock,  and  he  expired,  to  the  universal  regret  of  the 
 empire,    which   beheld   the   splendour  of  the   Roman 
 name  passing  away  with  him,  its  last  great  emperor. 
 This  event  took  place  A.D.  395.     Theodosius,  at  the 
 time  of  his  death,  was  60  years  of  age,  and  had  reigned 
 16  years.     Few  of  the  Roman  emperors,  indeed,  died 
 more  lamented  than  Theodosius  the  Great.     His  sin- 
 cere attachment  to  Christianity,  and  the  etl'orts  which 
 he  made  to  farther  its  progress,  contributed,  it  is  true, 
 very  materially  to  the  advancement  of  his  lame  amontr 
 a  large  and  influential  class  of  his  subjects  ;   but  his 
 character,  on  other  accounts,  exhibited  so  many  points 
 deserving  of  ajiplause,  that  even  the  most  determined 
 of  his  enemies  among  pagan  writers  are  compelled  to 
 acknowledge  his  merits,  and  to  praise  the  mild  and  im- 
 partial spirit  in  which  he  conducted   his  government. 
 The  welfare  of  his  people  seems  to  have  supplied  the 
 ruling  motive  of  his  policy  in  peace  and  in  war  ;  and, 
 although  bred  a  soldier  and  desirous  of  military  glory, 
 he  on  all  occasions  appeared  more  willing  to  sacrifice 
 his  reputation  for  courage  than  to  earn  the  renown  of 
 a  hero  at  the  expense  of  life  and  property.     The  great- 
 est stain,  perhaps,  which  attaches  to  his  character,  is 
 the  severity  whicii  he  employed  in  punishing  a  popular 
 insurrection  which    had   taken  place  at  Thessalonica. 
 This  event  occurred  A.D.  390.     The  origin  of  the  ra- 
 tastrophe  was  in    itself  very  trivial,  being   simply  the 
 imprisonment  of  a  favourite  charioteer  of  the  circus. 
 This  provocation,  added  to  some  former  disputes,  s3 
 inflamed  the  populace,  that  they  murdered  tlicir  govern- 
 or and  several  of  his  officers,  and  dragged  their  man- 
 gled   bodies  through  the   mire.     The    resentment  of 
 Theodosius  was  natural  and  merited,  but  the  manner 
 in  which  he  displayed  it  was  in  the  highest  degree  in- 
 human.    An   mvitation  was  given,  in  the   cmperor'j 
 name,  to  the  people  of  Thessalonica,  to  an  exhibition 
 at  the  circus;  and,  when  a  great  concourse  had  assem- 
 bled, they  were  massacred  by  a  body  of  barbarian  sol- 
 diery, to  the  number,  according  to  the  lowest  compu- 
 tation, of  7000,  and   to  the  highest,  of   15,000.     Foi 
 this  atrocious  proceeding,  .\mbrose,  with  great  cour- 
 age  and   propriety,  refused  him  communion   for  eight 
 months,  a  sentence  to  winch   the  repentant  emperor 
 was  compelled   to  submit.      It  ought,  however,  in  jus- 
 tice to  be  remembered,  that  the  resentment  of  Theo- 
 dosius was  inflamed   by  the  misrepresentations  of  his 
 minister  Rurtnus  ;   and  also  that,  after  the  first  burst  o( 
 passion  which  accompanied  the  fatal  order  had  been  al- 
 lowed to  subside,  he  sent  a  messenger  to  countermand 
 It,  who  unfortiinatelv  did  not  arrive  until  the  ri  pcntance 
 of  his  master  could    be  of  no  possible  avail.      (Hclli- 
 eringlon's  thxlunj  oj  Rome,  p.  254,  scy// — Enci/clop 
 MctrupoL,  div.  3,   vol.3,  p.  238.)— HI.  The  second 
 emperor  of  the  name,  was  the  son  of  Arcadius,  emperor 
 of  the  West,  and  grandson  of  the  preceding.     His  la- 
 ther died  when  he  was  only  eight  years  of  age ;  but  the 
 minority  of  the   prince  was    faithfully  directed   by  the 
 wisdom  of  Anthemius,   the  prefect,  whose  excellent 
 abilities  were  not  unequal  to  the  arduous  task  commit- 
 ted to   his  care.      But   he  found  it  expedient,  either 
 with  the  view  of  removing  jealousy,  or  of  gratifying 
 the  ambition  of  Pulchcria,  the  sister  of  the  young  em- 
 peror, to  associate  her  in  the  management  of  affairs  ; 
 for,  though  she  was  only  two  years  older  than  Theodo- 
 sius, her  mind  was  much   more  mature  and   vigorous, 
 and   in  all  respects  better  fitted  to  take  a  share  in  the 
 duties  of  government.     At  the  age  of  sixteen,  accord- 
 ingly, she  was  saluted  with  the  title  of  Augusta.     Pal- 
 
 1319 
 
T  H  E 
 
 THE 
 
 ctiena,  iti  fact,  though  arrayed  in  female  attire,  was  the 
 only  individual  among  the  descendants  of  Theodosius 
 who  exhibited  any  tokens  of  his  manly  spirit.  She  su- 
 perintended at  the  same  time  the  education  of  her 
 brother,  whose  mind  she  soon  discovered  to  be  inca- 
 pable of  rising  above  the  mere  forms  of  polished  life  ; 
 and  for  this  reason  alone,  it  has  been  candidly  supposed, 
 she  liniiicd  her  instructions  to  those  external  observ- 
 ances whicti  might  qualify  him  to  represent  ihe  ma- 
 jesty of  the  East,  while  the  real  authority  and  patron- 
 age of  office  might  still  be  retained  in  her  own  hands. 
 She  even  chose  a  wife  for  him  in  the  person  of  Eiido- 
 cia,  an  Athenian  maid,  who  first  ])resented  iierself  at 
 court  as  a  suppliant,  and  who,  as  the  consort  of  The- 
 odosius, was  destined  to  experience  a  great  variety  of 
 fortune.  (Vid.  Eudocia  I)  Tlic  reign  of  Theodo- 
 sius, therefore,  was  virtually  that  of  Anthemius  and 
 Pulcheria.  The  principal  event  during  its  continu- 
 ance was  the  invasion  of  the  Huns  under  the  cele- 
 brated Attila,  who  carried  fire  and  sword  to  the  very 
 gates  of  Constantinople,  and  only  granted  peace  on 
 conditions  most  favourable  to  himself  and  humilia- 
 ting to  the  empire. — 'I'heodosius  met  his  death  by  a 
 fall  from  his  horse  in  hunting,  AD.  450.  In  the 
 reign  of  this  emperor  was  compiled  the  Theodosian 
 Code,  consisting  of  all  the  constitutions  of  the  Chris- 
 tian emperors,  from  Constantine  the  Great  to  his  own 
 time.  (Heinecc.,  Aniiq.  Rom.,  proam.  22) — JV.  A 
 mathematician  of  Tripolis,  in  Eydia,  who  flourished 
 probably  under  the  Emperor  'I'rajan,  about  A.D.  100. 
 He  wrote  three  books  on  the  doctrine  of  the  sphere,  of 
 which  Ptolemy  and  succeeding  writers  availed  them- 
 selves. They  were  translated  by  the  Arabians  into 
 their  language  from  the  Greek,  and  afterward  trans- 
 lated from  the  Arabic  into  Latin.  The  best  edition  is 
 that  of  Hunt,  Svo,  Oxmi.,  1707. 
 
 THROGiNis,  a  native  of  Megara,  in  Greece,  born  B.C. 
 583,  and  who  attained  to  the  age  of  eighty-eight  years. 
 He  is  one  of  the  Greek  Gnomic  poets.  Theognis  was 
 exiled  from  Megara  for  his  political  sentiments,  and  re- 
 tired in  consequence  to  Thebes,  where  he  took  up  his 
 abode.  He  was  a  considerable  traveller  for  those  days, 
 a  warm  politician,  a  man  of  the  world,  and,  as  it  should 
 seem,  of  pleasure  too  ;  and  his  j>ithy  maxims  upon  pub- 
 lic factions  and  private  quarrels,  debtors  and  creditors, 
 drinking,  dressing,  and  spending,  seem  the  fruits  of  per- 
 sonal experience,  the  details  of  which  other  parts  of  his 
 poetry  very  sufficiently  celebrate.  If  we  understand 
 Suidas  correctly,  there  existed  in  his  time  three  col- 
 lections ol  Theognidean  verse  :  1.  Miscellaneous  Gno- 
 mic elegies,  to  the  number  of  2S00  lines.  2.  A  Gno- 
 mology  of  the  same  sort,  addressed  to  Cyrnus.  3. 
 Other  didactic  and  admonitory  poems. — The  total 
 number  of  lines  constituting  the  mixed  mass  which 
 we  now  have  under  the  name  of  Theognis,  inclusive  of 
 the  159  new  verses  discovered  by  Bekker,  in  1815,  in 
 a  Modena  manuscri|)t,  amounts  to  1392  or  thereabout. 
 They  arc  all  exclusively  in  elegiac  metre,  but  are  evi- 
 dently a  farrago  huddled  together  from  the  voluminous 
 originals  anciently  existing,  and  also,  in  numerous  in- 
 stances, ignorantlv  interpolated  with  passages  from  the 
 elegies  of  Solon  and  Mimnermus.  It  must,  indeed, 
 be  immediately  obvious  to  the  reader,  that  poems,  or, 
 rather,  verses  consisting  of  so  many  hundreds  of  gno- 
 mic couplets  like  these,  could  no  more  i)e  expected  to 
 go  down  the  stream  of  time  entire  than  a  ship  without 
 bolts;  quotation  alone  would  infallibly  break  the  con- 
 tinuity, or,  rather,  collocation  of  the  lines  ;  and  inten- 
 tional compilations  of  passages, .having  a  generally  sim- 
 ilar tendency,  would  almost  ensure  the  loss  of  such 
 parts  as  were  not  included  in  any  of  the  larger  selec- 
 tions. In  the  now  existing  Theognis,  Cyrnus  is  cer- 
 tainly the  person  princii)ally  addressed  ;  but  Polypap- 
 des  is  also  not  unfrecjuently  named,  and  Simoniilcs, 
 Onomacritus,  Clearistus,  Dcrnocles,  Academus,  and 
 Timagoras  are  mentioned  ;  it  is  clear,  therefore,  that 
 1320 
 
 there  has  been  an  utter  confusion,  and  wc  must  now 
 take  it  as  it  is,  without  vainly  endeavouring  to  pick  out 
 and  sort  the  different  ingredients  which  enter  into  its 
 composition.  {Quarterly  Kevine,  No.  95,  p.  89,  scqq.) 
 —  Some  ancient  authors  accuse  Theognis  of  dissemi- 
 nating immoral  voluptuousness  in  the  g\iise  of  moral 
 precept.  Nothing  of  this  kind  appears  in  those  relics 
 of  his  poetry  which  have  reached  us,  though  little  can 
 be  said  for  many  of  his  notions  of  morality.  His  ver- 
 ses, indeed,  like  those  of  Hesiod,  were  learned  by  rote 
 in  the  schools  ;  but  with  this  application  of  them  a 
 modern  moralist  would  readily  dispense.  The  versi- 
 fication of  Theognis  is  marked  in  general  by  rhyth- 
 mical fluency  and  metrical  neatness. — The  best  edi- 
 tions of  I'heognis  arc,  that  of  Brunck,  in  the  Poeta 
 Gnomici ;  that  of  Bekker,  Lips.,  1815,  Svo;  and  es- 
 pecially that  of  Welcker,  Franco/.,  1826,  Svo.  {Hoff 
 mann,  Lex.  Bihiiogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  705.) 
 
 Theon,  I.  a  native  of  Smyrna,  who  probably  lived 
 about  the  commencement  of  the  second  century  of  our 
 era.  He  was  a  Platonist  in  his  tenets,  and  wrote  a 
 treatise  on  the  works  of  Plato,  so  far  as  they  related 
 to  four  branches  of  mathematical  science;  namely,  ge- 
 ometry, arithmetic,  music,  and  astronomy.  We  have 
 only  remaining  the  part  that  relates  to  arithmetic  and 
 music.  It  was  first  published  in  1644,  with  notes  by 
 Bouillaud,  Paris,  4to.  Another  edition  appeared  in 
 1827,  with  annotations  by  De  Gelder,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 Svo.  —  II.  A  native  of  Alexandrea,  contemporary  with 
 Pappus,  taught  mathematics  in  the  capital  of  Egypt, 
 and  flourished  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  of 
 our  era.  Theon  observed  a  solar  and  lunar  eclipse 
 A.D.  365.  We  have  from  his  pen  a  "Commentary 
 on  the  Elements  of  Euclid,"  under  the  title  of  "Lvv- 
 ovaiai  {Conferences),  unless,  indeed,  this  work  is  by 
 Euclid  himself,  in  which  case  Theon  will  only  have 
 given  a  revised  edition  of  it.  He  afterward  composed 
 (Commentaries  {'F.^y]jr'iaEi^)  on  the  manual  tables  of 
 Ptolemy,  on  the  Almagest  of  the  same  writer,  and  on 
 the  })oems  of  Aratus.  As  to  the  Commentary  on 
 the  Almagest,  it  must  be  remarked  that  the  labours  of 
 Theon  do  not  extend  farther  than  the  first  two  books, 
 on  the  fourth,  on  a  part  of  the  fifth,  on  books  6,  7,  8,  9, 
 and  10,  and  on  the  13th.  The  commentary  on  the  third 
 book  is  by  Nilus  Cabasilas  ;  the  commencement  of 
 that  on  the  fifth  by  Pappus.  The  commentary  of  The- 
 on on  Euclid  is  found  in  the  editions  of  the  latter. 
 That  on  the  Almagest  has  only  been  printed  twice  ; 
 namely,  in  the  edition  of  the  latter  work  by  Grynajsis 
 and  Camerarius,  Basil.,  1538,  fol.,  and  separately, 
 with  a  French  translation,  by  the  Abbe  Halma,  Pans, 
 1821.  4to.  The  scholia  on  Aratus,  which  have  come 
 down  to  us  in  a  very  interpolated  state,  are  found  in 
 the  editions  of  that  poet.  The  commentary  on  the  ta- 
 bles of  Ptolemy  was  first  given  entire  by  Halma,  Pans, 
 1821.  Before  this  only  two  fragments  had  been  pub- 
 lished.    (Sckbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Or.,  vol.  7,  p.  49.) 
 
 Theophanes,  I.  a  Greek  historian,  born  at  Myti- 
 Icne.  He  was  very  intimate  with  Pompey,  and  from 
 his  friendship  with  the  Roman  general  his  country- 
 men derived  many  advantages.  Theophanes  wrote  a 
 "  History  of  the  wars  of  the  Romans  in  various  coun- 
 tries, under  the  command  of  Pompey."  Of  this  work 
 iheie  remain  only  a  few  fragments,  quoted  by  Sirabo, 
 Plutarch,  and  Stohaeus.  Plutarch  gives  him  a  very  un- 
 favourable character  for  historic  veracity.  {Plul.,  Yit. 
 Pomp.) — H.  A  Byzantine  historian.  He  was  of  a  rich 
 and  noble  family,  and  turned  monk.  When  Nicepho- 
 rus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  exiled  by  the  Em- 
 peror Leo  the  Arminian,  Theophanes  paid  him  extract 
 diriary  lionours,  and  was  himself  banished  to  the  isle  of 
 Samothrace,  where  he  died  in  818.  His  (.'hronicle, 
 beginning  where  that  of  Syncellus  terminated,  was  ex- 
 tended to  the  reign  of  Michael  (]uro|)alata.  It  is  val- 
 uable for  its  facts,  hut  displays  the  credulity  and  weak 
 judgment  of  a  superstitious  mind.     It  was  printed  ac 
 
THE 
 
 THEOPHRASTUS. 
 
 Paris  with  a  Latin  version,  and  the  notes  of  F.  Goar, 
 under  the  care  of  Cornbefis,  in  IBSii,  fol. 
 
 Thkophilus,  I.  the  associate  of  Tribonian  and  Do- 
 rotheus  in  coinpiiing  the  Institutes,  of  which  work  he 
 has  left  a  Paraphrase  in  Grecii,  a  production  of  great 
 ntility  for  the  knowledge  of  Roman  law.  He  also 
 wrote  a  coinincniary,  in  the  same  language,  on  the 
 Pandects,  of  winch  some  fragments  remain  The  best 
 edition  of  Thcophilus  is  that  of  Reilz,  //«?'.  Com., 
 1751,  4lo.  —  II.  A  physician  svho  flourished  under 
 Ileraclius  about  A.D.  630.  He  wrote  a  treatise  irefii 
 oiipuv  (Dc  Vrinis),  the  best  edition  of  which  is  that 
 of  Giiidoc,  Lugd.  Rat.,  1703,  8vo,  and  1731.  The 
 best  edition  of  another  work  of  his,  on  the  Hnman 
 Frame,  is  that  of  Morcll,  Paris,  15.50,  8vo — III.  A 
 bishop  of  Antioch,  ordained  to  that  see  in  168  or  170 
 A.D.  In  his  zeal  for  orthodoxy,  he  wrote  against 
 Marcion,  and  also  against  Hcrinogencs,  and  he  com- 
 posed other  tracts,  some  of  which  are  preserved. 
 We  have  extant  also  three  books  against  Autolycus. 
 These  works  dis[)lay,  it  is  said,  the  earliest  example 
 of  the  use  of  the  term  "  Trinity,"  as  applied  to  the 
 three  persons  of  the  Godhead.  His  work  against  Au- 
 tolycus was  published  by  Conrad  Gesner,  at  Zurich, 
 ,  in  1546.  It  was  annexed,  also,  to  the  Supjilement  of 
 the  Bibliotheca  Patrum  in  1624. 
 
 Theophk.^stus,  a  Greek  philosopher,  a  native  of 
 Eresos  in  the  island  of  Lesbos.  He  was  born  B.C. 
 382,  and  received  the  first  rudiments  of  education  un- 
 der Alcip[)us,  in  his  own  country,  after  which  he  was 
 seni  by  his  father,  who  was  a  wealthy  man,  to  Athens, 
 and  there  became  a  disciple  of  Plato,  and,  after  his 
 death,  of  Aristotle.  Under  these  eminent  masters, 
 blessed  by  nature  with  a  genius  capable  of  excelling  in 
 every  liberal  accomplishment,  he  made  great  progress 
 both  in  philosophy  and  eloijuence.  It  was  on  account 
 of  his  high  attainments  in  the  latter  that,  instead  of 
 Tyrtamus,  his  original  name,  he  was  called,  as  some 
 say,  by  his  master,  but  more  probably  by  his  own  fol- 
 lowers, Ewphrastus  ("  the  fine  speaker"),  and  subse- 
 quently Theophrastus  ("  the  divine  speaker").  When 
 he  undertook  the  charge  of  the  Peripatetic  school,  he 
 conducted  it  with  such  high  reputation  that  he  had 
 about  two  thousand  scholars  ;  among  whom  were 
 Nicomachus,  the  son  of  Aristotle,  whom  his  father  had 
 mtrusted  by  will  to  his  charge  ;  Erasistratus,  a  cele- 
 brated physician  ;  and  Demetrius  Phalereus,  who  re- 
 sided with  him  in  the  same  house.  His  erudition  and 
 eloquence,  united  with  engaging  manners,  recom- 
 nfiended  him  to  the  notice  of  Cassander,  and  also  of 
 Ptolemy,  who  invited  him  to  visit  Egypt.  So  great  a 
 favourite  was  he  among  the  Athenians,  that,  when  one 
 of  his  enemies  accused  him  of  teaching  impious  doc- 
 trines, the  accuser  himself  escaped  with  difFiciilty  the 
 punishment  which  he  endeavoured  to  bring  upon  Theo- 
 phrastus.— Under  the  archonship  of  Xeiiippus,  B.C. 
 305,  Sophocles,  the  son  of  Amphiclidcs.  obtained  a 
 decree  (upon  what  grounds  we  are  not  informed),  ma- 
 king it  a  capital  offence  for  any  philosopher  to  0|)en  a 
 public  school  without  an  express  license  from  the  sen- 
 ate. Upon  this  ail  the  philosophers  left  the  city.  But 
 the  next  year,  the  person  who  had  proposed  the  law 
 was  himself  fined  five  talents,  and  the  philosophers  re- 
 turned with  great  public  applause  to  their  res[iective 
 schools.  Theophrastus,  who  had  suffered,  with  his 
 brethren,  the  persecution  inlhcted  by  this  op|)rcssive 
 decree,  shared  the  honour  of  the  restoration,  and  con- 
 tinued his  debates  and  instructions  in  the  Lyceum. — 
 Theophrastus  is  highly  celebrated  for  his  industry, 
 learning,  and  eloquence,  and  for  his  generosity  and 
 public  spirit.  He  is  said  twice  to  have  freed  his  coun- 
 try from  the  oppression  of  tyrants.  He  contributed 
 liberally  towards  defraying  the  expenses  attending  the 
 public  meetings  of  the  philosophers,  which  were  held, 
 not  for  the  sake  of  show,  but  for  learned  and  ini'e- 
 nious  conversation.  In  the  public  schools  he  common- 
 8E 
 
 Iv  appeared,  as  Aristotle  had  done,  in  an  elegant  dress, 
 and  was  very  attentive  to  the  graces  of  elocution. 
 He  lived  to  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-five.  To- 
 wards the  close  of  his  life  he  grew  exceedingly  infirm, 
 and  was  carried  to  the  school  on  a  couch.  He  ex- 
 pressed great  regret  on  account  of  the  shortness  of 
 life  ;  and  complained  that  nature  had  given  long  hfe  to 
 stags  and  crows,  to  whom  it  is  of  so  littl*^  value,  and 
 had  denied  it  to  man,  who,  in  a  longer  duration,  might 
 have  been  able  to  attain  the  summit  of  science;  but 
 now,  as  soon  as  he  arrives  in  sight  of  it,  is  taken 
 away.  —  Theophrastus  wrote  many  valuable  works, 
 some  of  which  have  come  down  to  us.  His  principal 
 work  of  a  philoso|)hical,  or,  rather,  ethical  character,  w 
 entitled  'WOikoI  XapaKTi'/pe^  {''Moral  Characters"), 
 in  thirty  chapters.  We  must  take  care  not  to  be  mis- 
 led by  this  title  ;  no  moral  characters  appear  in  the 
 work,  but  tiie  autlior  merely  traces  such  as  are  of  a 
 ridiculous  stamp.  Hence  Schneider,  one  of  the  edi- 
 tors of  Theophrastus,  has  been  led  to  the  opinion,  that 
 the  (Characters  of  Theophrastus,  as  we  now  have  them, 
 are  only  extracts  from  different  moral  works  published 
 by  the  philosopher;  extracts  made  at  difl'erent  times 
 and  by  diH'erent  persons.  He  founds  this  supposition 
 on  the  unconnected  style  so  prevalent  in  the  "Char- 
 acters," on  the  forms  of  expression  which  often  occur 
 there,  and  on  the  following  inscription  or  title  of  a 
 manuscript :  'E/c  tuv  Oeo^puaTov  XapaKTr/puv  ("  i'x- 
 Irucls  from  the  Characters  of  Theophrastus''').  This 
 opinion,  however,  of  .Schneider  has  found  many  op- 
 ponents. More  unanimity  prevails  among  critics  rel- 
 ative to  the  spuriousness  of  the  preface.  Its  style, 
 totally  different  from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  work  and 
 of  the  other  writings  of  Theophrastus  ;  the  errors  in 
 dates  ;  the  mention  made  of  his  children  ;  in  fine,  the 
 [)assage  where  Theophrastus  is  made  to  say  that,  af- 
 ter having  carefully  compared  the  good  and  the  bad, 
 he  has  believed  it  to  be  his  duty  to  commit  to  writing 
 an  account  of  the  mode  of  life  accustomed  to  be 
 pursued  by  each,  and  to  arrange  them  into  classes 
 (whereas  he  merely  gives  ridiculous  characters,  and 
 his  portraits  offer  neither  vices  nor  their  opposite  vir- 
 tues), all  these  circumstances  combined  make  a  very 
 stronc  case  against  the  authenticity  of  the  preface  in 
 question.  The  "  Characters"  of  Theophrastus  stand 
 very  high  as  a  classic  work.  This  rank  is  due  to  them 
 for  the  purity  of  the  style  and  its  great  precision,  as 
 well  as  from  the  exactness  and  fidelity  of  the  portraits. 
 Theophrastus  has  sketcheii  with  admirable  art  the  va- 
 rious figures  which  he  had  proposed  to  represent  on  his 
 moral  canvass  :  his  designs  are  executed  with  a  per- 
 fect finish  ;  and  his  numerous  imitators,  among  whona 
 La  Bruyere  stands  most  conspicuous,  will  never  con- 
 ceal from  view  and  produce  a  forgetfulness  of  the 
 beauties  of  their  original.  We  must  not,  however, 
 bring  to  the  perusal  of  this  work  that  delicacy  of  taste, 
 and  that  general  tone  of  feeling  which  result  from  the 
 present  relations  of  society  ;  we  must  remember  that 
 Theophrastus  selects  his  portraits  from  amid  a  licen- 
 tious democracy. — We  have  also,  under  the  name  of 
 Theophrastus,  '*  J  hook  or  fraisment  oj  Metoiphysics" 
 (TiJV  iiETu,  Tu  (fivaiK(^i  u-oaTTaafidriov  ;/  (iifjliov  u). — 
 Theophrastus  is  also  regavded  as  the  author  of  a  trea- 
 tise, Ilepl  Mri6))ni:uq  ("  On  Pcrceptwn"),  treating  of 
 the  senses,  the  imagination,  and  the  understanding. 
 This  work  has  come  down  to  us.  and  al.so  a  commen- 
 tary upon  it,  in  the  form  of  a  paraphrase,  by  Priscian 
 of  Lydia,  who  lived  in  the  sixth  century.— Porphyry, 
 in  his  commentary  on  the  Harmonica  of  Ptolemy,  has 
 preserved  for  us  an  interesting  fragment  of  the  second 
 book  of  Theophrastus'  treatise  on  Music.  A  loss 
 which  we  have  much  to  regret  is  that  of  three  works 
 of  Theophrastus  on  Laws,  which  made  a  kind  of 
 apnendatre  to  .Aristotle's  treatise  on  Politics.  The 
 first  of  those  productions  was  entitled  Ucpl  ^6/xuv 
 C  Of  Lares") ;  the  second,  Nduwv  Kara  aroixetov  ltd* 
 
 1321 
 
THE 
 
 THEOPOMPUS. 
 
 ("  Twenty-four  hooks  of  Laws,  in  Alphabetical  or- 
 der");  and  the  tliird,  Ilepl  JSojioOerdii)  ("  Of  Lei^isla- 
 lors"),  in  four  books.  Stobaius  cites  a  fragment  of 
 the  first  work.  Athcna^us  mentions  other  works  also 
 of  Theophrastus,  on  Flattery,  I'lcasurc,  Happiness, 
 &c.,  which  arc  now  lost. — Jndependenlly,  however, 
 of  his  metaphysical,  ethical,  and  political  speculations, 
 Theophrastus  also  turned  his  attention  to  Mineralogy 
 and  botany.  As  the  philosopher  of  Stagira  is  the 
 father  of  Zoology,  so  is  'I'heojthrastus  to  be  regarded 
 as  the  parent  of  Botany.  His  vegetable  physiology 
 contains  some  very  just  arrangements  ;  he  had  even  a 
 glimpse  of  the  sexual  system  in  plants. — Of  the  nu- 
 merous works  on  natural  history  written  by  Theophras- 
 tus, the  following  alone  remain  :  1.  ITfpt  (j>vril)v  iaro- 
 piag  ("  On  the  History  of  Plants'''),  in  ten,  or,  rather, 
 in  nine  books,  for  the  ancients  knew  only  nine,  and  the 
 pretended  fragment  of  a  tenth  book,  as  found  in  the 
 manuscripts,  is  only  a  re[)etition  of  a  passage  in  the 
 ninth.  This  history  of  plants  is  a  complete  system  of 
 ancient  botany  — 2.  Ylepl  (j)vtlkCiv  airiiJv  {'•  Of  the 
 causes  of  Plants"),  in  ten  books,  of  which  only  six 
 have  come  down  to  us.  It  is  a  system  of  botanical 
 physiology. — 3.  Uepl  AiOuv  {"Of  Stones").  This 
 work  proves  that,  after  the  time  of  Theo|)hrastus, 
 mineralogy  retrograded. — We  have  also  other  treatises 
 of  his,  on  Odours,  Winds,  Prognostics  of  the  Weather, 
 &.C.,  and  various  fragments  of  works  in  natural  his- 
 tory, on  Animals  that  change  Colour,  on  Bees,  &c. 
 All  these  fragments  have  been  preserved  for  us  by 
 Photius. — The  best  edition  of  the  works  of  Theo- 
 phrastus is  that  of  Schneider,  Lips.,  1818-1821,  5 
 vols.  8vo.  The  treatise  on  Stones  has  been  translated 
 into  English  by  Sir  John  Hill,  and  is  accompanied  by 
 very  useful  notes.  Land  ,  1777,  8vo.  The  best  edi- 
 tions of  the  "Characters"  are,  that  of  Casaubon,  L. 
 Bat.,  1592,  8vo  ;  that  of  Fischer,  Coburg,  1763,  8vo  ; 
 and  that  of  Ast,  Ltps.,  1816,  8vo.  This  last,  criti- 
 cally speaking,  is  perhaps  the  best. 
 
 Theophvlactus,  I  SiMOCATT.\,  a  Byzantine  histo- 
 riar:.  His  history  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Mau- 
 rice is  comprehended  in  eight  books,  and  terminates 
 with  the  massacre  of  this  prince  and  his  children  by 
 Phocas.  Casaubon  considers  this  writer  one  of  the 
 best  of  the  later  Greek  historians.  He  wrote  also 
 other  works,  some  of  which  have  reached  us.  The 
 best,  edition  of  his  history  is  that  of  Fabrotti,  Pans, 
 1648,  fol.  The  best  edition  of  his  Physical  Questions 
 and  Epistles  is  that  of  Boissonade,  Paris,  1835,  8vo. 
 — H.  One  of  the  Greek  fathers,  who  flourished  AD. 
 1070.  Dupin  observes  that  his  Commentaries  are 
 very  useful  for  the  literal  explanation  of  the  Scrip- 
 tures ;  and  Dr.  Lardner  remarks  that  he  quotes  no 
 forged  writings  or  apocryphal  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
 tament, many  of  which  he  excludes  by  his  observa- 
 tions on  John,  1,  31—34,  that  Christ  wrought  no  mira- 
 cle in  his  infancy,  or  before  the  time  of  his  public 
 ministry  His  works  were  edited  at  Venice,  4  vols., 
 1754  to  1763. 
 
 Theopoms,  a  name  given  to  Antioch  because  the 
 Christians  first  received  their  name  there. 
 
 TiiKOPOMHUS,  I.  a  king  of  Sparta,  of  the  family  of  the 
 Proclid.T?,  who  distinguished  himself  by  the  many  new 
 regulations  he  introduced.  He  died  after  a  long  and 
 peaceful  reign,  B.C.  723. — H.  A  Greek  historian,  a  na- 
 tive of  Chios,  born  about  B.C.  360.  His  father,  Dam- 
 asistralus,  became  an  object  of  strong  dislike  to  his  fel- 
 low-citizens on  account  of  his  attachment  to  Sparta, 
 and  was  eventually  exiled,  together  with  his  son.  The 
 latter  came  to  Athens,  and  there  had  for  an  instructcr 
 the  celebrated  Isocrates.  At  the  age  of  45,  Thco- 
 pompus  returned  to  his  native  city,  on  the  recommend- 
 ation of  Alexander  the  Great;  but  after  the  death  of 
 that  prince  he  was  again  driven  out.  He  then  retired 
 to  Egypt,  but  was  badly  received  by  Ptolemy  I.,  who 
 regarded  him  as  an  intriguing  and  trouble-making  man, 
 1322 
 
 and  even  wished  to  put  him  to  death.     It  was  in  ac- 
 cordance with  the  advice  of  Isocrates  that  Theopom- 
 pus  undertook  to  write  a  continuation  of  the  history  of 
 Thucydides.     He  added,  in  the  first  place,  according 
 to  some,  an  eighth  book  to  the  work,  which  the  histo- 
 rian had  left  incomplete.     After  ihis  he  composed  a 
 History  of  Greece  ('EX?.;?j-7«a)  in  eleven  books,  and 
 an  abridgment  of  Herodotus  in  two  books.     He  also 
 wrote   a  history    of  Philip,  father  of  Alcsander  the 
 Great,  in  58  books.     Of  these  58  there  were  still  ex- 
 isting  63  in    the   time   of   Photius.      The   patriarch, 
 however,  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  contents  mere- 
 ly of  the  twelfth  book,  which  embraced  the  history  of 
 Pacorus,  king  of  Egypt.     He  informs  us  that  the  His- 
 tory of  Philip  contained  very  many  digressions,  and  that 
 Philip,  the  king  of  Macedon,  who  was  defeated  by  the 
 Romans,  having  caused  all  that  did   not  relate  to  the 
 father  of  Alexander  to  be  thrown  out,  there  remained 
 merely  what  would  amount  in  the  whole  to  16  books. 
 The  ancient  writers  blame  Theopompus  for  a  certain 
 harshness  and  illiberaliiy  in  his  remarks  ;   but  Dionys- 
 ius   of  Halicarnassus,  on  the  other  hand,  [jraises  the 
 order  and  perspicuity  that  appeared  in  his  works  ;   and 
 he  commends,  too,  the  long  preparatory  toil  through 
 which  he  went  before  entering  on  the  composition  of 
 his  work,  and  the  researches  which  he  made,  and  the 
 pains  he  took  to  confer  with  those  who  had  been  eye- 
 witnesses of  some  of  the  events  that  he  described. — 
 In  speaking  afterward  of  the  History  of  Philip,  Dio- 
 nysius  also  makes  the  following  remarks  in  relation  to 
 his  general  manner,  which  may  serve  in  some  degree, 
 perhaps,  to  explain  the  charge  of  harshness  and  of  il- 
 liberal feeling  accustomed   to  be  brought  against  this 
 historian:   "Not   content   with  relating  whatever  has 
 passed  before  the  eyes  of  the  world,  Theopompus  pen- 
 etrates to  the  inmost  souls  of  his  principal  actors,  scru- 
 tinizes narrowly  their  most  secret  intentions,  removes 
 the  mask  from  them,  and  brings  forward  into  open  day 
 those  vices  which  their  hypocrisy  had   hoped   to  con- 
 ceal.     Hence  some  have  charged  him  with  calumnia- 
 ting, because  he  has  blamed  boldly  what  deserved  to 
 be   blamed,  and   has    lessened   the   glory   which  sur- 
 rounded some  individuals.     In  my  opinion,  however, 
 he  has  merely  done  what  physicians  do,  who  apply  the 
 steel  and  the  fire  to  those  parts  that  are  diseased  and 
 gangrenous,  I'li  order  to  save    those  that  are  healthy 
 and  sound. — As  for  his  diction,  it  is  altogether  like 
 that  of  Isocrates,  pure,  clear,  noble,  elevated,  flowing, 
 full  of  sweetness  and  harmony."     {Dion.  Hal.,  Ep. 
 ad  Cn.  Pomp. — Op.,  ed.  Reiskc,  vol.  6,  p.  783.) — It 
 would  be  wrong  in  us  to  oppose  to  the  latter  part  of 
 this  eulogium  the  criticism  of  Longinus  (^  42)  on  a 
 passage  of  Theopompus,  because  there  is  a  wide  dif- 
 ference between  blaming  an  isolated  phrase  emjiloyed 
 by  a  writer,  and  censuring  his  general  style.     The  re- 
 proach uttered  by  Longinus  agrees  rather  with  what 
 the  rhetorician  Hermogencs  also  condemned,  namely, 
 too  great  a  fondness  for  digressions,  and  a   relating, 
 sometimes,    of  things  actually   silly   in   their  nature. 
 {Dc  Vet.  Script.  Censvra,  ed.  Reiske,  vol.  5,  p.  429.) 
 Cornelius  Nepos  has  made  much  use  of  Theopomjjus, 
 although  he  calls  him  and  Tima)us  two  of  the  most 
 calumniating  of  men,  "  duo  maledircn/issiini."     (Vil. 
 Alcib.,  11,  1.)     From  an  observation,  moreover,  made 
 by  Photius,  he  would  appear  to  have  been  a  very  vain 
 writer,  and  to  have  regarded  those  who  had  gone  be- 
 fore him   as    not   worthv   even   of   the    second  rank. 
 {Phot.,  Cod  ,  176  ;  vol.  l',  p.  121,  ed.  Bekk.)—\n  1803, 
 Koch  announced  a  critical  edition  of  the  fragments  of 
 Theopompus  as  about  to  appear,  in  a  dissertation  en- 
 titled "  Prolegomena  ad  Theopompum  Chimn,"  Stet- 
 t'lni,  4to.     The  promised  edition,  however,  has  never 
 appeared.     Frommel  subsequently  reunited  the  frag- 
 ments of  the  Abridgment  of  Herodotus  in  a  disserta- 
 tion bearing  the  title  "  Dc   Theopompi  Chii  Epitome 
 Herodotea."     It  is  found   in   Creuzer's  Mclelcmata 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 vol.  3,  p.  135-170.  In  1829,  the  first  complete  edi- 
 tion of  ail  the  fragments  appeared  from  the  Leyden 
 press,  with  notes,  a  life  of  'I'heopompiis,  &c.,  by 
 Wichers.  8vo.  (Sch'oU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  179. 
 — Hoffmann,  Lex.  Btbliograph.,  vol.  3,  p.  743.) 
 
 Ther.\,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  .S[)oradcs,  situ- 
 ate, according  to  Slrabo,  about  seven  hundred  stadia 
 from  the  Cretan  coast,  in  a  northeast  direction,  and 
 nearly  two  hundred  stadia  in  circumference.  (Slrab., 
 484.)  The  modern  name  is  ISiuilorin.  This  island 
 was  said  by  myihologists  to  have  been  formed  in  the 
 sea  by  a  clod  of  earth  thrown  from  the  ship  Argo,  and 
 on  its  tirsl  appearance  obtained  the  name  of  Calliste. 
 {PItn.,  4,  12  )  It  was  first  occupied  by  some  Phoeni- 
 cians, but  subsequently  colonized  by  the  Lacedemo- 
 nians, who  settled  there  ilie  descendants  of  the  Minyse, 
 after  they  had  been  e.xpeiied  from  Lemnos  by  the  Pe- 
 lasgi.  I'he  colony  was  headed  by  Theras,  a  descend- 
 ant of  Cadmus,  and  maternal  uncle  of  Eurysthenes 
 and  Proclus;  he  gave  his  name  to  the  island.  {He- 
 rod ,  4.  L47.  —  Fausan.,  3,  1. —  Callim.,  np.  S/rab., 
 347.)  Several  generations  after  this  event,  a  colony 
 was  led  into  Africa  by  Battus,  a  descendant  of  the 
 Minyaj,  who  there  founded  the  city  of  Cyrene.  {He- 
 rod., 4,  150. — I'lnd  ,  Pylh.,  4,  10.)  Thera  appears 
 to  have  been  produced  by  the  action  of  submarine 
 tires.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p  412,  scqq.) 
 '■  Abundant  proofs  arc  not  wanting,"  observes  Malte- 
 Brun,  "  as  to  the  existence  of  an  ancient  volcano,  the 
 crater  of  which  occupied  all  the  basin  between  Santo- 
 rin  and  the  smaller  islands  of  the  group :  the  mouth 
 of  the  crater  has  been  partly  overthrown,  and  the  aper- 
 ture enclosed  by  the  accumulation  of  dust  and  ashes. 
 The  lava,  the  ashes,  and  pumice-stone  discharged 
 from  that  volcano  have  covered  part  of  Thera  {Mem. 
 de  Trevoux,  1715),  but  the  greater  portion,  which  con- 
 sists ol  a  large  bed  of  tine  marble,  has  never  been  in 
 any  way  changed  by  the  action  of  volcanic  fire.  {Tour- 
 nej'ort,  vol.  1,  p  321.)  Thera  is  not  now,  however, 
 covered  with  ashes  and  pumice-stones  ;  it  is  fertile  in 
 corn,  and  produces  strong  wine  and  cotton,  the  latter 
 of  which  is  not,  as  in  the  other  islands,  planted  every 
 year.  The  population  amounts  to  about  10,000,  and 
 all  the  inhabitants  are  Creeks."  {Malle-Brun,  Geogr., 
 vol.  6,  p.  169.) 
 
 Ther.^menes,  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  and  afterward 
 one  of  the  Athenian  generals  along  with  Alcibiades 
 and  Thrasybulus.  He  was  appointed  by  the  LacedDB- 
 monians  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants  ;  but  the  moderation 
 of  his  views  giving  ofl'cnce  to  his  colleagues,  he  was 
 condemned  to  drink  hemlock.  From  the  readiness 
 with  which  Therainenes  attached  himself  to  whatever 
 party  chanced  to  be  uppermost,  he  was  nicknamed  6 
 KoSopvoc  this  being  an  appellation  for  a  sort  of  san- 
 dal, not  made  right  and  left,  as  sandals  usually  were, 
 but  being  equally  adapted  to  both  feet.  {Suid.,  s.  v. 
 Kodopvo^. — Blomf.  in  Mus.  Cnt.,  vol.  2,  p.  212.) 
 
 THKK.tPN.-K,  I.  a  town  of  Laconia,  southeast  of 
 Sjiarta,  and  near  the  Eurotas.  It  received  its  name 
 from  Thcrapnae,  daughter  of  Lele.t.  Here  were  to  be 
 seen  the  temple  of  Menelaus.  and  his  tomb,  as  well  as 
 that  of  Helen.  Here  also  was  the  temple  of  Pollu.\, 
 and  both  this  deity  and  his  brother  were  said  to  have 
 been  born  here.  Pindar  has  often  connected  Thcrap- 
 iia;  wih  the  mention  of  the  Tyndarida;.  {I'tnd  ,  I.stk., 
 1,  42.  —  ///,  I'yik,  11,  95.  — /(/,  Nem.,  10,  106.) 
 Thcrapn*  probably  corresponds  with  the  village  of 
 Chrysapha,  about  two  miles  to  the  southeast  of  the 
 ruins  of  S()arta.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p. 
 212  ) — H.  A  town  of  Borotia,  between  Thebes  and 
 the  river  .'\80|)us,  and  in  a  line  nearly  with  Potnia;. 
 {Strabo,  409.) 
 
 Theras,  a  son  of  Autesion  of  Lacedojmon,  who 
 ccridiitted  a  colony  to  Calliste,  to  which  he  gave  the 
 name  of  Thera.  (Vid.  Thera.)  He  received  divine 
 honours  after  death.     {Fausan.,  3,  I,  15.) 
 
 TherasT.\,  a  small  rocky  island  in  the  ^Egcan,  sep 
 arated  from  the  northwest  coast  of  Thera  by  a  narrow 
 channel.  According  to  Pliny  (4,  12),  it  was  detached 
 from  Thera  by  a  convulsion  of  nature.  Therasia  still 
 retains  its  name.  {Bondelmont,  Ins.  Archipel.,  p.  78, 
 ed.  De  Sinner.) 
 
 Therm  A,  a  town  of  Macedonia,  afterward  called 
 Thcssalunica,  in  honour  of  the  wife  of  Cassander,  and 
 now  Suloni/ii.     {Vid.  Thessalonica.) 
 
 Thermau'us  Sinus,  a  large  bay  setting  up  between 
 the  coast  of  Pieria  and  that  of  Chalcidice,  and  deriving 
 its  name  from  the  city  of  Thcrma  at  its  northeastern 
 extremity.  It  was  also  called  Macedonicus  Sinus, 
 from  its  advancing  so  far  into  the  country  of  Macedo- 
 nia. The  modern  name  is  the  Gulf  of  Saloinki. 
 {Vid.  Thessalonica.) 
 
 Therm^-e  {warm  baths).  This  term  is  frequently  used 
 in  connexion  with  an  adjective  :  thus,  Therma;  Seli- 
 nuiilix  are  the  warm  baths  adjacent  to  the  ancient  Se- 
 linus,  now  Sciacca  ;  Thermse  Himerenses,  those  ad- 
 jacent to  Himera  on  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily,  now 
 Termim,  which  has  also  become  the  modern  name  for 
 the  remains  of  the  ancient  city.  So,  also,  in  speaking 
 of  the  warm  baths  constructed  at  Rome  by  various 
 emperors,  we  read  of  the  Thermai  of  Dioclesian,  &,c. 
 Thekmodon,  a  river  of  Pontus,  rising  in  the  mount- 
 ains on  the  confines  of  Armenia  Minor,  and  pursuing 
 a  course  nearly  due  west  until  it  reaches  ihe  plain  of 
 Themiscyra,  when  it  turns  to  the  north  and  empties 
 into  the  Sinus  Ainisenus.  According  to  Strabo  (548), 
 it  was  formed  by  the  junction  of  several  minor  streams. 
 Apollonius  Rhodius  makes  these' rivulets  not  less  than 
 nmety-six  in  number.  {Arg.,  2,  972.)  Xenophon 
 also  describes  the  Thermodon  as  a  considerable  river, 
 not  less  than  three  plelhra  in  width,  and  not  easy  for 
 an  enemy  to  cross.  (Anab.,  5,  6,  3.)  Dionysius 
 Periegetes  affirms  that  crystal  and  jasper  were  found 
 on  its"'banks  (v.  773-182).  This  river,  which  retains 
 the  name  of  T/urmeli,  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
 poets,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  Amazons  having 
 been  fabled  to  have  dwelt  at  one  time  on  its  banks. 
 {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  269,  segq.  —  He- 
 rod., 9,  27.— F?:.5^.,  JSk.,  11,  65^.— Proper t.,  3,  14. 
 —Plin.,  6,  3  ) 
 
 Thermopylae,  a  celebrated  pass  leading  from  Thes- 
 saly  into  Locris  and  southern  Greece.  The  word 
 Thermopylae  {Qepfial  IlvXai, '"  VV'«7m  Gales  or  Pass") 
 denotes  both  the  narrowness  of  the  defile,  which  is 
 formed  by  the  sea  on  one  side  and  the  clifls  of  Mount 
 ffita  on  the  other,  and  also  the  vicinity  of  certain 
 warm  springs,  still  called  Therma;,  and  which  are  seen 
 to  issue  prmcijially  from  two  mouths  at  the  fool  of 
 the  precipices  of  CEta.  The  following  description  of 
 Thermopylae  is  given  by  Herodotus  :  "  On  the  west- 
 ern side  of  the  pass  is  a  lofty  mountain,  so  steep  as 
 to  be  inaccessible  ;  on  the  eastern  side  are  the  sea 
 and  some  marshes.  In  this  defile  is  a  warm  spring 
 called  Chytri  {Xvrpoi)  by  the  inhabitants,  where  stands 
 an  altar  dedicated  to  Hercules.  A  wall  has  been  coi>- 
 structed  by  the  Phocians  to  defend  the  pass  against 
 the  Thessaliaiis,  who  came  from  Thcsprotia  to  lake 
 possession  of  Thessaly,  then  named  /Eolis.  Near 
 Trachis  the  defile  is  not  broader  than  half  a  plelhruin 
 (50  feet);  but  it  is  narrower  still  both  before  and  after 
 Thermopylae,  at  the  river  Phcenix,  near  Anthele,  and 
 at  the  village  of  Alpeni."  {Hnod.,  7,  176  )  It  was 
 here  that  Leonidas  and  hi.s  band  of  heroes  withstood 
 the  attack  of  the  immense  Persian  host,  and  nobly 
 died  in  defending  the  pass.  Here,  too,  was  fought, 
 at  a  later  day,  a  battle  between  the  Roman  army  un- 
 der .'\cilius  Glalirio  and  the  forces  of  Aniiochus,  in 
 which  the   latter  were  entirely   routed.      {Vid.  Calli- 
 
 (Iromus. Liv  ,  36.  \n.  —  ]'ltn  ,  4,  7.)— The  history  o( 
 
 the  affair  at  Thcrmopyla!  is   as  follows  :    \l  the  time 
 
 when  tlie  con"ress  at  the  Isthmus  resolved  on  defend- 
 
 ;  ing  the  passim  question,  the  Olympic    festival  was 
 
 13«o 
 
THERMOPYL^. 
 
 THERMOPYL^. 
 
 near  at  hand,  and  also  one  little  less  respected  among 
 many  of  the  Dorian  states,  especially  at  Sparta,  that 
 of  the  Carncan  Apollo,  which  Jas'ed  nine  days.  The 
 danger  of  Greece  did  not  seem  sj  pressing  as  to  re- 
 quire that  these  sacred  games,  so  intimately  connect- 
 ed with  so  many  purposes  of  pleasure,  business,  and 
 religion,  should  he  suspended.  And  it  was  thought 
 sufficient  to  send  forward  a  small  force,  to  bar  the 
 progress  of  the  enemy  until  they  should  leave  the  Gre- 
 cian world  at  leisure  for  action.  That  the  northern 
 Greeks  might  be  assured  that,  notwilhstandiiig  this 
 delay,  Sparta  did  not  mean  to  abandon  them,  the  little 
 band  that  was  to  precede  the  whole  force  of  the  con- 
 federates was  placed  under  the  command  of  her  king 
 Leonidas.  It  was  composed  of  only  300  Spartans,  at- 
 tended by  a  body  of  Helots  whose  numbers  are  not 
 recorded,  ftOO  men  from  Tcgea,  and  as  many  from 
 Mantinea,  120  from  the  Arcadian  Orchomenus,  and 
 1000  from  the  rest  of  Arcadia.  Corinth  armed  400, 
 Phlius  200,  and  Mycenae  80.  Messengers  were  sent 
 to  summon  Phocis  and  the  Locrians,  whose  territory 
 lay  nearest  to  the  post  which  was  to  be  maintained, 
 to  raise  their  whole  force.  "  They  were  reminded 
 that  the  invader  was  not  a  god,  but  a  mortal,  liable,  as 
 all  human  greatness,  to  a  fall :  and  they  were  bidden 
 to  take  courage,  for  the  sea  was  guarded  by  Athens 
 and  JEgim,  and  the  other  maritime  states,  and  the 
 troops  now  sent  were  only  the  forerunners  of  the 
 Peloponnesian  army,  which  would  speedily  follow." 
 Hearing  this,  the  Phocians  marched  lo  Thermo[)ylae 
 with  1000  men,  and  the  Locrians  of  Opus  with  all  the 
 force  they  could  muster.  On  his  arrival  in  Boeotia 
 Leonidas  was  joined  by  700  Thespians,  who  were 
 zealous  in  the  cause  ;  but  the  disposition  of  Thebes 
 was  strongly  suspected  ;  her  leading  men  were  known 
 to  be  friendly  to  the  Persians  ;  and  Leonidas  probably 
 believed  that  he  should  be  counteracting  their  in- 
 trigues if  he  engaged  the  'I'hebans  to  take  part  in  the 
 contest.  He  therefore  called  upon  them  for  assist- 
 ance, and  they  sent  400  men  with  him  ;  but,  in  the 
 opinion  of  Herodotus,  this  was  a  forced  compliance, 
 which,  if  they  had  dared,  they  would  willingly  have 
 refused.  With  this  army  Leonidas  marched  to  defend 
 Thermopylae  against  two  millions  of  men.  It  was  a 
 prevailing  belief  in  later  ages — one,  perhaps,  that  be- 
 came current  immediately  after  the  death  of  Leonidas 
 — that  when  he  sat  out  on  his  expedition  he  distinctly 
 foresaw  its  fatal  issue.  And  Herodotus  gives  some 
 colour  to  the  opinion  by  recording  that  he  selected 
 his  Spartan  followers  from  among  those  who  had  sons 
 to  leave  behind  them.  But  Plutarch  imagined  that, 
 before  his  departure,  he  and  his  little  band  solemnized 
 their  own  obsequies  by  funeral  games  in  the  presence 
 of  their  parents,  and  that  it  was  on  this  occasion  he 
 spoke  of  them  as  a  small  number  to  fight,  but  enough 
 to  die.  One  fact  destroys  this  fiction.  Before  his 
 arrival  at  Thermopyla;  he  did  not  know  of  the  path 
 over  the  mountain  by  which  he  might  be  attacked  in 
 the  rear  :  the  only  danger  he  had  before  his  eyes  was 
 one  which  could  not  have  shaken  the  courage  of  anv 
 brave  warrior,  that  of  making  a  stand  for  a  few  days 
 against  incessant  attacks,  but  from  small  bodies,  in  a 
 narrow  space,  where  he  would  be  favoured  by  the 
 ground.  The  whole  pass  shut  in  between  the  east- 
 ern promontory  of  (Eta,  called  Callidromus,  which 
 towers  above  it  in  rugged  precipices,  and  the  shore 
 of  the  Malian  Gulf,  is  four  or  five  miles  in  length  ;  it 
 is  narrowest  at  either  end,  where  the  mountain  is 
 said  once  to  have  left  room  only  for  a  single  carriage. 
 But  between  these  points  the  pass  first  widens  and 
 then  is  again  contracted,  though  not  into  quite  so  nar- 
 row a  space,  by  the  cliffs  of  Callidromus.  At  the  foot 
 of  these  rocks,  as  has  already  been  remarked,  a  hot 
 sulphureous  spring  gushes  up  in  a  copious  stream,  and 
 other  slenderer  veins  trickle  across  the  road.  This  is 
 the  pass  projierly  called  Thermopylaj.  On  the  side  of 
 1324 
 
 the  sea  it  was  once  guarded  no  less  securely  than  by  the 
 clifTs  ;  for  it  runs  along  the  edge  of  a  deep  morass, 
 which  the  mud,  brought  down  by  the  rivers  from  the 
 vale  of  the  Sperchius,  is  now  continually  carryin"  for- 
 ward into  the  gulf,  while  the  part  next  the  road  grad- 
 ually hardens  into  firm  ground,  and  widens  the  pass. 
 In  very  early  times  the  Phocians  were  in  possession  of 
 '1  hermopylffi,  and,  to  protect  themselves  from  the  in- 
 roads of  the  Thessalians,  had,  as  already  stated,  built 
 a  wall  across  the  northern  entrance,  and  had  dis- 
 charged the  water  of  the  springs  to  hollow  out  a  nat- 
 ural trench  in  the  road.  They  were  in  safely  behind 
 this  bulwark  till  the  Thessalians  discovered  a  path, 
 which,  beginning  in  a  chasm  through  which  a  torrent, 
 called  the  Asopus,  descends  on  the  north  side  of  the 
 mountain,  winds  up  a  laborious  ascent  to  the  summit 
 of  Callidromus,  and  then,  by  a  shorter  and  steeper 
 track,  comes  down  near  the  southern  end  of  the  pass, 
 where  the  village  of  .Alpenus  once  stood.  After  this 
 discovery  the  fortification  became  comparatively  use- 
 less, and  was  suffered  to  go  lo  ruin.  It  seems  won- 
 derful, and  would  be  scarcely  credible,  if  it  was  not 
 positively  asserted  by  Herodotus,  that  when  the  con- 
 gress at  the  Isthmus  determined  to  defend  Thermopy- 
 lae, there  was  not  a  man  among  them  who  knew  of  this 
 circuitous  track.  They  ordered  the  old  wall  to  be 
 repaired  ;  but,  when  Leonidas  arrived,  he  was  informed 
 of  the  danger  which  threatened  him  from  the  Anopa;a, 
 so  the  mountain  pass  was  named,  if  it  should  come  to 
 the  knowledge  of  the  barbarians ;  and,  on  the  arrival 
 of  the  enemy,  he  posted  the  Phocians,  by  their  own 
 desire,  on  the  summit  of  the  ridge  to  guard  against  a 
 surprise. — The  first  sight  of  the  Persian  host,  cover- 
 ing the  Trachinian  plains,  is  said  to  have  struck  some 
 of  the  followers  of  Leonidas  with  no  less  terror  than 
 their  brethren  of  Artemisium  felt  at  the  approach  of 
 the  hostile  armada  :  the  Peloponnesians  would  have 
 retreated,  and  reserved  their  strength  for  the  defence 
 of  their  own  isthmus.  But  the  Phocians  and  Locri- 
 ans, who  were  most  interested  in  checking  the  prog- 
 ress of  the  invader,  were  indignant  at  the  proposal, 
 and  Leonidas  prevailed  on  the  other  allies  to  stay,  and 
 soothed  them  by  despatching  messengers  to  the  confed- 
 erate cities  to  call  for  speedy  re-enforcement.  Xerxes 
 had  heard  that  a  handful  of  men,  under  the  command  of 
 a  Spartan  king,  were  stationed  at  this  part  of  the  road  ; 
 but  he  imagined,  it  is  said,  that  his  presence  would  have 
 scared  them  away.  He  was  surprised  by  the  report 
 of  a  horseman  whom  he  had  sent  forward  to  observe 
 their  motions,  and  who,  on  riding  up,  perceived  the 
 Spartans  before  the  wall,  some  quietly  seated  comb- 
 ing their  flowing  hair,  others  at  exercise.  He  could 
 not  believe  Demaralus,  who  assured  him  that  the  Spar- 
 tans, at  least,  were  come  to  dispute  the  pass  with  him, 
 and  that  it  was  their  custom  to  trim  their  hair  on  the 
 eve  of  a  combat.  Four  days  passed  before  he  could 
 be  convinced  that  his  army  must  do  more  than  show 
 itself  to  clear  a  way  for  him.  On  the  fifth  day  he  or- 
 dered a  bodv  of  Median  and  Cissian  troops  to  fall 
 upon  the  rash  and  insolent  enemy,  and  to  lead  them 
 captive  into  his  presence.  He  was  seated  on  a  lofiy 
 throne,  from  which  he  could  survey  the  narrow  en- 
 trance of  the  pass,  which,  in  obedience  to  his  com- 
 mands, his  warriors  endeavoured  to  force.  But  they 
 fought  on  ground  where  their  numbers  were  of  no 
 avail,  except  to  increase  their  confusion  when  their 
 attack  was  repulsed :  their  short  spears  could  not 
 reach  the  foe:  the  foremost  fell,  the  hinder  advanced 
 over  their  bodies  to  the  charge  :  their  repeated  onsets 
 broke  u|)on  the  Greeks  idly,  as  waves  upon  the  rock. 
 At  length,  as  the  day  wore  on,  the  Medians  and  f^is- 
 sians,  spent  with  their  efforts,  and  greatly  thinned  in 
 their  ranks,  were  recalled  from  the  contest,  which  the 
 king  now  thought  worthy  of  the  superior  prowess  of 
 his  own  guards,  the  ten  thousand  Immortals.  They 
 were  led  as  to  a  certain  and  ea.sy  victory  ;  the  Greeks, 
 
THERMOPYL^. 
 
 THERMOPYLAE. 
 
 however,  stood  their  ground  as  before,  or,  if  ever  they 
 gave  way  and  turned  their  backs,  it  was  only  to  face 
 suddenly  about  and  deal  tenfold  destruction  on  tiieir 
 pursuers.  Thrice  during  these  fruitless  assaults  the 
 kiiiif  was  seen  to  start  up  from  his  throne  in  a  trans- 
 port of  fear  or  rage.  The  combat  lasted  the  whole 
 day  :  the  slaughter  of  the  barbarians  was  great ;  on 
 the  side  of  the  Greeks,  a  few  Spartan  lives  were  lost; 
 as  to  tiie  rest,  nothing  is  said.  The  next  day  the 
 attack  was  renewed  with  no  better  success  :  the  bands 
 of  the  several  cities  that  made  up  the  Grecian  army, 
 e.Kcept  the  Phocians,  who  were  employed  as  we  have 
 seen,  relieved  each  other  at  the  post  of  honour  ;  all 
 stood  equally  firm,  and  repelled  the  charge  not  less 
 vigorously  than  before.  The  confidence  of  Xerxes 
 was  now  changed  to  despondence  and  perplexity. — 
 The  secret  of  the  Anopsea  could  not  long  remain  con- 
 cealed after  it  had  become  valuable.  Many  tongues, 
 perhaps,  would  have  revealed  it  :  two  Circeks,  a  Ca- 
 rystiaii,  and  C'orydallus  of  Anticyra,  shared  the  re- 
 proach of  this  foul  treachery  ;  but,  by  the  general  opin- 
 ion, confirmed  by  the  solemn  sentence  of  the  Ain- 
 phictyonic  council,  which  set  a  price  upon  his  head, 
 Epiiialtes,  a  Maliati,  was  branded  with  the  infamy  of 
 having  guided  the  barbarians  round  the  fatal  path. 
 Xerxes,  overjoyed  at  the  discovery,  ordered  Hydarnes, 
 the  commander  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  with  his  troops, 
 to  fullovv  tiic  traitor.  They  set  out  at  nightfall :  as 
 day  was  beginning  to  break,  they  gained  the  brow  of 
 Callidromus,  where  the  Phocians  were  posted  ;  the 
 night  was  still,  and  the  universal  silence  was  first 
 broken  by  the  trampling  of  the  invaders  on  the  leaves 
 with  which  the  face  of  the  woody  mountain  was 
 thickly  strewed.  The  Phocians  started  from  their 
 couches  and  ran  to  their  arms.  The  Persians,  who 
 had  not  exjiected  to  find  an  enemy  on  their  way, 
 were  cipially  surprised  at  the  sight  of  an  armed  band, 
 and  feared  lest  they  might  be  Spartans  ;  but  when 
 Ephialtes  had  informed  them  of  the  truth,  they  pre- 
 pared to  force  a  |)assage.  Their  arrows  showered 
 upon  the  Phocians,  who,  believing  themselves  the  sole 
 object  of  attack,  retreated  to  the  highest  peak  of  the 
 ridge,  to  sell  their  lives  as  dearly  as  they  could.  The 
 Persians,  without  turning  aside  to  pursue  them,  kept 
 on  their  way,  and  descended  towards  Al()enus.  Mean- 
 while, deserters  had  brought  intelligence  of  the  ene- 
 my's motions  to  the  Grecian  camp  during  the  night, 
 and  their  report  was  confirmed  at  daybreak  by  the 
 sentinels  who  had  been  stationed  on  the  heights,  and 
 now  came  down  with  tlic  news  that  the  barbarians 
 were  crossing  the  ridge.  I.,iltle  time  was  left  for  de- 
 liberation :  0])inions  were  divided  as  to  the  course  that 
 prudence  prescribed  or  honour  permitted.  Leonidas 
 did  not  restrain,  perhaps  encouraged,  those  of  the  al- 
 lies who  wished  to  save  themselves  from  the  impend- 
 ing fate  ;  but  for  himself  and  his  Spartans  he  declared 
 his  resolution  of  maintaining  the  post  which  Sparta 
 had  assigned  them  to  the  last.  All  withdrew  except 
 the  Thespians  and  the  Thebans.  The  Thespians  re- 
 mained from  choice,  bent  on  sharing  his  glory  and  his 
 death.  VVe  should  willingly  believe  the  same  of  the 
 Thebans,  if  the  event  did  not  seem  to  prove  that  their 
 stay  was  the  effect  of  compulsion.  Herodotus  says 
 that  Leonidas,  though  he  dismissed  the  rest  because 
 their  spirit  shrank  from  danger,  detained  the  Thebans 
 as  hostages,  because  he  knew  them  to  be  disaffected 
 to  the  cause  of  freedom;  yet,  as  ho  was  himself  cer- 
 tain of  perishing,  it  is  e(iually  difficult  to  understand 
 why  and  how  he  put  this  violence  on  them ;  and  Plu- 
 tarch, who  observes  the  inconsistency  of  the  reason 
 assigned  by  Herodotus,  would  have  triumphantly  vin- 
 dicated the  honour  of  the  Thebans,  if  he  could  have 
 denied  that  they  alone  survived  the  day.  Unless  we 
 suppose  that  their  first  choice  was  on  the  side  of  hon- 
 our, their  last,  when  death  stared  them  in  the  face,  on 
 the  side  of  prudence,  we  must  give  up  their  conduct 
 
 j  and  that  of  Leonidas  as  an  inscrutable  mystery. — Me- 
 gistias,  an  Acarnanian  soothsayer,  who  traced  his  lin- 
 eage to  the  ancient  seer  Melampus,  is  said  to  have 
 read  the  approaching  fate  of  his  companions  in  the  en- 
 trails of  the  victims  before  any  tidings  had  arrived 
 of  their  danger.  When  the  presage  was  confirmed, 
 I.,eonidas  prisscd  him  to  retire  ;  a  proof,  Herodotus 
 thinks,  that  the  Spartan  king  did  not  wish  to  keep  any 
 one  who  desired  to  go.  Megistias,  imitating  the  ex- 
 ample of  the  heroic  prophet  Theoclua,  who,  after  pre- 
 dicting the  fall  of  Ira  to  Aristomenes,  refused  to  sur- 
 vive the  ruin  of  his  country,  would  not  quit  the  side 
 of  Leonidas  ;  but  he  sent  away  his  son,  an  only  one, 
 who  had  accompanied  him,  that  the  line  of  Melampus 
 might  not  end  with  him.  Leonidas  would  also,  it  is 
 said,  have  saved  two  of  his  kinsmen,  by  sending  them 
 with  letters  and  messages  to  Sjjarta  ;  but  the  one  said 
 he  had  come  to  bear  arms,  not  to  carry  letters;  and  the 
 other,  that  his  deeds  would  tell  all  that  Sparta  wished 
 to  know. — Before  Hydarnes  began  his  march,  Ephi- 
 altes had  reckoned  the  lime  he  would  take  to  reach 
 the  southern  foot  of  the  mountain,  and  Xerxes  had, 
 accordingly,  fixed  the  hour  when  he  would  attack 
 the  Greeks  in  front.  It  was  early  in  the  forenoon 
 when  the  Ten  Thousand  had  near  finished  their  round, 
 and  the  preconcerted  onset  began.  Leonidas,  now 
 less  careful  to  husband  the  lives  of  his  men  than  to 
 make  havoc  among  the  barbarians,  no  longer  confined 
 himself,  as  before,  within  the  pass,  but,  leaving  a  guard 
 at  the  wall,  sallied  forth  and  charged  the  advancing 
 enemy.  His  little  band,  reckless  of  everything  but 
 honour  and  vengeance,  made  deep  and  bloody  breaches 
 in  the  ranks  of  the  Persians,  who,  according  to  an 
 Oriental  custom,  were  driven  into  the  conflict  by  the 
 lash  of  their  commanders  Many  perisiied  in  the  sea, 
 many  were  trampled  under  foot  by  the  throng  that 
 pressed  on  them  from  behind  :  yet  the  Spartans  loo 
 were  thinned,  and  Leonidas  himself  died  early.  The 
 fight  was  hottest  over  his  body,  which  was  rescued 
 alter  a  hard  struggle,  and  the  Greeks  four  times  turned 
 the  enemy.  At  length,  when  most  of  their  spears 
 were  broken,  and  their  swords  blunted  with  slaughter, 
 word  came  that  the  band  of  Hydarnes  was  about  to 
 enter  the  pass.  Then  they  retreated  to  the  wall,  and 
 pressed  on  to  a  knoll  on  the  other  side,  where  they 
 took  up  their  last  stand.  The  Thebans,  however,  did 
 not  return  with  them,  but  threw  down  their  arms  and 
 begged  for  cpiarter.  This,  it  is  said,  the  greater  part 
 obtained  :  Herodotus  heard  a  story,  about  which  Plu- 
 tarch IS,  with  good  reason,  incredulous,  that  they  were 
 afterward  all  branded  like  runaway  slaves  ;  but  it  is 
 not  denied  that  they  placed  themselves  at  the  mercy 
 of  the  barbarians.  The  Persians  rushed  forward  un- 
 resisted, broke  down  the  wall,  and  surrounded  the  hil- 
 lock where  the  little  remnant  of  the  Greeks,  armed 
 only  with  a  few  swords,  stood  a  butt  for  the  arrows, 
 the  javelins,  and  the  stones  of  the  enemy,  which  at 
 length  overwhelmed  them.  Where  they  fell  they 
 were  afterward  buried  ;  their  tomb,  as  Simoiiides  sang, 
 was  an  altar  ;  a  sanctuary,  in  which  Greece  revered 
 the  memory  of  her  second  founders.  {Diod.  Sic,  H, 
 H.)  The  inscription  of  the  monument  raised  over 
 the  slain,  who  died  from  first  to  last  in  defence  o(  the 
 pass,  recorded  that  four  thousand  men  from  Pelopon 
 iiesus  had  fought  at  Thermo()yliE  with  three  hundred 
 myriads.  We  ought  not  to  expect  accuracy  in  these 
 numbers  :  the  list  m  Herodotus,  if  the  Locrian  force 
 is  only  supposed  equal  to  the  Phocian,  exceeds  su 
 thousand  men:  the  Phocians,  it  must  be  remembered, 
 were  not  engaged.  But  it  is  not  easy  to  reeonciU 
 either  account  with  the  historian's  statement,  that  the 
 Grecian  dead  amounted  to  four  thousand,  unless  wt 
 suppose  that  the  Helots,  ihouffh  not  numbered,  formec! 
 a  large  part  of  the  army  of  Leonidas.  The  lustre  of 
 his  achievement  is  not  diminished  by  their  presence 
 He  himself  and  his  Spartans  no  doubt  considered  theii 
 
 1325 
 
THERMOPYL^. 
 
 THE 
 
 persevering  stand  in  the  post  intrusted  to  them,  not 
 as  an  art  of  liigh  and  heroic  devotion,  hut  of  simple 
 and  indispensable  duly.  Their  spirit  spoke  in  the  lines 
 inscritied  upon  their  monument,  which  bade  the  passmg 
 traveller  tell  their  countrymen  that  they  had  fallen  in 
 obedience  to  their  laws.  How  their  action  was  view- 
 ed at  Sparta  may  be  collected  from  a  story  which  can- 
 not be  separated  from  the  recollection  of  this  memora- 
 ble day.  When  the  band  of  Leonidas  was  nearly  en- 
 closed, two  Spartans,  Eurytus  and  Anstodemus,  were 
 staying  at  Al()enus,  having  been  forced  to  quit  their 
 post  by  a  disorder  which  nearly  deprived  them  of  sight. 
 When  they  heard  the  tidings,  tlie  one  called  for  his 
 arms,  and  made  his  helot  guide  him  to  the  place  of 
 combat,  where  he  was  left,  and  fell.  But  the  other's 
 heart  failed  him,  and  he  saved  his  life.  When  he  re- 
 turned to  Sparta  he  was  shunned  like  a  pestilence  :  no 
 man  would  share  the  fire  of  his  hearth  with  him,  or 
 speak  to  him  ;  and  he  was  branded  with  the  name  of 
 '*  the  trembler  Aristodcinus'''  (6  rpiaa^  'A/)t<Tr'5i5?//iOf). 
 According  to  another  account,  both  these  Spartans  had 
 been  despatched  from  the  camp  as  messengers,  and 
 there  being  sufficient  time  for  both  to  return,  Eurytus 
 did  so.  but  Aristodcmus  lingered  on  the  way. — The 
 Persians  are  said  to  have  lost  at  Thermopylae  20,000 
 men  :  among  them  were  several  of  royal  blood.  To 
 console  himself  for  this  loss,  and  to  reap  the  utmost 
 advantage  from  his  victory,  Xerxes  sent  over  to  the 
 fleet,  which,  having  heard  of  the  departure  of  the 
 Greeks,  was  now  stationed  on  the  northern  coast  of 
 Eubaea,  and  by  public  notice  invited  all  who  were 
 curious  to  see  the  chastisement  he  had  inflicted  on 
 the  men  who  had  dared  to  defy  his  power.  That  he 
 had  previously  buried  the  greater  part  of  his  own 
 dead  seems  natural  enough  ;  and  such  an  artifice,  so 
 slightly  differing  from  the  universal  practice  of  both 
 ancient  and  modern  belligerents,  scarcely  deserved 
 the  name  of  a  stratagem.  He  is  said  also  to  have 
 mutilated  the  body  of  Leonidas;  and,  as  this  was  one 
 of  the  foremost  which  he  found  on  a  field  that  had 
 cost  him  so  dear,  we  are  not  at  liberty  to  reject  the 
 tradition,  because  such  ferocity  was  not  consistent 
 with  the  respect  usually  paid  by  the  Persians  to  a  gal- 
 lant enemy.  To  cut  off  the  head  and  right  arm  of 
 slain  rebels  was  a  Persian  usage.  {Pint.,  Vit.  Arlaz., 
 c.  13.—Slrab.,  ISS.— Herod..  7,  206,  'scqq —Thui- 
 walPs  Hist,  of  Gr.,  vol.  2,  p.  282,  scqq.) — .\ccording 
 to  modern  travellers,  the  warm  springs  at  Thermopylae 
 are  about  half  way  between  Bodomtza  and  Zeitoiin. 
 They  issue  principally  from  two  mouths  at  the  foot  of 
 the  limestone  precipices  of  CEla.  The  temperature, 
 in  the  month  of  December,  was  found  to  be  111°  of 
 Fahrenheit.  Dr.  Holland  found  it  to  be  103°  or  104° 
 at  the  mouth  of  the  fissures.  The  water  is  very  transpa- 
 rent, but  deposites  a  calcareous  concretion  (carbonate 
 of  lime),  which  adheres  to  reeds  and  sticks,  like  the 
 waters  of  the  Anio  at  Tivoli,  and  the  sulphureous  lake 
 between  that  place  and  Rome.  A  large  extent  of  sur- 
 face is  covered  with  this  deposite.  It  is  impregnated 
 with  carbonic  acid,  lime,  muriate  of  soda,  and  sulphur. 
 The  ground  about  the  springs  yields  a  hollow  sound 
 like  that  within  the  crater  of  the  Solfaterra  near  Na- 
 ples. In  some  places  Dr.  Clarke  observed  cracks  and 
 fissures  filled  with  stagnant  water,  through  which  a 
 gaseous  fluid  was  rising  in  large  bubbles  to  the  sur- 
 face, its  fa3tid  smell  bespeaking  it  to  be  sulphureted 
 hydrogen.  The  springs  are  very  copious,  and  imme- 
 diately form  several  rapid  streams  running  into  the 
 sea,  which  is  apparently  about  a  mile  from  the  pass. 
 Baths  were  built  here  by  Ilerodes  Atticus.  The  de- 
 file or  strait  continues  for  some  distance  beyond  the 
 hot  springs,  and  then  the  road,  which  is  still  paved  in 
 many  places,  bears  off  all  at  once  across  the  plain  to 
 Zeitoun,  distant  three  hours  from  Thermopylae.  Near 
 the  springs  there  are  faint  traces  of  a  wall  and  circular 
 lOwer,  composed  of  a  thick  mass  of  small  stones,  and 
 1326 
 
 apparently  not  of  high  antiquity.  The  foot  of  the 
 mountain,  however,  Mr.  Dodwell  says,  is  so  cover- 
 ed with  trees  and  impenetrable  bushes  as  to  hide  any 
 vestiges  which  may  exist  of  early  fortificationB.  The 
 wall,  of  which  mention  has  more  than  once  been  made 
 by  us,  was,  at  a  later  day,  renewed  and  fortified  by 
 .\ntiochus  when  defending  himself  against  the  Ro- 
 mans ;  and  was  afterward  restored  by  Justinian,  when 
 that  monarch  thought  to  secure  the  tottering  empire 
 by  fortresses  and  walls :  he  is  stated  also  to  have  con- 
 structed cisterns  here  for  the  reception  of  rain-water. 
 The  (juestion  is,  whether  this  be  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 wall,  as  Dr.  Holland  and  Mr.  Dodwtll  suppose,  or 
 whether  the  spring  referred  to  by  Herodotus  be  not 
 the  fountain  mentioned  by  Dr.  Clarke,  who  describes 
 the  wall,  not  as  traversing  the  marsh,  but  as  extending 
 along  ihe  mountainous  chain  of  Q^ta  from  sea  to  sea. 
 The  cisterns  built  by  Justinian  would  hardly  be  in  the 
 marshy  plain,  but  must  be  looked  for  within  the  forti- 
 fied pass.  Formidable,  however,  as  the  defile  of  Ther- 
 mopylae may  seem,  it  has  never  opposed  an  effectual 
 barrier  to  an  invading  army  ;  the  strength  of  these 
 gates  of  Greece  being  rendered  vain  by  the  other 
 mountain  routes  which  avoid  them.  "  The  Persians," 
 says  Procopius,  "found  only  one  path  over  the  mount- 
 ains ;  now  there  are  many,  and  large  enough  to  admit 
 a  cart  or  chariot."  A  path  was  pointed  out  to  Dr. 
 Clarke  to  the  north  of  the  hot  springs,  which  is  still 
 used  by  the  inhabitants  in  journeying  to  Salona.  After 
 following  this  path  to  a  certain  distance,  another  road 
 branches  from  it  towards  the  southeast,  according  to 
 the  route  pursued  by  the  Persians.  Dr.  Holland  as- 
 cended Mount  ffita  by  "a  route  equally  singular  and 
 interesting,  but  difficult,  and  not  free  from  danger." 
 When  the  Gauls  under  Brennus  invaded  Greece,  the 
 treacherous  discovery  made  to  him  of  a  path  through 
 the  mountains  compelled  the  Greeks  to  retreat,  to 
 prevent  their  being  taken  in  rear.  Antiochus  was  in 
 like  manner  forced  to  retreat  with  precipitation,  on 
 seeing  the  heights  above  the  pass  occupied  by  Roman 
 soldiers,  who,  under  the  command  of  M.  Porcius  Cato, 
 had  been  sent  round  to  seize  these  positions.  In  the 
 reign  of  Justinian  the  army  of  the  Huns  advanced  to 
 Thermopylae,  and  discovered  the  path  over  the  mount- 
 ains. When  Bajazet  entered  Greece  towards  the 
 close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  there  appears  to  have 
 been  little  need  of  these  artifices  :  a  Greek  bishop  is 
 stated  to  have  conducted  the  Mohammedan  conquerors 
 through  the  pass  to  enslave  his  country.  During  the 
 late  revolution,  Thermopylce  never  opposed  any  serious 
 barrier  against  the  Turkish  forces.  The  passes  of  Cal- 
 lidromus  and  Cnemis  were  disputed  on  one  occasion 
 with  success  by  a  body  of  Armatoles  under  Odyss- 
 eus; but  the  foe  were  afterward  repeatedly  suffered  to 
 cross  the  ridges  of  Othrys  and  Qita  without  opposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Thermus  or  Thermum,  an  unwalled  city  of  .-Eto- 
 lia,  northeast  of  Stralos,  regarded  as  the  capital  of  the 
 country.  It  is  supposed  by  Mannert  to  have  derived 
 its  name  from  some  warm  springs  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood, and  Polybius  (5,  7)  speaks  of  it  as  ronov  iv  role 
 I'^epfioLQ.  Its  situation  among  the  mountains  rendered 
 it,  notwithstanding  the  want  of  walls,  a  place  very  dif- 
 ficult of  access,  and  hence  it  was  regarded  as  a  kind 
 of  citadel  for  all  ^Etoh-a.  It  was  here  that  the  assem- 
 bli.cs  for  deciding  the  elections  of  magistrates  were 
 held,  as  well  as  the  most  splendid  festival  and  com- 
 mercial meetings.  Hence  the  place  was  stored,  not 
 only  with  abundance  of  provisions  and  the  necessaries 
 of  life,  but  with  the  most  costly  furniture,  and  with 
 utensils  of  every  kind  adapted  for  entertainments. 
 Philip  HI.  of  Maccdon  surprised  the  place  by  a  rapid 
 inarch,  and  obtained  great  booty,  although  many  of  the 
 more  valuable  articles  were  either  carried  off  or  de 
 stroyed  by  the  inhabitants.  (Pulyb.,  5,  9.)  In  the 
 pillage  of  the  town,  the  Macedonians  did  not  spare 
 
THE 
 
 THESEUS. 
 
 even  the  temples  ;  but,  in  revenge  for  the  excesses 
 committed  by  the  .i^tolians  at  l)iu?n  and  Dodona,  de- 
 faced the  statues,  which  amoiuiled  to  more  than  two 
 thousand,  set  fire  to  the  porches,  and  finally  razed  the 
 buildings  themselves  to  the  ground.  They  found  also 
 in  Thcnnus  a  quantity  of  arms,  of  which  they  selected 
 he  most  costly  to  carry  away,  hut  the  greater  part  they 
 estroyed,  to  the  immber  of  15,(100  complete  suits  of 
 rmour.  In  like  manner,  whatever  was  not  worthy  of 
 emoval,  was  consumed  in  heaps  before  the  camp.  All 
 hese  facts  attest  the  size  and  opulence  of  the  place  : 
 of  which,  however,  so  little  is  known,  that,  with  the 
 exception  of  Slrabo  and  Polybius,  its  name  occurs  in 
 no  ancient  author.  Philip  subsequently  made  another 
 attack  upon  the  town,  and  destroyed  all  that  had  been 
 spared  before.  {Polyb.,  dc  virt.  cl  vit  ,  c.  11.) — Un- 
 der the  Roman  sway,  when  the  national  assemblies  of 
 the  .ijlolians  had  ceased  to  be  held,  Thermus  became 
 speedily  forgotten  in  history.  {Manncrl,  Gco<;r.,  vol. 
 8,  p.  Ill  —  Cramer^s  Aiw.  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  87.) 
 
 TnERs.\NnER,  a  son  of  Polynices  and  Argia.  He  was 
 one  of  the  Epigoni,  and,  after  the  capture  of  Thebes, 
 received  the  city  from  the  hands  of  his  victorious  fel- 
 iow-chieftains.  {I'ausnn.,  9,  8. — Hcyne,  ad  Apoltod., 
 .\,  7,  4  )  At  a  subsequent  period,  when  already  ad- 
 vanced in  .years,  he  accompanied  the  Greeks  to  the 
 Trojan  war,  but  was  slain  on  the  shores  of  Mysia  by 
 Teleplms.  {Diet.  Orel.,  2,  2. — Hcyne,  ad  Virg.,  JEn., 
 •i,  iGl.—Ptnd.,  01.,  2,  76.  — Schol.  ad  Pind.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Thersites.  one  of  the  Greeks  in  the  army  before 
 Troy.  Homer  describes  him  as  equally  deformed  in 
 jierson  and  in  mind.  Such  was  his  propensity  to  in- 
 dulge in  contumelious  language,  that  he  could  not  ab- 
 stain from  directing  it  against  not  only  the  chiefs  of 
 the  army,  but  even  Agamemnon  himself.  He  ulti- 
 mately fell  by  the  hand  of  Achilles,  while  he  was  ridi- 
 culing the  sorrow  of  that  hero  for  the  slain  Penthesilea. 
 {Horn.,  II.,  2,  212,  seqq  ) 
 
 Theseid.e,  a  patronymic  given  to  the  Athenians 
 from  Theseus,  one  of  their  kings.  (  Vrr<^.,  (x  ,  2,  383  ) 
 Theseus  (two  syllables),  king  of  .\thens,  and  son 
 of  .c-Egeus  by  .Ethra,  the  daughter  of  Piltheiis,  mon- 
 irch  of  Troezene,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  he- 
 roes of  antiquity.  He  was  reared  in  the  palace  of  his 
 iTrandfather  ;  and,  when  grown  to  the  proper  age,  his 
 mother  led  him  to  the  rock  under  which  his  father  had 
 deposited  his  sword  and  sandals,  and  he  removed  it 
 with  ease  and  took  them  out.  He  was  now  to  pro- 
 ceed to  .\thcns,  and  present  himself  to  ^Egeus.  As, 
 however,  the  roads  were  infested  by  robbers,  his  grand- 
 father Pittheus  pressed  him  earnestly  to  take  the 
 shorter  and  safer  way  over  the  Saronic  Gulf;  but  the 
 youth,  feeling  in  himself  the  spirit  and  the  soul  of  a 
 hero,  resolved  to  signalize  himself  like  Hercules,  with 
 whose  fame  all  Greece  now  rang,  by  destroying  the 
 evil-doers  and  the  monsters  that  oppressed  and  ravaged 
 the  country  ;  and  he  determined  on  the  more  perilous 
 und  adventurous  journey  by  land.  On  his  way  to 
 Athens  he  met  with  many  adventures,  and  destroyed 
 Periphates,  Sinis,  Sciron,  Procrustes,  and  also  the 
 monstrous  sow  Phaea,  which  ravaged  the  country  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  Crommyon.  Having  overcome 
 ill  the  perils  of  the  road,  Theseus  at  length  reached 
 Athens,  where  new  dangers  awaited  him.  He  found 
 his  f.ithcr's  court  all  in  confusion.  The  Pallantidx,  or 
 <ons  and  grandsons  of  Pallas,  the  brother  of  /Egeus, 
 had  long  seen  with  jealousy  the  sce|)tre  in  the  hands 
 of  an  old  man,  and  now  meditated  wresting  it  from  his 
 t'eeble  grasp.  Thinking,  however,  that  his  death  could 
 not  be  very  remote,  ihey  resolved  to  wait  for  that 
 event;  but  they  made  no  secret  of  their  intentions. 
 The  arrival  of  Theseus  thieatened  to  disconcert  their 
 plan.  They  feared  that  if  this  young  stranger  should 
 be  received  as  a  son  of  the  old  king,  he  might  find  in 
 him  a  protector  and  avenger;  and  they  resolved  to 
 poison  his  mind  against  him.     Their  plot  so  far  suc- 
 
 ceeded that  .Egeus  was  on  the  point  of  sacrificing  bis 
 soil,  when  he  recognised  him,  and  then  acknowledged 
 him  in  the  presence  of  all  the  people.  The  PallantidiB 
 had  recourse  to  arms,  but  Theseus  defeated  and  slew 
 them.  Medea,  it  is  also  said,  who  was  married  to 
 .Egeus,  fearing  the  loss  of  her  influence  when  The- 
 seus should  have  been  acknowledged  by  his  father,  re- 
 solved to  anticipate  that  event ;  and,  nr.oved  by  lier 
 calumnies,  ,Egeus  was  presenting  a  cup  of  poison  to 
 his  son,  when  the  sight  of  the  sword  left  with  ^Eihra 
 discovered  to  iiim  who  he  was.  The  bull  which  Her- 
 cules had  brought  from  Crete  was  now  at  Marathon, 
 and  the  country  was  in  terror  of  his  ravages.  Theseus 
 went  in  quest  of  him,  overcame,  and  exhibited  him  in 
 chains  to  the  astonished  Athenians,  and  then  sacrificed 
 the  animal  to  .-\pollo  Uelphimus.  The  .•Athenians  were 
 at  this  period  in  deep  aHhction  on  account  of  the  trib- 
 ute which  they  were  forced  to  pay  to  Minos,  king  of 
 Crete.  {Vid.  Androgeus  and  Minotaurus.)  Theseus 
 resolved  to  deliver  them  from  this  calamity,  or  die  in 
 the  attempt.  Accordingly,  when  the  third  lime  of 
 sending  oil  this  tribute  came,  and  the  youths  and 
 maidens  were,  according  to  custom,  drawn  by  lot  to  be 
 sent,  in  spite  of  the  entreaties  of  his  father  to  the  con- 
 trary he  voluntarily  offered  himself  as  one  of  the  vic- 
 tims. The  ship  departed,  as  usual,  under  black  sails, 
 which  Theseus  promised  his  father  to  change  for  white 
 ones  in  case  of  his  returning  victorious.  When  they 
 arrived  in  Crete,  the  youths  and  maidens  were  exhib- 
 ited before  Minos  ;  and  Ariadne,  the  daughter  of  the 
 king,  who  was  present,  became  deeply  enamoured  of 
 Theseus,  by  whom  her  love  was  speedily  returned. 
 She  furnished  him  with  a  clew  of  thread,  which  en- 
 abled him  to  penetrate  in  safety  the  windings  of  the 
 labyrinth  till  he  came  to  where  the  Minotaur  lay,  whom 
 he  caught  by  the  hair  and  slew.  He  then  got  on  board 
 with  his  companions,  and  sailed  for  Athens.  Ariadne 
 accompanied  his  flight,  but  was  abandoned  by  him  on 
 the  isle  of  Dia  or  Naxos.  {Vid.  .\riadne.)  Before 
 Theseus  returned  to  Athens,  he  sailed  to  Delos  to  pay 
 his  vow  ;  for,  ere  setting  out  on  his  j)erilous  expedition, 
 he  had  made  a  vow  to  send  annually,  if  successful,  to 
 the  sacred  island  a  ship  with  gifts  and  sacrifices. 
 {Vid  Delia  H.)  He  also  consecrated  in  Delos  a 
 statue  of  Venus,  made  by  Daedalus,  on  account  of  the 
 aid  she  had  given  him.  He,  moreover,  to  commemo- 
 rate his  victory,  estalilished  there  a  dance,  the  evolu- 
 tions of  which  imitated  the  windings  of  the  labyrinth. 
 (Compare  Horn.,  II. ,  18,  590,  seqq.)  On  approaching 
 the  coast  of  .\ttica,  Theseus  forgot  the  signal  ap- 
 pointed by  his  father,  and  returned  under  the  same 
 sails  with  which  he  had  departed  ;  and  the  old  king, 
 thinking  he  was  deprived  of  his  newly- found  son,  de- 
 stroyed himself.  (  Vul.  .Egeus.)  The  hero  now  turn- 
 ed his  thoughts  to  legislation.  The  .^ttic  territory 
 had  been  divided  by  Cecro[)s  into  twelve  demi  or  bor- 
 oughs, each  of  which  had  its  own  government  and 
 chief  maaistrate,  and  was  almost  wholly  independent. 
 The  consequence  was,  frequent  and  sanguinary  wars 
 arose  among  them.  Nothing  but  pressing  external 
 danger  forced  them  to  union,  which  was  again  dissolv- 
 ed as  soon  as  the  storm  was  over.  Theseus  there- 
 fore invited  not  merely  the  people  of  Attica,  but  even 
 strangers,  to  come  and  establish  themselves  at  Athens, 
 then  nothing  but  a  small  settlement  on  a  rock.  By 
 his  prudence  and  his  authority  he  induced  the  heads 
 of  boroughs  to  resign  their  independent  power,  and  in- 
 trust the  administration  of  justice  to  a  court,  which 
 should  sit  constantly  at  .\thens,  and  exercise  jurisdic- 
 tion over  all  the  inhabitants  of  Attica.  He  abolished 
 the  previous  division  of  the  people  of  .\ttica  into  four 
 tribes,  and  substituted  that  of  a  distribution  into 
 three  classes,  the  Nobles,  the  Husbandmen,  and  the 
 ,\rtisans  (Eii-arpa'oi,  Tiufiopoi,  and  Aritiiovpyoi). 
 This  object  he  is  said  to  have  accomplished  partly  by 
 force,  riarily  by  persuasion.     With  the  lower  classes 
 
 1327 
 
THESEUS. 
 
 THE 
 
 we  read,  he  found  no  difficulty  ;  but  the  powerful  men 
 were  only  induced  to  comply  with  his  proposals  by  Ins 
 promise  that  all  should  be  adnnltcd  to  an  equal  share 
 of  the  government,  and  that  he  would  resign  all  his 
 royal  prerogatives  e.xcc|)t  those  of  coininandiiig  in  war 
 and  of  watching  over  the  laws.  To  the  nobles,  there- 
 fore, he  reserved  all  the  offices  of  slate,  with  the  privi- 
 lege of  ordering  the  affairs  of  religion,  and  of  inter- 
 preting the  laws  both  human  and  divine.  The  result 
 of  these  and  other  regulations  was  the  increase  of  the 
 city  and  of  the  population  in  general,  Thucydidcs 
 fixes  on  this  as  the  epoch  when  the  lower  city  was 
 added  to  the  ancient  one,  which  had  covered,  as  we 
 have  remarked,  little  more  than  the  rock  that  afterward 
 became  the  citadel.  And  hence  there  may  seem  to 
 have  been  some  foundation  for  Plutarch's  statement, 
 that  Theseus  called  the  city  Athens,  if  this  name  prop- 
 erly sigmfied  the  whole  enclosure  of  the  Old  and  New 
 Town. — As  a  farther  means  of  uniting  the  people, 
 Theseus  established  numerous  festivals,  particularly 
 the  fanathenaa,  solemnized  with  great  splendour  ev- 
 ery fifth  year,  in  commemoration  of  this  union  of  the 
 inhabitants  of  Attica.  Theseus  firmly  established  the 
 boundaries  of  the  Attic  territory,  in  which  he  inclu- 
 ded Mcgaris,  and  set  up  a  pillar  on  the  Isthmus  of 
 Corinth  to  mark  the  limits  of  Attica  and  the  Pelopon- 
 nesus. These  civic  cares  did  not  prevent  Theseus 
 from  taking  part  in  military  enterprises  :  he  accompa- 
 nied Hercules  in  his  expedition  against  the  Amazons, 
 who  then  dwelt  on  the  banks  of  the  Thermodon  ;  and 
 he  distinguished  himself  so  much  in  the  conflict,  that 
 Hercules,  after  the  victory,  bestowed  on  him,  as  the 
 reward  of  his  valour,  the  hand  of  the  vanquished  queen. 
 {Vid.  Antiope.)  When  the  Amazons  afterward,  in 
 revenge,  invaded  the  Attic  territory,  they  met  with  a 
 signal  defeat  from  the  Athenian  prince.  {Vid.  Ama- 
 zones.)  Theseus  was  also  a  sharer  in  the  dangers  of 
 the  Calydonian  hunt;  he  was  one  of  the  adventurous 
 band  who  sailed  in  the  Argo  to  (Colchis  ;  and  he  aided 
 his  friend  Pinthoiis  and  the  Lapiths  in  their  conflict 
 with  the  Centaurs.  The  friendship  between  him  and 
 Pirithoiis  was  of  a  most  intimate  nature,  yet  it  had  ori- 
 ginated in  the  midst  of  arms.  (Firf.  Pirithoiis.)  Like 
 faithful  comrades,  they  aided  each  other  in  every  pro- 
 ject. Each  was  ambitious  in  love,  and  would  possess 
 a  daughter  of  the  gods.  Theseus,  in  whose  favour 
 the  lot  had  fallen,  carried  off,  with  the  assistance  of 
 his  friend,  the  celebrated  Helen,  daughter  of  Leda, 
 then  a  child  of  but  nine  years,  though  already  of  sur- 
 passing loveliness,  and  placed  her  under  the  care  of  his 
 mother  .^^thra,  at  Aphidnie,  whence  she  was  subse- 
 quently rescued  by  her  brothers  Castor  and  Pollux. 
 He  then  prepared  to  aid  his  friend  in  a  bolder  and  more 
 perilous  attempt,  the  abduction  of  Proserpina  from  the 
 palace  of  Pluto  ;  an  attempt  which  resulted  in  the  im- 
 prisonment of  both  by  the  monarch  of  Hades.  From 
 this  confinement  Theseus  was  released  by  Hercules  ; 
 but  Pirithoiis  remained  ever  a  captive.  {Vid.  Piri- 
 thoiis.) After  the  death  of  Antiope,  who  had  borne 
 him  a  son  named  Hippolytus,  Theseus  married  Pha3- 
 dra,  the  daughter  of  Minos,  and  sister  of  Ariadne. 
 Hippolytus  lost  his  life  in  consequence  of  a  false  charge 
 preferred  against  him  by  his  stepmother  ;  Phaidra  end- 
 ed her  days  by  her  own  hand  ;  and  Theseus,  when  too 
 late,  learned  the  innocence  of  his  son.  {Vid  Hip- 
 polytus.)—The  invasion  of  Attica  by  Castor  and  Pol- 
 lux, for  the  recovery  of  their  sister  Helen,  and  an  in- 
 surrection of  the  Pallanlidje,  brought  on  Theseus  the 
 usual  fate  of  all  great  .Athenians — exile.  lie  volun- 
 tarily retired  to  Lycomcdes,  king  of  the  island  of  Scy- 
 ros,  and  there  he  met  with  his  death,  either  by  acci- 
 dent or  by  the  treachery  of  his  host ;  for,  ascending, 
 with  Lycomedes,  a  lofty  rock,  to  take  a  view  of  the  isl- 
 and, he  fell  or  was  pushed  off  by  his  companion,  and  lost 
 his  life  by  the  fall.  The  Athenians  honoured  his  mem- 
 ory by  feasts  and  temples,  placed  him  among  the  gods, 
 1328 
 
 and  at  a  later  day  obtained  his  bones  from  the  island 
 of  Scyros,  and  interred  them  beneath  the  soil  of  Atti- 
 ca. {Keigh/Uy's  Mythuloiiy,  p.  387,  scqq. — Plul., 
 Vt(.  Then.) — Theseus,  whose  name  signifies  the  Ur- 
 derer  or  Regulator  {OT/aeii^,  from  d£u,-7/cc),  "to  place' 
 or  "  estaOlii<h"),  seems  rather  to  indicate  a  period  than 
 an  individual,  though  it  is  very  possible  that  the  name 
 may  have  been  borne  by  one  who  contributed  the  lar- 
 gest share,  or  put  the  finishing  hand,  to  the  change 
 which  is  commonly  considered  as  his  work.  Theseus, 
 indeed,  is  represented  by  the  ancients  in  quite  an  am- 
 biguous light;  as,  on  the  one  hand,  the  founder  of  a 
 government  which  was,  for  many  centuries  after  him, 
 rigidly  aristocratical ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  as  the 
 parent  of  the  Athenian  democracy.  If  we  make  due 
 allowance  for  the  exaggerations  of  poets  or  rhetori- 
 cians, who  adorn  him  with  the  latter  of  these  titles  in 
 order  to  exalt  the  antiquity  of  the  popular  institu- 
 tions of  later  times,  we  shall  perhaps  find  that  nei- 
 ther description  is  entirely  groundless,  though  the  for- 
 mer is  more  simply  and  evidently  true.  His  insti- 
 tutions were  aristocratical,  because  none  were  then 
 known  of  any  other  kind.  The  effect  of  the  union 
 would  even  be,  in  the  first  instance,  to  increase  the 
 influence  of  the  noble  class,  by  concentrating  it  in  one 
 spot ;  and  hence  it  proved  too  powerful  for  both  the  king 
 and  the  people.  In  this  sense  we  may  say  with  Plu- 
 tarch, that  Theseus  gained  the  assent  of  the  great  men 
 to  his  plan  by  surrendering  his  royal  prerogatives, 
 which  they  shared  equally  among  them.  The  king 
 was  no  more  than  the  first  of  the  nobles  ;  the  four 
 kings  of  the  tribes  {^v?M6aai7ieic. — Pollux,  8,  111), 
 all  chosen  from  the  privileged  class,  were  his  constant 
 assessors,  and  acted  rather  as  colleagues  than  as  coun- 
 sellors. The  principal  difference  between  them  and 
 him  appears  to  have  consisted  in  the  duration  of  their 
 office,  which  was  probably  never  long  enough  to  leave 
 them  independent  of  the  body  from  which  they  were 
 taken  and  to  which  they  returned. — But  there  was 
 also  a  sense  in  which  Theseus  might,  without  impro- 
 priety, be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Athenian  de- 
 mocracy, both  with  respect  to  the  tendency  and  re- 
 mote consequences,  and  to  the  immediate  effect,  of 
 the  institutions  ascribed  to  him.  The  incorporation 
 of  several  scattered  townships  in  one  city,  such  as 
 took  place  in  Attica,  was  in  many,  perhaps  in  most, 
 parts  of  Greece  the  first  stage  in  the  growth  of  a  free 
 commonalty,  which,  thus  enabled  to  feel  its  own 
 strength,  was  gradually  encouraged  successfully  to 
 resist  the  authority  of  the  nobles.  And  hence,  in  la- 
 ter times,  the  dismemberment  of  a  capital,  and  its  re- 
 partition into  a  number  of  rural  communities,  was  es- 
 teemed the  surest  expedient  for  establishing  an  aris- 
 tocratical government.  {Thirhcairs  Hist,  of  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  9,  seqq.) — Regarded  as  the  patron-hero  of 
 that  people  of  Greece  among  whom  literature  flour- 
 ished most,  Theseus  is  presented  to  us  under  a  more 
 historic  aspect  than  the  other  heroes  of  mvtholagy. 
 Though  his  adventures  are  evidently  founded  on  those 
 of  Hercules,  whom  he  is  said  to  liave  emulated,  we 
 are  struck  by  the  absence  of  the  marvellous  in  tliem  : 
 indeed,  the  exploits  of  Tiieseus  are  generally  such  ef- 
 fects as  would  be  produced  in  historical  times  by  the 
 course  of  events  in  the  formation  of  a  polity  :  such, 
 at  least,  are  his  achievements  in  and  about  Attica. 
 Theseus  yielded  few  subjects,  therefore,  to  the  Attic 
 dramatists.  When  they  brought  him  on  the  stage,  it 
 was  hardly  ever  as  the  principal  character  of  the  piece. 
 He  always,  however,  appears  as  the  model  of  a  just 
 and  moderate  ruler,  the  example  of  a  strict  obedience 
 to  the  dictates  of  law  and  equity,  the  protector  of  the 
 suppliant,  the  scourge  of  the  evil-doer,  and  the  author 
 of  wise  and  good  regulations.     {Keightlcy,  I.  c.) 
 
 THESMOTniiT^,  a  name  given  to  the  six  remaining 
 archons  at  Athens,  after  the  chief  archon,  the  Basileus 
 or  King- Archon,  and  the  Polemarch.  {Vid.  Archontes.'^ 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 ThespTa  or  Thespi/e,  a  town  of  BcEOtia,  forty 
 stadia  from  Ascra,  according  to  Strabo,  and  near  the 
 foot  of  Helicon,  looking  towards  the  south  and  the 
 Crisscean  Gulf.  Its  antiquity  is  attested  by  Homer, 
 who  names  it  in  the  catalogue  of  Bieotian  towns.  {II., 
 2,  498.)  The  Thespians  are  worthy  of  a  place  in  his- 
 tory for  their  brave  and  generous  conduct  during  the 
 Persian  war.  Wlien  the  rest  of  Bosotia  basely  sub- 
 mitted to  Xerxes,  they  alone  refused  to  tender  earth 
 and  water  to  his  deputies.  The  troops  also  under  Le- 
 onidas,  whom  they  sent  to  aid  the  Spartans  at'Ther- 
 inopylas,  chose  rather  to  die  at  their  posts  than  desert 
 their  commander  and  his  heroic  followers.  {Herod., 
 7,  132  ei  222.)  Their  city  was,  in  consequence,  burn- 
 ed bv  the  Persians  after  it  had  been  evacuated  by  the 
 inhabitants,  who  retired  to  the  Peloponnesus.  {He- 
 rod., 8,  50.)  A  small  body  of  these,  however,  fought 
 at  Platsea  under  Pausanias.  {Herod.,  9,  31.)  I'he 
 Thespians  distinguished  themselves  also  in  the  battle 
 of  Delium  against  the  Athenians,  being  nearly  all  slain 
 at  their  post.  {Thucyd., 'l,dQ)  The  Thebans  after- 
 ward basely  took  advantage  of  this  heavy  loss  to  pull 
 down  the  walls  of  Iheir  city  and  bring  it  under  sub- 
 jection, on  pretext  of  their  having  favoured  the  Athe- 
 nians. {Thucyd.,i,  133.)  'I'hey  subsequently  made 
 an  attempt  to  recover  their  independence  ;  but,  failing 
 in  this  enterprise,  many  of  them  sought  refuge  at  Ath- 
 ens. {Thucyd.,  6,  95.)  Thespiae  was  occupied  by 
 the  LaccdaEinonians  at  the  same  time  that  they  seized 
 upon  the  citadel  of  Thebes.  {Xen..  Hisc.  Gr.,  5,  4, 
 42  ) — The  celebrated  courtesan  Phryne  was  born  at 
 Thespiae.  It  is  mentioned,  that  on  her  having  received, 
 as  a  present  from  Praxiteles,  a  beautiful  statue  of  Cu- 
 pid, she  caused  it  to  be  erected  in  her  native  city, 
 which  added  greatly  to  its  prosperity,  from  the  influx 
 of  strangers  who  came  to  view  this  masterpiece  of 
 art.  {Strabo,  410. — Allien.,  13,  59.)  Pausanias  af- 
 firms, that  this  celebrated  statue  was  sent  to  Rome  by 
 ('aligula.  but  was  afterward  restored  to  Thespiaj  by 
 Claudius.  Nero  again  removed  it  to  Rome,  where  it 
 was  destroyed  by  fire.  {Pausan.,  9,  26.)  Pliny,  how- 
 ever, asserts  that  it  still  existed  in  his  day  in  the 
 schools  of  Oclavia.  {Pltn.,  36,  5.) — It  is  now  pretty 
 ■well  ascertained,  by  the  researches  of  recent  travellers, 
 that  the  ruins  of  Thespiaj  are  occupied  by  the  modern 
 Erctno  Castro.  Sir  VV.  Gell  remarks,  that  "the  plan 
 of  the  city  is  distinctly  visible.  It  seems  a  regular 
 hexagon,  and  the  mound  occasioned  by  the  fall  of  the 
 wall  is  perfect."  {Itin.,  p.  119.  —  Cramcr^s  Ancient 
 Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  208,  seqq.) 
 
 Thespi.Xd.e,  the  offspring  of  Hercules  by  the  fifty 
 daughters  of  Thcspius.  On  attaining  to  manhood, 
 some  of  them  were  sent,  by  their  father's  directions,  to 
 Thebes  in  Bneotia.  hut  the  greater  part  as  a  colony  to 
 Sardinia.  {Apollod.,  3,  7,  6. — Hrync  ad  Apollod.,  I. 
 c.—Divd.  Sic,  4.  29.— Pausan.   10,  17.) 
 
 Thkspiades,  I.  the  fifty  daughters  of  Thespius, 
 mothers  of  the  Thespiadne  by  Hercules.  {Apollod.,  2, 
 4,  10.) — II.  An  appellation  given  to  the  Muses  from 
 Thespia?,  near  which  was  Helicon,  one  of  the  mount- 
 ains sacred  to  them.     {Vid.  Musae.) 
 
 Thespis,  an  early  Greek  dramatic  poet,  generally 
 regarded  as  the  inventor  of  tragedy.  He  was  born  at 
 Icaria,  a  Diacrian  dcinus  or  borough,  at  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  His  birthplace  de- 
 rived its  name,  according  to  tradition,  from  the  father 
 of  Erigone  {Steph.  Bi/z.,  s.  v.  'iKopia. — Hygm.,  fab., 
 130),  and  had  always  been  a  scat  of  the  religion  of 
 Bacchus;  and  the  origin  of  the  Athenian  tragedy  and 
 comedy  has  been  confidently  referred  to  the  drunken 
 festivals  of  the  place  {Alhcnmis,  2,  n.  40):  indeed,  it 
 is  not  improbable  that  the  name  itself  may  point  to  the 
 old  mimetic  exhit)itions  which  were  common  there. 
 {Wclcker,  Nachtrag,  p.  222  )  An  account  of  the  im- 
 provements introduced  by  Thespis  will  be  found  under 
 another  article.  {Vtd.  Theatrum.) 
 8  F 
 
 Thespios,  king  of  Thespias,  and  father  of  the  Thes- 
 piades.  {Apollod.,  2,  4,  10.)  The  name  is  sometimes 
 erroneously  written  Thestius.  (Consult  the  remarks 
 of  Hcyne,  not.  cr-it.,ad.  Apollod.,  2,  7,  8.) 
 
 Thespkotia,  a  district  of  Kpirus,  along  the  coast 
 opposite  to  Corcyra,  and  extending  also  some  distance 
 inland.  Of  all  the  Epirotic  nations,  the  Thesproli 
 may  be  considered  as  the  most  ancient.  This  is  evi- 
 dent from  the  circumstance  of  their  being  alone  noticed 
 by  Homer,  while  he  omits  all  mention  of  the  Molos- 
 sians  and  Chaonians.  {Od.,  14,  315  )  Herodotus 
 also  affirms  (7,  176)  that  they  were  the  parent  stock 
 whence  descended  the  Thessalians,  who  expelled  the 
 .(Eolians  from  the  country  afterward  known  by  the 
 name  of  Thessaly.  Thesprotia,  indeed,  appears  to 
 have  been  in  remote  times  the  great  seat  of  the  Pelas- 
 gic  nation,  whence  they  disseminated  themselves  over 
 several  parts  of  Greece,  and  sent  colonies  to  Italy. 
 {Herod.,  2,  56.— Strabo,  327.)  Even  after  the  Pie- 
 lasgic  name  had  become  extinct  in  these  two  coun- 
 tries, the  oracle  and  temple  of  Dodona,  which  they 
 had  established  in  Thesprotia,  still  remained  to  attest 
 their  former  existence  in  that  district. — We  must  infer 
 from  the  passage  of  Homer  which  has  been  referred 
 to,  that  the  government  of  Thessaly  was  at  first  mon- 
 archical. How  long  this  continued  is  not  apparent. 
 Some  change  must  have  taken  place  prior  to  the  time 
 of  Thucydides,  who  assures  us  that  neither  the  Thes- 
 proti  nor  Chaones  were  subject  to  kings.  {Thucyd., 
 2,  80  )  Subsequently  we  may,  however,  suppose  them 
 to  have  been  includetl  under  the  dominion  of  the  Mo- 
 lossian  princes.  It  were  as  needless  to  attempt  to 
 define  the  limits  of  ancient  Thessaly  as  those  of  Cha- 
 onia  :  we  must  therefore  be  content  with  ascertaining 
 that  it  was  mainly  situated  between  the  rivers  Thya- 
 mis  {Calama)  and  Acheron  {Souli),  while  it  extended 
 beyond  the  source  of  ihe  former  to  the  banks  of  ihe 
 Aoiis.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  107.) 
 
 ThessalTa,  a  country  of  Greece,  bounded  on  the 
 north  by  the  Cambunian  Mountains,  extending  from 
 Pindus  to  Olympus,  and  separating  it  from  Macedonia  ; 
 on  the  west  by  the  chain  of  Pindus,  dividing  it  from 
 Epirus  ;  on  the  south  by  Mount  CEta,  and  on  the  east 
 by  the  ^Egean  Sea.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  gen- 
 eral opinion  of  antiquity,  founded  on  very  early  tradi- 
 tions, that  the  great  basin  of  Thessaly  formed  by  the 
 mountains  just  specified  was  at  some  remote  period 
 covered  by  the  waters  of  the  Peneus  and  its  tributary 
 rivers,  until  some  great  revolution  of  nature  had  rent 
 asunder  the  gorge  of  Tcmpe,  and  thus  aflforded  a  pas- 
 sage to  the  pent-up  streams.  This  opinion,  which 
 was  first  reported  by  Herodotus,  in  his  account  of  the 
 celebrated  march  of  Xerxes  (7,  129),  is  again  repeated 
 by  Strabo,  who  observes,  in  confirmation  of  it,  that  the 
 Peneus  is  still  exposed  to  frequent  inundations,  and 
 also  that  the  land  in  Thessaly  is  higher  towards  the 
 sea  than  towards  the  more  central  parts.  {Strabo^ 
 430.) — According  to  the  same  geographer,  this  prov- 
 ince was  divided  into  four  districts,  distinguished  by 
 the  name  of  Phthiotis,  Esiisotis,  Thessaliotis,  and 
 Pelasgiotis.  In  his  description,  however,  of  these,  he 
 appears  to  have  no  room  for  Thessaliotis,  which  is,  in 
 fact,  rarely  ackno^vledged  by  the  writers  of  antiquity  , 
 though  we  cannot  doubt  the  propriety  of  Strabo's  di- 
 vision into  tetrarchies,  as  it  derives  confirmation  from 
 Harpocration  {s.  v.  Terpap\la)  and  the  scholiast  to 
 ApoUonius  Rhodius.  {Argon.,  3,  1089.) — There  is 
 hardly  any  district  in  Greece  for  which  nature  seems 
 to  have  done  so  much  as  for  Thessaly.  It  may  with 
 justice  be  called  the  land  of  the  Peneus,  which,  de- 
 scending from  Pindus,  flowed  through  it  from  west  to 
 east.  A  multitude  of  tributary  streams  poured  from 
 the  north  and  the  south  into  this  river.  No  other  dis- 
 trict had  so  extensive  an  internal  navigation  ;  which, 
 with  a  little  assistance  from  art,  might  have  been  car- 
 ried to  all  its  parts.     Its  fruitful  soil  was  fitted  alika 
 
 1329 
 
THESSALIA. 
 
 THESSALIA. 
 
 for  pasturing  and  the  cultivation  of  corn  ;  its  coasts, 
 especially  the  Sinus  Pagasffius,  afl'ordeil  the  best  har- 
 bours for  shipping  ;  nature  seemed  hardly  to  have  left 
 a  wish  ungratitied.  It  was  in  Thessaly  that  the  tribe 
 of  the  Hellenes,  according  to  tradition,  first  appli- 
 ed themselves  to  agriculture;  and  thence  its  several 
 branches  spread  over  the  more  southern  lands.  (  Vol. 
 Hellas.)  Almost  all  the  names  of  its  towns  recall 
 some  association  connected  with  the  primitive  history 
 and  heroic  age  of  the  nation.  —  Early  traditions,  pre- 
 served by  the  Greek  poets  and  other  writers,  ascribe 
 to  'I'hessaly  the  more  ancient  names  of  Pyrrha,  ^limo- 
 nia,  and  .'Eolis.  (^Khian  ,  ap.  Schol.  in  Apoll.  Khod., 
 3,  1089.—Slcph.  Bt/z.,  s.  V.  Ai/wvla —Herod.,  7, 
 176.)  Passing  over  the  two  former  apj)ellations,  which 
 belong  rather  to  the  age  of  mythology,  the  latter  may 
 aflford  us  matter  for  historical  reflections,  as  referring 
 to  that  remote  period  when  the  plains  of  Thessaly 
 were  occupied  by  the^Eolian  Pelasgi,  to  whom  Greece 
 was  probably  indebted  for  the  first  dawnings  of  civili- 
 zation, and  the  earliest  cultivation  of  her  language. 
 {Straho,  220.)  This  people  originally  came,  as  He- 
 rodotus informs  us,  from  Thesprotia  {Herod.,  7,  176. 
 — Slrah.,  444) ;  but  how  long  they  remained  in  pos- 
 session of  the  country,  and  at  what  precise  period  it 
 assumed  the  name  of  Thessaly,  cannot,  perhaps,  now 
 be  determined.  In  the  poems  of  Homer  it  never  oc- 
 curs, although  the  several  principalities  and  kingdoms 
 of  which  it  is  composed  are  there  distinctly  enumera- 
 ted and  described,  together  with  the  different  chiefs  to 
 whom  they  were  subject  :  thus  Hellas  and  Phthia  are 
 assigned  to  Achilles;  the  Melian  and  Pagasean  terri- 
 tories to  Protesilaus  and  Eumelus  ;  Magnesia  to  Phi- 
 loctetes  and  Eurypylus ;  Estiaeotis  and  Pelasgia  to 
 Medon  and  the  sons  of  ..^sculapius,  with  other  petty 
 leaders.  It  is  from  Homer,  therefore,  that  we  derive 
 the  earliest  information  relative  to  the  history  of  this 
 fairest  portion  of  Greece.  This  state  of  things,  how- 
 ever, was  not  of  long  continuance  ;  and  a  new  consti- 
 tution, dating  probably  from  the  period  of  the  Trojan 
 expedition,  seems  to  have  been  adopted  by  the  common 
 consent  of  the  Thessalian  states.  They  agreed  to 
 unite  themselves  into  one  confederate  body,  under  the 
 direction  of  one  supreme  magistrate  or  chief,  distin- 
 guished by  the  title  of  Tagus  (Toyof),  and  elected  by 
 the  consent  of  the  whole  republic.  The  details  of  this 
 federal  system  are  little  known  ;  but  Strabo  assures  us 
 that  the  Thessalian  confederacy  was  the  most  consider- 
 able, as  well  as  the  earliest,  society  of  the  kind  establish- 
 ed in  Greece.  {Sirab.,  ^29.)  How  far  its  constitution 
 was  connected  with  the  celebrated  Amphictyonic  coun- 
 cil, it  seems  impossible  to  determine,  since  we  are  so 
 little  acquainted  with  the  origin  and  history  of  that  an- 
 cient assembly.  There  can  be  little  doubt,  however, 
 that  this  singular  coalition,  which  embraced  matters  of 
 a  political  as  well  as  a  religious  nature,  lirst  rose 
 among  the  states  of  Thessaly,  as  we  find  that  the  ma- 
 jority of  the  nation  who  had  votes  in  the  council  were 
 either  actually  Thessalians,  or  connected  in  some  way 
 with  that  part  of  Greece.  This  mode  of  government, 
 however,  seems  to  have  succeeded  as  little  in  Thessaly 
 as  in  the  other  Hellenic  republics  where  it  was  adopt- 
 ed; and  that  province,  which,  from  its  local  advanta- 
 ges, ought  to  have  ranked  among  the  most  powerful 
 and  leading  stales  of  Greece,  we  find,  if  wc  except  a  pe- 
 riod of  brilliant  but  momentary  splendour,  to  have  been 
 one  of  the  most  weak  and  insignificant.  We  learn  from 
 Herodotus,  that  when  Xerxes  meditated  the  invasion  of 
 Greece,  he  was  encouraged  in  the  design  by  the  Aleua- 
 dae,  whom  the  historian  terms  kings  of  Thessaly,  but 
 who,  probably,  like  the  Pisistratidac,  had  only  usurped 
 the  regal  power,  and,  upon  being  deprived  of  their  au- 
 thority, sought  the  aid  of  the  Persian  monarch  to  re- 
 cover their  lost  dominion.  (Herod.,  7,  6.)  It  is  evident 
 that  the  Thessalian  nation  did  not  concur  in  their  pro- 
 jects, as  we  find  they  applied  for  assistance  in  this 
 1330 
 
 '  emergency  to  the  rest  of  Greece ;  but,  as  it  wa»  not 
 deemed  expedient  to  join  forces  against  the  common 
 enemy,  from  the  impossibility  of  making  any  effecluaJ 
 resistance  to  the  north  of  Thermopyla;,  the  Thessali- 
 ans were  left  to  their  own  resources,  and  consequently 
 submitted  to  the  Persian  arms  (Herod.,  7,  172,  scnq.), 
 which  Herodotus  insinuates  they  did  the  more  read- 
 ily, that  they  might  thus  profit  by  foreign  aid  in  aven- 
 ging themselves  on  the  Phocians,  with  whom  they  had 
 been  engaged  in  frequent  but  unsuccessful  hosiilities. 
 (HerOd.,  8,  27.) — Little  notice  is  laken  by  the  Greek 
 historians  of  the  affairs  of  Thessaly,  from  the  Persian 
 invasion  to  the  battle  of  Leuclra,  except  the  fact  men- 
 tioned by  Thucydides  of  an  expedition  havmg  been 
 undertaken  by  the  Athenians,  under  the  command  of 
 Myroriides,  with  a  view  of  remstaling  Orestes,  son  of 
 Echecratidas,  prince  of  Thessaly,  who  had  been  ban- 
 ished from  his  country.  The  Athenian  general,  on 
 that  occasion,  advanced  as  far  as  Pharsalus  ;  but  his 
 progress  being  checked  by  the  superiority  of  the  Thes- 
 salian cavalry,  he  was  forced  to  retire  without  having 
 accomplished  any  of  the  objects  of  the  expedition. 
 (Thitcyd.,  1,  111.) — The  Thessalians  appear  to  have 
 taken  no  part  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  though  they 
 might  naturally  be  inclined  to  favour  the  Athenian 
 cause,  from  their  early  alliance  with  that  state.  Hence 
 it  was  that  Brasidas  felt  it  necessary  to  use  such  se- 
 crecy and  despatch  in  traversing  their  territory  on  his 
 march  towards  Thrace.  (Thucyd.,  4,  78.)  Some 
 troops,  which  were  afterward  sent  by  the  Lacedaemo- 
 nians in  order  tore-enforce  their  army  in  that  quarter, 
 met  with  a  more  determined  opposition,  and  were 
 compelled  to  retrace  their  steps.  (Thucyd.,  5,  13.) 
 On  another  occasion  we  find  the  Thessalians  in  league 
 with  the  Boeotians,  endeavouring  to  harass  and  inter- 
 cept the  march  of  Agesilaus  through  their  country,  on 
 his  return  from  Asia  Minor.  This  attempt,  however, 
 was  rendered  abortive  by  the  skilful  manoeuvres  of  the 
 Spartan  prince  ;  and  the  cavalry  of  Thessaly,  notwith- 
 standing its  boasted  superiority,  met  with  a  decided 
 repulse  from  the  Lacedemonian  horse.  (Xen.,  Hist. 
 Gr  ,  4,  3,  2.) — While  Sparta,  however,  was  struggling 
 to  make  head  against  the  formidable  coalition,  of  which 
 Bceotia  had  taken  the  lead,  Thessaly  was  acquiring  a 
 degree  of  importance  and  weight  among  the  states  of 
 Greece  which  it  had  never  possessed  in  any  former 
 period  of  its  history.  This  was  effected,  apparently, 
 solely  by  the  energy  and  ability  of  Jason,  who,  from 
 being  chief  or  tyrant  of  Pherae,  had  risen  to  the  rank 
 of  Tagus,  or  commander  of  the  Thessalian  states.  By 
 his  influence  and  talents,  the  confederacy  received  the 
 accession  of  several  important  cities  ;  and  an  imposing 
 military  force,  amounting  to  8000  cavalry,  more  than 
 20,000  heavy-armed  infantry,  and  light  troops  suffi- 
 cient to  oppose  the  world,  had  been  raised  and  fitted 
 by  him  for  the  service  of  the  commanw^ealth.  (Xen., 
 Hist.  Gr.,  6,  1,  6.)  His  other  resources  being  equally 
 effective,  Thessaly  seemed  destined,  under  his  direc- 
 tion, to  become  the  leading  power  in  Greece.  We 
 may  estimate  the  influence  that  he  had  already  ac- 
 quired, from  the  circumstance  of  his  having  been  call- 
 ed upon  to  act  as  mediator  between  the  Bi.x?otians  and 
 Spartans  after  the  battle  of  Leuctra.  (Xen  ,  Hi.it. 
 Gr.,  6,  4,  22.)— This  brilliant  period  of  political  influ- 
 ence and  power  was,  however,  of  short  duration,  as 
 Jason  not  long  after  lost  his  life  by  the  hand  of  an  as- 
 sassin, during  the  celebration  of  some  games  which  he 
 had  instituted  ;  and  Thessaly,  on  his  death,  relapsed 
 into  that  state  of  weakness  and  insignificance  from 
 which  it  had  so  lately  emerged.  (Xen.,  Hist.  Gr.,  6, 
 4,  32.)  The  Thessalians,  finding  themselves  unable 
 to  defend  their  liberties,  continually  threatened  by  the 
 tyrants  of  Pherse,  successors  of  Jason,  first  oought  the 
 protection  of  the  Boeotians,  who  sent  to  their  aid  a 
 body  of  troops  commanded  by  the  brave  Pelopidas. 
 They  next  applied  for  assistance  to  Philip  of  Maccdon, 
 
THE 
 
 THE 
 
 who  succeeded  in  defeating,  and  finally  expelling  these 
 oppressors  of  their  country  ;  and,  by  the  important 
 services  thus  rendered  to  the  Thessalians,  secured 
 their  lasting  attachment  to  his  mtcrests,  and  finally  ob- 
 tained the  presidency  of  the  Amphictyonic  council. 
 {Polyb.,  Exc,  9,  28.)  Under  his  skilful  management, 
 the  troops  of  Thessaly  became  a  most  important  addi- 
 tion to  the  resources  he  already  possessed  ;  and  to  this 
 powerful  re-enforcement  may  probably  be  attributed 
 the  success  which  attended  his  campaign  against  the 
 Boeotians  and  Athenians.  On  the  death  of  Philip,  the 
 states  of  Thessaly,  in  order  to  testify  their  veneration 
 for  his  memory,  issued  a  decree,  by  which  they  con- 
 firmed to  his  son  Alexander  the  supreme  station  which 
 he  had  held  in  their  councils  ;  and  also  signified  their 
 intention  of  supporting  his  claims  to  the  title  of  com- 
 mander-in-chief of  the  whole  Grecian  confederacy. 
 The  long  absence  of  that  enterprising  prince,  while 
 engaged  in  distant  conquests,  subsequently  afforded 
 his  enemies  an  opportunity  of  detaching  the  Thessa- 
 lians from  his  interests  ;  and  the  Lamiac  war,  which 
 was  chiefly  sustained  by  that  people  against  his  gener- 
 als Antipater  and  Craterus,  had  nearly  proved  fatal  to 
 the  Macedonian  influence,  not  only  in  Thessaly,  but 
 over  the  whole  continent  of  Greece.  By  the  conduct 
 and  ability  of  Antipater,  however,  the  contest  was 
 brought  to  a  successful  issue,  and  Thessaly  was  pre- 
 served to  the  Macedonian  crown  {Puli/b.,  i,  76)  un- 
 til the  reign  of  Philip,  son  of  Demetrius,  from  whom 
 it  was  wrested  by  the  Romans  after  the  victory  of 
 Cynoscephala?.  All  Thessaly  was  then  declared  free 
 by  a  decree  of  the  senate  and  people  (Liv.,  33,  32),  but 
 from  that  time  it  may  be  fairly  considered  as  having 
 passed  under  the  dominion  of  Rome,  though  its  pos- 
 session was  still  disputed  by  Antiochus  (Liv.,  36,  9, 
 seqq  ),  and  again  by  Perseus,  the  son  of  Philip.  Thes- 
 saly was  already  a  Roman  province,  when  the  fate  of 
 the  empire  of  the  world  was  decided  in  the  plains  of 
 Pharsaiia. — With  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  Bosotia, 
 this  seems  to  have  been  the  most  fertile  and  productive 
 part  of  Greece,  in  wine,  oil,  and  corn,  but  more  espe- 
 cially the  latter,  of  which  it  exported  a  considerable 
 quantity  to  foreign  countries.  {Xen  ,  Hist.  Gr.,  6,  1, 
 4. — Thcophr.,  Hist.  Plant.,  8,  7,  et  10.)  Hence,  as 
 might  be  expected,  the  Thessalians  were  the  wealthi- 
 est people  of  Greece  ;  nor  were  they  exempt  from 
 those  vices  which  riches  and  luxury  generally  bring  in 
 their  train.  {Allien.,  12,  5,  p.  624. —  Tkeopomp.,  ap. 
 eund.,  6,  17,  p.  260.— Plat.,  Crit.,  p.  50.)— Like  the 
 Lacedsemonians,  they  employed  slaves,  who  were 
 named  Pencsta^ ;  these  probably  were  a  remnant  of 
 the  first  tribes  that  inhabited  the  country,  and  that  had 
 been  reduced  to  a  state  of  servitude  by  their  invaders. 
 The  Penestae  formed  no  inconsiderable  |)artof  the  pop- 
 ulation, and  not  unfrequciitly  endeavoured  to  free 
 themselves  from  the  state  of  oppression  under  which 
 they  groaned.  {Xen  ,  Hist.  Gr.,  6.  1,  4. — Anstut., 
 dc  Repub.,  2,  9. — Cramcr''s  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p. 
 343,  seqq.) 
 
 Thess.^i.iotis,  a  part  of  Thessaly  lying  below  the 
 Peneus,  and  to  the  west  of  Magnesia  and  Phthiolis. 
 {Vid.  Thessalia,  near  the  beginning  of  the  article.) 
 
 Thessai.onica,  I.  a  city  of  Macedonia,  at  the  north- 
 eastern extremity  of  the  Sinus  Thcrmaicus.  It  was 
 at  first  an  inconsiderable  place,  under  the  name  of 
 Therme,  by  which  it  was  known  in  the  times  of  Herod- 
 otus, Thiicydides,  ^Eschincs  (Pals.  Legal.,  29),  and 
 Scvlax.  The  latter  speaks  also  of  the  ThermtBaii 
 Gulf.  Therme  was  occupied  by  the  Athenians  prior 
 to  the  Pelo[)onnesian  war,  but  was  restored  by  them 
 to  Perdiccas  shortly  after.  (Thticyd.,  1,  51. — Id.,  2, 
 29  )  \Vc  are  informed  by  Strabo  that  Cassander 
 changed  the  name  of  Therme  to  Thessalonica,  in  hon- 
 our of  his  wife,  who  was  daughter  of  Philip.  (Epit., 
 7,  p.  330.— .ScymH.,  Ch.,  \.G25.—Zonar.,  12,  26.) 
 Stephanus  of  Byzantium  asserts  that  the  former  name 
 
 of  Thessalonica  was  Halia,  and  quotes  a  passage  from 
 a  work  written  by  Lucillus  of  Tarrha  on  this  place,  to 
 account  for  the  reason  which  induced  Philip  to  call  his 
 daughter  Thessalonica.  Cassander  is  said  to  have 
 collected  together  the  inhabitants  of  several  neighbour- 
 ing towns  for  the  aggrandizement  of  the  new  city, 
 which  thus  became  one  of  the  most  important  and 
 flourishing  ports  of  northern  Greece.  It  surrendered 
 to  the  Romans  after  the  battle  of  Pydna  (Liv.,  44,  10), 
 and  was  made  the  capital  of  the  second  region  of  Mace- 
 donia. (Id.,  45,  29.)  Situated  on  the  great  Egnatian 
 Way,  227  miles  from  Dyrrhachiuin,  and  possessed  of 
 an  excellent  harbour,  well  [ilaced  for  commercial  inter- 
 course with  the  Hellespont  and  Asia  Minor,  it  could 
 not  fail  of  becoming  a  very  populous  and  flourishing 
 city.  The  Christian  will  dwell  with  peculiar  interest 
 on  the  circumstances  tliat  connect  the  name  of  St. 
 Paul  with  the  history  of  this  place.  It  will  be  seen, 
 from  the  epistles  which  he  addressed  to  his  converts 
 here,  how  successful  his  exertions  had  been,  notwith- 
 standing the  opposition  and  enmity  he  had  to  encoun- 
 ter from  his  misguided  countrymen. — Pliny  (4,  10) 
 decribes  Thessalonica  as  a  free  city  ;  and  Lucian  as 
 the  largest  of  the  Macedonian  towns.  (Asm.,  46. — 
 Compare  PtoL,  p.  84. — HicrocL,  p.  638.)  Later  his- 
 torians name  it  as  the  residence  of  the  prefect,  and  the 
 capital  of  Illyrioum.  (Tlicodoret,  Hist.  Eccles.,  5, 
 17. — Socrat.,  Hist.  Eccles.,  c.  H.)  For  an  account 
 of  the  dreadful  massacre  that  once  took  place  here, 
 consult  the  article  Theodosius  II. — The  modern  name 
 of  the  place  is  Salontki.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  236,  seqq. — Compare  Clarke's  Travels,  vol. 
 7,  p  443,  seqq.) — II.  A  daughter  of  Philip,  married 
 to  Cassander,  and  from  whom  the  city  of  Thessalonica 
 is  said  to  have  received  its  name.  (  Vid.  preceding  ar- 
 ticle.) 
 
 Thestor,  a  son  of  Idmon  and  Laothoe,  father  to 
 Calchas.  Prom  him  Calchas  is  often  called  Thestori- 
 des.     (Omd,  Met.,  12,  19.— .SV«/.,  Ach,  1,  497.) 
 
 Thktjs,  one  of  the  sea-deities,  daughter  of  Nereus 
 and  Doris.  To  reward  the  virtue  of  Peleus  (md.  Pe- 
 leus),  the  king  of  the  gods  resolved  to  give  him  a  god 
 dess  in  marriage.  The  spouse  selected  for  him  was 
 Thetis,  who  had  been  wooed  by  Jupiter  himself  and  hif 
 brother  Neptune;  but  Themis  having  declared  that  the 
 child  of  Thetis  would  be  greater  than  his  sire,  the 
 gods  withdrew.  [Ptnd.,  hthm.,  8,  58,  seqq.)  Ac- 
 cording to  another  account,  she  was  courted  by  .lupitcr 
 alone  till  he  was  informed  by  Prometheus  that  her  son 
 would  dethrone  him.  (Apollud.,  3,  13,  1. — Si.hol.  ai) 
 II.,  1,  519.)  Others,  again,  maintain  that  Thetis,  who 
 was  reared  by  Juno,  would  not  listen  to  the  suit  of  Ju- 
 jiiter,  and  that  the  god,  in  his  anger,  condemned  her  to 
 espouse  a  mortal  (Apollud  ,  I.  c),  or  that  Juno  herself 
 selected  Peleus  for  her  s|)0use.  (//.,  24,  59. — ApoU 
 Rhod.,  4,  793,  seq.)  Chiron,  being  made  aware  of 
 the  will  of  the  gods,  advised  Peleus  to  aspire  to  the 
 hand  of  the  nymph  of  the  sea,  and  instructed  him  how 
 to  win  her.  Peleus  therefore  lay  in  wait,  and  held 
 her  fast,  though  she  changed  herself  into  every  variety 
 of  form,  becoming  fire,  water,  a  serpent,  and  a  lion. 
 The  wedding  was  solemnized  on  .^iount  Pelion  :  all 
 the  gods,  except  Discord  (vid.  Discordia),  were  invited, 
 and  they  all,  with  this  single  exce|)tion,  honoured  it 
 with  their  presence  (II.,  24,  62),  and  bestowed  armour 
 on  tne  bridegroom.  (// ,  17,  195.  — /A.,  18,  84.) 
 Chiron  gave  him  an  ashen  spear,  and  Neptune  the  im- 
 mortal Harpy-born  steeds  Balms  and  Xanthus.  The 
 muses  sang,  the  Nereides  danced,  to  celebrate  the 
 wedding,  and  Ganymedes  poured  out  nectar  for  the 
 guests.  (Eurip  ,  Iph.  in  Aid.,  1030,  seqq. — Catul- 
 lus, Nuplice  Pel.  ct  Thel.)  The  offspring  of  this 
 union  was  the  celebrated  Achilles.  When  the  goddess 
 wished  to  make  this  her  child  immortal,  the  indiscreet 
 curiosity  of  Peleus  frustrated  her  design,  and,  leaving 
 her  babe,  she  abandoned  for  ever  the  mansion  of  her 
 
 1331 
 
THR 
 
 THRACIA. 
 
 husband,  and  returned  to  her  sister  Nereides.  (Vid. 
 Achilles,  where  a  full  account  is  given.) 
 
 Thirmida,  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Nurnidia,  where 
 Hienipsal  was  slain  by  the  soldiers  of  Jugurlha.  (Sail., 
 Jug.,  c.  12,  41.)  The  site  is  unknown.  {Mannert, 
 Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p   372  ) 
 
 Thisbe,  I.  a  beautiful  female  of  Babylon,  between 
 whom  and  a  youth  named  Pyramus,  a  native  of  the 
 same  place,  a  strong  attachment  subsisted.  Their  pa- 
 rents, however,  being  averse  to  their  union,  they  adopt- 
 ed the  expedient  ol  receiving  each  other's  addresses 
 through  the  chink  of  a  wail  which  separated  their 
 dwellings.  In  the  sequel,  they  arranged  a  meeting  at 
 the  tomb  of  IS'inus,  under  a  white  mulberry- tree. 
 Thisbe,  enveloped  in  a  veil,  arrived  first  at  the  appoint- 
 ed place  ;  but,  terrified  at  the  appearance  of  a  lioness, 
 she  fled  precipitately,  and  in  her  flight  dropped  her 
 veil,  which,  lying  in  the  animal's  path,  was  rent  by  it, 
 and  smeared  with  ihe  blood  that  stained  the  jaws  of 
 the  lioness  from  the  recent  destruction  of  some  cattle. 
 Pyramus,  coming  soon  after  to  the  appointed  place,  be- 
 held the  torn  and  bloody  veil,  and,  concluding  that 
 Thisbe  had  been  destroyed  by  some  savage  beast, 
 slew  himself  in  despair.  Thisbe,  returning  after  a 
 short  interval  to  the  spot  where  she  had  encountered 
 the  lioness,  beheld  the  bleeding  form  of  Pyramus,  and 
 threw  herself  upon  the  fatal  sword,  still  warm,  as  it 
 was,  with  the  blood  of  her  lover.  According  to  the 
 poets,  the  mulberry  that  overhung  the  fatal  scene 
 changed  the  hue  of  its  fruit  from  snow-white  to  a 
 blood-red  colour.  {Omd,  Met.,  4,  55,  scqq.) — II.  A 
 town  of  BcBotia,  northwest  of  Ascra,  and  near  the 
 confines  of  Phocis.  It  was  famed  for  its  aboundincr 
 in  wild  pigeons.  (Horn,  II ,  2,  502. — Strabo,  411.) 
 Xenophon  writes  the  name  in  the  plural,  Thisbae. 
 (Hist.  Gr.,  6,  4,  3.)  The  modern  Kakosm  marks  its 
 site.  Sir  W.  Gell  remarks,  that  the  place  is  remark- 
 able for  the  immense  number  of  rock-pigeons  still 
 found  here.  This  circumstance,  he  observes,  is  the 
 more  striking,  as  neither  the  birds,  nor  rocks  so  full  of 
 perforations,  in  which  they  build  their  nests,  are  found 
 in  any  other  part  of  the  country.     (Itin.,  p.  115.) 
 
 Thoas,  I.  a  king  of  the  Tauric  Chersonese  when 
 Orestes  and  Pylades,  in  concert  with  Iphigenia,  car- 
 ried ofT  from  that  country  the  statue  of  the  Tauric 
 Diana.  (Vid.  Orestes  and  Iphigenia.) — II.  King  of 
 Lemnos,  and  father  of  Hypsipyle.     (Vid.  Hypsipyle.) 
 
 Thorax,  I.  a  mountain  near  Magnesia  ad  Maean- 
 drum,  in  Lydia,  on  which  the  poet  Daphidas  was  cru- 
 cified for  having  written  some  satirical  lines  against 
 Attalus,  king  of  Pcrgamus.  Hence  the  proverb,  (f>v- 
 "kiiTTov  Tov  ■&6f>aKa,  "  Take  care,  of  Thorax.'"  (Strab., 
 647. — Cic.,dc  Fat.,  c.  3. — Erasmus,  ChU.  2,  cent.  4, 
 n.  52.) 
 
 Thorna.x,  a  mountain  of  Laconia,  north  of  Sparta, 
 and  forming  part  of  the  range  called  Menelaium.  It 
 is  now  Thormka.  On  this  mountain  was  a  temple  of 
 Apollo,  with  a  statue  of  the  god,  to  which  a  quantity 
 of  gold  was  presented  by  Crar'sus  (Herod.,  1,  69)  ;  but 
 the  Lacedaemonians  made  use  of  it  afterward  to  adorn 
 the  more  revered  image  of  the  Amyclean  Apollo. 
 {Pausan.,  3,  10.  —  Cramer^s  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  3, 
 p.  219.) 
 
 Thoth,  an  Egyptian  deity,  corresponding  in  some 
 degree  to  the  Grecian  Hermes  and  the  Latin  Mercu- 
 rius.     (Vid.  remarks  under  the  article  Mercurius.) 
 
 Thraces,  the  inhabitants  of  Thrace.  (Vid.  Thra- 
 cia.) 
 
 Thracia,  I.  a  name  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
 earliest  history  of  Greek  civilization,  and  designating, 
 in  all  probability,  not  the  country  called  Thracia  in  a 
 later  age,  but  the  district  subsequently  known  by  the 
 appellation  of  Pieria. —  By  far  the  most  remarkable 
 circumstance  in  the  accounts  that  have  come  down  to 
 us  respecting  the  earliest  minstrels  of  Greece  is,  that 
 Beveral  of  them  are  called  Thracians.  It  is  utterly 
 1332 
 
 inconceivable  that,  in  the  later  historic  times,  when 
 the  Thracians  were  contemned  as  a  barbarian  race, 
 a  notion  should  have  sprung  up  that  the  first  civiliza- 
 tion of  Greece  was  due  to  them  ;  consequently  we 
 cannot  doubt  that  this  was  a  tradition  handed  down 
 from  a  very  early  period.  Now  if  we  are  to  under- 
 stand it  to  mean  that  Eumolpus,  Orpheus,  Musaeus, 
 and  Thamyris  were  the  fellow-countrymen  of  those 
 Edonians,  Odrvsians,  and  Odomantians  who,  in  the 
 historical  ages,  occupied  the  Thracian  territory,  and 
 who  spoke  a  barbarian  language,  that  is,  one  unintelli- 
 gible to  the  Greeks,  we  must  despair  of  being  able  to 
 comprehend  these  accounts  of  the  ancient  Thracian 
 minstrels,  and  of  assigning  them  a  place  in  the  history 
 of  Grecian  civilization  ;  since  it  is  manifest  that  at 
 this  early  period,  when  there  was  scarcely  any  inter- 
 course between  different  nations,  or  knowledge  of 
 foreign  tongues,  poets  who  sang  in  an  unintelligible 
 language  could  not  have  had  more  influence  on  the 
 mental  development  of  the  people  than  the  twittering 
 of  birds.  Nothing  but  the  dumb  language  of  mimicry 
 and  dancing,  and  musical  strains  independent  of  ar- 
 ticulate speech,  can  at  such  a  period  pass  from  nation 
 to  nation,  as,  for  example,  the  Phrygian  music  passed 
 over  to  Greece;  whereas  the  Thracian  minstrels  are 
 constantly  represented  as  the  fathers  oi  poetry,  which, 
 of  course,  is  necessarily  combined  with  language. 
 When  we  come  to  trace  more  precisely  the  country 
 of  these  Thracian  bards,  we  find  that  the  traditions 
 refer  to  Pieria,  the  district  to  the  east  of  the  Olympus 
 range,  to  the  north  of  Thessaly,  and  the  south  of  Ema- 
 thia  or  Macedonia.  In  Pieria,  likewise,  was  Libe- 
 thra,  where  the  Muses  are  said  to  have  sung  the  la- 
 ment over  the  tomb  of  Orpheus :  the  ancient  jjoets, 
 moreover,  always  make  Pieria,  not  Thrace,  the  native 
 place  of  the  Muses,  which  last  Homer  clearly  distin- 
 guishes from  Pieria.  (II.,  14,  226.)  It  was  not  un- 
 til the  Pierians  were  pressed  in  their  own  territory  by 
 the  early  Macedonian  princes,  that  some  of  them  cross- 
 ed the  Strymon  into  Thrace  proper,  where  Herodo- 
 tus mentions  the  castles  of  the  Pierians  in  the  expe- 
 dition of  Xerxes  (7,  112).  It  is,  however,  quite  con- 
 ceivable that,  in  early  times,  either  on  account  of  their 
 close  vicinity  or  because  all  the  north  was  compre- 
 hended under  one  name,  the  Pierians  might,  in  south- 
 ern Greece,  have  been  called  Thracians.  These  Pi- 
 erians, from  the  intellectual  relations  which  they  main- 
 tained with  the  Greeks,  appear  to  have  been  a  Grecian 
 race ;  which  supposition  is  also  confirmed  by  the 
 Greek  names  of  their  places,  rivers,  fountains,  &c., 
 although  it  is  probable  that,  situated  on  the  limits  of 
 the  Greek  nation,  they  may  have  borrowed  largely 
 from  neighbouring  tribes.  (Midler's  Dorians,  vol.  1, 
 p.  472,  488,  501.)  A  branch  of  the  Phrygian  nation, 
 so  devoted  to  an  enthusiastic  worship,  once  dwelt 
 close  to  Pieria,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Bermius,  where 
 King  Midas  was  said  to  have  taken  the  drunken  Sile- 
 nus  in  his  rose-gardens.  In  the  whole  of  this  region 
 a  wild  and  enthusiastic  worship  of  Bacchus  was  dif- 
 fused among  both  men  and  women.  It  may  be  easily 
 conceived,  that  the  excitement  which  the  mind  thus  re- 
 ceived contributed  to  prepare  it  for  poetic  enthusiasm. 
 These  same  Thracians  or  Pierians  lived,  up  to  the  time 
 of  the  Doric  and  ^olic  migrations,  in  certain  districts 
 of  BoEotia  and  Phocis.  That  they  had  dwelt  about 
 the  BcEotian  mountain  of  Helicon,  in  the  district  of 
 Thespia?  and  Acra,  was  evident  to  the  ancient  histo- 
 rians, as  well  from  the  traditions  of  the  cities  as  from 
 the  agreement  of  many  names  of  places  in  the  country' 
 near  Olympus  (Libethrion,  Pimpleis,  Helicon,  &c.). 
 At  the  foot  of  Parnassus,  too,  in  Phocis,  was  said  to 
 have  been  situate  the  city  of  Daulis,  the  seat  of  the 
 Thracian  king  Tereus,  who  is  known  by  his  connex- 
 ion with  the  Athenian  king  Pandion,  and  by  the  fa- 
 ble of  the  metamorphosis  of  his  wife  Procne  into  a 
 nightingale. — From  what  has  been  said,  it  appears  suf- 
 
THRACIA. 
 
 THR 
 
 ficiently  clear  that  these  Pierians  or  Thracians,  dwell- 
 ing al)out  Helicon  and  Parnassus,  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Attica,  are  cluefly  signified  when  a  Thracian  origin  is 
 ascribed  to  the  mythic  bards  of  Attica.  (Muller,  Hist. 
 Gr.  Lit.,  p.  26,  seqq  ) — 11.  A  large  tract  of  country 
 between  the  Str)inon  and  the  Euxine  from  west  to 
 east,  and  between  the  chain  of  Mouiit  Ha,'nius  and  the 
 shores  of  the  .^gean  and  Propontis  from  north  to 
 south.  Such,  at  least,  are  the  limits  assigned  to  it  by 
 Herodotus  and  Thucydidcs,  though  great  changes  took 
 place  m  ages  posterior  to  these  historians.  That  the 
 'I'hracians,  however,  were  at  one  period  much  more 
 widely  disseminated  ihaii  the  confines  h(re  assigned 
 them  would  lead  us  to  infer,  is  evident  from  the  facts 
 recorded  in  the  earliest  annals  of  Grecian  history  rela- 
 tive to  their  migrations  to  the  southern  provinces  of 
 that  country.  We  have  the  aulliority  of  Thucydidcs 
 for  their  establishment  in  Phocis  (2,  49).  Strabo  (p. 
 401,  410)  certifies  their  occupation  of  Bceotia.  And 
 numerous  writers  attest  their  settlement  in  Eleusis  of 
 Attica,  under  Eumolpus,  whose  early  wars  with  Erech- 
 theus  are  related  by  Thucydides  (2,  15),  Pausanias 
 1.  38),  and  others.  But  these,  in  all  probability,  are 
 the  Thracians  alluded  to  under  No.  I.  Nor  were 
 their  colonies  confined  to  the  European  continent 
 alone ;  for,  allured  t)y  the  richness  and  beauty  of  the 
 Asiatic  soil  and  clime,  ihey  crossed  in  numerous  bod- 
 ies the  narrow  strait  which  parted  them  from  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, and  occu[)ied  the  shores  of  Bithynia,  and  the  fer- 
 tile plains  of  Mysia  and  Phrygia.  {Herod.,  7,  73. — 
 Strabo,  303.)  (Jn  the  other  hand,  a  great  revolution 
 seems  to  have  been  subsequently  effected  in  Thrace 
 by  a  vast  migration  of  the  Teucri  and  Mysi,  who,  as 
 Herodotus  asserts,  conquered  the  whole  of  Thrace, 
 and  penetrated  as  far  as  the  Adriatic  to  the  west,  and 
 to  the  river  Peneus  towards  the  south,  before  the  Tro- 
 lan  war. — Whence  and  at  what  period  the  name  of 
 Thracians  was  first  applied  to  the  numerous  hordes 
 which  inhabited  this  portion  of  the  European  continent, 
 is  left  open  to  conjecture.  Bochart  and  others  have 
 supposed  that  it  was  derived  from  Tiraz,  the  son  of 
 Japheth  ;  certain  it  is,  we  find  the  name  already  ex- 
 isting in  the  tune  of  Homer,  who  represents  the  Thra- 
 cians as  joining  the  forces  of  Priam  in  the  siege  of 
 Troy,  under  the  conduct  of  Rhesus,  their  chief  {II.,  10, 
 435),  said  to  be  the  son  of  the  river  Strymon.  {Eurip  , 
 Rkes.  Arg.)  —  Herodotus  aflirms  that  the  Thracians 
 were,  next  to  the  Indians,  the  most  numerous  and  pow- 
 erful peo[)le  in  the  world  ;  and  that,  if  all  the  tribes  had 
 been  united  under  one  monarch  or  under  the  same  gov- 
 ernment, they  would  have  been  invincible  ;  but  from 
 their  subdivision  into  pettv  clans,  distinct  from  each 
 other,  ihcy  were  rendered  insignificant.  {Herod  ,  5, 
 3.)  They  are  said  by  the  same  historian  to  have 
 been  first  subjugated  by  Sesostris  (2,  103),  and,  after 
 the  la(>se  of  many  centuries,  they  were  reduced  under 
 the  subjection  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  by  Megaba- 
 zus,  general  of  Darius.  {Herod.,  5,  2.)  But,  on  the 
 failure  of  the  several  expeditions  undertaken  by  that 
 sovereign  and  his  son  Xerxes  against  the  Greeks,  the 
 Thracians  apparently  recovered  their  independence, 
 and  a  new  empire  was  formed  in  that  extensive  coun- 
 try, under  ll»e  dominion  of  Silalces,  king  of  the  Odry- 
 tia,',  one  of  the  most  numerous  and  warlike  of  their 
 trilx^s.  Thucydides,  who  has  entered  into  considcra- 
 bUi  detail  on  this  subject,  observes,  that  of  all  the  em- 
 pires situated  between  the  Ionian  Gulf  and  the  Eux- 
 ine, this  was  the  most  considerable  both  in  revenue 
 aixl  o^iulcncc  :  its  military  force  was,  however,  very 
 inferior  to  that  of  Scythia,  both  in  strength  and  num- 
 bers. The  empire  of  Sitalces  extended  along  the 
 coast,  fro(n  AUdera  to  the  mouths  of  the  Danube,  a 
 distaiice  of  four  days'  and  nights'  sail  ;  and  in  the  in- 
 terior, from  the  sources  of  the  Strymon  to  Byzantium, 
 a  journey  of  thirteen  days.  The  founder  of  this  em- 
 pue  appears  to  have  been  Teres  {Herod.,  7,  137. — 
 
 Thucyd.,  2,  29),  whose  son  Sitalces,  at  the  instiga- 
 tion of  the  Athenians,  with  whom  he  was  allied,  un- 
 dertook an  expedition  into  Macedonia  Having  raised 
 a  powerful  army  of  Thracians  and  P*onians,  the  sov- 
 ereign of  the  Odrysa;  penetrated  into  the  lerritory  of 
 I'erdiccas,  who,  unable  to  ojipose  in  the  field  so  formi- 
 dable an  antagonist,  confined  his  resistance  to  the  de- 
 fence of  the  fortified  towns  ;  and  by  this  mode  of  war- 
 fare he  at  length  wearied  out  the  Thracian  prince, 
 who  was  persuaded  by  his  nephew  Seuthes  to  abandon 
 the  expedition  and  return  to  his  dominions.  In  re- 
 turn for  this  service,  Seuihjs,  we  are  told,  received  in 
 marriage  Stratonice,  the  sister  of  Perdiccas.  {Thu- 
 cyd., 2,  97,  scqq.)  Sitalces,  some  years  after,  having 
 been  defeated  and  slain  in  a  battle  with  the  Tnballi, 
 another  considerable  Thracian  clan,  was  succeeded  by 
 Seuthes,  who  carried  the  power  of  the  Odrysian  em- 
 pire to  its  hiehcsl  pitch.  {Thwyd.,  4,  101. — Id.,  2, 
 97.)  The  s])lendour  of  this  monarchy  was,  however, 
 of  short  duration,  as  on  the  death  of  Seuthes  it  began 
 gradually  to  decline  ;  and  we  learn  from  Xenopiion 
 that,  on  the  arrival  of  the  ten  thousand  in  Thrace,  the 
 power  of  Medocus,  or  Amadocus,  the  reigning  prince 
 of  the  Odrysae,  was  very  inconsiderable.  {Anab  ,  7, 
 2,  17.  —  Id.  ibid.,  3,  7.)— When  Philip,  the  son  of 
 Amvntas,  ascended  the  throne  of  Maccdon,  the  Thra- 
 cians were  governed  by  Cotys,  a  weak  prince,  whose 
 territories  became  an  easy  prey  to  his  artful  and  enter- 
 prising neighbour.  The  whole  of  that  part  of  Thrace 
 situate  between  the  Strymon  and  the  Nestus  was  thus 
 added  to  Macedonia,  whence  some  geographical  wri- 
 ters term  it  Macedonia  Adjecta.  Cotys  having  been 
 assassinated  not  long  after,  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
 Chersobleptes,  whose  possessions  were  limited  to  the 
 Thracian  Chersonese  ;  and  even  of  this  he  was  event- 
 ually stripped  by  the  Athenians  {Diod  Sic,  16,  34. — 
 Dcmosth.  m  Aristocr.,  p.  678),  while  Philip  seized  on 
 all  the  maritime  towns  between  the  Nestus  and  that 
 peninsula.  On  Alexander's  accession  to  the  throne, 
 the  Triballi  were  by  far  the  most  numerous  and  pow- 
 erful people  of  Thrace  ;  and,  as  they  bordered  on  the 
 Pa>onians  and  extended  to  the  Danube,  they  were  for- 
 midable neighbours  on  this  the  most  accessible  fron- 
 tier of  Macedonia.  Alexander  commenced  his  reign 
 by  an  invasion  of  their  territory  ;  and,  having  defeated 
 them  in  a  general  engagement,  pursued  them  across 
 the  Danube,  whither  they  had  retreated,  and  compell- 
 ed them  to  sue  for  peace.  After  his  death,  Thrace 
 fell  to  the  portion  of  Lysimachus,  one  of  his  generals, 
 by  whom  it  was  erected  into  a  monarchy.  On  his  de- 
 cease, however,  it  revolted  to  Macedonia,  and  remain- 
 ed under  the  dominion  of  its  sovereigns  until  the  con- 
 quest of  that  country  by  the  Romans.  The  divisions 
 of  Thrace  under  the  Roman  sway  were  as  follows  :  I. 
 Thracia,  a  name  applied,  in  a  limited  sense,  to  the 
 country  around  the  Hebrus  in  the  earlier  part  of  its 
 course:  the  capital  was  Fhilippopolis. — 2.  Hicmitnon- 
 lus  or  JEmimoiuus,  including  the  country  along  the 
 Hebrus  in  the  eastern  part  of  its  course,  and  extend- 
 ing northward  to  Ha'inus  ;  it  stretched  off  also  to  the 
 northeast  until  it  struck  the  coast :  the  capital  was  Ha- 
 drianopolis. — 3.  Europa,  the  coast  along  the  Propon 
 tis  and  Hellespont,  including  the  Thracian  Cherso- 
 nese :  the  capital  was  Periiilhus. — f.  Khodopa,  tho 
 southern  coast  from  the  Sinus  Melas  lo  the  mouth  of 
 the  Nestus. — 5.  Miesia  Secunda.  north  of  Hainus. — 6. 
 Scythm,  below  the  Danube,  near  its  mouth.  {Cra- 
 vier'n  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  28i.—Manncrf,  Gcogr., 
 vol.  7,  p.  69.) 
 
 Thraseas,  Pa-tus,  a  Roman  senator  in  the  reign  ol 
 Nero,  distinguished  for  his  integrity  and  patriotism. 
 He  was  a  native  of  Patavium,  educated  in  stoical  ten- 
 ets, and  a  great  admirer  of  Cato  of  Uiica,  whose  life 
 he  wrote.  His  contempt  of  the  base  adulation  of  the 
 senate,  and  his  open  and  manly  animadversions  on  the 
 enormities  of  the  emperor,  were  the  occasion  of  his 
 
 1333 
 
THR 
 
 THU 
 
 being  condemned  to  death.  He  died  A.D.  66,  in  the 
 13th  year  of  Nero's  reign.  Tacitus  says  that  Nero 
 rndeavoiired  to  c.\tir])ate  virtue  itself  by  the  destruc- 
 tion of  Partus  and  Soranus.  {Juv.,  5,  36. — Martial, 
 1,  19— 7'ac.,  An7i.,  15,  16.) 
 
 Thrasybulus,  an  Athenian  general,  one  of  the 
 commanders  in  the  naval  battle  of  Argiiiuss.  He 
 subsequently  headed  the  party  from  Phyla  which 
 overthrew  the  government  of  the  thirty  tyrants.  Thras- 
 ybulus was  afterward  sent  with  an  Athenian  fleet  to 
 the  coast  of  Asia,  where  he  gained  some  considerable 
 advantages.  Having,  after  this,  proceeded  to  the  col- 
 lection of  tribute  from  the  towns,  and  having,  m  the 
 course  of  this,  come  to  the  city  of  Aspendus,  the  in- 
 habitants of  this  place  were  so  exasperated  by  some 
 irregularity  of  his  soldiers,  that  they  attacked  his  camp 
 at  night,  and  he  was  killed  in  his  tent.  Thrasybulus 
 was  a  man  of  tried  honesty  and  patriotism,  and  had 
 shown  uncommon  ability  in  some  very  trying  situa- 
 tions. The  only  cloud  that  rests  upon  his  memory  is 
 an  appearance  of  having  concurred  with  Theramenes 
 in  the  accusation  of  their  six  colleagues  at  Arginusae, 
 if  not  actively,  at  least  by  withholding  the  testimony 
 that  might  have  saved  them  :  but  the  evidence  which 
 we  have  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  us  in  decidedly 
 fixing  so  dark  a  stain  on  a  character  otherwise  so 
 pure.  ( Corn.  Nep.,  Vtt.  Thrasyb.—Diod.  Sic,  13,  98. 
 —Id.,  13,  101.— M,  14,  33;   94,  99.) 
 
 Thrasvllus,  one  of  the  Athenian  commanders  at 
 the  battle  of  Arginusae,  condemned  to  death  with  his 
 colleagues  for  omitting  to  collect  and  bury  the  dead 
 after  the  action.     {Vid.  Arginusae.) 
 
 Thrasv.menus  Lacus.      Vtd.  Trasymenus  Lacus. 
 
 Thriambus,  one  of  the  surnames  of  Bacchus. 
 
 Thrinakia,  an  island  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey,  on 
 which  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  Sun-god  fed,  under 
 the  care  of  his  daughters  Phaethusa  and  Lampetia, 
 Slid  to  which  Ulysses  came  immediately  after  escaping 
 Sylla  and  Charybdis.  On  reaching  this  sacred  island, 
 his  companions,  in  defiance  of  the  warning  of  Ulysses, 
 slaughtered  some  of  the  oxen  while  he  slept.  The 
 hero,  on  awaking,  was  filled  with  horror  and  despair  at 
 what  they  had  done  ;  and  the  displeasure  of  the  gods 
 was  manifested  by  prodigies  ;  for  the  hides  crept  along 
 the  ground,  and  the  flesh  lowed  on  the  spits.  They  fed 
 for  six  days  on  the  sacred  cattle  ;  on  the  seventh  the 
 storm  which  had  driven  them  to  Thrinakia  fell,  and  they 
 left  the  island  :  but,  as  soon  as  they  had  lost  sightof  land, 
 a  terrible  west  wind,  accompanied  by  thunder,  light- 
 ning, and  pitchy  darkness,  came  on.  Jupiter  struck  the 
 ship  with  a  thunderbolt :  it  went  to  pieces,  and  all  the 
 sacrilegious  crew  were  drowned. — The  resemblance 
 between  Thrinakia  and  Trinacria,  a  name  of  Sicily, 
 has  induced  both  ancients  and  moderns  to  acquiesce 
 in  the  opinion  of  the  two  islands  being  identical. 
 Against  this  opinion  it  has  been  observed,  that  Thri- 
 nakia was  a  desert  isle  {v/jaog  kprifirj.  —  Od.,  12,  351), 
 that  is,  an  uninhabited  isle  ;  and  that,  during  the  whole 
 time  that  Ulysses  and  his  men  were  in  it,  they  did  not 
 meet  with  any  one,  and  co\;ld  procure  no  food  but 
 birds  and  fish  ;  that  it  is  called  "  the  excellent  isle  of 
 (he  God'"  {Odyss.,  12,  261),  whose  peculiar  property 
 it  therefore  must  have  been  ;  that,  according  to  the  anal- 
 ogy of  the  Odyssey,  it  must  have  been  a  small  island, 
 for  such  were  .'TiaDa,  Ogygia,  and  all  we  meet ;  not 
 one  of  which  circumstances  agrees  with  Sicily.  It 
 seems,  therefore,  the  more  probable  supposition,  that 
 ihe  poet  regarded  Thrinakia  as  an  islet,  about  the 
 same  size  as  those  of  Circe  and  Calypso,  belonging  to 
 the  Sun-god,  and  letianted  only  by  his  flocks  and 
 herds,  and  his  two  daughters  their  keepers.  He  must 
 also  have  conceived  it  to  lie  much  more  to  the  west 
 than  Sicily,  for  it  could  not  have  been  more  than  the 
 third  day  after  leaving  ,'Ea;a  that  Ulysses  arrived  at 
 it.      {Keighlleifs  Mijtholosry,  p.  273,  seq.) 
 
 Thkonium,  I.  a  town  of  the  Locri  Epicnemidii,  in 
 1334 
 
 Greece,  noticed  by  Homer  as  being  near  the  river 
 Boagrius.  (//.,  2,  533.)  It  was  thirty  stadia  from 
 Scarphea,  and  at  some  distance  from  the  coast,  as  ap- 
 pears from  Strabo  (426).  Thronium  was  taken  by  the 
 Athenians  during  the  Peloponnesian  war  (Thucyd  ,  2, 
 26),  and  several  years  after  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
 Onomarchus,  the  Phocian  general,  who  enslaved  the 
 inhabitants.  {Diod.  Sic,  12,44.  —  JEsch.,  de  Fals. 
 Legat.,  p.  46.— Lfo  ,  32,  2G.—Folyb.,  17,  9,  3.)  Dr. 
 Clarke  conjectured  that  Thronium  was  situated  at 
 Budonitza,  a  small  town  on  the  chain  of  Mount  Q]ta; 
 but  Sir  W.  Gell  is  of  opinion  that  this  point  is  too  far 
 distant  from  the  sea,  and  that  it  accords  rather  with  an 
 ancient  ruin  above  Loiigachi  {Itin.,  p.  235);  and  this 
 is  in  unison  also  with  the  statement  of  Meletias  the 
 Greek  geographer,  who  cites  an  inscription  discovered 
 there,  in  which  the  name  of  Thronium  occurs  (vol.  2, 
 p.  323. — Cramer's  Anc  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  114). — II. 
 A  town  of  Illyricum,  at  some  distance  from  the  coast 
 above  Oricum,  and  near  another  place  called  Amantia. 
 Both  these  places  are  said  to  have  been  founded  here 
 by  the  Abantes,  in  conjunction  with  theLocrians,  they 
 having  been  driven  hither  by  adverse  winds  on  their 
 return  from  Troy.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p. 
 65.) 
 
 Thucydides,  I.  a  celebrated  Greek  historian,  born 
 in  Attica,  in  the  village  of  Halinusia,  and  in  the  tribe  of 
 Leontium,  B.C.  471.  His  father's  name  was  Olorus, 
 or,  as  some  write  the  name,  Orolus,  and  on  the  moth- 
 er's side  he  was  descended  from  Cimon,  son  of  Milti- 
 ades.  Of  the  boyhood  and  education  of  the  historian 
 we  have  little  information.  The  first  remarkable  cir- 
 cumstance of  his  early  youth  is  one  which  the  biogra- 
 phers of  Thucydides  never  fail  to  relate.  It  is  stated, 
 on  the  authority  of  Lucian  {de  conscrtb.  Hist.,  c.  16), 
 Suidas,  and  Photius,  that  Thucydides,  when  a  youth 
 of  fifteen,  stood  with  his  father  near  Herodotus  when 
 the  latter  was  reciting  his  history  at  the  Olymjiic  festi- 
 val ;  and  was  so  much  interested  with  the  work,  and 
 affected  at  the  applause  with  which  it  was  received, 
 that  he  shed  tears.  On  observing  which,  Herodotus 
 exclaimed  to  his  father,  'Opya  r/  <f)vai(  tov  v'cov  cov 
 Trpof  rib  fiadi/fiaTa,  "  Your  son  burns  with  ardour  for 
 learning."  This  recitation  is  proved  by  Dodwell  to 
 have  taken  place  at  the  81st  Olympiad,  B.C.  456. 
 Now,  if  what  is  said  by  Pamphila,  a  female  author  of  the 
 age  of  Nero,  be  true,  the  age  of  Thucydides  at  the  peri- 
 od of  this  recitation  was  fifteen.  The  grounds  on  which 
 the  whole  account  rests  have  been  carefully  examined 
 by  Poppo,  Dahlmann,  Goller,  and  other  German  critics, 
 and  the  story  has  been  pronounced  fabulous.  (Com- 
 pare remarks  under  the  article  Herodotus  ) — Marcelli- 
 nus  informs  us  that  the  preceptor  of  Thucydides,  in 
 oratory  and  rhetoric  in  general,  was  Antipho,  on  whon^ 
 the  historian  has  passed  a  short  but  significant  enco- 
 mium in  a  part  of  his  work  (8,  68).  In  philosophy, 
 and  the  art  of  thinking  and  reasoning,  he  was  instruct- 
 ed by  Anaxagoras.  Of  the  manner  in  which  he  spent 
 his  early  manhood  wc  have  no  certain  information. 
 That  he  served  the  usual  time  in  the  TrcpiTrolm,  or 
 militia,  we  cannot  doubt.  How  he  spent  the  period 
 from  his  militia-service  to  that  of  his  appointment  to 
 command  the  fleet  in  Thrace  we  have  no  way  of  as- 
 certaining. An  ancient  anonymous  biographer  of  the 
 historian  says  that  he  had  participated  in  the  Atheni- 
 an colony  sent  to  Thurium.  But  if  he  had  by  inherit- 
 ance any  considerable  property  in  Thrace,  which  is 
 highly  probable,  no  reason  can  be  imagined  why  he 
 should  have  taken  part  in  this  colony.  If,  however, 
 that  statement  be  correct,  Dodwell  seems  to  have 
 proved  the  circumstance  must  have  taken  place  in  his 
 twenty-seventh  year.  Why  he  went,  or  how  long 
 he  stayed,  we  are  not  informed  If  he  went  at  all,  ht 
 probably  did  not  remain  very  long  ;  and  there  is  n« 
 doubt  that  he  had  returned  to  his  country  long  be- 
 fore  the   commencement  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
 
THUCYDIDES. 
 
 THUCYDIDES. 
 
 otherwise  it  would  make  his  marriage  with  the  Thra- 
 cian  lady  of  Scaptesylc  (by  which  he  obtained  rich 
 property  iti  mines,  &c  )  an  improbably  late  one. 
 VV'liethcr  he  was  employed  in  military  service  in  the 
 first  sevcti  years  of  the  war  is  uncertain  ;  it  is  prob- 
 able, however,  that  he  was.  In  the  eighth  year  of  the 
 war  and  the  forty-seventh  of  his  age,  B  C.  434.  he  was 
 appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Athenian  fleet  ofT  the 
 coast  of  Thrace,  which  uicluded  the  direction  of  affairs 
 in  the  various  Athenian  colonies  there.  lie  occupied 
 with  his  fleet  a  station  at  Thasus,  and,  being  suddenly 
 summoned  to  the  defence  of  Amphipolis,  he  hastened 
 thither  ;  but,  owing  to  unavoidable  circumstances,  was 
 too  late  by  only  half  a  day.  He,  however,  succeeded 
 in  saving  Eion,  though,  had  he  not  arrived  at  the  time 
 he  did,  the  place  would  have  been  occupied  by  Brasi- 
 das  the  very  next  morning.  It  is  plain,  that  to  save 
 Amphipolis  was  a  physical  impossibility,  and  great  ac- 
 tivity was  used  in  saving  Eion.  He  therefore  merit- 
 ed praise  rather  than  censure.  And  yet  the  Athenian 
 people,  out  of  humour  with  the  turn  which  things  were 
 taking  in  Thrace,  condemned  him  to  banishment ; 
 though,  with  a  magnanimity  scarcely  paralleled,  he 
 makes  no  mention  of  it  in  his  history  of  that  period, 
 and  only  touches  upon  it  incidentally  afterward,  in  or- 
 der to  show  his  advantages  for  arriving  at  the  truth, 
 and  then  without  a  word  of  complaint.  Discharged 
 from  all  duties,  and  freed  from  all  public  avocations, 
 he  was  left  without  any  attachments  but  to  simple 
 truth,  and  proceeded  to  qualify  himself  for  commemo- 
 rating e.xploits  m  which  he  could  have  no  share.  On 
 his  banishment  he  retired  to  Scaptesyle,  the  property 
 of  his  wife,  and  thus  dedicated  his  leisure  to  the  for- 
 mation of  his  great  work,  and  (as  Marcelhiius,  the  an- 
 cient biographer,  says)  employed  his  wealth  liberally  in 
 procuring  the  best  information  of  the  events  of  the 
 war,  both  from  Athens  and  Lacedaemon.  How  he 
 passed  the  period  of  his  exile  may,  then,  be  very  well 
 imagined  ;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  till  up  that  space,  as 
 Dodwell  does,  with  such  events  as  "  the  death  of  Per- 
 diccas,  king  of  Macedon  ;  the  accession  of  Archelaus, 
 his  successor ;  the  end  of  the  i/XiKia  aTfiaTevaifio^  of 
 Thucydides  ;"  for  his  military  life  had  virtually  been 
 defunct  eighteen  years  before.  As  to  the  period  of  his 
 exile,  it  was,  as  he  himself  tells  us  (5,  2G),  twenty 
 year«  ;  and  his  return  is,  by  some,  fixed  at  403  B.C., 
 at  the  time  when  an  amnesty  was  passed  for  all  offen- 
 ces against  the  state  ;  by  others,  to  the  year  before, 
 when  Athens  was  taken  by  Lysander,  and  the  exiles 
 mostly  returned.  The  former  opinion  has  been  shown 
 by  Krueger  to  be  alone  the  correct  one  ;  "  for,"  argues 
 he,  "  since  Thucydides  says  that  he  was  banished  for 
 twenty  years  in  the  eighth  year  of  the  war,  which  also, 
 he  aturms,  lasted  twenty-one  years,  it  follows  that  his 
 recall  must  have  been  in  the  year  after  Athens  was  ta- 
 ken." To  which  it  may  be  added,  that  the  high-mmd- 
 cd  historian  would  have  disdained  to  avail  himself  of 
 such  an  unauthorized  way  of  returning  to  his  couniry 
 as  that  eagerly  snatched  at  by  the  bulk  of  the  exiles,  but 
 would  wait  until  the  public  amnesty  should  give  him 
 a  full  right  to  do  so.  Perhaps,  however,  the  real  truth 
 of  the  matter  is  what  Pausanias  relates,  who  mentions 
 among  the  antiquities  a  statue  to  the  memory  of  one 
 GCiiobius,  for  being  the  mover  of  a  separate  decree  of 
 the  assembly  for  the  recall  of  Thucydides  (I,  23).  It 
 is  probable  that,  besides  the  general  amnesty  by  which 
 the  former  exiles  were  permitted  to  return,  a  particu- 
 lar decree  was  made  for  Thucydides  ;  an<i,  considering 
 the  gross  injustice  of  his  banishment,  this  was  no  more 
 than  he  had  a  right  to  expect.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
 notice  all  thote  many  improbable,  and  sometimes  con- 
 tradictory accounts  concerning  the  life  of  Thucydides 
 which  are  found  in  some  of  the  later  Greek  writers  ; 
 as,  for  instance,  Pausanias,  who,  besides  making  Thu- 
 cydides descended  from  Pisistratus  (which  is  incon- 
 •isteiit  with  plain  facts,  for  the  genealogies  of  Mikiades  , 
 
 and  Pisistratus  show  no  sort  of  afTmity),  relates  that 
 Thucydides  was  assassinated  immediately  on  his  re- 
 turn. And  Zopyrus,  referred  to  by  Marcellinus,  re- 
 lates that  such  an  event  look  place,  but  some  years  af- 
 terward. Had,  however,  that  really  been  the  case,  it 
 would  have  been  perfectly  known,  and  could  scarcely 
 but  have  been  alluded  to  by  (Jicero,  or  some  other 
 great  writer  of  antiquity.  I'oppo,  indeed,  maintains 
 that  he  lived  many  years  after  ins  return  ;  but  his  rea- 
 son (namely,  that  after  his  return  he  digested  his  his- 
 tory into  order)  is  not  convincing.  For  it  surely  would 
 not  require  many  years  to  do  that,  especially  as  the 
 last  book  was,  after  all,  left  in  a  rough  and  undigested 
 state.  Besides,  the  probability  is  rather  that  a  man  of 
 sixty-seven  should  not  live  many  years.  The  strongest 
 proof  adduced  is,  that  the  historian  (3,  116)  makes 
 mention  of  the  third  eruption  of  yEtna,  which  is  said  to 
 have  taken  place  B.C.  395.  But  this  argument  de- 
 pends upon  the  interpretation  of  the  words  of  that  pas- 
 sage, which  probably  gave  a  countenance  to  the  above 
 opinion.  It  seems,  therefore,  to  be  uncertain  how 
 many  years  he  lived  after  his  recall  from  banishment. 
 The  manner  in  which  he  speaks  of  the  conclusion  of 
 the  war,  and  his  having  lived  throughout  the  whole 
 of  it  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  his  faculties,  strongly 
 confirms  the  statement  of  Pamphila,  from  which  it  fol- 
 lows that  he  was  sixty-seven  years  old  at  its  conclu- 
 sion. And  as  it  seems  probable  that  he  would  not  ar- 
 range the  work  before  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  so  the 
 moulding  of  the  whole  into  its  present  form  miaht  con- 
 sume some  years  of  the  life  of  an  aged  man.  Yet  its 
 being  at  last  left  incomplete  is  unfavourable  to  the  opin- 
 ion of  Dodwell,  that  Thucydides  lived  beyond  his 
 eightieth  year.  (Bloonijield's  Thucydides,  vol.  1,  p. 
 16,  scqq.) — The  title  of  the  v^-ork  is  as  follows  ;  "Zvy- 
 ypacp?/  KEfu  Tov  TroAe/wv  ruv  UeXoTTowTjaiuv  kuI  'Adr/- 
 vaiuv  {•'History  of  the  war  between  the  Pelo-ponne- 
 stans  and  Alhejiians^'').  It  is  in  eight  books,  and  ex- 
 tends to  near  the  close  of  the  twenty-first  year  of  the 
 war  ;  but  the  eighth  book  is  not  so  finished  as  the  rest, 
 and,  indeed,  there  is  a  gradual  decline  of  vigour  and 
 finished  execution  after  the  first  five  books.  This  fall- 
 ing off  and  abrupt  termination  of  his  history  may 
 best  be  explained  by  a  gradual  deprivation  of  health, 
 terminating  in  a  sudden  death.  — With  respect  to  the 
 temper  and  disposition  of  Thucydides,  it  was  grave, 
 cool,  and  candid.  "  He  seems,"  Smith  observes,  "  to 
 have  been  all  judgment  and  no  passion."  He  evident- 
 ly had  nothing  choleric  or  rcseutfiil  in  his  constitution 
 His  notions  in  philosophy  and  religion  being  above  the 
 conception  of  the  vulgar,  procured  him,  as  in  the  case 
 of  Anaxagoras,  Socrates,  Pericles,  and  others,  the 
 name  of  an  atheist,  "  which,"  says  Hobbcs,  "  tiiey  be- 
 stowed upon  all  men  that  thought  not  as  they  did  of 
 their  ridiculous  religion." — As  regards  the  merits  of 
 Thucydides  as  an  historian,  we  may  copy  the  words 
 of  the  same  writer.  "  For  the  faith  of  this  history  I 
 shall  have  the  less  to  say,  in  respect  that  no  man  hath 
 ever  yet  called  it  into  question.  Nor,  indeed,  could 
 any  man  justly  doubt  of  the  truth  of  that  writer,  in 
 whom  they  had  nothing  at  all  to  suspect  of  those  things 
 that  could  have  caused  him  either  voluntarily  to  lie  or 
 ignorantly  to  deliver  an  untruth.  He  overtasked  not 
 his  strength  by  undertaking  a  history  of  things  long  be- 
 fore his  time,  and  of  which  he  was  not  able  to  inform 
 himself.  He  was  a  man  that  had  as  much  means,  in 
 regard  both  of  his  dignity  and  his  wealth,  to  find  the 
 truth  of  what  he  relatctb,  as  was  needful  for  a  man  to 
 have.  He  used  as  much  diligence  in  search  of  the 
 truth  (noting  everything  while  it  was  fresh  in  his  mem- 
 ory, and  laving  out  his  wealth  upon  intelligence)  as  was 
 possible  for  a  man  to  use. —  He  affected,  least  of  any 
 man,  the  acclamations  of  popular  authorities,  and  wrote 
 not  his  history  to  win  applause,  as  was  the  use  of  that 
 age,  but  for  a  monument  to  instruct  the  aces  to  come, 
 which  he  professeth  himself,  and   entitleth  his  book 
 
 1335 
 
THUCYDIDES. 
 
 THU 
 
 Krrjua  tf  (ul,  a  possession  for  cvcrlastivg.  He  was 
 far  from  ihe  necessity  of  servile  writers,  either  to  fear 
 or  to  flatter.  In  fine,  if  the  truth  of  a  history  did  over 
 appear  by  the  manner  of  relating,  it  doth  so  in  this  his- 
 tory."— Smith  also  has  a  discourse  on  the  qualificaliotis 
 of  Thucydides  as  an  historian  which  merits  perusal. 
 He  therein  shows  him  to  have  had  all  the  qualifica- 
 tions that  can  he  thought  necessary  ;  namely,  "  to  be 
 abstracted  from  every  kind  of  connexion  with  persons 
 or  things  that  are  the  subject  matter  ;  to  be  of  no  coun- 
 try, no  party  ;  clear  of  all  passion,  independent  in  ev- 
 ery light  ;  entirely  unconcerned  who  is  pleased  or  dis- 
 pleased with  what  he  writes  ;  the  servant  only  of  rea- 
 son and  truth.  He  was  wholly  unconcerned  about  the 
 opinion  of  the  generation  in  which  he  lived.  He  wrote 
 for  posterity.  He  appealed  to  the  future  world  for 
 the  value  of  the  present  he  had  made  them.  The 
 judgment  of  succeeding  ages  has  approved  the  com- 
 pliment he  thus  made  to  their  understandings.  So 
 long  as  there  are  truly  great  princes,  able  statesmen, 
 sound  politicians— politicians  that  do  not  rend  asun- 
 der [lolitics  from  good  order  and  the  general  happiness, 
 he  will  meet  with  candid  and  grateful  acknowledg- 
 ments of  his  merits." — Thucydides  has  been  sometimes 
 censured  for  the  introduction  of  harangues  into  his  his- 
 tory, and  this  has  been  made  an  argument,  by  some, 
 against  his  general  veracity  as  an  historian.  The  truth 
 IS,  however,  that  the  writer  never  meant  them  to  be  re- 
 garded by  the  reader  as  having  been  actually  pronoun- 
 ced by  the  speakers  in  question  :  they  serve  merely 
 as  vehicles  for  conveying  his  own  sentiments  on  pass- 
 ing events,  for  painting  more  distinctly  the  characters 
 of  those  whom  he  brings  forward  in  the  course  of  his 
 narrative,  and  for  relating  circumstances  to  which  he 
 could  not  well  refer  in  the  main  body  of  his  history. 
 The  harangues  of  Thucydides  impart  frequently  to 
 his  work  a  kind  of  dramatic  character,  and  agreeably 
 interrupt  the  monotony  occasioned  by  his  peculiar  ar- 
 rangement of  events.  Demosthenes  was  so  ardent  an 
 admirer  of  them,  that  he  is  said  to  have  copied  them 
 over  ten  times,  in  order  to  appropriate  to  himself  the 
 style  of  this  great  writer.  The  finest  is  the  funeral 
 oration  of  Pericles,  in  honour  of  those  who  had  fallen 
 in  the  service  of  their  country. — Another  charge  made 
 against  Thucydides  is  the  division  of  his  work  into 
 years,  and  even  into  seasons,  for  he  divides  each  year 
 into  two  seasons,  summer  and  winter.  This  arrange- 
 ment, which  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  has  severely 
 blamed,  imparts  to  the  work  a  kind  of  monotonous 
 character;  and  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  con- 
 fessed, that  if  this  plan  be  in  some  respects  a  defective 
 one,  it  is  less  so  for  the  history  of  a  single  war,  which 
 naturally  divides  itself  into  campaigns,  than  it  would 
 he  for  a  work  intended  to  embrace  the  history  of  a 
 people,  or  of  some  extended  period  of  time. — Thucyd- 
 ides wrote  in  the  Attic  dialect  :  after  him  no  histori- 
 an ventured  to  employ  any  other,  and  his  work  is  re- 
 garded as  the  canon,  or  perfection  of  Atticism.  His 
 style,  however,  is  not  without  its  faults  :  his  concise- 
 ness sometimes  degenerates  into  obscurity,  particularly 
 in  his  harangues  ;  nor  does  he  seem  to  be  always  very 
 solicitous  about  the  elegance  of  his  diction,  but  more 
 ambitious  to  communicate  information  than  to  please 
 the  ear.  Against  these  and  similar  charges,  of  care- 
 less collocation,  embarrassed  periods,  and  solecistic 
 phraseology,  which  Dionysius,  in  particular,  is  most 
 active  in  adducing,  the  historian  has  been  very  suc- 
 cessfully defiuided  by  one  of  his  recent  editors,  Poppo. 
 Two  among  the  Roman  writers  have  taken  Thucyd- 
 ides for  their  model,  namely.  Sallust  and  Tacitus  ; 
 but  they  have  imitated  him  each  in  a  diflercnt  manner. 
 Tacitus  has  appropriated  to  himself  the  general  man- 
 ner of  the  Greek  historian,  his  conciseness,  his  depth 
 of  thought  ;  Sallust  has  conformed  to  him  in  his  sen- 
 tences and  phrases  more  than  in  his  ideas. — The  most 
 celebrated  parts  of  Thucydides  are  the  oration  of  Per- 
 1336 
 
 icles,  already  referred  to,  and  the  description  of  the 
 plague  which  ravaged  Athens  during  the  summer  of 
 01  87.4,  B.(y.  429.  The  fearful  picture  which  Thu- 
 cydides here  traces  has  been  imitated  by  Lucretius  and 
 Virgil,  particularly  the  former. — The  best  editions  of 
 Thucydides  are,  that  of  Hudson,  Oxon.,  1696,  fol.  ; 
 that  of  Duker,  Amst.,  173],  2  vols.  fol. ;  that  of  Got- 
 leber  and  Bauer,  Lips.,  1790-1804,  2  vols.  4to  ;  that 
 of  Haack,  Stcnd.,  1819,  2  vols.  8vo,  reprinted  by  Val- 
 py,  Loml,  1823,  3  vols.  8vo  ;  that  of  Bekker,  Oxon., 
 1821,  4  vols.  8vo;  that  of  Arnold,  Oxford,  1830-5, 
 3  vols.  Svo  ;  and  especially  that  of  Poppo,  Lips., 
 1821-37,  12  vols.  Svo. —  Dr.  Bloomfield,  vicar  of 
 Bisbrooke,  Rutland,  England,  has  published  a  small 
 edition  with  English  notes,  in  3  vols.  12mo,  and  also 
 a  new  English  version  of  the  historian,  with  copious 
 and  valuable  notes,  in  3  vols.  Svo,  Lond.,  1819. — II. 
 .A.  poet,  mentioned  by  Marcellinus,  the  biographer  of 
 Thucydides.  (Compare  Poppo,  Proleg.,  1,  p.  27. — 
 Gocllcr,  Vit.  Thucyd.) 
 
 Thui.e,  an  island  in  the  most  northern  parts  of  the 
 German  Ocean,  called  ultima,  "  farthest,"  on  account 
 of  its  remote  situation,  and  itis  being  regarded  as  the 
 limit  of  geographical  knowledge  in  this  quarter.  The 
 Thule  mentioned  by  Tacitus  in  his  life  of  Agricola  (c. 
 10),  and  which  that  commander  discovered  m  circum- 
 navigating Britain,  coincides  with  Mainland,  one  of 
 the  Shetland  Isles.  The  Thule  spoken  of  by  Pytheas, 
 the  ancient  Greek  navigator,  was  different  from  this. 
 The  relation  of  Pytheas  is  rather  romantic  in  some  of 
 its  features ;  as,  for  example,  when  he  states  that  its 
 climate  was  neither  earth,  air,  nor  sea,  but  a  chaotic 
 confusion  of  these  three  elements  :  from  other  parts 
 of  his  narrative,  however,  many  have  been  led  to  sup- 
 j)ose  that  this  Thule  was  modern  Iceland  or  Norway. 
 Mannert  declares  himself  in  favour  of  the  former; 
 D'Anville  opposes  it.  Ptolemy  places  the  middle  of 
 this  Thule  in  63°  of  latitude,  and  says  that  at  the  time 
 of  the  equinoxes  the  days  were  twenty-four  hours, 
 which  could  not  have  been  true  at  the  equinoxes,  but 
 must  have  referred  to  the  solstices,  and  therefore  this 
 island  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  66°  30'  latitude, 
 that  is,  under  the  polar  circle.  The  Thule  of  which 
 Procopius  speaks,  D'Anville  makes  to  correspond  with 
 the  modern  canton  of  Tylemar/:,  in  Norway.  The 
 details  of  Procopius,  however,  seem  to  agree  rather 
 with  the  accounts  that  have  been  given  of  the  state  of 
 ancient  Lapland.  Some  modern  geographers  think 
 that  by  Thule  the  ancients  mean  merely  Scandinavia, 
 of  which  their  knowledge  was  very  limited.  (Man- 
 nert,  Gcogr.,  vol.  1,  p   78.) 
 
 Thurii,  a  city  of  Lucania,  in  Lower  Italy,  near  the 
 site  of  the  more  ancient  Sybaris,  and  which  was  found- 
 ed by  a  colony  from  Athens  about  fifty-five  years  after 
 the  overthrow  of  the  latter  city.  Two  celebrated 
 characters  are  named  among  those  who  joined  this  ex- 
 pedition, which  was  collected  from  different  parts  of 
 Greece  ;  these  were  Herodotus,  and  Lvsias  the  ora- 
 tor. {Aris/oL,  dc  Rhci.,  3,  9. — Dion.  Hal.,  de  Lys., 
 p.  4.')2. — Said.,  s.  V.  'HpoiSorof  et  Avata^  )  Diodorus 
 gives  us  a  very  full  account  of  the  foundation  of  this 
 town,  the  form  and  manner  in  which  it  was  built,  and 
 the  constitution  it  adopted:  its  laws  were  framed 
 chiefly  after  the  code  of  the  celebrated  legislators  Za 
 leucus  and  Charondas.  (Diod.  Sir..,  12,  10.)  The 
 government  of  Thurii  seems  to  have  excited  the  at- 
 tention of  Aristotle  on  more  than  one  occasion.  {Po 
 lit.,  5,  4,  scqq.)  This  Athenian  colony  attained  a 
 considerable  degree  of  prosperity  and  power:  it  en- 
 tered into  an  alliance  with  Crotona,  and  engaged  in 
 hostilities  with  Tarenturn,  in  order  to  obtain  posses- 
 sion of  the  territory  which  formerly  belonged  to  Siris. 
 (Strabo,  264.)  In  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  Thu- 
 rians  arc  mentioned  as  allied  lo  the  Athenians,  and  as 
 furnishing  them  with  some  few  ships  and  men  for  iheii 
 Sicilian  expedition.     {Thucyd.,  7,  35.)     Subsequent- 
 
THY 
 
 TIB 
 
 ly,  the  attacks  of  the  Lucani,  from  whom  they  sus- 
 tained a  severe  defeat,  and,  at  a  still  later  period,  the 
 enmity  of  the  Tarentines,  so  reduced  the  power  and 
 prosperity  of  the  Thurians,  that  ihey  were  compelled 
 to  seek  the  aid  of  Rome,  which  was  thus  involved  in 
 a  war  with  Tarentum.  About  eighty-eight  years  af- 
 terward, ITiurii,  being  nearly  deserted,  received  a  Ro- 
 man colony,  and  took  the  name  of  Copia.  {Slrab., 
 203. — Liv  ,  35,  9.)  Caesar,  however,  calls  it  Thurii, 
 and  designates  it  a  municipal  town.  {Bell.  Civ.,  3, 
 22.)  The  remains  of  ancient  Thurii  must  be  placed 
 between  the  site  of  ancient  Sybans  and  Terra  Nova. 
 (Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  359.) 
 
 ThurLsus,  a  name  given  to  Augustus  when  he  was 
 young,  either  because  some  of  his  progenitors  were 
 natives  of  Thurii,  or  because  his  father  Oclavius  had 
 been  successful  in  some  military  operations  near  Thu- 
 rii a  short  time  after  the  birth  of  Augustus.  {Sue- 
 ton.,  Vu.  Aug.,  7. — Consult  Oudendorp,  ad  loc.) 
 
 Thvamis,  I.  a  river  of  Epinis,  anciently  dividing 
 Thresprotia  from  the  district  of  Cestriiie.  {Thucyd., 
 1,  46.)  The  historian  Phylarchus,  as  Atheiiajus  re- 
 ports (3,  3),  afTirmed  that  the  Egyptian  bean  was  never 
 known  to  grow  out  of  Egypt  except  in  a  marsh  close 
 to  this  river,  and  then  only  for  a  short  period. — It  ap- 
 pears from  Cicero  that  Alticiis  had  an  estate  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Thyamis.  {Ad.  Att.,  7,  7.  —  Compare 
 Pausan.,  1,  II.)  The  modern  name  of  this  stream  is 
 the  Calama.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  108.) 
 — II.  A  promotory  of  Epirus,  near  the  river  of  the 
 same  name,  now  Cape  Nissi. 
 
 TnvATiRA  (ra  BvaTElpa),  a  city  of  Lydia,  near  the 
 northern  confines,  situate  on  the  small  river  Eycus, 
 not  far  from  its  source.  According  to  Pliny  (5,  29), 
 its  original  name  was  Pelopia ;  and  Strabo  (625)  makes 
 it  to  have  been  founded  by  a  colony  of  Macedonians. 
 It  was  enlarged  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  was  select- 
 ed as  a  place  of  arms  by  Andronicus,  who  declared 
 himself  heir  to  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus  after  the 
 death  of  Aitalus.  Thyatira,  according  to  Strabo,  be- 
 longed originally  to  Mysia  ;  from  the  time  of  Pliny, 
 however,  we  find  it  ascribed  to  Lydia.  Its  ruins  are 
 now  called  Ak-Hisar,  or  the  white  castle.  This  was 
 one  of  the  churches  mentioned  in  the  Revelations. — 
 For  an  interesting  account  of  the  church  in  Thyatira, 
 consult  Milncr's  History  of  the  Seven  Churches  of 
 Asia,  p.  277,  seqq  ,  Land.,  1832. 
 
 Thvestes,  a  son  of  Pelops  and  Hippodamia,  and 
 grandson  of  Tantalus ;  for  the  legend  relating  to  whom, 
 consult  the  article  Atreus. 
 
 Thvmbra.  a  plain  in  Troas,  through  which  a  small 
 river,  called  Thymbrius,  flows  in  its  course  to  the 
 Scamander.  According  to  some,  the  river  Thymbrius 
 is  now  the  Kamar-sou.  {Cramer'' s  Asia  Minor,  vol. 
 1,  p.  102.)  Apollo  had  a  temple  here,  whence  he 
 was  surnamed  Thi/mbrcBus.  {II.,  10,  430. —  Virff., 
 JEn.,  3,  85. — Eurip.,  Rhcs.,  224.)  It  was  in  this 
 temple  that  Achilles  is  said  to  have  been  mortally 
 wounded  by  Paris.  {Eustath.  ad  II.,  10,  433. — 
 Serv.  ad  .En  ,  L  c.) 
 
 Thymbrius,  a  surname  of  Apollo.  {Vid.  Thym- 
 bra) 
 
 Thvmcetes,  I.  a  king  of  Athens,  son  of  Oxinthas, 
 the  last  of  the  descendants  of  Theseus  who  reigned 
 at  Athens.  He  was  deposed  because  he  refused  to 
 meet  Xanthus,  the  Boeotian  monarch,  in  single  com- 
 bat. Melanthus  the  Messenian  acce|)ted  the  challenge, 
 slew  Xanthus,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  kingdom  of 
 Attica.  {Vid.  Melanthus.) — II.  A  Trojan  prince, 
 whose  wife  and  son  were  put  to  death  by  order  of 
 Priam.  {Tzetz.  ad  Lycnphr.,  224. — Burmann,  ad 
 Virec  ,  Mn  ,  2,  32  )  He  is  said,  on  this  account,  to 
 have  used  his  best  endeavours  to  [icrsuade  his  coun- 
 trymen to  admit  the  wooden  horse  within  their  walls. 
 (,Virg.,Mn.,  2,  32. — Scrvius  ad  JEn.,  I.  c.)— III.  A 
 80n  of  Hicetaon,  who  accompanied  £neas  into  Italy, 
 8G 
 
 and  was  killed  by  Turnus.     {Virg.,  Mn.,  10,  123. — 
 Id.  lb.,  12,  364.) 
 
 Thyni,  a  people  of  Bithynia.     {Vid.  Bithynia.) 
 
 Thyonk,  a  name  given-  to  Semele  after  she  had 
 been  translated  to  the  skies.  The  appellation  comes 
 either  from  i^i'w,  to  sacrifice,  or  •&vu,  '■'■to  rage,  to  be 
 agitated."  The  latter  is  the  more  probable  deriva- 
 tion. {Apollod.,  3,  5,  ^.—Dwd.  Sic.,  ^,2b.—Heyne 
 ad  Apollod.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Thyoneus  (three  syllables),  a  surname  of  Bacchus, 
 from  his  mother  Semele,  who  was  called  Thyone. 
 {Vid.  Thyone.) 
 
 Thvrea,  the  principal  town  of  Cynuria,  in  Argolis, 
 near  which  the  celebrated  battle  was  fought  between 
 the  Spartans  and  an  equal  number  of  Argives.  {Vid. 
 Othryades.)  It  was  piobably  situate  not  far  from  the 
 modern  town  of  Astro.  {Herod.,  1,  82.) — The  Spar- 
 tans established  the  ^^^ginetae  here  upon  the  expulsion 
 of  that  people  from  their  island  by  the  Athenians. 
 {Thucyd,  2,  27.)  During  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
 however,  the  latter,  having  landed  on  the  Cynurian 
 coast,  captured  the  town,  and,  setting  it  on  fire,  carried 
 off  all  the  inhabitants.  {Id.,  4,  56. — Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  235.) 
 
 Thyrsagette,  a  people  of  Sarmatia,  who  lived  by 
 hunting.  Herodotus  makes  the  Tana'is  rise  in  their 
 territory. — II.  or  Thyssageta;,  a  nation  of  European 
 Sarmatia,  dwelling  on  the  banks  of  the  Tana'is,  where 
 the  same  river  approaches  nearest  to  the  Wolga,  and 
 in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lyrcae.  {Hardomn  ad 
 Plin.,  6,  7.) 
 
 Tiberias,  a  town  of  Galilee,  built  by  Herod  Agrip- 
 pa,  and  named  in  honour  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius. 
 It  was  situate  on  the  western  shore,  and  near  the 
 southern  extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  This  piece 
 of  water  or  lake  was  previously  called  by  the  name  of 
 Gennesareth,  from  a  pleasant  district  called  Gennesar, 
 at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  lake.  Tiberias  was 
 taken  and  destroyed  by  Vespasian  ;  but,  after  the  fall 
 of  Jerusalem,  it  gradually  rose  again  into  notice.  It  is 
 often  mentioned  by  the  Jewish  writers,  because,  after 
 the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  there  was  at  Tiberias  a  suc- 
 cession of  Hebrew  judges  and  doctors  till  the  fourth 
 century.  Epiphanius  says  that  a  Hebrew  translation 
 of  St.  John  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  was  kept  in 
 this  city.  {Joseph,  Ant.  Jud.,  18,  3. — Id,  Bell. 
 Jud.,  2,  8. — Id.  ibid.,  3,  16.)  The  modern  name  is 
 Tabaria. 
 
 Tiberinus,  son  of  Capctus  and  king  of  Alba,  was 
 drowned  in  the  river  Albula,  which  on  that  account 
 assumed  his  name,  and  was  called  Tibcris.  {Liv.,  I, 
 2.  —  C1C.,  N.  D.,  2,  20.—  Vairo,  de  L.  L.,  4,  5,  &c. 
 —Ovid,  Fast.,  2,  389  ;  4,  47.) 
 
 TiBERis,  TvBERis,  Tyber,  Or  TiBRis,  a  river  of 
 Italy,  on  whose  banks  the  city  of  Rome  was  built.  It 
 is  said  to  have  been  originally  called  Albula,  from  the 
 whiteness  of  its  waters,  and  afterward  Tiberis  when 
 Tiberinus,  king  of  Alba,  had  been  drowned  there ;  but 
 it  is  probable  that  Albula  was  the  Latin  name  of  the 
 river,  and  Tibcns  or  Tibris  the  Tuscan  one.  Varro 
 informs  us  that  a  prince  of  the  Veientes.  named  Dtke- 
 bris,  gave  his  name  to  the  stream,  and  that  out  of  this 
 grew  m  time  the  appellations  Tiberis  and  Tibris.  It 
 is  often  called  by  the  Greeks  Thymbris  (6  ©v/xfipif). 
 — With  respect  to  its  source,  Phny  informs  us  (3,  5) 
 that  it  rises  in  the  Apennines  above  .Arretium.  and 
 that  it  is  joined,  during  a  course  of  nearly  one  hundred 
 and  fifty  miles,  by  upward  of  forty  tributary  streams. 
 The  Tiber  was  capable  of  receiving  vessels  of  consid- 
 erable burden  at  Rome,  and  small  boats  to  within  a 
 short  distance  of  its  source.  {Dion.  Hal ,  3,  44. — 
 Slrab.,  218.)  Virgil  is  the  only  author  who  applies 
 the  epithet  of  ccerulcan  to  the  waters  of  the  Tiber 
 (Mn.,  8,  62.)  That  of  flavus,  "yellow,"  is  weh 
 known  to  be  much  more  general.  {Or id,  Trist.,  5, 
 1. — Horat.,  Od.,  1,  2, 13.)     This  stream  is  also  called 
 
 133? 
 
TIB 
 
 TIBERIUS. 
 
 Tyrrhcnus  annis,  "  the  Tuscan  river,"  from  its  wa- 
 teritifT  Etriiria  on  one  side  in  its  course,  and  also  Lt/cI- 
 ius,  "  the  Lydian"  stream  or  Tiber,  on  account  of  the 
 popular  tradition  which  traced  the  arts  and  civiHzation 
 of  Etruria  to  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor.  {Vid  lletruria  ) 
 TiBKRius,  Claudius  Dkusus  Nero,  a  Roman  em- 
 peror, born  B.C.  42.  He  was  the  son  of  a  father  of 
 the  same  name,  of  the  ancient  Claudian  family,  and  of 
 Livia  Drusilla,  afterward  the  celebrated  wife  of  Au- 
 gustus. Rapidly  raised  to  authority  by  the  influence 
 of  his  mother,  he  displayed  no  inconsiderable  ability  in 
 an  e.^ijcdition  against  certain  revolted  Alpine  tribes,  in 
 consequence  of  which  he  was  raised  to  the  consulship 
 in  his  twenty-eighth  year.  On  the  death  of  Agrippa, 
 the  gravity  and  austerity  of  Tiberius  having  gained  the 
 emperor's  confidence,  he  chose  him  to  supply  the  place 
 of  that  minister,  obliging  him,  at  the  same  time,  to  di- 
 vorce Vipsania,  the  daughter  of  Agrippa,  and  wed  Ju- 
 lia, the  daughter  of  Augustus,  whose  flagitious  conduct 
 at  length  so  disgusted  him  that  he  retired  in  a  private 
 capacity  to  the  isle  of  Rhodes.  After  experiencing 
 much  discountenance  from  Augustus,  the  deaths  of 
 the  two  (ysesars,  Caius  and  Lucius,  induced  the  em- 
 peror to  take  him  again  into  favour  and  adopt  him 
 During  the  remainder  of  the  life  of  Augustus  he  be- 
 haved with  great  prudence  and  ability,  concluding  a 
 war  with  the  Germans  in  such  a  manner  as  to  merit  a 
 trium|)h.  On  the  death  of  Augustus  he  succeeded 
 without  opposition  to  the  empire. — The  first  act  of  the 
 new  reign  was  the  murder  of  young  Postumus  Agrip- 
 pa, the  only  surviving  son  of  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa, 
 and  whom  Augustus  had  banished  during  his  lifetime 
 to  the  island  ot  Planasia.  From  his  bodily  strength, 
 although  taken  by  surprise  and  defenceless,  he  was 
 with  difficulty  overcome  by  the  centurion  employed. 
 Like  Elizabeth  of  England,  Tiberius  disavowed  his 
 own  order.  Surmise  hesitated  between  himself  and 
 I^ivia;  and  an  incredible  prete.>:t  was  set  up  of  a  com- 
 mand of  the  late  emperor  to  the  tribune  who  had  the 
 custody  of  the  youth,  that  he  was  not  to  be  suffered  to 
 survive  him.  While  Tiberius  proceeded  immediately 
 to  the  actual  exercise  of  several  of  the  imperial  func- 
 tions, such  as  delivering  their  standard  to  the  prseto- 
 rian  guard,  having  them  in  attendance  on  his  person, 
 and  despatching  letters  to  the  armies  to  announce  his 
 accession,  he  affected  to  depend  on  the  pleasure  of 
 the  senate,  and  to  consider  himself  unequal  to  the 
 weight  of  the  whole  empire.  In  the  confused,  dila- 
 tory, and  ambiguous  mode  of  his  expressing,  or  rather 
 hinting,  his  sentiments,  wliich  he  often  designed  to 
 be  understood  in  a  contrary  sense  to  what  they  seemed 
 to  bear,  he  strongly  resembled  Cromwell. — The  ser- 
 vility of  the  senate  ran  before  his  ambition.  They 
 had  afterward  leisure  for  repentance.  Tiberius  soon 
 began  to  practise  the  dark,  crooked,  and  sanguinary 
 policy  which  marks  the  jealousy,  distrust,  and  terror 
 of  a  conscious  and  suspicious  tyrant.  Those  who  had 
 formerly  offended  him,  as  Asinius  Gallus,  who  had 
 married  his  divorced  wife  Vipsania,  and  even  those 
 who  had  been  pointed  out  by  Augustus  as  men  likely, 
 by  their  talents  or  aspiring  minds,  to  supply  princes  to 
 the  empire,  should  the  road  be  open  lo  them,  were 
 watched,  circumvented,  immured,  and  destroyed.  The 
 law  of  high  treason  was  made  an  instrument  of  pun- 
 ishing, not  actions  merely,  but  looks,  words,  and  ges- 
 tures, which  were  construed  as  offences  against  the 
 majesty  of  the  prince.  A  spy-system  was  organized, 
 which  embraced  informers  and  agitators  of  plots,  who, 
 while  they  enriched  themselves,  brought  money  to  the 
 treasury  ;  and  as  a  man's  slaves,  and  the  guests  at  his 
 table,  might  themselves  be  secret  pensioners  of  this 
 new  police  of  inspection,  social  confidence  and  domes- 
 tic security  were  at  once  destroyed.  Those  who 
 were  suspected  were  presumed  to  be  guilty  ;  judges 
 were  easily  found  to  condemn  them  ;  and  confisca- 
 tions and  executions  succeeded  each  other.  —  The 
 133S 
 
 share  which  the  people  had  retained  of  the  right  of 
 election  was  entirely  taken  from  them ;  the  nomina- 
 tion of  the  consuls  assumed  by  the  emperor ;  and  the 
 choice  of  the  other  magistrates,  though  ostensibly  re 
 ferred  to  the  senate,  determined  really  by  himself.- 
 While  Tiberius,  by  abolishing  the  comitia  or  assem- 
 blies, swept  away  the  last  vestige  of  popular  liberty, 
 and  while  he  weakened  the  internal  strength  of  the 
 empire  by  shedding  the  best  blood  of  Rome,  and  cre- 
 ating around  him  the  solitude  of  death,  he  sacrificed 
 her  external  glory  to  the  same  sleepless  and  devour- 
 ing jealousy.  This  sentiment  was  not  excited  by 
 those  only  who  were  aliens  from  his  name,  for  those 
 connected  with  him  by  the  nearest  ties  were  the 
 objects  of  his  most  feverish  dread  and  his  most  im- 
 placable malice.  His  own  mother,  who  had  sullied 
 herself  with  crime  to  secure  his  elevation,  was  the 
 first  to  attract  his  gloomy  envy  ;  which  was  awa- 
 kened by  her  having  been  named  in  the  will  of  Au- 
 gustus as  co-heiress  with  himself,  and  adopted  into 
 the  Julian  family  by  the  name  of  Julia  Augusta  ;  and 
 by  the  flatteries  of  the  senate,  who  bestowed  on 
 Livia  the  surname  of  Mother  of  the  Country,  and 
 who  received  from  Tiberius  the  reproof,  that  "  mod- 
 erate honours  were  suitable  to  women."  His  forbid- 
 ding her  the  state  of  a  lictor  to  walk  before  her,  and 
 his  irritation  on  her  addressing  the  soldiery  to  animate 
 their  exertions,  in  extinguishing  a  fire,  may  be  traced 
 to  the  same  feeling.  That  another  should  divide  with 
 him  the  attributes  of  sovereignty  was  intolerable  to  his 
 mind;  but  he  was  equally  unable  to  endure  that  an- 
 other should  be  popular  in  the  city  or  successful  in  the 
 rield  ;  and  in  his  son  and  his  nephew  he  beheld  only 
 presumptuous  rivals  of  his  own  past  renown  in  arms, 
 supplanters  of  his  power,  and  pretenders  to  his  throne. 
 Weighed  against  this  sentiment  of  egotism,  the  secu- 
 rity of  the  empire  and  the  glory  of  the  Roman  eagles 
 were  as  dust  in  the  balance.  Resting  on  his  former 
 laurels,  he  no  longer  led  the  armies  in  person,  but  sub- 
 stituted for  open  war  the  cunning  of  a  mean,  perfid- 
 ious policy.  It  was  thus  that  he  detained  in  his  do- 
 minions, after  inviting  them  with  the  fair  words  of  a 
 specious  hospitality,  Marboduus,  king  of  the  Suevi,  and 
 Archelaus,  king  of  Cappadocia,  whose  kingdom  was 
 reduced  to  a  Roman  province  ;  and  in  the  latter  part 
 of  his  life  he  fell  into  a  total  apathy  and  indiff'erence 
 respecting  the  state  of  the  legions  or  of  the  foreign 
 departments  :  left  Spain  and  Syria  for  several  years 
 without  governors,  and  allowed  Armenia  to  be  overrun 
 by  the  Dacians,  and  Gaul  by  the  neighbouring  Ger- 
 mans. But  the  ancient  fame  of  the  Roman  discipline 
 and  valour  was  supported  in  the  beginning  of  his 
 reign  by  the  second  Drusus  and  Germanicus,  whom 
 he  therefore  envied,  detested,  and  destroyed. — By 
 both  the  son  and  the  nephew,  the  most  essential  and 
 faithful  services  were  rendered  to  Tiberius  before  his 
 authority  could  well  be  said  to  be  established.  The 
 Roman  legions  in  Pannonia,  either  discontented  with 
 their  stipend,  or  making  that  a  pretence  for  exjiressing 
 their  dissatisfaction  with  the  person  of  the  new  emper- 
 or, raised  a  mutiny,  which  Drusus  suppressed.  The 
 same  part  was  acted  by  the  legions  in  Lower  Germany, 
 whom  Germanicus  harangued  from  the  camp  tribunal ; 
 and  on  their  persisting  to  choose  him  emperor,  pointed 
 a  sword  at  his  breast,  with  the  exclamation  that  "  he 
 had  rather  die  than  forfeit  his  fidelity."  A  soldier  au- 
 daciously offered  him  another  sword,  telling  him  that 
 "  it  was  sharper  :"  his  person  was  in  danger,  and  he 
 was  carried  to  his  tent  by  his  friends  ;  but,  determining 
 on  the  expedient  of  awakening  the  shame  of  the 
 troops  by  expressing  his  distrust  of  their  attachment 
 and  honour,  he  sent  his  wife  Agrippina,  the  grand- 
 daughter of  Augustus,  from  the  camp,  which  she  pass- 
 ed throutrh,  accompanied  by  her  infant  son  Caius,  and 
 a  retinue  of  weeping  ladies.  The  soldiers,  struck  with 
 compunction,  crowded  around  her,  imploring  'icr  le- 
 
TIBERIUS. 
 
 TIBERIUS 
 
 turn,  made  their  submission,  and  demanded  to  be  led 
 against  line  enemy.  Gennanicus  carried  devastation 
 into  the  fields  and  cities  of  tiie  Marsi,  the  Usipetes, 
 and  the  Calti,  whom  he  everywhere  overthrew  ;  re- 
 covered the  standard  of  Varus,  and,  coming  to  a  spot 
 in  the  woods  where  the  mouldering  trenches  of  his 
 carnp  were  still  visible,  and  the  ground  strewn  with 
 the  whitened  bones  of  his  followers,  collected  them 
 with  funeral  honours.  Arminius,  however,  at  the  head 
 of  l!ie  Cherusci,  by  retiring  into  the  forests,  posting 
 ambuscades,  and  inveigling  the  Romans  into  woody 
 and  marshy  defiles,  gained  some  advantages  over  the 
 Caesar  himself,  as  well  as  his  lieutenant  Ca;cina,  though 
 they  were  retrieved  by  extraordinary  efions  of  cour- 
 age. Agrippina  displayed  a  high  spirit,  and  the  most 
 active  devotion  to  the  service  of  the  troo[)s,  not  only 
 tending  the  wounded,  but  preventing,  by  her  intrepid- 
 ity, the  breaking  of  a  bridge  on  the  Rhine,  on  a  ru- 
 mour of  the  advance  of  the  Germans.  Her  conduct 
 in  these  circumstances,  as  well  as  her  previous  share 
 in  the  suppression  of  the  mutiny,  and  even  the  fondling 
 name  of  Caligula,  bestowed  by  the  camp  on  her  young 
 son,  from  the  circumstance  of  his  wearing  the  nailed 
 buskin  of  the  legionary  soldiers,  were  each  a  source  of 
 deep  suspicion  and  long-concealed  resentment  in  the 
 breast  of  Tiberius,  which  were  fostered  by  the  arts  of 
 insinuation  familiar  to  his  worthless  minister  Sejanus. 
 — The  appearance  of  commotions  in  the  East,  vshere 
 Vonones,  the  king  set  over  Parthia  by  the  Romans, 
 had  been  expelled  by  Artabanus,  and  had  taken  refuge 
 in  .\rtiienia,  afforded  a  pretext  to  the  emperor  for  the 
 recall  of  the  Caesar  from  the  command  of  the  legions  in 
 Germany.  Obeying  the  mandate  with  dilatory  haste, 
 Gennanicus  signalized  his  departure  by  a  final  cam- 
 paign with  the  Cherusci,  whom  ho  attacked  on  the 
 Weser,  and,  surrounding  their  rear  and  flanks  with  his 
 cavalry,  defeated  with  prodigious  slaughter  (.\.C.  16); 
 Arminius  himself  owing  his  escape  to  the  tieetness  of 
 his  horse  and  the  concealment  of  his  visage,  which 
 was  bathed  in  blood.  After  pushing  his  success  as 
 far  as  the  Elbe,  and  sending  to  Rome  the  spoils  and 
 captives  of  his  victories,  and  the  painted  representa- 
 tions of  the  rivers,  mountains,  and  battles,  Germani- 
 cus,  as  a  mark  of  dissembled  favour,  was  chosen  by 
 Tiberius  his  colleague  in  the  consulate  ;  and  the  prov- 
 ince of  Syria  was  assigned  to  him  by  a  decree  of  the 
 senate.  But,  previously  to  this  appointment,  his  kins- 
 man Silanus  had  been  removed  from  the  Syrian  pre- 
 fecture, and  Cneus  Piso,  a  man  of  a  violent  disposi- 
 tion, substituted  in  his  room. — After  agreeing  to  a 
 treaty  with  Artabanus,  by  virtue  of  which  Vonones 
 was  made  to  retire  into  Cilicia,  and  after  placing  Zo- 
 nones  on  the  throne  of  Armenia,  Gennanicus  set  out 
 on  a  tour  of  curiosity  and  science  to  Egvpt,  where  he 
 sailed  up  the  Nile  and  inspected  the  ruins  of  Thebes, 
 the  Pyramids,  and  the  statue  of  Mcmnon,  which  emit- 
 ted a  sound  when  touched  by  the  rays  of  the  rising 
 sun.  Returning  from  Egypt,  and  finding  that  Piso 
 had  reversed  many  of  his  orders,  he  issued  a  mandate 
 for  him  lo  quit  the  province,  and  enforced  it,  on  being 
 detained  at  .\ntioch  by  an  illness,  which  he  sus|)ected 
 had  been  produced  by  poison.  After  urging  on  Agrip- 
 pina resignation  and  an  absence  from  Rome,  an  advice 
 which  licr  [iroud  courage  forbade  her  to  follow,  he  e.\- 
 pirfd  at  a  little  more  than  thirty  years  of  age  (.■X.C. 
 19). — .\ftcr  his  body  had  been  burned  in  the  forum  of 
 Aniioch,  Agrippina  went  on  board  a  vessel  and  sailed 
 for  Italy.  She  landed  at  Brundisium  amid  the  min- 
 gled sobs  and  tears  of  women  and  men,  and  advanced 
 slowly,  with  downcast  eyes,  attended  by  two  of  her 
 children,  and  bearing  in  her  arms  the  urn  which  con- 
 tained the  ashes  of  her  husband.  The  pra;torian 
 bands  sent  to  escort  the  remains  were  followed  by  the 
 whole  senate  and  innumerable  people,  who  beset  the 
 roads,  and  with  audible  condolence  and  sympathy  at- 
 tended her  to  the  city.     The  emperor  and  Livia  for- 
 
 bore to  show  themselves  in  public.  The  people  wrote 
 on  the  walls  of  the  palace,  "Restore  Germanicus." 
 Piso  and  his  wife  Plancina  entered  Rome  amid  the 
 popular  indignation,  which  was  increased  by  the  festiv- 
 ity apparent  in  their  house,  which  was  situated  near 
 the  forum.  Piso,  however,  was  accused  of  treason  by 
 Fulcinius  ;  was  neglected  by  Tiberius,  who,  affecting 
 the  coolest  impartiality,  referred  the  cause  lo  the  sen- 
 ate ;  and  stabbed  himself  in  prison.  His  wife,  who  had 
 also  deserted  him,  enjoyed  afterward  the  favour  of  Liv- 
 ia and  the  emperor,  to  whom  she  was  useful  in  calum- 
 niating Agrippina  ;  but  was  at  last  herself  exposed  to 
 criminal  accusations,  and  died  also  by  her  own  hand. 
 — The  widow  of  Germanicus  remained  ai  Rome,  and 
 persisted  with  a  lofty  determination  to  assert  her 
 rights.  On  her  cousin  Claudia  Pulchra  being  accused 
 of  nuptial  infidelity  and  treason,  she  sought  an  audi- 
 ence, and,  finding  the  emperor  sacrificing  at  the  altar 
 of  Augustus,  reproached  him  with  ilie  inconsistency 
 of  persecuting  the  Augustan  posterity,  to  which  he  re- 
 plied by  catching  her  hand,  and  quoting  a  line  from  a 
 Greek  tragedy : 
 
 "  Child  !  if  thou  canst  not  reign,  deerri'st  it  a  icrongV 
 
 He  contrived  an  excuse  for  not  inviting  her  to  his  ta- 
 ble by  having  it  suggested  that  some  apples  were  poi- 
 soned, and  then  resenting  her  suspicions  when  she  de- 
 clined to  accept  them  from  his  hand  ;   and  at  last,  on 
 the  plea  that  she  had  threatened  lo  appeal  to  the  army, 
 and  to  take  sanctuary  at  the  statue  of  Augustus,  he 
 banished  her  to  the  isle  of  Pandataria.     On  this,  she 
 addressed  him  with  spirited  reproaches,  when  the  das- 
 tardly tyrant  had  one  of  her  eyes  thrust  out  with  rods 
 by  the  hand  of  a  centurion.     Agrippina  resolved  to  put 
 an  end  to  her  life  by  abstinence  from  food  (A.C.  26). 
 Viands  were  forced   into  her  mouth  by  the  emperor's 
 order,  but  his  fear  or  his  malice  was  disappointed  by 
 her  unconquerable  resolution.     In  the  senate  he  mag- 
 nified his  own  clemency  in  not  having  sentenced  the 
 wife  of  Germanicus  to  be  strangled  in   the  dungeon, 
 exposed  like  a  felon  on  the  prison  steps,  and  dragged 
 by  a  hook  iiuo  the  Tiber.     Drusus,  the  surviving  heir, 
 and  the  son  of  'J'lbcrius  by  .Agrippina  Vipsania,  who 
 had   been  decreed  a  triumph  for  his  services  in  Illyri- 
 cum   and  in  Germany,  and   had    been   admitted  to  a 
 share  of  the  tnbunician  power,  was  poisoned  by  Seja- 
 nus (A.C.  23),  who  had  long  cherished  a  sentiment  of 
 revenge  for  a  blow  received  from  Drusus,  and  had  cor- 
 rupted his  wife  Livia.     The  emperor  entered  the  sen- 
 ate-house with  an  air  of  indifference  before  the  body 
 was  interred,  and  shortened  the  time  of  public  mourn- 
 ing, directing  the  shops  to  be  opened  as  usual.     His 
 own  mother,  Livia  Augusta,  afforded  him,  by  her  death 
 (.\.C.  29),  a  similar  occasion  of  evincing  his  superiority 
 to  the  feelings  of  human  nature ;  as  he  not  only  ab- 
 sented  himself  from  her  sick-bed,  but,  on  a  pretence 
 of  modesty,  curtailed  the  funeral  honours  decreed  to 
 her  by  the  senate. — The  deadly  favour  of  Tiberius  was 
 next  extended   to  tlie  eldest  sons  of  Germanicus  and 
 Agrippina,  who  were  adopted  as  heirs,  as  jf  in  atone- 
 ment for  the  savage  injuries  committed  on  tticir  admi- 
 rable parents.     But,  as  adopted  princes,  vows  for  their 
 health  and  safety  were  ofTered  up  by  the  pontiffs ;  and 
 this  proved  the  signal  of  informations  of  treason,  the 
 usual  prelude  of  the  emperor's  judicial  murders.     They 
 were  accused  of  having  aspersed  his  character,  and  the 
 accusation  was  followed  by  the  sentence  and  its  exe- 
 cution.    Nero  was  starved  to  death  in  the  isle  of  Pon- 
 lia,  and  Drusus  in  a  secret  chamber  of  the  palace. — 
 The  daughters  of  Germanicus  were  spared  by  the  ty- 
 rant, and  disposed  of  in  marriage  :  Agrippina  lo  Cneus 
 Domitius,  the  grand.^on  of  Octavia,  sister  of  .Augustus; 
 Drusilla  to  Lucius  Cassius  ;  and  Julia  to  Marcus  Vi- 
 nicius. — The  presumptive  heirs  of  the  imperial  family 
 being  removed,  Sejanus  thought  the  empire  within  his 
 grasp.     On  pretence  of  discipline,  he  had  removed  the 
 
 1339 
 
TIB 
 
 TIB 
 
 prsBtorian  bands,  of  which  he  was  prefect,  to  a  fortified 
 camp  without  the  city,  between  the  Viminal  and  Es- 
 quiline  gates  ;  in  the  senate  he  secured  to  himself 
 partisans  by  the  distribution  of  provinces  and  honours, 
 and  gained  entire  ascendancy  over  the  emperor  by  re- 
 lieving him  of  the  labours  of  state  as  well  as  admin- 
 istenng  to  his  luxury  ;  by  studying  his  humours,  and 
 breathing  into  his  ear  the  whispers  of  a  state  iiifornier. 
 A  dissembler  to  all  others,  'i'lberius  was  open  to  Se- 
 janus  ;  and  easily  yielding  to  him  entire  and  unsuspi- 
 cious confidence,  was  persuaded  to  withdraw  from  the 
 cares  of  state.  The  plot  was  detected,  and  Antonia, 
 the  mother  of  Germanicus,  was  the  accuser  of  Seja- 
 nus.  Impeached  by  letters  from  the  emperor,  con- 
 demned by  the  senate,  and  deserted  by  the  prjetorian 
 guards,  he  was  strangled  by  the  public  executioner, 
 and  his  body  was  torn  piecemeal  by  the  populace 
 (A.D.  31).  The  vengeance  of  Tiberius  pursued  his 
 friends  and  adherents,  and  even  wreaked  its  rage  on 
 the  innocent  childhood  of  his  son  and  his  daughter. 
 — Tiberius  continued  to  hide  himself  from  the  gaze 
 of  Rome  and  from  the  light  of  day,  among  the  groves 
 and  grottoes  of  the  island  of  Caprese,  which  he  peo- 
 pled with  the  partners  of  his  impure  orgies,  dress- 
 ed in  fantastic  disguises  of  wood-nymphs  and  satyrs. 
 But  the  time  approached  when  the  world  was  to  be 
 rid  of  this  monster  of  his  species.  His  sick-bed  was 
 attended  by  that  Caligula,  the  only  surviving  son  of 
 Germanicus,  whose  cunning  had  baffled  the  insidi- 
 ousness  of  his  agitators  of  treason,  and  whose  obse- 
 quiousness imposed  upon  himself;  but  who  had  not 
 been  always  able  to  elude  his  penetration,  and  of 
 whom,  when  his  life  was  begged,  which  had  been 
 three  times  threatened,  he  had  predicted,  with  the  tact 
 of  a  connatural  mind,  that  "  Caius  would  prove  a  ser- 
 pent to  swallow  Rome,  and  a  Phaethon  to  set  the  world 
 on  fire."  For  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  the 
 lethargy  in  which  the  emperor  lay  was  actually  death, 
 Caius  approached  and  attempted  to  draw  the  ring  from 
 his  finger ;  it  resisted ;  and  on  the  l)old  suggestion  of 
 Macro,  the  new  praetorian  prefect,  pillows  were  press- 
 ed upon  him,  and  the  hand  of  her  son  avenged,  though 
 late,  the  manes  of  Agrippina  (A.D  31.  ao-ed  78). — 
 Tiberius  was  a  crafty  speaker,  was  literary,  addicted 
 to  astrology,  and,  like  Augustus,  apprehensive  of  thun- 
 der, as  a  preservative  against  which  he  wore  a  laurel 
 crown.  In  his  person  he  was  tall  and  robust,  broad  in 
 the  shoulders,  and  so  strong  in  the  muscles  that  he 
 could  bore  a  hard  apple  with  his  finger,  and  wound  the 
 scalp  of  a  boy  with  a  fillip.  His  face  was  fair  com- 
 plexioned,  and  would  have  been  handsome  if  it  had 
 not  been  disfigured  by  carbuncles,  for  which  he  used 
 cosmetics.  His  eyes  were  prodigiously  large,  and 
 could  discern  objects  in  the  dark.  He  wore  his  hair 
 long  in  the  neck,  contrary  to  the  Roman  usage  ;  walk- 
 ed erect,  with  a  stiff  neck  ;  seldom  accosted  any  one  ; 
 and,  when  he  spoke,  used  a  wave  of  the  hand  as  in 
 condescension. — The  news  of  the  tyrant's  death  was 
 received  at  Rome  with  popular  cries  of  "  Tiberius  to 
 the  Tiber!"  His  body  was,  however,  borne  to  the 
 city  by  the  soldiers,  and  burned  with  funeral  rites.  In 
 his  will,  Caius,  and  Tiberius  the  son  of  the  younger 
 Drusus,  were  named  as  his  heirs,  with  a  reversion  to 
 the  surviver.  (Sueton.,  Vit.  Tih.  —  Tacit.,  Ann.,  lib. 
 1,2.  3,  &c. — Ellon's  Roman  Emperors,  p.  47,  seqq.) 
 
 TiBiscus,  now  the  Tcisse,  a  river  of  Dacia,  called 
 also  Pathyssus,  falling  into  the  Danube,  and  forminor 
 the  western  limit  of  Dacia.  (Piin.,  4,  12. — Ammian. 
 MarceU.,  17.  3  ) — II.  (or  Tibiscum),  a  city  of  Dacia, 
 on  the  river  Teines,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Dan- 
 ube, and  near  the  junction  of  the  Bistra  with  the  for- 
 mer stream.  It  is  now  the  Cavaran.  {Bisckoffund  Hol- 
 ler, Worterb.  dcr  Gcoffr.,  p.  970.) 
 
 TiBRis.      Vtd.  Tibcris. 
 
 TiBur-A,  a  town  of  Sardinia,  on  the  northern  coast, 
 and  on  the  strait  which  separates  that  island  from  Cor- 
 1340 
 
 sica ;  hence  it  became  a  usual  landing-place.     It  is 
 now  Longo  Sardo.     {Ptol. — Ilin.  Ant.,  72.) 
 
 TiBULLUs,  AuLUs  ALBins,  a  Roman  knight,  cele- 
 brated for  his  poetical  compositions.  There  exists 
 some  doubt  resfiecting  the  period  of  his  birth.  Peirus 
 Crinitus  and  Lylius  Gyraldus,  the  ancient  but  inac- 
 curate biographers  of  the  Roman  poets,  relying  on  two 
 lines  erroneously  ascribed  to  TibuUus,  and  inserted 
 in  the  fifth  elegy  oi"  the  third  book, 
 
 Natalem  nnslri  primum  viderc  parcntes 
 Qiium  cccidit  fato  consul  uterque  pari, 
 
 had  maintained  that  he  was  born  A.U.C.  711,  in  which 
 year  the   two  consuls  Hirtius  and  Pansa  were  mortal- 
 ly wounded  at  the  battle  of  Mutina.     Julius  Scaliger 
 was  the  first  commentator  who   suspected  that  these 
 verses  were   interpolated,  and  his  opinion   has   been 
 confirmed  by  .lanus  Dousa,  who  has  shown,  at  great 
 length,  that  the  chronology  they  would  establish  could 
 by  no  means  be  reconciled  with  dates  which  must  be 
 assigned  to  various  events  in  the  life  of  the  poet.     He 
 conjectures  that   the  lines  which  had  occasioned  the 
 common  error  with  regard    to   the  birth  of  TibuUus 
 were  interpolated   in  his  elegies   from   the  works  of 
 Ovid,  in  whose   Tristia  they  occur  (4,  10).     Dousa 
 was  followed   by  Broukhusius  and  Vulpius,  who   all 
 seem  right  in  placing  the  birth  of  TibuUus  earlier  than 
 A.U.C.  711  ;  but  it  would  not  appear  that  they  had 
 adduced  sufficient  authority  for  carrying  it  quite  so  far 
 back  as  690,  which  they  have  fixed  on  for  the  epoch 
 of  his  birth.     It  appears  from  an  epigram  of  Doniitiua 
 Marsus,  a  contemporary  of  TibuUus,  that  he  ceased 
 to  live  about  the  same  time  with  Virgil.     But  Virgil 
 died  in  734,  and,  had  TibuUus  been  bom  so  early  as 
 690,  he  must  have  reached  the  age  of  forty-four  at  the 
 time  of  his  decease,  which  is  scarcely  consistent  with 
 the  premature  death  deplored  by  his  contemporaries, 
 or  the  epithet  Juvenis  applied  to  him  in  this  very  ep- 
 igram of  Domitius  Marsus.     On  the  whole,  his  birth 
 may  be  safely  conjectured  to  have  occurred  between 
 A.U.C.  695  and  700.     It  has  been  remarked,  that  few 
 of  the  great  Latin  poets,  orators,  or  historians  were 
 born  at  Rome,  and  that,  if  the  capital  had  always  con- 
 fined the  distinction  of  Romans  to  the  ancient  families 
 within  the  walls,  her  name  would  have  been  deprived 
 of  some  of  its  noblest  ornaments.     TibuUus,  however, 
 is  one  of  the  exceptions,  as  his  birth,  in  whatever  year 
 it  may  have  happened,  unquestionably  took  place  in 
 the  capital.     He  was  descended  of  an  equestrian  fam- 
 ily of  considerable  wealth  and  possessions,  though  little 
 known  or  mentioned   in  the   history  of  their  country. 
 His  father  had  been  engaged  on  the  side  of  Pompey 
 in  the  civil  wars,  and  died  soon  after  Casar  had  finally 
 triumphed  over  the  liberties  of  Rome.     It  is  said,  but 
 without  any  sufficient  authority,  that  Tilmllus  himself 
 was  present  at  Philippi,  along  with  his  friend  Messala, 
 in  the  ranks  of  the   republican  army.     He  retired  in 
 early  life  to  his  paternal  villa  near  Pedum.     In  his 
 youth  he  had  tasted  the  sweets  of  affluence  and   for- 
 tune, but  the  ample  patrimony  he  had  inherited   from 
 his  ancestors  was  greatly  diminished  by  the  partitions 
 of  land  made  to  the  soldiery  of  the  triumvirs.     Dacier 
 and   other  French  critics  have  alleged    that  he  was 
 ruined  by  his  own  dissipation  and  extravagance,  which 
 has    been   denied   by  Vulpius  and   Broukhusius,   the 
 learned  editors  and  commentators  of  TibuUus,  with 
 the  same  eagierness  as  if  their  own  fame  and   fortune 
 depended  upon   the  question.      The  partition  of  the 
 lands  in  Italy  was  probablv  the  chief  cause  of  his  in- 
 digence ;   but  it  is  not  unlikely  that  his  own  extrava- 
 gance may  have  contributed  to  his  early  difficulties. 
 He  utters  his  complaints  of  the  venality  of  his  mis- 
 tresses and  favourites   in  terms  which  show  that  he 
 had  already  suflTered  from  their  rapacity.     Neverthe- 
 less, he  expresses  himself  as  if  prepared  to  part  with 
 everything  to  gratify  their  cupidity.     It  seems  probable 
 
TIBULLUS. 
 
 that  no  part  of  the  land  of  which  Tibullus  had  been 
 deprived  was  restored  to  him,  as  we  find  not  in  his  el- 
 egies a  sint'le  expression  of  gratitude  or  compliment, 
 from  which  it  might  be  conjectured  that  Augustus  had 
 atoned  to  him  for  the  wrongs  of  Octavius.  It  is  evi- 
 dent, however,  that  he  was  not  reduced  to  extreme 
 want.  It  might  even  be  inferred,  from  a  distich  in  one 
 of  his  elegies  (2,  4),  that  his  chief  paternal  seat  had 
 been  preserved  to  him  : 
 
 "  Qiiinctiam  scdes  jubcat  si  vcndere  avilas 
 lie  sub  tmpcnum,  sub  titidumquc,  Lares." 
 
 Horace,  too,  in  a  complimentary  epistle  (1,  4),  written 
 long  after  the  partition  of  the  lands,  says  that  the  gods 
 liad  bestowed  on  him  wealth,  and  the  art  of  enjoying 
 
 "  Di  tibi  divitias  dederunt,  artemque  frucndi.''^ 
 
 His  own  idea  of  the  enjoyment  of  such  wealth  as  he 
 possessed  seems  to  have  been  (judging,  at  least,  from 
 his  poems)  a  rural  life  of  tranquillity  and  repose,  of 
 winch   the    sole   employment    should    consist   in    the 
 peaceful   avocations    of   husbandry,   and    the    leisure 
 hours  should  be  devoted  to  the  Muses  or  to  pleasure. 
 His  friendship,   however,  for   Messala,  and,  perhaps, 
 some  hope  of  improving  his  moderate  and  diminished 
 fortune,  induced  him   to   attend  that  celebrated  com- 
 mander in  various  military  expeditions.     It  would  ap- 
 pear that   he   had   accompanied  him  in  not  less  than 
 three.     But  the  precise  periods  at  which   they  were 
 undertaken,  and   the  order  in  which  they  succeeded 
 each  other,  are  subjects  involved  in  much  uncertainty 
 and  contradiction.     The  first  was  commenced  in  719, 
 against  the  Sallassi,  a  fierce  and  warlike  people,  who 
 inhabited  the  Pennine  or  Graian  Alps,  and  from  their 
 fastnesses  had  long  bid  defiance  to  every  effort  made 
 by  a  regular  army  for  their  subjugation. — His  next  ex- 
 pedition with  Messala  was  to  Aquitanic  Gaul.     That 
 province  having  revolted  in  724,  Messala  was  intrust- 
 ed with  the  task  of  reducing  it  to  obedience;   and  he 
 proceeded  on  this  service  immediatelv  after  the  battle 
 of  Actium.     Several  sharp  actions  took  place,  in  which 
 Tibullus  signalized  his  courage  ;   and  the  success  of 
 this  campaign,  if  we  may  believe  himself,  was  in  no 
 small  degree  attributable  to  his  bravery  and  exertions. 
 In  the  following  season,  Messala,  being  intrusted  by  the 
 emperor  with  an  extraordinary  command  in  the  East, 
 requested  Tibullus  to  accompany   him  ;    and   to  this 
 proposal  our  poet,  though,  it  would  appear,  with  some 
 reluctance,  at  length  consented.     He  had   not,  how- 
 ever, been  long  at  sea,  when  his  health  suffered  so 
 severely  that  he  was  obliged  to  be  put  on  shore  at  an 
 island,  which  Tibullus  names  by  its  poetical  appella- 
 tion of  FhaRacia,  but  which  was  then  commonly  called 
 Corcyra,  now  Corfu.     He  soon  recovered  from  this 
 dangerous   sickness,  and,  as   soon  as  he  was  able  to 
 renew  his  voyage,  he  joined  Messala,  and   travelled 
 with  him  through  Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Egypt.     Having 
 returned  to  Italy,  he  again  retired  to  his  farm  at  Pe- 
 dum, where,  though  he  occasionally  visited  the  capi- 
 tal, he  chiefly  resided  for  the  remainder  of  his  life. — 
 Tibullus   was    endued   with    elegant   manners   and  a 
 hand.some  person,  which  involved  him  in  many  licen- 
 tious connexions.     But,  though  devoted  to  pleasure, 
 he  at  the  same  time  drew  closer  his  connexion  with 
 the  most  learned  and  polished  of  his  countrymen,  as 
 Valgius,  Macer,  and  Horace.      He  continued,  likewise, 
 an  uninterrupted  friendship  with  Messala,  who  was  now 
 at  the  height  of  his  reputation,  his  home  being  the  re- 
 sort of  the  learned,  and  his  patronage  the  surest  pass- 
 port to  the  gates  of  fame.     Tibullus'  enjoyment  of  this 
 sort  of  life  was  considerably  impaired  by  the  state  of  his 
 health,  which  had  continued  to  be  delicate  ever  since 
 the  illness  with  which  he  was  attacked  at  Corcyra.     His 
 existence  was  protracted  till  734,  and  his  death,  which 
 happened  iti  that  year,  was  deplored  by  Ovid  in  a  long 
 
 TIBULLUS. 
 
 elegiac  poem. — The  events  and  circumstai^ces  of  the 
 life  of  Tibullus  have  exercised  a  remarkable  influence 
 on  his  writings.     Those  occurrences  to  which  he  was 
 exposed  tended  to  give  a  peculiar  turn  to  his  thoughts, 
 and  a  peculiar  colouring  to  his  language.     The  Ro- 
 man fair  of  the   highest  rank  had  become  alike  licen- 
 tious and  venal  ;  and   the   ])roperty  of  those  ancient 
 possessors  of  the  Italian  soil,  who  had  adhered  to  the 
 republican  party,  was  divided  by  un|)rincipled  usurp- 
 ers among  their  rapacious  soldiery.     Unhappy  in  love, 
 and  less  prosperous  in  fortune  than  in  early  youth  he 
 had   reason  to  anticipate,  all  that  he  utters  on  these 
 topics  is  stamped  with  such  reality,  that  no  reader  can 
 suspect  for  a  moment  either  that  his  complaints  were 
 borrowed  from  Greek  sources,  or  were  the  mere  crea- 
 tions of  fancy.     His  feelings  seem  to  have  been  too 
 acute  to  permit  him  the  possession  of  that  perfect  re- 
 pose and    equanimity  of   spirit    which   he  justly    ac- 
 counted the  chief  blessing  of  life.     That  indifference 
 to  eminence  and  wealth,  which  Horace  perhaps   en- 
 joyed, and  which  seems  to  have  been  so  earnestly  de- 
 sired by  Tibullus,  was  rather  pretended  by  him  than 
 actually  felt  ;  and  his  inability  to  procure  either  the 
 advantages  of  fortune  or  delights  of  contentment  is 
 the  source  of  constant  struggle  and  disappointment. 
 Hence   the  irritability,    melancholy,    and   changeable- 
 ness  of  his  temper.     Such  circumstances  in  the  life, 
 and  such  features  in  the  character  of  Tibullus,  will  be 
 found  explanatory  and   illustrative  of  much  which  we 
 find  in  his  elegies.     These  elegies  have  been  divided 
 by  German  writers  into  Erotic,  Rural,  Devotional,  and 
 Paneoyrical.     The  chief  ingredients  in  his  poems  are 
 no  doubt  derived  from  such  topics  ;  but  many  of  his 
 elegies  partake  of  all  these  qualities,  and    there    are 
 few  of  them  which  can  be  accounted  as  purely  belong- 
 ing to  any  of  the  above  classes.     The  elegies,  how- 
 ever,  in   which  amatory  sentiments  predominate,  are 
 by  far  the   most  numerous. — One  can  scarcely  be  a 
 poet  and  in  love,  it  has  been  said,  without  also  loving 
 the  country.     Its  scenes  supply  the  sweetest  images  ; 
 there  the  shepherds  have  their  cool  retreats,  and  love- 
 songs  have  their  echoes.     Accordingly,  the  pastoral 
 delineations  which  occur  in  the  elegies  of  Tibullus  are 
 closely   interwoven    with  the   erotic   sentiments;  and 
 there  are  few,  indeed,  of  his  amorous  verses  which  are 
 not  beautified  by  that  reference  to  rural  feelings  which 
 forms  the  great  and  characteristic  charm  of  the  works 
 of  the  Latin  poets.     Again,  as  rural  pictures  are  inter- 
 mixed, in  the  elegies  of  Tibullus,  with  amatory  sen- 
 timents and  feelings,  so  his  poems,  which  have  been 
 classed  together  as  devotional,  are  closely  connected 
 with  his  pastoral  verses.     They  arc  full  of  images  of 
 rural  theology,  and  it  is  to  the  rustic   and  domestic 
 gods  that   his  devotion  is  chiefly  paid.      He  renders 
 thanks  to  these  deities   for  the  prosperity  of  his  little 
 farm,  or  piously  prepares  a  festival  to  their  honour. — 
 His  panegyrics  on  his  friends  form  the  least  pleasing 
 and  least  valuable  part  of  the  writings   of  Tibullus. 
 This  subject   was  not  suited  to  the  elegiac  strain,  or 
 to  the   soft   and  lender  genius    of  the  poet.     When 
 he  assumes  the  tone  of  familiar  friendship,  as   in  the 
 poems  on  the  birthdays  of  Messala  and   of  his  friend 
 Cornutus,    his   compliments    ar     easy   and    graceful. 
 But  his  long   and  laboured  pn     jvric  on  Me.ssala,  in 
 the  fourth  book,  written  on  oci;<'»'on  of  his  patron  ob- 
 taining the  consulship,  shows  how  little  he  was  quali- 
 fied   to   excel    in    this  species  of  compo.silion.     The 
 compositions  evidently  most  adapted  to  the  genius  of 
 Tibullus   are    poems    not    merely  written    in    elegiac 
 verse,  but  which  answer  to  our  understanding  of  the 
 word   Elegy   in    the    subject    and    sentiments.     The 
 tone  of  complaint  best  accords   with  his   soul.     He 
 seems  naturally   to  have  been  possessed  of  extreme 
 sensibility  ;   and  at  that  period  of  life  when  the  mind 
 lays  in  its  store  of  ideas  for  the  future  voyage,  he  had 
 been  subjected  to  much  suffering  and  disappointment. 
 
 1341 
 
TIC 
 
 TIG 
 
 Hence,  though  his  fortune  afterward  improved,  he 
 had  acquired  the  habit  of  viewing  obejcts  as  sur- 
 rounded with  a  continual  gloom ;  nor  does  any  other 
 poet  so  often  introduce  the  dismal  images  of  death. 
 Even  to  the  most  joyous  thoughts  of  TibuUus,  some 
 mournful  or  plaintive  sentiment  is  generally  united, 
 and  his  most  gay  and  smiluig  figures  wear  chaplets  of 
 cypress  on  their  brows. — It  has  already  been  said,  that 
 Tibullus  was  no  imitator  of  the  Greeks,  and  he  is 
 certainly  the  most  original  of  the  Latin  poets.  His 
 elegies  were  the  overflowings  of  his  sorrows,  his  mis- 
 tress alone  was  the  Muse  that  inspired  him  In  the 
 few  instances  in  which  he  has  followed  the  Greeks,  he 
 has  imitated  them  with  much  good  taste,  and  some- 
 times even  with  improvements  on  the  original. — The 
 elegies  of  Tibullus  are  divided  into  four  books. — 
 These  poems  are  commonly  printed  along  with  those 
 of  Catullus  and  Propertius.  Of  the  editions  of  Tibul- 
 lus separately,  the  best  are,  that  of  Brouckhusius, 
 Amstelod,  iVoS,  4to  ;  that  of  Vulpius,  Palav.,  1749, 
 4to;  that  of  Heyne,  Lips.,  1755-77-98,  8vo  ;  that  of 
 Wunderlich,  Lips.,  1817,  8vo ;  that  of  Lachmann, 
 BeroL,  1829,  8vo  ;  and  that  of  Uissen,  Gutting.,  1835, 
 2  vols.  8vo.  (Dunlop's  Roman  Lit.,  vol.  3,  p.  283, 
 seqq.) 
 
 TiBCjR,  an  ancient  town  of  Latium,  northeast  of 
 Rome,  on  the  banks  of  the  Anio.  According  to  Dio- 
 nysius  of  Halicarnassus,  it  was  originally  a  town  of  the 
 Siculi,  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Latium  ;  and, 
 as  a  proof  of  this  fact,  he  mentions  that  the  name  of 
 Siceiion  was  still  attached  to  a  portion  of  the  place. 
 (Dion.  Hal.,  1,  16.)  Tibur,  however,  lays  claim  to  a 
 more  illustrious,  though  a  later  origin,  having  been 
 founded,  according  to  some  authors,  by  Catillus,  an 
 oflicer  of  Evander,  while  others  pretend  that  this  Ca- 
 tillus was  a  son  of  Amphiaraus,  who,  with  his  two 
 brothers,  migrated  to  Italy,  and,  having  conquered  the 
 Siculi,  gave  to  one  of  their  towns  the  name  of  Tibur, 
 from  his  brother  Tiburtus.  From  this  account  of  So- 
 linus  (c.  8),  as  well  as  that  of  Dionysius,  we  may  col- 
 lect that  Catillus  was  one  of  the  Pelasgic  chiefs,  who, 
 with  the  assistance  of  the  Aborigines,  formed  settle- 
 ments in  Italy. — Tibur  is  one  of  the  places  that  ap- 
 pear most  frequentlv  to  have  afforded  an  asylum  to 
 Roman  fugitives.  From  what  period  it  enjoyed  the 
 rights  of  a  Roman  city  is  not  precisely  known,  but  it 
 was,  in  all  probability,  anterior  to  the  civil  wars  of 
 Marius  and  Sylla.  The  latter,  indeed,  is  said  to  have 
 deprived  the  Tiburtini  of  these  privileges,  but  they 
 regained  them  upon  his  abdication,  and  they  were 
 confirmed  by  the  Emperor  Claudius.  Hercules  was 
 the  deity  held  in  the  greatest  veneration  at  Tibur  ; 
 and  his  temple,  on  the  foundations  of  which  the  pres- 
 ent cathedral  is  said  to  be  built,  was  famous  through- 
 out Italy.  (.S/!raio,  238.)  Hence  the  epithet  of  Her- 
 culean given  by  the  poets  to  this  city.  The  modern 
 name  of  Tibur  is  Tivoli. — As  regards  the  Sibyl  of  Ti- 
 bur, vid.  Albunea.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 56.) 
 
 Tiburtus,  a  brother  of  the  founder  of  Tibur,  which 
 is  hence  often  called  Tihurlia  Mwnia.  {Vid.  Tibur  ) 
 He  was  one  of  the  sons  of  Amphiaraus.  (  Vir<^.,  JEn., 
 7,  670.) 
 
 TiciNUM,  a  city  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  situate  on  the 
 river  Ticinus,  near  its  junction  with  the  Padus.  It 
 was  founded,  according  to  Pliny  (3,  17),  by  the  Lawi 
 and  Marici,  but,  being  placed  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
 Ticinus,  it  would,  of  course,  belong  to  the  Insubres  ; 
 and,  in  fact,  Ptolemy  (p.  64)  ascribes  it  to  that  people. 
 Tacitus  is  the  first  historian  that  makes  mention  of  it. 
 According  to  that  historian  (Attn.,  3,5),  Augustus  ad- 
 vanced as  far  as  Ticinum  to  meet  the  corpse  of  Dru- 
 sus,  the  father  of  Germanicus,  in  the  depth  of  winter, 
 and  from  thence  escorted  it  to  Rome.  It  is  also  fre- 
 quently noticed  in  his  Histories.  Ancient  inscriptions 
 give  it  the  title  of  municipium.  Under  the  Lombard 
 1342 
 
 kings,  Ticinum  assumed  the  name  of  Papia,  which,  in 
 process  of  time,  has  been  changed  to  I'avia.  {Paul. 
 Btacon.,  Ker.  Lang.,  2,  15. —  Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  53.) 
 
 Ticinus,  now  the  Tcsnio,  a  river  of  Gallia  Cisalpi- 
 na,  rising  in  the  Leopontine  Alps,  near  the  sources  of 
 the  RhodaiRis,  and  falling  into  the  Po  near  Ticmum. 
 It  traversed  in  its  course  the  Lacus  Verbanus,  or  Logo 
 Maggiore.  At  the  mouth  of  this  river,  the  Romans, 
 under  Cornelius  Scipio,  the  father  of  Scipio  Africanus 
 the  Elder,  were  defeated  by  Hannibal. — Consult,  in 
 relation  to  this  battle,  the  remarks  of  Cramer  (Anc. 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  54,  scqq.). 
 
 TiKATA,  a  mountain  range  of  Campania,  about  a 
 mile  to  the  east  of  Capua.  It  was  a  branch  of  the 
 Apennines,  and  now  takes  its  name  from  the  village 
 of  Maddaloni,  near  Cascrta.  The  original  significa- 
 tion of  the  word  Tifata,  according  to  Festus,  answered 
 to  that  of  the  Latin  iliceta.  This  ridge  is  often  no- 
 ticed by  Livy  as  a  favourite  position  of  Hannibal 
 when  in  the  vicinity  of  Capua  (23,  36  et  39;  26,  6). 
 Here  also  were  two  celebrated  temples  consecrated 
 to  Diana  and  Jove.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 205.) 
 
 TiFEKNUM,  I.  a  town  of  Umbria,  near  the  Metaurus, 
 called  hence,  for  distinction'  sake,  Mctaurcnsc.  It  is 
 now  St.  Angela  in  Vado.  {Pliny,  3,  18.)  —  II.  A 
 town  of  Umbria,  towards  the  sources  of  the  Tiber, 
 and  on  the  left  bank  of  that  river,  distinguished  from 
 that  circumstance  by  the  epithet  of  Tibennum.  Its 
 site  is  supposed  to  be  occupied  by  the  modern  Citta 
 di  Castcllo.  Tifernum  is  chiefly  known  to  us  from 
 the  circumstance  of  its  having  been  situated  near  the 
 villa  of  the  younger  Pliny.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  263.) — III.  A  town  of  Samnium,  supposed 
 to  have  stood  near  the  Ponte  di  Limosano,  on  the 
 right  bank  of  the  river  Tifernus  (now  Biferno).  The 
 iVlons  Tifernus  was  near  the  source  of  the  same  riv- 
 er, above  Boiano,  and  is  now  called  Monte  Mulesc. 
 {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  231.) 
 
 Tifernus,  a  mountain  of  Campania.  {Vid.  Tifer- 
 num III.) 
 
 TiGELLiNus,  Sophonius,  an  infamous  character  in 
 the  reign  of  Nero,  whose  vices  secured  to  him  the  fa- 
 vour of  that  corrupt  emperor.  He  was  prefect  of  the 
 prtetorian  guards  when  the  conspiracy  against  Nero  was 
 discovered,  and  for  his  services  on  that  occasion  the 
 emperor  bestowed  upon  him  triumphal  honours.  Hav- 
 ing gained,  according  to  Tacitus,  an  entire  ascendant 
 over  the  aflfections  of  Nero,  he  was,  in  some  instances, 
 the  adviser  of  some  of  the  worst  acts  of  that  prince, 
 and  in  others  the  chief  actor,  without  the  knowledge 
 of  his  master.  He  corrupted  Nero  at  first,  and  then 
 deserted  him  ;  and  at  last,  to  the  great  joy  of  all,  he 
 was  compelled  to  put  an  end  to  his  existence  by  order 
 of  Otho.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  14,  51,  scqq. — Id.  ih.,  15, 
 12.— Id.,  Hist.,  1,  72.) 
 
 TiGELLius,  M.  Hermogenes,  a  singer  and  musician, 
 who  stood  high  in  the  favour  of  Julius  Cscsar,  and  af- 
 terward in  that  of  Augustus.  He  seems  to  have  been 
 indebted  for  his  elevation  to  a  fine  voice,  and  a  courtly 
 and  insinuating  address.  His  moral  character  may  be 
 inferred  from  those  who  are  said  in  Horace  {Sat.,  1,  2, 
 3)  to  have  deplored  his  death,  and  on  whom  he  would 
 appear  to  have  squandered  much  of  his  wealth.  Ci- 
 cero, in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  numbers  Tigellius  among 
 the  '■^ j amiUarissimi"  of  Caesar,  and  describes  him  as 
 "  homincm  pcstilentiorem  patria  sua,"  in  allusion  to 
 the  unwholesome  atmosphere  of  Sardinia,  of  which 
 island  this  individual  was  a  native.  {Cic,  Ep.  ad 
 Fam.,  7,  24  )  The  scholiast  informs  us  that  Horace 
 attacked  Tigellius  because  the  latter  derided  his  ver 
 ses.     {Schol.  ad  Horat.,  I.  c.) 
 
 TiGRANES,  king  of  Armenia,  the  son-in-law  and 
 ally  of  Mithradates.  He  rendered  himself  master  of 
 Armenia  Minor,  Cappadocia,  and  Syria,  but  lost  all 
 
TIG 
 
 TIM 
 
 these  conquests  after  the  defeat  of  Miihradates.  Lu- 
 cullus,  ihe  Roman  coiiunander,  invaded  Armenia,  and 
 defeated,  near  'I'lgratiocerta,  the  mixed  and  numerous 
 army  ol  Tigranes.  (  Vid.  Luculius  )  The  peace  con- 
 cluded m  the  year  63  B.C.  left  him  only  Armenia. 
 ^Vid.  Mithradaies  VII.) 
 
 TiGRANocEKTA,  the  Capital  of  Armenia,  built  by 
 Tiyranes  during  the  Milhradatic  war.  It  was  situate 
 to  the  east  of  the  Tigris,  on  the  river  Nicephorius, 
 and,  according  to  Tacitus,  stood  on  a  hill  nearly  sur- 
 rounded liy  the  latter  river.  It  was  a  large,  rich,  and 
 powerful  city.  It  was  inhabited  not  only  by  Orientals, 
 but  also  by  many  Grecian  colonists,  and  likewise  by 
 captives  who  had  been  carried  oil'  by  Tigranes  Ironi 
 some  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Syria  which  had  been 
 conquered  by  him  from  the  Seleucid*.  Luculius, 
 during  the  Mithradatic  war,  took  it  with  diiFiculty,  and 
 found  in  it  immense  riches,  and  no  less  than  8,000 
 talents  in  ready  money.  The  Roman  commander  sent 
 home  the  greater  part  of  the  foreign  inhabitants,  but 
 still  the  city  remained,  after  this,  no  unimportant  jilace. 
 The  remains  of  Tigranocerta  are  at  Scrcdonlhe  JiUlis- 
 Soo.  (Tac,  Ann.,  12,  bO.—Id.  ibid.,  14,  2i.—Flm., 
 6,  9.) 
 
 Tigris,  a  large  river  of  Asia,  rising  in  the  mount- 
 ains of  Armenia  Major,  in  the  district  of  Sophene,  and 
 falling  into  the  Euphrates.  A  rising  ground  prevents 
 it  from  proceeding  to  the  Euphrates  in  the  early  part 
 of  Its  course.  A  deep  ravine  in  the  mountains  above 
 Ainida,  or  Diarbckir,  opens  a  passage  for  it,  and  it 
 takes  its  speedy  course  across  a  territory  which  is  very 
 unequal,  and  has  a  powerful  declivity.  Its  extreme 
 rapidity,  the  natural  effect  of  local  circumstances, 
 has  procured  for  it  the  name  of  T)gr  in  the  Median 
 language,  Diglilo  with  the  Syrians,  Ddkat  or  Didhi- 
 lat  in  Arabic,  and  Hiddckcl  in  Hebrew  ;  all  which 
 terms  denote  the  flight  of  an  arrow.  (  Wahl,  Voider 
 und  Millcl  Asien,  1,  p.  710.— Compare  Roscvmullcr, 
 ad  Gen.,  2,  14.)  Besides  this  branch,  which  is  best 
 known  to  the  moderns,  Pliny  has  described  to  us,  in 
 detail,  another,  which  issues  from  a  chain  of  mount- 
 ains, now  the  mountains  of  Kiirdixlan,  to  the  west  of 
 the  Arsissa  Palus  or  Lake  of  Van.  It  passes  by  the 
 Lake  Arethusa.  Its  course  being  checked  by  a  part 
 of  Mount  Taurus,  it  falls  into  a  subterranean  cavern 
 called  Zoroander,  and  appears  again  at  the  bottom  of 
 the  mountain.  The  identity  of  its  waters  is  shown  by 
 the  reappearance  of  light  bodies  at  its  issue  that  have 
 been  thrown  up  into  it  above  the  place  where  it  en- 
 ters the  mountains.  It  passes  also  by  the  Lake  Thos- 
 pitis,  near  Arzanene  or  Erzen,  buries  itself  again  in 
 subterranean  caverns,  and  reappears  at  the  distance 
 of  twenty- five  miles  below,  near  Nympha;urn.  This 
 branch  joins  the  western  Tigris.  As  the  Tigris  and 
 Euphrates  approach,  the  intermediate  land  loses  its 
 elevation,  and  is  occupied  by  meadows  and  morasses. 
 Several  artificial  communications,  perhaps  two  or  three 
 of  which  are  natural,  form  a  prelude  to  the  ajiproach- 
 ing  junction  of  the  rivers,  which  finally  takes  place 
 near  the  modern  Koma.  The  river  formed  by  their 
 junction  was  called  Pasitigris,  now  Shat-cl-Arah,  or 
 fhe  river  of  Arabia.  It  has  three  principal  mouths, 
 besides  a  small  outlet :  these  occupy  a  space  of  thirty- 
 six  miles.  For  farther  particulars,  vid.  Eu()hrales. 
 The  Tigris,  though  a  far  less  noble  stream  than  the 
 Euphrates,  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  rivers  in  his- 
 tory, aijd  many  famous  cities,  at  various  periods,  have 
 decorated  its  banks  :  among  these  may  be  mentioned 
 Nineveh,  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon,  and,  in  modern  times, 
 Basdad,  Moiisul,  Diarbckr.  The  length  of  the  Ti- 
 gris is  eight  hundred  miles.  (Ilcrod  ,  1,  89. — Id.,  5, 
 ;i2.— W.,  6,  'ZQ.—Polyb.,  5,  iG.—Tac.,  Ann.,  6,  37.— 
 /(/.  ibid  .  12,  \2.—Hicla,  1,  2.— Id.,  3,  8.  —  Plin.,  2, 
 103.— /(/..  6,  9.—MaUc-Brun,  Geogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  191, 
 Am.  ed.) 
 
 TiouRiNi,   a  warlike  people   among  the  Ilelvetii, 
 
 whose  territory  is  supposed  to  have  answered  to  the 
 modern  Zurich.  Considerable  doubt,  however,  has 
 been  thrown  upon  the  correctness  of  this  opinion. 
 (Consult  Lcmaire,  Ind.  Giogr.  ad  Cas.,  a.  v. — Ober- 
 hn.  ad  Cas.,  B.  G .,  1,  27.) 
 
 TiM.ic  us,  now  the  Timok,  a  river  of  Mcesia  falling 
 into  the  Danube.     (Pitn.,  3,  26.) 
 
 TiM^cus,  I.  a  Pythagorean  philosopher,  a  native  of 
 Locri,  born  about  B.C.  380.  He  was  a  preceptor  of 
 Plato's.  We  have  remaining  of  his  productions  only 
 a  single  work  (if  indeed  this  be  his),  written  in  the 
 Doric  dialect,  and  treating  "of  the  Soul  of  the  World 
 and  of  ]\alure''  (~fp(  V'^'.^"f  K'>'^f^''>  nai  ^'crtof). 
 There  exists,  however,  much  uncertainty  as  to  its 
 being  the  work  of  Timaus  or  not.  Tennemann  {Syst. 
 dcr  Plat.  Phil.,  vol.  1,  p.  93)  attempts  to  prove  that 
 it  is  merely  an  extract  from  the  Timasus  of  Plato. 
 Other  critics,  on  the  contrary,  charge  Plato  with  cop- 
 ying from  this  work  into  his  dialogue.  We  owe  the 
 preservation  of  this  piece  of  Tima'us'  to  Proclus,  who 
 has  placed  it  at  the  head  of  his  commentary  on  Plalo'a 
 Timx'us.  {Sclibll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr  ,  vol.  2,  p.  313.) — 
 II.  A  native  of  Tauromenium,  in  Sicily,  who  flourish- 
 ed about  260  B  C.  Having  been  driven  into  exile 
 by  Agathocles,  he  repaired  to  Athens,  where  he  occu- 
 pied himself  with  the  composition  of  a  great  historical 
 work  on  the  affairs  of  Greece,  on  those  of  Sicily,  the 
 wars  of  Pyrrhus,  of  Agathocles,  &c.  It  bore  the  title 
 of  'Fi'/J.r/i'iKu  Kai  I,iKe?UKd,  or,  rather,  'iTa'/.iKu  koI 
 'ZiKF^.iKa,  and  was  divided  into  more  than  40  books. 
 It  appears,  from  a  passage  in  Polybius  (3,  32),  tha' 
 this  work  did  not  contain  a  synchronistic  relation  of 
 events,  but  consisted  rather  of  detached  portions  of 
 history,  in  each  of  which  the  author  treated  separately 
 of  some  important  event.  Cicero  cites  Timoeus  as  a 
 model  of  what  was  called  the  "  Asiatic"  style.  {Brut., 
 c.  95.— De  Oral.,  2,  13.)  Polybius,  and,  after  him,  Di- 
 odorus  Siculus,  have  charged  Timar'us  with  credulity 
 and  unfairness.  Naturally  gloomy  and  morose,  he  was 
 exasperated  by  the  treatment  which  he  had  experienced 
 from  Agathocles.  His  ill-humour,  however  (if  it  may 
 be  so  termed),  never  degenerated  into  misanthropy  ; 
 he  was  even  open  at  times  to  kindly  affections.  Ti- 
 moleon  was  the  hero  whom  he  admired  ;  and  Cicero 
 says  that  the  former  owed  a  part  of  his  glory  to  the 
 circumstance  of  his  having  had  such  an  historian  of 
 his  exploits  as  Timseus.  {Ep.  ad  Fain.,  4,  12.)  The 
 ancients  praised  his  geographical  knowledge,  and  his 
 care  in  indicating  the  chronology  of  the  events  which 
 he  describes,  lie  appears  also  to  have  composed  an- 
 other work,  on  the  "  Olympiads,"  and  it  is  said  he 
 was  the  first  historical  writer  that  employed  this  era. 
 Longiniis,  after  speaking  of  Timaeus  as  in  general  an 
 able,  well-informed,  and  sensible  writer,  charges  him 
 with  frequent  puerilities  and  frigid  expressions,  which 
 he  ascribes  to  an  over-eagerness  for  novelty  of  ideas 
 and  language.  {Long.,  i)  4.) — We  have  only  some 
 fragments  remaining  of  the  historical  work.  These 
 have  been  collected  by  Goller,  in  his  treatise  "Z>c 
 Si/u  ct  Originc  Syracusarum,"  p.209,  scqq.  {Scholl, 
 Hi.st.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  3,  p.  219,  seqq.)—Ul.  A  sophist 
 of  the  third  century  of  our  era,  who  wrote  a  book  call- 
 ed Lexicon  varum  Plalonicarum.  It  was  edited  with 
 great  ability  by  Ruhnkcn,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1754,  8vo. — 
 A  later  edition  of  this  same,  containing  all  lluhnken's 
 notes,  appeared  from  the  Leipsic  press  in  1828,  8vo, 
 under  the  editorial  care  of  Koch. — As  regards  the  pe- 
 riod when  he  is  supposed  to  have  flourished,  consult 
 the  remarks  of  Ruhnken  {I'rivf.,  p.  xiv.). 
 
 TiM.tGLiNEs,  a  native  of  Alcxandrea,  son  of  the  bank- 
 er of  Ptolemy  Aulctes.  Having  been  reduced  to  slave- 
 ry when  the  citv  was  taken  by  Gabinius  (S.'i  B.C.).  he 
 was  brought  to  Uotne,  and  sold  to  Faustus,  the  son  of 
 SvUa,  who  gave  him  his  freedom,  lie  exercised,  after 
 this,  the  jirofession  of  a  cook,  and  then  that  of  a  litter- 
 bearer  ilccticarius).     Abandon'ng,  subsequently,  this 
 
 1343 
 
TIM 
 
 TIM 
 
 humble  employmen'.,  he  set  up  as  t.  teacher  of  rheto- 
 ric, and  met  with  hrilhant  success.  His  society  was 
 much  sought  after  on  account  of  his  agreeable  manners 
 and  intellectual  (Hialitics  ;  but  his  passion  for  uttering 
 bans  mots  ruined  all  his  prospects.  Augustus,  it  seems, 
 had  appointed  him  his  historiographer,  and  extended 
 his  favour  to  hitu  in  a  marked  degree,  until,  ofiendcd 
 bv  a  witty  s()cech  of  Timagenes,  he  forbade  him  his 
 presence.  In  the  resentment  of  the  moment,  Timag- 
 enes burned  the  history  which  he  had  composed  of  the 
 reign  of  Augustus,  and  retired  to  Tusculum,  where  he 
 enjoyed  the  patronage  and  protection  of  Asinius  Pol- 
 lio.  In  this  retreat  he  wrote  a  History  of  Alexander 
 and  his  successors,  entitled  nepl  ^aaiXsuv  ("  Of 
 Kitigs'').  This  work  formed  one  of  the  principal 
 sources  whence  Quintus  Curtius  drew  the  materials 
 of  his  historical  romance.  Timagenes,  after  this,  fixed 
 his  residence  at  the  very  extremity  of  the  empire,  in 
 Drapanum,  a  city  of  Osrhoene,  where  he  ended  his 
 days.  It  IS  on  account  of  his  residence  in  this  part  of 
 the  East  that  some  authors  give  him  the  ejiithet  of 
 "  the  Syrian."  Besides  his  History  of  Alexander, 
 Timagenes  also  published  a  work  on  the  Gauls,  which 
 is  cited  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus  and  Plutarch. 
 {Bonamy.  Recherckes  sur  Vhistorien  Timagene. — 
 Mem.  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  13,  p.  35.) 
 Vossius  distinguishes  between  Timagenes  the  Alexan- 
 drean  and  Timagenes  the  Syrian,  but  in  this  he  is 
 wrong.     {Sc/idll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  4,  p.  75.) 
 
 TiMANTHEs,  I.  a  painter,  said  by  Eustathius  (ad  11., 
 24,  163)  to  have  been  a  native  of  Sicyon,  but  by  Quin- 
 tilian  (2,  13),  of  Cythnus.  He  was  a  contemporary 
 of  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius  (Plin.,  35,  9,  36),  and  must, 
 consequently,  have  lived  about  Olymp  96.  The  most 
 important  passage  relating  to  him  is  in  Pliny  (35,  10, 
 36). — Timanthes  has  not  been  so  much  brought  for- 
 ward in  the  annals  of  art  as  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius; 
 but,  as  far  as  we  have  means  given  us  of  judging,  he 
 was,  at  least,  inferior  to  neither  in  genius.  He  seems 
 to  have  thrown  a  large  share  of  intellect  and  thought 
 into  his  productions.  He  appears  to  have  been  une- 
 qualled both  in  ingenuity  and  feeling,  of  which  we 
 have  some  remarkable  examples.  One  of  these  was 
 displayed  in  the  picture  on  the  noble  subject  of  the 
 sacrifice  of  Iphigenia,  in  which  he  represented  the 
 tender  and  beautiful  virgin  standing  before  the  altar 
 awaiting  her  doom,  and  surrounded  by  her  afflicted 
 relatives.  All  these  last  he  depicted  as  moved  by  va- 
 rious degrees  of  sorrow,  and  grief  seemed  to  have 
 reached  its  utmost  expression  in  the  face  of  Menelaus; 
 Dut  that  of  .\gamemnon  was  left ;  and  the  painter, 
 heightening  the  interest  of  the  piece  by  a  forbearance 
 of  judgment,  often  erroneously  regarded  as  a  confess- 
 ion of  the  inadequacy  of  his  art,  covered  the  head  of 
 the  father  with  his  mantle,  and  left  his  agony  to  the 
 imagination  of  the  spectators. — In  Fuseli's  Lecture  on 
 Ancient  Art,  this  painting  of  Timanthes  is  made  the 
 subject  of  a  full  and  very  able  criticism,  in  the  course 
 of  which  he  dissents  expressly  from  the  opinion  of  Sir 
 Joshua  Reynolds,  who  agreed  with  M.  Falconet  in  re- 
 garding the  circumstance  of  the  mantle-enveloped  face 
 of  Agamemnon  as  little  better  than  a  mere  trick  on 
 the  part  of  the  artist.  The  remarks  of  Fuseli,  in 
 answer  to  this  and  similar  animadversions,  are  worthy 
 of  being  quoted  :  "  Neither  the  French  nor  the  Eng- 
 lish critic  appears  to  me  to  have  comprehended  the 
 real  motive  of  Timanthes  ;  they  ascribe  to  impotence 
 what  was  the  forbearance  of  judgment.  Timanthes 
 felt  like  a  father ;  he  did  not  hide  the  face  of  Aga- 
 memnon because  it  was  beyond  the  power  of  his  art, 
 nor  because  it  was  beyond  the  possibility,  but  because 
 it  was  beyond  the  dignity  of  expression  ;  because  the 
 inspiring  feature  of  paternal  affection  at  that  moment, 
 and  the  action  which,  of  necessity,  must  have  accom- 
 panied it,  would  either  have  destroyed  the  grandeur  of 
 the  character  and  the  solemnity  of  the  scene,  or  sub- 
 1344 
 
 jected  the  painter,  with  the  majority  of  his  judges,  tc 
 the  imputation  of  insensibility.  He  must  either  have 
 represented  him  in  tears,  or  convulsed  at  the  flash  of 
 the  uplifted  steel,  forgetting  the  chief  in  the  father,  and 
 in  that  slate  of  stupefaction  which  levels  all  features 
 and  deadens  expression.  He  might,  indeed,  have 
 chosen  a  fourth  mode  ;  he  might  have  exhibited  him 
 fainting  and  palsied  in  the  arms  of  his  attendants, 
 and,  by  this  confusion  of  male  and  female  character, 
 merited  the  applause  of  every  theatre  in  Pans.  Uut 
 Timanthes  had  too  true  a  sense  of  nature  to  expose  a 
 father's  feelings  or  to  tear  a  passion  to  rags  ;  nor  had 
 the  Greeks  yet  learned  of  Rome  to  steel  the  face.  If 
 he  made  Agamemnon  bear  his  calamity  as  a  man,  he 
 made  him  also  feel  it  as  a  man.  It  became  the  leader 
 of  Greece  to  sanction  the  ceremony  with  his  presence; 
 it  did  not  become  the  father  to  see  the  daughter  be- 
 neath the  dagger's  point :  the  same  nature  that  threw 
 a  real  mantle  over  the  face  of  Timoleon,  when  he  as- 
 sisted at  the  punishment  of  his  brother,  taught  Timan- 
 thes to  throw  an  imaginary  one  over  the  face  of  Aga- 
 memnon ;  neither  height  nor  depth,  but  propriety  o' 
 expression,  was  his  aim."  {Fuseli,  Lecture  on  Anc 
 Art. —  Works,  vol.  2,  p.  49.) — This  celebrated  piece 
 was  painted,  as  Quintilian  informs  us,  in  contest  with 
 Colotes  of  Teos,  a  painter  and  sculptor  from  the  school 
 of  Phidias,  and  it  was  crowned  with  victory  at  the 
 rival  exhibition.  {Quintii,  2,  13.  —  Cic,  Orat.,Z2, 
 ()  74. — Eustath.,  I.  c.) — On  another  occasion,  having 
 painted  a  sleeping  Cyclops  in  an  exceedingly  small 
 compass,  yet  wishing  to  convey  the  idea  of  his  gigan- 
 tic size,  he  introduced  a  group  of  Satyrs,  measuring 
 his  thumb  with  a  thyrsus.  A  deep  meaning  was  to 
 be  discovered  in  every  work  of  his  pencil :  yet  the 
 tendency  to  expression  and  significant  delineation  did 
 not  detract  from  the  beauty  of  the  forms  which  he  cre- 
 ated ;  for  his  figure  of  a  prince  was  so  perfect  in  its 
 proportion  and  so  majestic  in  its  air,  that  it  appears 
 to  have  reached  the  utmost  height  of  the  ideal.  This 
 picture  was  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Peace  at  Rome. 
 {Encyclop.  MctropoL,  div.  2,  vol.  1,  p.  407. — Stllig, 
 Diet.  Art.,  s.  V.) — II.  A  painter,  who  flourished  in 
 the  age  of  Aratus,  and  made  a  picture  representing 
 the  battle  between  this  general  and  the  .^tolians,  near 
 Pellene.     {Flut.,  Vit.  Arat.,  c.  32—Sillig,  Diet.  Art., 
 
 s.  V.) 
 
 TiMAVtis,  a  celebrated  stream  of  Italy,  in  the  terri- 
 tory of  Venetia,  northeast  of  Aquileia,  and  falling  into 
 the  Hadriatic.  Few  streams  have  been  more  celebra- 
 ted in  antiquity  or  more  sung  by  the  poets  than  the 
 Timavus.  Its  numerous  sources,  its  lake  and  subter- 
 ranean passage,  which  have  been  the  theme  of  the 
 Latin  muse  from  Virgil  to  Claudian  and  Ausonius,  are 
 now  so  little  known,  that  their  existence  has  even 
 been  questioned,  and  ascribed  to  poetical  inve'iliou. 
 It  has,  however,  been  well  ascertained,  that  the  name 
 of  Timao  is  still  preserved  by  some  springs  which 
 rise  near  S.  Giorano  di  Carso  and  the  castle  of  Duino, 
 and  form  a  river,  which,  after  a  course  of  little  more 
 than  a  mile,  falls  into  the  Hadriatic.  The  number 
 of  these  sources  seems  to  vary  according  to  the  differ- 
 ence of  the  seasons,  which  circumstance  will  account 
 for  the  various  statements  made  by  ancient  writers  re- 
 specting them.  Strabo,  who  appears  to  derive  his  in- 
 formation from  Polybius,  reckoned  seven,  all  of  which, 
 with  the  exception  of  one,  were  salt.  According  to 
 Posidoiiius,  the  river  really  rose  in  the  mountains  at 
 some  distance  from  the  sea,  and  disa[)peared  under 
 ground  for  the  space  of  fourteen  miles,  when  it  issued 
 forth  again  near  the  sea  at  the  springs  above  mention- 
 ed. {Strabo,  215.— Pluiy.  2,  106.)  This  account 
 seems  also  verified  by  actual  observation.  {Cramer's 
 Atic.  Italy,  vol.  1.  p.  130.) 
 
 Timoleon,  a  Corinthian  of  noble  birth  and  distin- 
 guished ability  as  a  warrior  and  statesman.  His  broth- 
 er Timophanes  having,  partly  by  popularity  and  partU 
 
TIMOLEON. 
 
 TIM 
 
 by  the  aid  of  a  mercenary  force,  loadc  himself  tyrant  of 
 Corinth,  Timolcon,  after  vain  remonstiance,  came  to 
 him  with  a  kinsman  of  his,  brother  to  the  wife  of  Ti- 
 mophanes,  and  a  friend  named  Theopompus,  and,  cov- 
 ering his  own  face,  stood  by  while  the  others  slew  him. 
 \\'heri  the  Syracusan  ambassadors  arrived  to  seek  aid 
 from  Corinth  against  their  tyrants,  th'-dced  was  recent, 
 and  all  Corinth  was  in  a  ferment;  scuiie  extolling  Ti- 
 moleon  as  the  most  magnanimous  of  patriots,  others 
 execrating  liim  as  a  fratricule.  The  request  of  the 
 Syracusans  offered  to  the  Corinthians  the  means  of 
 calming  their  dissensions  by  the  removal  of  the  ob- 
 noxious individual,  and  to  Timolcon  a  field  of  honour- 
 able action,  in  which  he  might  escape  from  the  misgiv- 
 ings of  his  own  mind  and  the  rejiroachcs  of  his  moth- 
 er, who  never  forgave  him.  Timoleon  proceeded  to 
 tjicdy  with  a  small  band  of  mercenaries,  principally 
 raised  by  his  own  credit.  On  arriving  he  received 
 considerable  re-enforcements,  and  soon  gained  a  foot- 
 ing in  Syracuse.  The  greater  part  of  the  city  had  al- 
 ready been  taken  by  Ilicetes  from  Dionysius,  and  the 
 whole  was  divided  between  three  parties,  each  hostile 
 to  both  the  others.  Timoleon  was,  in  the  end,  success- 
 ful. Hicetes  withdrew  to  Leontini,  and  Dionysius 
 surrendered,  himself  and  his  friends  retiring  to  Cor- 
 inth ;  while  two  thousand  mercenaries  of  the  garrison 
 engaged  in  the  service  of  Timoleon.  This  final  ex- 
 pulsion of  Dionysius  took  place 'fifty  years  after  the  rise 
 of  his  father,  and  four  years  after  the  landing  of  Ti- 
 moleon in  Sicily  (B.C.  343).  Timolcon  remained  mas- 
 ter of  a  city,  the  largest  of  all  in  the  Grecian  settle- 
 ments ;  but  almost  a  desert,  through  the  multitudes 
 slain  or  driven  into  banishment  in  successive  revolu- 
 tions. So  great,  it  is  said,  was  the  desolation,  that 
 the  horses  of  the  cavalry  grazed  in  the  market-place, 
 while  the  grooms  slept  at  their  ease  on  the  luxuriant 
 herbage.  The  winter  was  passed  in  assigning  desert- 
 ed lands  and  houses  as  a  provision  to  the  few  remain- 
 ing Syracusans  of  the  Corinthian  party  and  to  the  mer- 
 cenaries instead  of  pay,  which  the  general  had  not  to 
 give.  In  winter,  when  Grecian  warfare  was  slackened 
 or  interrupted,  the  possession  of  good  houses  would 
 doubtless  be  gratifying  ;  but  to  men  unused  to  peace- 
 ful labour,  lands  without  slaves  and  cattle  were  of  lit- 
 tle worth  ;  and  it  was  necessary,  m  the  spring,  to  find 
 them  some  profitable  emjiloymcnt.  Unable  sufficient- 
 ly to  supply  the  wants  of  his  soldiers  from  any  Gre- 
 cian enemy,  Timoleon  sent  one  thousand  men  into  the 
 territory  belonging  to  Carthage,  and  gathered  thence 
 abundance  of  spoil.  The  measure  may  seem  rash, 
 but  he  probably  knew  that  an  invasion  was  preparing, 
 and  that  quiescence  would  not  avert  the  storm,  while 
 a  rich  booty  would  make  his  soldiers  meet  it  belter. 
 The  Carthaginians  landed  in  Sicily.  Their  force  is 
 stated  at  seventy  thousand  foot  and  ten  thousand  horse  ; 
 while  Timoleon  could  only  muster  three  thousand 
 Syracusans  and  nine  thousand  mercenaries.  Never- 
 theless, he  advanced  to  meet  them  in  their  own  pos- 
 sessions ;  and,  by  the  union  of  admirable  conduct  with 
 singular  good  fortune,  won  a  glorious  victory,  which 
 was  soon  followed  by  an  honourable  peace.     Timolcon, 
 
 Crofessing  to  be  the  liberator  of  Sicilv,  next  directed 
 is  arms  against  the  various  chiefs  or  tyrants  who  held 
 dominion  in  the  towns.  In  this  he  may  probably  have 
 been  actuated  by  a  sincere  hatred  of  such  governments ; 
 but  he  frequently  seems  to  have  little  consulted  the 
 wishes  of  the  people,  whose  deliverer  he  declared  him- 
 self Most  of  tlie  smaller  chiefs  withdrew  ;  the  more 
 powerful,  resisting,  were  conquered  ;  and.  being  given 
 \!p  to  their  political  adversaries,  were  put  to  death — in 
 some  cases  with  studied  cruelty.  Among  the  victims 
 was  Hicetes,  who  was  submitted,  with  his  whole  fam- 
 ily, to  the  judgment  of  that  mixed  multitude  now  call- 
 ed the  Syracusan  people,  and  all  were  put  death. 
 There  is  much  appearance  that  Hicetes  deserved  his 
 'ate  ;  but  what  shall  we  say  of  the  people  which  doom- 
 8  H 
 
 ed  to  death  his  unoffending  wife  and  daughters !  and 
 what  of  the  general,  who,  holding  little  less  than  abso- 
 lute authority  over  his  followers,  referred  such  a  mat- 
 ter to  the  decision  of  such  a  body  1  Havinc  every- 
 where established  for  Syracuse  and  for  himself  a  su- 
 perintending authority,  which  rested  on  the  support  of  a 
 prevailing  party,  like  the  control  of  Athens  or  Lace- 
 da;mon  over  their  allies,  'I'imoleon  sought  to  restore 
 good  order,  abundance,  and  population  to  the  long-af- 
 flicted island.  Syracuse  was  still  very  thinly  peopled, 
 and  it  was  torn  by  mutual  jealousy  between  the  rem- 
 nant of  the  ancient  Syracusans,  and  the  numerous  mer- 
 cenaries and  foreign  adventurers  who  had  been  re- 
 warded for  their  services  with  lands  and  houses,  and  ad- 
 mission to  all  the  rights  of  citizens.  At  one  time  the 
 struggle  ripened  to  a  civil  war,  of  which  we  know  not 
 the  circumstances  or  the  issue  ;  but  probably  it  was 
 suppressed  without  the  ruin  of  cither  party.  At  once 
 to  supply  the  void  in  the  city  and  to  strengthen  his  gov- 
 ernment by  a  body  of  adherents  who  owed  their  all  to 
 him,  Timoleon  invited  colonists  from  Greece,  and  set- 
 tled at  one  time  four  thousand  families  on  the  Svra- 
 cusan  territory,  and  on  a  neighbouring  plain  of  great 
 extent  and  fertility  no  less  than  ten  thousand.  Simi- 
 lar measures  were  adopted  in  many  of  the  other  cities 
 under  his  control.  He  revised  the  ancient  laws  of  Syr- 
 acuse, and  restored  them  with  amendments  skilfully 
 adapted  to  the  altered  state  of  the  commonwealth.  But 
 to  amalgamate  into  a  united  people  so  many  boilies  of 
 men  of  various  interests,  and  mostly  trained  to  war 
 and  violence,  was  a  work  only  to  be  accomplished  by 
 the  energy  of  one  able  man  ;  and  in  accomplishing  that 
 work,  Timoleon  was  both  enabled  and  obliged,  by  the 
 lawless  habits  of  his  followers,  to  exercise  an  authority 
 not  less  arbitrary  than  that  of  any  tyrant  he  had  over- 
 thrown. In  one  most  important  particular  he  is  supe- 
 rior, not  only  to  those  chiefs,  to  Gelon  and  Dionysius, 
 and  to  all  who  ever  held  like  pov^'er  in  Sicily,  but  jier- 
 haps  to  all,  with  the  single  exception  of  Washington, 
 who  have  ever  risen  to  the  highest  power  in  times  of 
 tumult ;  for  he  appears  to  have  directed  his  efforts 
 honestly  and  wisely  to  the  object,  not  of  establishing  a 
 dynasty  of  princes,  but  of  so  settling  the  government 
 and  training  the  people  that  they  should  be  able,  after 
 his  death,  to  govern  themselves  without  an  arl)itrary 
 leader.  He  died  highly  honoured  and  generally  be- 
 loved; and,  for  many  years  after  his  death,  the  whole 
 of  Sicily  continued  in  unusual  quiet  and  growing  pro.s- 
 perity.  Yet,  in  doing  justice  to  the  great  qualities  of 
 Timoleon,  and  the  sincerity  of  his  zeal  for  the  public 
 good,  we  cannot  but  own  that  he  was  unscrupulous  in 
 the  choice  of  means,  even  beyond  the  ordinary  laxity  of 
 political  morality  in  Greece,  and  that  his  fame  is  tar- 
 nished by  some  acts  of  atrocious  cruelty  and  of  gross  in- 
 justice. (Com. Ncp.,  Vit.  Timol. — l'lul.,Vii.  Timol. 
 — History  of  Greece  {Lib.  Us.  Kiioiri),  p.  119,  scq  ) 
 TiMOMACHUs,  a  painter  of  Byzantium,  who  flourish- 
 ed in  the  age  of  Caesar  the  Dictator,  and  executed  for 
 him  pictures  of  Ajax  and  Medea,  which  were  place<l 
 in  the  temple  of  Venus  Genetrix.  For  these  painting." 
 the  artist  received  80  talents.  (/V/w..  35,  11,  40. — 
 /(/.,  3.'),  4,  9.)  The  IMcdea  is  the  subject  of  an  epi- 
 gram in  the  Anthology.  {Anibcl.  Palat.,  P.  2,  p.  667.) 
 This  epigram  has  been  imitated  by  Ausonius,  in  the 
 22d  of  his  collection.  For  an  account  of  other  pieces 
 of  Timomachus,  consult  Sillig  {Dirl.  Art.,  s.  v.). 
 
 TiMON,  I.  a  disciple  of  Pyrrho.  who  flourished  in  the 
 time  of  Ptolemy  Phihublphus,  and  lived  to  the  age  of 
 90  years.  He  first  professed  philosophy  at  Chalcedon, 
 and  afterward  at  Athens,  where  he  remaiiu  d  till  his 
 death.  He  took  little  pains  to  invite  disciples  to  his 
 school,  and  seems  to  have  treated  the  opinions  and  dis- 
 putes of  the  philosophers  with  contempt  ;  for  he  wrote 
 a  poem  called  Silli,  in  which  he  inveighs  with  bitter 
 sarcasms  against  the  whole  body.  He  was  addicted  to- 
 intemperance.     With  him  terminated  the  succession. 
 
 1345 
 
TIMON. 
 
 Tl  M 
 
 of  the  public  professors  in  the  school  of  Pyrrho  The 
 fragments  of  Tiinon  were  edited,  in  1820,  by  W'olke, 
 Varsae.,  8vo,  and  in  1821,  by  Paul,  BcroL,  8vo.— II. 
 Surnamrd  the  Misanthrope,  was  a  native  of  the  bor- 
 ough of  Colyttus  in  Attica,  and  remarkable  for  the 
 whimsical  severity  of  his  temper,  and  his  haired  of 
 mankind.  Born  some  time  before  the  commencement 
 of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  it  is  possible  that  the  vices 
 and  crimes  of  which  he  vvas  an  eyewitness  during  this 
 period  of  trouble  may  have  contributed  to  the  develop- 
 ment of  that  morose  spirit  which  procured  for  him  the 
 surname  by  which  he  is  always  known.  It  appears 
 from  the  ancient  writers,  and  indirectly  from  the  testi- 
 mony of  Plato  himscK  {PhttdoJi,  p.  67,  cd.  1G02),  that 
 this  haired  tovvards  his  fellow-men  was  originally  exci- 
 ted by  the  false  and  ungrateful  conduct  of  others.  He 
 lavished  upon  those  around  him  a  large  fortune  in 
 presents  and  in  services  of  all  kinds,  and,  when  his 
 wealth  was  all  expended,  he  found  that  he  had  lost  not 
 only  his  property,  but  his  friends.  Misanthropy  then 
 succeeded  to  unbounded  liberality  ;  and,  shunning  the 
 society  of  his  fellow-men,  and  retiring  to  a  small  spot 
 of  ground  in  the  suburbs,  he  gave  himself  up  to  the 
 workings  of  an  irritated  and  deeply  disappointed  spirit ; 
 or,  if  ever  he  did  mix  on  any  occasion  with  the  busy 
 world  at  Athens,  it  was  only  to  applaud,  with  cruel 
 irony,  the  errors  and  follies  of  his  fellow-citizens. 
 Cold  and  repulsive  to  all  others,  he  appeared  to  take 
 a  lively  interest  in  the  young  Alcibiades  ;  but  it  was 
 only  because  he  saw  in  him  the  future  author  of  evil 
 to  his  country.  He  even  publicly  declared  the  mo- 
 lives  that  prompted  him  to  this  singular  attachment  ; 
 for,  happening  one  day  to  meet  Alcibiades  relurnino- 
 from  the  place  of  assembly,  accompanied  by  a  large 
 concourse,  in  place  of  turning  away  and  avoiding  him 
 as  he  avoided  others,  he  came  directly  up,  and,  grasp- 
 ing his  hand,  exclaimed,  '•  Go  on,  my  son  ;  you  do 
 ■^vell  to  augment  your  own  power,  for  you  are  only 
 augmenting  it  to  the  lasting  injury  of  these."  One 
 account  says  that  Timon,  having  subsequently  become 
 possessed  of  a  new  fortune,  probably  by  agriculture, 
 changed  to  a  complete  miser,  and  shut  himself  up,  to- 
 gether with  his  riches,  in  a  kind  of  tower,  which  was 
 -called,  for  a  long  time  afterward,  the  tower  of  Timon. 
 This  tradition  is  not,  it  is  true,  very  consistent  with  the 
 rank  which  Pliny  {  7,  19)  assigns  him  among  the  "  nur- 
 toreit  maximce  sapicntiie,''''  nor  with  the  apophthegm 
 ascribed  to  him  by  Stobaeus  {Serm.,  7.  p.  107),  that 
 "•  cupidity  and  avarice  are  the  cause  of  all  human  ills  ;" 
 but  nothing  ought  to  surprise  us  in  so  whimsical  a 
 character  ;  and  besides,  if  in  the  folly  of  avarice  we 
 see  nothing  of  the  sage,  we  certainly  sec  enough  of 
 the  misanthrope.  The  end  of  Timon  was  worthy  of 
 his  life.  Having  broken  a  limb  by  a  fall,  and  having, 
 in  his  aversion  for  his  fellow-men,  refused  all  assist- 
 ance, a  gangrene  set  in  and  he  died.  But  this  was 
 not  all.  Nature  herself  seems  to  have  seconded  the 
 iintenlions  of  Timon,  by  separating  him,  even  after 
 •death,  from  the  habitable  world  ;  for  his  tomb  having 
 been  erected  near  the  seashore,  the  ground  around  it 
 was  gradually  covered  l)y  the  water,  and  the  spot  thus 
 rendered  inaccessible.  The  character  of  Timon  is 
 made  a  frequent  subject  for  epigrams  in  the  Greek 
 Anthology,  and  many  sayings  of  his  are  quoted  by  the 
 ancient  writers.  The  two  following  are  the  best: 
 Timon,  after  having  renounced  the  society  of  his  fel- 
 low-men, still  kept  up  a  kind  of  intimacy  with  another 
 ■misanthrope  named  Apiinantus.  During  a  repast  in 
 which  they  were  celebrating  the  second  day  of  the 
 Anthesteria  (;\;ofc)i  Apimantus,  charmed  with  the  tete- 
 4-tete,  exclaimed,  "  Oh,  Timon  !  what  an  agreeable 
 supper!"  "Ay,"  replied  the  other,  "were  you  only 
 awav  !"  On  another  occasion,  the  people  of  Athens 
 were  surprised  to  sec  him  ascend  the  tribune,  and 
 waited  in  profound  silence  to  hear  what  he  would  say. 
 '  Athenians,"  exclaimed  the  new  orator,  "  I  have  a 
 1346 
 
 small  field,  and  in  this  field  a  fig-tree,  on  which  man/ 
 citizens  have  already  hung  them.sclvcs.  I  intend  now 
 to  build  a  house  on  this  spot,  and  wish  to  give  you 
 notice  before  I  begin,  in  order  that  if  there  be  any 
 more  of  you  who  intend  to  hang  yourselves,  you  ma\ 
 come  before  the  fig-tree  is  cut  down."  {Diog.  Laerl., 
 9,  112.  —  Suid.,  s.  V. — Leclerc,  in  Biogr.  Viriv.,  vol 
 4G,  p.  S'S,  scqq.) 
 
 TiMOPiuNEs,  a  Corinthian,  brother  to  Timoleon 
 lie  attempted  to  make  himself  tyrant  of  his  country 
 by  means  of  the  mercenary  soldiers  with  whom  he  had 
 fought  against  the  Argives  and  Clcomenes.  Timo- 
 leon wished  to  convince  him  of  the  impropriety  of  his 
 measures  ;  and,  when  he  found  him  unmoved,  he  caus- 
 ed him  to  be  assassinated.  {Vtd.  Timoleon,  at  the 
 commencement  of  the  article.) 
 
 TiMOTniius,  I.  a  poet  and  musician  of  Miletus,  born 
 446  B.C.  He  was  received  with  hisses  the  first  time 
 lie  exhibited  in  public  at  Athens,  and  farther  ajipiica- 
 tions  would  have  been  totally  abandoned,  had  not  Eu- 
 ripides discovered  his  abilities,  and  encouraged  him 
 to  follow  a  profession  in  which  he  aftorward  gained  so 
 much  applause.  According  to  Pausanias,  he  perfect 
 ed  the  cithara,  by  the  addition  of  four  new  strings  to 
 the  seven  which  it  had  before.  Suidas,  however, 
 states  that  it  had  nine  before,  and  that  Timotheus 
 only  added  two.  The  truth  appears  to  be  this  :  the 
 lyre  of  Terpander  had  seven  strings  ;  that  of  Phrynis.a 
 musical  opponent  of  Timotheus,  nine  strings  ;  and  that 
 of  Timotheus,  eleven.  Hence,  no  doubt,  the  remark 
 of  .Suidas,  that  the  last-mentioned  individual  added 
 only  two  strings.  As,  however,  the  two  strings  added 
 by  Phrynis  were  ordered  to  be  removed  by  a  public 
 decree,  Pausanias  might  say,  without  impropriety,  that 
 Timotheus  had  added  four  strings.  This  innovation 
 was  not  well  received  by  the  Lacedemonians,  and  it 
 was  condemned  by  a  decree,  vvhich  has  been  preserved 
 for  us  in  Boethius  {de  Miisica,  1,  1,  p.  1372,  cd.  Ba- 
 sil.,]570),  and  which  furnishes,  also,  a  good  specimen 
 of  Doric  prose.  {Maittaiic,  Dialectic.,  p.  38.5,  ed. 
 Sturz.)  The  decree  concludes  with  ordering  that  the 
 kings  and  the  ephori  do  publicly  reprimand  Timotheus, 
 and  compel  him  to  cut  off  the  newly-added  strings  ot 
 his  lyre,  and  come  back  to  the  old  number  of  seven. 
 Athcnasus  relates,  that  when  this  decree  was  on  the 
 point  of  being  carried  into  execution,  Timotheus  show- 
 ed the  Laccdsemonians  that  they  had  in  their  own  city 
 a  small  image  of  Apollo  holding  a  lyre  which  had  ex- 
 actly the  same  number  of  strings  as  his  own,  and  that, 
 upon  this,  he  was  acquitted.  {Alhenaus,  14,  p.  636, 
 e.  f.)  His  new  system  of  music  met  with  numerous 
 adversaries  throughout  Greece  ;  and  Plutarch  and 
 Athenreus  have  preserved  many  of  the  sarcasms  that 
 were  launched  at  him  in  consequence  by  the  comic 
 poets  of  the  day.  All  these  attacks,  however,  only 
 served  to  confirm  the  reputation  of  the  musician.  Af- 
 ter having  distinguished  himself  in  most  of  the  Gre- 
 cian cities,  Timotheus  retired  to  Macedonia,  to  the 
 court  of  King  Archelaiis,  where  he  died  at  a  very  ad- 
 vanced age,  two  years  before  the  birth  of  Alexander 
 the  Great.  Timotheus  composed  pieces  in  almost 
 every  department  of  poetry.  A  hymn  in  honour  of 
 Diana  obtained  for  him  a  very  large  sum  of  nione^ 
 from  the  Ephesians,  for  whom  he  had  composed  u. 
 The  ancients  cite  his  Names,  his  Proems  or  preludes, 
 eighteen  Dithyrambics.,  twenty -one  Hymns,  two  Poems, 
 entitled  Dana'e  and  Serncle ;  four  Tragedies,  &c.  We 
 have  merely  a  few  fragments  of  his  productions  re- 
 maining. They  are  given  by  Grotius,  in  his  E.xcrrpt.i 
 ex  tragmdiis  et  comccdiis  Grcccis,  <^-c.,  Paris,  1626, 
 4to.  {Rccherchcs  sur  la  Vie  de  Timolhee,  par  Bu- 
 rette.— Mem.,  de  VAcad.  des  Inscr.,  vol.  10. —  Weiss, 
 Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  46,  p.  92,  scqq) — H.  A  celebrated 
 musician,  a  native  of  Thebes  in  Bocotia.  He  was  one 
 of  those  who  were  invited  to  attend  at  the  celebration 
 of  the  nuptials  of  Alexander  the  Great.     He  excelled 
 
TI  R 
 
 TIR 
 
 particularly  in  playing  on  the  flute  ;  and  his  perform- 
 ance IS  said  to  have  animated  the  monarch  in  so  jiow- 
 erful  a  degree,  that  he  started  up  and  seized  his  arms; 
 an  incident  winch  Dryden  has  so  bcantifnliy  intro- 
 duced into  English  poetry.  {Burctlc, licchcrchcs,  SfC. 
 —  Wass,  Biogr.  Unio.,  vol.  46,  p.  93.)— III.  An  Athe- 
 nian commander,  son  of  Conoii,  inherited  the  valour 
 and  aliilitics  of  his  father.  In  375  B.C.  he  gained  a 
 signal  victory  over  the  Laccd-nHnioniiin  fleet  olf  (,'or- 
 cyra,  and  made  himself  master  of  this  island.  Then 
 directing  his  course  towards  Thrace,  he  took  several 
 important  cities  in  this  quarter,  and  afterward  deliv- 
 ered Cy/.icns  from  the  foe.  He  subsequently  shared 
 the  connnand  of  the  fleet  with  Iphicrates.  The  hitler, 
 having  wished  to  attack  the  cncinv  during  a  violent 
 lcin])est,  and  not  obtaining  the  consent  of  Timotheus 
 to  so  hazardous  a  stop,  caused  him  to  be  brought  to 
 trial  at  Athens.  Timotheus  was  condemned  to  pay 
 a  fine  of  100  talents  ;  but,  being  unable  to  raise  so 
 large  a  sum,  he  retired  to  Chalcis,  where  he  ended  his 
 days.  Mis  disinteresledness  equalled  his  courage  and 
 military  talents.  He  never  ap[)ropriated  to  himself 
 any  portion  of  the  booty  taken  from  the  foe.  On  one 
 occasion  he  paid  into  the  public  treasury  1300  talents. 
 There  existed  a  very  close  intimacy  between  Timo- 
 theus and  Plato.  {Corn.  Nep  ,  in  Vit. — JElian,  V. 
 H;  2,  10.— ^schin.,  vol.  1,  p.  247,  cd.  Reiskc.  —  Cic, 
 Off.,  I,  32.-7;/.,  dc  Oral.,  3,  34  ) 
 
 TiNGis,  the  capital  of  Mauritania  Tingitana,  on  the 
 northwestern  coast  of  Africa,  and  a  short  distance  to 
 the  east  of  the  Ampelusian  [jroinontory.  It  was  fa- 
 bled to  have  been  built  by  the  giant  Antaeus.  Serto- 
 rius  took  it  ;  and  as  the  tomb  of  the  founder  v^as  near 
 the  place,  he  caused  it  to  be  opened,  and  found  in  it  a 
 skeleton  si.v  cubits  long.  Some  editions  of  Plutarch 
 read  f-^r/KovTa  (GO)  instead  of  pf  (6) ;  the  latter,  how- 
 ever, is  decidedly  the  true  reading.  Plutarch  copies 
 here,  according  to  Srrabo,  the  fable  of  Gabinius  re- 
 specting the  stature  of  Antnniis. — The  modern  name 
 of  the  [ilace  is  Tangier.  {Mela,  I,  5. — Id.,  2,  6. — 
 Plin,  5,  1.) 
 
 TiPHVs,  the  [)ilot  of  the  ship  of  the  Argonauts,  was 
 son  of  Ilagnius,  or,  according  to  some,  of  Phorbas. 
 He  died  before  the  Argonauts  reached  Colchis,  at  the 
 court  of  Lycus,  in  the  Propontis,  and  Erginus  was 
 rho.<en  in  his  place.  {Apollod.,  I,  9. — Hijgin.,  fab., 
 14,  18.) 
 
 TiKEsT.*s,  a  celebrated  prophet  of  Thebes,  son  of 
 Eneros  and  the  nymph  Ciiariclo,  of  the  race  of  Udaeus, 
 one  of  the  Sparti.  {Vid.  Sparti.)  Various  accounts 
 are  given  as  to  the  cause  of  his  blindness  ;  one  as- 
 cribes it  to  his  having  seen  Minerva  bathing  {Phere- 
 cyd.,  np.  Apollod  ,  3,  (5,  7.  —  Callim.,  Lav.  Pall.,  75, 
 sf'/q.)  ;  another  to  his  having  divulged  to  mankind  the 
 secrets  of  the  gods.  {Apollod.,  I.  c  )  The  Melam- 
 podia  related  that  Tiresias,  happening  to  see  two  ser- 
 pents together  on  Mount  Cithairon,  killed  the  female, 
 and  was  suddenly  changed  into  a  woman.  In  this 
 stale  he  continued  for  seven  years;  at  ihe  end  of 
 which  period,  observing  two  sorpcnls  similarly  cir- 
 cumstanced, he  killed  the  male,  and  thus  returned  to 
 iiis  pristine  state.  On  some  occasion,  Jupiter  and  Ju- 
 no fell  into  a  dispute  as  to  which  derived  more  pleas- 
 ure from  the  conjugal  state,  the  male  or  female.  Un- 
 able to  settle  it  to  their  satisfaction,  they  agreed  to 
 refer  the  matter  to  Tiresias,  who  had  known  both 
 slates.  His  answer  was,  that  of  ten  parts  but  one 
 falls  to  man.  Juno,  incensed  at  this,  deprived  the 
 guiltless  arbitrator  of  the  power  of  vision.  Jupiter 
 thereupon,  as  one  god  cannot  undo  the  acts  of  another, 
 gave  him,  in  compensation,  an  extent  of  life  for  seven 
 aenerations.  and  the  power  of  foresccingcoming  events. 
 — Tiresias  lived  at  Thebes,  where  ho  was  contempo- 
 rary with  nil  the  events  of  the  limes  of  Laius  and 
 CEdipus.  and  the  two  Theban  wars.  At  the  conclu- 
 sion of  the  last  he  recommended  the  Thcbans  to  aban- 
 
 don their  city,  and  he  was  the  companion  of  their 
 flight.  It  was  still  niglit  when  they  arrived  at  the 
 fountain  of  'l"il[ihussa.  Tiresias,  whose  period  of  life 
 was  fated  to  be  coextensive  with  that  of  the  city  of 
 the  Cadmeans,  drank  of  its. waters,  and  immediately 
 di(M].  The  victorious  Argives  sent  his  daughter  Man- 
 to,  along  with  a  portion  oi  the  spoil,  to  Delphi,  accord- 
 ing to  the  vow  which  they  had  made.  In  obedience 
 to  the  conmiand  of  the  oracle,  Manlo  afterward  went 
 thence,  an<],  marrying  Khakios  of  Mycenaj  or  Crete, 
 founded  the  town  and  oracle  of  Clarus.  She  bore  to 
 Khakios  (or,  as  others  said,  to  .•\[)ollo)  a  son  named 
 Mopsus,  a  celebrated  prophet.  {Sr.lwl.  ad  Apollou. 
 Rhod  ,  1,  308. — Pausa7i  ,  7,  ^i  —Tzi:/::  ad  Lycopkr., 
 980.) — The  name  Tiresias  {Teiptaiac)  is  apparently 
 derived  from  Ttpar  (old  form  Tslpar).  a  prodiin/,  and 
 that  of  his  daughter  from  jiuvrir.  {Kaglitlcy's  My 
 ihology,  p.  344,  acq.) 
 
 TiRiDATEs,  a  monarch  of  Parthia,  raised  to  the 
 throne  afier  Phraaics  had  been  e.xpelled  for  his  cruel- 
 ty and  oppression.  Tiridates,  however,  upon  learning 
 that  Phraates  vvas  marching  against  him  with  a  nu- 
 merous army  of  Scvthians,  fled  with  the  infant  son  of 
 Phraates  to  Augustus.  Augustus  restored  his  son  to 
 Phraaies,  but  refused  to  deliver  up  Tiridates.  {Vid. 
 Parthia.) 
 
 Tiro,  M.  TuUius,  a  frecdman  of  Cicero's,  held  in 
 high  esteem  by  his  master,  and  made  evenlu:illy  his 
 j)rivate  secretary  and  the  superintendent  of  all  his 
 affairs.  He  performed  many  important  services  for 
 Cicero,  and  received  from  the  liberality  of  his  grateful 
 master  a  small  rural  domain,  where  he  passed  the  rest 
 of  his  days  in  retirement.  Tiro  wroie  a  Biography  of 
 Cicero,  now  lost  ;  and  made  a  collection  of  his  bons 
 mots  (joci)  in  three  books.  This  has  shared  the  fate 
 of  his  other  work.  He  was  the  author,  likewise,  of 
 several  other  works  ;  and  a  passage  in  one  of  Cicero's 
 letters  {Ep.  ad.  Fam.,  16,  18)  gives  us  reason  to  sup- 
 [)Ose  that  he  had  attempted,  among  other  things,  even 
 tragic  composition.  It  is  to  the  care  of  Tiro  that  we 
 are  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  the  letters  of  Ci- 
 cero. To  him,  likewise,  is  attributed  the  invention  of 
 stenography  or  short-hand  writing.  This  is  hardly  cor- 
 rect. He  would  merely  seem  to  have  reduced  to  a 
 more  perfect  system  an  art  which  had  existed  long 
 before.  The  poet  Ennius  was  the  lirst  who  used  this 
 manner  of  writing.  Isidorus  ascribes  to  him  the  in- 
 vention of  the  art  ;  in  all  likelihood,  however,  he 
 merely  borrowed   it  from  the  Greeks.     {Isid.,  Orig., 
 
 1,  21,  1. —  Wci.^s,  in  Biogr.   Univ.,  vol.  40,  p.  128, 
 seq.) 
 
 TiRVNs  or  TiRYNTHUS,  a  city  of  Argclis,  northeast 
 of  Argos,  and  about  twelve  stadia  from  Nau[)lia.  It 
 was  celebrated  for  its  massive  walls,  and  is  sai-d  to  have 
 been  founded  by  King  Proetus,  brother  of  Acrisnis, 
 who,  as  Sirabo  reports,  employed  for  the  construction 
 of  his  citadel  workmen  from  Lycia.  These  are  the 
 Cyclopes,  or  (3hirogastcres  as  thev  are  sometimes  call- 
 ed, who  built  the  treasury  of  Atrous,  and  the  great 
 doorway,  which  is  still  to  be  seen  at  .Mycciu-e.  The 
 poets  have  also  ascribed  to  them  the  consirnction  ol 
 the  walls  of  Argos.  {Slrah.,  373. — Apollod.,  2,  2,  1. 
 Eus-iaih.  ad  II. ,  2,  p.  286.) — Proetus  was  succeeded 
 by  Perseus,  who  transmitted  Tiryns  to  his  descendant 
 Eleclryon.  Alcmena,  the  daughter  of  this  prince,  was 
 married  to  Amphitryon,  on  whom  the  crown  would 
 have  devolved  had  he  not  been  expelled  by  Sthonelus 
 of  Argos.  His  son  Hercules,  however,  afterward  re- 
 gained possession  of  his  inheritance,  whence  he  de- 
 rived the  name  of  Tirynthius.  {Hes.,  Here.  Scut.,  81. 
 —Apollod.,  2,  4,  r-,—Ptnd.,  01. ,  10,  37.— Id.,  Islhm., 
 6,  39.)  This  hero,  after  the  murder  of  Iphitus,  fled 
 from  Tirvns,  and  retired  into  the  Trachinian  country. 
 Homer  represents  the  city  of  Tiryns  as  subject  to  the 
 kint's  of  .\rgos  at  the  lime  of  ihc  Trojan  war.     (//., 
 
 2,  559  )     But  it  was  afterward  destroyed  by  the  .\t 
 
 1347 
 
TIT 
 
 TIT 
 
 gives,  probably  about  the  same  lime  with  the  city  of 
 ftlycena;.  Strabo  reports  that,  on  abandoning  their 
 homes,  the  Tirynlliians  retired  to  the  neighbouring 
 town  of  Eijidaorus,  (Shah..  373.)  But  Pausaiiias 
 affirms  that  the  greater  part  were  removed  to  Argos. 
 The  last-mcnlioiied  writer  describes  the  remains  of  the 
 wails  of  Tiryns  as  exliibiting  a  specimen  of  remarkably 
 solid  masonry,  ((compare  Dodwcll,  Tour,  vol.  2,  p. 
 250. — Gel!,  Ilin.  of  /he  Morea  and.  Argolis.) — Sir  W. 
 Gell  (Itin.  of  Argolis,  p.  1G9)  corrects  an  error  of 
 D'Anville  with  regard  to  this  place.  '•  A  mistake," 
 he  observes,  "  occurs  on  the  subject  of  Tiryns,  and  a 
 place  named  by  him  Valhia,  but  of  which  nothing  can 
 be  understood.  It  is  possible  that  Valhi,  or  the  pro- 
 found valley,  may  be  a  name  sometimes  used  for  the 
 Valley  of  Burhitsa,  and  that  the  place  named  Claustra 
 bv  D'Anville  may  be  the  outlet  of  that  valley,  called 
 Klcisour,  which  has  a  corresponding  signification." 
 
 TiRVNTHiA,  a  name  given  to  Alcinena,  as  being  a 
 native  of  Tiryns.     (  FiVZ.  Tiryns.) 
 
 TisAMENus,  a  son  of  Orestes  and  Hermione  the 
 daughter  of  Mcnelaus,  who  succeeded  on  the  throne  of 
 Argos  and  Laccdajmon.  The  Heraclidae  entered  his 
 kingdom  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign,  and  he  was 
 obliged  to  retire  with  his  fanrilv  into  Achaia.  He  was 
 some  time  after  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  lonians 
 near  Helice.     (Apollod.,  2,  7. — Paicsan.,  3,  1.) 
 
 TisiPHONE,  one  of  the  Furies.     {Vid.  Furice.) 
 
 Tissaphernes,  a  satrap  of  Persia,  commander  of 
 part  of  the  forces  of  Arlaxer.ves  at  the  battle  of  Cu- 
 na?ca  against  Cyrus,  and  the  one  who  first  gave  infor- 
 mation to  Artaxerxcs  of  the  designs  of  his  brother. 
 He  afterward  obtained  a  daughter  of  Artaxerxes  in 
 marriage,  and  all  the  provmces  over  which  (^yrus  had 
 been  governor.  This  was  the  same  Tissaphernes  who 
 seized  Alcibiadcs,  and  sent  him  prisoner  to  Sardis,  af- 
 ter the  naval  victory  which  the  latter  had  gained  over 
 the  Laceda;monians.  Tissa[)hernes  was  afterward  de- 
 feated by  Agesilaus,  upon  which  the  King  of  Persia 
 sent  Tithraustcs,  another  satrap,  against  him,  who  cut 
 oflF  his  head.  {Plul.,  Vit.  Alcib.—Jd.,  Vit.  Ages.— 
 Xen.,  Anab.,  1,  2.) 
 
 Titan  or  Titanus,  I.  a  son  of  Coelus  (or  Uranus) 
 and  Vesta  (or  Terra),  brother  to  Saturn  and  Hyperion. 
 He  was  the  eldest  of  the  children  of  Coelus  ;  but  he 
 gave  his  brother  Saturn  the  kingdom  of  the  world,  pro- 
 vided he  raised  no  male  children.  When  the  births 
 of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and  Pluto  were  concealed  from 
 liim.  Titan,  on  discovering  the  deception,  made  war 
 Hgainst  Saturn,  and  imprisoned  him  til!  he  was  replaced 
 on  his  throne  by  his  son  Jupiter.  (Lactantius,  de  Fals. 
 Rel.,  1,  14.)  This  legend  differs,  it  will  be  perceived, 
 from  the  ordinary  one,  as  given  under  the  article  Ti- 
 tancs. — n.  A  name  applied  to  the  sun,  as  the  offspring 
 of  Hyperion,  one  of  the  Titans.  {TibulL,  4,  1,  50. — 
 Virg.,  JEn.,  4,  118.) — HI.  An  epithet  sometimes  ap- 
 plied to  Prometheus  by  rhe  poets.  (Soph.,  CEd.  Col., 
 5fi. — Juvenal,  14,  34. — Vid.  Prometheus.) 
 
 TiTANEs,  a  name  given  to  the  sons  of  Coelus  (or 
 Uranus)  and  Terra.  They  were  six  males,  Oceanus, 
 C^oios,  Crios,  Hyperion,  lapetus,  and  the  youngest  of 
 them  Cronus  ;  and  six  females,  Theia,  llheia  (or 
 Rhea),  Themis,  Mnemosyne,  Phoebe,  and  Tethys. 
 These  children,  according  to  the  commonly-received 
 legend,  were  hated  by  their  father,  who,  as  soon  as 
 lliey  were  born,  thrust  them  out  of  sight  into  a  cavern 
 of  Earth,  who,  grieved  at  his  unnatural  conduct,  pro- 
 duced the  "  substance  of  hoary  steel,"  and,  farming 
 from  it  a  sickle,  roused  her  children,  the  Titans,  to  re- 
 bellion against  him  ;  but  fear  seized  on  them  all  ex- 
 «;ept  Saturn  (Cronus),  who,  lying  in  wait  with  the  sickle 
 with  which  his  mother  had  armed  him,  mutilated  his 
 unsuspecting  sire.  The  drops  which  fell  on  the  earth 
 from  the  wound  gave  birth  to  the  Erinnyes.  the  Giants, 
 end  the  Meban  nymphs  :  from  what  fell  into  the  sea 
 sprung  Aphrodite  or  Venus,  the  goddess  of  love  and 
 1348 
 
 beauty.  When  SatJirn  succeeded  his  father  he  mar- 
 ried Rhea  ;  but  he  devoured  all  his  male  children,  an 
 he  had  been  informed  by  an  oracle  that  he  should  be 
 dethroned  by  them  as  a  punishment  for  his  cruelly  to 
 his  father.  The  wars  of  the  Titans  against  the  gods 
 are  very  celebrated  in  mythology.  They  are  often 
 confounded  with  that  of  the  Giants  ;  but  it  is  to  be  ob- 
 served that  the  war  of  the  Titans  was  against  Saturn, 
 and  that  of  the  Giants  against  Jupiter. — Pczron  {Anli- 
 quilc  dcs  Ccllcs)  indulges  in  some  whimsical  remarks 
 on  the  subject,  and  makes  the  Celtae  to  be  the  same 
 with  the  Titans,  and  their  princes  the  same  with  the 
 Giants  in  Scripture.  According  to  him,  the  .Titans 
 were  the  descendants  of  Gomer,  the  son  of  Japhet. 
 He  adds  that  the  word  Titan  is  perfect  Celtic,  and  he 
 derives  it  from  tit,  earth,  and  den  or  ten,  man  ;  and 
 hence,  he  says,  the  reason  of  the  Greek  appellation  of 
 yijyevdc,  or  earlhlorn,  which  was  applied  to  them. 
 The  Titans,  according  to  Bryant,  were  those  Cushites, 
 or  sons  of  Chus,  called  Giants,  who  built  the  Tower  of 
 Babel,  and  were  afterward  dispersed. — Constant  re- 
 gards the  legend  of  the  gods  and  the  Titans  as  the 
 tradition  of  a  warfare  between  two  rival  religious  sects, 
 the  Titans  being  considered  by  him  as  having  wor- 
 shipped the  elements  and  stars.  {Constant,  de  la  Re- 
 ligion, vol.  2,  p.  315.) — The  best  solution,  however, 
 appears  to  be  that  which  makes  the  Titans  mere  per- 
 sonifications of  the  elements,  and  their  warfare  with 
 the  gods  an  allegorical  picture  of  the  angry  collisions 
 of  the  elements  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world. 
 (Compare  Hermann  und  Creuzer,  Brief e,  p.  158.) 
 
 TiTANHiEs,  the  daughters  of  Ccelus  and  Terra. 
 {Vid.  Titanes,  where  their  names  are  given  ) 
 
 TiTAREsius,  a  river  of  Thessaly,  called  also  Euro- 
 tas,  flowing  into  the  Peneus  a  little  above  the  vale  of 
 Tempo.  The  waters  of  the  two  rivers  did  not,  how- 
 ever, mingle  ;  as  those  of  the  Peneus  were  clear  and 
 limpid,  while  those  of  the  Titaresius  were  impregnated 
 with  a  thick  unctuous  substance,  which  floated  like  oil 
 upon  the  surface.  {Strabo,  441.)  Hence  the  fabu- 
 lous account  of  its  being  a  branch  of  the  infernal  Styx. 
 {Horn  ,  II..  2,  751. — Lucan,  6,  375.)  It  is  now  the 
 Saranta  Poros.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p. 
 369.) 
 
 TiTHONUs,  a  son  of  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy,  by 
 Strymo,  the  daughter  of  the  Scamander.  He  was  so 
 beautiful  that  Aurora  became  enamoured  of  him  and 
 carried  him  away.  She  now  besought  Jove  to  beslow 
 on  him  immortality.  The  sovereign  of  Olympus  as- 
 sented, and  Tilhonus  became  exempt  from  death  ;  but 
 the  love-sick  goddess,  having  forgotten  to  iiave  youth 
 joined  in  the  gift,  began,  with  time,  to  discern  old  age 
 creeping  over  the  visage  and  limbs  of  her  beautiful 
 consort.  When  she  saw  his  hairs  blanching,  she  ab- 
 stained from  his  bed,  but  still  kept  him,  and  treated 
 hiin  with  fond  attention,  in  her  palace  on  the  eastern 
 margin  of  the  Ocean  stream,  "giving  him  ambrosial 
 food  and  fair  garments."  But  when  he  was  no  longer 
 able  to  move  his  limbs,  she  deemed  it  the  wisest  course 
 to  shut  him  up  in  his  chamber,  whence  his  feeble  voice 
 was  incessantly  heard.  {Horn.,  Hymn,  iyi  Ven.,  218, 
 scqq  )  Later  poets  say  that,  out  of  compassion,  she 
 turned  him  into  a  cicada  {tetti^).  {Sekol.  ad  II.,  11. 
 1.  —  Tzetz.  ad  Lycophr.,  18.)  Mcmnon  and  JEnm- 
 thion  were  the  children  whom  Aurora  bore  to  Titho- 
 nus.     {Keighlleifs  Mythology,  p.  63.) 
 
 TiTHORi^A,  a  city  on  Mount  Parnassus,  called  also 
 Neon,  for  the  name  of  Tithorea  was  only  properly  aj)- 
 plied  to  one  of  the  peaks  of  Parnassus.  {Herod.,  8, 
 32.  —  Strabo,  439.)  This  place,  as  we  learn  from 
 Herodotus,  was  taken  and  burned  by  the  army  of 
 Xerxes  (8,  33).  In  its  vicinity,  Philomelus,  the  Pho- 
 cian  general,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Thebans. 
 {Pausan..  10,  2.) — Delphi  and  Tithorea,  on  different 
 sides  of  the  mountain,  were  the  halting  places  of  those 
 passing  over  Parnassus,  at  the  distance  of  SO  stadia 
 
TIT 
 
 TITUS. 
 
 from  each  other  ;  being  situate  as  the  towns  of  Aostc 
 in  Piedmont,  and  Mariinac/i  in  llie  Vallais,  are  with 
 regard  to  Mont  St.  Bernard.  The  whole  district  on 
 the  southern  side  was  the  Delphic  ;  while  all  the  coun- 
 try on  the  northern  side  received  its  name  I'romTitho- 
 rea.  The  olives  of  this  city  were  so  highly  esteemed 
 that  they  were  conveyed  as  presents  to  the  Roman 
 emperors  ;  they  still  maintain  their  ancient  reputation, 
 being  sent  as  an  acceptable  offering  to  the  pashas  and 
 other  grandees  of  Turkey.  The  ruins  of  Tithorea 
 were  first  observed  by  Dr.  Clarke,  near  the  modern 
 village  of  Vilttza.  "  We  arrived,"  says  that  traveller, 
 "at  the  walls  of  Tithorea,  extending  in  a  surprising 
 manner  up  the  prodigious  precipice  of  Parnassus, 
 which  rises  behind  the  village  of  Vclilza.  These  re- 
 mains are  visible  to  a  considerable  height  upon  the 
 rocks."  {Travels,  vol.  7,  p.  274. — Compare  Dodwcll, 
 Tour,  vol.  2,  p.  139.  — Ct/rs  Itin.,  p.  214.) 
 
 TrrnR.^usTEs,  a  Persian  satrap,  B.C.  395,  ordered 
 by  Arta.\er.\es  to  put  to  death  Tissaphernes.  {Vid. 
 Tissaphernes.) 
 
 TiTi.iNL's,  Julianus,  a  Latin  geographical  writer, 
 who  flourished  about  the  commencement  of  the  third 
 century.  Julius  Capitolinus  informs  us  that  he  was 
 called  ■'  the  ape  of  his  lime,"  from  his  possessing,  in  a 
 high  degree,  the  talent  of  imitation.  From  a  passage 
 in  Sidonius  Apolhnaiis  (1,  1)  v^'e  learn  in  what  this 
 imitation  consisted.  Titianus  imitated  the  style  of  the 
 writers  of  antiquity.  Thus  he  took  Cicero  for  his 
 model  in  the  letters  which  he  published  under  the 
 names  of  certain  illustrious  females.  {Scholl,  Hist. 
 Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  246.) 
 
 TiTORMUs,  a  herdsman  remarkable  for  his  strength, 
 in  which  he  is  said  to  have  far  surpassed  even  Milo. 
 The  latter  having  met  him  on  one  occa.sion,  and  having 
 observed  his  great  size  of  body,  wished  to  make  trial  of 
 his  strength  ;  but  Titormus  declined  at  first,  saying 
 that  he  was  not  possessed  of  much  power  of  body.  At 
 length,  however,  descending  into  the  river  Evenus,  he 
 selected  a  stone  of  enormous  size,  and  for  three  or  four 
 times  in  succession  drew  it  towards  him  and  then 
 pushed  it  back  again.  After  this  he  raised  it  up  as 
 high  as  his  knees,  and  finally  took  it  up  on  his  shoul- 
 ders and  carried  it  for  some  distance ;  at  last  he  flung 
 it  from  him.  Milo,  on  the  other  hand,  could  with  dif- 
 ficulty even  roll  the  same  stone.  Titormus  gave  a 
 second  proof  of  his  vast  strength  by  going  to  a  herd 
 of  cattle,  seizing  a  bull,  the  largest  of  the  whole  num- 
 ber, and  fierce  withal,  by  the  foot,  and  holding  it  so 
 firmly  that  it  could  not  escape.  Having  then  grasped 
 atjother  one,  while  in  the  act  of  passing,  with  the  other 
 hand,  he  held  it  in  a  similar  manner.  Milo,  on  seeina 
 this,  raised  his  hands  to  the  heavens  and  exclaimed, 
 "  Oh,  Jupiter !  hast  thou  begotten  in  this  man  another 
 Hercules  for  asV  Hence,  says  ^-Elian,  came  the 
 common  expression,  "This  is  another  Hercules." 
 (.Elian,  Var.  Hist,  23,  "ii.— Herod.,  6,  127.  — Lu- 
 cian,  dc  conscrib.  Hist.,  p.  690. — Eastaih.  ad  Horn., 
 Od,  5,  p.  206.) 
 
 TiTUS  Fi.Avius  Vespasianus,  son  of  Vespasian, 
 succeeded  his  father  on  the  imperial  throne.  Previous 
 to  his  accession,  his  military  talents  had  been  proved 
 by  the  successful  issue  to  which  he  had  brought  the 
 .sancruinary  and  protracted  war  which  was  waged  with 
 the  Jews,  and  which  ended  in  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
 salem. At  the  close  of  the  Jewish  war  he  was  re- 
 ceived at  Rome  with  the  title  of  Cassar,  and  admitted 
 to  the  honour  of  a  joint  triumph  wilh  his  father  the 
 emperor.  He  soon  became  the  depositarv  of  all  pow- 
 er, and  the  source  of  the  executive  authoritv  in  all  its 
 branches  :  discharging  the  office  of  censor,  whicii  Ves- 
 pasian had  assumed,  and  even  watching  over  the  du- 
 ties of  priEtorian  prefect,  never  before  administered 
 but  by  a  Roman  knijjht.  The  only  stain  which  was 
 ever  attached  to  the  life  of  Titus  belongs  to  this  period 
 of  bis  history,  before  his  accession  to  sovereign  author- 
 
 ity, when  his  situation  drew  down  upon  him  all  the  in- 
 vidiousness  of  power,  without  supplying  him  with  the 
 means  of  securing  popular  affection.     He  is  accused 
 of  liaving  acted  in  some  cases  hastily  and   severeJy  ; 
 and  even   of  having  gratified  his  personal  resentment 
 by    condemning   officers   of  rank   to  an    ignominious 
 death.     He   is,  moreover,  charged    with  avarice  and 
 bribery  on  the   authority  of  Suetonius,  who  asserts, 
 that  those  who  had  causes  before  the  emperor  knew 
 how  to  obtain  a  favourable  hearing,  by  placing  a  suin 
 of  money  in  the  hands  of  the  Caesar.     He  had  given 
 offence,  too,  by  an  unwise  attachment   to  Berenice, 
 the  sister  of  King  Agrippa.   .(  F/ii.  Berenice  VII.)     In 
 a  word,  so  seriously  did  the  people  regard  these  frailties 
 in  the  character  of  their  prince,  that  they  anticipated  in 
 his  reign  a  renewal   of  the  flagitious,  tyrannical,  and 
 sanguinary  deeds  which  had  condemned  to  infamy  the 
 name  and  government  of  Nero.     But  from  the  hour 
 that  Titus  ascended   the  throne  of  his  father,  a  total 
 change  took  place  in  all  tliat  was  previously  vicious 
 and  objectionable  in  his  character.     He  discarded  all 
 the  ministers  of  his  loose  days,  and,  being  resolved  to 
 reform  the  state  of  public  morals,  began  by  reforming 
 himself.     Although  still  strongly  attached  to  the  beau- 
 tiful Berenice,  he  dismissed   her  to  her  own  country, 
 because  he    knew  that  such   a   connexion  was   disa- 
 greeable   to    the   senate   and    people.     He   abolished 
 also  the  law  of  treason,  under  the  sanction  of  which 
 so   many  acts  of  tyranny  had  been  committed  ;  and 
 he  not  only  discountenanced,  but  severely  punished, 
 all  spies  and  informers.     His   whole  time   was    now 
 devoted   to  the   duties  of  his    high   station,   and    his 
 chief  pleasure   consisted   in    rendering    services    and 
 kindnesses  to  his  friends  and  to  his  people.     His  be- 
 nevolence and  goodness  of  heart  would  doubtless  find 
 ample  scope  ;  yet  it  is  recorded  of  him,  that  one  even- 
 ing,  recalling    to  mind  the    events   of  the   day,   and 
 not   finding   that   he    had    done    anything    during   its 
 course  beneficial  to  mankind,  he  exclaimed  in  accents 
 of  regret,   "  My  friends,  I  hare  lost  a  day  /"     This 
 well-known  exclamation,  and  the  course  of  benevolent 
 deeds  by  which    it  was  accredited,  procured  for  him 
 the  truly  glorious  title  of  the  "  Delight  of  the  Human 
 Race"  (Delicia  huma)ii  generis). — A  fresh  war  which 
 broke  out  in  Britain  was  the  occasion  of  drawing  forth 
 the  extraordinary  qualities  of  Cnsus  Julius  Agricola, 
 who  pushed  his  conquests  far  into  the  country  ;  and 
 from  the  circumstance  of  some  soldiers,  who  had  beea 
 worsted  in  a  skirmish,  taking  to  their  bark,  and  being 
 driven  by  the  wind  and  tide  to  a  Roman  camp  on  a 
 distant  coast,  he  conceived  the  idea,  and   completed 
 the  discovery,  that  Britain  was   an  inland.     But  the 
 public  prosperity  was  clouded  by  a  terrible  convulsion 
 of  Nature — the  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius.     After 
 an  interval  of  extreme  heat  and  drought,  the    whole 
 plain  was   shaken,  as  in  an  earthquake,  with  a  sound 
 of  subterranean  thunder,  and  a  roaring  agitation  of  the 
 air  and  sea;  at  the  same  lime,  a  torrent  of  smoke  and 
 flame,  accompanied  by  showers  of  stones,  bursting  from 
 the  crater,  darkened  the  sun  like  an  eclipse.     Sudden- 
 ly a  column  of  black  ashes  rose  perpendicularly  into 
 the  air,  hovered   like  a  cloud,  and  fell  ;   and  in  its  fall 
 overwhelmed  the  towns  of  Ilcrcutaneum  and  Pompeii. 
 This  memorable  event   took   place  in   A.D.   79,  and 
 serves  to  give  a  melancholy  interest  to  the  first  year 
 of  Titus's  sovereignly.     The  dark  cloud  of  smoke  and 
 dust  carried  dismay  even  to  the  walls  of  the  capital. 
 The  darkness  which  sank  down  upon    the   city  terri- 
 fied the   inhabitants  of  Rome  to  such  a  degree,  that 
 many  of  them  threw  themselves,  with  their   families, 
 ii'to  ships  bound  for  Africa  and  Egvpt ;   imagining  that 
 Italy  was  about  to  atone  for  its  sins  by  enduring  tho 
 uttermost  wrath  of  the  gods.     A  pestilence  soon  af- 
 ter succeeded  at  Rome,  of  which  it  is  said  that  not 
 fewer  than   10,000  persons  died  daily  during  a  con- 
 siderable period.     This  malady  is  ascribed  by  histori- 
 
 1349 
 
TIT 
 
 TOL 
 
 nns  to  the  pollution  which  was  supposed  to  have  in- 
 fected the  air  in  consequence  of  the  eruption  of  the 
 mountain  ;  but  it  is  more  probable  that  it  originated 
 in  the  poverty  and  filth  occasioned  by  the  sudden  in- 
 crease made  to  the  population  of  the  capital,  when  the 
 Ingitivcs  from  the  runied  towns  and  villages  of  Cam- 
 pania sought  an  asylum  within  its  walls.  Such  mis- 
 lortuncs  wounded  deeply  the  compassionate  heart  of 
 Titus,  lie  fell,  says  Suetonius,  not  only  like  a  prince, 
 but  as  a  father,  for  the  sufferings  of  his  people,  and 
 spared  neither  labour  nor  expense  to  relieve  their  dis- 
 tress. Hastening  in  person  to  Campania  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  assisting  the  suO'erers  in  that  quarter,  Titus 
 was  recalled  lo  his  capital  by  another  frightful  calam- 
 ity. A  fire  broke  out  at  Koine,  which  raged  three 
 days  and  nights  with  the  greatest  violence,  destroying 
 an  immense  number  of  buildings  both  public  and  pri- 
 vate. Among  the  former  were  the  Pantheon,  the  Oc- 
 tavian  Library,  and  the  Capitol,  which  last  had  been 
 but  recently  rebuilt  after  the  demolition  which  it  had 
 sustained  at  the  hands  of  the  infuriated  Germans  du- 
 ring the  reign  of  Vitellius.  No  sooner  had  this  af- 
 flicting event  reached  the  ears  of  the  emperor,  than  he 
 made  known  his  determination  to  indemnify,  out  of  his 
 own  coffers,  all  the  losses  which  had  accrued  either  to 
 the  slate  or  individuals.  So  unwilling,  in  fact,  was 
 he  that  any  one  besides  himself  should  have  a  share  in 
 the  honour  of  relieving  the  fortunes  of  Rome,  that  he 
 is  said  lo  have  refused  the  contributions  which  were 
 offered  by  some  of  his  royal  allies,  by  other  cities  of 
 the  empire,  and  by  certain  of  the  richest  amoncr  the 
 nobility.  Such  was  now  the  constitution  of  Roman 
 society,  that  attention  to  the  amusements  of  the  lower 
 class  of  citizens  in  time  of  peace  had  become  no  less 
 essential  to  llie  tranquillity  of  the  empire  than  military 
 talents  during  the  pressure  of  war.  With  this  view 
 Titus  proceeded  to  finish  the  amphitheatre,  of  which 
 his  father  had  laid  the  foundation  ;  adding  to  it  baths 
 and  other  comforts  for  the  gratification  of  the  popu- 
 lace. This  was  the  famous  Colosseum,  or  Flavian 
 Amphitheatre,  the  remains  of  which,  at  the  present 
 day,  still  present  so  striking  a  feature  among  the  an- 
 tiquities of  Rome.  The  dedication  of  this  superb  edi- 
 fice was  celebrated  by  games  of  the  most  magnificent 
 character.  The  sports  lasted  a  hundred  days,  during 
 which  invention  was  racked  to  discover  new  modes  of 
 pleasing  the  eye,  and  of  stimulating  the  depraved  fan- 
 cy of  the  multitude.  It  was  observed  that,  on  the 
 last  day  of  the  games,  the  emperor  appeared  greatly 
 dejected,  and  even  shed  tears.  Hoping  that  his  nerves 
 would  be  strengthened  by  the  purer  air  of  the  country, 
 he  retired  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Reale,  whence  his 
 family  originally  sprang,  and  whither  he  was  accom- 
 panied by  bis  brother  Domitian.  A  fever  with  which 
 he  was  seized  was  unduly  checked  by  the  use  of  the 
 bath,  to  which  he  had  become  much  addicted  ;  and  it 
 is  addeil  by  Suetonius,  that  the  symptoms  of  the  dis- 
 ease were  greatly  aggravated  by  adopting  a  suggestion 
 of  Domitian's,  that  the  patient  should  be  put  into  a 
 tub  filled  with  snow.  Thus  died,  on  the  I'Jih  day  of 
 September,  A.D.  81,  Tilus,  in  the  same  house  where 
 liis  father  had  expired,  after  a  pacific  reign  of  two 
 years  and  nearly  three  months.  The  character  of  this 
 prince  has  been  given  in  the  history  of  his  actions  ; 
 and  his  name,  even  at  the  present  day,  conveys  to  the 
 reader  all  tho.se  ideas  of  justice,  clemency,  wisdom, 
 and  benevolence,  which  enter  into  the  conception  of  a 
 good  sovereign  ;  and  his  virtues  were  prized  still  more 
 highly  when  contrasted  with  the  violent  and  ungovern- 
 able temper  of  his  brother,  who  succeeded  him  on  the 
 throne.  {Suclon  ,  ViL  Tit. — Dto  Cass.,  60,  \b,scqq. 
 —  Enryclop.  McliupoL,  div.  3,  vol.  2,  p.  C()7,  seqq.) 
 
 TiTYUs,  a  celebrated  giant,  son  of  Terra  ;  or,  ac- 
 cording to  others,  of  Jupiter,  by  Elara,  the  daughter 
 of  Orchomenus.      Tityus  happened  lo  see  Latona,  on 
 one  occasion,  as  she  was  going  to  Delphi.     Inflamed 
 1350 
 
 with  love,  he  attempted  violence  ;  but  the  goddess 
 called  her  children  to  her  aid,  and  he  soon  lay  slain  by 
 their  arrows.  His  punishment,  however,  did  not  end 
 with  life.  He  lay  extended  in  Erebus,  covering  with 
 his  vast  frame  nine  entire  ^w^'cru,  while  a  vulture  kept 
 feeding  upon  his  liver  and  entrails,  which  were  con- 
 tinually reproduced.  {0(1.,  11,  576,  scyy. — Apollod., 
 1,  4,  l.  —  Virg.,  Mn.,  6,  mh.  —  8chol.  ad  Apollon. 
 Khvd.,  1,  761.)  Heyne  makes  Tityus  to  have  been 
 an  ancient  hero,  and  supposes  that  part  of  the  fable 
 which  relates  to  the  nine  acres  to  have  been  founded 
 on  the  circumstance  of  his  having  had,  after  death,  a 
 tumulus  of  vast  size  covering  his  remains.  {Anaqua- 
 rischcr  Aufsatze,  vol.  1,  p.  56.) 
 
 Thoi.us,  I.  a  broad  and  elevated  mass  of  mount- 
 ains in  Lydia,  which  sends  several  tributary  torrents 
 into  the  Hermus  on  the  one  side,  and  into  the  Cays- 
 ter  on  the  other,  and  divides,  in  fact,  the  valleys 
 through  which  those  two  rivers  flow.  It  was  said  to 
 derive  its  name  from  Timolus  or  Tniolus,  a  Lydian 
 king,  having  been  previously  called  Carmanorius. 
 {AucL.  dc  Fluv.  in  Paclol.)  This  mountain  was 
 much  celebrated  for  its  wine.  (Plin.,  5,  29. —  Virg., 
 Georg.,  2,  97. — Senec,  PhoEn.,  602.)  Hence  the  fre- 
 quent reference  to  it  in  the  Baccha)  of  Euripides  (v. 
 64,  55,  &c.).  It  appears  also  to  have  abounded  with 
 shrubs  and  evergreens  {Callrm.,  fragm  ,  93) ;  nor  was 
 it  less  noted  for  its  mineral  productions.  It  yielded 
 tin  ;  and  the  Paclolus  washed  from  its  cavities  a  rich 
 supply  of  golden  ore.  {Strah.,  610,  625.)  Strabo 
 reports,  that  on  the  top  of  Tmolus  there  was  a  watch- 
 tower  erected  by  the  Persians  ;  it  was  of  white  mar- 
 ble, and  commanded  an  extensive  view  of  the  sur- 
 rounding country.  Tmolus  is  now  called  Bouz  Daoh 
 by  the  'I'urks.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  441, 
 seqq. — Compare  ArundcU's  Asia  Mmor,  vol  1,  p  25, 
 34,  54.) — II.  A  city  of  Lydia,  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount 
 Tmolus.  According  to  Tacitus,  it  was  destroyed  by 
 an  earthquake  under  Tiberius.  {Ann.,  2,  47. — Com- 
 pare Niceph.  Call ,  1,  17.) 
 
 ToGATA,  an  epithei  applied  to  Cisalpine  Gaul,  where 
 the  inhabitants  wore  the  Roman  toga,  i.  e.,  enjoyed 
 the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship.  The  cities  of  Cisal- 
 pine Gaul  obtained  the  privilege  of  Latin  cities,  and, 
 consequently,  the  right  of  wearing  the  Roman  toga, 
 by  a  law  of  Pompeius  Slrabo,  about  A.U.G.  665.  (As- 
 con.,  Coinm.  in  Prison.,  p.  490. — Vid.  Gallia  Cisal- 
 pina.) 
 
 ToLETUM,  now  Toledo,  a  town  of  Hispania  Tarra- 
 conensis,  on  the  river  Tagus,  and  the  capilal  of  the 
 Carpetani.  According  to  Sylva  and  other  Spanish  his- 
 torians, this  city  was  founded  by  a  considerable  body 
 of  Jews,  who,  on  their  emancipation  from  captivity 
 540  years  before  the  vulgar  era,  established  them- 
 selves here,  and  called  the  place  Tolcdolh  or  Toledalh, 
 that  is,  mother  of  the  people.  This  is  all  a  mere  ta- 
 ble. Caisar  made  this  city  a  place  of  arms,  and  Au- 
 gustus rendered  it  one  of  the  seats  of  justice  in  Spain 
 Modern  Toledo  was  formerly  celebrated  for  the  ex 
 quisite  temper  of  its  sword-blades,  for  which,  accord- 
 ing to  some  of  the  ancient  writers,  Toletnm  was  also 
 famous.  {Plin.,  3,  4.— Pin.  Ant.,  438,  446— Gra/ 
 Falisc,  Cyneg.,  351.) 
 
 ToMSTOBOii,  one  of  the  Celtic  tribes  in  Galatia,  in 
 Asia  Minor.  Thev  occupied  that  portion  of  the  country 
 which  extended  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Sangarius 
 from  its  junction  with  the  Thymbris  to  its  source,  and 
 was  separated  from  Bithynia  by  that  river.  The  prin- 
 cipal town  of  this  tribe  was  Pessinus.  {Cramer  s  A.sia 
 Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  85.) 
 
 Toi.osA,  now  Toulouse,  a  town  of  Gallia  Naroonen- 
 sis,  which  became  a  Roman  colony  under  Augustus. 
 The  situation  of  Tolosa  was  very  favourable  for  trade, 
 and  under  the  Romans  it  became  tlie  centre  of  the 
 traffic  which  was  carried  on  between  the  Mediterrane- 
 an and  Atlantic  coasts  of  this  part  of  Gaul.     Minerva 
 
TOM 
 
 TR  A 
 
 had  a  rich  temple  there,  which  Cappio  the  consul  plun- 
 dered ;  and  as  he  was  never  after  fortunate,  the  words 
 aurum.  Tolosanum  became  proverbial.  Caepio  is  said 
 to  have  plundered  15,000  talents.  This  wealth  seems 
 to  have  belonged,  for  the  most  part,  to  private  individ- 
 uals, who  had  placed  it  in  the  temple  for  safe  keep- 
 ing.    {Mela,  2,  b.—  Cic,  N.  D.,  3,  20.—Ca:s.,  B.  G., 
 
 ToLUMNias.      Vid.  l^ars  Tolumnius. 
 
 Tom.Xrus,  a  mountain  of  Epirus,  on  the  declivity 
 or  at  the  foot  of  which  stood  the  celebrated  Dodo- 
 Ha.  Calliinachiis  {Ilyinn.  in  Cer.,  52)  calls  it  Tma- 
 rus.  Pliny  (4,  1),  on  the  authority  of  Thcopoinpus, 
 assigns  it  a  hundred  springs  around  its  base.  Cramer 
 makes  it  the  same  with  the  modern  Mount  Chamouri. 
 (Consult  remarks  under  the  article  Dodona,  page  451, 
 col.  1,  and  also  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  115, 
 seqq.) 
 
 ToMOs  or  ToMi,  a  town  situate  on  the  western  shores 
 of  the  Eu.vine  Sea,  about  36  miles  below  the  mouths 
 of  the  Danube.  The  name  was  fabled  by  the  Greek 
 mythologists  to  have  been  derived  from  To^oq,  "a  cut- 
 ting''' or  "  separation."  because  Mcdca  had  here,  as 
 they  maintained,  cut  to  pieces  her  brother  Absyrtus, 
 and  strewed  his  remains  along  the  road  in  order  to 
 stop  her  father's  pursuit.  (Vid.  Ovidius,  page  949, 
 col.  2.)  Tomi  is  still  called  Tomesioar,  though  some- 
 times otherwise  styled  Balin.  It  is  celebrated  as  be- 
 ing the  place  where  Ovid  was  banished  by  Augustus. 
 {lid.  Ovidius,  page  949,  col.  1.) 
 
 TojivRis,  a  queen  of  the  Massagetas  in  the  time  of 
 Cyrus  the  Great.  The  Persian  nionarch  sent  ambas- 
 sadors to  her,  asking  her  hand  in  marriage  ;  but  the 
 Scythian  queen,  well  aware  that  the  king  was  more 
 an.xious  for  the  crown  of  the  Massagctae  than  the  pos- 
 session of  her  own  person,  interdicted  his  entrance 
 into  her  territories.  Cyrus  thereupon  marched  openly 
 against  the  Massagetas,  and  began  to  construct  a 
 bridge  over  the  river  Araxes.  While  he  was  thus  em- 
 ployed, Tomyris  sent  an  ambassador,  recommending^ 
 liim  to  desist  from  his  enterprise;  but  adding  that,  if 
 he  still  persisted  in  his  design,  the  Scythian  forces 
 would  retire  for  three  days'  march  from  the  river,  and 
 would  thus  allow  him  an  opportunity  of  crossing  with- 
 out the  aid  of  a  bridge  :  when  once  on  the  opposite  side 
 of  the  river,  he  could  then  try  his  strength  with  her 
 subjects.  Or,  if  he  did  not  like  this  plan,  he  might 
 withdraw  his  own  army  a  similar  distance  from  the 
 river,  and  the  Massageta;  would  then  cross  over  into 
 the  Persian  territories,  and  contend  with  him  there. 
 Cyrus,  by  the  advice  of  Crcesus,  accepted  the  former 
 part  of  the  offer,  and,  having  crossed  the  Araxes,  plan- 
 ned the  following  stratagem,  suggested  to  him  by  Crce- 
 sus. He  advanced  one  day's  march  into  the  territo- 
 ries of  the  Massagets,  and  then,  leaving  his  camp  full 
 of  provisions  and  wine,  and  his  worst  troops  in  charge 
 of  it,  he  returned  with  his  best  to  the  banks  of  the 
 Araxes.  What  he  had  foreseen  took  place.  The 
 Massageta;  came  with  the  third  part  of  their  entire 
 force,  under  the  command  of  Spargapiscs,  the  son  of 
 Tomyris,  attacked  the  Persian  camp,  cut  to  pieces  the 
 troops  stationed  there,  and  then  banqueted  on  the 
 abundant  stores  which  they  found  in  the  camp,  and 
 drank  to  excess  of  the  wine.  Cyrus,  returning  on  a 
 sudden,  surprised  the  whole  number,  slew  many,  and 
 took  a  much  larger  number  prisoners  ;  among  the  latter, 
 ».hc  son  of  Tomyris  himself.  This  prince,  on  recover- 
 ing from  the  into.tication  into  which  he  had  fallen,  slew 
 himself  through  a  feeling  of  shame  ;  and  Tomyris, 
 soon  after,  assembling  all  her  forces,  engaged  in  battle 
 with  Cyrus,  whom  she  totally  defeated.  The  Persian 
 monarch  himself  was  numbered  among  the  slain  ;  and 
 the  queen,  having  searched  for  and  found  his  dead  body, 
 cut  off  the  head,  and  plunged  it  into  a  skin-bag  full  of 
 human  blood,  exclaiming  at  the  same  time,  "  I  will 
 give  thee  thy  fill  of  blood"  {ai   alfiaTog  Kopiau). 
 
 {Herod.,  1,  205. — Consult  remarks  under  the  article 
 Cyrus.) 
 
 Toi'.izos,  an  island  on  the  western  side  of  the  Sinus 
 Arabicus,  in  what  was  called  the  Sinus  Immundus, 
 and  not  far  to  the  south  of  Berenice.  It  was  called 
 also  Ophiodes,  from  its  containing  many  serpents. 
 Ptolemy  gives  it  the  name  of  Agathonis  Insula.  The 
 stone  lupaziis  was  found  here,  whence  the  appellation 
 given  to  the  island.  {Agatharck.  in  Huds.  Gcogr. 
 Mm.,  1,  5l.—Diod.  Sic,  3,  40.— P/,>).,  37,  8.)— The 
 topaz  of  the  Romans  was  the  modern  chrysolite,  a 
 stone  which  has  always  an  admi.\ture  of  green  with  the 
 yellow.  This  probably  proceeds  from  particles  of  cop- 
 per dissolved  in  an  acid,  and  taketi  up  with  those  of 
 the  lead  into  the  matter  of  the  gem  at  the  time  of  its 
 original  concretion.     {tlilVs  Thcophrastus,  p.  73.) 
 
 ToKoNE,  I.  a  haven  of  Epirus,  below  the  river  Thy- 
 amis,  and  opposite  Corcyra.  It  appears  to  have  been 
 in  the  vicitiity  of  the  modern  Parga.  Ptolemy  gives 
 Torone  as  the  form  of  the  name  fp.  85),  but  Plu- 
 tarch calls  it  Toryne  {Topvvr}).  This  last  writer  re- 
 ports that  the  fleet  of  Augustus  was  moored  here  for 
 a  short  time  previous  to  the  battle  of  Actium.  {Vit. 
 Anton  ) — II.  A  town  of  Macedonia,  situate  towards 
 the  southern  extremity  of  the  Sithonian  peninsula,  anc. 
 giving  name  to  the  Smus  Toronacius,  or  Gulf  of  Cas- 
 sandria.  The  harbour  of  Torone  vvas  called  Cophos 
 (K(j0of,  mute,  silent),  fronr  the  circumstance  that  the 
 noise  of  the  waves  was  never  heard  there  ;  hence  the 
 proverb  KLxjiorepog  toC  Topovvaiov  Aifiivoq.  {Prov. 
 Gr<cc.  Schott.,  p.  lOI. — .S'/raio,  330. — Cramer's  Anc. 
 Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  256.) 
 
 ToRQUATUs.     Vid.  Manlius  II. 
 
 Tr.\bea,  Q.,  a  Roman  comic  poet,  who  flourished 
 about  A.U.C.  622,  or  132  B  C.  {Gronov.  ad  Aid 
 GclL,  15,  24.)  Some  of  his  verses  are  cited  by  Cicero 
 {Tusc.  QiicEst.,  4,  31. —  Id.,  de  Fin.,  2,  4.)'  As  re- 
 gards the  amusing  decejition  played  off  on  Joseph 
 Scaliger  by  Murctus  with  some  pretended  lines  o( 
 Trabea,  consult  Fahricius  (Biht.  Lnt.,  4,  1,  3. — Baylc, 
 Diet.,  vol.  4,  p.  392.— ScAoY/,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  1, 
 p.  139.) 
 
 Trachis,  or  Trachin,  a  town  of  Thessaly,  in  the 
 Melian  district,  and  near  the  shore  of  the  Sums  Ma- 
 liacus.  It  was  to  this  place  that  Hercules  retired  af- 
 ter having  coirmiitted  an  involuntary  murder,  as  wo 
 learn  from  Sophocles,  who  has  made  it  the  scene  of 
 one  of  his  deepest  tragedies.  (7>af7i.,  39.)  Trachis, 
 so  called,  according  to  Herodotus,  from  the  moinitain- 
 ous  character  of  the  country,  forms  the  approach  to 
 ThermopylEe  on  the  side  of  Thessaly.  {Herod.,  7, 
 176.)  Thucydides  states,  that  in  the  sixth  year  of  the 
 Peloponncsian  war,  B.d  426,  the  Lacedemonians,  at 
 the  request  of  the  Trachinians,  who  were  harassed  by 
 the  mountaineers  of  OEta,  sent  a  colony  into  their 
 country.  These,  jointly  with  the  Trachinians,  built  a 
 town,  to  which  the  name  of  Heraclea  was  given  {Thu- 
 cyd..  3,  92),  distant  abotit  sixty  stadia  from  Thennop- 
 yla;,  and  twenty  from  the  sea.  Its  distance  from  Tra- 
 chis was  only  six  stadia.  {Vid.  Heraclea  Vf.) — II. 
 .\  town  of  Pliocis,  east  of  Panoj)eus,  and  close  to  the 
 Bceolian  frontier.  It  was  surnarned  Pliocica,  for  dis- 
 tinction' sake  from  the  city  of  Thessaly.  Pausanias, 
 who  calls  it  Thracis  (O/jn/i/f),  sjjeaks  of  it  as  having 
 been  destroyed  in  tiie  Sacred  war.  {Pausan.,  10,  3. 
 —  Cramer's  Ancient  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  182.) 
 
 Trachonitis,  a  part  of  Judxa,  on  the  other  side  of 
 the  Jordan,  on  the  northern  confines  of  Palestine.  Its 
 name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  Tpaxvc,  rough,  and 
 has  reference  to  its  lieing  a  rugged  and  stony  country. 
 {Plin.,  5,  18. — Jo.scpiius,  Ant.,  15,  13.) 
 
 Trajanopoi.is,  I.  a  city  of  Cdicia,  the  same  as  Se- 
 linns.  {Vid.  Sclinus.) — II.  A  city  of  Thrace,  on  the 
 Hebrus,  below  its  confluence  with  the  Zcrna.  It  be- 
 came the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Rhodope, 
 and,  according  to  Rcichard,  is  now  Arickoro.     {Plot. 
 
 1351 
 
TR  A 
 
 TRAJANUS. 
 
 -bin.   Ant.,  322.— Ilin.  Hicrosol.,  602.—Hicrocl.,  ' 
 631.)  j 
 
 Tra:vnus,  M.  Ui.Piua  Crimtus,  a  Roman  cmpcr-  j 
 or,  the  successor  of  Nerva.     Tlie  laUer,  towards  the 
 close  of  his  short  reign,  feeling  his  inability  to  control 
 the  seditious  troops  of  the  capital,  resolved  to  adopt 
 Trajan  as  his  colleague  and  successor  in  the  empire,  by 
 whose  firmness  and  decision  the  praetorian  bands  might 
 be  kept  in  awe.     'J'he  result,  proved  the  wisdom  of  his 
 choice.     So  high  was  the  character  of  Trajan,  that  no 
 person  could  be  named  e(]iially  worthy  of  the  empire  ; 
 and  even  the  seditious  soldiery  of  the  prmloriaii  camp 
 submitted  without  a  murmur.     The  selection  of  Tra- 
 jan prevented  any  contests  for  imperial  j)ower  at  the 
 death  of  Nerva  ;    so  that   the   new  emperor  entered 
 without  the  necessity  of  bloodshed  upon  die  discharge 
 of  his  higti  functions.      Ho  was   by  birth  a  Spaniard, 
 having  been  born  at  Italica,  but  he  was  of  Italian  e.\- 
 traction,  and  had  been  early  inured  to  the  disci[)line  of 
 the  army  under  his  father,  a  commander  of  considera- 
 ble reputation.     When  he  himself  became  a  general, 
 he  continued  to  practise  the  simple  habits  of  a  soldier, 
 excelling  his  troops,  not  in  personal  indulgences,  but  in 
 courage  and  virtue.     On  the  throne  he  continued  to 
 i;xhibit  the  same  excellences,  only  enhanced   by  the 
 acquisition  of  a   wider  scope   for  their   full  develop- 
 ment.    Being  superior  to  fear,  it  was  natural  that  he 
 should  also  be  above  harbouring  suspicion.     He  there- 
 fore abolished  the  law  of  treason  {judtcia  majcstatis), 
 which  had  been  re-established  by  Domitian  after  hav- 
 ing been  abrogated  by  Titus,  and  prejjared  to  restore 
 as  much  of  the  free  Roman  constitution  as  was  com- 
 patible with  the  existence  of  a  monarchy.     He  restored 
 the  elective  power  to  the  comilia,  complete  liberty  of 
 speech  to  the  senate,  and  to  the  magistrates  their  former 
 authority  ;  and  yet  he  ruled  the  empire  with  unrivalled 
 firmness,  holding  the  reins  of  power  with  a  strong  and 
 steady  hand.     Of  him  it  has  been  said,  not  in  the  lan- 
 guage of  panegyric,  but  of  simple   sincerity,  that  he 
 was  equally  great  as  a  ruler,  a  general,  and  a  man  : 
 and  only  such  a  man  could  with  safety,  as   emperor, 
 have  used   those    remarkable   words,  when,   giving  a 
 sword  to  the  prefect  of  the  praatorian  guards,  he  said, 
 "  Take  this  sword,  and  use  it ;  if  I  have  merit,  for  me  ; 
 if  otherwise,  against  me." — Soon  after  the  accession 
 of  Trajan,  the  Dacian  monarch,  Decebalus,  sent  to  de- 
 mand the  tribute  with  which  Domitian  had  purchased 
 a  disgraceful  peace.     This  Trajan  indignantly  refused  ; 
 and,  levying  an  army,  marched  against  the  Dacians  ; 
 who  had  already  resumed  their  predatory  incursions. 
 The  hostile  armies  soon  came  to  an  engagement,  for 
 both  were  equally  eager  ;    and,  after  a  desperate  strug- 
 gle, the  Dacians  wore  routed  with  dreadful  carnage. 
 But  so   great  was  the   loss  of  the  Romans   that  for 
 some  time  they  were  unable  to  follow  up  their  victory. 
 It  was,  however,  decisive  ;  and  the  Dacians  were  com- 
 pelled, not  only  to  forego  their  demands,  but  even  to 
 become  tributaries  to  Rome.     But,  unaccustomed  to 
 servitude,  and   led   by  their  gallant  King  Decebalus, 
 they  mustered  fresh  forces  as  soon  as  they  had  some- 
 what recovered  from  their  overthrow,  and  prepared  for 
 another  contest.     The  warlike   emperor  was  equally 
 ready  for  the  shock  of  arms.     Not  satisfied  with  expell- 
 ing the  invaders,  he  now  determined  to  carry  the  war 
 into  the  countrv  of  the  enemy.     For  this  pur|)Ose  he 
 erected  a  ».'.upendous  bridge  over  the  Danube,  with  a 
 strong  fortification  at  each  end,  defeated  the  Dacians 
 in  every  battle,  marched   into  the  heart  of  their  coun- 
 try, ana  made  himself  master  of  their  chief  town.     De- 
 cebalus, despairing  of  success,  killed  himself,  and  Da- 
 cia  was  restored  to  a  Roman  province,  and  secured  in 
 subjection  by  colonies   and  standing  cam])s.     On  his 
 return  from  the  Dacian  war,  Trajan  gratified  the  peo- 
 ple by  rejoicings  celebrated  on  the  most  magnificent 
 scale;    for,  according  to   Dio    Cassius,  the    diflerent 
 showe  that  were  exhibited  lasted  for  four  months,  in 
 1352 
 
 the  course  of  which  no  fewer  than  10,000  gladiators 
 are  said  to  have  fought  for  the  amusement  of  the  mul- 
 titude. It  was  in  comiiiemoriition,  also,  of  the  con- 
 quest of  Dacia,  that  the  famous  pillar  in  the  forum  of 
 'I'rajan  was  erected,  although  it  was  not  completed 
 till  the  seventeenth  year  of  his  reign. — The  deepest 
 stain  which  rests  on  the  memory  of  Trajan  is  the 
 sanction  which  he  gave  to  the  persecutions  of  the 
 (christians.  This  persecution  raged  chiefly  in  the 
 Asiatic  provinces,  where  Christianity  was  most  preva- 
 lent ;  and  when  Pliny  the  younger,  at  that  time  pro- 
 consul of  Bithynia,  wrote  to  Trajan  for  instruclion.s 
 respecting  a  matter  which  was  causing  the  death  ot 
 so  many  men,  who  could  not  be  convicted  of  any  pub- 
 lic crimes,  the  emperor  returned  an  ambiguous  answer, 
 the  [)urport  of  which  was,  "  that  the  Christians  should 
 not  be  sought  for,  nor  indicted  on  anonymous  in- 
 formation, but  that,  on  conviction,  they  ought  to  be 
 punished."  Such  an  answer  was  contrary  to  every 
 principle  of  justice  ;  for,  if  criminal,  they  ought  to 
 have  been  sent  for ;  if  not  criminal,  they  ought  not  to 
 have  been  punished.  The  persecution,  being  some- 
 what discouraged,  was  gradually  suffered  to  abate. — 
 Trajan's  passion  for  military  fame  had  been  but  exci- 
 ted, not  satiated,  by  his  Dacian  conquests.  He  next 
 directed  his  attention  to  the  East,  and  resolved  to 
 wrest  from  the  Parthians,  the  most  formidable  foes  of 
 Rome,  the  empire  of  Central  Asia.  The  first  scene 
 of  his  glory  was  Armenia,  which  he  speedily  reduced 
 to  a  Roman  province.  Hence  he  advanced  into  Mes- 
 opotamia, throwing  across  the  rapid  Tigris  a  bridge 
 not  less  remarkable  than  that  which  spanned  the  Dan- 
 ube. The  greater  part  of  what  had  been  the  Assyrian 
 empire  was  overrun  by  his  victorious  arms.  Seleucia 
 yielded  to  his  might ;  Ctesiphon,  the  capital  of  the 
 Parthian  kingdom,  could  not  resist  his  prowess  ;  all 
 opposition  appeared  fruitless,  and  victory  seemed  the 
 companion  of  his  march.  Elated  with  these  success- 
 es, and  emulating  the  glory  of  Alexander  while  he 
 traversed  the  countries  which  had  been  the  scene  of 
 his  exploits,  he  descended  the  Tigris  to  behold  the 
 Persian  Gulf;  and  it  is  said,  that,  seeing  a  vessel  there 
 ready  to  sail  for  India,  he  exclaimed,  that  if  he  were 
 a  younger  man,  he  would  carry  his  arms  against  the 
 inhabitants  of  India.  While  he  had  been  dreaming 
 of  the  invasion  of  India,  his  conquests  of  the  prece- 
 ding year  were  vanishing  from  his  grasp.  As  sooii 
 as  the  immediate  terror  of  his  army  was  withdrawn, 
 the  countries  which  he  had  overrun  began  to  shake  ofif 
 the  yoke,  and  the  emperor  enjoyed  the  empty  glory 
 of  giving  away  the  crown  of  Parthia  to  a  prince  whom 
 Dio  Cassius  calls  Parthamaspates,  and  whose  reign 
 was  likely  to  last  no  longer  than  while  the  Romans 
 were  at  hand  to  protect  him.  Not  long  after  this, 
 Maximus,  a  man  of  consular  rank,  on  whom  Trajan 
 had  bestowed  the  command  of  a  separate  army,  was 
 defeated  and  slain  in  Mesopotamia  ;  and  Trajan,  at  the 
 end  of  the  season,  fell  back  with  his  forces  into  Syria, 
 with  the  hope  of  renewing  the  invasion  in  the  follow- 
 ing spring.  But  he  was  seized  with  a  lingering  ill- 
 ness, which  obliged  him  to  resign  all  thoughts  of  ta- 
 king the  command  in  person  ;  and  he  wished,  there- 
 fore, to  return  himself  to  Rome,  leaving  the  care  of 
 the  army  to  Hadrian,  who  had  married  his  niece.  As 
 Trajan  had  no  children,  his  wife  Plotina  is  said  to 
 have  used  all  her  influence  to  persuade  him  to  adopt 
 Hadrian  ;  but  it  was  generally  believed  that  she  never 
 could  prevail  upon  her  husband  to  take  this  step,  and 
 that  the  instrument  which  she  produced,  and  sent 
 to  Hadrian  at  Antioch  immediately  before  the  death 
 of  Trajan,  was,  in  reality,  a  forgery  of  her  own.  Tra- 
 jan died  at  Selinus,  in  Cilicia,  in  A.D.  117,  after  a 
 reign  of  nineteen  years  and  a  little  more  than  six 
 months. — In  addition  to  what  has  already  been  said 
 of  his  character,  we  may  remark  that  Trajan  was 
 an  affectionate  husband  and  brother.      As  a  sever- 
 
TRE 
 
 TRI 
 
 eign,  his  popularity  during  his  lifetime  was  equalled 
 by  the  regard  entertained  for  his  meiriory  by  posterity  ; 
 and  his  claim  to  the  title  of  Optitnus,  which  the  senate 
 solemnly  bestowed  upon  him,  was  fully  confirmed  by 
 the  voice  of  succeeding  limes  ;  inasmuch  as  for  two 
 hundred  years  after  his  death,  the  senate,  in  pouring 
 forth  their  prayers  for  the  happiness  of  a  new  emperor, 
 were  accustomed  to  wish  that  he  might  surpass  Au- 
 gustus in  prosperity  and  Trajan  in  goodness  of  charac- 
 ter. {J'ltn.,  Pancg.  —  Avrel.  Victor.,  Vit.  Truj  — 
 DIo  Cass.,  68,  4,  scjq. — Hellicmigton's  History  of 
 Rome,  p.  195,  scqq.  —  Encyclop.  MclropoL,  div.  3, 
 vol.  2,  p.  649,  scqq.) 
 
 Ti(.\jbCTUs,  1.  Rheni,  now  Utrecht. — If.  Mos^, 
 now  Mcestricht. 
 
 Tkai.les,  a  town  of  Lydia,  a  short  distance  north 
 of  Magnesia  ad  Ma;aiidrum.  In  Strabo's  time  it  was 
 one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
 was  noted  for  the  opulence  of  its  inhabitants.  It  was 
 said  to  have  been  founded  bv  some  Argives,  together 
 with  a  body  of  Thracians,  from  whom  it  look  the  name 
 of  Tralles.  (Strab.,  649. — Hcsycli.,  s.  v.  TpuAXeiq. 
 — Diod.  Sic,  17,  65.)  It  had  previously  borne  those 
 of  Aiilhca  or  Enanthea,  Erymna,  Charax,  &c.  The 
 shape  of  the  town  was  that  of  a  trapezium,  aiid  it  was 
 defended  by  a  citadel  and  other  forts.  The  river  Eu- 
 don  or  Eudonus  flowed  near  the  walls.  The  citizens 
 of  Tralles,  on  account  of  their  great  wealth,  were 
 generally  elected  to  the  office  of  asiarchs,  or  presidents 
 of  the  games  celebrated  in  the  province.  The  coun- 
 try around  Tr.illes  was  much  subject  to  earthquakes. 
 — Chandler  mistook  the  ruins  of  Tralles  for  those  of 
 Magnesia,  as  M.  Barbier  du  Bocage  has  well  proved 
 in  his  notes  to  the  French  translation  of  his  work. 
 They  arc  situated  above  the  modern  Ghiuzcl-hissars, 
 in  a  position  corresponding  with  Strabo's  description. 
 {Cramer'' s  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  464,  scqq. — Com- 
 pare Fclloics'  Asia  Minor,  p.  276.) 
 
 Trapezus,  a  city  on  the  northeastern  coast  of  Pon- 
 tus,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Sinopc.  Its  ancient 
 name  was  derived  from  the  square  form  in  which  the 
 city  was  laid  out,  resembling  a  table  (rpuTre^a).  Tra- 
 pezus is  celebrated  for  the  hospitable  reception  which 
 its  inhabitants  gave  to  the  ten  thousand  Greeks  on 
 their  retreat,  this  being  the  first  Greek  colony  which 
 the  latter  had  reached  after  the  battle  of  Cunaxa.  It 
 fell  subsequently  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  and 
 was  embellished  and  improved  by  the  Emperor  Hadri- 
 an. It  was  taken  from  the  Romans,  however,  by  the 
 Scythians  or  Tartars  in  the  reign  of  Valerian.  The 
 Greek  emperors  became  afterward  masters  of  it.  A 
 separate  dynasty  was  here  established,  commencing 
 with  Alexis  Comnenes,  in  1204,  which  ended  with 
 the  capture  of  the  city  by  Mohammed  II.  in  1462. 
 The  princes  who  reigned  in  this  city  are  the  Greek 
 emperors  of  whom  so  much  mention  is  made  in  ro- 
 mance and  so  little  in  history  :  they  must  not  be  con- 
 founded with  the  imperial  line  at  Constantinople. 
 Trapezus  is  now  called  Trehisond,  or,  as  the  Turks 
 pronounce  it,  Terahezoun.  {Arrian,  Pcrtpl.  Pont. 
 Eux.  in  Huds.  G.  M.,  1,  17.— Me/a,  1,  19.— Plin., 
 €>,  4.) — II.  A  city  of  Arcadia,  in  the  southwestern 
 angle  of  the  country,  and  between  the  Achelous  and 
 Alphcus.  The  inhabitants  of  this  place,  in  conse- 
 quence of  having  refused  to  join  in  the  colonization 
 of  Megalopolis,  were  forced  to  quit  the  Peloponnesus, 
 and  retire  to  the  city  of  Trapezus,  on  the  Euxine, 
 where  they  were  received  as  a  kindred  people.  {Pau- 
 san.,  8,  27,  scqq.) 
 
 Tkasimknus  Lacus,  a  lake  of  Eiruria,  a  few  miles 
 to  the  south  of  Cortona,  on  whose  shores  Hannibal 
 gained  his  third  victory  over  the  forces  of  the  Romans. 
 It  is  now  Lago  di  Perugia.     {V\d.  Hannibal  ) 
 
 Treba,  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  near  the  source  of 
 the  Anio,  now  Trevi.  {Plm.,  3,  \2—Plol.,  p.  65.) 
 This  place  appears  to  have  been  farther  distinguished 
 
 by  the  name  of  Augusta ;  but  after  which  emperor  it 
 was  so  called  is  uncertain.     {Front.,  dc  Aqued  ,  2.) 
 
 Trebatiijs  Testa,  C,  a  distinguished  lawyer  in 
 the  time  of  Julius  Ca;sar  and  Augustus,  and  a  man 
 well  known  for  his  wit.  Both  Ca-sar  and  Augustus 
 held  him  in  high  estimation,  and  Cicero,  on  one  oe 
 casion,  eulogizes  him  highly  when  recommending  him 
 to  the  former  of  these,  at  that  time  proconsul  in  Gaul. 
 The  correspondence  between  Cicero  and  Trcbatius 
 himself  occurs  in  the  Ep.  ad  Fam.,  7,  6.  Trebatius 
 stood  highly  also  as  a  poet.  {Schol.  ad  Horat.,  Sat., 
 2,  1,  4. — (.'omparc  the  dissertation  of  Gundling:  "  C. 
 Trcbatius  Tcsla,  ICtus,  ub  mjuriis  vctcrum  et  rcccn- 
 tiorum  libcralus,"  Hal.  Sax ,  1710,  and  Menage, 
 Amczmt.  Jur.  Civ.,  c.  14.) 
 
 Tkebellius  Pot.Lio,  one  of  the  "  Historic  Augusta 
 Scriplores."  He  lived  under  Constantine  the  Great, 
 and,  according  to  A'opiscus  {Vit.  AurcL).  wrote  the 
 lives  of  the  Roman  emperors  from  Philip  to  Claudius 
 II.  We  have  remaining,  however,  at  the  present  day, 
 merely  a  fragment  of  the  life  of  Valerian  I.,  the  lives 
 of  the  two  Gallieni,  and  of  the  so-called  thirty  tyrants. 
 It  was  Trebellius  who  first  made  use  of  this  expres- 
 sion "  thirty  tyrants,"  as  applicable  to  a  period  when 
 the  empire  was  torn  in  pieces  by  competitors  for  the 
 throne.  Although  the  style  of  Trebellius  Pollio  is 
 somewhat  less  vicious  than  that  of  the  other  writers  of 
 his  time,  still  his  cannot  be  ranked  even  among  the 
 ordinary  class  of  historical  writers.  —  The  remains  of 
 Trebeliius  are  given  in  the  "  Hisioria:  Augusttz  Scrip- 
 lores."     {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  155.) 
 
 TrebIa,  a  river  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  which  ran  from 
 south  to  north,  commencing  in  Ijiguria,  south  of  the 
 valley  inhabiied  by  the  Friniates,  and  falling,  after  a 
 course  of  about  fifty  miles,  into  the  Po  near  Placentia. 
 At  the  mouth  of  this  river  Hannibal  obtained  a  victory 
 over  the  Romans,  and  defeated  them  with  the  loss  of 
 20,000  men.  Both  the  consuls,  Scipio  and  Sempro- 
 nius,  were  present  at  the  fight.  This  victory  was 
 preceded  by  that  of  the  Ticinus,  and  followed  by  those 
 of  Trasymenus  and  Cannoe.  The  early  defeat  of  the 
 Roman  cavalry  at  the  Trebia  occasioned  the  loss  of 
 the  day.     {Polyb.,  3,  66.— L(»..  21,  48,  stqq.) 
 
 TbebonTa  Lex,  dc  Provinciis,  by  L.  Trebonius, 
 the  tribune,  A.U.C.  698.  It  assigned  provinces  to 
 the  consuls  for  five  years  :  Spain  to  Pompey  ;  Syria 
 and  the  Parthian  war  to  Crassus  ;  and  prolonging  for 
 a  time  the  command  in  Gaul,  which  had  been  bestow- 
 ed on  Cisar  by  the  Vatinian  law.  Cato,  for  opposina 
 this  law,  was  led  to  prison.  According  to  Dio,  how- 
 ever, he  was  only  dragged  from  the  assembly. 
 
 Tres  Tabern.^,  a  station  on  the  Appian  M'ay, 
 about  seven  miles  from  Aricia,  and  where  it  was 
 joined  by  a  cross-road  from  Antium.  It  is  mentioned 
 by  St.  Paul  in  his  journey  to  Rome  {Acts,  28,  15), 
 and  likewise  by  Cicero  when  proceeding  thither  from 
 Antium.     {Ep.  ad  Alt.,  2,  12.) 
 
 Treveri,  a  nation  of  Gallia  Belgica,  between  the 
 Mosella  or  Moselle,  and  Silva  Arduenna.  Their  chief 
 city,  Augusta  Treverorum.  called  afterward,  from  its 
 inhabitants,  Treveri,  now  Treves,  stands  on  the  east 
 bank  of  the  Moselle.  (Cars.,  B.  G.,  5,  3.— Id.  ibid., 
 6,  2  —Tac,  Arm.,  1,  il.  —  Id.  ibid.,  3,  42.— Id., 
 Germ.,  28.— Mela,  3.  2.) 
 
 Tribam,),  a  Thracian  people,  by  far  the  most  nu- 
 merous and  powerful  tribe  in  that  country.  As  they 
 bordered  on  the  Paeonians,  and  extended  to  the  Dan- 
 ube, they  were  formidable  neighbours  on  this  the  most 
 accessible  frontier  of  Macedonia.  Alexander  com- 
 menced his  reign  by  an  invasion  of  their  territory,  and, 
 having  defeated  them  in  a  general  engagement,  pur- 
 sued them  across  the  Danube,  whither  they  had  re- 
 treated, and  compelled  them  to  sue  for  peace.  {Thu- 
 cyd,  2,  fi&.—Strabo,  318.) 
 
 Tkibocci,  a  German  tribe  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
 Rhine,  and  between  that  river  and  the  Mediomatrici 
 
 1353 
 
T  R  I 
 
 TIIIBONIANUS. 
 
 and  Leuci.  Their  chief  city  was  Argenloratuni,  now 
 Slrashoicrg.  (Tacit.,  Germ.,  28.  — Cas.,  B.  G.,  1, 
 5l.—rim.,  4,  17.) 
 
 Tribonianus,  a  celebrated  jurist,  who  was  mainly 
 instriirncnlal  in  the  coinpiUilion  of  Justinian,  was  a 
 native  of  I'amphyiia,  and  his  father  was  from  Mace- 
 donia. His  learning  was  most  e.xtensive  ;  he  wrote 
 upon  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  was  well  versed  both 
 in  Latin  and  Greek  literature,  and  had  deeply  studied 
 the  Roman  civilians,  of  which  he  had  a  valuable  col- 
 lection in  his  library.  He  practised  first  at  the  bar  of 
 the  prroiorian  prefects  at  Constantinople,  becauie  a(- 
 terward  quaestor,  master  of  the  imperial  household, 
 and  consul,  and  possessed  for  about  twenty  years  the 
 favour  and  confidence  of  Justinian.  His  manners  are 
 said  to  have  been  remarkably  mild  and  conciliating; 
 he  was  a  courtier,  and  fond  of  money,  but  in  other  re- 
 spects he  appears  to  have  been  calumniated  by  his  en- 
 emies. His  death  took  place  A.D.  545.  He  was  a 
 superior  inan,and  most  valuable  to  Justinian. — This  ap- 
 pears to  be  a  proper  place  to  give  some  account  of  Jus- 
 tinian's legislation.  Soon  after  ascending  the  throne, 
 this  monarch  gave  orders  (Feb.,  528  A.D  )  to  a  com- 
 mission, consisting  of  Joannes  and  nine  other  persons, 
 among  whom  were  Tribonian  or  Tribunian  and  The- 
 ophilus,  to  make  a  general  compilation  of  the  best  and 
 most  useful  laws  or  constitutions  which  had  been 
 promulgated  by  the  emperors  his  predecessors,  begin- 
 ning from  Hadrian's  perpetual  edict  down  to  his  own 
 time.  Partial  compilations  had  been  made  in  the  time 
 of  Constantino  by  private  individuals,  Gregory  and 
 Hermogenes,  of  which  only  fragments  remain,  and  a 
 more  complete  one  was  effected  under  Theodosius  II. 
 All  these  were  now  merged  in  the  new  Code  of  Justin- 
 ian. A  remarkable  difference  of  style  and  manner  is 
 observable  between  the  older  constitutions  issued  be- 
 fore Constantino  and  those  promulgated  afterward. 
 The  former,  being  issued  at  Rome,  and  framed  upon 
 the  decisions  or  "  responsa"  of  learned  jurists,  are 
 clear,  sententious,  and  elegant;  the  latter,  which  were 
 promulgated  chiefly  at  Constantinople,  in  the  decay  of 
 the  Roman  language,  are  verbose  and  rhetorical. 
 Joannes  and  his  nine  associates  completed  their  task 
 in  fourteen  months,  and  the  new  Code,  having  receiv- 
 ed the  imperial  sanction,  was  published  in  April,  A.D. 
 529.  A  few  years  after,  Just.inian,  by  the  advice  of 
 Tribonian,  ordered  a  revision  of  his  Code  to  be  made 
 by  Tribonian  and  four  others.  These  commissioners 
 suppressed  several  laws  as  either  useless  or  inconsist- 
 ent with  present  usage,  and  added  many  constitutions 
 which  the  emperor  had  been  promulgating  in  the  mean 
 time,  as  well  as  fifty  decisions  on  intricate  points  of 
 jurisfirudence.  The  Code,  thus  revised,  was  published 
 in  Decemlier  of  the  year  534,  under  the  title  of  "  Co- 
 dex Justinianeus  repetitaj  prielcctionis,"  and  thence- 
 forth had  the  force  of  law.  The  Code  is  divided  into 
 twelve  books  ;  every  book  is  subdivided  into  titles, 
 and  each  title  into  laws.  The  learned  (iothofredus,  in 
 his  prolegomena  attached  to  his  edition  of  the  Tlieo- 
 dosian  Code,  observes  that  Tribonian  and  his  associ- 
 ates have  been  guilty  of  several  faults  in  the  compila- 
 tion of  the  Code  ;  that  the  order  observed  in  the  suc- 
 cession of  the  titles  is  confused  ;  that  some  of  the  laws 
 have  been  mutilated  and  have  been  rendered  obscure  ; 
 that  sometimes  a  law  has  been  divided  into  two,  and 
 at  other  limes  two  have  been  reduced  into  one  ;  that 
 laws  have  been  attributed  to  emperors  who  were  not 
 the  authors  of  them,  or  who  had  given  quite  contrary 
 decisions  ;  all  which  would  he  still  more  injurious  to 
 the  study  of  the  Roman  law,  if  we  had  not  the  Theo- 
 dosian  Code,  which  is  of  great  use  towards  rightly  un- 
 derstanding many  laws  in  the  Code  of  Justinian.  In 
 the  year  following  the  publication  of  his  Code,  Justin- 
 ian undertook  a  much  greater  and  more  important 
 work  :  to  extract  the  spirit  of  jurisprudence  from  the 
 decisions  and  conjectures,  the  questions  and  disputa- 
 1354 
 
 tions,  of  the  Roman  civilians.  In  the  course  of  cen- 
 turies, under  the  republic  and  the  empire,  many  thou- 
 sand volumes  had  accumulated,  filled  with  the  learned 
 lucubrations  of  the  jurisconsults,  but  which  no  fortune 
 could  purchase  and  no  capacity  could  digest.  The 
 jurisconsults,  ever  since  the  time  of  Augustus,  had  been 
 divided  into  opposite  schools,  and  thus  conflicting 
 opinions  were  often  produced,  which  only  served  to 
 puzzle  those  who  had  to  decide  what  was  law.  To 
 put  order  into  this  chaos  was  the  object  of  Justinian. 
 In  December,  530,  he  commissioned  seventeen  law- 
 yers, with  Tribonian  at  their  head,  with  full  authority 
 to  use  their  discretion  as  to  the  works  of  their  prede- 
 cessors, by  making  a  choice  of  those  whom  they  con- 
 sidered as  the  best  authorities.  They  chose  about 
 forty  out  of  Tribonian's  library,  most  of  them  juris- 
 consults who  had  lived  during  that  period  of  the  empire 
 which  has  been  sometimes  called  the  age  of  the  An- 
 tonines,  from  Hadrian  to  the  death  of  Alexander  Se- 
 verus.  From  the  works  of  these  writers,  said  to  have 
 amounted  to  two  thousand  treatises,  the  commission 
 appointed  by  Justinian  was  to  extract  and  compress 
 all  that  was  suited  to  form  a  methodical,  complete,  and 
 never-failing  book  of  reference  for  the  student  of  law 
 and  the  magistrate.  Justinian  gave  Tribonian  and  his 
 associates  ten  years'  time  to  perform  their  task  ;  but 
 they  completed  it  in  three  years.  The  work  was 
 styled  "  Digesta,"  and  also  "  Pandecta?"  (embracing 
 all),  and  was  published  in  December,  53.3.  It  was 
 declared  by  the  emperor  that  it  should  have  the  force 
 of  lav/  all  over  the  empire,  and  should  supersede  all 
 the  text-books  of  the  old  jurists,  which,  in  future,  were 
 to  be  of  no  authority.  If  the  whole  "Digest"  is  di- 
 vided into  three  equal  parts,  the  contributions  of  Ulpi- 
 an  are  somewhat  more  than  one  third.  The  "  Diges- 
 ta" is  divided  into  fifty  books,  each  book  being  also 
 divided  into  titles,  and  subdivided  into  sections.  Of 
 the  merits  and  imperfections  of  the  "  Digest,"  Cujas, 
 Hotomannus,  Heineccius,  Gravina,  Schultiiig,  Byn- 
 kershoek,  and  many  others,  have  amply  spoken.  With 
 all  its  faults,  it  is  a  noble  work,  and  much  superior  to 
 the  Code  in  its  style,  matter,  and  arrangement  ;  it  has, 
 in  great  measure,  imbodied  the  wisdom  of  the  most 
 learned  men  of  the  best  age  of  the  empire  ;  men  who 
 grounded  their  opinions  on  the  principles  of  reason  and 
 equity,  and  who,  for  the  most  part,  were  personally  un 
 concerned  and  disinterested  in  the  subjects  on  which 
 they  gave  their  responsa.  Tribonian  and  his  col 
 leagues  are  charged  with  making  many  interpolations, 
 with  altering  many  passages  in  the  writings  of  their 
 predecessors,  with  substituting  their  own  opinions, 
 and  passing  them  off  to  the  world  under  the  name  of 
 the  ancient  jurists.  Justinian  himself  acknowledged 
 that  he  was  obliged  to  accommodate  the  old  jurispru- 
 dence to  the  altered  state  of  the  times,  and  to  "  make 
 the  laws  his  own."  Another  charge,  which  is,  howev- 
 er, unsupported  by  evidence  or  probability,  is,  that  Jus- 
 tinian and  his  civilians  purposely  destroyed  the  old 
 text-books  that  had  served  them  for  the  compilation 
 of  the  "Pandects."  Long,  however,  before  Justin- 
 ian's time,  the  works  of  the  ancient  jurists  were  f)artly 
 lost,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  the  ages  that  followed  may 
 easily  have  obliterated  the  rest.  While  the  Digest 
 was  being  compiled,  Justinian  commissioned  Tribo- 
 nian and  two  other  civilians,  Thcophilus  and  Doro- 
 theus,  to  make  an  abridgment  of  the  first  principles 
 of  the  law,  for  the  use  of  young  students  who  should 
 wish  to  apply  themselves  to  that  science.  This 
 new  work,  being  completed,  was  published  under  the 
 name  of  "  Institutiones,"  about  one  month  before 
 the  appearance  of  the  Digest.  The  Institutiones 
 were  mainly  based  on  an  older  work  of  the  same  de 
 scription  and  title.  They  are  arranged  in  four  books^ 
 and  subdivided  into  titles.  As  the  law  has  three  ob- 
 jects, persons,  things,  and  actions,  the  first  book  treats 
 of  persons  or  status    the  second  and  third,  and  firs 
 
TRI 
 
 TRI 
 
 6ve  titles  of  the  fourth,  treat  of  things ;  and  the  re- 
 maining titles  of  the  fourth  book  treat  of  actions.  Be- 
 sides tliese  three  compilations,  the  Code,  the  Insti- 
 tutes, and  the  Digest,  Justinian,  after  the  publication 
 of  the  second  edition  of  his  Code,  continued  to  issue 
 now  laws  or  constitutions,  chiefly  in  Greek,  upon  par- 
 ticular occasions,  which  were  collected  and  published 
 together,  after  liis  death,  under  the  name  of  Neapai 
 Aiaru^Eic,  or  Novae,  or  Const itutiones  Novellae,  or  Au- 
 thenticaj.  The  Novellae  are  divided  into  nine  Colla- 
 liones  and  1G8  Constitutiones,  or,  as  they  arc  now  of- 
 ten calk-d.  Novels.  The  NoveliiE,  together  with  the 
 thirteen  ]']dicts  of  Justinian,  made  up  the  fourth  part 
 of  his  lecislaiion.  There  are  four  Latin  translations 
 of  the  Novella;,  two  of  which  were  made  soon  after 
 Justinian's  death  ;  the  third  is  by  Halvander,  printed 
 at  Niirnbcrg  in  1531  ;  and  tlie  fourth  was  printed  at 
 Basle,  by  Ilcrvagius,  in  1561.  This  last  translation  is 
 that  which  is  printed  in  the  editions  of  the  Corpus  Ju- 
 ris op|)Osiie  to  the  Greek  te.tt,  and  is  very  valuable, 
 notwithstanding  it  has  been  stigmatized  by  some  with 
 the  name  "barbarous;"  it  is  sometimes  called  Au- 
 ihcntica  Interpretatio,  or  Vulgata.  The  version  of  Hal- 
 vander is  also  printed  in  some  editions  of  the  Corpus 
 Juris.  The  Novellae  made  many  changes  in  the  law 
 as  established  by  Justinian's  prior  compilations,  and 
 are  an  evidence  that  the  emperor  was  seized  with  a 
 passion  for  legislating;  a  circumstance  which  enables 
 us  to  form  a  more  correct  judgment  of  his  real  merits, 
 and  lowers  his  character  as  a  |)liilosophic  jurist.  Among 
 the  numerous  editions  of  the  Corpus  Juns  Civilis,  the 
 best  is  that  of  Golhofredus,  Col.  Munat.,  175G,  2  vols, 
 folio.  Pothier's  edition  of  the  Digest,  reprinted  at 
 Paris,  in  5  vols.  4to,  1818-1820,  is  a  useful  edition  : 
 there  is  a  very  cheap  edition  of  the  Corpus  Juris  re- 
 cently published  in  Germany  by  Beck,  3  vols,  small 
 folio,  Lcipsiff,  1829.  {Encycl.  Us.  KnoioL,  vol.  13, 
 163-5.  —  Ludewig,  Vit.  Justin.  Mag.  et  Theod.,  nee 
 nan  Trebon.,  Halle,  1731. — Zimmern,  Gcsehichte  des 
 Rom.  frivaucchls  his  Jushniari,  Heidelb.,  1826. — 
 Hugo,  Lehrhuch  dcr  Gcsch.  des  Rom.  Reckts,  Berlin, 
 1832. — History  of  the  Roman  or  Civil  Law,  by  Fer- 
 riere,  transl.  by  J.  Beaver,  London,  1724. — Homme- 
 lii,  Falingencsia. — Brinkmannus,  Iiislitutiones  Juris 
 Romani,  Schlcswig,  1822.  —  Sijstem  des  Pandcklcn- 
 Rechls,  by  Thibaiit,  7lh  ed.,  Jena,  1828. — Das  Corpus 
 Juris  ih''s  Deutsche  iihcrsetzt  von  cinem  vereinc  Rcchts- 
 gelehrtcr  "und  hcrausgcgchen  von  Otto,  Schilling,  und 
 Sintenis,  Leipzig,  1831.  —  Les  cinquantes  iivrcs  du 
 Digcstc,  &.C..  traduits  en  Frangais  par  feu  Henri  Hes- 
 lot,  Paris,  1805. — Pandcctcs  dc  Justinien  miscs  dans 
 un  nouvel  ordre,  &c.,  par  J.  R.  Pothier,  tradwitcs  par 
 Br^ard  Neuville,  revues  cl  corrigies  par  M.  Moreau  de 
 Monlalin,  Avocat,  Paris,  1810.) 
 
 TiticAU,  a  mountain  fortress  and  town  in  Sicily, 
 near  the  lower  coast,  cast  of  Sclinus,  and  north  of  the 
 mouth  of  the  Crimisus.  It  was  also  called  Triocala 
 and  Triocla.  This  place  came  into  notice  during  the 
 Servile  war  in  Sicily,  as  being  the  residence  of  the 
 ^lave-king  Tryphon.  Facellus  places  its  site  near  the 
 modern  Calata  Bcllota,  but  Reichard  by  Colatrasi 
 Castello.  {Sleph.  Byz.,  s.  v.—Ptol.—Stl.  llai,  14, 
 271  ) 
 
 Tric.*ssf.s,  a  people  of  Gaul,  northeast  of  the  Sc- 
 nones,  and  through  whose  territories  flows  the  Sequana, 
 or  Seine,  in  the  earlier  part  of  its  course.  Their  chief 
 city  was  Augusta  Bona,  now  Troycs.  {Plot. — Amm. 
 Marc,  15,  11.— W..  16,  2.) 
 
 Tricc.\,  a  city  of  Thessaly,  southeast  of  Gomphi, 
 and  near  the  junction  of  the  Pcncus  and  Lethiu.s.  It 
 is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  time  of  Homer,  and  placed 
 by  him  under  the  dominion  of  the  sons  of  ^•Esrulapius. 
 (iZ.,  2,  729  ;  4,  202.)  Strabo  informs  us  that  Tricca 
 possessed  a  temple  of  /Esculapius,  which  was  held  in 
 great  veneration.  {Straho,A^7.)  The  modern  Trie- 
 ala  appears  to  correspond  to  the  site  of  the  ancient 
 
 city.  From  the  Byzantine  historians  we  see  that  tne 
 name  had  already  been  corrupted  in  their  time  to  the 
 present  form  of  Tricala.  (Procop.,  JEdif.,  4,  3.  — 
 Hicrucl.,  p.  643.  —  Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  1,  p. 
 357,  sc/jq.) 
 
 Tkicokii,  a  Gallic  tribe  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  in 
 the  territory  of  Massilia  and  Aquaj  Sextia;.  {Livy, 
 21,  2l.—Plm.,  3,  i.—Am7n.  Marc,  15,  10,  scqq.) 
 
 Tkidentum,  now  Trent  (or,  as  the  Italians  write 
 the  name,  Trcnto),  a  city  of  Rhaetia,  on  the  river  A  the- 
 sis or  Adigc,  and  a  short  distance  from  the  northern 
 confines  of  Venelia.  It  was  built  by  the  Cenomani, 
 who  were  dispossessed  by  the  Romans.  (Justtn,  20, 
 5  — Itin.  Ant. — Paul  Warnefr.,  de  Gesl.  Long.,  5, 
 36,  6tc.)  Some  authors  aflirm  that  the  name  Tri- 
 dentum  is  derived  from  Neptune's  sceptre  or  trident, 
 to  which  god  they  say  the  city  was  once  consecrated  , 
 this  opinion  took  its  rise  from  an  ancient  marble  being 
 found  there,  on  which  was  Neptune  holding  a  trident. 
 Others  derive  the  name  from  three  rivers  that  fall  into 
 the  Adige  near  the  city  ;  while  others,  again,  ascribe 
 the  name  to  the  circumstance  of  there  being  three 
 high  rocks  in  the  neighbourhood  which  appear  like 
 three  teeth  (Ires  dcntc.s).  All  these  etymologies  are 
 false  ;  the  name  is  most  probably  one  of  Celtic  origin. 
 — Trent  is  famous  in  modern  history  for  the  council  of 
 ecclesiastics  which  sat  there  for  the  purpose  of  regu- 
 lating the  affairs  of  the  church.  It  was  assembled  by 
 Paul  III.  in  1545,  and  continued  by  twenty-five  ses- 
 sions till  the  year  1563,  under  Julius  III.  and  Pius  IV. 
 It  had  been  removed  in  1547  to  Bologna,  in  conse- 
 quence of  a  false  runiou-r  of  a  pestilence  in  Trent,  but 
 was  reassembled  at  the  latter  city  in  1551. 
 
 Trig.\b6i.i,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  territory  of  Vene- 
 tia,  where  the  Padusa,  or  southern  arm  of  the  Po,  sep- 
 arates itself  from  the  main  stream.  Its  site  is  near 
 that  of  the  modern  Fcrrara.     {Polyb.,  2,  16.) 
 
 TrinacrIa,  one  of  the  ancient  names  of  Sicily,  from 
 its  three  promontories  (rpelc  aicpai). 
 
 Trinouantes,  a  people  of  Britain,  in  modern  Essex 
 and  Middlesex.  {Tac,  Ann.,  14,  31. — Cces.,  B.  G., 
 5,  20.) 
 
 Triopas  orTRiops,  a  son  of  Neptune  by  Canace 
 the  daughter  of  ^Eolus.  He  was  father  of  Erisich- 
 thon,  who  is  called  on  that  account  Trioprius,  and  his 
 daughter  Triope'is.  (Orid,  Met.,  8,  754. — Apollod., 
 1,  7,  4. — Heyne,  not.  crtt.  ad  Apollod.,  I.  e  ) 
 
 Triopium,  a  city  of  Caria,  founded  by  Triopas,  son 
 of  Erisichthon,  and  situate  near  the  promontory  of  Tri- 
 opium, at  the  extremity  of  Doris.  On  the  promontory, 
 which  took  its  name  from  the  city,  was  a  temple  of 
 Apollo,  known  under  the  name  of  the  Triopaean  tem- 
 ple. The  Dorians  here  celebrated  games  in  honour 
 of  Apollo  ;  here  also  was  held  a  general  assembly  of 
 the  Dorians  in  Asia,  upon  the  model  of  that  of  Ther- 
 mopylx.     (Vid.  Doris.) 
 
 1'kiphvlia,  the  southern  portion  of  Elis.  It  took 
 its  name,  according  to  Strabo,  from  the  union  of  threr. 
 different  tribes  (rpel^  <t)v}.al),  the  Epei,  or  original  in- 
 habitants, the  Minya?,  who  migrated  thither,  and  the 
 Elei.  (Strabo,  3.37).  Some  authors,  however,  de- 
 duce the  appellation  from  Triphylus,  an  Arcadian 
 prince.     (Polyb.,  4,  77,  8.) 
 
 Trm'olis,  I.  now  Tarabolus,  a  city  of  Syria,  on  the 
 seacoast  below  Aradus.  The  Greek  name  of  this 
 place,  Tripolis,  denoting  three  cities  (rpiic  mi?iEic),  is 
 explained  by  Scvlax  (p.  42. — Compare  Diod.  Sic  ,  16, 
 41.— P/iH..'5,  20.— Strabo,  754).  He  states  that  the 
 cities  of  Tyrus,  Sidon,  and  Aradus  sent  each  a  col- 
 ony to  this  place,  who  at  first  inhabited  three  separate 
 cities,  but  in  process  of  lime  became  united  inio  one. 
 Diodorus  Sicukis,  however,  gives  a  somewhat  different 
 account.  According  lo  him,  the  three  cities  above 
 mentioned,  which  were  the  parent  stales  of  all  the 
 other  Phoenician  cities,  wishing  to  establish  some 
 place  of  general  assembly,  sent  each  a  colony  hithei, 
 
 1355 
 
TRI 
 
 TRI 
 
 and  founded  this  city  (IG,  41).  It  had  a  good  har- 
 bour and  extensive  commerce.  (J.  P/iocas,  c.  4. — 
 Wesscliug,  Itm.,  p.  149.) — The  town  was  taken  and 
 destroyed  in  1289  by  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  but  was  af- 
 terward rebuilt,  though  at  some  distance  from  the 
 ancient  site.  {AhulJ'cda,  Tab.  Si/r,  p.  Wl.)  At  the 
 present  day  the  sand  has  so  accumulated  that  the  city 
 is  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  small  triangular  plain, 
 half  a  league  in  breadth,  at  the  point  of  which  is  the 
 village  where  the  ves.sels  land  their  goods.  The  com- 
 merce of  the  place  consists  almost  entirely  of  coarse 
 silks — II.  A  region  of  Africa,  on  the  coast  of  the  .Med- 
 iterranean, between  the  two  Syrtcs.  It  received  this 
 name  from  its  containing  three  principal  cities  ;  Lep- 
 lis  Magna,  CEa,  and  Sabrata.  The  second  of  these 
 is  the  modern  city  of  Tripoli. — III.  A  city  of  Ponlus, 
 on  the  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Tripolis,  and 
 northeast  of  Cerasus,  now  Triholi.  {Mannert,  Gcogr., 
 vol.  6,  pt.  2,  p.  384.)  —  IV.  A  city  of  Lydia,  on  the 
 western  bank  of  the  Maeandcr,  northwest  of  Hierapo- 
 lis,  and  near  the  confluence  of  the  Msander  and  Clu- 
 drus.  Ptolemy  and  Stephanus  ascribe  it  to  Caria, 
 Pliny  and  Hieroclcs  to  Lydia.  Mannert  considers  it 
 to  have  been  a  Phrygian  city.  {Gcogr.,  vol.  6,  pt.  3, 
 p.  137.) 
 
 TiuPTOLEMUs,  son  of  Celeus,  king  of  Eleusis,  and 
 the  same  with  Demophoon.  ( Vid.  Ceres,  page  330, 
 col.  1.)  The  vanity  of  the  people  of  Attica  made  them 
 pretend  that  corn  was  first  known  and  agriculture 
 first  practised  in  their  country.  Ceres,  according  to 
 tliem,  taught  Triptolemus  agriculture,  and  rendered 
 him  serviceable  to  mankind  by  instructing  him  how 
 to  sow  corn  and  make  bread.  She  also,  it  was  fabled, 
 gave  him  her  chariot,  which  was  drawn  by  two  drag- 
 ons, and  in  this  celestial  vehicle  he  travelled  over  the 
 whole  earth,  and  distributed  corn  to  all  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  world.  At  his  return  to  Eleusis,  Triptolemus 
 restored  Ceres  her  chariot,  and  is  said  to  have  estab- 
 lished festivals  and  mysteries  in  honour  of  that  deity. 
 He  reigned  for  some  time,  and  after  death  received 
 divine  honours. — There  seems  to  be  an  allusion  in  the 
 name  Triptolemus  (derived  probably  from  rpEig  and 
 TTO/lt'w)  to  an  improvement  introduced  in  early  agri- 
 culture by  treble  ploughing.  (^Hygin.,  fab  ,  147. — 
 Pau.san.,2,  14;  8,  i.— Justin,  2,  6.—Apollod.,  1,  5. 
 —  Callim.,  H.  in  Ccr.,  22.  — Ovid,  Met.,  5,  646.) 
 
 Triquetra,  a  name  given  to  Sicily  by  the  Latins, 
 from  its  triangular  form. 
 
 Tkismegistus,  a  celebrated  Egyptian  priest  and 
 philosopher,  of  whom  some  mention  has  been  already 
 made  in  a  previous  article.  (  Vid.  Mercurius  Trisme- 
 gistus.)  It  remains  but  to  give  here  a  brief  sketch 
 of  his  works,  or,  rather,  of  the  productions  that  have 
 come  down  to  us  in  his  name. — 1.  The  most  cele- 
 brated of  these  is  entitled  "  Poe7na)idcr,"  HoLfiuvSpyjc 
 (from  noi/iT/p,  "pas/or''''),  and  treating  "of  the  nature 
 of  all  things,  and  of  the  creation  of  the  world."  It  is< 
 in  the  form  of  a  dialogue.  This  work  is  also  some- 
 times cited  \indcr  the  following  title,  "  Of  the  Divine 
 Power  and  Wisdom." — 2.  A  second  work  is  entitled 
 'AaK?.T/7noc,  "  .^sculapius."  It  is  a  dialogue  between 
 Hormcs  (Mercurius)  Trismegistus  and  his  disciple, 
 and  treats  of  God,  man,  and  the  universe.  It  bears 
 also  the  name  of  Aoyof  tO.£io<;,  but  it  e.xists  only  in 
 the  shape  of  a  Latin  translation,  which  some  critics 
 ascribe  to  Apuleius. — 3.  The  third  work  has  the  fol- 
 lowing title :  'laTpofiadijfiaTUM  ?/  nepl  KaraidiaEu^ 
 VQCovvTuv  YlpoyvudTiKu,  kn  ttjq  /laOrifiartKr/g  t-KiaTrj- 
 fiijg,  npog  'A/ifi<j)i-a  A.lyvTrTi.ov,  "  latrotnathemaliea,  or 
 the  Art  of  presaging  the  Issue  of  Maladies  hij  means 
 of  Mathematics  (i.  e.,  by  the  planets  or  astrology),  a 
 work  addressed  to  Amman  the  Egyptian.''''  As  Julius 
 Firmicus,  a  great  admirer  of  Egyptian  astrology,  and 
 who  speaks  of  Hermes,  makes  no  mention  of  this 
 work,  the  probability  is  that  it  did  not  exist  in  the 
 year  340  B.C.,  the  period  when  Firmicus  wrote. — 4. 
 1356 
 
 A  treatise  "  De  Revolulionibus  Nativitatum,^^  which 
 exists  merely  in  a  Latin  translation.  It  is  in  two 
 books,  and  treats  of  the  mode  of  drawing  horoscopes. 
 Some  phrases  in  this  work  would  seem  to  indicate 
 that  it  is  translated  rather  from  the  Arabic  than  the 
 Greek. — 5.  The  Aphorisms  of  Hermes  or  Mercurius, 
 also  in  a  Latin  version.  The  work  consists  of  astro- 
 logical sentences  or  propositions,  translated  from  the 
 Arabian  about  the  time  of  Manfred,  king  of  Sicily. 
 It  is  sometimes  cited  under  the  title  of  Centiloquium. 
 —  6.  'K.vpavide^,  ^^  Cyranidcs,'''  a  work,  the  title  of 
 which  has  given  rise  to  much  speculation.  Some  au- 
 thors derive  the  term  from  the  Arabic,  and  make  it 
 equivalent  to  the  French  expression  melanges,  while 
 others  pretend  that  it  is  Greek,  and  that  it  is  used  in 
 astrology  to  denote  the  puxctr  of  the  stars  (from  kv- 
 piog).  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Cyranides  of  Trisme- 
 gistus treat  of  the  magic  powers  and  medical  virtues 
 of  precious  stones,  of  plants,  and  of  animals.  The 
 Greek  text  of  this  work  exists  in  manuscript  in  some 
 of  the  European  libraries,  but  it  is  only  known,  thus 
 far,  to  the  public  through  the  medium  of  a  Latin  trans- 
 lation.—  Besides  these  astrological  works,  there  are 
 others  connected  with  chemistry,  or,  more  correctly 
 speaking,  alchemy,  of  which  the  following  are  the  ti- 
 tles :  1.  A  chemical  treatise  on  the  secret  of  pro- 
 ducing the  philosopher's  stone.  This  work  is  cited 
 among  adepts  under  the  pompous  appellation  of  "  the 
 Seven  Seals  of  Hermes  Trismegistus." — 7.  "  The  Em- 
 erald Tablet."  Under  this  title  the  receipt  of  Hermes 
 for  making  gold  is  known.  According  to  the  adepts, 
 Sara,  the  wife  of  Abraham,  found  this  emerald  tablet 
 in  the  tomb  of  Hermes,  on  Mount  Hebron. —  The  two 
 works  of  which  we  have  just  spoken  exist  only  in 
 Latin.  A  third,  entitled  '^vaiKul  (iaiiai,  "  Chemical 
 Tinctures,"  exists,  it  is  said,  in  manuscript  in  some 
 libraries. — We  have  also  a  treatise  of  Hermes  on 
 "Precious  Stones."  —  Slobsus  has  also  preserved 
 fragments  of  the  five  following  works  of  Trismegis- 
 tus :  1.  Ilpof  vlov,  or  Ilpdc  Tut,  or  Ilpof  'Kon'kij- 
 ■KLoii,  "  To  his  son,"  or  "  To  Tat,''''  or  "  To  Aisciila- 
 pius." — 2.  npof  'Afifiovv  Tvepl  tt/c  o?i7jg  OlKovopL7jC, 
 "  On  the  Economy  of  the  Universe,  a  work  addressed 
 to  Ammon." — 3.  Koprj  kogjiov,  "  The  Virgin  of  the 
 World.''''  Isis  is  thus  named.  The  work  is  a  dialogue 
 between  Isis  and  her  son  Horus,  on  the  Origin  of  the 
 World. — 4.  'A(j)po6iT7j,  "  Vcjius,"  a  work  on  Genera- 
 tion.— 5.  Ilfpi  'Elfiapfih'Tj^,  a  hexameter  poem  "  on 
 Destiny." — The  latest  edition  of  the  Poemandcr  is  that 
 of  1630,  Col.Agripp.,  6  vols.  fol. — The  JEsculapius  is 
 found  united  to  most  editions  of  the  Poemander. — 
 The  latromathematica  are  .'"ound  in  the  astronomical 
 collection  of  Camerarius,  and  were  also  published  sep- 
 arately by  Hoeschel,  Argent.,  1597,  8vo. — The  trea- 
 tise dc  Revolulionibus  Nativitatnm  was  edited  by 
 Wolf,  Basil,  15.')9,  fol. — The  Aphorisms  were  printed 
 at  Venice,  1493,  fol.,  with  the  Tetrabiblon  of  Ptole- 
 my, and  at  Ulm,  in  1651  and  1674,  in  12ino. — The 
 Cyranides  were  edited  by  Rivinus  (Bachinann),  Lips., 
 1638,  8vo,  and  Francof.,  1681,  12mo. — The  Chem- 
 ical Treatise  was  printed  at  Leipsic,  1610,  in  8vo. 
 It  is  found,  also,  in  the  4th  volume  of  the  Theatrum 
 Chimicum,  Argent.,  1613,  8vo.  {Scholl,  Hist.  Lit. 
 Gr.,  vol.  5,  p.  118.) 
 
 Trit^a,  a  city  of  Achaia,  southwesi  cf  ^Egium, 
 and  near  the  confines  of  Elis.  It  was  said  to  have 
 been  founded  by  Callidas,  who  came  from  Cumae  in 
 Italy,  or,  according  to  other  accounts,  by  Menalippus, 
 son  of  Mars  and  Tritsea.  It  was  made  dependant  on 
 Patrse  by  order  of  Augustus.  Its  remains  are  gener- 
 ally supposed  to  correspond  with  those  observed  by 
 modern  travellers  at  Gonmenitza.  These  ruins,  which 
 are  very  extensive,  are  sometimes  called  St.  Andrea, 
 from  a  church  dedicated  to  that  apostle  in  the  imme- 
 diate vicinity.  {Gell,  Itin.  of  the  Morca,  p.  135. — 
 Cramer's  Ane.  Greece,  vol.  3,  p.  75.) 
 
0 
 
 TRO 
 
 Tritogenia,  1  snrname  of  Pallas.  ( Y^td.  Minerva, 
 page  849,  col.  3.) 
 
 TiUTON,  I.  a  sea-deity,  the  son,  according  to  He- 
 siod,  of  Neptune  and  Amphitrile.  {Thcog.,  930.) 
 liater  poets  made  hitn  his  father's  trumpeter.  lie  was 
 also  multiplied,  and  we  read  of  Tritons  m  the  plural 
 number.  Like  the  Nereides,  the  Tritons  were  degra- 
 ded to  the  hsh-form.  Paiisanias  tells  u.s,  l!iat  the 
 women  of  Tanagra,  in  Boeotia,  going  into  the  sea  to 
 purify  themselves  for  the  orgies  of  Bacchus,  were, 
 while  there,  assailed  by  Triton  ;  but,  on  praying  to 
 their  god,  he  vanquished  their  persecutor.  Others, 
 he  adds,  said  that  Triton  used  to  carry  ofl"  the  cattle 
 which  were  driven  down  to  tlie  sea,  and  to  seize  all 
 small  vessels,  till  the  Tanagrians  placing  bowls  of 
 wine  on  the  shore,  he  drank  of  them,  and,  becoming 
 intoxicated,  threw  himself  down  on  the  shore  to  sleep, 
 where,  as  he  lay,  a  Tanagrian  cut  off  his  head  with  an 
 a.\c.  He  relates  these  legends  to  account  for  the 
 statue  of  Triton  at  Tanagria  being  headless.  He  then 
 subjoins  :  "  I  have  seen  another  I'riton  among  the  cu- 
 riosities of  the  Romans,  but  it  is  not  so  large  as  this 
 of  the  Tanagrians.  The  form  of  the  Tritons  is  this  : 
 the  hair  of  their  head  resembles  the  parsley  that  grows 
 in  marshes,  both  in  colour  and  in  the  perfect  likeness 
 of  one  hair  to  another :  the  rest  of  their  body  is  rough, 
 with  small  scales,  and  is  of  about  the  same  hardness  as 
 the  skin  of  a  fish  :  they  have  fish-gills  under  their 
 ears  ;  their  nostrils  are  those  of  a  man,  but  their  teeth 
 are  broader,  and  like  those  of  a  wild  beast ;  their  eyes 
 seem  to  iiie  azure,  and  their  hands,  fingers,  and  nails 
 are  of  the  form  of  the  shells  of  shellfish  ;  they  have, 
 instead  of  feet,  fins  under  their  breasts  and  belly,  like 
 those  of  the  porpoise."'  {Pausan.,  9,  20,  21. — Keight- 
 'ey's  Mythology,  p.  245,  seq.) — H.  A  river  of  Africa, 
 ,if)ing  in  Mount  Usaleton,  and,  after  forming  in  its 
 course  the  two  lakes  of  Tritonis  and  Libya,  discharg- 
 ing Us  waters  into  the  Syrtis  Minor,  near  Tacape.  It 
 is  now  the  Gabs. 
 
 Tritonis  or  Tkiton,  a  lake  and  river  of  Africa,  in- 
 land from  the  Syrtis  Minor.  Minerva  is  said  to  have 
 been  called  Tritonia  because  she  first  revealed  herself 
 in  the  vicinity  of  this  lake.  (But  consult  remarks 
 under  the  article  Minerva,  page  849,  col.  2.)  Near 
 the  Tritonis  Palus  was  the  Lihija,  Palus.  Modern 
 travellers  speak  of  a  long  and  narrow  lake  in  this  quar- 
 ter, divided  in  two  by  a  ford  ;  D'Anvillc  considers 
 these  to  be  the  Tritonis  and  Libya  Palus.  The  mod- 
 ern name  of  the  former  is  Faraun,  and  of  the  latter, 
 El-Loudeatk.  (Herod.,  4,  178. — Pausan.,  9,  33.— 
 Virg.,JEn.,  2,  111.  — Mela,  1,  7.)— II.  An  appella- 
 tion given  to  Minerva  by  the  poets.  {Virg.,  Mn.,  2, 
 226.— Oo«(/,  Met.,  3,  127.)— HI.  An  epithet  some- 
 times given  to  the  sacred  olive  at  Athens.  {Slat., 
 Syh.,  2,  7,  28.) 
 
 Trivia,  a  surname  given  to  Diana,  because  she  pre- 
 sided over  places  whore  three  roads  met.  {Vid.  Di- 
 ana, and  Hecate.) 
 
 Tkiviuum,  a  place  situate  among  the  mountains 
 that  separate  Sainniuin  from  Apulia.  The  little  town 
 of  Tiivico,  which  ajipears  on  a  height  above  the  course 
 of  the  ancient  Appian  Way,  indicates  the  site  of  this 
 place.     {Horat.,  Sat.,  1,  5,  .79.) 
 
 Tkiu.mvirorum  Insula,  an  island  in  the  small  river 
 Rhenus,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Po,  where  the 
 triumvirs  Antony,  Lepidus,  and  Augustus,  met  to  di- 
 vide the  Roman  empire  after  the  battle  of  Mutina. 
 (Djo  Cjis.,  46,  55.) 
 
 Troades,  the  inhabitants  of  Troas. 
 
 Tkoas,  a  district  on  the  ..Egean  coast  of  Mysia,  in 
 Asia  Minor,  extending  as  far  south  as  the  promontory 
 of  Lectum,  now  Cape  Baha,  of  which  Troy  was  the 
 capital.  The  kingdom  of  Priam,  if  we  form  our  ideas 
 of  it  from  the  poems  of  Homer,  must  have  been  of 
 very  limited  extent.  Strabo,  indeed,  through  partiali- 
 tv  for  his  favourite  poet,  seeks  to  enlarge  the  limits  of 
 
 Priam's  kingdom,  and  makes  it  to  have  comprised  the 
 country  on  the  coast  of  the  Propontis  as  far  as  the 
 river  /Esepus,  near  Cyzicus.  Homer,  however,  names 
 many  expressly  as  allies  of  the  Trojans  whom  JStrabo 
 would  wish  to  consider  as  the  suhjccls  of  Priam.  The 
 northern  part  of  Troas  was  termed  Dardania,  from 
 Dardanus,  a  city  founded  by  Dardanus,  one  of  the  an- 
 cestors of  Priam  The  Trojans  were  very  probably 
 of  Thracian  origin.     (  Kui.  Troja  ) 
 
 Troc.mi,  a  people  of  Galatia,  on  the  side  of  Cappa- 
 docia,  and  between  the  Halys  and  the  last-mentioned 
 country.  (Pulyh.,  31,  IZ.—Liv.,  38,  IC.  — i'/i«.,  5, 
 32.) 
 
 TfiCEziiNE,  a  city  of  Argolis,  situate  on  the  Sinus 
 Saronicus,  near  the  southeastern  extremity  of  that 
 country,  and  northeast  of  Herinione.  'I"he  Troezeni-  « 
 ans  prided  themselves  upon  the  great  antiquity  of  theii 
 city,  which  had  borne  the  several  names  of  Orta,  Al- 
 thepia,  and  Posidonia,  before  it  received  that  of  Trce- 
 zene  from  Trcezen,  the  son  of  Pelops,  one  of  the  earli- 
 est sovereigns  of  the  country.  He  was  succeeded  by 
 Pittheus,  whose  daughter,  marrying  .^geus,  became 
 the  mother  of  Theseus.  This  hero  was  born  at  Trce- 
 zene,  where  he  long  resided.  Many  of  his  adventures, 
 as  well  as  those  of  Phasdra  and  Hippolytus,  are  re- 
 ferred to  this  city  by  the  tragic  poets.  The  Troezeni- 
 ans  could  also  boast  of  having  colonized  Myndus  and 
 Halicarnassus  in  Caria,  and  likewise  the  borough  of 
 Sphettus  and  Anaphlystus  in  Attica.  {Herod.,  7,  99. 
 — Pausan.,  2,  30.)  On  the  arrival  of  the  Heraclidse 
 and  Dorians,  Trcezcne  was  occupied  by  their  forces, 
 and  became  a  republic  independent  of  Argos,  to  which 
 it  had  been  subject  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  expedi- 
 tion. {Pausan.,  I.  c. — //erorl,  8,  43.)  In  the  Per- 
 sian war,  the  Troezenians  received  most  of  the  Athe- 
 nian families  who  were  forced  to  abandon  their  city. 
 {Herod.,  8,  41.)  They  sent  five  ships  to  Artemisiuin 
 and  Salamis,  and  1000  heavy-armed  soldiers  to  Plataea 
 {Herod.,  8,  1.  —  Id.,  9,  28);  they  are  also  named 
 among  the  confederates  who  fov)ght  at  Mycale.  {He- 
 rod., 9,  102.) — The  harbour  of  I'roezene  obtained  the 
 name  of  Pogon  from  its  shape,  being  bounded  by  a 
 curved  strip  of  land  which  resembled  a  beard  {Tcuyuv). 
 The  ruins  of  this  ancient  city  are  to  be  seen  near  the 
 village  of  Damala,  in  a  plain  situate  at  the  foot  of  a 
 lofty  range  of  mountains,  which  runs  from  the  Saronic 
 Gulf  to  that  of  Hermioiie.  {Cramers  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  3,  p.  262,  scqq.)  "This  place,"  observes  Sir 
 Win.  Gell,  in  speaking  of  Troezene,  "now  represented 
 by  a  mean  village  of  only  forty-five  habitations,  was 
 anciently  of  considerable  extent,  the  longest  side  of 
 the  city  having  been  at  least  one  mile  in  length.  It 
 was  probably,  like  most  of  the  Grecian  cities,  of  a  form 
 approaching  to  a  triangle,  having  a  wall  on  the  plain, 
 from  the  extremities  of  which  other  fortifications  ran 
 up  the  mountain  to  the  Acropolis,  on  a  craggy  and 
 detached  summit,  now  very  prettily  spotted  with  wild 
 olives."  (Compare  Leakeys  Morea,  vol.  2,  p.  442, 
 scqq.) 
 
 TuoGiLiyE,  three  small  islands  near  Samos,  named 
 Psilon,  Argennon,  and  Sandalion.  {Plin.,  5,  31.) 
 Strabo  names  only  one,  which  he  calls  Trogilium, 
 ))robably  the  same  alluded  to  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
 tles (20,  15). 
 
 Tkqgii.ium  Promontorium,  a  bold  promontory  of 
 Ionia,  nearly  opposite  to  Cape  Posidium,  in  the  island 
 of  Samos,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  strait  not  more 
 than  seven  stadia  wide.  {S/rab.,  636  )  The  Trogil- 
 ian  promontory  is  mentioned  in  the  Acts,  in  the  ac- 
 count of  St.  Paul's  voviigc  from  Troas  to  Miletus,  by 
 Mytilene,  Chios,  and  Samos.  From  the  latter  island 
 they  crossed  over  to  Trogilium.  and  after  remaining 
 there,  it  appears,  one  night,  they  reached  Miletus  the 
 following  day.  {Acts,  20,  15.)  The  modern  name 
 of  this  promontory  is  Cape  Santa  Maria.  {Crarner''» 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  378.) 
 
 1357 
 
TRO 
 
 TROJA. 
 
 rr.OGi.oDVT.E,  an  apptHalioii  denoting  a  people  who 
 dwelt  HI  caves  {ri)o>y'A7j,  a  cave,  and  dviu,  fo  cnlrr). 
 The  ancients  lound  Troglodytes  in  various  parts  of 
 the  world,  but  the  name  reniaiiied  peculiarly  appro[)ri- 
 ated  to  the  inhaliiiants  of  the  western  coast  of  the  Si- 
 nus Arahicus  in  /Ethiopia;  and  from  them  the  entire 
 coast  took,  with  the  Greeks,  the  name  of  Troglodylice 
 ('Vf)uy?uj(hTiK7^).  It  commenced  to  the  soiitii  of  Ber- 
 enice, and  reached  to  the  soutliernmosi  extremiiy  of 
 the  gulf.     (I'iui.,  6,  20.— Id.,  2,  70.— W.,  6,  19.) 
 
 1'rogus  Pompeius,  a  Latin  historian,  who  flourished 
 in  the  time  of  Augustus.  He  was  descended  from  a 
 Gallic  family,  to  which  Pompey  the  Great  had  exiend- 
 ed  ihc  rights  of  Roman  citizenship,  and  from  him,  in 
 all  probaliility,  the  name  Pompeius  was  derived,  the 
 %  family  name  havincr  been  Trogus.  The  father  of  the 
 historian  was  secretary  to  Julius  Ccesar.  {Justin,  4;i, 
 5,  11.)  Trogus  Pompeius  wrote  an  historical  work 
 in  forty-four  books,  compiled  from  some  of  the  best 
 of  the  ancient  historical  writers.  An  abridgment  of 
 this  work  was  made  by  Justin,  and  has  come  down  to 
 lis  ;  but  the  original  wcrk  itself  is  lost.  (Consult  re- 
 marks under  the  article  Justiiius  I.) 
 
 '1'roj.\,  I.  a  celebrated  city,  the  capital  of  Troas,  which 
 appears  from  Homer  to  have  stood  in  the  immediate 
 vicinity  of  the  sources  of  the  Scamaiider,  on  a  rising 
 ground  between  that  river  and  the  Simois.  The  Tro- 
 jans or  Teucri  appear  to  have  been  of  Thracian  origin, 
 and  their  first  monarch  is  said  to  have  been  Teucer. 
 In  the  reign  of  this  king  Troy  was  not  as  yet  built. 
 Dardanus,  probably  a  Pelasgic  chief,  came  from  the 
 island  of  Sainothrace  to  the  Teucrian  territory,  re- 
 ceived from  Teucer  his  daughter  Baticia  in  marriage, 
 together  with  the  cession  of  part  of  his  kingdom, 
 founded  the  city  of  Dardanus,  and  called  the  adjacent 
 region  Dardania.  Dardanus  had  two  sons,  llus  and 
 Erichthoiiius.  IJus  died  without  issue,  and  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  Erichthonius,  who  married  Asyoche,  daugh- 
 ter of  the  Simo'is,  and  became  by  her  the  father  of 
 Tros.  This  last,  on  succeeding  to  the  throne,  called 
 the  country  Troas  or  Troja,  and  had  three  sons,  llus, 
 Assaracus,  and  Ganymedes.  llus,  having  come  off' 
 victorious  in  certain  games  at  the  court  of  a  neigh- 
 bouring monarch  of  Phrygia,  received  from  the  latter, 
 among  other  rewards,  a  dappled  heifer,  and  permission 
 to  found  a  city  wherever  the  heifer  should  lie  down. 
 The  animal,  having  come  to  a  place  called  the  "  hill 
 of  Ate"  ('Ar?;f  Aoc^iof),  lay  down  thereon,  and  here, 
 accordingly,  llus  founded  his  city,  which  he  called 
 Ilium,  and  which  afterward  obtained  also  the  name  of 
 Troy.  (Apollod.,  3,  12,  I,  scqq  )  This  place,  the 
 citadel  of  which  was  called  Pergamus,  became  now 
 the  capital  of  all  Troas,  and,  during  the  reign  of  La- 
 omedon,  the  successor  of  llus,  was  surrounded  with 
 walls,  which  the  [)oeis  fabled  were  the  work  of  AjjoHo 
 and  Neptune.  {Vtd.  Laomedon.)  During  the  reign 
 of  this  last-mentioned  monarch,  Troy  was  taken  by 
 Hercules,  assisted  by  I'elamon,  son  of  .lEacus,  but 
 was  restored  by  the  victor  to  Priam,  the  son  of  its 
 conquered  king.  {Vid.  Laomedon,  and  Priamus.) 
 Priam  reigned  here  in  peace  and  prosperity  for  many 
 years,  having  a  numlitr  of  adjiicent  tribes  under  his 
 sway,  until  his  son  Paris,  attracted  to  I^aconia  by  the 
 fame  of  Helen's  beauty,  abused  the  hospitality  of  Men- 
 claiis  by  carrying  off  his  queen  in  his  abseiico.  All 
 the  chiefs  of  Greece,  thereupon  combined  their  forces, 
 under  the  command  of  Agamemnon,  to  avenge  this 
 outrage,  sailed  with  a  great  armament  to  Troy,  and, 
 after  a  siege  of  ten  years,  took  and  razed  it  to  the 
 ground  (BfC.  1184). 
 
 1.  Legend  of  the  Trojan  War. 
 
 Jupiter,  seeing  the  earth  overstocked  with  inhabi- 
 tants, consulted  with  Themis  how  to  remedy  the  evil. 
 The  best  course  seemed  to  be  a  war  between  Hellas 
 and  Troy  ;    and  Discord  thereupon,  bv  his  direction, 
 1358 
 
 came  to  the  banquet  of  the  gods  at  the  nuptials  of 
 Pelcus  and  ^J'iutis,  and  flung  down  a  golden  apple,  in- 
 scribed "The  Apple  fur  the  Fair  One"  (Tt)  Ka/.y  to 
 [if/lov).  Juno,  Minerva,  and  Venus,  claiming  it,  Ju- 
 piter directed  Mercury  to  conduct  them  to  Mount  Ida, 
 for  the  question  to  be  determined  by  Paris,  the  son  of 
 Priam.  The  prize  was  awarded  to  Venus,  who  had 
 jiromised  the  judge  the  beautiful  Helen  in  marriage. 
 Venus  then  directed  iiim  to  build  a  sliifi,  and  desired 
 her  son  /l']neas  to  be  the  companion  of  his  adventure. 
 The  soothsaying  Helenus  and  Cassandra  announced 
 in  vain  the  woes  that  were  to  follow  ;  the  vessel  put 
 to  sea,  and  Pans  arrived  at  Laceda;mon,  where  he 
 shared  the  hospitality  of  Menelaijs,  the  husband  of 
 Helen.  The  Trojan,  at  the  bancjuet,  bestov^ed  gifts  on 
 his  fair  hostess,  and  shortly  after  Menelaijs  sailed  to 
 Crete,  directing  his  wife  to  enterlain  the  guests  while 
 they  stayed.  But  Venus  caused  Helen  and  Paris  to 
 become  mutually  enamoured  :  and  the  guilty  pair,  fill- 
 ing the  ship  with  the  property  of  Menclaiis,  embark  and 
 depart,  accomjianied  by  the  son  of  Anchises.  Mene- 
 laiis,  returning  to  his  home,  consulted  with  his  brother 
 Agamemnon  about  an  expedition  against  I'roy.  He 
 then  repaired  to  Nestor  at  Pylos,  and,  going  through 
 Hellas,  they  assembled  chiefs  for  the  war.  The  gen- 
 eral place  of  rendezvous  was  Aulis  in  Bceotia.  From 
 this  port  the  combined  Grecian  fleet  proceeded  to 
 Troy  ;  but,  reaching  Teuthrania,  in  Mysia,  on  the  coast 
 of  Asia,  and  taking  it  for  the  Trojan  territory,  they 
 landed  and  ravaged  the  country.  I'elephus,  the  mon- 
 arch of  the  land,  came  to  oppose  them,  and  killed 
 Thersander,  the  son  of  Polynices,  but  was  himself 
 severely  wounded  by  Achilles.  As  they  were  sailing 
 thence,  their  fleet  was  dispersed  by  a  storm.  Telo- 
 phus,  after  this,  having,  by  direction  of  an  oracle,  come 
 to  .Argos  in  search  of  a  cure  for  his  wound,  is  healed 
 by  Achilles,  and  undertakes  to  conduct  the  Greeks  to 
 Troy.  The  fleet  again  assembled  at  Aulis,  where  the 
 affair  of  Iphigenia  occurred.  {Vul.  Iphigenia.)  Tlie 
 wind,  after  the  anger  of  Diana  had  been  appeased,  no 
 longer  proving  adverse,  the  fleet  made  sail,  and  reached 
 the  isle  of  Tenedos,  where  Philoctetes  received  a 
 wound  from  a  water-snake,  and  the  smell  from  this 
 proving  very  offensive,  they  carried  him  to  the  isle  of 
 Lemnos  and  left  him  there.  (  FiVi  Philoctetes  )  When 
 the  AchiEan  host  appeared  off  the  coast  of  Troy,  the 
 Trojans  came  down  to  oppose  their  landing,  and  Pio- 
 tesilaus  fell  by  the  hand  of  Hector;  but  Achilles,  hav- 
 ing slain  Cycnus,  the  son  of  Neptune,  put  the  enemy 
 to  flight.  An  assault  on  the  city  having  failed,  the 
 Greeks  turned  to  ravaging  the  surrounding  country, 
 and  took  several  towns.  Then  followed  a  war  of  ten 
 long  years,  the  principal  events  of  which  have  been 
 given  elsewhere.  {VvL  Achilles,  Chryses,  Briseis, 
 Agamemnon,  Penthesilea,  Memnon,  &,c.)  In  the  last 
 year  of  the  war,  Ulysses  took  Helenus  by  stratagem, 
 and,  having  learned  from  him  how  Troy  might  be 
 captured,  Diomede  was  sent  to  Lemnos  to  fetch  Phi- 
 loctetes, who,  being  cured  by  Machaon,  killed  Paris. 
 Minerva  then  directed  Epeus  to  construct  a  huge  horse 
 of  wood  ;  and,  the  horse  being  completed,  the  bravest 
 warriors  conceal  themselves  in  it,  and  the  rest  set  fire 
 to  their  tents  and  sail  away  to  Tenedos.  The  Tro- 
 jans, thinking  their  toils  and  dangers  all  over,  break 
 down  a  part  of  their  walls,  and,  drawing  the  horse  into 
 the  city,  indulge  in  festivity.  There  was  a  debate 
 what  to  do  with  the  horse  ;  some  were  for  throwing  it 
 from  the  rock,  others  for  burning  it,  others  for  con- 
 secrating it  to  Minerva.  The  last  opinion  prevailed, 
 and  the  banquets  were  spread.  Two  vast  serpents 
 now  appeared,  and  destroyed  Laocoon  and  his  sons  ; 
 dismayed  by  which  prodigy,  .(Eneas  forthwith  retired 
 to  Mount  Ida.  Sinon,  then,  who  had  got  into  the 
 city  by  means  of  a  forged  tale,  raised  torches  as  a 
 signal  to  those  at  Tenedos.  They  return,  the  war- 
 riors descend  from  the  horse,  and  the  city  is  taken. 
 
TIIOJA. 
 
 TROJA. 
 
 Such  is  the  narrative  of  the  Trojan  war  as  it  appeared 
 in  the  Jlmd  oj  Homer,  in  the  LUllc  Iliad,  and  in  the 
 Distrnction  of  Troy,  by  the  bard  Arctiiius.  It  was 
 a  subject,  however,  of  all  others  open  to  variation  and 
 addition,  as  may  be  seen,  in  particular,  from  the  jEneid 
 of  V'irgii,  and  also  in  the  other  form  of  the  story,  which 
 made  -'Eneas  and  Antcnor  to  have  betrayed  Troy  to 
 the  Greeks.     {Keighilej/'s  Mythology,  p.  485,  scqq.) 
 
 2.  Horo  far  the  story  of  the  Trojan  War  is  credible. 
 The  poems  of  Homer  have  made  the  story  of  the 
 Trojan  war  familiar  to  most  readers  long  before  they 
 arc  tempted  to  inquire  into  its  historical  basis.  It  is, 
 consequently,  difficult  to  enter  upon  the  present  inqui- 
 ry vvitliout  some  prepossessions  unfavourable  to  an 
 impartial  judgment.  Here,  however,  we  must  not  be 
 deterred  from  stating  our  view  of  the  subject,  by  the 
 certainty  that  it  will  appear  to  some  parado.xical,  while 
 others  will  think  that  it  savours  of  excessive  credulity. 
 The  reality  of  the  siege  of  Troy  has  sometimes  been 
 questioned,  we  conceive,  without  sufficient  ground, 
 and  against  some  strong  evidence.  According  to  the 
 rules  of  sound  criticism,  very  cogent  arguments  ought 
 to  be  required  to  induce  us  to  reject  as  a  mere  fiction 
 a  tradition  so  ancient,  so  universally  received,  so  defi- 
 nite, and  so  interwoven  with  the  whole  mass  of  the  na- 
 tional recollections  as  that  of  the  Trojan  war.  Even 
 if  unfounded,  it  must  still  have  had  some  adequate  oc- 
 casion and  motive  ;  and  it  is  diiiioult  to  imagine  what 
 this  could  have  been,  unless  it  arose  out  of  the  Greek 
 colonies  in  Asia  ;  and  in  this  case,  its  universal  recep- 
 tion in  Greece  itself  is  not  easily  explained.  The 
 leaders  of  the  earliest  among  these  colonies,  which 
 were  [)lanted  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Troy,  claimed 
 Agamemnon  as  their  ancestor  ;  but  if  this  had  sug- 
 gested the  story  of  his  victories  in  Asia,  their  scene 
 would  probably  have  been  fi.xed  in  the  very  region  oc- 
 cupied by  his  descendants,  not  in  an  adjacent  land. 
 On  the  other  hand,  the  course  taken  by  this  first  (^Eo- 
 lian)  migration  falls  in  naturally  with  a  previous  tradi- 
 tion of  A  conquest  achieved  by  Greeks  in  this  part  of 
 Asia.  We  therefore  conceive  it  necessary  to  admit  the 
 reality  of  the  Trojan  war  as  a  general  fact,  but  beyond 
 this  we  scarcely  venture  to  proceed  a  single  step.  Its 
 cause  and  its  issue,  the  manner  in  which  it  was  con- 
 ducted, and  the  j)arties  engaged  in  it,  are  all  involved 
 in  an  obscurity  which  we  cannot  pretend  to  penetrate. 
 We  find  it  impossible  to  adopt  the  poetical  story  of 
 Helen,  partly  on  account  of  its  inherent  improbability, 
 and  partly  because  we  arc  convinced  that  Helen  is 
 a  merely  mythological  [lerson.  (Vid.  Helena.)  The 
 common  account  of  the  origin  of  the  war  has  indeed 
 been  defended,  on  the  ground  that  it  is  perfectly  con- 
 sistent with  the  manners  of  the  age  ;  just  as  if  a  pop- 
 ular tale,  whether  true  or  false,  could  be  at  variance 
 with  them.  The  feature  in  the  narrative  which  ap- 
 pears in  the  highest  degree  improbable,  setting  the 
 character  of  the  persons  out  of  the  question,  is  the  in- 
 tercourse implied  in  it  between  Troy  and  Sparta.  As 
 to  the  heroine,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  raise  a  strono- 
 3us|)icion  of  her  fabulous  nature  to  observe  that  she  is 
 classed  by  Herodotus  with  lo,  and  Europa,  and  Me- 
 dea, all  of  them  persons  who,  on  distinct  grounds, 
 must  clearly  be  referred  to  the  domain  of  mythology. 
 This  suspicion  is  confirmed  by  all  the  [larticulars  of  her 
 legend  ;  by  her  birth  ;  by  her  relation  to  the  Divine 
 Twins,  whose  worship  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the 
 most  ancient  forms  of  religion  in  Pelo[)onnesus,  and 
 especially  in  Laconia  ;  and  by  the  divine  honours  paid 
 to  her  at  Sparta  and  elsewhere.  {Herod.,  6,  61. — 
 Pausan,  3,  19,  10.— AZ.,  2,  22,  d.—Id.,  2,  32,  7.— 
 Plut ,  Vit.  Thrs.,  c.  20,  .sry  )  But  a  still  stronger 
 reason  for  douijtinir  the  reality  of  the  motive  assitfned 
 by  Homer  for  the  'I'rojan  war  is,  that  the  same  incident 
 recurs  in  another  circle  of  fictions,  and  that,  in  the  ab- 
 duction of  Helen,  Paris  only  repeats  an  exploit  also  at- 
 
 tributed to  Theseus.  This  adventure  of  the  Attic 
 hero  seems  to  have  been  known  to  Homer ;  for  he  ii> 
 troduces  -Ethra,  the  mother  of  Theseus,  whom  the 
 Dioscuri  were  said  to  have  carried  off  from  Attica 
 when  they  invaded  it  to  recover  their  sister,  in  Helen's 
 company  at  Troy.  Theseus,  when  he  came  to  bear 
 her  away,  is  said  to  have  found  her  dancing  in  the 
 temple  of  the  goddess,  whose  image  Iphinenia  was  be- 
 lieved to  have  brought  home  subsequently  from  Scylh- 
 ia ;  a  feature  of  the  legend  which  perhaps  marks  the 
 branch  of  the  Lacedaemotiian  worship  to  which  she  be- 
 longed. According  to  another  tradition,  Helen  was 
 carried  off  by  Idas  and  Lynceus,  the  Messenian  pair 
 of  heroes  who  answer  to  the  Spartan  "twins  ;  varia- 
 tions which  seem  lo  show  that  her  abduction  was  a 
 theme  for  poetry  originally  independent  of  the  Trojan 
 war,  but  which  might  easily  and  naturally  be  associa- 
 ted with  that  event.  [Thirlu-all's  History  of  Greece, 
 vol.  I,  p.  151,  sefjq  ) 
 
 3.   Connexion  between  the  Trojan  War  and  the  Ar- 
 gonautic  Expedition. 
 
 If  we  reject  the  traditional  occasion  of  the  Trojan 
 war,  we  arc  driven  to  conjecture  in  order  to  explain 
 the  real  connexion  of  the  events  ;  yet  not  so  as  to 
 be  wholly  without  traces  to  direct  us.  It  has  been 
 elsewhere  observed  (vid.  ArgonautaR,  p.  188,  col.  2), 
 that  the  Argonautic  expedition  was  sometimes  re[)re- 
 sented  as  connected  with  the  first  conflict  between 
 Greece  and  Troy.  This  was  according  lo  the  legend 
 which  numbered  Hercules  among  the  Argonauts,  and 
 supposed  him,  on  the  voyage,  to  have  rendered  a  service 
 to  the  Trojan  king  Laomedon,  who  afterward  defrauded 
 him  of  his  recompense.  The  main  fact,  however,  that 
 Troy  was  taken  and  sacked  by  Hercules,  is  recognised 
 by  Homer  ;  and  thus  we  see  it  already  provoking  the 
 enmity,  or  tcmpliug  the  cupidity  of  the  Greeks  in  the' 
 generation  before  the  celebrated  war;  and  it  may  ea- 
 sily be  conceived,  that  if  its  power  and  opulence  re- 
 vived after  this  blow,  it  might  again  excite  the  same 
 feelings.  The  expedition  of  Hercules  may  indeed 
 suggest  a  doubt  whether  it  was  not  an  earlier  and  sim- 
 pler form  of  the  same  tradition,  which  grew,  at  lentrih, 
 iiito  the  argument  of  the  Iliad  ;  for  there  is  a  striking 
 resemblance  between  the  two  wars,  not  only  in  the 
 events,  but  in  the  principal  actors.  As  the  promi- 
 nent figures  in  the  second  siege  are  Agamemnon  and 
 Achilles,  who  represent  the  royal  house  of  Mycena} 
 and  that  of  the  -Eacida;,  so,  in  the  first,  the  Argive 
 Hercules  is  accompanied  by  the  -Eacid  'J'elamon  ; 
 and  even  the  quarrel  and  reconciliation  of  the  allied 
 chiefs  are  features  common  to  both  traditions.  Nor 
 perhaps  should  it  be  overlooked,  that,  accordinir  to 
 a  legend  which  was  early  celebrated  in  the  epic  poetry 
 of  Cirecce,  the  Greek  fleet  sailed  twice  from  Aulis  to 
 the  coast  of  Asia.  In  the  first  voyage  it  reached  the 
 mouth  of  the  Ca'icus,  where  the  army  landed,  and 
 gained  a  victory  over  Telephus,  king  of  Mysia  ;  but, 
 on  leaving  the  jMysian  coast,  the  fleet  was  dispersed 
 by  a  storm,  and  com[]clled  to  reassemble  at  Aulis. 
 There  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  treating  this  cither  as 
 a  fictitious  episode,  or  as  a  fart  really  belonging  to  the 
 history  of  the  Trojan  war.  It  may  have  been  origi- 
 nally a  distinct  legend,  grounded,  like  that  of  Hercu- 
 les, on  a  series  of  attacks  made  by  the  Greeks  on  the 
 coast  of  Asia,  whether  merely  for  the  sake  of  plunder, 
 or  with  a  view  to  permanent  settlements.  (I'hirl- 
 wall's  History  of  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  153,  seq  ) 
 
 4.  Historical  View,  and  Consequences,  of  the  Trojan 
 War. 
 
 As  to  the  expedition  which  ended  in  the  fall  of 
 Ilium,  while  the  leading  facts  are  so  uncertain,  it  must 
 clearly  be  hopeless  to  form  any  distinct  conception  ol 
 its  details.  It  seems  scarcely  necessary  to  observe, 
 that  no  more  reliance  can  be  [ilaccd  on  the  eiiumera- 
 
 1359 
 
TROJA. 
 
 TROJA. 
 
 tion  of  the  Greek  forces  in  the  Iliad,  than  on  the  other 
 parts  of  the  poem  which  have  a  more  poetical  aspect, 
 especially  as  it  appears  to  be  a  compilation  adapted  to 
 a  later  state  of  ihuigs.  That  the  numbers  of  the  ar- 
 mamenr  are,  as  Thucydidcs  observed,  exaggeirated  by 
 the  poet,  may  easily  be  believed  ;  and  perhaps  wc  may 
 very  well  dispense  with  the  historian's  supposition, 
 that  a  detachment  was  employed  in  the  cultivation  of 
 the  Thracian  Chersonese.  "My  father,"  says  the 
 son  of  Hercules,  in  the  Iliad,  "came  hither  with  no 
 more  than  six  ships  and  a  few  nien  :  yet  he  laid  Ilium 
 waste,  and  made  her  streets  desolate."  A  surprising 
 contrast,  indeed,  to  the  efforts  and  success  of  Aga- 
 memnon, who,  with  his  1200  ships  and  100,000  men, 
 headed  by  the  flower  of  the  Grecian  chivalry,  lay  ten 
 vcars  before  the  town,  often  ready  to  abandon  the  en- 
 terprise in  despair,  and  who,  at  last,  was  indebted  for 
 victory  to  an  unexpected  favourable  turn  of  affairs. 
 It  has  been  conjectured,  that,  after  the  first  calamity, 
 the  city  was  more  strongly  fortified,  and  rose  rapidly 
 in  power  during  the  reign  of  Priam  ;  but  this  suppo- 
 sition can  hardly  reconcile  the  imagination  to  the 
 transition  from  the  six  ships  of  Hercules  to  the  vast 
 host  of  Agamemnon.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no 
 difficulty  in  believing  that,  whatever  may  have  been 
 the  motives  of  the  expedition,  the  spirit  of  adventure 
 may  have  drawn  warriors  together  from  most  parts  of 
 Greece,  among  whom  the  southern  and  northern  Achge- 
 ans,  under  Pelopid  and  Jilacid  princes,  took  the  lead, 
 and  that  it  may  thus  have  deserved  the  character, 
 which  is  uniformly  ascribed  to  it,  of  a  national  enter- 
 prise. The  presence  of  several  distinguished  chiefs, 
 each  attended  by  a  small  band,  would  be  sufficient 
 both  to  explain  the  celebrity  of  the  achievement  and 
 to  account  for  the  event.  If  it  were  not  trespassing 
 too  far  on  the  domain  of  poetry,  one  might  imagine 
 that  the  plan  of  the  Greeks  was  the  same  which  we 
 find  frequently  adopted  in  lat£r  times,  by  invaders 
 whose  force  was  comparatively  weak  :  that  they  for- 
 tified themselves  in  a  post,  from  which  they  continued 
 to  annoy  and  distress  the  enemy  till  stratagem  or 
 treachery  gave  them  possession  of  the  town. — Though 
 there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  expedition  accom- 
 plished its  immediate  object,  it  seems  to  be  also  clear 
 that  a  Trojan  state  survived  for  a  time  the  fall  of  Ili- 
 um ;  for  an  historian  of  great  antiquity  on  this  subject, 
 both  from  his  age  and  his  country,  Xanthus  the  Lydi- 
 an,  related  that  such  a  state  was  finally  destroyed  by 
 the  invasion  of  the  Phrygians,  a  Thracian  tribe,  which 
 crossed  over  from  Europe  to  Asia  after  the  Trojan 
 war.  (.S/raJ.,  572,  680.)  And  this  is  indirectly  con- 
 firmed by  the  testimony  of  Homer,  who  introduces 
 Neptune  predicting  that  the  posterity  of  ^neas  should 
 long  continue  to  reign  over  the  Trojans  after  the  race 
 of  Priam  should  be  extinct.  To  the  conquerors  the 
 war  is  represented  as  no  less  disastrous  in  its  remote 
 consequences  than  it  was  glorious  in  its  immediate 
 issue.  The  returns  of  the  heroes  formed  a  distinct 
 circle  of  epic  poetry,  of  which  the  Odyssey  included 
 only  a  small  part,  and  they  were  generally  full  of  tragi- 
 cal adventures.  This  calamitous  result  of  a  success- 
 ful enterprise  seems  to  have  been  an  essential  feature 
 in  the  legend  of  Troy  ;  for  Hercules  also,  on  his  re- 
 turn, was  persecuted  by  the  wrath  of  Juno,  and  driven 
 out  of  his  course  by  a  furious  tem[)est.  If,  as  many 
 traces  indicate,  the  legend  of  Troy  grew  up  and  spread 
 among  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  when  newly  settled  in  the 
 land  where  their  forefathers,  the  heroes  of  a  better 
 generation,  had  won  so  many  glorious  fields,  it  would 
 not  be  difficult  to  conceive  how  it  might  take  this  mel- 
 ancholy turn.  The  siege  of  Troy  was  the  last  event 
 to  which  the  emigrants  could  look  back  with  joy  and 
 pride.  But  it  was  a  bright  spot,  seen  through  a  long 
 vista,  checkered  with  manifold  vicissitudes,  laborious 
 struggles,  and  fatal  revolutions.  They  had  come  as 
 «xiles  and  outcasts  to  tiie  shores  which  their  ances- 
 1360 
 
 tors  had  left  as  conquerors  :  it  seemed  as  if  the  jeal- 
 ousy of  the  gods  had  been  roused  by  the  greatest 
 achievement  of  the  Achajans  to  afflict  and  humble 
 them.  The  changes  and  sufferings  of  several  genera- 
 tions were  naturally  crowded  into  a  short  period  fol- 
 lowing the  event  which  was  viewed  as  their  cause, 
 and  were  represented  in  the  adverse  fortune  of  the 
 principal  chiefs  of  the  nation.  (ThirlwaU's  Histc^ 
 of  Greece,  vol.  1,  p.  154,  seqq.) 
 
 5.  Topography  of  Ancient  Troy. 
 
 The  topography  of  Troy,  which  will  always  be  in- 
 teresting to  the  classical  reader,  has  been  so  much 
 discussed  and  minutely  inquired  into  by  modern  trav- 
 ellers and  antiquaries,  that  no  additional  light  can  be 
 expected  to  be  derived  from  subsequent  researches. 
 A  brief  summary  of  what  has  been  collected  from  the 
 different  authors  who  have  expressly  written  on  the 
 subject  will  be  here  presented  to  the  reader,  referring 
 the  student,  who  is  desirous  of  investigating  it  more 
 deeply,  to  the  list  of  works  at  the  end  of  this  article. 
 This,  the  most  classical  of  all  lands,  has  been  so  com- 
 pletely trodden  and  examined,  that  it  may  be  truly  said 
 that  the  ancient  writers  who  wrote  on  the  subject 
 were  much  less  acquainted  with  the  actual  topography 
 of  the  Trojan  plain  than  our  best-informed  modern 
 travellers.  The  researches  of  these  intelligent  men 
 have  not  only  confirmed  the  great  historical  facts  con- 
 nected with  the  fate  of  Troy,  which  few  persons,  in- 
 deed, either  in  ancient  or  modern  times,  have  ventured 
 to  question,  and  those  evidently  for  tiie  purpose  of 
 maintaining  a  paradox  ;  but  they  have  served  beauti- 
 fully to  illustrate  the  noblest  poem  of  antiquity,  and 
 to  bear  witness,  with  due  allowance  for  poetical  ex- 
 aggeration, to  the  truth  and  accuracy  of  Homer's  local 
 descriptions.  They  have  proved,  that  as  in  every  other 
 point  he  was  the  most  close  and  happy  delineator  of 
 nature,  so  here  he  has  still  copied  her  most  faithfully, 
 and  has  taken  his  description  from  scenes  actually  ex- 
 isting, and  which  must  have  been  familiar  to  his  eyes. 
 In  order  that  this  may  be  proved  to  the  reader's  satis- 
 faction, as  far  as  it  is  possible,  without  an  actual  in- 
 spection of  the  country,  we  purpose  first  to  lay  before 
 him  all  the  general  and  most  striking  features  in  the 
 Homeric  chorography,  and  then  to  illustrate  them  by 
 a  continued  reference  to  modern  travellers  and  anti- 
 quarians. It  will  be  seen,  then,  from  the  Iliad,  that  the 
 Greeks,  having  arrived  on  the  coast  of  the  Hellespont, 
 and  effected  a  landing,  drew  up  their  vessels  in  sev- 
 eral rows  on  the  shore  of  a  small  bay  confined  between 
 two  promontories,  (fi.,  14,  30)  Elsewhere  he  states 
 that  Achilles  was  posted  at  one  extremity  of  the  line, 
 and  Ajax  at  the  other.  (ZA,  8,  224  ;  11,7.)  He  no- 
 where names  the  two  promontories  which  enclosed  the 
 bay  and  the  armament  of  the  Greeks  ;  but  all  writers, 
 both  ancient  and  modern,  agree  in  the  supposition  that 
 these  are  the  capes  Rhoctcum  and  Sigeum,  between 
 which  tradition  attached  to  different  spots  the  names 
 of  Naustathmus,  the  port  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  camp 
 of  the  Greeks.  {Strabo,  595.)  According  to  Pliny, 
 the  distance  from  headland  to  headland  was  thirty  sta- 
 dia (5,  33).  Strabo  reckoned  sixty  stadia  from  Rhce- 
 teum  to  Sigeum,  and  the  tomb  of  Achilles  close  to 
 the  latter  (/.  c.) ;  and  these  distances  agree  sufficiently 
 well  with  actual  measurements.  {French  Strabo,  4 
 170,  in  not.)  Considerable  changes,  however,  have 
 taken  place  during  the  lapse  of  so  many  ages  in  the 
 appearance  of  tlie  coast.  The  promontories  remain, 
 but  the  bay  has  been  completely  filled  up  by  the  de- 
 posite  of  rivers  and  the  accumulation  of  sand  and  soil, 
 and  the  shore  now  presents  scarcely  any  indenture  be- 
 tween the  headlands  ;  but  wc  are  assured  by  Choiseul 
 Gouffier,  and  others  who  have  explored  the  ground, 
 that  there  is  satisfactory  proof  of  the  sea  having  ad- 
 vanced formerly  some  way  into  the  land  in  this  direc- 
 tion.    {Voy.  Pittoresque,  2,  316. — Leake's  Asia  Mi- 
 
TROJA. 
 
 TROJA. 
 
 nor,  p.  273.)  The  next  great  feature  to  be  examinecf 
 in  tiie  II')ineric  chorography  is  the  jtofl's  account  of 
 the  riviTs  which  flowed  in  the  vicinity  of  Troy,  and 
 discharged  their  waters  into  the  Hellespont.  These 
 are  the  Xanlhus  or  Scainaruier,  and  the  Siinois, 
 whose  junction  is  especially  alluded  to.  (//.,  5,774.) 
 And  again  (6,  2),  where  it  is  said  that  the  conflict  be- 
 tween the  (ireeks  and  Trojans  took  place  in  the  plain 
 between  the  two  rivers.  One  of  the  first  questions, 
 then,  to  be  considered,  in  reconciling  the  topography 
 of  ancient  Troy  with  the  existing  state  of  the  country, 
 IS  this  :  Are  there  two  streams  answering  to  Homer's 
 description,  which  unite  in  a  plain  at  a  short  distance 
 from  the  sea,  and  fall  into  it  l)etween  the  Rhtetean 
 and  Sicjean  promontories !  To  this  question  it  cer- 
 tainly appears,  from  recent  observations,  that  we  must 
 reply  in  the  negative.  There  are  two  streams  which 
 water  the  plain,  su|)posed  to  be  that  of  Troy,  but  they 
 do  not  meet,  e.vcept  in  some  marshes  formed  princi- 
 pally by  the  Mciulerc,  the  larger  of  the  two,  v^'hich 
 seems  to  have  no  exit  into  the  Hellespont,  while  the 
 smaller  river  [lartly  flows  into  these  stagnant  pools, 
 and  partly  into  the  sea  near  the  Sigean  cape.  (Choi- 
 scul  Goufficr.)  It  appears,  however,  from  Slrabo,  or, 
 rather,  from  Demetrius,  whom  he  quotes,  that  when  he 
 wrote  the  junction  did  take  place  ;  for  he  says,  "  The 
 Scamander  and  Simois  advance,  the  one  towards 
 Sigeum,  the  other  towards  Rhosteum,  and,  after  uniting 
 their  streams  a  little  above  New  Ilium,  fall  into  the 
 sea  near  Sigeum,  where  they  form  what  is  called  the 
 Stomalimne"  (597. — Compare  595).  Pliny,  also,  when 
 he  speaks  of  the  Palajscamander,  evidently  leads  to 
 the  notion  that  the  channel  of  that  river  had  under- 
 gone a  material  alteration  (5,  32).  The  observations 
 of  travellers  afford  likewise  evidences  of  great  changes 
 havina  taken  place  in  regard  to  the  course  of  these 
 streams  ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  ancient  common  chan- 
 nel is  vet  to  be  traced,  under  the  name  of  Mnidcre, 
 near  the  point  of  Kum-Kalc.  The  ancients  them- 
 selves were  aware  of  considerable  alteration  having 
 taken  place  along  the  whole  line  of  coast;  for  His- 
 tinna  of  Alexandrea  Troas,  a  lady  who  had  written 
 much  on  the  Iliad,  affirmed  that  the  whole  distance  be- 
 tween New  Ilium  and  the  sea,  which  Strabo  estimates 
 at  twelve  stadia,  had  been  formed  by  alluvial  deposite 
 (598) ;  and  recent  researches  prove  that  their  distance 
 is  now  nearly  double.  {Leake's  Asia  Minor,  p.  295  ) 
 The  great  question,  however,  after  all,  respecting  the 
 two  rivers  alluded  to,  and  on  which  the  whole  inquiry 
 may  be  said  to  turn,  is.  Which  is  the  Scamander.  and 
 which  the  Simois  of  Homer  !  If  we  refer  for  the  so- 
 lution of  this  question  to  Demetrius  of  Scepsis,  who, 
 from  his  knowledge  of  the  Trojan  district,  appears  to 
 have  been  best  qualified  to  decide  upon  it,  we  shall 
 find  that  he  looked  u|)on  the  river  now  called  Mendere 
 as  corresponding  with  the  Scamander  of  Homer,  a 
 supposition  which  certainly  derives  support  from  the 
 similarity  of  names  ;  while  he  considered  the  Simois 
 to  be  the  stream  now  called  Giumlirek-sou,  which 
 unites  with  the  Mrndeie  near  the  site  of  Paleo  Aklshi, 
 supposed  10  represent  the  Pagus  Iliensium,  and  which 
 Demetrius  himself  identified  with  ancient  Troy.  But 
 it  has  been  rightly  observed  by  those  modern  writers 
 who  have  bestowed  their  attention  on  the  subject,  that 
 the  similarity  of  names  is  not  a  convincing  reason  in 
 itself,  since  they  have  often  been  known  to  vary  ;  and 
 that,  after  all,  we  must  refer  to  the  original  account, 
 where  we  find  the  characteristics  of  the  two  rivers  de- 
 scribed in  a  manner  which  must  eventually  settle  t.ie 
 whole  question  as  far  as  regards  their  identity.  \ 
 reference  to  the  Iliad  itself  is  the  more  necessar)  as 
 Demetrius  does  not  appear  to  have  satisfactorily  ex- 
 plained, even  to  himself,  certain  doubts  and  difficjfties 
 which  naturally  arose  from  comparing  his  system  of 
 topography  with  that  suggested  by  the  perusal  of  the 
 poet.  Now  it  appears  from  more  than  one  passage 
 8  K 
 
 that  the  Simois,  according  to  Homer,  had  its  source  m 
 Mount  Ida  {11.,  4,  475  ;  12,  22)  ;  and  though,  in  the 
 latter  passage,  the  same  thing  is  affirmed  of  the  Sca- 
 mander, it  will  be  seen  elsewhere  that  the  sources  of 
 that  river  are  so  plainly  described  as  situated  close  to 
 the  city  of  Troy,  that  they  never  could  be  said  to  rise 
 in  the  main  chain,  unless  Troy  itself  was  placed  there 
 likewise.  When  speaking  of  the  pursuit  of  Hector 
 by  Achilles  beneath  its  walls  {II ,  22,  143),  he  men- 
 tions certain  marks,  which  point  out  the  double  sources 
 of  the  Scamander,  in  40  peculiar  and  strikino-  a  man- 
 ner, that  the  discovery  of  them  would,  it  seems,  be 
 decisive  of  the  question,  not  only  as  far  as  regards  the 
 Trojan  rivers,  but  also,  in  all  probability,  as  to  the  sit- 
 uation of  Troy  itself,  which,  according  to  the  poet, 
 must  have  stood  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
 sources.  It  is  in  tracing  this  remarkable  and  most  dis- 
 tinguishing feature  of  the  Homeric  descri[)tion,  that 
 modern  research  and  industry  have  been  particularly 
 conspicuous,  and  have  enabled  us  to  solve  a  question 
 which  the  ancients,  from  the  want  of  similar  informa- 
 tion, could  never  understand.  It  is  to  Monsieur  Choi- 
 seul  Gouffier  that  the  merit  of  first  discovering  the 
 springs  of  the  Scamander  undoubtedly  belongs  ;  and 
 though  the  phenomena  of  heat  and  cold,  described  by 
 Homer,  have  not  been  so  convincingly  observed  bv 
 subsequent  travellers  as  by  himself,  yet,  by  taking  the 
 positive  testitnony  of  the  natives  themselves,  who  re- 
 peatedly corroborated  the  statement  made  by  the  poet. 
 as  well  as  the  several  experiments  made  by  Choiseul 
 Gouffier,  and  subsequently  by  Dubois  ( Voy.  Pitt.. 
 267-8. — Leakeys  Asia  Minor,  p.  283),  we  cannot  re- 
 fuse to  acknowledge,  at  least,  that  there  is  very  suffi- 
 cient foundation  for  the  poetical  picture  formed  of  the 
 spot  by  Homer.  M.  Choiseul  describes  the  hot  source 
 "as  one  abundant  stream,  which  gushes  out  from  dif- 
 ferent chinks  and  apertures  formed  in  an  ancient  struc- 
 ture of  stonework.  About  400  yards  higher  up  aie 
 lobe  seen  some  more  springs,  which  fall  together  into 
 a  square  stone  basin,  supported  by  some  long  blocks 
 of  granite.  These  limpid  rills,  after  traversing  a 
 charming  little  wood,  unite  with  the  first  sources,  and 
 together  form  the  Scamander."'  {Voy.  Pin.,  228.) 
 The  latter,  which  are  the  cold  springs  of  Homer,  are 
 called  Kirk  Guezler,  or  the  Forty  Fotmtains,  by  the 
 Turks.  {Ibid.,  268.)  If  we,  besides,  look  to  the  gen- 
 eral features  which  ought  to  belong  to  the  Scamander 
 and  the  Simois  of  Homer,  we  shall  find  that  the  for- 
 mer agrees  remarkably  with  the  beautiful  little  river  o( 
 Bounarbachi,  which  is  formed  by  the  sources  above  men 
 tioned,  while  the  ra[)id  Simois  finds  a  fit  representative 
 in  the  impetuous  Mcndcrc-sou,  which  descends  from 
 the  summits  of  Gargara,  and  fills  its  bed  with  trees  torn 
 from  their  roots,  and  huge  fragments  of  rock.  The  for- 
 mer is  described  as  a  copious,  rapid,  and  clear  stream, 
 whose  banks  are  spread  with  flowers  and  shaded  with 
 various  sorts  of  trees.  (7/.,21,l. — //y..l24;  2,  4G7  ; 
 21,  350.)  According  to  Mr.  Chevalier,  the  river  of  fiou- 
 narhacJii  "  is  never  subject  to  any  increa.>e  or  diminu- 
 tion ;  its  waters  are  as  pure  and  pellucid  as  crystal  ; 
 its  borders  are  covered  with  flowers  ;  the  same  sort  ol 
 trees  and  plants  which  grew  near  it  when  it  was  at- 
 tacked by  Vulcan,  grow  there  still  ;  willows,  lote- trees, 
 ash-trees,  and  reeds  arc  yet  to  be  seen  on  its  banks, 
 and  eels  are  still  caught  in  it."  {Dcscr.  of  Plain  of 
 Troy.  p.  83. —Compare  Voy  Pitt,  2,  p  228)  It 
 was  doubtless  on  account  of  the  beauty  and  copious- 
 ness of  its  stream  that  divine  honours  were  paid  to  the 
 Scamander  by  the  Trojans.  (//.,  5,  77. — Compare 
 ^Esf/i.,  Epist.,  10,  p.  680.)  The  Simois,  on  the  con- 
 trary, bears  all  the  marks  of  a  mighty  torrent  rushing 
 down  from  the  mountains  with  furious  haste  and  re- 
 sistless force.  This  is  evident  from  the  address  of  the 
 Scamander  to  his  brother  god,  invoking  his  aid  against 
 Achilles  (7/.,  21,  308)  ;  and  all  modern  travellers  and 
 topographers  concur  in  allowing  that  this  is  preciselv 
 
 1361 
 
TROJA. 
 
 TRO 
 
 the  character  of  the  Mendere,  which  takes  its  rise  in  a 
 deep  cave  below  the  highest  suinmit  of  Mount  Ida, 
 and,  after  a  tortuous  course,  between  sleep  and  craggy 
 banks,  of  nearly  thirty  miles,  in  a  rugged  bed,  which 
 IS  nearly  dry  in  summer,  finds  its  way  into  the  plain 
 oi  BoiinarbacJu.  It  is  true,  that  when  Demetrius  of 
 Scepsis  wrote,  which  is  some  years  after  the  defeat  of 
 Antiochiis  by  the  Romans  {Sirab.,  p.  593),  the  Alcri- 
 dcre  certainly  bore  the  name  of  Scamander,  for  he  de- 
 scribes the  source  of  that  river  in  Mount  Ida  very  ac- 
 curately («/>.  Slraho,  p.  602).  I  should  admit,  also, 
 that  the  Scamander,  which,  according  to  Herodotus, 
 was  drained  by  the  army  of  Xerxes  (42),  is  the  Moi- 
 derc  :  Hcllanicus  likewise  was  of  this  opinion  (ap. 
 Schol.  I/.,  21,  242)  ;  but  this  objection  may  be  fairly 
 disposed  of  by  supposing  that  the  name  of  Scamander, 
 which  is  certainly  much  oftener  mentioned  in  Homer, 
 had,  in  process  of  time,  been  transferred  to  the  river 
 whose  course  was  longer,  and  body  of  water  more  con- 
 siderable ;  whereas  it  is  impossible,  I  conceive,  to  get 
 over  the  difficulty  presented  by  Homer's  description  of 
 the  double  sources  of  the  Scamander.  The  question 
 may  be  fairly  summed  up  in  this  way  :  either  we  must 
 allow  that  Homer  drew  his  local  descriptions  from  real 
 scenes,  or  that  he  only  applied  historical  names  to  fan- 
 ciful and  ideal  localities  ;  in  the  latter  case,  all  our  in- 
 terest in  the  comparative  topography  of  Troy  ceases, 
 and  it  is  a  fruitless  task  to  look  for  an  application  of 
 the  imagery  traced  by  the  poet  to  the  actual  face  of 
 things.  But  if  a  striking  resemblance  does  present  it- 
 self, we  are  bound,  in  justice  to  the  poet,  to  take  our 
 stand  on  that  ground,  and,  without  regarding  any  hy- 
 pothesis or  system  which  may  have  been  advanced 
 or  framed  in  ancient  times,  to  seek  for  an  application 
 of  the  remaining  local  features  traced  in  the  Iliad  in 
 the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sources  of  Bounarbachi . 
 Here,  then,  travellers  have  observed,  a  little  above 
 these  springs  and  the  village  of  the  same  name,  a  hill 
 rising  from  the  plain,  generally  well  calculated  for  the 
 site  of  a  large  town,  and,  in  particular,  satisfying  many 
 of  the  local  requisites  which  the  Homeric  Troy  must 
 have  possessed  ;  such  as  a  sufficient  distance  from  the 
 sea,  and  an  elevated  and  commanding  situation.  This 
 is  evident  from  the  epithets  yvefweaaa,  anveivi],  and 
 fxfipvoeaaa,  which  arc  so  constantly  applied  to  it.  If 
 we,  besides,  have  a  rock  behind  the  town  answering 
 the  purpose  of  such  a  citadel  as  the  Pergamus  of  Troy 
 is  described  to  have  been,  "  Wepyajiog  uKpij,^'  rising 
 precipitously  above  the  city,  and  presenting  a  situation 
 of  great  strength,  we  shall  have  all  that  the  nature  of 
 the  poem,  even  in  its  historical  character,  ought  to  lend 
 ns  to  expect.  (Compare  Voij.  Pitt.,  2,  238,  and  the 
 plan  there  given.)  With  respect  to  minor  objects  al- 
 luded to  by  Homer  in  the  course  of  his  poem,  such  as 
 the  tombs  or  mounds  of  Ilus,  yEsyetes,  and  Myrina, 
 the  Scopie  and  Erineus,  or  grove  of  wild  fig-trees,  it 
 is,  perhaps,  too  much  to  seek  to  identify,  as  the  French 
 topographers  have  somewhat  fancifully  done,  with  pres- 
 ent appearances.  It  is  certain  that  such  indications 
 cannot  be  relied  upon,  since  the  inhabitants  of  New 
 Ilium,  who  also  pretended  that  their  town  stood  on  the 
 site  of  ancient  Troy,  boasted  that  they  could  show, 
 close  to  their  walls,  these  dubious  vestiges  of  antiqui- 
 ty. {Slrabo,  599.)  With  respect  to  the  objection 
 which  may  be  brought  against  the  situation  here  as- 
 signed to  ancient  Troy,  that  it  would  not  have  been 
 possible  for  the  flight  of  Hector  to  have  taken  place 
 round  the  walls,  as  the  poet  has  represented  it,  since 
 the  heights  of  Bounarbachi  are  skirted  to  the  northeast 
 by  the  deep  and  narrow  gorge  of  the  Mendrrr,  which 
 leaves  no  room  even  for  a  narrow  footpath  along  its 
 banks,  the  opinion  is  undoubtedly  correct  of  those 
 commentators  and  critics  who  think  that  we  ought  not 
 to  take  the  words  of  the  poet  in  the  sense  which  has 
 commonly  been  assigned  to  them,  but  that  it  is  better 
 o  suppose  that  Hector  and  Achilles  ran  only  round 
 1362 
 
 [  that  portion  of  the  city  which  fronts  the  plain  fron 
 the  Scsean  gates  to  the  sources  of  the  Scamander  and 
 back  again.  (Voy.  Pill.,  2,  p.  238-40.— Le  Cheva- 
 lier's Description  of  Plain  of  Troy,  p.  135. — Leake's 
 Asia  Minor,  p.  304.)  The  difficulty  in  that  case  will 
 be  satisfactorily  removed,  and  there  will  then  remain, 
 we  conceive,  no  valid  objection  to  the  system  which 
 recognises  the  hill  of  Bounarbachi  as  the  representa- 
 tive of  the  ancient  city  of  Priam,  and  which  l>as  been 
 almost  universally  embraced  by  modern  travellers  and 
 scholars.  {Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  1,  p.  89,  se(/(j.) 
 — The  student  who  is  desirous  of  investigating  the 
 Trojan  question  more  deeply,  is  referred  to  the  follow- 
 ing works  on  this  subject  :  A  comparative  View  of  the 
 ancient  and  present  Slate  of  the  Troad,  by  Robert 
 Wood,  subjoined  to  his  essay  on  the  Genius  and  Wri- 
 tings of  Homer. — Description  of  the  Plain  of  Troy, 
 by  M.  Chevalier,  Edinburgh,  4to,  1791  (Dalzell's 
 translation). — The  same  work  in  German,  by  Heyne, 
 with  notes. — Lc  Chevalier,  Voyage  dans  la  Troade, 
 Paris,  8vo,  1802  — Observations  on  the  Topography 
 of  the  Plain  of  Troy,  by  James  Rcnnell,  London,  1814, 
 4to.  —  Chandler's  History  of  Ilium  or  Troy,  London, 
 1802,  4to.  —  Voyage  Ptttoresque  de  la  Grece,  par 
 Choiscid  Gouffier.  —  Cell's  Topography  of  Troy,  fol., 
 London,  1804. — Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  3,  p.  234:,scgq  , 
 cd.  London. — Leake's  Geography  of  Asia  Minor,  ch. 
 6. — Hobhouse's  Journey,  vol.  2,  p.  128,  scqq. — Edin- 
 burgh Review,  vol.  6,  p.  257,  scqq.  —  Quarterly  Re- 
 view, vol.  9,  p.  170,  scqq.  —  Maclaren's  Dissertation 
 on  the  Topography  of  the  Plain  of  Troy,  London, 
 1822,  8vo — Turner's  Tour  to  the  Levant,  vol.  3,  p. 
 222,  seqq.  —  II.  A  small  town,  or  rather  village,  in 
 Egypt,  to  the  east  of,  and  near  Memphis.  The  name 
 probably  owed  its  origin  to  a  corruption,  on  the  part 
 of  the  Greeks,  of  some  Egyptian  appellation.  The 
 Greeks,  however,  had  a  fabulous  tradition  that  it  was 
 founded  by  some  Trojan  captives,  settled  here  by 
 Menelaiis.  {Strabo,  808.)  In  its  vicinity  was  the 
 Mens  Troicus,  where  were  quarries  whence  the  stones 
 for  the  Pyramids  were  obtained. 
 
 Troilus,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  slain  by 
 Achilles  during  the  Trojan  war.  According  to  another 
 legend,  he  was  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Hecuba.  ( Tzetz. 
 ad  Lycophr.,  307.  —  Eudocia,  p.  404,  in  the  latter  of 
 whom  7r(U(Wf  must  be  supplied,  and  the  arrangement  of 
 the  text  altered.)  Troilus  was  remarkable  for  youth- 
 ful beauty.  The  manner  of  his  death  is  differently  re- 
 lated by  ancient  writers.  (Consult  Diet.  Cret.,  4,  9. 
 — Anna  Fabr.,  ad  loc. —  Virg.,  Mn.,  1,  478.) 
 
 TrophonIus,  according  to  the  common  account,  a 
 celebrated  architect,  son  of  Ergiiius,  king  of  Orchom- 
 cnus  in  Boeotia.  The  legend  relating  to  him  is  as 
 follows  :  When  Erginus  had  been  overcome  by  Her- 
 cules, his  affairs  fell  into  so  reduced  a  state,  that,  in  or- 
 der to  retrieve  them,  he  abstained  from  matrimony. 
 As  he  grew  rich  and  old,  he  wished  to  have  a  family  ; 
 and,  going  to  Delphi,  he  consulted  the  god,  who  gave 
 him,  in  oracular  phrase,  the  prudent  advice  to  marry  a 
 young  wife.  {Pausan.,  9,  37,  3  )  Erginus  accord- 
 ingly, following  the  counsel  of  the  Pythia,  married 
 and  had  two  sons,  Trophonius  and  Agamedcs,  though 
 some  said  Apollo  was  the  father  of  the  former.  They 
 became  distinguished  architects,  and  built  the  temple 
 of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  a  treasury  for  King  Hyrieus. 
 {Horn.,  H.  in  Apollo,  118.)  In  the  wall  of  this  las! 
 they  placed  a  stone  in  such  a  manner  that  it  could  be 
 taken  out ;  and  they,  by  this  means,  from  time  to  time 
 purloined  the  treasure.  This  amazed  Hyrieus  :  for  his 
 locks  and  seals  were  untouched,  and  yet  his  wealth 
 continually  diminished.  At  length  he  set  a  trap  foi 
 the  thief,  and  Agamedes  was  caught.  Trophonius,  un- 
 able to  extricate  him,  and  fearing  that,  when  found,  he 
 would  be  compelled  by  torture  to  discover  his  accom- 
 plice, cut  off  his  head  and  carried  it  off.  Trophonius 
 imnself  is  said  to  have  been  shortly  afterward  swal- 
 
TROPHONIUS 
 
 TUB 
 
 lowed  up  by  the  earth.     (Pausan.,  I.  c.)     According 
 to  Pmdar,  when  they  had  finished   the  temple  of  Del- 
 phi, they  asked  a  reward  of  the  god.     He  j)roinised  to 
 give  It  on  the  seventh  day,  desiring  them,  meanwhile, 
 to  live  cheerful  and  happy.     On  the  seventh  day  they 
 died  in  their  sleep.     {I'lnd.,  ap.  Pint.,  dr.  Cons. — Op., 
 vol.  7,  p.  335,  ed.  HuUcn.)     There  was  a  celebrated 
 oracle  of  'I'rophoiiius  at  Lebadea  in  Boeotia.     During 
 a  great  drought,  the  Boeotians  were,  it  is  said,  directed 
 by  the  god  at  Del|)hi  to  seek  aid  of  Trophonius  in  Leb- 
 adea.    They  came  thither,  but  could  tiiid  no  oracle  ; 
 one  of  thecn,  however,  happening  to  see  a  swarm  of 
 bees,  they  followed  them  to  a  chasm  in  the  earth,  which 
 proved    to  be   the  place   sought.     {Pausan.,  9,  40.) 
 The  writer  just  quoted  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the 
 mode  of  consulting  this  oracle,  from  his  own  personal 
 observation  (9,  39).     After  going  through  certain  cere- 
 monies, the  individual  who  sougiit  to  inquire  into  fu- 
 turity was  conducted  to  a  chasm  in  the  earth  resem- 
 bling an  oven,  and  a  ladder  was  furnished  him  by  which 
 to  descend.     After  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  chasm, 
 he  lay  down  on  the  iiround  in  a  certain  posture,  and 
 was  immediately  drawn  within  a  cavern,  as  if  hurried 
 away  by  the  vorte.x  of  a  most  rapid  river.     Then  he  ob- 
 tained the  knowledge  of  which  he  was  in  quest.     In 
 some  cases  this  was  given  to  the  applicants   through 
 the  medium  of  the  sight ;  at  others  through  the  hear- 
 ing ;   but  all  returned  through  the  same  opening,  and 
 walked  backward  as  they  returned.     It  is  a  common 
 notion,  which  we  meet  with  in  many  modern  works, 
 that  a  visiter  to  the  cave  of  Trophonius  never  smiled 
 after  his  return.     ^l"he  language  of  Pausanias,  however, 
 expressly  disproves  this  ;  for  he  observes  that  after- 
 ward the  person  recovers  the  use  of  his  reason,  and 
 laughs  just  the  same  as  before  (yarepov  jiivroi  ra  re 
 (i/lAa  ov6iv  tc  (ppovr/Gec  fiEiov  f/  Tvporepov,  Kal  yiXuc 
 eTtdveiaiv  ol).     It  is  probable  that  the  gloom,  the  ine- 
 phitic  vapours,  and   perhaps  some  violence    from    the 
 priests,  which  the  ap[)licant  encountered  in  his  descent, 
 might    seriously   affect    his    constitution,  and    render 
 him  melancholy  ;  and  thus  Aristophanes  strongly  ex- 
 presses terror  by  an  observation  in  the  Clouds  (v.  507), 
 which  became  proverbial,   tjf  didoiK'  iyi)  'Kiau  kut- 
 aOaivojv  uarvep  t'f  Tpo(pu)Vioii.      One  man,  indeed,  is 
 noticed  by  Aihenaeus  (14,  p.  014,  a),  who  did  not  re- 
 cover his  power  of  smiling  until  assisted   bv  another 
 oracle.      Parmeniscus  of  Metapontum,  finding  himself 
 thus  wofuily  dispirited,  went  to  Delphi  for  a  remedy, 
 and  Apollo  answered  that  he  would  find  a  cure  if  he 
 resorted  to  his  (Apollo's)  mother.     The  hypochondriac 
 interpreted   this  response  as  relating  to  his  own  native 
 country  ;  but,  on  being  disappointed  in  his  hope  there, 
 he  sought  relief  in  travelling.     Touching  by  accident  at 
 Delos,  he  entered  a  temple  of  Latona ;  and,  unexpected- 
 ly casting   his   eyes    upon   a  statue   of   that  goddess 
 (Apollo's  mother)  most  grotesquely  sculptured,  he  burst 
 into  an  involuntary  fit  of  laughter. — Of  other  recorded 
 descents  into  ihe  cave  of  Trophonius,  that  of  Timar- 
 chus,  described    by   Plutarch  {Dr.   Socralis  Gcnio. — 
 Op.,  vol.  8,  p.  332,  cd.  Kciskc),  is  dismissed  by  the 
 writer  himself  as  a  mere  fable  (d  fiiv  Tiiu'ipx'W  fivOoi; 
 e/vrof).     That  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana  {Phdoslrat , 
 Vit.  Apollon.,  4,  8)  was  an  irruption,  not  a  legitimate 
 visit.    The  impostor  appears  to  have  bullied  the  priests, 
 and  to  have  done  exactly  according  to  his  pleasure  both 
 above  and  below  ground.     {Encyd.  MclropoL,  pt.  35, 
 p.  664.) — Trophonius  was  named  Zeus-Trophonius, 
 that  is,  the  Nuunslniig  or  Saslainin<r  Zeus  or  Jupiter 
 (from  rpe(j)tj,  "  to  nouiisli").     He  is  probably  a  deity 
 of  the  Pclasgian  times,  a  giver  of  food  from  the  bosom 
 of  the  earth,  and  hence  worshipped  in  a  cavern.     Ag- 
 amedes   (the   Thoui^hlful   or  Provident)   is,  perhaps, 
 only  another  title  of  the  same  being ;  and  as  corn  was 
 preserved  in  under  ground  treasuries  or  granaries,  the 
 brothers  may  in  one  sense  have  been  the  builders,  in 
 another  the  plunderers  of  these  receptacles.     {MuUer, 
 
 Orchom.,  p.  198.  150,  sc<jq.,  2A2.  — Stiaho,  A21.— 
 Liv.,  45,  27.)  —  The  same  trick  related  above  in  the 
 case  of  Hyrieus,  is  said  to  have  been  played  off  on 
 Augeas,  king  of  Elis,  by  Trophonius,  the  stepson  ol 
 Agamedes,  the  Arcadian  architect.  (C'harax,  ap. 
 Schol.  ad  Aristopfi.,  Nub.,  509  )  It  also  formed  an 
 episode  in  the  Telegonia  ;  and  there  is  likewise  a  very 
 strong  similarity  between  it  and  ihc  legend  related  by 
 Herodotus  of  the  Egyptian  king  J{ham[)sinitus  (2,  121). 
 Valckcnaer  thinks  that  the  story  was  ol  Egyptian  origin, 
 and  that  some  Greek  transferred  it  from  tiie  pages  of 
 Herodotus  to  Trophonius  and  Agamedes.  (  Valck.  ad 
 Herod.,  I.  c.)  Ilgcn  adopts  the  same  opinion  {ad  Ham., 
 Hymn.,  p.  304).  Biihr  also  coincides  in  this  view  of 
 tlie  subject,  and  refers  the  legend  at  once  to  early 
 agriculture.  {Biihr,  Excurs.,  1,  ad  Herod.,  I.  c,  vol. 
 1,  p.  912.)  On  the  other  hand,  Miiller  {Onhom.,  p. 
 97)  considers  the  fable  as  of  Grecian  origin,  and  makes 
 it  to  have  been  borrowed  by  the  priests  of  Egypt  at  a 
 later  day.  (Compare  Butlmann,  Die  Mniycz  der  dl- 
 tcslcn  Zed.  —  Mylholog.,  vol.  2,  p.  208,  scqq.)  The 
 opinion  of  Valckenaer,  however,  is  undoubtedly  the 
 true  one. 
 
 Tkos,  son  of  Erichthonius  and  grandson  of  Darda- 
 nus.  He  married  (Jallirhoe,  daughter  of  the  Scaman- 
 der,  by  whom  he  had  Ilus,  Assaracus,  and  Ganyme- 
 des.  He  gave  the  name  of  Troja  to  the  adjacent  coun- 
 try.    {Apollod.,  3,  12,  2.—  Vid.  Troja.) 
 
 Tkossulum,  a  town  of  Eiruria,  to  the  west  of  Fe- 
 rentinum,  some  remains  of  which  have  been  discovered 
 at  a  place  which  bears  the  name  of  Trosso.  Pliny 
 tells  us  that  this  town,  having  been  taken  by  cavalry 
 alone,  the  Roman  horse  or  cquitcs,  obtained,  from  that 
 circumstance,  the  name  of  Trossuli.  {Phn  ,  33,  2.— 
 Compare  Fcstus,  s.  v.  Trossuli.) 
 
 Tryphiodorus,  a  Greek  poet  supposed  to  have 
 flourished  about  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  He  was 
 a  native  of  Egypt,  but  of  his  history  nothing  is  known. 
 Tryphiodorus  wrote  a  poem  under  the  title  of  Mara- 
 ihoniaca  {MapaOcjviaKu),  another  styled  Kad'  'Imrodd" 
 /leiav  ;  a  Lipogrammatic  Odyssey  ;  and  a  poem  on 
 the  destruction  of  Troy,  styled  'IXiov  <YAuaig.  The 
 last  is  the  only  one  of  his  productions  which  has 
 reached  us.  It  is  in  681  verses,  and  appears  rather 
 to  be  the  argument  of  some  larger  poem,  which  the 
 poet  had  perhaps  intended  at  one  time  to  write.  The 
 Lipogrammatic  Odyssev  had  this  name  given  to  it 
 from  a  peculiar  piece  of  affectation  by  which  it  was 
 marked.  The  poet,  according  to  some,  interdicted 
 himself,  in  each  of  his  twenty-four  books,  the  use  of 
 a  particular  letter  of  the  alphabet.  Eustathius,  how- 
 ever, states  that  the  letter  }C  was  banished  from  the 
 entire  poem.  The  best  edition  of  the  poem  on  the 
 destruction  of  Troy  is  perhaps  that  of  Wernicke, 
 Lips.,  1819,  8vo.  The  edition  of  Northmore  is  also 
 a  good  one,  Cantab.,  1791,  8vo,  and  Land.,  1804,  8vo. 
 {Schbll,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  6,  p.  112) 
 
 Trvpho,  a  grammarian  of  Alexandrea  in  the  age 
 of  Augustus.  V\'e  have  some  works  of  bis  remaining, 
 one  entitled  YldOr]  }J^euv,  and  another  Ilty^  Tpo-uv. 
 The  best  edition  of  these  two  is  given  in  the  Museum 
 Criticum  (vol.  1,  p.  32,  scqq.). 
 
 TunKito,  Q.  ^Elius,  a  Roman  consul,  son-in-law 
 of  Paulus,  the  conqueror  of  Perseus.  He  is  celebrated 
 for  his  integrity.  Sixteen  ol  the  Tuberos,  with  their 
 wives  and  children,  lived  in  a  small  house,  and  main- 
 tained themselves  with  the  produce  of  a  little  field, 
 which  they  cultivated  with  their  own  hands.  The  first 
 piece  of  silver  plate  that  entered  the  house  of  Tubero 
 was  a  small  cup  which  his  father-in-law  presented  to 
 him  after  he  had  conquered  the  king  of  Macedonia. 
 
 TuuuRHo,  two  towns  of  Africa,  called  Major  and 
 Minor.  The  first  was  situate  directly  to  the  south  of 
 Tunis,  and  appears  to  be  now  Tubernok  ;  the  latter 
 was  southwest  of  Carthage,  on  the  Bagradas,  and  is 
 said  to  retain  the  ancient  name.     {Plin.,  5,  4.) 
 
 1363 
 
TUL 
 
 TUL 
 
 TuccA,  Plautios,  a  friend  of  Horace  and  Virgil. 
 He  and  Varius  were  ordered  by  Augustus  to  revise 
 the  JEneid  after  N'irgil's  death.     (Vid.  Virgiiius.) 
 
 TuDKR,  a  town  of  Unibria,  northwest  of  Spoletium, 
 and  near  ilie  Tiber  It  was  originally  one  of  the  most 
 important  cities  of  Umbria,  and  lamous  for  its  worship 
 of  Mars.  Its  situation  on  a  lofty  hill  rendered  it  a 
 place  of  great  strength.  It  is  now  Tudi.  {Sil.  Ilal., 
 4,  'Z22.-—Id.,  464.  —  Cramcr''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p. 
 273.) 
 
 TuLiNGt,  a  people  of  Gaul,  reckoned  among  the 
 HelveLii  by  some,  but  more  correctly  their  neigh- 
 bours, and  of  Germanic  origin.  {Cics  ,  B.  G.,  !,  5.) 
 The  modern  Stiikliniien  is  thought  to  preserve  traces 
 of  their  name.     {Obcrlin.  ad  Cccs.,  I.  c  ) 
 
 Tui.LiA,  I.  a  daughter  of  Servius  Tullius,  king  of 
 Rome.  She  married  Tarquin  the  Proud  after  she  had 
 made  away  with  her  first  husband,  Aruiis  Tarquinius. 
 {Vid.  JServiiis  Tullius.) — II.  A  daughter  of  Cicero  by 
 Terentia.  She  was  three  times  married.  Her  first 
 husband,  Caius  Piso,  died  a  short  time  before  Cicero's 
 return  from  exile.  At  the  end  of  about  a  year,  she 
 was  married  to  a  second  husband,  Furius  Crassipes, 
 who  appears  to  have  been  a  [)atrician  of  rank  and  dig- 
 nity. She  was  afterward  divorced  from  this  second 
 husband,  and  united  to  P.  Cornelius  Dolabella.  The 
 life  and  character,  however,  of  this  last-mentioned  in- 
 dividual proved  so  contrary  to  the  manners  and  tem- 
 per both  of  Cicero  and  his  daughter,  that  a  divorce 
 ensued  in  this  case  also.  Cicero  entertained  the  deep- 
 est affection  for  thi.s  his  favourite  child,  and  her  death, 
 at  the  age  of  33,  proved  to  him  a  source  of  the  bitter- 
 est sorrow.  {Vid.  remarks  under  the  article  Cicero, 
 page  34.5,  column  2.) — Coelius  Rhodiginus  tells  us, 
 that  in  the  time  of  Sixtus  IV.  there  was  found  near 
 Rome,  on  the  Appian  Way,  over  against  the  tomb  of 
 Cicero,  the  body  of  a  woman  whose  hair  was  dressed 
 up  in  network  of  gold,  and  which,  from  the  inscrip- 
 tion, was  thought  to  be  the  body  of  Tullia.  It  was 
 quite  entire,  and  so  well  preserved  by  spices  as  to 
 have  suffered  no  injury  from  time  ;  yet,  when  it  was 
 removed  into  the  city,  it  mouldered  away  in  three  days. 
 But  this  was  only  the  hasty  conjecture  of  some  learn- 
 ed men  of  the  time,  which,  for  want  of  authority  to 
 support  it,  soon  vanished  of  itself;  for  no  inscription 
 was  ever  produced  to  confirm  it,  nor  has  it  been  men- 
 tioned by  any  other  author  that  there  was  any  sepul- 
 chre of  Cicero  on  the  Appian  Way.  {Cal.  Rhod., 
 Led.  Antiq.,  3,  24. — Middlcton's  Life  of  Cicero,  vol. 
 2,  p.  149,  in  not.) 
 
 Tui.LiA  Lex,  I.  dc  Senatu,  by  M.  Tullius  Cicero, 
 A.U.C.  690,  enacted  that  those  who  had  a  libera  le- 
 gatio  granted  them  by  the  senate  should  hold  it  no 
 more  than  one  year.  Such  senators  as  had  a  libera 
 legalio  travelled  through  the  provinces  without  any 
 expense,  as  if  they  were  employed  in  the  affairs  of 
 the  state. — II.  Another,  de  Ambilu,  by  the  same,  the 
 same  year.  It  forbade  any  person,  two  years  before 
 he  canvassed  for  an  office,  to  e.vhibit  a  show  of  gladi- 
 ators, unless  that  task  had  devolved  upon  him  by  will. 
 Senators  guilty  of  the  crime  of  Ambitus  were  punished 
 with  the  a(iu<z  et  ignis  intcrdictio  for  ten  years,  and 
 the  penalty  inflicted  on  the  commons  was  more  severe 
 than  that  of  the  Calpurnian  law.  {Dio  Cass.,  37,  29. 
 —  Cic,  -pro  Mur.,  32,  segq.) 
 
 Tui.i.i.iNUM,  a  name  given  to  part  of  the  public 
 prison  at  Rome.  The  prison  was  originally  built  by 
 Ancus  Marcius,  and  was  afterward  enlarged  by  Servius 
 Tullius,  whence  that  part  of  it  which  was  under 
 ground,  and  built  by  him,  received  the  name  of  Tul- 
 lianum.  The  full  expression  is  TiUlianum  robur,  from 
 its  walls  having  been  originally  of  oak  ;  afterward, 
 however,  they  were  built  of  stone.  {Sail.,  Cat.,  5.5.) 
 This  dungeon  now  serves  as  a  subterranean  chapel  to 
 a  small  church  built  on  the  spot,  called  San  Pictro  in 
 Carcere,  in  commemoration  of  St.  Peter,  who  is  sup- 
 1364 
 
 posed  to  have  been  confined  there.  Its  only  entrance, 
 when  a  dungeon,  was  through  the  arched  roof ;  now, 
 however,  there  is  a  door  in  the  side  wall.  "  Notwith- 
 standing the  change,"  observes  Eustace,  "  it  has  still 
 a  most  appalling  appearance."  {Class.  Tour,  vol.  I, 
 p.  365,  Lund,  ed.) 
 
 Tui.Lus  HosTiLius,  the  third  king  of  Rome,  and  suc- 
 cessor of  Niima  An  interregnum  followed  the  death 
 of  the  last-mentioned  monarch.  At  length  Tullus 
 Hostilius,  a  man  of  Latin  extraction,  was  chosen  by 
 theCMHcE;  and  his  election  having  been  sanctioned  by 
 the  auspices,  he,  like  his  predecessor,  submitted  to 
 the  comitia  curiata  the  laws  which  conferred  upon 
 him  full  regal  power.  The  new  king  was  more  desi- 
 rous of  military  renown  than  of  the  less  dazzling  fame 
 which  may  be  gained  by  cultivating  the  arts  of  peace. 
 .An  opportunity  was  soon  offered  for  indulging  his  war- 
 like disposition.  Plundering  incursions  had  been  made 
 into  each  other's  territories  by  the  borderers  of  the 
 two  states  of  Rome  and  Alba.  Both  nations  sent 
 ambassadors  at  the  same  lime  to  demand  redress. 
 The  Roman  ambassadors  had  private  orders  from  Tul- 
 lus to  be  peremptory  in  their  demands,  and  to  limit 
 their  stay  within  the  stated  period  of  thirty  days. 
 They  did  so,  and,  receiving  no  immediate  satisfaction, 
 returned  to  Rome.  In  the  mean  lime,  Tullus  amused 
 the  Alban  embassy  by  shows  and  banquets,  till,  when 
 they  opened  their  commission,  he  had  it  in  his  power 
 to  answer  that  they  had  already  in  vain  sought  redress 
 from  Alba,  and  that  now  they  must  prepare  for  the 
 events  of  a  war,  the  blame  of  originating  which  was 
 chargeable  upon  them.  Under  the  command  of  Clu- 
 ilius,  the  Albans  sent  a  powerful  army  against  Rome, 
 and  encamped  about  five  miles  from  the  city.  There 
 Cluilius  died,  and  the  Albans  elected  Mettius  Fufetius 
 in  his  stead.  Tullus  Hostilius,  at  the  head  of  the  Ro- 
 mans, now  drew  near  the  Albans.  But,  when  the  two 
 armies  were  ready  for  a  general  engagement,  Mettius, 
 the  Alban  general,  proposed  to  save  the  effusion  of 
 blood  by  committing  the  fortune  of  the  war  to  the 
 valour  of  certain  champions  selected  from  either  side. 
 To  this  proposition  Tullus  agreed  ;  and  the  affair  of 
 the  Horatii  and  Curiatii  took  place.  {Vid.  Horatius 
 II.)  After  the  termination  of  this  memorable  combat, 
 notwithstanding  the  agreement  which  had  been  enter- 
 ed into  between  the  Romans  and  Albans,  the  latter 
 were  unwilling  to  forfeit  their  national  independence 
 without  an  additional  struggle.  This,  however,  they 
 were  desirous  to  avoid  provoking  single-handed.  They 
 accordingly  encouraged  the  people  of  Fidenae  to  re- 
 volt, by  giving  them  secret  promises  of  assistance. 
 Tullus  Hostilius  immediately  levied  a  Roman  army, 
 and  summoned  the  Albans  to  his  aid.  A  battle  en- 
 sued, in  which  Mettius  Fufetius  endeavoured  to  act  a 
 treacherous  part,  but  wanted  courage  and  decision  to 
 fulfil  his  own  perfidious  pledge,  and,  on  the  morrow, 
 was  put  to  a  cruel  death  by  the  Roman  king.  ( Vid. 
 Mettius  Fufetius.)  After  the  punishment  of  Mettius, 
 it  was  decreed  that  Alba  should  be  razed  to  the  ground, 
 and  the  whole  Alban  people  removed  to  Rome,  to  pre- 
 vent the  possibility  of  future  strife.  Not  only  the 
 walls  of  Alba,  but  every  human  habitation,  was  totally 
 demolished,  and  the  temples  of  the  gods  alone  left 
 standing  in  solitary  majesty  amid  the  ruins.  But, 
 though  Tullus  had  thus  put  an  end  to  the  separate 
 existence  of  Alba,  he  did  not  reduce  its  inhabitants  to 
 slavery.  He  assigned  them  habitations  on  the  (^a^lian 
 Hill,  which  had  formerly,  so  said  the  legend,  been 
 possessed  by  the  followers  of  Caeles  Vibenna.  Soon 
 after  these  events,  Tullus  made  war  upon  the  Sabines, 
 and  in  a  bloody,  and  for  some  time  doubtful  encoun- 
 ter, again  obtained  the  victory.  Another  war  arose 
 with  the  confederate  towns  of  Latium,  who  began  to 
 dread  the  growing  power  of  Rome  after  the  destruc- 
 tion of  Alba.  The  Latin  war  terminated  without  any 
 decided  reverses  sustained  by  either  party ;  and  an 
 
TUR 
 
 TY  A 
 
 alliance  was  formed  between  the  Romans  and  the  Lat- 
 ins. TuUus  had  now  leisure  to  direct  his  atieniioii  to 
 the  arts  of  peace,  m  which,  however,  he  did  not  equal- 
 ly excel.  The  only  public  works  ascribed  to  hirn 
 were  the  enclosing  of  a  space  for  the  Coiniiia,  or  as- 
 sembly of  the  people,  and  the  building  of  a  Curia,  or 
 senate-house.  Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  his  mind 
 was  disiurhed  by  jirodigies,  indicating  the  wrath  of 
 ihc  gods  for  religion  neglected  and  tein[)lcs  left  des- 
 olate. A  shower  of  stones  fell  from  heaven  on  the 
 Alban  Mount,  and  the  awful  accents  of  a  supernatu- 
 ral voice  were  heard  to  issue  from  the  consecrated 
 summit  of  the  hill.  A  plague  swe[)t  away  numbers 
 of  the  Roman  people.  Tlie  king  himself  sickened  ; 
 and,  from  having  been  neglectful  of  religion,  became 
 the  slave  of  superstitious  terrors.  In  vain  did  he  sup- 
 plicate the  gods.  He  had  disregarded  them  in  the 
 days  of  his  prosperity,  and  in  his  adversity  no  deity 
 regarded  his  prayers  or  sent  relief  In  his  despair  he 
 presumed  to  use  the  divinations  of  Numa,  by  the  rites 
 of  Jupiter  Elicius  (viU.  Elicius);  but  the  only  answer 
 returned  was  the  lightning  of  the  offended  gods,  by 
 which  Tullus  himself  and  his  whole  household  were 
 smitten  and  consumed.  Another  account,  however, 
 ascribed  his  death  to  an  act  of  treachery  and  assassi- 
 nation on  the  part  of  Ancus  Marcius,  who  could  not 
 brook  that  he,  a  descendant  of  Numa,  should  be  kept 
 from  the  throne  by  a  man  of  private  origin.  Such  is 
 the  legend  of 'I'ullus  Hostilius.  This  monarch  is  said 
 to  have  reigned  two  and-thirty  years.  {Lid..  1,  22. 
 seqq. — Dion.  Hal.,  3,  1,  scqq. — Hclheringtoii's  His- 
 tory  of  Rome,  p  13,  scqq.) — As  the  reigns  of  Romu- 
 lus and  Numa  represent  the  establishment  of  two  of 
 the  tribes  or  constituent  elements  of  the  Roman  peo- 
 ple, so  the  reign  of  Tullus  Hosiilius  seems  to  compre- 
 hend the  development  of  the  third  tribe,  or  Luceres. 
 To  him,  as  to  Romulus  and  Numa,  is  ascribed  a  di- 
 vision of  lands,  by  which  portions  were  assigned  to 
 the  needy  citizens,  who,  as  yet,  possessed  no  property 
 in  the  soil.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  Luceres 
 had  hitherto  held  their  lands,  not  in  absolute  j)roperly, 
 and  not  as  common  proprietors  of  the  pul)lic  domain, 
 but  as  vassals  or  tenants  of  the  state,  which  would 
 be  represented  in  the  person  of  the  king.  That  the 
 distribution  of  Tullus  Hostilius  effected  the  third  tribe 
 IS  rendered  probable  by  its  being  connected  with  the 
 assignment  of  ground  for  building  on  the  Crelian 
 Mount,  and  the  enclosure  of  that  part  of  the  city  with- 
 in one  line  of  fortification  with  the  older  town,  if 
 there  is  any  weight  in  the  arguments  that  are  adduced 
 to  show  that  the  town  on  the  Caelian  was  the  settle- 
 ment of  the  Luceres.  From  the  circumstance  that 
 Hostilius  himself  dwelt  there,  and  that  he  derived  his 
 origin  from  the  Latin  town  MeduUia  {Dion.  Hal.,  3, 
 1),  it  may  be  conjectured  that  he  himself  was  consid- 
 ered to  belong  to  the  Luceres,  as  Romulus  to  the 
 Kamnes,  and  Numa  to  the  Titienses.  (Maiden's 
 Hi.ttory  of  Rome,  p.  127,  scq.) 
 
 TuNCs  (Tvvt]^,  rjTof),  a  city  of  Africa,  southwest  of 
 and  near  to  Carthage,  being,  according  to  Polybius 
 (14,  1(»).  only  120  stadia  from  the  latter  place.  The 
 Peutitiger  table,  however,  gives  the  distance  more 
 correctly  at  ten  miles.  It  first  rose  into  consequence 
 after  the  fall  of  Carthage.  It  is  now  Tunis.  JDiodo- 
 rus  Siculus  calls  it  "  White  Tunis,"  perhaps  from  the 
 chalky  cliffs  that  lie  around  it  when  viewed  from  the 
 cea.   ' {Manner t,  Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p.  262.) 
 
 Tc.\i;b(,  a  German  tribe,  probably  the  same  with 
 the  Aduatici  of  Cassar,  and  the  first  that  crossed  the 
 Fihine.  They  became  subsequently  a  powerful  peo- 
 ple in  Germania  Inferior.  (7'ac.,  Germ  ,  2. — Amm. 
 Marc,  l.S.  11  ) 
 
 TtittOKxisi,  a  people  of  Ba;tica  in  Spain,  in  the 
 •outheastcrn  part.  They  extended  along  the  coast, 
 iVoin  the  Anas  to  the  Basluli  Pa?ni,  and  their  territory 
 W2£  famed  for  its  beauty  and  fertility,  and  by  some  of 
 
 the  ancient  writers  was  considered  the  most  favoured 
 spot  on  the  whole  earth.  Here,  too,  .Strabo  places  the 
 Elysian  helds  of  Homer.  This  district,  besides  being 
 very  productive,  was  enabled  to  carry  on  an  extensivt 
 and  lucrative  commerce  wuh  the  nations  of  the  mte 
 nor,  by  means  of  the  I3a>tis,  which  traversed  it 
 {l^olyb.,  34,  ^.—Uv.,  21,  6  —/,/.,  24,  42.) 
 
 TijKi)ui-i,  a  people  of  Baeiica  in  Spain,  situate  to 
 the  north  and  northeast  of  the  Turdetani.  {Mela,  3, 
 l.—J'lm.,  3,  \.—ld  ibid.,  4,  20.) 
 
 TuRUs,  a  river  of  Spam,  in  the  territory  of  the  Ede- 
 tani,  near  Valentia  ;  now  tlie  Guadalaviar.  {Mela, 
 2,  16.— /■•//«.,  3,  3.) 
 
 TuKNi's,  king  of  the  Rutuli,  son  of  Daunus,  kintr 
 of  Apulia,  and  Venilia,  a  nymph  who  was  sister  to 
 Amata,  the  wife  of  Latmus.  Lavinia,  the  daunhter  of 
 Latinus,  was  betrothed  to  him,  but  ttie  arrival  ol  .^fine- 
 as  deprived  him  of  his  intended  bride,  and  in  the  war 
 which  took  place  between  the  Latins  and  the  Trojans 
 Turnus  was  slain  by  ^■Eneas.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  56, 
 scqq.) 
 
 'I'uRONEs.  I.  a  people  in  the  interior  of  Gallia  Lug- 
 dunensis,  whose  territory  answers  to  the  modern  Tou- 
 rainc.  {Amm.  Marc.,  15,  11.  —  Tac.,  Ann.,  3,  41.) 
 —  H.  A  German  tribe,  settled  in  what  is  now  the 
 southern  part  of  Hesse,  according  to  .Mannert 
 
 TuRRis,  I.  Hannib.u.is,  a  small  place  on  the  coast 
 of  Africa,  below  Thapsus.  From  this  Hannibal  took 
 his  departure  for  Asia,  when  he  was  banished  by  his 
 factious  and  ungrateful  countrymen  from  Carthage. 
 It  is  now  Mahdia. — II.  Stratonis,  the  previous  name 
 of  Caesarea,  on  the  coast  of  Palestine.  {Vid.  Caps- 
 area.) 
 
 Tusci,  the  inhabitants  of  Etruria.     {Vid.  Hetruria.) 
 
 ToscuLANUM,  the  name  of  Cicero's  villa  near  Tus- 
 culum,  and  where  the  scene  of  his  Tusculan  Disputa- 
 tions is  laid.     {Vid.  Cicero,  p.  347,  col.  2.) 
 
 TuscuLL'M,  a  town  of  Lalium,  on  the  summit  of 
 the  ridge  of  hills  which  forms  the  continuation  of  the 
 Alban  Mount,  and  above  the  modern  town  of  Frascatt. 
 The  numerous  remains  of  the  ancient  place  still  bear 
 the  name  of  il  Tosculo.  According  to  Dionysius  (10, 
 20)  and  Joscphus  {Bell.  Jud.,  18,  8),  it  was  distant 
 about  one  hundred  stadia  from  Rome,  or  twelve  miles 
 and  a  half.  The  foundation  of  Tusculum  is  ascribed 
 to  Telegonus,  the  son  of  Circe  and  I'lvsses.  {Grid, 
 Fast.,  3,  21.— Id.,  i,9\.—Frapert.,  2,  35.— S/7.  IlaL, 
 7,  691.)  It  must  have  been  one  of  the  most  consid- 
 erable of  the  I^atin  cities  in  the  lime  of  the  second 
 Tarquin,  since  that  prince  is  said  to  have  sought  the 
 alliance  of  Octavius  Manlius,  chief  of  Tusculum,  and 
 to  have  given  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  {Liv., 
 1,  49.)  By  this  measure  Tarquin  secured  the  co- 
 operation of  almost  all  the  Latin  cities  in  his  subse- 
 quent attempts  to  recover  the  throne  he  had  lost. — 
 In  the  second  Punic  war  Tusculum  successfully  re- 
 sisted the  attack  of  Hannibal. — This  place  could  lioast 
 of  having  given  birth  to  M.  Porcius  Cato,  several  of 
 the  Fabii,  &c.  Its  pro.vimity  to  Rome,  the  beauty  of 
 Its  situation,  as  well  as  the  salubrity  of  its  climate 
 made  it  a  favourite  summer  residence  with  the  wealthy 
 Romans.  .Strabo,  who  has  given  us  a  very  accurate 
 description  of  its  position,  says  that,  on  the  side  to- 
 wards Rome,  the  hills  of  Tusculum  were  covered  with 
 plantations  and  palaces,  the  effect  of  which  was  most 
 striking.  {Sirab.,  239  )  Of  these  villas  none  can  be 
 more  interesting  to  us  than  that  of  Cicero.  {Vid. 
 Tusculanum.)  Lucullus  also  had  a  celebrated  villa 
 and  gardens  at  this  place.  Horace  likewi.<e  alludes 
 to  a  villa  of  Maicenas  here.  {Cramcr''s  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  47.) 
 
 Tuscuji  Mark,  a  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the 
 coast  of  Etruria,  called  also  Tyirhctium  Mare  and 
 Marc  Inferum. 
 
 Tv.i.NA,  a  city  of  Cappadocia,  strongly  fortified  bj 
 nature  and  art,  lying  on  the  main  road  to  Cilicia  and 
 
 1365 
 
T  YN 
 
 TYR 
 
 Syria,  and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus.  Strabo  says 
 It  was  built  oil  wliat  was  called  the  causeway  of  Seinir- 
 ainis.  {Sciabu,  Ml.)  Cellarius  is  of  opinion  that 
 the  town  called  Dana  by  Xenophon,  in  the  Anabasis 
 (1,  2,  20),  should  be  identified  with  Tyana  (Geagr. 
 AiitK/.,  vol.  2,  p  291),  and  this  sup[)Osition  has  great 
 probability  to  recoiiuneiid  it. — The  Greeks,  always  led 
 by  a  similarity  of  name  to  connect  the  origin  of  cities 
 with  their  fables,  pretended  that  it  owed  its  foundation 
 to  Thoas,  the  king  of  the  Tauric  Chersonese,  in  his 
 pursuit  thither  of  Pylades  and  Orestes.  {Arrian, 
 Fcrrpl  Eux.,  p.  6  )  From  him  it  was  called  Thoana, 
 and  afterward  Tuana.  {Stcph.  Ihjz.,  s.  v.  Tvava.) 
 Tyana  was  the  native  city  of  the  impostor  Apollonius. 
 At  a  later  period  it  became  the  see  of  a  Christian 
 bishop,  and  the  metropolis  of  Cappadocia  Secunda. 
 (Greg.  Nas  ,  E/nst.,  33— Id.,  Oral.,  20,  p.  355.) 
 This  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Valens.  Its  capture 
 by  the  Saracens  is  recorded  by  Cedrenus  (p.  477). 
 The  modern  Kctchhissar,  near  the  foot  of  the  central 
 chain  of  Taurus  and  the  Cilician  Pass,  is  thought  to 
 correspond  to  the  ancient  city.  Captain  Kinneir,  in 
 one  of  his  journeys,  found  considerable  ruins  here. 
 (Cramer's  Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  128,  scyq.) 
 
 Tyanitis,  a  district  in  the  southern  part  of  Cappa- 
 docia, near  the  range  of  Taurus.  Its  capital  was 
 Tyana,  from  which  it  derived  its  name.     ( Vid.  Tyana.) 
 
 Tv'BRis.      Vid.  Tiberis. 
 
 TvcHK,  I.  one  of  the  Oceanides.  (Hesiod,  Th., 
 360.)— II.  A  part  of  the  town  of  Syracuse.  It  con- 
 tained a  temple  of  Fortune  {Tvxi/),  whence  the  name. 
 (Cic,  Verr.,  4,  53.) 
 
 TvDEUs  (two  syllables),  a  son  of  CEneus,  king  of 
 Calydon.  He  fled  from  his  country  after  the  accidental 
 murder  of  one  of  his  friends,  and  found  a  safe  asylum  in 
 the  court  of  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos,  whose  daugh- 
 ter, Deiphyle,  he  married.  When  Adrastus  wished  to 
 place  his  son-in-law  Polynicesoii  the  throne  of  Thebes, 
 Tydeus  undertook  to  announce  the  war  to  Eteocles, 
 who  usurped  the  crown.  The  reception  he  met  with 
 provoked  his  resentment ;  he  challenged  Eteocles  and 
 his  principal  chieftains,  and  worsted  them  in  conflict. 
 On  leaving  Thebes  and  entering  upon  his  way  home, 
 he  fell  into  an  ambuscade  of  fifty  of  the  foe,  purposely 
 planted  to  destroy  him,  and  he  slew  all  but  one,  who 
 was  permitted  to  return  to  Thebes,  to  bear  the  tidings 
 of  the  fate  of  his  companions.  He  was  one  of  the 
 seven  chiefs  of  the  army  of  Adrastus,  and  during  the 
 Theban  war  he  signalized  his  valour  in  a  marked  de- 
 gree, and  made  great  slaughter  of  the  foe,  till  he  was 
 at  last  mortally  wounded  by  Melanippus.  As  he  lay 
 expiring,  Minerva  hastened  to  him  with  a  medicine 
 which  she  had  obtained  from  Jupiter,  and  which  would 
 make  him  immortal  (Bacchyi.,  ap.  Schol.  ad  Aris- 
 toph.,  Ab.,  1536) ;  but  Amphiaraus,  who  hated  him  as 
 a  chief  cause  of  the  war,  perceiving  what  the  goddess 
 was  about,  cut  off  the  head  of  Melanippus,  whom  Ty- 
 deus, though  wounded,  had  slain,  and  brought  it  to 
 him.  The  savage  warrior  opened  it  and  devoured  the 
 brain,  and  Minerva,  in  disgust,  withheld  her  aid.  His 
 remains  were  interred  at  Argos,  where  a  monument, 
 said  to  be  his,  was  still  seen  in  the  a^e  of  Pausanias. 
 (Horn.,  II.,  4,  365,  seqq  —Apollud.,  1,  8,  S.—JEsch., 
 Sept.  C.  Theb.,  372,  sccjq.,  ed.  Scholef. — Pausan., 
 9,  18.) 
 
 TvDiDEs,  a  patronymic  of  Diomedes,  as  son  of  Ty- 
 deus.    {Virg.,  ,En.,  1,  Un.— Moral.,  Od.,  1,  15,  20.) 
 
 TvLos,  an  island  in  the  Sinus  Persicus,  on  the 
 Arabian  coast,  the  pearl  fishery  on  whose  coasts  has 
 rendered  it  famous  in  antiquity  ;  and  the  same  circum- 
 stance still  contnliutes  to  its  renown  under  the  name 
 of  Buhraim,  which  in  Arabic  signifies  two  seas.  {P/ul. 
 —  TheophrasL,  Hist.  Plant  ,  4,  9.— Id  ihid  ,  5,  6  ) 
 
 TvND.\RiD/E,  a  patronymic  of  the  children  of  Tyn- 
 darus,  as  Castor,  PoUu.x,  Helen,  &.c. 
 
 Tynd.vris,  I.  a  patronymic  of   Helen,  as  daughter 
 1366 
 
 of  Tyndarus.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  2,  569.)— II.  A  town  of 
 Sicily,  on  the  northern  coast,  southwest  of  Messana. 
 It  was  founded  by  the  elder  Dionysius,  and  became  in 
 time  an  important  city.  A  part  of  the  ancient  site  has 
 been  inundated  by  the  sea.     {Liv  ,  36,  2.) 
 
 Tvndakus,  a  son  of  Qibalus  and  Gorgo|)honc.  He 
 was  king  of  Lacedajmori.  and  married  the  celebrated 
 Leda,  who  bore  him  Timandra,  Philonoe,  &c.,  and 
 who  also  became  mother  of  Pollux  and  Helen  by  Ju- 
 piter.     (  Vid.  Leda,  Castor,  Pollux,  (ylytemnestra,  &c.) 
 
 TvPHOEUs  (three  syllables),  a  monstrous  giant,  who 
 warred  against  the  gods.     {Vid.  Typhon.) 
 
 TvFHoN  or  Tvphaon,  a  monstrous  giant,  whom 
 Earth,  enraged  at  the  destruction  of  her  previous  giant- 
 progeny,  brought  forth  to  contend  with  the  gods.  I'he 
 stature  of  this  being  reached  the  sky  ;  fire  flashed  from 
 his  eyes  ;  he  hurled  glowing  rocks,  with  loud  cries 
 and  hissing,  against  heaven,  and  flame  and  storm  rush- 
 ed from  his  mouth.  The  gods,  in  dismay,  fled  to 
 Egypt,  and  concealed  themselves  under  the  form  of 
 different  animals.  Jupiter  at  last,  after  a  severe  con- 
 flict, overcame  him,  and  placed  him  beneath  ^■Etna,  or, 
 as  others  said,  in  the  Palus  Serbonis,  or  "  Serbonian 
 bog."  {Pmd  ,  Pyth.,  1,  29,  scq. — Id.,  fragm.  Epinik., 
 5. — Msch  ,  Prom.  V.,  '35\,  seqq. — Apo/l.  Rhod.,  2, 
 1215.) — Typhon  is  the  same  apparently  with  Typhoeus, 
 though  Hesiod  makes  a  difference  between  them.  Their 
 names  come  from  rixpu,  "  to  smoke,'"  and  they  are  evi- 
 dently personifications  of  storms  and  volcanic  eruptions. 
 Typhon  is  made  the  sire  of  the  Chimaera,  Echidna,  and 
 other  monsters.  The  Greeks  gave  his  name  to  the 
 Egyptian  demon  Baby,  the  opponent  of  Osiris. — The 
 flight  of  the  gods  into  Egypt  is  a  bungling  attempt  at 
 connecting  the  Greek  mythology  with  the  animal  wor- 
 ship of  that  country.  This  change  of  form  on  their 
 part  was  related  by  Pindar.  {Porph.,  de  Abst.,  3,  [a 
 251. — Keightlei/'s  Mythology,  p.  263.) 
 
 Tyrannion,  a  grammarian  of  Pontus,  intimate 
 with  Cicero.  His  original  name  was  Theophrastus, 
 and  he  received  that  of  Tyrannion  from  his  austerity  to 
 his  pupils.  He  was  taken  by  Lucullus,  and  restored 
 to  his  liberty  by  Miiraena.  Tyrannion  opened  a  school 
 at  Rome,  and  taught  with  considerable  success.  He 
 had  access  to  the  library  of  Apellicon  of  Teos  when 
 brought  to  Rome,  and  from  him  copies  of  Aristotle's 
 works  were  obtained  by  Andronicus  of  Rhodes.  (  Vid. 
 Apellicon.) 
 
 TvRAS.      Vid.  Danastus. 
 
 TvRos,  a  city  of  Phoenicia.     {Vid.  Tyrus.) 
 
 TvRRHENi.      Vid.  Etruria. 
 
 TvRRHENUM  Mare,  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
 which  lies  on  the  coast  of  Etruria.  It  is  also  called 
 Inferum,  as  washing  the  lower  shore  of  the  peninsula. 
 {Vid.  Italia.) 
 
 TyrTj«:us,  a  celebrated  poet  of  antiquity.  His  age 
 is  determined  by  the  second  Messenian  war,  in  which 
 he  bore  a  part.  If,  with  Pausanias,  this  war  is  placed 
 between  685  and  668  B.C.,  Tyrtseus  would  fall  at  the 
 same  time  as,  or  even  earlier  than,  the  circumstances 
 of  the  Cimmerian  invasion  mentioned  by  Callinus  ; 
 and  we  should  then  expect  to  find  that  Tyrtaus,  and 
 not  Callinus,  was  considered  by  the  ancients  as  the 
 originator  of  the  elegy.  As,  however,  the  reverse  is 
 the  fact,  this  reason  may  be  added  to  others  for  think- 
 ing that  the  second  Messenian  war  did  not  take  place 
 till  after  660  B.C.,  which  must  be  considered  as  the 
 period  at  which  Callinns  flourished.  We  certainly  do 
 not  give  implicit  credit  to  the  story  of  later  writers, 
 that  Tyrtffus  was  a  lame  schoolmaster  at  Athens,  seril 
 out  of  insolence  by  the  .'\thenians  to  the  Spartans, 
 who  at  the  command  of  an  oracle  bad  applied  lo  them 
 for  a  leader  in  the  Messenian  war.  So  much  of  ibt* 
 account,  however,  may  be  received  as  true,  that  Tyr- 
 tseus came  from  Attica  to  the  Lacedaemonians;  the 
 place  of  his  abode  being,  according  to  a  precise  state- 
 ment, Aphidnae,  an  Athenian  town,  which  is  placed  hy 
 
T  YR 
 
 TYRUS. 
 
 the  legend?  about  the  Dioscuri  in  very  early  connexion 
 with  Laciia.  In  all  probability,  liis  lameness  was 
 only  a  satirical  allusion  to  his  use  of  the  elegiac  meas- 
 ure, or  alternating  hexameter  and  pentameter,  the  lat- 
 ter bcintf  shorter  by  a  foot  than  the  former. — Tyrtaaus 
 cante  to  the  LacedaBnionians  at  a  time  when  they  were 
 not  only  brought  into  great  straits  from  without  by 
 the  boldness  of  Aristomenes  and  the  desperate  cour- 
 age of  the  Mcssenians,  but  when  the  state  was  also 
 rent  with  internal  discord.  In  this  condition  of  the 
 Spartan  coinmonwcahh  Tyrta;us  com[)Osrd  the  most 
 celebrated  o(  his  elegies,  which,  from  its  subject, 
 was  called  i'Jutiomia,  that  is,  "Justice"  or  "Good 
 Government"  (also  Politcia,  or  "the  Constitution"). 
 But  the  Cunomia  was  neither  the  only  nor  yet  the  first 
 elegy  in  which  Tyrtseus  stimulated  the  Lacedsmoiii- 
 ans  to  a  bold  defence  against  the  Messenians.  Ex- 
 hortations to  bravery  was  the  theme  which  this  poet 
 took  for  many  elegies,  and  wrote  on  it  with  unceasing 
 spirit  and  ever  new  invention.  Never  was  the  duty 
 and  the  honour  of  bravery  impressed  on  the  youth  of 
 a  nation  with  so  much  beauty  and  force  of  language, 
 by  such  natural  and  touching  motives.  That  these 
 poems  breathed  a  truly  Spartan  spirit,  and  that  the 
 Spartans  knew  how  to  value  them,  is  proved  by  the 
 constant  use  made  of  them  in  the  military  expeditions. 
 When  the  Spartans  were  on  a  campaign,  it  was  their 
 custom,  after  the  evening  meal,  when  the  pa;an  had 
 been  sung  in  honour  of  the  gods,  to  recite  these  ele- 
 gies, (^n  these  occasions  the  whole  mass  did  not  join 
 in  the  chant,  but  individuals  vied  with  each  other  in 
 repeating  the  verses  in  a  manner  worthy  of  their  sub- 
 ject. The  successful  competitor  then  received  from 
 the  polemarch  or  commander  a  larger  portion  of  meat 
 than  the  others,  a  distinction  suitable  to  the  simple 
 taste  of  the  Spartans.  This  kind  of  recitation  was  so 
 well  adapted  to  the  elegy,  that  it  is  highly  probable  that 
 Tyrtaeus  himself  first  published  his  elegies  in  this  man- 
 ner. The  elegies  of  Tyrta>us,  however,  were  never 
 sung  on  the  march  of  the  army,  and  in  the  battle  itself; 
 for  these  occasions  a  strain  of  another  kind  was  com- 
 posed by  the  same  poet,  namely,  the  anapaestic  march- 
 es. (Miiller,  Hist.  Gr.  Lit.,  p.  1 10,  scr/q.) — We  have 
 several  fragments  remaining  of  the  elegies  of  TyrtKus. 
 They  are  written  in  the  Ionic  dialect,  though  address- 
 ed to  Dorians,  and  are  full  of  enthusiastic  and  patriotic 
 feeling.  The  anapaestic  marches,  on  the  other  hand 
 (fiOaj  -o?.€fuarr/pia),  were  written  in  Doric.  Of  these 
 only  a  single  fragment  has  come  down  to  us. — The 
 best  editions  of  Tyrtaius  are  that  of  Klotz.  BiemcE, 
 1764,  8vo,  and  that  contained  in  Gaisford's  Pacta:  Mi- 
 norr.s  Greedy  vol.  1,  p.  429,  scqq.) 
 
 TvRus  or  TvRos,  a  very  ancient  city  of  Phoenicia, 
 built  by  the  Sidonians.  "  The  strong  city  of  Tzor"  is 
 mentioned  in  the  book  of  Joshua(I9,  29),  and  its  situa- 
 tion is  specified  a-s  being  between  "  great  Zidon"  and 
 Achzib.  Yet  learned  men  have  contended  that  in 
 Joshua's  time  Tyre  was  not  built.  Homer,  it  has  been 
 remarked,  never  speaks  of  Tyre,  but  only  of  Sidon  ; 
 and  Jospphus  states  that  Tvre  was  built  not  above  240 
 years  before  the  temple  oi  Solomon,  which  would  be 
 A  M.  2760,  two  hundred  years  after  Joshua.  That 
 there  was  sucii  a  city  as  Tyre,  however,  in  the  days 
 of  Horner,  is  quite  certain,  seeing  that,  in  the  reign  of 
 Solomon,  there  was  a  king  of  Tyre  ;  and  we  appre- 
 hend that  the  Scripture  text  will  be  held  a  sufl'icient 
 proof  of  its  having  had  an  existence  before  the  land  of 
 Canaan  was  conquered  by  the  Israelites.  Nor  is  Jo- 
 sephus's  chronology  so  accurate  as  to  render  his  au- 
 thority on  such  a  point  very  important  There  was 
 Insular  Tvre,  and  Tyrus  on  'he  Continent,  or  Pala'- 
 Tyrus  ;  and  it  is  supposed  by  some  learned  writers 
 that  the  island  was  not  inhabited  till  after  the  invasion 
 of  Nebuchadnezzar.  But  this  last  supposition  is  not 
 merely  at  variance  with  the  doubtful  authority  of  Josc- 
 phtis,  but  is  scarcely  reconcilable  with  the  language  of 
 
 the  prophets  Isaiah  and  Ezckiei,  who  both  seem  to  speak 
 of  Tyre  as  an  isle.  (Isaiah,  23,  2,  6.—Ezek.,  26,  17. — 
 /r/.,27,3.— W.,28,  2.)  Nor  IS  it  probable  that  the  ad- 
 vantageous position  of  the  isle  would  be  altogether  neg- 
 lected by  a  maritime  people.  The  coast  would,  in- 
 deed, first  be  occupied,  and  the  fortified  city  mention- 
 ed in  the  book  of  Joshua  was  in  all  probability  on  the 
 Continent;  but,  as  the  commercial  importance  and 
 wealth  of  the  port  increased,  the  island  would  naturally 
 be  inhabited,  and  it  must  have  been  considered  as  the 
 place  of  the  greatest  security.  Volney  supposes  that 
 the  Tynans  retired  to  their  isle  when  compelled  to 
 abandon  the  ancient  city  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  that, 
 till  that  time,  the  dearth  of  water  had  prevented  its  be- 
 ing much  built  upon.  Certain  it  is,  that  when,  at 
 length,  Nebuchadnezzar  took  the  city,  he  found  it  so 
 impoverished  as  to  afl'ord  him  no  compensation  for  his 
 labour.  {Ezek.,  29,  18,  seqq.)  The  chief  edifices 
 were  at  all  events  on  the  mainland,  and  to  these  the 
 denunciations  of  total  ruin  strictly  apply.  Pala?-Tyrns 
 never  rose  from  its  overthrow  by  the  Chaldean  con- 
 queror, and  the  Macedonian  completed  its  destruc- 
 tion ;  at  the  same  time,  the  wealth  and  commerce  of 
 Insular  Tyre  were  for  the  time  destroyed,  though  it 
 afterward  recovered  from  the  eflects  of  its  invasion. — 
 Ancient  Tyre,  then,  probably  consisted  of  the  fortified 
 city,  which  commanded  a  considerable  territory  on  the 
 coast,  and  of  the  port  which  was  "strong  in  the  sea." 
 On  that  side  it  had  little  to  fear  from  invaders,  as  the 
 Tyrians  were  lords  of  the  sea  ;  and,  accordingly,  it 
 does  not  appear  that  its  Chaldean  conqueror  ventured 
 upon  a  maritime  assault.  Josephus,  indeed,  states 
 that  Salmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  made  war  against 
 the  Tyrians  with  a  fleet  of  sixty  ships,  manned  by  800 
 rowers.  The  Tyrians  had  but  twelve  ships,  yet  they 
 obtained  the  victory,  dispersing  the  Assyrian  fleet,  and 
 taking  500  prisoners.  Salmaneser  then  relumed  to 
 Nineveh,  leaving  his  land-forces  before  Tyre,  where 
 they  remained  for  five  years,  but  were  unable  to  take 
 the  city.  (Joseph.,  Ant.,  9,  14.)  This  expedition  is 
 supposed  to  have  taken  place  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah, 
 kingofJudah,  about  A.M.  3287,  or  717  B.C.  It  must 
 have  been  about  this  period,  or  a  few  years  earlier,  that 
 Isaiah  delivered  his  oracle  against  Tyre,  in  which  he 
 specifically  declared  that  it  should  be  destroyed,  not 
 by  the  power  which  then  threatened  it,  but  by  the  Chal- 
 deans, a  people  "formerly  of  no  account."  (Isaiah. 
 23,  13.)  Tlie  more  detailed  predictions  of  the  prophet 
 Ezekiel  were  delivered  a  hundred  and  twenty  years 
 after,  B.C.  588,  almost  immediately  before  the  Chal- 
 dean invasion.  The  army  of  Nebuchadnezzar  is  said 
 to  have  lain  before  Tyre  thirteen  years,  and  it  was  not 
 taken  till  the  fifteenth  year  after  the  captivity,  B.C. 
 573.  more  than  seventeen  hundred  years,  according 
 to  Josephus,  after  its  foundation.  Its  destruction, 
 then,  must  have  been  entire;  all  the  inhabitants  were 
 put  to  the  sword  or  led  into  captivity,  the  walls  were 
 razed  to  the  ground,  and  it  was  made  "  a  terror"  and 
 a  desolation.  It  is  remarkable,  that  one  reason  as- 
 signed by  the  prophet  Ezekiel  for  the  punishment  of 
 this  proud  city  is  its  exultation  at  the  destruction  of 
 Jerusalem:  "I  shall  be  replenished,  now  she  is  laid 
 waste"  (26,  2).  'J'his  clearly  indicates  that  its  over- 
 throw was  posterior  to  that  event;  and  if  we  take  the 
 seventy  years  during  which  it  was  predicted  by  Isaiah 
 (23,  15)  that  Tyre  should  be  forgotten,  to  denote  a 
 definite  term  (which  seems  the  most  natural  sense), 
 we  (nay  conclude  that  it  was  not  rebuilt  till  the  same 
 tuimber  of  years  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
 Babylon.  Old  Tyre,  the  continental  city,  remained, 
 however,  in  ruins  u[)  to  the  j)eriod  of  the  Macedonian 
 invasion.  Insular  Tyre  had  tlien  risen  to  be  a  city  of 
 very  considerable  wealth  and  political  importance ; 
 and  by  sea  her  fleets  were  triumphant.  According  to 
 Pliny  (9,  36),  it  was  19  miles  in  circumference,  in- 
 clulmg  Old  Tyre,  but  without  it  about  four.     It  was 
 
 136~ 
 
VAC 
 
 V  AL 
 
 the  rubbish  of  Old  Tyre,  thirty  furlongs  off,  that  sup- 
 plied materials  for  the  gigantic  mole  constructed  l)y 
 Alexander,  of  200  feet  in  breadth,  extending  all  the 
 way  from  the  continent  to  the  island,  a  distance  of  three 
 quarters  of  a  mile.  The  sea  that  formerly  separated 
 them  was  shallow  near  the  shore,  but  towards  the  isl- 
 and it  is  said  to  have  ijccii  three  fathoms  in  depth. 
 The  causeway  has  probably  been  enlarged  by  the  sand 
 thrown  up  by  the  sea,  which  now  covers  the  surface 
 of  the  isthmus.  Tyre  was  taken  by  the  Macedonian 
 con(jiicror  after  a  siege  of  eight  months,  B.C.  332, 
 two  hundred  and  forty-one  years  after  its  destruction 
 by  JN'ebuchadnezzar,  and,  consequently,  about  one  hun- 
 dred and  seventy  alter  it  had  been  rebuilt.  Though 
 now  subjugated,  it  was  not,  however,  totally  destroyed, 
 since,  only  thirty  years  after,  it  was  an  object  of  con- 
 tention to  Alexander's  successors.  The  fleet  of  An- 
 tigonus  invested  and  blockaded  it  for  thirteen  months, 
 at  ihe  expiration  of  which  it  was  compelled  to  surren- 
 der, and  received  a  garrison  of  his  troops  for  its  de- 
 fence. About  three  years  after  it  was  invested  by 
 Pompey  in  person,  and,  owing  to  a  mutiny  in  the  garri- 
 son, lell  into  his  hands.  Its  history  is,  after  this  period, 
 ideiititied  with  that  of  Syria.  In  the  a[)ostolic  age  it 
 seems  to  have  regained  some  measure  of  its  ancient 
 character  as  a  trading  town  ;  and  St.  Paul,  in  touching 
 here  on  one  occasion,  in  his  way  back  from  Macedonia, 
 found  a  number  of  Christian  believers,  with  whom  he 
 spent  a  week  ;  so  that  the  gospel  must  early  have  been 
 preached  to  the  Tvrians.  {Acts,  21,  3.)  Josephus, 
 in  speaking  of  the  city  of  Zal)ulon  as  of  admirable 
 beauty,  says  that  its  houses  were  built  like  those  in 
 Tyre,  and  Sidon,  and  Berytus.  Strabo  also  speaks  of 
 the  loftiness  and  beauty  of  the  buildings.  In  ecclesi- 
 astical history  it  is  distinguished  as  the  first  archbishop- 
 ric under  the  patriarchate  of  Jerusalem.  It  shared  the 
 fate  of  the  country  in  the  Saracen  invasion  in  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  seventh  century.  It  was  reconquered 
 by  the  crusaders  in  the  twelfth,  and  formed  a  royal 
 domain  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  an 
 archiepiscopal  see.  William  of  Tyre,  the  well-known 
 historian,  an  Englishman,  was  the  first  archbishop. 
 In  1289  it  was  retaken  by  the  Saracens,  the  Christians 
 being  permitted  to  remove  with  their  etfects.  When 
 the  sultan  Selim  divided  Syria  into  pachalics.  Tyre, 
 which  had  probably  gone  to  decay  with  the  depression 
 «f  commerce,  was  merged  in  the  territory  of  Sidon. 
 In  1766  It  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Motoualies, 
 who  repaired  the  port,  and  enclosed  it,  on  the  land 
 side,  with  a  wall  twenty  feet  high.  The  wall  was 
 standing,  but  the  repairs  had  gone  to  ruin,  at  the  time 
 of  Volney's  visit  (1784).  He  noticed,  however,  the 
 their  of  the  ancient  church  mentioned  by  Mauiidrell, 
 together  with  some  columns  of  red  granite,  of  a  spe- 
 cies unknown  m  Syria,  which  Ijjezzar  Pacha  wanted 
 to  remove  to  Acre,  but  could  find  no  engineers  able  to 
 accomplish  it.  It  was  at  that  time  a  miserable  vil- 
 lage :  Its  exports  consisted  of  a  few  sacks  of  corn  and  of 
 cotton  ;  and  the  only  merchant  of  which  it  could  boast 
 was  a  solitary  Greek,  in  the  service  ot  the  French  fac- 
 tory at  Sidon,  who  could  hardly  gam  a  livelihood.  It 
 IS  only  within  the  past  half  century  that  it  has 
 once  more  begun  to  lift  up  its  head  from  the  dust. 
 (Modern  Traveller,  pt.  3,  p.  46,  sci/q.) 
 
 TvsDKus,  a  city  of  Africa  Propria,  not  far  from  the 
 coast,  below  Turris  Hannibalis.  Il  is  supposed  to 
 coincide  as  to  position  with  the  modern  el-Jem.  {P/ol. 
 —Auct.,  Hist.  Bell.  Afr  ,  c.  36,  7Q.—I^lin.,  5,  4.) 
 
 V.\ccA.      Vid.  Vaga. 
 
 Vacc^i,  a  people  at  the  north  of  Spain,  occupving, 
 according  to  Mannert,  what  is  now  the  greater  part  of 
 Valladolid,  Leon,  Palcncia,  and  the  j)rovince  of  Turo. 
 'Liv.,  21,  5— Id.,  35,  7.) 
 1368 
 
 Vacuna,  a  goddess  worshipped  principally  by  the 
 Sabines,  but  also  by  the  Latins.  According  to  some 
 authorities  she  was  identical  with  Victoria,  and  the 
 Lake  (Jutiliae  was  sacred  to  her.  {Arnob.,  3,  p.  112, 
 cd.  Stcwcch.  —  Spangenberg,  De  Vet^  Lat  Kel.  Do- 
 mesl.,  p.  47.)  Others  made  her  analogous  to  Diana, 
 (Jeres,  or  Minerva.  This  last  was  the  opinion  of 
 Varro.  {Schol.  ad  Hural.,  Epist.,  1,  10,  49.)  Her 
 name  apparently  comes  from  vaco,  the  reason  of 
 which  etymology  is  given  as  follows  by  Varro  :  "quod 
 ea  maxime  hi  gaudcnt  qui  sapientia  vacant.''^  ( Varro, 
 up.  Schol.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Vadimonis  Lacus,  a  lake  of  Etruria,  whose  waters 
 were  sulphureous.  It  formerly  existed  close  to  Bas- 
 sano,  but  is  now  filled  up  with  peat  and  rushes.  {Sen- 
 eca, Nat.  Hist.  Quast  ,  3,  25.  —  Plin.,  2,  95.)  This 
 lake  is  celebrated  in  the  history  of  Rome  for  having 
 witnessed  the  total  defeat  of  the  Etruscans  by  the  Ro- 
 mans, A.U.C.  444,  a  del'eat  so  decisive  that  they  never 
 could  recover  from  its  effects.  {Livy,  9,  39.)  An- 
 other battle  was  again  fought  here  by  the  Eltruscans, 
 in  conjunction  with  the  Gauls,  against  the  Romans, 
 with  the  same  ill  success.  {Polyh.,  2,  20. — Flor.,  1, 
 12.) 
 
 Vaga,  sometimes,  but  improperly,  written  Vacca,  a 
 town  of  Africa,  west  of  Carthage,  on  the  river  Rubri- 
 catus,  and  celebrated  among  the  African  and  Numid- 
 ian  cities  for  its  extensive  traffic.  D'Anville  and 
 Barbie  du  Bocage  recognise  traces  of  the  ancient  name 
 in  the  modern  Vegja  or  Bcja,  in  the  district  of  Tunis. 
 {Sail,  Jug.,  47.— Si/.  Ilai,  3,  259.) 
 
 Vageni,  or,  more  correctly,  Vagienni,  a  people  of 
 Liguria,  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  and  near  the 
 angle  formed  by  the  separation  of  the  Apennines 
 and  Alps.  Their  name,  as  D'Anville  observes,  is  still 
 apparent  in  that  of  Viozena.  Their  capital  was  Au- 
 gusta Vagiennorum,  now  Vico,  according  to  D'An- 
 ville, but  more  correctly  Bene,  according  to  Durandi. 
 {Sil.  Jtal.,  8,  607.— Plin.,  3,  5.  —  Cramer's  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  27.) 
 
 Vahalis,  the  western  arm  of  the  Rhine,  now  the 
 Waal.     {CcEs  ,  4,  10.— Tac  ,  Aym.,  2,  6.) 
 
 Valens,  Flavius,  an  emperor  of  the  East.  His 
 biography  will  be  given  in  conjunction  with  that  of  his 
 brother  Valentinian  I.     (Vid.  Valentinianus  I.) 
 
 Valentia,  I.  a  secret  and  hallowed  name  of  Rome. 
 {Plin.,  3,  5. — Id.  -ibid..  28,  2.  —  Serv.  ad  Mn  ,  1, 
 280.) — II.  A  city  of  the  Segovellauni  or  Segalauni,  in 
 Gallia  Narbonensis,  now  Valence.  (Plin.,  3,  4.)  It 
 lay  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rhodaiius,  above  Alba 
 Augusta. — III.  A  city  of  Mauritania  Tingitana,  north 
 of  Volubile  Oppidum,  and  south  of  Lixum,  situate  on 
 the  river  Subur.  It  was  also  called  Banasa,  and  is 
 now  Mamora.  {Plin,  5,  1.)  —  IV.  A  province  of 
 Britain,  in  what  is  now  Scotland,  conquered  in  the 
 time  of  Valentinian  from  the  Picts  and  Scots,  and 
 formed  by  Theodosius  into  a  province.  {Amm.  Mure, 
 28,  3.) — V.  A  city  of  the  Edetani  or  Contestani,  in 
 Hispania  Tarraconensis,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tusia. 
 It  was  taken  and  sacked  by  Pompey,  but  was  after- 
 ward colonized  and  became  an  important  place.  Il  is 
 now  Valentia. — VI.  or  Vibo  Valentia.  ( V'ltJ.  Hippo- 
 nium.) 
 
 Valentinianus,  I.  the  first  of  the  name,  a  man  of 
 moderate  rank,  and  born  at  Cibalse  in  Hungary,  was 
 made  emperor  by  the  army,  being,  at  the  lime  of  Jovi- 
 an's  death,  the  commander  of  the  bodyguard.  He  as- 
 sociated with  himself  Valens,  his  brother,  and,  afiei 
 some  lime,  Gratian,  his  son,  who,  at  eight  years  old, 
 was  presented  to  the  army  wearing  a  purple  robe 
 Valens  fixing  his  court  at  Constantinople,  Valentinian 
 himself  repaired  to  Milan.  Soon  after  the  accession 
 of  these  emperors,  both  the  ^^'est  and  East  were  dis 
 turbed  nearly  at  the  same  time ;  the  former  by  an 
 irruption  of  the  Alemanni  into  Gaul,  the  latter  by  the 
 insurrection  of  Procopius,  who,  pretending  a  promise 
 
VALENTINIANUS. 
 
 VALENTINIANUS. 
 
 of  Jr-lian  that  he  would  leave  him  heir  of  the  empire, 
 was  saluted  Augustus  by  the  multitude  at  Constanti- 
 nople ;  and,  having  been  joined  by  the  legions  sent 
 against  him  by  Valens,  reduced  Thrace,  Bithynia,  and 
 the  H('lles[iont.  Descried  by  his  followers  in  Phrygia, 
 he  tied  into  the  mountains,  was  taken  alive,  brought 
 bound  before  Valens,  and,  being  sentenced  to  be  tied 
 by  the  legs  to  two  trees  that  were  forcibly  bent  to  the 
 ground,  was  torn  asunder  by  their  recoil  (A.D.  366). 
 'J'ho  Alemanni  defeated  the  Roman  armies  in  Gaul, 
 killing  the  commanders,  the  counts  Charictto  and  Se- 
 verian  ;  but  were,  m  their  turn,  routed  by  Jovinus,  the 
 master  of  the  horse,  with  the  loss  of  six  thousand  slain 
 and  four  liiousand  woutided.  Valens  marched  against 
 the  Goths,  who  had  assisted  Procopius,  and  in  three 
 years  reduced  them  to  terms  of  peace.  He  also  re- 
 pressed the  predatory  incursions  of  the  Isaurians,  a 
 sort  of  mountain  robbers,  and  exacted  hostages.  The 
 Pitts  and  Scots,  who  had  ravaged  Britain,  were  de- 
 feated by  Count  Theodosius,  and  their  spoil  retaken. 
 Valeniinian  crossed  the  Rhine,  gamed  a  bloody  vic- 
 tory over  the  Alemanni,  and  fortified  the  Gallic  fron- 
 tier with  camps  and  castles.  The  Sa.xons,  who  had 
 burst  into  Gaul,  were  subdued  by  treachery.  After 
 their  proposition  of  retiring  from  the  country  had  been 
 acceded  to,  thev  were  set  upon,  while  passing  through 
 a  valley,  by  troops  planted  m  ambuscade,  and  cut  to 
 pieces.  A  similar  act  of  perlidy  was  committed  against 
 the  Quadi,  who  had  been  irritated  by  the  placing  of  an 
 intrenched  camp  on  their  soil.  'J'heir  king,  Gabinius, 
 who  was  invited  by  the  Roman  general  Ma.\imin  to  a 
 banquet,  was  waylaid  on  his  retiring,  and  murdered. 
 The  result  was  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Quadi, 
 who  overran  both  I'annonias,  and  cut  to  pieces  two 
 entire  legions.  Valeniinian  crossing  the  Danube,  and 
 wasting  the  country  of  the  Quadi  with  fire  and  sword, 
 the  latter  sent  ambassadors  to  sue  for  peace.  Valen- 
 iinian, preparing  to  answer  their  address,  in  a  parox- 
 ysm of  rage  burst  a  vessel,  and  expired  of  the  effusion 
 of  blood  (A.D.  375).  The  choleric  and  implacable 
 temper  of  Valeniinian,  urging  hiin  frctjuently  to  acts 
 of  the  most  atrocious  injustice,  is  singularly  irrecon 
 cilable  with  his  religious  moderation.  It  is  said  that 
 he  was  about  to  issue  an  order  for  the  magistrates  of 
 three  towns  to  be  ])ut  to  death,  because  one  of  the 
 judges  had  directed  the  execution  of  a  sentence  legally 
 jjassed  on  a  Hungarian,  and  only  desisted  from  his 
 purpose  on  the  expostulation  of  his  quasstor  Euprax- 
 ms,  who  reminded  the  "most  pious  of  princes"  that 
 guiltless  persons,  if  slain,  would  by  Christians  be  wor- 
 shipped as  martyrs.  It  is  also  relat<!d,  that,  on  a  cer- 
 tain count  complaining  to  him  of  a  civil  action,  he  sent 
 to  execution  not  only  the  plaintiff,  but  the  very  clerks 
 of  the  court  who  served  the  notice  ;  and  that  the 
 Ghrisiians  of  Milan  gave  the  place  of  their  interment 
 the  name  of  the  •'  Tomb  of  the  Innocents."  That  he 
 refused  to  admit  the  challenges  of  judges  by  defend- 
 ants in  a  cause,  when  preferred  on  the  ground  of  pri- 
 vate enmity,  and  that  he  condemned  insolvent  debtors 
 to  death,  are  scarcely  credible  charges.  Not  destitute 
 of  ingenuity,  he  invented  some  new  weapons,  and  had 
 a  turn  for  painting  and  modelling.  Report  describes 
 him  as  tall  and  muscular,  with  a  florid  complexion, 
 hair  of  a  liery  colour,  and  gray  eyes,  which  had  a  pe- 
 culiarly tierce  expression  from  his  always  looking 
 askance.  The  body  of  Valeniinian  was  conveyed  to 
 Constantinople.  In  the  flast,  another  violation  of  that 
 hospitalily  which  among  barbarians  is  held  sacred,  took 
 place  in  the  person  of  Para,  king  of  Armenia.  Invi- 
 ted by  Valens  to  Tarsus,  and  detained  there  specious- 
 ly as  a  guest,  he  escaped  on  horseback  by  night  to  his 
 own  kingdom,  but  was  then  inveigled  to  an  entertain- 
 ment by  Duke  Trajan,  and,  in  the  midst  of  wine  and 
 music,  stabbed  by  a  hired  barbarian  as  he  reclined  on 
 the  supper-couch.  Sapor,  who  had  in  vain  endeavour- 
 ed to  bring  Valens  into  his  terms  respecting  Armenia, 
 8L 
 
 over  which  he  desired  to  place  a  king  of  his  own  elec- 
 tion, pressed  forward  wiih  his  army,  but  was  repulsed 
 by  Trajan  and  Vadomair,  the  allied  king  of  the  .'Me- 
 manni.  In  the  mean  time,  a  plot,  having  for  its  object 
 to  place  Thcodorus,  a  secretary  and  an  accomplished 
 character,  on  the  throne,  was  betrayed  to  Valens  ;  and 
 the  coiis|)iralors,  toget+ier  with  Theodorus,  consigned 
 to  the  executioner.  The  plot,  it  is  said,  originated  in 
 an  oracle,  divulged  in  Asia,  which  predicted  that  one 
 whose  name  began  with  Theo  should  be  emperor,  and 
 this  was  afterward  interpreted  to  mean  Theodosius. 
 .\  new  enemv  had  now  rolled  its  congregated  num- 
 bers on  the  Roman  world,  with  terror  darkening  in 
 their  van.  The  Goths  were  displaced  by  the  Huns, 
 and  urged  forward  by  the  impulsion.  They  obtained 
 permission  of  Valens  to  make  a  seillement  in  Thrace, 
 and  swore  fealty  lo  him,  but  afterward  revolted  under 
 their  general  Fridigern.  Sur(>rised,  as  they  were  laden 
 with  spoil,  by  the  Roman  general  Sebastian,  they  were 
 routed,  and  the  booty  was  retaken.  Gratian,  who  had 
 defeated  another  body  of  Goths  by  his  general  Friger- 
 idus,  near  Strasburg,  and  permitted  the  remnant  to 
 settle  on  the  Po,  advanced  to  the  assistance  of  Va- 
 lens ;  but  the  latter,  eager  to  distinguish  himself  and 
 jealous  of  his  nephew,  risked  a  battle  with  all  the  con- 
 federated Goths,  in  which  the  Roman  army,  aftur  a 
 brave  struggle,  the  band  of  lancers,  in  particular,  stand- 
 ing firm  to  the  last  around  their  emperor,  was  put  to 
 total  rout,  and  the  field  heaped  with  its  dead.  Valens 
 taking  refuge  in  a  country-house  with  only  a  few  fol- 
 lowers, who  resisted  from  the  roof  the  attempt  of  the 
 Goths  to  break  the  door,  the  latter  set  fire  to  the  build- 
 ing, and  he  perished  with  the  rest  in  the  flames  (A  D. 
 378).  Valens  was  of  a  middle  height,  with  legs  rather 
 bowed,  somewhat  corpulent,  and  of  a  high-coloured 
 complexion.  One  of  his  eyes  was  obstructed  by  a 
 cataract,  but  it  was  not  discernible  at  a  little  distance. 
 Ignorant  of  art  and  literature,  he  was  but  imperfectly 
 versed  in  military  tactics.  With  a  sluggish  and  pro- 
 crastinating habit  of  mind  he  united  a  dogmatical  im- 
 patience of  temper,  and  in  the  courts  of  law,  without 
 caring  for  the  merits  of  the  case,  was  offended  by  any 
 decision  which  counteracted  his  own  wishes.  Though 
 bitter  against  those  who  withstood  his  will  or  differed 
 from  him  in  sentiment,  he  was  not  incapable  of  friend- 
 ship.— II.  Valcntinian  II.  was  proclaimed  Augustus 
 at  four  years  old,  as  the  colleague  of  Gratian,  and  re- 
 sided with  his  mother,  the  Empress  Justina,  at  the 
 court  of  Milan.  Maximus,  having  established  himself 
 in  Britain  and  Gaul,  drove  Valeniinian  out  of  Italy. 
 The  youth  stood  as  a  suppliant  before  the  throne  of 
 Constantinople  with  the  empress  mother  and  his  sis- 
 ter Galla.  The  hand  of  the  latter  became  a  pledge  of 
 the  hospitality  and  aid  of  the  enamoured  Theodosius. 
 Valeniinian  was  thus  restored,  through  the  aid  of  The- 
 odosius, to  the  throne  of  the  Western  empire;  a  throne 
 which  his  weak  character  did  not  enable  him  to  fill  and 
 defend.  The  new  reign  of  this  young  prince  was  not 
 of  long  duration.  He  removed  the  seat  of  the  court 
 to  Vienna  (now  Vicnne),  on  the  Rhone,  where  he  was 
 assassinated,  A.D.  392.  by  order  of  Arbogastes.  gen- 
 eral of  the  Franks,  whose  authority  had  long  predom- 
 inated over  that  of  his  master.  This  prince  was  a 
 youth  of  excellent  qualities,  temperate,  studious,  and 
 affectionate. — III.  Valeniinian  HI.  was  the  son  of 
 Constantins  and  Placidia,  daughter  of  Theodosius  the 
 Great.  He  was  only  six  years  of  age  when  he  was 
 proclaimed  Emperor  of  the  West,  A.D.  423;  but  he 
 was  not  actually  recognised  as  such  until  42.'),  after 
 the  defeat  of  John  the  Notary,  who  had  seized  upon 
 the  empire.  Placidia,  who  possessed  at  first  all  the 
 authority,  governed  with  much  wisdom.  Aetius,  wor- 
 thy, by  his  valour  and  military  talents,  of  the  fairest 
 period  of  the  lioman  republic,  preserved  for  the  em- 
 pire the  territory  of  Gaul,  continually  invaded  by  new 
 enemies,  and  forced  the  Franks,  the  Goths,  the  Bur- 
 
 1369 
 
V  AL 
 
 VALERIUS. 
 
 gnndians,  and  llie  Alani  to  sue  for  peace.  Count  Bon- 
 iface, however,  was  less  fortunate  in  Africa,  and  could 
 not  prevent  Genscric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  from  found- 
 ing an  empire  there  in  442.  Valentiiiian  was  by  this 
 titne  of  an  age  to  govern  for  himself;  but  the  only  use 
 he  made  of  his  power  was  to  commit  crimes  and  to 
 disgrace  himself  by  acts  of  debauchery.  Aeiius  sub- 
 sequently (A.D.  451)  gained  a  complete  victory  over 
 Attila,  in  the  plains  of  Duro-Catalaunum  (Chalons), 
 when  Valentiiiian,  jealous  of  his  glory,  had  him  sent 
 for,  and,  on  a  sudden,  stabbed  him  to  the  heart.  He 
 did  not,  however,  long  survive  this  cowardly  act. 
 The  following  year,  having  violated  the  wife  of  Petro- 
 nius  Maximus,  a  man  of  consular  rank,  the  outraged 
 husband  slew  him  (A.D.  45.')),  in  the  thirty-sixth  year 
 of  his  age  and  thirty-first  of  his  reign,  and  then  ascend- 
 ed his  tlirone.  {Hcthcring ton's  History  of  Rome,  p. 
 250,  scqq. — Elton's  Hist.  Roman  Emperors,  p.  217, 
 seqq. ) 
 
 Valeria  Lex,  L  de  Provocatione,  bv  P.  Valerius 
 Publicola.  (Vid.  Valerius  I.)  It  granted  to  every 
 one  the  liberty  of  appealing  from  the  consuls  to  the 
 people,  and  that  no  magistrate  should  be  permitted  to 
 punish  a  Roman  citizen  who  thus  appealed.  This  law 
 was  afterward  once  and  again  renewed,  and  always 
 by  persons  of  the  Valerian  family.  (Liv.,  2,  8. — Dion. 
 Hal.,  5,  19. — Heinecc,  Rom.  Ant.,  p.  246,  scqq.,  cd. 
 Hauhold.) — II.  .Another,  de  Debitorihus,  by  L.  Valeri- 
 us Flaccus,  consul  A.U.CJ.  667.  It  enacted  that 
 debtors  should  be  discharged  on  paying  one  fourth  of 
 their  debts.  {Veil.  Paterc  ,  2,  23.)— III.  Another, 
 by  M.  Valerius  Corvinus,  A.U.C.  453,  which  con- 
 firmed the  first  Valerian  law  enacted  by  Publicola. — 
 IV.  Another,  called  also  Horutia,  by  L.  Valerius  and 
 M.  Horatius,  the  consuls,  A.U.C.  304.  It  revived 
 the  first  Valerian  law,  which  under  the  triumvirate  had 
 lost  its  force. — V.  Another,  de  Magislratibus,  by  P, 
 Valerius  Publicola,  A.U.C.  243.  It  created  two 
 quaestors  to  take  care  of  the  public  treasure,  which 
 was  for  the  future  to  be  kept  in  the  temple  of  Saturn. 
 {Plut.,  Vit.  Publ.) 
 
 Valerianus,  Publics  Licinius,  a  Roman,  pro- 
 claimed emperor  by  the  army  in  Khaitia,  of  which  he 
 was  commander,  A.D.  254.  He  had  been  distinguish- 
 ed by  his  virtues  while  in  a  private  station,  and  great 
 expectations  were  consequently  formed  of  him  when 
 he  ascended  the  throne.  Having  appointed  his  son 
 Gallienus  to  be  his  associate  in  the  empire,  he  left  him 
 to  defend  it  against  the  incursions  of  the  Goths  and 
 Germans,  and  marched  to  the  east  to  oppose  the  Per- 
 sian king  Sapor.  Valerian  was  defeated  and  taken 
 prisoner  by  the  Persians,  who  treated  him  with  great 
 and  contemptuous  cruelty.  His  degenerate  son  Galli- 
 enus made  no  effort  to  obtain  his  release,  being  appa- 
 rently more  satisfied  to  reign  alone.  For  many  years 
 the  Roman  emperor  bowed  himself  down,  that  his 
 body  might  serve  as  a  stepping-stone  to  the  Persian 
 king  when  he  mounted  on  horseback  :  he  was  at  last 
 flayed  alive,  and  his  skin,  stuffed  in  the  form  of  a  hu- 
 man figure  and  dyed  with  scarlet,  was  preserved  in  a 
 temple  in  Persia.     {Trcb.  Poll.,  Valerian.   Vit.) 
 
 Valerius  Purlius,  I.  a  celebrated  Roman,  sur- 
 name<l  Publicola  {vid.  Publicola),  and  who  shared 
 with  Junius  Brutus  the  glory  of  having  driven  out  the 
 Tarquins  and  of  founding  the  Roman  commonwealth, 
 B.(y.  509.  Brutus  having  fallen  on  the  field  of  bat 
 tie,  and  CoUaiinus,  the  colleague  of  the  former,  having 
 been  compelled  eventually  to  retire  from  Rome  in 
 consequence  of  his  relationshif)  to  the  Tarcpiin  family, 
 Valerius  was  chosen  consul  along  with  S|).  Lucretius 
 Trici[iitinus.  This  last  died  during  the  earlier  part  of 
 his  year,  and  Valerius  remained  sole  consul.  As  he 
 appeared  in  no  haste  to  have  a  new  colleague,  and 
 was,  at  the  same  time,  engaged  in  erecting  a  mansion 
 on  a  lofty  eminence,  which,  to  the  jealous  vision  of 
 his  countrymen,  looked  like  a  fortress  against  their 
 1370 
 
 liberties,  he  was  suspected  of  a  design  to  make  himself 
 absolute.  On  being  informed,  however,  of  the  dissat- 
 isfaction felt  on  this  subject  by  the  people,  he  imme- 
 diately caused  the  edifice  to  be  razed  to  the  ground, 
 took  from  the  fasces  the  axe,  the  emblem  of  capital 
 punishment,  caused  the  same  fasces  to  be  lowered  be- 
 fore the  people  at  their  next  general  assembly,  and  al- 
 ways afterward  on  similar  occasions^,  and  finally  had 
 the  celebrated  law  of  appeal  {lex  Provocationis)  passed, 
 which  protected  the  rights  and  persons  of  Roman  cit- 
 izens against  the  tyranny  of  magistrates.  (  V id.  Va- 
 leria Lex  I.)  This  conduct  rendered  Valerius  the  idol 
 of  the  f)opulace,  and  obtained  for  him  the  surname  of 
 Publicola,  in  allusion  to  his  great  popularity.  {Vid. 
 Publicola.)  He  was  also  continued  in  the  consulship 
 for  the  two  succeeding  years,  B.C.  508  and  507.  He 
 was  chosen  consul  anew  in  .'504.  He  appears  to  have 
 died  not  long  after.  The  disinterestedness  of  this  il- 
 lustrious citizen  was  so  great,  that,  after  having  been 
 four  times  consul,  he  died  a  poor  man,  and  the  expense 
 of  his  funeral  had  to  be  borne  by  the  state.  The  Ro- 
 man matrons  mourned  for  him  a  whole  year.  {Liv., 
 1,  58— Id.,  2.  8.— Id.,  3,  55.  — /d,  10,  9  —Dion. 
 Hal.,  5,  \9.—F!or.,  1,  9.  —  Flut.,  VU.  Public.— Ho- 
 rat..  Sat.,  1,  6,  12  ) — II.  Corvus  Corvinus,  a  tribune 
 of  the  soldiers  under  Camillus.  When  the  Roman 
 army  was  challenged  by  one  of  the  Senones,  remark- 
 able for  his  strength  and  stature,  Valerius  undertook 
 to  engage  him,  and  obtained  an  easy  victory  by  means 
 of  a  crow  or  raven  (corvus)  that  assisted  him,  and  at- 
 tacked the  face  of  the  Gaul,  whence  his  surname  of 
 Corvus  or  Corvinus.  Valerius  triumphed  over  the 
 Etrurians  and  the  neighbouring  states  that  made  war 
 against  Rome,  and  was  six  times  honoured  with  the 
 consulship.  He  died  in  the  100th  year  of  his  age,  ad- 
 mired and  regretted  for  manv  private  and  public  vir- 
 tues. (Val.  Max.,  8,  13.  — Liw,  7,  27.)— HI.  Anti- 
 as.  a  Roman  historian,  who  flourished  about  A.U.C. 
 670,  B.C.  84.  Pliny  often  refers  to  him.  Aulus 
 Gellius  quotes  the  12th,  24th,  45th,  and  75th  books 
 of  his  annals.  (Aid.  Cell. ,7,  9.— Id.,  1,7,  &c.)— IV. 
 Messala.  (Vid  Messala.) — V.  Maximus,  a  Roman 
 writer,  born  at  Rome  during  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
 of  a  |)atrician  family.  According  to  his  own  account, 
 he  served  in  Asia  under  Sextus  Pompey,  who  was 
 consul  the  year  that  Augustus  died  (2,  6,  8).  On  his 
 return  to  Rome  he  abstained  entirely  from  public  affairs, 
 and  lived  until  the  time  of  the  conspiracy  of  Sejanus, 
 A.D.  31.  We  have  no  other  particulars  of  his  life.  The 
 anonymous  but  ancient  author  of  his  life  makes  him  to 
 have  been  descended  from  the  Valerian  family  on  the 
 father's  side,  and  from  the  Fabian  on  the  mother's  side. 
 His  surname  Maximus  indicates  the  latter  part  of  his 
 genealogy.  In  a  work  composed  originally  of  ten  books, 
 but  of  which  only  nine  remain,  and  entitled  Dictorum 
 factorurnque  rnemorahiliiun  Ithri,  he  has  collected  to- 
 gether the  sayings  and  actions  of  individuals  of  various 
 eras  and  nations,  which  he  found  scattered  over  his- 
 torical works,  and  deemed  worthy  of  being  transmitted 
 to  posterity.  The  collection  is  dedicated  to  Tiberius. 
 He  classifies  the  individuals  of  whom  he  treats,  ac- 
 cording to  some  peculiar  virtue  or  vice,  of  which  they 
 are  cited  as  examples.  He  first  confines  himself  to 
 Romans,  and  then  passes  to  other  nations,  especially 
 the  Greeks.  The  titles  of  his  chapters  are  the  work 
 of  the  grammarians  or  copyists,  as  appears  very  clear- 
 ly from  the  use  of  words  which  were  unknown  during 
 the  best  age  of  Roman  literature.  Valerius  displays 
 neither  judgment  in  his  choice  of  anecdotes,  nor  skill 
 in  their  arrangement,  nor  good  taste  in  the  use  of  ex- 
 pressions, and  in  the  transitions  which  he  frequently 
 makes  from  the  natural  order  of  things.  No  one  ever 
 carried  flattery  to  a  greater  extent :  his  preface,  ad- 
 dressed to  Tiberius  is  perfectly  disgusting.  His  man- 
 ner of  narrating  is  far  from  pleasing,  and  his  style  is 
 cold,  declamatory,  and  affected.     Notwithstanding  its 
 
VA  L 
 
 V  AR 
 
 faults,  however,  the  work  is  interesting  both  for  the 
 history  and  tlie  study  of  antiquity,  and  contains  a  num- 
 ber of  little  facts  taken  from  authors  whose  works 
 have  not  reached  us.  Some  critics  believe,  though  on 
 no  very  sure  grounds,  tliat  the  work  in  question  is  a 
 compilation  from  a  larger  one  by  the  same  author,  and 
 was  executed  by  C.  Titus  Prol)us  or  Julius  Paris. 
 Others,  in  like  manner,  ascribe  it  to  Januarius  Nepo- 
 lianus.  These  three  individuals  are  equally  unknown. 
 — Tlie  best  editions  of  Valerius  Maximus  are,  that  of 
 Vorstius,  BcroL,  1672,  8vo  ;  that  of  Torrenius,  Lugd. 
 Bat.,  1726,  4to  ;  that  of  Kappius,  Liji.s.,  1782,  8vo  ; 
 and  that  of  Hase,  Paris,  1823,  3  vols.  8vo  (including 
 Obsequens  ilc  Frodlgiis),  which  last  forms  part  of  the 
 collection  of  Lemaire. — VI.  Flaccus,  a  Latin  poet 
 v\'ho  flourished  under  Vespasian.  He  wrote  a  poem  in 
 eight  books  on  the  Argonaulic  expedition,  but  it  re- 
 mained unfinished  on  account  of  his  premature  death. 
 The  maiiuscri[)ts  of  this  poem  add  to  the  name  of  Va- 
 lerius Flaccus  that  of  Sctinus  Balbus.  It  has  been 
 supposed  by  some  critics  that  this  last  was  the  name 
 of  a  grammarian  who  made  a  revision  of  the  text,  or 
 who,  perhaps,  was  the  possessor  of  a  remarkable  man- 
 uscript. The  birthplace  of  the  writer  is  also  involved 
 in  some  doubt.  It  is  believed  by  many  that  his  native 
 place  was  Patavium,  and  this  opinion  is  founded  on 
 various  passages  of  Martial.  Others  suppose  that  he 
 was  born  at  Setia  Campania,  and  allege  the  name  Se- 
 tinus  in  favour  of  this  position  The  latter  name,  how- 
 ever, has  been  explained  above.  There  has  come 
 down  to  us,  among  the  epigrams  of  Martial,  one  ad- 
 dressed to  Valerius  Flaccus,  in  which  the  former  ad- 
 vises him  to  renounce  poetry,  and  apply  himself  to  the 
 etudies  of  the  bar,  as  affording  a  belter  means  for  ac- 
 cumulating a  fortune.  From  this  some  have  been  led 
 to  believe  that  his  poetical  talents  were  not  held  in 
 very  high  esteem  by  his  contemporaries.  Quintilian, 
 however,  speaks  of  his  death  as  a  great  loss  to  litera- 
 ture. He  died  A.D.  88,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian. 
 The  "  .\rgonaulics"  of  Valerius  Flaccus  are  in  eight 
 books,  the  last  imperfect.  Had  the  poem  been  com- 
 pleted, it  is  thought  that  it  would  have  occupied  ten  or 
 twelve  books.  It  is  an  imitation  of  the  work  of  Apol- 
 lonius  of  Rhodes  on  the  same  subject.  The  critics 
 are  far  from  being  agreed  as  to  its  merits  :  some  rank 
 it  next  to  the^'Eneid  ;  while  others,  who  regard  beauty 
 of  diction  as  less  essential  than  invention,  assign  it  a 
 much  lower  rank,  and  give  the  preference  to  the  po- 
 ems of  Statins,  Lucan,  and  even  Silius  Italicus.  In 
 truth,  the  "  Argonautirs"  are  clearly  deficient  in  ori- 
 ginality. The  princi[)al  fault  of  the  poem  is,  that  the 
 enterprise  of  the  Argonauts,  which  forms  the  chief  in- 
 terest of  the  fable,  is  continually  lost  sight  of  amid  nu- 
 merous digressions  and  episodes.  Hence  the  poem 
 wears  in  general  a  cold  and  monotonous  appearance. 
 It  is  not,  however,  without  beauties ;  it  contains  de- 
 scriptions highly  poetical,  and  sotne  very  ingenious 
 comparisons.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  the  passages 
 where  \'^alerius  does  not  imitate  Apollonius,  he  is  far 
 more  elegant  than  in  those  where  he  copies  hitn.  His 
 style  is  concise  and  energetic,  but  oftentimes  obscure 
 and  affected.  Frequently,  too,  he  sacrifices  nature  to 
 art,  and  to  an  anxiety  for  dis|)laying  the  stores  of  his 
 erudition. — The  best  editions  of  Valerius  Flaccus  are, 
 that  of  Burmann,  L.  Bat,  1724,  4to  ;  that  of  Harlcs, 
 Allrnh.,  1781,  8vo  ;  that  of  Wagner,  Gbl/ifif:.,  1805, 
 8vo  ;  that  of  Weichert,  Mis.  ap.  Goed.,  1818,  8vo  ; 
 and  that  of  Lemaire  (forming  part  of  his  collection), 
 Pans,  1824-5,  2  vols.  8vo.  {SchUll,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.  2,  p    294,  sr/jq.) 
 
 Vai. oil's  RcFtis,  a  Roman  poet  in  the  Angustan  age, 
 on  whom  Tibullus  (4,  1,  80)  passes  a  high  eulogiuin 
 ("  Valgiiis,  (clcriio  propior  non  allcr  Homcio"),  which, 
 in  all  probability,  comes  rather  from  the  warm  friend 
 than  the  sober  critic.  Horace  speaks  of  him  as  one  of 
 those  by  whom  he  would  wish  his  productions  to  be 
 
 commended.  (5a/.,  1,  10,  82  )  Quintilian  makes  no 
 mention  of  him.  {Schiill,  Hist  Lit.  Rum  ,\.  1,  p.  227.) 
 Vand.m.Ti,  a  people  of  Germany.  The  Vandals 
 seem  to  have  been  of  Gothic  origin.  Pliny  and  Pro- 
 copius  agree  in  making  them  such,  and  the  latter  wri- 
 ter more  especially  affirms,  in  express  terms,  that  the 
 Goths  and  Vandals,  though  distinguished  by  name, 
 were  the  same  people,  agreeing  in  their  manners,  and 
 speaking  the  same  language.  They  were  called  Van- 
 dals from  the  Teutonic  term  wcndcn,  which  signifies 
 to  wander.  They  began  to  be  troublesome  to  the 
 Romans  .A.D.  160,  in  the  reign  of  Aurelius  and  Verus: 
 in  the  year  410  they  made  themstlves  masters  of 
 Spain,  in  conjunction  with  the  Alani  and  Suevi,  and 
 received  for  their  share  what  from  them  was  termed 
 Vandalitia,  now  Andalusia.  In  429  they  crossed  into 
 Africa  under  Gensenc,  who  not  only  made  himself 
 master  there  of  Byzacium,  Gsetulia,  and  part  of  Nu- 
 midia,  but  crossed  over  into  Italy,  A.D  455,  and 
 plundered  Rome.  After  the  death  of  Genseric  the 
 Vandal  power  declined.  {Dio  Cass.,  71,  12. — Eu- 
 trop.,  8,  l3.—Prorop.,  B.  G.,  1,  2.~Tac.,  Germ.,  2. 
 
 hriiand.,  22,  27.) 
 
 Vancjiones,  a  German  tribe  along  the  Rhine.  Their 
 capital  was  Augusta  Vatigiouiim,  called  also  Borbeto- 
 magus,  now  Worms.  {Tac,  Hist.,  4, 70. — Id.,  Germ., 
 28.— Plin.,  4,  17.) 
 
 Vard.\nus  or  Vardanius,  a  river  of  Asia,  called 
 otherwise  Hypanis,  which  rises  in  the  central  part  of 
 Caucasus,  and  falls  into  the  Pains  Majotis  by  several 
 mouths.  It  receives  in  its  course  all  the  water  of  the 
 western  branch  of  the  Caucasian  chain.  The  sandy 
 plain,  which  extends  to  the  north  of  this  river,  furnish- 
 es it  with  more.  Its  two  principal  mouths  embrace 
 the  island  of  Taman,  in  which  the  town  of  Fancgoria, 
 the  ancient  Phanagoria,  attracts  a  little  trade.  The 
 modern  name  Kuhan  of  the  river  Hypanis  preserves 
 traces  of  the  ancient  appellation,  since,  according  to 
 the  pronunciaton  of  the  dialects  of  the  north  of  Asia, 
 the  h,  uttered  from  the  throat,  becomes  k.  (Ptol. — 
 MaUe-Brun,  Gcogr.,  vol.  2,  p.  43,  Am.  ed.) 
 
 Varius,  L.  a  contemporary  of  Virgil  and  Horace, 
 and  one  of  the  best  tragic  poets  of  his  lime.  He  com- 
 posed a  drama  entitled  Thijestes,  which,  in  the  judg- 
 ment of  Quintilian,  deserved  to  be  ranked  with  the 
 finest  chefs  d'auvre  of  the  Greeks.  He  also  distin- 
 guished himself  in  the  department  of  epic  verse,  and 
 Horace  places  him  at  the  head  of  the  epic  poets  of  his 
 time.  'i"he  AL,ne\ii  of  Virgil,  however,  had  not  yet 
 been  published.  Varius  sung  the  exploits  of  Augus- 
 tus and  his  son-in-law  Agrippa,  so  that  his  poem  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  rather  historical  than  epic  in  its 
 character.  It  is  entirely  lost.  Macrobius,  however, 
 has  preserved  for  us  a  few  fine  lines  from  another  poem 
 of  V^arius',  on  Death.  (Sat  ,  6,  1,  2.) — The  scholiast 
 on  Horace,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
 Sciioliast  of  Cru()uius,  accuses  Varius  of  having  sto- 
 len the  tragedy  referred  to  above  from  Cassius  Severus 
 of  Parma,  a  poet  of  the  same  period,  mentioned  with 
 eulogium  by  Horace.  (Epist  ,  \,  4,  ^  )  This  charge 
 has  been  since  reiterated  by  several  of  the  learned, 
 and,  among  others,  by  Vossius  (dc  Putt.  Lai.,  p.  23). 
 by  Gesner,  and  Baxter,  in  their  respective  editions  ol 
 Horace,  and  also  by  Burmann.  W'ieland,  however, 
 has  shown  the  inaccuracy  of  the  scholiast,  who,  in 
 making  his  accusation,  confounds  Varius  the  poet  Mth 
 Quiiitus  Alius  Varus,  who  put  Cassius  to  death  at 
 Athens.  (  Val.  Max.,  1,7, 7.—Sch6ll,Hist.  Lit.  Rom., 
 vol.  1,  p.  211.) 
 
 Vakro,  I.  M.  Tkrentius,  a  Roman  cotisul  of  ig- 
 noble origin,  colleague  with  L  yEmilius  Paulus  the 
 year  in  which  the  battle  of  Canna;  was  fought.  His 
 rashness  and  presumption  hastened  that  memorable 
 conflict.  (  Vid.  (Mannas  and  Hannibal.)  After  the  bat- 
 tle he  retreated  to  Vcnusia,  and  put  himself  in  a  pos- 
 ture for  resisting  tho  enemy  till  he  could  receive  in- 
 
 1371 
 
VARRO. 
 
 VARRO. 
 
 etruclions  and  re-enforccmcnts  from  Rome.  On  his 
 sul)seijueiil  return  to  Rome  he  was  honourably  re- 
 ceived, nolvvithistaiiduig  las  defeat;  and  the  senate  re- 
 turned hnn  thanks  for  his  undaunted  aspect  after  de- 
 feat, and  for  not  havnig  despaired  of  the  common- 
 wealth. (Lii).,  22,  25,  scqq.  —  Id.,  22,  4:1,  scqq. — 
 Id.,  22,  61,  scqq.)  He  was  afterward  appointed,  as 
 proconsul,  to  defend  Picennm,  and  raise  levies  there- 
 in ;  and  his  proconsular  autiiority  was  continued  to  him 
 year  after  year.  He  appears  to  have  tilled,  at  a  later 
 period,  the  office  of  aml)assador  to  I'hilip,  as  well  as 
 other  public  employments.  {Liv.,  23,  '32.  —  Id.,  25, 
 6. — Id  ,  30,  26,  iic.) — H.  A  Latin  writer,  celebrated 
 for  his  great  learning.  He  is  said  to  have  written  no 
 less  than  500  different  volumes,  which  are  all  now 
 lost  except  a  treatise  dc  Re  Rusiica,  and  part  of  an- 
 other dc  Lingua  Lainia,  dedicated  to  the  orator  Ui- 
 cero.  He  was  born  in  the  637th  year  of  Rome,  and 
 was  descended  of  an  ancient  senatorial  family.  It 
 IS  probable  that  his  youth,  and  even  the  greater  part 
 of  his  manhood,  were  spent  in  literary  pursuits,  and  in 
 the  acquisition  of  that  stupendous  knowledge  which 
 has  procured  him  the  appellation  of ''</te  most  learned 
 of  the  Romans.'''  In  A.U.C  686  he  served  under 
 Pompey  in  his  war  against  the  pirates,  in  which  he 
 commanded  the  Greek  ships.  To  the  fortunes  of  that 
 commander  he  continued  hrmly  attached,  and  was  ap- 
 pointed one  of  his  lieutenants  in  Spain,  along  with 
 Afranius  and  Pelreius,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
 war  with  Cssar.  Hispania  Ulterior  was  especially 
 confided  to  his  protection,  and  two  legions  were  placed 
 under  his  command.  Alter  the  surrender  of  his  col- 
 leagues in  Hither  Spain,  Ca3sar  proceeded  in  person 
 against  hnn.  V^arro  appears  to  have  been  little  quali- 
 fied to  cope  with  such  an  adversary.  One  of  the  le- 
 gions deserted  before  his  own  eyes;  and  his  retreat  to 
 Cadiz,  where  he  had  meant  to  retire,  having  been  cut 
 oflf,  he  surrendered  at  discretion  with  the  other,  in  the 
 vicinity  of  Corduba.  From  that  period  he  despaired  of 
 the  salvation  of  the  republic,  and,  receiving  his  free- 
 dom from  Cffisar.  he  proceeded  to  Dyrrhachium,  to  give 
 Pompey  a  detail  of  what  had  passed.  This  latter 
 place  he  left  almost  immediately  thereafter  for  Rome. 
 After  his  return  to  Italy,  he  withdrew  from  all  politi- 
 cal concerns,  and  indulged  himself,  during  the  remain- 
 der of  his  life,  in  the  enjoyment  of  literary  leisure. 
 The  only  service  which  he  performed  for  Caesar  was 
 that  oi  arranging  the  books  which  the  dictator  had 
 himself  procured,  or  which  had  been  acquired  by 
 those  who  had  preceded  him  in  the  management  of 
 public  affairs.  He  lived,  during  the  reign  of  Caesar, 
 ill  habits  of  the  closest  intunacy  with  Cicero.  The 
 greater  part  of  his  lime  was  passed  at  the  various 
 villas  which  he  possessed  in  Italy.  After  the  assassi- 
 nation of  Cffisar,  Varro's  principal  villa,  situate  near  the 
 town  q{  Ca.smum,  in  the  territory  of  the  Volsci,  was 
 forcibly  seized  by  Marc  Antony,  along  with  almost  all 
 his  wealth.  Nor  was  this  all.  His  name  was  also 
 placed  in  the  list  of  the  proscribed,  although  he  was  at 
 ihe  advanced  age  of  70  years.  His  friends,  however, 
 secreted  him,  and  he  remained  in  a  place  of  safety 
 until  a  special  edict  was  passed  by  the  consul,  M.  Plan- 
 cus,  under  the  triumviral  seal,  excepting  him  and  Mes- 
 sala  Corvinus  from  the  general  slaughter.  But,  though 
 Varro  thus  escaped,  he  was  unable  to  save  his  library, 
 which  was  placed  in  the  garden  of  one  of  his  villas, 
 and  fell  into  the  hands  of  an  illiterate  soldiery.  After 
 the  battle  o(  Actium,  Varro  resided  at  Rome  until  his 
 decease,  which  hajipened  A.U.C.  727,  when  he  was 
 90  years  of  age.  His  wealth  was  restored  by  Augus- 
 tus, but  his  books  could  not  be  supplied.  It  is  not 
 improbable  that  the  loss  of  his  books,  which  impeded 
 the  prosecution  of  his  studies,  and  prevented  the  com- 
 position of  such  works  as  may  have  required  reference 
 and  consultation,  may  have  induced  Varro  to  employ 
 the  remaining  part  of  his  life  in  delivering  those  pre- 
 1372 
 
 cepts  of  agriculture  which  had  been  the  result  of  long 
 experience,  and  which  need  only  reminiscence  to  in- 
 culcate. It  was  some  time  after  the  loss  of  his  books, 
 and  when  he  had  nearly  reached  the  age  of  eighty,  iliat 
 Varro  composed  the  work  on  husbandry,  as  he  himself 
 testifies  in  the  introduction.  "  Varro,"  observes  Mar- 
 tyn,  "  writes  more  like  a  scholar  than  a  man  practical- 
 ly acquainted  with  agricultural  pursuits."  This  work, 
 together  v\iih  that  dc  Lingua  Luiina,  arc  the  only  two 
 of  Varro's  productions  that  have  reached  us  ;  and  the 
 latter  is  incomplete.  It  is  on  account  of  this  philolo- 
 gical production  that  Aulus  Gellius  ranks  him  among 
 the  grammarians,  who  form  a  numerous  and  important 
 class  in  the  history  of  Latin  literature.  This  work 
 originally  consisted  of  twenty-four  books,  and  was  di- 
 vided into  three  great  parts.  The  first  six  books  were 
 devoted  to  etymological  researches.  The  second  di- 
 vision, which  extended  from  the  commencement  of  the 
 seventh  to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  book,  comprehended 
 the  accidents  of  verbs,  and  the  different  changes  which 
 they  undergo  from  declension,  conjugation,  and  com- 
 parison. The  author  admits  of  hut  two  kinds  of 
 words,  nouns  and  verbs,  to  which  he  refers  all  the  other 
 parts  of  speech.  He  distinguishes  also  two  sorts  of 
 declension,  of  which  he  calls  the  one  arbitrary,  and 
 the  other  natural  or  necessary.  With  the  ninth  book 
 terminates  the  fragment  we  possess  of  Varro's  treatise. 
 The  third  part  of  the  work,  which  contained  twelve 
 books,  treated  of  syntax.  It  also  contained  a  sort  of 
 glossary,  which  explained  the  true  meaning  of  Latin 
 terms.  This  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  chief 
 works  of  Varro,  and  was  certainly  a  laborious  and  in- 
 genious production  ;  but  the  author  is  evidently  too 
 fond  of  deriving  words  from  the  ancient  dialects  of 
 Italy  instead  of  recurring  to  the  Greek,  which,  after 
 the  capture  of  Tarentum,  became  a  great  source  of 
 Latin  terms.  There  was  also  a  distinct  treatise,  de 
 Scrmone  Latino,  addressed  to  Marcellus,  of  which  a 
 very  few  fragments  are  preserved  by  Aulus  Gellius. 
 The  critical  works  of  Varro  were  also  numerous,  but 
 almost  nothing  is  known  of  their  contents.  His  myth- 
 ological or  theological  productions  were  much  studied, 
 and  very  frequently  cited  by  the  ancient  fathers,  par- 
 ticularly by  St.  Augustine  and  Laclantius.  This  part 
 of  his  works  chiefly  contributed  to  the  splendid  repu- 
 tation of  Varro,  and  was  extant  as  late  as  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  14lh  century.  Petrarch  had  seen  it  in  his 
 youth.  It  subsequently,  however,  disappeared.  In 
 history  Varro  was  also  conspicuous,  and  Plutarch,  in 
 his  life  of  Romulus,  speaks  of  him  as  a  man  of  all  the 
 Romans  most  versed  in  this  department  of  knowledge. 
 The  philosophical  writings  of  Varro  are  not  numerous. 
 His  chief  work  of  this  description,  entitled  de  Ptiilo- 
 sophia  Liber,  appears  to  have  been  very  comprehensive. 
 St.  Augustine  informs  us  that  Varro  examined  in  ii  all 
 the  various  sects  of  philosophers,  of  which  he  enumer- 
 ated upward  of  280.  The  sect  of  the  Old  Academy 
 was  that  which  he  himself  followed,  and  its  tenets  he 
 maintained  in  opposition  to  all  others.  Varro  derived 
 much  notoriety  from  his  satirical  compositions.  His 
 Tncarenus  or  Tricipitina  was  a  satiric  history  of  the 
 triumvirate  of  Cajsar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus.  Much 
 pleasantry  and  sarcasm  were  also  interspersed  in  his 
 books,  entitled  Lcgistorici  ;  but  his  most  celebrated 
 production  in  that  line  was  the  satire  which  he  himself 
 entitled  Menippean.  It  was  so  called  from  the  cynic 
 Menippus  of  Gadara,  who  was  in  the  habit  of  express- 
 ing himself  jocularly  upon  the  most  grave  and  impor- 
 tant subjects.  The  appellation  of  Menipjican  was 
 given  to  his  satires  by  Varro,  because  he  imitated  the 
 philosopher's  general  style  of  humour.  In  its  external 
 form  it  appears  to  have  been  a  sort  of  literary  anomaly. 
 Greek  words  and  phrases  were  interspersed  with  Lat- 
 in ;  prose  was  mingled  with  verses  of  various  meas- 
 ures ;  and  pleasantry  with  serious  remark.  Many  frag- 
 ments of  this  Menippean  satire  remain,  but  they  are 
 
V  AR 
 
 S)uc1i  broken  and  corrupted.  The  heads  of  the  difler- 
 etit  subjects  or  chapters  contained  in  it,  amounting  to 
 nearly  150,  have  been  given  by  F'abricius  in  alphabet- 
 ical order.  Some  of  them  are  in  Latin,  others  in 
 (jreek.  Many  minor  productions  of  Varro  might  be 
 also  mentioned  did  our  limits  permit.  A  sniiicient 
 number,  however,  have  been  cited  to  justify  the  pane- 
 gyric of  Cicero  :  "  His  works  brought  us  home,  as  it 
 were,  while  we  were  foreigners  in  our  own  city,  and 
 wandering  like  strangers,  so  that  we  might  know  who 
 and  where  we  were  ;  for  in  them  are  laid  open  the 
 chronolooy  of  his  country,  a  description  ot  the  seasons, 
 the  laws  of  religion,  the  ordinances  of  the  priests,  do- 
 mestic and  military  occurrences,  the  situations  of 
 countries  and  places,  the  names  of  all  things,  divine 
 and  human,  the  breed  of  animals,  moral  duties,  and 
 the  origin  of  things."  {Duyilop's  Human  Lilcraiure, 
 vol.  2,  p.  34,  seqq.) — St.  .\ugustiiie  says  that  it  cannot 
 but  be  wondered  how  Varro,  who  read  such  a  number 
 of  books,  could  find  time  to  compose  so  many  volumes  ; 
 and  how  he  who  composed  so  many  volumes  could 
 be  at  leisure  to  [)eruse  such  a  variety  of  books,  and  to 
 gain  so  much  literary  information. — The  best  edition 
 of  the  treatise  dc  Re  linslica  is  that  contained  in  the 
 Scnptorcs  Rei  Ruslica  of  Gcsncr,  Lips.,  1735,  2 
 vols  4io  ;  or  in  the  same  edited  by  Schneider,  Lips., 
 17i>4-97,  7  vols.  8vo.  The  best  editions  of  the  treatise 
 de  Lingua  Lalina  are  the  Bi|)ont,  1788,  2  vols.  8vo, 
 and  that  of  Muller,  Lips  ,  1833, 8vo. — III.  Altacinus, 
 a  poet  of  Attace  in  (iallia  Nari)onensis,  or,  as  some 
 suppose,  of  Narbo  itself  He  was  born  about  82  B.C., 
 and  died  about  37  B.(/.  Varro  translated  freely  into 
 Latin  verse  the  Argonautics  of  Apollonius  Rhodius. 
 He  composed  also  an  historical  poem  on  Caesar's  war 
 wiih  the  Sequani  (Dc  Betio  Sequanico).  Varro  like- 
 wise appears  as  a  writer  of  elegies.  ( Wernsdurff, 
 Poel.  Lat.  M-rt  ,  vol.  5,  pt.  3,  p.  1394,  seqq. — Id., 
 Excurs.  dc  Varrone  Atacino,  &c.,  p.  1385,  seqq.  — 
 Ruhnken,  Epist.  Cnt  ,  2,  p.  199  ) 
 
 Vakus,  L  QuiNTiLius,  a  Roman  commander,  be- 
 longing! to  a  family  more  illustrious  for  achievements 
 than  antiquity  of  origin.  His  father  had  fought  under 
 the  standard  of  Brutns  at  Philippi,  and,  not  wishing  to 
 survive  the  destruction  of  liberty,  had  caused  himself 
 to  be  slain  by  one  of  his  frcedmen  The  son,  never- 
 theless, gained  the  favour  of  .\ugnstus,  who  named 
 him  consul  along  with  Tiberius,  B.C.  13.  He  was 
 afterward  appointed  proconsul  of  Syria,  and,  on  the 
 death  of  Herod,  supported  the  claim  of  .Archelaiis.  the 
 son  of  that  monarch,  to  the  vacant  throne,  and  chas- 
 tised severely  all  who  resisted  the  authority  of  this 
 prince.  (Joscpkus,  Ant.  Jud  ,  17,  9,  3 — Flav.  Jo- 
 seph., Vit.,  p.  6,  seqq.,  cd.  Havcrcamp.) — According 
 lo  Velleius  Paterculus,  a  contemporarv  writer.  Varus 
 was  a  man  of  mild  diS[(Osilion  and  retiring  manners 
 'vir  in^enio  rmtis,  mprihus  quiclus),  but  still  very  ra- 
 pacious, who  entered  Syria  a  poor  man  and  left  it  a 
 rich  one.  {Veil.  Patcrc,  2,  117.)  Having  been  sub- 
 8e()uently  appointfd  commander  of  the  forces  in  (j'er- 
 many,  he  employed  himself  not  so  much  in  watcliing 
 the  movements  of  warlike  communities  jealous  of  their 
 freedom,  as  in  the  foolish  attempt  to  bend  them  to  new 
 institutions,  based  upon  those  of  the  Romans.  A 
 strong  feeling  of  discontent  arose,  of  which  Arminius, 
 a  Cierman  leader,  secretly  took  advantage  to  free  his 
 country  from  the  yoke  of  the  Romans.  Vani.s  was  ap- 
 prized by  Segestes.  king  of  the  Catti,  of  the  conspiracy 
 that  had  been  formed  :  "  Arrest  me  and  Arminius,  to- 
 gether with  the  other  leading  chieftains,"  said  this 
 faithful  ally  of  the  ilomans  ;  "  the  people  will  not  ven- 
 ture to  attempt  anything,  and  vou  yourself  will  have 
 full  time  allowed  you  lo  distinguish  between  the  in- 
 nocent and  guilty."  {Tacit.,  Ann  ,  1,  55.)  The  rash 
 presumption  of  Varus  led  him  to  disregard  this  salu- 
 tary advice.  He  advanced  with  his  army  into  the  in- 
 terior of  the  country,  where  he  was  surprised  and  sur- 
 
 VAT 
 
 rounded  by  the  foe,  led  on  by  Arminius.  The  Ro- 
 mans made  a  valiant  resistance  for  three  successive 
 days,  but  were  compelled  at  last  to  yield  lo  numbers. 
 Three  legions  were  cut  to  pieces;  and  Varus,  severely 
 wounded  and  unwilling  to  survive  the  ignominy  of  de- 
 feat, slew  himself.  His  example  was  loilowed  by  his 
 principal  officers  :  the  tribunes  and  chief  centurions 
 were  immolated  as  victims  by  the  barbarians.  {Tacit. f 
 Ann.,  1,  61.)  This  disastrous  event  took  place  B.C. 
 9. — The  Romans  had  not  exjierienced  so  severe  a  de- 
 feat since  the  overthrow  of  Crassus  by  the  Parlhians. 
 Augustus  was  in  despair,  and  for  several  months  al- 
 lowed his  beard  and  hair  to  remain  neglected,  and, 
 striking  his  head  against  the  door  of  his  apartment, 
 frequently  exclaimed,  "  Varus,  give  me  back  my  le- 
 gions." Great  alarm,  too,  was  felt  by  the  emperor, 
 lest  the  victorious  Germans,  uniting  with  other  tribes 
 on  the  frontiers,  should  make  a  descent  upon  Italy; 
 and  an  extraordinary  levy  was  therefore  made  lo  meet 
 the  emergency.  The  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Varus 
 was  the  Teutobergiensis  Saltus,  lying  in  an  eastern 
 direction  from  the  modern  I'aderborn,  and  reaching  at* 
 far  as  the  territory  of  Osnabiuck.  {Suet.,  Vit  Aug., 
 23,  49.— W,  V(/.  Tib.,  17,  scq —Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  3, 
 &c. —/(/.,  Hist.,  4,  17  — /(/  lb.,  5,  9.—D10  Cass.,  56, 
 23.)  The  remains  of  tlie  vanquished,  that  lay  whiten- 
 ing the  ground,  were  interred  six  years  after  by  the 
 victorious  Germanicus.  {Tacit.,  Ann.,  1,  61,  seq  ) — 
 II.  Qumiilius,  an  acute  and  rigid  critic,  mentioned  by 
 Horace  in  tiis  Epistle  lo  the  Pisos  (v.  437),  and  whose 
 death  is  mourned  by  the  same  poel  in  one  of  his  odes 
 (I,  24).  St.  .lerome  calls  him  a  native  of  Cremona 
 {Chron.  Euscij.—Qlymp.  189.1,  B.C.  24).  Heyne, 
 however,  doubts  the  propriety  of  giving  him  the  sur- 
 name of  V'arus.  {Excurs  ,  2,  ad  Virg  ,  Eclog.) — IIL 
 Lucius,  an  Epicurean,  and  a  friend  of  Julius  Cssar. 
 He  is  mentioned  by  Quintilian  (6,  3,  78). — IV.  A. 
 tragic  poet,  mentioned  by  Ovid  {Ep.  ex.  Font.,  4, 
 16,  31). — V^  .Mfenus,  a  barber  of  (^remona,  who, 
 growing  out  of  conceit  with  his  profession,  quitted  it 
 and  came  to  Rome,  where,  attending  the  lectures  of 
 Servius  Sulpicius,  a  celebrated  lawyer,  he  made  so 
 great  proficiency  in  his  studies  as  to  become  eventu- 
 ally the  ablest  lawyer  of  his  tune.  His  name  often  oc- 
 curs in  the  Pandects.  {Hot.,  Sat.,  1,  3.  130  ) — VL 
 A  river  which  falls  into  the  Mediterranean,  to  the  west 
 of  Nica-a  or  Nice.  The  modern  name  of  the  Varus  is 
 the  Var.  At  a  somewhat  late  jieriod  it  formed  the 
 western  limit  of  Italy,  which  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
 had  been  marked  by  the  stone  trophy  of  that  emperor 
 placed  on  ilie  Maritime  Alps.  {Cramcr''s  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  1,  p.  2,  7iot.) 
 
 Vasco.nes,  a  people  of  Spain,  between  the  Iberus 
 and  the  Pyrenees,  in  what  is  now  the  kingdom  of  Na- 
 varre:  their  chief  town  was  Pompelo,  now  Pampclu- 
 na.     {Pliny,  3,  3.) 
 
 V.\TiCANi!s,  MoNs,  a  hill  at  Rome,  forming  the  pro- 
 longation of  the  Janiculum  towards  the  north,  and  sup- 
 posed to  derive  its  name  from  the  Latin  word  vates 
 ("a  soothsayer")  or  ra^iciViJwm  ("  divination"),  as  it 
 was  once  the  seat  of  Etruscan  divination.  {Fc-ilus,  s.  v. 
 Vaticanus.)  The  (Jampus  Vaticanus  included  all  the 
 space  between  the  fool  of  this  range  and  the  Tiber. 
 According  to  Tacitus,  the  air  of  this  part  of  Rome 
 was  considered  very  unwholesome.  {Hist..  2,  93.) 
 Here  Caligula  erected  a  Circus,  in  which  he  placed 
 the  great  Egyfitian  obelisk  that  now  stands  in  front  of 
 St.  Peter's.  {Burtnn^s  Antiquities  of  Rome,  p.  232.) 
 The  ground  now  covered  by  St.  Peter's,  the  papal 
 palace,  museum,  and  gardens,  was  anciently  designated 
 by  Vaticani  loci,  "  places  belonging  to  the  Vatican 
 Hilt."  {Tarit.,  Hist  ,  I.  c— Martial,  2,  68.— ^«r- 
 gess,  Antiquities  of  Rome,  vol.  2,  p.  256  ) 
 
 Vatinia  i.KX,  dc  Prorinrns,  by  the  tribune  P  Vatin* 
 ius,  A.U.C.  694.  It  appointed  Caesar  governor  of 
 Gallia  Cisalpina  and  Illyricum  for  five  years,  vrith  the 
 
 1373 
 
VE  J 
 
 VEL 
 
 command  of  three  legions.  (Vid.  Cssar,  page  282, 
 towards  the  end  of  ihe  first  column.) 
 
 Vatinius,  I.  a  Roman  of  most  impure  life.  Having 
 been  brought  forward  on  one  occasion  as  a  witness 
 against  an  mdividual  whom  Cicero  was  defending,  the 
 orator  inveighed  against  him  with  so  much  bitterness 
 of  reproach,  and  excited  so  much  odium  against  him 
 by  the  picture  which  he  drew  of  his  vices,  that  odium 
 Vatimanicm  became  proverbial  for  bitter  and  implaca- 
 ble hatred.  (Compare  Seneca,  dc  Constant.  Sap., 
 17.) — II.  A  shoemaker  of  Bcneventum,  deformed  in 
 body,  and  addicted  to  scurrilous  invective  against  the 
 members  of  the  higher  class.  He  lived  in  the  reign  of 
 Nero,  and  exhibited  a  show  of  gladiators  when  that 
 emperor  passed  through  Beneventuin.  He  is  said  to 
 have  invented  a  peculiar  species  of  cup,  called  after  his 
 name.     {Tant.,  Ann.,  15,  M.— Martial,  14,  96.) 
 
 Ubii,  a  people  of  Germany,  near  the  Rhine,  trans- 
 ported across  the  river  by  Agrippa.  Their  chief  town, 
 Cbiorum  oppidum,  or  Ara,  called  after  this  Agrippina 
 Colofiia,  from  the  circumstance  of  Agrippina  (the 
 daughter  of  Gennanicus,  and  mother  of  Nero)  having 
 been  born  there,  is  now  Cologne  or  Kblti.  {Tacit., 
 G.,  28  ;  Ann.,  12,  27.— F/m.,  4,  17.— Cces.,  4,  30.) 
 
 Vectis  Insula,  the  Isle  of  Wight,  south  of  Britain. 
 {Suet.,   Vtl.  V€sp..4:.—rUn.,3,4.) 
 
 Vegetius,  a  Latin  writer,  who  flourished  A.D.  386, 
 in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Valeiitinian,  to  whom  he 
 dedicated  his  treatise  de  Re  Militari.  Although  prob- 
 ably a  military  man,  his  Latinity  is  pure  for  the  age  in 
 which  he  lived.  Modern  critics  distinguish  between 
 this  writer  and  Vegetius  who  composed  a  treatise  on 
 the  veterinary  art.  The  best  edition  of  Vegetius,  dc 
 Re  Militari,  is  that  of  Stewechius,  Vcsal,  1670,  12mo. 
 The  best  edition  of  the  work  of  the  other  Vegetius,  on 
 the  veterinary  art,  is  that  by  Gesner,  in  the  writer's  de 
 Re  Riistica. 
 
 Veientes,  the  inhabitants  of  Veii.     {Vid.  Veii.) 
 
 Veii,  a  powerful  city  of  Etruria,  at  the  distance  of 
 about  twelve  miles  from  Rome.  It  sustained  many 
 lonff  wars  against  the  Romans,  and  was  at  last  taken 
 and  destroyed  by  Camillus,  after  a  siege  of  ten  years. 
 At  the  time  of  its  destruction  Veii  was  larger  and  far 
 more  magnificent  than  the  city  of  Rome.  Its  situa- 
 tion was  so  eligible  that  the  Romans,  after  the  burning 
 of  their  own  city  by  the  Gauls,  were  inclined  to  mi- 
 grate thither,  and  totally  abandon  their  native  home  ; 
 and  this  would  have  been  carried  into  execution  if  not 
 opposed  by  the  authority  and  eloquence  of  Camillus. 
 {Ooid,  Fast.,  2,  I9b.—  Cic.,de  Div.,  I,  U.—HoraL, 
 Sat.,  2,  3,  143. — Liv.,  5,  21.)  The  site  of  ancient 
 Veii  answers  to  the  spot  known  by  the  name  of  fin- 
 sola  Farnese,  and  situated  about  a  mile  and  a  half  to 
 the  northeast  of  the  modern  posthouse  of  la  Storta. 
 The  numerous  remains  of  antiquity  found  there  very 
 recently  have  placed  this  fact  beyond  dispute. — After 
 the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  and  the  attempt 
 made  to  transfer  the  seat  of  Roman  power  to  Veii,  we 
 scarcely  hear  of  the  latter  city.  We  collect  only 
 from  a  passage  in  Frontinus  {de  Col.)  that  Veii  be- 
 came a  Roman  colony  under  Julius  Cajsar,  who  di- 
 vided its  lands  among  his  soldiers,  but  in  the  civil  wars 
 which  ensued  after  his  death  it  was  nearly  destroyed, 
 and  left  in  a  most  desolate  state,  a  fact  which  is  con- 
 firmed by  Lucan  (7,  392)  and  Propcrtius  (4,  10,  27). 
 It  is  certain,  however,  that  Veii  again  rose  from  its 
 ruins,  and  was  raised  to  municipal  rank,  probably  un- 
 der Tiberius,  whose  statue,  with  several  other  monu- 
 ments relating  to  his  reign,  were  discovered  on  the  site 
 of  the  city.  It  e.xisted  in  the  time  of  Pliny  (3,  5),  and 
 even  much  later,  under  the  emperors  Constantine  and 
 Theodosia.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  236,  seq.) 
 
 Vejovis  or  VedIus,  an  Etruscan  divinity  worship- 
 ped at  Rome.  He  was  believed  to  cast  lightnings, 
 and  these  had  the  property  of  causing  previous  deaf- 
 ness in  those  whom  they  were  to  strike.  {Amm. 
 1374 
 
 Marceli,  17,  10,  2.)  The  temple  of  Vejovis  at  Rome 
 stood  in  the  hollow  between  the  Arx  and  the  Capitol 
 {"inter  duos  lucos.'" — Ovid,  Fast.,  3,  430).  His  stat- 
 ue was  that  of  a  youth  with  darts  in  his  hand  ;  a  she- 
 goat  stood  beside  it,  and  a  she-goat  was  the  victim  to 
 him.  {Ovid,  I.  c. — Aul.  Cell.,  5,  12.)  Hence  some 
 viewed  him  as  Young  Jupiter,  while  others  saw  in  him 
 the  avenging  Apollo  of  the  Greeks.  {Ovid,  I.  c. — 
 Aul.  GclL,  I.  c.)  He  was,  however,  certainly  a  god 
 of  the  under-world.  {Mart.,  Capell.,  2,  9. — Id.,  2,  7. 
 — Macroh.,  Sat.,  3,  9.)  His  name  is  said  to  have 
 signified  "Injurious  God.'"  {Aul.  GclL,  I.  c. — Kcighl- 
 lei/s  Mythology,  p.  531.) 
 
 Velabrum,  a  name  generally  applied  to  all  the 
 ground  lying  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  between 
 the  base  of  the  Capitol  and  the  Aventine.  According 
 to  Varro,  the  term  was  derived  from  the  Latin  verb  ve- 
 here,  because  this  part  was  originally  swampy  and 
 subject  to  floods,  when  it  was  necessary  to  em|)loy 
 boats  to  pass  from  one  hill  to  the  other  (L.  L.,  4, 
 4).  We  find  the  name  subsequently  restricted  to  two 
 streets,  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  titles  of 
 Velabrum  Majus  and  Minus.  Nardini  conceives  that 
 they  ran  parallel  to  each  other  from  the  Circus  Maxi- 
 mus  to  the  foot  of  the  Capitol,  intersecting  the  Vicus 
 Tuscus,  the  Vicus  Jugarius,  and  the  other  streets 
 which  led  from  the  forum  to  the  Tiber.  In  this  quar- 
 ter were  the  shops  of  the  oil-venders,  &c.  {Horat., 
 Sat.,  2,  3,  229. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  419, 
 seqq.) 
 
 Velia,  a  city  of  Lucania,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mare 
 Tyrrhenum,  between  the  promontories  of  Palinurum 
 and  Posidium,  and  situate  about  three  miles  from  the 
 left  bank  of  the  river  Heles  or  Elees.  It  was  founded 
 by  the  Phocasans  after  their  abandonment  of  Alalia  in 
 Corsica.  {Vid.  Phocaea.)  The  PhocEeans  called  the 
 town  Hyele  ('YeAr/),  which  the  Latins  afterward  chan- 
 ced to  Velia.  Strabo  asserts,  that  in  his  time  the  city 
 was  called  Elea  {'EXea),  and  so  Stephanus  Byzantinus 
 gives  the  form  of  the  name.  The  more  correct  mode  of 
 writing  the  word,  however,  is  Helia,  which  the  Latins, 
 employing  the  ^olic  digamma  for  the  asperate,  enun- 
 ciated by  Velia.  (Compare  Plin.,  3,  5  :  "  Oppidum 
 Hclia,  qu.(E  nunc  Velia.'''') — Strabo  informs  us,  that 
 from  the  constitution  adopted  by  its  founders  being  so 
 excellent  a  one,  the  new  colony  was  enabled  to  resist 
 with  success  the  aggressions  both  of  the  Posidoniatae 
 and  the  Lucani,  though  very  inferior  to  these  adver- 
 saries both  in  population  and  fertility  of  soil.  {Strab., 
 252.)  Velia  is  particularly  celebrated  in  the  annals  of 
 Grecian  science  for  the  school  of  philosophy  which 
 was  formed  within  its  walls,  under  the  auspices  of 
 Zeno  and  Parmenides,  and  which  is  commonly  known 
 by  the  name  of  the  Eleatic  sect.  This  sect  was  after- 
 ward transplanted  into  Greece,  where  it  degenerated 
 into  a  school  of  sophistry  and  false  dialectic.  {Bruck- 
 cr.  Hist.  Phil ,  vol.  1,  p.  1142.) — Scylax  leads  us  to 
 infer  that  Velia  afterward  received  a  colony  of  Thu- 
 rians,  an  event  which  we  may  suppose  to  have  occur- 
 red about  440  A.C.  {Scylax,  Peripl,  p.  4.)  When 
 the  Romans  formed  the  design  of  erecting  a  temple  to 
 Ceres,  they  sought  a  priestess  from  Velia,  where  that 
 goddess  was  held  in  great  veneration,  to  instruct  them 
 in  the  rites  and  ceremonies  to  be  observed  in  her  wor- 
 ship. {Cic.,pro  Balb.,  24.— Fa/.  Max,\,  1.)— This 
 place  became  subsequently  a  Roman  maritime  colony, 
 as  may  be  inferred  from  Livy  ;  but  the  period  at 
 which  this  change  in  its  condition  took  place  is  not 
 mentioned  ;  it  was  probably  not  long  after  the  colo- 
 nization of  PoBstum.  Mention  of  Velia  frequently  oc- 
 curs in  the  letters  of  Cicero,  who  occasionally  resided 
 there  with  his  friends  Trebatius  and  Talna.  {Ep.  ad 
 Fam.,  7,  20  ;  ad  Att.,  16,  7.)  The  situation  of  the 
 town  seems  to  have  been  considered  very  healthy  ;  as 
 Plutarch  says  that  Paulus  Jimilius  was  ordered  there 
 by  his  physicians,  and   that  he  derived  considerable 
 
VEL 
 
 VELLEIUS  PATERCULUS. 
 
 benefit  from  the  air.  Horace  was  also  recommeiidtd 
 to  visit  Velia  for  a  disorder  in  his  eyes.  (Ep.,  1,15) 
 In  Strabo's  twnc  this  ancient  town  was  greatly  reduced, 
 its  inhabitants  being  forced,  from  the  poorness  of  their 
 soil,  to  betake  theinstlves  to  fishing  and  other  seafa- 
 ring occupations. — The  ruins  of  Velia  stand  about  half 
 a  mile  (roiti  the  sea.  on  the  site  now  called  Cas/rla- 
 inarc  ddia  Bruca.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 370.) 
 
 Vklina,  the  name  of  one  of  the  Roman  tribes,  de- 
 riving its  appellation,  as  is  said,  from  the  lake  Velinus 
 in  the  Sabine  territory.  It  was  added  to  the  other 
 tribes,  together  with  the  one  termed  Quirina,  A.U.G. 
 513. — The  locality  of  this  tribe  was  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Mount  Palatine.      {Horat.,  Ep..  1,  6,  52.) 
 
 Vei.I.mjs,  a  river  in  the  .Sabine  territory,  rising  in 
 the  Apennines  and  falling  into  the  Nar.  It  occasion- 
 ally overflowed  its  banks,  and  formed  some  small  lakes 
 before  it  entered  the  Nar.  One  of  the  lakes,  and  the 
 chief  of  the  number,  was  called  the  Lacus  Velinus, 
 now  Lao;o  di  I'le  di  Lugo.  The  drainage  of  the  stag- 
 nant waters  produced  by  the  occasional  overflow  of 
 the  lakes  and  of  the  river  was  first  attempted  by  Cu- 
 rius  Deiitaius,  the  conqueror  of  the  Sabines.  He 
 caused  a  channel  to  be  made  for  the  Velinus,  through 
 which  the  waters  of  that  river  were  carried  into  the 
 Nar,  over  a  precipice  of  several  hundred  feet.  This 
 is  the  celebrated  fall  of  Term,  known  in  Italy  by  the 
 name  of  Cadula  delle  Marmorc.  The  Velinus  is  now 
 the  Velino.     {Cranif.r's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  316.) 
 
 VKLiTR.iE,  an  ancient  town  of  Latiuin,  southeast  of 
 Aricia,  and  on  the  road  between  Rome  and  Tarracina. 
 It  was  always  reckoned  one  of  the  most  important  and 
 considerable  cities  of  the  Volsci.  The  inhabitants 
 were  engaged  in  frequent  hostilities  with  the  Romans, 
 and  revolted  so  often  that  it  became  necessary  to  pun- 
 ish them  with  unusual  severity.  The  walls  of  their 
 town  were  razed,  and  Us  senators  were  removed  to 
 Rome,  and  coin])clled  to  reside  in  the  Transtiborine 
 part  of  the  city  ;  a  severe  fine  being  imposed  U[)on  any 
 individual  of  their  number  who  should  be  found  on  the 
 other  side  of  the  river.  (Lto  ,  8,  14.)  The  colony, 
 however,  planted  by  the  Romans  at  Vclitra?  still  sub- 
 sisted in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  as  mention  is  made  of 
 it  at  that  period.  (Front.,  dc  Col.)  Its  chief  boast 
 was  the  honour  of  having  given  birth  to  Augustus. 
 Suetonius  states,  that  the  house  in  which  he  was  said 
 to  have  been  born  was  still  shown  in  his  time  near 
 Velitraj.  {Vit.  Aug.,  6.)  The  modern  name  of  this 
 place  is  VeUetri.     (^Cramers  Anr.  Italy,  vol.  1.  p.  83  ) 
 
 Veli.aunodunum,  a  city  of  the  Scnones,  between 
 Agendicum  and  Genabum.  According  to  D'Anville, 
 the  modern  Bcaune  {en  Gathwis)  answers  to  the  an- 
 cient place.  Lemairo,  however,  thinks  the  opinion  of 
 Godiiin  preferable,  who  makes  Genabum  to  have  been 
 situate  near  Scinevierc,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  which 
 some  traces  of  a  ruined  city  still  exist.  (Cces.,  B.  G., 
 7,  11. — Lcmaire,  Index  Gcogr.,  ad  Cms.,  p.  395.) 
 
 Vei.leda,  a  female  of  ancient  Germany,  belonging 
 to  the  tribe  of  the  Bructeri.  She  was  believed  to  be 
 gifted  with  prophetic  powers,  and  e.xercised,  in  conse- 
 quence, very  great  influence  over  the  minds  of  her 
 countrymen,  who  ascribed  to  her  a  species  of  divine 
 character.  Tacitus  first  makes  mention  of  her  in 
 B.C.  71,  the  era  of  Vespasian.  {Hist.,  4,  61. — Com- 
 pare Hist.,  4,  65 — Germ.,  8.)  From  Statius  it  ap- 
 pears that  she  was  subsequently  made  captive  by  the 
 Romans.  {Sijlc,  1,  4,  89.)  The  more  correct  form 
 of  the  name,  and  the  one  more  nearly  approaching  the 
 (jerman,  is  Wclda.  (Li/).f.,  ad  Tacit.,  Germ.,  8. — 
 Oherlin.,  ad  loc.)  Dio  Cassius  writes  the  name,  in 
 Greek,  Be?JiSa,  which  fixes  the  quantity  of  the  penult. 
 {Dio  Cass.,  frngm.,  xli.x.,  67,  5.) 
 
 VeI/I.eiu8  Patercui.us,  a  Roman  historian,  de- 
 scended from  an  equestrian  family  of  Campania.  The 
 year  of  his  birth  is  commonly  fi.ied  at  19  B.C.,  the 
 
 same  year  in  which  Virgil  died.  We  have  a  verj 
 few  particulars  respecting  his  life,  and  these  we  obtain 
 from  the  writer  himself;  for,  what  is  very  singular,  no 
 othf.r  ancient  author  makes  mention  of  him,  except- 
 ing perhaps  Priscian,  who  cites  a  Marcus  Velleius,  and 
 Tacitus  {Ann.,  3,  39),  who  speaks  of  Publius  Velleius 
 as  commander  of  an  army  in  Thrace.  In  his  youth 
 Paterculus  traversed,  along  with  Caius  Caesar,  a  part 
 of  the  East.  Augustus  named  him,  at  the  age  of 
 twenty-years,  a  prefect  of  horse  ;  and  in  this  capacity, 
 and  afterward  as  quajstor  and  lieutenant,  he  accom- 
 panied Tiberius  on  his  campaigns  in  Germany,  Pan- 
 nonia,  and  Dalmatia,  and  was  thus,  for  the  space  of 
 nineteen  years,  his  com[)anion  in  arms  and  the  wit- 
 ness of  his  exploits.  He  relumed  to  Rome  with  Ti- 
 berius, and  held  the  oflice  of  pra;tor  the  year  that  Au- 
 gustus died.  Sixteen  years  after,  during  the  consul- 
 ship of  M.  Vincius,  he  composed  or  else  completed 
 his  historical  work.  The  following  year,  A.D.  31, 
 he  was  involved  in  the  disgrace  of  Sejanus,  who  had 
 been  his  patron,  and  was  put  to  death  along  with  the 
 other  friends  of  that  aspiring  minister. — The  work 
 of  Paterculus  is  entitled  Historia  Romana,  but  it 
 is  possible  that  this  appellation  may  be  owing  to  the 
 copyists.  A  single  manuscript  of  the  work  was  pre- 
 served at  the  convent  of  Murbach  in  Alsace,  where 
 Beatus  Rhenanus  found  it.  This  manuscript,  which 
 was  in  a  very  bad  condition,  was  subsequently  lost. 
 Its  place  is  supplied  by  the  edition  of  Rhenanus,  pub- 
 lished in  1520,  and  by  a  collation  of  the  manuscript, 
 made  by  Burer  before  Rhenanus  returned  it  to  the  con- 
 vent from  which  he  had  borrowed  it.  This  collation  is 
 added  to  the  edition  of  ].'346. — The  beginning  of  the 
 work  is  lost,  so  that  we  are  ignorant  of  the  plan  which 
 the  author  had  proposed  to  himself  to  follow.  It  would 
 seem,  however,  that  he  had  intended  to  give  a  summa- 
 ry of  Universal  History,  containing,  in  particular,  what 
 might  prove  interesting  to  the  Romans.  In  the  first 
 fragment  he  treats  of  Greece,  the  Assyrian  empire,  and 
 the  kingdom  of  Macedonia  ;  after  this  there  is  a  la- 
 cuna, embracing  the  first  582  years  of  Rome.  The 
 remainder  of  the  first  book,  and  the  second,  which  we 
 have  entire,  or  with  the  loss,  perhaps,  of  only  a  few 
 lines,  give  the  history  of  Rome  down  to  A.D.  30. — 
 The  history  of  Paterculus  does  not  enter  into  details. 
 It  is  a  general  picture  of  the  times  rather  than  a  nar- 
 rative of  individual  events.  The  historian  states 
 merely  results,  and  is  silent  respecting  the  causes 
 which  combined  to  produce  them.  He  loves,  howev- 
 er, to  develop  and  draw  the  characters  of  the  princi- 
 pal actors,  and  his  work  is  filled  with  delineations 
 traced  by  the  hand  of  a  master.  We  find  in  him,  also, 
 a  great  many  political  and  moral  observations,  the 
 fruit  of  experience  and  foreign  travel.  In  his  style 
 he  imitates  the  concise  and  energetic  manner  of  Sal- 
 lust.  His  diction  is  pure  and  elegant,  without,  how- 
 ever, being  wholly  free  from  affectation,  which  shows 
 itself  in  the  search  for  archaisim  or  antiquated  forms 
 of  expression,  and  in  the  too  irequcnt  use  of  moral 
 sentences  and  figures  of  rhetoric.  Some  Hellenisms 
 are  also  found  m  him.  The  charge  of  adulation  to 
 his  prince,  which  is  so  often  brought  against  this  his- 
 torian, may  find  some  palliation  in  the  fact  that  it  was 
 not  until  after  the  death  of  Sejanus  that  the  tyrannical 
 spirit  of  Tiberius  began  openly  and  fully  to  develop 
 itself;  and  of  this,  if  Velleius  were  involved  in  the  fate 
 of  Sejanus,  he  could  not,  of  course,  have  been  a  wit- 
 ness. Besides,  Tiberius  had  been  the  military  chief 
 and  the  benefactor  of  Paterculus.  The  latter  praises 
 the  good  deeds  he  performed,  he  exaggerates  his  mer- 
 it ;  he  treats  with  indulgence  his  faults;  but  he  does 
 not  push  flattery  so  far  as  blindly  to  alter  the  truth, 
 or  assert  things  that  are  false.  It  is  unjust,  therefore, 
 on  account  of  this  venial  failing,  to  rank  Paterculus 
 amoniT  historians  who  are  undeserving  of  confidence. 
 He  is  impartial  in  the  recital  of  events  of  which  hfl 
 
 1375 
 
YEN 
 
 YEN 
 
 was  not  himself  a  witness.  As  for  those  which  pass- 
 ed under  Ins  own  eyes,  where  is  the  historian  who, 
 in  writing  the  history  of  his  own  times,  is  wholly  ex- 
 empt from  tlie  charge  of  partiaHly  ! — The  best  edi- 
 tions of  PatcrcLihis  are,  that  of  Burmann,  Lugd.  Bat., 
 1744,  2  vols.  8vo ;  that  of  Ruhnkeii,  1779,  L.  Bat.,  2 
 vols.  8vo  ;  that  of  Krause,  Lips.,  1800,  8vo;  and  that 
 of  Lomaire,  I'aris,  1822,  8vo,  which  last  is,  for  the 
 most  part,  a  repuhlication  of  Ruhnken's.  {Scholl, 
 HisL  Lit.  Kom.,  vol.  2,  p.  357.) 
 
 Vki.oiassks  or  Beloc^sses,  a  people  of  Gallia  Bel- 
 gica,  along  the  northern  bank  of  the  Sequana,  west  of 
 the  Bellovaci,  and  north  of  the  Aulerci  Eburovices. 
 Their  capital  was  Rotomagus,  now  Rouen.  (Ctt'A., 
 B.  G.,  7,  75.—Flin.,  4,  18.) 
 
 Venafki;m,  a  city  of  Campania,  in  the  northeast 
 angle  of  the  country,  and  near  the  river  Vulturnus. 
 {Straba,  258  )  It  is  much  celebrated  in  antiquity  for 
 the  excellence  of  the  oil  which  its  territory  produced. 
 (Horat.,  Od.,  2,  6,  \Q.  —  ld,  Sat.,  2,  4,  68.  — Mart., 
 is,  98.— Cato,  R.  R.,  135.— P/m.,  16,  2.) 
 
 Venedi  or  VENEn>E,a  German  tribe,  on  the  eastern 
 bank  of  the  Vistula,  near  its  mouth.  They  gave  name 
 to  the  Venedicus  Sinus,  off  this  coast,  and  to  the 
 Monies  Venedici,  or  the  low  range  of  mountains  be- 
 tween East  Prussia  and  Poland.  {Tac,  Germ.,  49. 
 —Plin.,  4,  27.) 
 
 Ven'eti,  I.  a  people  of  Italy,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  near 
 the  mouths  of  the  Po,  fabled  to  have  come  from  Paph- 
 lagonia,  under  the  guidance  of  Antenor,  after  the  Tro- 
 jan war.  (^Vid.  Heneli.)  On  the  invasion  of  Italy 
 ni  the  fifth  century  by  the  Huns,  under  their  king  At- 
 tila,  and  the  general  desolation  that  everywhere  ap- 
 peared, great  numbers  of  the  people  who  lived  near 
 the  Adriatic  took  shelter  in  the  islands  in  this  quarter, 
 where  now  stands  the  city  of  Venice.  These  islands 
 had  previously,  in  A.D.  421,  been  built  upon  by  the 
 inhabitants  of  Patavium  for  the  purposes  of  commerce. 
 The  arrival  of  fresh  hordes  of  barbarians  in  Italy  in- 
 creased their  population,  until  a  commercial  state  was 
 formed,  which  gradually  rose  to  [)0wer  and  opulence. 
 — As  regards  the  origin  of  the  ancient  Veneti,  the 
 tradition  which  makes  them  of  Paphlagonian  origin  is, 
 as  we  have  already  remarked,  purely  fabulous.  Man- 
 nert,  on  the  other  hand,  has  started  a  learned  and 
 plausible  theory,  in  which  he  maintains,  with  great  abil- 
 ity, their  Northern  origin.  According  to  this  writer, 
 they  were  a  branch  of  the  great  Sclavonic  race.  His 
 grounds  for  this  opinion  are,  1,  the  fact  of  the  Veneti 
 being  not  an  aboriginal  people  of  Italy  ;  2,  the  anal- 
 ogy of  their  name  with  that  of  the  Vandals,  both  being 
 derived  from  the  old  Teutonic  word  locnden,  and  de- 
 noting a  roving  and  unsteady  mode  of  life  ;  and,  3, 
 from  the  existence  of  the  amber- trade  among  them, 
 and  the  proof  which  this  furnishes  of  a  communica- 
 tion by  an  overland  trade  between  them  and  the  na- 
 tions inhabiting  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  the  coun- 
 tries of  the  north.  {Manncrt,  Gcogr.,  vol.  10,  p.  54, 
 seqq.) — The  history  of  the  Veneti  contains  little  that 
 is  worthy  of  notice,  if  we  except  the  remarkable  fea- 
 ture of  their  being  the  sole  people  of  Italy  who  not 
 only  offered  no  resistance  to  the  ambitious  projects  of 
 Rome,  but  even,  at  a  very  early  period,  rendered  that 
 power  an  essential  service  ;  if  it  be  true,  as  Polybius 
 reports,  that  the  Gauls  who  had  taken  Rome  were 
 suddenly  calhd  away  from  that  city  by  an  irruption  of 
 the  Veneti  into  their  territory  (2,  18).  The  same  au- 
 thor elsewhere  expressly  states  that  an  alliance  was 
 afterward  formed  between  the  Romans  and  \  eneti 
 (2,  23),  a  fact  which  is  confirmed  by  Strabo  (216).— 
 This  state  of  security  and  peace  would  seem  to  have 
 been  very  favourable  to  the  j)rosperity  of  the  Venetian 
 nation.  According  to  an  old  geographer,  they  count- 
 ed within  their  territory  fifty  cities,  and  a  population 
 of  a  million  and  a  half.  The  soil  and  climate  were 
 excellent,  and  their  cattle  were  reported  to  breed  twice 
 1376 
 
 in  the  year.  Their  horses  were  especially  noted  for 
 their  fleelness,  and  are  known  to  have  often  gained 
 prizes  in  the  games  of  Greece.  {Eurip.,  Hipp.,  v. 
 'Z'.\\.,et  Sr.hol.,  ud  loc. — Hesych  ,  s.  v.  'EvtTi<^ec  )  And 
 Strabo  affirms  that  Dionysius,  tyrant  of  Sicily,  kept  a 
 stud  of  race-horses  in  their  country.  {Strab.,  212.) 
 The  same  writer  asserts,  that  even  in  his  day  there 
 was  an  annual  sacrifice  of  a  white  horse  to  Diomed. 
 When  the  Gauls  had  been  subjugated,  and  their  coun- 
 try had  been  reduced  to  a  stale  of  dependance,  the 
 Veneti  do  not  appear  to  have  manifested  any  unwill- 
 ingness to  constitute  part  of  the  new  province,  an 
 event  which  we  may  suppose  to  have  happened  not 
 long  after  the  second  Punic  war.  Their  territory 
 from  that  time  was  included  under  the  general  de- 
 nomination of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  they  were  admitted 
 to  all  the  privileges  which  that  province  successively 
 obtained.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  Venetia  was  con- 
 sidered as  a  separate  district,  constituting  the  tenth 
 region  in  the  division  made  by  that  emperor.  {PUn., 
 3,  18.)  Its  boundaries,  if,  for  the  sake  of  amplifica- 
 tion, we  include  within  them  the  Tridentini,  Mcduaci, 
 Carni,  and  other  smaller  nations,  may  be  considered 
 to  be  the  Athesis,  and  a  line  drawn  from  that  river  to 
 the  Padus,  to  the  west ;  the  Alps  to  the  north  ;  the 
 Adriatic,  as  far  as  the  river  Formio  {Risano),  to  the 
 east  ;  and  the  main  branch  of  the  Padus  to  the  south. 
 (^Cramer''s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  I,  p.  113.) — II.  A  nation 
 of  Gaul,  at  the  south  of  Arinorica,  on  the  western 
 coast,  powerful  by  sea.  Their  chief  city  is  now  called 
 Vannes.     {Cms.,  B.  G.,  3,  8.) 
 
 Veneti.*,  the  country  of  the  Veneti,  in  Gallia  Cis- 
 alpina.  {Vid.  remarks  at  the  end  of  the  article  Ven- 
 eti I.) 
 
 Venetus  Lacits,  the  same  with  the  Lacus  Brigan- 
 tinus,  or  Lake  of  Constance.     {Mela,  3,  2.) 
 
 Venilia,  a  nymph,  sister  to  Amata,  and  mother  of 
 Turnus  by  Daunus.  (Virg.,  Mn.,  10,  76.  —  Ovid, 
 Met.,  14,  334.— Farro,  L.  L.,  4,  10.^ 
 
 Venta,  I.  Belgarum,  a  town  of  Britain,  nowWiTi- 
 chester. — II.  Silurum,  a  town  of  Britain,  now  Caer- 
 wcnt,  in  Monmouthshire. — III.  Icenorum,  now  Caster, 
 south  of  Norwich,  according  to  Mannert  ;  but  Rei- 
 chard  is  in  favour  of  Lynn. 
 
 Ventidius  Bassus,  a  native  of  Picenum,  was 
 brought  captive  to  Rome,  while  yet  an  infant,  along 
 with  his  mother.  Wlien  he  had  grown  up,  he  follow- 
 ed for  some  time  the  humlile  employment  of  hiring  out 
 horses  and  mules.  He  afterward  accompanied  Csesar 
 to  Gaul,  and,  by  his  punctual  discharge  of  the  various 
 tasks  confided  to  him,  rose  so  high  in  Caesar's  favour 
 that  the  latter  bestowed  upon  him  several  important 
 stations.  After  Cassar's  death  he  attached  himself  to 
 Antony,  to  whose  aid  he  brought  three  legions  at  Mu- 
 tina.  He  subsequently  obtained  the  consulship,  an  el- 
 evation which  exposed  him  to  many  pasquinades.  An- 
 tonv  sent  him  afterward  against  the  Parthians,  whom 
 he  defeated  in  three  battles,  B.C.  39.  and  was  the  first 
 Roman  honoured  with  a  triumph  over  this  formidable 
 enemy.  (Appian,  Bell.  Civ  ,  3,  66,  seqq. — Id.,  Bell. 
 Parth.,  71,  seqq.) 
 
 Venus,  a  Roman  or  Latin  deity,  generally  regarded 
 as  identical  with  the  Greek  Aphrodite  {'A<j)po6lr7)), 
 though  perhaps  with  but  little  correctness.  The 
 Aphrodite  of  the  Iliad  is  the  daughter  of  Jupiter  ard 
 Dione,  and  by  the  Alexandrean  and  the  Latin  poets 
 she  is  sometimes  called  by  the  same  name  as  her  moth- 
 er. {Theocr.,  7,  116.  — Bwn,  1,  93.— Ovid,  A  A.,  3, 
 3,  769— Id,  Fast.,  2,  46\.— Stat.,  Sylv.,  2,  7,  2.) 
 Hesiod  says  that  she  sprang  from  the  foam  (d(pp6c)  of 
 the  sea,  into  which  the  mutilated  part  of  Uranus  had 
 been  thrown  by  his  so,n  Saturn.  She  first,  he  adds, 
 approached  the  land  at  the  island  of  Cythera,  and 
 thence  proceeded  to  Cyprus,  where  grass  grew  beneath 
 her  feet,  and  Love  and  Desire  attended  her.  ^Hes., 
 Ttteoff.,   188,  seqq.)      One  of  the  Homeridte  sings 
 
VEN 
 
 VER 
 
 i 
 
 (Hymn.,  6),  tbal  the  moist-blowing  west-wind  wafted 
 her  in  soft  foam  along  the  waves  of  the  st:a,  and  that 
 the  gold-filleted  Seasons  received  her  on  the  shore  of 
 Cvprus,  clothed  her  in  immortal  garments,  placed  a 
 golden  wreath  on  her  head,  rings  of  oriclialcum  and 
 gold  in  her  pierced  ears,  and  golden  chains  about  her 
 neck,  and  then  led  her  to  the  assembly  of  the  immor- 
 tals, every  one  of  whom  admired,  saluted,  and  loved 
 her,  and  each  god  desired  her  for  his  spouse.  The 
 husband  assigned  to  this  charming  goddess  is  usually 
 the  lame  artist  Vulcan  or  Hephaestus,  but  her  legend 
 is  also  interwoven  with  those  of  Mars,  Adonis,  and 
 Anchises. — According  to  Homer,  Aphrodite  had  an 
 embroidered  girdle  (/ieffrof  i,uu^).  which  possessed  the 
 power  of  inspiring  love  and  desire  for  the  person  who 
 wore  it ;  and  Juno,  on  one  occasion,  borrowed  the 
 magic  girdle  from  the  goddess,  in  order  to  try  its  in- 
 Huence  upon  Jove.  (//.,  14,  214.) — The  animals  sa- 
 cred !.o  Aphrodite  were  swans,  doves,  and  sparrows. 
 Horace  places  her  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  swans  {Od., 
 3,  28,  15.  —  lb.,  4,  1,  10),  and  Sappho  in  one  whose 
 team  were  sparrows.  The  bird  called  lyn.K  or  Fritil- 
 his,  of  which  so  much  use  was  made  in  amatory  niagic, 
 was  also  sacred  to  this  goddess,  as  was  likewise  the 
 swallow,  the  herald  of  spring.  Her  favourite  plants 
 were  the  rose  and  the  myrtle.  She  was  chiefiv  wor- 
 shipped at  Cylhera  and  Cyprus,  in  which  latter  island 
 her  favourite  places  were  Paphos,  Golgi,  Idalium,  and 
 Amathus  ;  and  also  at  Cnidus,  Miletus,  Cos,  Corinth, 
 Athens,  Sparta,  &c.  In  the  more  ancient  temples  of 
 this  goddess  in  Cyprus,  she  was  represented  under  the 
 form  of  a  rude  conical  stone.  But  the  Grecian  sculp- 
 tors and  painters,  particularly  Pra.xitelcs  and  Apelles, 
 vied  with  each  other  in  forming  her  image  the  ideal  of 
 female  beauty  and  attraction.  She  appears  sometimes 
 rising  out  of  the  sea  and  wringing  her  locks  ;  some- 
 times drawn  in  a  conch  by  Tritons,  or  riding  on  some 
 marine  animal.  She  is  usually  nude,  or  but  slightly 
 clad.  The  Venus  de'  Medici  remains  to  us  a  noble 
 specimen  of  ancient  art  and  perception  of  the  beauti- 
 ful.— There  is  none  of  the  Olympians  of  whom  the 
 foreign  origin  is  so  probable  as  this  goddess,  and  she 
 is  generally  regarded  as  being  the  same  with  the  As- 
 tarte  of  the  Phoenicians  :  the  tale  of  Adonis,  indeed, 
 sufficiently  proves  the  identitication  of  this  last-men- 
 tioned goddess  with  the  Aphrodite  of  the  Greeks  ;  and 
 yet,  at  the  same  time,  the  name  of  the  latter  (if  we  re- 
 ject the  common  Greek  derivation)  appears  singularly 
 connected  with  the  mythology  of  Scandinavia  ;  for 
 there  one  of  the  names  of  the  goddess  of  love  is  Frtd-a, 
 and  we  see  the  same  root  lurking  in  a-0[joS-irri.  (Com- 
 pare the  English  name  Friday,  the  "  dies  Veneris.") 
 — When  we  turn  to  the  Roman  \'enus,  we  find  her  so 
 thoroughly  confounded  with  the  Grecian  Aphrodite, 
 that  almo.st  everything  peculiar  to  her  has  disappeared. 
 And  yet  Venus  cannot  have  been  one  of  the  original 
 deities  of  Rome,  as  her  name  did  not  occur  in  the  Sa- 
 ltan hymns,  and  we  are  assured  that  she  was  unknown 
 in  the  time  of  the  kings.  [Macroh.,  Sat.,  I,  12.)  She 
 seems  to  have  been  a  deity  presiding  over  birth  and 
 growth  in  general,  for,  as  Venus  Horlensis,  she  was  the 
 goddess  of  gardens.  She  was  held  to  be  the  same 
 as  Libiiina,  the  goddess  of  funerals,  because,  says  Plu- 
 tarch {QuiEsl.  Rom.,  23),  the  one  and  the  same  god- 
 dess superintends  birth  and  death.  —  There  was  at 
 Koine  a  temple  of  Venus  Fruti  (Feslus,  s.  v.  Fnitinal), 
 which  latter  term  seems  to  be  merely  a  corruption  of 
 Aphrodite.  It  may,  however,  be  connected  with /;uc- 
 tas,  and  refer  to  her  rural  character.  Perhaps  it  may 
 form  a  presumption  in  favour  of  the  original  rural  char- 
 acter of  Venus,  that,  like  Pales,  her  name  is  of  both 
 genders.  Thus  we  meet  with  Deus  and  Dea  Venus  ; 
 and  with  Venus  almiis  and  Venus  alma.  {Kcighlley^s 
 Mythology,  p.  515,  scqq.) 
 
 VenusIa,  a  city  of   Apulia,  on    the    great  Appian 
 Way,  leading  to  Tarentum,  and  about  fifteen  miles  to 
 8iM 
 
 the  south  of  Aufidus.  This  place  appears  to  have  been 
 a  Roman  colony  of  some  importance  before  the  war 
 against  Pyrrhus.  (Dion.  Hal.,  Excerpt.  Leg. —  Veil. 
 I'atcrc.,  1.  14.)  After  the  disaster  at  Cannaj  it  af- 
 forded a  retreat  to  the  consul  Varro  and  the  handful 
 of  men  who  escaped  from  that  bloody  field.  The  ser- 
 vices rendered  by  the  Vcnusini  on  that  occasion  ob- 
 tained for  them  afterward  the  special  thanks  of  the 
 Roman  senate.  (Lw.,  22,  54  —W.,  27,  10.)  Venu- 
 sia  deserves  our  attention  still  more,  from  the  associa- 
 tions which  connect  it  v;ith  the  name  of  Horace,  who 
 was  born  there  A.U.C.  688.  We  may  infer  from 
 Strabo  (250),  that  this  town  was  in  a  flourishing  stale 
 in  his  day.  Mention  of  it  is  also  made  by  Cicero 
 (Ep.  ad  All.,  5,  5),  Appian  (Bell.  Civ.,  1,  39),  Pliny 
 (3,  11),  and  others.  The  modern  Venosa  occupies 
 the  ancient  site.  (Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  vol.  2,  p. 
 288,  seqq.) 
 
 Vkr.\gri,  an  Alpine  tribe,  living  among  the  Graian 
 and  Pennine  Alps.  Cellarius,  however,  reckons  them 
 as  belonging  to  Gallia  Narbonensis.      (Plin.,  3,  20.) 
 
 VsRB.iNus  Lacus,  now  Lago  Maggwre,  a  lake  of 
 Gallia  Cisalpina,  through  which  flows  the  river  Tici- 
 nus.  The  Lago  Maggiore  lies  partly  in  Switzerland, 
 but  principally  in  Italy.  It  is  twenty-seven  miles  long, 
 and.  on  an  average,  eight  broad.  It  contains  the  Bor- 
 romean  islands,  which  are  the  admiration  of  every  trav- 
 eller.     (Plin.,3.   19— S^n/i,  209.) 
 
 Verceli.^,  a  city  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  to  the  north- 
 west of  Ticinum,  and  the  capital  of  the  Libicii.  It 
 was  situate  on  the  river  Sessites,  now  la  Se.sia,  and  its 
 site  corresponds  with  that  of  the  modern  Borgo  Ver- 
 celli.  Tacitus  styles  this  place  a  municipium  (His- 
 tory, I,  70),  and  Strabo  mentions  some  jjold  mines  in 
 the  neighbourhood,  near  a  place  called  Iclymulorum 
 Vicus.  (i>7/ai  ,  218.)  Aminianus  Marcellinus  writes 
 the  name  V'crcellum.  (Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  47.) 
 
 Vercixgetorix,  a  young  nobleman  of  the  Arverni, 
 distinguished  for  his  abilities,  and  for  his  enmity  to  the 
 Romans.  He  was  chosen  commander-inchief  of  the 
 confederate  army  raised  by  the  stales  of  Gaul,  when 
 the  great  insurrection  broke  out  in  that  country  aaainst 
 the  Roman  power ;  and  he  used  every  endeavour  to 
 free  his  native  land  from  the  Roman  yoke.  His  ef- 
 forts, however,  were  unsuccessful ;  he  was  besieged 
 in  Alcsia,  compelled  to  surrender,  and,  after  being 
 led  in  triuinjih  to  Rome,  was  put  to  death  in  prison. 
 (CcEs.,  B.  G.,  7,  4,  sc/j,/.  —  Dio  Cass.,  40,  41.)  The 
 name  Vercingetorix  appears  to  be  nothing  more  than 
 a  title  of  command.  Vcr-cinn-ccdo-righ,  "  great  cap- 
 tain"' or  "generalissimo."  (Thierry,  Hist,  dcs  Gau- 
 lois,  vol.  3,  p.  97.) 
 
 Vergellus,  a  small  river  near  Canny,  falling  into 
 the  .^uhdus.  It  is  said  to  have  been  choked  with  the 
 dead  bodies  of  the  Romans  on  the  day  of  their  disas- 
 trous overthrow.     (Flur.,  2,  6.  —  Val.  Max..  9,  2.) 
 
 VergiiJ.k,  a  name  given  to  the  Pleiades  from  their 
 rising  in  the  spring  (verc. —  Vid.  Pleiades). 
 
 Vergobrictus,  a  term  used  among  the  ancient  Gauls 
 as  a  judicial  appellation,  and  a  title  of  otfice,  Ver-go- 
 brcith,  "a  man  for  judgino-."  or  "a  judge."  (Cas., 
 B.  G.,  1,  16. — Thierry,  Hist,  des  Gaulois,  vol.  2,  p. 
 115.) 
 
 Veromandui,  b  people  of  Gallia  Belgica  Secunda. 
 below  the  Nervii  and  Atrebalcs.  Their  capital  was 
 Augusta  Vcromanduorum,  now  S^  Qucnlin.  (Cas., 
 B.  G.,  2,  ^.—l'lln  .  4.  17.) 
 
 Verona,  a  city  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  in  the  territory 
 of  the  Cenomanni,  and  situate  on  the  river  Athesis,  in 
 an  eastern  direction  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
 Lacus  Benacus.  The  modern  name  is  the  same  with 
 the  ancient.  The  history  of  its  foundation  is  some- 
 what uncertain,  for  Pliny  (3,  19)  ascribes  it  to  the 
 Rhaeti  and  Euganei,  while  Livy  as  positively  attrib- 
 utes it  to  the  Cenomanni  (5,  35).     It  will  be  easy  to 
 
 1377 
 
VER 
 
 VES 
 
 reconcile  these  two  opinions  by  admitting  that  the 
 Cenoinaniii  made  this  setlieinent  in  the  territory  pre- 
 viously possessed  by  the  RhsEti  and  Euganoi.  Under 
 the  domniion  of  the  Romans  it  soon  became  a  large 
 and  flourishing  city.  {Slrab.,  212)  It  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  colonized  by  Pompeius  Slrabo.  Tacitus 
 speaks  of  it  in  later  tunes  as  a  most  opulent  and  im- 
 portant colony,  the  possession  of  which  enabled  Ves- 
 pasian's parly  to  bcgm  offensive  operations  against  the 
 forces  of  Vitellius,  and  to  strike  a  decisive  blow. 
 (Tacit.,  Hist.,  3,  8.)  The  celebrity  of  Verona  is  still 
 farther  established  as  being  the  birthplace  of  Catullus 
 (Ov.,  Am,  3,  \i.  — Martial,  14,  193)  and  of  Pliny 
 the  naturalist,  who,  in  his  preface,  calls  himself  the 
 countryman  of  Catullus.  It  was  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  Verona  that  the  famous  Rha3tic  wine,  so  high- 
 ly commended  by  Virgil,  was  grown.  (Gcorg.,  2, 
 94. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  70.) 
 
 Verrbs,  C,  a  Roman  who  governed  the  province 
 of  Sicily  as  praetor.  The  oppression  and  rapine  of 
 which  he  was  guilty  while  in  ofTice  were  of  the  most 
 flagrant  description,  and  he  was  accused  by  the  Sicil- 
 ians of  extortion  on  the  expiration  of  his  office.  Ci- 
 cero managed  the  prosecution,  Hortensius  appeared 
 for  the  defence.  Of  Cicero's  six  orations  against 
 Verres  that  have  come  down  to  us,  only  one  was  pro- 
 nounced. Driven  to  despair  by  the  depositions  of  the 
 witnesses  after  the  first  oration,  he  submitted,  without 
 awaiting  his  sentence,  to  a  voluntary  exile.  The 
 other  five  orations  of  Cicero,  forming  the  series  of 
 harangues  which  he  intended  to  deliver  after  the  proof 
 was  completed,  were  subsequently  published  in  the 
 same  shape  as  if  Verres  had  actually  stood  his  trial, 
 and  had  made  a  regular  defence.  He  perished  af- 
 terward in  the  proscription  of  Antony,  whom  he  had 
 offended  by  refusing  to  share  with  him  his  Corinthian 
 Vases.  Verres  appears  during  his  exile  to  have  lived 
 in  great  affluence  on  his  ill-gotten  gains.  (Cic.  in 
 Verr.) 
 
 VerrIus  Flaccus,  a  freedman  and  grammarian, 
 famous  for  his  powers  in  instructing.  He  was  ap- 
 pointed tutor  to  the  grandchildren  of  Augustus,  and 
 also  distinguished  himself  by  his  writings,  which  were 
 historical  and  grammatical.  Suetonius  also  informs 
 us  that  he  caused  to  be  incrustcd  on  a  semicircular 
 building  at  Praeneste  twelve  tablets  of  marble,  on 
 which  was  cut  a  Roman  calendar,  which  Suetonius 
 and  Macrobius  often  cite.  Four  of  these  tablets,  or, 
 rather,  fragments  of  them,  were  discovered  in  1770, 
 and  published  by  Foggini  in  1779.  They  contain  the 
 months  of  January,  March,  April,  and  December,  and 
 throw  great  light  on  the  Fasti  of  Ovid.  Verrius 
 Flaccus  was  at  the  head  of  a  celebrated  school  of 
 grammarians.  His  principal  work  in  this  line  was  en- 
 titled de  Verborum  Slgmficatiotic.  It  was  abridged  by 
 Festus,  a  grammarian  of  the  fourth  century.  The 
 abridgment  has  reached  us,  but  the  original  work  is 
 lost.  {Vid.  Festus. — Aul.  GclL,  4,  5. — Sueton.,  II- 
 luslr.  Gram.,  17.) 
 
 Vertumnus  or  Vortumnus,  a  deity  among  the  Ro- 
 mans. According  to  some,  he  was,  like  Mercury,  a 
 deity  presiding  over  merchandise.  {Ascon.  ad,  Cic. 
 in  Verr.,  2,  1,  59. — Scliol.  ad  Horat.,  Epist.,  1,  20, 
 1.)  Varro,  in  one  place,  says  he  was  a  Tuscan  god, 
 and  that,  t.,erefore,  his  statue  was  in  the  Tuscan  street 
 at  Rome  (1,  L  ,  4,  4,  p.  14) ;  in  another,  he  sets  him 
 among  the  gods  worshipped  by  the  Sabine  king  Ta- 
 tius.  (L.  L.,  p.  22.)  Horace  uses  Vcrtumni  in  the 
 plural  number  {Epist.,  2,  7,  14),  and  the  scholiast  ob- 
 serves that  his  statues  were  in  almost  all  the  munici- 
 pal towns  of  Italy.  —  Vertumnus  (from  vcrto,  "to 
 turn"  or  "  change")  is  probably  the  translation  of  a 
 Tuscan  name  ;  and  the  most  rational  hypothesis  re- 
 specting this  god  is,  that  he  was  a  deitv  presiding  over 
 the  seasons,  and  their  manifold  productions  in  the  ve- 
 getable world.  {Propert.,  4, 2. — Miiller,  Etiusk.,  vol. 
 1378. 
 
 2,  p.  51,  seq.)  Ceres  and  Pomona  were  associated 
 with  him.  The  Vortuinnalia  were  in  October.  (  FVir- 
 ro,  L.  L.,  5,  p.  57. — Kcighllafs  Mythology,  p.  534.) 
 Verus,  L.  JElius,  father  of  the  Emperor  Verus, 
 was  adopted  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  received 
 from  him  the  title  of  Ca;sar,  A.D.  13G.  He  died,  how- 
 ever, a  few  months  before  Hadrian.  Verus  appears  to 
 have  been  of  but  moderate  abilities,  and  too  much  ad- 
 dicted to  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  as  well  as  other 
 indulgences.  {Spartian.,  Vit.  Ver.) — II.  E.  yElius, 
 Aurelius,  Ceionius,  Commodus,  son  of  the  preceding,  , 
 was  adopted  by  Antoninus  Pius,  along  with  Marcus 
 Aurelius,  in  accordance  with  the  express  wish  of  Ha- 
 drian. At  the  time  of  his  adoption  he  was  only  in  the 
 seventh  year  of  his  age,  and  he  afterward  married  Lu- 
 cilla,  the  daughter  of  his  adoptive  parent.  After  the 
 death  of  Antoninus  Pius,  the  senate  declared  Marcus 
 Aurelius  sole  emperor ;  but  this  good  prince  hastened 
 to  share  the  throne  with  his  adopted  brother  Verus. 
 The  dissimilarity  between  the  characters  of  these  two 
 emperors,  Aurelius  all  purity  and  excellence,  and  Ve- 
 rus most  profligate  and  licentious,  was,  perhaps,  the 
 cause  of  the  cordial  harmony  which  subsisted  between 
 them  during  the  course  of  their  common  reign.  Verus 
 took  the  command  of  the  army  which  was  sent  against 
 the  Parthians,  over  whom,  by  the  skill  and  valour  of 
 his  generals,  he  obtained  several  considerable  victo- 
 ries, and  captured  several  towns,  while  he  himself  was 
 revelling  in  debaucheries  at  Antioch.  At  the  conclu- 
 sion of  this  war,  Verus  returned  to  enjoy  the  honours 
 of  a  triumph  which  he  had  no  siiare  in  obtaining. 
 Not  long  after  this,  when  the  war  of  the  Marcomanni 
 and  other  tribes  of  similar  origin  broke  out,  the  two 
 emperors  left  Rome  to  take  the  field  in  person  against 
 these  dangerous  antagonists.  Verus  died,  however, 
 of  apoplexy  soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  war, 
 at  the  age  of  39.  In  licentiousness  and  debauchery, 
 Verus  equalled  the  worst  Roman  emperors,  but  he  was 
 altogether  free  from  the  charge  of  cruel  or  tyrannical 
 acts.  {Capitol.,  Vit.  Ver.) 
 Vesevus.      Vid.  Vesuvius. 
 
 Vesp.^sianos,  Titus  Flavius,  a  Roman  emperor, 
 descended  from  an  obscure  family  at  Reate.  His  val- 
 our and  prudence,  but,  above  all,  the  influence  of  Nar- 
 cissus, the  freedman  of  Claudius,  obtained  him  the  con- 
 sulship, A.D.  52,  for  the  last  three  months  of  the  year. 
 Some  years  after  this,  during  the  reign  of  Nero,  he  fell 
 into  disgrace  with  that  emperor  for  having  suffered 
 himself  to  be  overcome  by  sleep  during  the  reading  of 
 some  of  that  prince's  poetry.  The  Jews  having  revolt- 
 ed towards  the  close  of  the  year  64,  Nero,  who  did  not 
 wish  to  place  at  the  head  of  his  forces  a  man  whose 
 birth  or  talents  might  win  the  favour  of  the  soldiery, 
 gave  the  command  to  Vespasian.  While  the  latter 
 was  prosecuting  the  war  with  great  success,  and  was 
 engaged  in  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  Nero  was  cut  off; 
 Galba  hardly  reached  the  capital  before  he  lost  his 
 crown  and  life  ;  Otho,  his  successor,  slew  himself  af- 
 ter the  defeat  at  Bedriacum ;  and,  amid  the  i'erment 
 and  agitation  that  everywhere  prevailed,  the  ardour  of 
 his  troops,  and  the  wishes  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
 East,  induced  Vespasian  to  contest  the  crown  with 
 Vitellius.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  legions, 
 July  1st,  A.D.  69,  and  on  the  20th  December  of  the 
 same  year,  his  general  Antonius  Primus  made  himself 
 master  of  Rome.  Vespasian  obtained  possession  of 
 the  throne  in  his  fifty-ninth  year,  and  became  the  found- 
 er of  a  dynasty  which  gave  three  emperors  to  Rome. 
 He  was  a  man  of  rare  and  excellent  virtues,  thorough- 
 ly matured  by  a  life  spent  in  the  exercise  of  public  du- 
 ties, and  with  no  object  superior  to  that  of  promoting 
 the  public  welfare.  Being  well  aware  of  the  glaring 
 abuses  which  had  long  been  perpetrated  with  impuni- 
 ty in  all  branches  of  the  administration,  he  set  himself 
 vigorously  to  the  dangerous  task  of  effecting  a  thor 
 ough  reform.     He  restored  the  privileges  of  the  sen 
 
VESPASIANUS. 
 
 VES 
 
 ate,  and  gave  it  once  more  an  actual  power  in  the  gov- 
 ernment.    Th::.  courts  of  law  were  also  subjected  to  a 
 most  salutary  reform,  and  rendered  again,  what  they 
 had  long  ceased  to  be,  courts  of  justice.     The  insub- 
 ordination of  the  army,  which  had  been  the  cause  of 
 so  many  l)loody  revolutions,  he  repressed  with  a  firm 
 and  steady  hand  ;   and  restored,  m  a  great  measure, 
 the  discipline  which  had  made  it  so  powerful  in  its  bet- 
 ter days.     He  directed  his  attention  also  to  the  treas- 
 ury, which  had   been  quite  exhausted   by  the  prodigal 
 and  corrupt   expenditure   of   his    predecessors  ;    and, 
 in  order  to  replenish  its  coffers,  he  regulated  anew  the 
 tribute  and  custom-dues  of  the  provinces,  and  imposed 
 a  number  of  taxes  ;   by  which  means,  though  he  was 
 accused  of  avarice,  he  placed  once  more  the  revenues 
 of  the  em[)ire  on  a  stable  basis,  and  restored  them  to  a 
 flourishing  condition.     The   large    sums   thus   raised 
 Vespasian  did  not  expend   in  revelry,  neither  did  he 
 hoard  up  in  useless  masses.     He  rebuilt  the  temple 
 of  Ju])iter  Cai)itolinus,  which  had  been  destroyed  du- 
 ring the  tumults  that  accompanied  the  fall  of  Vitellius  ; 
 and  adorned  the  city  with  many  other  public  buildings 
 of  great  elegance  and  splendour  ;   thus  evincing,  that, 
 though  rigorous  and  exact  in  his  methods  of  amassing 
 treasure,  he  knew,  on  proper  occasions,  how  to  use  it 
 with  no  parsimonious  hand      Under  him  the  empire 
 began  to  breathe  with  fresh  life,  and  to  exhibit  signs  of 
 prosperity   and  happiness,  such  as  it  had  not  known 
 since   the  reign  of  Augustus.     His  son  Titus  being 
 raised  to  the  dignity  of  Caesar,  by  which  name  the  suc- 
 cessor  to  the  throne  was  designated,  the   peace   and 
 welfare  of  the  empire  seemed  secured  on  a  stable  ba- 
 sis.    During  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  the  arms  of  Rome 
 were  prosperous  in  various  parts  of  the  world.     Sev- 
 eral states  bordering  on  the  Roman  dominions  were 
 reduced  by  his  generals  to  the  condition  of  provinces. 
 But  the  most  celebrated,  though  not  the  most  formi- 
 dable war  which  distinguished  his  reign,  was  that  in 
 which   he  was   engaged  when   he  was  called    to   the 
 throne,  the  war  against  the  Jews.     This  was  conduct- 
 ed  by  his  son  Titus  after  his  departure  to  Rome  to 
 enter  on  the  possession  of  imperial  power.    The  events 
 of  this  memorable  war  are  so  well  known  that  they 
 need  not  here  be  detailed.     Suflice  it  to  state,  that  af- 
 ter Jerusalem  had  been  closely  invested,  the  Jews  re- 
 fused all  terms  of  capitulation,  blindly  trusted  in  some 
 terrible  interposition  of  divine  power  to  save  them  and 
 consume  their  enemies,  butchered  each  other  with  in- 
 conceivable barbarity  during  every  temporary  cessation 
 of  warfare,  enduring  the  wildest  extremes  of  famine, 
 and,  after  suffering  every  form  and  kind  of  misery,  to 
 a  degree  unparalleled  in  the  world's  history,  their  city 
 was  taken,  and,  together  with  their  celebrated  temple, 
 was  reduced  to  heaps  of  sha[)eless  ruins;  and  such  of 
 them  as  survived  these  awful  calamities  were  scatter- 
 ed over  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  rendered  a  mockery, 
 a  proverb,  and   a  reproach  among  nations.      In  conse- 
 quence of  this  victory  over  the  Jews,  Titus  and   the 
 emperor  enjoyed  together  the  honours  of  a  splendid 
 triumph,  while  the  rich  vessels  of  the  temple  of  Jeru- 
 salem were  in  gorgeous  procession  borne  in  the  train 
 of  the  conquerors.     Soon  after  this  trimph,  the  Bata- 
 vian  war  liroke  out,  caused  by  the  civil  wars  for  the 
 empire,  and  threatening  Rome  with  the  loss  of  a  ])rov- 
 ince.     It  was  at  length  brought  to  a  propitious  conclu- 
 sion by  Cerealis,  alter  several  sharp  encounters,  and 
 by  a  treaty  rather  than  a  conquest.     The  Roman  arms 
 were  more  successful  in  Britain  during  the  reign  of 
 Vespasian  and  his  immediate  successor  than  they  had 
 previously  been.     In  his  younger  days,  the  emperor 
 had  himself  been  engaged  in  British  wars;  and,  being 
 desirous  of  reducing  the  island  completely  under  the 
 Roman  yoke,  he  gave  the  command  to  Gneius  Julius 
 Agricola,  a    man    of  extraordinary  merit,    a  general 
 and  a  statesman  worthy  of  the  best  days  of  Rome. 
 Mot  only  the  southern  division  of  the  island  was  sub- 
 
 ]  dued  by  this  distinguished  commander,  but  even  the 
 more  remote  regions  of  Caledonia,  hitherto  impervious 
 to  the  Roman  legions,  were  laid  open.  The  gallant 
 [  resistance  of  the  brave  Caledonians,  under  their  leader 
 Galgacus,  was  inefi'ecluai  ;  their  untaught  valour  could 
 !iot  withstand  the  steady  discipline  of  the  Roman  army, 
 and  they  sustained  a  severe  overthrow  at  the  base  of 
 the  Grampians.  I'he  Roman  fleet,  coasting  the  shore, 
 ascertained  the  insular  character  of  Britain  ;  but  so 
 formidable  were  the  mountain-fastnesses  of  Caledonia, 
 that  Agricola  did  not  attempt  to  penetrate  farther  into 
 the  country,  contenting  himself  with  constructing  a 
 chain  of  forts  between  the  Friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth, 
 to  defend  the  southern  districts,  and  to  restrain  the  re- 
 coil and  assaults  of  the  unconquered  Caledonians. 
 Thus  glorious  abroad  and  beloved  at  home,  Vespa- 
 sian's life  began  to  draw  near  its  termination.  F'eel- 
 ing  the  effects  of  age  and  weakness,  he  retired  to  Cam- 
 pania, to  enjoy  the  benefits  of  a  purer  air  than  that  of 
 Rome,  together  with  some  relaxation  from  the  cares 
 of  state.  There  he  was  seized  with  a  malady  which 
 his  own  sensations  told  him  would  speedily  prove  mor- 
 tal. His  anticipations  proved  true  ;  and  he  expired 
 in  the  arms  of  his  attendants,  in  the  seventieth  year  of 
 his  age  and  the  tenth  of  his  reign.  It  is  worthy  of 
 remark,  that  Vespasian  was  the  second  of  the  Roman 
 emperors  that  died  a  natural  death,  and  the  first  that 
 was  succeeded  by  his  son.  {Hclhcnngturi's  History 
 of  Rome,  p.  187,  seqq.) 
 
 Vesta,  a  goddess   among   the  Romans,  the  same 
 with  the  Greek  Hestia  (Earia).     An  idea  of  the  sanc- 
 tity of  the  domestic  hearth  {karia),  the  point  of  assem- 
 bly of  the  family,  and  the  symbol  of  the  social  union, 
 gave  the  Greeks  occasion  to  fancy  it  to  be  under  the 
 guardianship  of  a  peculiar  deity,  whom  they  named, 
 from  it,  Hestia.     I'his  goddess  does  not  appear  in  the 
 poems  of  Homer,  though  he  had  abundant  opportuni- 
 ties of  noticing  her.     By  Hesiod  {Theog.,  454)  she  is 
 said  to  have  been  the  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Rhea. 
 The  hymn  to  Venus  relates  that  Hestia,  Diana,  and 
 Minerva  were  the  only  goddesses  that   escaped    the 
 power  of  the  queen  of  love.      When  wooed  by  Nep- 
 tune and  Apollo,  Hestia,  placing  her  hand  on  the  head 
 of  Jupiter,  vowed  per|)etual  virginity.     Jupiter,  in  place 
 of  marriage,  gave  her  "  to  sit  in  the  middle  of  the  man- 
 sion, receiving  the  choicest  portions  of  the  sacrifice, 
 and  to  be  honoured  in  all   the  temples  of  the  gods." 
 {Hijmn.  in  Vcn.,  22,  seqq.)     In  the  Prytaneum  of  ev- 
 ery Grecian  city  stood  the  hearth,  on  which  the  sacred 
 fire  flamed,  and  where  the  ofl'erings  were  made  to  Hes- 
 tia.    {Find.,  Nem.,  11,  1,  seqq  )     In  that  of  Athens 
 there  was  a  statue  of  the  goddess. — The  same  obscu- 
 rity involves  the  Vesta  of  the  Romans   as  the  corre- 
 sponding Hestia  of  the  Greeks,  with  whom  she  is  iden- 
 tical   in    name    and    office    {'Karia,  Ftaria,    Vesta). 
 There  is  every  reason  to  believe  her  worship  to  have 
 formed   part  of  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Pelaso-iaa 
 population  of  l.atium  {Dion.  Hal.,  2,  66),  as  it  is  by 
 all  testimony  carried  back  to  the  earliest  days  of  the 
 state,  and  its  introduction  is  ascribed  to  Numa.     (Lj»., 
 1,  20.—Plut.,  Vil.  Num.,  9,  seqq.)     Like  Hestia,  she 
 was  a  deity  presiding  over  the  public  and  private  hearth : 
 a  sacred  fire,  tended   by  six  virgin-[)riestesses,  called 
 Vestals,  flamed  in  her  temple  at  Rome.     As  the  safe- 
 ty of  the  city  was  held  to  be  connected  with  its  con- 
 servation, the  neglect  of  the  virgins,  if  they  let  it  go 
 out,  was  severely  punished,  and  the  fire  was  rekindled 
 from  the  rays  of  the  sun. — The  lemjile  of  Vesta  was 
 round  :   it  contained  no  statue  of  the  goddess.      {Oeid, 
 Fast..,  6,  295,  seq  )     Her  festival,  celebrated  in  June, 
 was  called  Vestatia  :  p'lates  of  meat  were  sent  to  the 
 V'estals  to  he  offered  up  ;  the  millstones  were  wreathed 
 with  garlands  of  flowers,  and  the  n»ill-asses,  also  crown- 
 ed with  violets,  went  about  with  cakes  strung  round 
 their  necks.     {Oeid,  Fast.,  6,  311,  seqq. — Fropcrt. 
 4,  1,  23.)     In  the  forum  at  Rome  there  was  a  siaiut 
 
 1379 
 
V  ES 
 
 VIB 
 
 of  the  Stata  Mater,  placed  there  that  she  might  pro- 
 tect the  paveiiieiil  from  the  eiFect  of  the  fires  which 
 used  to  be  made  on  it  in  the  nightimie.  The  people 
 followed  the  example,  and  set  ii])  similar  statues  m 
 several  of  the  streets.  Stata  Mater  is  generally  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  Vesta.  (^Kcigkllcy's  Mylhologij, 
 p.  95,  513,  seq.) 
 
 Vestalbs,  priestesses  among  the  Romans  conse- 
 crated to  the  service  of  Vesta.  They  are  said  to 
 have  been  first  established  by  Niima,  who  appointed 
 four.  Tarquinius  Priscus  added  two  more  ;  and  the 
 number  continued  to  be  six  ever  after.  The  Vestal 
 virgins  were  bound  to  their  ministry  for  thirty  years 
 After  thirty  years'  service  ihey  niighl  leave  the  temple 
 and  marry  ;  which,  however,  was  seldom  done,  and 
 was  always  reckoned  ominous.  {Dion.  Hal.,  2,  67.) 
 These  priestesses  were  bound  to  observe  the  strictest 
 purity  of  morals.  If  any  one  of  them  violated  her  vow 
 of  chastity,  she  was  buried  alive  in  the  Campus  Sccle- 
 ralus,  and  her  paramour  was  scourged  to  death  in  the 
 Forum.     {Vid.  Vesta.) 
 
 Vestini,  a  mountaineer  race  of  Italy,  whose  terri- 
 tory was  bounded  on  the  south  and  southwest  by  the 
 Peligni  and  Marsi,  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic,  and  on 
 the  north  and  norihwest  by  the  Prastutii  and  Sabines. 
 The  history  of  the  Vestini  ofiers  no  circumstances  of 
 peculiar  interest :  they  are  lirst  introduced  to  our  no- 
 tice in  the  Roman  annals  as  allies  of  the  Samnites,  to 
 whom  they  are  said  not  to  have  been  inferior  m  valour  ; 
 but.  being  separately  attacked  by  the  Romans,  the 
 Vestini,  too  weak  to  make  any  efTectual  resistance, 
 were  soon  compelled  to  submit,  A  U.C.  451.  {Ltv., 
 8,  29. — Id.,  10,  3.)  This  people,  however,  were  not 
 beiiind-hand  with  their  neighbours  in  taking  up  arms 
 on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Social  war.  'I'hev  bore  an 
 active  part  in  the  exertions  and  perils  cf  that  fierce 
 and  sanguinary  contest,  and  received  their  share  of  the 
 rights  and  privileges  which,  on  its  termination,  were 
 granted  to  the  confederates.  Their  chief  city  was  Pin- 
 na, now  Civila  di  Pcnna.  {Cramer'' s  Anc.  llaly,  vol. 
 1,  p.  335.) 
 
 Vesvius.      Vid.  Vesuvius. 
 
 VesCtlus.  now  Monte  Visa,  a  mountain  at  the  ter- 
 mination of  the  Maritime,  and  commencement  of  the 
 Cottian,  Alps.  It  is  celelirated  in  antiquity  as  giving 
 rise  to  the  Padus  or  Po.  Pliny  (3,  16)  mentions  the 
 source  as  being  a  remarkable  sight.  The  Po  flows 
 from  two  small  lakes,  the  one  situate  immediately  be- 
 low the  highest  peak  of  Monte  V^so,  the  other  still 
 higher  up,  between  that  peak  and  the  lesser  one  called 
 Visoktto.  The  waters  of  tliis  second  lake  find  vent 
 m  a  great  cavern  ;  and  this,  probablv,  is  the  source  to 
 which  Pliny  alludes.  {Cramer^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1, 
 p.  28.) 
 
 Vesuvius,  a  mountain  of  Campania,  about  six  miles 
 southeast  of  Naples,  celebrated  for  its  volcano.  It  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  first  known  under  the  name  of  Ve- 
 sevus  {Lurr.,  6,  l^l.  —  Virg.,  Gcnrg.,  2,  224.— S/a/., 
 Sylv.,  4,  8,  4)  :  but  the  appellations  of  Vesvius  and 
 Vesbius  are  no  less  frequently  applied  to  it.  {SU. 
 ItaL,  17,  594  —Ffl/.  Flacc,  3,'  209.— Mart.,  4,  44.) 
 Strabo  describes  this  mountain  as  extremely  fertile  at 
 its  base,  an  account  in  which  many  ancient  writers 
 agree,  but  as  entirely  barren  towards  the  summit, 
 which  was  mostly  level,  and  full  of  apertures  and 
 cracks,  seemingly  produced  by  the  action  of  fire  ; 
 whence  Strabo  was  led  to  conclude  that  the  volcano, 
 though  once  in  a  stale  of  activity,  hart  been  extin- 
 guished from  want  of  fuel.  (»S'/r«/;o,  246.)  Diodorus 
 Siculus  (4,  21)  represents  it  also  as  being  in  a  quies- 
 cent state,  since  he  argues,  from  its  appearance  at  the 
 time  he  was  writing,  that  it  must  have  been  on  fire  at 
 some  remote  period.  The  volcano  was  likewise  ap- 
 parently extinct,  when,  as  Plutarch  and  Florus  relate, 
 Spartacus,  with  some  of  his  followers,  sought  refuge 
 in  the  cavities  of  the  mountain  from  the  pursuit  of 
 1380 
 
 their  enemies,  and  succeeded  in  eluding  their  search. 
 {Pint.,  Vtl.  Crass. — Flor.,  3,  20. — Cramer's  Ancient 
 Italy,  vol  2,  p.  176.) — The  first  great  eruption  on  rec- 
 ord took  place  on  the  24th  of  August.  A.D.  79,  and 
 on  the  same  day  the  towns  of  Herculaneum,  Pompeii, 
 and  Stabiaj  were  buried  under  showers  of  volcanic 
 sand,  stones,  and  scoriae.  Such  was  the  immense 
 quantity  of  volcanic  sand  (called  ashes)  thrown  out 
 during  this  eruption,  that  the  whole  country  was  iu- 
 volved  in  pitchy  darkness  ;  and,  according  to  Dion, 
 the  ashes  fell  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  various  parts  of 
 Asia  Minor.  This  eruption  proved  fatal  to  the  elder 
 Pliny.  He  had  the  command  of  the  Roman  fleet  on 
 the  coast  of  Campania,  and,  wishing  to  succour  those 
 persons  who  might  want  to  escape  by  sea,  and  also  to 
 observe  this  grand  phenomenon  more  nearly,  he  left 
 the  Cape  of  Misenum,  and  approached  the  side  of  the 
 bay  nearest  to  Vesuvius.  He  landed,  and  advanced 
 towards  it,  but  was  suffocated  by  the  sulphureous  va- 
 pour.— After  this,  Vesuvius  continued  a  burning 
 mountain  for  nearly  a  thousand  years,  having  eruptions 
 at  intervals.  The  fire  then  appeared  to  become  nearly 
 extinct,  and  continued  so  from  the  beginning  of  tlie 
 12th  to  that  of  the  16th  century.  Since  the  eruption 
 of  1506,  it  has  remained  burning  to  the  present  time, 
 with  eruptions  of  lava  and  ashes  at  intervals.  Vesu- 
 vius rises  to  the  height  of  3600  feet  above  the  sea. 
 It  has  two  summits,  the  more  northern  one  of  which 
 IS  called  Somma,  the  other  is  properly  called  Vesuvius. 
 Somma  is  supposed  to  have  been  part  of  the  cone  of  a 
 larger  volcano,  nearly  concentric  with  its  present  cone, 
 which,  in  some  great  eruption,  has  destroyed  all  but 
 this  fragment. 
 
 Vettones,  a  nation  of  Lusitania,  lying  along  the 
 eastern  boundary.  The  city  of  Augusta  Emerita  (now 
 Menda)  took  from  them  the  name  of  Vetloniana  Co- 
 lonia.     {C(Es.,  Bell.  Civ.,  1,  38.— P/m.,  4.  20.) 
 
 Vetui.onii,  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  distin 
 guished  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Etruria,  a  few  miles  to 
 the  southwest  of  Veterna.  Its  position  was  long  a 
 matter  of  uncertainty,  until  an  Italian  antiquary,  Xi- 
 menes,  proved  the  ruins  of  the  place  to  exist  in  a  forest 
 still  called  Sclvadi  Vetleta. — If  we  may  believe  Silius 
 Italicus  (8,  488),  it  was  V^etulonii  that  first  vised  the 
 insignia  of  magistracv  common  to  the  Etruscans,  and 
 with  which  Rome  afterward  decorated  her  consuls  and 
 dictators.     {Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  187.) 
 
 Veturia,  the  mother  of  Coriolanus.  {Vid.  Coriola- 
 nus.) 
 
 Ufens,  T.  the  Avfente,  a  river  of  Latium,  rising  in  the 
 Volscian  Mountains,  above  Setia  and  Privernum,  and, 
 in  consequence  of  the  want  of  a  sufficient  fall  in  the 
 Pontine  plains,  through  which  it  passed,  contributing, 
 with  other  streams,  to  form  the  Pontine  marshes.  It 
 communicated  Us  name,  which  was  originally  written 
 Oiifens,  to  the  tribe  Oufentina,  according  to  Lucilius, 
 as  quoted  by  Festus  (s.  v.  Oufen.s).  Virgil  alludes  to 
 its  sluggish  character.  {Cramers  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2, 
 p.  97.) — II.  A  prince  who  assisted  Turniis  against 
 .'Eneas,  and  was  slain  by  Gyas.  He  was  leader  of 
 the  Nursian  forces.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  7.  745. — Id.  ib., 
 10,  518,  &c.) 
 
 Ui'"ENTiNA,  or,  more  correctly,  Oufentina.  a  Roman 
 tribe,  first  created  A. U.C.  435,  with  the  tribe  Faleri- 
 na,  in  consequence  of  the  great  increase  of  population 
 at  Rome.  {Liv.,  9,  20. — Festus,  s.  v.  Oufens. —  Vid. 
 Ufens.) 
 
 Via,  I.  ^.MiLiA.  (Vid.  iEmilia  V.  and  VI.)— II. 
 Apjiia.     {Vid.  Appia  Via,  &c.) 
 
 Vi.\DRUs  or  ViADUs,  a  river  of  Germany,  generally 
 regarded  as  answering  to  the  modern  Oder.  Rei- 
 chard,  however,  considers  the  Viadus  as  the  same  with 
 the  Wippcr.  {Bischoff  und  Moller,  Worterb.  der 
 Gcogr.,  p.  1005.) 
 
 ViBius,  I.  Crispus,  a  Latin  rhetorician,  to  whom 
 some  ascribe  the  declamation  against  Cicero  which  has 
 
VIC 
 
 VI  N 
 
 come  down  to  us.  {Vid.  Porcius.) — II.  Sequester,  a 
 I.atiii  writer,  who  has  left  a  gcogra})hical  work,  con- 
 taining a  kind  of  nomenclature  of  rivers,  fountains, 
 lakes,  forests,  marshes,  mountains,  and  nations  men- 
 tioned by  the  poets.  The  work  was  compiled  for  the 
 use  of  Virgilianus,  tlie  author's  son.  As  no  ancient 
 nTiter  makes  mention  of  this  writer,  and  as  his  pro- 
 duction contains  no  account  either  of  himself,  his 
 country,  or  the  period  when  he  wrote,  his  era  can  only 
 be  fi.\Ld  by  conjecture.  Oberlinus  believes  that  he 
 lived  after  the  fail  of  the  Western  empire,  in  the  fifth, 
 si.Kth,  or  seventh  century.  The  same  critic  regards 
 the  work  as  a  hasty  performance,  and  as  containing, 
 besides  numerous  errors  attributable  to  the  copyists, 
 some  wiiich  must  be  ascribed  to  the  author  himself 
 Still  the  work  is  not  without  its  value,  from  its  con- 
 taining several  names  nowhere  else  mentioned.  The 
 celebrated  Bvccacw  compiled  a  production  of  a  simi- 
 lar nature  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  made  great 
 use  of  the  work  of  Sequester,  without  ever  citing  it. 
 The  best  edition  of  Vibius  Sequester  is  that  of  Ober- 
 linus, Argent.,  177S,  8vo. 
 
 ViBO,  Valentia.      Y^id.  Hipponium. 
 
 VicA  Pot.*,  a  goddess  at  Rome,  who  presided  over 
 victory  {'Epulis  vincendi  atijuc  potiundi." — Cic,  de 
 Leg.,  2,  11. — Consult  Goercnz,  ad  loc. — Scncc,  Apo- 
 coloeynih. — Liv.,  2,  7.) 
 
 VicENTiA,  a  town  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  in  the  terri- 
 tory of  Venetia,  and  situate  between  Patavium  and 
 Verona.  The  name  is  sometimes  written  Vicetia. 
 {Slrab.,  "ZU.—JEUan,  V.  H ,  14,  8.)  It  is  now  Vi- 
 cenza. 
 
 Victor,  Sext.  Auremus,  I.  a  Latin  historian,  born 
 in  Africa  of  very  humble  parents,  but  who  raised  him- 
 self by  his  merit  to  some  of  the  highest  ollices  in  the 
 state.  The  Emperor  Julian,  who  became  acquainted 
 with  him  at  Sirmuun,  AD.  3G0,  gave  him  the  govern- 
 ment of  the  second  Pannonia,  and  erected  in  honour 
 of  him  a  statue  of  bronze.  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
 who  states  this  fact,  informs  us  also  that  AureliusV  ic- 
 tor  was  conspicuous  for  the  purity  of  his  moral  char- 
 acter (21,  10).  Sixteen  years  after  this,  Theodosius 
 the  Great  appointed  him  prefect  of  Rome.  The  pe- 
 riod of  his  death  is  not  ascertained.  The  manner  in 
 which  he  speaks  of  the  apotheosis  of  Anlinoiis,  the  fa- 
 vourite of  Hadrian,  shows  that  he  was  not  a  Christian. 
 Three  works  are  ascribed  to  this  writer.  The  first 
 bears  the  title  of  Ongo  gC7itis  Romano'.,  to  which  a 
 long  additional  title  has  been  given  by  the  copyists. 
 What  we  have  remaining  of  this  work  comprises  only 
 the  first  year  of  Rome  :  it  contains  extracts  from  works 
 now  lost,  and  makes  us  acquainted  with  several  cir- 
 cumstances of  which  no  other  writer  speaks.  The 
 opinion  which  assigns  this  work  to  Aurelius  Victor, 
 however,  has  no  historical  fact  whatever  to  serve  as  a 
 basis ;  it  is  contrary,  also,  to  the  conviction  of  the  gram- 
 marians, to  whom  we  owe  the  long  additional  title  al- 
 ready mentioned.  These  grammarians  regard  the 
 work  as  subsequent  to  the  time  of  Aurelius  Victor. — 
 The  second  work  is  entitled  "  Dc  Viris  illustribus 
 Rom<T,"  and  contains  the  lives  of  various  illustrious 
 Romans,  commencing  with  the  seven  kings  of  Rome, 
 and  also  biographies  of  some  eminent  foreigners,  such 
 as  Hannibal,  Antiochus,  and  Mithradates.  This  work, 
 inferior  in  style  to  the  former,  has  been  sometimes  as- 
 cribed to  Cornelius  iS'epos,  to  Suetonius,  or  to  Plinv 
 the  Younger.  It  is  possible  that  it  is  an  abridgment 
 merely  of  (Cornelius  Nepos,  whose  work  bears  a  simi- 
 lar title.  The  third  work  is  entitled  "  Dc  Ccrsanbus, 
 sive  hislnricB  ahhrcviaifF  -pars  altera,  ah  Aiigusto  Oc- 
 taviano,  id  est,  a  fine  Titi  Lirii  usque  ad  Consulalvm 
 decimum  Constantii  Avgusli  el  Juliuni  Casaris  ter- 
 lium."  This  production  is  written  in  a  concise  and 
 easy  style,  and  the  author  has  had  access  to  good 
 sources  of  information,  of  which  he  avails  himself  with 
 impartiality. — The   best  editions  of  Aurelius  Victor 
 
 are  that  of  Pitiscus,  c.  n.  variorum,  Traj.  ad  Rh., 
 1C96,  8vo,  and  that  of  Arntzenius,  Amst.,  1733,  4to. 
 — n.  Surnamed,  for  distinction'  sake,  the  Younger,  a 
 contemporary  of  Orosius,  v\ho  made  an  abridgment  of 
 one  of  the  works  of  the  elder  Victor  (the  third  above 
 mentioned),  which  he  entitled  '■  Epitome  de  Casari- 
 bus,"  or,  according  to  others,  "  Dc  Vita  ct  Monbus 
 Impcralorurn  Romajwrum,"  and  which  he  continued 
 down  to  the  death  of  Theodosius  the  Great.  He 
 made  some  changes  also  in  the  original  work,  and 
 added  some  new  facts  and  circumstances.  (Sch'dll, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol.  3,  p.  171.) 
 
 VicTOKiA,  one  of  the  deities  of  the  Romans,  called 
 by  the  Greeks  Ni/cT?.  The  goddess  of  Victory  was 
 sister  to  Strength  and  Valour,  and  was  one  of  tiie  at- 
 tendants of  Jupiter.  Sylla  raised  her  a  temple  at 
 Rome,  and  instituted  festivals  in  her  honour.  She 
 was  represented  with  wings,  crowned  with  laurel,  and 
 holding  the  branch  of  a  i)alm-tree  in  her  hand.  A 
 golden  statue  of  this  goddess,  weighing  320  pounds, 
 was  presented  to  the  Romans  by  Hiero,  king  of  Syra- 
 cuse, and  deposited  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  on  the 
 Capitoline  Hill.  {Varro,  dc  L.  L. — Huain.,  praf. 
 fah.) 
 
 VicTORiNUs,  an  African  philosopher,  who  became  a 
 convert  to  Christianity,  and  flourished  in  the  fourth 
 century.  He  gained  such  a  degree  of  reputation  by 
 teaching  rhetoric  at  Rome,  that  a  statue  was  erected 
 to  him  in  one  of  the  public  ))laccs.  He  was  led  to  the 
 perusal  of  the  Scriptures  by  the  study  of  Plato's  works. 
 He  was  the  author  of  several  works  of  no  great  value 
 contained  in  the  Bihliothcca  Patrum. 
 
 ViDUCAssEs,  a  people  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis  Se- 
 cunda,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Oliiia  or  Ome. 
 Their  chief  city  was  Arsegenus,  now  Buyeux.  {Phn., 
 4,  18.) 
 
 Vienna,  a  city  of  the  Allobroges,  in  Gallia  Trans- 
 alpine, on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone,  famed  for  its  wealth 
 and  the  civilization  of  its  inhabitants.  At  a  later  pe- 
 riod it  became  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Vien- 
 nesis,  and  in  the  fifth  century  the  residence  of  the  Bur- 
 gundian  kings.  It  is  now  T'!f7i?ic.  The  classical  name 
 of  this  place  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  modern 
 appellation  of  the  ancient  Vindobona,  on  the  Danube. 
 {C(Ps.,  B.  G.,  7,  9—Tac.,  Ann.,  11,  I.— Mela,  2,  5. 
 — Pliny,  3,  i.—Amm.  Marc.,  15,  11.) 
 
 ViLLiA  Lex,  Annalis  or  Anjiaria,  by  L.  Villius,  the 
 tribune,  A.U.C  574,  defined  the  proper  age  required 
 for  holding  offices.  There  seems,  however,  to  have 
 been  some  regulation  of  the  kind  even  before  this. 
 (Lu-y,  40,  43.— /(/.,  25,  2  ) 
 
 ViMiNALis,  one  of  the  seven  hills  on  which  Rome 
 was  built,  so  called  from  the  number  of  osiers  (r?wn??rt) 
 which  grew  there.  Servius  Tullius  first  made  it  part 
 of  the  city.  Jupiter  had  a  temple  there,  whence  he 
 was  called  Viminalis.  {Livy,  1,  44. —  Varro,  L.  L., 
 4,  8. — Festus,  s.  v.  Viminal.) 
 
 ViNDELici,  a  people  of  Gcrmanv,  whose  territory, 
 called  Vindelicia,  extended  from  the  city  of  Brigantia, 
 on  the  Lacus  Bngantinus,  or  Lake  of  Constance,  to 
 the  Danube  ;  while  the  lower  part  of  the  QCnus  or 
 Lin  separated  it  from  Noricum.  Their  country  an- 
 swered, therefore,  to  part  of  Wirtcmherg  and  Bavaria. 
 This  nation  derived  their  name  from  the  two  rivers 
 which  water  their  territorv,  viz  ,  the  Vindo  and  Licus, 
 now  the  Wcrtarh  and  the  Lech.  In  the  angle  formed 
 bv  the  two  rivers  was  situate  their  capital,  Augusta 
 Vindelicorum.  now  Augsburg.  (Clui-cr,  vol.  1,  p. 
 412,  scqq. — Manncrt,  G'cogr.,  vol.  3.  p.  518,  seqq. — 
 Moral..  Od.,  4,  4,  18.) 
 
 ViNOEX,  Jui.u's,  a  governor  of  Gaul,  who  revolted 
 against  Nero,  and  determined  to  deliver  the  Roman 
 empire  from  his  tyranny.  He  wrote  to  Galba,  then  in 
 Spain,  to  take  the  chief  command,  and  aid  him  in  ef- 
 fecting his  purpose  ;  but,  before  any  junction  could  be 
 effected,  he  was  defeated  by  the  forces  of  Virginius 
 
 1381 
 
VIR 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 Ilufiis,  and  destroyed  himself.  (Sueton.,  Vit.  Galh., 
 9.— Id.  lb.,  \l.—Plut.,  VU.  Galb.,  i.—Dio  Cass., 
 ()3,  23,  seqq.) 
 
 ViNUK-ius,  a  slave  who  discovered  the  conspiracy  to 
 restore  Tarquin  to  his  throne.     (  Vid.  Brutus  I.) 
 
 V1NIU.S,  T.,  a  friend  of  Galba's,  who,  on  the  acces- 
 sion of  the  latter  to  the  imperial  llirone,  became  con- 
 sul, commander  of  the  pr»lorian  guards,  and  prmcipal 
 mniister  of  the  new  monarch.  He  emjjloyed  his  new- 
 ly-acquired power,  however,  in  criminal  and  oppress- 
 ive acts,  pliuidtring  others  to  enrich  himself  Vin- 
 ius  advised  G.dba  to  adopt  Otho  for  his  successor  ; 
 but,  Galba  having  nommated  Piso,  Otho  revolted,  de- 
 throned Galba,  and  Vinius  perished  along  with  the 
 latter,  notwithstanding  his  vehement  protestations  to 
 the  soldiery  that  Otho  had  not  ordered  his  death.  It 
 is  probable  that  Vinius  was  implicated  in  the  conspir- 
 acy of  Otho  itself  against  his  friend  and  protector. 
 {Tacil..  Hist.,  1,  11,  &c.) 
 
 ViRBius  (qui  vir  bis  fuit),  a  name  given  to  Hippol- 
 ytus  after  he  had  been  brought  back  to  life  by  .dSscu- 
 lapius,  at  the  instance  of  Diana,  who  pitied  his  unfor- 
 tunate end.  Virgil  makes  him  son  of  Hippolytus. 
 {jEn.,  7,  762.— Ovid.  Met.,  15,  544.) 
 
 ViRGiLius,  M.4R0  PuBLius,  3  celebrated  Latin  poet, 
 born  at  the  village  of  Andes,  a  few  miles  distant  from 
 Mantua,  about  70  B.C.      It  has  been  disputed  whether 
 his  name  should  be  Vcrgilius  or  Virgilius.     "  Dc  scrip- 
 tura  nominis,^'  says  Heyne,  "  digladiati  sunt  inter  se 
 cum  veteres  turn  reccntiorcs  grainmatiei."     The  let- 
 ters c  and  i  were  frequently  convertible  in  the  old  Lat- 
 in  language  ;  and  sanction  may  be  found  for  either 
 mode  of  spelling,  both  in  MSS.  and  inscriptions.     At 
 the  revival  of   letters,  Politian  contended  strenuous- 
 ly for  Vergilius  ;   but  even  his  authority  was  not  suffi- 
 cient to  bring  this  orthography  into  general   practice. 
 There   e.\ist  but  few  authentic   materials   from  which 
 we  can  collect  any  circumstances  concerning  the  life 
 of  the  poet.     We  possess  only  some  scattered  remarks 
 of  ancient  commentators  or  grammarians,  and  a  life 
 by  Donatus,  of  very  dubious  authority.     It  bears  the 
 name  of  Tiberius  Claudius  Uonatns,  who  lived  in  the 
 fifth  century,  some  time  after  .^illius  Donatus,  so  well 
 known  as  a  commentator  on  Terence.     Heyne  thinks 
 that  the  basis  of  the  Life  was  laid  by  Donatus,  but  that 
 it  was  altered  and  interpolated  from  time  to  time  by 
 the  grammarians,  and  librarians  of  the  convents.     It 
 is  thus  apparently  written  without  any  arrangement  in 
 the  series  of  events,  and    many  things  are   recorded 
 which  are  manifestly  fictitious.      The  monks,  indeed, 
 of  the  middle  ages  seem  to  have  conspired  to  accumu- 
 late fables  concerning  Virgil. — It  appears  that  Virgil's 
 father  was  a  man  of  low  birth,  and  that,  at  one  period 
 of  his   life,  he  was  engaged    in  the  meanest  employ- 
 ments.     According  to  some  authorities  he  was  a  pot- 
 ter or  brickmaker  ;   and,  according  to  others,  the  iiire- 
 ling  of  a  travelling  merchant,  called  Magus  or  Maius. 
 He  so  ingratiated  himself,  however,  with  his  master, 
 that   he   received   his  daughter  Maia  in  marriage,  and 
 was   intrusted  with   the   charge  of  a  farm  which  his 
 father-in-law  had  acquired   in  the  vicinity  of  Mantua. 
 Our  poet  was   the  offspring  of  these  humble  parents. 
 The  cradle  of  illustrious  men,  like  the  origin  of  cele- 
 brated nations,  has  been  frequently  surrounded  by  the 
 marvellous.      Hence  the  dream  of   his   mother  Maia, 
 that  she  had  brought  forth  a  branch  of  laurel,  and   the 
 prodigy  of  the  swarm  of  bees  which  lighted  on  the  lips 
 of  the  infant.      The  studies  of  Virgil  commenced   at 
 Cremona,  where  he  remained  till  he  assumed  the  toga 
 virilis  ;   and   to   this   day  the    inhabitants  of  Oomona 
 pretend  to  show  a  house,  in   the  street  of  St.  Barthol- 
 omew, in  which  Virgil  resided  when  a  youth.     {Cre- 
 mona Lilerata,  2,  p.  401,  ap.  Fabr.,  Bibl.  Lat.,  lib.  1, 
 c.  12.)     At  the  age  of  si.xteen  he  removed  to  Medio- 
 lannm,  and   shortly  afterward   to   Neapolis,  where  he 
 laid  the  foundation  of  that  multifarious  learning  which 
 1382 
 
 shines  so  conspicuously  in  the  .^neid,  and  which  he 
 employed  with   so   much  judgment  as  richly  to  merit 
 the  eulogy  of  Macrobius,  "  Virgilius  quem  nuUius  an- 
 quam  disciplinae  error  involvit."     (In  Somn.,  Scip.,2, 
 8.)     During  his  residence  in  this  city  he  perused  the 
 most   celebrated  Greek   writer.s,  being   instructed  in 
 their  language  and  literature  by  Parthenius  Nicenus 
 {Macrob.,  Sat.,  5,  17),  well  known  as  the  author  of  a 
 collection  of  amatory  talcs,  which  he  wrote  for  the  use 
 of  Cornelius  Gallus,  in  order  to  furnish  him  with  ma- 
 terials for  elegies  and  other  poems.      Virgil  likewise 
 carefully  read  the  Greek  historians,  particularly  Thu- 
 cydides  [Murcti  Opera,  vol.  2,  p.  312,  cd.  Ruhnk.), 
 and    he  studied  the  Epicurean  system  of  jihilosophy 
 under   Syro,  a  celebrated  teacher  of  that  sect.     But 
 medicine  and  mathematics  were  the  sciences  to  which 
 he  was  chiefly  addicted  ;   and  to  this  early  tincture  of 
 geometrical  knowledge  may,  perhaps,  in  some  degree, 
 be  ascribed  his  ideas  of  luminous  order  and  masterly 
 arrangement,  and  that   regularity  of  thought,  as  well 
 as  exactness  of  e.xpression,  by  which  all  his  writings 
 were  distinguished. — Virgil,  it  is  well  known,  was  re- 
 garded as  a  wizard  during  the  dark  ages.     His  char- 
 acter as  an  adept  in  magic  probably  originated  in  his 
 knowledge  of  mathematics  ;   in  the  Pharmaceutria  of 
 his  eighth  eclogue  ;   in  his  revelation  of  the  secrets  of 
 the  unknown  world  in  the  si.xth  book  of  the  ^Eneid  ; 
 and   in  the  report  that  he  had  ordered  his  books  to  be 
 burned,  which  naturally  created  a  suspicion  that  he  had 
 disclosed  in  them  the  mysteries  of  the  black  art.      In 
 whatever  way  it  may  have  originated,  the  belief  in  his 
 magic  powersappears  to  have  prevailed  as  soon  as  man- 
 kind lost  the  retinement  of  taste  which  enabled  them 
 to  appreciate  his  e.\quisite  productions.      The  current 
 fictions  concerning  the   magical    operations  of  Virgil 
 were  first  incorporated  about  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
 teenth century,  in  the  "  Ot?a  Imperialia'"  oi  Gervase 
 of  Tilbury,  chancellor  of  the  Emperor  Otho  IV.,  to 
 whom  he  presented  his  e.xtravagani  compilation.     The 
 fables  of  Gervase  were  transcribed  by  Helinandus  the 
 monk,  in  his  "  Universal  Chronicle  ;"  and  similar  tales 
 were  related   in  the  work  of  Neckham,  "  Dc  Naluris 
 Reriim,'^  and  in   "  The  Seven  Wise  Masters.'"     Such 
 Ijooks  supplied  materials  for  the  old  French  romances 
 of  "  Vergilius,"  and  the  English  '•  Lyfe  of  Vergilius," 
 in  which  stories  are  told  of  miraculous  palaces,  won- 
 derful lamps,  and  magical  statues  which  he  construct- 
 ed.    Vergilius,   the  sorcerer   of  the  middle  ages,   is 
 identified  and  connected  with  the  author  of  the  ^Eneid, 
 from  several  circumstances  being  rela^ted  of  the  for- 
 mer  in  the  romances  which  actually  occurred  in  the 
 life  of  the  poet,  particularly  his  residence  at  Naples, 
 and  the  loss  of  his  inheritance,  which  he  recovered 
 by  the  favour  of  the  emperor  of  Rome.     It  was  also 
 a  common  opinion   in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
 turies, as  ap|)ears  from  the  writings  of  that  age,  th'it 
 the   Mantuan   bard   and    the    sorcerer  were  one    and 
 the  same  person.      It   is  somewhat  in  the  same  spir- 
 it that  a    learned  and   ingenious  writer  of  our  own 
 days  seeks  to  convert  the  bard  into  a  member  of  the 
 Druid  priesthood  !     {Higgins''  Celtic  Druids,  p.  32.) 
 — Donatus  affirms,  that,  after  Virgil  had  finished   his 
 education   at   Naples,  he   went  to  Home,   where   his 
 skill  in  the  diseases  of  all  sorts  of  animals  procured  him 
 an  appointment  in  the  stables  of  the  emperor.     Stories 
 are  related  concerning  his  prediction  as  to  the  defects 
 of  a  colt,  which,  to  all  the  jockeys  of  the  Augustan 
 age,  appeared    to  promise  remarkable  swiftness   and 
 spirit  ;  and  concerning  a  query  propounded  to  him,  as 
 if  lie  had  been  a  sorcerer,  with  regard  to  the  [larentage 
 of  .Augustus  ;   all  which  are  evidently  inventions  of  the 
 middle  ages,  and   bear,  indeed,  much  resemblance  to 
 a   tale  in   the  Cento  Novellc  Antiche,  as   also  to  the 
 stories  of  the  "Three  Sharpers,"  and  the  "Sultan  of 
 Yemen  with  his  three  Sons,"  published  some  years 
 ago  in  Mr.  Scott's  additional  volume  to  the  Arabian 
 
VIRGILIUS. 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 Tales. — It  does  not  seem  certain,  or  even  probable, 
 that  Virgil  went  at  all  to  Rome  from  Naples.  It  rath- 
 er a()pears  that  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  and 
 to  the  charge  of  his  paternal  farm  ;  and  if,  as  is  gen- 
 erally supposed,  he  intended  to  describe  his  own  life 
 and  character  under  the  person  of  Tityrus,  in  the  first 
 eclogue,  It  is  evident  that  he  did  not  visit  Rome  until 
 after  the  battle  of  Phili|)[)i,  and  consequent  division  of 
 the  lands  among  the  soldiery.  Some  poems  which 
 are  still  e.\tant,  as  the  Culex  and  Ciris,  were  at  one 
 time  believed  to  have  been  the  fruits  of  his  genius  at 
 this  early  period.  We  are  also  told,  that,  in  the 
 warmth  of  his  earliest  youth,  he  had  formed  the  bold 
 design  of  writing,  in  imitation  of  Ennius,  a  poem  on  the 
 wars  of  Rome,  but  that  he  was  deterred  from  jjroceeding 
 by  the  ruggedness  of  the  ancient  Italian  names,  which 
 wounded  tlie  delicacy  of  his  ear.  It  seems  certain,  at 
 least,  that,  previous  to  the  composition  of  his  Eclogues, 
 he  had  made  imperfect  attempts  in  the  higher  depart- 
 ments of  heroic  poetry.  {Eclog.,  G,  3.) — The  battle 
 of  Mutina  {Modciia)  was  fouglit  in  711  A.U.(J.,  and 
 the  triumvirate  having  been  shortly  afterward  formed, 
 Asiinis  Pollio  was  ajipointed,  on  the  part  of  Antony, 
 to  the  command  of  the  district  in  which  the  farm  of 
 Virgil  lay.  Pollio,  who  was  a  noted  extortioner,  lev- 
 ied enormous  contributions  from  the  inhabitants  ot  the 
 terriiorv  intrusted  to  his  care  ;  and,  in  some  instances, 
 when  the  pecuniary  supplies  failed,  he  drove  the  an- 
 cient colonists  from  their  lands,  and  settled  his  veterans 
 in  their  place.  He  was  fond,  however,  of  poetry,  and 
 was  a  generous  protector  of  literary  man.  The  rising 
 genius  of  Virgil  had  now  begun  to  manifest  itself.  His 
 poetic  talents  and  amiable  manners  recommended  him 
 to  the  favour  of  Pollio  ;  and,  so  long  as  that  chief 
 continued  in  command  of  the  Mantuan  district,  he  was 
 relieved  from  all  exaction,  and  protected  in  the  peace- 
 able possession  of  his  property.  Residing  constantly 
 in  the  country,  and  captivated  with  the  rural  beauties 
 of  the  Idyllia  of  Theocritus,  Virgil  early  became  ambi- 
 tious of  introducing  this  new  species  of  poetry  into  his 
 native  land  ;  and,  a(-cordingly,  he  seems  to  have  bent 
 his  chief  endeavours  at  this  time  to  imitate  and  rival 
 the  sweet  Sicilian.  The  eclogue  entitled  "/l/cri*," 
 which  is  usually  placed  second  in  the  editions  of  his 
 works,  is  supposed  to  have  been  his  first  pastoral  pro- 
 duction, and  to  have  been  written  in  711,  the  year  in 
 which  Pollio  came  to  assume  the  military  command 
 of  the  territory  where  our  poet  resided.  It  was  quick- 
 ly followed  by  the  ''  Daphnis"  and  "  Sdcnus,^'  as  also 
 by  the  "  J'alccmon,"  in  which  he  boasts  of  the  favour 
 of  Pollio,  and  expresses  his  gratitude  for  the  favour 
 that  leader  had  extended  to  hiin.  But  the  tranquillity 
 he  enjoyed  under  the  protection  of  Pollio  was  of  short 
 duration.  Previously  to  the  battle  of  Philijipi,  the  tri- 
 umvirs had  promised  to  their  soldiers  the  lands  be- 
 longing to  some  of  the  richest  towns  in  the  empire. 
 Augustus  returned  to  Italy  in  712,  after  his  victory 
 at  Philippi,  and  found  it  necessary,  in  order  to  satisly 
 their  claims,  to  commence  a  division  of  lands  in  Italy 
 on  a  more  extensive  scale  even  than  he  had  intended. 
 In  that  country  there  were  considerable  territories 
 which  had  iieen  originally  and  legally  the  patrimony  of 
 the  state.  Hut  extensive  tracts  of  this  species  of  pub- 
 lic property  had,  from  time  to  time,  been  appropriated 
 by  corporations  and  individuals,  who  were  unwilling 
 to  be  disturbed  in  their  possessions.  Julius  Caesar 
 had  set  the  example  of  reclaiming  these  farms  and 
 colonizing  them  with  his  soldiers.  His  successor  now 
 undertook  a  similar  but  more  extensive  distribution. 
 In  the  middle  and  south  of  Italy,  howtvcr,  the  lands 
 were  chielly  private  inherilance,  or  had  been  so  long 
 retai'.ied  by  individuals  that  a  claim  had  been  acquired 
 to  them  by  length  of  possession  ;  but  in  the  north  of 
 Italy  they  were  for  the  most  part  public  property,  on 
 which  colonists  had  been  more  recently  settled.  These 
 were  the  lands  first  assigned  lo  the  soldiers ;  and  the 
 
 district  to  the  north  of  the  Po  was,  in  consequence, 
 chiefly  affected  by  the  partition.  Cremona  had,  un- 
 fortunately, espoused  the  cause  of  Brutus,  and  thus 
 peculiarly  incurred  the  vengeance  of  the  victorious 
 party.  But  as  its  territory  was  not  found  adequate  to 
 contain  the  veteran  soldiers  of  the  triumvirs,  among 
 whom  it  had  been  divided,  the  deficiency  was  supplied 
 from  the  neighbouring  district  of  .Mantua,  in  which  the 
 farm  of  Virgil  lay.  The  discontent  which  this  op- 
 pressive measure  created  in  Italy,  being  augmented 
 by  the  artifices  of  Fulvia  and  Lucius  Antony,  the 
 wife  and  brother  of  the  triumvir,  gave  rise  to  the  war 
 which  terminated  favourably  for  Augustus  with  the 
 capture  of  Perugia.  Pollio,  being  a  zealous  partisan 
 of  Antony,  and  supporting  the  party  of  his  brother 
 and  Fulvia,  who  unsuccessfully  op[)Osed  the  division 
 of  the  lands,  had  it  probably  no  longer  in  his  pow- 
 er to  protect  Virgil  from  the  aggressions  of  the  sol- 
 diers. He  was  dispossessed  under  circumstances  of 
 peculiar  violence,  and  which  even  threatened  dan- 
 ger to  his  personal  safety  ;  being  compelled  on  one 
 occasion  to  escape  the  fury  of  the  centurion  Arrius 
 by  swimming  over  the  Mincius.  He  had  the  good 
 fortune,  however,  to  obtain  the  favour  of  Alphenus 
 Varus,  with  whom  he  had  studied  philosophy  at  Na- 
 ples, under  Syro  the  Epicurean,  and  who  now  ei- 
 ther succeeded  Pollio  in  the  command  of  the  district, 
 or  was  appointed  by  Augustus  to  superintend  in  that 
 quarter  the  division  of  the  lands.  Under  his  protec- 
 tion Virgil  twice  repaired  lo  Rome,  where  he  was 
 received,  not  only  by  Majcenas,  but  by  Augustus  him- 
 self, from  whom  he  procured  the  restoration  of  the 
 patrimony  of  which  he  had  been  deprived.  This  hap- 
 pened in  the  commencement  of  the  year  714;  and  du- 
 ring the  course  of  that  season,  in  gratitude  for  the  fa- 
 vours he  had  received,  he  composed  his  eclogue  enti- 
 tled Tityrus,  in  which  he  introduces  two  shepherds, 
 one  of  whom  laments  the  distraction  of  the  times,  and 
 complains  of  the  aggressions  of  the  soldiery,  while 
 the  other  rejoices  over  the  recovery  of  his  farm,  and 
 vows  ever  to  honour  as  a  god  the  youth  who  had  re- 
 stored it.  The  remaining  eclogues,  with  the  excep- 
 tion, perhaps,  of  the  tenth,  called  "  Gallus,"  were  pro- 
 duced in  the  course  of  this  and  the  following  year. — 
 ^'lrgll  had  now  spent  three  years  in  the  composition 
 of  pastoral  poetry  and  in  constant  residence  on  his 
 farm,  except  during  the  two  journeys  to  Rome  which 
 he  was  compelled  to  undertake  for  its  preservation. 
 In  his  pastorals,  however,  though  written  in  his  native 
 fields,  we  do  not  find  many  delineations  of  Mantuan 
 scenery,  or  very  frequent  allusions  to  the  Mincius  and 
 its  borders.  His  great  object  was  to  enrich  his  na- 
 tive language  with  a  species  of  poetry  unknown  in 
 Latium,  and,  to  promote  his  success,  he  chose  Theoc- 
 ritus as  his  model.  With  few  attempts  at  invention, 
 he  pretended  to  little  more  than  the  merit  of  being  the 
 first  Roman  who  had  imitated  the  Sicilian  poet,  and 
 hence  he  did  not  hesitate  to  borrow,  not  only  the  sen- 
 timents and  images,  but  even  the  rural  descriptions  of 
 his  master. — The  situation  of  Virgil's  residence  was 
 low  and  humid,  and  the  climate  chill  at  certain  sea- 
 sons of  the  year.  His  delicate  constitution,  and  the 
 pulmonary  complaint  with  which  he  was  alfectcd,  in- 
 duced him,  about  the  year  714  or  715,  when  he  had 
 reached  the  age  of  thirty,  to  seek  a  warmer  sky.  To 
 this  change,  it  may  be  conjectured,  he  was  farther  in- 
 stigated by  his  increasing  celebrity  and  the  extension 
 of  his  poetic  fame.  His  countrymen  were  captivated 
 by  the  perfect  novelty  of  pastoral  composition,  and  by 
 the  successful  boldness  with  which  Virgil  had  trans- 
 1  ferred  the  sweet  Sicilian  strains  lo  a  language  which, 
 i  before  his  attempt,  must  have  appeared,  from  its  hard- 
 I  ness  and  severity,  but  little  adapted  to  be  a  vehicle  for 
 I  the  softness  of  rural  description  or  the  delicacy  of  am- 
 orous scntiineiU,  and  which  hid  scarcely  yet  been 
 !  polished  or  refined  to  the  susceptibility  of  such  smooth 
 '  ^  1383 
 
VIRGILIUS. 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 numbers  as  the  pastoral  muse  demanded.  The  Bu- 
 coUcs  accordingly  were  relished  and  admired  by  all 
 classes  of  his  contcmijoranes.  JSo  universal  was  their 
 popularity,  that  the  philosophic  eclogue  of  Stlenus, 
 soon  after  its  composition,  was  |)ublicly  recited  in  the 
 theatre  by  Cytheris,  a  celebrated  actress  of  mimes. — 
 On  quitting  his  paternal  fields,  Virgil  first  proceeded 
 to  the  capital.  Here  his  private  fortune  was  consid- 
 erably augmented  by  the  liberality  of  Mascenas  {Mar- 
 tial. 8,  61))  ;  and  such  was  the  favour  he  possessed 
 with  his  patron,  that  we  find  him,  soon  after  his  arri- 
 val at  Home,  introducing  Horace  to  the  notice  of  the 
 minister  {Hor  ,  Sat.,  1,  fi),  and  attending  him,  along 
 with  that  poet,  on  a  political  mission  to  Brundisium. 
 Nor  did  Virgil  enjoy  less  favour  with  the  emperor  him- 
 self than  with  his  minister.  It  is  said  that  he  never 
 asked  anything  of  Augustus  that  was  refused  ;  and  Do- 
 iiatus  even  aflirms,  though,  it  must  be  confessed,  with- 
 out the  least  probability,  that  Augustus  consulted  him 
 with  regard  to  his  resignation  of  the  government,  as  a 
 sort  of  umpire  between  Agrippa  and  Mascenas.  It 
 was  probably  during  this  period  of  favour  with  the 
 emperor  and  his  minister  that  Virgil  contributed  the 
 verses  in  celebration  of  the  deity  who  presided  over 
 the  gardens  of  Maecenas  ;  and  wrote,  though  without 
 acknowledging  it,  that  well-known  distich  in  honour 
 of  Augustus, 
 
 "  Nude  plait  lota ;  rcdcunt  spectacula  mane  ; 
 Divisum  imperium  cum  Jove  Cctsar  habct." 
 
 The  story  goes  on  to  relate,  that  Bathyllus,  a  con- 
 temptible poet  of  the  day,  claimed  these  verses  as  his 
 own,  and  was  liberally  rewarded.  Vexed  at  the  im- 
 posture, Virgil  again  wrote  the  verses  in  question  near 
 the  palace,  and  under  them, 
 
 "  Hos  ego  versiculos  feci,  tulit  alter  honores  ; 
 
 with  the  beginning  of  another  line  in  these  words, 
 
 "  Sic  vos  non  vobis," 
 
 four  times  repeated.  Augustus  wished  the  lines  to  be 
 finished  ;  Bathyllus  seemed  unalile  ;  and  Virgil  at  last, 
 by  completing  the  stanza  in  the  following  order, 
 
 "  Sic  vos  non  vobls  nidijicatis  avcs  ; 
 Sic  vos  non  vvbis  vellera  fertis  oves  ; 
 Sic  vos  non  vobts  mellificatis  apes  ; 
 Sic  vos  non  vobis  fertis  aratra  boves,'^ 
 
 proved  himself  to  be  the  author  of  the  distich,  and  the 
 poetical  usurper  became  the  sport  and  ridicule  of 
 liome.  During  his  residence  at  Rome,  Virgil  inhab- 
 ited a  house  on  the  Esquiline  Hill,  which  was  fur- 
 nished with  an  e.xcellent  library,  and  was  pleasantly 
 situated  near  the  gardens  of  .Maecenas.  The  supposed 
 site,  and  even  ruins  of  this  mansion,  were  long  shown 
 to  modern  travellers.  —  Yet,  however  enviable  was 
 Virgil's  present  lot,  the  bustle  atid  lu.tury  of  an  im- 
 mense capital  were  little  suited  to  his  taste,  to  his 
 early  habits,  or  to  the  delicacy  of  his  constitution, 
 while  the  observance  and  attention  he  met  with  were 
 strongly  repugnant  to  the  retiring  modesty  of  his  dis- 
 position. Such  was  the  popularity  which  he  derived 
 from  his  general  character  and  talents,  that,  on  one 
 occasion,  when  some  of  his  verses  were  recited  in  the 
 theatre,  the  whole  audience  rose  to  salute  Virgil,  who 
 was  present,  with  the  same  respect  which  they  would 
 have  paid  to  the  emperor.  (Dc  Cans.  corr.  clorj.,  c. 
 13.)  And  so  great  was  the  annoyance  which  he  felt 
 on  being  gazed  at  and  followed  in  the  streets  of  Rome, 
 that  he  sought  shelter,  it  is  said,  in  the  nearest  shops 
 or  alleys  from  public  observation.  —  At  the  period 
 when  Virgil  enjoyed  so  much  honour  and  popularity 
 in  the  capital,  Naples  was  a  favourite  retreat  of  illus- 
 U84 
 
 trious  and  literary  men.  Thither  Virgil  retired  about 
 A.U.C.  717,  when  in  the  thirty-third  year  of  his  age; 
 and  he  continued,  during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  to 
 dwell  chiefly  in  that  city,  or  at  a  delightful  villa  which 
 he  possessed  in  the  Campania  Felix,  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  Nola,  ten  miles  east  of  Naples,  leading  a  life 
 which  may  be  considered  as  hap[)y  when  coin|)ared 
 with  the  fate  of  the  other  great  epic  poets.  Homer, 
 Tasso,  and  Milton,  in  whom  the  mind  or  the  vision 
 was  darkened.  About  the  time  when  he  first  went  to 
 reside  at  Na[)les,  he  commenced  his  Georgics  by  or- 
 der of  Maecenas,  and  continued,  for  the  seven  follow- 
 ing years,  closely  occupied  with  the  composition  of 
 that  iiiimitahle  poem.  During  this  long  period  he  waa 
 accustomed  to  dictate  a  number  of  verses  in  the  morn- 
 ing, and  to  spend  the  rest  of  the  day  in  revising  and 
 correcting  them,  or  reducing  them  to  a  smaller  num- 
 ber, comparing  himself  in  this  respect  to  a  she-bear, 
 which  licks  her  misshapen  offspring  into  proper  form 
 and  proportion.  {Aul.  GelL,  N.  A.,  17,  10.)  Little 
 is  known  concerning  the  other  circumstances  of  Vir- 
 gil's life  during  the  years  in  which  he  was  employed  in 
 perfecting  his  Georgics.  He  had  a  dispute,  it  is  said, 
 with  his  neighbours,  the  inhabitants  of  Nola,  from 
 whom  he  requested  permission  to  convey  a  small 
 stream  of  water  into  his  villa,  which  was  adjacent  to 
 their  town.  The  citizens  would  not  grant  the  favour, 
 and  the  offended  poet  expunged  the  name  of  Nola  from 
 the  following  lines  of  his  Georgics, 
 
 "  Talcm  dives  arat  Capua,  ct  Vicina  Vesevo 
 Nola  jugo — " 
 
 and  substitued  the  word  ora  instead  of  the  obnoxious 
 city.  {Aul.  GelL,  N.  A.,  7,  20.)  The  story,  howev- 
 er, is  entitled  to  no  credit.  {Vid.  Nola.) — The  genius 
 of  Virgil,  being  attended  with  some  degree  of  diffi- 
 dence, seems  to  have  gained,  by  slow  steps,  the  meas- 
 ure of  confidence  which  at  length  imboldened  hiin  to 
 attempt  epic  poetry.  He  had  begun  his  experience  in 
 verse  with  humble  efforts  in  the  pastoral  line  ;  though 
 even  there  we  behold  his  ardent  Muse  frequently 
 bursting  the  barriers  by  which  she  ought  naturally  to 
 have  been  restrained.  He  next  undertook  the  bolder 
 and  wider  topic  of  husbandry  ;  and  it  was  not  till  he 
 had  finished  this  subject  with  unrivalled  success  that 
 he  presumed  to  write  the  ^^neid.  This  poem,  which 
 occupied  him  till  his  death,  was  commenced  in  724, 
 the  same  year  in  which  he  had  completed  his  Geor- 
 gics. After  he  had  been  engaged  for  some  time  in 
 its  composition,  the  greatest  curiosity  and  interest 
 concerning  it  began  to  be  felt  at  Rome.  A  work,  it 
 was  generally  believed,  was  in  progress,  which  would 
 eclipse  the  fame  of  the  Iliad  {Propcrt.,  2,  34,  66); 
 and  the  passage  which  describes  the  shield  of  ^Eneas 
 appears  to  have  been  seen  by  Propertius.  Augustus 
 himself  at  length  became  desirous  of  reading  the 
 poem  so  far  as  it  had  been  carried  ;  and,  in  the  year 
 729,  while  absent  from  Rome  on  a  military  expedition 
 against  the  Cantabrians,  he  wrote  to  the  author  from 
 the  extremity  of  his  empire,  entreating  him  to  be  al- 
 lowed a  perusal  of  it.  Macrobius  has  preserved  one 
 of  Virgil's  answers  to  Augustus:  "I  have  of  late  re- 
 ceived from  you  frequent  letters.  With  regard  to  my 
 jEneas,  if,  by  Hercules,  it  were  worth  your  listening 
 to,  I  would  willingly  send  it.  But  so  vast  is  the  un- 
 dertaking, that  I  almost  appear  to  myself  to  have  com- 
 menced such  a  work  from  some  defect  in  judgment  or 
 understanding  ;  especially  since,  as  you  know,  other 
 and  far  higher  studies  are  required  for  such  a  perform- 
 ance." {Sat.,  1,  24.) — Prevailed  on,  at  length,  by 
 these  importunities,  Virgil,  about  a  year  after  the  re- 
 turn of  Augustus,  recited  to  him  the  sixth  boo'K,  m 
 presence  of  his  sister  Octavia,  who  had  recently  lost 
 her  only  son  MarcelUis,  the  darling  of  Rome,  and  the 
 adopted  child  of  Augustus.  The  poet,  probably,  in 
 the  prospect  of  this  recitation,  had  inserted  the  affect- 
 
VIRGILIUS. 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 mg  passage   in   which  he  alludes  to  the  premature 
 death  of  the  beloved  youth  : 
 
 "  (J  nalc,  ingcntem  lactam  nc  qucere  tuurum,"  &.c. 
 
 But  he  had  skilfully  su[)pressed  the  name  of  Marcellus 
 till  he  came  to  the  line, 
 
 *'Tm  Marcellus  eris — manihus  date  lilia  plcnis." 
 
 It  may  well  be  believed  that  the  widowed  mother 
 of  Marcellus  swooned  away  at  the  pathos  of  these 
 verses,  which  no  one,  even  at  this  day,  can  read  un- 
 Moved.  Virgil  is  said  to  have  received  from  the 
 anlicted  parent  10,000  sesterces  {dena  xcstcr/ui)  for 
 each  verse  of  this  celebrated  passage. — It  was  much 
 the  practice  among  the  Roman  poets  to  read  their 
 productions  aloud  ;  and  Virgil  is  said  to  have  recited 
 his  verses  with  wonderful  sweetness  and  propriety  of 
 articulation.  During  the  composition  of  the  ^Eneid, 
 he  occasionally  repeated  portions  of  it  to  those  friends 
 whose  criticisms  he  tliouglit  might  improve  the  pas- 
 sage he  rehearsed.  Eros,  his  litirarian  and  frcedinan, 
 used  to  relate,  when  far  advanced  in  life,  that,  in  the 
 course  of  his  reciting,  his  master  liad  extcmporarily 
 filled  up  two  hemistichs ;  the  one  was  "  Misenum 
 ^oliden,"  to  which  he  immediately  added,  "  quo  non 
 prcEslandor  alter,'''  and  the  other  the  half  verse  fol- 
 lowing, "  Aire  ciere  viros,'"  to  which,  as  if  struck  by 
 poetic  insjjiration,  he  subjoined,  '•  Marlcrnque  acccn- 
 dere  canlu  ;"  and  he  immediately  ordered  his  amanu- 
 ensis to  insert  these  additions  in  their  proper  places  in 
 the  manuscript  of  his  poem. — Having  brought  the 
 JEncxil  to  a  conclusion,  but  not  the  perfection  which 
 he  wished  to  bestow  upon  it,  Virgil,  contrary  to  the 
 advice  and  wish  of  his  friends,  resolved  to  travel  into 
 Greece,  that  he  might  correct  and  polish  this  great 
 production  at  leisure  in  thai  land  of  poetic  imagination. 
 It  was  on  undertaking  this  voyage  that  Horace  ad- 
 dressed to  him  the  affectionate  ode  beginning, 
 
 "  Sic  te  Diva  potens  Cypri,"  &.c.  (1,  3). 
 
 Virgil  proceeded  directly  to  Athens,  where  he  com- 
 menced the  revisal  of  his  epic  poem,  and  added  the 
 magnificent  introduction  to  the  third  book  of  the 
 Georgics.  He  had  been  thus  engaged  for  some  months 
 at  Athens,  when  Augustus  arrived  at  that  city,  on  his 
 return  to  Italy,  from  a  progress  through  his  eastern  do- 
 minions. ^^'hcn  he  embarked  lor  Greece,  it  had  been 
 the  intention  of  Virgil  to  have  spent  three  years  in  ihat 
 country  in  the  correction  of  his  poem  ;  after  which  he 
 proposed  to  pass  his  days  in  his  native  country  of  Man- 
 tua, and  devote  the  rest  of  his  life  to  the  study  of  philoso- 
 phy, or  to  the  composition  of  some  great  historical  poem. 
 The  arrival  of  Augustus,  however,  induced  him  to  short- 
 en his  stay,  and  to  embrace  the  O|)portunily  of  returning 
 to  Italy  in  the  retinue  of  the  emperor.  But  the  hand  of 
 death  was  already  upon  him.  Fro.m  his  youth  he  had 
 been  of  a  delicate  constitution  ;  and,  as  age  advanced, 
 he  was  afllicted  with  frequent  headaches,  asthma,  and 
 spitting  of  blood.  Even  the  climate  of  Naples  could 
 not  preserve  him  from  frequent  attacks  of  these  mala- 
 dies, and  their  worst  symptoms  had  increased  during 
 his  residence  in  Greece.  The  vessel  in  which  he 
 embarked  vvilh  the  emperor  touched  at  Megara,  where 
 he  was  seized  with  great  debility  and  lansuor.  When 
 he  again  went  on  board,  his  distemper  was  so  increased 
 by  the  .motion  and  agitation  of  the  vessel,  that  he  ex- 
 pired a  few  davs  after  he  had  landed  at  Brundisium, 
 on  the  southeastern  coast  of  Italy.  His  death  ha|)pen- 
 ed  A.U  0.  7:H,  when  he  was  in  the  ."jlst  year  of  his 
 age.  \M)en  he  felt  its  near  approach,  he  onlered  his 
 friends  Varius  and  Plotius  Tucca,  who  were  then  with 
 him.  to  burn  the  /Eneid  as  an  imperfect  poem.  The 
 ancient  classical  authorities  only  say  that  Virgil  com- 
 manded the  /Eneid  to  be  burned.  (Plin  ,  7,  30. — 
 Aul.  Gcll,  N.  A.,  17,  \0.—Macrob.,  Sat.,  1,  24.) 
 8N 
 
 Donatus  says  that  he  had  ordered  it  to  be  burned,  but 
 adds,  that  on  Varius  and  'I'ucca  representing  to  him 
 that  Augustus  would  not  permit  u  to  be  destroyed, 
 he  committed  it  to  them  for  revisal  and  correction. 
 Moreri  relates  the  story  as  it  is  told  by  Macrobius, 
 Aulus  Gellius,  and  Pliny  ;  and  Bayle,  as  usual,  rep- 
 rehends him  because  he  has  not  given  it  accord- 
 ing to  the  version  of  Donatus.  Augustus,  however, 
 interposed  to  save  a  work  which  he  no  doubt  saw 
 would  at  once  confer  immortality  on  the  poet  and  on 
 the  prince  who  patronised  him.  It  was  accordingly 
 intrusted  to  Varius  and  Tucca,  with  a  j)ower  to  revise 
 and  retrench,  but  with  a  charge  that  they  should  make 
 no  additions  ;  a  command  which  they  so  strictly  ob- 
 served as  not  to  complete  even  the  hemistichs  which 
 had  been  left  imjierfect.  They  are  said,  however,  to 
 have  struck  out  twenty- two  verses  from  the  second 
 book,  where  ^Eneas,  perceiving  Helen  amid  the  smo- 
 king ruins  of  Troy,  intends  to  slay  her,  till  his  design 
 is  prevented  by  his  goddess  mother.  (Consult  Ca- 
 tron, (Euvrcs  de  Vtrgile ;  Dissert,  sur  le  2d  livre 
 de  r Encidc,  note  10.)  These  lines,  accordingly,  were 
 wanting  in  many  of  the  ancient  manuscripts,  but  they 
 have  been  subsequently  restored  to  tlieir  })lace.  Ihere 
 was  also  a  report  long  current,  that  Varius  had  made 
 a  change,  which  still  subsists,  in  the  arrangement  oi 
 two  of  the  books,  by  transposing  the  order  of  the  sec- 
 ond and  third,  the  latter  having  stood  first  in  the  ori- 
 ginal manuscript.  According  to  some  accounts,  the 
 four  lines  "///c  ego  quondam,"  &.c..,  which  are  still 
 prefixed  to  the  -lineid  m  many  editions,  were  expun 
 ged  by  Varius  and  Tucca  ;  but,  according  to  others, 
 they  never  were  written  by  Virgil,  and  are  no  better 
 than  an  interpolation  of  the  middle  ages. — Virgil  be- 
 qiM  M'h.d  the  greater  part  of  his  wealth,  which  was  con 
 sidi  r.i  ilf,  to  a  brother.  The  remainder  was  divided 
 among  his  patron  Mscenas,  and  his  friends  Varius  and 
 Tucca.  Before  his  death,  he  had  also  commanded 
 that  his  bones  should  be  carried  to  Naples,  where  he 
 had  lived  so  long  and  so  happily.  This  order  was  ful- 
 filled, under  charge  of  Augustus  himself.  Accord- 
 ing to  the  most  ancient  tradition  and  the  most  com- 
 monly received  opinion,  the  tomb  of  Virgil  lies  about 
 two  miles  to  the  north  of  Naples,  on  the  slope  of  the 
 hill  of  Pausilippo,  and  over  the  entrance  to  the  grotto 
 or  subterraneous  passage  which  has  been  cut  through 
 its  ridge,  on  the  road  leading  from  Naples  to  Putcoli. 
 Cluvcrius  and  Addison,  indeed,  have  placed  the  tomb 
 on  the  other  side  of  Naples,  near  the  foot  of  Mount 
 Vesuvius  ;  but  the  other  0[)iiiion  is  based  upon  the 
 common  tradition  of  the  country,  and  accords  with  the 
 belief  of  Petrarch.  Sannazarius,  and  Bembo  :  it  may 
 still  be  cherished,  therefore,  by  the  traveller  who  climbs 
 the  hill  of  Pausilippo,  and  he  may  still  think  that  he 
 hails  the  shade  of  Virgil  on  the  s|)ot  where  his  ashes 
 repose.  Notwithstanding,  however,  the  veneration 
 which  the  Romans  entertained  for  the  works  of  \'irgil, 
 his  sepulchre  was  neglected  before  the  time  of  Martial, 
 who  declares  that  Silius  Italicus  first  restored  its  long- 
 forgotten  honours.  What  is  at  present  called  the 
 tomb,  is  in  the  form  of  a  small,  square,  llat-roofed 
 building,  placed  on  a  sort  of  platform,  near  the  brow 
 of  a  precipice,  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  sheltered 
 by  a  su|)erincumbent  rock.  Half  a  century  ago,  when 
 More  travelled  in  Italy,  an  ancient  laurel  (a  shoot,  per- 
 ha])s,  of  the  same  which  Petrarch  had  planted)  over- 
 hung the  simple  edifice.  {Mare's  Travels,  Letter  65.) 
 Within  the  low  vaulted  cell  was  once  placed  the  urn 
 supposed  to  contain  the  ashes  of  Virgil.  Pietro  Ste- 
 fano.  who  livtd  in  the  thirteenth  century,  mentions 
 that  he  had  seen  the  urn,  with  the  epitaph  inscribed  on 
 it,  which  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  the  poet  him- 
 self a  few  moments  before  his  death  : 
 
 "  Mantua  me  genuit ;  Calahri  rapucre  ;  tenet  7iun: 
 Parthcnvpc.      Cccini  pascua,  rura,  duces." 
 
 1385 
 
VIRGILIUS. 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 It  was  a  common  practice  among  the  Latin  poets  to 
 write  their  own  epitaphs  ;  and,  if  the  above  distich  be 
 the  production  of  Virgil  himself,  it  is  eminently  ex- 
 pressive of  that  modesty  whicii  is  universally  allowed 
 to  have  been  one  of  the  many  amiable  features  of  his 
 character,  and  which  is  by  no  means  observable  in  the 
 epitaphs  composed  for  themselves  by  Ennius  and  Nae- 
 vius.  The  Italian  writer  just  cited  also  remarks, 
 that  Robert  of  Anjou,  apprehensive  for  the  safety  of 
 such  a  relic  during  the  civil  wars,  had  the  urn  conveyed 
 to  Castcl  Nunvo.  It  seems  that  so  much  care  was 
 taken,  that  it  was  concealed  too  well  to  be  ever  after- 
 ward discovered. — We  have  seen  that,  at  Rome,  Vir- 
 gil avoided  all  public  honours,  and  was  disconcerted 
 by  marks  of  general  admiration.  But,  though  he 
 loved  retirement  and  contemplation;  though  he  was  of 
 a  thoughtful  and  somewhat  melancholy  temper ;  and 
 though  he  felt  not  that  anxiety  for  paltry  distinctions 
 or  trivial  testimonies  of  honour  which  harassed  the 
 morbid  mind  of  Tasso,  it  seems  to  be  a  mistaken  idea 
 that  he  was  indifferent  to  glory,  as  Donatus  and  As- 
 conius  Pedianus  have  asserted.  He  was  evidently 
 fond  of  fame,  and  desirous  to  obtain  the  applause  of 
 his  contemporaries.  And  while  he  shunned  the  vul- 
 gar gaze  and  shrunk  from  the  pressure  of  the  multi- 
 tude, he  was  not,  in  the  hours  of  retirement,  without 
 that  proud  exultation  of  spirit,  that  consciousness  of 
 high  intellectual  endowments  and  strong  imaginative 
 powers,  wliich  announced  to  him  that  he  was  called 
 to  immortality,  and  destined  to  confer  immortality  on 
 his  country. — It  has  already  been  remarked,  that,  in 
 his  pastoral  poetry,  Virgil  was  the  professed  imitator 
 of  Theocritus  :  his  images,  indeed,  are  all  Greek,  and 
 his  scenery  such  as  he  found  painted  in  the  pages  of 
 the  Sicilian  poet,  and  not  what  he  had  himself  observ- 
 ed on  the  banks  of  the  Mincius.  Yet,  with  all  this  im- 
 itation and  resemblance,  the  productions  of  the  two 
 poets  are  widely  different.  Thus,  the  delineations  of 
 character  in  Theocritus  are  more  varied  and  lively. 
 His  Idyls  exhibit  a  gallery  of  portraits  which  enter- 
 tains by  its  variety  or  delights  by  its  truth  ;  and  in 
 which  every  rural  figure  is  so  distinctly  drawn,  that  it 
 stands  out,  as  it  were,  from  the  canvass,  in  a  defined 
 and  certain  form.  But  that  want  of  discrimination  of 
 character,  which  has  been  so  frequently  remarked  in 
 the  ^neid,  is  also  observable  in  the  pastorals  of  Vir- 
 gil. His  Thyrsis,  Daphnis,  and  Meiialcas  resemble 
 each  other.  No  shepherd  is  distinguished  by  any  pe- 
 culiar disposition  or  humour;  they  all  speak  from  the 
 lips  of  the  poet,  and  their  dialogue  is  modelled  by  the 
 standard  of  his  own  elegant  mind.  A  difference  is 
 likewise  observable  in  the  scenes  and  descriptions. 
 Those  of  Theocritus  possess  that  minuteness  and  accu- 
 racy so  conducive  to  poetic  truth  and  reality  ;  Virgil's 
 representations  are  more  general,  and  bring  only  vague 
 images  before  the  fancy.  In  the  Idyls  of  Theocritus 
 we  find  a  rural,  romantic  wildness  of  thought,  and  the 
 most  pleasing  descriptions  of  simple,  unadorned  nature, 
 heightened  by  the  charm  of  the  Doric  dialect.  But 
 Vircil,  in  borrowing  his  images  and  sentiments,  has 
 seldom  drawn  an  idea  from  his  Sicilian  master  without 
 beautifying  it  by  the  lustre  of  his  language.  The  chief 
 merit,  however,  of  Virgil's  imitations  lies  in  his  judi- 
 cious selections.  Theocritus's  sketches  of  manners  are 
 often  coarse  and  unpleasing;  and  his  most  beautiful 
 descriptions  are  almost  always  too  crowded.  But  Vir- 
 gil refined  whatever  was  gross,  and  threw  aside  all  that 
 was  overloaded  or  superfluous.  He  made  his  shep- 
 herds more  cultivated  than  even  those  of  his  own  time. 
 He  represented  them  with  some  of  the  features  wliich 
 are  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the  swains  in  the 
 early  ages  of  the  world,  when  they  were  possessed  of 
 great  flocks  and  herds,  and  had  acquired  a  knowledge 
 of  astronomy,  cosmogony,  and  music  ;  when  the  [las- 
 toral  life,  in  short,  appeared  perfection,  and  nature 
 had  lavished  all  her  stores  to  render  the  shepherd  hap- 
 1386 
 
 py. — Thus  much  for  the  pastoral  poetry  of  Virgil. 
 We  come  next  to  the  Gcorgics.  This  j)oem,  which  is 
 in  four  books,  derives  its  title  from  the  Greek  Tiuo-ji- 
 Ka,  which  last  is  compounded  of  jia  {yri),  '■'■the  earth" 
 and  ipyov,  "  labour."  The  subject  is  husbandry  in 
 general.  The  poem  of  the  Gcorgics  is  as  remarkable 
 for  majesty  and  magnificence  of  diction,  as  the  Ec- 
 logues are  for  sweetness  and  harmony  of  versification. 
 It  is  the  most  complete,  elaborate,  and  finished  poem 
 in  the  Latin,  or  perhaps  in  any  language  ;  and,  though 
 the  choice  of  subject  and  the  situations  afforded  less 
 expectation  of  success  than  the  pastorals,  so  much  has 
 been  achieved  by  art  and  genius,  that  the  author  has 
 chiefly  exhibited  himself  as  a  poet  on  topics  where  it 
 was  difficult  to  appear  as  such.  Rome,  from  its  local 
 situation,  was  not  well  adapted  for  commerce  ;  and, 
 from  the  time  of  Romulus  to  that  of  Ctesar,  agricul- 
 ture had  been  the  chief  care  of  the  Romans.  Its  op- 
 erations were  conducted  by  the  greatest  statesmen, 
 and  its  precepts  inculcated  by  the  profoundest  scholars. 
 The  long  continuance,  however,  and  fatal  ravages  of 
 the  civil  wars,  had  now  occasioned  an  almost  general 
 desolation.  Italy  was,  in  a  great  measure,  depopula- 
 ted of  its  husbandmen.  The  soldiers,  by  whom  the 
 lands  were  newly  occupied,  had  too  long  ravished  the 
 fields  to  think  of  cultivating  them  ;  and,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  farms  lying  waste,  a  famine  and  insur- 
 rection had  nearly  ensued.  {Georg  ,  1,  505.)  In  these 
 circumstances,  Ma3cenas  resolved,  if  possible,  to  revive 
 the  decayed  spirit  of  agriculture,  to  recall  the  lost 
 habits  of  peaceful  industry,  and  to  make  rural  improve- 
 ment, as  it  had  been  in  former  times,  the  prevailing 
 amusement  among  the  great  :  and  he  wisely  judged, 
 that  no  method  was  so  likely  to  contribute  to  these 
 important  objects  as  a  recommendation  of  agriculture 
 by  all  the  insinuating  charms  of  poetry.  At  his  sug- 
 gestion, accordingly,  Virgil  commenced  his  Gcorgics, 
 which  were  thus,  in  some  degree,  undertaken  from  a 
 political  motive,  and  with  a  view  to  promote  the  wel- 
 fare of  his  country  ;  and,  as  in  the  eclogue  which  an- 
 nounces the  return  of  the  golden  age,  he  stro\e  to 
 render  his  woods  worthy  of  a  consul,  so,  in  his  Gcor- 
 gics, he  studied  to  make  his  fields  deserving  of  Mae- 
 cenas and  Augustus.  But,  though  written  with  a  pa- 
 triotic object,  l)v  order  of  a  Roman  statesman,  and  on 
 a  subject  peculiarly  Roman,  the  imitative  spirit  of 
 Latin  poetry  still  prevailed,  and  the  author  could  not 
 avoid  recurring,  even  in  his  Gcorgics,  to  a  Grecian 
 model.  A  few  verses  on  the  signs  and  prognostics  of 
 the  weather  have  been  translated  from  the  Fhccnomcna 
 of  Aratus.  But  the  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod  is  the 
 pattern  which  he  has  chiefly  held  in  view.  In  refer- 
 ence to  his  imitation  of  this  model,  he  himself  styles 
 his  Gcorgics  an  Ascraean  poem  ;  and  he  appears,  in- 
 deed, to  have  been  a  sincere  admirer  of  the  ancient 
 bard.  In  the  Works  and  Days,  Hesiod,  after  a  de- 
 scription of  the  successive  ages  of  the  world,  points 
 out  the  means  for  procuring  an  honest  livelihood.  Of 
 these  the  proper  exercise  of  agriculture  is  one  of  the 
 principal.  He  accordingly  gives  directions  for  the  la- 
 bours of  the  field,  and  enumerates  those  days  on  which 
 the  various  operations  of  husbandry  ought  to  be  per- 
 formed. It  is  chiefly,  then,  in  the  first  and  second 
 books  of  the  Georgics  (where  Virgil  discourses  on  til- 
 lage and  planting)  that  he  has  imitated  the  Works  and 
 Days.  Hesiod  has  not  treated  of  the  breeding  of  cat- 
 tle or  care  of  bees,  which  form  the  subjects  of  the  third 
 and  fourth  books  of  the  Roman  poet.  But  in  the  for- 
 mer books  he  has  copied  his  predecessor  in  some  of 
 his  most  minute  precepts  of  agriculture,  as  well  as  in 
 his  injunctions  with  regard  to  the  superstitious  observ- 
 ance of  days.  Virgil's  arrangement  of  his  to[)ics  is 
 at  once  the  most  natural,  and  that  which  best  carries 
 his  reader  along  with  him.  He  begins  with  the  prep- 
 aration of  the  inert  mass  of  earth  and  the  sowing  of 
 grain,  which  form  the  most  intractable  part  of  his  sub- 
 
VIRGILIUS. 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 jcct.  Then  he  discloses  to  our  view  a  more  open 
 prospect  and  a  wider  horizon,  leading  us  among  the 
 rich  and  diversified  scenes  of  nature,  the  shades  of 
 vineyards,  and  blossoms  of  orchards.  He  next  pre- 
 sents us  with  pictures  of  joyous  and  animated  exist- 
 ence. The  useful  herds,  the  courageous  horse,  the 
 Nomades  of  Africa  and  Scythia  pass  before  us,  and 
 the  fancy  is  excited  by  images  of  the  whole  moving 
 creation.  He  at  length  concludes  with  those  insects 
 which  have  formed  themselves  into  a  vvull-ordcred  com- 
 munity, and  which,  in  their  nature,  laws,  and  govern- 
 ment, seem  most  nearly  to  approach  the  human  spe- 
 cies. Many  of  Virgil's  rules,  particularly  those  con- 
 cerning the  care  of  cattle,  have  been  taken  from  the 
 works  of  the  ancient  agricultural  writers  of  his  own 
 country.  Seneca,  indeed,  talks  lightly  of  the  accuracy 
 and  value  of  his  precepts.  But  Columella  speaks  of 
 him  as  an  agricultural  oracle  ("  vensxtmo  rati  eclut 
 oraculo  crcdidcrimus'''');  and  all  modern  travellers,  who 
 have  had  occasion  to  examine  the  mode  of  agriculture 
 even  at  this  day  practised  in  Italy,  hear  testimony  to 
 his  exactness  in  the  minutest  particulars.  His  pre- 
 cepts of  the  most  sordid  and  trivial  descriptions  are  de- 
 livered with  dignity,  and  the  most  common  observa- 
 tions have  received  novelty  or  importance  by  poetic 
 embellishment.  It  is  thus  that  he  contrives,  by  con- 
 verting rules  into  images,  to  give  a  picturesque  col- 
 ouring or  illustration  to  the  most  unpromising  topics, 
 to  scatter  roses  amid  his  fields,  and  to  cover,  as  it 
 were,  with  verdure  the  thorns  and  briers  of  agricultural 
 discussion.  This  talent  of  expressing  with  elegance 
 what  is  trifling  and  in  itself  little  attractive,  is  one  of 
 the  most  difficult  arts  of  poetry,  and  no  one  was  better 
 acquainted  with  it  than  Virgil.  But,  though  he  has 
 mculcated  his  precepts  with  as  much  clearness,  ele- 
 gance, and  dignity  as  the  nature  of  the  subject  admits, 
 and  even  in  this  rcs[>ect  has  greatly  improved  on  He- 
 siod,  siill  it  is  not  on  these  precepts  that  the  chief  beau- 
 ty of  the  Georgics  depends.  With  the  various  discus- 
 sions on  corn,  vines,  cattle,  and  bees,  he  has  interwo- 
 ven every  philosophical,  moral,  or  mythological  episode 
 on  which  he  could  with  propriety  seize.  In  all  didac- 
 tic poems  the  episodes  are  the  chief  embellishments. 
 The  noblest  passages  of  Lucretius  are  those  in  which 
 he  so  sincerely  paints  the  charms  of  virtue,  and  the 
 delights  of  moderation  and  contentment.  In  like  man- 
 ner, the  finest  verses  of  Virgil  are  his  invocations  to 
 the  gods,  his  addresses  to  Augustus,  his  account  of  the 
 prodigies  before  the  death  of  Cajsar,  and  his  descrip- 
 tion of  Italy.  How  beautiful  and  refreshing  are  his 
 praises  of  a  country  life  !  how  solemn  and  majestic  his 
 encomiums  on  the  sage  who  had  triumphed,  as  it  were, 
 over  the  powers  of  destiny  ;  who  had  shut  his  ears  to 
 the  murmurs  of  Acheron,  and  dispelled  from  his  ima- 
 gination those  invisible  and  inaudible  phantoms  which 
 wander  on  the  other  side  of  death  !  In  these  and 
 many  other  passages,  it  is  evident  that  Virgil  contends 
 with  Lucretius,  and  strives  hard  to  surpass  him. 
 There  is  a  close  resemblance  in  the  topics  on  which 
 these  two  poets  descant,  but  a  wide  diHcrence  between 
 them  in  tone  and  manner.  Lucretius  is  more  bold  and 
 simple  than  his  successor,  and  displays  more  of  the 
 viviila  vis  animi ;  but  his  outlines  are  harder,  and  we 
 never  find  in  Virgil  any  of  those  rugged  verses  or  un- 
 polished expressions  which  wc  so  frequently  encoun- 
 ter in  Lucretius.  In  the  theological  parts,  and  those 
 which  relate  to  a  state  of  future  existence,  Lucretius 
 assumes,  as  it  were,  a  tone  of  defiance,  while  Virgil 
 is  more  calm,  contemplative,  and  resigned.  As  the 
 works  of  Virgil  were  never  completely  forgotten  du- 
 ring the  dark  ages,  or,  at  all  events,  were  the  first 
 classical  productions  which  were  brought  to  light  or 
 studied  at  the  revival  of  literature,  we  find  imitations 
 of  the  Georgics  in  the  earliest  poets  who  appeared  af- 
 ter that  period.  The  "  Rusticus^'  of  I'olilian,  "  in 
 Virgilii   Georgicbii  enarraJione  pronunciata,^'  is  an 
 
 abridgment  of  the  subject  of  that  poem,  and  several 
 passages  are  nearly  co|)icd  from  it.  Of  other  mod- 
 ern Latin  poems  which  have  been  written  in  imi- 
 tation of  the  Georgics,  Vatiicre's  I'rcctlium  Rusticum 
 approaches  nearest  to  it  in  the  subject ;  but  it  is  a 
 tedious  and  languid  jiroduction.  1'he  Italian  poem 
 of  Alamanni,  in  six  books,  entitled  '^  Delia  Coliivazi- 
 cme,"  enlarges  on  the  various  topics  discussed  in  the 
 first  three  books  of  Virgil  ;  while  Rucellai,  the  coun- 
 tryman and  contemporary  of  Alamanni,  has,  in  his 
 poem  Le  Apt,  ticarly  translated  the  fourth  book,  omit- 
 ting, however,  the  fable  of  Arislaus.  Both  these  po- 
 ems, in  versi  sciolti,  are  written  with  much  elegance 
 and  purity  of  style,  and  contain  many  passages  which 
 might  bear  a  comparison  with  the  most  celebrated  parts 
 of  that  immortal  work  on  which  they  were  modelled. 
 A  few  lines  in  tlie  fourth  book  have  also  given  to  Ka- 
 pin  the  hint  for  his  Latin  poem,  Hotli ;  but,  as  Addi- 
 son has  remarked,  "  there  is  more  pleasantness  in  the 
 little  platform  of  a  garden  which  Virgil  gives  us,  than 
 in  all  the  spacious  walks  and  waterworks  of  Kapin." 
 The  same  subject  has  been  enlarged  on  by  Delille, 
 who  was  a  translator  and  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Vir- 
 gil, and  has  borrowed  from  him  some  of  the  finest 
 passages,  both  in  Lcs  Jardiiis,  and  his  other  poem, 
 UHomme  des  Champs,  which  may  be  considered  as 
 a  continuation  of  the  Georgics,  by  adding  a  moral  part 
 to  the  Latin  poem.  St.  Lambert,  in  his  Saisons,  and 
 Roucher,  in  his  Mois,  have  also  frequently  availed 
 themselves  of  the  Georgics.  It  is  impossible  here  to 
 point  out  particular  imitations  ;  but  it  may  be  observed 
 of  these  poems  in  general,  that  they  are  vague  and 
 diffuse,  and  never  reach  that  pregnant  brevity  of  style 
 by  which  their  great  original  is  distinguished.  It  has 
 been  remarked  by  Wharton,  that,  of  all  our  English 
 poems,  "  Philip's  Cider,  which  is  a  close  imitation  of 
 the  Georgics,  conveys  to  us  the  fullest  idea  of  Virgil'a 
 manner,  whom  he  has  exactly  followed  in  conciseness 
 of  style,  in  throwing  in  frequent  moral  reflections,  in 
 varying  the  method  of  giving  his  precepts,  in  his  di- 
 gres.sions,  and  in  his  happy  address  in  returning  again 
 to  his  subject;  in  his  knowledge,  and  love  of  philoso- 
 phy, medicine,  agriculture,  and  antiquity,  and  in  a  cer- 
 tain primeval  simfilicity  of  manners,  which  is  so  con- 
 spicuous in  both."  But  no  English  poet  has  been  so 
 much  indebted  to  Virgil  for  his  fame  as  Thomson. 
 In  his  Seasons  he  sometimes  assembles  together  dif- 
 ferent passages  from  ihe  Georgics,  and  sometimes 
 scatters  verses  belonging  to  the  same  passage  through 
 different  parts  of  his  own  production,  but  at  other 
 times  he  translates  straightforward.  In  his  Spring, 
 though  Lucretius  has  contributed  a  share,  he  has  closely 
 imitated  from  Virgil  the  description  of  the  golden  age, 
 and  of  the  desires  which  the  early  season  excites  among 
 the  brute  creation.  From  the  same  source  he  has  bor- 
 rowed, in  his  .Summer,  many  circumstances  of  the  thun- 
 der-storm, and  the  [)anegvric  on  Great  Britain,  which  is 
 parodied  from  the  praises  of  Italy.  The  eulogy  which 
 he  introduces  in  his  Autumn  on  a  philosophical  life 
 may  be  cited  as  an  example  of  the  closeness  with 
 which,  on  some  occasions,  he  imitates  the  Latin  poet. 
 — The  ^iCne'is  next  claims  our  attention.  It  has  for  its 
 subject  the  settlement  of  the  Trojans  in  Italy.  This 
 production  belongs  to  a  nobler  class  of  poetry  than 
 the  Georgics,  and  is,  [)erha|is,  C(iually  perfect  in  its 
 kind.  It  ranks,  indeed,  in  the  very  highest  order,  and 
 it  was  in  this  exalted  species  that  Virgil  was  most  fit- 
 ted to  excel.  Undisturbed  by  excess  of  passion,  and 
 never  hurried  away  by  the  current  of  ideas,  he  calmly 
 consigned  to  immortal  verse  the  scenes  which  his 
 fancy  had  first  painted  as  lovely,  and  which  his  under- 
 standing had  afterward  approved.  The  extent,  loo, 
 and  depth  of  the  design  proposed  in  the  -'Eneid,  ren- 
 dered this  subjection  to  the  judgment  indispensable. 
 It  would  be  absurd  to  suppose,  with  some  critics,  that 
 Virgil  intended  to  give  instruction  to  princes  in  the  art 
 
 1387 
 
VIRGILIUS. 
 
 VIRGILIUS. 
 
 of  settling  rolonics  {Calrou,  (Euvrcs  de  Virgilc,  vol. 
 3,  p.  486),  or  to  sujjply  Augustus  with  political  rules 
 for  the  government  and  legislatioti  of  a  great  empire  ; 
 but  he  evidently  designed,  not  merely  to  deduce  the 
 descent  of  Augustus  and  the  Roinaiis  from  ^Encas  and 
 his  companions,  but,  by  cruatnig  a  perfect  character  in 
 his  hero,  to  shadow  out  the  eminent  qualities  of  his  im- 
 perial patron  ;  to  recommend  his  virtues  to  his  coun- 
 trymen, who  would  readily  apply  to  him  the  amiable 
 portrait  ;  and  perhaps  to  suggest,  that  he  was  the  ru- 
 ler of  the  world  announced  of  old  by  the  prophecies  and 
 oracles  of  the  Satuniian  land.  (/Em.,  6,  789,  scqq.) 
 No  one  wlio  has  read  the  ^Eneid,  and  studied  the  histor- 
 ical character  of  Augustus,  or  the  early  events  of  his 
 reign,  can  doubt  that  ^Eneas  is  an  allegorical  repre- 
 sentation of  that  emperor. — The  chief  objection  which 
 critics  in  all  ages  have  urged  against  the  /Encid,  or,  at 
 least,  against  the  poetical  character  of  its  author,  is  the 
 defect  in  what  forms  the  most  essential  quality  of  a 
 poet,  originality  and  the  power  of  invention.  It  has 
 never,  indeed,  been  denied  tliat  he  possessed  a  species 
 of  invention,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  which  consists  in 
 placing  ideas  that  have  been  preoccupied  in  a  new 
 light,  or  presenting  assemblages,  which  have  been  al- 
 ready exhibited,  in  a  new  point  of  view.  Nor  has  it 
 been  disputed  that  he  often  succeeds  in  bestowing  on 
 them  the  charm  of  novelty,  by  the  power  of  more  per- 
 fect diction,  and  by  that  poetic  touch  which  transmutes 
 whatever  it  lights  on  into  gold.  But  it  is  alleged  that 
 he  has  contrived  few  incidents,  and  opened  up  no 
 new  veins  of  thought.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Ro- 
 man dramatic  writers,  instead  of  contriving  plots  of 
 their  own,  translated  the  master-pieces  of  Sophocles, 
 Euripides,  and  Menander.  The  same  imitative  spirit 
 naturally  enough  prevailed  in  the  first  attempts  at  Epic 
 poetry.  When  any  beautiful  model  e.xists  in  an  art, 
 It  so  engrosses  and  intimidates  the  mind,  that  we  are 
 apt  to  think  that,  in  order  to  execute  successfully  any 
 work  of  a  similar  description,  the  approved  prototype 
 must  be  imitated.  It  is  supposed  that  what  had  pleas- 
 ed once  must  please  always  ;  and  circumstances,  in 
 themselves  unimportant,  or  perhaps  accidental,  are 
 converted  into  general  and  immutable  rules.  It  was 
 natural,  then,  for  thi-  i;  iMus,  struck  with  admiration 
 at  the  sublime  and  buautilul  productions  of  the  epic 
 muse  of  Greece,  to  follow  her  lessons  with  servility. 
 The  mind  of  Virgil  also  led  him  to  imitation.  His 
 excellence  lay  in  the  propriety,  beauty,  and  majesty  of 
 his  poetical  character,  in  his  judicious  contrivance  of 
 composition,  his  correctness  of  drawing,  his  purity  of 
 taste,  his  artful  adaptation  of  the  conceptions  of  others 
 to  his  own  purposes,  and  his  skill  in  the  combination  of 
 ijjaterials.  Accordingly,  when  Virgil  first  applied  him- 
 self to  frame  a  poem,  which  might  celebrate  his  im- 
 perial master,  and  emulate  the  productions  of  Greece, 
 in  a  department  of  poetry  wherein  she  was  as  yet  unri- 
 valled, he  first  naturally  bent  a  reverent  eye  on  Ho- 
 rner; and,  though  he  differed  widely  from  his  Grecian 
 master  in  the  qualities  of  his  mind  and  genius,  he  be- 
 came his  most  strict  and  devoted  disciple.  The  Lat- 
 in dramatists,  in  preparing  their  pieces  for  the  stage, 
 had  frequently  compounded  them  of  the  plots  of  two 
 Greek  plays,  melted,  as  it  were,  into  one  ;  and  thus 
 compensated  for  the  want  of  invention  and  severe  sim- 
 plicity of  composition  by  greater  richness  and  variety 
 of  incident.  From  their  e.\ample,  Virgil  comprehend- 
 ed in  his  plan  the  arguments  both  of  the  Iliad  and 
 Odyssey  ;  the  one  serving  him  as  a  guide  for  the  wan- 
 derings and  adventures  of  his  hero  previous  to  the  land- 
 ing in  Latiuin,  and  the  other  as  a  model  for  the  wars 
 which  he  sustained  in  Italy,  to  gain  his  destined  bride 
 Lavinia.  He  had  thus  before  him  all  the  beauties  and 
 defects  of  Homer,  as  lights  to  gaze  at  and  as  rocks  to 
 be  shunned,  with  the  judgment  of  ages  on  both,  as  a 
 chart  which  might  conduct  him  to  yet  greater  perfec- 
 tion. In  the  Iliad,  however,  there  was  this  superior- 
 1388 
 
 ity,  that  a  sense  of  injury  (easily  communicated  to  th 
 reader)  existed  among  the  Greeks  ;  and  in  the  Odys- 
 sey, we  feel,  as  it  were,  the  hero's  desire  of  returning 
 to  his  native  country.  But  both  these  ruling  princi- 
 ples of  action  are  wanting  in  the  /Eneid,  wtiere  the 
 Trojans  rather  inllict  than  sustain  injury,  and  reluc- 
 tantly seek  a  settlement  in  new  and  unknown  lands. 
 — Besides  the  well-known  and  authentic  works  of  Vir- 
 gil that  have  now  been  enumerated,  several  poems 
 still  exist  which  are  very  generally  ascribed  to  him, 
 but  which,  from  their  inferiority,  are  supposed  to  be 
 the  productions  of  his  early  vouth.  Of  these,  the  long- 
 est IS  the  C'ulex,  which  lias  been  translated  by  Spen- 
 ser under  the  title  of  Virgirs  Gnat.  There  can  be 
 no  douat,  from  two  epigrams  of  Martial  (8,  5G;  14, 
 185),  that  there  was  a  poem  called  Culcx  which  had 
 been  written  by  Virgil.  But  it  may  be  questioned  if 
 the  Culex  to  which  Martial  alludes  be  the  same  with 
 the  poem  under  that  name  which  we  now  possess. 
 The  Culex,  which  still  appears  in  some  of  the  editions 
 of  Virgil,  is  not  without  passages  of  considerable  mer- 
 it ;  but  it  exhibits  few  marks  of  the  taste  and  judgment 
 of  the  Mantuan  bard.  A  compressed  and  pregnant 
 brevity  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  that  great 
 poet's  genuine  works  ;  but  the  Culex,  as  we  now  have 
 it,  is  overloaded  and  diffuse,  every  thought  and  descrip- 
 tion being  spun  out  through  as  many  hues  as  possible. 
 Those  critics  who  contend  for  the  authenticity  of  the 
 Culex,  account  for  this  redundancy  by  supposing  that 
 it  was  the  first,  and,  indeed,  a  boyish  production  of  its 
 illustrious  author.  The  Culex,  however,  which  Virgil 
 wrote,  had  no  claim  to  such  an  excuse.  For  Statius 
 mentions,  in  his  Gencihliaeon  of  Lucan,  that  the  Phar- 
 salia  of  that  poet  had  been  completed  by  him  before 
 the  age  at  which  Virgil  wrote  the  Culcx.  Now  the 
 Pharsalia  was  finished  when  Lucan  was  twenty-six; 
 so  that,  according  to  Statius,  the  Culex  could  not 
 have  been  written  till  after  Virgil  had  attained  that 
 age,  and  ought,  consequently,  to  have  been  as  perfect 
 in  point  of  composition  as  his  earliest  eclogues.  The 
 probability  therefore  is,  that  the  subject  was  of  Vir- 
 gil's invention,  and  that  some  of  the  verses  are  truly 
 Virgilian,  but  that  the  poem  had  been  lengthened  out 
 and  interpolated  by  the  transcribers  of  the  middle 
 ages.  The  subject  of  the  Culcx  may  be  considered 
 as  partly  pastoral  and  partly  mock-heroic  ;  but  the 
 mockery  is  of  a  gentle  and  delicate  description,  and 
 much  real  beauty  and  tenderness  break  out  amid  the 
 assumed  solemnity.  A  goatherd  leads  out  his  flocks 
 to  feed  upon  the  pastures  near  Mount  Cithoeron. 
 Having  fallen  asleep,  he  is  suddenly  roused  from  his 
 slumbers  by  the  bite  of  a  gnat  ;  and,  while  awakening, 
 he  crushes  to  death  the  insect  which  had  inflicted  the 
 wound.  He  then  perceives  a  huge  serpent  approach- 
 ing, which,  if  his  sleep  had  not  been  broken,  would 
 inevitably  have  destroyed  him.  The  shade  of  the  gnat 
 appears  to  the  shepherd  on  the  following  night,  and 
 reproaches  him  with  having  occasioned  its  death  at  the 
 moment  when  it  had  saved  his  life.  The  insect  de- 
 scribes ail  that  it  had  seen  in  the  infernal  regions  during 
 its  wanderings,  having  as  yet  obtained  no  fi.ved  habita- 
 tion. Next  day  the  shepherd  prepares  a  tomb,  in  order 
 to  procure  repose  for  the  ghost  of  his  benefactor,  and 
 celebrates  in  due  form  its  funeral  obsequies.  By  far 
 the  finest,  and  probably  the  most  genuine,  passage  o(  the 
 j)oem  is  that  near  the  beginning,  in  which  tlie  author 
 describes  the  goatherd  leading  out  his  flocks  to  their 
 pasture,  and  in  which  he  descants  on  the  pleasures  ot  a 
 country  life.  As  amended  by  Hcyne,  and  cleared  from 
 the  interfiolations  of  the  scholiasts,  we  may  find  in  it  the 
 germe  of  those  flowers  of  song  which  afterward  expand- 
 ed to  such  maturity  and  perfection  in  the  Gcorgics. — • 
 The  Ciris,  a  poem  of  the  same  doubtful  authenticity 
 with  the  Culcx,  and  which  some  commentators  have 
 attributed  to  Cornelius  Gallus,  records  the  well-known 
 mythological  fable  of  Scylla,  daughter  of  Nisus,  and  her 
 
VIR 
 
 VI  T 
 
 Iransformation  into  the  bird  called  Ciris.  from  which  the 
 poem  (Jurives  its  title.  'I'liiit  part  wiiicli  is  introductory 
 to  the  coin[)laiiit  of  Scylla  is  not  very  clear  in  language 
 or  lofty  in  [joint  of  conception.  The  lamentation  it- 
 self is  as  good  as  might  be  expected,  considering  the 
 position  in  which  it  was  uttered,  Minos  having,  on  his 
 voyage  home,  fastened  her  to  the  side  of  his  vessel, 
 and  thns  dragged  her  along  through  the  sea.  Some 
 of  the  lines  are  palj)ablc  imitations  of  the  soliloquy  of 
 Ariadne  m  Catullus.  Perhaps  the  best  passage  is 
 one  in  which  that  poet  has  also  been  closely  imitated, 
 describing  the  elfects  of  ungovernable  love  in  the 
 breast  of  Scylla.  From  the  Cms,  Spenser,  who  had 
 translated  the  Culex,  imitated  a  long  passage,  which 
 constitutes  part  of  the  Lfgend  of  linlomart,  in  the 
 third  book  of  the  Faenj  Queen. — The  Morclum  would 
 certainly  be  a  curious  and  interesting  production,  could 
 it  be  authenticated  as  the  work  of  Virgil  or  Septimius 
 Serenus,  to  whom  Wcrnsdorff  has  ascribed  it,  and  who 
 flourished  at  Koine  during  ihe  reigns  of  the  Flavian 
 family.  Its  subject  is  one  concerning  which  few  rel- 
 ics have  descended  to  us  from  antiquity.  It  gives 
 an  account  of  the  occupations  and  daily  life  of  an  Ital- 
 ian peasant  ;  and,  so  far  as  it  goes,  everything  is  re- 
 lated with  the  greatest  minuteness  ;  but  the  employ- 
 ments only  of  the  morning  are  recorded.  The  peasant 
 Simulus  rises  with  the  dawn.  He  gathers  together 
 the  ashes  of  the  yesterday's  fire.  He  then  bakes  some 
 bread  ;  and,  with  the  assistance  of  an  African  freed- 
 woman  named  Cybale,  he  prepares  a  sort  of  food  call- 
 ed jMoretum,  which  gives  name  to  the  poem,  and  was 
 chiefly  composed  of  herbs  culled  from  his  garden. 
 This  introduces  a  curious  description  of  a  peasant's 
 kitchen-garden,  and  the  sort  of  plants  which  were  rear- 
 ed in  it.  The  poem  conclu<les  with  the  peasant's 
 yoking  his  o.xen,  and  beginning  to  plough  his  field. 
 It  is  probable,  however,  that  what  is  now  extant  is 
 only  a  fragment  at  the  commencement  of  the  Morelum, 
 or  the  first  of  a  series  of  rustic  eclogues,  in  which  the 
 avocations  of  a  peasant  were  described  in  succession 
 through  the  whole  day.  The  Copa  merely  contains 
 an  invitation  from  an  hostess,  who  was  a  native  of 
 Syria,  to  pass  the  hours  merrily  in  a  place  of  enter- 
 tainment which  she  kept  beyond  the  gates  of  Rome  ; 
 but  a  good-humoured  drinking-song  by  the  majestic 
 author  of  the  Georgics  and  ^i]neid  is  in  itself  a  curi- 
 osity— The  best  edition  of  V^irgil  is  that  of  Heyiie, 
 which  first  appeared  from  the  Leipsic  press  in  17G7- 
 68,  4  vols.  8vo.  It  has  been  often  reprinted  :  the  most 
 complete  is  that  with  the  additions  of  Wagner,  Lips., 
 1831.  The  edition  of  Forbiger,  Lips.,  1826-9,  3  vols. 
 8vo,  is  also  a  very  useful  one.  (Dunlop's  Roman 
 Literature,  vol.  3,  p.  68,  stqq  ) 
 
 ViRGiNi.t,  a  daughter  of  tlie  centurion  L.  Virginius. 
 The  maiden  had  been  betrothed  to  L.  Icilius,  one  of  the 
 tribunes,  and  the  author  of  the  law  known  by  his  name. 
 Her  beauty,  however,  inflamed  the  passions  of  Appiiis 
 Claudius,  the  decemvir,  and  he  caused  one  of  his  cli- 
 ents, M.  Claudius,  to  seize  her  as  his  slave,  intending 
 in  this  manner  to  get  the  person  of  the  damsel  within 
 his  power.  Intelligence  was  immediately  sent  to  the 
 camp  to  Virginius,  who,  obtaining  leave  of  absence, 
 hastened  to  Rome  to  protect  his  daughter.  But  in 
 vain  did  he  claim  his  child  ;  in  vain  appeal  to  the  sym- 
 pathy of  the  people ;  in  vain  address  himself  to  the 
 better  mind  of  Appius.  The  decemvir,  blind  to  ev- 
 erything but  the  beauty  of  Virginia,  and  deaf  to  all  but 
 the  impulse  of  his  own  passion,  passed  sentence,  as- 
 signing the  maiden  to  ('laudius.  Upon  this,  Virginius, 
 snatching  up  a  butcher's  knife,  exclaimed,  "  'J'his  is 
 the  only  way  left,  my  child,  to  keep  thee  free  and  un-  ' 
 stained  !"  and  plunged  it  into  her  heart ;  then,  turning 
 to  Appius,  he  cried,  "  On  thee  and  on  thy  head  be  the 
 curse  of  this  innocent  blood!"  Appius  ordered  him' 
 to  be  seized,  but  in  vain.  Waving  aloft  the  bloody 
 knife,  he   burst  through   the  multitude,  flew  to   the  j 
 
 gates,  mounted  a  horse,  and  spurred  headlong  to  (^e 
 camp  near  Tusculum.  The  wild  and  frantic  aspect 
 of  Virginius,  his  attire  stained  with  blood,  and  the 
 bloody  knife  still  held  convulsively  in  his  grasp,  in- 
 stantly drew  a  crowd  of  the  soldiery  around  him.  In 
 brief  but  burning  terms  he  told  his  tale,  and  called 
 aloud  for  vengeance.  One  thrilling  sentiment  of  sym- 
 pathizing indignation  filled  every  bosom  ;  they  called 
 to  arms,  plucked  up  their  standards,  and,  nr.arching  to 
 Rome,  seized  upon  the  Aventiiie.  The  army  near 
 Fidenae  caught  a  similar  spirit,  having  received  infor- 
 mation of  the  bloody  tragedy  from  Icilius.  They,  in 
 like  manner,  threw  off  ihe  authority  of  their  command- 
 ers, chose  military  tribunes  to  lead  them,  and,  hasten- 
 ing to  Rome,  joined  their  brethren  on  the  Aventine 
 Hill.  In  the  city  all  was  tumult  and  terror.  The  de- 
 cemvirs were  unable  to  make  head  against  the  excited 
 multitude,  and  the  senate  itself  felt  its  power  ineflect- 
 ual  to  allay  the  tempest.  They  began  to  treat  with 
 the  people  and  the  army,  yet  with  dilatoriness,  hoping 
 the  ferment  would  soon  abate,  and  they  might  still  re- 
 tain their  power.  But  the  peo[j|e  were  in  earnest. 
 Leaving  a  strong  body  to  defend  the  Aventine  for  the 
 present,  they  marched  in  military  array  through  the 
 city,  and  once  more  jioslcd  themselves  on  the  sacred 
 mount,  followed  bv  vast  numbers  of  the  plebeian  party, 
 men,  women,  and  children.  Then  were  the  patricians 
 compelled  to  yield,  and  the  decemvirs  resigned.  (  Vid. 
 Appius,  and  Decemviri.) 
 
 Virginius,  the  father  of  Virginia,  made  tribune  of 
 the  people  after  the  afl'air  of  his  daughter.  {Vzd. 
 Virginia.) 
 
 ViRi.lTiius,  a  she[)herd  of  Lnsitania,  a  hunter,  a 
 robber,  and  finally  a  military  hero,  almost  unrivalled  in 
 fertility  of  resources  under  defeat,  skill  in  the  conduct 
 of  his  forces,  and  courage  in  the  hour  of  battle.  Like 
 the  guerilla  leaders  of  modern  times,  he  knew  how  to 
 avail  himself  of  the  wild  chivalry  of  his  countrymen, 
 and  the  almost  impenetrable  fastnesses  of  his  coun- 
 try ;  but,  su[)erior  to  them,  he  was  equally  able  to 
 guide  a  troop  and  to  marshal  an  army.  Six  years  did 
 he  maintain  the  contest ;  and  at  length  the  consul 
 CiE[)io,  unable  to  subdue  him  in  the  field,  procured  his 
 assassination.  The  I.,usitanians,  deprived  of  their 
 brave  leader,  were  soon  afierward  completely  sub- 
 dued, B.C.  40      {Flor  ,  2,  17.— Fa/.  Max..  6,'  4.) 
 
 VisuKGis,  a  river  of  Germany,  now  the  Wcser,  and 
 falling  into  the  German  Ocean.  {Veil,  tatcrc.,  2, 
 10.5.— 7W.,  Ann.,  1,  70.) 
 
 Vistula,  a  river  falling  into  the  Baltic,  the  eastern 
 boundary  of  ancient  Germanv.  now  the  Vistula,  or,  as 
 the  Germans  write  the  word,  tlie  Wcichsel.  (Mela, 
 3,  i.—PI,n.,  4,  12  —Amm.  Marc.,  32.  8.) 
 
 ViTKLLius,  I.  Aui.us,  a  Roinati  emperor,  who  came 
 after  Otho.  He  was  descended  from  one  of  the  most 
 illustrious  familips  of  Rome,  and,  as  such,  he  gained  an 
 easy  admission  to  the  (lalace  of  the  emperors.  The 
 greatest  part  of  his  youth  was  spent  at  Caprea;,  where 
 his  willingness  to  gratify  the  most  vicious  propensities 
 of  Tiberius  raised  his  father  to  the  dignity  of  consul 
 and  governor  of  .Syria.  The  aj)plausc  he  g.nined  in 
 this  school  of  debauchery  was  too  great  and  flattering 
 to  induce  Vitcllius  to  alter  his  conduct,  and  no  longer 
 to  be  one  of  the  votaries  of  vice.  Caligula  was  jileas- 
 cd  with  his  skill  in  drivin<r  a  chariot ;  Claudius  loved 
 him  because  he  was  a  great  gamester  ;  and  he  recom- 
 mended himself  to  the  favours  of  Nero  by  wishing  him 
 to  sing  publicly  in  the  crowded  theatre.  A'N'ith  such 
 an  insinuating  disposition,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  that 
 Vitellius  became  so  great.  He  did  not  fall  with  his 
 patrons,  like  the  other  favourites  ;  but  the  death  of  an 
 emperor  seemed  to  raise  him  to  greater  honours,  and 
 to  procure  him  fresh  applause.  He  passed  through  all 
 the  offices  of  the  state,  and  gained  the  soldiery  by  do- 
 nations and  liberal  promises.  He  was  at  the  head  of 
 the  Roman  legions  in  Germany  when  Otho  was  pro 
 
 1389 
 
VIT 
 
 ULU 
 
 claimed  emperor,  and  the  exaltation  of  his  rival  was 
 no  sooner  heard  in  the  camp,  than  he  was  likewise 
 invested  with  the  purple  by  liis  soldiers.  He  acce[)t- 
 ed  with  pleasure  the  dangerous  office,  and  instantly 
 marched  against  Otho.  I'liree  battles  were  fought, 
 and  in  all  Vitellius  was  conquered.  A  fourth,  how- 
 ever, in  the  plains  between  Mantua  and  Cremona,  left 
 him  master  of  the  field  and  of  the  Roman  empire. 
 Vitellius  began  his  reign  by  endeavouring  to  concili- 
 ate the  favour  of  the  populace  and  the  troops  by  large 
 donations  and  expensive  amusements.  He  then  gave 
 a  loose  rein  to  his  own  debasing  appetites,  of  which 
 the  chief  was  absolute  gluttony  of  the  very  grossest 
 kind.  It  is  almost  incredible,  though  stated  by  histo- 
 rians, that  in  less  than  four  months  he  expended  on 
 the  mere  luxuries  of  the  table  a  sum  equal  to  about 
 seven  millions  sterling.  This  bloated  and  pampered 
 ruler  was  soon  regarded  by  all  his  subjects  with  con- 
 tempt and  disgust.  The  unrestrained  licentiousness 
 of  the  soldiery  tended  equally  to  make  his  reign  hated 
 and  feared  by  all  who  were  exposed  to  the  insults  and 
 outrages  in  which  they  indulged.  To  supply  the  funds 
 necessary  for  the  tnaintenance  of  his  excessive  luxury, 
 he  resorted  to  the  too  prevalent  custom  of  listening  to 
 the  accusations  of  spies,  and  putting  to  death  all  such 
 accused  persons,  that  he  might  seize  upon  their  prop- 
 erty. While  thus  wallowing  in  the  indulgence  of  the 
 most  debasmg  appetites,  Vitellius  was  startled  by  ti- 
 dings of  a  very  alarming  nature.  Vespasian,  who  had 
 been  sent  to  take  the  command  of  the  army  in  Syria 
 in  the  Jewish  war,  and  had  been  detained  there  by  the 
 desperate  resistance  of  the  Jews,  had  sent  his  own  son 
 Titus  to  offer  his  allegiance  to  Galba.  But,  before 
 his  arrival,  Galba  was  dead,  and  Otho  and  Vitellius 
 were  contending  for  the  empire.  Titus  returned  to 
 his  father  for  instructions  ;  and,  though  Vespasian  ap- 
 peared ready  to  acknowledge  Vitellius,  his  own  troops 
 were  eager  to  raise  him  to  the  sovereignty.  Being  at 
 length  prevailed  on  to  comply  with  the  wishes  of  the 
 army,  he  commenced  his  march  towards  Euro[)e.  The 
 Illyrian  and  Pannonian  armies  immediately  declared 
 in  his  favour;  and  that  of  lUyricum,  under  the  com- 
 mand of  Antonius  Primus,  crossed  the  Alps  and 
 marched  towards  Rome  to  dethrone  Vitellius.  The 
 Vitellian  army,  commanded  by  Cajcina,  encountered 
 that  of  Antonius  near  Cremona,  but  was  defeated  with 
 great  loss,  and  the  city  was  taken.  Antonius  con- 
 tinued to  advance  on  Rome,  and  crossed  the  passes 
 of  the  Apennines  while  the  emperor  was  hastening  to 
 secure  them.  Vitellius  fled  to  Rome,  which  was  soon 
 invested  by  the  victorious  army  of  Antonius.  An  in- 
 surrectionary tumult  arose  in  the  city  itself,  during 
 which  the  Capitol  was  burned  to  the  ground,  and  Sa- 
 binns,  the  brother  of  Vespasian,  was  killed.  The 
 troops  of  Antonius  at  length  forced  an  entrance  into 
 the  city,  stormed  the  quarters  of  the  praetorian  guards, 
 and  put  those  turbulent  bands  to  the  sword.  Vitel- 
 lius endeavoured  to  conceal  himself,  but  was  discov- 
 ered, dragged  through  the  streets  to  the  place  of  pun- 
 ishment for  common  malefactors,  put  to  death  in  the 
 most  ignominious  manner,  and  his  mangled  carcass 
 cast  into  the  Tiber  amid  the  execrations  of  the  multi- 
 tude. Fight  months  and  five  days  had  this  despica- 
 0I3  wretch  seemed  to  sway  the  sceptre  of  supreme  do- 
 minion, when  thus  overtaken  by  the  due  reward  of 
 his  debauchery  and  crimes.  (HethcringtOTi's  History 
 of  Rome,  p.  ISS,  seqq.) 
 
 ViTRUvius  Poi.r.io,  M.,  a  celebrated  writer  on  ar- 
 chitecture, born  at  Verona,  and  contemporary  with  Ju- 
 lius CiEsar  and  Augustus.  Some,  as,  for  example, 
 Newton,  his  English  translator,  have  placed  him  in  the 
 reign  of  Titus,  but  they  have  been  refuted  by  Hirt, 
 the  author  of  an  elaborate  history  of  ancient  architec- 
 ture (Gc.tchichte  der  Baukunst  bci  den  alien,  Berlin, 
 1822,  2  vols.  4to),  at  the  end  of  his  dissertation  on 
 •  he  Pantheon.  (Compare  Scholl,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom.,  vol. 
 1390 
 
 2,  p.  189,  seqq.,  in  notis.)  Under  Augustus,  who,  du- 
 ring the  civil  contest,  had  employed  him  in  the  con- 
 struction of  military  engines,  he  was  appointed  inspec- 
 tor of  public  buildings  ;  and  it  was  at  the  reqaiest  of 
 this  prince,  and  availing  himself  as  well  of  the  Greek 
 works  already  written  on  that  subject,  as  of  the  re- 
 sult of  his  own  experience,  that  Vitruvius  published 
 his  work  on  Architecture.  It  is  in  ten  books.  The 
 first  seven  treat  of  architecture,  in  its  proper  sense  ; 
 the  last  three  of  hydraulic  architecture,  gnomonics,  and 
 mechanics.  The  style  of  Vitruvius  is  unostentatious, 
 concise,  and  sometimes  obscure.  Its  obscurity,  how- 
 ever, is  owing  to  the  fact  of  Vitruvius  having  been  the 
 first  Roman  who  wrote  on  the  subject  of  architecture, 
 and  his  using,  in  consequence,  new  terms  and  forms  of 
 expression  to  convey  the  meaning  which  he  intends. 
 The  best  edition  is  that  of  Schneider,  Lips.,  1807,  in 
 3  vols.  8vo.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  plans  which 
 originally  accompanied  the  work  of  Vitruvius  are  lost 
 to  us.  (The  following  works  may  be  consulted  with 
 advantage  in  relation  to  Vitruvius  :  Hirt,  Geschichte, 
 &c.,  already  referred  to. — Siieglitz,  Archaologie  der 
 Baukunst,  Weimar,  1801. —  Genelli,  Bnefc  icber  Vi- 
 truv.,  Braunschw.  vnd  Berlin,  1802. — Rosck,  Erldu- 
 terungen  zu  Vitruv''s  Baukunst,  Stullg.,  1802. — Stcig- 
 litz  archaolog.  unterhalt.,  1  Ahth  ,  Le-ipz.,  1820.) 
 
 Ulpia  Tkaj.Ina,  a  city  of  Dacia,  the  residence  of 
 Decebalus.  It  was  taken  by  Trajan,  and  called  by  his 
 name.  Its  previous  appellation  appears  to  have  been 
 Sarmizegetusa.  The  modern  name  is  Varhely  or 
 Varhel.  (Inscript.,  ap.  Grut. — Liscript.,  ap.  Zamos. 
 Analect.,  5.) 
 
 Ulpianum,  I.  a  town  of  upper  Mcesia,  said  by  Pro- 
 copius  to  have  been  repaired  and  embellished  by  Jus- 
 tinian, and  called  Justiniana  Secunda.  It  is  now  Gi- 
 ustendil.  {Procop.,  B.  G.,  4,  25.)  —  II.  One  of  the 
 principal  towns  of  Dacia,  now  perhaps  Kolsovar. 
 
 Ulpianus  DoMiTius,  one  of  those  who  have  con- 
 ferred the  greatest  honour  on  Roman  jurisprudence, 
 was  born  at  Tyre.  Under  Scptimius  Severus  he  be- 
 came the  colleague  of  Sextus  Pomponius  in  the  judi- 
 cial stations  which  he  filled.  He  continued  to  dis- 
 charge these  same  official  duties  under  Caracalla  and 
 Macrinus,  but  was  sent  into  exile  after  the  death  of 
 Heliogabalus.  Alexander  Severus  recalled  him,  made 
 him  one  of  his  council,  and  treated  him  with  the  great- 
 est regard.  He  appointed  him,  also,  prtetorian  pre- 
 fect. In  this  post  he  rendered  himself  odious  to  tho 
 soldiery,  who  complained  that  he  wished  to  abridge 
 the  privileges  which  they  had  enjoyed  under  Helio- 
 gabalus. They  frequently  demanded  his  death  ;  and 
 on  one  occasion,  the  emperor,  to  save  him,  covered 
 him  with  his  purple.  Ulpian,  however,  was  at  last 
 massacred  by  them,  almost  in  the  very  arms  of  the 
 emperor,  to  whom  he  had  fled  for  refuge.  The  peo- 
 ple took  up  arms  to  defend  him,  and  a  violent  contest 
 arose,  which  lasted  during  three  days.  Ulpian  wrote 
 the  most  works  of  any  Roman  jurist  :  we  have  the 
 titles  of  more  than  thirty  of  his  productions,  among 
 which  was  a  digest  in  forty-eight  books  ;  a  comment- 
 ary on  the  Edictum  Perpctiium,  in  eighty-three  ;  and 
 another  on  the  Lex  Julia  Pupia,  in  twenty.  Of  all 
 these  works  there  remain  twenty-nine  chapters  of  that 
 entitled  Rrgulce  Juris,  and  which  consisted  of  seven 
 books.  They  were  inserted  in  the  abridgment  of 
 the  Roman  law  made  by  order  of  Alaric.  VVe  have 
 also  his  commentaries  in  Greek  on  Demosthenes. 
 The  heathen  writers  have  concurred  in  their  eulogy 
 of  Ulpian,  but  the  Christians  have  reproached  him  for 
 inciting  the  emperor  to  a  persecution  of  their  sect. 
 {Srhbil,  Hist.  Lit.  Rom,  vol.  3,  p.  286,  seqq.—Bdhr, 
 Gesch.  der  Rom.  Lit.,  p.  560.) 
 
 Ulubr.,^,  a  small  town  of  Latium,  at  no  great  dis- 
 tance, probably,  from  Velitrae.  Its  marshy  situation 
 is  plainly  alluded  to  by  Cicero,  who  calls  the  inhab- 
 itants little  frogs.     (Ep.  ad  Fani.,  7,  18.)     Horace 
 
UL  y 
 
 UMB 
 
 and  Juvenal  give  us  but  a  wretched  idea  of  the  place. 
 {Horat.,  Ep.,  1,  11.  30— J«p.,  10,  101.  — CVamer'A- 
 A71C.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  85.) 
 
 Ulvssks,  a  king  of  Ithaca,  son  of  Anticlea  and  La- 
 ertes, or,  according  to  some,  of  Sisyphus.  {Vid.  Sis- 
 yphus, and  Anticlea.)  He  became,  like  the  other 
 princes  of  Greece,  one  of  the  suiters  of  Helen  ;  but, 
 as  he  despaired  of  success  in  his  application  on  ac- 
 count of  the  great  number  of  his  competitors,  he  so- 
 licited tiie  hand  of  Penelope,  the  daughter  of  Icarius. 
 Tyndarus.  the  father  of  Helen,  fiivourcd  the  addresses 
 of  Ulysses,  as  by  him  he  was  directed  to  choose  one 
 of  his  daughter's  suiters  without  olTending  the  others, 
 and  to  bind  them  all  by  a  solemn  oath  that  they  would 
 unite  together  in  protecting  Helen  if  any  violence  were 
 ever  ottered  to  her  person.  Ulysses  had  no  sooner 
 obtained  the  hand  of  Penelope  than  he  returned  to 
 Ithaca,  where  his  father  resigned  him  the  crown,  and 
 retired  to  peace  atid  rural  solitude.  The  abduction 
 of  Helen,  however,  by  Paris,  did  not  long  permit  him 
 to  remain  in  his  kingdom  ;  and  as  he  was  bound,  in 
 common  with  the  rest,  to  defend  her  against  every  in- 
 truder, he  was  summoned  to  the  war  with  the  other 
 princes  of  Greece.  Pretending  to  be  insane,  not  to 
 leave  his  beloved  Penelope,  he  yoked  a  horse  and  a 
 bull  together,  and  ploughed  the  seashore,  where  he 
 sowed  salt  instead  of  grain.  The  artifice,  however, 
 was  soon  detected  ;  and  Palamedes,  by  placing  before 
 the  plough  of  Ulysses  his  infant  son  Tclemachus,  con- 
 vinced the  world  that  the  father  was  not  insane,  who 
 had  the  foresight  to  turn  away  the  plough  from  the 
 furrow,  not  to  hurt  his  child.  Ulysses  was  therefore 
 obliged  to  go  to  the  war;  but  he  did  not  forget  him 
 who  had  e.\[)osed  his  pretended  insanity.  {Vul  Pala- 
 medes )  During  the  Trojan  war,  the  King  of  Ithaca 
 distinguished  himself  by  his  prudence  and  sagacity 
 as  well  as  by  his  valour.  By  his  means  Achilles  was 
 discovered  among  the  daughters  of  Lycomedes,  king 
 of  Scyros  {nid.  Achilles) ;  and  Philoctcles  was  in- 
 duced to  abandon  Lemnos.  and  to  come  to  the  Tro- 
 jan war  with  the  arrows  of  Hercules.  ( Vid.  Philoc- 
 tetes.)  With  the  assistance  of  Diomedes  he  slew 
 Rhesus,  and  destroyed  many  of  the  sleeping  Thra- 
 cians  in  the  midst  of  their  camp  {vid.  Rhesus,  and 
 Dolon)  ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  same  warrior, 
 he  carried  off  the  Palladium  of  Troy.  {Vid.  Palla- 
 dium, where,  however,  other  accounts  are  given.) 
 These,  as  well  as  other  services,  obtained  for  him  the 
 armour  of  Achilles,  which  Ajax  had  dis[)uled  with 
 him.  After  the  Trojan  war  Ulysses  embarked  on 
 board  his  ships  to  return  to  Greece,  but  he  was  e.t- 
 posed  to  a  number  of  misfortunes  before  he  reached 
 his  native  country  :  he  was  thrown  by  the  winds  upon 
 the  coasts  of  Africa,  and  visited  the  country  of  the 
 Lotophagi  {vid.  Lolo[)hagi),  and  afterward  that  of  the 
 Cyclopes,  where  his  adventure  in  the  cave  of  Poly- 
 phemus occurred.  (  Vid.  Cyclopes,  and  Polyphemus.) 
 He  came  nex»,  in  the  course  of  his  wanderings,  to  the 
 island  of  /Eolus,  monarch  of  the  winds,  who  gave 
 him,  tied  up  in  a  bag  of  ox-hide,  all  the  winds  which 
 could  obstruct  his  return  to  Ithaca  ;  but  the  curi- 
 osity of  his  companions  to  know  what  the  bag  con- 
 tained proved  nearly  fatal.  The  winds  rushed  out, 
 and  hurried  them  back  to  .T^olia ;  the  king  of  which, 
 judging,  from  what  had  befallen  them,  that  they  were 
 hated  by  the  gods,  drove  them  with  re[)roaches  from 
 his  isle.  Thence  he  was  carried  to  the  land  of  the 
 Lteslrygonians  (r/(/.  I.ia;strygones),  where  he  lost  all 
 his  vessels  except  the  one  in  which  he  himself  was  ; 
 and,  on  escaping  from  this  gigantic  and  cannibal  race, 
 he  came  to  the  island  of  /FJaea,  the  abode  of  Circe. 
 '  After  dwelling  here  for  an  entire  year,  the  warrior 
 and  his  companions  were  anxious  to  depart :  but  the 
 goddess  told  the  hero  that  he  must  previously  cross 
 the  ocean,  and  enter  the  abode  of  Hades,  to  consult 
 the  blind  prophet  Tiresias.     Accordingly,  they   left 
 
 JEx^  rather  late  in  the  day,  as  it  would  appear,  and, 
 impelltd  by  a  favouring  north  wind,  their  ship  reached 
 by  sunset  the  opposite  coast  of  ocean,  the  land  of  per- 
 petual gloom.  Ulysses  obeyed  the  directions  of  the 
 goddess  in  digging  a  small  pit,  into  which  he  poured 
 nnilse,  wine,  water,  flour,  and  the  blood  of  the  victims. 
 The  dead  came  trooping  out  of  the  abode  of  Hades, 
 and  Ulysses  there  saw  the  heroines  of  former  days,  and 
 conversed  with  the  shades  of  Agamemnon  and  Achil- 
 les. Terror  at  length  came  over  him  ;  he  hastened 
 back  to  his  ship  ;  the  stream  carried  it  along,  and 
 they  reached  .£a:a  while  it  was  yet  night.  Leaving 
 i£a;a  on  their  homeward  voyage,  Ulysses  and  his 
 companions  came  to  the  islands  of  the  Sirens  {vid. 
 Sirenes),  and,  after  having  escaped  from  these,  and 
 shunned  the  Wandering  Rocks,  they  reached  the 
 terrific  Scylla  and  Charybdis.  {Vid.  Scylla  and  Cha- 
 rybdis.)  As  he  sailed  by  Scylla,  Ulysses  saw  six  of 
 his  followers  seized  and  devoured  by  the  monster, 
 after  which  he  came  to  Thrinakia,  the  island  of  the 
 sun-god.  {Vid.  Thrinakia.)  Here  his  companions 
 sacrilegiously  fed  upon  the  sacred  herds,  and  were 
 punished  immediately  after  their  departure.  No  soon- 
 er had  they  lost  sight  of  land  than  a  violent  storm 
 arose  ;  their  vessel  was  struck  by  a  thunderbolt ;  it 
 went  to  pieces,  and  all  were  drowned  except  Ulysses. 
 When  his  ship  had  been  thus  destroyed,  he  fastened 
 the  mast  and  keel  together,  and  placed  himself  upon 
 them.  The  wind,  changing  to  the  south,  carried  him 
 back  to  Scylla  and  Charybdis.  As  he  came  by  the 
 latter,  she  absorbed  the  mast  and  keel  ;  but  the  hero 
 caught  hold  of  a  wild  fig-tree  that  grew  on  the  rock 
 above,  and  held  by  it  till  they  were  thrown  out  again. 
 He  then  floated  along  for  nine  days,  and  on  the  tenth 
 reached  Ogygia,  the  isle  of  Calypso.  After  eight 
 years'  residence  with  this  ocean-nymph  {vid.  Calypso), 
 Ulysses  resumed  his  wanderings  on  a  raft  of  liis  own 
 construction  ;  and  he  had  already  come  in  sight  of  the 
 island  of  the  Phceacians  {vrd.  Pha'acia),  when  Neptune, 
 still  mindful  that  his  son  Polyphemus  had  been  deprived 
 of  sight  by  means  of  the  King  of  Ithaca,  raised  a  storna 
 and  sunk  his  raft.  He  was  carried  along,  after  this,  as 
 he  swam,  by  a  strong  northerly  wind  for  two  days  and 
 nights,  and  on  the  third  day  landed  on  the  island  of 
 Phsacia,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by  King  Alci- 
 noiis  and  his  daughter  Nausicaa.  Here  he  recited  the 
 narrative  of  his  adventures,  and  after  this  he  was  con- 
 veyed in  a  Phaiacian  vessel  to  the  shore  of  Ithaca. 
 He  had  been  absent  twenty  years,  and  he  found,  on 
 his  return,  his  palace  beset  by  numerous  suiters  for  the 
 hand  of  Penelope,  who  were  indulging  day  after  day  in 
 riotous  carousals,  and  wasting  the  resources  of  the  mon- 
 arch of  Ithaca.  Disguising  himself  as  a  beggar,  L'lys- 
 ses  made  himself  known  merely  to  his  son  Tclema- 
 chus and  his  faithful  herdsman  Eumieus.  With  them 
 he  concerted  measures  to  re-establish  himself  on  his 
 throne.  These  measures  were  crowned  with  success. 
 The  suiters  were  all  slain,  and  Ulysses  was  restored 
 to  the  bosom  of  his  family.  {Vul.  Laertes,  Penelope, 
 Telemachus,  Eumsus.)  He  lived  about  sixteen  years 
 after  his  return,  and  was  at  last  killed  by  his  son  Tel- 
 egonus,  who  had  landed  in  Ithaca  with  the  hope  of 
 making  himself  known  to  his  father.  This  unfortu- 
 nate event  had  been  foretold  to  him  by  Tiresias,  who 
 assured  him  that  he  should  die  by  the  violence  of 
 something  that  was  to  issue  from  tlie  bosom  of  the 
 sea.  (F/(/.  Telegonus.)  The  adventures  of  Ulysses, 
 on  his  return  from  the  Trojan  war,  form  the  subject 
 of  Homer's  Odyssey.  {Kaghtla/s  Mijlhology.  p. 
 259,  scqq.) 
 
 U.MBRi.t,  a  country  of  Italy,  to  the  east  of  Etruria 
 and  north  of  the  Sai)iiie  territory.  The  Latin  writers 
 were  evidcnilv  acquainted  with  no  people  of  Italy 
 more  ancient  than  the  Umbri  (compare  Flurus,  1,  17. 
 — Plin.,  3,  11),  and  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  as- 
 sures us  that  they  were  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  nu 
 
 1391 
 
voc 
 
 VOL 
 
 mcrous  nations  of  the  land  (1,  19).  From  his  account, 
 as  well  as  Iroiu  Herodotus  (I,  94),  it  would  appear 
 that  the  Umbn  were  already  settled  in  Italy  long  be- 
 fore the  arrival  of  the  'I'ynhenian  colony.  To  the 
 Greeks  they  were  known  under  the  name  of  'O/uQpiKoi, 
 a  word  which  they  supposed  to  be  derived  Irom  u/x- 
 6po(;,  under  the  idea  that  they  were  a  people  saved 
 from  an  unusual  deluge.  {I'lin.,  I.  c. — Solin.,  5.) 
 iJionysius  has  farther  accjuainteu  us  with  some  partic- 
 ulars respecimg  the  Umbn,  which  he  derived  from 
 Zciiodotus,  a  Greek  of  Tnezene,  who  had  written  a 
 history  of  this  people,  'i'his  autlior  appears  to  have 
 considered  the  l/'mbri  an  indigenous  race,  whose  pri- 
 mary seat  was  the  country  around  Reate,  a  district 
 which,  according  to  Dionysius,  was  formerly  occupied 
 by  the  Aborigines.  Zenodotus  was  also  of  ojunion 
 that  the  Sabmes  were  descended  from  the  Umbri. 
 Connected  with  the  origin  of  the  ancient  Umbri, 
 there  is  another  question  not  unworthy  our  attention. 
 It  was  confidently  stated  by  Cornelius  Bocchus,  a  Ro- 
 man writer  quoted  by  Solinus  (c.  8. — Sen.  ad  JEri., 
 12,  753)  and  Isidorus  {Orig.,  8,  2),  that  the  Umbn 
 were  of  the  same  race  with  the  ancient  Gauls.  This 
 opinion  has  been  rejected,  on  the  one  hand,  by  Cluveri- 
 us  and  Malfei,  while  it  has  served,  on  the  other,  as  a 
 foundation  lor  the  systems  of  Freret  and  Bardetti,  who 
 contend  for  the  Celtic  origin  of  the  Umbri. — On  the 
 rise  of  the  Etrurian  nation,  the  Umbrian  name  began 
 to  decline.  They  were  forced  to  withdraw  from  the 
 right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  while  nearly  the  whole  of 
 northern  Italy  fell  under  the  power  of  their  more  en- 
 terprising and  warlike  neighbours,  though  an  ancient 
 Greek  historian  makes  honourable  mention  of  the  val- 
 our of  the  Umbri.  {Nic.  Damasc,  ap.  Slob.,  7,  89.) 
 It  was  then,  probably,  that  the  Tuscans,  as  we  are  told, 
 possessed  themselves  of  three  hundred  towns  previous- 
 ly occupied  by  the  Umbri.  {Plin  ,  3,  5.)  A  spirit  of  ri- 
 valry was  still  kept  up,  however,  between  the  two  na- 
 tions ;  as  we  are  assured  by  Strabo  that,  when  either 
 made  an  expedition  into  a  neighliouring  district,  the 
 other  immediately  directed  its  elibrts  to  the  same 
 quarter.  {Strah.,  226.)  Both  nations,  however,  had 
 soon  to  contend  with  a  formidable  foe  in  the  Gauls 
 who  invaded  Italy  ;  and,  after  vanquishing  and  expell- 
 ing the  Tuscans  from  the  Padus,  [)enetrated  still  far- 
 ther, and  drove  the  Umbri  from  the  shores  of  the 
 Adriatic  into  the  mountains.  These  were  the  Seno- 
 nes,  who  afterward  defeated  the  Romans  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Ailia,  and  sacked  their  city.  The  Umbri,  thus 
 reduced,  appear  to  have  offered  but  little  resistance  to 
 the  Romans;  nor  is  it  nnprobable  that  this  politic 
 people  took  advantage  of  their  differences  with  the 
 Etruscans  to  induce  them  to  remain  neuter  while 
 they  were  contending  with  the  latter  power.  The 
 submission  of  Southern  Umbria  appears  to  have  taken 
 place  A.U.C.  446  {Liv.,  9,  41).  The  northern  and 
 maritime  parts  were  reduced  after  the  total  extirpation 
 of  the  Senones,  about  twenty-five  years  afterward. 
 {Cramer^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  251,  seqq. — Compare 
 Nicbuhr''s  Roman  History,  vol.  1,  p.  119,  scqq., 
 Cambridge  transl.) 
 
 Unelli,  a  people  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis  Secunda, 
 whose  country  formed  part  of  the  Tractus  Armoricus, 
 and  answers  to  that  part  of  modern  Normandy  in  which 
 are  Valognes,  Coutanccs-,  and  Cherbourg,  in  the  de- 
 partment de  la  Manchc.  Their  capital,  at  first,  was 
 Crociatonum,  answering  to  the  modern  Valognes. 
 Afterward,  however,  their  chief  city  was  Constanlini 
 Caslra,  now  Coutanccs.  {Lcmairc,  Index  Geogr.  ad 
 CcBS.,  p.  373.) 
 
 VocoNiA.  Lex,  de  Testamcntis,  by  Q.  Voconius 
 Saxa,  the  tribune,  A.U.C.  584,  enacted  that  no  one 
 should  make  a  woman  his  heiress  {Cic.  in  Verr.,  1, 
 42).  nor  leave  to  any  one,  by  way  of  legacy,  more  than 
 to  his  heir  or  heirs.  This  law  is  supposed  to  have  re- 
 ferred chiefly  to  those  who  were  rich,  to  prevent  the 
 1?92 
 
 extinction  of  opulent  families.  On  account  of  its  se- 
 vcntv,  however,  it  fell  into  disuse.  {Cic,  de  Fin.,  2 
 \1.—Aul.  OclL,  20,  1.) 
 
 Vo(;oNTii,  a  people  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  in  the 
 immediate  vicinity  of  the  Alps,  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Druma  or  Drome.  Their  principal  cities  were  Vasio, 
 now  Vaison ;  Lucus  Augusti,  now  Luc;  and  Dea 
 Vocontiorum,  now  Die.  {Cces.,  B.  G.,  1,  10.  —  Lc- 
 maire.  Index  Geogr.  ad  Cces.,  p  401.)  > 
 
 VoGEsus,  now  la  Vosgc,  a  mountain  of  Belgic  Gaul, 
 a  branch  of  the  chain  of  Jura,  strelching  in  a  northern 
 direction;  and  in  vvhich  are  the  sources  of  the  Arar 
 (now  Saunc),  the  Mosa  (now  Meuse),  and  the  Mosella 
 (now  Moselle).  Its  greatest  height,  Donnon,  is  about 
 400  toises  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  its  length  50 
 leagues.     {Lucan,  1,  397. — Cas,  B.  G.,  4,  10.) 
 
 VoLATEiJR^,  a  city  of  Etruria,  northwest  of  Sena, 
 and  northeast  of  Vetulonii.  It  stood  nearly  fifteen 
 miles  inland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Ca'cina. 
 The  modern  name  is  Volterra ;  its  Etrurian  appella- 
 tion, as  appears  on  numerous  coins,  was  Velathri. 
 Even  if  we  had  not  the  express  authority  of  Dionysius 
 of  Halicarnassus  (3,  51)  for  assigning  to  Volaterrae  a 
 place  among  the  twelve  principal  cities  of  ancient 
 Etruria,  the  extent  of  its  remains,  its  massive  walls, 
 vast  sepulchral  chambers,  and  numerous  objects  of 
 Etruscan  art,  would  alone  suffice  to  show  its  antique 
 splendour  and  importance,  and  claim  for  it  that  rank. 
 From  the  monuments  alone  which  have  been  discov- 
 ered within  its  walls  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity, 
 no  small  idea  is  raised  of  the  power,  civilization,  and 
 taste  of  the  ancient  Etruscans.  Its  walls  were  form- 
 ed, as  may  yet  be  seen,  of  huge  massive  stones,  piled 
 on  each  other  without  cement ;  and  their  circuit,  which 
 is  still  distinctly  marked,  embraced  a  circumference 
 of  between  three  and  four  miles.  The  citadel  was 
 built,  as  Strabo  reports,  on  a  hill,  the  ascent  to  which 
 was  fifteen  stadia  {Strab.,  223) ;  and  it  is  supposed  that 
 the  Tyrrhenian  city  of  which  Aristotle  (De  Mirab.,  p. 
 1158)  speaks,  under  the  name  of  ffinarrea,  as  being 
 built  on  a  hill  thirty  stadia  high,  is  Volaterrae.  The 
 first  mention  of  Volaterrte  in  the  Roman  history  occurs 
 in  Livy  (10,  12),  where  an  engagement  of  no  great 
 importance  is  stated  to  have  taken  place  near  this  city, 
 at  the  close  of  a  war,  in  which  the  Etruscans  were 
 leagued  with  the  Samnites  against  the  Romans,  A.U.C. 
 454.  In  the  second  Punic  war  we  find  Volaterra; 
 among  the  other  cities  of  Etruria  that  were  zealous  in 
 their  offers  of  naval  stores  to  the  Romans.  (Liv.,  28. 
 45.)  Many  years  afterward  Volaterras  sustained  a 
 siege,  which  lasted  two  years,  against  Sylla  ;  the  be- 
 sieged consisting  principally  of  persons  whom  that  dic- 
 tator had  proscribed.  On  its  surrender  Italy  is  said  to 
 have  enjoyed  peace  for  the  first  time  after  so  much 
 bloodshed.  Finally,  we  hear  of  Volatcrr®  as  a  colony 
 somewhat  prior  to  the  reign  of  Augustus.  (Frovt.,  dc 
 Col.  —  Compare  Plin.,  3,  5.  —  Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.   1,  p.  186  ) 
 
 Voi.ATERKAN.\  Vada,  a  harbour  on  the  coast  of  Etru- 
 ria, deriving  its  name  from  the  city  of  Volalerrsf, 
 which  lav  inland.  It  is  still  known  by  the  name  of 
 Vada.  (Cic,  pro  Quinct.,  6. — Plin.,  3,  5. — RutU., 
 Itin.,  1,  4.53.) 
 
 Voi.c^.  a  numerous  and  powerful  nation  of  southern 
 Gaul,  divided  into  \.\\o  great  branches,  the  Arecomici 
 and  Tectosages.  I.  The  Volcae  Arecomici  occupied  the 
 southwestern  angle  of  the  Uoman  province  in  Gaul, 
 and  had  for  their  chief  city  Ncmausus,  now  Nismci. — 
 II.  The  Volcas  Tectosages  lay  without  the  Roman 
 province,  in  a  southwest  direction  from  the  Arecomici. 
 Their  capital  was  Tolosa,  now  Toulouse. — The  tiation 
 of  the  Volc«  would  appear  from  their  name  to  have 
 been  of  German  origin.  Compare  the  German  rolk. 
 "  people,"  &c.,  whence  comes  the  English  ''  folk.'" 
 The  Roman  pronunciation  of  Volcas,  moreover,  wa-! 
 VolkcR.     {C<Bs.,  B.  G.,  7,  74,  scqq.) 
 
UR  A 
 
 U  TI 
 
 VoLOGESEs,  a  name  common  to  many  of  the  kings 
 of  Parihia,  who  made  war  against  llie  lloman  emper- 
 ors.    {Vid.  Parthia.) 
 
 VoLsci,  a  people  of  Lalium,  along  the  coast  below 
 Antium.  No  notice  appears  to  be  taken  by  any  Latin 
 writer  of  the  origin  of  this  pcojile.  According  to  Ga- 
 te, they  occupied  the  country  of  the  At>origuies  {ap. 
 Priscian.,  5),  and  were  at  one  time  subject  to  the 
 Etruscans.  {Id.,  ap.  Serv.,  JEn.,  II,  567.)  We 
 learn  from  Tiiinnius,  an  old  comic  writer  quoted  by 
 Festus  (s.  V.  Oscum),  that  the  Volsci  had  a  peculiar 
 idiom  distinct  from  the  Oscan  and  Latin  dialects. 
 They  used  the  Latin  characters,  however,  both  in  their 
 inscriptions  and  on  their  coin.  Notwithstanding  the 
 small  extent  of  country  which  they  occupied,  reaching 
 only  from  Antium  to  Terracina,  a  line  of  coast  of 
 about  fifty  miles,  and  little  more  than  half  that  dis- 
 tance from  the  sea  to  the  mountains,  it  swarmed  with 
 cities  filled  with  a  hardy  race,  destined,  says  the  Ro- 
 man hisiorian,  as  it  were  by  fortune,  to  train  the  Ro- 
 man soldier  to  arms  by  tlicir  perpetual  hostility.  ( Lie., 
 6,  21.)  The  Volsci  were  first  attacked  by  the  second 
 Tarquin,  and  war  was  carried  on  afterward  between 
 the  two  nations,  with  short  intervals,  for  upward  of 
 two  hundred  years  {Lio.,  1,  53);  and  though  this  ac- 
 coui  t  is  no  doubt  greatly  exaggerated  by  Livy,  and 
 the  numbers  much  overrated,  enough  will  remain  to 
 prove  that  this  part  of  Italy  was  at  that  time  far  more 
 populous  and  better  cultivated  than  at  present.  {Cra- 
 mer^s  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  S2.) 
 
 VoLTUM.SiE  Fanum,  a  spot  in  Etruria  where  the 
 general  assembly  of  the  Etrurians  was  held  on  solemn 
 occasions.  (Ljr,  4,  23. — 7i.,5,  17.)  Some  trace  of 
 the  ancient  name  is  preserved  in  that  of  a  church 
 called  Santa  Maria  in  Volturno.  {Lanzi,  vol.  2,  p. 
 l{)7.— Cramer's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  223.) 
 
 Voi.siMUM.      Vid.  Vulsmii. 
 
 VotUBli.is,  a  city  in  Mauritania  Tingitana,  between 
 Tocolosida  and  Aqua;  Dacicaj,  in  a  fruillul  part  of  the 
 country.  It  IS  now  Walilt.  {Ilia.  Ant.,  22.  —  Mela, 
 3,  10.) 
 
 VoLUMNH,  the  wife  of  Coriolanus.     {Liv.,  2,  40.) 
 
 Vol'^scus,  one  of  the  writers  of  the  Augustan  His- 
 tory. He  was  a  native  of  Syracuse,  and  contemporary 
 with  Trebellius  Pollio,  having  flourished  towards  the 
 close  of  the  third  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth 
 century.  His  father  and  grandfather  lived  on  terms 
 of  intimacy  with  the  Emperor  Dioclesian.  In  the  year 
 291  or  293,  the  prefect  of  Rome,  Junius  Tiberianus, 
 prevailed  upon  Vopiscus  to  write  a  life  of  Aurclian, 
 which  no  Latin  historian  had  as  yet  taken  up.  He 
 supplied  him  with  various  materials  from  the  private 
 papers  of  that  prince,  and  also  from  the  Ulpian  library. 
 Among  the  books  consulted  by  him,  Vopiscus  names 
 some  Greek  works.  This  biography  was  followed  by 
 the  lives  of  Tacitus,  Florian,  Probus,  Firmus,  Satur- 
 ninus,  Proculus,  Bonosus,  Carus,  Numerian,  and  Ca- 
 rinns.  Flavius  Vopiscus  is  distinguished  from  his 
 brethren  in  the  Augustan  collection  by  possessinglnore 
 of  order  and  method  :  the  letters  and  official  papers, 
 moreover,  which  he  has  inserted  in  his  history,  impart 
 a  considerable  value  to  the  worK.  As  to  style,  how- 
 ever, he  is  on  a  level  with  the  other  writers  in  the  Au- 
 gustan History.  He  states,  in  his  life  of  Aurelian,  his 
 intention  of  writing  the  life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  a 
 project  which  he  never  executed.  His  works  are  giv- 
 en in  the  Hisloria;  Augustcz  Scriplorcs.  {Scliull, 
 Hist.  Lit.  Rotn.,  vol.  3,  p.  156.)  ' 
 
 Urania,  the  muse  of  Astronomy,  usually  represent- 
 ed as  holding  in  one  hand  a  globe,  in  the  other  a  rod, 
 with  which  she  is  employed  in  tracing  out  some  fig- 
 ure. {Vid.  Musae.)  By  some  she  was  said  to  be  the 
 mother  of  Hymenaeus.  {Catullus,  61,  2.  —  Nonnus, 
 83.  67.) 
 
 Ukanopolis,  according  to  most  geographers,  a  city 
 
 9a  the  peninsula  of  Athos,  founded   by  Alexander, 
 
 80 
 
 j  brother  of  Cassander  {Athcn.,  3,  54),  and  the  site  of 
 which  is  called  Callitzi.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece, 
 vol.  1,  p.  260.)  Gail,  however,  maintains  that  no  such 
 city  ever  existed,  and  that  the  name  was  a  general  ap- 
 pellation for  the  whole  peninsula  of  Athos,  with  its  five 
 cities.     {Gail,  Atlas,  p.  21.) 
 
 Ub.\ncs  {Ovpai'ug,  " Hcavoc'  or  "sky"),  a  deity, 
 the  same  as  Ccelus,  the  most  ancient  of  all  ihe  gods. 
 He  married  Terra,  or  the  Earth,  by  whom  he  had  the 
 Titans.     {Vid.  Titanes.) 
 
 Ukcmnium,  a  town  on  the  western  coast  of  Corsica, 
 east  of  the  Rhium  Promontorium.  It  was  fabled  to 
 have  been  founded  by  Eurysaces,  the  son  of  Ajax, 
 and  is  now  Ajaccio. 
 
 Ukia  (Ureiuin  or  Hyreium),  a  town  on  the  coast  of 
 Apulia,  giving  name  to  the  Sinus  Urias,  or  Gulf  of 
 Manfrcdonia.  The  position  of  this  town  has  never 
 been  very  clearly  ascertained,  partly  from  the  circum- 
 stance of  there  being  another  town  of  the  same  name 
 in  Messapia,  and  partly  from  the  situation  assigned  to 
 it  by  Pliny,  to  the  south  of  the  promontory  of  Garga- 
 nus,  not  agreeing  with  the  topography  of  Strabo. 
 {Plm.,  3,  U.  —  Sliabo,  284.)  Hence  Cluverius  and 
 Cellarius  were  led  to  imagine  that  there  were  two 
 distinct  towns  named  Uria  and  Hyrium  ;  the  former 
 situated  to  the  south,  the  latter  to  the  north  of  Garga- 
 nus.  {Ital.  Antiq.,  vol.  2,  p.  1212.—  Gcogr.  Aiit.,  lib. 
 2,  c.  9.)  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  Dionys- 
 ius  Periegete»  and  Ptolemy  (p.  62)  mention  only 
 Hyrium,  and  therefore  it  is  probable  that  the  error  has 
 originated  with  Pliny.  At  any  rate,  we  may  safely 
 place  the  Hyreium  of  Strabo  at  Bodi.  {Cramer's 
 Anc.  Italy,  vol.  2,  p.  273,  seqq.) 
 
 UsipiiTES  or  UsiPii,  a  German  tribe.  Driven  by  the 
 Suevi  from  the  interior  of  Germany,  the  Usipetes  pre- 
 sented themselves  on  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
 crossed  that  stream,  and  passed  through  the  territories 
 of  the  Menapii  into  Gaul.  Ca)sar  defeated  them  and 
 drove  them  back  over  the  Rhine,  and  we  then  find 
 them  settling  to  the  north  of  the  Luppia  or  Lippc, 
 and  reaching  to  the  eastern  mouth  of  tlie  Rhine.  At 
 a  subsequent  period  they  had  their  settlement  between 
 the  Sicff  and  Lahn,  but  gradually  merged  into  the 
 name  of  AUemanni.  {Mayinert,  Geogr.,  vol.  3,  p. 
 153,  239.) 
 
 UsTicA,  a  mountain  and  valley  in  the  Sabine  terri- 
 tory, near  Horace's  farm.     {Horat.,  Od.,  1,  17,  11.) 
 
 Utica,  a  (?ity  of  Africa,  on  the  seacoast,  northwest 
 of  Carthage,  and  separated  from  its  immediate  district 
 by  the  river  Bagradas.  The  Greeks  called  the  name 
 Ityke  {'Itvk!/),  probably  by  a  corruption.  Utica  was 
 the  earliest,  or  one  of  the  earliest  colonies  planted  by 
 Tyre  on  the  African  coast,  and  Bochart  deduces  the 
 name  from  the  Phoenician  Atica,  i.  e.,  '■  ancient." 
 {Geogr.  Sacr.,  1,  24,  col.  474,  1.  1.)  Velleius  Pa- 
 terculus  makes  it  to  have  been  founded  about  the  time 
 that  Codrus  was  king  at  Athens,  about  1150  B.C., 
 consequently  in  the  period  when  the  Greeks  were  be- 
 ginning to  make  tlieir  settlements  along  the  coast  of 
 Asia  Minor  (1,  2).  Justin  asserts  that  Utica  was 
 more  ancient  than  Carthage  (18,  4,  5).  It  was  origi- 
 nally a  free  and  independent  city,  like  all  the  other 
 large  settlements  of  the  Phojnicians,  and  had  a  senate 
 and  sufTetes,  or  |)residing  magistrates,  of  its  own.  As 
 Carthage,  however,  rose  gradually  into  power,  it  as- 
 sumed a  kini  of  protection  over  Utica,  as  would  ap- 
 pear in  [lar'icular  from  the  language  of  the  second 
 treaty  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  where  the  latter 
 state  speaks  not  only  for  itself,  but  also  for  the  people 
 of  Utica.  {Polyb.,  3,  24.)  At  a  subsequent  period 
 we  find  Utica,  it  is  true,  still  with  a  separate  constitu- 
 tion of  its  own,  but,  in  reality,  more  or  less  dependant 
 upon  the  power  of  Carthage.  Hence  the  disaffection 
 frequently  shown  by  the  inhabitants  to  the  Carthagin- 
 ian cause,  the  ease  with  which  Agathocles  made  him- 
 self master  of  the  place,  and  its  siding  with  the  re- 
 
 1393 
 
V  U  L 
 
 VUL 
 
 volted  mercenaries  after  the  first  Punic  war.  (Diod. 
 Sic,  20.  54.  —Polyb.,  1,  S3,  88.)  The  punishment 
 inflicted  by  the  Carthaginians  on  the  people  of  Ut:ca, 
 «n  the  quelling  of  this  rebellion,  probably  drew  more 
 closely  the  connexion  between  the  two  cities  ;  at  least 
 Scipio  besieged  Utica  iti  vain  during  the  second  Punic 
 war.  At  the  beginning  of  the  third  Punic  contest, 
 however,  the  inhabitants  of  Utica  regarded  it  as  the 
 safer  course  to  separate  their  interests  from  those  of 
 Carthage.  They  gave  themselves  up,  therefore,  vol- 
 untarily to  the  power  of  Rome,  and  this  latter  state 
 had  now  a  firm  foothold  for  the  prosecution  of  all  her 
 ambitious  plans  in  relation  to  Africa.  (I'olyb.,26,  1.) 
 As  some  recompense  to  the  Ulicenses  for  the  valuable 
 aid  they  had  afforded  during  the  war,  the  Romans,  at 
 its  close,  bestowed  upon  them  a  large  portion  of  the 
 territory  immediately  adjacent  to  Carthage  {Appian, 
 Bell.  Pun.,  c,  135)  ;  and  Utica  was  now,  and  remain- 
 ed as  loner  as  Carthage  continued  in  ruins,  the  first  city 
 of  Africa  in  point  of  importance,  and  the  seat  of  the 
 proconsul.  And  yet  it  never  became  a  very  flourish- 
 ing city,  since  in  all  the  civil  wars  of  the  Romans  de- 
 tachments of  one  party  or  the  other  invariably  landed 
 near  this  place,  and  fought  many  of  li.eir  battles  here. 
 Thus,  it  was  near  Utica  that  Pompey  defeated  the  op- 
 ponents of  Sylla  (Orosius,  5,  21)  ;  here,  too.  Curio 
 contended  for  Caesar,  and,  not  long  after,  Caesar's  op- 
 ponents selected.  Utica  as  the  chief  seat  of  the  war. 
 The  issue  was  an  unfortunate  one  for  the  republican 
 party,  and  (/ate  (hence  called  Uticensis)  found  here  a 
 death  by  his  own  hand.  Hitherto  Utica  had  remained 
 a  free  city,  with  its  old  constitution  ;  and  hence  Hir- 
 tius  speaks  of  its  senate.  {Auct.,  Bell.  Afr.,  c.  87, 
 90.)  Augustus  declared  the  place  a  Roman  colony. 
 i^Dio  Cass.,  49,  16.—Plin.,  5,  4.)  It  slill,  however, 
 retained,  in  some  measure,  its  early  constitution,  and 
 hence  is  styled  by  Aulus  Gellius  a  municipium  (16, 13). 
 At  a  later  period,  Utica  was  regarded,  after  Carthage, 
 the  latter  having  been  rebuilt,  as  the  second  in  Africa. 
 Utica  had  no  harbour,  but  safe  roads  in  front  of  the 
 town.  Its  ruins  are  to  be  seen  at  the  present  day  near 
 Purto  Farina.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p. 
 288,  siqq  ) 
 
 VoLCANAUA,  festivals  in  honour  of  Vulcan,  brought 
 to  Rome  from  Pra?neste,  and  observed  in  the  month  of 
 August.  The  streets  were  illuminated,  fires  kindled 
 everywhere,  and  animals  thrown  into  the  flames,  as  a 
 sacrifice  to  the  deity.  {Varro,  L.  L.,f>,  3. — Plin., 
 18,  13.) 
 
 VuLCANi  Insijl^.  Vid.  .^Eolia;  (Insula?),  and  Li- 
 para. 
 
 VuLC.iNUs,  the  god  of  fire,  the  same  with  the  He- 
 phaestus ('H<paiaTo^)  of  the  Greeks.  Kephsestus,  the 
 Olympian  artist,  is  in  Homer  the  son  of  Jupiter  and 
 Juno.  (// ,  1,  572,  578  )  According  to  Hesiod,  how- 
 ever, he  was  the  son  of  Juno  alone,  who  was  unwill- 
 ing to  be  outdone  by  Jupiter  when  he  had  given  birth 
 to  Minerva,  {Thcog.,  927  )  He  was  born  lame,  and 
 his  mother  was  so  shocked  at  ihe  sight  of  him  that 
 she  flung  him  from  Olympus.  The  Ocean-nymph  Eu- 
 rynome  and  the  Nereid  Thetis  saved  and  concealed 
 him  in  a  cavern  beneath  the  Ocean,  where,  during 
 nine  years,  he  employed  himself  in  manufacturing  for 
 them  various  ornaments  and  trinkets.  {IL,  18,  394, 
 seqq.)  We  are  not  informed  how  his  return  to  Olym- 
 pus was  effected  ;  but  we  find  him,  in  the  Iliad,  firmly 
 fixed  there  ;  and  all  the  mansions,  furniture,  ornaments, 
 and  arms  of  the  Olympians  were  the  work  of  his  hands. 
 It  would  be  an  almost  endless  task  to  enumerate  all 
 the  articles  formed  by  Ilcphoestus.  Only  the  chief  of 
 them  will  here  be  noticed.  One  thing  is  remarkable 
 concerning  them,  that  they  were  all  made  of  the  vari- 
 ous metals  ;  no  wood,  or  stone,  or  any  other  substance 
 entering  into  their  composition  :  they  were,  moreover, 
 frequently  endowed  with  automatism.  Hephaestus 
 made  armour  for  Achilles  and  other  mortal  heroes. 
 1394 
 
 (//.,  8,  195.)  The  fatal  collar  of  Harmonia  was  the 
 work  of  his  hands.  (Apullod.,  3,  4,  3.)  The  brass- 
 footed,  brass- throated,  fire-breathing  bulls  of  .^etes, 
 king  of  Colchis,  were  the  gift  of  Hephsstus  to  JEietca* 
 father  Helins.  {Apollon.  Rhod.,  3,  230.)  He  also 
 made  for  Alcinoiis,  king  of  the  Phasacians,  the  gold 
 and  silver  dogs  which  guarded  his  house.  {Od.,  7, 
 91.)  For  himself  he  formed  the  golden  maidens,  who 
 waited  on  him,  and  whom  he  endowed  with  reason 
 and  speech.  (//.,  18,  419.)  He  gave  to  Mmos,  king 
 of  Crete,  the  brazen  man  Talus,  who  each  day  com 
 passed  his  island  three  times  to  guard  it  from  the  in- 
 vasion of  strangers  {Apotlod  ,  1,  9,  26.)  The  bra- 
 zen cup,  in  which  the  Sun  god  and  his  horses  and  char- 
 iot are  carried  round  the  earth  every  night,  was  also 
 the  work  of  this  god.  The  only  instances  we  meet 
 of  Hephaestus'  working  in  any  other  substance  than 
 metal  are  in  Hesiod,  where,  at  the  command  of  Jupi- 
 ter, he  forms  Pandora  of  earth  and  water  (Op.  ct  D., 
 60),  and  where  he  uses  gypsum  and  ivory  in  the  for- 
 mation of  the  shield  which  he  makes  for  Hercules. 
 (Scut ,  Here,  141.)  That  framed  by  him  for  Achilles 
 in  the  Iliad  is  all  of  metal.  —  In  the  Iliad  (18,  382), 
 the  wife  of  Hephaestus  is  named  Charis  ;  in  Hesiod 
 {Theog.,  945),  Aglaia,  the  youngest  of  the  Graces  ;  in 
 the  interpolated  tale  in  ti.e  Odyssey  (8,  266,  seqq.). 
 Aphrodite,  the  goddess  of  beauty. — The  favourite  haunt 
 of  Hephffistus  on  earth  was  the  isle  of  Lemnos.  It 
 was  here  that  he  fell  when  flung  from  Heaven  by  Jupi- 
 ter for  attempting  to  aid  his  mother  Juno,  whom  Ju- 
 piter had  suspended  in  the  air  with  anvils  fastened  to 
 her  feet.  As  knowledge  of  the  earth  increased,  ^tna 
 and  all  other  places  where  there  was  subterranean  fire 
 were  regarded  as  the  forges  of  Hephaestus  ;  and  the 
 Cyclopes  were  associated  with  him  as  his  assistants. 
 In  Homer,  when  Thetis  wants  Hephsstian  armour  for 
 her  son,  she  seeks  Olympus,  and  the  armour  is  fash- 
 ioned by  the  artist-god  with  his  own  hand.  In  the 
 Augustan  age  Venus  prevails  on  her  husband,  the 
 master-smith,  to  furnish  her  son  ^neas  with  arms; 
 and  he  goes  down  from  Heaven  to  Hiera  (one  of  the 
 Liparean  isles),  and  directs  his  men,  the  Cyclopes,  to 
 execute  the  order.  [Mn.,  8,  407,  seqq.)  It  is  thus 
 that  mythology  changes  with  modes  of  life.  Hephaes- 
 tus and  Minerva  are  frequently  joined  together  as  the 
 communicators  unto  men  of  the  arts  which  embellish 
 life  and  promote  civilization.  The  j)hilosophy  of  this 
 view  of  the  two  deities  is  correct  and  elegant.  {Od., 
 6,  233.  — 7A.,  23,  160.  — //om..  Hymn.,  20. —  Plato, 
 Polil.,  p.  177.  —  Vokher,  Myth,  der  lap.,  p.  21,  scq.) 
 — The  artist-god  is  usually  represented  as  of  ripe  age, 
 with  a  serious  countenance  and  muscular  form  :  his 
 hair  hangs  in  curls  on  his  shoulders.  He  generally 
 appears  with  hammer  and  tongs  at  his  anvil,  in  a  short 
 tunic,  and  his  right  arm  bare;  sometimes  with  a  point- 
 ed cap  on  his  head.  The  Cyclopes  are  occasionally 
 placed  with  him. — Hephaestus  must  have  been  regard- 
 ed originally  as  simply  the  fire-god,  a  view  of  his  char- 
 acter which"  we  find  even  in  the  Iliad  (20,  73;  21,330, 
 seqq.).  Fire  being  the  great  agent  in  reducing  and 
 wovking  the  metals,  the  fire-god  naturally  became  an 
 artist.  The  former  was  probably  Hepha;stus'  Pelasgi- 
 an,  the  latter  his  Achaean  character.  —  The  Vulcan  of 
 the  Latins  was  also,  like  Hephaestus,  the  god  of  fire, 
 but  he  is  not  represented  as  an  artist.  He  was  said,  in 
 one  legend,  to  be  the  father  of  Servius  Tullius,  whoso 
 wooden  statue  was,  in  consequence,  spared  by  the 
 flames  when  they  consumed  the  temple  of  Fortune  in 
 which  it  stood.  {Onid,  Fast.,  6,  G27.—Dion.  Hal.,  4, 
 40  )  He  was  also  the  reputed  father  of  Caeculus,  the 
 founder  of  Praeneste,  the  legend  of  whose  birth  is  nearly 
 similar  to  that  of  Servius.  {Virg.,  JEn.,  7,  678.  seqq. 
 — Servius,  ad  loc.)  Vulcan  was  united  with  a  female 
 power  named  Maia.  {Keightley'' s  Mythology,  p.  107, 
 518.)       f^ 
 
 VuLCATius,  Gallicanus,  one  of  the  writers  of  the 
 
X  AN 
 
 X  AN 
 
 Augustan  History.  He  has  the  title  of  Vir  Clarissi- 
 mus,  which  indicates  that  he  was  a  senator.  Vulca- 
 tiua  hved  under  Dioclesian,  and  proposed  to  himself 
 to  write  a  hi.story  of  all  the  Roman  emperors  ;  we 
 have  from  him,  however,  only  the  life  of  Avidius  Cas- 
 «ius.  Some  manuscripts  even  assign  this  biography 
 to  Spartianus. 
 
 Vui.siNii  or  Vor.siNii,  and  also  Vui.sinium  or  Vol- 
 sinIu.m,  a  city  of  Etrnria,  situate  on  the  northern  shore 
 of  the  Lacus  Vulsiniensis.  It  is  generally  allowed  to 
 rank  among  the  first  cities  of  the  country  An  account 
 of  its  early  contest  with  Rome  is  to  be  found  in  Livy 
 (5,  31).  About  the  time  of  the  war  against  Pyrrhus, 
 Vulsinii,  which  the  Roin.Tn  writers  re[)resent  as  a  most 
 opulent  and  flourishing  place,  becomes  so  enervated  by 
 its  wealth  and  luxury  as  to  allow  its  slaves  to  over- 
 throw the  constitution,  and  give  way  to  the  most  un- 
 bridled licentiousness  and  excess,  till  at  last  the  citi- 
 zens were  forced  to  seek  for  that  protection  from  Rome 
 which  they  could  not  derive  from  their  own  resources. 
 The  rebels  were  speedily  reduced,  and  brought  to  con- 
 dign punishment.  (Val.  Max.,S,  1. — Flor.,  1,  21. — 
 Oros.,  4,  5.)  As  a  proof  of  the  ancient  prosperity  of 
 Vulsinii,  it  is  stated  by  Pliny,  on  the  authority  of  Me- 
 trodorus  Sccpsius,  that  it  possessed,  when  taken  by 
 the  Romans,  no  lc3s  than  2000  statues.  (Piin.,  34, 
 7.)  From  Livy  we  learn  that  the  Etruscan  goddess 
 Nortia  was  worshipped  there,  and  that  it  was  custom- 
 ary to  mark  the  years  hy  fi.xing  nails  in  her  temples 
 (7,  3).  Vulsinii,  at  a  later  period,  is  noted  as  the 
 birthplace  of  Sejanus.  (Tuc,  ^'1««.,  4,  1.)  It  is  now 
 Bolsena.     {Cratner's  Anc.  Italy,  vol.  1,  p.  221,  scqq.) 
 
 VuLTURNO-M,  a  town  of  Campania,  at  the  mouth  of 
 the  river  Vulturnus,  and  on  the  left  bank.  It  is  now 
 Caslc!  di  VoUurno.  The  origin  of  this  city  was  prob- 
 ibly  Etruscan,  but  we  do  not  hnd  it  mentioned  in  his- 
 tory until  it  became  a  Roman  colony,  A.U.C.  558. 
 (Lip..34,  45  )  According  to  Erontimis,  a  second  col- 
 ony was  sent  thither  by  Csesar.  Festus  includes  it 
 among  the  praefeclurae.  {Cramcr^s  Anc.  Ilahj,  vol. 
 2,  p    145.) 
 
 VuLTUR.N'os,  I.  a  river  of  Campania,  now  Vollurno, 
 rising  among  the  Apennines,  in  the  territory  of  Sanini- 
 um,  and  discharging  its  waters  into  the  lower  sea. 
 At  its  mouth  stood  the  town  of  Vulturnum.  The 
 modern  name  is  the  Vollurno.  A  magnificent  bridge, 
 with  a  triumphal  arch,  was  thrown  over  this  river  by 
 Domitian  when  he  caused  a  road  to  be  constructed 
 from  Siriuessa  to  Puteoli ;  a  work  which  Statius  has 
 undertaken  to  eulogize  in  some  hundred  lines  of  in- 
 diflferent  poetry.  (Sijlv.,  4,  3. — Cramer's  Anc.  Italy, 
 vol.  2,  p.  144.) — II.  A  name  applied  by  the  Laiin 
 writers  to  the  southeast  wind,  and  answering  to  the 
 Greek  Ei'poi^orof.     (Aul.  Gell,  2,  22.—  Vilruv  ,1,6.) 
 
 IJ.XANTis,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Gaul,  now 
 Ihlianl.     (Itin.  Micros.,  509  ) 
 
 UxEr.i.oDu.NUM,  a  city  in  Aquitanic  Gaul,  in  the  ter- 
 ritory ol  the  Cadurci ;  now  Puechc  cTIssoloii.  (Cccs., 
 B.  G.,  8,  32.) 
 
 U.vii,  a  mountaineer  race  occupying  the  ranges  that 
 run  on  each  side  of  the  river  Orontes,  and  separate 
 Persis  from  Susiana.  They  were  predatory  in  their 
 habits.  (Dioii,  27,  G7.—Arnan,  Ind,  3,  l8.-~I'lin., 
 6,  27.) 
 
 Xanthippe  (EavOiTTTv/j),  less  correctly  Xantippe, 
 tlie  wife  of  Socrates,  represented  by  many  of  the  an- 
 cient writers  as  a  perfect  termagant.  It  is  more  than 
 probable,  however,  that  the  inlirmities  of  this  good 
 woman  have  been  exaggerated,  and  that  calumny  has 
 had  some  hand  in  finishing  her  picture  ;  for  Socrates 
 himself,  in  a  dialogue  with  his  son  Lamprocles  {Mem., 
 2,  2),  allows  her  many  domestic  virtues  ;  and  we  find 
 her  afterward  expressing  great  affection  for  her  hus- 
 
 band during  his  imprisonment.  She  must  have  been 
 as  deficient  in  understanding  as  she  was  froward  in 
 disposition  if  she  had  not  profited  by  the  daily  lessons 
 which,  for  twenty  years,  she  received  from  such  a 
 master.  {Enfield's  History  of  Philosophy,  vol.  1,  p. 
 171. — Compare  the  remarks  of  Mendelsohn,  in  his 
 life  of  Socrates,  prefixed  to  his  German  version  of 
 Plato's  Phecdon,  p.  17,  scqq.) 
 
 Xantuippus,  I.  a  Spartan  leader,  who  fought  on  the 
 side  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the  first  Punic  war,  and 
 defeated  Rcgulus.  He  is  said  to  have  left  Carll)age 
 soon  after  this  success,  apprehending  evil  consequences 
 to  himself  from  the  jealousy  of  the  inhabitants.  ( Vid. 
 Regulus.) — II.  An  Athenian  commander,  who  ied  the 
 forces  of  Athens  at  the  battle  of  Mycale.  He  was  fa- 
 ther of  the  celebrated  Pericles.     {Vid   Mycale.) 
 
 Xanthus  or  Xanthos,  I.  a  river  of  Troas  in  Asia 
 Minor,  the  same  as  the  Scamander,  and,  accordino'  to 
 Homer,  called  Xanthus  by  the  gods  and  Scamander  by 
 men.     (  Vid.  remarks  under  the  article  Troja,  "  Topog- 
 raphy of  Troy.") — II.   A  river  of  Lycia,  falling  into 
 the  sea  above  Patara.     It  was  the  most  considerable 
 of  the  Lycian  streams,  and  at  an  early  period  bore  the 
 name  of  Sirbcs,  as  Strabo  writes  it,   but  Sibrus  ac- 
 cording to  Panyasis  {up.  Steph   Byz.,  s.  v.  Tprfii?.?}). 
 This  stream  was  navigable  for  small  vessels  ;  and  at 
 the   distance  of  seventy  stadia    from   its  mouth   was 
 Xanthus,  the  principal  city  of  the  Lycians.     {Cramer's 
 Asia  Minor,  vol.  2,  p.  247.)     Bochart,  with  great  prob- 
 ability on  his   side,  regards   the   name  Xanthus   as  a 
 mere  translation  into  Greek  of  the  Oriental  and  earlier 
 name,  since  the  term  Zirha,  both  in  Arabic  and  Phoe- 
 nician, is  equivalent  to  the  Greek  ^av66g,  "yellow." 
 {Gcogr.   Sacr.,  1,  6,  col.  363.)— III.  The  chief  city 
 of  Lycia,  situate  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  at  the 
 distance  of  seventy  stadia  from  its  mouth.     Pliny  says 
 it  was  fifteen  miles  from  the  sea  ;   but  that  distance  is 
 too  considerable,  there  being  no  doubt  that  the  Lycian 
 capital  occupied  the  site  of  Aksenule,  which  occurs  in 
 the   situation    described    by    Strabo   (066. — Compare 
 Hcc.at(cus,ap.  Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  ^dvOog).     The  Xan- 
 ihians  have  twice   been    recorded    in    history  for  the 
 dauntless  courage  and  perseverance  with  which  they 
 defended  their  city  against  a  hostile  army.     The  first 
 occasion  occurred  in  the  invasion  of  Lycia  by  the  army 
 of   Cyrus    under    Harpagus,    after    the    conquest    of 
 Lydia,  when  they  buried   themselves  under  the  ruins 
 of  their   walls  and   houses.     {Herod.,  I,  176.)     The 
 second  event  here  alluded  to  took  place  many  centu- 
 ries later,  during   the   civil  wars  consequent  on   the 
 death  of  Caisar.     The  Xaiithians   having  refused  to 
 open  their  gates  to  the  republican  army  commanded  by 
 Brutus,  that  general  invested  the  town,  and,  after  re- 
 pelling every  attempt    made  by  the  citizens  to  break 
 through  his   lines,   finally  entered   it   by    force.     The 
 Xanthians  are  said  to  have  resisted  still,  and  even  to 
 have  perished  in  the  flames,  with  their  wives  and  chil- 
 dren, rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Roman  gen- 
 eral, who   made   many  attempts    to  turn  them  away 
 from   their  desperate   purpose.     {Plut  ,  Vit.  Brut. — 
 Appian,  Bell.  Cir.,  4,  18.— Dio  Cass  ,  47,  34.)— Mr. 
 Fellows  describes  the  remains  at  Xanthus  as  all  of  the 
 same  date,  and  that  a  very  early  one.      "  The  walls  are 
 many  of  them  Cyclopean.     The  language  of  the  innu- 
 merable and  very  perfect  inscriptions  is  like  the  Phoe- 
 nician or  Etruscan  ;  and    the  beautiful  tombs   in  the 
 rocks  are  also  of  very  early  date.     The  city  has  not 
 the  appearance  of  having  been  very  large,  but  its  re- 
 mains show  that  it  was  highly  ornamented,  particularly 
 the   tombs."     A  detailed  account  of  several  of  these 
 tombs,  and  of  the  sculptures  upon  them,  is  also  given 
 by   the    same    traveller.      {Fellows^  Asia  Minor,  p. 
 225,  sfiyy.) — IV.  An  ancient  historian  of  Lydia.     We 
 learn  from  .Siiidas  {s.  r.  ^uvOoc)  that  his  father's  name 
 was  Candaulcs  ;   that  he  flourished  at  the  time  of  tiio 
 capture  of  Sardis  by  the  loiiians  (01.  69) ;  and  that  he 
 
 1395 
 
XEN 
 
 XEN 
 
 wrote  a  History  of  Lydia  in  four  books.  Suidas  cites 
 the  second.  Dionysiiis  of  Halicarnassus  also  quoics 
 this  work,  and  speaks  of  the  author  in  terms  of  hi<jh 
 romnicndation.  {Ant.  Rom.,\o\.  1,  p.  22,  cd  Rcislcc.) 
 The  Lijdiara  are  quoted  by  Parthenius,  in'Stephanut 
 of  Byzantium,  and  probably  by  the  scholiast  on  Apol- 
 lonuis  Rhodius  :  liy  Hephaesiion  also  (p.  14,  cd.  Guisf). 
 The  fragments  of  Xanthus  are  given  by  Creuzcr  in 
 his  "  Historicorum  Grczcorum  Ardiquiss.  Fragmcn- 
 la,"  Hcidclb  ,  1806,  8vo,  p.  148,  scqq.  {Mus.\'nt., 
 vol.  2,  p.   109,  scqq) 
 
 Xenoci.es,  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  ridiculed  by 
 Aristophanes,  and  yet  the  conqueror  of  Euripides  on 
 one  occasion  (Olym.  91.2,  B.C.  415).  He  was  of 
 dwarfish  stature,  and  son  of  the  tragic  poet  Carcinus. 
 In  the  Pax,  Aristophanes  applies  the  term  fi7ixavo6i(pac 
 to  the  family.  From  the  scholiast  it  appears  that  Xen- 
 ocles  was  celebrated  for  introducing  machinery  and 
 stage-shows,  especially  in  the  ascerit  or  descent  of  his 
 gods.     {Theatre  of  the  Grcc/:s,  3d  ed  ,  p   C6  ) 
 
 Xenocrates,    I.   an   ancient   philosopher,  born  at 
 Chalcedon  in  the  95lh  Olympiad,   B.C.  400.  H  first 
 attached  himself  to  ^Eschines,  but  afterward  became 
 a  disciple  of  Plato,  who  took  much  pains  in  cultivating 
 his  genius,  which  was  naturally  heavy.     Plato,  com- 
 paring him   with  Aristotle,  who  was   also  one  of  his 
 pupils,  called  the   former  a  dull  ass,  who  needed  the 
 spur,  and  the  latter  a  mettlesome  horse,  who  required 
 the  curb.     His  temper  was  gloomy,  his  aspect  severe, 
 and  his  manners  little  tinctured  with  urbanity.     These 
 material  defects  his  master  took  great  pains  to  cor- 
 rect, frequently   advising  him  to   sacrifice  to  the  Gra- 
 ces ;  and   the   pupil  was  patient  of  instruction,  and 
 knew  how  to  value  the  kindness  of  his  preceptor.     He 
 compared  himself  to  a  vessel  with  a  narrow  orifice, 
 which  receives  with  difficulty,  but  firmly  retains  what- 
 ever is  put  into  it.     So  affectionately  was  Xenocrates 
 attached  to  his  master,  that  when  Dionysius,  in  a  vio- 
 lent fit  of  anger,  threatened  to  find  one  who  should  cut 
 off  his  head,  he  said,  "  Not  before  he  has  cut  off  this," 
 pointing  to  his  own.     As  long  as  Plato  lived,  Xenoc- 
 rates was  one  of  his  most  esteemed  disciples;   after 
 his  death  he  closely  adhered  to  his  doctrine  ;  and,  in 
 the  second  year  of  the  hundred  and  tenth  Olympiad, 
 B  C.  339,  he   took  the  chair  in  the  Academy  as  the 
 successor  of  Speusippus.     Aristotle,  who,  about  this 
 time,  returned  from  Macedonia,  in  expectation,  as  it 
 should  seem,  of  filling  the  chair,  was   greatly  disap- 
 pointed and  chagrined  at  this  nomination,  and  imme- 
 diately instituted   a  school  in  the  I^yceum,  in  opposi- 
 tion  to  that  of  the  Academy    where  Xenocrates  con- 
 tinued to  preside  till  his  death.     Xenocrates  was  cel- 
 ebrated among  the  Athenians,  not  only  for  his  wisdom, 
 but  also  for  his  virtues.     {Val.  Max.,  2,  10. — Cic,  ad 
 Alt;  2,  16.  —  Diog.  Laert.,  4,  7.)      So  eminent  was 
 his  reputation  for  integrity,  that  when  he  was  called 
 upon   to  give  evidence   in   a  judicial  transaction,  in 
 which  an  oath  was  usually  required,  the  judges  unan- 
 imously agreed  that  his  simple  asseveration  should  be 
 taken,    as   a    public   testimony   to  his   merit.      Even 
 Philip    of  Macedon    found    it   impossible    to  corrupt 
 him.     When  he  was  sent,  with  several  others,  upon 
 an  embassy  to  that  prince,  he  declined  all  private  in- 
 tercourse with  him,  that  he  might  escape  the  tempta- 
 tion of  a  bribe.     Philip  afterward  said,  that  of  all  those 
 who   had    come    to   him   on   embassies   from   foreign 
 states,  Xenocrates  was  the  only  one  whose  friendship 
 he  had  not  been  able  to  purchase.     {Diog.  Laert.,  4, 
 8.)     During  the  time  of  the  Lamiac  war,  being  sent 
 an  ambassador   to  the  court  of  Antipatcr  for  the  re- 
 demption of  several  Athenian  captives,  he  was  invited 
 by  the  prince  to  sit  down  with  hint  at  su[)pcr,  but  de- 
 clined the  invitation  in  the  words  of  Ulysses  to  Circe. 
 {Odyss.,  10,  383.)     This  pertinent  and  ingenious  ap- 
 plication of  a  passage  in  Homer,  or,  rather,  the  gen- 
 erous and  patriotic  spirit  which  it  expressed,  was  so 
 1396 
 
 pleasing  to  Antipater  that  he  immediately  released  the 
 prisoners.  It  may  be  mentioned  as  another  example 
 of  moderation  in  Xenocrates,  that  when  Alexander,  to 
 mortify  Aristotle,  against  whom  he  had  an  accidental 
 I)ii]ue,  sent  Xenocrates  a  magnificent  present  of  fifty 
 talents,  he  accepted  only  thirty  mina:,  reluming  the 
 rest  to  Alexander  with  this  message  :  that  the  large 
 sum  which  Alexander  had  sent  was  more  than  he 
 should  have  been  able  to  spend  during  his  whole  life. 
 So  abstemious  was  he  with  respect  to  food,  that  his 
 ])rovision  was  frequently  spoiled  before  it  was  con- 
 sumed. His  chastity  was  invincible.  Lai's,  a  cele- 
 brated Athenian  courtesan,  attempted,  without  suc- 
 cess, to  seduce  him  Of  his  humanity,  no  other  proof 
 can  be  necessary  than  the  following  pathetic  incident. 
 A  sparrow,  which  was  pursued  by  a  hawk,  flew  into 
 his  bosom ;  he  afforded  it  shelter  and  protection  till 
 its  enemy  was  out  of  sight,  and  then  let  it  go,  saying 
 that  he  would  never  betray  a  suppliant.  {JEl,  V.  H , 
 13,  31.)  He  was  fond  of  retirement,  and  was  seldom 
 seen  in  the  city.  He  was  discreet  in  the  use  of  his 
 time,  and  carefully  allotted  a  certain  portion  of  each 
 day  to  its  proper  business.  One  of  these  he  employ- 
 ed in  silent  meditation.  He  was  an  admirer  of  the 
 mathematical  sciences,  and  was  so  fully  convinced  ol 
 their  utility,  that,  when  a  young  man  who  was  unac- 
 quainted with  geometry  and  astronomy  desired  ad- 
 mission, he  refused  his  request,  saving  that  he  was 
 not  yet  possessed  of  the  handles  of  philosophy.  In 
 fine,  Xenocrates  was  eininent  both  for  the  purity  of 
 his  morals  and  for  his  acquaintance  with  science,  and 
 supported  the  credit  of  the  Platonic  school  by  his  lec- 
 tures, his  writings,  and  his  conduct.  {Plat.,  de  Virt. 
 Mor.,  2,  p.  399.)  He  lived  to  the  first  year  of  the 
 llfith  Olympiad,  B.C.  316,  or  the  82d  of  his  age, 
 when  he  lost  his  life  by  accidentally  falling,  in  the 
 dark,  into  a  reservoir  of  water.  The  philosophical 
 tenets  of  Xenocrates  were  truly  Platonic,  but  in  his 
 method  of  teaching  he  made  use  of  the  language  of 
 the  Pythagoreans.  He  made  Unity  and  Diversity  prin- 
 ciples in  nature,  or  gods  ;  the  former  of  whom  he  rep- 
 resented as  the  father,  and  the  latter  as  the  mother 
 of  the  universe.  He  taught  that  the  heavens  are  di- 
 vine, and  the  stars  celestial  gods  ;  and  that,  besides 
 these  divinities,  there  are  terrestrial  demons  of  a  mid- 
 dle order,  between  the  gods  and  man,  which  partake 
 of  the  nature  both  of  mind  and  body,  and  are  there- 
 fore, like  human  beings,  capable  of  passions  and  liable 
 to  diversity  of  character.  (Diog.  Laert.,  4,  9,  10. — 
 Plut.  in  Alex.,  vol.  5,  p.  551.— Fa/.  Max.,  4,  3.— 
 Stob.,  Eel.  Phys.,  1,  3.  —  Plut.,  de  Is.  cl.  Os  ,  vol.  2, 
 p.  157.— Enfield's  Hist.  Plulos.,  vol.  1,  p.  244,  seqq.) 
 — II.  A  Greek  physician  of  Aphrodisias,  a  work  of 
 whose  is  still  remaining,  on  the  aliment  aifordcd  by 
 fishes.  The  best  edition  is  that  published  at  Naples 
 in  1794,  8vo,  and  which  is  based  upon  the  edition  of 
 Franzius,  which  last  appeared  in  1774,  Lips.,  8vo. 
 {Sprengcl,  Hist,  de  la  Med  ,  vol.  2,  p.  57.) 
 
 Xenophanes,  the  founder  of  the  Eleatic  sect,  was 
 a  native  of  Colophon,  and  born,  according  to  Eusebi- 
 us,  about  B.C.  556.  From  some  cause  which  is  not 
 related,  Xeno|)hanes  early  left  his  country  and  took 
 refuge  in  Sicily,  where  he  supported  himself  by  re- 
 citing, at  the  court  of  Hiero,  elegiac  and  iambic  ver- 
 ses, which  he  had  written  in  reprehension  of  the  The- 
 ogonies  of  Hesiod  and  Homer.  From  Sicily  he  pass- 
 ed over  into  Magna  Graecia,  where  he  took  up  the 
 profession  of  philosophy,  and  became  a  celebrated  pre- 
 ceptor in  the  Pythagorean  school.  Indulging,  how- 
 ever, a  greater  freedom  of  thought  than  was  usual 
 among  the  disciples  of  Pythagoras,  he  ventured  to  in- 
 troduce new  opinions  of  his  own,  and  in  many  par- 
 ticulars to  oppose  the  doctrines  of  Epimenicles,  Tha- 
 les,  and  Pythagoras.  He  possessed  the  Pythagorean 
 chair  of  philosophy  about  70  years,  and  lived  to  the 
 extreme  age  of  100  years.     In  metaphysics,  Xenoph- 
 
X  EN 
 
 XENOPHON. 
 
 ane«  taught  that  if  there  ever  had  been  a  time  when 
 nothing  existed,  nothing  could  ever  have  existed. 
 That  whatever  is,  always  has  been  from  eternity,  with- 
 out deriving  its  existence  from  any  prior  prnicifjle  ; 
 that  nature  is  one  and  without  limit ;  that  what  is  one 
 is  similar  in  all  its  parts,  else  it  would  bo  many  ;  that 
 the  one  infinite,  eternal,  and  homogeneous  universe 
 is  immutable  and  incapable  of  change  ;  that  God  is 
 one  incorporeal  eternal  being,  and,  like  the  universe, 
 spherical  in  form  ;  that  he  is  of  the  same  nature  with 
 the  universe,  comprehending  all  things  within  himself; 
 is  inttlligent,  and  pervades  all  things,  but  bears  no  re- 
 semblance to  human  nature  either  in  body  or  mind. 
 {Enjkld's  History  of  I'hilosophij,  vol.  1,  p.  414.) 
 
 Xenophon,  I.  a  celebrated  Athenian,  son  of  Gryl- 
 lus,  distinguished  as  an  historian,  philosopher,  and 
 commander,  born  at  Erchcia,  a  borough  of  the  tribe 
 ./Egeis,  BO.  44.5.  {Lctronne,  Biogr.  Univ.,  vol.  51, 
 p.  370  )  Xenophon  was  unquestionably  one  of  the 
 most  respectable  characters  among  the  disciples  of 
 Socrates.  He  strictly  adhered  to  the  principles  of  his 
 master  in  action  as  well  as  opinion,  and  employed  phi- 
 losophy, not  to  furnish  him  with  the  means  of  osten- 
 tation, but  to  qualify  him  for  the  offices  of  public  and 
 private  life.  While  he  was  a  youth,  Socrates,  struck 
 with  the  comeliness  of  his  person  (for  he  regarded  a 
 fair  form  as  a  probable  indication  of  a  well-propor- 
 tioned mind),  determined  to  admit  him  into  the  num- 
 ber of  his  pupils.  Meeting  him  by  accident  in  a  nar- 
 row passage,  the  philosopher  put  forth  his  staff  across 
 the  path,  and,  stojiping  him,  asked  where  those  things 
 were  to  be  purchased  which  are  necessary  to  human 
 life.  Xenophon  appearing  at  a  loss  for  a  reply  to  this 
 une.vpected  salutation,  Socrates  proceeded  to  ask  him 
 where  honest  and  good  men  were  to  be  found.  Xen- 
 ophon still  hesitating,  Socrates  said  to  him,  "Follow 
 me,  and  learn."  From  that  time  Xenophon  became  a 
 discijile  of  Socrates,  and  made  a  rapid  progress  in  that 
 moral  wisdom  for  which  his  master  was  so  eminent. 
 Xenophon  accompanied  Socrates  in  the  Peloponnesian 
 war,  and  fought  courageously  in  defence  of  his  coun- 
 try. It  was  at  the  battle  of  Delium,  in  the  early  part 
 of  this  war,  that  Socrates,  according  to  some  accounts, 
 saved  the  life  of  his  pupil  In  another  battle,  also 
 fought  in  BcEotia,  but  of  which  history  has  preserved 
 no  trace,  Xenophon  would  seem  to  have  been  made 
 prisoner  by  the  enemy  ;  for  Philostratus  (Vit.  Soph., 
 1,  12)  informs  us  that  he  attended  the  instructions  of 
 Prodicus  of  Ceos  while  he  was  a  prisoner  in  Boeotia. 
 How  his  time  was  employed  during  the  period  which 
 preceded  his  serving  in  the  army  of  Cyrus  is  not  as- 
 certained ;  it  is  more  than  probable,  however,  that  he 
 was  engaged  during  the  interval  in  several  campaigns, 
 since  the  skill  and  experience  displayed  in  conducting 
 the  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  presuppose  a  familiar 
 acquaintance  with  the  art  of  war.  At  the  age  of  forty- 
 three  or  forty-four  years,  he  was  invited  by  Proxenus 
 the  Bo.^otian,  formerly  a  disciple  of  Gorgias  of  Leon- 
 tini,  and  one  of  Xeno[)hon's  intimate  friends,  lo  en- 
 ter into  the  service  of  C^yrus  the  younger,  the  brother 
 of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  oi  Persia.  Xenophon  consult- 
 ed Socrates  in  relation  to  this  step,  and  the  philoso- 
 pher disapproved  of  it,  being  apprehensive  lest  his  old 
 pupil  might  incur  the  displeasure  of  the  Athenians  by 
 joining  a  prince  who  had  shown  himself  disposed  to 
 aid  the  Lacedaemonians  in  their  war  against  .\thens. 
 He  advised  him.  however,  lo  visit  Delphi,  and  consult 
 the  god  about  hi.s  intended  scheme.  Xenophon  obey- 
 ed, but  merely  asked  the  oracle  to  which  one  of  the 
 gods  he  ought  to  sacrifice  and  offer  up  vows  in  order 
 to  ensure  the  success  of  what  he  was  then  meditating. 
 For  this  Socrates  blamed  him,  hut,  nevertheless,  ad- 
 vised him  to  do  what  the  god  had  enjoined,  and  then 
 to  take  his  departure.  At  Sardis,  Xenophon  met  his 
 friend  Proxenus,  and  obtained,  through  him,  an  intro- 
 duction to  Cyrus,  by  whom  he    was   well   received. 
 
 The  prince  promised,  if  he  would  enter  into  his  eer 
 vice,  to  send  him  home  in  safety  after  his  expedition 
 against  the  Pisidians  should  have  terminated.  Xeno- 
 phon, believing  the  intended  expedition  to  have  no 
 other  end  than  this,  consented  to  take  part  in  it,  being 
 equally  deceived  with  Proxenus  himself;  for,  of  all 
 the  Greeks  who  accompanied  Cyrus,  Clearchus  alone 
 was  from  the  beginning  in  the  secret.  The  army  of 
 Cyrus  marched  from  Sardis,  through  Lydia,  Phrygia, 
 Lycaonia,  and  Cappadocia,  crossed  the  mountains  of 
 Cilicia,  passed  through  Cilicia  and  Syria  to  the  Eu- 
 phrates, forded  this  river,  passed  through  a  part  of 
 .\rabia  and  Babylonia,  until  they  reached  the  plain  of 
 Cunaxa.  After  the  fatal  battle  of  Cunaxa  and  the 
 fall  of  Cyrus,  Xenophon  advised  his  fellow-soldiers 
 rather  to  trust  to  their  own  bravery  than  surrender 
 themselves  to  the  victor,  and  to  attempt  a  retreat  into 
 their  own  country.  They  listened  to  his  advice  ;  and, 
 having  had  many  proofs  of  his  wisdom  as  well  as  cour- 
 age, they  elected  liim  one  of  the  five  new  commanders, 
 chosen  to  supply  the  place  of  their  former  leaders, 
 who  had  been  entrapped  and  slain  by  Tissaphernes. 
 Xenophon  was  appointed  in  the  room  of  Proxenus,  and 
 soon  became  the  soul  of  all  the  movements  of  the 
 Greeks  in  their  memorable  retreat,  acquiring  great 
 glory  by  the  prudence  and  firmness  with  which  he  con- 
 ducted them  back,  through  the  midst  of  innumerable 
 dangers.  I'he  particulars  of  this  memorable  adven- 
 ture are  related  by  Xenophon  himself,  in  his  Anabcusis, 
 or  Rclreal  oj  the  Ten  Thousand.  In  retreating,  the 
 object  of  the  Greeks  was  to  strike  the  Euxine  ;  but 
 the  error  they  committed  was  in  making  that  sea  ex- 
 tend too  fai  to  the  east.  From  Cunaxa  they  turned 
 their  course  to  the  Tigris,  crossed  that  river,  marched 
 through  Media,  northward,  still  following  the  course 
 of  the  Tigris.  They  then  crossed  the  mountains  of 
 the  Carduchi,  and,  after  great  exertions,  reached  the 
 sources  of  the  river  just  mentioned.  After  this  they 
 traversed  Armenia,  crossed  the  Euphrates  not  far  from 
 its  source,  lost  many  of  their  number  in  the  marshes 
 through  the  cold  and  snow,  and  came  to  the  Phasis. 
 Leaving  this  stream,  tliey  passed  through  the  countries 
 of  the  Taochi,  Chalybes,  Macrones,  Colchians,  and  at 
 last  reached  the  Greek  colony  of  Trapezus  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Euxine  Sea.  As  there  were  not  ships 
 enough  there  to  receive  them  all,  they  determined  to 
 return  hotne  by  land,  and,  inarching  along  the  coast  of 
 the  Euxine,  came  to  Chrysopolis  opposite  Byzantium. 
 After  having  crossed  over  lo  the  latter  city,  and  been 
 deceived  by  the  promises  of  Anaxibius,  the  Spartan 
 admiral,  they  entered  into  the  service  of  Seuthes,  king 
 of  Thrace,  who  had  solicited  their  aid.  This  prince, 
 however,  jjroving  faithless,  and  paying  them  only  a 
 part  of  their  stipulated  recompense,  they  finally  en- 
 tered into  the  service  of  Thymbron,  who  had  been  di- 
 rected by  the  Spartans  to  raise  an  army  and  make  war 
 upon  the  satraps  Pharnabazus  and  Tissaj)hernes.  Ac- 
 cording to  Xenojihon,  the  whole  distance  traversed  by 
 the  Greeks,  boih  in  going  and  returnintr,  was  ll.'iS 
 parasangs,  or  34,650  stadia.  The  whole  time  taken 
 up  was  fifteen  months,  of  which  the  retreat  itself  oc- 
 cupied less  than  eight. — Having  returned  lo  Greece, 
 Xenophon,  after  an  interval  of  four  or  five  years,  joincci 
 Agcsilaus,  king  of  Sparta,  and  fought  with  him,  not 
 only  in  .^sia,  but  also  against  the  Thebans  at  home, 
 in  the  battle  of  Coronea.  "^Fhe  Athenians,  displeased 
 at  this  alliance,  brought  a  public  accusation  against 
 him  for  his  former  conduct  in  engaging  in  the  service 
 of  Cyrus,  and  condemned  him  to  exile.  The  Spar- 
 tans, upon  this,  took  Xeiio])hoii,  as  an  injured  man,  un- 
 der their  protection,  and  provided  him  with  a  comfort- 
 able retreat  at  Scilluns  in  Elis,  making  him  a  present 
 of  a  dwelling  there,  with  considerable  land  attached 
 to  it.  According  lo  Pausanias  (5,  6),  they  gave  him 
 the  entire  town  of  Scilluns.  Here  he  remained,  if  we 
 believe   the  same  Pausanias,  for  the  remainder  of  his 
 
 1397 
 
XENOPHON 
 
 XENOPHON. 
 
 days,  and  in  this  retreat  dedicated  his  time  to  literary 
 pursuits.  Xenophoii  himself  has  given  us,  in  the  Ana- 
 basis (5,  3, 7),  an  interesting  account  of  his  residence  at 
 Scilluns,  where  he  erected  a  temple  to  the  Ephesian  Di- 
 ajia,  in  performance  of  a  vow  made  during  the  famous 
 retreat  which  he  so  ably  conducted.  In  this  place  he 
 died,  in  the  90th  year  of  his  age.  Pau.sanias,  who  vis- 
 ited the  ruins  of  Scilluns,  stales  that  the  tomb  of  Xen- 
 ophon  was  pointed  out  to  him,  and  over  it  his  statue  of 
 Pentelic  marble.  He  adds,  that  when  the  Eleans  took 
 Scilluns,  they  brought  Xenophon  to  trial  for  having  ac- 
 cepted the  estate  at  the  hands  of  the  Spartans,  but  that 
 he  was  acquitted,  and  allowed  to  reside  there  without 
 molestation.  The  common  account,  however,  makes 
 him  to  have  retired  to  Corinth  when  a  war  had  bro- 
 ken out  between  the  Spartans  and  Eleans,  and  to 
 have  ended  his  days  there.  The  integrity,  the  piety, 
 and  the  moderation  of  Xenophon  rendered  him  an 
 ornament  to  the  Socratic  School,  and  proved  how 
 much  he  had  profiled  by  the  precepts  of  his  master. 
 His  whole  military  conduct  discovered  an  admirable 
 union  of  wisdom  and  valour.  And  his  writings,  at  the 
 same  time  that  they  have  aflforded,  to  all  succeed- 
 ing ages,  one  of  the  most  perfect  models  of  purity, 
 simplicity,  and  harmony  of  language,  abound  with  sen- 
 timents truly  Socratic. — By  his  wife  Phitosia  Xeno- 
 [)hoii  had  two  sons,  Gryllus  and  Diodorus  ;  the  for- 
 mer of  whom  fell  with  glory  in  the  bailie  of  Manti- 
 nea,  after  having  inflicted  a  mortal  wound  on  Fpam- 
 inondas,  the  Theban  commander.  ( Vid.  Gvyllur  ) 
 — The  works  of  Xenophon,  who  has  been  styled, 
 from  the  sweetness  and  graceful  simplicity  of  his  lan- 
 guage, the  "  Attic  bee,"  are  as  follows  :  1.  'E?iXrjviKa 
 ("  Greciaii  History'''),  in  seven  books.  In  this  work 
 Xenophon  gives  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  Thu- 
 cydides,  down  to  the  battle  of  Mantinca.  It  was  un- 
 dertaken at  an  advanced  age,  amid  the  retirement  of 
 Scilluns,  and  completed  either  there  or  at  Corinth. 
 The  work  is  full  of  lacunae  and  falsified  passages. 
 The  recital  of  the  battle  of  Leuctra  is  not  given  with 
 sufficient  development,  and  it  is  evident  that  Xeno- 
 phon relates  with  regret  the  victory  of  Epaminondas 
 over  his  adopted  country.  Xenophon  does  not  imitate 
 in  this  production  the  manner  of  Thucydides.  That 
 of  Herodotus  accorded  belter  with  his  general  char- 
 acter as  a  writer,  and  had  more  analogy  to  the  style 
 of  eloquence  that  marked  the  school  of  Isocrales, 
 of  which  Xenophon  had  been  a  disciple. — 2.  'Avufia- 
 otf  ("  The  Expedition  into  [//?^fr  Asia"),  otherwise 
 called  "  the  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand."  Xeno- 
 phon, as  has  already  been  remarked,  bore  a  large  share 
 m  this  glorious  expedition.  His  narrative,  written 
 with  great  clearness  and  singular  modesty,  forms  one 
 of  the  most  interesting  works  bequeathed  to  us  by  an- 
 tiquity.— 3.  Kvpov  Haiihia  ("  The  Educalion  of  Cy- 
 TM*").  This  work  not  only  gives  a  view  of  the  earlier 
 \ears  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  but  also  of  his  whole  life, 
 and  of  the  laws,  institutions,  and  government  employ- 
 ed by  him  at  home  and  abroad,  in  peace  and  in  war. 
 Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  {Ep.  ad  Cn.  I'ovrp. — 
 Op-,  vol.  6,  p.  777,  ed.  Reiske)  characterizes  the  work 
 as  the  e'lKova  (JaaMu^  uyaOni)  koI  evdaifiovo^,  and 
 Cicero  (Ep.  ad  Q.  Fr.,  1,  1,  8)  warns  us  not  to  con- 
 sider this  treatise  as  constructed  with  historic  faith, 
 but  as  a  mere  pattern  of  just  government.  In  fact, 
 the  Cvrop.-edia  is  less  a  history  than  a  S[)ccies  of  his- 
 torical romance.  Cyrus  is  represented  to  us  as  a  wise 
 and  magnanimous,  a  just,  generous,  and  patriotic  king  ; 
 as  a  great  and  experienced,  a  prudent  and  invincible 
 commander ;  a  bright  exemplar  to  those  who  are  called 
 to  wield  the  military  energies  of  nations,  to  defend 
 their  father-land  from  hostile  aggression,  to  con(]uer 
 on  a  foreign  soil  the  enemies  of  their  country,  to  en- 
 large the  boundaries  of  their  empire,  and  to  difluse 
 over  subject  millions  the  blessings  of  civil  order  and 
 peaceful  industry,  of  extended  manufactures,  trade, 
 1398 
 
 and  commerce.  Plato  {de  Leg.,  3. — Op.,  vol.  8,  p. 
 142,  cd.  Bip.)  denies  that  Cyrus  opOrjq  tzaideia^  fj^dai, 
 and  this  statement  is  considered  by  Valckenaer  to  have 
 been  directed  against  the  representations  of  Xeno- 
 phon ;  and  hence  we  need  feel  no  surprise  at  the  op- 
 position between  the  Banquet  of  Xenophon  and  that 
 written  by  Plato,  From  Aulus  Gellius  (A^  A.,  14,  3) 
 we  discern  some  traces  of  this  personal  hostility  be- 
 tween these  great  philosophers.  {Barker,  de  Xen., 
 Oyrop.,  I,  1.  —  Compare  remarks  under  the  article 
 Plato.) — As  regards  the  more  received  accounts  rela- 
 tive to  the  elder  Cyrus,  the  student  is  referred  to  that 
 article  itself. — Some  modern  critics  have  thought  that 
 Xenophon,  in  this  work,  is  not  as  romantic  in  his  de- 
 tails as  he  is  commonly  supposed  to  be,  but  that  he 
 gives  us  the  mode  of  educalion  adopted  in  the  case  of 
 the  young  Persians  that  belonged  to  a  privileged  caste, 
 that  of  the  warriors  namely,  and  not  the  manner  of 
 rearing  which  was  common  to  the  people  at  large. 
 One  thing  at  least  is  certain,  that  nothing  in  the  Cyro- 
 paadia  indicates  the  intention  of  its  author  to  produce 
 a  work  of  the  imagination.  Others  have  supposed 
 that  Xenophon's  object  in  writing  the  treatise  in  ques- 
 tion was  to  criticise  the  first  two  books  of  Plato's  Re- 
 public, and  that  the  latter  retaliated  in  his  third  book 
 of  laws  by  drawing  a  character  of  Cyrus  quite  different 
 from  that  which  Xenophon  had  depicted.  (Consult 
 Aiil.  GelL,  I.  c,  and,  in  relation  to  the  Cyropaedia  gen- 
 erally, the  Dissertation  of  Fraguier,  Mem.  de  VAcad. 
 des  Inscr.,  &c.,  vol.  2,  p.  48. — Satnte-  Croix,  Observa- 
 tions, (fee,  ihid.,  vol.  46,  p.  399. —  Baden,  Opuscula 
 Latijia,  Havn.,  1763,  Svo,  n.  2. — Damm,  Berliner 
 Monatschri/t,  1796,  vol.  1,  p.  69.)  Though  the  Cyro- 
 paedia  be  certainly  the  work  of  Xenophon,  some  doubts 
 have  nevertheless  arisen  with  respect  to  the  latter  part 
 of  the  history,  and  which  Valckenaer,  Schneider,  I'. 
 A.  Wolfe,  and  many  other  modern  scholars  regard  at 
 the  addition  of  some  later  writer,  who  wished  to  weak- 
 en the  favourable  impression  towards  the  Persians 
 which  the  perusal  of  the  main  work  could  not  fail  to 
 produce.  (Compare  Sc.hulz,  De  Cyropadia  epilogo, 
 etc.  Hal.,  1806,  Svo. — Bornemann,  Epilog,  der  Cyro- 
 padie,  &c.,  Leipz.,  1819,  8vo.) — 4.  Aoyof  dg  Ayijai- 
 '/.aov  {'■'■  Eloge  on  Agesilaus").  Xenophon  had  fol- 
 lowed this  prince  in  his  expedition  into  Asia,  and  had 
 been  an  eyewitness  of  his  victories  in  that  country. 
 He  had  accompanied  him  also  in  his  Grecian  cam- 
 paigns, and  his  attachment  to  this  eminent  commander 
 was  the  secret  cause  of  his  banishment  from  Athens 
 No  one,  therefore,  was  better  qualified  to  write  the  bi- 
 ography of  this  celebrated  Spartan.  Cicero,  in  speak- 
 ing of  this  work  of  Xenophon's,  says  that  it  surpasse? 
 all  the  statues  ever  erected  to  the  Lacedaemonian 
 monarch  (Ep.  ad  Fain.,  5,  12) ;  and  yet  some  modern 
 critics,  with  Valckenaer  at  their  head,  have  regarded 
 this  piece  of  biography  as  below  the  standard  of  Xen- 
 ophon's acknowledged  abilities  as  a  writer,  and  the 
 production  of  some  sophist  or  rhetorician  of  a  subse- 
 quent age. — 5.  'KTiOfivrifiovevfiaTa  ZuKpuTuvc  (''  Me- 
 moirs of  Socrates'"),  the  best  of  Xenophon's  philo- 
 sophical works.  It  gives,  first,  a  justification  of  Soc- 
 rates against  the  charge  of  having  introduced  strange 
 deities  instead  of  worshipping  the  national  ones,  and 
 of  having  corrupted  the  young  by  his  example  and 
 maxims.  It  then  goes  on  to  adduce  various  conver- 
 sations between  Socrates  and  his  disciples  on  topics  of 
 a  moral  and  religious  nature.  (Consult  Dissoi,  De  phi- 
 t'lsophia  morali  in  Xcnophontis  de  Socrale  commejita- 
 •"iis  tradila,  G'ott.,  1812  )  This  work,  written  with 
 singular  grace  and  elegance,  ofTends  in  many  instances 
 against  the  rules  and  the  form  of  the  dialogue,  and  be- 
 comes, on  these  occasions,  an  actual  monologue.  It  is 
 divided  into  four  books,  but  is  thought  to  have  been 
 anciently  more  voluminous. — 6.  2a)«purovf  'AttoXo- 
 yia  Trpof  tovq  diKaardc  ("  Defence  of  Socrates  be- 
 fore his  Judges'^).     This  piece  is  not,  as  the  title 
 
XENOPHON. 
 
 XER 
 
 indicates,  a  pleading  delivered  in  the  presence  of 
 his  judges  ;  neither  is  it  a  defence  of  himself,  on  the 
 part  of  Socrates,  against  the  vices  and  crimes  laid  to 
 his  charge  ;  it  is  rather  a  development  of  the  motives 
 which  induced  the  sage  to  prefer  death  to  the  humili- 
 ation of  addressing  entreaties  and  su[)plicalions  to 
 prejudiced  judges.  Valckenaer  and  Schneider  consider 
 the  work  unworthy  of  Xenophon.  'i'hc  former  of  these 
 critics  sees  in  this  the  production  of  the  same  indi- 
 vidual who  fahricaled  the  latter  part  of  the  Cyropa-dia; 
 while  Schneider  tliinks  that  it  once  formed  a  ])ortioi) 
 of  the  Memoirs  of  Socrates,  and  that  the  grammari- 
 ans, after  detaching  it  from  this  work,  falsified  and 
 corrupted  it  in  many  places. — 7.  '^vfinoGiov  (pu.oao- 
 (j>uv  ("  Banquet  of  l^hilosophcrs'').  The  object  which 
 Xenophon  had  in  view  in  writing  this  piece,  which  is 
 a  chef  d'ceuvrc  in  point  of  style,  was  to  [)lace  in  the 
 clearest  light  the  purity  of  his  master's  principles  rela- 
 tive to  friendship  and  love,  and  to  render  a  just  hom- 
 age to  the  innocence  of  his  moral  character.  Some  of 
 the  ancients  were  persuaded  that  Xenophon  had  an- 
 other and  secondary  object,  that  of  opposing  his  "  Ban- 
 quet" to  Plato's  dialogue  which  bears  the  same  title, 
 and  in  which  Socrates  had  not  been  depicted,  as  Xen- 
 ophon thought,  with  all  the  simplicity  that  marked  his 
 character.  Schneider  and  VVeiskc,  two  celebrated 
 commentators  on  Xenophon,  as  well  as  an  excellent 
 judge  in  matters  of  taste,  the  distinguished  Wieland 
 {Atiischc  Museum,  vol.  4,  p.  76),  have  adopted  this 
 same  opinion  ;  but  it  has  been  attacked  by  two  other 
 scholars,  Boeckh  and  Ast.  The  former  believes  that 
 Plato  wrote  his  dialogue  after  having  read  the  Banquet 
 of  Xenophon,  and  that,  in  place  of  Socrates  as  he  real- 
 ly  was,  the  founder  of  the  Academy  wished  to  trace, 
 under  the  name  of  this  philosopher,  the  beau  ideal  of 
 a  true  sage,  such  as  he  had  conceived  the  character 
 to  be.  {Commcnlatio  Academica  de  simultale  qua: 
 Platoni  cum  Xcnophontc  iiUerccssisse  fertur,  Bervl , 
 1811,  4to.)  Ast  goes  still  farther,  and  pretends  to 
 find  in  the  Banquet  of  Xenophon  sure  indications  of 
 its  having  been  one  of  the  works  of  his  youth.  {Ast, 
 Platans  Lcben  urid  Schriflcn,  p.  314.) — 8.  'lipuv  y 
 Tvpavvo(  {"Micro"),  a  dialogue  between  the  Syracu- 
 san  monarch  and  Simonides,  in  which  Xenophon  com- 
 pares the  troublesome  life  of  a  prince  with  the  tran- 
 quil existence  of  a  private  individual,  intermingling 
 from  time  to  time  observations  on  the  art  of  govern- 
 ing.— 9.  OiKOVojiiKOQ  T-oyoq  ("  Discourse  on  Econo- 
 my"). This  (liece  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between 
 Socrates  and  Critobulus,  son  of  Crito,  and  one  of  his 
 disciples.  Some  critics  have  regarded  it  as  the  fifth 
 book  of  tlie  Memoirs.  It  is  less  a  theory  of,  than  a 
 eulogium  on,  rural  economy,  or,  in  other  words,  a 
 treatise  on  morality  as  applied  to  rural  and  domestic 
 life.  It  contains  also  some  interesting  and  instructive 
 details  relative  to  the  state  of  agriculture  among  the 
 Greeks  ;  we  find  in  it,  likewise,  some  anecdotes  re- 
 specting the  younger  Cyrus.  Cicero  translated  this 
 work  into  Latin,  and  Virgil  has  drawn  from  it  the  ma- 
 terials for  some  passages  in  his  Georgics. — 11.  liepl 
 'tTTTTiK!'/^  ("  On  the  Knowledge  of  Horses"').  A  very 
 useful  treatise,  in  which  Xenophon  makes  known  the 
 marks  by  which  a  good  horse  may  be  discovered. 
 He  cites,  abridges,  and  completes  the  work  of  a  cer- 
 tain Simon,  who  had  written  on  this  subject  before  him. 
 —  1 1  '\nKapx"<-"C  ("  llipfarchuus,  or  the  duties  of  an 
 officer  of  cavalry").  After  having  said  something  re- 
 specting the  knowledge  of  horses  necessary  for  an  of- 
 ficer of  cavalry  to  have,  Xenophon  lays  down  the 
 rules  that  ought  to  guide  in  the  selection  of  the  officer 
 himself,  and  then  traces  ihe  genera!  duties  appertain- 
 ing to  the  station.  —  12.  KvvrjycTiKog  C  Of  the 
 chase").  A  eulogium  on  the  exercise  of  hunting, 
 after  which  Xenophon  unfolds  the  theory  of  the  sport. 
 — 13.  TLCpoc  f/  ntpl  npoaoSuv  {"On  the  revenues  of 
 Attica").     The  object  of  this  treatise  is  to  show  that 
 
 the  revenues  of  Attica,  if  well  regulated,  arc  suffi- 
 cient for  its  population,  without  the  need  of  the  Athe- 
 nians rendering  themselves  odious  by  exactions  from 
 their  allies  or  subjects. — 14.  AaKF.daifioviuv  7ro?UT£ia 
 ("  Government  of  the  Lacedccmomans"). — 15.  AOr/vai- 
 (jv  noTiiTeia  ("  Government  of  the  Athenians").  'I'hese 
 two  small  works  are  very  probably  not  Xenophon's  — 
 We  have  also  seven  letters  of  tliis  same  writer. — The 
 best  editions  of  the  works  of  Xenophon  are,  that  of 
 Schneider,  Li-ps.,  1800,  reprinted  at  Oxford,  1812,  6 
 vols.  8vo,  and  that  of  Weiske,  Lips.,  1 793- 1 802,  . 4 
 vols.  8vo.  There  are  numerous  editions  also  of  the 
 separate  works,  some  very  useful. — II.  A  Greek  ro- 
 mance writer,  a  native  of  Ephcsiis,  whose  era  and  his- 
 tory are  equally  unknown.  With  the  exception  of 
 Suidas,  no  ancient  writer  makes  any  mention  of  him, 
 not  even  Photius,  who  has  recorded  the  names  of  so 
 many  writers  of  the  middling  class.  The  Baron  di 
 Lacella  places  him  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines,  and 
 others  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  Peerlkamp, 
 on  the  other  hand,  one  of  his  editors,  considers  him 
 to  be  the  earliest  of  the  Greek  romancers,  and  fancies 
 that  he  is  able  to  detect  the  imitations  of  the  rest. 
 The  same  author  affirms  that  Xenophon  is  an  assumed 
 name,  and,  farther,  that  no  Greek  romancer,  with  the 
 exception  of  Heliodorus,  has  written  in  his  real  name. 
 Mr.  Dunlop,  in  his  History  of  Fiction,  mentions  three 
 Xenophons,  who  lived  about  the  time  of  Chariton  ; 
 but  Chariton  must  have  lived  in  or  after  the  fifth  cen- 
 tury, at  a  distance  of  no  less  than  300  years  from  the 
 time  in  which  we  ha.ve  placed  Xenophon,  on  the  best 
 authorities  we  can  find.  The  three  Xenophons,  ac- 
 cording to  Mr.  Dunlop,  were  Antiochus,  Cyprius,  and 
 Ephesius,  and  their  works,  "  Babylonica,"  "  Gypriaca," 
 and  "  Ephesiaca."  Of  these,  only  the  last  has  been 
 published.  It  is  entitled  'EfcaiaKU  tu  kutu  'Avdiav 
 Kai  'AGpoKofiTjv  ("  Ephcsiacs,  or  the  Loves  of  Abro- 
 comcs  and  Anthia").  The  |^ry  is  commonplace, 
 and  yet  improbable  ;  hut  the  style  is  simple,  and  the 
 action  busy  without  confusion.  For  a  long  time  the 
 existence  of  this  work  was  denied.  In  the  fifteenth 
 century,  Angclo  Poliziano  quoted  a  passage  from  thi.<< 
 romance  ;  but  the  incredulity  of  the  learned  was  still 
 manifested  two  centuries  after.  At  length,  in  172G, 
 an  Italian  translation  was  published  by  Antonio  Maria 
 Salvini,  and  in  the  same  year  the  Greek  text  appeared 
 in  print.  Even  this,  however,  was  insufficient;  for, 
 eight  years  after,  we  find  Lenglct  du  Fresnoy,  in  his 
 pseudonymous  work  on  the  customs  of  the  Romans, 
 asserting  that  "  neither  the  original  Greek,  nor  any 
 other  version,"  was  known.  The  best  edition  of 
 Xenophon  of  Ephcsus  is  that  of  Peerlkamp,  Harlem, 
 1818,  4lo.  There  is  also  a  good  edition  by  Passow, 
 Lips.,  1833,  12mo.  {Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  vol. 
 5,  p.  124,  seqq.) 
 
 Xerxes,  I.  son  and  successor  of  Darius  Hystaspison 
 the  throne  of  Persia.  He  was,  in  fact,  the  second  son 
 of  ijiat  monarch,  but  tl>e  first  born  unto  him  of  Atossa, 
 the  daughter  of  (yyrus,  whom  Darius  had  married  after 
 he  came  to  the  throne.  The  elder  son  was  Artabanus, 
 born  unto  Darius  while  yet  in  a  private  station.  The 
 two  princes  contended  for  the  empire,  Artabanus 
 grounding  his  claim  on  the  common  law  of  inheritance, 
 Xerxes,  the  younger,  on  his  descent  from  the  founder 
 of  the  monarchy.  Demaratus,  the  exiled  king  ol 
 Sparta,  aided  Xerxes  with  his  counsels,  and  suggest- 
 ed to  him  another  argument,  drawn  from  the  Spartan 
 rule  of  successioti,  by  which  a  son  born  after  the  ac- 
 cession of  a  king  was  preferred  to  his  elder  brother. 
 Darius  decided  in  his  favour,  and  declared  him  his 
 heir  ;  swayed,  perhaps,  much  more  by  the  influence  of 
 Atossa,  which  was  always  great  with  him.  than  by 
 reason  or  usage.  In  the  following  year  (B.C.  485), 
 before  he  had  ended  his  preparations  against  Egypt 
 and  Attica,  he  died,  and  Xerxes  ascended  the  throne. 
 Thus  the  Persian  sceptre  passed  from  the  hands  of  a 
 
 1399 
 
XERXES. 
 
 XERXES. 
 
 prince  who  had  acquired  it  by  his  boldness  and  pru- 
 dence, to  one  born  in  the  palace,  the  favourite  son  of 
 the  favourite  queen,  who  had  been  accustomed,  from 
 his  infancy,  to  regard  the  kingdom  as  his  inheritance, 
 perha[>s  to  think  that  the  blood  of  Cyrus  which  flowed 
 in  his  veins  raised  him  above  his  failier.  Bred  up  in 
 the  pompous  luxury  of  the  Persian  court,  among  slaves 
 and  women,  a  mark  for  their  flattery  and  intrigues,  he 
 had  none  of  the  experience  which  Darius  had  gained 
 ill  that  jjcriod  of  his  life  when  Syloson's  cloak  was  a 
 welcome  present.  He  was  probably  inferior  to  his 
 father  in  ability  ;  but  the  difl'erence  between  them  in 
 fortune  and  education  seems  to  have  left  more  traces 
 in  their  history  than  any  disparity  of  nature.  Ambi- 
 tion was  not  the  prominent  feature  in  the  character  of 
 Xerxes  ;  and,  had  he  followed  his  unbiased  inclina- 
 tion, he  would,  perhaps,  have  been  content  to  turn  the 
 preparations  of  Darius  against  the  revolted  Egyptians, 
 and  have  abandoned  the  expedition  against  Greece,  to 
 which  he  was  not  spurred  by  any  personal  motives. 
 But  he  was  surrounded  by  men  who  were  led  by  vari- 
 ous passions  and  interests  to  desire  that  he  should 
 prosecute  his  father's  plans  of  conquest  and  revenge. 
 Mardonius  was  eager  to  renew  an  enterprise  in  wliich 
 he  had  been  foiled  through  unavoidable  mischance,  not 
 through  his  own  incapacity.  He  had  reputation  to  re- 
 trieve, and  might  look  forward  to  the  possession  of  a 
 great  European  satrapy,  at  such  a  distance  from  the 
 court  as  would  make  him  almost  an  absolute  sover- 
 eign. He  was  warmly  seconded  by  the  Greeks,  who 
 had  been  drawn  to  Susa  by  the  report  of  the  approach- 
 ing invasion  of  their  country,  and  who  wanted  foreign 
 aid  to  accomplish  their  designs.  The  Thessalian 
 house  of  the  Aleuads,  either  because  they  thought 
 their  power  insecure,  or  expected  to  increase  it  by  be- 
 coming vassals  of  the  Persian  king,  sent  their  emissa- 
 ries to  invite  him  to  the  conquest  of  Greece.  The  ex- 
 iled Pisistratids  had  no,  other  chance  for  the  recovery 
 of  Athens.  They  had  brought  a  man  named  Onomac- 
 ritus  with  them  to  court,  who  was  one  of  the  first 
 among  the  Greeks  to  practise  an  art,  afterward  very 
 common,  that  of  forging  prophecies  and  oracles. 
 While  their  family  ruled  at  Athens,  he  had  been  de- 
 tected in  fabricating  verses,  which  he  had  interpolated 
 in  a  work  ascribed  to  the  ancient  seer  Musoeus,  and 
 Hipparchus,  before  his  patron,  had  banished  him  from 
 the  city.  But  the  exiles  saw  the  use  they  might  make 
 of  his  talents,  and  had  taken  him  into  their  service. 
 They  now  recommended  him  to  Xerxes  as  a  man  who 
 possessed  a  treasure  of  prophetical  knowledge,  and  the 
 young  king  listened  with  unsuspecting  confidence  to 
 the  encouraging  predictions  which  Onomacritus  drew 
 from  his  inexhaustible  stores.  These  various  engines 
 at  length  prevailed.  The  imagination  of  Xerxes  was 
 inflamed  with  the  prospect  of  rivalling  or  surpassing  the 
 achievements  of  his  glorious  predecessors,  and  of  ex- 
 tending his  dominion  to  the  ends  of  the  earth.  {Herod., 
 7,8.)  He  resolved  on  the  invasion  of  Greece.  First, 
 however,  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  he  led  an  army 
 against  Egypt,  and  brought  it  again  under  the  Persian 
 yoke,  which  was  purposely  made  more  burdensome  and 
 galling  than  before.  He  intrusted  it  to  the  care  of  his 
 brother  Ach.Tinenes,  and  then  returned  to  Persia,  and 
 bent  all  his  thoughts  towards  the  West.  Only  one  of 
 his  counsellors,  his  uncle  Artabanus,  is  said  to  have 
 been  wise  and  honest  enough  to  endeavour  to  divert  him 
 from  the  enterprise,  and  especially  to  dissuade  him  from 
 risking  his  own  person  in  it.  If  any  reliance  could  be 
 placed  on  the  story  told  by  Herodotus  about  the  de- 
 liberations held  on  this  question  in  the  Persian  cabinet, 
 we  might  suspect  that  the  influence  and  arts  of  the 
 Magian  priesthood,  which  we  find  in  this  reign  risinor 
 in  credit,  had  been  set  at  work  by  the  adversaries  of 
 Artabanus  to  counteract  his  influence  over  the  mind 
 of  his  nephew,  and  to  confirm  Xerxes  in  his  martial 
 mood.  The  vast  preparations  were  continued  with  re- 
 1400 
 
 doubled  activity,  to  raise  an  armament  worthy  of  the 
 presence  of  the  king.  His  aim  was  not  merely  to  col- 
 lect a  force  sufficient  to  ensure  the  success  of  his  un- 
 dertaking, and  to  scare  away  all  opposition,  but  also, 
 and  perhaps  principally,  to  set  his  whole  enormous 
 power  in  magnificent  array,  that  he  might  enjoy  the 
 sight  of  it  himself,  and  display  it  to  the  admiration  of 
 the  world.  For  four  years  longer  Asia  was  still  kept  in 
 restless  turmoil  ;  no  less  time  was  needed  to  provide 
 the  means  of  subsistence  for  the  countless  host  that 
 was  about  to  be  poured  out  upon  Europe.  Besidet 
 the  stores  that  were  to  be  carried  in  the  fleet  which 
 was  to  accompany  the  army,  it  was  necessary  that 
 magazines  should  be  formed  along  the  whole  line  of 
 march  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Greece.  But,  in  addi- 
 tion to  these  prudent  precautions,  two  works  were  be- 
 gun, which  scarcely  served  any  other  purpose  than  that 
 of  showing  the  power  and  majesty  of  Xerxes,  and  pro- 
 ving that  he  would  suffer  no  obstacles  to  bar  his  prog- 
 ress. It  would  have  been  easy  to  transport  his  troops 
 in  ships  over  the  Hellespont ;  but  it  was  better  suited 
 to  the  dignity  of  the  monarch,  who  was  about  to  unite 
 both  continents  under  his  dominion,  to  join  them  by  a 
 bridge  laid  upon  the  subject  channel,  and  to  march 
 across  as  along  a  royal  road.  The  storm  that  had  de- 
 stroyed the  fleet  which  accompanied  Mardonius  in  his 
 unfortunate  expedition,  had  made  the  coast  of  Athos 
 terrible  to  the  Persians.  The  simplest  mode  of  avoid- 
 ing this  formidable  cape  would  have  been  to  drav/ 
 their  ships  over  the  narrow,  low  neck  that  connects  the 
 mountain  with  the  mainland.  But  Xerxes  preferred 
 to  leave  a  monument  of  his  greatness  and  of  his  en- 
 terprise, in  a  canal  cut  through  the  isthmus,  a  distance 
 of  about  a  mile  and  a  half.  This  work  employed  a 
 multitude  of  men  for  three  years.  The  construction 
 of  the  two  bridges  which  were  thrown  across  the  Hel- 
 lespont was  intrusted  to  the  skill  of  the  Phoenicians 
 and  Egyptians.  When  these  preparations  were  draw- 
 ing to  a  close,  Xerxes  set  forth  for  Sardis,  where  ho 
 designed  to  spend  the  following  winter,  and  to  receive 
 the  re-enforcements  which  he  had  appointed  there  to 
 join  the  main  army  (B.C.  481).  During  his  stay  at 
 Sardis,  the  Phoenician  and  Egyptian  engineers  com- 
 pleted their  bridges  on  the  Hellespont ;  but  the  work 
 was  not  strong  enough  to  resist  a  violent  storm,  which 
 broke  it  to  pieces  soon  after  it  was  finished.  How  far 
 this  disaster  was  owing  to  defects  in  its  construction, 
 which  might  have  been  avoided  by  ordinary  skill  and 
 foresight,  does  not  appear.  But  Xerxes  is  said  to 
 have  been  so  much  angered  by  the  accident  that  he 
 put  the  architects  to  death.  Such  a  burst  of  passion 
 would  be  credible  enough  in  itself,  and  is  only  render- 
 ed doubtful  by  the  extravagant  fables  that  gained  cred- 
 it on  the  subject  among  the  Greeks,  who,  in  the  bridg- 
 ing of  the  sacred  Hellespont,  saw  the  beginning  of  a 
 long  career  of  audacious  impiety,  and  gradually  trans- 
 formed the  fastenings  with  which  the  passage  was  final- 
 ly secured  into  fetters  and  scourges,  with  which  the 
 barbarian,  in  his  madness,  had  thought  to  chastise  the 
 aggression  of  the  rebellious  stream.  The  construc- 
 tion of  new  bridges  was  committed  to  other  engineers, 
 perhaps  to  Greeks  ;  but  their  names  have  not  passed 
 down,  like  that  of  Mandrocles.  By  their  art  two  firm 
 and  broad  causeways  were  made  to  stretch  from  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Abydus  to  a  projecting  point  in  the 
 opposite  shore  of  the  Chersonesus,  resting  each  on  a 
 row  of  ships,  which  were  stayed  against  the  strong  cur- 
 rent that  bore  upon  them  from  the  north  by  anchors 
 and  by  cables  fastened  to  both  sides  of  the  channel  ; 
 the  length  was  not  far  short  of  a  mile.  When  all  was 
 in  readiness,  the  mighty  armament  was  set  in  motion. 
 Early  in  the  spring  (B.C.  480),  Xerxes  began  his  march 
 from  Sardis,  in  all  the  pomp  of  a  royal  progress.  The 
 baggage  led  the  way  :  it  was  followed  by  the  first  di- 
 vision of  the  armed  crowd  that  had  been  brought  to- 
 gether from  the  tributary  nations  ;  a  motley  throng,  in- 
 
XERXES. 
 
 XERXES. 
 
 cludkig  many  strange  varieties  of  complcsion,  dress,  and 
 language,  commanded  by  Thcssalian  generals,  but  re- 
 taining each  tribe  it*  national  armour  and  mode  of  light- 
 ing.    An  interval  was  then  left,  after  vvhicii  came  1000 
 picked  Persian  cavalry,  followed  by  an  equal  number  of 
 spearmen,  whose  lances,  winch  they  carried  with  the 
 points    turned  downward,  ended    in    knobs    of  gold. 
 Next,  ten  sacred  horses,  of  the  Nisfean  breed,  were  led 
 m  gorgeous  caparisons,  preceding  the  chariot  of  the 
 I'ersian  Jove,  drawn  by  eight  white  horses,  the  dri- 
 ver followiiiir  on  f""t.     Then  came  the  royal  cliariot, 
 also  drawn  by  iNissan  horses,  in  which  Xer.\es  sat  in 
 state  ;  but  from  time  to  time  he  exchanged  it  for  an 
 easier  carriage,  which  sheltered  him  from  the  sun  and 
 the  changes  of  the  weather.     He  was  followed  by  two 
 bands  of  horse  and  foot,  like  those  which  went  imme- 
 diately before  him,  and  by  a  body  of  10,000  Persian 
 infantry,  the  flower  of  the  whole  army,  who  were  called 
 the  Immortals,  because  tJicir  number  was  kept  con- 
 stantly full.     A  thousand  of  them,  who  occupied  the 
 outer  ranks,  bore  lances  knobbed  with  gold  ;   those  of 
 the  rest  were  similarly  ornamented  with  silver.     They 
 were  followed  by  an  equal  number  of  Persian  cavalry. 
 The  remainder  of  the  host  brought  up  the  rear.     In 
 this  order  the  army  reached  Abydus,  and  Xer.xes,  from 
 a  lofty  throne,  surveyed  the  crowded  sides  and  bosom 
 of  the    Hellespont,  and  the   image  of  a  seafight ;    a 
 spectacle  which  Herodotus  might  well  ihink  sutticient 
 to  have  moved  him  with  a  touch  of  human  sympathy. 
 The  passage  did  not  begin  before  the  king  had  prayed  to 
 the  rismg  sun,  and  had  tried  to  propitiate  the  Helles- 
 pont itself  by  libations,  and  by  casting  into  it  golden 
 vessels   and   a  sword.     After  the   bridges    had   been 
 strewed  with  myrtle  and  purified  with  incense,  the  Ten 
 Thousand  Immortals,  crowned  with  chaplets,  led  the 
 way.     'J'he  army  crossed  by  one  bridge,  the  baggage 
 by  the  other ;  yet  the  living  tide  flowed  without  mter- 
 mission  for  seven   days  and  seven  nights  before  the 
 last  man,  as  Herodotus  heard,  the  king  himself,  the 
 tallest  and  most  majestic  person  in  the  host,  had  ar- 
 rived on  the  European  shore.     In  the  great  plain  of 
 Doriscus,  on  the  banks  of  the  Hebrus,  an  attempt  was 
 made  to  number   the  land  force.     A  space  was  en- 
 closed   large   enough    to   contain   10,000  men  ;    into 
 this  the  myriads  were  successively  poured   and  dis- 
 charged, till  the  whole  mass  had  been  rudely  counted. 
 They  were  then  drawti  up  according  to  their  natural  di- 
 visions, and  Xerxes  rode  in  his  chariot  along  the  ranks, 
 while  the  royal  scribes  recorded  the  names,  and  most 
 likely  the  equipments,  of  the  different  races.     It  is  an 
 ingenious  and  probable  conjecture  of  Hecren's  {Ideen, 
 1,  p.  137),  that  this  authentic  document  was  the  ori- 
 ginal source  from  which  Herodotus  drew  his  minute 
 description  of  their  dress  and  weapons.     The  real  mil- 
 itary strength  of  the  armament  was  almost  lost  among 
 the  undisciplined  herds  which  could  only  impede  its 
 movements  as  well  as  consume  its  stores.     The  Per- 
 sians were  the  core  of  both  the  land  and  sea  force ;  none 
 of  ihc  other  troops  arc  said  to  have  equalled  them  in  dis- 
 cipline or  in  courage  ;  and  the  four-and-twenty  thous- 
 and men  who  guarded  the  royal  person  were  the  flower 
 of  the  whole  nation.     Yet  these,  as  we  see  from  their 
 glittering  armour,  as  well  as  from  their  performances, 
 were  much  better  fitted  for  show  than  for  action ;  and 
 of  the  rest,  we  hear  that  they  were  distinguished  from 
 the  mass  of  the  army,  not  only  by  their  superior  order 
 and  valour,  but  also  by  the  abundance  of  gold  they 
 displayed,  by  the  train  of  carriages,  women,  and  ser- 
 vants that  followed  thoin,  and  by  the  [iro visions  set 
 apart  for  their  use.     Though  Xerxes  himself  was  ela- 
 ted  by   the   spectacle   he   viewed  on  the  plains   and 
 the  shores  of  Doriscus,  it  must  have  lilled  the  clear- 
 sighted Greeks  who  accompanied  him  with  misgivings 
 as  to  the  issue  of  the  enterprise.     The  language  of 
 Dcmaratus,  in  the  conversation  which  Herodotus  sup- 
 poses him  to  have  had  with  Xerzos  after  the  review, 
 8P 
 
 though    it    was    probably    never    uttered,    expressed 
 thoughts    which  could    scarcely   fail   to  occur  to  the 
 Spartan.      Poverty,  he  is  made  to  observe,  was  the 
 endowment  which  Greece  had  received  from  nature; 
 but  law  and  reason  had  armed  her  with  instrumc-is, 
 with  which  she  had  cultivated  hci  barren  inheritance, 
 and  might  still   hope   to  repeJ  the  invasion   even   of 
 Xer.xes  and  his  host.     {ThniwaWs  History  of  Greece, 
 vol.  2,  p.  249,  seqq.)—0\ix  limits  will  not  allow  us  to 
 enter  here  into  a  detail  of  the  movements  of  Xerxes; 
 and,  besides,  we  have  already  given,  under  other  arti- 
 cles, a  brief  summary  of  the  campaign.     {Vid.  Arte- 
 inisium,  Thermopylae,  Salamis,  &c.) — After  the  disas- 
 trous  defeat  at  Salamis,  Xerxes  felt  desirous  of  es- 
 caping from  a  state  of  things  which  was  now  becom- 
 ing troublesome  and  dangerous,  and  Mardonius  saw 
 that  he  would  gladly  listen  to  any  proposal  that  would 
 facilitate  his  return.     He  was  aware,  that,  without  a 
 fleet,  the  war  might  probably  be  tedious,  in  which  case 
 the  immense  bulk  of  the  present  army  would  be  only 
 an  encumbrance,  from  the  difTiculty  of  subsisting  it. 
 Besides,  the  ambition  of  Mardonius  was  flattered  with 
 the  idea  of  his  becoming   the  conqueror  of  Greece, 
 while  he  feared  that,  if  he  now  returned,  he  might  be 
 made  answerable  for  the  ill  success  of  the  expedition 
 which   he    had   advised.      He   therefore   proposed   to 
 Xerxes  to  return  into  Asia  with  the  body  of  the  army, 
 leaving  himself,  with  300,000  of  the  best  troops,  to 
 complete  the  conquest  of  Greece.     Xerxes  assented, 
 and  the  army  having  retired  into  Boeotia,  Mardonius 
 made  his  selection,  and  then,  accompanying  the  king 
 into  Thessaly,  there  parted  from  him,  leaving  him  to  pur- 
 sue his  march  towards  Asia,  while  he  himself  prepared 
 to  winter  in  Thessaly  and  Macedonia. — Widely  differ- 
 ent from  the  appearance  of  the  glittering  host,  which  a 
 few  months  before  had  advanced  over  the    plains  of 
 Macedonia    and  Thrace  to  the  conquest  of  Greece, 
 was  the  aspect  of  the  crowd  which  was  now  hurrying 
 back  along  the  same  road.     The  splendour,  the  pomp, 
 the  luxury,  the  waste,   were  exchanged   for   disaster 
 and  distress,  want  and  disease.     The  magazines  had 
 been  emptied  by  the  careless  profusion  or  peculation 
 of  those  who  had  the  charge  of  them  ;  the  granaries  of 
 the  countries  traversed  by  the  retreating  multitude  were 
 unable  to  supply  its  demands ;   ordinary  food  was  of- 
 ten not  to  be  found;  and  it  was  compelled  to  draw  a 
 scanty  and  unwholesome  nourishment  from  the  herb- 
 age of  the  plains,  the  bark  and  leaves  of  the  trees. 
 Sickness  soon    began   to   spread    its  ravages    among 
 them, 'and  Xerxes  was  compelled  to  consign  numbers 
 to  the  care  of  the  cities  that  lay  on  his  road,  already 
 impoverished  by  the  cost  of  his  first  visit,  in  the  hope 
 that  they  would  tend  their  guests,  and  would  not  sell 
 them  into  slavery  if  they  recovered.     The  passage  of 
 the  Strymon  is  said  to  have  been  peculiarly  disastrous. 
 The  river  had  been  frozen  in  the  night  hard  enough 
 to  bear  those  who  arrived  first.     But  the  ice  suddenly 
 gave  way  under   the   heat  of   the   morning  sun,  and 
 numbers  perished  in  the  waters.     It  is  a  little  surpri- 
 sing that  Herodotus,  when  he  is  describing  the  mis- 
 eries  of   the   retreat,   does   not   notice    this   disaster, 
 which  is  so  prominent  in  the  narrative  of  the  Persian 
 messenger  in  ii^schylus.     There  can,  however,  be  no 
 doubt  as  to  the  fact ;  and   perhaps  it  may  furnish   a 
 useful  warning  not  to  lay  too  much  stress  on  the  si- 
 lence of  Herodotus,  as  a  ground   for  rejecting  even 
 important  and  interesting  facts  -which  are  only  men- 
 tioned by  later  writers,  though  such  as  ho  must  have 
 heard  of,  and  might  have  been  expected  to  relate.     It 
 seems  possible  that  the  story  he  mentions  of  Xerxes 
 embarking  at  Eion  (8,  118)  may  have  arisen  out  of  tho 
 tragical  passage  of  the  Strymon. — In  forty-five  days  af- 
 ter he  had  left  Mardonius  in  Thessaly,  he  reached  the 
 Hellespont ;   the  bridges  had  been  broken  up  by  foul 
 weather,  but  the  fleet  was  there  to  carry  the  army  over 
 to  Abydus.     Here  it  rested  from  its  fatigues,  and  found 
 
 1401 
 
ZAL 
 
 plentiful  quarters ;  but  intemperate  indulgence  ren- 
 derod  the  sudden  change  from  scarcity  to  abundance 
 almost  as  pernicious  as  the  previous  famine.  The 
 remnant  that  Xerxes  brought  back  to  Sardis  was  a 
 wreck,  a  fragment,  rather  than  a  part  of  his  huge  host. 
 — 'i'he  history  of  Xerxes,  after  the  termination  of  his 
 Grecian  campaign,  may  be  comprised  in  a  brief  com- 
 pass. He  gave  hmiself  up  to  a  life  of  dissolute  pleas- 
 ure, and  was  slain  by  Artabanus,  a  caplam  of  the  royal 
 guards,  B.C.  464.  {Vid.  Artabanus  II. — ThirlwaU's 
 History  of  Greece,  vol.  2,  p.  315,  scq.) — II.  A  son  of 
 Arta.xerxes  Mnemon,  who  succeeded  his  father,  but 
 iVds  slain,  after  a  reign  of  forty-five  days,  by  his  broth- 
 er Sogdianus.     (Firf.  Sogdianus.) 
 
 Xois,  a  city  of  Egypt,  situate  on  an  island  in  the 
 Phatnelic  branch  of  the  Nile,  below  Sebennytus. 
 Mannert  takes  it  to  be  the  same  with  the  Papremis  of 
 Herodotus  {Geogr.,  vol.  10,  p,  571). 
 
 XuTHus,  a  son  of  Hellen,  grandson  of  Deucalion. 
 {Vid.  Hellas,  ^  1). 
 
 Zab.Xtus,  a  river  in  the  northern  part  of  Assyria, 
 rising  in  Mount  Zagrus,  and  falling  into  the  Tigris. 
 It  is  called  Zabatus  by  Xenophon,  but  otherwise  Za- 
 bus  or  Zerbis,  and  traverses  a  large  portion  of  Assyria. 
 This  stream  was  also  termed  Lycus  {AvKog),  or  "  the 
 too//","  by  the  Greeks  ;  but  it  has  resumed  its  primitive 
 denomination  of  Zab,  or,  according  to  some  modern 
 travellers,  Zarb.  {Polyb.,  5,  51. — Amm.  Marc.,  23, 
 U.—Xcn.,  Anab.,^,  5.  —  Plin.,  6,  20.)  Farther 
 down,  another  river,  named  Zabus  Minor,  and  called 
 by  the  Macedonians  Caprus  (Karrpof),  or  "the  boar," 
 is  also  received  by  the  Tigris,  and  is  now  called  by 
 the  Turks  AUonson,  or  the  river  of  gold.     {Folyb.,  5, 
 
 Zabdicene,  a  district  in  Mesopotamia,  in  which  was 
 situated  a  city  named  Zabda  or  Bezabda.  It  was 
 yielded  to  the  Persians  by  Jovian.  {Amm.  Marc, 
 25,  7.) 
 
 Zabus,  a  river  of  Assyria,  falling  into  the  Tigris. 
 {Vtd.  Zabatus.) 
 
 Zacvnthus  (ZuKvvdoc),  an  island  in  the  Ionian  Sea, 
 to  the  west  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  below  Cephalie- 
 nia.  Pliny  affirms  that  it  was  once  called  Hyrie  ;  but 
 this  fact  is  not  recorded  by  Homer,  who  constantly 
 uses  the  former  name  {II.,  2,  634.  —  Od.,  1,  246), 
 which  was  said  to  be  derived  from  Zacynthus,  the  son 
 of  Dardanus,  an  Arcadian  chief.  {Pausan.,  8,  24.) 
 A  very  ancient  tradition  ascribed  to  Zacynthus  the 
 foundation  of  Saguntum  in  Spain,  in  conjunction 
 with  the  Ilutuli  of  Ardea.  (Lit).,  21,  7.)  Thucydi- 
 des  informs  us  that,  at  a  later  period,  this  island  re- 
 ceived a  colony  of  Achajans  from  Peloponnesus  (2, 
 66.)  Not  long  before  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  isl- 
 and was  reduced  by  Tolmides,  the  Athenian  general, 
 from  which  period  we  find  Zacynthus  allied  to,  or, 
 rather,  dependant  upon,  Athens.  It  subsequently  fell 
 into  the  hands  of  Pliilip  III.,  king  of  Macedon  {Polyb., 
 5,  4),  and  was  afterward  occupied  by  the  Romans, 
 under  Val.  La3vinus,  during  the  second  Punic  war. 
 On  this  occasion,  the  chief  city  of  the  island,  which 
 bore  the  same  name,  was  captured,  with  the  exception 
 of  its  citadel.  {Liv.,  26,  24).  Zacynthus,  however, 
 was  subsequently  restored  to  Philip.  It  was  afterward 
 sold  to  the  Achseans,  and  given  up  by  them  to  the 
 Romans  on  its  being  claimed  by  the  latter.  The  mod- 
 ern name  is  Zante.  {Cramer's  Anc.  Greece,  vol.  2, 
 p.  56,  seqq.) 
 
 Zaleucus,  a  lawgiver  in  Magna  Graocia,  and  the 
 founder  of  the  Locrian  state  in  that  quarter  of  Italy. 
 Eusebius  places  him  in  Olyinp.  29,  which  is  40  years 
 before  Draco,  and  60  before  Pythagoras  was  born. 
 {Bcntley,  on  Pkaiaris,  vol.  1,  p.  380,  ed.  Dyce.)  Ac- 
 cording to  the  ordinary  account,  he  was  of  obscure 
 1402 
 
 ZEL 
 
 birth,  and  in  his  youth  lived  in  servitude,  in  the  capa- 
 city of  a  shepherd.  But  his  extraordinary  abilities  and 
 merit  obtained  him  his  freedom,  and  at  length  raised 
 him  to  the  chief  magistracy.  The  laws  which  he 
 framed  were  severe  ;  but  they  were  so  well  adapted 
 to  the  situation  and  manners  of  the  Locrians,  that  their 
 constitution  was,  for  several  ages,  higlily  celebrated. 
 So  vigorous  was  the  discipline  of  Zaleucus,  that  he 
 prohibited  the  use  of  wine  except  in  cases  where  it 
 was  prescribed  as  a  medicine  ;  and  he  ordained  that 
 adulterers  should  be  punished  with  the  loss  of  their 
 eyes.  When  his  own  son  had  subjected  himself  to 
 this  penalty,  Zaleucus,  in  order,  at  the  same  time,  to 
 preserve  the  authority  of  the  laws,  and  show  some  de- 
 gree of  paternal  lenity,  shared  the  punishment  with  the 
 ofTender,  and,  that  he  might  only  be  deprived  of  one 
 eye,  submitted  to  lose  one  of  his  own.  {Clem.  Alex  , 
 Strom.,  1,  p.  309.— Val.  Max.,  1,  2,  \.—Id.,  6,  5,  3. 
 —  Diog.  Laert.,  8,  16.  —  Stob.,  ^erm.,  39.)— Bentley 
 throws  doubt  on  the  existence  of  such  a  person  as 
 Zaleucus,  and  regards  his  code  of  laws  as  the  forgery 
 of  a  sophist.  {Diss,  on  Phalaris,  vol.  1,  p.  378,  ed. 
 Dyce.)  Against  this  opinion,  however,  sec  Fabricius, 
 Biblioth.  Gr.,  lib.  2,  c.  14,  and  Warburton,  Div.  Leg. 
 of  Moses,  vol.  1,  book,  2,  ^  3.     {Dyce  ad  Benll.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Zamolxis,  a  celebrated  personage  among  the  Scyth- 
 ians, whom  many  represent  not  only  as  the  father  of 
 wisdom  with  respect  to  the  Scythians,  but  as  the 
 teacher  of  the  doctrines  of  immortality  and  transmigra- 
 tion to  the  Celtic  Druids  and  to  Pythagoras.  {Origen., 
 Philos.,  c.  25,  p.  170. — Suid.,  s.  v.)  Others  suppose 
 him  to  have  been  a  slave  of  Pythagoras,  who,  after 
 having  attended  him  into  Egypt,  obtained  his  manu- 
 mission, and  taught  his  master's  doctrine  among  the 
 GetoB.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  doctrine  of 
 immortality  was  known  to  the  northern  nations  long 
 before  the  time  of  Pythagoras  ;  and  Herodotus,  men- 
 tioning a  common  tradition,  that  Zamolxis  was  a  Pyth- 
 agorean, expressly  says  (4,  95),  that  he  flourished  at  a 
 much  earlier  period  than  Pythagoras.  The  whole 
 story  of  the  connexion  of  Zamolxis  with  Pythagoras 
 seems  to  have  been  invented  by  the  Pythagoreans,  to 
 advance  the  fame  of  their  master.  {Enfcld,  Hist. 
 Philos.,  vol.  1,  p.  118.) 
 
 Zama,  I.  a  city  of  Africa,  called  Zama  Regia,  and 
 lying  some  distance  to  the  southwest  of  Carthage,  and 
 to  the  northwest  of  Hadrumetum.  Sallust  describes 
 it  as  a  large  place,  and  strongly  fortified.  It  became 
 the  residence  subsequently  of  Juba,  and  the  deposite 
 for  his  treasures.  {Auct.,  Bell.  Afr.,  91.)  Strabo 
 speaks  of  it  as  being  in  his  days  a  ruined  city  ;  it  prob- 
 ably met  with  this  fate  during  the  civil  wars.  It  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  afterward  rebuilt,  and  to  have  bo- 
 come  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  The  modern  Zowarin 
 marks  the  ancient  site.  {Manncrl,  vol.  10,  pt.  2,  p. 
 355.) — II.  A  city  of  Numidia,  five  days'  journey  west 
 of  Carthage,  according  to  Polybius  (15,  5).  Near  this 
 place  was  fought  the  famous  battle  between  the  elder 
 Africanus  and  Hannibal.  {Mannert,  Geogr.,  vol.  10, 
 pt.  2,  p.  3G0.) 
 
 Zanci.e,  the  earlier  name  of  Messana  in  Sicily. 
 {VUl.  Messana.) 
 
 Zarang^i  or  DRANGiE,  a  nation  of  Upper  Asia, 
 southeast  of  Aria,  having  for  their  capital  Prophthasia, 
 now  Zarang.  {Plin.,  6,  23. — Arrian,  Exp.  Alex  ,  3, 
 2.)  Some  authorities,  however,  make  the  Zaraiigaei 
 only  a  part  of  the  Drangae.  {Bischoff  und  Mbllcr, 
 Wortcrb.  der  Geogr.,  p    1013.) 
 
 Zariaspa  Bactra,  the  capital  of  Bactriana,  on  the 
 river  Bactrus,  now  Balkh.     {Plin.,  6,  16.) 
 
 Zela,  a  city  of  Pontus,  southeast  of,  and  not  far 
 from,  Amasea.  It  was  origina.lly  a  village,  but  Pom- 
 pey  increased  it,  and  raised  it  to  the  rank  of  a  city. 
 Here  Mithradates  defeated  the  Romans  under  Triari- 
 us  ;  and  here,  too,  Caesar  defeated  Pharnaces.  It  was 
 in  writmg  home  word  of  this  victory  that  Csesar  made 
 
ZEN 
 
 ZEINO. 
 
 vise  of  the  well-known  expressions,  "Vcni,  vidi,  vici." 
 —  The  modern  village  of  Zile  or  Ztel  occupies  the 
 site  of  the  ancient  city.  (I'lin.,  63. — Hirlius,  B. 
 A.,  T2.) 
 
 Zeno,  I.  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Stoics,  born 
 at  Ciiiuin,  in  the  island  of  Cyprus.  IIis  father  was  by 
 profession  a  merchant,  but,  discovering  in  his  son  a 
 strong  proj)cnsity  towards  learning,  he  early  devoted 
 him  10  the  study  of  philosophy.  In  his  mercantile  ca- 
 pacity, the  former  had  frequent  occasions  to  visit  .Ath- 
 ens, wlicre  he  purchased  for  the  young  Zeno  several  of 
 the  writings  of  the  most  eminent  Socratic  philosophers. 
 These  he  read  with  great  avidity  ;  and,  when  he  was 
 about  thirty  years  of  age,  he  determined  to  take  a  voy- 
 age to  a  city  which  was  so  celebrated  both  as  a  mart 
 of  trade  and  of  science.  Whether  this  voyage  was  in 
 part  mercantile,  or  wholly  undertaken  for  the  sake  of 
 conversing  with  those  philosophers  whose  writings 
 Zeno  had  long  admired,  is  uncertain.  If  it  be  true, 
 as  some  writers  relate,  that  he  brought  with  him  a  val- 
 uable cargo  of  Phoenician  purple,  which  was  lost  by 
 shipwreck  upon  the  coast  of  .\ttica,  this  circumstance 
 will  account  for  the  facility  with  which  he  at  first  at- 
 tached himself  to  a  sect  whose  leading  principle  was 
 contempt  of  riches.  Upon  his  first  arrival  in  Athens, 
 going  accidentally  into  the  shop  of  a  bookseller,  he  took 
 up  a  volume  of  the  commentaries  of  Xenophon,  and, 
 after  reading  a  few  passages,  was  so  much  delighted 
 with  the  work,  and  formed  so  high  an  idea  of  its  author, 
 that  he  asked  the  bookseller  where  he  might  meet  with 
 such  men.  Crates,  the  Cynic  philosopher,  happening 
 at  that  instant  to  be  passing  by,  the  bookseller  pointed 
 to  him,  and  said,  •'  Follow  that  man."  Zeno  soon 
 found  an  opportunity  of  attending  upon  the  instruc- 
 tions of  Crates,  and  was  so  well  pleased  with  his  doc- 
 trine that  he  became  one  of  his  disciples.  But,  though 
 he  highly  admired  the  general  principles  and  .<!pirit  of 
 the  Cynic  school,  he  could  not  easily  reconcile  him- 
 self to  their  peculiar  manners.  Besides,  his  inquisi- 
 tive turn  of  mind  would  not  allow  him  to  adopt  that 
 indifference  to  every  scientific  inquiry  which  was  one 
 of  the  characteristic  distinctions  of  the  sect.  He  there- 
 fore attended  upoi)  other  masters,  who  professed  to 
 instruct  their  disciples  in  the  nature  and  causes  of 
 things.  When  Crates,  displeased  at  his  following 
 other  philosophers,  attempted  to  drag  him  by  force 
 out  of  the  school  of  Stilpo,  Zeno  said  to  him,  "You 
 may  seize  my  body,  but  Stilpo  has  laid  hold  of  my 
 mind."  After  continuing  to  attend  upon  the  lectures 
 of  Stilpo  for  several  years,  he  passed  over  to  other 
 schools,  particularly  those  of  Xenocrates  and  Diodo- 
 rus  Chronus.  By  the  latter  he  was  instructed  in  dia- 
 lectics. At  last,  after  attending  almost  every  other 
 toaster,  he  olTered  himself  as  a  discijjle  of  Polcmo. 
 This  philosopher  appears  to  have  been  aware  that  Ze- 
 no's  intention  in  thus  removing  from  one  school  to 
 another  was  to  collect  materials  from  various  quarters 
 for  a  new  system  of  his  own;  for,  when  he  came  into 
 Polemo's  school,  the  latter  said  to  him,  "I  am  no 
 stranger  to  your  Phoenician  arts,  Zeno  ;  I  perceive 
 that  your  design  is  to  creep  slyly  into  my  garden  and 
 steal  away  my  fruit."  Polemo  was  not  mistaken  in 
 his  opinion.  Having  made  himself  master  of  the  ten- 
 ets of  others,  Zeno  determined  to  become  the  found- 
 er of  a  new  sect.  The  place  which  he  made  choice 
 of  for  his  school  was  called  ihc  Pcccile  (flof/ci'/l^Sroa), 
 or  I'ainlcd  Porch ;  a  public  [tortico,  so  called  from 
 the  pictures  of  Polygnotus,  and  other  eminent  mas- 
 ters, with  which  it  was  adorned.  This  portico,  bein<> 
 the  most  famous  in  Athens,  was  called,  by  way  of  dis- 
 tinction, IiTod,  the  Porch.  It  was  from  this  circum- 
 stance that  the  followers  of  Zeno  were  called  Stoics, 
 i.  c  ,  the  men  of  the  Porch.  Zeno  e.tcelled  in  that 
 kind  of  subtle  reasoning  which  was  then  popular.  At 
 the  same  time,  he  taught  a  strict  system  of  moral  doc- 
 trine, and  exhibited  a  pleasing  picture  of  moral  dis- 
 
 cipline in  his  own  life.     The  Stoic  sect,  in  fact,  was  a 
 branch  of  the  Cynic,  and,  as  far  as  respected  morals, 
 diflfered   from  it   more  in  words  than  in  reality.     Its 
 founder,  while  he  avoided  the  singularities  of  the  Cyn- 
 ics, retained  the  spirit  of  their  moral  doctrine  :  at  the 
 same  time,  from  a  diligent  comparison  of  the  tenets 
 of  other  masters,  he  framed  a  new  system  of  specula- 
 tive philosophy.     It  is  not  at  all  sur[)rising,  therefore, 
 that  he  obtained  the  applause  and  affection  of  numer- 
 ous followers,   and    even  enjoyed   the    favour  of  the 
 great.     Antigonus  Gonatas,  king  of  Macedon,  while 
 he  was  resident  at  Athens,  attended  his  lectures,  and, 
 upon   his  return,  earnestly  invited  him   to   his  court. 
 He  possessed  so  large  a  share  of  esteem  among  the 
 Athenians,  that,  on  account  of  his  approved  integrity, 
 they  deposited   the  keys  of  their  citadel  in  his  hands 
 They  also  honoured  him  with  a  golden  crown,  and  a 
 statue  of  brass.     Among  his  countrymen,  the  inhab- 
 itants of  Cyprus,  and  with  the  Sidonians,  from  whom 
 his  family  was  derived,  he  was  likewise  highly  esteem- 
 ed.    In  his   person  Zeno  was  tall   and  slender  ;  his 
 aspect  was  severe,  and  his  brow  contracted.     His  con- 
 stitution  was   feeble,  but  he  preserved    his  health  by 
 great  abstemiousness.     The  supplies  of  his  table  con- 
 sisted  of  figs,    bread,   and    honey ;    notwithstanding 
 which,  he  was  frequently  honoured  with  the  company 
 of  great  men.     He  paid   more  attention  to  neatness 
 and  decorum  in  his  personal  appearance  than  the  Cyn- 
 ic philosophers.     In  his  dress,  indeed,  he  was  plain, 
 and  in  his  e.xpenses  frugal ;   but  this  is  not  to  be  im- 
 puted to  avarice,  but  to  a  contempt  of  external  mag- 
 nificence.    He  showed  as  much   respect  to  the  poor 
 as  to  the  rich,  and  conversed   freely  with  persons  of 
 the  meanest  occupations.     He  had  only  one  servant, 
 or,  according  to  Seneca,  none.     Although  Zeno's  so- 
 briety and  continence  were  even  proverbial,  he  was 
 not  without  enemies.     Among  his  contemporaries,  sev- 
 eral philosophers  of  great  ability  and  eloquence  em- 
 ployed their  talents  against  him.     Arcesilaus  and  Car- 
 neades,  the  founders  of  the  Middle  Academy,  were  his 
 professed   opponents.     Towards  the  close  of  his  life 
 he   found   another   powerful    antagonist  in  Epicurus, 
 whose  temper  and  doctrines  were  alike  inimical  to  the 
 severe  gravity  and   philosophical   pride  of  the   Stoic 
 sect.     Hence  mutual   invectives  passed  between  the 
 Stoics   and   other  sects,  to  which  little  credit  is  due. 
 (Vid.  remarks    under    the  article   Epicurus.)      Zeno 
 lived  to  the  e.Ktreme  age  of  98,  and  at  last,  in  conse- 
 quence of  an  accident,  put  an  end  to  his  life.     As  he 
 was  walking  out  of  his  school,  he  fell  down,   and  in 
 the  fall  broke  one  of  his  fingers.     He  was  so  affected, 
 upon   this,  with   a  consciousness   of   infirmity,    that, 
 striking  the  earth,  he  exclaimed, 'Ep,\-o/ia£,  ri  /lavtic; 
 "7  am  coming-,  why  callcst  thou  mc  ?"  and  immedi- 
 ately went  home  and  strangled  himself.     He  died  B.C. 
 264.     The  Athenians,  at  the  request  of  Antigonus, 
 erected  a  monument  to  his  memory  in  the  Ceramicus. 
 From  the  particulars  that  have  been  related  concern- 
 ing Zeno,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  [)erceive  what  kind 
 ol    influence  his  circumstances    and  character    must 
 have  had  upon  his  philoso[>hical  system.     If  his  doc- 
 trines be  diligently  compared  with  the  history  of  his 
 life,  it  will  appear  that,  having  attended  upon   many 
 eminent  preceptors,   and  been   intimately  conversant 
 with  their  opinions,  he  compiled  out  of  their  various 
 tenets  a  heterogeneous  system,  on  the  credit  of  which 
 he  assumed  to  himself  the  title  of  a  founder  of  a  nevy 
 sect.     When  he  resolved,  for  the  sake  of  establishing 
 a  new  school,  to  desert  the  philosophy  of  Pythagoras 
 and  Plato,  in  which  he  hid  been  perfectly  instructed 
 by  Xenocrates  and    Polemo,  it  became  necessary  ei- 
 ther to  invent  opinions  entirely  new,  or  to  give  an  air 
 of  novelty  to  old  systems  by  the  introduction  of  new 
 terms  and  definitions.     Of  these  two  undertakings, 
 Zeno  prudently  made  choice  of  the  easier.     Cicero 
 says  concerning  him,  that  he  had  little  reason  for  de- 
 
 14U3 
 
ZENO. 
 
 ZENO. 
 
 eerting  his  masters,  especially  those  of  the  Platonic 
 echool,  and  that  he  was  not  so  much  an  inventor  of 
 new  opinions  as  oi  new  terms.  That  this  was  ihe 
 real  character  of  the  Porch  will  fully  appear  from  an 
 attentive  perusal  of  the  clear  and  accurate  comparison 
 which  Cicero  has  drawn  between  the  doctrines  of  the 
 Old  Academy  and  those  of  the  Stoics,  in  his  Academ- 
 ic Questions.  As  to  the  moral  doctrine  of  the  Cynic 
 sect,  to  which  Zeno  adhered  to  the  last,  there  can  be 
 no  doubt  that  he  transferred  it  almost  without  alloy 
 into  his  own  school.  In  morals,  the  principal  diller- 
 ence  between  the  Cynics  and  the  Stoics  was,  that 
 the  former  disdained  the  cultivation  of  nature,  the 
 latter  affected  to  rise  above  it.  On  the  subject  of 
 physics,  Zeno  received  his  doctrine  from  Pythagoras 
 and  Heraclitus  through  the  channel  of  the  Platonic 
 school,  as  will  fully  appear  from  a  careful  compar- 
 ison of  their  respective  systems.  The  moral  part  of 
 the  Stoical  philosophy  partook  of  the  defects  of  its 
 origin.  It  mav  as  justly  be  objected  against  the  Sto- 
 ics as  the  Cynics,  that  they  assumed  an  artificial  se- 
 verity of  manners  and  a  tone  of  virtue  above  the 
 condition  of  man.  Their  doctrine  of  moral  wisdom 
 was  an  ostentatious  display  of  words,  in  which  lit- 
 tle regard  was  paid  to  nature  and  reason.  It  professed 
 to  raise  human  nature  to  a  degree  of  perfection  before 
 unknown  ;  but  its  real  effect  was  merely  to  amuse  the 
 ear  and  captivate  the  fancy  with  fictions  that  can  never 
 be  realized.  The  Stoical  doctrine  concerning  7ialure 
 is  as  follows  :  according  to  Zeno  and  his  followers, 
 there  e.visted  from  eternity  a  dark  and  confused  chaos, 
 in  which  were  contained  the  first  principles  of  all  fu- 
 ture beings.  This  chaos  being  at  length  arranged, 
 and  emerging  into  variable  forms,  became  the  world 
 as  it  now  subsists.  The  world,  or  nature,  is  that 
 whole  which  comprehends  all  things,  and  of  which  all 
 things  are  parts  and  members.  The  universe,  though 
 one  whole,  contains  two  principles,  distinct  from  ele- 
 ments, one  passive  and  the  other  active.  The  passive 
 principle  is  pure  matter  without  qualities;  the  active 
 principle  is  reason,  or  God.  This  is  the  fundamental 
 doctrine  of  the  Stoics  concerning  nature.  If  the  doc- 
 trine of  Plato,  which  derives  the  human  mind  from  the 
 soul  of  the  world,  has  a  tendency  towards  enthusiasm, 
 much  more  must  this  be  the  case  with  the  Stoical  doc- 
 trine, which  supposes  that  all  human  souls  have  im- 
 mediately proceeded  from,  and  will  at  last  return  into, 
 the  divine  nature.  As  regards  a  divine  providence,  if 
 we  compare  the  popular  language  of  the  Stoics  upon 
 this  head  with  their  general  system,  and  ex[)lain  the 
 former  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  latter, 
 we  shall  find  that  the  agency  of  deity  is,  accordmg  to 
 them,  nothing  more  than  the  active  motion  of  a  celes- 
 tial ether,  or  fire,  possessed  of  intelligence,  which  at 
 first  gave  form  to  the  shapeless  mass  of  gross  matter, 
 and  being  always  essentially  united  to  the  visible  world, 
 by  the  same  necessary  agency,  preserves  its  order  and 
 harmony.  Providence,  in  the  Stoic  creed,  is  only  an- 
 other name  for  absolute  necessity,  or  fate,  to  which 
 God  and  matter,  or  the  universe,  which  consists  of 
 both,  is  immutably  subject.  The  Stoic  doctrine  of 
 the  resurrection  of  the  body,  upon  which  Seneca  has 
 written  with  so  much  elegance,  must  not  be  confound- 
 ed with  the  Christian  doctrine  ;  for,  according  to  the 
 Stoics,  men  return  to  life,  not  by  the  voluntary  ap- 
 pointment of  a  wise  and  merciful  God,  hut  by  the  law 
 of  fate ;  and  are  not  renewed  for  the  enjoyment  of  a 
 belter  and  happier  condition,  but  drawn  back  into  their 
 former  state  of  imperfection  and  misery.  Accordingly, 
 Seneca  says,  "This  restoration  many  would  reject, 
 were  it  not  that  their  renovated  life  is  accompanied 
 with  a  total  oblivion  of  past  events."  Upon  the  prin- 
 ciples of  physics  depends  the  whole  Stoic  doctrine  of 
 morals.  Conceiving  God  to  be  the  principal  part  of 
 nature,  by  whose  energy  all  bodies  are  formed,  moved, 
 and  arranged,  and  human  reason  to  be  a  portion  of  the 
 1404 
 
 Divinity,  it  was  their  fundamental  doctrine  in  ethics, 
 that,  in  human  life,  one  ullnnate  end  ought  for  its  own 
 sake  to  be  pursued  ;  and  that  tliis  end  is  to  live  agree- 
 ably to  nature,  that  is,  to  be  conformed  to  the  law  of 
 fate  by  which  the  world  is  governed,  and  to  the  reason 
 of  that  divine  and  celestial  fire  which  animates  all 
 things.  Since  man  is  himself  a  microcosm,  composed, 
 like  the  world,  of  matter  and  a  rational  principle,  it 
 becomes  him  to  live  as  a  part  of  the  great  whole,  and 
 to  accommodate  all  his  desires  and  pursuits  to  the 
 general  arrangement  of  nature.  Thus,  to  live  accord- 
 ing to  nature,  as  the  Stoics  teach,  is  virtue,  and  virtue 
 is  itself  happiness ;  for  the  supreme  good  is  to  live 
 according  to  a  just  conception  of  the  real  nature  of 
 things,  choosing  that  which  is  itself  eligible,  and  re- 
 jecting the  contrary.  Every  man,  having  within  him- 
 self a  capacity  of  discerning  and  following  the  law  of 
 nature,  has  his  happiness  in  his  own  power,  and  is  a 
 divinity  to  himself.  Wisdom  consists  in  distinguish- 
 ing good  from  evil.  Good  is  that  which  produces  hap- 
 piness according  to  the  nature  of  a  rational  being. 
 Since  those  things  only  are  truly  good  which  are  be- 
 coming and  virtuous,  and  virtue,  which  is  seated  in 
 the  mind,  is  alone  sufficient  for  happiness,  external 
 things  contribute  nothing  towards  happiness,  and, 
 therefore,  are  not  in  themselves  good.  The  wise  man 
 will  only  value  riches,  honour,  beauty,  and  other  e.\- 
 terna!  enjoyments  as  means  and  instruments  of  vir- 
 tue ;  for,  in  every  condition,  he  is  happy  in  the  pos- 
 session of  a  mind  accommodated  to  nature.  Pain, 
 which  does  not  belong  to  the  mind,  is  no  evil.  The 
 wise  man  will  be  happy  in  the  midst  of  torture.  All 
 external  things  are  indifferent,  since  they  cannot  af- 
 fect the  happiness  of  man.  Every  virtue  being  a 
 conformity  to  nature,  and  every  vice  a  deviation  from 
 it,  all  virtues  and  vices  are  equal.  One  act  of  benefi- 
 cence or  justice  is  not  more  truly  so  than  another  ;  one 
 fraud  is  not  more  a  fraud  than  another  ;  therefore 
 there  is  no  difference  in  the  essential  nature  of  moral 
 actions,  except  that  some  are  vicious  and  others  virtu- 
 ous. This  is  the  doctrine  which  Horace  ridicules  in 
 the  4th  satire,  1st  book.  The  Stoics  advanced  many 
 extravagant  assertions  concerning  their  wise  man  ;  for 
 example,  that  he  feels  neither  pain  nor  pleasure  ;  that 
 he  exercises  no  pity  ;  that  he  is  free  from  faults  ;  that 
 ho  is  divine  ;  that  he  does  all  things  well  ;  that  he 
 alone  is  great,  noble,  ingenuous  ;  that  he  is  a  prophet, 
 a  priest,  a  king,  and  the  like.  These  paradoxical  vaunt- 
 ings  are  humorously  ridiculed  by  Horace.  In  order  to 
 understand  all  this,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  Sto- 
 ics did  not  suppose  such  a  man  actually  to  exist,  but 
 that  they  framed  in  their  imagination  an  image  of 
 perfection,  towards  which  every  man  should  continu- 
 ally aspire.  All  the  extravagant  notions  which  are  to 
 be  found  in  their  writings  on  this  subject  may  be  re- 
 ferred to  their  general  principle  of  the  entire  sufficiency 
 of  virtue  to  happiness,  and  the  consequent  indiffer- 
 ence of  all  external  circumstances.  The  sum  of 
 man's  duty,  according  to  the  Stoics,  with  respect  to 
 himself,  is  to  subdue  his  passions  of  joy  and  sorrow, 
 hope  and  fear,  and  even  pity.  He  who  is,  in  this  re- 
 s))ect,  perfectly  master  of  himself,  is  a  wise  man  ; 
 and,  in  proportion  as  we  approach  a  state  of  apathy, 
 we  advance  towards  perfection.  A  wise  man,  more- 
 over, may  justly  and  reasonably  withdraw  from  life 
 whenever  he  finds  it  expedient  ;  not  only  because  life 
 and  death  are  among  those  things  which  are  in  their  na- 
 ture indifferent,  but  also  because  life  may  be  less  con- 
 sistent with  virtue  than  death.  Concerning  the  whole 
 moral  system  of  the  Stoics,  it  must  be  remarked,  that, 
 although  deserving  of  high  encomium  for  the  purity, 
 extent,  and  variety  of  its  doctrines,  and  although  it 
 must  bo  confessed  that,  in  many  select  passages  of  the 
 Stoic  writings,  it  appears  exceedingly  brilliant,  it  is 
 nevertheless  founded  in  false  notions  of  nature  and  of 
 man,  and  is  raised  to  a  degree  of  refinement  which  is 
 
ZEN 
 
 ZEN 
 
 extravagant  and  impracticable.  The  piety  which  it 
 teaches  is  nothiii'-f  more  than  a  quiet  submission  lo  ir- 
 resisuble  fale  ;  liie  seif-eoinmand  which  it  enjoins  an- 
 nihilates the  best  afitctions  of  the  human  heart  ;  the 
 indulgence  which  it  grants  to  suicide  is  inconsistent, 
 not  only  with  the  general  principles  of  piety,  but  even 
 with  that  constancy  which  was  the  height  of  Stoical 
 perfection  ;  and  even  its  moral  doclrnic  of  benevolence 
 is  tinctured  with  the  fanciful  principle,  whicii  lay  at  the 
 foundation  of  the  whole  Stoical  system,  that  every 
 being  is  a  portion  of  one  great  whole,  from  which  it 
 would  be  unnatural  and  iin[)ious  to  attempt  a  separa- 
 tion. {Enfield's  History  of  I'lidosopluj,  vol.  1,  p.  315, 
 seqq.) — II.  A  philosopher,  a  native  of  I'arsus,  or,  ac- 
 cording to  some,  of  Sidon.  and  the  immediate  succes- 
 sor of  Chrysippus  in  the  Stoic  school.  He  does  not 
 appear  to  have  receded  in  any  respect  from  the  Stoic 
 tenets,  e.xcept  that  he  withheld  his  assent  to  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  tinal  conflagration.  {Diog.  Lacrt.,  7,  38. 
 — Euscb.,  I'mp.  Ev.,  15,  18.) — III.  A  philosopher  of 
 Elea,  called  the  Eleatic,  to  distinguish  him  from  Ze- 
 no  the  Stoic.  He  flourished  about  444  B.C.  Zeno 
 was  a  zealous  friend  of  civil  liberty,  and  is  celebrated 
 for  his  courageous  and  successful  opposil  ion  to  tyrants ; 
 but  the  inconsistency  of  the  stories  related  by  different 
 writers  concerning  him  in  a  great  measure  destroys 
 their  credit. — The  invention  of  the  dialectic  art  has 
 been  improperly  ascribed  to  him  ;  but  there  can  be  no 
 douht  that  this  philosopher,  and  other  metaphysical 
 disputants  in  the  Eleatic  seat,  employed  much  inge- 
 nuity and  subtlety  in  exhibiting  e.xamples  of  most  of 
 the  logical  arts  which  were  afterward  reduced  to  rule 
 by  Aristotle  and  others.  According  to  Aristotle,  Ze- 
 no of  Elea  taught  that  nothing  can  be  produced  either 
 from  that  which  is  similar  or  dissimilar  ;  that  there  is 
 only  one  being,  and  that  is  God  ;  that  this  being  is 
 eternal,  homogeneous,  and  spherical,  neither  finite  nor 
 infinite,  neither  quiescent  nor  moveable  ;  that  there 
 are  many  worlds  ;  that  there  is  in  nature  no  vacuum, 
 &c.  If  Seneca's  account  of  this  philosopher  deserves 
 credit,  he  reached  the  highest  point  of  scepticism,  and 
 denied  the  real  exi.slcnce  of  e.xtcrnal  objects.  {Sen- 
 eca, Ep.,  58.  —  Enfield,  Hist.  Fliilos.,  vol.  1,  p.  419, 
 seg.) 
 
 Zf.NOGiA,  a  celebrated  princess,  wife  of  Odenatus, 
 and  after  his  death  queen  of  Palmyra.  {Vid.  Odena- 
 tus, and  Palmyra.)  With  equal  talents  for  jurispru- 
 dence and  finance,  thoroughly  skilled  in  the  arts  and 
 duties  of  government,  and  adapting  severity  and  clem- 
 ency with  nice  discernment  to  the  exigency  of  the 
 circumstances,  her  agile  and  elastic  fratne  enabled  her 
 to  direct  and  share  the  labours  and  enterprises  of  war. 
 Disdaining  the  female  litter,  she  was  continually  on 
 horseback,  and  could  even  keep  pace  on  foot  with  the 
 march  of  her  soldiery.  History  has  preserved  some 
 reminiscences  of  her  personal  appearance,  her  dress, 
 and  her  habits,  which  represent  this  apparent  amazon 
 as  a  woman  of  the  most  engaging  beauty,  gifted  with 
 the  versatile  graces  of  a  court,  and  accomplished  in 
 literary  endowments.  In  complexion  a  brunette,  her 
 teeth  were  of  a  pearly  whiteness,  and  her  eyes  black 
 and  sparkling ;  her  mien  was  animated,  and  her  voice 
 clear  and  powerful.  With  a  helmet  on  her  head,  and 
 wearing  a  purple  mantle  fringed  with  gems  and  clasp- 
 ed with  a  buckle  at  the  waist,  so  as  lo  leave  one  of  her 
 arms  hare  to  the  shoulder,  she  presented  herself  at  the 
 council  of  war;  and  afTecting,  from  the  policy  of  her 
 country,  a  regal  pomp,  she  was  worshipped  with  Per- 
 sian prostration.  Pure  in  her  manners  to  the  utmost 
 refinement  of  delicacy,  and  temperate  in  her  habits, 
 she  would  nevertheless  challenge  in  their  cups  her 
 Persian  and  Armenian  guests,  and  retire  the  victor 
 without  ebriety.  Chiefly  versed  in  the  languages  of 
 Syria  and  Egypt,  her  modesty  restrained  her  from 
 conversing  freely  in  Latin  ;  but  she  had  read  the  Ro- 
 man history  in  Greek,  was  herself  an  elegant  histori- 
 
 an, and  had  compiled  the  Annals  of  Alexandrca  and 
 the  East.  Her  authority  was  acknowledged  by  a  large 
 portion  of  Asia  Minor  when  Aurelian  succeeded  to  the 
 empire.  Envious  of  her  power,  and  determined  to 
 dispossess  her  of  some  of  the  rich  proviticcs  compre- 
 hended in  her  dominions,  he  marched  at  the  head  of  a 
 powerful  army  to  Asia.  Having  defeated  the  queen's 
 general  near  Antioch,  he  compelled  her  to  retreat  to 
 Emesa.  Under  the  walls  of  this  city  another  engage- 
 ment was  fought,  ill  which  the  cmfjeior  was  again  vic- 
 torious. The  queen  fled  to  Palmyra,  determined  to 
 sU[iport  a  siege.  Aurelian  followed  her,  and,  on  ma- 
 king his  approaches  to  the  walls,  found  them  mounted 
 in  every  part  with  mural  engines,  which  plied  the  be- 
 siegers with  stones,  darts,  and  missile  fires.  To  the 
 summons  for  a  surrender  of  the  city  and  kingdom,  on 
 the  condition  of  her  life  being  spared,  Zenobia  replied 
 in  a  proud  and  s|)irited  letter,  written  in  Greek  by  her 
 secretary,  the  celebrated  l.onginus.  Her  hopes  of 
 victory  soon  vanished  ;  and,  though  she  harassed  the 
 Romans  night  and  day  by  continual  sallies  from  her 
 walls  and  the  working  of  her  military  engines,  she  de- 
 spaired of  success  when  she  heard  that  the  armies 
 which  were  marching  to  her  relief  from  Arnu  nia,  Per- 
 sia, and  the  East  had  either  been  interce[)ted  or  gain- 
 ed over  by  the  foe.  She  fled  from  Palmyra  in  the 
 night  on  her  dromedaries,  but  was  overtaken  by  the 
 Roman  horse  while  attempting  to  cross  the  Euphrates, 
 and  was  brought  into  the  presence  of  Aurelian,  and 
 tried  before  a  triluinal  at  Emesa,  Aurelian  himself 
 presiding.  The  soldiers  were  clamorous  for  her  death ; 
 but  she,  in  a  manner  unworthy  of  her  former  fame, 
 saved  her  own  life  by  throwing  the  blame  on  her 
 counsellors,  especially  on  Longinus,  who  was,  in  con- 
 sequence, [lut  to  death.  Zenobia  was  carried  to  Rome, 
 to  grace  the  emperor's  triumph,  and  was  led  along  in 
 chains  of  gold.  She  is  said  to  have  almost  sunk  be- 
 neath the  weight  of  jewels  with  which  she  was  adorn- 
 ed on  that  occasion.  She  was  treated  with  great  hu- 
 manity, and  Aurelian  gave  her  large  possessions  neat 
 Tibur,  where  she  was  permitted  to  pass  the  remain- 
 der of  her  days.  Her  two  sons  afterward  married  into 
 distinguished  families  at  Rome.  {Flav.  Vopixc.,  Vit. 
 Aurel.  —  Trcb.  Follio,  Trigint.  Tyrann. —  Vit.  He- 
 rennian.) 
 
 Zenodorus,  a  statuary,  whose  native  country  is  un- 
 certain. He  exercised  his  art  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and 
 also  in  Rome  during  the  reign  of  Nero.  Pliny  speaks 
 of  a  Mercury  of  his,  and  also  of  a  colossal  statue  of 
 Nero,  afterward  dedicated  lo  the  sun  on  the  downfall 
 of  that  emperor.  {Thiersch,  Epoch.  3,  Adnol.  102. 
 —Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  s.  v.) 
 
 ZEPHVRitJM,  I.  a  promontory  of  Magna  Grajcia,  on 
 the  eastern  coast  of  the  lower  extremity  of  Bruttium, 
 whence  the  Locria!is  derived  the  appellation  of  Epi- 
 zephyrii.  It  is  now  Capo  di  Brvzzano.  {Slraho, 
 259.) — II.  A  {iromonlory  on  the  western  coast  of  the 
 island  of  Cyprus,  and  closing  the  Bay  of  Bafo  to  the 
 west.     {Strab.,  G83.) 
 
 Zephyrijs,  one  of  the  winds,  son  of  Astrseus  and 
 .'\urora,  the  same  as  the  Faxwnius  of  the  Latins.  He 
 had  a  son  named  Carpus  {Kap-vc,  fruil)  by  one  of 
 the  Seasons.  {Scrv.  ad  Vtrg.,  Eclog.,5,A8.)  Zephy- 
 rus  is  described  by  Homer  as  a  strong-blowing  wind ; 
 but  he  was  afterward  regarded  as  gentle  and  soft- 
 breathing.  In  the  days  of  Homer,  the  idea  of  darkness 
 was  also  associated  with  the  western  regions  of  the 
 world,  and  hence  the  wind  Zcphyrus  derived  its  name 
 from  (otjioc,  "darkness,"  "gloom."  In  a  succeeding 
 aire,  when  the  west  wind  began  to  be  regarded  as 
 genial  in  its  influence  both  on  man  and  all  nature,  the 
 name  was  considered  as  synonymous  with  l^urj^opa^ 
 lifc-bearim:  {Hesiod,  Thros:.',  ^11.— Virgil,  Mn., 
 1,  1.15— OmV,  Met.,  I,  f>\  ■,''\b,lQQ.—Properlius,  1, 
 16.  34,  &c.) 
 
 Zetes,  a  son  of  Boreas,  king  of  Thrace,  and  Orit'u 
 
 1405 
 
ZEU 
 
 ZEUXIS. 
 
 yia,  who  accompanied  the  Argonauts  to  Colchis  along 
 with  his  brother  Calais.  In  Biihyiiia,  the  two  broth- 
 ers, who  arc  represented  with  wings,  dcHvered  I'hin- 
 eus  from  the  perscciilioi)  of  the  Harpies,  and  drove 
 these  monsters  as  far  as  the  islands  called  Strophades, 
 (Vtd.  Strophades,  and  llarpyia;  — Apollod.,  1,  9;  3,  15. 
 — Hygin.,  fab.,  li.—Ociil,  Met.,  8,  716.— Pausan., 
 3,  16  ) 
 
 Zethus,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Antiope,  brother  to 
 Ainphion.     {Vid.  Ampliion.) 
 
 ZiiUGis  or  Zeugitana,  a  district  of  Africa  in  which 
 Carthage  was  situated.  It  extended  from  the  river 
 Tusca  to  the  Hermajan  promontory,  and  from  the 
 coast  to  the  mountains  that  separated  it  from  IJyzaci- 
 um.     {Isid.,  Hist.,  14,  5.—Plin,  5,  4.) 
 
 Zeugma,  or  the  Bridge,  the  name  of  the  principal 
 passage  of  the  river  Euphrates,  southwest  of  Edessa. 
 An  ancient  fortress  by  which  it  was  commanded  is 
 still  called  Roam-Cala,  or  the  Roman  Castle  ;  to 
 which  may  be  added,  that  on  the  opposite  shore  there 
 is  a  place  called  Zeussme.  {Pliu.,  5,  24. —  Curl.,  3, 
 7.— Tacit.,  Ann.,  12,''l2.) 
 
 Znus,  the  name  of  Jupiter  among  the  Greeks. 
 (Vtd.  remarks  under  the  article  Jupiter.) 
 
 Zeuxis,  a  celebrated  painter,  born  at  Heraclea,  in 
 Magna  Graacia,  and  who  flourished  about  B.C.  400. 
 (Flin.,  35,  9,  3Q—JEUan,  V.  H.,  4,  VZ.—Hardomn, 
 ad  Plin,  I.  c.—Sillig,  Diet.  Art.,  p.  130,  not.)  He 
 studied  under  either  l)emophilus  or  Neseas,  artists  re- 
 specting whom  nothing  is  known  but  thai  one  of  them 
 was  his  master.  Soon,  however,  he  far  outstripped 
 his  instructor,  as  .'\pollcdorus  intimated  in  verses  ex- 
 pressive of  his  indignation  that  Zeu.xis  should  have 
 moulded  to  his  own  use  all  previous  inventions,  and 
 stolen  the  graces  of  the  best  masters  ;  thus  paying  a 
 high  though  involuntary  compliment  to  his  gifted  rival. 
 Apollodorus  having  first  practised  chiaro-oscuro,  could 
 not  endure  that  his  glory  should  be  eclipsed  by  a 
 younger  artist,  who  availed  himself  of  his  improve- 
 ments to  ri.se  to  a  higher  degree  of  excellence.  Zeux- 
 is seems  to  have  rapidly  risen  to  the  highest  distinc- 
 tion in  Greece,  and  acquired  by  the  exercise  of  his 
 art,  not  only  renown,  but  riches.  Of  the  latter  ad- 
 vantage he  was  more  vain  than  became  a  man  of  ex- 
 alted genius.  He  appeared  at  the  Olympic  games 
 attired  in  a  mantle  on  which  his  name  was  embroidered 
 in  letters  of  gold,  a  piece  of  most  absurd  display  in 
 one  whose  name  was  deeply  impressed  on  the  hearts' 
 and  imaginations  of  those  by  whom  he  was  surrounded. 
 He  does  not,  however,  seem  to  have  been  chargeable 
 with  avarice  ;  or,  at  least,  this  passion,  if  it  existed, 
 was  subservient  to  his  pride  ;  for,  when  he  had  attained 
 the  height  of  his  fame,  he  refused  any  longer  to  re- 
 ceive money  for  his  pictures,  but  made  presents  of 
 them,  because  he  regarded  them  as  above  all  pecuni- 
 ary value.  In  the  earlier  part  of  his  career  he  was 
 accustomed,  however,  to  exhibit  his  productions  for 
 money,  especially  his  most  celebrated  painting  of  Hel- 
 en. The  truth  seems  to  have  been,  that  the  ruling  pas- 
 sion of  Zeuxis  was  the  love  of  pomp,  an  ever-restless 
 vanity,  a  constant  desire  and  craving  after  every  kind 
 of  distinction. — Very  little  is  known  respecting  the 
 events  of  the  life  of  this  celebrated  painter.  He  was 
 not  only  successful  in  securing  wealth  and  the  applause 
 of  the  multitude,  but  was  honoured  with  the  friend- 
 ship of  Archelaiis,  king  of  Macedon.  For  the  palace 
 of  this  monarch  he  executed  numerous  pictures.  Ci- 
 cero informs  us,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Crotona  pre- 
 vailed on  Zeuxis  to  come  to  their  city,  and  to  paint 
 there  a  number  of  pieces,  which  were  intended  to 
 adorn  the  temple  of  Juno,  for  which  he  was  to  receive 
 a  large  and  stipulated  sum.  On  his  arrival,  he  in- 
 formed them  that  he  intended  only  to  paint  the  picture 
 of  Helen,  with  which  they  were  satisfied,  because  he 
 was  regarded  as  peculiarly  excellent  in  the  delineation 
 of  women.  He  accordingly  desired  to  see  the  most 
 1406 
 
 beautiful  maidens  in  the  city,  and,  having  selected  five 
 of  the  fairest,  copied  all  that  was  most  beautiful  and 
 perfect  in  the  form  of  each,  and  thus  completed  his 
 Helen.  Pliny,  in  his  relation  of  the  same  circum- 
 stance, omits  to  give  the  particular  subject  of  the 
 painting,  or  the  terms  of  the  original  contract,  and 
 states  that  the  whole  occurred,  not  among  the  people 
 of  Crotona,  but  those  of  Agrigentum,  for  whom,  he 
 says,  the  piece  was  executed,  to  fulfil  a  vow  made  by 
 them  to  the  goddess.  This  great  artist,  on  several 
 occasions,  painted  pictures  for  cities  and  states.  He 
 gave  his  Alcmena,  representing  Hercules  strangling 
 the  serpents  in  his  cradle,  in  the  sight  of  his  parents, 
 to  the  Agrigentines,  and  a  figure  of  Pan  to  his  patron 
 Archelaiis  of  Macedon.  The  most  celebrated  of  the 
 pictures  of  Zeuxis,  besides  the  Helen  and  the  Alcme- 
 na, were,  a  Penelope,  in  which  Pliny  assures  us  that 
 not  only  form,  but  character,  was  vividly  expressed;  a 
 representation  of  Jupiter  seated  on  his  throne,  with 
 all  the  gods  around  doing  him  homage  ;  a  Marsyas 
 bound  to  a  tree,  which  was  preserved  at  Rome  ;  and 
 a  wrestler,  beneath  which  was  inscribed  a  verse,  to  the 
 effect  that  it  was  easier  to  envy  than  to  imitate  its  ex- 
 cellence. Lucian  has  left  us  an  admirable  description 
 of  another  painting  of  his,  representing  the  Centaurs, 
 in  which  he  particularly  applauds  the  delicacy  of  the 
 drawing,  the  harmony  of  the  colouring,  the  softness  of 
 the  blending  shades,  and  the  excellence  of  the  pro- 
 portions. He  left  many  draughts  in  a  single  colour 
 on  white.  Pliny  censures  him  for  the  too  great  size 
 of  the  heads  and  joints,  in  comparison  with  the  rest 
 of  the  figures.  Aristotle  complains  that  he  was  a 
 painter  of  forms  rather  than  of  manners,  which  seems 
 contrary  to  the  eulogium  passed  by  Pliny  on  the 
 representation  of  Penelope. — The  story  respecting 
 the  contest  between  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius  has  been 
 frequently  related.  It  is  said  that  the  former  paint- 
 ed a  cluster  of  grapes  with  such  perfect  skill  that 
 the  birds  came  and  pecked  at  them.  Elated  with  so 
 unequivocal  a  testimony  of  his  excellence,  he  called 
 to  his  rival  to  draw  back  the  curtain,  which  he  sup- 
 posed concealed  his  work,  anticipating  a  certain  tri- 
 umph. Now,  however,  he  found  himself  entrapped, 
 for  what  he  took  for  a  curtain  was  only  a  painting  of 
 one  by  Parrhasius  ;  upon  which  he  ingenuously  con- 
 fessed himself  defeated,  since  he  had  only  deceived 
 birds,  but  his  antagonist  had  beguiled  the  senses  of  an 
 experienced  artist.  Another  story  is  related  of  a  simi- 
 lar kind,  in  which  he  overcame  himself,  or,  rather,  one 
 part  of  his  work  was  shown  to  have  excelled  at  the  ex- 
 pense of  the  other.  He  painted  a  boy  with  a  basket  of 
 grapes,  to  which  the  birds  as  before  resorted  ;  on  which 
 he  acknowledged  that  the  boy  could  not  be  well  painted, 
 since,  had  the  similitude  been  in  both  cases  equal,  the 
 birds  would  have  been  deterred  from  approaching. 
 From  these  stories,  if  they  may  be  credited,  it  would 
 appear  that  Zeuxis  excelled  more  in  depicting  fruit  than 
 in  painting  the  human  form.  If  this  were  the  case,  it  is 
 strange  that  all  his  greater  cflforts,  of  which  any  ac- 
 counts have  reached  us,  were  portraits,  or  groups  of 
 men  or  deities.  The  readiness  which  Zeuxis  has,  in 
 these  instances,  been  represented  as  manifesting  to  ac- 
 knowledge his  weakness,  is  scarcely  consistent  with  the 
 usual  tenour  of  his  spirit.  At  all  events,  the  victory 
 of  Parrhasius  proved  very  little  respecting  the  merit  of 
 the  two  artists.  The  man  who  could  represent  a  cur- 
 tain to  perfection  would  not  necessarily  be  the  great- 
 est painter  in  Greece.  Even  were  exactness  of  imi- 
 tation the  sole  excellence  in  the  picture,  regard  must 
 be  had  to  the  cast  of  the  objects  imitated,  in  reference 
 to  the  skill  of  the  artists  by  whom  they  were  chosen. 
 — Zeuxis  is  said  to  have  taken  a  long  time  to  finish  his 
 chief  productions,  observing,  when  reproached  for  his 
 slowness,  that  he  was  painting  for  eternity. — Festus 
 relates  that  Zeuxis  died  with  laughter  at  the  picture 
 of  an  old  woman  which  he  himself  had  painted.     So 
 
ZON 
 
 ZOS 
 
 extraordinary  a  circumstance,  however,  would  surely 
 nave  been  alluded  to  by  some  other  writer,  had  it  been 
 true.  There  seems  good  reason,  therefore,  to  believe 
 it  fictitious.  (Enci/clop.  Mctropoi,  div.  2,  vol.  1,  p. 
 405,  seqq.) 
 
 ZoiLus,  a  so[)hist  and  grammarian  of  Amphipolis, 
 who  rendered  hunself  known  by  his  severe  criticisms 
 on  the  poems  of  Homer,  for  which  he  received  the 
 name  of  Homervmasltx,  or  the  chastiscr  of  Homer, 
 and  also  on  the  productions  of  Plato  atid  other  writers. 
 yElian  ( l^.  //.,  11,  10)  draws  a  very  unfavourable  pic- 
 ture of  both  his  rharactcr  and  personal  appearance. 
 In  ail  this,  however,  there  is  very  probably  much  of 
 exaggeration.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  {Ep.  ad 
 Pomp  )  apjtears,  on  llie  other  hand,  to  praise  the  man  ; 
 he  ranks  Tiim,  at  least,  among  those  who  have  censured 
 Plato,  not  from  a  feeling  of  envy  or  enmity,  but  a  de- 
 sire for  the  truth.  Tiie  age  of  Zoilus  is  uncertain. 
 Vitruvius  (Preef.,  ad  lib.  7)  refers  him  to  the  time  of 
 Ptolemy  Philadel|)hus,  and  is  followed  by  Vossius. 
 Reinesius,  however  (  Var.  Lect.,  3,  2),  and  lonsius 
 {de  Script.  HisL.  Phil ,  c.  9)  are  opposed  to  this,  be- 
 cause Zoilus  is  said  to  have  been  a  hearer  of  Polyc- 
 rates,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Socrates.  ((Consult 
 the  remarks  of  Perizonius  on  this  subject,  aci  .E/?a7i., 
 V.  H ,  I.  c  )  Some  say  that  Zoilus  was  stoned  to 
 death,  or  e.vposed  on  a  cross,  by  order  of  Ptolemy, 
 while  others  maintain  that  he  was  burned  alive  at 
 Smyrna.  According  to  another  account,  he  recited 
 his  invectives  against  Homer  at  the  Olympic  games, 
 and  was  thrown  from  a  rock  for  his  offence.  {Miian, 
 V.  H.,  I.  c.—Longtn.,  9,  4.) 
 
 Zona  or  Zone,  a  city  on  the  ^Egean  coast  of 
 Thrace,  near  the  promontory  of  Scrrhium.  It  is  (nen- 
 tioned  by  Herodotus  (7,  59)  and  by  Hecataeus  {up. 
 Stcph.  Bi/z.).  Here  Orpheus  sang,  and  by  his  strains 
 drew  after  him  both  the  woods  and  the  beasts  that 
 tenanted  them.     (Apollon.  Rhad  ,  1,28.) 
 
 ZoNAKAS,  a  Byzantine  historian,  who  flourished  to- 
 wards the  close  of  the  eleventh  and  the  commence- 
 ment of  the  twelfth  centuries.  He  held  the  offices 
 originally  of  Grand  Duiignrius  (commander  of  the  fleet) 
 and  chief  secretary  of  the  imperial  cabinet  ;  but  he 
 afterward  became  a  monk,  and  attached  himself  to  a 
 religious  house  on  Mount  Athos,  where  he  died  sub- 
 sequently to  A.D.  1118.  His  Annals,  or  Chronicle, 
 extend  from  the  creation  of  the  world  down  to  1118 
 A.D.,  the  |)eriod  of  the  death  of  Alexis  I.  They  pos- 
 sess a  double  interest :  for  more  ancient  times,  he  has 
 availed  himself,  independently  of  Eutropius  and  Dio 
 Cassius,  of  other  authors  that  are  lost  to  us  ;  and  at  a 
 later  period  he  details  events  of'which  he  himself  was 
 a  witness.  Though  deficient  in  critical  spirit,  he  has 
 still  displayed  great  good  sense  in  adding  nothing  of 
 his  own  to  the  extracts  which  he  has  inserted  in  his 
 history,  except  what  might  serve  to  unite  them  to- 
 gether in  regular  order.  There  results  from  this,  it  is 
 true,  a  great  variety  of  style  in  his  work,  but  this  is 
 easily  pardoned,  and  the  only  regret  is,  that  Zonaras 
 had  not  indicated  with  more  exactness  the  authors 
 ■whence  he  drew  his  materials.  The  impartiality  of 
 the  writer  is  worthy  of  praise.  This  work  is  found  in 
 the  collections  of  the  Byzantine  Historians. — Zonaras 
 was  the  author  also  of  a  Glossary  or  Lexicon,  in  the 
 manner  of  Hesychius  and  Suidas.     It  was  published 
 
 by  Tittman,  in  1808,  at  the  Leipzig  press,  along  with 
 the  Lexicon  of  Photius,  in  3  vols.  4to,  the  first  two 
 volumes  being  devoted  to  the  Lexicon  of  Zonaras. 
 {SchoU,  Hist.  Lit.  Gr  ,  vol.  6,  p.  288.) 
 
 ZopYRus,  a  Persian,  son  of  Megabyzus,  vvho  gained 
 possession  of  Baliylon  for  Darius  Hyslaspis  by  a  strat- 
 agem similar  to  that  by  which  Scxtus  'I'arqninius 
 gained  Gabii  for  his  father.  ( Vid.  Tarquiniiis  III. — 
 Herod.,  3,  154,  segq.) 
 
 ZoROASTEis,  a  celebrated  reformer  of  the  Magian 
 religion,  whose  era  is  altogether  uncertain.  In  what 
 points  his  doctrines  mav  have  differed  from  those  of 
 the  preceding  period  is  an  obscure  and  dilFiciilt  ques- 
 tion. It  seems  certain,  however,  that  the  code  of  sa- 
 cred laws  which  he  introduced,  founded,  or  at  least 
 enlarged,  the  authority  and  influence  of  the  Magian 
 caste.  Its  members  became  the  keepers  and  expound- 
 ers of  the  holy  books,  the  teachers  and  counsellors  of 
 the  king,  the  oracles  from  whom  he  learned  the  Divino 
 will  and  the  secrets  of  futurity,  the  inediators  who  ob- 
 tained for  hiin  the  favour  of  Heaven,  or  propitiated  its 
 anger.  According  to  Hyde,  Prideaux,  and  many  oth- 
 ers of  the  learned,  Zoroaster  was  the  same  with  the 
 Zerdusht  of  the  Persians,  who  was  a  great  patriarch  of 
 the  Magi,  and  lived  between  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
 of  Cyrus  and  the  latter  end  of  that  of  Darius  Hys- 
 taspis.  This,  however,  seems  too  laie  a  date. — The 
 so-called  "  Oracles  of  Zoroaster^'  have  been  frecjuently 
 published.  (Consult,  on  this  whole  subject,  the  very 
 learned  and  able  remarks  of  Parisot,  Bioffr.  Univ., 
 vol.  52,  p.  434,  seqq.,  and  also  Rhode,  die  hcili^e  Sage, 
 &c.,  der  Baktrer.  Meder,  &c  ,  j).  112,  srqq  ) 
 
 ZosiMUs,  I.  a  Greek  historian,  who  appears  to  have 
 flourished  between  A.D.  430  and  591.  He  was  a  pub- 
 lic functionary  at  Constantinople.  Zosimus  wrote  a 
 history  of  the  Roman  emjierors  from  the  age  of  Au- 
 gustus down  to  his  own  time.  His  object  in  writing 
 this  was  to  trace  the  causes  which  led  to  the  downfall 
 of  the  Roman  empire,  and  among  these  he  ranks  the 
 introduction  of  Christianity.  There  are  many  reasons 
 which  induce  the  belief  that  the  work  of  Zosimus 
 was  not  published  in  his  lifetime,  one  of  the  strongest 
 of  which  is  the  boldness  with  which  he  speaks  of  the 
 Christian  emperors.  It  is  probable  that  he  intended 
 to  continue  the  work  to  his  own  times,  a  design  which 
 his  death  prevented.  \  certain  negligence  of  style, 
 which  indicates  the  absence  of  a  revision  on  the  part 
 oi  the  author,  strongly  countenances  this  supposition. 
 The  best  editions  of  Zosimus  have  been  that  of  Cel- 
 larius,  8vo,  JencB,  1728,  and  that  of  Ileitemier.  8vo, 
 Lips.,  1784.  The  best  edition  now,  however,  is  that 
 by  Bekker  in  the  Corpus  Byz.  Hist.,  Bonn,  1S37,  8vo. 
 — If.  A  native  of  Paiiopolis,  in  Egypt,  who  wrote,  ac- 
 cording to  Suidas,  a  work  on  Chemistry  {XtfiEvriKd), 
 in  28  books.  The  Paris  and  Vienna  MSS.  contain 
 various  detached  treatises  of  this  writer,  which  form- 
 ed part,  in  all  likelihood,  of  this  voluminous  produc- 
 tion ;  such  as  a  dissertation  on  the  sacred  and  divine 
 art  of  forming  gold  and  silver,  &c.  There  exist  also 
 five  other  works  of  this  same  writer,  such  as  "  On  the 
 Art  of  making  Beer'''  {Tvepl  (vOuv  -rrou'/neug),  &c.  An 
 edition  of  this  last-mentioned  work  was  published  in 
 1814,  by  Griiner,  Sohsbac  ,  8vo.  (Hoffman,  Lex  Bih- 
 liogr.,  vol.  3,  p.  830.— ScAo//,  HisL  Lit.  Gr.,  vol.  7, 
 p.  210.) 
 
 1407 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Abas,  III.  the  twelfth  king  of  Argos.  lie  was  the 
 son  of  Lynoeus  and  Hypeimnestra,  and  grandson 
 of  Daiiaus.  He  married  Ocaleia,  who  horc  him 
 twin  sons,  Acrisius  and  Proetus.  {ApoUod.,  2,  2, 
 1. — Hygin.,  Fab.,  170.)  Wiien  he  informed  his 
 father  of  the  death  of  Danaus,  he  was  rewarded 
 with  the  sliield  of  his  grandlather,  which  was  sa- 
 cred to  Juno.  lie  is  described  as  a  successful  con- 
 queror, and  as  the  founder  of  the  town  of  Abaj  in 
 Phocis  (I'aus.,  10,  35,  1),  and  of  the  Pclasgic  Argos 
 in  Thessaly.  {Slrab.,  9,  p.  431.)  The  fame  of 
 his  warlike  spirit  was  so  great,  that  even  after  his 
 death,  when  people  revolted  whom  he  had  subdued, 
 they  were  put  to  flight  by  the  simple  act  of  showing 
 them  his  shield.  (  Viri,^.,  JEn.,  3,  28G.—Scrv.,  ad  loc) 
 It  was  from  this  Abas  that  tlie  kings  of  Argos  were 
 called  by  the  patronymic  Abantiades. 
 
 Abascantits  ('A6(i(TAavrof),  a  physician  of  Lugdu- 
 num  (Lyons),  who  probably  lived  in  the  second  cen- 
 tury after  Christ.  He  is  several  times  mentioned 
 by  Galen  {De  Compos.  Mcdicam.  sccund.  Locos,  9, 
 4,  vol.  13,  p.  278),  who  has  also  preserved  an  an- 
 tidote invented  by  him  against  the  bile  of  serpents. 
 {De  Amid.,  2,  12,  vol.  14,  p.  177.)  The  name  is 
 to  be  met  with  in  numerous  Latin  inscriptions  in 
 Gruter's  collection,  five  of  which  refer  to  a  freed- 
 man  of  Augiistus,  who  is  supposed  by  Kijhn  [Addl- 
 tam.  ad  Elcnch  Medic.  Vet.  a  J.  A.  Fabricio  in 
 "  liibl.  Gr."  Exhtb.)  to  be  the  same  person  that  is 
 mentioned  by  Galen.  This,  however,  is  (piite  uncer- 
 tain, as  also  whether  Ilapa/iAr/rtof  'AfjclaKavdo^  in 
 Galen  {Dc  Compos.  Mcdicum.  sccund.  Locos.,  7,  3, 
 vol.  13,  p.  71)  relers  to  the  subject  of  this  article. 
 
 AnniAs  {'ACdiar),  the  pretended  author  of  an 
 Apocryphal  book,  entitled  The  History  of  the  Apos- 
 tolical contest.  This  work  claims  to  have  been  writ- 
 ten in  Hebrew,  to  have  been  translated  into  Greek 
 by  Eutropius,  and  thence  into  Latin  by  Julius  Afri- 
 canus.  It  was,  however,  originally  written  in  Latin, 
 about  A.D.  910.  It  is  prmted  in  Fabricius,  Codex 
 Apocrypkus  Novi  Test.,  p.  402,  8vo,  Ilamb.,  1703. 
 Abdias  was  called,  too,  the  first  Bishop  of  Babylon. 
 
 AuKM.io  is  the  name  of  a  divinity  found  in  in- 
 scriptions which  were  discovered  at  Commingcs  in 
 France.  {Gmtcr,  Liscr.,  p.  37,  4 — J.  Scaliircr,  Lcc- 
 tioncs  Ausoniance,  1,  9.)  Buttmann  {Mytltolo^us,  I, 
 p.  1G7,  &LC.)  considers  Abellio  to  be  the  same  name 
 as  Apollo,  who  in  Crete  and  elsewhere  was  called 
 'A6e?uoc,  and  by  the  Italians  and  some  Dorians 
 Apello  (Fest.,  s.  v.  Apcllincm. —  Eustath.  ad  II.,  2, 
 99),  and  that  the  deity  is  the  same  as  the  Gallic 
 Apollo  mentioned  by  Ca,>sar  {Bell.  Gall.,  G,  17),  and 
 also  the  same  as  iJelis  or  Belcnus  mentioned  by 
 Tertullian  (Apuloucl.,  23)  and  Herodian  (8,  3. — 
 Cornp.  Capitol.,  Ma.ximin.,  22).  As  the  root  of  the 
 word  he  recognises  the  Spartan  Bt/a,  i.  c,  the  sun 
 {Hcsych.,  s.  v.),  which  appears  in  the  Syriac  and 
 Chaldaic  Belus  or  Baal. 
 
 Abisaues  or  .Vbiss.Xres  ('.KCiaupjj^),  called  Em- 
 bisarus  {'E/iClaapo^)  by  Diodoriis  (17,  90),  an  In- 
 dian king  beyond  the  river  Hydaspes,  whose  terri- 
 tory lay  in  the  mountains,  sent  eimbassics  to  Alex- 
 ander the  (ireat,  both  before  and  after  the  conquest 
 of  Poms,  although  inclined  to  espouse  tiie  side  of 
 the  latter.  Alexander  not  only  allowed  him  to  re- 
 tain his  kingdom,  but  increased  it,  and  on  his  death 
 8Q 
 
 appointed  his  son  as  his  successor.    (Arrian,  Anab  , 
 5,  8,  20,  29.— Cm?/.,  8,  12,  13,  14  ;  9, 1  ;   10, 1 .) 
 
 Abitianus  {'AGiri^iavoc),  the  author  of  a  Greek 
 treatise  De  Urmis  inserted  in  the  second  volume 
 of  Ideler's  Phjsici  el  Medici  GrcEci  Mviores,  Berol., 
 8vo,  1842,  with  the  title  Uepl  Ovpuv  Upay/xaTeia 
 'Apiarrj  tov  I,n(puTuTov  napij.  fdv  'lv6oic  'A'/.?.;/  'Efxnvi 
 Tov  yiivu  jjrot  'A/Iat?  vlov  ~ov  "Zlvu,  napd  rSe  'l-a2.oi<; 
 'ACiT^iavov.  He  is  the  same  person  as  the  celebra- 
 ted Arabic  physician  Avicenna,  wiiose  real  name 
 was  Ahii  'All  Ibn  Sina,  A.  H.  370  or  375-42S 
 (A.D.  980  or  985-1038),  and  from  whose  great 
 work  Kctab  al-KanunJi  't-Tebb,  Liber  Canonis  Medi- 
 cifue,  this  treatise  is  probably  translated. 
 
 Ablabiu-s  {' A6/id6iog),  I.  a  physician  on  wiiose 
 death  there  is  an  epigram  by  Theosebia  in  the 
 Greek  Anthology  (7,  559,)  in  which  he  is  consid- 
 ered as  inferior  only  to  Hippocrates  and  Galen. 
 With  respect  to  his  date,  it  is  only  known  that  he 
 must  have  lived  after  Galen,  that  is,  some  time 
 later  than  the  second  century  after  Christ. — II.  The 
 illustrious  ('lAAoi'crrpiof),  the  author  of  an  epigram 
 in  the  Greek  Anthology  (9,  762)  "on  the  quoit  of 
 Asclcpiades."  Nothing  more  is  known  of  him,  un- 
 less he  be  the  same  person  as  Alilabius,  the  Nova- 
 tian  bishop  of  Nicaea,  who  was  a  disciple  of  the 
 rhetorician  Tioilus,  and  himself  eminent  in  the 
 same  profession,  and  who  lived  under  Honorius  and 
 Theodosius  II.,  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  and  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  fifth  centuries  after  Christ.  {Socra- 
 tes, Hist.  Ecc,  7,  12.) 
 
 Abrocomas  {'ASpoiidiiag),  II.  one  of  the  satraps 
 of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  was  sent  with  an  army  of 
 300,000  men  to  oppose  Cyrus  on  his  march  into 
 Upper  Asia.  On  the  arrival  of  Cyrus  at  Tarsus, 
 Abrocomas  was  said  to  be  on  the  Euphrates ;  and 
 at  Issus  four  hundred  heavy-armed  Greeks,  who  had 
 deserted  Abrocomas,  joined  Cyrus.  Abrocomas  did 
 not  defend  the  Syrian  passes,  as  was  expected,  but 
 marched  to  join  the  king.  He  burned  some  boats  to 
 prevent  Cyrus  from  crossing  the  Euphrates,  but  did 
 not  arrive  in  time  for  the  battle  of  Cunaxa.  (Xen., 
 Anab.,  1,  3,  (J  20  ;  A,  ^  3,  5,  18  ;  7,  ^  Vi.—Harpocrat. 
 and  Suulas,  s.  v.) 
 
 Abro\  or  IIabro\  ('ACpwv  or  "AOpuv),  I.  son  of 
 the  Attic  orator  Lycurgus.  (Pint.,  Vit.  dec.  Oral.. 
 p.  843  ) — II.  The  son  of  Callias,  of  the  deme  of 
 Bate  in  Attica,  wrote  on  the  festivals  and  sacri- 
 fices of  the  Greeks.  {Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  7\  BaTt'/.)  He 
 also  wrote  a  work  irepl  napurvfiuv,  which  is  frequent- 
 ly referred  to  by  Stephanus  Byz.  {s.  v.  'Ayddij,  'Apyoc, 
 &.C.;  and  other  writers. — III.  A  grammarian,  a  Phry- 
 gian or  Ivhodian,  a  pupil  of  Tryplion,  and  originally 
 a  slave,  taught  at  Rome  under  the  first  Caesars. 
 (Siiidas,  s.  V.  'Afipuv.) — IV^  A  rich  person  at  Argos, 
 from  whom  the  proverb  'ACpuvoc  (iiog,  which  was 
 a[)plied  to  extravagant  persons,  is  said  to  have  been 
 derived.     {Sunlas,  s.  v) 
 
 Abronyohls  ( AfjpCnvxog),  the  son  of  Lysicles. 
 an  Athenian,  was  stationed  at  Thermopyla;  with  a 
 vessel  to  comniimicate  between  Leonidas  and  the 
 fleet  at  Artcmisium.  He  was  subsequently  sent  as 
 ambassador  to  Sparta  with  Themistocles  and  Aris- 
 tides  respecting  the  fortifications  of  Athens  after 
 the  Persian  war.     (Herod.,  8,  21.— 77imc.,  1,  91.) 
 
 Abulites    {' ACovXiTTji;),    the   satrap  of  Susiana, 
 
 1409 
 
1410 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 surrendered  Susa  to  Alexander  when  the  latter  ap- 
 proached the  city.  The  satrapy  was  restored  to 
 him  hy  Alexander,  but  he  and  his  son  Oxyathrcs 
 were  afterward  executed  by  Alexander  for  the 
 crimes  they  had  committed  in  the  government  of 
 the  satrapy.  {Curt.,  5,  2. — Arrian,  Anab.,  3,  16;  7, 
 \.—Diod.,  17,  65.) 
 
 Aburia  Gen.s,  plei)eian.  On  the  coins  of  this 
 gens  we  find  the  cognomen  Gem.,  which  is  perhajjs 
 an  abbreviation  of  Geminus.  Tlie  coins  have  no 
 heads  of  persons  on  tliem.  The  most  distinguished 
 members  of  this  gens  were — I.  C.  Aburius,  one  of 
 the  ambassadors  sent  to  Masinissa  and  the  Cartha- 
 ginians, B.C.  171.  {Lw.,  42,  35.) — II.  M.  Aburius, 
 tribune  of  the  plebs,  B.C.  187,  opposed  M.  Fulvius, 
 the  proconsul,  in  his  petition  for  a  triumph,  but  with- 
 drew his  opposition  chiefly  through  the  influence  of 
 his  colleague  Ti.  Gracchus.  (Liv.,  39,  4,  5.)  He 
 was  praetor  peregrinus,  B.C.  176.  {Liv.,  41,  18,  19.) 
 Aburnus  Valens,  a  Roman  lawyer,  probably  the 
 same  with  the  Valens  who  formed  one  of  the  con- 
 silium of  the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius.  {Capiloli- 
 7ms,  Ant.  Pius,  12.)  We  have,  in  the  Pandects, 
 selections  from  his  seven  books  of  "  Fideicommis- 
 sa."  LZimmern,  Gesch.  d.  Rom.  Privatrechts,  1,  1, 
 334.) 
 
 Acacalt.is  {' kKaKoXli^),  daughter  of  Minos,  by 
 whom,  according  to  a  Cretan  tradition,  Hermes 
 begot  Cydon  ;  while,  according  to  a  tradition  of  the 
 Tegeatans,  Cydon  was  a  son  of  Tegeates,  and  im- 
 migrated to  Crete  from  Tegea.  {Pans.,  8,  53,  I)  2.) 
 Apollo  begot  by  her  a  son,  Miletus,  whom,  for  fear 
 of  her  father,  Acacallis  exposed  in  a  forest,  where 
 wolves  watched  and  suckled  the  child  until  he  was 
 found  by  shepherds,  who  brought  him  up.  {Antonin. 
 Lib.,  30.)  Other  sons  of  her  and  Apollo  are  Amphi- 
 themis  and  Garamas.  (^;7o//o«.,  4,  1490,  &c.)  Apol- 
 lodorus  (3,  1,  <J  2)  calls  this  daughter  of  Minos  Acalle 
 {'AkuXXt]),  but  does  not  mention  Miletus  as  her  son. 
 Acacallis  was  in  Crete  a  common  name  for  a  nar- 
 cissus.    {Allien.,  15,  p.  681. — Hcsijch.,  s.  v  ) 
 
 AcAcus  {'Akcihoc),  a  son  of  Lycaon  and  king  of 
 Acacesium  in  Acadia,  of  which  he  was  believed  to 
 be  the  founder.  {Paios.,  8,  3,  1. — Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 'AKUKr/cnov.) 
 
 AcARNAN  {'A.Kapvdv),  one  of  the  Epigones,  was 
 a  son  of  Alcmajon  and  Calirrhoe,  and  brother  of 
 Amphoterus.  Their  father  was  murdered  by  Phe- 
 geus  when  they  were  yet  very  young,  and  Calirrhoti 
 prayed  to  Zeus  to  make  her  sons  grow  quickly,  that 
 they  might  be  able  to  avenge  the  death  of  their  fa- 
 ther. The  prayer  was  granted,  and  Acarnan,  with  his 
 brother,  slew  Phegeus,  his  wife,  and  his  two  sons. 
 The  inhabitants  of  Psophis,  where  the  sons  had  been 
 slain,  pursued  the  murderers  as  far  as  Tegea,  where, 
 however,  they  were  received  and  rescued.  At  the 
 request  of  Achelous,  they  carried  the  necklace  and 
 peplus  of  Harmonia  to  Delphi,  and  from  thence  they 
 went  to  Epirus,  where  Acarnan  founded  the  state 
 called  after  him  Acarnania.  {Apollod.,  3,  7,  ^  5-7. 
 —Ov.,  Met.,  9,  413,  &LC.—Thucyd.,  2,  \0'2.—Stra.b., 
 10,  p.  462.) 
 
 Accius,  I.  or  Attius,  L.,  an  early  Roman  tragic 
 poet  and  the  son  of  a  frcedman,  was  born,  according 
 lo  Jerome,  B.C.  170,  and  was  fifty  years  younger 
 than  Pacuvius.  He  lived  to  a  great  age  ;  Cicero, 
 when  a  young  man,  frequently  conversed  with  him. 
 {Brut.,  28.)  His  tragedies  were  chiefly  imitated 
 from  the  Greeks,  especially  from  ^schylus,  but  he 
 also  wrote  some  on  Roman  subjects  {Prcctcxiala) ; 
 one  of  which,  entitled  Brutus,  was  probably  in  hon- 
 our of  his  patron  D.  Brutus.  {Cic,  De  Leg.,  2,  21 ; 
 Pro  Arch.,  11.)  We  possess  only  fragments  of  his 
 tragedies,  of  which  the  most  important  have  been 
 preserved  by  Cicero,  but  sufficient  remains  to  justi- 
 fy the  terras  of  admiration  in  which  he  is  spoken  of 
 
 by  the  ancient  writers.  He  is  particularly  praised 
 fur  the  strength  and  vigour  of  his  language  and  the 
 sublimity  of  his  thoughts.  {Cic.,  Pro  Plane,  24; 
 J'ro  Scsl.,  56,  &c.—Hor.,  Ep.,  2,  1,  m.—QuinliL, 
 10,  I,  ^  97.— Cell.,  13,  2.)  Besides  these  tragedies, 
 he  also  wrote  Annates  in  verse,  containing  tlie  his- 
 tory of  Rome,  like  those  of  Ennius;  and  three  prose 
 works,  "  Libri  Didascalion,"  which  seems  to  have 
 been  a  history  of  poetry,  "  Libri  Pragmaticon,"  and 
 "  Parerga  :"  of  the  two  latter  no  fragments  are  pre- 
 served. The  fragments  of  his  tragedies  have  been 
 collected  by  Stephanus  in  "Frag.  vet.  Poet.  Lat,"  ' 
 Paris,  1564;  Maittaire,  "  Opera  et  Frag.  vet.  Poet. 
 Lat.,"  Lend.,  1713;  and  Bothe,  "Poet.  Scenici  Lat- 
 in.," vol.  v..  Lips.,  1834 ;  and  the  fragments  of  the 
 Didascalia  by  Madvig,  "  De  L.  Attii  Didascaliis  Com- 
 ment.," Hafnia;,  1831. 
 
 AcESANDER  {' kKEaav6po^)  wrote  a  history  of  Cy- 
 rene.  {Sclwl.  ad  ApolL,  4,  1561,  1750;  ad  Pmd., 
 Pylh.,  4,  init.,  57.)  Plutarch  {Symp.,  5,  2,  ^  8) 
 speaks  of  a  work  of  his  respecting  Libya  {inpl 
 AiCuTjc),  which  may,  probably,  be  the  same  work  as 
 the  history  of  Cyrene.  The  time  at  which  he  lived 
 is  unknown. 
 
 AcESAs  ('A/ccCTuf),  a  native  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus, 
 famed  for  his  skill  in  weaving  cloth  Avith  variegated 
 patterns  {polymitarius).  He  and  his  son  Helicon, 
 who  distinguished  himself  in  the  same  art,  are  men- 
 tioned by  Atheuffius  (2,  p.  48,  b).  Zenobius  speaks 
 of  both  artists,  but  says  that  Acesas  (or,  as  he  calls 
 him,  Aceseus,  'AKeatvc)  was  a  native  of  Patara,  and 
 Helicon  of  Carystus.  He  tells  us,  also,  that  they 
 were  the  first  who  made  a  peplus  for  Athena  Polias. 
 When  they  lived,  we  are  not  informed  ;  but  it  must 
 have  been  before  the  time  of  Euripides  and  Plato, 
 who  mention  this  peplus.  {Eur.,  Hec,  468. — Plat., 
 Eulhyphr.,  i}6.)  A  specimen  of  the  workinanship  of 
 these  two  artists  was  preserved  in  the  temple  at 
 Delphi,  bearing  an  inscription  to  the  effect  that  Pal- 
 las had  imparted  marvellous  skill  lo  their  hands. 
 
 AcE.siAs  {'AKeclar,)  an  ancient  Greek  physician, 
 whose  age  and  country  are  both  unknown.  It  is 
 ascertained,  however,  that  he  lived  at  least  four 
 hundred  years  before  Christ,  as  the  proverb  'AKeniar 
 luaaro,  Accsias  cured  him,  is  quoted  on  the  author- 
 ity of  Aristophanes.  This  saying  (by  which  only 
 Acesias  is  known  to  us)  was  used  when  any  per- 
 son's disease  became  worse  instead  of  belter  under 
 medical  treatment,  and  is  mentioned  by  Suidas  {s.  v. 
 'A/cfffi'af),  Zenobius  {Proverb.,  Cent.,  1,  ^  52).  Dioge- 
 nianus  {Proverb.,  2.  3),  Michael  Apostolius  {Proverb., 
 2,  23),  and  Plutarch  {Proverb,  quibus  Alexandr.  ?/,?i 
 sunt,  <Si98).  See  also  Proverb,  e  Cod.  Bodl.,  ^82,  in 
 Gaisford's  Parmmiosraphi  Grccci,  8vo,  O.xon.,  1836. 
 It  is  possible  that  an  author  bearing  this  name,  and 
 mentioned  by  Athentous  (13,  p.  516,  c.)  as  having 
 written  a  treatise  on  the  Art  of  Cooking  {bfapTv- 
 TiKu),  may  be  one  and  the  same  person,  but  of  this 
 we  have  no  certain  information.  (J.  J.  Baicr,  Adag. 
 Mcd)c.  Cent.,  4to,  Lips.,  1718.) 
 
 AcEsius  ('A /cfCTf Of),  II.  a  bishop  of  the  Novatians 
 in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Constantine,  A,D.  325, 
 who  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Nice,  and  advo- 
 cated the  exclusion  from  the  communion  of  those 
 who  were  fi)und  guilty  of  gross  sin  after  baptism. 
 {Socrat.,  Hist.,  1,  10.— Sozom.,  1,  2.) 
 
 AcESTODORUs  ('A/ieoTodupof),  a  Greek  historical 
 writer,  who  is  cited  by  Plutarch  {Them.,  13),  and 
 whose  work  contained,  as  it  appears,  an  account  of 
 the  battle  of  Salamis  among  other  things.  The 
 time  at  which  he  lived  is  unknown.  Stephanus 
 {s.  V.  MEyu?i7}  n6?ug)  speaks  of  an  Acestodorus  of 
 Megalopolis,  who  wrote  a  work  on  cities  {Trepl  no- 
 Muv),  but  whether  this  is  the  same  as  the  above- 
 mentioned  writer  is  not  clear. 
 
 AcESTOR  i^AKeoTup),  II.   a  surname  of  Apollo 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1411 
 
 wnich  characterizes  him  as  the  god  of  the  heahng 
 art,  or,  in  general,  as  the  averter  of  evil,  like  'AKtato^. 
 (Eiinp.,  Androm.,  901.) — III.  surnamed  .Sacas  (2(1- 
 xa^),  on  aecoiitit  of  his  foreign  origin,  was  a  tragic 
 poet  at  Athens,  and  a  contemporary  of  Aristophanes. 
 He  seems  to  have  heen  either  of  Thracian  or  Mys- 
 ian  origin.  (Aristoph.,  Avcs,  31. — Sclwl.,ad  lor.. — 
 Vcspce,  1216. — SchoL,ad  loc. — Pkol.  and  Suid.,  s.  v. 
 ZuKOC- — Wclcker,  Die  Griech.  Tragiid  ,  p.  1032.) 
 
 AcH^EUs  ('A^\'atf)f),  V.  son  of  Andi-omachus, 
 whose  sister  Laodice  married  Soleucns  Callinicns, 
 the  father  of  Antioclius  the  Great.  Aehajus  him- 
 eeif  married  Laodice,  the  daughter  of  Mithradates, 
 king  of  Pontus.  (.Polyb.,  4,  51,  ^4;  8,  22,  ^  11.) 
 He  accompanied  Seleucus  Ceraunus,  the  son  of 
 Callinicus,  in  his  expedition  across  Mount  Taurus 
 against  Attains,  and  after  the  assassination  of  Se- 
 leucus, avenged  his  death  ;  and  though  he  might 
 easily  have  assumed  the  royal  power,  he  remained 
 faithful  to  the  family  of  Seleucus.  Antiochus  the 
 Great,  the  successor  of  Seleucus,  appointed  him  to 
 the  command  of  all  Asia  on  this  side  of  Mount  Tau- 
 rus, B.C.  223.  Achasus  recovered  for  the  Syrian 
 empire  all  the  districts  which  Attains  had  gained  ; 
 but  having  been  falsely  accused  by  Hermeias,  the 
 minister  of  Antiochus,  of  intending  to  revolt,  he  did 
 so  in  self-defence,  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and 
 ruled  over  the  whole  of  Asia  on  this  side  of  the 
 Taurus.  As  long  as  Antiochus  was  engaged  in  the 
 war  with  Ptolemy,  he  could  not  march  against 
 Achajus ;  hut  after  a  peace  had  been  concluded 
 with  Ptolemy,  he  crossed  the  Taurus,  united  his 
 forces  with  Attains,  deprived  Achaus  in  one  cam- 
 paign of  all  his  dominions,  and  tookSardis,  with  the 
 exception  of  the  citadel.  Acha;us,  after  sustaining 
 a  siege  of  two  years  in  the  citadel,  at  last  fell  into 
 the  hands  of  Antiochus,  B.C.  214,  through  the  treach- 
 ery of  Bolis,  who  had  been  employed  by  Sosibius, 
 the  minister  of  Ptolemy,  to  deliver  him  from  his 
 danger,  but  betrayed  him  to  Antiochus,  who  ordered 
 him  to  be  put  to  death  immediately.  {I'olyh.,  4,  2, 
 (^6;  4,  48  ;  5,  40,  ^  7,  42,  r-,7  ;  7,  15-18  ;  8,  17- 
 23.) 
 
 AcHiLL.^s  ('Ajf?L/l(2f),  in.  one  of  the  guardians  of 
 the  Egyptian  king  Ptolemy  Dionysus,  and  command- 
 er of  the  troops  when  Pompey  fled  to-  Egypt,  B.C. 
 48.  He  is  called  by  Caesar  a  man  of  extraordinary 
 daring,  and  it  was  he  and  L.  Septimius  who  killed 
 Pompey.  {Ctcs.,  B.  C,  3,  lOi.—Liv.,  Epit.,  104.— 
 Dio7i  Cass.,  42,  4.)  He  subsequently  joined  the 
 eunuch  Potliinusin  resisting  Ca;sar,  and  having  had 
 the  command  of  the  whole  army  intrusted  to  him 
 by  Pothinus,  he  marched  against  Alexandrea  with 
 20,000  foot  and  2000  horse.  Caesar,  who  was  at 
 Alexandrea,  had  not  sufficient  forces  to  oppose  him, 
 and  sent  ambassadors  to  treat  with  him,  but  these 
 Achillas  murdered  to  remove  all  hopes  of  reconcil- 
 iation. He  then  marched  into  Alexandrea,  and  ob- 
 tamed  possession  of  the  greatest  part  of  the  city. 
 Meanwhile,  however,  Arsinoe,  the  younger  sister  of 
 Ptolemy,  escaped  from  Caisar  and  joined  Achillas  ; 
 but  dissensions  breaking  out  between  them,  she  hacl 
 Achillas  put  to  death  by  Ganymedes,  a  eunuch,  B.C. 
 ■17,  to  whoni  she  then  intrusted  the  command  of 
 llie  forces.  iCds.,  B.  C,  3,  108-112  ;  B.  Alex.,  4. 
 —Dwn  Cass.,  42,  36-40.— Lwcon.,  10,  519-523.) 
 
 AcHLYs  i'Ax^'^'i)'  according  to  some  ancient  cos- 
 mogonies, the  eternal  night,  and  the  first  created 
 being  which  existed  even  before  Chaos.  According 
 to  Hesiod,  she  was  the  personification  of  misery  and 
 sadness,  and  as  such  she  was  represented  on  the 
 shield  of  Hercules  (Scut.,  Here,  264,  &c.) :  pale, 
 emaciated,  and  weeping,  with  chattering  teeth,  swol- 
 len knees,  long  nails  on  her  fingers,  bloody  cheeks, 
 and  her  shoulders  thickly  covered  with  dust. 
 AcHMET,  son  of  Seirim  ('A^//iT  viof  leipelii),  the 
 
 author  of  a  work  on  the  Interpretation  of  Dreams, 
 'OvEtpoKpiTLKu,  is  probably  the  same  person  as  Abu 
 Bekr  .Mohammed  Ben  .Sin'n,  whose  work  on  the 
 same  subject  is  still  extant  in  Arabic  in  the  Royal 
 Library  at  Paris  {Catalog.  Cod.  Manuscr.  Biblwih. 
 Reg.  Paris.,  vol.  1,  p.  230,  cod.  mccx.),  and  who  was 
 born  A. H.  33  ( A.  D.  653-4),  and  died  AH.  110  (A. D. 
 728-9).  (See  Nicoll  and  Pusey,  Calal.  Cod.  Mamtscr. 
 Arab.  Bihlioth.  BodL,  p.  516.)  This  conjecture  will 
 seem  the  more  probable  when  it  is  recollected  that 
 the  two  names  Ahmed  or  Achmet  and  Mohammed, 
 however  unlike  each  other  they  may  appear  in  Eng- 
 lish, consist  in  Arabic  of  four  letters  each,  and  differ 
 only  in  the  first.  There  must,  however,  be  some 
 difference  between  Achmet's  work,  in  the  form  in 
 whicli  we  have  it,  and  that  of  Il)n  Si'rin,  as  the  wri- 
 ter of  the  former  (or  the  translator)  appears  from  in- 
 ternal evidence  to  have  been  certainly  a  Christian 
 (c.  2,  150,  &c.).  It  exists  only  in  Greek,  or,  rather 
 (if  the  above  conjecture  as  to  its  author  be  correct), 
 it  has  only  been  published  in  that  language.  It  con- 
 sists of  three  hundred  and  four  chapters,  and  pro- 
 fesses to  be  derived  from  what  has  been  written  on 
 the  same  subject  by  the  Indians,  Persians,  and 
 Egyptians.  It  was  translated  out  of  Greek  into 
 Latin  about  the  year  1160,  by  Leo  Tuscus,  of  which 
 work  two  specimens  are  to  be  found  in  Citsp.  Bar- 
 thii  Adversaria  (31,  14,  ed.  Francof,  1624,  lol.). 
 It  was  first  published  at  Frankfort,  1577,  8vo,  in  a 
 Latin  translation,  made  by  Leunclavius,  from  a  very 
 imperfect  Greek  manuscript,  with  the  title  "  Apom- 
 asaris  .\potelesmata,  sive  de  Significatis  et  Eventis 
 Insomniorum,  ex  Indonmi,  Persarum,  ^gyptiorum- 
 que  Disciplina."  The  word  Apomasares  is  a  cor- 
 ruption of  the  name  of  the  famous  Albumasar,  or 
 Abu  Ma'shar,  and  Leunclavius  afterward  acknowl- 
 edged his  mistake  in  attributing  the  work  to  hirn. 
 It  was  published  in  Greek  and  Latin  by  Rigaltius, 
 and  appeniled  to  his  edition  of  the  Oncirocntica  of 
 .\rtemidorus,  Lutet.,  Paris,  1603,  4to,  and  some 
 Greek  various  readings  are  inserted  by  Jac.  De 
 Rhoer  in  his  Otinm  Daventriense,  p.  338,  &c.,  Da- 
 ventr.,  1762,  8vo.  It  has  also  been  translated  into 
 Italian,  French,  and  German. 
 
 AcHOLius  held  the  office  of  Magistcr  Admissio- 
 num  in  the  reign  of  Valerian  (B.C.  253-260).  One 
 of  his  works  was  entitled  Acta,  and  contained  ati 
 account  of  the  history  of  Aurelian.  It  was  in  nine 
 books  at  least.  (Vopisc,  AurcL,  \2.)  He  also  wrote 
 the  life  of  Alexander  Severus.  (Lamprid.,  Alex.  Scv., 
 14,  48,  68.) 
 
 AciDiNus,  a  family  name  of  the  Manlia   gens. 
 Cicero  speaks  of  the  Acidini  as  among  the  first  men 
 of  a  former  age.     {De  leg.  agr.,  2,  24.) — I.  L.  .M.vx- 
 Lius,  praetor   urbanus   in  the  year   B.C.  210,  was 
 sent   by  the  senate   into  Sicily  to   bring  back  the 
 consul  Valerius   to   Rome    to    hold   the   elections. 
 {Lw.,  26,  23;    27,  4.)     In  B.C.  207,  he  was  with 
 the    troops   stationed   at    Narnia   to  oppose   Has 
 drubal,  and  was  the  first  to  send  to  Rome  intelli 
 gence  of  the  defeat  of  the  latter.     {Liv.,  27,  50. 
 In  B.C.  206,  he  and  L.  Cornelius  Lentulus  had  the 
 province  of  Spain  intrusted  to  them,  with  proconsu- 
 lar power.     In  the  following  year  he  conquered  the 
 Ausetani  and  Ilergetes,  who  had  rebelled  against  the 
 Romans  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  Scipio. 
 He  did  not  return  to  Rome  till  the  year  B.C.  199, 
 but  was  prevented  by  the  tribune  P.  Porcius  La^ca 
 from  entering  the  city  in  an  ovation,  which  the  sen- 
 ate  had  granted  him.     {Linj,  28,  38  ;  29,  1-3,  13,- 
 32,  7.) — II.  L.  M.wi.ius  FuLviANus,  originally  be- 
 longed to  the  Fulvia   gens,  but  was  adopted  into 
 the  Manlia  gens,  probably  by  the  above-mentioned 
 Acidinus.     {Veil.  Pat.,  2,  8.)     He  was  pra?tor  B.C. 
 188,  and  had  the  province  of  Hispariia  Citerior  al- 
 lotted to  him,  where  he  reinained  till  B.C.  186.     In 
 
1412 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 the  latter  year  he  defeated  the  Ccltiberi,  and  had  it 
 not  been  fur  the  arrival  of  his  successor,  would  have 
 reduced  the  whole  people  to  subjection.  He  applied 
 for  a  triumph  in  conse(iuencc,  but  obtained  only  an 
 ovation,  (Liv.,  38,  35  ;  31),  21,  29.)  In  B.C.  183, 
 he  was  one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  into  Gallia 
 Transalpina,  and  was  also  appointed  one  of  the 
 triumvirs  for  founding  the  Latin  colony  of  Aqui- 
 leia,  which  was,  however,  not  founded  till  B.C.  181. 
 (Liv.,  39,  54,  55;  40,  34.)  He  was  consul  B.C 
 179  {Liv.,  40,  43),  with  bis  own  brother,  Q.  Fulvius 
 Flaccus,  which  is  the  only  instance  of  two  brothers 
 holding  the  consulship  at  the  same  time.  {Fast. 
 Captlol. —  Veil.  Pal.,  2,  8.)  At  the  election  of  Acid- 
 inus,  M.  Scipio  declared  him  to  be  virum  bonum, 
 egregiumque  civcm.  (Ctc,  De  Or.,  2,  64.)— HL  L. 
 Manmus,  who  was  quHsstor  in  B.C.  168  {Liv.,  45, 
 13),  is  probably  one  of  the  two  Manlii  Acidini,  who 
 are  mentioned  two  years  before  as  illustrious  youths, 
 and  of  whom  one  was  the  son  of  M.  Manlius,  the 
 other  of  L.  Manlius.  {Liv.,  42,  49.)  The  latter  is 
 probably  the  same  as  the  qua-stor,  and  the  son  of  No. 
 IL — IV.  A  young  man  who  was  going  to  pursue  his 
 studies  at  Athens  at  the  same  time  as  young  Cicero, 
 B.C.  45.  {Cic.  ad  Alt.,  12,  33.)  He  is,  perhaps,  the 
 same  Acidinus  who  sent  intelligence  to  Cicero  re- 
 specting the  death  of  Marcellus.  {Cic  ad  Fam.,  4, 
 12.) 
 
 AciNDYNUs,  Greoorius  {VpTjyopio^  ' KkIv^vvo^),  a 
 Greek  monk,  A.D.  1341,  distinguished  in  the  con- 
 troversy with  the  Hesychast  or  Quietist  monks  of 
 Mount  Athos.  He  supported  and  succeeded  Bar- 
 laam  in  his  opposition  to  their  notion  that  the  light 
 which  appeared  on  the  Mount  of  the  Transfiguration 
 was  uncreated.  The  emperor,  John  Cantacuzenus, 
 took  part  (A.D.  1347)  with  Palamas,  the  leader  of 
 the  Quietists,  and  obtained  the  condemnation  of 
 Acindynus  by  several  councils  at  Constantinople,  at 
 one  especially  in  A.D.  1351.  Remains  of  Acindy- 
 nus are,  Dc  Essentia  ct  Operalione  Dei  advcrsus  im- 
 peritiam  Gregorii  Falamce,  <.\-c.,  in  "  Variorum  Pon- 
 tificum  ad  Petrum  Gnapheum  Eutychianum  Epis- 
 tol.,"  p.  77,  Gretser.,  4to,  Ingolst.,  1616,  and  Car- 
 men lambicum  de  Hceresibus  Falanuz,  ''  Grseciaj  Or- 
 thodoxffl  Scriptores,"  by  Leo.  Allatius,  p.  755,  vol.  1, 
 4to,  Rom.,  1652. 
 
 AccETEs  {'AkoItijc),  according  to  Ovid  {Met.,  3, 
 582,  (kc),  the  son  of  a  poor  fisherman  in  Ma^onia, 
 who  served  as  pilot  in  a  ship.  After  landing  at  the 
 island  of  Naxos,  some  of  the  sailors  brought  with 
 them  on  board  a  beautiful  sleeping  boy,  whom  they 
 had  found  in  the  island,  and  whom  they  wished  to 
 take  with  them  ;  but  Accetes,  who  recognised  in  the 
 boy  the  god  Bacchus,  dissuaded  them  from  it,  but 
 in  vain.  When  the  ship  had  reached  the  open  sea, 
 the  boy  awoke,  and  desired  to  be  carried  back  to 
 Naxos.  The  sailors  promised  to  do  so,  but  did  not 
 keep  their  word.  Hereupon  the  god  showed  him- 
 self to  them  in  his  own  majesty :  vines  began  to 
 twine  around  the  vessel,  tigers  appeared,  and  the 
 sailors,  seized  with  madness,  jumped  into  the  sea 
 and  perished.  Accetes  alone  was  saved  and  con- 
 veyed back  to  Naxos,  where  he  was  initiated  in 
 the  Bacchic  mysteries,  and  became  a  priest  of  the 
 god.  Hyginus  {Fab.,  134),  whose  story,  on  the 
 whole,  agrees  with  that  of  Ovid,  and  all  the  other 
 writers  who  menlion  this  adventure  of  Bacchus, 
 call  the  crew  of  the  ship  Tyrrhenian  pirates,  and 
 derive  the  name  of  the  Tyrrlicnian  Sea  from  them. 
 (Comp.  Horn.,  Hymn,  in  Bach. — Apollod.,  3,  5,  ^  3. — 
 Seneca,  (Ed.,  449.) 
 
 AcoRis  ('A/copjf),  king  of  Egypt,  entered  into  al- 
 liance with  Evagoras,  kmg  of  Cyprus,  against  their 
 common  enemy  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia,  about 
 B.C.  385,  and  assisted  Evagoras  with  ships  and 
 ^noney.     On  the  conclusion  of  the  war  with  Evago- 
 
 ras, B.C.  376,  the  Persians  directed  their  forces 
 against  Egypt.  Acoris  collected  a  large  army  to 
 oppose  them,  and  engaged  many  Greek  mercenaries, 
 of  whom  he  appointed  Chabrias  general.  Chabrias, 
 however,  was  recalled  by  the  Athenians  on  the  com- 
 plaint of  Pharnabazus,  who  was  appointed  by  Ar- 
 taxerxes to  conduct  the  war.  "When  the  Periian 
 army  entered  Egypt,  which  was  not  till  B.C.  373, 
 Acoris  was  already  dead.  {Dwd  ,  l.'i,  2-4,  8,  9,  29, 
 41,  42. — T/icopom.  ap  Phot.,  cod.  176  )  Syncellus 
 (p.  76,  a.,  p.  257,  a.)  assigns  thirteen  years  to  his 
 reign. 
 
 AcR^,A  {'AKpata),  I.  a  daughter  of  the  river-god 
 Asterion,  near  Mycenae,  who,  together  with  her 
 sisters  Eubcea  and  Prosymna,  acted  as  nurses  to 
 Juno.  A  hill,  Acra3a,  opposite  the  temple  of  Juno, 
 near  Mycenaj,  derived  its  name  from  her.  {Faus., 
 2,  17,  ^  2.) — II.  Acraja  and  Acraeus  are  also  attri- 
 butes given  to  various  goddesses  and  gods  whose 
 temples  were  situated  upon  hills,  such  as  Jupiter, 
 Juno,  Venus,  Minerva,  Diana,  and  others.  {Pans., 
 1,  1,  ^  3  ;  2,  24,  ^  I.— Apollod.,  1,  9,  (J  28.—  Vitruv., 
 1,  7. — Spanhcmi,  ad  Caliim.,  Hymn.  inJov.,  82.) 
 
 AcRoi'OLiTA,  GEORGias  (Fewp^tof  'AKpnu?urTj^). 
 the  son  of  the  great  logotheta  Conslantinus  Acropo- 
 lita  the  elder,  belonged  to  a  noble  Byzantine  family 
 which  stood  in  relationship  to  the  imperial  family  of 
 the  Ducas.  {AcropoUla,  97 .)  He  was  born  at  Con- 
 stantinople in  1220  (ib.,  39),  but  accompanied  his  fa- 
 ther in  his  sixteenth  year  to  Nicffia,  the  residence 
 of  the  Greek  emperor  John  Vatatzes  Ducas.  There 
 he  continued  and  finished  his  studies  under  Theo- 
 dorus  Exapterigus  and  Nicephorus  Blemmida.  {lb., 
 32.)  The  emperor  employed  him  afterward  in  dip- 
 lomatic aflfairs,  and  Acropolita  showed  himself  a  very 
 discreet  and  skilful  negotiator.  In  1255  he  com- 
 manded the  Nica:an  army  in  the  war  between  Mi- 
 chael, despot  of  Epirus,  and  the  Emperor  Theodore 
 II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  John.  But  he  was 
 made  prisoner,  and  was  only  delivered  in  .260  b) 
 the  mediation  of  Michael  Palaeologus.  Previousij 
 to  this  he  had  been  appointed  great  logotheta,  either 
 by  John  or  by  Theodore,  whom  he  had  instructed 
 in  logic.  Meanwhile,  Michael  Palaeologus  was  pro- 
 claimed Emperor  of  Nictea  in  1260,  and  in  1261  he 
 expelled  the  Latins  from  Constantinople,  and  be- 
 came emperor  of  the  whole  East ;  and  from  thia 
 moment  Georgius  Acropolita  becomes  known  in  the 
 history  of  the  Eastern  empire  as  one  of  the  greatest 
 diplomatists.  After  having  discharged  the  function 
 of  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Constantino,  king  of 
 the  Bulgarians,  he  retired  for  some  years  from  pub- 
 lic affairs,  and  made  the  instruction  of  youth  his  solo 
 occupation.  But  he  was  soon  employed  in  a  very 
 important  negotiation.  Michael,  afraid  of  a  new 
 liatin  invasion,  proposed  to  Pope  Clemens  IV.  to  re- 
 unite the  Greek  and  the  Latin  churches  ;  and  nego- 
 tiations ensued,  which  were  carried  on  during  the 
 reign  of  five  popes,  Clemens  IV.,  Gregory  X.,  John 
 XXI.,  Nicolaus  HI.,  and  Martin  IV.,  and  the  happy 
 result  of  which  was  almost  entirely  owing  to  llie 
 skill  of  Acropolita.  As  early  as  1273,  Acropolila 
 was  sent  to  Pope  Gregory  X.,  and  in  1274,  at  the 
 Council  of  Lyons,  he  confirmed,  by  an  oath  in  the 
 emperor's  name,  that  that  confession  of  faith  which 
 had  been  previously  sent  to  Constantinople  by  the 
 pope  bad  been  adopted  by  the  Greeks.  The  reunion 
 of  the  two  churches  was  afterward  broken  off,  but 
 not  through  the  fault  of  Acropolita.  In  1282,  Acro- 
 polita was  once  more  sent  to  Bulgaria,  and  shortly 
 after  his  return  he  died,  in  the  month  of  December 
 of  the  same  year,  in  his  62d  year. 
 
 Acropolita  is  the  author  of  several  works  :  the 
 most  important  of  which  is  a  history  of  the  Byzan- 
 tine Empire,  under  the  title  XpoviKov  «jf  iv  awoipn 
 Twv  kv  varepoic,  that  is,  from  the  taking  of  Coi  stan- 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1413 
 
 tinople  oy  the  T.atins  in  1204,  clown  to  the  year 
 1261,  wiien  Micliiiol  Pukrohiiriis  delivered  the  city 
 Iroia  the  foreign  yoke.  The  .MS.  of  tiiis  work  was 
 found  in  llic  library  of  Gcorjjius  Cantaciizenus  at 
 Constantinople,  and  afterward  brought  to  Europe. 
 [Fabricius,  Bibl.  Grac,  vol.  7,  p.  768.)  The  first 
 edition  of  this  work,  with  a  Latin  translation  and 
 notes,  was  published  by  Tlieodorns  Dou/.a,  Lugd. 
 Batav.,  16M,  8vo ;  but  a  iriore  critical  one  by  Leo 
 Allatius,  who  used  a  Vatican  MS.,  and  divided  the 
 text  into  chapters.  It  has  the  title  Tiupyiov  mv 
 'AKpOTza'Airov  rov/ueyuAov  'AayoOtTov x[>ov iKy  avyypai^i], 
 Gcorgii  Acropoiilce,  magiii  Logothetic.  Hislona,  &c., 
 Paris,  1651,  fol.  This  edition  is  reprinted  in  the 
 "  Corpus  Byzanliuoruiii  Scriptoruni,"  Venice,  1729, 
 vol.  12.  This  chronicle  contains  one  of  the  most 
 remarkable  periods  of  Byzantine  history,  but  it  is 
 so  sliort  that  it  seems  to  be  only  an  abridgment  of 
 another  work  of  the  same  author,  which  is  lost. 
 .\cropohta  perhaps  composed  it  with  the  view  of 
 giving  it  as  a  compendiutn  to  those  young  men 
 whose  scientitic  education  he  superintended,  after 
 his  return  from  his  first  embassy  to  Bulgaria.  The 
 history  of  Michael  Pala;ologns  by  Pachymeres  may 
 6e  considered  as  a  continuation  of  the  work  of  Acro- 
 polita.  Besides  this  work,  Acropolita  wrote  several 
 orations,  which  he  delivered  in  his  capacity  as  great 
 logotheta,  and  as  director  of  the  negotiations  with 
 the  pope  ;  but  these  orations  have  not  been  publisii- 
 ed.  Fal)riciu3  (vol.  7,  p.  471)  speaks  of  a  MS.  which 
 has  the  title  Tlepl  tuv  (ito  KTiae<,)(;  koctliov  'trCw  Kal 
 ■jepl  Tuv  (iaai'/iEvauvTuv  f^txt"-  "/'^'''O'f'Jf  Kuvaravrt- 
 vov-u?.eug.  Georgius,  or  Gregorius  Cyprius,  who 
 has  written  a  short  encomium  of  Acropolita,  calls 
 him  the  Plato  and  the  Aristotle  of  his  time.  This 
 "encomium"  is  printed,  with  a  Latin  translation,  at 
 the  head  of  the  edition  of  Acropolita  by  Th.  Douza  : 
 it  contains  useful  information  concerning  Acropolita, 
 although  it  is  full  of  adulation.  Farther  information 
 is  contained  in  Acropoiita's  history,  especially  in  the 
 latter  part  of  it,  and  in  Pachymeres,  4,  28  ;  6,  26, 34, 
 seq. 
 
 AcTORios  Naso,  M.,  seems  to  have  written  a  life 
 of  Julius  Caesar,  or  a  history  of  his  times,  which 
 is  quoted  by  Suetonius  {Jul.,  9,  .52).  The  time  at 
 which  he  lived  is  uncertain,  but  from  the  way  in 
 which  he  is  referred  to  by  Suetonius,  he  would  al- 
 most seem  to  have  been  a  contemporary  of  Ca?sar. 
 
 AcTu.iitius  {'AKTovupu)^),  tlic  surname  by  which 
 an  ancient  Greek  physician,  whose  real  name  was 
 Joannes,  is  commonly  known.  His  father's  name 
 was  Zacharias ;  he  himself  practised  at  Constan- 
 tinople, and,  as  it  appears,  with  some  degree  of 
 credit,  as  he  was  honoured  with  the  title  of  .4t7M- 
 arius,  a  dignity  frcciuenlly  conferred  at  that  court 
 upon  physicians.  {Diet,  of  An/.,  ]).  ^'M,  h.)  Very 
 little  is  known  of  the  events  of  his  life,  and  his  date 
 is  rather  uncertain,  as  some  persons  reckon  him  to 
 have  lived  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  others  bring 
 him  down  as  low  as  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth. 
 He  probably  lived  towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
 century,  as  one  of  his  works  is  dedicated  to  his  tu- 
 tor, Joseph  Kacendytes,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
 Andrrnicus  H.  Paheologus,  A.D.  1281-1328.  One 
 of  his  schoolfellows  is  supposed  to  have  been  Apo- 
 cauchus,  whom  he  describes  (though  without  na- 
 ming hull)  as  going  upon  an  embas.sy  to  the  north. 
 (Dc  Mclh.  MaL,  l'i,r/.  in  1,  2,  p.  139,  169.) 
 
 One  of  his  works  is  entitled  Uepi  'EvepyetHv  Kal 
 Tladijv  Tov  "i^vxiKov  IL'fi'jUa-of,  Kal  Tr/t;  Kar'  nvTo 
 A(nir?/f,  "  Do  Actiouibus  et  Afl'ectibus  Spiritns  Ani- 
 malis,  ejusque  Nutrilione.''  This  is  a  psychological 
 and  physiological  work  in  two  books,  in  which  all  his 
 reasonmg,  says  Freind,  seems  to  be  founded  upon 
 the  principles  laid  down  by  Aristotle,  Galen,  and 
 others,  with  relation  to  the  same  subject.   The  style 
 
 of  this  tract  is  by  no  means  impure,  and  has  a  great 
 mixture  of  the  old  Attic  in  it,  which  is  very  rarely 
 to  be  met  with  in  the  later  Greek  writers.  A  toler 
 aliiy  full  abstract  of  it  i.s  given  by  Baichusen,  Hist. 
 Medic,  Dial.  14,  p.  338,  &c.  It  was  first  published, 
 Venet.,  iryiJ,  8vo,  in  a  Latin  translation  by  Jul. 
 Alexandrinus  de  Neustain.  The  first  edition  of  the 
 original  was  published,  Paris,  15.57,  8vo,  edited, 
 without  notes  or  preface,  by  Jae.  Goupyl.  A  second 
 Greek  edition  appeared  in  1774,  8vo,  Lips.,  under 
 the  care  of  J.  F.  Fischer.  Ideler  has  also  inserted 
 it  in  the  fust  voluine  of  his  Plnjski  cl  Medici  Graci 
 Mniore.'i,  Berol.,  8vo,  1841  ;  and  the  first  part  of 
 J.  S.  Bernard!  Rcliquia:  Medico- Cntiece,  ed  Gruner, 
 Jena%  1795,  8vo,  contains  soiTie  Greek  scholia  oa 
 the  work. 
 
 Another  of  his  extant  works  is  entitled  Oepa- 
 T7CVTIK!/  Mf'Ooihr,  "  De  Methodo  Medendi,"  in  six 
 books,  which  have  hitherto  appeared  complete  only 
 in  a  Latin  translation,  though  Dietz  had,  before  his 
 death,  collected  materials  for  a  Greek  edition  of 
 this  and  his  other  works.  (See  his  preface  to  Ga- 
 len, Dc  Dissect.  Muse.)  In  these  books,  says  Freind, 
 though  he  chiefly  follows  Galen,  and  very  often 
 Aetius  and  Paulus  ^gineta  without  naming  him, 
 yet  he  makes  use  of  whatever  he  finds  to  his  pur- 
 pose, both  in  the  old  and  modern  writers,  as  well 
 barbarians  as  Greeks  ;  and,  indeed,  we  find  in  him 
 several  things  that  are  not  to  be  met  with  elsewhere. 
 The  work  was  written  extempore,  and  designed  for 
 the  use  of  Apocauchus  during  his  embassy  to  the 
 north.  (Pra-f.,  1,  p.  139.)  A  Latin  translation  of 
 this  work  by  Corn.  II.  Mathisius  was  first  published, 
 Venet.,  1554,  4to.  The  first  four  books  appear  some- 
 times to  have  been  considered  to  form  a  complete 
 work,  of  which  the  first  and  second  have  been  in- 
 serted by  Ideler  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Phvs. 
 et  Med.  Gr.  Mm  ,  Berol.,  1842,  under  the  title  Uspl 
 AtayvuaEu^  JlaOui',  "  De  Morborum  Dignotione," 
 and  from  which  the  Greek  extracts  in  II.  .Stephens's 
 Dietumariam  Mcdicum,  Par.,  1564,  8vo,  are  probably 
 taken.  The  fifth  and  sixth  books  have  also  been 
 taken  for  a  separate  work,  and  were  published  by 
 themselves.  Par.,  1539,  8vo,  and  Basil.,  1540,  8vo, 
 in  a  Latin  translation  by  J.  Ruellius,  with  the  title 
 "  De  Medicamcntorum  Compositione."  An  extract 
 from  this  work  is  inserted  in  Fernel's  collection  of 
 writers,  Dc  FfLnl)us,\ enet.,  1576,  fol. 
 
 His  other  extant  work  is  Uepl  Oipijv,  "  De  Uri- 
 nis,"  in  seven  books.  He  has  treated  of  this  subject 
 very  fully  and  distinctly,  and,  though  he  goes  upon 
 the  plan  which  Theophilus  Protospatharius  had 
 marked  out,  yet  he  has  added  a  great  deal  of  origi- 
 nal matter.  It  is  the  most  complete  and  systematic 
 work  on  the  subject  that  remains  from  anti(]uity  ;  so 
 much  so  tiiat,  till  the  chemical  im])rovements  of  the 
 last  hiHuIr(Hl  years,  he  had  left  hardly  anything  new 
 to  be  said  by  the  moderns,  many  of  whom,  says 
 Freind,  transcribed  it  almost  word  for  word.  This 
 work  was  lirst  published  in  a  Latin  translation  by 
 .Vmbrose  Leo,  which  appeared  in  1519,  Venet.,  4to, 
 and  has  been  several  times  reprinted  ;  the  Greek 
 original  has  been  published  for  the  first  time  in  the 
 second  volume  of  Ideler's  work  (juoted  above.  Two 
 Latin  editions  of  his  collected  works  are  said  by 
 Choulant  {Handbueh  dcr  Biie/icrkiinde  fur  die  Aillcre 
 Medicin,  Leipzig,  1841)  to  have  been  published  in 
 the  same  year.  1556,  one  at  Paris,  and  the  other  at 
 Lyons,  both  in  Svo.  His  three  works  are  also  in- 
 serted in  the  Mrdiete  Arlis  Prmcipcs  of  H.  Stejihens, 
 Par.,  1567,  fol.  {I'leind's  Hist,  of  I'lii/sic. — :<:prcn- 
 gcl.  Hist,  dc  la  Mcd.—Hiiller,  Biblwth.  Medic.  Pract. 
 —  Barchuseii,  Hist.  Medic.) 
 
 AcuLKO  occurs  as  a  surname  of  C.  Furius,  who 
 was  (juwstor  of  L.  Scipio,  and  was  condemned  of 
 peculatus.    {Liv.,  38,  55.)    Aculeo,  however,  seems 
 
1414 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 not  to  have  been  a  regular  family-name  of  the  Furia 
 gens,  but  only  a  surname  given  to  iliis  person,  of 
 which  a  similar  example  occurs  in  the  following 
 article. 
 
 C.  AcuLEo,  a  Roman  knight,  who  married  the 
 sister  of  Helvia,  the  mother  of  Cicero.  He  was 
 surpassed  by  no  one  in  his  day  in  his  knowledge  of 
 the  Roman  law,  and  possessed  great  acuteness  of 
 mind,  but  was  not  distinguished  for  other  attain- 
 ments, lie  was  a  friend  of  L.  Licinius  Crassus, 
 and  was  defended  by  him  upon  one  occasion.  The 
 son  of  Aculeo  was  C.  Visellius  Varro ;  whence  it 
 would  appear  that  Aculeo  was  only  a  surname  given 
 to  the  father  from  his  acuteness,  and  that  his  full 
 name  was  C.  Visellius  Varro  Aculeo.  {Cic,  De  Or., 
 1,  43;   2,  1,  65;   Brut.,  76.) 
 
 AcOmenus  {'AKovfiEvog),  a  physician  of  Athens, 
 who  lived  in  the  fifth  century  before  Christ,  and  is 
 mentioned  as  the  friend  and  companion  of  Socrates. 
 (Plat.,  Phccdr.,  init.— .Ye«.,  Mcmor.,  3,  13,  ^  2.)  He 
 was  the  father  of  Eryximachus,  who  was  also  a 
 physician,  and  who  is  introduced  as  one  of  the 
 speakers  in  Plato's  Symposium.  {Plat.,  Protag., 
 p.  315,  c. ;  Sijmp.,  p.  176,  c.)  He  is  also  mentioned 
 in  the  collection  of  letters  first  published  by  Leo 
 AUatius,  Paris,  1637,  4to,  with  the  title  Epist.  So- 
 crutis  et  Socraticorum,  and  again  by  Orellius,  Lips., 
 1815,  8vo,  ep.  14,  p.  31. 
 
 Ad^us  or  Add.eus  {'AScuoc  or  'AtSJatof),  a  Greek 
 epigrammatic  poet,  a  native,  most  probably,  of  Ma- 
 cedonia. The  epithet  MaKsdovo^  is  appended  to 
 his  name  before  the  third  epigram  in  the  Vat.  MS. 
 (Anth.  Gr.,  6,  228) ;  and  the  subjects  of  the  second, 
 eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  epigrams  agree  with  this 
 account  of  his  origin.  He  lived  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
 ander the  Great,  to  whose  death  he  alludes.  {Anth. 
 Gr.,  7,  240.)  The  fifth  epigram  {Anlh.  Gr.,  7,  305) 
 is  inscribed  'Addaiov  MmXiivaiov,  and  there  was  a 
 Mitylenaean  of  this  name,  who  wrote  two  prose 
 works,  nepl  'AjaA/iaTOKoajv,  and  Jlepl  Aiadeaeug. 
 {Atken.,  13,  p.  606,  A;  11,  p.  471,  F.)  The  time 
 when  he  lived  cannot  be  fixed  with  certainty. 
 Reiske,  though  on  insufficient  grounds,  believes 
 these  two  to  be  the  same  person.  {Anth.  Grac, 
 6,  228,  258  ;  7,  51,  238,  240,  305  ;  10,  20.—Brunck, 
 Anal,  2,  p   224.— Jacobs,  13,  p.  831.) 
 
 Adamantius  {' AiaiiavTio^),  an  ancient  physician, 
 bearing  the  title  of  latrosophi.ita  {larpLnuv  Ibyuv 
 ao(j>L<7T^C-  Socrates,  Hist.  Ecclcs.,  7,  13),  for  the 
 meaning  of  which  see  Diet,  of  Ant.,  p.  528.  Little 
 is  known  of  his  personal  history,  e.xcept  that  he 
 was  by  birth  a  Jew,  and  that  he  was  one  of  those 
 who  fled  from  Alexandrea  at  the  time  of  the  expul- 
 sion of  the  Jews  from  that  city  by  the  Patriarch  St. 
 Cyril,  AD.  415.  He  went  to  Constantinople,  was 
 persuaded  to  embrace  Christianity,  apparently  by 
 Atticus,  the  patriarch  of  that  city,  and  then  return- 
 ed to  Alexandrea.  {Socrates,  I.  c.)  He  is  the  au- 
 thor of  a  Greek  treatise  on  physiognomy,  'i'vautyvu- 
 fioviKu,  in  two  books,  wliicii  is  still  extant,  and 
 which  is  borrowed,  in  a  great  nieasm-e  (as  he  him- 
 self confesses,  1,  Proeem.,  p.  314,  cd.  Franz.),  from 
 Polemo's  work  on  the  same  subject.  It  is  dedi- 
 cated to  Constantius,  who  is  supposed  by  Fabricius 
 (Bihlioth.  GrcEca,  vol.  1,  p.  171;  13,  34,  cd.  vet.)  to 
 he  the  person  who  married  Placidia,  the  daughter 
 of  Theodosius  the  Great,  and  who  reigned  tor  seven 
 months  in  conjunction  with  the  Emperor  llonorius. 
 It  was  first  published  in  Greek  at  Paris,  1540,  8vo, 
 then  in  Greek  and  Latin  at  Basle,  1544,  8vo.  and 
 afterward  in  Greek,  together  with  ^i^iian,  Poh>mo, 
 and  some  other  writers,  at  Rome,  1545,  4to ;  the 
 last  and  best  edition  is  that  by  J.  G.  Franzius,  who 
 has  inserted  it  in  his  collection  of  the  Scrqi'orcs 
 Physioffnomicp.  Vctercs,  Gr.  et  Lnt.,  .•\ltenb.,  1780, 
 8vo.   Another  of  his  works,  Ylepl  'Avi/iui',  De  Venlis. 
 
 is  quoted  by  the  scholiast  to  Hesiod,  and  an  extract 
 from  it  is  given  by  Aelius  {tctrab.  1,  scrm.  3,  c 
 163);  it  is  said  to  be  still  in  existence  in  manu- 
 script in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris.  Several  of 
 his  medical  prescriptions  are  preserved  by  Oriba- 
 sius  and  Aelius. 
 
 Adiatorix  ('A(5mn;pif),  son  of  a  tetrarch  in  Ga- 
 latia,  belonged  to  Antony's  party,  who  killed  all  the 
 Romans  in  Heracleia  shortly  before  the  battle  of 
 Actium.  After  this  battle  he  was  led  as  prisoner  in 
 the  triumph  of  Augustus,  and  put  to  death  with  his 
 younger  son.  His  elder  son,  Dyteutus,  was  subse- 
 quently made  priest  of  the  celebrated  goddess  in 
 Comana.  {Slrab.,  12,  p.  543,  558,  559.— C;c.  ad 
 Fam.,  2,  12.) 
 
 Adimantus  {' AdEljiavToc;),  I.  the  son  of  Ocytus, 
 the  Corinthian  commander  in  the  invasion  of  Greece 
 by  Xerxes.  Before  the  battle  of  Artemisium  he 
 threatened  to  sail  away,  but  was  bribed  by  Themis- 
 tocles  to  remain.  He  opposed  Themistocles  with 
 great  insolence  in  the  council  which  the  command- 
 ers held  before  the  battle  of  Salamis.  According 
 to  the  Athenians,  he  took  to  flight  at  the  very  com- 
 mencement of  the  battle,  but  this  was  denied  by 
 the  Corinthians  and  the  other  Greeks.  {Hcrodolusr, 
 8,  5,  56,  61,  M.— Plutarch,  Thcimstoclcs,  11.) — II. 
 The  son  of  Leucolophides,  an  Athenian,  was  one  of 
 the  commanders  with  Alcibiades  in  the  expedition 
 against  Andros,  B.C.  407.  {Xcnophon,  Hell.,  1,  4, 
 ^  21.)  He  was  again  appointed  one  of  the  Athe- 
 nian generals  after  the  battle  of  Arginusa?,  B.C. 
 400,  and  continued  in  office  till  the  battle  of  .Egos- 
 potarni,  B.C.  405,  where  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
 manders, and  was  taken  prisoner.  He  was  the 
 only  one  of  the  Athenian  prisoners  who  was  not 
 put  to  death,  because  he  had  opposed  the  decree  for 
 cutting  off  the  right  hands  of  the  Lacedaemonians 
 who  might  be  taken  in  the  battle.  He  was  accused 
 by  many  of  treachery  in  this  battle,  and  was  after- 
 ward impeached  by  Conon.  {Xen.,  Hell.,  1,  7,  iji  1  ; 
 2,  1,  ^  30-32.— /-"UMS.,  4,  \7,i)2;  10,  9,  (j  b.—Dcm., 
 Defals.  leg.,  p.  AOl.—Lys.,  c.  Ale.,  p.  143,  21.)  Aris- 
 tophanes speaks  of  Adimantus  in  the  "Frogs" 
 (1513),  which  was  acted  in  the  year  of  the  battle, 
 as  one  whose  death  was  wished  for ;  and  he  also 
 calls  him,  apparently  out  of  jest,  the  son  of  Leucol- 
 ophus,  that  is,  "  White  Crest."  In  the  "  Protag- 
 oras" of  Plato,  Adinjantus  is  also  spoken  of  as 
 present  on  that  occasion  (p.  315,  e). — III.  The  broth- 
 er of  Plato,  who  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the  lat- 
 ter. {ApoL,  Socr.,  p.  34,  a ;  De  Rep  ,  2,  p.  367,  e,  p. 
 548,  d,  e.) 
 
 Admete  {'AS/j.7'1-71),  I.  a  daughter  of  Enrystheus 
 and  Antimache  or  Admete.  Hercules  was  obliged 
 by  her  father  to  fetch  for  her  the  girdle  of  Mars, 
 which  was  worn  by  Hippolyte,  queen  of  the  Am- 
 azons. {Apollodorus,  2.  5,  ^  9.)  According  to  Tzet- 
 zes  {ad  Lyeophron.,  1327),  she  accompanied  Her- 
 cules on  this  ex|)editit)n.  There  was  a  tradition 
 {Aihcn.,  15,  p.  447),  according  to  which  Admete 
 was  originally  a  priestess  of  Juno  at  Argos,  but  fled 
 with  the  image  of  the  goddess  to  Samos.  Pirates 
 were  engaged  by  the  Argives  to  fetch  the  image 
 back,  but  the  enterprise  did  not  succeed  ;  for  the 
 ship,  when  laden  with  the  image,  could  not  be 
 made  to  move.  The  men  then  look  the  image  back 
 to  the  coast  of  Samos  and  sailed  away.  When  the 
 Samians  found  it,  they  tied  it  to  a  tree,  but  Admete 
 purified  it  and  restored  it  to  the  temple  of  Samos. 
 In  commemoration  of  this  event,  the  Samians  cele- 
 brated an  annual  festival  called  Tonea.  This  story 
 seems  to  be  an  invention  of  the  Argives,  by  which 
 they  intended  to  prove  that  the  worship  of  Juno  in 
 their  place  was  older  than  in  Samos. 
 
 Ai)R.\NTus,  Ardkantus  or  Adrastus,  a  contem- 
 porary of  Athenajus,  who  wrote  a  commentary  in 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1415 
 
 five  books  upon  the  work  of  Tlieophrastus,  entitled 
 Uepl  'H0ui>,  to  which  he  added  a  sixth  hook  upon  the 
 Nicornachian  Ethics  of  Aristotle.  {Alhcii.,  15,  p. 
 673,  e,  with  Schweighauser's  note.) 
 
 ADR-iNusCAfipafof),  a  Sicilian  divinity  who  was 
 worshi|)ped  in  all  the  island,  but  especially  at  Adra- 
 nus,  a  town  near  Mount  .^tna.  {Pint.,  TtmoL,  12. 
 — IJiudor.,  14,  37.)  Hesychius  (.v.  v.  Ua'Amol)  rep- 
 resents the  god  as  the  father  of  the  Palici.  Accord- 
 ing to  -Elian  {Hist.  Anim.,  II,  20),  about  1000  sa- 
 cred (i  )gs  were  kept  near  his  temple.  Some  modern 
 critics  consider  this  divinity  to  be  of  Eastern  origin, 
 and  connect  the  name  Adranus  with  tiie  Persian 
 Adar  (fire,)  and  regard  him  as  the  same  as  the 
 Pha'iiician  Adramelech,  and  as  a  personification  of 
 the  sun,  or  of  fire  in  general.  {Bochart,  Geograph. 
 Sacra,  p.  530.) 
 
 Adrastus  {'A6paaroc),  I.  a  son  of  Talaus,  king  of 
 Argos,  and  of  Lysimache.  (Apullod.,  1,  9,  '^  13.) 
 Pausanias  (2,  6,  I)  3)  calls  his  mother  Lysianassa, 
 and  llyginus  {Fah  ,  69)  Eurynome.  {Coinp.  Schol.  ad 
 Eurip.,  riicEn.,  423.)  During  a  feud  l)etwecn  the 
 most  powerful  houses  in  Argos,  Talaus  was  slain 
 by  Amphiaraus,  and  Adrastus,  being  expelled  from 
 his  dominions,  lied  to  Polybus,  then  king  of  Sicyon. 
 ^^'hen  Polybus  died,  without  heirs,  Adrastus  suc- 
 ceeded liim  on  the  throne  of  Sicyon,  and  during  his 
 reign  he  is  said  to  have  instituted  the  Nemean 
 games  (Horn.,  IL,  2,  bl2.—Pmd.,  Nem.,  9,  30,  &c. 
 —Haud.,  5,  G7.  —  I'uus.,  2,  6,  §  3.)  Afterward, 
 however,  Adrastus  became  reconciled  to  Amphiara- 
 us, gave  him  his  sister  Plriphyle  in  marriage,  and 
 returned  to  his  kingdom  of  Argos.  During  the  time 
 he  reigned  there,  it  happened  that  Tydeus  of  Caly- 
 don,  and  Polynices  of  Thebes,  both  fugitives  from 
 their  native  countries,  met  at  Argos,  near  the  pal- 
 ace of  Adrastus,  and  came  to  w-ords,and  from  words 
 to  blows.  On  hearing  the  noise,  Adrastus  hastened 
 to  them  and  separated  the  combatants,  in  whom  he 
 immeilialely  recognised  the  two  men  that  had  been 
 promi.^ed  to  him  by  an  oracle  as  the  future  husbands 
 of  two  of  his  daughters  ;  for  one  bore  on  his  shield 
 the  figure  of  a  boar,  and  the  other  that  of  a  lion,  and 
 the  oracle  was,  that  one  of  his  daughters  was  to 
 marry  a  boar,  and  the  other  a  lion.  Adrastus, 
 therefore,  gave  his  daughter  Deipyle  to  Tydeus,  and 
 Argeid  to  Polynices,  and  at  the  same  time  promised 
 to  leal  each  of  these  princes  back  to  his  own  coun- 
 try. Adrastus  now  prepared  for  war  against  Thebes, 
 although  Amphiaraus  foretold  that  all  who  shoulci 
 engagt^  in  it  shoulil  perisli,  with  the  exception  of 
 Adrastus.  {Apollud.,  3,  6,  ^  1,  &,c. — Hygin.,  Fab., 
 69,  70.) 
 
 Thus  arose  the  celebrated  war  of  the  "  Seven 
 against  Thebes,"  in  which  Adrastus  was  joined  by 
 six  other  heroes,  viz.,  Polynices,  Tydeus,  Amphia- 
 raus, ('apaneus,  Hip[)omedon,  and  Parthenopffius. 
 In.slead  of  Tydeus  and  Polynices,  other  legends 
 mention  Etecx^los  and  jVIecisteus.  This  war  ended 
 as  unfortunately  as  Amphiaraus  had  predicted,  and 
 Adrastus  alone  was  saved  by  the  swiftness  of  his 
 horse  Areion,  the  gift  of  Hercules.  {Horn.,  IL,  23, 
 34t*.,  &c. — Pans.,  8,  25,  ^  5. — Apallnd.,  3,  fi.)  Creon 
 of  Thebes  refusing  to  allow  the  bodies  of  the  six 
 heroes  to  be  buried,  Adrastus  went  to  Athens  and 
 implored  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  Theseus 
 was  persuaded  to  undertake  an  expedition  agaiiust 
 riiebes  :  l.e  took  the  city,  and  delivered  up  the  bod- 
 es of  the  fallen  heroes  to  their  friends  for  burial. 
 {Apollod.,  3,  7,  <)  \.—Pans.,  9,  9,  (J  1.) 
 
 Ten  years  after  this,  Adrastus  persuaded  the  sev- 
 en sons  of  the  heroes  who  had  fallen  in  the  war 
 against  Thebes,  to  make  a  new  attack  ni)on  that 
 eiiy,  and  Amphiaraus  now  declared  that  the  gods 
 approved  of  the  undertaking,  and  promised  success. 
 (Pans.,  9,  9,  I)  'Z.— Apollod.,  3,  7,  i)  2.)     Tliis  war  is 
 
 celebrated  in  ancient  story  as  the  war  of  the  Epig- 
 oni  ('Enijovoi).  Thebes  was  taken  and  razed  to 
 the  ground,  after  the  greater  part  of  its  inhabitants 
 had  left  the  city  on  the  advice  of  Tiresias.  {Apol- 
 lod., 3,  7,  ^  2-A.— Herod.,  5,  61.— Slrab.,  7,  p.  325.) 
 The  only  Argive  hero  that  fell  in  this  war  was  ^gi- 
 aleus,  the  son  of  Adrastus.  After  having  built  a 
 temple  of  Nemesis,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Thebes 
 {vid.  Adrasteia),  he  set  out  on  his  return  home.  But, 
 weighed  down  by  old  age  and  grief  at  the  death  of 
 his  son,  he  died  at  Megara,  and  was  buried  there. 
 (Pans.,  1,  43,  ()  1.)  After  his  death  he  was  worship- 
 ped in  several  parts  of  Greece  as  at  Megara  (Pans., 
 I.  c);  at  Sicyon,  where  his  memory  was  celebrated 
 in  tragic  choruses  (Herod.,  5,  67),  and  in  Attica 
 (Paus.,  1,  30,  ^  4).  The  legends  about  Adrastus 
 and  the  two  wars  against  Thebes  have  furnished 
 most  ample  materials  for  the  epic  as  well  as  tragic 
 poets  of  Greece  (Paus.,  9,  9,  ^  3),  and  some  works 
 of  art  relating  to  the  stories  about  Adrastus  are 
 mentioned  in  Pausanius  (3,  18,  <J  7 ;   10,  10,  ^  2). 
 
 From  Adrastus  the  female  patronymic  Adrastine 
 was  formed.    (Horn.,  IL,  5,  412.) 
 
 ADRi.iNus  ('A6f)iav6i),  I.  a  Greek  rhetorician, 
 born  at  Tyre  in  Phoenicia,  who  flourished  under  the 
 Emperors  M.  Antoninus  and  Commodus.  He  was 
 the  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Herodes  Atticus,  and  ob- 
 tained the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Athens  during  the 
 lifetime  of  his  master.  His  advancement  does  not 
 seem  to  have  impaired  their  mutual  regard  ;  Hero- 
 des declared  that  the  unfinished  speeches  of  his 
 scholar  were  the  "  fragments  of  a  colossus,"  and 
 Adrianus  showed  his  gratitude  by  a  funeral  oiation 
 which  he  pronounced  over  the  ashes  of  his  master. 
 Among  a  people  who  rivalled  one  another  in  their 
 zeal  to  do  him  honour,  Adrianus  did  not  show  much 
 of  the  discretion  of  a  philosopher.  His  first  lecture 
 commenced  with  the  modest  encomium  on  himself 
 TTuAtv  m  <Poivu<7ic  ypufifj-ara,  while,  in  the  magnifi- 
 cence of  his  dress  and  equipage,  he  affected  the 
 style  of  the  hierophant  of  philosophy.  A  story  may 
 be  seen  in  Philostratus  of  his  trial  and  acquittal  for 
 the  murder  of  a  begging  sophist  who  had  insulted 
 him  :  Adrianus  had  retorted  by  styling  such  insults 
 drp/jiara  Kupeuv,  but  his  pupils  were  not  content 
 with  weapons  of  ridicule.  The  visit  of  M.  Antoni- 
 nus to  Athens  made  him  acquainted  with  Adrianus, 
 whom  he  invited  to  Rome  and  honoured  with  his 
 friendship  :  the  emperor  even  condescended  to  set 
 the  thesis  of  a  declamation  for  him.  After  the  death 
 of  Antoninus,  he  became  the  private  secretary  of 
 Commodus.  His  death  took  place  at  Rome  in  the 
 eightieth  year  of  his  age,  not  later  than  A.D.  192, 
 if  it  be  true  that  Commodus  (who  was  assassinated 
 at  the  end  of  this  year)  sent  him  a  letter  on  his 
 deathbed,  which  he  is  represented  as  kissing  with 
 devout  earnestness  in  his  last  moments.  (P/nlostr., 
 Vit.  Adrian. — Sa}das,s.  v.  'Adpiavog.)  Of  the  works 
 attributed  to  him  by  Suidas,  three  declamations  only 
 are  extant.  These  have  been  cited  by  Leo  Allatius 
 in  the  Excerpla  Varia  Grtccorum  Sop/iisfarum  ac 
 Rkctoricoruni,  Romae,  1641,  and  by  Walz  in  the 
 first  volume  of  the  Rhiiorcs  Graci,  1832. — H.  A 
 Greek  poet,  who  wrote  an  epic  poem  on  the  his- 
 tory of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  was  calleil 
 'k'AF!;av(^pu'i^.  Of  this  poem  the  seventh  book  is 
 mentioned  (S/cpk.  By:  ,  s.  r.  ^ui-cin),  but  we  pos- 
 sess only  a  fragment  consisting  of  one  line  (Steph. 
 Byz.,  ».  1).  'Knrpaia.)  Suidas  (s.  v.  'Appiavog)  tv.en- 
 tions,  among  other  poems  of  Arrianus,  one  called 
 'AZf  jar(V«''C.  311(1  there  can  be  no  doul)t  that  this  is 
 the  work  of  Adrianus,  which  he  by  mistake  attributes 
 to  his  Arrianus.  (Mcinckr,  in  the  Aldinndl.  dcr  Ber- 
 lin. Ahndcmic,  1832,  p.  124.)  —  HI  Flourished,  ac- 
 cording to  Archbishop  Usher,  A.D.  433.  There  is 
 extant  of  his,  in  Greek,  Isagoge  Sacrarum  Lilcra- 
 
1416 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 rum,  recommended  by  Photius  (No.  2.)  to  beginners, 
 edited  by  Dav.  rioesciicl,  4to,  Aug.  Vindel.,  1C02, 
 and  among  the  Crilici  Sacri,  fol,  Lond.,  1660. 
 
 J2acus  (Am/fof),  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  .^gina,  a 
 daughter  of  the  river-god  Asopus.  He  was  born  in 
 the  island  of  QOnone  or  CEnopia,  wliither  -Egina 
 had  been  carried  by  Jupiter  to  secure  her  from  the 
 anger  of  licr  parents,  and  whence  this  island  was 
 afterward  called  .-Egina.  {Apollod.,  3,  12,  §  6.— 
 Hygin.,  Fab.,  52. — Pans.,  2,  29,  i)  2. — Comp.  Noun. 
 Dwnijs.,  6,  212.  — Oy;V/,  Met.,  6,  113;^  7,  472,  &c.) 
 According  to  some  accounts,  ^acus  was  a  son  of 
 Jupiter  and  Eurupa.  Some  traditions  related  that, 
 at  the  time  when  ^Eacus  was  born,  J3gina  was  not 
 yet  inhabited,  and  that  Jupiter  changed  the  ants 
 l/ivp/tTjKFr)  of  the  island  into  men  (Myrrnidones), 
 over  whom  .'Eacus  ruled,  or  that  he  made  men 
 grow  up  out  of  the  earth.  {Hes.,  Fragm.,  67,  cd. 
 GMling.—ApoUod.,  3,  12,  ^  6.—Paus.,  I.  c.)  Ovid 
 {Met.,  7,  530.— Comp.  Hygm.,  Fab  ,  52.—Strab.,  8, 
 p.  375),  on  the  other  hand,  supposes  that  the  isl- 
 and was  not  uninhabited  at  the  time  of  the  birth 
 of  ^Eacus,  and  states  that,  in  the  reign  of  ^acus, 
 Juno,  jealous  of  ^gina,  ravaged  the  island  bearing 
 the  name  of  the  latter,  by  seading  a  plague  or  a 
 fearful  dragon  into  it,  by  which  nearly  all  its  inhab- 
 itants were  carried  oft',  and  that  Jupiter  restored  the 
 population  by  changing  the  ants  into  men.  These 
 legends,  as  Miiller  justly  remarks  {JEginclica),  are 
 nothing  but  a  mythical  account  of  the  colonization 
 of  ^Egina,  which  seems  to  have  been  originally  in- 
 habited by  Pelasgians,  and  afterward  received  col- 
 onists from  Phthiotis,  the  seat  of  the  Myrrnidones, 
 and  from  Phlius  on  the  Asopus.  ^acus,  while  he 
 reigned  in  .^gina,  was  renowned  in  all  Greece  for 
 his  justice  and  piety,  and  was  frequently  called  upon 
 to  settle  disputes,  not  only  among  men,  but  even 
 among  the  gods  themselves.  (Pind.,  hth.,  8,  48,  &c. 
 ■ — Pausan.,  1,  39,  ()  5.)  He  was  such  a  favourite 
 With  the  latter,  that,  when  Greece  was  visited  by 
 a  drought,  in  consequence  of  a  murder  which  had 
 been  committed  {Dwd.,  4,  60,  61. — Apollod,  3,  12, 
 9  6),  the  oracle  of  Delphi  declared  that  the  calam- 
 ity would  not  cease  unless  ^acus  prayed  to  the 
 gods  that  it  might ;  which  he  accordingly  did,  and 
 it  ceased  in  consequence.  .Eacus  himself  showed 
 his  gratitude  by  erecting  a  temple  to  Zeus  Panhel- 
 lenius  on  Mount  Panhellenion  {Paus.,  2,  30,  ^  4),  and 
 the  .^ginetans  afterward  built  a  sanctuary  in  their 
 island  called  /Eaceum,  which  was  a  square  place  en- 
 closed by  walls  of  white  marble.  ^Eacus  was  be- 
 heved,  in  later  times,  to  he  buried  under  the  altar  in 
 this  sacred  enclosure.  {Paus.,  2,  29,  i;  (\.)  A  legend 
 preserved  in  Pindar  ( 01.,  8, 39,&c. )  relates  that  Apollo 
 and  Neptune  took  .Eacus  as  their  assistant  in  build- 
 ing the  walls  of  Troy.  When  the  work  was  comple- 
 ted, three  dragons  rushed  against  the  wall,  and  while 
 the  two  of  them  which  attacked  those  parts  of  the 
 wall  built  by  the  gods  fell  down  dead,  the  third 
 forced  its  way  into  the  city  through  the  part  built 
 by  /Eacus.  Hereupon  Apollo  prophesied  that  Troy 
 would  fall  thrt)ugh  the  hands  of  tiie  -Eacids.  -Ea- 
 cus was  also  believed  by  the  .Elginetans  to  have  sur- 
 rounded their  island  with  high  clitTs  to  protect  it 
 against  pirates.  {Paus.,  2,  29,  ()  5.)  Several  other 
 incidents  connected  with  the  story  of  .Ea(!us  are 
 mentioned  by  Ovid  {Mr/am  ,  7,  506,  Sec.  ;  9,  435, 
 &c.).  By  Endeis  /Eacus  had  two  sons,  Telanion 
 and  Peleus,  and  by  Psamalhe  a  son,  Phocus,  whom 
 he  preferred  to  tlie  two  others,  who  contrived  to 
 kill  Phocus  during  a  contest,  and  then  lied  from 
 their  native  island.  (F;V/.  Peleus,  Tei,.\mon.)  Af- 
 ter his  death  .Eacus  became  one  of  the  three  judges 
 in  Hiides  (Or,  Met.,  13,  2ry—Hor.,  Carm.,  2,  13. 
 22),  and,  according  to  Plato  {Gorg.,  p.  523. — Com- 
 pare Apolog.,  p.  41. —  Isocrat.,  Evag.,  5),  especially 
 
 for  the  shades  of  Europeans.  In  works  of  art, 
 lie  was  represented  bearing  a  sceptre  and  the  keys 
 of  Hades.  {Apollod.,  3,  12,  ij  6.  —  Find.,  Isthtn.,  8, 
 47,  &c.)  ^acus  had  sanctuaries  both  at  Athens 
 and  in  .^gina  {Pans.,  2,  29,  ^  6. — Hesyr.h.,  s.  v. — 
 Sckol.  ad  Find.,  Nan.,  13,  155),  and  the  -IDginetans 
 regarded  him  as  the  tutelary  deity  of  their  island. 
 {Find.,  Ncm.,  8,  22.) 
 
 /EoiisiA  (AifJeff/a),  a  female  philosopher  of  the  new 
 Platonic  school  lived  in  the  fifth  century  after  Christ, 
 at  Alexandrca.  She  was  a  relative  of  Syrianus  and 
 the  wife  of  Hermeias,  and  was  equally  celebrated 
 for  her  beauty  and  her  virtues.  After  the  death  of 
 her  husband,  she  devoted  herself  to  relieving  the 
 wants  of  the  distressed  and  the  education  of  her 
 children.  She  accompanied  the  latter  to  Athens, 
 where  they  went  to  study  philosophy,  and  was  re- 
 ceived with  great  distinction  by  all  the  philosophers 
 there,  and  especially  by  Proclus,  to  whom  she  had 
 been  betrothed  by  Syrianus  when  she  was  quite 
 young.  She  lived  to  a  considerable  age,  and  her 
 funeral  oration  was  pronounced  by  Damascius,  who 
 was  then  a  young  man,  in  hexameter  verses.  The 
 names  of  her  sons  were  Ammonius  and  Heliodorus. 
 (Suidas,  s.  V. — Damascius,  ap.  Phot.,  cod.  242,  p.  341, 
 b,  cd.  Bckker. ) 
 
 ^GA  (At)T/),  according  to  Hyginus  {Poet.  Astr., 
 2,  13),  a  daughter  of  Olenus,  who  was  a  descendant 
 of  Hepha3stus.  ^ga  and  her  sister  Helice  nursed 
 the  infant  Jupiter  in  Crete,  and  the  former  was  after- 
 ward changed  by  the  god  into  the  constellation  call- 
 ed Capella.  According  toother  traditions  mention- 
 ed by  Hyginus,  JEga.  was  a  daughter  of  Melisseus, 
 king  of  Crete,  and  was  chosen  to  suckle  the  infant 
 Jupiter ;  but,  as  she  was  found  unable  to  do  it,  the 
 service  was  performed  by  the  goat  Amalthea.  Ac- 
 cording to  others,  again,  ^ga  was  a  daughter  of 
 Helios,  and  of  such  dazzling  brightness,  that  the 
 Titans,  in  their  attack  on  Olympus,  became  fright- 
 ened, and  requested  their  mother  Gaa  to  conceal 
 her  in  the  earth.  She  was  accordingly  confined  in 
 a  cave  in  Crete,  where  she  became  the  nurse  of  Ju- 
 piter. In  the  fight  with  the  Titans,  Jupiter  was  com- 
 manded by  an  oracle  to  cover  himself  with  her  skin 
 (<xgis).  He  obeyed  the  command,  and  raised  ^-Ega 
 among  the  stars.  Similar,  though  somewhat  differ- 
 ent accounts,  were  given  by  Euemerus  and  otiiers. 
 {Eratosth.,  Calast..,  13. — Anlonin.  Lib.,  36. — Lac- 
 taiit.,  Insiif.,  1,  22,  ^  19.)  It  is  clear  that  in  some  of 
 these  stories  Jl^ga  is  regarded  as  a  nymph,  and  in 
 others  as  a  goat,  though  the  two  ideas  are  not  kept 
 clearly  distinct  from  each  other.  Her  name  is  either 
 connected  with  atf,  which  signifies  goat,  or  with  aif, 
 a  gale  of  wind  ;  and  this  circumstance  has  led  some 
 critics  to  consider  the  myth  about  her  as  made  up  of 
 two  distinct  ones,  one  being  of  an  astronomical  na- 
 ture, and  derived  from  the  constellation  Capella,  the 
 rise  of  which  brings  storms  and  tempests  (Arat., 
 Ph(tn.,  150),  and  the  other  referring  to  the  goat 
 which  was  believed  to  have  suckled  the  infant  Jupi- 
 ter in  Crete.  (Com.  BuLlmann  in  Idelcr's  Ui sprung 
 and  Brdeutu7ig  der  Sternnamen,  p  309. — Bdt/igcr, 
 Aniallhca,  1,  p.  16,  &c. —  Crcuzer,  Symbol.,  4,  p.  458, 
 &c.) 
 
 /Eg/tson  II.  {Aiyaiuv),  a  son  of  Uranus  by  Gaea. 
 .^igieon,  and  his  brothers  Gyges  and  Cottus,  are 
 known  under  the  name  of  the  Uranids  (//cs.,  Theog., 
 502,  &,c.),  and  arc  described  as  huge  monsters,  with 
 a  hundred  arms  {^aaToyxeiper)  and  fifty  heads.  {Apol- 
 lod., 1,  1,  i}  l,—Hcs.,  Throg.,  149,  &c.)  Most  wri- 
 ters mention  the  third  Uranid  under  tlie  name  of 
 i3riareus  instead  of  ^Ega^on,  which  is  explained  in 
 a  passage  of  Homer  (7/.,  1,  403,  &c.),  who  says  that 
 men  called  him  ^ga;on,  but  the  gods  Briareus.  On 
 one  occasion,  when  the  Olympian  goils  were  about  to 
 put  Jupiter  in  chains,  Thetis  called  in  the  assistance 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1417 
 
 of  .Egapon,  who  compelled  the  gods  to  desist  from 
 their  intpnlioii.  {Horn.,  IL,  1,  3'J8,  &c.)  Accord- 
 ing to  llpsiod  {Tluog.,  154,  lic,  G17,  &c.),  Algxim 
 and  liis  l)roiliers  wore  iiated  by  Uranus  from  the 
 time  of  thoir  hirlh,  in  consequence  of  which  they 
 were  concealed  in  tiie  depth  of  the  eartli,  wliere  they 
 remained  until  the  Titans  began  their  war  against 
 Jupiter.  On  tlie  advice  of  Gaa,  .lupiter  delivered 
 the  Uranids  from  their  prison,  that  they  might  assist 
 liim.  The  hundred-armed  giants  conquered  the  Ti- 
 tans by  hurling  at  Ihcm  three  hundred  rocks  at  once, 
 and  secured  the  victory  to  Jupiter,  who  thrust  the  Ti- 
 tans into  Tartarus,  and  placed  the  Ilecatoncheires 
 at  its  gates,  or,  according  to  others,  in  the  depth  of 
 the  ocean,  to  guard  them.  {Hes.,  Tkcog.,  616,  iStc., 
 815,  &c.)  According  to  a  legend  in  Pausanius  (2, 
 1,  ij  6  ;  2,  4,  ij  7),  Briareus  was  chosen  as  arbitra- 
 tor in  the  dispute  between  Neptune  and  Helios,  and 
 adjudged  the  Isthmus  to  the  lormer,  and  the  Acro- 
 corinthus  to  the  latter.  The  scholiast  on  Apctllo- 
 nius  llhodius  (1,  11C5)  rejjresents  ^gjeon  as  a  sou 
 of  Ga?a  and  Pontus,  and  as  living  as  a  marine  god 
 in  the  .^gcan  Sea.  Ovid  {Met.,  2,  10)  and  I'hilos- 
 traius  ( Vit.  Apollon.,  4,  6j  likewise  regard  him  as 
 a  marine  god,  while  Virgil  {.En.,  10,  565)  reckons 
 him  among  the  giants  who  stormed  Olympus,  and 
 Callimachus(i/(/m«.  ni  Del ,  141,  &c.),  regarding  him 
 in  the  same  light,  places  him  under  Mount  -'Etna. 
 The  scholiast  on  Theocritus  {Idyll.,  1,  65)  calls  Bri- 
 areus one  of  the  Cyclopes.  The  opinion  which  re- 
 gards -^:]ga^on  and  his  brothers  as  only  personifica- 
 tions of  the  extraordinary  powers  of  nature,  such  as 
 are  manifested  in  the  violent  commotions  of  the 
 earth,  as  earthquakes,  volcanic  eruptions,  and  the 
 like,  seems  to  explain  best  the  various  accounts 
 about  them. 
 
 yEoRusII.  (At'jevf),  the  eponymic  hero  of  the  phyle 
 called  the.iilgeidae  at  Sparta,  was  a  son  of  CEolycus, 
 and  grandson  of  Theras,  the  founder  of  the  colony  in 
 'i'hera.  {Herod.,  4,  149.)  All  thc.Egeids  were  be- 
 lieved to  be  (Jadmeans,  who  formed  a  settlement  at 
 Sparta  previous  to  the  Dorian  coufjuest.  There  is 
 only  this  difference  in  the  accounts,  that,  according 
 to  some,  A'geus  was  the  leader  of  the  Cadmean 
 colonists  at  Sparta,  while,  according  to  Herodotus, 
 they  received  their  name  of  JEgeids  from  the  later 
 itlgeus,  the  son  of  CEolycus.  (Pind.,  Pylh.,  5,  101  ; 
 Isih.,  1,  18,  &c.,  witli  the  schol.)  There  was  at 
 Sparta  a  heroum  of  .Egeus.  {Paus.,  3,  15,  ^  6. — 
 Compare  4,  7,  ^  3.) 
 
 .(£gimus  or  ^ciMius  {\lyqtog  or  Aiyiuio^),  one 
 of  the  most  ancient  of  the  Greek  physicians,  who  is 
 said  by  Galen  {Dc  Differ.  Puis.,  1,  2;  4,  2,  11  ;  vol. 
 8,  p.  498,  716,  752)  to  have  been  the  first  person 
 who  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  pulse.  He  was  a  na- 
 tive of  Velia  in  Eucania,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
 lived  before  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  that  is,  in  the 
 fifth  century  before  Christ.  His  work  was  entitled 
 lleiji  Tla/fiCov,  Dc  Palpilalionibus  (a  name  which 
 alone  sufliciently  indicates  its  antiijuity),  and  is  not 
 now  in  existence.  Callimachus  {up.  Athcn.,  14,  p. 
 643,  e)  mentions  an  author  named  .^girnius,  who 
 wrote  a  work  on  the  art  of  making  cheesecakes 
 {-7.aKoviToivoitKw  cvyypajiiia),  and  Pliny  mentions  a 
 person  of  the  same  name  {H.  N.,  7,  49),  who  was 
 said  to  have  lived  two  hundred  years  ;  hut  whether 
 these  are  the  same  or  different  individuals  is  quite 
 uncertain. 
 
 .'Egi.e  {My7.7i),  I.  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Nai- 
 ads, daughter  of  Jui)iter  and  Nea;ra  {Virg.,  Eclog., 
 6,  20),  by  whom  Helios  bigot  tlie  Chariles.  {Pans., 
 9,35,1^  I.) — II.  A  sister  of  Phaelhon,  rtud  daughter  of 
 Helios  and  Clymene.  {Hijgin.,  Fab.,  154,  156.)  In 
 her  grief  at  the  death  of  her  brother  she  and  her  sis- 
 ters were  ciianged  into  poplars — III.  One  of  the 
 Ilcsperides.  {Apollod.,  2,  5,  ^  11. — Serv.  ad  ^En., 
 8  11 
 
 (  4,  484. — Comp.  Hkspeeides.)~IV.  A  nymph,  daugh- 
 ter ol'Panopcus,  who  was  beloved  by  'i'heseus,  and 
 for  whom  he;  forsook  Ariadne.  {I'lut.,  Thcs.,  20. — 
 Allien.,  13,  p.  557). — Y  One  of  the  daugiiters  of-Es- 
 culapius  {Plin.,  H.  N.,  35,  40,  tj  31 )  by  Eampetia,  the 
 daughter  of  the  Sun,  according  to  Hermijipus  {ap. 
 schol.  in  Arisloph.,  Plut.,  701),  or  by  Epione,  accord- 
 ing to  Suidas  {s.  v.  'llniuvri).  She  is  said  to  have 
 derived  her  name  /Egle,  "  Brightness,"  or  "Splen- 
 dour," either  from  the  beauty  of  the  human  body 
 when  in  good  health,  or  from  the  honour  paid  to  the 
 medical  profession.  {J.  H.  Mcibom.,  Comment,  in 
 Hippocr.,  ''Jtisjtir.,"  Lugd.  Bat.,  1643,  4to,  c.  C,  ()  7, 
 p.  55) 
 
 J:2gleis  {Aiy?j}ir)  a  daughter  of  Hyacinthus  who 
 had  emigrated  from  Lacedamon  to  Athens.  During 
 the  siege  of  Athens  by  Minos,  in  the  reign  of  .Eg- 
 eus, she,  together  with  her  sisters  Antheis,  Lytaea, 
 and  Orthaja,  were  sacrificed  on  the  tomb  of  Geraes- 
 tus  the  Cyclops,  for  the  purpose  of  averting  a  pesti- 
 lence then  raging  at  Athens.     {Apollod.,  3,  15,  ^  8.) 
 
 .^LiANus,  III.  Lucius,  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants 
 (A.D.  259-268)  under  the  Roman  Empire.  He  as- 
 sumed the  purple  in  Gaul  after  the  death  of  Postu- 
 mus,  and  was  killed  by  his  own  soldiers,  because 
 he  would  n;it  allow  them  to  plunder  Moguntiacum. 
 Trebellius  Pollio  and  others  call  him  LoUianus  ;  Eck 
 hel  (Doctr.  Num.,  7,  p.  448)  thinks  that  his  true  name 
 was  Lailianus ;  but  there  seems  most  authority  in 
 favour  of  L.  .Elianus.  {Eutrop.,  9,  7.—Trebrll.  Poll., 
 Trig.  Tyr  ,  A.  —  Aurel.  Vict,  De  Ctf^.,  33  ;  Eptt., 
 32.) — IV.  Meccius  {\i7uavoq  Mfx/ctof),  an  ancient 
 physician,  who  must  have  lived  in  the  second  centu- 
 ry after  Christ,  as  he  is  mentioned  by  Galen  [De 
 Thcnaca  ad  Pamphil.,  tnit ,  vol.  14,  p.  299)  as  the 
 oldest  of  his  tutors.  Elis  father  is  supposed  to  have 
 also  been  a  physician,  as  J^lianus  is  said  by  Galen 
 {De  Dissect.  MuscuL,  c.  1,  p.  2,  ed.  Diclz)  to  have 
 made  an  epitome  of  his  father's  anatomical  writings. 
 Galen  speaks  of  that  part  of  his  work  which  treat- 
 ed of  the  Dissection  of  the  Muscles  as  being  held  in 
 some  repute  in  his  time  {ibid.),  and  he  always  men- 
 tions his  tutor  with  respect.  {Ibid  ,  c.  7,  22,  p.  11, 
 57.)  During  the  prevalence  of  an  epidemic  in  Italy, 
 uElianus  is  said  by  Galen  {De  Thenacaad  Patnpktl., 
 ibid.)  to  have  used  the  Theriaca  {Diet,  of  Ant.,  art. 
 Thcnaca)  with  great  success,  both  as  a  means  of 
 cure,  and  also  as  a  preservative  against  the  ilisease. 
 He  must  have  been  a  person  of  some  celebrity,  as 
 this  same  anecdote  is  mentioned  by  the  Arabic  his- 
 torian Abu  '1-Faraj  {Histor.  Compend.  Dynast.,  p. 
 77)  with  exactly  the  same  circumstances,  except 
 that  he  makes  the  epidemic  to  have  broken  out  at 
 Antioch  instead  of  in  Italy.  None  of  his  works  (as 
 far  as  the  writer  is  aware)  are  now  extant. 
 
 -■Ei.ius,  VIII.  Pko.motus  {Ai7uog  UpofidiToc),  an  an- 
 cient physician  of  Alexandrea,  of  whose  personal  his- 
 tory no  particulars  are  known,  and  whose  date  is  un- 
 certain. He  is  supposed  by  Villoison  lAnecd.  Grac, 
 vol.  2,  p.  179,  note  1)  to  have  lived  alter  the  time  of 
 Pompey  the  Great,  that  is,  in  the  first  century  be- 
 fore Christ ;  l)y  ottu'rs,  he  is  considered  to  be  much 
 more  ancient ;  and  by  Choulant  {Ilandbuch  dtr  Bii- 
 chcrhumle  fur  die  A'jllcre  Mcdinn,  ed.  2,  Leipzig, 
 1840,  8vo),  on  the  oilier  baud,  he  is  placed  as  late 
 as  the  second  half  of  the  first  century  after  Christ. 
 He  is  most  probably  the  same  person  who  is  quoted 
 by  Galen  {Dc  Compos.  Mcdicum.  sccund.  Locos,  4, 
 7,  vol.  12,  p.  730)  simply  by  the  name  of  .^Ellus. 
 He  wrote  several  Greek  medical  works,  wbicb  are 
 still  to  be  found  in  manuscript  in  ditlerout  libraries 
 in  Europe,  but  of  which  none  (as  far  as  the  writer  is 
 aware)  have  ever  been  published,  though  Kiihn  in- 
 tended his  works  to  have  been  included  in  his  col- 
 lection of  Greek  medical  writers.  Some  extracts 
 from  one  of  his  works  entitled  Awapepov,  Medici- 
 
1418 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 nalium  For mitl arum  Colkctio,  are  inserted  by  C.  G. 
 Kiihii  in  his  Additam.  ad  Elcnch.  Med.  Vet.  a  J.  A. 
 Fabricto  in  ''■  Bibl.  Gr."  Exhib.,  and  by  Bona  in  his 
 Tractalus  de  Scorbuto,  Verona,  1781,  4to.  Avvafie- 
 pov  is  a  word  used  by  the  later  Greek  writers,  and 
 is  explained  by  Du  Cange  {Gloss.  Med.  et  Infim.  Grce- 
 cit.)  to  mean  vis,  virtus.  It  is,  however,  frequently 
 used  in  the  sense  given  to  it  above.  See  Leo, 
 Conspci-.t.  Medic,  4,  1,  11,  ap.  Ermerin.,  Anecd.  Med. 
 Grac,  p.  153,  157.  Two  otlier  of  his  works  are 
 quoted  or  mentioned  by  Hieron.  Mercurialis  in  his 
 Variie  Lectiones,  3,  4 ;  and  his  work  De  Venenis  et 
 Morbis  Venenosis,  1,  16;  2,  2  ;  and  also  by  Schnei- 
 der in  his  Prefaces  to  Nicander's  Theriaca,  p.  1 1,  and 
 Alexipkarmaca,  p.  19. 
 
 MyiiiAx  Gens,  originally  written  Aimilia,  one  of 
 the  most  ancient  patrician  houses  at  Rome.  Its 
 origin  is  referred  to  the  time  of  Numa,  and  it  is 
 said  to  have  been  descended  from  Mamercus,  who 
 received  the  name  of  ^milius  on  account  of  the 
 persuasiveness  of  his  language  {8i'  al^vXiav  "koyov). 
 This  Mamercus  is  represented  by  some  as  the  son 
 of  Pythagoras,  and  by  others  as  the  son  of  Numa, 
 while  a  third  account  traces  his  origin  to  Ascanius, 
 •who  had  two  sons,  Julius  and  Jr^mylos.  {Pint., 
 MmiL,  2  ;  Num.,  8.  21. — Festus,  s.  v.  JEmil.)  Amu- 
 lius  is  also  mentioned  as  one  of  the  ancestors  of  the 
 ^milii.  {Sil.  Ital.,  8,  297.)  It  seems  pretty  clear 
 that  the  JDmilii  were  of  Sabine  origin  ;  and  Festus 
 derives  the  name  Mamercus  from  the  Oscan,  Ma- 
 rners  in  that  language  being  the  same  as  Mars. 
 The  Sabines  spoke  Oscan.  Since,  then,  the  .^milii 
 were  supposed  to  have  come  to  Rome  in  the  time 
 of  Numa,  and  Numa  was  said  to  have  been  intimate 
 with  Pythagoras,  we  can  see  the  origin  of  the  le- 
 gend which  makes  the  ancestor  of  the  house  the 
 son  of  Pythagoras.  The  first  member  of  the  house 
 who  obtained  the  consulship  was  L.  ^milius  Ma- 
 mercus, in  B.C.  484. 
 
 The  family  names  of  this  gens  are :  Barbula, 
 BucA,  Lepiuos,  Mamercus  or  Mamekcin'is,  Papus, 
 Paullhs,  Regii.lus,  Scaurus.  Of  these  names, 
 Buca,  Lepidus,  PauUus,  and  Scaurus  are  the  only 
 ones  that  occur  on  coins. 
 
 J^MiLiANus,  IV.  (who  is  also  called  JEmiliiis) 
 lived  in  tlie  fifth  century  after  Christ,  and  is  known 
 as  a  physician,  confessor,  and  martyr.  In  the  reign 
 of  the  Vandal  King  Hunneric  (A.D.  477-484),  du- 
 ring the  Arian  persecution  in  Africa,  he  was  most 
 cruelly  put  to  death.  The  Romish  Church  cele- 
 brates his  memory  on  the  sixth  of  December  ;  the 
 Greek  Church  on  the  seventh.  {MartijroL.  Rom.,  cd. 
 Baron. —  Victor  Vitensis,  De  Perseeut.  Vandal.,  5,  1, 
 with  Kuinart's  notes,  Paris,  8vo,  1094. — Bzovius, 
 Nomenclator  Sanctorum  Profcssionc  Medicorum.') 
 
 jEs.iRA  (Madpa)  of  Lucania,  a  female  Pythago- 
 rean philosopher,  said  to  be  a  daugliter  of  Pythago- 
 ras. She  wrote  a  work  "  about  Human  Nature," 
 of  which  a  fragment  is  preserved  by  Stobajus. 
 Some  editors  attribute  this  fragment  to  Aresas,  one 
 of  the  successors  of  Pythagoras ;  but  Bentley  pre- 
 fers reading  ^sara.  She  is  also  mentioned  in 
 the  life  of  Pythagoras  {ap.  Phot,  cod.  219,  p.  438, 
 b.,  ed.  Bekkcr),  where  Bentley  reads  Aiaupa  instead 
 of  "Lupa  {Dtsserlation  upon  Phalaris,  p.  277). 
 
 .iEscHRioN',  III.  a  native  of  Pcrgamus,  and  a  phy- 
 sician in  the  second  century  after  Christ.  He  was 
 one  of  Galen's  tutors,  wlio  says  that  he  belonged  to 
 the  sect  of  the  Empirici,  and  that  he  had  a  great 
 knowledge  of  Pharmacy  and  Materia  Medica.  ^-Es- 
 chrion  was  the  inventor  of  a  celebrated  supersti- 
 tious remedy  for  the  bite  of  a  mad  dog,  which  is 
 mentioned  with  approbation  by  Galen  and  Oriba- 
 sius  {Synojis.,  3,  p.  55),  and  of  which  the  most  im- 
 portant ingredient  was  powdered  crawtish.  These 
 he  directed  to  be  caught  at  a  tinie  when  the  sun  and 
 
 moon  were  in  a  particular  relative  position,  and  to 
 be  baked  alive.  {Gal.,  De  Smipl.  Medic.  Faciilt., 
 1 1, 34,  vol.  13,  p.  350.— C.  G.  Kiihn,  addit.  ad  Elcnch. 
 Med.  Vet.  a  J.  A.  Fabric,  in  Bibi.  Gr.  Exhibit.) 
 
 iEscHYLus,  II.  an  epic  poet,  a  native  of  Alexan- 
 drea,  who  must  have  lived  previous  to  the  end  of 
 the  second  century  of  our  era.  and  whom  Athenanis 
 calls  a  well-informed  man.  One  of  his  poems  bore 
 the  title  of  "Amphitryon,"  and  another  that  of 
 "  Messeniaca."  A  fragment  of  the  former  is  pre- 
 served in  Athenajus  (12,  p.  599).  According  to 
 Zenobius  (5,  85),  he  had  also  written  a  work  on 
 Proverbs  (Ilfpt  Uapoifiiuv  :  compare  Schneidewin, 
 Prafat.  Paramiogr.,  p.  11). — III.  A  native  of  Rhodes, 
 appointed  by  Alexander  the  Great  one  of  the  inspect- 
 ors of  the  governors  of  that  country,  after  its  con- 
 quest, in  B.C.  333.  He  is  next  mentioned,  B.C.  319, 
 as  conveying,  in  four  ships,  600  talents  of  silver  from 
 Cilicia  to  Macedonia,  which  were  detained  at  Ephe- 
 sus  by  Antigonus,  to  pay  his  foreign  mercenaries. 
 
 •^sioN,  an  Athenian  orator,  was  a  contemporary 
 of  Demosthenes,  with  whom  he  was  educated.  (.S'mj- 
 das,  s.  V.  A?/|UOCT.)  To  what  party  he  belongecl  du- 
 ring the  Macedonian  time  is  uncertain.  When  he 
 was  asked  what  he  thought  of  the  orators  of  his 
 time,  he  said  that,  when  he  heard  the  other  orators, 
 he  admired  their  beautiful  and  sublime  conversa- 
 tions with  the  people,  but  the  speeches  of  Demos- 
 thenes, when  read,  excelled  all  others  by  their  skil- 
 ful construction  and  their  power.  Aristotle  {Rhet., 
 3,  10)  mentions  a  beautiful  expression  of  ^Esion. 
 
 iEsopus,  IV.  a  Greek  historian,  who  wrote  a  life  of 
 Alexander  the  Great.  The  original  is  lo.st,  but  there 
 is  a  Latin  translation  of  it  by  Julius  Valerius,  of 
 which  Franciscus  Juretus  had,  he  says  {ad  Sym- 
 mach.,  Ep.,  10,  54),  a  manuscript.  It  was  first  pub- 
 lished, however,  by  Mai  from  a  manuscript  in  the 
 Ambrosian  Library,  Milan,  1817,  4to  ;  reprinted, 
 Frank.,  1818,  8vo.  The  title  is  "  Ilinerarium  ad 
 Conslantimim  Angustum,  etc.,  accedunt  Julii  Valerii 
 Res  GestcB  Alexand.ri  Macedonia,  etc."  The  time 
 when  ^sopus  lived  is  uncertain,  and  even  his  ex- 
 istence has  been  doubted,  {fiarlh.,  Advcrsar.,  2, 
 10.)  Mai,  in  the  preface  to  his  edition,  contended 
 that  the  work  was  written  before  389  A.D,  be- 
 cause the  temple  of  Serapis  at  Alexandrea,  which 
 was  destroyed  by  order  of  Theodosius,  is  spoken  of 
 in  the  translation  as  still  standing.  But  serious  ob- 
 jections to  this  inference  have  been  raised  by  Le- 
 tronne  ( JoM/M  des  Savans,  1818,  p.  617),  who  refers 
 it  to  the  seventh  or  eighth  century,  which  the  weight 
 of  internal  evidence  would  rather  point  to.  The 
 book  is  full  of  the  most  extravagant  stories  and 
 glaring  mistakes,  and  is  a  work  of  no  credit. 
 
 ^symnetes  {.Mc!v/j.v?]Tjjc),  a  surname  of  Bacchus, 
 which  signifies  the  Lord,  or  Ruler,  and  under  which 
 he  was  worshipped  at  Aroo  in  Achaia.  The  story 
 about  the  introduction  of  his  worship  there  is  as 
 fi)llows :  There  was  at  Troy  an  ancient  image  of 
 Bacchus,  the  work  of  Vulcan,  which  Jupiter 
 had  once  given  as  a  present  to  Dardanus.  It  was 
 kept  in  a  chest,  and  Cassandra,  or,  according  to 
 others,  ^-Eneas,  left  this  chest  behind  when  she 
 quilted  the  city,  because  she  knew  that  it  would  do 
 injury  to  him  who  possessed  it.  When  the  Greeks 
 divided  the  spoils  of  Troy  among  themselves,  this 
 chest  fell  to  the  share  of  the  Thessalian  Eurypylus, 
 who,  on  opening  it,  suddenly  fell  into  a  state  of  mad- 
 ness. The  oracle  of  Delphi,  when  consulted  about 
 his  recovery,  answered,  "  Where  thou  shalt  see 
 men  performing  a  strange  sacrifice,  there  shalt  tliou 
 dedicate  the  chest,  and  there  shalt  thou  settle." 
 When  Eurypylus  came  to  Aroe  in  Achaia,  it  was 
 just  the  season  at  whicli  its  inhabitants  offered 
 every  year  to  Artemis  Triclaria  a  human  sacrifice, 
 consisting  of  the  fairest  youth  and  the  fairest  maid- 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1419 
 
 en  of  the  place.  This  sacrifice  was  offered  as  an 
 atonement  tor  a  crime  which  had  once  been  com- 
 mitted ill  the  temple  of  the  goddess.  But  an  oracle 
 had  declared  to  tliem  that  they  sliould  he  released 
 from  tiie  necessity  of  making  this  sacrifice,  if  a 
 foreign  divinity  sliould  he  brougiit  to  them  by  a 
 foreign  king.  Tliis  oracle  was  now  fultilled.  Eu- 
 rypyius,  on  seeing  the  victims  led  to  the  altar,  was 
 cured  of  his  madness,  and  perceived  that  this  was 
 the  place  pointed  out  to  him  by  the  oracle  ;  and  the 
 Aroiians  also,  on  seeing  the  god  in  the  chest,  re- 
 membered the  old  prophecy,  stopped  the  sacrifice, 
 and  instituted  a  festival  of  Dionysus  yEsymnetes, 
 for  this  was  the  name  of  the  god  in  the  chest. 
 Nine  men  and  nine  women  were  appointed  to  at- 
 tend to  his  worship.  During  one  night  of  this  fes- 
 tival a  piiest  carried  the  chest  outside  the  town, 
 and  all  the  children  of  the  place,  adorned,  as  for- 
 merly the  victims  used  to  be,  with  garlands  of  corn- 
 ears,  went  down  to  the  hanks  of  the  river  Meilichius, 
 which  had  before  been  called  Ameilichius,  hung  up 
 their  garlands,  purilied  themselves,  and  then  put  on 
 other  garlands  of  ivy,  after  whicii  they  returned  to 
 tiio  sanctuary  of  Dionysus  .^^symnetes.  {Pans.,  7, 
 19  and  20.)  This  tradition,  though  otherwise  very 
 obscure,  evidently  points  to  a  time  when  human 
 sacrifices  were  abolished  at  Aroii  by  the  introduc- 
 tion of  a  new  worship.  At  Patra;,  in  Achaia,  there 
 was  likewise  a  temple  dedicated  to  Dionysus  ^syra- 
 netes.     (Pans.,  7,  21,  i)  12.) 
 
 .(Etiier  {AWiiji),  a  personified  idea  of  the  mythical 
 cosmogonies.  According  to  that  of  Hyginus  {Fab. 
 Prcf.,  p.  1,  cd.  Stavaen),  he  was,  together  with 
 Night,  Day,  and  Erebus,  begotten  by  Chaos  and 
 Caligo  (Darkness).  According  to  that  of  Hesiod 
 {Thcog.,  124),  ^ther  was  the  son  of  Erebus  and 
 his  sister  Night,  and  a  brother  of  Day.  (Comp. 
 Phormit.,  De  Nat.  Dear.,  16.)  The  children  of 
 JEther  and  Day  were  Land,  Heaven,  and  Sea,  and 
 from  his  connexion  with  the  Earth  there  sprang  all 
 the  vices  whicli  destroy  the  human  race,  and  also 
 the  Giants  and  Titans.  {Hi/gm.,  Fah.  Prcf.,  p.  2, 
 &.C.)  These  accounts  show  that,  in  the  Greek  cos- 
 mogonies, iEther  was  considered  as  one  of  the  ele- 
 mentary substances  out  of  which  the  Universe  was 
 formed.  In  the  Orphic  Hymns  (4),  .^Ether  appears 
 as  the  soul  of  the  world,  from  which  all  life  ema- 
 nates: an  idea  which  was  also  adopted  by  some  of  the 
 early  philosophers  of  Greece.  In  later  times,  -.^ther 
 was  regarded  as  the  wide  space  of  Heaven,  the  resi- 
 dence of  the  gods,  and  Jupiter  as  the  Lord  of  the 
 iEther,  or -Ether  itself  personified.  {Pacuv.,  ap.  Cic, 
 De  Nat.  Dear.,  2,  36,  AO.—Lucrct.,  5,  499.— Virff., 
 JEn..  12,  \W.—Georg.,  2,  325.) 
 
 /Ethuus,  Hister  or  Ister,  a  Roman  writer  of 
 the  fourth  century,  a  native  of  Istria  according  to 
 his  surname,  or,  according  to  Rabanus  Maurus,  of 
 Scythia.  the  author  of  a  geographical  work  called 
 yEthici  Cosmographia.  We  learn,  from  the  preface, 
 that  a  measurement  of  the  whole  Roman  world  was 
 ordered  by  Julius  Caesar  to  be  made  by  the  most 
 able  men  ;  ttiat  tliis  measurement  was  begun  in  the 
 consulship  of  Julius  C;esar  and  M.  Antonius,  i.  e., 
 13.(1  41 ;  that  three  Greeks  were  appointed  for  the 
 purpose,  Zenodoxns,  Theodotus,  and  Polyditus ; 
 that  Zenodoxns  measured  all  the  eastern  part, 
 which  occupied  him  twenty-one  years,  five  months, 
 and  nine  days,  on  to  the  third  consulship  of  Augus- 
 tus and  Crassus;  that  Theodotus  measured  the 
 northern  part,  which  occupied  him  tw'entynine 
 years,  eight  months,  and  ten  days,  on  to  the  tenth 
 consulship  of  Augustus;  and  that  Polyditus  meas- 
 ured the  southern  part,  which  occupied  him  thirty- 
 two  years,  one  month,  and  ten  days  ;  that  thus  the 
 whole  (Roman)  world  was  gone  over  by  the  meas- 
 urers within  thirty-two  (!)  years;  and  thai  a  re- 
 
 port of  all  it  contained  was  laid  before  the  senate. 
 So  it  stands  in  the  edd  ,  but  the  numbers  are  evi- 
 dently much  corrupted  :  the  contradictoriness  of 
 P'olyclitus's  share  taking  inore  than  32  years,  and 
 the  whole  measurement  being  made  in  less  than 
 (intra)  32  years,  is  obvious. 
 
 It  is  to  be  observed  that,  in  this  introductory 
 statement,  no  mention  is  made  of  the  western  part 
 (which  in  the  work  itself  comes  next  to  the  east- 
 ern), except  in  the  Vatican  MS.,  where  the  eastern 
 part  is  given  to  Nicodomus,  and  the  western  to 
 Didymus. 
 
 A  census  of  all  the  people  in  the  Roman  subjection 
 was  held  under  Augustus.  (Suidas,  s.  v.  Avyova-oc.) 
 By  two  late  writers  (Ca.sxiodnrus,  Var  ,  3,  52,  by  an 
 emendation  of  Huschke,  p.  6,  uber  den  zur  Zcit  dci 
 Gclnirt  JcsiL  Christi  gchallcncn  Cen.fu.t,  liicshm, 
 1840 ;  and  Isidurus,  Or/if.,  5,  36,  §  4),  this  number- 
 ing of  the  people  is  spoken  of  as  connected  with 
 the  measurement  of  the  land.  This  work,  in  fact, 
 consists  of  two  separate  pieces.  The  first  begins 
 with  a  short  introduction,  the  substance  of  wliicli 
 has  been  given,  and  then  proceeds  with  an  account 
 of  the  measurement  of  the  Roman  world  under  foui 
 heads,  Orientalis,  Occidentalis.  Septentrionalis,  .Me- 
 ridiana  pars.  Then  come  series  of  lists  of  names, 
 arranged  under  heads,  Maria,  Insulae.  Monies,  Pro- 
 vincial, Oppida,  Flumina,  and  Gentes.  These  are 
 bare  lists,  excepting  that  the  rivers  have  an  account 
 of  their  rise,  course,  and  length  annexed,  'i'his  is 
 the  end  of  the  first  part,  the  E.xpositio.  The  second 
 part  is  called  Alia  totius  orbis  Descriptio,  and  con- 
 sists of  four  divisions:  (1.)  Asia?  Provincia;  situs 
 cum  limitibus  et  populis  suis ;  (2.)  Europaj  situs, 
 &c.  ;  (3.)  AfricEU  situs,  &c.  ;  (4.)  Insula;  Nostri 
 Maris.  This  part,  the  Descriptio,  occurs,  with 
 slight  variations,  in  Orosius,  1,  2.  In  -Elhicus,  what 
 looks  like  the  original  commencement,  Majores  nos- 
 tri, &c.,  is  tacked  on  to  the  preceding  part,  the  Ex- 
 positio,  t)y  the  words  Hanc  quadriparlitam  totius  tcr- 
 rie  conlincntiam  hi  (jui  dimensi  sunt.  From  this  it 
 would  appear  that  .^thicus  borrowed  it  from  Oro- 
 sius. 
 
 The  work  abounds  in  errors.  Sometimes  the 
 same  name  occurs  in  difTerent  lists ;  as,  lor  exam- 
 ple, Cyprus  and  Rhodes  both  in  the  north  and  in 
 the  east;  Corsica  both  in  the  west  and  in  the 
 south;  or  a  country  is  put  as  a  town,  as  Arabia; 
 Noricum  is  put  among  the  islands.  Mistakes  of 
 this  kind  would  easily  be  made  in  copying  lists, 
 especially  if  in  double  columns.  But  from  other 
 reasons,  and  from  quotations  given  by  Dicuil,  a 
 writer  of  the  9th  century,  from  the  Cosmograpliia, 
 difTering  from  the  text  as  we  have  it,  the  whole 
 appears  to  be  very  corrupt.  The  work  is  a  very 
 meager  production,  but  presents  a  few  valuable 
 points.  Many  successful  emendations  have  been 
 made  by  Salmasius  in  his  Exercitationes  I'hilolo- 
 gica^,  and  there  is  a  very  valuable  essay  on  the 
 whole  subject  by  Ritschl  in  the  Rhcinischcs  Museum 
 (1812),  1,  4. 
 
 The  sources  of  the  Cosmographia  appear  to  have 
 been  the  measurements  above  described,  other 
 otiicial  lists  and  documents,  and  also,  in  all  proba- 
 bilitv,  Agrippa's  Commenlarii,  which  are  constantly 
 referred  to  by  Pliny  (Hist.  Nul.,  3,  4,  5,  6)  as  an 
 authority,  and  his  Ciiart  of  the  World,  which  was 
 founded  on  his  Commcntarii.  (Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  3, 
 2.) 
 
 Cassiodorus  (Dc  Instit.  Dirin.,  25)  describes  a 
 cosmographical  work  by  Julius  Honoiius  Crator  in 
 terms  which  suit  exactly  the  work  of  ^Etbicus ; 
 and  Salmasius  regards  Julius  Honorius  as  the  real 
 author  of  this  work,  to  which  opinion  Ritschl  seems 
 to  lean,  reading  Ethnicus  instead  of  .Etbicus.  and 
 considering  it  as  a  mere  appellative.    In  some  MSS. 
 
1420 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 the  appellatives  Sophista  and  Philosopluis  are  found. 
 
 One  of  llic  oldest  MSS.,  if  not  the  oldest,  is  the 
 Vatican  one.  'I'his  is  the  only  one  which  speaks  of 
 the  west  in  the  introduction.  But  it  is  carelessly 
 written  :  consuiibus  (c.  g.)  is  several  times  put  for 
 consulatum.  Suis  is  found  as  a  contraction  {1)  for 
 stiprascriptis.  Tlie  introduction  is  very  different  in 
 this  and  in  the  other  MSS. 
 
 The  first  edition  of  the  Cosmographia  was  by 
 Simler,  Basel,  1575,  together  with  the  Itinerariurn 
 Autonini.  Tliere  is  an  edition  by  Henry  Stephens, 
 1577,  with  Simier's  notes,  which  also  contains  Dio- 
 nysius,  Pomponius  Mela,  and  Solinus.  The  last 
 edition  is  by  Cironovius,  in  his  edition  of  Pomponius 
 Mela,  Leyden,  1723. 
 
 Aethlius  ('AEYMior),  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
 "Samian  Annals"  {"ilpoi  I,u/xu)i),  the  fifth  book  of 
 which  is  quoted  by  Athenajus,  although  he  expresses 
 a  doubt  about  the  genuineness  of  the  work  (14,  p. 
 650,  d,  653,  f).  .Ethlius  is  also  referred  to  by 
 Clemens  Alexahdrinus  (Protr.,  p.  30,  a),  Eusta- 
 thius  (ad  0(1.,  7,  120,  p.  1573),  and  in  the  Etymo- 
 logicum  Magnum  (s.  v.  vivurai),  where  the  name 
 is  written  Athlius. 
 
 Afranh,  C.iiA  or  Gaia,  the  wife  of  the  senator 
 Licinius  Buccio,  a  very  litigious  woman,  who  al- 
 ways pleaded  her  own  causes  before  the  prtetor, 
 and  thus  gave  occasion  to  the  publishing  of  the 
 edict  which  forbade  all  women  to  postulate.  She 
 was,  perhaps,  the  sister  of  L.  Afranius,  consul  in 
 B.C  60.  She  died  B.C.  48.  {Val.  Max.,  8,3,  ()  I.— 
 Dig.,  3,  til.  1,  s.  1,  {}  5. 
 
 Afkan'ia  Gens,  pleoeian,  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
 second  century  B.C.  The  only  cognomen  of  this 
 gens,  which  occurs  under  the  republic,  is  Stellio  : 
 those  names  which  have  no  cognomen  are  given 
 under  Afranius.  Some  persons  of  this  name  ev- 
 idently did  not  belong  to  the  Afrania  gens.  On 
 coins  we  find  only  S.  Afranius  and  M.  Afranius, 
 of  whom  nothing  is  known.    {Eckhel,  5,  p.  132,  &c.) 
 
 Africanus  [' A<ppLKav(K),  III.  a  writer  on  veteri- 
 nary surgery,  whose  dale  is  not  certainly  known, 
 but  who  may,  very  probably,  be  the  same  person  as 
 Sex.  Julius  Africanus,  whose  work  entitled  KeaTol 
 contained  information  upon  medical  subjects.  {Vid 
 Africanus,  Sex.  Julius.)  His  remains  were  publish- 
 ed in  the  Collection  of  Writers  on  Veterinary  Medi- 
 cine, first  in  a  Latin  translation  by  J.  Ruellius,  Par., 
 1530,  fi)l.,  and  afterward  in  Greek,  Bas.,  1537,  4to, 
 edited  by  Grynaeus. — IV.  Sex.  C^cilius,  a  classi- 
 cal Roman  jurisconsult,  who  lived  under  Antoninus 
 Pius.  He  was  probably  a  pupil  of  Salvius  Julianus, 
 the  celebrated  reformer  of  the  Edict  under  Hadrian. 
 He  consulted  Julian  on  legal  subjects  (Dig.,  25,  lit. 
 3,  s  3,  ij  4),  and  there  is  a  controverted  passage  in 
 the  Digest  {Africanus  lihro  vicc.iimo Epistolantm  apud 
 Julianum  qucErit,  &c.  :  Dig.,  30,  til.  1,  s.  39),  which 
 has  been  explained  in  various  ways  ;  either  that  he 
 published  a  legal  correspondence  which  passed  be- 
 tween him  and  Julianus,  or  that  he  commented 
 upon  the  epistolary  opinions  given  by  Julianus  in 
 answer  to  the  letters  of  clients,  or  that  he  wrote  a 
 commentary  upon  Julianus  in  the  form  of  letters. 
 On  the  other  hand,  Julianus  "ex  Sexto"  is  quoted 
 by  Gains  (2,  218),  which  shows  that  Julianus  an- 
 notat(ul  Sextus,  the  formula  "ex  Sexto"  being  sy- 
 nonymous with  "ad  Sextum."  {Ncubcr,  Die  Jurist. 
 KLissi/ccr,  8,  9.)  Who  was  Sextus  but  Africanus  '! 
 Africanus  was  the  author  of  "  Libri  IX  Qua?stio- 
 num,"  from  which  many  pure  extracts  are  made  in 
 the  Digest,  as  may  be  seen  in  Hommers  "  Palinge- 
 nesia  Pandectarum,"  where  the  extracts  from  each 
 jurist  are  brought  together,  and  those  that  are 
 taken  from  Africanus  occupy  26  out  of  about  1800 
 f'ages. 
 
 From  his  remains,  thus  preserved  in  the  Digest, 
 
 it  is  evident  that  he  was  intimately  acquainted  with 
 the  opinions  of  Julianus,  who  is  the  person  alluded 
 to  when,  without  any  expressed  nominative,  he 
 uses  the  words  ait,  cxisiimavit,  negavit,  pulavil,  in- 
 quit,  rcspondit,  placet,  notat.  This  is  proved  by  Cu- 
 jas,  from  a  com|)arison  of  some  Greek  scholia  on  the 
 Basilica  with  parallel  extracts  from  Africanus  in 
 the  Digest.  Paullus  and  IJlpian  have  done  Africa- 
 nus the  honour  of  citing  his  authority.  He  was 
 fond  of  antiquarian  lore  (Dig.,  7,  tit.  7,  s.  1,  pr., 
 where  the  true  reading  is  S.  Ccecilius,  not  S.  jEIius), 
 and  his  "Libri  IX.  Qua?stionum,"  from  the  concise- 
 ness of  the  style,  the  great  subtlety  of  the  reason- 
 ing, and  the  knottiness  of  the  points  discussed,  so 
 puzzled  the  old  glossators,  that,  when  they  came  to 
 an  extract  from  Africanus,  they  were  wont  to  ex- 
 claim Africani  lex,  id  r.st  difficiHs.  (Hcinccc,  Hist., 
 Jur.  Rom.,  (}  306,  n.)  Mascovius  (De  Seclis  Jur.,  4, 
 <J  3)  supposes  that  Africanus  belonged  to  the  legal 
 sect  of  the  Sabiniani,  and  as  our  author  was  a 
 steady  follower  of  Salvius  Julianus,  who  was  a  Sa- 
 binian  (Caius,  2,  217,  218,)  this  supposition  maybe 
 regarded  as  established.  In  the  time  of  Antoninus 
 Pius,  the  distinction  of  schools  or  sects  had  not  yet 
 worn  out. 
 
 Among  the  writers  of  the  lives  of  ancient  law- 
 yers (Pancirollus,  Jo.  Bertrandus,  Grotius,  &c.), 
 much  dispute  has  arisen  as  to  the  time  when  Africa- 
 nus wrote,  in  consequence  of  a  corrupt  or  erroneous 
 passage  in  Lampridius  (Lamp.,  Alex.  Scv.,  68),  which 
 would  make  him  a  friend  of  Severus  Alexander  and 
 a  disciple  of  Papinian.  Cujas  ingeniously  and  sat- 
 isfactorily disposes  of  this  anachronism  by  referring 
 to  the  internal  evidence  of  an  extract  from  Africa- 
 nus (Dig.,  30,  til.  1,  s.  109),  which  assumes  the  va- 
 lidity of  a  legal  maxim  that  was  no  longer  in  force 
 when  Papinian  wrote. 
 
 For  reasons  which  it  would  be  tedious  to  detail, 
 we  hold,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Menage  (Ama:n. 
 Jar.,  c.  23),  that  our  Sextus  Ca?cilius  Africanus  is 
 identical  with  the  jurist  sometimes  mentioned  in 
 the  Digest  by  the  name  Ca;cilius  or  S.  Ca^cilius, 
 and  also  with  that  S.  Caecilius  whose  dispute  with 
 Favorinus  forms  an  amusing  and  interesting  chap- 
 ter in  the  Noctes  Atticaj.  (GclL,  20,  1.)  Gellius, 
 perhaps,  draws  to  some  extent  upon  his  own  inven- 
 tion, but,  at  all  events,  the  lawyer's  defence  of  the 
 XII.  Tables  against  the  attacks  of  the  philosopher  is 
 "ben  trovato."  There  is  something  humorously 
 cruel  in  the  concluding  stroke  of  the  conversation, 
 in  the  pedantic  way  in  which  our  jurisconsult  vin- 
 dicates the  decemviral  law  against  debtors — partis 
 secanto,  &c. — by  the  example  of  Melius  Fuletius, 
 and  the  harsh  sentiment  of  Virgil : 
 
 "  At  tu  diclis,  Albanc,  mancres." 
 
 The  remains  of  Africanus  have  been  admirably 
 expounded  by  Cujas  (ad  Africannm  tractatus  IX.,  in 
 Cujac,  0pp.,  vol.  1),  and  have  also  been  annotated 
 by  Scipio  Gentili.  (Scip.  Genlilts,  Diss.  I.-IX.  ad 
 Africanum,  4to,  Altdorf,  1602-7.  —  iStrauchiit.'i,  Vi- 
 tiZ  aliquot  velcrum  jurisconsultorum,  8vo,  Jen.,  1723. 
 — /.  Zimmern,  Rom.  Reclitsgeschichte,  ^  94  )  — V. 
 Julius,  a  celebrated  orator  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
 seems  to  have  been  the  son  of  Julius  Africanus,  of 
 the  Gallic  state  of  the  Santoni,  who  was  condemn- 
 ed by  Tiberius,  A.D.  32.  (Tac,  Ann.,  6,  7.)  Quin- 
 lilian,  who  hatl  heard  Julius  Africanus,  sjieaks  of 
 him  and  Domiliiis  Afer  as  the  best  orators  of  their 
 time.  'I'he  eloquence  of  Africanus  was  chiefly 
 characterized  by  vehtiiiience  and  energy.  (QuinfiL, 
 10,  1,  >J  118  ;  12,  10,  6  11  :  comp,  8,  5,  ^  15.— Dial, 
 dc  Oral.,  15.)  Pliny  mentions  a  grandson  of  this 
 Julius  Africanus,  who  was  also  an  advocate,  and 
 was  opposed  to  him  upon  one  occasion.  (Ep.,  7,  6.) 
 He  was  consul  suffectus  in  A.D.  108. 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1421 
 
 Agaclytus  ('Aya/cAurof),  the  author  of  a  work 
 about  Olyuipia  (lltpi  'O'AvfiTriac),  which  is  referred 
 to  by  Suidas  and  Photius  (a-,  v.  Kv^l/e/.l^<l)v). 
 
 Agallis  ('Aya?Mc),  of  Corcyra,  a  female  gram- 
 riianan.  who  wruie  upon  Homer.  {At/icn.,  1,  p.  14, 
 d  )  Some  liave  supposed,  from  two  (lassages  in 
 Suidas  (s.  v.  'AvuyaX'Atg  and  'Opxvctc),  that  we 
 ouglit  to  read  Anagallis  in  tliis  passage  of  Athena;- 
 us.  The  scholiast  upon  Homer  and  Euslathius  [ad 
 11.,  18,  491)  mention  a  grammarian  of  the  name  of 
 Agallias,  a  pupil  of  Aristophanes  th(!  grammarian, 
 also  a  Corcyra;an  and  a  commentator  upon  Ho- 
 mer, who  may  be  the  same  as  Agallis,  or,  perhaps, 
 her  father. 
 
 AoAMKUK  {.\.yaju'j(ir}),  I.  a  daughter  of  Augeias 
 and  wife  of  Mulius,  who,  aceorduig  to  Homer  (//., 
 11,  731)),  was  atujuainlcd  with  the  healing  powers 
 of  all  the  plants  that  grow  upon  the  earth.  Hygi- 
 nus  (Fab.,  157)  makes  her  the  mother  of  Belus, 
 Actor,  and  Dictys,  by  Poseidon. — II.  A  daughter  of 
 Macaria,  from  whom  Agamede,  a  place  in  Tiesbos, 
 was  believed  to  have  derived  its  name.  (Slcpk. 
 Byz.,  s.  V.  ' .\yaiiii6r].) 
 
 Agapetus  ('AyaTz^Tof),  I.  Metropolitan  Bishop 
 of  Rhodes,  A.IJ.  457.  When  the  Emperor  Leo 
 wrote  to  him  for  the  opinion  of  his  suffragans  and 
 himself  on  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  he  defended  it 
 against  Timotheus  iiSlurus,  in  a  letter  still  extant  in 
 a  Latin  translation,  Concihomm  Nova  Collcctio  ^ 
 Mansi,  vol.  7,  p.  580. — \l.  St.,  born  at  Rome,  was 
 archdeacon,  and  raised  to  the  Holy  See,  A.D.  535 
 He  was  no  sooner  consecrated  than  he  look  off  the 
 anathemas  pronounced  by  Pope  Boniface  H.  against 
 his  deceased  rival  Dioscorus  on  a  false  charge  of 
 simony.  He  received  an  appeal  from  the  Catholics 
 of  Constantinople,  when  Anthinms,  the  Monophy- 
 site,  was  made  their  bishop  by  Theodora.  The  fear 
 of  an  invasion  of  Italy  by  Justinian  led  the  Goth 
 Theodatus  to  oblige  St.  Agapetus  to  go  himself  to 
 Constantinople,  in  hope  that  Justinian  might  be  di- 
 veited  from  his  purpose.  {Vid.  Brcviarium  S.  Libc- 
 rati.  jp.  Mansi,  Concilia,  v(d.  9,  p.  695.)  As  to  this 
 last  object,  he  could  make  no  impression  on  the  em- 
 peror, but  he  succeeded  in  persuading  him  to  depose 
 Anthimus ;  and  when  Mennas  was  chosen  to  suc- 
 ceed him,  Agapetus  laid  his  own  hands  upon  him. 
 The  council  and  the  Synodal  (interpreted  into  Greek) 
 sent  by  Agapetus  relating  to  these  affairs  may  be 
 found  aj).  Mansi,  vol.  8,  p.  869,  921.  Complaints 
 were  sent  him  from  various  quarters  against  the 
 Monophysite  Acephali ;  but  he  died  suddenly,  A.D. 
 536,  .'Vpril  22,  and  they  were  read  in  a  council  held 
 on  2d  May,  by  Mennas.  {Mansi,  ibid.,  p.  874.) 
 There  are  two  letters  from  St.  Agapetus  to  Justin- 
 ian in  reply  to  a  letter  from  the  emperor,  in  the 
 latter  of  which  he  refuses  to  acknowledge  the  Or- 
 ders of  the  Arians  ;  and  there  are  two  others  :  1. 
 To  tiie  bishops  of  Africa,  on  the  same  subject ;  2. 
 To  Keparatus,  bishop  of  Carthage,  in  answer  to  a 
 letter  of  congratulation  on  his  elevation  to  the  pon- 
 tificate. {Mansi,  Connlia,  8,  p.  846-850.)  — HI 
 Deacon  of  the  Church  of  St.  So|)hia,  A.D.  527. 
 There  arc  two  other  Agapcti  mentioned  in  a  coun- 
 3ii  held  by  Mennas  at  this  time  at  Constantinople, 
 who  were  archimandrites,  or  abbots.  Agapetus 
 was  tutor  to  Ju.'stinian,  and,  on  the  accession  of  the 
 latter  to  the  empire,  addressed  to  him  Admonitions 
 on  the  dutij  of  a  Prince,  in  72  sections,  the  initial 
 letters  of  which  form  the  dedication  {iKOcnig  kc^- 
 aXaiuv  irapatveTiKiJv  a^tihaoddaa).  The  repute  in 
 which  this  work  was  held  appears  from  its  common 
 title,  viz.,  the  Royal  Sections  ((7,^^(5)?  (iacn'kiKn).  It 
 was  published,  with  a  Latin  version,  by  Zach.  Cal- 
 lierg.,  Svo,  Ven  ,  1509,  afterward  by  J.  Brunon,8vo, 
 Lips.,  1669  ;  Grdbcl,  8vo,  Lips..  1733,  and  in  Gtil- 
 landi's  Bibliothcca,  vol.  11,  p.  255,  &c.,  Yen.,  1676, 
 
 after  the  edition  of  Bandurius  (Benedictine).  It  was 
 translated  into  French  by  Louis  XIII.,  Svo,  Par., 
 1612,  and  by  Th.  Paynell  into  English,  12nio,  Lond., 
 1550.  —  IV.  An  ancient  <;reek  physician,  whose 
 remedy  for  the  gout  is  mentioned  w  ith  approbation 
 by  Alexander  Trallianus  (11,  p.  303)  and  Paulus 
 yEgineta  (3,  78,  p.  497;  7,  11,  p.  6G1).  He  prob- 
 ably lived  between  the  third  and  sixth  centuries  af- 
 ter Christ,  or  certainly  not  later,  as  Alexander  Tral- 
 lianus, by  whom  he  is  quoted,  is  supposed  to  have 
 flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century. 
 
 Agapius  {'AyuTTtog),  an  ancient  physician  of  Al- 
 exandrea,  who  taught  and  practised  medicine  at 
 Byzantium  with  great  success  and  reputation,  and 
 acquired  immense  riches.  Of  his  date  it  can  only 
 be  determined,  that  he  must  have  lived  before  the 
 end  of  the  fifth  century  after  Christ,  as  Damascius 
 (from  whom  Photius,  Biblioth.,  cod.  242,  and  Sui- 
 das have  taken  their  account  of  him)  lived  about 
 that  time. 
 
 Agarista  {'AyapiaTrj,')  II.  the  daughter  of  Cleis- 
 thenes,  tyrant  oi  Sicyon,  whom  her  father  promised 
 to  give  in  marriage  to  the  best  of  the  Greeks.  Suit- 
 ers came  to  Sicyon  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  and 
 among  others  Megacles,  the  son  of  Alcma^on,  from 
 Athens.  Alter  they  had  been  detained  at  Sicyon 
 for  a  whole  year,  during  which  time  Cleisthenes 
 nnade  trial  of  them  in  various  ways,  he  gave  Aga- 
 rista to  Alcmzeon.  From  this  marriage  came  the 
 Cleisthenes  who  divided  the  Athenians  into  ten 
 tribes,  and  Hippocrates.  {Herodotus,  6.  126-130. 
 — Compare  AlhcncBus,  6,  p  273,  b,  c;  12,  541,  b, 
 c.) 
 
 Agathemerus,  II.  Claudius  {K?mv6w^  'AyaOn/ie- 
 pof),  an  ancient  Greek  physician,  who  lived  in  the 
 first  century  after  Christ.  He  was  born  at  Laceda;- 
 mon,  and  was  a  pupil  of  the  philosopher  Cornutus, 
 in  whose  house  he  became  acquainted  with  the  poet 
 Persius,  about  A.D.  50.  {I'seudo-Sucton.,  vita  Per- 
 sii.)  In  the  old  editions  of  Suetonius  he  is  called 
 Aoalcrnns,  a  mistake  which  was  first  corrected  by 
 Reinesius  {Syntagma  Inscrijit.  Aniiq.,  p.  610),  from 
 the  epitaph  upon  him  and  his  wile,  Myrtale,  which 
 is  preserved  in  the  Marmora  Oioniensia  and  the 
 Greek  Anthology,  vol.  3,  p.  381,  ^  224,  ed.  Taiichn. 
 The  apparent  anomaly  of  a  Roman  pranomen  being 
 given  to  a  Greek,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact, 
 which  we  learn  IVom  Suetonius  {Tiber ,  6),  that  the 
 Spartans  were  the  hereditary  clients  of  the  Claudia 
 gens.  (C.  G.  Kiihn,  Additam.  ad  Elench.  Medic.  Vet. 
 a  J.  A.  Fahricio,  in  "  Bibliolh.  Graca,"  exhibit.) 
 
 AgathInus  {'AydOivor),  an  eminent  ancient  Greek 
 physician,  the  founder  of  a  new  medical  sect,  to 
 which  he  gave  the  name  of  Episynfhrfici.  {Diet,  of 
 Ant.,  s.  V.  Episyntiietici  )  He  was  born  at  Sparta, 
 and  must  have  lived  m  the  first  century  after  Christ, 
 as  he  was  the  pupil  of  AtheuKiis,  and  the  tutor  of 
 Archigenes.  {Galen,  Dcjinit.  Med.,  c.  14,  vol.  19, 
 p.  353. — Suidas,  s.  v.  'Apxtyivm. — Eiidoc  ,  Violar., 
 up.  Villoisim,  Ancrd.  Gr.,  vol.  1,  p.  65.)  He  is  said 
 to  have  been  once  seized  with  an  attack  of  delirium, 
 brought  on  by  want  of  sleep,  from  which  he  was  de- 
 livered by  his  pupil  Archigenes,  who  ordered  his 
 head  to  be  fomented  with  a  great  quantity  of  warm 
 oil.  {.Mtius.  tctr.  1,  scrm.  3,  17'2,  p.  156  )  He  is  fre- 
 quently quoted  by  Galen,  who  mentions  him  among 
 the  Pneumatici.  {Dc  Dignosc.  Puis.,  1,  3,  vol.  8,  p. 
 787.)  None  of  his  writings  are  now  extant,  but  a 
 few  fragments  are  contained  in  MatthaM's  (Collection, 
 entitled  XXI.  Vctrntm  et  Claronim  Mcdicorum  Grae- 
 corum  Varia  Opuscula,  Mosqucr,  1808, 4to.  See,  also, 
 Palladius,  Comment,  in  Hippocr.,  ^'  Dc  Morh.  PopiiL, 
 lib.  6,"  ap.  Diet:,  Scholia  ui  Hippocr.  ct  Galen.,  vol. 
 2,  p.  56.  The  particular  opinions  of  his  sect  are  not 
 exactly  known,  but  they  were  probably  nearly  the 
 same  as  those  of  the  Eclectici.     {Diet,  of  Ant.,  s.  v. 
 
1422 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 EcLECTici. —  Vid.  J.  C.  Oxlcrhausen,  Histor.  Scctm 
 Pneumalic.  Med.,  Allorf.,  1791,  8vo. — C.  G.  Kuhn, 
 Addi/am.  ad  Elcnch  Medic.  V"ct.  a  J.  A.  Fabricio,  in 
 "  Bihliulh.  Gracca,^'  exhibit.) 
 
 Agathoclea  {' hyaOoK'ki'ia).  a  mistress  of  the  prof- 
 ligate Ptolemy  Plulopator,  king  of  Egypt,  and  sis- 
 ter of  his  no  less  profligate  minister  Agathocles. 
 She  and  her  brother,  who  both  exercised  the  most 
 unbounded  influence  over  the  king,  were  introduced 
 to  him  by  their  ambitious  and  avaricious  mother, 
 Oi^nantbe.  After  Ptolemy  had  put  to  death  his  wife 
 and  sister  Eurydice,  Agathoclea  became  his  fa- 
 vourite. On  the  death  of  Ptolemy  (B.C.  205),  Agath- 
 oclea and  her  friends  kept  the  event  secret,  that 
 they  might  have  an  opportunity  of  plundering  the 
 royal  treasury.  They  also  formed  a  conspiracy  for 
 setting  Agathocles  on  the  throne.  He  managed  for 
 some  time,  in  conjunction  with  Sosibius,  to  act  as 
 guardian  to  the  young  king  Ptolemy  Epiphanes.  At 
 last,  the  Egyptians  and  the  Macedonians  of  Alexan- 
 drea,  exasperated  at  his  outrages,  rose  against  him, 
 and  Tlepolemus  placed  himself  at  their  head.  They 
 surrounded  the  palace  in  the  night,  and  forced  their 
 way  in.  Agathocles  and  his  sister  implored  in  the 
 most  abject  manner  that  their  lives  might  be  spared, 
 but  in  vain.  The  former  was  killed  by  his  friends, 
 that  he  might  not  be  exposed  to  a  more  cruel  fate. 
 Agathoclea,  with  her  sisters,  and  CEnanthe,  who 
 had  taken  refuge  in  a  temple,  were  dragged  forth, 
 and  in  a  state  of  nakedness  exposed  to  the  fury  of 
 the  multitude,  who  literally  tore  them  limb  from 
 limb.  All  their  relatives,  and  those  who  had  any 
 share  in  the  murder  of  Eurydice,  were  likewise  put 
 to  death.  {Polyb.,5,  (i2\  14,11;  15,  25-34.— Jms^i«., 
 30,  1,  2. — Athen.,  6,  p.  251 ;  13,  p.  bl&.—Plut.,  Clcom., 
 33.)  There  was  another  Agathoclea,  the  daughter 
 of  a  man  named  Aristomenes,  who  was  by  birth  an 
 Acarnanian,  and  rose  to  great  power  in  Egypt. 
 [Polyb.,  I.  c.) 
 
 Agathocles  {'KyadoKliiQ),  VI.  a  Greek  historian, 
 who  wrote  the  history  of  Cyzicus  {irspl  Kisikov).  He 
 is  called  by  Athenasus  both  a  Babylonian  (1,  p.  30, 
 a  ;  9,  p.  375,  a)  and  a  Cyzican  (14,  p.  649,  f).  He 
 may  originally  have  come  from  Babylon,  and  have 
 settled  at  Cyzicus.  The  first  and  third  books  are 
 referred  to  by  Athenaeus  (9,  p.  375,  f ;  12,  p.  515, 
 a).  The  time  at  which  .'\gathocles  lived  is  un- 
 known, and  his  work  is  now  lost ;  but  it  seems  to 
 have  been  extensively  read  in  antiquity,  as  it  is  re- 
 ferred to  by  Cicero  (De  Dio.,  1,  24),  Pliny  (Hist  Nat., 
 Elenchus  of  books  4,  5,  6),  and  other  ancient  wri- 
 ters. Agathocles  also  spoke  of  the  origin  of  Rome. 
 (Festus,  s.  V.  Romam. — Sulinus,  Polyh.,  1.)  The 
 scholiast  on  Apollonius  (4,  761)  cites  Memoirs  {vno- 
 uvr//mTa)  by  an  Agathocles,  who  is  usually  supposed 
 to  be  the  same  as  the  above-mentioned  one.  (Com- 
 pare Schol.  ad  Hcs.,  Theog.,  485, — Steph.  Byz.,  s.  v. 
 Bea6iKOC. — Etymol.  M.,  s.  v.  AiKrij.) 
 
 There  are  several  other  writers  of  the  same 
 name.  I.  Agathocles  of  Atrax,  who  wrote  a  work 
 on  Fishing  {u?UEvriK.d  :  Smda.s,  s.  v.KiniXior:). — H.  Of 
 Chios,  who  wrote  a  work  on  Agriculture.  ( Varro 
 and  Colum.,  Dc  Re  Rust.,  1,  \.—Plin.,  H.  N.,  22, 
 44.) — III.  Of  Miletus,  who  wrote  a  work  on  Rivers. 
 {Plut.,  De  Fluv.,  p.  1153,  c.)— IV.  Of  Sarnos,  who 
 wrote  a  work  on  the  Constitution  of  Pessinus. 
 iPlut  ,ibid.,  p.  1159,  a.) 
 
 AoATHoDyEMON  {' AyaOoSai/xuv),  Ul.a  nativeof  Alex- 
 andrea.  All  that  is  known  of  him  is,  that  he  was 
 the  designer  of  some  maps  to  accompany  Ptolemy's 
 Geography.  Copies  of  these  maps  are  found  ap- 
 pended to  several  MSS.  of  Ptolemy.  One  of  these 
 is  at  Vienna,  another  at  Venice.  At  the  end  of 
 each  of  these  MSS.  is  the  following  notice  :  'E/c  ruv 
 KAavdiov  liTolefiaiov  TeuypaipiKCjv  fiikXluv  uicru  ttjv 
 o'lKOVfiivTiv  iTdcrav'AyaOo(iaifj.<j)v  'ATir^avdpF.vs  iinETv- 
 
 n<jae  (Agathodaernon  of  Alexandrea  delineated  tne 
 whole  inhabited  world  according  to  the  eight  books 
 on  Geography  of  CI.  Ptolcmaeus).  The  Vienna  MS. 
 of  Ptolemy  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  extant.  The 
 maps  attached  to  it,  27  in  number,  comprising  1  gen- 
 eral map,  10  maps  of  Europe,  4  of  Africa,  and  12  ol 
 Asia,  are  coloured,  the  water  being  green,  the  mount- 
 ains red  or  dark  yellow,  and  the  land  white.  The 
 climates,  parallels,  and  the  hours  of  the  longest  day, 
 are  marked  on  the  east  margin  of  the  maps,  and  tho 
 meridians  on  the  north  and  south.  We  have  no 
 evidence  as  to  when  Agathoda?mon  lived,  as  the 
 only  notice  preserved  respecting  him  is  that  quoted 
 above.  There  was  a  grammarian  of  the  same  name, 
 to  whom  some  extant  letters  of  Isidore  of  Pelusium 
 are  addressed.  Some  have  thought  him  to  be  the 
 Agathodaernon  in  question.  Heeren,  however,  con- 
 siders the  r'  'ineator  of  the  maps  to  have  been  a  con- 
 temporary of  Ptolemy,  who  (8, 1,  2)  mentions  certain 
 maps  or  tables,  {-rrivaKeg),  which  agree  in  number 
 and  arrangement  with  those  of  Agathodaemon  in  the 
 MSS. 
 
 Various  errors  having,  in  the  course  of  time,  crept 
 into  the  copies  of  the  maps  of  Agathodaemon,  Nico- 
 laus  Donis,  a  Benedictine  monk,  who  flourished 
 about  A.D.  1470,  restored  and  corrected  them,  sub- 
 stituting Latin  for  Greek  names.  His  maps  are  ap- 
 pended to  the  Ebnerian  MS.  of  Ptolemy.  They  are 
 the  same  in  number  and  nearly  the  same  in  order 
 with  those  of  Agathodaernon.  {Heeren,  Commcntatw 
 de  Fontibus  Gcograph.  Ptolenicci  Tabularumque  its 
 annexarum. — Raidcl,  Commcntatio  critico-literaria  de 
 CI.  PtolcmcPA  Geographia  ejusque  codicibns,  p.  7.) 
 
 Agathon  {'Ayudov),  II.  the  son  of  the  Macedo- 
 nian Philotas,  and  the  brother  of  Parmenion  and 
 Asander,  was  given  as  a  hostage  to  Antigonus,  in 
 B.C.  313,  by  his  brother  Asander,  who  was  satrap 
 of  Caria,  but  was  taken  back  again  by  Asander  in  a 
 few  days.  {Diod.,  19,  75.)  Agathon  had  a  son  named 
 Asander,  who  is  mentioned  in  a  Greek  inscription. 
 [Bdckh,  Corp.  Inscrrp.,  105.)  —  III.  Of  Samos,  who 
 wrote  a  work  upon  Scythia  and  another  upon  Rivers. 
 {Plutarch,  De  Fluv.,  p.  1156,  e,  1159,  a. — Stobcius, 
 Serm.,  tit.  100,  10,  ed   Gaisford.) 
 
 Agathotychus  {' Ayadorvxng),  an  ancient  veteri- 
 nary surgeon,  whose  date  and  history  are  unknown, 
 but  who  probably  lived  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century 
 after  Christ.  Some  fragments  of  his  writings  are 
 to  be  found  in  the  collection  of  works  on  this  sub- 
 ject first  published  in  a  Latin  translation  by  Jo. 
 Ruellius,  VeterinaricE  Medicinm  Libri  dun,  Paris, 
 1530,  fol ,  and  afterward  in  Greek  by  Grynaeus, 
 Basd.,  1537,  4to. 
 
 Agraulos,  II.  a  daughter  of  Cecrops  and  Agrau- 
 los,  and  mother  of  Alcippe  by  Mars.  This  Agrau- 
 los is  an  important  personage  in  the  stories  of  At- 
 tica, and  there  were  three  different  legends  about 
 her.  1.  According  to  Pausanias  (1,  18,  <5>  2)  and 
 Hyginus  {Fab.,  166),  Athena  gave  to  her  and  her 
 sisters  Erichthonius  in  a  chest,  with  the  express 
 command  not  to  open  it.  But  Agraulos  and  Herse 
 could  not  control  their  curiosity,  and  opened  it ; 
 whereupon  they  were  seized  with  madness  at  the 
 sight  of  Erichthonius,  and  threw  themselves  from 
 the  steep  rock  of  the  Acropolis,  or,  according  to  Hy- 
 ginus, into  the  sea.  2.  According  to  Ovid  {Met.,  2, 
 710,  &c  ),  Agraulos  and  her  sister  survived  their 
 opening  the  chest,  and  the  former,  who  had  insti- 
 gated her  sister  to  open  it,  was  punished  in  this 
 manner.  Hermes  came  to  Athens  during  the  cel- 
 ebration of  the  Panatheucea,  and  fell  in  love  with 
 Herse.  Athena  made  Agraulos  so  jealous  of  her 
 sister,  that  she  even  attempted  to  prevent  the  god 
 entering  the  house  of  Herse.  But,  indignant  at 
 such  presumption,  he  changed  Agraulos  into  a 
 stone.     3.  The  third  legend  represents  Agraulo.s  in 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1423 
 
 a  totally  clifTerent  light.  Athens  was  at  one  time 
 involved  ill  a  long  pioiractod  war,  and  an  oracle  de- 
 clared that  it  would  cease  if  some  one  would  sac- 
 rifice himself  for  the  good  of  his  country.  Agraulos 
 came  forward  and  threw  herself  down  the  Acropo- 
 lis. The  Athenians,  in  gratitude  for  this,  built  her 
 a  temple  on  the  Acropolis,  in  which  it  subsequently 
 became  customary  for  the  young  Athenians,  on  re- 
 ceiving their  first  suit  of  armour,  to  take  an  oath 
 that  they  would  always  defend  their  country  to  the 
 last.  (^Suid.  and  Hcsych  ,  s.  v.  'Aypav/.or;.  —  Utpian, 
 ad  Dcnwsih.,  De  fats.  kg. — Herod.,  8,  53. — Pint  ,  Al- 
 cib.,  15.  —  Fhilochonis,  Fragm.,  p.  18,  cd.  Sicbclis.) 
 One  of  the  Attic  d/'//ioi.  (Agraule)  derived  its  name 
 from  this  heroine,  and  a  festival  and  mysteries  were 
 celebrated  at  Athens  in  honour  of  her.  (^Stcph. 
 Bijzanl.,  s.  V.  'AypavXi). — Lvhcck,  Aglaoph.,  p.  89. — 
 Diet,  of  A)it.,  s.  V.  Agraulia)  According  to  Porphyry 
 (^De  Ahstin.  ab  animal.,  1,  2),  she  was  also  worship- 
 ped in  Cyprus,  where  human  sacrifices  were  offer- 
 ed to  her  down  to  a  very  late  time. 
 
 Agyrkhius  ('A}i'p/)/,of),  a  native  of  Collytus  in 
 Attica,  whom  Andocides  ironically  calls  tw  Ka?.dv 
 KuyaOiiv  {Dc  Mijst.,  p.  65,  cd.  Reiske),  after  being 
 in  prison  many  years  for  embezzlement  of  public 
 money,  obtained,  about  B.C.  395,  the  restoration  of 
 the  Theoricon,  and  also  tripled  the  pay  for  attend- 
 ing the  assembly,  though  he  reduced  the  allowance 
 previously  given  to  the  comic  writers.  (^Harpocrat.. 
 s.  V.  OeupiKa,  'Ayi'ppio^. — Suidas,  s.  v.  iKKXijaiaari- 
 Kov. — Schul.  ad  Arisloph.,  EccL,  102. — Dcm.,  c.  Tt- 
 rnocr.,  p.  742.)  By  this  expenditure  of  the  public 
 revenue  Agyrrhius  became  so  popular,  that  he  was 
 appointed  general  in  B.C.  389.  {Xc7i.,  HcIL,  4,  8. 
 (j  3L—Diod.,  14,  99.— BikLh,  Piihl.  Econ.  of  Athens. 
 p.  223,  224,  316,  &c.,  2d  ed.,  Engl.  tra?isL  —  Schu- 
 mann, Dc  Comiliis,  p.  65,  &c.) 
 
 Ahal.i,  the  name  of  a  patrician  family  of  the 
 Serviiia  gens.  There  were  also  several  pf^rsons  of 
 this  gens  with  the  name  of  Siructus  Ahala,  who 
 may  have  formed  a  difTerent  family  from  the  Aha- 
 Ise  ;  but  as  the  Ahalaj  and  Struct!  Ahalae  are  fre- 
 quently confounded,  all  the  persons  of  these  names 
 are  given  here. — I.  C.  Servilius  Structus,  consul 
 B.C.  478,  died  in  his  year  of  office,  as  appears  from 
 the  Fasti.  (Lry.,  2,  49.) — II.  C.  Servilius  Structus, 
 magister  equitum  B.C.  439,  when  L.  Cincinnatns 
 was  appointed  dictator  on  the  pretence  that  Sp. 
 Maslius  was  plotting  against  the  state.  In  the  night 
 in  which  the  dictator  was  appointed,  the  Capitol  and 
 all  the  strong  posts  were  garrisoned  by  tlie  parti- 
 sans of  the  patricians.  In  the  morning,  when  the 
 people  assembled  in  the  forum,  and  Sp.  Ma;lius 
 among  them,  Ahala  summoned  the  latter  to  appear 
 before  the  dictator  ;  and  upon  .Majlius  disobeying 
 and  taking  refuge  in  the  crowd,  Ahala  rushed  into 
 the  throng  and  killed  him.  (Ltp.,  4,  13,  14. — Zona- 
 ras,  7,  20.  —  Dionys.,  Ezc.  Mai,  1,  p.  3.)  This  act 
 is  mentioned  by  later  writers  as  an  example  of  an- 
 cient heroism,  and  is  frequently  referred  to  by  Ci- 
 cero in  terms  of  the  highest  admiration  {in  Catil., 
 1,  1 ;  Pro  Mil.,  3  ;  Calo,  16)  ;  but  it  was,  in  reality, 
 a  case  of  murder,  and  was  so  regarded  at  the  time. 
 Ahala  was  tirought  to  trial,  and  only  escaped  con- 
 demnation by  a  voluntary  exile.  {Val.  Max.,  5,3, 
 {{"Z.—Cic,  Dc  Rep  ,  1,  3  ;  Pro  Dom,  32)  Livy  pass- 
 es over  this,  and  only  mentions  (4,  21)  that  a  bill 
 was  brought  in  three  years  afterward,  B.C.  436,  by 
 another  Sji.  Marlins,  a  tribune,  for  confiscating  the 
 property  of  .'\hala,  but  that  it  failed. 
 
 A  representation  of  Ahala  is  given  on  a  coin  of 
 M.  Brutus,  the  murderer  of  Ca;sar,  but  we  cannot 
 suppose  it  to  be  anything  more  than  an  imaginary 
 likeness.  M.  Brutus  pretended  that  he  was  de- 
 scended from  L.  Brutus,  the  first  consul,  on  his 
 father's  side,  and  from  C.  Ahala  on  his  mother's. 
 
 and  thus  was  sprung  from  two  tyrannicides.  (Comp. 
 Cic.  ad  Alt.,  13,  40.)— 111.  C.  Servilius  Q.  k.  C.  \. 
 Structus,  consul  B.C.  427.  (L(p.,  4,  30.)— IV.  C. 
 Servilius  P.  F.  Q.  N.  Structus,  consular  tribune 
 B.C.  408,  and  magister  equitum  in  the  same  year  ; 
 which  latter  dignity  he  obtained  in  consequence  of 
 supporting  the  senate  against  his  colleagues,  who 
 did  not  wish  a  dictator  to  be  apjiointed.  for  the 
 same  reason,  he  was  elected  consular  tribune  a  sec- 
 ond time  in  the  following  year,  407.  He  was  a 
 consular  tribune  a  third  time  in  402,  when  he  assist- 
 ed the  senate  in  co:ni)elling  his  colleagues  to  resign, 
 who  had  been  defeated  by  the  enemy.  {Liv.,  4,  56, 
 57  ;  5,  8,  9.) — V.  C.  Servilius,  magister  equitum 
 B.C.  389,  when  Camillus  was  appointed  dictator  a 
 third  time.  {Liv.,  6,  2.)  Ahala  is  spoken  of  as 
 magister  equitum  in  385,  on  occasion  of  the  trial  of 
 Manlius.  Manlius  summoned  him  to  bear  witness 
 in  his  favour,  as  one  of  those  whose  lives  lie  had 
 saved  in  battle,  but  Ahala  did  not  appear.  (4,  20.) 
 Pliny,  who  mentions  this  circumstance,  calls  Ahala 
 P.  Servilius.  {H.  N.,  7,  39.)— \T.  Q.  Servilius 
 Q.  F.  Q.  N.,  consul  B.C.  365,  and  again  B.C.  362,  in 
 the  latter  of  which  years  he  appointed  Ap.  Claudius 
 dictator,  after  his  plebeian  colleague  L.  Geiuicius 
 had  been  slain  in  battle.  In  300  he  was  himself  ap- 
 pointed dictator  in  consequence  of  a  Gallic  tumultus, 
 and  defeated  the  Gauls  near  the  CoUine  Gate.  He 
 held  the  comitia  as  interrex  in  355  {Liv.,  7,  1,4, 
 6,  11,  17.) — VII.  Q.  Servilius  Q.  f.  Q.  n.,  magister 
 equitum  B.C.  351,  when  M.  Fabius  was  appointed 
 dictator  to  frustrate  the  Licinian  law,  and  consul 
 B.C.  342,  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  Sainnite  war. 
 He  remained  in  the  city  ;  his  colleague  had  the 
 charge  of  the  war.     {Liv.,  7,  22,  38.) 
 
 Ahexobarbus,  I.  Cn.  Domitius  L.  f.  L.  n.,  ple- 
 beian a?(lile  B.C.  196,  prosecuted,  in  conjunction 
 with  his  colleague  C.  Curio,  many  pecuarti,  and 
 with  the  fines  raised  therefrom  built  a  temple  of 
 Faunus  in  the  island  of  the  Tiber,  which  he  dedi- 
 cated in  his  prajtorship,  B.C.  194.  {Lir  ,  33,  42; 
 34,  42,  43,  53.)  He  was  consul  in  192,  and  was 
 sent  against  the  Boii,  who  submitted  to  him  ; 
 but  he  remained  in  their  country  till  the  following 
 year,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Consul  Scipio 
 Nasica.  {Liv.,  35,  10,  20,  22,  40  ;  30,  37.)  In  190, 
 he  was  legate  of  the  Consul  li.  Scipio,  in  the  war 
 against  Antiochus  the  Great.  {Lie,  37,39. — Plat., 
 Apophth.  Rom.  Cn.  Domit.)  In  his  consulship  one 
 of  his  oxen  is  said  to  have  uttered  the  warning 
 "  Roma,  cave  tibi."  {Liv.,  35,  21. —  Val.  Max.,  1,  6, 
 ij  5,  who  falsely  says,  Bello  Punico  secundo.) — H. 
 Cn.  Domitius  Cn.  f.  L.  n.,  son  of  the  preceding, 
 was  chosen  pontifex  in  B.C.  172,  when  a  young 
 man  (Limj,  42,  28),  and  in  169  was  sent'  with 
 two  others  as  commissioner  into  Macedonia  (44, 
 18).  In  167  he  was  one  of  the  ten  commission- 
 ers for  arranging  the  affairs  of  Macedonia  in  con- 
 junction with  Jimilius  Paullus  (45,  17) ;  and  when 
 the  consuls  of  162  abdicated  on  account  of  some 
 fault  in  the  auspices  in  their  election,  he  and 
 Cornelius  Lcntulus  were  chosen  consuls  in  their 
 stead.  {Cic  ,  De  Nat.  Dror.,  2,  ^  ;  De  Div.,  2,  35. — 
 Val.  Max.,  1,  1,  ^  3.)— III.  Cx.  Domitius  Cn.  f.  Cn. 
 N.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  sent  in  his  consulship, 
 B.C.  122,  against  the  Allobroges  in  Gaul,  because 
 they  had  received  Tcutomalins,  the  king  of  the  Sal- 
 liivii  and  the  enemy  of  the  Konians,  and  liad  laid 
 waste  the  territory  of  the  -Edui,  the  friends  of  the 
 Romans.  In  121  he  conquered  the  Allobroges  and 
 their  ally  Vituitus,  king  of  the  Arverni,  near  Vinda- 
 liiim,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sulga  and  the  Kho- 
 danus  ;  and  he  gained  the  battle  mainly  through 
 the  terror  caused  by  his  elephants.  He  commem- 
 orated his  victory  by  the  erection  of  trophies,  and 
 went  in  procession  through  the  province,  carried  by 
 
1424 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 an  elephant.  He  triumphed  in  120.  {Liv.,  Epit., 
 61.  —  Florus,  3,  2.  — Shah.,  4,  p.  191. — Cic,  Pro 
 Font.,  12;  Bnit.,  26.—  Vcll>:i.,  2,  10,  39.—Oros.,  5, 
 13. — ;^uet ,  Ncr.,  2,  who  coiiluunds  him  with  his 
 son.)  He  was  censor  in  115  with  Ccecilius  Metel- 
 lus,  and  expelled  iwenty-iwo  persons  from  the  sen- 
 ate. {Liv;  Epit.,  62.— Cic,  I'ro  Chicnt.,  42.)  He 
 was  also  pontifex.  (Suet.,  I.  c.)  The  Via  Domitia 
 in  Gaul  was  made  by  him.  (Cic,  Pro  Font.,  8.)— 
 IV.  Cn.  DoMiTins  Cn.  f.  On.  n.,  son  of  the  prece- 
 ding, was  tribune  of  the  plebs  B.C.  104,  in  the  sec- 
 ond eonsuL^ihip  of  Marius.  (Ascon.,  in  Cornel.,  p. 
 81,  ed.  Oielli.)  When  the  college  of  pontitl's  did 
 not  elect  him  in  place  of  his  father,  he  brought  for- 
 ward the  law  (Lex  DomHia),  by  which  the  right  of 
 election  was  transferred  from  the  priestly  colleges 
 to  the  people.  (  Did.  of  Ant.,  p.  790,  b  ;  7!) I,  a.) 
 The  people  afterward  elected  him  Pontifex  Maxi- 
 mus  out  of  gratitude.  {Liv.,  Epit.,  07. — Cic  ,  Pro 
 Dciot.,  11.  —  Val.  Max  ,  6,  5,  ^  5.)  He  prosecuted, 
 in  his  tribunate  and  afterward,  several  of  his  pri- 
 vate enemies,  as  JEmilius  Scaurus  and  Junius  Sila- 
 nus.  (Val.  Max.,  I.  c.—Dion  Cass.,  Fr.,  100.— Cic, 
 Div.  in  Ccscil.,  20;  Verr.,  2,  47;  Cornel.,  2;  Pro 
 Scaur.,  1.)  He  was  consul  B.C.  96  with  C.  Cas- 
 sius,  and  censor  B.C.  92  with  Licinius  Crassus,  the 
 orator.  In  his  censorship  he  and  his  colleague  shut 
 up  the  schools  of  the  Latin  rhetoricians  {Ctc,  De 
 Orat.,  3,  24.  —  Cell.,  15,  11),  but  this  was  tlie  only 
 thing  in  which  they  acted  in  concert.  Their  cen- 
 sorship was  long  celebrated  for  their  disputes.  Do- 
 mitius  was  of  a  violent  temper,  and  was,  moreover, 
 in  favour  of  the  ancient  simplicity  of  living,  while 
 Crassus  loved  luxury  and  encouraged  art.  Among 
 the  many  sayings  recorded  of  both,  we  are  told  that 
 Crassus  observed,  "  that  it  was  no  wonder  that  a 
 ntan  had  a  beard  of  brass,  who  had  a  mouth  of  iron 
 and  a  heart  of  lead."  (P/ni..  H.  N.,  18,  I.— Suet., 
 I  c—Val.  Max.,  9,  1,  ()4:.  — Macroh.,  Sat.,  2,  11.) 
 Cicero  says  that  Domitius  was  not  to  be  reckoned 
 among  the  orators,  but  that  he  spoke  well  enough, 
 and  had  sufficient  talent  to  maintain  his  high  rank. 
 (Cic,  i>'r;/i., 44.)— V.  L.  Domitius  Cn.  f.  Cn.  n.,  son 
 of  No.  HL  and  brother  of  No.  IV.,  was  prajtor  in 
 Sicily,  probably  in  B.C.  96,  shortly  after  the  Ser- 
 vile war,  when  slaves  had  been  forbidden  to  carry 
 arms.  He  ordered  a  slave  to  be  crucified  for  kill- 
 ing a  wild  boar  with  a  hunting-spear.  (Cic,  Verr., 
 5^  3. —  Val.  Max.,  6,  3,  i^  5.)  He  was  consul  in  94. 
 In  the  civil  war  between  Marius  and  Sulla,  he  es- 
 poused the  side  of  the  latter,  and  was  murdered  at 
 Rome,  by  order  of  the  younger  Marius,  by  the  prae- 
 tor Damasippus.  (Appian,  B.  C,  1,  88. —  Vellei.,  2, 
 26. — Oros.,  5,  20. — VI.  Cn.  Domitius  Cn.  f.  Cn.  n., 
 apparently  a  son  of  No.  IV.,  married  Cornelia,  daugh- 
 ter of  L.  Cornelius  Cinna,  consul  in  B.C.  87,  and  in 
 the  civil  war  between  Marius  and  Sulla  espoused 
 the  side  of  the  former.  When  Sulla  obtained  the 
 supreme  power  in  82,  Ahenobarbus  was  proscribed, 
 and  fled  to  Africa,  where  he  was  joined  by  many 
 who  were  in  the  same  condition  as  him."?elf.  With 
 the  assistance  of  the  Numidian  king,  Hiarbas,  he 
 collected  an  army,  but  was  defeated  near  Utica  by 
 Cn.  Pompcius,  whom  Sulla  had  sent  against  him, 
 and  was  afterward  killed  in  the  storming  of  his 
 camp,  B.C.  81.  According  to  some  accounts,  he 
 was  killed  after  the  batlle  by  command  of  Pompey. 
 {Liv.,  Epit.,  89.—Plul.,  Pomp.,  10,  12.— Zonaras,  10, 
 2.  — Pros.,  5,  21.— Val.  Max.,  6,  2,  M  )— VH.  L. 
 Domitius  Cn.  f.  Cn.  n.,  son  of  No.  IV.,  is  first  men- 
 tioned in  B.C.  70  by  Cicero,  as  a  witness  against 
 Verres.  In  61  he  was  cnrule  sdile,  when  he  ex- 
 hibited a  hundred  Numidian  lions,  and  continued 
 the  games  so  long,  that  the  people  were  obliged  to 
 leave  the  circus  before  the  exhibition  was  over  in 
 order  to  take  food,  which  was  the  first  time  they 
 
 had  done  so.  (Dion  Cass.,  37,  46.—  PHn.,  H.  K,  8. 
 54  :  this  j)ause  in  the  games  was  called  dtliuUum, 
 Bur.,  Ep.,  1,  19,  47.)  He  married  Porcia,  the  sis- 
 ter of  M.  Cato,  and  in  his  a-dileship  sujjported  the 
 latter  in  his  projiosals  against  bribery  at  elections, 
 which  were  directed  against  Pompey,  who  was  pur- 
 chasing votes  for  Afranius.  The  political  opinions 
 of  Ahenobarbus  coincided  with  those  of  Cato  ;  he 
 was,  tiirouglutut  his  life,  one  of  the  strongest  sup- 
 porters of  the  aristocratical  party.  Hi'  took  an  ac- 
 tive part  in  opposing  the  measures  of  Casar  and 
 Pompey  after  their  coalition,  and  in  59  was  accused 
 by  Vettius,  at  the  instigation  of  Casar,  of  being  an 
 accomplice  to  the  pretended  conspiracy  against  the 
 life  of  Pompey. 
 
 Ahenobarbus  was  praetor  in  B.C.  58,  and  proposed 
 an  investigation  into  the  validity  of  the  Julian  laws 
 of  the  preceding  year,  but  the  senate  dared  not  en- 
 tertain his  propositions.  He  was  candidate  for  the 
 consulship  of  55,  and  threatened  that  he  would,  in 
 his  consulship,  carry  into  execution  the  measures  he 
 had  proposed  in  his  pra'torship,  and  deprive  Caesar 
 of  his  province.  He  was  defeated,  however,  by 
 Pompey  and  Crassus,  wiio  also  became  candidates, 
 and  was  driven  from  the  Campus  Martins,  on  the 
 day  of  election,  by  force  of  arms.  He  became  a 
 candidate  again  in  the  following  year,  and  Cresar 
 and  Pompey,  whose  power  was  firmly  established, 
 did  not  oppose  him.  He  was,  accordingly,  elected 
 consul  for  54  with  Ap.  Claudius  Pulcher,  a  relative 
 of  Pompey,  but  was  not  able  to  effect  anything 
 against  Caesar  and  Pompey.  He  did  not  go  to  a 
 province  at  the  expiration  of  his  consulship ;  and 
 as  the  friendship  between  Cajsar  and  Pompey  cool- 
 ed, he  became  closely  allied  with  the  latter.  In 
 B.C.  52,  he  was  chosen  by  Pompey  to  preside,  as 
 qua^sitor,  in  the  court  for  the  trial  of  Clodius.  For 
 the  next  two  or  three  years,  during  Cicero's  ab- 
 sence in  Cilicia,our  information  about  Ahenobarbus 
 is  principally  derived  from  the  letters  of  his  enemy 
 Ccelius  to  Cicero.  In  B.C.  50,  he  was  a  candidate 
 for  the  place  in  the  college  of  augurs,  vacant  by  the 
 death  of  Hortensius,  but  was  defeated  by  Antony 
 through  the  influence  of  Ca3sar. 
 
 The  senate  appointed  hiin  to  succeed  Caesar  in 
 the  province  of  farther  Gaul,  and  on  the  march  of 
 the  latter  into  Italy  (49),  he  was  the  only  one  of  the 
 aristocratical  party  who  showed  any  energy  or  cour- 
 age. He  threw  himself  into  Corlinium  with  about 
 twenty  cohorts,  expecting  to  be  supported  by  Pom- 
 pey ;  but  as  the  latter  did  nothing  to  assist  liim,  he 
 was  compelled  by  bis  own  troops  to  surrender  to 
 Caesar.  His  own  soldiers  were  incorporated  into 
 Cffisar's  army,  but  Ahenobarbus  was  dismissed  by 
 Cajsar  uninjured  :  an  act  of  clemency  which  he  did 
 not  expect,  and  which  he  would  certainly  not  have 
 showed  if  he  had  been  the  conqueror.  Despairing 
 of  life,  he  had  ordered  his  physician  to  administer 
 to  him  poison,  but  the  latter  gave  him  only  a  sleep- 
 ing draught.  Ahenobarbus's  leelings  against  Caesar 
 remained  unaltered,  but  he  was  too  deeply  offended 
 by  the  conduct  of  Pompey  to  join  him  immediately. 
 He  retired  for  a  short  time  to  Cosa  in  Etruria,  and 
 afterward  sailed  to  Massilia,  of  which  the  inhabi- 
 tants appointed  him  governor.  He  prosecuted  the 
 war  vigorously  against  Ca3sar ;  but  the  town  was 
 eventually  taken,  and  Ahenobarbus  escaped  in  a 
 vessel,  which  was  the  only  one  that  got  off. 
 
 Ahenobarbus  now  went  to  Pompey  in  Thessaly, 
 and  proposed  that  after  the  war  all  senators  should 
 be  brought  to  trial  who  had  remained  neutral  in  it. 
 Cicero,  whom  he  branded  as  a  coward,  was  not  a 
 little  afraid  of  him.  He  fell  in  the  battle  of  Phar- 
 salia  (48),  where  he  commanded  the  left  wing,  and, 
 according  to  Cicero's  assertion  in  the  second  Philip- 
 pic, by  the  hand  of  Antony.     Ahenobarbus  was  a 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 I43S 
 
 man  of  great  energy  of  character  ;  he  remained  firm 
 to  his  political  principles,  but  was  little  scrupulous 
 in  the  means  he  employed  to  maintain  them.  (The 
 passages  of  Cicero  in  which  Ahenobarhus  is  men- 
 tioned are  given  in  Orclli's  Orwmasticon  Tullianum. 
 — Suetonius,  Ncr.,  2.  —  Dion  Cassius,  lib.  39,  41. 
 — Casar,  Bell.  Civ.)  —  VIII.  Cm.  Dcmitius  L.  f. 
 Cn.  n.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  taken  with  his 
 father  at  Corfinium  (B.C.  49),  and  was  present  at 
 the  battle  of  Pharsalia  (48),  but  did  not  take  any 
 farther  part  in  the  war.  lie  did  not,  however,  return 
 to  Italy  till  46,  wlien  he  was  pardoned  by  Ca;sar. 
 He  probably  had  no  share  in  the  murder  of  Caesar 
 (44),  though  some  writers  expressly  assert  that  he 
 was  one  of  the  conspirators  ;  but  he  followed  Bru- 
 tus into  Macedonia  after  Caesar's  death,  and  was 
 condemned  by  the  Lex  Pedia,  in  43,  as  one  of  the 
 murderers  of  Cajsar.  In  42  he  commanded  a  fleet 
 of  fifty  ships  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  and  completely  de- 
 feated Domitius  Calvinus  on  the  day  of  the  first 
 battle  of  Philippi,  as  the  latter  attempted  to  sail  out 
 of  Brundisiuni.  He  was  saluted  imperator  in  con- 
 sequence, and  a  record  of  this  victory  is  preserved 
 in  a  coin,  which  represents  a  trophy  placed  upon  the 
 prow  of  a  vessel.  The  head  on  the  other  side  of 
 the  coin  has  a  beard,  in  reference  to  the  reputed 
 origin  of  the  family. 
 
 After  the  battle  of  Philippi  (42),  Ahenobarhus 
 conducted  the  war  independently  of  Sex.  Pompeius, 
 and  with  a  fleet  of  seventy  ships  and  two  legions 
 plundered  the  coasts  of  the  Ionian  Sea. 
 
 In  40,  Ahenobarhus  became  reconciled  to  Antony, 
 which  gave  great  offence  to  Octavianus,  and  was 
 placed  over  Bithynia  by  Antony.  In  the  peace  con- 
 cluded with  Sex.  Pompeius  in  39,  Antony  provided 
 for  the  safety  of  Ahenobarhus,  and  obtained  for  him 
 the  promise  of  the  consulship  for  32.  Ahenobarhus 
 remained  a  considerable  time  in  Asia,  and  accom- 
 panied Antony  in  his  unfortunate  campaign  against 
 the  Parthians  in  3G.  He  became  consul,  according 
 to  agreement,  in  32,  in  wiiich  year  the  open  rupture 
 look  place  between  Antony  and  Augustus.  Aheno- 
 barhus fled  from  Rome  to  Antony  at  Ephesus.  where 
 he  found  Cleopatra  with  him,  and  endeavoured,  in 
 vain,  to  obtain  her  removal  from  the  army.  Many 
 of  the  soldiers,  disgusted  with  the  conduct  of  An- 
 tony, offered  the  command  to  him  ;  but  he  preferred 
 deserting  the  party  altogether,  and  accordingly  went 
 over  to  Augustus,  shortly  before  the  battle  of  Acti- 
 um.  He  was  not,  however,  present  at  the  battle, 
 as  he  died  a  few  days  after  joining  Augustus.  Sue- 
 tonius says  that  he  was  the  best  of  his  family.  ( Cic., 
 Phil.,  2,  II;  10,  6;  Brut.,  25;  ad  lam.,  6,  22  — 
 Appia7i,  B.  C,  5,  55,  63,  65.— Pint.,  Anion.,  70,  71. 
 — Dtmi  Cassius,  lib.  47,  l.—  Velleius,  2,  76,  84. — 
 Suetonius,  Ner.,  3. — Tacitus,  Ann.,  4,  44.) — IX.  L. 
 Domitius  Cn.  k.  L.  n.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
 betrothed  in  B.C.  39,  at  the  meeting  of  Octavianus 
 and  Antony  at  Tarentum,  to  Antonia,  the  daugliter 
 of  the  latter  by  Octavia.  He  was  a-dile  in  B.C.  22, 
 and  CDUSul  in  B.C.  16.  After  his  consulship,  and 
 probably  as  the  successor  of  Tiberius,  he  command- 
 ed the  Roman  army  in  Germany,  crossed  the  Llbe, 
 and  penetrated  farther  into  the  country  than  any  of 
 his  predecessors  had  done.  He  received,  in  conse- 
 quence, the  insignia  of  a  triumph.  He  died  A.D.  25. 
 Suetonius  describes  him  as  haughty,  prodigal,  and 
 cruel,  and  relates  Ihat  in  his  icdileyhip  he  com- 
 manded the  censor  L.  Plancus  to  make  way  fur 
 him;  and  that  in  his  praHorship  and  consulship  he 
 brought  Roman  knights  and  matrons  on  the  stage. 
 I  He  exhibited  shows  of  wild  beasts  in  every  quarter 
 of  the  city,  and  his  gladiatorial  combats  were  con- 
 ducted witii  so  much  bloodshed,  that  Augustus  was 
 obliged  to  put  some  restraint  upon  them.  {Su- 
 etonius.  Ner.,  4. —  Tacitus,  Ann.,  4,  44. — Dion  Vas- 
 8S 
 
 sius,  54,  59.— Velleius,  2,  72.)— X.  Cn.  Domitios 
 L.  F.  Cn.  n.,  son  of  the  preceding,  and  father  of 
 the  Emperor  Nero.  He  married  Agrippina,  the 
 daughter  of  Germanicus.  He  was  consul  A.D.  32, 
 and  afterward  proconsul  in  Sicily.  He  died  at 
 Pyrgi,  in  Etruria,  of  drop.-^y.  His  life  was  stained 
 with  crimes  of  every  kind.  He  was  accu.sed,  as 
 the  accomplice  of  Albucilla,  of  the  crimes  of  adul- 
 tery and  murder,  and  also  of  incest  with  his  sistei 
 Domitia  Lepida,  and  only  escaped  execution  by  the 
 death  of  Tiberius.  When  congratulated  on  the 
 birth  of  his  son,  afterward  Nero,  he  replied  that 
 whatever  was  sprung  from  him  and  Agrippina 
 could  only  bring  ruin  to  ttie  state.  {Suciomus,  Ne- 
 ro, 5,  6. — Tacitus,  Ann.,  4,  75;  6,  I,  47;  12,  64. 
 —  Velleius,  2,  72.— Dion  Cassius,  58,  17.)— XI.  Cn. 
 Domitius,  prator  in  the  year  B.C.  54,  presided  at 
 the  second  trial  of  M.  Coelius.  {Cicero,  ad  Quin. 
 Fr.,  2,  13.)  He  may  have  been  the  son  of  No.  V. — 
 XII.  L.  Domitius,  pra;tor  B.C.  80,  commanded  the 
 province  of  nearer  Spain,  with  the  title  of  procon- 
 sul. In  79,  he  was  summoned  into  farther  Spain 
 by  Q.  Meteflus  Pius,  who  was  in  want  of  a.ssi.stanco 
 against  Sertorius,  but  he  was  defeated  and  killed  bv 
 Hirtuleius,  quaestor  of  Sertorius,  near  the  Anas 
 (Plut.,  Sert.,  12.— Liv.,  Epit.,  90.— Eitlrop.,  6,  i. 
 Floras,  3,  22.— Oros.,  5,  23.) 
 
 Alalcomeni.4  {'  XlalKOfMEvia),  one  of  the  daughters 
 of  Ogyges,  who,  as  well  as  her  two  sisters,  Thelxio- 
 ncea  and  Aulis,  were  regarded  as  supernatural  be- 
 ings, who  watched  over  oaths  and  saw  that  they 
 were  not  taken  rashly  or  thoughtlessly.  Their 
 name  was  Wpa^idtKai,  and  they  had  a  temple  in 
 common  at  the  foot  of  the  Telphusian  Mount  in 
 Bujotia.  The  representations  of  these  divinities 
 consisted  of  mere  heads,  and  no  parts  of  animals 
 were  sacrificed  to  them  except  heads.  {Pavs..  9 
 33,  §  2,  4. — ■Panijasis,  ap.  Stcph.  Byz.,  s.  v.  Tpe/i.?.}/. 
 — Suid.,  s.  V.  Upa^idiiiT/. — Midler,  Orchom.,  p.  128, 
 &c.) 
 
 Ai,binovAnu.s,  in.  P.  Trr.Liu.s, belonged  to  the  party 
 of  Marius  in  the  first  civil  war,  and  was  one  of  the 
 twelve  who  were  declared  enemies  of  the  state  in 
 B.C.  87.  He  thereupon  fled  to  Hiempsal  in  Nu- 
 midia.  After  the  defeat  of  Carbo  and  Norbanus  in 
 B.C.  81,  he  obtained  the  pardon  of  Sulla  by  treach- 
 erously putting  to  death  many  of  the  principal  offi- 
 cers of  Norbanus,  whom  he  had  invited  to  a  ban- 
 quet. Ariininium,  in  consequence,  revolted  to  Sulla, 
 whence  the  Pseudo-Asconius  (in  Cic,  Vcrr.,p.  16S, 
 cd.  Orclli)  speaks  of  Albinovanus  betraying  it.  {Ap- 
 pian,  B.  C,  1,  60,  62,  9\.— Floras.  3,  21,  ^  7.) 
 
 Ai.iiixus  or  Aldus,  the  name  of  the  principal  fam- 
 ily of  the  patrician  Postumia  gens.  The  original  v 
 name  was  Albus,  as  appears  from  the  Fasti,  which 
 was  afterward  lengthened  into  Albinus.  We  find, 
 in  proper  names  in  Latin,  derivatives  in  amis,  enus, 
 and  inus,  used,  without  any  additional  meaning,  in 
 the  same  sense  as  the  simple  forms,  ((^omp.  Nic- 
 buhr.  Hist,  of  Rome,  1,  n,  219.) — I.  A.  Postlmics  P. 
 F.  Albus  Rkgu.i.kxsis,  was,  according  to  Livy,  dic- 
 tator B.C.  498,  when  he  conquered  the  Latins  in 
 the  great  battle  near  Lake  Regilhis.  Roman  story 
 related  that  Castor  and  Pollux  were  seen  fighting  in 
 this  battle  on  the  side  of  the  Romans,  whence  the 
 dictator  afterward  dedicated  a  temple  to  Castor  and 
 Pollux  in  the  forum.  He  was  consul  B.C.  496,  in 
 which  year  some  of  ihe  annals,  according  to  Livy, 
 placed  the  battle  of  the  Lake  Regillus  ;  and  it  is  to 
 this  year  that  Dionysius  assigns  it.  {Liv  ,  2.  19,  20, 
 21.— Dtoni/s.,  6,  2,  ^v.-Val.  Max  ,  1.  8.  if  I— Cic, 
 De  Nat.  Dcor.,  2,  2  ;  3,  5.)  The  surname  Regillensid 
 is  usually  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  this 
 battle  ;  but  Niebuhr  thinks  that  it  was  taken  from  a 
 place  of  residence,  just  as  the  (^laudii  bore  the  same 
 name,  and  that  the  later  annalists  only  spoke  of 
 
1426 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Postumius  as  commander  in  consequence  of  the 
 name.  Livy  (30,  45)  states  expressly,  that  Scipio 
 Africanus  was  the  tirst  Roman  who  obtained  a  sur- 
 name from  his  conquests.  {Niebuhr,  Hist,  of  Rome, 
 1,  p.  556  ) — II.  Sp.  Postumius  A.  f.  P.  n.  Albus  Re- 
 oiLLENsis,  apparently,  according  to  the  Fasti,  the 
 son  of  the  preceding  (though  it  must  be  observed, 
 that  in  these  early  tunes  no  dependance  can  be  pla- 
 ced upon  these  genealogies),  was  consul  B.C.  466. 
 {Liv.,  3,  2. — Dtonys.,  9,  GO.)  He  was  one  of  the 
 three  commissioners  sent  into  Greece  to  collect  in- 
 formation about  the  laws  of  that  country,  and  was 
 a  member  of  the  first  decemvirate  in  451.  (Ljk.,3, 
 31,  33. — Dtonys.,  10,  52,  56.)  He  commanded,  as 
 legalus,  the  centre  of  the  Roman  army  in  the  battle 
 in  which  the  /Equians  and  Volscians  were  defeated 
 in  446.  {Lie.,  3,  70.)— III.  A.  Postumius  A.  f.  P.  n. 
 Albus  Regillensis,  apparently  son  of  No.  I,  was 
 consul  B.C.  464,  and  carried  on  war  against  the 
 iEquians.  He  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  the 
 ^quians  in  458,  on  which  occasion  he  was  insulted 
 by  their  commander.  {Liv.,  3,  4,  5,  25. — Dionys., 
 9,  62,  65.) — IV.  Sp.  Postumius  Sp.  f.  A.  n.  Albus 
 Regillensis,  apparently  son  of  No.  II.,  was  consu- 
 lar tribune  B.C.  432,  and  served  as  legatus  in  the 
 war  in  the  following  year.  (L?«.,  4,  25,  27.) — V.  P. 
 Postumius  A.  f.  A.  n.  Albinus  Regillensis,  whom 
 Livj  calls  Marcus,  was  consular  tribune  B.C.  414, 
 and  was  killed  in  an  insurrection  of  the  soldiers, 
 whom  he  had  deprived  of  the  plunder  of  the  jEqui- 
 an  town  of  Bolae,  which  he  had  promised  them. 
 {Liv.,  4,  49,  50.) — VI.  M.  Postumius  A.  f.  A.  N. 
 Albinus  Reoillensis,  is  mentioned  by  Livy  (5,  1) 
 as  consular  tribune  in  B.C.  403,  but  was,  in  reality, 
 censor  in  that  year  with  M.  Furius  Camillus.  {Fasti 
 Capitol.)  In  their  censorship  a  fine  was  imposed 
 upon  all  men  who  remained  single  up  to  old  age. 
 {Val.  Max.,  2,9,  i^  \.—Plut.,  Cam.,  b.— Diet,  of  Ant., 
 s.  V.  Uxorium) — VII.  A.  Postumius  Albinus  Regil- 
 lensis, consular  tribune  B.C.  397,  collected,  with 
 his  colleague  L.  Julius,  an  army  of  volunteers,  since 
 the  tribunes  prevented  them  from  making  a  regular 
 levy,  and  cut  off  a  body  of  Tarquinienses,  who  were 
 returning  home  after  plundering  the  Roman  territo- 
 ry. {Lw.,  5,  16.) — VIII.  Sp.  Postumius  Albinus 
 Regillensis,  consular  tribune  B.C.  394,  carried  on 
 the  war  against  the  iEquians ;  he  at  first  suffered 
 a  defeat,  but  afterward  conquered  them  complete- 
 ly. {Liv.,  5,  26,  28.) — IX.  Sp.  Postumius,  was  con- 
 sul B.C.  334,  and  invaded,  with  his  colleague  T. 
 Veturius  Calvinus,  the  country  of  the  Sidicini ;  but, 
 on  account  of  the  great  forces  which  the  enemy  had 
 collected,  and  the  report  that  the  Samnites  were 
 coming  to  their  assistance,  a  dictator  was  appoint- 
 ed. {Liv.,  8,  16,  17.)  He  was  censor  in  332  and 
 magister  equitum  in  327,  when  M.  Claudius  Marcel- 
 lus  was  appointed  dictator  to  hold  the  comitia  (8, 
 17,  23).  In  321,  he  was  consul  a  second  time  with 
 T.  Veturius  Calvinus,  and  marched  against  the 
 Samnites,  but  was  defeated  near  Caudium,  and  obli- 
 ged to  surrender  with  his  whole  army,  who  were 
 sent  under  the  yoke.  As  the  price  of  his  deliver- 
 ance and  that  of  the  army,  he  and  his  colleague  and 
 the  other  commanders  swore,  in  the  name  of  the 
 Republic,  to  a  humiliating  peace.  The  consuls,  on 
 their  return  to  Rome,  laid  down  their  office  after 
 appointing  a  dictator ;  and  the  senate,  on  the  ad- 
 vice of  Postumius,  resolved  that  all  persons  who 
 had  sworn  to  the  peace  should  be  given  up  to  the 
 Samnites.  Postumius,  with  the  other  prisoners, 
 accordingly  went  to  the  Samnites,  but  they  refused 
 to  accept  them.  {Liv.,  9,  1-10. — Appian,  De  Rcb. 
 Samn.,  2-6— Cic,  Dc  Off.,  3,  30;  Cato,  12.)— X. 
 A.  Postumius  A.  f.  L.  n.,  was  consul  B.C.  242  with 
 Lutatius  Catulus,  who  defeated  the  Carthaginians  off 
 the  ./Egates,  and  thus  brought  the  first  Punic  war 
 
 to  an  end.  Albinus  was  kept  in  the  city,  against 
 his  will,  by  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  because  he  was 
 Flainen  Martialis.  {Liv,  Epit.,  19;  23,  13— Am- 
 trop  ,  2,  27. —  Val.  Max.,  1,  1,  ij  2.)  He  was  censor 
 in  234.  {Fasti  Capitol.) — XI.  L.  Postumius  A.  f. 
 A.  N.,  apparently  a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  con- 
 sul B.C.  234,  and  again  in  229.  In  his  second  con- 
 sulship he  made  war  upon  the  Illyrians.  {Eutrop., 
 3,  4.— Oros.,  4,  13.— Dion  Cass  ,  Frag.,  151.— Po- 
 lyb.,  2,  11,  &c.,  who  erroneously  calls  him  Aulut 
 instead  of  Lucius.)  In  216,  the  third  year  of  the 
 second  Punic  war,  he  was  made  praetor,  and  sent  ' 
 into  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  while  absent  was  elected 
 consul  the  third  time  for  the  following  year,  215. 
 But  he  did  not  live  to  enter  upon  his  consulship; 
 for  lie  and  his  army  were  destroyed  by  the  Boii,  in 
 the  wood  Litana,  in  Cisalpine  Gaul.  His  head  was 
 cutoff,  and,  after  being  lined  with  gold,  was  dedicated 
 to  the  gods  by  the  Boii,  and  used  as  a  sacred  drink- 
 ing-vessel.  {Liv.,  22,  35  ;  23,  24:.— Pohjb.,  3,  106, 
 118.— Cic,  Tusc,  1,  37.)— XII.  Sp.  Postumius  L. 
 F.  A.  N.,  was  praetor  peregrinus  in  B.C.  189  {Liv., 
 37,  47,  50),  and  consul  in  186.  In  his  consulship 
 the  senatus  consultum  was  passed,  which  is  still  ex- 
 tant, suppressing  the  worship  of  Bacchus  in  Rome, 
 in  consequence  of  the  abominable  crimes  which 
 were  committed  in  connexion  with  it.  {Lw.,  39,  6, 
 11,  &c.—  Val.  Max.,  6,  3,  (}  T.—Plin.,  H.  N.,  33, 
 10, — Diet,  of  Ant.,  p.  366.)  He  was  also  augur,  and 
 died  in  179,  at  an  advanced  age.  {Liv.,  40,  42. — 
 Cie.,  Cato,  3  ) — XIII.  A.  Postumius  A.  f.  A.  n., 
 was  curule  a;dile  B.C.  187,  when  he  exhibited  the 
 Great  Games,  praetor  185,  and  consul  180.  {Liv  , 
 39,  7,  23  ;  40,  35.)  In  his  consulship  he  conducted 
 the  war  against  the  Ligurians  (40,  41).  He  was 
 censor  in  174  with  Q.  Fulvius.  Their  censorship 
 was  a  severe  one  :  they  expelled  nine  members  from 
 the  senate,  and  degraded  many  of  equestrian  rank. 
 They  executed,  however,  many  public  works.    {Liv., 
 
 41,  32  ;  42,  10.— Comp.  Cic.,  Vcrr.,  1,  41.)  He  was 
 elected,  in  his  censorship,  one  of  the  decemviri  sa- 
 crorum,  in  the  place  of  L.  Cornelius  Lentulus.    {Liv., 
 
 42,  10.)  Albinus  was  engaged  in  many  public  mis- 
 sions. In  175,  he  was  sent  into  Northern  Greece  to 
 inquire  into  the  truth  of  the  representations  of  the 
 Dardanians  and  Thessalians  about  the  Bastarna;  and 
 Perseus.  {Polyb.,  26,  9.)  In  171,  he  was  sent  as 
 one  of  the  ambassadors  to  Crete  {Liv.,  42,  35) ;  and 
 after  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  in  168,  he  was  one 
 of  the  ten  commissioners  appointed  to  settle  the  af- 
 fairs of  the  country  with  jEinilius  Paullus  (45, 17). 
 Livy  not  unfrequently  calls  him  Luscus,  from  which 
 it  would  seem  that  he  was  blind  of  one  eye. — XIV. 
 Sp.  Postumius  A.  f.  A.  n  Albinus  Paullulus,  prob- 
 ably a  brother  of  Nos.  XIII.  and  XV.,  perhaps  obtain- 
 ed the  surname  of  Paullulus,  as  being  small  of  stat- 
 ure, to  distinguish  him  more  accurately  from  his  two 
 brothers.  He  was  praetor  in  Sicily  B.C.  183,  and  con- 
 sul 174.  {Liv.,  39,  45  ;  41,  26  ;  43,  2.)— XV.  L.  Post- 
 umius A.  F.  A.  N.,  probably  a  brother  of  Nos.  XIII. 
 and  XIV.,  was  prajtor  B.C.  180,  and  obtained  the 
 province  of  farther  Spain.  His  command  was  pro- 
 longed in  the  following  year.  After  conquering  the 
 Vaccaei  and  Lusitani,  he  returned  to  Rome  in  178, 
 and  obtained  a  triumph  on  account  of  his  victories. 
 {Lrv.,  40,  35,  44,  47,  48,  .'30;  41,  3,  11.)  He  was 
 consul  in  173,  with  M.  Popillius  Laenas ;  and  the 
 war  in  Liguria  was  assigned  to  both  consuls.  Al- 
 binus, however,  was  first  sent  into  Campania  to 
 separate  the  land  of  the  state  from  that  of  private 
 persons  ;  and  this  business  occupied  him  all  the 
 summer,  so  that  he  was  unable  to  go  into  his  prov- 
 ince. He  was  the  first  Roman  magistrate  who  put 
 the  allies  to  any  expense  in  travelling  through  their 
 territories.  {Liv.,  41,  33;  42,  1,  9.)  The  festival 
 of  the  Floralia,  which  had  been  discontinued,  was 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1427 
 
 restored  in  his  cunsiilsliip.  (Or.,  Fast.,  5,  329.)  In 
 171,  he  was  one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  Masi- 
 nissa  and  the  ('arthaginians  in  order  to  raise  troops 
 for  the  war  against  Perseus.  (Ljc,  42,  35.)  In  169, 
 he  was  an  unsnocessful  candidate  for  the  censor- 
 ship (43,  16).  He  served  under  yEmihus  PauUusin 
 Macedonia  in  16S,  and  commanded  the  second  le- 
 gion in  the  battle  with  Perseus  (45,  41).  The  last 
 time  he  is  mentioned  is  in  this  war,  when  he  was 
 sent  to  plunder  the  town  of  the  ^Enii  (45,  27). — XVI. 
 A.  PosTUMiL's,  one  of  the  officers  in  the  army  of 
 ^milius  Paullus  in  Macedonia,  B.C.  168.  lie  was 
 sent  by  Paullus  to  treat  with  Perseus  ;  and  after- 
 ward Perseus  and  his  son  Philip  were  committed 
 to  his  care  by  Paullus.  {Liv.,  45,  4,  28.)— XVII. 
 L.  PosTUMius  Sp.  f.  L.  n.,  apparently  son  of  No.  XII., 
 was  curule  sedile  B.C.  161,  and  exhibited  the  Ludi 
 Megalenses,  at  which  the  Eunuch  of  Terence  was 
 acted.  He  was  consul  in  154,  and  died  seven  days 
 after  he  had  set  out  from  Rome  in  order  to  go  to  his 
 province.  It  was  supposed  that  he  was  poisoned  by 
 his  wife.  (Obscq.,  76.— Val.  Max.,  6,  3,  ()  8.)— 
 XVIII.  A.  PosTUMius  A.  F.  A.  N.,  apparently  son  of 
 No.  XIII.,  was  prajtor  B.C.  155  (Cic,  ^ca(Z.,  2,  45.— 
 Poll/1).,  33,  1),  and  consul  in  151  with  L.  Licinius 
 Lucullus.  He  and  his  colleague  were  thrown  into 
 prison  by  the  tribunes  for  conducting  the  levies  with 
 too  much  severity.  (Liv.,  Epit.,  48. — Polt/b.,  35, 
 3. — Orox.,  4,  21.)  He  was  one  of  the  ambassadors 
 sent  in  153  to  make  peace  between  Attalusand  Pru- 
 sias  (Polijb.,  33,  11),  and  accompanied  L.  Mummius 
 Achaicus  into  Greece,  in  146,  as  one  of  his  legates. 
 There  was  a  statue  erected  to  his  honour  on  the 
 Isthmus.  (Cic.  ad  All.,  13,  30,  32.)  Albinus  was 
 well  acquainted  with  Greek  literature,  and  wrote  in 
 that  language  a  poem  and  a  Roman  history,  the  lat- 
 ter of  which  is  mentioned  by  several  ancient  wri- 
 ters. Polybius  (40,  6)  speaks  of  him  as  a  vain  and 
 lightheaded  man,  who  disparaged  his  own  people, 
 and  was  sillily  devoted  to  the  study  of  Greek  litera- 
 ture. He  relates  a  tale  of  him  and  the  elder  Cato, 
 who  reproved  Albinus  sharply  because,  in  the  pref- 
 ace to  his  history,  he  begged  the  pardon  of  his  read- 
 ers if  he  should  make  any  mistakes  in  writing  in  a 
 foreign  language ;  Cato  reminded  him  lliat  he  was 
 not  compelled  to  write  at  all,  but  that,  if  he  chose  to 
 write,  he  had  no  business  to  ask  for  the  indulgence 
 of  his  readers.  This  talc  is  also  related  by  Gellius 
 (11,  8),  Macrobius  (Preface  to  Saturn.),  Plutarch 
 {Cato,  12),  and  Suidas  (s.  v.  Ai'Xof  Ilocrro/ztof). 
 JPolybius  also  says  that  Albinus  imitated  the  worst 
 parts  of  the  Greek  character,  that  he  was  entirely 
 devoted  to  pleasure,  and  shirked  all  labour  and  dan- 
 ger. He  relates  that  he  retired  to  Thebes,  when 
 the  battle  was  fought  at  Phocis,  on  the  plea  of  in- 
 disposition, but  afterward  wrote  an  account  of  it 
 to  the  senate  as  if  he  had  been  present.  Cicero 
 speaks  with  rather  more  respect  of  his  literary  mer- 
 its :  he  calls  him  doctus  homo  and  littcratus  ct  discr- 
 tus.  {Cic,  Acad.,  2,  45  ;  Brut.,  21.)  Macrobius 
 (2,  16)  quotes  a  passage  from  the  first  book  of  the 
 Annals  of  Albinus  respecting  Brutus,  and  as  he  uses 
 the  words  of  Albinus,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the 
 Greek  history  may  have  been  translated  into  Latin. 
 A  work  of  Albinus,  on  the  arrival  of  .^neas  in  Italy, 
 is  referred  to  by  Servius  (ad  Virg.,  Ain.,  9,  710),  and 
 the  author  of  the  work  "  De  Origine  Gentis  Ro- 
 manee,"  c.  15.  (Krausc,  Vitaict  Fragm.  Vctcrum  His- 
 toricorum  Roma>iorum,p.  127,  &,c.) — XIX.  Sp.  Postu- 
 Mius  Aldinus  M.40NUS,  was  consul  B.C.  148,  in 
 which  year  a  great  fire  happened  at  Rome.  (Obscq., 
 78.)  It  is  this  S|).  Albinus  of  whom  Cicero  speaks 
 in  the  Brutus  (c.  25),  and  says  that  there  were  many 
 orations  of  his — XX.  Sp.  Postumius  Sp.  f.  Sp.  n., 
 probably  son  of  No.  XIX.,  was  consul  B.C.  110,  and 
 obtained  the  province  of  Numidia  to  carry  on  the 
 
 war  against  Jugurtha.  He  made  vigorous  prepar- 
 ations for  war.  but  when  he  reached  the  province, 
 he  did  not  adopt  any  active  measures,  but  allowed 
 himself  to  be  deceived  hy  the  artifices  of  Jugurtha, 
 who  constantly  promised  to  surrender.  Many  per- 
 sons supposed  that  his  inactivity  was  intentional, 
 and  that  Jugurtha  had  bought  him  over.  When  Al- 
 binus departed  from  Africa,  he  left  his  brother  Aulus 
 in  command.  (Vid.  No.  XXI.)  After  the  defeat  of 
 the  latter  he  returned  to  Numidia,  but,  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  disorganized  state  of  his  army,  he  did 
 not  prosecute  the  war,  and  handed  over  the  army  in 
 this  condition,  in  the  following  year,  to  the  Consul 
 Metellus.  (Sail.,  Jug.,  35,  36,  39,  U.—Oros.,  4, 
 15. — Eutrop.,  4,  26.)  He  was  condemned  by  the 
 Mamilia  Lex,  which  was  passed  to  punish  all  those 
 who  had  been  guilty  of  treasonable  practices  with 
 .lugurtha.  (Cic,  Brut.,  34.— Comp.  Sail.,  Jug.,  40.) 
 — XXI.  A.  Postumius,  brother  of  No.  XX.,  and 
 probably  son  of  No.  XIX.,  was  left  by  his  brother 
 as  pro-prsetor,  in  command  of  the  army  in  Africa,  in 
 B.C.  110.  (Vid.  No.  XX.)  He  marched  to  besiege 
 Suthul,  where  the  treasures  of  Jugurtha  were  de- 
 posited ;  but  Jugurtha,  under  the  promise  of  giving 
 him  a  large  sum  of  money,  induced  him  to  lead  his 
 army  into  a  retired  place,  where  he  was  suddenly 
 attacked  by  the  Numidian  king,  and  only  saved  his 
 troops  from  total  destruction  by  allowing  them  to 
 pass  under  the  yoke,  and  undertaking  to  leave  Nu- 
 midia in  ten  days.  (Sail.,  Jug.,  36-38.)— XXII.  A. 
 Postumius  A.  f.  Sp.  n.,  grandson  of  No.  XIX.,  and 
 probably  son  of  No.  XXI.,  was  consul  B.C.  99,  with 
 M.  Antonius.  (Plin.,  H.  N.,  8,  7.— Obscq.,  106.) 
 Gellius  (4,  6)  quotes  the  words  of  a  senatus  consul- 
 tum  passed  in  their  consulship  in  consequence  of 
 the  spears  of  Mars  having  moved.  Cicero  says  that 
 he  was  a  good  speaker.  (Brut.,  35  ;  post  Red.  ad 
 Quir.,  5.) — XXIII.  A.  Postumius,  a  person  of  prae- 
 torian rank,  commanded  the  fleet,  B.C.  89,  in  the 
 Marsic  war,  and  was  killed  hy  his  own  soldiers  un- 
 der the  plea  that  he  meditated  treachery,  but,  in  re- 
 ality, on  account  of  his  cruelty.  Sulla,  who  was 
 then  a  legate  of  the  Consul  Porcius  Cato,  incorpora- 
 ted his  troops  with  his  own,  but  did  not  punish  the 
 ofTenders.  (Liv.,  Epit.,  15.— Pint.,  Sulla,  6.) — 
 XXIV.  A.  Postumius,  was  placed  by  Caesar  over 
 Sicily,  B.C.  48.  (Appian,  B.  C,  2,  48.)— XXV.  D. 
 Junius  Brutus,  adopted  by  No.  XXII. — XXVI. 
 Procurator  of  Judaa  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  about 
 A.D.  63  and  64,  succeeded  Festus,  and  was  guilty 
 of  almost  every  kind  of  crime  in  his  government. 
 He  pardoned  the  vilest  criminals  for  money,  and 
 shaiiielrssly  plundered  the  provincials.  He  was 
 succeeded  by  Floras.  (Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  20,  8, 
 (^  1  ;  Bell.  Jxtd.,  2,  14,  "J  1.)  The  Luceius  Albinus 
 mentioned  below  may  possibly  have  been  the  same 
 person. — XXVII.  Luceius,  was  made  by  Nero  pro- 
 curator of  Mauretania  Ca'sariensis,  to  which  Galba 
 added  the  province  of  Tingitana.  After  the  death 
 of  Galba,  A.D.  69,  he  espoused  the  side  of  Otho,  and 
 prepared  to  invade  Spain.  Cluvius  Rufus,  who  com- 
 manded in  Spain,  being  alarmed  at  this,  sent  centu- 
 rions into  Mauretania  to  induce  the  Mauri  to  revolt 
 against  Albinus.  They  accomplished  this  without 
 much  difficulty,  and  Albinus  was  murdered,  with 
 his  wife.     (Tac,  Hist.,  2,  58,  59.) 
 
 Albutius  or  Ai.bucius,  IV.  a  physician  at  Rome, 
 who  lived,  probably,  about  the  beginning  or  mitidlo 
 of  the  first  century  after  Christ,  and  who  is  men- 
 tioned by  Pliny  (//.  N.,  29,  5)  as  havinir  gained  by 
 his  practice  the  annual  income  of  two  hundred  and 
 fifty  thousand  sesterces  (about  .£1953  2s.  6</.).  This 
 is  considered  by  Pliny  to  be  a  very  large  sum,  and 
 may,  therefore,  give  us  some  notion  of  the  fortunes 
 made  by  physicians  at  Rome  about  the  beginning 
 of  the  Empire. 
 
1428 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 Alc^us  {'hlKaloc),  IT.  of  Messene,  the  author  of 
 a  number  of  epigrams  in  the  Greek  Anthology,  from 
 some  of  which  his  date  may  be  easily  fixed.  He 
 was  contemporary  with  Philip  III.,  king  of  Mace- 
 donia, and  son  of  Demetrius,  against  whom  several 
 of  his  epigrams  are  pointed,  apparently  from  patri- 
 otic feelings.  One  of  these  epigrams,  however, 
 gave  even  more  offence  to  the  Roman  general, 
 Flamininus,  than  to  Philip,  on  account  of  the  author's 
 ascribing  the  victory  of  Cynoscephalfe  to  the  ^toli- 
 ans  as  much  as  to  the  Romans.  Philip  contented 
 himself  with  writing  an  epigram  in  reply  to  that  of 
 Alcaeus,  in  which  he  gave  the  Messenian  a  very 
 broad  hint  of  the  fate  he  might  expect  if  he  fell  into 
 his  hands.  {Plut,  Flamrn.,  9.)  This  reply  has 
 singularly  enough  led  Salmasius  {De  Crucc,  p.  449, 
 ap.  Fabric,  Biblioth.  Grac  ,  2,  p.  88)  to  suppose  that 
 Alcffius  was  actually  crucified.  In  another  epigram, 
 in  praise  of  Flamininus,  the  mention  of  the  Roman 
 general's  name,  Titus,  led  Tzetzes  {Proleg.  in  Lyco- 
 ■phron.)  into  the  error  of  imagining  the  existence  of 
 an  epigrammatist  named  Alcaeus  under  the  Emperor 
 Titus.  Those  epigrams  of  Alcajus  which  bear  in- 
 ternal evidence  of  their  date,  were  written  between 
 the  years  219  and  196  B.C. 
 
 Of  the  twenty-two  epigrams  in  the  Greek  An- 
 thology which  bear  the  name  of  "Alcaeus,"  two 
 have  the  word  "  Mytilenaeus"  added  to  it ;  but 
 Jacobs  seems  to  be  perfectly  right  in  taking  this  to 
 be  the  addition  of  some  ignorant  copyist.  Others 
 bear  the  name  "  Alcseus  Messenius,"  and  some  of 
 Alcaeus  alone.  But  in  the  last  class  there  are 
 several  which  must,  from  internal  evidence,  have 
 been  written  by  Alcaeus  of  Messene ;  anJ>  in  fact, 
 there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  his  being  the  author 
 of  the  whole  twenty-two. 
 
 There  are  mentioned,  as  contemporaries  of  Al- 
 caeus, two  other  persons  of  the  same  name,  one  of 
 them  an  Epicurean  philosopher,  who  was  expelled 
 from  Rome  by  a  decree  of  the  senate  about  173  or 
 154  B.C.  {Perizon.  ad  Mlian.,  V.  H.,  9,  ■i-2.—Athen., 
 12,  p.  547,  A. — Suidas,  s.  v.  'EiriKovpog) :  the  other  is 
 incidentally  spoken  of  by  Polybius  as  being  accus- 
 tomed to  ridicule  the  grammarian  Isocrates.  {Fo- 
 lyb.,  32,  6,  B  C.  160.)  It  is  just  possible  that  these 
 two  persons,  of  whom  nothing  farther  is  known, 
 may  have  been  identical  with  each  other,  and  with 
 the  epigrammatist.  {Jacobs,  Anlhol.  Grac,  13,  p. 
 836-838  :  there  is  a  reference  to  Alcaeus  of  Messene 
 in  Eusebius,  Frapar.  Evang.,  10,  2.)— III.  The  son 
 of  Miccus,  was  a  native  of  Mytilene,  according  to 
 Suidas,  who  may,  however,  have  confounded  him 
 in  this  point  with  the  lyric  poet.  He  is  found  ex- 
 hibiting at  Athens  as  a  poet  of  the  old  comedy,  or, 
 rather,  of  that  mixed  comedy  which  formed  the 
 transition  between  the  old  and  the  middle.  In  B.C. 
 388,  he  brought  forward  a  play  entitled  UaenijxlT],  in 
 the  same  contest  in  which  Aristophanes  exhibited 
 his  second  Plutns  ;  but,  if  the  meaning  of  Suidas  is 
 rightly  understood,  he  obtained  only  the  fifth  place. 
 He  lelt  ten  plays,  of  which  some  fragments  remain, 
 and  the  following  titles  are  known  :  'AdeXfal  fnoixev- 
 OfiEvai,  Tavvu!/67ic,  Evdvfiuov,  'lepog  yauo^,  KaATnaTU, 
 KuficjihTpayui^ia,  naTiaiarpa.  Alcaeus,  a  tragic  poet, 
 mentioned  by  Fabricius  (B/Wio^A.  Grcec.,2,  282),  does 
 not  appear  to  be  a  different  person  from  Alca;us  the 
 comedian.  The  mistake  of  calling  him  a  tragic  poet 
 arose  simply  from  an  erroneous  reading  of  the  title 
 of  his  "  Comcedo-tragcedia."  (The  Greek  Argument 
 to  the  Flatus. — Suidas,  sab  voce. — Pollux,  10,  1. — 
 Casaubon  on  Alhen.,  3,  p.  206. — Mcincke,  Fragm. 
 Comic.  Grac,  p.  1,  244;  2,  p.  824.  —  Bor/t,  Ge- 
 sr.hxchU  der  Dramaiischeri  Dichlkunst  der  Hellenen,  2, 
 p.  386.) 
 
 Alcidamas  (^ klKu^afiac),  a  Greek  rhetorician,  was 
 a  native  of  Elaea  in  .^ohs,  in  Asia  Minor.  {Quintil., 
 
 3,  1,  ^  10,  with  Spalding's  note.)  He  was  a  pupil 
 of  Gorgias,  and  resided  at  Athens  between  the 
 years  B.C.  432  and  411.  Here  he  gave  instruc- 
 tions in  eloquence,  according  to  Eudocia  (p.  100), 
 as  the  successor  of  his  master,  and  was  the  last  of 
 that  sophistical  school,  with  which  the  only  object 
 of  eloquence  was  to  please  the  hearers  by  the  pomp 
 and  brilliancy  of  words.  That  the  works  of  Alcid- 
 amas bore  the  strongest  marks  of  this  character 
 of  his  school,  is  stated  by  Aristotle  [Rhet.,  3,  (j  8), 
 who  censures  his  pompous  diction  and  extravagant 
 use  of  poetical  epithets  and  phrases,  and  by  Dionys- 
 ius  {De  IscEo,  19),  who  calls  his  style  vulgar  and 
 inflated.  He  is  said  to  have  been  an  opponent  of 
 Isocrates  {Tzetz.,  Chil,  11,  672),  but  whether  this 
 statement  refers  to  real  personal  enmity,  or  whether 
 it  is  merely  an  inference,  from  the  fact  that  Alcid- 
 amas condemned  the  practice  of  writing  orations  for 
 the  purpose  of  delivering  them,  is  uncertain. 
 
 The  ancients  mention  several  works  of  Alcid- 
 amas, such  as  a  Eulogy  on  Death,  in  which  he 
 enumerated  the  evils  of  human  life,  and  of  which 
 Cicero  seems  to  speak  with  great  praise  {Tusc,  1, 
 48)  ;  a  show-speech,  called  "koyoq  KeamivLaKo^  {Ar- 
 istot.,  Rhet.,  1,  13,  (^  5);  di  work  on  music  {Suidas, 
 s.  V.  'AlKLdafiag) ;  and  some  scientific  works,  viz., 
 one  on  rhetoric  {Texvn  (yrjTopLKri :  Flat.,  Demosth., 
 5),  and  another  called  loyoQ  (pvaiK6g{Diog.  La'ert.,8, 
 56) ;  hut  all  of  them  are  now  lost.  Tzetzes  {ChiL, 
 11,  752)  had  still  before  him  several  orations  of  Al- 
 cidamas, but  we  now  possess  only  two  declama- 
 tions which  go  under  his  name.  1.  'Odvaaevg,  fj  Kara 
 IlaXafi7'i6ovg  npodoaiac,  in  which  Ulysses  is  made 
 to  accuse  Palamedes  of  treachery  to  the  cause  of 
 the  Greeks  during  the  siege  of  Troy.  2.  Uepl  ao- 
 (piariov,  in  which  the  author  sets  forth  the  advan- 
 tages of  delivering  extempore  speeches  over  those 
 which  have  been  previously  written  out.  These 
 two  orations,  the  second  of  which  is  the  better  one, 
 both  in  form  and  thought,  bear  scarcely  any  traces 
 of  the  faults  which  Aristotle  and  Dionysius  censure 
 in  the  works  of  Alcidamas  ;  their  fault  is  rather  be- 
 ing frigid  and  insipid.  It  has,  therefore,  been  main- 
 tained by  several  critics,  that  these  orations  are 
 not  the  works  of  Alcidamas  ;  and,  with  regard  to 
 the  first  of  them,  the  supposition  is  supported  by 
 strong  probability  ;  the  second  may  have  been  writ- 
 ten by  Alcidamas,  with  a  view  to  counteract  the  in- 
 fluence of  Isocrates.  The  first  edition  of  them  is 
 that  in  the  collection  of  Greek  orators  published  by 
 Aldus,  Venice,  1513,  fol.  The  best  modern  editions 
 are  those  in  Reiske's  Oratores  Grceci,  vol.  8,  p.  64, 
 &c. ;  and  in  Bekker's  Oratores  Attici,  vol.  7  (Ox- 
 ford). 
 
 Alcimachus,  a  painter  mentioned  by  Pliny  {H. 
 N.,  35, 11,  s.  40).  He  is  not  spoken  of  by  any  other 
 writer,  and  all  that  is  known  about  liim  is,  that  he 
 painted  a  picture  of  Dioxippus,  a  victor  in  the  pan- 
 cratium at  Olympia.  Dioxippus  lived  in  the  time 
 of  Alexander  the  Great.  {ji^Uan,  V.  H.,  10,  22.— 
 Diod.,  17,  100. — Athe}i.,  6,  p.  251,  a.)  Alcimachus, 
 therefore,  probably  lived  about  the  same  time. 
 
 Alcimedon  {'AyiKLjiiiduv),  I.  an  Arcadian  hero,  from 
 whom  the  Arcadian  plain  Alcimedon  derived  its 
 name.  He  was  the  father  of  Phillo,  by  whom  Her- 
 cules begat  a  son,  ^chmagoras,  whom  Alcimedon 
 exposed,  but  Hercules  saved.  {Fausanias.,  8,  12, 
 ^2). 
 
 ALciMijNEs  {'ATiKifiEVTjc),  I.  a  son  of  Glaucus,  who 
 was  unintentionally  killed  by  his  brother  Bellero- 
 phon.  According  to  some  traditions,  this  brother  ol 
 Bellerophon  was  called  Deliades,  or  Peiren.  (Apol- 
 lod.,  2,  3,  ^  1.) — II.  One  of  the  sons  of  Jason  and 
 Medeia.  When  Jason  subsequently  wanted  to  mar- 
 ry Glance,  his  sons  Alcimenes  and  Tisander  were 
 murdered  by  Medeia,  and  were  afterward  buried  by 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1429 
 
 Jason  in  the  sanctuary  of  Juno,  at  Corinth.  {Diod., 
 4,  54,  55.)— III.  An  Athenian  comic  poet,  apparent- 
 ly a  contemporary  of  .i:;sch>  lus.  One  of  his  pieces 
 is  sup[)osed  to  have  been  the  KoXvfx6uaai.  (the  Fe- 
 male ywimmcrs).  His  works  were  greatly  admired 
 by  Tynnichus,  a  younger  contemporary  of  /Eschy- 
 lus.  There  was  a  tragic  writer  of  the  same  name, 
 a  native  of  Megara,  mentioned  by  Suidas.  {Mci- 
 luke,  Hist.  Crit.  Conticorum  Grac,  p.  481.  —  Suid., 
 t.  V.  'WKLfiivi}^  and  'AA/c/yav.) 
 
 Ai-cLmus  ("AA/iz/ioi),  I.  also  called  Jacimus,  or  Jo- 
 achim {'luneifiu^),  one  of  the  Jewish  priests  who  es- 
 poused the  Syrian  cause.  He  was  made  high-priest 
 by  Demetrius,  about  B.C.  161,  and  w-as  installed  in 
 his  office  by  the  help  of  a  Syrian  army.  In  conse- 
 quence of  his  cruellies  he  was  expelled  by  the  Jews, 
 and  obliged  to  fly  to  Antioch,  but  was  restored  by 
 the  help  of  another  Syrian  army.  He  continued  in 
 his  otiice,  under  the  protection  of  the  Syrians,  till 
 his  death,  which  happened  suddenly  (B.C.  159),  while 
 he  was  pulling  down  the  wall  of  the  temple  that 
 divided  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  from  that  of  the 
 Israelites.  {Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  12.  9,  <J  7. — 1  Mac- 
 cab.,  7,  9.) — H.  A  Greek  rhetorician,  whom  Diogenes 
 Laertius  (2,  114)  calls  the  most  distinguished  of  all 
 Greek  rhetoricians,  flourished  about  B.C.  300.  It 
 is  not  certain  whether  he  is  the  same  as  the  Alci- 
 mus  to  whom  Diogenes,  in  another  passage  (3,  9), 
 ascribes  a  work  npog  Wjivvrav.  Athenasus  in  several 
 places  speaks  of  a  Sicilian  Alcimus,  who  appears 
 to  have  been  the  author  of  a  great  historical  work, 
 parts  of  which  are  referred  to  under  the  names  of 
 'IraTiLKu  and  ^iKeXiKu.  But  whether  he  was  the  same 
 as  the  rhetorician  Alcimus,  cannot  be  determined. 
 (Alhcn.,  10,  p.  441  ;  12,  p.  519  ;  7,  p.  322.)— HI.  (Avi- 
 ■rus)  Alethius,  the  writer  of  seven  short  poems  in 
 the  Latin  Anthology,  whom  Wenisdorf  has  shown 
 {Fvet.  Lai.  Mm.,  vol.  6,  p.  26,  &c.)  to  be  the  same 
 person  as  Alcimus,  the  rhetorician  in  Aquitania  in 
 Gaul,  wlu)  is  spoken  of  in  terms  of  high  praise  by 
 Sidonius  Apollinaris  {Episl.,8,  11;  5,  10)  and  Au- 
 sonius  (I'lofcss.  Burdigal.,  2).  His  date  is  determin- 
 ed by  Hieronymus  in  his  Chronicon,  who  says  that 
 Alcimus  and  Delphidius  taught  in  Aquitania  in  A.D. 
 3ftO.  His  poems  are  superior  to  most  of  his  time. 
 They  are  printed  by  Meier  in  his  "  Anthologia  Lat- 
 ina,"  ep.  254-260,  and  by  Wernsdorf,  vol.  6,  p.  194, 
 &c. 
 
 Ai.ciNous  {' KIklvovc),  II.  a  Platonic  pliilosopher, 
 who  probably  lived  under  the  Caesars.  Nothing  is 
 known  of  his  personal  history,  but  a  work  entitled 
 'ETTiTOfj,?!  Tuv  Il?MTuvog  Soy^uTuv,  containing  an 
 analysis  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  as  it  was  set 
 forth  by  late  writers,  has  been  [)reserved.  The 
 treatise  is  written  rather  in  the  manner  of  Aristo- 
 tle than  of  Plato,  and  the  author  has  not  hesitated 
 to  introduce  any  of  the  view^s  of  other  philosojjhers 
 which  seemed  to  add  to  the  completeness  of  the 
 system.  Thus  the  parts  of  the  syllogism  (c.  R),  the 
 doctrine  of  the  mean  and  of  the  ^jcif  and  hepyeinc 
 (c.  2,  8),  are  attributed  to  Plato,  as  well  as  the 
 division  of  i)liiIo.sophy  which  was  common  to  the 
 Peripatetics  and  Stoics.  It  was  impossible  from 
 the  writings  of  Plato  to  get  a  system  complete  in 
 Its  parts,  and  hence  the  temptation  of  later  writers, 
 who  sought  for  system,  to  join  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
 without  perceiving  the  inconsistency  of  the  union, 
 while  everything  which  .=uited  their  purpose  was 
 fearlessly  ascribed  to  the  fcundcr  of  their  own  sect. 
 In  the  treatise  of  Alcinous,  however,  there  are  still 
 traces  of  the  spirit  of  Plato,  however  low  an  idea 
 he  gives  of  his  own  philosophical  talent.  He  held 
 the  world  and  its  animating  soul  to  be  eternal.  This 
 soul  of  the  universe  {?/  rl'vx'/  tov  Koafiov)  was  not 
 created  by  God,  bat,  to  use  the  image  of  Alcinous, 
 it  was  awakened  by  him  as  from  a  profound  sleep. 
 
 and  turned  towards  himself,  "  that  it  might  look  out 
 upon  intellectual  things  (c.  14),  and  receive  forms 
 and  ideas  from  the  divine  mind."  It  was  the  first 
 of  a  succession  of  intermediate  beings  between  God 
 and  man.  The  idiai  proceeded  immediately  from 
 the  mind  of  God,  and  were  the  highest  object  of  our 
 intellect  ;  the  "  form"  of  matter,  the  types  of  sensi- 
 ble things,  having  a  real  being  in  themselves  (c.  9). 
 He  differed  from  the  earlier  Platonists  in  confining 
 the  Idiai  to  general  laws  :  it  seemed  an  unworthy 
 notion  that  God  could  conceive  an  /'^ta  of  things  ar- 
 tificial or  unnatural,  or  of  individuals  or  particulars, 
 or  of  anything  relative.  He  seems  to  have  aimed 
 at  harmonizing  the  views  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  on 
 the  Idiai,  as  he  distinguished  them  from  the  eldri, 
 forms  of  things  which,  he  allowed,  were  insepar- 
 able :  a  view  which  seems  necessarily  connected 
 with  the  doctrine  of  the  eternity  and  self  existence 
 of  matter.  God,  the  first  founder  of  the  i6eai,  could 
 not  be  known  as  he  is  :  it  is  but  a  faint  notion  of 
 him  we  obtain  from  negations  and  analogies  :  his 
 nature  is  equally  beyond  our  power  of  expression  or 
 conception.  Below  him  are  a  series  of  beings  {6ai- 
 fioi'Ec),  who  superintend  the  production  of  ail  living 
 things,  and  hold  intercourse  with  men.  The  human 
 soul  passes  through  various  transmigrations,  thus 
 connecting  the  series  with  the  lower  classes  of  be- 
 ing, until  it  is  finally  purified  and  rendered  accept- 
 able to  God.  It  will  be  seen  that  his  system  was 
 a  compound  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  with  some  parts 
 borrowed  from  the  East,  and  perhaps  derived  from 
 a  study  of  the  Pythagorean  system.  (  Ritter,  Gc- 
 schichte  der  Philosophic,  4,  p.  243.)  Alcinous  first 
 appeared  in  the  Latin  version  of  Pietro  Balhi.  which 
 was  published  at  Rome,  with  Apuleius,  1469,  fol. 
 The  Greek  text  was  printed  in  the  Akline  edition  of 
 Apuleius,  1521,  8vo.  Another  edition  is  that  of 
 Fell,  Oxford,  1667.  The  best,  however,  is  that  of 
 J.  H.  Fischer,  Leipzig,  1783,  8vo.  It  was  transla- 
 ted into  French  by  J.  J.  Combes-Dounous,  Pans, 
 1800,  8vo,  and  into  English  by  Stanley,  in  his  His- 
 tory of  Philosophy. 
 
 Alois  ("AA/cif),  that  is,  the  Strong,  I.  a  surname 
 of  Athena,  under  which  she  was  worshipped  in 
 Macedonia.  {Liv.,  42,  51.) — H.  A  deity  among  the 
 Naharvali,  an  ancient  German  tribe.  (Tacit.,  Germ., 
 43.)  Grimm  {Deutsche  Mijthol.,  p.  39)  considers  Al- 
 cis  in  the  passage  of  Tacitus  to  be  the  genitive  of 
 Alx,  which,  according  to  him,  signifies  a  sacred 
 grove,  and  is  connected  with  the  Greek  uAtrof. 
 Another  Alcis  occurs  in  Apollodorus,  2,  1,  §  5. 
 
 Alcm^on  ('A/l/i/ia/wv)  V.  one  of  the  most  emi- 
 nent natural  philosophers  of  antiquity,  was  a  native 
 of  Crotona,  in  Magna  Gra-cia.  His  father's  name 
 was  Pirithus,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil 
 of  Pythagoras,  and  must,  therefore,  have  lived  in  tlie 
 latter  half  of  the  sixth  century  before  Christ.  {Dwff. 
 La'ert.,  8,  83.)  Nothing  more  is  known  of  the  events 
 of  his  life.  His  most  celebrated  anatomical  discov- 
 ery has  been  noticed  in  the  Diet,  of  Ant.,  p.  772,  a ; 
 but  whether  his  knowledge  in  this  branch  of  science 
 was  derived  from  the  dissection  of  animals  or  of  hu- 
 man bodies  is  a  disputed  question,  which  it  is  diffi- 
 cult to  decide.  Chalcidius,  on  whose  authority  the 
 fact  rests,  merely  says  {Comment,  in  Pint.,  "  Tim.," 
 p.  368,  ed.  Fall-.),  "qui  primus  exsectionem  aggredi 
 est  ausus,"  and  the  word  exscctio  would  apply 
 equally  well  to  either  case.  He  is  said  also  {Dtcg. 
 Lacrl.,  I.  c. — Clemens  Alcxandr.,  Strom  ,  1,  p.  308)  to 
 have  been  the  first  person  who  wrote  on  natural 
 philosophy  {(pvamov  ?.uyov),  and  to  have  invented  fa- 
 bles {fubulas:  Istd.,  Orig.,  1,  39).  He  also  wrote 
 several  other  medical  and  philosophical  works,  of 
 which  nothing  but  the  titles  and  a  few  fragments 
 have  been  preserved  l)y  Stobwus  (Eclog.  Phys.), 
 Plutarch  {De  Phys.  Philos.  Deer.),  and  Galen  {His- 
 
1430 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 tor.  Philnsoph.)  A  farther  account  of  his  philosoph- 
 ical opinions  may  he  luuncl  in  Menage's  Notes  to 
 Diogenes  Lacrlms,  8,  83,  p.  387. — Lc  Clerc,  Hisf.  dc 
 la  Mdd.  —  Aljons.  Ciaccnnms,  ap.  Fabric.,  BMioth. 
 O'ntc,  vol.  IS,  p.  48,  ed.  vet. — Sprengel,  Hist,  de  la 
 MM.,  vol.  1,  p.  239.— C.  G.  Kuhn,  De  Fhilosoph. 
 ante  Hippocr.  Mcdicmce.  Cultor.,  Lips.,  1781,  4to, 
 reprinted  in  Ackcrmami's  Opusc.  ad  His/or.  Medic, 
 rcrtincntia,  Nonmb..  1797,  8vo,  and  in  Kiihns 
 Opii.sc.  Acad.  Med.  ct  PInlol.,  Lips.,  1827-8,  2  vols. 
 8v(). — Isensee,  Gcsch.  der  Medicin. 
 
 Although  Alcmajon  is  termed  a  pupil  of  Pythag- 
 oras, there  is  great  reason  to  doubt  whether  he  was 
 a  Pythagorean  at  all ;  his  name  seems  to  have  crept 
 into  the  lists  of  supposititious  Pythagoreans  given  us 
 by  later  writers.  {Brandis,  Gcschichte  der  Philoso- 
 phic, vol.  1,  p.  507.)  Aristotle  {Melaphys.,  a.,  5) 
 mentions  him  as  nearly  contemporary  with  Pythag- 
 oras, but  distinguishes  between  the  aroixela  of  op- 
 posites,  under  which  the  Pythagoreans  included  all 
 things,  and  the  double  principle  of  Alcmson,  ac- 
 cording to  Aristotle,  less  extended,  although  he 
 does  not  explain  the  precise  difTerence.  Other  doc- 
 trines of  Alcmajon  have  been  preserved  to  us.  He 
 said  that  the  human  soul  was  immortal,  and  partook 
 of  the  divine  nature,  because,  like  the  heavenly  bod- 
 ies, it  contained  in  itself  a  principle  of  motion. 
 {Arist.y  De  Animii,  1,  2,  p.  405. — Cic,  De  Nat. 
 Dear.,  1,  11.)  The  eclipse  of  the  moon,  which  was 
 also  eternal,  he  supposed  to  arise  from  its  shape, 
 which,  he  said,  was  like  a  boat.  All  his  doctrines 
 M'hich  have  come  down  to  us  relate  to  physics  or 
 medicine,  and  seem  to  have  arisen  partly  out  of  the 
 speculations  of  the  Ionian  school,  with  which,  rather 
 than  the  Pythagorean,  Aristotle  appears  to  connect 
 Alcinaeon,  partly  from  the  traditionary  lore  of  the 
 earliest  medical  science.     {Brandis,  vol.  1,  p.  508.) 
 
 Alcm-^n  ('A?i.Kfj.uv),  called  by  the  Attic  and  later 
 Greek  writers  Alcma^on  {' klKpaiuv),  the  chief  lyric 
 poet  of  Sparta,  was  by  birth  a  Lydian  of  Sardis. 
 His  father's  name  was  Damas  or  Titarus.  He  was 
 brought  into  Laconia  as  a  slave,  evidently  when 
 very  young.  His  master,  whose  name  was  Agesi- 
 das,  discovered  his  genius,  and  emancipated  him  ; 
 and  lie  then  began  to  distinguish  himself  as  a  lyric 
 poet.  {Suidas,  s.  r. — Heraclid.  Pont.,  Polit.,  p.  206. 
 —  Veil.  Pat.,  1,  18. — Alcman.  fr.  11.  Welcker. — Epi- 
 grams by  Alexander  JEtolus,  Lcomdas,  and  Antipaler 
 Thess.,  in  Jacobs's  Anlhol.  Grcec,  1,  p.  207,  No.  3; 
 p.  175,  No.  80;  2,  p.  110,  No.  56;  in  the  Anthol. 
 Palat.,  7,  709,  19,  18.)  In  the  epigram  last  cited  it 
 is  said  that  the  two  continents  strove  for  the  hon- 
 our of  his  birth;  and  Suidas  (/.  c  )  calls  him  a  La- 
 conian  of  Messoa,  which  may  mean,  however,  that 
 he  was  enrolled  as  a  citizen  of  Messoa  after  his 
 emancipation.  The  above  statements  seem  to  be 
 more  in  accordance  with  the  authorities  than  the 
 opinion  of  Bode,  that  Alcman's  father  was  brought 
 from  Sardis  to  Sparta  as  a  slave,  and  that  Alcman 
 liimself  was  born  at  Messoa.  It  is  not  known  to 
 what  extent  he  obtained  the  rights  of  citizen.ship. 
 
 The  time  at  which  Alcman  lived  is  rendered 
 somewhat  doubtful  by  the  ditferent  statements  of 
 the  Greek  and  Armenian  copies  of  Eusebius,  and 
 of  the  chronographers  who  followed  him.  On  the 
 whole,  however,  the  Greek  copy  of  Eusebius  ap- 
 pears to  he  right  in  placing  him  at  the  second  year 
 of  the  twenty-seventh  Olympiad  (B.C.  671).  He 
 was  contemporary  with  Ardys,  king  of  Lydia,  who 
 reigned  from  678  to  629  B.C.,  w'ith  Lesclies,  the 
 author  of  the  "  Little  Iliad,"  and  with  Terpander, 
 during  the  later  years  of  these  two  poets  ;  he  was 
 older  than  Stesichorus,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been 
 the  teacher  of  Arion.  From  these  circumstances, 
 and  from  the  fact  which  we  learn  from  himself 
 (F/-.,  29),  that  he  lived  to  a  great  age,  we  may  con- 
 
 clude, with  Clinton,  that  he  flourished  from  about 
 671  to  about  631  B.C.  {CluUun,  Fust ,  1,  p,  189, 
 191,  365. — Hermann,  Antiq.  Lacon.,  p.  76,  77.)  He 
 is  said  to  have  died,  like  Sulla,  of  the  nwrbus  pcdicu- 
 laris.  {Arislot.,  Hist  Anim.,  5,  31  or  25. — Plut., 
 Sulla,  36.— P/m.,  H.  N-.,  11,  33,  ij  39  ) 
 
 The  period  during  which  most  of  Alcman's  poems 
 were  composed  was  that  which  followed  the  con- 
 clusion of  the  second  Messenian  war.  During  this 
 period  of  quiet,  the  Spartans  began  to  cherish  that 
 taste  for  the  spiritual  enjoyments  of  poetry  which, 
 though  felt  by  them  long  before,  had  never  attained 
 to  a  high  state  of  cultivation  while  their  attention 
 was  absorbed  in  war.  In  this  process  of  improve- 
 ment Alcman  was  immediately  preceded  by  Ter- 
 pander, an  ^olian  poet,  who,  before  the  year  676 
 B.C.,  had  removed  from  Lesbos  to  the  mainland  of 
 Greece,  and  had  introduced  the  ^olian  lyric  into 
 the  Peloponnesus.  This  new  style  of  poetry  was 
 speedily  adapted  to  the  choral  form,  in  which  the 
 Doric  poetry  had  hitherto  been  cast,  and  gradually 
 supplanted  that  earlier  style  which  was  nearer  to 
 the  epic.  In  the  33d  or  34th  Olympiad,  Terpander 
 made  his  great  improvements  in  music.  {Vid. 
 Terp.\nder.)  Hence  arose  the  peculiar  character 
 of  the  poetry  of  his  younger  contemporary,  Alcman, 
 which  presented  the  choral  lyric  in  the  highest  ex- 
 cellence which  the  nmsic  of  Terpander  enabled  it 
 to  reach.  But  Alcman  had  also  an  intimate  ac- 
 quaintance with  the  Phrygian  and  Lydian  styles  of 
 music,  and  he  was  himself  the  inventor  of  new 
 forms  of  rhythm,  some  of  which  bore  his  name. 
 
 A  large  portion  of  Alcman's  poetry  was  erotic. 
 In  fact,  he  is  said  by  some  ancient  writers  to  have 
 been  the  inventor  of  erotic  poetry.  (Alhen.,  13,  p. 
 600. — Suidas,  s.  v.)  From  his  poems  of  this  class, 
 which  are  marked  by  a  freedom  bordering  on  licen- 
 tiousness, he  obtained  the  epithets  of  "'  s\^■eet"  and 
 "  pleasant"  {y?i,vKvc,  jaotf/f).  Among  these  poems 
 were  many  hymeneal  pieces.  But  the  Parthcnia, 
 which  form  a  branch  of  Alcman's  poems,  must  not 
 be  confounded  with  the  erotic.  They  were  so  called 
 because  they  were  composed  for  the  purpose  of  be- 
 ing sung  by  choruses  of  virgins,  and  not  on  account 
 of  their  subjects,  which  were  very  various  :  some- 
 times, indeed,  erotic,  but  often  religious.  Alcman's 
 other  poems  embrace  hymns  to  the  gods,  Paeans, 
 Prosodia,  songs  adapted  to  different  religious  festi- 
 vals, and  short  ethical  or  philosophical  pieces.  It 
 is  disputed  whether  he  wrote  any  of  those  anapaes- 
 tic war-songs,  or  marches,  which  were  called  IfxCa- 
 TTjpia ;  but  it  seems  very  unlikely  that  he  should 
 have  neglected  a  kind  of  composition  which  had 
 been  rendered  so  popular  by  Tyrta?us. 
 
 His  metres  are  very  various.  He  is  said  by  Suidas 
 to  have  been  the  first  poet  viho  composed  any  verses 
 but  dactylic  hexameters.  This  statement  is  incor- 
 rect ;  but  Suidas  seems  to  refer  to  the  shorter  dac 
 tylic  lines  into  which  Alcman  broke  up  the  Homeric 
 hexameter.  In  this  practice,  however,  he  had  been 
 preceded  by  Archilochus,  from  whom  he  borrowed 
 several  others  of  his  peculiar  metres  :  others  he  in- 
 vented himself  Among  his  metres  we  find  various 
 forms  of  the  dactylic,  anapaestic,  trochaic,  and  iam- 
 bic, as  well  as  lines  composed  of  different  metres  : 
 for  example,  iambic  and  anapaestic.  The  Cretic 
 hexameter  was  named  Alcmanic,  from  his  being  its 
 inventor.  The  poems  of  Alcman  were  chiefly  in 
 strophes,  composed  of  lines  sometimes  of  the  same 
 metre  throughout  the  strophe,  sometimes  of  differ- 
 ent metres.  From  their  choral  character,  we  miglit 
 conclude  that  they  sometimes  had  an  antistropbic 
 form  ;  and  tliis  seems  to  be  confirmed  by  the  state- 
 ment of  Hephffistion  (p.  134,  Gaisf.),  that  he  com- 
 posed odes  of  fourteen  strophes,  in  which  tliere 
 was  a  change  of  metre  after  the  seventh  strophe. 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1^1. 
 
 There  is  no  trace  of  an  epode  following  the  strophe 
 and  anlistrophe  in  his  poems. 
 
 Tlie  dialect  of  Alcnian  was  the  Spartan  Doric, 
 with  an  internnixture  of  tlie  -^oiic.  The  popular 
 idioms  of  Laconia  appear  most  frequently  in  his 
 more  familiar  poems. 
 
 The  Alexandrean  grammarians  placed  Alcman  at 
 the  head  of  their  canon  of  the  nine  lyric  poets. 
 Among  the  proofs  of  his  popularity  may  be  men- 
 tioned the  tradition  that  his  songs  were  sung,  with 
 those  of  Terpander,  at  the  first  performance  of  the 
 gynmopjedia  at  Sparta  (B.C.  665  :  JElian,  V.  H.,  12, 
 50).  and  the  ascertained  fact,  that  they  were  fre- 
 quently afterward  used  at  tliat  festival.  (A/hen., 
 15,  p.  678.)  The  few  fragments  which  remain 
 scarcely  allow  us  to  judge  how  far  he  deserved  his 
 reputation,  but  some  of  them  display  a  true  poetical 
 spirit. 
 
 Alcman's  poems  comprised  six  books,  the  extant 
 fragments  of  which  are  included  in  the  collections 
 of  Neander,  H.  Stephens,  and  Fulvius  Ursinus.  The 
 latest  and  best  edition  is  that  of  Welcker,  Giessen, 
 1815. 
 
 Ai.coN,  II.  a  surgeon  (vulnerum  medicus)  at  Rome 
 in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  A.D.  41-54,  wlio  is  said 
 by  Pliny  (H.  N.,  29,  8)  to  have  been  banished  to 
 Gaul,  and  to  have  been  fined  ten  millions  of  sester- 
 ces :  //.  .S'.  ccntics  cent.  mill,  (about  £78,125).  Af- 
 ter his  return  from  banishment,  he  is  said  to  have 
 gained  by  his  practice  an  equal  sum  within  a  few 
 ye<irs,  which,  however,  seems  so  enormous  (com- 
 pare Albutius  and  Arkuntius),  that  there  must 
 probably  be  some  mistake  in  tlie  te.xt.  A  surgeon 
 of  the  same  name,  who  is  mentioned  by  Martial 
 {Epigr.,  11,  84)  as  a  contemporary,  may  possibly  be 
 the  same  person. 
 
 A  I.ECTOR  ('AAt'/crwp),  I.  the  father  of  Leitus,  the 
 Argonaut.  (Apollod.,  1,  9,  (J  16.)  Homer  (,11.,  17, 
 602)  calls  hun  Alectryon. — II.  A  son  of  Anaxago- 
 ras,  and  father  of  Iphis,  king  of  Argos.  He  was  con- 
 sulted by  Polyneices  as  to  the  manner  in  which 
 Amphiaraus  might  be  compelled  to  take  part  in  the 
 expedition  against  Thebes.  (Apollod.,  3,  6,  §  2. — 
 t'au.i ,  2,  18,  ^  4.)  Two  others  of  the  same  name 
 are  mentioned  in  Homer.  [Od.,  4,  10. — Eustalh.  ad 
 Horn.,  p.  30;i  and  1598.) 
 
 Ai.EOAD^  and  Aleu.^s  {'Alevudac  and  'A/lei'af.) 
 Aleuas  is  the  ancestorial  hero  of  the  Thessalian,  or, 
 more  particularly,  of  the  Larisssean  family  of  the 
 Aleuadaj.  (I'lnd.,  Pylh.,  10,  8,  with  the  Schol.) 
 The  Aleuadaj  were  the  noblest  and  most  powerful 
 among  all  the  families  of  Thessaly,  whence  Herodo- 
 tus (7,  6)  calls  its  members  paaUEig.  (Comp.  Diod., 
 15,  61  ;  16,  14.)  The  first  Aleuas,  who  bore  the 
 surname  oiWvppor,  that  is,  the  red-haired,  is  called 
 king  (here  synonymous  with  Tagus :  vid.  Diet,  of 
 Ant ,  p.  94.'))  of  Thessaly,  and  a  descendant  of  Her- 
 cules through  Thessalus,  one  of  the  many  sons  of 
 Hercules.  {Hutdax,  s.  v.  'AXevdiJai. — Ulpian  ad 
 Dcm.,  Olynlh.,  1. — SrkuL  ad  A  polio  n.  Rhod..  3,  1090. 
 —  Veltci.,  1,  3.)  Plutarch  {Dc  Am.  Fiat.,  m  fin) 
 States  that  he  was  haled  by  his  father,  on  account 
 of  his  haughty  and  savage  character ;  but  his  uncle, 
 nevertheless,  contrived  to  get  him  elected  king  and 
 sanctioned  by  the  god  of  Delphi.  His  reign  was 
 more  glorious  than  that  of  any  of  his  ancestors,  and 
 the  nation  rose  in  power  and  importance.  This 
 Aleuas,  who  i)elongs  to  tlu;  mythical  period  of  Greek 
 history,  is  in  all  probability  the  same  as  the  one 
 who,  according  to  Hegemon  («;>.  Ail.,  Anim.,  8,  11), 
 was  beloved  by  a  dragon.  According  to  Aristotle 
 (ap.  Harporrat  ,  s.  v.  Terpapxin),  the  division  of 
 Thessaly  into  four  parts,  ol  which  traces  remained 
 down  to  the  latest  times,  look  place  in  the  reign  of 
 the  first  .\leuas.  llultmann  places  tins  hero  in  the 
 period  between  the  so-called  return  of  the  Ileraclids 
 
 and  the  age  of  Pisistralus.  But  even  earlier  than 
 the  time  of  Pisistralus  the  family  of  the  Aleuadae 
 appears  to  have  become  divided  into  two  branches, 
 the  Aleuada;  and  the  Scopada^,  called  after  Scopas, 
 probably  a  son  of  Aleuas.  (0«.,  Itns,  512.)  The 
 Scopada;  inhabited  Crannon,  and  perhaps  Pharsalus 
 also,  while  the  main  branch,  the  Aleuadae,  remained 
 at  Larissa.  The  influence  of  the  families,  however, 
 was  not  confined  to  these  towns,  but  extended  more 
 or  less  over  the  greater  part  of  Thessaly.  They 
 formed,  in  reality,  a  powerful  aristocratic  party  {paa- 
 i/liif)  in  opposition  to  the  great  body  of  the  Thessa- 
 lians.     {Herod.,  7.  172  ) 
 
 The  earliest  historical  person  who  probably  be- 
 longs to  the  Aleuadaj  is  Eurylochus,  who  termina- 
 ted the  war  of  Cirrha  about  B.C.  590.  (Strabu,  9, 
 p.  418. —  Vul.  EuBYLocHus.)  In  the  time  of  the  poet 
 Simonides  we  find  a  second  Aleuas,  who  was  a 
 friend  of  the  poet.  He  is  called  a  son  of  Echecra- 
 tides  and  Syris  {Schol.  ad  Thcocnt.,  16,  34) ;  but,  be- 
 sides the  suggestion  of  Ovid  {Ibis,  225)  that  he  had 
 a  tragic  end,  nothing  is  known  about  him.  At  the 
 time  when  Xerxes  invaded  tireece,  three  sons  of 
 this  Aleuas,  Thorax,  Eurypylus,  and  Thrasyda;us, 
 came  to  him  as  ambassadors,  to  request  him  to  go 
 on  with  the  war,  and  to  promise  him  their  assist- 
 ance. {Herod.,  7,  6 — Vid.  Tiior.^x.)  When,  after 
 the  Persian  war,  Leotychides  was  sent  to  Thessaly 
 to  chastise  those  who  had  acted  as  traitors  to  their 
 country,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  bribed  by  the 
 Aleuada;,  although  he  might  have  subdued  all  Thes- 
 saly. {Herod.,  6,  7-2.—Paus.,  3,  7,  ^  8.)  This  fact 
 shows  that  the  power  of  the  Aleuada3  was  then  still 
 as  great  as  before.  About  the  year  B.C.  460,  we 
 find  an  Aleuad  Orestes,  son  of  Echecratides,  who 
 came  to  Athens  as  a  fugitive,  and  persuaded  the 
 Athenians  to  exert  themselves  for  his  restoration. 
 {Time,  1,  111.)  He  had  been  expelled  either  by 
 the  Thessalians,  or,  more  probably,  by  a  faction  of 
 his  own  family,  who  wished  to  exclude  him  from  the 
 dignity  of  i3aai/.evg  {i.  e.,  probably  Tagus),  for  such 
 feuds  among  the  Aleuada;  themselves  are  frequent- 
 ly mentioned.     {Xen.,  Anab.,  I,  1,  ^  10.) 
 
 Alter  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  another 
 Thessalian  family,  the  dynasis  of  Phers,  gradually 
 rose  to  power  and  influence,  and  gave  a  great  shock 
 to  the  power  of  the  Aleuadas.  As  early  as  B.C. 
 375,  Jason  of  Phera;,  after  various  struggles,  suc- 
 ceeded in  raising  himself  to  the  dignity  of  Tagus. 
 {Xen.,  Hcllcn.,  2,  3,  (}  'i.—Diod.,  14,  82  ;  15,  60.) 
 When  the  dynasts  of  Pliers  became  tyrannical, 
 some  of  the  Larissa?an  Aleuadaj  conspired  to  put 
 an  end  to  their  rule,  and  for  this  purjjose  they  invi- 
 ted Alexander,  king  of  Macedonia,  the  son  of  Amyn- 
 tas.  {Diod.  15,  61.)  Alexander  took  Larissa  and 
 (Crannon,  but  kept  them  to  himself  Afterward, 
 Pelopidas  restored  the  original  state  of  things  in 
 Thessaly  ;  but  the  dynasts  of  Phera;  soon  recover- 
 ed their  power,  and  the  Aleuada;  again  solicited  the 
 assistance  of  Macedonia  against  tliem.  Phillip  will- 
 ingly coiTiplied  with  the  request,  broke  the  power 
 of  the  tyrants  of  Phera\  restored  the  towns  to  an 
 appearance^  of  freedom,  and  made  the  Aleuada;  his 
 faithful  friends  and  allies.  {Diod.,  16,  14.)  In  what 
 manner  Philip  used  them  for  his  purposes,  and  how 
 little  he  spared  them  when  it  was  his  interest  to  do 
 so,  is  sufiicienliy  attested.  {Dcm.,  De  Cor.,  p.  241. 
 — Poll/an.,  4,  2,  ^  11. — Ulpian,  i.  c.)  Among  the 
 tetrarchs  whom  he  intrusted  with  the  administra- 
 tion of  Thessaly,  there  is  one  Thrasydanis  {Thco- 
 pomp.  ap.  Athen.,  6,  p.  249),  who  undoubtedly  be- 
 longed to  the  AleuadiP,  just  as  the  Thessalian  .Nledi- 
 iis,  who  is  mentioned  as  one  of  tlii"  companions  of 
 .Mexaniler  the  tJreat.  {Pint..  Dc  Tranquil.,  13. — 
 Comp.  Sirab.,  11,  p.  530.)  The  family  now  fell  into 
 insignificance,  and  the  last  certain  trace  of  an  Alcu- 
 
1432 
 
 SUPPLEMENT 
 
 ad  is  Thorax,  a  friend  of  Antigonus.  {IHut.,  Dcmctr., 
 29.)  Whether  the  sculptors  Aleuas,  mentioned  by 
 Pliny  (//.  N.,  34,  8),  and  Suopas  of  Paros,  were  in 
 any  way  connected  with  the  Aleuadae,  cannot  be 
 ascertained.     See  Boeckh's  Commentary  on  Pind., 
 
 Pijlh.,  10  ;  Schneider  on  Arislot.,  Polit.,  5,  5,  9  ;  but 
 more  particularly  Bultmann,  Von  dem  Gcschlecht  det 
 Alcuadcn,  in  his  MythoL,  2,  p.  246,  &:c.,  who  has 
 made  out  the  following  genealogical  table  of  the 
 Aleuadaj. 
 
 Aleuas  Tivfi^oc, 
 King,  or  Tagus,  of  Thessaly. 
 
 Mother  Archedice. 
 
 01.  40.  Echecratides. 
 
 "  45. 
 
 >'  50. 
 
 "  55. 
 
 Euryloclius. 
 
 Scopas  I. 
 
 70. 
 
 Echecratides. 
 
 I  wife  Dyseris. 
 
 Antiochus,  Tagus. 
 
 Simus. 
 
 Aleuas  II. 
 
 /> 
 
 Creon.  Diactorides. 
 Scopas  II. 
 
 80.      Orestes. 
 
 85. 
 
 90. 
 
 95.  Eurylochus. 
 
 Medius. 
 100. 
 
 Thorax,  Eurypylus,  Thrasydaeus. 
 
 Aristippus. 
 
 105. 
 110. 
 
 Scopas  III.,  Tagus. 
 
 Hellanocrates. 
 Eurylochus.    Eudicus.     Simus.     Thrasydaeus. 
 
 "  115.      Medius. 
 
 AlexamenusI.  ('A/lffa/iEvor),  of  Teos,  was,  accord- 
 ing to  Aristotle,  in  his  work  upon  poets  (;rcp?.  noi- 
 vruv),  the  first  person  who  wrote  dialogues  in  the 
 Socratic  style  before  the  time  of  Plato  {Allien.,  11, 
 p.  505,  b,  c. — Dioff.  La'crt.,  3,  48.) 
 
 Alexander,  IV.  ('AAe^avdpog),  the  Paphlagonian, 
 a  celebrated  impostor,  who  flourished  about  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  second  century  (Luaan,  Alex.,  6),  a 
 native  of  Abonoteichos  on  the  Euxine,  and  the  pupil 
 of  a  friend  of  Apollonius  Tyana^us.  His  history, 
 which  is  told  by  Lueian  with  great  naivete,  is  chiefly 
 an  account  of  the  various  contrivances  by  which  he 
 established  and  maintained  the  credit  of  an  oracle. 
 Being,  according  to  Lucian's  account,  at  his  wit's 
 end  for  the  means  of  life,  with  many  natural  ad- 
 vantages of  manner  and  person,  he  determined  on 
 the  following  imposture.  After  raising  the  expecta- 
 tions of  the  Paphlagonians  with  a  reported  visit  of 
 the  god  ..^Esculapius,  and  giving  himself  out,  under 
 the  sanction  of  an  oracle,  as  a  descendant  of  Per- 
 seus, he  gratified  the  expectation  which  he  had 
 himself  raised,  by  finding  a  serpent,  which  he  jug- 
 gled out  of  an  egg,  in  tlie  foundations  of  the  new 
 temple  of  .^sculapius.  A  larger  serpent,  which 
 he  brought  with  him  from  Pella,  was  disguised  with 
 a  human  head,  until  the  dull  Paphlagonians  really 
 believed  that  a  new  god  Glycon  had  appeared  among 
 them,  and  gave  oracles  in  the  likeness  of  a  serpent. 
 Dark  and  crowded  rooms,  juggling  tricks,  and  the 
 other  arts  of  more  vulgar  magicians,  were  the  chief 
 means  used  to  impose  on  a  credulous  populace, 
 which  Lueian  detects  with  as  much  zest  as  any 
 modern  skeptic  in  the  marvels  of  animal  magnet- 
 ism. Every  one  who  attempted  to  expose  the  im- 
 postor was  accused  of  being  a  Christian  or  Epicu- 
 rean ;  and  even  Lueian,  who  amused  himself  with 
 his  contradictory  oracles,  hardly  escaped  the  elTects 
 of  his  malignity.  He  had  his  spies  at  Rome,  and 
 busied  himself  with  the  affairs  of  the  whole  world  : 
 at  the  time  when  a  pestilence  was  raging,  many 
 were  executed  at  his  instigation,  as  the  authors  of 
 this  calamity.  He  said  that  the  soul  of  Pythagoras 
 had  migrated  into  his  body,  and  prophesied  that  he 
 
 should  live  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  then  die 
 from  the  fall  of  a  thunderbolt :  unfortunately,  an 
 ulcer  in  the  leg  put  an  end  to  his  imposture  in  the 
 seventieth  year  of  his  age,  just  as  he  was  in  the 
 height  of  his  glory,  and  had  requested  the  emperor 
 to  have  a  medal  struck  in  honour  of  himself  and  the 
 new  god.  The  influence  he  attained  over  the  popu- 
 lace seems  incredible  ;  indeed,  the  narrative  of  Lu- 
 eian would  appear  to  be  a  mere  romance,  were  it 
 not  confirmed  by  some  medals  of  Antoninus  and  M. 
 Aurelius. — VII.  An  Acarnanian,  who  had  once  been 
 a  friend  of  Philip  III.  of  Macedonia,  but  forsook  him, 
 and  insinuated  himself  so  much  into  the  favour  of 
 Antiochus  the  Great,  that  he  was  admitted  to  his 
 most  secret  deliberations.  He  advised  the  king  to 
 mvade  Greece,  holding  out  to  him  the  most  brilliant 
 prospects  of  victory  over  the  Romans,  B.C.  192. 
 (Liv  ,  35,  18.)  Antiochus  followed  his  advice.  In 
 the  battle  of  Cynoscephala;,  in  which  Antiochus  was 
 defeated  by  the  Romans,  Alexander  was  covered 
 with  wounds,  and  in  this  state  he  carried  the  news 
 of  the  defeat  to  his  king,  who  was  staying  at  Thro- 
 nium,  on  the  Maliac  Gulf  When  the  king,  on  his 
 retreat  from  Greece,  had  reached  Cenaeum  in  Eu- 
 bcea,  Alexander  died  and  was  buried  there,  B.C. 
 191.  {Liv.,  36,  20.)— VIII.  .^TOLUS  (^Mi^avdpni;  6 
 At7-fc)A(Jf),  a  Greek  poet  and  grammarian,  who  lived 
 in  the  reign  of  Ptolemajus  Philadelphus.  He  was 
 the  son  of  Satyrus  and  Stratocleia,  and  a  native  of 
 Pleuron  in  ./Etolia,  but  spent  the  greater  part  of  his 
 life  at  Alexandrea,  where  he  was  reckoned  one  of 
 the  seven  tragic  poets  who  constituted  the  tragic 
 pleiad.  {Siiid.,  s.  v. — Eiidoc,  p.  62. — Paus.,  2,  22, 
 ()  7.—Schol.  ad  Horn.,  II.,  16,  233.)  He  had  an 
 oflice  in  the  library  at  Alexandrea,  and  was  commis- 
 sioned by  the  king  to  make  a  collection  of  aU  the 
 tragedies  and  satyric  dramas  that  were  extant.  He 
 spent  some  time,  together  with  Antagoras  and  Ara- 
 tus,  at  the  court  of  Antigonas  Gonatas.  {Aratus, 
 Phcenomena  et  Dioscm.,  2,  p.  431,  443,  &c.,  446,  ed. 
 Buhlc.)  Notwithstanding  the  distinction  he  enjoyed 
 as  a  tragic  poet,  he  appears  to  have  l)ad  greater 
 merit  as  a  writer  of  epic  poems,  elegies,  epigrams, 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1433 
 
 and  cynaedi.     Among  his  epic  poems,  we  possess 
 the  titles  and  some  fragments  of  three  pieces  :  tlie 
 Fisherman  (uAtev^:    Allien.,   7,   p.   290),   Kirka   or 
 Krii<a  (A/hcn.,  7,  p.  283),  which,  however,  is  desig- 
 nated by  Athena^us  as  doubtlui,  and  Helena.    {Uck- 
 kcr,  Anccd.,  p.  96.)     Of  his  elegies,  some  beautiful 
 fragments  arc  still  extant.     (Athcn.,  4,  p.  170,   11, 
 p.  496;   15,  p.  H99.—Strab.,  12,  p.  556;   14,  p.  681. 
 — Partht.n.,  Erot.,  4. — Tzclz.    ad   Lycophr.,  266. — 
 Schol.  and  Eustath.  ad  II. ,  '3,  314.)     His  Cynaidi,  or 
 'ItjvtKu  nouj/xara,  are  mentioned  by  Strabo  (14,  p. 
 648)  and  Athenaeus   (14,  p.  620).     Some  anapaes- 
 tic verses  in  praise  of  Euripides  are  preserved  in 
 Gellius  (15,  20).     All  the  fragments  of  Alexander 
 ^tolus   are   collected    in   ''  Alcxandn   JEtoli  frag- 
 mcnla  coll.  ct  ill.  A.   Capellmann,"  Bonn,  1829,  8vo. 
 — Comp.    Wclcher,  Die  Griech.    Tragiidicn,  p.   1263, 
 &.C. — DUnlzcr,  Die  Fragm.   der  Episch.  Poesie   dcr 
 Gncchcn,    von   Alcxand.    dem    Grossen,    &C.,    p.    7. 
 &c. — IX.  Commander  of  the  horse  in  the  army  of 
 Antigonus  Doson  during  the  war  against  Cleome- 
 nes   HI.,  of  Sparta.     {Pulyh.,  2,   66.)     He   fought 
 against  Philopoemen,  then  a  young  man,  whose  pru- 
 dence and  valour  forced  him  to  a  disadvantageous 
 engagement  at  Sellasia  (2,  68).     This  Alexander  is 
 probai)ly  the  same  person  as  the  one  whom  Antig- 
 onus, as  the  guardian  of  Philip,  had  appointed  com- 
 mander of  Philip's  body-guard,  and  who  was  calum- 
 niated by  Apelles  (4,  87).    Subsequently  he  was  sent 
 hy  Philip  as  ambassador  to  Thebes,  to  persecute 
 Megaleas  (5,  28).    Polybius  states,  that  at  all  times 
 he  manifested  a  most  extraordinary  attachment  to 
 his  king  (7,  12). — X.  Son  of  Antonius,  the  triumvir, 
 and  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt.     He  and  his  twin- 
 sister  Cleopatra  were  born  B.C.  40.     Antonius  be- 
 stowed on  him  the  titles  of  "  Helios"  and  "King 
 of  Kings,"  and  called  his  sister  "Selene."     He  also 
 destined  for  him,  as  an  independent  kingdom,  Ar- 
 menia, and  such  countries  as  might  yet  be  conquer- 
 ed between  the  Euphrates  and  Indus,  and  wrote  to 
 the  senate  to  have  his  grants  confirmed  ;  but  his  let- 
 ter was  not  suffered  to  be  read  in  ])ublic  (B  C.  34). 
 After  the  conquest  of  Armenia,  Antonius  betrotlied 
 Jolape,  the  daughter  of  the  Median  king  Artavasdes, 
 to  Ills  son  Alexander.   When  Octavianus  made  him- 
 self master  of  Alexandrca,  he  spared  Alexander,  but 
 took  him  and  his  sister  to  Rome,  to  adorn  his  tri- 
 umph.   They  were  generously  received  by  Octavia, 
 the  wife  of  .Antonius,  who  educated  them  with  her 
 t)wn  ciiildren.     {Dion   Cassius,  49,  32,  40,  41,44; 
 50,   25;    51,  21.  — Plutarch,  Anlonius,    36,    54,  87. 
 —  Livy,  Epit.,  131,  132.)  — XI.   Brother  of  Moi.o. 
 On  the  accession  of  Anliochus  HI.,  afterward  call- 
 ed   the  Great,  in  B  C.  224,  he    intrusted  Alexan- 
 der witii  the  government  (»f  the  satrapy  of  Persis, 
 and    Molo   received   Media.     Antiochus  was  then 
 only  fifteen  years  of  age  ;  and  this  circumstance, 
 togetiier  with  tli(!  fact  that  Hermeias,  a  base  flat- 
 terer and  crafty  intriguer,  whom  every  one  had  to 
 fear,  was  all-powerful  at  his  court,  induced  the  two 
 brothers  to  form  the  plan  of  causing  the  upper  sat- 
 rapies of  the  kingdom  to  revolt.     It  was  tlie  secret 
 wish  of  Hermeias  to  see  the  king  involved  in  as 
 many  difliculties  as  possil)le,  and  it  was  on  his  ad- 
 vice that  the  war  against  the  rebels  was  intru.sted 
 to  men  without  courage  and  ability.     In  B.C.  220, 
 however,   Antiochus   himself  undertook  the   com- 
 mand.    Molo   was  deserted  by  his  troops,  and  to 
 avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  king,  put  an  end 
 to  his  own  life.     .Ml  the  leaders  of  the  rebellion  fol- 
 k)W(Hl  his  example,  and  one  of  them,  who  escap3d 
 to  Pcrsi.'i,  kilicil  Molo's  mother  and  chililn^n,  per- 
 suaded .\lexander  lo  put  an  end  to  his  life,  and  at 
 last  killed  himself  u|)<>n  the  bodies  of  his  fn(>nds. 
 (/V)/i,  5,  40,  41,43,  5i.)— XIV.   ApiiRonisiENsis. 
 Besides  the  works  universally  attributed  to  Alex- 
 8  T 
 
 ander  Aphrodisicnsis,  there  are  extant  two  others 
 of  whi(-h  the  author  is  not  certainly  known,  b 
 which  are  by  some  persons  supposed  to  belong  t( 
 him,  and  which  commonly  go  under  his  name.    Thf 
 first   of  these   is   entitled    'larpiKu  'ATro/ji/ixam   Ka 
 •^vaiKu   YlpdCTiijiiara,   "  Qucrslwncs  Mcdica  el  Prob- 
 Icmala  Phyxzca,"  which  there  are  strong  reasons  foi 
 believing  to  be  the  work  of  some  other  writer.     In 
 the  first  place,  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  list  of  hia 
 works  given  by  the  Arabic  author  quoted  by  Casiri 
 {Btbliolh.  Arabico-Hisp.  Escuriai,  vol.   1,  p.   243)- 
 secondly,  it  appears  to  have  been  written  hy  a  per- 
 son who  belonged  to  the  medical  profession  (2,  praf. 
 el  ^  II),  which  was  not  the  case  with  Alexander 
 Aphrodisicnsis  ;  thirdly,  the  writer  refers  (1,  87)  to 
 a  work  by  himself,  entitled  ' kXlijyopLai  tCjv  e'k;  0eoif 
 'AvanXaTTofiivuv  TliOavuv  'IcrTopicJv,  "  Allcooria.  His- 
 toriarum  Crcdibiltum  de  Diis  Fabricalarum,"  which 
 we  do  not  find  mentioned  among  Alexander's  works ; 
 fourthly,  he  more  than  once  speaks  of  the  soul  as 
 immortal  (2,  praf.  ct  1^  63,  67),  which  doctrine  Alex- 
 ander Aphrodisicnsis  denied  ;  and,  fifthly,  the  style 
 and  language  of  the  work  seem  to  belong  to  a  later 
 age.     Several  eminent  critics  suppose  it  to  belong 
 to  Alexander  Trallianus,  but  it  does  not  seem  likely 
 that  a  Christian  writer  would  have  composed  the 
 mythological  work  mentioned  above.     It  consists 
 of  two  books,  and  contains  several  interesting  med- 
 ical observations,  along  with  much  that  is  frivolous 
 and  trifling.    It  was  first  publ.shed  in  a  Latin  trans- 
 lation  by   George   Valla,  Venet.,   1488,  fol.     The 
 Greek  text  is  to  be  found  in  the  Aldine  edition  of 
 Aristotle's  works.  Venet.,  fol.,  1495,  and  in  that  hy 
 Sylburgius,  Francof,   1585,  8vo ;  it  was  published 
 with  a  Latin  translation  by  J.  Davion,  Paris,  1540 
 1541,  lOmo ;  and  it  is  inserted  in  the  first  voIuiik 
 of  Ideler's  Physici  ct  Medici  Grceci  Minorcs,  BeroL, 
 1841,  8vo.     The   other  work  is  a  short  treatise, 
 Hepl  UvpETuv,  Dc  Fcbrilms,  which  is  addressed  to  a 
 medical  pupil  whom  the  author  offers  to  instruct  in 
 any  other  branch  of  medicine  ;  it  also  is  omitted  in 
 the  Arabic  list  of  Alexander's    works   mentioned 
 above.     For  these  reasons  it  does  not  seem  likely 
 to  be  the  work  of  Alexander  Aphrodisicnsis,  while 
 the  whole  of  the  twelfth  book  of  the  great  medical 
 work  of  Alexander  Trallianus  (to  whom  it  has  also 
 been  attributed)  is  taken   up  with  the  subject  of 
 Fever,  and  he  would  hardly  have  written  two  trea- 
 tises on  the  satire  disease  without  making  in  either 
 the  slightest  allusion  to  the  other.     It  may  jjossibly 
 belong  to  one   of  the  other  numerous  physicians 
 of  the  name  of  Alexander.     It  was  first  published 
 in   a   Latin   translation   by  George   Valla,  Venet., 
 1498,  fol.,  which  was  several  times  reprinted.     The 
 Greek  text  first  appeared  in  the   Cambridge  AIu- 
 sciun  Criticiim,  vol.  2,  p.  359-389,  transcribed  by  De- 
 metrius Schinas,  from  a  manuscript  at  Florence;  it 
 was  published,  together  with  Valla's  translation,  by 
 Franz  Passow,  Vratislav.,   1822,  4to,  and  also  in 
 Passow's   Opusc.  Academ.,  Lips.,  1835,  8vo,  p.  521. 
 The  Greek  text  alone  is  contained  in  the  first  vol- 
 ume of  Ideler's  P/njs.  el  Med.  Gneci  Minorcs,  Berol., 
 1841.  8vo. — XVII.  Surnamed  Isius,  the  chief  com- 
 mander of  the  ^Etolians,  was  a  man  of  considerable 
 ai)iiity  and  eloquence  for  an  /Etolian.     {Liv..  32,  33. 
 —Polyb,  17,  3,  &c.)     In  B.C.  198,  he  was  i)iescnt 
 at  a  colloquy  held  at  Nica?a  on  the  Maliac  Gulf,  and 
 spoke  against  Philip  III.,  of  Macedonia,  saying  that 
 the  king  ought  to  be  compelled  to  quit  Greece,  and 
 to  restore  to  the  .'Etolians  the  towns  which   had 
 formerly  been  subject  to  them.     Philip,  indignant  at 
 such  a  demand  being  made  by  an  .Etolian,  answer- 
 ed him  in  a  speech  from  his  ship.     (Liv.,  32,  34.) 
 Soon  aficr  this  meeting,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
 of  the  -Etoliansto  Rome,  where,  together  with  other 
 envoys,  he  was  to  treat  with  the  senate  about  peace, 
 
1434 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 but  at  the  same  time  to  bring  accusations  against 
 Philip.  (Puhjb.,  17,  10.)  In  B.C.  197,  Alexander 
 again  took  part  in  a  meeting,  at  which  T.  Quinctius 
 Flamininus,  with  his  allies,  and  King  Philip  were 
 present,  and  at  which  peace  with  Philii)  was  discuss- 
 ed. Alexander  dissuaded  his  friends  from  any  peace- 
 ful arrangement  with  Pliilip.  {Puli/b.,  18,  19,  &,c. — 
 Appian,  Maccd.,  7,  1.)  In  B.C.  195,  when  a  con- 
 gress of  all  the  Greek  states  that  were  allied  with 
 Rome  was  convoked  by  T.  Quinctius  Flamininus  at 
 Corinth,  for  the  purpose  of  considering  the  war  that 
 was  to  he  undertaken  against  Nabis,  Alexander 
 spoke  against  the  Athenians,  and  also  insinuated 
 that  the  Romans  were  acting  fraudulently  towards 
 Greece.  {Liv.,  34,  23.)  When,  in  B.C.  189,  M.  Ful- 
 vius  Nobilior,  after  his  victory  over  Antiochus,  was 
 expected  to  march  into  ^■Etolia,  the  .^tolians  sent 
 envoys  to  Athens  and  Rhodes  ;  and  Alexander  Isius, 
 together  with  Phaneas  and  Lycopus,  were  sent  to 
 Rome  to  sue  for  peace.  Alexander,  now  an  old 
 man,  was  at  the  head  of  the  embassy  ;  but  he  and 
 his  colleagues  were  made  prisoners  in  Cephalenia 
 by  the  Epirols,  for  the  purpose  of  extorting  a  heavy 
 ransom.  Alexander,  however,  although  he  was 
 very  wealthy,  refused  to  pay  it,  and  was,  according- 
 ly, kept  in  captivity  for  some  days,  after  which  he 
 was  liberated,  at  the  command  of  the  Romans,  with- 
 out any  ransom.  {Polybius,  22,  9.) — XVIII.  Sur- 
 named  Lychnus  {Kuxvo^),  a  Greek  rhetorician  and 
 poet.  He  was  a  nati,e  of  Ephesus,  whence  he  is 
 sometimes  called  Alexander  Ephesius,  and  must 
 have  lived  shortly  before  the  time  of  Strabo  (14,  p. 
 642),  who  mentions  him  among  the  more  recent 
 Ephesian  authors,  and  also  stales  that  he  took  a 
 part  in  the  political  affairs  of  his  native  city.  Strabo 
 ascribes  to  him  a  history,  and  poems  of  a  didactic 
 kind,  viz.,  one  on  astronomy  and  another  on  geogra- 
 phy, in  which  he  describes  the  great  continents  of 
 the  world,  treating  of  each  in  a  separate  work  or 
 book,  which,  as  we  learn  from  other  sources,  bore  the 
 name  of  tlie  continent  of  which  it  contained  an  ac- 
 count. What  kind  of  history  it  was  that  Strabo 
 alludes  to  is  uncertain.  The  so-called  Aurelius  Vic- 
 tor {Dc  Oiig.  Gent.  Rom.,  9)  quotes,  it  is  true,  the 
 first  book  of  a  history  of  the  Marsic  war  by  Alexan- 
 der the  Ephesian,  but  this  authority  is  more  than 
 doubtful.  Some  writers  have  supposed  that  this 
 Alexander  is  the  author  of  the  history  of  the  suc- 
 cession of  Greek  philosophers  {al  tuv  ^(Aotro^ui^ 
 dtaSoxai)  which  is  so  often  referred  to  by  Diogenes 
 Laertius(l.  116;  2,19,106;  3,4,5;  4,62;  7,179; 
 8,  24;  9,  61),  but  this  work  belonged,  probably,  to 
 Alexander  Polyhistor.  His  geographical  poem,  of 
 which  several  fragments  are  still  extant,  is  frequent- 
 ly referred  to  by  Stephanos  Byzantius  and  others. 
 (Steph.  Byz.,  s.  vv.  Aumjdoc,  TawpoSuv?],  Adipof , 'Tp- 
 Kavol,  MeXiraia,  &c. — Conip.  Eustalh.  ad  Dionys. 
 Perieg.,  388,  591.)  Of  his  astronomical  poem  a 
 fragment  is  still  extant,  which  has  been  erroneously 
 attributed  by  Gale  {Addend,  ad  Parlhen.,  p.  49)  and 
 Schneider  {ad  Vitruo.,  2,  p.  23,  &c.)  to  Alexander 
 yEtolus.  {Vid.  Nakc,  SchedcB  CrUioc.,  \>.l,  &LC.)  It 
 is  highly  probable  that  Cicero  {ad  Ait.,  2,  20,  22) 
 is  speaking  of  Alexander  Lychnus  wiien  he  says 
 that  Alexander  is  not  a  good  poet,  a  careless  wri- 
 ter, but  yet  possesses  some  information. — XIX.  Of 
 Myndus  in  Caria,  a  Greek  writer  on  zoology,  of 
 uncertain  date.  His  works,  which  are  now  lost, 
 must  have  been  considered  very  valuable  by  the  an- 
 cients, since  they  refer  to  them  very  frequently. 
 The  titles  of  his  works  are,  Kti]i>C)v  'laropla,  a  long 
 fragment  of  wiiich,  belonging  to  the  second  book,  is 
 quoted  by  Athen^us  (5,  p.  221  ;  comp.  2,  p.  65. — 
 JElian,  Hist.  An.,  3,  23  ;  4,  33 ;  5,  27  ;  10,  34). 
 This  work  is  probably  the  same  as  that  which  in 
 other  passages  is  simply  called  Ilepi  Zwui',  and  of 
 
 which  Athenscus  (9,  p.  392)  likewise  quotes  the 
 second  book.  The  work  on  Birds  {Uepi  UttjvCjv  : 
 Pint..  Mar.,  17.— Athcn.,  9,  p.  387,  388,  390,  &c.) 
 was  a  separate  work,  and  the  second  book  of  it  is 
 quoted  by  Athensus.  Diogenes  Laertius  (I,  29) 
 mentions  one  Alexon  of  Myndus  as  the  author  of  a 
 work  on  myths,  of  which  he  quotes  the  ninth  book. 
 This  author  being  otherwise  unknown.  Menage  pro- 
 posed to  read  'AXi^avSpuc  6  MwJiof  instead  of  'AAtf- 
 (ov.  But  everything  is  uncertain,  and  the  conjeo- 
 ture,  at  least,  is  not  very  probable. — XX.  Numicnius 
 {'ATiE^avSpog  Novfir/vLo^  or  6  'Nov/.i?]viov,  as  Suidas 
 calls  him),  a  Greek  rhetorician,  who  lived  in  the 
 reign  of  Hadrian  or  that  of  the  Antonines.  About  his 
 life  nothing  is  known.  We  possess  two  works 
 which  are  ascribed  to  him.  The  one  which  cer- 
 tainly is  his  work  bears  the  title  JlEpl  tuv  rF/g  Aiav- 
 uiag  Kal  Afff(jr  "Lxvi-uiruv,  i.  c,  "  De  Figuris  Senten- 
 tiarum  et  Elocutionis."  J.  Ilufinianus,  in  his  work 
 on  the  same  subject  (p.  195,  cd.  Ruhnken),  expressly 
 stales  that  Aquila  Ilonianus,  in  his  treatise  "  De 
 Figuris  Sententiarum  et  Elocutionis,"  took  his  ma- 
 terials from  Alexander  Numenius's  work  mentioned 
 above.  The  second  work  bearing  the  name  of  Alex- 
 ander Numenius,  entitled  Tlepl  'EniSeLKTiKuv,  i.  e., 
 "  On  Show-speeches,"  is  admitted  on  all  hands  not 
 to  be  his  work,  but  of  a  later  grammarian  of  the 
 name  of  Alexander  ;  it  is,  to  speak  more  correctly, 
 made  up  very  clumsily  from  two  distinct  ones,  one 
 of  which  was  written  by  one  Alexander,  and  the 
 other  by  Menander.  {V^aies.  ad  Euseb.,  Hist.  Ec- 
 dcs.,  p.  28.)  The  first  edition  of  these  two  works  is 
 that  of  Aldus,  in  his  collection  of  the  Rhelorcs  Graci, 
 Venice,  1508,  fol.,  vol.  1,  p.  574,  &c.  They  are 
 also  contained  in  Walz"s  Khctor/.s  Greed,  vol.  8. 
 The  genuine  work  of  Alexander  Numenius  has  also 
 been  edited,  together  withMinucianus  and  Phcebam- 
 mon,  by  L.  Normann,  with  a  Latin  translation  and 
 useful  notes,  Upsala,  1690,  8vo.  {Vid.  Ruhtikcn, 
 ad  Aquil.,  Rom.,  p.  139,  &c. —  Westermann,  Gcsch. 
 dcr  Griech.  Bcredtsamkcit,  ij  95,  n.  13,  ^  104,  n.  7.) — 
 XXI.  Surnamed  PELOPLATON(IT/;/lo7r/'Lur(ji'),  a  Greek 
 rhetorician  of  the  age  of  the  Antonines,  was  a  son 
 of  Alexander  of  Seleucia,  in  Ciiicia,  and  of  Seleucis. 
 {Philostr.,  Vit.  Soph.,  2,  5,  1}  1,  compared  with  Epist. 
 Apollon.  Tyan.,  13,  where  the  father  of  Alexander 
 Peloplaton  is  called  Straton,  which,  however,  may 
 be  a  mere  surname.)  His  father  was  distinguished 
 as  a  pleader  in  the  courts  of  justice,  by  which  he 
 acquired  considerable  properly,  but  he  died  at  an 
 age  when  his  son  yet  wanted  the  care  of  a  father. 
 His  place,  however,  was  supplied  by  his  friends, 
 especially  by  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  who  is  said  to 
 have  been  in  love  with  Seleucis  on  account  of  her 
 extraordinary  beauty,  in  which  she  was  equalled  by 
 her  son.  His  education  was  intrusted,  at  first,  to 
 Phavorinus,  and  afterward  to  Dionysius.  He  spent 
 the  property  which  his  fiither  had  left  him  upon 
 pleasures,  hut,  says  Philostratus,  not  contemptible 
 pleasures.  When  he  had  attained  the  age  of  man- 
 liood,  the  town  of  Seleucia,  for  some  reason  now 
 unknown,  sent  Alexander  as  ambassador  to  the  Em- 
 peror Antoninus  Pius,  who  is  said  to  have  ridiculed 
 the  young  man  for  the  extravagant  care  he  bestow- 
 ed on  his  outward  appearance.  He  spent  the  great- 
 er part  of  his  life  away  from  his  native  place,  at 
 Antiochia,  Rome,  Tarsus,  and  travelled  through  all 
 Egypt,  as  far  as  the  country  of  the  Ti'^ivoi  (Ethiopi- 
 ans). It  seems  to  have  been  during  his  stay  al  An- 
 tiochia that  he  was  appointed  Greek  secretary  to 
 the  Emperor  M.  Antoninus,  who  was  carrying  on  a 
 war  in  Pannonia,  about  A.D.  174.  On  his  journey 
 to  the  emperor  he  made  a  short  stay  at  .Athens, 
 where  he  met  the  celebrated  rhetorician  Herodes 
 .Mlicus.  He  had  a  rhetorical  contest  with  him,  in 
 which  he  not  only  conquered  his  famous  adversary, 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 1435 
 
 but  gained  his  esteem  and  admiration  to  such  a  de- 
 gree, that  Ilerodes  honoured  him  with  a  munificent 
 present.  One  Corinthian,  however,  of  the  name  of 
 Sceptes,  when  asked  what  he  thought  of  Alexander, 
 expressed  his  disappointment  by  saying  that  he  had 
 found  "  the  clay  {I[/p.og),  but  not  Plato."  This  say- 
 ing is  a  pun  on  the  surname  of  Peloplaton.  The 
 place  and  time  of  his  death  are  not  known.  Philos- 
 tratus  gives  the  various  statements  which  he  found 
 about  these  points.  Alexander  was  one  of  the  great- 
 est rhetoricians  of  his  age,  and  he  is  especially 
 praised  for  the  sublimity  of  his  style  and  the  bold- 
 ness of  his  thoughts  ;  but  he  is  not  known  to  have 
 Vritten  anything.  An  account  of  his  life  is  given  by 
 Philostratus  {Vit.  Soph.,  2,  5),  who  has  also  pre- 
 served some  of  his  sayings,  and  some  of  the  sub- 
 jects on  which  he  made  speeches.  (Comp.  Suidas, 
 s.  V.  'AM^avdpog  Alyacoc,  iti  fin. — Eudoc,  p.  52.) — 
 XXII.  PniL.\i,ETHEs  {'AM^avdpoc  ^i2.ah'/0?ii),  an  an- 
 cient Greek  physician,  who  is  called  by  Octavius 
 Horatianus  (4,  p.  102,  d,  ed.  Argent.,  1532),  Alexan- 
 der Amator  Veri,  and  who  is  probably  the  same  per- 
 son who  is  quoted  by  Caslius  Aurelianus  (De  Morb. 
 Acjit.,  2,  1,  p.  74)  under  the  name  of  Alexander  La- 
 odicensis.  He  lived,  probably,  towards  the  end  of 
 the  first  century  before  Christ,  as  Strabo  speaks  of 
 him  (12,  p.  580)  as  a  contemporary ;  he  was  a  pu- 
 pil of  Asclepiades  {Octav.  Horat.,  I.  c),  succeeded 
 Zeuxis  as  head  of  a  celebrated  Herophilean  school 
 of  medicine,  established  in  Phrygia  between  Laodi- 
 ceaand  Carura  [Slrab.,  I.  c),  and  was  tutor  to  Aris- 
 toxenus  and  Demosthenes  Philalethes.  {Galen,  Dc 
 Differ,  rub.,  4,  4,  10,  vol.  8,  p.  727,  746.)  He  is 
 several  times  mentioned  by  Galen,  and  also  by  So- 
 ranus  {De  Arte  Obstetr.,  c.  93,  p.  210),  and  appears 
 to  have  written  some  medical  works,  which  are  no 
 longer  extant. — XXIII.  Assumed  the  title  of  Em- 
 peror OF  PvCME  in  A.D.  311  ;  he  was,  according  to 
 some  accounts,  a  Phrygian,  and  according  to  others 
 a  Pannonian.  He  was  appointed  by  Maxentius  gov- 
 ernor of  Africa,  but  discovering  that  Maxentius  was 
 plotting  against  his  life,  he  assumed  the  purple, 
 though  he  was  of  an  advanced  age  and  a  timid  na- 
 ture. Maxentius  sent  some  troops  against  him  un- 
 der Rufius  Volusianus,  who  put  down  the  insurrec- 
 tion without  difficulty.     Alexander  was  taken  and 
 
 strangled.  (Zosimus,  2.  12,  14. — Aur.  Vict.,  De 
 C(Es.,  40  ;  Epit.,  40.)— XXIV.  Tiberius  {Ti6ipioc 
 'A^E^av6poc),was  born  at  Alexandrea,  of  Jewish  pa- 
 rents. His  father  held  the  office  of  Alabarch  in 
 Alexandrea,  and  his  uncle  was  Philo,  the  well- 
 known  writer.  Alexander,  however,  did  not  con- 
 tinue in  the  faith  of  his  ancestors,  and  was  reward- 
 ed for  his  apostacy  by  various  public  appointments. 
 In  the  reign  of  Claudius  he  succeeded  Fadius  as 
 procurator  of  Judaea,  about  A.D.  46,  and  was  pro- 
 moted to  the  equestrian  order.  He  was  subse- 
 quently appointed  by  Nero  procurator  of  Egypt ; 
 and  by  his  orders  50,000  Jews  were  slain  on  one 
 occasion  at  Alexandrea,  in  a  tumult  in  the  city.  It 
 was  apparently  during  his  government  in  Egypt  that 
 he  accompanied  Corbulo  in  his  expedition  into  Ar- 
 menia, A.D.  64 ;  and  he  was,  in  this  campaign, 
 given  as  one  of  tlie  hostages  to  secure  the  safety  of 
 Tiridates,  when  the  latter  visited  the  Roman  camp. 
 Alexander  was  the  first  Roman  governor  who  de- 
 clared in  favour  of  Vespasian  ;  and  the  day  on  which 
 he  administered  the  oath  to  the  legions  in  the  name 
 of  Vespasian,  the  Kalends  of  July,  A.D.  69,  is  re- 
 garded as  the  beginning  of  that  emperor's  reign. 
 Alexander  afterward  accompanied  Titus  in  the  war 
 against  Judaea,  and  was  present  at  the  taking  of 
 Jerusalem.  {Joseph.,  Ant.  Jud.,  20,  4,  (^  2 ;  Bell. 
 Jud.,  2,  11,  ij  6;  15,  H;  18,  <J  7,  8;  4,  10,  <J  6;  6, 
 4,  <J  3.—Tac.,  Ann.,  15,  28  ;  Hist.  1,  11  ;  2,  74,  79. 
 — Suet.,  Vesp.,  6.) 
 
 Alexarchus  {'A?it^apxoc),  a  Greek  historian,  who 
 wrote  a  work  on  the  history  of  Italy  ('iTaltKu),  of 
 which  Plutarch  (^Parallel.,  7)  quotes  the  third  book. 
 Servius  {ad  JEn.,  3,  334)  mentions  an  opinion  ol 
 his  respecting  the  origin  of  the  names  Epirus  and 
 Campania,  which  unquestionably  belonged  to  his 
 work  on  Italy.  The  writer  of  this  name  whom 
 Plutarch  mentions  in  another  passage  {De  Is.  et 
 Os.,  p.  365),  is  probably  a  different  person. 
 
 Alexias  {'Ale^iag),  an  ancient  Greek  physician, 
 who  was  a  pupil  of  Thrasyas  of  Mantinea,  and  lived, 
 probably,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  be- 
 fore Christ.  Theophrastus  mentions  him  as  having 
 lived  shortly  before  his  time  {Hist.  Plant.,  9,  16,  ij 
 8),  and  speaks  highly  of  his  abilities  and  acquire- 
 ments. 
 
A  N 
 
 ESSAY 
 
 MEASURES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MONEYS 
 
 G  R  E  K  K  S    AND    ROMAN  S. 
 
MEASURES,   WEIGHTS,   AND   MONEYS 
 
 GREEKS  AND  ROMANS, 
 
 The  mctrological  systems  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
 mans, and  the  methods  pursued  in  the  determination 
 of  their  standards,  have  been  regarded  with  interest 
 by  those  curious  in  antiq\iarian  researches  While 
 the  relations  of  the  various  parts  of  each  system  have 
 been  satisfactorily  ascertained,  the  values  which  have 
 been  assigned  to  their  units,  whether  of  length,  capa- 
 city, or  weight,  when  referred  to  those  of  modern 
 times,  exhibit  considerable  discrepance.  This  may  not 
 excite  surprise  when  it  is  considered  that  these  values 
 have  been  deduced  from  observations,  made  with  differ- 
 ent degrees  of  nicety,  upon  models  possessing  conflict- 
 ing claims  to  perfection.  A  learned  professor  of  Stut- 
 gard*  has  reviewed  the  labours  of  his  predecessors  in 
 these  inquiries  with  masterly  skill,  and  has  imparted 
 to  his  investigations  a  precision  which  entitles  them  to 
 reliance.  His  results  have  been  adopted,  and  his  mode 
 of  procedure  exhibited  in  the  following  pages.  In 
 conformity  with  his  jjlan,  and  for  the  reason  that  we 
 possess  more  numerous  specimens  of  the  Roman 
 standards  than  of  tho«e  of  the  Greeks,  which  furnish 
 more  accurate  data  for  the  estimate  of  both,  the  former 
 will  b(!  first  treated  of. 
 
 ^   I.    ROMAN    MEAStJRES    OF    LENGTH. 
 
 The  Romans,  like  other  nations  of  antiquity,  derived 
 their  measures  of  length  from  the  different  members 
 of  the  human  body,  the  unit  of  which  was  the  foot. 
 Their  Pes  was  divided  both  into  12  iincicc  and  16  di- 
 gili.  The  first  division,  by  which  it  was  recognised 
 as  the  ^ As  or  unit,  and  its  parts  expressed  by  uhcke, 
 was  generally  ado[)ted.  Thus,  when  authors  make 
 mention  oi  pes  uncialis,  they  understand  the  ^V  of  pes; 
 thus,  also,  pes  dodran/aiis  means  J,  bcssalis  §,  quin- 
 cunqualin  -yhi  trien/alis  J,  qiiadrantalis  i,  and  semiun- 
 cialis  17'f  o(  pes.  The  second  division,  into  16  diffiti, 
 is  the  more  natural,  and  was  principally  used  by  archi- 
 tects and  land  surveyors  ;  and,  though  it  latterly  came 
 into  more  general  use,  is  sekloin  found  in  the  speci- 
 mens of  the  pes,  unaccompanied  by  the  first.  Palmus, 
 the  palm,  or  the  width  of  the  hand,  is  the  na?.acaTri  of 
 the  Greeks,  and  was  invariably  received  by  the  Ro- 
 mans as  the  fourth  o(  pes  ;  but  St.  Jerome,  in  his  com- 
 ments on  Ezechiel  {cap.  40),  has  assumed  it  as  the 
 three  fourths,  by  which  admeasurement  it  nearly  an- 
 swers to  the  Greek  amda/ai,  and  the  modern  Italian 
 Palm.  Cubitus  is  sesquipes  or  1^  pedes,  and  is  sel- 
 dom met  with  except  when  it  is  used  in  translating 
 
 *  J.  F.  Wurm.  His  determinalions  are  given  in  the  old 
 French  measures,  weights,  &.c  ,  and  have  been  reduced  to  the 
 English  and  .American  slamlarda  by  a  comparison  of  the"  Man- 
 ual des  Poids  et  Mesures"  of  M.  Tarlx',  and  .Mr.  Ila.ssler's  able 
 report  to  the  Treasury  Depart  mom  in  1H32.  Other  works  have 
 been  consulted,  of  which  maybe  mcniioncd  those  of  Greaves, 
 Hooper,  and  Arbuthnot,  the  papers  of  Kfiper  in  the  Philosophi- 
 cal Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  li)r  the  years 
 17G0  and  1771,  and  the  profound  report  of  President  Adams  lo 
 the  Senate  of  the  United  Slates  in  1821. 
 
 t  See  the  section  on  Roman  Weights. 
 
 the  Greek  ni/xv^.  It  is  sometimes  improperly  con- 
 founded with  Ulna.  Ulna  is  the  Greek  opjvta  {^^  dic- 
 ta ulna  and  rCiv  oi2.tvo)V,id  est  a  hrachiis;  proprie  est 
 spatium  in  quantum  utraque  extenditur  mamts .'" — Ser- 
 vius  ad  Vrrg.,  EcL,  3,  105.)  Pes  sestertius^2^  ped. 
 is  rendered  by  Boeihius  and  Frontinus  gradus  or 
 "  step,''  a  term,  however,  not  found  in  any  classical 
 writer.  Passus  {'^ a  passis pcdibus")  was  a  pace,  equal 
 to  five  pedes.  Dcccmpcda  or  Perlica  (modern  Perch) 
 was  employed  in  measuring  roads,  buildings,  land,  &c. 
 Actus  is  the  length  of  a  furrow,  or  the  distance  a  plough 
 is  sped  before  it  turns,  and  corresponds  to  our  Furlong  : 
 it  equalled  120  ped.  The  Itinerary  unit,  by  which  the 
 Romans  assigned  the  length  of  their  own  roads,  was 
 milhare  {mille  passuum)^^0(iO  ped. ;  that  by  which 
 they  expressed  the  valuation  of  maritime  distance,  or 
 that  between  places  situated  in  Greece,  was  the  stadi- 
 um^\25  passus=^72^  ped.  ;  and  that  employed  in 
 measuring  the  roads  of  the  Gauls  was  the  leuca  or 
 /fiMO'a  (whence  our  League  is  derived,  though  more  than 
 double  in  value)=:^li  milliana. 
 
 y 
 ^   2.  ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  EXTENT.  ^ 
 
 The  unit  of  extent  was  Jugcrum  (nearly  y  of  our 
 acre),  which  was  also  distributed  into  uncice :  Colu- 
 mella describes  it  as  being  240  pedes  in  length  and 
 120  in  breadth=:28,800  pedes  quadrati ;  and,  conse- 
 quently, ?/7ic?a=2400,  Siciliquus^^GOO,  Sextula^^iOO, 
 and  Scrupuluni^^iOO  ped.  quad.  ;  which  last  is  evi- 
 dently a  dcccmpeda  quadrata.  These  were  used  by 
 surveyors  ;  but  those  more  commonly  mentioned  by 
 writers  on  husbandry  were  Clima,  Actus,  Jugenim, 
 Heredium,  Ceniuria,  and  Sallus.  Clima  is  a  square 
 whose  side  is  60  ped.  {Columella,  5,  1.)  Actus 
 quadralus  {"in  quo  boves  agcrentur  cum  aratro,  cum 
 impctu  justo.'" — Plin.,  18,  3)  is  thus  explained  by  Col- 
 umella ;  "Actus  quadralus  undiquc  finitur  pcdibus 
 120,  ct  hoc  duplicatum  facit  jugcrum,  et  ab  eo.  quod 
 erat  junctum,  nomc7i  jugeri  usurpaxnt."  {Colum.,  I. 
 c.)  Actus  minimus  or  simplex  was  120  ped.  in  length 
 and  four  in  breadth.  Varro  {R.  R.,  1.  10)  thus  de- 
 scribes the  Heredium,  Ccnturia,  and  Saltvs  :  "Bina 
 Jugcra,  qu(c  a  Romulo  prtmum  divisa  dicebantur  viri- 
 tim,  quod  keredcm  scquereyitur,  heredium  appellarunt. 
 Htrcdia  centum  ceiituria  dicta.  Ha  porro  qualuor 
 ccnturia;  conjuncta,  ul  sint  in  utramque  partem  bincc, 
 appellatur  in  agris  viritim  dtrisis  publice  ««//««. " 
 FcrsHS=10,000  ped.  quad,  answers  to  the  Greek  i:Xi&- 
 pov. 
 
 (j   3.  ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 
 
 I.  For  liquids.  The  standard  measure  of  capacity 
 was  the  Quadranlal  or  Amphora  (derived  from  the 
 Greek  u/npoprvr),  being  a  cubic  vessel  each  of  whose 
 sides  was  a  Roman  foot ;  and,  according  to  an  old  de- 
 cree of  the  people  preserved  by  Festus,  it  contained 
 80  librcE  (Roman   pounds)  of  wine.     Columella  fre- 
 
 1439 
 
1440 
 
 MEASURES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MONEYS 
 
 quently  makes  cadxts  synonymous  with  it,  and  by  the 
 Greeks  it  was  called  Kepu/iiov,  ufiooptvg,  and  jj.ETp7jT7ig 
 'Ira/ii«6f.  'I'lie  greatest  liquid  measure  was  the  Cu- 
 leus  ot  CuUctis=20  amphora'..  The  divisions  of  the 
 amjihorae  are  easily  itifcrrcd  from  the  plebiscitum  just 
 mentioned,  and  from  the  followmg  passage  of  Volusius 
 Majcianiis  :  "Quadrun/al,  quod,nunc  ■plcrique  ampho- 
 ram  vocanl,  habcl  urnas  2,  mudios  3,  semimodxos  6, 
 congios  8,  scxlarios  48,  hcminas  96,  quarlarios  192, 
 cyallws  576."  The  Urna  was  so  called,  according 
 to  Varro,  "  ah  urinando,  quod  in  aqua  hauriendd,  uri- 
 nal, hoc  est  rnergitur,  ut  urinator."  Congius  was  the 
 cube  of  half  a  pes  ;  one  of  Vespasian's  is  still  extant, 
 marked  wiih  the  letters  P.  X.,  which  denote  pondo 
 decern,  ten  being  the  number  of  pounds  it  contained  by 
 law.  Congii  ot  wine  or  oil  were  given  to  the  people  by 
 the  emperors  and  chief  magistrates  on  holydays,  which 
 gifts  were  hence  called  covgiarii,  and  persons  frequent- 
 ly derived  surnames  from  the  number  of  congii  of  wine 
 they  were  in  the  habit  of  drinking  at  a  draught ;  hence 
 Gicero's  son  was  called  Bicongius,  and  Novellus  Tor- 
 quatus,  a  Milanese,  Tricongms.      {Pirn.,  14,  22.) 
 
 Sexlarius  was  ^  of  the  congius=^2  hcmincE^A:  quar- 
 tariv=^Vi  eyalhi ;  hence  the  sexlarius,  from  the  fact 
 of  its  containing  12  eyalhi,  was  regarded  as  the  as  or 
 unit  of  liquid  measures,  and  its  unc.icE  or  cyathi  were 
 denominated,  according  to  their  numbers,  sextans, 
 quadrans,  &c.  It  may  be  remarked  that  the  ancients, 
 at  their  entertainments,  were  in  the  habit  of  drinking 
 as  many  cyathi  as  there  were  letters  in  the  names  of 
 their  niiistresses.  {Marlial,  Epig.,  9,  93;  1,  72.) 
 There  were  two  kinds  of  scxlani,  the  caslrcyisis  and 
 urbicus,  the  former  being  double  of  the  latter,  or  com- 
 mon sextarius.  Acetabulum  was  half  the  quartarius, 
 and  was  so  called,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks  (to  whose 
 o^vCafov  it  corresponded),  from  acetum,  since  it  was 
 first  used  for  holding  sauce  for  meat.  Ligula  or  lin- 
 gula  at  first  simply  signified  a  spoon,  but  was  after- 
 ward regarded  by  the  Latin  physicians  as  a  fourth  of 
 the  cyathus  ;  Pliny  and  Columella  make  cochlear  or 
 cochleare  synonymous  with  it. 
 
 2.  For  thing's  dry.  The  unit  of  this  measure  was 
 the  modius,  which  contained  two  semimodii,  and  was 
 §  of  the  amphora,  as  is  ap])arent  from  the  passage  of 
 Volusius  Maecianus  above  quoted.  The  remaining 
 measures,  sexlarius,  hcmina,  &c.,  bear  the  same  re- 
 lation to  the  amphora  in  the  dry  as  in  the  liquid 
 measure. 
 
 ()   4.  DETERMINATION  OF  THE  ROMAN  MEASURES. 
 
 The  measures  of  Length,  Extent,  and  Capacity  are 
 so  intimately  connected  that  the  determination  of  their 
 values  will  easily  be  deduced  from  that  of  the  pes. 
 Various  measurements  have  been  made,  and  various 
 modes  of  investigation  been  pursued,  for  the  purpose 
 of  assigning  the  value  of  the  Roman  foot,  which,  from 
 the  imperfection  of  instrumenis,  the  want  of  accuracy 
 of  observation,  and  of  attention  paid  to  the  degree  of 
 injury  which  the  specimens  e.xamiued  may  have  suf- 
 fered, differ  considerably  in  their  results.  We  shall 
 give  a  brief  account  of  most  of  these  observations,  and, 
 as  far  as  possible,  assign  to  each  its  proper  degree  of 
 credence.  All  that  has  served  as  a  means  of  calcula- 
 ting the  value  of  the  Roman  foot  may  be  arranged  un- 
 der the  following  classes  :  (a.)  Specimens  of  the  pes 
 found  on  tombstones.  (//)  Foot-rules,  (c)  Milestones. 
 (rf)  Distances  of  places,  (c)  Congii.  (/)  Dimensions 
 of  ancient  buildings  at  Rome. 
 
 (a)  There  remain  four  celebrated  specimens  of  the 
 Roman  foot  represented  on  tombstones,  which  have 
 been  respectively  named  the  Statilian,  Cossutian,  ,Ebu- 
 tian,  and  Capponian  feet.  1.  The  Statilian  foot  was 
 discoveied  in  the  16th  century  in  the  Vatican  Gar- 
 dens at  Rome,  on  the  tombstone  of  a  certain  Statilius : 
 though  in  a  state  of  good  preservation,  it  is  of  clumsy 
 workmanship,  and  carelessly   subdivided.      Greaves 
 
 found  it  .972  feet,  which  measurement,  however  accu- 
 rately it  may  have  been  determined,  can  now  be  of 
 litile  use,  inasmuch  as  the  present  standard  foot  is 
 greater  than  that  employed  by  him,  by  an  excess  not 
 easily  ascertained,  though  it  has  been  estimated  by 
 Raper  at  -j-ij^,  which,  B[)|)lied  as  a  correction,  would 
 give  the  Statilian  foot  .970056  ft.  Auzout,  accordirg 
 to  Raper,  found  it  .96996  ft.,  and  Revillas  .96979  ft. 
 The  mean  value  of  the  Statilian  foot  deduced  from 
 these  observations  is  then  11.639224  inch. — 2.  The 
 Cossutian  foot  was  found  on  the  tombstone  of  Cn. 
 Cossutius  (probably  the  same  with  a  celebrated  archi- 
 tect mentioned  by  Vitruvius),  and  dug  up  about  the 
 same  time  with  the  Statilian,  in  the  gardens  of  Angelo 
 Colozzi,  from  whom  it  has  taken  the  name  of  Colotian  ; 
 the  divisions  are  scarcely  perceptible  ;  Greaves  found 
 it  .967  ft.,  which,  corrected,  is  .965066  ft.  — 3.  The 
 /Ebutian  foot  was  discovered  on  the  monument  of  M. 
 iHbutius,  in  the  Villa  Maltasi  ;  it  is  but  rudely  divided 
 into  palmi,  and  its  mean  length  is  11.6483  inch. — 4. 
 The  Capponian  foot  was  found  on  a  marble  without 
 inscription  in  the  Via  Aurelia,  and  presented  by  the 
 Marquis  Capponi  to  the  Capitoline  Museum,  where  it 
 is  preserved  with  the  three  others.  Revillas  found  it 
 11.625  inch.  The  value  of  the  pes,  if  considered  as 
 the  mean  of  these  four  feet,  is  11.623326  inch. 
 
 {b)  From  the  foot-rules  we  might  e.xpect  to  d^^rive  a 
 result  more  worthy  of  reliance,  since  they  were  con- 
 structed for  the  direct  purpose  of  measurement,  those 
 on  the  marble  being  probal)ly  intended  to  explain  the 
 profession  of  the  individuals  to  whose  memory  they 
 were  erected.  The  foot-rules  were  bars  of  iron  or 
 brass,  of  the  length  of  a  pes.  Those  most  celebrated 
 are  the  three  discovered  by  Poetus,  equal  in  length,  of 
 which  a  model,  cut  in  marble,  was  placed  by  him  in 
 the  Capitol,  whence  the  foot  has  been  styled  the  Cap- 
 itoline, and  has  been  generally  considered  as  the  true 
 Roman  foot.  From  the  numerous  measurements  it 
 has  undergone,  it  has  sensibly  increased,  so  that  its 
 value  must  be  assumed=128.695  Par.  lin.,  its  origi- 
 nal determination  by  Pcetus,  reduced  to  the  French 
 standard  by  Wurm.  Now  the  Paris  line  being  (ac- 
 cording to  the  mean  value  of  the  toiscs  of  Canivet  and 
 Lenoir,  as  given  by  Mr.  Hassler)  equal  to  .007401829 
 English  feet,  the  Capitoline  foot  equalled  .95258  feet. 
 Besides  the  Paetian,  other  fool-rules  remain,  not,  how- 
 ever, celebrated;  their  values  are  mostly  between  .967 
 and  .97  ft. 
 
 (c)  The  distances  between  the  milestones  might  fur- 
 nish a  correct  determination  of  the  Roman  foot,  were 
 it  not  that  none  arc  now  standing  within  30  miles  of 
 Rome,  and,  therefore,  none  to  be  much  relied  on  as 
 having  been  originally  measured  oflf  with  accuracy. 
 Bianchinus,  however,  a  celebrated  Italian  philosopher 
 and  mathematician  of  the  17th  century,  from  the  dis- 
 tances of  the  milestones  on  the  Appian  road,  deduced 
 the  Roman  foot=130.6  Par.  lin.=r:l  1.60015  inch. 
 
 (rf)  The  measures  of  the  public  roads  recorded  in 
 the  Itinerary  of  .\ntoiiinus  and  in  the  Peutinger  Table, 
 can  bo  of  little  assistance  in  our  inquiry,  since  those 
 records  not  only  omit  fractions,  which  must  have  ex- 
 isted, but  are  frequently  at  variance  with  each  other. 
 Besides,  it  is  not  known  whether  the  distances  are 
 reckoned  from  the  market-places  or  from  the  gates  ; 
 and  an  error  of  half  a  mile  in  sixty,  being  equivalent 
 to  an  error  of  the  tenth  part  of  an  inch  in  a  foot,  no 
 exact  value  of  the  Roman  foot  could  be  hence  derived, 
 even  though  the  mensurations  of  Cassini,  Riccioli,  and 
 others  were  totally  unexceptionable. 
 
 (e)  In  the  description  of  the  measures  of  capacity, 
 it  was  stated  that  the  congius,  in  accordance  with  a 
 plebiscitum  (the  Silian  law),  contained  ten  Roman 
 pounds  of  wine  or  water.  By  the  determination  of 
 the  libra,  which  is  given  in  section  v.,  the  congius 
 weighed  50495.3064  grs.  ;  now  as  a  cubic  inch  of 
 distilled  water,  at  maximum  density,  weighs  252.632 
 
OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS. 
 
 1441 
 
 grs.,  the  congius  contains  199  876921  cubic  inches, 
 and,  consequently,  its  side  is  5.8168  inch.  But  the 
 side  of  the  congius  was  half  the  Roman  foot ;  hence 
 the  value  of  the  Roman  foot,  as  deduced  from  the  con- 
 gius, is  11.6936  inch.  Though  this  result  is  very 
 near  the  correct  one,  much  reliance  cannot  be  placed 
 on  this  mode  of  arriving  at  it,  in  consequence  of  the 
 weight  of  the  ancient  wine  (80  libras  of  which  were 
 contained  in  the  congius)  bemg  unknown.  But,  as 
 Rhemnius  Fannius  informs  us  that  the  ancients  ac- 
 counted no  difference  to  exist  in  the  specific  gravities 
 of  wine  and  water,  we  have  considered  them  equal,  and 
 supposed  distilled  water  of  ma.ximum  density  to  be  of 
 the  same  specific  gravity  with  that  employed  by  them, 
 which  was  very  probably  pure  rain-water.  There  re- 
 main two  congii,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  was 
 placed  by  Vespasian  in  the  Capitol,  as  its  inscription 
 imports,  and  is  commonly  called  the  Farnesian  ;  the 
 other  is  preserved  at  Paris.  These  have  been  filled 
 with  water  and  weighed  by  Paetus,  Villalpandus,  Au- 
 zout,  and  others,  who  have  hence  sought  to  determine 
 the  libra  and  pes  ;  but  the  results  of  their  experiments 
 are  so  much  at  variance  as  to  render  any  mferences 
 drawn  from  them  objectionable. 
 
 (/)  The  last  method  we  shall  notice,  and  which 
 leads  to  the  most  satisfactory  conclusion,  consists  in 
 the  measurement  of  the  ancient  buildings  now  stand- 
 ing at  Rome  ;  and  though  many  have  ascertained  the 
 length  of  some  single  parts  of  them,  yet  no  one  has 
 compared  the  measures  of  the  principal  parts  with  so 
 much  assiduity  and  success  as  iVlr.  Raper.  Having 
 carefully  examined  the  work  entitled  "  Les  Edifices 
 antiques  de  Rome,"  by  M.  Desgodetz,  he  very  inge- 
 niously deduced  the  value  of  the  Roman  foot  from 
 65  dimensions=. 97075  ft.  From  this  value  of  the 
 j)es,  which  is  the  one  now  generally  adopted  in  Ger- 
 many and  France,  are  easily  deduced  all  the  measures 
 of  length.  (See  Tables  I.  and  II.)  The  jugerum 
 being  28800  pcd.  quad.,  equals  27139  sq.  ft. =2  roods, 
 19  poles,  and  187  ft.  ;  whence  the  superficial  measures 
 in  Tables  III.,  IV.,  and  V.  have  been  calculated.  The 
 amphora  being  the  cube  of  the  pes,  equals  1580.75 
 cub.  inch.  ;  bpt  as  a  cubic  inch  of  distilled  water  at 
 maximum  density  weighs  252.632  grs.,  and  a  gallon 
 10  lbs.  avoirdupoise  or  70,000  grs.,  the  amphora  equals 
 5  galls.,  2  qts.,  1.64  pts.  ;  whence  the  Capacious  meas- 
 ures in  Tables  VI.  and  VII.  have  been  computed. 
 
 ^  5.    R0M.\N    WEIGHTS. 
 
 The  unit  of  weight  was  originally  denominated  As, 
 and  subsequently  Liljra  or  As  lAbralis.  It  correspond- 
 ed nearly  with  our  Troy  pound.  Its  multiples  were 
 Dupondius  (2  pondo  or  librte).  Sestertius  (2^  asses), 
 Trcssis  (3  asses),  Qualrussis,  Quinquessis,  and  so 
 on  till  Centussis.  The  term  as,  though  properly  ap- 
 plied to  a  piece  of  copper  of  the  weight  of  a  Roman 
 pound,  was  extended  not  only  to  all  the  Roman  meas- 
 ures expressing  their  units,  but  also  denoted  the  entire 
 amount  of  inheritances,  interest,  houses,  farms,  and  all 
 things  which  it  was  customary  to  divide  ;  and  refer- 
 ence being  constantly  made  by  authors  to  it  and  its 
 subdivisions,  it  is  important  that  they  should  be  thor- 
 oughly understood.  The  following  table  exhibits  the 
 relations  subsistifig  between  the  as  and  its  several 
 parts. 
 
 fricii- 
 
 As 
 
 Udcx  a. 
 
 Uncia- 
 
 .\s 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 Semis 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 Semiuncia 
 
 1 
 
 Decunx 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 Quincunx 
 
 5 
 
 j>i 
 
 Duelh 
 
 A 
 
 Dextans 
 
 10 
 
 i) 
 
 Triens 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Sicilicus 
 
 I 
 i 
 
 Dodrans 
 
 9 
 
 ■A 
 
 Quadrans 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 Sexlula 
 
 7f 
 
 Bes 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 Sextans 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Scrupulum 
 
 1 
 
 Septunx 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 1  2 
 
 Sescunx 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 Obolus 
 
 1 
 
 4  (t 
 
 Uncia 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 1  2 
 
 Siliqua 
 
 I 
 
 8T 
 
 The  Romans  made  their  weights  of  marble,  iron,  or 
 brass.  A  few  .<;peciincns  of  these  are  now  extant,  and 
 have  been  weighed  by  Rome  de  ITsle  and  Eisen-. 
 schmid,  whose  results  vary  from  4900  to  5100  grs. 
 Others  have  attempted  the  determination  of  the  libra 
 from  the  relation  existing  between  it  and  the  congius, 
 the  latter  having  been  determined  to  contain  197.6 
 cub.  inch,  nearly.  If  we  assume  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
 inch  of  \vater=253  grs.,  a  congius  of  water  would 
 weigh  49992  grs.,  and  the  libra  would  equal  4999  3 
 grs.  ;  but  if  wo  suppose  a  cubic  inch  of  the  Roman 
 wine,  which  was  employed  in  the  adjustment  of  the 
 libra  and  congius  with  regard  to  one  another,  to  weitrh 
 256  grs.,  the  value  of  the  libra  would  be  5058.5  grs. 
 It  is  then  evident  that,  from  our  ignorance  of  the  spe- 
 cific gravity  of  the  ancient  wine,  we  can  arrive  at  no 
 more  accurate  conclusion  with  regard  to  the  value  of 
 the  libra  from  a  knowledge  of  the  e.xact  dimensions 
 of  the  congius,  than  from  the  weight  of  those  rouch 
 specimens  just  noticed.  This  assertion  may  be  sub- 
 stantiated by  mentioning  the  valuations  given  by  dif- 
 ferent metrologists,  who  have  employed  either  the 
 congius  or  the  specimens  as  the  basis  of  thuir  calcu- 
 lations. Budajus  makes  the  libra=5904  ors  ,  Komc 
 de  risle  4958,  Auzout  5105,  Eisenschmid  5097, 
 Paucton  5175,  and  Arbuihnot  5245|-  grs.  The  mode 
 of  investigation  founded  on  the  hypothesis  that  the 
 ancients  e.\ercised  at  least  a  tolerable  degree  of  nicety 
 in  standarding  their  moneys,  has  been  justly  recom- 
 mended as  the  most  perfect  we  can  employ.  It  con- 
 sists in  ascertaining  the  value  of  the  scrupulum,  and 
 hence  that  of  the  libra,  from  certain  aurei  which  are 
 extant,  and  which  were  coined  of  tlie  weight  of  a  cer- 
 tain number  of  scrupula,  indicated  by  the  stamp  they 
 bear.  Lelronnc,  whose  accurate  and  laborious  exper- 
 iments on  the  ancient  coins  have  entitled  him  to  impli- 
 cit reliance,  from  the  weight  of  54  aurei  deduced 
 the  scrupuluin=:21.4  Par.  grs.  ;  hence  288  scrupula  or 
 the  libra=G163  2  Par.  grs.  \^'e  may  safely  put 
 the  Roman  pound,  as  Letronne  advises,  ^=6160  Par. 
 grs.,  since  an  error  of  the  hundredth  part  of  a  grain  in 
 the  value  of  the  scrupulum  just  assigned  would  pro- 
 duce one  of  2.88  grs.  in  that  of  the  libra.  The  li- 
 bra then  equals  6160  Par.  grs=5049.53  mint-pound 
 grs.,*  and  the  remaining  weights  are  hence  easily  cal- 
 culated.    (See  Tables  VIH.  and  IX.) 
 
 ^  6.    ROMAN    MONEYS. 
 
 Festus  informs  us  that  the  Romans  during  the  reign 
 of  Romulus  had  not  established  coined  money  as  a 
 medium  of  exchange,  but  used  for  this  purpose  leather, 
 painted  Wood,  and  pieces  of  metal,  the  values  of  which 
 were  determined  by  weight.  That  Noma  caused  cop- 
 per to  be  cut  into  rough  pieces  {ixra  rudia)  of  the 
 weight  of  a  libra,  is  asserted  by  some  authors,  while 
 others  are  of  opinion  that  leather,  &c.,  were  siill  used 
 in  the  time  of  Noma,  and  that  Servius  Tullius  first 
 ordered  round  pieces  of  copper  to  be  made,  of  a  pound 
 weight,  called  asses  lihrales,  with  the  images  of  cattle 
 (pccudcs)  rudely  sketched  on  them,  and  that  hence  the 
 term  pecunia  was  applied  to  money.  Copper  contin- 
 ued to  be  in  general  circulation  till  A.U.C.  485,  when 
 silver  was  first  coined  at  Rome,  though  foreign  coins 
 of  this  metal  had  been  previously  introduced  ;  the 
 coinage  of  gold  followed  62  years  after.  The  tem|ile 
 of  Juno  Moiieta  was  appropriated  as  the  general  depos- 
 itory of  standards,  and  the  coins  were  issued  from  it, 
 having  been   previously  inspected  by  Nummularii  or 
 
 *  The  Paris  prain  equals  .819729  mint-pound  grs  ,  or  .620072 
 TrouglKon's  (irs,  ;  since  the  Krcncti  Kiloiirsm  iquals  18S27.I5 
 I'ar.  grs.,  15133.150  mini-ponnd  grs.,  or  16439.019  Trough- 
 (oii'.s  gr.-i.  It  limy  be  here  reniarlced,  that  we  have  employed  the 
 mint -pound  (,'rs.  of  Philadelphia,  of  which  the  mint-jiound  con- 
 tain.s  7000,  in  as.signinjf  ihe  values  of  the  (Jreek  and  Roman 
 weighis,  and  tlioso  who  wish  to  obtain  them  in  Trouphton's  grs. 
 can  effect  llieir  object  by  nuiliiplyinj;  those  wc  have  given  by 
 1.00041S1     (SeB  Mr.  Hassler's  Report.) 
 
1442 
 
 MEASURES.  WEIGHTS,  AND  MONEYS 
 
 assaymasters.  The  entire  mint  was  under  the  general 
 supcririlencicnce  of  three  men,  appointed  by  the  people 
 at  the  Comitia  Tributa,  dciioniinated  Triumviri  Mon- 
 'etales.  The  Romans  counted  by  asses,  sestertii, 
 denarii,  and  aurei.  The  as  (origmally  assis,  from 
 aes),  or  assipondium,  was  at  first  libralis,  and  bore 
 the  impression  of  Janus  geminus,  or  bifrons,  on  one 
 side  ;  on  the  reverse,  llie  rostrum  of  a  ship,  and  was  at 
 first,  as  we  have  noticed,  libralis  ;  but  in  the  first  Punic 
 war,  in  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  money,  the  re- 
 public ordered  asses  to  be  struck  weighing  2  unci®, 
 by  which,  as  Pliny  informs  us,  it  gained  |.  and  dis- 
 charged its  debt;  it  was  subsequently  reduced,  when 
 Hannibal  invaded  Italy,  to  the  weight  of  an  uncia,  and 
 lastly  by  the  Papirian  law  to  that  of  a  semiuncia;  and 
 though  this  rapid  diminution  of  its  weight  was  required 
 by  the  necessities  of  the  commonwealth,  it  would 
 eventually  have  been  accomplished  by  the  increasing 
 abundance  of  silver  and  gold.  The  as  thus  reduced 
 was,  in  reference  to  its  original  weight,  denominated 
 libella,  and  the  older  coins  are  distinguished  from  it 
 by  later  writers  when  they  speak  of  as  grave.  Be- 
 sides the  as,  its  subdivisions,  viz.,  semisses,  trientcs, 
 quadranlcs,  sextantes,  stipes  unciaies,  semiuncicB,  and 
 sextulcE  (the  smallest  of  the  Roman  coins  according  to 
 Varro),  and  its  multiples,  dupondii,  quatrusses,  and 
 decusses,  were  coined  ;  specimens  of  which  remain  at 
 the  present  day,  and  are  to  be  found  in  the  most  valu- 
 able collections  of  ancient  coins.  But  those  pieces 
 less  than  the  as  which  were  most  frequently  coined, 
 were  the  scmissis  and  qaadrans,  bearing  the  inipress 
 of  a  boat  instead  of  the  rostrum  of  a  ship  ;  the  former 
 was  also  named  sembella  {quasi  semilibella),  the  lat- 
 ter teruncius.  The  sestertius,  qidnarius,  and  dena- 
 rius were  silver  coins,  and  called  bigati  or  quad- 
 rigati,  from  the  impression  of  a  chariot  drawn  by  two 
 or  four  horses,  which  they  bore  on  one  side,  that  on 
 fhe  reverse  being  the  head  of  Roma  with  a  helmet. 
 The  sestertius  (or  semistertius)  was  so  called  by  a 
 figure  borrowed  from  the  Greeks,  and  equalled  2^ 
 asses;  its  symbol  is  H.  S.,  abbreviated  from  L.  L.  S., 
 the  initials  of  libra,  libra,  semis.  The  sestertmm, 
 or  1000  sestertii,  was  expressed  by  the  symbol  HS  ; 
 It  was  not  a  coin,  but  was  employed  by  the  Romans, 
 together  with  the  sestertius,  in  computing  large  sums 
 of  money.  Their  method  of  notation  was  effected  by 
 combining  the  symbols  with  their  numeral  characters; 
 thus  HS.  MC.  indicates  1100  sestertii;  but  if  the 
 numerals  have  a  line  over  them,  centena  millia  or 
 100,000  is  understood;  thus  HS.  MO.  means  110 
 millions  of  sestertii.  When  the  numerals  are  separ- 
 ated by  points  into  two  or  three  orders,  the  1st  on 
 the  right  hand  denotes  units,  the  2d,  thousands,  the 
 3d,  hundred  thousands;  thus.  III.  XII.  DO.  HS.  de- 
 notes 3()0,000-f-12,000-f-600=3 12600  sestertii.  The 
 following  illustration  may  be  also  added.  Pliny  says, 
 that  seven  years  before  the  first  Punic  war  there  were 
 in  tiie  Roman  Treasury  "  auri  pondo  XVI.  DCOOX.  ; 
 argenti  pondo  XXII.  LXX.  ;  et  in  numerato  LXII. 
 LXXV.  0000."  (33,  3);  that  is,  16.810  pounds 
 of  gold,  22,070  pounds  of  silver,  and  6,27-5,400  ses- 
 tertii of  ready  money.  The  quinarius  was  equal  to  5 
 asses,  and  marked  V  ;  by  the  Olodian  law  it  was  im- 
 pressed with  the  figure  of  Victory,  and  hence  called 
 Victoriatus.  The  denarius,  at  its  first  institution, 
 equalled  10  asses,  and  was  stamped  with  the  numeral 
 X  or  -.  But  when  the  Romans  were  pressed  by  Har.>- 
 nibal,  A.U.C.  537,  the  as  having  been  made  uncialis, 
 the  denarius  passed  for  16  asses,  the  quinarius  for 
 8,  and  the  sestertius  for  4  ;  and  when  the  as  was 
 made  semiuncialis  the  same  proportion  was  retained, 
 except  in  the  payment  of  the  soldiers,  with  whom  the 
 denarius  preserved  its  original  value.  The  denarius 
 was  not  used  as  a  weight  until  the  Greek  physicians 
 came  to  Rome,  who,  finding  it  nearly  equal  to  their 
 
 drachm,  prescribed  by  it ;  it  was  then  considered,  as 
 we  are  informed  by  Oorn.  Oelsus,  as  the  i  of  an  uncia. 
 But  it  gradually  diminished  in  weight  under  the  Oaasars 
 (see  Table  XII.) ;  and  having  subsequently  regained 
 its  original  weight,  though  with  a  considerable  abase- 
 ment of  its  purity,  it  continued  to  be  the  current  silver 
 money  of  the  empire  till  Oonstantine  substituted  the 
 miliarensis  in  its  stead.  Letronne  having  carefully 
 weighed  1350  consular  denarii,  deduced  the  weight 
 of  the  denarius=7''i  Par.  grs.=59  84  mint-pound 
 grs.  Now  its  purity  being  .97,  its  value  is  easily 
 calculated  =8d.  2.17  far.=  15  cts.,  4.7  mills.  (See 
 Tables  X.  and  XI.) 
 
 The  golden  coins  of  Aurei  were  issued  A.U.O. 
 546,  weighing  1  or  more  scrupvla,  the  scrupidum  of 
 gold  passing  for  20  sestertii.  Some  few  remain  with 
 the  numerals  XX.  and  XXXX.,  which  indicate  their 
 values  to  be  respectively  20  and  40  sesterces.  They 
 have  the  head  of  Mars  and  the  numerals  denoting 
 their  value  on  one  side,  and  on  the  reverse  an  eagle 
 standing  on  a  thunderbolt.  Afterward  it  was  thought 
 proper  to  coin  40  aurei  out  of  the  pound,  each  valued 
 at  25  denarii;  their  mean  weight  is  125.62  grs.  The 
 aureus  gradually  diminished  in  weight  during  the  time 
 of  the  emperors  (see  Tab.  XII.),  till  in  Pliny's  time  45 
 were  struck  out  of  the  pound.  The  Emperor  Severus 
 coined  semisses  and  tremisses  of  gold,  whence  the 
 aureus,  being  considered  the  integer,  was  denominated 
 Solidus.  Soon  after,  the  coinage,  becoming  irregular, 
 was  entirely  remodelled  by  Oonstantine,  who  coined 
 72  solidt  out  of  the  pound,  each  weighing  then  4 
 scrupula  or  70.13  grs.,  and  made  the  pound  of  gold 
 equal  to  1000  7niliare7ises ;  so  tiiat  the  so/zt/us  equal- 
 led 131  miliarenses,  though  it  passed  for  14. 
 
 The  ratio  of  gold  to  silver  during  the  rej)ublic  and 
 the  twelve  Osesars  is  siven  in  Tab.  XII. 
 
 The  Grecian  measures,  weights,  and  coins,  being 
 well  known  to  the  Romans,  were  mostly  determined 
 by  them  to  have  some  definite  relation  to  their  own  ; 
 so  that  they  will  oppose  less  difficulties  in  assigning 
 their  values. 
 
 ^  7.    GRECIAN    MEASURES    OF    LENGTH. 
 
 The  unit  of  linear  measure  adopted  by  the  Greeks 
 was  the  foot  (Hovg).  of  which  the  dc'iKrvXac,  or  finger's 
 breadth,  was  -p'g-,  and  the  naXaiaTTJ,  or  palm,  |.  The 
 latter  was  also  understood  by  Soxf^v,  from  ds^^ofiai,  "  to 
 receive,'"  hv  the  compound  term  6aKTv?i.o66;xf^Vi  ^nd  ^y 
 6(jpnv,  which  properly  signifies  a  gift ;  the  application 
 of  the  latter  term  to  this  measure  is  commonly  ex- 
 plained by  the  fact,  that  the  palm  of  the  hand  is  natu- 
 rally extended  in  receiving  a  gift.  'Eirtdn^uij,  or  span, 
 equals  12  (kiKTvloi,  and  is  defined  by  Hesychius  to 
 be  the  distance  from  the  extremity  of  the  thumb  to 
 that  of  the  little  finger,  when  the  hand  is  opened  with 
 a  view  of  grasping  or  measuring  any  object.  The  di- 
 visions of  the  TToiif,  more  rarely  employed,  are  k6v6v- 
 ?M(,  (^iX'iCi  '^',\'"f'  ^'"J  opdoSupov  ;  the  first  being  2 
 fViKTV/ioi,  and  the  second  i-  ttoiV,  hence  entitled  by 
 Theophrastus  7//unn6iov.  The  ?uxug  was  10  duKrv- 
 TiOL,  and  the  opOodupov,  being  the  length  of  the  hand 
 from  the  wrist  to  the  extremity  of  the  middle  finger, 
 equalled  11  AiktvIol.  Pollux  (lib.  2),  from  whom  the 
 previous  definitions  have  been  derived,  informs  us  thist 
 7tvy/i?'/=^\S  duKTvXoL,  was  the  distance  from  the  elbow 
 to  the  extremity  of  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  middle 
 finger,  while  that  reckoned  to  the  extremity  of  its  first 
 phalanx  was  ■myijv=20  duKTvTioi,  and  that  mjxvc^-^^ 
 duKTvTiOi,  was  the  cubit,  or  the  distance  from  the  el- 
 bow to  the  extremity  of  the  middle  finger.  The  nijxvg 
 then  contained  Ih  noScg.  The  ,Sf/fia  was  2^  nodec,  and 
 thus  corresponded  to  the  pes  sestertius  of  the  Romans. 
 It  was  employed  by  the  j)eople  at  large  as  the  unit 
 of  distance,  whence  jBTifianaTal  mean  measurers  of 
 
OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS. 
 
 1443 
 
 oads.  'Opyvia,  or  fathom,  from  opeyu,  "  to  extend," 
 is  tlie  distance  from  the  hands,  when  the  arms  are 
 raised  and  extended,  measured  along  the  breast,  and 
 equals  6  nodec  ;  hence  it  has  received  frora  Herodo- 
 tus the  epithets  TtTpunrjxvg  and  e^attodrjq.  The 
 measure  from  which  the  Ron)ans  probably  borrowed 
 their  decempeda  was  uKaiva  or  KuAafiog=:lO  noSec ; 
 six  of  these  constituted  the  "Aiiua,  which,  together 
 with  the  7r/lt'0pov=lO()  n-yJff,  and  the  KdAa/j.oc,  was 
 lised  principally  in  the  measiirement  of  lands.  The 
 most  ancient  itinerary  measure  of  the  Greeks  was  the 
 arudiov,  which  appears  to  have  had  a  very  rude  ori- 
 gin. It  is  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  Hercu- 
 les, whose  athletic  exertion  it  exhibited,  since  it  com- 
 prehended the  distance  which  he  was  able  to  run  with- 
 out taking  breath.  Isidorus  informs  us  that  it  took 
 its  name  from  larij/it,  "  to  stand,"  and  assigns  as  a 
 reason,  "quod  in  fine  rcspirasset  simuJque  stelissct." 
 It  was  established  as  the  measure  of  the  length  of  the 
 aiXoq,  or  foot-course,  at  the  Olympic  games;  and  from 
 the  respect  in  which  these  exercises  were  held,  it  be- 
 came an  itinerary  measure.  This  distance,  the  hero 
 who  instituted  it  measured  by  the  length  of  his  foot, 
 which  h''  found  equal  to  one  six  hundredth  part  of  the 
 course  Censorinus  and  M.  Gossellin  have  endeav- 
 oured to  show  that  there  were  different  stadia  em- 
 ployed among  the  Greeks,  but  their  remarks  have 
 been  completely  refuted  by  Wurm.  'InwLKov,  or  the 
 distance  a  horse  could  run,  "  sub  uno  spiritu,"  equals  4 
 ardSia,  and  AoXcxog  has  been  variously  assumed  as  6, 
 7,  8,  and  even  24  arudLa,  but  more  correctly  as  12. 
 Those  linear  measures  which  were  known  to  the 
 Greeks  by  their  intercourse  with  other  nations,  were 
 Mc?iiov,  or  the  Roman  mile:^8  arudia ;  TLapaady- 
 yTjg='30  (jTudia,  according  to  Herodotus  (2,  6)  and 
 Xenophon  {Anab.,  5,  7),  though  Strabo  makes  it,  in 
 different  places,  40  and  60  aTudia;  and  l,xolvoc,  an 
 Egyptian  measure,  whose  value  is  differently  assigned 
 to  be  60,  40,  and  33  arudia. 
 
 ^  8.    DETER.M1NAT10N    OF  THE    GREEK    FOOT. 
 
 There  are  two  methods  of  investigating  the  value  of 
 the  TToiif  proposed  to  us  :  the  first  consists  in  its  de- 
 termination by  its  ratio  to  the  Roman  foot ;  the  sec- 
 ond, by  means  of  the  public  edifices  of  the  Greeks 
 which  are  yet  standing. 
 
 1.  All  authors  agree  that  the  ratio  subsisting  be- 
 tween the  Roman  and  Greek  foot  is  24  :  25,  as  might 
 also  be  inferred  from  the  value  the  Greeks  assigned 
 to  fiDuov,  which  we  have  mentioned  was  8  CTrac5ta= 
 4800  a-6c5ef=:5000  pedes.  Now  the  Roman  foot  hav- 
 ing been  determined^. 97075  ft.,  the  value  of  the 
 Greek  foot  hence  deduced  is  1.0111812  ft. 
 
 2.  Mr.  Stuart,  who  examined  the  temples  remain- 
 ing at  Athens,  found  the  average  ratio  of  the  Greek 
 to  the  Roman  foot  to  be  25.04  ;  24.  {(.■juarlcrlii  Re- 
 view, No.  10,  p.  280.)  The  Greek  foot  would  hence 
 =  1.0128168  ft. 
 
 The  mean  of  these  two  values  is  1.011999  ft.  We 
 prefer,  however,  adopting  Wurm's  determination,  who 
 has  examined  Mr.  Stuart's  measurements  with  great 
 accuracy,  and  has  equalled  the  Greek  foot  to  i:i6.65 
 Par.  lin.=1.01 146  ft.     (See  Tab.  XHI.  and  XIV.) 
 
 ()  9.    GRECIAN    MEASURES    OF   EXTENT. 
 
 The  unit  of  extent  was  'Apovpa,  being  a  square 
 whose  side  is  50  TrutSeg  :  it  was  divided  into  sixths  anil 
 twelfths,  respectively  called  iKToi  and  I'/fiieKToi.  The 
 irXeflpov  contained  4  upovpat,  and  is  the  measure 
 most  frequently  mentioned  in  the  superficial  measure- 
 ments of  lands.  The  values  and  relations  of  the  oth- 
 ers »re  exhibited  in  Table  XV. 
 
 f)  10.    GRECIAN    MEASORES    OF    CAPACITV. 
 
 1.  For  Liquids. — The  greatest  liquid  measure  was 
 JSeTpTjrrj^.  which  was  also  called  Kuihc,  from  );rec5e?z', 
 "to  contain  ;"  KepajMiov,  probably  from  its  being  made 
 
 of  horn  ;  and  u/x(popevg,  from  uji^K^opevg,  receiving  its 
 name  from  the  two  handles  by  which  it  was  carried. 
 Another  synonyme  was  ara/iviov  {" Kepufxiov  Toi)  olvov 
 ?/  vdaroc  ara/xviov,"  Hesychius.)  From  the  verses  of 
 Rhemnius  Fannius, 
 
 "Attica  prceterca  dicenda  est  amphora  nobis 
 Seu  cadus ;  hunc  fades,  si  nostrce  addidcris  urnam," 
 
 it  appears  that  the  iJ.ETpr]TTjq-=.\^  amphorcE=^8  galls.,  2 
 qts.,  0.46  pts.  It  contained  12;j;oiif,  72  ffcrrat,  and  144 
 K.oTv'kai ;  and,  by  comparing  the  Roman  and  Greek  ca- 
 pacious measures,  we  will  perceive  that  the  ;^;oi'f  corre- 
 sponded in  value  to  the  congius,  ^iaTi/q  to  scztanus,  and 
 KoriiXij  to  hemina.  Certain  festivals  at  Athens  were 
 called  ;^'6£f,  because,  according  toSuidas,  every  man  had 
 a  xoi'C  of  wine  given  him,  and,  as  Athenaeus  declares, 
 because  Demophoon,  king  of  Athens,  offered  a  sweet- 
 cake,  and  Dionysius  the  tyranta  crown  of  gold,  as  a  prize 
 to  the  first  person  who  drank  a  ;\;oi'f  of  wine.  Korv'Ajf 
 derived  its  name  from  its  cavity,  and  Galen  mentions, 
 that  the  kotvXi)  and  hemina  were  applied  by  the  ancient 
 piiysicians  to  the  same  use  with  the  modern  graduated 
 glasses  of  our  apothecaries,  being  vessels  of  horn,  of 
 rectangular  or  cylindrical  shape,  divided  on  the  out- 
 side, by  means  of  lines,  into  12  parts,  which  they 
 called  ounces  of  measure  (ovyyiai  fisTpLKal),  and  cor- 
 responded to  a  certain  number  of  ounces  by  weight 
 (ovyyiac  aTaO/iCKai).  Now  the  hemina,  being  ^  of 
 the  amphora,  weighed,  when  filled  with  wine,  10  un- 
 cice,  so  that  the  account  of  Galen  is  involved  in  doubt, 
 inasmuch  as  the  ounce  by  measure  was  hence  |-  of 
 that  by  weight.  Tiraprov,  u^v6a(pov,  and  KvaOoQ  were 
 respectively  equal  to  the  quartarhis,  acetabulum,  and 
 cyathus  of  the  Romans.  The  remaining  measures  are 
 xdyx?],  [ivarpov,  xW^i  ^"'^  Kox'kidpLov,  concerning 
 which  authors  are  slightly  at  variance.  Cleopatra 
 makes  a  greater  and  less  Koyxr],  the  greater  being  the 
 same  with  the  6^ii6a(j>ov,  the  less  i  Kvathg  ;  while  Pliny 
 (12,  25)  makes  the  Kuyxv  a  determinate  measure. 
 Mvarpov  or  jivotT^ov  was  borrowed,  as  its  name  im- 
 ports, from  the  shell  of  the  sea-mouse,  and  was  of  two 
 kinds  :  the  less  and  more  common  being  \  Kvador,  ihe 
 greater  ^  of  the  kotv?.tj.  Xt'/^ti,  derived  also  from 
 some  shellfish,  was  divided  into  the  greater  or  rjstic, 
 :^2'o  kotvAt]  ;  and  the  less,  or  that  used  by  physi- 
 cians, =  3V  kotOXtj.  Kox'Xi-upiov  was  equal  to  ^ 
 XWV- 
 
 2.  For  things  dry. — The  largest  measure  emplovcd 
 in  the  measurement  of  grain  was  Mi6ifivor^Q  modii. 
 
 Its  divisions  were  TpiTog,  Ikto^,  and  r/uieKTOv  ;  and 
 it  contained  48  ;j;oii'U£f  ;  so  that  the  ,\oa7^  equalled 
 4  KOTv/iai..  The  remaining  measures  were  the  same 
 with  the  liquid  measures.    (See  Tab.  XVT.  and  XVII.) 
 
 ij   II.    GRECIAN  WEIGHTS. 
 
 The  unit  of  weight  was  Spaxfu'/  or  drachmae  ofio- 
 ?M.  '06o/.6f  equalled,  according  to  Pollux,  8  xd^Koi, 
 and  the  xn?iK6g,  on  the  authority  of  Suidas  =7  Ae~ra  ; 
 though  Pliny  makes  the  66oA(;f=  10,  and  Suidas  =6 
 Xa7i.Koi.  The  Romans  translated  jrtZ\of  nrcolus,  and 
 /.t'T-ov  minuta  or  minutia.  Though  Rhemnius  Fan- 
 nius asserts  that  the  Greeks  used  no  weights  less  than 
 the  oGo/oq,  the  physicians  employed  some  smaller, 
 viz.,  Kepdriov,  equal  to  the  siliqua  of  the  Ivomans, 
 =y|^:i-  uncia,  and  cirdpiov,  or  grain,  ={  siliqua. 
 The  multiples  of  the  pondcral  unit,  or  the  weights 
 greater  than  the  (Ipaxuij,  were  the  fiv a  or  mina:=l()(t, 
 and  T<t/lai'roi'=:60()0  c^pax/^ai.  From  libra,  the  later 
 Greeks  derived  their  ?UTpa,  which,  in  imitation  of  the 
 Romans,  they  divided  into  12  ovyyiai  ;  the  rd/.avTov 
 being,  according  to  Livy  (38,  38),  80  librae,  the  li- 
 bra=75  i^paxpai,  and  the  (5paj//7/=V(T  libra=67.327 
 grs.  ;  which  result  differs  very  little  from  that  assigned 
 by  Wurm.  Considering  that  a  more  correct  value  of 
 the  (^paxiiij  might  be  obtained  from  the  coins  extant, 
 he  has  followed  the  determinations  of  Letronne,  am' 
 
1144   MEASURES,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MONEYS  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS. 
 
 assumed  it=82i  Par.  grs.=67.3319  grs.  The  values 
 of  the  rcinaimntf  weights  are  easily  calculated,  and 
 liia^  be  seen  in  Tables  XVHI.  and  XIX. 
 
 ^   12.    GRECIAN  COINS. 
 
 It  is  a  matter  of  doubt  when  the  Greeks  commenced 
 the  coinage  of  metallic  ores.  The  Oxonian  marbles 
 render  it  apparent  that  Phido,  king  of  the  Argives, 
 about  700  B.C.  struck  some  silver  pieces,  and  there 
 yet  remain  many  Macedonian  coins  purporting  to  be 
 struck  five  centuries  B.C.  Of  all  the  Greek  cities, 
 Athens  was  most  celebrated  for  the  fineness  of  her  sil- 
 ver, and  the  justness  of  its  weight;  and  Xenophon 
 mentions,  that  wherever  Attic  silver  was  carried,  it 
 sold  to  advantage.  Indeed,  their  money  deserves  our 
 particular  attention,  since  we  have  une.xceptionable 
 evidence  of  its  standard  weight,  and  since  it  furnishes 
 us  with  the  knowledge  we  possess  of  the  moneys  of 
 the  other  Greek  cities.  Copper  was  not  coined  till 
 the  26th  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when  Callias 
 was  a  second  time  archon.  It  was  soon  after  publicly 
 cried  down  by  a  proclamation,  which  declared  silver 
 the  lawful  money  of  Alhcns  ;  it,  however,  was  shortly 
 after  again  introduced.  The  common  opinion,  that 
 the  Athenians  coined  gold,  is  considered  by  some  to 
 be  without  sufficient  authority.  That  they  had  no 
 gold  coin  at  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
 appears  from  the  account  given  by  Pliny  of  the  treas- 
 ure amassed  in  the  Acropolis,  which  consisted  of  sil- 
 ver in  coin,  and  gold  and  silver  in  bullion.  Aihenajus 
 tells  us  that  gold  was  very  sparingly  circulated  in 
 Greece,  until  the  Phocians  despoiled  and  plundered 
 the  temple  at  Delphi.  But  the  gold-mines  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  Philippi  were  so  improved  by  Philip 
 of  Macedon  as  to  yield  1000  talents  yearly,  from 
 which  were  struck  the  Philippics.  When  Greece  be- 
 came subject  to  the  Romans,  the  standard  of  the  con- 
 querors was  introduced,  and  there  remain  some  gold 
 coins  which  were  struck  subsequently  to  this  event, 
 of  the  weight  of  the  aureus  ;  one  of  these  is  preserved 
 in  the  British  Museum,  which,  though  a  little  worn, 
 bears  the  evidence  of  elegant  workmanship  :  its  im- 
 jiress  on  one  side  is  the  head  of  Minerva,  and  on  the 
 other  an  owl  and  oil-bottle,  with  the  inscription  A9H, 
 NH,  the  last  two  letters  being  placed  under  the  oil- 
 bottle.  The  Persian  daric  seems  to  have  been  the 
 gold  coin  best  known  at  Athens  when  in  her  lofty  state 
 of  independence,  and  was  called  ararfip,  probably  be- 
 cause it  was  originally  the  standard  by  which  the 
 fipax'J-i]  was  adjusted  ;  and  subsequently  the  Philippics 
 were  standarded  by  means  of  the  daric  or  the  drachma. 
 The  Greeks  counted  by  means  of  Tulavra,  jival.  tet- 
 pudpax/ia,  and  dpaxftai,  and  their  method  of  standard- 
 ing  excelled  the  Roman  in  point  of  ease  and  conve- 
 nience, since  their  coins  were  weights  also. 
 
 The  brazen  coins  were  Xa/l/ioi'f=|  ofioAof ;  and 
 ?i€TTTOV=-\  XalKOvg.  The  bOoXo^  was  so  called,  be- 
 cause, previously  to  the  introduction  of  coined  mon- 
 ey, it  was  in  the  form  of  a  small  spit.  The  silver 
 coins  referring  to  the  ofioAoc  are,  reTpodokov,  rpioGo- 
 }.ov,  dioGoTiov,  yfiLoCioliov,  and  iVixolKov  ;  but  those 
 are  most  celebrated  which  refer  to  the  dpaxfi'U  viz., 
 i)((!pa\/zoi>,  rplSpaxnov,  TETpM^paxfiov.  Rome  de  I'lsle 
 mentions  a  Greek  coin  of  silver,  =11  dpax/ial,  and 
 Plato  and  .lulius  PoHu.x  speak  of  the  irevTrjKoi'Tui^pax- 
 
 fiov,  which,  were  it  a  coin,  must  have  been  very  large. 
 Apaxfit'/  quasi  6payfi>/,  is  interpreted  a  handful  of  6 
 66o?mI,  which  were  equal  to  it  in  value  ;  it  was  em- 
 ployed in  the  computations  of  the  Greeks,  as  the  ses- 
 tertius was  by  the  Romans,  Plutarch  afTordmg  us 
 many  examples.  The  dpax/xy  varied  in  different  coun- 
 tries determining  the  TuXauTov  of  corresponding  vari- 
 ation ;  that  ot  ^gina  was  called  naxela,  since  it 
 equalled  1|  Attic  drachms,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
 Attic,  called  /leTr-//. 
 
 There  is  mention  made  of  the  jSovg,  a  coin  so  called 
 from  the  stamp  of  an  ox  with  which  it  was  impressed, 
 reputed  equal  to  the  6idpax/J-ov,  and  coined  of  gold 
 and  silver.  This  was  perhaps  one  of  the  most  ancient 
 Greek  coins,  being  known  to  Homer,  if  we  credit  the 
 testimony  of  Julius  Pollux,  and  to  it  that  immortal 
 bard  is  supposed  to  allude  when  he  sings  of  Glaucus 
 changing  his  golden  armour,  worth  100  /3o£f,  for  the 
 brazen  one  of  Diomede.  The  TCTpddpaxfJ-ov,  or  silver 
 ararnp,  appears  to  have  been  the  coin  most  generally 
 in  use  among  the  Greeks.  Livy  informs  us,  that  be- 
 tween the  years  564  and  566  A.U.C.  there  were 
 brought  to  Rome  by  M.  Fulvius  118,000,  by  M.  Acil- 
 ius  113,000,  by  L.  A.  Regillus  34,700,  and  by  Scipio 
 Asiaticus  22,400  Terpudpax/J-a.  So  many  specimens 
 of  them  remain,  that  they  are  to  be  found  a'  the  pres- 
 ent day  in  almost  every  collection.  Letroi.ne  having 
 accurately  examined  500  of  thein,  and  arranged  them 
 according  to  the  centuries  in  which  they  were  struck, 
 deduced  the  mean  weight  of  the  old  Attic  Spax/i'/, 
 coined  two  centuries  and  more  B.C.,  ^82'  Par. 
 grs. ^67. 3349  grs.  ;  and  its  purity  being  .97,  its  value 
 is  9d.  2.85  far  ,  or  17  cts.  5.93  mills  Federal  curren- 
 cy. The  latter  Attic  6pax(J-V  vvas  also  lound=::77^- 
 Par.  grs. =63. 236  grs.  ;  and  its  value  thereby  deter- 
 mined is  9d.  0.487  far.,  or  16  cts.  5.22  mills.  The 
 yipvaovg,  or  golden  aTarrip,  weighed  2,  and  was  val- 
 ued at  20  dpaxfiai ;  golden  pieces  were  coined  of 
 double  and  half  its  weight ;  and  though  no  Attic  slaters 
 remain  at  the  present  day,  there  have  been  preserved 
 some  darics  and  Philippics,  whose  purity  is  very  re- 
 markable, being  .979.  The  ratio  of  gold  and  silver 
 varied  at  different  periods.  Herodotus  estimates  it  as 
 13  to  1  ;  in  the  dialogue  of  Hipparchus,  commonly  as- 
 cribed to  Plato,  it  is  12  to  1;  and  Lysias,  the  orator, 
 assumes  it  as  10  to  1,  which  last  ratio  was  preserved 
 without  alteration. 
 
 The  Mina  (Mrci),  according  to  Plutarch,  equalled  75 
 (hax/J-al,  till  the  time  of  Solon,  who  made  it  contain 
 100.  The  Attic  talent  of  silver  equalled  60  minse  ; 
 that  of  jEgina,  which  was  current  at  Corinth,  was 
 100  ;  and  the  Attic  talent  of  gold  was  600  minre,  ac- 
 cording to  the  proportion  of  gold  and  silver  just  pre- 
 mised. For  the  values  of  the  different  coins,  see  Ta- 
 bles XX.  and  XXI. 
 
 Note. — The  method  of  caleulatins  the  value  of  the  old  Attic 
 drachm  is  as  follows  :  Its  weight  being  07,3349  mint-pound  grs., 
 or  07.31)31  Troughton's  grs.,  and  its  jmrity  being  .97,  it  contains 
 05.3148  int.  pd.  grs.,  or  05.3422  Tr.  grs.  of  pi/re  silver.  Now 
 371.25  ml.  pd  grs.  of  pure  silver  being  coined  Into  100  cts.,  and 
 5328  Tr.  grs.  of  pure  silver  being  coined  into  792d.  (see  Pres. 
 Adams's  Keport),  the  value  of  ihe  old  .Miic.  drachm  is  hence  de- 
 termined in  the  Federal  and  Sterling  currencies.  In  a  simll.ir 
 manner,  the  values  of  the  less  Attic  drachm  and  of  the  denarius 
 have  been  calculated 
 
ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH  AND  EXTENT. 
 
 1445 
 
 TABLE   I. 
 
 I.  ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 
 1.   Measures  bcluw  the  foot.     {Unit:  Pcs=--\[l.  inch.) 
 
 ih 
 
 72 
 
 Sicilun-iu-s 
 
 Semiuiicia 
 
 Digitus. 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 48 
 
 li 
 
 24 
 
 Ifi 
 
 Uncia 
 
 12 
 
 Pulnius . 
 
 Pes. 
 
 10. 
 
 100. 
 
 IiiOO. 
 
 Indies 
 .16 
 
 ,24 
 
 .48 
 
 .73 
 
 .97 
 
 2.9! 
 
 11.65 
 
 9 
 
 8'H) 
 
 97 
 
 0  y 
 
 970 
 
 9. 
 
 Pes. 
 
 U 
 
 H 
 
 n 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 120 
 
 .5000 
 
 7500 
 
 Pall 
 
 TABLE  IL 
 
 L   ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 
 2.   Measures  above  the  foot.     {Unit:  Milliarc=^]\  mile.) 
 
 ipes 
 
 Cubitus 
 
 Pes  Sestertius. 
 2   I  Passu  s. 
 
 Is 
 
 3/, 
 
 G5 
 
 96 
 
 8(» 
 
 4000   i3:}:5:i.\ 
 
 6000    5000 
 
 48 
 
 2000 
 
 :50UO 
 
 24 
 1000 
 
 1500 
 
 Deceinpcda. . 
 Actus. 
 
 12 
 
 500 
 
 750 
 
 41J 
 
 62.V 
 
 Milliare 
 
 H     Leuga. 
 
 10  Milliaria. 
 
 100      do.       . 
 
 1000      do.      . 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Feel. 
 
 .97 
 L21 
 L46 
 2.43 
 
 1 
 
 1.85 
 
 3 
 
 0.71 
 
 38 
 
 2.49 
 
 1G17 
 
 2.75 
 
 1 
 
 G66 
 
 2.62 
 
 9 
 
 91 
 
 919 
 
 3:yj 
 
 1631 
 
 476 
 
 0.5 
 
 2 
 
 TABLE    in. 
 H.   ROMAN   MEASURES  OF  EXTENT. 
 
 1.   Measures  below  the  Jugcrum.     {Unit  :  Jugcrum^='i\  roods.) 
 
 Pes  q\ia(lral«s 
 
 100  I  Decempeda   (jimdrata 
 
 .Sextiila 1 
 
 -Actus  simplex 
 
 Sicitiquus 
 
 Uncia 
 
 ('lima 
 
 400 
 4S0 
 
 (iOO 
 2400 
 
 3600 
 lllOOil 
 ;4400 
 
 ■:«:c!()0 
 
 Versus 
 
 \t,'-  I  Actus  quadralus 
 
 2       |.Fu«K«DM    (.As).- 
 
 Roods    Perches 
 
 .  S<i.  Ft. 
 .94 
 
 94.24 
 
 1 
 
 104.69 
 
 1 
 
 ISO.OS 
 
 2 
 
 20.91 
 
 8 
 
 83  65 
 
 12 
 
 125.48 
 
 34 
 
 167.06 
 
 1       9 
 
 229.67 
 
 2      19 
 
 187  09 
 
1146 
 
 ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  EXTENT  AND  CAPACITY. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 IV. 
 
 ir 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 MEASURES  OF 
 
 EXTENT. 
 
 2.    Uncial 
 
 Subdivisions 
 
 ()/  the 
 
 Jiigerum. 
 
 R 
 
 Uiicia . 
 
 10 
 
 Sextans , 
 
 Quadraiis . 
 
 Tnens. 
 
 3* 
 
 4.V 
 
 u 
 
 2:^ 
 
 •Sh 
 
 3  3 
 
 U 
 
 l.V 
 
 If 
 
 2,^ 
 
 Quincunx 
 
 Semis 
 
 1| 
 
 2i 
 
 li 
 
 n 
 
 Septunx. 
 Be 
 
 1} 
 
 H 
 
 12 
 
 U 
 
 Uodrans 
 
 Cextans 
 
 Decunx. 
 
 1, 
 
 .luGERI'M 
 
 Roods.  Perches. 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 26 
 34 
 3 
 11 
 19 
 
 Sq.  Ft. 
 
 83.05 
 U57.31 
 250.90 
 
 6236 
 140.02 
 220.07 
 
 41  07 
 124  73 
 208.38 
 
 19.78 
 103.44 
 1S7.09 
 
 ugcrnm 
 
 2   i  Herediurn 
 
 Centuria. 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 800       400 
 
 TABLE  V. 
 
 II.    ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  EXTENT. 
 3.  Measures  above  the  Juncrum. 
 
 Saltus . . 
 
 Acre.s. 
 
 Roo.ls. 
 2 
 
 Perches. 
 19 
 
 Sq.  Ft 
 187 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 39 
 
 102 
 
 124 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 ll6 
 
 498 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 107 
 
 TABLE  VJ. 
 
 III.  ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY 
 
 1.   For   Liquids.     {Unit:    Amphora^^^j'-^^  gallons.) 
 
 I,i(;ula 
 
 ^ 
 
 • 
 
 Cub.  inch. 
 0  09 
 
 V.-M. 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 114 
 
 ([Is 
 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 0 
 
 .        Ills. 
 
 0.02 
 
 Cyathi 
 
 2  74 
 
 4 
 
 0  OS 
 
 4.12 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 1.!, 
 
 Acetaliiiliiin 
 
 0,12 
 
 ariiis. 
 
 8.23 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Quart 
 
 0  24 
 
 ina 
 
 16  47 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Hem 
 
 0.48 
 
 32  93 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Sexta 
 
 rius 
 
 0.95 
 
 197.59 
 
 288 
 
 72 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Cong 
 
 lUS      ...... 
 
 1.70 
 
 970.38 
 
 11.52 
 
 288 
 
 192 
 
 96 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 Urna 
 
 0.82 
 
 ...      1580.75 
 ...   31615.01 
 
 2304 
 
 576 
 
 384 
 
 192 
 
 96 
 
 48 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 Amphora 
 
 1  64 
 
 46080 
 
 11520 
 
 7680  ,3840 
 
 1920 
 
 960 
 
 160 
 
 40        20   jCuleus 
 
 0  80 
 
 *  Hy  a  coinp:irisori  of  the  Coni;!ius  with  the  Libra,  the  I.igula  will  be  found  to  correspond  very  nearly  witli  tliree  drachms  (  3  iii) 
 (iquid  measure  ol'  the  apothecaries. 
 
ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITy.— ROMAN  WEIGHTS. 
 
 1447 
 
 TABLE  VII.  — III.   ROMAN  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY, 
 2.   For  things  dry.     {Unit.:    Modius=z7  qts.,   1  pt.) 
 
 pecks,    qts 
 
 Ligiila 
 
 cub.  ft. 
 
 cub.  inch. 
 0.69 
 
 2.74 
 
 4.12 
 
 8.23 
 
 16.47 
 
 32.93 
 
 263.46 
 
 526.92 
 
 85.17 
 
 851  69 
 
 1 684  89 
 
 bush. 
 
 us 
 
 4 
 
 Cyath 
 
 6 
 
 1^. 
 
 Acetabulum 
 
 arius 
 
 ' 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Qnar 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Hemi 
 
 na . . 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Sexta 
 
 rius. . 
 
 SemitT 
 
 lodius 
 
 MoDius... 
 
 10.... 
 100... 
 1000... 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 .      304 
 
 384 
 
 96 
 
 64 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 768 
 
 192 
 
 128 
 
 64 
 
 32 
 
 16    ' 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 2:57 
 
 0  0-.; 
 0.0-! 
 0  1 -J 
 
 0.24 
 0.4S 
 0  95 
 
 r.6i 
 
 1.21 
 
 0  13 
 1.33 
 1.26 
 
 TABLE  VIII. _I\^  RO.MAN  WEIGHTS. 
 1.     {Unit:  LiLra=lO  oz.,  10  dwts.,  9.^  grs.  Troy  Weight.) 
 
 Siliqiia. 
 
 Trny  Wei-ht 
 lbs.    oz.  dwrs. 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 72 
 
 141 
 
 1 72s 
 
 Obolus. 
 
 2    Scrupuluin , 
 
 Scmisextula 
 
 Se.\tula. 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 48 
 
 576 
 
 7280o!5760(l 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 288 
 
 •28800 
 
 12 
 
 144 
 
 14400 
 
 H 
 
 Siciliquus 
 
 Duella. 
 
 U 
 
 72 
 
 7200 
 
 48 
 
 4800 
 
 H 
 
 36 
 
 Semiuncia. . 
 Uncia. 
 
 24 
 
 3600  12400 
 
 12 
 1200 
 
 LlDRji 
 
 too   Cent.  pod.     87     7   19   17.1 
 
 TABLE  IX.— IV.   ROMAN  WEIGHTS. 
 2.   Subdivisiu7is  of  the  Libra. 
 
 Uncia 
 
 10 
 
 Sextans. 
 
 H  I   Quadrans 
 
 Tricns. 
 
 W 
 
 2i 
 
 Is 
 
 U 
 
 3^ 
 
 4^ 
 
 5i 
 
 H 
 
 2.^ 
 
 IJ 
 
 2i 
 
 3i 
 
 2i 
 
 3j     n 
 
 Quincunx.. . 
 Semis. 
 
 U 
 
 •^ 
 
 li 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 U 
 
 Septunx.. . 
 Bos. 
 
 11 
 
 U 
 
 n 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 Dodrans 
 
 Dextans. 
 
 u 
 
 It 
 
 n  I  li 
 
 l-jiy  1  Dectmx 
 
 rV  I  Li n R.I 
 
 Troy  We 
 0£.    dvTis. 
 
 17 
 
 1  15 
 
 2  12 
 
 3  10 
 
 4  7 
 
 5  5 
 
 6  2 
 
 7  0 
 
 7  17 
 
 8  15 
 
 9  12 
 10   10 
 
 i.;hi. 
 
 ere. 
 12.8 
 
 l.G 
 14  4 
 
 32 
 16.0 
 
 4.8 
 17.6 
 
 6.4 
 19  1 
 
 7.9 
 207 
 
 9  5 
 
 Avoirdupoise  Wi 
 oz.  tJrs. 
 
 16  39 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 14.78 
 14.1 
 1356 
 12.95 
 12.33 
 11.72 
 11.11 
 10  ."JO 
 9.89 
 9.28 
 8 
 
 d 
 
1448 
 
 ROMAN  MONEYS. 
 
 TABLE  X.— V.   ROMAN  MONEYS. 
 
 Unit  :  Denarius^=\b\  cents. 
 ].  The  moneys  referred  to  the  value  which  the  As  and  Sestertius  had  before  A.U.C.  536 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 1000 
 
 Termiciiis 
 
 Sembella 
 
 As,  Libella,  Assipondiuin. 
 Diipondius 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 500 
 
 10 
 
 250 
 
 u 
 
 125 
 
 Sestertius 
 
 Quinarius,  or  Victoriatus 
 
 Denarius 
 
 Aureus,  or  Solidus 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 10. 
 
 100. 
 
 1000. 
 
 17 
 
 8     17 
 
 88     19 
 
 889     17 
 
 d. 
 
 far. 
 .5 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.1 
 
 1 
 
 2.8 
 
 2 
 
 0.5 
 
 4 
 
 1.1 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 2.3 
 
 11 
 9 
 9 
 
 2.9 
 1.3 
 1.2 
 
 38 
 
 386 
 
 3868 
 
 cts.    rrjillsi 
 2.4 
 
 4.8 
 9.7' 
 0.9 
 8.7 
 7.4 
 
 15  4.7 
 
 86  8.5 
 
 63  4.6 
 
 84  6  2 
 
 46  2. 
 
 Tnrun 
 
 TABLE  XL— V.  ROMAN  MONEYS. 
 2.  The  moneys  referred  to  the  value  which  the  As  and  Sestertius  ha 
 
 £ 
 
 dSSO 
 s. 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 11 
 11 
 
 -720  A.U.C 
 
 d.       far. 
 0.9 
 
 1.7 
 
 3.4 
 
 1  2.8 
 
 2  0.5 
 4     1.1 
 
 8  2.2 
 
 9  2.3 
 
 1  1.7 
 
 2  1.2 
 10     3.7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 1.54 
 
 cts. 
 
 1 
 3 
 3 
 
 7 
 15 
 
 86 
 
 54 
 
 47 
 73 
 
 mill.o. 
 3.9 
 
 7.7 
 
 Sembe 
 
 11a                      
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5.5 
 0.9 
 
 8.7 
 7,4 
 4.7 
 
 8.5 
 
 74 
 38 
 
 8.5 
 
 '          ^ 
 
 12,1 
 16 
 32 
 64 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 Dupo 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 Sester 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 01 
 
 2 
 
 Quinarius,  or  Victoriatus 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 125 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 16(10 
 
 800 
 
 400 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 25     Aureus,  or  Solidus 
 
 100     do                     ...          3 
 
 1000     do 35 
 
 TABLE  XII— Vr    THE  MEAN  WEIGHTS  AND  VALUES  OF  THE  DEN.ARIUS  AND  AU- 
 REUS,'aND  THE  R.VnO  OF   GOLD  TO  SILVER,  UNDER  THE  TWELVE   C.E.SAR.s. 
 
 DENAimJS 
 
 I'K. 
 
 A 
 
 lUREUS. 
 Vai.i 
 
 RATIO    OF    (iOl.U 
 TO    blLVLK. 
 
 WKIOIIT. 
 
 VAI 
 
 WKIfiHT. 
 
 v.. 
 
 Julius  Cfesar 
 
 Augustus 
 
 5'r84 
 58.36 
 .57.22 
 57  71 
 56  77 
 53.98 
 
 d.      f.ir. 
 
 8  2.17 
 8   1.33 
 8  0.67 
 S  0.95 
 8  0.41 
 7  2  82 
 7   1.87 
 7  1.40 
 7   1.68 
 7   1.70 
 7  1.54 
 
 cts.    mills 
 
 15  4.7 
 15  0.9 
 14  8.0 
 14  9  2 
 14  6.8 
 13  9.6 
 13  5.2 
 13  3  1 
 13  4  4 
 13  4.5 
 13  3.8 
 
 125*62 
 121.90 
 119.43 
 118.45 
 118. .53 
 114.43 
 112.88 
 112.14 
 11267 
 112.66 
 112.55 
 1 1 2  75 
 
 \7 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 16 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 d.         f.ir. 
 
 9  2  29 
 
 4  1.23 
 
 0  0.85 
 
 1  3.87 
 10  2.41 
 
 0  2  62 
 6  2  63 
 
 3  2  93 
 
 5  1.95 
 
 5  2  .53 
 
 4  2  44 
 
 6  2  63 
 
 3  86  8.4 
 3  77  3  1 
 3  69  8  9 
 3  73  0  7 
 3  66  9.7 
 3  48  9.6 
 3  38  0  9 
 3  32  7  9 
 3  35  9  7 
 3  36  2.4 
 3  34  3.9 
 3  38  0.9 
 
 11.9086 
 11  9697 
 11  9766 
 12.1799 
 11.9726 
 11.8727 
 11.5824 
 11.. 5497 
 11. .5314 
 11.6133 
 11.4967 
 1  1.3015 
 
 Caligula 
 
 5230 
 
 51.48 
 51.97 
 52.(11 
 51.72 
 
 Oiho       
 
 Vespasian 
 
 Titus                 
 
 Domitian 
 
 52.30 
 
 7   1.87 
 
 13  5  2 
 
GPvECIAN  MEASURES  OF  LEXGTPI  AND  EXTENT. 
 
 1449 
 
 AUKTVXOC 
 
 TABLK  XIII. 
 I.  GRECIAN  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH.' 
 1.   Small  Measures.     {Unit :  Uovg— A. 01  feel.) 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Indies. 
 0.76 
 
 1.52 
 
 3.03 
 
 6.07 
 
 7.59 
 
 8.34 
 
 9.10 
 
 0.14 
 
 1.65 
 
 3.17 
 
 f..21 
 
 2 
 
 l\6v6v 
 
 /lof 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 na?.aia7/'i,  ar 
 
 cient  Aupoi'. 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 or  'HjUiTTo Jiov 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 Aixui 
 
 11 
 
 5.1 
 
 2f 
 
 If 
 
 h\ 
 
 'Opdudunov 
 
 ' 
 
 ip/ 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 Wr 
 
 ^mdc 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 If 
 
 lA 
 
 H 
 
 Iloiif 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 4^ 
 
 2i 
 
 If 
 
 h\ 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 ni;}'/y,r 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 2.^ 
 
 3 
 
 IfT 
 
 ■n 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 nv)'(j 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 2f 
 
 2tV 
 
 2     1      \i 
 
 ij- 
 
 li 
 
 n?/Y'''f 
 
 ' 
 
 IloCf . 
 
 TABLE  XIV. 
 
 L  GRECIAN  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 
 
 2.   Great  Measures.     {Unit:  l,Tu6iov^^Gli7/ect) 
 
 Mile.s.     Yds. 
 
 F.-pt. 
 1  01 
 
 2.53 
 
 6.07 
 
 1.11 
 
 0.G9 
 
 2.15 
 
 0.8S 
 
 0.75 
 
 0.50 
 
 1.51 
 
 Bfjfia . 
 
 2^ 
 
 'Opyvta 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 2| 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 1? 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 202 
 
 60 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 "Afiua 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
 16J 
 
 10 
 
 n 
 
 Il?JOpov 
 
 600 
 1200 
 
 240 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 2ra(V 
 
 404 
 
 809 
 
 480 
 
 200 
 
 120 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 AcavXog 
 
 2400 
 
 960 
 
 400 
 
 240 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 'Itttvii 
 
 1      f>C7 
 
 7200 
 
 2880 
 
 1200 
 
 720 
 
 120 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 A67UXIK 
 
 Iloi'r . 
 
 TABLE  XV. 
 
 II.    GRECIAN  MEASURES  OF  EXTENT. 
 {Unit:  'n.7J6pov=^{  acre.) 
 
 Lcres. 
 
 Rood.s. 
 
 Tfi  clics 
 
 Sq.  Fr, 
 1  02 
 
 36S3 
 
 102.31 
 
 3 
 
 35.79 
 
 6 
 
 71  59 
 
 9 
 
 107..38 
 
 37 
 
 157.26 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 231 
 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 
 15 
 37 
 17 
 
 211.38 
 208  08 
 175.07 
 
 8  U 
 
/450 
 
 GRECIAN  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY.— GRECIAN  WEIGHTS. 
 
 Koj?.i 
 
 ipLOl' . 
 
 TABLE  XVI.— III.   GRECIAN  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 
 
 1.   For   Liquids.     (Umt :    Mi:Ti)jjTj/g=.8l  gallons.) 
 
 cub.  n.    cub.  in. 
 0.27 
 
 gall.  qts.    pis. 
 0.008 
 
 0.016 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.04 
 
 0.08 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.24 
 
 0.48 
 
 0.95 
 
 2   1.70 
 
 4  1   0.23 
 
 8  2  0.46 
 
 85  2  0.60 
 
 855  2   1.97 
 
 8.557  1    1.70 
 
 0.55 
 
 2 
 
 ^        -T-' 
 
 0.69 
 
 2^i        U 
 
 Mv(TT 
 
 1.37 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2^ 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 4          2 
 
 Ki'flft 
 
 f  .                2.74 
 
 15          7^- 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 'O.-i/inrfu)/.                   4.12 
 
 r- 
 
 30         15 
 
 12          6 
 
 3           2 
 
 Tirnf 
 
 Toif 8,23 
 
 60        30 
 
 24        12 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Kn-vAri 16.47 
 
 120 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 4   1       2 
 
 :EKaT7jc 32.93 
 
 72() 
 
 360 
 
 288 
 
 144 
 
 72 
 
 48 
 
 24        12 
 
 6 
 
 Xoiif 197.59 
 
 4320 
 
 2160 
 
 1728 
 
 864 
 
 432      288 
 
 144  1     72 
 
 36 
 
 72 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 AiuTT) 1185  56 
 
 2   kierpiirf/g         1     643.13 
 
 8640 
 
 4320 
 
 3456 
 
 1728 
 
 864 
 
 576 
 
 288 
 
 144 
 
 10..        13   1247.26 
 100..      137     375.60 
 1000..    1372     310. 
 
 TABLE  XVII.— III.  GRECIAN  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY, 
 
 2.   For  things  dr I/.     {Unit:    Mi6Lfivog=lh  l^ushcls.) 
 
 Kox^'.iupi'OV 
 
 10      Kvadog. 
 
 15 
 
 60 
 
 120 
 
 240 
 
 960 
 
 1920 
 
 3840 
 11520 
 
 1^ 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 96 
 
 192 
 384 
 1152 
 
 '0^v6a<pov 
 
 KoTvTiTj 
 
 16 
 
 64 
 
 128 
 
 256 
 
 768 
 
 16 
 
 33 
 
 64 
 
 192 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 96 
 
 XoiJ'if . 
 
 16 
 
 48 
 
 'H/ii'e/crov 
 
 E/crof. 
 
 12 
 
 TpiTuc. 
 
 3        Mi-Sifivog. 
 
 cub.  fl.  cub.  in.'bu.sh.  pkf 
 0.221 
 
 2.741 
 
 4.12 
 
 16.47 
 
 3293 
 
 65.86 
 
 263.46 
 
 526.92 
 
 1053.83 
 
 1    1433.5 
 
 10.., 
 
 100... 
 
 1000... 
 
 18     511. 
 
 182   1654. 
 
 1829     989. 
 
 1 
 
 1    1 
 
 1      14   1 
 
 142  2 
 
 1426  0 
 
 1.  qts.  pt.s. 
 .008 
 
 .079 
 
 .12 
 
 .48 
 
 .95 
 
 1.90 
 
 3   1.61 
 
 7   1.21 
 
 7  0  43 
 
 5   1.28 
 
 0  0.8 
 3  2. 
 7  2. 
 
 TABLE  XVIII.— IV.  GRECIAN  WEIGHTS. 
 1.    Weights  below  the  Drachm.     {Unit  :  Apaxf^r'i—dl  grs.) 
 
 Lcpton  {Aetvtoi') 
 
 Chalciis  (Xa^/coyf ) 
 
 Half  Obolus  {'Ruio56?uov) . 
 Oholus  ('GfioAof)... 
 
 56 
 
 16 
 
 Dioholus  (AiofioXov). 
 
 3       DR.^crtM  {Apnxur'/). 
 
 Troy  Weight, 
 dwts.                grs. 
 
 0.2 
 
 A\ 
 
 oiriliipoise  Wt. 
 drs.              ^ 
 
 0.007 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.05 
 
 5.6 
 
 0.21 
 
 11.2 
 
 041 
 
 22.4 
 
 0  82 
 
 2            19.3 
 
 2  46 
 
GRECIAN  WEIGHTS  AND  MONEYS. 
 
 1451 
 
 TABLE  XIX. 
 
 IV.  GRECIAN  WEIGHTS. 
 2.    Weights  above  the  Drachm. 
 
 1 
 
 70 
 
 no 
 
 Tmv  \Vei;;ht. 
 
 OZ.          dvvli. 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2       0 
 
 1      13 
 
 10     16 
 
 AvoirdupniRc   Wt. 
 
 Orachir 
 
 (Apaxi^Tj) 
 
 10.3 
 
 14  7 
 13.5 
 17.3 
 
 4.8 
 
 lbs. 
 
 57 
 
 ox.         drs. 
 
 2.46 
 
 4.93 
 
 15     6.25 
 
 11     7.18 
 
 3     13 
 
 2 
 
 IDidtachm  (Alduayuov) .    
 
 ' 
 
 lUO 
 
 50 
 
 Mina 
 
 (Mj^a) 
 
 6000 
 
 3000 
 
 60 
 
 Aitic 
 
 lalent  (TuTiavTOv) .... .......   .. 
 
 lOOill) 
 
 5000 
 
 100    1       It 
 
 Talent  of  .'Ejjina 
 
 TABLE  XX. 
 
 V.   GRECIAN  MONEYS. 
 
 1.  Moneys  below  the  Drachm.     {Unit:  Apa^'i/;=;17^  cents.) 
 
 14 
 
 56 
 
 !  12 
 
 :'.36 
 
 16 
 
 224        32 
 
 FiCpton  ( AeTTov) 
 
 Chalcus  (XaA/coiJf ) 
 
 Uichalcon  {Aixn^KOv) . 
 
 Half  Obolus  {'lliiio66?uov) 
 
 2  joboliis  ('OColog) 
 
 Diobolon  (Aidfiy/loi'). 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 2     I  Tetrobolon  (TerpofioAov). 
 
 12        6     I     3     '      \\    Drachm  {Apaxfir'/). 
 
 far. 
 
 cts. 
 
 mills 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.8 
 
 3.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 7.3 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 4,7 
 
 2.5 
 
 2 
 
 9  3 
 
 1. 
 
 5 
 
 8.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 11 
 
 7.3 
 
 2.8 
 
 17 
 
 5.9 
 
 TABLE  XXI. 
 
 V.  GRECIAN  MONEYS. 
 
 2.  Moneys  above  the  Drachm. 
 
 X           8. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 4     0 
 
 242   16 
 
 404   14 
 
 2128     5 
 
 il.     far 
 9  2.9 
 
 7   1.7 
 
 2  3  4 
 
 2   1. 
 
 11    1.2 
 
 6     . 
 
 o 
 
 1    . 
 
 $       cts.    ni. 
 17  5  0 
 
 35   1.9 
 
 70  3.7 
 
 3  51   8.() 
 
 17  59  3  2 
 
 10.05  59     . 
 
 1759  32     . 
 
 10555  03     . 
 
 .L.       '  - 
 
 2  Diclrar 
 
 hin  (AWipaxfi 
 
 iv) - 
 
 4          2 
 
 Telradrachin  {TerpuSpax/J-ov),  or  Silver  Srar-vp 
 
 21)         10 
 
 5 
 
 Chrysus  (Xwcroiif),  Daric  (Aaoft/cof).  Stater  of  Gold 
 
 100        50 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 Mina  (Mi'u) 
 
 60  j  Attic  Talent  of  Silver  (TaAavrov) 
 
 6000    3000 
 
 1 500 
 
 300 
 
 10000    5000 
 
 2500 
 
 500 
 
 100        Ij     Talent  of  .i;:gina 
 
 (!00(10  30000 
 
 1501)0 
 
 3000 
 
 600       10           6     1  Attic  Taleni  of  GoIJ 
 
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